Cockatoos

COCKATOOS

To Mum & Dad

COCKATOOS

MATT CAMERON

© Matt Cameron 2007

All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Australian Copyright Act 1968 and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, duplicating or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Contact CSIRO PUBLISHING for all permission requests.

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry

Cameron, Matt.

Cockatoos.

Bibliography.

Includes index.

ISBN 9780643092327 (pbk.).

1. Cockatoos – Australia. 2. Cockatoos – Ecology – Australia. 3. Cockatoos – Conservation – Australia. I.CSIRO. II. Title. (Series : Australian natural history series).

598.710994

Publishing by

CSIRO PUBLISHING

150 Oxford Street (PO Box 1139)

Collingwood VIC 3066

Australia

Front cover

Pink Cockatoos. Photo: Mick Todd, Wildlifi ng

Back cover

Carnaby’s Cockatoos. Photo: Tony Kirkby

Cover and text design by James Kelly

Typeset by Barry Cooke Publishing Services

Printed in Australia by Ligare

CONTENTS

Preface

Acknowledgments

1    Introduction

2    Cockatoo species

3    Evolution

4    Colour, size and shape

5    Habitats and distribution

6    Movements

7    Food and feeding

8    Reproduction

9    Cockatoos as pests

10    Trade in cockatoos

11    Conservation

Appendices

References

Index

PREFACE

Little was known about the ecology of cockatoos in Australia before the 1960s, when a series of landmark studies on a number of species in the Western Australian wheatbelt significantly advanced our understanding. There have since been a number of other studies, generally of the more common species, many of which are considered pests. Recently, detailed studies have commenced or been completed on a number of rare and threatened mainland cockatoo species or subspecies. Cockatoos occupying the islands to the north of Australia have received less scientific attention, as the difficult field conditions and political unrest there discourage long-term research projects. A small number of habitat preference studies have been completed, and local programs aimed at conserving island cockatoos are underway in a number of countries.

The recent studies of threatened cockatoos reflect a change in attitudes. For much of the last century cockatoos were generally viewed as a common part of the landscape, often existing in plague proportions. Their capacity for speech, beautiful plumage and entertaining behaviour made them a popular cage bird. For some communities, the cockatoo trade was a source of income. Today, we are likely to view cockatoos as a uniquely south-east Asian group of birds, many of which are struggling in an environment that has been heavily modified by humans. Ecologists are endeavouring to learn more about this difficult-to-study group of birds in order to provide a sound basis for the management and recovery of species. Government and non-government organisations are working hard to ensure species have a future in the wild. Aviculturists see their role in ensuring the long-term persistence of species as running appropriate and well-managed captive breeding programs.

This book offers insights into the ecology and conservation of cockatoos. I have adopted a thematic approach to give readers a broader understanding of the factors governing the distribution and abundance of cockatoos, and ultimately their long-term survival. Greater understanding will, I hope, lead to action to protect cockatoos and their habitats. I will be happy if this book inspires others to undertake research on cockatoos. Despite the large number of scientific papers on Australian species, we still have much to learn. The Galah, the most widespread of all cockatoos, is unstudied throughout most of its range. Virtually nothing is known of the ecology of the Gang-gang Cockatoo, a species that has undergone a marked decline in recent decades. Information is sadly lacking on all aspects of the ecology of island species.

To help this book be reader-friendly, I have not used the standard scientific referencing system. However, I have endeavoured to mention the authors of major papers and listed the wide range of sources from which I have drawn information. The book aims to paint a general picture of cockaoo ecology and highlight themes that have emerged from research in recent decades. Accordingly, I have avoided excessive qualification of statements; many interesting observations and studies could not be included. Space limitations also prevented me from doing full justice to the many people who have studied, observed and written about cockatoos. I hope that all readers enjoy this book.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am indebted to the many people who have observed or studied cockatoos and taken the time to publish the results. This book could not have been written without access to their material, much of which was reported in the journals and newsletters of state and national ornithological societies and associations. I would also like to thank the many people with whom I have discussed cockatoo ecology and conservation over the past decade, and who have shared their observations and insights.

I am especially grateful to those who have welcomed me into their homes and gone out of their way to show me the local cockatoos, in particular Stephen Garnett, Gabriel Crowley, Richard Hill and Tony Kirkby. I would like to acknowledge and thank colleagues who made available unpublished research findings, including Tamra Chapman, Les Christidis, Rick Dawson, Ron Johnstone, Tony Kirkby, Peter Mawson, Stephen Murphy, Janette Norman, Lyn Pedler and Jason van Weenen. Some of the many others who contributed information include Damon Oliver, David Parker, John Turbill and Rick Webster.

Government agencies were an important source of up-to-date information on the biology, status and management of cockatoo species. Tamra Chapman, Rick Dawson and Peter Mawson from the Western Australian Department of Environment and Conservation provided invaluable assistance while I was in Western Australia and at other times. David Brennan from the Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment briefed me on the Victorian cockatoo control program and was a valuable source of information on pest issues and control strategies. Ben Parker (Commonwealth Department of the Environment and Water Resources) and Dennis Moys provided an insight into the illegal trade in cockatoos. Jason van Weenen (SA Department for Environment and Heritage) kept me abreast of developments involving the Eyre Peninsula Yellow-tailed Cockatoo population. Leita Capp and Jean Horton (Qld Environmental Protection Agency) as well as Shael Martin (NT Department of Natural Resources, Environment & Arts) facilitated access to information on destruction permits issued by their agencies.

Peter and Val Gowland improved my understanding of the cockatoo trade in Australia and allowed me to photograph a number of species in their care. Dave and Deidre Patterson discussed forest conservation and cockatoo rehabilitation issues and provided an opportunity to photograph captive birds. Walter Boles (Australian Museum) and Ron Johnstone (Western Australian Museum) provided access to museum collections for study and photography. Peter McGrath provided details on the Northern Territory Red-tailed Cockatoo Management Program. John Sherwell (BirdLife International) made available some hard-to-obtain reports. David Baker-Gabb (Birds Australia) provided information on the South-eastern Red-tailed Cockatoo recovery program. Stewart Metz (Indonesian Parrot Project) and Gina Pfaff (BirdLife International) helpfully provided a number of difficult-to-obtain images of island cockatoo species. Klaus Uhlenhut facilitated access to the images of Palm Cockatoos used in this book.

The writing and publishing of this book has taken some time and I am grateful for the support of Nick Alexander from CSIRO Publishing. His encouragement and guidance has been much appreciated. The inclusion of superb line drawings by David Mackay and magnificent photos by Graeme Chapman, Tony Kirkby, Heinz Lambert, Peter Merritt and Michael Todd have improved the book enormously. I am indebted to Walter Boles and Janette Norman for helping me come to grips with cockatoo evolution and taxonomy, and for reviewing relevant sections. I appreciate the time and care people took in reviewing draft chapters; they include Tamra Chapman, David Brennan, Dominic Homberger, Tony Kirkby, Stephen Murphy, Ben Parker, Ian Rowley and Eleanor Russell.

Finally, this book could not have been completed without the love and support of my wife, Chris, and daughters, Katelyn and Alana.

1

INTRODUCTION

Cockatoos belong to an order of birds known as the Psittaciformes (parrots). Parrots are widely distributed across the southern hemisphere, reaching their greatest diversity in the tropical forests of South America. They range in size from the tiny Buff-faced Pygmy Parrot (weighing only 10–15 g) to the large Hyacinth Macaw (weighing 1400–1700 g). The basic plumage colour is green, with varying amounts of red, blue and yellow. Parrots have a powerful downward-curving bill and a relatively large head. Their short legs give them a characteristic waddle, while the arrangement of toes on their feet (two forward, two backward) provides strength and dexterity. Their colourful plumage and capacity to mimic human speech have made parrots a popular cage, pet or companion bird around the world. The Psittaciformes have been divided into two families – the Cacatuidae (cockatoos) and the Psittacidae (lories and true parrots).

Twenty-one cockatoo species are currently recognised; most are large stocky birds (length 30–60 cm, weight 300–1000 g). The exception is the Cockatiel, which resembles a medium-sized parrot (length 32 cm, weight 80–100 g). Cockatoos are distinguished by the presence of an erectile crest. Most have black, white or grey plumage and, unlike other parrots, lack violet, blue, green or purple feathers. The pinks in the plumage of a number of species puts them among the most beautiful of the world’s birds. They typically have a large robust bill and muscular tongue, which combine to efficiently process the seeds and nuts on which they feed. Cockatoo skulls are reinforced around the eye, to support muscles associated with their bill’s sideways movements.

Cockatoos have an essentially Australasian distribution, suggesting that modern species arose after the break-up of Gondwana. Like many other elements of Australasian fauna, cockatoos have not reached the south-east Asian mainland or adjoining islands such as Borneo, Sumatra and Java. Similarly, many typically Asian animals have not penetrated into Australasia. The 19th-century naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace was among the first to note this break in faunal distributions. The line separating Australasian and Asian faunas is known as the Wallace Line. This line runs between the islands of Bali and Lombok, Borneo and Sulawesi, and south of the Philippines. Cockatoos are present on Lombok and Sulawesi, but not on Bali and Borneo. The Wallace Line represents the western edge of a zone of overlap between Australasian and Asian faunas. The zone is known as Wallacea and its eastern edge is defined by the Australian continental shelf or Lydekker’s Line.

Fourteen cockatoo species occur in Australia. These are widely distributed and at least one or two species can be found in most areas. The most widespread species are the Galah and Cockatiel, which occupy Australia’s vast interior. The next most widespread is the Little Corella, essentially a northern species but also found in inland regions. The Sulphur-crested Cockatoo is common in the tropical north and temperate south-east. The Red-tailed Cockatoo is widespread throughout northern and north-eastern Australia, and occurs as a number of isolated populations through central and southern Australia. Pink Cockatoos occur at low densities throughout the arid and semi-arid regions. The Glossy Cockatoo and Yellow-tailed Cockatoo are broadly distributed across the south-east. The Gang-gang and Long-billed Corella have restricted distributions in the south-east. Baudin’s Cockatoo, Carnaby’s Cockatoo and the Western Corella all have limited distributions, confined to the south-west corner of Western Australia. The Palm Cockatoo has the most restricted distribution of the mainland cockatoos – it is found only on Cape York Peninsula in northern Queensland.

Figure 1.1 The distribution of cockatoos is restricted to south-east Asian islands, New Guinea and Australia.

Three Australian species also live in New Guinea. The Sulphur-crested Cockatoo and Palm Cockatoo are broadly distributed there, while the Little Corella is confined to a small area in the south.

The remaining seven cockatoo species are distributed across the islands of South-East Asia. The Philippine Cockatoo and Yellow-crested Cockatoo have the largest natural ranges, the former throughout the Philippine archipelago and the latter across the central archipelagos of Indonesia and on East Timor. The Umbrella Cockatoo and Salmon-crested Cockatoo are restricted to the Moluccas; further to the south the Tanimbar Islands are home to the Tanimbar Corella. To the east of New Guinea, the Blue-eyed Cockatoo and Solomon Corella occupy the Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon Archipelago respectively.

Table 1.1 Cockatoo species

On the Australian mainland, the most commonly encountered cockatoos are those occupying open habitats. The Galah, Little Corella and Cockatiel are the archetypical open-country species. The long-billed corellas and some populations of Black-cockatoos also fall into this category. Open-country species typically feed on the ground on a wide range of grasses and herbaceous plants. Seeds dominate their diet, but they also eat other plant parts. The widespread availability of suitable habitats and a generalised diet mean that even prior to European settlement many open-country species were widespread and abundant. Their natural ecology has allowed most to take advantage of changes in the Australian environment. Open-country species typically form large flocks, especially where food is concentrated. They are often considered agricultural pests, and their destructive chewing habits and noisy antics mean they can be a nuisance in urban areas.

Australian cockatoos occupying woodland or forest habitats are less readily observed. They are most commonly encountered in family groups or small flocks. This group is dominated by the Black-cockatoos, but also includes the Gang-gang Cockatoo. Woodland-forest species feed mostly in the canopy on the seeds of trees (e.g. Eucalyptus, bloodwoods) and shrubs (e.g. banksias, hakeas, sheoaks). Many have a relatively specialised diet and their bills have evolved to help access and process their favourite food. Invertebrates feature more prominently in the diet of this group of cockatoos, and may be especially important to some species. With some exceptions, woodland and forest species have been slow to adapt to exotic foods. Their reliance upon native vegetation means that woodland-forest species have fared poorly since European settlement – many species or subspecies are threatened with extinction. Also, the relatively large size of Black-cockatoos means they need large hollows for nesting. Ensuring the ongoing availability of this scarce resource is a critical management issue.

Figure 1.2 Water points established for stock have benefited open-country species such as the Galah. Photo: Mick Todd, Wildlifing

The Sulphur-crested Cockatoo and Pink Cockatoo are two species that lie between the open-country and woodland-forest groups. The Sulphur-crested Cockatoo shares many of the characteristics of open-country species, including the capacity to become a pest in agricultural regions, but differs in that it favours wetter habitats and occurs naturally in forest environments. Conversely, the Pink Cockatoo occupies arid and semi-arid environments, where it occurs in woodland and shrubland habitats. Living in some of Australia’s harshest environments, the Pink Cockatoo survives by exploiting a wide variety of native foods. Pink Cockatoos also feed on exotic weeds and cereal crops. Despite their broad diet, native foods are essential for population health and the species has declined in cropping regions on the edge of its range.

Figure 1.3 Trapping for the bird trade threatens the survival of island species, such as the Salmon-crested Cockatoo. Photo: Bonnie Zimmerman, Indonesian Parrot Project

What makes a cockatoo?

• Large stocky parrot.

• Erectile crest.

• Large robust bill.

• Reinforced skull.

• Feathers mostly black, white, grey or pink.

• Well developed powder downs.

Cockatoos occupying the islands to the north of Australia prefer productive lowland environments, which provide greater food resources and support the large trees required for nesting. Most available habitats are utilised, though coconut and oil palm plantations provide few resources. Little information is available on diet, but most island species are described as feeding on seeds, fruits, nuts and berries. Because cockatoos will forage in village gardens and on grain crops, they are considered pests in many areas. The restricted distribution of most species makes them vulnerable to extinction. Habitat loss and trapping for the bird trade have driven a number of species to the brink of extinction, and others are threatened. All species are threatened by logging, which is expanding into previously unaffected islands in the east of the region.

Cockatoo species are currently placed into six genera. These are often combined into three broad groups on the basis of plumage colour and general appearance. Thus we have the black cockatoos (Probosciger and Calyptorhynchus), white/grey cockatoos (Cacatua, Callocephalon, Eolophus and Lophochroa) and the atypical Cockatiel (Nymphicus). Our understanding of their relationships has been enhanced by the use of molecular techniques to examine genetic differences between species. Based largely on the work of David Brown and Catherine Toft, and supported by morphological and ecological data, it is possible to identify a number of distinct groupings of cockatoos.

The black-cockatoo group is made up of cockatoos in the genus Calyptorhynchus. The corella group comprises the Western Corella, Longbilled Corella, Little Corella, Philippine Cockatoo, Tanimbar Corella and Solomon Corella. The white-cockatoo group is made up of the Sulphur-crested Cockatoo, Yellow-crested Cockatoo, Blue-eyed Cockatoo, Salmon-crested Cockatoo and Umbrella Cockatoo. Species that are distinct enough to remain ungrouped are the Palm Cockatoo, Cockatiel, Galah, Pink Cockatoo and Gang-gang Cockatoo, although unpublished molecular data (Janette Norman and Les Christidis) clearly aligns the last three species with the corella/white-cockatoo groups.

The scientific name of a species can often provide clues to its appearance or behaviour, although some names are chosen to honour people or a place. For example, the Glossy Cockatoo’s scientific name is Calyptorhynchus lathami (C. lathami). Calyptorhynchus is derived from the Greek for ‘covered bill’ and refers to the fact that the lower bill is often obscured by facial feathers. Lathami honours the 18th-century English ornithologist John Latham, who described many Australian birds, including the Red-tailed Cockatoo and Sulphur-crested Cockatoo.

Despite their scientific names, most people know cockatoos by their common names. These vary from region to region. For example, the Cockatiel is also known as the Quarrion or Crested Parrot. There have been attempts to standardise the common names of bird species, but the very nature of those names means this is a difficult task. Widespread acceptance of common names is not helped when those adopted are long-winded, as is the case for many of the Black-cockatoos (e.g. Yellow-tailed Black-cockatoo).

In the last few years there has been a push to simplify common names. For example, the Short-billed Black-cockatoo and Long-billed Black-cockatoo are now widely known as Carnaby’s Cockatoo and Baudin’s Cockatoo. I have simplified the formally adopted common names of Black-cockatoos by dropping ‘black’ from their name. Thus the Yellow-tailed Black-cockatoo becomes the Yellow-tailed Cockatoo. This approach is consistent with the way other cockatoos are named, for example, we do not refer to the Sulphur-crested Cockatoo as the Sulphur-crested White-cockatoo. Keeping names simple means they are more likely to gain wider acceptance.

2

COCKATOO SPECIES

In general terms, cockatoos are a homogenous group. Although species differ in appearance, we instantly recognise them all as