Gravitation Series

This second part provides a nonlinear extension to Hubble's Linear Law, describes the relativistic cosmic forces of expansion and gravitation, and the effect of mass shielding by the negative field of galactic and cosmic mass. It discusses the cosmic forces of expansion and slowdown as they apply to the observed receding galaxies, develops a speed distance law from observations, gives a detailed relativistic description of the cosmic forces of expansion and gravitation, and emphasizes the effect of mass shielding by the negative field of galactic and cosmic mass. The theory predicts that velocity slowdown occurs at lower speeds (nearest distances) and velocity speedup occurs at the higher speeds (farthest distances). Brillouin’s theory of self-shielding of mass by the negative mass of its field may well account for what astronomers call dark energy, energy not seen but which is assumed from its gravitational effects, in the distant cosmos. Based on the instantaneous action of Newton's theory of gravitation, the present theory adopts the idea that what we observe in the universe by redshift measurements exists today in different form. The theory finds unlikely the indirect observation and detection of black holes and leaves open the question of their nature.

This fourth part compares the present theory with mainline and Einstein's theory and gives a summary of the present theory. I discuss the mainline and Einstein's theories, instantaneous and retarded action theories, Brillouin's field mass theory and the present theory in two parts, the non-linear and linear universes. The non-linear and linear expansion versions of the present theory are discussed respectively as infinite and finite size eternal existence steady state universes. Brillouin's field mass theory predicts 11 orders unseen cosmic mass above cosmic rest mass Mo and requires that all distance estimates must be revised if the effects of negative field mass is accounted for. While negative field mass makes the observation of galaxies difficult, its suggestion for the conservation of mass, and thus a finite cosmic sphere, puts a serious question on a theory of non-linear expansion of the universe which predicts an eternal existence infinite universe. The non-linear expansion theory, based on the doppler relativistic formula, is an infinite size eternal existence steady state. I define the Radition universe beyond 3.96 bly the high end of Hubble's linear law. The source of the Microwave background is the Radiation Universe. The present linear expansion theory, based on Hubble's linear law no longer assumed valid at all distances, is a finite size eternal existence steady state universe. It is a spherical cavity in which energy flows simultaneously inwards from hot to cold and outwards from cold to hot, in which man has only observed the incoming redshift part. I assume the cosmic energy and cosmic radius are finite and I speculate that the 2nd Law of Thermodynamics and arrow of time may be reversible. Planck black body spectra are located within the cavity. I characterizes the universe as an eternal existence steady state spherical cavity in which the Radiation region is a Planck blackbody which produces the observed microwave background on Earth. I find that the ideas of distance and time are meaningless in the Radiation Universe.

This third part speculates about the sources for the observed red shifts and microwave background, and concludes that receding galaxies are sources for the observed red shifts and the extra galactic radiation is the source for the microwave background. It formulates the forces acting on cosmic photons and dependence on mass density, and talks about cosmic redshift, space expansion and the Big Bang which it discounts. It concludes stars in the Galactic Universe and radiation in the Extra Galactic Radiation Universe at the farthest distances as having a Planck blackbody spectra. Planck's black body spectrum, which characterizes the observed microwave background, discounts the idea of Big Bang because mass density is distributed at all distances. It looks at the observations of redshifts of galaxies and the microwave background and examines observations which lead to two models, the linearly and non-linearly expanding universes. The Cosmos is a finite or infinite hot ball of radiation with a cool Galactic center. Cosmic redshift is caused by forces of expansion and gravitational forces are negligible. We have two types of universes, the finite universe of radius 21.1 bly based on an extension of Hubble's linear law and the infinite universe based on relativistic doppler theory

Black holes are theoretically hypothesized astronomical objects in all theories of gravitation. By definition, black holes emit no photons and, therefore, all information about black holes is being sought indirectly, by formulating theories and seeking observations. The likelihood of observing and detecting black holes is at nearest distances, likely inside and nearest the centers of galaxies, where the unbinding effects of apparent mass and relativistic speeds are lowest. Measurements of a black hole’s mass and radius are speculative, and the detection of black holes remains speculative. One must find Keplerian orbits about centers with no apparent sources. Redshift observations provide information about an object’s mass M and radius a, and theories analyze the information. The term μ=GM/c2, called the mass radius, appears in all theories and its ratio to distance r from the center of mass μ/r, are important objects of interest to theorists and astro-physicists.The main guides to understanding observed redshifts are based on Newtonian and Einstein’s theories. Newton’s laws of motion and gravitation, and Brillouin’s apparent mass theory, find the indirect observation and detection of black holes indeterminate and leave open the question of their existence or nature. Unlike Newton’s Theory of Gravitation, being supported by observations, Einstein’s General Theory, being complex and unconfirmed by tests as to its validity, is purely speculative about the nature of black holes. I conclude that, compared with Einstein’s General Theory, Newtonian theory is a better guide in astronomy