Body Tensor Fields in Continuum Mechanics: With Applications to Polymer Rheology

BODY TENSOR FIELDS IN CONTINUUM MECHANICS

With Applications to Polymer Rheology

ARTHUR S. LODGE

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WISCONSIN

A Subsidiary of Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

PREFACE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

LIST OF NOTATION

Chapter 1: SOME MATHEMATICAL PREREQUISITES

Publisher Summary

1.1 Primitive concepts

1.2 Linear spaces

1.3 Matrices and determinants

1.4 Functionals

Chapter 2: THE BODY METRIC TENSOR FIELD

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2.1 Introduction

2.2 Body and space manifolds and coordinate systems

2.3 The definition of contravariant vector fields

2.4 The definition of covariant vector fields

2.5 The definition of second-rank tensor fields

2.6 Metric tensor fields for the body and space manifolds

2.7 Magnitudes and angles

2.8 Principal axes and principal values

Chapter 3: THE KINEMATICS OF SHEAR FLOW AND SHEAR-FREE FLOW

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3.1 Introduction

3.2 Shear flow

3.3 Base vectors and strain tensors for shear flow

3.4 Torsional flow between circular parallel plates in relative rotation about a common axis

3.5 Torsional flow between a cone and a touching plate in relative rotation about a common axis

3.6 Helical flow between coaxial right circular cylinders

3.7 Orthogonal rheometer flow

3.8 Balance rheometer flow

3.9 Shear-free flow

Chapter 4: CARTESIAN VECTOR AND TENSOR FIELDS

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4.1 Rectangular Cartesian coordinate systems

4.2 The definition of Cartesian vector fields

4.3 The definition of Cartesian second-rank tensor fields

4.4 Relations between Cartesian and general tensor fields

4.5 Cartesian base vectors for a curvilinear coordinate system

Chapter 5: RELATIVE TENSORS, FIELD TRANSFER, AND THE BODY STRESS TENSOR FIELD

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5.1 Relative tensors

5.2 Tensors of third and higher rank

5.3 Quotient theorems

5.4 Correspondence between body and space fields at time t

5.5 Volume and surface elements

5.6 The body stress tensor field

5.7 Isotropic functions and orthogonal tensors

Theorems for γ-isotropic scalar functions s( )

Theorems for γ-isotropic mixed tensor functions F(λ) (when γ · λ is symmetric)

5.8 Constant stretch history

Chapter 6: CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS FOR VISCOELASTIC MATERIALS

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6.1 General forms for constitutive equations

6.2 Constitutive equations from molecular theories

6.3 Perfectly elastic solids

(5) Problem

(6) Problem

(13) Problem

(15) Problem

6.4 Integral constitutive equations

6.5 Differential constitutive equations

6.6 Alternative forms for constitutive equations

6.7 Memory-integral expansions

6.8 Boltzmann’s viscoelasticity theory: small displacements

6.9 Classical elasticity and hydrodynamics

Chapter 7: REDUCED CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS FOR SHEAR FLOW AND SHEAR-FREE FLOW

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7.1 Incompressible viscoelastic liquids in unidirectional shear flow

7.2 Oscillatory and steady shear flow: low-frequency relations

7.3 Orthogonal rheometer: small-strain limit

7.4 Shear-free flow

Chapter 8: COVARIANT DIFFERENTIATION AND THE STRESS EQUATIONS OF MOTION

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8.1 Divergence and curl

8.2 Covariant differentiation in a Euclidean manifold

8.3 Covariant derivatives of body tensor fields

8.4 Curvature of surfaces

8.5 Stress equations of motion

8.6 Covariant differentiation in an affinely connected manifold

8.7 The affine connection for a Riemannian manifold

8.8 Compatibility conditions

8.9 Boundary conditions

8.10 Simultaneous equations for isothermal flow problems

Chapter 9: STRESS MEASUREMENTS IN UNIDIRECTIONAL SHEAR FLOW; THEORY

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9.1 Stress equations of motion for unidirectional shear flow

9.2 The importance of N1 and N2

9.3 Torsional flow, parallel plates

9.4 Torsional flow, cone and plate

9.5 Steady helical flow

Chapter 10: CONSTITUTIVE PREDICTIONS AND EXPERIMENTAL DATA

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10.1 Shear and elongation of low-density polyethylene

10.2 Fast-strain tests of the Gaussian network hypothesis

10.3 Polystyrene/Aroclors data and Carreau’s model B

10.4 Measurements of N1 and N2

Chapter 11: RELATIONS BETWEEN BODY- AND SPACE-TENSOR FORMALISMS

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11.1 Convected components

11.2 Embedded vectors

11.3 Objectivity condition for space-tensor constitutive equations

11.4 Formulation of constitutive equations: historical note

EQUATIONS IN CYLINDRICAL POLAR COORDINATES

EQUATIONS IN SPHERICAL POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEMS

EQUATIONS IN ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS

SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS FOR UNIDIRECTIONAL SHEAR FLOW

CALCULATIONS FOR VISCOELASTIC LIQUIDS

REFERENCES

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS

AUTHOR INDEX

SUBJECT INDEX

Copyright

Copyright © 1974, by Academic Press, Inc.

all rights reserved.

no part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.

111 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10003

United Kingdom Edition published by

ACADEMIC PRESS, INC. (LONDON) LTD.

24/28 Oval Road, London NW1

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Lodge, A S

Body tensor fields in continuum mechanics, with applications to polymer rheology.

Bibliography: p.

1. Continuum mechanics. 2. Calculus of tensors.

3. Viscoelasticity. 4. Polymers and polymerization.

I. Title.

QA808.2.L6 531 73-18968

ISBN 0-12-454950-0

AMS(MOS) 1970 Subject Classifications: 73B05, 73B20, 73G15, 76A10

printed in the united states of america

PREFACE

When I use a word, Humpty Dumpty said, in a rather scornful tone,

It means just what I choose it to mean—neither more nor less.

Lewis Carroll, 1872

The main object of this book is to define body tensor fields and to show how they can be used to advantage in continuum mechanics, which has hitherto been treated with space tensor fields. General tensor analysis is developed from first principles, using a novel approach that also lays the foundations for other applications, e.g., to differential geometry and relativity theory. The applications given here lie in the field of polymer rheology, treated on the macroscopic level, in which relations between stress and finite-strain histories are of central interest.

For our purposes, it is essential to abandon a widely used terminology that confuses a tensor field with its component functions. Just as a function is logically distinct from its value at a point, so a tensor field is logically distinct from its representative matrix in some coordinate system. In fact, we shall define a tensor field associated with a given geometric manifold as a function of special type whose domain is a set of coordinate systems for the manifold and whose range is a set of matrix functions of position on the manifold. Body tensor fields are obtained by taking the geometric manifold to be the continuous deforming material under investigation in continuum mechanics. Space tensor fields are obtained by taking the geometric manifold to be the space of places through which the body moves, and are Cartesian or general according as the space coordinate systems (used in the definition) are, or are not, restricted to be rectangular Cartesian. Body tensor fields are general in this sense.

This method of defining tensor fields, kindly suggested by Dr. H. B. Shutrick and Professor C.-W. de Boor, involves only the familiar notions function and coordinate system and is less abstract than the alternative, coordinate-free method used by Bishop and Goldberg (1968) and the alternative method involving abstraction from equivalence classes (F. and R. Nevanlinna, 1959; Lodge, 1964, pp. 306, 307, 310; 1972). Moreover, coordinate systems used in the definition are, of course, useful in subsequent applications to actual problems. For the most part, continuum mechanics can be treated by introducing a few second-rank tensor fields, in contrast to relativity theory in which fourth-rank tensor fields play a central role; we shall not follow Penrose (1968) who uses a notation that enables one to recognize the rank and kind of a given tensor field. Our readers are asked to remember the meaning of the few symbols used here to denote tensor fields in our treatment of continuum mechanics: π(P, t) and γ(P, t) for the contravariant body stress and covariant body metric tensor fields evaluated at particle P and time t; p(Q, t) and g(Q) for the contravariant space stress and covariant space metric tensor fields evaluated at place Q and time t; and p(Q, t) and U for the Cartesian space stress and unit tensor fields.

In applications to continuum mechanics, body tensor fields, general space tensor fields, and Cartesian space tensor fields can be regarded as three different but interchangeable tools; all results derived with one tool can be rederived using either of the others. In the classical theories of hydrodynamics and small-strain elasticity, where the constitutive equations are given, there is little, if any, point in using body tensor fields. In polymer rheology, however, where the determination of constitutive equations applicable to a given rubberlike solid or polymeric, viscoelastic, liquid is one of the main tasks of current research, we claim certain advantages of convenience for the use of body tensor fields, and we believe that it is worthwhile to be able to use both space and body tensor fields as the occasion demands. This book aims to make this possible.

In comparison with space tensor fields, body tensor fields give a simpler description of stress, strain, and their Theologically useful time derivatives and time integrals. In particular, π(P, t) gives a one-state description of stress; γ(P, t) − γ(P, t’) gives a two-state, additive description (antisymmetric in t and t’) of strain (whether small or large); both tensors are unaltered by any superposed rigid body motion (relative to axes fixed in space); and body tensor equations in which π and γ are the only tensor variables are automatically admissible as possible constitutive equations for elastic or viscoelastic materials. There are no space tensor fields for which all statements corresponding to these are valid. Using body tensor fields, manipulations of constitutive equations involving time derivatives and time integrals are simplified, and so also are the proofs of certain general results (e.g., the superposition theorem 3.3(25) for shear flows, and the low-frequency relations (1)–(5) of Section 7.2); one is also free to choose, according to context, whether or not to introduce a reference state. On the other hand, it could be argued that the stress equation of motion expressed in body tensors is more complicated than the corresponding Cartesian tensor equation, due to the term involving the divergence of stress; but the Cartesian tensor equation when referred to an arbitrary curvilinear space coordinate system is equally complicated, and the body tensor equation can always be referred to a body coordinate system, specially chosen for a given problem, which is rectangular Cartesian, or at least orthogonal, at the instant t at which the stress equation of motion has to be invoked.

The body tensor formalism is very closely related to the convected component formalism used by Oldroyd (1950a) to give a fundamental and very general discussion of the formulation of constitutive equations (Section 11.1). The relation between body tensors and convected components of space tensors was stated without proof (Lodge, 1951) and with proof (Lodge, 1972). The advantages of using body tensor fields were summarized (Lodge, 1954, 1964), definitions were given (Lodge, 1964, 1972), and a notation for the body tensors themselves was introduced (Lodge, 1972). The relation to the Lagrangian formulation of hydrodynamics is discussed in Section 11.4, and to the embedded vector formalism of Lodge (1964) in Section 11.2.

This book is a development of Chapter 12 of Elastic Liquids (Lodge, 1964), and is based on a course of 45 lectures given at the graduate level to students of engineering and mathematics having a knowledge of the elements of matrices, determinants, and elementary vector analysis. The usual knowledge of differential and integral calculus is assumed. Much of the important bookwork is set as problems for the reader; complete solutions are given at the end of the book. Guides for readers having various goals are offered in the following tabulation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Much of the work in this book was performed from 1948 to 1960 at the British Rayon Research Association. It was further developed at the University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology and at the University of Wisconsin—Madison. I owe a great deal to many discussions with present and former colleagues and students: Professors R. B. Bird, C.-W. de Boor, M. W. Johnson, Jr., J. Barkley Rosser, K. Walters, and J. Kramer; Drs. A. Kaye, H. B. Shutrick, and R. C. Armstrong; and Mr. D. Segalman. I am particularly indebted to Dr. R. C. Armstrong, who read much of the first draft, and to Professor K. Walters, who read all the final draft and prepared Appendix F. I acknowledge gratefully research support received from the Petroleum Research Fund of the American Chemical Society (Unrestricted Grant PRF 1758-C to R. B. Bird), the National Science Foundation (Grant GK-15611 to A.S.L.), and the United States Army (Contract No. DA-31-124-ARO-D-462 to the Mathematics Research Center, University of Wisconsin—Madison).

LIST OF NOTATION

1

SOME MATHEMATICAL PREREQUISITES

Publisher Summary

This chapter discusses a mathematical formalism capable of describing the behavior and properties of a continuous geometric manifold. Formalisms are developed in mathematics by choosing certain primitive concepts, or undefined elements, that are to be accepted without further logical analysis. Properties are then assigned to these primitive concepts by means of axioms, or unproved propositions, from which various theorems are deduced. The primitive concepts might invite deeper logical analysis; however, such an analysis would be a part of a different activity. The primitive concepts need not necessarily be the smallest number that could be used; in fact, they are chosen to enable the development of the required formalism quickly. Primitive concepts are set of distinguishable elements such as; point, particle, place; order, relation, correspondence; and rigid body, mass, force, time. The chapter discusses the properties of matrices and determinants.

1.1 Primitive concepts

Our aim is to build a mathematical formalism capable of describing the behavior and properties of a continuous geometric manifold. One develops formalisms in mathematics by choosing certain primitive concepts (or undefined elements) which are to be accepted without further logical analysis. One then assigns properties to these primitive concepts by means of axioms (or unproved propositions), and then deduces various theorems. The primitive concepts may invite deeper logical analysis, but such analysis would be part of a different activity. The primitive concepts need not necessarily be the smallest number which could be used; in fact, we shall choose them to enable us to get on with the development of the required formalism as quickly as possible. It is necessary, however, to list the primitive concepts to be used (Robison, 1969, p. 2). Our list is as follows.

(1) Primitive concepts

Set of distinguishable elements; point, particle, place; order, relation, correspondence; rigid body, mass, force, time.

We shall also use the standard formalisms of analysis, calculus, and geometry. Set is synonymous with collection, aggregate, class. Correspondence is synonymous with mapping, function.

We use the standard notation {x} for a set of elements of which x is a member. When it is necessary, we include the condition for membership after a vertical line, and we use the symbol e to mean is a member of the set …; thus, for example, if N denotes the set of integers, then {2n|n∈N} denotes the set of even numbers.

Let X = {x} and Y = {y} denote sets. A function f from X into Y, written f: X → Y, is a rule which assigns to each element x∈ X a unique element y ∈ Y, written y = fx or y = f(x) or f: x → y. For example, if X = Y (the set of all real numbers), we could have y = sin x, in which case f ≡ sine. Other words used for function are mapping, map, transformation, correspondence, and operator.

The most familiar use of the term function is that in which X = Y . It is essential for our purposes to realize that the idea function is in no way restricted to such applications and can be applied to any sets of distinguishable elements. Thus, for example, we shall define a coordinate system B= {P} a unique ordered set ξ of three real numbers ξ¹, ξ², ξ³. Thus we may write B → A3, where A3 denotes the arithmetic three-space, the set of all ordered sets of three real numbers. The reader will notice that we have defined a coordinate system in terms of the primitive concepts: particle, correspondence, order. One might feel uneasy about defining things in terms of undefined elements (or primitive concepts), but such a procedure is in fact valid and unavoidable at the outset; one simply gets used to it.

For any function f: X → Y, with y = fx, the set X is called the domain of f (i.e., it is the set of all values of x for which fx is defined), and the set {fx|x ∈ X} is called the range of f (i.e., it is the set of all values of y = fx). If fX = Y, i.e., if Y is composed entirely of elements fx, we say that f maps X onto Y; otherwise, f maps X into Y. If for every y ∈ fX there is only one x such that y = fx, then the function or correspondence f is said to be one-to-one, and the inverse f−1 exists which maps fX onto X. In the example given above, a coordinate system B→ A3 has a subset of Aas domain, and the correspondence B is one-to-one.

is an example of an important type of mapping called a functional: Such an integral assigns a unique real number y to each integrable real function f with domain (a, b: F , where F denotes the set of all functions f: R → R [usually subject to some restriction, such as integrability, and having some specified domain, (a, b), say] is a rule which assigns to each function f ∈ F a unique number y f. When it is necessary to make explicit the domain of f. We shall need more elaborate functionals in which f(t’) is replaced by a 3 × 3 matrix function of t’ and the value y is a 3 × 3 matrix.

A set X = {x} is called a group if there exists a rule which assigns to each ordered pair x, x’ of elements in X an element, written xx’ in X with the following properties: if x′ ∈ X, then (xx’)x′ = x(x’x′); there exists a unit element l ∈ X such that 1x = x1 = x for every x ∈ X; there exists an inverse element x−1 ∈ X such that xx−1 = x−1 x = 1 for every x ∈ X. The notation (xx’)x′ means: form xx’ first, and then take the element (xx’)x′ which corresponds to element xx’ and x′, in that order.

1.2 Linear spaces

(1) Definition

A set X = {x} of elements x, y, z, … is called a linear space if operations of addition and multiplication by numbers a, b, … are defined with the following properties.

(i) Addition

To any x ∈ X and any y ∈ X there corresponds a unique element, written x + y, in X, such that

(ii) Multiplication by a number

To any element x and any number a there corresponds a unique element, written ax or xa, which is also in the set {x} and has the following properties :

The linear space {x} is said to be a complex space if a, b, … range through all complex numbers. For most of the linear spaces used in this book, the numbers a, b, … are real, and the linear spaces are said to be real.

A set of elements y1, y2, …, yn in a linear space {x} are said to be linearly independent if the only solution to the equation

(2)

is ai = 0 (i = 1, 2, …, n). If one or more of the coefficients ai is not zero, the elements are said to be linearly dependent.

Here, and elsewhere, we use the summation convention, according to which a repeated letter index in a term is taken to imply summation of that term over the values of the index assigned from the context. In Eq. (2), the index i takes values 1, 2, …, nin the present context. When we wish to suspend the summation convention, we place a caret over a repeated letter index: Thus a1 yi means aiyi (not summed). The main precaution to observe in using the summation convention is to use different repeated letter indexes if brackets are removed in a term which involves two or more separate summations; thus, for example,

A repeated index implies summation whether it occurs on one factor or on two factors; thus, for example, Aii

A linear space is said to be of finite dimension n if the greatest number of linearly independent elements in the space is n (a positive integer). In such a space, which is also said to be n dimensional, any set e1, e2, …, en of n linearly independent elements is said to form a basis for the space, because every element x can be expressed as a linear combination of the basis elements, i.e., one can find numbers xi for any given x, such that

(3)

(4) Problem

Prove the converse of (3), i.e., if ei (i = 1, 2, …, n) are linearly independent elements such that every element x in the space can be expressed in the form (3), then the space is n dimensional.

(5) Definition

A real linear space {x} is said to be normed if to every pair of elements x and y in x, y , with the following properties:

x, y is called the inner product of x and y; the number ||x|| x, x is called the norm of x.

(6) Problem

Prove that ||x + y|| ≤ ||x|| + ||y|| and that the equality sign is valid only if x and y are linearly dependent. This is called the triangle inequality.

(7) Definition

Elements x and y in a normed linear space are orthogonal if 〈x, y〉 = 0. A basis ei is orthogonal if all its members are orthogonal to one another, and orthonormal if, in addition, all its members are of unit norm. Thus we may write

The Kronecker symbol δij has the value 1 if i and j are equal, and has the value 0 if i and j are unequal. In other contexts, we shall write δij and δji with the same meaning as δij.

(8) Definition

An operator (or transformation) T is a correspondence between elements of linear spaces {x} and {X} such that to any given element x of {x} there corresponds a unique element X of {X}; we write this in the form

The spaces {x} and {X} may be the same or different. If they are the same, an operator T is said to be linear if (i) it is additive in the sense that T(x1 + x2) = Tx1 + Tx2, and (ii) it is continuous in the sense that, for any sequence x1, x2, … of elements in {x} which possesses a limit x also in {x}, we have limn→∞ Txn = Tx

(9) Definition

The Kronecker (or direct, or tensor) product {x} {y} of two linear spaces {x} and {y} is a linear space {z} constructed from ordered pairs (x, y) of elements (one from {x} and one from {y}) and their linear combinations according to the following rules:

(i) (ax1 + bx2, y) = a(x1, y) + b(x2, y);

(ii) (x, ay1 + by2) = a(x, y1) + b(x, y2);

(iii) if ei (i = 1, 2, …, n) is a basis for {x} and fk (k = 1, 2, …, m) is a basis for {y}, then the set (ei, fk) is a basis for {z}.

It can be shown (Eilenberg and Steenrod, 1952) that (iii) follows from (i) and (ii). The spaces {x} and {y} can be the same or different. When they are the same, an element in the product space is usually written x1x2 [instead of (x1, x2)] and is called a dyadic product.

We complete this brief review of linear spaces by giving some examples.

(10) The arithmetic n-space

An is a linear space whose elements are n × 1 matrices [y1, y2, …, yn] = y, say, where yi can assume all real values. It is easy to verify that the matrix rules of addition and multiplication by a number, namely ay + by’ = [ayc + by’c], satisfy the rules (i) and (ii) of (1), with the zero matrix 0 = [0, 0, …, 0] playing the part of the zero element in the space An, and that the space is n dimensional; one basis is the following:

Every real n × n matrix T = [Tij] is linear operator in An when used according to the matrix multiplication rule

The direct product Am An is a space whose elements are m × n where x is in Am and y is in An, and a superior tilde denotes the transpose. A norm for An can be defined in various ways: The most familiar is 〈y, y’〉 = yiy’i; a more general inner product is given by the equation

(11)

where gij are coefficients of a positive-definite quadratic form.

(12) Displacement vectors

In our three-dimensional Euclidean space, as defined in elementary vector analysis, the displacement vectors form a three-dimensional linear space. If Qi where Q1, Q2, and Q3 are collinear and aQ1Q2 = Q1Q3. It is easy to verify that the rules (i) and (ii) of (1) are obeyed, and that the usual scalar product

(where θ is the angle between Q1Q2 and Q1Q3) satisfies the conditions (5) for an inner product.

(13) Function space

A simple example of a linear space of infinite dimension is the function space whose elements are continuously differentiate functions f(t), g(t), … of a real variable t in some interval (a ≤ t ≤ b). The sum of elements f(t) and g(t) is just the sum f(t) + g(t) of the functions, and the product of f(t) by a number x is just the function xf(t). Fourier’s theorem shows that the set of functions exp(±2πnit) (n = 0, 1, 2, …) form a basis for this space, whose dimension is therefore countably infinite. The definition 〈f, g〉 = ∫ab f(t)g(t)dt gives one possible inner product, and a suitably restricted function T(s, t) of two real variables s, t is a linear operator in the space when used according to the equation

(14)

(15) Nomenclature: Algebraic vectors and geometric vectors

The elements of a linear space are often called vectors in the mathematical literature. When necessary, we shall call them algebraic vectors in order to distinguish them from what we shall later define as geometric vectors. Similarly, an operator T in a linear space is often called a tensor (of second rank or second order); we shall call it an algebraic tensor to distinguish it from geometric tensors, defined later. Geometric vectors and tensors are (in our nomenclature) always associated (in certain specific ways) with one or another geometric manifold (e.g., the space of places in which we live, or the body manifold consisting of the point particles of some continuous deforming body), but algebraic vectors and tensors may, or may not, be so associated. A geometric vector or tensor is always an element of some linear space and hence a geometric vector is always an algebraic vector. The converse is not true, however; for example, the elements of the arithmetic n-space An are not geometric vectors; they can be put in one-to-one correspondence with geometric vectors, as we shall frequently show when we choose a particular coordinate system for a geometric manifold: The components of a geometric vector in a given coordinate system are given by an n × 1 matrix with real elements.

1.3 Matrices and determinants

In this section, we summarize those properties of matrices and determinants that we use in later chapters. It is sufficient for our purposes to consider