Machine Lesson Final1

Electrical Machines_Jean-Paul NGOUNE
1
Courses In
Electrical
Engineering
Volume IV
COURSE ON ELECTRICAL MACHINES
FOR TECHNICAL COLLEGE
By
Jean-Paul NGOUNE
DIPET I (Electrotechnics), DIPET II (Electrotechnics)
M.Sc. (Electrical Engineering)
Teacher in the Electrical Department, GTHS KUMBO, Cameroon.
2
To Jesus-Christ,
My Lord and Saviour.
3
FOREWORD
This is the first chapter of a Course on Electrical Machines for Technical College that
I am writing. The concern of this chapter is the study of Direct Current Machines.
That is, DC Generators and DC Motors. The chapter begins with the study of DC
generators and end with that of DC motors. Many examples are treated in order to
enable the reader to assimilate easily the course.
My aim is to bring my humble contribution for the improvement of Technical
Education in my country (Cameroon, Central Africa) and to help anyone to whom this
document may be useful.
This Document and many other pedagogical resources produced by me are available
and freely downloadable at the following link: www.scribd.com/jngoune. Any
suggestion or critic is warmly received; send me a mail at the following address:
jngoune@yahoo.fr.
Stay blessed.
NGOUNE Jean-Paul,
03 August 2012, 12:18
Kumbo, Cameroon.
4
CONTENTS
1.0 Specific objectives. 6
1.1 Introduction. 6
1.2 Structure of Direct Current machines. 8
1.3 DC generators 11
1.3.1 Working theory of DC generators... 11
1.3.2 Equation of induced emf.. 13
1.3.3 Classification of DC machines 14
1.3.4 Equations of Separately Excited DC generators. 16
1.3.5 Equations of Self Excited DC generators. 17
1.3.6 Armature Reaction 22
1.3.7 Compensating windings... 23
1.3.8 Commutating poles (Interpoles windings). 23
1.3.9 Losses in DC generators. 24
1.3.10 Powers and efficiencies 26
1.3.11 DC generators characteristics. 29
1.4 DC motors.. 47
1.4.1 Principle of DC motors. 47
1.4.2 Back emf. 48
1.4.3 Power relationship in DC motors 49
1.4.4 Types of DC motors. 49
1.4.5 Conditions for maximum power.. 54
1.4.6 Torque. 55
1.4.7 Power flow and efficiency. 56
1.4.8 Speed control. 66
1.4.9 Speed regulation 67
1.4.10 DC motors characteristics 68
1.4.11 Starting and breaking methods of DC motors.. 75
REVIEW QUESTIONS. 84
References/ Acknowledgements 93
About the author 94
5
Courses In
Electrical
Engineering
Volume IV
ELECTRICAL MACHINES FOR TECHNICAL COLLEGE
CHAPTER ONE: DIRECT CURRENT MACHINES
By
Jean-Paul NGOUNE
DIPET I (Electrotechnics), DIPET II (Electrotechnics)
M.Sc. (Electrical Engineering)
Teacher in the Electrical Department, GTHS KUMBO, Cameroon.
6
Chapter One
DIRECT CURRENT
MACHINES
1.0 Specific objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
- Define electrical machine;
- Describe the structure of a direct current machine;
- Differentiate a direct current motor from a direct current generator;
- Establish the fundamental equations for the various types of direct current
motors an generators;
- Plot interpret the characteristic curves of direct current motors and generators
for different types of test (open circuit characteristics, external characteristics);
- Give specific applications for each type of direct current motors and
generators;
1.1 Introduction:
Electrical machines are converters that are used to continuously translate
electrical input to mechanical output or vice versa. This process of translation is
known as an electromechanical energy conversion. If the conversion is from
mechanical energy to electrical energy, the electrical machine is said to be a
generator; if it is from electrical energy to mechanical energy, the electrical machine
is a motor. The electromechanical conversion results basically from the two following
electromagnetic phenomena:
When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, voltage is induced across the
conductor (Generator action);
7
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a mechanical force (Motor action).
Motor
Generator
Input Output
Input Output
Electrical
energy
Mehanical
energy
Mechanical
energy
Electrical
energy
Figure 1.1: Energy conversion for motor and generator
M
Field
Armature
Figure 1.2: Symbol of a DC machine
The two electromagnetic phenomena mentioned above occur simultaneously
whenever energy conversion takes place from electrical to mechanical or vice versa.
In motoring action, the electrical system makes current flow through conductors that
are placed in the magnetic field. A force is produced on each conductor. If the
conductors are placed on a structure free to rotate, an electromagnetic torque will be
produced, making the rotating structure (rotor) to rotate at a given speed. If the
conductors rotate in a magnetic field, a voltage will also be induced across each of
them. In generating action, the rotating structure is driven by a prime mover such as
a steam turbine or a diesel engine. A voltage is induced in the conductors that are
rotating with the rotor. If an electrical load is connected to the windings formed by
those conductors, and electrical power will be produced to supply it. Moreover, the
current flowing in the conductors will interact with the magnetic field to produce a
reaction torque, which will tend to oppose the torque applied by the prime mover.
8
1.2 Structure of direct current machine:
The following figure presents the main parts of a direct current machine.
Figure 1.3: Structure of a direct current machine.
Figure 1.4: Photographic view of a DC machine
9
The essential parts of a DC generator consist of:
Magnetic frame or yoke,
Pole coils or field coils,
Armature windings,
Brushes and bearings,
Pole cores and pole shoes,
Armature core,
Commutator.
Of these, the pole core, the armature core, the yoke and the air gaps between
the poles and the armature cores form the magnetic circuit whereas the rest form the
electrical circuit.
Yoke:
The yoke is the outer frame of the machine. It provides mechanical support for
the poles and also canalizes the magnetic flux produced by the poles. It acts as a
protective covering for the whole machine. The pole is made of cast iron or cast steel.
Pole cores and pole shoes:
The pole shoes help to support the field coils and also to spread out the
magnetic flux in the air gap. The pole cores and pole shoes are made up of steel
plates laminated and retrieved together. They are bolted to the yoke. The purpose of
laminating the core is to reduce Eddy current losses.
Pole coils or field coils:
The field coils consist of insulated copper wires wound round the pole cores.
When current is flowing through these wires, they magnetise the poles which produce
the necessary flux that is cut by the rotating armature.
Figure 1.5: Field coil of a DC machine
10
Armature core:
The armature core houses the armature conductors in the slots. It is built up of
laminated steel disc mounted on a shaft.
Figure 1.6: Photographic view of an armature of DC machine
Armature windings:
Two types of windings are mostly employed for the armatures of DC
machines; they are: Lap Winding and Wave Winding. The difference between the two
is merely due to the different arrangement of the connections at the front or
commutator end of the armature. The following rules apply to the types of windings:
- In a lap winding, the number of parallel paths is always equal to the number of
poles and also the number of brushes.
- In wave windings, the number of parallel paths is always two and there may be
two or more brush positions.
The lap winding is suitable for high current, low voltage machines like welding
plants. The wave winding is suitable for high voltage, low current machines, like DC
generators used for lighting.
Brushes:
The brushes are used to collect current from the commutator in the case of
generator. In the motor, they lead current into the armature windings through the
commutator. The brushes are made of carbon.
11
Commutator:
The function of the commutator in a generator is to convert the alternating
current induced in the armature conductor into direct current in the external load
circuit. The commutator has a cylindrical structure and is built up of insulated copper
segments.
Figure 1.7: Photographic view of commutator.
1.3 DC generators.
When a conductor is moving in a magnetic field, an emf e is induced across its
terminals. That emf is given by the Faradays law as follows:
Where
DC generators are built using this basic principle.
1.31 Working theory of DC generators:
DC generator is actually an ac machine which is furnished with a special
device: the commutator. The commutator is therefore a rectifying unit in a dc
generator as it converts the alternating current generated in the armature to a direct
current at brushes.
BLv
dt
d
e = =
e = induced emf in volts (V)
B = magnetic flux density (T)
L = Length of conductor cut by the flux (m)
v = Speed of the conductor (m/s)
12
Generators are driven by some mechanical means like petrol or diesel engine,
hydropower, steam engine etc.
The brushes always keep the same polarity despite the fact that the emf
induced in the armature windings changes his polarity twice per period.
Figure 1.8: Simple loop generator.
0
0
0 t
t
t
Ua
Ub
Uc
Emf induced
in the armature windings
Emf received
on the brushes
Direct voltage
after filtering and stabilisation
Figure 1.9: Voltages at armature and at brushes
13
1.3.2 Equation of induced emf.
Let us assume that:
= Flux per pole;
Z = Total number of armature conductors;
P = Number of pairs of poles;
N = Armature speed in rps;
E = emf induced in one of the parallel path;
A = Number of parallel path (A = 2 for wave winding, A = 2P for lap winding).
According to the Faradays law of electromagnetic induction, we have:
dt
d
e

= .
For one revolution, each conductor is cut by a flux under the north pole and the and
the south pole (2P). Therefore, the change in flux is
P d 2 =
The average emf induced per conductor is
dt
P
dt
d
e
2
= =

For one revolution, the time taken is
n
dt
1
=
Hence n P
n
P
dt
d
=
= 2
1
2

.
This is the emf generated across each armature conductor. Per path, the
number of conductors is given as the total number of armature conductors divided by
the number of parallel paths, that is
A
Z
. Therefore, the emf generated per path is
given by:
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
A
Z N
P
A
Z
n P E
60
2 2
For wave wound machine, A = 2, hence
A
P ZN
E
2
60
=

P Zn
P ZN
E
= =
60
14
For lap wound machine, A = 2P, hence
Application exercise.
A 6 pole DC generator has 1530 armature conductors. The machine is nun at 2000
rpm and the useful flux per pole is 10 mWb. Calculate the emf generated in the
following cases:
- The machine is wave wound;
- The machine is lap wound.
Solution to the application exercise.
Data 1530 ; 2000 ; 3
2
6
; 10 = = = = = Z N P mWb
Case 1: wave winding
V
P ZN
E 1530
60
3 10 10 2000 1530
60
3
=

= =

Case 2: Lap winding

V
ZN
E 510
60
10 10 2000 1530
60
3
=

= =

1.3.3 Classification of DC machines.

The field circuit and the armature circuit of a DC machine can be
interconnected in various ways to provide a wide variety of performance
characteristics and outstanding advantage of DC machines. Also, the field poles can
be excited by two field windings, a shunt field winding and a series field winding as
shown in the following figure.
Figure 1.10: Shunt and series field windings for a DC generator.
Zn
ZN
E = =
60
15
The shunt winding has a large number of turn and takes only a small current
(less than 5% of the rated armature current). The resistance of the shunt winding is
far greater than that of series winding. The shunt winding is connected in parallel with
the armature. The series winding has fewer turns but carries a large current. It is
connected in series with the armature
In short we can say that there are two main groups of DC machine: separately
excited DC machines and self-excited DC machines.
Separately excited DC machines.
In the separately excited DC machine, the field winding is excited from a
separate source (Figure 1.11a).
Self-excited DC machines.
For this type of DC machine, the field winding can be connected in three
different ways:
- In series with the armature resulting in a series DC machine;
- In parallel with the armature resulting in shunt DC machine;
- Both shunt and series windings may be used, resulting in compound machine.
There are two types of compound DC machines: long shunt and short shunt.
The figure 1.11 below show the classification of DC machines.
Figure 1.11: Classification of DC machines
16
A rheostat is normally included in the circuit of the shunt winding to control the
field current and thereby to vary the field mmf. Field excitation may also be provided
by permanents. This maybe considered as a form of separately excited machine, the
permanent magnet providing a separate but constant excitation.
1.3.4 Equations of separately excited DC generators.
Let us consider the figure below presenting the electrical diagram of a
separately excited DC generator.
RA
E
If
I
U
Uf
Rf
Rh
Let us assume the following notations:
If = Field current;
Rf = Resistance of the field winding;
Uf = Field circuit voltage;
E = Emf generated;
U = Terminal voltage;
Ra = resistance of the armature winding;
Ia = Armature current;
I = line or load current;
Rh = Rheostat.
We can deduce the following formula:
;
h f
f
R R
U
If
+
=
I Ra E Ia Ra E U . . = =
17
1.3.5 Equations of self-excited DC generators.
The field winding of a self excited generator is energized by the current
produced by the generator itself. In this machine, residual magnetism must be
present in the machine iron to get the self excitation process started. When the
armature is rotated, some emf is produced which goes through the field coils and
strengthens the residual magnetism.
a. Shunt excited DC generator.
RA
E
I
U
Rh
Ish
Ia
A 4 pole lap wound DC shunt generator has a useful flux per pole of 0.07Wb. The
armature winding consists of 440 conductors having a total resistance of 0.055 .
Calculate the terminal voltage when running at 900rpm if the armature current is 50A.
Solution to the application exercise
Data: 2
2
4
= = P ; 440 = Z ; O = 055 . 0 Ra ; A I
a
50 = ; Wb 07 . 0 = ; lap winding (A =2P).
RA
E
I
U
Rh
Ish
Ia
We know that RaIa E U =
Let us first determine the emf E of the generator. Since the machine is lap wound, we
have:
60
ZN
E =
RaIa E U
Ish I Ia
Rsh
U
Ish
=
+ =
=
18
V E 462
60
07 . 0 900 440
=

=
Then we have
V RaIa E U 25 . 459 50 055 . 0 462 = = =
Exercise 1.1
An 8 pole DC shunt generator with 778 wave connected armature conductors and
running at 1000 rpm supplies a load of 12.5 resistance at a terminal voltage of
250V. The armature resistance is 0.24 and the field resistance is 250 . Determine:
a. the armature current;
b. The induced emf;
c. The flux per pole.
b. Series excited DC generator.
RA
E
I
Ia
U
Rs
An 8pole DC series generator with 778 wave wound armature conductors running at
1000 rpm supplies a load of 20 .The useful flux per pole amount to 4mWb. The
armature and series field resistances are 0.08 and 0.12 respectively. Determine:
a. The emf generated;
b. The armature current;
c. The terminal voltage.
Solution to the application exercise.
Data: 4
2
8
= = P ; 778 = Z ; N = 1000rpm; R = 20; Ra = 0.08 ; Rs = 012 ; Wave
winding: A = 2. mWb 4 =
( )I Rs Ra E U
Ia I
+ =
=
19
RA
E
I
Ia
U
Rs
a. Emf generated.
V
P ZN
E 46 . 207
60
4 004 . 0 1000 778
60
=

= =

b. Armature current
( ) A
R Rs Ra
E
Ia Ia R Rs Ra E 27 . 10
20 12 . 0 08 . 0
46 . 207
0 =
+ +
=
+ +
= = + +
c. Terminal voltage.
( ) V Ia R Ia Rs Ra E U 4 . 205 . = = + =
Exercise 1.2
A series generator supplies a load of 10 and the line current is 25A. The armature
and field resistances are 0.08 and 0.12 respectively. Determine:
a. The terminal voltage;
b. The emf generated.
c. Compound excited generator.
We will give the equations for long shunt connected, and then for short shunt
connected DC compound generators.
i) Long shunt DC compound generator.
RA
E
Ia
Ia
Rs
R h
U
Is h I
( )
s a a
sh a
h
sh
R R I E U
I I I
R
U
I
+ =
+ =
=
20
ii) Short shunt DC compound generator.
E
Rsh
Rs
Ra
U Ia
Ish I
Remark
In DC machines, there is usually a voltage drop Ub at the brushes. If
mentioned, it should be taken into account in the total drop.
E
Rsh
Rs
Ra
U Ia
Ish I
Ub
Application exercise
A 4 pole, long shunt, compound generator supplies 100A at a terminal voltage of
500V. If armature resistance is 0.02 , series field resistance is 0.04 and shunt field
resistance 100 , find the generated emf. Take drop per brush as 1V.
Solution
RA
E
Ia
Ia
Rs
R h
U
Is h I
( ) U Ub Ia Rs Ra E = + 2 (We have two brushes, so the drop due to the brushes is 2Ub)
s a a
sh a
sh
sh
IR I R E U
I I I
R
IRs U
I
=
+ =
+
=
( )
b s a a
U I R I R E U + + =
O =
=
=
O =
O =
=
100
1
500
04 . 0
02 . 0
100
Rh
V Ub
V U
Rs
Ra
A I
21
( ) Ub Ia Rs Ra U E 2 + + + =
But A
Rh
U
I Ish I Ia 105
100
500
100 = + = + = + =
Finally,
Exercise 1.3
A long shunt compound generator supplies a load of 10kW at 250V. The armature,
series and shunt resistances are 0.08 , 0.03 and 100 respectively. Calculate the
emf generated.
Exercise 1.4
Let a short shunt compound generator supplying 100A at a terminal voltage of 230V.
The armature, series and shunt resistances are 0.02 , 0.05 and 200 respectively.
Calculate the field current and the emf generated.
Remark: Parallel operation of shunt generators.
The connection of generators in parallel means that they are connected to the same
load, usually through a common busbar system. To connect two or more shunt
generators to the same busbar, two conditions must be observed:
- The emf of the incoming generator should be practically equal to the busbar
voltage V.
- Like polarities should be connected together.
Exercise 1.5
A 4 pole, DC shunt generator with a shunt field resistance of 100 and an armature
resistance of 1 has 378 wave-connected conductors in its armature. The flux per
pole is 0.01Wb. If a load resistance of 10 is connected across the armature
terminals and the generator is driven at 1000rpm, calculate the power absorbed by
the load.
( ) V E 3 . 508 2 105 04 . 0 02 . 0 500 = + + + =
22
1.3.6 Armature reaction (AR)
By armature reaction is meant the effect of magnetic field set up by armature
current on the distribution of flux under main poles.
With no current flowing in the armature, the flux in the machine is established
by the mmf produced by the field current. However, if the current flows in the
armature circuit, it produces its own mmf (hence flux) that opposes the flux produces
by the field current under main poles. The armature magnetic field has two effects:
- It demagnetises or weakens the main flux;
- It cross-magnetises or distorts the main flux.
a) With no armature current, the flux under pole is not distorted.
d) With current flowing in its conductors, the armature produces its own flux that
distorts the flux under main poles.
Figure 1.12: Armature reaction.
23
1.3.7 Compensating windings
These are used for large direct current machines which are subjected to large
fluctuations in load, such as rolling mill motors and turbo-generators. Their function is
to neutralise the cross magnetizing effect of armature reaction. In the absence of
compensating windings, the segments of the commutator may be short-circuited
during rapid changes in the load of the machines.
1.3.8 Commutating poles (Interpoles windings)
To counter the effect or armature reaction in medium and large-power DC
machines, a set of commutating poles (sometimes called interpoles windings) is
always placed between the main poles as shown by the figure below.
Figure 1.13: Commutating poles
These narrow poles carry windings that are connected in series with the armature.
The number of turns on the windings is designed so that the poles develop a
magnetomotive force mmf
c
equal and opposite to the magnetomotive force mmf
a
of
the armature. As the load current varies the two magnetomotive forces rise and fall
together exactly bucking each other at all time. By nullifying the armature mmf in this
way, the flux in the space between the main poles is always zero, solving then the
problem of armature reaction.
24
Exercise 1.6
The following information is given for a 300kW, 600V, long shunt compound
generator: shunt field resistance = 75 , armature resistance including brush
resistance = 0.03 , commutating field winding resistance = 0.011 , series field
resistance = 0.012 , divertor resistance ( in parallel with series field resistance) =
0.036 . When the machine is delivering full load, calculate the voltage and the power
generated by the armature.
Exercise 1.7
A 4 pole, lap wound DC shunt generator has a useful flux per pole of 0.07Wb. The
armature winding consists of 220 turns each of 0.004 resistance. Calculate the
terminal voltage when running at 900 rpm if the armature current is 50A.
Exercise 1.8
A 4 pole, DC shunt generator with a shunt field resistance of 100 and an armature
resistance of 1 has 378 wave-connected conductors in its armature. The flux per
pole is 0.01Wb. If a load resistance of 10 is connected across the armature
terminals and the generator is driven at 1000 rpm, calculate the power absorbed by
the load.
1.3.9 Losses in DC generators
The three main losses in DC generators are copper losses, iron losses and
mechanical losses.
Iron losses
These losses are due to the rotation of the iron core of the armature in the magnetic
field produced by the poles. Iron losses consist of hysteresis and Eddy Current
losses.
i) Hysteresis losses
These losses are due to the reversal of magnetism of the armature core. That is the
energy required to magnetize and demagnetize the armature core as it passes
through the magnetic flux of the north and the south pole.
ii) Eddy current losses
As the armature core rotates, its conductors cut the magnetic lines of flux produced
by the main poles. An emf is therefore induced in those conductors and a current
25
known as Eddy current (In French it is called courrants de Foucault) is circulating
through them. These currents cause losses called Eddy current losses. To minimize
theses losses, the core should be laminated.
Copper losses
They cause heat in the machine. They are due the resistance of the windings found
in the machine. Hence, we have armature copper losses (R
a
I
a
2
), shunt copper losses
(R
sh
I
sh
2
), series copper losses (R
s
I
s
2
)
Mechanical losses
Mechanical losses consist of friction losses at the bearings of the rotating armature
and also of windage losses. Mechanical losses and iron losses are known as
constant losses.
The following chart summarises the losses mentioned above.
Input
Useful output
Total losses
Copper losses
Iron losses
Mechanical losses
Armature copper loss
Field copper loss
Hysterisis loss
Eddy current loss
Friction loss
Windage loss
Figure 1.14: Losses in DC generators
26
1.3.10 Powers and efficiencies
a) Powers
Let us assume:
P
o
= Output power (also called useful power or electrical power);
P
in
= Input power (power absorbed from the prime mover);
P
m
= Mechanical power developed in the armature;
P
J
= Total copper losses;
P
c
= Constant losses (iron and mechanical losses).
The power distribution can be sketched as follows.
Pin
Pc Pj
Pm Po
Where
T = Shaft torque of the prime mover in (N.m).
N = Rotating speed in rpm.
= Angular speed in (rad/s).
Where
E = emf generated in (V)
Ia = armature current (A)
Where
U = terminal voltage in (V)
I = line current in (A).
T
N
T Pin = |
.
|
\
|
=
60
2
.
Ia E Pc Pin Pm . = =
UI P Pm Po
J
= =
27
b) Efficiencies
Mechanical efficiency
Electrical efficiency
Overall efficiency
Remark
Efficiency is maximal when Joule losses equal constant losses (P
J
= P
C
).
Application exercise
A 220 DC generator runs at 1500rpm and supplies a load of 15A. If the input torque
is 28N.m, calculate the efficiency.
Solution
By definition,
in
o
P
P
=
But
W
N
T P
W UI P
in
o
4396
60
1500 14 . 3 2
28
60
2
.
3300 15 220
=

= |
.
|
\
|
=
= = =
Hence, % 068 . 75 75068 . 0

4396
3300
= = = pu
Exercise 1.10
A long shunt compound wound generator running at 16.67rps supplies 11kW at a
terminal voltage of 220V. The resistances of the armature, shunt and series field
windings are 0.05 , 110 , and 0.06 respectively. The overall efficiency is 81.5%.
Determine:
a) The total copper loss;
b) The iron and friction losses;
in
m
m
P
P
=
m
o
e
P
P
=
e m
m
o
in
m
in
o
P
P
p
P
P
P
= = =
28
c) The torque exerted by the prime mover;
d) The electrical and mechanical efficiencies.
Solution to exercise 1.10
RA
E
Ia
Ia
Rs
R h
U
Is h I
a) Total copper losses
( )
2 2
sh a J
RshI I Rs Ra P + + =
But A
U
P
R
U
I I I
sh
sh a
52 50 2
220
11000
110
220
= + = + = + = + =
Hence, ( ) W P
J
44 . 737 2 110 52 06 . 0 05 . 0
2 2
= + + =
b) Iron and friction losses
Pin
Pc Pj
Pm Po
m in C
P P P =
But
44 . 11737 44 . 737 11000
93252 . 13496
815 . 0
11000
= + = + =
= = =
J o m
o
in
P P P
W
P
P
Hence, W P
c
43 . 1759 44 . 11737 93 . 13496 = =
c) Torque exerted by the prime mover
m N T
N
P
T n T P
in
in
. 925 . 128
67 . 16 14 . 3 2
9325 . 13496
2
2
=

=
= =
d) Electrical and mechanical efficiencies

Electrical efficiency
815 . 0
06 . 0
110
05 . 0
220
11
67 . 16
=
O =
O =
O =
=
=
=
Rs
Rsh
Ra
V U
kW P
rps n
29
% 71 . 93 9371 . 0
44 . 11737
11000
= = = = pu
P
P
m
o
e
Mechanical efficiency
% 96 . 86 8696 . 0
9325 . 13496
44 . 11737
= = = = pu
P
P
in
m
m
Exercise 1.11: (Probatoire F3 2010)

An asynchronous three phase motor drives a shunt generator which supplies in full
load a current of 40A under a voltage of 320V. The useful power of the driving motor
is equal to 20.614kW at full load; its armature resistance is 1.25 and its field
resistance is 200 . Determine:
a) The useful power of the generator;
b) The current in the field circuit and in the armature;
c) The emf of the generator;
d) The constant losses.
Exercise 1.12: Compound wound generator (Probatoire 2008)
A shunt generator is to be transformed into a short shunt compound generator by
addition of series field windings. A test carried out only on the shunt field gave the
following results:
A current of 4.5A produces a voltage of 250V at no load;
A current of 5.5A produces the same voltage at full load of 40A.
The shunt windings have 1200 turns.
a) calculate the number of series turns necessary to maintain this voltage ;
b) Armature, shunt field and series field resistances are respectively 0.5 , 70 ,
and 0.3 . The generator supplies a load of 5kW at a voltage of 250V.
Calculate:
i) The emf of the generator;
ii) The full load efficiency, if constant losses are estimated to 120W;
iii) The efficiency at 3/4full load.
1.3.11 DC generator characteristics
The important characteristics of DC generators are:
The no load characteristics;
The load characteristics;
30
Emf vs. speed characteristics.
a) No load characteristics (open circuit characteristics): ) (
f
I f E =
The connection diagram used to record data for the plot of no load characteristics is
the following, no matter the type of generator.
A
V G
Eo
Rh Rf
E If
I=0
As the value of rheostat is varying, so the field current is varying and its value is
recorded from the ammeter. The speed is kept constant and the generated emf on no
load (I = 0) is measured by the voltmeter V. The corresponding values of E and If are
recorded and the graph ) (
f
I f E = can be plotted. Mathematically the relationship
between the emf E and the field current I
f
can be shown.
u = Zn E
But the flux is function of the field current:
f
kI = u
Hence, ( )
f f
I f ZnkI E = = .
The general appearance of the open circuit characteristics for DC generators is as
follows.
0
E(v)
If(A)
Eo
Figure 1.15: No load characteristics of DC generators.
31
The difference OA represents the emf generated due to the residual magnetism in
the poles.
Exercise 1.13: (Probatoire 2011).
The no load test of a DC generator functioning at separated field has given the
following results at the constant speed N = 1500rpm.
I(A) 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
E(V) 10 40 70 100 135 165 195 220 230 235 237
The field resistance is r = 100 ; the armature resistance R = 0.5 . The machine is
used as a shunt generator.
1. Establish the no load characteristics E = f(i).
2. Determine the emf due to the residual magnetism in the poles;
3. Calculate the value of field rheostat in order to have an emf at no load
of E = 220V.
4. The field current is and has its value of question 3. The generator
supplies a load with a constant current of I = 49.6A. Calculate.
a) The total current supplied by the generator;
b) The voltage across the generator;
c) The total copper losses;
d) The useful power of the generator;
e) The power absorbed by the generator;
f) The efficiency of the generator knowing that constant losses are equal to
100W.
Solution of exercise 1.13
1. Plot of the no load characteristics
Scale: 1cm A 1 . 0 (Abscissa); V cm 10 1 (Ordinate).
See the following page.
2. Emf due to the residual magnetism in the poles
It is the emf when the field current is equal to zero. According to the curve below, we
have E
o
= 10V.
3. Value of the field rheostat in order to have an emf at no load of 220V.
f
f
h f f f h
R
I
E
R E I R I R = = +
32
For E = 220V, If = 0.4A
Hence, O = = 450 100
4 . 0
220
h
R
0
100
200
250
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0
10
E(V)
I(A)
4. a) Total current supplied by the generator.
A I I I
f a
50 4 . 0 6 . 49 = + = + =
b) Voltage across the generator.
V I R E V
a a G
195 50 5 . 0 220 = = =
c) Total Copper losses
Pin
Pc Pj
Pm Po
W I V EI P P P
G a m J
1328 6 . 49 195 50 220
0
= = = =
d) Useful power of the generator.
33
W I V P
G o
9672 6 . 49 195 = = =
e) Power absorbed by the generator.
W EI P P
a m a
11000 50 220 = = = =
f) Efficiency of the generator.
% 135 . 87 87135 . 0
100 11000
9672
0
= =
+
=
+
= = Pu
P P
P
P
p
C m
o
in
Exercise 1.14: Shunt generator

The open circuit characteristics at 1000rpm of a 4 pole, 220V shunt generator with 72
slots and 8 conductors per slot with armature conductors lap connected is as follows:
Field current (A) 0.25 0.5 1 2 3 4 5
emf (V) 25 50 100 175 220 245 255
The field circuit resistance is 75 .
1. Explain how this test was carried out
2. Plot the curve and determine: a) The emf induced due to residual magnetism;
b) The emf generated at the given field resistance when the generator is under
normal operation.
3. The useful flux per pole.
4. The residual flux.
Data: N = 1000rpm; 2
2
4
= = p ; U = 220V; Z = 72x8 = 576; lap connection;
Rsh = 75 ; shunt generator.
1. Test procedure for the plotting of open circuit characteristics.
The connection of the DC generators for the determination of the open circuit
characteristics is as follows.
A
V G
If
0A
E
+
-
Rh
34
The field current I
f
is varied rheostatically and its value measured by an ammeter.
The speed si kept constant and the generated emf in the load is measured by the
voltmeter V. The corresponding values are recorded and the graph of E = f(If) is
plotted.
2. Plot of the curve.
The curve is sketched on the page below (the curve normally should be plotted son a
graph paper.
Scale: 1A = 1cm (abscissa) 10V = 1cm (ordinate)
260
1 2 3 4 5
If (A)
E(V)
0
S T
6 7
R
A
150
10
a) To know the value of the emf induced due to the residual magnetism, we just
have to project the curve back ward to cut the ordinate axis (point A). We
obtain E
0
= 10V
b) The emf for a field resistance of 75
To know the maximum emf the generator will generate on normal operation, we
should draw the shunt resistance line.
35
To draw the shunt resistance line, take any value of If (for example, let us take 2A),
multiply this value by the shunt resistance Rsh = 75 . Mark the corresponding point
on the ordinate axis. Let that point be R. 75x2 = 150V, hence, R(2A, 150V).
Draw the line joining the origin O and the point R, it cuts the open circuit
characteristics at the point S.
Draw a horizontal line from S to T. OT gives the maximum emf generated with 75
as shunt resistance.
From the curve we can read: OT = E =210V (almost).
3. Useful flux per pole.
A
p ZN
E
2
60

u
= ; Lap winding A p = 2
Hence,
mWb
ZN
E ZN
E
875 . 21
1000 576
210 60
60
60
=
= u
= u
u
=
4. Residual flux.
mWb V E E 04 . 1 10
0
= u = = .
b) Load (or external) characteristics U = f(I)
i) Separately excited generator.
Figure 1.16: Separately excited generator under load.
We assume that the separately excited generator is driven at constant speed and
that the field winding is excited by a battery. The exciting current is constant and so is
the resultant flux. The induced voltage E
o
is therefore fixed. When the machine
36
operates at no load, the terminal voltage E
12
is equal to the induced voltage E
o
because the voltage drop in the armature resistance is zero.
However, if we connect a load across the armature, the resulting load current I
produces a voltage drop across the armature resistance Ra and causes the terminal
voltage to drop. As we increase the load, the terminal voltage also decreases
progressively. The load characteristic of a separately excited generator is presented
in the following figure.
Figure 1.17: Load characteristics of a separately excited generator
ii) Shunt generator
When a shunt generator is loaded, after voltage build up, the terminal voltage U
drops with increase in load current I. The decrease depends on the armature drop
I
a
R
a
and it is however small except the machine is overloaded.
RA
E
I
U
Rh
Ish
Ia
a a
I R E U =
37
The sketch of the load characteristics of a shunt generator is as follows.
U(V)
E
Un
I(A)
0
Figure 1.18: load characteristics of a shunt generator.
The terminal voltage of a self-excited shunt generator falls off more sharply with
increasing load than that of a separately excited generator. The reason is that the
field current in a separately excited machine remains constant, whereas in a
self-excited generator, the exciting current falls as the terminal voltage drops
(
sh
ex
R
U
I = ). For a self-excited generator, the drop in voltage from no load to full load
is about 15 percent of the full load voltage, whereas for a separately excited
generator, it is usually less than 10%. The voltage regulation is said to be 10 percent
and 15 percent respectively.
iii) Series generator.
E
RA
RS
LOAD
I
U
When the switch S is closed with the load resistance R comparatively large, the
machine does not excite; but as R is reduced, a value is reached when a slight
reduction of R is accompanied by a relatively large increase of terminal voltage.
When the machine is on open circuit, the terminal voltage is very small (voltage due
to the residual magnetic field in the poles). The sketch of the load characteristics of a
series generator is presented in the following figure.
38
0
U(V)
I(A)
Figure 1.19: Load characteristics of a series generator.
Because of the rising voltage characteristics of DC generators, they are mostly used
as boosters on DC power lines to compensate for voltage drop. Series wound
generator is quite unsuitable when voltage is to be maintained constant or even
approximately constant over a wide range of load current.
iv) Compound generators
The compound generator was developed to prevent the terminal voltage of a
DC generator from decreasing with increasing load (as it is the case for shunt
generator. Thus, although we can usually tolerate a reasonable drop in terminal
voltage as the load increases, this has a serious effect on lighting circuits. For
example, the distribution system of a ship supplies power to both DC machinery and
incandescent lamps. The current delivered by the generator fluctuates continually, in
response to the varying loads. These current variations produce corresponding
changes in the generator terminal voltage, causing the light flicker. Compound
generators eliminate this problem
A compound generator is similar to a shunt generator, except that it has
additional field coils connected in series with the armature. These series field coils
are composed of a few turns of heavy wire, big enough to carry the armature current.
The total resistance of the series coils is therefore small. The figure bellow is a
schematic diagram showing the series and shunt field connections
39
Figure 1.20: Shunt and series field connections of a compound generator.
When the generator runs at no load, the current in the series coils is zero. The
shunt coils, however, carry exciting current Ix which produces the field flux, just as in
a standard self excited shunt generator. As the generator is loaded, the terminal
voltage tends to drop, but load current I
c
now flows through the series field coils. The
mmf developed by these coils acts in the same direction as the mmf of the shunt
field. Consequently, the field flux under load rises above its original no-load value,
which raises the value of E
o
. If the series coils are properly designed, the terminal
voltage remains practically constant from no-load to full load. The rise in the induced
voltage compensates for the armature drop.
In some cases we have to compensate not only for the armature voltage drop,
but also for the IR drop in the feeder line between the generator and the load. The
generator manufacturer then adds one or two extra turns on the series winding so
that the terminal voltage increases as the load current rises. Such machines are
called over compound generators. If the compounding is too strong, a low resistance
can be placed in series with the series field (The name of this resistance is diverter
resistance). This reduces the current in the series field and has the same effect as
reducing the number of turns. For example, if the value of the diverter resistance is
equal to that of series field, the current in the latter is reduced by half.
In a differential compound generator, the mmf of the series field acts opposite
to the shunt field. As a result, the terminal voltage falls drastically with increasing
load. We can make such a generator by simply reversing the series field of a
standard compound generator. Differential compound generators were formerly used
40
in DC arc welders, because they tended to limit the short circuit current and to
stabilize the arc during the welding process.
Figure 1.21: Load characteristics of compound generators
c) Saturation curve of a DC generator.
The saturation curve is the plot of the field flux under poles against the exciting
current I
x
. When the exciting current is relatively small, the flux is small and the iron in
the machine is unsaturated. Very little mmf is needed to establish the flux through the
iron. Because the permeability of the air is constant, the flux increases in direct
proportion to the exciting current, as shown by the linear portion Oa of the saturation
curve.
Figure 1.22: Saturation curve of a DC generator.
However, as we continue to raise the exciting current, the iron in the poles and
the armature begins to saturate. A large increase in the mmf is now required to
41
produce a small increase in flux, as shown by the portion bc of the curve. The
machine is now said to be saturated. Saturation of the iron begins to be important
when we reach the so-called knee ab of the saturation curve.
Since the emf is directly proportional to the flux under the poles, the saturation curve
can also be seen as the plot of the emf E
o
at no load against the exciting current I
x
.
d) Controlling the voltage of a shunt generator.
It is easy to control the induced voltage of a shunt excited generator. We simply
vary the exciting current Ix by means of a rheostat connected in series with the shunt
field. The following circuit presents such a connection.
42
G
R
n
m
Ix
p
a
b
x
y
Eo
Figure 1.25: Voltage control of a shunt generator.
To understand how the output voltage varies, suppose that E
o
is 120V when
the movable contact p is in the centre of the rheostat. If we move the contact towards
the extremity m, the resistance R
t
between p and b decreases, which causes the
exciting current to increase. This increases the flux and, consequently, the induced
voltage E
o
. On the other hand, if we move the contact towards the extremity n, R
t
increases, the exiting current decreases, the flux decreases, and so E
o
will fall.
We can determine the no load value of E
o
if we know the saturation curve of
the generator and the total resistance R
t
of the shunt field circuit between p and b.
We draw a straight line corresponding to the slope of R
t
and superimpose it on the
saturation curve. This dotted line passes through the origin, and the point where it
intersects the curve yields the induced voltage.
For example, if the shunt field has a resistance of 50 and the rheostat is set
at the extremity m, then Rt = 50 . The line corresponding to Rt must pass through
the coordinate point E = 50V, I = 1A. This line intersects the saturation curve where
the voltage is 150V (see figure of the following page). That is the maximum voltage
the shunt generator can produce.
By changing the setting of the rheostat, the total resistance of the field circuit
increases, causing E
o
to decreases progressively. For example, if Rt is increased to
120 , the resistance line cuts the saturation curve at a voltage E
o
= 120V.
43
Figure 1.26: The no load voltage depends upon the resistance of
the shunt field circuit.
If we continue to raise R
t
, a critical value will be reached where the slope of
the resistance line is equal to that of the saturation curve in its unsaturated region.
When this resistance is attained, the induced voltage suddenly drops to zero and will
remain so for any R
t
greater than this critical value. The critical resistance
corresponds to 200 .
44
Exercise 1.15: (Probatoire 2009)
A DC generator has the following magnetisation characteristic at 1200rpm
Field aimed
1 2 4 6 8 10
Emf (V) 192 312 468 566 626 660
1. Draw the magnetisation curves: a) at 1200rpm; at 1000rpm. Take scale
20mm = 100V; 10mm = 1A.
2. If the generator is shunt excited and driven at 1000rpm, determine:
a) The voltage at which it will build up on open circuit.
b) The value of the critical resistance of the shunt field circuit at 1000rpm.
c) The terminal potential difference and the load current for a load resistance of
30 .
Note: Field resistance = 60 and armature resistance = 0.5
Solution of exercise 1.15:
1. Plot of the magnetisation curves.
For the same value of the field current, the variation of the emf is proportional to that
of the speed. Hence, emfs at 1000rpm can be deduced from those at 1200rpm using
the following reasoning.
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
.E
N
N
E
N
N
E
E
= =
Where:
E2 = emf at 1000rpm, N2 = 1000rpm, N1 = 1200rpm, E1 = emf at 1200rpm.
We obtain the following table of values
I
ex
(A) 1 2 4 6 8 10
E(V) at
1200rpm
192 312 468 566 626 660
E(V) at
1000rpm
160 260 390 471.67 521.67 550
The magnetisation curves are then plotted on the following figure.
45
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
100V
200V
300V
400V
500V
600V
700V
E(V)
If(A)
Eo = 60If
Eo
N = 1200rpm
N = 1000rpm
2.
a) The open circuit build up voltage is situated at the intersection of the curves
) tan ( . 60
) (
celine resis I R I E
I f E
f f f
f
= =
=
So, if we draw a line passing between the origin of the axis and the point having the
coordinates E = 60V, I = 1A; that line cut the magnetisation curve at a point whose
ordinate is the open loop build up voltage. We find
E
o
= 550V
b)
The critical resistance is the resistance for which the resistance line has the same
slope with the linear part of the saturation curve. For Rf = 160 , the resistance line
f f
I R E = has the same slope with the linear part of the saturation curve. Hence, the
critical resistance is R
f
=160 .
46
c) Determination of load current and load voltage.
These quantities are such that:
RA
E
I
U
Rh
Ish
Ia
( )
f
f f
I I R E U
RI U
I R U
+ =
=
=
( )
f
f
I I U
I U
I U
+ =
=
=
5 . 0 550
30
60
And we find after calculations the following results
U = 536.58V; I = 17.89A.
f) Emf vs speed characteristics.
The emf generated is directly proportional to the speed (provided the flux is
maintained constant). Any increase in speed is accompanied by an increase in
generated emf.
A
P ZN
E
2
60
=

Since P and A are constant quantities, we deduce that:
n
n
N
E
N
E
N
E
N E = = = = ...
2
2
1
1
So, the emf vs speed characteristics can be sketched as follows.

0
E(V)
N(rpm) Nc
Figure 1.27: Emf vs speed characteristics
47
Below a certain speed (Known as the critical speed Nc), no emf is generated. So the
characteristic is not supposed to start at the origin of the axis.
1.4 DC motors.
1.4.1 Principle of DC motor
A DC motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. Its action is based on the principle that when a current carrying conductor is
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force (called Laplaces force).
F
B I
Current carrying conductor.
Figure 1.28: Current carrying conductor in a magnetic field
The magnitude of the force F is given by the following formula
Where
B =Flux density of the magnetic field;
I = Current flowing in the conductor;
L = Length of the conductor.
There is no basic difference in construction between DC generator and DC
motor. In fact, the same machine can theoretically be used interchangeably as a
generator and as a motor. The main difference between the two machines is that
BIL F =
48
when the machine is motorizing, the generated emf is less than the terminal voltage
meanwhile in a generator, the generated emf is greater than the terminal voltage.
1.4.2 Back emf
When the motors armature rotates, the conductors wound on it cut the
magnetic flux under the poles. An emf is therefore induced in them. The direction of
this induced emf, known as back or counter emf is such that it opposes the applied
voltage. Since the back emf is induced due to the generator action, the magnitude of
it is therefore given by the same expression as for DC generators.
Where:
Eb = Back emf in volts;
Z = Number of armature conductors;
N = Rotational speed of the armature in rpm;
= Flux per pole in Webers;
P = Number of pairs of poles;
A = Number of parallel paths in the armature (A = 2 for wave winding; A = 2P for lap
winding).
The armature of a DC motor is hence equivalent to a source of emf Eb in series with
a resistance Ra. The supply voltage across the armature should therefore be large
enough to balance both the voltage drop in the armature and the back emf all the
time.
Ra
Eb
U
Ia
A
P ZN
E
b
2
60
=

a a b
I R E U + =
49
1.4.3 Power relationship in a DC motor
The voltage equation of a DC motor is:
a a b
I R E U + =
Multiplying each term of the voltage equation by I
a
, we get:
2
a a a b a
I R I E UI + =
The equation above is known as the power equation of the DC motor. The
term UI
a
represents the power supplied to the motor armature,
2
a a
I R represents the
power lost in the armature, E
b
I
a
represents the mechanical power developed in the
armature causing the rotation of the armature. The power developed E
b
I
a
is not all
available at the shaft since some of it is used to overcome the mechanical power
losses of the motor.
1.4.4 Types of DC motors
Different types of Dc motors are the following:
Permanent magnet DC motors;
Separately excited DC motor;
Series wound DC motors;
Shunt wound DC motors;
Compound wound DC motors.
a) Permanent magnet DC motors
It consists of an armature and one or several permanent magnet encircling the
armature. Field coils are not usually required. However, some of these motors do
have coils wound of the poles. If they exist, these coils are intended only for
recharging the magnets in the event that they loose their strength. Permanent
magnet DC motors work like separately excited motors.
b) Separately excited DC motors
For these motors, field coils and armature conductors are supplied by different
sources
50
Ra
Eb
U
Ia
E
Rh
Field
Figure 1.29: Separately excited DC motor.
a a b a a b
I R U E I R E U = + =
( )
a b a a a a a a J m
I E I I R U I R UI P P P = = = =
2
c) Series wound DC motors
In series motor, field and armature circuits are connected in series, as shown in the
figure 1.30 below; so I
a
= I
f
.
Ra
Eb
Rs I= Ia =If
U
Figure 1.30: DC series motor.
The field coils consist of a few turns of thick wires. The cross sectional area for the
wire of the coils has to be fairly to carry the armature, but owing to the large current,
the number of turns of wire in them need not to be large.
( )I R R E U
a S b
+ + =
Power drawn from the main:
UI P =
Mechanical power developed:
loss m
P P P =
51
( ) ( ) | | I E R R U I R R I UI P
b S a S a m
.
2
= + = + =
The speed of DC series motor is very high at no load and very low at heavy
load. The torque is very high at low speed. Therefore DC series motor is suitable for
duties requiring a large starting torque and also frequent starting. Applications for DC
series motor are: railway traction, hoist, crane
d) shunt wound DC motor
The armature circuit and the shunt field circuit are connected across a DC source of
fixed voltage U. An external field rheostat is sometimes used in the field circuit to
control the speed of the motor.
Ra
Eb
U
Rsh
Ish
I
Ia
Figure 1.31: DC shunt motor.
a a b
sh a
sh
sh
I R E U
I I I
R
U
I
+ =
=
=
UI P =
Mechanical power developed:
( ) ( )
b a a a a a a a a a sh a a sh m
loss m
E I I R U I I R UI I R I I U I R UI UI P
P P P
= = = = =
=
2 2 2
An important characteristic of shunt motor is that it has a fairly constant speed
for a fairly wide range of loads. Shunt motor applications are found in driving shafts,
machine tools, blowers
52
e) Compound wound DC motor.
Compound wound DC motor has both series winding and shunt field winding. It is
usually connected long shunt.
Ra
Eb
U
Rsh
Ish
Ia
Rs
Figure 1.32: Compound wound DC motor.
( )
a s a b
sh a
sh
sh
I R R E U
I I I
R
U
I
+ + =
=
=
UI P =
Mechanical power developed by the motor
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) | |
b a m
a s a a
a S a a
a S a sh
a S a sh m
loss m
E I P
I R R U I
I R R UI
I R R I I U
I R R UI UI P
P P P
=
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
=
2
2
2
Compound motor combines the characteristics of shunt and series motor, and
finds applications in elevators, hoists, frequent starting duties such as refrigerators
and air compressors.
Exercise 1.16
A 200V series DC motor with armature and field resistance of 0.5 and 0.3
respectively draws a current of 45A. Calculate the emf generated.
53
Ra
Eb
Rs I= Ia =If
U
( )
( )
V E
I R R U E
b
S a b
164
164
45 3 . 0 5 . 0 200
=
=
+ =
+ =
Exercise 1.17
An 11.19 kW shunt motor draws 51A from the supply. The armature and field
resistances are 0.1 and 240 respectively. The motor efficiency is 91.4%.
Calculate:
a) The terminal voltage;
b) The emf generated.
Ra
Eb
U
Rsh
Ish
I
Ia
a) Terminal voltage:
I
P
U UI P
in
in
= =
But
o
in
in
o
P
P
P
P
= =
A I
R
R
V U
S
a
45
3 . 0
5 . 0
200
=
O =
O =
=
% 4 . 91 ; 240 ; 1 . 0
; 51 ; 19 . 11
= O = =
= =
sh a
o
R A R
A I kW P
54
Hence, V
I
P
U
o
056 . 240
914 . 0 51
11190
=
= =
b) Emf generated.
a a b a a b
I R U E I R E U = + =
But A I I I
sh a
50
240
240
51 = = =
Hence, V E
b
235 50 1 . 0 240 = =
Exercise 1.18
A compound motor running from a 400V DC supply draws a current of 102A. The
armature, series and shunt field resistances are 0.08 , 0.04 and 200
respectively. Calculate the generated emf.
Ra
Eb
U
Rsh
Ish
Ia
Rs
( ) ( )
A
R
U
I I I I
I R R U E I R R E U
sh
sh a
a S a b a S a b
100
200
400
102 = = = =
+ = + + =
Hence,
( ) V E
b
388 12 400 100 04 . 0 008 400 = = + =
1.4.5 Condition for maximum power.
The mechanical power developed by the motor is:
a a a m
R I UI P
2
=
Differentiating both sides with respect to I
a
we have:
0 2 = =
a a
a
m
R I U
dI
dP
O =
O = O = = =
200
04 . 0 ; 08 . 0 ; 102 ; 400
sh
S a
R
R R A I V U
55
Then,
2
U
R I
a a
=
As
a a b
R I E U + = and
2
U
R I
a a
=
Then
2 2
U
E
U
E U
b b
= + =
Thus mechanical power developed by a motor is maximum when back emf is
equal to half the applied voltage. This condition is, however, not realised in practice,
because in that case current will be much beyond the normal current of the motor.
Moreover, half the input would be wasted in the form of heat and taking other losses
into consideration (mechanical and magnetic), the motor efficiency will be well below
50 percent.
1.4.6 Torque.
By the term torque is meant the turning or twisting moment of a force about an
axis. It is measured by the product of the force and the radius at which this force acts.
Consider a pulley of radius r meters acted upon by a circumferential force F Newton
which causes it to rotate at n rps.
F
r
Then, torque r F T =
Work done by this force in one revolution = Force x distance = r F 2 *
Power developed in one revolution:
t
r F
t
W
P
2
= = , with
r
T
F = and
n
ond
t
sec 1
=
Then, T T
N
T n
n
r
r
T
P = = =
60
2
2
1
2
With N in rpm and in rad/s
56
We the finally deduce that:
The torque is expressed in Newton metre (N.m)
1.4.7 Power flow and efficiency.
DC motors, like DC generators, experience three main types of losses which
influence the power flow. These losses are:
Mechanical losses (friction and windage losses);
Copper losses;
Iron losses (Eddy current losses)
The power flow chart of a DC motor can be drawn as follows:
Pin
Pj
Pm
Po
Pc
Figure 1.33: Power flow chart of a DC motor.
a) Powers
Where:
U = Terminal voltage (V);
I = line current (A);
Pin = Input power (W).
Where:
Eb = Back emf (V);
N
P
T
2
60
=
UI Pin =
m a b m
T n I E P = = 2
57
Ia = armature current (A);
n = motor speed in rps
Tm = armature torque, also called total torque or gross torque (N.m)
Pm = Mechanical power developed in the armature (W).
Also:
With Pj = Total copper losses.
Where:
Pc = Iron and mechanical losses;
BHP = Brake horse power; 1BHP = 746W (British)
Po = Motor output power (W);
T = Shaft torque.
The torque which is available for doing the useful work is known as shaft torque T. It
is so called because it is available at the shaft. The horsepower obtained by using
the shaft torque is called Brake Horse Power (BHP) because it is the horse power
available at the brake.
The difference T T
m
is known as lost torque. The lost torque is absorbed by the
mechanical losses:
Where T
L
is the loss torque in (N.m).
j in m
P P P =
5 . 735 2 = = = BHP P P T n Po
c m
n
P H B
T
T n
P H B
2
. . 5 . 735
5 . 735
2
. .
=
n
P
T T n P
c
L L c
2
2 = =
58
b) Efficiencies
Mechanical efficiency:
Electrical efficiency:
Overall efficiency:
Remark: Calculation of armature torque
A
p Z
I T
Finally
I
A
p
Zn nT
I
A
p ZN
nT
I E nT P
a m
a m
a m
a b m m
-
-
=
=
=
= =
,
2
2
2
60
2
2
Exercise 1.19:
A 4 pole DC shunt motor has a lap connected armature with 60 slots, each slot
containing 20 conductors. The useful flux per pole is 23 mWb and the armature
current is 50A. Calculate the torque developed in the armature.
A I mWb
Z
p A Lap
p p
a
50 ; 23
1200 20 60
4 2
2 4 2
= =
= =
= =
= =
m
o
m
P
P
=
in
m
e
P
P
=
e m
in
o
P
P
= =
59
Ra
Eb
U
Rsh
Ish
I
Ia
m N T
A
p Z
I T
m
a m
. 220 7452 . 219
4 14 . 3
2 1200
50 10 23
3
~ =
=
-
-
=
Exercise 1.20:
In a brake test on a DC motor, the following information was recorded:
Tachometer reading:1000rpm;
Electrodynamometer reading:50N.m;
Voltmeter reading: 220V
Ammeter reading (line current): 27.27A.
Determine for the motor the following:
a) The output power;
b) The efficiency.
a) Output power:
W P
P
T
N
T n P
o
o
o
33 . 5233
60
50 1000 14 . 3 2
60
2
2
=

=
= =

b) Efficiency:
% 23 . 87 8723 . 0
27 . 27 220
33 . 5233
= =
= = = pu
UI
P
P
P
o
in
o

60
Exercise 1.21:
A no load test on a DC shunt motor produces the following results:
Supply voltage: 400V;
Line current:6.83A;
Speed: 12.5rps.
The armature and field resistances are 0.8 and 120 respectively. Calculate the
motor efficiency and speed when the armature current is 30A.
A I
R
R
rps n
A I
V U
a
sh
a
30
120
8 . 0
5 . 12
83 . 6
400
0
0
=
O =
O =
=
=
=
Ra
Eb
U
Rsh
Ish
I
Ia
1. Motor efficiency
By definition, the efficiency is found as follows:
in
P
P
0
=
P
o
and P
in
being respectively the input and the output power of the motor.
( )
W P
W
R
U
I U
I I U
UI P
in
sh
a
sh a
in
33 . 13333
33 . 13333
120
400
30 400
=
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+ =
=
61
L in o
P P P = , P
L
being the total loss of the machine. Let us calculate P
L
.
Constant losses ( iron and mechanical losses)
The armature input at no load is equal to the constant losses.
A
R
U
I I I I
sh
o sh o ao
5 . 3
120
400
83 . 6 = = = =
Where I
o
and I
ao
are respectively the line current and the armature current of the
motor at no load.
Hence the constant losses can be deduced.
W UI P
ao c
1400 5 . 3 400 = = =
Copper losses
Shunt copper losses:
W I R P
sh sh Jsh
66 . 1330 33 . 3 120
2 2
= = =
Armature copper losses
W I R P
a a Ja
720 30 8 . 0
2 2
= = =
Total copper losses
W P P P
Ja Jsh J
66 . 2050 720 66 . 1330 = + = + =
The total loss can therefore be deduced:
W P P P
J C L
66 . 3450 66 . 2050 1400 = + = + =
The output power is then:
W P P P
L in o
67 . 9882 66 . 3450 33 . 13333 = = =
We can therefore deduce the efficiency
% 11 . 74 7411 . 0
33 . 13333
66 . 9882
= = = = pu
P
P
in
o
2. Speed when the armature current is 30A.

For shunt motor, the back emf is proportional to the speed:
N N K
A
P ZN
E
= = =
2
60
, being a constant, since the flux is constant for a
shunt motor.
Back emf at no load:
V I R U E
ao a
2 . 397 5 . 3 8 . 0 400
0
= = =
Back emf at 30A:
V I R U E
a a
376 30 8 . 0 400
1
= = =
62
Then, due to the proportionality relationship between speed and back emf for shunt
motor, we can write:
rps
E
n E
n
n
n
E
E
75 . 11
0
0 1
1
1
0
1
0
=
= =
As the armature current increases, the speed decreases (due to the decreasing of
the back emf).
Exercise 1.22:
A 500V, 50b.h.p. (37.3kW), 1000rpm DC shunt motor has on full load an efficiency of
90 percent. The armature circuit resistance is 0.24 and there is total voltage drop of
2V at the brushes. The field current is 1.8A. Determine:
a) Full load current;
b) Full load shaft torque in N.m;
c) Total resistance in the motor starter to limit the starting current to 1.5
times the full load current.
Ra
Eb
U
Rsh
Ish
I
Ia
A I
V U R rpm N V U
BHP kW P
sh
drop a
8 . 1
; 2 ; 24 . 0 %; 90 ; 1000 ; 500
; 50 3 . 37
0
=
= O = = = =
= =
a) Full load current.

Let us first determine the motor input:
W
P
P
o
in
41444
9 . 0
37300
= = =
Then the full load current can be deduced:

63
A
U
P
I
in
9 . 82
500
41444
= = =
b) Full load shaft torque
m N
N
P
T T
N
P
o
o
. 356
1000 14 . 3 2
37300 60
2
60
60
2
=

=
= =
c) Starter resistance.
The starting line current is 1.5I, that is:
A I
st
3 . 124 9 . 82 5 . 1 = =
Then the armature current at starting is:
A I I I
sh st ast
5 . 122 8 . 1 3 . 124 = = =
At starting, the back emf is equal to zero (because no speed), then we have:
( )
drop a st ast
U R R I U + + =
R
st
being the starter resistance in series with the armature. We deduce:
O =
=
825 . 3
24 . 0
5 . 122
2 500
st
a
ast
drop
st
R
R
I
U U
R
Exercise 1.23:
A 4 pole, 220V shunt motor has 340 lap-wound conductors. It takes 32A from the
supply mains and develops 7.5h.p. (5.595kW).The field winding takes 1A. The
armature resistance is 0.09 and the flux per pole is 30mWb. Calculate: (i) The
speed and (ii) the torque developed in N.m.
i) Determination of the speed:
Data: O = = = = = = = 09 . 0 ; 30 ; 1 , 595 . 5 ; 32 ; 340 ; 4 2
a sh o
R mWb A I kW P A I Z P
A
P ZN
E
b
2
60
=

, lap winding
60
2
ZN
E A P
b
= =
Hence,
Z
E
N
b
=
60
But ( ) ( ) V I I R U I R U E
sh a a a b
2 . 217 1 32 09 . 0 220 = = = =
Then we have:
64
rps rpm
Z
E
N
b
4 . 13 4 . 804
03 . 0 540
2 . 217 60 60
= =
ii) Torque developed in rpm:

m N
n
P
T T n P
o
o
. 5 . 66
4 . 13 2
5595
2
2 =
= = =

Exercise 1.24:
A DC series motor takes 40A at 220V and runs at 800rpm. If the armature and series
field resistances are 0.2 and 0.1 respectively and the iron and friction losses are
0.5kW, find the torque developed in the armature. What will be the output of the
motor?
Ra
Eb
Rs I= Ia =If
U
Data: kW P R R rpm N V U A I I
c s a a
5 . 0 ; 1 . 0 ; 2 . 0 ; 800 ; 220 ; 40 = O = O = = = = =
i) Determination of the armature torque (or gross torque):
n
EI
n
P
T T n P
a m
a a m

2 2
2 = = =
But,
( ) ( )
rps n
V R R I U E
S a a b
3
40
60
800
208 1 . 0 2 . 0 40 220
= =
= + = + =
Then,
( )
m N T
a
. 3 . 99
3 / 40 2
40 208
=
ii) Motor output:

loss in o
P P P =
Armature and series field joule losses.
( ) ( ) W R R I P
S a J
480 3 . 0 40
2 2
= = + =
65
Iron and friction losses:
W P
C
500 =
Then the total loss can be deduced:
W P P P
C J loss
980 500 480 = + = + =
Motor input:
W UI P
in
8800 40 220 = = =
Finally, the motor power input.
W P P P
loss in o
7820 980 8800 = = =
Exercise 1.25:
A 4 pole, 240V, Wave connected shunt motor gives 11.19kW when running at
1000rpm and drawing armature and field currents of 50A and 1A respectively. It has
540 conductors. Its resistance armature is 0.1 . Assuming a drop of 1V per brush,
find: (i) total toque (ii) useful toque (iii) useful flux per pole (iv) rotational losses (v)
efficiency.
Data:
. 2 1 ; 1 . 0
; 540 ; 1 ; 50 ; 1000 ; 19 . 11 ; 240 ; 4 2
= O =
= = = = = = =
V U R
Z A I A I rpm N kW P V U P
drop a
sh a o
i) Total torque (armature or gross torque):
n
I E
n
P
T
a b m
a
2 2
= =
But V U I R U E
drop a a a
233 2 1 . 0 50 240 = = =
Then,
( )
m N T
a
. 111
3 / 50 14 . 3 2
50 233
=

=
ii) Useful torque (or shaft torque):
( )
m N
n
P
T
o
u
. 9 . 106
3 / 50 14 . 3 2
11190
2
=

= =
iii) Useful flux per pole.

2 2
2
= =
Zn
E
p Zn
A E
A
p
Zn E
b b
b
, because A = 2 (wave winding)
( )
mWb 9 . 12
2 3 / 50 540
233
=

=
66
iv) Rotational losses
Let us consider the power flow chart of a DC motor:
Pin
Pj
Pm
Po
Pc
According to the chart,
( )
drop o J in C
P P P P P + + =
Armature copper losses:
W I R P
a a Ja
250 50 1 . 0
2 2
= = =
Shunt copper losses
W UI P
sh Jsh
240 1 240 = = =
Brush contact loss
W I U P
drop drop
100 50 2 = = =
Motor input
( ) ( ) W I I U P
sh in
12240 1 50 240 = + = + =
Motor output
W kW P
o
11190 19 . 11 = =
Then we can deduce the rotational losses
W P
c
460 11190 100 240 250 12240 = =
v) Efficiency.
% 42 . 91 9142 . 0
12240
11190
= = = = pu
P
P
in
o
1.4.8 Speed control:

Speed control means intentional change of the drive speed to a value required for
performing a specific work process. The concept of speed control or adjustment
should not be taken to include the natural change in speed which occurs due to
change in load on the drive shaft. Speed can be controlled manually or by some
automatic control device.
67
Speed control by mechanicals:
Speed can be adjusted mechanically by means of:
- Stepped pulleys;
- Set of change gears;
- Variable speed friction clutch mechanism
Electrical speed control:
b b
b
E E
pZ
A
N
A
p ZN
E
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
2
60
2
60
But ( )
a a b
I R R U E + =
Hence,
The above expression reveals that the speed can be controlled by adjusting any one
of the three factors appearing on the right hand side of the expression:
i) The line voltage U;
ii) The external resistance in the armature circuit R;
iii) The flux per pole
1.4.9 Speed regulation:
The speed regulation is defined as the change in speed when the load on the
motor is reduced from rated value to zero, expressed as percent of the rated load
speed. Speed regulation and speed control should not be confounded.
Where
N.L.speed = No load speed and
F.L.speed = Full load speed.
( )
a a
I R R U
N
+
=
100
. .
. . . .
%
=
speed L F
speed L F speed L N
ation Speedregul
68
1.4.10 DC motor characteristics:
The performance and, therefore, suitability of a DC motor is determined from
its characteristics known as performance characteristics. The important
characteristics of a DC motor are:
i) Torque-Armature current characteristic: ( )
a m
I f T =
This characteristic curve gives the relation between the torque developed in the
armature and the armature current. It is also known as electrical characteristic.
ii) Speed-Armature current characteristic: ( )
a
I f N =
This characteristic curve gives the relation between the speed N and the armature
current I
a
. This is also known as speed characteristics.
iii) Speed-Torque characteristics: ( )
m
T f N =
This characteristic curve gives the relation between the speed N and the armature
torque Tm. This is also known as mechanical characteristics.
1.4.10.1 Characteristics of DC series motors:
a) Magnetic characteristic:
0
Flux
Ia
Knee
Saturation
Figure 1.34: Saturation curve of a DC series motor.
The flux varies with the variation in the armature current as the field winding
is in series with the armature. The flux first increases following a linear law with the
increasing of armature current. At the knee, the variation stops being linear. It is the
beginning of the saturation. Finally, the flux remains almost constant as the armature
current is increasing.
69
b) Speed-Armature current characteristic.
It is shown that:
N N
A
p Z
A
p ZN
E
= |
.
|
\
| -
= =
60
2 2
60
, where is a constant.
For DC series motor, we have:
a a
a a
a a b a a b
I R U
N
I R U N
I R U E I R E U
=
=
= + =
The armature resistance, added to the series field resistance causes an
important voltage drop. On the other hand, the flux being directly proportional to
armature current makes that the speed is roughly inversely proportional to the
armature current. That is the speed decreases with the increasing of the armature
current. The speed characteristic of DC series motor is as follows:
N
Ia
0
Figure 1.35: Speed characteristic of a DC series motor.
If the load falls to a very small value (the current is too small). The speed may
become dangerously high. That is why a DC series motor should never be started on
no-load.
c) Torque-Armature current characteristic.
We have shown that:
a a m m a b m
I k
A
P Z
I T T n I E P . . . 2
=
-
-
= = =
70
In series motor, the flux is proportional to the armature current up to full load (before
saturation). Hence,
( ) ( )
2
2 2
. . .
a m
a a a a m
I T
I I k k I I k k T

= = =

Therefore, on light load (before saturation), mechanical torque Tm is proportional to
the square of the armature current and hence the curve drawn between torque and
armature current is a parabola as shown in the figure below. After saturation point,
the flux is almost independent of excitation current and so, the torque is directly
proportional to the armature current. Hence the characteristic become a straight line.
Ia
Tm
0
Bef ore
s at urat ion:
Parabola.
Sat urat i on:
St rai ght
l i ne.
Figure 1.36: Electrical characteristic of DC series motor.
d) Speed-Torque characteristic.
m
a
m a
T
I E
n T n I E
2
.
2 . = =
From this relationship, we deduce that speed is inversely proportional to the torque.
At low torque, speed is very high and at high torque, speed is very low.
71
n
Tm
0
Figure 1.37: Mechanical characteristic of DC series motor.
1.4.10.2 Characteristics of DC shunt motors:
a) Speed-Armature current characteristic.
k
I R U
N
a a
=
For shunt motor, the flux is not affected by the armature current and the value of the
armature drop R
a
I
a
is too small (usually bellow 5% of U). So, the speed does not drop
too much with the increasing of the armature current.
0
N
Ia
Figure 1.38: Speed characteristic of DC shunt motor.
b) Torque-Armature current characteristic:
a a m
I k
A
p Z
I T . . .
=
-
-
=
The flux being almost constant for a shunt motor, we deduce that torque is directly
proportional to armature current.
72
0
Ia
Tm
Figure 1.39: Electrical characteristic of Shunt motor.
c) Speed-Torque characteristic.
The torque being proportional to the armature current, we deduce the speed-
torque characteristic will have the same aspect with the speed-armature current
characteristic.
0
n
Tm
Figure 1.40: Mechanical characteristic of DC shunt motor.
1.4.10.3 Characteristics of compound DC motors:
Since the compound motor has a combination of shunt and series excitations, its
characteristics are intermediate between those of shunt and series motors. We
distinguish to main types of DC compound motors: differential or subtractive
compound motors and cumulative or additive compound motors.
73
a) Differential or subtractive compound:
In differential compound DC motors, the series field winding is connected in
such a way that the series field opposes the shunt field. Since the flux decreases with
the increase in load so the speed remains nearly constant as the load is increased
and in some cases, the speed will increase even. The characteristics of differential
compound DC motors are similar to those of shunt motor. Since the shunt motor
develops a good torque and almost constant speed, therefore, differential motor is
seldom used.
b) Cumulative or additive compound DC motors:
In these types of motors, the series field is made to assist the shunt field. These
machines are used to drive heavy machine tools like punches, elevators,
conveyors
The characteristics of compound motors are intermediate between those of series
motors and those of shunt motors.
N
Ia
0
Shunt motor
Compond motor
Series motor
Figure 1.41: Speed characteristic of DC cumulative compound motor.
Compound motor
Series motor
Shunt motor
0
T
Ia
Figure 1.42: Electrical characteristic of DC cumulative compound motor.
74
Exercise 1.26:
A series motor runs at 600rpm when taking 110A from a 230V supply. The resistance
of the armature circuit is 0.12 and that of the series winding is 0.03 . Calculate the
speed when the current has fallen to 50A, assuming the useful flux per pole for 110A
to be 0.024Wb and that for 50A to be 0.0155Wb.
Data:
. 0155 . 0 ; 024 . 0 ; 03 . 0 ; 12 . 0 ; 230 ; 600
0 1 1
Wb Wb Rs Ra V U rpm N = = O = O = = =
What should be noticed here is that for series motor, speed is no more proportional to
the emf as it was the case for shunt motor.
Ra
Eb
Rs I= Ia =If
U
Let us first determine the emf when for the two values of the armature current:
( ) ( )
a a s b a s a b
I R R U E I R R E U + = + + =
For I
a
= 110A
( ) V E
b
5 . 213 110 03 . 0 12 . 0 230
1
= + =
For I
a
= 50A
( ) V E
b
5 . 222 50 03 . 0 12 . 0 230
0
= + =
It is known that,
N
E
k kN N
A
p Z
A
p ZN
E
b
b
= = |
.
|
\
|
= =
60
2 2
60
K is a constant, it means that it does not change when the flux or the current
changes, provided that we are in the linear zone of the magnetization curve of the
motor; hence:
82 . 14
024 . 0 600
5 . 213
1 1
1
=
= =
N
E
k
b
Then, for with I
a
= 50A, the constant k does not change and we have:
75
rpm
k
E
N kN E
b
b
969
0155 . 0 82 . 14
5 . 222
0
0
0 0 0 0
=
= = =
1.4.11 Starting and breaking methods of DC motor:

1.4.11.1 Starting methods:
The following methods of starting DC motors are in use:
Direct on line starting (DOL starting);
Resistance starting;
Reduced voltage starting.
a) DOL starting:
This method is also called full voltage starting. In this method, the motor is directly
connected to the supply, and we have:
a
a
R
E U
I

=
Because the armature resistance Ra is very low, usually less than 1 , the current will
be excessively high at starting. This current can blow fuse and damage the motor.
Therefore a DC motor must never be started on line. A starting resistor must always
be inserted in series with the armature in order to reduce the starting current.
Remark: Calculation of the starting resistance R
st
.
Let us consider a shunt motor where we have inserted in series with the armature a
starting resistor.
E
Ra
Rsh
U
I sh
I
Rst
Rst is the starting resistance. Let us denote the armature current at start as I
ast
.
At start, the speed is equal to zero, so the emf is also equal to zero, therefore, we
have:
76
Exercise 1.27:
The starter of a Peugeot 504 (a series motor) takes 200A under a voltage of 12 V.
Under these conditions, it runs at 1000rpm and delivers a useful power of 1500W.
The constant losses are estimated at 100W. Calculate: a) The power absorbed by
the starter. b) Its efficiency. c) Its useful torque. d) The joule losses. e) The total
resistance (armature + field windings). f) The back emf of the motor. g) Determine the
direct starting current. h) What is the value of the resistance to be connected in series
with the motor to limit the starting current to 240A?
The stator of the Peugeot 504 is a series motor having the following characteristics:
I = 200A; U = 12V; N = 1000rpm; Pu = 1500W; Pc= 100W.
Ra
Eb
Rs
U
a) Power absorbed by the starter.
W UI P 2400 200 12 = = =
b) Efficiency.
% 5 . 62
2400
1500
= = =
P
Pu
c) Useful torque.
m N
N
Pu
T T
N
nT Pu . 33 . 14
1000 14 . 3 2
1500 60
2
60
60
2
2 =

= = = =
d) Joule losses.
Let us first draw the power stages chart.
( )
Ra
Iast
U
Rst
Rst Ra
I
U
Rst Ra I U E
ast
ast
=
+ =
+ = = 0
77
Pin
Pj
Pm
Pc
Po = Pu
From the chart, we have:
( ) ( ) W Po Pc Pin Pm Pin Pj 800 100 1500 2400 = + = + = =
e) Total resistance (armature + field)
O = = = + + = 02 . 0
200
800
) (
2 2
2
I
Pj
Ra Rs I Rs Ra Pj
f) Bock emf.
( ) ( ) V I Rs Ra U E I Ra Rs E U
b b
8 200 02 . 0 12 = = + = + + =
g) Direct starting current.
At starting, Eb = 0, hence,
( )
A
Rs Ra
U
I
st
600
02 . 0
12
= =
+
=
h) Value of the resistance to be connected in series with the motor to limit the
starting current to 240A.
Eb
Ra
Rst Rs
U
With Eb = 0 at starting, we have:
( )
( ) O = = + =
+ +

= 03 . 0 02 . 0
240
12 0
Rs Ra
I
U
Rst
Rst Rs Ra
U
I
st
st
.
Exercise 1.28
A 30kW, 400V shunt motor has an armature resistance of 0.15 . The efficiency of
the motor is 79%. Calculate the value of a series resistor which will limit the starting
current to 1.5 of its full load value. Calculate the current the motor will take if started
on line.
78
Other starting methods for DC motors are the following:
b) Resistance starting:
As studied above, the starting current will be reduced if a rheostat is inserted in
series with the armature. That is resistance starting.
c) Reduced voltage starting:
In high power motors, the starting rheostat becomes bulky and significant losses in
energy take place in them. In such case, special systems like reduced voltage
method of starting are used.
This method consists in varying the voltage delivered in the motor in starting from
some lower limit to the rated voltage. The Ward-Leonard System is one of the most
used reduced voltage starting system.
1.4.11.2 Breaking methods:
There are two main breaking methods of DC motors:
Mechanical of frictional method;
Electric breaking.
a) Frictional breaking.
This method is common but it has one inconvenient in that it is difficult to achieve
smooth stop.
b) Electric breaking.
We have three main electrical method of breaking:
Rheostatic or dynamic method of breaking;
Plugging of motors;
Regenerative breaking.
Exercise 1.29: (Probatoire 2012).
A series excited DC motor is perfectly compensated at the rated working
temperature. The resistance of the field winding is r = 0.03 and the resistance of the
armature is R = 0.082O. The flux is proportional to the armature current. For the full
load: The supply voltage U = 720V; the armature current I = 340A; the speed of
revolution n = 1150rpm; the useful torque Tu = 1800Nm. Calculate:
1. The useful power and efficiency;
79
2. The total joule losses;
3. The back electromotive force and the electromagnetic torque;
4. At starting, the motor is supplied under reduced voltage; the starting current is
600A. Determine the supply voltage at starting.
5. The machine is run at a high speed by reducing by half the rated field flux by
shunting the shunt winding; the rated supply voltage remaining unchanged, the
rotative speed moves to 2300rpm.
a) Draw the corresponding diagram;
b) Calculate the armature current.
Data:
. 1800 ; 1150 ; 340 ; 720 ; 082 . 0 ; 03 . 0 Nm Tu rpm n A I V U R r = = = = O = O =
R
Eb
U
I r
1. The useful torque:
kW W T
n
P
u u
66 . 216 216660 1800
60
1150 14 . 3 2
60
2
= =

= =

We can then deduce the motor efficiency:
% 5 . 88 885 . 0
244800
216660
340 720
216660
= = =
= = = pu
UI
P
P
P
u
a
u
2. The total Joule losses.

( )
( ) kW W P
I R r P
J
J
95 . 12 2 . 12947 340 082 . 0 03 . 0
2
2
~ = + =
+ =
3. Back emf and electromagnetic torque:
( )
( ) V E
I R r U E
b
b
92 . 681 340 082 . 0 03 . 0 720 = + =
+ =
80
The electromagnetic torque can therefore be deduced:
Nm T
n
I E
T T
n
I E
m
b
m m b
24 . 1925
1150 2
340 92 . 681 60
2
60
60
2
=
= =
4. Supply voltage at starting:

At starting, the emf is equal to zero, since the speed is also equal to zero, hence:
( ) ( ) V I R r U
S S
2 . 67 600 082 . 0 02 . 0 = + = + =
5. The machine is run at high speed by reducing by reducing by
half the rated flux.
a) The corresponding diagram:
R
Eb
U
r
I
Rsh
b) The armature current I
2
:
2 2 1 1
;

= =
=
I I
I
kn E
b
But,
1 2
2
1
=
A
I
I
I
I
I I
170
2
340
2
2
2
1
2
1
;
1
2
1
1
2
1
1 2 1 1
= = =
= =
= =

Exercise 1.30:
A 460V series motor runs at 500rpm taking a current of 40A. Calculate the speed and
percentage change in torque if the load is reduced so that the motor is taking 30A.
Total resistance of the armature and field circuits is 0.8 . Assume flux is proportional
to the field current.
81
We have shown that:
a a m m a b m
I k
A
P Z
I T T n I E P . . . 2
=
-
-
= = =
In series motor, the flux is proportional to the armature current up to full load (before
saturation). Hence,
( ) ( )
2
2 2
. . .
a m
a a a a m
I T
I I k k I I k k T

= = =

And
a
I
Then,
2
2
2
1
30
40
T
T
1 2
1
2
16
9
16
9
1600
900
T T
T
T
= = =
Percentage in torque is:
% 75 . 43 100
16
7
100
16
9
100
1
1 1
1
2 1
= =
T
T T
T
T T
Now
( )
( ) V E
V E
b
b
436 8 . 0 30 460
428 8 . 0 40 460
2
1
= =
= =
But, we know that
a
I
k
E
n kn E

=
= =
Then,
( ) ( )
a a a
I
E
I k
E
I k
E
n

= = =
So,
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
a
a
b
b
a
b
a
b
I
I
E
E
I
E
I
E
n
n
- = =
Then, rpm n
n
679
30
40
428
436
500
2
2
= - =
82
Exercise 1.31:
The input to a 220V, DC shunt motor is 11kW. Calculate (a) the output power (b) the
efficiency (c) the speed at this load (d) the torque developed. The particulars of the
motor are as follows: No load current = 5A; No load speed = 1150rpm; Armature
resistance = 0.5 ; Shunt field resistance = 110 .
Ra
Eb
U
Rsh
Ish
I
Ia
a) Output power:
No load input: . 1100 5 220
0 0
W UI P = = =
A I I I
A
R
U
I
sh a
sh
sh
3 2 5
2
0 0
= = =
= =
No load armature Joule loss: W R I P
a a J
5 . 4 5 . 0 3
2 2
0 0
= = =
Then, constant losses are: W P P P
J c
5 . 1095 5 . 4 1100
0 0
= = =
Now, when input is 11kW:
Input current: A
U
P
I
in
50
220
11000
= = =
Armature current: A I I I
sh a
48 2 50 = = =
Armature Joule loss: W R I P
a a Ja
1152 5 . 0 48
2 2
= = =
Total losses: W P P P
C Ja loss
5 . 2247 5 . 1095 1152 = + = + =
Finally, the output power:
W P P P
loss in out
5 . 8752 5 . 2247 11000 = = =
b) Efficiency:
% 56 . 79 7956 . 0
11000
5 . 8752
= = = = pu
P
P
in
out

83
c) Speed at this load:
Back emf at no load: ( ) V R I U E
a a b
5 . 218 5 . 0 3 220
0 0
= - = =
Back emf at given load: ( ) V R I U E
a a b
196 5 . 0 48 220
1 1
= - = =
But we know that for shunt motor,
n kn E = = , (because the flux is constant.)
Then, rpm
E
E
n n
n
n
E
E
57 . 1031
5 . 218
196
1150
0
1
0 1
0
1
0
1
= = = =
d) Torque developed:
n
I E
T T
n
I E
a a
m m a a
2
60
60
2
= =
Nm T
m
1 . 87
57 . 1031 2
48 196 60
=
Exercise 1.32:
A 220V, series motor in which the total armature and field resistance is 0.1 is
working with unsaturated field, taking 100A and running at 800rpm. Calculate at what
speed the motor will run when developing half the torque.
In the exercise 1.30 above, we have shown that, for series motor:
2
1
1
2
1
2
a
a
b
b
I
I
E
E
n
n
=
Since the field is unsaturated,
2
a
I T .
Then,
2
2 2
2
1 1
a
a
I T
I T
Or,
2
1
2
1
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
a
a
I
I
T
T
When developing half torque,
2
1
2
1 2
2
1
2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
a
a
I
I
T T
Then, A I I
a a
71 . 70
2
100
2
1
1 2
= = = .
On the other hand,
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) V I R R U E
V I R R U E
a S a b
a S a b
9 . 212 1 . 0 71 . 70 220
210 1 . 0 100 220
2 2
1 1
= = + =
= = + =
84
We can then deduce the speed.
rpm
I
I
E
E
n n
a
a
b
b
1147
7 . 70
100
210
9 . 212
800
2
1
1
2
1 2
= - = - =
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Exercise 1: Separately excited DC generator (GCE A Level, 2010)
The external characteristic of a separately excited generator, at rated speed is as
follows.
I(A) 0 20 40 60 80 100
U(V) 140 137 133 128 122 115
1. Plot the characteristic curve U = f(I). Scale: . 10 1 ; 10 1 V cm A cm =
2. This generator supplies a resistor R = 2.5O. Find the coordinates of the operating
point.
3. The resistor is replaced by a storage battery of internal resistance r = 0.4 and an
emf E=100V. Find the coordinates of the operating point.
Exercise 2: Shunt motor (Probatoire F3, 2007)
A perfectly compensated bipolar DC shunt motor has the following rated
characteristics:
Supply voltage of the armature: U = 120V;
Armature current: I = 100A;
Field current I = 2.3A;
Speed: N = 1500rpm;
Armature resistance: R = 0.05
The motor is operating under constant voltage of 120V. The constant losses are
Pc = 785W.
1. Calculate the back emf of the motor.
2. Compute:
a) The useful power of the motor;
85
b) The useful torque of the motor;
c) The efficiency of the motor.
3. Find the value of the starting rheostat in order to limit the starting current at 2Ir.
(Ir being the rated current of the motor)
Exercise 3: Shunt motor (GCE A Level, 2011).
A shunt excited DC motor has an armature resistance of 0.1 and a field
resistance of 120 . For a supply voltage V = 240V, the flux is proportional to the
excitation current. This motor takes a current of 150A under normal operation and
rotates at 1200rpm.
1. Calculate the armature and the field current then deduce the back emf of the
motor.
2. Constant losses are 2/3 of Joule losses. Calculate the useful power and the
efficiency of the motor and deduce the useful torque.
3. A field rheostat is added to the field circuit of the motor:
a) Draw the electric circuit of this motor.
b) Give the expression of the rotational speed (n) in function of the field current
(i).
c) Express the rotational speed (n) in function of the resistance (x) of the
rheostat.
d) Graphically represent the variations of the speed (n) in function of the rheostat
resistance x. n = f(x).
Exercise 4:
Explain clearly the effect of the back emf of a shunt motor. What precautions must be
taken when starting a shunt motor?
A four pole dc motor is connected to a 500V dc supply and takes an armature current
of 80A. The resistance of the armature circuit 0.4 . The armature is wave wound
with 522 conductors and the useful flux per pole is 0.025 Wb. Calculate: (a) the back
emf of the motor; (b) the speed of the motor; (c) the torque developed by the
armature.
86
Exercise 5:
A dc motor takes an armature current of 110A at 480V. The resistance of the
armature circuit is 0.2 . The machine has 6 poles and the armature is lap connected
with 864 conductors. The flux per pole is 0.05Wb. Calculate (a) the speed and (b) the
gross torque developed by the armature.
Exercise 6:
A six pole dc motor has a wave connected armature with 87 slots, each containing 6
conductors. The flux per pole is 20mWb and the armature has a resistance of 0.13 .
Calculate the speed when the motor is running off a 240V supply and taking an
armature current of 80 A. Calculate also the torque developed by the armature.
Exercise 7:
Explain the necessity for using a starter with a dc motor.
A 240V dc shunt motor has an armature of resistance of 0.2 . Calculate: (a) the
value of resistance which most be introduced into the armature circuit to limit the
starting current to 40A; (b) the emf generated when the motor is running at a constant
speed with this additional resistance in circuit and with an armature current of 30A.
Exercise 8:
Calculate the torque developed by a dc motor having an armature resistance 0.25
and running at 750rev/min when taking an armature current of 60A from a 480V
supply.
Exercise 9:
A six pole, lap wound, 220V, shunt excited dc machine takes an armature current of
2.5A when unloaded at 950rev/min. When loaded, it takes an armature current of
54A from the supply and runs at 950rev/min. The resistance of the armature circuit is
0.18 and there are 1044 armature conductors.
For the loaded condition, calculate: (a) the generated emf; (b) the useful flux per pole;
(c) the useful torque developed by the machine.
87
Exercise 10:
State Flemings left hand rule and explain how you would use it to determine the
direction of a current induced in a conductor.
Briefly describe and state the functions of each of the following: (a) armature; (b)
commutator; (c) brushes; (d) interpoles.
A series motor taking 120A is adjusted so that its field current is reduced to 90A. If
the resistance of the field is 0.05 , calculate the value of the resistance to be
connected in parallel with the field. Also calculate the value of the power being
wasted in the additional resistance.
Exercise 11:
A motor name plate shows the following rating: 10hp, 230V, 1350rpm, 37.5A, shunt.
When the field current is 0.75A and the armature resistance is 0.38 , calculate the
following:
a) The full-load efficiency
b) The terminal torque at rated load
c) The internal torque and speed developed when the line current is 18A and
the field current remains at 0.75A.
Exercise 12:
A 400V shunt connected dc motor has a full load output of 20kW at an efficiency of
85%. The shunt field resistance is 200 and the armature resistance is 0.15 .
Calculate for this load:
a) The input current
b) The armature current
c) The back emf
d) The total copper losses
e) The rotational losses.
88
Exercise 13:
A perfectly compensated shunt motor is supplying an effective mechanical power of
15kW from a voltage 240V supply. The total joule losses represent 9% of the total
power absorbed. The excitation current is 3.125A. The motor efficiency is 0.8.
Calculate:
a) The total power absorbed
b) The joule losses in the stator
c) The joule losses in the armature
d) The current in the armature
Exercise 14:
A separately excited dc motor has the following characteristics.
Supply voltage U = 250V
Armature current I
a
= 50A
Excitation current J = 1.5A
Armature resistance Ra = 0.3
A no load test as a generator gave the following results:
U
o
= 308V for I = 1.5A and N = 1200rpm
A no load test as a motor gave the following results: P
0
= 1200W and V = 250V.
In the whole problem, U and I are constant.
1. What is the speed of the motor on no load?
2. Determine the no load torque T
0
.
3. Determine the speed of the motor at normal load and hence deduce the
electromagnetic torque T
e
of the motor.
4. Show that the electromagnetic torque is proportional to the current I.
Exercise 15:
A 4 pole, long shunt, compound dc generator supplies 100A at a terminal voltage of
500V. if armature resistance is 0.02 , series resistance is 0.04 and shunt field
resistance 100 , find the generated emf. Take the drop per brush as 1V.
e) The back emf of the motor
f) The useful torque
g) The constant losses
h) The effective electrical power
89
Exercise 16:
1) Calculate the torque in Nm developed by a 440V dc motor having an armature
resistance of 0.25 and running at 750rpm when taking a current of 60A.
2) A 4 pole lap connected dc motor has 576 armature conductors and draws an
armature current of 10A. Calculate the flux per pole if the torque is 18.3N.m.
3) A shunt motor running on no load takes 5A at 200V. The resistance of the field
and armature are 150 and 0.1 respectively. Determine the output and
efficiency of the motor when the input current is 120A.
4) Calculate the value of a series resistance with the armature of the motor in
question 3 if the starting current must not exceed the full load value.
5) The following information refers to a 4 pole, lap wound dc series motor with
200 armature conductors. Terminal voltage = 400V; Power output = 51kW;
Efficiency = 85%; Speed = 500rpm; Field resistance = 0.06 ; Armature
resistance = 0.08 . Find: (a) the back emf, (b) the power developed in the
armature, (c) the armature torque (d) the shaft torque (e) the useful flux per
pole.
6) The following information was recorded on a brake test in a dc motor.
Diameter of pulley = 0.3m; Net brake load = 350N; Supply voltage = 250V;
Line current = 32A; Speed = 20rps. Calculate (a) the output power (b) the
motor efficiency.
Exercise 17: Technology
1) For a dc motor, assume that:
U = Armature supply voltage
r = Armature resistance
I = Armature current
a) Show that
N
rI U
n

=
b) At no load, deduce that
NKI
U
n = Where K is the constant of the field circuit
and I is the field current.
c) Give the role of the excitation resistance.
d) Explain Why the DC motor turn in high speed when the field flux is cancel.
N = number of armature conductors
= Flux under a pole
N = speed of the armature
90
e) Indicate the two precautions to be taken to avoid the DC motor to turn in high
speed.
f) Explain why the DC series motor turns in high speed at no load
2) For series, shunt and compound dc motor, give the following characteristics:
a) N = f(I
a
) characteristics
b) T
m
= f(I
a
) characteristics
c) N = f (T
m
) characteristics
3) Give 2 suitable applications of dc series motors, justify your answer.
4) Give 2 suitable applications of dc shunt motors, justify your answer.
5) Give 3 starting methods of dc motors.
6) Why is the full voltage starting dangerous for the motor?
7) Give 2 braking method of dc motor.
8) Give the 3 main electric braking methods.
9) Whats the drawback of the friction braking method?
10) Whats the Ward-Leonard system?
Exercise 18:
A DC machine is connected across a 240 volts line. It rotates at 1200rpmand is
generating 230 volts. The armature current is 40A.
a) Is the machine functioning as a generator or as a motor?
b) Determine the resistance of the armature circuit.
c) Determine power loss in the armature circuit resistance and the electromagnetic
power.
d) Determine the electromagnetic torque in N.m.
e) if the load is thrown off, what will the generated voltage and the rpm of the
machine be assuming: (i) no armature reaction (ii) 10% reduction of flux due to
armature reaction at 40A armature current.
Exercise 19:
A DC shunt motor drives an elevator load which requires a constant torque of
300N.m. The motor is connected to a 600V DC supply and the motor rotates at
1500rpm. The armature resistance is 0.5 . a) Determine the armature current. b) If
the shunt field flux is reduced by 10%, determine the armature current and the speed
of the motor.
91
Exercise 20
A DC shunt motor (50 hp, 250V) is connected to a 230V supply and delivers power to
a load drawing an armature current of 200A and running at a speed of 1200rpm.
Ra = 0.2 . a) Determine the value of the generated voltage at this load condition. b)
Determine the value of the load torque. The rotational losses are 500W. c) Determine
the efficiency of the motor if the field circuit resistance is 115 .
Exercise 21: Magnetic circuit, shunt generator.
a) A magnetic flux of 0.4mWb exists in a magnetic circuit of a mean path length
of 0.5m. The cross sectional area of this material is 500mm
2
and its relative
permeability is 750. Calculate the value of magnetomotive force (mmf)
required to produce this flux, knowing that the permeability of free space is
0
=
7
10 4

.
b) An eight pole shunt wound generator has 720 conductors and rotates at 12.5
rev/s. if the useful flux per pole is 0.45W, calculate:
i) The generated emf if the machine is lap wound.
ii) The terminal voltage if the armature resistance is R
a
= 0.35 ( I
sh
= 4.8 A
and the load current is 54A).
Exercise 22: Long shunt compound wound dc generator.
A long shunt compound wound generator running at 16.67r.p.s supplies 11kW
at a terminal voltage of 220V. The resistance of the armature, shunt and series fields
are 0.05 , 110 and 0.06 respectively. The overall efficiency is 81.5%. Find:
a) The total copper loss;
b) The iron and friction loss;
c) The torque exerted by the prime mover;
Exercise 23: Shunt wound generator.
A shunt wound generator running at 16.67r.p.s supplies 10kW at a terminal
voltage of 230V. The resistance of the armature and field coils are 0.12 and 115
respectively. The overall efficiency is 83%. Find:
a) The total copper loss.
92
b) The iron and friction loss;
c) The torque exerted by the driving engine
Exercise 24: Series generator.
The following information refers to a series generator.
Terminal voltage: 220V;
Power output: 10kW;
Efficiency: 80%;
Rated speed: 1000 r.p.m;
Field resistance: 0.06 ;
Armature resistance: 0.04
Find:
a) The emf generated,
b) The driving torque of the prime mover
Exercise 25: Two poles shunt generator.
A 2 poles shunt generator runs at 1500rpm. The useful flux per pole is 9mWb.
Armature resistance is 0.3 and field resistance is 125 . Three resistors (10, 20 and
25 ) are connected in parallel at the terminals of the generator. The voltage at the
terminals of the machine is 220V. Calculate:
a) The field current;
b) The emf;
c) The electrical efficiency;
d) The number of active conductors.
Exercise 26:
A DC shunt machine (23kW, 230V, 1500rpm) has an armature resistance R = 0.1 .
1. The DC machine is connected to 230V supply. It runs at 1500rpm at no load and
1480 rpm at full load armature current. a) Determine the generated voltage at full
load. b) Determine the percentage reduction of flux in the machine due to armature
reaction at full load condition.
93
2. The DC machine now operates as a separately excited generator and the field
current is kept the same as in part 1. I delivers full load at rated voltage. a) Determine
the generated voltage at full load. b) Determine the speed at which the machine is
driven. c) Determine the terminal voltage if the load is thrown off.
Exercise 27:
A DC shunt machine (10kW, 250V, 1200rpm) has Ra = 0.25 . The machine is
connected to a 250V DC supply, draws rated armature current, and rotates at
1200rpm. a) Determine the generated voltage, the electromagnetic power developed,
and the torque developed. b) The mechanical load on the motor shaft is thrown off,
and the motor draws 4A armature current. (i) Determine the rotational loss. (ii)
Determine the speed, assuming 10% change in flux due to armature reaction, for a
change of armature current from rated value to 4A.
References:
1. Edward HUGHES, Electrical Technology, Fifth Edition, English
Language Book Society (ELBS), 1977.
2. T.F. FOFANG, Electrical Principles for Technical Colleges, Volume
three, Technician series, 2006.
3. Martin ANYANGWE, Principles of Electrotechnology for Technical
Schools, Volume2, 2000.
4. Vikas MITTAL, A Presentation On Working Principle Of DC Motors.
Acknowledgements:
1. Many exercises treated in this course are taken from Probatoire Technique past
questions proposed by the Cameroon General Certificate of Education Board
(GCEB).
2. Part of the references used in this course is not specified because the documents
in question were having no mention of their authors.
94
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
NGOUNE Jean-Paul was born at Forek-Dschang,
Republic of Cameroon in 1984. He is a holder of a
Master Degree in electrical engineering, obtained in
2010 in the Doctorate School of the University of Douala
(UFD-PSI). He is also a holder of a DIPET II and a
DIPET I respectively obtained in 2009 and 2007 in the
Advanced Teacher Training College for Technical
Education (ENSET de Douala).
He is currently a permanent teacher of Electrical
Engineering at the Government Technical High School
of Kumbo, North-West region, Cameroon. His domain of
research concerns the improvement of energy
conversion techniques for an efficient generation of
electrical energy from renewable sources (especially
wind and solar energy, small and medium scale
hydropower) and digital designing using FPDs.
NGOUNE Jean-Paul, M.Sc., PLET.
P.O. Box: 102 NSO, Kumbo, Cameroon.
Phone: (+237) 7506 2458.
Email : jngoune@yahoo.fr
Web site: www.scribd.com/jngoune

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Electrical Machines_Jean-Paul NGOUNE

Case 2: Lap winding

1.3.3 Classification of DC machines.

Hence, % 068 . 75 75068 . 0

d) Electrical and mechanical efficiencies

Exercise 1.11: (Probatoire F3 2010)

Exercise 1.14: Shunt generator

So, the emf vs speed characteristics can be sketched as follows.

Electrical Machines_Jean-Paul NGOUNE

2. Speed when the armature current is 30A.

a) Full load current.

Then the full load current can be deduced:

ii) Torque developed in rpm:

ii) Motor output:

iii) Useful flux per pole.

1.4.8 Speed control:

1.4.11 Starting and breaking methods of DC motor:

2. The total Joule losses.

4. Supply voltage at starting:

Electrical Machines_Jean-Paul NGOUNE

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