You are on page 1of 121

TP ON DU KH QUC GIA VIT NAM TRNG CAO NG NGH DU KH

------

------

GIO TRNH

O LNG IN

-Nm 2009-

Gio trnh c bin son bi Trn i Ngha

Li gii thiu:
o lng in l mn hc khng th thiu trong nhiu ngnh hc nh in cng nghip, in t, T ng ha... Mn hc ny gip ngi hc bit cch o c chnh xc gi tr cc i lng in v s dng ng k thut cc thit b o lng. Ngoi ra trong bt k quy trnh iu khin t ng no cng bao gm thit b o lng nhm o c v truyn tn hiu n cc khi tip theo x l v iu khin. Gio trnh ny c bin son nhm p ng nhu cu v ti liu hc tp cho hc vin cng nh thng nht ni dung ging dy mn o lng in ca trng Cao ng Ngh Du Kh. V ni dung, gio trnh c bin son gm 7 chng da theo ti liu ca cc trng ngh trong nc v mt s ti liu nc ngoi. Gio trnh cp n cc vn chnh ca o lng nh sai s, c cu o, nguyn l o cc i lng in, mch o, thit b o... Gio trnh c bin son vi s cng tc ca cc gio vin ging dy mn o Lng in ca trng Cao ng Ngh Du Kh. Tuy c gng nhiu trong vic trnh by ni dung nhng chc rng gio trnh kh trnh khi sai st vy nn chng ti rt mong nhng kin ng gp ca qu ng nghip, cc em hc vin ln ti bn sau cng hon thin hn. Xin chn thnh cm n s gip ca cc bn ng nghip, cc tc gi nhng ti liu m chng ti tham kho cng nh nhng iu kin thun li m Phng o to trng Cao ng Ngh Du Kh dnh cho chng ti gio trnh ny sm ra mt cng bn c.

Thay mt cc ng nghip Trn i Ngha

(Trang trng)

o lng in

Chng 1: GII THIU CHUNG V O LNG


1.1 Khi nim v ngha ca o lng 1.1.1 Khi nim 1.1.2 ngha ca o lng 1.2 Phn loi cc i lng o lng 1.2.1 i lng in 1.2.2 i lng khng in 1.3 Chc nng v c tnh thit b o lng 1.3.1 Chc nng thit b o lng 1.3.2 c tnh thit b o lng 1.4 Phn loi cc phng php o lng 1.5 S tng qut h thng o lng 1.6 S chun ha trong o lng 1.6.1 ngha ca s chun ha 1.6.2 Cc cp chun ha 1.7 Sai s trong o lng 1.7.1 Nguyn nhn gy ra sai s 1.7.2 Phn loi sai s 1.7.3 Cch tnh v biu din sai s

o lng in

(Trang trng)

o lng in

Chng 1: GII THIU CHUNG V O LNG


1.1 Khi nim v ngha ca o lng 1.1.1 Khi nim: o lng l khi nim mang ngha rt rng trong thc t v mi phng cch nhm nm bt c tnh ca i tng u c th c xem l o lng. o lng in l mt phn nh trong khi nim chung , n l mt qu trnh thu nhn, bin i i lng cn o thnh tn hiu in v x l ph hp vi s quan st hoc iu khin. V o lng l khu u tin trong qu trnh iu khin nn kt qu o c chnh xc th iu khin mi chnh xc. Do vy, o lng khng nhng phi nm bt m cn phi ng cc c tnh ca i tng. o lng in c ng dng trong lnh vc iu khin, lnh vc ny mang nhng c trng ring so vi cc lnh vc khc cho nn o lng in cng mang nhng c im ring ca n. c c thng s ca mt i tng ta c th tin hnh o v c trc tip gi tr thng s trn trn thit b o, cch o ny c gi l o trc tip nhng cng c khi ta khng th o trc tip i tng cn o m phi o gin tip thng qua cc thng s trung gian sau dng cng thc hoc biu thc ton hc tnh ra i lng cn tm. 1.1.2 ngha ca o lng: o lng ni chung v o lng in ni ring c mt ngha v cng quan trng trong i sng con ngi. Trc khi khng ch v iu khin bt k i tng no th con ngi cn phi nm bt c y v chnh xc nhng thng s v i tng , v iu ny ch thc hin c nh vo qu trnh o lng. 1.2 Phn loi cc i lng o lng Trong lnh vc o lng in, da vo tnh cht ca i lng o chng ta phn ra lm hai loi c bn l i lng in v i lng khng in. 1.2.1 i lng in: Gm hai loi: i lng in tc ng (active): L nhng i lng mang nng lng in nh in p, dng in, cng sut. Khi o cc i lng ny, bn thn nng lng ca chng s cung cp cho mch o. Do vy ta khng cn cung cp thm nng lng t pha ngoi. Trong trng hp nng lng t i tng cn o qu ln c th gy h hng cho mch o th ta phi gim nh cho ph hp. Ngc li, khi nng lng ny qu nh th cn phi khuych i cho ln trc khi a vo mch o. i lng in th ng (passive): L nhng i lng khng mang nng lng in nh i lng in tr, in dung, in cm, h cm... Khi tin hnh o cc i lng ny chng ta phi cung cp nng lng cho mch o bng cch dng pin hoc ngun in ngoi. Ch trong sut qu trnh o ta phi m bo nng lng cung cp n nh v lin tc. 1.2.2 i lng khng in: Con ngi lun c ham mun khng ch cc i tng xung quanh theo mnh trong khi hu ht cc i tng ny u dng khng in nh nhit , p sut, m, pH, nng , p sut... Vic iu khin c th thc hin n gin bng tay, nhng trong xu hng cng nghip ha nh hin nay th vic iu khin u c lin
3

o lng in

quan n my mc v tn hiu in. Do vy mun iu khin chng, ta phi thc hin vic chuyn i cc i lng t khng in thnh cc i lng in sau mi a vo mch in x l tip. Vic chuyn i ny c thc hin nh vo cc cm bin (sensor) hoc cc b chuyn i (transducer), v nguyn tc c bn phi m bo l phn nh trung thc s thay i ca i lng khng in ti ng vo. 1.3 Chc nng v c tnh thit b o lng 1.3.1 Chc nng thit b o lng: Hu ht cc thit b o u c chc nng ch th kt qu o i lng ang kho st. Ngoi ra, kt qu c th c ghi li trong sut qu trnh o, hoc c dng lm tn hiu iu khin cc i lng khc theo mun (Gim st qu trnh _ Process Measurement). 1.3.2 c tnh thit b o lng: Mi loi thit b o c cc c tnh ring nhm phn bit vi thit b o khc. Mt s c tnh ca thit b o nh: Nguyn l o, cch ch th kt qu, tnh cht mch giao tip ng vo, kh nng x l kt qu... 1.4 Phn loi cc phng php o lng Phng php o lng c hiu l cch thc nhm ly c gi tr ca i lng cn o. Mt cch tng qut c th chia phng php o thnh 2 loi: Phng php o gin tip: Phi thng qua nhng i lng lin quan n i lng cn o. Gi tr ca i lng cn o c tnh bng cng thc lin h vi cc i lng c lin quan. Phng php o trc tip: Khng cn thng qua nhng i lng khc m trc tip o i tng . Chng hn ta dng Volt k v Ampe k o in p ri v dng in chy qua U linh kin in tr, sau s dng cng thc R = I tnh gi tr R, y l cch o gin tip, hoc cng c th dng Ohm k o gi tr R, gi l cch o trc tip. Mt iu cn lu l vic phn bit phng php o trc tip v gin tip ch mang ngha tng i. Tc l, nu xt v kha cnh no th c th xem phng php o ang thc hin l trc tip nhng nu xt v mt khc th c th n khng cn l trc tip na. Chng hn khi dng ng h in t (DMM) o dng in chy qua in tr th vic dng chc nng o dng in ca ng h c xem l cch o trc tip, nhng nu xt k hn v mt cu to ca n: mi i lng in ng vo u c chuyn thnh tn hiu in p trc khi a vo mch o ca ng h th dng in ny r rng c o gin tip thng qua i lng trung gian l in p. 1.5 S tng qut h thng o lng
HIN TH, LU TR, IU KHIN

I LNG CN O

CM BIN

MCH O

o lng in

i lng cn o: L cc thng s, tnh cht ca i tng cn o, chng c th tn ti di dng in hoc khng in. Cm bin: L linh kin, thit b c nhim v chuyn i i lng cn o thnh i lng in trc khi truyn n cc khi x l tip theo. Mch o: Tp hp cc b phn giao tip, khuych i, chuyn i... bin tn hiu in ng vo cho ph hp vi khi hin th, lu tr, iu khin. Hin th, lu tr, iu khin: L phn sau cng trong h thng o lng gip ngi vn hnh quan st v nhn bit gi tr ca i lng ang o, hoc lu tr li x l sau, hoc iu khin t ng cc thit b khc. 1.6 S chun ha trong o lng 1.6.1 ngha ca s chun ha: Mc ch cng vic o lng nhm ly c cc thng s thc s ca i tng cn o. Mun vy, con ngi khng th ch s dng cc gic quan ca mnh m cn phi dng n cc thit b o. Thit b o c cung cp bi nh ch to, trc khi xut xng chng c kim tra cht lng nghim ngt. Nhng khi n tay ngi s dng th thit b o phi tri qua qu trnh vn chuyn, chnh nhng tc ng trong qu trnh ny c th nh hng n cht lng thm ch lm gim cp chnh xc ca thit b. V pha ngi s dng lun mong mun thit b c cp chnh xc tht cao. Nhng thit b cng chnh xc th cu to cng phc tp v gi thnh cng t. Nh vy ngi s dng phi bit c mc cng vic i hi mt thit b o vi cp chnh xc nh th no l va . Khi phn tch v hiu r yu cu ca mnh, ngi s dng s tit kim ng k chi ph, thi gian cng nh tng hiu qu s dng thit b. nh gi cht lng thit b mt cch khch quan v chnh xc, cc Trung tm kim nh c thnh lp nhm cp giy chng nhn cht lng cho thit b. Vic kim nh cht lng c thc hin bng s chun ha (Calibration) l mt cng vic ht sc cn thit trc khi a thit b vo s dng. Nh trnh by trn, ty theo cng vic c th ca ngi s dng m thit b phc v cn mt cp chnh xc tng ng. Do vy cn c nhiu cp chun ha khc nhau kim nh cht lng ca thit b nhng mc khc nhau. Vic phn cp nh vy l cn thit m bo tit kim v kinh t v thi gian cho cc bn lin quan. 1.6.2 Cc cp chun ha: Vic chun ha mt thit b c xc nh theo 1 trong 4 cp sau: Cp 1: Chun quc t (International standard) Cc thit b o lng cp chun quc t c nh chun ti Trung tm o lng quc t t ti Paris (Php). Cc thit b o lng chun ha cp 1 ny theo nh k c nh gi v kim tra li theo tr s o tuyt i ca cc n v c bn vt l c hi ngh quc t v o lng gii thiu v chp nhn. Cp 2: Chun quc gia (National standard) Cc thit b o lng ti cc Vin nh chun quc gia cc quc gia khc nhau trn th gii c chun ha theo chun quc t. Cc thit b c nh chun ti Vin nh chun quc gia th mang chun quc gia. Cp 3: Chun khu vc (Zone standard) Trong mt quc gia c th c nhiu Trung tm nh chun cho tng khu vc (standard zone center). Cc thit b o lng ti trung tm ny ng nhin phi mang

o lng in

chun quc gia. Nhng thit b o lng c nh chun ti cc Trung tm nh chun ny s mang chun khu vc. Cp 4: Chun phng th nghim (Lab standard) Trong tng khu vc chun ha s c nhng phng th nghim c cng nhn chun ha cc thit b c dng trong sn xut cng nghip. Nh vy cc thit b c chun ha ti cc phng th nghim ny s c chun phng th nghim. Do cc thit b o lng khi c sn xut ra c nh chun ti cp no th s mang cht lng tiu chun o lng cp . Mt thit b sau khi c nh chun v em s dng th sau mt khong thi gian nht nh phi c kim nh v cp giy chng nhn cht lng li. Ni mt cch khc giy chng nhn cht lng ch c gi tr trong mt thi hn nht nh. 1.7 Sai s trong o lng Khi mt php o khng ly c gi tr thc ca i lng cn o, ta ni php o mc sai s. C th khng nh rng tt c cc php o u mc sai s. Thit b o d c cht lng cao n th no cng vn mc sai s, ch khc l sai s ln hay b m thi. 1.7.1 Nguyn nhn gy ra sai s: Nguyn nhn ch quan: L nguyn nhn do ngi thc hin php o gy ra v khng nm vng nguyn l o, khng m bo cc iu kin khi o, hoc ghi sai kt qu o... Nguyn nhn khch quan: L cc nguyn nhn cn li (khng phi do nguyn nhn ch quan). Sai s do nguyn nhn khch quan gy ra thng rt phc tp, c th do chnh thit b o hoc do s tc ng t pha mi trng ngoi nh hng ln qu trnh o. 1.7.2 Phn loi sai s: Sai s th: Khi php o cho kt qu c s chnh lch mt cch r rt v v l so vi gi tr c th c ca i lng cn o th sai s c gi l sai s th. Sai s th xut hin do iu kin c bn ca php o b vi phm, do s s xut ca ca ngi lm th nghim, hoc do s chn ng t pha ngoi. V d khi c s liu b nhm v tr du phy hoc c sai s liu o c. Sai s th d dng nhn bit khi ta thc hin php o mt i lng nhiu ln, ln o no c gi tr khc bit r rt vi cc ln o khc th chc chn php o ny mc sai s th. Khi gp sai s th ta mnh dn loi b chng ra khi bng s liu. Do vy, trong phn tnh ton sai s ta lun m bo rng cc kt qu o khng cha sai s th. Sai s h thng: Sai s h thng l loi sai s do chnh bn thn dng c o gy ra. Sai s ny nh hng thng xuyn v c quy lut ln kt qu o. Do vy ta c th loi tr hoc gim nh sai s h thng. Ngi ta thng chia sai s h thng thnh hai loi: Loi sai s h thng m ta bit c nguyn nhn v ln ca n. Sai s ny xut hin khi dng c o b sai lch. Chng hn, khi cha c dng in chy qua m kim ca ng h Ampe k ch 0,1A, hoc khi cha kp vt cn o chiu di vo thc kp m thc cho chiu di l 0,1mm .v.v. Sai s ny c th kh c bng cch hiu chnh kt qu (cng thm hoc tr bt kt qu vi lng sai s).

Loi sai s h thng m ta bit c nguyn nhn nhng khng bit c chnh xc ln ca n. Sai s ny ph thuc vo cp chnh xc ca dng c o. Mi dng c o c cp chnh xc nht nh ca n. V d trn nhit k c ghi 0,5oC, nh vy khi o nhit ca mt vt no m gi s nhit k ch 20oC th nhit chnh xc ca vt s l mt gi tr no nm trong khong 19,5oC 20,5oC. Cch tnh sai s h thng: Trn mt s dng c o c ghi r sai s h thng ti a c th mc phi, v d trn thc kp c ghi 0,05mm th l sai s h thng ca thc kp. i vi nhng dng c m sai s h thng khng ghi r (tr cc dng c in), khi chng ta c th nh gi sai s h thng bng 1/2 chia nh nht trn dng c o. Nu chia c gi tr qu nh th ta ly 1 chia lm sai s h thng ca thit b o. i vi cc dng c o in (Ampe k, Volt k...) th sai s h thng Xh mc phi khi o c tnh theo cng thc: Xh = k.Xm k: Cp chnh xc ca dng c o Xm: Gi tr cc i trn thang o ca dng c cn gi l gi tr nh mc Xm Sai s ny c p dng cho ton b thang o. Ngha l khi dng thang o o mt i lng in c gi tr ln hay nh th u b sai s ny tc ng ln. Do vy khi s dng cc dng c o in, chng ta cn thit chn tm o thch hp sao cho kim ca dng c cng gn vi gi tr cc i ca thang o th chnh xc ca php o cng cao, nu thy kim lch t ta nn chuyn tm o kim nm trong khong 1/3 thang o tnh t phi sang. Sai s ngu nhin: Sai s ca php o mc phi khi ta loi tr nguyn nhn do sai s th v sai s h thng th c gi l sai s ngu nhin. Sai s ngu nhin do nhiu yu t gy ra m ta khng th tch ring v tnh ring chng c. Cc yu t ny thng cng nh hng n kt qu, chng bin i bt thng v khng theo quy lut. Chng hn do gic quan ca ngi lm th nghim khng tinh, khng nhy dn n khng phn bit ng ch trng nhau ca hai vch chia trn thc kp, hoc khi tnh thi gian khng bm ng h ng lc thi im xy ra hin tng, hoc do iu kin th nghim thay i mt cch ngu nhin ta khng th bit c m dn n kt qu o mc sai s. V d o cng dng in trong mch in c in p lun thng ging hoc nhit , p sut trong phng lun thay i m ta khng pht hin c lm cho kt qu o b thng ging... Sai s ngu nhin c ln v chiu thay i hn lon, do vy chng ta khng th kh chng khi kt qu v khng bit chng mt cch chc chn. Mun loi tr chng ta phi s dng phng php ca l thuyt xc sut thng k, ch c xc sut mi c th tnh c nh hng ca chng n kt qu php o t c bin php gim nh sai s. 1.7.3 Cch tnh v biu din sai s: Sau khi loi tr sai s th, trong php o mt i lng no ch cn mc phi sai s h thng v sai s ngu nhin. Sai s tng hp ca php o bng tng ca hai loi sai s trn: X = Xh + Xn Qua nghin cu v sai s trong php o, ngi ta nhn thy rng: S ln xut hin sai s ngu nhin c cng ln v tri du nhau l bng nhau.
7

o lng in

S liu cha sai s cng ln th c s ln xut hin cng t. Tr s tuyt i ca cc sai s ngu nhin khng vt qu mt gii hn xc nh. Gi s mt i lng vt l c gi tr thc l x. Ta thc hin php o i lng n ln, v tnh ton ly gi tr trung bnh ca n ln o, ta nhn thy gi tr ny gn ng vi gi tr thc x. Bng chng minh ton hc, ngi ta cng khng nh rng nu s ln o n ln th gi tr thc x s gn ng gi tr trung bnh cng ca tt c cc ln o . Ngoi cc sai s trn, nh gi sai s ca dng c khi o mt i lng no ngi ta cn phn loi nh sau: Sai s tuyt i (X): l sai lch gia tr s o c (X) v tr s thc (x) ca i lng cn o. Khi khong [X - X, X + X] s bao quanh gi tr chn thc x, ngha l: (X - X) x (X + X) Lc kt qu o s c vit: x = X X Sai s tuyt i cho bit chnh xc ca tng php o. Sai s tng i (): l sai s tnh theo phn trm t s gia sai s tuyt i (X) v tr s o c ca i lng cn o (X).
=
X .100% X

o lng in

X = X x

Sai s tng i dng nh gi chnh xc gia cc php o cng loi. Mi tr s sai s tng i cng ch c trng cho mc chnh xc ca ng h o mt im bit trn thang o, khi cn c trng cho mc chnh xc trn ton thang o ngi ta dng khi nim sai s quy dn. Sai s quy dn (): l sai s tnh theo phn trm t s gia sai s tuyt i vi gii hn ln nht ca thang o:
=
X .100% X max

Mi dng c o c mt gi tr sai s tuyt i cho php ln nht, khi sai s quy dn cho php ln nht l:
=
X max .100% X max

y cng chnh l cp chnh xc k c dng nh gi tnh chnh xc ca dng c o. Cp chnh xc k thng gp l: 0,02; 0,05; 0,1; 0,2; 0,5; 1; 1,5; 2,5; 4; 5 Nh vy mt dng c o s cho ra kt qu c sai s nh hn hoc bng sai s quy dn, nu vt qu sai s ny th dng c o khng cn m bo tiu chun v cn phi c h cp chnh xc xung. Chng hn khi xc nh khi lng ca mt qu cu nh ngi ta dng cn v c kt qu sau: m1 = (15,5 0,3)g Ngha l khi lng thc ca qu cu nh c xc nh trong gii hn: 15,2g m1 15,8g Khi xc nh khi lng ca qu cu ln, ngi ta c:
8

o lng in

m2 = (1620 3)g Ngha l khi lng thc ca qu cu ln c xc nh trong gii hn: 167g m2 1623g Tuy nhin sai s tuyt i cha nh gi c mc chnh xc ca dng c o. Nu ta lp t l gia sai s tuyt i vi gi tr o c ca n v so snh trong hai trng hp trn ta thy:
m1 0,3 = = 2% m1 15,5

m2 3 = = 0,2% m 2 1620

Nh vy khi lng ca qu cu ln c cn chnh xc gp 10 ln khi lng ca qu cu nh. Do vy nh gi c chnh xc ca php o, ta cn phi da vo c sai s tuyt i v sai s tng i. Cc bc biu din kt qu tnh ton:
x = X X

Lm trn gi tr sai s tuyt i X, ta gi li mt ch s khc 0 v lm trn s ny ln mt n v. Nu sai s sau khi lm trn vt qu 25% sai s ban u th ta gi li hai ch s khc 0. Lm trn gi tr trung bnh sau khi lm trn th ch s nh nht ca n c bc ln hn hoc bng bc ca sai s. Nu ch s cn lm trn nh hn 5 th ta c quyn b lun ch s . Ta vit gi tr trung bnh di dng chun ha (ch c mt ch s trc du phy, nhn vi c s 10 ly tha). Cng lm tng t cho sai s. Biu din kt qu thng qua gi tr trung bnh v gi tr sai s.

o lng in

V d: Ngi ta cn kim tra cp chnh xc ca mt Volt k, cho bit Volt k ny c gii hn o l Um = 150 [V]. Dng mt Volt k mu c cp chnh xc k = 0,1 v c Um = 200 [V] kim tra. Khi o in p, Volt k mu ch 128 [V] v Volt k cn kim tra ch 124,5 [V]. a. Tnh sai s tuyt i, sai s tng i ca Volt k kim tra ti tr s cho? b. Tm cp chnh xc ca Volt k cn kim tra, cho bit sai s tuyt i tm c l sai s tuyt i ln nht? p s: Ukt = 3,5 0,2[V ] 1 = 2,7% 2 = 3,0% a.
b.

k = 2,46%

V d 2: Mt Ampe k c gii hn o l Im = 30 [A] v cp chnh xc k =1,5 a. Tm sai s tuyt i ln nht Imax? b. Tm sai s tng i khi ng h o c cc gi tr 5 [A], 15 [A]? c. Hy xc nh gi tr thc ca dng in cn o ID nm trong gii hn no? p s:
a. Imax = 0,45 (A) b. 1 = 9% ; 1 = 3% c. 4,55 ID1 5,45 14,55 ID2 15,45

10

o lng in

Cu hi n tp: 1. o lng in ng vai tr nh th no trong h thng iu khin t ng? 2. Hy phn bit gia i lng in v i lng khng in? Vic o lng nhng i lng ny c im g khc nhau? 3. Hy phn bit gia phng php o gin tip v phng php o trc tip? 4. Trnh by ngha ca cc thnh phn trong s tng qut ca h thng o lng? 5. Ti sao cc thit b o lng cn c chun ha trc khi a vo s dng? Trnh by cc cp chun ha? 6. Trnh by nhng nguyn nhn chnh gy ra sai s trong php o? 7. Sai s th l g? Lm th no hn ch sai s th trong php o? 8. Trnh by sai s h thng v cch tnh sai s h thng? 9. So snh gia sai s ngu nhin v sai s h thng? 10. Th no l sai s tuyt i, sai s tng i, sai s quy dn? Cp chnh xc k ca dng c o l g?

11

o lng in

(Trang trng)

12

o lng in

Chng 2:

C CU CH TH

2.1 C cu t in 2.1.1 K hiu 2.1.2 Cu to 2.1.3 Nguyn l hot ng v phng trnh c tnh thang o 2.1.4 c im ca c cu t in 2.2 C cu in t 2.2.1 K hiu 2.2.2 Cu to 2.2.3 Nguyn l hot ng v phng trnh c tnh thang o 2.2.4 c im ca c cu in t 2.3 C cu in ng 2.3.1 K hiu 2.3.2 Cu to 2.3.3 Nguyn l hot ng v phng trnh c tnh thang o 2.3.4 c im ca c cu in ng 2.4 C cu cm ng 2.4.1 K hiu 2.4.2 Cu to 2.4.3 Nguyn l hot ng v phng trnh c tnh thang o 2.4.4 c im ca c cu cm ng 2.5 C cu tnh in 2.5.1 K hiu 2.5.2 Cu to 2.5.3 Nguyn l hot ng 2.5.4 c im ca c cu tnh in 2.6 C cu in t 2.6.1 C cu in t ch th bng diode pht quang (LED) 2.6.2 C cu in t ch th bng tinh th lng (LCD) 2.6.3 C cu in t ch th bng ng tia m cc (CRT)

13

o lng in

(Trang trng)

14

o lng in

Chng 2:

C CU CH TH

Dng c o in l mt h thng hon chnh c to thnh bi s kt hp cc b phn khc nhau nhm thc hin qu trnh o mt hoc nhiu i lng in trong c cu ch th l b phn chnh c nhim v chuyn i i lng in cn o thnh tn hiu quan st. 2.1 C cu t in 2.1.1 K hiu:
C cu o kiu t in, khung dy phn ng

C cu o kiu t in, khung dy phn ng, dng chnh lu bn dn

C cu o kiu t in, nam chm phn ng

2.1.2 Cu to: C cu o kiu t in c hai phn chnh l phn ng v phn tnh Phn ng: a. Khung dy b. Li st non c. L xo xon c d. Kim ch th Phn tnh: e. Mch t f. Nam chm vnh cu g. Thang o h. Nt iu chnh zero

Khung dy: Gm nhiu vng dy lm bng ng cng qun trn mt khun nhm hnh ch nht. Dy ng c tit din nh khong (0,02 0,05)mm c ph cch in bn ngoi. Khung dy gn vi hai bn trc, u bn trc c ch to t vt liu rt cng (thp vonfram). u trc c t trn c dng cn lm (gc nh 80o), b mt c ph mt lp mng cng thng gi l chn knh lm t vt liu SiO2. Khung dy chuyn ng trong khe h khng kh nh lc tng tc gia t trng ca khung dy (khi c dng in chy qua) v t trng ca nam chm vnh cu. Ton b khi
15

o lng in

lng khung cng nh cng tt moment qun tnh khng nh hng nhiu n chuyn ng quay ca khung quanh hai bn trc Loi c cu t in c phn quay l khung dy c dng nhiu trong ng h o vn nng. Loi c cu t in c phn quay l nam chm vnh cu c dng nhiu trong cc ng h ch th loi nh trong t, my bay, my ko... Trong cc ng h o tht nhy, ngi ta dng dy cng hoc dy treo thay cho bn trc v l xo xon c. Khi s dng dy treo, ma st gia bn trc v chn knh b loi b t chnh xc ca dng c o c ci thin ng k. Dy treo c nhim v treo l lng khung dy thay cho ng thi a in vo hai u khung. Dy treo c kt hp vi l xo xon to moment cn.

Khung dy loi trc quay

Khung dy loi dy treo

Li st non: C hnh tr trn c t gia hai cc ca nam chm vnh cu sao cho khe h khng kh gia chng nh v cch u cc cc t. Nh li st non m t tr gia cc cc t c gim nh v do lm tng mt t thng qua khe h khng kh. Vi li st non hnh tr trn, t trng qua khe h khng kh l t trng hng tm u (khong 0,2 n 0,5T). T trng c dng hng tm gip cho lc tc dng lun vung gc vi cnh ca khung dy. L xo xon c: Hai u khung dy c hai l xo xon vi chiu ngc nhau, mt u l xo gn vo bn trc ca khung dy, u kia gn c nh. L xo xon c c nhim v ch yu l to ra moment cn Mc cn bng vi lc in t, ngoi ra n c dng dn dng in vo v ra khung dy. Kim ch th: c gn lin vi khung quay c th dch chuyn theo khung, v tr kim s ch gi tr tng ng trn mt thang o. Kim thng lm bng nhm mng un hnh ng, ui kim c gn i trng trng tm ca kim nm trn trc quay, iu ny gip gi thng bng cho phn ng. u kim dt v c chiu dy chiu dy nt vch trn thang chia . Nhng dng c o c cp chnh xc thp (1,5 2,5) c kim ch th lm bng nhm mng c ng gn gia, cn trong nhng dng c c cp chnh xc cao hn c kim hnh li dao rt mnh, i khi kim c lm bng thy tinh m u kim l si kim loi nh. Cc loi dng c o c cp chnh xc cc cao th thng dng ch th bng quang hc v iu kin sn xut c kh khng cho php ch to kim tht nh, thng v di nh yu cu t ra. Trong ch th quang hc, trc quay ca b phn ng c gn mt gng nh, mt ngun sng mnh lun ri vo gng v phn chiu trn thang chia . Do khong cch t gng quay n thang chia kh ln nn khi gng quay mt gc nh cng lm vt sng trn thang chia di chuyn mt khong cch ln.
16

o lng in

B phn cn du: Ngi ta mun kim khng b dao ng quanh v tr o m phi nhanh chng n nh ngi thc hin php o c th quan st c kt qu. Mun vy phi c b phn cn du dao ng ca kim. Thay v ch to b cn du ring, ngi ta li dng ngay hin tng t cm ca khung dy ngn cn dao ng. Khung dy c lm bng nhm nn c th xem nh mt vng ngn mch. Khi khung dy chuyn ng, t thng gi qua khung dy bin thin lm pht sinh dng in cm ng. Dng in cm ng ny s c chiu sao cho t thng m n sinh ra chng li s bin thin ca t thng sinh ra n, do vy n c tc dng ngn cn dao ng ca khung dy. Phng php cn du da trn nguyn l cm ng in t to ra lc cn kh mnh nn c ng dng ph bin. Ngoi ra ngi ta cng c th dng phng php cn du bng khng kh nh cnh qut hoc piston chuyn ng trong hp khng kh sinh ra, lc cn to ra bng phng php ny nh hn lc cn to ra bng phng php cm ng. Nam chm vnh cu: Gm hai cc N v S gn lin vi b phn dn t bng thp non to ra t trng c nh. Nam chm vnh cu m ly phn ng l mt li thp hnh tr. Khe h gia phn tnh v phn ng nh nhm to ra t trng u. 2.1.3 Nguyn l hot ng v phng trnh c tnh thang o: Khi c dng in chy qua khung dy th t trng cm ng ca khung dy s tc dng vi t trng ca nam chm vnh cu. Lc tng tc ny s tc ng ln cc cnh ca khung to ra moment quay dch chuyn phn ng. Chiu ca lc tng tc c xc nh theo quy tc bn tay tri. Khi dng in ca i lng cn o cng ln th khung dy quay cng nhiu, gc quay cng ln v khong cch di chuyn ca kim cng nhiu. Lc F tc dng ln cc cnh khung dy c tr s bng nhau nhng ngc chiu. Cc lc ny t cch trc mt khong bng na chiu rng khung dy b: F = N.B.I.l F: Lc in t tc dng ln mt cnh khung dy [N] B: cm ng t trong khe h khng kh [T] l: Chiu di tc dng ca khung dy [m] b: B rng khung dy [m] N: S vng dy [vng] I: Cng dng in chy qua khung dy [A] b Mq = 2.F.2 = F.b = N.B.I.l.b Mq = N.B.I.S (S = l.b: Din tch khung dy) Khi khung dy dch chuyn, l xo xon c to ra moment cn Mc. Mc = Kc. Kc: H s cn ca l xo, ph thuc vo tnh cht n hi ca vt liu ch to l xo cng nh kch thc hnh dng ca n. : Gc lch ca kim ch th, hay gc xon ca l xo. Khi Mq = Mc th khung dy ng yn v tr tng ng vi dng in cn o, ta c: N.B.I.S = Kc. N.B.S = K .I c
17

o lng in

N.B.S Kc = KI l h s t l dng in = KI.I t Nhn xt: Gc lch t l bc nht vi dng in I. Dng in chy qua khung dy cng ln th gc lch cng tng. Mun tng nhy ca c cu o ta c th tng ln cm ng t B trong khe h khng kh, hoc tng s vng dy qun ca khung dy. 2.1.4 c im ca c cu t in: u im ca c cu o kiu t in: T trng ca nam chm vnh cu to ra mnh do vy c cu c nhy cao, t b nh hng bi t trng nhiu bn ngoi. Cng sut tiu hao nh ty theo dng in Imax, thng t 25 200W. Cp chnh xc cao (k = 0,05) nn thng dng lm dng c chun trong PTN. V gc quay tuyn tnh theo dng in nn thang o c khong chia u n v y cng chnh l u im quan trng trong c cu o kiu t in. Khuyt im: Dy qun c tit din b nn kh nng chu qu ti km d b t khi dng in qu mc chy qua. C cu khng o trc tip c dng in xoay chiu (AC) v kim s b o chiu quay lin tc. Khi tn s ca tn hiu xoay chiu trn khong 10 Hz th do qun tnh kim s ng yn ti mt v tr. Mun o dng in xoay chiu, c cu phi kt hp vi mch o c b chnh lu bin dng in xoay chiu thnh dng mt chiu (DC) trc khi o. i vi khung dy c dy xon d b h hng khi b chn ng mnh hoc di chuyn qu mc cho php, do vy cn c bin php phng trnh. 2.2 C cu in t 2.2.1 K hiu:
hoc

2.2.2 Cu to: Phn ng: a. L st t mm b. Trc quay c. L xo xon c d. Kim ch th Phn tnh: a. Cun dy in t b. Thang o
C cu in t loi dt 18

o lng in

C cu in t loi trn

Dng c o kiu in t gm hai loi chnh l loi cun dy dt v loi cun dy trn. Loi dt c phn tnh l mt cun dy dt khng c li thp. Phn ng gm trc quay c gn l thp non hnh bn nguyt nm trong khe h hp ca cun dy. Trn trc cn gn thm mt l m lm bng nhm gip n nh kim ti v tr cn bng nh hin tng cm ng in t. Loi cun dy trn c phn tnh l cun dy trn, trong rut cun dy c gn mt l thp tnh, gia cun dy l phn ng c gn mt l thp non (l thp ng) lm bng vt liu st t mm. Gia phn ng l trc quay, trn trc quay c gn kim ch th v l xo xon. 2.2.3 Nguyn l hot ng v phng trnh c tnh thang o: Mt cch n gin ta c th hiu c cu in t nh mt nam chm in ht mt li st t c gn kim ch th. Khi cho dng in mt chiu (DC) hoc xoay chiu (AC) i vo cun dy c nh, trong lng cun dy xut hin t trng. T trng ny s t ha l thp non v ht n vo trong lng khin cho trc quay v kim ch th quay theo. Khi t trng cng ln th gc quay cng cng ln. Nh vy dng in ca i lng cn o s khng i vo phn quay nh trong c cu t in m vo phn ng yn. Trong c cu in t kiu cun dy trn, t trng do dng in sinh ra s t ha hai l thp tnh v ng. Do hai l thp ny t ha cng cc tnh nn chng s y nhau, nhng v l thp tnh ng yn nn l thp ng di chuyn v to moment lm quay kim ch th. C cu o kiu in t chu nh hng nhiu bi t trng ngoi khin cho kt qu o km chnh xc, hn ch iu ny, ngi ta dng mt mn chn t bng thp permalloy dy khong 0,2mm bao bc c cu. Ngoi ra ngi ta cn dng phng php ch to c cu o c phn tnh gm hai cun dy ging nhau c b tr sao cho t trng ca chng to ra moment quay cng chiu tc dng ln trc, nhng ng thi t trng ngoi cng to nn hai moment khc c chiu ngc nhau kh mt nhau. y chnh l c cu atslatich cn gi l kiu v hng. Ngi ta s dng l st t mm nhm li dng tnh cht d nhim t v cng d mt t ca n. Khi khng c dng in i vo th l st phi mt t tnh ngay, lc l xo s a kim ch th v v tr ban u. Lc t ng F to ra lc ht hoc lc y cho ming st di ng:
19

o lng in

F = N.I N: s vng dy [vng] I: cng dng in [A] Ta c nng lng t trng trong lng cun dy: 1 W = 2 .L.I2 L: in cm, ph thuc vo v tr ca l st t tc l gi tr gc quay i vi dng in mt chiu: dw 1 2dL = I Mq = d 2 d i vi dng in xoay chiu, moment quay trung bnh: T T 1 1 1 2dL .dt Mqtb = T Mqdt = T 2 i d 0 0 T 1 dL 1 2 i .dt Mqtb = 2 d T 0 1 dL Mq = 2 I2 d Khi khung dy dch chuyn, l xo xon c to ra moment cn Mc. Mc = Kc. Kc: H s cn ca l xo, ph thuc vo tnh cht n hi ca vt liu ch to l xo cng nh kch thc hnh dng ca n. : Gc lch ca kim ch th, hay gc xon ca l xo. Khi Mc = Mq th kim ch th ng yn: 1 dL 2 =2K I c d 1 dL = KI l h s t l dng in t 2 K c d = KI. I2 2.2.4 c im ca c cu in t: u im ca c cu o kiu in t: Cu to n gin, gi thnh r, cng ngh ch to khng phc tp. y cng chnh l u im ni bt ca c cu ny. Kh nng chu qu ti cao hn c cu t in do cun dy nm phn tnh nn c th qun cc c dy ln. o c c dng in mt chiu v xoay chiu m khng cn n b chnh lu nh c cu t in. Khuyt im: Gc quay ca kim ch th ph thuc phi tuyn vo dng in, nn thang o c vch chia khng u. T trng ca cun dy do chnh dng in cn o to ra nn thng yu khin nhy ca ch th km d b nh hng bi t trng ngoi.

20

Nng lng tiu hao ca c cu in t ln hn c cu t in, cng sut ny khong 0,5 20W. Do c tn hao st t v hin tng t tr nn c cu in t mc sai s ln hn khin cho cp chnh xc khng cao. in khng cun dy tng theo tn s f nn c cu khng c dng o dng in c tn s thay i ln thng ch di vi chc Hz. Ngoi ra nh hng ca dng in xoy trn ming st di ng tng khi tn s tn hiu tng. c dng ch yu trong lnh vc in cng nghip vi cp chnh xc thp. 2.3 C cu in ng L s kt hp gia c cu t in (khung quay mang kim ch th) v c cu in t (cun dy c nh to t trng cho khung quay). 2.3.1 K hiu:
C cu in ng

o lng in

C cu st in ng

2.3.2 Cu to: C cu in ng gm cun dy c nh v cun dy di ng (khung quay). Phn ng: a. Cun dy di ng b. Trc quay c. L xo xon c d. Kim ch th Phn tnh: a. Cun dy c nh b. Thang o

C cu in ng

C cu st in ng

Thng thng cun dy di ng khng c li st non nn trnh c hin tng t tr v dng in xoy. Cun dy c nh c chia thnh hai phn bng nhau v t cch nhau khng xa to ra t trng tng i u. Hai na cun dy ny c mc ni tip vi nhau. Cun dy di ng c t trong lng cun dy tnh nn chu nh hng t trng ca cun dy c nh. Trn trc phn quay c gn kim ch th v hai l xo xon to moment cn. Trc quay lm nhim v v dn in t ngoi vo phn quay. i khi ngi ta dng dy treo thay cho trc v tng nhy cho c cu. Cun dy phn tnh c th c qun vi kch c ln, cn cun dy phn ng c c dy nh. Nu cun dy c nh c qun trn li st t th ta c c cu st in ng. Cu to ca c c cu st in ng gm cc cun dy phn tnh qun trn li thp. Li thp c tc dng tng t trng phn tnh v to nn t trng u khu vc cun dy ng, ng thi c tc dng nh mt mn chn t lm gim nh hng ca t trng ngoi. Trong lng cun dy phn ng cng c li thp hnh tr. Nguyn l lm
21

o lng in

vic ca c cu st in ng tng t nh c cu in ng. Nh c li thp m c cu st in ng nhy hn, t nh hng bi t trng ngoi, khng cn ch to bng vt liu qu gi nn gi thnh cng r hn loi c cu in ng. Nhng cng v c li thp m tn hao st t v hin tng t tr xut hin khin cho chnh xc thp hn. 2.3.3 Nguyn l hot ng v phng trnh c tnh thang o: im khc bit c bn so vi cc dng c o khc l dng in ca i lng cn o c a vo c phn ng v phn tnh ca c cu in ng to nn hai t trng y nhau sinh ra moment quay. Khi c dng in i1, i2 (mt chiu hoc xoay chiu) i vo cun dy di ng v c nh th trong lng cun dy c nh xut hin t trng (thay th cho t trng nam chm vnh cu) t trng ny tc ng lc in t ln cun dy ng. dM12 Moment quay: Mq = i1.i2. d Nu i1, i2 l dng in mt chiu th: dM12 Mq = I1.I2. d Nu i1, i2 l dng in xoay chiu: i1 = I1max.sinwt, i2 = I2max.sin(wt - ) th: T T T dM12 1 1 1 dM12 .dt = T I1max.sinwt. I2max.sin(wt - ) .dt Mqtb = T Mq.dt = T i1.i2 d d 0 0 0 I1max. I2max dM12 .cos. 2 d I1. I2 dM12 Mqtb = 2 .cos. d I1, I2: Gi tr hiu dng ca dng in xoay chiu [A] Mc = Kc. Mc: Moment cn ca l xo Khi Mc = Mq th kim ch th ng yn. Phng trnh c tnh thang o cho dng in mt chiu: dM12 Kc. = I1.I2. d I1.I2 dM12 = KI.I1.I2 = K . d c Phng trnh c tnh thang o cho dng in xoay chiu: I1 . I 2 dM12 Kc. = 2 .cos. d dM12 I1.I2 = KI.I1.I2.cos = K .cos. d c Tm li, khi cho dng in i1 i vo hai na cun dy tnh v i2 i vo cun dy ng th moment quay s t l vi dng in ca c cun dy tnh v cun dy ng. Nu cho cng mt dng in i i vo c hai cun dy th moment quay s t l vi bnh phng cng dng in. Khi dng in l mt chiu th gc quay t l vi bnh Mqtb =

22

o lng in

phng cng dng in cn o ( = KI.I1.I2), i vi dng in xoay chiu th cn thm gc lch pha gia hai dng in i vo hai cun dy ( = KI.I1.I2.cos). 2.3.4 c im ca c cu in ng: u im ca c cu o kiu in ng: Cp chnh xc kh cao (k = 0,05 0,1) v khng s dng li st t gy tn hao st t v hin tng t tr. y cng chnh l u im ni bt ca c cu ny. Kh nng qu ti v dng ln hn c cu t in v c tit din dy ln. o c c dng in mt chiu v xoay chiu m khng cn n b chnh lu nh c cu t in. c s dng ch to dng c o dng in, in p, c bit l dng c o cng sut. Khuyt im: Gc quay ca kim ch th ph thuc phi tuyn vo dng in nn vch chia ca thang o khng u. T trng cun dy tnh yu nn nhy ca c cu km d b nh hng bi t trng ngoi. C cu in ng tiu hao nng lng ln hn c cu t in, cng sut ny khong 18 20W. Ch c dng trong lnh vc in cng nghip, dng c t ghi. 2.4 C cu cm ng C cu cm ng c ng dng ch yu trong ch to ng h o in nng. 2.4.1 K hiu:

2.4.2 Cu to: C cu o kiu cm ng gm hai phn chnh: Phn tnh: Gm cun dng in v cun in p qun trn li thp tng t nh nam chm in. Cun dng in c tit din ln, s vng t mc ni tip vi mch in cn o. Cun in p c s vng nhiu v tit din b ni song song vi mch cn o. Nam chm vnh cu to moment phn khng khi a nhm quay. Phn ng: L a nhm trn v mng, tm a c gn mt trc, trc ny c lin kt vi h thng bnh rng thay i tr s hin th in nng tiu th.

C cau cam ng

2.4.3 Nguyn l hot ng v phng trnh c tnh thang o: Khi dng in i chy vo cun dng in s to nn t thng i trng pha vi i. T thng ny xuyn qua a nhm hai v tr. Nu t in p vo cun in p s lm xut hin dng in iu chy trong cun in p. Dng in iu t l thun vi in p u v sinh ra t thng u. V in cm ca cun dy in p ln nn gc lch pha gia iu v u gn bng 2 . T thng u ca cun in p chia lm hai phn: L khp mch qua li thp, khng xuyn qua a nhm v u xuyn qua a nhm, khp mch qua gng t.
23

o lng in

Moment quay tc dng ln a nhm do lc tc dng tng h gia cc dng in cm ng trong a v cc t thng u, i. Moment quay cng t l vi cng sut P ca ti tiu th. Khi a nhm quay trong t trng ca nam chm vnh cu s sinh ra moment cn t l vi tc quay. Khi hai moment cn v moment quay cn bng nhau th a nhm quay u, ta c: Mq = Mc kP.P = kc.n 2.4.4 c im ca c cu cm ng: Moment quay ln lm a quay nhanh v lc lm chuyn ng c cu bnh rng. S vng quay ca phn ng t l vi in nng tiu th trn ti. Khi lm vic dng in xoy trong a nhm gy tn hao cng sut, ngoi ra in tr ca a thay i lm nh hng moment quay khin chnh xc thp. Hot ng ca c cu ph thuc vo tn s f. 2.5 C cu tnh in C cu ny da trn nguyn l lc y tnh in to moment lm quay kim ch th. 2.5.1 K hiu: 2.5.2 Cu to: Phn tnh l cc l nhm c nh, mi l gm hai na vng trn t cch nhau mt khong cch hp. Phn ng l l nhm mng hnh ch Z c th chuyn ng trong khe h phn tnh. Gia phn tnh v phn ng l in mi khng kh hnh thnh t in c in dung C. in p t vo cc l nhm tnh v ng (thng qua l xo phn khng), lc tnh in sinh ra s tc dng to moment quay. C cu tnh in Khi phn ng quay, l xo b xon li to moment cn. Khi hai moment ny cn bng nhau th phn ng dng li v do kim ch th cng ng yn ch gi tr tng ng. Ngi ta cho phn ng chuyn ng trong t trng ca mt nam chm vnh cu, iu ny gip kim nhanh chng n nh v tr cn bng. 2.5.3 Nguyn l hot ng: Khi t in p ln cc bn cc ca phn tnh v phn ng th t in C s tch ly nng lng in trng WE = CU2. Lc tc dng gia hai bn cc khi t in p U gy ra moment quay lm phn ng quay. Khi moment quay cn bng vi moment cn ca l xo th c cu dng li, kim ch th gi tr trn thang o. 2.5.4 c im ca c cu tnh in: Gc quay t l vi bnh phng in p t vo, nn c th o in p mt chiu v xoay chiu. Gii hn o t 10 [V] n hng chc kV, tn s t 10 [Hz] n 10 [MHz]. C cu c nhy cao v tiu th cng sut thp. Cp chnh xc cao (k = 0,05). Khng chu nh hng ca t trng ngoi v dng in p.

24

o lng in

2.6 C cu in t Nhng thnh tu ca in t c ng dng mnh m trong k thut o lng hin i to ra nhiu thun li cho ngi s dng. Nguyn l o in t da trn c s o i lng in p v mch x l cho ra tn hiu ph hp cho vic hin th. Trong phn ny chng ta s cp n s hin th kt qu o di dng cc con s v hnh nh. 2.6.1 C cu in t ch th bng diode pht quang (LED): K hiu:

LED_Light Emitting Diode l diode pht quang ngha l khi c dng in chy qua Led s pht ra nh sng. Led l linh kin in t c s dng rng ri trong nhiu lnh vc nh quang bo, hin th, thng tin quang... nh sng do Led pht ra ph thuc vo vt liu ch to m khng cn n knh lc. Led ch c th mt trong hai trng thi sng hoc tt. Trong thc t Led c v bc bn ngoi mang mu sc ging vi mu sc do Led pht ra, iu ny ch nhm gip cho ngi s dng d dng nhn bit cc loi Led pht mu sc khc nhau m khng cn n ngun in th. Led c u im ni bt l tui th cao, cng sut tiu tn nh, thch hp vi cc mch logic... Khi s dng Led cn ch n yu t nhit mi trng xung quanh nh hng n cng chiu sng, khi nhit mi trng tng ln cng sng ca Led s gim i. Ngoi ra khi Led b h hng n thng khng tt ngay m gim dn cng sng, hoc lc sng lc tt. Thc cht Led cng l diode bn dn nn n mang cc c tnh v gii hn ca diode tip xc P-N thng thng. Tuy nhin in p phn cc thun cho Led kh ln khong 1,2 n 2,5 [V] ty vo vt liu bn dn. in tr ng khong t vi Ohm n vo chc Ohm. in p nh thng khi phn cc ngc kh nh khong 5 [V]. Led c ch to vi nhiu loi mang mu khc nhau nh , xanh, vng, cam... Khi s dng phi ch n in p phn cc thun cho tng loi Led la chn in tr mc ni tip vi Led. in p Phn Cc Thun LED Led mu Led mu cam Led mu xanh l cy Led mu vng Led mu xanh da tri 1,6 [V] 2,2 [V] 2,7 [V] 2,4 [V] 3 [V] 2 [V] 3 [V] 3,2 [V] 3,2 [V] 5 [V]

Thng thng khi tnh ton phn cc cho Led, ngi ta chn in tr mc ni tip vi Led sao cho dng in chy qua Led khong 10 [mA] v in p ri trn Led khong 2 [V]. Led c hai chn Anode v Cathode, chn Cathode thng ngn hn, nm pha v b vt phng gc, in cc Cathode ln hn. Ch cch nhn bit ny ch mang tnh cht tng i, mun m bo chnh xc ta phi dng ng h VOM thang o in tr hoc dng ngun in ngoi xc nh cc tnh ca Led.
25

o lng in

Mt s mch phn cc Led:

(a)

(b)

(c)

Loi Led trn c gi l Led n, trong thc t ngi ta c th ghp chung hai Led trong cng mt v bc lc ta c loi Led i vi 3 chn ra. Trong 3 chn ny c mt chn chung l A hoc K, hai chn cn li iu khin cho tng Led, ngi ta cng thng ghp cc Led n thnh hnh s 8 gi l Led 7 on, mi on thng c to thnh t mt hoc nhiu Led n mc song song. Khi cn hin th con s t 0 n 9, ngi ta iu khin cc on tng ng pht sng to thnh hnh con s mong mun. Led 7 on c s dng nhiu trong vic hin th, c bit trong lnh vc o lng in t. i lng cn o sau khi c mch x l chuyn i thnh tn hiu s s qua mch gii m kch cc Led 7 on pht sng thnh hnh nhng con s th hin kt qu o c. 2.6.2 C cu in t ch th bng tinh th lng (LCD): LCD_Liquid Crystal Display l mn hin th tinh th lng. LCD c s dng nhiu ch to mt ch th ng h in t, my tnh con, my o k thut s... thm ch mn hnh my vi tnh, mn hnh TV. Thut ng tinh th lng c ngh s dng ln u tin vo nm 1889 bi nh vt l Lehman ch trng thi c bit ca vt cht m cc tnh cht ca n l trung gian gia tinh th cht rn v cht lng ng hng. Trng thi vt cht ny kt hp nhiu tnh cht c hc ca cht lng thng thng (c hnh dng vt cha, to thnh git...) v cc tnh cht d hng in t v quang ca tinh th. V phng din quang hc ngi ta chia thnh vt liu trong sut, m c hoc tt c cc cp gia hai thi cc ny. S phn loi ph thuc vo vt liu lm gim cng sng hoc bin dao ng in t i qua n. Cc vt liu trong sut cho php nh sng i qua chng khng lm gim bin , trong khi cc vt liu m c th ngn nh sng li. C mt lp vt liu khc cng to ra kt qu nh vt liu m c nhng lm vic theo nguyn tc khc. Chng c gi l cc b phn cc nh sng. Khi sng nh sng c phn cc trn hay ngu nhin i qua b phn cc nh sng th nng lng ca n khng nhng gim v bin m cn b hp thu cc sng c s phn cc nht nh. K thut s dng hai b phn cc dc v ngang v nh hng chng xy dng mt cng tc nh sng l nguyn tc c bn ch to LCD. Cu to c bn ca LCD bao gm mt ming vt liu tinh th lng c b dy khong 10m c kp gia hai ming thy tinh, mt trong ming thy tinh l cc in cc c to bi mt lp mng kim loi oxid thic trong sut cho nh sng xuyn qua c. Lp in cc ny gm c nhng hnh nh, du hiu cn c th hin. Xung quanh bn hng hai tm king c hn kn li to thnh mt hp kn, sau tinh th lng c vo bn trong v bt kn li. Bng cch s dng tnh cht ca tinh
26

o lng in

th lng, s phn cc nh sng i qua c th b thay i v kh nng truyn nh sng b iu khin bi in trng. Tinh th lng c th c mt trong hai trng thi. Khi khng c in p t vo hai in cc, chng trng thi cho php nh sng xuyn qua. Khi c in p a vo in cc, in trng gia cc in cc lm thay i nh hng ca cc phn t tinh th. Vi cc phn t c ng chnh theo in trng, trong khi nh sng i qua khng thay i phn cc s khin nh sng i qua in cc b ngn li. nh ti theo hnh dng ca cc in cc c to ra. u im ca mn hin th LCD: Tiu th cng sut rt thp vi dng in khong 20 [nA/mm2]. iu ny gip cho LCD ng dng c vi cc dng c/thit b dng pin nhm tit kim nng lng Yu cu in p thp, tiu biu 1,5 n 5 [V] Tng thch vi CMOS C th c c di nh sng mt tri Kh nng linh ng cao gip cho LCD thch hp vi cc ng dng hin th theo on, ma trn chm, th, ha v cc ng dng khc LCD c cc bt li sau: Trong nhiu ng dng, thi gian p ng ca t bo LCD rt chm so vi LED. Thi gian cho LCD khi ng vo khong ms v thi gian t trng thi tt vo khong vi chc ms Phi dng n ngun sng ngoi quan st (LCD khng t pht sng c) Gc nhn ca b hin th b hn ch i sng tng i ngn so vi LED Cc dng c hay thit b ny nhy vi nhit 2.6.3 C cu in t ch th bng ng tia m cc (CRT): ng tia in t (ng tia m cc CRT_Cathode Rays Tube): cu to gm sng phng in t v mn pht quang, tt c t trong mt bu thy tinh c rt chn khng. Sng phng in t:
Anode
X Y

Li khin G1

Li hi t G3

Mn pht quang

Tim n Cathode Li gia tc G2

XY

ng thng trung tm H thng lm lch chm tia

in p xoay chiu khong 6,3V cp cho tim n nung nng cathode pht x ra in t (electron). Chm tia in t xut pht t sng c gia tc bi cao p dng t anode, in t s bay n p vo mn pht quang ca n v to ra im sng
27

o lng in

C hai phng php li chm tia in t: Phng php in trng: in trng qut c to ra bng cch t in p rng ca ln hai bn cc X, tn hiu cn biu din trn mn hnh s t vo hai bn cc Y bng kim loi bn trong n li chm tia theo chiu dc. in trng ny s to ra lc tc dng tng hp ln chm tia in t i ngang qua n qut ln mn pht quang to ra cc im sng trn mn hnh. Phng php ny c s dng trong h thng qut ca my hin sng (Oscilloscope). Phng php t trng: T trng qut c to ra bi hai cun qut ngang v cun qut dc t c n hnh. T trng ny to ra lc tc dng tng hp ln chm tia in t i ngang qua n li chm tia p vo mt im bt k trn mn hnh. in p tn hiu hnh cn th hin trn mn hnh s iu khin mt chm tia to nn hnh nh vi sng ti tng ng. Phng php ny c s dng ph bin trong my thu hnh. Kch thc chm tia in t khi p ln mn pht quang phi nh th mi th hin li c nhng chi tit c nt cao. hi t chm tia tt nht thng t ti tm ca mn nh. C th dng in trng hoc t trng chnh hi t chm tia. Mt bn trong mn hnh c ph mt lp pht quang (ZnS) c kh nng pht ra nh sng khi b va p bi chm tia in t, lp ny ch to t hp cht phosphorus. Anode ca n hnh l mt lp dn in ph mt trong ca bu thy tinh n hnh, v in p anode rt cao nn cc ni dy ra khng c t chng gn vi cc cc khc m c mt v tr ring trn thn n. Bn ngoi lp thy tinh ca thn n c ph mt lp dn in v c ni xung sn my, nu im tip xc khng tt c th pht sinh ra nhiu trn mn nh. Sng phng in t gm c cathode c kh nng bc x in t khi c nung nng, li khin G1 v li gia tc G2. Cu to cc li c dng ng trn c khot l nh tm, vt liu thng dng l niken. in p ti li khin c gi tr m iu khin vng in tch khng gian gn cathode. Hu ht cc in t xut pht t cathode u chui qua l nh khot trn cc li v tin n anode c in p khong 15 kV. in t xut pht t cathode c khuynh hng phn k v mang cng in tch m nn chng x y nhau. Do cn phi thu nh kch thc chm tia in t li, vic ny gi l hi t chm tia. Lc tc ng to bi in trng gia cathode v G1 c khuynh hng y cc in t tr v cathode v in p li G1 c gi tr m. V khong cch t G1 n cathode khng u nhau mi v tr nn di nh hng ca lc in trng cc in tch c khuynh hng i chuyn v ng thng trung tm v cui cng tp trung ti im P ngoi li G1. Do c th xem P l im xut pht in t i vi mn hnh.

28

o lng in

Cu hi n tp: 1. V hnh v trnh by cu to c cu t in? 2. Trnh by nguyn l hot ng ca c cu t in? Phng trnh c tnh thang o nh th no, c nhn xt g? 3. Trnh by nhng c im ca c cu t in? 4. V hnh v trnh by cu to c cu in t? 5. Trnh by nguyn l hot ng ca c cu in t? Phng trnh c tnh thang o nh th no, c nhn xt g? 6. Trnh by nhng c im ca c cu in t? 7. V hnh v trnh by cu to c cu in ng? 8. Trnh by nguyn l hot ng ca c cu in ng? Phng trnh c tnh thang o nh th no, c nhn xt g? 9. Trnh by nhng c im ca c cu in ng? 10. V hnh v trnh by cu to c cu cm ng? 11. Trnh by nguyn l hot ng ca c cu cm ng? Phng trnh c tnh thang o nh th no, c nhn xt g? 12. Trnh by nhng c im ca c cu cm ng? 13. V hnh v trnh by cu to c cu tnh in? 14. Trnh by nguyn l hot ng ca c cu tnh in? 15. Trnh by nhng c im ca c cu tnh in? 16. Hy so snh u im v khuyt im gia c cu t in v c cu in t? 17. Hy so snh u im v khuyt im gia c cu t in v c cu in ng? 18. Hy so snh u im, khuyt im gia c cu in ng v c cu in t? 19. Trnh by ngn gn kt cu b hin th trong c cu in t ch th bng diode pht quang? 20. Trnh by v tnh ton cc mch phn cc cho diode pht quang? 21. Trnh by ngn gn v nguyn tc hot ng ca c cu in t ch th bng tinh th lng? 22. Trnh by u im v khuyt im ca c cu in t ch th bng tinh th lng? 23. Trnh by ngn gn v cu to c cu in t ch th bng ng phng tia in t? 24. Trnh by ngn gn nguyn tc hot ng ca c cu in t ch th bng ng phng tia in t? 25. Trnh by k hiu cc loi c cu o?

29

o lng in

(Trang trng)

30

o lng in

Chng 3: O DNG IN V IN P
3.1 o dng in mt chiu (DC) v xoay chiu (AC) 3.1.1 o dng in mt chiu (DC) 3.1.2 o dng in xoay chiu (AC) 3.1.3 nh hng ca Ampe k i vi mch o 3.2 o in p mt chiu (DC) v xoay chiu (AC) 3.2.1 o in p mt chiu (DC) 3.2.2 o in p xoay chiu (AC) 3.2.3 nh hng ca Volt k i vi mch o 3.3 o in p mt chiu bng phng php bin tr 3.3.1 Nguyn l o 3.3.2 ng dng ca phng php o in p bng bin tr 3.4 Volt k in t, Ampe k in t 3.4.1 S khi 3.4.2 Nguyn l o ca Volt k in t, Ampe k in t

31

o lng in

(Trang trng)

32

o lng in

Chng 3: O DNG IN V IN P
3.1 o dng in mt chiu (DC) v xoay chiu (AC) 3.1.1 o dng in mt chiu (DC): C cu o t in thng ch c dng o dng in t vi chc n vi trm A (50 500A). Nhng trong thc t ta cn o nhng dng in c cc tr s ln hn nhiu, mun vy cn phi m rng thang o dng in bng cch dng cc in tr shunt. in tr shunt l in tr mc song song vi c cu o c dng bo v c cu khi m rng phm vi o. Nh c in tr shunt m dng in cn o chy qua c cu o mt phn nh, cn hu ht s r mch qua in tr shunt. Do vy, mc d dng in cho php qua c cu l nh nhng ta vn c th dng c cu o c mc thm in tr shunt o dng in ln ti vi chc Ampe. I: Dng in cn o [A] Im: Dng in chy qua c cu [A] IS: Dng in chy qua in tr shunt [A] Ch : Ta thng gi dng in chy qua c cu l Im, gi tr ln nht ca dng in ny l dng in cc i Imax cng l dng in lm kim lch ht thang o IFS (FS: Full Scale) Ta c: I = IS + Im Rm.RS Im.Rm = IS.RS = I. R + R m S Gi n l h s hiu chnh dng in: I Rm.(Rm + RS) Rm n=I = =1+ R Rm.RS max S Rm RS = n - 1 Do vy m rng cc thang o dng in ra n ln th in tr shunt cn c tr s nh hn in tr mch c cu o (n 1) ln. Mch o dng in trong ng h o in vn nng: o cc dng in c tr s khc nhau, trong ng h o in vn nng ngi ta s dng hai loi in tr shunt ch yu l in tr shunt ring bit v in tr shunt vn nng. Mch o dng in dng in tr shunt ring bit: ng vi mi thang o dng u c mt in tr shunt ring bit khng lin quan vi nhau. Rm RS = n - 1 n=I I
max

l h s iu chnh dng in

33

o lng in

Do cc in tr shunt tch bit nhau nn kiu mch ny thun li cho vic sa cha, hiu chnh gi tr cc in tr shunt. Nhng s in tr dy qun s tng ln, khng c li v kinh t. Mt khc khi chuyn mch tip xc xu hoc khng tip xc th coi nh in tr shunt b loi khi mch in. Lc dng in cn o chy thng qua c cu o gy s qu ti v t khung dy. V nhng khuyt im trn m kiu mch o dng in dng in tr shunt ring bit t c s dng trong ng h o in vn nng. Mch o dng in dng in tr shunt vn nng (shunt Ayrton):

Shunt vn nng c c im l bao gm tt c cc shunt ring r ca ca cc thang o khc nhau, ngha l shunt ca thang o trc l mt phn ca shunt trong thang o sau, nh vy tit kim in tr dy hn. c bit khi chuyn mch thay i tm o th d cho tip xc xu hoc khng tip xc th c cu o cng khng b qu ti v hai u shunt vn nng c hn c nh vi hai u c cu o. Do cc ng h o in vn nng hin nay ph bin dng shunt vn nng o dng in. Tuy nhin vic sa cha, hiu chnh mch o dng shunt vn nng gp phc tp hn v phi theo ng th t cc thang o. Cc c tnh ca in tr shunt: in tr shunt c chia lm hai loi: in tr shunt trong v in tr shunt ngoi c im chung: Phn dng m rng thang o dng in cho c cu khi dng cn o ln hn dng gii hn ca c cu. c mc song song vi c cu o. c ch to bng vt liu n nh vi nhit , c h s nhit in tr thp nh: Manganin (Cu 85%, Mn 12%, Ni 3%) hoc Conxtan m bo chnh xc cao. V d: Manganin c h s nhit in tr = (1 3) .10-5 [/oC] Cu c h s nhit in tr = 4.10-3 [/oC] gp 100 ln ca Manganin. in tr shunt c ch to vi chnh xc cao c th t 1% n 0,1%. in tr shunt phi chnh xc, nn khi tnh ton thng phi ly 3 4 s l. c im ring: in tr shunt c hnh dng ging nh in tr thng, hoc c dng l xo. N c hai cc v thng c ni sn bn trong c cu o. in tr shunt ngoi c bn cc, trong c hai cc ni vi c cu o, hai cc ni vi mch o. in tr shunt ngoi thng c gi tr nh hn in tr shunt trong c kh nng phn dng ln hn. Cc shunt trong cho dng qua ln nht khng qu vi chc Ampe, cn shunt ngoi c th cho qua dng hng trm thm ch n hng nghn Ampe.
34

o lng in

Phng php gii bi tp thit k mch o dng in s dng in tr shunt vn nng gm cc bc sau: a. i tt c cc n v trong bi tp v n v chun b. i vi tng tm o, ta vit phng trnh cn bng in p trn hai nhnh mc song song. in p trn mi nhnh bng dng in chy trn nhnh nhn vi in tr ca nhnh. c. Gii phng trnh cha in tr shunt ln nht. d. Thay kt qu va tm c vo cc phng trnh cn li, khi cn c th kt hp thm mt phng trnh na tm ra gi tr cc in tr shunt thnh phn. V d 1: Cho c cu o c Rm = 3 [k], Imax = 50 [A]. Tm o 3: o dng 100 [A] Tm o 2: o dng 1 [mA] Tm o 1: o dng 10 [mA] a. Tnh gi tr in tr R1, R2, R3? b. Tnh gi tr in tr shunt ca ba tm o? p s: a. R1 = 30 []; R2 = 270 []; R3 = 2,7.103 [] b. RS1 = 30[]; RS2 = 300[]; RS3 = 3.103[] 3.1.2 o dng in xoay chiu (AC): Cc c cu in t v in ng u c th o trc tip dng in xoay chiu, trong khi c cu t in khng lm c vic ny. Mun s dng c cu t in o dng in xoay chiu ta phi kt hp vi mch chnh lu bin i dng in xoay chiu thnh dng in mt chiu trc khi a vo mch o, c th dng cc s chnh lu sau kt hp vi c cu t in: S chnh lu na chu k:
i

t Dng in xoay chiu trc khi vo b chnh lu iCL iHD iTB iTB t Dng in xoay chiu sau khi ra b chnh lu

in tr R v diode D2 c tc dng bo v D1 trong bn k D1 b phn cc ngc. Dng chnh lu trung bnh qua mch o:
I cltb = 0.318 2 I hd

Icltb = Imax l dng in ti a chy qua c cu


35

o lng in

S chnh lu ton chu k kiu cu (s dng 4 diode):


i

t Dng in xoay chiu trc khi vo b chnh lu iCL iHD iTB iTB t Dng in xoay chiu sau khi ra b chnh lu

Dng chnh lu trung bnh qua mch o:


I cltb = 0.636 2 I hd

Icltb = Imax l dng in ti a chy qua c cu

Chnh lu ton chu k cho php dng in trong c hai bn k u chy qua c cu nn tr s dng in chnh lu trong s hai na chu k ln gp i dng in chnh lu trong s na chu k. S mch chnh lu hai na chu k s dng 2 diode v 2 in tr:

S trn thay th hai diode trong mch chnh lu cu bng hai in tr m vn m bo chnh lu c dng in xoay chiu. Nh gim c s diode trong mch m sai s do nh hng ca nhit c gim nh. S ny phi m bo cc iu kin sau: Khi o dng in ti, c cu phi m bo dng in chy qua vn l dng in xoay chiu khng nh hng n mch ti bn ngoi. Trong hai na chu k u c dng in chy qua c cu theo mt chiu nht nh. Hot ng: Trong mi na chu k, dng in chnh lu s c mt phn (khong 30% 40%) chy qua c cu, phn cn li r nhnh qua mt trong hai in tr. Nh vy mt trong hai in tr s ng vai tr l in tr shunt chia dng in cn o. iu ny l hu ch nu dng in cn o c tr s ln, nhng s lm gim nhy ca c cu khi dng in cn o c gi tr nh. Trong cc s chnh lu, lch ca phn ln cc c cu o t l vi tr s trung bnh ca dng in xoay chiu. Nhng i vi in xoay chiu, ngi ta ch cn bit gi tr hiu dng. Do vy, cc ng h o in thng chia thang o ca dng c chnh lu ra tr s hiu dng. Mi quan h gia tr s hiu dng I v tr s trung bnh Itb gi l h s hnh dng ca dng in xoay chiu. I Itb = kH
36

o lng in

Vi dng in xoay chiu c dng hnh sin, h s hnh dng c gi tr kH = 1,11. Nu dng in xoay chiu c dng khc hnh sin th h s kH s thay i. Nh vy i vi cc ng h o khi sn xut c hiu chun vi cc tn hiu sin th cc tr s chia trn thang o s khng c ngha khi o dng in c dng khng sin. Gi Im l dng in chy qua c cu o Vi s chnh lu ton chu k s dng 4 diode, ta c dng in chnh lu chy I qua c cu Im cng chnh l dng in trung bnh c gi tr: Im = Itb = k H Vi s chnh lu mt na chu k v dng in gim i mt na nn ta c: I Im = Itb = 2.k H Vi s chnh lu ton chu k s dng 2 diode kt hp 2 in tr, ta c dng in R I R trung bnh c tnh theo s phn tch: Im = Itb . 2R + R = k . 2R + R m H m Trong mt s trng hp o dng in xoay chiu tn s cao ngi ta khng dng chnh lu m dng cp nhit ngu. Dng in xoay chiu i qua cp nhit ngu s t nng u ni ca n v to ra sc in ng mt chiu t l vi bnh phng cng dng in. Sc in ng mt chiu ny c t vo hai u khung dy ca c cu o kiu t in khin cho kim ch th quay mt gc tng ng. u, khuyt im ca b chnh lu bn dn: C nhy cao v ch cn in p nh m thng linh kin bn dn, cng sut tiu th thp nn nh hng t n mch o. Nhng khuyt im ln nht ca chnh lu bn dn l d b nh hng bi nhit mi trng, chnh xc khng cao, c tuyn hot ng khng hon ton tuyn tnh, khi tn s tnh hiu tng th nh hng ca cc in dung k sinh tr nn ng k, iu ny cng l gii ti sao thang o xoay chiu khng trng vi thang o mt chiu. 3.1.3 nh hng ca Ampe k i vi mch o: Ampe k dng o dng in, n c mc ni tip vi mch cn o. S mc Ampe k vo mch:

Khi Ampe k mc vo trong mch khin cho I < I do vy c nh hng n mch o. Ngi ta mong mun s nh hng ny cng nh cng tt. Mun vy ni tr RA phi cng nh so vi in tr ti gim sai s. Trong mch o dng in trong Ampe k ta c: RShunt.Rm RA = R Shunt + Rm RA: Ni tr ca Ampe k [] Khi thang o thay i th in tr RShunt thay i, do vy ni tr RA cng thay i. i vi thang o dng in ln th ni tr cng nh v ngc li khi thang o cng nh th ni tr cng ln.
37

o lng in

V d 2: Cho mt c cu t in c Rm = 1 [k], IFS = 50 [A]. Hy so snh ni tr ca Ampe k ti cc tm o 1 [mA] v 30 [mA]? p s: RA1 = 50 [], RA2 = 0,167 [] V d 3: Cho Ampe k 1 c RA1 = 50 [] mc ni tip vi ti c R ti = 100 [] Ampe k 2 c RA2 = 10 [] mc ni tip vi ti c R ti = 100 [] Hy tnh sai s mc phi khi s dng Ampe k 1 v Ampe k 2? p s: I1 = 0,01; 1 = 30% I2 = 0,003; 2 = 10% 3.2 o in p mt chiu (DC) v xoay chiu (AC) 3.2.1 o in p mt chiu (DC): Nguyn l o: in p cn o c chuyn thnh dng in i qua c cu ch th. Ngha l, o in p thng qua dng in chy qua c cu. Cc c cu t in, in t, in ng u c dng lm Volt k o in p mt chiu. Nu dng cc c cu ch th trn trc tip o in p mt chiu th tr s in p o c s khng ng k, thng khng qu 1 [V] do gii hn o ca chng b hn ch bi dng lch ton phn. o c cc in p ln hn, ta phi m rng thang o bng cch dng thm cc in tr ph Rp mc ni tip vi c cu o. Tr s in p cn o: U = Im.(Rm + Rp) Im: Dng in chy qua c cu [A] Rm: in tr ni ca c cu [] Rp: in tr ph mc ni tip vi c cu [] U Do : Rp = I - Rm m Tng tr vo ca Volt k: ZV = Rm + Rp Tng tr vo Volt k khng phi l mt gi tr c nh m s thay i theo tm o. Tm o in p cng ln th in tr ph mc ni tip s cng ln do vy tng tr vo s cng ln. Vic m rng thang o in p ta c th s dng in tr ph mc ring bit hoc in tr ph vn nng. Mch o in p dng in tr ph ring bit:

38

o lng in

Mi tm o in p c mt in tr ph tng ng, in p cng ln th in tr ph mc ni tip c gi tr cng ln. Dng mch ny thun tin cho vic sa cha, iu chnh song cng c nhc im nh mch dng in tr shunt ring bit. V d 4: Volt k dng c cu t in c Rm = 0,5 [k], Imax = 100 [A].

Gi s mch o in p ca Volt k s dng in tr ph ring bit. Hy tnh gi tr in tr ph cho ba tm o V1 = 2,5 [V], V2 = 10 [V], V3 = 50 [V]. p s: Rp1 = 24,5 [K]; Rp2 = 99,5 [K]; Rp3 = 499,5 [K] Mch o in p dng in tr ph vn nng:

Trong mch o in p dng in tr ph vn nng, ta thy in tr ph ca thang o in p nh l mt phn trong in tr ph ca thang o in p ln hn. Vic s dng in tr ph vn nng s tit kim hn v kinh t v c s dng nhiu hn trong cc ng h o in vn nng, nhng vic sa cha, iu chnh s phc tp hn v in tr ph ca cc thang o c lin quan vi nhau. Khi h hng in tr ph ca thang o in p nh th thang o ln cng b nh hng v khng o chnh xc in p c na. V d 5: Volt k dng c cu t in c Rm = 300 [], IFS = 0,3 [mA]. Gi s mch o in p ca Volt k s dng in tr ph vn nng. Hy tnh gi tr in tr ph thang o in p ca ng h vn nng o c in p: 6 [V], 30 [V], 150 [V].

p s: Rp1 = 19,7 [K]; Rp2 = 99,7 [K]; Rp3 = 499,7 [K] 3.2.2 o in p xoay chiu (AC): Cc c cu o kiu in t, in ng u c th o trc tip in p hiu dng AC. Phng php m rng thang o in p mt chiu nghin cu cng c p dng cho cc c cu ny khi cn m rng thang o in p xoay chiu. Ring vi c cu t in khi cn o in p AC th phi s dng thm b chnh lu.
39

o lng in

Mch o in p xoay chiu s dng mt diode(Mch chnh lu bn k): S :

D1: Diode nn dng in bn k dng D2: Diode bo v D1 trong bn k m trnh in p phn cc ngc gy h hng khi o in p xoay chiu c gi tr ln Dng chnh lu trung bnh qua mch o:
I cltb = 0.318 2 I hd

Icltb = Imax l dng in ti a chy qua c cu VAC = (R + Rm).Ihd + VD (tnh theo tr hiu dng)
( R + Rm ) = V AC VD I hd

V d 6: Cho mt c cu c Rm = 1 [k], IFS = 50 [A] c mc thnh mch o in p xoay chiu s dng mt diode. Hy xc nh gi tr in tr RP khi cn o VAC = 10 [V], cho bit VD = 0,6 [V]. p s: R P= 83,68 [k] Mch o in p xoay chiu s dng 4 diode (Mch chnh lu ton k): S mch:

Dng chnh lu trung bnh qua mch o:


I cltb = 0.636 2 I hd

Icltb = Imax l dng in ti a chy qua c cu VAC = (R + Rm).Ihd + 2.VD (tnh theo tr hiu dng)
( R + Rm ) = V AC 2 VD I hd

V d 7: Cho mt c cu c Rm = 1 [k], IFS = 50 [A] c mc thnh mch o in p xoay chiu s dng mch chnh lu ton k. Hy xc nh gi tr in tr RP khi cn o VAC = 10 [V], cho bit VD = 0,6 [V].

40

o lng in

Mch o in p xoay chiu s dng 2 diode kt hp 2 in tr: S mch

Chn in tr R1 = R2 = R 3.2.3 nh hng ca Volt k i vi mch o: Volt k dng o in p, c mc song song vi phn t cn o in p. V vy tng tr ca Volt k s mc song song vi phn t cn o. S mc Volt k vo mch:

V Khi cha mc Volt k vo mch th I = R + R 1 2 V V2 = I.R2 = R + R .R2 1 2 V Sau khi mc Volt k vo mch th I = R2.RV R1 + R + R 2 V R2.RV R2.RV V Volt k ch gi tr: V = R + R .I= R + R . R2.RV 2 V 2 V R1 + R + R 2 V V Nu R2 << RV th V = R + R .R2 V, c th coi nh hng ca Volt k khng 1 2 ng k i vi mch o. V d 7: Cho mch in c R1 = 6 [], R2 = 4 []. in p t vo hai u mch: 10 [V]. Volt k c RV = 200 [k]. Hy xc nh nh hng ca Volt k. p s: Khi c Volt k th V2 = 3,92 [V] 3.3 o in p mt chiu bng phng php bin tr 3.3.1 Nguyn l o: Thc hin php so snh gia in p cn o (cha bit gi tr) vi mt in p chun ( bit gi tr). Nu hai in p bng nhau th gi tr in p cn o s c suy ra t gi tr in p chun.
41

o lng in

S dng mt in k G (Galvanometer) pht hin s cn bng ca hai in p ny. Khi hai in p bng nhau th kim ca in k G ch v tr 0, lc ny gi tr in p cn o ng bng gi tr in p chun. S mch:

B1: Ngun in p mt chiu cp cho mch o [V] B2: Ngun in p chun [V] VR1: Bin tr iu chnh dng in chun I [] VR2: Bin tr o lng a ra p chun [] G: in k (c cu t in) R: Ni tr ca ngun p chun ban u [] S: Kha chuyn hai v tr A, B V tr A: Dng chun ng h o trc khi thc hin o V tr B: thc hin o in p cn o Vx Gi phn in tr tnh t v tr 1 n con trt K ca VR1 l: R1 Gi phn in tr tnh t v tr 1 n con trt K ca VR2 l: R2 Ta c: B1 I = R + VR 1 2 Hot ng: Trong qu trnh s dng, ngun in p B1 c thay i gi tr (pin b yu hoc mnh qu mc cn thit) gy nh hng n kt qu o nn ngi ta phi s dng bin tr VR1 iu chnh dng in I trong mch khng i khi ngun B1 thay i trong phm vi cho php. Mun vy, trc khi thc hin o in p Vx, ngi ta di chuyn con chy K ca VR2 n v tr nh trc ng vi in p ghi trn thang o bng in p ca ngun chun B2 sau chuyn kha S sang v tr A dng ngun chun B2 chun ha cho ng h o. Nu kim ca G khng nm ti v tr 0 th c ngha l in p chun B2 c s sai lch vi in p t VR2 a ra. Ngi ta iu chnh bin tr VR1 dng in I chy trong mch o mang gi tr nh ban u, lc kim ca in k G s ch v v tr 0. Kt thc qu trnh kim tra ng h o (nh chun ng h o). Sau kha S c chuyn sang v tr B thc hin so snh in p trn R2 vi in p Vx. iu chnh con chy K ca bin tr o lng VR2 sao cho kim in k ch v 0.
42

o lng in

Thng thng ngi ta ghi tr s in p trn VR2 khi con chy K dch chuyn n v tr no ta s bit c in p chun ang c gi tr bao nhiu. Ti v tr dng ca con chy K ta xem thang o ghi gi tr in p cn o. Ta c: V(R2) = R2.I = Vx Dng in chy qua in k G = 0 nn khng c in p ri trn in tr ni ca ngun in p Vx cn o, do vy phng php ny c u im rt chnh xc. 3.3.2 ng dng ca phng php o in p bng bin tr: nh chun cho Volt k, Ampe k mt chiu: S mch nh chun cho Volt k mt chiu:

R1: Bin tr c kt hp vi R2 to thnh mch phn p [] V: Volt k cn nh chun mc song song vi bin tr R1 [V] Khi ta thay i gi tr R1 th in p ri trn n cng thay i theo, in p V1 ny c o bng phng php o in p bng bin tr nh nghin cu trong phn trn. Gi tr ca Volt k V s c so snh vi V1 xc nh chnh xc ca Volt k cn nh chun. S mch nh chun cho Ampe k mt chiu:

RS: Bin tr chnh xc mc ni tip vi Ampe k cn nh chun v in tr R [] Khi ta thay i gi tr RS th dng in chy qua n cng thay i theo, dng in ny chy qua Ampe k. in p ri trn bin tr RS c o bng phng php o in p bng bin tr nh nghin cu trong phn trn. Ta tnh ra dng in chy qua Ampe k theo cng thc: V1 I = R sau so snh dng in ny vi gi tr do Ampe k ch c kt lun v S chnh xc ca Ampe k cn nh chun. nh chun cho Volt k, Ampe k xoay chiu: S mch nh chun cho Volt k xoay chiu:

43

o lng in

S mch nh chun cho Ampe k xoay chiu:

Phng php o in p bng bin tr khng th o in p xoay chiu c nn ta khng nh chun trc tip cc Volt k v Ampe k xoay chiu m phi nh n cc thit b trung gian. Nhng thit b ny c nh chun bng phng php o in p bng bin tr. V1, A1 l Volt k v Ampe k cn nh chun. V2, A2 l cc Volt k, Ampe k c nh chun bng phng php o in p bng bin tr. 3.4 Volt k in t, Ampe k in t 3.4.1 S khi:
ai lng xoay chieu U, I can o Phoi hp tr khang, khuyech ai tn hieu Chnh lu ra ien ap mot chieu So sanh, x l d lieu

Hien th

Trong s trn, cc i lng xoay chiu ng vo qua mch phi hp tr khng v khuych i tn hiu nhm gim nh nh hng ca thit b n mch o ng thi iu chnh bin tn hiu ph hp vi cc khi k tip. Tn hiu sau c chnh lu cho ra mc in p mt chiu, mc in p ny th hin bin ca tn hiu ng vo s c so snh vi cc chun in p bn trong thit b o to d liu cho khi x l pha sau nhn dng, gii m a ra tn hiu iu khin thch hp n b hin th. 3.4.2 Nguyn l o ca Volt k in t, Ampe k in t: Nguyn l o: Tt c cc i lng cn o u c chuyn i thnh tn hiu in p trc khi a vo mch x l. Cc thit b o lng in t u da trn c s ca Volt k in t. So snh Volt k thng v Volt k in t: Volt k thng: Hot ng da trn c s dng in chy qua c cu.
44

Tng tr vo Zin thay i theo cc tm o. nhy S hon ton ph thuc vo gi tr IFS. Do vy nhy thng l c nh i vi tng Volt k. Khi thc hin o c th o gia hai im bt k trn mch. Volt k in t: Hot ng da trn c s in p ca tn hiu cn o. Tng tr vo Zin khng thay i i vi mi tm o v ti thiu l 1 [M] nhy S do mch khuych i ca Volt k quyt nh. Do vy nhy c th thay i c ty vo tn hiu cn khuych i ln bao nhiu ln. Khi thc hin o, im mass ca Volt k in t phi c ni vi mass ca mch cn o, dng que o cn li o gi tr in p ti nhng im trn mch. Ampe k in t: Khi o dng in DC, ta phi chuyn i dng in cn o thnh tn hiu in p. Khi o dng in AC, ta chuyn i thnh in p AC sau chuyn in p AC thnh in p DC bng cc phng php chnh lu, phng php tr nh hoc phng php tr hiu dng thc. Sau cng mi thc hin o in p DC ny.

o lng in

45

o lng in

Cu hi n tp: 1. Trnh by nhim v ca in tr shunt trong mch o dng in? Tm biu thc lin h gia in tr shunt v gi tr dng in cn o? 2. Mt Ampe k dng c cu o kiu t in c in tr ni Rm = 99 [], dng lch ti a IFS = 0,1 [mA], in tr RShunt = 1 [].

Tnh dng in tng cng i qua Ampe k trong nhng trng hp sau: a. Kim lch ti a thang o b. Kim lch thang o c. Kim lch thang o 3. V hnh v trnh by nguyn l lm vic ca mch o dng in dng in tr shunt ring bit? 4. V hnh v trnh by nguyn l lm vic ca mch o dng in dng in tr shunt vn nng? 5. C bao nhiu loi in tr shunt, c im ca tng loi? 6. Trnh by cc bc thc hin gii bi ton tm gi tr in tr shunt trong mch o dng in? 7. Mt c cu o kiu t in c 3 in tr Shunt c mc to thnh Ampe k. Cho R1 = 0,05 [], R12 = 0,45 [], R3 = 4,5 [], Rm = 1 [k], IFS = 50 [A]. Hy tnh gi tr dng in o c cc tm o A, B, C.

8. Trnh by cc s mch chnh lu kt hp vi c cu t in thc hin o dng in xoay chiu? 9. Trnh by nh hng ca Ampe k i vi mch o dng in? 10. Trnh by nhim v ca in tr ph trong mch o in p? Tm biu thc lin h gia in tr ph v gi tr in p cn o? 11. V hnh v trnh by nguyn l lm vic ca mch o in p dng in tr ph ring bit? 12. V hnh v trnh by nguyn l lm vic ca mch o in p dng in tr ph vn nng? 13. Hy tnh Ra, Rb, Rc v gi tr in tr ph vn nng trong Volt k tng ng ba tm o: 3 [V], 10 [V], 30 [V]. Cho bit c cu t in c Rm = 1 [k], IFS = 50 [A], nhy S = 20 [k/V].

46

o lng in

14. Trnh by cc s mch chnh lu kt hp vi c cu t in thc hin o in p xoay chiu? 15. Trnh by nh hng ca Volt k i vi mch o in p? 16. So snh cu to, nhim v v c im gia in tr shunt v in tr ph? 17. Trnh by phng php o in p bng bin tr? 18. Trnh by cc ng dng ca phng php o in p bng bin tr? 19. Trnh by s khi ca Volt k, Ampe k in t? 20. Trnh by nguyn l o ca Volt k, Ampe k in t? 21. So snh gia Volt k thng v Volt k in t?

47

o lng in

(Trang trng)

48

o lng in

Chng 4: O IN TR
4.1 o in tr dng Volt k v Ampe k 4.2 o in tr dng phng php o in p bng bin tr 4.3 Mch o in tr trong Ohm k 4.3.1 Nguyn l mch o in tr 4.3.2 Mch o in tr thc t 4.3.3 Ohm k c nhiu tm o 4.3.4 Nguyn l o ca Ohm k tuyn tnh 4.4 Cu Wheatstone o in tr 4.4.1 o in tr dng cu Wheatstone cn bng 4.4.2 o in tr dng cu Wheatstone khng cn bng 4.5 Megohm k v ng dng o in tr cch in 4.6 o in tr t 4.6.1 Gii thiu chung v ni t 4.6.2 o in tr t dng Volt k v Ampe k

49

o lng in

(Trang trng)

50

o lng in

Chng 4: O IN TR
4.1 o in tr dng Volt k v Ampe k in tr l linh kin c tc dng hn ch dng in trong mch mt gi tr thch hp, hoc tiu hao nng lng in chuyn thnh nhit nng. in tr c th c o bng phng php trc tip hoc gin tip. Khi ta dng Volt k v Ampe k o in p v dng in chy qua in tr sau dng cng thc tnh ra in tr c gi l php o gin tip, cch o ny thc hin khi in tr ang c in p v dng in chy qua nn cn gi l cch o nng. S mch: Cch mc Volt k trc Ampe k:

in tr cn o Rx, c tnh theo cng thc: V Rx = I (1) V: S ch Volt k [V] I: S ch Ampe k [A] Tuy nhin, gi tr thc s ca in tr c tnh nh sau: VX Rx = I VX: in p ri trn in tr [V] VA: in p ri trn Ampe k [V] Ta c: V = VA + VX VX = V - VA V - VA V VA Rx = I = I - I Nhn xt: Gi tr in tr tnh theo cng thc (1) khc vi gi tr thc s ca in tr . Sai s mc phi do ni tr ca Ampe k gy ra. Ta nhn thy khi ni tr RA ca Ampe k cng nh so vi Rx ( VA cng nh) th in tr tnh theo cng thc (1) cng gn vi in tr thc. Cch mc Ampe k trc Volt k:

51

o lng in

in tr cn o Rx c tnh theo cng thc: V Rx = I (2) V: S ch Volt k [V] I: S ch Ampe k [A] Tuy nhin, gi tr thc s ca in tr c tnh nh sau: V Rx = I X IX: Dng in chy qua in tr [A] IV: Dng in chy qua Volt k [A] Ta c: I = IV + IX IX = I - I V V Rx = I - I V Nhn xt: Gi tr in tr tnh theo cng thc (2) khc vi gi tr in tr thc. Sai s mc phi do ni tr ca Volt k gy ra. Ta nhn thy khi ni tr Rv ca Volt k cng ln so vi Rx ( IV cng nh) th in tr tnh theo cng thc (1) cng gn vi in tr thc. 4.2 o in tr dng phng php o in p bng bin tr S mch:

VRX I.Rx Rx Ta c: V = I.R = R RS s s VRX Do : Rx = Rs. V (1) RS S dng phng php o in p dng bin tr o VRX, VRS. Sau s dng cng thc (1) tnh ra gi tr Rx. o in tr dng phng php ny khng ph thuc vo dng in I cp cho mch o. 4.3 Mch o in tr trong Ohm k 4.3.1 Nguyn l mch o in tr: Nh vy in tr c th o bng cch s dng hai phng php trn, cc phng php ny o in tr thng qua cc i lng trung gian cho nn c gi l phng php o gin tip. ng thi nhng phng php o in tr khi thnh phn in tr c dng in chy qua v p ca mch o cung cp nn cng c gi l cch o nng.

52

o lng in

Trong ng h o vn nng (Multimeter VOM) c phn o in tr (Ohm k). Khi cn o in tr th do phn t in tr khng mang nng lng nn mch o s c ngun nng lng ring (pin). Cch o trc tip gi tr in tr khi n c loi khi mch in nn c gi l cch o ngui. S mch:

in tr cn o Rx c mc ni tip vi c cu ch th nn cch o ny gi l o ni tip. Eb Im = R + R + R (1) x m Rx: in tr cn o [] R: in tr cn bng thang o [] Rm: in tr ni ca c cu [] Nhn xt: C cu c ni tr Rm, c mc vo mch c ngun Eb. Khi o in tr Rx, dng in i qua c cu s t gi tr cc i khi Rx = 0, nu dng in ny vt qu gii hn c cu s gy h hng. trnh s c ny ngi ta dng thm in tr cn bng thang o gii hn dng in chy qua c cu ch bng IFS khi Rx = 0 nh vy R c tc dng bo v c cu. Kim ch th s nm tn cng bn phi khi Rx = 0 v dng in lc ny l ln nht (Im = IFS). Ngc li kim ch th s nm tn cng bn tri khi Rx = v dng in l nh nht (Im = 0). Khi o in tr cng nh th gc quay ca kim cng ln. Nh vy thang o in tr c sp gi tr ngc vi thang o in p, dng in. Trong cng thc (1) ta thy dng in chy qua c cu khng t l bc nht vi in tr cho nn thang o in tr c chia khng u. V d 1: Cho mt c cu o kiu t in c Rm = 1 [k], IFS = 100 [A], c mc thnh mch o in tr kiu ni tip, ngun Eb = 1,5 [V].

a. Hy v s mch v tm gi tr in tr cn bng thang o. b. Vi gi tr no ca Rx th dng in chy qua c cu l ln nht, nh nht. Lc ny kim ch th nm v tr no. Rt ra nhn xt g. c. Hy tnh Rx khi kim nm , , thang o d. Biu din gi tr Rx va tnh c ln thang o v rt ra nhn xt.
53

o lng in

p s: a. R = 14 [k] b. Rx = 0 kim nm tn cng bn phi, Rx = kim nm tn cng bn tri c. Rx = 45 [k], Rx = 15 [k], Rx = 5 [k] 4.3.2 Mch o in tr thc t: Thc t ngun Eb s gim dn theo thi gian. Do vy khi Rx = 0 th dng in chy qua c cu s khng t gi tr IFS. c th iu chnh dng in chy qua c cu tr li gi tr IFS, ngi ta s dng mt bin tr VR mc song song vi c cu. S mch:

VR: Phn in tr tham gia vo mch o Trc khi thc hin o in tr, ngi ta chp hai que o li (tng t khi Rx = 0), sau iu chnh VR sao cho kim ca Ohm k ch 0 []. Ta c: Eb I= VR.Rm Rx + R + VR + R m VR.Rm Vm = Im.Rm = IVR.VR = I. VR + R m Vm VR.Rm 1 VR Eb VR Im = R = I. VR + R . R = I. VR + R = VR.Rm . VR + Rm m m m m Rx + R + VR + R m Eb VR Im = VR.Rm . VR + Rm (2) Rx + R + VR + R m Theo cng thc (2), khi Eb thay i ta vn c th gia Im = IFS bng cch iu chnh bin tr VR n mt gi tr thch hp. V d 3: Cho mt c cu o kiu t in c Rm = 1 [k], R = 14,5 [k], IFS = 50 [A]. c mc thnh mch o in tr kiu ni tip c bin tr cn chnh dng Im. Ngun Eb = 1,5 [V]. a. Hy v s mch v xc nh gi tr Rx khi dng in chy qua c cu Im = IFS, Im = .IFS, Im = .IFS. b. Gi s sau mt thi gian hot ng, ngun Eb gim xung cn 1,3 [V]. Hy tnh gi tr VR lc ny bng bao nhiu khi Rx = 0 ta vn c Im = IFS. c. Sau khi chnh VR, hy tnh tr s ca Rx khi dng in chy qua c cu Im = IFS, Im = .IFS, Im = .IFS. d. Nhn xt tr s Rx o c khc bit nh th no so vi lc ngun Eb = 1,5 [V].
54

o lng in

p s: a. RX = 0 [], RX = 15 [k], RX = 5 [k] b. VR = 1,381 [k] c. RX = 0 [k], RX =14,5 [k], RX = 5,03 [k] 4.3.3 Ohm k c nhiu tm o: Do thang o ca Ohm k khng tuyn tnh v gi tr ca chia cng tng khi kim dch v bn tri thang o nn sai s s tng ln. V sai s ln nn mch nguyn l o in tr khng o c trong phm vi rng. Ngi ta gim sai s bng cch m rng phm vi o in tr. Vic m rng phm vi o in tr thc hin bng cch dng thm cc in tr mc kt hp vi c cu theo dng thch hp to ra nhiu phm vi o chnh xc v dng chuyn mch chuyn i qua li. Tt c cc cch m rng phm vi o chnh xc u c chung mc ch l lm sao c th o c in tr ln m kim vn nm trong vng t sai s. S mch m rng phm vi o chnh xc s dng in tr ring bit mc song song vi c cu:

Khi chuyn mch nm v tr a (thang o X1) th R = 10 [] mc song song vi ni tr ca Ohm k Rin = 30 [k] 10.30.103 Do ni tr Ohm k lc ny l: Rin = 10 + 30.103 10 [] Nh vy khi ta o mt in tr c gi tr 10 [] th kim s lch thang o. Khi chuyn mch nm v tr b (thang o X10) th R = 100 [] mc song song vi ni tr ca Ohm k Rin = 30 [k], do ni tr Ohm k lc ny l: 100.30.103 Rin = 100 + 30.103 100 [] Nh vy khi ta o mt in tr c gi tr 100 [] th kim s lch thang o. Khi chuyn mch nm v tr c (thang o X1k) th R = 1 [k] mc song song vi ni tr ca Ohm k Rin = 30 [k], do ni tr Ohm k lc ny l: 103.30.103 Rin = 103 + 30.103 1 [k] Nh vy khi ta o mt in tr c gi tr 1 [k] th kim s lch thang o. Ohm k ch c mt thang o duy nht (0 ). Khi o in tr ta s dng chuyn mch thay i phm vi o sao cho kim nm khong 2/3 thang o tnh t phi qua.
55

o lng in

Sau c gi tr trn thang o v nhn vi h s ghi trn chuyn mch c c gi tr thc ca in tr. S dng mch m rng phm vi o chnh xc trn tnh dng in chy qua c cu khi o Rx = 20 [] (chuyn mch ang nm ti a). Nu thay Rx = 20 [] bng Rx = 200 [] (cho chuyn mch nm ti b) hoc thay Rx = 20 [] bng Rx = 2000 [] (cho chuyn mch nm ti c) th dng in qua c cu c thay i khng? 4.3.4 Nguyn l o ca Ohm k tuyn tnh: Ta bit thang o ca Ohm k theo nguyn l dng in nh cp trn l khng tuyn tnh theo in tr o. Trong cc mch in t o in tr, ngi ta s chuyn i gi tr in tr cn o Rx thnh tn hiu in p Vx bng cch cung cp mt ngun dng hng (khng i bt chp gi tr Rx). Vx = I. Rx Do I khng i nn Vx tuyn tnh theo Rx. Nh vy ngi ta thc hin o in tr thng qua in p: Rx 0, Vx 0 Rx , Vx gi tr in p ln nht ca mch o Chng hn mch o c in p ln nht = 1,5 [V], th khi Rx , Vx 1,5 [V] Nh vy nu Volt k c in tr chnh my trc khi o th phi chnh Rx cho mch o. Khng chnh Rx 0 nh mch o da trn c s dng in. 4.4 Cu Wheatstone o in tr Gii thiu chung: Cu o ln u c pht minh bi SH. Christie nm 1833. Tuy nhin n t c s dng, mi n nm 1847 khi ng Charles Wheatstone pht hin ra kh nng ca n c th o c in tr rt chnh xc v tn ng c t cho mch cu o ny. Cu o Wheatstone c s dng lu hn bt k thit b o no khc. N vn lun l thit b chnh xc v ng tin cy c dng nhiu trong cng nghip. Cp chnh xc khong 0,1 % l ph bin i vi cu Wheatstone khc vi 3% 5% sai s ca Ohmeter o tr khng. Mch cu o thng dng trong thit b o lng loi so snh, c s dng rng ri o tr khng, in khng, dung khng. N hot ng da trn nguyn tc ch th null. Ngha l s ch th khng ph thuc vo vic hiu chun thit b hay bt k c tnh no ca n. V l do ny, cp chnh xc c th t c rt cao nh vic s dng cu o. Cu o cng c s dng trong mch iu khin t ng ch yu l lnh vc o lng nh h thng cn (Loadcell), ng gi bao b... Khi s dng trong cc ng dng nh vy, mt nhnh ca cu o cha phn t c tnh tr khng m tnh cht ny li thay i theo cc thng s vt l (nhit , p sut) Chng ta s tm hiu cc mch cu c bn v nhng ng dng ca n trong o lng v iu khin. Mt s khi nim lin quan cng c gii thiu nh vic s dng nguyn l k thut s trong cu o. 4.4.1 o in tr dng cu Wheatstone cn bng: Cu o Wheatstone gm hai nhnh in tr mc song song, mi nhnh cha hai phn t ni tip nhau thng l in tr. Ngun in p mt chiu c kt ni ngang qua mng in tr cp ngun dng cho mng in tr. B d im 0, thng dng l in k G (Galvanometer) c kt ni gia hai nhnh song song d trng thi cn bng ca cu.
56

o lng in

S mch nguyn l:

S dng cu xc nh gi tr ca in tr cha bit l R4. Ta thay i gi tr ca mt trong nhng in tr cn li cho n khi dng in i ngang qua b d im 0 gim v zero. Cu o lc trng thi cn bng, iu ny c ngha l in p ri trn R3 bng vi in p ri trn R4. V vy chng ta c th ni rng: I3.R3 = I4.R4 (1) Tng t ta cng c: I1.R1 = I2.R2 (2) V khi cu cn bng dng in chy qua G bng 0 nn ta c: I1 = I 3 I2 = I 4 (1) I3.R3 I4.R4 Ta lp t s (2) = I .R = I .R 1 1 2 2 R4 R3 R1 = R2 hay R1.R4 = R2.R3 (3) Nhn xt: Cng thc (3) miu t trng thi cn bng ca cu Wheatstone v rt thun tin tnh ton gi tr in tr cha bit khi cu t trng thi cn bng. Kt qu o khng ph thuc vo ngun cung cp chnh xc ca kt qu ph thuc vo cc in tr thnh phn trong mch cu v nhy ca in k G. Kt qu o c chnh xc cao hn cc phng php o khc. Tm o in tr ca cu Wheatstone: cu o Wheatstone ch o chnh xc c nhng in tr c gi tr ln hn nhiu gi tr in tr tip xc v in tr dy ni. Trong thc t tr s ca in tr cn o phi 5 [] V d 4: Hy tnh gi tr in tr Rx trong mch sau. Gi s dng in chy qua G = 0

p s: Rx = 40 [k] nhy ca cu Wheatstone: Khi cu o cha vo trng thi cn bng, dng in chy qua G lm kim lch khi v tr zero. Ta c th xem nhy nh l lch trn mt n v dng in. iu ny
57

o lng in

ngha l khi nhy cao s cho mt gc lch ln i vi cng mt dng in. lch c th c biu din theo di hoc gc quay ca s o. nhy S c biu din theo n v: S= millimet radian = = A A A

Do vy lch tng cng: D = S x I S: nhy bit trc I: Dng in chy qua c cu [A] Nhng lm th no xc nh chnh lch ca b d im 0, ta c th s dng l thuyt Thevenil phn tch vn ny. Dng in chy qua G s c xc nh nh mch tng ng Thevenil ca cu. in p tng ng Thevenil c tm ra bng cch loi b in k G trong mch cu v tnh in p h mch gia hai im a v b. p dng cng thc phn p cho php biu din in p ti im a: R3 Va = E R + R 1 3 R4 Vb = E R + R 2 4 R3 R4 R3 R4 VTh = Va Vb = E R + R - E R + R = E (R + R - R + R ) 1 3 2 4 1 3 2 4 in tr tng ng Thevenil c tm bng cch thay th ngun p vi in tr ni ca n v tnh ton tr khng nhn ngc li cu ti cc im ni ca G. T in tr ni ca ngun in p E c gi s l rt b ( 0) v v li cu d tnh ton in tr tng ng. Tr khng tng ng ca mch RTh: R1.R3 R2.R4 RTh = R + R + R + R 1 3 2 4 Mch tng ng Thevenil ca cu, khi nhn ngc v t hai u ni a, b Ta c: VTh IG = R + R Th G 4.4.2 o in tr dng cu Wheatstone khng cn bng: S mch:

Trong cng nghip ngi ta s dng cu Wheatstone khng cn bng. Ngha l s dng in p ra (hoc dng in ra) ng ra ca cu o in tr Rx hoc o s thay i R ca Rx
58

o lng in

Phng php ny cn ngun E cung cp n nh v in p ra ph thuc vo in p cung cp E. nhy ca cu ph thuc vo ngun E v ni tr ca b ch th (hoc tng tr vo ca mch khuych i nu in p ng ra ca cu c a vo mch khuych i). Eb.R3 Eb.R4 V3 V4 = R + R - R + R 1 3 1 4 R2.R4 R1.R3 Tng tr vo ca cu: R = R + R + R + R 1 3 2 4 Dng in IG chy qua in k khi cu khng cn bng V3 - V4 IG = R + R G RG: ni tr ca in k G 4.5 Megohm k v ng dng o in tr cch in Phng php s dng Megohm k: Megohm k l loi dng c chuyn dng o in tr ln nh in tr cch in ca my in, kh c in v ng dy m Ohm k bnh thng khng o c. B phn ch yu ca Megohm k l mt t s k t in v mt manht (my pht in mt chiu quay tay) dng lm ngun in o. T s k l mt dng c o kiu t in c bit, c cu o ca n l nam chm vnh cu v hai cun dy: Cun dy lch (deflecting coil) Cun dy kim sot (control coil) Hai cun dy xp vung gc vi nhau v c lp trn cng mt trc quay c gn kim ch th v c th quay c cng vi trc. Dng in cp cho hai cun dy nh dy dn mm m khng dng l xo xon v vy trn trc khng c l xo to moment cn, do khi khng dng th kim c th dng li mt v tr bt k. Nguyn l o in tr cch in ca Megohm k c trnh by nh sau:

Hai cun dy ca t s k gm mt cun u ni tip vi in tr ph R1 trong ng h, cun cn li u ni tip vi in tr ph R2 (cng trong ng h) v in tr cn o Rx, c hai cun dy u u vo manht_my pht in mt chiu kch t bng nam chm vnh cu. Khi quay u manht, hai cun dy c dng in i qua, s tc dng ln nhau gia dng in v t trng khin hai cun dy sn sinh ra moment quay ngc chiu nhau, kim ng h quay theo mt gc nht nh ty theo ln ca moment tng hp ca hai moment ngc chiu nhau . V t trng trong khe h c ch to khng u
59

o lng in

nn khi phn ng quay th hai moment s thay i tr s. Nu chng bng nhau th phn ng s cn bng v lc ta c c gc quay ca kim. Gc quay ca kim ph thuc vo t s ca hai dng in, v cc in tr ph R1, v R2 khng i, nn t s gia hai dng in ph thuc vo Rx, tc l ph thuc vo ln ca in tr cn o. Nh vy khi bit c gc quay ta bit c gi tr in tr cn o v r rng in p ca my pht khng nh hng n kt qu o. Vic s dng manht c th to ra in p ln n 1000 [V]. Tc quay ca my pht khong 80 n 120 [v/p], khi quay cng nhanh in p pht ra cng mnh. S khng u ca in p s nh hng n sai s kt qu o. hn ch iu ny, ngi ta ch thm b phn iu tc gn trong my pht. V tr ca phn ng so vi phn cm s c iu chnh da theo ln lc li tm to ra bi chuyn ng quay. Khi tc thp, phn ng c a li gn phn cm gip tng t thng gi qua phn cm khin cho in p khng gim, khi vn tc tng ln qu trnh s xy ra ngc li. Cc Megohm k thng dng tuy c nhiu kiu khc nhau, nhng quy cch v tnh nng ch yu ca chng thng nh sau: in p nh mc: 100, 500, 1000 v 2500 [V]. Phm vi o: gm hai c K (0 500 1000 K) v M (0 500 1000 M). Trn Megohm k thng c ba cc u dy l cc ng dy, cc ni t, v cc bo v. Tc dng ca cc bo v l tr b hin tng r in gia cc ng dy v cc ni t v mt ngoi ca vt cch in c o. Khi u dy phi hiu r cng dng ca cc cc ny, khng c u nhm. S dng Megohm k cn ch cc im sau: Khi chn Megohm k cn cn c theo cp in p ca thit b in (thng dng l loi 500 [V], trng hp c bit cng dng loi 1000 [V]. Nu dng Megohm k c in p nh mc cao o thit b c in p thp, th n c th nh thng cch in ca thit b. Trc khi o in tr cch in, cn phi ct ngun in ca thit b c o, cho phng in ngn mch i vi t nhm m bo an ton v o chnh xc. Sau phi th h mch v ngn mch. Th h mch: cho hai dy o h mch, quay manht, kim phi ch tr s . Th ngn mch: cho ngn mch hai dy, quay manht, kim phi ch tr s 0. Nu khi th m kim khng ch ng nh vy th chng t Megohm k b hng, cn phi kim tra v sa cha. Khi o phi t Megohm k tht bng phng, n nh, trnh cho khi quay manht kim b dao ng, s c khng chnh xc. Cc dy u vi Megohm k phi dng loi mt si v cch in tt, khng c dng loi dy cch in hai rut. Hai dy dn khng c qun vo nhau , cng khng c dy tip xc vi thit b in hoc mt t, lm cho kt qu o khng chnh xc. Khi u dy cn phn bit r cc ni t phi u vo v thit b cn o hoc u vo dy t. Khi o in tr cch in ca cp cn phi u lp cch in ca cp vo vng bo v ca Megohm k. Khi quay manht phi quay t chm tng nhanh dn, ri gi tc xc nh, thng l 120 vng/pht, cho php c s bin ng trong khong 20%, ch cho kim ch tr s n nh th c kt qu o. Khi o in tr cch in ca thit b in c in dung ln (nh t in, cp in...) th sau khi o xong ct dy u cc ng dy ra, gim tc v gim tay
60

o lng in

quay, trnh hin tng np in ngc tr li t thit b o lm hng Megohm k. Sau khi o xong cn phng in bng cch cho ngn mch thit b c o xung t. 4.6 o in tr t 4.6.1 Gii thiu chung v ni t: Nh ta bit h thng cung cp in lm nhim v truyn ti v phn phi in nng n cc h s dng in. Do vy, li in thng phn b trn din tch rng v gn vi ngi s dng. Trong qu trnh s dng, do vn hnh qu nhit hoc in p cao, dng in ln lm lo ha cch in khin cho cch in ca thit b in c th b h hng dn n r in ra phn v gy nguy him cho ngi vn hnh. Ngoi ra, ng dy in i ngoi tri d b st nh vo hoc cm ng st truyn n cc thit b s dng in gy h hng. Vn t ra l phi c bin php an ton chng in git v chng st nh trn ng dy in nh hng n ngi s dng v thit b in. Mt trong nhng bin php c hiu qu, an ton v tng i n gin l ni t. Trang b ni t bao gm cc in cc v dy dn ni t. Khi thit b c ni t, dng in do chm v hoc h hng cch in s chy qua v thit b theo dy ni t xung cc in cc v tn vo t do vy s khng gy nguy him cho ngi s dng thit b in. C hai loi ni t t nhin v ni t nhn to: Ni t t nhin: s dng cc phng tin sn c nh ng dn nc, ng kim loi t trong t (tr cc ng dn nhin liu lng v kh d chy), cc kt cu bng kim loi ca cng trnh nh ca c ni t, cc v bc kim loi ca cp t trong t. Ni t nhn to: thc hin bng cch ng cc cc thp, thanh thp dt hnh ch nht hay hnh trn c chiu di khong 2 n 3m xung t sao cho u trn cch mt t khong 0,5 n 0,8m. Cc ng thp v cc thanh thp dt nn chn c chiu dy > 4mm hn ch hin tng n mn kim loi. Dy ni t cn c tit din tha mn bn c kh v n nh nhit, chu c dng in cho php lu di. Dy ni t khng c b hn 1/3 tit din dy dn pha, thng dng thp c tit din 120mm2, nhm 35mm2, hoc ng 25mm2. in tr ni t ca thit b ni t khng c ln hn cc tr s quy nh. Theo nguyn tc vn hnh an ton thit b in, in tr ca kt cu tip t ni vo trung tnh my pht in hoc my bin p c in p n 1000 [V] v cng sut b hn 100 [KVA] th in tr tip t phi nh hn 10 [], nu cng sut ln hn 100 [KVA] th in tr t phi nh hn 4 []. Cc khi nim c bn: Cc o in tr t (in cc): Cc in cc ni t bao gm in cc thng ng c ng su vo trong t v in cc ngang c chn ngm di t mt su nht nh. Cc in cc ny c lin kt vi nhau bng cc dy ni t trn u in cc. in cc c lm t vt liu kim loi nh ng, thp Trong thc t khi cn xy dng mt h thng tip t, ngi ta khng dng mt cc t m s dng nhiu cc t ni song song chng li to thnh mt cm cc t, iu ny gip gim nh in tr tip t. Ngoi ra ngi ta cn dng bin php ci to vng t ng cc bng cch mui, than, cc cht ha hc... tng kh nng tip xc ca vng t ng cc vi cc t. in tr t (in tr tip t): Tng in tr kt cu ni t nm trong t, in tr dy dn tip t v in tr xut hin trn b mt tip xc ca cc t vi vng t ng cc c gi l in tr
61

o lng in

t. in tr t c xc nh bng t s gia in p t vo kt cu tip t so vi t v dng in i qua kt cu ni t vo t. in tr tip t khng n nh m bin i theo thi gian, nhit , m, tnh cht, thnh phn t. V vy, ta nn tin hnh o in tr t vo ma hanh (kh ro) khi in tr t l ln nht trong nm. Sau khi thi cng ni t cho cc tip t (li tip t) hoc khi cn kim tra in tr tip t ca mt h thng ni t c t yu cu hay khng ngi ta phi tin hnh o in tr t. Khong cch gia cc cc t: Theo thc t khi o in tr t ngi ta nhn thy cc cc t c s nh hng ln nhau gy ra sai s trong kt qu o. Khi khong cch gia hai cc t > 20m th s nh hng ny tr nn khng ng k. Ngun in p cung cp cho mch o: Trong mi trng hp o in tr t, ngun in p cung cp cho mch o phi l ngun tn hiu xoay chiu dng sin hoc dng xung vung, khng dng ngun in mt chiu cung cp cho mch o v trong t lun tn ti cc Ion dn in, lc hai cc t s tr thnh hai in cc in gii t, cc Ion (+) bm vo cc m, cc Ion () bm vo cc dng to nn in th ln lp tip xc. in th ny ngn cn dng in ca mch o in tr t v gy ra sai s trong kt qu o. Khi ta dng ngun xoay chiu th do cc tnh ngun in thay i lin tc nn cc Ion (+) v Ion () khng th bm vo cc in cc hnh thnh nn cc in p tip xc. i khi ngi ta khng dng ngun in t my o m s dng ngay ngun in li cp cho mch o, nhng phi c thm mt my bin p cch li h in p li xung cho ph hp, ng thi my bin p cch li cn tng an ton v gip cho mch o in tr t khng b nh hng bi dng in trung tnh chy trong t khi li in mt i xng cng nh nh hng ca in tr cc tip t trung tnh li in. Ta khng th dng Ohm k o in tr tip t v in p v dng in do Ohm k to ra qu nh khng lm cho dng in chy trong t t n mt gi tr n nh c th tin hnh o, ti thiu dng in ny phi t 10 20 [mA]. 4.6.2 o in tr t dng Volt k v Ampe k: Phng php o trc tip: S mch o:

Cc A: Cc cn o in tr tip t RX Cc B: Cc tip t ph Cc C: Cc d in p RX: in tr tip t ca cc A cn o RB: in tr tip t ca cc ph RC: in tr tip t ca cc d


62

o lng in

Ngi ta thng kt hp mt my bin p t ngu vi mt my bin p cch li cho ra mt in p xoay chiu c th iu chnh c cung cp cho mch o. My bin p t ngu c kh nng thay i d dng mc in p ra, cn my bin p cch li s gip ngn cch nh hng ca li in n mch o in tr t, s cp my bin p cch li c ni vo hai cc A v B. Cc d C c cm xung t cch kt cu tip t A mt khong ln hn 20m (nm trong vng t c in th khng). Sau khi ng in, ta o c dng in I bng Ampe k v in p V bng Volt k. S tng ng:

in tr tip t ca kt cu tip t A c xc nh bng cng thc: V RX = I [] VX V + VC Thc cht nu xt trn mch o chng ta s thy: RX = I = I - I [] RX V T cng thc trn ta nhn thy gim nh sai s trong kt qu o th Volt k khng nhng phi c in tr ln dng in IV chy qua n c gi tr nh m in tr ny cn phi ln hn nhiu ln so vi in tr ca cc d C in p ri trn cc d C tr nn khng ng k. Ngi ta thng s dng loi Volt k c in tr nhp ln nh Volt k in t, Volt k tnh in Phng php trn dng o in tr tip t c tr s nh. Phng php o gin tip: S mch o:

Cc A: Cc cn o in tr tip t RX Cc B: Cc tip t ph Cc C: Cc d in p RX: in tr tip t ca cc A cn o RB: in tr tip t ca cc ph RC: in tr tip t ca cc d Nguyn tc ca phng php ny l o ln lt ba cp in tr mc ni tip vi ngun in p. Vic o tng in tr ni tip c th dng cu o hoc dng mt Volt k v mt Ampe k. Sau tng ln o, tng in tr ca mi cp l:
63

o lng in

V1 I1 = RX + RB = R1 (1) V2 I2 = RB + RC = R2 (2) V3 I3 = RX + RC = R3 (3) Gii h 3 phng trnh trn tm ra cc in tr RX, RB, RC Do khng b nh hng bi in tr cc ph v Volt k nn phng php o gin tip mc sai s t hn phng php o trc tip.

64

o lng in

Cu hi n tp: 1. Trnh by phng php o in tr dng Volt k v Ampe k trong mch Volt k mc trc Ampe k? 2. Trnh by phng php o in tr dng Volt k v Ampe k trong mch Ampe k mc trc Volt k? 3. Trnh by phng php o in tr dng phng php o in p bng bin tr? 4. Trnh by nguyn l mch o in tr trong Ohm k? 5. Gii thch ti sao thang o Ohm k khng tuyn tnh v c ghi ngc? 6. Ohm k c nhiu tm o l g? 7. Trnh by nguyn l hot ng ca cu o Wheatstone cn bng? 8. Trong mch cu o Wheatstone nu ngun thay i khi cu o ang trng thi cn bng th v tr kim G s nh th no? 9. Cho mch cu o in tr nh sau:

Hy tnh gi tr Rx nu cho R1 = 400 [], R2 = 5 [k], R3 = 2 [k] 10. Cho mch cu o in tr nh sau:
Khi cu o cn bng, ta c: Ra = 1200 [] Ra = Rb.0,5 R1 = 2.Rb R1 = 1,25.R2 E = 7,5 [V] a. Tnh gi tr Rb, R1, R2? b. Tnh Rx, bit I3 = 1 [mA]

11. Trnh by cu to v nguyn l hot ng ca Megohm k? 12. Khi s dng Megohm k cn ch nhng iu g? 13. Ni t l g? Ti sao phi ni t? 14. in tr t l g? Thc hin o in tr t phi ch iu g? 15. Trnh by phng php o trc tip in tr t dng Volt k v Ampe k? 16. Trnh by phng php o gin tip in tr t dng Volt k v Ampe k?

65

o lng in

(Trang trng)

66

o lng in

Chng 5: O IN DUNG V IN CM
5.1 Dng Volt k, Ampe k o in dung v in cm 5.1.1 o in dung 5.1.2 o in cm

67

o lng in

(Trang trng)

68

o lng in

Chng 5: O IN DUNG V IN CM
5.1 Dng Volt k, Ampe k o in dung v in cm 5.1.1 o in dung: Ta bit t in ch cho dng in xoay chiu i qua v ngn dng in mt chiu li. Do vy o c in dung, ta cn c ngun in xoay chiu, mt ng h o dng in thang o mA v mt ng h o in p. Ta c th mc Volt k trc Ampe k hoc ngc li, thng thng s mc Volt k trc Ampe k khi o t in c in dung nh v khi o t in c in dung ln s mc Ampe k trc Volt k. Trc khi o cn kim tra cht lng ca cc t in c b r hoc chp mch khng. S mch o:

Tng tr in dung Cx: U 1 1 XCx = I = = .Cx 2..f.Cx 1 I . = Error!.Error! = 3,2.10-3.Error! Cx = 2..f U U: S ch ca Volt k [V] I: S ch ca Ampe k [A] Trong trng hp cn o in dung ca t ha, ta cn thm ngun in mt chiu phn cc cho t in. in p mt chiu gn bng in p lm vic ca t in. Yu cu i vi ngun in cung cp cho mch o l phi c dng sin, mo dng nh (ha tn khng ng k). Bin v tn s ca tn hiu phi n nh trong sut qu trnh o. Trong trng hp cn o r ca t in ta mc thm Watt k, lc ny in tr r Rx c xc nh nh sau: P Rx = I2

Tng tr ca t in lc ny s gm hai thnh phn in dung v in tr r: V Z = I = R2x + X2Cx = R 2x + ( 1 2 ) .Cx


69

o lng in

Do vy in dung cn o: Cx = Cx = .

1 . Z2 - R2x

1 I2 = . V2I2- P2 V2 P 2 2 -( 2) I I

Kim tra r ca t c phn cc tnh s dng ampe k: ng h o dng in c th c s dng o dng r ca mt t in.

Dng in r ph thuc t l in p ca t v gi tr in dung. in p kim tra c p vo t in gn bng vi gi tr in p lm vic ca t. Sau khi t in np y gn bng in p ngun. iu kin l tng l dng ny s bng khng. Tuy nhin v dng in r ca t s c mt dng in nh tip t c duy tr. Do cc t ha c in dung ln nn sau khi ch to chng c dng r cho php: in p lm vic [V] 100 100 300 300 o in tr r ca t s dng volt k: Dng r cho php [mA] 0,1 0,2 0,5

Ngi ta khng s dng mA k o m s dng Volt k v c im ca Volt k c in tr ph mc ni tip vi c cu s bo v c cu trong trng hp t b ngn mch. V d 1: Volt k t tm o 50 [V], n ch gi tr 10 [V].Vs = 200(V) Tnh in tr r qua t? Volt k c nhy S = 20 [K/V] Ta c: Vc = 200 10 = 190 [V]. an ton, ban u t thang o 200 [V]. Imax = 50 [A] v thang o t in tuyn tnh nn : Ic = 10 [A] 190 Rc = = 19 [M]. 10 A Thc t t in phn cc c R > 10 [M] th vn dng c. Nu R < 10 [M] th khng nn dng na. Nu chuyn Volt k xung tm o 10 [V] th kim nm v tr no?
70

o lng in

Kim tra r ca t khng phn cc tnh s dng Volt k: S dng Volt k kim tra dng r ngang qua bn cc ca t in.

Dng in r ca t in c th nhn bit thng qua tr khng tng ng. t in p mt chiu vo mch in. in p ngun s phn p trn in tr vo ca Volt k v in tr t in mc ni tip ty vo t l in p ca chng (t in c np y). Nu t in b r r, kim ch ca Volt k s lch v c dng in chy qua. in tr tng ng ca R: E-V Rt = Rin. V [] Rt: in tr tng ng ca t in [] Rin: in tr vo ca Volt k [] E: in p mt chiu cung cp cho mch o [V] V: in p c trn Volt k [V] E-V V I=R = R in t E-V R = Rin V Rt ca t khng phn cc tnh phi ln hn 100 [M] mi m bo cht lng. 5.1.2 o in cm: S mch o:

Gi s cun dy l thun cm (in tr cun dy khng ng k) Tng tr in cm Lx: V XLx = I = .Lx = 2..f.Lx V: S ch ca Volt k [V] I: S ch ca Ampe k [A] Yu cu i vi ngun in cung cp cho mch o cng ging nh trong trng hp o in dung. Trong trng hp cn o in tr cun dy ta mc thm Watt k o tn hao do in tr ca cun dy.
71

o lng in

in tr Rx c xc nh nh sau: P Rx = I2

Tng tr ca cun dy lc ny s gm hai thnh phn in cm v in tr: V Z = I = R2x + X2Lx = R2x +2.L2x 1 Z2 - R2x Do vy in cm cn o: Lx = 1 V2I2- P2 Lx = .I2 V d 2: Cho mch in nh sau:

Cho bit in p Vs c dng: u (t) = U. 2 .sin 500t [V]. Ampe k A1 o c 5 [A], A2 o c 2 [A], Watt k o c 1000 [W]. Hy tm in dung ca t in, bit rng in tr r ca t khng ng k. p s: C = 20 [F] V d 3: Ngi ta tin hnh th nghim sau xc nh gi tr in tr v in cm ca cun dy:

t in p VDC = 12 [V] th Ampe k ch 0,5 [A], khi thay bng in p xoay chiu Vs = 220 [V], tn s f = 50 [Hz] th Ampe k ch 5 [A], hy tnh gi tr R, L. p s: R = 24 [], L = 0,117 [H]
72

o lng in

Cu hi n tp: 1. Trnh by cch s dng Volt k v Ampe k o in dung? 2. Trnh by cch s dng Volt k v Ampe k o in cm?

73

o lng in

(Trang trng)

74

o lng in

Chng 6: O CNG SUT V IN NNG


6.1 o cng sut mt chiu 6.1.1 Phng php o gin tip dng Volt k v Ampe k 6.1.2 Phng php o trc tip dng Watt k in ng 6.2 o cng sut xoay chiu A. o cng sut tc dng P 6.2.1 o cng sut ti 1 pha a. Phng php o gin tip dng Volt k v Ampe k b. Phng php o trc tip dng Watt k in ng 6.2.2 o cng sut ti 3 pha a. o cng sut ti 3 pha 4 dy b. o cng sut ti 3 pha 3 dy B. o cng sut phn khng Q 6.2.3 o cng sut phn khng ti 1 pha 6.2.4 o cng sut phn khng ti 3 pha a. o cng sut phn khng ti 3 pha 4 dy b. o cng sut phn khng ti 3 pha 3 dy 6.3 o in nng 6.3.1 o in nng ti 1 pha 6.3.2 o in nng ti 3 pha 6.4 o h s cng sut cos 6.4.1 o cos dng Volt k, Ampe k v Watt k 6.4.2 o cos dng Volt k 6.4.3 o lch pha dng Cos k in ng

75

o lng in
O CNG SUT

O CNG SUT MT CHIU

O CNG SUT XOAY CHIU

PHNG PHP GIN TIP DNG V_K V A_K

PHNG PHP TRC TIP DNG WATT K

O CNG SUT TC DNG P

O CNG SUT PHN KHNG Q

V_K TRC A_K

V_K SAU A_K

CUN P TRC CUN DNG

CUN P SAU CUN DNG

CNG SUT P 1 PHA

CNG SUT P 3 PHA

CNG SUT Q 1 PHA

CNG SUT Q 3 PHA

DNG V_K, A_K, WATT K PHNG PHP GIN TIP DNG V_K V A_K PHNG PHP TRC TIP DNG W_K MNG 3 PHA 4 DY MNG 3 PHA 3 DY X HOC KHNG X CHUYN VAR K THNH WATT K MCH 3 PHA 4 DY MCH 3 PHA 3 DY

DNG TRC TIP VAR K

I XNG

KHNG I XNG

DNG 2 WATT K 1 PHA

I XNG

KHNG I XNG

I XNG

KHNG I XNG

DNG 1 WATT K

DNG 3 WATT K 1 PHA

DNG 3 VAR K 1 PHA

DNG 3 VAR K 1 PHA

DNG 1 WATT K 1 PHA

DNG 1 WATT K 1 PHA

DNG 1 WATT K 1 PHA

DNG 1 VAR K 1 PHA

DNG 1 VAR K 1 PHA

DNG 3 WATT K 1 PHA

DNG 1 WATT K 1 PHA

DNG 1 WATT K 1 PHA

DNG 3 WATT K 1 PHA

DNG 3 WATT K 1 PHA

76

o lng in

Chng 6: O CNG SUT V IN NNG


6.1 o cng sut mt chiu 6.1.1 Phng php o gin tip dng Volt k v Ampe k: Cch 1: Volt k mc trc Ampe k S ni dy:

Cng sut trn ti PL = V.I [W] (1) V: S ch ca Volt k [V] I: S ch ca Ampe k [A] Thc cht cng sut trn ti c tnh nh sau: PL = VL.IL = VL.I VL: in p ri trn ti [V] VA: in p ri trn Ampe k [V] Ta c: V = VA + VL VL = V - VA PL = (V - VA).I = V.I VA.I = V.I RA .I2 PL = V.I RA. I2 Nhn xt: Cng sut tnh theo cng thc (1) khc vi cng sut thc s ca ti. Sai s mc phi do ni tr ca Ampe k gy ra. Ta nhn thy khi ni tr RA ca Ampe k cng nh th cng sut tnh theo cng thc (1) cng gn vi cng sut thc ca ti. Cch 2: Volt k mc sau Ampe k S ni dy:

Cng sut trn ti PL = V.I [W] (2) V: S ch ca Volt k [V] I: S ch ca Ampe k [A] Thc cht cng sut trn ti c tnh nh sau:
77

o lng in

PL = VL.IL = V.IL Ta c: I = IV + IL IL: Dng in chy qua ti [A] IV: Dng in chy qua Volt k [A] IL = I - I V PL = V. (I - IV) = V.I V.IV = V.I I2V.RV PL = V.I I2V.RV Nhn xt: Cng sut tnh theo cng thc (2) khc vi cng sut thc trn ti. Sai s mc phi do ni tr RV ca Volt k. Ta nhn thy khi ni tr RV ca Volt k cng ln th dng in IV s cng nh lc cng sut tnh theo cng thc (2) cng gn vi cng sut thc ca ti. 6.1.2 Phng php o trc tip dng Watt k in ng: Watt k in ng c cu to da trn c cu in ng gm c cun dy tnh v cun dy di ng. Cun dy tnh cn gi l cun dng in (cun dng), c mc ni tip vi ti. c im ca cun dng l s vng dy t nhng c tit din ln. Cun dy di ng cn gi l cun in p (cun p), c mc song song vi ti. c im ca cun p l c s vng dy ln nhng tit din nh, trong cun p tn ti in tr ni RV. Khi c dng in chy qua hai cun dy ny th t trng tng tc gia hai cun dy s khin cun dy di ng quay lm cho kim ch th trn mt o cng quay theo. Phng trnh c tnh thang o cho dng in mt chiu ca c cu in ng: = KI.I1.I2 Gc quay kim ch th c s lin h vi cc dng in chy qua hai cun dy. Nu gi dng in chy qua cun dng in l IA v dng in chy qua cun p l IV th gc quay = KI.IA.IV (1) Ngi ta thng mc ni tip vi cun p mt in tr R tng ni tr ca cun p nhm gim nh dng in chy qua cun p gip tng chnh xc ca Watt k. Sai s cng gim khi in tr cun p v R rt ln so vi in tr ti. VDC (2) Nh vy dng in chy qua cun p IV = R + R V Thay (2) vo (1) ta c: VDC KI KI = KI.IA. R + R = R + R VDC.IA = R + R . P V V V KI t K = R + R , ta c = K . P V Nh vy gc quay ca kim ch th t l vi cng sut tiu th trn ti, c cu in ng c kh nng ch th cng sut theo lch ca kim. Cch 1: Cun p mc trc cun dng S ni dy:

78

o lng in

IA: Dng in chy qua cun dng [A] IV: Dng in chy qua cun p [A] Cun p c mc trc cun dng do vy ni tr ca cun dng s nh hng n chnh xc kt qu o. Cch 2: Cun p mc sau cun dng S ni dy:

IA: Dng in chy qua cun dng [A] IV: Dng in chy qua cun p [A] Cun p c mc sau cun dng do vy ni tr cun p s nh hng n chnh xc kt qu o. Sai s cng gim khi ni tr cun p v R cng ln hn so vi in tr ti RL. 6.2 o cng sut xoay chiu: A. o cng sut tc dng P 6.2.1 o cng sut ti 1 pha: a/ Phng php o gin tip dng Volt k v Ampe k: S ni dy:

Ngi ta dng thm mt in tr ph R (khong vi ) mc ni tip vi ti. Dng Volt k o in p gia im 1 v 2 c V1, o gia hai im 2 v 3 c V2, o gia hai im 1 v 3 c V3. V23 - V22 - V21 Cng sut trn ti PL = I. 2V1 Chng minh: Gi l gc lch pha gia in p trn ti V2 v dng in I chy qua ti, ta c gin vector biu din cc i lng I, V1, V2, V3:
V2 O V1 79 V3

o lng in

Trong tam gic OV1V3 ta c: V23 = V22 + V21 + 2V1V2.cos V23 - V22 - V21 cos = 2V1V2 PL = VL.IL.cos = V2. I.cos = V2. I. PL = I. V23 - V22 - V21 2V1 (pcm)

V23 - V22 - V21 2V1V2

b/ Phng php o trc tip dng Watt k in ng: S ni dy:

Phng trnh c tnh thang o cho dng in xoay chiu ca c cu in ng: = KI.I1.I2.cos Gc quay kim ch th c s lin h vi dng in chy qua hai cun dy v lch pha gia hai dng in ny. Ta c tng tr ca cun p l: ZV = R + RV + jwL R (mang tnh thun tr) Do vy cng l gc lch pha gia dng in ti IL v in p ti UL Mq = KI.IA.IV.cos UL Mq = KI.IL.Z .cos V KI t Z = KI V Mq = KI.IL.UL.cos = KI.P Trc quay ca kim c gn l xo to ra moment cn Mc = Kc. Khi kim ng yn th: Mq = Mc KI.P = Kc. KI.P Gc quay ca kim = K = K.P t l vi cng sut tiu th ca ti c Hng s Watt k Cw: Pm Um.Im Cw = = [w/vch] m m Khi ta thay i tm o U, I ca Watt k th hng s Cw cng thay i: U'm.I'm Cw = m Gc quay ca kim ch th cng ph thuc vo chiu dng in, do vy khi s dng Watt k phi ch n cc tnh ca n. Cc u cng cc tnh phi c ni vi nhau, nu ni ngc kim s quay ngc li. Trong nhng Watt k c cp chnh xc cao, ngi ta ghi in tr ca cun dy tnh v ng nhm gip tnh chnh xc cng
80

o lng in

sut ph ti khi loi tr nh hng ca in tr cc cun dy. Khi o ngun in xoay chiu, ta phi ch n gc lch pha gia dng in v in p. Nhm to s thun li trong vic s dng Watt k o cng sut ca ti c dng v p thay i, ngi ta chia cun dng in thnh cc cp tng ng vi tm dng in cn s dng thay i s vng dy ca cun dng (ging nh c cu in t) bng cch u song song hoc u ni tip chng li. thay i tm in p, ngi ta dng in tr ph mc ni tip vi cun in p (ging trong c cu t in). Kt qu c trn Watt k ph thuc tn s ngun in do nh hng bi in khng cun p lm di pha gia in p v dng in. Nh vy, h s m rng ca Watt k bng tch s h s m rng dng in v in p. Watt k in ng c u im v chnh xc (cp chnh xc 0,5; 0,2; 0,1 %), s dng c cho c ngun in mt chiu (DC), v xoay chiu (AC)_tn s 45 60 Hz hoc trn 500 Hz. Tuy nhin, Watt k in ng c khuyt im l moment quay nh, t trng yu d b nh hng bi t trng nhiu bn ngoi, kh nng chu qu ti km, gi thnh cao. Trong cng nghip, ngi ta thng dng loi Watt k st in ng c u im v chc chn, gi thnh h, tuy nhin chnh xc khng cao. Ngoi ra cng c loi Watt k kiu cm ng nhng t c s dng v gi tr c b nh hng bi tn s ngun in nn khi tn s thay i s lm sai lch kt qu, loi ny tiu th nhiu nng lng nn cng d gy ra sai s. Trong trng hp khng cn chnh xc cao, ngi ta dng c cu st in ng gim chi ph v tng kh nng chu qu ti ca thit b o. Tuy nhin c cu st in ng c sai s ln hn do hin tng t tr ca li st non, nh hng ca dng in xoy v do tnh phi tuyn ca ng cong t ha. K hiu Watt k 1 pha:

Trong k hiu Watt k, 1 v 2 l hai u cun dng, 3 v 4 l hai u cun p. Do vy, dng ti IL s i qua cun dng, dng in i qua cun p t l vi ln ca in p trn hai u. Khi cn o cng sut ca i tng c in p v dng ln, ngi ta thng s dng thm bin dng v bin p h thp dng in v in p trc khi a vo cun dy c nh v di ng trong Watt k. Ch : Chiu quay ca kim ch th c xc nh theo mt chiu nht nh. Nu Watt k quay ngc th ta phi tro i li hai u 1 v 2 ca cun dng in. Khng c mc in tr R gia hai u 1 v 3 v lc ny hai u cui 2 v 4 ca hai cun dy s c in p gn bng vi in p ngun. iu ny s gy nguy him khi in p cao t vo c th ph hng lp cch in gia hai cun dy, ngoi ra n cn lm tng sai s trong kt qu o v nh hng tnh in ca hai cun dy trong Watt k.

81

o lng in

6.2.2 o cng sut ti 3 pha: Trong thc t o cng sut ti 3 pha, ngoi vic dng cc Watt k 1 pha ngi ta dng Watt k 3 pha c cu to ging nh vic ghp cc Watt k 1 pha li to thun li trong qu trnh o cng sut. Watt k 3 pha c 3 loi sau: Watt k 3 pha 3 phn t: c dng o cng sut mch 3 pha 4 dy. N gm 3 cun dng v 3 cun p. Ba cun p c gn trn cng mt trc quay, do vy moment lm quay phn ng l tng ca ba moment ca ba phn t, tc l t l vi cng sut ba pha.

Watt k 3 pha 2 phn t: c dng o mch ba pha i xng cho n gin. N gm 2 cun dng v 2 cun p.

Watt k 3 pha 2,5 phn t: gm c 3 cun dng v 2 cun p

Mc ch ch to ra Watt k 3 pha 2,5 phn t l c th o c s tiu th in nng trn pha C m Watt k 3 pha 2 phn t khng lm c. a/ o cng sut ti 3 pha 4 dy: Trng hp i xng: S ni dy:
A B C N W

Ti 3 pha i xng

82

o lng in

Lc ny cng sut cc pha u nh nhau, thay v dng 3 Watt k mc trn 3 pha ng thi o cng sut tc dng ca 3 pha ta ch cn o cng sut trn 1 pha sau thc hin php tnh: P3pha = 3P1pha Trng hp bt i xng: Cch 1: Dng 3 Watt k 1 pha: S ni dy:
A B C N
W1 W2 W3

Ti 3 pha khng i xng

Do cng sut trn cc pha khng bng nhau nn cng sut ca ti 3 pha c tnh nh sau: P3pha = PA + PB + PC PA: Cng sut o trn pha A cho bi Watt k W1 [W] PB: Cng sut o trn pha B cho bi Watt k W2 [W] PC: Cng sut o trn pha C cho bi Watt k W3 [W] Cch 2: Watt k 3 pha 3 phn t: S ni dy:

A B C N KWh 3~ TI 3 PHA KHNG I XNG

b/ o cng sut ti 3 pha 3 dy: Trong mch in 3 pha 3 dy, ngun in cung cp cho ti ch c 3 dy pha, khng c dy trung tnh. D cho ti i xng hoc khng i xng th ta cng dng s ni dy sau. S ni dy: Ti
A B C
W1 W2

3 pha i xng hoc khng


83

o lng in

P3pha = P1 + P2 P1: Cng sut o trn pha A cho bi Watt k W1 [W] P2: Cng sut o trn pha B cho bi Watt k W2 [W] Chng minh: Trong s ni dy trn, Watt k 1 c in p dy UAC v dng in dy IA, Watt k 2 c in p dy UBC v dng in dy IB Ta c: P1 + P2 = UAC.IA + UBC.IB = UA UC .IA + UB UC .IB V:

) (

UBC = UB UC

UAC = UA UC

P1 + P2 = UA.IA UC.IA + UB.IB UC.IB = UA.IA + UB.IB UC. IA + IB Trong mch 3 pha, ta c:
IA + IB + IC = 0 IA + IB = IC

Thay th vo phng trnh trn, ta c: P1 + P2 = UA.IA UC.IA + UB.IB UC.IB = UA.IA + UB.IB + UC.IC P1 + P2 = PA + PB + PC (pcm) Do vy cng sut ca 3 pha bng tng cng sut ca hai Watt k 1 v 2. Khi theo ng th t pha A, B, C th P3pha = P1 + P2. Nu mc sai th t pha s khin 1 Watt k quay thun v 1 Watt k quay ngc nn s khng c c ch s. Lc ny ta phi i cc tnh li cho Watt k quay ngc v P3pha = P1 - P2 Ngoi ra ta cng c th o cng sut mng 3 pha 3 dy i xng bng cch s dng 3 Watt k mt pha c cun dng in mc ni tip vi pha tng ng, cun in p c mt u mc vo pha cun dng, u cn li ni vi mt in tr ln. Ba u cn li ca ba in tr ging nhau ny ni chung li, ba in tr c s dng to im trung tnh gi. B. o cng sut phn khng Q 6.2.3 o cng sut phn khng ti 1 pha: Cng sut phn khng Q l i lng c trng cho mc trao i nng lng in t trng ca thnh phn L, C trong mch in xoay chiu. Q = U.I.sin [VAr] : Gc lch pha gia in p U v dng in I Thng thng ngi ta dng Var k o cng sut phn khng nhng cng c th o bng cc dng c o khc. Cch 1: Dng Watt k, Volt k, Ampe k: S ni dy: P2 1 - U2.I2

Q = U.I.

[VAr]

84

o lng in

Chng minh: Ta c tr s ch trn Watt k P = U.I.cos P Nh vy: cos = U.I U, I l gi tr c c trn Volt k, Ampe k Ta c: sin = 1 - cos2 P2 sin = 1 -U2.I2 Do vy cng sut phn khng Q = U.I. P2 1 - U2.I2 (pcm)

Cch 2: Chuyn Watt k thnh Var k: Theo cng thc lng gic sin = cos(90-). Nh vy ta vn c th s dng Watt k o cng sut phn khng nu c bin php lm cho dng in v in p lch pha thm mt gc bng 90o. S dng mt t in C hoc mt cun dy L c tr s ln mc ni tip vi cun dy in p ca Watt k. Nh vy lc u dng in chy qua cun dng l IA lch pha so vi dng in chy qua cun p IV mt gc . Khi ta mc ni tip cun dy L vi cun in p th hai dng in trn lch pha thm mt gc bng 90o. Do ta c th dng Watt k o cng sut phn khng Q. S ni dy:

Ch : Sau khi cun dy L c mc ni tip vi cun p th dng in qua cun p v in p ngun t vo khng thc s lch nhau 90o v cn c thnh phn in tr trong mch cun p nh hng n gc lch pha ny. Mun gc lch pha cng gn vi 90o th gi tr in cm L phi chim u th trong tng tr ca mch. Cch 3: o trc tip cng sut phn khng Q bng Var k: Trong thc t, ngi ta ch to ra dng c o cng sut phn khng gi l Var k c cu to ging nh cu to ca Watt k, ch khc l cun dy di ng (cun p) c gn ni tip vi mt cun cm c gi tr L ln v in tr tn hao khng ng k. C cu in ng c Mq = KI.IA.IV.cos KI : Hng s dng in ca c cu in ng IA : Dng in chy qua cun dng IV : Dng in chy qua cun p : Gc lch pha gia hai dng in IA v IV Ta c gin vector sau:
85

o lng in

UV, UL IA, IL O IV

Khi cun p c mc ni tip vi cun cm L th tng tr ca cun p l: ZV = RV + jwLV + jwL RV + jw(LV + L) UL KI Mq = KI.IL.Z .sin t Z = KI V V Mq = KI.IL.UL.sin = KI.Q Trc quay ca kim c gn l xo to ra moment cn Mc = Kc. Khi kim ng yn th: Mq = Mc KI.Q = Kc. KI.Q Gc quay ca kim = K = K.Q t l vi cng sut phn khng ca ti c S ni dy:

6.2.4 o cng sut phn khng ti 3 pha: a/ o cng sut phn khng ti 3 pha 4 dy: Trng hp i xng: Dng 1 Var k, ta o cng sut phn khng trn 1 pha bt k, cng sut phn khng 3 pha: Q3pha = 3 Q1pha Ta cng c th dng Watt k o cng sut phn khng. S ni dy:
A B C N W

Ti 3 pha i xng

Q3pha = 3 P Khi o nu kim quay ngc th o 2 u B, C.

86

o lng in

Chng minh:
UA IA

90o -

UBC

UC

UB

Theo tnh cht ca mng in 3 pha, in p dy lun chm pha so vi in p pha tng ng mt gc 90o. Ta c s ch trn Watt k: P = IA.UBC.cos(90o - ) P = IA. 3 UA.sin = 3 QA P QA = 3 P Q3pha = 3 QA = 3 = 3P (pcm) 3 Trng hp khng i xng: Dng 3 Var k ta thc hin o cng sut phn khng ng thi trn c 3 pha sau tnh: Q3pha = QphaA + QphaB + QphaC Ta cng c th dng Watt k o cng sut phn khng. Nu ch c 1 Watt k, ta thc hin o ln lt cng sut phn khng trn tng pha sau tnh: P1 P2 P3 1 + + = (P1 + P2 + P3) Q3pha = QA + QB + QC = 3 3 3 3 Nu c 3 Watt k, ta thc hin o ng thi cng sut phn khng cc pha sau tnh: P1 P2 P3 1 + + = (P1 + P2 + P3) Q3pha = QA + QB + QC = 3 3 3 3 S ni dy:
A B C N
W1 W2 W3

Ti 3 pha khng i xng

b/ o cng sut phn khng ti 3 pha 3 dy: Do mng in 3 pha 3 dy khng c dy trung tnh nn khng th dng Var k 1 pha o cng sut phn khng trn tng pha c. Lc ny ta ch cn dng 1 Watt k o cng sut phn khng.
87

o lng in

Trng hp in p i xng, ti cn bng S ni dy:


A B C W

Ti 3 pha i xng

Q3pha = 3 P Trng hp in p i xng, ti khng cn bng Nu ch c 1 Watt k, ta thc hin o ln lt cng sut phn khng trn tng pha sau tnh: P1 P2 P3 1 + + = (P1 + P2 + P3) Q3pha = QA + QB + QC = 3 3 3 3 S ni dy:
A B C W

Ti 3 pha khng i

Nu c 3 Watt k, ta thc hin o ng thi cng sut phn khng trn cc pha sau tnh: P1 P2 P3 + + Q3pha = QA + QB + QC = 3 3 3 1 Q3pha = (P1 + P2 + P3) 3 S ni dy:

A B C

W1 W2 W3

Ti 3 pha khng i xng

6.3 o in nng: in lc c ng h o in nng tiu th v ng h o in nng phn khng. Cng sut tiu th P = U.I.cos [W] in nng tiu th A = P.t [W.s]; [KWh] Nh vy mun o in nng tiu th A ca ti ta cn dng c o c kh nng tnh c cng sut tiu th theo thi gian ca ti.

88

o lng in

6.3.1

o in nng ti 1 pha:

in nng k c nguyn tc hot ng da trn c cu cm ng in t (Fervaris) a. Cu to: Gm c 2 phn: phn tnh v phn ng Phn tnh: Cun dng in: C s vng dy t khong vi chc vng nhng tit din dy ln khong 1,2 1,4 mm2. Cun dng in c mc ni tip vi ti tiu th, c nhim v to ra t thng i t l vi ln dng in chy qua ti. Cun in p: C s vng dy ln khong vi ngn vng nhng tit din dy b khong 0,11 mm2. Cun in p c mc song song vi ti tiu th, c nhim v to ra t thng u t l vi ln in p t trn ti. Mi cun dy c qun trn mt mch t dn t thng xuyn qua a nhm. Nam chm vnh cu M hnh mng nga: c gn sao cho mp a nhm chuyn ng qua khe h gia hai cc nam chm gip cho a nhm quay u. Phn ng: a nhm D: c ch to bng vt liu nhm, c dng a trn, nh, trng lng phn b u d dng chuyn ng quanh trc xuyn tm v d thay i tc . a nhm nm trong khe h ca mch t cun p v cun dng. B phn truyn ng bnh rng: C nhim v truyn chuyn ng quay ca trc a nhm quay cc con s ch th th hin in nng tiu th trong sut thi gian ti hot ng. b. K hiu:

c. Nguyn tc hot ng: Cch mc in nng k 1 pha:

89

o lng in

Nguyn tc hot ng: Khi ti c mc ti ng ra ca in nng k, dng in i chy qua ti tiu th cng chnh l dng in chy qua cun dng in gy nn t thng i, t thng ny xuyn qua a nhm ti hai v tr. in p u t trn ti cng l in p t trn cun p, in p ny sinh ra dng in iu trong cun p. Dng in iu to ra t thng u phn tch lm hai phn l L khp mch qua li thp m khng xuyn qua a nhm, nhng thnh phn tng hp l u s xuyn qua a nhm ti 1 v tr sau khp kn qua gng t. Khi c cc t thng i, u bin thin theo thi gian xuyn qua a nhm th theo nh lut cm ng in t, trn a nhm s xut hin cc dng in xoy. Dng in xoy c xu hng chng li s bin thin ca t thng sinh ra n do vy n to ra moment Mq lm cho a nhm quay gim bin thin ca t thng gi qua a. Tm li nh c s tng tc gia dng in xoy v v t thng cun p, cun dng to nn moment ngu lc lm quay a nhm. Moment quay a Mq t l vi tn s ngun in f, t thng ca cun p u, t thng ca cun dng i. Dng in I chy qua ti cng l dng in qua cun dng trng pha vi t thng i. Dng in iu chy qua cun p trng pha vi t thng u Cun dng in c s vng nh nn thnh phn in cm nh, dng in i chy qua trng pha vi in p trn hai u ti. Cun in p c s vng ln nn thnh phn in cm kh ln khin dng in iu chy qua cun dy chm pha gn 90o so vi in p trn ti. Gi s dng in i chy qua ti lch pha so vi in p u trn ti mt gc . Ta c gin vector cc i lng dng in v in p nh sau:
u

iu i u

Thnh lp biu thc tnh in nng tiu th A: Ngi ta tm ra mi lin h gia moment quay Mq vi cc i lng in nh sau: Mq = k.f.u.i.sin k : H s t l f : Tn s li in u: T thng cun p i: T thng cun dng (Gi s mch t khng b bo ha t) Ta cn tm ra s tng quan gia Mq v cng sut tiu th P = U.I.cos Nhn thy: u t l vi dng in iu, m iu li t l vi U i t l vi dng in i sin = cos Do vy Mq c th vit li thnh: Mq = kP.U.I.cos = kP.P Nh vy moment quay Mq t l vi cng sut tiu th trn ti.
90

o lng in

Khi a nhm chuyn ng qua t trng gia hai cc ca nam chm, theo hin tng cm ng in t, trong a nhm s sinh ra dng in cm ng. Dng in cm ng ny c xu hng chng li s bin thin t thng gi qua n bng cch to ra moment cn Mc hm chuyn ng quay ca a nhm. Moment ny t l thun vi t thng m do nam chm M to ra v tc quay n ca a nhm. Mc = kc.n Khi a nhm quay u th Mq = Mc kP.P = kc.n Tnh trong khong thi gian t t t1 n t2 ta c: kP.P.t = kc.n.t kP.A = kc.N kc.N kc A = k = k .N P P N: S vng quay trong thi gian t [vng] A: in nng tiu th trong thi gian t [KWh] kc kP : Hng s dng c do nh ch to quy nh Cc thng s cn quan tm: in p nh mc U Dng in nh mc I Tn s nh mc f. Nu ng h c gi tr tn s ghi l 50 Hz nhng li cho hot ng vi ngun in 60 Hz th s chy nhanh hn v ngc li H s nh mc: K0 [n/KWh] (do nh sn xut ghi): l ch tiu quan trng th hin cht lng ca cng t in, cho bit s vng quay ca cng t khi ti tiu th in nng l 1 [KWh] 1 Hng s nh mc: C0 = K [KWh/ vng] 0 C0 - Cth Sai s: = C 0 Cth: Hng s thc ca cng t in P.t Cth = n l t s gia in nng tiu th v s vng quay tng ng 6.3.2 o in nng ti 3 pha: Loi 3 pha 3 phn t: dng o in nng trong mch 3 pha 4 dy. Tng t nh trong vic o cng sut mch 3 pha 4 dy, nhng thay v lm lch kim ch th th trong cng t in 3 pha 3 phn t moment lm quay a nhm bng tng 3 moment tc dng ln 3 a nhm gn trn cng mt trc.

91

o lng in

Loi 3 pha 2 phn t: dng o in nng trong mch 3 pha 3 dy, cch mc dy cng tng t nh Watt k 2 phn t.

Khi dng Watt k hoc cng t in trong mch c dng in ln, ta c th m rng thang o bng cch s dng thm my bin dng in, tng t khi cn o trong mch c in p cao ta s kt hp vi my bin in p. Cun dy s cp ca my bin dng in c mc ni tip vi i tng cn o, th cp ca n mc ni tip vi cun dng in ca Watt k thng qua mt Ampe k ch th dng in i vo cun dy tnh Watt k. Cun dy s cp ca my bin in p mc song song vi i tng cn o, th cp ca n mc song song vi cun in p ca Watt k v Volt k ch th in p t vo cun dy ng Watt k. Lc ny cng sut thc s ca ti bng s ch trn Watt k nhn vi h s my bin dng in v h s my bin in p. Watt k v cng t in thng c ch to vi dng in nh mc: 3,5; 10; 15 [A] v in p nh mc: 110; 220 [V]. 6.4 o h s cng sut cos Dng in v in p trn ti c s lch pha nhau ph thuc vo c tnh ca ti tiu th. Trong lnh vc in ta quan tm n gc lch pha ny bit c h s cng sut cos, trong lnh vc in t ta quan tm n lch pha gia hai tn hiu bt k. 6.4.1 o cos dng Volt k, Ampe k v Watt k: S ni dy: P Cos = UI

6.4.2 o cos dng Volt k: S ni dy:

92

o lng in

Ngi ta dng thm mt in tr ph R (khong vi ) mc ni tip vi ti. Dng Volt k o in p gia im 1 v 2 c V1, o gia hai im 2 v 3 c V2, o gia hai im 1 v 3 c V3. Gi l gc lch pha gia in p trn ti V2 v dng in I chy qua ti, ta c gin vector biu din cc i lng I, V1, V2, V3:
V2 O V1 V3

Trong tam gic OV1V3 ta c: V23 = V22 + V21 + 2V1V2.cos V23 - V22 - V21 cos = 2V1V2 Tng t ta cng c th dng ng h o dng in o h s cng sut S ni dy:

cos =

I23 - I22 - I21 2I1I2

6.4.3 o lch pha dng Cos k in ng: Cu to ca cos k in ng 1 pha:

Cun dy tnh c chia lm hai phn mc ni tip vi ti. Cun dy ng cng c chia lm hai phn, mt na mc ni tip vi in tr R, mt na mc ni tip vi cun dy L, c hai mc song song vi ti.

93

o lng in

Dng in chy qua in tr R v cun cm L s lch pha vi nhau mt gc /2. Hai na cun dy ng c mc thng gc vi nhau. Gi M1 l gi tr h cm cc i do cun dy tnh h cm ln na th nht ca cun dy ng. M2 l gi tr h cm cc i do cun dy tnh h cm ln na th hai ca cun dy ng. Gi s tng tr hai na cun dy di ng khng ng k so vi gi tr ca R v L. U 2 Do vy dng in chy qua na th nht: iR = R cost, dng in chy qua na U 2 th hai: iL = Lw cost Khi ti thun tr th kim ch s 1. Khi ti c tnh dung khng (t in, accu...) th kim nm lch v bn tri thang o. Khi ti c tnh cm khng (n hunh quang, qut, ng c...) th kim nm lch v bn phi thang o. ng dng khc ca cos k l dng lm thit b ch th s ng b ca hai tn hiu t hai my pht in trc khi cho chng ha ng b vi nhau (Synchronoscope). Hai my pht in mun ha ng b th in p do chng to ra phi cng tn s, cng bin v trng pha nhau.

Khi mun chuyn cos k thnh thit b ch th s ng b th hai u A, B c ni vi ngun E2, cn hai u C, D c ni vi ngun E1 Nu hai in p ny khng cng tn s th kim ch th s quay trn, tc kim cng ln khi lch tn s cng ln. Chiu quay ca kim cho bit in p no c tn s ln hn. lch pha gia hai in p s lm kim lch khi v tr 0.

94

o lng in

Cu hi n tp: 1. Trnh by phng php o gin tip cng sut mt chiu bng Volt k v Ampe k? 2. Trnh by s lc cu to ca Watt k in ng mt pha v ba pha? 3. Trnh by phng php o trc tip cng sut mt chiu bng Watt k in ng? 4. Trnh by phng php o gin tip cng sut tc dng P dng Volt k v Ampe k trong mch 1 pha? 5. Trnh by phng php o trc tip cng sut tc dng P dng Watt k in ng trong mch 1 pha? 6. Trnh by phng php o trc tip cng sut tc dng P dng Watt k in ng trong mch 3 pha 4 dy? 7. Trnh by phng php o trc tip cng sut tc dng P dng Watt k in ng trong mch 3 pha 3 dy? 8. Trnh by phng php o cng sut phn khng Q trong mch 1 pha? 9. Trnh by phng php o cng sut phn khng ti 3 pha 4 dy? 10. Trnh by phng php o cng sut phn khng ti 3 pha 3 dy? 11. Trnh by cu to v nguyn l hot ng in nng k 1 pha? 12. Hy cho bit s khc nhau gia t thng ca nam chm m M v t thng ca cun dng, cun p trong in nng k. S tng tc gia a nhm v cc t thng trn c s khc nhau c bn no? 13. Trnh by phng php o in nng ti 3 pha? 14. Mt cng t in ca mt h tiu th in c ghi trn nhn Ko = 600 [vng/KWh]. Cng t ny cn c kim tra cp chnh xc, mt nhn vin in lc s dng mt n 100 [W] thc hin. Theo bn, nhn vin in lc lm nh th no bit cng t in cn chnh xc hay khng? 15. Trnh by cc phng php o h s cng sut cos?

95

o lng in

(Trang trng)

96

o lng in

Chng 7: GII THIU V HNG DN S DNG CC THIT B O LNG THNG DNG


7.1 Cc vn chung cn quan tm khi s dng thit b o 7.1.1 S la chn thit b o 7.1.2 Cch s dng 7.1.3 Cc c tnh cn thit trong qu trnh s dng 7.2 ng h o in vn nng (VOM) 7.2.1 Gii thiu 7.2.2 S lc cu to ca VOM 7.2.3 Nguyn l o ca VOM 7.2.4 Hng dn s dng 7.2.5 S dng VOM o cc phn t trong mch in 7.2.6 Phn tch s my o vn nng (VOM) 7.3 ng h o in t (DMM) 7.3.1 Gii thiu 7.3.2 S lc cu to ca DMM 7.3.3 Nguyn l o ca DMM 7.3.4 Hng dn s dng 7.4 Dao ng k (OSCILLOSCOPE) 7.4.1 Gii thiu 7.4.2 S lc cu to ca Oscilloscope 7.4.3 Nguyn l o ca Oscilloscope 7.4.4 Hng dn s dng

97

o lng in

(Trang trng)

98

o lng in

Chng 7: GII THIU V HNG DN S DNG CC THIT B O LNG THNG DNG


7.1 Cc vn chung cn quan tm khi s dng thit b o 7.1.1 S la chn thit b o: Cc thng s cn quan tm khi la chn thit b o: Cp chnh xc (k) ca thit b o: L t s tnh theo phn trm (%) gia sai s tuyt i ln nht Xmax cho php trong iu kin lm vic bnh thng ca thit b o vi gi tr nh mc Xm (Xmax) ca thit b o: Khi thit b o c nhiu giai o th cp chnh xc c tnh vi sai s tuyt i ln nht trong tt c cc giai o. Trong cng nghip cp chnh xc thng l: 1; 1,5; 2; 2,5; 4 Trong phng th nghim cp chnh xc thng l: 0,05; 0,02; 0,01 Ta nhn thy gi tr cp chnh xc trong phng th nghim cao hn cp chnh xc trong cng nghip tc l cp chnh xc ca phng th nghim t tt hn cp chnh xc trong cng nghip. Tm l ca ngi s dng bao gi cng mun thit b ca mnh c cp chnh xc cao, hot ng tin cy nhng li c gi thnh r. iu ny l nghch l, trong thc t cc thit b c cp chnh xc cng cao th gi thnh cng cng cao. la chn thit b o ph hp nht, ngi s dng phi bit rng vic b ra mt mn tin ln c thit b o vi cp chnh xc cao nhng li s dng cho cng vic khng cn thit n cp chnh xc th s dn n s lng ph thit b. Ngc li, nu thit b c cp chnh xc khng p ng c i hi ca cng vic thc t th r rng s gy sai s v thit hi trn sn phm. Nh vy hp l nht th trc khi mua thit b o, ngi s dng phi nghin cu tm hiu k nhng i hi cng vic s cn n cp chnh xc mc no, sau s tm hiu cc thit b trn th trng vi cp chnh xc ph hp vi yu cu ra. Ngoi ra khi hot ng, thit b o bao gi cng tiu hao mt phn nng lng ca mch v chnh iu ny gp phn lm tng sai s trong kt qu. Do vy, thit b o tiu hao cng sut cng nh cng tt. nhy (S) ca thit b:
S= X

nhy biu th mi quan h ph thuc ca gc lch phn ng khi c dng in tc ng ln c cu o. N chnh l dng in nh nht c kh nng lm lch kim ch th ln ht thang o ca c cu o. nhy biu th theo n v dng in A hoc mA. Vi cc ng h bao gm c mch o, ngi ta hay dng khi nim nhy thc t ( nhy tnh n c mch o). N biu th tr s in tr cn thit ni tip vi c cu o kim lch i mt gi tr nht nh trn thang o l 1 Volt. nhy thc t biu th theo t s /V. ng h cng nhy th t s /V cng ln. Tr s /V biu th in tr vo ca ng h ng vi mi Volt. V d : 20 k/V. Ngng nhy: L gi tr nh nht ca i lng ng vo vn c kh nng lm ng ra ca thit b thay i.
99

o lng in

Gii hn thang o: L gi tr cc i ca i lng cn o m thit b vn c th o c. Khi tin hnh o c mt i tng no ta cn ch n ln ca i tng chn la thang o cho ph hp, nu khng th kt qu o s khng chnh xc khi gi tr thang o qu ln so vi i lng cn o, hoc ng h o s b h hng khi i tng cn o c gi tr vt ra ngoi thang o. Thi gian o, tc o: Thi gian o l thi gian tnh t lc c tn hiu ca i lng cn o tc ng n ng vo thit b o cho n khi thit b n nh c th ghi nhn kt qu. Tc o l s ln ly c kt qu o trong mt n v thi gian. Tnh n nh ca thit b o: L kh nng gi n nh kt qu o khi c nhng nh hng t mi trng ngoi. tin cy ca thit b: L khong thi gian do nh sn xut a ra m bo thit b lm vic n nh (khng b h hng) ch hot ng bnh thng. Trn th trng loi in k tt c dng in lm kim lch ht thang o nh (10 [A] 50 [A]). Loi in k bnh thng c dng in lm kim lch ht thang o ln hn (200 [A] 500 [A]). ch to ng h o, in k nn c dng in lm kim lch ht thang o 1 [mA]. Khung dy ca ng h VOM c th dng mt s cch sau kim tra nhanh: Dng ngun in mt chiu bn ngoi c gi tr nh khong vi Volt gn vo hai u que o, nu kim ln th khung dy cha b t, hoc chuyn n thang o dng in, ni tt hai que o li, sau lc nh VOM, nu thy kim ch th rung t hn lc h que o th khung dy vn cn tt. Phng php th ny da trn nguyn l cm ng in t. Khung c t trong t trng ca nam chm vnh cu nn khi ta lc nh khung dy, trong khung dy s sinh ra sc in ng cm ng, nu hai u que o c chp li v khung dy khng b t th sc in ng ny s sinh ra dng in cm ng. Dng in cm ng s sinh ra t trng chng li s bin thin t thng do t trng ca nam chm vnh cu sinh ra qua khung dy dn n kt qu dao ng ca khung dy b hm li nn kim s dao ng t hn so vi trng hp ta h hai u que o hoc khung dy b t. Trn mt VOM thng ghi ch Fuse & Diode Protection, iu ny c ngha l mch o ca VOM c bo v bng cu ch mc c mc ni tip vi mch o trnh h hng khi dng in vt qu kh nng v lc cu ch s t. Ngoi ra c hai diode c mc song song vi c cu, hai diode ny mc ngc u nhau bo v cho khung dy trnh qu in p theo c hai chiu. Nu in p t trn u khung dy khong 0,05 [V] 0,2 [V] th kim lch ht thang o. Lc ny do in p cha vt qua ngng dn ca diode nn in tr thun ca diode cn ln. Nu in p t vo tip tc tng ln vt qu mc ngng ca diode th dng in chy qua diode s tng vt nhm gi cho in p trn hai u khung dy khng cao hn mc ngng ca diode, nh vy khung dy c bo v. Yu cu i vi diode lc lm vic bnh thng th in tr thun phi rt ln hn in tr khung dy. i vi loi diode c ch to t vt liu Ge c kh nng bo v qu ti tt v ngng in p kh nh (khong 0,2 [V]), nhng trong iu kin lm vic bnh thng th diode loi Ge li c in tr thun kh b s phn bt dng in khin cp chnh xc v nhy ca c cu gim. Ta c th mc ni tip 2 diode Ge khc phc tnh trng ny. Trong c cu o thng s dng loi diode Silic. Ngoi ra tng kh nng bo v c cu o ngi ta thng mc ni tip c cu vi mt in tr Rb khong vi trm . Rb = (0,2 0,3) ln in tr khung dy.
100

o lng in

Nh vy khi tin hnh mua thit b o, ta cn ch n cc thng s trn la chn thit b ph hp nht. Ngoi ra ch bo hnh sn phm ca nh sn xut cng vi cc ti liu hng dn s dng cng c lu . 7.1.2 Cch s dng: s dng thit b mt cch hiu qu, ngi s dng cn tm hiu k cc chc nng ca thit b, nhng chc nng ny c trnh by trong s tay hng dn s dng ca nh sn xut. Quan st k cc thng s v k hiu ghi trn thit b: Ngha C CU O C cu o kiu t in, khung dy phn ng C cu o kiu t in, khung dy phn ng v dng chnh lu bn dn C cu o kiu t in, nam chm phn ng C cu o kiu in t C cu o kiu in ng C cu o kiu cm ng CCH IN in p kim tra 500 [V] in p kim tra trn 500 [V] V d: 2kV CP CHNH XC Cp chnh xc khi sai s quy nh tnh theo phn trm gi tr cui cng ca thang o. V d: 1,5 Cp chnh xc khi sai s quy nh tnh theo phn trm chiu di thang o. V d: 1,5
101

K Hiu

1,5

1,5

o lng in

V TR T t theo v tr thng ng t theo v tr nm ngang


60o

t theo v tr nm nghing V d: 60o CC K HIU PH KHC iu chnh im 0 Ch cch s dng 500 Hz Gi tr tn s danh nh V d: 500 Hz

0
!

Trong qu trnh s dng, cn ch nhng iu kin lm vic v bo qun thit b nhm tng hiu qu cng nh bn ca thit b. Phi thng xuyn ch iu chnh v tr 0 ca kim, bnh thng kim phi ch v tr 0, nu hi b sai lch th vn vt iu chnh lm cho kim ch v v tr 0. Khi kim quay khng linh hot, th khng c v vo dng c o m phi kim tra sa cha, trnh lm hng dng c o. Trc mi ln o, phi t ng h ng v tr ch dn, phi kim tra tip xc ca cc que o, trnh tin hnh o ni gn in trng v t trng mnh. Trc khi u vo mch in, hoc ngun in, phi c lng trc in p vo dng in cn o trn mch in c nm trong phm vi o ln nht ca dng c o khng trnh lm hng dng c o. Cn t chuyn mch v tr thch hp vi i lng o. Chn thang o c tr s ln hn mt t (tip cn trn) vi tr s cn o kt qu o c chnh xc (sai s b nht). Kim ch th nn nm khong hai phn ba thang o tr ln khi o in p v dng in, khong t zero n mt phn ba thang o khi o in tr. ng h khng b h hng, tuyt i khng s dng vt qu thang o. Khi o in p, dng in cha bit chnh xc gi tr th nn chuyn mch thang o ln nht ri mi chuyn dn sang cc thang o thp hn. Sau mi ln o nn chuyn mch thang o in p xoay chiu ln nht i vi loi ng h khng c v tr OFF, i vi loi ng h c v tr ny th sau mi ln kt thc o, ta nn xoay chuyn mch n v tr OFF an ton cho thit b khi v tnh cm que o vo in th cao. Trc mi ln o, phi chp kim iu chnh bin tr sao cho kim ch ng v tr s 0 ban u. Trong khi o, cn trnh cm tay vo hai u kim loi ca que o hoc hai u vt cn o trnh in tr thn ngi lm sai lch kt qu o v xy ra tai nn in. Nu cu ch trong ng h b t th phi thay cu ch mi theo ng tr s quy nh ri mi s dng. Khi tho lp v vn chuyn dng c o in phi cn thn, ly ln t xung nh nhng, ng b rung ng trnh lm hng trc v l xo bn trong. Khng ng h nhng ni c nhit cao, t trng mnh hoc nhng ch m t, bi bm, c cht n mn... Tuyt i khng c tho ri cc chi tit ca ng h, tr nhng trng hp cn phi sa cha.

102

o lng in

Khi vn chuyn i xa, phi ni tt mch khung dy c cu o hn ch nhng chn ng mnh v gim dao ng ca khung dy. Sau mt thi gian s dng, cn hiu chnh li thang o theo qui nh. 7.1.3 Cc c tnh cn thit trong qu trnh s dng: Mt thit b o c cp chnh xc ph hp vi cng vic v ngi s dng bit cch s dng thit b th vn cha c coi l . Mt iu khng km phn quan trng l tnh cn thn ca ngi s dng thit b o, tnh cn thn l iu cn thit v lun phi c v n nh hng n kt qu o, s an ton ca thit b v do cng chnh l bn ca thit b. Ngoi ra tnh cn thn cng nh hng ln n s an ton cho chnh ngi s dng. 7.2 ng h o in vn nng (VOM) 7.2.7 Gii thiu: ng h o in vn nng (VOM Volt Ohm Milliammeter) l loi ng h o da trn c cu t in thc hin o lng nhiu i lng nh dng in mt chiu, in p mt chiu, in p xoay chiu, in tr, in dung, in cm. VOM thuc loi ng h o tng t v mch o v s ch th kt qu di dng lin tc khng gin on. ng h VOM rt thng dng trong thc t v nh gn, c nhiu tnh nng, d s dng. C nhiu hng sn xut VOM vi cc chc nng c bn ging nhau ch khc s lng i lng c th o c v cht lng cng nh cp chnh xc ca ng h o. 7.2.8 S lc cu to ca VOM: VOM da trn thnh phn c bn l c cu t in. Phn ch th c mt kim rt mnh gn lin vi khung dy, hai u khung dy c gn vi hai l xo xon va tip in cho khung dy va to moment cn. L xo xon thng lm t vt liu khng t tnh (nh ng pha thic) trnh s nh hng ca t trng. L xo c mt u gn c nh vo b phn iu chnh, l nm chnh trn mt ng h iu chnh kim ch ng v tr zero trc khi o. Khi c dng in chy qua khung dy th khung dy s tng tc vi t trng ca nam chm vnh cu khin cho khung dy quay lm cho kim ch th quay theo n khi moment quay cn bng vi moment cn ca l xo th kim dng li ch gi tr i lng cn o trn thang o. Trn mt thang chia ngi ta gn thm mt gng, iu ny nhm gip ngi dng c kt qu o chnh xc hn. Ngha l khi nhn thy kim v nh ca n trn gng trng nhau th lc ny ng thng i t mt ngi c n kim ang vung gc vi mt thang chia v kt qu c c s khng b sai bit do hng nhn ca ngi c. Trn mt ng h c nm xoay (gallet) thay i chc nng o v tm o cho ph hp vi yu cu o. Ngoi ra, tng cp chnh xc, VOM c mch phn tm o thch hp vi cc i lng ln nh khc nhau. 7.2.9 Nguyn l o ca VOM: Da trn nguyn l khi c dng in chy qua khung dy s sinh lc t v moment quay lm di chuyn kim ch th. Khi cn o cc i lng khc nh in p mt chiu, in p xoay chiu..., thng qua mch o VOM s chuyn i cc i lng ny thnh dng in mt chiu trc khi a n c cu. Kim s dng li khi c s cn bng gia moment quay v moment cn ca l xo, thc ra kim khng dng ngay m dao ng quanh im cn bng, lc ny khung nhm s ct ngang ng sc t trng lm xut hin dng in Foucoult, dng in ny tc dng vi t trng khe h sinh ra
103

o lng in

moment dp tt dao ng gip cho kim n nh nhanh chng ti v tr cn bng v dng in Foucoult cng bin mt nn khng nh hng n gc quay ca kim. 7.2.10 Hng dn s dng: Trong phn ny s gii thiu c th mt VOM c tnh nng kh hin i. Ch thch cc b phn trn mt VOM: 1. Nt chun zero Ohm. Nt ny c nhn s tng ng vi vic chp hai que o li. 2. cm th transistor. 3. L cm COM (-) cm que o mu en trong tt c php o. 4. Vt chnh zero kim ch th m bo kim nm v tr zero khi cha a tn hiu o vo VOM. 5. Nm chnh zero Ohm. 6. Nm xoay chuyn mch (gallet) chn chc nng o v thay i tm o. 7. L cm 10ADC cm que o mu khi s dng thang o 10 ADC. 8. L cm V, , A (+) cm que o mu trong tt c php o ngoi tr thang o 10ADC.

104

o lng in

ng h o vn nng VOM

105

o lng in

7.2.11 S dng VOM o cc phn t trong mch in: o in tr: n v ca in tr l (c l m) 1=1 1 K = 1 K = 1000 1 M = 1000 K = 1000.000 in tr b h thng do lm vic qu cng sut trong thi gian di khin n t hoc chy xm. Ngoi ra tr s in tr cng c th b thay i theo thi gian s dng, mi trng lm vic Cc bc dng VOM o in tr: Chuyn gallet v thang o in tr Trit tiu ngun in trn phn t cn o in tr t hai que o vo hai u in tr, khng cn phn bit cc tnh (+), (-) Quan st kim ch th v iu chnh tm o sao cho kim nm trong khong 2/3 tnh t phi qua Chp que o, iu chnh nt Zero Adjust sao cho kim v im Zero t li hai que o vo hai u in tr c tr s trn thang o , nhn vi h s ghi trn tm o c gi tr thc ca in tr Sau khi o, ta nn lm trn v gi tr chun gn nht Tr s tiu chun ca in tr: 0, 1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3, 3.9, 4.7, 5.1, 5.6, 6.8, 8.2 Ch : Khi o in tr nm trong mch in, cn tho ri chng trnh nh hng ca in tr tng ng trong mch mc song song vi n Trnh cm tay vo hai u in tr v s lm nh hng n kt qu o Mi ln thay i tm o cn phi chnh zero trc khi o Ty vo tm o ang s dng m nhn thm h s ca tm o Ti thang o in tr, que o l cc (-) v que o en l cc (+) ca ngun pin trong VOM Kim tra tnh lin tc ca mch in: i khi ta dng thang o in tr kim tra tnh lin tc ca mch in. Hai im A v B c xem l lin tc vi nhau khi in tr o c gia hai im ny nm trong phm vi chp nhn c. Chng hn ta cn xc nh tnh lin tc ca b dy qun my in, ng dy in, tip im cng tc, cu ch, dy tc bng n Trng hp c bit khi in tr o c 0 [] th c gi l thng mch. kim tra tnh lin tc ca mch in ta lm theo cc bc sau: Chuyn gallet v thang o in tr Chp 2 que o kim tra mc dch chuyn ca kim t hai que o vo hai im A, B Quan st s dch chuyn ca kim, kt lun v tnh lin tc ca mch in Trong mch in t, nhng chn ni vi nhau bng mt si dy c xem l thng mch. Khi o in tr gia hai chn ny th kim phi ln, nu khng ln th c th do hn cha dnh hoc ng mch b t. Ngoi ra cn ch c bit n s thng mch vi ng cp ngun, ngha l tt c chn thng mch vi ng ngun th khi o phi ln kim, nhng chn khng thng
106

o lng in

mch vi ng ngun th tuyt i khng c ln kim, gia hai ng cp ngun (+), (-) cng khng cho php ln kim khi kim tra tnh thng mch gia chng. o t in: n v ca t in l: F (farad) F; uF (micro Farad) nF (nan Farad) pF (pic Farad) 1 F = 106 F = 109 nF = 1012 pF Tr s tiu chun ca t in: 0uF, 1uF, 1.2uF, 1.5uF, 1.8uF, 2.2uF, 2.7uF, 3.3uF, 3.9uF, 4.7uF, 5.6uF, 6.8uF, 8.2uF Kim tra t in phn cc tnh: T in h v c r r in qu mc cho php khin in tch mau chng b mt, hoc b kh, t khin in dung sai lch nhiu. Nguyn nhn lm t in b h thng do hot ng ti mc in p vt qu tr s quy nh trong thi gian di hoc do t trong mi trng khng thun li v nhit , m Chuyn gallet v thang o in tr Chn tm o ph hp: C = 1 uF 10 uF chn tm o x10K C = 10 uF 100 uF chn tm o x1K, x10K C = 100 uF 1000 uF chn tm o x100, x1K C 1000 uF chn tm o x10, x100 t que (+) ng h kim vo cc (-) t in v t que (-) ng h kim vo cc (+) t in Quan st s di chuyn ca kim: Nu kim dch chuyn v 0 sau li quay v : t cn tt Nu kim khng ln hoc kim ln m khng quay v : t b hng Kim tra t in khng phn cc tnh: Thng dng ng h s kim tra gi tr tr khng ca t, nu chnh lch qu nhiu vi gi tr ca t tt o c trc th t b r r, kh hoc t... o cun cm: o c gi tr t cm ta phi dng n nhng thit b chuyn dng hoc dng phng php o gin tip tnh t cm. Tuy nhin, c th xc nh cun cm c b t hay khng bng cch chuyn v thang o in tr, nu gi tr o c bng 0 th cun cm khng t ngc li nu bng th cun cm b t. Kim tra diode bn dn: Ohm k cng c dng kim tra nhanh mt diode bn dn xem cn tt khng v xc nh cc cc tnh A, K. Chuyn thang o in tr v tm o X1K t que en vo mt u diode, que t vo u cn li, ghi nhn gi tr Tro hai u que o, thc hin tng t Mt diode tt s c in tr khc bit r khi phn cc tnh theo hai chiu, do nu in tr o c mt ln khong 700 2K, ln kia t trm K tr ln: diode tt. Thng thng: Rthun < 3 [K], Rngc > 1 [M].
107

o lng in

Nu trong c 2 ln o u cho gi tr cng nh hoc cng ln: diode hng. Kim tra transistor: Transistor l linh kin in t c 3 cc: E, B v C. Chng thuc v mt trong hai loi PNP hoc NPN. Mc d vi kinh nghim khi nhn vo hnh dng bn ngoi ta c th on c tn cc ca transistor, nhng iu ny khng phi lc no cng ng do vy cn phi c ng h xc nh tn cc cc transistor theo ba bc sau: Xc nh cc B: - Chuyn gallet v thang o in tr - i vi tng cp chn transistor khc nhau ta tin hnh o thun v o nghch - Cp chn no cho in tr ca c hai ln o thun v o ngc vi trm K th chnh l cp chn C v E, chn cn li chnh l chn B Xc nh loi NPN (thun) hay PNP (nghch): - t que en (cc dng ca ngun pin) vo chn B, que vo mt trong hai chn C hoc E - Nu kim ln th transitor thuc loi NPN, nu khng ln th transistor thuc loi PNP Xc nh cc C v E - Chuyn n tm o x10K - t hai que o vo hai chn C, E o in tr theo hai chiu thun, nghch. Khi thy ln o c in tr nh hn th gia nguyn que o, chn ni vo que en chnh l chn E (nu transistor li NPN), chn ni vo que chnh l chn E (nu transistor loi (PNP) - Chn cn li l chn C Xc nh h hng transistor: Ta thc hin kim tra tng cp cc BE, BC ging nh thao tc kim tra mi ni diode, ring cp chn CE th in tr phn cc theo hai chiu u phi > 1 [M]. Nu in tr khng t th c th kt lun transistor b h. i khi transistor lc cha gn vo mch th kim tra thy bnh thng nhng ch khi lm vic nhit ca transistor tng cao lc n s khng cn bnh thng na. 7.2.12 Phn tch s ng h o vn nng (VOM): Nguyn tc phn tch s : Quan st v nhn din cc linh kin trong s . Xc nh cc chc nng o. Xc nh cc nc chuyn mch thuc v cng mt chc nng o. Xoay chuyn mch qua tng nc trong cng mt chc nng o xc nh nhng linh kin c tham gia vo mch o. Thc hin v s cho tng chc nng o. S phi m bo s linh kin tham gia, r rng, d hiu v m bo tnh khoa hc. Da vo s nguyn l, gii thch nhim v v hot ng tng linh kin trong mch. Ch : Ti mi thi im, chuyn mch ch nm ti mt v tr nht nh. Trong qu trnh v s hon chnh, c th phi dng thm s trung gian. (S trung gian l s c y cc linh kin ca thang o nhng cha c sp xp theo trt t hp l v r rng)
108

o lng in

V d: Hy v s cho tng chc nng o v phn tch nhim v ca cc linh kin trong ng h o vn nng c s nguyn l sau:

Hng dn: Phn tch s trn thnh cc s cho tng chc nng:

109

o lng in

7.3 ng h o in t (DMM) 7.3.1 Gii thiu: ng h o in t (DMM _ Digital MultiMeter) l loi ng h o c cc chc nng tng t nh ng h o VOM nhng mch o da trn k thut s. Nhn chung DMM c nhiu u im hn VOM nh chnh xc hn, tng tr vo ln, t ng chnh thang o, phn gii cao, d quan st kt qu, c th lu tr v x l d liu...Tuy nhin kh sa cha, gi thnh cao nn t thng dng hn VOM. 7.3.2 S lc cu to ca DMM: Trong DMM c mch chuyn i tng t sang s ADC bin tn hiu tng t cn o ng vo thnh tn hiu s sau a n mch lu tr, x l cho ra tn hiu thch hp kch b phn hin th lm hin ln cc con s trn mn hnh tinh th lng LCD hoc iu khin kim ch th quay mt gc tng ng trn thang o. Mt b pht xung chun cung cp xung cho cc khi hot ng ng b. 7.3.3 Nguyn l o ca DMM: Khc vi VOM, ng h o in t DMM da trn c s in p tnh ra gi tr i lng cn o. Do vy cc i lng dng in, in tr, in cm... u c chuyn thnh tn hiu in p mt chiu trc khi a vo mch x l. 7.3.4 Hng dn s dng: Trong phn ny s gii thiu mt DMM in hnh c tnh nng kh hin i Ch thch cc b phn trn mt DMM: 1. Mn hin th tinh th lng LCD. 2. Nt nhn m ngun. 3. Nt nhn Data hold gi li gi tr o trn mn hin th. 4. Nt Peak hold ly gi tr ln nht i lng ang o. 5. Nt AC-CAP la chn i lng o l in p xoay chiu hoc in dung. 6. Nm xoay chuyn mch (gallet) chn chc nng o v thay i tm o. 7. cm th t in. 8. cm th transistor. 9. L cm que o mu khi o dng in b hn 20 [A]. 10. L cm que o mu khi o dng in b hn 200 [mA]. 11. L cm que o mu en trong tt c cc php o. 12. L cm que o mu khi o V, , tn s f.

110

o lng in

ng h o in t DMM

111

Gio trnh: o Lng in

7.4 Dao ng k (OSCILLOSCOPE) 7.4.1 Gii thiu: Dao ng k l thit b o hin i, th hin dng sng ca tn hiu cn o trn mn hnh quan st v t tnh ra ln ca tn hiu. V vy dao ng k cn c gi l my hin sng. Dao ng k c kch thc ln v kh t tin nn ch c s dng trong nhng cng vic thit k cn o c chnh xc dng v ln tn hiu do vy t thng dng hn VOM v DMM. 7.4.2 S lc cu to ca Oscilloscope: B phn chnh l n hnh CRT, bn trong c cc bn cc lch dc v lch ngang. Hai bn cc lch dc nhn tn hiu vo c khuych i lm lch tia in t theo chiu dc v hai bn lch ngang nhn tn hiu qut ngang lm lch tia in t theo chiu ngang. Mch n hnh cung cp cc mc in p ph hp cho li gia tc, li hi t v anode. Mch lch dc nhn tn hiu cn o c khuch i to in trng gia hai bn cc lch dc iu khin chm tia in t di chuyn theo chiu thng ng. Mch lch ngang cn gi l mch to gc thi gian to tn hiu hnh rng ca p vo hai bn cc lch ngang iu khin s lch ngang ca chm tia in t. Cc u o (Probe) tip nhn tn hiu cn o t mch in. 7.4.3 Nguyn l o ca Oscilloscope: Da trn nguyn tc lc in trng lm lch chm tia in t. Tn hiu cn o s to ra lc in trng tc dng ln chm tia in t theo phng dc, tn hiu qut to ra lc in trng tc dng ln chm tia in t theo phng ngang. S phi hp ca hai lc in trng ny s iu khin chm tia in t qut qua tt c cc im trn mt mn hnh pht quang to ra hnh nh tn hiu cn quan st. 7.4.4 Hng dn s dng: Ch thch cc b phn trn mt Oscilloscope: Mch n hnh: 1. POWER: Cng tc bt/tt in, xoay nm chiu sng mt mn hnh. (ILLUM: illumination: ri sng). 2. INDICATOR: n Led ch bo c in. 3. INTENSITY: Thay i cng sng ca vt sng hoc dng sng hin th. Tuy nhin, cng cao thng xuyn c th lm nm mn hnh, gim tui th n hnh v b cao th ca my. 4. FOCUS: Thay i hi t ( tp trung ca im sng hoc vt sng). Thng thay i kt hp INTENSITY vi FOCUS c vt sng va phi v sc nt. 5. BEAM FINDER (ch c trn model PS_XX1/XX5): Khi n nt vt sng s xut hin gn trung tm mn hnh bt chp tnh trng cc nm iu khin. 6. TRACE ROT (trace rotation): Xoay chnh vt sng nm ngang trn mn hnh. Do s thay i ca my v s thay i t trng qu t, i khi vt sng trn mn hnh khng cn nm ngang na, lc cn xoay nm. Mch lch dc: 7. CHA (X): Knh A. Ng vo ca knh A, 400 Vnh-nh ti a. Trong hot ng X-Y y l ng vo tn hiu X (honh ). 8. CHB (Y): Knh B. Ng vo ca knh B, 400 Vnh-nh ti a. Trong hot ng X-Y y l ng vo tn hiu Y (tung ). 9. IN MODE: Ch vo. Chn ch vo DC/GND/AC cho ng vo CHA (7). DC (kt ni dc): Hai thnh phn ac v dc ca tn hiu u n mn hnh (dng sng hin th ph thuc vo c ac ln dc ca tn hiu vo).
112

Gio trnh: o Lng in

AC (kt ni ac): Thnh phn dc ca tn hiu b mt t in cn li, ch c thnh phn ac n mn hnh (dng sng hin th ch ph thuc vo thnh phn ac ca tn hiu). GND (kt ni t): Tn hiu vo b tt (mch h) v ng vo ca my c ni tt xung t, c dng chnh v th my (V d: xem vt sng c th chnh sc nt n u trong lc khng c nhiu t bn ngoi xm nhp vo my). D nhin khi mun quan st tn hiu th khng c IN MODE GND. 10. IN MODE: Ch vo. Chn ch u vo DC/GND/AC cho ng vo CHB (8)_tng t nh phn 9 nhng p dng cho tn hiu vo CHB. 11. VERT MODE: Ch dc. Chn tn hiu vo iu khin s lch dc ca im sng trn mn hnh. CHA: Tn hiu vo CHA iu khin s lch dc. CHB: Tn hiu vo CHB iu khin s lch dc. Ngoi ra v tr ny cn cho php s dng dao ng nghim ch X-Y, kt hp vi nt X-Y (29). DUAL: C hai tn hiu vo CHA v CHB cng iu khin s lch dc: Nu nm HOLD OFF (25) v tr n vo l ch chuyn mch Alternate (lun phin). Ch Alternate thch hp quan st tn s cao (vi KHz tr ln) hoc tn hiu tc nhanh (1ms/DIV tr ln). Nu nm HOLD OFF (25) v tr ko ra l ch chuyn mch Chopping (cht khc), theo hai tn hiu vo CHA v CHB b cht tn s khong 500 KHz. Ch Chopping thch hp quan st tn hiu tn s thp (di vi KHz) hoc tn hiu c tc chm (di 1ms/DIV). ADD: hin th tng hoc hiu hai tn hiu ti knh CHA v CHB. Nu nm VERT.POSITION ca CHB (17) v tr n vo: CHA + CHB. Nu nm VERT.POSITION ca CHB (17) v tr ko ra: CHA - CHB. 12. VOLT/DIV cho CHA (nm ln ngoi): S volt cho mi khong chia: thay i mch gim/khuych i dc ca CHA hin th ln mn hnh c bin (theo chiu dc) t 5mV/DIV n 5 V/DIV. DIV (division): L khong cch chia mt mn hnh, thng l 1 cm, ngoi ra cn c cc khong chia nh 1 mm. 13. VOLT/DIV cho CHB (nm ln ngoi): S volt cho mi khong chia. Tng t nh phn 12 nhng p dng cho tn hiu vo CHB. 14. VAR cho CHA (nm nh trong): Thay i lin tc (VAR: variable) bin hin th trong mt phm vi va phi. Khi xoay nm VAR n v tr CAL (Calibration: chun) th tr gi ghi vng ngoi mi ng (V d: nm VOLT/DIV v tr 20mV th mi DIV trn mn hnh s tng ng vi 20mV). Cn nu nm VAR khng v tr CAL th tr gi ghi vng ngoi nh hn tr ng. Do khi dng dao ng nghim o bin tn hiu phi xoay nm VAR n v tr gi CAL. Khi ko nm VAR ra, dng sng hin th trn mn hnh s c gin ra theo chiu dc 5 ln (X5MAG). 15. VAR cho CHB (nm nh trong): Tng t nh phn 14 nhng p dng cho tn hiu vo CHB. 16. VERT POSITION cho CHA: V tr dc. Dch chuyn dc (ln xung) dng sng hin th ca CHA. v tr ko ra nm ny c chc nng ALT TRIG (Alternate triggering: ny mch lun phin). 17. VERT POSITION cho CHB: V tr dc. Dch chuyn dc (ln xung) dng sng hin th ca CHB. v tr ko ra nm ny c chc nng INV (Inverting: i du, o pha) tn hiu vo CHB (kt hp vi ch ADD ca VERT MODE (11).
113

Gio trnh: o Lng in

Trigger: 18. TRIGGER SOURCE: Ngun tn hiu ny. Chn ngun tn hiu ny mch qut ngang (iu khin s di chuyn ngang ca im sng trn mn hnh) c lp vi VERT MODE (11). CHA: Tn hiu vo CHA l ngun tn hiu ny. CHB: Tn hiu vo CHB l ngun tn hiu ny. LINE: Tn hiu in li 220V-50Hz c h xung bin nh dng lm ngun tn hiu ny. Ch ny i khi c dng tn hiu quan st c lin quan tn s vi in li. V d sng d mch chnh lu ton phn (c chu k ng gp i in li). EXT: Tn hiu ny t bn ngoi a vo ng EXT TRIG (19) thay th cho tn hiu ny bn trong. Tn hiu ny bn ngoi phi c lin h tn s vi tn hiu quan st. 19. EXT TRIGGER: Ny t bn ngoi. Ng vo ca tn hiu ny t bn ngoi (lc by gi TRIGGER SOURCE phi v tr EXT). Bin tn hiu ny khng qu 300 Vnh-nh. Ng EXT TRIGGER cn gi EXT SYNC (ng b ngoi). 20. TRIGGER COUPLING: Kt ni tn hiu ny. Chn ch tc ng ca xung ny ln mch qut ngang. AUTO (Automatic_t ng): Ny t ng. Mch qut ngang vn hot ng d cha c tnn hiu ny hoc c m cha bin . Khi c tn hiu ny mch qut ngang t ng chuyn sang ch qut c ny (triggered sweep). Thng dao ng nghim hot ng ch AUTO. NORM (Normal: bnh thng): Ny bnh thng. Mch qut ngang ch hot ng khi c tnh hiu ny. TV-V (phn Vertical ca Tivi): Di tn s tn hiu ny l DC n 1KHz. Ch yu dng cho tn s qut dc ca my Tivi v mn hnh my tnh. TV-H (phn Horizonal ca Tivi): Di tn s tn hiu ny l 1KHz n 100KHz. Ch yu dng cho tn s qut ngang ca Tivi v mn hnh my tnh. Hai chc nng TV-V, TV-H cho php quan st ng thi hai tn hiu (vo CHA v CHB) khng c lin quan tn s vi nhau. 21. TRIG LEVEL: Mc ny. Thay i mc ny (mc bin ca tn hiu vo CHA hoc CHB hoc LINE (xem 18) mch trigger ca my to xung ny a n mch qut ngang) v ng dc ca tn hiu m mch trigger a vo to xung ny. Khi nm v tr n vo: +slope (ng dc dng hayng dc ln): xung ny c to ra khi ng dc ln ca tn hiu t n mc ny. Khi nm v tr ko ra: -slope (ng dc m hay ng dc xung): xung ny c to ra khi ng dc xung ca tn hiu t n mc ny. 22. HOLD OFF: Ngng (s qut ngang). i vi cc tn hiu tuy tun hon nhng bin thin phc tp chng hn nh tn hiu s nh phn, s ny (ng b) c th kh khn (dng sng hin th b bin ng). Lc by gi dng s qut ngang u lc qut tin c th gip s ny tt hn. Xoay nm HOLD OFF thay i thi gian dng ny. v tr ko ra nm HOLD OFF c chc nng CHOP (kt hp vi VERT MODE (11) v tr DUAL). Gc thi gian: 23. TIME/DIV: Thi gian cho mi khong chia. Xoay nm thay i tc qut ngang, c th l thay i thi gian tng ng vi khong chia trn mt mn hnh t 0,1s/DIV (nhanh nht) n 2s/DIV (chm nht). 24. TIME VAR: Thay i lin tc tc qut ngang (thi gian tng ng vi mi khong chia theo chiu ngang trn mn hnh) trong mt phm vi va phi. Ch khi no VAR v tr gi CAL (Calibration: chun) th tr gi ghi TIME/DIV mi ng,
114

Gio trnh: o Lng in

cn nu khng th nh hn chng hn khi TIME/DIV 20ms v VAR CAL th mi khong chia s tng ng vi thi gian 20ms, cn nu VAR khng CAL thi gian s nh hn 20ms. 25. HOR POSITION: V tr ngang. Dch chuyn ngang dng sng hin th trn mn hnh. v tr ko ra nm ny c chc nng X10MAG s gin dng sng theo chiu ngang 10 ln. 26. 27. 28. (ch c model PS-XX5): Lin quan n qut tr hon (delay-sweep), kh nng ny gip cc php o lin quan n thi gian thun tin v chnh xc hn. Cc ng khc: 29. X-Y: Chuyn my sang ch X-Y. 30. CAL (Calibration): Ng ra tn hiu vung i xng bin 2Vnh-nh tn s khong 1KHz. Tn hiu ny dng chun dao ng nghim hoc l ngun tn hiu th cc mch. 31. 32. (ch c model PS-XX5): Dng th linh kin. 33. GND: u ni n v kim loi ca my.

115

Gio trnh: o Lng in

My hin sng Oscilloscope

116

Gio trnh: o Lng in

Cu hi n tp: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Trnh by cc vn cn quan tm khi s dng thit b o? Trnh by s lc cu to v nguyn l o ca VOM ? Trnh by cch s dng VOM o cc i lng R, C, L? Trnh by nguyn tc phn tch s VOM? Trnh by s lc cu to v nguyn l o ca DMM? Trnh by s lc cu to v nguyn l o ca OSCILLOSCOPE?

117

You might also like