MO D U

Trong lch s phat trin cua xa hi loai ngi chung ta a s dung rt nhiu loai
vt liu khac nhau, vi tnh nng s dung cua chung cang ngay cang cao hn. u tin la
thi ky a, sau o tin n thi ai ng, st.v .v. Cho n ngay nay la mt loat
cac loai vt liu mi nh : composit, ceramit, plyme. v.v. Cac loai vt liu nay (c bit
la kim loai & hp kim, cung vi cac loai vt liu mi) a gop phn thuc y s phat trin
cua xa h loai ngi mt cach nhanh chong.
Ngay nay trong cac lnh vc cng nghip, quc phong, i sng...oi ho i vt liu
s dung cn phai co rt nhiu tnh cht khac nhau. V du : khi th cn co tnh dn in rt
cao dung trong nganh in lc, luc lai yu cu co cng ln lam cac loai dung cu
ct got kim loai, khi lai cn co bn ln lam cac cu kin xy dng, hoc phai co tnh
deo cao can, dp, keo ngui, hay cn bn cao nhng khi lng ring nho dung
trong cng nghip hang khng...Tt ca cac yu cu nay u co th c ap ng bi vt
liu kim loai cung nh cac loai vt liu mi.
Mn vt li u hock se trang b cho sinh vin nhng kin thc c ban cua cac loai
vt liu chnh : tinh th, cac hp kim, ban dn va ion, cng hoa tr ... cung nh kin thc v
x ly nhit cua chung. Muc ch cua mn hoc nay giup cho sinh vin hiu ro cac loai vt
liu khac nhau da trn mi quan h gia cu truc (lin kt hoa hoc, kiu mang tinh th) va
c ly tnh, thc hanh c cac th nghim c ban xac nh c tnh cua vt liu va bit la
chon vt liu phu hp nht ap ng nhu cu s dung sau nay. Khi nghin cu mt vt liu
bt ky chung ta u da vao bn c c c ba n sau y : Kt cu cua cu truc, cac tnh cht,
s tng hp cac phng phap gia cng va hiu qua s dung cua no. Mt san phm co th
gm hang chuc loai vt liu khac nhau tao nn. V du t RENAULT CLIO 1,2 RN cua
Phap gm mi mt loai vt liu sau y tao nn :
1- Thep tm 40,9% 2-Thep hnh 10,9%
2-Gang 11,3% 4-Hp kim nhm 4,2%
5-Cac kim loai mau khac 3,9%
6-Cht deo 10,2% 7-Cht deo an hi 3,4%
8-Vt liu hu c khac 3,4%
9-Thuy tinh 4,2% 10-Sn 1,7%
11-Cht long 5,9%
Yu cu cua ngi ky s cac nganh c in t ngoai kha nng hiu bit v
chuyn mn su cua nganh hoc, con phai nm c nhng tnh cht c ba n cua cac loai vt
liu t o co th s dung mt cach hp ly nht nhm nng cao tui tho cua may moc,
cng trnh, ha gia thanh san phm ...
Mn hoc nay k tha kin thc cua kha nhiu cac lnh vc khac nhau : tinh th hoc, c
lng t, ly thuyt lch, vt ly tia rn ghen, n mon va bao v kim loai ...do o khi lng
kin thc kha ln va co nhiu mt. V vy oi hoi ngi hoc phai nm vng cac kin thc
c ban v vt liu va thc hanh nghim tuc cac th nghim. Khi nghin cu mn hoc nay
phai nm chc mi quan h gia thanh phn hoa hoc, cu truc va tnh cht cua vt liu. Bt
ky s thay i nao cua thanh phn hoa hoc va cu truc se dn ti s bin i cua tnh cht
vt liu.
1
PHN 1 : CO SO VT LIU HOC

CHUONG 1 : CU TRUC TINH TH CUA VT LIU

1.1.CU TAO NGUYN TU VA CA C LOAI LIN KT DI N HINH TRONG
CHT R N :
1.1.1.M hinh cu tao nguyn tu :
Nguyn t la mt h thng bao gm hat nhn mang in dng va cac in t
mang in m chuyn ng xung quanh. Hat nhn nguyn t cu tao bi cac prton va
ntron. Prton mang in dng co in tch bng in tch cua in t, ntron khng
mang in. Trong trang thai bnh thng nguyn t trung hoa in v s lng prton bng
s lng in t. S nay c c trng bng s th t (Z) trong bang tun hoan
Menlep. Khi lng nguyn t bng khi lng hat nhn cua no v khi lng cua
prton va ntron ln hn rt nhiu so v i khi lng in t. Vi cung khi lng in t
va prton, hat nhn co th cha s lng ntron khac nhau va tao nn cac ng v cua cung
mt nguyn t hoa hoc.
Xac sut tm thy in t trn mt quy ao nao o xung quanh hat nhn c xac
nh bng bn tham s goi la s lng t. Co ngha la trang thai nng lng cua mi in
t trong nguyn t c xac nh bi bn s lng t. Cac s lng t gm co :
a-S lng t chnh n : co cac gia tr bng 1, 2, 3, 4... xac nh nng lng cho
phep cua in t. Cac in t co cung s lng t chnh n hp thanh mt lp in t. Cac
lp in t ln lt la : K, L, M, N... tng ng vi n = 1, 2, 3, 4 ...
b-S lng t phng v l : xac nh cac gia tr cho phep cua mmen xung lng
quy ao, co tr s bng 0, 1, 2, 3... (n - 1). Cac in t vi l khac nhau cua cung lp tao
thanh nhng phn lp tng ng, ky hiu ln lt la s, p, d, f...ng vi l = 0, 1, 2, 3...
c-S lng t t m
l
: xac nh kha nng nh hng cho phep cua vec t mmen
xung lng quy ao i vi chiu cua t trng bn ngoai, co tr s bng 0, . 1, 2, 3... l
d-S lng t spin m
s
: xac nh kha nng nh hng ngc chiu nhau cua vec t
mmen xung lng spin cua in t, m
s
= 1/ 2.
Ngoai ra s phn b in t theo cac mc khac nhaucon phai tun theo nguyn ly
loai tr Pauly : mi trang thai vi ba s lng t n, l, m
l
xac nh ch co th cha hai in t
vi spin ngc chiu nhau. Da vao nguyn ly nay ta co th d oan s in t cho phep
trn cac bc nng lng.
V du : nguyn t ng Cu co s th t Z = 29, phn b in t nh sau :
1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
4s
2

(Con goi la cu hnh in t)
K L M N
Trong mt s iu kin xac nh, in t co th chuyn t trang thai nay sang
trang thai khac, khi o se phat ra hay hp thu nng lng di dang E di dang cac
lng t anh sang co tn s :
E = E
l
-E
l+1
= h vi h = 6,627.10
-27
ec.s (hng s Planck)
2
1.1.2.Cac loai lin kt nguyn tu thuong gp :
Trong cht rn thng gp bn loai lin kt sau y : lin kt ng hoa tri, lin kt
ion, lin kt kim loai, lin kt hn hp va lin kt Vanderval.
1-Lin kt ng hoa tr :
Lin kt nay tao ra khi hai hoc nhiu nguyn t gop chung nhau mt s in t
co u tam in t lp ngoai cung (in t hoa tr). V du lin kt ng hoa tr gia hai
nguyn t clo trong phn t Cl
2
. Hai nguyn t nay co s in t lp ngoai cung la 7. Do
vy chung phai gop chung hai in t lp ngoai cung u tam in t.
c im cua lin kt ng hoa tr :
1-Lin kt co tnh nh hng, ngha la xac sut tn tai cac in t lin kt ln
nht theo phng ni tm cac nguyun t.
2-Cng lin kt phu thuc rt manh vao c tnh lin kt gia cac in t hoa
tr vi hat nhn. V du cac bon dang a hnh kim cng co lin kt ng hoa tr rt manh
v bn in t hoa tr (trong s sau in t) lin kt hu nh trc tip vi hat nhn. Do vy
nhit no ng chay cua no cao hn 3550
o
C. Trong khi o thic (Sn) co lin kt ng hoa tr
rt yu v bn in t hoa tr (trong s 50 in t) nm xa hat nhn nn lc lin kt yu i
vi hat nhn do o nhit nong chay thp 270
o
C.
3-Lin kt ng hoa tr co th xay ra gia cac nguyn t cung loai (cua mt
nguyn t hoa hoc trong cac nhom t IVA n VIIA), goi la lin kt ng hoa tr ng cc.
V du trong phn t Cl
2
hay cac tinh th kim cng, si lc, gecmani ...Lin kt ng hoa tr
gia cac nguyn t khac loai (cac nguyn t hoa hoc nhom IIIA vi nhom VIA) goi la lin
kt ng hoa tr d cc.
2-Lin kt ion :
y la loai lin kt manh, cac nguyn t cho bt in t lp ngoai cung va rtr
than ion dng hay nhn thm in t bao hoa lp ngoai cung va tr thanh ion m. V
du : trong lin kt LiF, Li cho bt mt in t lp ngoai cung tr thanh Li
+
, con F nhn
thm mt in t va tr thanh F
-
.
Lin kt ion thng tao nn gia cac nguyn t co nhiu in t hoa tr (nhom
VIB, VIIB) vi cac nhom nguyn t co t in t hoa tr (nhom IB, IIB). Cac xyt kim loai
Al
2
O
3
, MgO, CaO, Fe
3
O
4
co lin kt chu yu la lin kt ion.
Lin kt ion cang bn vng (cang manh) khi cac nguyn t cha cang t in t,
ngha la cac in t cho va nhn nm gn hat nhn. Lin kt ion la loai lin kt khng nh
hng. V du : hydr tao vi F, Cl, Br, I cac hp cht HF, HCl, HBr, HI co nng lng lin
kt ln lt la 5,81; 4,44; 3,75 va 3,06 eV/mol.
3-Lin kt kim loai :
Cac ion dng kim loai tao thanh mang xac nh, t trong khng gian in t t
do chung. Nng lng lin kt la tng hp lc y va hut tnh in gia cac ion dng va
my in t t do . Lin kt kim loai thng c tao nn t nhng nguyn t co t in t
hoa tr. V du : cac nguyn t nhom IA trong bang tun hoan Menlep vi mt in t
hoa tr co tnh kim loai in hnh. Cang i v bn phai cua bang tun hoan tnh cht ng
hoa tr trong lin kt cang cao. Cac cht rn co lin kt kim loai trong cu truc tinh th cua
no co tnh i xng cao.
3

+
+
+
+
+
- -
+
- -
+
- -
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
+
+
+
+ +










Hnh 1.1- Lin kt kim loai.


4-Lin kt hn hp :
Lin kt ng hoa tr thun tuy ch co c trong trng hp kin kt ng cc
(gia cac nguyn t cua cung mt nguyn t hoa hoc). Trong trng hp lin kt d cc
(gia cac nguyn t cua cac nguyn t khac nhau) in t hoa tr tham gia lin kt chu hai
anh hng trai ngc :
-B hut bi hat nhn cua no
-B hut bi hat nhn cua nguyn t th hai tao in t chung.
Kha nng cua hat nhn hut in t ho a tr c goi la tnh m in cua nguyn t.
S khac nhau v tnh m in gia cac nguyn t trong lin kt ng hoa tr lam am my
in t "chung" b bin dang va tao thanh ngu cc in, o la tin t cua lin kt ion. Tnh
ion cua lin kt se cang ln nu s khac nhau v tnh m in cua cac nguyn t cang ln.
V du : Na co tnh m in bng 0,9 con Cl co tnh m in bng 3,0. Do vy trong lin kt
NaCl gm khoang 58% lin kt ion va 48% lin kt ng ho a tr. Tt ca nhng lin kt d
cc u mang tnh cht hn hp gia lin kt ion va ng hoa tr
5-Lin kt yu (lin kt Val der Val) :
Lin kt ng hoa tr cho phep giai thch s tao thanh cac phn t nh nc (H
2
O)
hay polytylen (C
2
H
4
)
n
nhng khng th giai thch s tao thanh mt s vt rn t nhng
phn t trung hoa nh nc a, polyme...
Trong nhiu phn t co lin kt ng hoa tr, do s khac nhau v tnh m in cua
cac nguyn t, trong tm in tch dng va in tch m khng trung nhau se tao thanh
ngu cc in va phn t b phn cc. Lin kt Val der Val la lin kt do hin tng hut
nhau gia cac nguyn t hoc phn t b phn cc trang thai rn . y la loai lin kt yu,
rt d b pha huy do ba ng nhit. Do vy cac cht rn trn c s lin kt Val der Val co
nhit nong chay thp.
1.2.CU TAO MANG TINH TH LY TUO NG :
1.2.1.Cac khai ni m co ban :
4
1-Mt tinh th : trong kim loai cac nguyn t sp xp co trt t , tc la chung u nm
trn nhng mt phng song song va cach u nhau goi la mt tinh th .Tp hp v s cac
mt nh vy tao nn mang tinh th .
2-Khi c s (con goi la c ban) :la phn nho nht c trng cho mt loai mang tinh
th .Co th xem nh mang tinh th la do v s cac khi c s xp lin tip nhau tao nn.
3-Thng s mang (con goi la hng s mang) : la khoang cach gia hai nguyn t trn
mt canh cua khi c s .Thng s mang la kch thc c ban cua mang tinh th, t o co
th suy ra cac khoang cach bt ky trong mang .n v o thng s mang la kx (nano met)
hay ngstrng , vi 1kx = 1,00202A
o
= 1,00202.10
-8
cm. Theo thng s mang ta co th tnh
c ng knh nguyn t kim loai . Thng s mang thng ky hiu la a .
1.2.2.Cac kiu mang tinh th thuong gp :
Trong cac kim loai thng dung thng gp ba kiu mang tinh th sau y :
1-Lp phng tm khi A2 (th tm) : Cac nguyn t nm cac nh va trung tm
cua khi lp phng . Nu coi cac nguyn t la hnh cu va biu din gn nh tht th cac
nguyn t nm cac nh cheo nhau th tip xu c vi nhau qua nguyn t trung tm .Cac
nguyn t con lai khng tip xuc vi nhau . Kiu mang nay co trong cac kim loai Fe

Cr,
Mo, V. Khoang cach gn nht gia hai nguyn t la d =
2
3 a
va r =
4
3 a
. Kiu mang
nay co mt thng s mang la a. Kiu mang nay co s sp xp la K8, ngha la bt ky nguyn
t nao cung co tam nguyn t cach u no mt khoang gn nht.
2- Lp phng tm mt A1 (din tm) : Cac nguyn t nm cac nh va tm cua cac
mt bn . Nu coi cac nguyn t la hnh cu va biu din gn nh tht th nguyn t nm
nh va tm cua cac mt bn th tip xuc vi nhau .Cac nguyn t con lai khng tip xuc
vi nhau . Khoang cach gn nht gia hai nguyn t la d =
2
2 a
va r =
4
2 a
. Kiu mang
nay ch co mt thng s mang la a . Thng gp trong cac kim loai Fe

, Cu, Ni, Al, Pb...S

sp xp cua mang A1 la K12.
3-Sau phng xp cht A3 (luc giac xp cht) : Cac nguyn t nm cac nh va
tm hai mt ay cua hnh lng tru luc giac u .Ba nguyn t nm trung tm ba lng tru
tam giac cach nhau .Sau phng xp cht co hai thng s mang la a va c , t s c/a goi la h
s xp cht .Trong trng hp ly tng
3
8
=
a
c
1,633 .Trong thc t t s c/a khng
ung la 1,633 ma dao ng trong trong khoang 1,57 1,64 va cung c coi la xp cht .
Cac kim loai co kiu mang nay la : Zn, Cd, Co

, Mg, Ti, Ru...

4-Chnh phng tm khi (th tm) : Trong t chc cua thep sau khi ti (mactexit) con
co kiu mang chnh phng tm khi . Co th coi kiu mang nay la lp phng tm khi
c keo dai theo mt chiu . No co hai thng s mang la a va c , t s c/a goi la chnh
phng .
Trong thc t s sp xp cua cac nguyn t trong kim loai theo xu hng day c
nht . Do o khng co kim loai nao co kiu mang n gian chnh phng tm khi ca .

5


Hnh 1.2- M hnh va cac sp xp nguyn t trong khi c s.
a) Lp phng tm mt
b) Lp phng tm khi
c) Sau phng xp cht

1.3.CU TAO MANG TINH TH THUC T :
1.3.1.Phn loai cac sai lch trong mang tinh th :
Cac cu truc trnh bay trn goi la cu truc cua tinh th ly tng v khi xem xet a
bo qua dao ng nhit va cac sai hong trong trt t sp xp cua cac nguyn t (ion, phn
t). Cac sai hong o goi la sai lch mang tinh th hay khuyt tt mang. Hanh vi cua tinh th
di tac dung cua ngoai lc (bin cng, bin dang deo), dn in, tnh cach in va tnh
ban dn ... se b anh hng rt ln do sai lch mang tinh th. Da vao kch thc theo ba
6
chiu sai lch mang c phn ra lam ba loai : sai lch im, sai lch ng, sai lch mt
va khi.
1.Sai lch im :
Sai lch im la cac sai lch co kch thc rt nho theo ba chiu o khng gian (c
kch thc nguyn t). Co cac dang sau : nut trng, nguyn t xen ke va nguyn t tap cht.
a-Nut trng va nguyn t xen ke : Trong tinh th nguyn t lun lun dao ng
nhit xung quanh v tr cn bng cua mnh. Tai nhit xac nh, nng lng dao ng cua
mi nguyn t tun theo ly thuyt thng k Mac xoen - Bol z man nn khng ging nhau.
Khi mt s nguyn t nao o co nng lng cao, vi bin dao ng ln, chung co kha
nng ri bo nut mang va lai nut khng co nguyn t , o la nut trng. Sau o nguyn t
co th chuyn sang v tr gia cac nut ( c ch tao nut trng Frenken) tao ra sai lch im
dang nguyn t xen ke . Khi nguyn t ri khoi v tr cn bng i ra b mt tinh th goi la
c ch nut trng Stky
S xut hin nut trng va nguyn t xen ke lun lam xut hin trng ng sut
hnh cu (keo xung quanh nut trng va nen xung quanh nguyn t xen ke). Nng nut
trng thc t ln hn nhiu so vi nguyn t xen ke v nng lng tao nut trng nho hn
nhiu so vi nguyn t xen ke. Mt nut trng biu din theo cng thc :
exp( )
n Q
N K
=
T

Trong o : -n,N : s nut trng va s nut mang.
-Q : nng lng tao nut trng
-K : hng s Bolzman
-T : nhit tuyt i.
Qua cng thc trn ta thy rng nng nut trng tng nhanh theo nhit va co
gia tr ln nht kim loai long.
b-Nguyn t tap cht : Trong thc t khng th co vt liu kim loai nguyn cht
tuyt i. Vi cng ngh nu luyn hin ai ngay nay co th at sach n 99,99999%.
Do vy trong kim loai lun co tap cht. Tuy theo kch thc nguyn t ma tap cht co th
thay th vao v tr nguyn t kim loai trn nut mang hay xen gia cac nut . Xung quanh cac
nguyn t tap cht lun co trng ng sut hnh cu.
2-Sai lch ng - Lch
Sai lch ng la loai sai lch co kch thc nho (kch c nguyn t) theo hai
chiu o va rt ln theo chiu th ba trong tinh th (se goi la lch).
Ly thuyt v lch la c s ly thuyt bn trong vt ly kim loai. Nh co ly thuyt
lch ta co th giai thch c nhiu vn v c tinh, ly tnh cua kim loai va hp kim. Trn
c s o ch tao cac kim loai va hp kim c bit : siu bn, siu deo...
a-Lch ng : Gai thm vao pha trn mang tinh th ly tng mt na mt phng
nguyn t ABCD. Phn na pha trn cua tinh th (trn ng AB) se chu ng sut ne n,
na di chu ng sut keo . ng AB dai hang nghn hang van thng s mang goi la truc
lch. AB la bin gii pha trong cua na mt ABCD nn goi la lch bin. Nu na mt
nguyn t nm pha trn goi la lch dng, ky hiu , nm pha di goi la lch m, ky
hiu T.
7

Hnh 1.3 -Cac dang sai lch im trong mang tinh th
a) Nut trng Frenkel; b) Nut trng Schottky
c,d) Nguyn t xen ke va thay th
e,f) Sai lch im Schottky va Frenkel trong ion

Hnh 1.4- M hnh tao lch ng trong mang tinh th
8

b-Lch xon : ta co th hnh dung lch xon nh sau : ct mang tinh th ly tng
bng na mt phng ABCD, sau o x dch hai mep ngoai ngc chiu nhau sao cho cac
nguyn t mt ngoai se x dch mt oan bng mt thng s mang theo ng CD. Do o
cac nguyn t se sp xp lai quanh AB theo ng xon c va ta co lch xon. AB goi la
truc lch xon. Nu ng xon c nguyn t xung quanh truc lch theo chiu kim ng h
goi la lch xon phai, ky hiu ngc lai goi la lch xon trai, ky hiu .













Hnh 1.5- Lch xon: m hnh tao thanh (a), m hnh khng
gian (b) va s sp xp nguyn t trong vung lch (c)
c)
b) a)
D
C
B
A

c-Lch hn hp : Trong nhiu trng hp mt lch co c trng cu a ca lch bin va lch
xon goi la lch hn hp.











Hnh 1.6- Cach xac nh vect trt (Burgers)
a) Trong tinh th hoan chnh
b) trong lch ng
c) Trong lch xon




3-Sai lch mt : Sai lch mt la cac sai lch co kch thoc ln theo hai chiu o va nho
theo chiu o th ba. Gm co cac loai : bin gii hat, bin gii siu hat, mt ngoai tinh th
...
9
a-Bin gii hat : la vung tip giap gia cac hat trong a tinh th. Cac nguyn t
vung bin gii hat khng sp xp theo trt t mang va co th coi nh vung cu truc v nh
hnh. Chiu day bin gii hat phu thuc vao sach cua vt liu, co th at hang trm
thng s mang. Kim loai cang tinh khit chiu day bin gi hat cang mong.
b-Bin gii siu hat : Siu hat (blc) la nhng vu ng tinh th nho (kch thc trung
bnh c 10
2
- 10
4
nm, vi cu truc tinh th kha hoan chnh, nh hng lch nhau mt goc
nho, ngn cach bng bin gii siu hat. Bin gii siu hat thc cht la nhng tng lch,
tao nn do nhng lch cung du tng tac ln nhau khi chung trt trn nhng mt trt
song song va gi nhau v tr cn bng. Hai siu hat ln cn nh hng lch nhau mt goc
bng :
b
D
=
b
D
= .
D - khoang cach trung bnh gia cac lch bin cung du trn trng lch.
b - vec t trt (Bure).
Bin gii cac siu hat thng xut hin trong qua trnh kt tinh lai, co tac dung can
tr trt va tng tac vi cac loai sai lch im khac nn cung ong vai tro trong tnh deo
cua vt liu.
c-Sai lch xp : Sai lch xp (con goi la khuyt tt xp) la s pha v trt t xp
cht cua tinh th. Gia s mang A1 co trt t sp xp la ABCABCABC, v ly do nao o, trt
t o b pha v, chng han tha mt lp xp cht co sai lch xp tha ABACA...Nu
trong trt t xp thiu mt lp se tao sai lch xp thiu ABCABABC...
Sai lch xp c trng bng nng lng
SLX
goi la nng lng cua sai lch xp.
iu kin cn bng rng cua sai lch xp la :
d
o
=
2 3 ( )
2
SLX
G b b

r r

Trong o : G - m un trt

2 3
b b
uur ur
- vec t trt cua cac lch khng hoan chnh gii han SLX

SLX
- nng lng cua sai lch xp.
Sai lch xp co vai tro rt ln trong lnh vc hoa bn vt liu, y la mt trong
nhng phng hng quan trong nng cao b n la hp kim hoa, lam tng rng d
o
, lam
giam
SLX
, tc la tng can tr chuyn ng cua lch bng sai lch xp.
d-Cu truc mt ngoai tinh th : Mt ngoai tinh th co hnh thai tn tai khac so vi
nhng mt phng tinh th bn trong. Co th hnh dung d dang rng i vi cac nguyn
t mt ngoai (mt gii han tinh th) khng co u s sp xp nh nguyn t bn trong. V
vy mt ngoai chung khng sp xp theo trt t quy nh cua tinh th va tao thanh vung
sai lch. Sc cng b mt tinh th (nng lng b mt) c trng phn gia tng nng lng
t do gi cac nguyn t b mt trang thai n nh. Do c im cu truc sai l ch cho
nn lp mt ngoai tinh th cung co nhng tng tac c bit vi cac sai lch khac.
4-Sai lch khi :
Nhng sai lch co kch thc ln theo ba chiu trong mang tinh th goi la sai lch
khi. Sai lch khi vy m la nhng sai hong sinh ra khi nu, uc hp kim nh r co, tp
trung x, tap cht trong vt uc. Trn kha canh vi m co th coi sai lch khi nh cac pha
10
th hai tn tai trn nn hp kim. V du nh graphit trong gang, cac pha th hai tao thanh
khi tit pha t dung dch rn. Cac sai lch nay la c y tao ra nng cao bn, cai thin
tnh cht theo y mun. Tuy thuc vao cu truc, hnh thai tn tai, kch thc ma hiu qua
hoa bn cua nhng pha th hai nay khac nhau.
1.3.2.Vai tro cua sai lch di voi tinh cht :
S co mt cua sai lch trong mang tinh th va tng tac gia chung anh hng n
tnh cht cua vt liu. giai thch tnh cht c hoc ( bn, cng, tnh deo...) phai da
vao ly thuyt bn trong o cac m hnh cu truc vi m c ap dung giai thch kt qua
thc t. y ta xem xet s tng tac cua lch vi nhau va anh hng cua chung n c
tnh cua vt liu.
1-Tng tac gia cac lch va khai nim hoa bn :
Ta xet qua trnh trt khi bin dang deo, tc bin dang deo theo cng thc
Orowan . . b = . (Trong o : la mt lch, b la tr s vec t Burgers, la tc
chuyn ng cua lch). Trong qua trnh bin dang se co hai hiu ng ngc nhau xay ra
-Mt lch tng do cac ngun khac nhau hoat ng nh bin gii hat, Frank -
Rit lam tng tc bin dang.
-Nhng khi tng mt lch tng tac gia lch voi nhau va vi cac sai lch khac
tng manh lam giam ang k tc chuyn ng cua lch. V vy mun duy tr tc bin
dang la khng i cn phai tng ng sut bn ngoai thm mt lng d . y chnh la hiu
ng hoa bn bin dang. H s hoa bn bin dang
d
d

c trng bi goc nghing ng

cong trn biu th keo vt liu.
C s cua cac phng phap hoa bn vt liu tinh th la lam giam tc chuyn
ng cua lch. Tng tac gia cac lch xay ra nh trng ng sut an hi cua chung. Khi
mt lch trt gp cac lch trong mt trt giao nhau khac, trn mi lch hnh thanh mt
bc lch. Bc can tr chuyn ng lch hoc khi cung chuyn ng vi lch se sinh ra
khuyt tt im hoc cac vong lch pha sau no gy ra hoa bn (hnh 1.41 L )
2-Tng tac gia lch va sai lch im :
Kt qua tng tac gia lch va sai lch im lam cho cac nguy n t tap cht (hay
nut trng) tch tu xung quanh ng lch, tao ra nhng am my nguyn t tap cht (kh
quyn Ctren, Snuk, Suzuki...). chuyn ng lch cn phai b sung thm nng lng t
bn ngoai (d ) nhm giai thoat khoi nhng am my o.
Trong cac hp kim tn tai dang dung dch rn (thay th, xen ke) cac nguyn t
hp kim co th coi nh nhng sai lch im c y, hiu qua hoa bn se tng ln rt
nhiu.Nguyn t h kim lam thay i rng cua sai lch xp, y la mt trong cac
chng ngai rt manh can tr chuyn ng cua lch. Trong cac kiu mang A1, A3 khi hp
kim hoa se lam giam nng lng cua sai lch xp, tc la tng rng cua no, do vy lam
tng hiu qua hoa bn. o chnh la hoa bn bng dung dch rn.
3-Tng tac lch va bin gii hat :
Khi trong hat co mt ngun Frank - Rit hoat ng se co v s lch trt cho n
khi dng lai canh bin gii hat, tao ra mt tp hp co n lch (hnh 1.45 L). Tp hp nay se
tao ra trng ng sut an hi va tac dung ngc lai, phong toa ngun lch trong hat,
11
va kch thch ngun cac hat ln cn hoat ng trong qua trnh bin dang. Bin gii hat
can tr chuyn ng cua lch la do :
-Tai bin gii co cu truc khng trt t
-Hai hat a tinh th lin nhau co nh hng khac nhau v vy lch rt kho thay
i t bin mt trt khi vt qua bin gii hat. V vy lch ch co th chuyn ng t do
trong hat. Kch thc hat cang nho, quang ng chuyn ng t do cang ngn, do o hiu
qua hoa bn cang cao. o chnh la s hoa bn bng bin gii hat.
4-Tng tac gia lch va pha th hai :
Pha th hai tao ra trong hp kim do qua trnh chuyn bin pha cu ng co th xem la
dang sai lch c y. Tuy theo vao ban cht, nng , kch thc cua pha th hai, hiu qua
hoa bn cua chung cung khac nhau.
a-Pha th hai khng lin mang, cng hn nn : Mun vt qua loai chng ngai
nay ng sut tip tac dung ln lch phai at gia tr:
2GB
L
= , trong o L la khoang cach
trung bnh gia cac phn t pha th hai. Sau khi vt qua lch lai vong lch d xung
quanh pha th hai.
b-Pha th hai lin mang, mm hn nn : Trng hp nay lch se ct pha th hai
bng cach i xuyn qua no tao ra sai lch xp hai mep .V vy sau mi ln lch vt
qua sc can cua pha th hai tng thm do cac vong lch d hoc sai lch xp. o la qua
trnh hoa bn bng pha th hai (con goi la hoa bn cu truc).
5-Tch tu lch va pha huy :
Khi lch b ham lai bn chng ngai, chung se tch tu dn, lam tng ng sut cuc
b cho n khi at gia tr cao hn gii ha n bn cua mang, lin kt b pha v, vt nt u
tin se xut hin. Cac lch tip theo trt n va giai thoat trn b mt vt nt t vi lam no
ln dn ln va tr thanh vt nt vi m. Luc nay se xay ra pha huy.
1.3.3.Don tinh th va da tinh th :
1-n tinh th : Nu vt tinh th co mang thng nht va phng khng thay i trong
toan b th tch goi la n tinh th. d hnh dung ta ly mt c s (khi c s) tnh
tin no theo ba truc toa vi nhng oan bng chu ky tun hoan mang se c n tinh
th.
co c n tinh th kim loai ta phai ap dung cng ngh c bit nui n tinh
th. Co hai phng phap : Zcranxki va phng phap flux (thanh phn khac nhau). Tnh
cht in hnh cua n tinh th la tnh d hng do theo cac phng khac nhau co mt
nguyn t khac nhau. Cng dung cua n tinh th la s dung trong cng nghip ban dn va
ky thut in.
2-a tinh th : a tinh th gm rt nhiu tinh th nho goi la hat tinh th. Nhng hat nay co
cung cu truc mang nhng nh hng ngu nhin nn khac nhau, lin kt vi nhau bng
bin gii hat . Vt liu s dung chu yu la a tinh th.
a- hat cua a tinh th : T khai nim nu trn ta thy cu truc cu a a tinh th
gm hai phn sau :
-Cac hat co nh hng khac nhau.
-Bin gii hat co cu truc khng trt t lin kt cac hat vi nhau
12

Hnh 1.7 -M hnh n tinh th va a tinh th
a) n tinh th
b) a tinh th
c) Anh t vi mu a tinh th sau tm thc





















Hnh 1.8- Anh cp hat chun ng vi phong ai 100 ln.
T o ta thy rng cac hat tinh th khng bao gi co kch thc ging nhau nn
13
phai a ra khai nim hat. Co th xac nh hat theo ba cach sau :
+Xac nh tit din ngang S cua cac hat (phng phap nay kho lam)
+o ng knh (chiu ngang) trung bnh cua cac hat (t dung)
+So sanh s lng hat co trong mt n v din tch vi phong ai 100 ln vi
ban mu co sn. y la phng phap ph bin nht. Sau o xp vao bang cp hat. Bang
cp hat gm 16 cp t -2 n 14, thng dung nht la t cp 1 n cp 8, s cang ln hat
cang nho.
b-Tnh ng hng cua a tinh th : Do s phn b ngu nhin cua cac hat trong a tinh
th, phng mang cua chung s p xp mt cach bt ky nn tnh d hng khng con th hin
na. Do vy a tinh th co tnh ng hng gia. S d goi la ng hng gia v trong tng
phn nho cua a tinh th (hat) vn th hin tnh d hng.
























14
CHUONG 2 : GIAN D PHA

2.1.CAC KHAI NIM CO BAN :
2.1.1.Pha, h, cu tu, h cn bng:
1 - Cu t : la cac nguyn t (hay hp cht hoa hoc bn vng) cu tao nn vt liu. Chung
la cac thanh phn c lp.
2 - H (i khi con goi la h thng) la mt tp hp vt th ring bit cua vt liu trong iu
kin xac nh hay la mt loat hp kim khac nhau vi cac cu t ging nhau.
3- Pha : la t phn ng nht cua h (hp kim) co cu truc va cac tnh cht c, ly, hoa hoc
xac nh, gia cac pha co b mt phn cach.
V du : - Ta co mt h gm nc a va nc. H nay ch co mt cu t o la hp cht H
2
O
nhng co hai pha : rn (nc a), long (nc)
- Mt chi tit bng la tng mt pha : H nay co hai cu t la Cu va Zn nhng ch co
mt pha (dung dch rn cua hai cu t trn).
4 -H cn bng (n nh) : H trang thai cn bng khi cac pha cua no u co nng lng
t do nho nht trong cac iu kin v nhit , ap sut va thanh phn xac nh. Tc la cac
c tnh cua h khng bin i theo thi gian. Thng thng h vi cac pha trang thai
cn bng bao gi cung co bn, cng thp nht, khng co ng sut bn trong, x lch
mang tinh th thp nht va c hnh thanh vi tc ngui chm. H cn bng co tnh
cht thun nghch.
5- H khng cn bng (khng n nh) : Khi thay i nhit va ap su t lam tng nng
lng t do va h tr nn trang thai khg cn bng. Luc nay h co th chuyn bin sang
trang thai cn bng mi co nng lng t do nho hn. Noi chung trang thai khng cn bng
la khng n nh, lun co xu hng t bin i sang trang thai cn bng, n nh. Trong
thc t mt s trang thai khng cn bng vn tn tai lu dai, do nhit thng chuyn
bin xay ra rt chm hu nh khng nhn thy c. Trang thai khng cn bng thng co
bn, cng cao hn nn c s dung kha nhiu trong thc t (t chc mactenxit sau
khi ti). Trang thai khng cn bng c hnh thanh vi tc ngui nhanh.
6-H gia n nh : Trang thai gia n nh tn tai khi trang thai cn bng (n nh) tuyt
i ch tn tai trn ly thuyt, tc la phai nung nong hay lam ngui v cung chm ma trong
thc t rt kho xay ra. Vy gia n nh thc cht la khng n nh nhng thc t lai tn tai
mt cach n nh ngay ca khi nung nong hay lam ngui trong mt pham vi nao o.
2.1.2.Quy tc pha va cng dung :
Trang thai cn bng cua h c xac nh bi cac yu t bn trong (thanh phn
hoa hoc) va cac yu t bn ngoai ( nhit va ap sut). Tuy nhin cac yu t nay phu thuc
ln nhau. B c t do la s lng cac yu t c lp co th thay i c trong pham vi nht
nh ma khng lam thay i s pha cua no (ky hiu F -freedom).
Quy tc pha xac nh mi quan h gia s pha P (phase), bc t do F va s cu t C
(component). Ta co :
F = C - P + 2.
Nhng do vic nghin cu vt liu tin hanh trong kh quyn, co ap sut khng i nn
s yu t bn ngoai ch con mt la nhit . V vy cng thc cua no la :
15
F = C - P + 1
Cn lu y rng bc t do la nhng s nguyn va khng m, s pha cc ai cua mt h
ch co th ln hn s cu t cua no mt n v (P
MAX
= C + 1), no giup cho vic xac nh
s pha cua mt h hp kim d dang. V du :
- Khi F = 1 tc la ch co mt yu t co th thay i c (nhit hay thanh phn),
luc nay s pha bng s cu t.
- Khi F = 2 co hai yu t thay i c cung mt luc, s pha bng s cu t tr i 1.
2.2.DUNG DJCH R N VA CAC PHA TRUNG GIAN :
2.2.1.Khai nim va phn loai dung djch rn :
1-Khai nim :
Cung ging nh dung dch long, trong dung dch rn ta khng phn bit c mt
cach c hoc cac nguyn t cua cac cu t, cac nguyn t cua chung phn b xen va o nhau
trong mang tinh th. Cu t nao co s l ng nhiu hn, vn gi c kiu mang cua mnh
goi la dung mi. Cac cu t con lai goi la cht hoa tan. Dung dch rn la pha ng nht co
cu truc mang tinh th cua cu t dung mi nhng thanh phn cua no co th thay i trong
mt pham vi nht nh ma khng lam mt i s ng nht o. Ky hiu cua dung dch rn la
A(B).
Dung dch rn c chia ra lam hai loai : dung dch rn thay th va dung dch rn
xen ke.












Hnh 2.1 -Hn hp c hoc (a) va dung dch rn (b)

2-Dung dch rn thay th :
la loai dung dch rn ma trong o nguyn t cua cu t hoa tan thay th vao v tr
trn nut mang cua cu t dung mi (nguyn t chu).
Nh vy kiu mang va s nguyn t trong khi c s u ng nh cua cu t dung mi. Tuy
nhin s thay th nay t nhiu u gy ra s x lch mang, v khng th co hai laoi nguyn
t co kch thc hoan toan ging nhau. Do vy s thay th ch xay ra vi cac cu t co kch
thc nguyn t khac nhau t (vi kim loai s sai khac nay khng qua 15%). Tuy thuc vao
mc hoa tan ngi ta con chia ra dung dch rn hoa tan v han va co han.


16


Hnh 2.2 -S tao thanh dung dch rn thay th va xen ke





















a - Dung dch rn thay th hoa tan v han :
La dung dch rn ma trong o nng cua cht hoa tan co th bin i lin tuc,
tc la vi nng bt ky.
Trong loai dung dch rn nay khng th phn bit c cu t nao la dung mi, cu t
nao la cht hoa tan, cu t nao co lng cha nhiu nht la dung mi, cac cu t con lai la
cht hoa tan. V du ta co dung dch rn cua cu t A va B th nng A bin i t
0100%, nng B bin i t 100% 0.
iu kin hai cu t hoa tan v han vao nhau :
* Co cung kiu mang tinh th
* ng knh nguyn t khac nhau t, nho hn 8%. Nu sai khac nhau nhiu t
815% ch co th hoa tan co han, ln hn 15% khng th hoa tan vao nhau
* Nng in t khng vt qua mt gia tr xac nh vi mi loai dung dch rn
(s lng in t hoa tr tnh cho mt nguyn t), tc la cac nguyn t phai co cung hoa tr.







17







Hnh 2.3 -S tao thamh dung dch rn thay th hoa tan v han

* Cac tnh cht vt ly va hoa hoc gn ging nhau (cu tao lp vo in t, tnh m in,
nhit chay...)
Noi chung cac nguyn t cung trong mt nhom cua bang h thng tun hoan thoa
man iu kin nay. Cac cp nguyn t hnh thanh dung dch rn v han ch co th la
nguyn t kim loai. Cn chu y rng y ch la iu kin cn cua dung dch rn v han.
b - Dung dch rn thay th hoa tan co han :
La dung dch rn ma trong o cac cu t ch hoa tan vao nhau vi gia tr nht nh,
tc la nng cua chung b gian oan.
Cac cp cu t khng thoa ma n bn iu kin trn se tao thanh dung dch rn co han
c - Dung dch rn trt t va khng trt t :
Nu s phn b nguyn t cua cu t hoa tan trong mang dung mi mt cach ngu
nhin th c goi la dung dch rn khng trt t. Trong mt s iu kin nao o (nhit ,
nng ) trong mt s h cac nguyn t thay th co tnh quy lut va goi la dung dch rn
trt t. V du trong h Au-Cu khi lam ngui chm nguyn t ng sp xp tai tm cac mt
bn, con nguyn t vang nm cac nh cua khi c s.
3-Dung dch rn xen ke :
La loai dung dch rn trong o nguyn t hoa tan nm xen gia cac nguyn t cua
kim loai dung mi, chung chui vao l hng trong mang dung mi.Nh vy ta thy rng so
nguyn t trong khi c s tng ln.
Do kch thc cac l hng trong mang tinh th rt nho nn cac nguyn t hoa tan
phai co kch thc rt nho. o chnh la cac nguyn t C, N, H, B... vi dung mi Fe.
ng nhin la dung dch rn xen ke ch co loai hoa tan co han.
4-Cac c tnh cua dung dch rn :
a - Mang tinh th cua dung dch rn la kiu mang cua kim loai dung mi, thng
co cac kiu mang n gian va xt cht. y la yu t c ban quyt nh cac tnh cht c, ly
hoa ... V c ban no vn gi c cac tnh cht cua kim loai dung mi. Tuy nhin v thng
s mang lun khac vi dung mi :
- Trong dung dch rn xen ke : thng s mang dung dch lun ln hn thng s
mang dung mi.
- Trong dung dch rn thay th : nu ng knh nguyn t hoa tan ln hn ng
knh nguyn t dung mi th thng s mang dung dch ln hn dung mi. Nu ng knh
nguyn t hoa tan nho hn nguyn t dung mi th thng s mang dung dch nho hn dung
mi.
18
b - Lin kt vn la lin kt kim loai. Do vy dung dch rn vn gi c tnh deo
ging nh kim loai nguyn cht, tuy co kem hn (tr h hp kim Cu-Zn, vi 30%Zn hp
kim nay con deo hn ca kem)
c - Thanh phn hoa hoc thay i trong pham vi nht nh ma khng lam thay i
kiu mang.
d - Tnh cht bin i nhiu : deo, dai, h s nhit in tr giam, in tr,
bn, cng tng ln...
Do cac c tnh trn nn dung dch rn la c s cua cac hp kim kt cu dung trong c kh.
Trong cac hp kim nay pha c ban la dung dch rn, no chim xp x 90%, co trng hp
n 100%.











Hnh 2.4 - S x lch mang trong dung dch rn

a) Trong dung dch rn xen ke
b) Trong dung dch thay th khi r
ht
>r
dm
c) Trong dung dch thay th khi r
h
<r
dm
2.2.2.Cac pha trung gian :
Trong cac hp kim hu nh khng co loai hp cht hoa hoc hoa tr thng. Cac
hp cht hoa hoc tn tai trong hp kim thng goi la pha trung gian v trn gian pha no
nm v tr gia va trung gian cac dung dch rn.
1-Khai nim va phn loai :
Cac hp cht hoa hoc tao thanh theo quy lut hoa tr thng co cac c im sau :
* Co mang tinh th phc tap va khac hn mang nguyn t thanh phn
* Lun lun co mt ty l chnh xac gia cac nguyn t va biu din bi cng
thc hoa hoc nht nh.
*Tnh cht khac hn cac nguyn t thanh phn, cng cao, tnh don ln.
* Co nhit nong chay xac nh, khi hnh thanh la phan ng toa nhit.
Cac pha trung gian trong hp kim co nhng c im khac vi hp cht hoa hoc
theo hoa tr, o la :
* Khng tun theo quy lut hoa tr.
* Khng co thanh phn chnh xac.
* Co lin kt kim loai.
19
Cac pha trung gian trong hp kim thng gp la : pha xen ke, pha in t, pha La ves, pha
...
2-Pha xen ke : La pha tao nn gia cac kim loai chuyn tip (Fe, Cr, Mo, W...) co ng
knh nguyn t ln vi cac a kim (H, B, N, C...) co ng knh nguyn t be. Kiu mang
cua pha xen ke c xac nh theo quan h gia ng knh nguyn t kim loai va a kim :
- Nu d
A
/d
K
< 0,59 th pha xen ke co cac kiu mang n gian : tm khi, tm mt, sau
phng xp cht... Cac nguyn t a kim xen ke vao l hng trong mang. Chung co cng
thc n gian nh : K
4
A (Fe
4
N), K
2
A (W
2
C), KA (NbC, NbH, TiC), KA
2
(Ti
2
H). Vi K la
kim loai, A la a kim.
- Nu d
A
/d
K
> 0,59 pha xen ke se co kiu mang phc tap va cng thc phc tap
hn K
3
A (Mn
3
C), K
7
A
3
(Cr
7
C
3
), K
23
A
6
(Cr
23
C
6
).
c im cua pha xen ke noi chung la co nhit chay rt cao (thng > 3000
0
C) va
co cng ln (2000 5000 HV), co tnh don ln. Chung co vai tro rt ln trong vic
nng cao tnh chng mai mon va chu nhit cua hp kim.

3-Pha in t (Hum-Rozri)
La pha trung gian co cu tao phc tap, tao nn bi hai kim loai. Thanh phn cua
no nh sau :
* Nhom mt : gm cac kim loai hoa tr mt Cu, Ag, Au va kim loai chuyn tip :
Fe, Ni, Co, Pt, Pd.
* Nhom hai : cac kim loai hoa tr hai, ba, bn :Be, Mg, Zn, Cd, Al, Si, Sn.
Nng in t N co gia tr xac nh la 3/2, 21/13 va 7/4 (21/14, 21/13, 21/12).
Mi gia tr nng in t ng vi mt kiu mang tinh th. V du :
-N = 3/2 la pha vi kiu mang lp phng tm khi, hay lp phng phc tap,
hay sau phng (Cu
5
Sn, Cu
5
Si).
- N = 21/13 la pha vi kiu mang lp phng phc tap (Cu
31
Sn
8
).
- N = 7/4 la pha vi kiu mang sau phng xp cht (AgCd
3
).
4-Pha Laves :
La pha tao nn bi hai nguyn t (A, B), co ty l ng knh nguyn t d
A
/d
B
1,2
(ty l nay co th bin i trong pham vi 1,1 1,6), co cng thc AB
2
, kiu mang sau
phng xp cht (MgZn
2
) hay lp phng tm mt (MgCu
2
).
Trong hp kim co th con gp cac pha : , , , ... Tuy nhin cac loai pha
nay t ph bin. Mt c tnh quan trong cua cac pha trung gian la cng va don. V vy
khng bao gi ngi ta dung hp kim ch co mt pha la pha trung gian. Ty l cua chung
trong cac hp kim thng thng < 10% (co khi n 20 30%), y la cac pha can trt
lam tng bn, cng.
2.2.3.Hn hop co hoc :
Kha nhiu trng hp, hp kim co t chc hai hay nhiu pha : hai dung dch rn,
dung dch rn va hp cht hoa hoc... Cu tao nh vy goi la hn hp c hoc. Trn t chc
t vi ta phn bit c rt ro cac pha khac nhau trong hn hp c hoc. Hai trng hp in
hnh cua hn hp c hoc la cung tinh va cung tch.

20
2.3.CAC DANG GIAN D PHA HAI C U TU KHNG CO CHUY N BIN DA
HINH (THU HINH)
2.3.1.Cac gian d pha hai cu tu :
1-Cu tao cua gian pha hai cu t :
a-Cu tao cua gian pha 1 cu t :
Do la cu t nguyn cht nn thanh phn hoa hoc cua chung khng thay i, v th
gian pha mt cu t rt n gian. No ch la mt ng thng ng trn o ta ghi cac
nhit chuyn bin pha cua cu t.
b-Cu tao cua gian pha hai cu t :
Gian pha hp kim hai cu t gm co hai truc : truc tung biu din nhit , truc
hoanh biu di n thanh phn hoa hoc. Trn o ta ve cac ng phn chia cac khu vc pha
khac nhau.
Cac im nm trn ng nm ngang biu th cho cac hp kim co thanh phn hoa
hoc khac nhau nhng cung mt nhit .
Cac im nm trn ng thng ng biu th cho hp kim co thanh phn xac
nh nhng cac nhit khac nhau.
Nu hp kim co cu tao la hai pha th im biu din cua chung nm v hai pha
i din vi im biu din hp kim.



90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
B
100
A
0
D C
L(long)
1539
911


-Fe(A
2
)
N
h
i

N
h
i

,

0
C



-Fe(A
1
)


-Fe(A
2
)

Hnh 2.5- Gian pha cua s t Hnh 2.6- H truc cua gian pha 2 cu t

2-Gian pha hai cu t khng hoa tan vao nhau, khng tao thanh pha trung gian
(gian loai 1) :
S cu t : A va B (C = 2)
Ca c pha co th tao thanh : long (L) hoa tan v han cua A va B, A va B. S pha ln
nht P
MAX
= 3
AEB la ng long : tai nhit ng vi ng nay hp kim bt u kt tinh.
cao hn ng long hp kim hoan toan trang thai long.
CED la ng c : tai nhit ng vi ng c hp kim long kt thuc kt tinh.
Thp hn nhit nay hp kim trang thai rn. Trong khoang nhit gia ng long va
21
ng c la qua trnh nong chay hay kt tinh cua hp kim, tn tai ng thi ca pha rn va
long. Vi loai gian nay CED con goi la ng cung tinh.
E goi la im cung tinh (eutectic). Cac hp kim co thanh phn nm bn trai im
E goi la hp kim trc cung tinh (hypoeutectic). Cac hp kim co thanh phn nm bn phai
im E goi la hp kim sau cung tinh (hypereutectic). Hp kim co thanh phn tai E goi la
hp kim cung tinh. Trong thc t h Pb - Sb thuc loai gian nay.
a - Qua trnh kt tinh cua hp kim trc cung tinh :
* cao hn nhit ng vi im 0 : hp kim hoan toan tra ng thai long (L).
* Lam ngui t 0 n 1: y la qua trnh ngui cua hp kim long (L).
* Tai nhit ng vi im 1: t hp kim long kt tinh ra tinh th A.
* Lam ngui t 1 n 2 : tinh th A sinh ra ngay cang nhiu, hp kim long cang ngay
cang t i va thanh phn cua no bin i theo ng t 1 E (giau B hn).
*Tai nhit ng vi im 2 : phn hp kim long cui cung co thanh phn tai E se kt
tinh ng thi ra A va B cung mt luc, t chc nay goi la t chc cung tinh. Qua trnh nay
goi la chuyn bin cung tinh (eutectic), xay ra tai nhit khng thay i.
L
E
(A + B) t
0
= const
* Lam ngui t 2 n 3 la qua trnh ngui cua hp kim rn, khng xay ra chuyn
bin nao khac. T chc nhn c nhit thng la A + (A +B). Cac tinh th A kt tinh
ra trc co kch thc th to hn cung tinh (A + B).
b - Qua trnh kt tinh cua hp kim sau cung tinh :

Hnh 2.7 -Gian pha loai 1, dang tng quat (a), h Pb-Sb (b)
3
2
1
1
0











* Qua trnh kt tinh cua hp kim sau cung tinh hoan toan ging nh hp kim trc cung
tinh, nhng ch khac la t hp kim long se kt tinh ra tinh th B trc va phn long con lai
se ngheo B i khi nhit tip tuc giam xung.
* T chc nhn c nhit thng la B + (A + B).
c - Qua trnh kt tinh cua hp kim cung tinh
H p kim nay co thanh phn ng vi im E. Khi lam ngui n nhit ng vi
im E hp kim long se kt tinh ng thi ra (A + B) cung mt luc va san phm cui cung
la cung tinh (A + B).
Nhn xet : Cac hp kim co gian loai 1 kt tinh theo th t sau : trc tin pha
long kt tinh ra mt trong hai cu t nguyn cht trc, lam cho pha long ngheo cu t nay
22
va bin i thanh phn n im cung tinh E. n y pha long con lai se kt tinh ra hai
cu t cung mt luc.
d - Tam giac Tam man :
Trong cac h hp kim co gian loai 1 ta ve thm mt tam giac phu xac nh
ty l cua t chc cung tinh cung nh cac cu t nguyn cht mt cach d dang ng vi cac
thanh phn khac nhau. Tam giac nay goi la tam giac Tam - man (do Tam - man ngi c
a ra). Tai im E t chc cung tinh chim 100%. Ta coi oan EF bng 100% (A + B), v
vy cac ng song song vi EF se ch ra t l cua t chc cung tinh tng ng trong cac
hp kim. Tng t nh vy ta hoan toan co th xa c nh ty l cac cu t A va B tng ng
trong cac hp kim.

F
Hnh 2.8 - Tam giac Tamman
A
E
B










e - Thin tch vung :
Cac hp kim co gian loai 1 thng xay ra thin tch vung khi kt tinh, c bit
la khi lam ngui chm (thin tch vung la s khac nhau v thanh phn hoa hoc gia cac
vung khac nhau cua vt uc)
. V du : H hp kim Pb - Sb nu ch kt tinh ra trc no se chm xung ay khun
uc ( = 11,34 g/cm
2
).Stibi nu kt tinh ra trc th no se ni ln trn( = 6,69g/cm
2
).Do
vy pha trn vt uc giau Sb, pha di giau Pb.
Tuy nhin hin tng thin tch vung co th khc phuc c bng cach lam ngui
tht nhanh khng kp xay ra hin tng chm ni cua cac tinh th hay cho vao hp kim
long mt cht c bit no se tao ra b khung xng trc (ty trong hp kim long), chung
l lng trong hp kim long ngn can qua trnh thin tch.
3-Gian pha hai cu t hoan toan hoa tan va o nhau, khng tao thanh pha trung gian
(gian loai 2) :
S cu t : A va B (C = 2)
S pha co th tao thanh : hp kim long hoa tan v han cua A va B, dung dch rn
hoa tan v han cua A va B la (P
max
= 2).
ng AmB goi la ng long, ng AnB goi la ng c. H Cu - Ni co gian
loai nay.



23













3
2
2
1
1
0
Hnh 2.9 -Gian pha loai 2, dang tng quat (a), h Cu-Ni (b)

a - Xet qua trnh kt tinh cua mt hp kim cu th (hp kim 1)
* Tai nhit ng vi 0 hp kim tn tai trang thai long.
* Lam ngui t 0 - 1 : qua trnh ngui cua hp kim long.
* Tai nhit n vi im 1 t hp kim long kt tinh ra dung dch rn hoa tan v
han cua A va B la .
* Lam ngui trong khoang nhit t 1 n im 2 dung dch rn sinh ra ngay
cang nhiu, thanh phn hoa hoc cua no bin i theo ng t 1 - 2', hp kim long ngay
cang t i va thanh phn hoa hoc bin i t 1' - 2.
* Tai nhit ng vi im 2 hp kim long ht.
* Lam ngui t 2 - 3 la qua trnh ngui cua dung dch rn .
Nhn xet : Cac hp kim co gian loai 2 co quy lut kt tinh nh sau : nu ta ly n v la
cu t co nhit nong chay cao hn th u tin t hp kim long kt tinh ra dung dch rn
giau cu t nay hn, do vy pha long con lai se ngheo cu t nay i. Nhng nu lam ngui
chm th dung dch rn tao thanh bin i thanh phn theo hng ngheo cu t nay va cui
cung at thanh phn hp kim.
b - Thin tch nhanh cy (thin tch trong ban thn hat):
Hp kim co gian loai 2 khi kt tinh tai mi nhit khac nhau, thanh phn hoa
hoc cua dung dch rn cung khac nhau. Do o bng cach lam ngui thng thng (ngui
chm) hat kim loai uc tao thanh se khng ng nht v thanh phn hoa hoc. Hin tng
nay goi la thin tch nhanh cy (hay thin tch trong ban thn hat). Khc phuc bng cach
lam ngui chm hay u khuch tan sau khi uc.
4-Gian pha hai cu t hoa tan co han vao nhau, khng tao thanh pha trung gian
(gian loai 3) :
S cu t : A va B (C = 2)
S pha co th tao thanh : P
Max
= 3
Hp kim long hoa tan v han cua A va B
- dung dch rn cua B hoa tan co han trong cu t A, A(B)
- dung dch rn cua A hoa tan co han trong cu t B, B(A)
24
ng AEB la ng long, ACDB la ng c, CED la ng cung tinh. CF la
ng gii han hoa tan cua B trong cu t A trang thai rn, DG la ng gii han hoa tan
cua A trong B trang thai rn. im E la im cung tinh. H hp kim Ag - Cu va Pb - Sn
co gian loai nay.

I
I
+
II
+(+)
L+
%B
100%B
G D
D
B
A
C
F C
E
L
E
100%A
L+

I
I
+
II
+(+)
(

)
3 4
2
3
2
2
1
1
1
1
II I


















Hinh 2.10 -Gian pha loai 3 dang tng quat (a), h Pb-Sn (b)

Cung tng t nh gian loai 1, nhit chay cua cu t bt ky se giam i nu c
thm cu t th hai vao. Gian loai 3 gm nh tng hp cua hai gian loai 1 va loai 2.
Co th chia cac hp kim cua h thanh ba nhom sau :
a- Nhom ch a rt t cu t th hai (co thanh phn nm bn trai F va bn phai G),
qua trnh kt tinh ging gian loai 2, san phm nhn c la dung dch rn va .
b - Nhom cha mt lng han ch cu t th 2 (thanh phn nm trong khoang F-C' va
G-D'), ban u kt tinh ra dung dch rn, nhng khi nhit tip tuc giam i thp hn
ng CF va DG th do lng cu t hoa tan la qua bao hoa nn tit ra lng cu t tha
di dang dung dch rn th cp ( tha B tit ra
II
, tha A tit ra
II
). Ta xet qua
trnh kt tinh cua hp kim I :
* Tai nhit ng vi 0 : hp kim trang thai long
* Lam ngui t nhit ng vi im 0 n 1, qua trnh ngui cua hp kim long.
* Tai nhit ng vi im 1, t hp ki long kt tinh ra dung dch rn , co thanh
phn xac nh tai im 1'.
* Lam ngui t nhit ng vi im 1 n im 2, dung dch rn sinh ra ngay
cang nhiu, thanh phn cua no bin i theo ng t 1' - 2, hp kim long ngay cang t i,
thanh phm cua no bin i theo ng t 2 - 2'.
* Tai nhit ng vi im 2 hp kim long ht.
25
* Lam ngui t 2 n 3 la qua trnh ngui cua dung dch rn .
* Tai nhit ng vi im 3 do lng hoa tan cua B vao A la qua bao ho a nn B tha
c tit ra di dang dung dch rn
II
(
II
)
* Tai nhit thng san phm nhn c la +
II
c - Nhom cha mt lng ln cu t th hai, co thanh phn nm trong khoang C'-D',
ban u kt tinh ra dung dch rn (
C
hay
D
), pha long con lai bin i thanh phn theo
ng long n im E va kt tinh ra t chc cung tinh. Khi nhit ha xung thp hn
ng CF va DG cung co qua trnh tit ra cu t hoa tan tha di dang
II
va
II.
Qua trnh kt tinh cua nhom nay ging gian loai 1. Xet qua trnh kt tinh cua hp kim II.
* Tai nhit ng vi im 0 hp kim trang thai long
* Lam ngui t nhit ng vi im 0 n dim 1, la qua trnh ngui cua hp
kim long.
* Tai nhit ng vi im 1 t hp kim long kt tinh ra dug dch rn co thanh
phn tai 1'.
* Lam ngui t nhit ng vi im 1 n im 2 dung dch rn sinh ra ngay
cang nhiu, thanh phn cua no thay i theo ng t 1' - C. Hp kim long ngay cang t i,
thanh phn cua no thay i t 1 - E.
* Tai nhit ng vi im 2, hp kim long con lai co thanh phn tai E se kt tinh
ng thi ra hai dung dch rn
C
va
D
cung mt luc. Qua trnh nay din ra tai nhit
khng i.
L
E
(
C
+
D
)
* Lam ngui t nhit ng vi im 2 n 3 do lng cu t hoa tan la qua bao
hoa nn co qua trnh tit ra
II
t va
II.
t . Tuy nhin
II.
c tit ra t trong
cung tinh, nm ln ln vi
C
nn khng nhn thy c. Do vy t chc nhn c
nhit thng la +
II
+ ( + ).
5-Gian pha hai cu t hoan toan khng hoa tan vao nhau, tao thanh hp cht hoa
hoc n nh (gian loai 4) :
Cac cu t : A va B (C = 2)
Cac pha co th tao thanh : hp kim long, cu t A, B va hp cht hoa hoc cua
chung la A
m
B
n
(ky hiu la H). Hp cht hoa hoc H co nhit nong cahy ring, thanh phn
xac nh va khng th hoa tan thm cu t A, B. H hp kim Mg - Si thuc loai nay.
Nghin cu qua trnh kt tinh cua hp kim co gian loai nay ta a v nghin
cu hai gian pha loai 1 la A-H va H-B (H c xem la mt cu t c lp)
2.3.2.Quan h giua dang gian d pha va tinh cht cua hop kim :
Cac loai gian pha khac nhau co mi quan h gia dang cua gian va tnh cht
cua hp kim hoan toan khac nhau. Ta bit rng pha thanh phn la pha tao nn t chc cua
hp kim. Khi hp kim co t chc m t pha th pha thanh phn duy nht o ng nht vi
hp kim, tc la tnh cht cua no chnh la tnh cht cua hp kim. Trng hp co t chc
gm nhiu pha th tnh cht cua cua hp kim la s tng hp tnh cht cua cac pha thanh
phn. Ta se xem xet cu th mi quan h gia dang cua gian pha vi tnh cht cua hp
kim nh th nao.
26












Hnh 2.11 -Gian pha loai 4, dang tng quat (a), h Mg-Cu (b)

a - Gian loai 1 :
- C ly tnh : Tnh cht cua hp kim la trung gian gia tnh cht cua tinh th A va
tinh th B, tc la tinh th nao co ty l cang ln th se anh hng cang nhiu n tinh cht
tnh cht cua no. Cu th nh sau :
Tnh cht hp kim = %A X t/c A + %B X t/c B
Tnh cht cua hp kim phu thuc vao thanh phn theo quy lut bc nht.
-Tnh cng ngh :
* Tnh uc cua hp kim noi chung tt v chay loang cao, nhit nong chay thp,
kt tinh trong mt khoang nhit t gy co ngot.
* Tnh cht gia cng ap lc khng cao.
* Tnh gia cng ct got tt, phoi d gay.
b - Gian loai 2 :
- C ly tnh : Mi quan h gia tnh cht va thanh phn theo quy lut bc hai. ng
cong biu din co cc ai tai 50% thanh phn, bn va cng u cao hn cu t thanh
phn. in tr tng manh theo thanh phn cht hoa tan.
- Tnh cng ngh :
* Tnh uc xu v kha nng in y khun khng cao, khoang ng thng ln
* Tnh gia cng ap lc tt v kha deo dai
* Tnh gia cng ct got xu v bn cng cao, deo phoi kho gay ...
c - Gian loai 3 :
Mi quan h nay la tng hp cua hai loai trn.
d - Gian loai 4 :
Mi quan h gia tnh cht va thanh phn co dang ng thng va im cc ai
ng vi thanh phn cua hp cht hoa hoc H.





27




































Hnh 2.12 -Quan h gia tnh cht cua vt liu va gian

2.4.GIAN D PHA ST - CAC BON (Fe - Fe
3
C) :
2.4.1.Cu tu st va cac bon
1-Cu t st :
28
St la nguyn t co kha nhiu trong t nhin. Hin tai ngi ta a luyn c st
vi sach 99,99999% Fe. Trong thc t san xut ngi ta thng nghin cu vi st co
lng cha 99,8 99,9%. St nay goi la st nguyn cht ky thut (st am k)
a- C tnh : St la nguyn t co c tnh kha cao, cu th nh sau :
* Gii han bn keo :
b
= 250 MN/m
2
(MPa)
* Gii han chay quy c :
0,2
= 120MN/m
2
* gian dai tng i : % = 50
* tht ty i : % = 85
* dai va p : a
k
= 3000 Kj/m
2
* cng HB = 80
b - Tnh a hnh cua st :
St la kim loai co tnh a hnh, no co hai kiu mang tinh th cac khoang nhit
khac nhau :
- Mang lp phng tm khi tn tai nhit :
+ Nho hn 911
o
C goi la st an pha (Fe

) co a = 2,68 Kx. Di 768

o
C co
t tnh, cao hn nhit nay mt tnh st t. Tai nhit cao hn 768
o
C goi la st b ta
(Fe

) co a = 2,90Kx.
+ T 1392
o
C n 1539
o
C goi la st en ta (Fe

) co a = 2,93Kx.
-Mang lp phng tm mt tn tai nhit : 911
0
C < t
0
< 1392
0
C, goi la st
gama (Fe

) co a = 3,56Kx.
c-Kha nng hoa tan cac bon cua st :
Hai loai mang tinh th cua st co kha nng hoa tan cac bon di dang xen ke khac
nhau. ng knh nguyn t cac bon la 1,54Kx. Trong khi o l hng ln nht trong mang
tm khi co d = 0,64Kx. Mang lp phng tm mt co s l hng t hn nhng kch thc
lai ln hn, d = 1,02Kx. V nguyn tc th st khng th hoa tan cac bon c. Tuy nhin
trong thc t st an pha hoa tan c 0,02%C 727
o
C, st en ta hoa tan 0,1%C 1499
o
C.
St gama hoa tan 2,14%C 1147
O
C. Ngi ta cho rng cac bon chui vao ni co nhiu sai
lch mang nht. Vi st gama co th hoa tan ti a khoang 10% nguyn t st.
2-Cu t cac bon :
a- Cac dang tn tai cua cac bon :
Trong t nhin cac bon tn tai di ba dang : than a (v nh hnh), kim cng
va grapht (co cu tao mang tinh th). Trong hp kim Fe - C cac bon ch tn tai t do
dang grapht (trong cac loai gang co grapht).
b - Tng tac hoa hoc gia st va cac bon :
Khi lng hoa tan cua cac bon vao st vt qua gii han cua dung dch rn th se
tao nn cac hp cht hoa hoc : Fe
3
C (6,67%C), Fe
2
C (9,67%C) va FeC (17,67%C). Tuy
nhin trong hp kim st cac bon do ch s dung gii han khoang 5%C nn ch co Fe
3
C va
hp cht nay co tn la xmentit. Xmentit la pha xen ke co kiu mang phc tap, nhit
nong chay khoang 1250
o
C va co cng cao - 800HB. nhit nho hn 217
o
C co t
tnh. Ln hn nhit nay mt tnh st t. Khi hoa tan thm cac nguyn t hp kim (Cr,
Mn, W...) di dang thay th ta co xmentit hp kim (nguyn t hp kim thay vao v tr
cua st.
29
2.4.2.Gian d pha Fe - C (Fe - Fe
3
C) :
1- Dang tng quat cua gian pha Fe - C :
Chung ta ch nghin cu gian pha cha 6,67%C nn con goi la gian pha Fe -
Fe
3
C. Dang cua gian pha nay thoat nhn kha phc tap, tuy nhin nu phn tch ra th no
la tng hp cua bn loai gian pha a nghin cu trc y. Ky hiu cac im va toa
cua chung a c quc t hoa. Cu th nh sau :
im %C Nhit
o
C
A 0 1539
B 0,5 1499
C 4,30 1147
D 6,67 1250
E 2,14 1147
F 6,67 1147
G 0 911
H 0,10 1499
J 0,16 1499
K 6,67 727
L 6,67 0
N 0 1392
P 0,02 727
Q 0,006 0
S 0,80 727
Cac ng trn gian pha :
-ABCD la ng long.
-AHECF la ng c.
- ECF la ng cung tinh, tai nhit nay xay ra phan ng cung tinh (eutetic)
- PSK la ng cung tch, tai y xay ra phan ng cung tch (eutectoid).
- SE la gii han hoa tan cua cac bon trong st gamma.
- PQ la gii han hoa tan cua cac bon trong st an pha.
2 - Cac chuyn bin xay ra khi lam ngui chm :
Trong gian pha Fe - Fe
3
C co y u cac chuyn bin ma ta a nghin cu
phn trc y. Khi lam ngui chm co cac chuyn bin sau :
- Chuyn bin bao tinh : xay ra tai nhit 1499
o
C trong cac hp kim co 0,10
(tng ng ng HJB). C % 50 , 0

H
+ L
B

J
hay
0,10
+ L
0,50

0,16

Trong thc t ta khng y n chuyn bin nay v no xay ra nhit rt cao va
hp kim con mt phn trang thai long, no khng anh hng g n t chc thep khi gia
cng va s dung.
- Chuyn bin cung tinh : xay ra nhit 1147
o
C trong cac hp kim co lng
cac bon > 2,14% (tng ng ng ECF).
L
C
(
E
+ Fe
3
C
F
) hay L
4,3
(
2,14
+ Fe
3
C
6,67
)
30
-Chuyn bin cung tch : xay ra tai nhit 727
o
C, co h u ht trong cac hp kim
(ng PSK).

S
(
P
+ Fe
3
C
K
) hay
0,8
(
0,02
+ Fe
3
C
6,67
)
- S tit ra pha Fe
3
C d ra khoi dung dch rn : Xay ra trong dung dch rn Fe

theo
ng ES va trong Fe

theo ng PQ.























Hnh 2.13 -Gian pha Fe-C (Fe-Fe
3
C)
3 - Cac tchc cua hp kim Fe - Fe
3
C :
a- T chc mt pha :
* Ferit (ky hiu , F hay Fe

) : la dung dch rn xen ke cua cac bon trong Fe

,
co kiu mang lp phng tm khi. La pha deo, dai, mm va kem bn, nhit < 768 C
co t tnh, cao hn nhit nay mt t tnh . Khi hoa tan thm cac nguyn t hp kim Mn,
Si, Ni... bn cua no tng ln, deo dai giam i. Ferit la pha tn tai nhit thng,
chim ty l kha ln (khoang 90%) nn anh kha nhiu n c tnh cua hp kim. T chc
cua no la cac hat sang, a canh. Goi la phe rit xut phat t ting Latinh ferum ngha la st.
o

*Austenit [ky hiu , A

s
, Fe

(C)] : la dung dch rn xen ke cua cac bon trong

Fe

co mang lp phng tm mt. La pha rt deo va dai, cng thp. No khng co t
tnh va khng tn tai nhit thp hn 727
o
C trong hp kim st cac bon nguyn cht, ch
tn tai nhit thng trong cac hp kim cha mt lng ang k Mn, Ni... Tuy khng
tn tai nhit thng nhng co vai tro quyt nh trong bin dang no ng va nhit luyn
31
thep. T chc cua no la cac hat sang co song tinh. Tn goi austenit ky nim nha vt liu
hoc ngi Anh : Rbe sten.














Hnh 2.14 -T chc t vi cua ferit (a) va austenit

*Xmentit (ky hiu X, Fe
3
C) : la pha xen ke vi kiu mang phc tap, cha
6,67%C va co cng thc Fe
3
C, tng ng vi ng DFKL. Xmentit la pha cng, don,
nhit nho hn 217
o
C co t tnh, cao hn nhit nay mt t tnh. Cung vi ferit, no tao
nn cac t chc khac nhau cua hp kim Fe -C. Xmentt xut phat t tn goi cemen co
ngha la cng.Ta phn bit ra bn loai xmentit :
+ Xmentit th nht : (X
I
, Fe
3
C
I
) : c tao thanh t hp kim long do
giam nng cac bon trong hp kim long theo ng DC khi nhit giam. No ch co
trong cac hp kim cha > 4,3%C. Do tao thanh t trang thai long va nhit cao nn co
dang thng, th to.
+ Xmentit th hai : (X
II
, Fe
3
C
II
) : c tao thanh do giam nng cac
bon trong austenit theo ng ES khi ha nhit t 1147
o
C n 727
o
C, no sinh ra trong cac
hp kim co > 0,80%C va thy ro nht trong cac hp kim cha t 0,80 n 2,14%C. Do tao
thanh nhit khng cao lm va t trang thai rn nn kch thc nho mn, thng co
dang li bao quanh hat peclit (austenit).
+ Xmen tit th ba : (X
III,
, Fe
3
C
III
) : c tao thanh khi giam nng cac bon
trong ferit theo ng PQ khi ha nhit t 727
o
C, thy ro nht trong cac hp kim <
0,02%C. Do tao thanh nhit rt thp nn kch thc rt nho mn, s lng khng ang
k, trong thc t ta bo qua no.
+Xmentit cung tch : c tao thanh do chuyn bin cung tch austenit
thanh pec lit, no co vai tro rt quan trong trong cac hp kim st cac bon.
b-Cac t chc hai pha :
*Peclt [ky hiu P hay (F +X)] : la hn hp c hoc cung tch cua phe rt va
xmentit c tao ra t chuyn bin cung tch cua austenit. Trong pec lt co 88% F va 12%
X. Pec lt kha bn va cng nhng cung u deo dai ap ng c cac yu cu cua vt
32
liu kt cu va dung cu. Tuy thuc hnh dang cua xmentt, pec lt c chia ra lam hai loai
la pec lt tm va pec lt hat. Nu xmentit da ng tm goi la pec lt tm, co cng cao
hn, y la dang thng gp trong thc t. Nu xmentit dang hat goi la pec lit hat,














Hnh 2.15 -T chc xmentit 2 dang li thep sau cung tch

cng thp hn, d ct got. Pec lt hat t gp trong thc t, ch nh c khi u cu hoa. Pec lt
hat co tnh n nh cao hn pec lt tm. Tn goi pec lt xut phat t peard co ngha la vn
hay mau xa c.

0,8
(
0,02
+ Fe
3
C
6,67
)














Hnh 2.16 - T chc t vi cua peclit tm (a) va peclit hat (b).

*Lburit [L hay ( + X), (P +X)] : la hn hp c hoc cung tinh cua austenit
va xmentit c tao thanh t hp kim long cha 4,3%C tai 1147
o
C. Khi lam ngui di
727
o
C th do chuyn bin P nn t chc cua lburit gm (P + X).
L
4,3
(
2,14
+ Fe
3
C
6,67
)
33
Lburit co dang hnh da bao rt cng va don nn thng goi la t chc da bao.
Tn goi lburit la ky nim nha luyn kim ngi c Lbua.
4-Mt s quy c :
a-Thep va gang :
_*Thep la hp kim cua st va cac bon vi ham lng cac bon nho hn 2,14%.
Ngoai ra con co thm mt s nguyn t khac : Mn, Si, P, S ...
*Gang la hp kim cua st va cac bon vi ham lng cac bon ln hn 2,14%.
Ngoai ra con co thm mt s nguyn t khac : Mn, Si, P, S...Gang co t chc tng ng vi
gian pha Fe-C goi la gang trng (mt gay cua no co mau sang trng, o la mau cua
xmentit). Gang trng rt c ng va don, khng th gia cng ct got c.
Ranh gii phn chia thep va gang la im E trn gian pha Fe-C. Cn c vao
ham lng cac bon co trong gang va thep ta phn chia chung thanh nhiu loai khac nhau.
Thep c chia ra lam ba loai :
+Thep trc cung tch : la loai thep co ham lng cac bon nho hn
0,8%C, t chc cn bng gm phe rit va pec lit.
+Thep cung tch : la loai thep co ham lng cac bon bng 0,8%C, t chc
cn bng la pec lit.
+Thep sau cung tch : la loai thep co ham lng cac bon ln hn 0,8%C,
t chc cn bng gm pec lit va xmentt th hai.













Hnh 2.17 - T chc t vi cua thep trc cung tch.

Gang trng c chia ra lam ba loai :
+Gang trng trc cung tinh : la loai gang co ham lng cac bon nho hn
4,3%C, t chc cn bng gm co peclit, xmentit th hai va lburit.
+Gang trng cung tinh : la loai gang co ham lng cac bon bng 4,3%C,
t chc cn bng la lburit.
+Gang trng sau cung tinh : la loai gang co ham lng cac bon ln hn
4,3%C, t chc cn bng gm xmentit th nht va lburit.
b-Cac im ti han :
34
Cac nhit ng vi cac chuyn bin pha trang thai rn trong hp kim st cac
bon (chu yu dung cho thep) goi la cac im ti han, chung c ky hiu bng ch A (vit
tt t ting Phap art co ngha la dng v khi co chuyn bin pha nhit b dng lai) kem
theo cac s th t 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 va cm. Gm co cac im ti han sau y :
*A
0
- (217
o
C) la nhit chuyn bin t cua xmentit, thp hn nhit nay
xmentit co t tnh, cao hn nhit nay xementit mt tnh st t.
*A
1
- (727
o
C) ng vi ng PSK la nhit chuyn bin austenit peclit co
trong tt ca cac loai thep va gang.
*A
2
- (768
o
C) con goi la im Curi, ng vi ng MO, la im chuyn bin t
cua phe rit, thp hn nhit nay phe rit co t tnh, cao hn nhit nay mt tnh st t.
*A
3
- ng vi ng GS (911 727
o
C) la ng bt u tit ra phe rit t austenit
khi lam ngui va kt thuc hoa tan phe rit vao austenit khi nung nong, ch co trong thep
trc cung tch.
*A
cm
- ng vi ng ES (1147
o
C 727
o
C)la ng bt u tit ra xmentt t
austenit khi lam ngui va kt thuc hoa tan xmentit vao austenit khi nung nong.
*A
4
- ng vi ng NJ (1499 1392
o
C) ng vi chuyn bin
Trong tt ca cac im ti han trn th cac im A
1
, A
3
va A
cm
c s dung nhiu
nht va chu yu khi nhit luyn thep. Tuy nhin cac gia tr v nhit nu trn ch ung
trong trang thai cn bng (nung nong hay lam ngui v cung chm, tc nung 0).
Trong thc t tc nung nong hay lam ngui thng co gia tr xac nh nn khng phu
hp. Tng t nh hin tng qua ngui (khi kt tinh) hay qua nung (khi nong chay) cac

c)
a) b)
Hnh 2.18 -T chc t vi cua gang
trng
a)Gang trng trc cung tinh
b)Gang trng cung tinh
c)gang trng sau cung tinh
35


im ti han nay cung thp hn hay cao hn khi lam ngui hay nung nong, s khac bit
nay cang ln khi tc cang cao. phn bit cung mt im ti han cho hai trng hp
khi lam ngui va nung nong ta thm vao ch r (refroidissement) khi lam ngui va c
(chauffage) khi nung nong. Vi mt loai thep nht nh bao gi ta cung co :
A
r1
< A
1
<A
c1
va A
r3
< A
3
< A
c3
.... cac gia tr A tnh theo gian pha, A
r
phu thuc
vao tc ngui, A
c
phu thuc tc nung.
-Tnh gn ung ham lng cac bon cua thep trc cung tch qua t chc cn bng :
i vi thep trc cung tch trong mt vai trng hp cn thit ta co th tnh gn
ung lng cac bon co trong thep qua t chc cn bng cua no. V du : trong t chc t vi
cua mt loai thep ta thy phn ti (peclit) chim 3/4 din tch, con phn sang (phe rit)
chim 1/4 th lng cac bon trong o tnh nh sau :
*Lng cac bon co trong phe rit : 25% x 0,006% = 0,015 % 0%
*Lng cac bon co trong peclit : 75% x 0,80% = 0,60%C
Vy lng cac bon co trong thep nay gn dung bng 0,60%C



















36

CHUONG 3 : KT TINH VA KHUCH TAN
TRONG VT LIU

3.1.QUA TRINH KT TINH TU TRA NG THAI LONG :
Phn ln cac kim loai c luyn bng phng phap nu chay long sau o em uc
thanh hnh san phm hay ban thanh phm. Cht lng cua vt uc phu thuc phn ln vao
qua trnh chuyn t trang thai long sang trang thai rn, o la qua trnh kt tinh .
nh ngha : kt tinh la qua trnh hnh thanh mang tinh th t trang thai long va thng goi
la kt tinh ln th nht .
3.1.1.Diu kin nng luong cua qua trinh kt tinh :
Trong t nhin moi qua trnh t
phat u xay ra theo chiu giam
nng lng, tc la theo chiu trang
thai mi co nng lng d tr nho
hn.V du : mt hon bi t tai v tr
A lun co xu hng ln xung vi tr
B n nh hn . Trong trng hp
nay nng lng d tr chnh la th
nng cua hon bi.
3
1
2
Hnh 3.1- S biu th v tr n nh
(1), khng n nh(2) va gia n nh (3)
Trong h thng vt cht gm chuyn ng cua cac cht im (nguyn t, phn t) th
nng lng d tr c c trng bng nng lng t do F.
F = U - TS
Trong o : -U la ni nng cua h thng
-S la entrpi
-T la nhit tuyt i
0
K
F
l
F
r
Nhit
Hnh 3.2 - S bin i nng
lng t do F cua trang thai
long va rn theo nhit
T
s
F
Nng lng t do thay i theo
nhit va cac yu t khac. T biu v
mi quan h gia nng lng t do va nhit
ta thy :
-Vi T > T
s
ta co F
r
> F
l
do o kim
loai tn tai trang thai long
-Vi T < T
s
ta co F
r
< F
l
, do o
kim loai tn tai trang thai rn.
Nh vy khi lam ngui kim loai long xung di nhit Ts se co qua trnh kt
tinh xay ra . Tai nhit T
s
ta co F
r
= F
l
, nng lng t do cua hai trang thai bng nhau,
qua trnh kt tinh cha xay ra,ngha la gia kim loai rn va kim loai long co cn bng ng
. iu o co nghia la : nu co mt lng kim loai long kt tinh th cung co mt lng nh
vy kim loai rn nong chay . Ch nhit T < T
s
, F
r
< F
l
ro rt s kt tinh mi xay ra . T
s

c goi la nhit kt tinh ly thuyt.
37
Nh vy nhit kt tinh thc t lun thp hn T
s
hin tng nay goi la s qua
ngui va hiu s gia hai nhit o goi la qua ngui, ky hiu T. Phn ln cac kim
loai kt tinh vi qua ngui Tnho , khoang t 2-5
0
C . Tuy nhin cung co kim loai kt
tinh vi qua ngui ln (Stibi co T = 41
o
C).
Vy iu kin nng lng xay kt tinh la phai lam ngui kim loai long ti nhit
thp hn Ts hay kim loai long ch kt tinh vi s qua ngui nht nh. Ta cung co th ly
lun tng t nh vy vi qua trnh nong chay va chuyn bin thu hnh . Do qua ngui
va qua nung cua phn ln kim loai be nn co th da vao Ts xac nh nhit nong
chay hay kt tinh cua kim loai.
3.1.2.Hai qua trinh cua su kt tinh :
Khi ha nhit kim loai long xung thp hn nhit kt tinh ly thuyt
Ts, qua trnh kt tinh se xay ra. S kt tinh thc hin c la nh co hai qua trnh sau :
-Trong kim loai long xut hin nhng trung tm kt tinh co kch thc rt nho, goi
la mm kt tinh. Qua trnh nay goi la tao mm.
-Cac mm nay se phat trin ln va tao thanh hat tinh th .Qua trnh nay goi la phat
trin mm.
1-Qua tnh tao mm (trung tm kt tinh) :
Tao mm la qua trnh tao nn cac phn t rn co cu tao tinh th, co kch
thc rt nho trong long khi kim loai long, chung la nhng mm mng u tin phat
trin ln thanh hat tinh th.
Theo c tnh phat sinh mm c chia lam hai loai : mm t sinh (ng pha) va
mm khng t sinh (ky sinh)
a-Mm t sinh (mm ng pha) : La mm sinh ra trc tip t kim loai long khng cn s
giup cua b mt cac hat rn co sn trong o .
Tai nhit thp hn Ts cac nhom nguyn t sp xp co trt t trong kim loai
long co kch thc ln hn mt gia tr xac nh ng vi mi nhit se c nh lai,khng
tan i na va co iu kin phat trin ln thanh hat tinh th.
Ta xet iu kin nng lng cua s tao mm nay.Gia s rng tai nhit nao o
nho hn Ts trong kim loai long xut hin n nhom nguyn t sp xp trt t co th tch v.
Ta i nhit nay ta co F
r
< F
l
.Goi F
v
= F
r
- F
l
,la hiu s nng lng t do gia kim loai
long va kim loai rn tnh cho mt n v th tch kim loai long th

F
v
< 0 khi T < Ts. Khi
tao ra n nhom nguyn t trt t noi trn th nng lng cua h thng giam i mt lng la
nv

F
v
.Nhng do tao nn b mt tip xuc gia rn va long nn nng lng t do se tng
thm mt lng la ns. Trong o : s la din tch tip xuc gia nhom nguyn t vi kim loai
long,con la sc cng b mt trn mt n v din tch. Khi tao ra n nhom nguyn t sp
xp co trt t trn th nng lng ca h thng bin i mt lng la:
F = - nv

F
v
+ ns
Coi cac nhom nguyn t trt t co dang hnh cu ban knh r, ta co:
F = -
3
4
r
3
nF
v
+ 4r
2
n (1)
38
nhit nht nh nho hn Ts th F
v
va la hng s nn F = f(r). Bng thc nghim
ngi ta a ve c th v s phu thuc gia nng lng t do va ban knh r cua nhom
nguyn t trt t. T th o ta nhn thy :
-Nu nhom nguyn t trt t co r
1
< r
th
th khi no phat trin ln lam cho nng lng
cua h thng tng ln,khng phu hp vi t nhin nn se tan i.
-Nu nhom nguyn t trt t co r
2
> r
th
khi phat trin ln lam giam nng lng cua
h thng va no tr thanh mm tht s.
Kt lun : tai mt nhit nht nh nho hn Ts trong kim loai long co v s nhom nguyn
t sp xp trt t co kch thc khac nhau. Ch nhng nhom nao co kch thc ln hn mt
gia tr ti han nao o mi tr thanh mm tht s,con nhng nhom khac tan i.
Ta co th tnh ban knh ti han nh sau : tm gia tr cc ai cua biu thc (1) va tnh
c r
th
=
Fv
2
(2) , gia tr r = 0 khng co y ngha. Khi nhit kt tinh cang thp (F
v

ln) th r
th
cang nho va cang co nhiu nhom nguyn t trt t co kch thc ln hn r
th

tr thanh mm. Do o s kt tinh xay ra d dang hn. Tai T = T
s
ta co r
th
= , qua trnh
sinh mm khng xay ra .

F
r
2
r
th
r
1
r








Hnh 3.3 - Quan h gia ban knh mm va F

b-Mm khng t sinh (ky sinh) :
La mm kt tinh c tao nn trn b mt cua cac hat rn co sn trong kim loai
long.
Trong kim loai long khng th nguyn cht tuyt i c,nn bao gi cung con
tap cht. o la cac cht ln ln khng tan nh : bui than,bui tng lo, cac xyt, nitrit...
Chung giup cho qua trnh sinh mm trn b mt cua chung xay ra d dang hn. Vai tro cua
mm khng t sinh rt quan trong trong thc t va do vy qua trnh kt tinh xay ra rt
nhanh chong. Mm t sinh bao gm :
-Cac phn t vt ln ln khng tan rt nho nh xyt, bui tng lo, nitrit, hydrit...co
kiu mang va kch thc khng sai khac nhiu vi kim loai kt tinh.
-Cac hat rt nho co kha nng hp thu trn b mt cua chung nhng nguyn t kim
loai kt tinh.
-Thanh khun uc, c bit la cac vt nt va ch li lom trn thanh khun.
2-Qua trnh phat trin mm :
Sau khi cac mm c tao ra chung se tip tuc phat tin ln thanh hat tinh th.Qua
trnh nay lam cho nng lng t do cua h giam i phu hp vi t nhin (la qua trnh t
39
phat).Ta co th minh hoa qua trnh nay bng c cu mm hai chiu (Cosen) va c cu mm
kt tinh co lch xon.

a) b)
Hinh 3.4- Mm ky sinh dang chom cu (a) va dang thu knh (b).

3.1.3.Cac yu t anh huong dn kich thuoc hat, cac phuong phap lam nho hat
Sau khi uc hat kim loai kha ln, nhiu trng hp co th nhn thy bng mt thng.
Trong ky thut uc lun co xu hng lam nho hat kim loai v hat nho co c tnh tt hn va
t don hn. Trong mt s trng hp do yu cu cua ky thut ta mi lam cho hat ln khi
uc.
Sau khi uc hat kim loai kha ln, nhiu trng hp co th nhn thy bng m t thng.
Trong ky thut uc lun co xu hng lam nho hat kim loai v hat nho co c tnh tt hn va
t don hn. Trong mt s trng hp do yu cu cua ky thut ta mi lam cho hat ln khi
uc.
a-Cac yu t anh hng n ln hat :
Trong thc t co nhiu yu t anh hng n ln cua hat kim loai nhng anh
hng manh nht la qua ngui T. anh gia anh hng cua qua ngui n ln
hat ta s dung hai ai lng sau :
- Tc sinh mm : la s lng tm mm sinh ra trong mt n v th tch va
trong mt n v thi gian, ky hiu n, n v 1/mm
3
.s.
- Tc phat trin mm : la tc phat trin v kch thc dai cua tm mm
trong mt n v thi gian, ky hiu v, n v mm/s.
Tc sinh mm cang ln th kch thc hat cang nho va tc phat trin mm
cang tng th kch thc hat cang ln. Bng thc nghim, ngi ta a tnh c kch thc
hat A theo hai ai lng trn nh sau :

A = a
n
v
vi a la h s thc nghim.
T o ta thy rng : nguyn ly chung tao hat nho la tng tc sinh mm va
han ch tc phat trin mm.
b-Cac phng phap lam nho hat :
Trong thc t ngi ta thng s dung cac phng phap lam nho hat sau y :
- Tng qua ngui khi kt tinh : qua ngui phu thuc vao tc ngui, tc
ngui cang ln th qua ngui cang tng. tng tc ngui ngi ta dung khun
40
kim loai co tnh dn nhit cao thay cho khun cat. Vi cac vt uc ln ta con dung nc
lanh lam ngui ngoai thanh khun kim loai.
- Phng phap bin tnh :
* Tng s lng tm mm khng t sinh : ngi ta c y cho vao kim loai
long cac cht c bit giup cho s tao mm khng t sinh. V du trc khi rot thep ngi
ta cho mt lng nho nhm vao thung thep long (20g/tn thep long). Nhm se kt hp vi
xy, ni t hoa tan trong thep tao ra cac phn t Al
2
O
3
, AlN rt nho mn, l lng phn tan
u trong thep long. y la nhng mm khng t sinh lam cho hat thep nho hn.
* Han ch tc phat trin mm : ngi ta cho vao kim loai long mt
cht c bit, no hoa tan va hp phu vao b mt mm han ch s phat trin dai cua mm.
V du : khi uc hp kim nhm -si lic ngi ta cho vao mt hn hp mui natri (NaCl,
NaF), chung hoa tan vao va han ch s phat trin cua tinh th si lic. Do vy lam cho hat
nho.
* Ngoai ra con cht bin tnh co tac dung lam thay i hnh dang hat (tao
grapht cu trong gang) cai thin rt manh c tnh cua vt liu.
Cn chu y la phai tin hanh bin tnh ung luc, cht bin tnh ch cho vao kim loai
long vai phut trc khi rot khun. Nu qua sm th kim loai cha kp kt tinh se ni ln va
i vao x. Nu qua mun th khng kp phan ng.
3.2.KHUCH TAN TRONG V T LIU
3.2.1.Cac djnh lut khuch tan co ban :
Khuch tan la s chuyn ch ngu nhin cua cac nguyn t (ion, phn t) do dao
ng nhit. Khuch tan cua nguyn t A trong nn cua chnh loai nguyn t o (A) goi la
t khuch tan
Khuch tan cua nguyn t khac loai B vi nng nho trong nn A goi la khuch
tan khac loai. iu kin co khuch tan khac loai la B phai hoa tan trong A.
Khuch tan cua ca A va B trong nn A hoc B goi la khuch tan tng h. Trong
khuch tan khac loai va khuch tan tng h lun co dong nguyn t theo chiu giam nng
.
Khuch tan co vai tro quan trong trong nhiu qua trnh cng ngh ch tao vt liu
nh kt tinh, thiu kt, tao lp ban dn p-n, trong x ly nhit, qua trnh xy hoa, dao...
1-nh lut Fick I va h s khuch tan :
nh lut Fick 1 biu din mi quan h gia dong nguyn t khuch tan J qua mt
n v b mt vung goc vi phng khuch tan va gradien nng dc/dx :
J = - D
dc
dx
= - D. grad c (3.1)
Trong o du tr ch dong khuch tan theo chiu giam nng .
D - la h s khuch tan, thng o bng cm
2
/s. Trong nhiu trng hp D
phu thuc nhit theo quy lut :
D = D
o
exp (- Q/RT) (3.2)
Vi D
o
- la hng s, cm
2
/s
Q - hoat nng khuch tan kcal/mol
T - nhit khuch tan,
o
K
41
R - hng s kh, R = 1,98 cal/mol
T nhng tr s D
o
va Q co th xac nh h s khuch tan D nhit bt ky va
c im cua qua trnh khuch tan (c ch khuch tan)
2-nh lut Fick 2 :
Nu nng C khng nhng la ham cua x ma con phu thuc vao thi gian t th
thun tin ngi ta s dung nh lut Fick 2. Trong trng hp h s khuch tan khng phu
thuc nng , biu thc cua nh lut Fick 2 nh sau :

C
t

= D
2
2
C
x

= D.c (3.3)
Nghim cua phng trnh (3.3) trong trng hp khuch tan mt cht co nng
C
s
trn b mt vao bn trong mu vi nng ban u C
o
(C
s
> C
o
) co dang :
C(x,t) = C
s
- (C
s
- C
o
)erf (x/2 Dt ) (3.4)
Trong o erf (L) - la ha m sai cua ai lng L c tnh sn trong cac s tay toan
hoc. T biu thc (3.4) ta thy rng C(x,t) ty l vi (x/2 Dt ) nu C
s
va C
o
la hng s, co
ngha la chiu su x cua lp khuch tan vi nng C nao o ty l thun vi Dt .
3.2.2.Co ch khuch tan :
C ch khuch tan giai thch tr s D
o
va Q, tm hiu ban cht cua nhng qua trnh
dch chuyn nguyn t (ion, phn t) trong nhng vt liu khac nhau.
1-Trong dung dch rn thay th :
Trong vt liu nay, cac nguyn t khuch tan theo c ch nut trng, tc la nguyn
t dch chuyn n nut trng bn canh. thc hin c bc dch chuyn nh vy, cn
phai co hai iu kin :
-Nguyn t co hoat nng G
v
m
u pha v lin kt vi nhng nguyn t bn canh,
ni rng khoang cach hai nguyn t gia nut trng va nguyn t dch chuyn (nguyn t
1 va 2 hnh 3.2a.). S lng nhng nguyn t co hoat nng nh vy ty l vi exp(- G
v
m
/kT).
-Co nut trng nm canh nguyn t : nng nut trng ty l vi exp(- G
v
f
/kT),
trong o G
v
f
la nng lng tao nut trng, co ngha la nng lng cn tach nguyn t
khoi nut mang trong mang hoan chnh, nng lng nay ty l vi nhit hoa hi.
Nh vy kha nng khuch tan phu thuc vao xac sut cua hai qua trnh trn va h
s khuch tan co th vit di dang :
D = const.exp (- G
v
f
/kT) . exp (- G
v
m
/kT) (3.5)
Nu k n mi quan h G = H - TS ( vi H la entanpi, S la entropi) va biu thc
(3.2) cua D, ta xac nh c Q va D
o
nh sau :
Q = H
v
m
+ H
v
f
(3.6)
D
o
= const . exp [( S
v
f
+ S
v
m
)/k] (3.7)
Bng cach so sanh Q va tng H
v
m
+ [( S
v
f
+ S
v
m
)/k co th d oan s co mt
cua c ch nut trng trong vt liu cu th. Trong nhiu kim loai H
v
m
+ H
v
f
= 1-
3eV/nguyn t va ( S
v
f
+ S
v
m
)/k = 2, do o D
o
= 0,1-10cm
2
/s.
Hoat nng khuch tan Q lin quan n nng lng tach va dch chuyn nguyn t
khoi nut mang, do o ta co :
Q L
nc
T
nc
(3.8)
42
Nh vy tai nhit a cho, vt liu co T
nc
cang ln th Q cang ln va D cang nho
2-Trong dung dch rn xen ke :
Trong dung dch rn xen le, cac nguyn t hoa tan thng co ng knh nho (H,
O,N, C...) co th chuyn t v tr l hng nay (gia cac nut mang) sang cac l hng khac.
y la hin tng khuch tan theo c ch gia cac nut mang. chuyn n l hng bn
canh, nguyn t xen ke phai vt c th nng G
i
m
(hnh 3.2b). Bn canh cac nguyn t
xen ke lun lun co l hng va lng cac l hng trong mang la xac nh va nhiu hn
nguyn t xen ke nn "nng " l hng khng anh hng n h s khuch tan. Trong
trng hp nay ta co :
D = const.exp( S
i
m
/k) .exp (- H
i
m
/kT) (3.9)
Do o Q = H
i
m
(3.10)
D
o
= const.exp ( S
i
m
/k) (3.11)
Q va D
o
noi chung co gia tr nho hn so vi c ch nut trng. Q phu thuc chu yu
vao kch thc nguyn t xen ke ( nguyn t cang nho th D cang ln) va mt xp cht
cua kim loai nn.
3-Trong cac tinh thlin kt ion va lin kt ng hoa tr :
trong tinh th cua hp cht ion (v du NaCl) nu khuyt tt Schottky (nut trng) la ang k
th khuch tan theo c ch nut trng. Trong o cation Na
+
khuch tan nhanh hn anion (Cl
-
)
v cation co kch thc nho hn. Nu nng nut trng u ln th cac nut trng se tao cp
(nut trng kep) giam nng lng cua h, khi o entanpi dch chuyn co gia tr nho dn
n D ln va khng co s khac nhau ang k gia D cua cation va anion. Tng t nh
biu thc (3.8) ta co mi quan h hoat nng khuch tan trong tinh th ion nh sau :
(Q
cation
+ Q
anion
) L
nc
T
nc
Trong tinh th ion khi nng khuyt tt Frenkel (nut trng va cation xen ke) la
ang k (v du AgBr) cation xen ke (Ag
+
) khuch tan theo c ch gia nut mang khng trc
tip (c ch ui) : nguyn t xen ke ui nguyn t canh no t v tr nut trng nut mang
n l hng. Entanpi chuyn ch nh vy nho hn entanpi chuyn ch cua nut trng.
Trong cac tinh th co lin kt ng hoa tr (v du SiO
2
, Si, Ge) qua trnh khuch tan
cua cac nguyn t thanh phn (v du cua Si va O trong SiO
2
) va nhng nguyn t thay th
(Ag trong mang SiO
2
) la rt chm (khoang 10
-11
cm
2
/s gn nhit nong chay) v no phai
pha v pha v lin kt rt bn trong mang va khuch tan theo c ch nut trng.
4-Trong vt liu kim loai v nh hnh :
Trong vt liu v nh hnh khng co s khac nhau ang k gia nut trng va l
hng cung nh khng co tnh chu ky cua v tr nguyn t. Nng khuyt tt rt ln va
kem n nh, do o chung d kt hp vi nhau hoc vi nguyn t hoa tan. Trong vt liu
nay co th tn tai cac c ch khuch tan sau :
-Cac loai nguyn t kch thc nho (H,O..) khuch tan theo c ch gia cac nut
mang, Q co gia tr nho (0,25 - 0,5eV/nguyn t). Khi ng knh nguyn t va khi lng
nguyn cang nho th h s khuch tan D cang ln.
-Mt s nguyn t Au, Pt, Pb...va cac hp phc cua chung khuch tan theo c ch
gia nut mang trong nhng l hng ln (khoang 0,7 ng knh nguyn t), Q phu thuc
vao nng lng lin kt cua nhng hp phc o va co tr s 1-3 eV/nguyn t.
43
5-Trong vt liu polyme :
Trong polyme trang thai rn hu nh khng co khuch tan v phai gi c nh
goc nh v t ra vi hai polyme bn canh. Tuy nhin mt mach polyme co th chuyn ng
cung vi nhng mach cu truc bn canh. Hin tng nay goi la khuch tan lin kt, ch xay
ra gn nhit chay.
Nhng phn t nho nh H
2
, O
2
, H
2
O... co th chuyn dch trong polyme trang
thai rn. Nhng phn t nho nay chim v tr gia cac phn t. Nu mach phn t co vi
chuyn ng ngu nhin (thay i hnh dang phn t) th nhng phn t nho pha ngoai co
th i ch vi nhng nhanh polyme o.
3.2.3.Cac ung dung cu a khuch tan :
1-Trong ky thut uc :
Trong qua trnh uc ngi ta thay i tc ngui iu chnh qua trnh kt tinh
cua vt liu. Tuy tng trng hp cu th ta co th giam tc ngui tng qua trnh
khuch tan hay tng tc ngui giam qua trnh khuch tan... tao ra t chc va tnh
cht theo yu cu. V du :
-Khi nu chay kim loai : co thanh phn ng u, kh c tap cht co hai nm l
lng trong kim loai long, cn thuc y qua trnh khuch tan bng cach khuy trn, tng
nhit ... chng bay hi va hoa tan kh vao kim loai long ta dung lp x che phu b mt.
-Khi uc gang cn lam ngui chm co thi gian cho qua trnh grapht hoa xay ra,
tranh tao thanh xmentt.
2-u ng u hoa thanh phn :
Trong vt uc thng gp thin tch nhanh cy nht la trong cac hp kim co
khoang nhit kt tinh ln nng cac nguyn t hp kim va tap cht phn b khng
u. V v y sau khi uc xong phai tin hanh u ng u thanh phn vt uc. Nu ta coi
phn b nng co dang hnh sin vi chu ky bng khoang cach gia cac nhanh cy th
at c hiu qua u f (c tnh bng giam bin nng ) nh sau :
f = [c
m
(t) - c
o
] / [c
m
(0) - c
o
] (3.12)
Thi gian u t co th xac nh theo biu thc nhn c t nghim cua phng
trnh nh luth Fick 2 :
t =
2
2
4
l
D
. lnf (3.13)
Vi l - la khoang cach gia hai cc ai (hnh 3.3)
at c cung mt kiu qua u, thi gian u cang giam, nu D cang l n (ngha la
nhit u cang cao) va khoang cach gia cac nhanh cy cang nho
3-Tao lp thm b mt :
tao lp thm cho b mt chi tit ta tin hanh gi nhit lu trong mi trng
cha cac nguyn t cua nguyn t cn a vao (C, N, Si, Al, Cr...), do o lam thay i
thanh phn hoa hoc cua lp b mt. Trong ba qua trnh ni tip nhau xay ra khi thm (tao
nguyn t hoat, hp phu trn b mt chi tit va khuch tan vao bn trong) th qua trnh
khuch ta n la chm nht. Do vy khuch tan khng ch ng hoc tao lp thm b mt.
T chc cua lp thm phu thuc vao gian pha cua nguyn t nn (A) va
nguyn t cn thm (B). V du khi thm cacc bon vao thep theo gian pha Fe - C ta nhn
44
c t chc austenit vi mc bao hoa cac bon khac nhau tuy theo nhit thm. Sau
khi lam ngui ta nh c cac t chc co lng xmentit khac nhau.
4-Trong qua trnh thiu kt :
Trong cng ngh luyn kim bt, san phm sau khi tao honh xong c nung n
nhit cao tao lin kt gia cac phn t vt liu. Qua trnh khuch tan xay ra ngay bn
trong hat, trn b mt hat hay gia cac hat. Khng ch c l xp (s lng, hnh dang th
tch...) ta se nhn c cac tnh cht theo y mun. co ngot tng i cua chi tit ( l /l
o
)
la mt trong cac ch tiu quan trong, co th c tnh theo biu thc sau :
2/ 5
3
0
l D t
const
l r T

=


(3.14)
Trong o : -r : ban knh hat
- : nng lng b mt
-T va t : nhit va thi gian thiu kt
5-Pha tap ban dn va thuy tinh :
Trong ban dn, tt ca cac qua trnh ch tao va u lin quan n qua trnh khuch
tan. V du pha tap P, Sb, B... vao Si va Ge tao lp ban dn p-n. tng nhng ch tiu
cua ban dn (chu yu la dn in), ngi ta thm bo th kh vao silic.
Pha tap thuy tinh bng cach khuch tan nhng ion co kch thoc ln nh K, Rb,
Cs...vao b mt cai thin tunh cht cua thuy tinh nh : h s gian n nhit, kha nng
chu va p nhit...
3.3.CHUY N BIN PHA O TRA NG THAI R N TRONG HOP KIM Fe - C
Khi tin hanh nhit luyn ta phai nung nong va lam ngui thep co thanh phn hoa
hoc xac nh. Trong phn nay ta se khao sat xem sau khi nung nong ln cac nhit khac
nhau se xay ra cac chuyn bin pha nao va lam ngui tip theo vi tc khac nhau t
chc mi nhn c se bin thanh t chc g t o se bit c s thay i c tnh tng
ng. Ta se xem xet tng qua trnh mt va khao sat cho loai thep n gian nht la thep cac
bon cung tch, cha 0,80%C.
3.3.1.Cac chuyn bin xay ra khi nung nong thep :
1-C s xac nh chuyn bin khi nung nong :
C s xa c nh chuyn bin xay ra khi nung nong la gian pha Fe - C. Tuy
theo thanh phn cac bon va nhit nung nong, trong thep se xay ra cac chuyn bin khac
nhau. Trong tt ca cac loai thep nhit thng u co t chc pec lt. Thep tr va sau
cung tch th ngoai pec lit ra con co phe rit va xmentit th hai.
a-Thep cung tch :
-Khi nung nong thp hn Ac
1
(< 727
o
C) trong thep cha co chyn bin g.
-Khi nhit nung nong at n Ac
1
(> 727
o
C) se co chuyn bin cua t chc pec
lit thanh austenit theo phan ng sau :
[Fe

+ Fe
3
C]
0,80%C
Fe

(C)
0,80%C
Khi nung nong cao hn Ac
1
mt it ta c t chc austenit ng nht.
b-Thep trc cung tch :
-Khi nung nong n Ac
1
se co chuyn bin pec lit thanh austenit ging nh trn.
-Khi nung t nhit Ac
1
n Ac
3
se co qua trnh hoa tan cua phe rt vao austenit.
45
-Khi nung cao hn Ac
3
ta c t chc austenit ng nht.
c-Thep sau cung tch :
-Khi nung nong n Ac
1
co chuyn bin pec lt thanh austenit.
-Khi nung t nhit Ac
1
n Ac
cm
se co qua trnh hoa tan cua xmentit hai vao
austenit.
-Nhit nung cao hn Ac
cm
ta c t chc austenit ng nht.
T o ta thy rng khi nung nong cao hn ng GSE cua gian pha Fe -C trong
cac thep u nhn c dung dch rn austenit, tuy nhin thanh phn cac bon cua no phu
thuc vao thanh phn cac bon cua thep.
2.c im cua chuyn bin pec lit thanh austenit :
a-Nhit chuyn bin :
Trn gian pha Fe - C nhit chuyn bin pec lit thanh austenit la 727
o
C, iu
nay ch ung khi nung nong v cung chm. Trong thc t khi nhit luyn tc nung nong
tng i ln, do o nhit chuyn bin se lun cao hn 727
o
C. Tc nung cang cao th
nhit chuyn bin se cang cao.
Khao sat gian chuyn bin ng nhit pec lit thanh austenit cua thep cung tch
ta thy khi nhit nung cang cao thi gian cua chuyn bin cang ngn.
Trong thc t nhit luyn thep ta thng dung cach nung nong lin tuc, khi nung
vi tc V
1
nhit bt u chuyn bin la a
1
va kt thuc chuyn bin la b
1
. Nu nung
nong vi tc V
2
> V
1
th nhit c bt u va kt thuc chun bin se la a
2
va b
2
, cac
nhit nay cao hn a
1
, b
1
, thi gian chuyn bin cung ngn i. Trong thc t hoan
thanh chuyn bin khi theo quy nh ta phai nung nong cao hn nhit ti han tng ng
t 20-30
o
C, co khi hang trm C.
Kt lun : Tc nung nong cang cao chuyn bin pec lit thanh austenit xay ra
nhit cang cao va trong thi gian cang ngn.














Hnh 3.5 - Anh hng cua tc nung n nhit chuyn bin

b-Kch thc hat austenit :
46
Trong thc t khng s dung thep trang thai t chc austenit, nhng kch thc
cua no quyt nh rt ln kch thc hat thep nhit thng.
Chuyn bin peclit thanh austenit la mt qua trnh kt tinh va khuch tan. Mm
austenit c tao ra gia bin gii hat phe rit va xmentit cua t chc peclit. Bin gii hat
cua hai pha nay rt ln nn s mm kt tinh sinh ra rt nhiu. V vy hat austenit mi sinh
bao gi cung rt nho mn. Do o chuyn bin peclit thanh austenit bao gi cung lam nho
hat thep. Hat austenit se cang nho mn nu kch thoc cua pha xmentit cang cang nho va
tc nung cang ln. Sau khi tao thanh xong se co qua trnh khuch tan cua nguyn t cac
bon t ni giau (v tr xmentit0 sang ni ngheo (v tr phe rit) lam ng u thanh phn
austenit.
Nh vy ta thy rng hat austenit mi sinh ra rt nho mn nhng nu tip tuc nung
nong hay gi nhit chung se ln ln ngay. Tuy theo c tnh phat trin cua hat austenit khi
nung nong, thep c chia ra lam hai loai : thep ban cht (con goi la di truyn) hat nho va
ban cht hat ln.
Thep ban cht hat ln la loai thep co hat austenit phat trin nhanh va u n
moi nhit , tc la sau khi hnh thanh xong nu tip tuc nung nong hat se phat trin ln
ngay. Do vy lam cho khi lam ngui hat the p to va co tnh gion cao.
Thep ban cht hat nho co hat austenit luc ban u phat trin chm, ch khi vt
qua 930 - 950
o
C se phat trin nhanh chong va co th ln hn ca thep ban cht hat ln. Do
vy trong cac dang nhit luyn thng dung ( nhit < 930-950
o
C) vi thep ban cht hat
nho khng s hat ln khi nung nong. Thep ban cht hat nho c kh xy trit bng










Hnh 3.6. -Qua trnh tao mm va phat trin mm austenit t peclit tm

nhm va hp kim hoa bng cac nguyn t tao cac bt manh : Ti, V, Zr, Nb, W ...se tao ra
Al
2
O
3
, AlN, cac cacbt hp kim kho tan, nho mn, chung se nm bin gii hat can tr s
sat nhp cua hat austenit vi nhau thanh hat ln hn.
3.3.2.Chuyn bin xay ra khi giu nhit :
Khi gi nhit khng co chuyn bin nao khac vi khi nung nong. Tin hanh gi
nhit nhm cac muc ch sau :
-Lam ng u nhit trn toan tit din, cho loi cung co chuyn bin nh
b mt.

47



















Hnh 3.7-Gian pha Fe-C (a) va s phat trin hat cua thep cung tch (b)
1)Thep ban cht hat nho; 2)Thep ban cht hat ln; 3)Hat ban cht
4)Hat khi nung nong; 5)Hat pecli ban u; 6)Hat austenit ban u

-Co thi gian hoan thanh cac chuyn bin khi nung nong.
-Lam ng u thanh phn hoa hoc (cac bon va hp kim) cua austenit.
Thi gian gi nhit ch nn va u khng nn keo dai qua mc lam cho hat ln.
3.3.3.Chuyn bincua austenit khi lam ngui chm :
Sau khi a nhn c austenit co hat nho mn theo yu cu, ta se xem xet chuyn
bin cua chung khi lam ngui. Qua trnh nay cphn ra hai nhom ln : lam ngui ng
nhit va lam ngui lin tuc. n gian ta nghin cu chuyn bin ng nhit trong thep
cac bon cung tch sau o suy rng ra cho cac thep khac.
1-Gian chuyn bin ng nhit cua austenit qua ngui cua thep cung tch :
T gian pha Fe - C ta bit rng khi lam ngui austenit se chuyn bin thanh
peclit tai nhit 727
o
C, vi iu kin lam ngui rt chm khng co trong thc t. Do vy
ta dung phng phap lam ngui ng nhit nh sau : lam ngui nhanh austenit xung di
nhit Ar
1
mt khoang nho, sau o gi ng nhit tai nhit nay va o thi gian bt u
va kt thuc chuyn bin cua austenit.
a-Gian chuyn bin ng nhit cua thep cung tch :
Gian chuyn bin ng nhit cua austenit qua ngui con goi la gian T-T-T
(transformation - temperature - time). Ta tin hanh o nh trn cho thep cung tch tai cac
nhit chuyn bin khac nhau, ghi lai thi gian bt u va kt thuc chuyn bin tng
nhit mt. Cui cung em biu din ln h truc nhit va thi gian ta se co gian
48
chuyn bin ng nhit austenit qua ngui cua thep cung tch. Gian nay co dang hai
ng ch "C", ng th nht biu th s bt u, ng th hai biu th s kt thuc cua
chuyn bin austenit thanh peclit (con goi la gian ch C). Gian nay do hai nha vt
liu hoc ngi My la E.C.Bain va A.I.Davenpo xy dng nm 1930.


















Hnh 3 .8- Gian T-T-T cua thep cung tch

b-Cac san phm cua s phn hoa ng nhit cua austenit qua ngui :
T gian ch "C" ta thy rng austenit khi b lam ngui xung di 727
o
C no
cha chuyn bin ngay ma con tn tai mt thi gian nht nh trc khi chuyn bin, phn
hoa va c goi la austenit qua ngui. Austenit qua ngui khng n nh, r de dang b
phn hoa. Trn gian ch "C" phn chia ra cac khu vc sau :
- trn 727
o
C la khu vc tn tai cua austenit n nh.
-Bn trai ng cong ch "C" th nht la austenit qua ngui.
-Khoang gia hai ng ch "C" la austenit chuyn bin.
-Bn phai ng cong ch "C" th hai la cac san phm phn hoa ng nhit cua
austenit qua ngui (hn hp phe rit va xmentit vi nho mn khac nhau).
-Di ng M

la mactenxt va austenit d.
Cac san phm phn hoa ng nhit :
*Khi cho phn hoa sat A
1
(trn doi 700
o
C), vi qua ngui nho Tkhoang 25
o
C.
Hn hp phe rit - xmentit tm tao thanh vi kch thc th to, khoang cach gia cac tm
khoang 10
-3
mm, cng 10-15HRC goi la pec lit tm.
*Khi cho austenit phn hoa nhit thp hn (khoang 650
o
C, vi qua ngui T
xp x 75
o
C), hn hp phe rit - xmentit tm tao thanh nho mn hn, khoang cach gia cac
tm c 0,25 0.30 m, khng phn bit c chung trn knh hin vi quang hoc. T chc
nay co cng 25 - 35HRC, goi la xoocbit ti.
49

Hnh 3.9- T chc t vi cua xoocbit ti














*Khi cho austenit phn hoa nhit thp hn na (khoang 500 - 600
o
C, ng vi
mui cua ng cong ch "C", hn hp phe rit - xmentit tm tao thanh se nho mn hn na,
khng phn bit c trn knh hin vi quang hoc, khoang cach gia cac tm khoang 0,10 -
0,15 m, co cng cao hn c 40HRC goi la tr xtit ti.














Hnh 3.10- T chc t vi cua trstit ti

*Khi cho austenit phn hoa nhit thp hn na, tc la thuc v na di cua
ng cong ch "C" (khoang 450 - 250
o
C), hn hp phe rit - xmentit tm nhn c rt
nho mn, co cng cao c 50 - 55HRC goi la bainit. Tuy nhin t chc bainit co khac vi
ba t chc trn :
-Lng cac bon ln hn gii han bao hoa mt t khoang 0,10%C.
-Cac bit st y khng co cng thc chnh xac la Fe
3
C ma la Fe
2,4 - 3
C
-Ngoai hai pha trn con mt t austenit d va co ng sut bn trong.
50
Sau khi lam ngui ng nhit t chc nhn c ng nht trn toan b tit din. Nh
vy cac t chc pcec lit tm, xoocbit, trxtit (ca bai nit na) la hn hp c hoc cua phe rit
va xmentt tm vi kch thc tm cang ngay cang nho mn hn va cng cang cao hn.












a) b)


Hnh 3.11- T chc t vi bainit trn (a) va bai nit di (b)

2-S phn hoa cua austenit khi lam ngui lin tuc :
Trong thc t khi nhit luyn thep thng dung phng phap lam ngui lin tuc,
cac san phm nhn c cung tng t trng hp ng nhit nhng co nhng c im
khac hn.
a-Vi cac tc ngui khac nhau, austenit se b qua ngui n cac nhit khac nhau va
phn hoa thanh cac san phm tng ng vi cac nhit o.
-Lam ngui chm cung lo (V
1
), vec t ngui ct ng cong ch "C" sat A
1
san
phm phn hoa la peclit tm vi cng thp nht.
-Lam ngui trong khng kh tnh (V
2
) austenit phn hoa thanh xoocbit.
-Lam ngui trong khng kh nen (V
3
), vec t ngui ct ch "C" tai phn li,
austenit phn hoa thanh trxtit.
-Lam ngui trong du (V
4
) vec t ngui ch ct ng cong ch "C" th nht tai
phn li, austenit ch co mt phn chuyn bin thanh trxtit phn con lai thanh mactenxit
nn san phm la trxtit - mactenxit.
-Lam ngui nhanh hn na (trong nc lanh, ng vi V
5
), vec t ngui khng ct
ng cong ch "C" nao ca, phn ln austenit qua ngui chuyn bin thanh mactenxit.
Khng co hcn hp phe rit - xmentit.
b-T chc nhn c thng khng ng nht trn toan tit din, nht la trng hp tit
din ln v b mt ngui nhanh hn loi.
c-Khng nhn c hoan toan t chc bainit. Trong mt s trng hp thy t chc bainit
hnh thanh cung trxtit va mactenxit.


51




















Hnh 3.12-Gian T-T-T cua thep cung tch va cac vec t ngui khi lam ngui lin tuc

3-Gian ch "C" cua cac thep khac cung tch :
Vi cac thep trc cung tch va sau cung tch cung co dang ng cong ch "C"
tng t thep cungtch ch khac la co thm cac nhanh phu.
a-Thep trc cung tch :
Co thm nhanh phu tit ra phe rit trc trong khoang nhit Ar
3
n Ar
1
sau o
mi phn hoa thanh hn hp phe rit - xmentit.
b-Thep sau cung tch :
Co thm nhanh phu tit ra xmentit hai trc trong khoang t Ar
cm
n Ar
1
, sau o
mi phn hoa thanh hn hp phe rit - xmentit.
Tuy nhin vi cac thep nay nu lam ngui ng nhit vi qua ngui ln hay tc
ngui nhanh th austenit qua nguicua chung se phn hoa ngay thanh peclit, xoocbit
trxtit va bainit nhng lng cac bon khng ung la 0,80%C. Cac san phm o goi la cung
tch gia.
3.3.4.Chuyn bin austenit khi lam ngui nhanh (chuyn bin mactenxit) :
Khi lam ngui nhanh austenit sao cho vec t biu din tc ngui cua no khng
ct ng cong ch "C" ch co chuyn bin a hnh t Fe

sang Fe

ma khng co s
khuch tan cua cac bon. o la chuyn bin austenit thanh mactenxit. Chuyn bin nay xay
ra nhit thp, khoang t 250
o
C tr xung. Tc ngui nho nht chuyn bin nay


52

















Hnh 3.13-Dang tng quat cua gian T-T-T cua thep khac cung tch
















Hnh 3.14 -S tit ra pherit hay xmentit II khi lam ngui
ng nhit vi qua ngui nho(1) va chm lin tuc (2)


xay ra la tc ng vi vec t tip xuc vi ng cong ch "C" th nht tai mui cua no.
Tc ngui nay c goi la tc ti ti han V
th
(con goi la tc ngui ti han). Nh
vy khi lam ngui austenit vi tc ngui ln hn tc ti han se nhn c mactenxit
ch khng phai hn hp phe rit - xmen tit.
53
1-Ban cht va cu truc cua mactenxit :
a-nh ngha :
Mactenxit la dung dch rn xen ke qua bao hoa cua cac bon trong Fe

co co nng
cac bon bng nng cua austenit ban u.
Khi lam ngui rt nhanh cac bon trong austenit khng kp khuch tan tao thanh
xmentit. Luc at nhit tng i thp ch co s chuyn mang t Fe sang Fe

. Lng
cac bon trong hai t chc nay bng nhau.
Fe

(C) Fe

(C)


















Hnh 3.15-Gian T-T-T va tc ti ti han(V
th
)

b-Cu truc cua mactenxit :
-Mactenxit co kiu mang chnh phng tm khi vi hai thng s mang la a va c. Ty
s c/a goi la chnh phng. Thng thng ty s c/a = 1,001 - 1,06.
-Mactenxit co dang hnh kim, mt u nhon, cac kim nay tao vi nhau goc 120
o
hay
60
o
.
-Cac nguyn t cac bon chui vao cac l hng trong mang cua Fe

c-Tnh cht mactenxit :
-Do ham lng cac bon qua bao hoa nn gy ra x lch mang ln, do vy co cng
cao va tnh chng mai mon ln. Ham lng cac bon cang ln cng cang cao.
-Mactenxit co tnh gion cao phu thuc vao kch thc hat cua no va ng sut bn
trong. Hat cang nho, ng sut cang thp tnh gion cang thp.




54



















Hnh 3.16- Cu truc mactenxit
a) M hnh khi c s ( - C)
b) Anh t chc t vi



2-c im cua chuyn bin mactenxit :
a-Ch xay ra khi lam ngui nhanh va lin tuc austenit vi tc ln hn hay bng tc
ngui ti han. Chuyn bin mactenxit khng xay ra khi lam ngui ng nhit.
b-La chuyn bin khng khuch tan : Nguyn t cac bon vn gi nguyn v tr, ch co
nguyn t st chuyn dch tao ra kiu mang chnh phng tm khi, khoang cach dch
chuyn khng qua mt thng s mang. Gia hai kiu mang cua austenit va mactenxit co
mi quan h nh hng xac nh sao cho cac mt va phng day c cua chung song song
vi nhau.
c-La qua trnh tao ra khng ngng cac tinh th mi vi tc rt ln (1000 - 7000m/s).
d-Chuyn bin ch xay ra trong mt khoa ng nhit nht nh t nhit bt u chuyn
bin (M

) n nhit kt thuc (M
k
). V tr hai nhit nay khng phu thuc vao tc
lan ngui, ch phu thuc vao thanh phn cac bon va nguyn t hp kim trong thep.
e-Chuyn bin xay ra khng hoan toan : Khi lam ngui cang gn n im M
k
lng
mactenxit sinh ra cang nhiu, nhng khng bao gi at c 100% ma vn con mt lng
nht nh austenit cha chuyn bin, goi la austenit d. Nguyn nhn cua hin tng nay la
do s khac nhau v th tch ring cua chung. Th tch ring V
M
> V

v vy khi chuyn bin
austenit thanh mactenxit th tch tng ln va phn austenit cha chuyn bin b ap lc nen
ngay cang tng ln n mc khng th chuyn bin c na. Lng austenit d sau khi
ti phu thuc vao cac yu t sau :

55














Hnh 3.17 -ng cong ng hoc cua chuyn bin mactenxit
-V tr cua im M

va M
k
: im M
k
cang thp hn 20
o
C th lng austenit d
cang tng. y la yu t quan trong nht.
-Lng cac bon trong mactanxit cang nhiu th tch ring cua no cang ln, do vy
lng austenit d cang tng.

















Hnh 3.18 -T chc t vi cua mactenxit va austenit d

3.3.5.Chuyn bin khi nung nong thep da ti (khi ram) :
1-Tnh khng n nh cua mactenxit va austenit :
Sau khi ti ta nhn c mactenxit va mt lng austenit d nht nh, thep co
cng cao nhng tnh don ln va tn tai ng sut d bn trong, nng lng t do ln. Trang
56
thai nay khng n nh va chi tit khng th lam vic c. Do o pha i cn mt nguyn
cng tip theo iu chnh lai cho phu hp o la ram.
Theo gian pha Fe-C t nhit 727
o
C n nhit thng t chc n nhcua
thep la hn hp phe rit va xmentit (peclit). V vy mactanxit va austenit d la cac pha
khng n nh, chung lun co xu hng phn hoa thanh hn hp trn.
Mactenxit khng n nh do qua ba o hoa cac bon, do vy se tit bt ra di dang
xmentit va phn con lai se mt ht acc bon tr thanh pherit :
Fe

(C) Fe
3
C + Fe

Austenit khng tn tai c doi 727
o
C nn co khuynh hng phn hoa thanh h hp
pherit va xmentit :
Fe

( C) Fe
3
C + Fe

nhit thng qua trnh nay din ra rt chm, hu nh khng nhn thy c.
V vy ta phai nung nong thuc y nhanh qua trnh. Tuy nhin hai pha nay khng
chuyn bin trc tip ra phe rit va xmentit ma phai qua m san phm trung gian la
mactenxit ram nh sau :

Mactexit
Austenitdu
Mactenxit ram [ferit + xmentit]
2-Cac chuyn binxay ra khi ram :
Ta xet qua trnh nung nong thep cung tch (0,80%C) t o suy rng cho cac loai
thep khac.
a-Giai oan I (<200
o
C) :
-Khi nung nho hn 80
o
C cha co g xay ra, t chc vn la mactenxit va austenit
d.
-T 80-200
o
C : austenit d cha chuyn bin. Luc nay trong mactenxit co s tp
trung cac bon lai va tit ra di dang cac bt co cng thc Fe
x
C (x t 2,0 2,4) dang
tm mong va rt phn tan. Lng cac bon trong mactenxit giam t 0,80% xung con 0,25%
0,40% va ty s c/a giam i. Cac bt cha co kiu mang ring, no phai tn tai trong kiu
mang cua mactenxit. Hn hp gm cac bt va matanxit ngheo cac bon goi la mactenxit
ram.
Fe

(C)
0,80
[Fe

(C)
0,25-0,40
+ Fe
2 2,4
C]
Cui giai oan nay t chc cua thep la mactenxit ram va austenit d.
b-Giai oan II : (200 260
o
C)
Trong giai oan nay cac bon vn tip tuc tit ra khoi mactenxit lam cho dung dch
rn ch con 0,15 0,20%C. Bn canh o co qua trnh austenit d chuyn bin thanh
mactenxit ram

Fe

(C)
0,80
[Fe

(C)
0,15 0,20
+ Fe
2 2,4
C]
Cui giai oan nay thep ti co t chc la mactenxit ram
c-Giai oan III : (260 400
o
C)
Trong giai oan nay ca hai pha cua mactanxit ram u chuyn bin :
-Tt ca cac bon qua bao hoa c tit ra khoi mactenxit chnh phng
c/a = 1 va mactanxit ngheo cac bon tr thanh pherit.

57















Hnh 3.19 -T chc t vi cua mactenxit va austenit d

-Cac bt dang tm mong bin thanh xmentit dang hat. S cua hai qua
trnh nay nh sau :
Fe

(C)
0,15 20
Fe

+Fe
3
C hat
Fe
2 2,4
C Fe
3
C hat
Cui giai oan nay t chc cua thep ti la hn hp phe rit va xmentit dang hat
rt nho mn, khng nhn thy c di knh hin vi quang hoc goi la trstit ram

Hnh 3 .20-T chc t vi cua trxtit ram















d-Giai oan IV : (>400
o
C)
Tip tuc nung ln cao hn 400
o
C trong thep ti khng co chuyn bin pha g mi
ma ch co qua trnh ln ln cua cac hat xmentit.

58















nhit 500 600
o
C t chc la hn hp pherit va xmentiot dang hat kha phn tan, vn
cha nhn thy c di kinh hin vi quang hoc, goi la xoocbit ram
Hnh 3- T chc t vi cua xoocbit ram
Nu tip tuc nung ln gn A
1
(727
o
C), luc nay hat xmentit a kha ln co th nhn
thy c bng knh hin vi quang hoc, hn hp o goi la peclit hat.

















59
CHUONG 4 : BIN DANG DEO VA CO TINH
CUA VT LIU

i vi cac vt liu, c bit la vt liu kim loai, cac ban thanh phm c cung
cp di dang dy, thanh, tm, la....nh qua trnh bin dang deo (can) rt thun tin cho
vic s dung. Trong san xut c kh thng dung ren tao phi cho san phm trc khi
gia cng ct got. V vy khao sat bin dang deo giup cho chung ta hiu ro ban cht va cac
c trng c tnh, cac bin phap nng cao c tnh cung nh cach khc phuc cac hin tng
bt li.
4.1.BIN DANG DA N HI VA BIN DANG DEO:
4.1.1.Khai nim v bin dang dan hi:
Bin da ng la s thay i hnh dang, kch thc cua vt liu di tac dung cua
ngoai lc, hay cac qua trnh n mon...
Bin dang an hi la bin dang b mt i khi bo tai trong tac dung, no xay ra khi tai
trong tac dung nho hn gii han an hi.
V du : - Khi keo mt lo xo vi ng sut <
c
no se dan dai ra mt oan l tng
ng, bo ng sut tac dung no se tr v kch thc ban u.
- Cung tng t nh vy khi keo mt dy cao su vi lc nho hn gii han bn cua
no.
Bin dang an hi xay ra di tac dung cua ca ng sut phap va ng sut tip. Di
tac dung cua ng sut phap gy ra bin dang , di tac dung cua ng sut tip gy ra
x trong mt chu lc. Di tac dung cua ng sut phap ba chiu lam bin i th tch
V/V. Bin dang an hi chia ra lam hai loai : bin dang an hi tuyn tnh va bin dang
an hi phi tuyn.

1.Bin dang an hi tuyn tnh :

Vi nhiu loai vt liu (vt liu kim loai) th mi quan h gia ng sut va bin
dang la tuyn tnh, c m ta bi nh lut Huc. Phng trnh c s nh sau :
= E. trong qua trnh keo, nen
= G. trong qua trnh x dch (4.1)
P = -K . V/V trong qua trnh ep ba chiu.
Trong phng trnh (3.1) cac m un an hi E, m un x dch G, m un ep K
lin h vi nhau qua hng s Poatxng (ty l gia co chiu ngang va dan chiu dai

/

) nh sau :
K = E / [ 3 (1 - 2) ]
G = E / [ 2 (1 + 2) ] (4.2)
Vi a s cac vt liu = 0,30 nn E = 2,6G. Cac phng trnh (4.1) va (4.2) ch
dung khi tnh toan cac vt liu ng hng hay gia ng hng co cu truc v nh hn
hoc a tinh th.
60

Hnh 4.1 -Bin dang an hi va lc lin kt gia hai nguyn t ln cn
a)do ng sut keo; b)do ng sut nen; c)Do ng sut tip; d)Do ep ba chiu

Bin dang an hi tuyn tnh da trn s x dch nguyn t khoi v tr cn bng
2.Bin dang an hi phi tuyn :
Bin dang an hi phi tuyn la bin dang an hi khng tun theo quy lut cua
nh lut Huc hay con goi la bin dang an hi kiu cao su (do phat hin ra u tin trong
cao su t nhin). Loai bin dang nay co trong cac vt liu phi kim v nh hnh hay tinh th
cuc b (elastome), vt liu kim loai (gang xam, hnh 4.4 L). Trong qua trnh nay m un
an hi E khng con la hng s ma phu thuc va o ng sut hay bin dang :
= E ( ) . (4.3)
Bin dang an hi trong cac vt liu nay da vao s thay i hnh dang cua cac
mach phn t. trang thai khng tai, vt liu co cu truc v nh hnh bao gm cac mach
phn t b un cong do an moc vao nhau, tao ra mt bui hoc li phn t (hnh 4.5 L).
Khi chu lc keo, cac mach phn t c dui thng va song song vi phng ngoai lc ma
vn lin kt vi nhau tai cac im nut cua li hac tui. Bin dang an hi chnh la
dan dai tng cng trong phng tai trong. Khi bo tai, nh co chuyn ng Braon a cac
mach lin kt phn t tr v trang thai khng tai ban u nn khng co bin dang d.
4.1.2.Khai nim v bin dang deo :
Bin dang deo la bin dang vn tn tai khi bo tai trong tac dung, no xay ra khi tai
trong tac dung vt qua gii han an hi (at gia tr
c
).
V du : -Be mt que thep vi lc ln no se b cong i ma khng tr v v tr ban
u.
-Keo mt lo xo thep vi lc ln no se b dan dai ra so vi kch thc ban
u.
Bin dang d co c la do s dch chuyn cua nguyn t, nh pha v cac lin kt
ban u ri tp hp lai lin kt vi cac ln cn mi. Do vy khi bo tai trong nguyn t
khng tr v v tr xut phat ma cu truc cua vt liu vn c bao toan. (hnh 4.7 L).


Chuyn pha M Song tinh Khng tai an hi Tr t
B
M
A A
A
s
A
A
A A
61
Hnh 4.2- S bin dang trong vt liu (A, B-cac cu truc khac nhau)

Bin dang deo chu yu xay ra trong vt liu kim loai, trong cac loai vt liu
polyme, composit xay ra vi lng bin dang d nho, con vi ceramc khng xay ra. Bin
dang deo xay ra trong vt liu kim loai nh hai hnh thc sau :trt va song tinh.
4.2.BIN DANG DEO VA KT TINH LAI :
4.2.1.Cac hinh thuc bin dang deo :
1.Trt :
Trt la s x dch mt phn tinh th song song vi phn con lai trong mt phng
x dch (mt trt) va theo phng cua ng sut tip (phng trt).
Trong qua trnh bin dang ch co ng sut tip mi gy ra trt. Tp hp mt mt
trt va mt phng trt goi la h trt. M t trt va phng trt la cac mt va phng
co mt nguyn t ln nht.
S lng h trt phu thuc vao kiu mang tinh th va do tnh i xng quyt
nh . Mang lp phng tm mt A1 co bn mt 111 va mi mt co ba phng < 110>
nn tao ra 12 h trt tng ng. Mang lp phng tm khi A2 co sau mt 110 va
mi mt co hai phng trt <111> tng ng tao ra 12 h trt tng ng. Mang sau
phng xp cht A3 co mt mt trt c ban la 0001 tai o co ba phng trt nn co
ba h trt tng ng. S h trt cang l n th tnh deo cua vt liu cang cao va ngc
lai.
Qua trnh trt ch xay ra khi ngoai lc tao ra trong h trt hoat ng mt ng
sut tip cho phep at c gia tr ti han. ln cua ng sut nay phu thuc vao ngoai
lc va s nh hng cua h trt vi ngoai lc. Theo nh lut Smit ta co :
= coscos (4.4)
Trong o : - = F/S la ng sut do ngoai lc tac dung trn mt phng S
- la goc tao bi ngoai lc va phap tuyn mt trt n
- la goc tao bi ngoai lc vi phng trt t
- coscos goi la tha s Smit
T phng trnh (4.4) ta thy rng nu = 90
o
hay = 90
0
th ngoai lc song song
vi mt trt hay vung goc vi phng trt th = 0 va tinh th se b pha huy ma khng
co bin dang deo.
ng sut tip cho phep at cc ai
max
= 0,5 khi = = 45
o
, v vy ng sut
ngoai lc ti thiu cn cho trt la
min
= 2
max
. Theo nh lut Smit th h trt nao co cac
yu t inh hng thun li nht, tai o gia tr ti han cua ng sut tip at c sm nht
se hoat ng trc. Sau khi hang loat cac h trt khac c a vao hoat ng th trn mt
ngoai theo chiu dai tinh th xut hin cac bc nho song song nhau nh cac ng ke, o la
ng trt. Nhiu ng trt gn nhau tao thanh mt giai trt. X dch cang ln th
chiu cao bc cang tng .





62
Hnh 4.3 - Trt trong n tinh th:
a) S nh hng cua h trt vi ngoai lc.
b) X dch tao ra cac bc nho.
















Ngoai cac h trt chnh ra, trong thc t kim loai con co th trt trn cac mt va
phng day c khac tuy khng phai la day c nht. o chnh la h trt thc t.
Kha nngbin dang deo cua kimloai ty l thun vi s h trt chnh. Kim loai co
s h trt cang cao th cang d bin dang deo.
2.Song tinh :
Song tinh la qua trnh dch chuyn cac nguyn t mt phn tinh th vao v tr i
xng gng vi cac nguyn t phn kia qua mt phng song tinh do tac ng cua ng
sut tip .
Cac c im cua song tinh :
-Dch chuyn nguyn t ty l vi khoang cach ti mt song tinh, cang xa mt song
tinh dch chuyn cang ln nhng khng vt qua mt khoang cach nguyn t. Do vy mc
bin dang deo do song tinh tao ra nho hn nhiu so vi trt (kt qua cua qua trnh trt
la chuyn dch nguyn t i mt s nguyn ln khoang cach o)
-Song tinh xay ra vi tc rt ln trong nhng mt va phng xac nh va doc
theo mt song tinh s nh hng cua cac nguyn t khac i so vi phn tinh th con lai.
4.2.2.Nhung thay di sau bin dang deo :
1.Tchc t vi :
Trong qua trnh bin dang deo, s hoat ng cua nhiu h trt cung mt luc lam
cho cac m t trt b un va quay. Do vy vi mc bin dang ln s khac nhau v nh
hng cua cac hat giam dn va hat b keo dai theo phng bin dang, cha nhiu khuyt tt
va co th tao ra t chc si. Khi b nen hat b bep i va v vun ra, kch thc hat cang nho
khi lc nen cang ln.




63
Bang 1- H trt trong mt s loai vt liu










































64



Hnh 4.4 -S t chc t vi in hnh cua vt liu b bin dang

Nu cac hat co mt nh hng u tin theo cac mt va phng tinh th xac nh
se tao ra t chc th go i la bin dang chon hng hay textua bin dang. Bin dang chon
hng lam cho tinh th se co tnh d hng. Cu truc nay co th xac nh bng phn tch
Rnghen. Bin dang chon hng c ng dung trong thep ky thut in lam loi bin th.
ch tao loai thep nay ta tin hanh can nong hay ngui sao cho cac hat co s
nh hng mt 110 trung vi mt ph ng tm thep (mt can) va phng d t hoa <100>
trung vi phng can. V vy thep ky thut in d t hoa, tn hao t tr nho, co ng
cong t tr gn nh hnh ch nht va rt gy.
2.Tnh cht :
Bin dang deo lam thay i manh tnh cht cua vt liu, tc bin dang cang
ln th s thay i tnh cht cang manh.
Bin dang deo lam tng bn, gii han chay va cng, lam giam deo va
dai. bn, cng co th tng ln t 1,5 n 3 ln, gii han chay tng t 3 n 7 ln.
Bin dang de o gy ra trong vt liu ng sut d, tao ra cac yu t tp trung ng
sut. Tuy nhin nu tao ra ng sut nen d trn b mt se lam tng gii han moi.
Bin dang deo lam giam tnh dn in, dn nhit, tng lc kh t va tng tnh n
mon in hoa.
4.2.3.Kt tinh lai :
1.Trang thai kim loai a qua bin dang deo :
Sau khi bin dang deo kim loai b bin cng, hoa bn chung s trang thai khng
cn bng, co nng lng d tr cao lun co xu hng tr v trang thai cn bng trc khi
bin dang va moi tnh cht vn co cua chung c khi phuc lai. Vi a s kim loai qua
trnh na y xay ra rt chm nhit thng (hang nm cho n hang chuc nm). Nu em
nung nong kim loai a qua bin dang deo th qua trnh trn se din ra nhanh chong.
2.Cac giai oan chuyn bin khi nung nong :
Khi nhit nung nong tng dn trong kim loai a qua bin dang deo xay ra hai
giai oan sau : hi phuc va kt tinh lai.
a- Hi phuc : Qua trnh nay xay ra nhit khng cao lm (0,1 0,2)T
C
. Luc nay trong
kim loai a qua bin dang deo se co cac bin i nho trong mang tinh th b x lch : giam
sai lc mang (sai lch im va nut trng), giam mt lch va ng sut bn trong. T chc
t vi cha co g thay i. Tnh cht vt ly thay i khng nhiu (in tr giam), c tnh
cha co g thay i.
65
b-Kt tinh lai (con goi la kt tinh lai ln th nht)
Khi nung nong cao hn mt nhit nht nh (goi la nhit kt tinh lai) trong
mang tinh th b x lch co qua trnh hnh thanh cac hat mi khng co sai lch mang theo
c ch tao mm va phat trin mm nh kt tinh va goi la kt tinh lai.
Mm kt tinh lai sinh ra chu yu nhng vung b x lch manh nht, nng lng
d tr cao nht (mt trt, bin gii hat). Nhng vung nay kem n nh nht do o d tr
v trang thai cn bng. V vy kim loai b bin dang deo cang manh th mm kt tinh lai se
sinh ra cang nhiu va hat nhn c cang nho.
Sau khi sinh ra cac mm kt tinh se phat trin ln thanh hat kim loai, y la qua
trnh t nhin.
Kt thuc qua trnh kt tinh lai nhn c cac hat hoan toan mi, a canh vi mang
tinh th it b x lch va moi tnh cht vn co ban u c khi phuc lai y u.
Nhit nho nht tai o xay ra qua trnh kt tinh lai vi tc ang k goi la
nhit kt tinh lai. Nhit nay phu thuc vao nhit chay cua kim loai theo cng thc:
T
KTL
= a.T
C
(
O
K). Vi a la h s phu thuc vao sach, mc bin dang cua kim loai va
thi gian gi nhit. Vi kim loai nguyn cht ky thut a = 0,40. Kim loai tinh khit a =
0,20,3 dung dch rn 0,5 0,8. Mc bin dang cang ln, thi gian gi nhit cang dai
th a cang nho.

Sau khi kt tinh lai t chc t vi thay i hoan toan : cac hat mi ng truc va a
canh. Tuy nhin kch thc hat phu thuc vao cac yu t sau :
*Mc bin dang : mc bin dang cang ln th hat nhn c co kch thc
cang nho (sinh ra nhiu mm kt tinh). Nu bin dang nm trong khoang 2 8% kch
thc hat nhn c la ln nht (x lch mang t, s lng mm kt tinh it) va c goi la
bin dang ti han. Trong c kh cn tranh bin dang nay (tr thep ky thut in va
vt liu lam vic nhit cao))

*Nhit u : nhit u cang cao do tc tao mm va phat trin mm cang ln,

do o hat nhn c cang ln.
*Thi gin gi nhit : thi gian gi nhit tai nhit u cang dai th hat cang ln, do
co iu kin phat trin.
c-Kt tinh lai ln th hai
Sau khi kt tinh lai xong, n u tip tuc nng cao nhit hay keo dai thi gian gi
nhit se lam cho cac hat phat trin ln nhanh chong do co qua trnh sat nhp cac hat be vao
cac hat ln (hat ln nut hat be) lam cho hat ln thm nhanh chong. y la qua trnh t
nhin do lam giam tng bin gii hat nn lam giam tng nng lng d tr. Qua trnh nay
goi la kt tinh lai ln th hai. Hin tng nay la co hai cn phai tranh khi nung nong kim
loai qua bin dang deo.
4.3.BIN DANG NONG :
4.3.1.Khai nim :
Bin dang nong la qua trnh bin dang deo kim loai nhit cao hn nhit
kt tinh lai.
V du : *Bin dang deo vonfram 1000
O
C la bin dang ngui (T
KTL
= 1200
O
C)
66
*Bin dang deo ch, kem, thic nhit thng la bin dang nong
(nhit kt tinh lai cua chung nho hn 0
O
C)
Bin dang nong thng tin hanh nhit (0,700,75)T
C
4.3.2.Uu nhuoc dim cua bin dang nong :
Khi bin dang nong co hai qua trnh i lp nhau xay ra ni tip nhau :
*Qua trnh bin dang deo lam x lch mang, hoa bn va gy bin cng.
*Qua trnh kt tinh lai lam mt x lch mang, gy ra thai bn, giam cng.
Do vy sau khi bin dang nong c tnh kim loai se thay i theo chiu hng cua
qua trnh manh hn. Trong trng hp ly tng nht la : kt thuc bin dang cao hn nhit
kt tinh lai vi thi gian u dai hoan thanh qua trnh kt tinh lai va xay ra qua trnh
thai bn. Do o kim loai sau bin dang nong vn gi c deo, dai cao, bn thp.
Tuy nhin trong thc t do qua trnh cng ngh kho xac nh c cac yu t trn nn kim
loai thng b bin cng va phai em u kt tinh lai.
1-u im : So vi bin dang ngui, bin dang nong co cac u im sau :
*L hng (bt kh) b bep lai khi bin dang, do nhit cao khuch tan manh
c han kn lai nn cai thin c t chc kim loai.
*Do tin hanh nhit cao kim loai co tnh deo cao hn nn kho b nt, khng
cn lc ep ln ma vn nhn c lng bin dang ln. Do o co nng sut cao, gia cng
c phi ln.
*Nh co qua trnh kt tinh lai nn giam bin cng, sau bi n dang nong co th
khng cn u (tuy nhin phai tun theo quy trnh bin dang mt cah cht che)
*Cai thin c hat cho kim loai do lng ep ln, nhit u hp ly, bao am
c tnh tng hp tt. Cn chu y la phai bin dang lin tuc nhit cao va khng nn kt
thuc bin dang nhit cao hn nhiu so vi nhit kt tinh lai (tranh kt tinh lai ln
th hai)
2-Nhc im :


Hnh 4.5 - S tao thanh t chc th khi bin dang nong.
a)Th ung b)Th sai



67

*Kho khng ch nhit ng u trn phi, c bit la cac phi mong va ln do o kho
at c s ng nht v c tnh.
*Kho khng ch chnh xac hnh dang, kch thc cua san phm vi chnh xac
cao do co s co gian khi nung nong va lam ngui.
*Cht lng b mt khng cao : bong thp v cac vy xyt, d b xy hoa,
thoat cac bon.
*Khi bin dang nong cac tap cht (xyt nitrit, sunphit...) b bep, nho mn va
keodai theo phng bin dang tao thanh t chc th. Yu cu cua th la phai phn b u
theo chu vi chi tit bin dang.
























68
CHUONG 5 : N MON VA BAO V VT LIU

5.1.KHAI NIM V N MON KIM LOAI :
Trong qua trnh s dung, cu truc va tnh cht cua vt liu b bin i theo thi
gian lam cho vt li b thoai hoa i. i vi vt liu kim loai nguyn nhn thoai hoa
chuyu la do hin tng n mon. Do v tr quan trong cua vt liu kim loai trong nn kinh
t nn vn bao v kim loai chng s pha huy do n mon lun c quan tm ky lng.
Ngi ta c tnh tiu hao cho n mon va bao v kim loai cac nc cng nghip
phat trin chim c 4,20% GDP. Tn hao kim loai do n mon rt ln, c co nm nha may
luyn kim th co mt nha may san xut kim loai bu cho tn hao o . Chi ph cho vn
n mon va bao v kim loai Phap la 88 ty frng (1982), My la 70 ty USD (1975).
n mon kim loai la s pha huy chung do tac dung in hoa hay hoa hoc cua mi
trng xung quanh. Qua trnh n mon kim loai chia ra hai loai :
*n mon hoa hoc (n mon kh) : la qua trnh n mon xay ra khi kim loai tac dung
vi dung dch khng in ly va kh kh.
*n mon in hoa : la s n mon kim loai trong moii trng cht in giai, trong
o s ion hoa cua nguyn t kim loai, s kh cua cht xy hoa khng phai xay ra ch trong
mt phan ng trc tip. y la dang n mon ph bin nht trong kim loai.
5.1.1.Tc d n mon :
xac nh t c n mon kim loai ta s dung hai cach sau :
a-Tn tht trong lng (P
TL
) : la trong lng kim loai tn tht trn mt n v b mt, trong
mt n v thi gian.
P
TL
=
1
.
m m
S t

2
mg/dm
2
.ngay. (5.1)
Trong o : - m
1
, m
2
: la trong lng mu kim loai trc va sau khi b n mon, mg
-S : din tch b mt kim loai, dm
2
-t : thi gian, ngay.
b- thm nhp P
TN
: tnh theo chiu su kim loai b n mon trong mt nm.
P
TN
=
.0, 0365
TL
P

mm/nm (5.2)
Trong o : - : la trong lng ring cua kim loai, G/cm
3
Ngoai ra tc n mon co th c o bng mt dong in n mon I hoc th
tch kh hydr thoat ra.
5.1.2.Din th din cuc :
Khi kim loai tip xuc vi cht in ly th tai b mt tip xuc se xay ra s tac dung
gia cht in ly va kim loai. Tai vung phn chia gia hai pha (kim loai - dung dch in
ly) xut hin lp in tch kep co in th nht nh goi la in th in cc.
V du : nhung Cu vao dung dch sunphat ng, gia ng va dung dch co cn
bng sau :


69

xy hoa
Me ---------------- Me
n+
+ ne
kh
Khi co qua trnh cn bng gia in cc va dung dch co in th in cc cn
bng E tnh theo h thc Nernst :
E = E
O
+
RT
nF
ln a (5.3)
Trong o : -R : hng s kh, R = 8.31441J/mol.
O
K
-T : nhit tuyt i,
O
K
-F : hng s Faray, F = 96 500 C/mol
-a :hoat cua ion Me
n+
trong cht in giai
-E
O
: in th in cc tiu chun cua kim loai ng vi dung dch co hoat
a = 1
Trong thc t ta khng th o trc tip gia tr tuyt i in th in cc cn bng
(thun nghch) gia kim loai va dung dch cha mui cua chung. Ta thng tin hanh o
in th in cc bng pin in hoa gm hai na pin : mt na pin la in cc kim loai
nghin cu, na kia la in cc so sanh.
Din th tiu chun cn bng o 25
o
C cua mt s phan ung phn cuc

Phan ng in th tiu chun cn bng so vi in
cc hyr E
0
, V
Au
3+
+ 3e Au
O
2
+ 4H
+
+ 4e 2H
2
O
Ag
+
+ e Ag
O
2
+ 2H
2
O + 4e 4OH
-
Cu
2+
+ 2e Cu
2H
+
+ 2e H
2
Pb
2+
+ 2e Pb
Sn
2+
+ 2e Sn
Fe
2+
+ 2e Fe
Cr
3+
+ 3e Cr
Zn
2+
+ 2e Zn
Al
3+
+ 3e Al
Mg
2+
+ 2e Mg
Na
+
+ e Na
1.50
1.23
0.80
0.40
0.34
0.00
-0.13
-0.40
-0.44
-0.74
-0.76
-1.67
-2.37
-2.71






70
5.2.CAC DANG N MON KIMLOAI
5.2.1.n mon hoa hoc :
Dang n mon nay xay ra do tac dung hoa hoc cua kim loai vi mi trng lam
vic cua chung va c chia lam hai loai :
a-n mon trong dung dch khng in ly :
a s cac cht hu c khng la cht in ly, do vy chung khng dn in nn
khng xay ra n mon in hoa. V du : thep cac bon lam vic trong cac dung mi hu c,
cac nhin liu long hnh thanh t cac laoi cac bua hydr khng dn in. Nu co cha nc
se xay ra n mon in hoa.
b-n mon kh :
La qua trnh n mon hoa hoc xay ra trong kh kh nhit cao. V du : s xy
hoa cac chi tit trong lo nung, ng c t trong, ng c phan lc ...
Qua trnh n mon kh xay ra do tac ng ng thi cua nhit cao va cac kh n
mon (xm thc) nh : O
2
, S
2,
Cl
2
.. vao kim loai. Tc n mon kh phu thuc vao tnh cht
kim loai va hp kim, tnh cht cua mi trng kh nhit cao va tnh cht cua cac san
phm n mon.
Qua trnh xy hoa la in hnh nht cua n mon kh va c biu din bi phng
trnh sau y :
mMe (r) +
4
mn
O
2
(k) = Me
m
O
mn/2
(r) (5.4)
anh gia kha nng lam vic cua kim loai nhit cao ta cn c vao hai c
trng sau y :
*Bn nhit : kha nng kim loai co bn c hoc nhit cao.
*Chu nhit : kha nng kim loai bn n mon kh nhit cao.
5.2.2.n mon din hoa
1-Khai nim :
Khi nghin cu qua trnh lam vic cua pin Cu-Zn trong dung dch in ly ta thy
rng Zn b mon dn do hin tng hoa tan. Trong pin nay kem ong vai tro ant va phan
ng in hoa trn ant nh sau :
Zn -2e = Zn
2+
Trong vt liu kim loai co cu tao bi hai hay nhiu pha do vy gia cac pha nay
xay cac qua trnh ant va catt lam cho kim loai b pha huy. Trn b mt kim loai hnh
thanh rt nhiu ant va catt, do vy hnh thanh mt h thng rt nhiu cc. Tc n mon
in hoa la tng tc n mon cua nhiu pin cuc b va phu thuc vao in th in cc. n
mon in ho a cua kim loai gm ba qua trnh c ban : qua trnh ant, qua trnh catt va qua
trnh dn in.
Qua trnh ant la qua trnh xy hoa in hoa, trong o kim loai chuyn vao dung
dch di dang ion va giai phong in t, kim loai b n mon theo phan ng :
Me Me
n+
+ ne
Qua trnh catt la qua trnh kh in ho, trong o cac cht oxy hoa (Ox) nh in
t do kim loai b n mon giai phong :
Ox + ne Red Red la dang cht kh (Ox.ne)
71
Ox la dang cht xy hoa, thng la H
+
hay O
2
th qua trnh catt se la :
H
+
+ e H
hp
H
hp
+ H
hp
H
2
(H
hp
la hydr hp phu), trong trng hp nay goi la s n mon vi cht kh phn
cc hydr.
Nu Ox la O
2
th :
*Vi mi trng axit qua trnh catt se la :
O
2
+ 4H
-
+4ne 2H
2
O
*Vi mi trng trung tnh hay baz qua trnh catt se la :
O
2
+ 2H
2
O +4e 4OH (hnh 6.2, 6.2, 6.3)
2-Cac dang n mon in hoa :
n mon in hoa la dang n mon ph bin hn ca va pha huy kim loai nhiu nht. Cac
dang n mon in hoa c chia ra nh sau : n mon u (1), n mon galvanic hay n mon
tip xuc (2), n mon do chnh lch kh (3), n mon l (4), n mon tinh gii (5), n mon nt
do ng lc (6), n mon moi (7), n mon la chon hay s phn ra hp kim (8), n mon mai
mon (9). Sau y ta se khao sat ky lng tng dang n mon cu th.


Hnh 5.1 -Phn loai cac dang n mon in hoa
















a-n mon u :
Xay ra trong iu kin kim loai ng nht, mi trng, nhit va s phn b ng
lc la ng u, tc n mon la nh nhau trn toan b b mt kim loai. n v o n mon
thng dung la cm/nm. Ngoai ra con dung cac n v g/cm
2
.ngay, mg/dm
2
.ngay, mA/cm
2
.




72

















Hnh 5.2-n mon ng thep khng r co day 4,5mm

b-n mon tip xuc (nmon Galvanic) :
Dang n mon nay xay ra khi cac kim loai hay hp kim khac nhau c s dung
trong cung mt c cu va co phn din tch tip xuc vi nhau (tip din), trong cung mt
mi trng n mon. Do tao ra cac pin ngn mach nn gy ra n mon manh, kim loai co
in th m hn se b n mon.
c-n mon do s chnh lch kh (n mon khe) :
Dang n mon nay xay ra co th do mi trng khng ng nht, chng han s
khac nhau cuc b v thng kh hoa tan (xy). Luc nay hnh thanh mt pin chnh lch kh
va gy ra n mon.
d-n mon l :
y la dang xm thc cuc b tao nn cac l, su cac l co th ln hn ng
knh l. Hin tng nay xay ra do co cac l nho trong lp phu bao v chng n mon u
(cac lp men, lp phu hu c, mang xyt..). Cac l phat trin t b mt vao bn trong theo
hng gn nh thng goc.
e-n mon tinh gii :
Dang n mon nay lin quan n s co mt cua cac pha d th bin gii hat trong
hp kim. Loai n mon nay thng gp nht thep khng r, v du Cr18Ni10.






73












a) b)








c)

d)

Hnh 5.3- Cac dang n mon khe
a)n mon khe trn mt bch thep khng r 10Cr18Ni9
b)n mon khe di vong m pt tng thep khng r trong nc bin
c)n mon ng mm nc
d)n mon do lng ong
f-n mon nt do ng lc :
Cac kt cu kim laoi lam vic trong mi trng n mon, di tac dung cua lc keo
se gy ra nt, ran va gay. Dang n mon nay gy tn tht kim loai rt nho, nhng kho nhn
thy nn rt nguy him.
g-n mon moi :
La hin tng n mon xay ra trong cac kt cu kim loai la vic di tai trong thay
i co chu ky. Do tac dung n mon tao iu kin cho cac vt nt moi u tin d xut hi n
hn.
h-n mon la chon (s phn ra hp kim) :
Dang n mon nay xay ra trong cac iu kin nht nh i vi cac hp kim la
dung dch rn, trong o kim loai hoa tan co in th n mon m hn nhiu so vi kim loai
nn.
:
74




















Hnh 5.4-Cac dang n mon l
Hnh 5.5 -n mon l cua thep thu ng trong ion Cl
-























75

















Hnh 5.6-n mon tinh gii cua thep khng r


Hnh 5.7 -n mon nt bin gii hat thep khng r






















76
















a)
Hnh 5.8-n mon do ng lc
b)


a)Do tn tai cac mach hoat tnh
b)Do cac mach hoat tnh loai mang v

Hnh 5.9- n mon la chon (s phn ra hp kim)













i-n mon mai mon :
S mai mon cua kim loai thu ng trong mi trng n mon co th lam mt lp
bao v va hin tng nay goi la n mon mai mon.





77














a)
b)


a)n mon cuc b do chay ri cua cht long trong ng ngng
Hnh 5.10- n mon - mai mon
b)n mon mai mon do s sui bot nc lam lanh trong xylanh

5.3.BAO V KIM LOAI CHNG N MON
5.3.1.Bao v kim loai chng n mon hoa hoc :
1-S dung cac hp kim chu nong
Dung cac nguyn t hp kim thch hp (thng la cac nguyn t co mang xyt sit
cht, nhit nong chay cao...) vi thanh phn xac nh pha thm vao kim loai nn
nng cao kha nng chng n mon kh.
2-S dung cac lp phu bao v :
S dung cac lp phu bao v bng kim loai (Al, Si, Cr...), cac lp phu phi kim loai
(cac lp men chu nhit).
3-X ly mi trng :
Bng cach tao ra xung quanh chi tit mi trng co tnh cht bao v trn nguyn
tc : tao ra mi trng co kha nng loai tr cac hin tng n mon, co ngha la th ng
nhit, ng ap cua kim loai trong mi trng nay la dng.
5.3.2.Bao v kim loai chng n mon din hoa :
1-X ly mi trng :
Tm moi bin phap laoi bo cu t n mon ra khoi mi trng lam vic cua chi
tit. Hu ht cac kim loai u bn trong mi trng trung tnh a loai bo xy.
a-Chng n mon trong nc :
xy hoa tan trong nc gy n mon ang k cho kim loai. Do vy phai tm moi
cach kh xy trong ca c dung dch. hoa tan cua xy phu thuc vao nhit , ap sut
ring phn cua xy va nng mui cua dung dch. Loai tr xy bng cach :
*S dung cac phan ng hoa hoc :
O
2
+ Na
2
SO
3
2Na
2
SO
4
78
O
2
+ N
2
H
4
2H
2
O + N
2

nhit cao dung hyrazin loai tr nguy c tao thanh mui trong dung dch,
theo phan ng sau :
3N
2
H
4
N
2
+ 4NH
3
*S dung cac phng phap vt ly :
-un nong dung dch hoc nc xy thoat ra.
-X ly chn khng, dung dch hoc nc, co th giam nng xy n rt thp
b-Chng n mon trong kh quyn :
Trong khng gian kn nu m tng i nho hn 50% se chng c n mon.
Ta s dung cac cht hut m (silicagen), dung cht c ch bay hi, tao mang trn b mt
kim loai se chng c n mon tt.
2-Bao v kim loai bng cac cht lam chm n mon (cht c ch)
Cht c ch n mon la cac hp cht khi c pha thm vao mi trng n mon vi
lng rt nho nhng tac dung lam chm ro rt t c n mon. Tac dung km ham tc n
mon cua cht c ch co th la :
*Tao thanh cac hp cht khng tan kt tua trn b mt kim loai :
2CrO
4
2-
+ 10H
+
+ 6e Cr
2
O
3
+ 5H
2
O
*Do hp phu thanh mt lp n phn t trn b mt kim loai.
Co hai loai cht c ch n mon :
*c ch thu ng : lam cho kim loai tr v trang thai thu ng hoa va khng b n
mon.
*c ch khng thu ng : hp phu ln b mt mt kim loai lam chm tc n
mon.
anh gia hiu qua cua cht lam chm n mon ta dung khai nim "h s tac
dung bao v Z" :
Z =
O L
O
P p
P

C
. 100% (5.5)
P
O
va P
LC
la tn tht trong lng kim loai trong dung dch khng co va co cht
lam chm n mon.
5.3.3.Bao v din hoa
bao v in hoa ta phai thay i in th in cc cua kim loai n khu vc
bn n mon hoc khu vc thu ng cua th Pourbaix (h.6.11). Phng phap nay thng
dung trong mi trng dn in, ion nh : trong t, nc ...Nu lam thay i in th in
c kim loai chuyn v pha dng hn so vi in th n mon cho n khi kim loai ri vao
vung thu ng goi la bao v ant. Nu in th in cc chuyn v pha m hn so vi in
th n mon th phan ng ant hoa tan kim loai b chm lai hay ng ng hn goi la bao v
catt.
1-Bao v catt :
a-Bao v catt bng protect : (ant hy sinh)
Kim loai cn bao v c ni vi mt kim loai khac co in th in cc m hn
(h.6.12a). Kim loai nay goi la protect hay ant hy sinh. Phng phap nay chu yu dung
79
bao v cac cng trnh bng thep. S lng protect phu thuc vao mt dong bao v cn
thit, din tch va thi gian bao v.
Vt liu lam protect thng dung la cac kim loai va hp kim Mg, Al, Zn...Cac
yu cu cua vtliu lam protect :
*Co in th in cc m hn so vi kim loai cn bao v.
*Co dung lng cao va n nh. Dun g lng Q (A.h/kg) la in lng do mt n
v khi lng protect san sinh ra, no c trng cho kha nng lam vic lu dai theo thi
gian cua protect.
*Co phn cc ant nho am bao xac sut bao v cao.
Nhm, kem va hp kim cua chung chu yu dung trong nc bi n. Magi va hp kim dung
bao v trong t. Trong nc ngot dung Mg, Zn va hp kim cua chung.













Hnh 5.11 - Bao v tau thuy bng protector













1)Thit b cn bao v 2)Cht boc protector
3)Protector Zn 4)Dung cu kim tra
Hnh 5.12- Bao v catt bng protector



Hnh 5.13- Bao v ng dn bng protector
80

b-Bao v catt bng dong in ngoai :
Xet mach chnh lu va in cc phu bao v ng ng di t. Khi cha co
dong in ngoai th in th in cc kin loai b n mon se laE
am
vi tc n mon tng
ng la i
am
(h.6.13b). Khi co dong in ngoai ta dch chuyn c in th in cc ti gia
tr E
1
(h.6.13b) th tc n on i
/
am
< i
am
va kim loai c bao v mt phn. Nu chuyn
in th in cc n bng in th cn bng cua qua trnh xy hoa kim loai E
//
cb
th tc
n on i
am
= 0 va kim loai c bao v hoan toan. Dong in ngoai la dong mt chiu c
chnh lu t in li.
in cc phu thng dung la ant khng tan : gang, graphit, hp kim ch co 1%Ag,
6%Sb, cac hp kim Ti-Pb, Ta-Pt, Nb-Pt. Cac yu cu cua in cc phu :
*Tc tiu hao khi phn cc nho hay khng ang k.
*Co kha nng lam vic vi mt dong bao v ln, n hang nghn A/m
2
.
*Co dn in u cao, bn c hoc bao am va d ch tao.
c-Mt s lu y :
*Vi cac cng trnh nho nn dung bao v bng protect v gia thanh thp hn.
*Bao v bng dong in ngoai thng dung cho cac din tch rt ln.
*Thng xuyn kim tra bao dng uung nh ky.
*Cac phng phap bao v catt thng dung kt hp cac lp bao v cach in :
sn, boc nha ng, cht deo...


Hnh 5.14 -S bao v ng dn di t bng dong in ngoai













2-Bao v ant :
Trong bao v ant in th n mon c tng ln sao cho no nm trong khu vc
thu ng cua th Pourbaix. Phng phap nay ch dung bao v cac kim loai co th b
thu ng hoa. S bao v cua no theo hnh 6.14. Khi bao v ant, phai nng in th n
mon n in th ln hn in th khi u thu ng E
t
va tc n mon luc nay bng i
t

tc la mt dong n mon thu ng.
81
Phng phap nay dung bao v cac bn ln cha axit bng thep khng r. Bao v
ant it tiu hao nng lng. Tuy nhin cn chu y kim tra cac ion trong mi trng, c
bit la Cl
-
ngn nga qua trnh hoat hoa.
3-Chng n mon bng cac lp sn, phu :
a-Phu nhung nong :
Nhung kim loai x ly b mt vao kim loai bao v ang nong chay. Cac kim loai
dung phu nhung nong la : Sn (232
O
C), Al(657
O
C), Pb(327
o
C), Zn(419
O
C).
b-Ma :
Lp phu kim loai c ma trong cht in ly nong chay cha cac ion cn thit hay
trong dung dch in ly. Thng du ng nht la dung bnh in phn gm chi tit cn ma
(catt) in cc phu (ant) va dung dch in ly.
c-Phun kimloai :
Phun kim loai c nung nong chay (bng ngon la, hay plasma) ln b mt chi
tit cn phu va tao ra lp bao v
d-Lp phu khuch tan : (thm kim loai)
Thng dung khuch tan kem vao b mt thep. Chi tit thep t trong hp cha
bt kem va xyt kem (chng von cuc). Sau o nung trong mi trng kh tr 440
O
C, kem
se khuch tan phu ln b mt thep.
e-Lp phu pht phat (pht phat hoa)
Nhung chi tit kim loai vao hn hp dung dch H
3
PO
4,
, Mg
3
(PO
4
)
2
, Zn
3
(PO
4
)
3

nong chay se tao ra lp phu pht phat trn b mt.
f-Lp phu crmat :
Nhung chi tit kim loai a x ly b mt vao dung dch axit cha natri crmat tao
ra lp phu co tnh bao v va tng ve ep b mt (tnh hang hoa ) cua kem hay lp ma kem
trn thep.
g-Lp phu xyt :
Cho kim loai cn bao v phn cc ant trong dung dch axit tao ra lp xyt day
khoang 10 m. X ly cac l xp trong mang xyt bng cach ngm trong thuc nhum.
h-Lp phu thuy tinh, men :
*Lp phu thuy tinh : dung thuy tinh va xyt kim loai trn di dang va nhao, sau
o trat mt lp mong ln b mt, sy kh va nung chay long. Chung se tao ra lp phu dang
mang mong trn b mt.
*Lp phu men : dung men thuy tinh 60-75% SiO
2
, 12-20% xyt kim loai kim
th, thm vao mt t cac xyt Ti,Zr, B, Al phu ln b mt kim loai di dang nong chay.
Chiu day 0,8-2mm.
i-Cac lp phu hu c :
*Sn : dung cac loai sn co pha thm cht c ch n mon phu ln b mt chi
tit bng phng phap ln, quet, x hay sn tnh in.
*Phu cht deo : dan cht cac tm nha bng PVC, polytylen, ln thep bng kh
nong. Nhung chi tit vao PVC nong chay, phun bt nha (nylon, PVC, teflon...) ln b mt
sau o cho nong chay va bam dnh vo b mt kim loai.

82
5.4.SU N MON CAC VT LIU GM :
Vi vt liu gm s n mon cua chung la do s pha huy hoa hoc, c ch n mon
cua chung khac hn vt liu kim loai. Tuy theo tnh cht cua mi trng lam vic se xay ra
qua trnh n mon, pha huy cac vt liu gm. Do o chung ta khng th khao sat cho tng
loai vt liu cu th c.
Cac vt liu gm c s dung nhiu v chung co bn chng n mon kha cao.
Thuy tinh dung cha cac cht long xm thc. Vt liu chu la c s dung trong cac
lnh vc nhit cao, chu ta c dung cua kim loai, cac loai mui, x ...
5.5.SU THOAI HOA CUA V T LIU POLYME (LAO HOA) :
Trong qua trnh s dung cac vt liu polyme b thoai hoa theo thi gian : tnh nng
c, ly, hoa cua chung b suy giam va cui cung b h hong. S thoai hoa cua vt liu
polyme la do cac qua trnh lao hoa vt ly, lao hoa va thoai hoa hoa hoc.
5.5.1.Su lao hoa vt ly :
S lao hoa vt ly gy ra do cac yu t sau :
a-S di chuyn, s mt mat do bay hi, s trch ly bi dung mi cua cht hoa deo
lam bin i tnh cht cua polyme.
b-Tac dung cua dung mi : cac phn t dung mi co kch th c nho co th thm
nhp vao cac mt xch phn t lam cho cac poly me b trng ln, do vy bn trong chung
xut hin ng sut d lam cho chung co th b nt, gy.
5.5.2.Su thoai hoa va lao hoa hoa hoc :
S lao hoa va thoai hoa hoa hoc xay ra bi tac ng manh lam bin dang manh
mach cao phn t. V vy c tnh va in tnh cua polyme giam ang k. Cac polyme nh
polypropylen, polybutaien, polystyren va polyamit nhay cam vi s xy hoa. Ozn xy
hoa manh hn xy. Cac polyme clo hoa khng nhay cam vi xy hoa. Cht chng xy hoa
thng dung la mui than, cac amin va phnon.
5.5.3.Su thoai hoa quang hoc :
Di tac dung cua tia cc tm bn t va mau sc cua polyme cung b giam.
Bc xa cc tm co khi con tng cng tac dung cua xy. Cac trng hp nay goi la s lao
hoa kh hu. Chng thoa i hoa quang hoc bng cac cht mau tao thanh mang chng s thm
nhp cua bc xa (mui than, xyt titan).
5.5.4.Su thoai hoa do nhit :
Khi nhit tng lam bin dang cu truc mach cao phn t. S thoai hoa nhit co
th gy t mach (polyetylen) hoc s kh xy hoa (metyl polymetacrylat) hay giam phan
ng gc ngoai vi (s tao thanh axit HCl khi nhit phn polyvinyl clorua). Trng hp gii
han s thoai hoa nhit co th gy ra s chay, phan ng toa nhit manh.





83
PHN 2 : CAC LOAI VT LIU KY THUT
THNG DUNG

CHUONG 6 : GANG VA THEP

6.1.KHAI NIM CHUNG V GANG VA THEP
6.1.1.Khai nim chung v gang :
1-Khai nim :
Gang la hp kim cua st va cac bon vi ham lng cac bon ln hn 2,14%C.
Trong thc t gang lun lun co mot t cac nguyn t MN, Si, P, S. Ca c loai gang thng
dung thng cha : 2,0-4,0%C; 0,4-3,5%Si; 0,20-1,5%Mn; 0,04-0,65%P; 0,02-0,15%S
2-Tchc t vi :
a-Gang trng : la loai gang co t chc t vi tng ng vi gian pha Fe-C, toan b cac
bon cua no nm di dang lin kt vi st trong t chc xmentit. Mt gay cua no co mau
sang trng o la mau cua xmentit. Gang trng hu nh khng s dung trong san xut c
kh, chu yu dung luyn thep.
b-Cac loa i gang co graphit : la loai gang ma phn ln hay toan b cac bon cua chung nm
di dang t do graphit nn mt gay cua no co mau xam. Tuy thuc hnh dang cua graphit
ngi ta chia ra cac loai gang xam, gang deo, gang cu. T chc graphit phn b trn nn
kim loai pherit, pherit-peclit, peclit. Cac loai gang co graphit c s dung rt rng rai
trong c kh.
6.1.2.Khai nim v thep cac bon :
1-Khai nim :
Thep cac bon la hp kim cua st va cacbon vi ham lng cac bon nho hn
2,14%. Ngoai ra trong thep lun cha mt lng nho cac nguyn t Mn, Si, P, S. Vi bt
ky loai thep cac bon nao ngoai st ra cung co cha C 2,14%; Mn 0,80%; Si 0,40%; P
va S 0,05%. Thep cac bon c s dung rt rng rai trong c kh va cac nganh cng
nghip khac.

Ngoai cac nguyn t trn trong thep cac bon con cha mt lng kh rt nho hnh
thanh trong qua trnh nu kuyn nh : xy, hydr, nit. Nhng do s lng cua chung qua
t, anh hng khng ang k n tnh cht nn ta thng khng quan tm n.
2-Thanh phn hoa hoc va tac dung cua cac nguyn t n t chc va tnh cht cua thep
:
a-Cac bon : la nguyn t quan trong nht quyt nh n t chc va tnh cht cua thep. Vi
ham lng cac bon khac nhau thep co t chc t vi khac nhau :
*Nu ham lng cac bon < 0,80% : t chc la pherit va peclit
*Nu ham lng cac bon = 0,80% : t chc la peclit.
*Nu ham lng cac bon > 0,80% : t chc peclit va xmentit th hai.
Mt khac khi ham lng cac bon tng ln th lng xmentit tng ln, can tr
manh qua trnh trt cua xmentit lam cho bn, cng cua thep tng ln, deo va
84
dai giam i. Tuy nhin bn ln nht at c vi ham lng cac bon t 0,80-1,0%, vt
qua gii han nay do lng xmentit th hai qua nhiu lam cho thep don, bn giam i.












Thep cac bon vi ham lng khac nhau c s dung trong cac lnh v
c hoan toan






Hnh 6.1-Anh hng cua cacbon n c tnh cua thep

Thep vi ham lng cac bon khac nhau c s dung vao cac lnh v hoan toan
khac nhau.
b-Mangan : c cho vao thep di dang pher mangan kh xy loai bo tac hai cua FeO
trong thep long :
Mn + FeO Fe + MnO
xyt mangan ni ln i vao x va c ly ra khoi lo. Ngoai ra mangan con co tac
dung loai bo tac hai cua lu huynh trong thep. Mangan hoa tan vao pherit nng cao c tnh
cho thep, tuy nhin tac dung khng ln. Lng mangan trong thep t 0,50-0,80%
c-Silic : c cho vao thep di dang pher silc kh xy loai bo tac hai cua FeO trong
thep long :
Si + FeO Fe + SiO
2
ixyt silic ni ln i vao x va c ly ra khoi lo. Ngoai ra silic con hoa tan vao
pherit va nng cao c tnh cho thep. Silic kh xy va nng cao c tnh cho thep manh hn
mangan. Lng silc trong thep t 0,20-0,40%. Do vy tac dung nng cao c tnh khng
ang k.
d-Pht pho : Pht pho co kha nng hoa tan vao pherit kha ln (n 1,20% trong Fe - C
nguyn cht). Do o gy x lch mang pha nay rt manh lam tng tnh don kha ln (ng
knh nguyn t pht pho khac nhiu so vi st). Khi vt qua gii han hoa tan no tao ra
Fe
3
P cng va don. Do vy pht pho lam thep b don nhit thng va goi la don ngui.
85
Do tnh thin tch rt manh nn ch cn 0,10%P a lam cho thep b don. V th lng pht
pho trong thep nho hn 0,05%. V phng din gia cng ct got th pht pho la nguyn t
co li v lam cho phoi d gay, luc nay lng pht pho n 0,15%.
e-Lu huynh : Lu huynh hoan toan khng hoa tan trong st ma tao nn hp cht FeS.
Cung tinh (Fe+FeS) tao thanh nhit thp (988
O
C) va phn b tai bin gii hat. Khi
can, ren, keo (nung n 1200
O
C) bin gii hat b chay ra lam thep b t, gay, hin tng
nay goi la don nong hay b nong. Tuy nhin co th dung mangan loai bo tac hai cua lu
huynh :
Mn + FeS Fe + MnS (nhit chay 1620
O
C)
V mt gia cng ct got th lu huynh la nguyn t co li v no tao ra sunphua lam cho
phoi d gay, trng hp nay lng lu huynh n 0,35%.
3-Ky hiu thep cac bon (tiu chun thep cac bon) :
a-Thep cac bon cht lng thng(thep cac bon thng dung) :
Theo tiu chun Vit Nam TCVN 1765 - 75 nhom thep cac cht lng thng
c ky hiu bng ch CT(ch cht lng thng). Nu cui mac thep khng co g ca la
thep lng (lng), s la thep si, n la thep na lng. Chung c chia lam ba phn nhom :
*Phn nhom A : la loai thep ch c quy nh v c tnh ma khng quy nh v
thanh phn hoa hoc. Gii han bn keo ti thiu tnh theo n v kG/mm
2
(vi MPa phai
nhn thm 10), co th tra bang tm cac ch tiu
0,2
, , va a
K
. G m cac mac CT31, 33,
34, 38, 38, 42, 51, 61.
*Phn nhom B : la loai thep ch c quy nh v thanh phn hoa hoc ma khng
quy nh v c tnh (thanh phn nay co th tm thy khi tra bang). Ky hiu cua phn nhom
nay tng t phn nhom A, ch khac la thm ch B u mac. V du BCT31,
BCT33...BCT61.
*Phn nhom C : gm ca c thep c quy ca v c tnh va thanh phn hoa hoc. Ky
hiu cua chung tng t phn nhom A, ch khac la thm ch C u mac. V du CCT31,
CCT33...CCT61. tm cac ch tiu cua thep phn nhom nay ta phai da vao hai phn
nhom trn. Chng han vi mac thep CCT38, khi tm thanh phn hoa hoc ta tra bang theo
mac BCT38, c tnh theo mac CT38.
b-Thep kt cu :
Theo TCVN 1766-75 quy nh ky hiu bng ch C va cac ch s tip theo ch
lng cac bon trung bnh trong thep tnh theo phn van. V du : C05, C10, C15... C65. Nu
cui mac thep co ch A la loai cht lng cao hn (P, S 0,030%)
c-Thep dung cu :
Theo TCVN 1822-75 quy nh ky hiu bng ch CD (C-cac bon, D-dung cu) va
cac s ch lng cac bon trung bnh trong thep theo phn van. Nu cui mac thep co thm
ch A co ngha la cht lng cao hn. V du : CD70, CD80...CD130 (CD70A,
CD80A...CD130A)
6.1.3.Khai nim v thep hop kim :
1-Khai nim :
86
Thep hp kim la loai thep ngoai st va cac bon ra ngi ta c y a thm vao cac
nguyn t co li, vi s lng nht nh va u ln lam thay i t chc va cai thin tnh
cht (c, ly, hoa ) cua chung.
Cac nguyn t co loi, c c y a vao thep goi la nguyn t hp kim. Tuy theo
tac dung cua chung i vi thep ma gii han la nguyn t hp kim khng ging nhau,
nguyn t tac dung cang manh gii han nay cang nho.
Mn 0,801,00% Si 0,50 0,80% Cr 0,50 0,80%
Ti 0,10% W 0,10 0,50% Mo 0,05 0,20%
Ni 0,50 0,80% Cu 0,30% B 0,0005%
2-Ky hiu :
TCVN 1759-75 quy nh ky hiu thep hp kim theo quy lut sau :
*S u tin cua mac thep ch lng cac bon trung bnh co trong thep theo phn
van, nu 1% th khng ghi.
*Cac ch la ky hiu hoa hoc cua nguyn t hp kim, s ng sau cac ch ch
lng cha cua no theo phn trm, nu xp x 1% th khng ghi.
*Cui mac thep co ch A la thep co cht lng tt hn.
V du : 12Cr18Ni9Ti - 0,12%C; 18%Cr; 9%Ni; 1%Ti
50CrNiMo - 0,50%C; 1%Cr; 1%Ni; 1%Mo
38CrMoAlA - 0,38%C; 1%Cr; 1%Mo; 1%Al; loai tt
*Cac thep chuyn dung co ky hiu ring.
V du : OL100Cr1,5SiMn - OL thep ln; 1,00%C; 1,5%Cr; 1%Si; 1%Mn
130Mn3 - 1,30%C; 13%Mn; : ch tao san phm bng phng phap
uc.
6.2.CAC LOAI GANG THNG DUNG :
6.2.1.Gang xam :
Gang xam la lao gang ma phn ln hay toan b cac bon tn tai di dang t do
graphit. Graphit cua no dang tm, phin, chui... Mt gay cua no co mau xam o la mau
cua graphit. y la loai gang ph bin nht va oc s dung rng rai trong ky thut, thng
thng khi noi ti gang ngi ta hiu rng o la gang xam.
1-Thanh phn hoa hoc :
a-Cac bon : Lng cac bon cang nhiu nhit chay cua gang cang thp, nhng se lam cho
graphit tng ln c tnh se cang thp. Xu hng ngay nay dung gang co cac bon thp co
bn cao, V vy lng cac bon trong gang xam t 2,8 3,5%.
b-Silc : La nguyn t hp kim quan trong nht trong gang xam, silic cang nhiu vic tao
thanh graphit cang d dang. Lng silic trong gang xam t 1,5-3%
c-Mangan : la nguyn t can tr vic tao thanh graphit, nhng co tac dung nng cao c
tnh. Nu trong gang xam lng mangan tng ln th silic cung phai tng ln tng ng.
Lng mangan t 0,50 1,0%.
d-Pht pho : Pht pho khng anh hng g n s tao thanh graphit nhng co stac dung lam
tng chay loang va nng cao tnh chng mai mon (tao ra cung tinh Fe + Fe
3
P va Fe
+Fe
3
P + Fe
3
C). Lng pht pho t 0,10,20%, khi cn tnh chng mai mon cao co th n
0,50%. Khng s dung ty l cao hn v se lam gang b don
87
e-Lu huynh : La nguyn t co hai v lam giam chay loang cua gang va can tr qua trnh
tao graphit. Lng lu huynh t 0,08012%
2-Tchc t vi :
T chc t vi cua gang xam c phn ra lam hai phn : nn kim loai (c ban) va
graphit. Tuy theo mc graphit hoa gang xam co ba loai :
a-Gang xam pherit : T chc cua no gm nn kim loai la st nguyn cht ky thut (pherit)
va graphit. Loai gang nay co bn thp nht.
b-Gang xam pherit-peclit : Gm co nn kim loai la thep trc cung tch va graphit, lng
cac bon trong nn kim loai < 0,80%.
c-Gang xam peclit : Gm co nn kim loai la thep cung tch va graphit, lng cac bon trong
nn kim loai la 0,80%, loai gang nay co bn cao nht.























c)
b) a)
Hnh 6.2-T chc t vi cua gang xam
a)Gang xam pherit
b)Gang xam pherit-peclit
c)Gang xam peclit
3-C tnh va bin phap nng cao c tnh :
a-C tnh : Do co graphit dang t m nn lam giam manh bn keo cua gang, ch bng
khaong 1/3-1/5 so vi thep tng ng. Do graphit tm, b mt ln chia ct manh nn kim
loai va co hai u nhon la ni tp trung ng sut.
Tuy nhin graphit co tnh bi trn tt lam giam ma sat, tng tnh chng mai mon,
co tac dung lam tt rung ng va dao ng cng hng.
cng thp 150250HB, phoi e gay, ct got tt. deo xp x khng, khng
bn dang deo c.
88
b-Cac bin phap nng cao c tnh :
Cac yu t anh hng n c tnh cua gang xam : nn kim loai, hnh dang, s
lng va kch thc graphit. Trong o nn kim loai anh hng quyt nh nht, nn kim
loai cang bn th c tnh cua gang cang cao. Ta co cac bin phap sau :
*Giam lng cac bon cua gang : do o giam c lng graphit t do. Ngay nay
xu hng dung gang co lng cac bon thp t 2,22,5%. Tuy nhin phai dung lo co nhit
cao (lo in) mi nu chay c do nhit nong chay cua gang b nng cao.
*Bin tnh : lam nho mn graphit, cht bin tnh gm 65% pher silic va
35%Al trc khi rot gang long vao khun.
*Hp kim hoa : cho thm cac nguyn t hp kim cn thit khi nu luyn hoa
bn nn kim loai, nng cao thm ti, tnh chng n mon, mai mon, chu nhit ...
*Nhit luyn : tao ra cac nn kim loai phu hp vi yu cu s dung.
4-Ky hiu va cng dung :
a-Ky hiu : Theo TCVN 1659-75 quy nh ky hiu gang xam bng hai ch GX (co ngha
la gang xam), tip o la cac nhom s ch gii han bn keo va gii han b n un ti thiu tnh
theo n v kG/mm
2
.
V du : GX15-32 co gii han bn keo ti thiu 15kG/mm
2
va gii han bn un ti
thiu 32kG/mm
2
.
b-Cng dung : Gang xam c s dung rt rng rai lam vo, np may, thn may, vo hp s,
mt bch, cac te, banh rng tc chm, banh a, s mi, xec mng, trt ...
6.2.2.Gang xam bin trng :
Trong san xut c kh hu nh khng dung gang trng, tuy nhin trong mt s
trng hp san xut bi nghin, truc nghin, truc xay xat ta s dung gang xam bin trng.
Loai gang nay co b mt b bin thanh gang trng vi chiu day nht nh co cng cao
va tnh chng mai mon ln. Ch tao gang xam bin trng bng cach uc gang xam trong
khun kim loai, lp b mt ngui nhanh se bin thanh gang trng.
6.2.3.Gang deo :
La loai gang co t chc graphit tng i thu gon dang cum va bng, tnh deo
tng i cao, mt gay co mau xam. Nhn b ngoai th khng th phn bit c vi gang
xam.
1-Thanh phn hoa hoc :
Do c u t gang trng nn thanh phn hoa hoc tng t nh gang trng em u.
Tuy nhin vi gang deo thng dung lng cac bon thp khoang t 2,2-2,8% t graphit
lam cho tnh deo cao. Lng silc phai va u nhn c gang hoan toan trng khi uc
va u thuc y qua trnh graphit hoa khi u thng thng tng lng cac bon-silic khoang
3,5%. Vt uc em u phai co tit din (thanh) mong ngui nhanh.
2-Tchc t vi :
Tng t nh gang xam, tuy theo mc tao thanh graphit (graphit hoa), gang
deo c chia ra lam ba loai :
a-Gang deo pherit :
La loai gang co nn kim loai la st nguyn cht ky thut, trn o co graphit cum
hay bng phn b.
89
b-Gang deo pherit-peclit :
La gang co nn kim loai thep trc cung tch va graphit cum hay bng.
c-Gang deo pec lt :
La gang co nn kim loai la thep cung tch va graphit cum hay bng.
Trong ba loai gang deo trn th gang deo pherit co bn thp nht va gang deo peclit co
bn cao nht.
























Hnh 6.3 -T chc t vi gang deo
a)Gang deo pherit
b)Gang deo pherit-peclit
c)Gang deo peclit
c)
a) b)

3-C tnh :
c tnh ni bt cua gang deo la co deo cao do lng cac bon thp graphit t va
dang tng i thu gon. C tnh cua no la trung gian gia gang xam va gang cu.
4-Ky hiu va cng dung :
a-Ky hiu :
TCVN 1659-75 quy nh ky hiu gangdeo bng hai ch GZ (gang deo) va hai
nhom s ch gii han bn ke o ti thiu tnh theo kG/mm
2
va gian dai tng i ( ) tnh
theo %.
V du : GZ60-03 - co gii han bn keo ti thiu la 60 kG/mm
2
va gian dai tng
i 3%.
b-Cng dung :
90
Gang deo thng c dung lam cac chi tit ng thi oi hoi ba yu cu sau :
*Hnh dang phc tap (s dung tnh uc cao)
*Chu va p (tnh deo)
*Tit din mong.
Trong thc t gang deo con s dung trong chi tit may dt, may nng nghip, cuc ban
guc ham xe la... Nu vt uc thng thng th dung gang xam do gia thanh thp hn.
6.2.4.Gang cu :
La loai gang co t chc graphit thu gon nht dang qua cu, do o gang cu co
bn cao nht trong cac loai gang co graphit.
1-Thanh phn hoa hoc :
Do c ch tao t gang xam nn gang cu co thanh phn hoa hoc ging nh gang
xam, nhng co mt s c im sau :
*Lng cac sbon va silic cao ti 5-6% bao am kha nng graphit hoa.
*Khng co hay rt t cac nguyn t can tr qua trnh cu hoa nh : Ti, Al, Sn, Pb,
Zn, Bi va c bit la S.
*Cha mt lng nho cht bin tnh Mg hay Ce (0,04-0,08)%
*Co cac nguyn t nng cao c tnh : Ni < 1%, Mn (2%)
2-Tchc t vi :
Tuy theo mc graphit hoa gang cu c chia lam ba loai :
*Gang cu pherit : nn kim loai la st nguyn cht va graphit cu
*Gang cu pherit - peclit : nn kim loai la thep trc cung tch va graphit cu,
*Gang cu peclit : nn kim loai la thep cung tch va graphit cu.




















91
Hnh 6.4-T chc t vi cua gang cu
a)Gang cu pherit
b)Gang cu pherit-peclit
c)Gang cu peclit
c)
a) b)



3-C tnh :
Gang cu co c tnh kha cao, gii han bn keo b ng 70-80% so vi thep, bn t
400-1000MN/m
2
, % = 5-15%, a
K
= 300-600kJ/m
2
. Gang cu t b pha huy gion hn gang
xam. cng xp x 200 HB gia cng ct got tt.
4-Ky hiu va cng dung :
a-Ky hiu :
Theo TCVN 1659-75 quy nh ky hiu gang cu bng hai ch GC (gang cu) va
cac nhom s ch gi han bn keo ti thiu theo kG/mm
2
va gian dai tng i %.
V du : GC100-04 - co gii han bn keo ti thiu 100kG/mm
2
va gian dai
tng i = 4%.
b-Cng dung :
Gang cu chu yu dung thay thep ch tao cac chi tit hnh dang phc tap nh
truc khuyu xe t du lch va vn tai nho. Ngoai ra no con dung lam mt s chi tit quan
trong khac.
6.2.5.Gang hop kim :
Gang hp kim la gang ma ngoai st va cac bon ra con co thm cac nguyn t khac
c c y a vao nng cao cac tnh cht cua chung (chu yu la c tnh) nh : Cr, Mn,
Ni, Cu ... Trong o Cr la m tng manh thm ti, Mn va Ni lam tng bn, Cu nng cao
tac dung chng n mon...
6.3.CAC LOAI THEP THNG DUNG :
6.3.1.Thep cac bon cht luong thuong (thep cac bon thng dung) :
Nhom thep nay chu y u dung trong xy dng, chung c cung cp di dang
ban thanh phm qua can nong : ng, thanh, dy, thep hnh, si, bng... trang thai thng
hoa, khng qua ti va ram. Chung phai co tit din quy nh va bn at yu cu s
dung. Ngoai ra chung con c dung lam mt s chi tit khng quan trong lm. Gm cac
mac thep sau y (theo TCVN 1765-75) : CT31, CT33 ...CT61, BCT31, BCT33...BCT61,
CCT31, CCT33...CCT61.
6.3.2.Thep kt cu :
Thep kt cu la thep c s dung vi khi lng ln nht ch tao cac chi tit
may va kt cu chu tai. Chung ap ng c cac yu cu khac nhau v c tnh, chnh xac
v hnh dang, kch thc va at c bong b mt theo yu cu lp rap.
1-Yu cu cua thep kt cu :
a-C tnh tng hp cao :
y la yu c c ban nht v no quyt nh kha nng chu tai va thi gian lam vic
cho chi tit may trong iu kin tai trong quy nh.
* bn cao : nu bn cao se giup cho may moc co cng sut ln hn, nho gon
hn va tui tho cao hn. Trong cac chi tit may ng sut sinh ra khng c ln hn gii
han chay v khng c phep bin dang deo. Do vy gii han chay cao la yu cu quan
trong nht v c tnh cua thep kt cu.
92
* dai va p cao : y la ch tiu rt quan trong v chi tit may thng lam vic
trong iu kin tai trong ng. Ch tiu nay quyt nh tin cy khi lam vic, am bao
cho chi tit khng b pha huy don. y la yu cu c bit quan trong i vi cac phng
tin giao thng.
*Gii han moi cao : Kha nhiu chi tit lam vic trong iu kin tai trong thay i
co chu ky cn phai co gi han moi cao tranh pha huy moi.
*Tnh chng mai mon cao : Chi tit may lam vic trong iu kin ma sat va mai
mon manh, do vy b mt cua chung phai co cng cao chng mai mon tt. Nng cao
tnh chng mai mon bng nhit luyn.
b-Tnh cng ngh tt :
Do c san xut vi s lng ln va phai qua cac dang gia cng nh bin dang
nong, ct got ...nn thep ph co tnh cng ngh tt ha gia thanh gia cng. Hu ht chi tit
may u phai qua nhit luyn am bao cac yu cu v c tnh. Do vy nu thep co
thm ti cao, d nhit luyn cung gop phn ha gia thanh ang k.
c-Tnh kinh t :
Do san lng ln, chung loai nhiu nn yu cu gia thanh cua thep phai re. Tuy
nhin yu cu nay phai t sau bn. Trong mt s trng hp quan trong phai dung thep
quy th co th bo qua yu cu na y.
2-Thanh phn hoa hoc :
Thep kt cu phai co thanh phn hoa hoc phu hp co th ap ng c cac yu
cu nu trn.
a-Cac bon : la nguyn t c ban nht quyt nh c tnh va tnh cng ngh cua thep kt cu.
Do o ham lng cac bon trong thep kt cu quy nh kha cht che t 0,10-0,65%. Tuy
tng trng hp cu th lai chia lam ba nhom nho nh sau :
*Nhom yu cu chu yu v deo, dai co lng cac bon thp : 0,10-0,25%
*Nhom yu cu chu yu v gii han chay va deo co lng cac bon trung bnh :
030-0,50%
*Nhom yu cu chu yu v gii han an h i co lng cac bon tng i cao : 055-
0,65%.
b-Thanh phn hp kim :
Cac nguyn t hp kim c a vao thep kt cu nhm muc ich nng cao
bn do ng cao thm ti va hoa bn pherit, tao cac bt phn tan va gi cho hat nho. Tuy
nhin tnh cng ngh cua thep hp kim se xu hn va co gia thanh cao hn. Cac nguyn t
hp kim s dung trong thep kt cu chia ra lam hai nhom :
*Nhom cac nguyn t hp kim chnh : la cac nguyn t chim ty l chu yu trong
cac nguyn t a vao, co tac dung nng cao bn nh nng cao thm ti. Gm co cac
nguyn t sau : Cr, Mn, Si, Ni (i khi ca B) vi tng lng a vao 1-3% cao nht 5-6%.
Chung co c im la :
-Re, d kim
-Nng cao thm ti. at c muc ch nay ngi ta thng dung hp kim
hoa phc tap (vi tng lng xac nh s dung nhiu nguyn t hp kim).
93
*Nhom cac nguyn t hp kim phu : c a vao thep vi s lng rt t thng
< 0,10% cao nht khng qua 0,20% vi muc ch cai thin mt nhc im nao o cua
nguyn t hp kim chnh gm co : Ti, Zr, V, Nb, Mo.
3-Thep thm cac bon :
a-Thanh phn hoa hoc :
Thep thm cac bon la loai thep co thanh phn cac bon thp : 0,100,25% (mt s
trng hp n 0,30%) ch tao cac chi tit chu tai trong tnh va va p cao nhng b
mt b mai mon manh nh : banh rng, cam, cht... c im nhit luyn cua chung la
thm cac bon, ti va ram thp.
*Cac bon : lng cac bon trong thep trong khoang 0,10 0,25% am bao loi
co deo, dai cao va sau khi nhit luyn at bn cao nht.
*Hp kim : cac nguyn t hp kim phai co hai tac dung nng cao thm ti va
thuc y qua trnh thm (hoc khng can tr qua trnh thm). Nguyn t chu yu c
dung la crm va kt hp vi mangan, niken.
b-Thep cac bon :
Thng dung cac mac thep sau : C10, C15, C20, C25 va ca CT38. c im cua
chung la :
*Sau khi thm cac bon va nhit luyn at cng b mt 60 62 HRC, chng mai
mon tt, loi co cng 30 40 HRC deo tt, dai cao, bn tt :

500600 MN/m
2
* thm ti thp nn phai ti trong nc, bin dang ln, khng lam c cac
chi tit co hnh dang phc tap.
*Nhit thm khng vt qua 900
O
C, tc thm nho, thi gian thm dai, hat
ln. Sau khi thm phai thng hoa, ti hai ln va ram thp bin dang ln.
Cng dung : lam cac chi tit nho ( < 20 mm), khng quan trong, hnh dang n
gian, yu cu chng mai mon khng cao lm nh : phu tung xe ap, xe keo (truc, cn, ni,
bi...).
c-Thep crm :
Thng dung cac mac thep sau : 15Cr, 20Cr, 15CrV, 20CrV. Chung co c im
sau :
*Sau khi thm cac bon va nhit luyn at cng 60-62 HRC, bn va tnh
chng mai mon cao hn mt t ( bn at 700800 MN/m
2
.)
*Lam cac chi tit tng i phc tap do ti trong du bin dang nho.
*Nhit thm 900 920
O
C, tc thm nhanh hn, hat khng ln lm. Tuy vy
vn phai ti hai ln va ram thp.
Cng dung : lam cac chi tit tng i phc tap , nho ( 20 40mm) nh : banh
rng, truc bc cht cn tnh chng mai mon cao.

d-Thep crm-niken va crm-niken-mlipen :

*Thep crm -ni ken : nhom thep nay co c im sau :
-Sau khi thm cac bon ti va ram thp cng at 6062HRC, tnh chng mai
mon cao hn, bn at 10001200 MN/m
2

94
-Co bn cao kt hp vi deo tt : y la im ni bt cuat thep Cr-Ni ma
khng co nhom thep nao sanh c
- thm ti rt cao, lam c cac chi tit ln (chiu day hay =100 mm)
-Nhit thm cac bon 900920
O
C
Chung c chia ra lam hai loai, loai hp kim thp cha 0,50 1,00%Cr, Ni > 1%
co thm ti cao va ti trong du. Tuy nhin hiu qua kinh t cua no khng cao nn t s
dung. Mac thep in hnh la 20CrNi c dung lam cac chi tit hnh dang phc tap, kch
thc trung bnh (50 70mm), chu tai trong va p cao nh banh rng trong t du lch va
xe tai nho.

Loai Crm -niken cao : lng niken t 2 4% va Cr trn di 1%, thm ti rt

cao, co th ti thu tit din n 100 mm. Gm cac mac sau : 12CrNi3A, 20Cr2Ni4A,
18Cr2Ni4WA. Loai thep nay co nhc im la : gia thanh cao (Ni la nguyn t dt), tnh
gia cng ct kem do qua deo va nhit luyn phc tap sau khi thm cac bon. Cng du ng :
lam cac chi tit tm cac bon rt quan trong, chu tai trong nng va mai mon manh, yu cu
co tin cy cao nh cac chi tit rong may bay, t.
*Thep crm-niken-mlipen : Trn c so thep crm -niken cao nhng co thm
0,100,40% Mo nng cao thm thm ti. y la nhom thep thm cac bon tt nht ,
s dung vao cac muc ch quan trong nht va cho cac chi tit co tit din ln nht. Bao
gm cac mac thep sau : 20CrNi2Mo, 18Cr2Ni4MoA.
e-Thep crm-mangan-titan :
Nhom thep nay co cac ch tiu kinh t ky thut cao c s dung kha ph bin la
cac banh rng trong t tai nhe va trung bnh. Gia thanh cua chung thp (khng cha
niken), bn tng ng thep crm niken nhng deo va dai kem hn. u im
cua nhom thep nay la co tnh cng ngh tt hn : khng b qua bao hoa cac bon,, hat khng
ln nn co th nng cao nhit thm n 930 950
O
C, ti trc tip ngay sau khi thm,
bin dang nho. Gm cac thep : 18CrMnTi, 25CrMnTi.
4-Thep hoa tt :
La loai thep co thanh phn cac bon trung bnh 0,300,50% dung ch tao cac
chi tit may chu tai trong tnh va va p tng i cao b mt co th b mai mon nh truc,
banh rng, cht, tay bin ...Ch nhit luyn cua chung la ti va ram cao ( nhit luyn
hoa tt)
a-Thanh phn hoa hoc :
*Cac bon : trong gii han t 0,300,50% se am bao s kt hp tt nht gia cac
chi tiu v c tnh : bn, cng, deo, dai (c tnh tng hp). Trong thc t s
dung ph bin nht la t 0,35 0,45 %C
*Hp kim : am bao c tnh tng hp cao va ng u trn toan b tit din
cac nguyn t hp kim phai s dung hp ly, tit din cang ln, lng nguyn t a vao
cang cao. Nguyn t h p kim chnh la crm, mangan khoang 12%, niken 14%. Ngoai
ra co th du ng thm silic khng qua 1%. Ngay nay co xu hng dung thm bo vi ham
lng 0,0005 0,003%. Nguyn t hp kim phu la molipen va vonfram chu yu chng
sgion ram cho cac chi tit ln.

b-c im v nhit luyn :

95
cai thin tnh gia cng ct got sau khi tao phi bng ren, dp nong thep c u
hoan toan at cng 180 220 HB (thep crm-niken phai thng hoa).
Nhit luyn kt thuc gm hai bc :
*Bc th nht tao cho loi co c tnh tng hp cao chu c tai trong tnh va
va p bng ti va ram cao, t chc nhn c la xoocbit ram ( cng 2530HRC). T
chc nay con co tac dung tao c bong cao khi ct got va giup cho chuyn bin xay ra
nhanh chong, nhn c mactenxit mho mn.
* Tao cho b mt cng cao va tnh chngmai mon ln bng ti b mt va
ram thp ( cng at 52 58HRC). Ngoai ra co th dung thm ni t hay thm cacbon - ni
t khi cn cng cao hn.

c-Thep cac bon :

Thng s dung cac mac sau : C30, C35, C40, C45, C50 nhng thng dung nht
la C45. c im cua nhom thep nay la ap ng c cac yu cu ra nhng mc thp.
Cu th nh sau :
* bn thp do thm ti nho, bn 750850MN/m
2
*Khng lam c cac chi tit ln va hnh dang phc tap do ti trong nc.
*Re va co tnh cng ngh tt.
Cng dung : lam cac chi tit may nho ( =2030mm) nh: thanh truyn, cht
phng, truc, banh rng b ng ...
d-Thep crm :
Thng dung loai thep cha 0,501,00% crm chu yu nng cao thm ti
khi ti trong du. Gm cac mac thep : 35Cr, 40Cr, 45Cr, 50Cr, nhng thng dung nht la
40Cr va 40CrVA. So vi nhom thep cac bon chung co c im :
* bn cao hn do c hp kim hoa bng crm nn thm ti cao, bn at
c 800 950MN/m
2
.
*Lam c cac chi tit co tit din trung bnh hnh dang tng i phc tap nh
truc bc, banh rng trong may ct kim loai va ti trong du.
*B don ram loai hai (vi chi tit nho lam ngui nhanh sau khi ram).
e-Thep crm -mlipen :
Cho thm khoang 0,25% mlipen se nng cao thm ti va chng don ram loai
hai. Thng dung nht la mac thep 38CrMoA lam cac chi tit may trung bnh ( > 50mm)
hnh dang tng i phc tap nh banh rng.
f-Thep crm-mangan-silc :
Loai thep nay co 1%Cr, 1%Si hay 1%Cr, 1%Mn, 1%Si, do c hp kim hoa
phc tap nn co thm ti cao hn, bn at 10001100MN/m
2
, dung lam cac chi tit
kha ln ( 50-60mm). Tuy nhin do hp kim hoa ca Si ln Mn nn cng hn va don hn,
khng c dung ph bin lm. Thng dung nht la cac mac 40CrMn, 38CrMnSi.
g-Thep crm-niken va crm-niken-mlipen :
Do c hp kim hoa ca crm va niken nn loai thep nay co thm ti cao ma
vn gi c deo va dai tt, c bit la khi niken cao 3% va co thm Mo. Chung
c phn ra ba nhom nho :
96
*Thep crm-niken thng : cha khoang 1%Cr va 1%Ni, do niken thp nn
thm ti cha cao, lam cac chi tit = 50 60 mm, co bn 700 800MN/m
2
,

a
K
=
700kJ/m
2
. Gm cac mac thep sau : 40CrNi, 45CrNi, 50CrNi thng dung nht la 40CrNi.
c im cua loai thep nay la :
- bn tng i cao kt hp vi deo dai tt.
-Lam c cac chi tit co tit din kha ln va hnh dang phc tap.
-Tnh gia cng ct khng cao lm (do kha deo)
-B don ram loai hai.
Cng dung : la cac chi tit chu tai trong ng cao va cn tin cy cao nh h thng lai
t, chi tit truyn lc trong may bay...
*Thep crm - niken cao : loai thep nay cha khoang 12%Cr, 3 4%Ni (ty l
Ni/Cr khoang 3-4). in hnh la mac 30CrNi3A, co thm ti ln, co th ti thu vi

>100mm, trong thc t c xem la ti thu vi tit din bt ky. bn at 1100MN/m

2
, a
K
= 800kJ/m
2
. Tuy nhin cung b don ram loai hai va tnh gia cng ct kem. Cng dung
nh nhom thep Cr-Ni nhng vi kch thc ln hn va hnh dang phc tap hn.
*Thep crm-niken-mlipen : loai thep nay da trn c s thep crm niken cao va
cho thm vao khoang 0,10-0,40%Mo. y la loai thp ch tao may tt nht do thm ti
ln, bn cao (
B
= 1200MN/m
2
, a
K
= 800kJ/m
2
)., lam c chi tit ln, ( >100 mm)
hnh dang phc tap va khng b don ram loai hai. Gm cac mac thep : 38CrNi3MoA,
38Cr2Ni2MoA, 38CrNi3MoVA va 38CrMoAlA (thep thm ni t). Cng dung nh nhom
thep trn nhng vi kich thc ln hn nhiu va hnh dang phc tap hn, tin cyh cao
nht.
5-Thep an hi :
Thep an hi la loai thep co ham lng cac bon tng i cao : 0,550,65%, co
tnh an hi cao la cac chi tit nh lo xo, nhp va cac chi tit an hi khac. c im
nhit luyn cua chung la ti va ram trung bnh.
a-iu kin lam vic va yu cu :
c im lam vic cua chi tit an hi la chu tai trong tnh va va p cao nhng
khng c phep bin dang deo. Cac yu cu cua thep an hi :
*Gii han an hi cao, kha nng chng bin dang deo ln. Ty l
h
/
B
cang gn
n mt cang tt, thng thng at t 0,85-0,95.
* cng kha cao, deo va dai thp tranh b bin dang deo (khng c qua
thp d b pha huy don)
*Gii han moi cao phu hp vi iu kin tai trong thay i co chu ky.
b-c im v thanh phn hoa hoc va ch nhit luyn :
Thanh phn hoa hoc :
*Cac bon : thoa man cac yu cu trn lng cac bon t 0,55 0,70% nhng
thng s dung t 0,55 0,65 la tt nht.

*Nguyn t hp kim : nguyn t hp kim c s dung vi muc ch :

-Nng cao gii han an hi va cng, vi yu cu nay dung mangan va silic la
tt nht.
97
-Nng cao thm ti am bao gii han an hi cao va ng nht trn tit din
vi muc ich nay thng dung crm va niken.
Trong thep an hi thng dung 1%Mn, 2%Si, 2%(Cr+Ni), khng du ng nhiu
mangan va silic v se lam thep b qua don, cng.
c im v nhit luyn : at c yu cu gii han an hi cao nht phai tin hanh ti
va ram trung bnh tao ra t chc trxtit ram. am bao gii han an hi va gii han moi
cao cn lu y :
-Chng thoat cac bon khi nhit luyn (do co silic), nu b mt co ham lng cac
bon thp hn quy nh d sinh ra vt nt moi khi chu keo.
-Ta o ng sut nen d trn b mt bng ln bi keo, can ngui...
-Nng cao bong b mt, loai bo cac vt xc la mm mng cac vt nt moi
bng cach can, keo ngui hay mai.
c-Cac loai thep an hi :
*Thep cac bon va thep mangan : gm cac mac thep C65, C70, C80, C85...60Mn,
65Mn, 70Mn. c im cua nhom thep nay :
-Gii han an hi thp
h
800MN/m .
2
- thm ti thp, ch ti thu n ng knh 15 mm.
Nhom thep c cung cp chu yu dang dy tron dung la cac lo xo thng, yu cu
khng cao lm.
*Thep silic va thep hp kim khac : y la nhom thep co gii han an hi cao dung
vao cac muc ch quan trong, gm cac mac : 55Si2, 60Si2, 65Si2, 70Si2... c im cua
chung nh sau :
-Co gii han an hi cao
h
1000MN/m
2
, gia thanh tng i thp.
- thm ti cao hn (ti thu tit din 20-30 mm trong du)
-D thoat cac bon khi nung.
Nhm khc phuc nhc im trn ngi ta hp kim hoa thm crm, mangan,
niken va vanai, do o tao ra cac mac : 50CrMn, 50CrVA, 60Si2CrVA, 60Si2Ni2A...Cng
dung cua nhom thep nay la lam lo xo xe la, nhp xe t, cac truc mm, dy cot ng h.
Cn lu y rng cac thep nay nu dang dy tron vi ng knh < 6 mm a c nhit
luyn ri, do o ch cn un ngui ri em u thp d kh ng sut la s dung c.
6-Thep co cng dung ring :
Nhom thep nay c s dung rt rng rai trong ch tao may, chu ng c dung vao
cac muc ch chuyn dung.
a-Thep la dp ngui (dp su) :
Nhom thep nay dung ch tao cac chi tit bng phng phap dp ngui, do vy yu
cu cua chung la phai co tnh deo cao, nht la khi dp su ( bin dang ln). Do o yu
cu cua chung nh sau :
*Ham lng cac bon thp 0,20%, thng dung nht la 0,10% , t chc chu
yu la phe rt va mt lng nho peclt.

*Ham lng silic thp thep khng b cng, Si 0,050,07%, thuc loai thep
si.
*hat nho va u, cp hat 68.
98
Cac mac thep thng dung : C5s, C8s, C10s, C15s...Cng dung : lam chn bun, ca bin
xe...Vi thep la mong co th c trang kem dung trong cng nghip thc phm lam
hp hay trang kem hay kem -nhm lam tm lp.
b-Thep d ct (t ng) :
Thep d ct (con c goi la thep t ng) c dung lam cac chi tit phai qua gia
cng ct got, s lng nhiu, khng chu tai trong ln, yu cu bong b mt cao va nng
sut cao.
Thanh phn hoa hoc : lng cac bon t 0,10 0,40%, t chc phn ln la phe rt
va mt phn peclit. Lng pht pho va lu huynh cao hn mc bnh thng, phtpho
khoa g 0,080,15%, lu huynh khoa g 0,15 n n 0,35%. Lng mangan 0,80 1,00% tao
ra MnS lam phoi d gay vun. Thi gian gn y ngi ta con cho thm ch (0,150,30)
vao thep d ct tng kha nng ct got cua no (ch co nhit chay thp 327
O
C d b
chay khi ct got, lam phoi t ri).
Cac mac thep d ct :12S, 20S, 30S, 11SPb, 40SPb, 40MnS. Cng dung :bulng,
ai c, vt, bac, mt s banh rng...
c-Thep ln :
y la loai thep co cht lng rt cao dung ch tao cac ln : bi, ua (bi
cn) trong may moc.
*iu kin lam vic va yu cu : cac b mt lam vic cua ln chu ng sut tip
xuc cao vi s lng chu trnh rt ln, do hin tng trt ln vi nhau nn tai tng thi
im chung b mai mon im. Cac yu cu :
- cng va tnh chng mai mon cao ( 64HRC)
-C tnh phai ng nht, tuyt i khng c co im mm.
- bn moi tip xuc cao.
*c im v thanh phn hoa hoc va nhit luyn :
Thanh phn hoa hoc : lng cac bon cao 1%, hp kim hoa crm t 0,5-1,5%,
mangan va silic mi nguyn t 1%. tranh cac im mm phai han ch lu huynh va
phtpho, kh rt thp (P,S < 0,02%, khng cha kh).
Nhit luyn : Ti trong du nhit 850-860
O
C, ram thp nhit 150-180
O
C.
Tin hanh gia cng lanh giam ti a lng austenit d luc nay cng at
65 HRC.
*Cac mac thep : OL100Cr0,6; OL100Cr0,9; OL100Cr1,5; OL100Cr1,5SiMn.
Ngoai ra chung con c dung lam ban ren, ta r, dung cu o, pit tng bm cao ap...
d-Thep ng ray :
La loai thep cac bon cht lng cao, vi ham lng cac bon va mangan tng i
cao : 0,50-0,80%C, 0,60-1,00%Mn, lng phtpho va lu huynh thp : 0,05%S, 0,0,4%P.
Vit Nam cha co tiu chun cho thep ng ray, theo tiu chun cua Nga no c ky hiu
bng ch P (raytxnaia xtal) va s tip theo ch trong lng mt met ray tnh bng kilgam.
V du P45; P60...(tng ng mi met ray nng 45 kG va 60 kG). Ray hong co th tn dung
lam cac chi tit va dung cu khac nh : uc, dao, nhp, dung cu gia cng g ...
e-Dy thep cac loai :
99
Dy thep c san xut t nha may luyn kim bng phng phap keo ngui. C
tnh cua dy thep phu tuc va ham lng cac bon va mc bin dang. Dy thep co ham
lng cac bon thp thng c trang kem dung lam dy in thoai va trong sinh hoat. Dy
thep co ham lng cac bon trung bnh (0,50-0,70%C) dung lam cac lo xo tron. Dy thep co
ham lng cac bon cao, mc bin dang ln dung lam dy cap...
7-Thep co cng dung c bit :
a-Thep khng r :
Thep khng r bao gm mt ho hp kim trn c s st ma tnh cht c ban cua
chung la chng n mon trong cac mi trng khac nhau. Mi loa i thep khng r ch co kha
nng chng n mon trong mt s mi trng nht nh. Tnh chng n mon ( bn n
mon) cua thep chia ra cac cp sau :
-Tnh chng n mon cao : khi chiu su kim loai b xm thc < 0,125 mm/nm
-Tnh chng n mon at yu cu : khi chiu su xm thc : 0,125 - 1,25 mm/nm.
-Tnh chng n mon yu (khng at yu cu) : khi xm thc > 1,25mm/nm.
Nguyn nhn cua hin tng thep b r la do n mon in hoa v trong thep co hai
pha vi in th in cc khac nhau. V vy nguyn ly chung ch tao thep khng r la :
-Nng cao in th in cc cua pherit va cacbit (hai pha c ban trong thep) lam
giam dong in n mon.
-Lam cho thep co t chc mt pha, vi thanh phn ng nht (austenit, pherit).
c im chung cua cac loa i thep khng r la : ham lng cac bon thp (cang thp tnh
chng n mon cang tt) thanh phn crm va hp kim cao. Cac loai thep khng r u co
lng crm > 12,5%
*Thep khng r hai pha (mactenxit) : la loai thep co 0,10-0,40%C va 13%Cr vi
hai pha la pherit va cac bt crm. Gm cac mac sau : 12Cr13, 20Cr13, 30Cr13 va 40Cr13.
Nhom thep ny co tnh chng n mon cao trong khng kh, nc sng, nc may va axit
nitrit HNO
3.
Cng dung : lam trang sc, c vit khng r, chi tit chu nhit (<450
O
C)
dung cu m, bi chng n mon...
*Thep khng r pherit : la loai thep co lng cac bon thp hn t 0,08-0,20%C vi
lng crm rt cao t 17-25%Cr, tnh chng n mon cao hn nhom trn. Do vy thep ch
co mt pha la pherit. Gm cac mac sau : 08Cr13, 12Cr17, 15Cr25Ti...Chung co c im
la nu nung nong lu cao hn 475
O
C se xut hin cac pha don lam cho tnh deo kem i.
Nhom thep nay s dung c trong kh hu bin, nc bin, mi trng axit, cng nghip
hoa du...
*Thep khng r austenit : la loai thep co lng cac bon rt thp, lng crm cao >
16-18% va niken cao 6-8%, t chc mt pha la austenit. in hnh nht la ho 18.8 va
18.9 (18%Cr va 8-10%Ni). Gm cac mac thep sau : 12Cr18Ni9, 08Cr18Ni11,
08Cr18Ni10Ti, 12Cr18Ni9Ti, 04Cr18Ni10...c im chung la : tnh chng n mon cao,
hoan toan n nh trong nc sng, nc bin, hi nc bao hoa, qua nhit, duun dch
mui. Hoan toan n nh trong HNO
3
vi moi nng , tong H
2
SO
4
ngui, trong HCl
loang. Co tnh deo cao, c tnh bao am. Cng dung : s du ng trong cng nghip san xut
axit, hoa du va thc phm, chi tit chu nhit n 900-1000
O
C. Chung co nhc im la
100
t tin (do lng niken cao), kho gia cng ct got (rt deo) va trong mt s tng hp b
n mon tinh gii.
*Thep khng r hoa bn tit pha : co thanh phn va t chc tng t thep khng r
austenit nhng cha lng crm va niken thp hn (13-17%Cr, 4-7%Ni), ngoai ra con co
Al, Cu, Mo...T chc la austenit nhng khng n nh. Thep nay co tnh cng ngh va c
tnh cao, d gia cng bin dang va ct got tt, co th tin hanh hoa bn bng hoa gia nhit
thp tranh c bin dang va xy hoa, co tnh chng n mon cao tng ng ho 18.8.
Thng lam kt cu may bay.
b-Thep chng mai mon cao : (thep Hadfield)
Loai thep nay cha cac bon cao (0,90-1,30%) va lng mangan ln (11,40-
14,50%), t chc la austenit, nhng chng mai mon rt cao khi lam vic trong iu kin tai
trong va p manh, ma sat ln va ap lc cao. Khi lam vic trong iu kin trn se xay ra
hai hin tng sau :
*Mang tinh th b x lch gy ra bin cng trn lp b mt.
*Di tac dung cua ng sut se co chuyn bin austenit thanh mactenxit lam tng
cng va tnh chng mai mon.
im c bit cua thep nay la lp co tnh chng mai mon cao lun tn tai trn b
mt cua no. Ch tao chi tit bng thep chng mai mon cao bng phng phap uc. Hin tai
ch co m t mac thep : 130Mn13 ( - ch ch tao bng phng phap uc).
Cng dung : lam xch xe tng, may keo, ham may nghin a, rng gau xuc, li
ben may gat, ghi ray...
c-Thep bn nong :
Thep bn nong la loai thep co kha nng chu tai trong lu dai trn 500
O
C c s
dung trong cac lnh vc nh : ni hi, ng c phan lc, tua bin kh, tn la...
*Yu cu cua thep bn nong :
-Co tnh n nh nong cao : la kha nng bn hoa hoc nhit cao, chng lai vic
tao tao thanh lp vay xyt va ngn can s phat trin cua no.
-Co tnh bn nong ln : la kha nng vt liu chu c tai trong nhit cao.
nhit cao di tac dung cua tai trong khng i nho hn gii han chay kim loai b bin
dang deo mt cach chm chap theo thi gian va goi la dao. anh gia bn cua thep
nhit cao bng hai ch tiu la gii han dao va bn dao. bn dao la ng sut gy ra
pha huy dao sau thi gian xac nh tai nhit a cho (v du
b/1000
= 250MN/m
2
tai
850
O
C). Gii han dao cn thit co bin dang xac nh (v du 0,2%), sau thi gian th
n nh (vi du 1000h) tai nhit a cho (v du
0,2/1000
= 170 MN/m
2
).
*Thep lam xu pap xa :
Xu pap xa trong ng c t trong lam vic trong iu kin tai trong cao, mai mon
va va p ln, b n mon do kh chay, chu nhit 650-700
O
C. lam xu pap xa ta dung
loai thep co cac bon trung bnh (0,35-0,50%), cha crm cao (9,00-10,00%) va 2% Si.
Di tac dung cua nhit cao tao ra xyt Cr
2
O
3
, SiO
2
bn st cht chng n mon hoa hoc.
Cac mac thep thng dung : 40Cr9Si2, 40Cr10Si2Mo, 30Cr13Ni7Si2, 45Cr14Ni14W2Mo
101
*Thep lam ni hi va tua bin hi : cac ni hi va tua bin hi tai cac nha may nhit
in thng lam vic nhit 540
O
C va ap sut 250 at hay 560
O
C va ap sut 160 at.
am bao tui tho lu dai (n 100 000 h) ta phai s dung cac thep phu hp.
Vi nhit nho hn 450
O
C co th dung CT34, CT38, C15, C20 lam ni hi. ng
qua nung hi, ng dn hi (540-560
O
C) s dung mac : 12CrMo, 12CrMoV. Canh tua bin
hi dung thep : 15Cr12WNiMoV, 15Cr11MoV. Vi ni hi ap sut siu cao dung loai thep
9Cr14Ni19W2NbB.
6.3.3.Thep dung cu :
Thep dung cu la cac loai thep dung lam cac dung cu ct got va bin dang kim loai,
dung cu o.
1-Thep lam dung cu ct :
a-iu kin lam vic va yu cu :
*iu kin lam vic : Nhn chung dung cu ct got lam vic trong iu kin rt
nng n.Ta khao sat iu kin lam vic cua dao tin, la dung cu ct in hnh.
- tao phoi li ct phai chu ap lc ln va sinh cng c hoc ln pha huy kim
loai
-Dao b mai sat manh : mt trc vi phoi, mt sau vi phi. Sau mt thi gian
nht nh hai mt nay b mai mon manh, khaong cach hep lai, li ct b gay va dao b cun,
phai mai lai mi dung c.
-Cng tach phoi va mai sat bin thanh nhit, phn ln tp trung mui dao lam cho
cng giam i nhanh chong, lam xu kha nng ct got.
*Yu cu : xut phat t iu kin lam vic thep lam dung cu ct co cac yu cu
sau y :
-Co cng cao 60HRC vi vt liu co cng trn di 200HB. Khi ct thep
khng r hay hp kim bn nong phai cao hn 65HRC.

-Tnh chng mai mon cao han ch tao thanh ranh lom trn mt trc cua dao.
cng cang cao tnh chng mai mon cang ln, khi cng cao hn 60HRC c tng ln
mt n v tnh chng mai mon tng 25-30%. Vi cung gia tr cng th tnh chng mai
mon phu thuc vao lng cac bit d, cac bt d cang nhiu tnh chng mai mo n cang cao.
-Tnh cng nong cao : tnh cng nong la kha nng thep gi c cng ln hn
60HRC nhit cao. Khi ct got cng c hoc va ma sat se tp trung chu yu vao mui dao
va lam dao nong ln, cng giam i va kha nng ct got se giam i nhanh chong. Do vy
phai a vao thep cac nguyn t hp kim nng cao tnh cng nong.
Ngoai ba yu cu chnh o ra thep lam dung cu ct con phai thoa man cac yu cu
v bn, dai, thm ti tt, tnh gia cng ap lc va bin dang ...
b-Thep lam dao ct co nng sut thp :
Thep lam dao ct con nng sut thp la loai thep co t c ct got t 5-10 m/phut.
*Thep cac bon : gm cac mac thep CD70, CD80... CD130 (hay CD70A...
CD130A). y la loai thep cht lng tt va cht lng cao, vi lng lu huynh va
phtpho thp (P 0,030-0,035; S 0,020-0,030). Chung co c im :
-Sau khi ti va ram thp co cng 60 HRC u ct got.
-D bin dang nong va gia cng ct got, gia thanh thp.
102
- thm ti thp phai ti trong nc bin dang ln, khng lm c cac dung
cu ct hnh dang phc tap.
-Tnh cng nong thp, khng lam vic cao hn 200-250
O
C.
Cng dung : la cac dung cu ct nho, hnh dang n gian vi nng sut thp hay gia cng
bng tay : dua, li ca st...
*Thep hp kim : la nhom thep co cac bon cao (khoang 1%) c hp kim hoa
trung bnh va thp, co thm ti tt va tnh chng mai mon cao. Gm hai loai :
-Loai co tnh thm ti tt : in hnh la mac 90CrSi : tnh cng nong trn di
300
O
C, ti trong du cng vn > 60HRC, gia thanh khng cao lm. Cng dung : lam cac
dung cu ct hnh dang phc tap, kch thc nho :tar, ban ren, mui khoan, dao doa, dao
phay... D b thoat cac bon khi nung nong (do cha nhiu silic)
-Loai co tnh chng mai mon cao : loai thep nay co cac bon rt cao > 1,30%, vi
0,5%Cr va 4-5%W. Gm hai mac thep in hnh la 130Cr0,5 sau khi ti va ram thp at
cng 65-66HRC, dung lam dao cao ru, xen giy, ct da... 140CrW5 ti trong nc va ram
thp at 67-68HRC (con co tn la thep kim cng) lam dao phay, tin sa cac phi cng
(b mt truc can thep a ti).
c-Thep lam dao ct co nng sut cao - thep gio :
Thep gio la loai thep lam dung cu ct quan trong nht va tt nht v no ap ng
y u cac yu cu cua vt liu lam dao.
-Tc ct got 35-80 m/phut (gp 3-7 ln nhom trn)
-Tnh chng mai mon va tui bn cao (gp 8-10ln)
- thm ti c bit cao (thm ti vi tit din bt ky)
*Thanh phn hoa hoc va tac dung cua cac nguyn t trong thep gio :
-Cac bon : t 0,70-1,50% u hoa tan vao mactenxit va tao thanh cac bit vi cac
nguyn t W, Mo va c bit la vanai lam tng cng va tnh chng mai mon. -
Crm :co trong moi loa i thep gio vi s lng ging nhau khoang 4% (3,8-4,40%) co tac
dung nng cao thm ti. Do tng lng Cr + W + Mo cao nn thep gio co kha nng t
ti va ti thu vi tit din bt ky.
-Vofram : la nguyn t hp kim quan trong nht va chim s lng ln nht trong
thep gio (6-18%) co tac dung nng cao tnh cng nong. Cac bit vonfram hoa tan vao
austenit khi nung nn sau khi ti mactenxit cha nhiu vonfram. Cac bit nay ch tit ra khoi
mactenxit 560-570
O
C nn duy tr cng sau khi ti n 600
O
C.
-Molipen : dung thay th vonfram do tac dung tng t vonfram, no co th
rhay th vonfram theo ty l nguyn t 1/1 nhng khi lng ring nho hn (10,3 g/cm
3
) so
vi vofram (19,3 g/cm
3
) nn 1%Mo thay th c 2%W lam cho gia thanh thp.
-Vanai : la nguyn t tao thanh cac bit rt manh. Cacbit vanai t hoa tan vao
austenit khi nung nong, no dang nho mn, rt cng va phn tan nn gi c hat nho khi
nung nong va nng cao tnh chng mai mon. Ty l s dung trong thep gio t 1-2% khng
nn dung qua 5% v rt kho mai nhn.
-Cban : la nguyn t khng tao thanh cacbit, no hoa tan vao st tao thanh dung
dch rn. Lng cha cua no t 5-10% gop phn nng cao tnh cng no ng, vt qua gii
han nay lam cho thep b don ma khng nng cao thm tnh cng nong.
103
*T chc t vi : la loai thep hp kim cao (10-20%) va cac bon cao nn trang thai
sau khi uc la thep lburit, cha nhiu cac bit di dang cung tinh lburit hnh xng
ca rt cng va don. V vy phai tin hanh can, ren vi lng ep ln lam nho mn cac bt
va u khng hoan toan 840-860
O
C at cng 241-269HB mi tin hanh ct got c.
*Nhit luyn : tin hanh ti va ram nng cao cng, tnh chng mai mon va
tnh cng nong. Nhit ti cua cac loai thep gio noi chung xp x 1300
O
C vi sai s hep
( 10
O
C). Khng nung nong cao hn hay thp hn v nhng ly do sau y :
-Khi nung thp hn austenit cha bao hoa u W nng cao tnh cng nong : khi
nun n A
C1
( 850
O
C) mi co chuyn bin peclit thanh austenit. Ti nhit 850-900
O
C
thep co cng thp khaong 45-50HRC, khng u ct got c. Khi nng nhit ln cao
hn cacbit hp kim bt u hoa tan cang nhiu vao austenit lam cho no cang giau nguyn
t hp kim. Ti 1000
O
C a bao hoa Cr
23
C
6
. Fe
3
W
3
C ch bt u hoa tan manh nhit
1150
O
C, n gn 1300
O
C austenit cung ch hoa tan c 8%W. Cac bit VC hu nh khng
hoa tan vao austenit. Nguyn ly chung khi chon nhit ti la tn lng nhit cao
austenit cha nhiu vonfram nht mactenxit co tnh cng nong cao nht, cac bit VC
cha hoa tan gi ho hat nho, nn cao tnh chng mai mon.
-Nu nung nong cao hn quy nh cac bit hoa tan nhiu, hat phat trin manh lam
thep gion, trong mt s trng hp b chay bin gii hat.
Sau khi ti t chc thep gio gm mactenxit giau vonfram, austenit d (30%) va
cac bt d (15-20%) cng 61-63 HRC cha at c cao nht v vy phai tin hanh ram
tip theo.
Tin hanh ram thep gio ba ln, nhit 560
O
C, mi ln gi nhit mt gi. Tai
nhit nung nong cacbit vonfram Fe
3
W
3
C nho mn bt u tit ra lam mac ten xit ngheo
nguyn t hp kim, nng cao im M

ln va lam giam ng sut nn austenit d mi
chuyn bin thanh mac ten xit ram lam cng tng ln. Nu tin hanh gia cng lanh th
ch ram mt ln. T chc sau khi ram : mac ten xt ram, austenit d (5%), cac bt d
(20%)., cng at 63-65 HRC. nng cao cng cho thep gio co th tin hanh thm
cac bon - nit cng at 70 HRC nhng hi b don.
*Cac loai thep gio va cng dung : Cac mac thep gio thng dung gm : 75W18V;
90W9V2; 140W9V5; 90W18V2; 90W18Co5V2; 95W9Co10V2...Cng dung thep gio
c s dung rng rai lam cac dung cu ct got ln, hnh dang phc tap, iu kin lam vic
nng va co nng sut cao, tui tho ln nh : dao phay, doa, chut, xoc, mui khoan, dao tin,
bao...
2-Thep la m dung cu bin dang ngui (khun dp ngui) :
La loai thep lam dung cu bin dang deo kim loai nhit thng. y la hnh
thc gia cng rt ph bin cho nng sut cao.
a-iu kin lam vic va yu cu :
Dung cu bin dang ngui ma in hnh la khun dp ngui co iu kin lam vic
gn ging dung cu ct nhng co c im khac hn. Ngoai chu ap lc ln ra, khun dp
con chu ng sut un, lc va p va ma sat manh. Do din tch tip xuc ln khng tao phoi
nn khun dp ngui thng b nong ln khoang 200-250
O
C khi lam vic. Vi iu kin
lam vic nh trn vt liu khun phai at c cac yu cu sau :
104
*Co cng cao : do tin hanh bin dang kim loai trang thai ngui nn vt liu
co cng ln. Tuy theo vt liu em dp cng khun t 58-62 HRC, khng nn cao
hn gii han nay v lam khun b gion, d st me khi lam vic.
*Tnh chng mai mon ln, am bao hang van, chuc van san phm ma kch thc
khun khng thay i.
* deo va dai ba am : chu c tai trong ln va va p. Vi cac khun
co kch thc ln cn thm yu cu thm ti cao va t bin dang khi nhit luyn.
b-c im v thanh phn hoa hoc va nhit luyn :
*Thanh phn hoa hoc : am bao cac yu cu trn thep lam khun dp ngui
phai co thanh phn hoa hoc hp ly.
-Cac bon : lng cac bon cao trn di 1% am bao cng cao, tnh chng mai
mon ln. Khi chu va p manh lng cac bon se giam xung c 0,40-0,60%. Khi yu cu
chng mai mon tht cao lng cac bon n 1,50-2,00%
-Nguyn t hp kim : thanh phn hp kim phu thuc vao hnh dang, kch thc
tnh chng mai mon va thm ti. nng cao thm ti dung cac nguyn t crm,
mangan, silic, vonfram (khoang 1% mi loai). nng cao tnh chng mai mon phai dung
lng crm n 12%
*Ch nhit luyn : ti va ram thp. Khi ti chu y ly nhit cao hn so vi
dao cat t 20-40
O
C austenit ng nht hn. Khi ram cung chon nhit cao hn.
c-Thep lam khun dp ngui :
*Thep lam khun be : s dung mac thep CD100-CD120 lam cac khun be, hnh
dang n gian, chu tai trong nho, cng cao, tnh chng mai mon thp.
*Thep lam khun trung bnh : lam khun trung bnh (chiu day thanh khun
75-10 mm) hay khun be, hnh dang phc tap, chu tai trong ln ta dung cac thep hp kim
thp : 100Cr, 100CrWMn, 10CrWSiMn.
*Thep lam khun ln va chng mai mon cao : lam cac khun ln (chiu day
thanh khun 200-300 mm) chu tai nng va chu mai mon ln ta dung loai thep cha
12%Cr va lng cac bon rt cao (1,50-2,00%) : 200Cr12, 150Cr12Mo, 130Cr12V. Nhom
thep nay co c im :
- thm ti ln : ti trong du chiu su ti at 150-200 mm, do o am bao
bn, cng cao khi khun ln.
-Co th ap dung nhiu ch ti va ram at c yu cu khac nhau.
*Thep lam khun chu tai trong va p : vi cac khun dp chu va p ln ta
dung loai thep cha cac bon trung bnh va lng hp kim 3-5% am bao dai. Gm
cac mac sau : 40CrW2Si, 50CrW2Si, 60Cr2Si, 40CrSi, 60CrSi.
Hin tai co xu hng s dung hp kim cng lam cac khun dp ngui co kch
thc nho, at hiu qua cao hn thep.
3-Thep lam dung cu bin dang nong :
Bin dang nong la hnh thc gia cng chu yu ch tao ban thanh phm va phi
trong san xut c kh. Trong c kh thng dung nht la cac loai khun ren, ep ,keo
a-iu kin lam vic va yu cu :
105
Dung cu bin dang nong (ma in hnh la khun dp) co iu kin lam vic khac
hn khun dp ngui :
-Dung cu (khun) lun tip xuc vi phi nong ti 1000
O
C, do vy chung b nung
nong n 500-700
O
C nhng khng thng xuyn , lin tuc.
-Do c nung nong n nhit cao nn phi thep co tnh deo cao, do vy khun
khng cn cng cao nhung cu bin dang ngui.
-Dung cu bin dang nong thng co kch thc ln, chu tai trong ln n hang
trm hang nghn tn.
Yu cu cua dung cu bin dang nong :
* bn va dai cao, cng va phai chu c tai ln va va p, cng
khoang 350-450 HB (35-46 HRC).
*Tnh chng mai mon cao am bao tao ra hang nghn hang van san phm. Do lam
vic nhit cao nng sut cua dung cu bin dang nong thp hn bin dang ngui n
khoang ln.
*Tnh chu nhit cao va chng moi nhit ln.
b-c im v thanh phn hoa hoc va ch nhit luyn:
at c cac yu cu trn thep lam dung cu bin dang nong co cac c im
sau :
*Cac bon : ham lng cac bon trung bnh trong khoang t 0,30-0,50% tuy theo
tng loai khun.
*Thanh phn hp kim : co ham lng phu hp am bao tnh ti thu c tnh
ng nht va tnh chu nong. nng cao thm ti s dung crm, niken. Nng cao
thm ti va chu nong phai dung n 8-10% W.
*Ch nhit luyn : gm ti va ram trung bnh nhn c t chc trstit ram
co cng, bn, dai phu h p vi iu kin lam vic.
c-Thep lam khun ren : Cac khun ren thng co kch thc ln, chu tai trong cao va va
p, b nung nong t (9500-550
o
C) do thi gian tip xuc v i phi ngn. Thng du n cac
mac sau : 50CrNiMo, 50CrNiW, 50CrNiSiW, 50CrNiTi, 50CrMnMo. Nhom thep nay co
c im :
*Tnh thm ti cao, ti thu trong du vi kch thc 400 x 300 x 300 mm.
*Ti va ram t 500-600
O
C.
* cng phn ui nn thp hn phn lam vic t 5-10 HRC.
Vi bua ren co trong lng > 3 tn thng dung 50CrNiMo, cac mac con lai dung khi trong
lng bua < 3 tn.
d-Thep lam khun ep chay (chn, ep) :
Khac vi khun ren, thep lam khun chn, ep nong (ep chay) co kch thc be
hn nhng lai chu nhit cao hn ( do tip xuc lu hn vi phi), chu ap sut cao nhng
tai trong va p nho. Do nhit b mt kha cao n 600-700
O
C n phai dung loai thep
hp kim cao (khoang 10%) bng crm va vonfram. Lng cac bon t 0,30-0,50%. Ngoai ra
con dung vanai (1%) nng cao tnh chng mai mon va gi cho hat nho, molipen (1%)
nng cao thm ti. Cac mac thep thng dung la : 30Cr2W8V, 30Cr2W8,
106
40Cr5W2VSi. nng cao thm cng va tnh chng mai mon cho b mt khun ep ta
thm cac bon - nit nhit 500-600
O
C (cn lu y phai thm thp hn nhit ram)
4-Thep lam dung cu o :
Trong san xut c kh thng s dung cac dung cu o co cac cp chnh xac khac
nhau : panme, thc cp, dng, calip, thc o dai ...
a-iu kin lam vic va yu cu :
Cac dung cu o thng xuyn tip xuc, co sat vi chi tit gia cng n d b mai
mon, bin dang lam sai lch kt qua o. Do vy thep lam dung cu o phai co cac yu cu
sau y :
* cng va tnh chng mai mon cao 63-65 HRC am bao khng b hay t b
mai mon tai phn lam vic, gi c chnh xac trong sut thi gian lam vic lu dai.
*Kch thc n nh : kch th c khng thay i hay rt t thay i trong sut thi
gian lam vic (hang chuc nm), ccn lu y hai ch tiu sau :
-H s gian n nhit nho.
-S n nh cua t chc trang thai lam vic la lu dai
* nhn bong b mt cao khi mai (n cp 14) va t bin dang khi nhit luyn.
b-Thep lam dung cu o cp chnh xac cao :
at c cng va tnh chng mai mon cao phai co ham lng cac bon 1%.
Dung cac nguyn t hp kim crm va mangan (khoang 1% mi loai) nng cao thm
ti, t bin dang. Mangan co tac dung lam tng thm austenit d nn mc thch hp
cho kch thc hu nh khng thay i.
n nh kch th c sau khi ti tin hanh hoa gia (ram nhit thp hn
150
O
C) nhn c t chc mactenxit ti co cng va tnh chng mai mon cao, at d
bong cao khi mai va h s gian n nhit rt nho 10
-5
- 10
-6
/
O
C.
Cac mac thep thng dung : 100Cr, 100CrWMn, 140CrMn...
c-Thap lam cu o cp chinh xac thp :
Cac laoi dung cu o cp chnh xac thp ch yu cu b mt lam vic co tnh chng
mai mon cao la u do vy ta co th dung cac oai thep sau y :
*Thep cac bon thp : %C 0,25% qua thm cac bon, ti va ram thp : C15, C20,
BCT38...
*Thep cac bon trung bnh : C45, C50, C55 ti va ram thp
*Thep 38CrMoAlA : thm ni t.








107
CHUONG 7 : KIM LOAI VA HOP KIM MAU

Trong chng nay ta se nghin cu cac hp kim khng phai trn c s st o la
cac hp kim mau. Nh a bit kim loai mau chim s lng ln trong cac nguyn t kim
loai. Tuy nhin y ta ch khao sat cac kim loai mau thng dung nht : nhm, ng. kem,
magi, titan...
7.1.NHM VA HOP KIM NHM :
V phng din san xut va s dung th nhm va hp kim cua no chim v tr th
hai sau thep. Vt liu nay co cac tnh cht rt phu hp vi nhiu cng dung khac nhau,
trong mt s trng hp em lai hiu qua kinh t ln va khng th thay th c.
7.1.1.Khai nim va phn loai :
1-Nhm nguyn cht :
Nhm la nguyn t co mang tinh th lp phng tm mt, co mau sang bac. Nhm
co cac c im sau :
*Khi lng ring nho (2,7 g/cm
3
) : ch bng khoang 1/3 thep. Do vy lam giam
khi lng kt cu, chi tit, c s dung rng rai trong hang khng, vn tai...
*Co tnh chng n mon nht nh trong kh quyn : do lun co lp mang xyt
(Al
2
O
3
) st cht trn b mt co tnh bao v cao.
*Co tnh dn in cao : tnh dn in kem hn vang, bac, ng. dn in bng
62% Cu nhng khi lng ring cha dn 1/3 ng th khi trong cung iu kin lam vic
dy nhm nhe bng mt na dy ng va b nung nong t hn.
*Tnh deo rt cao : rt d bin dang deo khi keo si, dy, dat thanh tm, bng, la,
mang, ep thanh cac thanh dai co bin dang phc tap.
*Nhit nong chay thp (657
O
C).
* bn cng thp.
Cac loai nhm nguyn cht c ky hiu theo TCVN nh sau : ng u la ky
hiu hoa hoc cua nhm, tip sau o la s ch ham lng nhm.
V du : Al 99,999 cha 99,999%Al
Al 99,98 cha 99,98%Al.
2-Phn loai hp kim nhm :
Trong ky thut hu nh khng s dung nhm nguyn cht ma chu y dung hp
kim nhm. Hp kim nhm c phn ra lam hai nhom : hp kim nhm uc va hp kim
nhm bin dang.
1-Hp kim nhm bin dang : la cac hp kim cha mt lng t cac nguyn t hp kim co
thanh phn nm bn trai im C (C') trn gian pha. sa n xut cac san phm t nhom
hp kim nay ngi ta dung phng phap bin da ng. Chung c chia ra lam hai phn nhom
nho : khng hoa bn c bng nhit luyn va hoa bn c bng nhit luyn.
a-Hp kim nhm bin dang khng hoa bn c bng nhit luyn : gm cac hp
kim co thanh phn nm bn trai im F. Cac hp kim nay co t chc la dung dch rn
moi nhit , khng co chuyn bin pha nn khng th hoa bn c bng nhit luyn.
Mun hoa bn chung ch duy nht bng bin dang ngui.
108
b-Hp kim nhm hoa bn c bng nhit luyn : gm cac hp kim co thanh phn
nm bn phai im F, nhit thng co t chc hai pha la dung dch rn va pha th hai.
Khi nung nong n nhit cao hn gii han bao hoa pha th hai hoa tan ht vao dung
dch rn (co chuyn bin pha) nn co th hoa bn c bng nghit luyn.
Theo TCVN 1659-75 ky hiu hp kim nhm bin dang nh sau : u tin la ky
hiu cua nguyn t nhm tip sau la ky hiu cac nguyn t hp kim, cac s ng sau
nguyn t hp kim ch lng cha cua chung theo phn trm.
V du : AlCu4,4Mg0,5Mn0,8 4,4%Cu; 0,5%Mg; 0,8%Mn; con lai Al
AlCu4,4Mg1Fe1,5Mn0,6 4,4%Cu; 1%Mg; 1,5%Fe; 0,6%Mn; con lai Al
2-Hp kim nhm uc : Gm cac hp kim cha kha nhiu cac nguyn t hp kim, co thanh
phn nm bn phai im C (C'). Cac hp kim nay co nhit nong chay thp hn, co t
chc cung tinh nn tnh uc cao. Do cha nhiu pha th hai (chu yu la hp cht hoa hoc)
nn kha gion, khng th bin dang deo c, kha nng hoa bn bng nhit luyn khng
ang k. Ch tao san phm chu yu bng phng phap uc.
Theo TCVN1659-75 hp kim nhm uc ky hiu nh hp kim nhm bin dang ch
khac la cui ky hiu co thm ch ch la hp kim uc.
V du : AlSi12Cu2Mg1Mn0,6Ni1 12%Si; 2%Cu; 1%Mg; 0,6%Mn; 1%Ni; con
lai la Al. Ch ch hp kim nhm uc.
AlCu5Mg1Ni3Mn0,2 5%Cu; 1%Mg; 3%Ni; 0,2%Ni con lai Al
AlSi7Mg0,3 7%Si; 0,3%Mg con lai Al
Ngoai hai loai hp kim nhm thng dung trn con co loai hp kim nhm thiu kt
c ch tao bng luyn kim bt. Bng cach pha nguyn liu di dang bt theo thanh
phn quy nh va thiu kt thanh san phm.



















109 Hnh 7.1- Phn loai hp kim nhm
7.1.2.Hop kim nhm bin dang :
Ta ch nhin cu hp kim nhm hoa bn c bng nhit luyn v chung co vai tro
quan trong trong nhanh vt liu.
1-Hp kim nhm vi 4% Cu :
Hp kim nhm vi 4% ng la c s cua hu ht cac hp kim nhm bin dang. T
gian pha Al-Cu ta thy rng ng hoa tan kha nhiu trong nhm nhit cao (5,65%
tai 548
o
C) nhng lai giam rt manh khi ha nhit (con 0,5% nhit thng). Lng
ng d tha c tit ra di dang hp cht hoa hoc CuAl
2II
(ky hiu II ch hp cht
nay c hnh thanh t trang thai rn.
nhit thng t chc cn bng cua hp kim la dung dich rn cha 0,5%Cu
va mt lng nho CuAl
2II
(khoang 7%) co cng va bn thp thp (200MPa). Khi
nung nong n cao hn ng gii han hoa tan (520
o
C) pha CuAl
2II
hoa tan ht vao va
ch con lai mt pha la dung dch rn cua nhm cha 4%Cu. Khi lam ngui nhanh sau o
pha CuAl
2II
khng kp tit ra nn ta co dung dch rn qua bao hoa ng nhit thng
bn tng ln mt t (250 300MPa) va tng i deo. Nhng sau khi ti t 5 n 7
ngay bn va cng at c gia tr cao nht (n 400MPa). Hin tng nay goi la hoa
gia t nhin. Nu sau khi ti ta tin hanh nung no ng th thi gian at cng va bn se rut
ngn lai nhng gia tr se thp hn. Nhit nung cang tng th thi gian at bn ,
cng se cang rut ngn nhng gia tr cua chung cang thp. qua trnh nay goi la hoa gia nhn
tao.

T o thy rng ch nhit luyn hp kim nhm %Cu nh sau : tin hanh ti va
hoa gia :
-Hoa gia t nhin t 5 7 ngay nu cn bn cng cao nht.
-Hoa gia nhn tao 100 200
o
C nu cn rut ngn thi gian va yu cu bn
cng va phai.



2-ura (nhm cng):













Hnh 7.2-Anh hng cua nhit va thi gian n qua trnh hoa gia
110


2-u ra (nhm cng) : ura la hp kim h Al-Cu-Mg ( 4%Cu; 0,5 1,5%Mg) cac
nguyn t hp kim c bit la magi lamg tng manh hiu qua khi nhit luyn ti va ram.
Ngoai ra trong thanh phn cua ura thng co thm Fe, Si va Mn. Fe va Si la tap cht
thng gp trong nhm ma khng th kh bo ht c, con mangan a vao tng tnh
chng n mon.
ura co t chc nhiu pha ngoai dung dch rn thay th cua Cu va Mg trong nhm
ra con co ca c pha Mg
2
Al
3
; CuMgAl
2
(S); CuMg
5
Al
5
(T). Cac pha nay ong vai tro pha hoa
bn cho ura, c bit la pha S va T.
c im cua ura :
- bn cao (
b
= 450 - 480MPa), khi lng ring nho ( = 2,7 g/cm
2
) do o co
bn ring ln ( bn ring bng
b
/ ) n 15 - 16km.
-Tnh chng n mon kem do co nhiu pha co th in cc khac nhau. khc
phuc hin tng nay ngi ta phu mt lp nhm mong ln b mt ura bng can nong.
Ch nhit luyn cua ura : ti nhit 505 - 510
o
C trong nc va hoa gia t
nhin t 5-7 ngay.
ura c s dung rng rai trong cng nghip hang khng va trong sinh hoat


Hnh 7.3-T chc t vi cua ura sau nhit luyn














7.1.3.Hop kim nhm duc :
Hp kim nhm uc thng dung ph bin nht trn c s Al-Si va thanh phn chu
yu la cung tinh (do o thng goi la silumin). C tnh cua vt uc phu thuc chu yu vao
tc ngui va bin tnh khi uc. Thng uc trong khun kim loai nhn c t chc
nho mn do co tc ngui ln.
1-Silumin n gian :
La hp kim nhm uc ma thanh phn chu yu la nhm va silic vi ham l ng silic
t 10-13%. T chc chu yu la cung tinh (Al+Si), rt th to (cac tinh th Si co dang hnh
111
que) bn va deo kha thp (
b
=130MPa; = 3%). Do vy phai bin tnh nng
cao c tnh. Dung mt hn hp mui (2/3NaF + 1/3NaCl) vi ty l 0,05 - 0,08% bin
tnh. Luc nay im cung tinh dch v bn phai va nhit chay giam 10 - 20
0
C. Nh vy
hp kim co t chc trc cung tinh gm Al + (Al +Si) va cung tinh nay kha nho mn (tinh
th Si rt nho) lam c tnh oo (
b
=180MPa; = 8%). Silumin n gian co c im la :
- Co tnh uc cao (do t chc chu yu la cung tinh)
-C tnh thp khng hoa bn c bng nhit luyn.
Do o silumin n gian thng dung uc nh hnh cac chi tit hnh dang phc tap, yu cu
bn khng cao.


b) a)













Hnh 7.4-T chc t vi silumin trc bin tnh (a) va sau bin tnh (b)

2-Silumin phc tap :
Silumin phc tap cung co tnh uc tt nhng c tnh cao hn do co thm nguyn
t Cu, Mg co tac dung tt khi ti va hoa gia ((
b
=200 - 250MPa; = 1-6%). Cac silumin
phc tap co thanh phn cac nguyn t thay i kha rng : 4-30%Si; < 1%Mg; 1-7%Cu.
Cng dung cua chung la lam pit tng cac loai ng c v nhe, d tao hnh va t ket. Ngoai
ra con lam thn va np ng c t.
7.2.DNG VA HOP KIM DNG
7.2.1.Dng nguyn cht :
ng la kim loai co kiu mang lp phng tm mt, khng co a hnh. ng
nguyn cht co mau o nn con goi la ng o. ng co cac c im sau :
-Tnh dn in va dn nhit cao. V tnh dn in ch ng sau Au va Ag.
-Chng n mon tt trong kh quyn, nc, nc bin hay kim, axit hu c do co
lp xyt Cu
2
O trn b mt.
-Tnh deo rt cao, d bin dang nong, ngui ch tao thanh cac ban thanh phm.
- bn khng cao lm (
b
= 220MPa ) nhng sau bin dang deo tng ln ang
k ((
b
= 425MPa ).
-Tnh han kha tt nhng khi cha nhiu tap cht (c bit la xy) giam i manh.
112
Tuy nhin ng cung co mt s nhc im :
+Khi lng ring ln ( = 8,94g/cm
3
)
+Tnh gia cng ct got kem do phoi qua deo khng gay, cai thin thng cho
thm ch vao.
+Nhit nong chay cao 1083
o
C, nhng tnh uc kem, chay loang nho.
Theo TCVN 1659-75 ng nguyn cht c ky hiu Cu va cac s ch lng cha cua no
trong o.
V du : Cu 99,99 co 99,99%Cu
Cu 99,80 co 99,80%Cu


Hnh 7.5- Anh hng cua tap cht n dn in cua ng















7.2.2.Phn loai hop kim dng :
Trong ky thut t s dung ng nguyn cht ma chu yu s dung hp kim ng.
Hp kim ng c chia ra lam hai nhom sau : la tng va brng.
La tng (ng thau) la hp kim cua ng vi nguyn t chu yu la kem.
Brng (ng thanh) la hp kim cua ng vi cac nguyn t khac tr kem .
1-La tng :
La tng c chia lam hai loai : la tng n gian (ch co ng va kem) va la tng
phc tap (co thm mt s nguyn t khac). Theo TCVN 1659-75 quy nh ky hiu la tng
nh sau : u tin la ch L (ch la tng) tip sau la ky hiu Cu va cac nguyn t hp kim.
S ng sau cac nguyn t hp kim ch ham lng cua chung theo phn trm.
V du : LCuZn30 la tng co 30%Zn, 70%Cu
LCuZn38Al1Fe1 la tng co38%Zn; 1%Al; 1%Fe; con lai Cu.
a-La tng n gian : Trong thc t dung loai cha t hn 45%Zn nn t chc cua
no ch co dung dch rn va pha in t .
la dung dch rn cua kem trong ng co mang A1 cha n 39%Zn 454
o
C.
y la pha chu yu quyt nh tnh cht cua la tng. Khi hoa tan vao ng kem lam tng
113
bn kha manh, nhng khng lam giam nhiu deo cua hp kim. deo cao nht ng
vi 30%Zn.
la pha in t ng vi cng thc CuZn ( N = 3/2), la pha cng va don hoa bn
cho la tng. Do vy khng dung la tng cha cao hn 45%Zn v luc nay t chc ch toan la
' nn rt don. Trong thc t ch dung loai di 40%Zn vi hai loai la tng mt pha va la
tng hai pha.
La tng mt pha : thng cha t hn 35%Zn (LCuZn10) co tnh deo cao, c
can ngui thanh ban thanh phm lam chi tit may qua dp su. La tng vi lng kem nho
t 5-12% co mau o nhat dunge lam tin xu,huy chng, khuy ao qun, dy keo ...La tng
cha 20%Zn (LCuZn80) co mau vang ging nh vang nn thng lam trang sc. La tng
cha khoang 30%Zn (LCuZn30) co deo cao dung lam vo an cac loai. Cac la tng mt
pha bn va rt deo nn thng pha thm 0,4 - 3%Pb d ct got.
La tng hai pha : thng cha 40%Zn co t chc hai pha ( + ) co pha thm
ch tng tnh gia cng ct. La tng hai pha cng , bn va t deo hn so vi loai mt pha
c cung cp di dang bng, ng, tm lam cac chi tit may cn bn cao.










a) b)

Hnh 7.6-T chc t vi cua la tng 1 pha (a) va la tng 2 pha (b)

b-La tng phc tap : Ngoai Cu va Zn ra con cho thm cac nguyn t Pb ( tng tnh ct
got), Sn (tng chong n mon trong nc bin), Al va Ni ( nng cao gii han bn) nh :
LCuZn36Al3Ni2; LCuZn30Sn1; LCuZn40Pb1. La tng phc tap dung lam cac chi tit
may yu cu bn cao hn, lam vic trong nc bin...
2-Brng :
La hp kim cua ng vi cac nguyn t chu yu khng pha la kem nh Sn, Al, Be
...Theo TCVN 1659-75 chung c ky hiu ging nh la tng, ch khac la thay chc L
u ky hiu bng ch B (ch brng).

i

1-Brng thic : la hp kim ng vi nguyn t chu yu la thic, no la hp kim c s
dung u tin. Gian pha Cu-Sn rt phc tap va co nhiu pha. Hp kim nay khi uc thin
tch rt manh v vy thng dung t hn 15%Sn nn ch co hai pha : dung dch rn va
pha in t .Chung gm hai loai : brng thic bin dang va uc. c im cua brng
thic la :
114
- bn cao, deo tt nn thng dung vi lng cha t 4-8%Zn.
-Tnh uc tt : t co ( co <1%) , in y khun cao.
-Chng n mon cao, c bit trong kh quyn m bin : 0,001mm/nm.
a-Brng thic bin dang : thng cha t hn 8%Sn t chc la dung dch rn va hp kim
hoa thm P, Zn,Pb nng cao c tnh, giam ma sat va tng tnh gia cng ct. Cng dung :
lam bac lot, banh rng (BCuSn4Zn4Pb4; BCuSn5Zn2Pb5).
b-Brng thic uc : la loai cha nhiu hn 10%Sn hay vi tng lng cac nguyn t hp
kim ln hn 12%. Thng dung cac loai sau : BCuSn10Zn2; BCuSn5Zn5Pb5. Cng dung:
lam cac tng ai, chung, phu iu, hoa tit trang tr...
2-Brng nhm :
La hp kim cua ng vi nhm la chu yu. T gian pha Cu-Al ta thy nhm
co th hoa tan ti a vao ng gn 10%. T chc cua no chu yu la dung dch rn thay th
cua Al trong Cu co deo va kha bn. Kha nng chng n mon cao trong nc bin va kh
quyn cng nghip.
Brng nhm mt pha (cha 5-9%Al) : BCuAl5, BCuAl7, BCuAl9Fe4 dung lam
b ngng hi, h thng trao i nhit, lo xo tai dong in, chi tit bm, dung cho hai
qun, uc tin xu...
Brng nhm hai pha (cha ln hn 9,4%Al) : co t chc la ( + ) co bn
cng cao hn va co th nhit luyn c nh BCuAl10Fe4Ni4 dung lam bac lot truc.
3-Brng berili :
La hp kim cua Cu vi 2%Be (BCuBe2) co gii han an hi cao khng thua kem
thep an hi (
h
= 1000MPa), co cng va tnh chng n mon cao lam vic n 300
o
C-
340
o
C. No khng phat ra tia la khi va p nn rt thun tin trong cng nghip khai thac
mo, lam cac thit b in nhit cao...
7.3.HOP KIM LAM TRUOT :
Mc du ln c s dung rt rng rai, nhng ngay nay cac loai trt vn co v
tr ang k trong may moc va thit b v chung co mt s u im nht nh : d ch tao, d
thay th, gia thanh thp va trong mt s trng hp ch co trt mi lp ghep c (truc
khuyu).
7.3.1.Yu cu di voi hop kim lam truot :
lam trt cac hp kim phai thoa man cac yu cu su y :
-Co h s ma sat nho vi b mt truc thep. y la yu cu quan trong nht i vi
hp kim lam trt. Do vy t chc cua no phai tao ra din tch tip xuc vi b mt truc
thep la nho nht va co khe h cha du bi trn. Hp kim c ch tao theo nguyn ly
hat cng (khoang 5%) phn b trn nn mm, y la loai thng dung nht. Ngoai ra co th
dung nguyn ly nn cng hat mm co h s ma sat ln hn. Trong qua trnh lam vic phn
mm b mon i va tao thanh ranh cha du bi trn.
-t lam mon truc thep va chu c ap lc cao. t lam mon truc thep trt
c lam t cac hp kim mm nh : Sn, Pb, Al, Cu... chu c ap lc cao va tit kim
kim loai mau cac trt c trang ln mang bng thep C08s.


115













Hnh 7.7-S cu tao cua hp kim trt

-Co tnh cng ngh tt, d uc, gia cng va bam dnh vao mang thep cao.
-Ga thanh re.
Cac hp kim lam trt c phn lam hai nhom : nhom co nhit nong chay thp va
nhom co nhit nong chay cao.
7.3.2.Hop kim lam truot co nhit d chay thp (babit) :
Cac hp kim lam trt trn c s cac kim loai co nhit nong chay thp nh :
Sn, Pb, Zn...co tn goi la babit (ly tn cua nha vt liu hoc ngi Anh tm ra u tin hp
kim nay la Babit). c tnh chung cua babit la rt mm t lam mon truc thep, h s ma sat
nho, gi du tt nhng khng chu c ap sut va nhit cao.
1-Babit thic :
La loai trt c s dung u tin co s kt hp tng i tt gia c tnh, tnh
ma sat va tnh chng n mon nhng qua t v cha nhiu thic. Chung c dung lam cac
trt quan trong vi tc ln va trung bnh nh : tua bin, ng c iden...Thng dung
nht la hai loai SnSb11Cu6 (83) va SnSb8Cu3 (89). T chc cua chung gm nn mm
la dung dch rn Sn(Sb) mau ti va hat cng la SnSb (hat a canh sang) Cu
3
Sn (kim sang).












b) a)
Hnh 7.8-T chc t vi cua 83(a ) va 89 (b)

116

2-Babt ch :
La hp kim trn c s ch vi 6-16%Sn, 6-16%Sb va 1%Cu. T chc cua no gm
nn mm la cung tinh (Pb+Sb) hat cng la SnSb va Cu
3
Sn. Hin tai s dung ph bin
PbSn6Sb6Cu1 ( 6) va PbSn16Sb16Cu1 ( 16) dung lam trt trong cac ng c xng
thay cho babit thic. Loai cha 6%Sb chu va p, loai 16%Sb do co nhiu hat cng hn
nn khng chu va p.
3-Babt nhm :
La hp kim trn c s nhm, y la loai hp kim trt co nhiu trin vong nht
v h s ma sat nho, nhe, tnh dn nhit cao, chng n mon cao trong du, c tnh cao, tuy
nhin tnh cng ngh kem (kho dnh bam vao mang thep). Thng dung nht la h Al-Sn vi
lng thic t 3 - 20%, ngoai ra co thm mt lng nho Cu, Ni, Si. T chc cua no gm
nn mm la dung dch rn trn c s Al va hat cng la cac hp cht hoa hoc trong dung
dch rn. Cac s hiu : AlSn9Cu1, AlSn20Cu1, AlSn3Cu1... dung trong cac ng c
iden chung co c im la chu c ap lc cao (200-300kG/cm
2
) va tc vong ln
(15-20m/s)
7.3.4.Hop kim lam truot co nhit d chay cao :
Nhom nay co c im chung la chu c ap lc cao va co bn ln. T chc
cua chung thng la nn cng hat mm hay nn dai hat mm, h s ma sat ln hn.
1-Brng thic :
Thng dung hai loai sau : BCuSn5Zn5Pb5 va BCuSn4Zn4Pb4 trong o Pb
khng tan ong vai tro hat mm, nn cng la dung dch rn cua Cu vi Sn,Zn.
2-Brng ch :
Thng dung nht la BCuPb30 vi cac phn t ch khng tan la cac hat mm, Cu la
nn dai (cng). Do nhiu ch nn c tnh thp do vy phai trang ln mang thep. nng
cao c tnh thng dung t ch (8-10%) va pha thm thic : BCuSn12Pb8, BCuSn10Pb10.
Chu ng c dung lam cac trt quan trong : tua bin cng sut ln.













Hnh 7.9- T chc t vi cua brng ch


117
3-Gang xam, deo, cu :
Co th dung cac loai gang xam, deo, cu nn peclit la cac trt. Trong o
graphit la cac ha mm, peclit la nn cng. Chung c dung lam cac trt khng quan
trong do h s ma sat ln, khng cn bi trn (v a co graphit). Theo tiu chun Nga co
cac s hiu sau : AC-1; A -2; A B-1; A B-2; A K-1; A K-2.




























118
CHUONG 8 : CAC VT LIU PHI KIM LOAI

8.1.VT LIU KT HOP (COMPOSIT) :
8.1.1.Khai nim va phn loai :
1-Khai nim : Vt liu com po zit la loai vt liu gm hai hay nhiu loai vt liu khac nhau
kt hp lai, trong o cac u im cua mi loai c kt hp vi nhau hoc tao nn mt cht
lng mi hoan toan ma nu ng ring le khng mt loai vt liu thanh phn nao co th
ap ng c
2-c im va phn loai :
*c im :
+La vt liu nhiu pha : trong o cac pha rn khac nhau v ban cht,
khng hoa tan ln nhau va phn cach vi nhau bng ranh gii pha. Ph bin nht la loa i
com po zit hai pha : pha lin tuc trong toan khi goi la nn, pha phn b gan oan, c
nn bao boc goi la ct.
+Trong vt liu composit ty l, hnh dang, kch thc, s phn b cua nn
va ct tun theo quy lut a thit k.
+Tnh cht cua cac pha thanh phn c kt hp lai tao nn tnh cht
chung cua composit. Ta la chon cac tnh cht tt phat huy thm.
*Phn loai :
-Phn loai theo ban cht cua nn :
+Composit nn cht deo (composit polymerit)
+Composit nn kim loai (composit metallit)
+Composit nn gm (Composit ceramic)
+Composit nn la hn hp cua hai hay nhiu pha.
-Phn loai theo hnh hoc cua ct hoc c im cu truc :
Composit

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Ct hat Ct si Composit cu truc

-------------- ------------------- ----------------------------

Hat Hat Lin Gian Lp Tm T ong
th mn tuc oan 3 lp
3-Tnh cht cua vt liu composit :
a-C tnh ring :
Ta khao sat mt thanh chu keo doc, ung tm.




119
P
l

Quan h gia lc P va bin dang l c biu din nh sau :
P =
EF
l
l
Trong o : - E la m un an hi cua vt liu (m un Young)
la
min an
hi. Ta xet hai loai vt l l cac cng se la :
- F la tit din ngang
- l chiu dai thanh
- l la dan dai tuyt i
cng ke o (nen) EF/l c trng cho tnh cht c hoc cua thanh trong
iu khac nhau, ky hiu la 1 va 2, ty
1 1 1 2
.
K E F l
= (8-1
2
K
Ty l khi lng cu c biu din nh sau :
2 2 1
E F l
)
a hai thanh

1 1 1 1
.
m Fl
2 2 2 2
F l m
= (8-2)
T biu thc (8-1) va (8-2) ta suy ra :

2
1 1 1 1 2
2 2 2 2 1
/ K E
. .
/
m l
K E m l

=


(8-3)
Trong mt kt cu vi cac chi tit co kch thc cho trc, ta so sanh cng cua
kt cu khi l
1
= l
2
nn t (8-3) ta co :

1 1 1 1
.
/ E m
2 2 2 2
/ K E m
K

= (8-4)
Trong cac lnh vc cng nghip : hang khng, vu tru, th thao, xy d g ...ta cn
so sanh tnh nng c hoc cua cac kt cu co cung khi lng : m
n
1
= m
2
, ta co :

1 1
/ K E
1
2 2 2
/ K E

= (8-5)
T (8-5) ta thy rng mt vt liu c coi la tt hn kh co gia tr E/ cao hn,
thanh cao hn. ai lng E/ co ngha la se co cng cua c goi la m un ring cua
t liu ( v hay m un Young ring).
Tng t nh vy nu goi
b
la ng sut pha huy cua vt liu th ai lng
b
/
c goi la ng sut ring (hay bn ring).
b-C tnh ring cua vt liu :
Ta khng th s dung trc tip cac si ct v ng knh cua chung qua nho (10
n 20 m) v vy cn phai trn si vi nha polyme (nn) c vt liu composit ct
si. N co chc nng lin kt, bao v va truyn lc cho si. Vn quan trong la phai tm
c ca vt liu va co m un cao, khi lng ring nho va gia thanh hp ly.


n
c




120
CO TINH RING CU S VT LIU TH G

V M un E
(GPa)
ng sut
pha huy
A MT NG DUN
t liu
b
(MPa)
Kh ng
ring
)
M un
ring E
i l
3
m ( / kg

/
(MNm/kg)
n
ring
b
b

(kNm/kg)
Thep 210 340-2100 7800 26,9 43-270
Hp kim
nhm
70 140-620 2700 25,9 52-230
G 30 - 390 33,3 -
T 70 700-2100 2500 28 280-840 huy tinh
Von fram 250 1100-4100 57-210 19300 18,1
Beryli 300 700 1830 164 380
Si thuy
tinh E

Si thuy
tinh S
72,4

85,5
3500

4600
2540

2480
28,5

34,5
1380

1850
S
u
i C ng 240 3500 1850 130 1800
i C m
n cao
390

2100

1900

205

1100

S
sut cao
Si kevlar 130 2800 1500 87 1870
Si bo 385 2800 2630 146 1100

8.1.2.Ct :
*Trong toan khi composit th ct phn b khng lin tuc va rt a dang, phu
thuc vao loai compo sit cn ch tao.
hi ln, khi lng ring nho.
c loai vt liu ct : Kim loai ( thep khng r, W, B, Mo...), cht v c (cac
nh n
omposit thng nht.
*Tao kha nng tin hanh ca c phng phap gia cngvt liu compo sit thanh cac
hi tit thit k.
do tac dung cua mi trng.

*Vi loai compo sit kt cu : ct la cac kim loai bn nhit thng va nhit
cao, co m un an
*Ca
bon, thuy tinh, gm).
*Hnh dang, kch thc, ham lng va s phn b cua ct anh hng rt ma
tnh cht composit.
8.1.3.Nn :
Nn co vai tro sau y :
*Lin kt toan b cac phn t ct thanh mt khi c

c
*Che phu, bao v ct tranh cac h hong
Vt liu nn : polyme, kim loai, gm va hn hp.

121
122
u trong nn.
n, trn nha..
hun keo, khun dp...Ngoai ra con co cac hp kim gia :
a,
a xi mng pooc lng s dung rng rai trong xy dng nha ca, cac cng trnh...
-Composit hat mn : cac phn t ct co kch tc rt nho < 0,1
8.1.4.Cac loai vt liu composit thng dung:
1-Composit hat : Cu tao gm cac phn t ct dang hat ng truc phn b
Cac phn t ct la cac pha cng va bn hn nn : xyt, nitrit, cac bit...
-Composit hat th nn polyme : hat ct la thach anh, thuy tinh, stalit, xyt
nhm...c s dung ph bin trong sinh hoat : ca, tng ng
-Composit hat th nn kim loai : hat ct la cac phn t cng : WC, TiC, TaC nn
la Co dung lam dung cu ct got, k
W-Cu, W-Ag, Mo-Cu, Mo-Ag...s dung trong ky thut in.
-Composit hat th nn gm : in hnh la b tng. Ct la tp hp ca c hat rn :
soi... lin kt bi nn la xi mng.
B tng at phan (nn la xi mng atphan) dung rai ng, lam cu, cng...B tng
vi nn l
m, cng va n
nh nhit cao, phn b trn nn kim loai hay hp kim, c s dung trong lnh vc nhit
cao.

Hnh 8.1- S phn b ct si:
a) Mt chiu song song;b) Ngu nhin, ri trong mt mt
c) Dt hai chiu vung goc trong mt mt;
d) an, qun 3 chiu vung goc

























2-Composit si : y la loai vt liu kt cu quan trong nht, hin ang nghin cu va s
dung ph bin. Cu tao cua no gm ct dang si phn b trong nn theo quy lut a thit
g dung :mui xe hi, ca, thung xe lanh, sitec,
h tau
ime, nn la polime. Cng dung : vt liu
ay bay...
(luyn kim bt). Sau khi thiu kt
.2.2.D
t liu. Pha tinh th thng dung la : xyt, nitrit, borit, cac
y tinh (v nh hnh) la cht lin kt cac hat lai vi nhau, chim ty l t 1-
0% th
n). Pha kh thng gp la cac l xp h.
.
thng dung :
r
k. Gm cac loai sau y :
-Composit si thuy tinh : hin tai la loai vt liu thng dung nht, ct la si thuy
tinh, nn la polieste, i khi dung baklit. Cn
mui may bay, vo bao v bung lai tau vu tru.
-Composit si cac bon : Ct la si cac bon, hay si cac bon thuy tinh. Nn la
pxi-ph non, polieste hay cac bon. Cng dung : thn may bay qun s, phn lai can
bay, thung xe hi, cng nghip tau thuy, v t liu cach nhit cua ng c, a ma sat...
-Composit si hu c : Ct la cac si pol
cach nhit, cach in, cac kt cu t, m
8.2.VT LIU CERAMIC (GM) :
8.2.1.Khai nim : la vt liu v c c ch tao bng cach dung nguyn liu dang hat
(bt) ep thanh hnh va thiu kt tao thanh san phm
vt liu ceramic a co ngay cac c ly hoa tnh cn thit.
8 c dim: Trong vt liu ceramic bao gi cung tn tai ba pha :
-Pha tinh th (pha hat) dang hp cht hoa hoc hay dung dch rn, la pha chu yu
quyt nh ca c tnh cht cua v
bit hay kim loai nguyn cht.
-Pha thu
4 tch.
-Pha kh : do c ch tao bng luyn kim bt nn trong san phm bao gi cung
co l xp nht nh, trong o cha cac kh va tao thanh pha kh. Pha nay anh hng rt ln
n mt s tnh cht cua vt liu. ( bn keo, u
Nu la cac l xp kn se lam giam manh bn
8.2.3.Cac loai vt liu ceramic
1-Ceramic xp lam tm loc :
Thng dung nht la loai ce a mic xp vi hat hnh cu, co xp 30-40% co kha
nng loc cac tap cht c hat n 10 m. Nu dung loai hat khng phai hnh cu xp at
c 60-70% loc c tap cht c 1-2 m.
Cng dung : -Cac loc trn c s brng : loc nhin liu long, du, khng kh, nc.
h chay.
it sunphurc, nitrit, clohydrit.
canh cua may bay. Do vy lam tng
,5%.
-Cac loc bng thep khng r : loc kh lo cao, khng kh, a xit, kim.
-Cac loc bng titan : loc a xit acetit, nc cng toan, cac k
-Cac loc bng tantan : loc a x
2-Ceramic xp cng dung c bit :
La ceramic trn c s bt thep khng r Cr12Ni9 va cac hp kim trn c s Ni,
Co, W, Mo dung chng ong bng trn ui va
thm cng sut ng c t 0,5-1
3-Ceramic xp chng ma sat :
Cac trt ch tao t ceramic xp re tin hn cac loai babit. c im cua ce
ramic xp chng ma sat la do co cac l xp (20-35% th tch) cha du bi trn, n nh
123
trong sut qua trnh lam vic. Vi ap lc khng ln va tc vong nho, du cha trong cac
l xp u am bao cho may lam vic lu dai ma khng cn cho thm du m. Cng dung :
t xong em ngm trong du nong vi thi gian t 40-90 gi
-Sn : dung 90% bt ng trn vi 10% b t thic, cho thm 1-3%

trt khng cn bi trn trong mi trng khng kh,
i a xit.
4-Vt l
h rng, cam, banh coc, vong bi, mm
bm ca
n t Cu, Ni, Cr, P. Thng dung nht hin nay la hp kim Fe-Cu, Fe-Ni khng co
cac bon
nht
la trn
ng dung : lam cac chi in, tip im, mang loc, chi tit chu ma
sat va c
tng i tt. Cng dung : lam cac chi tit cach m trong may bay, ba nh a may
T LIU HUU CO) :
hn t cua nhiu hp phn c ban
ut ph
h cht ma chung thay i khng ang k khi ly i hoc thm vao mt vai n
ach phn loai khac nhau :
s dung chu yu trong cng nghip dt va thc phm. Gm co cac loai sau :
-Hp kim trn c s st (bac st xp) : chu yu dung bt st, trn thm 0,3-3%
graphit ngoai ra co th cho thm : bt can xi (2,5-10%) hay lu huynh (0,8-1%), 4% ZnS
hay 3,5% CuS. Sau khi thiu k
tuy theo yu cu ngm du.
-Hp kim trn c s ng : thng dung hp kim Cu-Sn, Cu-Sn-Pb-Zn. Ph bin
nht la loai hp kim Cu
graphit giam ma sat.
-Vt liu xp kim loai -cht deo :
Bng cach tm cac cht deo : flo, teflon, fluoran ln b mt cac trt bng la tng,
thep khng r...Cng dung : lam
nc, xng du, mt s loa
iu ceramic c :
Loai vt liu nay co mt cao va bn cao gn xp x vt liu ren, uc. u im
ni bt cua no la co th san xut hang loat cac chi tit phc tap, co dung sai nho va khng
cn gia cng tip sau o. Cng du ng : ch tao ban
nh quat, ai c c bit... G m cac loai sau :
-Vt liu trn c s st : Dung bt st thun tuy hay hp kim st cac bon, pha thm
cac nguy
.
-Vt liu trn c s kim loai mau : Ceramic trn c s kim loaimau thng dung
c s Cu-Al. Trong cac lnh vc c bit con s dung trn c s Ti, Zr, Be, U..
*Vt liu trn c s bt ng : dung bt ng hay la tng, brng co pha thm
starat Li, starat Zn . C
hng mai mon.
*Vt liu trn c s bt ch : loai nay co khi lng ring ln, chng n mon cao,
cach m
in nho...
8.3.VT LIU POLYME (V
8.3.1.Khai nim v polyme :
1-nh ngha : Polyme (con goi la cao phn t) la p
(x at t ting Hylap c, poly : nhiu, me : phn).
-Theo nh ngha cua lin hip quc t v hoa c ban va ng dung : polyme la mt
hp cht gm cac phn t c hnh thanh do s lp lai nhiu ln cua mt loai hay nhiu
loai nguyn t hay mt nhom nguyn t, lin kt vi nhau vi s lng kha ln tao nn
mt loai tn
v cu tao.
2-Phn loa i polyme : co nhiu c
a-Theo ngun gc hnh thanh :
124
-Polyme thin nhin : co ngun gc thc vt hay ng vt : xenlul, enzim, cao
su, aming, graphit thin nhin ....
-Polyme tng hp (nhn tao) : c san xut t nhng loai monome bng cach
g nh cac loai polyolephin, polyvinylclorit, polyamit, va cao su nhn
hanh phn :
c ban cua chung khng co
u c phn t (ch co mt phn hu c) : Trong mach c ban cua chung
i vi cac g c hu c : metyl (-CH
3
), phenol (-
n c (loai nay co polytylen PE, polyamid PA).
xy, phenon -formalehyt).
-Polyme mang li : Cac mach canh nhau trong polyme nay c ni vi nhau
ng lin kt ng hoa tr ((cac loai cao su lu hoa)

trung hp, trung ngn
tao. y la loai quan trong nht, c s dung rt rng rai trong thc t.
b-Theo t
-Polyme hu c : la polyme co mach c ban la mt hydrocacbon (cac cht deo va
cao su)
-Polyme v c : la cac polyme ma trong mach
hydrocacbon. Thanh phn c ban cua polyme v c la : xyt silic, xyt nhm, xyt can
xy va xyt ma gi (thuy tinh silicat, gm, mica, aming...)
-Polyme h
cha cac nguyn t v c : Si, Ti, Al va n
C
6
H
5
), etyl (-C
2
H
5
)
c-Theo cu truc (hnh dang ai phn t) :
-Polyme mach thng : ai phn t cua no la cac chui cac mt xch ni lin nhau
theo ng dch dc hay hnh xo
-Polyme mach nhanh : la loai mach thng nhng trong ai phn t cua no co thm
cac nhanh (polyizobutylen PIB)
-Polyme khng gian : Cac monome co ba nhom hoat ng tao nn polyme khng
gian ba chiu, co tnh c, ly, nhit c bit. (nha po

b


Hnh 8.2- Cu truc khai quat cua polyme mach thng (a) , nhanh (b),
mang li (c) va khng gian (d). Cac nut tron la cac me.
















125
d-Phn loai theo tnh chu nhit :
-Polyme nhit deo : Thng thng la cac polyme mach thng. nhit xac nh
chung co th chay, tr thanh deo va nho hn nhit nay chung rn tr lai. y la loai
o lm, nhit
dung : Chia ra cac loai cht deo, si, cao su, sn va keo.
ng phn t ln va phn cc manh th chung khng hoa tan trong
ua polyme : C tnh cua polyme phu thuc vao cu tao, nhit va cac trang
i
polyme co gia tr thng mai quan trong nht hin nay.
-Polyme nhit rn : La cac polyme co khi lng phn t khng ca
cao chung khng khng th chay mm va khng hoa tan trong dung mi.
e-Phn loai theo lnh vc s
3-Tnh cht cua polyme :
a-Tnh nong chay va hoa tan : Do khi lng phn t ln nn polyme khng th bin sang
trang thai kh. Khi nung nong chung khng th chuyn thanh cht long co nh t thp
(sn st). Nu trong l
bt ky dung mi nao.
b-C tnh c
thai vt ly.
-Bin dang di tac dung cua lc : m un an hi, g i han bn keo, tnh deo va
dan dai cua polyme c xac nh tng t nh kim loai.
b
keo khoang 100MPa,
gian dai tng i cc ai khoang 1000% (kim loai ti a 100%). Khi nhit tng m
c dung cua tai trong co chu ky, tuy
ng cua lc va p, nhit va kch
co kch th c theo tiu
m vic cua bao b, vo boc dy in...
t v theo thi gian. Thng dung nht la s xy hoa
hi lng ring) : mt s plyme ln hn kim loai
-Tnh cht nhit : Dn nhit rt thp, thng lam cht cach nhit di dang bot,
un an hi giam, bn keo giam, deo tng.
-Tng tc bin dang lam tng tnh deo va co th bin dang d hng.
- bn moi : co th b pha huy moi di ta
nhin gii han moi nho hn rt nhiu so vi kim loai.
- dai va p : phu thuc vao iu kin tac du
thc mu. Nhn chung dai va p cua polyme nho.
- bn xe : la nng lng cn thit xe rach mt mu
chun, quyt nh kha nng la
c-Cac tnh cht khac :
-Tnh cht lao hoa : la hin tng cng tng dn, mt dn tnh an hi va deo
dn ti polyme b don, cng va n
polyme bi xy cua kh quyn.
-Khi lng ring : khng cao lm 0,9-2,2G/cm
2
tuy tng loai.
- bn ring ( bn keo/k
(Nylon 6,6 co bn ring la 71 km.

mut...
-Tnh cht in : in tr sut rt cao 10
15
-10
18
/ cm, la cht cach in tuyt vi.
-Tnh cht quang : mt s polyme co th truyn anh sang. Mun vay chung phai
, polyeste PET truyn sang 90%).
t liu co th bin dang ma khng b pha huy va co th
t.
b-Cac cht deo thng dung :
dang v nh hnh (poly cacbonat PC truyn sang 80%
8.3.2.Cac loai polyme thng dung va cng dung :
1-Cht deo : la loai vt liu co s lng va san lng cao nht hin nay.
a-Khai nim : Cht deo la laoi v
nh hnh vi ap lc thp nh
126
-Acrylonitrit - butadien - styren (ABS) tn thng mai :marbon, cycolac, lustran
abson. Cng dung : m lot tu lanh, chi, dung cu lam vn.
-Acrylic (polymetymet-acrylat) PMA, tn thng mai lucite, plexigalass. Cng
dung : knh, ca may bay, dung cu o ac, thit k
-Flocacbon PTFE hay TFE, tn thng mai teflon TFE, halon TFE. Cng dung :
van cac loai, ng ng, m chu hoa cht, cht boc chng n mon, chi tit in t lam
vic nhit cao.
-Polyamit PA, tn thng mai : nylon, zytel, plaskon. Cng dung : trt, banh
rng, ban chai, tay cm, vo boc dy in, dy cap...
-Polycacbonat PC, tn thng mai merlon, lexan. Cng dung : mt na an toan,
chao en, knh, nn cho phim anh.
-Polystyren PS, tn thng mai styren, luxtrex, rexolite. Cng dung : hp c quy,
bang in trong nha, chi, tng nha, dung cu gia nh...
-Vinyl PVC, tn thng mai PVC, pliovic, saran, tygon. Cng dung : boc dy in
bng ghi m, tham trai san nha, ng ng...
-Phenolc : tn thng mai epon, epirez, araldite. Cng dung : boc cac m t in,
vo in thoai, dung cu in.
-Polyeste : tn thng mai selectron, laminac, paraplex. Cng dung : mt s chi
tit trong t, gh cac loai, vo va thn quat in, thuyn composit, mt na.
-Silicon : tn thng mai nha DC. Cng dung : vt liu cach in nhit cao.
2-Elastome : Thng dung nht la cac loai cao su tng hp : cao su styren - butadien (SBR),
nitrit-butadien (NBR), cao su silicon.
-Polyisopren : tn thng mai cao su t nhin (NR). Cng dung : sm, lp, ng,
m...
-Copolymestyren - butadien : tn thng mai GRB, buna S (SBR). Cng dung :
nh loai trn
-Copolyme acrilontrit - butadien : tn thng mai buna A, nitril (NBR). Cng
dung : ng mm dung trong du hoa, hoa cht, du m, got giay...
-Clopren : tn thng mai neopren (CR). Cng dung : boc dy cach in, thit b
hoa cht, bng chuyn, cac loai ng, m ...
-Polysiloxan : tn thng mai silicon. Cng du ng : cach in nhit cao, thp.
dung trong y t, cht tram ng ng trong cng nghip thc phm.
8.4.THUY TINH :
Trong phn nay ta ch nghin cu thuy tinh v c hay con goi la thuy tinh silicat
v c ch tao chu yu trn c SiO
2
. Thuy tinh silicat chia ra lam hai nhom ln : thuy tinh
v c (dang v nh hnh) va xitan (co cu tao tinh th)
8.4.1.Thuy tinh v co :
La dang cu tao c bit cua cac dung dch ng c, la mt khi nong chay phc
tap co nht cao cua cac xyt a xit va xyt baz.
1-Cu tao cua thuy tinh :
Trang thai thuy tinh hoa la mt dang ring cua trang thai v nh hnh cua vt
cht. Khi chuyn t trang thai long sang trang thai rn v nh hnh trong qua trnh ngui
127
nhanh va tng nht th t chc khng trt t , c trng cua trang thai long c gi
nguyn lai trong trang thai rn. Do o thuy tinh vo c co cu truc bn trong la khng trt t
va khng ng nht. B son thuy tinh hoa cua thuy tinh la mt mang li khng gian
khng co quy lut, tao ra bi cac hnh trc thoi cua xyt silic [SiO
4
] (hnh 6.1-109) .
4
Trong thanh phn thuy tinh v c gm co : xit silic, bo, pht pho, giecmani,
asen thuy tinh hoa tao nn mang li cu truc, cac xyt natri, ka li, can xi, magi, ba ri lam
thay i cac tnh cht hoa ly cua no. Ngoai ra con co cac xyt nhm, st, ch, titan, be
ri...lam cho thuy tinh co cac tnh cht ky thut cn thit. Tom lai thuy tinh cng nghip la
mt h thng nhiu nguyn phc tap.
2-Phn loai thuy tinh :
a-Theo ban cht hoa hoc :
-Thuy tinh alumosilicat (Al
2
O
3
.SiO
2
)
-Thuy tinh bosilicat (B
2
O
3
.SiO
2
)
-Thuy tinh alumobosilicat (Al
2
O
3
.B
2
O
3
.SiO
2
)
-Thuy tinh alumophotphat (Al
2
O
3
.P
2
O
5
)
b-Theo lng cha cac cht bin tnh :
-Thuy tinh kim (cha cac xyt K
2
O, Na
2
O)
-Thuy tinh khng kim.
-Thuy tinh thach anh.
c-Theo cng dung :
-Thuy tinh ky thut ( thuy tinh quang hoc, ky thut in, th nghim ..)
-Thuy tinh xy dng (thuy tinh lam ca, tu knh, gach thuy tinh...)
-Thuy tinh sinh hoat (chu, bat, a, gng soi..)
3-Tnh cht cua thuy tinh :
a-Thuy tinh co tnh cht v hng.
b-C tnh :
Co bn nen cao (50-200kG/mm
2
), gii han bn keo rt thp (3-9kG/mm
2
), gii
han bn un rt thp (5-15kG/mm
2
), m un an hi cao (4500-10000kG/mm
2
), dai va
p thp (1,5-2,5 kG.cm/cm
2
).
c-Tnh cht quang hoc :
Tnh trong sut, phan xa, tan xa, hp thu va khuc xa anh sang.
d-H s gian n nhit nho, tnh chu nhit tng i cao (xac nh bi nhit ma tai o
lam ngui nhanh thuy tinh trong nc n 0
o
C ma khng b nt).
8.4.2.Xitan :
1-Khai nim v xitan :
Xitan la vt liu th rn a tinh th, c tao thanh bng cach kt tinh nh hng
thuy tinh. Tn goi xitan la do ghep hai t silicium va cristal co ngha la thuy tinh tinh th
hay gm thuy tinh.
Ch tao xitan bng cach nu chay me liu thuy tinh co thanh phn xac nh va pha
thm cht xuc tac tao mm kt tinh. Sau o lam ngui n trang thai deo, tao hnh theo
yu cu va cho kt tinh. Qua trnh kt tinh goi la xitan hoa.
128
Thanh phn me liu thuy tinh ch tao xitanco cac loai xyt LiO
2
, Al
2
O
3,
, SiO
2
,
MgO, CaO...cung cac cht tao mm Au, Ag, Cu nm l lng trong thuy tinh long di
dang keo.
2-Tchc va tnh cht cua xitan :
-T chc cua xi tan co nhiu pha, gm cac hat cua mt hay mt s loai tinh th
khac nhau, gia cac pha tinh th la mt lp thuy tinh (dang v nh hnh). Lng pha tinh
th trong khoang t 30-95%.
-Tnh cht : tnh cht cua xitan c quyt nh bi t chc va thanh phn gia
cac pha. Xitan co tnh ng hng, chu mai tt, t khuyt tt b mt, khng co r xp va t
co.
3-Phn loai xitan : Xi tan c chia lam ba loai
-Xitan quang hoc : c ch tao t thuy tinh h Li co cht tao mm la cac cht
nhum dang keo. Khi chiu cac tia cc tm hay tia rnghen vao se say ra qua trnh hoa
quang hoc. Qua trnh kt tinh xay ra khi nung lai san phm.
-Xitan nhit : c ch tao t thuy tinh h MgO-Al
2
O
3
- SiO
2
, CaO-Al
2
O
3
-SiO
2
...vi
cht tao mm la TiO
2
, FeS. Cu truc tinh th cua xitan c hnh thanh khi nhit luyn lai
chi tit.(Nung cao hn nhit t va lam ngui nhanh trong dong kh nen hay du).
o
tt
-Xitan x : nhn c t x lo cao va co thm cht bin tnh nh : cac mui
sunphat, bt st...
4-Cng dung :
Xitan dung lam , cac chi tit trong ng c t trong, vo dung cu in t, ng
dn trong cng nghip hoa, canh may nen kh, voi phun ng c phan lc, dung cu o ...
8.4.3.Nu thuy tinh :
1-Nguyn liu nu thuy tinh :
a-Nguyn liu chnh :
-Cat trng hay cat thach anh la tt nht cung cp SiO .
2
-Na
2
CO
3
va Na
2
SO
4
cung cp Na
2
O, thm vao K
2
CO
3
tao ra K
2
O. Hai xyt
nay ha thp nhit chay, tng hoa tan va tc kh bot
-a vi, lmit (CaCO
3
.MgCO
3
), BaCO
3
, BaSO
4
tao ra CaO, MgO, BaO giup
cho kh bot d dang va co tac dung hoa hoc tt hn.
b-Nguyn liu phu :
-Cht tao mau : nhom nay co tac dung tao mau cho thuy tinh theo y mun, gm
kha nhiu cht tuy theo yu cu v mau sc. V du : MnO
2
tao mau tm, Cr
2
O
3
cho mau luc
vang, FeO cho mau xanh...
-Cht kh mau : do mt s tap cht lam cho thuy tinh co mt s mau nh xanh
lam, vang nhat... Luc nay phai dung cac cht kh mau : xyt asenc, xyt ngtimoan, i
xyt xri, xyt c ban, slen, xyt niken...
-Cht xy hoa va cht kh : dung khi nu thuy tinh mau. Cht xy hoa : perxit
mangan, cht kh : mat ca, than a, tacrat kali a xit (KHC
4
H
4
O
6
)...
-Cht gy uc : dung khi cn tao thuy tinh uc ta cho thm vao hp cht cua
ngtimoan, thic, pht pho...
-Cht kh bot : ixit x ri, trixyt asenic ...
129
2-Qua trnh nu thuy tinh : Gm nm giai oan sau :
-Giai oan tao silicat (Na
2
SiO
3
)
-Giai oan tao thuy tinh.
-Giai oan kh bot
-Giai oan ng nht hoa.
-Giai oan lam ngui.
8.4.4.Cac loai thuy tinh :
1-Thuy tinh dn dung :
a-Thuy tinh bao b :
Yu cu cua thuy tinh bao b la : bn hoa hoc cao, khng phan ng vi cac cht
cha bn trong bn c hoc cao, chu c va cham, chu c ap sut va s thay i t
ngt v nhit . Thuy tinh bao b c phn ra lam hai loai :
-Loai ming hep (ng knh trong < 30 mm) : cac loai chai bia, ru, nc ngot,
thuc...
-Loai ming rng (ng knh trong > 30 mmm) : cac lo, bnh, chu ...
b-Thuy tinh bat a, pha l :
Yu cu cua thuy tinh bat a , pha l :
-Phai ch tao t thuy tinh trong sut khng mau.
-Khng co cac khuyt tt : vn si, bot va bong kh
-B mt phai sach bong, mep canh khng c sc nhon
Cng dung : cc un nc, ly ru,lo hoa, chum en, bat a...
2-Thuy tinh chu nhit va tac dung hoa hoc :
Noi chung cac loai thuy tinh u co kha nng chu tac dung hoa hoc va chu nhit
nht nh, nhng loai thuy tinh nay dung lam cac dung cu chu nhit cao hn nhiu va
lam vic trong mi trng chu tac dung hoa ho c manh. Hi n nay s du ng ph bin nht la
loai thuy tinh trn c s bn cu t : SiO
2
-Al
2
O
3
-CaO-MgO co pha thm hp cht flo d
nu chay va mt t xyt kim loai. Gm co cac loai :
a-Thuy tinh lam dung cu th nghim :
Loai thuy tinh nay thuc h hiu cu t kha phc tap, thanh phn cua no gm : B-
2
O, Al
2
O
3
, ZnO, BaO va pha thm TiO
2
, ZrO
2
. No co kha nng chu tac dung hoa hoc tt va
chu nhit kha cao.
Cng dung : ng nghim, cc t, lo ng hoa cht, pipet, bu ret ...
b-Thuy tinh lam ng ng thuc (m pun) :
y la loai thuy tinh trung tnh khng tac dung hoa hoc pha huy thuc. Trong
thanh phn khng c cha cac o xyt kim loai nng PbO, ZnO, Sb
2
O
3
, As
2
O
3
.
c-Thuy tinh lam nhit k :
La loai thuy tinh kho nu chay khng co tnh kim hay t kim. Trong thanh phn
cua no co cha yt nhm va xyt kim loai kim th cao.
d-Thuy tinh thach anh :
c nu t a thach anh t nhin hay cat thach anh tinh khit. c chia lam hai
loai : thach anh khng trong sut c nu t cac thach anh (co nhiu bot kh nho) va thach
anh trong sut c nu t thach anh thin nhin.
130
Cng dung : lam thap c c trong cng nghip hoa hoc, lam vo lo nung, ng bao
v nhit k, vt cach in, en chiu tia t ngoai...
3-Thuy tinh quang hoc :
a-Yu cu cua thuy tinh quang hoc
-Hng s quang hoc phu hp vi yu cu
-Khng co tnh lng chit hay ch trong gii han cho phep.
-Tnh cht quang hoc phai ng nht.
-Khng co bot, khng b tan xa, khuc xa...
-Trong sut, khng mau.
-Chu hoa hoc va chu nhit tt
b-Cng dung : lam cac dung cu quang hoc nh knh lup, knh hin vi, thin vn ...
4-Thuy tinh in chn khng :
a-Yu cu :
-Cach in tt, khng thm thu kh.
-Co th cho qua anh sang trong vung nhn thy c va quang ph hng ngoai.
-Khi t nong d tao hnh va han kn.
-Tnh chu nhit va hoa hoc cao.
-Tnh gian n tng ng cac kim loai thng dung trong ky thut in chn khng
nh : W, Mo, Pt, hp kim Fe, Ni Co...
b-Cng dung : Lam bong en, c en, bugi, vo ng phat in t, bung man hnh TV
(kinescp) ...
c-Cac loai thuy tinh in chn khng :
-Thuy tinh nhom platin : co h s gian n tng t platin, lam chn en, c
kinescp, bong en, dung cu in quang...
-Thuy tinh nhom mlipen : h s gian n tng t Mo, dung lam ng rnghen,
ng cach dy dn, cach in trong dung cu ban dn, ca s b nhn quang in...
-Thuy tinh nhom vonphram : co nhit nong chay cao va goc tn tht in mi
nho, dung lam bong en tron, c tu chn khng, vo en thu khuch ai, en phat...
5-Si thuy tinh :
T thuy tinh thach anh, thuy tinh co ham lng SiO
2
cao tin hanh keo si co
ng knh t 3-30m vi chiu dai theo yu cu. Si thuy tinh dung lam vt liu cach
in, cach nhit, lam ct trong vt liu composit, cap quang ...
6-Thuy tinh xy dng :
c s dung rng rai trong cac cng trnh xu dng, gm thuy tinh tm va gach
thuy tinh khng mau hoc co mau sc theo yu cu. Chung c dung lam ca, tm lat,
tng (phn ly anh sang), cac ni trang tr...
7-Thuy tinh c bit :
a-Thuy tinh phong v (phong ng):
La cac loai thuy tinh dung lam cac man chn, ca s trong cac may co phat ra cac
tia X, , , ...u im cua thuy tinh phong v la co th ngn c cac tia bc xa co hai,
khi lng nho va cho phep ta quan sat c cac hoat ng cua thit b o.
*Yu cu cua thuy tinh phong v :
131
-Co trong sut cao, khng mau, khng bot, vn
-Co ham lng ch cao.
-Chu c tac dung cua tia . Hu ht cac loai thuy tinh thng khi b tac dung
cua tia u b nhum mau, kt tinh do o mt kha nng tuyn anh sang.
*Cac h thuy tinh phong v :
-PbO - CdO - SiO
2
hut trung t va tia
-CdO - BaO - B
2
O
3
hut trung t
-PbO - Nb
2
O
3
- P
2
O
5
hut trung t rt tt.
-PbO - Bi
2
O
3
- SiO
2
hut tia X, tia rt manh .
-PbO - B
2
O
3
- Ta
2
O
5
hut tia
b-Thuy tinh cam quang :
La loai thuy tinh khi chiu cac tia bc xa vao mau sc cua no khng thay i,
nhng nu tip sau o em t nong x ly nhit vi thi gian khac nhau mau sc se ni
ln m nhat khac nhau. Cht cam quang thng dung : Cu, Au, Ag, Ba...
Cng dung : dung trong in n, cng nghip in t, vt liu anh, trang tr, my
phm ....
8.5.CAO SU :
8.5.1.Khai nim va phn loai :
1-Khai nim : Cao su la mt plyme hu c ma nhit thng no co tnh an hi
cao (kha nng chu bin dang an hi nhit thng n 1000%), chu keo tt, chu nen
kem, khng thm kh, nc, n nh trong ca c mi trng ty ra, cach in tt, co mt
thp.
V cu tao : cao su la mt plyme co cac phn t v gii han, co mt mi ni i
gia cac cac bon trong mach nguyn t cua ai phn t. Khi lng phn t ln 400000-
450000. ai phn t co mach thng hay mach nhanh yu, gm cac mt xch ring bit co
xu hng gp lai thanh cum, co th tich nho.

Hnh 8.3 - Cng thc cu tao cua cao su








V tnh cht : Cao su la polyme nhit deo. Do s co mt trong cac phn t cao su
cac mi lin kt v han bao am nhng iu kin nht nhchuyn sang trang thai n
nh nhit. Khi cho lu huynh vao cao su, cac nguyn t lu huynh hoa tr hai tach mi ni
kep gia hai nguyn t cac bon trong mach chnh ni cac mach cao su vi nhau theo
hng ct ngang. Nguyn t lu huynh co vai tro nh chic cu gia cac phn t cao su do
o nhn c cac mach khng gian goi la cao su c lu hoa. Tuy theo lng lu huynh
a vao cao su ma day c cua mach li co khac nhau. Vi t 1-5% lu huynh cao su
132
co mach li tha, mm, an hi cao. Lng lu huynh tng ln mach cao su tr nn day
c hn, tnh cht cng hn va khi at lng ti a 30% cao su bao hoa lu huynh tr nn
cng va khng an hi c, goi la bnit.
2-Phn loai :
-Cao su thin nhin
-Cao su tng hp.
Trong cao su tng hp lai chia ra hai loai:
-Theo cng dung co :
+Cao su tng hp cng dung chung
+Cao su tng hp cng dung c bit
-Theo cu tao hoa hoc chia ra 3 loai :
+Cao su co cu tao iu chnh c
+Cao su trung hp
+Cao su c bit
8.5.2.Cao su thin nhin :
Cao su thin nhin c ly t nha cua mt loai cy rng ngun gc t cac rng
nhit i chu My la tinh va chu A, tn goi la hva. Nha cy hva chay ra co tn goi la
latex. Latex la mt hn hp mau trng, uc co khoang 40% hat cao su kh nm l lng
trong nc, co cha mt s cht hoa tan. Cac hat cao su kh co kch thc t 0,159m n
6m. Latex ch n nh sau khi chay ra khoi cy trong mt thi gian ngn, sau o bt u
keo tu, hat cao su tach ra khoi pha long va co mui hi. D ngn nga s keo tu ta cho thm
vao latex 0.15%NH
3
va no se n nh lu dai. Nha latex c c c lai, ly tm tach phn
nc ra va can thanh tm mong goi la crp. R a sach va sy kh crp nhit 40-45
0
C
bng khoi. Sau khi sy crp co mau vang nn goi la crp khoi. Nu khi c c cho vao
latex 1%Na
2
SO
3
khi keo tu H
2
SO
4
tach ra ty trng cao su va dit vi khun, goi la crp
trng.
Cu tao mach phn t cao su thin nhin gm cac mt xch chui dai cua mt s
ln cac nhom izpenten. Nhom nay con goi la izopren, c sp xp chu yu theo dang
ng phn sis.
Tnh cht chung cua cao su thin nhin :
-Ty trong : 0,91-0,93 g/cm
3
-H s gian n th tch : 656.10
-6
dm
3
/
0
C
- dn nhit : 335.10
-6
cal/cm.S.
0
C
-Nhit dung : 0,45-0,50cal /g.
o
C
nhit 80-100
0
C tr nn deo, -70
o
C b don va b phn hoa 200
0
C. Trong cao
su thin nhin con cha 2-2,2% kiu sp xp theo ng phn trans.
8.5.3.Cac loai cao su tng hop thng dung :
1-Cao su divinyl (C
4
H
6
)
n
:
Con goi la butadien la tn goi cua monome ban u tng hp thanh butadien,
cng thc cua no la (C
4
H
6
)
n
.


133










Hnh 8.4-Cng thc cu tao cua cao su divinyl

Tnh cht cao su divinyl :
-Ty trong : 0,91g/cm
3
-Nhit thuy tinh hoa (don) : -110
0
C
-Gii han bn keo t : 200 kG/cm
2
- dan dai khi keo t : 470%.
Cao su divinyl t b mai mon hn cao su thin nhin, nhng bn nhit, tnh chu
lanh va chng xe rach kem hn.
Cng dung : lam lp xe t, gn may., xe ap, ao ma, gng tay, cac san phm
cn nghip... cn chu y pha thm cao su thin nhin vao nng cao tnh cht cua no.
2-Cao su polyizopren (izopren) :
Ta co th tng hp c cao su izopren co cu tao tng t nh cao su thin nhin
(C
5
H
8
)
n
. Tuy nhin trong cu tao cua no co ca ng phn sis va ng phn trans nn tnh
an hi khng cao, nht thp, mt s tnh cht c ly khac khng bng cao su thin nhin
nhng tt hn cao su butadien.
Tnh cht cao su izopren :
-Ty trong : 0,92g/cm
3
-Nhit thuy tinh hoa : -70
0
C
-Gii han bn keo t : 250-300kG/cm
2
- dan dai khi keo t : 770%
Cng dung tng t nh cao su butadien.
8.5.4.Cao su co cng dung dc bit :
Cao su thin nhin, butadien va izopren d b n mon trong du m v chung d
hoa tan trong dung mi beo. Mun cao su n nh trong du m th trong mach cua no phai
co tnh phn cc. Cac monome tao nn cao su chu du m la cao su tng hp, tuy theo
yu cu cua san phm ma cac cht phu gia cho vao khac nhau va cng ngh ch bin cung
khac nhau.
1-Cao su cloropren (nairit, neopren, perbunan-C) :
Nguyn liu san xut t axtylen trung hp thanh monome cloropren.
Tnh cht :
-Ty trong : 1,21-1,25 g/cm
3
134
-Gii han bn keo t 2-2,65kG/mm
2
- dan dai tng i : 600-750%
-Nhit lam vic : 100-130
0
C
-Nhit chu lanh -34
0
C
Cao su cloropren khng n mon ng, chng lao hoa zn tt, an hi tt, chng rung tt,
n nh trong du m, nhin liu. Tnh chu nhit va chu lanh kem. Cng dung : boc dy
in, dy cap cao ap.
2-Cao su butadien nitril (haicar, perbunan, buna-N) :
La san phm ng trung hp cua butadien va nitril cua axit acrilic.
Tnh cht cua no phu thuc vao lng nitril cho vao trong thanh phn cao su.

Lng nitril % 18 26 40
Ty trong (g/cm
3
)
Nhit thuy tinh hoa
0
C
bn keo t (kG/cm
2
)
dan dai %
0,943
-55
-
-
0,962
-42
280
600
0,986
-32
350
-

Cao su butadien nitril la cht ban dn, in tr ring = 10
10
-10
18
.cm. Co tnh chng mai
mon tt, an hi kem, chng lao hoa tt, n nh trong cac mi trng xng du, nhin liu
t -30 n 130
0
C.
Cng dung : lam dy ai, bng tai, ng dn, m, lot, pht may bm du..
3-Cao su chng mai mon (adipren, gentan S, elastotan) :
Cao su uretan co tnh chng mai mon cao, bn cao, an hi tt, n nh
trong du m, n nh bc xa. Trong mach cu tao cua no khng co mi ni i (lin kt
khng no) nn rt n nh vi xy va zn. Nhit lam vic t -30 n 130
0
C.
Cng dung : lam lp xe t, bng tai, boc ng va mang vn chuyn vt liu hat,
got giay....
4-Cao su chu nhit :
c san xut t cao su silicon cha lu hoa co cu tao mach thng.
Thng dung nht la cao su dimetyl siloxan. Nhit lam vic t -55 n 250
0
C, tnh bam
dnh kem, b trng n trong cac dung mi va du m, bn thp, tnh thm kh cao,
chng mai mon kem.
Tnh cht : - Ty trong : 2,13g/cm
3
-in tr ring : 9,4.10
14
.cm
-in ap anh thung 26-28kV/mm.
Cng dung : lam cac chi tit chu nhit kha cao trong cac b phn may moc.
8.6.XI MNG VA B TNG :
8.6.1.Xi mng :
Xi mng la cht kt dnh thuy lc do khi tac dung vi nc tao ra cac hp cht co
tnh dnh kt, cac hp cht nay ong rn trong nc va cac san phm ong rn b trong
nc. Cac loai xi mng gm co :
-Xi mng pooclng : da trn c s CaO - SiO
2
cha thm Al
2
O
3
. Fe
2
O
3
.
135
-Xi mng alumin : trn c s CaO - Al
2
O
3
co cha thm SiO
2
.Fe
2
O
3
.
-Xi mng x lo cao : ging xi mng pooclng nhng co thm thach cao hay vi.
Trong cac loai trn th xi mng pooclng la loai thng dung nht. Qua trnh san
xut xi mng pooclng nh sau :
-Nguyn liu gm a vi, t set (cung cp Al
2
O
3
) va qung st (cung cp Fe
2
O
3
)
theo ty l quy nh c nghin mn va trn u.
-Phi liu c nung luyn trong lo quay 1400-1500
0
C tao ra cac khoang
cht nh : 3Cao.SiO
2
(vit C
3
S), 2CaO.SiO
2
(C
2
S), 3CaO.Al
2
O
3
(C
3
A) va 4CaO.Fe
2
O
3

(C
4
AF). San phm nay goi la clinke.
-Nghin mn klinke n c hat 0,5-50 m thanh dang bt goi la xi mng. Trong
qua trnh nghin clinke thng cho thm cac cht phu gia iu chnh mt vai tnh cht
cua xi mng (v du thm thach cao iu chnh ng kt cua xi mng).
Khi hoa tan xi mng vi nc se b hydrat hoa theo cac phan ng phan ng sau
y :
2(3CaO.SiO
2
) + 6H
2
O 3CaO.2SiO
2
.3H
2
O + 3Ca(OH)
2
2(2CaO.SiO
2
) + 6H
2
O 3CaO.2SiO
2
.3H
2
O + 3Ca(OH)
2
Nu xi mng co mn at yu cu va c trn u nc th qua trnh hydrat hoa
xay ra hoan toan. Nu thiu nc mt phn xi mng khng c phan ng. Nu tha nc
se tao ra cac l, knh cha nc lam cho va linh ng d thao tac nhng bn sau khi
ng kt se b giam. Sau qua trnh hydrat hoa la giai oan kt tinh tao ra cac tinh th hydrat
vi kch thc 10-10 m lam cho khi xi mng tr nn vng chc va chu c tai trong
yu cu.










Hnh 8.5- S m ta qua trnh hydrat hoa va ng c cua va ximng
anh gia bn c hoc cua xi mng ta dung ch tiu mac xi mng c quy
nh la gii han bn nen cua mu cua hn hp xi mng - cat theo ty l 1/3 bao dng 28
ngay trong iu kin quy nh. Theo TCVN 2682-1992 : PC30 la xi mng pooclng co
gii han bn nen la 30MPa.
8.6.2.B tng :
B tng c ch tao t hn hp cac vt liu silicat vi kch thc hat khac nhau
(v du : soi hay a dm c 1-4 cm, cat vang c hat 0,1-0,2mm, ximng c hat 0,5-50 m)
tao ra mt cao cho b tng : hat cat in y vao ch trng gia cac vin vin soi, a
dm, con cac hat ximng se chen vao khoang trng gia cac hat cat. Ngoai ra b mt cua
136
cac hat cat, soi, a dm se xuc tin tao mm ky sinh cho qua trnh kt tinh cua cac hp cht
hydrat cua ximng.
Ct liu cua b tng thng s dung la : cat, soi, a vi, a granit...(khi lng
ring c 2-3 g/cm
3
). ch tao b tng nhe ct liu phai la loai xp, khi lng ring nho
(khoang 1g/cm
3
) nh : x lo cao, a xp thin nhin hay dung phu gia tao ra bot kh trong
qua trnh ong rn. C tnh cua b tng tng t nh ceramic la co bn nen cao, bn
keo thp. Gii han bn nen cua b tng thuc vao ty l hn hp, bao dng...dao ng t 5
- 60MPa, con gii han bn keo ch bng t 1/8 - 1/10 bn nen.
8.6.3.B tng ct thep :
Ta b tr thm ct thep theo quy lut nht nh (thanh, dy, li ...) trong b tng
ti se tao ra b tng ct thep. Ct thep trong khi b tng lam cho kt cu chu keo , nen
va un tt hn. Nu co hin tng nt trong b tng th s phat trin cua vt nt cung b ct
ngn can. S d thep c dung lam ct trong b tng v ngoai b n keo cao, deo ln,
thep co h s n nhit gn ging be tng, n mon chm trong mi trng b tng va dnh
kt tng i chc vi b tng. Nu b mt thep co gn (thep rn) se la tng din tch tip
xuc va co kha nng khoa ham.
tng kha nng chu nen cho b tng ta tao ng sut nen d doc theo chiu ct
thep chu lc chnh va goi la b tng ng sut trc (b tng ng lc trc). Phng phap
nay da vao c im cua vt liu gion la chu nen tt hn chu keo va do vy khi lam vic
ng sut keo tac dung vt qua ng sut nen d th khi b tng mi b pha huy. Co hai
ca ch tao b tng ng sut trc :
1-Dy thep co bn cao c t vao khun rng, c keo vi lc keo ln va gi
cng. Sau khi b tng vao khun va ng c ng mi bo lc keo ra. Luc nay do bin dang
an hi b mt i dy thep b co lai gy cho cu kin b tng ng sut nen do ng sut c
truyn tai ti b tng thng lin kt b tng dy thep.
2-Dy thep c lun qua cac ng bng kim loai hay cao su a co sn trong b tng
a ng cng va c keo cng t vao hai mt i din cua cu kin, lam cho cu kin
trang thai nen. Sau o va b tng vao cac l bao kn dy thep. Khi b tng a ng
cng va ba o dng tt mi thao kch ra.
Bt tng ng sut trc c dung trong cac cu kin cu va ng cao tc.



137






CHUONG 9 : VT LIU KY THUT DIN

9.1.TINH CHT DIN CUA V T LIU :
Tnh cht vt ly cua vt liu gm co : tnh cht in, tnh cht nhit va tnh cht t.
Trong pham vi chng trnh ta nghin cu tnh cht in va tnh cht t la cac tnh cht
quan trong nht cua vt liu cua vt liu in.
9.1.1.D d n din :
Tnh cht in quan trong nht cua vt liu rn la kha nng dn in cua no. Da
vao s o dn in cua vt liu, theo nh lut m ta co :
U = I.R (9.1)
Trong cng thc (9.1) th R la in tr cua mu vt liu o dn in. Gia tr cua
R phu thuc vao hnh dang mu o ma hu nh khng phu thuc vao cng dong in.
in tr sut khng phu thuc vao hnh hoc cua mu o nhng phu thuc vao ban cht
vt liu, no lin h vi in tr R theo cng thc :
=
l
RS
=
lI
US
(9.2)
Trong o :l - khoang cach gia hai im o in ap
S - tit din vung goc vi hng dong in
dn in la nghch ao cua in tr sut =

1
biu th kha nng dn in
cua vt liu, n v o (.m)
-1
. T phng trnh (9.1) nh lut m co th biu din di
dang vi phn :
t dong in, la dong in i qua mt n v din tch mu va
ng n tr ng :
J = .E (9.3)
Trong o J = I/S goi la m
c i
E =
U
l
(9.4)
Cac vt liu rn co dn in trai rng trn hai bay c s. Cn c vao kha nng
dn in vt rn c chia ra ba loai : dn in, ban dn in va in mi (cach in). Kim
loai la vt liu dn in tt, dn in khoang 10
7
(.m)
-1
. Cht in mi co dn in
in trng va cac hat mang in m th theo chiu ngc lai. Trong a s cac vt rn dong
t 10
-10
n 10
-20
(.m)
-1
. Cht ban dn co dn in t 10
-6
n 10
4
(.m)
-1
Dong in c tao thanh do chuyn ng cua cac hat mang in tch di tac
dung cua in trng ngoai. Cac hat mang in tch dng chuyn ng theo hng cua
138
in c tao bi cac in t t do. Trong vt liu ion s chuyn di thun tuy cua cac ion
cung co th tao ra dong in.
9.1.2.Cu truc vung nng luong trong vt rn :
Trong cac cht dn in, ban dn va mt s loai in mi ch tn tai s dn in
bng in t va dn in nay phu thuc rt ln vao s lng in t co kha nng tham
gia dn in. Trong mt loai vt liu cu th, s in t co kha nng dn in lin quan n
s sp xp cac trang thai in t (cac mc nng l ng in t) va cach thc chim ch cua
in t trong trang thai o.
Trong ring mi nguyn t tn tai cac mc nng lng gian oan. Cac in t sp
xp thanh cac tng (vi s lng t chnh n = 1, 2, 3...) va cac lp c ch bi cac ch s, p,
d va f (ng vi cac s lng t quy ao l = 0, 1, 2, 3...). Trong mi lp lai co tng ng 2l
+ 1 = 1, 3, 5 va 7 quy ao khac nhau. Trong cac nguyn t, in t chim lnh cac trang
thai co nng lng thp nht theo nguyn ly loai tr Pauli. Cu hnh in t cua mt
nguyn t biu th s sp xp in t vao cac trang thai cho phep.
Trong v t rn cac nguyn t sp xp mt cach trt t trong mang tinh th.
khoang tng i xa mi nguyn t la c lp vi cac nguyn t khac va co cac mc nng
lng trong nguyn t va cu hnh in t ging nh nguyn t ng c lp. Khi cac
nguyn t cang xch lai gn nhau th cac in t cang b kch thch bi cac in t va cac
hat nhn cua cac nguyn t ln cn. Anh hng nay lam cho mi mt trang thai in t
trong nguyn t ring bit b phn tach thanh mt loat cac trang thai in t nm sat nhau,
hnh thanh nn mt vung nng lng in t . Trong mi vung, cac mc nng lng vn la
gian oan, tuy nhin khoang cach cac mc k nhau la ht sc nho. khoang cach nguyn
t cn bng, s tao thanh vung nng lng co th xay ra vi cac lp in t gn hat nhn
nht. Gia cac vung k nhau co th tn tai cac khe nng lng, thng thng cac in t
khng c phep chim lnh nhng mc nng lng nm trong nhng khe nay.
Cac tnh cht in cua vt rn phu thuc vao cu truc vung nng lng in t cua
no. Vung cha cac in t co nng lng cao nht (in t hoa tr) goi la vung hoa tr.
Vung co nng lng cao hn k trn o, ma trong a s cac trng hp v c ban la b bo
trng goi la vung dn. trang thai vung hoa tr ch mi b lp y mt phn (cu truc vung
in hnh cua kim loai) nng lng ng vi mc cao nht b chim ch 0
o
K goi la nng
lng Fecmi E
f
.
9.1.3.Tinh dn din cua kim loai :
Ch nhng in t nao co nng lng ln hn mc Fecmi th mi chu tac dung va
c gia tc khi co mt in trng. Cac in t nay tham gia vao qua trnh dn in va goi
la cac in t t do.. y la yu t quyt nh tnh dn in cao cho kim loai.
cho in t tr thanh in t t do, cn phai kch thch no ln mt trang thai
nng lng cho phep va con trng trn mc E
f
. Vi a s kim loai a co sn cac mc
nng lng trng nm sat k ngay mc b chim cao nht tai E
f
. V v y ch cn mt nng
lng rt nho a in t ln cac trang thai trng nm k E
f
. Nhn chung nng lng do
mt in trng cung cp u kch thch c mt s ln cac in t ln trang thai dn
in nay.
139
Trong lin kt kim loai, tt ca cac in t hoa tr u co th chuyn ng t do, tao
thanh kh in t bao quanh cac ion dng. Mt du cac in t nay khng b chi phi bi
mt nguyn t ring re nao, nhng chung vn phai nh mt kch thch nht nh mi tr
thanh in t dn thc s t do. Luc nay ch cn mt b phn b kch thch se tao ra mt s
ln in t t do va kt qua la tao ra tnh dn in cao.
dn in cua kim loai c biu th bi cng thc sau :
= n e
e
(9.5)
Trong o : - la dn in
-
e
la linh ng in t (m
2
/V.s)
-ela gia tri tuyt i cua in tch mt i t (1,6.10
-19
C)
- n la s in t t do (e dn) trong mt n v th tch.
Vy dn in ty l thun vi s in t t do va linh ng in t.
9.1.4.Din tro cua kim loai :
1.Khai nim :
a s cac kim loai u n in rt tt. S d cac kim loai co dn in cao la v
chung co mt s ln in t t do a c kch thch ln cac trang thai trng nm trn mc
Fecmi, do vy n trong biu thc (9.5) co gia tr ln.
xem xet mt in tr cua kim loai ta a ra khai nim in tr sut la nghch
ao cua dn in. Cac khuyt t t mang tinh th la nhng tm tan xa i vi in t dn
trong kim loai. Do vy s khuyt tt tng ln se nng cao in tr sut do o lam giam
dn in. S lng khuyt tt nay phu thuc vao nhit , thanh phn hoa hoc va t kt
tinh cua kim loai. in tr sut toan phn cua kim loai nh sau :

toan phn
=
t
+
i
+
d
(9.6)
Trong o : -
t
la in tr sut ring cua nhit
-
i
la in tr sut ring cua tap cht
-

d
la in tr sut ring cua bin dang an hi.
Phng trnh (9.6) con c goi la quy tc Mathiessen.
2.Cac yu t anh hng :
a-Anh hng cua nhit :
T khoang 200
o
C tr ln in tr sut cua cac kim loai nguyn cht u tng tuyn
tnh theo nhit . Mi quan h o c biu din nh sau :

t
=
0
+ aT (9.7)
Trong o
0
va a la cac hng s phu thuc vao tng kim loai.
Khi nhit tng th in tr sut tng theo la do cac dao ng nhit va cac khuyt tt khac
trong mang tng ln, chung la cac tm tan xa in t, do vy lam giam dn in.
b-Anh hng cua tap cht :
Khi pha thm mt tap cht n tao thanh dung dch rn ta co mi quan h gia
in tr sut tap cht lin quan n nng (theo %) tap cht nh sau :

i
= AC
i
(1-C
i
) (9.8)
Vi A la hng s khng phu thuc vao thanh phn nhng phu thuc vao ca tap
cht va kim loai nn.
140
Noi chung khi co thm tap cht th in tr sut cua kim loai tng ln. Lng tap
cht cang nhiu th s tng ln cua in tr sut cang ln. Vi hp kim co hai pha th in
tr sut c tnh gn ung nh sau :

i
=

(9.9)
Trong o V

, V

va

,,

la phn trm th tch va in tr sut rin phn cua cac

pha tng ng.
c-Anh hng cua bin dang an hi :
Khi bin dang an hi lam tng in tr sut la do lam tng s lng cac tan xa
in t trong kim loai. Lng bin dang cang ln, in tr sut cang tng cao.
9.2.TINH CHT TU CUA VT LIU :
9.2.1.Cac khai nim co ban :
1-Lng cc t :
Lc t la do cac hat mang in tch chuyn ng gy ra. ch hng cua lc t
tai cac v tr xung quanh ngun cua t trng ta ve cac ng sc t. ng sc t cho ta
hnh anh cu th v s phn b cua t trng (5.37L). Lng cc t tn tai trong cac vt
liu t. Lng cc t co th xem la mt thanh nam chm nho gm hai u cc Bc (N) va
cc Nam (S). n gian ta biu din lng cc t bng mt mui tn . Lng cc t chu
tac ng cua t trng, lc cua t trng lam xoay cac lng cc t hng theo trng.
2-Cac vec t t trng :
T trng ngoai thng c biu din bng H (Henri) va goi la cng t
trng. Trong mt ng dy hnh tru co N vong dy vi chiu dai l khi co dong in cng
I c tnh nh sau :
H =
NI
A-vong/met hay A/m (9.10)
l
Cam ng t hay mt t thng B ( n v o la Tesla - Weber trn met vung
Wb/m

ac nh theo s
trn t t thng nh sau :
2
) biu th t trng bn trong cht chu tac dung cua trng H. B va H u la nhng
vec t c trng cho ln va chiu trong khng gian t trng. B c x
(5.38L). Quan h gia cng t g va m
B
uv
= H
uuv
(9.11)
- la t thm, n v o Wb/A.m hay H/m
Trong chn khng ta co :
o
B
uuv
=
o
H
uur
(9.12)
Trong : -
o
o la t thm trong chn khng - 4 .10
-7
(1,257.10
-7
)H/m
t t cua vt rn co th s dung nhiu thng s nh : t thm tng i,
vec t t
ng H biu
t th tr vt li thm trong chn khng
(ky hiu
- B
o
la mt t thng trong chn khng.
m ta tnh ch
hoa ...
t thm tng i : la s o mc t hoa cua vt liu khi co t tr
din bng ty s gia m ong u va t

=
o

(9.13)

Vec t t hoa (t ) M
uur
: c ac nh ua vt rn c x theo cng thc :
B
ur
=
o
H
uur
M
uur
(9.14) +
o

141
ln cua M
uur
ty l theo tr o la : ng t va
M
uur
=
m
H
uur
(9.15)
Trong o
m
go la h s t h i t oa (h oa) va co mi quan h vi t thm
tng i :
m
= - 1 (9.16)

9.2.2.Nghjch tu va thun tu :
1-Nghch t : La mt dang rt yu cua t tnh, khng vnh cu va ch tn tai khi co mt
trng ngoai tac dung. Trng cam ng sinh ra do co s thay i chuyn ng quy ao cua
in t bi trng ngoai.
M men t cam ng co tr s rt nho va hng ngc chiu vi t trng ngoai.
Do o t thm tng i

nho hn mt (khng nhiu lm) va t hoa la m, ngha la

cng cua trng B trong vt rn nghc t se nho hn trong chn khng. t hoa
th tch
m
cua vt rn nghch t vao khoang -10
-5
. Khi t vao gia hai cc cua mt nam
chm in manh, cac vt liu nghch t se b hut v pha nhng khu vc t trng yu
(5.40a L).
Tnh nghch t co tt ca cac vt liu, nhng do no rt yu nn ch co th quan sat
c khi khng co cac dang t tnh khac nn t co y ngha trong thc t.
2-Thun t : Trong nhiu vt liu, mi nguyn t co mt m men lng cc vnh cu do
kt qua trit tiu ln nhau khng hoan toan cua cac m men t spin va cac m men t quy
ao. Khi khng co t trng ngoai cac m men t nguyn t nay nh hng hn loan, do
vy vt liu se khng co vec t t hoa vy m ring. Khi co t trng ngoai cac lng cc
nguyn t nay quay t do va tnh thun t c th hin khi s quay nay tao ra mt nh
hng u tin nao o (5.40b L). Kt qua la lam tng t trng ngoai, gy ra t thm
tng i

ln hn mt va do vy t hoa tng i nho nhng dng.

ht nghch t va thun t Cac c u c coi la vt liu khng t tnh, bi v chung
trng va vec t t
ch b t hoa khi co mt t trng ngoai.
9.2.3.St tu :
Mt s kim loai co m men t vnh cu ngay ca khi khng co t trng ngoai va
co mt t rt ln, hin tng nay goi la st t . Hin tng st t gp trong cac kim loai
chuyn tip : st, c ban, ni ken va mt s thuc nhom t him nh gadoli (Gd). H s t
a
6
hoa cua vt liu st t co th t 10 , lam cho H << M (cng t
oa) va b h iu thc (9.14) co th vit :
B =
o
M (9.17)
Mo men t vnh cu trong cac vt liu st t do spin in t sinh ra, o la cac spin
in t khng trit tiu ln nhau. S ong gop cua m men t quy ao nho hn so vi m
men spin. Mt khac trong vt liu st t , tng tac ghep lam cho cac m men t spin cua
cac nguyn t ln cn nh hng song song vi nhau ngay ca khi khng co t trng
liu st t biu th t c tao ra
n a c nh hng theo t trng ngoai. Khi o mt
t thng at bao hoa B
o
(n v o magneton Bohr)
ngoai. S inh hng spin song song vi nhau gii han trong cac min th tch tng i
ln c goi la min t hoa t nhin.
T cc ai (t bao hoa) M
s
cua mt vt
khi tt cac lng cc t trong vt r
142
9.3.THEP KY THU T DIN :
ong va co nhiu tn goi khac nhau nh Fe, tn silic. Nhng ph
9.3.1.Khai nim :
Thep ky thut in (la loai vt liu t mm, co ng cong t tr gy) c s
dung rt rng rai trong cac ng c in, may phat in, bin th thng dung. Chung c
cung cp di dang la m
bin hn ca la tn silic.
Vt liu t mm la loai co t thm cao, lc kh t H
c
nho va tn tht nho khi
t hoa lai. Vt liu thng dung nht la st vi sach cao. Nhng s t sach ch lam vic
trong iu kin dong t khng i (dong mt chiu). Do o trong thc t s dung thep ky
xoay chiu vi tn s 50 - 60Hz.
manh tn tht do dong in xoay, nng cao t thm va
u lc kh t .
.3.3.T
t in co texture
ng giam ti a tn tht nng cao hiu qua kinh t.
- 1200
o
C. Sau khi ct , dp va un tao hnh phai
hng d t hoa nht cua st cung nh dung dch rn st
tht in t nho.
nh ky hiu cho thep ky
ghin cu tiu chun cua Nga, My va Nht.
ep ky thut in cua Nga c quy nh theo tiu chun OCT 21427-75 gm
phm vi y ngha :
hai ch thanh phn cua silic, chon trong sau s : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 va 5 vi y
thut in s dung trong dong
9.3.2.Thanh phn hoa hoc :
Thep ky thut in cha rt t cac bon (0,005 - 0,5%) va cha nhiu silic (0,8 -
4,8%) do o co th xem la hp kim st - silic. Silic ch tao vi st dung dch rn lam tng
manh in tr nn lam giam
giam khng nhi
9 chuc :
Gm co cac hat silic to cai thin ti a t thm. Tuy nhin do qua nhiu silic
lai lam tng manh tnh don. Ngay nay s dung ph bin loai thep ky thu
hay hat co nh h
9.3.4.Ch tao :
Thep ky thut in c can thanh la mong < 0,5 mm lam giam tn tht t. Sau
khi can xong c u kt tinh lai lam hat to va chay bt cac bon. Thng c u trong
mi trng hydr hay chn khng 1100
u 750 - 900
o
C tng cac tnh cht t.
tng hn na cac c tnh t mm thep ky thut in c can ngui vi lng
ep ln ( 90%) cac mt va phng trong mang tinh th cua hat pherit nh hng lai
song song vi nhau va vt liu tr nn d hng. Khi o cac mt (110) cua cac hat tr nn
song song vi phng can, con phng [100] (canh cua khi c s) song song vi phng
can tao nn texture canh. y la p
- silic nn co tn
9.3.5.Ky hiu :
Tiu chun vt liu kim loai cua Vit Nam cha quy
thut in. Do o ta n
1-Tiu chun Nga :
a-Th
bn ch s :
-S th nht c chon trong ba s 1, 3, 3 ch loai san
*1-Thep la mong can nong co tnh ng hng
*2-Thep la mong can ngui co tnh ng hng
*3-Thep la mong can ngui co tnh d hng (texture)
-S th
ngha nh sau :
143
*0-Ch lng silic < 0,40%
*1-Ch lng silic t 0,40-0,80^
*2-Ch lng silic t 0,80-1,80%
*3-Ch lng silic t 1,80-2,80%
*4-Ch lng silic t 2,80-3,80%
*5-Ch lng silic t 3,80-4,80%
-S th ba ch cac c tnh nh mc chu yu, cu th nh sau :
*0-Ch tn tht ring khi cam ng t 1,7T (tesla) va tn s 50Hz
*1-Ch tn tht ring kh cam ng t 1,5T va tn s 50Hz
*2-Ch tn tht ring khi cam ng t 1,0T va tn s 400Hz
trong t trng trung bnh.
.
, 2412
3411, 3412, 3413, 3415, 3416
iu chun
heo n v 0,01 mm a nhn 100
hng)
(W/kg)
va 1,7T cho loai G,P.
*CS-2 loai co mang phu cach in la cht hu c
ISC25
*6-Ch tn tht ring khi cam ng t trong t trng yu
*7-Ch tn tht ring khi cam ng t
-S th t la s ch th t cua tng loai thep
b-Cac mac thep c quy chun gm co :
-Nhom thep la mong can nong ng h ng : 1211, 1212, 1213
1311, 1312, 1313
1411, 1412, 1413
1511, 1512, 1513
-Nhom thep la mong can ngui ng hng : 2011, 2012, 2013
2111, 2112
2211, 2212
2311, 2312
2411
-Nhom thep la mong can ngui co tnh d hng :
3404, 3405, 3406

2-Tiu chun Nht :
a-Ky hiu thep ky thut in cua Nht c quy nh trong hai t
JISCC2552 - 86 va JISC2553 - 86, s dung tp hp ch va s theo quy lut sau :
-Hai s u ch chiu day cua la mong t
-Ch la biu th loai thep vi y ngha :
*A-Loai ng hng (khng co texture)
*G-Loai d hng thng (hat nh hng, textur mc bnh t
*P-Loai d hng co (hat nh hng, co texture mc cao)
-Ba (hay bn) s cui cung ch gia tr a nhn vi 100 cua tn tht in t
tn s 50Hz va mt t thng cc ai la 1,5T cho loai A
-Nu sau ky hiu co thm ui, y nghia nh sau :
*CS-1 : la loai co mang phu cach in la cht v c
: la
b-Cac mac thep :
-J 52 -86 : Quy nh cho loai ng hng gm co :
*35A230, 35A250, 35A270, 35A300, 35A360, 35A440
144
*50A270, 50A290, 50A310, 50A350,50A400, 50A470, 50A600,
50A700, 50A800, 50A900, 50A1000, 50A1300.
*65A800, 65A1000, 65A1300, 65A1600.
Nu sau ky hiu co thm ui, y nghia nh sau :
*CS-1 : la loai co mang phu cach in la cht v c
*CS-2 : la loai co mang phu cach in la cht hu c
-JISC2553 - 86 : Quy nh cho loai d hng gm co :
*27P100, 27P110, 27G120, 27G130, 27G140.
*30P110, 30P120, 30G130, 30G140, 30G150
*35P125, 35P135, 35G145, 35G155, 35G165.
Nu sau ky hiu co thm ui CS-1 la loai co mang phu cach in la cht v c
3-Tiu chun My :
Thep ky thut in cua My co nhiu tiu chun ky hiu, y ta nghin cu tiu
chun ph bin nht ASTM (Americaan Society for Testing and Materiels). Tiu chun
ASTM A664-87 ky hiu thep la mong ky thut in bng tp hp s va ch xx*xxx trong
o * la cac ch C, D, F, S, G, H, P ch c tnh cua loai vt liu nay vi y ngha nh sau :
-C : thep c gia cng hoan thin vi gia tr tn tht in t cua loi c xac nh
1,5T va 60Hz mu ghep gm mt na s manh c ct doc theo phng ca n, mt na
s manh c ct ngang phng can (mu Epstein 50/50) dang ct.
-D : tng t nh C, ch khac la thep c gia cng ban hoan thin va dang u
cai thin cht lng tai 790
o
C vi thi gian gi nhit 1 gi.
-F : thep ng hng, gia cng hoan thin vi gia tr tn tht in t cua loi c
xac nh 1,5T va 60Hz mu Epstein 50/50 dang ct.
-S : nh F, ch khac la thep c gia cng ban hoan thin va dang u cai thin
cht lng tai 845
o
C thi gian gi nhit 1gi [vi hp kim cha t hn 1,3% (Si+Al) nhit
u la 790
o
C]
-G : thep hat nh hng (textua), gia cng hoan thin vi gia tr tn tht in t
cua loi xac nh 1,5T va 60Hz mu ghep bng cac manh c ct song song vi
phng can, u kh ng sut thng thng t 790 n 845
o
C, gi nhit 1 gi.
-H : nh G, nhng 1,7T.
-P : nh G nhng 1,7T va t thm cc ai tng i 10 cstet
+Hai s u ch chiu day tnh theo 0,01mm.
+Ba hay bn s sau cung cua ky hiu ch tn tht in t cc ai cho phep cua loi
(theo cac iu kin quy nh nh cac ch a nu) tnh theo n v oat (W) cho mt pound
(W/lb) nu biu th theo n v W/kg th cui ky hiu co ch M va a nhn vi 100.
V du : -36F130 : thep day 0,36mm, tn tht in t 1,30W/lb iu kin 1,5T
60Hz mu Epstein 50/50 dang ct.
-36F397M : thep day 0,36mm, tn tht in t 3,97W/kg iu kin
1,5T 60Hz, mu Epstein 50/50, dang ct.

145


PHN 3 : XU LY NHIT

CHUONG 10 : NHIT LUYN THEP

Trong chng nay chung ta se nghin cu s thay i t chc va c tnh cua thep
khi nung nong va lam ngui tip theo, o chinh la qua trnh nhit luyn. Thep la vt liu
thng dung nht va cung c nhit luyn nhiu nht. Cng ngh nhit luyn rt ph bin
trong nganh c in t. Trong chng nay chung ta ch nghin cu cac phng phap nhit
luyn th tch.
10.1.KHAI NIM V NHIT LUYN THEP :
10.1.1.Khai nim v nhit luyn :
1-nh ngha :
Nhit luyn la tp hp cac thao tac gm co nung nong kim loai hay hp kim n n
nhit xac nh, gi tai o mt thi gian thch hp (gi nhit) ro i lam ngui vi tc
nht nh lam thay i t chc do o nhn c c tnh va cac tnh cht khac theo y
mun.
c im cua nhit luyn :
-Khng nung nong n chay long hay chay long b phn, trong qua trnh nhit
luyn kim loai vn trang thai rn.
-Trong qua trnh nhit luyn hnh dang va kch thc chi tit khng thay i
(chnh xac la co thay i nhng khng ang k).
-Nhit luyn ch lam thay i t chc t vi bn trong, do o dn n thay i c
tnh cho chi tit.
2-Cac thng s c trng cho nhit luyn :
Bt ky mt qua trnh nhit luyn nao cung c c trng bi cac thng s sau
y
a-Nhit nung nong (t
o
) : la nhit cao nht ma qua trnh nhit luyn phai at
ti, tnh bng
n
o
C.
b-Thi gian gi nhit (
gn
) : la thi gian duy tr chi tit tai nhit nung nong.
c-Tc ngui (V ) : la tc giam nhit theo thi gian sau khi gi nhit.
ngui
Ngoai ba thng s trn tc nung nong cung co anh hng n kt qua nhit
luyn nhng khng ang k nn ta bo qua no. Kt qua cua mt qua trnh nhit luyn c
anh gia bng cac ch tiu sau :
- cng : la yu cu quan trong nht va d dang xac nh c, no lin quan n
cac ch tiu khac nh bn, deo, dai...Chi tit khi nhit luyn u co yu cu at
gia tr nht nh v cng va phai c kim tra theo ty l quy nh.
-T chc t vi : cu tao pha, kch thc hat, chiu su lp hoa bn ...Ch tiu nay
thng c ki m tra theo tng me nhit luyn.
146
- bin dang, cong vnh : noi chung bin dang, cong vnh khi nhit luyn
thng rt nho va nm trong gii han cho phep. Tuy nhin trong mt s trng hp yu cu
rt kht khe, cn phai kim tra chung.
3-S lc v nhit luyn thep :
Trong thc t co nhng phng phap nhit luyn chu yu sau y :
a-U : la phng phap nung nong n nhit xac nh, gi nhit va lam ngui
chm nhn c t chc gn vi trang thai cn bng co cng, bn thp nht,
deo cao nht.
b-Thng hoa : la phng phap nung nong n t chc hoan toan austenit, gi
nhit va lam ngui ngoai khng kh tnh nhn c t chc gn vi trang thai cn bng.
c-Ti : la phng phap nung nong n cao hn nhit ti han, lam xut hin to
chc austenit gi nhit va lam ngui nhanh nhn c t chc khng cn bng co
cng cao nht.
d-Ram : la phng phap nung nong thep a ti n thp hn nhit ti han, gi
nhit va lam ngui iu chnh cac ch tiu c tnh ( bn, cng...) at yu cu lam
vic.
e-Hoa nhit luyn : la phng phap bao hoa vao b mt chi tit cac nguyn t a
cho nhit xac nh lam bin i thanh ph n hoa hoc, tc chc va c tnh.
f-C nhit luyn : la phng phap kt hp qua trnh hoa bn bng nhit luyn va
bin dang deo ng thi trong mt nguyn cng. Do o nhn c hoa b manh hn rt
nhiu khi nhit luyn n thun.
4-Phn loai nhit luyn thep :
Ngi ta phn cac phng phap nhit luyn chu yu cua thep ra lam hai nhom ln
: nhit luyn s b va nhit luyn kt thuc.
a-Nhit luyn s b : la cac phng phap nhit luyn tin hanh trc khi gia cng
c kh, khi chi tit la ban thanh phm. Thuc nhom nay co u va thng hoa.
b-Nhit luyn kt thuc : la cac phng phap nhit luy n c thc hin sau khi gia
cng c kh, khi chi tit a la thanh phm. Sau khi nhit luyn xong khng con gia cng c
kh tip theo na. (nu co ch la mai tinh). Thuc nhom nay co : ti va ram. i vi thep
cac bon thp th u va thng hoa la nhit luyn kt thuc.
10.1.2.Tac dung cua nhit luyn di voi nghanh co din tu :
Nhit luyn la nguyn cng quan trong va khng th thiu c trong san xut c
kh do no co nhng tac dung chu yu sau y :
1-Tng cng, tnh chng mai mon va bn cua thep :
Muc tiu cua nganh c kh la san xut ra cac c cu va may moc bn hn cng
sut ln hn va co nhiu tnh nng t t hn. Do o khi nhit luyn thch hp nng cao
cng, bn va tnh chng mai mon se keo dai tui tho, tng sc chu tai, giam kch thc
cho chi tit va kt cu may. y la tac dung chu yu nht va quan trong nht cua nhit
luyn, n mc co luc phai a vao ch tiu anh gia trnh cua nganh c kh. Cht lng
cua may moc, thit b phu thuc rt nhiu vao phng phap s dung vt liu va nhit luyn
chung.
2-Cai thin tnh cng ngh :
147
tao thanh chi tit may, phi thep phai qua cac dang gia cng nh : ren, dp
can...Sau cac dang gia cng nay thep thng b bin cng kho gia cng c kh hay bin
dang deo tip theo lam giam nng sut. V vy phai tin hanh nhit luyn thch hp lam
giam cng, tng deo dai giup cho cac qua trnh gia cng tip theo d dang hn nng
sut cao hn.
V du : sau khi ren, dp phi thep b cng khng th ct got c. Ta phai tin
hanh u hay thng hoa giam cng, tng deo. Do o cac qua trnh gia cng tip sau
d dang hn.
10.2.U VA THUONG HOA THE P :
10.2.1.U thep :
1-nh ngha :
U thep la phng pha p nung nong thep n nhit nht nh, gi nhit va lam
ngui chm cung lo nhn c t chc n nh (gn vi t chc cn bng) co bn
cng thp nht va deo cao.
2-Muc ch :
U nhm cac muc ch sau y :
a-Giam cng cua thep d gia cng ct got.
b-Lam tng deo d tin hanh bin dang ngui.
c-Lam giam hay kh bo hoan toan ng sut bn trong do gia cng ct va bin dang.
d-Lam ng u thanh phn hoa hoc trn vt uc b thin tch.
e-Lam nho hat thep.
3-Cac phng phap u :
a-U th p (u non) :
La phng phap u tin hanh nhit t 200 - 600
0
C vi muc ch la giam hay
kh bo ng sut bn trong vt uc hay san phm qua gia cng c kh (ct got, dp ngui).
Nu nhit u ch t 200 - 300
o
C se kh bo mt phn ng sut bn trong (lam giam bt),
nu t 450 - 600
o
C th se kh bo hoan toan ng sut bn trong.
Cng dung : dung cho cac vt uc ln nh thn may ct got, xec mng sau khi
mai, lo xo sau khi un ngui...Phng phap nay khng lam thay i cng cua thep. i
vi gang cng co th giam mt t do qua trnh grapht hoa.
b-U kt tinh lai :
La phng phap u tin hanh nhit kt tinh lai (vi thep cac bon nhit u la
600 -700
0
C). Phng phap nay lam giam cng va lam thay i kch thc hat.
Cng dung : dung cho cac thep qua bin dang ngui, b bin cng khi phuc lai
c tnh nh troc khi bin dang.
Ngay nay phng phap nay hu nh khng s dung na v d lam hat ln do kt
tinh lai ln th hai. at c muc ch nay ta dung cac phng phap u co chuyn bin
pha.
c-U hoan toan :
La phng phap u nung nong thep n trang thai hoan toan la austenit, nhit
cao hn Ac
3
. Nhit u tnh theo cng thc :
T
u
= Ac
3
+ (30 - 50
o
C)
148
Muc ch cua u hoan toan la :
-Lam nho hat thep : do nung cao hn Ac
3
t 30-50
o
C nn ha t austenit vn con nho,
nn khi lam ngui se nh c t chc pherit - peclit co hat nho.
-Lam giam cng va tng deo dp ngui va ct got.
Cng dung : dung cho thep trc cung tch vi lng cac bon t : 0,30-0,65%. Sau
khi u hoan toan ta nhn c t chc pherit - pec lit, trong o pec lt dang tm.
d-U khng hoan toan :
La phng phap u nung nong thep n nhit cao hn Ac
1
va nho hn Ac
cm
tc
la trang khng hoan toan la austenit.
T
u
= Ac
1
+ (30 - 50
o
C)
T chc tao thanh sau khi u khng hoan toan la peclit hat ch khng phai la peclit
tm. Do nhit u thp hn Ac
cm
nn austenit cha ng u hoa thanh phn hay con mt
t xmentit cua peclit cha chuyn bin ht hay cac phn t xmentit hai nn d dang tao ra
peclit hat.
Cng dung : dung cho thep co ham lng cac bon 0,70% ma chu yu la thep
sau cung tch.

e-U cu hoa :
y la mt dang c bit cua u khng hoan toan, nhit dao ng mt cach tun
haon quanh Ac
1
, nung nong ln n nhit 750 - 760
0
C gi nhit khoang nm phut, sau
o lam ngui xung 650 - 660
0
C gi nhit khoang nm phut... C lp i lp lai nh vy
nhiu ln tao ra qua trnh cu hoa xmentit nn nh c hoan toan la peclit hat. S lng
chu trnh phu thuc vao kch thc chi tit va mc cu hoa.
f-U ng nhit :
i vi thep hp kim cao do austenit qua sngui co tnh n nh qua ln nn lam
ngui chm cung lo khng nhn c t chc peclit ng nht ma co th la peclit-xoocbit,
xoocbit, xoocbit-trstit... v vy cng con kha cao, khng ct got c. Luc nay ta dung
phng phap u ng nhit. Sau khi gi nhit xong lam ngui xung thp hn Ac
1
khoang
50
0
C va tin hanh lam ngui ng nhit tai o trong mt thi gian nht nh ( xac nh theo
gian T-T-T cua thep). Phng phap nay nhn c t chc peclit ng nht.
Cng dung : dung cho thep hp kim rut ngn thi gian u.
g-U khuch tan :
La phng phap u nung nong thep n nhit rt cao t 1100 - 1150
0
C vi thi
gian gi ngit rt dai t 10- 15h tng kha nng khuch tan lam ng u thanh phn hoa
hoc trong cac vung cua hat.
Cng dung : dung cho vt uc thep hp kim cao b thin tch. Sau u khuch tan
hat rt to nn phai tin hanh u thng hay can nong lam nho hat thep.
10.2.2.Thuo ng hoa :
Thng hoa la phng phap nhit luyn gm co nung nong thep n trang thai
hoan toan la austenit gi nhit va lam ngui ngoai khng kh tnh.
Thng thng sau khi gi nhit xong ly chi tit ra va lam ngui trn san xng.
T chc nhn c khi thng hoa tng t nh khi u nhng cng cao hn m t t va hat
nho mn hn do tc ngui ln hn.
149
T
thng hoa
= Ac
3
hay Ac
cm
+ (30 - 50
0
C)
Cng dung : Do t chc nh c gn vi trang thai cn bng nn thng hoa co
cng dung tng t nh u, tuy nhin no cung co mt s im khac :
-at c cng thch hp gia cng ct cho thep cac bon thp 0,25%C.
Vi thep nay nu u cng qua thp phoi se rt deo kho gay, kho ct got.

-Lam nho xmentit chun b cho nhit luyn kt thuc. Khi thng hoa se tao ra t
chc peclit phn tan hay xoocbit trong o kch thc cua xmentit nho mn nn khi nung
nong nhn c austenit nho mn. Muc ch nay thng ap dung khi ti.
-Pha li xmentit hai cua thep sau cung tch. Trong thep sau cung tch xmentit
hai thng dang li r t cng va gion. V vy khi gia cng ct got kho nhn c b mt
nhn bong cao. Khi thng hoa do lam ngui nhanh hn u nn xmentit khng kp tit ra
dang loi na.


Hnh 10.1 -Khoang nhit u, thng hoa va ti cho thep cac bon

















10.3.TI THEP :
Trong tt ca cac nguyn cng nhit luyn ti thep la phng phap quan trong nht
v no tao ra cho chi tit bn, cng va tnh chng mai mon cao nht.
10.3.1.Djnh ngha va muc dich
1-nh ngha :
Ti thep la phng phap nhit luyn gm co : nung nong thep n nhit cao
hn nhit ti han (>Ac
1
) lam xut hin t chc austenit, gi nhit ri lam ngui nhanh
ln hn tc ngui ti han nh c t chc khng cn bng co cng cao.
2-Muc ch :
a-Nng cao cng va tnh chng mai mon cho chi tit (sau khi a tin hanh ram)
b-Nng cao bn va kha nng chu tai cho chi tit may.
150
10.3.2.Phuong phap chon nhit d ti thep :
1-i vi thep troc cung tch :
T
ti
= Ac
3
+ (30 - 50
0
C)
Vi nhit ti nh trn ta nhn c t chc nhit nung la austenit ng
nht, sau khi ti la mactenxit va austenit d. Do vy cng cua thep at c gia tr cao
nht.
Nu chon nhit ti thp hn Ac
3
th tai nhit nung ta nhn c t chc la
austenit va phert vn con, cha hoa tan ht. Do vy sau khi ti ta nhn c mactenxit +
austenit d + pherit. Pherit la mt pha mm lam cho cng cua thep b giam i va tao ra
cac im mm lam xu c tnh cua no.
2-i vi thep sau cung tch :
T
ti
= Ac
1
+ (30 - 50
0
C)
Vi nhit nh trn tai nhit nung t chc cua thep la austenit va mt lng
xmentit hai. Sau khi ti ta c mactenxit + mt it austenit d + xmentit hai, trong o
xmentit hai la pha co cng cao lam tng manh tnh chng mai mon cho thep.
Nu nung cao hn Ac
cm
tai nhit nung ta co austenit ng nht, v vy sau khi
ti nhn c mactenxit + austenit d kha nhiu. Nh vy lam mt tnh chng mai mon cao
cua xmentit hai. Mt khac khi nung coa nh vy d b thoat cac bon trn lp b mt, lng
cac bon hoa tan vao austenit qua ln lam tng th tch ring cua mactenxit do vy se tao ra
austenit d nhiu hn lam xu c tnh.
3-i vi thep cung tch :
Dung cng thc nao cung c v Ac
1
, Ac
3
va Ac
cm
trung nhau tai S trn gian
pha Fe-C.
4-i vi thep hp kim :
Vi thep hp kim thp nhit ti khng sai khac nhiu so vi thep cac bon,
thng thng cao hn t 10 - 20
0
C (tr trng hp thep cha mangan, niken).
Vi thep hp kim trung bnh va cao nhit ti sai khac nhiu hn so vi thep cac
bon, do vy phai tra cu trong cac s tay v nhit luyn.
10.3.3.Tc d ti toi han va d thm ti :
1-Tc ti ti han :
a-nh ngha :
Tc ti ti han la tc ngui nho nht cn thit nhn c chuyn bin
mactenxit khi ti.
Ta co th tnh gn ung nhit nay da vao gian T-T-T theo cng thc sau :
V
th
=
0
1
(
m
m
A T

)

0
C/s
Trong o : -A
1
la nhit ti han di,
0
C
-T
m
0
,
m
la nhit va thi gian ng vi austenit qua
ngui kem n nh nht.
Tc ti ti han cua thep cang nho cang d ti v lam ngui khng nhanh lm
cung nhn c mactenxit do o tao c cng cao, bin dang t va khng b nt.
b-Cac yu t anh hng n tc ti ti han :
151
Moi yu t lam tng hay giam tnh n nh cua austenit qua ngui u anh hng
n tc ti ti han. Gm co cac yu t sau :
-Thanh phn hp kim cua austenit : y la yu t quan trong nht, austenit cang
giau cac nguyn t hp kim (tr cban) u lam giam tc ti ti han.
-S ng nht cua austenit : Austent cang ng nht th cang d bin thanh
mactenxit v cung la dung dch rn, nn lam giam tc ti ti han. Nu austenit cang
khng ng nht th tai vung giau cac bon d tao ra xmentit hay cacbit, nhng vung ngheo
cac bon d bin thanh pherit. nng cao tnh ng nht cua austenit ta nng cao nhit
nung giup cho s hoa tan va lam ng u hoa cac bon d dang hn.
-Cac phn t rn cha tan ht vao austenit se thuc y qua trnh tao ra pherit - cac
bit do vy lam tng tc ti ti han.
-Kch thc hat austenit cang ln bin gii hat cang t, do vy kho tao thanh hn
hp pherit - cac bt lam giam tc ti ti han.

Hnh 10.2 -S giai thch thm ti














2- thm ti :
a-nh ngha : thm ti la chiu day cua lp c ti cng co t chc mactenxit (trong
thc t la lp co t chc na mactenxit ngha la mactenxit va trstit).
Xet mt chi tit co dang hnh tru, ng knh D khi lam ngui trong qua trnh ti
tc ngui b mt bao gi cung cao hn trong loi nn ng cong ngui co dang mt
parabn. V vy ch lp b mt v chiu day co tc ngui V
th
mi co t chc
mactenxit va cng cao. o chnh la thm ti.
b-Cac yu t anh hng :
-Yu t quan trong nht anh hng n thm ti la tc ti ti han, tc ti
ti han cang nho thm ti cang cao. Nu thep co tc ngui trong loi V
th
th toan b
tit din chi tit c ti va goi la ti thu. Nu tc ngui b mt a nho hn V
th
th
chi tit khng c ti. Moi yu t lam giam tc ti ti han u lam tng thm ti.
-Tc ngui cang tng th thm ti cung tng ln theo. Tuy nhin khng
dung bin phap nay v d gy nt, bin dang...
152
c-Y ngha cua thm ti : Thep co thm ti cang cao c coi la cang tt, bi v lp
ti day sc chu tai cua chi tit tng ln kha nhiu. Xac nh thm ti bng phng phap
ti u mut.
10.3.4.Cac phuong pha p ti th tich va cng dung :
1-Mi trng ti :
Mi trng lam ngui thep khi ti goi la mi trng ti.
a-Yu cu cua mi trng ti :
-Phai co tc lam ngui ln hn V
th
cua thep cn ti va khng lam nt hay bin
dang chi tit. Do o tc lam ngui cua no nh sau :
*Lam ngui nhanh thep trong khoang austenit kemn nh nht (khoang 500 -
600
o
C) khng kp phn hoa thanh hn hp pherit - xmentit.
*Lam ngui chm ngoai khoang nhit trn tranh ng sut nhit va ng sut
t chc gy ra bin dang, nt v. c bit la vung nhit chuyn bin mactenxit v ng
sut nhit va ng sut t chc cung ln.
Trong thc t khng mi trng ti nao thoa man yu cu nu trn.
-Co linh ng cao, dn nhit tt, tnh bam dnh vao b mt ln va re tin.

Hnh 10.3 -ng cong ngui ly tng
















b-Cac mi trng ti thng dung :
-Nc : la mi trng ti manh, an toan, d kim va re tin. Nc nhit 20 -
30
0
lam ngui thep kha nhanh ca hai khoang nhit noi trn, tao ra cng cao nhng
d gy ra nt va bin dang. Khi ti nc nong ln va tc ngui nhanh chong b giam i.
Do vy khng nc nong qua 40 - 50
0
C bng cach cho nc lanh vao va thao nc nong
ra. Cng dung : ti thep cac bon co hnh dang n gian.
-Dung dch xut, mui hoa hoc : nng khoang 5 - 10% la mi trng ti manh
nht, tc ngui co th at 1200
0
C/s do co cac ion in ly dn nhit ln. Mt khac no
153
khng gy ra nt khoang nhit chuyn bin mactenxit nh nc. Do vy c dung
ti cac loai thep cac bon dung cu yu cu cng cao (co tc ti ti han ln)
-Du luyn : lam ngui chm thep hai khoang nhit trn nn t gy ra bin
dang va nt nhng tc ngui chm. Khi nong ln tc ngui cua du khng b giam
nhiu, do vy thng ti trong du nong khoang 60 - 80
0
C v co tnh linh ng cao. Nhc
im cua du la khi ti d b chay va gia thanh cao. Do vy phai lam ngui du trong qua
trnh ti. Du la mi trng ti cho thep hp kim va cac chi tiot hjnh dang phc tap.
-Dung dch cht deo (polyme) : loai mi trng nay co th thay i tc lam
ngui bng cah thay i nng cua no. No lam giam manh tc ngui vung nhit
thp nn giam c nt va cong vnh.
Ngoai ra co th dung kh nen, tm thep, tm ng lam mi trng ti. Loai nay co
V
th
nho c vai chuc
0
C/s ti cac thep hp kim.
2-Cac phng phap ti thtch va cng dung :
a-Ti trong mt mi trng (ng a) :
Sau khi nung nong va gi nhit xong chi tit c nhung vao mi trng ti cho
n khi ngui hn. y la phng phap ti quan trong nht, c s dung rng rai nht.
Ti trong mt mi trng d c kh hoa va t ng hoa, giam nhe iu kin lao ng.
















a)Ti trong 1 mi trng b)Ti trong 2 mi trng
Hnh 10.4-Phng thc lam ngui khi ti thep
c)Ti phn cp d)Ti ng nhit

b-Ti trong hai mi trng (ng b) :
Sau khi nung nong va gi nhit xong chi tit c nhung vao mi trng ti th
nht co tc ngui ln ( nc, dung dch xut hay mui), n khoang nhit gn xay ra
chuyn bi n mactenxit ( khoang 300 - 400
o
C ) th nhc ra chuyn sang mi trng ti th
hai co tc ngui chm hn (du hay khng kh) cho n khi ngui hn. Phng phap
nay lam cho thep co cng cao nhng t gy ra bin dang va nt.
154
Nhc im cua phng phap nay la kho xac nh thi im chuyn mi trng
ti, yu cu cng nhn co tay ngh cao. Nu chuyn sm qua th phn ln thi gian thep
c lam ngui trong mi trng ti yu co cng thp. Nu chuyn mun qua th
chuyn bin mactenxit se xay ra trong mi trng ti manh d gy nt va bin dang. Theo
kinh nghim th thi gian gi trong mi trng ti manh t 2 - 3 giy cho 10 mm chiu day
hay ng knh.
Cng dung cua ti trong hai mi trng la : dung cho thep cac bon cao, yu cu
cng ln nhng khng u cac ln ti khac nhau.
c-Ti phn cp (ng c) :
Phng phap nay khc phuc c kho khn v xac nh thi im chuyn mi
trng cua ti hai mi tr ng. Chi tit c nhung vao mi trng mui nong chay co nhit
cao hn im M

khoang t 50 - 100
o
C va chi tit b ngui n nhit nay va gi tai
o cho n khi nhit ng u trn toan b tit din chi tit. Sau o nhc ra ngoai khng
kh chuyn bin mactenxit xay ra.
Phng phap nay co u im la chi tit co cng cao nhng ng sut bn trong
rt nho, bin dang thp nht. Mc khac co th tin hanh nen ep, sa cha nu b cong
vnh v austenit qua ngui con kha deo.
Cng dung : dung cho cac thep co tc ti ti han nho (cac loai thep hp kim)
va tit din nho nh : mui khoan, dao phay.
Ba phng ti trn u nhn c t chc mactenxit.
d-Ti ng nhit (ng d) :
Phng pha p nay ch khac ti phn cp ch gi ng nhit lu hn trong mui
nong chay (co th n hang gi) austenit qua ngui phn hoa hoan toan thanh hn hp
phe rit va xmentit nho mn co cng cao, dai tt. Tuy theo nhit gi ng nhit ta
se nhn c cac t chc khac nhau : gi tai 250 - 400
o
C nh c bainit, tai 500 - 600
o
C
c trstit. Sau khi ti ng nhit khng cn ram na.
Ti ng nhit co y u cac u va nhc im cua ti phn cp ch khac la
cng thp hn va dai cao hn. Trong thc t t dung phng phap ti nay v nng sut
thp.
Cng dung : s dung cho mt s dung cu co yu cu cao v bin dang cho
phep nhng cng khng cn cao lm va gang cu.
e-Ti t ram :
Vi mt s loai chi tit ch cn cng cao phn lam vic ta dung phng phap
sti t ram. Nung nong chi tit n nhit ti, nhung phn cn ti cng vao mi trng
ti co chuyn bin mactenxit. Sau o ly ra ngoai khng kh nhit se truyn t phn
khng ti sang ram phn va c ti cng. Nh vy khng cn phai tin hanh ram tip
theo na.
Cng dung : dung cho cac loai uc thep (mui ve), ti cam ng cac chi tit ln
(bng may, cac truc dai..)
2-Gia cng lanh :
Vi nhiu thep dung cu hp kim do lng cac bon cao va c hp kim hoa nn
cac im M

va M
k
qua thp (M
k
thng nhit m). V vy khi lam ngui n nhit
155
thng cha kt thuc chuyn bin mactenxit nn lng austenit d con nhiu lam cho
cng khng cao. Do o sau khi ti xong ngay lp tc cho thep vao mi trng co nhit
m austenit tip tuc chuyn bin thanh mactenxit. Qua trnh nay goi la gia cng lanh,
thc cht la phng phap tip tuc lam ngui sau khi ti. Nhit gai cng lang xac nh
theo im M
k
(thng t -50 n -70
0
C). Gia cng lanh phai tin hanh ngay sau khi ti
thng, nu khng austenit qua sngui se b n nh hoa khng chuyn bin c na.
Cng dung : -Dung n nh kch thc chi tit : dung cu o.
-Cac chi tit cn cng cao : ln, voi phun bm cao ap, dung cu
ct got kim loai.
-Tng t tnh cho nam chm vnh cu.
10.3.5.Co nhit luyn thep :
1-Khai nim :
C nhit luyn la qua trnh tin hanh gn nh ng thi hai qua trnh hoa bn :
bin dang deo austenit va ti ngay tip theo trong mt nguyn cng duy nht. Sau o mang
ram thp nhit t 150 - 200
0
C. Kt qua la nhn c mactenxit nho mn vi x lch
cao nn co s kt hp rt cao gia bn, deo va dai ma cha co phng phap hoa
bn nao sanh kp (so vi ti va ram thp sau khi tin hanh c nhit luyn bn keo tng
ln 10 - 20%, deo, dai tng t 1,5 n 2ln). Theo nhit tin hanh bin dang deo
ta chia ra hai loai : c nhit luyn nhit cao va c nhit luyn nhit thp.
2-C nhit luyn nhit cao :
Tin hanh bin dang deo thep nhit cao hn Ac
3
, sau o ti ngay ngn can
qua trnh kt tinh lai xay ra (tuy nhin khng th tranh c hoan toan). Sau khi ti tin
hanh ram thp. c im c nhit luyn nhit cao :
-Co th ap dung cho moi loai thep, k ca thep cac bon.
-D tin hanh v nhit cao austenit deo, n nh, khng cn lc ep ln,
bin dang = 20 - 30%.
-at c bn kha cao
b
= 2200 - 2400MPa, deo dai tng i tt =
6 - 8%, a
k
= 300Kj/m
2
.

Hnh 10.5 -S c nhit luyn nhit cao (a) va c nhit
luyn nhit th p (b)













156
3-C nhit luyn nhit thp :
Sau khi nung n cao hn Ac
3
at c austenit ng nht lam ngui nhanh
xung 400 - 600
0
C. Tai nhit nay tnh n nh cua austenit qua ngui kha cao nhng
nho hn nhit kt tinh lai, tin hanh bin dang deo, ti ngay va ram thp. c im c
nhit luyn nhit thp :
-Ch ap dung c cho thep hp kim v austenit qua ngui co tnh n nh ln.
-Kho tin hanh v cn bin dang ln = 50 - 90% nhng nhit thp
austenit kem deo dai nn phai dung cac may can ln, phi thep phai co tit din tng i
nho kp ngui nhanh xung 400 - 600
0
C.
-at c bn rt cao
b
= 2600 - 2800 MPa nhng deo dai thp hn c
nhit luyn nhit cao, = 3%, a
k
= 200Kj/m
2
.
Cac phng phap c nhit luyn tao ra c tnh cao va no gi c khi ti tip sau
o.
10.4.RAM THEP
10.4.1. Djnh ngha va muc dich :
1-nh ngha :
Ram la thao phng phap nhit luyn gm co nung nong thep a ti n nhit
thp hn Ac
1
, gi nhit va lam ngui bin t chc sau khi ti thanh cac t chc co tnh
cht phu hp vi iu kin lam vic quy nh.
Ram la nguyn cng bt buc i vi thep sau khi ti thanh mactenxit.
2-Muc ch :
-Giam hay kh bo ng sut bn trong.
iu chnh c tnh cho phu hp vi iu kin lam vic cu th cua chi ti va dung
cu.
10.4.2.Cac phuong pha p ram:
Da vao nhit ram ngi ta chia ra ba phng phap ram : ram thp, ram trung
bnh va ram cao.
1-Ram thp (150 - 250
o
C) :
Nhit ram t 150 - 205
0
C t chc nhn c la matenxit ram co cng khng
kem sau khi ti va tnh chng mai mon ln. Phng phap nay lam giam ang k ng sut
bn trong.
Cng dung : dung cho cac san phm cn cng va tnh chng mai mon oo nht
khi lam vic nh : cac loai dao ct got kim loai, khun dp ngui, banh rng, chi tit thm
cac bon, ln, cht va cac chi tit sau khi ti b mt.
2-Ram trung bnh (300 - 400
0
C) :
Nhit ram t 300 - 400
0
C, t chc nh c la trstit ram co cng tng i
cao, gii han an hi cao nht, kh bo hoan toan ng sut bn trong, deo dai tng
manh.
Cng dung : dung cho cac chi tit cn cng tng i cao va tnh an hi ln
nh : khun dp nong, khun ren, lo xo, nhp ...
3-Ram cao (500 - 650
0
C) :
157
Nhit ram t 500 - 650
0
C, t chc nh c la xoocbit ram co c tnh tng hp
cao (co s kt hp tt nht gia cac ch tiu c tnh nh bn, deo va dai).
Cng dung : dung cho cac chi tit may cn gii han bn, c bit la gii han chay
va dai cao nh cac loai truc, banh rng, tay bin va cac san phm cn phai ti b mt
tip theo.
Ti va ram cao goi la nhit luyn hoa tt (thc t con goi la iu cht, ti cai tin,
ti cai thin, lam tt...)
Phn loai cac phng phap ram nay ch ung cho thep cac bon va thi gian gi
nhit thng ly 1 gi. i vi thep hp kim nhit ram cao hn, phai tra trong s tay
nhit luyn.
10.5.CAC DANG HONG XAY RA KHI NHIT LUY N THEP :
Nhit luyn (c bit la ti va ram) la nguyn cng gn nh cui cung cua vic
ch tao san phm cua nganh c kh, do vy bt c s sai hong nao cua no cung dn ti s
lang ph vt liu va cng sc cua cac cng oan gia cng trc o. V vy ta phai tm hiu
ky lng cac dang hong thng gp, nguyn nhn va bin phap khc phuc, phong tranh
chung.
10.5.1.Bin dang va nut :
1-Nguyn nhn :
Nguyn nhn gy ra bin dang va nt la do ng sut bn trong (ng sut nhit va
ng sut t ch c) chu yu do lam ngui nhanh khi ti. Luc nay ca hai loai ng sut trn u
ln.
Nu ng sut bn trong ln hn gii han chay se gy ra bin dang, cong vnh. Noi
chung khng th tranh c bin dang khi nhit luyn, vn la khng ch trong gii han
cho phep.Nu ng sut vt qua gii han bn se gy nt, y la dang hong khng sa cha
c va chi tit phai bo i.
2-Khc phuc :
khc phuc dang hong nay phai tm cach giam ng sut bn trong khi nhit
luyn. Co cac bin phap sau y :
-Nung nong va c bit la lam ngui vi tc hp ly, y la bin phap c ban
nht.
-Nhung chi tit vao mi trng ti phai ung quy lut :
+Chi tit nho va dai phai nhung vung goc ma khng c nhung xin.
+Chi tit co phn day mong khac nhau phai nhung phn day xung trc.
+Chi tit phng va mong phai nhung thng ng khng c nhung ngang.
+Chi tit co phn lom phai nga phn nay ln khi ti
-Cac truc dai khi nung nong phai treo thng ng.
-Vi cac chi tit mong va nho phai ti trong khun ep.
-C gng s dung ti phn cp, ha nhit trc khi ti nu co th c.
10.5.2. xy hoa va thoat cac bon :
xy hoa la hin tng nhit cao xy tac dung vi st tao ra cac vay xyt,
lam thiu hut kch thc chi tit.Thoat cac bon la hin tng cac bon trn lp b mt b
chay hao i khi nung lam xu b mt, giam c tnh.
158
1-Nguyn nhn :
Do trong mi trng nung co cha cac cht gy xy hoa nh xy, cac bo nc va
hi nc...Thoat cac bon d dang xay ra hn so vi xy hoa. Khi b xy hoa thng kem
theo thoat cac bon.
2-Khc phuc :
khc phuc dang hong nay tt nht la nung nong trong kh quyn khng co cac
thanh phn noi trn. Ta s dung cac bin phap sau :
-Dung kh quyn bao v : la loai kh c iu ch t kh t thin nhin trong o
co cac thanh phn kh i lp nhau ( xy hoa / hoan nguyn) nh : CO
2
/CO, H
2
O/H
2

H
2
/CH
4
vi ty l xac nh dn ti trung hoa nhau va bao v tt b mt thep.
-Dung kh quyn trung tnh : ni t tinh khit hay kh tr argng...Tt nht la dung
kh tr argng nhng co nhc im la gia thanh cao.
-Nung trong mi trng chn khng : co ap sut 10
-2
- 10
-4
mm Hg, c s dung
kha rng rai v gia thanh khng cao lm.
-Nhung chi tit vao han the (Na
2
B
4
O
7
) trc khi nung.
-Rai than hoa (than g) trn ay lo hay phu kn chit bng than hoa.
-Nu dung lo mui th phai kh xy trit bng than, han the hay fer silic.
10.5.3.D cung khng dat :
La hin tng cng co gia tr khng ung theo yu cu nhit luyn a ra, co
th cao hn hay thp hn quy nh.
1- cng cao :
Sau khi nhit luyn xong cng co gia tr cao hn yu cu, thng xay ra khi u
va thng hoa thep hp kim gy kho khn cho gia cng ct got.
Nguyn nhn : do tc ngui qua ln. Khc phuc : tin hanh nhit luyn lai vi
tc ngui chm hn hay mang u ng nhit.
2- cng thp :
Thng xay ra khi ti cng co gia tr th p hn quy nh ma no phai co vi
thanh phn cac bon tng ng.
Co th do cac nguyn nhn sau y :
-Thiu nhit : nhit nung cha u, hay thi gian gi nhit ngn. Khc phuc
bng cach thng hoa ri ti lai vi nhit va thi gian ung
-Lam ngui khng u nhanh. Khc phuc : thng hoa va ti lai vi tc ngui
nhanh hn.
-Thoat cac bon b mt, co th tin hanh thm cac bon lai.
-Nhm thep, i lai cho ung mac thep quy nh.
Tuy nhin vic khc phuc trn se lam tng bin dang va cht lng san phm se
giam i.
10.5.4.Tinh don cao :
La hin tng sau khi ti thep co tnh don qua m c trong khi cng vn gia tr
cao bnh thng.
159
Nguyn nhn la do nhit nung ti qua cao va thi gian gi nhit qua dai lam
cho hat thep b ln. Khc phuc bng cach thng hoa ri ti lai vi nhit va thi gian
ung. Tuy nhin se lam tng bin dang cho san phm.





























160

CHUONG 11 : CAC PHUONG PHAP HOA BN B MT

B mt chi tit may la b phn co yu cu cao nht va quan trong nht v chung
chu tac dung cua ng sut ln nht, chu mai mon khi tip xuc do ma sat, b n mon trong
mi trng lam vic. V vy vic hoa bn b mt chi tit la yu cu khng th thiu c
i vi san phm. Co nhiu phng phap hoa b n b mt nh : bin dang deo b mt gy ra
bin cng, ti b mt va hoa nhit luyn.
11.1.TI B MT :
11.1.1.Nguyn ly chung :
Bng cach nao o nung nong tht nhanh lp b mt vi chiu day xac nh ln
nhit ti, trong khi phn ln tit di n san phm khng c nung, nn khi ti ch co lp
b mt nay c ti cng. Cac phng phap nung nong b mt gm co : nung nong bng
dong in cam ng co tn s cao, nung nong bng ngon la xy - axtylen, nung nong
trong cht in phn, nung nong bng tip xuc ...Trong o thng dung nht la hai phng
phap u.


I: Ti hoan toan.
II: Ti khng hoan toan.
III: Khng c ti.
I II III
A
C1
A
C3
0
C









Khoang cach t b m t
Hnh 11.1- S phn b nhit t b mt vao loi

11.1.2.Ti b mt bng dong din cam ung co tn s cao (ti cao tn, ti cam ung) :
1-Nguyn ly :
Nguyn ly cua nung nong la da vao hin tng cam ng in t : cho dong in
xoay chiu co tn s f chay trong dy dn (goi la vong cam ng) se sinh ra trong khng
gian xung quanh mt t trng bin thin co cung tn s. t chi tit thep trong t trng
nay se sinh ra trn b mt (vi chiu su xac nh) mt dong in cam ng (dong fuc)
nhanh chong nung nong b mt ln nhit ti theo hiu ng Jun - Lenx. Mt dong
in cua dong xoay chiu chu yu phn b trn b mt vi chiu su ty l nghch vi tn s
cua no. Chiu su phn b dong in (chiu day lp nung nong) c tnh theo cng thc :
= 5030
f

cm
161
Trong o : - la in tr sut ( .cm )
- la t thm (gaus/cstec)
-f la tn s dong in, Hz
2-Chon tn s va thit b :
Tn s quyt nh chiu day lp nung nong do vy quyt nh chiu su lp ti
cng. Thng thng ngi ta thng chon din tch lp ti cng bng khoang 20% tit
din. Cac chi ln cn lp ti day (4 - 5mm) ta dung may phat in tn s cao vi tn s t
2500 n 8000 Hz, co cng sut ln, thng la t 100 kW tr ln. Vi cac chi tit nho cn
lp ti mong (1 - 2mm) ta dung cac thit b phat dong in co tn s rt cao t 66000 n
250000 Hz, co cng sut di 100kW, thng t 50 - 60kW. Tuy nhin thc t Vit Nam
thng dung thi t b phat dong cao tn, vi cac chi tit ln cn chiu su ti day ta tng
thi gian gi nhit ln tng ng.
3-Cu tao vong cam ng va cac phng phap ti :
a-Cu tao vong cam ng :
Vong cam ng lam bng ng ng co cu tao phu hp vi b mt chi tit cn ti,
bn trong co nc lam ngui. Khoang cac gia vong cam ng vi b mt chi tit t 1,5 - 5
mm, khe h nay cang nho cang tn hao cng sut nung nong.
b-Cac phng phap ti cam ng :
-Ti b mt ngoai : Vong cam ng bao quanh b mt chi tit, sau khi nung nong
xong ta chuyn sang b phn lam ngui hay nhung no vao mi tr ng ti.
-Ti b mt trong : Vong cam ng co dang tng ng vi b mt bn trong (s mi
xy lanh...). i k o la b phn phun nc lam ngui.
-Ti mt phng : Vong cam ng co dang tao ra mt mt phng song song vi b
mt cn ti va chuyn ng song phng vi b mt o. i sau vong cam ng la thit b lam
ngui. Dung ti b mt u thanh ray bng may nho...
-Ti tun t tng phn ring bit : Dung cho cac banh rng ln (m > 6) hay c truc
khuyu. Sau khi nung nong tng phn (tng rng hay tng c khuyu) tin hanh lam ngui
chung va phai thit k ring thit b lam vic theo chng trnh.
-Ti truc : Vi cac truc da i co b mt ti ln ta dung phng phap ti lin tuc lin
tip. Vong cam ng co cu tao u nung nong mt phn nho din tch ti, i k vong cam
ng la vong phun lam ngui. Thit b nay chuyn ng trn sut chiu dai cua chi tit va
ti toan b b mt cua no.
4-Tchc va c tnh cua thep khi ti cam ng :
a-Thep ti cam ng :
am bao yu cu khi ti b mt co cng cao u chng mai mon, con trong
loi vn u bn, deo va dai cao chu va p, thep dung ti cam ng co lng cac bon
trung bnh t 0,35 - 0,55%C. Nu la thep hp kim th thuc loai h p kim thp.
b-T chc :
Nung nong cam ng co tc nung rt nhanh t hang chuc n hang trm
0
C/s (lo
nhit luyn tc 1,5 - 3
0
C/s), do vy co cac c im sau :
-Nhit chuyn bin pha Ac
1
va Ac
3
c nng cao ln, do vy nhit ti phai
ly cao hn ti th tch t 100 - 200
0
C.
162
T
ti cam ng
= T
ti th tch
+ (100 - 200
0
C)












a)S nung nong cam ng b)Ti khi nung nong toan b b mt ti
Hnh 11.2-Nung nong va ti b mt bng dong in tn s cao
c)Ti khi nung nong lin tuc-lin tip 1)Chi tit ti 2)Vong cam ng
3)Vong lam ngui 4)ng sc t.

-Do qua nung cao nn tc chuyn bin pha rt nhanh, thi gian chuyn bin
rt ngn (thng c hang chuc giy), hat austenit rt nho mn nn nhn c mactenxit
hnh kim rt nho mn (mactenxit n tch).
V vy bao am hat nho mn khi ti cam ng va am bao gii han chay, dai
cao phai nhit luyn hoa tt trc co t chc xoocbit ram. Sau khi ti cam ng b mt la
mactenxit hnh kim nho mn, trong loi la xoocbit ram.
c-C tnh :
Sau khi ti cam ng tin hanh ram thp, b mt thep co cng 50 - 58HRC
chng mai mon kha tt, trong loi cng 30 - 40HRC co gii han chay va dai cao. iu
c bit la sau khi ti cam ng tao cho b mt lp ng sut nen d n 800MPa nng cao
manh gii han moi.
5-u nhc im :
Ti cam ng la phng phap ti b mt co hiu qua kinh t ky thut cao nn c
s dung rt rng rai trong san xut c kh.
a-u im : Ti cam ng co kha nhiu u im so vi ti th tch.
-Nng sut cao : do thi gian nung ngn v ch nung mt lp mong trn b mt va
nhit lng c tao ra ngay trong kim loai.
-Cht lng tt : do thi gian nung ngn nn han ch ti a xy ho a va thoat cac
bon. Bn canh o con iu chnh c ch in, nhit nung, thi gian nung mt cach
chnh xac nn am bao cht lng ng u. cng cao hn ti thng khoang t 1 -
3HRC, c goi la siu cng.
-D t ng hoa, c kh hoa, giam nhe iu kin lao ng cho cng nhn
-Thch hp vi san xut hang loat ln (trong cac nha may ch tao ng c, t,
may keo ...co quy m ln)
b-Nhc im : Tuy nhin ti cam ng cung co nhc im nht nh.
163
-Kho ap dung cho cac chi tit co hnh dang b mt phc tap hay s thay i t
ngt v tit din do kho ch tao vong cam ng phu hp.
-Hiu qua kinh t thp khi san xut n chic va hang loat nho.
Nung nong cam ng con c s dung kha rng rai trong ky thut nh :
+Nu chay vt liu kim loai trong uc va luyn kim.
+Luyn vung tao tao ra cac nguyn t siu sach.
+Nung nong gia cng ap lc : can, ep...
+Han cac ng, dan nylon, cht deo...
11.1.3.Ti ngon lua :
Phng phap nay s du ng ngon la cua hn h p xy - axtylen trong thit b han
kh. Ngon la nay co nhit rt cao, n 3000
0
C nn nhanh chong nung nong b mt thep
ln nhit ti. Phng phap nay dung ti cac chi tit ln, yu cu lp ti b mt day
(n 10mm va ln hn ) ma khng ti cam ng c nh : cac banh rng ln, mt s loai
truc...
Ti ngon la rt n gian, bt c xng c kh nao cung thc hin c. Tuy
nhin cht lng kho am bao : thiu nhit, qua nhit, d tao ra dai ram phu c tnh khng
am bao.
11.2.HOA NHIT LUYN :
11.2.1.Djnh ngha va muc dich :
1-nh ngha :
Hoa nhit luyn la phng phap lam bao hoa cac nguyn t a cho (C,N, H, B, Cr,
Al...) vao b mt thep lam thay i thanh phn hoa hoc, do o lam thay i t chc va
at c tnh cht theo quy nh.
2-Muc ch : Hoa nhit luyn nhm at c cac muc ch sau y
-Nng cao cng, tnh chng mai mon va bn moi cho thep. Vi
muc ch nay at c cao hn so vi ti b mt.
-Nng cao tnh chng n mon in hoa, hoa hoc (chng xy hoa nhit
cao). Tuy nhin muc ch nay t thc hin do nhit qua cao, thi gian qua dai, chi ph
ln nn gia thanh cao.
2-Cac qua trnh xay ra :
tin hanh hoa nhit luyn ngi ta cho chi tit thep vao mi trng giau cac
nguyn t cn khuch tan va nung nong n nhit cn thit. Khi gi tai nhi t nay se
xay ra cac qua trnh sau y :
a-Phn hoa : la qua trnh phn tch cac phn t cua cht khuch tan tao nn cac nguyn t
co tnh hoat ng manh.
b-Hp thu : sau o cac nguyn t hoat c hp thu vao b mt thep co nng cao tao ra
s chnh lch v nng gia b mt va loi (gradien nng hng vao loi)
c-Khuch tan : nguyn t hoat lp hp thu se i su vao bn trong theo c ch khuch tan
va tao ra lp thm co chiu su nht nh.
Trong ba qua trnh trn th qua trnh khuch tan la quan trong nht v no quyt
nh kt qua cua hoa nhit luyn.
3-Cac yu t anh hng :
164
Nhit va thi gian anh hng rt ln n khuch tan va chiu day lp thm.
Nhit : cang cao chuyn ng nhit cua nguyn t cang ln, tc khuch tan cang
manh nn lp thm cang chong at chiu su quy nh. Mi quan h nh sau :
D = A.e
-(Q/KT)

T o ta thy rng nhit la yu t quan trong nht lam tng chiu day lp thm khi tin
hanh haa nhit luyn.
Thi gian : nhit c nh, keo dai thi gian se nng cao chiu su lp thm
tuy nhin hiu qua khng manh bng nhit . Quan h nay nh sau :
1/ 2
. k = (k la h s,
la thi gian)
11.2.2.Th m cac bon :
1-nh ngha va muc ch :
Thm cac bon la phng phap lam bao hoa cac bon vao b mt thep cac bon thp
(%C 0,25%) sau khi nhit luyn b mt co cng cao, tnh chng mai mon ln, con
trog loi vn deo va dai.

Muc ch cua thm cac bon la lam cho b mt thep co cng n 60 - 64 HRC
tnh chng mai mon cao, chu moi tt, con trong loi bn, deo dai vi cng 30 - 40 HRC
chu un, xon va va p tt.
Sau khi thm cac bon ham lng cac bon l b mt khoang 0,80 - 1,00% la phu
hp nht, con trong loi co hat nho mn, khng co phe rit t do. Thm cac bon la phng
phap hoa nhit luyn c s dung rt lu i va rt ph bin Vit Nam. Tuy theo cht
thm ngi ta chia ra thm cac bon th rn, th kh va th long (hin tai khng s du ng v
qua c hai).
2-Thm cac bon thrn :
a-Cht thm :
Gm co than g c xay nho n c 3 - 5 mm chim 85 - 90%, cht xuc tac
(BaCO
3
, Na
2
CO
3
, K
2
CO
3
...) vi ty l 10 - 15%. t chi tit vao hp kn co cha y cht
thm va cho vao lo nng ln n nhit cn thit.
b-Nhit thm va thi gian thm :
Nguyn tc chon nhit thm cac bon la n trang thai hoan toan la austenit
co kha nng boa hoa lng cac bon cao nht co th c.Vi thep ban cht hat ln nhit
thm t 900 - 920
0
C thep ban cht hat nho nhit thm n 950
0
C. Nhit thm cang
cao chiu su lp thm cang ln.
Thi gian thm cac bon c quyt nh bi chiu su lp thm, gia tr nay c
quy nh khi thit k chi tit. Vi nhit c nh thi gian thm cang tng chiu su thm
se cang ln co ba cach tnh thi gian thm :
- Theo cng thc : k = vi k la h s phu thuc vao nhit th m, la thi
gian thm (gi nhit h), , la chiu su thm (mm).
- Tra bang cho trc trong s tay nhit luyn.
- Theo kinh nghim : thm 900
0
C c 0,20 mm/1h thi gian gi nhit.
c-Cac qua trnh xay ra :
-Than chay thiu xy :
2C + O
2
= 2CO
165
-Kh CO chuyn ng gp b mt thep va do tac dung cua xuc tac b phn huy :
2CO CO
2
+ C
nguyn t
- nhit cao cht xuc tac b phn huy :
BaCO
3
BaO + CO
2
CO
2
+ C
than
= 2CO va tip din qua trnh trn.
-Lam ngui sau khi thm se tao lai xuc tac :
BaO + CO
2
= BaCO
3
Cac bon nguyn t co tnh hoat ng cao se khuch tan vao b mt thep theo c
ch sau : C
nguyn t
+ Fe

= Fe

(C)
C
nguyn t
+ Fe = Fe
3
C
d-Nhit luyn sau khi thm :
Sau khi thm ham lng cac bon trn lp b mt at 0,80 - 1,00%C cng co
tng ln mt t nhng cha s dung c ma phai tin hanh nhit luyn. Co hai phng
phap nhit luyn : ti hai ln va ram thp, ti mt ln va ram thp.
Ti hai ln va ram thp : ti ln th nht nhit 860 - 880
0
C, vi muc ch lam
nho hat thep va pha li xmentit hai trn b mt. Ti ln th hai nhit 760 - 780
0
C
tao cho b mt co cng cao nht. Ram thp vi nhit 150 - 180
0
C. Cach nhit luyn
nay kha tn kem nn ch dung cho cac chi tit quan trong.
Ti mt ln va ram thp : khi thm cac bon thng s dung thep ban cht hat nho
nn hat khng ln lm. V vy sau khi thm xong ha nhit xung 760 - 780
0
C va ti ngay
sau o tin hanh ram thp 150 - 180
0
C.
Thm cac bon th rn co c im la thi gian dai (phai nung ca hp cht thm),
iu kin lam vic xu (nhiu bui than), cht lng khng cao (nng cac bon qua ln,
thng tao ra xmentit hai b mt gy ra don). Tuy nhin n gian d tin hanh.











Hnh 11.3 - T chc t vi lp thm cac bon

3-Thm cac bon thkh :
Thm cac bon th kh la phng phap hin ai va co nhiu u vit nht, ngay nay
c ap dung rng rai trong san xut c kh.
Dung mt lo kn cha y kh thm (CO, CH
4
, C
2
H
6
...) ly t kh thin nhin, cho
chi tit vao va nng ln nhit thm. Trong thc t thng dung CH
4
vi ty l 3-5% (do
166
mtan tac dung thm rt manh) con lai la CO (n 95%). Tai nhit nung xay ra qua trnh
sau :
CH
4
2H
2
+ C
nguyn t.
Cac bon nguyn t se khuch tan vao b mt thep. Nhit , thi gian thm va
nhit luyn sau khi thm tng t nh th rn.
Thm cac bon th kh co c im la : thoi gian thm ngn (do khng nung hp
cha y hn hp thm), cht lng lp thm ng u, d c kh hoa va t ng hoa (s
dung rng rai trong san xut hang loat ln), iu kin lao ng tt. Tuy nhin thit b gia
thanh cao.
4-Cng dung :
Thm cac bon cung tao ra c tnh tng t nh ti b mt, nhng cng lp b
mt cao hn (60 - 64HRC), cng loi t 15 - 40HRC, co ng sut nen d trn b mt.
Do vy am ba o chu mai mon cao hn va chu tai tt hn cung nh nng cao gii han moi.
Cng dung : dung cho cac chi tit lam vic nng n hn, hnh dang phc tap nh banh rng
hp s, may ct kim loai, mt s loai truc, cht.
11.2.3.Th m ni to :
1-nh ngha va muc ch :
Thm ni t la phng phap hoa nhit luyn lam bao hoa ni t vao b mt thep
nng cao cng, tnh chng mai mon va tnh chng n mon ( cng cao hn hn thm
cac bon n 65-70HRC)
2-Tchc lp thm ni t :
at c gia tr cng cao la do ban cht cua lp thm ni t, do vy khng phai
nhit luyn sau khi thm. Thm ni t ch tin hanh th kh vi ch t thm la amnic,
nhit thm khoang 480 - 650
0
C. Phan ng nh sau :
2NH
3
3H
2
+ 2N
nguyn tu















Hnh 11.5-Gian pha st - nit


167
Ni t nguyn t co tnh hoat ng cao se khuch tan vao b mt thep. C s tin
hanh thm ni t la gian pha Fe - N. i t b mt vao t chc lp thm gm co :
-Pha la dung dch rn trn c s la pha xen ke Fe
2
N.
-Pha ' la dung dch rn tr
n c s pha xen le Fe
4
N.
-Pha fe rit ni t (dung dch rn cua nit trong Fe

.
T chc lp thm gm cac nitrit - pha xen ke vi cng rt cao, rt phn tan nn
co cng va tnh chng mai mon rt cao.
3-c im thm ni t :
-Do tin hanh nhit thp s khuch tan kho khn va chm nn lp thm
mong, thi gian thm dai. Thm 520
0
C at chiu su 0,40 mm phai gi nhit 48h.
-Sau khi thm khng ti va mai.
-Phai dung thep c bit la 38CrMoAlA, trc khi thm phai nhit luyn hoa tt
thanh xoocbit ram.
-Lp thm cng hn va gi c nhit n 500
0
C va cao hn
4-Cng dung :
Thm ni t dung cho cac chi tit cn cng va tnh chng mai mon rt cao, lam
vic nhit cao hn 500
0
C, nhng chu tai khng cao (do lp thm mong) nh : mt s
truc, s mi xy lanh may bay, dung ct, dung cu o, nong sung...Thm ni t cung lam tng
ang k gii han moi.
11.2.4.Th m cac bon - nito (thm xyanua) :
1-nh ngha va muc ch :
Thm cac bon ni t la phng phap hoa nhit luyn lam bao hoa ng thi cac
bon va ni t vao b mt thep nng cao cng, tnh chng mai mon cung nh chng
mai mon (no la trung gian gia thm cac bon va ni t)
Nu tin hanh thm di 560
0
C th cac bon khuch tan yu nn lp thm chu yu
la ni t do vy gn vi thm ni t hn.
Nu thm nhit 850
0
C hay coa hn th s khuch tan cua cac bon manh nn
lop thm gn vi thm cac bon hn.
2-Thm cac bon ni t nhit cao :
a-Thm th rn :
Tin hanh ging nh thm cac bon ch khac la trong cht thm co thm t 20 -
30% cac mui K
4
Fe(CN)
6
, K
3
Fe(CN)
6
. Sau khi thm phai ti va ram thp.
b-Thm th kh :
Tin hanh nh thm cac bon th kh nhng trong cht thm co thm 5-10% NH
3
va
nhit thm la 840-860
0
C. T ch c lp thm ngoai cac cao ra con co pha cacbon - nitrit
Fe
3
(C,N) rt cng va phn tan nn nng cao rt manh tnh chng mai mon, lam tng tui
tho t 50 - 100%. Sau khi thm phai ti ngay t nhit thm va ram thp. Phng phap
nay s dung rt rng rai v khng gy c hai va tao ra cht lng tt.
c-Thm th long :
168
Tin hanh trong b gm cac hn hp mui nong chay (trong o chu yu la cac
mui co gc CN hay CNO cung cp C va N nguyn t). Co hai cach : thm nhit
thp va nhit cao.
Thm nhit thp : Tin hanh nhit 540-560
0
C trong hn hp gm co
50%NaCN va 50% Na
2
CO
3
hay 50%NaCN va 50%KCN. Sau khi thm khng tin hanh ti
va ram na. Cng dung : chu yu dung cho cac dung cu ct got bng thep gio sau nhit
luyn. Phng phap nay co nhc im la rt c hai v dung mui co gc CN t axit HCN
(ch cn nhim c khaong 1mg la u gy t vong)
Thm nhit cao : Tin hanh nhit 820-860
0
C trong cac mui co thanh
phn tng t trn. Sau khi thm phai ti va ram thp. Cng dung : dung cho cac loai truc,
banh rng, cht ...
khc phuc nhc im cua thm cac bon ni t ngay nay ngi ta dung cac
sloai mui khng c hai va tao ra phng phap mi goi la tenifer (tenex - hoa bn, nitrur -
thm N, ferum - Fe) tng cng va tnh chng mai mon cho truc khuy, banh rng,
khun dp, khun keo...
11.2.5.Cac phuong pha p hoa nhit luyn khac :
Ngoai cac phng phap trn con s dung cac phng phap nh thm bo, crm,
nhm, silic... nng cao cng, tnh chng xy hoa cho vt liu. Cng dung : khun
ren, tua bin phan lc, ghi lo, gu rot thep gang...

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169
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