You are on page 1of 18

1

Dvravati and ri-Ksetra: A Cultural Relation


Phasook Indrawooth Faculty of Archaeology Silpakorn University, Bangkok

It is noticed that Dvravati people seem to have close cultural relation with the Pyu people in ri-Ksetra kingdom, referred to by the Chinese historians and pilgrims as a contemporary kingdom. Therefore, this study will provide information on Dvaravati culture as related to Pyu culture by using the archaeological evidence as well as Buddhist remains in the Dvaravati and ri-Ksetra kingdoms. The paper will concentrate on some items of material culture such as cooking pots, marked bricks and uninscribed silver coins. Moreover, the characteristics of Buddhist beliefs will be discussed. Dvaravati, the earliest Buddhist Kingdom in Thailand Literary and archaeological evidence has confirmed that Central Thailand, the Chao Phraya Basin area, between the late sixth and eleventh centuries, was the homeland of an early Buddhist kingdom, referred to in inscriptions as Dvravati. In the 7th century, Chinese historians and pilgrims to India spoke of the existence of a kingdom that they called To-lo-po-ti, situated to the west of Isnapura (Cambodia) and to the east of ri-Ksetra (Burma) (Beal 1969 ; Takakusu 1982).The Chinese name for this civilization was interpreted as representing the Sanskrit word Dvravati, meaning which has gates. But it was not until 1964 that this interpretation was confirmed by two inscribed silver coins found at Nakhon Pathom. (Boeles 1964) Our knowledge of this civilization was expanded when Paul Pelliot suggested that the people of Dvravati were Mons ( Pelliot 1904). Coeds attributed the Hindu non-Cambodian images around the Gulf of Siam described by Lajonquire to the Mons of Dvravati. He also identified some of the contemporary inscriptions found in the area as being in the Mon language (Coeds 1929), In 1959, Pierre Dupont convinced most scholars that Dvravati was indeed a great Mon kingdom whose culture extended widely and came to embrace virtually the whole area of modern Thailand. (Dupont 1959) Not long after that came the supposition that Dvravati formed part of a Mon confederacy centered at Thaton in lower Burma (Coeds 1966). However, this supposition had no support beyond vague legendary and linguistic evidence (Guillon 1989;

2 Nai Pan Hla 1991 ; 13-21). Scholars have long been troubled by the absence of early Buddhist remains in the Mon country of Lower Burma (Temple 1893; Aung Thaw 1972) as compared with their abundance in Central Thailand. Even though an amount of first millennium A.D. walled sites have recently been identified in Lower Burma (Mon area), such as Kyaikkatha. But many questions still remain about how long sites were occupied and the overall deposition of cultural material ( Moore 2007:145-153). Based on archaeological evidence, we may conclude with a fair degree of certainty that the Dvravati did not form part of the Mon Confederacy centred at Thaton in lower Burma, as previously suggested by some scholars, but developed out of the earlier Austroasiatic-speaking chiefdoms of prehistoric Central Thailand. During that time, local rulers accepted the superiority of Indian concepts in order to give divine legitimacy to their secular rule. They therefore brought to their courts the priests and literati who introduced many elements of Indian culture to the Dvravati people, such as the system of coinage, seals and sealings, the Pli and Sanskrit languages, religious beliefs, town plans, art and architecture, ceramics, concepts of state and kingship and a variety of musical instruments and dances (Indrawooth 1999 and 2004). The seventh century AD saw a large number of moated sites in occupation located along the margins of the Central Plain of Thailand. According to Vanasin and Supajanya, sea level was higher at that time and so these settlements were accessible by boat. Most sites were also located near rivers that supplied water to the moats. Large religious buildings were constructed within the moats, and major moated sites have been found in the MeklongTa Chin valleys, in the LopburiPasak valleys and in the Bang Pakong valley. Sites in these regions include a number of important Dvravati towns, such as U-Thong, Nakhon Pathom and Ku Bua in the Meklong-Ta Chin valleys; Sab Champa, Brahmatin, Chansen and ri Thep in the Lopburi-Pasak valleys; Dong Lakhon, Mang Phra Rot and ri Mahosot in the Bang Pakong valley. Some sites, such as Dong Khon, Muang Bon, U Ta Pao and Thap Chumphon, are located near the Chao Phraya River. (Indrawooth 1983,1999 and 2004). Analysis of the chronology of U-Thong, the oldest Dvaravati city suggests that U-Thong had participated in trading networks since prehistoric times as shown by nephrite ornaments, products of the Sa Huynh Culture (c. 600 B.C-200A.D.) of Central Vietnam (Le and Vu 1996; Boisselier 1968). Besides being an important port during Dvravati period, U-thong was also regarded as the earliest Buddhist center. The discovery of stucco and terracotta architectural decorations in Amaravati style indicated that Buddhist monuments already existed at U-Thong in the 3rd or 4th centuries. Most scholars agree that Buddhist beliefs were

3 introduced here from Ngrjunakonda, the great Buddhist center in the Krishna-Godavari region of South India, when it was under Ikshavaku rule between AD 200 and 350. (Boisselier 1965 and 1968) The greatest Dvaravati city is Nakhon Pathom which covers an area of 3,700 by 2000 meters (7.4 sq.km). The most important small finds from Nakhon Pathom are two inscribed silver coins found in a small earthen jar beneath a ruined sanctuary at Nern Hin, west of Pra Praton Chedi On the reverse of each coin are engraved the Sanskrit words ridvravati varapunya, meaning meritorious deed of the King of Dvravati. On the obverse of one coin is a purnaghata (vase of plenty), from which two creepers are sprouting. On the other is a cow with its calf, symbols of fertility and prosperity (Boeles 1964). Apart from being regarded as a capital of the Dvravati kingdom, ancient Nakhon Pathom had an important role as one of the trading centers of Dvravati. A large number of terracotta seals and sealings and some amulets used by merchants have been found. Other important finds include over 30 pieces of stone Dharmacakra (Wheels of the Law), one with two figures of crouching deer to symbolize the First Sermon in the Deer Park at Sarnath, as well as images of the Buddha made of stone and bronze. Thus, the Buddhist monuments at Nakhon Pathom, including Pra Pathon Chedi, emphasise its importance as a Buddhist center during Dvravati times. In addition, the Pli texts engraved on some stone Dharmacakra votive stupas and terracotta tablets, mostly with the Buddhist creed Ye Dhamma and the Paticcasamuppada-sutta, provide evidence of familiarity with the Pli canon. While Buddhism was the dominant religion of the Dvravati elite, we should not lose sight of the Hindu elements in Dvravati religion, especially at U-Thong, where a stone Mukhalinga in the Pre-Angkorian style of the 7th 8th centuries was unearthed to the south of the city, which indicated the existence of aivism at U Thong. Not only aivism, but traces of Vaisnavism are also evident in two steles with rough figures of Vishnu in high relief, probably in Pallava style, kept in the U-Thong San Chao or spirit shrine. They seem to belong to the same group as the Pallava-derived mitred Vishnus found at Muang Si Mahosot in Prachinburi Province (Coeds 1958; Lajonquiere 1909; Fine Arts Department 1992). Dvravati coinage suggests that some of the Indian concepts of state and kingship were accepted by Dvravati rulers. Inscribed silver coins from sites such as Nakhon Pathom, U-Thong, Ku Bua, Ku Muang, Brahmatin, Dong Khon and U Ta-Pao indicate the reality of Dvravati kingship. On the obverse sides of these coins are engraved Indian symbols of fertility and prosperity, such as purnaghata (vase of plenty)

4 or an animal cow or deer with its offspring. On the reverse sides occur the words ridvravativarapunya, meaning meritorious deeds of the King of Dvravati. A large number of uninscribed silver coins bear Indian symbols of kingship and prosperity such as the rising sun or sankha (conch shell) and rivatsa (indicating the abode of ri, goddess of fertility). These have been found throughout the Dvravati region and in contemporary cities influenced by Indian civilization, from Burma to the lower Mekong Valley (Gutman 1978:8-21; Robinson and Pollard 1983 : 11-12; Luce 1985 : Pl.2; Wicks 1985 : 195-215). The Dvravati culture was not restricted to the Central Plains but extended also to the Khorat Plateau of northeastern Thailand. A large number of moated sites have been investigated by the Fine Arts Department, such as Muang Sem in Nakhon Ratchasima Province, Muang Fa Daed in Kalasin Province and Muang Nadune in Mahasarakham Province (Diskul 1956; Wales 1969; Indrawooth 1991). Lamphun Province in northern Thailand is the site of the capital of the ancient kingdom of Haripunjaya which, according to the 15th century Camdevivamaa chronicle of considerable historical valuewas founded in the 8th century by Queen Camadevi from Lopburi, an important Dvaravati town. (Coeds 1964; Indrawooth 1994). In the southern region, on account of their artistic remains, the sites of Chaiya, Nakhon Si Thammarat and Yarang were the most important Buddhist centers in the Peninsula during Dvaravati period. (Krairiksh 1980; Pantukovit 1897 Fine Arts Department 1992b). ri Ksetra, the earliest Buddhist kingdom in Burma In Burma during the first millennium, ancient civilizations are known to have arisen in the three distinct areas : the Pyus in Central Burma whose territory covered the Irrawaddy and Mu River Valleys; the Mons, who lived in the south of Burma, on the coastal alluvia of Sittang and Salween River Valleys; the Arakanese in the northwest on the coastal alluvium. This paper will concentrate on the Pyus in Central Burma. The Pyus are referred to as the Piao in Chinese texts dated from rd the 3 to the 9th century A.D. (Luce 1985:47), although they are thought to have called themselves Tircul. In 1102 A.D. Tircul is used in the palace inscription of Kyanzittha, where Burmese (mirm) singing, Mon (rme) singing, and Pyu (tircul) singing is described. Tircul are also mentioned by Perso-Arab authors of the 9th and 10th centuries A.D. However, Luce thinks it should be adopted in preference to Pyu (Luce 1985 : 47) Based on archaeological evidence, the Pyu kingdom centred, respectively, on the ancient city of Beikthano, ri-Ksetra and Halin.

5 These three main city sites, fortified with massive brick walls, are all inland sites, accessible via the Irrawaddi and Mu Rivers, but not located directly on them. (Aung Thaw 1972) Analysis of the chronology of Beikthano, the oldest Pyu city, suggests that it was a long-live city, evolving out of a cluster of Iron Age irrigated villager in the Dry Zone of Central Burma into urban levels of socio economic complexity at the latest during the first century BCE (Stargardt 1991: 183-228; Aung Thaw 1968). By the mid fourth century, Buddhism had been adopted at Beikthano on a level that led to the construction of a major monastery. Architecture styles at Beikthano suggest strong links with Nagarjunakonda in the Krishna-Godavari region of South India, when it was under Ikshvaku rule between 200 A.D. and 350 A.D. The greatest Pyu city is ri Ksetra which was large even among the ancient Asian cities of its time, forming a core area with visible traces of ancient monuments, its walled area embraced a vast 18.8 sq.km. In addition to this core area, there were dependent monuments and settlements like Maunggan (7 km. to the south), which were deeply permeated by ri Ksetras culture. With no other equally large ancient settlement in its vicinity, ri Ksetra stands out as the central city or capital of the kingdom. ri Ksetra can be regarded as the first great Buddhist capital of Burma. It is first mentioned as a Buddhist capital and kingdom by Hsiian Tsang about 643 A.D. and by I-tsing about 680 A.D. (Beal 1969; Takakusu 1982). For the dating of ri Ksetra, apart from Hsuan I-tsing, we rely on the brief stone urn-inscriptions of the Vikrama dynasty there, read by Blagden in Epigraphia Indica (Blagden 1917:127-132). The era used by the Pyu he held, doubtless rightly, to be the 638 A.D. the beginning of the so-called Burmese Era in Burma. Vikrama is not the only dynastic title found at ri Ksetra. A large round hollow casket of silver-gilt repouss with a Bodhi tree lid, the chief piece in the Khin Ba Gn relic-chamber, shows the four seated Buddhas of the present kalpa each identified in Pyu with his disciple; and at the base there is a line of Pyu naming the royal donors- ri Prabhu Varma and ri Prabhu Devi of the Varman dynasty. The Pyu coins have two dominant obverse motifs, a rising sun and a bhadrapitha throne. It has been suggested that the Vikramas and Varmans of the Pyu epigraphs were dividing the state between them (Gutman 1978:12-13) A temporal sequence for the rulers of these three main cities has been established using both absolute and relative dates, Absolute dates are limited to Beikthano and Halin. The four radiocarbon dates from Beikthano were obtained from two similar rectangular structures within

6 the city walls, while the four dates from Halin were obtained from one rectangular structure within the city walls and two gates on the south and southeast walls of the site. These dates testify to occupation at Beikthano from the 1st to 5th century A.D. and at Halin from about the 2nd to 9th century A.D. The radiocarbon dates have also been used in conjunction with relative dating, such as stylistic analysis of structures and motifs, and palaegraphic study of inscriptions. These are found principally on stone funerary urns and slaps, silver gilt reliquary caskets, gold plates bearing the Pali canon, votive tablets and images of the Buddha. The urban and court culture of the Pyu kingdoms was violently disrupted by Nam Chao conquests, probably in 832 A.D. After which the Pyus merged with the Burmans (Myanmar), to emerge us a unified Burma in the eleventh century with a new capital at Pagan, under King Anawratha (1044-1077 A.D) (Luce 1985:66) Cultural Relation Between Dvaravati and ri Ksetra Material culture as well as Buddhist remains suggest strong cultural link between Dvaravati and ri Ksetra kingdoms. Material Culture It is worth mentioning here that some items of the material culture excavated from Dvaravati cities show close similarity to those found in the ri Ksetra kingdom, such as marked bricks, cooking vessels and uninscribed silver coins. Marked bricks As we know that not only the outer walls of the Pyu city were made of brick, but walls within the city , as well as monastic and ritual buildings ranging from stupa-like structures to rectangular temples and halls. It is worth noting that a large number of marked bricks are found at virtually all Pyu sites in Myanmar (Aung Myint and Moore 1991). The impressions, generally two or three lines, may be on either end or diagonally across the broad face of the brick. Some marked bricks from ri ksetra were marked a second time with stamps bearing Pyu numbers or letters (Luce 1985:140). Similar bricks are found from major Dvaravati sites in Thailand such as U-Thong, Si Mahosot (Prachinburi Province) and Si Thep (Petchabun Province) in Central Thailand (San Win 1999, 2000: Fine Arts Department 1992a,2002). In the North of Thailand they are found up to Ban Wangdaeng (Thap Khlo District in Pichit Province) and in the South, they are reported from Dvaravati sites as far as Nakhon Si Thammarat Province (Mokkha-Lan) (Toshikatsu 1996). Besides simple

7 impressions, it is noticed that some bricks from U-Thong are inscribed with fragmentary letters and auspicious symbols such as wheel symbol which probably represents Dhammacakra (Fine Arts Department 2002). The form of marking and the method of making bricks found in Dvaravati sites are the same as in Pyu sites. Therefore, we can conclude that both of them constructed buildings under the same culture. However in the southern parts of Burma, marked bricks are found at most Mon sites, and are thought to date to the early centuries AD., such as Kyaikkatha ( Moore 2004, 2007:131-137). Preliminary survey of the early Buddhist sites in India and Nepal recorded marked bricks in Bihar (Varanasi (Sarnath), Kosambi, Rajagriha, Vaiali), Uttara Pradesh (Kusinara, ravasti) and at Kapilavastu. In a number of cases the marked bricks were kept as relics, and were believed to have protective power (Moore 2004:5). Scholars are of opinion that these bricks are associated with the adoption of Theravada practice at sites throughout India, Burma (Pyu and Mon) and in Thailand (Dvaravati)( Moore 2004). Cooking Vessels Regarding the pottery vessels of the Pyus, Prof. Than Tun tried to summarize in his article Pottery in Myanmar that excavations at Beikthano revealed a flourishing culture 2,000 to 1,500 years old. Pots found there are grouped under five categories. There are 1).funeral urns, 2).storage jars, 3).cooking pots, 4).eating bowls and 5).drinking cups. The funeral urns had quite a variety of shapes. Some are like the begging bowls of Buddhist monks. Among the cooking pots there was a type with two rims: one at the middle of the pot where the middle bulge starts to recede toward the neck and another rim at the top opening as usual (Than Tun 1972). He further explained that this is definite improvement on the ordinary type and has the advantage of enabling the user to take this pot off the fire with just bare hands. Because the middle rim prevents the tongues of fire from licking the upper rim and making it too hot to handle. This type of cooking pots should be called carinated pot. Many specimens of carinated pots are found from Beikthano (Aung Thaw 1968), they are as follows:- carinated cooking vessel with beaded everted rim and short neck; a groove and ridge at the neck and a grooved ridge at the carination. The shoulder is incised with vertical lines. - one pot has a plain ridge at the carination and incised lines on the body below the carination. - another one has a sharp carination and incised lines on the body below the carination.

8 Prof. Stargardt pointed out that this group contains some examples of local imitations of the Romano-Indian rouletted wares, as shown by their lower parts being finished on a slow wheel or turnable, notably for rouletting. She proposed that this group can be said to have come into use not later than the early fourth century, but may have a much earlier origin as a domestic pot. As an urn, it continued in use up to the eighth and ninth century at Beikthano (Stargardt 1991:256-7). In the Index Pottery of Dvaravati Period (Indrawooth 1985 18, 74-75), it is recorded that the typical Dvaravati type of cooking pots is the carinated pot, considered to be the most prominent type found in a large number from most Dvaravati sites in Thailand. Their upper bodies are usually plain, having one, two or three ridges, separated by wide smooth channels, on their shoulders (a few carination are notched). Their lower bodies are rarely plain, mostly decorated with mat or cord marks of crisscross design. Carinated pots were widely distributed in Asia since prehistoric times (Sankalia 1971). In Thailand, this type of pottery came into existence since Neolithic period (Sorensen 1967), and continued to be used as cooking vessels in Dvaravati culture, but mostly disappeared after that. Uninscribed Silver Coins Rising Sun/rivatsa Scholars have observed that one type of uninscribed silver coins are usually unearthed from various ancient sites of mainland Southeast Asia (Wicks 1985:214). On one face of all the coins we can see the design of rivatsa or its variations, while the other face is marked with a figure of the Rising Sun. They have been referred to earlier as symbolic coins (Phayre 1882), but their distribution in Southeast Asia is quite wide. It is now generally thought that they were issued as coins for economic reasons and to enhance the Kings position as head of state. The discovery of this type of coins at Oc o (Funan port) in 1959 (Malleret 1959-62:137-38) led to the previous hypothesis that they belonged to the Funan empire which expanded its power over Southeast Asia from their capital in the present day Cambodia. But the latest research seems to point out that they belonged to the Pyu people. (Gutman 1978;8-21; Robinson and Pollard 1983:11-12; Luce 1985:Pl.2; Wicks 1985:195215). Evidence of this is that these coins (Rising Sun/rivatsa) discovered from Pyu sites are struck to a certain weight standard in three values. The full unit appears to be approximately 9.4 gm, with quarter units at about 2.3 gm. and eighth units at 1.07 gm. (Robinson and Shaw 1980:11-12). In Burma, they have been reported from Beikthano, Halin and Maingmaw (but not ri Ksetra) in the Pyu areas (Aung Thaw 1970; Luce 1985),

9 Yaunghwe in the southern Shan State and Chiala in the Karen area (Wicks 1985:195-215). Only in Burma has this coin been found in the large version, a quarter weight and an eighth weight version as well. Finds in Thailand embrace a wide area ranging from Nakhon Pathom, U-Thong on the western fringe of Central Thailand (Indrawooth 1999:127), to Sawankhalok in North Thailand, and to Nakhon-SiThammarat in South Thailand (Fine Arts Department 1986:69), but are only of large size. However, wedge-shaped clippings from such coins have been found from some Dvaravati sites, such as Brahmatin in Lopburi Province in Central Thailand (Bhumaton 1984:55-63), and Tha Sala in Nakhon-Si-Thammarat in South Thailand (Fine Arts Department 1986:69). But they have never been unearthed in Northeastern Thailand. Approximated ten specimens were acquired from Oc-o and its surrounding area, all of large size but with variable weights and in addition, some wedge-shaped clippings from such coins also came from Oc-o (Wicks 1985:215; Malleret 1959-62:137-38). These may have served as the lower denominations of the large coins. Wicks comes to conclusion that the absence of small coins of this type in Thailand and Vietnam on the one hand, and of clipped large coins in Burma on the other, where the small coins were in circulation, point to Burma as the source of the Rising Sun/rivatsa coins (Wicks 1985). Toshikatsu suggested that the distribution of the Rising Sun/rivatsa coins throughout Southeast Asia might indicate that the Pyus at least controlled the trade routes from India to Southeast Asia and China by way of the Chao Phraya basin area where situated Dvaravati kingdom.(Toshikatsu 1996). Meanwhile, the circulation of these coins, mostly local imitation, throughout Dvaravati kingdom, clearly portrayed the trade relation as well as the cultural relation between these two kingdoms. Bhadrapitha/rivatsa Another type of uninscribed silver coins, known as Bhadrapitha/ rivatsa, was also regarded as another dominant type of Pyu coins. They are mostly discovered from ri Ksetra (Luce 1985: Vol.II Pl.2), but some of them have been reported from Beikthano (Aung Thaw 1968,1972). These coins are also struck to a certain weight standard in three values. The full unit appears to be approximately 11.0 gm, with half units at about 5.5 gm and quarter units at 2.7 gm. (Robinson and Shaw 1980:910). The Bhadrapitha/ rivatsa coins are rarely found outside Burma. However some specimens have been discovered from Dvaravati sites such as Brahmatin (Lopburi Province in Central Thailand (Bhumaton

10 1984:55-63) and Ban Wangdeang (Thap Khlo district), Pichit Province in North Thailand (Toshikatsu 1996). Most of them are local imitation.

Characteristics of Buddhist Beliefs Buddhist Remains Buddhist remains demonstrated that Buddhism from Nagarjunakonda in South India was introduced to Dvaravati and Sri Ksetra kingdoms. Nagarjunakonda, the early Buddhist center in South India The heart-land of Buddhism is the middle Ganges Valley in India in the middle of the first millennium B.C. It is well-known that, during the centuries following the Buddhas death, are the spread of Buddhism out of the middle Ganges Valley in the 3rd-2nd century B.C. into North India and into the North-West Deccan, and its descent into the South-East coastal plain of Andhra very soon after. This last area was central to the later spread of Buddhism to Southeast Asia, especially into Burma and Thailand. In south India, by the mid-3rd century A.D., tavhana power in the Krishna River Valley had declined and the southern Iksvkus, among other dynasties, enjoyed a brief period of independent power before the Pallavas conquered that area in the 4th century (Sircar 1939, 9-40). The capital of the Iksvkus was Ngrjunakonda, but their power extended to the coast including the area around the Amarvati stupa, as shown by inscriptions added to the original yaka pillars in the distinctive elongated Iksvkus script. Inscriptions and Buddhist remains from excavations at Ngrjunakond show that it was the home of different Buddhist sects during the Ikshvaku period. Religious orders such as Mahvihravsins, Mahi-ssaka, Bahurutiya, Apara-mahvinaseliya and Chaityakas, which split from the Hinayna sect, and Mahsanghikas, Vibhajavdins and Lokottaravdins which were more inclined to Mahyna concepts co-existed there in harmony( Murthy 1977:1-10). Many stupa slabs at Ngrjunakond depict symbols such as stupa, Dharmacakra, Purnaghata (Vase of Plenty), and the Bodhi tree. Similarly, anthropomorphic forms of the Buddha, often protected by

11 Nga Muchalinda, occur in the reliefs. However, since only the sculptural representation of both forms survive, their chronological sequence cannot be determined. The Hinaynists preferred symbols whereas the Mahynists preferred to depict the Buddha in human form. Even though many sects began without using Buddha images, most finally incorporated the idea ( Murthy 1977:1-10).

Buddhism from Nagarjunakonda was introduced to Dvaravati Kingdom In Thailand, the earliest dated Buddhist sites are in the Dvaravati kingdom.The discovery of a number of stucco or terracotta architectural decorations in Amaravati style indicates that Buddhist monuments already existed at U-Thong, the oldest Dvaravati city in the 3rd or 4th centuries. We have, among other finds preserved in the museum at UThong, portions of beautiful stucco and terracotta architectural decoration in a pure Amarvati style, such as a terracotta relief with Buddhist disciples carrying their bowls and the lower part of a stucco image of the Buddha sheltered by the Nga. These finds imply the former existence at U-Thong of Buddhist constructions of the late 3rd or 4th centuries AD. Most scholars agree that Buddhist beliefs were introduced here from Ngrjunakond in the Krishna-Godavari region of South India, when it was under Ikshavaku rule between 200 A.D. and 350 A.D. Dvaravati people followed the Buddhists in South India, they established Buddhist symbols, such as the stone Dharmacakra on a pillar found near stpa No. 11 at U-Thong. They worshipped Buddha images and we have many bronze and stone images from the main Dvravati sites. They also believed in stpa worship since a large number of small stpa were constructed inside and outside the moats of sites such as UThong and Ku Bua and Muang Bon. Most of these stpa were similar in plan, having a square brick base with a stairway on each face. Devout Buddhists preferred to construct Mahchaityas in the centers of important cities, such as Phra Paton at Nakhon Pathom, Wat Klong at Ku Bua , and Kao Klang Nai at ri Thep (Ratanakun 1962,1992:Wales 1969). Buddhism from Nagarjunakonda was introduced to Sri Ksetra Kingdom In Burma, the earliest dated Buddhist sites are in the Pyu kingdom centred, respectively, on the ancient city of Beikthano, ri Ksetra and Halin. Architectural styles at Beikthano suggest, however, strong links with Nagarjanakonda. Excavations at Beikthano revealed a building in the style of a monastery (KKG2). It is almost perfectly symmetrical,

12 consisting of a long rectangular main structure with an entrance chamber in the middle of the East faade. The main structure is 29X10 m (external dimensions), the entrance chamber measures 6X4 m. U Aung Thaw, who had conducted the excavation, pointed to one of the monastic complexes uncovered at Nagarjunakonda (site 20) as a specific prototype for (KKG2). In addition, he argued that the way KKG2 at Beikthano is grouped together with a large stupa, KKG3 and a large shrine, KKG4, supports this identification (Aung Thaw 1968). Therefore these Buddhist buildings at Beikthano can be dated to the 4th century A.D.(Sarkar and Misra 1972:14-47). Besides Buddhist remains, the Pyu Pali texts from ri Ksetra , show that the monks who inscribed them predominantly used writing styles of the Andhra area during the Pallava period. These monks were not only well-versed in Pali but also acquainted with the rules of Sanskrit orthography. In this respect, they faithfully reflect the heterogeneity of Buddhist sects in Andhra in the 3rd-5th century, some of whom adhered to the Canon written in Pali, others in Prakrit and still others in Sanskrit. Of these, early inscriptions in Sanskrit and Prakrit only have survived in India, while Burma has preserved the earliest examples of Pali. Epigraphic Evidence Epigraphic evidence in Dvaravati and ri ksetra demonstrate a well established familiarity with the Theravada canon possibly by the 6th-7th century A.D. In most cases, they emphasize on the Essence of Buddhism which are extracted from the Pali canon. Besides the famous Buddhist verse Ye Dhamma and the Four Noble Truths (Ariyasacca), the Gatha of the Chain of Causation (Paticcasamuppada-sutta) which was considered to be of paramount importance at Valabhi, the Buddhist center in West India, during the 6th and 7th century A.D.(Takakusu 1982), apparently appeared in their inscriptions Dvaravati The largest number of inscriptions discovered from major Dvaravati towns are written in Pali with the famous Buddhist verse Ye Dhamma, the Essence of the Buddhas teaching. The same verse occurs in Vinaya-pitaka, the Pali Canon on the Disciplines, where Assaji conveys the message of the Buddha to a mendicant, Paribajaka, named Sariputta who later on became the chief disciple of the Buddha. The verse is as follows: Ye dhamma hetuppabhava yesam hetum tathagato (aha) Tesan ca yo nirodho evamvadi mahasamano The essence of the Buddhas doctrine in the verse, mentioned above, can be rendered as follows:

13 The Tathagata or the Truth-finder spoke about the cause of those things (dhamma) which come into existence from a cause. He also spoke about the cessation of those things. The doctrine of the Great Samana (The Buddha) is thus.(Prapandvidya 1998) They were inscribed mostly on votive stapes, votive tablets, begging bowls, brick and stone (Indrawooth 1999, 2004). The most remarkable inscriptions are inscribed on different parts of the Wheel of the Law (Dhammacakra) found in the vicinity of the great stupa at Nakhon Pathom. They portray the Four Noble Truths (Ariyasacca) realized by the Buddha as appeared in the First Sermon, the Dhammacakka pavattana sutta:The Wheel of the Law of the Great Seer (The Buddha) is (actually) the Realization of the four Truths of what to be done and of what having been done. Each realization is made into four and each rotates thrice. So the Wheel of the Law appears in twelve forms (Dvdaskram) (Veeraprajak 1986; Prapandvidya 1998). Another inscription in Pali on a detached spoke of the Wheel of the Law (Dhammacakra) which was discovered at a monastery named Wat Phra ri Ratana Mahdhtu, an important Dvaravati site situated in the city of Lopburi, contained the fragmented discourse of the Buddha on the Chain of Causation or the Law of Dependent Origination (Paticcasamuppda). They are as follows:Dependent on the six bases of senses there arises contactbecause feeling ceases craving ceases.(Veeraprajak 1986; Prapandvidya 1998). Another important inscription in Pali on octagonal pillar which was discovered from an important Dvaravati town called Ban Sap Cham Pa, Tha Luang District, Lopburi Province, contains on one side the first utterance of the Buddha after his Enlightenment that reveals the Supreme Truth he has attained. The passages, taken from the Dhammapada, can be rendered as follows: Through many a birth I wandered in samsra, seeking, but not finding, the builder of the house. Sorrowful is it to be born again and again. O house-builder! Thou art seen. Thou shalt build no house again. All thy rafters are broken. Thy ridge-pole is shattered. My mind has attained the unconditioned. Achieved is the end of craving. ri Ksetra There is evidence to show that Theravada Buddhism flourished in Central Burma in the sixth century A.D. Several inscriptions in Pali have been found at ri Ksetra . Two gold plates were found at Maunggan, a small village near

14 ri Ksetra (Tun Nyein 1898 : Finot 1912,1913). Each of the two Maunggan gold plate contains three lines and each plate begins with Ye dhamma hetuppabhav.. in Pali. The second and third lines of the first plate refer to the following:- Bodhipakkhiyadhamma or the thirtyseven qualities contributing to Enlightenment consisting of satipatthna 4 (foundations of mindfulness), Sammappadhna 4 (perfect efforts), Iddhipda 4 (path of accomplishment), Indriya 5 (controlling faculty) Bala 5 (powers), Bhojjhanga 7 (Enlightenment factors) and Atthangikamagga (the Noble Eightfold Path) - Ariyasacca (the Four Noble Truths) - Vesrajja (self confidence) - Pacacakkhu (the Five Eyes of the Blessed One) - Nava lokuttara dhamma (nine supermundane states) - Daa prami (the ten powers) - Atthrasa Buddha dhamma (eighteen qualities of a Buddha) The second and third lines of the second plate refer to the Buddha (praises of the Buddha). They can be traced in the Mahparinibbna sutta of the Digha Nikya(Finot 1912,1913; Hazra 1996:60-63). Three fragments of a stone inscription in Pali were found round the base of the Bawbawgyi stupa, near ri Ksetra (Hmawza) identified by Finot as Pali texts from the Vibhanga of the Abhidhamma Pitaka(Finot 1912; Hazra 1996:63) :- PacaKhandha or the Five Groups of Existence or the Five Aggregates : vedan (sensation) saa (perception) samkhra and vina (conciousness) - Six yatanas: namely, eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind - Phassa (contact) and samyojana (fetters) that bind man to the round of rebirth. Twenty numbered gold leaves (the Golden Pali Text) were recovered from Khin Ba Gon trove at ri Ksetra (Luce 1985:139), most inscribed with three lines of text in Pali. The inscribed texts are eight excerpts from all three main canonical texts. They refer to the Essence of Buddhism, such as the Chain of Causation or the Law of Dependent Origination (Paticcasamuppada), praises of the Buddha and Dhamma, and Bodhipakkhiyadhamma (the thirtyseven qualities contributing to Enlightenment) (Lu Pe Win 1940;Stargardt 1995; Moore 2004:32).The Golden Pali Text thus contains a very extensive sample of what are now seen as the earliest surviving Pali texts in the world (Stargardt 1995).

15 Bibliography
Aung Myint, U and Moore E. 1991 Finger marked designs on ancient bricks in Myanmar, Journal of the Siam Society. 79 (2) Aung Thaw. 1968. Report on the Excavations at Beikthano. Rangoon: Aung Thaw, U. 1972 Historical Sites in Burma. Rangoon: Government Of the Union of Burma. Beal, S.1969. Buddhist Records of the Western World. London: Oriental Books Reprints. Bhumadhon, B. 1984. Dvravati uninscribed coins found (in Thai). Silpakorn Journal 28 (5): 55-63. Blagden, O.1911 (1917) The Pyu Incription. pp.127-32 in Epigraphic Birmanica. Vol.XI, 16 (reprinted in the Journal of the Burma Research Society), Vol.VII/1,1917 pp.37-44) Rangoon. Boeles, J. J. 1964. The King of ri Dvravati and his regalia. Journal of the Siam Society 52(1): 99-110. Boisselier, J. 1965. U-Tong et son importance pour lhistoire de Thalande. Silpakorn Journal 9 (1): 27-30. Boisselier, J. 1968. Nouvelles Connaissances Archologiques de la ville dU-Tong. Bangkok. Coeds, G. 1929. Recueil des Inscriptions du Siam. Pt.II, Inscriptions de Dvravati, de Crivijaya et de Lavo (2nd ed.). Bangkok: The Siam Society. Coeds, G. 1956. Une Roue de la Loi avec inscription en Pli provennant du site de Pra Pathom. Artibus Asiae 19 (3/4):221-6. Coeds, 1966 Les Mons de Dvaravati. In Essays offered to G.H. LUCE, Artibus Asiae (Ascona) Vol.I, 112-116. Diskul, M. C. Subhadradis. 1956. Muang Fa Daed. An Ancient Town in North-east Thailand. Artibus Asiae 19 (3/4):362-7. Duroiselle, C. 1939 Revealing Indias past, edited by Sir John Cumming, The India Society, London, Chapter VIII( Burma), pp. 332-34 Fine Arts Department. 1968. The Survey and Excavation at Muang Fa Daed Song Yang, Ban Sem, Tambon Nong Pan, Amphoe Kamalasai, Changwat Kalasin, 1967-8. Bangkok: Fine Arts Department. Fine Arts Department. 1992a. History and Archaeology of Si Mahosot (in Thai). Bangkok: Samaphan Press. Fine Arts Department. 1992b. Archaeological Survey on Monuments at Muang Yarang (in Thai). Bangkok: Siam Silpa Press. Fine Arts Department 2002 Archaeology of Muang U-Thong Nonthaburi: Sahamit Printing. Finot, L.1912. Un nouveau document sur le bouddhism birman, pp.121-136 in Journal Asiatique. Vol.XX, July-August Finot, L. 1913. Le plus ancient temoignage sur lexistence du Canon Pali en Birmanie, pp. 193-195 in Journal Asiatique Vol.XXI, July-August Guillon E. 1989 (translated by James V. Di Crocco in 1999). The Mons, A Civilization of Southeast Asia Bangkok : Amarin Printing and Publishing Public Company Limited, 1999. Hazra, Kanai Lal 1996. History of Theravada Buddhism in South East Asia, with special reference to India and Ceylon (New Delhi : Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd.

16
Indrawooth, P. 1983. The Excavation at the Ancient Town of Nakhon Pathom, Tambon Phra Praton, Amphoe Muang, Changwat Nakhon Pathom. (in Thai) Nakhon Pathom: Silpakorn University Press. Indrawooth, P. 1985. Index Pottery of Dvravati Period. Bangkok: Thai I. E Printing Group, Indrawooth, P., Krabuansang, S and Narkwake, P. 1991. Muang Fa Daed Song Yang: new archaeological discoveries. In Universit Silpakorn, (ed.), Recentes Recherches en Archologie en Thalande: Deuxime Symposium Franco-Thai. Bangkok: Silpakorn University, pp. 98-111 Indrawooth, P., Krabuansang, S and Narkwake, P. 1994. The study of ancient civilization from archaeological evidence in Lumphun prior to the 19th century B. E. (in Thai). Indrawooth, P., 1999, Dvaravti : A Critical Study Based on Archaeological Evidence. Bangkok: Aksorn Samai Press Indrawooth, P. 2004 The archaeology of the early Buddhist kingdoms of Thailand in Southeast Asia From prehistory to history edited by Ian Glover and Peter Bellwood, London and New York: Routledge Curzon pp.120-148 Krairiksh, P. 1980. Art in Peninsula Thailand Prior to the Fourteenth Century AD. Bangkok: Amarin Press, Pl. 26. Luce, G.H.1985. Phases of Pre-Pagan Burma. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lu Pe Win 1940. The Pali Text from the Khin Ba-gon, Report of the Superintendant of Archaeology, Burma Circle for the Year 1938-9. Rangoon, office of Government Printing, 12-22. Moore, E.H.2004 Interpreting Pyu material Culture: Royal Chronologies and Finger-marked Bricks in Myanmar Historical Research Journal. Number (13) June, Universities Historical Research Centre. Moore, E. H. 2007 Early Landscapes of Myanmar Bangkok : River Books Co.,Ltd Nai Pan Hla, 1991 The major Role of the Mons in Southeast Asia, Journal of the Siam Society. Vol.79, Part 1, pp.13-21 Pantukovit, P. 1987. A Study of Ancient Sculpture existing in Dvravati Period at Yarang District, Pattani Province (in Thai). Masters Thesis, Bangkok: Silpakorn University. Pelliot, P.1904 Deux. Itineraire de Chine en Inde, Bulletin delcole Francaise d Extrme Orient, Vol.IV Prapandvidya, Ch. 1998 Buddhist Philosophical and Ethical Thoughts as Recorded in the Early Inscriptions Found in Thailand presented at The Regional Seminar on Buddhist Route in Thailand and Its Neighbouring Countries. Bangkok, Thailand, August 26-30 Ratanakun, S. 1962. Archaeological Survey and Excavation at U-Thong. (In Thai) Bangkok: F.A.D. Ratanakun, S. 1992. Excavations at Ku Bua (In Thai) Bangkok: F.A.D. Robinson, M. and L.A.Shaw. 1980 The Coins and Banknotes of Burma (Hampshire: Pardy and Son Ltd.) San Win 1999 A Report on a visit to Si Mahosot, Prachinburi, in Thailand. Unpublished field report. San Win 2000 A Report on a Visit to U-Thong Suphanburi Province, Thailand. Unpublished field report. Sarkar, H. and B.N.Misra 1972 Nagarjunakonda Delhi, Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), pp.14-47

17
Stargardt,J.1994. The Ancient Pyu of Burma, Volume One, Early Pyu Cities in a Man-made Landscape. Pacsea Cambridge. Stargardt,J.1995 The Oldest Known Pali Texts, 5th-6th century; Results of the Cambridge Symposium on the Pyu Golden Pali Text from Sroiksetra, 18-19 April 1995. pp.199-213 in Journal of the Pali Text Society. Vol.XXI. Oxford:Pali Text Society. Srensen, P. and Hatting, T. 1967. Archaeological Investigations in Thailand Vol. II, Ban Kao, Part I: The Archaeological Materials from the Burials. Copenhagen: Munksgaard. Takakusu, J. (tr. ) 1982. A Record of the Buddhist Religion as practiced in India and the Malay Archipelago (AD 671-695) by I .Tsing, (Second Indian Edition), New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. Temple, R.C,1893 Notes on the Antiquities Ramaadesa (The Talaing country of Burma),Indian Antiquary pp.31-33 Toshikatsu,Ito 1996. A Report Submitted to JSPS Cooperation Programmes under the core University System in Concerning with a Subject of Research on Rising and their Formation of fortified cities during Dvaravati period in Thailand. April 15th (unpublished paper) Veeraprajak, K. 1986. Mon Inscriptions Found in Thailand. In Inscriptions in Thailand Vol. II (in Thai). Bangkok: National Library, Fine Arts Depaetment. Wales, H. G. Quaritch 1969. Dvravati; the Earliest Kingdom of Siam (6th-11th Century). London: Bernard Quaritch Ltd.

18

Important archaeological sites in Southeast Asia during the Dvaravati Period

You might also like