Chng 2.

CU TO NGUYN T V TNH CHT

2.1. Nhng c s vt l nghin cu cu to nguyn t 2.1.1. Thnh phn nguyn t a. Ht nhn nguyn t L phn trung tm ca nguyn t, gm cc ht proton v ntron. Ht nhn mang in tch dng, s n v in tch dng ca ht nhn bng s electron trong v nguyn t. Khi lng ca ht nhn xp x khi lng nguyn t. * Proton (k hiu p): S th t Z ca nguyn t trong bng h thng tun hon ng bng s proton ca nguyn t nguyn t . Khi lng: * Ntron (k hiu n): Khi lng: b. Electron (k hiu e): Khi lng: in tch (m): me = 9,11.10-28 g qn = -1,602.10-19C = -e0 hay 1mn = 1,67482.10-24 g in tch (dng): qn = 0 mp = 1,6725.10-24 g in tch (dng): qp = +1,602.10-19C = +e0 hay 1+

Nh vy, electron mang in tch m, s electron trong nguyn t bng ng s proton. Trong nguyn t electron quay xung quanh ht nhn trn qu o electron to thnh m my electron. Cc electron c in tch v khi chng chuyn ng s sinh ra dng in. V cc electron trong nguyn t xc nh phng thc m n tng tc vi cc nguyn t khc nn chng ng vai tr quan trng trong ha hc. 2.1.2. Thuyt lng t Planck Nm 1900 Planck trnh by quan im lng t u tin v cho rng: nh sng hay bc x in t ni chung gm nhng lng t nng lng pht i t ngun sng. Hay: Nng lng bc x do cc cht pht ra hay hp th l khng lin tc, m gin on, ngha l thnh nhng phn ring bit - nhng lng t. E: lng t nng lng h: hng s Planck (h = 6,625.10-34 J.S)

= h = h

: tn s ca bc x : bc sng bc x C: tc nh sng

Nh vy, bc sng cng ln th tn s sng cng gim v ngc li, E gi l lng t nng lng v vi mi bc x d pht ra hoc hp th u bng mt s nguyn ln ca E. 2.1.3. Bn cht sng v ht ca ecletron a. Mu nguyn t Bo (Bohr) Nm 1913, nh vt l l thuyt ngi an Mch Niels Bohr (1885-1962) a ra m hnh bn c in v nguyn t hay cn gi l m hnh nguyn t ca Bohr. Bohr xy dng m hnh mu nguyn t vi ni dung sau: - Trong nguyn t, electron ch c th chuyn ng trn nhng qu o trn xc nh c bn knh xc nh, Khi quay trn cc qu o nng lng electron c bo ton.

Hnh 1. M hnh nguyn t theo Bohr Bn knh cc qu o c xc nh theo cng thc:

rn = n 2 .0,53.10 8 cm = n 2 .0,53 o

n l cc s t nhin 1, 2, 3, ...n. Nh vy cc qu o th nht, th hai, th ba,... ln lt c bn knh nh sau:

r1 = 11.0,53.10 8 cm = 0,53 o r2 = 2 2.0,53.10 8 cm = 4.0,53 o = 4r1
r3 = 3 2.0,53.10 8 cm = 9.0,53 o = 9r1

- Mi qu o ng vi mt mc nng lng electron. Qu o gn nhn nht ng vi mc nng lng thp nht. Qu o cng xa nhn ng vi mc nng lng cng cao. Mi electron c mt nng lng xc nh c tnh theo cng thc:
n = 1 .13,6eV n2

- Khi electron chuyn ng t qu o ny sang qu o khc th xy ra s hp th hoc gii phng nng lng. Electron hp th nng lng khi chuyn t qu o gn nhn ra qu o xa nhn hn v gii phng nng lng khi chuyn theo chiu ngc li. Nng lng (hp th hoc gii phng) bng hiu gia 2 mc di dng mt bc x c tn s . E = h = En' - En

Nh vy, s chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t gn lin vi vic thu hoc pht ra nng lng di dng bc x nn electron cng c tnh cht sng v ht nh bc x. Nh vo gi thuyt ny ngi ta tnh ton ra cc tn s nh sng quang ph vch ca H. Cc kt qu tnh ton ny ph hp vi cc gi tr o c t thc nghim. Quan nim e tn ti trong cc trng thi dng ca Bohr l bc m chuyn tip l thuyt cu to nguyn t c in sang l thuyt mi l c hc lng t v in ng lc hc lng t. b. H thc D Bri (De Broglie) Nm 1924 De Broglie trn c s thuyt sng - ht ca nh sng, ra thuyt sng - ht ca vt cht: Khng ch c bc x m cc ht nh trong nguyn t nh e, p cng c bn cht sng v ht, c c trng bng bc sng xc nh.

h m.

m: khi lng ca ht

v: tc chuyn ng ca ht

Gi thuyt ny ph hp vi thc nghim v c hai nh bc hc ngi M (Davisson v Germer) kim chng nm 1927. Hai ng tin hnh th nghim cho ht electron khuch tn trn tinh th m trc tin hnh th nghim i vi tia Rngen (l sng), th kt qa thu c cng ging nh kt qa i vi tia Rngen. iu chng t rng chm electron (hn na l tng electron) cng c tnh cht sng nh tia Rngen. Vy c sng in t v ht vi m u c tnh cht sng v tnh cht ht (gi l lng tnh sng- ht).
c. H thc bt nh Hexenbc (Heisenberg)

T tnh cht sng v ht ca cc ht vi m, 1927 nh vt l hc ngi c Heisenberg chng minh nguyn l bt nh: V nguyn tc khng th xc nh ng thi chnh xc c ta v vn tc (hay ng lng, hoc xung lng) ca ht, do khng th xc nh hon ton chnh xc cc qu o chuyn ng ca ht. Nu gi sai s ca php o v tc ca ht theo phng x l v x v sai s ca php o v tr theo phng x l x th ta c biu thc ca h thc bt nh l:

x.v x

h m

h: hng s Planck m: khi lng ca ht

Theo biu thc ny ta thy vx v x bin thin thun nghch vi nhau. Nu x cng nh (x 0) ngha l cng xc nh chnh xc v tr ca ht th vx cng ln (vx 0), ngha l khng th xc nh chnh xc gi tr tc ca elctron. V d: Khi quan st mt h lng t (electron chng hn), ta phi chiu vo n mt bc x c bc sng ngn, tc c xung lng ln). Khi photon va chm vi electron th ta xc nh c v tr ca electron. Tuy nhin do xung lng ca photon ln mt cch ng k so vi xung lng ca electron (vn ny khng xy ra i vi cc h v m trong vt l c in, tc l cc ht vi m thng thng) nn xung lng

Cc ht vi m va c tnh cht sng li va c tnh cht ht, l mt thc t khch quan. K thut o hin nay cng khng o c chnh xc ng thi c ta v xung lng ca ht. H thc bt nh Heisenberg l biu thc ton hc ca lng tnh sng ht ca vt cht.
2.2. Hm sng v phng trnh sng ca electron 2.2.1. Hm sng

Trng thi chuyn ng ca ht vi m c m t bng hm s (x,y,z) l mt hm xc nh, n v v lin tc gi l hm sng. Bnh phng ca hm sng (hay bnh phng m un ca hm 2 sng): ( x, y, z ) l xc sut c mt ca ht cn xt trong mt n v th tch ti v tr tng ng (ngha l mt xc sut). 2dv l xc sut c mt electron trong mt phn t th tch dv = dxdydz ti ta tng ng trong nguyn t.
* ngha vt l ca hm sng:

Ta khng th xc nh chnh xc electron c mt ta no nhng c th bit xc sut tm thy electron nhiu nht vng m phn ln thi gian electron c mt . Trong c hc lng t, trng thi ca mt h c m t bi hm sng hay hm trng thi . V hm sng (x,y,z,t) c th l hm thc hoc phc nn n khng c ngha vt l trc tip. Ch c bnh phng modun ca hm sng l ||2 (thc v lun lun dng) mi c ngha l mt xc xut tm thy ht ti to tng ng. |(x,y,z,t)|2 d cho bit xc sut tm thy ti thi im t trong nguyn t th tch d c tm l M (x,y,z). Hnh nh ca hm mt xc sut trong khng gian gi l m my in t.
* Hm sng phi tho mn cc iu kin sau:

- Hm sng phi n tr (ti mi im trong khng gian ng vi ta (x,y,z) ch c mt gi tr duy nht cho xc sut tm thy electron ti ch c mt gi tr tng ng). - Hm sng phi hu hn v lin tc (ngha l khng th bng bt k ta no nhng c th bng 0).
* Hm sng phi tho mn iu kin:

dv = 1
2

xc sut tm thy ht trong ton b khng gian ( + ) phi bng 1, gi l iu kin chun ho ca hm sng.

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2.2.2. Phng trnh sng Schrodinger

tm c hm sng m t chuyn ng ca ht vi m th phi gii phng trnh sng gi l phng trnh Schodinger. l phng trnh c bn ca c hc lng t c nh vt l ngi o Schrodinger a ra nm 1926. l phng trnh vi phn bc 2 ca hm c dng nh sau i vi ht (hay h ht) dng thi dng:
H = E

(*)

Trong

H Ton t Hamilton,
H = h2 8 2 m +U

h - hng s planck; m - khi lng ca ht;

V - Th nng ca ht ti ta x, y, z. E - Th nng ton phn ca ht trong ton h;

2 2 2 + 2+ 2 x 2 y z

- Ton t laplace: =

Trng thi dng l trng thi m nng lng ca h khng ph thuc thi gian ngha l E ca h khng i. Khi gii phng trnh Schrodinger ta s thu c cc hm sng m t cc trng thi chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t v cc gi tr nng lng E ng vi cc hm .
2.2.3. Kt qu gii phng trnh sng Schrodinger

Bi ton n gin nht c cc nh khoa hc thc hin l bi ton ca nguyn t hydr. Sau khi xy dng hm th nng v a vo phng trnh (*) ngi ta gii phng trnh ny v thu c hm sng ( n,l , m ) nghim ca phng trnh sng m t trng thi chuyn ng ca electron nguyn t gi l orbital nguyn t.
l

Khi gii phng trnh ny, ngi ta nhn c ng thi cc cp nghim E v , cng cc i lng vt l xc nh hm , c trng cho trng thi v v tr chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t l cc s lng t n, l, ml. ng vi mt gi tr ca E c mt hm sng , mi t hp (E, ) c trng cho mt trng thi ca electron. Trng hp nhiu hm cng ng vi mt gi tr nng lng E th ta gi l c s suy bin nng lng. Vic gii phng trnh schrodinger ch thc hin c vi nguyn t mt electron, hoc ion mt electron nh He+, Li2+. Vi cc nguyn t nhiu electron phi dng cc phng php gn ng. Kt qu ca cc phng php ny gii thch tha mn cc s liu thc nghim.

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2.2.4. Cc s lng t v ngha

Khi gii phng trnh Schrodinger ngi ta thy xut hin cc s lng t xc nh hm , cc hm ph thuc vo cc s lng t ny.
a. S lng t chnh (n)

- V tr s: nhn cc gi tr nguyn dng: 1, 2, 3, ... S lng t chnh n K hiu lp electron 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

K L M N O P Q

gi tr n cng ln, lp electron cng xa ht nhn. - V ngha: xc nh nng lng ca electron:

E= 2 2 me4 [erg ] n2 h2

n: s lng t chnh m: khi lng ca electron e: in tch ca electron Z: in tch ht nhn h: hng s planck.

Z2 hay E n = 13,6 2 eV n

(1erg = 6,24145.1011ev) Nu thay: R = Ta thy:

R 2 me ; ta c: = 2 2 h n

- Vi n cng ln th nng lng E cng ln, electron cng cch xa nhn. - Nhng electron c cng gi tr n tc l cng mc nng lng to thnh mt lp electron. - y nng lng ca electron l nhng gi tr gin on ph thuc vo s lng t chnh n. - Ngi ta dng cc ch ci K, M, N k hiu cc mc nng lng ng vi cc s lng t chnh n = 1, 2, 3, 4
b. S lng t ph l (s lng t orbitan, s lng t phng v).

Mi lp electron t n = 2 tr i li chia ra nhiu phn lp. Mi phn lp electron c c trng bng mt gi tr ca s lng t ph l. - V tr s: l nhn cc gi tr nguyn t 0 n (n - 1). ng vi mt gi tr ca n th c n gi tr ca l. V d: vi n = 1: l c mt gi tr l = 0. vi n = 2: l c hai gi tr l = 0 v 1. vi n = 3: l c ba gi tr l = 0, 1 v 2. - V ngha: Xc nh hnh dng v tn ca orbital. Nhng electron c cng gi tr l lp nn mt phn lp v c nng lng nh nhau. Lp th n c n phn lp.

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S lng t orbital (l) Phn lp

0 s

1 p

2 d

3 f

4 g

V d: m my electron s c dng hnh khi cu, m my electron p c dng s 8 (hnh hai khi cu bin dng tip xc nhau), m my electron d c dng bn cnh hoa, ...

Hnh 2. Hnh dng cc m my electron phn bit nng lng ca cc phn lp cng tn nhng khc lp ta ghi thm gi tr s lng t chnh trc k hiu phn lp: v d: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s ... Ngoi ngha c trng cho phn lp electron, l cn c ngha: - Trong mt lp, nng lng ca cc electron tng theo th t ns np nd nf... - S lng t l xc nh gi tr momen ng lng obitan ca electron. Mi hnh dng m my electron tng ng vi mt gi tr M.
M = l (l + 1). h 2

c. S lng t t ml

M men ng lng obitan ca electron l vect M, gi tr ca n c xc nh bng tr s ca s lng t ph l, cn chiu cho php ca vc t M (s nh hng ca m my electron trong khng gian) c xc nh bng cc gi tr ca s lng t ml. - V tr s: l mt s nguyn c gi tr t -l n +l k c gi tr 0. + Vi mt gi tr ca l, th ml c (2l + 1) gi tr. V d: l = 0 (my electron s); ml c mt gi tr l 0 l = 1 (my electron p); ml c 3 gi tr l -1, 0, 1 l = 2 (my electron d); ml c 5 gi tr l -2, -1, 0, +1, +2 l = 3 (my electron f); ml c 7 gi tr l -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3 + Mt gi tr ca ml ng vi mt orbtan (AO) - V ngha: c trng cho s nh hng ca orbital trong khng gian chung quanh ht nhn.

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Tm li, khi gii phng trnh Schrodinger, ngi ta tm thy 3 s lng t c trng cho trng thi chuyn ng ca electron trong nguyn t v tm c hm sng n,l,ml gi l orbital nguyn t, k hiu AO. Hm ny ph thuc vo 3 s lng t n, l, ml. B ba s lng t n, l, ml xc nh mc nng lng (theo n); phn mc nng lng (theo l) v hng ca orbital trong khng gian (theo ml). Cc s lng t ny c quan h ph thuc nhau v chi phi ln nhau. T n ta bit s gi tr ca l, t bit s gi tr ca ml, suy ra s AO c trong phn lp v c trong lp .
d. S lng t t spin ms

Ngoi 3 s lng t trn, khi nghin cu cu trc tinh t ca cc ph nguyn t, ngi ta thy cn phi b sung mt s lng t na l s lng t t spin ms m t s t quay ca electron xung quanh trc ca mnh. - V gi tr: ch nhn mt trong 2 gi tr +1/2 hay -1/2 v khng ph thuc g vo cc s lng t trn. - V ngha: c trng cho dao ng t do ca electron c trng cho chuyn ng ni ti ca electron gn vi momen ng lng ring ca electron. Trong t trng ngoi trng thi ms = +1/2 c nng lng thp hn. Quy c: ms = +1/2 biu th bng ng dng vi electron in vo trc, ms = -1/2 biu th bng ng vi electron in vo sau trong lng t.
2.3. Obitan nguyn t - hnh dng cc obitan nguyn t 2.3.1. Khi nim v obitan nguyn t (AO)

Cc hm sng 1 , 2 , 3 ,... l nghim ca phng trnh sng c gi l cc obitan nguyn t (vit tt l AO) v k hiu ln lt l 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, ...Trong cc con s dng ch lp obitan, cn cc ch s, p, ... ch phn lp. V d : 2s ch electron (hay AO) thuc lp 2, phn lp s; 2p ch electron (hay AO) thuc lp 2, phn lp p; 3d ch electron (hay AO) thuc lp 3, phn lp d; Nh vy, Obitan nguyn t l nhng hm sng m t trng thi khc nhau ca electron trong nguyn t. Nu biu din s ph thuc ca hm 2 theo khong cch r, ta c ng cong phn b xc xut c mt ca electron trng thi c bn. V d 1: Khi biu bin hm s n gin nht 1 (1s) m t trng thi c bn electron trong nguyn t H, ta c:

Hnh 3. Trng thi c bn electron ca H

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Mi AO c biu th bng hm , c c trng bi 3 gi tr n, l, ml. Mi AO thng c biu din bng mt vung v c gi l lng t. Nh vy: - Mi gi tr ca ml ng vi 1AO - Mt gi tr ca n c n gi tr ca l t l = 0 n l = n - 1. - Mt gi tr ca l c (2l + 1) gi tr ca ml v do c (2l + 1) AO khc nhau. Vy lp thc n c n2 AO V d 2: V d 3: Vi n = 1, l = 0, ml = 0, ta c hm 1,0,0 ng vi AO 1s. Vi n = 3, l = 2 ta c hm 3,2 AO 3d Khi n = 3, hi c bao nhiu lp, phn lp, AO. - C 1 lp electron l lp th 3 (M) v n = 3. - l = 0, 1, 2 nn c 3 phn lp: s, p, d. - Vi mt gi tr ca l th c ml c (2l + 1) gi tr nn s AO trong cc phn lp l: Phn lp 1 (l = 0) c 1AO Phn lp 2 (l = 1) c 3 AO Phn lp 3 (l = 3) c 5AO hay lp th 3 s AO nguyn t l 32 = 9AO Trn mi AO c th cha ti a 2 electron c spin i song ( 1 / 2 ) vy trn lp n c n AO v cha ti a 2n2 electron.
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2.3.2. Hnh dng cc electron

Hnh dng cc AO ph thuc vo hm (n,l,ml) v k hiu theo s lng t l: s, p, d, f, Trong h to x, y, z cc orbitan s, p, d m hnh nh ca n l cc m my in t c dng nh sau:
a. AOs (xc nh bi l = 0; ml = 0): c dng hnh cu, tm l ht nhn nguyn t, hm (s) lun lun dng v mi pha ca trc to .

Hnh 4. Obitan AOs

b. AOp (xc nh bi l = 1; ml = -1, 0, +1 (Py, Pz, Px): l nhng cp hnh cu tip xc vi nhau im gc tm nm trn cc trc ta .

Cc hm p lun lun dng v pha dng ca trc to v m vi cc gi tr to m.

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Hnh 5. Obitan AOp

c. AOd: (xc nh bi l = 2, ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2)

Cc AO d tr dz2 u c biu th bng hnh hoa th 4 cnh.

me AO 2 dx2 y2 2 dxy 0 dz2 1 dyz 1 dxz

y dx2 y2 (ml = 2)

y dxy (ml = 2)
y y dxz (ml = 1) z dz2 (ml = 0)

z dxz (ml = 1)

Hnh 6. Obitan AOd

2.4. Nguyn t nhiu electron 2.4.1. Khi nim v lp, phn lp v lng t a. Lp

Lp l tp hp nhng electron c nng lng gn bng nhau.

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Trong nguyn t cc electron c cng s lng t chnh n to thnh mt lp electron gi l lp n. Lp n c k hiu bng cc ch ci K, L, M, N ng vi cc gi tr ca n = 1, 2, 3, 4,
b. Phn lp

Phn lp l tp hp nhng electron c nng lng bng nhau. Mi phn lp gm cc electron c cng s lng t l m mi gi tr ca n c n gi tr ca l nn mi lp c n phn lp. Lp K c 1 phn lp: 1s Lp L c 2 phn lp: 2s, 2p Lp M c 3 phn lp: 3s, 3p, 3d V Cc electron cng c l = 0 hp thnh phn lp s Cc electron cng c l = 1 hp thnh phn lp p Cc electron cng c l = 2 hp thnh phn lp d Cc electron cng c l = 3 hp thnh phn lp f ch mt phn lp thuc lp no ngi ta dng k hiu ns, np V d: 2s, 2p.
c. lng t hay obitan

Cc electron c 3 s lng t nh nhau (n, l, ml) c trng thi chuyn ng orbital ging nhau to thnh mt obitan nguyn t (k hiu l AO) v c xp vo mt lng t - mi lng t c k hiu bng mt vung nh ( ). S lng t trong mt phn lp bng s cc tr s ml ng vi gi tr l cho. V d: - Phn lp s c l = 0, ml = 0 c 1 lng t - Phn lp p c l = 1, ml = +1, 0, -1 c 3 lng t - Phn lp d c l = 2, ml = +2, +1, 0, -1, -2 c 5 lng t
2.4.2. Gin nng lng ca cc electron. Qui tc Klechkowski

Trong nguyn t nhiu electron, nng lng (E) khng ch ph thuc vo s lng t n m cn ph thuc vo ln ca momen ng lng ngha l cn ph thuc vo s lng t l. Cc trng thi electron thng c k hiu vn tt bng cc s lng t n, l. Mt electron trng thi nl cng c gi l electron nl. V d, cc electron trng thi 2p cng c gi l electron 2p. Gin cc mc nng lng trong nguyn t c xc nh bng quang ph nghim v bng tnh ton l thuyt. Trong nguyn t, nng lng ca cc phn lp electron tng dn theo th t sau: 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s nh th t bc thang nng lng ny, ta dng s sau:

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Hnh 7. Gin nng lng Theo quy tc ny th electron c in vo cc AO c gi tr (n + l) nh trc; nu 2 AO c cng gi tr (n + l) th electron s iu vo cc AO c gi tr n nh hn trc. V d: electron c in vo AO 4s trc AO 3d.
2.4.3. Nguyn l vng bn, nguyn l Pauli, quy tc Hund v cu hnh electron ca nguyn t a. Nguyn l vng bn

Trong mt nguyn t trng thi c bn, cc electron s xp vo cc phn lp c mc nng lng thp hn trc sau mi xp sang cc phn lp c mc nng lng cao hn. Nng lng ca cc phn lp c xc nh qua vic gii phng trnh Schrodinger. T , Klechkowski sp xp cc phn lp theo th t mc ny lng tng dn. Da vo nguyn l vng bn, ngi ta c th biu din nguyn t ca mt nguyn t bng cu hnh electron. V d He (Z = 2): Li ( Z = 3): Cl (Z = 17): 1s2 1s2 2s1 1s22s22p63s23p5

b. Nguyn l Pauli (nguyn l loi tr)

Trong mt nguyn t khng th tn ti hai electron c cng gi tr ca bn s lng t n, l, m v ms. V d 1, lp K: n = 1 l = 0 m = 0 ms = +1/2 ms = -1/2. Vy lp K c nhiu nht 2 electron: + electron th nht c gi tr n = 1, l = 0, m = 0 v ms = +1/2. + ectron th hai c gi tr n = 1, l = 0, m = 0 v ms = -1/2. Nu gi thit rng lp K c thm mt electron th 3 th n s c gi tr bn s lng t trng vi mt trong hai electron c, nh vy mu thun vi nguyn l pauli.

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Da vo nguyn l pauli c th tnh c s electron ti a trn mt obitan nguyn t, trong mt phn lp v trong mt lp electron, c th: - Mi AO c th cha ti a hai electron c spin khc nhau. - S electron ti a c th c cc phn lp: ph thuc vo s lng t obitan l v c xc nh bng cng thc 2(2l + 1). - S electron nhiu nht cc lp: ph thuc vo s lng t n v c xc nh bng cng thc 2n2 (ng i vi n 4). [Lp th n c n2AO nn trong mi lp c ti a 2n2 electron]. V d 2: Tnh s electron nhiu nht phn lp np, y n c gi tr bt k, chng hn n = 2, cn p ng vi l = 1. T ta c: n = 2 l = 1 m = -1 ms = +1/2 ms = -1/2 ng vi AO 2py c nhiu nht 2 electron. n = 2 l = 1 m = 0 ms = +1/2 ms = -1/2 ng vi AO 2pz c nhiu nht 2 electron. n = 2 l = 1 m = +1 ms = +1/2 ms = -1/2 ng vi AO 2px c nhiu nht 2 electron. Vy phn lp p c nhiu nht 6 electron. Bng cch tng t ta tnh c s electron ti a cc phn lp d = 10, f = 14. V d 3: Khi n = 2, th s electron ti a l: 2.22 = 8 (e).
c. Qui tc Hund * Qui tc Hund 1 (qui tc tng spin cc i)

Trong nguyn t dng trng thi c bn, cc electron thuc cng mt phn lp s c phn b u vo cc lng t sao cho tng spin S ca chng l cc i (tng s electron c thn l cc i).
S = mS

V d: Nguyn t N (z = 7) c cu hnh: 1s2 2s2 sp3

* Qui tc Hund 2

Trong mt phn lp cc electron c khuynh hng in vo cc lng t c s lng t ml c gi tr ln nht trc". V d: Trng thi c bn ca nguyn t F (z = 9) l trng thi.
0 1s2 0 2s2 +1 0 -1 2p5

d. Cch biu din cu to v electron. Cu hnh electron ca nguyn t

Cu hnh eletron ca nguyn t c dng m t cc electron phn b nh th no vo cc lp, phn lp trong nguyn t. C 2 cch biu din:

19

Cch 1: Dng ch

vit cu hnh electron nguyn t di dng ch cn bit: - S electron nguyn t (bng s th t Z ca ca nguyn t trong bng tun hon. - Th t in electron vo obitan (nguyn l vng bn). - S electron ti a mi phn lp : s = 2, p = 6, d = 10, f = 14 (nguyn l loi tr pauli). Ta cng c th vit cu hnh electron nguyn t khi khng bit s th t Z nhng bit cu hnh electron nguyn t mt hoc vi phn lp ngoi cng ca nguyn t . Chng hn, vit cu hnh electron ca ca nguyn t c cu hnh electron cht 4p4. V d 1: O (Z = 8): 1s2 2s2 2p4 Trong cc s ng trc 1, 2 ch s th t ca lp n = 1, 2, cc ch s s, p ch cc phn lp, cc s m ch s electron c trong phn lp.
Cch 2: Dng lng t:

Ngi ta cn biu din mi AO bng mt vung gi l lng t. 1s 2s 2p 3d

Cch ny cn cho bit s electron c thn trong nguyn t v nguyn t trng thi c bn hay trng thi kch thch. Da vo cc qui tc v nguyn l trn, ta vit c cu hnh electron ca nguyn t: - i vi 20 nguyn t u (Z = 1 20) cu hnh electron trng vi th t mc nng lng (qui tc Klechkowski). - Bt u t nguyn t Z = 21 tr i do c s chn mc nng lng nn cu hnh electron ca cc nguyn t t phn lp 4s tr i khng cn trng vi th t mc nng lng (do vit ng cu hnh trc ht vit theo th t mc nng lng sau chuyn thnh cu hnh theo lp electron). V d 2: Fe (Z = 26). Theo th t mc nng lng: Cu hnh electron: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2

- Khi mt AO c hai electron ta ni cc electron ghp i, nu ch c mt electron th electron l c thn.

* Cc trng hp ngoi l:

Do cu hnh d10 (bo ho) v d5 (bn bo ho) bn, c nng lng thp nn cc nguyn t c cu hnh: (n-1)d9ns2 s chuyn thnh cu hnh (n-1)d10ns1. (n-1)d4ns2 s chuyn thnh (n-1)d5ns1. V d: Nguyn t Cr (z = 24) Cu (z = 29) Cu hnh electron 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
20

2.4.4. Phng php gn ng mt electron ca Slyt (Slater)

Phng php coi hm sng ca mt h nhiu electron nh l tch hm sng ch m t mt electron ring bit c gi l gn ng mt electron hoc gn ng obitan. Ni dung c bn theo phng php ny l:
- Hon ton b qua tng tc y gia cc electron l mt cch gn ng. hon thin thm, ngi ta ci tin biu thc th nng mt electron trn c s sau: mi electron, ngoi vic chu tc dng ca trng hp dn ht nhn, cn chu tc dng ca trng y cc electron khc. - Theo phng php gn ng Slater c th coi mi electron nh l chu tc dng ca ht nhn m in tch khng cn l Z na m l (Z b)

b: hng s chn, n biu th hiu ng trung bnh gy ra bi cc electron khc. (Z b): in tch hiu dng hay s in tch hiu dng. Mt electron bn trong thc t khng "b chn b cc electron bn ngoi, ngc li, mt electron bn ngoi b chn mnh bi cc electron bn trong.
- C th tnh hng s chn b theo quy tc bn kinh nghim Slater:

Phn chia AO thnh nhiu nhm xp theo trt t sau: (1s);(2s,2p);(3s,3p);(3d);(4s,4p);(4d);(5s,5p);(5d); ... v tnh gi tr s hng bi ca cc electron khc theo quy tc sau:
) Nhng electron thuc cc nhm AO nm nm pha ngoi (pha phi) ca AO cn xt khng c hiu ng chn (b = 0). ) Mi electron trn cc AO thuc cng nhm vi AO cn xt c s hng ng gp b = 0,35. Ring i vi nhm 1s th b = 0,3. ) Nu AO cn xt l AOs hay AOp th mi electron trn lp AO pha trong s c s hng b = 0,85 (khi chng cch nhau 1 lp); mi electron trn nhng AO nm su hn s c s hng ng gp b = 1,00 (khi chng cch nhau 2 lp tr ln). ) Nu AO ang xt l AOd hay AOf th mi electron thuc nhng nhm bn trong (ngay c cng lp n) u c s hng gp nh nhau: b = 1,00.

- Tng t nh cc dng hiro, Staler gn cho mi AOnl mt nng lng gi l nng lng obitan, tnh theo cng thc:
nl
* = 13,6 * [eV] n
2

n* c gi l s lng t chnh hiu dng v c tnh theo n: n n* 1 1,0 2 2,0 3 3,0 4 3,7 5 4,0 6 4,2

Ch : Cn phn bit En v nl :
nl : nng lng 1 electron phn lp nl.

En: nng lng lp electron

21

2.5. Cu to ht nhn nguyn t - ng v

Ht nhn nguyn t l thnh phn c bn ca nguyn t, gm cc proton v cc neutron. Trong cc bin i ho l, nu ht nhn vn nguyn vn th bn cht ca nguyn t c bo ton. Nu ht nhn b bin i th nguyn t ca nguyn t ny s chuyn thnh nguyn t ca nguyn t khc.
2.5.1. Cu to ht nhn nguyn t

Ht nhn mang in tch dng, chim khi lng ch yu (gn nh l ton b) ca nguyn t. Trong nguyn t, s in tch ht nhn bng s electron. Nu gi s proton trong ht nhn l Z v s ntron l N th khi lng ca ht nhn xp x bng khi lng nguyn t. A=Z+N Nh vy, Theo m hnh nguyn t c chp nhn ngy nay th nguyn t c to thnh t mt ht nhn mang in tch dng nm tm nguyn t v cc in t mang in tch m chuyn ng xung quanh. Ht nhn ca in t chim mt vng khng gian rt nh b so vi nguyn t.
2.5.2. ng v a. Khi nim

ng v l tp hp nhng nguyn t c cng in tch ht nhn (cng s proton) nhng c s khi khc nhau (s ntron khc nhau). V d
16 8

; 17 ; 18 ; 8 8

b. Hin tng phng x t nhin

L hin tng chuyn ha t pht ng v khng bn ca mt nguyn t thnh ng v ca nguyn t khc c km theo s pht ra cc ht c bn hay cc ht nhn nguyn t. C 3 dng phng x c bn: - S phn hu (ht nhn phng ra cc ht ): - S phn hu - (phng ra ht
0 1

226 88

Ra4 e+ 222Rn 2 86
0 p1 e+ 239Rn 94

e ):

239 93 55 27

0 - S phn hu + (+: ht positon 1 e ):

0 55 Co1 e+ 26 Rn

Km theo cc tia hay l cc tia gm cc bc x in t c nng lng ln.

c. Phn ng ht nhn

L phn ng m trong ht nhn ny b bin i thnh ht nhn khc ngha l nguyn t ny chuyn thnh nguyn t khc. Ngi ta thc hin phn ng ht nhn nhn to bng cch dng cc ht c bn nh, , n, p bn ph vo cc bia l nhn ca mt nguyn t no . V d: Bn ph nit bng ht :
4 2

e + 14 16 + 2 7 8 1

22

d. ng dng ca ng v phng x nhn to

Bn cnh tc hi to ln ca s phng x n i sng ca con ngi nh cc tia phng x ph hu t bo, tch lu trong xng, gan,... (nht l cc tia , tia ntron) con ngi bit s dng cc ng v phng x phc v cho vic cha bnh, kch thch s tng trng ca cy trng, x l ht ging, sn xut nng lng, V d:
61 14

Co dng tiu dit t bo ung th. C dng xc nh tui ca cc c vt. I dng chn on bnh bu c. O dng nghin cu c ch phn ng ho sinh. P dng theo di s hp thu phtpho ca cy. U dng trong lnh vc nng lng nguyn t.

131 18 30

238

2.6. H thng tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc 2.6.1. nh lut tun hon v bng h thng tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc a. nh lut tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc

Tnh cht ca cc n cht, thnh phn v tnh cht ca cc hp cht ca cc nguyn t ho hc bin thin tun hon theo chiu tng ca in tch ht nhn nguyn t. Nh vy, s bin i tun hon tnh cht ca cc nguyn t l do s bin i tun hon cu trc electron ca nguyn t cc nguyn t .
b. Cu to bng h thng tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc

Hin nay ngi ta bit trn 100 nguyn t ho hc c xp thnh by chu k v tm nhm A v tm nhm B.
* Chu k

Cc nguyn t ca cc nguyn t trong cng mt chu k u c cng s lp electron v bng s th t chu k cha chng. V d, cc nguyn t ca cc nguyn t chu k 2 u c 2 lp e l lp K v lp L; Cc nguyn t ca cc nguyn t chu k 3 u c 3 lp e l lp K, lp L v lp M. H thng tun hon gm 7 chu k nh s th t t 1 7. + Chu k 1: + Chu k 2 v 3: + Chu k 4 v 5: + Chu k 6: + Chu k 7: c 2 nguyn t. mi chu k c 8 nguyn t. mi chu k c 18 nguyn t. c 32 nguyn t. cha hon thnh.

Cc chu k 1,2,3 gi l cc chu k ngn; 4,5,6,7 gi l cc chu k di. (c bit trong chu k 6 c 14 nguyn t xp sau La (Z = 57) c xp tch ring thnh 1 hng ngang di bng gi l h Lantan). Chu k 7 gm cc nguyn t ang xy dng t Fr (Z = 87) tr i.

23

(Trong chu k 7 c 14 nguyn t xp sau Ac (Z = 89) c tch ring thnh h Actini); Cc nguyn t ny c xp ra ngoi bng thnh 2 hng, mi hng gm 14 nguyn t. Tr cc nguyn t xp ra ngoi bng, mi chu k di c 18 nguyn t (tr chu k 7 cha hon thnh) to thnh 18 ct: Cc nguyn t thuc cc ct 1,2 v cc ct t 13 n 18 to thnh 8 nhm A; Mi ct gia cn li to thnh 8 nhm B.
* Nhm

Nhm bao gm cc nguyn t c cng s electron ho tr. S th t ca nhm bng s electron ho tr m cc nguyn t c. Mi nhm c chia thnh 2 phn nhm: phn nhm chnh v phn nhm ph. - Phn nhm chnh (nhm A): bao gm cc nguyn t s hoc p. - Phn nhm ph (nhm B): bao gm cc nguyn t d hoc f. V d: - Cu (z = 29) c cu hnh electron [Ar]3d104s1: thuc nhm IB - Zn (z = 30) c cu hnh electron [Ar]3d104s2: thuc nhm IIB - Fe (z = 26) c cu hnh electron [Ar]3d64s2: thuc nhm VIIIB - Li (z = 3) c cu hnh electron 1s22s1: thuc nhm IA - Mg (z = 11) c cu hnh electron [Ne]3s2: thuc nhm IIA

Hnh 8. Bng h thng tun hon cc nguyn t ha hc

24

2.6.2. Cu hnh electron cc nguyn t trong h thng tun hon a. Nhm A (phn nhm chnh)

Nguyn t ca cc nguyn t nhm A c nhng c im v cu hnh in t nh sau: - S in electron cui cng vo nguyn t theo quy tc kleckowski u xy ra cc phn lp ns hoc np (n l lp electron ngoi cng). - S electron lp ngoi cng ca nguyn t ng bng s th t nhm cha n. iu ny c khng nh hon ton khi s electron lp ngoi cng ln hn hai. - Khi nguyn t ca nguyn t c s electron lp ngoi cng nh hn ba th nguyn t c th l nhm A hoc nhm B. Nguyn t loi ny c khng nh nhm A khi s in electron cui cng xy ra ns. Khi s electron lp ngoi cng ca nguyn t cng bng s th t ca nhm. nhn bit mt nguyn t thuc nhm A no ta da vo cu hnh electron nguyn t nh sau: - IA : S in electron cui cng vo nguyn t kt thc ns1 (tr H). - IIA : S in electron cui cng vo nguyn t kt thc ns2 (tr He). - IIIA : Phn lp electron ngoi cng ca nguyn t l np1. - IVA : Phn lp electron ngoi cng ca nguyn t l np2. - VA : Phn lp electron ngoi cng ca nguyn t l np3. - VIA : Phn lp electron ngoi cng ca nguyn t l np4. - VIIA : Phn lp electron ngoi cng ca nguyn t l np5. - VIIIA: Phn lp electron ngoi cng ca nguyn t l np6.
b. Nhm B (phn nhm ph)

Nguyn t ca cc nguyn t nhm B c nhng c im v cu hnh in t nh sau: - S in electron cui cng vo nguyn t ca cc nguyn t nhm B xy ra (n 1)d hoc (n 2) f . Vi n l lp electron ngoi cng. V d: Z = 21: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1. Z = 58: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f2. - S electron lp ngoi cng ca nguyn t nguyn t nhm B l hai (ns2), ca mt s t nguyn t l mt (ns1) v ca mt trng hp nguyn t palai (Z = 46) khng cha electron lp ngoi cng (5s0). Vy s electron lp ngoi cng ca cc nguyn t nguyn t nhm B t hn ba. Nu vit cu hnh electron nguyn t da vo dy nng lng theo nguyn l vng bn th tt c cc nguyn t nguyn t nhm B u c 2 electron lp ngoi cng ns2. Tuy nhin thc nghim xc nhn mt s nguyn t ca nguyn t nhm B, mt electron ns2 chuyn vo (n - 1)d, tr mt trng hp palai c 2 electron 5s2 u chuyn vo 4d.

25

Cc trng hp ni trn thng xy ra khi phn lp (n 1)d gn na bo ho hoc bo ho. V cc phn lp na bo ho hoc bo ho l cc phn lp bn v nng lng hai phn lp (n 1)d v ns xp x nhau. nhn bit mt nguyn t thuc nhm B no ta da vo cu hnh electron nguyn t nh sau: - IIIB - IVB - VB - VIB - VIIB - VIIIB - IB - IIB : Phn lp electron ngoi cng (n -1)d1 ns2. : Phn lp electron ngoi cng (n -1)d2 ns2. : Phn lp electron ngoi cng (n -1)d3 ns2. : Phn lp electron ngoi cng (n -1)d4 ns2. : Phn lp electron ngoi cng (n -1)d5 ns2. : Phn lp electron ngoi cng (n -1 )d6,7,8 ns2. : Phn lp electron ngoi cng (n -1)d10 ns1. : Phn lp electron ngoi cng (n -1)d10 ns2.

Cc nguyn t f m s in electron cui cng vo nguyn t xy ra 4f c gi l cc nguyn t lantanonit hoc cc nguyn t h lantan, cn cc nguyn t f m s in electron cui cng vo nguyn t xy ra 5f c gi l cc nguyn t actinoit hoc cc nguyn t h actini.
2.6.3. S bin thin tun hon mt s tnh cht ca cc nguyn t a. Bin i tun hon cu hnh electron ca cc nguyn t * i vi cc nguyn t thuc phn nhm chnh:

- Trong mt chu k, i t tri sang phi: Cc electron lp ngoi cng tng dn t mt electron ( nhm IA) n tm electron ( nhm VIIIA). - Trong mt phn nhm chnh: s electron lp ngoi cng khng i.
* i vi cc nguyn t thuc phn nhm ph:

- Cc electron lp ngoi cng ging nhau l ns2 (tr mt s trng hp ngoi l). - Cc nguyn t d: Cc electron thuc phn lp d tng t 1 electron ( nhm IIIB) n 9 electron ( nhm IB) v 10 electron ( nhm IIB).
B B B

- Cc nguyn t f: cu hnh electron ngoi cng v h ngoi ging nhau ch khc nhau phn lp (f-2)f.
b. Bn knh nguyn t

Trong mt chu k khi i t tri sang phi: Do s tng ca s in tch ht nhn nn lc ht gia ht nhn v in t ngoi cng tng dn, do bn knh nguyn t gim dn. Trong mt nhm khi i t trn xung: bn knh nguyn t tng dn do s lp in t tng dn.
c. Nng lng ion ho (I)

Nng lng ion ha ca mt nguyn t hay mt phn t l nng lng cn thit bc mt electron ra khi nguyn t trng thi c bn.

26

Nh vy, nng lng ion ho l i lng c trng cho kh nng nhng electron ca nguyn t khi tham gia phn ng ho hc. Nguyn t ( k,cb ) 1e Ion+( k,cb ) ; I1 > 0; I thng tnh bng Kj.mol-1. Trng thi c bn Chnh l trng thi m ti , nguyn t khng chu nh hng ca bt k mt t trng ngoi no c. Tc l 1 nguyn t kim loi trng thi c bn s c dng kh, v cu hnh electron ca n cng l cu hnh c bn: tun theo nguyn l Pauli, Nguyn l vng bn v qui tc Hund. V d: Ca (k,cb) - 1e Ca+( k,cb ); I1 = 590 Kj.mol-1. Ca+ (k,cb) - 1e Ca2+( k,cb ); I2 = 1145 Kj.mol-1. nh ngha tng t, ta lun c : I1 < I2 < I3 < ... In. Khi nguyn t b ion ho th electron lp ngoi cng (c nng lng ln nht) b bt ra trc tin (electron ng vi gi tr s lng t chnh n ln nht). Nh vy i vi cc nguyn t nhm B, electron b bt ra trc tin khi nguyn t b ion ho l electron ns.
* Quy lut bin thin nng lng ion ho th nht:

Nng lng ion ho th hai ng vi qu trnh bt electron th hai nh sau:

- Trong mt chu k khi i t tri sang phi: s in tch ht nhn, lc ht gia cc ht nhn v electron ngoi cng cng tng dn, electron b ht cht hn nn nng lng ion ho tng dn. - Trong mt nhm khi i t trn xung: do bn knh nguyn t tng nn khong cch gia ht nhn v electron ngoi cng tng dn, lc ht gia ht nhn v in t ngoi cng gim dn do nng lng ion ho gim dn.
d. i lc vi in t

L nng lng c gii phng khi nguyn t trng thi kh nhn thm mt electron tr thnh anion kh c in tch 1-. A + e- = Aa s cc nguyn t ho hc c i lc in t m. iu ny ngha l chng khng cn nhn nng lng bt in t; thay vo , chng gii phng ra nng lng. Nguyn t cng c nhiu kh nng bt cc in t th c i lc in t cng m. Flo l nguyn t ho hc c i lc in t mnh nht. Cho n nay ngi ta ch mi xc nh c i lc i vi in t ca mt s t nguyn t. Trong cc nguyn t nhm VIIA c i lc vi in t l ln nht. Cc nguyn t s2, s2p6, s2p3 c i lc vi in t rt km. V d: Cl(k,cb) + 1e Cl-(k,cb) ; ACl = -348Kj.mol-1 O(k,cb) + 2e O2-(k,cb) ; AO = 657Kj.mol-1
* Mt s quy lut bin thin i lc i vi in t:

- Khc vi nng lng ion ha, i lc in t c th dng c th m hay bng khng. i lc in t cng ln, th nng lng gn kt electron cng nh. i lc vi in t ln nht halogen, yu nht cc nguyn t c phn lp electron ngoi cng bo ha np6, ns2.

27

- Ni chung, phi kim c i lc in t m hn kim loi. Tuy nhin, cc kh him l ngoi l, chng c i lc in t dng. - i lc in t tun theo quy tc bt t. Cc nguyn t nhm VIIA c xu hng bt in t v to ra anion c in tch bng 1-. Cc nguyn t kh him trong nhm VIIIA c tm electron (tr He, c 2 electron), v do vic thm mt in t i hi nng lng ln, tuy nhin vn c th thc hin c. - Cc nguyn t nhm IIA, bt u t Be v nhm IVA bt u t thic cng c i lc in t vi gi tr dng v electron phn lp s hay d c in y. - Cc nguyn t trong nhm VA c i lc in t thp v nit thm ch c i lc in t vi gi tr dng. L do l cc v in t c in mt na cng kh bn. - Trong mt chu k i t tri sang phi: i lc in t c gi tr tng ln (do bn knh cc nguyn t gim dn, lm gia tng sc ht t ht nhn, v s in t trong v ngoi tng dn, khin nguyn t cn bng bn hn). - Trong bng tun hon khi i t trn xung trong cng mt nhm: i lc in t gim dn (do bn knh cc nguyn t v s in t lp v ngoi tng ln, cc in t y ln nhau, lm gim mc cn bng ca nguyn t).
e. S oxi ho

Trong hp cht ion, s oxi ho ca nguyn t bng in tch ca ion. Trong phn t cng ho tr hay ion nhiu nguyn t c lin kt cng ho tr th s oxi ho l i lng qui c. N l in tch c ion, nu gi thit rng cp electron lin kt c chuyn hn cho cc nguyn t c m in ln hn. - S oxi ho dng cao nht ca cc nguyn t bng s th t ca nhm cha chng (tr cc nhm VIIIB, IB, Lantanic, Actinic, O, F v kh him).
B

- S oxi ho m thp nht hu nh ch c cc nguyn t phi kim v s oxi ho m thp nht ca nguyn t bng s th t ca nhm cha nguyn t tr i 8.
f. Hp cht vi hydro v oxi * Hp cht vi hydro

- Cc kim loi nhm IA, IIA to cc ion hydrua H- (NaH, CaH2 ). - Cc nguyn t phi kim thng to cc hp cht cng ho tr, trong hydr c xi ho +1, phi kim c s oxi ho m (CH4, NH3, H2O, HF, HCl ).
* Hp cht vi oxi - Oxi to c oxit vi hu ht cc nguyn t (tr Pt, Au).

- Trong mt chu k: t tri sang phi: + S oxi ho ca cc nguyn t to oxit tng dn t 1 n 7. + Tnh baz ca cc oxit v hydroxit gim dn, ng thi tnh axit ca cc oxit v hidroxit tng dn. - Trong mt nhm khi i t trn xung: + S oxi ho ca cc nguyn t to oxit khng i. + Tnh baz ca cc oxit v hydroxit cng tng dn.

28

f. Quan h gia cu hnh electron v v tr ca nguyn t trong bng h thng tun hon

* Khi bit s in tch ht nhn ca nguyn t (Z) ta c th xc nh c cu hnh electron, v tr (chu k, nhm) ca nguyn t. V d 1: Cho X c Z = 16: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4 V tr ca X: chu k 3, nhm VIA. nguyn t lu hunh (S). * Khi bit cu hnh electron ca nguyn t, c th xc nh c: s in tch ht nhn Z, s th t ca nguyn t, chu k, nhm, hp cht vi hydro, hp cht vi oxi, V d 2: Nguyn t X c cu hnh 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 (Z = 17) n = 3 thuc chu k 3. S electron ho tr 2 + 5 = 7 nhm VIIA nguyn t Clo; hp cht vi hydro l HCl, hp cht oxit cao nht vi oxi l Cl2O7 V d 3: Nguyn t Y c cu hnh 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2 (Z = 25) Y l nguyn t d; Tng s electron ho tr l 7 Y thuc nhm VIIB S lp electron l 4 nguyn t Mn; khng c hp cht vi hydro; hp cht oxit cao nht ca Mn vi xi l Mn2O7 * Khi bit v tr ca nguyn t c th suy ra tnh cht ho hc c trng ca mt s cc hp cht tng ng vi nguyn t . V d 4: Bit nguyn t A thuc chu k 4, nhm IA; vy l kim loi kim, chng c th nhng 1 electron tr thnh cation: A - 1e = A+ to c cc hp cht c lin kt ion l chnh, hp cht vi hydr c cng thc l AH (hidrua), hp cht vi xi l A2O v hiroxit tng ng l AOH.

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Cu hi v bi tp
1. Pht biu: ni dung nguyn l bt nh v thuyt sng vt cht. 2. Hy cho bit khi nim hm sng v ngha vt l ca 2 . 3. Obitan nguyn t l g? Th no l my electron? 4. Hy cho bit hnh dng ca m my electron 2s, 2px v c im ca cc m my . S khc nhau gia cc m my 1s, 2s, 2px, 2py, 2pz. 5. Xc nh b 4 s lng t ca electron cht vi cc nguyn t A (Z = 26), B (Z = 1)? 6. Cho bit ni dung ca nguyn l vng bn v ngha ca nguyn l ny. Vit dy th t nng lng ca cc obitan trong nguyn t. 7. Pht biu quy tc Hund v nu ngha ca quy tc ny. 8. Da vo nguyn l pauli, hy tnh tng s electron trn mt lp, phn lp? 9. Vit cu hnh electron ca cc nguyn t c s th t Z = 15; 24; 28; 36; 46; 53; 58. Hy cho bit v tr ca cc nguyn t trong h thng tun hon v tnh cht ha hc c trng. 10. Vit cu hnh electron ca ion: Fe2+; Fe3+; Cu+; Cu2+. 11. Gii thch ha tr ca cc nguyn t Fe (Z = 26); Zn (Z = 30). 12. S khc nhau c bn ca cc nguyn t thuc nhm A v nhm B? 13. Vit cu hnh electron ca Ar (Z = 18). Cation v anion no c cu hnh electron ging Ar? 14. Nu cu hnh electron ca cc nguyn t nhm IA, IIA, VIA v VIIA. Nu tnh cht ha hc c trng. 15. Nu quy lut bin thin tnh cht (nng lng ion ha, i lc i vi in t, bn knh nguyn t,) ca cc nguyn t nhm A? 16. S dng phng php gn ng mt electron ca Slyt (Slater) xc nh nng lng tng electron ca cc nguyn t S (Z = 16), Sc (Z = 21). 17. Tm hiu v hin tng phng x t nhin? Phn ng ht nhn? ng dng ca ng v phng x nhn to trong mt s lnh vc nghin cu?

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