Tr Tu Nhn To

Nguyn Nht Quang

quangnn-fit@mail.hut.edu.vn Trng i hc Bch Khoa H Ni Vin Cng ngh Thng tin v Truyn thng
Nm hc 2012-2013

Ni dung mn hc:
Gii thiu v Tr tu nhn to Tc t Gii quyt vn : Tm kim, Tha mn rng buc Logic v suy din Biu din tri thc Biu din tri thc khng chc chn Hc my

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Gii thiu v logic g

Logic l ngn ng hnh thc cho php (gip) biu din thng t d d g tin di dng cc kt lun c th c a ra t u t a
Logic = Syntax + Semantics

C php (syntax): xc nh cc mnh (sentences) trong mt ngn ng Ng ngha (semantics): xc nh ngha" ca cc mnh trong mt ngn ng
Tc l, xc nh s ng n ca mt mnh

V d: Trong ngn ng ca ton hc

(x+2 y) l mt mnh ; (x+y > {}) khng phi l mt mnh (x+2 y) l ng nu v ch nu gi tr (x+2) khng nh hn gi tr y (x+2 y) l ng khi x = 7, y = 1 (x+2 y) l sai khi x = 0 y = 6 0,
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C php ca mt logic p p g
C php = Ngn ng + L thuyt chng minh Ngn ng (Language)
Cc k hiu (symbols), biu thc (expressions), thut ng (terms), cng thc (formulas) hp l E.g., one plus one equal two

L thuyt chng minh (Proof theory)

Tp hp lut T h cc l t suy din cho php chng minh ( di h h h i h (suy l ra) cc lun ) biu thc V d: Lut suy din any plus zero any

Mt nh l (theorem) l mt mnh logic cn chng minh Vic chng minh mt nh l khng cn phi xc nh ng ngha (interpretation) ca cc k hiu!
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Ng ngha ca mt logic g g g
Ng ngha = ngha (din gii) ca cc k hiu V d d
I(one) ngha l 1 ( N) I(two) ngha l 2 ( N) I(plus) ngha l php cng + : N x N N I(equal) ngha l php so snh bng = : N x N {true, false} I(one plus one equal two) ngha l true

Nu din gii ca mt biu thc l ng (true), chng ta ni rng php din gii ny l mt m hnh (model) ca biu thc Mt biu thc ng i vi bt k php din gii no th c gi l mt biu thc ng n (valid)
V d: A OR NOT A
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Tnh bao hm
Tnh bao hm c ngha l mt ci g tun theo (b hm cha ngha bi) mt ci g khc: g ) g KB Mt c s tri thc KB bao hm (hm cha) mnh nu v ch nu l ng trong mi m hnh (th gii) m trong KB l ng Tc l: nu KB ng, th cng phi ng gp g
V d: Nu mt c s tri thc KB cha cc mnh i bng A thng v i bng B thng, th KB bao hm mnh i bng A hoc i bng B thng V d: Mnh (x+y = 4) bao hm mnh (4 = x+y)

Tnh bao hm l mi quan h gia cc mnh da trn ng ngha

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Cc m hnh
Cc nh logic hc thng hay xem xt cc s vic theo cc m hnh (models) Cc m hnh l cc khng gian (th gii) c cu trc, m trong cc khng gian tnh ng n (ca cc s vic) c th nh gi c nh ngha: m l mt m hnh ca mnh nu l ng trong m M() l tp hp tt c cc m hnh ca KB nu v ch nu M(KB) M()
V d: KB = i bng A thng v i bng B thng, = i bng A thng thng
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Suy din logic (1) g

KB i
Mnh c suy ra t KB bng cch p dng th tc (suy din) i (Ni cch khc) Th tc i suy ra mnh t KB

Tnh ng n (soundness)
Mt th tc suy din i c gi l ng n (sound), nu th tc i suy ra ch cc mnh h h c b h ( t il d sentences) bao hm (entailed t ) Th tc i l ng n, nu bt c khi no KB i , th cng ng i vi KB Nu th tc i suy ra mnh , m khng c bao hm trong KB, th th tc i l khng ng n (unsound)

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Suy din logic (2) g

Tnh hon chnh (completeness)
Mt th t suy di i tc din c gi l h chnh ( i hon h h (complete), nu l t ) th tc i c th suy ra mi mnh c bao hm (entailed sentences) Th t i l h chnh, nu bt c khi no KB , th cng tc hon h h ng i vi KB i

(Trong phn tip theo ca bi ging) chng ta s xt n logic v t bc 1 (first-order logic)

C kh nng biu din (din t) hu ht cc pht biu logic Vi logic v t bc 1, tn ti mt th tc suy din ng n v hon chnh

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Suy din logic (3) g

Logic l mt cch biu din hnh thc v suy din t ng Vic suy din (reasoning) c th c thc hin mc c php (bng cc chng minh): suy din din dch (deductive reasoning) Vic suy din c th c thc hin mc ng ngha y g g (bng cc m hnh): suy din da trn m hnh (model-based reasoning)

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Suy din logic (4) g

Suy din ng ngha mc ca mt php din gii (m hnh): ) Vi mt biu thc, c tn ti mt m hnh khng?: c th tha mn c (satisfiability) Vi mt biu thc v mt php din gii, kim tra xem php din gii c phi l mt m hnh ca biu thc g ( g) khng?: kim tra m hnh (model checking) Suy din ng ngha mc ca tt c cc php din gii c th: kim tra tnh ng n (validity checking) Logics that are sound (correct) and complete: provability corresponds to validity

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Logic nh C php (1) g p p

Logic nh (propositional logic) l loi logic n gin nht Biu thc nh (propositional formula)
Mt k hiu nh (S1, S2, ) l mt biu thc (nh ) hi h ) t bi th ( h Cc gi tr hng logic ng (true) v sai (false) l cc biu thc Nu S1 l mt biu thc, th (S1) cng l mt biu thc (Php ph nh)

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Logic nh C php (2) g p p

Biu thc nh (propositional formula)
Nu N S1 v S2 l cc bi th th (S1 S2) cng l mt biu thc, t biu thc (Php kt hp / v) Nu S1 v S2 l cc biu thc, th (S1 S2) cng l mt ( g biu thc (Php tuyn / hoc) Nu S1 v S2 l cc biu thc, th (S1 S2) cng l mt biu thc (Php suy ra / ko theo) Nu S1 v S2 l cc biu thc, th (S1 S2) cng l mt biu thc (Php tng ng) Khng g khc (cc dng trn) l mt biu thc

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C php ca logic nh V d p p g
p q r true t false p (p) true ((p) false) (( p) (p) (((p) false)) (p (q r)) (p q) (p r)
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Th t u tin ca cc ton t logic g

Th t u tin ca cc ton t logic (t cao xung thp)
, , , ,

S dng cp k t () xc nh mc u tin Cc v d
pqr p q tng ng (p q) r ch khng phi p (q r) tng ng (p) q ch khng phi (p q)

p q r tng ng (p (q)) r ch khng phi p ((q r)) hoc p ((q) r)

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Logic nh Ng ngha (1) g g g

Vi mt m hnh (model) c th, n s xc nh gi tr ng/sai cho mi k hiu nh g V d: Vi 3 k hiu S1, S2 v S3, th c th ly v d mt m hnh m1 xc nh nh sau: m1 (S1=sai, S2=ng, S3=sai) i i) Vi 3 k hiu nh nh v d trn, c th ch ra 8 m hnh c th

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Logic nh Ng ngha (2) g g g

Ng ngha ca mt m hnh m = Cc quy tc nh gi g gi tr chn l (ng/sai) ca cc mnh trong m hnh ( g ) g m
S1 l ng, khi v ch khi S1 l sai S1 S2 l ng khi v ch khi S1 l ng v S2 l ng ng, S1 S2 l ng, khi v ch khi S1 l ng hoc S2 l ng S1 S2 l ng, khi v ch khi S1 l sai hoc S2 l ng l sai, khi v ch khi S1 l ng v S2 l sai S1 S2 l ng, khi v ch khi S1S2 l ng v S2S1 l ng

V d Vi m h h m1 nh trong v d trn, th gi tr ca d: hnh h d h i biu thc logic nh sau s l:

S1 (S2 S3) = ng (ng sai) = ng ng = ng
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Ng ngha ca logic nh V d (1)

Xt m hnh m1 (p=ng, q=sai), ta c ng ngha (gi tr logic) ca cc biu thc sau g )
p l sai q l ng p q l sai p q l ng p q l sai q p l ng p q l sai p q l ng

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Ng ngha ca logic nh V d (2)

Xt m hnh m2 (p=sai, q=ng), ta c ng ngha (gi tr logic) ca cc biu thc sau g )
p l ng q l sai p q l sai p q l ng p q l ng q p l sai p q l sai p q l ng

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Bng chn l i vi cc ton t logic g g

S1 sai sai ng S2 sai ng sai S1 S ng ng sai sai S1S2 S1VS2 S1S2 S1S2 sai sai sai ng sai ng ng ng ng ng sai ng ng sai sai ng

ng ng

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Tng ng logic g g g
Hai mnh c gi l tng ng logic khi v ch khi hai mnh ny lun ng trong cng m hnh: khi v ch y g g g khi v

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Biu din bng logic nh V d g g

Gi s chng ta c cc nh sau
p Chiu nay tri nng Chiu nng q Thi tit lnh hn hm qua r Ti s i bi s Ti s i b bng t Ti s v n nh vo bui ti

Biu din cc pht biu trong ngn ng t nhin

Chiu nay tri khng nng v thi tit lnh hn hm qua: p q Ti s i bi nu nh chiu nay tri nng: p r Nu N ti ( ) kh i b i th ti s i b r s (s) khng bi bng: Nu ti (s) i bng th ti s v nh vo bui ti: s t

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Mu thun v Tautology g
Mt biu thc logic nh lun c gi tr sai (false) trong mi php din gii (mi m hnh) th c gi l mt mu thun (contradiction)
V d: (p p)

Mt biu thc logic nh lun c gi tr ng (true) trong mi php din gii (mi m hnh) th c gi l mt t t l t tautology
V d: (p p) (p q) ( p q) (p (p q) (p q) (p q)

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Tnh tha mn c v Tnh ng n

Mt biu thc logic nh l tha mn c ( (satisfiable), nu biu thc ng trong mt m mnh ), g g no
V d: A B, A B

Mt bi th l kh th th mn biu thc khng tha c (unsatisfiable), nu khng tn ti bt k m hnh no m trong biu thc l ng
V d A A d: A

Mt biu thc l ng n (valid), nu biu thc ng trong mi m hnh

V d: ng; A A; A A; (A (A B)) B

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Bi ton chng minh logic g g

Vi mt c s tri trc (mt tp cc mnh ) KB v mt mnh cn chng minh (gi l mt nh l) C s tri thc KB c bao hm (v mt ng ngha) hay khng: KB ? g
Ni cch khc, c th c suy ra (c chng minh) t c s tri thc KB hay khng?

Cu C hi t ra Li c tn ti mt th t c (s din) c ra: Liu tc (suy th gii quyt c bi ton chng minh logic, trong mt s hu hn cc bc?
i vi logic nh , cu tr li l c!

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Gii quyt bi ton chng minh logic q g g

Mc ch: tr li cu hi KB ? C 3 phng php (chng minh) ph bin: S dng bng chn l (Truth-table) p dng cc lut suy din (Inference rules) Chuyn v bi ton chng minh tha mn (SAT)
Phng php chng minh bng phn chng (Resolution/Refutation)

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Chng minh da trn bng chn l (1) g g

Bi ton chng minh: KB ? Kim tra tt c cc php din gii c th (tt c cc m hnh c th) m trong KB l ng, xem ng hay sai Bng chn l: Lit k cc gi tr chn l (ng/sai) ca cc mnh i vi tt c cc php di gii c th h , i h din ii
Cc php gn gi tr ng/sai i vi cc k hiu nh
KB p ng ng sai sai q ng sai ng sai pq ng ng ng sai pq ng sai sai ng (p q) q ng sai sai sai
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chng minh

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Chng minh da trn bng chn l (2) g g

KB = (p r) (q r) = (p q) KB ?
p ng ng ng ng sai sai sai sai q ng ng sai sai ng ng sai sai r ng sai ng sai ng sai ng sai pr ng ng ng ng ng sai ng sai q r ng ng sai ng ng ng sai ng KB ng ng sai ng ng sai sai sai ng ng ng ng ng ng sai sai
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Chng minh da trn bng chn l (3) g g

i vi logic nh , phng php chng minh da trn bng chn l c tnh ng n (sound) v hon chnh (complete) phc tp tnh ton ca phng php chng minh da trn bng chn l
Hm m i vi s lng (n) cc k hiu nh : 2n Nhng ch c mt tp con (nh) ca tp cc kh nng gn gi tr chn l, m trong KB v l ng

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Chng minh bng cc lut suy din (1) g g

Lut suy din Modus ponens p q, p q Lut suy din loi b lin kt V (And-Elimination) p1 p2 pn (i=1..n) pi Lut suy din a vo lin kt V (And-Introduction) p1, p2, , pn p1 p2 pn Lut suy din a vo lin kt HOC (Or-Introduction) pi p1 p2 pi pn
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Chng minh bng cc lut suy din (2) g g

Lut suy din loi b ph nh hai ln (Elimination of Double Negation) egat o ) p p Lut suy din hp gii (Resolution) p q, q r pr Lut suy din hp gii n (Unit Resolution) p q, q p Tt c cc lut suy din trn u c tnh ng n (sound)!

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Chng minh bng lut suy din V d (1)

Gi s c tp gi thit KB 1) p q 2) p r 3) (q r) s ) ) Cn chng minh nh l s T 1) v s d ng l t And Elimination ta c dng lut And-Elimination, c: 4) p T 2) 4) v s dng lut Modus Ponens ta c: 2), 4), Ponens, 5) r

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Chng minh bng lut suy din V d (2)

T 1), v s dng lut And-Elimination, ta c: 6) q T 5), 6), v s dng lut And-Introduction, ta c: 7) (q r) T 7), 3), v s dng lut Modus-Ponens, ta c: 8) s Vy nh l (biu thc logic) s c chng minh l ng!

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Suy din logic v Tm kim g

chng minh nh l l ng i vi tp gi thit KB, cn p dng mt chui cc lut suy din ng n d g t c u ut d g Vn : bc suy din tip theo, c nhiu lut c th p dng c
Chn lut no p dng tip theo?

y l vn ca bi ton tm kim (search)

KB

pq rs p r

p q, p q ? r s, r s
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Chuyn i cc biu thc logic g

Trong logic nh
Mt bi th c th b gm nhiu li kt , , , , biu thc bao hi lin kt: Mt biu thc c th bao gm nhiu biu thc con (lng) khc

Chng ta c cn s dng tt c cc lin kt logic biu din mt biu thc phc tp?
Khng. Chng ta c th vit li (chuyn i) mt biu thc logic nh thnh mt biu thc tng ng ch cha cc lin kt , ,

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Cc dng chun g
Cc biu thc trong logic nh c th c chuyn i v mt trong cc dng chun (Normal forms) g g ( )
Gip n gin ha qu trnh suy din

Dng chun kt hp (Conjunctive normal form CNF)

L kt hp (lin kt V) ca cc mnh (clauses) Mi mnh (clause) l mt lin kt HOC ca cc k hiu nh n V d: (p q) (q r s)

Dng chun tuyn (Disjunctive normal form DNF)

L lin kt HOC ca cc mnh (clauses) Mi mnh (clause) l mt lin kt V ca cc k hiu nh n V d: (p q) ( p r) (r s) q) (p s)
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Chuyn i v dng chun CNF V d

Chuyn i v dng chun CNF: (pq) (rp)
1. Loi b cc lin kt ,

(p q) (r p)
2. S dng cc php bin i tng ng (vd: lut

DeMorgan v php ph nh 2 ln) (p q) (r p) (distributive rules) (p r p) (q r p) (p r) (q r p)

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3. S dng cc lut kt hp (associative rules) v phn b

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Bi ton chng minh tha mn (SAT) g

Mc ch ca bi ton chng minh tha mn (Satisfiability S SAT- problem) l xc nh mt biu thc dng chun kt hp p ob e ) c t b u t c d g c u t p (CNF) c th tha mn c hay khng
Tc l chng minh biu thc l ng hay khng V d: (p q r) (p r s) (p q t) d ) ( p ( p t)

y l mt trng hp ca bi ton tha mn rng buc (CSP)

Tp cc bin Cc k hiu nh (v d: p, q, r, s, t) Cc gi tr (hng) logic ng, sai Tp buc T cc rng b Tt c cc mnh (c lin kt bi php V) trong biu thc phi ng Vi mi mnh t nht mt t i h , ht t trong cc h phi nh n hi ng
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Gii quyt bi ton SAT q

Phng php Backtracking
p dng chin lc tm kim theo chiu su (Depth-first search) (Depth first Xt mt bin (mt nh n), xt cc kh nng gn gi tr (ng/sai) cho bin Lp li, cho n khi tt c cc bin c gn gi tr, hoc vic gn gi tr cho tp con ca tp tt c cc bin, lm cho biu thc l sai

Cc phng php ti u ha lp (Iterative optimization methods)

Bt u vi mt php gn ngu nhin cc gi tr ng/sai cho cc k hiu nh i gi tr (ng thnh sai / sai thnh ng) i vi mt bin g ( g g) Heuristic: u tin cc php gn gi tr lm cho nhiu mnh (hn) ng S dng cc phng php tm kim cc b: Simulated Annealing, WalkSAT
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Bi ton suy din vs. Bi ton tha mn c

Bi ton suy din logic
Cn chng minh: biu thc logic (nh l) c bao hm bi tp cc mnh KB Ni cch khc: vi mi php din gii m trong KB ng, th c ng?

Bi ton tha mn c (SAT)

C tn ti mt php gn gi tr ng/sai cho cc k hiu nh (mt php din gii) sao cho biu thc l ng?

Gii php KB (KB ) nu v ch nu: l khng th tha mn c (u sat s ab e) (unsatisfiable)

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Lut suy din hp g (1) p gii

Lut suy din hp gii (Resolution)
p q q r q, pr

Lut suy din hp gii p dng c i vi cc biu y p g p g thc logic dng chun CNF Lut suy din hp gii c tnh ng n (sound), nhng khng tnh hon h h (incomplete) kh c t h h chnh (i l t )
Tp gi thit (c s tri thc) KB cha biu thc (p q) Cn chng minh: (p q) ? Lut suy din hp gii khng th suy ra c biu thc cn chng minh!

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Lut suy din hp g (2) p gii

Chuyn bi ton chng minh logic v bi ton SAT
Phng php chng minh b phn chng Ph h h i h bng h h Vic chng minh s mu thun ca: (KB ) Tng ng vic chng minh s bao hm: KB

Lut suy din hp gii (Resolution rule)

Nu cc biu thc trong tp KB v biu thc (cn chng minh) u dng CNF, th p dng lut suy din hp gii s xc nh tnh (khng) tha mn c ca (KB )

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Gii thut hp g p gii

Chuyn i tt c cc biu thc trong KB v dng chun CNF p dng lin tip lut suy din hp gii (Resolution rule) bt u t: (KB ) ( )
KB l kt hp ca cc biu thc dng chun CNF Do , (KB ) cng l mt biu thc dng chun CNF!

Qu trnh p dng l t suy di h gii d l i khi Q t h d lut din hp ii dng li khi:

C mu thun xy ra Sau khi hp gii, thu c (suy ra) biu thc rng (mu thun) p, p {} Khng c biu thc mi no c sinh ra na
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Chng minh bng hp g V d (1) g g p gii

Gi s c tp gi thit KB pq pr (q r) s Cn C chng minh nh l s Bc 1. Chuyn i KB v dng chun CNF (p r) c chuyn thnh ( p r) (p ((q r) s) c chuyn thnh (q r s) Bc 2. Ph nh biu thc cn chng minh g s Bc 3. p dng lin tip lut hp gii i vi (KB ): {p, { q, p r, q r s, s} }
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Chng minh bng hp g V d (2) g g p gii

Bt u qu trnh hp gii, ta c tp cc mnh : 1) p 2) q 3) p r 4) q r s ) q 5) s Hp gii 1) v 3), ta thu c 6) r ) Hp gii 2) v 4), ta thu c 7) r s Hp gii 6) v 7), ta thu c 8) s Hp gii 8) v 5), ta thu c mu thun ({}) Tc l bi thc ban (s) c chng minh l ng biu u c
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Chng minh bng hp g V d (3) g g p gii

p q p r q r s s

r r s s {} (C mu thun)

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Dng chun Horn g

Mt biu thc logic dng chun Horn nu:
Biu thc l mt lin kt V ca cc mnh Mi mnh l mt lin kt HOC cc k hiu (literals), v c ti a l 1 (c th khng c!) k hiu khng nh (positive literal) V d: (p q) (p r s)

Khng hi Kh phi mi bi th l i h c th i biu thc logic nh u c chuyn v h dng chun Horn!

Biu din tp gi thit KB dng chun Horn

Cc lut (Rules) (p1 p2 pn q) Tng ng vi lut: (p1 p2 pn q) Cc s kin (Facts) p1, q Cc rng buc ton vn (Integrity constraints) ( p (p1 p2 pn) p Tng ng vi lut: (p1 p2 pn sai)
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Lut suy din Modus Ponens tng qut

(p1 p2 pn q), p1, p2, , pn q Lut suy din Modus Ponens c tnh ng n (sound) v h chnh ( hon h h (complete), i vi cc k hi h v l t ) i hiu nh i vi tp cc biu thc KB dng chun Horn Lut suy din Modus Ponens c th c s dng vi c 2 chin lc suy din (suy din tin v suy din li)

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Suy din tin (forward chaining) g

Vi mt tp cc mnh gi thit (c s tri thc) KB, cn suy ra mnh kt lun Q tng: Lp li 2 bc sau cho n khi suy ra c kt lun p dng cc lut c mnh gi thit c tha mn trong KB B sung kt lun ca cc lut vo KB g

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Suy din tin V d (1)

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Suy din tin V d (2)

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Suy din tin V d (3)

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Suy din tin V d (4)

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Suy din tin V d (5)

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Suy din tin V d (6)

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Suy din tin V d (7)

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Suy din li (backward chaining) g

tng: Qu trnh suy din bt u t mnh kt lun Q chng minh Q bng tp mnh (c s tri thc) KB
Kim tra xem Q c chng minh (trong KB) cha, Nu cha, tip tc chng minh tt c cc mnh gi thit ca mt lut no (trong KB) c mnh kt lun l Q

Trnh cc vng lp
Kim tra xem cc mnh mi c trong danh sch cc mnh cn chng minh cha? Nu ri, thi khng b sung (li) na!

Trnh vic chng minh lp li i vi 1 mnh

c chng minh (trc ) l ng c chng minh (trc ) l khng th tha mn c (sai) trong KB
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Suy din li V d (1)

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Suy din li V d (2)

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Suy din li V d (3)

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Suy din li V d (4)

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Suy din li V d (5)

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Suy din tin hay Suy din li?

Suy din tin l qu trnh da trn d liu (data-driven)
V d vic nhn d d: i h dng i t tng, vic i a ra quyt h t nh

Suy din tin c th thc hin nhiu bc suy din d tha chng lin quan ti (cn thit cho) mc tiu cn chng minh Suy din li l qu trnh hng ti mc tiu (goal driven) (goal-driven), ph hp cho vic gii quyt vn
V d: Lm sao ginh c hc bng ca 1 chng trnh PhD?

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Logic nh - u v nhc im g
(+) Logic nh cho php d dng pht biu (biu din) c s tri thc bng tp cc mnh (+) Logic nh cho php lm vic vi cc thng tin dng ph nh, dng tuyn (disjunctive) (+) Logic nh c tnh cu to (kt cu)
Ng ngha ca mnh (S1 S2) c suy ra t ng ngha ca S1 v ng ngha ca S2

(+) Ng ngha trong logic nh khng ph thuc ng cnh (context-independent) (context independent)
Khng nh trong ngn ng t nhin (ng ngha ph thuc vo ng cnh ca cc cu ni)

() (-) Kh nng din t (biu din) ca logic nh l rt hn ch

Logic nh khng th din t c (nh trong ngn ng t nhin): Nu X l cha ca Y, th Y l con ca X Logic nh phi lit k (xt) mi kh nng gn gi tr chn l (ng/sai) cho X v Y
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Gii hn ca Logic nh g
Hy xt v d sau y:
Tun T l mt sinh vin ca HUT t i h i Mi sinh vin ca HUT u hc mn i s V Tun l mt sinh vin ca HUT, nn Tun hc mn i s HUT

Trong logic nh :
nh p: Tun l mt sinh vin ca HUT Tun HUT nh q: Mi sinh vin ca HUT u hc mn i s nh r: Tun hc mn i s Nhng: (trong logic nh ) r khng th suy ra c t p v q!

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Logic v t (FOL) V d g
V d nu trn c th c biu din trong logic v t bi cc biu thc (logic v t) sau
HUT_Student(Tuan): Tun l mt sinh vin ca HUT x:HUT_Student(x) Studies_Algebra(x): Mi sinh vin ca HUT u hc mn i s Studies_Algebra(Tuan): Tun hc mn i s

Trong logic v t, chng ta c th chng minh c: {HUT_Student(Tuan), x:HUT_Student(x) {HUT Student(Tuan) x:HUT Student(x)
Studies_Algebra(x)}

Studies_Algebra(Tuan)

Vi v d trn, trong logic v t:

Cc k hiu Tuan, x c gi l cc phn t (Tuan l hng, x l bin) Cc k hiu HUT_Student v Studies_Algebra l cc v t K hiu l lng t vi mi Cc phn t, cc v t v cc lng t cho php biu din cc biu thc
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FOL Ngn ng (1) g g

4 kiu k hiu (symbols)
Hng (Constants): Cc tn ca cc i tng trong mt lnh vc bi ton c th (v d: Tuan) Bin (Variables): Cc k hiu m gi tr thay i i vi cc i tng khc nhau (v d: x) K hiu hm (Function symbols): Cc k hiu biu din nh x (quan h hm) t cc i tng ca min (domain) ny sang cc i tng ca min khc (v d: plus) Cc v t (Predicates): Cc quan h m gi tr logic l ng hoc sai (v d: HUT_Student and Studies_Algebra)

Mi k hi hm h v t c mt tp cc th hiu h hoc u t t tham s

V d: HUT_Student v Studies_Algebra l cc v t c 1 tham s V d: plus l mt k hiu hm c 2 tham s
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FOL Ngn ng (2) g g

Mt phn t (term) c nh ngha (truy hi) nh sau
Mt hng s l mt phn t Mt bin l mt phn t Nu t1, t2,,tn l cc thnh phn v f l mt k hiu hm c n tham s th f(t1,t2,,tn) l mt phn t s, t t Khng cn g khc l mt phn t

Cc v d ca phn t (term)
Tuan 2 friend(Tuan) f i d(T ) friend(x) plus(x,2)
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FOL Language (3)

Cc nguyn t (Atoms)
Nu t1,t2,,tn l cc thnh phn (terms) v p l mt v t c n t t tham s, th P(t1,t2,,tn) l mt nguyn t (atom) V d: HUT_Studies(Tuan), HUT_Studies(x), g ( ), ( ) Studies_Algebra(Tuan), Studies(x)

Cc biu thc (Formulas) c nh ngha nh sau

Mt nguyn t (atom) l mt biu thc Nu v l cc biu thc, th v l cc biu thc Nu l mt biu thc v x l mt bin, th x: l mt biu thc Khng cn g khc l mt biu thc

Lu : x: c nh ngha bng x: g g
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FOL Ng ngha (1) g g

Mt php din gii (interpretation) ca mt biu thc c biu din bng cp <D I> <D,I> Min gi tr (Domain) D l mt tp khc rng Hm din ii (I t H di gii (Interpretation function) I l mt php t ti f ti ) t h gn gi tr i vi mi hng, k hiu hm, v k hiu v t sao cho:
i vi hng c: I(c) D i vi k hiu hm (c n tham s) f: I(f): Dn D i vi k hi v t (c n th i hiu ( tham s) P: I( ) Dn { ) I(P): {true, false} }

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FOL Ng ngha (2) g g

Din gii i vi mt biu thc logic v t. Gi s , v l cc biu thc v t Nu l , th I()=sai nu I()=ng, v I()=ng nu I()=sai Nu l (), th I()=sai nu I() hoc I() l sai, v I()=true nu c I() v I() l ng Gi s x:( ) l mt biu th th (x) t bi thc, I(x:(x))=ng nu I()(d)=ng vi mi gi tr dD

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FOL Ng ngha (3) g g

Mt biu thc l tha mn c (satisfiable) nu v ch nu tn ti mt php din gii <D I> sao cho I() <D, Chng ta k hiu l: I Nu I , th chng ta ni rng I l mt m hnh (model) ( d l) ca . Ni cch kh I th mn ( ti fi ) h khc, tha (satisfies) Mt biu thc l khng th tha mn c (unsatisfiable) nu v ch nu khng tn ti bt k php din gii no Mt biu thc l ng (valid) nu v ch nu mi php din ii u tha di gii I th mn Ch t k hi l Chng ta hiu l:

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Lng t logic Vi mi g g
C php ca lng t logic Vi mi (universal q quantifier): <Bin1,,Binn>: <Mnh > ) , , V d: Tt c (mi) sinh vin ang ngi hc trong lp K4 u chm ch x: Ngoi_trong_lop(x,K4) Ch N i t l ( K4) Cham_chi(x) hi( ) Mnh (x: P) l ng trong mt m hnh m, khi v ch khi P ng vi x l mi (mi) i tng trong m hnh Tc l, mnh (x: P) tng ng vi s kt hp (v) ca tt c cc trng hp ca P
Ngoi_trong_lop(Hue,K4) Ch N i t l (H K4) Cham_chi(Hue) hi(H ) Ngoi_trong_lop(Cuong,K4) Cham_chi(Cuong) Ngoi_trong_lop(Tuan,K4) Cham_chi(Tuan)
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Lng t logic Tn ti g g
C php ca lng t logic Tn ti (existential q quantifier): <Bin1,,Binn>: <Mnh > ) , , V d: Tn ti (c) sinh vin ang ngi hc trong lp K4, v l sinh vin chm ch: x: Ngoi_trong_lop(x,K4) Ch N i t l ( K4) Cham_chi(x) hi( ) Mnh (x: P) l ng trong mt m hnh m, khi v ch khi P l ng vi x l mt i tng trong m hnh Tc l, mnh (x: P) tng ng vi php tuyn (hoc) ca cc trng hp ca P
Ngoi_trong_lop(Hue,K4) Ch N i t l (H K4) Cham_chi(Hue) hi(H ) Ngoi_trong_lop(Cuong,K4) Cham_chi(Cuong) Ngoi_trong_lop(Tuan,K4) Cham_chi(Tuan)
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Cc c im ca cc lng t logic g g
Tnh hon v:
(x y) l tng ng vi (y x) (x y) l tng ng vi (y x)

Tuy nhin, (x y) khng tng ng vi (y x) y ( y) g g g ( y )

x y: Yeu(x,y) - Trn th gii ny, tn ti (c) mt ngi m ngi yu qu tt c mi ngi khc y x: Yeu(x,y) - Trn th gii ny, mi ngi u c t nht Trn mt ngi khc yu thch

Mi lng t logic ( hoc ) u c th c biu din bng lng t kia

(x: Thich(x,Kem)) l tng ng vi (x: Thich(x,Kem)) (x: Thich(x,BongDa)) l tng ng vi (x: Thich(x,BongDa)) Thi h( B D ))
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S dng logic v t g g
Biu din cc pht biu trong ngn ng t nhin hi x l anh/ch/em ca y tng ng vi x v y l anh em rut rut x,y: Anh_chi_em(x,y) Anh_em_ruot(x,y) M ca c l m tng ng vi m l ph n v m l bc cha m ca c m,c: Me(c) = m (Phu_nu(m) Cha_me(m,c)) , ( ) ( ( ) ( , )) Quan h anh em rut c tnh cht i xng x,y: Anh_em_ruot(x,y) x y: Anh em ruot(x y) Anh em ruot(y x) Anh_em_ruot(y,x)
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Xy dng c s tri thc vi logic v t g g

1. 2. 3.

Xc nh lnh vc bi ton (cn xy dng c s tri thc) Tp hp, th th cc t i th li quan T h thu thp tri thc lin Xc nh tp hp (t vng) ca: cc v t (quan h), cc hm, hm v cc hng s M ha (biu din) cc tri thc tng qut v lnh vc bi ton M ha (biu din) cc m t ca cc v d (trng hp) c th Kim tra Ki t th t suy di t cc cu hi (t tc din: (truy vn) v ) kim tra cc cu tr li nhn li Kim tra v sa li trong c s tri thc
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4.

5.

6.

7.