Professional Documents
Culture Documents
B mn: Ci to t
---------o0o-----------
Bi ging cao hc
S dng v ci to
t phn, t mn
GS.TS. O XUN HC
TS. Hong thi i
MC LC
MC LC ............................................................................................................................................................2
LI GII THIU ...........................................................................................................................................7
PHN TH NHT ........................................................................................................................................8
T PHN ........................................................................................................................................................8
CHNG I M U ........................................................................................................................8
1.1. N G H A CA VIC CI TO T PHN I VI SN XUT NNG NGHIP V
CI TO MI TRNG .................................................................................................................................8
1.2. TNH HNH NGHIN CU T PHN, T NHIM MN TRN TH GII V
VIT NAM ...........................................................................................................................................................9
CHNG II .................................................................................................................................................12
NGUN GC, PHN B V PHN LOI T PHN ...........................12
2.1. NGUN GC V QU TRNH HNH THNH T PHN ....................................................12
2.1.1. Nhng nhn t cu thnh cht phn......................................................................................................14
2.1.2. Qu trnh din bin v s t thnh t phn .....................................................................................15
2.1.3. nh hng ca vi n qu trnh hnh thnh t phn .........................................................................17
CHNG III...............................................................................................................................................39
MI TRNG VNG T PHN ...................................................................................39
3.1. SINH VT VNG T PHN ...........................................................................................................39
3.1.1. Thc vt ....................................................................................................................................................39
1. Thc vt b vi lp ..........................................................................................................................39
2. Thc vt hin ti ..............................................................................................................................39
3.1.2. Vi sinh vt v cc ng vt vng t phn..............................................................................................40
1. Vi sinh vt trong t phn.........................................................................................................40
2. Nhng ng vt nhn thy c ............................................................................................41
3. 2. CH NC VNG T PHN.................................................................................................41
3.2.1. Nc ngm v ch nc ngm ...........................................................................................................42
3.2.2. Nc mt v ch nc mt..................................................................................................................45
1. Sng Hu v sng Tin .................................................................................................................45
2. Sng Vm C .....................................................................................................................................45
3. Thu triu ............................................................................................................................................47
4. Ch v cht lng nc vng ng Thp Mi.....................................................48
5. Ch nc vng T gic Long Xuyn ............................................................................51
1. Tc nhn ho hc.............................................................................................................................53
2. Tc nhn sinh hc ...........................................................................................................................54
3. Tc nhn vt l .................................................................................................................................54
3.3.2. Tiu chun nh gi t b nhim .......................................................................................................55
1. Quy c .................................................................................................................................................55
2. Ch s v sinh .....................................................................................................................................55
3. Kt qu phn tch hm lng ...................................................................................................55
3.3.3. Bin php phng chng nhim t .......................................................................................................56
CHNG IV ...............................................................................................................................................57
L TNH T PHN ........................................................................................................................57
4.1. THNH PHN C GII ......................................................................................................................57
4.2. THNH PHN CU TO CA ST ................................................................................................57
4.3. TNH TRNG CO CA T PHN .............................................................................................58
4.4. T TRNG T PHN ........................................................................................................................58
CHNG V ..................................................................................................................................................60
HO TNH T PHN ..........................................................................................................................60
5.1. MN V CHT HU C ....................................................................................................................61
5.2. CANXI TRONG T PHN................................................................................................................62
5.3. MANH (MG+2) TRONG T PHN...........................................................................................62
5.4. NATRI TRONG DT PHN ................................................................................................................62
5.5. LN (P2O5) TRONG T PHN....................................................................................................63
5.6. MT S CHT KHC TRONG T PHN ...............................................................................64
5.7. PH T PHN ........................................................................................................................................64
CHNG VI ...............................................................................................................................................66
C CHT TRONG T PHN........................................................................................66
6.1. KHI
CHNG VII.............................................................................................................................................76
CI TO T PHN BNG BIN PHP THU LI ..............................76
7.1. DNG NC L CI TO T PHN ..................................................................................76
7.1.1. Nhng mc tiu ca vic KSL cho vng T gic Long Xuyn...............................................................76
7.1.2. Cc cng trnh trong h thng kim sot l ............................................................................................76
7.1.3. Hiu qu ca h thng kim sot l cho vng TGLX.............................................................................77
7.1.4. Nhng bi hc rt ra t nghin cu thc t m hnh kim sot l cho vng TGLX ............................77
CHNG 1 ...................................................................................................................................................89
NGUN GC V PHN B CA T MN .....................................................89
1.1. CC QUAN IM CHUNG .................................................................................................................89
1.2. TC NG CA T MN ..............................................................................................................89
1.3. DIN TCH T MN..........................................................................................................................90
1.4. PHN B A L CA T MN ..................................................................................................90
1.5. CC MUI TRONG T MN .........................................................................................................90
1.6. NGUN GC CA CC MUI.........................................................................................................91
1.6.1. Cc qu trnh phong ho..........................................................................................................................91
1.6.2. S tch ly mui trn tng t mt do ti trong iu kin tiu nc khng y ............................91
1.6.3. Ti bng nc mn cha mui .............................................................................................................91
1.6.4. Mc nc ngm nm nng......................................................................................................................92
1.6.5. Cc mui ho thch..................................................................................................................................92
1.6.6. Thm t cc sn dc cha mui............................................................................................................92
1.6.7. i dng .................................................................................................................................................93
1.6.8. Cc phn bn ho hc v cc cht thi ...................................................................................................93
CHNG 2 .................................................................................................................................................102
CC LOI T MN V QUN L T MN ..........................................102
2.1. CC C TRNG CA PHU DIN T V DCH CHIT CA T BO HO
NC..................................................................................................................................................................102
2.2. S HNH THNH CC LOI T MN ....................................................................................102
2.2.1. Kh hu....................................................................................................................................................102
2.2.2. t ...........................................................................................................................................................103
2.2.3. Cc iu kin thy vn ..........................................................................................................................103
2.2.4. C ch ca s ho mn do mc nc ngm nm nng........................................................................104
CHNG 3 .................................................................................................................................................132
TI V KIM SOT MN .....................................................................................132
3.1. CC NGUYN TC C BN ...........................................................................................................132
3.2. CN BNG MUI V T L NC RA MN ......................................................................132
3.3. YU CU RA MN ..........................................................................................................................135
3.3.1. LR l hm s ca cht lng nc ti ................................................................................................135
3.3.2. LR l hm s ca lng nc tiu hao ................................................................................................135
3.3.3. LR v kh nng tiu ...............................................................................................................................136
3.4. CC YU T NH HNG N YU CU RA MN ............................................................136
3.4.1. Lng ma .............................................................................................................................................136
3.4.2. S kt ta mui.......................................................................................................................................137
3.4.3. S ht mui ca thc vt .......................................................................................................................137
3.4.4. mn ca cc lp t mt...................................................................................................................138
3.4.5. Phng php ti v tn s ti ...........................................................................................................138
LI GII THIU
Vit Nam c khong ba triu hecta t cc vng ng bng b nhim mn v
phn, chim khong 40% din tch t nng nghip (6,9 triu hecta, 1996) trong t
phn gn hai triu hecta v t mn khong mt triu hecta. Vic khai thc phn din
tch ny mt cch c hiu qu phc v sn xut nng nghip, ng nghip ngy cng tr
nn cp bch v c ngha quan trng i vi nn kinh t quc dn.
Ci to t phn, t nhim mn l vn kh khn phc tp i vi cc nh khoa
hc v ci to t ca nc ta v nhiu nc trn th gii. Trong nhng nm gn y,
nc ta c nhiu ti nghin cu v t phn, t nhim mn, t c nhng
thnh cng v kt qu nht nh.
Mun ci to gn ba triu hecta t phn, t mn a vo khai thc, cn phi
tm hiu ngun gc, s phn b, phn loi, sinh thi, mi trng ca mi vng t phn,
t mn, hiu r l tnh, ho tnh, nhng c cht v s bin ng ca cc c cht trong
cc nhm t ny, t tm ra phng hng s dng tt nht cho tng vng nhm a
li hiu qu cao trong u t khai thc chng.
Nhm ng gp vo vic nghin cu ci to v s dng t phn v t nhim mn
chng ti mnh dn bin son bi ging v s dng v ci to t phn, t mn. Cc ti
liu trong bi ging c ly v tham kho t nhiu ngun, nhiu c quan v cc nh
khoa hc nghin cu.
Bi ging ny dng cho hc vin cao hc ngnh Quy hoch v qun l ti nguyn
nc, ngnh Ti tiu cho cy trng, lm ti liu tham kho cho sinh vin Thu li
chuyn ngnh Thy li ci to t, cc cn b, k s thy li ang cng tc cc vng
t phn, t nhim mn.
V bin son ln u, kinh nghim cn c hn, chc chn khng trnh khi sai st,
rt mong nhn c nhiu kin ng gp ca bn c v c bit l nhng kinh nghim
qu ca cc ng nghip.
Cc tc gi xin chn thnh cm n s gip v tham gia ng gp ca PGS. Chu
nh Hong - Trng i hc Thu li, GS. L Vn Khoa - Trng i hc Quc gia H
ni v cc ng nghip trong B mn Ci to t, Trng i hc Thu li
Cc tc gi
PHN TH NHT
T PHN
Chng I M u
S hnh thnh t phn l kt qu ca s tch t pyrit trong iu kin t ngp
nc, t cha nhiu cht hu c, sunphat, st v nhm. t phn c hnh thnh
vng nc l hoc vng bin c
S pht trin ca t phn l kt qu ca vic tiu nc t cha nhiu phn
(pyrit). Pyrit c tch t trong iu kin t ngp nc t cha nhiu cht hu c v
nhiu sunphat, pyrit b xy ho tr thnh axit sunphuaric. Axit sunphuaric pht trin
nhng ni m hm lng canxi v magi thp v kt qu ca qu trnh ny lm cho pH
trong t h xung di 4.
t phn, c ni cn gi l t chua mn. Trn th gii t phn c gi bng mt
s tn sau :
Nm 1886 Van Bernmelen gi l Catclays mun ch t chua c tng sunpht st
hay sunpht nhm. c bit c tng cha nhiu st vi mu xanh en nh mt mo.
Nm 1956 Edelman v Van Staveren gi l Mudclays mun ch tng t ny cha
nhiu st bn, chua, c cht nhn.
Ngoi ra cn c cc tn khc nh : Daroxit mun ch tng t cha phn mu
vng tru hay vng rm ca phc hp KFe3(SO4)2(OH)6 v cc tn Thiosol acit peat
soils strong acid sulphat soil of salty padly filds.
n nay c ba cuc hi tho Quc t ln v t phn c t chc v
u ly tn chung l acid sulphate soils .
Hnh 1: T rng c t phn tim tng trc v sau khi rng b tn ph, tiu nc canh
tc, nhng do s dng t khng hp l, khng khoa hc, tr thnh vng t phn hot ng.
11
Chng II
Ngun gc, phn b v phn loi t phn
2.1. Ngun gc v qu trnh hnh thnh t phn
Nghin cu t phn min Bc Vit Nam, Fritlan cho rng t phn giu sunpht
v sunphat l do lu hunh (S ) trong nc l v khng lin quan n s vt.
Qua cc th nghim, kt hp vi iu tra thc t trong dp lp bn t cho min
Bc Vit Nam, Fritlan gii thch s hnh thnh t phn: S c trong nc bin theo
thu triu v vng nc l. Cn st , nhm (Fe, Al ) do s phng thch ca cc keo st v
s ra tri theo dng chy, trm tch vng nc l, cng vi S lng ng trong ph sa,
to nn phn. Quan im ny cha gii thch c nhng ni c ch nc ca cc
con sng ging nhau, nh hng thu triu nh nhau, nhng c vng to phn, c vng
khng to phn.
Moorman v nhng ngi cng s cho rng s hnh thnh t phn xut hin
vng nc l, c thu triu xm nhp v c s tham gia ca vi sinh vt vi cc iu kin
v cc giai on sau:
1. Ion SO4-2 b kh trong iu kin thiu oxy, c s tham gia ca vi sinh vt ym
kh. Trong giai on ny cn phi c y hu c lm ngun thc n cho vi sinh vt
ym kh Thiobacillus... .
2. Tip phn ng gia sunphure H2S vi st c trong t to thnh FeS2
(Pirit). Giai on ny nu c canxi th khng sinh ra phn. Nhng nu thiu canxi th
phn ng tip tc giai on 3.
3. Nu c oxy xm nhp, qu trnh oxy ho FeS2 s xy ra to thnh FeSO4 v
H2SO4 theo phn ng:
2H2O +2FeS2 +7O2 2FeSO4 + 2H2SO4
4. Sau khi c axit H2SO4 v FeSO4, trong iu kin c oxy v vi sinh vt,
sunphat st III c hnh thnh:
2FeSO4 + H2SO4 + O Fe2 (SO4)3 + H2O
Trong t xut hin tng vt mu vng tru, chnh l mu vng ca Fe2(SO4)3
Theo tc gi y cng c phn ng thun nghch :
Fe2(SO4)3 + 2H2O 2FeSO4(OH) +H2SO4.
Axit sunphuric mi c to thnh gy chua cho t v s phn ng mnh vi cc
khong st to thnh sunphat nhm , natri ,v kali theo phng trnh phn ng sau :
Al2O3SiO2 + 3H2SO4 Al2(SO4)3 + Silic hydroxyt
Thc t trong t phn khng ch c cc hp cht v c m cn c nhng hp cht
hu c phn, hay hu -v c, m y tc gi ch mi ni n n thun l cc phn ng
ca cc hp cht v c.
Cng tng t nh vy ,Van Rees (1972) cho rng c ba iu kin hnh thnh
t phn:
12
Theo tc gi: S hnh thnh t phn hin ti cng phi c t phn tim tng. Khi
t phn tim tng thong kh trong mt thi gian lu, khi m mc nc ngm gim
xung di lp t cha pyrit trong nhiu tun l. Hin tng ny xy ra mt cch t t
trong qu trnh t nhin do s nng ln ca mt t, hay bi p ca b bin, hoc s h
thp ca thu triu hoc xy ra mt cch t ngt do p b hay lm kh cn nc.
Ngha l phi c qu trnh oxy ho xy ra, v qu trnh c tin hnh khi lp t trn
kh, mt nc, nt n, lp pyrit vn cn m t v b oxy xm nhp, th nhng ht pyrit
nh li ti, s b oxy ho thnh sunphat st II (r ho tan) v axit sunphuric. Phn ng
chung nh sau:
FeS2 + 7/2 O2 + H2O
14
15
16
Ca+
S-
Ca+
S+
CaS+
CaS-
Ghi ch
Du + L giu
Du - L ngho
C 4 trng hp xy ra:
- Trng hp 1: Xy ra khi t giu canxi v ngho S
- Trng hp 4 : Xy ra khi t t canxi nhng t S.
Hai trng hp ny khng th sinh ra t phn.
- Trng hp 2 : Giu canxi nhng li cng giu S nn t c th sinh ra phn cc b.
- Trng hp 3 : Trong t t canxi, nhng li giu S nn t d sinh ra phn v hm
lng phn s cao. (CaCO3 < 3 ln hm lng S tng s).
Tuy nhin s hu hiu ca CaCO3 trong qu trnh hnh thnh phn v ci to t
phn cn ph thuc vo mi trng t, nc, chnh xc hn l cn ph thuc vo s c
17
Hnh 4:
Bn
ng
bng
Sng
Cu
Long
Phn nhiu
63.327
27.446
3.484
85.456
7.214
21.555
63.090
1.331
272.134
Phn mn
51.340
47.028
23.190
53.594
160.900
2.240
434.000
772.292
TT
1
2
3
4
5
Sp1
Sp2
Spa
Sj1
Sj2
Sja
Sd
Loi t phn
t phn
t phn tim tng
t phn tim tng nng
t phn tim tng su
t phn tim tng c lp ph sa trn mt
t phn hot ng
t phn hot ng nng
t phn hot ng su
t phn hot ng c lp ph sa trn mt
t phn c lp sn tch/l tch trn mt
Din tch ha
273659
56785
7820
35723
13242
216874
50733
103968
1568
54305
20
21
-Phu din s 40 CLTG: Ti nng trng p Bc II, Huyn Cai Ly, Tnh Tin
Giang. (Hi khoa hc t Vit Nam 1995)
- Thm thc vt: Bng (Lepiromia mucronata)
Nng kim (Elecharis ochrostachyo)
0 - 8 cm (Ah) mu en (10 YR 2/1 M) tht nng, st pha linon v tht (Silty clay loam)
m t, ln nhiu hu c bm phn hu dng si, nho, khng thun thc, nhiu r bng
v nng kim, chuyn lp dn dn v mu sc.
8 - 19 cm (Ag) mu xm nu (10 YR 4/1 M) m t, st (Clay) khng thun thc ln r
c v cht hu c dng si mu en, (10 YR 2/1) gly, mnh chuyn lp t t v mu
sc.
19 - 45 cm (ACPr) mu nu xm en (2,5 YR 3/2 M) m t, st (Clay), khng thun
thc ln nhiu xc thc vt mu en (5Y 2/1 M) kch thc nh (510mm) glay mnh, c
mn H2S, chuyn lp t t v mu sc.
45 - 110 cm (Cpr) mu xm en (2,5 Y 4 M) m t, st ( clay) dnh khng thun thc.
- Phu din s 81 NT-HG : X Vnh Lp - huyn V Thanh, tnh Cn Th.
Rung mt v la ma.
0 - 20 cm (ApL) mu xm nu hi sng (7,5 YR 4/1 M), t, st (clay) hi do dnh, bn
thun thc. Nhiu xc thc vt bn phn hu mn, nhiu r la mn trng chuyn lp t
t.
0 - 60 cm (AC) mu nu en (7.5 YR 3/1 M), t, st (clay) hi do dnh, bn thun thc.
Nhiu xc thc vt bn phn hu, ln t r la v c, chuyn lp t t.
60 - 130 cm (Cpr1) mu nu en (2.5 Y 3/2 M), t, st (clay) do dnh, khng cu trc,
nhiu vt hu c phn hu mu en, c t xc thc vt bn phn hu mu en, chuyn lp
t t.
130 - 200 cm (Cpr2) mu xm (2.5 GY 5/1 M), t, st (clay) do dnh c t xc thc vt
bn phn hu mu nu).
S liu phn tch t phn tim tng ca 2 phu din trn th hin bng 4 .
Bng 4: S liu phn tch t phn tim tng (Hi khoa hc t Vit Nam 1995)
S
phu
din
su
(cm)
40
Cl-TG
0-8
8-19
19-45
45-110
0-20
20-60
60-130
130200
81
VTHG
pH KCl
Hu
c
(cm)
Cation trao
(me/100g t)
Ca Mg-
3.4
3.3
2.5
2.0
3.4
3.5
25.86
12.93
9.82
3.52
4.20
5.00
3.00
3.40
5.60
5.30
0.90
2.20
2.0
2.6
2.52
1.92
6.00
5.30
P2O5
K2O
1.00
2.14
4.40
5.65
1.30
1.20
0.28
0.27
0.22
0.18
0.28
0.28
0.28
1.13
1.00
1.16
0.19
0.21
0.13
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.02
6.50
6.00
0.28
0.13
0.72
1.08
0.02
0.03
Tng s ( % )
P2O5 d
tiu
(mg/100g
t)
3.20
1.80
1.30
1.30
0.12
vt
0.12
0.75
- Phu din s 30 H.LA: X An Ninh ng, huyn c Ho, tnh Long An.
Thc vt ch yu: c nng kim, c bng.
0-5 cm (Ah) mu xm en (7.5 YR 3/2 M), m, st (clay), nhiu xc thc vt bm phn
hu mu en, nhiu r cy c, cu trc cc nh, chuyn lp t t v mu sc.
15-36 cm (ABj) mu nu ti (7.5 YR 3/4 M), m, st (clay), ln t r thc vt. Cu trc
khi chuyn lp t t v mu sc.
36-76 cm (Bj) mu nu 7.5 YR 5/2 M), t, st, (clay), t m mu vng (Jarosite) (2.5
Y8/8 M) khong 5% b mt ca t do, dnh chuyn lp t t v mu sc.
76-120 (Cpr) mu xm xanh (5 Y 5/2 M), t nho, st (clay) nhiu vt hu c mu en,
khng c cu trc.
- Phu din s 36 TM. T: X c Bnh Kiu, huyn Thp Mi, tnh ng
thp.
Rung la 2 v: ng xun, H thu, nng sut 9 tn/ha-nm ln c cht, c nn.
0-15 cm (ApL) mu xm en (2.5 YR 3/0 M), m, st (clay) ln nhiu r la v cc ng r
st nu (2.5 YR 4/4 M) chy dc theo ng r, cu trc tng, cht, c nhiu k nt 2-5
cm chuyn lp dn dn v mu sc.
15-32 cm (AB) mu xm en nht (2.5 YR 4/16 M), m, st (clay) ln cc ng r la mn,
nhiu r nu phn b dc cc k nt, cu trc khi chuyn lp t t.
32-69 cm (B1 W) mu xm nht (5 YR 5/1 M), m, st (clay) ln cc vt hu c en (7.5
YR 2/0 M), nhiu r st mu nu ti 7.5 YR 3/4 v nu sm (7.5 YR 5/8 M), ln nhng
vt gch 10 YR 5/8, cu trc khi, cht, dnh do, chuyn lp t t.
69-110 cm (B2W) mu xm (10 YR 5/1 M), t, st c cc nu vng (7.5 YR 5/8 M)
ln cc mu vng Larosite (2.5 Y 7/8 M). Chim khong 10 - 15% b mt tng t
dnh, do, cht, chuyn lp r v mu sc.
110-150 cm (Cpr) mu xm (5 Y 5/2 M), t, st, nho gly mnh c mi H2S.
S liu phn tch t phn hot ng ca 2 phu din trn th hin bng 5.
Bng 5: S liu phn tch t phn hot ng (Hi khoa hc t Vit Nam 1995)
S phu
din
su
(cm)
pHKCl
30
H-lA
0-15
15-36
36-76
76-120
0-15
15-32
32-69
110-150
2.74
2.20
2.10
1.55
3.75
3.26
2.75
2.5
36
TM-T
Hu
c
(%)
15.30
20.40
19.90
14.80
11.44
12.01
2.41
3.77
Cation trao i
(me/100g t)
Ca +
Mg+
0.16
0.77
0.16
0.94
0.31
1.86
0.76
1.17
4.00
4.96
3.31
6.15
2.63
5.82
3.87
8.35
Tng s (%)
N
0.44
0.59
0.24
0.21
0.37
0.24
0.29
0.24
P205
0.05
0.08
0.03
0.02
0.06
0.03
0.03
0.07
K20
0.65
0.28
0.68
0.55
1.60
1.89
2.54
1.94
P205
d tiu
mg/100g
4.67
3.40
3.43
3.43
2.50
1.25
0.65
3.29
Tu theo v tr phn b v lp thm thc vt hin ti, hnh thi phu din t phn
than bn c khc nhau. c im chung v hnh thi phu din loi t ny l :
- Lp xc thc vt bn phn gii mu nu en, ti xp.
- Lp than bn mu en c ln xc thc vt, phn tim tng hoc phn hot ng.
- Tng st tch lu phn c tim tng.
Hm lng cacbon trong than bn kh cao, phn ln trn 20%, hm lng m tng
s thay i tu theo cht lng than bn, trung bnh 0,2 - 0,8%, c khi trn 1% ln tng
s rt ngho < 0,05%.
t than bn ang c s dng di nhiu hnh thc khc nhau. C ni ln lung
trng rau, sn, da. t than bn c hm lng cc bon thp nh huyn Tri Tn (An
Giang) nhn dn trng da hu. Than bn cn c khai thc lm cht t, lm phn
bn. Than bn di rng trm cn l ni tr nc ngt phc v i sng v sn xut c
mt vng kh rng ln.
Nn chy rng trong nhng nm va qua thu hp din tch than bn rt nhiu.
Khi than bn b chy mt t h thp v phn bc ln khng s dng t vo canh tc
c. Than bn ang c nghin cu ch bin phn bn cht lng cao. Do din tch
ang gim n mc bo ng nn cn c bin php bo v, nht l chng chy hng nm
vo ma kh.
- Phu din s 1219 - AB- KG
Loi t : Than bn phn (vng U Minh Thng) (TS)
a im : X An Ninh, huyn An Bin, tnh Kin Giang.
Thc vt : Rng trm t nhin
Nc ngm : Ngp su 50 cm ma ma, su 30 cm di lp mt ma kh.
Hnh thi phu din :
Ho (0 - 32 cm) Lp thm l dy, lp trn cn dng kh, lp di ang phn hu, ln cc
r cy nh v cc loi dy leo, ln bn bi do ngp nc.
Ao1 (32 - 50 cm) Than bn mu en (7.5 YR 2/0 M), m, ti xp dng si.
Ao2 (50 -100 cm) Than bn mu en sm (10 YR 2/6 M), m, t, xp, mn, ri rc
dng si.
Ao3 (100-150 cm) Than bn mu en (7,5 YR 2/2 M), ln t st xm sm t, nho, xp,
phn hu ton dng mn.
Crp (155-200 cm) Xm xanh, (10 YR 7/2 M), t nho, st dnh c mi lu hunh,
khng thun th (S liu phn tch t phn than bn xem bng 6).
Bng 6 - S liu phn tch t phn than bn (Hi Khoa hc t Vit nam 1995)
26
su
(cm)
pH
H2O
KCl
0 - 32
32 - 50
50 - 100
100- 155
155-200
4.70
5.10
4.70
4.10
5.00
4.00
4.60
3.90
3.20
2.00
C (%)
Tng s (%)
N
P2O5
29.70
40.10
45.30
37.10
5.10
2.41
0.58
1.16
0.72
0.16
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
P2O5 d tiu
(mg/100 g
t)
8.75
4.00
-
OM
(%)
C/N
51.20
69.10
78.20
69.90
8.70
12
69
39
51
32
Ca+
me/100
g t
5.50
5.50
8.25
5.50
6.25
Hnh 7:
Vin nghin
cu khoa
hc Thu li
Min Nam
d. Phn trng : V bn cht phn trng ging nh phn lnh, do Sunpht nhm gy
nn.
nhng vng phn nhiu v thiu nc vo cui ma kh, mui Al2(SO4)3 bc ln
mt v kt tinh thnh nhng ht mui trn c ng knh vi milimt dnh vi nhau
thnh tng cm, khi m th nhn trn, khi kh th dn, nh, d v, d tan vo nc (hnh
9).
nhng vng t phn xut hin loi mui ny trn mt t vo cui ma kh tc
l t n nh cao ca s c hi, vo nhng trn ma u ma nu lng ma
khng ln ra tri v a mui ny ra nhng knh ln hoc thm xung tng su
27
Loi t phn ang chuyn ho: thng thng chng ta hiu l ang chuyn ho t
phn tim tng sang phn hin ti t phn t sang phn nhiu, song cng cn phi hiu
thm c chiu ngc ca n tc l t phn ang chuyn ho t phn t sang khng phn,
loi ny theo Phan Liu gi l t phn thy phn .
a) Loi t phn hin ti
Danh t t phn hin ti, nc ta cn c gi l t phn hot ng ch l mt
khi nim tng i, cho chng ta hiu rng loi t phn ny ang trng thi hot
ng gy chua, nhng tng i n nh v mt hm lng cc c t. Thng nhng
vng canh tc lu i hoc ngp v ma ma, kh hn v ma kh, mc nc ln
xung theo thi gian v theo ma v. Thc vt ch th l nng ngt, nng kim, bng,
ng, da di,c ma, c cm.
29
5060
nhng vt r st
Tng pyrit, xm xanh,
xm xanh en ( 5 Y...)
80100
Hu c s vt, hay b ch
xen ln vi bn st
120150
- Tng 1 : Thng t 0-30 cm : mu xm en hoc en (3 10 YR...) , mn nhiu,
m tng s cao (0,1-0,5%), ngho ln, Hm lng ct thng c t l thp ( 30%), st
45 - 70%. c cht t hn nhng tng su, mu sc chuyn i t t.
- Tng 2 : ( Cch mt t t 30cm ti 60 cm). c gi tng Oxy ho, thng c
mu vng rm, vng tru, mu vng c th lm m hoc ton phu din. Danh t
30
Ch Minh c cc vng phn ca Tn Thun (Nh B), Hc Mn, Thnh Lc, An Ph, An
Lc, Tn To (Bnh Chnh).
- Phu din c trng ca vng t phn trung bnh n t cng c chia ra ba
tng chnh v mt tng ph nh k trn. Nhng su xut hin ca tng Jarosite su
hn, thng 40 - 50 cm v dy tng pyrit hoc hu c mng hn, hoc xut hin su
hn. Ngha l tng canh tc dy v an ton hn. Chnh v vy m s bc phn (x phn)
ln mt t t hn.
Xt v mt c cht ca phn, tng trn thng c pH = 4 - 4,5, Al+3 trong khong
vi chc ppm n 400 - 1000 ppm ; SO2-4 0,2%, Fe+2 t 600 - 1.200 ppm
Tng Jarosite pH t 3,5 - 4, lng SO4-2 cao hn cc tng khc (t ti) khong
0,20-0,3%, Al+3 vo khong 600 - 1000ppm. Nhng nu ta t kh pH s gim xung
v SO4-2, Al+3 s tng ln, tuy nhin tng gim khng nhiu .
Thnh phn cp ht (thnh phn c gii) thng l st, khong 45 - 60%, Limng
15 - 30% v ct khong 15 - 30% .
Tnh cht ho hc c th hin mt phu din in hnh trong bng 7 v 8 .
Bng 7 : Kt qu phn tch t phn hin tai, ti Qunh Ph Thi Bnh
(Vin Nghin cu Khoa hc v Kinh t Thu li 1991)
Tng
t
(cm)
020
2050
020
2050
pH
trong
H20
4,4
4,0
4,6
3,6
Hu
c (%)
EC
ms/cm
Nt
mg/
100g
Pt
(%)
Kt
(%)
Ca2+
meq/
100g
Fe2+
meq/
100g
Al3+
meq/
100g
SO42mg/l
3,8
3,4
4,0
3,2
3,0
2,42
2,62
2,62
1050
910
840
2170
0.24
0.2
0.25
0.21
0.06
0.05
0,07
0,07
0.87
0.86
0,88
0,93
5,6
5,2
4,3
5,6
2,2
2,3
1,9
5,1
1,4
0,5
1,1
2,1
247
247
222
185
pHKc
3,6
3,54
3,50
3,28
2,97
Mn
%
6,84
4,14
0,88
1,04
4,25
EC
ms/cm
1,07
0,95
0,85
1,12
2,47
Nt
%
0,464
0,300
0,157
0,164
0,185
P205t
%
0,067
0,033
0,019
0,004
0,015
K20t
%
0,880
0,940
1,420
1,380
1,350
Ca 2+
ml/100
1,220
1,50
1,92
2,24
1,22
Mg2+
ml/100
8.06
7.56
6.58
14.00
14.80
S02-4
PPm
2.100
1.675
1.550
1.900
6.625
Al3+
PPm
1.687
1.650
2.160
1.575
1.811
3,59
3,63
2,96
2,82
2,55
8,81
6,94
3,63
5,18
6,11
0,77
0,78
1,22
1,63
2,84
0,458
0,357
0,171
0,158
0,200
0,067
0,046
0,019
0,020
0,011
1,000
1,280
1,160
1,240
1,240
0,58
1,04
1,50
1,42
1,12
3,12
5,10
5,58
8,92
9,05
650
1.357
2.150
5.450
10.000
1.687
1.650
2.160
1.575
1.811
pH
Bng 9: S liu phn tch t phn hot ng -Hi Khoa hc t Vit Nam 1995.
S phu
din
su
(cm)
pHKCl
30
H-lA
0-15
15-36
36-76
76-120
0-15
15-32
32-69
110-150
2.74
2.20
2.10
1.55
3.75
3.26
2.75
2.5
36
TM-T
Hu
c
(%)
15.30
20.40
19.90
14.80
11.44
12.01
2.41
3.77
Cation trao i
(me/100g t)
Ca +
Mg+
0.16
0.77
0.16
0.94
0.31
1.86
0.76
1.17
4.00
4.96
3.31
6.15
2.63
5.82
3.87
8.35
Tng s (%)
N
0.44
0.59
0.24
0.21
0.37
0.24
0.29
0.24
P205
0.05
0.08
0.03
0.02
0.06
0.03
0.03
0.07
K20
0.65
0.28
0.68
0.55
1.60
1.89
2.54
1.94
P205
d tiu
mg/100g
4.67
3.40
3.43
3.43
2.50
1.25
0.65
3.29
* Loi t phn mn
Xut hin nhng vng trng v c nh hng ca thy triu. Nhng mc xm
nhp mn v mn khng cao. Thng nhng vng ny c ngp vi thng trong
33
(cm)
0 -10
20 - 30
35 - 45
63 - 73
4,4
4,3
4,1
3,6
C
tng
s%
4,95
1,37
1,02
1,49
90-100
140-150
0 -20
Ct Li
Th c 50 - 60
TPHCM 90 -100
3,9
3,1
4,6
4,3
3,8
5,0
1,4
1,1
Phc
Tuy
Ba Tre
(Bn
Tre)
su
pHH20
N
tng
s%
0,20
0,13
0,08
0,10
P
tng
s%
0,04
0,04
0,07
0,07
0,31 0,07
0,22 0,04
0,10 0,03
Cation trao i
Al+3
Ca+2 Mg+2 K+ Na+
ppm
4,5 9,5
11,5 3,2 9,0
5,2 13,7 -
(%)
0,07
0,07
0,07
0,08
3,0
3,7
5,3
3,2
1,1
0,08
0,10
0,08
0,07
0,09
0,18
0,24
0,14
0,21
0,24
9,3
11,7 8,5 1,2 3,5 100
4,1 1,1 2,4 301
4,3 0,6 1,1 410
Cl-
49
45
54
56
60
26
30
22
21
24
25
25
24
23
16
- L tnh : Trong thnh phn c gii vn l st cao 50 -60%, ct t, nhiu bn. Tuy
nhin, c nhng ni ct tng t ngt. Hu ht cc phu din cha nhiucht hu c v
st nn t l trng co mnh : 15 - 20%.
- Ho tnh : Tnh cht cng rt phc tp do chu nh hng mnh ca hai yu t
phn v mn. Nu nh hng ca phn nng hn gi l t phn mn. Ngc li nu nh
34
Hnh 13: nh Phu din t phn tim tng ti Qunh Ph Thi Bnh
c trng cho loi t ny c hai im cn ch :
35
+ Trong tng phu din cha c tng Jarosite v thng c ba tng chnh : tng mt
(tng 1), tng chuyn tip (tng 2) tng Pyrit (hay tng hu c, tng sinh phn) (tng 3)
v tng ph
+ Tng mt : c th c mu nu, nu, xm hoc en t phn hn, c cht thng
mc an ton. C nhiu ch cn nh hng ca mn, nu vng duyn hi hoc cn
duyn hi .
+ Tng Pyrit: Ho tnh tng pyrit (tng sinh phn) c im c bit l : pH t
ti v t kh thay i ln, c khi n 2,5 n v. Bi v, c cht khi ti thp , Al+3
ch c vt, SO4-2 t (0,09 - 0,11%), nhng khi kh tng rt cao. V d ng Thp c mt
mu phn tch Al+3 khi ti ch c vi trm ppm nhng khi kh ln trn 2.000 ppm, cn
SO4-2 mt mu khc, khi ti vi trm ppm, khi kh ln trn 3000ppm. Lng tim
tng ca S trong tng Pyrit hay hu c rt cao, c khi n 1 - 3%.
Tng hu c tn tch ca rng s vt, hu c dng b ch ang phn gii mi hi
tanh ca H2S v CH4. Hm lng hu c (dng b ch) cao (3-5%). cng l nguyn
nhn ca sn sinh ra c cht khi t ln tip hay kh. Khi xut hin sunphat ch
yu di dng Fe2(SO4)3 v cc hp cht dng hu - v c : Fe2(SO4)3 to cho t ln lip
c vt mu vng rm, len li khp tng t ln lip. Nhng c cht nh Al3+, SO4-2
tng Pyrit khi ln lip hay kh tng gp 3 4 ln.
Vi mc ch phc v vic khai thc vng t phn ny, ngi ta phn chia ra cc
loi t phn c chiu dy tng an ton khc nhau. Chiu dy tng an ton khc nhau th
hin mc d sinh phn v mc thun li hay kh khn trong khai thc t phn
khc nhau. Chng ti xin gii thiu mt s loi chnh sau y :
(1) Loi t phn tim tng c tng an ton (mu nu) 50 cm, di c tng hu c
. Thng xut hin nhng ni c ph sa mi bi p cao thm trn 50 cm. C th
gp mt s vng ng Thp Mi, ni m ph sa sng Tin tip tc c bi p. Trong
phu din, nh dng chung ca t phn tim tng l khng c tng Jarosite v c cc
tng chnh : Tng mt (tng1), tng chuyn tip (tng 2), tng hu c (tng 3)
(2) Loi t phn tim tng c tng nu 30 - 50 cm, c tng hu c di :Thng
nhng vng t c ngp cao nht 35- 50cm, mc bi p ph sa hng nm khng
cao. Mc an ton trong gieo trng rt thp. Tuy nhin nu ln lip bng cch chng
i tng nu (tng an ton) trng da hay ma th mc an ton cao. Tuy nhin, khng
nn ly tng pyrit v tng hu c dng lm t ln lip, hoc kh tng ny. Nu
kh tng ny, hoc dng t ln lip t s ho phn nng.
(3) Loi t phn tim tng c tng an ton 20 - 30 cm, di c hu c.
Nhng vng t thuc loi ny u xut hin vng trng hoc cha khai ph. Mc
nc ngp cao nht khong 50-80cm, c ni 1- 2 m. Thc b y kh phc tp. Mt
t thng c lp bn nho, nu ngp nc quanh nm.
Nu nguyn thy c th trng ci. Nhng nu ln lip cc tng su, hoc o
knh cn nc tng hu c, tng pyrit, s c s ho phn cao .
Loi t phn tim tng ny cn c nhng bin php qun l nc v canh tc hp
l v loi t ny rt d chuyn ho thnh phn hin ti.
36
su
(cm)
pH KCl
Hu
c
(cm)
Cation trao
(me/100g t)
MgCa -
40
Cl-TG
0-8
8-19
19-45
45-110
0-20
20-60
60-130
130-200
3.4
3.3
2.5
2.0
3.4
3.5
2.0
2.6
25.86
12.93
9.82
3.52
4.20
5.00
2.52
1.92
3.00
3.40
5.60
5.30
0.90
2.20
6.00
5.30
81
VT-HG
1.00
2.14
4.40
5.65
1.30
1.20
6.50
6.00
Tng s ( % )
N
P2O5
K2O
0.28
0.27
0.22
0.18
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.13
0.28
1.13
1.00
1.16
0.19
0.21
0.72
1.08
0.13
0.02
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.03
P2O5 d tiu
(mg/100g
t)
3.20
1.80
1.30
1.30
0.12
vt
0.12
0.75
Bng 11 : S liu phn tch t phn tim tng -Hi Khoa hc t Vit Nam 1995(tip) .
S phu
din
su
(cm)
C/N
40
Cl-TG
0-8
8-19
19-45
45-110
0-20
20-60
60-130
130-200
53
28
25
81
VT-HG
15
23
9
15
Al3+
(mg/
100gt)
7.50
9.60
13.90
21.80
3.00
0.30
8.20
6.80
Fc3+
(mg/
100g t)
5.60
7.60
8.85
9.20
0.20
0.20
0.20
0.18
Cl(%)
S042(%)
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.24
0.24
0.36
0.48
0.04
0.12
0.32
0.28
35.20
41.92
41.92
45.60
52.84
50.24
58.84
59.78
18.00
19.28
17.20
20.15
16.36
16.36
14.72
13.50
46.80
38.80
40.88
34.25
30.80
33.40
26.44
26.72
37
C (%)
pH
(cm)
H2O
KCl
0 - 32
32 - 50
50 - 100
100- 155
155-200
4.70
5.10
4.70
4.10
5.00
4.00
4.60
3.90
3.20
2.00
29.70
40.10
45.30
37.10
5.10
Tng s (%)
N
P2O5
2.41
0.58
1.16
0.72
0.16
0.05
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
P2O5 d tiu
(mg/100 g
t)
8.75
4.00
-
OM
C/N
(%)
51.20
69.10
78.20
69.90
8.70
12
69
39
51
32
Ca+
me/100
g t
5.50
5.50
8.25
5.50
6.25
38
Chng III
Mi trng vng t phn
vng t phn, ch nc, cc loi thc vt, ng vt v vi sinh vt nm trong
mt th thng nht, chng nh hng trc tip hoc gin tip ln nhau. Nghin cu vn
ny gip chng ta hiu y hn v t phn, c tc dng tt trong ci to, s dng
t phn v bo v mi trng .
Ngoi cc loi thc vt k trn trong tng thc vt b vi lp cn thy xut hin cc
loi cy khc nh : Da nc, ch l, trm. Qua nghin cu ngi ta thy, nhng vng
t m ch c cc loi thc vt ny chn vi th S tng s rt t, khng c kh nng gy
chua nhiu, pH ca t vo khong 5,5 - 6 .
Nh vy chng loi v chiu su ca cc loi thc vt b vi lp c nh hng ln
n mc sinh phn trong t.
2. Thc vt hin ti
Thc vt ang sng trn t phn cng thay i theo tnh cht ca mi loi t. Mi
loi t u c mt h thc vt thch ng vi n - ng l t no cy y hay nhn cy
bit t .
Thc vt vng phn tim tng thng c cc lai cy Ch l, Rng di, Lc bin,
bng, nng kim.
Nu l vng t phn tim tng su trong ni a, l vng trng ngp nc gn nh
quanh nm, gm cc loi thy sinh mc chm di nc hoc chm trong nc mt phn
39
nh : Sng co, sen, nh cn vng, nng n, nh cn trn, c bc, la ma, rau mung thn
tm l cng v gin, rau da, ngh ...
Thc vt vng t phn nhiu thng c: Nng ngt ( t phn nhiu ch c loi
cy ny v mt vi loi cy khc na, nng Ngt rt thch hp vi PH = 4-5). Trong cy
nng tch ly nhiu SO4 (0,6-0,9% trng lng kh ) v Al3+ (500 - 1500 ppm). c bit
trong r tch ly gp hai n ba ln thn l. V vy khng nn s dng nng lm phn
xanh m cn tm cch dit tn gc. Nng kim, mc st mt t thnh thm, l nh, nhn,
r khng n su nh nng ngt, sng c t c lng phn cao hn nng ngt. Bng
v cy Sy, thng mc nhng ni c cao cao hn nhng ni mc Nng v Bng.
Hnh 14:
C nng
kim
trong vic thc y nhanh qu trnh hnh thnh phn, k c giai on oxy ho v giai
on kh.
Trong t phn, s lng vi sinh vt c ch rt him. Nhng vo nm 1972 Murthy
phn lp, nui cy c mt loi vi khun thuc Azotobacteracede t than bn c
chua (pH = 2.5-4.2 ) pht trin c trn t phn. Loi vi khun ny c kh nng c
nh m 1-10 mg /1g vi thi gian l mt tun l nui cy. y l mt kh nng mi,
m ng cho vic to m d tiu bng sinh vt hc cho t phn
Bng 15.
2. Nhng ng vt nhn thy c
t phn trung bnh v phn nhiu, rt t hoc khng c cc ng vt nhn thy
c nh giun, d, mi. Thng ch thy xut hin cc loi kin en, kin vng v mt
vi loi rp. vng phn nhiu pH = 2,5-3 k c a cng khng thy xut hin, rt t tm
c, nu c th cng khng pht trin c, thng u to nhng thn v ui b.
vng t phn t, cc loi ng vt phong ph hn v chng loi gn nh vng
nc ngt.
Nhng vng t phn tim tng hin c nh hng nc l th sinh vt c kh nhiu
nh : cua, cng, tm, c...
Nhng vng t phn tim tng ni a, c nc ngp thng xuyn trn mt rung
th cc loi ng vt kh phong ph: c, tm, tp, ch, chut, rn, rt , a ...( nh vng
ng Thp Mi ).
3. 2. Ch nc vng t phn
Ch nc l mt trong nhng nhn t cu thnh, pht trin v ci to t phn,
nc c th lm tng hay gim hm lng phn trong t. Ch nc v cht lng
nc cn nh hng trc tip n cy trng, nng sut cy trng, n vic s dng, ci
to t phn v nh hng n i sng ca nhn dn vng t phn.
Trong phn ny xin gii thiu mt s c im ch nc vng phn. V ch
nc, c th chia ra vng c nh hng ca thy triu v vng khng c nh hng ca
thy triu, vng nh hng l v vng khng b nh hng l. Trong li c th chia ra
vng nh hng thy triu thng xuyn, nh v chn chiu cao v vng thy triu ch t
thng trong nm, chnh lch t. Vng t hoc khng c thy triu lin quan n nc ngt
hay phn c ngp lt hay khng v thi gian ngp. Ch nc 4 vng phn nh
nu ph hp vi qu trnh hnh thnh, pht trin ca t phn v tnh cht t phn ca 4
vng c trng . Xin gii thiu mt s kt qu nghin cu cc vng c v ch nc
phn.
Nc l yu t ht sc linh hot. Cc ion trong nc li cng linh hot. V vy, s
bin i gia vng ny v vng khc ht sc khc nhau. Trong mt ngy, ch nc c
th thay i, thm ch trong mt tha rung cng c th thay i : ch ny v ch kia
khc nhau. V vy, khng th c mt cng thc chung nht cho vng nc phn c.
Cng c th v ngy thng, thi gian, a im v tr ly mu bao nhiu cng chnh xc
by nhiu. Nh vy, nhng kt qu m chng ti trnh by di y, cng c mt gi tr
tng i ca n.
41
Hi Phng
pH
3,94
Cht cn
110o0
g/l
dn
in EC
(mm hos/cm
20,056
26,88
Cation
Ca2+
Mg2+
g/l
mequ/l
g/l
mequ/l
0,368 18,363 0,980
80,59
Cation
Na+
(g/l)
(mequ/l)
(g/l)
4,8
Clg/l
mequ/l
9,10
256,0
207,98
Anion
SO42g/l
mequ/l
3,442
71,66
0,192
K+
(mequ/l)
4,911
HCO3g/l
mequ/l
0,018
0,295
CO32g/l
0,00
pH
3,13
EC
ns/cm
2.320
Al3+
mequ/l
14,4
Fe2+
mg/l
218,33
SO42mg/l
2.994,2
lng cc c t trong t nh Al 3+, Mg2+ , Fe2+, Fe3+, Mn+, SO42- .Kt qu nghin cu
c th di y, chng t vai tr quyt nh ca nc trong qu trnh pht trin ca t
phn v ngha ca n trong vic dng nc ci to v s dng t phn .
Kt qu nghin cu s bin ng ca pH ca cc tng t khc nhau theo thi gian
trong qu trnh oxy ho, ko theo s tng nhanh hm lng cc c t trong t phn
c th hin nh sau:
Cc mu t nghin cu c ly nng trng Trung Dng thnh ph Hi
Phng( vng t ln bin ven ng quc l 14 ) . Phu din c chia thnh 4 tng
vi cc c im sau:
- Tng1: Ap, (0 - 20 cm ) Mu c ph sng (10 YR 6/ 3) .t ti , xp , st pha ct
trung bnh , cu trc khng tng cc , khng st trong HCl. Ranh gii vi tng 2 khng r
nt, chuyn i t t.
- Tng 2: Cm, ( 20 - 50 cm ) Mu c ph (10YR 5/ 3 ). Ti ,cht , st pha ct trung
bnh, cu trc tng cc , khng st trong HCl .Ranh gii vi tng 3 r nt .
- Tng 3:Abj ( 50-90 cm ) Mu en , xut hin mt s vt vng ca Jarosit ( 2,5Y
5/6 ), mu en cu Sunphit (2,5 Y 2/0 ) .t st pha ct, khng st trong HCl . Ranh gii
vi tng 4 khng r nt, chuyn i t t.
- Tng 4: Gb (90-100 cm ) Tng glay (5 Y 3/1 ) thng xuyn ngp trong nc .t
ct, nhiu xc thc vt dng b ch .Khng st trong HCl.
Cc phu din kh trong trng thi t nhin, pH c xc nh trong nc (1: 5 )kt qu th hin bng 15 v hnh v 14:
Bng15: Kt qu v s bin ng ca pHH20 trong qu trnh oxy ho t chua mn
khu vc thnh ph Hi phng ( phng th nghim HKT & XD Sfia-1987 )
Mu
t
1
2
3
4
5
Chiu
su(cm)
0-20
20-50
50-70
70-90
90-100
iu kin
ban u
6,05
6,20
5,80
6,30
7,10
Sau 1 tun
Sau 2 tun
Sau 1 thng
5,50
5,70
4,15
4,50
5,00
5,15
5,30
3,10
3,30
3,80
4,70
4,80
2,70
3,10
3,65
Sau 2 thng
4,10
4,22
2,51
2,29
3,59
43
Hnh 14 : Biu din bin qu trnh thay i ca pH khi t trng thi kh t nhin mu t nng trng Trung Dng Thnh ph Hi Phng -1987
T nhng kt qu nghin cu v s bin ng ca pH trong qu trnh Oxy ho t
chua mn khu vc thnh ph Hi Phng v th din bin qu trnh thay i ny
chng ta thy:
- Gi tr ca pH lin quan trc tip ti mc Oxy ho ca t v mc kh kit
ca t.
- Gi tr ca pH gim dn theo thi gian Oxy ho nhng gim ng k cc tng
Jarosit v tng sinh phn gly . Gi tr ca pH trong 2 tng ny gim rt t ngt trong 2
tun u ca qu trnh Oxy ho.
- Nu iu kin cho php, tt nht nn lun gi lp nc ngt trn mt rung .Bin
php ny khng nhng hn ch qu trnh Oxy ho m cn tng gi tr pH trong t.
- Nu khng c nc ngt hoc phi tiu trng mu hoc nhng khu vc b tr
h thng tiu ngm tng hiu qu ra phn ci to t th khng c h thp mc
nc ngm xung di tng Jarosit,( ti tng sinh phn )
- Ch nc ngm vng ng bng nc ta thay i theo ma r rt - ma ma
thng t O 50 cm, ma kh thng t 50 100 cm. Ch mc nc ngm trong t
44
46
47
Tng tc gia triu bin ng v triu bin Ty to nn mt min giao tip Kin
Giang v pha Ty Bc Liu - C Mau, thng c gi l khu vc gip nc ca triu
bin ng v triu bin Ty.
Vn triu nh hng xm nhp mn khng nhng hn ch n sn xut nng
nghip v cn nh hng n i sng ca nhn dn v kinh t - x hi.
4. Ch v cht lng nc vng ng Thp Mi
Bn hn ch v iu kin t nhin ca vng TM l: L lt Hn hn Chua
phn v xm nhp mn. Cc yu t hn ch thay nhau ng tr sut thi gian trong nm:
thng II, III, IV kh hn, xm nhp mn; thng V, VI, VII chua phn trn phm vi rng
nht. Thng VIII, IX, X ngp lt.
Nc phn c hnh thnh t t phn ti ch hoc t ni khc trn n. t
cng chua th nc cng chua. Qu trnh hnh thnh nc phn c th phn lm 3 giai
on:
+ Giai on ho tan mui phn trn mt rung.
+ Giai on ra tri mui phn v tp trung vo knh rch ni ng.
+ Giai on rt nc phn ra b tiu.
Giai on ho tan v ra tri ph thuc vo nh cht c l ca t phn, phn b
ma trong cc thng u ma ma v iu kin a hnh ng rung. Kinh nghim thc
t cho thy: nu nhng trn ma u ma c lng ma ln th vic hnh thnh nc
phn s gim, v lng ma ln l cho nng phn gim v c ra i theo dng thm
xung cc tng su v mt phn theo dng chy mt xung knh mng v a ra khu
tiu. Trng hp lng ma u ma nh, nng phn trong nc cao, nc phn
khng th tho ra khu tiu, ng li cc vng trng, trn rung, gy nh hng ln n
cy trng, gia sc v con ngi.
Nc chua c hnh thnh trong cc thng u ma ma, tp trung vo knh
mng v lan truyn rng ra ngoi vng t phn ra nhiu pha v tn ti trong nhiu
thng (5, 6, 7, 8) do tc ng ca thu triu (hnh . y l mi e do ln n sn xut
v mi trng sng i vi ngi dn vng TM.
Nhng vng gip nc trn knh l vng ng nc phn trong mt thi gian di
trong u ma ma. Vic tiu lng nc chua c th thc hin theo cc h thng knh,
nhng do b nh hng ch thu triu nn vic tiu thot gp nhiu kh khn. Lng
nc chua nhiu vng ch c tiu thot vo chnh ma l.
Xm nhp mn vo su nht ch yu t pha sng Vm C ni ngun nc yu
nht, c bit trn sng Vm C Ty. Nh vic cp nc theo cc knh ngang Hng Ng,
Tn Thnh L Gch, ng Tin, Lagrange; cc cng ngn mn Rch Chanh, Bc
ng; do vic b sung nc t cng trnh Du Ting tnh hnh xm nhp mn c ci
thin r rt trong nhng nm gn y. Tuy vy, xm nhp mn vn l mi e do t h
lu i vi TM.
48
49
50
51
hi v nguy him cho con ngi v t ai. Cht thi sinh hot dng rn cng chim t
trng ln.
+ Cht thi cng nghip l cc ho cht kim loi nng nh:
Cu, Pb, Cs, Hg, Cd... thng cha nhiu trong rc ph thi ca ngnh luyn kim mu, sn
xut t.
+ Trong t, tnh tr c v gy c ca cc kim loi nng ph thuc vo nhiu yu
t: xy ho kh, pH, s lng nc v phc cht m n ho tan cc kim loi nng.
2. Tc nhn sinh hc
- S nhim ny xut hin do nhng phng php b cht thi mt v sinh, loi
ti, thi sinh hot, bn trc tip cho cy, cho t. S dng phn khng ng k thut, v
trong cha nhiu vi khun gy bnh gy nn hu qu cho con ngi, gia sc.
-Nhiu loi vi khun trong t phn lan truyn theo nc gy nn mt s bnh i
vi nhn dn vng t phn
3. Tc nhn vt l
- nhim nhit: khi nhit t tng gy nh hng n h vi sinh vt trong t,
nh hng n phn gii cht hu c. Trong nhiu trng hp nh hng n cht dinh
dng. Nhit tng lm gim lng D2 ho tan trong dung dch t dn n th cn
bng sang xu th kh. Qu trnh phn hu cht hu c sang k kh, sinh ra sn phm c :
CH4, NH3, H2S v cc andehit.
+ Qung thi b ca cc nh my nhit in, luyn kim.
+ t ry, chy rng.
- Cc tc nhn phng x:
+ Ph thi ca cc trung tm nghin cu, bnh vin..
+ o ngi ta c h s c c: T l nng cht phng x tch hu trong
c th v lng trong mi trng.
* nhim t phn:
- Nguyn nhn:
+ Ngoi cc nguyn nhn nu trn cn k n:
+ Do qu trnh ti tiu khng hp l lm xut hin qu trnh mn ho, phn ho.
- c t sn sinh trong qu trnh phn ho:
+ Trong qu trnh phn ho do iu kin mi trng bin i t trng thi kh
chuyn sang trng thi oxi ho tr s pH gim v gim t ngt (trung bnh t 1,5 n 2,5
n v) v l nguyn nhn chnh dn n s hnh thnh cc c t (l h qu ca qu trnh
oxy ho).
Khi pH 3: Fe, Al, SO42- xut hin nhiu v linh ng. Lm r cy khng ht cht
dinh dng (Al). Fe lm cho r cht khng h hp c. Chng ta u bit Al c tng
quan nghch vi gi tr pH. nng 1 - 2 ppm Al c tc ng xu vi cy trng. Khi
t b phn nng, pH thp, Al tch tr trong cc m ca h r ngn chn s ko di v
phn chia ca t bo, c ch hot ng ca cc enzim lm nhim xc tc cho vic tng
54
hp cc cht trong vch t bo, lm cho b r cu cy cn ci, lng ht rng, pht trin
khng bnh thng v dn n cht.
c t Fe (Fe2+, Fe3): Khi pH trong t gim, Fe2+c gii phng ra gy c cho
cy - c bit n c th lan truyn ra nhng khu vc rng ln xung quanh. Theo mt s
tc gi F2+ 150 - 200 pp m gy c cho la, ng thi nh hng n s sng ca cc
sinh vt trong vng v nng Fe2+ = 500ppm nhiu cy trng khng sng c.
c t H2S v Pyrit xut hin do kt qu ca qu trnh kh Sunphat trong iu kin
ym kh, c bit l t c nhiu xc s vt.
Theo eut nng (1-2) x 10 mol/m3 H2S lm tn thng n chc nng ca
r
- S lan truyn nc phn t vng ny sang vng khc thng qua h thng knh
rch.
- Ngoi ra a s phn b vng ven bin nhim mn (chua mn): Cl- Na+.
3.3.2. Tiu chun nh gi t b nhim
- Hin cha c mt phng php no hon chnh nh gi tnh trng mu t b
nhim v bn thn vic ny rt phc tp.
1. Quy c
- Da vo nng ca ho cht N2 trong qu trnh phn hu - cc ho cht hu c
cha m th ngi ta c th nh gi c trng thi nhim t.
{ Nhiu NH3: mi nhim
{
N02: ang nhim
{
N03: sch
( c cung cp)
2. Ch s v sinh
Nit anbumin ca t (N thuc c th vi sinh vt)
CSVS =
N hu c ca t
- Mi trng nhim ch s v sinh gim v hot ng sinh vt gim N2 trong
anbumin gim.
- t nhim vi sinh vt hot ng yu N hu c tng ch s v sinh gim.
- Trong y t ta c:
Ch s v sinh
<0,7
0,7 - 0,85
0,85 - 0,98
> 0,98
- Nhiu Clo: bn xu
* Xt nghim vi sinh vt:
- Ch tiu v bnh tt. Da vo s lng vi sinh vt m ch yu l trung bnh vi
khun (tiu trung bnh/1 g t) ngi ta phn tch thy :
- 1 - 2,5 triu : t khng c vn
> 2,5 triu : t c vn
- S lng trng giun :
S trng giun /1kg t
Tiu chun nh gi
< 100
Sch
100 - 300
B bn
> 300
Rt bn
3.3.3. Bin php phng chng nhim t
1. Lm sch c bn
2. Kh nhng cht thi rn
- Rc thi gia nh
- Nc thi
3. Tp trung v thi b
4. iu khin, kim sot ch nc vng t phn bao gm c nc mt v
nc ngm
56
Chng IV
L tnh t phn
Ni n t phn ngi ta t ni v l tnh ca n. V ho tnh nh hng rt nhiu
n nng sut, phm cht cng nh sc sng cy trng. Tuy nhin, l tnh ca t phn
cng ng mt phn khng nh vo kh nng phn ca t. Hiu r tc ng ca l
tnh, chng ta s c bin php s dng ng, khai thc ng v c bin php ci to thch
hp. ngoi ra i vi cc k s thu li s hiu bit v l tnh t phn cn c ngha rt
quan trng trong vic thit k, thi cng cc cng trnh thu li vng t phn.
su
cm
o-8
8 - 19
19 - 45
45 - 110
0 -70
20 - 60
60 - 130
pH kcl
3,4
3,3
2,5
2,0
3,4
3,5
2,0
Hu c
(%)
25,86
12,93
9,83
3,53
4,2
5,00
2,52
St (% )
Tht (% )
Ct ( % )
35,20
41,92
41,92
45,60
52,84
50,24
58,84
18,00
19,28
17,20
20,15
16,36
16,36
14,72
46,80
38,80
40,88
34,25
30,80
33,40
26,44
57
(L Huy B 1982)
Amphoe
Thanyaburi
Changebat
Pathum
Thai lan
Nng trngTrung
Dng Hi Phng
130 - 200
0-7
22 - 40
40 - 90
90 - 135
135 - 250
250 - 300
0 - 22
22 - 53
53 - 73
73 - 95
95 - 112
2,6
4,1
3,6
3,4
3,4
4,0
5,0
3,8
2,6
2,1
2,2
2,6
1,92
5,2
1,1
0,6
1,7
4,2
3,7
1,5
0,9
3,8
2,4
0,7
59,78
64
63
63
65
71
68
35,5
38,8
13,5
12,4
8,9
13,50
35
36
32
34
27
31
64,5
61,2
81,2
80,2
80,4
26,72
1,0
2,0
5,0
1,0
2,0
1,0
0,0
0,0
5,3
7,4
10,7
C
(%)
7,2
3,1
6,3
2,4
6,9
St (%)
60,1
58,2
59,3
55,2
61,2
trng co
%
27,2
15,8
23,9
8,7
21,3
58
Tng (cm)
0 - 30
30 -50
0 - 30
30 - 50
0 - 30
20 - 50
T trng (g/cm3)
2,210
2,580
2,310
2,600
2,72
2,73
Nh vy l t trng tng trn tng i thp, do t l mn y cao thng 6 7%, cn tng Jarosite t trng t trung bnh n cao. t Hi Phng do hm lng mn
thp nn t trng t phn rt cao.
Ch tiu ny c lin quan n vic cy xi, cng, nng lng my lm t.
59
Chng V
Ho tnh t phn
Ni n t phn, thng ngi ta ni n tnh cht ho hc, v tnh cht ho hc
ng vai tr quyt nh t phn hay khng phn v mc phn. N cn quyt nh n
nng sut v phm cht cy trng, quyt nh s lng v cht lng phn bn cn thit,
loi cy trng, bin php thy li v mi sinh. Nghin cu v tnh cht ho hc ca t
phn c tm quan trng c bit trong vic s dng, ci to t phn.
Hm lng cc cht trong t phn:
- Lng tng s : Lng ton b c trong t, c th cht dng hp cht hay
n cht, hu c hay v c, d tan hay khng tan.
- Lng d tiu : Lng ca mt cht no , c kh nng d tan vo dung dch t
cy trng c th s dng c.
-Ion trao i : hm lng cc ion v cation trao i trong phc h hp th t
Thnh phn ho hc ca cc cht trong t phn rt d thay i theo thi gian v
cc iu kin bn ngoi nh : nc ngp hay cn, bn vi hay khng bn, trng hay c
cy che ph, ln lip hay nguyn ... Tham kho s liu phn tch thnh phn ho hc
ca mt s mu t c th hin bng (19), (20)
Bng19: Kt qu phn tch hm lng mt s nguyn t trong t phn ti Qunh Ph Thi Bnh
( Vin Nghin cu Khoa hc Thu li - 1991 )
Mu
t
Tng
t
cm
pH
H2O
pH
KCl
Mn
(%)
EC
ms/c
m
Nt
mg/
100
Pt
%
Kt
%
Ca2+
meq/
100
Al3+
meq/
100
Fe2+
meq/
100
SO42mg/l
0-20
4,4
3,8
3,0
1050
0,24
0,06
0,87
5,6
2,2
1,4
247
20-50
4,0
3,4
2,42
910
0,2
0,05
0,86
5,2
2,3
0,5
247
0-20
4,6
4,0
2,62
840
0,25
0,07
0,88
4,3
1,9
1,1
222
20-50
3,6
3,2
2,62
2170
0,21
0,07
0,93
5,6
5,1
2,1
185
60
0-15
15-28
28-43
43-105
105-150
Ec
ms/c
m
1.07
0.95
0.85
1.12
2.47
3.60
3.54
3.50
3.28
2.97
0-11
11-24
24-79
79-100
100-150
0-11
11-28
28-73
73-150
0-19
19-49
49-114
114-150
0.77
0.78
1.22
1.63
2.84
0.93
0.73
1.50
4.38
1.00
0.73
1.25
1.81
3.59
3.63
2.96
2.82
2.55
3.91
3.69
3.32
2.64
3.59
3.60
3.27
3.34
Mu t
su
(cm)
t phn
hot
ng
t phn
hot
ng
t phn
tim tng
t phn
hot
ng
0.464
0.300
0.157
0.164
0.185
P205
(%
total)
0.067
0.033
0.019
0.004
0.015
0.458
0.357
0.171
0.158
0.200
0.735
0.371
0.207
0.214
0.442
0.200
0.164
0.171
0.067
0.046
0.019
0.020
0.011
0.139
0.037
0.020
0.004
0.850
0.043
0.003
0.024
Mg2+
0.880
0.940
1.420
1.380
1.350
Ca2+
(ml/
100g)
1.22
1.50
1.92
2.24
1.22
8.06
7.56
6.58
14.00
14.80
2,100
1,675
1,550
1,900
8,625
1,687
1,650
2,160
1,575
1,811
1.000
1.280
1.160
1.240
1.240
0.753
1.120
1.160
1.380
0.831
1.160
1.770
1.630
0.58
1.04
1.50
1.42
1.12
0.20
1.18
1.54
2.08
3.14
3.70
4.70
4.60
3.12
5.10
5.58
8.92
9.05
2.96
5.26
15.60
9.71
6.74
11.50
22.50
24.50
650
1,357
2,150
5,450
10,000
1,950
1,450
4,050
16,750
875
1,375
1,950
4,800
1,800
1,740
1,800
1,708
1,530
1,240
1,960
1,663
1,293
1,150
1,512
5,200
2,425
K20
SO42(ppm)
Al3+
(ppm)
5.1. Mn v cht hu c
Theo cc tc gi ch gii bn t Bc Vit Nam, th xp loi t: Rt giu mn:
>8%; - giu mn: (2 8%) mn trung bnh: 1-2% - rt ngho mn < 1%. Nh vy t
phn Nam B thuc loi t giu mn. Thng thng tng mt c hm lng mn cao
hn cc tng di. Bi v t phn vng trng thng nhn s ra tri cc vng khc
n v bn thn nhng cy c sng trn b mt ca t, cht i, phn gii thnh mn v
khng b ra tri.
Bng 21 : Lng mn v hu c trong mt s t phn (L Huy B 1982)
Loi t
a im ly mu
Phn
nhiu
L Minh Xun
Phn nhiu
p 9, x Ho An,
Hu Giang
Phn ang
chuyn
ho
Phn trung
bnh
Tam Nng,
ng Thp
Mn - Hu
Giang
su
(cm)
0 -20
20 - 70
70 -100
0 - 20
20 - 50
50 - 100
0 - 15
40 - 60
90 - 100
0 - 25
40 - 50
90 - 100
C (%)
4,8
1,0
1,4
6,0
3,8
1,2
5,7
3,8
4,2
5,2
3,2
4,8
M (%)
8,3
1,7
2,4
10,2
6,4
2,0
6,7
5,1
6,4
7,9
5,2
7,3
hu c k hiu C, mn k hiu M
Qua bng 21 ta thy : lng hu c trong t phn kh cao, t 1 - 7%. Qua nhiu
mu phn tch vng t phn v t khng phn nhng cng iu kin v v tr, ch
61
Hoc l :
2H3PO4 + Al2(SO4) 3 3H2SO4 + 2AlPO4
2H3PO4 + Fe2(SO4) 3 3H2SO4 + 2FePO4
hoc cn gp dng Al2(OH) 3PO4 v Fe2(OH) 3PO4
So vi t c nh gi l P tng s trung bnh nh ph sa sng Hng, sng M,
sng Chu, sng Thi Bnh mc 0,08 - 0,12%, th ln tng s t phn ngho nhng ln
d tiu lun lun rt ngho (40 - 56 ppm).
63
5.7. pH t phn
nh gi tnh chua hay kim ca mt loi t, ngi ta thng ni n yu t u
tin l pH.
Nu pH < 6,5 : t chua; pH = 6,5 - 7,5 trung tnh; pH > 7,5 t kim. t Vit Nam
tr t trn vi, t Bazan c tnh kim, t ph sa ngoi sng Hng trung tnh, cn
cc loi khc thng c pH 6 trong , t phn l loi t rt chua. t phn pH bin
ng ln theo ma, theo thng, theo ngy. S bin ng ny r nht l trong nc phn
v ph thuc vo s c mt nhiu hay t, c hay khng ca hu ht cc cation v anion
va k trn. S c mt ca cc cation kim v kim th : Na+, K+ , Ca+2, Mg+2, Mn+4 lm
cho t c pH cao. Ngc li, s c mt ca Al+3, H+, Fe+2, Fe+3, H2SO4, SO42-, HCl lm
cho pH gim.
Cc kt qu nghin cu ch ra rng : pH tng quan nghch vi hm lng ca Al+3
v Fe , SO4-2 trong t.
(chi tit xin xem phn bin ng ca cc c t v tng quan gia cc c t).
Trn ng rung, pH thp nht trong t l thi k cui thng 4 v u thng 5
(cui ma kh) . Trong cc h thng knh vng t phn th pH thp nht v cc thng
u ma ma: thng 5, 6, 7, khi lng ma u ma ho tan v ra tri mt s ion H+,
Al+3, SO4-2, Fe+2 vo knh (xem ng ng tr phn vng TM)
pH thay i v bin ng ln theo m ca t (xem th biu din s thay i
ca pH theo thi gian trong iu kin trong trng thi kh dn trong khng kh mc
nc ngm, phn mi trng t phn. c bit t phn tim tng s bin i ny rt
64
65
Chng VI
c cht trong t phn
6.1. Khi nim chung v c cht trong t phn
t phn, xt v mt tnh cht v bn cht ca n, chnh l xt v c cht. Hay ni
ng hn l nhng ion gy c cho cy v sc vt cng nh con ngi.
Mt cht c gi l c, thng i km vi hm lng ca n c trong dung dch
t, cy ci v trong c th con ngi.
mc nht nh no l khng c, thm ch li cn thit cho cy trng,
nhng mc ti hn no li c. Mc ny ty thuc vo bn cht ca cht , ty
thuc vo mi trng n hot ng, dng n tn ti v i tng n gy c. C th
khng c hoc cha c cho mt cy no nhng li c, thm ch gy cht cho mt
cy trng khc.
V d : NH4 l mt cht dinh dng cho cy trng tuy nhin khi hm lng trong
t vt qu 1/500 li gy c hi cho cc loi cy trng. Hay Mn+2 c hm lng vt
qu 1 - 10-2% trong tro thc vt th gy c cho mt s loi cy.
* Mi loi ging la v giai on sinh trng ca chng u c kh nng chu ng
mc c t khc nhau. Nhng theo nhiu kt qu nghin cu ca cc tc gi trong
nc vi nc ngm, nhn chung mc chu ng cc c t ca la trung bnh nh
sau:
Bng 22: Mc chu ng ca cy la i vi nhng c t trong .
Fe2+
S024
Al3+
EC
(ppm)
(ppm)
(ppm)
(ms/cm)
5,0 5,5 2.500
30
150 200
1500
Trong t phn cc nguyn t st, nhm, suphat (di dng Fe+2, Fe+3, Al+3, SO4-2,
H+, Cl- v hp cht ca st vi Lu hunh l Pyrit, Jarosit) lun c hm lng rt cao,
trn mc chu ng ca cy trng rt nhiu, v vy gi l cc c t trong t phn.
pH
6.1.1. Nhm
c cht nhm c ho tr l +3 (Al+3). Trong dung dch khi pH = 4,1 nhm s lng
t (im c gi l im trm lng ca nhm). Trong mi trng axit H2SO4, Al+3 c
kh nng di ng mnh.
Nhm trong t phn, mt phn l sn phm ca s ra tri tch t, trong qu trnh
Feralit; phn ch yu do qu trnh phn ho : sau khi c H2SO4, trong t, H2SO4 lin
tc dng vo keo t gii phng ra Al+3 t do, trong iu kin pH gim xung 23,5 trong dung dch, Al+3 c th dng Al+3 t do, cng c th lin kt vi st, kali, v
sunphat, to nn nhng sunphat st II v sunpht st III, nhm l lng trong nc, khi
gp nhng ht bi st, s ko cc ht bi ny lng xung y rung cng chnh l
nguyn nhn lm cho nc cc vng t phn nhm rt trong.
Trong cc tng t phn Al+3 thng rt cao v rt bin ng. C lc t vi chc
ppm, ri tng cao t ngt 500 - 1000 - 1500 v c khi trn 2000 ppm, khi pH gim.
66
Nhm bin ng rt phc tp, tuy nhin cc nghin cu li cho thy n c quan h kh
cht ch vi pH trong t (hnh 20).
S chuyn bin ny kh r trong iu kin kh, hoc khi phn tim tng chuyn
sang phn hin ti.
Trn mt rung vo cui ma kh, nhng vng phn nhiu xut hin mt lp
mui Al2(SO4)3 trn mt t, khi kh th dn, nh xp, khi t th ly nhy, rt d ho
tan. Vi nng cao mui ny c th gy cht tm, c v rt c hi vi gia sc v con
ngi.
Nhm l mt ion gy c nht t phn.
c. t pha bc Niuzilan
6.1.2. St
St trong t phn c 2 ho tr : Fe+2 v Fe+3
+ Fe+2: D tan trong nc v khi tan gy chua cho t. Trong mi trng axit
sunphuric, st di ng mnh, c th cc dng Fe(OH)2, FeSO4, Fe2(SO4)3 hay
Fe(HCO3)2, cng c khi l hp cht st hu c.
Khi pH vt qu 4,5 th Fe(OH)2 c hin tng trm lng trong dung dch, v tan
nhiu trong iu kin pH 3,5.
Trong dung dch Fe+2 gy chua, s tng ca Fe+2 lm gim pH. Mi tng quan ny
khng c cht ch.
67
68
phn hoc khng phn. Theo nhiu ti liu cng b th t c gi l t phn khi hm
lng S tng s trong t ln hn hay bng 0,7% (xem bng 22, 23).
Bng 22: Hm lng tng s S% t phn Thi Lan
Tng t
Chiu su (cm)
Ap
0-7
Bg
22-40
Bj
40-90
Gj
90-135
135-250
250-300
Tng s S (%)
0,2
0,1
0,9
0,3
1,4
1,3
Tng t
Chiu su (cm)
Tng s S (%)
Ap
0-14
0,3
14-30
0,5
30-60
0,5
Bj
66-115
0,8
GBj
115-165
0,2
Bg
Gr
165-195
1,7
Gr
195-315
1,3
Trong t phn lu hunh c th dng FeS, FeS2, H2S, S t do, dng lu hunh
hu c hoc l dng SO3, SO2 hay SO4-2 . Trong c dng gy c l H2S, SO3-2 , SO2
v SO4-2. Vi mt lng nh lu hunh l dinh dng cho cy (trong cy tch ly t 0,1 15% trong thc vt) v bnh thng l 2,0 - 5,0%. Nu vt qu lng ny, s gy c
cho cy. S gy c ca S khng phi v tnh cht ho hc ca S m v ngng t cao ca
mui c hi cho i sng (Presiman) v cc hp cht ca n cc dng Pyrite, Jarosite,
axit sunphuaric. C hai khi nim lu hunh tng s : bao gm tt c cc dng lu hunh,
v lu hunh dng SO4-2. Dng ny ta thng gp kh nhiu. N c th H2SO4 phn ly,
FeSO4, Al2(SO4)3, hay dng kt ta Fe2(SO4) 3.
S chuyn ho ca c cht ny rt phc tp gn lin vi s tham gia ca cc vi
sinh vt, ngoi ra cc phn ng ca n cn c s tham gia ca vi khun sunpht ho v
phn sunpht ho.
Trong t, thng t l S/SO4-2 gn ri hoc gp i hoc hn na. T l ny
thng thay i theo mc ho phn ca mt vng t.
Bng 23: Bng lu hunh tng s v SO4-2 ho tan t phn An Ph ng
(Tng t mt)(S liu ca Vin Nng nghip min ng Nam B)
Mu t
Trng ma
Trng cam
Trng thm
Trng chui
S tng s (%)
0,398
0,151
0,270
0,261
SO4-2 (%)
0,021
0,012
0,024
0,004
T l S/SO4219
12
11
65
69
Hnh 22:
c im cu
to nhng vin
hnh cu ca
cc tinh th
pyrit nh. (nh
Keith Tovey)
Hnh 23:
Nhng cm tinh th
pyrit ang phn hu r
cy trong t phn
(nh E.A.Fitzpatric)
t
thun li nht th trong 100 nm c th tch t 10 kg Pyrit/ 1m3 t trm tch.
phn tim tng, mc d pH trong cc tng t cha b h thp ( t ti), cha xut
hin axit sunphuric, nhng nhng t cha nhiu pyrit, tng pyrit nm nng, nu r cy
trng xm nhp vo u b ph hu do s bao bc ca cc tinh th pyrit hnh cu ( xem
cc hnh 23).
70
6.1.5. Jarosit
Jarosit l mt hp cht, l kt qu ca qu trnh oxyho sunphite v Pyrit (
c trnh by phn cu to t phn). Trong t khi xut hin Jarosit tc l pH
trong t thp, ko theo vic tng hm lng cc c t gy hi cho cy. Trong thc t
khng ch cc c t Al3+, Fe3+, Fe2+, SO42-, Cl-, H+ gy hi cho cy m chnh hp cht
Jarosit c hnh thnh cng tham gia ph hu cc b r ca cy. Thng qua nhng bc
nh ng RO. Bleijert (hnh 23, 24) minh chng iu ny .
71
6.1.6. Hydro
H+. t tc gi cp n ion H+ trong t trong qu trnh nghin cu, chng ti thy
khi pH 3 th trong t bt u xut hin ion H+, khi xut hin ion ny v hm lng
nh cng gy c hi cho cy trng v gia sc.
Hnh 25:
S ph hu b r
cy do s tch t
vi hm lng
cao ca Jarosit
xung quanh b r
cy t phn
hot ng ti
Thi lan (nh ca
R.O.Bleijert)
Chiu
su
-5
- 25
- 50
- 65
-5
- 25
- 50
- 65
-5
- 25
- 50
- 65
Al+3
axit
EC
SO4-2
pH
Fe+2
Tng Fe
Fe+2
pH
mg/1
mg/1
NS
NS
-0.551
- 0.165
-0.178
-0.260
NS
NS
-0.250
0.188
0.180
NS
NS
NS
-0.581
NS
NS
-0.291
NS
NS
-0.318
0.411
0.400
NS
NS
NS
0.611
NS
NS
0.296
NS
NS
-0.295
NS
NS
-0.169
-5
NS
NS
- 25
NS
NS
- 50
NS
NS
- 65
NS
NS
-5
NS
NS
- 25
NS
NS
- 50
- 0.219
- 0.225
- 65
- 0.202
- 0.213
-5
0.982
- 25
0.964
- 50
0.989
- 65
0.998
SO4-2
mg/1
0.939
0.816
0.871
0.811
0.903
0.805
0.864
0.751
0.943
0.827
0.911
0.806
- 0.562
- 0.238
- 0.249
NS
EC
US/cm
0.944
0.931
0.904
0.904
0.927
0.918
0.899
0.889
axit
meq/1
0.968
0.968
0.964
0.930
axit
meq/l
Al+3
meq/l
SO4-2
meq/l
Chiu su
(cm)
-5
- 25
- 50
- 65
-5
- 25
- 50
- 65
-5
- 25
- 50
- 65
-5
R
0.928
0.918
0.903
0.889
0.945
0.935
0.903
0.914
0.943
0.827
0.911
0.822
0.982
73
Fe+2
mg/l
Al+3
meq/l
Tng
Fe
mg/l
axit
meq/l
pH
- 25
- 50
- 65
-5
- 25
- 50
- 65
-5
- 25
- 50
Fe Tng =
Fe Tng =
Fe Tng =
Axit
=
Axit
=
Axit
=
Axit
=
=
Al+3
Al+3
=
Al+3
=
0.967 Fe+2
+ 0.76
+2
1.023 Fe
+ 0.76
1.024 Fe+2
+ 0.63
1.04 Al+3
+ 0.53
1.02 Al+3
+ 0.63
1.06 Al+3
+ 0.59
+3
1.20 Al
+ 0.28
16,742.66 pH-6.753
388.35 pH-3.608
209.20 pH-3.192
0.964
0.989
0.998
0.968
0.968
0.964
0.930
0.589
0.303
0.390
74
Hnh 26 v 27:
Biu mi tng quan gia pH v hm lng S tng s trong cc tng
t. (hnh 29-t Niu zi lan, hnh 30- t Gambia)
75
Chng VII
Ci to t phn bng bin php thu li
7.1. Dng nc l ci to t phn
L ng bng sng Cu Long tc ng su sc n tnh hnh pht trin kinh t
x hi vng ngp l. L em li c tc ng tch cc v tiu cc. V mt tiu cc: l tc
ng n an ton nhn mng, c s h tng, h thng canh tc v ma v, sinh hot, sn
xut v giao lu ca dn c vng l. V mt tch cc: Ngoi tc ng v bi lng ph sa,
v sinh ng rung, ra phn, ti nguyn thy sn, ma l tr thnh mt c trng v
cnh quan, mi trng, sinh hot v vn ho ca vng ng Thp Mi.
c nhiu ti nghin cu v ci to v s dng t phn cc vng nh l, cc kt
qu t c l ng khch l, nhng do t phn ph thuc rt nhiu vo mi trng
xung quanh, nn hiu qu ci to ca cc vng nh b hn ch, ch c tc dng trong mt
s nm u, sau li b nhim phn li. Trong nhng nm qua vng t phn rng ln
T gic Long Xuyn c ci to. l nh h thng cng trnh kim sot l cho vng
TGLX, l c s dng trong ci to t phn, ngi ta dng lng l ln chy mt
chiu, chy trc tip vo t phn, ch sau vi nm c t trong t phn gim i ng
k. l nhng kt qu rt cn c nghin cu, rt ra nhng bi hc p dng cho
nhng vng khc. Vi suy ngh nh vy chng ti xin nu tm lc h thng cng trnh
kim sot l (KSL) cho vng T gic Long Xuyn.
7.1.1. Nhng mc tiu ca vic KSL cho vng T gic Long Xuyn
Mc tiu ca vic KSL cho vng TGLX l thu gom l trn qua khu vc By Cu
trong cc thi k u l, cui l v thot l trn ra bin Ty theo ng thot ngn nht,
rt ngn thi gian ngp lt.
- Bo m sn xut an ton 2 v ng Xun H Thu, to iu kin dch chuyn
thi v, thay i c cu cy trng.
- Gim thp mc nc nh l trong ni ng, gim thp mc ct xy dng, gp
phn bo v ti sn, tnh mng con ngi, c s h tng.
- S dng nc l vo vic ngt ho vng t phn T gic H Tin
- To iu kin cho nc ph sa sng Hu chy su vo ni ng, lm v sinh
ng rung, bi b t ai, ci to t phn.
7.1.2. Cc cng trnh trong h thng kim sot l
1) H thng thu gom l trn gm knh Vnh T c ci to, ngn l trn b Nam
knh Vnh T vi hai cng trnh p cao su (ngn v thot l) ti Tr S, Tha La v cu
cn Hu Ngh.
2) Cc knh thot l T3, T4, T5, T6, sng giang Thnh v cc knh thot khc pha Ty
QL 80
3) Cc cng ngn mn cc ca ra bin Ty
4) Cc cng iu khin u sng Hu (cha thc hin)
76
78
Hnh 28:
(L Huy B 1982):
Bin ng ca c
cht Fe+2, Fe+3 khi
ngp nc
Hnh 29: (L Huy B 1982) Fe2+ trong t khi ngp nc theo thi gian
Cc nghin cu cng cho kt qu tng t, hm lng ca Al3+ v SO42- gim dn theo
thi gian ngp nc.
79
80
81
Hnh 36: My cy su ci to t
85
Chng VIII
Ci to t phn bng cc bin php khc
8.1. Ci to t phn bng bin php ho hc
Li ch ca vic bn vi cho t phn rt r rng:
CaCO3 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + H2O + CO2
Qua cc th 21 th hin kt qu nghin cu ca Maneewon et. al. v
Charoenchamrat cheep et al. (1982) trn t phn hot ng ti Thi Lan cho thy:
- Bn vi c tc dng thay i nng sut cy trng. Tuy nhin nu bn nguyn vi
th tc dng khng r rt v vy rt cn bn thm m v ln.
Nh vy v mt l lun cng nh thc tin, bn vi c tc dng ci to t phn,
tuy nhin cn phi tnh ton lng vi bn liu lng cho tng loi t v tng loi
cy trng . Ngoi ra thi im bn vi cng rt quan trng v cng cn phi bn kt hp
thm m v c bit l ln, v trong t phn lng m v ln d tiu thng it.
Hnh 39: Mi quan h gia nng xut cy trng v lng vi, phn bn
cho t phn Thi lan (Maneewon et al. 1982)
86
Hnh 40: Quan h gia nng sut cy trng vi lng vi bn t phn Brunei
(Wiliams 1980)
t ln lip
SO4-2
Al+3
- 848
- 1300
- 1010
+ 200
t khng ln lip
Al+3
SO4-2
- 435
- 900
- 413
+ 145
87
88
PHN TH HAI: T MN
Chng 1
Ngun gc v phn b ca t mn
1.1. Cc quan im chung
Tt c cc loi t u c cha mt lng mui tan no . Trong s c nhiu
loi mui l cc cht dinh dng cn thit cho cy trng. Tuy nhin, khi s lng cc
mui trong t vt qu mt gi tr no , th s pht trin, nng sut, cht lng ca
hu ht cc loi cy u b nh hng xu, ti mt mc tu thuc vo loi v s lng
mui c mt trong t, tu thuc vo giai on sinh trng, vo loi thc vt v cc yu
t mi trng. Do khi t cha mt lng mui c nh hng n nng sut thc vt
th t c gi l t mn (salt affected soil).
Ti nguyn t ai ch c hn nhng nhu cu v t cho sn xut ngy cng tng
t ngun ti nguyn d b tn thng v mt sinh thi ny vo tnh trng cng thng.
Trong khi nhng hi thc m rng din tch canh tc lm cho bao vng t tr nn
khng thch hp vi canh tc, nn nng nghip thm canh c ti lm cho nhiu vng
t ph nhiu tr nn thoi ho. S thiu ht cc cht dinh dng trong t, s ng ngp
v s ho mn l nhng vn e do tnh bn vng ca cc khu vc canh tc c ti.
Do cc qu trnh thoi ho t ny, nhiu vng t rng ln cho nng sut cao tr
thnh cc vng t hoc khng canh tc c hoc cho nng sut thp. Nhiu vng t
ang c nguy c b thoi ho do ti tiu khng khoa hc lm dng cao mc nc ngm
trong t.
1.2. Tc ng ca t mn
Mui trong t khng nhng lm gim nng sut ca hu ht cc loi thc vt m
cn lm xu i cc tnh cht l, ho hc ca t, nh hng tiu cc n cn bng sinh
thi trong vng. Sau y l mt s tc ng c hi ca mui trong t:
a) Nng sut cy trng thp
b) Xi mn t do nc v gi. Do t c tnh phn tn cao v ng sut ct b gim.
c) Tnh thm nc ca t thp lm tng lng dng chy mt
d) Kh nng b sung ngun nc ngm thp
e) Lm thay i cc dng sinh vt bin sang dng sinh vt vng nc l
f) Mt cn bng sinh thi do s thay i lp ph thc vt t loi thc vt cao trung
bnh n cc loi thc vt a mn, t cc cy ly g n cc bi cy.
g) Sc kho con ngi b nh hng do: 1) tc dng c hi ca cc nguyn t nh
F, B v Se; 2) nhiu mui v cc bnh khc
h) Li nhun kinh t thp do chi ph trng trt cao, nng sut gim, cht lng sn
phm khng tt.
89
1.4. Phn b a l ca t mn
t mn c phn b cc vng c iu kin kh hu, t ai khc nhau trn th
gii, l loi t c vn v c nhng yu t hn ch nng sut cy trng. t mn c
phn b khp cc chu lc: , u, phi, M, c.
Hm lng (%)
49,13
26,00
7,45
4,20
3,25
2,40
2,35
2,35
Nguyn t
H
Ti
C
Cl
P
S
Mn
Hm lng (%)
1,00
0,61
0,35
0,20
0,12
0,10
0,10
cc qu trnh phong ho. Cn c vo tnh linh dng ca cc cht, ngi ta phn chia nh
sau:
a)Thc t khng ra c:
Si trong thch anh
b) C th ra c mt t:
Fe, Al, Si, P
c) C th ra c:
Si, P, Mn
d) C tnh ra tri cao:
Ca, Na, K, Mg
e) C tnh ra tri rt cao:
Cl, B, I, S, C
Do s hnh thnh mui trong t c th do s kt hp ca cc nhm d v e
hnh thnh nn nhiu loi mui nh NaCl, Na2SO4, MgCl2, MgSO4, CaCl2, CaSO4,
Na2CO3, NaHCO3, MgCO3, CaCO3.
91
Mc nc ngm (m)
92
1.6.7. i dng
cc vng ven bin, t nhn c mui t bin qua cc con ng sau y:
i) Khi thu triu ln lm ngp t
ii) Nc bin i vo t lin qua cc ca sng, cc sng.
iii) Dng nc ngm
iv) Cc th kh cha mui, c th di chuyn vo su trong t lin nhiu km, sau
c ma a xung t. Cc hi nc c th a vo t lin khong 20-100kg/ha/nm
mui NaCl, cn i vi cc vng ven bin c th t n 100-200 kg/ha/nm. Sau mt
thi gian di, s tch ly ny c th lm cho t b mn.
1.6.8. Cc phn bn ho hc v cc cht thi
Mc d vic s dng phn bn ho hc, phn chung trong nng nghip ngy cng
tng ln, nh hng ca n i vi vic tch ly mui trong t cng cha phi ng k.
Tuy nhin, trong mt s trng hp nh cc ng phn tru b, cc cht bn, cc sn
phm ph ca cng nghip c th gp phn lm tng s tch ly cc ion hn ch nng
sut cy trng.
ECe, dS/m
>4
<4
>4
ESP
<15
>15
>15
pH
<8,5
>8,5
>8,5
Sau ny, cc loi t mn ny c phn loi theo h thng danh php mi thuc
lp t Aridisols, mt lp t c trng ca vng kh hn, c lp t mt mu sng v c
mt hoc vi tng ph sa. Nhm salorthid c mt tng t mn v gn tng t vi t
solonchak theo cch phn loi ca FAO - UNESCO. Lp ph Arid vi mt tng st c
th c mt lp t giu Na, hoc c hai, tc l mt tng St b nn cht v cc lp t
cha nhiu Na v tng ng vi t Solonetz. Cc lp t khc, nht l Mollisols v
Alfisols, c th c cc giai on b mn hoc b chua trong nhng iu kin c th.
93
t en
>30
15-30
10-15
<10
ESP
t ht d v t nu
>16
10-16
5-10
<5
Bghn1 (60-110cm): Nu rt sm (m: 5YR 2/3; Kh: 5YR 5/2); st pha tht; t;
do, dnh; xc r cy nh cn t hn tng trn; cn t xc cy ln dng knh 5-8cm
mc nt, xung quanh bm lp st xanh xm; gly mnh; chuyn lp t t.
Bghn2 (110-150cm): Xm sm (m: 7,5YR 2/3; Kh: 7,5YR 6/3); st; t nho; do,
dnh; c t vt en v xc b thc vt; gly mnh; c t nh ct mn.
Dung
trng
(g/cm3)
0,97
1,02
0,97
1,06
T
trng
xp
(%)
m
(%)
2,0-0,2
0,2-0,02
0,02-0,002
2,43
2,51
2,51
2,53
60,1
59,4
61,0
58,1
37,0
35,0
39,0
36,0
0,7
0,2
0,2
3,1
15,5
17,5
22,2
20,6
37,1
34,7
37,8
36,2
D tiu
mg/100g
Tng s, %
OC
P2O5
K2O
P2O5
2,45
1,40
1,86
1,48
0,15
0,07
0,07
0,05
0,22
0,15
0,11
0,11
2,22
2,47
2,32
2,13
14,48
12,17
10,67
7,00
K2O
86,6
97,1
93,3
74,9
Mg++
3,88
2,21
2,14
4,85
K+
1,84
2,06
2,19
1,54
Na+
11,45
11,21
10,66
10,05
Tng
18,53
16,90
16,47
18,46
chua
cmol (+)/kg
Trao Tim
i
tng
0,16
1,58
6,16
19,78
2,72
12,46
0,08
0,63
CEC
cmol (+)/kg
t
St
21,12 19,60
17,06 22,20
17,72 22,40
22,52 21,86
<0,002
46,7
47,6
39,8
40,1
pH
EC
dS/m
H2O
KCl
7,2
7,6
7,5
7,6
6,8
7,0
6,9
7,1
4,5
5,6
6,0
5,5
BS
Cl
SO42
%
87,7
99,0
92,9
81,9
%
1,15
0,98
1,15
1,17
%
0,14
0,51
0,61
0,40
nhin c nc v 15% ca nhm t mn. Phn ln tp trung vng ven bin ng bng
sng Cu long: 102.000 ha.
Khu vc
ng bng sng Cu long
Ven bin khp cc vng
Khu 4 c
Duyn hi min Trung
ng Nam B
Trung du min ni Bc B
Tng cng
97
Bn (50-100cm): Nu xn (m: 5YR 4/3; Kh: 5YR 5/2); st; m; nhiu k nt; c
nhiu vt vng nu r st (m: 7,5YR 4/6; Kh: 7,5YR 5/6); c kt von ng mu en nu;
chuyn lp t t.
Bnc (100-120cm): Nu xm (m: 5YR 4/2; Kh: 5YR 5/2,5); tht pha st; m; cn vt
nt; nhiu vt kt von bc theo r cy pha ngoi vng nu, trong nu en; chuyn lp t
t.
C1 (120-140cm):
Nu xm (m: 7,5YR 4/1,5; Kh: 7,5YR 5/3); tht pha st; t,
dnh; cc vt ln kt von theo xc thc vt ngoi nu vng, trong en nu; chuyn lp t
ngt.
C2 (140-160cm):
Nu xm (m: 7,5YR 4/1,5); st; t, do, dnh; mn.
98
Dung
trng
(g/cm3)
1,22
1,32
1,19
1,01
1,02
1,05
T
trng
xp
(%)
m
(%)
2,0-0,2
0,2-0,02
0,02-0,002
2,65
2,66
2,66
2,63
2,58
2,63
54,0
50,4
55,3
61,6
60,5
60,1
25,8
23,5
29,8
36,2
37,5
35,4
0,8
1,3
0,8
1,6
2,0
1,0
7,8
9,9
14,3
29,1
30,0
26,8
35,8
36,4
32,2
34,1
31,8
39,4
D tiu
mg/100g
Tng s, %
OC
P2O5
K2O
P2O5
0,95
0,36
1,28
0,95
1,50
1,61
0,07
0,02
0,04
0,03
0,05
0,04
0,12
0,15
0,13
0,12
0,12
0,13
2,58
2,17
2,01
1,91
1,91
2,17
5,29
6,24
4,25
8,02
5,22
3,65
K2O
44,28
65,01
65,01
42,87
51,34
69,25
chua
cmol (+)/kg
Trao Tim
i
tng
0,06
0,30
0,04
0,31
0,04
0,27
0,04
0,38
0,04
0,31
0,04
0,27
<0,002
55,6
52,4
52,7
35,2
36,2
42,7
pH
EC
H2O
KCl
5,1
7,4
7,3
7,5
7,1
7,8
5,0
6,4
7,1
6,9
6,9
7,2
dS/m
6,5
6,0
2,5
1,7
2,7
2,9
su
tng t
(cm)
0-20
20-50
50-100
100-120
120-140
140-160
Ca++
5,34
4,39
4,98
2,51
2,02
2,88
Cation trao i
cmol (+)/kg t
Mg++
K+
Na+
2,69
0,94
3,60
3,30
1,38
6,15
2,85
1,38
8,67
2,30
0,91
7,65
3,05
1,09
6,97
3,19
1,47
7,75
CEC
Tng
12,57
15,22
17,88
13,37
12,95
15,29
cmol (+)/kg
t
St
16,32 20,80
18,08 23,00
19,52 22,80
15,58 26,88
18,23 23,79
19,41 24,64
BS
Cl
%
77,0
84,2
91,6
85,8
71,0
78,8
%
1,13
0,14
0,56
0,43
0,69
0,58
SO42
%
0,09
0,07
0,29
0,11
0,33
0,30
Vng
ng bng sng Cu
long
ng bng sng Hng
Duyn hi Nam T. B
Khu 4 c
Tng
t
(cm)
pH
KCl
Hu
c
(%)
Cation trao i
me/100g t
Tng s
(%)
Ca++
Mg++
P2O5
C/N
%
Cl-
0-20
5.5
2.52
3.62
9.34
0.11
0.04
13
0.25
0-20
0-20
0-20
7.0
4.8
7.4
2.56
2.35
2.60
6.64
6.28
3.70
5.92
4.92
2.66
0.20
0.14
0.16
0.11
0.08
0.06
7
10
7
0.29
0.17
0.47
3. t mn trung bnh v t (Mollic salisols hay Molli salic Fluvisols) c tng din tch
732.584 ha. Phn b tip gip t ph sa, bn trong vng t mn nhiu, i b phn
a hnh trung bnh v cao v cn nh hng ca thu triu. Loi t ny chim 2,4%
din tch t ton quc v khong 75% ca nhm t mn, tp trung nhiu nht ng
bng sng Cu long.
Khu vc
ng bng sng Cu long
ng bng sng Hng
Khu 4 c
Duyn hi min Trung
ng Nam B
Trung du min ni Bc B
Tng cng
% din tch
nhm
80
7,30
5,20
4,90
0,34
2,20
100
t mn trung bnh v t c Cl- < 0,25% v EC < 4 ms/cm. t c phn ng trung tnh t
chua, xung su pH c tng ln do nng mui cao hn, t l Ca++/Mg++ <1, mn, m
trung bnh, ln trung bnh v ngho. i din cho loi t ny l phu din VN01.
Phu din VN01
a im: i 9, Nng trng Rng ng, huyn Ngha Hng, tnh Nam nh
To : V 20o0000B, Kinh : 106o0600. cao: 1m
Mu cht: Ph sa; a hnh: Bng phng; dc: 0o-3o
Hin trng thm thc vt: la ma (CR203) mi thu hoch
Tn t: Vit nam: t mn trung bnh v t (1976, 1985, 1996)
99
100
Dung
trng
(g/cm3)
1,05
1,34
1,39
1,33
1,38
T
trng
xp
(%)
m
(%)
2,0-0,2
0,2-0,02
0,02-0,002
2,65
2,69
2,62
2,66
2,65
60,4
50,2
47,0
50,0
48,0
32,9
25,6
24,4
25,4
26,1
2,2
0,7
0,4
0,3
0,8
22,5
39,3
55,8
60,7
89,8
45,0
32,6
21,1
25,8
5,8
<0,002
30,3
27,4
22,7
13,2
3,6
su
tng t
(cm)
0-20
20-60
60-85
85-105
105-125
D tiu
mg/100g
OC
P2O5
K2O
P2O5
K2O
0,14
0,85
0,43
0,62
0,21
0,11
0,10
0,06
0,07
0,04
0,04
0,04
0,03
0,03
0,03
2,05
2,05
2,00
1,65
1,09
8,15
8,00
7,63
6,15
6,10
8,47
4,23
2,82
2,82
2,82
chua
cmol (+)/kg
Trao Tim
i
tng
0,04
1,02
0,04
0,85
0,04
0,50
vt
0,38
vt
0,27
Tng
7,86
6,70
7,09
8,72
13,33
CEC
cmol (+)/kg
t
St
12,58 24,15
11,21 21,52
13,98 31,87
14,66 33,42
17,77 40,51
Tng s, %
su
tng t
(cm)
0-20
20-60
60-85
85-105
105-125
++
Ca
4,19
4,49
3,40
4,55
7,25
Cation trao i
cmol (+)/kg t
++
Mg
K+
Na+
3,17
0,18
0,32
1,83
0,09
0,29
3,36
0,06
0,27
3,96
0,06
0,15
5,77
0,06
0,25
pH
H2O
KCl
7,3
7,5
7,7
7,9
8,2
5,9
5,9
6,3
6,5
6,9
BS
%
62,5
59,8
50,7
59,5
75,0
Bng 6: S liu phn tch trung bnh v t mn trung bnh v t (theo t Vit nam)
Vng
Tng
t
(cm)
0-20
0-20
0-20
0-20
pH
KCl
4.9
5.8
5.3
6.3
Hu
c
(%)
3.33
1.90
1.42
1.61
Cation trao
i
me/100g t
Tng s
(%)
Ca++
Mg++
P2O5
6.47
6.00
3.40
3.60
8.67
8.80
4.50
6.13
0.18
0.14
0.11
0.14
0.04
0.09
0.03
0.05
C/N
Cl%
11
7
8
8
0.15
0.08
0.18
0.10
101
Chng 2
Cc loi t mn v qun l t mn
2.1. Cc c trng ca phu din t v dch chit ca t bo ho nc
t mn cn gi l t Solonchak, l nhng loi t cha mt lng ng k cc
mui tan c nh hng n s pht trin ca thc vt. dn in ca dch chit ca t
bo ho nc ca nhng t ny ln hn 4 dS/m. pH < 8,2 v hm lng Na+ trao i
<15%. Phu din ca cc loi t ny ni chung l ng u t trn xung di. Nhng
loi t ny khng c tng B c cu trc v cha rt t cht hu c (<1%). Cc mui tan
ch yu l Cl v SO42, Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+. Trong t mn c th c hoc khng c cc
bicacbnat. Tuy nhin, ni chung l khng c cacbonat (xem bng 7). Tu thuc vo cc
ion chim u th trong t mn, c th gi cc loi t ny l t mn Clo Sunphat, t
mn Sunphat - Clo,...
Bng 7: Thnh phn ca dch chit ca t mn bo ho nc
t
s
1
2
3
4
SP
54,0
52,0
76,2
40,7
pH
ECe
7,30
7,60
7,20
7,45
dS/m
2,2
26,6
32,3
27,9
Na+
11
260
252
174
K+
2,2
5,5
6,1
17,3
Ca2+
6,9
16,1
36,6
44,9
Mg2+
me/l
7,2
24,0
62,8
72,0
Cl
12
110
285
224
SO42
HCO3
13
249
114
104
2,9
4,2
3,8
4,8
CEC
me/100g
t
16
18
32
16
102
2.2.2. t
Do ti, s phn b li cc mui trc y c phn b u trong phu din t
hoc cc mui trc y c phn b cc b ti cc lp di su c th lm tng mui
trong vng r cy. Ta bit rng thng qua vic dng leo mao qun, nc mang cc mui
tan ln tng t mt v chng sau khi bay hi. Do , nhiu t hin nay khng b
mn nhng li c nguy c b mn do ti.
Thng thng, nhng loi t c cu trc nh b mn t hn nhng t c cu trc
nng bi v:
i) Nhng loi t c cu trc nh c tiu nc tt hn, do cc mui c ra
d dng v nhanh chng,
ii) Nhng t ny c CEC thp nn gi t mui hn nhng t nng
iii) Nhng loi t c cu trc nh c kh nng dng leo mao dn km v do c
th chu nh hng ca nc ngm l t hn
2.2.3. Cc iu kin thy vn
Cc iu kin thy vn sau y c th to iu kin thun li cho s ng ngp v
tch ly mui, gy nn s hnh thnh t mn:
i) Cc vng t nm thp c th c tch ly mui trn b mt nh dng chy mt
t ni khc n. Vo ma ma, nhng khu vc ny trng c v b ng ngp nhng vo
ma kh li kh ro to cho t b mn. cc vng ven bin, thy triu dng ln lm
ngp t mt, s xm nhp ca nc bin qua cc sng, ca sng, cc tng nc ngm
mn l nhng nguyn nhn chnh hnh thnh nn cc loi t mn.
ii) S tham gia ca cc tng nc ngm nm nng v ca cc vng ln cn thng
qua s thm (hnh 2.1) c van der Molen (1976) m t c th lm tng tng s mui v
lm mc nc ngm dng ln, thc y s hnh thnh t mn. Thm vo , s thm
mn, mt hin tng thng thy Australia, Bc M, v mt s nc khc cng c th
gy nn s tch ly mui cc vng thp hn. Doering v Sandoval (1976), Pluym
(1978) nhn xt rng thay i s dng t t rng t nhin sang trng cy ng cc
hoc s thay i c cu cy trng v d nh b t hoang vo ma h c th lm cho mt
lng ln nc i qua t v mang theo cc mui n cc vng t thp nm k.
Stoneman (1978) cho rng vn mn min Ty Australia, khng ging nh nhiu
ni khc trn th gii, khng lin quan vi vic ti nc m lin quan vi vic canh tc
trn t kh, do lm gim s bc thot hi nc nn kch thch vic ra qu mc, gy
ng cho t v gy mn cc vng t thp hn.
103
Khng ti
Thm t knh ti
Hnh 2.1. Hin tng thm theo van der Molen (1976)
iii) S dng cc knh ti gy nn:
- Tng s lng nc n khu vc ln hn, nhiu ln trong thi k cy trng yu
cu t nc
- Gim vic khai thc nc ngm v do gy nn s xo trn trong cn bng nc
ca khu vc
- Vic qun l nc trang tri ca nng dn cha tt do h thiu hiu bit v
su nc cn ti, s ln ti, do h ly qu nhiu nc ti v s knh cp khng
nc gy ra tn tht do thm su.
- Ti qu nhiu nc cho nhng t ct c cu trc th
V nhng l do trn y, khi a nc ti cho khu vc, mc nc ngm ni
chung s dng ln hoc to ra mc nc ngm nm gn mt t. S dng ln ca mc
nc ngm l nguyn nhn ch yu lm thoi ho t nhiu khu ti.
2.2.4. C ch ca s ho mn do mc nc ngm nm nng
S dng ln ca nc ngm t mt nc t do gi l s dng leo mao dn. y l
mt c ch quan trng gy mn cho t do nc ngm di chuyn ln pha trn, sau bay
hi. Nc ngm bay hi v li mui cho tng t mt. S lng nc v mui i ln
tng t mt do s dng leo mao dn ph thuc vo cu trc t, su phn b ca mc
nc ngm, nng mui trong nc ngm.
V mt ton hc, s dng mao dn c m t nh sau:
hc = 2 .
cos
dw.g
r
(2.1)
l lc cng mt ngoi
l gc thm t
r l bn knh ca ng mao qun
dw l khi lng ring ca nc
g l gia tc trng trng
Bc hi
Mt t
Nc mn
Nc mn
Mt nc ngm
d
1)
dz
(2.2)
E (m/ny)
bng 0,1 cm/ngy l su ti hn. S dng tiu chun ny, Khosla v cc cng s
(1980) quan st c (hnh 2.4) 80 cm l su ti hn ca mc nc ngm i vi
t tht pha ct ca huyn Sonepat, bang Haryana, n .
Mc nc ngm
su ti hn ca nc ngm
106
Varallyay (1977) coi s lng mui ti a (QS) c th tch ly trong phu din
t trong thi gian 1 nm bng tim nng ra t nhin ca t v xc nh mi lin h
ca n vi tc dng thm cho php (ti hn) nh sau:
Vm =
10.QS
CwT
(2.3)
Phn trm m ti
WP
FC
Bo ho
4
8
16
10
20
40
25
50
100
35
70
140
ng trung bnh
% mui trong t
S phn hi ca cy
Hnh 2.7. Quan h gia OP, ECe, ca dch chit bo ho, hm lng % mui v s phn hi
ca cy
109
trng tng ln. Hayward v Spurr (1944) quan trc thy rng l do thc vt kh
ht nc trong dung dch mn v p sut thm thu ca t cao hn p sut ca dch cy.
Balba v Soliman (1978) tm ra quan h gia mn, ET, v nng sut ca c Sudan
(hnh 2.10). Quan h ny cho thy mn tng th ET gim, v nng sut c cng gim.
Khi mn tng ln lm cho ET gim i l do:
a) Lng nc d tiu thp do p sut thm thu ca dung dch t cao
b) S pht trin km ca b r lm cho phm vi ht nc hp
c) Din tch l cy b gim i
d) S gi nc nhiu hn trong thc vt pha long cc mui ht c
Cc yu t trn y lm gim hiu qu s dng nc v lm cho thc vt km pht
Th nc ton phn
trin v c nng sut thp.
Nc trong t (%)
2.6.3. Tc dng c hi ca cc ion
Nng cao hn ca tng ion trong mi trng sng ca r cy hoc trong thc vt
c th c hi i vi thc vt hoc c th lm chm li s ht v trao i cc cht dinh
dng cn thit, do nh hng n s pht trin bnh thng ca thc vt. Tnh i
khng gia Cl v H2PO4, Cl v NO3, Cl v SO42, v Na+ v K+ c th lm xo trn
s dinh dng bnh thng ca thc vt. Cc sunphat tham gia qu trnh trao i cht
nh mt phn tch hp ca cc protein v cc enzym c th lm xo trn h thng cc c
quan ca thc vt v thng c hi hn cc clorua. Tuy nhin, i vi mt s cy n
qu nh chanh, nho, v nhiu cy ly g khc, Cl c hi hn SO42 v gy ra triu
chng chy l c trng.
Cc nguyn t nh B, Li v Se cng c th c trong t vi nng c hi, c
bit nu nc ngm b mn. V d nh nng B ln hn 4mg/l trong dch chit ca t
bo ho c hi i vi hu ht cc cy trng.
111
Th oxy ho kh, mV
+700 n + 500
+ 400 n + 200
+ 100 n - 100
- 100 n - 300
ECe dS/m
<2
2-4
4-8
8 - 16
> 16
nh hng n thc vt
Khng nh hng
Nng sut ca cc cy nhy cm c th gim
Nng sut ca nhiu cy b gim
Ch nhng cy chu mn mi cho nng sut
Ch mt t loi cy chu mn cho nng sut
100 + ab Y
b
(2.7)
mn bnh qun ca r, C
114
Cy trng ly ht
Ng
Nhy
cm
La
La m
Nhy cm
va phi
Lanh u Ma
tng
Lc
La min
Chu mn
va phi
C ci
ng
Khng thch hp
i vi cy
Chu mn
Bng
Bng
117
2.12. Qun l t mn
qun l t mn ngi ta phn chia t mn thnh cc loi sau:
a) t mn ven bin v t mn ng bng
b) t mn lc a vi mc nc ngm nm nng v nc ngm l
c) t tt vi mc nc ngm nm su nhng ngun nc ti duy nht l nc ngm l
d) t phn
2.12.1. t mn ven bin v t mn ng bng
Qun l nhng t ny tp trung vo vic trnh nh hng ca thy triu, trnh cho
nc ngm dng ln, trnh nh hng ca s xm nhp mn. Cn xy dng h thng
iu cao, vng chc, n nh ngn nh hng ca nc bin mn. Phi xy dng cc
cng ngn mn trnh s xm nhp mn vo ma kh. Trong cc vng ny vic khai
thc nc ngm phi ht sc thn trng. Vic khai thc nc ngm qu mc s thc y
s xm nhp ca nc bin theo con ng di t v gy mn cho t.
Vit nam c hn 3260 km ng b bin vi gn mt triu ha t mn. t mn
ca Vit nam c hnh thnh ch yu do nh hng ca thy triu v nc ngm mn.
Do tc dng ca ph sa sng bin, cc bi bi ven bin ngy cng c m rng. T xa,
ng cha ta bit quai ln bin, bin nhiu vng t mn tr thnh nhng vng t
nng nghip tr ph. Mt nh thy li ni ting trong lch s l Doanh in s Nguyn
Cng Tr ch tr nhiu cuc quai ln bin, di dn, lp p, xy dng nn nhng
vng t mu m nh Kim Sn (Ninh Bnh), Tin Hi (Thi Bnh). Sau chin thng in
Bin Ph, min Bc nc ta c ho bnh, ng v chnh ph ta quan tm, u t
nhiu cng sc, tin ca tip tc khai ph cc vng bi bi ven bin, xy dng nn cc
nng trng, cc khu dn c mi. Vic khai hoang, ln bin din ra ti tt c cc tnh
ven bin min Bc (Qung Ninh, Hi Phng, Thi Bnh, Nam nh, Ninh Bnh, Thanh
Ho). Sau ngy t nc thng nht, vic khai thc, s dng v ci to t cng c
quan tm ch hn, nht l i vi cc loi t c vn nh : t phn, t mn, t ct
bin. t mn c s dng cho nhiu ngnh kinh t: nng nghip, lm nghip, nui
trng thy sn, du lch, xy dng cc khu ngh mt, cc khu cng nghip. Vic iu tra,
nh gi ti nguyn t c tin hnh trn quy m ton quc. Da vo cc c im
ca t mn ngi ta xut v tin hnh cc bin php s dng v ci to t mn:
quai , ln bin, xy dng h thng thy li a nc ngt vo ra mn, chn v lai
to cc ging cy trng chu mn, lm mui, nui trng thy sn, trng rng trn t
mn, bo v rng ngp mn v cc h sinh thi vng t ngp mn. T qu trnh sn xut
trn cc vng t mn nhn dn min Bc c kt c nhiu kinh nghim qu bu
trong ci to t mn. Nng dn cc tnh Hi Phng, Thi Bnh, Nam nh, Ninh Bnh
c truyn thng ci to t mn vi cng thc: La ln ci, ci ln c, c ln bin. Cc c
quan nghin cu, nht l cc c quan trong ngnh nng nghip cng tin hnh nghin
cu chn to nhiu loi cy trng, ging cy trng c kh nng chu mn, thch hp vi
cc iu kin mn phn. Trc nm 1991, Vin cy lng thc thc phm tin hnh
118
lai to, chn lc ging la cho vng phn mn ti Vin vi s lng cc dng v t hp
lai. Kt qu Vin chn ra c 10 dng thun c trin vng mang k hiu t CM1 n
CM10. Mt s dng thun nh CM5, CM8, CM10 c nhn vi din tch ln ti
Trung tm ging la Hi Phng trong 1-2 v nhng khi a ra sn xut khng pht trin
c rng v thi gian sinh trng qu di, trong v ma 150-155 ngy. n nm 1988
Vin a vo kho nghim ti huyn Vnh Li tnh Bc Liu th thi gian sinh trng
ca chng rt ngn nhng v phm cht go khng p ng nhu cu xut khu nn khng
c pht trin rng.
Trong giai on 1991-1994 Vin thu nhp c c 181 dng, ging c kh
nng chng chu iu kin phn mn, trong c 30 dng ging ca a phng v ca
Vin la ng bng sng Cu Long v 151 dng ging la ca cc nc (ch yu ca
Vin la quc t - IRRI). Vin chn lc c 4 dng lai i F8, F9 c thi gian sinh
trng tng ng ging la Bu t bin l ging i chng c gieo trng ph bin
vng phn mn Hi Phng. 4 dng ny u cho nng sut hn hn ging i chng t
14,9-27,6%.
Khi nghin cu nh gi tim nng t ngp mn ng bng sng Cu Long, trn
c s thnh phn c gii t, hm lng cht hu c trong t v tng phn tim tng
nm gn mt t (0-50cm) hay su (>50cm), cc tc gi nh Sm v Nguyn
Ngc Bnh xut phn chia ra cc loi t ngp mn s dng trong lm nghip.
l cc loi ph: t ph sa ngp bn rt long, t ph sa ngp bn long, t ph sa ngp
mn dng st, t ph sa ngp mn phn tim tng, t than bn, ngp mn phn tim
tng. Trn c s thc tin s dng t cc tc gi xut nh hng cho vic s dng
t ngp mn trong lm nghip: Cn nhanh chng phc hi li thm thc vt rng ngp
mn ng bng sng Cu Long bo v v pht trin bn vng cc ti nguyn vng
ven bin: lm sn v thy sn. Bo v tnh a dng sinh hc v thc vt, ng vt ca h
sinh thi rng ngp mn c sc ca nc ta nghin cu khoa hc v pht trin
ngnh du lch sinh thi vng ven bin. Nng cao tc dng phng h, chng xi l, cn
sng bo v ven bin, m bo sn xut nng nghip, c nh v m rng bi bi vng
ca sng, to iu kin ng bng ln nhanh ra bin. Trn c s xc nh r th
mnh ca vng t ngp mn ven bin l khai thc v nui trng thy sn, c bit l
nui tm, cc tc gi xut cc m hnh canh tc lm ng kt hp nhm nhanh
chng khi phc li thm thc vt rng ngp mn phong ph v c sc ca nc ta, theo
hng lm nghip x hi, gn cc hot ng sn xut ca ng dn a phng vi ngh
rng:
- Trn t bi bi, bn long: c ngp nc triu hng ngy>25 ngy/thng v
ngp su: m hnh nui tm chuyn canh c s phng h tch cc ca rng ngp mn.
- Trn dng t: bn, ngp su v c ngp nc triu t 21-25ngy/thng: m
hnh ng lm kt hp (nui tm kt hp trng rng c (tm-rng)).
- Dng t st mm v st c ngp nc triu t 10-20 ngy/thng: m hnh lm ng kt hp (trng rng c kt hp nui tm (rng - tm)).
119
2.12.2. t mn lc a
Loi b mui bng cch dng nc c cht lng tt ra v h thp mc nc
ngm nh tiu mt v tiu ngm l cc cch tt nht ci to cc loi t mn. Nhng
cc khu vc m nc ti li mn hoc khi mc nc ngm nng v thm ca t
km th vic ra c mn l iu khng kh thi v mt kinh t v thc tin. Trong
nhng iu kin nh vy th con ngi phi sng chung vi t mn v gim thiu hoc
bin i cc tc ng tiu cc bng cc k thut canh tc khc nhau.
1. La chn cy trng v c cu cy trng
Mt chin lc sn c i vi b con nng dn vng t mn l la chn cc loi
cy, cc ging cy trng c th chu c mn mc va n cao. Lun canh thch
hp vi cc loi cy c lng bc thot hi nc thp, c cc c cu r khc nhau c th
gip duy tr nng sut ca nhng t mn. Tr cc t mn ven bin c mc nc ngm
nm nng v t phn, khng bao gi nn trng la trn t mn lc a v n s lm mc
nc ngm dng ln v lm mn t.
2. Trng cy ng v tr
Trong giai on ny mm v trong cc giai on u ca thi k sinh trng hu
ht thc vt nhy cm vi mn ca t v tr nn c kh nng chu mn tt hn vo
nhng giai on cui (tr cy la, s cng thng v mn gy tc hi nhiu nht giai
on th phn v lm cho cy khng hnh thnh ht). Do nhy cm ln giai on
ny chi nn trong giai on gieo trng cn lm cho mn t nn cng thp cng
tt. Nu mc mn lm gim s mc ca cy, nng sut tim tng c th gim nhiu
hn so vi cc d bo da trn cc ti liu v kh nng chu mn ca cy.
C th t c mn thp vng r cy bng nhng k thut canh tc i vi
tng t mt, tc l qun l hnh dng ca nn rung v qun l ti
Chng ta bit rng mui c xu hng tch ly mp (ra) ca cc vng t b lm
t khi thc hin ti rnh (hnh 2.13). Nu t cc cy con ngoi trung tm ca nh
lung th cy con s ni c mn thp v c iu kin ti u v m. Khi mn
ca t cao th khng nn ti khong khng gian gia cc lung m bo s tch
ly mui ti a khu vc v cho sn ca cc lung t c ti khng b mn,
to iu kin thch hp cho trng cy.
Nu t b mn do nc l trong khi nc c cht lng tt ch c hn th gii php
tt nht l trc khi gieo trng tin hnh ti bng nc c cht lng tt. iu ny s
m bo cho t c mn thp nht giai on ny mm.
120
Ti tng rnh
Ti cch qung
Hnh 2.13. S v s tch ly mui khi ti rnh v cc phng php trnh tc dng
c hi ca mui nh gieo trng ng v tr. Vng c t en biu th s tch ly mui
(Oster v cng s, 1984)
3. Phng php gieo trng
Cc ht ny mm b nh hng mnh bi tc dng thm thu ca cc mui, lm
tng t l cy non b cht v cy mc khng tt. Do , bt c u c th c th nn
vi cc ht. t c iu ny th nn s dng cc cy con kho, c, c trng trn
cc vn m c t tt.
4. Cc phng php ti
Phng php ti nh hng n su ti, dng chy mt, tn tht do thm su,
ng u ca ti, do nh hng n mn ca t. Khi ti rnh hoc ti nh
git (hnh 2.14) th ngay di ngun nc ti mn s thp, cn xung su th
mn tng ln. gia ngun nc rnh hay im ngun, mn c gi tr trung bnh
(trn mt t c mn cao nht) v m ti u cho s pht trin ca cy trng.
Cc h thng ti ngm khng ra c phn t pha trn ngun nc. Dng
nc di chuyn ln pha trn bc hi v lm tch ly mui trn mt t. Nu khng c
nc ma hoc nc ti ra th chc chn mui s tch ly trong t mc c
hi i vi cy.
Ti phun thng cho php s dng nc c hiu qu v gim tn tht do thm su.
Trong iu kin ti phun ma, s phn b mui theo phng ngang tng i ng
u, nhng mn ca t tng ln theo su. Phng php ti ny rt c hiu qu
trong vic ra lp t mt v to ra mi trng khng mn , khng c vng mui thch
hp cho s ny mm v cc giai on pht trin ban u ca thc vt.
121
Ti rnh
Ti phun ma
Ti ngm
Ti nh git
mn t, ECe (ds/m)
Hnh 2.14. Cc vng tch ly mui di khi p dng cc h thng ti khc nhau
(Bernstein v Francois, 1973)
Tuy nhin, nu cht lng nc khng tt th cc cy c ti bng phng php
ti phun ma s b hy hoi bi mn ca t v s phun mui ln l. Mui c th
c cc l cy hp th trc tip, iu ny lm tn thng cho cc l cy (mp l b hoi
t) v mt cc l. Trong nhng cy c kh nng hn ch s di chuyn ca mui t r ln
chi (v d nh chanh, nho, cc loi cy), s hp th mui t l cy c th gy ra cc vn
nghim trng t gp trong cc h thng ti mt. V d, p dng phng php ti
phun ma bng nc c EC bng 4,5 dS/m lm gim nng sut ht tiu khong 50%
nhng khi p dng phng php ti mt nng sut ch gim 16%. Tng t, s hy hoi
i vi cy bng ln hn so vi cy la m khi dng nc mn ti phun ma. S
hy hoi i vi cc l cy l nh nht nhit thp v m cao. chnh l l do ti
sao nn p dng phng php ti phun ma vo ban m.
5. Tn s ti (s ln ti)
Nu cy rt ht nc ca t v chu stress v nc gia cc ln ti, gii php tt
nht s l ti nhiu ln hn. y l gii php n gin v c hiu qu, c bit i vi
cc cy c b r n nng hoc nhng loi t c tc thm ban u cao nhng sau
li gim nhanh (do vic s dng nc c t l Na hay Na2CO3 cao).
Ngay sau khi ti, m t mc cao nht v nng mui tan mc thp nht
(hnh 2.15) nhng do nc tiu hao dn nn nng mui v m thay i. V lng
nc sn c gim xung (do bc hi hoc do cy ht), trong thi k ny s thiu ht
nc v tc dng thm thu tr nn ln hn. Nng mui trong t tng ln c th lm
cho t mn li cng mn hn.
iu ny c th tr nn rt quan trng trong thi k m yu cu bc thot hi nc
cao, khi m s chuyn ng ca nc v pha r cy khng nhanh pha long mui
122
su 80cm
su 40cm
T. 2
T. 3
T. 4
T.5
T.6
Ngy ti
chnh i vi vic tng nng sut nng nghip vng t mn. Chnh ph Bangladesh
thng qua U ban pht trin nc ca Bangladesh bt u vic xy dng bin vo
gia nhng nm 70 ca th k 20 phng trnh s xm nhp ca nc mn vo t
nng nghip. Cho n nay, xy dng c khong 3700 km bin v 900 cng qua
. D n ny thnh cng phn no trong vic gim mn ca t nhng vng c
bin. Tuy nhin hin nay vn cn hng nghn ha t mn.
* Trong mt s nm gn y vic pht trin cc ging la chu mn l mt trong
nhng mi nhn trong nghin cu ca Vin nghin cu la Bangladesh (BRRI). Mi y
hai ging la BRRI Dhan 40 v BRRI Dhan 41 c a ra trng vng ven bin
vo ma ma. Nhng ging la ny c nng sut cao hn 2 tn/ha so vi cc ging la
c trng lu i ti a phng trong nhng iu kin t c mn trung bnh (ECe
khong 6dS/m). Hin nay Vin nghin cu la ca Banladesh ang nghin cu mt s c
cu cy trng thch hp cho cc vng t khc nhau.
* C mt s ging la do Vin nghin cu la Bangladesh lai to trc y nh
BR22, BR23 v BRRI Dhan 32 cng c kh nng chu mn mc d y l nhng ging
la khng phi c lai to trng cc vng t mn. B con nng dn vng t mn
trung bnh trng cc ging la ny vo ma ma.
* C mt s loi cy chu c mn cao. Nhng cy ny c trng vo v Rabi
vng ven bin pha ng (vng Chittagong-Noakhali-Feni) tn dng m cn li
v mn tng i thp sau v la T. Aman (cy trng chnh). Cc cy trng ca v
Rabi l cc loi rau nh c ci ng, rau bina, t, u Hlan, m tc, vng,vv. Thc ra,
mc d nhp tin trin thp, nhng ngi nng dn vn c gng tng cng trng
trt.
* Nhng ngi nng dn s dng cc liu lng phn bn theo s ch dn ca cc
cn b khuyn nng, nhng cn b ny li s dng Sch hng dn bn phn Quc gia.
Tuy nhin, c nhiu cch nng cao nng sut cy trng bng cc th nghim v liu
lng phn bn nh cc cn b ca BRRI lm. Nhng c th thy rng Bangladesh
vn cha xy dng c cc phng php qun l dinh dng tng hp i vi cc vng
ven bin khc nhau. Lnh vc ny hin nay rt cn thit i vi Banladesh.
2.14.2. Trung Quc
Nhng gii php v cng ngh chnh chng mn ho v s dng cc loi t
mn bao gm:
a. Xy dng cc h thng ti tiu: trong cc vng t mn cc h thng ti tiu
hon chnh v hp l l cn thit ci thin ch nc-mui ca t, kim sot s vn
ng ca nc v mui trong t, phng trnh s tch ly mui trong lp t mt v gia
tng s kh mui mt cch n nh.
b. Tiu nc v trng la: Vic tiu nc v trng la l mt trong nhng cch lm
truyn thng ci to v s dng t mn. Cch lm ny thng khng yu cu tin
hnh ring vic ra mn. Nh vy t tr nn thch hp cho lun canh trn t thp v t
cao. Cc kt qu nghin cu cho thy rng cc vng t ven bin, sau 3 n 5 nm
trng la v tiu nc h thp nng mui ca nc ngm n 1-3g/l, lm tng
dy ca lp nc ngt n hn 1,5 m v gim nng mui ca t xung n 0,1%.
126
i. Gii thiu v p dng cc cy trng chu mn: vic la chn cc ging cy trng
chu mn khc nhau cho ph hp vi cc mi trng sinh thi khc nhau ca cc vng
t mn v khai thc tnh chu mn vn c ca cc ging cy khc nhau l nhng bin
php quan trng nng cao hiu qu ca vic khai ph, ci to v s dng t mn.
2.14.3. Indonesia
Vic ci to t m ly phc v cho mc ch nng nghip thng c thc
hin bng cch xy dng cc knh tiu. V c bn c ba h thng c s dng
Indonesia: mt h thng lm theo truyn thng, gi l parit kongsi Riau hoc handi
nam Kalimantan; mt h thng knh phn nhnh do Trng i hc Gajah Mada thit
k v mt h thng knh tiu trc giao c xy dng nam Sumatera. Vic thay i
nhng c im k thut v kt hp hai kiu h thng tiu cui cng c thc hin
mt s vng. Cc knh tiu chnh hng thng ra bin qua cc ca van phng trnh s
xm nhp ca nc bin v hng nc tiu trc tip ra bin.
Vic tiu qu mc lm oxy ho pyrite trong t phn. Vo ma ma ca cc nm
1994/1995 m gieo cc rung t phn cht ht, nht l nhng rung m cc khu
trng trong vng. Nc ngm mang theo tt c nhng cht c hi do qu trnh oxy ho
pyrite sinh ra. Cn phi gi cho mc nc trong knh tiu cao nh xy dng cc p
trn ca ra ca cc knh cp hai v knh cp mt. Cn ngh xy dng mt h thng
rnh tiu nng trn nhng t phn ny. Khong cch gia cc rnh tiu nng ny
khong 6-9 m tu thuc vo mc mn hoc phn ca t. Ngi ta thng khuyn co
nn dng m hnh la-c cho h thng ny.
Mt h thng m c ngn triu c s dng kim sot nc v mn ca
nc nhm pht trin Pulau Nyiur, o Riau m rng v thm canh la v palawiji,
c bit l ng v u tng. Nc ma c gi cng nhiu cng tt trong h thng nh
ngn tt c cc dng chy ra khi o nh vic xy dng cc dc theo b bin v cc
cng trnh trn ca lch v knh. C cc knh ti tiu ring bit. vn hnh h
thng cn c my bm, phc v ti v tiu.
Vic qun l tt nhng vng t mn bao gm c s dng nhiu phn N, P, K v
cn s kim sot cht ch vic dng phn bn.
Indramayu, nng dn lm cc lung t rng 1,2-1,6 m v cc lung ny cch
nhau khong 0,5 m. Gia cc lung l cc rnh c su 0,5-0,6 m. Ngi ta cho nc
vo rnh c su khong 0,15-0,20 m lp t trn mt rnh khng b mn. Nng dn
vng Sei Kakap cng p dng cch lm tng t. H trng khoai lang trn nhng lung
cch nhau khong 1,5-2m. H trng c cy n qu trn . Trc khi gieo la ngi ta
ph tt c cc lung san bng v t tt c c di. H trng la m khng cn ba v
lm c sc bn.
2.14.4. Pakistan
Cc phng php c th nghim Pakistan kim sot v ngn chn cc vn
mn bao gm: a) Thc hin cc d n ln v kim sot mn do chinh ph ti tr (cc
d n tiu nc cho hn 8 triu ha); b) Ra mui bng cch tng lng nc ti v s
dng cc ho cht ci to t, cc cht thi hu c v thc vt (s can thip quy m nh
a phng); c) Khuyn khch cc k thut ci to t mn bng bin php sinh hc nng
128
Bc Thi lan ngi ta khuyn nng dn nn trng cc loi cy khuynh dip, me, me
manila. Trong khi loi cy c tnh chu mn cao nh Acacia ampliceps c trng
nhng vng c tiu nc cng vi cc loi cy chu mn hoc cc loi c c tnh chu
mn cao. Sau mt nm trng trt cc loi cy ny c th thy nhng kt qu tch cc
trong vic h thp mc nc ngm. Trong K hoch pht trin kinh t x hi quc gia ln
th 8 (1997-2001) V Pht trin t ai lp k hoch trng 800.000 ha rng vng ng
Bc Thi lan kim sot s ha mn do s di chuyn ca nc ngm.
Nhng vng t c mn cao chim khong 1,5% din tch vng ng Bc, c
coi nh t b i. Mt s cy chu mn c la chn v cc loi cy vng t mn c
trng trn nhng vng t ny. Cc cy chu mn c gii thiu, v d nh nhng
cy c tn l. Cc loi cy nhp t M v c c gieo cng vi mt s loi cy bn
a. Cc loi cy c ha hn l: Sporobolus virginicus v Distichlis spicata.
2.14.7. Vit nam
Cc thc tin v qun l t bao gm:
1. Vch ra mt chin lc khai thc v bo v ti nguyn nc cho cng tc pht trin
ti tiu ngn hn v di hn trn nhng lu vc sng ln, nhng vng quan trng.
2. Nng cp cc h thng ti tiu: vic ti l cn thit ra mui. Phi c h thng
ti tiu hp l tng cng nng lc tiu v kim sot mc nc ngm kim sot
vic pht sinh mn.
3. Ci thin ph nhiu ca t bng cch s dng phn hu c bao gm c rm r, cc
phn tha ca thc vt, phn xanh, phn chung, phn .
4. Bo v cc rng ngp mn ven bin v ti nguyn thy sn.
5. Trng rng Rhizophora apiculata kt hp vi nui tm (Penaeus indicus, Panaeus
megriensis). Khong 80% din tch ca cc vng rng trng c kt hp nui tm c.
6. Thng thng cc m hnh trng trt vng t mn ven bin nh sau:
* M hnh tm la: trn cc vng t mn xa ngun nc ngt b con nng dn
p nhng con nh (rng khong 0,7 - 1,4 m) bao quanh cc cnh ng rng
khong 2-4 ha kim sot s xm nhp mn. Cc ging la chu c mn c
trng y vo ma ma. Nng sut ca cc ging la ny c th t ti 2,5-3 tn/ha vi
hai v tm vo ma kh.
* Mt v la vo ma ma: cc vng t mn xa ngun nc ngt hoc thm ch
xa nc bin, b con nng dn ch n khi c ma trng mt v la ma h. Vo ma
kh, mt t b nt n, nc ngm dng ln gy mn cho t. Vo u v mn kh cao
v n cui v th mn gim xung. C th thu c nng sut la 3-3,5tn/ha. y l
v la truyn thng.
* Hai v la vo ma ma. B con nng dn c th c thu hoch trong ma ma
ko di (150-190 ngy) nh trng hai v la ngn ngy bng cch p dng k thut x
kh. y l mt thnh tu mi ca ng bng sng Mkng. Sau khi thu hoch v la h,
t dc cy ln ct t cc mao mch khng cho nc ngm dng ln. Ngay trc
khi ma ma bt u, t ai c chun b v chia thnh cc lung v gia cc lung
t c cc rnh tiu nng (su 20 cm). B con nng dn gieo ht ging. Khi c ma mui
130
131
Chng 3
Ti v kim sot mn
3.1. Cc nguyn tc c bn
Mi quan tm ch yu trong canh tc cc vng kh hn v bn kh hn l cn c
vo cc cng trnh ti tiu, cn c vo nhng rng buc ca cc tnh cht t ai v cht
lng nc, khng ch s cng thng v m mc thp nht c th. Stress v m
t l sn phm cui cng ca:
a) Thnh phn th thm thu, t l vi nng mui;
b) Thnh phn th c cht c lin quan vi cu trc t v lng nc ti cho
t.
kim sot c nhng yu t gy stress ny ngi ta cn phi:
a) Ra mn cho t mt cch hp l a mui ra khi vng r cy nhm iu
chnh p sut thm thu ca dung dch t xung mc thp nht;
b) Ti kp thi, ti to cho t c m thch hp nhm t nng sut cao
nht.
Do thnh cng ca cng tc ti cn thit phi c qun l bng cch kt hp
ti u cc tham s (c lin quan vi nhau) sau y:
i) Cht lng nc ti
ii) Lng nc ti sn c
iii) Cc iu kin tiu nc
Trc khi i xem xt quan im nh lng cn xem xt cc quan im c bn sau
y:
a) Cc mui tan do nc ti cung cp cho t c tch ly li do cc qu trnh bc
thot hi nc. Vng t trn mt kh i do bc hi c th to ra gradient ht nc trong
cc lp mt, gy nn s chuyn ng ca nc cha mui ln pha trn do s dng mao
dn. Qu trnh ny l mt trong nhng nguyn nhn ch yu gy mn cho t, nht l
cc vng c mc nc ngm nm gn mt t.
b) Hm lng mui tan trong vng r s tng ln nu dng nc cha mui di chuyn
xung nh hn dng mui do nc ti cung cp. Do iu quan trng l phi kim
sot c cn bng mui. Cn bng mui li l hm s ca nc ti (s lng, cht
lng), hiu qu tiu nc.
c) Cc phn ng trao i c th din ra gia t v nc ti v c th dn n nhng
bin i c hi cho cc tnh cht tiu nc ca t. V nng mui thay i theo su,
ESP c th t ti mc ti hn pha di ca vng r cy v phi c gii quyt bng
cch bn cc cht ho hc ci to t hoc thch cao.
mui tng qut trong t (SB) c th c nh ngha theo cc qu trnh khc nhau tham
gia vo dng mui n v i v nhng thay i cc b v nng mui trong t. Cn
bng mui c th c vit di dng phng trnh bo ton khi lng nh sau:
SB = (DC)rain + (DC)irr. + (DC)ground + Sdissolv. - (DC)drain - Sprec. - Scrop
(3.1)
Trong :
DC l tch ca su nc (D) v nng mui (C)
rain: nc ma; irr: nc ti; ground: nc ngm; drain: nc tiu
S l lng mui t cc thnh phn nh: ho tan, kt ta, cy trng ht
Trng hp n gin nht l ta b qua cc thnh phn mui do ho tan, kt ta, cy
trng ht v do nc ngm cung cp. Khi phng trnh (3.1) c dng sau y:
SB = Ciw.Diw - Cdw.Ddw
(3.2)
cho tin thng ngi ta biu th nng mui thng qua tr s EC, trong iu
kin n nh, ngha l khi SB = 0, ta c:
ECiw.Diw - ECdw.Ddw = 0
ECiw.Diw = ECdw.Ddw
(3.3)
Cng thc ny th hin: vi cc gi thit cho, lng mui c b sung vo t
trong qu trnh ti phi bng lng mui c tiu i duy tr cn bng mui. C l
chnh xc ca phng trnh ny khng quan trng bng gi tr l thuyt ca n: phi
ra mn cho t ti nu khng th nng mui trong t s tng ln v vt qu tr s
cho php. u im ca phng trnh ny l bng mt cng thc n gin, n th hin
quan h gia yu cu nc ca cy trng v lng nc cn ra mn cho t, vi
nng mui (qua EC) ca nc ti. S ho mn t s xy ra khi SB > 0 hoc nu:
ECiw.Diw > ECdw.Ddw
(3.4)
Thng thng ngi ta ly mt tr s trung bnh no ca EC trong thi k nghin
cu (mt nm hoc mt ma) v ly s lng trung bnh nm ca IW v DW. Nu c
ma th ngi ta hiu chnh IW. Ta hy xem mt v d sau y: hy tnh ton t l mn
ho khi khng c ma v ra mn. T l ny c th biu th qua cc i lng c th o
trc tip trong phng th nghim nh SP (saturation percentage: phn trm bo ho) v
y l cch c chp nhn nh lng mn t. Gia tng mn hng nm c th
c vit nh sau:
ECe =
(3.5)
133
Ddw
Diw
(3.7)
mn ca nc ti EC (dS/m)
134
su ca t (cm)
3.3. Yu cu ra mn
Yu cu ra mn (LR) l su nc tnh ton hay l lng nc phi i qua vng
r duy tr EC ca nc tiu bng hoc thp hn mc quy nh ECdw. Cc tnh ton
da vo phng trnh (3.8):
LR = ECiw/ECdw = Ddw/Diw
(3.9)
Phng trnh (3.8) v (3.9) gn ging nhau nhng trong (3.9) ECdw biu th gi tr
EC cho php ln nht ca nc tiu duy tr nng sut cy trng. ECdw ph thuc loi
cy trng, thi v, cc yu t qun l. Do , t l ra LF l phn nc ti i qua phn
pha di ca vng r cy, trong khi th LR l c tnh ca s lng nc ra cn
thit kim sot mn t trong gii hn cho php.
3.3.1. LR l hm s ca cht lng nc ti
Ngi ta quan trc c LR ph thuc vo ECiw (ECiw cng cao th LR cng
cao) v ECdw - l tr s gii hn ph thuc cy trng cn c xc nh (i vi cc cy
trng c kh nng chu mn th ECdw c th ly gi tr cao hn). C th l ECdw thay
i theo ma nu tnh nhy cm ca cy trng thay i theo tui.
Quan im trn y c th c minh ho bng v d sau. Xt mt loi cy trng
c th chu c ECdw = 8 dS/m. Do nu ti nc c EC = 1,2 v 3 dS/m. Khi
p dng phng trnh (3.9) ta c:
LR = 1/8 hay 13% nu ECiw = 1 dS/m
LR = 2/8 hay 25% nu ECiw = 2 dS/m
LR = 3/8 hay 38% nu ECiw = 3 dS/m
3.3.2. LR l hm s ca lng nc tiu hao
Khi s dng quan im LR c tnh lng nc cn ti (hoc s lng nc
c tiu qua vng r cy) cn phi bit lng nc tiu hao, ngha l bc thot hi nc
hay yu cu nc ca cy trng. Khi khng c ma, ta c:
Diw = Dcw + Ddw = Dcw + Diw.LR
(3.10)
135
Diw =
Dcw
1 LR
(3.11)
hoc:
EC ' dw
Diw = Dcw
EC ' dw ECiw
(3.12)
Dcw
Dcw
Ddw =
LR
1 LR
1 LR
Ddw = Dcw
LR
1 LR
(3.13)
ECiw
EC ' dw ECiw
(3.14)
ECiw =
136
ECiwDiw + ECrw.Drw
Diw + Drw
(3.15)
S gim mn t (%)
su 0 60cm
su 0 10cm
Lng ma (mm)
137
Vng r cy
Vng r cy
M hnh s dng
nc gi nh
138
ECiw
5ECe ECiw
(3.16)
ECiw
2(max EC )
(3.17)
LuongNuocThucCan =
ET
1 LR
(3.18)
139
mn t (ECe, dS/m)
Hnh 23: Phng php xc nh ECe ln nht i vi nng sut cy (Ayers v Westcot, 1985)
ECsw = ECe x 2
Nh hnh 23 th hin, c mi ln mn t tng ln vt qu nng chu
mn cho php i vi cy th s gy nn gim nng sut tng ng. Quan h ny c
biu din bng phng trnh sau y:
140
Y = 100 - b(ECe - a)
(3.19)
Trong Y l nng sut tng i (%), a l gi tr ca ngng mn i vi cy,
biu th ECe ln nht ti nng sut bng 100%.
b l gim nng sut i vi mt n v ca mn hoc tn tht nng sut (%)
ng vi mt n v ca mn (ECe) gia gi tr ngng (a) v ECe khi gim nng
sut bng 100%.
Cc bng biu v kh nng chu mn ca cy c xy dng trn c s s dng
cng thc trn v cc s liu sn c. S chuyn i t ECe thnh ECsw vi gi thit LF
bng 15-20%. Cc gi thit quan trng khc: nng sut c quan h cht vi mn trung
bnh ca vng r cy v s ht nc khu vc pha trn vng r cy thng cao hn
nhiu
Phi tha nhn rng nng sut thc t ca cy trng khi c ti bng nc c
cht lng nh trn c th thay i t 100% n 0, tu thuc vo yu t bt k ch
khng ch ph thuc vo cht lng nc. Cc gi tr c nu trong bng 3.1. biu th
nng sut tim nng ln nht i vi cht lng nc trong iu kin s dng nc ti
u. Thot nhn th cc gi tr c xut lm gii hn chu ng i vi mn ca
nc ti c v cao. Tuy nhin, khi so snh cc gi tr ny vi cc gi tr thu c trong
cc th nghim ngoi ng rung khi s dng nc c cht lng tng i km th
chng li l cc gi tr hp l.
chu mn ca cy c th hin trong bng dng nh l cc gi tr c nh.
iu ny khng chnh xc. Kh nng chu mn ca cy thay i tu thuc vo cc cng
tc qun l nc, b nh hng bi cc giai on pht trin ca cy, thn r, loi cy v
kh hu. Nhiu cy trng, v d nh c ci ng, la, la m, la mch v mt s loi
cy rau khc, giai on ny mm v giai on gieo ht l nhng thi gian nhy cm nht
i vi mn v khi mn t (ECe) vt qu 4 dS/m trong thi gian ny mm s c
th lm chm li hoc c ch s ny mm v giai on pht trin ban u.
Thn r c nh hng n tnh chu mn ca mt s cy trng v d nh cy chanh.
Cc loi cy trng khc nhau nh nho, hnh th hin s kh nhau c bn v chu mn.
Ngi ta li dng s khc nhau v tnh chu mn ny la chn thn r v loi cy
trng trng cy theo hng sn xut hng ho. Cc loi cy trng hng nm cng th
hin s khc nhau v tnh chu mn. Vic nhn ging v tuyn chn cy trng chu mn
ang c ch v cc kt qu thu c ang kch thch cc hng nghin cu lai to
cc ging mi chu mn.
Kh hu ng vai tr quan trng trong kh nng chu mn ca cy. Khi kh hu nng
v kh, lng bc thot hi nc nhiu th tnh chu mn km hn.
3.9. Ra mn v ci to t
Theo truyn thng, t mn c ci to cho nc trn vo hoc ngm nc. Ni
chung su ca t c ra mn xp x bng su ca nc c thm qua trong
qu trnh ra mn. Thay th mt th tch rng ca nc trong t h thp mc mui trong
t theo h s xp x bng 2. Vic thay th 1,5-2,0 th tch rng lm gim khong 80%
mn t. V th tch rng ca t ni chung bng 50% nn vic thay th 2 th tch rng
gn bng 1 su tng ng ca nc trn mt n v su t. Lp lun nu trn
da trn cc ti liu th nghim ng rung trc y (thu c bng cch lm ngp t)
. Cc kt qu c th hin trong hnh 24.
143
% mui c ra i
% mui cn li C/Co
su lp nc ra / su t
T l mui cn li,
Lm ngp lin tc
Lm ngp gin on
144
(1)
(4)
N=100.h.d.(P-W0)+(S0-S1)/K
(5)
3
Trong d l dung trng ca t t/m
P l tr m ng rung gii hn ca t, tnh bng % trng lng t
W0 l m ban u ca t trc khi ra mn, tnh bng % trng lng t
K l h s ca cng thc, t/m3
* Cng thc A. Kalashnhikov (1967)
Khi ra theo chiu ngang (bn sn) nn s dng cng thc ca A. Kalashnhikov
(1967) c dng sau y:
N=10000(.H+.m.h)
(6)
S1 S 0 p
).n' ]
S0
U
d '.n' ln(1 )
W'
148
S 0 .C 0 p
S1 .C 0 p
rn v pha lng ca t.
Cng thc (10) c ngha khi S1>.S0. Bt ng thc ny c ngha l c th lm
nht tng t bng nc c khong ho C0p n gii hn S1=.C0p.
Vic xc nh cc tham s ca cng thc (10) thng khng kh khn: cc h s
thot mui c th tra bng, cc h s vi chnh xc cn thit c th c xc nh
bng t s ca hm lng phn trm ca mui trong lp t pha trn nm di mc
nc ngm vi khong ho ca nc ngm ca chnh tng ny.
Trong nhiu trng hp xut hin bi ton tnh ton mc ra lm nht tng t
c dy hn 1m. V d khi t chc ra khi c h thng tiu ng, bi ton nh vy c
th xut hin nhm mc ch xc nh su lm nht t v nc ngm ca cc lp t.
V vic la chn su lm nht: trong tng trng hp c th phi xc nh n xut
pht t nhng yu cu sn xut, kinh t. Tnh hp l ca vic la chn nh vy ch c th
c chng minh trong trng hp nu chng ta nm vng phng php tnh ton mc
ra c th lm nht t n su cho trc.
V.Volobuev cho rng lm nht tng t c dy khng ln hn nhiu so
vi1m, v d lp t dy 1,5m, c th nhn mc ra vi h s 1,5. C nhiu ti liu
chng minh tnh ng n ca quan im ny. Tuy nhin, bin php tnh ton mc ra
khi lm nht t n su 2-3m v ln hn thng dn n nhng sai s ng k. iu
ny c khng nh bi nhng kt qu ra mn ti cc khu th nghim ca Vin nghin
cu ti Trung .
Nh V.Volobuev nhn xt khi tnh ton mc ra lm nht tng t dy hn
1m cn xt n tnh bin i ca s ra thm theo su m iu ny khng c xt
n trong cng thc (1).
Qu trnh ra thm c th c m t kh chnh xc bng cng thc sau y:
h = . lg
Sh
S1
S h0
+ .h
Sh
150
151