Energy Management System and DDC

Energy Management Systems and Direct Digital Control
Richard A. Panke, CEM
THE FAIRMONT PRESS, INC. Lilburn, Georgia
MARCEL DEKKER, INC. New York and Basel
iii
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Panke, Richard A. Energy management systems and direct digital control/Richard A. Panke. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-88173-395-4 (electronic) 1. Buildings--Energy conservation. 2. Buildings--Electric equipment. 3. Digital control systems. I. Title. TJ163.5.B84 P34 2001 658.2--dc2l 2001023849
Energy management systems and direct digital control/Richard A. Panke. 2002 by The Fairmont Press. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Fairmont Press, Inc. 700 Indian Trail, Lilburn, GA 30047 tel: 770-925-9388; fax: 770-381-9865 http://www.fairmontpress.com Distributed by Marcel Dekker, Inc. 270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 tel: 212-696-9000; fax: 212-685-4540 http://www.dekker.com Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
0-88173-395-4 (The Fairmont Press, Inc.) 0-8247-0920-9 (Marcel Dekker, Inc.)

While every effort is made to provide dependable information, the publisher, authors, and editors cannot be held responsible for any errors or omissions.
iv
Contents
Chapter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Page Introduction .................................................................................. 1 EMS Overview ............................................................................ 9 Hardware/System Components ............................................ 15 System Architecture .................................................................. 27 Direct Digital Control (DDC) ................................................. 35 Networking ................................................................................ 47 Software/Application Programs ............................................ 65 Communication Protocol ......................................................... 79 Operator/Machine Interface ................................................... 99 Savings/Cost Estimating ........................................................ 111 Sequence of Events ..................................................................119 Selection/Expansion ............................................................... 125 Installation/Commissioning ................................................. 129 Training/Operation/Maintenance ....................................... 137 Fire Alarm/Security ............................................................... 143 Design/Drawings/Specifications ......................................... 147 Intelligent Buildings ............................................................... 175 Glossary of Terms ............................................................ 179 Controls Symbols ............................................................. 191 EMS Manufacturers ......................................................... 197 Metric Conversion Guide ............................................... 200 Sample EMS Problem ..................................................... 203 EMS Articles ..................................................................... 209
Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix E Appendix F Appendix G Index
Appendix D List of References ............................................................. 199
Appendix H Remember! ........................................................................ 228 .................................................................................................... 233 v
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1
Introduction
EMS DEFINED
MS defined: A system which employs microprocessors, building field panels, communication cables between field panels, control equipment, and software application programs configured into a network with control functions at multiple locations and a point of operator supervision and control (see Figure 1-1). Central EMSs are of various levels of sophistication depending on the size of the building and desired operational function. The simplest system allows an operator to check the operational status of the heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC), fire and security systems, and control various equipment remotely from a central console. The next level system (direct digital controlDDC) has a digital computer to perform most of the work normally done by the operator, plus other optimization and control functions. Previously, EMS terminology included statements such as communication between the field panels and the Central Processing Unit (CPU). Current EMSs no longer require a CPU, nor do they rely on a CPU for system operation!
CONVENTIONAL PNEUMATIC CONTROLS Conventional pneumatic controls have been the traditional form of control used in most commercial and institutional facilities for environ1
ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
AND
DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL
Figure 1-1. Pneumatic to Automation Via DDC
INTRODUCTION
mental control. The control function is performed by a pneumatic controller which receives its inputs from pneumatic sensors and sends control signals to pneumatic actuators (see Figure 1-2). In the 1970s, a supervisory system was often interfaced to the pneumatic control system to allow remote control (remote set point or control point adjustment) of pneumatic receiver controllers and centralized monitoring through electronic sensors. The remote electronic panels communicate to a central computer; however, if the communications line was broken, or if the computer failed, the entire system was OFF (see Figure 1-3).
DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL (DDC) Direct Digital Control (DDC), although used for years in the process industry, entered the HVAC industry in the late 1980s. DDC utilizes a programmable microprocessor as the primary controller. The HVAC system variable (temperature) is measured by electronic sensors. The control functions are performed by a microprocessor which transmits an electronic or transduced pneumatic control signal directly to the controlled device (damper or valve actuator). DDC is a form of closed-loop control. The term Direct means the microprocessor is directly in the control loop and the term Digital means control is accomplished by the digital electronics of the microprocessor. As opposed to electronic controls, which are much like pneumatic controls where each controller handles one control loop in a fixed manner, DDC can control numerous control loops and be reprogrammed for different control functions without hardware changes (see Figure 1-4). Distributed DDC consists of several DDC units located throughout a building complex. Although, each DDC can operate independently, they are all connected to a central operator station for centralized control and monitoring. A measure of a true distributed DDC system is whether the remote DDC units continue to perform full control and energy management, without the central operator station (see Figure 1-5). DDC will be covered in greater detail in Chapter 5. Refer to Table 1-1 for a comparison of pneumatics and DDC.
AND
Figure 1-2. Pneumatic Control
Figure 1-3. Supervisory Automation System
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1-4. Direct Digital Control
Table 1-1. Comparison of Pneumatics and Direct Digital Control

CONVENTIONAL PNEUMATIC CONTROLS DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL Full PID control and more. Multi-loop controller. Easy to define complex sequences. Closer control. DDC Proportional control only. Single loop controllers. Complex control is difficult or costly. Adequate control. Cost rises with number of control loops. Complex control is very expensive. Once cost of DDC controller is absorbed, cost rises with number of sensors and actuators. Capable of most complex control. BEST CONTROL SYSTEM
COMPARISON CATEGORY
Performance
Comparable
Initial Cost
Proven reliability over many Proven reliability in process years, however, control system industry and many commercial must be well maintained and HVAC applications. recalibrated regularly. Each DDC controller can stand alone. Relies on air supply. Relatively easy to maintain. Require regular recalibration due to drift. Automatic as-builts. Built-in diagnostics. Fewer components. No drift. Service by board replacement. DDC
AND
Reliability
DDC
Maintainability
Table 1-1. Comparison of Pneumatics and Direct Digital Control (Continued)

CONVENTIONAL PNEUMATIC CONTROLS DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL DDC BEST CONTROL SYSTEM Changes or additions require Programmable controller. new or different controllers New control strategies defined at central. re-piping and often wiring, and New control easily added. then recalibration. All operator interaction at local control panels. Can read temperatures and change set-point. Full English language reports. Color Graphic Displays Automatic Records of all control strategies.
INTRODUCTION
COMPARISON CATEGORY
Flexibility
DDC
Ease of Use
Requires regular recalibration. Modification and expansion require additional controllers. Easy to maintain. Easy to modify. Easy to expand. DDC
Life Cycle Cost
DDC
Cost to Add Energy Each new function usually New functions are easily defined Management requires additional equipment by operator. and labor.
AND
EMS OVERVIEW
Chapter 2
EMS Overview
nergy conservation through management has been, and remains, one of the most viable energy resources available to all sectors of the energy consuming building community. By minimizing energy consumption and still maintaining the posture required for our business activities, we can save money and therefore survive our respective market areas. An EMS is one energy conservation alternative that can provide a means to control, reduce and perhaps eliminate energy waste.
HISTORY There are a multitude of EMSs on the market today ranging from residential EMS to large facility management systems. Several types of EMS are available. Most major control firms and other companies in this field have introduced families of building automation systems intended for a wide range of building sizes. These systems can be classified as follows. Class I Systems These consist of small monitoring and control systems that can be used in buildings with floor areas up to about 100,000 ft2. The basic component is a microprocessor preprogrammed to start/stop different 9
10
AND
HVAC system components according to a preselected schedule. The systems can be designed to perform other operations such as monitoring fire alarms and smoke detectors, security checks, and load cycling. Class II Systems These systems are similar to those in Class I except that they can serve larger buildings and some building complexes. The available software packages provide functions such as: executive and operating instructions, scheduled start/stop operations, load rotation and shedding, control points resetting, optimization of start time, enthalpy optimization, and fire alarm and life-safety system monitoring. These systems can usually monitor about 2000 addressable points. When these systems are used for a group of buildings or building complexes, the central control facility is connected to remote data gathering panels by means of one or more types of data communication links. Because more than one data gathering panel is served by a central facility, each panel is allotted an equal amount of time in direct communication with the central facility. Class III Systems These are referred to as direct digital control (DDC) systems, and are the most sophisticated type of EMS. DDC systems are used for building complexes such as medical institutes and university campuses. In addition to the basic functions described earlier, it is possible to include the following programs: reset of supply air system; optimization of cooling and heating plants operation; building management; lighting control; preventative maintenance; energy auditing; and efficient bookkeeping. When did centralized management of energy begin? (See Table 2-1.) As can be seen in the table, centralized monitoring and control of equipment and conditions for HVAC systems has been around since the 1950s in various forms. In addition to reducing energy costs, the centralized monitoring and control of mechanical equipment gives an organization additional benefits of improved labor efficiency, reduced maintenance costs, and extended equipment life. With alarm reporting capability, mechanical equipment problems can be noted and corrected more expeditiously.
EMS OVERVIEW
11
Table 2-1. EMS HistoryFive Generations

1st Generation (1950s) Remote monitoring panel using temperature sensors and switches to manually read conditions and start or stop motors. 2nd Generation (1960s) Use of electronics, introduced low voltage circuits to automate or speed up monitoring of panel functions. 3rd Generation (1960s-1973) Multiplexed systems consisted of groups of sensing and control points tied into a local system panel and a pair of wires that run back to a central console from multiple panels. Scanning the points in a system was accomplished electronically (response time was slow and failure of the Central Processor meant total system down). 4th Generation (1983) Individual building panels become electronically smarter with their own stand-alone minicomputer. They can carry out most functions that the central computer used to do, and also relay information back to a central console. The processing of system functions is throughout the system. The speed of the electronics, as well as software, and hardware reliability soon over powered conventional pneumatic control systems with simple proportional control and offset. EMS sensor locations were duplicated with pneumatic and electronic sensors. 5th Generation (1987) Direct Digital Control (DDC) uses a small microprocessor and software for system sensing and control. DDC units can stand alone to provide various digital control sequences, or several DDC units can be tied to a central operator station. On any size system, this could be an IBMPC or compatible. Most EMS manufacturers have their own software packages which results in the EMS becoming proprietary, as does the DDC system.
12
AND
FUNCTIONAL CAPABILITIES In his zeal to conserve precious fuels and keep down growing fuel bills, the engineer often specifies the latest and most advanced EMS. What he gets is likely to be a much more complex system than is really necessary, one capable of performing an unneeded variety of sophisticated operations. How can this be avoided, and what steps must be taken to properly specify a system to assure that he gets exactly what is neededno less and no more? Following is a brief list of events that should serve as a guide to the overall EMS project (covered in greater detail in Chapter 11): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Initial Concept Information Retrieval Candidate Buildings and System Selection Field Survey Design Contract Documents Preparation Contract Installation and Training Acceptance Operation and Maintenance
FUNCTIONS The specific functions implemented in any EMS design are established by a thorough study of the building(s) and system(s) to be controlled. The most common EMS software functions are listed below: Programmed Start/Stop: Occupancy schedules - Fans: save HP and heating/cooling - Pumps: can be interlocked with fans - OA Dampers: less than occupancy schedules - Air Compressors: blow down moisture Optimized Start/Stop: Based on indoor/outdoor temperatures to achieve a comfort level. Can be stopped early.
EMS OVERVIEW
13
Temperature Setback/Setup: Change temperature set points of thermostats when building is unoccupied. Economizer Control: Use free cooling from outdoors when temperature is suitable (and) place dampers at minimum position when cooling. Enthalpy Control: Sophisticated economizer control using temperature and humidity (indoors and outdoors). Discharge Air Reset: Reduce excessive heating and cooling in HVAC systems. Hot Water Reset: Reset hot water from outdoor air temperature. Chilled Water Reset: Reset supply from return water temperature. Chiller Optimization: Balance chiller operation to load demand. Boiler Optimization: Balance boiler operation to loads and control combustion air. Demand Control: Reduce peak electrical loads (kW savings). Duty Cycling: Turn off equipment a percentage of the time according to an established schedule to reduce energy use (code compliance?). Monitoring/alarm: Logging conditions, on-off/high-low alarms, trend logs over time, equipment run time, energy use, etc. Fire Notification: Parallel with building alarm system (or) fire alarm must be UL approved for this application. Security: Alarm notification/door switches/voice synthesizers/ pagers. Card Access: Card readers, exit doors, supervised door contacts, separate programming modules.
14
AND
HARDWARESYSTEM COMPONENTS
15
Chapter 3
Hardware System Components

here are five basic components that are used in energy management systems. Starting from the equipment being controlled and working back to the operators console the components are sensors, actuators, microprocessor-based field panels (controllers), communication links, and a central operator station. Sensors and/or actuators are located at the equipment being controlled. Sensors transmit information that defines a single operating condition, such as temperature or pressure. This information is supplied to the field panels (controllers) for monitoring or decision-making purposes. Actuators are the mechanical interfaces that implement actions initiated by the controllers. The actions can be self-initiated by the controllers. The actions can be self-initiated or initiated as a consequence of information received from the sensors. Field panels centralize the input from the sensors and distribute the output from the controllers to the actuators. The information is then transmitted over the communication links to a central operator station. These links carry information between all system components.
SENSORS Sensors are electric devices that assess changes in ambient conditions and react by varying electrical voltage, or current. This voltage or current variation is transmitted either as a digital or analog signal to 15
16
AND
field panels, for subsequent monitoring or analysis by the controller. A digital signal may have one of two predetermined values used to monitor two-position conditions, such as on/off or high/low. The analog signal has a range of values that vary proportionally to the condition being measured and is used for items such as temperature, pressure, flow, and relative humidity. Examples of analog sensors are thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors, and thermistors. Refer to Figure 3-1 for sensor mountings.
Figure 3-1. Sensor Mountings
17
Figure 3-1. Sensor Mountings (Continued)
18
AND
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) The electrical resistance of certain metals varies proportionally with temperature in a precise, consistent, and repeatable manner. RTDs made of these metals provide a measurable resistance that is proportional to temperature. Thin Film Platinum is considered the optimum sensor because of its superior characteristics such as operating temperature range, interchangeability, linearity, stability, and reproducibility available through automated manufacturing conditions. These RTDs can be furnished as 2 or 3 wire, 4-20 MA units with an accuracy of 0.1% of span and a 1000 ohm @ 0C reference resistance. The sensing element has a temperature coefficient of 0.00 375 ohm/ohm/C. There are other wire wound RTDs available such as Nickel (medium accuracy), Balco (low accuracy), and Nickel-Iron (70%-30%/medium accuracy). All mounting configurations are available for room, duct, immersion, strap-on, and outside air temperature sensing. Thermistor Thermistors are a semiconductor made from combinations of nickel, manganese, copper and other metals. They offer a fast response, are good for small spans, and are a relative low cost sensor. Disadvantages include very non-linear, poor interchangeability, and not suitable for wide spans. Their accuracy is 0.4F of span. Thermocouple Two wires of two dissimilar metals joined to form a junction are seldom, if ever, used with modern EMSs. They can operate over a wide temperature range however their interchangeability and repeatability are poor. They also have a low output sensitivity. Relative Humidity The principle of operation of a capacitive relative humidity sensor is a small capacitor consisting of a hygroscopic dielectric material placed between a pair of electrodes. Most capacitive sensors use a plastic or one micron thin polymer as the dielectric material, with a typical dielectric constant ranging from 2 to 15. When no moisture is present in the sensor, both this constant and the sensor geometry determine the value of the capacitance.
19
By definition, relative humidity is a function of both the ambient temperature and water vapor pressure. Therefore, there is a relationship between relative humidity, the amount of moisture present in the sensor, and sensor capacitance. This relationship is at the base of the operation of a capacitive humidity instrument. Note: All humidity sensors should be factory calibrated following procedures described in ASTM standard E104-85, Standard Practice for Maintaining Constant Relative Humidity by Means of Aqueous Solutions. Pressure The most common use is a pressure-electric (PE) switch where a fluid pressure activates electrical contacts in the device. Differential PE switches can be used to sense the flow of a fluid in ducts and in pipes. There are also pressure to electric transducers which will produce a proportional output electrical signal change relating to a varying input pressure. Devices are also used to measure static pressure in systems to control fluid flow. Pressure should never exceed the calibrated range of the instrument. Flow These devices measure flowrate, converting kinetic energy to a pressure differential. Measured differential pressure typically varies from a few inches of water to 10 or 20 psi. See Figure 3-2 for flow sensors. Accuracy or uncertainty is considered to be comprised of two components, that due to the systematize error and that due to the precision or random error. For direct calibration of the overall meter system which includes the differential pressure transmitter system, the upstream and downstream piping and suitable flow straightener, best accuracy is estimated to fall within the approximate range 0.2 to 0.5 percent. A vortex shedding meter, on the industrial scene since 1970, operates on the principles that the frequency of vortex shedding for fluid flow around a submersed object is proportional to the fluid stream velocity. Flowrate is measured by detecting this frequency. A big advantage for a building EMS application is that accurate measurement of the probe output is a much simpler measurement task than accurate measurement of a differential pressure type meter.
20
AND
Figure 3-2. Flow Sensors
A turbine meter contains a bladed rotor or turbine which rotates at a velocity proportional to volume rate of flow. Most models employ magnetic pick-offs in which the rotor blades vary the reluctance of a magnetic circuit which generates an AC voltage in the pick-off coil. The frequency is directly proportional to rotor speed. This frequency is sensed as an indication of flow. It can be counted by an electronic
21
Figure 3-2. Flow Sensors (Continued)
counter, or converted to an analog signal using voltage to frequency converter circuits. The calibration factor or meter factor is expressed in electrical pulses generated per unit volume of throughput, e.g. pulses/ gallon. The turbine meter has advantages of small size, repeatability, and a type of output which is digital in nature. These make the meter quite suitable for EMS applications.
22
AND
kW Meters kW Meters or watt hour meters are used to measure kW and kWh. Input voltage must match the meter rating. Meters can be solid state with non-resettable electromechanical display for local indication of kWh and a contact closure for remote signaling to an EMS. Watt hour transducers are also available which measure true watt-hours and provide a pulse output to drive counters or can signal an EMS.
ACTUATORS The actuator transforms electric- or pneumatic-coded instructions into mechanical responses. Actuators, which may be pneumatic, electric, electronic, or solid state, position controlled devices such as dampers or heating and cooling valves in response to signals received from the device controlling the actuator. Actuators may be either proportioning or modulating, with two position or snap action control. Depending on the required control sequence of operation, if either controlling air pressure or electric power is lost, actuators can fail in the normally open or normally closed position. Pneumatic actuators respond to controlling air pressure changes over a range of 3 to 15 psi (pounds per square inch); electric actuators respond to on/off electric signals from the controlling device. Proportioning electric actuators respond to changes in resistance from the controlling devices, generally over a 135 ohm range, or to changes over a 3 to 15 volt dc range for solid state actuators. 1. Electric Relays or contractors are designed for switching electrical loads such as air conditioning, compressors, and resistance heating appliances. Coils and contacts must be rated for the load they are controlling. Damper Operator/Actuators open and close dampers according to an electric, electronic, or pneumatic signal from a controller. Most operators are spring return to normal position. Operators can be installed externally or internally (inside a duct). Valve Operator/Actuators are the part of an automatic valve that moves the stem up and down based on an electric, electronic, or
2.
3.
23
pneumatic signal from a controller. For butterfly or other rotary valves, the operator rotates the stem. The operator and valve can be two separate devices or together they can be one device. 4. Transducers are electro-mechanical devices that can provide electric or pneumatic outputs which can be changed by the application of a varying electrical signal to its input. During the 1970s, such devices were sometimes referred to as an electro-pneumatic motor driven servo. 6 or 24 volt DC power was used as the applied power. Positive voltage applied to the integral motor rotated it in a clockwise direction causing an increase in output pressure (negative voltage = counterclockwise = decrease in output pressure). The magnitude of the pneumatic output change is directly proportional to the duration of the electric input signal. The output is used to reset or reposition pneumatic controlling receivers or controlled devices. Modern day transducers are sometimes 100% solid state using a piezoresistive silicon pressure sensor and an electropneumatic converter to provide the desired pneumatic output pressure. These units can be mounted in any orientation and do not require filtered air. They provide reliable, repeatable, and an accurate means of converting any analog signal into pneumatic pressure. Transducers are also manufactured to provide a 4 to 20 mA or 0 to 20 mA output proportional to the duration of the pulse input (pulse wave modulationPWM). Outputs may also be in the form of user selectable 0 to 10 V dc or 0 to 20 V dc depending on the end device requirements. See Figure 3-3 for actuator devices.
FIELD PANELS Field panels provide an interface between remote sensors and actuators. Today these are considered to be direct digital controller (DDC) panels. Previously they were simply data gathering panels which relayed information to a central minicomputer. DDCs serve as a point of consolidation for many sensor and control points. Each sensor or actuator represents one control point.
24
AND
Uncoded signals from sensors are received, coded, and sent to the DDC microprocessor. Conversely, coded information is received from the DDC, decoded, and sent back to the actuators. The number of control points that can be accommodated by a DDC panel varies from 4 to 200. Intelligent or smart DDCs have their own microprocessor to process information and respond with instructions. Many field panels are manufactured with a built-in keyboard and visual display. This is an item that should be specified for (at least) the primary or master panels located throughout a facility. If the panel is not equipped with this feature, maintenance workers will have to rely on a portable operator interface device which are cumbersome and easily left behind. Refer to Chapter 5 for additional information on digital controllers.
Pressure-electric relays
Pressure-electric switches
Figure 3-3. Actuator Devices
25
Valve actuators
Damper actuators
Electro-pneumatic Motor Driven Servo
Figure 3-3. Actuator Devices (Continued)
26
AND
Electro-pneumatic Transducer
Solid-state Piezoresistive Silicon Electropneumatic Converter
Figure 3-3. Actuator Devices (Continued)
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
27
Chapter 4
System Architecture
FRONT END BASED
MSs are described in this section more as a comparison as how a system of the early 1980s was designed and how it functions. In general, these systems have field panels installed at remote locations that are wired to a central computer. Field panels accept inputs from the remote sensors and deliver output signals to devices, however, all decisions and operating parameters reside at the central computer. For the most part, the field panels are dumb connection points. If the central computer is off line or if the connecting transmission wire is disconnected all control is lost and the entire system stops functioning.
DISTRIBUTED INTELLIGENCE EMS This type of system has a central computer and can control a large number of input-output points ranging from 50 to more than 2000 per system. Field interface is provided by field panels that have limited intelligence. These systems are capable of performing all EMS functions, although, not all systems use all functions. The central computer uses varying amounts of software storage, and tape or disc storage can be added to increase data-handling capacity. Operator access through a fixed terminal keyboard is routine. An alarm/logging printer is often provided. 27
28
AND
Field panels are equipped with read-only memory (ROM) in their software, which allows the panel to operate in a stand-alone limited mode in the event of a central computer failure. Battery backup is provided for the random access memory (RAM) content of the panel software and the real time clock. For single building control, dedicated twisted pairs of wires are generally used for data transmission media. Where groups of buildings are controlled, dedicated telephone lines and 1200 baud MODEMs are normally used between buildings; with twisted pairs used within buildings.
FULLY DISTRIBUTED EMS The major components in a fully distributed system are standalone, multi-function microprocessors that have ability to perform any combination of software functions described in Chapter 7. All necessary application software is located within the microprocessor close to the equipment being controlled. The microprocessors are powered with 120V and hardwired to all sensors and actuators with standard 24V wiring. The microprocessors are looped together using any of the data transmission methods described in Chapter 6 through either RS-232C or RS-422 communication ports. In most cases, a single communication link ties the microprocessor loop to a central operator station. This is complete stand-alone operation. There are several advantages associated with distributed systems. With the stand-alone feature, the initial investment can be limited, while expansion is virtually unlimited. Remote microprocessors provide local digital and analog input/output ports, allowing direct communication between the microprocessors and the sensors and actuators. Information is transmitted in digital form. Direct digital control (DDC) pulse width modulation lends itself to proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control. The central operator station that is often found with these systems is a convenient personal computer. It is used to download applications software to remote microprocessors, edit that software, troubleshoot the system, and monitor or report on conditions (See Figures 4-1 through 45).
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
29
Andover Controls Corporation

BASIC ARCHITECTURE
Figure 4-1. Andover Architecture
30
AND
Figure 4-2. Trane Architecture
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
Figure 4-3. Barber Colman Architecture
31
32
AND
Figure 4-4. Johnson Controls Architecture
DMS 350 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE IBM PC

PRINTER
OPERATOR WORKSTATION DMS 350
RS 232 PORTS (2)
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
DATA CC
HIGHWAY
TO OTHER DMS 350s (32 MAX)
TO OTHER DISTRIBUTED CONTROL MODULES (32 MAX) DCM

FANS BOILERS RS 485 TRUNK TEMPERATURE HUMIDITY 6 AI PRESSURE SMOKE DETECTOR SLAVE SLAVE 4 CO 4 CI RS 485 TRUNK 5 PO 5 PI DCM
TO OTHER DISTRIBUTED CONTROL MODULES (32 MAX)
4 CO 4 CI 6 AI
FILTER STATUS
6 AI
6 AI
DAMPER PNEU. SENSOR VALVE
5 PO 5 PI
5 PO 5 PI
MAIN LIGHTING PARKING LIGHTS
LIGHTING MODULE 4 CO 4 CI
5 PO 5 PI
LIGHTING MODULE 4 CO 4 CI
DCM Distributed Control Module CC TO OTHER SLAVES Communication Controller
TO OTHER SLAVES (UP TO 4000 FT. MAX.)
Figure 4-5. Robertshaw Architecture
33
34
AND
35
Chapter 5
Direct Digital Control

INTRODUCTION DC, which uses a digital computer with no moving parts, replaces both the conventional pneumatic control panel and the added energy management system. No control devices need to be adjusted or checked, because the microprocessor panel has no calibration or routine maintenance requirements. Operating instructions built into the software provide for simplicity and confidence of control. Cooling setpoints and strategies can be set in the winter and not tested, with complete assurance that the DDC system will perform as expected when summer arrives. Multiple digital control microprocessors, each operating its own piece of HVAC or other equipment, can be linked to a single desktop console at a central location. Through this one desktop unit, an operator has access to all important setpoints and operating strategies. Monitoring, troubleshooting, and energy management functions are all performed from the same central console. Applying a direct digital control computer to HVAC equipment requires only two considerations. The computer must be physically connected to the equipment and the computer must be given instructions via software on how to operate the equipment. A DDC computer must be connected to both sensors (such as temperature sensors) and controlled devices (such as valve operators). Sensors are connected to the computer using two kinds of inputs, analog and binary. An analog input is a variable input that could be a temperature, pressure, or relative humidity reading. A binary input is a two-
35
36
AND
mode input that is either on or off at any given time, such as a motor status, filter status, or contacts with an electrical demand meter. Controlled devices are connected to the computer using digital and analog outputs. A binary output is a two-mode output, either on or off at a given time. The time duration of either mode can be computer controlled to vary between a fractional part of a second to a full on or full off. A binary output could control a fan or pump motor or a lighting circuit. Using pulse-width modulation, it could also control a valve or damper actuator. Pulse-width modulation used bi-directional (open/ close) pulses of varying time duration to position controlled devices exactly as required to satisfy demand. Wide pulses are used for major corrections, such as changes in setpoint or start-up conditions. Pulse width becomes progressively shorter as less correction is required to obtain the desired control setpoint. Analog output is a variable output that might range, for example, between zero and ten volts. This is not usually needed with direct digital control because pulse-width modulation, using binary outputs, is a simpler and more accurate technique directly compatible with the binary form the computer uses internally to store information. Control of valves and dampers is very accurate with DDC because of proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control, perfected years ago in the process control field. PID control techniques provide fast, responsive operation of a heating valve, for example, by reacting to temperature changes in three ways: the difference between setpoint and actual temperature (proportional), the length of time the difference has existed (integral), and the rate of temperature change (derivative) (See Figure 5-1). PID saves energy and increases accuracy at the same time by eliminating hunting and offset by decreasing overshooting of a given temperature and minimizing the amount of time required to settle at the desired temperature. Once connections to the equipment (analog and binary inputs and outputs) have been made, the DDC microprocessor must be given instructions to operate the controlled devices. These instructions are in the form of software programs (application packages) with various control options and setpoints, all of which reside in the microprocessors memory. Software, though, is what primarily determines the ultimate capability of a DDC system. The changeable portions of a computers memory provide a user flexibility of control far greater than that avail-
DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL 5-1. P.I.D. Control

PROPORTIONAL CONTROL INTRODUCTION TO PID
37
ProportionalIntegral-Derivative Control One of the most common terms heard in connection with todays Direct Digital Control systems is PID; an acronym for Proportional-Integral-Derivative control. An intimidating sounding term, PID simply refers to the 3 types of control action that are used in the control of modulating Figure 5-1a equipment such as: valves, dampers, variable speed devices etc. Surprisingly the concepts behind the 3 control actions are quite straight forward and easily grasped. Gaining an understanding of PID and its usage in control systems will provide a valuable insight into the operation of modulating control loops. Proportional Control - the P of PIDis a technique where a control signal is produced based on the difference between an actual and a desired condition (i.e. a setpoint and an actual temperature). This difference is known as the error. The control device creates an output signal that is directly related to the magnitude of the error, hence the name Proportional control. Basic Proportional control is typical of that found in conventional closed loop temperature control systems. The weakness of Proportional Control is that it requires the existence of a significant error condition to create an output signal. Because of this, proportional-only control can never actually achieve the desired condition. Some small amount of error will always be present. This error is referred to as the OFFSET of the system. Integral action is directed specifically at the elimination of Offset. Because the magnitude of an offset is relatively small, it cannot generate a significant change in the control signal by itself. An integrating term is used to look at how long the error condition has existed, in effect summing the error over time. The value produced by this summation becomes the basis for an additional control
(Continued)
38
AND
5-1. P.I.D. Control (Continued)

signal, which is added to the signal produced by the proportional term. The result is that the control loop continues to produce a control action over time, allowing it to eliminate Offset. With Proportional-Integral control we have the ability to: 1. Respond to the presence of an error in the control loop. 2. Relate the magnitude of the control signal to the magnitude of the error. 3. Respond to the existence of offset over time to achieve zero error or setpoint. Figure 5-1b shows the control response typically produced with Proportional-Integral control. The significant difference is the elimination of Offset once the system has stabilized. At this point one other major factor often present in modulating control loops still needs to be addressed. That factor is Overshoot. Overshoot refers to the tendency of a control loop to over compensate for an error condition, resulting in a new error in the opposite direction. As an example, consider a room with a setpoint of 72 degrees and an actual temperature of 68. A proportional controller would respond to this error by sending a control signal of some magnitude to the damper supplying warm air to the room. As the room heats up the magnitude of the control signal to the damper is reduced, but not until the room reaches setpoint would the control signal eliminate further heat input by closing the PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL CONTROL damper. At this point however the thermal inertia of the room causes the temperature to continue to rise for some period of time. The result is that the room overshoots the setpoint becoming warmer than desired. The room now requires cooling in order to return to setpoint. The Overshoot phenomenon not only impacts comfort but also results in energy waste due to overheating and overcooling. Derivative action (the D in PID) is
Figure 5-1b
(Continued)
DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL 5-1. P.I.D. Control (Continued)
39
PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL DERIVATIVE CONTROL
Figure 5-1c
designed to address Overshoot. It provides an anticipatory function that exerts a braking action on the control loop. The Derivative term is based on the rate of change of the error. It looks at how fast the actual condition is approaching the desired condition and produces a control action based on this rate of change. This additional control action anticipates the convergence of the actual and desired conditions, in effect counteracting the control signal produced by the Proportional and Integral terms. The effect is a significant reduction
in overshoot. Combined, Proportional, Integral and Derivative action provide quick response to error, close adherence to setpoint, and control stability, as seen in Figure 4. Notice the reduction in Overshoot and elimination of Offset. (Proportional Integral Control Signal) Application of PID in Building Control While the theory behind PID control is not new there has been a dramatic increase in its use due to the relative ease with which todays building control systems can implement it. Once available only in expensive process control computers, the software features of todays building control systems can provide Proportional, Proportional Integral and Proportion-Integral-Derivative action where needed, with relatively simple programming instructions. The increased availability of PID control is to a large extent responsible for the dramatic improvements in control precision seen with the use of building control systems. Control loops such as Chiller Capacity Control, Static Pressure Control. Discharge Air Temperature Control, etc. can all be controlled reliably and precisely using PM action, providing improved operating efficiency over that available with conventional control systems.
40
AND
able from pneumatic control devices. This flexibility allows changing any setpoint of control strategy without interrupting system operation. DDC software, for control of HVAC and other building systems, falls into seven basic categories. Sensor reading programs measure temperature, relative humidity, flow, pressure, lighting level and do other things including conversion, linearization, and square roots. They also read switch inputs (two position on/off) and totalize pulsing units (such as from power meters) to measure energy consumption. On/off control programs operate start-stop devices according to analog sensor values, such as turning on at one temperature and off at another; switch inputs, such as manual override and device status indication; and time, as in occupied and unoccupied schedules for HVAC and lighting. Modulating control programs operate variable position devices, such as valves and dampers, based on a constant, fixed setpoint, and a reset schedule. An example would be resetting hot water supply temperatures based on the outside air temperature. First generation DDC controllers accomplished adjust commands using proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control in 2 different methods. One method requires a feedback signal from the servo device in order to re-adjust a control command from the PID controller. The controlled variable is compared to the command or setpoint. The PID controller then calculates how far to move from the previous spot in order to get to setpoint. It then takes the appropriate and corrective actions to get to that spot. Seeing how re-adjusts are done, this is closed loop control. This method is used when programming needs the servo feedback variable value in order to accomplish hardware sequencing, hardware minimum positioning, etc. The second method of control is simply to make an adjustment based on the difference between setpoint and variable. At predetermined time intervals the variable is then retested to determine the amount of change which has occurred. This value is then used to recalculate how much further to re-adjust to obtain setpoint. This process continues until deadband is reached. Both methods use proportional, integral, and derivative gain terms in their calculations. Both methods use PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) techniques. PWM changes its positioning device or servo by sending an output of variable time length to drive a motor which varies a pneumatic or electric operator.
41
Present-day PID controllers can use the PWM method of control but also can use Analog control. Analog PID controllers can be tuned for each loops individual characteristics. The servos are integral to the analog output, therefore, the output value is presented directly to the electric or pneumatic operator. This value is calibrated to be in direct proportion to the range of the controlled variable. For example, if the controlled variable is 3 degrees away from setpoint, the system knows that an increase of x percent will open or close the actuator the correct amount to move the controlled variable directly to setpoint. The PID controller knows this because the throttling range of the actuator is calibrated for 0.0 to 100.0 percent. PID loop tracking learns the values needed to generate the precise output value. The value of the PID commanded output is the actual percentage of actuator open position. For example, if the commanded output value is 68.0 percent, the actuator will be 68.0 percent open, considering there are no failures in the actuators themselves. This value may be read directly by the DDC for monitoring position, or can be ranged to an Analog Data point which can change the readout to any value however no additional hardware is required as in first generation DDCs with the PID feature. Changing the readout value requires additional software points and software generation. Outputs may be 0-20 mA, 0-10 vdc, or 0-20 psi, with any range of values between these minimums and maximums. Current, modern day DDC with Analog PID is by far the best method of DDC reset control. The advantages are more accurate control with little or no hunting, and the elimination of the old reset servo devices which increases the chances of mechanical failures over time. High level optimizing programs are used for pieces of equipment with multiple control loops and considerations, especially air handling unit optimization (including VAV systems with or without return fan tracking and guaranteeing minimum outside air ventilation) and chiller and boiler plant optimization. Another category of programming is for energy management optimizing routines, such as load deferral (demand limiting and duty cycling), optimizing start/stop; and enthalpy changeover from air handling units. Alarm and reporting programs provide critical and routing alarms, data and trend logging, and energy reports. Finally, operator interface programs can display floor plans and equipment locations, display equipment schematics and real time oper-
42
AND
ating data, and provide simplified menu-driven operation. All temperature control, energy management, and automation functions can be accomplished with these software categories.
ADJUST COMMANDS Adjust commands on older systems were done strictly via operator commands from the central computer. When a command was given the system would compare the difference between the command and the actual position of a position of a potentiometer located in a servo type of device. The system would then send out a voltage of the proper polarity in order to force the servo feedback to match the command. This was typically done on a one shot basis meaning that if the two values did not match after one try, no other commands were issued automatically. The operator would be required to resend another command. The output of this servo was generally pneumatic, but in some cases was electric. The pressure output was in no way related to the feedback readout other than by mechanical means. The range of pressure output was not adjustable. If the setpoint of a pneumatic controller was being reset, the only indication of real setpoint was the actual value of the variable being adjusted. No controlled loop actions took place. Later systems became more sophisticated in that the feedback for its adjust commands was the actual temperature itself. The operator command was a temperature or humidity etc. which the system compared to the controlled variable for determination of how far to move the servo device. This method was a step toward closed loop control but was not actually because the system did no re-adjusting in order to force the controlled variable to the command. In this case the output pressure ranges were adjustable but the output value did not reflect setpoint or position. The controlled variable was the only indication of setpoint or position.
ADVANTAGES The decision to use DDC can be based on the expected value of both energy and labor cost savings. DDC saves significant energy dol-
43
lars through accurate control and by maintaining setpoint adjustments that do not change with time. Since DDC integrates temperature control and energy management in the same system, comfort consideration can be incorporated into more sophisticated energy management programs, such as demand limiting by temperature and duty cycling within deadband setpoint. Advanced control functions are available with the microprocessor. A prime example would be calculating minimum percent outside air, using outdoor, return, and mixed air temperature sensors. Large energy savings can be realized in this way, since almost all other control systems invariably use too much outside air. Once again, a small error here produces substantial waste of heating or cooling Btus. With air volume systems, minimum ventilation requirements can be guaranteed to prevent complaints resulting from stale air and improve indoor air quality. The reliability, accuracy, and convenience of DDC reduces labor required for HVAC maintenance and allows for reassigning personnel to other important functions. DDC requires both hardware and software. The hardware must be reliable, industrial grade, and engineered to interface with equipment. The software must be of a design proven to be comprehensive, flexible, and easy to use. DDC improves building operation in four ways. It reduces energy consumption, reduces HVAC maintenance labor, improves and assures occupant comfort, and provides greater operating convenience. DDC provides enormous control flexibility and very accurate information. It allows building operators to reduce costs and provide better services at the same time. And the life-long accuracy of DDC overcomes the inevitable decay of other controls. Computer technology has finally come of age in its ability to simplify and improve building systems control. The cost per point for the DDC system is usually higher than that of the other classes, but the following additional benefits are often sufficient to justify the extra cost. 1. DDC systems are expandable in terms of the number of points able to be monitored, software packages available, and operational functions. They are more reliable than pneumatic control systems.
2.
44 3.
AND
Failure of the central operator station computer does not upset the individual control units because satellite microprocessors are programmed to stand alone in such cases. Larger operator station computer memory allows building management to use a preventive maintenance program and perform energy audits for the different buildings or areas of a single building. Electronic components are usually available from several computer manufacturers. This has the advantage that the customer is not restricted to a particular company for equipment maintenance, and, in most cases, results in a reduction in the operation cost of the system. Although the initial cost of DDC systems is relatively higher, the payback period is comparable with those of smaller systems. In most cases, DDCs do not reduce manpower requirements, but a central operator-controlled system can assist in making building management and maintenance personnel more efficient, particularly when implementing effective preventive maintenance programs.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Microprocessors are quickly becoming a cost-effective method of system control offering a superior system of distributed intelligence. They minimize host computer requirements, increase the speed and accuracy of control, and drastically reduce system maintenance requirements.
45
5-2. Pneumatic Vs DDC-D/N Stat
46
AND
NETWORKING
47
Chapter 6
Networking
arly methods of remote monitoring or communicating between two distant points relied on single pneumatic tubes or low voltage electronic circuits to relay information. During the 1970s scanners were used with multiple systems to simultaneously transmit two or more messages on a single channel electronically, however, response time was slow and if the central processor failed, the entire system was down. Also during the 1970s, data communications companies, realizing that obsolescence had overtaken conventional computer networks having one large central computer with several remote terminals connected to it by telephone lines, determined that distributed data processing was shown to be a more efficient way to do the job. Distributed processing, in brief, replaces the one large central computer with multiple smaller computers, or microprocessors, geographically or functionally separated, which cooperate in the support of user requirements. Connection between the multiple microprocessor and the other devices in the network is through various common carriers or private transmission methods. Today, in the HVAC-EMS business, the transition from centralized EMSs to distributed networks, enters the data communications world. Data Communicationsthe transmission of words or symbols from a source to a destinationis no longer exclusive to the business world. Its pervasive impact is now being felt in the HVAC-EMS profession. Understanding the explanations of bits, bytes, baud rate, LAN, ARCNET, token ring network, IBM-PS/2, modems, RS-485, peer-to-peer, as well as a host of other communications terms will assist the EMS user to understand their EMS. 47
48
AND
LAN (LOCAL AREA NETWORK) TOPOLOGY During recent years, EMS manufacturers have been using explanations to describe their systems such as: The System X Facility Management System utilizes a unique tiered LAN architecture and a family of intelligent Distributed Control Units System X is based around the use of multiple token passing LANs functioning in a tiered environment. This open-ended architecture allows the system (1988-Control Systems International, Carrollton, Texas). A built-in RS-485 communication trunk is provided a second RS-485 trunk is provided to control universal points high speed 64 kilobits per second peer-to-peer LAN option enables fast system-wide response to (1989-Barber-Colman, Loves Park, Illinois). The LAN selected uses industry standard ARCNET, which is a token bus network transmitting at 2.5 Megabits to all devices called nodes which a second bus is based on RS-485 and Opto22s Optomux protocol, which uses a baseband, 9600 baud, ASII character for its signaling method and (1990-Johnson Controls, Inc., Milwaukee, Wisconsin). Network protocol is IBM SDLC operating at a speed of 1,000,000 Baud communication ports consist of (2) RS232C smart controllers with (1) optional RS232/RS485 port for (1989-Delta Controls, Inc., Surrey, British Columbia, Canada). LAN, in its most basic form, is a data communication facility providing high-speed switched connections between processors, peripherals, and terminals within a single building or between buildings. The ideal LAN would be an information distribution system that is as easy to use as the conventional AC power distribution system in a building. Thus, adding a data terminal, processor, or peripheral to a local area network should require nothing more than plugging it into a conveniently located access port. Once plugged in, it should communicate intelligently with any other device on the network. This ideal system is summarized by the features that make the AC power system so easy to use:
NETWORKING 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. One-time installation. Widespread access. Application independence. Excess capacity. Easy maintenance and administration.
49
If an information distribution system were available with all the desirable properties listed above, it would mean that telephones, data terminals, printers, and storage devices could be moved as easily as unplugging and plugging in a lamp. Moreover, the equipment could be supplied by a variety of vendors. Although, such an ideal system does not now exist, local area networks of several forms represent some of the first steps in the development of such a system. There are four major obstacles that must be overcome in the development of the ideal LAN: No Single Standard Due to the continually changing status of LANs and competitive nature of the vendors, a variety of local area network standards exist both official and de facto. The situation is improving, however, because even the dominant suppliers who have been protecting their proprietary interfaces are being pressured by a maturing market to release interface specifications. Diverse Requirements The communications needs of a modern office building include voice, video, high-speed data, low-speed data, energy management, fire alarm, security, electronic mail, etc. These systems present transmission requirements that vary greatly in terms of data rates, acceptable delivery delays, reliability requirements, and error rate tolerance. Costly Transmission Media Being able to deliver tens of megabits per second to one device and only a few bits per second to another implies that the lower rate devices are burdened with a costly transmission media. The best economic solution must involve a hierarchical network design (one with stepped levels of capacity) that allows twisted pair connections for low and medium data rate devices (a low
50
AND
step) feeding into a backbone high bandwidth transmission system (a higher step) such as coaxial cable or optical fibers. However, one must be careful so that the cost of active components used for getting on and off the network does not outweigh the lower fiber costs. Sophisticated Functional Requirements Providing a network with the desired data rates and distances is only one item that must be considered in the data communications problem. Before one data device can communicate intelligently with another, numerous higher level communications functions must be compatible. These include codes, formats, error control, addressing, routing, flow control, access control, configuration management, and cost allocations. The first, most important non-proprietary data communications network to technically qualify as a LAN was Ethernet (a trademark of Xerox Corp.). The coaxial cable used in Ethernet can handle transmissions at 10 Mbs over one channel. A channel is defined as a physically independent direct pathway between two devices or separate carrier frequency on the same path. The Ethernet architecture is based in concept on a system that allows multiple distributed devices to communicate with each other over a single radio channel using a satellite as a transponder. One station communicates with another by waiting until the radio channel is idle (determined by carrier sensing) and then sending a packet of data with a destination address, source address, and redundant check bits to detect transmission errors. All idle stations continuously monitor incoming data and accept those packets with their address and valid check sums. Whenever a station receives a new packet, the receiving station returns and acknowledgment to the source. If an originating station receives no acknowledgment within a specified time interval, it retransmits the packet under the assumption that the previous packet was interfered with by noise or by a transmission from another station at the same time. (The latter situation is referred to as a collision, which is overcome by networks using a baseband protocol called CSMA/CE Carrier Sensed Multiple Access/Collision Detection.) The Ethernet employs the same basic system concept using coaxial cable distribution throughout a building or between multiple buildings. See Figure 6-1.
NETWORKING
51
Because access to the Ethernet involves a certain amount of contention (competition) between stations trying to send a message at the same time, the behavior of the network must be analyzed and controlled in a statistical manner. Token passing networks, on the other hand, provide a different access procedure. Access is determined by which station has the token; that is, only one station at a time, the one with the token, is given the opportunity to seize the channel. The token is passed from one idle station to another until a station with a pending message receives it. After the message is sent, the token is passed to the next station. In essence, a token passing network is a distributed polling network. Two basic topologies (configurations or arrangements) exist for token passing networks: Token Passing Rings and Token Passing Buses. In a token passing ring, shown in Figure 6-2, the closed loop topology
6-1. Ethernet Configuration
52
AND
defines the logical topology (that is, the order in which the token is circulated). A token passing bus, shown in Figure 6-3, has more operational flexibility because the token passing order is defined by tables in each station. If a station (for example, a printer) never originates communications, it will be a terminate-only station and need not be in the polling sequence. If a station needs a high priority, it can appear more than once in the polling sequence. The forerunner of token passing networks in the U.S. is the Attached Resource Computer Network, ARCNet, developed by Datapoint Corporation. Figure 6-2. Token Passing Ring Initially, the network and protocol were kept proprietary, but the data link protocol, interface specs, and even integrated circuits were made publicly available in 1982. Functionally, the
Figure 6-3. Token Passing Bus
NETWORKING
53
ARCNet is a token passing bus, but the physical topology, shown in Figure 6-4, is a hybrid bus/star. Rather than distribute taps along a linear bus as suggested in Figure 6-3, the ARCNet uses hubs with individual ports to connect Resource Interface Modules (RIMS) to the transmission media. The hub based architecture is an effective means of controlling the signal quality because the hub isolates each RIM port from the main coaxial cable. Unidirectional (one-way) amplifiers in the hubs provide zero insertion loss and suppress reflections because only one direction of transmission is enabled at a time. Amplifier switching is possible because a token passing network only transmits in one direction at a time. The ARCNet interconnects the hubs and RIMs with RG62 coaxial cable using baseband transmission at 2.5 Mbps (baseband vs. broadband: limits on baseband include less than 10 Mbps, low frequency, twisted pair/coax less than 2 miles; limits on broadband include greater
Figure 6-4. ARCNET Configuration
54
AND
than 10 Mbps, digital and analog, and long distances). Although 2.5 Mbps is a relatively low data rate, ARCNet uses inexpensive coax and can be configured (laid out) with as much as four miles between stations. The cable length between a hub and a RIM is limited to 2000 feet, but a four-mile span can have up to a maximum of ten hubs in a series path. Local area network standards (as with other communication standards) get established in two ways: by dominant manufacturers who attract plug compatible competitors, and by official standards organizations. The leading official standards organization for LANs in the U.S. is the IEEE 802 Standards Committee. This committee has several working groups responsible or establishing these LAN standards: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 802.1 Coordinating the interface between OSI Levels 1 & 2 with the five higher level layers. 802.2 Logical data link standard similar to HDLC and ADCCP. 802.3 CSMA/CS standard similar to Ethernet. 802.4 Token Bus standard. 802.5 Token Ring standard.
Each of the LAN system architectures presented previously have unique technical and operational advantages and disadvantages. No presently available single LAN system architecture can economically satisfy the needs of all communications within a building or between multiple buildings. Nor is it likely that one system will ever evolve to economically fulfill these needs. Thus, there will always be a need for either separate systems tailored to specific applications or possibly hybrid systems employing the best features of selected individual architectures. EMS manufacturers that apply these hybrid-type systems will be one step ahead of the competition. (See Figure 6-5 and 6-6).
MEDIA/TRANSMISSION METHODS Transmission MethodsGeneral A number of different transmission systems and media can be used in an EMS for communications between the field panels and Central
NETWORKING
55
operator station. These transmission systems include twisted pairs, voice grade telephone lines, coaxial cables, electrical power lines, radio frequency, and fiber optics. (See Figure 6-7). Twisted pairs A twisted pair consists of two insulated conductors twisted together to minimize interference by unwanted signals. Twisted pairs can carry information over a wide range of speeds depending on line characteristics. To maintain a particular data communication rate, the line bandwidth or the signal to noise ratio may require adjustment by conditioning the line. Twisted pairs are permanently hardwired lines between the equipment sending and receiving data, or switched lines routed through the telephone network. Switched lines have signaling noise, such as ring signals within the data bandwidth, that can cause impulse noise resulting in data errors. The nominal bandwidth of unconditioned twisted pairs is between 300 and 3000 Hz. For each Hz of available bandwidth, 2 bps can be transmitted. A twisted pair with a bandwidth of 2400 Hz can support a 4800 bps data rate. Hardwired twisted pairs must be conditioned in order to obtain operating speeds up to 9600 bps. Data transmission in twisted pairs, in most cases, is limited to 1200 bps or less. Voice Grade Lines Voice grade lines used for data transmission are twisted pair circuits defined as type 3002 in the Bell Telephone Company publication standard BSP 41004. The 3002 type line can be used for data transmission up to 9600 bps with the proper line conditioning. The most common voice grade line used for data communication is the unconditioned type 3002 that allows transmission rates up to 1200 bps. Voice grade lines must be used with the same constraints and guidelines as for twisted pairs. Coaxial Cable Coaxial cable consists of a center conductor surrounded by a shield. The center conductor is separated from the shield by a dielectric. The shield protects against electromagnetic interference. Coaxial cables can operate at data transmission rates in the megabits per second range. Attenuation becomes greater as the data transmission rate increases. The
56
AND
Figure 6-5. C.S.I.LAN
NETWORKING
INTRODUCTION The System 7000 Facility Management System utilizes a unique tiered Local Area Network (LAN) architecture and a family of intelligent Distributed Control Units (DCUs) to provide a control network of as few as 100 points or as many as 100,000 points. This allows for centralized command and control of many widely distributed processes with unprecedented reliability and speed. HOST LAN At the top of this tiered LAN architecture is one or more Host LANs. A single host LAN can support a single PC work station or as many as eight (8) PC work stations. All work stations are communicating over a single pair of wires on the Host LAN in a multitasking/multi-user environment with one or more controller LANs. Utilizing the Host LAN structure, one or more work stations may communicate with over 1,000 remote controller LANs, each capable of supporting 63 Distributed Control Units. The Host LAN, as well as the controller LAN utilizes a CSI proprietary protocol for LAN communications. Equipment not designed for direct communication with the LAN must utilize a gateway or TAP into the LAN. These firmware specific TAPs provide for messaging, protocol conversion, AA/AD (Auto Answer/Auto Dial) and much more.
OVERVIEW The System 7000 is based around the use of multiple token passing LANs functioning in a tiered environment. This open ended architecture allows the system to support hundreds of terminal work stations and tens of thousands of points with response times not found in todays systems.
57
58
AND
Figure 6-6. J.C.I.LAN

INDUSTRY STANDARD ARCNET ARCNET is a token bus network Initially developed by Datapoint Corporation as a very fast, 2.5 Megabit communications link for computer-to-computer connections. The technology was licensed to third party electronics firms to manufacture ARCNET control chips, making low cost token passing networks readily available to many industries. It wasnt long before ARCNET moved from the office to the shop, as system integrators realized that the networks reliability, noise immunity, predictability, and low cost were perfect for allowing automated machines to communicate with each other on the factory floor. Growth in demand led to second sourcing of the control chips, and the development of new configuration and cabling options. As many more manufacturers adopted the use
NETWORKING
59
Figure 6-6. J.C.I.LAN (Continued)

of ARCNET in their systems, the ARCNET Trade Association was formed to provide a user forum for maintaining standards, coordinating connectivity issues, and charting future growth. ARCNET has now become a de facto industry standard, with over 1,000,000 connected devices worldwide. TOKEN BUS In ARCNET, devices connected to the network are called nodes, which are addressed from 1 to 255. Access to the network is controlled by a token which is passed around the network, going from each node to the node with the next address. When a node has the token, it may broadcast a message to any other node before passing the token on. This message is received simultaneously by all other nodes, but only responded to by the node to which the message was addressed. This scheme allows all devices on the network to operate on a peer-to-peer basis, which means the network is not dependent on any single device for nodes to share information. Token passing is also deterministic, which means that the maximum amount of time it takes for a message to be sent from one node to another is predictable, even under heavy communication traffic conditions. It also guarantees that every node has access to the network on an equal basis. ARCNET is self-configuring. If a node should fail, it is automatically removed from the token passing sequence so that communication is maintained uninterrupted among the remaining nodes. When a new node is added, or a failed node recovers, ARCNET immediately recognizes the node and adds it into the token passing sequence. Should the communication trunk be severed, both halves of the network are automatically reconfigured Into two separate networks, each with the ability to maintain peer-to-peer communications among the connected nodes. Network Control Units and Operator Workstations are ARCNET nodes in Metasys. NCUs optionally have an ARCNET communication circuit integrated within the Network Control Module. For an Operator Workstation, an ARCNET communication card is installed in a PC to allow the computer access to the network. ARCNET cards are manufactured by both Johnson Controls and other vendors.
60
AND
COPPER WIRE PAIRS Separately insulated Twisted together Usually installed in buildings when built Often bundled into cables Bandwidth limited to approximately 50 kHz 1 twisted pair = 2-wire circuit = 1 local loop
2 twisted pairs = 4-wire ckt.
COAXIAL CABLE
INNER CONDUCTOR OUTER COATING
INSULATION
Outter conducter braided shield Inner conductor solid metal Separated by insulating material Covered by padding (some does not meet fire code)
OPTICAL FIBER
CLADDING ELECTRICAL SIGNAL ELECTRICAL SIGNAL
LIGHT SOURCE
CORE
LIGHT DETECTOR ISOLATION SMALL SIZE, WEIGHT
HIGH DATA RATE IMMUNITY TO NOISE
Figure 6-7. Transmission Media
NETWORKING
61
transmission rates are limited by the data transmission equipment and not by the cable. Regenerative repeaters are required at specific intervals depending on the data rate, nominally every 2000 feet to maintain the signal at usable levels. Power Lines Data can be transmitted to remote locations over electric power system lines using carrier current transmission that superimposes a low power RF signal, typically 100 kHz, onto the 60 Hz power distribution system. Since the RF carrier signal cannot operate across transformers, all communicating devices must be connected to the same power circuit (same transformer secondary and phase) unless RF couplers are installed across transformers and phases permitting the transmitters and receivers to be connected over a wider area of the power system. RF Modulated RF can be used as a data transmission method with the installation of radio receivers and transmitters. The use of RF must be coordinated with the communications department to avoid interference with other facility RF systems. MODEMS must be provided at each receiver-transmitter location. FM is used in most cases because it is not susceptible to amplitude related interference. Fiber Optics Fiber optics uses the wideband properties of infrared light traveling through transparent fibers. Fiber optics is a reliable communications media which is rapidly becoming cost competitive when compared to other high speed transmission methods. It is best suited for point-topoint high speed data transmission. The bandwidth of this media is virtually unlimited, and extremely high data transmission rates can be obtained. The signal attenuation of high quality fiber optic cable is far lower than the best coaxial cables. Repeaters required nominally every 2000 feet for coaxial cable, are 3 to 6 miles apart in fiber optic systems. Fiber optics must be carefully installed and cannot be bent at 90 right angles. Additional benefits include features such as space savings in conduits and freedom from EMI interference. However, on the other hand, splicing is difficult and there is the requirement of convertors to get off the fiber optic network. See Table 6-1 for a comparison of transmission methods.
62
Table 6-1. Transmissions MethodsComparison Compatibility First Scan Maint. With Future Method Cost Rates Reliability Effort Expandability Requirements Coaxial high fast excellent min. unlimited unlimited high med. very good min. unlimited very limited high low fast but limited very fast excellent high min. low to high slow med. limited very limited
Twisted pair
RF
AND
Microwave very high very low
unlimited limited
unlimited limited
Telephone
Fiber optics high very fast excellent min. unlimited unlimited
NETWORKING MODEMS
63
MODEM is an acronym for modulator/demodulator. The MODEM is analogous to a telephone set, which converts the voice to an electric signal at one end of a wire and converts the signal back to sound at the other end of the wire. MODEMs can communicate between field panels and controllers when the controller is separate from the field panel. MODEMS are also used to communicate with an EMS from a remote location. Upon receiving a signal from a sensor or controller, the MODEM imposes the information in binary form onto carrier waves. These waves convey information over communication links known as data transmission media. The information is imposed on the wave by altering, or modulating, the wave form; it is then extracted from the wave by demodulating. In the case of a digital signal from a sensor this process is straightforward. Analog signals from sensors require analog/ digital converters to condition the signal prior to modulation, MODEMs are characterized by transmission speed and the way in which modulation is accomplished. There are two basic modulation classificationsbaseband and broadband. Baseband MODEMs convert data into binary form using differential current impulses for transmission. However, baseband is not true modulation because a carrier wave is not modulated. At any point in time, data transmission along an individual communication link is limited to a single signal and one direction. Baseband MODEMs are also known as line drivers, local MODEMs, short-distance MODEMs shorthaul MODEMs, or digital line adapters. They are 50 to 90% less costly than broadband and are ideal for short-range work. In addition, they can operate at higher speeds, have fewer internal parts, and are not subject to errors common in true modulation techniques. Baseband MODEMs are limited to ranges of two to three miles. When used with dedicated lines, the lines must have dc continuity -and cannot have loading coils. In addition, baseband modulation is highly susceptible to interference when used with existing communication lines. In broadband modulation, the frequency, amplitude, or phase characteristics of the carrier wave are modulated. Frequency shift key (FSK) modulation is most often used with an EMS. In FSK, carrier wave frequency is increased to represent a binary one and decreased to represent a binary zero. Similarly, in amplitude modification (AM) and in
64
AND
phase modulation (PM), the amplitude and the phase, respectively, are increased or decreased accordingly. The amount of data coded on the signal can be increased by selecting four or eight values (or more) for the characteristic being modulated; this is not generally done with FSK. With broadband modulation more than one signal can be sent at one time and data can be transmitted in both directions simultaneously. EMS terminology also includes pulse width modulation (PWM). PWM is a means of directly transmitting digital information; the information is never coded in binary form and MODEMs are not involved. PWM is used with direct digital control systems and is discussed under Chapter 5. The speed of data transmission is measured in bits per second, which are single binary digits, or in bauds. For EMS applications, one baud is one bit per second, and speeds of 300, 1200, and 9600 baud are used. High-speed MODEMs (9600 baud) are normally used when transmission is confined to one building. Lower speeds are used between buildings; 1200 baud is the prevalent speed. To summarize, by modulating and demodulating the characteristics of a carrier wave, MODEMs impose and extract data onto and from wave forms transmitted over the data transmission media. There are two classes of modulation: baseband, used to transmit minimum amounts of data short distances; and broadband, used for longer distances and larger amounts of data. While there are three types of broadband modulation, the one most often used with EMS is frequency shift keying. Data transmission speeds can also vary; the speeds most common for EMS application are 9600 baud within buildings and 1200 baud between buildings.
SOFTWARE/APPLICATION PROGRAMS
65
Chapter 7
Software/Application Programs
INTRODUCTION oftware packages designed for EMS consist of one or more money-saving programs that contribute to energy conservation through efficient energy management. These programs interact continuously to operate as an integrated system. Consequently, the net energy savings is the sum of their contributions, making it difficult to determine the savings from each program. The following programs perform most of the functions used to save money and energy in buildings.
PROGRAMS Scheduled Start/Stop The scheduled-start/stop program consists of starting and stopping equipment based on the time of day and day of week. Scheduled start/stop is the simplest of all EMS functions to implement. This program provides potential for energy conservation by turning off equipment or systems during unoccupied hours. In addition to sending a start/stop command, it is important to have a feedback signal indicating the status (on-off or open-closed) of the controlled equipment. The feedback signal verifies that the command has been carried out and provides the EMS operator with an alarm when the equipment fails or is locally started or stopped. 65
66
AND
(Application notes.) The scheduled start/stop program operates in conjunction with optimum start/stop, day/night setback, ventilation/ recirculation, and lighting control programs. Optimum Start/Stop The scheduled start/stop program described can be refined by automatically adjusting the equipment operating schedule in accordance with space temperature and outside air (OA) temperature and humidity. HVAC systems are normally restarted prior to occupancy to cool down or heat up the space on a fixed schedule independent of OA and space conditions. The optimum start/stop program automatically starts and stops the system on a sliding schedule. The program will automatically evaluate the thermal inertia of the structure, the capacity of the HVAC system to either increase or reduce space temperatures, and OA conditions. This accurately determines the minimum time of HVAC system operation needed to satisfy the space environmental requirements at the start of the occupied cycle, and determines the earliest time for stopping equipment at the days end. (Application notes.) The optimum start/stop program operates in conjunction with the scheduled start/stop program, day/night setback, and ventilation/recirculation programs. Duty Cycling Duty cycling is defined as the shutting down of equipment for predetermined short periods of time during normal operating hours. This function is normally only applicable to HVAC systems. Duty cycling operation is based on the presumption that HVAC systems seldom operate at peak design conditions. If the system is shut off for a short period of time, it has enough capacity to overcome the slight temperature drift which occurs during the shutdown period. Although the interruption does not reduce the energy required for space heating or cooling, it does reduce energy input to auxiliary loads such as fans and pumps. Duty cycling also reduces outside air heating and cooling loads since the outside air intake damper is closed (under local loop control) while an air handling unit is off. (Application notes.) (1) The duty cycling program is used in conjunction with demand limiting, schedule start/stop, and optimum start/ stop programs. (2) Duty cycling is not advisable for variable capacity loads such as variable volume fans, chillers, or variable capacity pumps.
67
Demand Limiting Demand Limiting consists of shedding electrical loads to prevent exceeding an electrical demand peak value (target). This prevents an increase in electrical rates where demand oriented rate schedules apply. Peak demand contract values are established by the utility company using fixed demand intervals, sliding window intervals, and time of day schedules. Many complex schemes exist for reducing peak demand billings; however, all schemes continuously monitor power demand and calculate the rate of change of the demand value in order to predict future peak demand. When the predicted peak exceeds present limits, predetermined scheduled electrical loads are shut off on a prescheduled priority basis to reduce the connected load before the peak is exceeded. (Application notes.) (1) The demand limiting program is used in conjunction with the duty cycling program to prevent any one load from being cycled on or off during the wrong time interval or an excessive number of times. (2) The demand limiting program is also used in conjunction with scheduled start/stop and optimum start/stop programs. Day/Night Setback The energy required for heating or cooling during unoccupied hours can be reduced by lowering the heating space temperature setpoint or raising the cooling space temperature setpoint. This applies only to facilities that do not operate 24 hours a day. Space temperature can be reduced from the normal 65F winter inside design temperature to a 50F or 55F space temperature during the unoccupied hours. In space that require air conditioning during unoccupied hours, the normal temperature setting can be reset upwards to a temperature that is compatible with the space special requirements. OA dampers for the HVAC system are closed when the equipment operates during the unoccupied periods in order to avoid imposing additional OA thermal loads. (Application notes.) (1) The day/night setback program operates in conjunction with the scheduled start/stop and optimum start/stop programs. (2) Space temperature sensors must be located to preclude freezing during the night setback period. Economizer The utilization of an all outside air dry bulb economizer cycle in air conditioning systems can be a cost effective conservation measure, depending on climatic conditions and the type of mechanical systems. The
68
AND
dry bulb economizer cycle utilizes outside air to reduce the buildings cooling requirements when the outside air dry bulb temperature is less than the required mixed air temperature. The changeover temperature at which outside air is used for cooling is based on the outside air dry bulb temperature (enthalpy changeover point is determined by the total air heat content.) When the outside air dry bulb temperature is above the changeover temperature, the outside air dampers, return air dampers, and relief air dampers are positioned to provide minimum required outside air. When the outside air dry bulb temperature is below the changeover temperature, the outside air, return air and exhaust air dampers are positioned to maintain the required mixed air temperature. This program can also be used to compare the dry bulb temperatures of outside air with return air: whenever RA temperature is less than OA temperature, OA dampers close to a minimum position. Separate setpoints can be provided for each HVAC system. Refer to example in Table 7-1. (Application notes.) This program cannot be used where humidity control is required, or when the enthalpy program is selected. Enthalpy The utilization of an outside air enthalpy program can be a cost effective energy conservation measure, depending on climatic conditions and the type of mechanical system. The enthalpy cycle utilizes outside air to meet the buildings cooling requirements when the enthalpy (total heat content) of the outside air is less than that of the return air. When the outside air enthalpy is less than the return air enthalpy, the outside air and return air dampers are allowed to modulate to admit sufficient outside air to minimize cooling requirements. When the outside air enthalpy is greater than the return air enthalpy the outside air dampers, return air dampers, and relief air dampers are positioned to provide minimum required outside air. (Application notes.) The enthalpy program cannot be used when the economizer program is selected. Ventilation and Recirculation The ventilation and recirculation program controls the operation of the outside air dampers when the introduction of outside air would impose an additional thermal load during warm-up or cool-down cycles prior to occupancy of the building. This program can also be used in those facilities which maintain environmental conditions for electronic
SOFTWARE/APPLICATION PROGRAMS Table 7-1. OA-RA Economizer
69
70
AND
equipment or other humidity sensitive devices during building unoccupied periods. During unoccupied periods, the outside air dampers remain closed. During building occupied cycles, the outside air, return and relief dampers are under local loop control. (Application notes.) This program operates in conjunction with scheduled start/stop and optimum start/stop programs prior to building occupancy. Hot Deck/Cold Deck Temperature Reset The hot deck/cold deck temperature reset program can be applied to dual duct systems and multizone HVAC systems. These systems utilize a parallel arrangement of heating and cooling surfaces, commonly referred to as hot and cold decks, for providing heating and cooling capabilities simultaneously. The hot and cold air streams are combined in mailing boxes or plenums to satisfy the individual space temperature requirements. In the absence of optimization controls, these systems mix the two air streams to produce the desired temperature. While the space temperature may be acceptable, a greater difference between the temperature of the hot and cold decks results in inefficient system operation. This program selects the areas with the greater heating and cooling requirements, and establishes the minimum hot and cold deck temperature differentials which will meet the requirements, thus maximizing system efficiency. Space temperature sensors and mixing box or plenum damper positions are used to determine the minimum and maximum deck temperatures necessary to satisfy the space temperature requirements during the building occupied period. Where humidity control is required, the program will prevent the cooling coil from further upward cooling coil control. (Application notes.) This program operates in conjunction with the chilled water reset program. Reheat Coil Reset Terminal reheat systems operate with a constant cold deck discharge temperature. Air supplied at temperatures below the individual space temperature requirements is elevated in temperature by reheat coils in response to signals from an individual space thermostat. The reheat coil reset program selects the reheat coil with the lowest discharge temperature or the reheat coil valve nearest closed (the zone with the least amount of reheat required) and resets the cold deck discharge tempera-
71
ture upward until it equals the discharge temperature of the reheat coil with the lowest demand. Where humidity control is required, the program will prevent the cooling coil discharge temperature from being set upward. For air conditioning systems, where reheat coils are not used, the program will reset the cold deck discharge temperature upward until the space with the greatest cooling requirement is just satisfied. (Application notes.) This program operates in conjunction with the chilled water reset program. Steam Boiler Optimization The steam boiler optimization program can be implemented in heating plants with multiple boilers. Optimization of boiler plants can be accomplished through the selection of the most efficient boiler to satisfy the heating load. Boiler operating data must be obtained from the manufacturer, or developed by monitoring fuel input as a function of the steam output. Determination of boiler efficiency also takes into account the heat content of the condensate return and make-up water. Based on the efficiency curves, fuel input vs. steam output, the boilers with the highest efficiency can be selected to satisfy the heating load. Boilers may be started manually by a boiler operator or automatically by EMS depending on site requirements. Burner operating efficiency can be monitored by measuring the O2 or CO2 in each boiler flue. (Application notes.) The software inputs described may not be required in every case. The designer must study the existing or new system to determine which of the parameters are necessary. Care must be observed when providing automatic start/stop of boiler in lieu of operator supervised start-ups. Hot Water Boiler Optimization Hot water boiler optimization can be implemented in heating plants with multiple boilers. The techniques and considerations are the same as discussed in the previous section on steam boiler optimization. (Application notes.) The software inputs described may not be required in every case. The designer must study the existing or new system to determine which of the parameters are necessary. Care must be observed when providing automatic start/stop of boiler in lieu of operator supervised startups. Hot Water OA Reset Hot water heating systems, whether the hot water is supplied by
72
AND
a boiler or a converter, are generally designed to supply hot water at a fixed temperature. Depending on the system design, the hot water supply temperature can be reduced, as the heating requirements for the facility decrease. A reduction in hot water supply temperature results in reduction of heat loss from equipment and piping. To implement this program, the temperature controller for the hot water supply is reset as a function of outside air temperature. (Application notes.) A dedicated local loop controller may be implemented. Chiller Optimization The chiller optimization program can be implemented in chilled water plants with multiple chillers. Based on chiller operating data and the energy input requirements obtained from the manufacturer for each chiller, the program will select the chiller or chillers required to meet the load with the minimum energy consumption. The program must follow the manufacturers start-up and shutdown sequence requirements. Interlocks between chilled water pumps, condenser water pumps, and chiller must be in accordance with the chiller manufacturer requirements. (Application notes.) The software inputs described may not be required in every case. The designer must study the existing or new system to determine which of the parameters are necessary. Care must be observed when providing automatic start/stop of chillers in lieu of operator supervised startups. Chiller Water Temperature Reset The energy required to produce chilled water in a reciprocating or centrifugal refrigeration machine is a function of the chilled water leaving temperature. The refrigerant suction temperature is also a direct function of the leaving water temperature; the higher the suction temperature, the lower the energy input per ton of refrigeration. Chiller discharge water temperatures (leaving chiller) can be reset upward during non-peak design operating hours to the maximum which will still satisfy space cooling and dehumidification requirements. The program resets chilled water temperature upward until the required space temperature or humidity setpoints can no longer be maintained. This determination is made by monitoring positions of the chilled water valves on various cooling systems or by monitoring space temperatures.
73
(Application notes.) The chilled water temperature reset program will affect any system requiring chilled water. Condenser Water Temperature Reset The energy required to operate systems is directly related to the temperature of the condenser water temperature entering the machine. Conventionally, heat rejection systems are designed to produce a specified condenser water temperature such as 85F at peak wet bulb temperatures. In many instances, automatic controls are provided to maintain a specified temperature at conditions other than peak wet bulb temperatures. In order to optimize the performance of refrigeration systems, condenser water temperature can be reset downward when OA wet bulb temperature will produce lower condenser water temperature. The program must incorporate manufacturer requirements governing acceptable condenser water temperature range. (Application notes.) A dedicated local loop controller may be implemented. Chiller Demand Limit Centrifugal water chillers are normally factory equipped with an adjustable control system which limits the maximum available cooling capacity; thus, the power the machine can use. An interface between the EMS and the chiller controls allows the EMS to reduce the maximum available cooling capacity in several fixed steps in a demand limiting situation, thereby reducing the electric demand without completely shutting down the chiller. The method of accomplishing this function varies with the manufacturer of the chiller. The chiller percent capacity can be obtained by monitoring the chiller current input. When a chiller is selected for demand limiting, a single step signal is transmitted, reducing the chiller limit adjustment by a fixed amount. The chiller demand limit adjustment can be performed by shutting out taps of transformers in the control circuit or by resetting the control air pressure to the chiller compressor vane operator. As further need arises, additional stop signals can be transmitted until the demand limiting situation is corrected. Extreme caution must be exercised when applying this program, since incorrect control can cause the refrigeration machine to operate in a surge condition, potentially causing it considerable damage. The chiller manufacturers recommended minimum cooling capacity limit must be incorporated into the program logic. In general, surges
74
AND
occur in chillers at loads less than 20% of the rated capacity. (Application notes.) This program is used in conjunction with the demand limiting program and each chiller demand control step must be assigned an equipment priority level. Lighting Control Time scheduled operation of lighting consists of turning on and off lights, based on the time of day and the day of the week. Additional off commands may be generated at regular intervals to assure that lights are off (relay operated zoned lighting only). An alternative to this program is to initiate only the off function and require that the lights be turned on manually. Emergency lighting is not to be controlled by this program. (Application notes.) The lighting control program is used in conjunction with the scheduled start/stop program. Table 7-2 shows functional items as they relate to software terminology. SPECIAL APPLICATIONS Special software programs are most commonly left to the imagination of the EMS operator after he has a complete understanding of the operating system and necessary sensors are in place. Following are some non-traditional programs that have been used which are worthy of consideration. Variable Speed Drives Variable speed drives (VSD), as they relate to varying the speed of a fan or pump motor, entered the HVAC industry around 1980. VSDs operate on the principal of varying the frequency to a motor where the speed is directly proportional to the frequency at which it operates. See Figure 7-1. Fan laws, by definition show that if a motor (and related fan) speed is reduced 50%, then the resulting power consumed is reduced 87%. Similarly, if you desire to save 50% of the consumed power of a motor, the speed only must be reduced 20%. Fan Laws 1. The volume of air delivered by a fan (CFM) varies in direct proportion to the fan speed (RPM). CFM = RPM
Table 7-2. Functional Capabilities of Energy Management System Function Terminology Turn off equipment when building is unoccupied according Start/Stop Control to a set schedule. Optimal Start/Stop Temperature Setback/Setup Economizer Control Enthalpy Control Supply Temperature Reset Chiller Optimization Boiler Optimization Electrical Demand Control Duty Cycling
Restart equipment at the latest possible time before reoccupancy.
Change temperature set points of thermostats when building is unoccupied.
Use free cooling from outdoors when temperature is suitable.
Provide more sophisticated economizer based temperature and humidity.
Reduce excessive heating and cooling in HVAC systems.
Balance chiller operation to required loads
Balance boiler operation to loads and control combustion air.
Reduce peak electrical demands.
Turn off equipment a percentage of the time according to an established schedule to reduce energy use.
Logging conditions, equipment run time, energy use, etc. Monitoring/Alarm
75
76
AND
Figure 7-1. VSD and Fan Laws
1.
Volume of air delivered by a fan (CFM) varies in direct proportion to the fan speed (RPM). CFM 50% 80% = RPM = 50% = 80% (reduce 20%)
2.
Power required (HP) varies as the cube of the fan speed (RPM). HP 13% = (RPM) 3 = (50%)3 = (80%) 3
(of the power) 51% (reduce 20%)
Speed Reduction 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%
Speed (RPM) 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50%
Volume of Air (CFM) 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50%
Power Required (HP) 100% 73% 51% 34% 22% 13%
Power Reduction 0% 27% 49% 66% 78% 87%
SOFTWARE/APPLICATION PROGRAMS 2.
77
The power required to drive a fan motor (HP) varies as the cube of the fan speed (RPM). HP = (RPM)3
VSDs, when applied to fan systems, can be utilized with the duty cycling or demand limiting software features by receiving a 20% or 50% speed signal from the EMS, thus reducing power consumption by 50% or 87% respectively. This avoids the need to cycle the fan OFF. When fans are cycled OFF-ON, there is premature wear and tear on the mechanical equipment. Belts and pulleys wear out sooner; starter/contactors receive excessive wear; and automatic valves and dampers cycle excessively. There is also a complete disruption of air movement in occupied spaces which causes a distraction each time it occurs and may even violate code requirements for specified ventilation rates inside occupied areas. Outside Air Dampers Time-of-day/outside air (OA) dampers relates to the ventilation and recirculation software program. Many ventilation codes allow for OA dampers to remain closed until one hour after occupancy and can be closed one hour before unoccupancy. This can result in a savings of not cooling warm OA during the cooling season and not heating cold OA during the heating season for two hours per day throughout the year. Although the HVAC fan system(s) would be recirculating air during these time periods, there is no reason to needlessly condition OA. This time-of-day schedule could also be applied to areas of lower-than-normal occupancy rates which might occur during a lunch hour. How Much Outside Air? The percent of outside air has always been a question: are we bringing in 15% or 50% OA? the damper shaft and blade angle indicates the OA damper is open about 50% so that must be how much OA we are introducing to the HVAC system. We all know that, because of duct configurations, pressure drops through dampers, and other factors, damper position does not guarantee an equivalent % of air flow. By use of an EMS however, with OA, return air, and mixed air sensors in place, a software program can be written to tell you exactly how much OA is being drawn into an HVAC system. The formula to enter into software is:
% OA = RA MA RA OA
(or)
MA RA OA RA
78
AND
If OA temp: = 60F and RA temp. = 80F and MA temp. = 63F
then:
80 63 = 85% OA 80 60
Location of the OA and RA sensors are rather standard and the temperature changes very slowly at these sensors. There should be no air stratification problems. Mixed air sensor, however, must have a 8 foot (minimum) averaging element mounted inside the mixed air chamber in a serpentine manner to cover as much of the chamber volume as possible. The mixed air sensor is the most critical of the three elements because of the constantly changing temperature and the problem of stratified air. Unoccupied Night Purge During the summer cooling season it is not unusual for the outdoor air temperature to drop considerably at night. Frequently, during the early morning hours prior to building occupancy time, the outdoor air temperature is below building space temperatures. This cool outdoor air can be utilized to cool the building, thereby eliminating the need for mechanical cooling during early morning occupancy hours. This free cooling will generate energy savings and also save wear on the mechanical cooling equipment. At a preprogrammed time in the early morning hours, the program begins to monitor space and outdoor temperature and humidity. If space conditions indicate a need for cooling, and if outdoor air conditions are suitable, the night purge program is initiated. The program starts the HVAC supply fan and associated exhaust fan, and opens the outdoor air damper 100%. Warm air from the building continues to be purged until the space temperature and relative humidity indoors reach the same levels as the outdoor air conditions, or until the morning start-up program basis. The outdoor air temperature must be above a preselected minimum to ensure that the program is operable only during the cooling season. The night purge program can be applied to most HVAC systems that are capable of using 100% outdoor air. Some package-type HVAC units and rooftop units are limited mechanically to admit 10 or 20% outdoor air, and therefore, do not qualify.
COMMUNICATION PROTOCOL
79
Chapter 8
Communication Protocol
PROTOCOL DEFINED
rotocol is the name given to the hardware and software rules and procedures for making sure that any transmission errors are detected. It can also be described as a set of conventions between communicating processors governing the format and content of messages to be exchanged. Protocols can be proprietary, open or standard. Proprietary A protocol developed by a company for the exclusive use of that companys customers. Most current building control, fire alarm, and security protocols are proprietary. Open An open protocol is one which is in the public domain, and users are provided information and documentation necessary for its implementation. As an example, Xerox made Ethernet and open protocol, as did International Business Machines with its GPAX D protocol. However, it is possible to end up with too many open protocols and a loss of control over them. Standard An open protocol adopted and endorsed by a voluntary standards organization, or government agency. Such a standard protocol may include certification. IEEE based its 802.4 Standard on the Ethernet proto79
80
AND
col. It may take too long for vendors to agree on a single standard, therefore, more than one standard will be needed. Protocol discussion issues might include: What are the major benefits of having open or standard protocols for end users, consulting engineers, system managers and vendors? What should be the scope of such an open protocol? Should it be limited to HVAC systems? Or, should it include other systems such as lighting and security? Or, should the protocol be limited to new systems only? How best can standards on protocols be developed and maintained?
Almost all commercially available EMSs use a proprietary communication protocol, therefore it is not possible to mix products made by different manufacturers to form an integrated EMS. A building owner may have a DDC-EMS made by vendor V; a chiller with microprocessor by vendor W; air handling units with integrated sensors and controls by vendor X; room sensors controlling terminal units by vendor Y and a microprocessor-based fire alarm system by vendor Z. All five building system components will probably function satisfactorily alone, as stand-alone systems, however they will not have the capability to communicate electronically with each other.
GUIDELINES Microprocessor-based components are available from many manufacturers including EMSs and unitary control products. However, since each separate vendor has their own ideas of how to configure their equipment into a communications architecture, the result has been an equal number of different communications protocols. Early on, manufacturers had very little concern for this potential problem. However as pressure from the building owners community increased to focus-on and solve this problem, some manufacturers are beginning to standardize. Certain aspects of their products, such as the
81
4-20 mA input signal, can be used by all EMS manufacturers. In January 1987, ASHRAE formed a committee to deliberate the creation of a communications protocol that might become an industry standard. The scope of the committee is to provide a comprehensive set of messages for conveying binary, analog, and alphanumeric data between devices. Each basic message type will also require the capacity of supplying ancillary information such as reliability, priority, real-time and other related data. This scope will also provide for the format of each data element. Several protocol guidelines currently developed include the Open System Interconnection (OSI) by the International Standards Organization (ISO); the Public Host Protocol (PHP) and the Public Unitary Protocol (PUP) both by American Auto-Matrix. Two companies have developed and implemented protocols. Manufacturing Automation Protocol (MAP) and Technical and Office Protocol (TOP) both by General Motors; and IBMs Facilities Automation Communication Network (FACN) Protocol running a program called General Purpose Automation ExecutiveDistributive (GPAX-D). These protocols all attempt to allow interaction between multi-vendor systems. A formal hierarchical identification of all data communications network functions has been established by the International Standards Organization (ISO) and referred to as the ISO Model for Open Systems Interconnection (OSI). This model, shown in Figure 8-1, identifies seven distinct levels of functional requirements pertaining to data communications network. Realization of the ideal LAN would require all levels of functions included in the OSI standard; however, not all levels of the OSI standard need to be implemented to provide effective communications in an LAN. If only the lower levels of the standard exist, a LAN can usefully support the multiple applications. In essence, the transmission media and lower level interfaces are common so that data can be exchanged within virtual subnetworks: However, a device in one subnetwork cannot communicate intelligently with a device in another subnetwork because each application is using unique higher level implementations. This LAN would allow messages to be exchanged between these dissimilar terminals, but the message would not be understood. Nevertheless, the backbone LAN permits flexible location and relocation of the various attached equipment.
82
AND
Figure 8-1. Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

International standards are being developed which are defined by various levels. X.25 has been approved through level 3. Level Level Level Level Level Level Level 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Physical (X.21) Data Link Network Transport Session Presentation Application
DEVELOPING STANDARD TECHNIQUES While standards associations dont dwell on this fact, an overwhelming number of standards that apply in the computer industry trace their origin to the work of individuals (or individual firms) in the industry rather than standards associations. Standards as basic as the OSI seven-layer communications standard were developed by individuals working in the industry and became official standards only after they had already been adopted as defacto standards. As demonstrated in Chapter 6, certain manufacturers are utilizing
83
communication schemes developed in the data communication world. Another example of this is shown in Figure 8-2 where five separate manufacturers, each involved with a different building product are integrated into one unique system. This may appear to be an open protocol however it is actually a proprietary protocol shared only by these five manufacturers. ASHRAEs Standards Committee has been hard at work deliberating the creation of a communication protocol that might, some day, become a standard throughout the EMS industry. Refer to four articles at the end of this Chapter 8:
PYROTRONICS FIRE PROTECTION
ROBERTSHAW HVAC CONTROL
GE LIGHTING
ANEMOSTAT SCHLAGE SECURITY FUME HOOD
IBM
TOKEN RING LAN
IBM WORKSTATION
IBM WORKSTATION
IBM WORKSTATION
Five Presenters
Uses computer technology to integrate formerly separate functions of complementary products into one unique system Uses a common, easy to learn, mouse-driven graphical interface built around IBMs Presentation Manager software.
Displays multi-window, real-time applications for different systems at the same time. Supports multiple users through PS/2* workstations over the token-ring network.
Figure 8-2. Robertshaws Facility Integrator
84
AND
1. Energy User News, 2 pages, January 1987 2. Energy User News, 2 pages, July 1988 3. ASHRAE Journal, 8 pages, January 1989 In 1991, ASHRAE Standards Project Committee SPC 135P (the P is for proposed) came up with a name chosen for this standard protocol: BACnetA Data Communications Protocol for Building Automation and Control Networks. BACnet could have a positive impact in running a BAS efficiently such as: It will provide gateways to let new systems into the fold. So, rather than presenting a handicap to owners of existing systems, BACnet will increase the potential of their systems. It will help relieve the burden on users with respect to having to deal with different programming languages. It will provide for common operator interfaces by allowing the sharing of information between panels of different manufacturers. It will aid owners of DDC systems by allowing the sharing, on screen, of information from the panels of different manufacturers. It will help establish a truly competitive bidding process in the EMS market. In other words, you, as a present owner of one manufacturers system will not be stuck with that manufacturer at upgrade time.
One approach to BACnet compliance is the use of gateway technology, which according to some, is economical and provides minimal risk to vendors and users. A gateway is a computer that connects two different communications networks together. The gateway will perform the protocol conversions necessary to go from one network to the other. A bridge, by contrast, is a device that connects two networks of the some type together. Some BAS companies have used the term Integrator to describe their connectivity to qualified third-party controllers.
85
In general, a EMS vendors Integrator panel contains the necessary protocol conversions to connect to chillers, boilers, refrigeration units, electric switchgear, AC drives, fume hoods, and control equipment from other manufacturers. See Figure 8-3. The cost of these panels can range from $5,000 to $8,000 each and so the benefits obtained (monitoring as well as control) must be carefully examined.
Figure 8-3. Gateway/Integration
86
AND
From Energy User NewsJanuary 26, 1987
ASHRAE Forms Group to Seek Standard EMS Protocol

By Vito Racanelli
NEW YORKThe Standards Committee of The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (Ashrae) approved the formation of a special project committee aimed at defining a standard communications protocol for energy management systems, Energy User News Has learned. The groups decision, reached on the opening day of its Winter Meeting here, was announced at an EUN panel discussion last Monday by H. Michael Newman, vice chairman of the Technical Committee on Control Theory and Application (TC 1.4), which requested the formation of the special project committee. Newman, manager of facilities engineering at Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., and EUNs institutional energy manager of 1986, has been nominated for the position of chairman of the new committee. A standard protocol, if incorporated by manufacturers into their EMS systems, would allow users who are configuring multiple EMS installations to link equipment from different vendors, and would facilitate shared monitoring and control between different vendors EMS. This, in turn, will allow users greater freedom in specifying equipment, and offer more options in a competitive bid situation, according to Newman. Users would not be locked into buying one vendors equipment, he added. The time frame in which an Ashrae standards committee can arrive at a standard EMS protocol is uncertain, hinging on wide vendor cooperation, Newman, said. The time it will take to define a standard depends on how soon and how intensely the various vendors get involved. If they decide to play ball, it could take six months to a year. If their cooperation is less than complete, it could take forever, he continued. He added, however, that the vendors seem to support the idea of a
87
standard protocol, and that he was fairly optimistic about the timely establishment of a standard. At EUNs panel discussion on EMS standardization last Monday, Newman said that a standard could probably be developed in one to three years. Other panelists from such EMS vendors as Honeywell Inc., Minneapolis; Johnson Controls Inc., Milwaukee; MCC Powers, Northbrook, Ill.; Novar Controls Corp., Barberton, Ohio; and The Trane Co., LaCrosse, Wisc., said that their respective companies would support Ashraes efforts to define a standard communications protocol. A transcript of the panel discussion will appear in the March edition of Energy User News Magazine. EUN reported last year that EMS manufacturers such as Honeywell, Johnson and MCC Powers were generally skeptical of current software approaches to linking disparate EMS systems to a single host computer, citing what they considered a limit to the amount of control functions that could be shared by systems linked to a host by software (see Feb. 24, 1986 EUN, page 1, and March 3, 1986 EUN, page 9). Terry Weaver, vice president of the Electronic Systems and Services Division of Johnson Controls, said at that time that forming a standardization committee within the industry would be the most positive step toward a standardization of EMS protocols. The committees purpose is specifically to define the content and format of messages communicated between computer equipment used for the digital monitoring and control of building HVAC systems. Newmans nomination as chairman of the new committee is subject to approval by the Ashrae Standards Committee, which will convene in three months. No one has been named to the new committee, according to Newman. However, he added that the committee will be made up of 5 to 13 members from EMS manufacturers, the National Board of Standards, the National Research Council of Canada, Ottowa, and users. The committee will then prepare the technical content of the standard and make it available for public review. Users interested in participating in the committee should contact H. Michael Newman, Ashrae Standard Project Committee, 135 P, 1791 Tullie Circle, NE, Atlanta, GA 30029.
88
AND
From Energy User NewsJuly 11, 1988
Ashrae Protocol Group Adopts Message Syntax

By Richard Mullin
OTTAWA, ONTARIOAshraes standards committee studying the development of a communications protocol for building controls systems agreed at its meeting last month to adopt a message syntax that will be used in its final protocol, according to Michael Newman, chairman of the committee. The committee held its third full meeting during Ashraes summer convention here. Newman and others in attendance said the event was characterized by a greater spirit of cooperativeness among the various controls firms than has been evident at previous meetings. Were out of the political issues and into the technical issues, Newman said. The Abstract Sylitax Notation (ASN.1) adopted by the committee is an International Organization of Standards (ISO) syntax notating the components of messages that will be conveyed by the protocol. It essentially establishes a language. The committees Primitive Data work group will, using ASN.1, begin work on encoding data for the protocol, which will establish the type of data to be transmitted, according to Lawrence Gelburd, director of firmware engineering for American Auto-Matrix, Export, Pa., and head of the committees object type and properties group. Newman, who is the manager of facilities engineering, computer section, at Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., said the group is currently studying various national and international communications standards, such as the Manufacturing Automation Protocol (MAP), a seven-layer local area network under development by General Motors and other users and system vendors for factory automation. Newman said the Ashrae committees protocol will likely emulate Mini MAP, which includes the physical, data link and application layers of the full MAP systemthe seven layers of which are still not fully defined. Every industry has gone through this, said Newman. There are standards for office automation, electronic fund transfer, automated tellers,
89
all of which use an ISO-OSI (open systems interface) layered architecture. We are trying to make sure we dont fly in the face of the other standards. Commenting on a shift in the committees emphasis, Gelburd said, The whole tone is more like lets get a first draft together, not should we get a draft together. Everybody has their shirt sleeves up and is cooperating. Everyone sees the handwriting on the wall. Joe Prokop, supervisor, advanced technologies for Johnson Controls Inc., Milwaukee, agreed. Its no longer a question of whether there should be a protocol or if Johnson should comply. Its a given. A year ago we wondered if the thing would fly or if it was worth the time. While agreeing that the committee members are cooperating more, Gideon Shavit, chief engineer with Honeywell Inc.s Commercial Buildings Group, Minneapolis, raised a long-running issue of contention in an interview with EUN last weekthe issue of where the protocol should reside. While many on the committee are pursuing a controller-to-controller approach, Shavit said a system-to-system method in which each manufacturers components operate as autonomous islands may be more cost-effective for users. A controller-to-controller method may create a situation in which system failures are difficult to identify, whereas a system link would corral problems within one vendors patch of equipment, he said. Extra cost with the controller-to-controller method would arise from the need to purchase extra monitoring equipment or even establish a thirdparty service entity for mixed vendor systems, said Shavit. Newman, however, said that Shavit may be concentrating on an application that is too specific. The committee, he said, is not focusing on where a protocol should reside, but simply on a method of exchanging information between any type of system link. Prokop and Newman said the committee has not compiled statistics on the overall number of users who feel they would benefit from a protocola major issue of contention at the time that the protocol issue emerged (See Feb. 24, 1986 EUN, page 1).
90
AND
From ASHRAE JournalJanuary 1989
Standardizing EMCS Communication Protocols

ASHRAE SPC 135P is working to address the communication requirements of all devices used in controlling HV AC & R systems
By Steven T. Bushby and H. Michael Newmam
Member ASHRAE Member ASHRAE
THE USE of distributed, microprocessor-based, energy management and control systems (EMCSs) is now a fact of life in the building control industry. Microprocessor-based components are available from many manufacturers and are being installed in ever-increasing numbers. Almost all commercially available EMCSs use proprietary techniques to exchange information among the distributed devices making up the control system. As a result, in most cases, it is not possible to mix products made by different vendors and expect them to work as an integrated system (Newman 1983). Building owners and operators are unhappy with this situation because it forces them to return to the same vendor whenever additions or changes need to be made to their EMCS. Some potential customers, including the U.S. military, have decided to delay purchasing new EMCSs until standards are in place to protect their investment. Pressure from the building community and a request from ASHRAE Technical Committee (TC) 1.4, Control Theory and Application, resulted in action by the ASHRAE Standards Committee. On January 18, 1987, the committee voted to approve the formation of a Standards Project Committee (SPC) to deliberate the creation of a communication protocol that might become an industry standard. SPC 135P was formed and held its first meeting in June 1987. Membership consists of approximately equal numbers of vendors, users and general interest people. What is a communication protocol? A communication protocol is a set of rules governing the exchange of data between two computers. In the broadest sense, a protocol encom-
91
passes both hardware and software specifications including the physical medium; rules for controlling access to the medium, mechanisms for addressing and routing messages; procedures for error detection and recovery; the specific formats for the data being exchanged; and the contents of the messages. The proposed standard being developed is intended to address the communication requirements of all devices that might be used in the control of HVAC&R systems. This includes current devices as well as consideration of the possible requirements of future control equipment. The SPC will not directly address the needs of other types of building services, such as lighting control, and fire and security, although these might be integrated with HVAC control in the future. Through careful planning, the protocol for HVAC&R control systems can be structured to permit extension by the simple addition of protocol services which are specific to the new applications while using others which are included in the standard. Some people have suggested that SPC 135P should address the protocol requirements for unitary controllers as a first step to accelerate the development process and then address the requirements for higher level controllers. Implicit in this suggestion is the assumption that it is somehow easier to communicate with unitary controllers than other types of controllers, presumably due to their relatively simple functionality compared with general purpose controllers. But, this is not so. Analysis shows that the basic elements of communication between HVAC&R controllers are largely independent of the particular devices (ASHRAE 1987). All HVAC&R controllers. for example, need to exchange information about setpoints, parameters for tuning control loops. analog and binary inputs, and analog or binary outputs. There is no fundamental difference between unitary controllers and other types of controllers in this regard. The difference is mainly in the number of inputs, outputs and kinds of parameters which are involved and perhaps the frequency of information exchange. Parameters may vary from application to application but their format and the protocol for their exchange need not differ from one type of device to another. Consequently, the consensus within the SPC is to address the communication requirements of all HVAC&R control equipment. Any services that the protocol provides which may be applicable to only certain types of controllers can be dealt with by defining classes of operation consisting of
92
AND
subsets of protocol services. At the other end of the spectrum, it has been suggested that the SPC should only address communication between front ends of control systems allowing proprietary communication protocols to be used at lower levels. Controllers made by different vendors still would not be able to communicate directly. This approach fails to simplify the problem for the same reasons mentioned previously. In addition, such a standard would provide the user with less flexibility in configuring a multivendor system than a standard that addresses communication at all levels. For these reasons an approach limited to a host-to-host protocol also has been rejected (ASHRAE 1987). The OSI reference model There is an overwhelming international trend toward writing computer communication protocol standards based on an architecture called the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)-Basic Reference Model (ISO 1984). This international standard is essentially a blueprint for developing multivendor computer communication protocol standards. In the OSI model, the complex problem of computer-to-computer communication has been broken down into seven smaller, more manageable sub-problems, each of which concerns itself with a specific communication function. In the jargon of the OSI model, each of these sub-problems forms a layer in the protocol architecture. The seven layers are arranged in a hierarchical fashion as shown in Figure 1. A given layer provides services to the layers above and relies on services provided to it by the layers below. A key to understanding layered architectures is to think of each layer as a black box with carefully defined interfaces on the top and bottom. The users application program connects to the OSI application layer and communicates with a second, remote user application program. This communication appears to take place between the two applications as if they were connected directly through their application layer interfaces. No knowledge or understanding of the other layers is required. In a similar manner, each layer of the protocol relies on lower layers to provide communication services and establishes a virtual peer-to-peer communication with its companion layer on the other system. The only real connection takes place at the physical layer. This approach to communication protocol standards has been
93
USER 1
APPLICATION Handles the actual interface with the users application program.
USER 2
APPLICATION
PRESENTATION
Converts codes, encrypts/decrypts, or reorganizes data.
PRESENTATION
SESSION
Manages dialog, synchronizes data transfers with checkpoints.
SESSION
TRANSPORT
Provides end-to-end error checking and data segmentation.
TRANSPORT
NETWORK
Establishes logical circuits and routing between two machines.
NETWORK
DATA LINK
Controls orderly access to the physical medium.
DATA LINK
PHYSICAL
Transmits and receives individual bits on the physical medium.
PHYSICAL
Physical medium between the two machines.
Figure 1In the OSI model, each computer has equivalent data communication software with layered or hierarchical functionality. Each layer communicates logically with the corresponding layer in. the other machine. A user is an application program with the need to communicate with another machine.
adopted by many organizations. Two well known protocols of this type are the Manufacturing Automation Protocol (MAP) and the Technical and Office Protocols (TOP). The U.S. government has adopted the OSI model in its approach to Federal Information Processing Standards (FIPS) and has released an OSI procurement policy called the Government Open Systems Interconnection Profile (GOSIP), Other national governments have begun to develop their own GOSIP programs. Many local area network products are built on the lower layers of the OSI model, and many computer companies are modifying their networks to become OSI compatible or to build bridges to permit connection to OSI networks. This movement to embrace OSI is a good reason to look at the OSI architecture but, by itself, is not reason to adopt it for EMCS standards. Why is there so much interest in OSI? What are the benefits? What are the costs?
94
AND
Adoption of the OSI architecture for an EMCS protocol standard provides several potential advantages including: Lower hardware cost due to economies of scale. The lower layers will be implemented in silicon. Large quantities of chips for this purpose will be manufactured for the computer industry, and the HVAC&R industry can use the same chips. Layered architectures permit updating the standard in a modular fashion. Only the layer being updated needs to be changed. This is important for a rapidly changing technology like computer control systems. This also can reduce the cost of updating implementations to comply with changes in the standard. Integrating other types of building services becomes easier because only application layer services need to be added. Unique circumstances of a particular job-throughput requirements, distances involved, and the presence of sources of electromagnetic interferencecan be accommodated because the physical and data link layers may be changed without affecting the higher layers.
The disadvantages of adopting the OSI approach are increased overhead and complexity. The OSI model was designed to deal with the problems associated with large, complex networks communicating with other networks anywhere in the world. Much of this complexity is not needed in an EMCS. This is a serious problem but it has a simple solution. There is precedent for including only selected layers of the OSI model in a standard. This is called a collapsed architecture and has been used for some real-time control applications in other industries. One example of a collapsed architecture is shown in Figure 2. The approach of SPC 135P SPC 135P has decided to follow the OSI model but is considering the use of a collapsed architecture. Only OSI layers that provide services useful in EMCS applications will be included in the proposed standard. Precisely which layers will be included is undecided.
95
USER 1
APPLICATION Handles the actual interface with the users application program.
USER 2
APPLICATION
DATA LINK
Converts codes, encrypts/decrypts, or reorganizes data.
DATA LINK
PHYSICAL
Transmits and receives individual bits on the physical medium.
PHYSICAL
Physical medium between the two machines.
Figure 2In a collapsed architecture, one or more layers of the sevenlayer model are omitted. Any missing functionality, if it is required, must be built into the user programs. This three-layer model is the basis for the Enhanced Performance Architecture subset of the Manufacturing Automation Protocol known as Mini-MAP. The expertise of ASHRAE is in building control, not computer communication. The SPC recognizes that it would not be useful to focus on the protocol issues that pertain to the lower layers of the OSI model. It is the application layer that is the appropriate place to concentrate our efforts and that is what is being done. It is almost certain that standards developed by other bodies will be adopted for the lower layers, possibly more than one in some cases, thus offering designers the possibility of certain cost-performance tradeoffs. Three separate working groups are currently active within the SPC: the Application Services Working Group, the Object-Types and Properties Working Group and the Data Encoding Working Group. The application layer of the OSI model is where the protocol requirements that are unique to a particular application (e.g., HVAC&R control, lighting, security, fire and smoke control) reside. Lower layers provide services that are presumed to be required for all applications. The Application Services Working Group is addressing the issue of which functions or services need to be provided by the application layer to meet the needs of an EMCS (Bushby 1988). A list of these services has been developed and the group is in the process of formalizing a description of each service, how it will work and how it might interact with other services. The Object-Types and Properties Working Group is addressing the issue of accessing information through the use of name referencing. The
96
AND
idea is to eliminate the need for knowledge of hardware configuration when requesting information. A name can be used to request a desired piece of information, eliminating the need to specify a particular hardware pin location or a memory address. Requesting a chilled water setpoint temperature, for example, will not require any knowledge of how that information is stored in the controller. In fact, any controller can be represented as a set of objects, each of which maps in a standardized way to the actual hardware and software There is a close relationship between standardized object-types and the application services needed in the protocol. If object-types are constructed carefully, a small number of application services which provide an ability to read or change the properties of objects can provide many of the application needs of an EMCS. For example, requesting the current value of a particular property of an object would be done in the same way whether the property represented a sensor reading, a program parameter or a schedule. Reducing the number of application services required can simplify the protocol and make it easier to implement. The Data Encoding Working Group is developing a way to represent the information content of the communication in digital form. This process involves encoding application service requests and their associated parameters and deciding data formats for representing the properties of objects. One part of this activity amounts to deciding how to represent fundamental types of data such as integers, real numbers and Boolean values. As with other aspects of the protocol development, one important consideration is efficiency, i.e., compactness of representation. A comprehensive approach to the needs of the HVAC&R industry is being taken by SPC 135P to ensure that the resulting standard will stand the test of time in this rapidly changing field. The ASHRAE standard could become the basis for communication protocols that meet the requirements of integrated services embodied in the concept of intelligent buildings. References ASHRAE 1987. Minutes of SPC 135P Application Services Working Group. December 10, 1987, SPC 135P AS-OO3. Bushby, ST 1988 Application L&M Communication Protocols for Building Energy Management and Control Systems. ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 94,
97
Pt. 2, Paper No. 3174. ISO, 1984, ISO Standard 7498, Information Processing SystemsOpen Systems InterconnectionBasic Reference Model. International Organization for Standardization. Available from ANSI, 1400 Broadway, New York, New York 10018. ISO. 1987. ISO DIS 9506. Manufacturing Message SpecificationPart 1: Service Definition, International Organization for Standardization. Available from ANSI, 1400 Broadway, New York, New York 10018. Newman, H.M., 1988. Data Communications in Energy Management and Control Systems: Issues Affecting Standardization. ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 89, Pt. 1, Paper DC-83-5 No. 3.
About the authors

Steven T. Bushby is an engineer in the mechanical systems and controls group, building environment division, Center for Building Technology, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland. He received a bachelor s degree in chemical engineering from Northwestern University and a masters degree in chemical engineering from Colorado State University. H. Michael Newman is manager of the facilities engineering computer section. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, which oversees the universitys extensive multi-vendor EMCS. He received his bachelors and masters degrees in engineering physics from Cornell and did postgraduate work in astrophysics in the NASA Center for Radiophysics and Space Research.
98
AND
OPERATOR/MACHINE INTERFACE
99
Chapter 9
Operator/Machine Interface
or direct access to an EMS, the operators station usually consists of a personal computer with a monochrome or color monitor (CRT), keypad, and printer. This combination of equipment would be considered the primary input/output device (I/O) or Operator Workstation. Most all vendors have standardized on use of an IBM Personal System 2 (IBM-PS/2) Model 60 or 80 computer, as well as a number of similar computers operating MS-DOS. Regardless if the user elects to purchase a color graphics package (described herein), for the small cost difference, the color monitor is recommended over the monochrome unit. A software supported optical mouse should also be supplied. Since EMSs can be monitored from a remote terminal, modems should be installed. A Hayes Smartmodem 1200 or equivalent is recommended. IBM-PS/2 Model 80 computers have more than sufficient memory to hold the EMS operating system, color graphics program, maintenance management programs, and reports storage. Plus, they can be used for inventory control, graphing, general typing and a host of other uses. The color CRT could be furnished with a color graphics package, however, this feature is optional and in most instances is an expensive option. Vendors tend to lean very heavily on this feature, with many colorful brochures showing all the various arrangements available. 99
100 GRAPHICS
AND
Color graphics provides the user with EMS point information displayed on customized dynamic color graphics. Use of static graphics or 35 mm slides is not recommended. The system, upon command, will display the current measured variables associated with the equipment or area. Off-normal conditions and alarms will be displayed instantly. Alphanumeric data would be a standard feature as well as the associated keyboard including all standard ASCII characters. Refer to Figure 9-1 for typical graphic displays. The printer should be an 80-column hard copy type interface that supports full graphic features and is rated at no less than 100 cps. Standard form fold paper with tractor feed would be required. IBM Proprinter II or equal should be considered.
DATA UTILIZATION User friendly is a phrase sometimes misused and often does not mean what it implies. The real test of being user friendly is the time and effort required to understand and utilize the full capabilities of a system without being a computer genius or being constantly dependent on socalled outside experts. In seconds you should be able to change or delete a point, revise a schedule or create and display a color graphic on the operators console. It should be versatile, user programmable, and be operated by simple English language.
PACKAGING With most systems you can oversee your entire operation from a central location regardless of whether you manage a single building or multiple buildings. By creating this central operators station, you can supervise regular and emergency maintenance, monitor intrusion and fire alarm, control temperature, generate financial an operational data and much more. Many EMSs do not, by definition, require a PC connected to it to operate. This would be considered a stand-alone system. The EMS
101
9-1. Graphic Displays (Continued)
102
AND
103
should allow information access throughout the system to each local panel in each mechanical equipment room. All information can then be displayed constantly on a portable plug-in computer to allow servicemen to quickly diagnose, troubleshoot and remedy comfort problems in a building. Auto-dial/auto-answer communications will allow your EMS to be monitored from remote locations, certain types of maintenance and other functions can be accomplished from a remote location.
104
AND
Simply by adding sensors, controls, and peripherals the system can easily expand to manage any targeted area, often without the need for additional hardware. The same skills, techniques and procedures are reutilized for each new use. The system can even be used to document the Return On Investment (ROI) potential of a targeted management area. The movement toward total facility automation thus becomes an ongoing process of evaluation and response. Refer to Table 9-1 for EMS functions.
SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING Although EMS vendors may use different names for the method they use to program their systems, the two basic names or types are line programming (or textual language) and control block technology. In line programming, a series of statements leads the programmer through a control sequence. Refer to following example:
Program HW PUMP2 3 Status: Wait Size: 158 Bytes 1 SWait 30 2 ;C1=[SU.AH1 TC;OC]+[SU.AH2 TC;OC]+[SU.AH3 TC;OC] 3 ;OC=[SU.AH4 TC;OC]+;C1 4 If [OAT;CV]<;OA Then 5 Else 10 5 If;OC>0 Then 6 Else 8 6 [SU.HWP2 SS;CV]=1\[SU.HWP3 SS;CV]=0 7 Goto 1 8 [SU.HWP2 SS;CV]=0\[SU.HWP3 SS;CV]=1 9 Goto 1 10 If [OAT;CV];OA+2.0 Then 11 Else 1 11 [SU.HWP2 SS;CV]=0 12 [SU.HWP3 SS;CV]=0 13
As can be seen by the example, it is actually difficult to identify the process or access the program. Only the sequential control flow is shown in this one dimensional view. It is hard to visualize whats going on without drawing a diagram of the text program. With control block technology, or graphical programming, the user draws a diagram or picture to design a control system. Both data flow
Table 9-1. EMS Functions Category Function Description

a. b. c. d. e. a. Scheduled operation Demand limiting: (1) Load shedding (2) Duty cycling Optimized start/stop Control point reset Economizer Plant optimization Operator console Intercom Report/alarm generator Software generation Maintenance support Operational summaries b. Monitor environment Monitor equipment status Safety and maintenance alarms Climate Analysis Controlled space temperatures, humidities, etc. Verify flow/no flow, run/stop, etc. Firestat/freezestat, boiler temperature/pressure, compressor oil levels, run times, etc. Outside air temp., humidity, wind, etc. Reports of trends, limits, averages, etc. Run equipment only when needed; defer low priority loads to off-peak periods. Equipment shutdowns in reverse priority order. Rotating brief outages among selected loads. Adjust operating schedules by daily conditions. Fine-tune local loops based on conditions. Optimum use of outside air to reduce heating/cooling. Operate equipment near optimal loading. Interactive communication for operator efficiency. Voice link from console to remote locations. Data products to assist in maximum system use. User-defined programs and modifications. Scheduling, diagnosis, analysis, records, etc. Verify consumption & savings, profile facility, etc.
1.
Data Acquisition
2.
On/Off Control
3. a. b. c. d. a. b. c. a. b. c.
Optimization
4.
Man-Machine Interface
5.
Offline Functions
105
106
AND
and control flow are used by connecting blocks with arrows pointing in the direction of flow. In general, no special software language experience is required since each control block has a direct pneumatic equivalent. Refer to following figures 9-2 and 9-3.
9-2. Block Programming
107
9-2. Block Programming (Continued)
108
AND
9-3. Control Block Technology
9-3. Control Block Technology (Continued)
109
110
AND
SAVINGS/COST ESTIMATING
111
Chapter 10
Savings/Cost Estimating
very EMS should be economically justifiable. Every single point added to the system must contribute to the total simple payback of the capital investment for the system. The payback can be generated by energy savings, operational/labor savings, and reduced maintenance savings. Do not be mislead that DDC alone will provide significant savings. Often the closer control achieved by DDC can increase energy consumption by eliminating the offset or the amount of time specified control conditions were not met. How a system is controlled and what controllers are installed make a big difference in how much the costs will be. After the engineer has defined the existing controls and knows what the building energy envelope is over a period of a year, he can categorize the energy-intensive areas and potential savings. The new EMS must have changed and improved control strategies to insure savings. Dynamic control, a theory of control that involves the building mass in the control equation is a strategy that can provide savings from 5-15% over conventional control theories. Another method to increase savings is to schedule some loads at other than peak-load times. Energy used during periods of high demand is premium priced and rescheduling loads can bring about considerable savings. If building users are willing to accept certain inconveniences or discomforts, other savings can result. For example, room temperatures could be allowed to float from 75 to 80F, thereby keeping costs down. Fans in some air conditioning units operate continuously simply because it has never been convenient or desirable to shut them off; shut-
111
112
AND
ting off the fans at night can save a lot of energy money. If fans must run continuously, then variable speed drives should be installed and through the DDC-EMS, reduced to half speed (thus saving 85% of the power) during no or low occupancy periods. Load cycling has been a popular function of an EMS but be aware, the savings of 50% reduction in electricity consumption (fan ON 10 minutes, then OFF 10 minutes) will not offset the added maintenance costs that will appear over time (usually within a year). Motors and drives are built for continuous operation. Each time a fan system is turned on/off, belts and pulleys wear, starters are being abused, automatic valves, dampers, and controls are continually cycling; so how much money will actually be saved? It could amount to a transfer of dollars from electrical energy savings to maintenance costs. Controllable loads will be either critical or noncritical. Critical loads are those that cannot be interrupted, deferred or reduced; noncritical loads can be altered without adversely affecting the function of the facility. Once the controls have been identified and the critical and noncritical areas delineated, the specifying engineer will know what he has to work with and what the magnitude of energy consumption is, and he can proceed to the selection process. Maintenance savings available by utilizing the latest state-of-theart DDC-EMS are significant. Older control systems, both computerized and conventional, often had annual maintenance costs of 10-15% of the initial capital cost. (A $250,000 EMS required a annual maintenance contract of $28,000.) The current DDC-EMS maintenance costs are in the area of 2-4% of capital cost. In spite of this lower cost, it is advisable NOT to enter into an annual maintenance agreement. The 2-4% generally requires no maintenance at all, but rather a replacement factor if something should fail. Almost like maintenance on a light bulb if it fails, replace it. This is obviously over-simplified. The owner of EMS should provide for proper training of their maintenance staff so that most routine tasks can be handled in-house. It is important, however, to maintain a regular contact between the vendor and the system. A typical agreement might include six (6) one-day inspections per year. Energy Management Systems in general will save 5-10% of annual electricity costs when only start/stop scheduling, optimized start/stop, demand monitoring and limiting, and night set-back are used. In other words, these savings result without either lighting control, chilled water
113
reset, condenser water reset, or chiller optimization. But these are savings which normally result in existing buildings even where the building operators have been very energy conscious. These systems can improve upon normal manual operation and can save on demand charges where manual or time-clock operation can not. For example, if: Annual 5% Savings 10% Savings Energy and Fuel Charges $665,700 $33,285 $66,570 Demand Charges $589,272 $29,464 $58,927 Total $1,254,972 $62,749 $125,497 A payback criteria of three years would permit an economic expenditure of three times the above savings. 3 $ 62,749 3 $125,497 = $188,247 = $376,491
With DDC-EMS control, the optimum start/stop program is discussed: The single conventional time clock on the engineers central control panel can be adjusted to start units at a fixed time before occupancy to permit pre-cooling of the building. The DDC-EMS program saves energy by starting the heating or cooling system only as early as is necessary to achieve desired indoor comfort conditions, with the start time based on outside and inside temperatures. Energy Savings: For 1000 kW of fans, the optimum start/stop program will save an estimated one to two hours for each operating day of the year, for a savings of $4,324 to $8,648. (1 hour)(5)(52)(1000)(.6)($.02772) = $4324 If a building has multiple chillers, various features of the chiller control program can be incorporated. Without an EMS, the lead or first chiller with chiller water pump,
114
AND
condenser water pump, and cooling tower is started with a time clock. Additional chillers are started or stopped manually by the building operators. Building operators normally leave the chilled water temperature at the design setting. Condenser water temperature is controlled to the lowest permitted by the chiller manufacturer. Discussion: The building operator will have to start and stop chillers for both day and evening use, based on the judgment of the operator. Specific starting and stopping sequences in an EMS program can save a large number of hours of chiller operation, compared to manual procedures. Many building operators begin the day by automatically starting 2 or 3 chillers at the same time on the hottest summer days and let them run all day. So the start/stop/selection procedure is important for savings. Second, building operators normally do not change the leaving chiller water temperature of each chiller, even though that temperature is only required for the few days of the year that meet or exceed design conditions. An EMS can continually adjust the leaving water temperature, for a savings of over 1% for each degree the temperature is raised. Third, condenser water temperature can be continually reset by an EMS in the same manner as the chiller water temperature, with a similar savings. An EMS can also reset the condenser water temperature by the ambient or outside wet bulb temperature and cycle off tower fans as the condenser water temperature approaches the outside wet bulb temperature, saving additional fan horsepower. Fourth, an EMS can be designed to provide demand control for chillers. In addition to the savings possible through proper chiller selection to meet the instantaneous load, as already discussed, the demand limiter on each chiller can be used to set up digital outputs for stepped load capacity shedding of each chiller. Refer to Figure 10-1 for an energy audit checklist. There is no way to provide demand monitoring and control or limiting through local conventional controls. This function can only be provided through a microprocessor based DDC-EMS. Peak demands may be classified as being of three general types: Morning start-up; Monday morning is usually the most pronounced, if the building cooling system has been shut down over the weekend. Daytime peaks Random peaks
115
Figure 10-1. Energy Audit Checklist

Facility Name Use Floor area Number of stories Roof area Building envelope Roof construction Wall construction Window type Floor construction Exterior building dimension Operating schedules People Lights Process Janitorial Etc. Day types Weekday Weekend Holiday Other Energy sources Electricity Gas Oil Energy cost data Elec. demand and consumption Gas Oil Rate schedules Historical monthly energy demand, con. data for past 2 or 3 yrs Electricity Gas Oil Standby power/energy sources Type Capacity Electrical characteristics Voltage Power factor Type of heating Space Domestic and service water Type of cooling Space Process HVAC systems System number Area served Critical/noncritical Type of air-side system Type of water-side system Type of control and existing control devices Outside air: Minimum required Maximum available Measured running amps Energy-consuming device (other than HVAC systems) Item Energy demand Operating requirements Existing control Critical/noncritical functions Measured running amps Pumps Service Capacity Critical/noncritical Measured running amps Existing storage tanks Item Use Capacity Critical/noncritical Telephone system Existing capability Space capacity Other existing communications systems Existing capability Spare capacity
116
AND
The manner in which these may appear on a graphical demand meter must be analyzed. Morning Start-Up: The only effective way of controlling this type of peak is through use of some type of chiller control system which provides for a soft start. Daytime Peaks: These peaks are caused by the natural simultaneous solar, transmission, outside air and internal load peaks and may last for several hours. In large office buildings, these peaks can be controlled only by limiting chiller loading and allowing some drift upward in space temperature. It should be recognized that when a cooling system is designed and sized based on 1% design weather conditions, this means that, on the average, there will be only 30 hours during the year that are above these conditions. Random Peaks: These peaks occur in most buildings and are caused by simultaneous operation of miscellaneous equipment: hot water heaters, fans, elevators, and the like. These peaks can be controlled by an EMS with demand monitoring and load shedding. Often a load will have to be shed for only one 15-minute demand interval. If the load to be shed is one step on a chiller, there will not be any discernible change in comfort conditions for such a short period of time. For domestic hot water control, we use this example: Sixteen electric hot water heaters (52 gallons and 6 kW each) and sixteen 1/12 HP circulating pumps make up the hot water system. Each normally cycles on as required to maintain a set leaving water temperature, and the circulating pump runs continuously unless turned off. Controlling these water heaters for energy savings alone is not economical. But when demand savings, discussed earlier, are included, such control does become feasible. In addition to the savings identified herein, several unqualifiable benefits are derived from features such as allowing setpoint adjustment and control tuning from a central location. Trending of temperature and status also provides an extremely valuable tool in diagnosing problems. Remember, the purpose of EMSs is to conserve as much fuel, energy and manpower as possible. Specifying these systems so that they do this efficiently, without needless and costly extras, is the best energy and cost-conserving program the engineer can follow.
117
The accurate analysis of an EMS requires accurate and reliable cost estimating data. Potential savings alone do not determine whether a particular function should be connected to the EMS. The cost of that function is equally important. Several items implicate the cost estimating analysis. The first and most important is that no two EMS manufacturers systems are identical. Another difficulty is from the reliability of budget estimates received from manufacturers sales representatives since they are guarded about revealing detail cost information. Each component of the system must be analyzed. The main cost components are: 1. General Cost Estimation System engineering Shop drawing preparation 2. Central Operator Station 3. Software/Graphics 4. Field Equipment 5. Sensors 6. Actuators 7. Control devices 8. Control Wiring/Piping 9. Transmission System/LAN General costs involve a considerable amount of overhead time thus making them slightly dependent on the size of the EMS. These costs may be in the range of $10,000 to $15,000 depending on EMS size. A central operator station consisting of an IBM PS/2 Model 80 with color monitor and a printer would cost approximately $5,000. Installation and check out may add $1,000. Software is loaded into each DDC field panel, however, it is usually the same package which would cost $8,000 plus the labor (depending on number of panels). Color graphics packages vary between vendors with an average of $5,000 plus labor to build each graphic display. There may be a separate cost for specific application programs depending on the type of EMS. System testing/acceptance test Training Maintenance
118
AND
Field equipment would consist of the DDC panels and any required sub-panels. The DDC panels (depending on size-number of points capacity) could be in a range of $2,000 to $5,000 each. Current DDC panels are constructed so that all point hardware is universal inputs and output can be easily converted in the field. Sensor costs vary depending on location, type, use, and accuracy requirements. In general, a digital/relay would be $100; an analog input/sensor $150; a transducer $250. Additional items to consider include the electric utility meter and any run-time sensing equipment. Actuators would generally be pneumatic or electric with costs at and $200 and $400 respectively. In the past, control devices included receiver controllers, pilot positioners, servos, and other items required to make the EMS function. Today all control is with DDC which, for the most part, eliminates these devices. Wiring and cable cost will vary and is a function of the number of connected points. Some wiring may require conduit. Control piping will require copper or polyethelene tubing. Average cost across the board might be $100 per 100' including labor. The transmission system will depend on the manufacturer of the EMS. Some may use phone lines between field panels while some may use their own LAN configuration. Inter-Connecting within a single building may cost $5,000. In the above cost descriptions, realizing they are certainly not scientific, but figuring 6 field panels with 200 sensors and 50 actuators (40 points/panel) for a total of 250 points, the cost totaled $140,000 or $560 per point. This is in line with EMS projects bid in the late 1980s. After figuring the savings, the engineer must calculate the project payback. Generally, this is done on a simple payback method. If the calculation indicates that payback will take more than five years, there probably are too many items included in the project that may be nice to have but are not energy- or cost-effective. If the paycheck indicated is more than five years, the engineer should re-evaluate the system. The specifying engineer should keep the EMS system simple but make it effectivedo what is needed and forget the extras. It is important to justify everything that must be included. With the pace of current technological developments, it may be both extravagant and wasteful to specify a system whose components will become obsolete before they are put to use.
SEQUENCE
OF
EVENTS
119
Chapter 11
Sequence of Events
properly applied EMS has the potential to reduce energy consumption in almost any building. Following is a general overall approach to installing an EMS.
INITIAL CONCEPT How large is your facility and what type of operation is it? Maybe a smaller EMS would be more suitable. How much energy can you save? Some EMS suppliers say that energy savings will be 25-35%. In general, real savings are in the range of 10-14%. Understand your electric utility rate structure as it relates to ON PEAK, OFF PEAK, and DEMAND. Call other EMS users to find out the pros and cons of their EMS. Who will use your EMS?
119
120
AND
INFORMATION RETRIEVAL This step in the process should include floor plans, HVAC system diagrams, temperature control schematics, wiring diagrams, lighting levels, and utility bills for the previous year (preferably previous three years). As you examine the electric bills, and especially the demand charges, you may see that the demand portion is as much as 40% of the bill charges. The question then is, how much can this demand be reduced?
CANDIDATE BUILDINGS AND SYSTEM SELECTION The physical size of a building is not so important. Rather, its what is going on in that building and how can changes in operating strategies be incorporated. Operating and maintenance personnel should be questioned about operating procedures of the various utility systems under their control. Interviews should be conducted with these personnel: 1. What is the general condition of HVAC equipment components? What are the operating problems? What are the maintenance problems? Operation of temperature controls? Filters? Belt and other drive? Lubrication? Pumps? Heating systems? Chillers? When and why does the system waste energy- electricity, steam or chilled water? Identify and review the operating schedule of chillers, the method of starting and stopping the unit (manual or automatic). Reviewing lighting levels and maintaining minimum levels required for specific area requirements (offices, lobbies, hallways, laboratories, etc.).
2. 3.
4.
5.
6.
SEQUENCE
OF
EVENTS
121
FIELD SURVEY Locate all related equipment on reduced size floor plans noting measured capacity of each system (power and CFM or GPM). Do not rely on so-called as built diagrams. You may find your HVAC equipment operating at 60-70% of design specifications. Obtain the actual operating schedules of each building and of all HVAC units. Analyze the temperature control sequence of operation for each system to determine if it is energy obsolete. Control redesign changes should be recommended where necessary.
SYSTEM DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Numerous factors must be considered in designing and specifying a system that will meet a facilitys requirements. a. Cost-effectiveness is the basic criterion to be used in determining which type of system will yield maximum return on investment. Adaptabilitythat is, how well a system can be adapted to an existing facilityinvolves many important concerns, such as the following: Will the system fit into the existing space? If the space is not readily available, can it be made available? Will new construction be necessary? Can the EMS system be interfaced with existing local controls, or will the controls have to be replaced? Building system utilities energy savings functions should be automatic, not manual. An EMS should be able to monitor energy used hour by hour, day by day, and produce permanent records when required. System control loops should be upgraded where possible, to save energy (for example, fan system economizer cycles could be added to systems not operating on minimum outdoor air only). An ongoing energy audit on a monthly basis should be initiated when the system becomes operable.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
122 g.
AND
The system design shall be such that monitoring the environment shall be both for comfort and safety of occupants. The system should incorporate fire and security functions where these functions can be improved via an EMS central operator station. The system control console would be easy to operate by non-technical personnel.
h.
i.
CONTRACT DOCUMENT PREPARATION Drawings and specificationsthe contract documentsmust be prepared for the system that is selected. Drawings must be reviewed carefully for completeness and accuracy; they should clearly and precisely indicate the designers intent; and they should be carefully coordinated with the specifications in showing the components functional relationships. Specifications should address major concerns such as degree of accuracy, level of access, use of existing controls, use of electric power, factory debugging, acceptance testing, and training. Do not use documents written around one supplier.
CONTRACT Consider utilizing a two-step procurement procedure that prequalifies suppliers before pricing. Do not award contracts simply to the lowest bid unless you have prequalified the bidders.
INSTALLATION Manage the construction and installation of an EMS thoroughly supervise closely, ask questions, and learn by looking over his shoulder. A bargain on the initial cost can result in thousands or hundreds
SEQUENCE
OF
EVENTS
123
of thousands of dollars being wasted in the long term. The facility should ask each contractor to provide references from other facilities in which its equipment has been installed and should check with responsible personnel at those facilities to assess their experiences and satisfaction with the equipment and the contractor. A major concern is the project manager to whom the contractor assign the project. In fact, the capabilities of the project manager can make or break the project. Ideally, the project manager should be experienced in HVAC systems and their controls as well as in electronics applications. The facility should check his background and should determine how much time he will be spending on the project, who his assistants will be, and who the backup personnel will be. After the system has been installed, but before acceptance tests are begun, the contractor should debug the system by operating and calibrating each point in the entire system. Personnel should be located at both central and remote locations so that, when each function is performed, readings are taken at the central station, and the actual function is observed and the readings are verified at the remote station.
ACCEPTANCE Once again, human verification of the readings must be obtained for all points in all locations. After each point in the EMS system is calibrated and it has been ascertained that all points are in operating order, the system must be operated as a complete entity for acceptance testing. It is beneficial to have the outside or in-house maintenance staff members actively engaged in the debugging procedure. They can participate with the operators in the initial training that is provided by the contractor, and they can gain experience with the system so there will be relatively few surprises later if problems arise.
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE The facilitys personnel must be trained so that they understand the concepts involved in the system, how to perform their functions in relation to the systems, and how their functions interrelate. They should
124
AND
be provided with manuals from the contractor and some type of on-call troubleshooting arrangement with the contractor should be established so that the personnel at least can have their questions answered. Maintainability of a system depends on the manufacturers or suppliers ability to support the facilitys in-house maintenance efforts through training programs and manuals and, equally important, if not even more so, to make available professionally trained maintenance personnel. Whenever possible, the facility should check the manufacturers references to determine whether other users of the proposed system are satisfied with the maintenance services provided by the manufacturer.
VERIFY PAYBACK (ONE YEAR LATER)
SELECTION/EXPANSION
125
Chapter 12
Selection/Expansion
F
1. 2.
ollowing is a list of questions and comments relating to EMSs which are most commonly asked, intelligent questions that require an answer before committing money to an EMS installation. (Those items with an asterisk [*]should receive top priority.) *What do you neednot what is available? All to often, prospective EMS buyers are lulled into a sale with all of the color and promises of a full blown system. Maybe a smaller simple-to-operate EMS will suffice. *What are your people capable of doingnot what you would like your people to be capable of doing? It is easier to start with a smaller EMS that has a limited number of primary features than to have a 1,000 point system installed and must be operated by personnel who may be introduced to a EMS for the first time. Give your operators the opportunity to get comfortable with this new system on a small scale basis and gradually work into a larger more sophisticated EMS over time. 3. *What will your costs and savings ultimately benot what some vendor has projected or verbally promised? 125
126
AND
A common made mistake, is that an EMS is sometimes purchased by a building owner before an energy audit and evaluation is performed. Simplified forms are often provided by the EMS vendors for the owners or occupants to quantify the energy consumption by fuel type for the particular building considered. This information is then evaluated using various assumptions such as HVAC equipment scheduling, duty cycling, demand control, lighting control, and optimization of heating and cooling. 4. How long has the manufacturer been in business manufacturing EMS (or DDC) systems? *How long has the installer been in business installing EMS systems? Be certain that just because the installer is the best electrical contractor in the entire city, he has also had experience installing EMSs. 6. How many systems has the manufacturer installed; that are comparable to your proposed system? that are working? to the satisfaction of the owner? 7. 8. Is the system modular and upward expandable? Is hardware and software fully compatible from the smallest system to the largest system? *Can the EMS operator communicate with the system for dayto-day operation in English language? Software programming for EMS operators has improved over the years. Most EMS manufacturers have provided for English language capability as well as mouse driven prompting. Recent color graphics software packages offer custom interactive displays that simulate knobs, dials, switches and gauges found
5.
9.
SELECTION/EXPANSION
127
in hard-wired control panels. With the mouse you can change setpoints, operate equipment, print reports, or rework a schedule. 10. How much control over the system software does the manufacturer have? Do you have? Knowledgeable computer people are not a dime a dozen, but there are, and will be many computer engineers and technicians available in the near future. Must you contact the manufacturer every time you want to consider an update program or when you want to create a new application program? Where is the manufacturer located, or must he travel a great distance? 13. What are the costs for the various features, changes, source codes, updates? Is the material taped or are you required to pay a duty charge? 14. 15. What are the maintenance costs for 1 year? For 5 years? What are the system components prices? What are the labor rates? What are the qualifications of your own staff? Be prepared to dedicate a full-time technician-type employee for 6 months to 1 year. 17. How thoroughly will the system be checked out after installation (prior to the start of the normal 1 year guarantee period)?
11.
12.
16.
128
AND
INSTALLATION/COMMISSIONING
129
Chapter 13
Installation/ Commissioning
he entire EMS should be installed by skilled technicians, electricians and mechanics, all of whom are properly trained and qualified for this type of work. Electricians are obviously experts in electrical work; however, they may not have a background in the HVAC related field. (A mixed air sensor should not be located in the return air duct; a differential pressure switch will not provide proper air flow status/alarm of the fan if one of the sensing tubes is extended outside the building.) Similarly, a steamfitter mechanic may not know the first thing about wiring a motor starter or installing conduit. Each trade has their own separate procedures and regulations to guide them. For these reasons, each EMS project should require a vendor-supplied project manager. He should have a minimum of five years in the temperature controls/EMS business and has experience in managing previous EMS projects. The system and materials should be installed in accordance with manufacturers instructions, roughing-in drawings and details shown on submittal diagrams. All electric cables and polyethylene tubing should be extended and connected to numbered lines inside of all field panels. Sufficient spare cable (minimum of 5 feet) should be provided to allow final terminations. Be certain that all wires and air lines are alphanumeric coded. The EMS contractor should be responsible for all installation including:
129
130 MATERIALS
AND
All EMS panels, automation devices, and enclosures All mounting hardware All interconnecting wire, junction boxes, terminal strips, etc. All sensors, relays, contractors, and other input/output field hardware required to satisfy approved point list sequence of operations. Any additional materials required to constitute a complete and functional installation.
INSTALLATION All wiring between panel and remote devices Mounting of panel(s) All electrical terminations required to satisfy approved point list and sequence of operation. Calibration and final check-out of all installed devices Installation of all devices/equipment specifically allocated to EMS contractor. Provide 10% spare wire pairs on multiconductor runs
ON-SITE SUPERVISION Continuous on-site supervision of installation personnel shall be provided by an employee of the EMS contractor regularly and primarily responsible for such supervision. Sufficient on-site supervision by the vendors application engineer shall also ensure that all work is satisfactorily completed as submitted and approved.
INSTALLATION/COMMISSIONING AS-BUILT DRAWINGS
131
Application engineer shall formulate as-built drawings showing any changes between submittal drawings and actual installation.
COORDINATIONWITH OTHER TRADES AND WORK The EMS contractor shall be responsible for providing necessary interface to mechanical equipment, lighting, etc. at time of submittal. EMS contractor shall not be responsible for providing additional interface required by significant changes to equipment/installation provided by other contractors. All materials and workmanship provided and performed under the specification shall be guaranteed by the EMS contractor for a period of one full year commencing on date of substantial completion of system installation and being placed in useful service providing the special functions. Modern day EMS vendors have been known to offer a 2 or 3 year guarantee because they have that much confidence in their product.
The implementation or installation phase is critical to the successful operation and ultimate control of an EMS. Knowledgeable and competent personnel should be assigned to monitor the installation activities of the contractor(s). The personnel selected should be: 1) familiar with the facility and system, 2) experienced in the present control network, and 3) have full understanding of the overall project scope that will provide assurance that all interfacing components and techniques are incorporated during the installation. A continuing problem with design and construction is the fact that the design engineer has often completed his or her duties and has left the project by the time the design is ready for commissioning and startup. This is a bad practice because it denies the engineer the important feedback that can be used to make the next project more effective. It is also harmful to the project because contractors, who do not necessarily understand the concepts behind the physical design, are the ones who must make it work. When systems are simple, little harm can come from this practice, but it can be very detrimental when advanced technology
132
AND
systems are to be installed. Contractors who do not understand the intent of the design often make adjustments that operate counter to the intent of the design as they try to make the system perform property. The best solution is to see that the design engineer remains with the project through its start-up. The engineer retains responsibility for ensuring that the systems are brought to an operating state that meets all the design criteria. This includes taking direct charge of the development of all energy management system software that will provide the control sequences to operate the building. It also includes responsibility for providing the owners staff with the understanding and training required to operate the building as desired. EMS commissioning requires expert technicians skilled in the startup of such systems. It becomes a tedious job, but each and every point should be tested 100% functional regardless of how long it takes. Some earlier EMSs required an integral intercom system installed between all field panels and the head-end CPU. These proved to be valuable when commissioning a project as it provided a means to communicate with remote sites during the debugging process as well as maintenance procedures. However, an intercom system integral with an EMS is expensive and must be maintained. Most owners prefer to use a walkie-talkie system which are much less expensive and can be used for a variety of other functions. Functional and operational tests of the hardware, subsystems, software and the complete EMS must be required and enforced. A final test of the complete system in the fully-operational mode is required in the project documents and enforced in the field to assure compliance. A Substantial Performance Test Procedure is used in British Columbia, Canada for an EMS project bid in early 1990. See following three pages which include an operational check-out, (7) Day Test, and documentation.
SUBSTANTIAL PERFORMANCE TEST PROCEDURES Overview Before the SEVEN (7)-day acceptance test may begin, the EMCS must be completely operational including the following:
133
1) Every point shall be checked end to end to ensure accuracy and integrity of systems. Each point will appear on one of the sheets in Clause 7 and be signed off by both persons involved in the commissioning procedure. 2) Basic control strategies shall be written in Operator Control Language (OCL). 3) Time schedules shall be built and in control, replacing time-controlled equipment. 4) Displays shall be built for each logical air handling system, boiler systems, chiller, etc. 5) Each control loop measured variable, controlled variable and set point if calculated; shall be placed on a FIFTEEN (15)- minute continuous trend for at least TWENTY-FOUR (24) hours to prove stability of loop. 6) Each space sensor shall be placed on a THREE (3)-hour trend for One Hundred (100) samples. 7) Runtime totalizer shall be set on all digital outputs. 8) Load/save of panel programs must be demonstrated. 9) If included, sample dynamic graphics shall be built as demonstration of graphic capabilities. 10) Ail features of system shall be exercised. 11) Operator shall be briefed on operation of system. 12) A trend on one panel shall be set up for a point from another panel. This point shall also be trended in its own panel for the same intervals. Comparison of the two trends will indicate if any communication problems are occurring during the SEVEN (7)day test.
134
AND
13) Related DIs and DOs shall be connected to show alarm condition. During SEVEN (7)-day Test 1. Fire alarm will be tested to ensure correct action of all fire and smoke sequences. 2. Power failure for building will be simulated, system recovery monitored. 3. Control strategy upgrade shall be started which will exercise most features of the system. 4. Demonstration of modem operation will be required. 5. Demonstration of hardware low limits and damper interlocks will be required. 6. Spot checks of points end-to-end integrity will be carried out. If several problems are identified, a complete reconfirmation of system integrity will be required by Contractor. 7. Printer shall be left on for complete SEVEN (7)-day test. All printouts will be kept for review at completion of list. An alarm printer shall be supplied by the Contractor if none is supplied in this contract. Documentation The following documentation must also be in place before completion of SEVEN (7)-day test and Substantial Acceptance is granted: 1) Panel layout sheets complete with point name, point address and wire identification number. One copy attached to each respective panel door. 2) All points tagged with point name, point address and panel number. 3) Points Check-Out data sheets showing final set points values during calibrations.
135
4) As-Built control drawings showing interface with existing controls. 5) As-Built ladder wiring diagrams showing all hardware interlocks. 6) Complete Operators Manual. 7) Apparatus and Maintenance Manual for all sensors, transducers, solid state relays, etc. 8) Reduced floor plans showing sensory, terminals and panel locations. 9) Electrical approval certificate. 10) All of the above information, with the exception of #2 (point tags) shall be bound and presented in FIVE (5) manuals to be left on site. Once the basic above requirements are met and all other features of the system are complete and acceptable, Substantial Completion shall be granted. A deficiency list shall be prepared and holdbacks applied. All deficiencies shall be corrected prior to Total Performance. Warranty shall start from the date of Total Performance of the work.
136
AND
TRAINING/OPERATION/MAINTENANCE
137
Chapter 14
Training/Operation/ Maintenance
TRAINING he success of an energy management system is contingent upon a careful balancing between the EMS itself, the mechanical system of the building complex, and the users of the EMS. The importance of the user must not be overlooked as the integral link between the EMS and the building complex. Even an operator whose only job with the system is to monitor system outputs needs training in order to understand and properly react to messages. The training may serve simply to remove fear of the computer from the mind of the operator. The type and amount of training required depends on the complexity of the tasks an individual will be asked to perform, and as the operators responsibilities with the system increase, so will the amount of required training. A user who will be performing very complex functions such as specifying or developing computations, interlocks, or conservation strategies must have a sound knowledge of the capabilities of the system as well as of how the various features interact. The types of EMS training approaches vary widely. They should teach theory and include hands-on experience. They should also be formal, done at the users site, or done at a remote location. For a simple EMS or for an operator who will have limited use of
137
138
AND
an EMS, the use of system documentation with some informal on-thejob training may be satisfactory. Responding to routine system messages and performing routine building functions is probably easy, so it is reasonable to practice right on the system which is controlling and monitoring the building functions. As the complexity of the EMS increases, or as an operator becomes responsible for more complex processes in the system, the effectiveness of on-the-job training as a single source of training soon becomes unsatisfactory. In these cases, formal off-site training has several advantages. Formal off-site classroom training has the advantage of removing the student from the distractions inherent to on-the-job training. Also, when extensive formal training is done off-site, the student is immersed in using the system, requiring the individual to rely only on the EMS to solve building problems, again minimizing distraction. This experience results in more efficient and creative use of the system. When available, formal courses offered by the EMS vendor at the vendor site teach the proper use and range of capabilities of the system along with how features interact. The instructor is likely to be a full-time professional who learns firsthand from the system designer how the system works. This type of training is important for most medium-tolarge systems which may include a few hundred to several thousands points. Extensive formal training is not complete without hands-on use of the EMS. Whereas classroom training is important to teach concepts and system structure, it is the hands-on experience which makes the training most effective. This hands-on experience may be on the users own EMS or on the same type of system in a laboratory situation. Many users initially feel that hands-on training at their site is most beneficial since students are learning precisely how their system is applied to their building complex. This experience is definitely important, but might better come after the laboratory situation. During the training period, experimentation and errors are bound to occur and are an important aspect of the learning process. However, errors and experimentation made on a system which is actually monitoring and controlling a building could be life threatening (if fire management is involved) and costly (in terms of energy or property). In a lab situation, it is safe to experiment with new ideas and gain expertise. Then the knowledge can be applied to a real system. Also, in a lab situation, it is easy to simulate building functions and problems such as
139
temperature change or equipment failures in order to prepare the student to better react in a real situation. Even if extensive formal off-site training is done, training is not complete. Time is necessary to allow the operators to become familiar with details of how their EMS works and to implement newly gained ideas. Also, time is required to become fluent with the system, and it is natural to expect the operator to rely on the system documentation, perhaps indefinitely. However, answers to all application questions often are not in the documentation. Therefore, armed with extensive training that has given the user a clear and accurate understanding of how the system features work and interact, the operator can put the features to use so that they best apply to the building in which the EMS is operating. The timing of training is also important. An EMS user should not plan on a formal training period (only) after the system is installed. A certain amount of knowledge can be gained during the installation phase. Advance copies of equipment data sheets and other vendor information will be beneficial during this phase of the project. Ideally, it is best to have some training both before and after installation is complete. If the user is a first-time EMS owner, additional follow-up training periods will be required at six and twelve month periods after installation to be certain the EMS is operating as originally intended and to answer questions that are bound to come up. The success of any EMS comes only through its use. It will be used only if the building personnel understand its capabilities and see them as valuable to their jobs. This can happen only if they are trained to apply the EMS. Energy management systems applied to medium and large buildings are of an implementation and functional complexity that training from either experienced users or a formal instructional organization is required for a successful application of the system. Smaller or less sophisticated systems may be adequately applied through documentation and on-the-job training.
OPERATION Lack of sufficient training is the major problem facing EMS owners. Because of this number one problem, the next most often mentioned problem is the inability to properly program or reprogram the system.
140
AND
Following are some common problem-related statements made with regard to the EMSs: Were unable to shed loads during peaks due to customer discomfort. We need an outside person to reprogram. The system fails to respond in a timely manner, resulting in the need to override it. Most of the people responsible for operating the system know very little about HVAC operation and, since thats what it controls, were limited in what we can accomplish. To avoid being a presenter of such statements, EMS owners must realize that someone is going to have to operate the system so select, in advance, the person(s) who will be responsible for its use. Also, realize that it will take time (as much as six to twelve months) for operating personnel to become experts at the operator terminal keyboard. EMS operators must know the building mechanical and electrical systems and therefore an office secretary, although an excellent typist, will not necessarily be qualified to operate the EMS in the most efficient manner. Monthly utility bill with energy consumption data should be routed to the EMS operator as soon as possible so that data stored in the EMS can be checked and verified.
MAINTENANCE Maintenance falls into two categories; physical maintenance on the EMS itself, and software maintenance programs that modern EMSs are capable of storing and implementing. This section will be directed at maintenance on the systems. There are generally two classifications of maintenance. 1. Vendor supplied on a one-year basis. 2. Time and material.
141
Early systems, prior to the early 1980s were designed around a mini computer. It was the fear of many owners that if the computer went down, it would cost tens of thousands of dollars to repair or replace it. This, coupled with the magnitude of electronics in the field panels forced many customers into annual vendor supplied service/ maintenance agreements. It was not unusual for such an agreement to average 15-25% of the installed system cost. Furthermore, it amounted to the purchase of an insurance policy. Present day EMS-DDC systems no longer require the large central computer and, coupled with the more reliable microprocessor circuitry, expensive maintenance contracts should be a thing of the past. Actual practice has shown that if the vendor is contracted to check the entire EMS twice a year and replace defective parts, the cost will quite possible be 3-5% of the installed system cost.
142
AND
FIRE ALARM/SECURITY
143
Chapter 15
Fire Alarm/Security
n automatic fire alarm system-FAS (typically made up of smoke detectors, manual pull stations, audible and visual warning devices, and a fire alarm control with remote notifiation capability) can provide early warning of a developing fire. In all situations, the installation of such a system is for the primary purpose of life safety. When a fire strikes, instant detection coupled with a prompt and suitable action is vital if the safety of people and property is to be maintained. It is recommended that system inspection and testing be scheduled monthly or as required by national and/or local fire codes. Adequate written records of all inspections should be kept. Given these parameters, along with the fact that FAS have advanced over the past several years from hardwired to multiplexed to computer controlled, a question confronting building owners is: do we want to have this system stand alone or do we want to combine the FAS with an EMS. Points to keep in mind while addressing this issue include: 1. Has the microelectronics and local area network (LAN) data communications industries advanced far enough in reliability to allow the combination of two separate systems? Will the response speed in reporting both the first fire alarm and successive alarms be compromised as the FAS and EMS both try to communicate at the same time with a central operators station? 143
2.
144 3.
AND
Will the same operator monitor both the EMS and FAS (FAS may require 24 hour per day monitoring)? Will the operator, who may have an excellent understanding of HVAC and the mechanical features of a building, also have equal expertise with the entire FAS? EMSs do not require the rigid attention and regular testing and maintenance that a FAS requires. Testing and maintenance of an FAS will have to be strictly adhered to. Will electronic malfunctions in the EMS affect the FAS? The communication protocol must be the same for both EMS and FAS. Individual manufacturers in each separate field do not share the same protocol; how can we expect manufacturers in separate fields to share this information?
4.
5.
6. 7.
A typical, modern day stand-alone FAS (depending on system design) may include the following: Intelligent, addressable smoke/heat detectors: intelligent means that analog information is reported in the form of a measured level of smoke, product of combustion, or the thermal measurement of each device. Addressable means that each device is continually reporting its type and status. Addressable manual alarm stations: used to manually initiate a fire alarm. Horns/strobes for audible/visual alarm notification. Control panel (microprocessor-based): this is the brain of a FAS. It provides power to the system and electronically supervises its circuits. The panel contains logic circuits that receive signals from alarm initiating devices and transmits them to alarm indicating appliances and equipment.
FIRE ALARM/SECURITY Depending on system design, a panel may:
145
Provide audible signal sounds throughout the building. Provide automatic alarms to a fire department or to a central station, where a fire department can be notified. Shut down ventilation fans to prevent recirculation of smoke. Close doors to prevent the spread of smoke. Release fire extinguishing agents. Notify of water flow in a sprinkler pipe system. Return all elevators to first floor. Provide firefighters telephone system. Provide emergency audio evacuation communication.
Peripherals: Printer to provide hard-copy printout of all changes in status of the FAS. RS-232C interface. CRT monitor with keyboard that displays all changes in status of the FAS. RS-232C interface. Color graphics system displays floor plans, text message and flashing alarms of initiating devices.
The fire protection industry, like other industries, is finding big improvements in products with the use of more reliable electronic equipment. Microprocessor-based FASs can pinpoint fires faster because every addressable device is identified by location, priority, sensitivity and detector type. The system also can continue to operate without disconnecting an entire zone if a single detector fails. Security systems, which are not necessarily involved with life safety, also rely on instant notification to a central operator station whenever an alarm device is activated. Microprocessor-based systems bring many benefits to these systems as well:
146
AND
Reduced system hardware size (for a given number of zones). Reduced system cost. Easily reconfigured, modified, or upgraded system. Reduced wiring and installation costs.
Protection devices include: Magnetic contact switches Glass break detector Photoelectric beam detector Motion detector Microwave sensors that provide an alarm signal when motion is sensed within sensor range (30 Ft. 120 Ft. range).
In cases where security functions coexist within the system along with fire systems, the system response time requirements may be more stringent. Microprocessors have the power and speed, when properly programmed, to make the necessary split second decision for an automatic and reliable response to any type of conflagration or intrusion.
DESIGN/DRAWINGS/SPECIFICATIONS
147
Chapter 16
Design/ Drawings/Specifications
stablishing the goals and objectives of the EMS which matches a specific environment is a difficult task. The problems involved are related not so much to unreliable equipment as to failures in human communication. From the owners point of view, it is essential to define exactly what is required in a system and who is responsible for providing it. A kickoff meeting should be held with all persons involved who will eventually have some part in the process. It is advisable to create a checklist at this meeting. The checklist will serve to define the overall needs as well as delegating responsibilities. A set of building plans should be available to assist in ensuing discussions. A walk-through of the facility usually takes place immediately after the kickoff meeting. In the walk-through, outside consultants become familiar with the facility and the location of all major energy using equipment. The buildings energy envelope must be defined and specific energy using equipment within that envelope identified. Data-collection may take place over a period of several days or weeks. This process includes: monthly energy consumption data from the previous year (three years is preferable, to establish trends which may be occurring); the skin of the buildingwhich is influenced by weather and the environment; lighting; people; and other variables such as opening/closing doors, traffic patterns, and general/specific building
147
148
AND
use. Specific equipment such as fan and pump motors, chillers and other energy users must also be taken into account. During the field survey, on a small-scale set of floor plans, all major equipment should be located. Then, with the assistance of operating/maintenance personnel, all those items which are thought to need repair and/or replacement, should be identified. It should also be determined which of the many energy-consuming devices can be controlled. Some processes simply cannot be remotely and automatically controlled. Equipment capacities, (measured-not specified), hours of operation, maintenance, and operating procedures should all be recorded. The connected load and maximum electrical demand must be carefully studied. A building may have 100 kW of connected load, but this total is rarely, if ever, used. Generally 70 percent or less, and sometimes as low as 25 percent, of the connected load, may be used at any one time. Over the period of a year, the electrical demand will vary depending on the weather, the buildings function and the processes involved. Existing control systems in a building must be carefully analyzed and defined. The basic energy conservation controllerthe time clock will no doubt appear in this audit. Air conditioning equipment is controlled in several ways, including hot and cold decks, mixing dampers, outside air cycles and economizer control cycles. If modulating outside-air/return-air dampers are already part of the system, it will be less expensive to convert to a DDC-EMS. However, if there is only a minimum or fixed outside-air system, it may be costly to add an outside-air cycle. Duct openings would have to be cut into the walls, existing ductwork may have to be rebuilt, powered exhaust and recirculating air system may have to be added, and so on. A number of energy (or media) control possibilities exist: a modulating valve, an open-and-close valve, a 3-way bypass, primary/secondary pumping loops, etc. The building may already be equipped with compressed-air-actuated pneumatic controls, or voltage-actuated electric controls that cause control apparatus to modulate, or electronic controls that operate valves or dampers. The problem then is integrating already existing control devices with a new EMS. Major changes may be required for compatibility. The prices for EMSs vary in order of system magnitude. The specifying engineer must know exactly what is needed before deciding on such a system. If a $50 remote clock can do the job, there is no reason
149
to spend $5,000 to have a microprocessor turn a system on and off. The analysis of HVAC systems and controls will indicate both what can be done and what control interface will be required. DDC/EMS may be installed to upgrade existing controls and/or reduce energy consumption. Is an old system is to be replaced, list problem areas that the new system should solve. Often new control systems are installed with little thought to the objectives. Old systems may be replaced with new systems having the same design problems. Define what needs to be controlled and how. The field survey should also include the following: potential locations of field panels and available power, possible locations for instruments and controls, type and location of motor starters, location of utility metering, and the number and location of building zones. The next step in the process is to select energy conservation programs that are applicable to the project. Even though many software programs include the basic programs as a standard feature, it doesnt pay to invest time in items which do not apply. Hot water heating reset from outside air temperature would not be considered if there was no fintube radiation system. After the programs have been selected, a points list must be provided to enable the vendor to determine the number of panels, type of points, relays, sensors and other field hardware requirements. An input/ output summary form can be used which will eventually be included in the project specifications. The point schedule allows a logical presentation of input and output analog and digital signaling associated with the system along with alarm points and application programs to be applied. (See Figures 16-1 and 16-2 for use of tables). Contract documentation will include drawings and specifications. In general contract drawings will not have to be presented at great detail. Block diagrams, suggested layout, and suggested locations of field panels and equipment will be required. Precise details are not required because each vendor will bid the project based on their configuration of hardware. The location of the operators console should be clarified as to room number and general location. Figure 16-3 shows a typical layout of an EMS central control room which may have been required in the early 1980s. However, with the advent of distributed DDC EMSs, the only desk-top hardware required for the operators station is shown in Figure 16-4.
150
AND
16-1. EMS Point Table
EXISTING CONTROL SCHEMATIC

AIR HANDLER #2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15 MULTI ZONE
16-1. EMS Point Table (Continued)
151
152
AND
16-2. ANDOVER HVAC Schematic and Point Table
DESIGN/DRAWINGS/SPECIFICATIONS 153
16-2. ANDOVER HVAC Schematic and Point Table (Continued)
154
AND
16-3. EMS Control Room
155
16-4. DDC-EMS Operator Work Station A system block diagram should be provided (as you perceive it) which shows the general system layout and basic architecture including the central operator station, field panels, power available, and connecting transmission cables. If telecommunication capabilities are desired, show same and indicate if each DDC panel is to have this same type of interface. Individual input/output devices are not shown on this diagram since they are specified in the point tables. Quantities of hardware are not to be included. (See Figure 16-5 for a four-building DDC-EMS System Block Diagram). In addition to floor plans, a site plan must be included to show building orientation and the location of remote electric substations, telephone lines, underground utility tunnels or conduits (especially important where multiple buildings are involved) and the major pieces of equipment that will be connected to the EMS in some way even though it might be a simple lighting timer switch. (See Figure 16-6 Site Plan/ Equipment Layout). Floor plans should include the location of existing equipment such as fans, pumps, temperature control panels, time-clocks, air compressor, lighting timers/switches, room sensors and all other items that will be connected to the EMS. Actual room numbers and names should be shown as well as all pertinent information and any notes that may assist the installers performing their work. The finished product should include everything you would want on the drawings if you were the installer. Well-presented documents will result in a clear understanding by all parties involved. (See Figure 16-7).
156
AND
16-5. DDC-EMS System Block Diagram
DESIGN/DRAWINGS/SPECIFICATIONS 157
16-6. Site Plan/Equipment Location
158
AND
16-6. Site Plan/Equipment Location (Continued)
159
16-7. Floor Plan/Point Table
160
AND
16-8. Floor Plan/Point Table Continued
161
Installation details are sometimes required for interfacing connects to special equipment or as a guide for the proper hook-up of equipment. Figure 16-8 shows how an existing variable speed drive is wired and which terminals you desire the installer to connect to for the 4-20 mA control signal. Figure 16-9 shows the correct and incorrect methods of wiring a fan status point.
REF 4 20mADA REF IRF OV

Jumper JP9 JP10
VT 130H
Position 5V side Side with no mark
16-8. VSD Wiring Connections
162
AND
16-9. Fan Status Wiring
163
There are two basic methods of developing a final document for an EMS: 1) Specification and 2) performance-based request for proposal. With the request for proposal, a very general and sometimes vague performance specification is written and vendors submit a detailed description and quotation of the EMS (as they interpret the specs) and all of its components, both hardware and software, on which the proposal is based. This process requires a panel of EMS experts to evaluate each proposal to assure they are in compliance. Developing a specification for a DDC EMS should result in: 1. State-of-the-art DDC system at a reasonable cost. 2. A user friendly and simple to operate system. 3. Reasonable time schedule for installation and start-up. 4. Adequate training for operators and maintenance personnel. 5. A smooth acceptance with both parties understanding conditions for acceptance. 6. A good payback in energy and labor savings. 7. Improvement in comfort conditions for building occupants. 8. Easily serviced and maintained system. 9. A dependable and reliable system. 10. A system that is expandable. The remainder of this section will address the DDC-EMS specification. The following is a sample table of contents of an EMS specification with a brief comment on each section: 1. General (Scope of Work) Briefly describe the project, reference existing conditions (items to remove/remain), contractor to provide all material and labor, contractor to visit site. (No additional compensation will be granted because of lack of knowledge of existing conditions). Include on-site supervision, weekly status report, and coordination with other traders.
164
AND
2. Supporting Documents/Technical Proposal Low bidder shall submit (1) copy within 5 days after bid: number of similar EMSs in operation; (3) EMS owner names to contact; information on local installers; detailed description of all EMS hardware and software; UL evidence; describe future expansion capability; list prices of all components; procedure to add/delete points; cost and breakdown of (1) year service/maintenance contract; remote monitoring capability; actual print-outs of summaries, logs and trend reports. 3. Codes and Permits All work shall conform to local and national codes. Contractor shall secure and pay for all permits, licenses, and certificates. 4. System Listing EMS to conform to UL 916 (EMS) and fire ratings (if applicable). 5. Continuity of Service Contractor shall maintain continuous services. (3) days notice if an interruption is necessary. Existing controls and time clocks are not to be disconnected until EMS is 100% operational. 6. Equipment Access Install equipment for access to maintain and service. 7. Submittals and Shop Drawings (4) copies of submittals required within (3) weeks of contract award and are to include technical information, catalog cut sheets, installation drawings, wiring diagrams, and proposed layout. Submit a construction schedule. Software programs to be reviewed before installing same. Refer to Figures 16-10, 16-11, 16-12 for typical submittal. 8. Delivery and Storage of Equipment Indicate where and how all equipment is to be received and stored. 9. EMS Requirements Describe in detail EMS central operator station, field panels, software, input/output devices (sensors, relays, transducers), transmission system, LANs, phone connections, portable devices.
165
10. Energy Management and Control Programs Describe each application software program plus any special control strategy sequences. 11. Signal Protection Describe method and ratings for lightning production, power spikes, and brown-outs. 12. Wiring Describe how and where wiring is to be performed including wiring size, conduit requirements, wire molding, and any special circumstances. 13. Control Piping Specific type of tubing (copper or fire-retardant polyethylene) and how to install. 14. Manuals and Training (4) sets of as-built control/wiring diagrams including connections to existing equipment. Description narrative of sequence of control. Installation drawings. Catalog data sheets on all hardware. Complete operating instructions for entire EMS. Software manual and software flow diagrams. Point list. Separate section on training to specify when, where, who an how long training sessions are to be held. Include EMS start-up, programming of software, how to add/delete a point, and system maintenance requirements. 15. Contract Completion and Guarantee Describe all that is to be included in the warranty (adjustments, programming, commissioning, and a written report of EMS status). 16. Compliance If bidder is not in full compliance, a written document is to be submitted with bid showing non-compliance items. 17. Drawings EMS block diagram, site plan, floor plans with equipment locations, HVAC flow diagram. 18. Point Lists Complete listing of input/output points with reference to special circumstances (see Figure 16-13 for table).
166
AND
16-10. Zone Controls/Hardware
167
168
AND
16-11. AH Unit/Wiring
169
170
AND
16-12. AH Unit/Hardware
171
172
AND
16-13. Point Table
173
174
AND
INTELLIGENT BUILDINGS
175
Chapter 17
Intelligent Buildings
he intelligent building is a concept which has received much attention and promotion recently. Networks of sensors and controls collect data about the building environment. Networks of computers and microprocessors use the information to adjust the building to changing conditions. Smart systems arent brand new but they are coming to play in more and more building types. The broadest new market is likely to be in multi-tenant office buildings, where on-site telecommunications, data-communications and office-automation services can be offered to tenants on a shared basis. But all types of buildings can be enhanced by an electronic infrastructure from libraries and banks to hotels and corporate headquarters. One of these intelligent buildings is the $640 million headquarters for the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corp. completed in 1986. Its 5,000 sensor point electronic building management system is one of the most comprehensive of its type. Similar to the US intelligent building phenomenon, the banks electronics were central to its design. The system minimized building operating costs, ensures fast responses to crises and also makes mechanical and electrical services adaptable to layout changes. The 43-story building was designed by architect Foster Associates, London, so that internal layouts can be changed easily to suit changing
175
176
AND
computer needs. Different types of outlets for air, telecommunications and power are built into an access floor with tiles that can be lifted and moved for different layouts. Four mechanical service modules serve each floor. These boxes stacked on either side of the building that contain toilets, water storage and a local air conditioning plant. The modules are supplied from the central plant in the basement, which draws in seawater for cooling and toilet flushing through a shaft and tunnel from the nearby harbor. The building management system played a part in commissioning these decentralized mechanical service modules. The system connects each service module and made commissioning easier. A network of microprocessors, monitors and controls local equipment. They are linked to central computers on the 27th floor and second basement level. The network monitors 23 systems, including lighting, HVAC, water supply, refuse disposal, fire, security and leak detection, and it is programmed to run them economically and with minimum personnel. The system also interfaces extras such as the seawater system and automatic document delivery. The system emphasizes energy management and will calculate the efficiency of power use and highlight wasteful areas. There are plans to use the system to control window blinds and to track the sun with mirrors, scooping light into the buildings 170 ft. high atrium. The system also features a maintenance component run on a separate minicomputer. The energy management system will drop off pertinent data such as total running time of equipment, and the maintenance system will be programmed to print out preventive maintenance work orders. Work orders will include parts and tools needed, time estimates and costs. If a work order is not acknowledged as completed in a specified time, it will be repeated. The maintenance system will also maintain an inventory of the thousands of spare parts for the building, which will have custom made components from cladding to doorknobs. It will issue restock reminders when stock is running low. Sophisticated electronics make buildings intelligent. They may not look much different from the outside. But interior design, wiring systems, floor systems, telecommunications systems, lighting, controls and installation techniques are changing. Even structural systems are affected by heavy line loads from additional equipment. Floors may
INTELLIGENT BUILDINGS
177
need reinforcing to handle the approximately 80 psf live load required by computerization. A new highly regarded player, the telecommunications consultant is being added to the design team. Confused developers, not sure that they need smart systems but afraid of being left with outmoded space, are looking to designers and telecommunications consultants for advice. One answer is flexibility. To avoid obsolescence and costly retrofits, buildings of all types need to be designed so that electronics can be added later, even if no one wants them now. The physical changes in the building are subtle but elementary to the success of the intelligent building. Simple things, like increasing the size of the telephone closets, can become expensive to work around if overlooked. More important things, such as accommodation for extra live loads, can be dangerous if overlooked. Consultants recommend that clients build for a 100 psf live load throughout the building, instead of the minimum 50 psf typically required by code. Developers are told to bite the bullet and come up with a small added cost premium. If we design according to code, we are designing an obsolete building. Flexible wiring schemes are also becoming crucial. The first thing a developer planning an intelligent building should do is make sure the designer plans for a lot of conduit space and a lot of flexibility. Technology is making the need for the old three pairs of twisted wires the three simple two wire connections that in the past were standard on all Bell office phones obsolete. Current multifunctioning systems take care of most needs with one pair of twisted wire. Raised floors, designed to offer flexibility, were once as high as 2 ft. They are now available in heights of 2 to 6 in. This saves added floor-to-floor heights and curtain wall costs. Flat wiring, placed under removable carpet tiles, is known for ease of installation, but isnt as easy to bend and install around corners. Electrified decking and underfloor duct systems, both not new, are being used more and more because they offer more outlets, which are required in offices with automated work stations. Consulting engineers have to take the computer and communication systems into account when sizing the mechanical systems. Main computers give off so much heat that many designs call for recycling it to other parts of the building in the heating months. Even
178
AND
CRTs give off about three times as much heat as a person, says one designer. Intelligent buildings typically have greater cooling requirements. Smarter Still Buildings may get even smarter in the future through integration of processors, voice recognition and more extensive use of fiber-optic networks. In 1984 a fiber optic network cost about 50 cents per ft. compared to 10 cents per ft for standard wiring. Connection charges, about $12 per strand, were about $50 per strand three years ago. Some say, however, that devices needed to move data on and off the fiber optic network still add to costs. Fiber optic installation costs are coming down and technical wrinkles are being ironed out however. Another frontier is voice recognition. The same type of processors that allow telephones to convert analog voice patterns to digital signals could be used to allow the buildings occupants to tell elevators what floor to go to or to turn up the air volume in a room. Should the occupant say please? It depends how smart the building is. There are many technological developments that are changing the ways of the HVAC controls industry. 1. Unitary Controllers: Self-contained electronic (remote terminals such as VAV boxes, reheat coils, and heat pumps). These controllers are an extension of DDC on central HVAC systems. Artificial Intelligence: A building that learns from its utility data, which control strategies are most effective. Faster Graphics: If a problem occurs, such as a high temperature alarm, most EMS operators will go directly to the real-time points display. The primary reason is the amount of time it takes to pull up a graphic display. Mouse-driven graphics will continue to improve. Digital Electronics vs. Pneumatic Systems: In the 1990s, even though pneumatic actuators will still be in use, pneumatic control systems will be replaced with electronic sensors and digital controllers.
2.
3.
4.
APPENDICES
179
Appendix A
Glossary of Terms
Abort: Premature termination of a program during execution. AI: Analog inputs. Algorithm: A set of well defined computer rules or procedures for solving a problem or providing an output from a specific set of inputs. Ambient Temperature: The temperature of the surrounding environment. Analog: An electrical input of a continuous range provided to the EMS by a sensing device such as temperature, humidity, pressure, flow, etc. (contrast with binary or digital). Analog to Digital (A/D) Converter: A circuit or device whose input is information in analog form and whose output is the same information in digital form. ANSI (American National Standards Institute): The principal standards development body in the U.S.A. ANSI is a nonprofit, nongovernmental body supported by over 1000 trade organizations, professional societies and companies. U.S.A.s member body to ISO (International Standards Organization). 179
180
AND
AO: Analog outputs. Architecture: The general organization and structure of hardware and software. ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange. Pronounced asky. An 8-bit coded character set to be used for the general interchange of data among information processing systems, communications systems, process control systems, and associated equipment. Asynchronous Transmission: Data transmission in which each character contains its own start and stop bits. Automatic Temperature Control (ATC): A local loop network of pneumatic or electric/electronic devices which are interconnected to control temperature. Automation: Automatically controlled operation of an apparatus, process, or system by mechanical or electronic devices that take the place of human observation, effort, or decision. Background Programming: A feature of computer hardware to provide a means of writing, testing, and debugging a software program on the computer at the same time the computer is performing other Real Time programs. Basic: An acronym for Beginners All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code, a high-level, English-like programming language used for general applications. Bandwidth: The difference, expressed in hertz (HZ), between the highest and lowest frequencies of a transmission channel. Baud: Unit of signaling speed. The speed in baud is the number of discrete conditions or events per second. If each event represents only one bit condition, baud rate equals bps. When each event represents more than one bit (e.g. dibit), baud rate does not equal bps. BI: Binary inputs.
APPENDICES
181
Binary: Having only two conditions or values; no intermediate units, e.g., on/off, maximum/minimum, open/close, etc. (contrast with analog). Bit: An acronym for binary digit. The smallest unit of information which can be represented. A bit may be in one or two states, represented by the binary digits 0 and 1. BPS (Bits per Second): The base unit of data-transmission rate. Kbps for kilo (thousands of) bits per second; Mbps for mega (millions of) bits per second. BO: Binary outputs. Boostrap: A technique or device designed to bring a computer into a desired state by means of its own action. Buffer: A temporary data storage device used to compensate for a difference in data flow rate or event times, when transmitting data from one device to another. Bus: A data path shared by many devices (e.g. multipoint line) with one or more conductors for transmitting signals, data, or power. In LAN technology, a bus is a type of linear network topology. Byte: A binary element string functioning as a unit, usually shorter than a computer word. Eight-bit bytes are most common. Also called a character. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT): A vacuum tube in which cathode rays are projected on a fluorescent screen to produce a luminous spot. Central Memory: Core or semiconductor memory which communicates directly with a CPU. Central Communication Controller (CCC): A computer that performs data gathering and dissemination from and to remote panels, as well as providing limited backup to the CCU.
182
AND
Central Processing Unit (CPU): The portion of a computer that performs the interpretation and execution of instructions. It does not include memory or I/O bus. Central Control Unit (CCU): A process control digital computer that includes a CPU, central memory, and I/O bus. Character: One of a set of elementary symbols which normally include both alpha and numeric codes plus punctuation marks and any other symbol which may be read, stored, or written. Chiller Optimization: An energy management application program that resets chilled and condenser water temperatures and selects and load/ unloads chillers to provide necessary cooling at minimum cost. Clock: A device or a part of a device that generates all the timing pulses for the coordination of a digital system. System clocks usually generate two or more clock phases. Each phase is a separate, square wave pulse train output. Closed Loop: A control and sensing device combination in which a process variable is measured, compared with a desired value (or setpoint) and a correctional value is calculated for output to the controlling device (See PID Control below.) Coaxial Cable: A transmission medium usually consisting of one central wire conductor surrounded by a electric insulator and enclosed in either a wire mesh or an extruded metal sheathing. Communications Protocol: The rules governing the exchange of information between devices on a data link. Compiler: A language translator which converts source statements written in a high level language into multiple machine instructions. A compiler translates the entire program before it is executed. Controller: An instrument that measures a controlled variable, compares the data with a desired value, and issues a signal for corrective action.
APPENDICES
183
Control Point Adjustment (CPA): The procedure of changing the operating point of a local loop controller from a remote location. Control Sequence: Equipment operating order established upon a correlated set of data environment conditions. Crash: An ungraceful system shutdown caused by a hardware or software malfunction. Crowbar: An electronic circuit which can rapidly sense an over voltage condition and provide a solid-state low impedance path to eliminate this transient condition. Data Environment (DE): The sensors and control devices connected to a single building field panel from the equipment and systems sampled or controlled. Data Transmission Media (DTM): Transmission equipment including cables and interface modules (excluding MODEMs) permitting transmission of digital and analog information. Deck: In HVAC terminology, the air discharge of the hot or cold coil in a duct serving a conditioned space. Demand: The term used to describe the maximum rate of use of electrical energy averaged over a specific interval of time and usually expressed in kilowatts. Demand Limiting: A technique to reduce demand by measuring incoming electrical power and turning-off specified loads so as to keep the rate of electrical usage under a preset level. Demultiplexer: A device used to separate two or more signals previously combined by compatible multiplexer for transmission over a single circuit. D (Derivative): Rate (speed) at which the proportional error is changing. Anticipates.
184
AND
Diagnostic Program: Machine-executable instructions used to detect and isolate component malfunctions. Direct Digital Control (DDC): Sensing and microprocessor Control of processes directly with digital control electronics. Digital to Analog (D/A) Converter: A hardware device which converts a digital signal into a voltage or current proportional to the digital input. Disk Storage: A bulk storage, random access device for storing digital information. Usually constructed of a thin rotating circular plate having a magnetizable coating, a read/write head and associated control equipment. Distributed Processing System: A system of multiple processors each performing its own task, yet working together as a complete system under the supervision of a central computer, to perform multiple associated tasks. Download: The transfer of digital data or programs from a host computer to another data processing system such as central computer to microcomputer. Duty Cycling: The process of turning off electrical equipment for predetermined short periods of time to reduce consumption and demand. EIA (Electronic Industries Association): A standards organization in the U.S.A. specializing in the electrical and functional characteristics of interface equipment. EIA-485: The recommended standard of the Electronic Industry Association that specifies the electrical characteristics of generators and receivers for use in balanced digital multipoint systems (Also RS-485). Executive Software: The main system program designed to establish priorities and to process and control other programs. Fiber Optics: Transmission technology in which modulated light wave signals, generated by a laser or LED, are propagated along a glass or
APPENDICES
185
plastic medium, and then demodulated to electric signals by a light sensitive receiver. Firmware: A computer program or software stored permanently in PROM or ROM or semipermanently in EPROM. It performs the same function as software, but is in hardware form. Firmware is loaded into the equipment either at the time it is manufactured or later for preprogrammed controllers. Fortran: An acronym for FORmula TRANslation. A high-level, Englishlike programming language used for technical applications. Gateway: A network station that serves to interconnect two otherwise incompatible networks, network nodes, subnetworks, or devices; performs protocol-conversion operation across numerous communications layers. Handshaking: Exchange of predetermined signals between two devices establishing a connection. Usually part of a communications protocol. Hardware: Physical equipment used in a computer system, as opposed to software. Initialize: To set counters, switches, and addresses to zero or other starting values at the beginning of or at prescribed points in a computer program. Input/Output (I/O) Device: Digital hardware that transmits or receives data. I (Integral): Sum of error over time. Correction. Interactive: Functions performed by an operator with the machine prompting or otherwise assisting these endeavors, while continuing to perform all other tasks as scheduled. Interpreter: A language translator which converts individual source statements into machine instruction by translating and executing each statement as it is encountered.
186
AND
Interrupt: An external or internal signal requesting that current operations be suspended to perform more important tasks. Large Scale Integration (LSI): The technology of manufacturing integrated circuits capable of performing complex functions. Devices of this class contain 100 or more logic gates. LED (Light-Emitting Diode): A semiconductor light source that emits visible light or invisible infrared radiation. Line Conditioning: Electronic modification of the characteristic response of a line to meet certain standards. The characteristics include frequency response, signal levels, noise suppression impedance, and time delay. Line Driver: A hardware element which enables signals to be directly transmitted over circuits to other devices some distance away. Local Area Network (LAN): A data-communications system confined to a limited geographic area (up to 6 miles or about 10 kilometers) with moderate to high data rates (100 Kbps to 50 Mbps). The area served may consist of a single building, a cluster of buildings, or a campus-type arrangement. The network uses some type of switching technology, and does not use common carrier circuits although it may have gateways or bridges to other public or private networks. Local Loop Control: The controls for any system or subsystem which exist prior to the installation of an EMS and which will continue to function when the EMS is non-operative. Machine Language: The binary code corresponding to the instruction set of the CPU. Memory: Any device that can store logic 1 and logic 0 bits in such a manner that a single bit or group of bits can be accessed and retrieved. Memory Address: A binary number that specifies the precise memory location of a stored word.
APPENDICES
187
Microcomputer: A computer system based on a microprocessor and containing all the memory and interface hardware necessary to perform calculations and specified transformations. Microprocessor: A single chip central processing unit fabricated as one integrated circuit. MODEM: An acronym for MOdulator/DEModulator. A device used to convert serial digital data from a transmitting terminal to a signal suitable for transmission over a telephone channel, or to reconvert the transmitted signal to serial digital data for acceptance by a receiving terminal. Multi-Tasking: The procedure allowing a computer to perform a number of programs simultaneously under the management of the operating system. Nanosecond: One billionth of a second. Node: A point of interconnection to a network. Normally, a point at which a number of terminals or tail circuits attach to the network. Non-Volatile Memory: Memory which retains information in the absence of applied power (i.e. magnetic core, ROM, and PROM). Open Loop: A control system in which no comparison is made between the actual value and the desired value of a process variable. Operating System: A complex software system which manages the computer and its components and allows for human interaction. Optical Isolation: Electrical isolation of a portion of an electronic circuit by using optical semiconductors and modulated light to carry the signal. Optimum Start/Stop: A form of control that automatically adjusts the programmed start/stop schedule, depending on inside and outside air temperature, in order to reduce equipment run-time while maintaining building comfort conditions at occupancy. PASCAL: A structured programming high level computer language.
188
AND
Peer-to-Peer Network: A term to describe the communication interlink between Field Control Units. The network is used solely for communication between FCUs and supports a token-passing protocol. PID: Term for traditional analog action: proportionalintegralderivative. This method of controlling and output based upon a calculated error between the sensed reference variable and predetermined setpoint. Point, Physical: An individual monitor, control, or sensing device connected to an EMS. The total number of points is a measure of the size of an EMS. Point, Pseudo: A value or status created by a program and treated by the system as a physical point. Predictor/Corrector Program: Applications software which allows continuous prediction of a future value and subsequent correction based on actual measurements. Program: A sequence of instructions causing the computer to perform a specified function. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): Nonvolatile memory chip that allows a program to reside permanently in a piece of hardware. Protocol: A formal set of conventions governing the formatting and relative timing of message exchange between two communicating systems. P (Proportional): The offset (difference between setpoint and control point). Error measurement. RAM (Random Access Memory): Semiconductor read/write volatile memory. Data stored is lost if power is turned off. ROM (Read-Only Memory): Nonvolatile semiconductor memory manufactured with predefined data content, permanently stored. ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM: Read-Only Memory, Programmable ROM, Erasable PROM, Electronically Erasable PROM. All are non-vola-
APPENDICES tile semiconductors memory.
189
Real Time: A situation in which a computer monitors, evaluates, reaches decisions, and effects controls within the response time of the fastest phenomenon. Real Time Clock: A timing device used by a microprocessor to derive elapsed time between events and to control processing of time-initiated event data. Register: A digital device capable of retaining information. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD): A device where resistance changes linear as a function of temperature. RS-232: Interface between data terminal equipment and data communication equipment, employing serial binary data interchange. RS-422: Electrical characteristics of balanced-voltage digital interface circuits. RS-423: Electrical characteristics of unbalanced-voltage digital interface circuits. RS-449: General-purpose 37-pin and 9-pin interface for data terminal equipment and data circuit-terminating equipment, employing serial binary data interchange. RS-485: See EIA-485. Shielding: Protective covering that eliminates electromagnetic and radio frequency interference. Software: A computer program or set of programs held in some storage medium and loaded into read/write memory (RAM) for execution (Compare with firmware and hardware.). Throughput: The total capability of equipment to process or transmit data during a specified time period.
190
AND
Token-Passing: The transferal of command of the communications network from FCU to FCU on a data highway, enabling the holder of the token to initiate transaction. It is a sequence of interchanges of link codes. Trunk: A single circuit between two points, both of which are switching centers or individual distribution points. A trunk usually handles many channels simultaneously. Volatile Memory: A semiconductor device in which the stored digital data is lost when power is removed. Zone: An area composed of a building, a portion of a building, or a group of buildings affected by a single device or piece of equipment.
APPENDICES
191
Appendix B
Control Symbols
Capacitor Contact, NC
Centrifugal fan
Contact, NO
Check valve
Contactor or motor starter; controller
Circuit breaker
Control air supply
Coil for solenoid valve Control valve, three-way
Contact, or point of force application 191
Control valve, two-way
192
AND
Damper motor
Flow switch
Diaphragm
Flow switch, NC
Electric-pnsumatic relay
Flow switch, NO
Electromagnetic coil
Fuse
Fire safety switch Gas pilot flame with thermocouple
Float switch
Globe valve
Floatvalve
Ground connection
APPENDICES
193
Manual switch Handk-off-auto (HOA) switch
Manual switch with thermal overload Heater (heatiang element) or resistor
Motor Humidistat, room
Motor field coil Industrial-type recording controller
Inlet vane damper (for centrifugal fan)
Multipole switch (disconnect switch)
Limit switch Needle valve
Logic relay
Opposed-blade damper (for modulating control)
194
AND
Overload actuator Pressure switch, NC
Overload contact
Pressure switch, NO
Parallel-blade damper (for two-position control)
Propeller fan and motor
Pilot light, color indicated by initial
Proportioning controller, solid-state
Plug valve
Pump
Point of solid contact, as to a device case or baseplate
Pushbutton, normally closed (PB, NC)
Pushbutton, normally open (PB, NO) Pressure gage Relay
Pressure regulator (pressure-reducing valve)
Relay coil
APPENDICES
195
Relay or starter contact, NC
Solenoid valve, three-way
Relay or starter contact, NO SPDT switch
Relief valve
Spray nozzle Spring (where identified as such)
Resistor
Resostor, variable
SPST switch
Reversing relay Static pressure controller
Sequencing controller Steam trap
Smoke dettector Thermal expansion valve, thermostatic expansion valve
Solenoid valve; solenoid valve, two-way
196
AND
Thermal switch, NC
Time-delay switch, NC, instantaneous open after energizing, timed close after deenergizing Time-delay switch, NC. timed open after energizing instantaneous close after deenergizing Time-delay switch, NO. instantaneous close after energizing, timed open after deenergizing Time-delay switch, NO. timed close after energizing, instantaneous open after deenergizing
Thermal switch, NO
Thermometer, remote-bulb or insertion type
Thermostat, insertion type
Thermostat, remote-bulb, duct or pipe, or insertion type Transformer
Thermostat, room Transformer coil
Three-way control valve
Wiring terminal with identification
APPENDICES
197
Appendix C
EMS Manufacturers
Alerton Technologies, Inc. 6670 185th Ave., NE Redmond, WA 98052 www.alerton.com American Auto-Matrix Inc. One Technology Lane Export, PA 15632 www.aamatrix.com Andover Controls Corp. 300 Brickstone Square Andover, MA 01810 www.andovercontrols.com Automated Logic Corp. 1150 Roberts Blvd. Kennesaw, GA 30144 www.automatedlogic.com Barber-Colman Co. 1354 Clifford Ave. Loves Park, IL 61132-2940 www.barber-coleman.com Barrington Systems 1160 Industrial Rd. San Carlos, CA 94070 www.barringtonsys.com 197 Control Systems International 8040 Nieman Road Lenexa, KS 66214 www.csiks.com Electronic Systems USA, Inc. 9410 Bunsen Parkway Louisville, KY 40220 www.esusa.com Functional Devices Inc. 310 S. Union St. Russiaville, IN 46979 www.functionaldevices.com Honeywell Comm. Bldgs. Group Honeywell Plaza Golden Valley, MN 55408 www.honeywell.com Ivensys Building Systems 135A Clifford Ave. Loves Park, IL 61132 www.siebe-env-controls.com Johnson Controls Inc. 507 E. Michigan St. Milwaukee, WI 53201
198
AND
Paragon Electric Co. PO Box 28 Two Rivers, WI 54241 Robertshaw Controls Co. PO Box 27606 Richmond, VA 23261 Scientific Atlanta 4300 NE Expressway Atlanta, GA 30340 www.sciatl.com Solidyne Corp. 4215 Kirchoff Rd. Rolling Meadows, IL 60008 www.solidyne.com
Staefa Control System Inc. 4340 Viewridge Ave. San Diego, CA 92123 www.staefa.com Teletrol Systems, Inc. 340 Commercial St. Manchester, NH 03101 www.teletrol.com The Trane Co. 3600 Pammel Creek Rd. La Crosse, WI 54601-7599 www.trane.com
TRANSFERS OF OWNERSHIP American Auto Matrix is owned by Molynx Holdings (British Co.) Andover is owned by BICC PLC (British Co.) Barber Colman, Robertshaw, Paragon, Ranco, and Ivensys PLC (U.S.) Butler Controls is owned by Enercon Data Corp. (U.S.) Electronic Systems USA, Inc., is owned by Johnson Controls (U.S.) Novar is owned by RTZ PLC (British Co.) Powers is owned by Landis & Gyr (Switzerland) The Trane Company is owned by American Standard
APPENDICES
199
Appendix D
References
TEXTBOOKS The Energy Management System Sourcebook, Fairmont Press, 1985 Understanding Data Communications, Howard W. Sams & Co., 1988 Strategic Planning and Energy Management, Journal, 1988, 1989 Understanding Building Automation Systems, R. S. Means Co., Inc., 1991 HV AC SystemsOperation, Maintenance, & Optimization, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1992
MONTHLY MAGAZINES ASHRAE Journal, Atlanta, Georgia Heating Piping, Air Conditioning, Penton Publishing, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio Lan Technology, M&T Publishing, Inc., Redwood City, California ConsultingSpecifying Engineer, The Cahners Publishing Co., Newton, Maine Energy User News, Fairchild Publications, New York, New York
199
Appendix E
200
Metric Conversion Guide

To Convert From To Multiply By 6.4516 9.2903 102 2.3260 4.1840 Square Centimeters (cm2) Square Meters (m2) Kilogoule per Kilogram (kl/kg) Square Inches (in.2) Square Feet (ft.2) Btu per pound Mass (Btu/lbm)
Quantity
Area
Enthalpy (Heat)
Btu per pound-Mass-F (Btu/lbm F) Kilojoule per Kilogram Kelvin (kJ/kg.K)
Entropy (Heat)
AND
*Flow
Cubic Cubic Cubic Cubic Cubic Cubic
0.2731 471.9474 0.4719 0.4719 103 1.6990 1.607 1.695
Cubic inches per minute (in.3/min.) Cubic feet per minute (ft3/min.) Cubic feet per minute (Ft3/min.) Cubic feet per minute (ft3/min.) Cubic feet per minute (ft3/min.) Std. cubic feet per minutes SCFM 60F, 14.7 PSIA Std. cubic feet per minute SCFM 60F, 14.7 PSIA Gallons per minute (U.S. liquid)(gal./min.)
centimeters per sec. (cm3/s) centimeters per sec. (cm3/s) decimeters per sec. (dm3s) meters per sec. (m3/s) Meters per hour (m3h) meters per hour (m3h 0C, 1.01325 bar) Cubic meters per hour (m3/h 15C, 1.01325 bar) Cubic centimeters per sec. (cm3/s)
63.902
Force Pound (force) (lb) Newtons (N) 4.4482
APPENDICES
Inches (in.) Inches (in.) Feet (ft.) Feet (ft.) Millimeters (mm) Centimeters (cm) Centimeters (cm) Meters (m) 25.4000 2.5400 30.4800 0.3048 0.4536 0.2020 746.0000 6.8947 248.84 3376.85 Kilogram (kg) Watts (W) Watts (W) Kilopascals (kPa) Pascals (Pa) Pascals (Pa) Pound (lb.) Btu per hour (Btu/hr.) Horsepower (H.P.) Pounds per square inch (PSI) Inches of water (W.G.) @ 60F Inches of mercury (Hg) @ 60F
Length
Mass** (Weight)
Power
Pressure (Stress)
Degrees Fahrenheit (F) Degrees Celsius (C) F = (TC+32) 1.8 tc =
Temperature
t F 32 1.8
1.8
201
Degrees Fahrenheit (F)
Kelvin (K)
tK =
t F + 459.67
(Continued)
202
Metric Conversion Guide (Continued)

To Convert From To Multiply By 0.1129 1.3558 Newton-Meter (Nm) Newton-Meter (Nm) Pound force inch (lb.-in.) Pound force foot (lb.-ft.)
Quantity
Torque (Bending)
Feet per second (ft./sec.) Feet per minute (ft./min.) Miles per hour (mph) Meters per second (m/s) Meters per second (m/s) Meters per second (m/s) 0.3048 5.0800 103 0.4470
Velocity
Cubic inches (in.3) Cubic feet (ft.3) Gallons U.S. (gal.) Oz (U.S. Fluid) Cubic Cubic Cubic Cubic Kilojoule (kJ) Joule (J) Kilojoule (kJ) centimeters (cm3) meters (m3) = Stere meters (m3) = Stere Meters (m3) = Stere Btu (Btu) Foot pound (ft.-lb.) Watt-hour (W-hr.) 16.3871 2.8317 102 3.7854 103 2.9573 105 1.0551 1.3558 3.6000
Volume
AND
Work (Energy)
* Since standard and normal cubic meters (STD m3 and Nm3) do not have a universally accepted definition, their reference pressure and temperature should always be spelled out. ** In commercial and everyday use, the term weight almost always means mass.
APPENDICES
203
Appendix F
Sample EMS Problem
Figure F-1. Building/HVAC Equipment
C.T.
AHU-2
AHU-1
CHILLER
Figure F-2. Block Diagram
204
AND
Single line, show sensors, relays, switches, control lines, wiring. Electronic sensors. Pneumatic actuators. SF/RF: electric interlock.
DDC PANEL Specs SF: scheduled start-stop, status, run time RF: status, run time Mixed air: damper control, low limit, enthalpy control Discharge air: cooling coil control, high limit Return air: temp., humidity Outside air: temp., humidity Space temp.
3
Figure F-3. AHU-1 and AHU-2
APPENDICES
205
206
AND
Single line, show sensors, relays, switches, wiring. Electronic sensors. Pumps/chiller interlocked.
DDC PANEL Specs CW Pump: start-stop, status, run time Cond. W Pump: status, run time Chiller: status, run time CWS, CWR, COND WS & R: temp. CT Fan: status, run time
5
Figure F-4. Chiller System
APPENDICES
207
208
AND
7
Total estimated costs: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
Figure F-5. Costs/Payback
Operators station Modem ( ) DDC panels @ ( ) feet wiring @ ( ) air sensors @ ( ) water sensors @ ( ) transducers @ ( ) contactors @ ( ) diff. P.E. switches @ Drawings/engineering Overhead/profit Miscellaneous TOTAL COST
$_________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ $_________
8
Total estimated savings: Building use = 300,000 kWh/yr. kW demand charge = $8.00 per kW kWh energy charge $.035 per kWh Save 15% kWh ............................................................ Save 20 kW-per month .............................................. TOTAL SAVINGS ............................... _________ _________ $_________
9
Payback = Cost = $ = Savings $ = Years
APPENDICES
209
Sample EMS Solution Layout
Figure F-6. Building/HVAC Equipment (Solution to Figure F-1
Figure F-7. Block Diagram (Solution to Figure F-2)
210
AND
Single line, show sensors relays, switches, control lines, wiring. Electronic sensors. Pneumatic actuators. SF/RF: electric interlock. Specs SF: scheduled start-stop, status, run time RF: status, run time Mixed air: damper control, low limit, enthalpy control Discharge air: cooling coil control, high limit Return air: temp., humidity Outside air: temp., humidity Space temp.
Figure F-8. AHU-1 and AHU-2 (Solution to Figure F-3)
APPENDICES
211
212
AND
Single line, show sensors, relays, switches, wiring. Electronic sensors. Pumps/chiller interlocked. Specs CW Pump: start-stop, status, run time Cond. W Pump: status, run time Chiller: status, run time CWS, CWR, COND WS & R: temp. CT Fan: status, run time
Figure F-4. Chiller System (Solution to Figure F-4)
APPENDICES
213
214
AND
7
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
Figure F-10. Costs/Payback (Solution to Figure F-5)
Total estimated costs: Operators station Modem ( 2 ) DDC panels @ $3500 + 1000 ( 300 ) feet wiring @ $1.00/FT ( 12 ) air sensors @ $150 ( 4 ) water sensors @ $200 ( 4 ) transducers @ $250 ( 3 ) contactors @ $200 ( 6 ) diff. P.E. switches @ $200 Drawings/engineering Overhead/profit Miscellaneous TOTAL COST
500 $_________ 90 _________ 4500 _________ 300 _________ 1800 _________ 800 _________ 1000 _________ 600 _________ 1200 _________ 1400 _________ 1500 _________ 1000 _________ 14,690 $_________
$14,690 = $474/pt 31 pts.
8
Total estimated savings: Building use = 300,000 kWh/yr. kW demand charge = $8.00 per kW 20 kW 12 mo $8/kW = $1920 kWh energy charge $.035 per kWh 300,000 kWh .15
$.035/kWh = $1575
Save 15% kWh ...................................................................... Save 20 kW-per month ....................................................... TOTAL SAVINGS .......................................................
_________ $1,575 _________ $1,920 $_________ 3,495
Payback =
Cost = $14,690 = Savings $3,495
4.2
Years
APPENDICES
215
Appendix G
EMS Articles
From Engineers Digest
Choosing an energy management system

Installing an energy management system (EMS) can be an intimidating task. But having a knowledgeable background in EMS requirements and terminology can make the task less formidable.
By Richard A. Panke, senior mechanical engineering specialist, University of Wisconsin
You can define the energy management system (EMS) of today as a system that employs microprocessors, building field panels, control equipment and software application programs, all config-
215
216
AND
ured into a network with control functions at multiple locations and a central point of operator supervision and control. EMSs of the 1970s and early 1980s relied on a central processing unit (CPU) mini-computer to perform all software functions as it communicated with dumb field panels (See chart, Components of a typical EMS). Cut the communication line-or lose the CPU-and your EMS was dead. Todays EMSs are just the opposite; they use smart, or intelligent, microprocessor-based field panels and a dumb central terminal. If communications are lost, the EMS keeps on humming. What if you presently have an older model EMS and want to upgrade it to the latest, state-of-the-art EMS? How should you do it? One way is with a new front-end computer and new software that will allow your system to perform better. With the new front-end computer and software package, you may obtain some advanced features, But you cant forget your old EMS, CPU and other hardware; you must continue to maintain them, as well. You will need to find a technician who is familiar with the old system and has ready access to spare parts, which may be difficult-and expensiveto obtain. The same scenario occurs if you plan to upgrade your old EMS to the same vendors latest model. You may end up with a new front-end and some of the latest software, but all of this new equipment go is in addition to the EMS (hardware and software) with which you have lived for so many years. Now you have additional equipment to maintain plus, you still have the same old problems: lose the front-end or lose the communication cable, and your EMS is retired temporarily. Why should you step from the frying pan into the fire? Replacing your EMS If you have documented the savings attributed to your EMS during the 8 to 12 years the system has been operating, you may find that the original installation costs were paid back within the first four to six years. The additional, subsequent years of energy savings could result in justification to replace completely your old EMS. Or so it seems. It stands to reason that you can retain-and, in most cases, leave undisturbed-the following items of hardware: 1. Communication cable between field panels. This may be a coax cable or even a twisted pair of wires; you can use either with todays
APPENDICES
217
EMS technology. 2. Temperature sensors, such as resistance temperature detectors (RTD) or thermistors. These can remain just where they are now. However, if your old system used thermocouples, you will have to replace them. 3. Humidity sensors, which may be a wet-bulb type or some type of moisture-sensitive membrane. These probably should be replaced with the newer, factory-calibrated capacitive type, In any case, the old ones probably were 10 percent out of calibration within six months after you installed them. If you used them for enthalpy control on HVAC systems, they required re-calibration twice a year or else the enthalpy control cycle became ineffective. 4. Pressure instruments, such as differential pressure and pressure sensors. You will have to field check these for the proper output proportional signal (usually 4-20mA). Even if you must replace them, you can leave the sensing lines and final connections as they were installed. 5. Relays, contactors, flow switches and current transformers. These can be retained and, most likely, will not require any attention. 6. Connecting wires between sensors, relays and other hard-wired devices. These most likely can be reused. 7. Existing field panels possibly are two or three times larger than the new systems panels. Most engineers and technicians decide to remove these old panels, along with all of the internal electronics. They do so since, if they reuse the panel, they would remove most of the internal equipment anyway. 8. Auxiliary field panels that contain interface devices, such as pressure-electric switches, solenoid air valves or transducers. These can be retained and incorporated into the new EMS. 9. Actuators, especially those that are pneumatic. These can remain in place, along with the air lines. You will have to remodel or replace electronic or electric actuators if the required input signal does not match the output signals of the new EMS. At a minimum, you should inspect them for proper operation. Having determined the requirements of a replacement EMS, it is really quite simple for the EMS consultant to sort through the existing as-built EMS diagrams and determine which hardware items to keep. Reusing a reasonable amount of existing hardware could result in a replacement system costing 25 to 30 percent of the original EMS installation cost.
218
AND
Out with the old Features are available on todays EMSs that were not even considered 10 to 15 years ago. These features include: Direct digital control (DDC): The industry standard when describing EMS microprocessor-based field panels and overall control schemes. DDC is a form of closed-loop control where the term direct means that the microprocessor is directly in the control loop, and the term digital means that you accomplish the control by the digital electronics o f the microprocessor. DDC can control many control loops, and you can reprogram it for multiple control functions without making any hardware changes. These DDC panels are stand-alone processors; you also can loop them together to form an overall EMS. Basically, an electronic sensor transmits its signal to the new DDC panel, which performs its control logic functions and provides an output signal to the existing-controlled-device actuator. Other-than-final wiring connections (terminations)providing that you can reuse the sensor and actuatorit is possible to get a new EMS by furnishing only the new microprocessor-based DDC unit. Self-tuning control: A feature description that you should use when specifying DDC. Usually, a proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control is furnished to provide faster, more accurate response. For a PIDcontrol function to perform accurately, you must calibrate the control loop, then check it, recalibrate it, check it again and so on, until you tune the loop to perfection. A self-tuning feature will observe the actual control points and self-adjust all loop constants to ensure that the control system response remains accurate and reliable over a wide range of operating loads. You should not have to monitor system variables constantly and manually tune them from a local work station to see how system control point values change. Nor should you have to plot outputs on a graph to see changes in control variables. Self-tuning means the system will take care of itself after you enter set points. Analog or pulse-width modulation (PWM): Describes two methods by which you send DDC output signals to field devices or actuators. Analog output signals may be electrical, 4-20mA, 0-12 VDC or 010 V. Pneumatic analog outputs are 3-15 psig or 0-20 psig and will require a transducer to convert the digital electrical signal to pneumatic output. In either case, the varying signal causes a proportional positioning of the controlled device (actuator) from fully open to fully closed over the range of the output signal.
APPENDICES
219
PWM, another method of repositioning a controlled device, consists of using electrical pulses of varying time-lengths to effect a desired control action. The length of each pulse controls the degree of positioning of the actuator and may vary within a range from milliseconds to minutes. You should specify analog outputswhich appear to be the more popular processing methodwith a feedback signal feature. The feedback signal could be the monitored temperature being controlled. By knowing the actual signal transmitted to the actuator, the EMS operator will be able to troubleshoot the system more effectively when a malfunction occurs.
Beneath the colorful brochures

These days, EMS manufacturers seem to be bombarding us with advertising. Each manufacturer offers at least one brochure that is of high quality, glossy, multicolored design with eye-catching reproductions of EMS color graphics. The EMS color graphics, presented on a mousedriven color monitor, are appealing, but have you ever tried to construct a graphic design? Im not referring to a CAD-system drawing, which takes months of training to perfect. Im referring instead to one of the easy-to-construct HVAC graphics that takes only weeks of training to master. Be aware of this time element and be prepared to dedicate one of your maintenance technicians to the task of creating graphics. I know of several EMS installations where color graphics software has collected dust over several months, because staff did not have enough time or there simply was not enough staff. You could choose a manufacturer who can build all your system graphics at their factory TWs may cost a little more initially, but it guarantees that the graphics are completed, and you can use this feature from the start. Some EMS vendors are integrating their primary energy-management product with other manufacturers product lines, such as fire alarm, security, lighting and fume-hood control. Brochures now contain multiple vendor names and additional product information. Dont assume that these vendors have opened their communication protocol to everyone. Thats not the case. They are sharing their protocol with these selected building-construction-industry manufacturers. If you do not like the
220
AND
Input/output processing: Has become more of a universal operation. In other words, rather than having several different types of digital or analog, input and output modules or printed circuit boards, some manufacturers have developed universal hardware configurations. This means that you can designate input connections (terminations) as digital, analog or pulse counters. You can designate the output points as digital, analog or PWM. To reduce hardware costs even further, and allow flexibility for full-point utilization, universal points are available that can be softwareconfigured to be an analog or digital, input or output signals. Universal hardware points are ideal for EMS replacements, since you can reuse a variety of sensors and actuators with a new system. Peer-to-peer communication: Can be defined as the capability of all EMS controllers to communicate directly with each other. This sharedinformation concept allows any controller to acquire information gener-
product line of one of these companies, dont expect another product to integrate with this multi-vendor system. This concept of integrating equipment, however, may be a step in the right direction of sharing proprietary techniques. Have you ever noticed the similarity between EMS architectures and how this industry now is becoming a part of the data communication world? To properly evaluate EMSs, you will have to become familiar and knowledgeable with a new languageat least one new to the HVAC field. Terms you should know include: Architecture. The general organization and structure of hardware and software. Local Area Network (LAN): A data-communication system confined to a limited geographic, area (up to 6 miles) with moderate to high data rates (100K bps to 50M bps). Baud: A unit of signaling speed. The speed in baud is the number of events per second. if each event represents only a one bit condition, baud rate equals bits per second (bps). Bit: A shorthand term for binary digit, the smallest unit of information that can be represented. (Note: You will see EMS manufacturers using primary LANs with a signaling speed of up to 25M bps (million bits per second) and secondary LANs with speeds advertised between 9600 and 19,200 baud.) Token passing: Describes an access procedure for networks. Access to
APPENDICES
221
ated in any other controller; it does not rely on a central mini-computer to act as a clearing house for information. Examine a vendors system to see if this concept includes just the master controllers or if it includes all controllers down to the unitary (or single-room) controllers. Do not even consider an EMS that does not have this feature. Distributed, stand-alone controllers: Should not be viewed mistakenly as peer-to-peer controllers. Some controllers can stand alone; however, they may not be the type that you can tie together through a communication network with each other. This concept (stand-alone controller) might be acceptable for a single, small building. However, if you have plans to link controllers together, or tie them into an overall EMS, then you must specify the peer-to-peer communication of each controller. it is not so important that individual controllers share information between them, but these controllers must prove they can stand alone or become a part of an overall large EMS.
the network is determined by which station has the token (or message). Only one station at a timethe one with the tokenis given the opportunity to seize the channel. The token is passed from one idle station to another until a station with a pending message receives it. After the message is sent, the token is passed to the next station. Token passing ring: A closed loop that describes the order in which the token is circulated. Token passing bus: More of a straight path topology that has more flexibility because the token passing order is defined by tables in each station. ARCNet: Developed by Datapoint Corp., stands for Attached Resource Computer Network and functionally is a token passing bus. Additional EMS terms include: open architecture, seamless design, fully integrated, robust software, tiered environment, gateway, RS485 and many more. EMS manufacturers should be required to use a common language. Maybe the entrance to the data communication world will force that to become a reality. One final point. In addition to looking over the glossy handouts, be certain that you obtain the specifications for each product and overall system architecture. Then, you can start to make comparisons among different product lines.
222
AND
Automatic dial-in/dial-out: Is a feature that all leading manufacturers offer. This feature is extremely important, because it allows troubleshooting, as well as communication from a remote location. All that you require is an RS-232C connection, a transmitting telephone modem with automatic-answer/automatic-dial capability and a receiver modem for originating or receiving calls. In addition to performing diagnostic tests on the EMS, you can download entire software application programs into the system through the modem connection; you also can schedule changes simply If an alarm condition occurs, the system can dial automatically a remote operator station, which alerts the service personnel to question the system and determine what is causing the alarm. Unitary controllers: Are the smallest, simplest field panels. With the entrance of most control manufacturers into the data communications network world, EMSs now have system architectures that include subsystems down to a terminal controller in a room. This unitary controller (as they commonly are referred) may include an actuator for a variable air-volume (VAV) box and/or a reheat coil valve. This may be suitable for new project installations, but be cautious with retrofit projects. If, for example, you are planning to convert an existing constantvolume reheat system to a VAV system, you should not install VAV-terminal controllers, because the VAV system will not operate correctly unless you replace all the low-pressure ductwork. There are many such retrofits that will not function as VAV systems. The reason is that, as the terminal damper closes and pressure builds up in the ducts, more air leaks out of the low-pressure ductwork seams; the main static-pressure controller never senses an increase in pressure. Thus, a reduction in system capacity never occurs, and you waste the expense of installing the individual VAV boxes, controllers and sensors and tying them into an EMS. If you properly seal or replace existing ductwork, or install new ductwork, then digital VAV terminal controllers will be cost effective, offering benefits such as improved control stability and monitoring functions at the EMS operator station. You also can change individual room-control, such as temperature and on-off override, from this station. Retrofit options If you already have an EMS, you should consider an alternative to
APPENDICES
223
an individual room VAV retrofit, also known as a modified VAV system. Generally, older, constant-volume reheat systems were oversized from a fan-capacity standpoint. Using the EMS outside-air (OA) temperature sensor, air-handling unit return-air (RA) sensor and a new variablespeed drive (VSD) for the fan motor, you can use the following program: Set up a relationship between the OA sensor and the VSD so that between OA 40F and 65F the fan will be at 50 percent speed-thus saving about 85 percent of the power. As the OA drops below 40F or rises above 65F, the VSD gradually will increase the fan speed. Depending on how oversized the reheat system is and your local weather conditions, you may find your system operating at 50 percent speed for one-third or more of a 12-month period. The RA sensor will function as a limit controller to increase fan speed if temperatures begin to vary from the desired setpoint. A current transducer, installed at the motor electrical power leads and connected to the EMS as an input point, can monitor the savings resulting from this retrofit. Enthalpy control: Became a popular program some years ago. However, is it cost effective? Considering the initial cost of the humidity sensors and the necessary constant recalibration, enthalpy control probably is not worth the investment. In place of this program, you should consider either a simple dry-bulb-temperature switchover that compares outside air and return-air dry-bulb readings or an outside air switchover based on historical weather data for your location (commonly called ideal or optimum switchover). In most areas, either will perform ad-
224
AND
equately. Also, you will not have the added maintenance associated with humidity-dependent systems. A reduction in EMS maintenance. Isnt that a common goal?
Planning adds muscle to energy system upkeep

So, you have an energy management system (EMS) in place (or are thinking about a new one). Following these suggestions can help you strengthen your system, put power in your training and keep everything running smoothly.
By Richard A. Panke, senior mechanical engineering specialist, University of Wisconsin
Effective maintenance of heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) and energy management systems (EMS) begins with the proper commissioning of those systems-building a, solid base for them. After all, you cannot maintain a system properly-even if it has been designed and installed properly-if the system has never worked from the day it was turned on. This is a phrase heard often from maintenance personnel. In many instances, the comment probably is justified. After all, if a system is continuously troublesome, workers will stay away from it. Engaging the system Proper commissioning is a topic beyond the scope of this article. However, since commissioning is an important aspect of a successful building operation, here is an outline of the important steps. Effective commissioning of HVAC systems-from concept planning through the first year of building occupancy-has become a necessary step to help operating personnel run the system successfully. Systems usually include air, water, electrical, fans, pumps, chillers, boilers, fire/safety, security, lighting, plumbing, controls and, possibly, a microprocessor-based energy management system. The commissioning process should include phases or definite steps, such as those below.
APPENDICES
225
Have a written plan. Include commissioning in the project specifications. Define exactly who does what. Spell out the goals. List all activities that must take place. Define all special conditions. Develop functional performance testing for all parts of each system. Provide extensive supervision. Include testing and balancing in the process. Provide management support at all phases. Verify all test results. Document all activities. Provide training for the maintenance and operations personnel who will run the systems. Training personnel for system competency Upkeep of systems requires specific training by competent instructors. These instructors must give specific direction to your maintenance personnel in the operation and service of that equipment You cannot consider training to be walking through your project with a construction representative who points out fans, pumps, steam traps, airflow stations, actuators, sensors, controllers and electrical devices. Unfortunately, however, this is the extent of education that many maintenance mechanics receive. To maintain systems properly, service personnel must have an understanding of the design considerations behind the various control strategies. This information only can come from the project design engineers, who should be involved in the commissioning process from start to finish. Proper instruction should include adjustment, operation and maintenance, including pertinent safety requirements of the equipment and systems installed. The type and amount of training required depends on the complexity of the tasks an individual will need to perform. As the mechanics responsibilities with the systems increase, so will the amount of required training. Training should include theory and hands-on experience. It also should be formal, done at the users site or at a remote location. Off-site courses for specialty itemssuch as variable-speed drives, chillers or energy management systemsoffer the advantage of removing the op-
226
AND
erator from the distractions inherent to on-the-job training. Also, when off site, the operator is immersed in using the system to solve problemsagain reducing distraction. This experience results in a more efficient and creative use of the system. Classroom training is important to teach concepts and theory; the hands-on experience, however, makes the training most effective. The hands-on experience may be on site or in a laboratory situation. Many owners initially feel that hands-on training on site is the most helpful, since operators and maintenance personnel learn precisely how the systems apply to their building. This experience is important, but it might be more useful after a laboratory situation. You must ensure that each of your technicians has training manuals. The manuals should describe in detail the data included in each training program. The manuals also should include an agenda and defined goal for each lesson. Your people also should have the equipment and materials necessary for both hands-on and classroom training. Timing also is important. Operators should not attend only one formal training period after the system is installed. There is knowledge to be gained during the installation phase. Advanced copies of equipment data sheets and other manufacturer information will be helpful during this phase of the project, For example, for a typical EMS installation, consider the following specifications for training: Training period: Defined as four hours of instruction. Operator training: Three or four operating personnel each shall receive a minimum of four hands-on training periods. The training is to be conducted off site and before system testing and acceptance. Equipment maintenance personnel training: Formal hands-on classroom training for two or three maintenance personnel. This should be conducted or a minimum of eight training periods and include the maintenance of the EMS equipment. This training shall include: General equipment layout Troubleshooting and diagnostics Repair instructions Preventive maintenance and calibration of field equipment. Maintenance personnel training must be provided at the EMS fac-
APPENDICES
227
Todays central energy management system operator workstation is simpler than earlier ones. New workstations use only a personal computer, a printer and a mouse.
tory or authorized service center. Include all training costs, including transportation (air and ground), lodging, meals, parking costs and any other cost associated with the training. Even if extensive, formal off-site EMS training is done, training is not complete. The operators must take time to become familiar with details of how their EMS works and to carry out newly gained ideas. Also, you need time to become fluent with the system; it is natural to expect the operator to rely on the system documentationperhaps indefinitely. For this reason, include the following paragraph in all EMS specs: The EMS contractor shall return six months after the final EMS testing and acceptance period for not less than 16 hours to review operating procedures with the EMS manager and operators. One eight-hour review also shall be held at the end of the one-year guarantee period. Using proper system testing Maintenance personnel also should know how to test the systems, after they officially receive responsibility for them. Personnel can learn specific techniques while witnessing the test-and-balance procedures. These techniques include: Monitoring and interpreting air-system performance by using fan and
228
AND
duct pressures, pitot tube traverse, air capture hoods, vane anemometers, fan and motor speeds, and drive parts. Monitoring and interpreting water system performance by using pump pressures, differential system pressures, flow meters and balancing valves. The final adjustment and calibration of the temperature-control system most often is the last operation to take place in the construction process, whether the project involves new construction or a retrofit of an existing system. You should consider this to be the most important link in the chain of events. You should give maintenance personnel the chance to witness the control technicians specific procedures since your staff will produce the design expectations. Giving building maintenance and operations personnel the opportunity to take part in the commissioning process gives them a head start in properly maintaining the systems. How can we expect them to perform their daily tasks without knowing what is in the building, let alone how the building systems should function? The advantages of todays control systems Although thousands of complete pneumatic systems exist in older buildings, the pneumatic control companies admit that within the next five years, the only pneumatic devices on a new or retrofit project will be actuators. The trend in new construction or retrofits is to use remote, stand-alone, direct-digital control (DDC) microprocessors (with electronic sensors and pneumatic actuators). Communication cable links these together to form an energy management system (EMS). These EMS use a single central-operator station for system supervision and control. Software at the DDC panel or controller takes care of all the application programs required to operate the HVAC systems. But, what about those of you maintenance technicians who know pneumatics like the back of your hand? You understand mastersubmaster relationships, pneumatic transmission systems, including transmitters and receiver-controllers, throttling range and sensitivity, span proportional band and reset schedules? You will be glad to know that extensive computer experienceor in-depth knowledge of microprocessorsis not a prerequisite for maintaining or operating a DDC/EMS. You will, however, need to operate a keypad/CRT display or a personal computer (PC) and learn a new lan-
APPENDICES
229
guage, such as that used in data communications. (See Beneath the colorful brochures: Engineers Digest, July 1990, p. 53.) You will encounter terms such as local area network (LAN), ARCNET, proportional-integral-derivative (PID), analog, digital, algorithm, baud rate, bits per second (BPS), bus, RAM-ROM-EPROM-EEPROM, peer-to-peer, modem and software. These terms simply are part of the learning process required with any new technology. PCs are part of life today, and the sooner you overcome your fear, the sooner you can get down to the business of learning DDC/EMS operation and maintenance. The ease of EMS maintenance Looking back 10 years at an EMS installation, you might have encountered some of the service and maintenance requirements listed below. Remember, these older EMS consisted of mini-computer front ends and field panels that were not very smart. But wipe these MRO requirements from your mind today: Proper restart of core memory on power failure Standby battery operation Vent fan operation and clean intake filters Adjust regulated power-supply voltage levels Check helium-supply pressurized tanks Adjust tape-tracking unit Adjust reel and capstan drive motor brushes. Todays systems do not require attention to any of these items; they are not a part of todays EMS. Maintenance on the hardware-such as sensors, wiring, tubing and actuators-however, continues to require the same attention as it always has in the past. Also, you can check sensors and actuators individually without much difficulty. You can get microprocessorswhen part of an EMS with a central operational terminalwith extensive self-diagnostic features. Most of the newer DDCs were designed for self-diagnostics. Failures of field components will result in a messagedevice off-lineon the operators display at the central console. The main DDC problems youll face today are: power failure, relay failure, relay connection failure or printed circuit-board failure. Most manufacturers furnish troubleshooting guides for step-by-step procedures in the troubleshooting process.
230
AND
Manuals are key to keeping up As a part of the specifications of any new or retrofit EMS project, it is extremely important to include technical, operation and maintenance manuals. Be certain you provide at least three copies of each for the maintenance department: give one of each to the assigned technician, leave one near the equipment and place one on file in the operation managers office. In general, these will be the starting point for determining how to maintain the equipment. The various manuals youll need to have on hand include: Technical manual. This will describe the overall EMS network and should include detailed information for engineering, installation, commissioning and troubleshooting. Specific items include: General overview of the product Hardware and software architecture Data sheets of all software features Application programs. Hardware manual. This should describe all equipment provided, including: General description and specifications Installation and check-out procedures Electrical schematics and lay-out drawings Alignment and calibration procedures Manufacturers repair-parts list indicating sources of supply. Software manual. This should describe programming and testing. It should start with a system overview and proceed to a detailed description of each software module. It should include program-control software-logic diagrams. Operators manual. This should provide all procedures and instructions for operation of the system, including: Basic central-operator workstation hardware and its software System start-up procedure Alarm presentation Recovery and restart procedure Report generation. Maintenance manual. This should provide descriptions of maintenance for all equipment, including inspection, periodic preventive maintenance, fault diagnosis, and repair or replacement of defective parts. The manual should contain the manufacturers operating instructions explaining maintenance procedures, method of checking the system for
APPENDICES
231
normal operation, and procedures for safely starting and stopping the system manually. It also should mention how to return to existing system operation if the need arises. Drawings document the system Drawings for your system should include: contract drawings, construction drawings, floor plans, shop drawings, as-installed drawings, control diagrams, wiring diagrams, installation details and submittals. Following is a sampling of what you can expect: A system (AH unit) air-flow schematic with all devices shown, such as fans with cubic feet per minute, dampers, filters, coils with piping, pumps with gallons per minute, sensors, air-flow stations, actuators, and motors with horsepower and voltage A local panel with all devices labeled, tubing and wiring connections numbered, and routing to remote devices List of panel and field hardware Wiring ladder diagrams to remote starters and wiring of equipment controlled but furnished by others Complete descriptive narratives of the sequence of operation of the entire system Software program logic diagrams for all sequences with setpoint values. This is a lot of information to expect on a single drawing, so you may see a system spread between two or three sheets. Most vendors are using CADD systems to produce these documents, so coordination between pages should not be a problem. The bottom line is: To operate and maintain these systems properly, you will need all of this documentation. Using maintenance management with an EMS An EMS uses a PC for its central-operator station. You also can monitor from a remote location using modems. The EMS may have software to perform report generation and maintenance reporting, as well as to monitor the EMS. DOS (disk-operating system) emulator support programs enable you to run a variety of PC-DOS commercial programs with normal EMS operations. For example, the EMS can cumulate run-time hours of connected equipment, such as motors and fans or pumps. You then can schedule equipment maintenance on the basis of actual need and on
232
AND
manufacturers recommendations. This helps reduce maintenance costs. Next, you can generate a hard-copy work order to complete the specified tasks. Daily, weekly, monthly or on-demand summary reports provide you with status reports on new, pending, overdue and completed tasks. This allows you to schedule and monitor maintenance easily. Automated maintenance no longer is a system of the future. Using the work order as the central document, you can use the same PC. With automation, you enter requests for work onto the computer system. You then plan and approve through scheduling reports, then print and assign when tasks are scheduled. The final step is to post the schedule with the necessary materials for servicing and use your EMS to accumulate time and equipment history.
Will my EMS ever work with my existing systems?

Energy management systems can be managed and operated from remote locations using a modem.
Most commercially available energy management systems (EMS) use a proprietary communication protocol; therefore, you cannot mix products from different manufacturers to form an integrated EMS. Protocol is the term used to describe the hardware and software rules and procedures for making sure that you detect transmission errors as you exchange data between microprocessor-based parts in an EMS. Though we use microprocessors increasingly in HVAC applica-
APPENDICES
233
tions, we no longer find them only in the EMS marketplace. Chillers, boilers, air-handling units, VAV boxes, reheat coils, heat pumps and chemical-treatment injection are some of the more common systems to employ microprocessors. The original intent of an EMS was to be able to monitor and control mechanical and electrical systems in building from one central location to conserve energy. This concept has not changed, but it is more difficult to reach that goal. A building owner may have a DDC-EMS manufactured by vendor A; a chiller with microprocessor control by vendor B; air-handing units with integrated sensors and controls plus pretested software and DDC algorithms by vendor C; electronic room sensors controlling VAV boxes with DDC unitary controllers by vendor D; and a microprocessor-based fire alarm system by vendor E. All five building parts probably will function satisfactorily on their own as stand-alone systems. However, they will not be able to communicate electronically with each other over one common network to a central operator station. The separate vendors have their own ideas of how to configure equipment into a communication architecture. The result: a different communications protocol for each. In a university campus or large complex, these different systems sometimes are located in one central control room. TWs means that EMS operators must learn and use different languages. Manufacturers must train technicians on their individual electronics to maintain the systems. The problem is serious for end users now. In January 1987, the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) formed a special project committee aimed at defining a standard communications protocol for EMS. Also in 1987, the Intelligent Buildings Institute OBI) created an open protocols subcommittee to study control of HVAC, lighting, fire/ life safety and security. The banking business went through this same problem years ago with automatic tellers and remote banking operations. The government stepped in and helped solve the problem. We, however, may not need government intervention, since the committees already formed are doing an excellent job. But, EMS manufacturers are marketing a new generation of high-speed systems, and faster doesnt necessarily mean better. Especially since you now could end up with several fast central-operator stations, each one still speaking a different language.
234
AND
Appendix H
Remember!
EMS/DDC MILESTONES ORIGINAL IDEA/INITIAL CONCEPT SURVEY BUILDINGS AND SYSTEMS/RETRIEVE INFORMATION IMPLEMENT PROJECT/DESIGN SYSTEM PREPARE PLANS/SPECIFICATIONS BID/CONTRACT SHOP DRAWINGS/INSTALLATION COMMISSIONING/TRAINING ACCEPTANCE/GUARANTEE OPERATION/MAINTENANCE/SERVICE
DDC/EMS IMPORTANT POINTS DDC/EMS will not solve existing mechanical problems. (leaky dampers, sticky valves, dirty coils) Purchase what you need, not what is available. ($50 time clock/$5,000 microprocessor?) What are the qualifications of your own staff? Understand how your building functions and consumes energy. (Access to monthly utility bills)
APPENDICES
235
Be certain the manufacturer has strong local support and service. (The best product might not perform) Perform a complete field survey (Locate all equipment, measure all capacities) Design engineer should remain with project through final commissioning (Installer may not understand design concept) A good project manager can assure a good installation. (Continual on-site supervision) Develop a specification that will provide the results you expect. DDC/EMS should be operated by simple English language. (User friendly) Do not purchase a system with a central mini-computer. (Old technology) Provide your staff with the understanding (advance literature and involvement) and adequate training (off-site and on-site) to operate and maintain the DDC/EMS.
AVOID EMS PITFALLS Imprecise EMS specifications. Improper maintenanceEMS cannot be ignored. Incompetent vendors of EMShere today/gone tomorrow. Flawed estimates of savings. Excluding operating staff from decision-making; they must understand why and how since they will be responsible for operation and maintenance.
236
AND
Not anticipating a debugging period6 months to 1 year can be expected. Improper load controlso that chillers and some air handling units cant be cycled on/off. Software hazardshave system on backup disk. Exclusion of monitoring capability. Exclusion of manual override in control of equipment or building areas. No energy record-keeping for before and after comparison. Lack of incentives to maintain the program.
EMSINTELLIGENT QUESTIONS THAT REQUIRE AN ANSWER 1. How long has the manufacturer been in business manufacturing EMS (or DDC) systems? 2. How long has the installer been in business installing EMS systems? 3. How many systems has the manufacturer installed; That are comparable to your proposed system? That are working? To the satisfaction of the owner? 4. How much control over the system software does the manufacturer have? Do you have? Knowledgeable computer people are not a dime a dozen, but there are, and will be many computer engineers and technicians available in the near future.
APPENDICES
237
5. Must you contact the manufacturer every time you want to consider an update program or when you want to create a new application program? 6. What are the costs for the various features, changes, source codes, updates? 7. What are the maintenance costs for 1 year? For 5 years? 8. What are the prices for system components? What are the labor rates? 9. What are the qualifications of your own staff? 10. How thoroughly will the system be checked out after installation (prior to the start of the normal 1-year guarantee period)? Before committing money to an EMS installation find out the answers to these questions: 1. 2. What do you neednot what is available. What are your people capable of doingnot what you would like your people to be capable of doing. What will your costs and savings ultimately benot what some salesman has projected or promised.
3.
238
AND
INDEX
239
Index
A acceptance 123 actuators 22 adjust commands 42 advantages of DDC 42 ARCNet 52, 58 audit 115 B block diagram 155 boiler optimization 71 C chiller reset 72 coaxial cable 60 communication 90 contract 122 control room 154 coordination 131 D data collection 147 demand limiting 67 direct digital control 3, 35 distributed EMS 28 documentation 134 duty cycling 66 E economics 67 economizer 67 enthalpy 68 ethernet 50 F field panels 23 field survey 121, 148 fire alarm 15 front end 27 functions 12, 105 G glossary of terms 179 graphics 100 H history of EMS 9, 11 I information retrieval 120 installation 122, 130 L lighting control 74 local area network 186 M maintenance 140 manuals 230 manufacturers 197 milestones 234 modem 63 239
240 N networking 47
AND
R reheat coil reset 70 retrofit 222 S schematic 151 security 15 selection 125 sensors 15 software programming 104 specification 163 standard techniques 82 system design 121 T testing 132 token bus 132 training 137 transmission methods 54 V variable speed drives 74, 76
O operation 123, 139 optical fiber 60 optimum start/stop 66 outside air 77 P P.I.D. 37 pitfalls 235 pneumatic controls 1 point table 150 problem 203 programs 65 proportional control 37 protocol 79, 86 Q questions to ask 236

Energy Management System and DDC

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Energy Management System and DDC

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Energy Management Systems and Direct Digital Control

Richard A. Panke, CEM

THE FAIRMONT PRESS, INC. Lilburn, Georgia

MARCEL DEKKER, INC. New York and Basel

0-88173-395-4 (The Fairmont Press, Inc.) 0-8247-0920-9 (Marcel Dekker, Inc.)

Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Appendix E Appendix F Appendix G Index

Appendix D List of References ............................................................. 199

Appendix H Remember! ........................................................................ 228 .................................................................................................... 233 v

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

Figure 1-1. Pneumatic to Automation Via DDC

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

Figure 1-2. Pneumatic Control

Figure 1-3. Supervisory Automation System

Figure 1-4. Direct Digital Control

Table 1-1. Comparison of Pneumatics and Direct Digital Control

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

Table 1-1. Comparison of Pneumatics and Direct Digital Control (Continued)

Life Cycle Cost

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

Table 2-1. EMS HistoryFive Generations

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

Hardware System Components

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

Figure 3-1. Sensor Mountings

Figure 3-1. Sensor Mountings (Continued)

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

Figure 3-2. Flow Sensors

Figure 3-2. Flow Sensors (Continued)

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

Figure 3-3. Actuator Devices

Electro-pneumatic Motor Driven Servo

Figure 3-3. Actuator Devices (Continued)

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

Solid-state Piezoresistive Silicon Electropneumatic Converter

Figure 3-3. Actuator Devices (Continued)

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

Andover Controls Corporation

Figure 4-1. Andover Architecture

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

Figure 4-2. Trane Architecture

Figure 4-3. Barber Colman Architecture

ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

DIRECT DIGITAL CONTROL

Figure 4-4. Johnson Controls Architecture