Bài giảng kiến trúc máy tính

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh
TRNG I HC K THUT CNG NGHIP

KHOA IN T
B MN K THUT MY TNH
BI GING HC PHN:KIN TRC MY TNH

Theo chng trnh o to 150 TC S tn ch: 03
Thi Nguyn, nm 2011
1 Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn
Tn tc gi bin son: Tng Cm Nhung
BI GING HC PHN:KIN TRC MY TNH

Theo chng trnh o to 150 TC S tn ch: 03
Trng b mn (k v ghi r h tn)
Thi Nguyn, ngy 26 thng 6 nm 2011 Trng khoa (k v ghi r h tn)
MC LC 13 CHNG 1M U 2 Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn 14

1.1 Nhng khi nim v nguyn l c bn...................................................14 1.2 Lch s pht trin ca my tnh.............................................................19 1.2.1 Th h s khng my tnh c kh. .....................................................19 1.2.2 My tnh n in t - th h th nht................................................20 1.2.3 My tnh transistor th h th hai.....................................................20 1.2.4 My tnh IC th h th ba..................................................................21 1.2.5 My tnh c nhn v VLSI th h th t.............................................21 1.3 Phn loi my tnh.................................................................................21 1.4 Cc thnh phn c bn trong h thng my tnh...................................27 1.4.1 CPU......................................................................................................27 1.4.2 B nh trong........................................................................................28 1.4.3 B nh ngoai........................................................................................29 1.4.4 H thng vao ra (Input/Output System)...............................................29 1.4.5 H thng bus........................................................................................30 1.5 M hnh phn cp ca my tnh.............................................................30
CHNG 2BIU DIN THNG TIN TRONG MY TNH 33
33
2.1 Thng tin v m ho thng tin...............................................................34 2.1.1 Khi nim v thng tin.........................................................................34 2.1.2 M ho d liu.....................................................................................34 2.2 Biu din s............................................................................................35 2.2.1 Khi nim h m...............................................................................35 2.2.2 Chuyn i gia cc h m...............................................................36 2.2.3 Biu din s nguyn............................................................................37 2.3 Cc php ton s hc trong h nh phn...............................................38 2.3.1 Php cng nh phn.............................................................................38 2.3.2 Php tr nh phn................................................................................39 2.3.3 Php nhn nh phn.............................................................................40 2.3.4 Php chia nh phn..............................................................................40 2.4 Biu din s du chm ng..................................................................41 2.4.1 Biu din s thc du phy tnh..........................................................41 2.4.2 Biu din s thc du phy ng........................................................42 2.5 Biu din k t......................................................................................44
CHNG 3MC LOGIC S
48
3.1 Gii thiu v cng v i s logic..........................................................49
3.1.1 Cng (Gate)........................................................................................49
Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn

3.1.2 i s logic.........................................................................................50 3.1.3 Thc hin cc hm logic......................................................................51 3.1.4 S tng ng ca cc mch............................................................52 3.2 Cc mch logic s c bn.......................................................................53 3.2.1 Mch tch hp......................................................................................53 3.2.2 Mch t hp.........................................................................................54 3.2.3 Cc mch s hc..................................................................................56 3.3 T chc b nh .....................................................................................59 3.3.1 Khi qut............................................................................................59 3.3.2 Phn t nh 1 bit................................................................................59 3.3.3 T chc b nh ...................................................................................63
CHNG 4MC VI CHNG TRNH
67
4.1 Chc nng v hot ng ca b x l....................................................68 4.1.1 n v iu khin (Control Unit - CU)..................................................68 4.1.2 n v x l ton hc v logic ( Arithmetic and logical Unit - ALU).....69 4.1.3 Thanh ghi............................................................................................69 4.1.4 H thng BUS......................................................................................70 4.2 Cch thc hot ng ca CPU................................................................74 4.3 Vi kin trc ............................................................................................75 4.3.1 ng d liu......................................................................................75 4.3.2 Vi ch th...............................................................................................77 4.3.3 nh thi cho vi ch th.........................................................................79 4.3.4 nh trnh t cho cc vi ch th.............................................................81
CHNG 5MC MY THNG THNG
82
5.1 Khun dng lnh.....................................................................................83 5.1.1 Lnh tham chiu b nh .....................................................................83 5.1.2 Lnh tham chiu thanh ghi..................................................................83 5.1.3 Lnh tham chiu vo ra .....................................................................83 5.2 M hnh phn cp b nh......................................................................84 5.3 B nh m (Cache)...............................................................................88 5.3.1 Tng quan v ngha ca cache.........................................................88 5.3.2 Cu trc ca b nh cache .................................................................91 5.3.3 Cc phng php nh x cache...........................................................91 5.4 B nh trong..........................................................................................96 5.4.1 B nh ROM.........................................................................................96

5.4.2 B nh RAM.........................................................................................97
CHNG 6CP H IU HNH 102

6.1 Gii thiu mc my h iu hnh........................................................102 6.2 B nh o.............................................................................................103 6.2.1 Vic phn trang Paging...................................................................104 6.2.2 Thc hin vic phn trang.................................................................105 Hnh 6-29 V d v a ch o..................................................................107 6.2.3 Phng php cp trang khi c yu cu v M hnh tp lm vic.......110 6.3 Ch th vo/ra o...................................................................................112 6.3.1 Cc ch th vo/ra o i vi cc file tun t......................................112 6.3.2 Cc ch th vo/ra o i vi cc file truy cp ngu nhin..................113 6.3.3 Vic ci t cc ch th vo/ra o.......................................................113
CHNG 7CP HP NG 114

7.1 Vi hp ng.............................................................................................114 7.2 Gii thiu v hp ng...........................................................................115 7.2.1 Ngn ng assembly l g ?.................................................................115 7.2.2 Khun dng ch th ngn ng assembly.............................................117 7.2.3 So snh ngn ng assembly v cc ngn ng bc cao......................119
CHNG 8H THNG VO RA 122

8.1 Tng quan v h thng vo ra.............................................................122 8.2 Cc phng php iu khin vo ra....................................................124 8.2.1 Vo ra bng chng trnh polling....................................................124 8.2.2 Vo ra bng phng php ngt.........................................................125 8.2.3 Vo ra s dng DMA..........................................................................126 8.3 Ghp ni thit b ngoi vi....................................................................128 8.4 Cc cng vo ra thng dng...............................................................129 8.4.1 Cng song song LPT...........................................................................129 8.4.2 Ni tip (Serial)..................................................................................131 8.4.3 Cng PC-Game...................................................................................132 8.4.4 Cng bn phm...................................................................................134
Bi ging Kin trc my tnh DANH MC CC HNH V
Bi ging Kin trc my tnh DANH MC CC BNG BIU
CNG CHI TIT HC PHN: KIN TRC MY TNH (Hc phn bt buc) 1. Tn hc phn: TEE Kin trc my tnh . 2 . S tn ch: 03; 3. Trnh cho sinh vin nm th: 3 ( KTMT, SPKT in, SPKT Tin) hoc 4 (C in t). 4. Phn b thi gian - Ln lp l thuyt: 3 (tit/tun) x 12 (tun) = 36 tit. - Tho lun: 6 (tit/tun) x 3 (tun) = 18 tit. - Hng dn bi tp ln (di): Khng. - Khc: Khng. - Tng s tit thc dy: = 54 tit thc hin. - Tng s tit chun: = 45 tit chun. 5. Cc hc phn hc trc 6. Hc phn thay th, hc phn tng ng 7. Mc tiu ca hc phn Sinh vin nm c c s kin trc ca mt h thng my tnh; Nguyn l hot ng ca cc thnh phn nh: C ch tnh ton ca CPU; Giao tip gia cc thnh phn v vo/ra d liu; T chc v lu tr thng tin ca b nh, 8. M t vn tt ni dung hc phn Gii thiu chung; C s kin trc my tnh; Tnh ton lun l; T chc v kin trc b nh; Giao tip v truyn/nhn d liu; Cc h thng giao tip cp thp; Thit k h thng x l; T chc ca b x l trung tm (CPU); Hiu nng h thng; a x l. 9. Nhim v ca sinh vin 9.1. Phn l thuyt 1. D lp 80 % tng s thi lng ca hc phn. 2. Chun b tho lun. 3. Bi tp, Bi tp ln (di): Khng 4. Khc: Tham quan, thc hnh, : Khng 9.2. Phn th nghim Sinh vin phi hon thnh cc bi th nghim sau: 10. Ti liu hc tp - Sch, gio trnh chnh: - Bi ging Kin trc v t chc my tnh, BM K thut my tnh [1]. Nguyn nh Vit, Kin trc my tnh, NXB Gio dc, 2000. [2]. Tng Vn On, Cu trc my tnh c bn, NXB Thng k, 2001. [3]. Tng Vn On, Cu trc my tnh nng cao, NXB Thng k, 2001.
Trn Quang Vinh, Nguyn l phn cng v k thut ghp ni my tnh, NXB Gio dc, 2002. [5]. Tng Vn On, Hong c Hi, Gio trnh cu trc my tnh, NXB Gio dc, 2000. [6]. Nguyn Nam Trung, Cu trc my vi tnh v thit b ngoi vi, NXB KHKT, 2000. 11. Tiu chun nh gi sinh vin v thang im 11.1. Cc hc phn l thuyt Tiu chun nh gi 1. Chuyn cn; 2. Tho lun, bi tp; 3. Bi tp ln (di); 4. Kim tra gia hc phn; 5. Thi kt thc hc phn; 6. Khc. Thang im - im nh gi b phn chm theo thang im 10 vi trng s nh sau: + Chuyn cn: 5 %. + Tho lun, bi tp: 10 %. + Bi tp ln (di): 15 %. + Kim tra gia hc phn: 20 %. - im thi kt thc hc phn: 50 %. - im hc phn: L im trung bnh chung c trng s ca cc im nh gi b phn v im thi kt thc hc phn lm trn n mt ch s thp phn. 11.2. Cc hc phn th nghim im hc phn th nghim bng trung bnh chung c trng s im cc bi th nghim. 12. Ni dung chi tit hc phn Ngi bin son: ThS. Tng Cm Nhung 13. Lch trnh ging dy - S tun dy l thuyt: - S tun tho lun, bi tp: - S tun thc dy:
Tu n th
[4].
12 tun 3 tun 15 tun

Ti liu hc tp, tham kho Hnh thc hc
Ni dung
Chng 1: M u
1.1 Nhng khi nim v nguyn l c bn 1.2 Lch s pht trin ca my tnh. 1.3 Phn loi my tnh 1.4 Cc thnh phn c bn trong h thng my tnh 1.5 M hnh phn cp ca my tnh
5.1.1. 5.1.2. 5.1.3. 5.1.4. 5.1.5. 5.1.6. Mc logic s Mc vi chng trnh Mc my tnh thng thng Mc my h iu hnh Mc ngn ng assembly Mc ngn ng bc cao
[1] - [2]-[3]
Ging
Chng 2. Biu din thng tin trong my tnh

2 2.1. 2.2. Thng tin v m ho thng tin . Biu din s 2.2.1. Khi nim h m 2.2.2. Chuyn i gia cc h m 2.2.3. Biu din s nguyn 2.2.4. Biu din s thc Cc php ton s hc trong h nh phn [1] - [2]-[3] Ging
2.1.
[1] - [2]-[3]
Ging
Chng 3. Mc logic s
3.1. 3.2. Gii thiu v cc chip logic Cc mch t hp 3.2.1. B dn knh v b phn knh 3.2.2 B m ho v gii m 3.2.3. B cng v b tr 3.3. B to xung Clock 3.4. Mt s mch logic c bn 3.4.1. Mch cht D 3.4.2Mch lt Flip-Flop 3.4.3. ng dng
[1] - [2]-[3]
Ging
3.5.
5 6
B nh
[1] - [2]-[3]-[4] [1] - [2]-[3]-[4]
3.5.1. T chc b nh 3.5.2. Thit k modul nh
Chng 4 Mc vi chng trnh

4.1. Cch thc hot ng ca CPU 4.2. Chc nng v hot ng ca b x l 4.2.1. n v iu khin 4.2.2. n v x l ton hc v logic 4.2.3. Thanh ghi 4.2.4. H thng BUS
4.3. Vi kin trc 4.3.1. ng d liu 4.3.2. Vi ch th 4.3.3. nh thi cho vi ch th 4.3.4. nh trnh t cho cc vi ch th 4.4. V d v kin trc trong mc my thng thng
[1] - [2]-[3]-[4]
Tho lun
[1] - [2]-[3]-[4]Tho lun [7]
Chng 5. Mc my thng thng

5.1.
9
Khun dng lnh 5.1.1. Lnh tham chiu b nh 5.1.2. Lnh tham chiu thanh ghi 5.1.3. Lnh tham chiu vo ra 5.2. Cc ch a ch 5.3. B nh chnh 5.4. B nh m (Cache) 5.4.1. Hot ng ca b nh Cache 5.4.2. nh x Cache 5.4.3. Cc gii thut thay th
[1] - [2]-[3]-[4]
Ging
10
[1] - [2]-[3]-[4][7]
Ging
Chng 6. Mc my h iu hnh
11
6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4.
Gii thiu v mc my h iu hnh B nh o Cc ch th vo/ra o B nh Cache Khi qut Bn phm Keyboard Mn hnh Monitor a t v a quang
[1] - [2]-[3]-[4][7]
Ging
Chng 7. Cc thit b ngoi vi

12
7.1. 7.2. 7.3. 7.4.
Chng 8. My tnh IBM-PC

13
Gii thiu My IBM PC nguyn thy My IBM PC/XT, IBM PC/AT H iu hnh DOS ca my IBM PC
Tho lun [1] - [2]-[3]-[4]Tho lun [7]
14
Bi ging Kin trc my tnh 15 Tho lun [1] - [2]-[3]-[4]Tho lun [7]
14. Ngy ph duyt: 15. Cp ph duyt: cng chi tit hc phn c Hi ng khi ngnh in in t v SPKT in Tin hc ph duyt.
CHNG 1
M U
1.1 Nhng khi nim v nguyn l c bn 1.1.1 Khi nim my tnh

My tnh (computer) l mt thit b c kh nng thao tc (lu tr, x l) trn d liu (thng tin) theo mt cch phc tp v lp trnh c. Vic tnh ton ca n thc hin theo mt chng trnh - mt dy cc cu lnh. D liu c th c biu din di rt nhiu hnh thc ca thng tin nh: s, k t, hnh nh, m thanh, Trc khi pht minh ra my tnh, thut ng computer thng c dng m ch mt ngi chuyn lm nhim v tnh ton (human computer)
X l thng tin theo chng trnh c lu trong b nh Nhn thng tin vo a thng tin ra
Khi nim chng trnh (program): Chng trnh l dy cc cu lnh nm trong b nh, nhm mc ch hng dn my tnh thc hin mt cng vic c th no y. My tnh thc hin theo chng trnh. Khi nim phn mm (software): Bao gm cc thut ton v cc biu din cho my tnh ca chng ta, chnh l cc chng trnh. Chng trnh c th c biu din (lu tr) trn ba c l, bng t, a t, hay cc mi trng khc, tuy nhin ci c bn nht ca phn mm chnh l tp hp cc cu lnh (ch th) to nn chng trnh ch khng phi l mi trng vt l c s dng ghi (lu tr) chng trnh. Phn cng (Hardware): (Cc) Chng trnh c vit bng ngn ng my mc 1 c th c thi hnh trc tip bi cc mch in m khng cn mt trnh thng dch hoc trnh bin dch trung gian no (c). Cc mch in nh vy cng vi b nh v cc thit b ngoi vi (vo/ra) to thnh phn cng my ca tnh (hardware). Phn cng bao gm cc i tng hu hnh nh cc vi mch (IC), cc bng (board) mch in, cp ni, ngun in, b nh, my c ba, my in, terminal, ch khng phi l cc tng, cc thut ton hay cc cu lnh (ch th).
Phn do (Firmware): Phn sn (hay cn gi l phn nho) l dng trung gian gia phn cng v phn mm, n l phn mm c nhng vo cc mch in t trong qu trnh ch to ra cc mch in t ny. Firmware c s dng khi cc chng trnh him khi hoc khng bao gi cn thay i. Mt v d trc quan cho phn sn ny chnh l ROM BIOS cha cc chng trnh khi ng, cc dch v vo/ra c s, d liu v cu hnh ca h thng, m chng ti u, hon chnh m khng cn phi thay i na (t thay i). Hay cc phn mm trong chi hoc trong cc dng c my mc, in thoi di ng, Firmware cng c s dng khi cc chng trnh khng c php mt i khi mt in (ngun nui). Trong nhiu my tnh cc vi chng trnh thuc Firmware (chng hn nh cc chng chnh con phc v ngt ca BIOS). Ni chung mt thao tc c thc hin bng phn mm th cng c th xy dng phn cng thc hin trc tip thao tc , ngc li mi thao tc (cc lnh ch th) c thc hin bng phn cng th cng c th m phng bng phn mm. Vic quyt nh a nhng chc nng nht nh no vo phn cng v cc chc nng no vo phn mm c da trn cc yu t nh gi c, tc , tin cy v tn xut ca s thay i c th xy ra. Khng c nhng quy tc bt buc quy nh mt cch r rng rng phi a thao tc x ny vo trong phn cng, cn thao tc y kia phi c thc hin bng phn mm (c lp trnh). Nhng ngi thit k my tnh khc nhau, vi nhng mc tiu khc nhau c th thng quyt nh khc nhau v vn ny. Trong nhng my tnh u tin th ranh gii (s tch bit) gia phn cng v phn mm l r rt. Phn cng ch thc hin mt s t cc ch th n gin, chng hn nh lnh cng (ADD), lnh so snh (CMP), lnh nhy (JMP) hoc mt vi lnh khc. Cn mi ch th (lnh) khc c lp trnh mt cch r rng (chng hn nh tnh sin, cos, nhn, ). Nu chng trnh cn nhn (hoc tnh sin ca mt s) 2 s th ngi lp trnh phi t mnh vit mt chng trnh con thc hin cng vic (hoc ly n t th vin chng trnh mu, nu ai lp sn v a vo th vin chng trnh mu). Dn dn theo thi gian, nhng ngi thit k phn cng nhn thy r rng mt s thao tc c thc hin kh thng xuyn, l nhng cng vic n gin ( lm nhiu ln th d b li hay sai st ( nn cn thit phi xy dng nhng mch in phn cng c bit thc hin chng mt cch trc tip, lm cho n c thc hin nhanh hn.
Kt qu l c khuynh hng chuyn cc thao tc xung phn cng (mc 0). Nhng cng vic trc y c lp trnh mt cch r rng mc my thng thng th nay thy c mc di, trong phn cng. Vi s ra i ca k nguyn vi chng trnh v my tnh nhiu mc, mt khuynh hng ngc li cng xut hin. Trong cc my tnh u tin, lnh cng (ADD), hoc tr (SUB) c thc hin bng phn cng (khng ai nghi ng v iu ). Trong mt my tnh c lp vi chng trnh, ch th ADD ca mc my thng thng (hoc mc ngn ng assembly) thng c thng dch bng vi chng trnh chy mc di cng v c thc hin nh mt dy cc bc nh hn (dy cc vi ch th ( (vi) chng trnh). Ly lnh (fetch). Xc nh kiu ca lnh. nh v d liu s c cng. Ly d liu (ly ton hng). Thc hin cng (lnh). Ct kt qu. Qua ta thy n vn chuyn theo khuynh hng t di ln trn, t mc phn cng ti mc vi chng trnh. Khi xy dng mt my tnh nhiu mc, ngi thit k phi quyt nh s t nhng g ti mi mc. Ci g t vo phn cng, ci g c thc hin bng phn mm. Trong cc my tnh hin i ngy nay c rt nhiu ch th c thc hin bng phn cng hoc bng vi chng trnh, nhng ban u (khi thu nguyn vn) chng c lp trnh rt r rng ti mc my thng thng. V d: Cc ch th cho php nhn v chia s nguyn. Cc ch th i vi s du phy ng. Cc ch th s hc c chnh cc kp (cc php tnh s hc trn cc con s c s ch s c ngha nhiu gp hai bnh thng). Cc ch th gi chng trnh con v tr v chng trnh con t chng trnh chnh sau khi thc hin xong chng trnh con. Cc ch th m (cng 1 vo mt bin: inc i <=> i:=i+1). Cc ch th x l xu k t. Tm li chng ta thy rng ranh gii gia phn cng v phn mm l tu v chng khng ngng thay i theo s pht trin cng nh yu cu trong tng lnh
vc c th (chng hn: t hng mt my tnh chuyn dng no ( s thit k s c nh hng theo yu cu ca lnh vc ). Cc phn mm ngy nay c th l phn cng trong nay mai hoc ngc li. Hn th na ranh gii gia cc mc khc nhau cng d thay i. Theo quan im ca tng lp trnh vin th vic chn mt ch th (lnh) thc t c thi hnh nh th no khng quan trng (c th ch quan tm ti tc thc hin ca ch th ). Mt ngi lp trnh mc my (thng thng) c th s dng ch th nhn ca mc ny nh th n l mt ch th cho phn cng m khng phi quan tm lo lng g c, thm ch cng khng cn bit n c thc s l mt ch th cho phn cng hay khng. Phn cng ca ngi ny c th gi l phn mm ca ngei khc. Tht vy, mt ngi lp trnh vin khng cn thit phi hiu r mc m anh ta ang s dng c to ra nh th no dn n tng v thit k my tnh c cu trc. Mt mc thng c gi l my o v ngi lp trnh ngh v n nh mt ci my vt l thc s, mc d n khng thc s tn ti. Bng vic to ra ci my gm mt dy cc mc, ngi lp trnh lm vic mc n khng cn thit phi hiu r mi chi tit phc tp ca cc mc nm bn di, nh vic nghin cu, thit k v ch to ra cc my tnh phc tp tr nn n gin hn rt nhiu.
1.1.2
Nguyn l xy dng my tnh in t
C hai nguyn l c bn xy dng my tnh in t l: nguyn l s v nguyn l tng t.

Nguyn l s: s dng cc trng thi ri rc ca mt i lng vt l biu
din s liu, nguyn l ny cn c gi l nguyn l m. V d v tnh trng ri rc ca i lng vt l theo nguyn l s c th hin trong bng 1-1.
Linh kin Chuyn mch in t Li ferit it/transistor i lng vt l Dng in Trng t tnh Trng thi 1 C (ni mch) Tn ti Trng thi 2 Khng (ngt mch) o t (o hng) Khng dn in
Dng in Dn in Bng 1-1 Trng thi trong nguyn l s
Nguyn l tng t (Analog): s dng mt i lng vt l bin i lin tc biu din s liu, nguyn l ny cn c tn gi l nguyn l o. Th d v i lng vt l bin i lin tc theo nguyn l tng t c th hin trong bng 1-02.
Bi ging Kin trc my tnh Thit b Thc tnh My tnh in t tng t i lng vt l Chiu di in p
Bng 1-2 i lng bin thin trong nguyn l tng t
1.1.3 Ngn ng my
Lnh my: Cc mch in t ca my tnh c th hiu v thc hin trc tip c mt tp hp hu hn cc lnh rt n gin thng c gi l ch th (instruction) my hay lnh my, chng hn: Cng hai s vi nhau; Kim tra xem mt s c bng khng hay khng; Vn chuyn mt nhm d liu t vng ny ca b nh sang mt vng khc. Ngn ng my: Tp cc ch th my to nn ngn ng ny giao tip vi my tnh c gi l ngn ng my (machine language). Hu ht cc ngn ng my rt n gin, nn vic s dng chng l kh v t nht. Khc phc vn ny bng cch thit k mt tp ch th mi d s dng hn tp ch th my c xy dng ngay bn trong my. Tp cc ch th ny cng to thnh mt ngn ng m chng ta s gi l ngn ng mc (Level) 2 - L2, cn tp ch th c xy dng ngay bn trong my chng ta s gi l ngn ng L1. Chng trnh: Mt dy cc ch th m t vic thc hin mt nhim v c th nh th no c gi l chng trnh (program). Hai cch my tnh thi hnh c cc chng trnh vit bng L2: Cch th nht: u tin thay th mi ch th trong chng trnh ny bng mt dy tng ng gm cc ch th trong ngn ng L1. Kt qu thu c mt chng trnh gm ton cc ch th thuc ngn ng L1. Sau my tnh thc hin chng trnh mi bng ngn ng L1 ch khng phi chng trnh c bng ngn ng L2. K thut ny c gi l dch hay bin dch - Compilation (hay translation), cn chng trnh thc hin vic ny c gi l Trnh bin dch - Compiler. Cch th hai: l vit mt chng trnh bng ngn ng L1, c nhim v lm cho my tnh thi hnh chng trnh bng ngn ng L2. N ly chng trnh L2 lm d liu vo, c v kim tra tng ch th L2 mt v thc hin mt dy tng ng cc ch th L1 mt cch trc tip. Cch ny khng i hi vic trc tin phi sinh ra mt chng trnh mi bng ngn ng L1, n c gi l thng dch - interpretation, cn chng trnh thc hin vic ny c tn gi l Trnh thng dch - interpreter.
1.2 Lch s pht trin ca my tnh
1.2.1
Th h s khng my tnh c kh.
Nh khoa hc Php Blase Pascal (1623-1662) l ngi u tin ch to c mt chic my tnh hot ng c (1642). y Hon ton l mt chic my tnh c kh, s dng cc bnh rng, nng lng cung cp cho my l sc ngi - quay tay. My tnh ca Pascal ch lm c php tnh cng v tr. Ba mi nm sau nh bc hc c Baron Gottfried von Leibniz (1646-1716) ch to thnh cng mt chic my tnh c kh khc, ngoi hai php tnh cng v tr n cn c th thc hin php nhn v chia (sau Blase Pascal 30 nm). Sau , gio s Charles Babbage thit k v xy dng my sai phn (difference engine). N uc thit k chy mt gii thut n: phng php sai phn hu hn s dng cc a thc v cng ch thc hin cc php ton cng v tr. Nam 1834, Babbage thit k v xy dng my phn tch (analytical engine). My phn tch c 4 thnh phn: b lu tr (b nh), b tnh ton, thnh phn nhp (u c th c l) v thnh phn xut (in v c l). B tnh ton c th nhn cc ton hng t b lu tr, thc hin php ton cng, tr, nhn hay chia chng v tr kt qu v b lu tr. Pht trin tip theo ca my phn tch l my a nng. My c lnh t cc th c l v thc thi chng. Bng cch c l mt chng trnh khc trn th nhp, my phn tch c kh nng thc hin cc tnh ton khc. Lp trnh vin my tnh u tin l Ada Lovelace to ra phn mm cho my phn tch. Vo nhng nm 1930, Konrad Zuse xy dng mt chui cc my tnh ton t ng bng cch s dng cc relay t. Sau d, John Atanasoff v George Stibbitz thit k cc my tnh (calculator). My ca Atanasoff s dng s nh phn v c cc t in lm cho b nh uc lm ti theo chu k. Tuy nhin, my ny b tht bi do cng ngh phn cng khng tng xng vi tung thit k.
Nm 1944, Aiken hon tt my tnh Mark 1, c tt c 72 t, mi t 23 s thp phn v c thi gian mt chu k l 6 giy. Vic nhp v xut thc hin bng cc bng giy c l.
1.2.2
My tnh n in t - th h th nht
Nm 1943, my tnh s in t u tin trn th gii bt u hot ng, my Colossus. Colossus do Alan Turing thit k nhm thc hin gii m cc thng ip m ha trong chin tranh th gii th 2. Cung trong nm 1943, Mauchley v Presper Eckert bt u tin hnh xy dng my tnh ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer). ENIAC gm 1800 dn din t v 1500 relay, cn nng 30 tn, cng sut tiu th 140 kWh. N c tt c 20 thanh ghi, mi thanh ghi c th lu tr mt s thp phn 10 ch s. Sau , John von Neumann thit k my IAS da c s trn my EDVAC, l mt phin bn nng cao ca ENIAC. My von Neumman c 5 phn co bn: b nh, n v lun l s hc (ALU Arithmetich Logic Unit), n v iu khin chng trnh, thit b nhp v thit b xut. B nh c tt c 4096 t, mi t lu tr 40 bit. Mi t cha 2 lnh 20 bit hay mt s nguyn c du 39 bit. Mi lnh 20 bit gm c 8 bit xc nh loi lnh v 12 bit xc nh 1 trong 4096 t nh Vo cng thi gian ca my IAS, cc nh nghin cu MIT cng ang xy dng mt my tnh, my Whirlwind 1. N c t di 16 bit v thit k iu khin thi gian thc.
1.2.3
My tnh transistor th h th hai
Nm 1948, John Bardeen, Walter Brattain v William Shockley pht minh ra transistor lm cuc cch mng trong lnh vc my tnh. My tnh transistor u tin duc xy dng ti MIT, my TX-0 (Transistorized experimental computer 0), c 16 bit tng t nh Whirlwind 1. Nm 1961, my tnh PDP-1 xut hin c 4K t 18 bit v khong thi gian mt chu k l 5 s. Vi nm sau, PDP-8 ra di c 12 bit nhng gi thnh r hn PDP-1 rt nhiu (16.000 USD so vi 120.000 USD). PDP-8 c mt i mi l hnh thnh mt bus n gi l omnibus trong bus l tp hp cc dy ni song song dng kt ni cc thnh phn ca my tnh. Trong khi d, IBM xy dng mt phin bn ca 709 bng transistor, l my tnh 7094 c thi gian mt chu k l 2 s v b nh 32K t 36 bit. Nam 1964, cng ty CDC gii thiu my 6600 c tc d nhanh hn 7094 do bn trong CPU c
mt co ch song song. CPU c vi n v thc hin php cng, cc n v khc thc hin php nhn, chia v tt c chng u hot ng song song. Vi mt cng vic, my c kh nang thc thi 10 lnh dng thi.
1.2.4
My tnh IC th h th ba
Vi mch uc pht minh cho php t vi chc transistor trong mt chip n. Vic ny gip cho cc my tnh xy dng trn IC nh hn, nhanh hn v r hn so vi cc my tnh transistor. Lc ny, IBM gii thiu mt sn phm n, my System 360, duc thit k da trn cc vi mch. i mi quan trng trong 360 l kh nng a lp trnh (multiprogramming), c vi chng trnh trong b nh ng thi khi mt chng trnh ang ch xut / nhp d liu th chng trnh khc c th tnh ton. Mt c trng khc ca 360 l khng gian a ch ln (thi im lc ), vi 224 byte nh (16 MB).
1.2.5
My tnh c nhn v VLSI th h th t
Vo thp nin 80, vi mch VLSI (Very Large Scale Integrate) c kh nng cha vi chc ngn, vi trm ngn v vi triu transistor trn mt chip n uc ch to. S pht trin ny dn n vic sn xut cc my tnh nh hn v nhanh hn. Do d, gi c gim xung n mc mt c nhn c th s hu mt my tnh. Cc my tnh c nhn thung dng cho vic x l t, cc bng tnh v cc ng dng tng h khc. Cc my tnh trong th h ny c th chia thnh 5 loi: my tnh c nhn, my tnh mini, mainframe, siu my tnh. My tnh mini s dng trong cc ng dng thi gian thc nh iu khin khng lu hay t ng ha. Siu my tnh mini dng trong cc h thng chia s thi gian, cc my ch. Mainframe dng trong cc nhm cng vic ln hay i hi c s d liu ln, Siu my tnh duc thit k c bit cc i ha s cc thao tc du chm ng trong 1s (FLOP floating point operations per second). My tnh no c tc dui 1 GF/s th khng uc xem l siu my tnh. 1.3 Phn loi my tnh C nhiu phng php v cch phn loi khc nhau nh: theo nguyn l xy dng, theo th h, theo mc tiu thit k v.v. y ta nu ln mt s phng php phn loi my tnh in t. a) Phn loi theo phng php truyn thng.
My vi tnh ( Microcomputer)
Mt thit b hay h thng in t c kh nng x l d liu, dng tnh ton hay kim sot cc hot ng m c th biu din di dng s hay quy lut lgic.
My tnh nh (Minicomputer)
L mt dng my tnh nh cm tay, vi tc c trung bnh, c kh nng x l v thc thi cc chng trnh c nh v chuyn bit.
My tnh ln (Mainframe
Computer) My tnh c ln, thng l cc my tnh ch trong cc h thng mng ca cng ty hoc nh my
Siu my tnh (Super Computer)
Mt siu my tnh l mt my tnh vt tri trong kh nng v tc x l. Thut ng Siu Tnh Ton c dng ln u trong bo New York World vo nm 1920 ni n nhng bng tnh (tabulators) ln ca IBM lm cho trng i hc Columbia. Siu my tnh hin nay c tc x l hng trm teraflop (mt teraflop tng ng vi hiu sut mt nghn t php tnh/giy) hay bng tng hiu sut ca 6.000 chic my tnh hin i nht hin nay gp li (mt my c tc khong t 3-3,8 gigaflop). C th hiu siu my tnh l h thng nhng my tnh lm vic song song.
Cray-2; my tnh nhanh nht th gii trong thi gian 19851989.
Siu my tnh Roadrunner ca IBM - 2008
Siu my tnh IBM Blue Gene/L nhanh nht th gii - 2006.
b) Phn loi theo phng php hin i

My tnh bn (Desktop Computer)
L my tnh c nhn, hay my tnh a nng, p ng nh cu mi ngi s dng chung trong cc lnh vc Home, office,
My ch (Servers)
C nhiu loi my ch khc nhau, phc v cc yu cu t cc my khch trong h thng mng. Nh my ch WEB, my ch d liu, my ch tn min,
My tnh nhng (Embedded Computer)
My tnh c t vo trong mt thng ln, lm nhim v x l thng tin v iu khin hot ng cho mt phn hoc ton b h thng.
VD: H thng iu khin in v iu khin Oto.
c) Phn loai theo nguyn ly xy dng may tinh Theo phng php ny my tnh c phn chia thnh hai lp l my tnh tng t v my tnh s. Mi lp ln ny li c th c chia thnh cc lp con, v d my tnh a nng v my tnh chuyn dng . . .
My tnh s (Digital Computer)
My tnh s l loi my tnh s dng cc i lng vt l bin thin ri rc (dng s) biu din cc i lng cn tnh ton. Nhng thng s c bn ca my tnh s l: tc hot ng, h thng lnh v s a ch ca cc lnh, cc thit b nh v dung lng tin ca chng, t hp cc thit b vo/ra s liu, kch thc, . . . Ngi ta c th phn loi my tnh s da trn mt s c s khc nhau, l c th l cch thc thi hnh mt chng trnh, l nhim v m ngi thit k nh ra cho my tnh, . . . Sau y l v d v s phn loi trn. Phn loi my tnh s (MTS) theo cch thc thi hnh chng trnh MTS tun t (lin tip): l MTS trong cc chng trnh c thi hnh tng lnh mt, ht lnh ny n lnh khc. MTS song song: l MST c th thi hnh ng thi nhiu chng trnh. MTS song song cn c nhiu trang thit b hn v phc tp hn MTS lin tip nhng c tc tc ng cao hn. MTS tun t - song song: L loi MST trung gian gia hai loi my tnh s nu trn, trong cc php tnh theo m ca chng trnh c lin tip a vo cc b phn ca my tnh, cn c cc b phn thi hnh cc php tnh mt cch song song. Ngy nay, trong tt c cc my tnh, k c loi my tnh c gi l tun t, ngi ta cng p dng cc c ch thc hin song song cc mc khc nhau nng cao tc hot ng chung ca my tnh in t.
Phn loi my tnh s theo nhim v m ngi thit k nh ra cho n
MTS chuyn dng: L loi MTS c ch to ra gii quyt mt loi bi ton nht nh, n thng n gin v r tin hn MTS a nng nh vic c th gim bt mt s thnh phn ca my tnh v thm ch c vic rt gn tp lnh ca b vi x l ca my. Cc my tnh chuyn dng c s dng rng ri hin nay: Cc my tnh iu khin, nm trong cc h thng iu khin nhng i tng v qu trnh thc (Robot, iu khin may bay, v tinh, ...). Cc my tnh c thit k gii mt loi (dng) bi ton nht nh, chng hn tnh tng cc tch 2 s trong cc bi ton v d bo kh tng, gii h phng trnh vi phn thng, . . . Cc my tnh tm thng tin, dng x l nhng lng ln cc thng tin ch v s (tm kin thng tin trn mng). MTS a nng: L loi MTS c ch to ra gii mt lp ln cc bi ton m thnh phn ca lp bi ton ny c th cn cha c nu y khi thit k my. Nhng tnh cht c bn ca MTS a nng l: C tp lnh tng i ln, bao gm nhiu nhm, mi nhm phc v cho mt loi thao tc nht nh, c th thi hnh nhiu loi chng trnh khc nhau mt cch c hiu qu. Kch thc cc thanh ghi trong b x l v ln ca mt n v b nh (word - t nh) phi khng qu ln cng khng qu nh, thng thng bng bi s ca 8. Nh vy chng c th cha va vn mt s k t ASCII 8 bit hoc cha c cn s ln cho hu ht cc chng trnh ng dng chy trn my. Cc chng trnh sn tho vn bn, chng trnh qun l, . . . ni chung u c d liu kiu k t. Cc thit b nh c th nhn vo, lu tr v a ra cc s liu, cc kt qu v cc chng trnh. Cn trong MTS chuyn dng cc chng trnh, hng s, . . . thng c cng ho. H thng trao i thng tin (giao din) gia my v ngi s dng thun tin, gim nh cc cng vic m con ngi phi thc hin trong qu trnh my tnh hot ng.
My tnh tng t (Analog Computer)
My tnh tng t (MTTT) l loi my tnh s dng cc i lng vt l bin thin lin tc biu din cc i lng cn tnh ton. i lng vt l thng l in p hoc dng in.
M hnh ho (modelling) l c s cho s hot ng ca MTTT, trong mt qu trnh vt l thc s hay cc thnh phn ca n c thay th bng mt m hnh in c cc c tnh tng t. Nh c m hnh in m vic nghin cu c th tin hnh n gin, thun tin v r tin hn. Cc MTTT vn hnh rt thun tin, thng a ra kt qu di dng th, c bit vi thi gian cc k ngn (tc thi hnh rt cao). MTTT c cc nhc im chnh sau: kt qu c chnh xc khng cao lm, s hot ng ca n khng mm do nh MTS, kh nng gii bi ton ph thuc nhiu vo chnh phn cng ca my. S khc nhau c bn gia MTTT v MTS l MTS ch lm c cc php tnh s hc c im nh cng, tr, nhn, chia; thc hin cc t hp gm cc php tnh cng v nhn . . . nhng ci m b cng ca MTTT ch lm trong nhy mt th MTS phi c mt chng trnh c bit sp xp dn dn cc php tnh s hc ch yu thnh cc t hp cn thit. Cc my tnh ngy nay c kh nng gii c hu nh mi bi ton ton hc GTE Analog Computer EA22 v cc tnh ton logic phc tp vi tc thc hin, chnh xc v tin cy ngy cng cao. Chnh v vy m MTTT vi cc nhc im trn th ch cn c s dng cho nhng ng dng c tnh cht chuyn bit, khng ph bin nh MTS. Trc chin tranh th gii th II, my tnh tng t in v c kh c coi l mt thnh tu v i v rt nhiu ngi ngh rng n l tng lai ca khoa hc tnh ton. Cc my tnh tng t c s dng cc i lng vt l bin thin lin tc nh dng in v in p hay tc quay ca cc trc biu din cc gi tr ang c x l. Mt v d in hnh l chic my tch phn bng nc c xy dng nm 1936. Khng ging nh cc my tnh s hin i, my tnh analog khng qu phc tp v cn phi thit lp cu hnh li (lp trnh li) mt cch th cng chuyn chng t cng vic ny sang gii quyt mt vn khc. Cc my tnh tng t em li nhiu li ch trong giai on khai sinh ca my tnh s do chng c th gii quyt nhiu bi ton phc tp trong khi kh nng ca cc my tnh s ban u cn rt gii hn. Nhng cng vi s pht trin ca nhanh hn v s dng b nh ln hn ca my tnh s, my tnh tng t dn b thay th, c bit l s pht trin ca k thut lp trnh v k thut m ho. My tnh tng t c ng dng mnh nht trong cc thit b ngm bn cho v kh, v d nh my ngm nm bom Norden v cc my tnh ton cho pho binh trn chin trng. Mt s my tnh loi ny vn cn c s dng vi thp k sau CTTG II.
My tnh tng t dng lai, c iu khin bi cc thit b in t s, vn gi vai tr quan trng cho ti nhng nm 1950, 1960, v sau trong mt s ng dng c bit.
My tnh lai (Hybrid Computer)
l loi my tnh kt hp c hai nguyn l s v tng t, trong h thng ny c mt na l s v mt na l tng t. Na s, v thc cht l mt my tnh s hoc l mt tp hp cc phn t tnh ton s. Na tng t l mt my tnh l mt my tnh tng t hoc l mt tp hp cc phn t tnh ton tng t. Trong qu trnh tnh ton, hai na ny truyn d liu cho nhau thng qua cc b chuyn i (convertor). Vic ng b hot ng ca hai na c th do mt n v iu khin ring hoc do n v iu khin ca my tnh s m nhim. 1.4 Cc thnh phn c bn trong h thng my tnh M hinh chung cua mt may tinh
CPU
Memory
Bus h thng Phi ghp vo ra (I/O)
TB Vo
TB Ra
Hnh 1-1 M hnh chung ca mt h thng my tnh
1.4.1 CPU
CPU vit tt ca ch Central Processing Unit (ting Anh), tm dch l n v x l trung tm. CPU c th c xem nh no b, mt trong nhng phn t ct li nht ca my vi tnh. Nhim v chnh ca CPU l x l cc chng trnh vi tnh v d kin. CPU c nhiu kiu dng khc nhau. hnh thc n gin nht, CPU l
mt con chip vi vi chc chn. Phc tp hn, CPU c rp sn trong cc b mch vi hng trm con chip khc. CPU l mt mch x l d liu theo chng trnh c thit lp trc. N l mt mch tch hp phc tp gm hng triu transistor Cu trc c bn CPU n v iu khin (CU:Control Unit): iu khin hot ng ca my tnh theo chng trnh nh sn. n v s hc v logic (ALU: Arithmetic And Logic Unit): thc hin cc php ton s hc v logic trn cc d liu c th. Tp thanh ghi (RF: Register File): Lu tr cc thng tin tm thi phc v cho hot ng ca CPU.
n v ni ghp BUS(BIU: Bus Interface Unit): kt ni v trao i thng tin gia Bus bn trong v Bus bn ngoi CPU.
1.4.2 B nh trong
La loai b nh ma CPU co th truy cp trc tip, co tc cao va dung lng thng nho. B nh trong chia lam 2 loai B nh chinh (main memmory): ROM va RAM B nh m Cache
RAM (Random access memory), hay B nh truy cp ngu nhin: Tc truy cp nhanh, lu tr gi liu tm thi, d liu s b mt vnh vin khi khng cn ngun in cung cp. ROM (Read Only Memory), hay B nh ch c: Lu tr cc chng trnh m khi mt ngun in cung cp s khng b (xa) mt. Ngy nay cn c cng ngh FlashROM tc b nh ROM khng nhng ch c m cn c th ghi li c, nh c cng ngh ny BIOS c ci tin thnh FlashBIOS. Cache: Cache l tn gi ca b nh m ni lu tr cc d liu nm ch cc ng dng hay phn cng x l. Mc ch ca n l tng tc x l. Cache l mt c ch lu tr tc cao c bit. N c th l mt vng lu tr ca b nh chnh hay mt thit b lu tr tc cao c lp. Cache cu to bng b nh tnh (SRAM) c tc cao nhng t tin thay v b nh ng (DRAM) c tc thp hn v r hn, c dng cho b nh chnh. C ch lu tr b nh cache ny rt c hiu qu. Bi l, hu ht cc chng trnh thc t truy xut lp i lp li cng mt d liu hay cc lnh ging nhau. Nh lu tr cc thng tin ny trong SRAM, my tnh s khi phi truy xut vo DRAM vn chm chp hn.
Mt s b nh cache c tch hp vo trong kin trc ca cc b vi x l. Chng hn, CPU Intel i 80486 c b nh cache 8 KB, trong khi ln i Pentium l 16 KB. Cc b nh cache ni (internal cache) nh th gi l Level 1 (L1) Cache (b nh m cp 1). Cc my tnh hin i hn th c thm b nh cache ngoi (external cache) gi l Level 2 (L2) Cache (b nh m cp 2). Cc cache ny nm gia CPU v b nh h thng DRAM. Sau ny, do nhu cu x l nng hn v vi tc nhanh hn, cc my ch (server), my trm (workstation) v mi y l CPU Pentium 4 Extreme Edition c tng cng thm b nh m L3 Cache.
Hnh 1-2. B nh m Cache
1.4.3 B nh ngoai
Co dung lng ln, lu cac chng trinh va d liu lu dai, nh HDD, CDROM, Tape, ... Cc loi b nh da trn cng ngh FlashROM: Kt hp vi chun giao tip my tnh USB (Universal Serial Bus) to ra cc b nh my tnh di ng thun tin v a nng nh: Cc thit b giao tip USB lu tr d liu, thit b giao tip USB chi nhc s, chi video s; kha bo mt qua giao tip USB; th nh... Dung lng thit b lu tr FlashROM ln ti 32GB (Samsung cng b nm 2005), trong tng lai, c th FlashROM s dn thay th cc a cng, cc loi a CD, DVD...
1.4.4 H thng vao ra (Input/Output System)

Giup may tinh trao i thng tin vi th gii bn ngoai, bao gm hai hoat ng chinh la nhn thng tin Input va gi thng tin ra Output. Nhp hay u vo (Input): Cc b phn thu nhp d liu hay mnh lnh nh l bn phm, chut... Xut hay u ra (Output): Cc b phn tr li, pht tn hiu, hay thc thi lnh ra bn ngoi nh l mn hnh, my in, loa, ... Thng qua h thng vao ra may tinh co th trao i thng tin vi thit bi ngoai vi.
Cc thit b ngoi vi c bn: o Thit b vo: bn phm, chut, o Thit b ra: my in, mn hnh, o Thit b nh: a t, quang,.
o Thit b truyn thng: Modem,
1.4.5 H thng bus

H thng bus (Bus system) lm nhim v vn chuyn thng tin gia cc phn khc nhau trong my tnh (H thng Bus bao gm bus d liu dng vn chuyn d liu t b nh ti CPU hoc ngc li. Bus a ch dng vn chuyn tn hiu a ch ( nh hay cng vo/ra do CPU pht ra. Bus iu khin dng vn chuyn tn hiu iu khin do CPU pht ra iu khin cc khi trong h thng hoc do thit b ngoi vi gi ti CPU yu cu thc hin mt cng vic no ). 1.5 M hnh phn cp ca my tnh Mt my vi n mc c th c xem nh n my o khc nhau, mi my o c mt ngn ng my tng ng. Chng ta s s dng thut ng "mc" v "my o" vi cng mt ngha. Ch c cc chng trnh c vit bng ngn ng L1 l c th c thc hin trc tip bng cc mch in t m khng cn s can thip trung gian ca vic dch hoc thng dch. Cc chng trnh c vit bng L2, L3,..., Ln hoc l phi c thng dch bng mt trnh thng dch chy mt mc thp hn hoc l phi c dch sang mt ngn ng khc tng ng vi mt mc thp hn. Hnh 1.03 di y m t cc my tnh nhiu mc hin i
Hnh 1-3. M hnh phn cp my tnh
Cp 0 chnh l phn cng ca my tnh. Cc mch in t ca cp ny s thc thi cc chng trnh ngn ng my ca cp 1. Trong cp logic s, i tng quan tm l cc cng logic. Cc cng ny c xy dng t mt nhm cc transistor. Cp 1 l cp ngn ng my tht s. Cp ny c mt chng trnh gi l vi chng trnh (microprogram), vi chng trnh c nhim v thng dch cc ch th ca cp 2. Hu ht cc lnh trong cp ny l di chuyn d liu t phn ny n phn khc ca my hay thc hin vic mt s kim tra n gin. Mi my cp 1 c mt hay nhiu vi chng trnh chy trn chng. Mi vi chng trnh xc nh mt ngn ng cp 2. Cc my cp 2 u c nhiu im chung ngay c cc my cp 2 ca cc hng sn xut khc nhau. Cc lnh trn my cp 2 c thc thi bng cch thng dch bi vi chng trnh m khng phi thc thi trc tip bng phn cng. Cp th 3 thng l cp hn hp. Hu ht cc lnh trong ngn ng ca cp my ny cng c trong ngn ng cp 2 v ng thi c thm mt tp lnh mi, mt t chc b nh khc v kh nng chy 2 hay nhiu chng trnh song song. Cc lnh mi thm vo s c thc thi bng mt trnh thng dch chy trn cp 2, gi
l h iu hnh. Nhiu lnh cp 3 c thc thi trc tip do vi chng trnh v mt s lnh khc c thng dch bng h iu hnh (do , cp ny l cp hn hp). Cp 4 tht s l dng tng trng cho mt trong cc ngn ng. Cp ny cung cp mt phng php vit chng trnh cho cc cp 1, 2, 3 d dng hn. Cc chng trnh vit bng hp ng c dch sang cc ngn ng ca cp 1, 2, 3 v sau c thng dch bng cc my o hay thc tng ng.
Cp 5 bao gm cc ngn ng c thit k cho ngi lp trnh nhm gii quyt mt vn c th. Cc ngn ng ny c gi l cp cao. Mt s ngn ng cp cao nh Basic, C, Cobol, Fortran, Lisp, Prolog, Pascal v cc ngn ng lp trnh hng i tng nh C+ +, J++, Cc chng trnh vit bng cc ngn ng ny thng c dch sang cp 3 hay 4 bng cc trnh bin dch (compiler).
CHNG 2 BIU DIN THNG TIN TRONG
MY TNH
Mc tiu: Tm tt chng: Chng c chia ra thnh 5 phn
2.1 Thng tin v m ho thng tin
2.1.1 Khi nim v thng tin

Khi nim v thng tin gn lin vi s hiu bit mt trng thi cho sn trong nhiu trng thi c th c vo mt thi im cho trc.
Hnh 2-4 Trng thi biu din hiu in th
Trong hnh ny, chng ta quy c c hai trng thi c ngha: trng thi thp khi hiu in th thp hn VL v trng thi cao khi hiu in th ln hn VH. c thng tin, ta phi xc nh thi im ta nhn trng thi ca tn hiu. Th d, ti thi im t1 th tn hiu trng thi thp v ti thi im t2 th tn hiu trng thi cao.
2.1.2 M ho d liu
Nguyn tc chung v m ho d liu Mi d liu c a vo my tnh c m ho thnh s nh phn. Cc loi d liu: o D liu nhn to: do con ngi quy c o D liu t nhin: tn ti khch quan vi con ngi M ho d liu nhn to o D liu s nguyn: m ho theo mt s chun qui c o D liu s thc: m ho bng s du chm ng o D liu phi s (k t): m ho theo cc b m k t hin hnh nh : ASCII, Unicode,
Hnh 2-5 Qui trnh bin i tn hiu
Nguyn tc lu tr d liu trn may tinh B nh chnh t chc lu tr d liu theo n v byte. di t d liu c th chim t 1 n 4 byte. V vy cn phi bit th t chng lu tr trong b nh chnh i vi cc d liu nhiu byte. C hai cch lu tr c a ra o Little Endian (u nh): Byte c ngha thp hn c lu tr trong b nh v tr c a ch nh hn. Minh hoa : Gia thit cn lu mt mt dong ch KY THUAT MAY TINH s dung ma ASCII 8 bit.
H N I Byte 0 T Y A M T A U H T B nh may tinh K Y byte n
o tr c a ch ln hn.
K Y Byte 0 T H U A T
o Big Endian (u to): Byte c ngha thp hn c lu tr trong b nh v

M A Y B nh may tinh T I N H byte n
2.2Biu din s 2.2.1 Khi nim h m

Cc ch s c bn ca mt h m l cc ch s ti thiu biu din mi s trong h m y. H thp phn c cc ch s c bn l 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. H nh phn c cc ch s c bn l 0, 1. H thp lc phn c cc ch s c bn c k hiu l 0,.., 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.
Nu mt s c gi tr ln hn cc s c bn th n s c biu din bng cch t hp cc ch s c bn theo cng thc sau :
X = an an-1 ... a1 a0 = anbn + an-1bn-1 +... + a1b + a0

Vi b l c s h m, a0, a1, a2,...., an l cc ch s c bn X l s h m c s b. V d: H thp phn cho X = 123 th X = 1 * 102 + 2 * 101 + 3 vi b=10 H nh phn cho X = 110 th X = 1 * 22 + 1 * 21 + 0 vi b=2
(*)
2.2.2 Chuyn i gia cc h m

Chuyn i t c s n sang c s 10 (vi n = {2, 8, 16, ...}) theo cng thc dang tng quat cac phn trn. Cac chuyn i s A t c s 10 sang c s n theo thut toan chung la : Bc 1: Nu A < n thi kt qua = A, trai lai n bc 2 Bc 2: A = A chia nguyn cho n, Bi=A chia d cho n (i=1,2,3,...) Nu A = 0 thi n bc 3 trai lai lam lai bc 2 vi i=i+1 Bc 3: Kt qua = BiBi-1Bi-2...B1 Vi du : 118 chuyn sang c s 2 (n=2) Php tnh 118 2 = 59 59 2 = 29 29 2 = 14 14 2 = 7 72=3 32=1 12=0 Lc trnh cc con s d theo th nh phn 11101102. S d 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 t t di ln trn, cho chng ta mt s
Chuyn i t c s 2 sang c s 16 va ngc lai Mi mt ky t c s 16 chuyn i tng ng sang 4 bit vi c s 2 va ngc lai VD : 9FA la s c s 16 chuyn sang c s 2 va ngc lai:
9FA
1001
1111
1010
2.2.3 Biu din s nguyn

a. S nguyn khng du Nguyn tc chung: Dng n ch s nh phn th biu din c 2n s Di biu din: V d: 0 2n 1 n = 8 bit: di biu din: 028-1, hay t 0255
Cch biu din: Biu din dng nh phn mt cch bnh thng b. S nguyn c du C nhiu cch biu din mt s n bit c du. Trong tt c mi cch th bit cao nht lun tng trng cho du. Khi , bit du c gi tr l 0 th s nguyn dng, bit du c gi tr l 1 th s nguyn m. Tuy nhin, cch biu din du ny khng ng trong trng hp s c biu din bng s tha K m ta s xt phn sau trong chng ny (bit du c gi tr l 1 th s nguyn dng, bit du c gi tr l 0 th s nguyn m). dn-1 dn-2 dn-3

d2
d1
d0
Bit du S nguyn c bit dn-1 l bit du v c tr s tng trng bi cc bit t d0 ti dn2
Biu din bng du v gi tr tuyt i Trong cch ny, bit dn-1 l bit du v cc bit t d0 ti dn-2 cho gi tr tuyt i. Mt s n bit tng ng vi s nguyn thp phn c du sau :
N = ( 1)
V d: +2510 = 000110012
d 1
d i 2i
i=0
n 2
-2510 = 100110012
- Mt Byte (8 bit) c th biu din cc s c du t -127 ti +127. - C hai cch biu din s khng l 0000 0000 (+0) v 1000 0000 (-0). Biu din bng s b 1
Trong cch biu din ny, s m -N c c bng cch thay cc s nh phn di ca s dng N bng s b ca n (ngha l nu di = 0 th ngi ta i n thnh 1 v ngc li). V d: +2510 = 000110012 -2510 = 111001102 - Mt Byte cho php biu din tt c cc s c du t -127 (1000 00002) n 127 (0111 11112) - C hai cch biu din cho 0 l 0000 0000 (+0) v 1111 1111 (-0). Biu din bng s b 2 c s b 2 ca mt s no , ngi ta ly s b 1 ri cng thm 1. Vy mt t n bit (dn-1 ....... d0) c tr thp phn nh sau :
N = d n 1 2
n 1
+ d i 2i
i=0
n 2
Mt s n bit c th biu din cc s c du t - 2n-1 n 2n-1-1. Ch c mt cch duy nht biu din cho s khng l tt c cc bit ca s u bng khng. V d: +2510 = 000110012 -2510 = 111001112 - Dng 1 Byte (8 bit) biu din mt s c du ln nht l +127 v s nh nht l 128. - Ch c mt gi tr 0: +0 = 000000002, -0 = 000000002 Biu din bng s tha K Trong cch ny, s dng ca mt s N c c bng cch cng thm vo s tha K c chn sao cho tng ca K v mt s m bt k lun lun dng. S m -N ca s N c c bng cck ly K-N (hay ly b hai ca s va xc nh). V d: (s tha K=128, s cng thm vo 128 l mt s nguyn dng. S m l s ly b hai s va tnh, b qua s gi ca bit cao nht) : +2510 = 100110012 -2510 = 011001112 - Dng 1 Byte (8 bit) biu din mt s c du ln nht l +127 v s nh nht l 128. - Ch c mt gi tr 0: +0 = 100000002, -0 = 100000002 2.3 Cc php ton s hc trong h nh phn
Phn nay chung ta quan tm n cac phep tinh s hoc trn s nhi phn, vi c ban cac phep tinh +,-,*,/ tng t vi c s 10 thng thng 2.3.1 Php cng nh phn
Cng nh phn c thc hin theo quy tc Bng 2.1 S HNG 0 0 1 S HNG 0 1 0 TNG 0 1 1 S NH 0 0 0 K T QU 0 1 1
1 Ch :
10
Bng 2-3 Quy tc Cng Nh phn.
Khi cng, thc hin t bit co trng s thp n bit co trng s cao. V d: Thc hin cc php Cng Nh phn: 1011 + 1100 = 10111 Trong php cng nh phn c chia thnh 2 dng l :

Php cng s nguyn khng du Php cng s nguyn c du
a. Php cng s nguyn khng du Khi cng hai s nguyn khng du n bit:

Nu khng c nh ra khi bit cao nht th tng lun ng (Cout = 0) Nu c nh ra ngoi (Carry out) th tng l sai (Cout = 1), ta ni rng php cng trn nh Trn nh ra ngoi xy ra khi tng > 2n - 1
b. Php cng s nguyn c du Khi cng hai s nguyn c du n bit, khng quan tm n bit nh ra ngoi (Cout), kt qu nhn c l n bit:

Nu cng hai s khc du, tng thu c lun lun ng Cng hai s cng du, nu tng cng du vi cc s hng th tng ng Cng hai s cng du, nu tng ngc du vi cc s hng th tng sai, ta ni tng b trn (Overflow)
2.3.2 Php tr nh phn

Php tr nh phn c thc hin theo quy tc trnh by bng 2.2 S BI TR 0 0 1 1 Ch : Php tnh c thc hin t Bit trng s thp n Bit c trng s thp n Bit c trng s cao. S vay s c tr vo Bit c trng s cao hn lin k. V d: Thc hin cc tnh Tr Nh phn sau:
S TR 0 1 0 1
HIU 0 1 1 0
VAY 0 1 0 0
Bng 2-4. Quy tc Tr Nh phn :
1011 0110 = 0101 thc hin php tr c thun li hn, ngi ta chuyn i php tr thnh php cng vi s Bu 2 ca n.
2.3.3 Php nhn nh phn

Php nhn nh phn c thc hin nh nhn thp phn. V d: C php tnh: 1001 nhn vi 1101 Ta thc hin: 1100 S b nhn (12) x 1011 S nhn (11) 1100 + 1100 0000 1100 100000100 Tch (132) Trong php cng nh phn c chia thnh 2 dng l :

Php nhn s nguyn khng du Php nhn s nguyn c du
a. Php nhn s nguyn khng du Cc tch thnh phn c tnh nh sau:

Nu bit tng ng ca s nhn bng 0 tch thnh phn bng 0 Nu bit tng ng ca s nhn bng 1 tch thnh phn bng s b nhn Tch thnh phn tip theo c dch tri 1 bit so vi tch trc Tng cc tch thnh phn l Tch cui cng Nhn hai s n bit, tch c di 2n bit
b. Php nhn s nguyn c du Khng thc hin trc tip c trong my tnh
Chuyn i thnh s dng nu cn Thc hin nhn nh i vi s khng du Nu hai s khc du tch l s m
2.3.4 Php chia nh phn

Php chia nh phn c thc hin nh chia thp phn.
2.4 Biu din s du chm ng 2.4.1 Biu din s thc du phy tnh
Quy tc: ta chuyn i tng phn nguyn v l theo quy tc sau: o Phn nguyn: Chia lin tip phn nguyn cho 2 gi li cc s d, S nh phn chuyn i s l dy s d lin tip tnh t ln chia cui v ln chia u tin. o Phn l: Nhn lin tip phn l cho 2, gi li cc phn nguyn to thnh. Phn l ca s Nh phn s l dy lin tip phn nguyn sinh ra sau mi php nhn tnh t ln nhn u n ln nhn cui. V d: Chuyn sang h Nh phn s: 13,625 Thc hin: Phn nguyn: 13:2 = 6 6:2 3:2 1:2 Phn l: 0,625 x 2 0,250 x 2 = 1,250 = 0,500 Phn nguyn l 1 Phn nguyn l 0 =3 =1 =0 d 1 d 0 d 1 d 1
=> Phn nguyn ca s Nh phn l 1101
0,500 x 2 = 1,000 Phn nguyn l 1 (dng y vi phn nguyn con lai =0) => Phn l ca s Nh phn l: 0,101 => Ta vit kt qu l: (13,625)10 = (1101,101)2 Ch : vic chuyn i t h thp phn sang h Nh phn khng phi lun c gn gng chnh xc, trong trng hp php tnh chuyn i ko di, th ty theo yu cu v chnh xc m ta c th dng php tnh mc cn thit thch hp. Nhn xet :
Cac s du phy tinh chi dung trong cac bai toan yu cu chinh xac khng cao va lung c inh, vi du im mn hoc trong trng H CN tinh chinh xac n 1 s sau du phy (VD : 4,5). Nh vy cac im se lun c chinh xac trong khoang o. Trong thc t co cac bai toan yu cu chinh xac gn nh tuyt i nh cac bai toan trong ngn hang, trong iu khin may bay, v tinh, ... Cac bai toan nay khng th quy inh trc mt chinh xac, ngi ta phai s dung s du chm ng, khi o s cac s sau du phy la khng han ch v mt biu din. VD : 12e-101=12*10-101 Vn la biu din cac s du chm ng nh th trn may tinh vi c s 2
2.4.2 Biu din s thc du phy ng

Nguyn tc chung Mt s thc bt k c biu din bng cng thc sau: x = M.RE Trong : M - Phn nh tr. R - C s. E - Phn m. Vi mt h thng no th R l c nh. Trong my tnh ngy nay thng thng R=2. biu din c vi c s2 ngi chuyn v dang tng ng nh sau: X=(-1)s 1.M2E-B Trong : s: l bit du (s=0 phn nh tr l dng; s=1 phn nh tr l m) M : l phn nh tr. E: l s m c dch chuyn i B n v. R c bit (R=2) my tnh lu s du chm ng bao gm hai thnh phn chnh Chun IEEE 754-1985 phn nh 3 dng s du chm ng c bn (IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ) o S c chnh xc n di 32 bit (single) o S c chnh xc kp di 64 bit (double) o S c chnh xc m rng di 128bit (quadruple)
Chun 32 bit: Xt trng hp s dng 32 bit 23 22 S E 15 M 7 0
8 bit m E Phn m E chim 8 bit. X= (-1)s 1,M2E-127 V d : Gi s c mt dy 32 bit nh sau: (127 = 7F)
23 bit nh tr
Phn nh tr (M) chim 23 bit cho phn sau du phy nh phn.
1 0111 11111 100 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 bit du = 1 ( s m ) X = (-1)1 1,1 2127-127 = (-1,1) V d : Chuyn mt s thc h 10 sang h 2 biu din bng s thc du phy ng: Cho s 13,2 h 2 (1101,0011 0011 ........)2 Di chuyn du phy v sau s 1 u tin c : ((1,101 0011 0011 ...)23) = (+1,101 0011 0011 ...)23 Phn m E = E - 127 = E - 7F = 3 E = E + 127 = 3 + 127 = (130)10 = (1000 0010)2 S 0 E 1000 0010 M 101 0011 0011 .....
Cc qui c: Nu E = 255 v M <> 0 th x khng phai la s hp l Nu E = 255 v M = 0 th x = -/+ Nu E = 0 v M = 0 th x = 0 Chun 64 bit: Cung tng t nh chun 32 bit inh dang chun 64 bit nh sau Du Phn mu 1bit 11 bit S E = E - 1023 Chun 80 bit: Du 1bit S 2.5 Biu din k t Ky t thng c s dung trong cac cng vic hang ngay trn may tinh, trong thc t chung ta thy hu ht cac ban phim cua cac may tinh u la cac ky t la tinh, nhng tai sao lai co th soan c cac ngn ng khac nhau trn th gii. Cu th i vi Vit Nam co cac ky t c bit nh , , Tai sao may tinh la co th hiu va vn th hin c. S thc la may tinh s dung mt loa bang ma goi la b Font, co th xem bang Font la mt bang gm hai ct nh sau: Ma Ky t 0 A 1 B 2 C 66 67 Ky t th hin Ma cua nh m Bng cach nay thi thc ra may tiphi khng h hiu cac ky t A, , , Khi c bm XX ta go vao mt phim trn ban phim thi ma s cua phim o se c gi ln may tinh, sau o tuy thuc mi trng ta ang s dung b Font la thi ky t tng ng se c ve ra. Phn mu 15 bit E = E - 16383 Phn inh tri 52 bit M Phn inh tri 111 bit M
44 M M MaKy tXX X Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa inBang Font ang dung t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn
Bang ma ASCII: y la loai bang ma 8 bit, s ky t biu la 256 ky t, ngay nay loai bang ma nay it c s dung vi s ky t t hin it, chi u dung cho mt quc gia, gy bt tin khi chuyn vn ban
Bng 2-5 Bng m ASCII chun
Bng 2-6 Bng m ASCII m rng Bang ma Unicode
Do cc hng my tnh hng u th gii kt hp thit k. Kich thc b m nay la 16 bit c th xy dng b m ton cu vi s ky t co th ma la 2 16 k t vi 128 k t u c m trng m trong bng m ASCII. Vi du mt oan trn bng ma Unicode
Bng 2-7 Bng m Unicode
CHNG 3
Mc tiu:
MC LOGIC S
Tm tt chng: Chng c chia ra thnh 6 phn:
3.1 Gii thiu v cng v i s logic
3.1.1 Cng (Gate)

Mch in t s l mch in trong ch biu din 2 gi tr logic 0, 1. Th d, tn hiu in c in p: 0V-1V: biu din mt gi tr, chng hn 0 (thp, mc thp hoc low) 2V-5V: biu din gi tr kia, chng hn 1 (cao, mc cao hoc high). Cc in p nm ngoi min ny l khng c php. Cc mch in s c th c xy dng t mt s t cc phn t rt n gin bng cch kt hp chng theo nhng cch khng phi l s. Mc ny s m t cc phn t n gin nht, cch kt hp chng v cch s dng ton hc phn tch hot ng ca chng. Khi nim cng (Gate): L nhng thit b in t rt nh b, c mt hoc mt s li vo nhng ch c mt li ra, cc gi tr vo hoc ra ch c th nhn mt trong hai gi tr l 1 hoc 0. Cng cn thng c gi l: Mch logic bi n thc hin cc php tnh i s logic. Phn t ra quyt nh (decision making element) Chnh cc cng to nn c s phn cng ca tt c cc loi my tnh. Chi tit v s hot ng bn trong ca cc cng khng thuc khun kh ca bi ging ny, n thuc mc thit b - device level (di mc 0). Tuy nhin ti mc ny chng ta s nghin cu s lc nm c Collector tng c s. Ton b logic s hin i da trn thc t l mt transistor c th c ch to hot ng nh mt Base chuyn mch nh phn hot ng rt nhanh. Transistor ny c 3 chn ni vi th gii bn Switch Emitter ngoi: collector (cc gp), emitter (cc pht) v base (cc gc).
Hnh 3-6 Cu to Transistor
Transistor c th hot ng theo 2 c ch l Tuyn tnh: c s dng trong cc b khuych i Chuyn mch nh phn: c s dng trong cc mch logic s Cc hnh di y m t mt s cng c bn
Hnh 3-7 Mt s cng logic c bn
Hnh a m t cng n gin nht - cng NOT (Inverter); Vout c mc l o ca Vin. Hnh b m t cng NAND, 2 transitor c chng ni tip ln nhau; Vout c mc thp (0) khi v ch khi c hai gi tr V1 v V2 l cao (1). Hnh c m t cng NOR, 2 transistor c mc song song; Vout c mc cao (1) khi v ch khi c hai gi tr V1 v V2 l thp (0). Cng AND: Nu tn hiu ra ca cng NAND li c a ti u vo ca mt cng NOT, th chng ta c mt mch m u ra ca n bng 1 khi v ch khi cc u vo ng thi bng 1 - Mch in c gi l cng AND. Cng OR: Tng t nh trn, u ra ca cng NOR nu ni ti u vo ca mt cng NOT th to thnh mt mch in m gi tr u ra ca n s bng 0 khi v ch khi gi tr c hai u vo bng 0, cn ngc li th s bng 1. NOT, NAND v NOR l cc cng n gin nht: Cc cng NAND v NOR mi cng ch cn s dng 2 transistor, trong khi cc cng AND v OR li cn n 3 transistor. Nh vy cc cng NAND v NOR n gin hn cc cng AND v OR. Chnh v l do ny m nhiu my tnh c xy dng da trn cc cng NAND v NOR ch khng phi l cc cng AND v OR.
3.1.2 i s logic
m t cc mch in c xy dng t cc cng. Hm logic c mt hoc mt s bin vo, n s sinh ra mt gi tr kt qu ph thuc vo cc bin vo ny. Mt hm n gin c th c nh ngha nh sau: (A) bng 1 nu A bng 0 v (A) bng 0 nu A bng 1. Hm ny chnh l hm NOT.
M t hm logic bng Bng chn l (Truth table): Bi v mt hm logic n bin ch c 2n tp c th cc gi tr bin vo, cho nn hon ton c th m t hm bng mt bng c 2 n hng, mi hng cho gi tr ca hm ng vi mi t hp khc nhau ca cc bin vo. Bng nh vy c gi l Bng chn l (Truth table) Th d cc bng trn hnh v sau (Hnh 3-03).
Hnh 3-8 M t hm logic bng bn chn l
M t hm logic bng s nh phn: Lit k cc hng ca bng chn l theo th t s hc (c s 2) ca t hp bin vo, ngha l cho 2 bin theo th t 00, 01, 10 v 11. c kt qu (gi tr ca hm) t bng chn l theo ct, t trn xung di. Nh vy NAND s l 1110, NOR l 1000, AND l 0001 v OR l 0111. R rng rng ch tn ti 16 hm logic c hai bin, tng ng vi 16 dy kt qu di 4 bit c th c. Trong i s thng thng, s hm 2 bin l v hn, khng th m t bng bng cc gi tr ca hm theo cc gi tr c th c ca 2 bin, bi v mi bin c th nhn mt gi tr trong mt min v hn cc gi tr c th.
3.1.3 Thc hin cc hm logic

Cch xy dng mt mch in thc hin mt hm logic nh sau: 1. Vit bng chn l ca hm. 2. S dng cc cng NOT to ra cc gi tr o ca tng bin vo. 3. Vi mi hng m hm bng 1 ta ly ra mt cng AND. 4. Ni u vo cc cng AND ti cc tn hiu vo ph hp.
5. a cc u ra ca cc cng AND vo cc u vo ca mt cng OR.
Hnh 3-9 Xy dng mch in bng hm logic
S dng 1 loi cng NAND hoc NOR thng thun li hn: C th s dng cc cng AND, OR v NOT xy dng mi hm logic bt k Tuy nhin, nu gim c s cc loi cng khc nhau th tt hn: Ch cn s dng mt loi cng NAND hoc NOR, cng xy dng c cc cng AND, OR, NOT. V c hai cng ny u c gi l y (complete) bi v mi hm logic u c th c xy dng t mt trong hai loi cng ny. Khng c mt cng no khc c c tnh cht ny. ng thi, mch in ca NAND, NOR n gin hn mch in AND, OR Do vy, ngi ta thng s dng hoc l cng NAND hoc l cng NOR xy dng cc hm logic.
3.1.4 S tng ng ca cc mch

lm gim phc tp ca mch in, ngi thit k phi tm nhng mch thc hin c cng chc nng theo yu cu nhng li cha s cng t hn hoc c cc cng n gin hn, chng hn ly cc cng c 2 u vo thay cho cc cng c 4 u vo. tm kim c cc mch tng ng, cn s dng i s logic. V d: s dng mt loi cng NAND hoc NOR.
Ch : Cng mt cng logic (cng vt l) c th th hin cc chc nng logic khc nhau tu theo s quy c v cc mc in p no th hin gi tr logic no! Nu ta quy c rng mc in p 0v th hin mc logic 0 cn mc in p +5v th hin mc logic 1 th ta c logic dng (positive logic). Nu ta quy c rng mc in p 0v th hin mc logic 1 cn mc in p +5v th hin mc logic 0 th ta c logic m (negative logic). Khi ngi ta khng ni r l s dng loi logic no th c ngha l s dng logic dng. iu c ngha l cc thut ng sau l tng ng: logic 1, true, high logic 0, false, low
3.2 Cc mch logic s c bn 3.2.1 Mch tch hp

Cc cng c sn xut ra khng phi di dng mi n v sn phm cha mt cng m trong mt n v c cha ng nhiu cng, ngi ta gi nhng n v ny l mch tch hp, hay cn gi l IC (Integrated Circuits), hay l chip. Kch thc chip: rng c (5-15)mm, di c (20-50)mm. S chn ca mt chip: 14, 16, 18, 20 .. 68... Cc chip ln c chn cha ra c 4 cnh. Thng phn loi chip theo s lng cng:
K hiu SSI (Small Scale Integrated) MSI (Medium Scale Integrated) LSI (Large Scale Integrated) VLSI (Very Large Scale Integrated) S cng/chip 1-10 10-100 100-100.000 > 100.000
Cc chip hin nay c th cha hng triu cng. Tnh ra nu chip c mt triu cng c th cn ti 3,000,002 chn (1 triu cng x 3 chn/cng + 2 chn cho ngun nui), iu ny kh c th chp nhn c. Thc t, trong cc chip c nhiu cng: Gm nhiu n v chc nng, cc cng thuc mi n v chc nng lin h vi nhau thng qua cc ng dy dn ngay bn trong chip; ng thi, cc n v chc nng cng c th lin h vi nhau bng cc ng dy dn bn trong chip. Do , c th ch cn mt s t, thm ch khng cn cc chn a ra ngoi. Mt s chn chip c th c dng chung theo kiu phn chia thi gian. Trong cng ngh ch to chip ngi ta phi thit k cc chip sao cho c t s cng/chn ra cao.
3.2.2 Mch t hp
Nhiu ng dng logic s cn n cc mch c nhiu u vo v nhiu u ra trong cc gi tr ra hon ton c xc nh bi cc gi tr u vo thi im ang xt. Nhng mch nh vy c gi l Mch t hp (Combinational Circuit), cc mch ny thng c th hin bi bng chn l. Mt s mch t hp mch t hp in hnh nh: mch dn knh, mch phn knh, mch m ho, mch gii m, mch so snh, v.v.. a. Mch dn knh (Multiplexer) L mt mch in vi 2n li vo s liu, mt li ra s liu, v n li vo iu khin. Mt trong s 2n u vo s liu s c chn cho i qua cng.
I0
I1
I2 I3
Hnh 3-10 Mch dn knh cho 4 ng d liu vo
Nhiu ng dng logic s cn n cc mch c nhiu u vo v nhiu u ra trong cc gi tr ra hon ton c xc nh bi cc gi tr u vo thi im ang xt. Nhng mch nh vy c gi l Mch t hp (Combinational Circuit), cc mch ny thng c th hin bi bng chn l. Mt s mch t hp mch t hp in hnh nh: mch dn knh, mch phn knh, mch m ho, mch gii m, mch so snh, v.v.. b. Mch phn knh (Demultiplexe) Ngc li vi mch dn knh: C mt li vo s liu, li ra l 1 trong 2n li ra, tu thuc tn hiu trn n u vo iu khin
O0 O1 I O2 O3
Hnh 3-11 Mch phn knh 1 u vo 4 u ra
C1
C0
c. Mch gii m (decoder) l mch in nhn con s n-bit u vo chn (1) cho duy nht mt trong s 2n u ra c mc 1.
ng dng ca mch gii m: Gii m b nh: khi b nh c t chc thnh ma trn nh, s dng b gii m chn 1 trong cc hng v 1 trong cc ct Chn 1 trong nhiu chip nh v.v.
Hnh 3-12 Mch gii m 3 u vo d. Mch so snh (Comparator)
Thc hin so snh 2 t nh phn a vo bng cch so snh cc cp bit tng ng. Th d trn hnh l mt b so snh 2 ton hng nh phn 4 bit: - A = A3 A 2 A 1 A 0 - B = B3 B2 B1 B0 - u ra A=B s c gi tr 1 nu 2 t a vo l bng nhau, ngc li s c gi tr 0.
3.2.3 Cc mch s hc
a. B dch (Shifter) Dch bit l mt thao tc c s trong hot ng ca my tnh. Trn hnh 3-8 l b dch bit 8 bit: 8 u vo: D0 .. D7; 8 u ra: S0 .. S7 C xc nh hng dch chuyn ca cc bit, nu C=1: dch phi mt v tr, nu C=0: dch tri mt v tr.
Hnh 3-13 B dch 8bit
C xc nh hng dch chuyn ca cc bit: C=1: S0=0, S1=D0, S2=D1, S3=D2, ... S7=D6: dch phi mt v tr
C=0: S7=0, S6=D7, S5=D6, S4=D5, ... S0=D1: dch tri mt v tr.
b. B cng B cng l mt phn rt cn bn ca mi CPU. Hnh 3-9 a l mch tnh tng 2 bit - Haft_Adder. B cng ny khng c li vo cho s nh Carry-in cho nn khng dng cng cc bit bc cao hn 0. Hnh 3-9 b l mch tnh tng 2 bit vo v bit nh C-in, tr li tng - sum v s nh C-out. B cng ny c li vo C-in, n c xy dng t 2 b Haft-Adder.
Hnh 3-14 B cng
xy dng cc b cng vi t di hn, chng hn t 16 bit, cn s dng 16 b Full_Adder: Bit nh carry-out ca mt hng bit c s dng lm bit carry-in cho vic cng 2 bit ca hng cao hn n mt bc. u vo carry-in ca bit bc thp nht c ni vi 0. Mt b cng nh vy c gi l Ripple Carry Adder (ripple- lm gn sng...), vic lan truyn bit nh lm chm php tnh. Ngi ta cng xy dng cc b cng khng c nhc im ny nhng chng phc tp hn. Hnh di y m t mt 16-bit ripple-carry adder
Hnh 3-15 B 16-bit ripple-carry adder
c. B tnh ton s hc v logic ALU (Arithmetic Logical Unit) Hu ht cc b vi x l u c mch ring (ALU) thc hin cc php tnh AND, OR v tnh tng ca 2 t my. Hnh 3-11 l mt ALU n gin, thc hin 1 trong 4 chc nng sau tu theo tn hiu iu khin chn chc nng F0 v F1: F0F1=00: A AND B F0F1=01: A OR B F0F1=10: NOT B (o B) F0F1=11: A + B
Hnh 3-16 - Cu to mt ALU
d. Clock - B to tn hiu thi gian Trong rt nhiu mch in s, trt t xy ra cc s kin l ht sc quan trng. Cn thit phi s dng ng h cung cp tn hiu ng b cc qu trnh:
Bi ging Kin trc my tnh - ng h l mt mch in pht ra chui xung in c chu k rt n nh v
chnh xc.
- Tn s xung nm trong khong t 1..100MHz, tng ng c chu k
1ms..10ns.
- Thng s dng my pht thch anh (Crystal Oscilator).
Chu k con (subcycles): Trong my tnh, nhiu s kin c th xy ra trong mt chu k ng h, nu chng delay phi xy ra theo mt trt t nht nh th chu delay k ng h phi c chia ra thnh cc chu delay k con. Gii php a ra l cn b sung thm mt mch in, mch ny ni vi ng tn hiu ng h chnh qua mt b phn lm tr (delay) - nh vy c ngay mt tn hiu ng h th hai dch pha so vi tn hiu ng h chnh. Cc mch ca my tnh c iu khin bi mt mch to cc chui xung tun hon gi l xung Clock. Xung Clock xc nh cc chu k ca my tnh. 3.3 T chc b nh
3.3.1 Khi qut

L mt trong cc thnh phn quan trng nht ca my tnh in t, c dng lu tr cc lnh v d liu. B nh c xy dng t cc phn t nh c bn: Mi phn t nh c bn c th nh c 1 bit thng tin l cc mch in c hai trng thi cn bng n nh (mch lng bn, flip-flop), flip-flop s nm mi mt trong hai trng thi cn bng nu khng c tn hiu in ph hp kch thch vo lm cho n phi thay i trng thi.
3.3.2 Phn t nh 1 bit

Thanh ghi cht (Latch) l dng n gin ca flip-flop, c xy dng t 2 cng NAND hoc 2 cng NOR. S thay i trng thi ca thanh ghi cht c th xy ra trong thi gian ko di ca xung ng h ch khng phi trong thi gian sn xung ng h, ngi ta gi l s chuyn mch theo mc. Cc thanh ghi cht 1 bit c th c s dng lm cc phn t nh c bn xy dng nn b nh ca my tnh. a. Thanh ghi cht RS
Thanh ghi cht RS l mt dng thanh ghi n gin nht v c xy dng t cc cng NOR. Trong ,
-
2 li vo: S (Set) - thit lp gi tr (cho Q=1) v R (Reset) - xo n (cho Q=0)
2 li ra lun b nhau l Q v Q
Khc vi cc mch logic t hp, gi tr li ra ca thanh ghi cht RS khng phi c quyt nh duy nht bi cc gi tr u vo hin thi. - R=S=0: Q s khng thay i. (trng thi ny tn ti trong phn ln thi gian hot ng ca thanh ghi)
- S=1, R=0, Q=1 khng ph thuc vo trng thi trc . - R=1, S=0, Q=0 khng ph thuc vo trng thi trc .
- T hp R=S=1 b cm. Kt lun: Mch in nh c S hay R va c gi tr 1, tc l nh c tn hiu vo (nu ta t S=1, R=0 hoc R=1, S=0. Sau nu chng ta cho R=S=0 th gi tr nh s khng thay i. b. Mch Flip-Flop Trong nhiu mch in thng cn phi ly mu (sample) gi tr tn hiu trn mt ng dy no ti mt thi im c th v ghi nh gi tr . Flip-flop l mt bin th ca thanh ghi cht D, c kh nng trong khong thi gian ng vi xung ng h rt ngn trn li vo clock, ghi nhn c gi tr li vo D.Nh vy thi gian ko di xung khng quan trng, ch cn s chuyn trng thi xy ra nhanh
K hiu chun ca mt s thanh ghi cht v flip-flop. Hnh a) l thanh ghi cht D, chuyn trng thi khi tn hiu CK=1, bnh thng CK=0. (chuyn mch theo mc.) Hnh b) l thanh ghi cht D, chuyn trng thi khi tn hiu CK=0, bnh thng CK=1. (chuyn mch theo mc.) Hnh c) v d) l cc Flip-flop, li vo clock ca chng c v k hiu u mi tn >.
Flip-flop trn hnh (c) chuyn trng thi trong thi gian sn dng ca xung ng h. Flip-flop trn hnh (d) chuyn trng thi trong thi gian sn m ca xung ng h. Hnh (e): Nhiu thanh ghi cht v flip-flop ngoi u ra Q cn c u ra v c thm cc u vo Set hoc Preset ( thit lp Q=1) v Reset hay Clear ( thit lp Q=0).
c. Thanh ghi Thanh ghi l mt nhm cc phn t nh c bn cng hot ng nh mt n v. C cc loi thanh ghi thc hin cc nhim v khc nhau: nh, tnh ton s hc dch tri, dch phi hoc cc thao tc khc phc tp hn na. Cc thanh ghi lm nhim v nh thng c xy dng t cc flip-flop, chng cn c kh nng hot ng tc cao hn cc thanh ghi c s dng trong b nh chnh. Do mch Flip-Flop c th lu tr 1bit v khi c xung kch hot ( Ck ) th bit mi c truyn ti u ra (o hoc khng o). Khi cn nh nhiu bit ta ch cn mc ni tip nhiu Flip-Flop li vi nhau. Nu mch c kh nng ghi li d liu v dch chuyn n th gi l thanh ghi dch. C mt s dng kt ni thanh ghi dch nh sau: SISO ( Serial In Serial Output - vo ni tip ra ni tip) SIPO ( Serial In Parallel Output - vo ni tip ra song song) PISO ( Parallel In Serial Output - vo song song ra ni tip) PIPO (Parallel In Parallel Output - vo song song ra song song) Cu trc cc dng kt ni c m t trong hnh (a), (b), (c), (d) di y:
Kt ni dng SISO: D liu cn dch chuyn c a vo ng D ca mch FF u tin (FF0). mi xung kch ln ca ng h ck, s c 1 bit
(a)
c dch chuyn t tri sang phi, ni tip t tng ny qua tng khc v a ra u Q ca mch sau cng (FF3)
(b) Kt ni dng SIPO: D liu s c ly ra 4 u ra Q ca mch FF, v chung nhp ng h nn d liu cng c ly ra cng lc
(c) Kt ni dng PISO: u ra d liu l ni tip (ti u ra Q hoc Q ), cn d liu u vo l song song
(c) Kt ni dng PIPO
(d) Kt ni dng PIPO: d liu c a vo cng mt lc v ly ra cng mt lc

Hnh 3-17 C mt s dng kt ni thanh ghi dch
3.3.3 T chc b nh B nh thng c t chc t nhiu vi mch (chip) nh ghp li c rng bus a ch v d liu cn thit. Cc chip nh c y chc nng ca mt b nh bao gm: - Ma trn nh: gm cc nh, mi nh tng ng vi mt bit nh. - Mch gii m a ch cho b nh. - Mch logic cho php c. - Mch logic cho php ghi. - Cc mch m vo, ra. Cch t chc n gin nht l t chc theo word. Mt ma trn nh c di ca ct bng s lng word (W )v di hng bng s lng bit ( B) ca mt word. Phng php ny c thi gian truy xut ngn nhng i hi b gii m ln khi tng s word ln.
Hnh 3-18 S m t cu trc mt vi mch nh
a. T chc chip nh Trong mt chip bao gm:

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh -
Cc ng a ch: A0 An 1, nh vy chip nh c 2n ngn nh. Cc ng d liu: D0 Dm 1, nh vy di ngn nh l m bit. Dung lng chip nh: 2n x m bit Cc ng iu khin:
o Tn hiu chn chip: CS (Chip Select)
o Tn hiu iu khin c: RD / OE o Tn hiu iu khin ghi: WR / WE b. Thit k Module nh bn dn

-
t vn : Cho chip nh 2n x m bit. Yu cu s dng chip nh trn thit k module nh dung lng l bi kch thc chip nh trn. Gii quyt vn : C hai cch
o Thit k tng di ngn nh, s ngn nh khng thay i. o Thit k tng s lng ngn nh, di ngn nh khng thay i. o Thit k tng c di t nh v s ngn nh.
Thit k tng di ngn nh

o Gi thit: Cho cc chip nh c dung lng 2n x m bit. (n l s ng
a ch, m l s bt trong mt nh)

o Yu cu: Thit k module nh c kch thc: 2n x (k.m) bit
Gii quyt: thit k c yu cu ta xc nh hai thng s n (s ng a ch)v k(s chip nh cn ghp vo module thit k. V d: Cho cc chip nh SDRAM dung lng 4K x 4 bit. Hy thit k module nh c kch thc 4K x 8 bit Gii: Dung lng chip nh 4K x 4 bit = 2 12K x 4 bit, => s ng a ch n = 12, s ng d liu m=4. Nhn thy vi yu cu ca bi th s ng a ch l 12 ng khng i (s ngn nh khng thay i), s ng d liu l 8 (tc kihcs thc mt nh ang t 4 bit tng ln thnh 8bit), vy s chip s dng thit k l 2(k=2). Mch thit k:
Thit k tng s lng ngn nh

o Gi thit: Cho cc chip nh c dung lng 2n x m bit. o Yu cu: Thit k module nh c kch thc: 2k.2n x m bit
Gii quyt: thit k c ta xc nh hai thng s n+k (s ng a ch mi m ha s nh cn thit k) v 2k (s chip nh cn ghp vo module thit k). V d : Cho cc chip nh SDRAM dung lng 4K x 8 bit. Hy thit k module nh c kch thc 8K x 8 bit. Gii: Nhn thy rng yu cu tng s lng nh ln 2 ln tc t 4K ln 8K, cn kch thc mt nh vn l 8 bit. Dung lng 4K x 8bit = 212k x 8 bit, => s ng a ch l n =12 v s ng d liu m=8. Yu cu mi l 8K x 8bit = 213K x 8bit = 2 x 212K x 8bit = 2 chp nh 4Kx8bit. Mch thit k:
Tng c s lng v di ngn nh

o Gi thit: Cho chip nh 2n x m bit o Yu cu: Thit k module nh c kch thc: 2p+n x (q.m) bit
o Gii quyt: Cn ghp ni q.2p chip thnh 2p b, mi b q chip v phi
CHNG 4 MC VI CHNG TRNH

Mc tiu: Tm tt chng: Chng gm 4 phn
4.1 Chc nng v hot ng ca b x l

Trong h thng my tnh, n v x l trung tm (CPU Central Proccesing Unit)ng vai tr quan trng v y l n v iu khin v x l d liu. CPU hot ng theo chng trnh nm trong b nh chnh. Cu trc c bn ca CPU gm 4 thnh phn chnh: -
n v iu khin n v x l ton hc v logic Thanh ghi H thng BUS
4.1.1 n v iu khin (Control Unit - CU)

iu khin hot ng ca my tnh theo chng trnh nh sn. Qui trnh hot ng din ra nh sau iu khin vic nhn lnh tip theo t b nh, a vo thanh ghi lnh. Tng ni dung ca PC tr sang lnh tip theo Gii m lnh nm trong thanh ghi lnh xc nh thao tc m lnh yu cu Pht ra cc tn hiu iu khin thc hin lnh Nhn tn hiu yu cu t bn ngoi, x l cc tn hiu .
M hnh kt ni ca CU
Thanh ghi lnh
Cc t/h iu khin bn trong BXL
Cc c
...
Khi iu khin
Nhp
Cc t/h iu khin t bus h thng
Cc t/h iu khin n bus h thng
Bus h thng
Hnh 4-19 M hnh kt ni CU
Cc tn hiu n khi iu khin Clock: tn hiu xung nhp t mch to dao ng.
M lnh t thanh ghi lnh a n CU gii m Cc trng thi c a n cho bit trng thi ca CPU cng nh trng thi thc hin cc php ton trong ALU. Cc tn hiu iu khin t BUS iu khin. Cc tn hiu iu khin bn trong CPU: iu khin thanh ghi, ALU. Cc tn hiu iu khin bn ngoi CPU l B nh hay cng vo ra
4.1.2 n v x l ton hc v logic ( Arithmetic and logical Unit - ALU) Thc hin php ton s hc v cc php ton logic trn cc d liu c th. l cc php ton: S hc: cng, tr, nhn, chia, tng, gim, o,.. - Logic: AND, OR,XOR, NOT, dch bit, M hnh kt ni ca ALU DL vo t cc thanh ghi
ALU
D liu ra cc thanh ghi
T/h iu khin t KK
Thanh ghi c
Hnh 4-20 M hnh kt ni ALU
4.1.3 Thanh ghi

Chc nng Thc cht l vng nh c CPU nhn bit qua tn thanh ghi v c tc truy xut cc nhanh. Cha thng tin tm thi phc v cho hot ng thi im hin ti ca CPU S lng thanh ghi tu thuc vo b vi x l c th -> tng hiu nng CPU Thanh ghi chia 2 loi: Loi lp trnh c v loi khng lp trnh c Di y la tp cac thanh ghi a nng cac th h vi x ly t 8bit 64bit:
Phn loi thanh ghi theo chc nng o Thanh ghi a ch: Thanh ghi c s dng qun l a ch ca ngn nh hay cng vo ra. o Thanh ghi d liu: Thanh ghi dng lu tr d liu tm thi o Thanh ghi a nng: Thanh ghi c th cha d liu hoc a ch u c. o Thanh ghi iu khin/trng thi: Thanh ghi cha thng tin v trng thi CPU. o Thanh ghi lnh: thanh ghi cha lnh ang c thc hin
4.1.4 H thng BUS

a. nh ngha Bus l ng truyn d liu in gia cc thit b khc nhau trong mt h thng my tnh Bus c th l mt hoc hai chiu. Bus hai chiu c th truyn d liu i theo c hai chiu, nhng khng ng thi. Bus mt chiu thng c s dng ni hai thanh ghi, trong mt thanh ghi lun lun l ngun cn thanh ghi kia lun lun l ch.
Bus hai chiu hay c s dng khi mt thanh ghi bt k trong tp
hp cc thanh ghi c th l ngun v mt thanh ghi bt k khc l ch. Bus 3 trng thi: L bus m cc thit b ni vi n c kh nng ni v tch chnh n ra Thi gian ni/tch: ns Tn gi 3 trng thi: mi ng dy c th c gi tr 0 hay 1 hoc l Thng c s dng khi cn ni nhiu thit b vo bus, mi thit b khi bus v mt in.
b tch ra. ny u c th thng tin ln bus. b. Phn loi BUS: Ngi ta thng phn loi bus theo 3 cch sau: Theo t chc phn cng: Camac Vt l ht nhn. -
EISA
Mt s h thng c chip 80386 My IBM PC, IBM/PC/AT My PDP-11 v VAX My PS/2
IBM PC, PC/AT Massbus Microchannel Multibus I Multibus II Versabus VME Bus ng b:
Mt s h thng c 8086 Mt s h thng c chip 80386 Mt s h thng c chip vi x l ca Motorola Mt s h thng c chip vi x l h 68x0 ca Motorola
Theo giao thc truyn thng:

-
Mi hot ng bus xy ra trong mt s nguyn ln chu k ng h - chu k bus. Trn Hnh l gin thi gian ca mt bus ng b vi tn s ng h l 4 MHz (T=250ns)
Vic c 1 byte t b nh chim 3 chu k bus (T1, T2 v T3). V tt c cc tn hiu in thay i mc khng phi l tc thi, nn trn hnh v c cc sn xung (gi s cc sn xung ko di 10ns). Wait state: Nu b nh khng c kh nng p ng nhanh, n cn pht tn hiu i ch (wait state) trc sn xung ca T2, yu cu a thm vo mt s chu k bus; khi b nh a ra tn hiu n nh, n s o tn hiu WAIT. Block Transfer: Khi mt thao tc c khi bt u, master bo cho slave bit c bao nhiu byte cn c truyn i, th d truyn i con s ny trong chu k T1, sau ng l truyn i mt byte, slave a ra trong mi chu k mt byte cho ti khi s byte c thng bo. Bus skew: C th rt ngn chu k lm cho bus truyn d liu nhanh hn. Trong th d trn mi byte c truyn i trong 750ns, vy bus c di thng l 1.33 Mbytes/sec. Nu ng h c tn s 8MHz, thi gian mt chu k ch cn mt na, gii thng s l 2.67MBytes/sec.Tuy vy vic gim chu k bus dn n cc kh khn v mt k thut, dn n mt hiu ng gi l bus skew (skew: nghing, xin, ghnh). iu quan trng l thi gian chu k phi di hn so vi skew trnh vic nhng khong thi gian c s ho li tr thnh cc i lng bin thin lin tc.
-
Bus khng ng b:
Bn Master cn ln lt pht ra: Address, MREQ, RD, MSYN (Master SYNchronization) Bn Slave: a d liu ra, Pht tn hiu SSYN (Slave SYNchronization) tch cc. Bn Master: Cht d liu li, o MSYN thnh khng tch cc
Bn Slave: Ngng a d liu ra, o SSYN thnh khng tch cc
Full handshake: l tp cc tn hiu phi hp vi nhau, ch yu gm c 4 tn hiu (4 s kin):

MSYN c t tch cc SSYN c t tch cc p li tn hiu MSYN tch cc MSYN c t tch cc p li tn hiu SSYN tch cc SSYN c o thnh khng tch cc p li tn hiu MSYN o
thnh khng tch cc Nhn xt: Full handshake l c lp thi gian, mi s kin c gy ra bi mt s kin trc ch khng phi bi mt xung ng h. Nu mt cp masterslave no hot ng chm th cp k tip khng h b nh hng. Tuy u im ca bus khng ng b rt r rng, nhng trong thc t phn ln cc bus ang c s dng li l loi ng b. L do cn bn l cc h thng s dng bus ng b d thit k hn. MPU ch cn chuyn cc mc tn hiu cn thit sang trng thi tch cc l cc chip nh p li ngay, khng cn tn hiu phn hi. Ch cn cc chip c chn ph hp th mi hot ng u tri try, khng cn phi bt tay (handshake). Theo loi tn hiu truyn trn bus: Bus a ch (Address bus): ng dn cc thng tin v tn hiu a ch. a ch: gm v tr b nh v thit b Bus d liu (Data bus): ng dn cc thng tin d liu.D liu: gm ni dung b nh v s liu thit b Bus iu khin (Control bus): ng dn cc thng tin tn hiu iu khin (xc nh cc thao tc). c. Tn s bus C 2 kiu hot ng: Bus ng b v Bus bt ng b My tnh hot ng theo bus ng b, lm vic theo nhp
Trn mainboard c 1 b dao ng to cc xung nhp tun hon cho my tnh (xung ng h) Tn s nhp o theo n v Hz Hz = s nhp / s Khz = 1000Hz Mhz = 1000 Khz Ghz = 1000 Mhz Tn s bus cc b, bus h thng, CPU, bus m rng, b nh. 4.2 Cch thc hot ng ca CPU Khi kch p vo mt biu tng no chy chng trnh th nhng g s xy ra l: 1. Chng trnh lu bn trong a cng s c a vo b nh RAM. y chng trnh chnh l mt lot cc ch lnh i vi CPU. 2. CPU s dng mch phn cng c gi l memory controller ti d liu chng trnh t b nh RAM. 3. Lc d liu bn trong CPU s c x l. 4. Nhng g din ra tip theo s ph thuc vo chng trnh va c np. CPU c th tip tc ti v thc thi chng trnh hoc c th thc hin mt cng vic no vi d liu c x l, nh vic hin th kt qu thc hin no ln mn hnh.
Hnh 4-21 D liu c lu a vo CPU
Trc y, CPU iu khin s truyn ti d liu gia a cng v b nh RAM. V a cng thng c tc truy cp thp hn so vi b nh RAM nn n lm chm chung cho c h thng, chnh v vy CPU s rt bn cho ti khi d liu c truyn ti t a cng vo b nh RAM. Phng php ny c gi l PIO, Processor I/O (hay Programmed I/O). Ngy nay, s truyn ti d liu gia a cng v b nh RAM c thc hin m khng s dng n CPU, nh vy n s lm cho h thng hot ng nhanh hn. Phng php ny c gi l bus mastering hay DMA (Direct Memory Access). n gin ha hn cho hnh v, bi ging
khng a vo chip cu ni (c gi l north bridge chip) gia a cng v b nh RAM trn hnh 4-3, tuy nhin l c mt chip ti v tr ni ny. Nhn chung, tt c cc hot ng trong my tnh u tri qua 4 chu k chnh l: Ly lnh, Gii m lnh, Nhn d liu, X l d liu Ly lnh (Fetch Instructions - FI)
-
a ch ca lnh cn thc hin nm trong b m chng trnh (PC Program Counter), c a qua b m a ch, qua bus a ch tm ra ngn nh cha lnh.
Tip theo, BXL pht ra tn hiu c ngn nh va tm c Ni dung ca ngn nh c chuyn qua bus d liu v a n thanh ghi lnh (Instruction Reg.)
Gii m lnh (Instructions Decode ID) Lnh t thanh ghi lnh c a n khi iu khin Ti y, lnh c gii m xc nh thao tc m lnh yu cu Khi , khi iu khin s pht ra tn hiu iu khin tng ng vi lnh . Nhn d liu (Fetch Data FD) BXL pht ra a ch ca ngn nh/cng vo ra cha d liu cn nhn BXL pht ra tn hiu iu khin c ngn nh/cng vo ra tng ng D liu c chuyn qua bus d liu a vo tp thanh ghi bn trong D liu c chuyn t cc thanh ghi vo ALU ALU s thc hin cc php ton di s iu khin ca khi iu khin Kt qu php ton c ct tm thi vo thanh ghi d liu
X l d liu ( Process Data PD) -
4.3 Vi kin trc 4.3.1 ng d liu

ng d liu l mt phn ca CPU, c chc nng c cc ton hng t cc thanh ghi, thc hin cc php tnh trn ton hng v lu tr kt qu vo trong cc thanh ghi. Cc thnh phn trong ng d liu gm c: 16 thanh ghi 16 bit ging nhau to nn mt b nh tm ch truy cp c mc vi chng trnh.
Thanh ghi a ni dung ra: bus A, bus B hoc ng thi c 2 bus. Np vo thanh ghi: t bus C. ALU (16 bit) c th thc hin 4 chc nng: A+B, A AND B, A, NOT A F0 v F1 nh chc nng s c ALU thc hin. ALU sinh ra hai bit trng thi da trn kt qu ra hin thi ca n: o N c gi tr 1 khi kt qu ra l m o Z c gi tr 1 khi kt qu ra bng 0 (Z-r). Shifter c th dch: tri, phi, khng dch. C th thc hin dch tri hai bit mt gi tr ghi trong thanh ghi R, bng cch tnh R+R trong ALU, sau dch kt qu (tng) mt bit na sang tri bng thanh ghi dch. A latch v B latch: c np t bus A v bus B cho php c th thay i ni dung cc thanh ghi np gi tr vo ALU. Cc tn hiu L0 v L1 iu khin vic np gi tr trn bus A v bus B vo cc thanh ghi cht. MAR: thanh ghi a ch nh cn thao tc o C th c np t thanh ghi cht B song song vi mt thao tc ca ALU. o M0 iu khin vic np ca MAR. MBR: thanh ghi m (d liu) c/ghi b nh. o c np gi tr t u ra ca thanh ghi dch, gi tr ny cng c th ng thi c cha vo mt trong cc thanh ghi ca b nh tm. o M1 iu khin vic np ca MBR t u ra ca thanh ghi dch o M2 v M3 iu khin vic c v ghi b nh.
AMUX: b dn knh chn d liu a vo ALU t A latch hay t MBR o A0 iu khin AMUX. Cc tn hiu iu khin ng d liu gm c 9 nhm: 16 tn hiu iu khin vic np cho bus A t b nh tm (c 16 thanh ghi). 16 tn hiu iu khin vic np cho bus B t b nh tm. 16 tn hiu iu khin vic np cho b nh tm t bus C. 2 tn hiu iu khin 2 thanh ghi cht A v B. 2 tn hiu iu khin chc nng ALU.
2 tn hiu iu khin b dch. 4 tn hiu iu khin MAR v MBR. 2 tn hiu ch r thao tc i vi b nh (R/W). 1 tn hiu iu khin Amux.
Hnh 4-22 Cu trc ng d liu
4.3.2 Vi ch th
iu khin ng d liu c th thng qua 61 tn hiu k trn, cc tn hiu ny c th c thit k trong mt thanh ghi iu khin c kch thc bng 61
bit. Mi bit dng cho mt tn hiu iu khin: bit bng 1 c ngha l tn hiu c t tch cc, cn bng 0 ngha l khng tch cc. Mt chu k ca ng d liu bao gm cc chu k: Mt chu k bao gm vic m cng cho cc gi tr trong b nh tm i vo bus A v bus B, cht chng li trong hai thanh ghi cht bus A latch v B latch Cho cc gi tr t cc thanh ghi cht chy qua ALU v shifter Cui cng l vic cha cc kt qu vo trong b nh tm hoc vo MBR. Ngoi ra MAR cng c th c np, sau mt chu k b nh s bt u. C th gim s bt cn thit iu khin ng d liu nu chp nhn b sung thm mt s mch in: - Gim s bit iu khin mi bus A, B v C t 16 xung cn 4: s dng b gii m 4-to-16.Chp nhn ch np d liu trn bus C vo 1 trong 16 thanh ghi. B 2 bit iu khin A latch v B latch: v lun cn chng tch cc cc thi im xc nh nn c th dng lun tn hiu ng h. Nu b nh dng tn hiu RD v WR th c th dng chng thay th cho M2 v M3
Tuy nhin nn b sung 1 tn hiu l ENC: cho / khng cho php cha gi tr trn bus C vo b nh tm. o ENC=1: C ct gi tr trn bus C o ENC=0: Khng ct Khun dng ca vi ch th: bao gm 13 trng, tn v ngha ca cc trng c lit k trong hnh 4-5
Hnh 4-23 Din gii mt vi ch th iu khin ng d liu
4.3.3 nh thi cho vi ch th

Cc trng trong vi ch th khng nht thit, hoc khng c iu khin ng thi, nn cn phi thc hin nh thi (timing) cho vi ch th. nh thi l vic nh trnh t xy ra cc s kin trong qu trnh thc hin mt vi ch th. Mt chu k ALU c s bao gm vic: 1. Np vi ch th tip theo s c thi hnh vo MIR . 2. M cng cc thanh ghi tm i vo bus A v bus B v gi chng trong A latch v B latch.
3. Khi cc gi tr a vo ALU n nh, dnh thi gian cho ALU v shifter chng sinh ra gi tr ra n nh; np MAR nu cn thit. 4. Khi gi tr ra ca shifter n nh, cha gi tr trn bus C vo b nh tm v np cho MBR nu vic ny cng c yu cu. t c vic nh ng trnh t cc s kin, chng ta s dng mt ng h 4 pha (c 4 chu k con), nh trn hnh v 4-06. Trn hnh l s khi m t chi tit v vi cu trc bao gm 2 phn l ng d liu v phn iu khin. Trong phn iu khin, n v quan trng nht chnh l b iu khin (control store), y l ni cha vi lnh c dung lng l 256x32. B nh iu khin cn 1 thanh ghi tr n vi lnh tip theo s c thc thi l b m vi chng trnh (MPC MicroProgram Counter).
Hnh 4-24 S khi Vi kin trc
Vic nh thi cho vi ch th c thc hin trong 4 chu k con. Ta thy b iu khin lin tc sao chp vi lnh c a ch ho bi MPC vo thanh ghi MIR. Trong 3 chu k con cn li MIR khng b nh hng v khng c g xy ra i vi MPC. Chu k tip theo, MIR n nh v cc trng khc bt u iu khin ng d liu. Hai b gii m A v B bt u thc hin gii m ch vic
chn cc thanh ghi xut ni dung ln Bus A v B. Mch to xung clock cng tc ng ln A latch v B latch cht d liu u vo v a d liu ra. B m vi chng trnh tng gi tr ln 1 (MPC=MPC+1) chun b cho vic np vi lnh k tip. Ti chu k con th ba, ALU v shifter c cung cp thi gian to cc kt qu c gi tr. Trng Amux ca vi lnh xc nh ng vo bn tri ca ALU, cn ng vo bn phi lun c ly t mch cht B. Trong khi ALU v shifter ang tnh ton th MAR c np t bus B nu trng MAR l 1. Chu k con th 4, tu thuc vo hai trng ENC v MBR, kt qu u ra ca ALU s c a vo mt trong hai v tr l thanh ghi MBR hay b nh nhp. Mch gii m C c ng vo ni vi ENC, ng xung clock 4 c trng C ca vi lnh. Mch ny to ra 16 tn hiu iu khin. bn trong mch ny thc hin vic gii m 4-to-16 vi 4 ng vo t trng C ri AND mi ng ra vi tn hiu l kt qu ca vic AND ng chu k con 4 vi ENC. Trong chu k con th 4, thanh ghi MBR cng c np nu trng MBR=1. 4.3.4 nh trnh t cho cc vi ch th l vic chn vi ch th tip theo: tun t hay nhy (Jump). Trong mi vi lnh s c hai trng: ADDR l a ch ca vi lnh tip theo v COND quyt nh vi lnh k tip c tm np t MPC+1 hay t ADDR. Mi vi lnh u c kh nng cha mt lnh nhy c iu kin. Quyt nh ny c c do lnh nhy c iu kin c dng rt ph bin trong cc vi chng trnh v cho php mi vi lnh c th c 2 vi lnh k tip nhm cho chng trnh chy nhanh hn so vi vic thit lp mt iu kin no trong vi lnh v sau kim tra iu kin ny trong vi lnh k tip. Vic chn vi lnh k tip c a ra bi khi Logic trnh t vi lnh - Micro sequencing logic trong chu k con th t bng cch dng cc tn hiu N v Z ca ALU. u ra ca khi ny s iu khin mch chn knh M(Mmux) a MPC+1 hoc ADDR ti. C 4 cch la chn vi ch th tip theo, ch ra bng trng COND nh sau: 0 = Khng nhy 1 = Nhy ti ADDR nu N =1 2 = Nhy ti ADDR nu Z =1 3 = Nhy ti ADDR v iu kin
CHNG 5 MC MY THNG THNG

Mc tiu: Tm tt chng: Chng gm 5 phn:
5.1Khun dng lnh

Chng trnh bao gm mt chui cc ch th, mi ch th xc nh mt tc ng c th no . Mt phn trong ch th bao gm cc trng nh sau M php ton (opcode) (trng ny lun phi c): cho bit thao tc g c thc hin a ch b nh ca ton hng hay cha mt gi tr hng s. Khun dng lnh thng c 3 dng: lnh khng cha ton hng, lnh cha mt ton hng, lnh cha hai ton hng. Nhiu ch th cha hoc ch r v tr ca d liu c ch th s dng. Vn chnh l vic xc nh xem ton hng c u b nh, thanh ghi hay cc cng vo/ra thng qua cch thc nh a ch. Trong ch th thng c ba dng tham chiu: Lnh tham chiu b nh, Lnh tham chiu thanh ghi, Lnh vo/ra
5.1.1 Lnh tham chiu b nh

15 14 12 I Opcode Trong : 11 Address 0
12bit xc nh a ch 3 bit xc nh m lnh 1 bit xc nh kiu nh a ch I=0: nh a ch trc tip I=1 nh a ch gin tip
5.1.2 Lnh tham chiu thanh ghi

15 14 0 12 111 11 0 Thao tc thanh ghi
Trong : M lnh: 111 Bit 15 =0 5.1.3 Lnh tham chiu vo ra

15 1 14 111 12 11 Thao tc vo/ra 0
Trong : M lnh: 111 Bit 15 =1

Tp cc ch th c bn c thi hnh cho cp my 2 v 3 (ngn ng s dng l hp ng) c m t trong bng 5.1 xxxxxxxxxxxx l a ch my 12 bit; ct 4 n c ghi l x YYYYYYYY l mt hng s 8 bit; ct 4 n c ghi l y M nh phn K hiu Thc hin Gii thch (Binary) (Mnemonic) 0000xxxxxxxxxxxx 0001xxxxxxxxxxxx 0010xxxxxxxxxxxx 0011xxxxxxxxxxxx 0100xxxxxxxxxxxx 0101xxxxxxxxxxxx 0110xxxxxxxxxxxx 0111xxxxxxxxxxxx 1000xxxxxxxxxxxx 1001xxxxxxxxxxxx 1010xxxxxxxxxxxx 1011xxxxxxxxxxxx 1100xxxxxxxxxxxx 1101xxxxxxxxxxxx LODD STOD ADDD SUBD JPOS JZER JUMP LOCO LODL STOL ADDL SUBL JNEG JNZE Load direct Store direct Add direct ac:=m[x] m[x]:=ac ac:=ac+m[x]
Subtract direct ac:=ac-m[x] Jump positive if ac 0 then pc:=x Jump zero Jump if ac=0 then pc:=x pc:=x
Load constant ac:=x (0 x 4095) Load local Store local Add local ac:=m[sp+x] m[x+sp]:=ac ac:=ac+m[sp+x]
Subtract local ac:=ac-m[sp+x] Jump negative if ac < 0 then pc:=x Jump nonzero if ac <> 0 then pc:=x
Bng 5-8 Tp ch th ca Vi kin trc
5.2 M hnh phn cp b nh Chng ta cn xem xt b nh 2 gc l logic (hot ng) v vt l (cu to). Trc ht chng ta cn bit b nh l g, chng nm u trong h thng v hot ng nh th no. Sau chng ta s xem xt mt s loi b nh v tc , hnh dng v cc modul nh m ta c th ci t. B nh l khng gian lm vic ca b vi x l. l ni ct gi tm thi cc chng trnh v d liu ang c thao tc vi b vi x l. Lu tr b nh l c xem tm thi v d liu ch tn ti trong thi gian my ang hot ng v khng b khi ng li. Trc khi khi ng li hay tt my, d liu thay i cn c ghi vo cc thit b lu tr lu di (thng l a cng) sau ny c th np li vo b nh. Chng ta hay gi b nh l RAM tc l Random Access Memory (b nh truy cp ngu nhin). B nh chnh c gi l RAM v chng ta c th truy cp
mt cch ngu nhin v nhanh chng bt k v tr no trong b nh. Tn gi ny i lc c th gy nhm ln v b nh ROM cng truy nhp ngu nhin nhng khc vi RAM l n khng th ghi c. Tng t, b nh a cng c truy cp ngu nhin nhng r rng khng phi l RAM. Qua qu trnh pht trin nhiu nm ca my tnh, khi nim RAM khng cn l mt ch vit tt na m n ch mt khng gian nh chnh b vi x l chy c cc chng trnh. N thng c cu to bi cc chip c tn l DRAM (Dynamic RAM RAM ng). Mt c im ca b nh DRAM l n lu tr d liu theo dng ng, ngha l thng tin c th ghi i ghi li trn RAM bt k lc no. Mt tnh cht quan trong na ca b nh DRAM l d liu tn ti cho n khi mt in. Do , khi ni n b nh ca my tnh, chng ta mun ni n RAM hay b nh vt l ca h thng, l nhng modul hay cc chip nh chnh lu tr cc chng trnh v d liu m b vi x l ang hot ng. Khng nn nhm ln gia b nh vi thut ng dung lng lu tr (storage) c dng ch cc a t v bng t (mc d chng c th c s dng nh mt dng RAM B nh o: Virtual Memory). RAM va ch cc chip to nn b nh ca h thng, va ch s v cch b tr logic ca b nh. S v cch b tr logic cho bit cch cc a ch b nh c sp xp tng ng vi cc chip v vng a ch no cha loi thng tin no. Nhiu ngi mi lm quen vi my tnh thng nhm ln gia b nh v ia lu tr(storage disk) bi v c hai cng s dng n v o lng l byte, Kilobyte, Megabyte, Gigabyte hoc n v cao hn. Mt im quan trng m chng ta cn ghi nh l: mt file khi c np vo trong b nh, n ch l bn sao ca file , cn thc cht file vn tn ti trong a. V tnh cht tm thi ca b nh cho nn file b thay i cn c ghi li vo a cng trc khi tt my, v khi tt my d liu trong b nh s b xo. B nh lu tr cc chng trnh ang chy v d liu ca chng s dng. Cc chip nh c lc c gi l lu tr khng n nh (volatile storage) bi v khi tt my hoc c s c v ngun in, lu tr trong RAM s b mt. V bn cht bt n nh nh vy cho nn nhiu ngi dng c thi quen ghi li thng xuyn (mt s chng trnh ng dng c th ghi mt cch t ng theo thi gian nh). Cc c trng ca b nh V tr: Bn trong CPU: Tp cac thanh ghi (register), cache B nh trong: B nh chnh (Main memmory RAM, ROM)
B nh ngoi: Cc thit b nh, RAID (HDD, CD-Rom, ) Dung lng: di t nh (tnh bng bit) Kich thc trn mt n vi lu tr S lng t nh - Dung lng b nh n v truyn: T nh - Truyn tun t tng Word Khi nh - Truyn mt khi gn n Word Phng php truy nhp: Truy nhp tun t (bng t) n c im n u t phai duyt qua n-1 vi tri trc. Truy nhp trc tip (cc loi a) u t di chuyn trc tip n vi tri cn oc. Truy nhp ngu nhin (b nh bn dn) nh cn oc se c gia ma ly thng tin ngay lp tc. Truy nhp lin kt (cache) Truy cp thng qua ban sao cua nh cn oc Hiu nng: Thi gian truy nhp Chu k truy xut b nh Tc truyn Kiu b nh vt l: B nh bn dn Lu tr bng in B nh t - Lu tr dung t tinh B nh quang Lu tr s dung cng ngh Laze Cc c tnh vt l: Kh bin/khng kh bin Xo c/khng xo c Vic trao i d liu gia CPU v b vi x l v b nh chnh l mt thao tc quan trng, chim a s trong cc lnh x l d liu nn n quyt nh hiu sut ca h thng vi x l ni chung v my tnh ni ring. B nh chnh v b nh ngoi thng c tc trao i d liu chm (chnh lch) hn so vi tc lm vic ca CPU (k c vic vn chuyn d liu trong b vi x l). nng cao tc x l d liu chung ca ton h thng, ngi ta tm cch nng cao tc trao i d liu (k c lnh) gia b vi x l v b nh ngoi phm vi b vi x l. Da trn
nguyn l cc b v khng gian v thi gian m ngi ta xy dng h thng nh 5 cp nh sau:

Capacity Access Time Cost CPU Registers 100s Bytes 1s ns Cache K Bytes 4 ns 1-0.1 cents/bit Main Memory M Bytes 100ns- 300ns $.0001-.00001 cents /bit Disk G Bytes, 10 ms (10,000,000 ns) -5 -6 10 - 10 cents/bit Tape infinite sec-min -8 10
Upper Level
Staging Xfer Unit
faster
Registers Instr. Operands Cache Blocks Memory Pages Disk Files Tape
user/operator Mbytes OS 512-4K bytes cache cntl 8-128 bytes prog./compiler 1-8 bytes
Larger
Lower Level
Hnh 5-25 M hnh phn cp b nh
Cp 0 : Tp cc thanh ghi nm trong b vi x l. Thanh ghi l b nh kiu SRAM nn tc ng nhanh v thng tin n nh. y l thnh phn nh c tc trao i d liu nhanh nht trong h thng v n gn ALU v CU. Tuy nhin n c dung lng nh. Cp 1 : Primary cache (cache s cp) : L b nh c tc trao i d liu rt nhanh (nh hn thanh ghi), c dung lng nh v c t trong b vi x l, nhng cng c th nm ngoi b vi x l. Trong cc b vi x l tin tin, b nh cache thng c tch (chia) lm 2 vi mc ch trnh xung t trong x l song song (i din l pipline) l Icache : dnh cho lnh v Dcache : dnh cho d liu. Cp 2 : Secondary cache (cache th cp) : Cng ging nh Primary cache, nhng loi ny nm ngoi b vi x l. N ch c khi c Primary cache (ngc li, n chnh l Primary cache). Dung lng ca Secondary cache thng ln hn Primary cache v nh hn b nh. Cp 3 : Main Memory (B nh chnh): Cha chng trnh v d liu ang hot ng. B nh ny c b vi x l nh a ch trc tip v qun l thng qua a ch . Mt phn ca chng trnh ang c thi hnh c
th nm trong cache (lnh v d liu) nhm tng tc hot ng ca h thng. Dung lng ca b nh chnh thng ln hn rt nhiu ln dung lng b nh cache. Nh bit, trong cc h thng my tnh hin i ngy nay th b nh chnh thng l DRAM. Cp 4 : Secondary memory (B nh th cp b nh ngoi): B nh ny c dung lng rt ln nhng tc trao i d liu chm. B nh ny lu tr chng trnh v d liu mt cch lu di, cho nhiu ngi s dng (ghi/c, mt ngun in vn cn thng tin). i din cho cc b nh loi ny chnh l cc a cng, mm CD ROM, CD WOM, CD WR, bng t,
5.3B nh m (Cache) 5.3.1 Tng quan v ngha ca cache

B nh Cache l kiu b nh tc cao c bn trong CPU tng tc truy cp cho d liu v cc ch lnh c lu trong b nh RAM. Mt my tnh s hon ton v dng nu bn khng bt b vi x l (CPU) thc hin mt nhim v no . Cng vic s c thc hin thng qua mt chng trnh, chng trnh ny li gm rt nhiu cc ch lnh ra lnh cho CPU lm vic. CPU ly cc chng trnh t b nh RAM. Tuy nhin c mt vn vi b nh RAM l khi ngun nui ca n b ct th cc thnh phn d liu c lu trong RAM cng s b mt chnh iu ny nn mt s ngi ni rng b nh RAM l mt mi trng d bay hi. Cc chng trnh v d liu nh vy phi c lu trn mi trng khng d bay hi sau khi tt my tnh (ging nh cc a cng hay cc thit b quang nh a CD v DVD). Khi kch p vo mt biu tng trong Windows chy mt chng trnh no . Cc chng trnh thng thng c lu trn a cng ca my tnh, khi
c gi n s c np vo b nh RAM sau t b nh RAM, CPU np chng trnh thng qua mt mch c tn gi l memory controller, thnh phn ny c t bn trong chipset (north bridge chip- chp cc bc) trn cc b vi x l Intel hoc bn trong CPU trn cc b vi x l AMD. Vn l CPU khng th tm np d liu trc tip t cc a cng v tc truy sut d liu ca a cng l qu thp vi n, thm ch nu nu bn c c a cng vi tc truy sut ln nht. Hy ly mt s v d lm dn chng cho iu ny, cng SATA-300 mt loi a cng c tc nhanh nht hin ang c cung cp ngy nay n phn ln ngi dng c tc truyn ti theo l thuyt l 300 MB/s. Mt CPU chy vi tc 2GHz vi ng d liu* 64-bit s truyn ti d liu bn trong vi tc 16GB/s nh vy l ln gp 50 ln. S khc nhau trong tc cng bt ngun t mt thc t l cc a cng cn bao gm c h thng c kh, cc h thng c kh ny bao gi cng chm hn h thng in t thun ty, cc thnh phn c kh phi chuyn ng d liu mi c th c c ra (iu ny chm hn rt nhiu so vi vic chuyn ng ca in t). Hay ni cch khc, b nh RAM l 100% in t, c ngha l n s nhanh hn tc ca a cng v quang. Tuy nhin y chnh l vn , thm ch b nh RAM nhanh nht cng khng nhanh bng CPU. Nu bn s dng cc b nh DDR2-800, chng truyn ti d liu tc 6.400 MB/s 12.800 MB/s nu s dng ch hai knh. Thm ch con s ny cn c th ln n 16GB/s trong v d trc, v cc CPU hin nay cn c th tm np d liu t L2 memory cache tc 128- bit hay 256-bit, chng ta ang ni v 32 GB/s hoc 64 GB/s nu CPU lm vic bn trong vi tc 2GHz. Gii php tm thy gim s nh hng trong vic s dng b nh RAM chm hn CPU l s dng mt s lng nh cc RAM tnh gia CPU v b nh RAM. Cng ngh ny c gi l b nh Cache v ngy nay c mt s lng nh b nh tnh ny c t bn trong CPU. B nh Cache copy hu ht cc d liu c truy cp gn y t b nh RAM vo b nh tnh v on d liu g CPU s hi tip theo, ti chng n b nh tnh trc khi CPU yu cu thc s. Mc ch l lm cho CPU c th truy cp vo b nh Cache thay v truy cp trc tip vo b nh RAM, v n c th truy vn d liu t b nh Cache mt cch tc thi hoc cng hu nh ngay lp tc thay v phi i khi truy cp vo d liu c t trong RAM. CPU cng truy cp vo Cache nh thay cho RAM nhiu hn th h thng s cng hot ng nhanh hn. Cng theo , chng ta s s dng hon i hai thut ng d liu v ch lnh cho nhau v nhng g c lu bn trong mi a ch nh khng c g khc bit i vi b nh.
Nguyn tc:
Cache c tc truy xut nhanh hn rt nhiu b nh chnh Cache c t gia CPU v b nh chnh nhm tng tc trao i thng tin gia CPU v b nh chnh. Cache thng c t trong chip vi x l
Cc thao tc chnh ca Cache: CPU yu cu ly ni dung ca mt ngn nh bng vic a ra mt a ch xc nh nh. CPU kim tra xem c ni dung cn tm trong Cache o Nu c: CPU nhn d liu t b nh Cache o Nu khng c: B iu khin Cache c Block nh cha d liu CPU cn vo Cache. Tip chuyn d liu t Cache n CPU S thao tc cache, b nh chnh v CPU
5.3.2 Cu trc ca b nh cache
B nh cache c chia thnh cc line (C line), mi line chia thnh 2 trng, trng Tag v Block. Trng Tag lu a ch ca nh c chuyn vo cache t main memmory (RAM). Trng Block lu d liu ca block chuyn t MainMem vo. Trn MainMem cng c chia thnh cc block c kch thc bng kch thc block trn Cache. Vy:
o
Trong mi block li c chia thnh k word. Trn MainMem c 2n word => s block = 2n/k Kch thc ca cache = C * k word
5.3.3 Cc phng php nh x cache

a) nh x trc tip Nguyn tc: Mi Block ca b nh chnh ch c th c np vo mt v tr Line duy nht ca cache:
-
B0 -> L0 B1 -> L1 .... Bm-1 -> Lm-1
- Bm -> L0 91 Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn
Bi ging Kin trc my tnh -
Bm+1 -> L1 ....

Line 0 1 2 Block 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Tng qut: B(j) ch c th c np vo L(j mod m) (vi m l s Line ca cache).
M t:
c im ca nh x trc tip Mi mt a ch N bit ca b nh chnh gm ba trng:

o Trng Word gm W bit xc nh mt t nh trong Block hay Line:
2w = kch thc ca Block hay Line

o Trng Line gm L bit xc nh mt trong s cc Line trong cache: 2L
= s Line trong cache = m

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh o Trng Tag gm T bit: T = N - (W+L), 2T = s block ca b nh
chnh Khi CPU pht ra mt a ch A c N bit vi 3 trng trn, u tin CPU s truy cp vo line (L mod m) trn cache, so snh trng tag ca line ny vi trng tag trong a ch A, nu ging nhau (Cache hit) th word th W trong line ny s c ti vo CPU. Nu khc nhau (Cache miss) tc trong cache cha c nh cn truy xut, h thng s truy xut ti block th T (trng tag trong A) ti block vo cache. u im: o B so snh n gin v ch thc hin mt ln vi 2 ton hng vo Nhc im: o Xc sut cache hit thp v hiu xut ca cache khng cao v mi mt block ch c th a vo mt v tr xc nh trong khi cc v tr khc c th ang trng. V d: Hy xc nh gi tr ca Line(block), Tag v Word trong a ch c kch thc 32 bit l 3FE9704Ah, bit rng: o B nh s dng c ch nh x trc tip. o 1 word=2 byte: o Kch thc cache 16K line o Kch thc ca 1 bock = 1 line = 16 word Gii: o 3FE9704Ah = 0011 1111 1110 1001 0111 0000 0100 1010 b
o Kch thc cache 16K line = 214 line => L=14 bit o Kch thc 1 block = 16 word = 24 => k = 4 bit
o => S bt cho trng Tag = 32 4 14 = 14 o Kt qu l: Tag Size 14 bit H nh phn 0011 1111 1110 10 H 10 4090 b) nh x ton phn khc phc nhc im ca phng php trc tip l, c th rt nhiu block tranh chp 1 line trn cache trong kh cc v tr khc b trng, th phng php
Line 14 bit 01 0111 0000 0100 5892
Word 4 bit 1010 10
ny cho php mt block trn MainMem c ti vo mt v tri line bt k cn trng trn cache. Nguyn tc: Mi Block c th np vo bt k Line no ca cache. a ch ca b nh chnh bao gm hai trng: o Trng Word ging nh trng hp trn. o Trng Tag dng xc nh Block ca b nh chnh. Tag xc nh Block ang nm Line M t:
c im ca nh x ton phn
Khi CPU pht ra mt a ch A gm N bit trong c 2 trng tag + word. u tin CPU s duyt t line 0 cho n ht, ln lt kim tra trng Tag cua line hin thi nu trng vi trng Tag ca A tc cache hit th nh Word s c ti vo CPU. Tri li khng tm thy line no c tag trng vi Tag ca A tc cache miss th CPU phi truy xut vo block th Tag trn MainMem. u im: Hiu xut cache ti a, cache hit cao. Tc tm kim chm, b so snh phc tp v phi ly tt cc cc tag ca cache so snh. Nhc im:
c) nh x lin kt thnh b
y l phng php n dng cacr hai phng php trn, trn cache v MainMem nhm cc line hay block li thnh cc SET, khi mt block thuc mt SET th S trn MainMem ch c np vo SET th (S mod x) vi x l s SET trn cache, cn trong phm vi mt SET th block c th dt vo v tr bt k no c line ang trng. M t:
c im ca nh x thnh b CPU pht ra mt a ch A n bit gm 3 trng Tag + Set + Word, u tin CPU s truy xut vo SET th (Set mod x) vi x l s SET ca cache, sau d ly trng tag ca A so snh l lt vi cc Tag ca cc line trong cache, nu trng th Word ct ti vo CPU, tri li CPU phi t t bock th Tag trn MainMem. u im: Tng tc tm kim nh ng dng c nh x trc tip i vi cc SET. Gim c cache Miss do p dng nh x ton phn trong mt SET Kch thc Block = 2W Word Trng Set c S bit dng xc nh mt trong s V = 2S Set Trng Tag c T bit: T = N - (W+S) Thng thng 2,4,8,16Lines/Set
5.4 B nh trong
5.4.1 B nh ROM
y l loi b nh dng trong cc hng sn xut l ch yu. N c c tnh l thng tin lu tr trong ROM khng th xo c v khng sa c, thng tin s c lu tr mi mi. Nhng ngc li ROM c bt li l mt khi ci t thng tin vo ri th ROM s khng cn tnh a dng. V d in hnh l cc con "chip" trn motherboard hay l BIOS ROM vn hnh khi my tnh va khi ng. ROM c ch to trn mt ming Silic theo mt s bc x l nh quang khc v khuch tn to cc tip xc bn dn dn in mt chiu (diode, FET, ). Ngi thit k xc nh chng trnh mun ghi vo ROM v thng tin ny dng iu khin trong qu trnh to ROM. S n gin v ROM c th biu din nh sau:
ROM n gin dng diode Giao gia mt hng v mt ct l mt v tr nh. Nu v tr ny tn ti mt diode th s lu tr d liu 0, ngc li th lu tr d liu 1. Khi c mt nh no trn mt hng th b gii m s t hng xung mc 0, cc hng cn li mc logic 1. Nu giao gia hng v ct khng c diode (ngha l lu tr d liu 1) th gi tr tng ng trn ct l 1 (do ct ni vi Vcc thng qua in tr R). Nu c diode (lu tr d liu 0) th diode s phn cc thun nn in p ri trn diode khong 0.7V in p trn ct cng l 0.7V tng ng vi mc logic 0. Cng ngh ch to ROM c s dng l lng cc v MOS. Thi gian truy xut ca b nh lng cc khong t 50 90 ns cn ca MOS ln hn khong 10 ln nhng b nh MOS c kch thc nh hn v tiu th nng lng t hn. Cac cng ngh ROM: EPROM:
i vi EPROM, d liu c th ghi vo bng in v c th xa c. EPROM s dng mt transistor c cu trc FAMOST (Floating gate avalanche injection MOS transistor). i vi transistor loi ny, cu to cng ging nh dng FET thng thng nhng trong cc gate tn ti thm mt cc, gi l cc ni (floating gate). Nu cc ni khng c in tch th transistor ny hot ng nh mt FET thng thng, ngha l nu cc Gate c in p dng th FET dn, cc drain ni vi cc source cc drain c mc logic 1. Nu cc ni c cha in tch th n s to ra trng in t sc ngn chn khng cho FET dn cc drain c mc logic 0. Qu trnh np in t vo ca ni c thc hin bng cc xung in c rng khong 50 ms v bin 20V t vo cc gate v cc drain. in t c lu tr ti vng ca ni khi xung in tt (thi gian lu tr t nht l 10 nm). xa d liu trn EPROM, ta phi chiu nh sng t ngoi vo chip nh. Cc in t s hp thu nng lng c th vt ra khi cc ni lm cho cc ni khng cha in t ton b EPROM cha gi tr 1. Do , trn cc chip EPROM s c mt ca s bng thch anh cho php nh sng t ngoi i qua. EEPROM Do vic s dng ca s thch anh khng tin li nn nhng nm gn y xut hin them chip ROM c th xa bng in. Cu to ca EEPROM cng ging nh EPROM nhng lc ny c thm mt lp mng mng oxide gia vng cc ni v cc drain cho php cc in t di chuyn t vng cc ni sang cc drain khi t mt in p m. Nh vy, qu trnh lp trnh cho EEPROM tng t nh EPROM trong khi xa d liu th ch cn t mt in p -20V vo cc gate v cc drain vi thi gian thch hp (v nu thi gian qu di th cc in t s di chuyn thm sang cc drain lm cho cc ni s c in tch dng FET s khng hot ng nh bnh thng).
5.4.2 B nh RAM
RAM l th h k tip ca ROM, c RAM v ROM u l b nh truy xut ngu nhin, tc l d liu c truy xut khng cn theo th t. Tuy nhin ROM chy chm hn RAM rt nhiu. Thng thng ROM cn trn 50ns x l d liu trong khi RAM cn di 10ns. a) DRAM Cu to ca DRAM
a ch xc nh nh chia thnh 2 phn: a ch hng v ct. Hai a ch ny c a ln lt vo b m. Qu trnh dn knh a ch iu khin bng cc tn hiu RAS (Row Access Strobe) v CAS (Column Access Strobe). B iu khin nh ca CPU phi thc hin 3 cng vic sau: chia a ch t CPU thnh cc a ch hng v ct; tch cc cc chn RAS , CAS v WE mt cch chnh xc; truyn v nhn cc
d liu c, ghi. S t chc ca mt DRAM: Mt nh ca DRAM c th biu din nh hnh v:
Lm ti DRAM in tch trn t in b gim theo thi gian do chng phng qua FET v lp in mi oxide lm cho d liu c th b mt. Do , t in phi c np li mt cch tun hon (refresh), thng thng khong t 1 16 ms ty theo loi RAM. C 3 phng php refresh: Ch tc ng RAS: To chu k c gi (dummy read) lm ti nh. Trong chu k gi ny, tn hiu RAS tch cc v a ch hng c a vo DRAM nhng CAS b cm nn khng th truyn d liu ra ngoi c. lm ti ton b b nh th tt c cc a ch phi c cp ln lt. Nhc im ca phng php ny l cn phi dng
mch logic hay mt chng trnh lm ti. Trong my tnh, iu ny thc hin bng knh 0 ca DMAC 8237, tc ng nh k bng b m 1 ca PIT 8253. Tc ng CAS trc RAS: DRAM c mt mch logic lm ti ca ring n vi mt b m a ch. Tn hiu CAS s tch cc trong mt khong thi gian trc khi RAS tch cc. a ch lm ti c pht ra bn trong bng b m a ch m khng cn mch logic bn ngoi. Sau mi chu k lm ti, b m a ch s t ng tng ln 1 ch a ch k tip. n: Chu k lm ti c cha sau chu k c b nh. Tn hiu CAS gi nguyn mc thp trong khi ch c RAS ln mc cao. y, b m a ch cng t pht ra a ch lm ti.Vic c d liu trong chu k c cng c th thc hin ngay c khi ang thc hin chu k lm ti. Phng php ny s tit kim c thi gian do thi gian lm ti thng ngn hn so vi thi gian c. b) SRAM i vi SRAM, ni dung nh vn gi nguyn khi cha mt ngun cung cp m khng cn phi tn thi gian lm ti nh. Do in p chnh lch ln nn thi gian x l khuch i s nh hn trong DRAM (thi gian truy xut ca DRAM l khong 1ns trong khi ca DRAM khong 40ns). T , SRAM khng thc hin phn knh a ch hng v ct (iu ny s lm gim thi gian truy xut). Sau khi d liu n nh, b gii m ct chn ct ph hp v a d liu n b m ng ra. Cc khc bit ca SRAM so vi DRAM: o Tc ca SRAM ln hn DRAM do khng phi tn thi gian refresh.. o Ch to SRAM tn km hn DRAM nn thng thng s dng DRAM h gi thnh sn phm. Mt s loai RAM FPM - DRAM (Fast Page Mode DRAM) DRAM chun c truy cp qua mt k thut c gi l k thut phn trang (paging). Vic truy cp thng thng bng cch chn a ch hng v a ch ct mt rt nhiu thi gian (gii m hai bc). Phn trang cho php truy nhp tt c d liu trong mt hng nhanh hn bng cch gi nguyn a ch cc hng v ch thay i gi tr ct. B nh s dng k thut ny gi l b nh nh s trang Page mode hay Fast page Mode (FPM). Ngoi ra cn mt s cch gi khc l: Column hay Nibble Mode Memory. EDO - DRAM (Extended Data Out DRAM)
Mt loi b nh khc gi l EDO RAM c dng trong cc my Pentium t nm 1995. EDO l b nh kiu FPM c sa li hay cn c gi l Hyper Page Mode. Hng Micron Technology pht minh ra v ly bng sng ch EDO RAM. B nh EDO gm nhng Chip c sn xut c bit cho php chng cc ln truy nhp lin tip. Ci tn Extended Data Out xut pht t thc t l khng ging nh FPM, cc trnh iu khin d liu ra (data output driver) trn chip khng b tt khi mch iu khin b nh xo a ch ct bt u chu k tip theo. iu ny cho php chu k tip theo chng ln chu k trc v tit kim thi gian c khong 10ns mt chu k. s dng b nh EDO, chipset ca mainboard phi h tr b nh . Hu ht cc mainboard v sau k t loi Intel 430 FX (Trion) cng b nm 1995 u h tr EDO RAM. Do chi ph cho chip b nh EDO tng ng chip chun v cc mainboard Intel u h tr EDO nn th trng my tnh tp trung vo b nh EDO. Rt l tng khi s dng EDO RAM cho cc my c tc bus di 66 MHz, tc l cc my trn th trng trc nm 1998. T nm 1998, th phn ca EDO RAM gim do b nh chnh nhanh hn v mi hn l SDRAM (Synchronuos DRAM) tr thnh b nh chun ca cc my PC mi. BDEO-DRAM (Burst Extended Data Out DRAM) L th h sau ca EDO DRAM, dng k thut ng ng (pipeline) rt ngn thi gian d a ch. SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM) y l mt loi RAM c nguyn l ch to khc hn vi cc loi RAM trc. ng b (synchronous) l mt khi nim rt quan trng trong lnh vc s. RAM hot ng do mt b iu khin xung nhp (clock memory), d liu s c truy xut hay cp nht mi khi clock chuyn t logic 0 sang 1, ng b c ngha l ngay lc clock nhy t logic 0 sang 1 ch khng hn l chuyn sang logic 1 hon ton (tc ng bng cnh xung). Do k thut ny, SDRAM v cc th h sau c tc cao hn hn cc loi DRAM trc, t tc 66, 100, 133 MHz. DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate SDRAM) y l loi b nh ci tin t SDRAM. N nhn i tc truy cp ca SDRAM bng cch dng c hai qu trnh ng b khi clock chuyn t logic 0 sang 1 v t logic 1 sang 0 (dng c cnh m v cnh dng). Loi RAM ny c CPU Intel v AMD h tr, tc vo khong 266 MHz. (DDR-SDRAM ra i trong nm 2000) DRDRAM (Direct Rambus DRAM)
H thng Rambus (tn hng ch to) c nguyn l v cu trc ch to hon ton khc loi SDRAM truyn thng. B nh s c vn hnh bi mt h thng ph gi l knh truyn Rambus trc tip (direct Rambus channel) c rng bus 16 bit v mt xung clock 400MHz (c th ln ti 800MHz). Theo l thuyt th cu trc mi ny s c th trao i d liu vi tc 400MHz x 16 bit = 400MHz x 2 bytes = 800 MBps. H thng Rambus DRAM cn mt chip serial presence detect (SPD) trao i vi motherboard. Ta thy k thut mi ny dng giao tip 16 bit, khc hn vi cch ch to truyn thng l dng 64 bit cho b nh nn k thut Rambus cho ra i loi chn RIMM (Rambus Inline Memory Module), khc so vi b nh truyn thng. Loi RAM ny ch c h tr bi CPU Intel Pentum IV, tc vo khong 400 800 MHz SLDRAM (Synchronous - Link DRAM) L th h sau ca DRDRAM, thay v dng knh Rambus trc tip 16 bit v tc 400MHz, SLDRAM dng bus 64 bit chy vi tc 200MHz. Theo l thuyt th h thng mi c th t c tc 200MHz x 64 bit = 200MHz x 8 bytes = 1600 MBps, tc l gp i DRDRAM. iu thun tin l l SLDRAM c pht trin bi mt nhm 20 cng ty hng u v vi tnh cho nn n rt da dng v ph hp nhiu h thng khc nhau. VRAM (Video RAM) Khc vi b nh trong h thng, do nhu cu v ho ngy cng cao, cc hng ch to card ha ch to VRAM ring cho video card ca h m khng cn dng b nh ca h thng chnh. VRAM chy nhanh hn v ng dng k thut Dual Port nhng ng thi cng t hn rt nhiu. SGRAM (Synchronous Graphic RAM) L sn phm ci tin ca VRAM, n s c v vit tng block thay v tng mng nh.
CHNG 6 CP H IU HNH
6.1 Gii thiu mc my h iu hnh Trnh thng dch chy trn my mc 1 c th thng dch cc chng trnh c vit bng ngn ng my mc 2. Trnh thng dch chy trn my mc 2 c th thng dch cc chng trnh c vit bng ngn ng my mc 3. V l do lch s trnh thng dch chy trn my mc 2 h tr cho my mc 3 c ngi ta gi l h iu hnh - operating system. Chng ta gi mc 3 l mc my h iu hnh.
Hnh 6-26 Mc 2 v 3 c h tr bi phn mm
Mc my HH tin ho dn ln t mc my thng thng: - Hu ht cc ch th ca mc my HH cng c mc my thng thng - Cc ch th mc 3 khc, c gi l cc ch th Mc my HH OSML (Operating System Machine Level). Nu bt HH thng dch tt c cc ch th ca mc 3: khng hiu qu & khng cn thit - Cc ch th mc 3 thng thng: thng dch trc tip bng vi chng trnh (Hnh a) - Cc ch th OSML: HH thng dch (Hnh b).
Hnh 6-27 Ch th c thng dch bi vi chng trnh
Hu ht cc HH cho cc my tnh ln l cc h thng a chng trnh (multiprogramming systems): HH khng phi ch h tr cho mt my o mc 3 m l mt vi my o mc 3 mt cch song song. Nhim v quan trng hng u ca HH l gii quyt vic qun l mi my o ch khng phi l vn thng dch cc ch th OSML. Phn loi h thng: - H thng chia s thi gian (time-sharing): Mi my o ny c ni vi mt terminal xa - H thng a chng trnh theo l (batch multiprogramming): Nu khng c mt terminal xa - Cc dng lai Khi nghin cu HH, cn tp trung vo 3 ch chnh, quan trng nht sau y: 1. B nh o (virtual memory), l k thut lm cho my th hin nh c mt b nh ln hn b nh m n thc s c. 2. Vo/ra file (file I/O), y l mt khi nim c mc tru tng cao hn khi nim v cc ch th vo/ra. 3. X l song song - lm th no nhiu qu trnh c th c ng thi thi hnh mc 3. 6.2 B nh o Thi k u ca k nguyn my tnh, b nh ca my tnh thng nh, cc nh lp trnh thng phi dnh phn ln thi gian nhm lm sao cho chng trnh cng b cng tt.
Mt gii php truyn thng, c s dng rng ri trong nhiu nm: s dng b nh ph + k thut overlay (mi overlay c th nm lt trong b nh). K thut ny i hi nhiu cng sc ca ngi lp trnh cho vic qun l overlay. B nh o (Virtual Memory): c mt nhm nh khoa hc Manchester, nc Anh, xut nm 1961. Phng php thc hin qu trnh overlay mt cch t ng. u nhng nm 1970 b nh o tr nn thng dng trong cc hu ht cc my tnh. Ngy nay thm ch c cc b vi x l, trong c 80386 ca Intel v 68030 Motorola cng c cc h thng b nh o rt tinh vi.
6.2.1
Vic phn trang Paging
Xt mt th d: mt my tnh trong cc ch th c trng a ch 16 bit v c b nh 4096 word. Mt chng trnh chy trn my tnh ny c th nh a ch 65536 word b nh, ch khng phi 4096. Khi cn cha pht minh ra b nh o, phi phn bit 2 min a ch: 0..4095: kh dng 4096.. 65535: khng kh dng tng: lm tch bit cc khi nim v khng gian a ch v cc v tr nh: Vo bt c thi im no 4096 word b nh c th c truy cp trc tip, nhng chng khng nht thit phi tng ng vi cc a ch t 0..4095. Th d chng ta c th bo ho my tnh rng t lc ny tr i, mi khi truy cp a ch: 4096: s dng word 0 4097: s dng word 1 8191: s dng word 4095 v.v. iu g s xy ra nu chng trnh nhy ti mt a ch nm trong khong 8192..12287?
Nu my tnh khng c b nh o: chng trnh ny s gy ra mt by li, chng hn Nonexistent memory referenced ri b dng. Nu my tnh c b nh o: mt dy cc bc sau c th s ln lt din ra: 1. Ni dung ca b nh chnh c ct vo b nh ph. 2. Cc word 8192..12287 ang nm trong b nh ph c np vo b nh chnh. 3. nh x a ch s c thay i nh x cc a ch 8192..12287 vo cc v tr nh 0..4095. 4. Chng trnh tip tc nh khng c iu g bt thng xy ra. Cc khi nim cn phn bit: 0..4095: khng gian a ch vt l 4096..: khng gian a ch o (virtual address space) K thut thc hin overlay t ng c gi l phn trang - paging, cc on chng trnh c c vo b nh chnh t b nh ph c gi l cc trang. C ch phn trang c th coi l trong sut i vi ngi lp trnh. Khi lp trnh khng cn phi bit n s tn ti ca b nh o. C th coi nh ang lp trnh cho mt my tnh c mt b nh chnh rt ln (o gic) Paging so vi segmentation: trong phng php Segmentation, ngi lp trnh phi thc v s tn ti ca cc phn on.
6.2.2
Thc hin vic phn trang
Mt i hi ct yu ca b nh o l phi c b nh ph cha ton b chng trnh. Mt s quy c: Bn copy ca chng trnh trong b nh ph l bn gc Phn ca chng trnh thnh thong c a vo b nh chnh l cc bn copy Mt cng vic t nhin v quan trng l cp nht cho bn gc, mi thay i xy ra vi bn copy trong b nh chnh, cui cng cn phi c phn nh vo trong bn gc. Khng gian a ch o c chia thnh cc trang c kch thc bng nhau, nm trong khong 512..4096. Khng gian a ch vt l cng c chia thnh cc mnh, c gi l khung trang (page frame), c cng kch thc
vi trang. Trong cc thit k thc, b nh chnh ca cc my tnh ln c th c hng chc, hng trm hay thm ch hng nghn khung trang. Hnh 6-3 mt th d minh ho: Khng gian a ch o 64K c chia thnh cc frame kch thc 4K. Khng gian a ch vt l 32K c chia thnh cc khung trang kch thc 4K. trin khai thc hin c b nh o mc 2, cn phi s dng page table c 16 word, theo di trng thi s dng 16 trang ca b nh o.
Hnh 6-28 Cch thc chia khng gian a ch
Trong hnh Hnh 6-4(a): Khi mt chng trnh truy cp b nh, u tin n s sinh ra mt a ch 16 bit (= 3016H = 12310): 4 bit cao lm s trang o 12 bit thp lm a ch trong trang o c chn 12310 l a ch 22 ca trang 3.
Hnh 6-29 V d v a ch o
Trong hnh Hnh 6-4( b): Mi lin h gia trang v a ch o. Nu a ch o 0 ca trang 3 l ti a ch vt l 12288, th a ch o 22 ca trang 3 phi l ti a ch vt l 12310. Vi mt a ch o cn truy cp, s tnh c trang o, sau HH phi tm ra c trang o nm u: C 9 kh nng xy ra: 8: nm mt trong s 8 khung trang trong b nh chnh 9th: khng c trong b nh chnh m nm u trong b nh ph.
Hnh 6-30 V d v mt bng phn trang
Cch to a ch b nh chnh (b nh vt l) t a ch o: T /c o tnh c trang o (+ a ch trong trang o). T trang o, kim tra page table s bit trang o c trong b nh chnh khng. Gi s c: trng khung trang 3 bit s ch ra trang nm u. 3 bit ny s c np vo 3 bit bn tri nht ca MAR 12 bit thp ca MAR c np a ch trong trang o. Do , ta nhn c 15 bit, chnh l a ch cn cho b nh chnh dung lng 32K.
Hnh 6-31 Cch to ra a ch b nh chnh t a ch o
Minh ho nh x t khng gian ch o ln khng gian b nh chnh (vt l): Trang o s 0 nm khung trang s 1. Trang o s 1 nm khung trang s 0. Trang o s 2 khng nm trong b nh chnh v.v.
Hnh 6-32 nh x t khng gian a ch o ln khung trang b nh chnh c 8 khung trang
Nu HH phi chuyn i mi a ch o ca ch th my mc 3 thnh a ch thc th mt my mc 3 c b nh o c th chy chm hn mt my mc 3 khng c b nh o rt nhiu ln v nh vy ton b tng s l khng c ngha thc t. tng tc vic chuyn i a ch o thnh a ch vt l, c 2 cch: Bng phn trang thng c gi trong cc thanh ghi phn cng c bit, vic chuyn i c thc hin trc tip bng phn cng. Cch ny i hi cc chi ph phn cng. Bng phn trang trong cc thanh ghi tc cao v dng vi chng trnh thc hin chuyn i bng lp trnh trc tip i vi cc thanh ghi. Tu thuc vo kin trc ca mc vi chng trnh, chuyn i bng cch ny c th gn nhanh bng cch chuyn i trc tip bng phn cng m khng i hi phi c cc mch in c bit. 6.2.3
Phng php cp trang khi c yu cu v M hnh tp lm
vic
Trong thc t b nh chnh ni chung khng ln cha tt c cc trang. S truy cp ti mt a ch thuc mt trang m trang khng c trong b nh chnh c gi l li trang - page fault. Khi li trang xy ra, h iu hnh cn phi c trang c yu cu t b nh ph vo b nh chnh, nhp v tr nh vt l mi ca n vo bng phn trang v sau lp li ch th gy ra li trang.
Phng php Cp trang khi c yu cu Vi my c b nh o, c th khi ng mt chng trnh ngay c khi khng c phn no ca chng trnh ny nm trong b nh chnh, ch cn thit lp cho bng phn trang ch ra l mi trang o nm trong b nh ph ch khng phi trong b nh chnh. Khi CPU ly ch th u tin, lp tc n gp mt li trang, iu ny lm cho trang c cha ch th u tin c np vo v bng phn trang c cp nhp thng tin. Sau ch th u tin c th bt u c thc hin. Nu ch th u tin c hai a ch m chng li nm cc trang khc vi trang cha chnh ch th, th li xy ra hai li trang na v s li c thm hai trang c np vo b nh chnh trc khi ch th ny c thi hnh. Cc ch th tip theo ca chng trnh cng c th gy ra cc li trang na v qu trnh trn li tip din.v.v. Phng php vn hnh b nh o nh th c gi l Cp trang khi c yu cu - demand paging, cc trang ch c np vo b nh chnh khi xut hin mt yu cu thc s v trang, ch khng phi l c np t trc. Vic xem xt c s dng phng php cp trang khi c yu cu hay khng ch lin quan ti lc bt u chy mt chng trnh ln u tin. Khi chng trnh ny chy c mt lc ri, th cc trang cn n c tp hp trong b nh chnh. Nhc im: C th lm gim hiu sut ca h thng rt trm trng: Nu my tnh hot ng trong ch chia s thi gian v NSD c chuyn i kiu quay vng (th d mi chng trnh ca NSD c cho chy 100ms ri tm dng cho chy mt chng trnh khc v.v.) th tng chng trnh s c khi ng li nhiu ln trong qu trnh chy ca n. Bi v mi chng trnh c mt bn b nh duy nht v bn ny s b thay i khi cc chng trnh c chuyn i page fault lin tc. Phng php M hnh tp lm vic C s ca phng php: Quan st cho thy hu ht cc chng trnh khng truy cp khng gian a ch ca chng ng u nh nhau m c khuynh hng tp trung vo mt s t cc trang. Tp lm vic - working set: tp bao gm tt c cc trang c s dng bi k ln truy cp b nh gn nht; w(k,t):
w(k,t) l mt hm n iu tng ca k. Tuy nhin w(k,t) c cn trn (khi k c tng dn) v mt chng trnh khng th tham kho nhiu trang hn s trang ca khng gian a ch ca n. Tn ti mt min rng cc gi tr ca k trong working set l khng thay i. Phng php M hnh tp lm vic: trong khi cn ang thc hin mt chng trnh, np sn tplm vic ca mt chng trnh sp c gi thc hin, da trn tp lm vic ca ln chy trc . u im: Khi chng trnh c cho chy tr li, n s khng sinh ra ngay lp tc mt s ln cc li trang lm lng ph thi gian. Ngi ta bit rng thi gian cn c mt trang t a vo b nh chnh thng bng hoc ln hn thi gian thc hin 20.000 ch th. Nhc im: Nu tp lm vic c np nhm, chng trnh vn phi i cho n khi cc trang m n cn c np vo. Vi phng php cp trang khi c yu cu: th tnh hung ny khng th xy ra. Hin nay ngi ta vn cn tranh lun v phm cht ca c 2 chin lc ny.
6.3 Ch th vo/ra o
Ni chung cc th th mc 1 (Vi chng trnh) v cc ch th mc 2 (My thng thng) khc nhau nhiu. Tri li, tp ch th mc 3 cha: Cha hu ht cc ch th ca mc 2, ring cc ch th d gy hng cho cc my mc di c loi b. c b sung thm mt s t ch th mi nhng quan trng: Input/Output, v.v. C hai nguyn nhn chnh dn n s khc nhau ny: m bo an ninh cho h thng To thun li cho ngi lp trnh khi thc hin cc thao tc I/O.
6.3.1 Cc ch th vo/ra o i vi cc file tun t

File kiu tun t khng nh a ch c. Mt cch t chc vo/ra o l quan nim d liu b nh ph s c c hoc ghi l mt dy cc bn ghi logic, cc bn ghi c th c chiu di c nh hoc chiu di thay i c. Mt dy cc bn ghi logic c gi l mt file. Thao tc vi file tun t: ti v tr hin thi (ca s), ti cui, ti u file v.v.
Mt s ch th I/O c s: READ: c bn ghi tip theo: T mt file c ch ra (khng cn ch ra a ch bn trong file) t n vo cc nh lin tip trong b nh chnh, bt u t mt a ch c ch r. WRITE: vit 1 bn ghi vo file. REWIND nh v u file V.v. OPEN: Nhiu HH i hi phi m file trc khi s dng n, khi cn c ch th OPEN.
6.3.2 Cc ch th vo/ra o i vi cc file truy cp ngu nhin

Trong nhiu ng dng cc chng trnh cn c/ghi cc bn ghi logic mt cch ngu nhin. Hu ht cc h iu hnh cung cp cc ch th o c hoc ghi bn ghi logic th n. C mt dng t chc file khc trong cc bn ghi logic c nh a ch khng phi bng v tr ca n trong file m bng ni dung ca
6.3.3 Vic ci t cc ch th vo/ra o

c th hiu c cc ch th I/O o c ci t nh th no my mc 2, cn phi tm hiu vic cc file c t chc v lu tr nh th no. Vn c bn m h thng file phi gii quyt l vic sp t b nh ngoi. Trong c hai vn chnh l: Kch thc ca n v nh ngoi s c dng sp t ch cho file. File s c cha trong cc n v nh ngoi lin tip hay khng?
CHNG 7 CP HP NG
7.1Vi hp ng
Trong cp vi chng trnh , ngn ng c s dng th hin ni dung ca vi chng trnh l cc k hiu, gi l Micro Assembly Language (MAL). Vi chng trnh phi c dch sang dng nh phn, tng bit ca vi ch th 32 bit c ni vi cc ng dy iu khin ton b ng d liu. Cch vit vi ch th: Trn mi dng ghi mt vi ch th, trn dng ghi tn cc trng khc 0 v gi tr ca chng. V d cng AC vi A v cha kt qu vo AC, chng ta c th vit: ENC = 1, C = 1, B = 1, A = 10 Nhiu ngn ng vi chng trnh trng ging nh vy, tuy nhin vic vit chng trnh nh th khng gn gi v d gy phc tp. Chng ta s c gng lm cho n trng ging vi ngn ng lp trnh Pascal V d, ch th trn c vit nh sau: ac:=a+ac. ch r vic s dng cc chc nng 0, 1, 2 v 3 ca ALU, chng ta vit: ac:=a+ac a:=band(ir,smask) ;# band = "Boolean and ac:=a a:=inv(a) ;# inv = invert Cc thao tc dch tri v dch phi c th c k hiu l lshift v rshift, nh: tir:=lshift(tir+tir)
A Statement M (Ch th ngn ng U MAL) X Mar := pc; rd Rd ir := mbr pc := pc+1 Mar := ir; mbr := ac; wr alu := tir; if n then goto 15 ac := inv (mbr) tir := lshift (tir); if n then goto 25 alu := ac; if z then goto 22 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 C O N D 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 2 A L U 2 2 2 0 2 2 3 2 2 SH 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 M B R 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 M A R 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 R D 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 W R 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 E N C 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 C 0 0 3 0 0 0 1 4 0 B 0 0 0 6 3 0 0 0 0 A 0 0 0 0 1 4 0 4 1 A D D R 00 00 00 00 00 15 00 25 22

ac:=band(ir, amask); goto 0 sp := sp + (-1); rd tir := shift(ir+ir); if n then goto 69 0 0 0 3 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 4 8 2 3 3 7 3 00 00 69
Bng 7-9 Ni dung thanh ghi vi ch th
7.2 Gii thiu v hp ng Cp hp ng l cp thuc mc trn ca cp vi chng trnh. Cp hp ng khc vi cp vi chng trnh, cp quy c, v cp h iu hnh do cp ny c thc hin bi chng trnh dch, khng phi l trnh phin dch. Cc chng trnh bin i chng trnh ca ngi s dng c vit bng ngn ng ny thnh mt ngn ng khc c gi l trnh dch. Ngn ng dng vit chng trnh ban u gi l ngn ng ngun v ngn ng m chng trnh ban u c bin i thnh gi l ngn ng ch. C hai ngn ng ngun v ngn ng ch u xc nh cc cp. Nu b x l c th thc thi trc tip cc chng trnh vit bng ngn ng ngun, ta khng cn dch chng trnh ngun thnh chng trnh trong ngn ng ch. Vic dch c s dng khi b x l ch c th c dng cho ngn ng ch m khng dng c cho ngn ng ngun. Nu vic dch c thc hin ng, vic chy chng trnh c dch s cho cng kt qu nh khi thc hin chng trnh ngun cho bng cch dng b x l nu c th. Kt qu l ta c th hin thc mt cp mi khng c b x l bng cch trc tin dch cc chng trnh vit cho cp ny thnh cc chng trnh trong cp ch v sau thc thi chng trnh cp ch. iu quan trng cn lu l s khc nhau gia dch v v phin, chng trnh ban u c vit bng ngn ng ngun khng c thc thi trc tip. Thay vo , chng trnh ny c i thnh mt chng trnh tng ng gi l chng trnh i tng hay module i tng. Vic thc thi chng trnh i tng ch c tin hnh sau khi vic dch hon tt. Trong dch, ta c hai bc phn bit: 1. To ra chng trnh tng ng trong ngn ng ch 2. Thc hin chng trnh va mi to ra
7.2.1 Ngn ng assembly l g ?

Cc chng trnh thc hin chuyn i chng trnh ca ngi s dng c vit bng ngn ng no sang mt ngn ng khc c gi l chng trnh dch( translator). Ngn ng c s dng vit chng trnh ngun c gi l ngn ng ngun cn ngn ng chng trnh ngun chuyn i sang gi l ngn ng ch. C ngn ng ngun v ngn ng ch u xc nh cc mc my.
Da vo mi quan h gia ngn ng ngun v ngn ng ch c th chia cc chng trnh dch thnh hai nhm. Khi ngn ng ngun v cn bn l mt s biu din bng k hiu cho mt ngn ng my bng s th chng trnh dch c gi l assmbler v ngn ng ngun c gi l ngn ng assembly. Khi ngn ng ngun l mt ngn ng bc cao nh l C hoc Pascal v ngn ng ch l mt ngn ng my bng s hoc l mt biu din bng k hiu cho mt ngn ng nh vy th chng trnh dch c gi l compiler. Ngn ng assembly thun khit l ngn ng trong mi ch th ca n khi c dch sinh ra ng mt ch th my. Ni cch khc, c tng ng mt mt gia cc ch th my v cc ch th trong ngn ng assemblt. Nu mi dng trong chng trnh assembly cha mt ch th assembly v mi word my cha mt ch th my, th chng trnh assembly di n dng s sinh ra mt chng trnh ngn ng my di n word. S dng ngn ng assembly lp trnh d hn s dng ngn ng my rt nhiu. Vic s dng tn v a ch bng k hiu thay cho s nh phn( hoc s h 8, h 16) to nn mt s khc bit rt ln. Mi ngi u c th nh c cc k hiu vit tt cho cng( add), tr( substract), nhn( multiply) v chia( divide) l ADD, SUB, MUL v DIV; nhng t ngi c th nh c cc ch th my cho cc php ton l 24576, 57344, 28672 v 29184( cho my PDP- 11). Ngi lp trnh bng ngn ng assembly ch cn nh cc tn bng k hiu gi nh ADD, SUB, MUL v DIV, bi v assembler s ch dch chng sang cc ch th my. Tuy nhin mun c ai lp trnh bng ngn ng my th h cn phi nh, nu khng th s phi lin tc tra cu cc gi tr ny. i vi a ch cng c th rt ra cc nhn xt tng t. Ngi lp trnh bng ngn ng assembly c th t tn bng k hiu gi nh cho cc v tr nh v giao ph cho assembler lo cung cp ng cc ga tr bng s; trong khi ngi lp trnh bng ngn ng my lun lun phi lm vic vi cc gi tr bng s ca cc a ch. H qu l t khi assembler ra i cho n nay khng cn mt ai vit chng trnh bng ngn ng my na. Ngoi nh x mt mt ca cc ch th assembly vo cc ch th my, ngn ng assembly cn c mt tnh cht khc na lm cho n khc hn cc ngn ng lp trnh bc cao, l ngi lp trnh bng ngn ng assembly c th truy cp ti tt c cc c im v cc ch th c trong my ch. Ngi lp trnh bng ngn ng bc cao khng lm c nh vy. Th d nu my ch c mt bit bo trn s( overflow bit), th chng trnh bng ngn ng assembly c th kim tra trc tip bit ny, trong khi chng trnh bng ngn ng Pascal khng th kim tra trc
tip c. Nu bn iu khin ca mt my tnh c cc cng tc th chng trnh bng ngn ng assembly c th c trng thi ca chng. Mt chng trnh nh vy c th thi hnh tng ch th trong tp ch th ca my ch, cn chng trnh bng ngn ng bc cao khng th lm nh vy. Mt s khc nhau quan trng na gia chng trnh assembly v chng trnh bng ngn ng bc cao, l chng trnh bng ngn ng assembly ch c th chy c trn mt h my, trong khi chng trnh c vit bng ngn ng bc cao ni chung c th chy c trn nhiu h my, y chnh l mt u im ln ca n so vi ngn ng assembly. Tm li tt c cc vic c th thc hin bng ngn ng my u c th thc hin c bng ngn ng assembly, tuy nhin ngn ng bc cao khng lm c nh vy mt cch c hiu qu. Cc ngn ng dng cho lp trnh h thng thng l giao ca ngn ng bc cao v ngn ng assembly, trong c php l ca ngn ng lp trnh bc cao nhng li truy cp c my bng ngn ng assembly.
7.2.2 Khun dng ch th ngn ng assembly

Mc d cu trc ca mt ch th ngn ng assembly( trong chng trnh ny chng ta s trng gi ngn gn l ch th hay instruction) rt ging cu trc ca mt ch th my m n biu din, cc ngn ng assembly cho cc my khc nhau v cho cc mc khc nhau li kh ging nhau, iu cho php chng ta c th tho lun chung v ngn ng assembly. Trn hnh 7-01 l on chng trnh ngn ng assembly cho cc my dng b vi x l 80386, thc hin vic tnh N = I + J + K. Trong on chng trnh ly lm v d, phn chng trnh nm bn trn dng c du chm thc hin vic tnh ton, cn cc dng nm bn di l cc lnh cho assembler dnh ra cc nh cho bin I, J, K v N ch khng phi l cc biu din k hiu cho cc ch th my. Cc ch th l mnh lnh cho assembler thng c gi l ch th assembler.
Trng nhn FORMUL Trng m php ton MOV ADD ADD MOV ... DD DD DD DD Trng ton hng EAX, I EAX, J EAX, K N, EAX 2 3 4 0 Trng ch thch ;Np gi tr bin I vo thanh ghi EAX ;Cng gi tr bin J vo thanh ghi EAX ;Cng gi tr bin K vo thanh ghi EAX ;Cha kt qu I+J+K vo bin N ;Dnh sn 4 byte b nh, khi to gi tr 2 ;Dnh sn 4 byte b nh, khi to gi tr 3 ;Dnh sn 4 byte b nh, khi to gi tr 4 ;Dnh sn 4 byte b nh, khi to gi tr 0
I: J: K: N:
Hnh 7-33 Tnh N = I + J + K 117 Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn
Ch th - Instruction Instruction l ch th ngn ng assembly, n c 4 trng: trng nhn, trng m php ton, trng ton hng v trng ch thch. C nhng ch th ch c mt trng m php ton, c ch th c thm trng cc ton hng, cn trng ch thch c hay khng ty thuc ngi vit chng trnh. Nhn M php ton Ton hng ; Ch thch Nhn (Label): Nhn l mt dy cc k hiu ch ci, ch s...c s dng nh mt tn, gn cho cc a ch b nh, cc lnh trong chng trnh c th dng tn ny thay cho a ch b nh m nhn i din. Nu nhn ng trc cc ch th ca ngn ng assembly th cc lnh nhy c th dng nhn cy thay cho a ch ch nu chng cn nhy ti lnh c gn nhn. Nhn cng cn cho cc ch th assembler c nhim v sp t b nh, th d DD (Define Double Word) lnh cho assembler dnh sn 1 wd kp (4 byte), c th truy cp c d liu ct thng qua tn nhn. Cc ngn ng assembly c th c cc yu cu khc nhau v chiu di ca dy k t dng lm nhn, cc k t c php s dng trong nhn. v. v. Trn hnh 7-1 chng ta thy c 5 nhn: FORMUL, I, J, K v N, cc nhn kt thc bng k t : , y ch l mt quy c c th trong mt s ngn ng assembly,khng phi l iu g c bit quan trng. M php ton (Opcode Operation code) M php ton l ch vit tt gi tr nh ca ngn ng assembly i din cho mt ch th my bng s. Th d ADD, MOV trn hnh 7-01. Trng ton hng (operand) Bo cho b x l bit phi tm cc ton hng u, hay ni cch khc trng ny ch ra a ch ca cc ton hng nu php ton c ton hng. Tt nhin cng c nhng ch th assembly khng c ton hng. Trng ch thch Ch thch (comment) thng c quy c phi vit sau k t ; v kt thc bi dy xung dng. Ch thch dng dinc gii dng lnh trong chng trnh vic c c d hiu hn. Trong mt chng trnh di cc ch thch rt quan trng v cn thit. Gi ch th - Pseudoinstruction Trong chng trnh vit bng ngn ng assembly, cc ch th cho assembler trng cng ging nh cc ch th cho b vi x l thc hin, v th n cn c gi l gi ch th - Pseudoinstruction. Ch th assembler gm c 4 trng hp nh sau:
Tn Tn
Ch th assembler
i s
;Ch thch
Cng ging nh trng nhn, ch th assembler c th c hoc khng c trng tn. Tn l mt dy cc k hiu ch ci, ch s... C th dng tn gn cho cc a ch b nh v s dng tn ny nh cc bin trong cc chng trnh ngn ng lp trnh bc cao. Cng c th gn tn cho cc hng s m chng trnh s s dng. Ch th assembler Cng tng t nh cc ch th (instruction), l ch vit tt gi tr nh ca ngn ng assembly, nhng l lnh cho chnh chng trnh dch assembler, bo cho n bit phi lm g hoc lm nh th no. Ni chung khng c quy tc no gip ta phn bit ch th (instruction) v vh th assembler (Pseudoinstruction) c, chng u l cc t vit tt gi nh, ngi lp trnh bng ngn ng assembly ch c cch tra cu v dn dn thc mt chng. Trng i s (argument) Ty thuc vo ch th assembler c th, i s c th l mt a ch nh hoc mt s s dng cng vi ch th v do ch th xc nh. Trng ch thch Ch thch thng vit sau k hiu ; v kt thc bi dy xung dng (Enter). Cc ch thch dng din gi dng lnh trong chng trnh, vic c li c d hiu hn.
7.2.3 So snh ngn ng assembly v cc ngn ng bc cao

Trc khi cn to ra cc chng trnh s chy thng xuyn, th d cc chng trnh ca h iu hnh, ni chung ngi ta u vit bng ngn ng assembly nhm t tc chy cao v tit kim b nh. Ngy nay ngi ta khng lm nh vy na. C th k ra mt s nguyn nhn chnh sau y. Th nht, gi b nh gim khng ngng, vic c gng vit chng trnh sao cho cng nh cng tt tit kim b nh khng cn my ngha na. Ngoi ra tc b nh v CPU cng ngy cng tng, vic s dng ngn ng assembly nhm to ra cc chng trnh chy nhanh hn trong phn ln cc trng hp cng khng em li ngha thc t g. Nguyn nhn th hai l cc chng trnh ngy cng ln v phc tp, c nhiu ngi cng tham gia vit trong thi gian di, vn d c, d bo tr, d sa i v s dng li c ngha thc s quan trng. Nguyn nhn th ba lin quan ti cc chng trnh dch (compiler), vic vit cc chng trnh dch tr thnh mt cng ngh pht trin, cc chng trnh dch
ngy nay c th nhn vo cc chng trnh ngun vit bng ngn ng bc cao v sinh ra cc chng trnh m my rt hiu qu, chng va nh va chy nhanh. Chng ta s rt ra c cc kt lun hu ch khi so snh hai h iu hnh l MULTICS v TSS/67 cho my IBM 360/67. C hai h iu hnh ny u c bt u vit vo cng mt khong thi gian v chng c kch thc xp x nhau. Mt phn ln, khong 95% h iu hnh MULTICS c vit bng ngn ng bc cao PL/I, cn h iu hnh TSS/67 ca IBM c vit hon ton bng ngn ng assembly. Cc h iu hnh ln nh MULTICS v TSS/67 phi thc hin nhiu nhim v khc nhau, chng hn phi iu khin tt c cc thit b I/O, gii quyt tt c cc tnh hung c nh thi cht ch, phi qun l cc c s d liu ln. v. v. Hiu sut cao l mt vn c tnh ct yu i vi h iu hnh, chnh v vy n c th c s dng vit nn h iu hnh. Nng sut lp trnh tnh trung bnh theo s dng lnh khng ph thuc ngn ng lp trnh c s dng. Kt qu thc hin hai d n h iu hnh trn cho thy, chng c hon thnh trong cc khong thi gian ngang nhau. Tuy nhin iu c bit ng ch l nhm vit MULTICS ch c 50 ngi v chi ph c tnh 10 triu la, trong khi nhm vit TSS/67 gm 300 ngi v chi ph c tnh l 50 triu la (theo Grhm,1970). Vic s dng ngn ng lp trnh bc cao PL/I tit kim cho d n MULTICS hng chc triu la, chi ph cho vic vit chng trnh ch bng 20% so vi d n TSS/67. Cc nghin cu ch ra rng, nu mt ngi lp trnh lm vic cho mt d n trong khong thi gian vi nm, th tnh trung bnh hng thng anh ta vit c t 100 n 200 dng lnh, khng ph thuc vo ngn ng lp trnh c s dng (theo Corbat, 1969). Ngi lp trnh ch c th hy vng t c nng sut lao ng lp trnh cao so vi cc chng trnh nh. Bi v mt ch th ngn ng PL/I tng ng vi t 5 n 10 ln nng sut ca ngi lp trnh assembly. i vi cc ngn ng lp trnh bc cao khc, kt qu cng tng t nh vy. Chng trnh bng ngn ng bc cao d c, d hiu hn. C mt l do quan trng khc na khin ngi ta trnh s dng ngn ng assembly; l ngay c mt ngi lp trnh assembly chuyn nghip ni chung cng kh m hiu c chng trnh assembly do ngi khc vit, nht l khi chng trnh di. Chng trnh ngun y ca h iu hnh MULTICS bng ngn ng PL/I di khong 300 trang, vi chiu di hiu v nm vng l mt vic khng h d dng. Tuy nhin vic cng ch l tm thng nu em so ci cic phi c
30.000 chng trnh vit bng assembly. Mc du khng c ai th c gng c ton b chng trnh ngun ca MULTICS, nhng cng c nhng ngi c gng tm hiu cc chng trnh con c th, chng c chiu di trung bnh 4 trang bng ngn ng PL/I. Trong cc d n ln s thay i nhn s hng nm tnh trung bnh l 15%, nh vy sau 5 nm trong nhm lp trnh ch cn li rt t ngi tham gia t u d n. Nu nh nhng ngi lp trnh mi ra nhp nhm khng hiu c chng trnh ca nhng ngi trc h li th cc d n s gp mt tr ngi rt ln.
CHNG 8 H THNG VO RA
8.1 Tng quan v h thng vo ra Chc nng: Trao i thng tin gia My tnh vi mi trng bn ngoi. My tnh mun trao i vi con ngi cn c bn phm, chut, loa, mic, My tnh mun trao i thng tin vi khng gian cn c my nhth nh, my Scan, Cc thao tc c bn: Vo d liu Ra d liu Cc thnh phn chnh: Thit b ngoi vi Module ghp ni vo ra Thit b ngoi vi Chc nng: phng tin chuyn i thng tin gia bn trong v bn ngoi my tnh c im cc thit b: Trn th trng tn ti rt nhiu cc thit b ngoi vi khc nhau v: Nguyn tc hot ng, tc , nh dng d liu truyn, v.v. ng thi cc thit b ny c tc lm vic chm hn CPU v RAM rt nhiu. Chnh v l do trn cn c Module vo ra ghp ni cc thit b ngoi vi vo h thng BUS my tnh. Phn loi:

Thit b nhp: Keyboard, Mouse, Scan, Micro, Thit b xut nhp: Modem, NIC, Driver,
Thit b xut: Monitor, Printer, Cu trc tng qut ca thit b ngoi vi:
Hnh 8-34
S cu trc tng quan ca thit b ngoi vi
B chuyn i tn hiu: chuyn i d liu gia bn trong v bn ngoi My tnh B m d liu: ni lu tr d liu trung gian gia My tnh v thit b ngoi vi, t bn trong thit b ngoi vi. Khi logic iu khin: iu khin hot ng ca thit b ngoi vi theo tn hiu t Module I/O gi ti thit b. Module I/O Chc nng: Ni ghp thit b ngoi vi vi bus ca my tnh. iu khin v nh thi Trao i thng tin vi CPU Trao i thng tin vi thit b ngoi vi m gia my tnh vi thit b ngoi vi Pht hin li ca cc thit b ngoi vi. Cu trc chung:
Hnh 8-35
S cu trc chung ca module vo ra
Thanh ghi m d liu: m d liu trong qu trnh trao i Cng ni ghp vo ra: kt ni thit b ngoi vi, mi cng c a ch xc nh v chun kt ni ring ph thuc s chn. Thanh ghi trng thi/iu khin: lu tr thng tin trng thi cho cc cng vo ra Khi logic iu khin: iu khin Module vo ra 8.2 Cc phng php iu khin vo ra C th phn loi cc phng php iu khin vo ra theo 3 cch sau: Vo ra bng chng trnh Vo ra bng ngt Truy cp b nh trc tip DMA 8.2.1
Vo ra bng chng trnh polling

Nguyn tc chung: S dng lnh vo ra trong chng trnh trao i d liu vi cng vo ra. Khi CPU thc hin chng trnh gp lnh vo ra th CPU iu khin trao i d liu vi cng vo ra.
CPU v thit b ngoi vi ch trao i d liu khi c tn hiu mc ni bo sn sng (Ready/Akc) ca cc pha. Sau khi my tnh khi ng thit b ngoi vi (khi ghp ni), my tnh lun ch v kim tra trng thi sn sng ca thit b ngoi vi gm cc bc: (1) c thng tin v trng thi sn sng ca thit bi ngoi vi (2) Kim tra: Nu thit b ngoi vi sn sng th trao i d liu, ngc li th v bc (1) kim tra li. Phng php ny c dng khi tc trao i d liu ca cc bn (CPU v thit b ngoi vi) rt khng bng nhau. Nhn xt: Vic trao i thng tin l tin cy v ch trao i khi thit b ngoi vi sn sng. Tn thi gian CPU v phi kim tra trng thi sn sng ca thit b ngoi vi (vic kim tra ny co CPU m nhim) nn gim hiu sut ca h thng. Ph hp vi nhng h thng khng i hi cao v tc trao i d liu, h thng c t thit b ngoi vi.
8.2.2
Vo ra bng phng php ngt

Bnh thng my tnh thc hin mt chng trnh (cng vic) no . Khi thit b ngoi vi c yu cu trao i d liu, n s gi tn hiu yu cu ngt CPU dng cng vic hin ti, phc v cho trao i d liu thng qua tn hiu yu cu ngt IRQ (Interrupt Request) tc ng vo chn INTR (chn tip nhn yu cu ngt) ca CPU. CPU nhn c yu cu ngt, nu chp nhn n s a ra xung INTA xc nhn ti thit b ngoi vi, sau CPU tm chng trnh con phc v ngt tng ng s hiu ngt v thc hin n. chnh l chng trnh con thc hin trao i
(vo/ra) d liu do thit b ngoi vi yu cu. Khi trao i xong (ISR Interrupt Service Routine) kt thc th CPU tip tc cng vic (chng trnh) b gin on.
Chng trnh hin ti ca CPU
Yu cu ngt
Chng trnh con phc v ngt (trao i d liu)
8.2.3
Vo ra s dng DMA
Trong cc phng php vo/ra d liu bng chng trnh k trn, d liu phi c chuyn qua li t b nh n CPU ri n thit b ngoi vi hoc ngc li bng vic thc hin tng lnh (MOV, IN hoc OUT) ca CPU vi s tham gia ca cc thanh ghi. D liu ca mi ln vn chuyn l byte hoc word (2 byte), tc trao i d liu ph thuc rt nhiu vo tc thc hin cc lnh trao i d liu k trn. Ni chung, tc trao i d liu l khng th nhanh c. Vi cc thit b lm vic vi b nh khi nh mn hnh, a, ... yu cu trao i c mng d liu th phng php vo/ra d liu bng chng trnh l khng ph hp. Khi ngi ta ngh n vic iu khin d liu vo/ra trc tip t b nh n thit b ngoi vi hoc ngc li m khng thng qua CPU bng nhng lnh trao i d liu nh MOV, IN hoc OUT. l phng php vo/ra d liu bng cch truy nhp trc tip b nh (DMA Direcr Memory Access). Trong trng hp ny CPU trao
quyn iu khin cho mt mch phn cng ph iu khin vic vo/ra d liu, l DMAC DMA Controller Cc thnh phn ca DMAC Thanh ghi d liu: cha d liu trao i. Thanh ghi a ch: cha a ch ca ngn nh d liu B m d liu: cha s t d liu cn trao i Khi logic iu khin: iu khin hot ng ca DMAC Hot ng ca DMA Khi cn vo ra d liu th CPU nh DMAC tin hnh vo ra d liu vi thng tin cho bit nh sau: o a ch thit b vo ra o a ch u ca mng nh cha d liu v DMAC np thanh ghi a ch o S t d liu cn truyn v DMAC np vo b m d liu o CPU s i thc hin vic khc
o DMAC iu khin vic trao i d liu sau khi truyn mt t d liu
th ni dung thanh ghi a ch tng ln v ni dung b m d liu gim xung mt n v. o Khi b m bng d liu bng 0, DMAC gi tn hiu ngt CPU bo kt thc DMA
Hnh 8-36
S kt ni ca DMAC
Cc kiu thc hin DMA DMA truyn theo khi: DMAC s dng BUS truyn c khi d liu (CPU chuyn nhng BUS cho DMAC)

DMA ly chu k: DMAC cng bc CPU treo tm thi tng chu k BUS thc hin truyn mt t d liu DMA trong sut: DMAC nhn bit nhng chu k no CPU khng s dng BUS th chim BUS trao i d liu (DMAC ly ln chu k)
c im DMA CPU khng tham gia trong qu trnh trao i d liu DMAC iu khin trao i d liu gia b nh chnh v Module vo ra vi tc nhanh. Ph hp vi yu cu trao i mng d liu c kch thc ln. 8.3 Ghp ni thit b ngoi vi Cc kiu ni ghp vo ra Ni ghp song song Ni ghp ni tip Ni ghp song song Truyn cc bit d liu c truyn song song trong cng mt thi im trn nhiu ng dy. Tc truyn cao Cn ng truyn song song ti cc bit d liu cng i, iu khin phng php ny tn km v dy dn. in hnh ca phng php ny cng my in 25 chn LPT. Ni ghp ni tip Tng Bit ca d liu ln lt c gi i trn mt ng truyn duy nht D liu trong my tnh thng dng 8bit, 16b, v th cn c b chuyn i t song song sang ni tip. Tc truyn ca phng php ny chm v truyn tng bit trn mt ng dy u im l kinh t, khng tn dy, c th dng truyn i xa. Cc cu hnh ghp ni ghp im - im (point to point): Qua mt cng vo ra ch c th ghp mt thit b ngoi vi (PS/2, COM, LPT,)
im - a im (Point to multipoint): Thng qua mt cng vo ra ghp nhiu thit b vo ra. V d: SCSI(7,15), USB (127), 8.4 Cc cng vo ra thng dng
8.4.1 Cng song song LPT

Cc my tnh PC c trang b t nht l 1 cng song song v 1 cng ni tip. Khc vi ghp ni ni tip c nhiu ng dng, ghp ni song song thng ch phc v cho my in. S ghp ni song song nh hnh sau:
Hnh 8-37
Ghp ni song song ra cng LPT
C ba thanh ghi c th truyn s liu v iu khin my in cng nh khi ghp ni. a ch c s ca cc thanh ghi cho tt c cng LPT (line printer) t LPT1 n LPT4 c lu tr trong vng s liu BIOS. Thanh ghi s liu c nh v offset 00h, thanh ghi trang thi 01h, v thanh ghi iu khin 02h. Thng thng, a ch c s ca LPT1 l 378h, LPT2 l 278h, do a ch ca thanh ghi trng thi l 379h hoc 279h v a ch thanh ghi iu khin l 37Ah hoc 27Ah. nh dng cc thanh ghi nh sau: 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Tn hiu my in D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 Chn s 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 (a) 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Tn hiu my in BSY /ACK PAP OFON /FEH x x x
Schn cm
11
10
12 (b)
13
15
- -
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Tn hiu my in x x x IRQ /DSL /INI /ALF STR Schn cm - - 17 16 14 1 (c)

Bng 8-10 Bng nh dng cho cc thanh ghi d liu, trng thi v iu khin (b) Thanh ghi d liu (hai chiu)
(c) Thanh ghi trng thi my in (ch c) (d) Thanh ghi iu khin my in x: khng s dng IRQ: yu cu ngt cng; 1 = cho php; 0 = khng cho php Bn mch ghp ni ch c bus d liu 8 bit do d liu lun i qua my in thnh tng khi 8 bit. Cc chn tn hiu ca u cm 25 chn ca cng song song LPT nh sau: Chn 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Tn hiu STR D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 ACK BSY M t Mc tn hiu thp, truyn dliu ti my in Bit d liu 0 Bit d liu 1 Bit d liu 2 Bit d liu 3 Bit d liu 4 Bit d liu 5 Bit d liu 6 Bit d liu 7 Mc thp: my in nhn 1 k t v c kh nng nhn na Mc cao: k t c nhn; b m my in y; khi ng my in; my in trng thi off12 13 14 15 16 17 PAP OFON ALF FEH INI DSL line. Mc cao: ht giy Mc cao: my in trng thi online T ng xung dng; mc thp: my in xung dng t ng Mc thp: ht giy; my in offline; li my in Mc thp: khi ng my in Mc thp: chn my in
18-25
GROUND
0V Bng 8-11 Tn hiu chn ca cng LPT
Thng tc x l d liu ca cc thit b ngoi vi nh my in chm hn PC nhiu nn cc ng ACK, BSY v STR c s dng cho k thut bt tay. Khi u, PC t d liu ln bus sau kch hot ng STR xung mc thp thng tin cho my in bit rng s liu n nh trn bus. Khi my in x l xong d liu, n s tr li tn hiu ACK xung mc thp ghi nhn. PC i cho n khi ng BSY t my in xung thp (my in khng bn) th s a tip d liu ln bus. D liu c th trao i trc tip gia 2 PC qua cc cng song song vi nhau. Mun vy, cc ng iu khin bn ny phi c kt ni vi cc ng trng thi bn kia.
Hnh 8-38 Trao i d liu qua cng song song gia 2 PC
8.4.2 Ni tip (Serial)

Cc ghp ni ca PC cho trao i ni tip u theo tiu chun RS-232 ca EIA (Electronic Industries Association) hoc ca CCITT Chu u. Chun ny quy nh ghp ni v c kh, in, v logic gia mt thit b u cui s liu DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) v thit b thng tin s liu DCE (Data Communication Equipment). Th d, DTE l PC v DCE l MODEM. C 25 ng vi u cm 25 chn D25 gia DTE v DCE. Hu ht vic truyn s liu l bt ng b. C 11 tn
hiu trong chun RS232C dng cho PC, IBM cn quy nh thm u cm 9 chn D9. Cc chn tn hiu v mi quan h gia cc u cm 25 chn v 9 chn: Tn hiu TxD RxD RTS CTS DSR GND DCD DTR RI DSRD
D25 D9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 20 22 23 3 2 7 8 6 5 1 4 9 -
Hng truyn DTEDCE DCEDTE DTEDCE DCEDTE DCEDTE DCEDTE DTEDCE DCEDTE DCEDTE
M t
Protected ground: ni t bo v Transmitted data: dliu pht Received data: dliu thu Request to send: DTE yu cu truyn dliu Clear to send: DCE sn sng nhn dliu Data set ready: DCE sn sng lm vic Ground: ni t (0V) Data carier detect: DCE pht hin sng mang Data terminal ready: DTE sn sng lm vic Ring indicator: bo chung Data signal rate detector: d tc truyn Bng 8-12 Tn hiu chn ca cng ni tip
Chun RS-232C cho php truyn tn hiu vi tc n 20.000 bps nhng nu cp truyn ngn c th ln n 115.200 bps. Chiu di cp cc i l 1720m. Cc phng thc ni gia DTE v DCE: n cng (simplex connection): d liu ch c truyn theo 1 hng. Bn song cng ( half-duplex): d liu truyn theo 2 hng, nhng mi thi im ch c truyn theo 1 hng. Song cng (full-duplex): s liu c truyn ng thi theo 2 hng.
8.4.3 Cng PC-Game

Cu trc v chc nng ca board ghp ni tr chi (PC game) nh hnh bn di.
Hnh 8-39 Cu trc ca board ghp ni cng PC-game
Chn ca u ni 15 chn 2 3 6 7 10 11 13 14 1, 8, 9, 15 4, 5, 12
Sdng cho Phm 1 ca Joystick A (BA1) Bin tr X ca Joystick A Bin tr Y ca Joystick A Phm 2 ca Joystick A (BA2) Phm 1 ca Joystick A (BB1) Bin tr X ca Joystick B Bin tr Y ca Joystick B Phm 2 ca Joystick A (BB2) Vcc (+5V) GND (0V)
Bng 8-13 Tn hiu chn ca cng PC-game
Board mch c ni vi bus h thng ca PC ch qua 8 bits thp ca bus d liu, 10 bits thp ca bus a ch v cc ng iu khin IOR v IOW. Mt u ni 15 chn c ni vi board mch cho php ni cc i hai thit b cho PC game gi l joystick. Mi joystick c 2 bin tr c gi tr bin i t 0 n 100k c t vung gc vi nhau i din cho v tr x v y ca joystick. Thm na chng c 2 phm
bm, thng l cc cng tc thng h ph hp vi cc mc logic cao ca cc dy trn mch. C th xc nh c trng thi nhn hoc nh phm mt cch d dng bng lnh IN ti a ch 201h. Nibble cao ch th trng thi ca phm. V board khng dng ng IRQ do khng c kh nng pht ra 1 ngt, do vy board ch hot ng trong ch hi vng (polling). Byte trng thi ca board game nh sau: D7 BB2 D6 BB1 D5 BA2 D4 BA1 D3 BY D2 BX D1 AY D0 AX
Bng 8-14 Byte trng thi ca board game
BB2, BB1, BA2, BA1: Trng thi ca cc phm B2, B1, A2, A1; 1 = nh; 0 = nhn BY, BX, AY, AX: Trng thi ca mch a hi tu thuc vo bin tr tng ng.
8.4.4 Cng bn phm
Hnh 8-40 S kt ni cng bn phm
Chip x l bn phm lin tc kim tra trng thi ca ma trn qut (scan matrix) xc nh cng tc ti cc ta X,Y ang c ng hay m v ghi mt m tng ng vo b m bn trong bn phm. Sau m ny s c truyn ni tip ti mch ghp ni bn phm trong PC. Cu trc ca SDU cho vic truyn s liu ny v cc chn cm ca u ni bn phm. SDU 0 10 STRT DB0 DB1 DB2 DB3 DB4 DB5 DB6 DB7 PAR STOP
STRT: PAR: STOP:
bit start (lun bng 0) bit parity (lun l) bit stop (lun bng 1).
DB0 - DB7: bit s liu t 0 n 7.
Tn hiu xung nhp dng cho vic trao i d liu thng tin ni tip ng b vi mch ghp ni bn phm (keyboard interface) trn main board c truyn qua chn s 1. Mt b iu khin bn phm c lp t trn c s cc chp 8042, hoc 8742,8741. N c th c chng trnh ha (th d kha bn phm) hn na s liu c th truyn theo 2 hng t bn phm v mch ghp ni, do vy vi m ca chp bn phm c th gip cho vic nhn lnh iu khin t PC, th d nh t tc lp li ca nhn bn phm,.
Hnh 8-41 u cm bn phm AT
Hnh 8-42 u cm bn phm PS/2
Bi ging Kin trc my tnh TI LIU THAM KHO [1]. Bi ging Kin trc v t chc my tnh , b mn K thut my [2].
tnh Khoa in T. Bi ging Cu trc my tnh , b mn K thut my tnh Khoa in T.
Sch tham kho: [3]. Nguyn nh Vit, Kin trc my tnh, NXB Gio dc, 2000. [4]. Tng Vn On, Cu trc my tnh c bn, NXB Thng k, 2001. [5]. Tng Vn On, Cu trc my tnh nng cao, NXB Thng k, 2001. [6]. Trn Quang Vinh, Nguyn l phn cng v k thut ghp ni my tnh, NXB Gio dc, 2002. [7]. Tng Vn On, Hong c Hi, Gio trnh cu trc my tnh, NXB Gio dc, 2000. [8]. Nguyn Nam Trung, Cu trc my vi tnh v thit b ngoi vi, NXB KHKT, 2000.

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Bi ging Kin trc my tnh

TRNG I HC K THUT CNG NGHIP

BI GING HC PHN:KIN TRC MY TNH

Thi Nguyn, nm 2011

1 Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh

Tn tc gi bin son: Tng Cm Nhung

BI GING HC PHN:KIN TRC MY TNH

Trng b mn (k v ghi r h tn)

Thi Nguyn, ngy 26 thng 6 nm 2011 Trng khoa (k v ghi r h tn)

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh

CHNG 2BIU DIN THNG TIN TRONG MY TNH 33

CHNG 3MC LOGIC S

3.1 Gii thiu v cng v i s logic..........................................................49

3.1.1 Cng (Gate)........................................................................................49

Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh

CHNG 4MC VI CHNG TRNH

CHNG 5MC MY THNG THNG

4 Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh

CHNG 6CP H IU HNH 102

CHNG 7CP HP NG 114

CHNG 8H THNG VO RA 122

5 Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh

6 Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh DANH MC CC HNH V

7 Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh DANH MC CC BNG BIU

8 Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh

12 tun 3 tun 15 tun

10 Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh

Chng 2. Biu din thng tin trong my tnh

3.5.1. T chc b nh 3.5.2. Thit k modul nh

Chng 4 Mc vi chng trnh

11 Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh

[1] - [2]-[3]-[4]Tho lun [7]

Chng 5. Mc my thng thng

6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4.

Chng 7. Cc thit b ngoi vi

7.1. 7.2. 7.3. 7.4.

Chng 8. My tnh IBM-PC

12 Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn

13 Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh

1.1 Nhng khi nim v nguyn l c bn 1.1.1 Khi nim my tnh

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh

Nguyn l xy dng my tnh in t

C hai nguyn l c bn xy dng my tnh in t l: nguyn l s v nguyn l tng t.

Dng in Dn in Bng 1-1 Trng thi trong nguyn l s

17 Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn

Bng 1-2 i lng bin thin trong nguyn l tng t

18 Tng Cm Nhung, BM K thut my tnh - Khoa in t Trng H KTCN Thi Nguyn

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh

1.2 Lch s pht trin ca my tnh

Th h s khng my tnh c kh.

Bi ging Kin trc my tnh