Chng I Cc Khi nim v c trng c bn 1.1. Khi nim v phn loi cm bin 1.1.1.

Khi nim Cm bin l thit b dng cm nhn bin i cc i lng vt l v cc i lng khng c tnh cht in cn o thnh cc i lng in c th o v x l c. Cc i lng cn o (m) thng khng c tnh cht in (nh nhit , p sut ...) tc ng ln cm bin cho ta mt c trng (s) mang tnh cht in (nh in tch, in p, dng in hoc tr khng) cha ng thng tin cho php xc nh gi tr ca i lng o. c trng (s) l hm ca i lng cn o (m):
s = F (m )

(1.1)

Ngi ta gi (s) l i lng u ra hoc l phn ng ca cm bin, (m) l i lng u vo hay kch thch (c ngun gc l i lng cn o). Thng qua o c (s) cho php nhn bit gi tr ca (m). 1.1.2. Phn loi cm bin Cc b cm bin c phn loi theo cc c trng c bn sau y: - Theo nguyn l chuyn i gia p ng v kch thch (bng 1.1). Bng 1.1 Hin tng Chuyn i p ng v kch thch - Nhit in - Quang in - Quang t Hin tng vt l - in t - Quang n hi - T in - Nhit t... - Bin i ho hc Ho hc - Bin i in ho - Phn tch ph ... - Bin i sinh ho Sinh hc - Bin i vt l - 5-

- Hiu ng trn c th sng ... - Phn loi theo dng kch thch (bng 1.2) Bng 1.2 - Bin pha, phn cc m thanh - Ph - Tc truyn sng ... - in tch, dng in in - in th, in p - in trng (bin, pha, phn cc, ph) - in dn, hng s in mi ... - T trng (bin, pha, phn cc, ph) T - T thng, cng t trng - t thm ... - Bin, pha, phn cc, ph Quang - Tc truyn - H s pht x, khc x - H s hp th, h s bc x ... - V tr - Lc, p sut - Gia tc, vn tc C - ng sut, cng - M men - Khi lng, t trng - Vn tc cht lu, nht ... - Nhit Nhit - Thng lng - Nhit dung, t nhit ... - Kiu Bc x - Nng lng - Cng ...

- 6-

- Theo tnh nng ca b cm bin (bng 1.3) Bng 1.3 - nhy - chnh xc - phn gii - chn lc - tuyn tnh - Cng sut tiu th - Di tn - tr - Phn loi theo phm vi s dng ( bng 1.4). Bng 1.4 - Cng nghip - Nghin cu khoa hc - Mi trng, kh tng - Thng tin, vin thng - Nng nghip - Dn dng - Giao thng - V tr - Qun s - Phn loi theo thng s ca m hnh mch thay th : + Cm bin tch cc c u ra l ngun p hoc ngun dng. + Cm bin th ng c c trng bng cc thng s R, L, C, M .... tuyn tnh hoc phi tuyn. 1.2. ng cong chun ca cm bin 1.2.1. Khi nim ng cong chun cm bin l ng cong biu din s ph thuc ca i lng in (s) u ra ca cm bin vo gi tr ca i lng o (m) u vo. - Kh nng qu ti - Tc p ng - n nh - Tui th - iu kin mi trng - Kch thc, trng lng

- 7-

ng cong chun c th biu din bng biu thc i s di dng s = F (m ) , hoc bng th nh hnh 1.1a.

s si

mi

a)

b)

Hnh 1.1 ng cong chun cm bin a) Dng ng cong chun b) ng cong chun ca cm bin tuyn tnh

Da vo ng cong chun ca cm bin, ta c th xc nh gi tr mi cha bit ca m thng qua gi tr o c si ca s. d s dng, ngi ta thng ch to cm bin c s ph thuc tuyn tnh gia i lng u ra v i lng u vo, phng trnh s= F(m) c dng s = am +b vi a, b l cc h s, khi ng cong chun l ng thng (hnh 1.1b). 1.2.2. Phng php chun cm bin Chun cm bin l php o nhm mc ch xc lp mi quan h gia gi tr s o c ca i lng in u ra v gi tr m ca i lng o c tnh n cc yu t nh hng, trn c s xy dng ng cong chun di dng tng minh ( th hoc biu thc i s). Khi chun cm bin, vi mt lot gi tr bit chnh xc mi ca m, o gi tr tng ng si ca s v dng ng cong chun.

s s2 s1
m1 m2 m

Hnh 1.2 Phng php chun cm bin

a) Chun n gin Trong trng hp i lng o ch c mt i lng vt l duy nht tc ng ln mt i lng o xc nh v cm bin s dng khng nhy vi tc ng ca cc - 8-

i lng nh hng, ngi ta dng phng php chun n gin. Thc cht ca chun n gin l o cc gi tr ca i lng u ra ng vi cc gi xc nh khng i ca i lng o u vo. Vic chun c tin hnh theo hai cch: Chun trc tip: cc gi tr khc nhau ca i lng o ly t cc mu Chun gin tip: kt hp cm bin cn chun vi mt cm bin so snh chun hoc cc phn t so snh c gi tr bit trc vi chnh xc cao. c sn ng cong chun, c hai c t trong cng iu kin lm vic. Khi tc ng ln hai cm bin vi cng mt gi tr ca i lng o ta nhn c gi tr tng ng ca cm bin so snh v cm bin cn chun. Lp li tng t vi cc gi tr khc ca i lng o cho php ta xy dng c ng cong chun ca cm bin cn chun. b) Chun nhiu ln Khi cm bin c phn t b tr (tr c hoc tr t), gi tr o c u ra ph thuc khng nhng vo gi tr tc thi ca i lng cn o u vo m cn ph thuc vo gi tr trc ca ca i lng ny. Trong trng hp nh vy, ngi ta p dng phng php chun nhiu ln v tin hnh nh sau: t li im 0 ca cm bin: i lng cn o v i lng u ra c gi tr o gi tr u ra theo mt lot gi tr tng dn n gi tr cc i ca i Lp li qu trnh o vi cc gi tr gim dn t gi tr cc i. tng ng vi im gc, m=0 v s=0. lng o u vo. Khi chun nhiu ln cho php xc nh ng cong chun theo c hai hng o tng dn v o gim dn. 1.3. Cc c trng c bn 1.3.1. nhy ca cm bin a) Khi nim i vi cm bin tuyn tnh, gia bin thin u ra s v bin thin u vo m c s lin h tuyn tnh:
s = S.m

(1.2)

i lng S xc nh bi biu thc S =

s c gi l nhy ca cm bin. m

Trng hp tng qut, biu thc xc nh nhy S ca cm bin xung quanh

- 9-

gi tr mi ca i lng o xc nh bi t s gia bin thin s ca i lng u ra v bin thin m tng ng ca i lng o u vo quanh gi tr :
s S= m m = m (1.3)
i

php o t chnh xc cao, khi thit k v s dng cm bin cn lm sao cho nhy S ca n khng i, ngha l t ph thuc nht vo cc yu t sau: Gi tr ca i lng cn o m v tn s thay i ca n. Thi gian s dng.

nh hng ca cc i lng vt l khc (khng phi l i lng o) ca

mi trng xung quanh. Thng thng nh sn xut cung cp gi tr ca nhy S tng ng vi nhng iu kin lm vic nht nh ca cm bin.

b) nhy trong ch tnh v t s chuyn i tnh

ng chun cm bin, xy dng trn c s o cc gi tr si u ra tng ng vi cc gi tr khng i mi ca i lng o khi i lng ny t n ch lm vic danh nh c gi l c trng tnh ca cm bin. Mt im Qi(mi,si) trn c trng tnh xc nh mt im lm vic ca cm bin ch tnh. Trong ch tnh, nhy S xc nh theo cng thc (1.3) chnh l c ca c trng tnh im lm vic ang xt. Nh vy, nu c trng tnh khng phi l tuyn tnh th nhy trong ch tnh ph thuc im lm vic. i lng ri xc nh bi t s gia gi tr si u ra v gi tr mi u vo c gi l t s chuyn i tnh: s ri = m Q (1.4)
i

T (1.4), ta nhn thy t s chuyn i tnh ri khng ph thuc vo im lm vic Qi v ch bng S khi c trng tnh l ng thng i qua gc to .

c) nhy trong ch ng
nhy trong ch ng c xc nh khi i lng o bin thin tun hon theo thi gian. Gi s bin thin ca i lng o m theo thi gian c dng:
m(t ) = m 0 + m 1 cos t

(1.5)

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Trong m0 l gi tr khng i, m1 l bin v tn s gc ca bin thin i lng o.

u ra ca cm bin, hi p s c dng:
s(t ) = s 0 + s1 cos(t + )

Trong : - s0 l gi tr khng i tng ng vi m0 xc nh im lm vic Q0 trn ng cong chun ch tnh. - s1 l bin bin thin u ra do thnh phn bin thin ca i lng o gy nn. - l lch pha gia i lng u vo v i lng u ra. Trong ch ng, nhy S ca cm bin c xc nh bi t s gia bin ca bin thin u ra s1 v bin ca bin thin u vo m1 ng vi im lm vic c xt Q0, theo cng thc:
s S= 1 m 1 Q

nhy trong ch ng ph thuc vo tn s i lng o, S = S (f ) . S bin thin ca nhy theo tn s c ngun gc l do qun tnh c, nhit hoc in ca u o, tc l ca cm bin v cc thit b ph tr, chng khng th cung cp tc thi tn hiu in theo kp bin thin ca i lng o. Bi vy khi xt s hi p c ph thuc vo tn s cn phi xem xt s mch o ca cm bin mt cch tng th.

1.3.2. tuyn tnh a) Khi nim

Mt cm bin c gi l tuyn tnh trong mt di o xc nh nu trong di ch , nhy khng ph thuc vo i lng o. Trong ch tnh, tuyn tnh chnh l s khng ph thuc ca nhy ca cm bin vo gi tr ca i lng o, th hin bi cc on thng trn c trng tnh ca cm bin v hot ng ca cm bin l tuyn tnh chng no i lng o cn nm trong vng ny. Trong ch ng, tuyn tnh bao gm s khng ph thuc ca nhy ch tnh S(0) vo i lng o, ng thi cc thng s quyt nh s hi p (nh

- 11-

tn s ring f0 ca dao ng khng tt, h s tt dn cng khng ph thuc vo i lng o. Nu cm bin khng tuyn tnh, ngi ta a vo mch o cc thit b hiu chnh sao cho tn hiu in nhn c u ra t l vi s thay i ca i lng o u vo. S hiu chnh c gi l s tuyn tnh ho.

b) ng thng tt nht
Khi chun cm bin, t kt qu thc nghim ta nhn c mt lot im tng ng (si,mi) ca i lng u ra v i lng u vo. V mt l thuyt, i vi cc cm bin tuyn tnh, ng cong chun l mt ng thng. Tuy nhin, do sai s khi o, cc im chun (mi, si) nhn c bng thc nghim thng khng nm trn cng mt ng thng. ng thng c xy dng trn c s cc s liu thc nghim sao cho sai s l b nht, biu din s tuyn tnh ca cm bin c gi l ng thng tt nht. Phng trnh biu din ng thng tt nht c lp bng phng php bnh phng b nht. Gi s khi chun cm bin ta tin hnh vi N im o, phng trnh c dng: s = am + b Trong :
a= N. s i .m i s i . m i N. m 2 ( m i ) i
2

b=

s i . m 2 m i .s i . m i i 2 N. m 2 ( m i ) i

c) lch tuyn tnh

i vi cc cm bin khng hon ton tuyn tnh, ngi ta a ra khi nim lch tuyn tnh, xc nh bi lch cc i gia ng cong chun v ng thng tt nht, tnh bng % trong di o.

1.3.3. Sai s v chnh xc

Cc b cm bin cng nh cc dng c o lng khc, ngoi i lng cn o (cm nhn) cn chu tc ng ca nhiu i lng vt l khc gy nn sai s gia gi tr o c v gi tr thc ca i lng cn o. Gi x l lch tuyt i gia gi tr o v gi tr thc x (sai s tuyt i), sai s tng i ca b cm bin c tnh bng: - 12-

x .100 x

[%]

Sai s ca b cm bin mang tnh cht c tnh bi v khng th bit chnh xc gi tr thc ca i lng cn o. Khi nh gi sai s ca cm bin, ngi ta thng phn chng thnh hai loi: sai s h thng v sai s ngu nhin. - Sai s h thng: l sai s khng ph thuc vo s ln o, c gi tr khng i hoc thay i chm theo thi gian o v thm vo mt lch khng i gia gi tr thc v gi tr o c. Sai s h thng thng do s thiu hiu bit v h o, do iu kin s dng khng tt gy ra. Cc nguyn nhn gy ra sai s h thng c th l: Do nguyn l ca cm bin. + Do gi tr ca i lng chun khng ng. + Do c tnh ca b cm bin. + Do iu kin v ch s dng. +Do x l kt qu o. - Sai s ngu nhin: l sai s xut hin c ln v chiu khng xc nh. Ta c th d on c mt s nguyn nhn gy ra sai s ngu nhin nhng khng th d on c ln v du ca n. Nhng nguyn nhn gy ra sai s ngu nhin c th l: + Do s thay i c tnh ca thit b. + Do tn hiu nhiu ngu nhin. + Do cc i lng nh hng khng c tnh n khi chun cm bin. Chng ta c th gim thiu sai s ngu nhin bng mt s bin php thc nghim thch hp nh bo v cc mch o trnh nh hng ca nhiu, t ng iu chnh in p ngun nui, b cc nh hng nhit , tn s, vn hnh ng ch hoc thc hin php o lng thng k.

1.3.4. nhanh v thi gian hi p

nhanh l c trng ca cm bin cho php nh gi kh nng theo kp v thi gian ca i lng u ra khi i lng u vo bin thin. Thi gian hi p l i lng c s dng xc nh gi tr s ca nhanh. nhanh tr l khong thi gian t khi i lng o thay i t ngt n khi bin thin ca i lng u ra ch cn khc gi tr cui cng mt lng gii hn tnh bng %. Thi gian hi p tng ng vi % xc nh khong thi gian cn - 13-

thit phi ch i sau khi c s bin thin ca i lng o ly gi tr ca u ra vi chnh xc nh trc. Thi gian hi p c trng cho ch qu ca cm bin v l hm ca cc thng s thi gian xc nh ch ny. Trong trng hp s thay i ca i lng o c dng bc thang, cc thng s thi gian gm thi gian tr khi tng (tdm) v thi gian tng (tm) ng vi s tng t ngt ca i lng o hoc thi gian tr khi gim (tdc) v thi gian gim (tc) ng vi s gim t ngt ca i lng o. Khong thi gian tr khi tng tdm l thi gian cn thit i lng u ra tng t gi tr ban u ca n n 10% ca bin thin tng cng ca i lng ny v khong thi gian tng tm l thi gian cn thit i lng u ra tng t 10% n 90% bin thin bin thin tng cng ca n.
m m0

t
s s0

0,9 0,1 tdm tm tdc tc t

Hnh 1.3 Xc nh cc khong thi gian c trng cho ch qu

Tng t, khi i lng o gim, thi gian tr khi gim tdc l thi gian cn thit i lng u ra gim t gi tr ban u ca n n 10% bin thin tng cng ca i lng ny v khong thi gian gim tc l thi gian cn thit i lng u ra gim t 10% n 90% bin thin bin thin tng cng ca n. Cc thng s v thi gian tr, tdm, tm, tdc, tc ca cm bin cho php ta nh gi v thi gian hi p ca n.

1.3.5. Gii hn s dng ca cm bin

Trong qu trnh s dng, cc cm bin lun chu tc ng ca ng lc c hc, tc ng nhit... Khi cc tc ng ny vt qu ngng cho php, chng s lm thay i c trng lm vic ca cm bin. Bi vy khi s dng cm bin, ngi s dng cn phi bit r cc gii hn ny.

a) Vng lm vic danh nh

- 14-

Vng lm vic danh nh tng ng vi nhng iu kin s dng bnh thng ca cm bin. Gii hn ca vng l cc gi tr ngng m cc i lng o, cc i lng vt l c lin quan n i lng o hoc cc i lng nh hng c th thng xuyn t ti m khng lm thay i cc c trng lm vic danh nh ca cm bin.

b) Vng khng gy nn h hng

Vng khng gy nn h hng l vng m khi m cc i lng o hoc cc i lng vt l c lin quan v cc i lng nh hng vt qua ngng ca vng lm vic danh nh nhng vn cn nm trong phm vi khng gy nn h hng, cc c trng ca cm bin c th b thay i nhng nhng thay i ny mang tnh thun nghch, tc l khi tr v vng lm vic danh nh cc c trng ca cm bin ly li gi tr ban u ca chng.

c) Vng khng ph hu
Vng khng ph hy l vng m khi m cc i lng o hoc cc i lng vt l c lin quan v cc i lng nh hng vt qua ngng ca vng khng gy nn h hng nhng vn cn nm trong phm vi khng b ph hy, cc c trng ca cm bin b thay i v nhng thay i ny mang tnh khng thun nghch, tc l khi tr v vng lm vic danh nh cc c trng ca cm bin khng th ly li gi tr ban u ca chng. Trong trng hp ny cm bin vn cn s dng c, nhng phi tin hnh chun li cm bin.

1.4. Nguyn l chung ch to cm bin

Cc cm bin c ch to da trn c s cc hin tng vt l v c phn lm hai loi: Cm bin tch cc: l cc cm bin hot ng nh mt my pht, p ng Cm bin th ng: l cc cm bin hot ng nh mt tr khng trong (s) l in tch, in p hay dng. p ng (s) l in tr, t cm hoc in dung.

1.4.1. Nguyn l ch to cc cm bin tch cc

Cc cm bin tch cc c ch to da trn c s ng dng cc hiu ng vt l bin i mt dng nng lng no (nhit, c hoc bc x) thnh nng lng in. Di y m t mt cch khi qut ng dng mt s hiu ng vt l khi ch to cm bin.

- 15-

a) Hiu ng nhit in
Hai dy dn (M1) v (M2) c bn cht ho hc khc nhau c hn li vi nhau thnh mt mch in kn, nu nhit hai mi hn l T1 v T2 khc nhau, khi trong mch xut hin mt sut in ng e(T1, T2) m ln ca n ph thuc chnh lch nhit gia T1 v T2.

T1

(M2) (M1)

T1

T2

(M2)

Hnh 1.4. S hiu ng nhit in.

Hiu ng nhit in c ng dng o nhit T1 khi bit trc nhit T2, thng chn T2 = 0oC.

b) Hiu ng ho in
Mt s tinh th gi l tinh th ho in (v d tinh th sulfate triglycine) c tnh phn cc in t pht vi phn cc ph thuc vo nhit , lm xut hin trn cc mt i din ca chng nhng in tch tri du. ln ca in p gia hai mt ph thuc vo phn cc ca tinh th ho in.

Hnh 1.5 ng dng hiu ng ho in

Hiu ng ho in c ng dng o thng lng ca bc x nh sng. Khi ta chiu mt chm nh sng vo tinh th ho in, tinh th hp th nh sng v nhit ca n tng ln, lm thay i s phn cc in ca tinh th. o in p V ta c th xc nh c thng lng nh sng .

c) Hiu ng p in
Mt s vt liu gi chung l vt liu p in (nh thch anh chng hn) khi b bin dng dc tc ng ca lc c hc, trn cc mt i din ca tm vt liu xut - 16-

hin nhng lng in tch bng nhau nhng tri du, c gi l hiu ng p in. o V ta c th xc nh c cng ca lc tc dng F.

Hnh 1.6 ng dng hiu ng p in

d) Hiu ng cm ng in t
Khi mt dy dn chuyn ng trong t trng khng i, trong dy dn xut hin mt sut in ng t l vi t thng ct ngang dy trong mt n v thi gian, ngha l t l vi tc dch chuyn ca dy. Tng t nh vy, trong mt khung dy t trong t trng c t thng bin thin cng xut hin mt sut in ng t l vi tc bin thin ca t thng qua khung dy.
B

Hnh 1.7 ng dng hiu ng cm ng in t

Hiu ng cm ng in t c ng dng xc nh tc dch chuyn ca vt thng qua vic o sut in ng cm ng.

e) Hiu ng quang in
- Hiu ng quang dn: (hay cn gi l hiu ng quang in ni) l hin tng gii phng ra cc ht dn t do trong vt liu (thng l bn dn) khi chiu vo chng mt bc x nh sng (hoc bc x in t ni chung) c bc sng nh hn mt ngng nht nh. - Hiu ng quang pht x in t: (hay cn gi l hiu ng quang in ngoi) l hin tng cc in t c gii phng v thot khi b mt vt liu to thnh dng c th thu li nh tc dng ca in trng.

g) Hiu ng quang - in - t
Khi tc dng mt t trng B vung gc vi bc x nh sng, trong vt liu bn - 17-

dn c chiu sng s xut hin mt hiu in th theo hng vung gc vi t trng B v hng bc x nh sng.

Hnh 1.8 ng dng hiu ng quang - in - t

h) Hiu ng Hall
Khi t mt tm mng vt liu mng (thng l bn dn), trong c dng in chy qua, vo trong mt t trng B c phng to vi dng in I trong tm mt gc , s xut hin mt hiu in th VH theo hng vung gc vi B v I. Biu thc hiu in th c dng:
VH = K H .I.B. sin

Trong KH l h s ph thuc vo vt liu v kch thc hnh hc ca tm vt liu.

N S B

Hnh 1.9 ng dng hiu ng Hall Hiu ng Hall c ng dng xc nh v tr ca mt vt chuyn ng. Vt cn xc nh v tr lin kt c hc vi thanh nam chm, mi thi im, v tr thanh nam chm xc nh gi tr ca t trng B v gc tng ng vi tm bn dn mng lm vt trung gian. V vy, hiu in th VH o c gia hai cnh tm bn dn l hm ph thuc vo v tr ca vt trong khng gian.

- 18-

1.4.2. Nguyn ch to cm bin th ng

Cm bin th ng thng c ch to t mt tr khng c cc thng s ch yu nhy vi i lng cn o. Gi tr ca tr khng ph thuc kch thc hnh hc, tnh cht in ca vt liu ch to (nh in tr sut , t thm , hng s in mi ). V vy tc ng ca i lng o c th nh hng ring bit n kch thc hnh hc, tnh cht in hoc ng thi c hai. S thay i thng s hnh hc ca tr khng gy ra do chuyn ng ca phn t chuyn ng hoc phn t bin dng ca cm bin. Trong cc cm bin c phn t chuyn ng, mi v tr ca phn t ng s ng vi mt gi tr xc nh ca tr khng, cho nn o tr khng c th xc nh c v tr ca i tng. Trong cm bin c phn t bin dng, s bin dng ca phn t bin dng di tc ng ca i lng o (lc hoc cc i lng gy ra lc) gy ra s thay i ca tr khng ca cm bin. S thay i tr khng do bin dng lin quan n lc tc ng, do lin quan n i lng cn o. Xc nh tr khng ta c th xc nh c i lng cn o. S thay i tnh cht in ca cm bin ph thuc vo bn cht vt liu ch to tr khng v yu t tc ng (nhit , chiu sng, p sut, m ...). ch to cm bin, ngi ta chn sao cho tnh cht in ca n ch nhy vi mt trong cc i lng vt l trn, nh hng ca cc i lng khc l khng ng k. Khi c th thit lp c s ph thuc n tr gia gi tr i lng cn o v gi tr tr khng ca cm bin. Trn bng 1.1 gii thiu cc i lng cn o c kh nng lm thay i tnh cht in ca vt liu s dng ch to cm bin. Bng 1.1 i lng cn o Nhit Bc x nh sng Bin dng V tr (nam chm) c trng nhy cm T thm () Loi vt liu s dng Kim loi (Pt, Ni, Cu) Bn dn Bn dn Hp kim Ni, Si pha tp Hp kim st t Vt liu t in tr:Bi, InSb

- 19-

1.5. Mch o 1.5.1. S mch o

Mch o bao gm ton b thit b o (trong c cm bin) cho php xc nh chnh xc gi tr ca i lng cn o trong nhng iu kin tt nht c th.

u vo ca mch, cm bin chu tc ng ca i lng cn o gy nn tn

hiu in mang theo thng tin v i cn o.

u ra ca mch, tn hiu in qua x l c chuyn i sang dng c

th c c trc tip gi tr cn tm ca i lng o. Vic chun h o m bo cho mi gi tr ca ch th u ra tng ng vi mt gi tr ca i lng o tc ng u vo ca mch. Dng n gin ca mch o gm mt cm bin, b phn bin i tn hiu v thit b ch th, v d mch o nhit gm mt cp nhit ghp ni trc tip vi mt milivn k.

Hnh 1.10 S mch o nhit bng cp nhit

FC (1)

My in

D (2)

PC (4)

(5)

ADC (6)

CPU (7)

PA (3)

Mn hnh

Hnh 1.11 Mch o in th b mt 1) My pht chc nng 2) Cm bin in tch 3) Tin khuch i 4) So pha lc nhiu 5) Khuch i 6) Chuyn i tng t s 7) My tnh

Trn thc t, do cc yu cu khc nhau khi o, mch o thng gm nhiu thnh phn trong c cc khi ti u ho vic thu thp v x l d liu, chng hn mch tuyn tnh ho tn hiu nhn t cm bin, mch kh in dung k sinh, - 20-

cc b chuyn i nhiu knh, b khuch i, b so pha lc nhiu, b chuyn i tng t - s, b vi x l, cc thit b h tr... Trn hnh 1.11 biu din s khi mt mch in o in th trn b mt mng nhy quang c lp rp t nhiu phn t

1.5.2. Mt s phn t c bn ca mch o a) B khuch i thut ton (KTT)

B khuch i thut ton mch tch hp l b khuch i dng mt chiu c hai u vo v mt u ra chung, thng gm hng trm tranzito v cc in tr, t in ghp ni vi nhau. S b khuch i thut ton biu din trn hnh 1.12.

K + Ura = K.Uvo

Ura

Hnh 1.12 S b khuch i thut ton

Cc c tnh c bn ca b khuch i thut ton: - B khuch i c hai u vo: mt u o (-), mt u khng o (+). - in tr vo rt ln, c hng trm M n G. - in tr ra rt nh, c phn chc . - in p lch u vo rt nh, c vi nV. - H s khuch i h mch rt ln, c 100.000. - Di tn lm vic rng. - H s suy gim theo cch ni chung CMRR l t s h s khuch i ca b khuch i thut ton i vi cc tn hiu sai lch v h s khuch i theo cch ni chung ca cng b khuch i thut ton. Thng thng CMRR vo khong 90 dB. - Tc tng hn ch s bin thin cc i ca in p tnh bng V/s.

b) B khuch i o lng IA
B khuch i o lng IA c hai u vo v mt u ra. Tn hiu u ra t l vi hiu ca hai in p u vo:
U ra = A(U + U ) = AU

- 21-

U1

R2 10k R 10k Ra 1k R 10k U2 R2 10k

R3 10k

U3 u ra

R3 190k

Hnh 1.13 S b khuch i o lng gm ba KTT ghp ni in tr

u vo vi sai ng vai tr rt quan trng trong vic kh nhiu ch chung v tng in tr vo ca KTT. in p trn Ra phi bng in p vi sai u vo U v to nn dng in i =
U . Cc in p ra t KTT U1 v U2 phi bng nhau v Ra

bin nhng ngc pha. in p U3 ca tng th hai bin i u ra vi sai thnh u ra n cc. H s khuch i tng ca IA bng:
2R R 3 A = 1 + R R a 1

c) Kh in p lch
i vi mt b khuch KTT l tng khi h mch phi c in p ra bng khng khi hai u vo ni mt. Thc t v cc in p bn trong nn to ra mt in p nh (in p phn cc) u vo KTT c vi mV, nhng khi s dng mch kn in p ny c khuch i v to nn in p kh ln u ra. kh in p lch c th s dng s hnh 1.14, bng cch iu chnh bin tr R3.
+ 9V 7 2 3 +

714 4 1 5 R3 10k

6 R2 100k

- 9V

u ra R1 1,01k

u vo

Hnh 1.14 S mch kh in p lch

- 22-

d) Mch lp li in p
lp li in p chnh xc, ngi ta s dng b KTT lm vic ch khng o vi h s khuch i bng 1 s nh hnh 1.15.
+ 9V 7 2 3

714 4 - 9V

u vo

u ra

Hnh 1.15 S mch lp in p

Trong b lp in p, cc dng ca KTT c ni trc tip vi tn hiu vo, cn cc m c ni trc tip vi u ra, to nn in p phn hi 100% do h s khuch i bng 1. Mch lp in p c chc nng tng in tr u vo, do vy thng dng ni gia hai khu trong mch o.

e) Mch cu
Cu Wheatstone thng c s dng trong cc mch o nhit , lc, p sut, t trng... Cu gm bn in tr R1, R2, R3 c nh v R4 thay i (mc nh hnh 1.16) hot ng nh cu khng cn bng da trn vic pht hin in p qua ng cho ca cu.
R1 U + R2 R4 = R(1+)

R3 Vra

Hnh 1.15 S mch cu

Trong mch cu, in p ra l hm phi tuyn nhng i vi bin i nh (<0,05) c th coi l tuyn tnh. Khi R1 = R2 v R3 = R4 nhy ca cu l cc i. Trng hp R1 >> R2 hoc R2 >> R1 in p ra ca cu gim. t K = R1/R2 nhy ca cu l:
= U K . R (1 + k )2

- 23-

- 24-

Chng II

Cm bin quang
2.1. Tnh cht v n v o nh sng 2.1.1. Tnh cht ca nh sng Nh chng ta bit, nh sng va c tnh cht sng va c tnh cht ht. nh sng l mt dng ca sng in t, vng nh sng nhn thy c bc sng t 0,4 - 0,75 m. Trn hnh 2.1 biu din ph nh sng v s phn chia thnh cc di mu ca ph.
0,490 0,575 0,590 0,395 0,455 0,650 0,750

vng

cc tm

tm lam

lc

da cam

hng ngoi

(m)
0,01 0,1 0,4 0,75 1,2 10 30 100

trng thy

cc tm

h.n.ngn

hng ngoi

h. ngoi xa

Hnh 2.1 Ph nh sng

Vn tc truyn nh sng trong chn khng c = 299.792 km/s, trong mi trng vt cht vn tc truyn sng gim, c xc nh theo cng thc:
v= c n

n - chit sut ca mi trng. Mi quan h gia tn s v bc sng ca nh sng xc nh bi biu thc: - Khi mi trng l chn khng :

=
v .

- Khi mi trng l vt cht : = Trong l tn s nh sng.

Tnh cht ht ca nh sng th hin qua s tng tc ca nh sng vi vt cht.

nh sng gm cc ht nh gi l photon, mi ht mang mt nng lng nht nh,

nng lng ny ch ph thuc tn s ca nh sng:

- 24 -

W = h

(2.1)

Trong h l hng s Planck (h = 6,6256.10-34J.s). Bc sng ca bc x nh sng cng di th tnh cht sng th hin cng r, ngc li khi bc sng cng ngn th tnh cht ht th hin cng r.
2.1.2. Cc n v o quang a) n v o nng lng

- Nng lng bc x (Q): l nng lng lan truyn hoc hp th di dng bc x o bng Jun (J). - Thng lng nh sng (): l cng sut pht x, lan truyn hoc hp th o bng oat (W): = dQ dt (2.2)

- Cng nh sng (I): l lung nng lng pht ra theo mt hng cho trc ng vi mt n v gc khi, tnh bng oat/steriadian. I= d d (2.3)

- chi nng lng (L): l t s gia cng nh sng pht ra bi mt phn t b mt c din tch dA theo mt hng xc nh v din tch hnh chiu dAn ca phn t ny trn mt phng P vung gc vi hng .
L= dI dA n

(2.4)

Trong dAn = dA.cos, vi l gc gia P v mt phng cha dA. chi nng lng o bng oat/Steriadian.m2. ri nng lng (E): l t s gia lung nng lng thu c bi mt phn t
d dA

b mt v din tch ca phn t .

E=

(2.5)

ri nng lng o bng oat/m2.

b) n v o th gic

nhy ca mt ngi i vi nh sng c bc sng khc nhau l khc nhau. Hnh 2.2 biu din nhy tng i ca mt V() vo bc sng. Cc i lng th gic nhn c t i lng nng lng tng ng thng qua h s t l K.V(). - 25 -

V() 1

0,5

0 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8

(m)

max

Hnh 2.2 ng cong nhy tng i ca mt

Theo quy c, mt lung nh snh c nng lng 1W ng vi bc sng max tng ng vi lung nh sng bng 680 lumen, do K=680. Do vy lung nh sng n sc tnh theo n v o th gic:
V ( ) = 680V( ) ( )

lumen

i vi nh sng ph lin tc:

V = 680 V( )
1 2

d ( ) d lumen d

Tng t nh vy ta c th chuyn i tng ng cc n v o nng lng v n v o th gic. Bng 2.1 lit k cc n v o quang c bn. Bng 2.1
i lng o n v th gic n v nng lng

Lung (thng lng) Cng chi ri Nng lng

2.2. Cm bin quang dn 2.2.1. Hiu ng quang dn

lumen(lm) cadela(cd) cadela/m2 (cd/m2) lumen/m2 hay lux (lx) lumen.s (lm.s)

oat(W) oat/sr(W/sr) oat/sr.m2 (W/sr.m2) oat/m2 (W/m2) jun (j)

Hiu ng quang dn (hay cn gi l hiu ng quang in ni) l hin tng gii phng nhng ht ti in (ht dn) trong vt liu di tc dng ca nh sng lm tng dn in ca vt liu. - 26 -

Trong cht bn dn, cc in t lin kt vi ht nhn, gii phng in t khi nguyn t cn cung cp cho n mt nng lng ti thiu bng nng lng lin kt Wlk. Khi in t c gii phng khi nguyn t, s to thnh ht dn mi trong vt liu. - in t
h h

- in t
+ h

+ l trng

+ l trng

Hnh 2.3. nh hng ca bn cht vt liu n ht dn c gii phng

Ht dn c gii phng do chiu sng ph thuc vo bn cht ca vt liu b chiu sng. i vi cc cht bn dn tinh khit cc ht dn l cp in t - l trng. i vi trng hp bn dn pha tp, ht dn c gii phng l in t nu l pha tp dono hoc l l trng nu l pha tp acxepto. Gi s c mt tm bn dn phng th tch V pha tp loi N c nng cc donor Nd, c mc nng lng nm di vng dn mt khong bng Wd ln nhit phng v khi trong ti nng n0 ca cc donor b ion ho do nhit l nh.

chiu sng V

A L Vng dn Wd + + + Vng ho tr + + + + h h

Hnh 2.4. T bo quang dn v s chuyn mc nng lng ca in t

Khi trong ti, nng in t c gii phng trong mt n v thi gian t l vi nng cc tp cht cha b ion ho v bng a(Nd -no), vi h s a xc nh theo cng thc:

- 27 -

 qWd a = exp kT khi vt liu, k l hng s.

(2.6)

Trong q l tr tuyt i ca in tch in t, T l nhit tuyt i ca S in t ti hp vi cc nguyn t b ion ho trong mt n v thi gian t l vi cc nguyn t b ion ho n0 v nng in t cng chnh bng n0 v bng
2 r. n 0 , trong r l h s ti hp.

Phng trnh ng hc biu din s thay i nng in t t do trong khi vt liu c dng: dn 0 2 = a (N d n 0 ) r.n 0 dt

trng thi cn bng ta c :

dn 0 =0 dt

1/ 2

Suy ra:

a a 2 a.N d n0 = + + 2. r 4 r 2 r 0 = qn 0

(2.7)

dn trong ti c biu din bi h thc: (2.8)

Trong l linh ng ca in t. Khi nhit tng, linh ng ca in t gim, nhng s tng mt in t t do do s kch thch nhit ln hn nhiu nn nh hng ca n l nhn t quyt nh i vi dn. Khi chiu sng, cc photon s ion ho cc nguyn t donor, gii phng ra cc in t. Tuy nhin khng phi tt c cc photon p ti b mt vt liu u gii phng in t, mt s b phn x ngay b mt, mt s b hp th v chuyn nng lng cho in t di dng nhit nng, ch phn cn li mi tham gia vo gii phng in t. Do vy, s in t (g) c gii phng do b chiu sng trong mt giy ng vi mt n v th tch vt liu, xc nh bi cng thc: g= Trong : G - s in t c gii phng trong th tch V trong thi gian mt giy. V=A.L, vi A, L l din tch mt cnh v chiu rng tm bn dn (hnh 2.4). G 1 (1 R ) = . V A.L h (2.9)

- 28 -

 - hiu sut lng t (s in t hoc l trng trung bnh c gii phng khi mt photon b hp th). R - l h s phn x ca b mt vt liu. - bc sng nh sng. - thng lng nh sng. h - hng s Planck. Phng trnh ng hc ca ti hp trong trng hp ny c dng: dn = a (N d n ) + g r.n 2 dt Thng thng bc x chiu ti ln s in t c gii phng ln hn rt nhiu so vi in t c gii phng do nhit:
g >> a (N d n ) v n>>n0

Trong iu kin trn, rt ra phng trnh ng hc cho mt in t iu kin cn bng di tc dng chiu sng:
g n= r
1/ 2

(2.10)

dn tng ng vi nng in t iu kin cn bng:

= qn .

(2.11)

T cng thc (2.9), (2.10) v (2.11) ta nhn thy dn l hm khng tuyn tnh ca thng lng nh sng, n t l vi 1/2. Thc nghim cho thy s m ca
hm nm trong khong 0,5 - 1.

2.2.2. T bo quang dn a) Vt liu ch to

T bo quang dn c ch to cc bn dn a tinh th ng nht hoc n tinh th, bn dn ring hoc bn dn pha tp. - a tinh th: CdS, CdSe, CdTe. PbS, PbSe, PbTe. - n tinh th: Ge, Si tinh khit hoc pha tp Au, Cu, Sb, In. SbIn, AsIn, PIn, cdHgTe. Vng ph lm vic ca cc vt liu ny biu din trn hnh 2.5

- 29 -

CdS CdSe CdTe PbS PbSe PbTe Ge Si GeCu SnIn AsIn CdHg

0,2

0,6

4 5

10

20

, m

30

Hnh 2.5. Vng ph lm vic ca mt s vt liu quang dn

b) Cc c trng - in tr : Gi tr in tr ti RC0 ca cc quang in tr ph thuc rt ln vo hnh

dng hnh hc, kch thc, nhit v bn cht ho l ca vt liu ch to. Cc cht PbS, CdS, CdSe c in tr ti rt ln ( t 104 - 109 25oC), trong khi SbIn, SbAs, CdHgTe c in tr ti tng i nh ( t 10 - 103 25oC). in tr Rc ca cm bin gim rt nhanh khi ri tng ln. Trn hnh 2.6 l mt v d v s thay i ca in tr cm bin theo ri sng.
in tr ()
106

106

104

102

0,1

10

100

1000

ri sng (lx)

Hnh 2.6. S ph thuc ca in tr vo ri sng

T bo quang dn c th coi nh mt mch tng ng gm hai in tr Rc0 v Rcp mc song song:

- 30 -

Rc =

R co R cp R co + R cp

(2.12)

Trong : Rco - in tr trong ti. Rcp - in tr khi chiu sng: R cp = a . a - h s ph thuc vo bn cht vt liu, nhit , ph bc x. - h s c gi tr t 0,5 - 1. Thng thng Rcp <<Rc0, nn c th coi Rc=Rcp. Cng thc (2.12) cho thy s ph thuc ca in tr ca t bo quang dn vo thng lng nh sng l khng tuyn tnh, tuy nhin c th tuyn tnh ha bng cch s dng mt in tr mc song song vi t bo quang dn. Mt khc, nhy nhit ca t bo quang dn ph thuc vo nhit , khi ri cng ln nhy nhit cng nh.

- nhy: Theo s tng ng ca t bo quang dn, dn in ca t bo

quang dn l tng dn trong ti v dn khi chiu sng:

G c = G co + G cp Trong : - Gco l dn trong ti: Gco = 1/Rco. - Gcp l in tr khi chiu sng: Gco = 1/Rcp = /a. Khi t in p V vo t bo quang dn, dng in qua mch:

(2.1)

I = VG co + VG cp = I 0 + I P Trong iu kin s dng thng thng I0<<IP, do dng quang in ca t bo quang dn xc nh bi biu thc:
IP = V a

(2.15)

i vi lung bc x c ph xc nh, t l chuyn i tnh: I V 1 = a V nhy: I V = 1 a T hai biu thc (2.16) v (2.17) c th thy:
- 31 -

(2.16)

(2.17)

- T bo quang dn l mt cm bin khng tuyn tnh, nhy gim khi bc x tng (tr khi =1). - Khi in p t vo nh, nhy t l thun vi in p t vo t bo quang dn. Khi in p t vo ln, hiu ng Joule lm tng nhit , dn n nhy gim (hnh 2.7). Trng hp bc x nh sng l n sc, Ip ph thuc vo , nhy ph ca t bo quang dn xc nh nh ng cong biu din s ph thuc ca hi p vo bc sng (hnh 2.8a)
10
nhy tng i

0,5

0,1

-150

-100

-50

0 50 Nhit (oC)

Hnh 2.7 nh hng ca nhit n nhy ca t bo quang dn

nhy tng i (%)

100 50 30
nhy tng i

10 5 1

10 5 3

10-1

10-2

1 1

3 Bc sng (m)

10-3 300 400 500 Nhit vt en tuyt i (K)

a)

b)

Hnh 2.8 nhy ca t bo quang dn a) ng cong ph hi p b) S thay i ca nhy theo nhit

S ( ) =

I ( )

(2.28)

- 32 -

 nhy ph ca t bo quang dn l hm ph thuc nhit ngun sng, khi nhit tng nhy ph tng. Khi bc x khng phi l n sc, dng Ip v do nhy ton phn ph thuc ph bc x (hnh 2.8b).
c) c im v ng dng

c in chung ca cc t bo quang dn: - T l chuyn i tnh cao. - nhy cao. - Hi p ph thuc khng tuyn tnh vo thng lng. - Thi gian hi p ln. - Cc c trng khng n nh do gi ho. - nhy ph thuc nhit . - Mt s loi i hi lm ngui. Trong thc t, t bo quang dn c dng trong hai trng hp: iu khin r le: khi c bc x nh sng chiu ln t bo quang dn, in tr ca n gim ng k, cho dng in chy qua ln, c s dng trc tip hoc qua khuch i ng m rle (hnh 2.9). Thu tn hiu quang: dng t bo quang dn thu v bin tn hiu quang thnh xung in. Cc xung nh sng ngt qung c th hin qua xung in, trn c s c th lp cc mch m vt hoc o tc quay ca a.
+ +

Hnh 2.9 Dng t bo quang dn iu khin rle a) iu khin trc tip b) iu khin thng qua tranzito khuch i

2.2.3. Photoiot a) Cu to v nguyn l hot ng

Xt hai tm bn dn, mt thuc loi N v mt thuc loi P, ghp tip xc nhau. Ti mt tip xc hnh thnh mt vng ngho ht dn v ti vng ny tn ti mt in trng v hnh thnh hng ro th Vb. - 33 -

Khi khng c in th ngoi t ln chuyn tip (V=0), dmg in chy qua chuyn tip i = 0, thc t dng I chnh l dng tng cng ca hai dng in bng nhau v ngc chiu: - Dng khuch tn cc ht c bn sinh ra khi ion ho cc tp cht (l trong trong bn dn loi P, in t trong bn dn loi N) do nng lng nhit ca cc ht dn c bn ln vt qua hng ro th. - Dng ht dn khng c bn sinh ra do kch thch nhit (in t trong bn dn P, l trng trong bn dn N) chuyn ng di tc dng ca in trng E trong vng ngho.
Vng ngho Vng chuyn tip h Ir

P E

Vng ngho N

Vb Hnh 2.10 S chuyn tip P - N v hiu ng quang in trong vng ngho

Khi c in p t ln it, hng ro th thay i ko theo s thay i dng ht c bn v b rng vng ngho. Dng in qua chuyn tip:
qV I = I 0 exp d I 0 kT

Khi in p ngc ln (Vd<< -

kT = 26 mV 300K), chiu cao hng ro th q

ln n mc dng khuch tn ca cc ht c bn tr nn rt nh v c th b qua v ch cn li dng ngc ca it, khi i = I0. Khi chiu sng it bng bc x c bc sng nh hn bc sng ngng, s xut hin thm cc cp in t - l trng. cc ht dn ny tham gia dn in cn phi ngn cn s ti hp ca chng, tc l nhanh chng tch ri cp in t - l trng. S tch cp in t - l trng ch xy ra trong vng ngho nh tc dng ca in trng. - 34 -

S ht dn c gii phng ph thuc vo thng lng nh sng t ti vng ngho v kh nng hp th ca vng ny. Thng lng nh sng chiu ti vng ngho ph thuc ng k vo chiu dy lp vt liu m n i qua: = 0 e x Trong h s 105 cm-1. tng thng lng nh sng n vng ngho ngi ta ch to it vi phin bn dn chiu dy rt b. Kh nng hp th bc x ph thuc rt ln vo b rng vng ngho. tng kh nng m rng vng ngho ngi ta dng it PIN, lp bn dn ring I kp gia hai lp bn dn P v N, vi loi it ny ch cn in p ngc vi vn c th m rng vng ngho ra ton b lp bn dn I.

P I N +

Hnh 2.11 Cu to it loi PIN

b) Ch hot ng - Ch quang dn:

S nguyn l (hnh 2.12a) gm mt ngun Es phn cc ngc it v mt in tr Rm o tn hiu.

Ir Vd
+ Thng lng -40 -30 -20 ES -10 0 20 40 60 Ir

50W 100W 150W 200W

ES

Rm

VR

a)

b)

Hnh 2.12 S nguyn l v ch lm vic

Dng ngc qua it:

qV I r = I 0 exp d + I 0 + I p kT

(2.40)

- 35 -

Trong Ip l dng quang in:

Ip = q(1 R ) 0 exp( X ) hc

(2.41)

qV Khi in p ngc Vd ln, thnh phn exp d 0, ta c: kT

IR = I0 + IP

Thng thng I0 <<IP do IR IP. Phng trnh mch in:

E = VR VD Trong VR = R m I r cho php v ng thng ti (hnh 2.11b). Dng in chy trong mch:
Ir = E V + Rm Rm

im lm vic ca it l im giao nhau gia ng thng ti v ng c tuyn i-V vi thng lng tng ng. Ch lm vic ny l tuyn tnh, VR t l vi thng lng.
- Ch quang th:

Trong ch ny khng c in p ngoi t vo it. it lm vic nh mt b chuyn i nng lng tng ng vi mt my pht v ngi ta o th h mch V0C hoc o dng ngn mch ISC. o th h mch: Khi chiu sng, dng IP tng lm cho hng ro th gim mt lng Vb. S gim chiu cao hng ro th lm cho dng ht dn c bn tng ln, khi t cn bng Ir = 0. Ta c:
qV I 0 exp d + I 0 + I p = 0 kT Vb = I kT log 1 + P q I0

Rt ra:

gim chiu cao Vb ca hng ro th c th xc nh c thng qua o in p gia hai u it khi h mch. VOC = I kT log 1 + P q I0
- 36 -

Khi chiu sng yu IP <<I0:

VOC = kT I P . q I0

Trong trng hp ny VOC (kT/q=26mV 300K) nh nhng ph thuc tuyn tnh vo thng lng. Khi chiu sng mnh, IP >>I0 v ta c:
VOC = I kT log P q I0

Trong trng hp ny VOC c gi tr tng i ln (c 0,1 - 0,6 V) nhng ph thuc vo thng lng theo hm logarit.
VOC, V

0,4

0,2

0 0,1

10

100 Thng lung, mW

Hnh 2.13 S ph thuc ca th h mch vo thng lng

o dng ngn mch: Khi ni ngn mch hai u it bng mt in tr nh hn rd no , dng on mch ISC chnh bng IP v t l vi thng lng (hnh 2.14):
I SC = I P
ISC,V

20

10

0,1

0,2 Thng lng, mW

Hnh 2.14 S ph thuc ca dng ngn mch vo thng lng nh sng

- 37 -

c im quan trng ca ch ny l khng c dng ti, nh vy c th gim nhiu v cho php o c thng lng nh.
c) nhy

i vi bc x c ph xc nh, dng quang in IP t l tuyn tnh vi thng lng trong mt khong tng i rng, c 5 - 6 decad. nhy ph xc nh theo cng thc: S ( ) = Vi s. nhy ph ph thuc vo , hiu sut lng t , h s phn x R v h s hp th .
S() 1,0 S(P) 0,6 0,4 0,2 0,1

I P q(1 R )exp( X ) = hc

0,04

0,4

0,6

0,8

1,0

(m)

1,2

Hnh 2.15 Ph nhy ca photodiot

Ngi s dng cn phi bit nhy ph da trn ng cong ph hi p S()/S(P) v gi tr ca bc sng P ng vi nhy cc i. Thng thng S(P) nm trong khong 0,1 - 1,0 A/W.
S (A/W)

0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 T2>T1 0 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0 (m) T2 T1

Hnh 2.16 S ph thuc ca nhy vo nhit

- 38 -

Khi nhit tng, cc i P ca ng cong ph dch chuyn v pha bc sng di. H s nhit ca dng quang dn
d) S ng dng photodiot
1 dI P . I P dT

c gi tr khong0,1%/oC.

- S lm vic ch quang dn: c trng ca ch quang dn: + tuyn tnh cao. + Thi gian hi p ngn. + Di thng ln. Hnh 2.16 trnh by s o dng ngc trong ch quang dn.
S c s (hnh 2.17a):
R V0 = R m 1 + 2 I r R1
ES R2 R1 CP1

Rm Ir R1

+
V0
+

Rm ES

+
C2

R2

R1+R2

V0

b) a) Hnh 2.17 S mch o dng ngc trong ch quang dn

Khi tng in tr Rm s lm gim nhiu. Tng tr vo ca mch khuch i phi ln trnh lm gim in tr ti hiu dng ca it.
S tc ng nhanh (hnh 2.17b):
V0 = (R 1 + R 2 )I r R1 + R 2 K

in tr ca iot nh v bng

trong K l h s khuch i tn s lm

vic. T C2 c tc dng b tr nh hng ca t k sinh Cpl vi iu kin

R 1C pl = R 2 C 2 .

B khuch i y phi c dng vo rt nh v s suy gim do nhit

cng phi khng ng k. - S lm vic ch quang th: c trng ca ch quang th: + C th lm vic ch tuyn tnh hoc logarit tu thuc vo ti. - 39 -

+ t nhiu. + Thi gian hi p ln. + Di thng nh. + Nhy cm vi nhit ch logarit.

S tuyn tnh (hnh 2.18a): o dng ngn mch Isc.

Trong ch ny:
V0 = R m .I sc

S logarit (hnh 2.18b): o in p h mch Voc.

R V0 = 1 + 2 Voc R1

Rm _ + V0 R1=Rm Vco R1

R2 + _ V0

IOC

a)

b)

Hnh 2.18 S mch o ch quang p

2.2.4. Phototranzito a) Cu to v nguyn l hot ng

Phototranzito l cc tranzito m vng baz c th c chiu sng, khng c in p t ln baz, ch c in p trn C, ng thi chuyn tip B-C phn cc ngc.
in th

| +

C B E

a)

b)

c)

Hnh 2.19 Phototranzito a) S mch in b) S tng ng c) Tch cp in t l trng khi chiu sng baz

- 40 -

in p t vo tp trung hu nh ton b trn chuyn tip B-C (phn cc ngc) trong khi chnh lch in p gia E v B thay i khng ng k (VBE 0,6-0,7 V). Khi chuyn tip B-C c chiu sng, n hot ng ging nh photoiot ch quang th vi dng ngc:
I r = I0 + I P

Trong I0 l dng ngc trong ti, IP l dng quang in di tc dng ca thng lng 0 chiu qua b dy X ca baz (bc sng < S): IP = q(1 R )exp(X ) 0 hc

Dng Ir ng vai tr dng baz, n gy nn dng colect Ic: I c = ( + 1)I r = ( + 1)I 0 + ( + 1)I p - h s khuch i dng ca tranzito khi u chung emit. C th coi phototranzito nh t hp ca mt photodiot v mt tranzito (hnh 2.19b). Phodiot cung cp dng quang in ti baz, cn tranzito cho hiu ng khch i . Cc in t v l trng pht sinh trong vng baz (di tc dng ca nh sng) s b phn chia di tc dng ca in trng trn chuyn tip B - C. Trong trng hp tranzito NPN, cc in t b ko v pha colect trong khi l trng b gi li trong vng baz (hnh 2.19c) to thnh dng in t t E qua B n C. Hin tng xy ra tng t nh vy nu nh l trng phun vo baz t mt ngun bn ngoi: in th baz tng ln lm gim hng ro th gia E v B, iu ny gy nn dng in t IE chy t E n B v khuch tn tip t B v pha C.
b) nhy

Khi nhn c thng lng 0, iot baz-colect sinh ra dng quang in Ip, dng ny gy nn trong phototranzito mt dng I cp = ( + 1)I p , trong gi tr ca Icp c rt ra t cng thc ca Ip: I cp =

( + 1)q(1 R )exp( X )
hc

i vi mt thng lng 0 cho trc, ng cong ph hi p xc nh bi bn cht ca iot B-C: vt liu ch to (thng l Si) v loi pha tp (hnh 2.20). i vi mt bc sng cho trc, dng colect Ic khng phi l hm tuyn tnh ca

- 41 -

thng lng hoc chiu sng bi v h s khuch i ph thuc vo dng Ic (tc l cng ph thuc thng lng), ngha l
I c ph thuc vo 0. 0

S() 100 S(p) (%) 80 60 40 20 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0

(m)

Hnh 2.20 ng cong ph hi p ca photodiot

nhy ph S(p) bc sng tng ng vi im cc i c gi tr nm trong khong 1 - 100A/W.

c) S dng phototranzito

Phototranzito c th dng lm b chuyn mch, hoc lm phn t tuyn tnh. ch chuyn mch n c u im so vi photodiot l cho php s dng mt cch trc tip dng chy qua tng i ln. Ngc li, ch tuyn tnh, mc d cho khuch i nhng ngi ta thch dng photoiot v n c tuyn tnh tt hn. - Phototranzito chuyn mch: Trong trng hp ny s dng thng tin dng nh phn: c hay khng c bc x, hoc nh sng nh hn hay ln hn ngng. Tranzito chn hoc bo ho cho php iu khin trc tip (hoc sau khi khuch i) nh mt rle, iu khin mt cng logic hoc mt thyristo (hnh 2.21). + + + + +

Hnh 2.21 Photodiotzito trong ch chuyn mch a) Rle b) Rle sau khch i c) Cng logic d) Thyristo

- 42 -

- Phototranzito trong ch tuyn tnh: C hai cch s dng trong ch tuyn tnh. - Trng hp th nht: o nh sng khng i (ging nh mt luxmet). - Trng hp th hai: thu nhn tn hiu thay i dng:
(t ) = 0 + 1 (t )

Trong 1(t) l thnh phn thay i vi bin nh sao cho khng dn ti phototranzito b chn hoc bo ho v c th coi hhy khng i. Trong iu kin , dng colect c dng: I c (t ) = I c 0 + S.1 (t )
2.2.5. Phototranzito hiu ng trng
Hnh 2.22 S nguyn l luxmet

Phototranzito hiu ng trng (photoFET) c s tng ng nh hnh 2.23.

+
G S D
G D S

a) Hnh 2.23 Phototranzito hiu ng trng a) S cu to b) S mch b)

Trong phototranzito hiu ng trng, nh sng c s dng lm thay i in tr knh. Vic iu khin dng mng ID c thc hin thng qua s thay i in p VGS gia cng v ngun. Trong ch phn cc ngc chuyn tip P-N gia cng v knh, in p ny s xc nh rng ca knh v do dng mng c dng:
V I D = I DSS 1 + GS VP
2

Vi IDS - dng mng khi VGS = 0. - 43 -

VP - in p tht knh. Khi b chiu sng, chuyn tip P-N hot ng nh mt photodiot cho dng ngc:
I r = I0 + I P

IP = Sg - dng quang in. I0 - dng in trong ti. Sg - nhy ca iot cng - knh. - thng lng nh sng. Dng Ir chy qua in tr Rg ca mch cng xc nh in th VGS v v dng mng:
VGS = R g (I 0 + I P ) E g

Eg - th phn cc ca cng. Phototranzito hiu ng trng c ng dng nhiu trong vic iu khin in p bng nh sng.
2.3. Cm bin quang in pht x 2.3.1. Hiu ng quang in pht x

Hiu ng quang in pht x hay cn c gi l hiu ng quang in ngoi l hin tng cc in t c gii phng khi b mt vt liu to thnh dng khi chiu vo chng mt bc x nh sng c bc sng nh hn mt ngng nht nh v c th thu li nh tc dng ca in trng. C ch pht x in t khi chiu sng vt liu xy ra theo ba giai on: - Hp th photon v gii phng in t bn trong vt liu. - in t va c gii phng di chuyn n b mt. - in t thot khi b mt vt liu. Khi mt in t hp th photon v c gii phng, di chuyn ca n trong khi vt liu mang tnh ngu nhin theo mi hng, do ch mt lng rt nh hng ti b mt. Mt khc, trong qu trnh di chuyn, cc in t ny c th va chm vi cc in t khc v mt i mt phn nng lng do ch mt lng nh in t c gii phng ti c b mt. Mt khc, s pht x ca cc in t sau khi n c b mt ch c th xy ra khi ng nng ca n thng c hng ro th phn cch vt liu vi mi trng. Vi tt c nhng iu kin trn, s in t pht x trung bnh khi mt photon b hp th (hiu sut lng t ) thng nh hn 10% v t khi vt qu 30%.

- 44 -

Vt liu ch to: Ph thuc vo bc sng nh sng, vt liu ch to photocatot c th chn trong cc loi sau: - AgOCs nhy vng hng ngoi. - Cs3Sb, (Cs)Na2KSb v K2CsSb: nhy vi nh sng nhn thy v vng t ngoi. - Cs2Te, Rb2Te v CsTe ch nhy trong vng t ngoi. Hiu sut lng t ca cc vt liu trn ~ 1 - 30%. Ngoi ra cn dng cc hp cht ca cc cht thuc nhm III - V, l cc hp cht GaAsxSb1-x , Ga1-xInxAs, InAsxP1-x, ngng nhy sng ca chng nm vng hng ngoi ( ~1m), hiu sut lng t t ti 30%.
2.3.2. T bo quang in chn khng

T bo quang in chn khng gm mt ng hnh tr c mt ca s trong sut, c ht chn khng (p sut ~ 10-6 - 10-8 mmHg). Trong ng t mt catot c kh nng pht x khi c chiu sng v mt anot.

K A

A K A K

Hnh 2.24 S cu to t bo quang in chn khng

S tng ng v s thay i ca dng anot Ia ph thuc vo in th anot catot Vak biu din trn hnh 2.25.
Ia (A)
A Ia 4 E 3 2,37 mW K Rm 2 0,95 mW 1 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 4,75 mW

a)

b)

Vak (V)

Hnh 2.25 S tng ng v c trng I - v ca t bo quang in chn khng

- 45 -

c trng I - V c hai vng r rt: + Vng in tch khng gian c trng bi s tng mnh ca dng khi in p tng. + Vng bo ho c trng bi s ph thuc khng ng k ca dng vo in p. T bo quang in c s dng ch yu trong vng bo ho, khi n ging nh mt ngun dng, gi tr ca dng ch ph thuc vo thng lng nh sng m n nhn c. in tr trong ca t bo quang in rt ln v c th xc nh t dc ca c tuyn vng bo ho:
1 dI a = dVak

nhy ph ca t bo quang in c biu din thng qua gi tr ca dng anot trong vng bo ho, thng vo c 10 - 100 mA/W.
2.3.3. T bo quang in dng kh

T bo quang in dng kh c cu to tng t t bo quang in chn khng, ch khc ch th tch bn trong ca n c in y bng kh, thng l kh acgon, di p sut c 10-1 - 10-2 mmHg.
Ia (A)
nhy tng i

8 6 4 2 0

2.10-2 lm 1,5.10-2 lm

10-2 lm 0,5.10-2 lm

20

40

60

80

100

120

20

40

60

80

Vak (V)

Vak (V)

Hnh 2.26 c trng v nhy ca t bo quang in dng kh

Khi in p thp hn 20V, c tuyn I - V c dng ging nh t bo quang in chn khng. Khi in p cao, in t chuyn ng vi tc ln lm ion ho cc nguyn t kh, kt qu l dng anot tng ln t 5 - 10 ln.
2.3.4. Thit b nhn quang

Khi b mt vt rn b bn ph bi cc in t c nng lng cao, n c th pht x cc in t (gi l pht x th cp). Nu s in t pht x th cp ln hn s - 46 -

in t ti th c kh nng khuch i tn hiu. S khuch i c thc hin bng cc thit b nhn quang (hnh 2.27). Cc in t ti (in t s cp) c pht x t mt photocatot t trong chn khng v b chiu sng. Sau chng c tiu t trn c cc th nht ca dy cc in cc (dynode) ni tip. B mt cc in cc ni tip ph bng vt liu c kh nng pht x in t th cp. Theo chiu i t in cc th nht n cc in cc tip theo, in th ca cc in cc tng dn sao cho cc in t sinh ra t in cc th k s b ht bi in cc th (k+1). Kt qu in cc sau s in t ln hn in cc trc .

1 2

K A

Hnh 2.27 Thit b nhn quang 1)b Photocatot 2) Dynode (in cc th cp)

H s khuch i ca thit b nhn quang xc nh theo cng thc:

M = c ( t )
n

c - h s thu nhn in t hu hiu ca cc cc. t- h s chuyn ti hu hiu t in cc ny sang in cc khc. - h s pht x th cp (s in t th cp pht ra khi c mt in t p vo in cc). Vi s in cc n = 5 - 15, h s pht x th cp = 5 - 10 v t > 90%, th M ~106 - 108.

- 47 -

- 48 -

Chng III

Cm bin o nhit
3.1. Khi nim c bn Nhit l mt trong s nhng i lng c nh hng rt ln n tnh cht vt cht. Bi vy trong nghin cu khoa hc, trong cng nghip cng nh trong i sng hng ngy vic o nhit l rt cn thit. Tuy nhin vic xc nh chnh xc mt nhit l mt vn khng n gin. a s cc i lng vt l u c th xc nh trc tip nh so snh chng vi mt i lng cng bn cht. Nhit l i lng ch c th o gin tip da vo s ph thuc ca tnh cht vt liu vo nhit . 3.1.1. Thang o nhit o nhit trc ht phi thit lp thang nhit . Thang nhit tuyt i c thit lp da vo tnh cht ca kh l tng. Theo nh l Carnot: hiu sut ca mt ng c nhit thun nghch hot ng gia hai ngun c nhit 1 v 2 trong mt thang o bt k ch ph thuc vo 1 v 2:
= F ( 1 ) F ( 2 )

(3.1)

Dng ca hm F ph thuc vo thang o nhit . Ngc li vic chn dng hm F s quyt nh thang o nhit . t F() = T, khi hiu sut nhit ca ng c nhit thun nghch c vit nh sau:
= 1 T1 T2

(3.2)

Trong T1 v T2 l nhit ng hc tuyt i ca hai ngun. i vi cht kh l tng, ni nng U ch ph thuc vo nhit ca cht kh v phng trnh c trng lin h gia p sut p, th tch v v nhit c dng: p.v=G() C th chng minh c rng: G()=RT Trong R l hng s kh l tng, T l nhit ng hc tuyt i.

- 48 -

 c th gn mt gi tr s cho T, cn phi xc nh n v cho nhit . Mun vy ch cn gn gi tr cho nhit tng ng vi mt hin tng no vi iu kin hin tng ny hon ton xc nh v c tnh lp li. Thang Kelvin (Thomson Kelvin - 1852): Thang nhit ng hc tuyt i, n v nhit l K. Trong thang o ny ngi ta gn cho nhit ca im cn bng ba trng thi nc - nc - hi mt gi tr s bng 273,15 K. Thang Celsius (Andreas Celsius - 1742): Thang nhit bch phn, n v nhit l oC v mt Celsius bng mt Kelvin. Nhit Celsius xc nh qua nhit Kelvin theo biu thc: T(oC)= T(K) - 273,15 ny, nhit ca im nc tan l 32oF v im nc si l 212oF. Quan h gia nhit Fahrenheit v nhit Celssius: (3.3) Thang Fahrenheit (Fahrenheit - 1706): n v nhit l oF. Trong thang o

T oC =
T oF =

( )

5 T o F 32 9
9 o T C + 32 5

{( )

(3.4) (3.5)

( )

( )

Bng 3.1 Cho cc gi tr tng ng ca mt s nhit quan trng theo cc thang o khc nhau. Bng 3.1 Nhi im 0 tuyt i Hn hp nc - nc Cn bngnc - nc - hi Nc si Kelvin (K) 0 273,15 273,16 373,15 Celsius (oC) -273,15 0 0,01 100 Fahrenheit (oF) -459,67 32 32,018 212

3.1.2. Nhit o c v nhit cn o

Gi s mi trng o c nhit thc bng Tx, nhng khi o ta ch nhn c nhit Tc l nhit ca phn t cm nhn ca cm bin. Nhit Tx gi l nhit cn o, nhit Tc gi l nhit o c. iu kin o ng nhit l phi c s cn bng nhit gia mi trng o v cm bin. Tuy nhin, do nhiu nguyn nhn, nhit cm bin khng bao gi t ti nhit mi trng Tx, do tn ti mt chnh lch nhit Tx - Tc nht nh. chnh xc ca php o ph thuc vo
- 49 -

hiu s Tx - Tc , hiu s ny cng b, chnh xc ca php o cng cao. Mun vy khi o cn phi:
-

Tng cnng s trao i nhit gia b cm bin v mi trng o. Gim s trao i nhit gia b cm bin v mi trng bn ngoi.

Chng ta hy kho st trng hp o bng cm bin tip xc. Lng nhit truyn t mi trng vo b cm bin xc nh theo cng thc:
dQ = A(Tx Tc )dt

Vi: - h s dn nhit. A - din tch b mt trao i nhit. T - thi gian trao i nhit. Lng nhit cm bin hp th:
dQ = mCdTc

Vi: m - khi lng cm bin. C - nhit dung ca cm bin. Nu b qua tn tht nhit ca cm bin ra mi trng ngoi v gi , ta c:
A(Tx Tc )dt = mCdTc

mC = , gi l hng s thi A gian nhit, ta c: dTc dt = Tx Tc Nghim ca phng trnh c dng: t

Tc = Tx ke
t

Tx T1 0,63Tx

Hnh 3.1. Trao i nhit ca cm bin

tng cng trao i nhit gia mi trng c nhit cn o v cm bin ta phi dng cm bin c phn t cm nhn c t nhit thp, h s dn nhit cao, hn ch tn tht nhit t cm bin ra ngoi th cc tip im dn t phn t cm nhn ra mch o bn ngoi phi c h s dn nhit thp.
3.1.3. Phn loi cm bin o nhit

Cc cm bin o nhit c chia lm hai nhm:

-

Cm bin tip xc: cm bin tip xc vi mi trng o, gm:

+ Cm bin gin n (nhit k gin n). + Cm bin in tr (nhit in tr).

- 50 -

+ Cp nhit ngu.
3.2.

Cm bin khng tip xc: ho k.

Nhit k gin n

Di y nghin cu mt s loi cm bin c bn. Nguyn l hot ng ca nhit k gin n da vo s gin n ca vt liu khi tng nhit . Nhit k loi ny c u im kt cu n gin, d ch to.
3.2.1. Nhit k gin n dng cht rn

Thng c hai loi: gm v kim loi, kim loi v kim loi.

A 2 1 1 2 b) Hnh 3.2 Nhit k gin n a) Nhit k gm - kim loi b) Nhit k kim loi - kim loi

a)

- Nhit k gm - kim loi(Dilatomet): gm mt thanh gm (1) t trong ng kim

loi (2), mt u thanh gm lin kt vi ng kim loi, cn u A ni vi h thng truyn ng ti b phn ch th. H s gin n nhit ca kim loi v ca gm l k v g. Do k > g, khi nhit tng mt lng dt, thanh kim loi gin thm mt lng dlk, thanh gm gin thm dlg vi dlk>dlg, lm cho thanh gm dch sang phi. Dch chuyn ca thanh gm ph thuc dlk - dlg do ph thuc nhit .
- Nhit k kim loi - kim loi: gm hai thanh kim loi (1) v (2) c h s gin n

nhit khc nhau lin kt vi nhau theo chiu dc. Gi s 1 > 2 , khi gin n nhit hai thanh kim loi cong v pha thanh (2). Da vo cong ca thanh kim loi xc nh nhit . Nhit k gin n dng cht rn thng dng o nhit di 700oC.
3.2.2. Nhit k gin n dng cht lng

Nhit k gm bnh nhit (1), ng mao dn (2) v cht lng (3). Cht lng s dng thng dng l thu ngn c h s gin n nhit =18.10-5/oC, v nhit k bng thu tinh c =2.10-5/oC. Khi o nhit , bnh nhit c t tip xc vi mi trng o. Khi nhit tng, cht lng gin n v dng ln trong ng mao dn. Thang o c chia trn
- 51 -

v theo dc ng mao dn. Di nhit lm vic t - 50 600oC tu theo vt liu ch to v bc.

3.3. Nhit k in tr 3.3.1. Nguyn l

Nguyn l chung o nhit bng cc in tr l da vo s ph thuc in tr sut ca vt liu theo nhit . Trong trng hp tng qut, s thay i in tr theo nhit c dng:
R(T ) = R 0 .F (T T0 )

1 Hnh 3.3 Nhit k gin n dng cht lng

R0 l in tr nhit T0, F l hm c trng cho vt liu v F = 1 khi T = T0.

Hin nay thng s dng ba loi in tr o nhit l: in tr kim loi, in tr silic v in tr ch to bng hn hp cc oxyt bn dn. Trng hp in tr kim loi, hm trn c dng:

R(T ) = R 0 1 + AT + BT 2 + CT 3 Trng hp in tr l hn hp cc oxyt bn dn:

1 1 R(T ) = R 0 . exp B T T0

(3.6)

Trong nhit T o bng oC, T0=0oC v A, B, C l cc h s thc nghim.

(3.7)

T l nhit tuyt i, B l h s thc nghim. Cc h s c xc nh chnh xc bng thc nghim khi o nhng nhit bit trc. Khi bit gi tr cc h s, t gi tr ca R ngi ta xc nh c nhit cn o. Khi bin thin ca nhit T (xung quanh gi tr T) nh, in tr c th coi nh thay i theo hm tuyn tnh:
R(T + T ) = R(T )(1 + R T )

(3.8)

Trong :
R = 1 dR R(T ) dT

(3.9)

- 52 -

c gi h s nhit ca in tr hay cn gi l nhy nhit nhit T. nhy nhit ph thuc vo vt liu v nhit , v d 0oC platin (Pt) c R=3,9.10-3/oC. Cht lng thit b o xc nh gi tr nh nht m n c th o c cng xc nh s thay i nh nht ca nhit c th pht hin c:
Tmin = R R0 1 R R Ro R R0

, do
min

min

V d nu

= 10 6 v vi nhng php o quanh im 0oC, vt liu l platin th

min

Tmin = 2,6.10 4 oC.

Thc ra, in tr khng ch thay i khi nhit thay i do s thay i in tr sut m cn chu tc ng ca s thay i kch thc hnh hc ca n. Bi vy i vi mt in tr dy c chiu di l v tit din s, h s nhit c dng:
R = 1 dR 1 d 1 dl 1 ds = + R dT dT l dT s dT

t:

1 d 1 dl ; l = ; dT l dT

s =

1 ds s dT

R = + l s

Vi

s = 2 l

ta c: R = l

Trn thc t thng >> l nn c th coi R = .

3.3.2. Nhit k in tr kim loi a) Vt liu

Yu cu chung i vi vt liu lm in tr: C in tr sut ln in tr ban u R0 ln m kch thc nhit k H s nhit in tr ca n tt nht l lun lun khng i du, khng trit C bn c, ho nhit lm vic. D gia cng v c kh nng thay ln.

vn nh.

tiu.

Cc cm bin nhit thng c ch to bng Pt v Ni. Ngoi ra cn dng Cu, W. Platin :

- 53 -

+ C th ch to vi tinh khit rt cao (99,999%) do tng chnh xc ca cc tnh cht in. + C tnh tr v mt ho hc v tnh n nh cu trc tinh th cao do m bo tnh n nh cao v cc c tnh dn in trong qu trnh s dng. + H s nhit in tr 0oC bng 3,9.10-3/oC. + in tr 100oC ln gp 1,385 ln so vi 0oC. + Di nhit lm vic kh rng t -200oC 1000oC.

Nikel: + C nhy nhit cao, bng 4,7.10-3/oC. + in tr 100oC ln gp 1,617 ln so vi 0oC. + D b oxy ho khi nhit cao lm gim tnh n nh. + Di nhit lm vic thp hn 250oC. ng c s dng trong mt s trng hp nh tuyn tnh cao ca in tr

theo nhit . Tuy nhin, hot tnh ho hc ca ng cao nn nhit lm vic thng khng vt qu 180oC. in tr sut ca ng nh, do ch to in tr c in tr ln phi tng chiu di dy lm tng kch thc in tr. Wonfram c nhy nhit v tuyn tnh cao hn platin, c th lm vic nhit cao hn. Wonfram c th ch to dng si rt mnh nn c th ch to c cc in tr cao vi kch thc nh. Tuy nhin, ng sut d sau khi ko si kh b trit tiu hon ton bng cch do gim tnh n nh ca in tr. Bng 3.2

Thng s
Tf (oC) c (JoC-1kg-1) (WoC-1m-1) l x106 (oC) x108 (m) x103 (oC-1)

Cu
1083 400 400 16,7 1,72 3,9

Ni
1453 450 90 12,8 10 4,7

Pt
1769 135 73 8,9 10,6 3,9

W
3380 125 120 6 5,52 4,5

b) Cu to nhit k in tr
trnh s lm nng u o dng in chy qua in tr thng gii hn gi tr mt vi mA v in tr c nhy nhit cao th in tr phi c gi tr ln.
- 54 -

Mun vy phi gim tit din dy hoc tng chiu di dy. Tuy nhin khi gim tit din dy bn li thp, dy in tr d b t, vic tng chiu di dy li lm tng kch thc in tr. hp l ngi ta thng chn in tr R 0oC c gi tr vo khong 100, khi vi in tr platin s c ng knh dy c vi m v chiu di khong 10cm, sau khi qun li s nhn c nhit k c chiu di c 1cm. Cc sn phm thng mi thng c in tr 0oC l 50, 500 v 1000, cc in tr ln thng c dng o di nhit thp. - Nhit k cng nghip: s dng cho mc ch cng nghip, cc nhit k phi c v bc tt chng c va chm mnh v rung ng, in tr kim loi c cun v bao bc trong thu tinh hoc gm v t trong v bo v bng thp. Trn hnh 3.4 l cc nhit k dng trong cng nghip bng in tr kim loi platin.
1 2 3 7 5 4 9 6 6 1 8

Hnh 3.4 Nhit k cng nghip dng in tr platin 1) Dy platin 2) Gm cch in 3) ng platin 4) Dy ni 5) S cch in 6) Trc g 7) Cch in 8) V bc 9) Xi mng

- Nhit k b mt:
Nhit k b mt dng o nhit trn b mt ca vt rn. Chng thng c ch to bng phng php quang ho v s dng vt liu lm in tr l Ni, Fe-Ni hoc Pt. Cu trc ca mt nhit k b mt c dng nh hnh v 3.5. Chiu dy lp kim loi c vi m v kch thc nhit k c 1cm2.

Hnh 3.5 Nhit k b mt - 55 -

c trng chnh ca nhit k b mt: - nhy nhit : ~5.10-3/oC i vi trng hp Ni v Fe-Ni ~4.10-3/oC i vi trng hp Pt. - Di nhit s dng: -195oC 260 oC i vi Ni v Fe-Ni. -260oC 1400 oC i vi Pt. Khi s dng nhit k b mt cn c bit lu n nh hng bin dng ca b mt o.
3.3.3. Nhit k in tr silic

Silic tinh khit hoc n tinh th silic c h s nhit in tr m, tuy nhin khi c kch tp loi n th trong khong nhit thp chng li c h s nhit in tr dng, h s nhit in tr ~0,7%/oC 25oC. Phn t cm nhn nhit ca cm bin silic c ch to c kch thc 500x500x240 m c m kim loi mt pha cn pha kia l b mt tip xc. Trong di nhit lm vic ( -55 200oC) c th ly gn ng gi tr in tr ca cm bin theo nhit theo cng thc:
R T = R 0 1 + A(T T0 ) + B(T T0 )
2400 2200 2000 1800 1600

R()

1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 -50 0 50 100

Trong R0 v T0 l in tr v nhit tuyt i im chun. S thay i nhit ca in tr tng i nh nn c th tuyn tnh ho bng cch mc thm mt in tr ph.

ToC

Hnh 3.6 S ph thuc nhit ca in tr silic

3.3.4. Nhit k in tr oxyt bn dn a) Vt liu ch to

Nhit in tr c ch to t hn hp oxyt bn dn a tinh th nh: MgO, MgAl2O4, Mn2O3, Fe3O4, Co2O3, NiO, ZnTiO4. S ph thuc ca in tr ca nhit in tr theo nhit cho bi biu thc:
1 1 T R(T ) = R 0 exp T T T0 0
2

(3.11)

Trong R0() l in tr nhit T0(K). nhy nhit c dng:

- 56 -

R =

+b T2

V nh hng ca hm m n in tr chim u th nn biu thc (3.11) c th vit li:

1 1 R(T ) = R 0 exp B T T0

(3.12)

V nhy nhit:
R = B T2

Vi B c gi tr trong khong 3.000 - 5.000K.

b) Cu to
Hn hp bt oxyt c trn theo t l thch hp sau c nn nh dng v thiu kt nhit ~ 1000oC. Cc dy ni kim loi c hn ti hai im trn b mt v c ph bng mt lp kim loi. Mt ngoi c th bc bi v thu tinh. Nhit in tr c nhy nhit rt cao nn c th dng pht hin nhng bin thin nhit rt nh c 10-4 -10-3K. Kch thc cm bin nh c th o nhit ti tng im. Nhit dung cm bin nh nn thi gian hi p nh. Tu thuc thnh phn ch to, di nhit lm vic ca cm bin nhit in tr t vi n khong 300oC.
Hnh 3.7 Cu to nhit in tr c v bc thu tinh

3.4.

Cm bin nhit ngu

3.4.1. Hiu ng nhit in

Phng php o nhit bng cm bin nhit ngu da trn c s hiu ng nhit in. Ngi ta nhn thy rng khi hai dy dn ch to t vt liu c bn cht ho hc khc nhau c ni vi nhau bng mi hn thnh mt mch kn v nhit hai mi hn l t v t0 khc nhau th trong mch xut hin mt dng in. Sc in ng xut hin do hiu ng nhit in gi l sc in ng nhit in. Nu mt u ca cp nhit ngu hn ni vi nhau, cn u th hai h th gia hai cc xut hin mt hiu in th. Hin tng trn c th gii thch nh sau:

- 57 -

Trong kim loi lun lun tn ti mt nng in t t do nht nh ph thuc bn cht kim loi v nhit . Thng thng khi nhit tng, nng in t tng.

Gi s nhit t0 nng in t trong A l NA(t0), trong B l NB(t0) v nhit t nng in t trong A l NA(t), trong B l NB(t), nu NA(t0) > NB(t0) th ni chung NA(t) > NB(t). Xt u lm vic (nhit t), do NA(t) > NB(t) nn c s khuch tn in t t A B v ch tip xc xut hin mt hiu in th eAB(t) c tc dng cn tr s khuch tn. Khi t cn bng eAB(t) s khng i.
Hnh 3. 8 S nguyn l cp nhit ngu t 1 A B t0 2

Tng t ti mt tip xc u t do (nhit t0) cng xut hin mt hiu in th eAB(t0). Gia hai u ca mt dy dn cng c chnh lch nng in t t do, do cng c s khuch tn in t v hnh thnh hiu in th tng ng trong A l eA(t,t0) v trong B l eB(t,t0). Sc in ng tng sinh ra do hiu ng nhit in xc nh bi cng thc sau:
E AB = e AB (t ) + e BA (t 0 ) + e A (t 0 , t ) + e B (t, t 0 )

(3.13)

V eA(t0,t) v eB(t,t0) nh v ngc chiu nhau c th b qua, nn ta c:

E AB = e AB (t ) + e BA (t 0 )

Nu nhit hai mi hn bng nhau, chng hn bng t0 khi sc in ng tng:

E AB = e AB (t 0 ) + e BA (t 0 ) = 0

Hay:
e BA (t 0 ) = e AB (t 0 )

(3.14)

Nh vy:

E AB = e AB (t ) e AB (t 0 ) (3.15) nhn thy nu gi nhit t0 = const th:

E AB = e AB (t ) + C = f (t )
- 58 -

(3.15)

Phng trnh (3.15) gi l phng trnh c bn ca cp nhit ngu. T phng trnh

(3.16)

Chn nhit mt mi hn t0 = const bit trc lm nhit so snh v o sc in ng sinh ra trong mch ta c th xc nh c nhit t mi hn th hai. Sc in ng ca cp nhit khng thay i nu chng ta ni thm vo mch mt dy dn th ba (hnh 3.9) nu nhit hai u ni ca dy th ba ging nhau. Tht vy:
- Trong trng hp a:
E ABC (t, t 0 ) = e AB (t ) + e BC (t 0 ) + e CA (t 0 )

V:
e AB (t 0 ) + e BC (t 0 ) + e CA (t 0 ) = 0

Nn:
E ABC (t, t 0 ) = e AB (t ) e AB (t 0 )
C t0 2 t0 3 3 A 1 t a) B A 4 t1 1 B t b) C t0 2 B t1

Hnh 3.9 S ni cp nhit vi dy dn th ba

Trng hp b: E ABC (t, t 1 , t 0 ) = e AB (t ) e AB (t 0 ) + e BC (t 1 ) + e CB (t 1 )

V: e BC (t 1 ) = e CB (t 1 ) Nn: E ABC (t, t 0 ) = e AB (t ) e AB (t 0 ) Nu nhit hai u ni khc nhau s lm xut hin sc in ng k sinh.
3.4.2. Cu to cp nhit a) Vt liu ch to

ch to cc nhit in c th dng nhiu kim loi v hp kim khc nhau.

- 59 -

Tuy nhin chng phi m bo cc yu cu sau:

-

Sc in ng ln ( d dng ch to dng c o th cp). C bn c hc v ho hc nhit lm vic. D ko si. C kh nng thay ln. Gi thnh r. Hnh 3.10 biu din quan h gia sc in ng v nhit ca cc vt liu

dng ch to in cc so vi in cc chun platin.

Ed
1

6 7 8 9 11 10

Hnh 3.10 Sc in ng ca mt s vt liu ch to in cc 1) Telua 2) Chromel 3) St 4) ng 5) Graphit 6) Hp kim platin-roi 7) Platin 8) Alumel 9) Niken 10) Constantan 11) Coben

Cp Platin - Roi/Platin:

Cc dng l hp kim Platin (90%) v ri (10%), cc m l platin sch. Nhit lm vic ngn hn cho php ti 1600oC , E =16,77mV. Nhit lm vic di hn <1300oC. ng c tnh c dng bc hai, trong khong nhit 0 - 300oC th E 0. Trong mi trng c SiO2 c th hng nhit 1000 - 1100oC. ng knh in cc thng ch to = 0,5 mm. Do sai khc ca cc cp nhit khc nhau tng i nh nn loi cp nhit ny thng c dng lm cp nhit chun.
Cp nhit Chromel/Alumel:

Cc dng l Chromel, hp kim gm 80%Ni + 10%Cr + 10%Fe. Cc m l Alumen, hp kim gm 95%Ni + 5%(Mn + Cr+Si). Nhit lm vic ngn hn ~1100oC, E = 46,16 mV.
- 60 -

Nhit lm vic di hn < 900oC. ng knh cc = 3 mm.

Cp nhit Chromel/Coben:

Cc dng l chromel, cc m l coben l hp kim gm 56%Cu + 44% Ni. Nhit lm vic ngn hn 800oC, E = 66 mV. Nhit lm vic di hn < 600oC.
Cp nhit ng/Coben:

Cc dng l ng sch, cc m l coben. Nhit lm vic ngn hn 600oC. Nhit lm vic di hn <300oC. Loi ny c dng nhiu trong th nghim v d ch to. Quan h gia sc in ng v nhit ca mt s cp nhit cho hnh 3.11.
E E J K

R S B

toC Hnh 3.11 Sc in ng ca mt s cp nhit ngu E-Chromel/Constantan R- Platin-Rodi (13%)/Platin J- St/Constantan S- Platin-Rodi (10%)/Platin K- Chromel/Alumel B-Platin-rodi (30%)/ Platin-rodi (6%)

b) Cu to

Cu to in hnh ca mt cp nhit cng nghip trnh by trn hnh 3.12.

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 Hnh 3.12 Cu to cp nhit 1) V bo v 2) Mi hn 3) Dy in cc 4) S cch in 5) B phn lp t 6) Vt ni dy 7) Dy ni 8) u ni dy - 61 -

u lm vic ca cc in cc (3) c hn ni vi nhau bng hn vy, hn kh hoc hn bng tia in t. u t do ni vi dy ni (7) ti dng c o nh cc vt ni (6) dy t trong u ni dy (8). cch ly cc in cc ngi ta dng cc ng s cch in (4), s cch in phi tr v ho hc v bn c v nhit nhit lm vic. bo v cc in cc, cc cp nhit c v bo v (1) lm bng s chu nhit hoc thp chu nhit. H thng v bo v phi c nhit dung nh gim bt qun tnh nhit v vt liu ch to v phi c dn nhit khng qu nh nhng cng khng c qu ln. Trng hp v bng thp mi hn u lm vic c th tip xc vi v gim thi gian hi p.
3.4.3. Mch o v dng c th cp

Nhit cn o c xc nh thng qua vic o sc in ng sinh ra hai u dy ca cp nhit ngu. chnh xc ca php o sc in ng ca cp nhit ngu ph thuc nhiu yu t. Mun nng cao chnh xc cn phi:
-

Gim thiu nh hng ca tc ng ca mi trng o ln nhit u t do. Gim thiu s st p do c dng in chy qua cc phn t ca cm bin v

mch o.
a) S mch o dng milivn k - S :

Trn hnh 3.13 biu din s o thng dng s dng milivn k t in.

mV

C t0 A 1 t1

mV

2 A

t0 t 1

t0 3 B

t0 4 B A 2 t2

Hnh 3.13 S mch o

Hnh3.14 S o vi sai

Khi nhit hai u t do (2) v (3) bng nhau th sc in ng trong mch chnh l sc in ng ca cp nhit, nu chng khc nhau th trong mch xut hin sut in ng k sinh cc mi ni v lm sai lch kt qu o.

- 62 -

 o trc tip hiu nhit gia hai im ngi ta dng s o vi sai nh hnh 3.14. Trong s ny, c hai u 1 v 2 ca cp nhit l u lm vic tng ng vi nhit t1 v t2. Kt qu o cho php ta xc nh trc tip gi tr ca hiu s hai nhit t1- t2.
E
mV

E AB (t, t '0 )
A B A B A B A B

E AB (t '0 , t 0 )
toC Hnh 3.16 Hiu chnh nhit u t do

Hnh 3.15 S mc ni tip

Trng hp nhit mi trng o khng khc nhiu nhit u t do, tng nhy php o c th mc theo s ni tip n cp nhit nh hnh 3.15. Sc in ng tng ca b mc ni tip bng nE AB (t, t 0 ) .
- B nhit u t do:

Thng thng cp nhit ngu c chun vi t0 = 0oC ng vi: E AB (t, t 0 ) = e AB (t ) e AB (t 0 ) Nu nhit u t do bng t '0 0 th gi tr sc in ng o c:
E AB (t, t '0 ) = e AB (t ) e AB (t '0 )

Rt ra:

E AB (t, t 0 ) = E AB (t, t '0 ) + e AB (t '0 ) e AB (t 0 )

Hay:
E AB (t, t 0 ) = E AB (t, t '0 ) + E Ab (t '0 , t 0 )

Gi tr E AB (t, t '0 ) l lng hiu chnh xc nh t thang chia ca cp nhit ngu dng theo gi tr o nhit u t do t0. Di y trnh by mt s phng php b nhit u t do.
Dng dy b:

- 63 -

 loi tr nh hng ca nhit i tng o ln u t do c th mc dng c o theo s hnh 3.17.

E = e AB (t ) e CA (t '0 ) + e BD (t '0 ) e CD (t 0 )

Chn dy dn C v D sao cho e CA (t '0 ) = e DB (t '0 ) ( 12 = 34 ), khi :

E = e AB (t ) e CD (t 0 )

V e(t0) = 0, nn:
E = e AB (t ) e AB (t 0 )
C 2 t0 A 3 t0 B t0 E 1 2 D 1 t 0 Hnh 3.17 B nhit u t do bng dy b 3 4 B t C A

t0

Dng cu b: Trn hnh 3.18 gii thiu s dng cu b t ng nhit u t do.

t0 F t1 A t
B ngun

C R1 R3
mV

t1 D B

Rd t0 R2

Hnh 3.18 Cu b nhit u t do

Cu b gm in tr R1, R2, R3 lm bng manganin (hp kim cha 99,4%Cu, 0,6%Ni) c h s nhit in tr bng khng, cn R lm bng ng c h s nhit in tr 4,25 4,28.10-3oC-1 . Khi nhit u t do t0 = 0, cu cn bng UAB=0. Gi s nhit u t do tng ln t0, khi R tng ln lm xut hin mt in p Uc. Ngi ta tnh ton sao cho in p ny b vo sc in ng nhit mt lng ng

- 64 -

bng lng cn hiu chnh, ngha l Uc = EAB(t0,t0). Nh vy trn ca vo ca dng c o c in p:

E AB (t, t '0 ) + U cd = E AB ( t, t 0 )

Sai s b ca cu tiu chun khi nhit t0 thay i trong khong 0 - 50oC l 3oC.
- nh hng ca in tr mch o:

Xt mch o dng milivn k in t (hnh 3.19).

t0 2 t1 A 3 t1 B Rt 1 t Hnh 3.19 nh hng ca in tr mch o Rd t0 RV

Gi:

Rt l in tr ca cp nhit. Rd l in tr dy ni. Rv l in tr trong ca milivn k.

Khi in p gi hai u milivn k xc nh bi cng thc:

Vm = E AB (t, t 0 ) Rt ra: RV Rt + Rd + R V

R + Rd E AB (t, t 0 ) = Vm 1 + t RV Theo biu thc (3.17) khi Rv >> Rt+Rd th:

E AB (t, t 0 ) Vm

(3.17)

nh hng ca Rt: i vi cp cromen/alumen hoc cp cromen/coben c in

tr Rt kh nh nn s thay i ca n t nh hng ti kt qu o. i vi cp PtRd Pt c in tr Rt kh ln (~ 15) nn s thay i ca n nh hng ng k ti kt qu o.

nh hng ca Rd: thng thng Rd kh nh nn t nh hng ti kt qu o.

- 65 -

nh hng ca RV : Rv = Rkd + Rf .
in tr ph Rf ca milivn k thng ch to bng vt liu c R = 0 nn

khng nh hng, s thay i Rv khi nhit tng ch yu do s thay i ca in tr khung dy Rkd (ch to bng ng R = 4,2.10-3/oC). gim sai s nn chn RP/Rkd ln.

b) S mch o xung i dng in th k

Trn hnh 3.20 trnh by s o bng phng php xung i, da theo nguyn tc so snh in p cn o vi mt in p ri trn mt on in tr.
E Rc iC A B RG G iP EX + Rx t a) Hnh 3.20 S o bng phng php b Rd i0 EM P K D EX

E RM G Rc R

b)

Theo s hnh (3.20a) ta c:

E X = I C R AB + I P (R d + R x + R G ) IC = I0 + IP E X = (I 0 + I P )R AB + I P (R d + R x + R G ) IP = E X I 0 R AB R AB + R d + R X + R G

Nu Ta c:

EX = I0RAB th IP = 0, tc l in th k ch khng, khi in p ri trn AB

bng gi tr EX cn o.
l R L

R AB =

EX = I0

l R L
- 66 -

Nu c nh c I0, L, R ta c Ex ph thuc n tr vo l tc l ph thuc vo v tr con chy ca ng h o. Trn s hnh (3.20b), EM l mt pin mu, RM l mt in tr mu bng manganin. Khi ng P vo K th in p ri trn RM c so snh vi pin mu. Nu kim in k ch khng th khng cn iu chnh dng I0, nu kim in k lch khi khng th dch chuyn Rc kim in k v khng. Khi o ng P vo D v x dch bin tr R kim in k ch khng, khi Ex = UAB.

3.5.

Ho k
Cc cm bin quang thuc loi cm bin o nhit khng tip xc, gm: ho

k bc x ton phn, ho k quang hc.

3.5.1. Ho k bc x ton phn

Nguyn l da trn nh lut: Nng lng bc x ton phn ca vt en tuyt i t l vi lu tha bc 4 ca nhit tuyt i ca vt.

E = T 4 Trong : l hng s, T l nhit tuyt i ca vt en tuyt i (K).

(3.18)

Thng thng c hai loi: ho k bc x c ng knh hi t, ho k bc x c knh phn x.

1 2 4 1 4 3

5 a) b)

Hnh 3.21 Ho k bc x ton phn a) Loi c ng knh hi t b) Loi c knh phn x 1) Ngun bc x 2) Thu knh hi t 3) Gng phn x 4) B phn thu nng lng 5) Dng c o th cp

Trong s hnh (3.21a): nh sng t ngun bc x (1) qua thu knh hi t (2) p ti b phn thu nng lng tia bc x (4), b phn ny c ni vi dng c o th cp (5). Trong s hnh (3.21b): nh sng t ngun bc x (1) p ti gng phn x (3) v hi t ti b phn thu nng lng tia bc x (4), b phn ny c ni vi dng c o th cp (5).
- 67 -

B phn thu nng lngc th l mt vi nhit k in tr hoc l mt t hp cp nhit, chng phi tho mn cc yu cu: + C th lm vic bnh thng trong khong nhit 100 - 150oC. + Phi c qun tnh nhit nh v n nh sau 3 - 5 giy. + Kch thc nh tp trung nng lng bc x vo o. Trn hnh 3.22 trnh by cu to ca mt b thu l t hp cp nhit. Cc cp nhit (1) thng dng cp
1

crmen/cben mc ni tip vi nhau. Cc vt en (2) ph bng bt platin. Ho k dng gng phn x tn tht nng lng thp ( ~ 10%), ho k dng thu knh hi t c th tn tht ti 30 - 40%. Tuy nhin loi th nht li c nhc im l khi mi trng nhiu bi, gng b bn, phn x gim do tng sai s. Khi o nhit bng ho k bc x sai s thng khng vt qu 27oC, trong iu kin: + Vt o phi c den xp x bng 1. + T l gia ng knh vt bc x v khong cch o (D/L) khng nh hn 1/16. + Nhit mi trng 20 2oC. Trong thc t en ca vt o <1,
1 khi Tdo = 4 .Tdoc . Thng thng xc
T 1 2 3 Hnh 3.22 B thu nng lng 1) Cp nhit 2)Lp ph platin 2

nh theo cng thc sau: To = Tc + T

Vi T l lng hiu chnh ph thuc Tc Tc Hnh 3.23 Hiu chnh nhit theo en

v en ca vt o (hnh 3.23). Khong cch o tt nht l 1 0,2 mt.

3.5.2. Ho k quang in

Ho k quang in ch to da trn nh lut Plng:

- 68 -

I T =

C1 C2 5 e RT 1

(3.19)

Trong l bc sng, C1, C2 l cc hng s. Nguyn tc o nhit bng ho k quang hc l so snh cng sng ca vt cn o v sng ca mt n mu trong cng mt bc sng nht nh v theo cng mt hng. Khi sng ca chng bng nhau th nhit ca chng bng nhau. T hnh 3.24 ta nhn thy s ph thuc gia I v khng n tr, do ngi ta thng c nh bc sng 0,65m.
T3 0,65m IT T1 T2

Hnh 3.24 S ph thuc ca cng nh sng vo bc sng v nhit

4 3

mA

Rb

K
Hnh 3.25 S ho k quang hc 1) Ngun bc x 2)Vt knh 3) Knh lc 4&6) Thnh ngn 5) Bng n mu 7) Knh lc nh sng 8) Th knh

Khi o, hng ho k vo vt cn o, nh sng t vt bc x cn o nhit (1) qua vt knh (2), knh lc (3), v cc vch ngn (4), (6), knh lc nh snh (7) ti th knh (8) v mt. Bt cng tc K cp in nung nng dy tc bng n mu (5), iu chnh bin tr Rb sng ca dy tc bng n trng vi sng ca vt cn o. Sai s khi o: Sai s do en ca vt o < 1. Khi To xc nh bi cng thc:
- 69 -

1 1 = ln Tdo C 2 Cng thc hiu chnh: To = Tc + T Gi tr ca T cho theo th. Ngoi ra sai s ca php o cn do nh hng ca khong cch o, tuy nhin sai s ny thng nh. Khi mi trng c bi lm bn ng knh, kt qu o cng b nh hng.

- 70 -

Chng IV

Cm bin o v tr v dch chuyn

4.1. Nguyn l o v tr v dch chuyn Vic xc nh v tr v dch chuyn ng vai tr rt quan trng trong k thut. Hin nay c hai phng php c bn xc nh v tr v dch chuyn. Trong phng php th nht, b cm bin cung cp tn hiu l hm ph thuc vo v tr ca mt trong cc phn t ca cm bin, ng thi phn t ny c lin quan n vt cn xc nh dch chuyn. Trong phng php th hai, ng vi mt dch chuyn c bn, cm bin pht ra mt xung. Vic xc nh v tr v dch chuyn c tin hnh bng cch m s xung pht ra. Mt s cm bin khng i hi lin kt c hc gia cm bin v vt cn o v tr hoc dch chuyn. Mi lin h gia vt dch chuyn v cm bin c thc hin thng qua vai tr trung gian ca in trng, t trng hoc in t trng, nh sng. Trong chng ny trnh by cc loi cm bin thng dng dng xc nh v tr v dch chuyn ca vt nh in th k in tr, cm bin in cm, cm bin in dung, cm bin quang, cm bin dng sng n hi. 4.2. in th k in tr Loi cm bin ny c cu to n gin, tn hiu o ln v khng i hi mch in c bit x l tn hiu. Tuy nhin vi cc in th k in tr c con chy c hc c s c xt gy n v mn, s ln s dng thp v chu nh hng ln ca mi trng khi c bi v m. 4.2.1. in th k dng con chy c hc a) Cu to v nguyn l lm vic Cm bin gm mt in tr c nh Rn, trn c mt tip xc in c th di chuyn c gi l con chy. Con chy c lin kt c hc vi vt chuyn ng cn kho st. Gi tr ca in tr Rx gia con chy v mt u ca in tr Rn l hm ph thuc vo v tr con chy, cng chnh l v tr ca vt chuyn ng. i vi in th k chuyn ng thng (hnh 4.1a):

Rx =

l Rn L
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(4.1)

Trng hp in th k dch chuyn trn hoc xon:

Rx = Rn M

(4.2)

Trong M < 360o khi dch chuyn trn (hnh 4.1b) v M > 360o khi dch chuyn xon. (hnh 4.1c)
Rx, l Rn, , L a)
2 1 1 2 1 1

Rn R R

Rn

b) Hnh 4.1 Cc dng in th k 1) in tr 2) Con chy

c)

Cc in tr c ch to c dng cun dy hoc bng dn. Cc in tr dng cun dy thng c ch to t cc hp kim Ni - Cr, Ni Cu , Ni - Cr - Fe, Ag - Pd qun thnh vng xon dng l xo trn li cch in (bng thu tinh, gm hoc nha), gia cc vng dy cch in bng emay hoc lp oxyt b mt. Cc in tr dng bng dn c ch to bng cht do trn bt dn in l cacbon hoc kim loi c ht ~10-2m. Cc in tr c ch to vi cc gi tr Rn nm trong khong 1k n 100k, i khi t ti M. Cc con chy phi m bo tip xc in tt, in tr tip xc phi nh v n nh.
b) Cc c trng

- Khong chy c ch ca con chy:

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Thng thng u hoc cui ng chy ca con chy t s Rx/Rn khng n nh. Khong chy c ch l khong thay i ca x m trong khong Rx l hm tuyn tnh ca dch chuyn.
Rx
Cui ng chy

Khong chy c ch

u ng chy

x Hnh 4.3 phn gii ca in th k dng dy

Hnh 4.2 S ph thuc ca in tr in th k vo v tr con chy

- Nng sut phn gii: i vi in tr dy cun, phn gii xc nh bi lng dch chuyn cc i cn thit a con chy t v tr tip xc hin ti sang v tr tip xc ln cn tip theo. Gi s cun dy c n vng dy, c th phn bit 2n-2 v tr khc nhau v in ca con chy: + n v tr tip xc vi mt vng dy. + n - 2 v tr tip xc vi hai vng dy. phn gii ca in tr dng dy ph thuc vo hnh dng v ng knh ca dy in tr v vo khong ~10m. phn gii ca cc in tr kiu bng dn ph thuc vo kch thc ht, thng vo c ~ 0,1 m. - Thi gian sng: Thi gian sng ca in k l s ln s dng ca in th k. Nguyn nhn gy ra h hng v hn ch thi gian sng ca in th k l s mi mn con chy v dy in tr trong qu trnh lm vic. Thng thi gian sng ca in th k dng dy dn vo c 106 ln, in k dng bng dn vo c 5.107 - 108 ln.
4.2.2. in th k khng dng con chy c hc

khc phc nhc im ca in th k dng con chy c hc, ngi ta s dng in th k lin kt quang hoc t.
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a) in th k dng con tr quang

Hnh 4.4 trnh by s nguyn l ca mt in th k dng con tr quang. in th k trn dng con tr quang gm iot pht quang (1), bng o (2), bng tip xc (3) v bng quang dn (4). Bng in tr o c phn cch vi bng tip xc bi mt bng quang dn rt mnh lm bng CdSe trn c con tr quang dch chuyn khi trc ca in th k quay. in tr ca vng quang dn gim ng k trong vng c chiu sng to nn s lin kt gia bng o v bng tip xc.
4

2 1

in tr

~20 ms

Thi gian

Hnh 4.4 in th k quay dng con tr quang 1) iot pht quang 2) Bng o 3) Bng tip xc 4) Bng quang dn

Thi gian hi p ca vt liu quang dn c vi chc ms.

b) in th k dng con tr t

Hnh 4.5 trnh by s nguyn l mt in th k t gm hai t in tr R1 v R2 mc ni tip v mt nam chm vnh cu (gn vi trc quay ca in th k) bao ph ln mt phn ca in tr R1 v R2, v tr phn b bao ph ph thuc gc quay ca trc. in p ngun ES c t gia hai im (1) v (3), in p o Vm ly t im chung (2) v mt trong hai u (1) hoc (3). Khi in p o c xc nh bi cng thc:
Vm = R1 R ES = 1 ES R1 + R 2 R
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(4.3)

Trong R1 l hm ph thuc v tr ca trc quay, v tr ny xc nh phn ca R1 chu nh hng ca t trng cn R = R1 + R2 = const.

2 Vm/ES R1 R2 70% 50% 1 a) Hnh 4.5 in th k in t 3 30%

0O

180O b)

360O

T hnh 4.5b ta nhn thy in p o ch tuyn tnh trong mt khong ~90o i vi in k quay. i vi in k dch chuyn thng khong tuyn tnh ch c vi mm.
4.3. Cm bin in cm

Cm bin in cm l nhm cc cm bin lm vic da trn nguyn l cm ng in t. Vt cn o v tr hoc dch chuyn c gn vo mt phn t ca mch t gy nn s bin thin t thng qua cun o. Cm bin in cm c chia ra: cm bin t cm v h cm.
4.3.1. Cm bin t cm a) Cm bin t cm c khe t bin thin

- Cm bin t cm n: trn hnh 4.6 trnh by s nguyn l cu to ca mt s loi cm bin t cm n.

1 3
XV

2
XV

R 2 a) 3 b) Hnh 4.6 Cm bin t cm 1) Li st t 2) Cun dy 3) Phn ng - 75 1 c)

Cm bin t cm n gm mt cun dy qun trn li thp c nh (phn tnh) v mt li thp c th di ng di tc ng ca i lng o (phn ng), gia phn tnh v phn ng c khe h khng kh to nn mt mch t h. S hnh 4.6a: di tc ng ca i lng o XV, phn ng ca cm bin di chuyn, khe h khng kh trong mch t thay i, lm cho t tr ca mch t bin thin, do h s t cm v tng tr ca cun dy thay i theo. S hnh 4.6b: khi phn ng quay, tit din khe h khng kh thay i, lm cho t tr ca mch t bin thin, do h s t cm v tng tr ca cun dy thay i theo. H s t cm ca cun dy cng c th thay i do thay i tn hao sinh ra bi dng in xoy khi tm st t dch chuyn di tc ng ca i lng o Xv (hnh 4.6c). Nu b qua in tr ca cun dy v t tr ca li thp ta c:
W 2 W 2 0s = L= R Trong : W- s vng dy.

R =

- t tr ca khe h khng kh. 0s

- chiu di khe h khng kh. s - tit din thc ca khe h khng kh. Trng hp W = const ta c:
dL = L L ds + d s

Vi lng thay i hu hn v s ta c:
L = W 20 W 2 0s0 s 0 ( 0 + )2

(4.4)

nhy ca cm bin t cm khi khe h khng kh thay i (s=const):

S = L = L0 0 1 + 0
2

(4.5)

nhy ca cm bin t cm khi thay i tit din khng kh ( = const):

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Ss =

L L 0 = s s 0

(4.6)

Tng tr ca cm bin:
W 2 0 s Z = L = khe h khng kh s v phi tuyn vi chiu di khe h khng kh . (4.7)

T cng thc (4.7) ta thy tng tr Z ca cm bin l hm tuyn tnh vi tit din

Z, L L = f() Z5000Hz = f() Z500Hz = f() Hnh 4.7 S ph thuc gia L, Z vi chiu dy khe h khng kh

c tnh ca cm bin t cm n Z = f() l hm phi tuyn v ph thuc tn s ngun kch thch, tn s ngun kch thch cng cao th nhy ca cm bin cng cao (hnh 4.7). - Cm bin t cm kp lp theo kiu vi sai: tng nhy ca cm bin v tng on c tnh tuyn tnh ngi ta thng dng cm bin t cm kp mc theo kiu vi sai (hnh 4.8).
XV XV XV

a)

b) Hnh 4.8 Cm bin t cm kp mc theo kiu vi sai

c)

c tnh ca cm bin t cm kp vi sai c dng nh hnh 4.9.

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L L1 = f() L1 - L2 = f() L2 = f() Hnh 4.9 c tnh ca cm bin t cm kp lp vi sai

b) Cm bin t cm c li t di ng
Cm bin gm mt cun dy bn trong c li t di ng c (hnh 4.10).
1 2

XV

l0 l

lf

Hnh 4.10 S nguyn l cm bin t cm c li t 1) Cun dy 2) Li t

Di tc ng ca i lng o XV, li t dch chuyn lm cho di lf ca li t nm trong cun dy thay i, ko theo s thay i h s t cm L ca cun dy. S ph thuc ca L vo lf l hm khng tuyn tnh, tuy nhin c th ci thin bng cch ghp hai cun dy ng dng vo hai nhnh k st nhau ca mt cu in tr c chung mt li st.

4.3.2. Cm bin h cm
Cu to ca cm bin h cm tng t cm bin t cm ch khc ch c thm mt cun dy o (hnh 4.11). Trong cc cm bin n khi chiu di khe h khng kh (hnh 4.11a) hoc tit din khe khng kh thay i (hnh 4.11b) hoc tn hao do dng in xoy thay i (hnh 4.11c) s lm cho t thng ca mch t bin thin ko theo sut in ng e trong cun o thay i. - Cm bin n c khe h khng kh:

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T thng tc thi:

t =

iW1 iW1 0 s = R

i - gi tr dng in tc thi trong cun dy kch thch W1.

~ 1
XV

4 3 1 3 3 4 2
XV

2 4 4 a) ~

b) ~ XV
XV XV

~ c)

2 ~ d) ) ~ e) ~

Hnh 4.11 Cm bin h cm 1) Cun s cp 2) Gng t 3) li t di ng 4) Cun th cp (cun o)

Sc in ng cm ng trong cun dy o W2: e = W2 d t W W s di = 2 1 0 . dt dt

W2 - s vng dy ca cun dy o. Khi lm vic vi dng xoay chiu i = I m sin t , ta c:

e=

W2 W1 0 s I m cos t
W2 W1 0 s s I = k

v gi tr hiu dng ca sut in ng:

E=

I - gi tr hiu dng ca dng in, k = W2 W1 0 I . Vi cc gi tr W2, W1, 0, v I l hng s, ta c:

dE = E E ds + d s
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Hay

E = k

s ks 0 ( 0 + )2

(4.8)

nhy ca cm bin vi s thay i ca chiu di khe h khng kh (s = const):

S = E = ks 2 0 1 + 0
2

E0 0 1 + 0
2

(4.9)

Cn nhy khi tit din khe h khng kh s thay i ( = const): SS =

E0 =

E k E 0 = = s 0 s 0

(4.10)

ks 0 - sc in ng h cm ban u trong cun o W2 khi XV = 0. 0

Ta nhn thy cng thc xc nh nhy ca cm bin h cm c dng tng t nh cm bin t cm ch khc nhau gi tr ca E0 v L0. nhy ca cm bin h cm S v SS cng tng khi tn s ngun cung cp tng. - Cm bin vi sai: tng nhy v tuyn tnh ca c tnh cm bin ngi ta mc cm bin theo s vi sai (hnh 4.11d,,e). Khi mc vi sai nhy ca cm bin tng gp i v phm vi lm vic tuyn tnh m rng ng k. - Bin th vi sai c li t: gm bn cun dy ghp ng trc to thnh hai cm bin n i xng, bn trong c li t di ng c (hnh 4.12). Cc cun th cp c ni ngc vi nhau sao cho sut in ng trong chng trit tiu ln nhau.
2

3 1 ~ ~ Hnh 4.12 Cm bin h cm vi sai 1) Cun s cp 2) Cun th cp 3) Li t

V nguyn tc, khi li t v tr trung gian, in p o Vm u ra hai cun th cp bng khng. Khi li t dch chuyn, lm thay i mi quan h gia cun s cp vi cc cun th cp, tc l lm thay i h s h cm gia cun s cp vi cc
- 80 -

cun th cp. Khi in tr ca thit b o ln, in p o Vm gn nh tuyn tnh vi hiu s cc h s h cm ca hai cun th cp.
4.4. Cm bin in dung 4.4.1. Cm bin t in n

Cc cm bin t in n l mt t in phng hoc hnh tr c mt bn cc gn c nh (bn cc tnh) v mt bn cc di chuyn (bn cc ng) lin kt vi vt cn o. Khi bn cc ng di chuyn s ko theo s thay i in dung ca t in.
-

i vi cm bin hnh 4.13a: di tc ng ca i lng o XV, bn cc ng

di chuyn, khong cc gia cc bn cc thay i, ko theo in dung t in bin thin.

C= 0 s

- hng s in mi ca mi trng. 0 - hng s in mi ca chn khng. s - din tch nm gia hai in cc. - khong cch gia hai bn cc.

XV

XV XV

a)

b) Hnh 4.13 Cm bin t in n

c)

i vi cm bin hnh 4.13b: di tc ng ca i lng o XV, bn cc ng

di chuyn quay, din tch gia cc bn cc thay i, ko theo s thay i ca in dung t in. C= 0 s 0 r 2 . = 360
(4.11)

- gc ng vi phn hai bn cc i din nhau.

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i vi cm bin hnh 4.13c: di tc ng ca i lng o XV, bn cc ng di chuyn thng dc trc, din tch gia cc bn cc thay i, ko theo s thay i ca in dung. C= 2 0 .l log( r2 / r1 ) s C C C d + ds + d s
s0 0s0 + 0 s 0 0 ( 0 + )2
(4.12)

Xt trng hp t in phng, ta c: C=

dC =

a v dng sai phn ta c:

C =
(4.13)

Khi khong cch gia hai bn cc thay i ( = const v s=const), nhy ca cm bin:
SC = 0s0 C = ( 0 + )2
(4.14)

Khi din tch ca bn cc thay i ( = const v = const), nhy ca cm bin:

SCS = C 0 = s 0
(4.15)

Khi hng s in mi thay i ( s = const v = const), nhy ca cm bin: SC = C s 0 = 0

(4.16)

Nu xt n dung khng:
Z= 1 = C s

dZ = a v dng sai phn:

Z =

Z Z Z d + ds + d s
0 0

s 0 ( 0 + )

0 (s 0 + s )

s +

1 0 s 0

Tng t trn ta c nhy ca cm bin theo dung khng:

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S Z = S Zs =

s 0 ( 0 + ) 0 (s 0 + s ) 0

(4.17)

(4.18)

S Z =

1 0 s 0

(4.19)

T cc biu thc trn c th rt ra:

-

Bin thin in dung ca cm bin t in l hm tuyn tnh khi din tch bn

cc v hng s in mi thay i nhng phi tuyn khi khong cch gia hai bn cc thay i.
-

Bin thin dung khng ca cm bin t in l hm tuyn tnh khi khong cch

gia hai bn cc thay i nhng phi tuyn khi din tch bn cc v hng s in mi thay i. Ngoi ra gia hai bn cc khi c in p t vo s pht sinh lc ht, lc ny cn phi nh hn i lng o.
4.4.2. Cm bin t kp vi sai
XV A2 A 1 A3

XV A1 A2 A3

A2 A1

A3 XV

a) b) Hnh 4.14 Cm bin t kp vi sai

c)

T kp vi sai c khong cch gia cc bn cc bin thin dch chuyn thng (hnh 4.14a) hoc c din tch bn cc bin thin dch chuyn quay (hnh 4.14b) v dch chuyn thng (hnh 4.14c) gm ba bn cc. Bn cc ng A1 dch chuyn gia hai bn cc c nh A2 v A3 to thnh cng vi hai bn cc ny hai t in c in dung C21 v C31 bin thin ngc chiu nhau. nhy v tuyn tnh ca t kp vi sai cao hn t n v lc tng h gia cc bn cc trit tiu ln nhau do ngc chiu nhau.
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4.4.3. Mch o

Thng thng mch o dng vi cm bin in dung l cc mch cu khng cn bng cung cp bng dng xoay chiu. Mch o cn tho mn cc yu cu sau: - Tng tr u vo tc l tng tr ca ng cho cu phi tht ln. - Cc dy dn phi c bc kim loi trnh nh hng ca in trng ngoi. - Khng c mc cc in tr song song vi cm bin. - Chng m tt. Hnh 4.15a l s mch cu dng cho cm bin t kp vi sai vi hai in tr. Cung cp cho mch cu l mt my pht tn s cao. Hnh 4.15b l s mch mch cu bin p vi hai nhnh t in.
Cx R eS ~ A2 A1 A3 Ura R a) b) eS ~ C0 Ura

Hnh 4.15 Mch o thng dng vi cm bin t in

4.5. Cm bin quang

Cc cm bin o v tr v dch chuyn theo phng php quang hc gm ngun pht nh sng kt hp vi mt u thu quang (thng l t bo quang in). Tu theo cch b tr u thu quang, ngun pht v thc o (hoc i tng o), cc cm bin c chia ra: Cm bin quang phn x. Cm bin quang soi thu.

4.5.1. Cm bin quang phn x

Cm bin quang phn x (hnh 4.16) hot ng theo nguyn tc di phn quang: u thu quang t cng pha vi ngun pht. Tia sng t ngun pht qua thu knh hi t p ti mt thc o chuyn ng cng vt kho st, trn thc c nhng vch chia phn quang v khng phn quang k tip nhau, khi tia sng gp phi vch chia phn quang s b phn x tr li u thu quang.
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Hnh 4.16 Cm bin quang phn x 1) Ngun pht 2) Thc o 3) u thu quang

Cm bin loi di phn quang, khng cn dy ni qua vng cm nhn nhng c ly cm nhn thp v chu nh hng ca nh sng t ngun sng khc.
4.5.2. Cm bin quang soi thu

S cu trc ca mt cm bin o v tr v dch chuyn theo nguyn tc soi thu trnh by trn hnh 4.17a. Cm bin gm mt ngun pht nh sng, mt thu knh hi t, mt li chia kch quang v cc phn t thu quang (thng l t bo quang in).
Tn hiu ra Chu k chia

3 1 2 5

Vr1 Vr2

Tn hiu chun

6 a)

4 b)

Hnh 4.17 a) S cu to cm bin quang soi thu b) Tn hiu ra 1) Ngun sng 2) Thu knh hi t 3) Thc o 4) Li chia 5) T bo quang in 6) M chun

Khi thc o (gn vi i tng kho st, chy gia thu knh hi t v li chia) c chuyn ng tng i so vi ngun sng s lm xut hin mt tn hiu nh sng hnh sin. Tn hiu ny c thu bi cc t bo quang in t sau li chia. Cc tn hiu u ra ca cm bin c khuch i trong mt b to xung in t to thnh tn hiu xung dng ch nht.

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Cc t bo quang in b tr thnh hai dy v t lch nhau mt phn t chia nn ta nhn c hai tn hiu lch pha 90o (hnh 4.17b), nh khng nhng xc nh c dch chuyn m cn c th nhn bit c c chiu chuyn ng. khi phc im gc trong trng hp mt in ngun ngi ta trang b thm mc o chun trn thc o.
u im ca cc cm bin soi thu l c ly cm nhn xa, c kh nng thu c

tn hiu mnh v t s tng phn sng ti ln, tuy nhin c hn ch l kh b tr v chnh thng hng ngun pht v u thu.
4.6. Cm bin o dch chuyn bng sng n hi 4.6.1. Nguyn l o dch chuyn bng sng n hi

Tc truyn sng n hi v trong cht rn ~ 103m/s. Thi gian truyn sng gia hai im trong vt rn cch nhau mt khong l xc nh bi biu thc: tP = l v

Bit tc truyn sng v v o thi gian truyn sng tP ta c th xc nh c khong cch l cn o:

l = vt P
S khi ca mt thit b o dch chuyn bng sng n hi biu din trn

hnh 4.18. Thi gian truyn sng tP t khi tn hiu xut hin my pht n khi n c tip nhn my thu c o bng my m xung. My m hot ng khi bt u pht sng v ng li khi tn hiu n c my thu.
ng h My m My thu l My pht

Hnh 4.18 S khi ca mt thit b o dch chuyn bng sng n hi

Gi s xung m c l N v chu k ca xung m l tH, ta c: t P = Nt H

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Khi :

l = vNt H

(4.20)

4.6.2. Cm bin s dng phn t p in

Trong cc cm bin p in, sng n hi c pht v thu nh s dng hiu ng p in. Hiu ng p in l hin tng khi mt tm vt liu p in (th d thch anh) b bin dng di tc dng ca mt lc c hc c chiu nht nh, trn cc mt i din ca tm xut hin mt lng in tch bng nhau nhng tri du, ngc li di tc ng ca in trng c chiu thch hp, tm vt liu p in b bin dng. o dch chuyn ta c th s dng hai dng sng n hi: - Sng khi: dc v ngang. - Sng b mt. Sng khi dc truyn cho cc phn t ca vt rn dch chuyn dc theo phng truyn sng to nn s nn ri li gin n ca cc lp ca vt rn. Sng ny c kch thch bng phn t p in rung theo b dy (hnh 4.19a). Sng khi ngang gy nn dch chuyn vung gc vi phng truyn sng, to ra chuyn ng trt tng i gia cc lp ca vt rn. Sng ny c kch thch bng mt phn t p in rung theo mt ct (hnh 4.19b).

Phng truyn sng

Phng truyn sng

V a) V

V b)

c)

Hnh 4.19 Cc dng sng n hi a) Sng dc b) Sng ngang c) Sng b mt v dng in cc kch thch

Sng b mt truyn trong lp b mt ca vt rn, bin ca chng hu nh bng khng su 2 di b mt. Sng b mt gm mt thnh phn sng dc v mt thnh phn sng ngang. Ngun kch thch sng b mt l mt h in cc kiu
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rng lc ci nhau ph ln b mt vt liu p in (hnh 4.19c). Khong cch gia hai rng k nhau ca cc in cc phi bng c th gy ra bin dng khi c in p V cng pha t vo v tng hiu ng ca chng. My thu sng b mt cng c cu to tng t nh my pht c gn c nh vo b mt vt rn, khi c sng b mt i qua, cc rng ca in cc lm bin dng b mt vt rn v gy nn in p do hiu ng p in.
4.6.3. Cm bin m t

Sng n hi pht ra nh s dng hiu ng Wiedemam: hin tng xon mt ng tr st t khi n chu tc dng ng thi ca mt t trng dc v mt t trng ngang. Sng n hi c thu trn c s s dng hiu ng Vilari: sc cng c hc lm thay i kh nng t ho v t thm ca vt liu st t. S nguyn l v cu to ca cm bin m t trnh by trn hnh 4.20. Cu to ca cm bin gm ng st t (1), nam chm di ng (2) trt dc ng gn vi vt cn xc nh v tr. Dy dn (3) nm gia trc ng v c ni vi my pht xung (4). My thu (5) c li t ni c hc vi ng.
1 2

u thu

l
My pht xung 4

Hnh 4.20 S nguyn l cm bin m t 1) ng st t 2) Nam chm 3) Dy dn 4) My pht xung 5) u thu

Nguyn l hot ng ca cm bin: My pht (4) cung cp mt xung in truyn qua dy dn (3), xung ny truyn vi vn tc nh sng (c), t trng do n sinh ra c ng sc l ng trn ng tm vi trc ng. Khi sng in t truyn n v tr nam chm (2), s kt hp ca hai t trng lm cho ng b xon cc b, xon cc b ny truyn i trong ng di dng sng n hi vi vn tc v. Khi sng n hi n my thu (5) n lm thay i t ho gy nn tn hiu hi p.

- 88 -

Gi tP l thi gian t khi pht xung hi n khi nhn c xung hi p, do v << c ta c:

tP = l v (4.21)

Trong l l khong cch t nam chm n u thu, tP c o bng phng php m xung.

- 89 -

Chng V

Cm bin o bin dng

Di tc ng ca ng lc c hc, trong mi trng chu ng lc xut hin bin dng. S bin dng ca cc cu trc nh hng rt ln ti kh nng lm vic cng nh an ton khi lm vic ca kt cu chu lc. Mt khc gia ng lc v bin dng c mi quan h vi nhau, da vo mi quan h ngi ta c th xc nh c ng lc khi o bin dng do n gy ra. Bi vy o bin dng l mt vn c quan tm nhiu trong k thut. 5.1. Bin dng v phng php o 5.1.1. ng ngha mt s i lng c hc Bin dng : l t s gia bin thin kch thc (l) v kch thc ban u (l).

l l

(5.1)

Bin dng gi l n hi khi m ng lc mt i th bin dng cng mt theo. Bin dng m cn tn ti ngay c sau khi ng lc mt i c gi l bin dng d.
-

Gii hn n hi: l ng lc ti a khng gy nn bin dng do vt qu 2%, Mun Young (Y): xc nh bin dng theo phng ca ng lc.
|| = 1 F 1 = YS Y

tnh bng kG/mm2. V d gii hn n hi ca thp ~20 - 80 kG/mm2.

(5.2)

F - lc tc dng, kG. S - tit din chu lc. mm2. - ng lc, =F/S. n v o moun Young l kG/mm2. Moun Young ca thp ~ 18.000 29.000 kG/mm2.
-

H s poison : h s xc nh bin dng theo phng vung gc vi lc tc

= ||

dng. (5.3)

Trong vng bin dng n hi 0,3.

- 90 -

5.1.2. phng php o bin dng

Tc ng ca ng lc gy ra s bin dng trong kt cu chu ng lc. Gia bin dng v ng lc c quan h cht ch vi nhau, bng cch o bin dng ta c th tnh c ng lc tc ng ln kt cu. o bin dng ngi ta s dng cc cm bin bin dng hay cn gi l u o bin dng. Hin nay s dng ph bin hai loi u o bin dng:
-

u o in tr: y l loi u o dng ph bin nht. Chng c ch to t

vt liu c in tr bin thin theo mc bin dng, vi kch thc nh t vi mm n vi cm, khi o chng c dn trc tip ln cu trc bin dng.
-

u o dng dy rung c dng trong ngnh xy dng. u o c lm bng

mt si dy kim loi cng gia hai im ca cu trc cn o bin dng. Tn s ca dy rung l hm ca sc cng c hc, tn s ny thay i khi khong cch hai im ni thay i. Trong chng ny cp n cc u o bin dng thng dng trong cng nghip nh u o in tr kim loi, u o in tr bn dn - p in tr, ng sut k dy rung v cc u o trong ch ng.
5.2. u o in tr kim loi 5.2.1. Cu to v nguyn l hot ng

u o in tr kim loi c cu to dng li. i vi u o dng li dy, c lm bng dy in tr c tit din trn (ng knh d 20 m) hoc tit din ch nht axb (hnh 5.1a). u o dng li mng ch to bng phng php mch in (hnh 5.1b). S nhnh n ca cm bin thng t 10 - 20 nhnh.

a)

b)

Hnh 5.1 S cu to ca u o kim loi a) u o dng dy qun b) u o dng li mng

Cm bin c c nh trn cch in mng b dy ~ 0,1 mm lm bng giy hoc ~ 0,03 mm lm bng cht do (polyimide, epoxy). Vt liu lm in tr thng thuc h hp kim Ni ( bng 5.1). - 91 -

Bng 5.1 Hp kim Constantan Isoelastic Karma Nicrome V Bch kim - vonfram Thnh phn 45%Ni, 55%Cu 52%Fe, 36%Ni, 8%Cr, 4%(Mn+Mo) 74%Ni, 20%Cr, 3%Cu, 3%Fe 80%Ni, 20%Cr 92%Pt, 8%W H s u o K 2,1 3,5 2,1 2,5 4,1

Khi o cm bin c gn vo b mt ca cu trc cn kho st (hnh 5.2), kt qu l cm bin cng chu mt bin dng nh bin dng ca cu trc.

5 7

Hnh 5.2 Cch c nh u o trn b mt kho st 1) B mt kho st 2) Cm bin 3)Lp bo v 4) Mi hn 5) Dy dn 6) Cp in 7) Keo dn

in tr ca cm bin xc nh bi biu thc :

R= l S

(5.4)

Phng trnh sai phn:

R l S = + R l S Bin dng dc l ca dy ko theo bin dng ngang ca tit din, quan h gia bin dng ngang v bin dng dc c dng:
a b d l = = = a b d l

Tit din ngang ca dy S = ab hoc S = d2/4, ta c: S l = 2 S l Mt khc, i vi u o kim loi:

V =C V

- 92 -

C - hng s Bridman. V - th tch dy. V V = S.l, ta c: V l = (1 2) V l V:

l = C (1 2) l

Vy ta c:
R l l = {(1 + 2 ) + C (1 2 )} = K. R l l

(5.5)

H s K c gi l h s u o, gi tr xc nh theo biu thc:

K = 1 + 2 + C (1 2 )

(5.6)

V 0,3, C 1, nn u o kim loi c K 2.

5.2.2. Cc c trng ch yu in tr sut : in tr ca vt liu lm dy phi ln dy khng qu di

lm tng kch thc cm bin v tit din dy khng qu b lm gim dng o dn n lm gim nhy.

H s u o: thng thng K = 2 - 3, ngoi tr isoelastic c K = 3,5 v platin-

vonfram K = 4,1.

nh hng ca lc n tuyn tnh: trong gii hn n hi, h s u o khng

i do quan h tuyn tnh gia in tr v bin dng. Ngoi gii hn n hi, khi l/l > 0,5% - 20% tu theo vt liu, h s u o K 2.

nh hng ca nhit : ni chung K t chu nh hng ca nhit , ngoi tr

isoelastic. Trong khong nhit t - 100oC 300oC s thay i ca h s u o K theo nhit c th biu din bi biu thc:

K (T ) = K 0 { + K (T T0 )} 1 K0 - h s u o nhit chun T0 (thng T0 = 25oC).

(5.7)

K - h s, ph thuc vt liu. Vi Nichrome V th K = -0,04%/oC, constantan K = +0,01%/oC

nhy ngang: ngoi cc nhnh dc c in tr RL cm bin cn c cc on

nhnh ngang c tng di lt , in tr Rt, do in tr tng cng ca cm bin

- 93 -

bng R = RL + Rt. Trong qu trnh bin dng cc on ngang cng b bin dng, Rt thay i cng lm cho R thay i. Tuy nhin do Rt << RL, nh hng ca bin dng ngang cng khng ln.
5.3. Cm bin p tr silic 5.3.1. Cu to v nguyn l hot ng

u o bn dn c lm bng n tinh th silic pha tp. Cu to ca chng ph thuc cc ch to. u o loi ct: ch to bng cc mu ct t tm n tinh th silic pha tp c s cu to nh hnh 5.3. Cc mu ct n tinh th c ly song song vi ng cho ca tinh th lp phng i vi silic loi P v song song vi cnh lp phng nu l silic loi N. Mu ct c chiu di t 0,1 mm n vi mm v chiu dy c 10-2mm. Cc mu ct c dn trn cch in bng nha.

P N P N N

Hnh 5.3 u o ch to bng cc mu ct

u o khuch tn: in tr ca u o ch to bng cch khuch tn tp cht vo mt tm n tinh th silic pha tp. S cu to ca loi ny trnh by trn hnh 5.4.
SiO2

Si-N

Si-P

Hnh 5.4 u o loi khuch tn

in tr loi N nhn c bng cch khuch tn vo silic loi P mt tp cht thuc nhm V trong bng tun hon (nh P, Sb), cn in tr loi P khuch tn tp cht thuc nhm III (nh Ga, In) vo silic loi N. Chuyn tip gia v vng khuch tn to nn mt iot v lun c phn cc ngc (vng P m hn vng N) cho in tr ca cm bin cch bit vi silic. - 94 -

Bin thin in tr ca u o bn dn xc nh bi cng thc tng t u o kim loi:

R l S = + R l S

i vi u o bn dn, bin thin in tr sut do tc dng ca ng lc c dng:

l = = Y l

Trong l h s p in tr, l ng lc tc dng. Vy:

l R = {(1 + 2 ) + Y} R l

(5.8)

v h s u o:
K = 1 + 2 + Y

(5.9)

Thng thng K = 100 - 200.

5.3.2. Cc c trng ch yu

i vi u o bn dn, pha tp l yu t quyt nh n cc c trng ca chng. - in tr:

nh hng ca pha tp: khi tng pha tp, mt ht dn trong vt liu tng

lnv in tr sut ca n gim xung. Biu thc chung ca in tr sut c dng:

= 1 q ( n n + p p )

q - gi tr tuyt i ca in tch in tr hoc l trng. n, p - mt in t v l trng t do. n, p - linh ng ca in t v l trng.

(cm) (cm)

1 10-1 10-2 10-3 1014

7 6 5 4 3 2

1014 1016 101 1020 0 100 200 300 400 500 ToC

1015

1016

1017 1018 1019 Nng tp cht/cm3

-100

Hnh 5.5 S ph thuc ca in tr sut vo nng pha tp v nhit

- 95 -

nh hng ca nhit : khi nhit nh hn 120oC h s nhit in tr c gi tr

dng v gim dn khi pha tp tng ln.

nhit cao h s nhit
K
240 200 180 160 120 80 40 5.1018 3.1019 1020

in tr c gi tr m v khng ph thuc vo pha tp. - H s u o K:

nh hng ca pha tp: H s

1017/cm3

u o ph thuc vo pha tp,

-100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 ToC

khi pha tp tng ln, h s u o gim (hnh 5.6).

Hnh 5.6 S ph thuc ca K vo pha tp

nh hng ca bin dng: H s u o ph thuc vo bin dng, quan h c

dng:
K = K1 + K 2 + K 2 2

Tuy nhin vi bin dng di mt gi tr cc i no c th coi K khng i.

nh hng ca nhit : Khi nhit tng h s u o gim, tuy nhin khi pha

tp ln (c Nd = 1020cm-3) h s u o t ph thuc nhit .

5.4. u o trong ch ng

Khi o bin dng trong ch ng, u o phi tho mn mt s yu cu nht nh nh tn s s dng ti a, gii hn mi.
5.4.1. Tn s s dng ti a

Tn s ca u o khng ph thuc vo vt liu ch to, silic c th truyn khng suy gim cc dao ng vi tn s ln hn 106 Hz. Tuy nhin tn s lm vic li ph thuc vo phng php gn u o v kch thc ca n. cho cc bin dng o c gn nh ng b trong phm vi ca u o, chiu di l ca cc nhnh phi nh hn nhiu ln bc sng ca dao ng c hc. Quan h gia kch thc l v chiu di bc sng phi tho mn iu kin:
l 0,1

Chiu di bc sng ca dao ng c hc c xc nh bi cng thc:

= v f

(5.10)

Trong v l vn tc truyn sng v f l tn s dao ng. - 96 -

v=

Y 1 . d (1 + )(1 2 )

Y - l mun Young. - h s poisson. d - trng lng ring vt liu ch to dy. Vy tn s cc i fmax ca dao ng khi chiu di nhnh ca u o l l bng:
fmax = v 10.l

5.4.2. Gii hn mi

Bin dng nhiu ln lm tng in tr u o do hiu ng mi, hiu ng ny cng ln khi bin bin dng cng ln. Gii hn mi c xc nh bi s chu k bin dng N vi bin cho trc gy nn bin thin in tr bng 10-4 ng vi chu k bin dng gi nh. i vi bin bin dng c 2.10-3 gii hn mi nm trong khong t 104 (constantan) n 108(isoelastic) chu k.
5.5. ng sut k dy rung ng sut k dy rung c dng theo di kim tra cc cng trnh xy dng

nh p, cu, ng hm ... Cu to ca ng sut k dy rung gm mt dy thp cng gia hai gi gn vo cu trc cn nghin cu bin dng. Khi c bin dng, s cng c hc ca dy ko theo s thay i tn s dao ng N ca dy, bng cch o tn s dao ng ca dy c th bit c ln ca bin dng. Tn s dao ng ca si dy xc nh theo cng thc:
N= 1 F 2 l Sd

(5.11)

l - khong cch gia hai im cng dy. F - lc tc dng. S - tit din dy. d - khi lng ring ca vt liu ch tody. Di tc dng ca lc F, di dy bin thin mt lng l xc nh t biu thc: l 1 F = l YS - 97 (5.12)

Do tn s dao ng ca dy:
N= 1 Y l 2l d l

Suy ra: l 4 l 2 d 2 = N = K.N 2 l Y

l 0 2 = K .N 0 l

(5.13)

Gi s l0 l ko di ban u v N0 l tn s tng ng khi cha c bin dng:

Khi c bin dng, ko di tng cng ca dy l l1 v tn s l N1, ta c:

l1 2 = K .N 1 l

V ko di do bin dng l = l1 - l0, suy ra:

l 2 2 = K N1 N 0 l

(5.14)

o N0 v N1 ta c th tnh c bin dng ca cu trc.

- 98 -

Chng VI

Cm bin o lc
6.1. Nguyn l o lc Xc nh ng lc c hc tc ng ln cc cu trc trong nhng iu kin xc nh l vn hng u trong vic nh gi an ton cho hot ng ca my mc, thit b. Theo nh lut c bn ca ng lc hc, lc c xc nh bi biu thc:
F = Ma

(6.1)

Trong :
F - lc tc dng (N).

M - khi lng ca vt (kg).

a - gia tc ca vt (m/s2).

Theo cng thc (6.1), khi mt lc c cng F (N) tc ng vo mt vt c khi lng M (kg) s gy ra gia tc a (m/s2). Nguyn tc o lc l lm cn bng lc cn o vi mt lc i khng sao cho lc tng cng v momen tng ca chng bng khng. Trong cc cm bin o lc thng c mt vt trung gian chu tc ng ca lc cn o v bin dng. Bin dng ca vt trung gian l nguyn nhn gy ra lc i khng v trong gii hn n hi bin dng t l vi lc i khng. Bin dng v lc gy ra bin dng c th o trc tip bng cm bin bin dng, hoc o gin tip nu mt trong nhng tnh cht in ca vt liu ch to vt trung gian ph thuc vo bin dng. Ta cng c th xc nh mt lc bng cch cn bng n vi mt lc bit. Theo cng thc xc nh trng lc ca mt vt trong trng trng tri t:

P = Mg Trong mi trng c g bit trc, cn khi lng M ca vt ta c th xc nh c trng lc ca vt , ngc li nu s dng mt vt c khi lng bit s c c mt lc xc nh. y chnh l nguyn tc chun cm bin bng my o c khi lng treo. Trong chng ny nghin cu cc b cm bin o lc ph bin nh cm bin p in, cm bin t gio, cm bin da trn php o dch chuyn, cm bin xc gic.
- 99 -

6.2. Cm bin p in 6.2.1. Cu to v nguyn l hot ng

Cm bin p in hot ng da trn nguyn l ca hiu ng p in. Phn t c bn ca mt cm bin p in c cu to tng t mt t in c ch to bng cch ph hai bn cc ln hai mt i din ca mt phin vt liu p in mng. Vt liu p in thng dng l thch anh v n c tnh n nh v cng cao. Tuy nhin hin nay vt liu gm (v d gm PZT) do c u im bn v nhy cao, in dung ln, t chu nh hng ca in trng k sinh, d sn xut v gi thnh ch to thp cng c s dng ng k. c trng vt l ca mt s vt liu p in c trnh by trn bng 6.1. Bng 6.1 Vt liu Thch anh Mui seignette L.H. PZT5A
11=5,6 11=1.700

thm thu 11=4,5

11=350

in tr sut (.m) 1012 >1010 >1010 1011

Modun Young (109 N.m-2) Y11=80 Y11=19,3 Y22=30 46 Y33=53

ng lc cc i (107 N.m-2) 10

Nhit lm vic Tmax (oC) 550 45 75 365

1,4 1,5 7-8

Di tc dng ca lc c hc, tm p in b bin dng, lm xut hin trn hai bn cc cc in tch tri du. Hiu in th xut hin gia hai bn cc t l vi lc tc dng. Cc bin dng c bn xc nh ch lm vic ca bn p in. Trn hnh 6.1 biu din cc bin dng c bn ca bn p in.

a)
+ +

b)

c)

d)

Hnh 6.1 Cc dng bin dng c bn a) Theo chiu dc b) Theo chiu ngang c) Ct theo b dy d) Ct theo b mt

- 100 -

Trong nhiu trng hp cc bn p in c ghp thnh b theo cch ghp ni tip hoc song song.
+ + + + + + + + + +

a)
+ +

b)
+ +

c)

Hnh 6.2 Cch ghp cc phn t p in a) Hai phn t song song b) Hai phn t ni tip c) Nhiu phn t song song

Trng hp ghp song song hai bn p in (hnh 6.2a), in dung ca cm bin tng gp i so vi trng hp mt bn p in. Khi ghp ni tip (hnh 6.2b) in p h mch v tr khng trong tng gp i nhng in dung gim xung cn mt na. Nhng nguyn tc trn p dng cho c trng hp ghp nhiu bn p in vi nhau nh biu din trn hnh 6.2c.
6.2.2. Cm bin thch anh kiu vng m

Cc cm bin thch anh kiu vng m c cu to nh hnh 6.3, chng gm cc phin ct hnh vng m ghp vi nhau v ch nhy vi lc nn tc dng dc theo trc.
2 1

Hnh 6.3 Cu to ca cm bin vng m thch anh 1) Cc vng m 2) Cc tm 3) u ni dy

Gii hn trn ca di o ph thuc vo din tch b mt ca cc vng m, c t vi kN (vi ng knh ~ 1 cm) n 103 kN ( vi ng knh ~ 10 cm). Ngi ta cng c th dng cm bin loi ny o lc ko bng cch to lc nn t trc (dng cc bulng xit cht cc vng m), khi lc ko c o nh s st gim ca lc nn. Tuy nhin, khi nhy gim 5 - 10%.

- 101 -

6.2.3. Cm bin thch anh nhiu thnh phn

Trong cm bin loi ny, cc vng m thch anh c ct theo cc hng khc nhau, khi chng ch nhy vi mt hng xc nh ca lc. z y x
a) b) c)

Hnh 6.4 Cm bin thch anh nhiu thnh phn a) K hiu cc trc b) Cc phin ct c bit c) Cm bin ba thnh phn vung gc

Thch anh c nm h s in p d11, d12, d14, d25, d26, do mt vng m ct theo phng ca trc X ch nhy vi lc nn (v c d11), cc lc k sinh tc ng theo cnh bn u khng gy nn hiu ng vi vng m v cc ng lc m hiu ng ca chng lin quan n d12, d14 s khng c mt. Tng t nh vy, mt vng m ct theo phng Y ch nhy vi lc ct theo b dy (v c d26) v bng cch lp ghp hp l c th loi tr hiu ng ca cc ng lc lin quan n d25 (ct theo mt). Hai mt ct c bit ny biu din trn hnh 6.4b, chng c s dng ch to cc cm bin thch anh nhiu thnh phn. Trn hnh 6.4c biu din mt cm bin ba thnh phn vung gc gm ba cp vng trn ghp vi nhau, mt cp nhy vi lc nn Fx, hai mt cn li nhy vi lc ct Fy v Fz vung gc vi Fx.
6.2.4. S mch o a) S tng ng ca cm bin

dQ dt Rg Cg dQ dt Rg Cg dQ dt RS CS

a)

b)

c)

1 1 1 = + R s R g R1

C S = C g + C1

Hnh 6.5 S tng ng ca cm bin p in a) Trong di thng rng b) Trong di thng c ch c) Ni vi mch ngoi

- 102 -

Trong di thng rng, cm bin tng ng vi mt ngun dng mc song song vi tr khng trong (gm ba nhnh) ca cm bin (hnh6.5a). Nhnh , , c trng cho cng hng in c th nht tn s cao nm ngoi di thng ca cm bin. in tr trong Rg l in tr cch in ca vt liu p in, khi tn s thp n tr thnh tr khng trong ca cm bin. T in Cg l in dung ca ngun pht in tch, khi tn s trung bnh v cao n tr thnh tr khng ca cm bin. Trn thc t di thng thng s dng, ngi ta dng mch tng ng biu din hnh 6.5b. Khi ni cm bin vi mch ngoi bng cp dn, tr khng ca cp dn tng ng in tr R1 v t in C1 mc song song vi cm bin, khi mch tng ng c dng hnh 6.5c.
b) S khuch i in p

Tr khng vo ca b khuch i in p tng ng vi mt in tr Re mc song song vi mt t Ce, khi mch tng ng c dng hnh 6.6.

dQ dt

RS

CS

Vm

Re

Ce

dQ dt

Req

Ceq

Vm

1 1 1 = + R eq R S R e
Cm bin v cp ni Tr khng vo v khuc i in th

C eq = C S + C e

Hnh 6.6 S tng ng ca cm bin mc ni tip vi b khuch i in th

in p li vo ca khuch i xc nh bi cng thc:

Vm = Q R eq C eq P . C q 1 + R eq C eq P

c) S khuch i in tch

Trong mch khuch i in tch, s di chuyn ca in tch li vo s gy nn li ra mt in p t l vi in tch u vo. B khuch i in tch gm mt b bin i in tch - in p u vo, mt tng chun nhy, mt b lc trung gian v mt s tng khuch i u ra cung cp tn hiu ra (hnh 6.7a). - 103 -

S mch ghp ni cm bin vi b chuyn i in p - in tch trnh by trn hnh 6.7b.

B chuyn i in tch

Chun nhy v khuch i vi sai

B lc

B khuch i u ra

u vo (in tch)

a)

u ra (in p)

Cr +Q
Q

dQ dt

RS

CS

V0

b)

Hnh 6.7 S khuch i in tch a) S khi b) S ghp ni cm bin v b chuyn i in tch - in p

6.3. Cm bin t gio 6.3.1. Hiu ng t gio

Di tc ng ca t trng, mt s vt liu st t thay i tnh cht hnh hc hoc tnh cht c hc (h s Young). Hin tng ny c gi l hiu ng t gio. Khi c tc dng ca lc c hc gy ra ng lc trong vt liu st t lm thay i ng cong t ho ca chng, khi da vo s thay i ca t thm hoc t d c th xc nhc ln ca lc tc dng. y l hiu ng t gio nghch.
- C ch t ho: Nh chng ta bit trong vt liu st t, mi nguyn t c

c trng bi mt mmen t. gim thiu nng lng tng cng, momen t ca cc nguyn t trong cng mt min t ho t nhin (domen) phi hng theo mt hng chung. Hng chung ny nh hng theo mt s hng u tin ca mng tinh th gi l hng d t ho. Hng ca cc mmen t trong cc domen cnh nhau khng trng nhau. Khi c t trng ngoi H tc ng, s nh hng ca m men t trong mt domen theo mt hng chung tng dn. Khi H nh, cc vch domen t dch chuyn - 104 -

v kch thc ca cc domen t c hng t ho thun li trng vi hng ca t trng bn ngoi tng ln. Khi t trng ngoi tng ln n mc no xy ra hin tng o hng ca cc domen theo hng t trng ngoi. Khi t trng ngoi mnh s lm quay hng d t ho ca cc domen t theo hng t trng ngoi dn n bo ho (hinhd 6.8a).
- Hin tng t tr: Sau khi t ho ln u n bo ho (H = Hm), nu vn gi

nguyn phng t trng v thc hin mt chu trnh khp kn (Hm,0,- Hm,0) ta nhn c ng cong t ho nh hnh 6.8b gi l ng cong t tr vi t d Br l khng t Hc.
B B Br Hc H

a)

b) Hnh 6.8 ng cong t ho a) T ho ln u b) Chu trnh t tr

Khi trong vt liu st t c ng lc, kch thc mng tinh th thay i, cc hng d t ho thay i dn n lm thay i nh hng ca cc domen. Hin tng ny gi l hiu ng t gio nghch. Trn hnh 6.9 biu din nh hng ca ng lc n ng cong t ho ca permalloy 68.

B(Wb/m2)

=20N/mm2 =0

H (A/m)

Hnh 6.9 S bin dng ca ng cong t ho di tc dng ca lc ko

6.3.2. Cm bin t thm bin thin

Cu to ca cm bin gm mt cun dy c li t hp vi mt khung st t to thnh mt mch t kn (hnh 6.10). Di tc dng ca lc F, li t b bin dng ko - 105 -

theo s thay i t thm , lm cho t tr mch t thay i do t cm ca cun dy cng thay i. S thay i tng i ca L, R hoc t l vi ng lc , tc l vi lc cn o F:
R L = = = K. R L
F

Hnh 6.10 Cm bin t gio c t thm bin thin

6.3.3. Cm bin t d bin thin

Phn t c bn ca cm bin t d bin thin l mt li t lm bng Ni tinh khit cao, c t d Br. Di tc dng ca lc cn o, th d lc nn (d < 0), Br tng ln:
dB r Wb.m 2 = 1,5.10 9 d N.m 2

S thay i ca t thng s lm xut hin trong cun dy mt sut in ng t l vi dBr/dt. Biu thc ca in p h mch c dng:
Vm = K dB r dB d =K r dt d dt

Trong K l h s t l vi s vng dy v tit din vng dy.

6.4. Cm bin o lc da trn php o dch chuyn

Trong cm bin loi ny, lc cn o tc dng ln vt trung gian v gy nn s thay i kch thc l ca n. S thay i kch thc c o bng mt cm bin dch chuyn. Khi tn hiu ra Vm v lc tc dng c biu din bng biu thc:
Vm Vm l = F l F

Trong : - Vm/l gi l t s truyn t ca cm bin. - l/F gi l mm ca vt trung gian.

- 106 -

Vt trung gian l vng o lc, cc dm dng console hoc l xo. Tu theo iu kin s dng c th s dng nhiu loi cm bin dch chuyn khc nhau nh: - in th k in tr. - Cm bin t tr bin thin. - Cm bin t in.
6.5. Cm bin xc gic

Phn chnh ca cm bin l mt cch in trn c mt li dn in (hnh 6.11a) c t di in p V. Li in gm hai h thng dy dn (X1, X2,...) v (Y1, Y2,...) vung gc vi nhau to thnh nhng vung nh, mi vung nh u c mt in cc c cch in vi dy dn ca li bao quanh n, cc in cc ny ni vi t thng qua mch o dng. Mt trn ca h thng c ph cao su c pha cc ht dn in. Khi c lc nn tc dng ln mt phn no ca tm cao su, khong cch gia cc ht dn in phn ngn li, in tr gim xung, dng in tng ln (hnh 6.11b). To ca vng c dng in tng ln s xc nh v tr ca lc tc dng v gi tr ca n xc nh gi tr ca lc.

I0

I0

I1

I2

I0

a)

b)

Hnh 6.11 Cm bin xc tc a) H thng cc o b) Tc dng ca lc ln in cc

- 107 -

Chng VII cm bin vn tc, gia tc v rung 7.1. Cm bin o vn tc 7.1.1. Nguyn l o vn tc Trong cng nghip, phn ln trng hp o vn tc l o tc quay ca my. an ton cng nh ch lm vic ca my ph thuc rt ln vo tc quay. Trong trng hp chuyn ng thng, vic o vn tc di cng thng c chuyn v o tc quay. Bi vy, cc cm bin o vn tc gc ng vai tr quan trng trong vic o vn tc. o vn tc gc thng ng dng cc phng php sau y: S dng tc k vng kiu in t: nguyn l hot ng da trn hin tng cm ng in t. Cm bin gm c hai phn: phn cm (ngun t thng) v phn ng (phn c t thng i qua). Khi c chuyn ng tng i gia phn cm v phn ng, t thng i qua phn ng bin thin, trong n xut hin sut in ng cm ng xc nh theo cng thc:
e= d dt

Thng thng t thng qua phn ng c dng:

(x ) = 0 F (x )

Trong x l bin s ca v tr thay i theo v tr gc quay hoc theo ng thng, khi sut in ng e xut hin trong phn ng c dng:
e = 0 dF(x) dx dx dt

Sut in ng ny t l vi vn tc cn o. S dng tc k vng loi xung: lm vic theo nguyn tc o tn s chuyn ng ca phn t chuyn ng tun hon, v d chuyn ng quay. Cm bin loi ny thng c mt a c m ho gn vi trc quay, chng hn gm cc phn trong sut xen k cc phn khng trong sut. Cho chm sng chiu qua a n mt u thu quang, xung in ly t u thu quang c tn s t l vi vn tc quay cn o. 7.1.2. Tc k in t a) Tc k in t o vn tc gc - 108 -

- Tc k dng mt chiu: S cu to ca mt tc k dng mt chiu biu din trn hnh 7.1.

1
N

2
S

Hnh 7.1 S cu to ca my pht dng mt chiu 1) Stato 2) Rto 3) C gp 4) Chi qut

Stato (phn cm) l mt nam chm in hoc nam chm vnh cu, roto (phn ng) l mt trc st gm nhiu lp ghp li, trn mt ngoi roto x cc rnh song song vi trc quay v cch u nhau. Trong cc rnh t cc dy dn bng ng gi l dy chnh, cc dy chnh c ni vi nhau tng i mt bng cc dy ph. C gp l mt hnh tr trn mt c gn cc l ng cch in vi nhau, mi l ni vi mt dy chnh ca roto. Hai chi qut p st vo c gp c b tr sao cho ti mt thi im chng lun tip xc vi hai l ng i din nhau. Khi r to quay, sut in ng xut hin trong mt dy dn xc nh theo biu thc:

ei =

d i dt

Trong di l t thng m dy dn ct qua trong thi gian dt:

d i = dS c d B i = dS c B iN

dSc l tit din b ct trong khong thi gian dt:

dS c = lvdt = lrdt

Trong : l - chiu di dy dn. v - vn tc di ca dy.

- vn tc gc ca dy.

r - bn knh quay ca dy. Biu thc ca sut in ng xut hin trong mt dy:
e i = rlB iN

- 109 -

Sut in ng ng vi mt na s dy bn phi ng trung tnh:

Ep = N 0 = nN 0 2

N - tng s dy chnh trn roto. n - s vng quay trong mt giy.

0 - l t thng xut pht t cc nam chm.

Tng t tnh c sut in ng ng vi mt na s dy bn tri:

E t = nN0

(7.1)

Nguyn tc ni dy l ni thnh hai cm, trong mi cm cc dy mc ni tip vi nhau, cn hai cm th mc ngc pha nhau.
b) Tc k dng xoay chiu

- My pht ng b: S cu to ca mt tc k dng xoay chiu kiu my pht ng b biu din trn hnh 7.2. Thc cht y l mt my pht in xoay chiu nh. Roto (phm cm) ca my pht l mt nam chm hoc t hp ca nhiu nam chm nh. Phn ng gm cc cun dy b tr cch u trn mt trong ca stato l ni cung cp sut in ng cm ng hnh sin c bin t l vi tc quay ca roto.
e = E sin t

(7.2)

Trong E = K 1 , = K 2 , K1 v K2 l cc thng s c trng cho my pht.

1
N S S N

Hnh 7.2 S cu to ca my pht ng b 1) Stato 2) Rto

Gi tr ca c th tnh c theo E hoc . - Xc nh t bin sut in ng: Cun cm ng c tr khng trong:

Z i = R i + jL i

- 110 -

Trong Ri, Li l in tr v t cm ca cun dy. in p hai u cun ng vi ti R c gi tr:

U= RE RK 1

(R + R i )2 + (L i )2

(R + R i )2 + (K 2 L i )2

(7.3)

T biu thc (7.3), ta thy in p U khng phi l hm tuyn tnh ca tc quay . iu kin s dng my pht nh mt cm bin vn tc l R>>Zi sao cho c th coi U E. in p u ra c chnh lu thnh in p mt chiu, in p ny khng ph thuc chiu quay v hiu sut lc gim khi tn s thp. Mt khc, s c mt ca b lc lm tng thi gian hi p ca cm bin. - Xc nh bng cch o tn s ca sut in ng: phng php ny c u im l tn hiu c th truyn i xa m s suy gim tn hiu khng nh hng ti chnh xc ca php o. - My pht khng ng b: Cu to ca my pht khng ng b tng t nh ng c khng ng b hai pha (hnh 7.3). Roto l mt a hnh tr kim loi mng v d t quay cng tc vi trc cn o, khi lng v qun tnh ca n khng ng k. Stato lm bng thp t tnh, trn b tr hai cun dy, mt cun l cun kch thch c cung cp in p Vc c bin Ve v tn s e n nh Vc = Ve cos e t .

2 3 em

Ve

Hnh 7.3 S cu to my pht khng ng b 1) Cun kch 2) Rto 3) Cun o

Cun dy th hai l cun dy o. Gia hai u ra ca cun ny xut hin mt sut in ng em c bin t l vi tc gc cn o:
e m = E m cos(e t + ) = kVe cos(e t + )

- 111 -

Trong k l hng s ph thuc vo kt cu ca my, l lch pha.

c) Tc k in t o vn tc di
Khi o vn tc di, vi dch chuyn ln ca vt kho st (> 1m) thng chuyn thnh o vn tc gc. Trng hp o vn tc ca dch chuyn thng nh c th dng cm bin vn tc di gm hai phn t c bn: mt nam chm v mt cun dy. Khi o, mt phn t c gi c nh, phn t th hai lin kt vi vt chuyn ng. Chuyn ng tng i gia cun dy v nam chm lm xut hin trong cun dy mt sut in ng t l vi vn tc cn o. S cm bin c cun dy di ng biu din trn hnh 7.4.
v
N S

2
S

Hnh 7.4 Cm bin dng cun dy di ng 1) Nam chm 2) Cun dy

Sut in ng xut hin trong cun dy c dng:

e = 2 rNBv = lBv
N - s vng dy. r - bn knh vng dy. B - gi tr ca cm ng t. v - tc dch chuyn ca vng dy. l - tng chiu di ca dy. Tc k loi ny o c dch chuyn vi mm vi nhy ~ 1V/m.s. Khi dch chuyn ln hn (ti 0,5 m) ngi ta dng tc k c nam chm di ng (hnh 7.5). Cm bin gm mt nam chm di chuyn dc trc ca hai cun dy qun ngc chiu nhau v mc ni tip. Khi nam chm di chuyn, sut in ng xut hin trong tng cun dy t l vi tc ca nam chm nhng ngc chiu nhau. Hai cun dy c mc ni tip v qun ngc chiu nn nhn c sut in ng u ra khc khng.

- 112 -

a) Hnh 7.5 Cm bin c li t di dng a) Cu to b) S nguyn l 1) Nam chm 2) Cun dy

b)

7.1.3. Tc k xung

Tc k xung thng c cu to n gin, chc chn, chu ng tt trong mi trng c hi, kh nng chng nhiu v chng suy gim tn hiu cao, d bin i tn hiu sang dng s. Tu thuc vo bn cht ca vt quay v du hiu m ho trn vt quay, ngi ta s dng loi cm bin thch hp. - Cm bin t tr bin thin: s dng khi vt quay l st t. - Cm bin t in tr: s dng khi vt quay l mt hay nhiu nam chm nh. Cm bin quang cng vi ngun sng: s dng khi trn vt quay c cc l, ng vt, mt phn x.
a) Tc k t tr bin thin

Cu to ca cm bin t tr bin thin gm mt cun dy c li st t chu tc ng ca mt nam chm vnh cu t i din vi mt a quay lm bng vt liu st t trn c kha rng. Khi a quay, t tr ca mch t bin thin mt cch tun hon lm cho t thng qua cun dy bin thin, trong cun dy xut hin mt sut in ng cm ng c tn s t l vi tc quay.
3

2 Khe t

Hnh 7.6 S cu to ca cm bin t tr bin thin 1) a quay (bnh rng) 2) Cun dy 3) Nam chm vnh cu

- 113 -

Tn s ca sut in ng trong cun dy xc nh bi biu thc:

f = pn

p - s lng rng trn a. n - s vng quay ca a trong mt giy. Bin E ca sut in ng trong cun dy ph thuc hai yu t: - Khong cch gia cun dy v a quay: khong cch cng ln E cng nh. - Tc quay: Tc quay cng ln, E cng ln. Khi tc quay nh, bin E rt b v kh pht hin, do vy tn ti mt vng tc quay khng th o c, ngi ta gi vng ny l vng cht. Di o ca cm bin ph thuc vo s rng ca a. Khi p ln, tc nmin o c c gi tr b. Khi p nh, tc nmax o c s ln. Th d vi p = 60 rng, di tc o c n = 50 - 500 vng/pht, cn vi p =15 rng di tc o c 500 10.000 vng/pht.
b) Tc k quang

Hnh 7.7 trnh by s nguyn l ca mt tc k quang o tc quay. Ngun sng pht tia hng ngoi l mt diot pht quang (LED). a quay, t gia ngun sng v u thu, c cc l b tr cch u trn mt vng trn. u thu l mt photodiode hoc phototranzitor. Khi a quay, u thu ch chuyn mch khi ngun sng, l, ngun pht sng thng hng. Kt qu l khi a quay, u thu quang nhn c mt thng lng nh sng bin iu v pht tn hiu c tn s t l vi tc quay nhng bin khng ph thuc tc quay.
4

Hnh 7.7 S nguyn l ca tc k quang 1) Ngun sng 2) Thu knh hi t 3) a quay 4) u thu quang

Trong cc cm bin quang o tc , ngi ta cng c th dng a quay c cc vng phn x nh sng b tr tun hon trn mt vng trn phn x nh sng ti u thu quang. - 114 -

Phm vi tc o c ph thuc vo hai yu t chnh: S lng l trn a. Di thng ca u thu quang v ca mch in t.

o tc nh (~ 0,1 vng/pht) phi dng a c s lng l ln (500 1.000 l). Trong trng hp o tc ln ( ~ 105 - 106 vng/pht) phi s dng a quay ch mt l, khi tn s ngt ca mch in xc nh tc cc i c th o c.
7.1.4. My o gc tuyt i

My o gc tuyt i gm hai phn: phn ng gn lin vi trc quay cha cun s cp c kch thch bng sng mang c tn s 2 - 10 kHz qua my bin p quay (hnh 7.8a). Phn tnh c hai dy qun th cp (cun sin v cun cos) t lch nhau 90o.
sin

sin

cos

U0sint UU0sintsin

cos

t
UU0sintcos

a)

b)

Hnh 7.8 S nguyn l my o gc tuyt i

Khi trc quay, u ra ca hai dy qun th cp ta thu c hai tn hiu iu bin UU0sintsin v UU0sintcos (hnh 7.8b). ng bao ca bin knh tn hiu ra cha thng tin v v tr tuyt i (gc ) ca roto my o tc l v tr tuyt i ca trc quay. C hai cch x l thng tin thu c. Cch th nht l hiu chnh sa sai gc thu c c trn c s so snh gc vi mt s vi mch sn c. Cc vi mch ny cho tn hiu gc dng s vi phn gii 10 - 16 bit/1vng v mt tc quay dng tng t. phn gii ca phng php ny ph thuc vo thng s ca mch iu chnh. - 115 -

Cch th hai, c cht lng cao hn, l dng hai b chuyn i tng t - s ly mu trc tip t nh tn hiu iu ch. Trong trng hp ny cn ng b cht ch gia thi im ly mu v khu to tn hiu kch thch 2 - 10 kHz sau dng b lc chuyn xung hnh ch nht thnh tn hiu kch thch hnh sin. phn gii ca php o dng my o gc tuyt i hon ton ph thuc vo phn gii ca b chuyn i tng t s. Khi bit gc quay tuyt i , ly o hm ta nhn c tc gc cn o.
7.1.5. i hng k

i hng k c gn vo vt chuyn ng o tc gc ca vt. Hai dng i hng k thng dng l: i hng k c hc dng con quay hi chuyn, i hng k quang dng laze v cp quang da trn hin tng truyn sng nh sng.
a) i hng k dng con quay hi chuyn

Con quay hi chuyn gm mt roto lp trn mt khung ng v c quay quanh trc YY vi tc ln (~104vng/pht) nh mt ng c.

1
Y

4 3
X Z Y

Hnh 7.9 S nguyn l i hng k dng con quay hi chuyn 1) Con quay hi chuyn 2) Khung ng 3) L xo 4) in th k

Tc quay cn o theo trc ZZ vung gc vi trc YY lm xut hin mt ngu lc Cg t l vi theo hng XX vung gc vi hai trc YY v ZZ c xu hng lm cho khung ng ca con quay hi chuyn quay theo. Ngu lc Cg c cn bng bi ngu lc n hi Cr ca hai l xo gy nn c gi tr t l vi gc quay ca khung.
trng thi cn bng:

- 116 -

Cg = Cr

(7.4).

vi Cr = k (k l h s n hi ca l xo) v Cg = H ( H l mmen ng hc ca rto). Thay cc gi tr vo cng thc (7.4) ta c cng thc xc nh gc :

= H k

(7.5)

Gc quay ca khung ng ca con quay hi chuyn t l vi vn tc gc cn o. tin cho x l, gc quay c chuyn i thnh tn hiu in nh mt in th k. Cc thng s ca my o nh sau: - Di o t 7o/s n 360o/s. - Sai lch khi tuyn tnh < 1,5% ca di o.
b) i hng k quang

i hng k quang gm ngun pht chm tia laze (1), cun dy si quang (2) c chiu di L qun thnh vng bn knh R quay vi cng vn tc gc vi vt quay.
4 3

Hnh 7.10 S nguyn l i hng k quang dng laze v cp quang 1) Ngun pht laze 2) Cp quang 3) Bn phn tch 4) u thu

Chm tia xut pht t ngun pht (1) qua bn phn tch (3) to thnh hai chm tia truyn theo hai hng ngc nhau trong si cp quang. Khi ra khi cp, do qung ng truyn sng khc nhau, hai tia lch pha nhau, lch pha gia hai chm tia bng: = 4 RL c (7.6)

- bc sng tia laze. - 117 -

c - vn tc nh sng. Trn u thu (4) ta thu c h vn giao thoa ca hai chm tia. Bng cch m s vn giao thoa Z b dch chuyn do cp quang quay, ta c th tnh c tc quay theo cng thc:
Z = 2 LR c

(7.7)

7.2. Cm bin rung v gia tc 7.2.1. Khi nim c bn a) Di gia tc v phng php o gia tc

Theo nguyn l c bn ca c hc, gia tc l i lng vt l th hin mi quan h gia lc v khi lng. Php o gia tc c th thc hin qua vic o lc (cm bin p in, cm bin cn bng ngu lc) hoc o gin tip thng qua s bin dng hay di chuyn ca vt trung gian. Tu theo mc gia tc v di tn ca hin tng kho st ngi ta phn bit cc di gia tc sau:
-

o gia tc chuyn ng ca mt khi lng no , trong chuyn ng

ca trng tm lun gi tn s tng i thp (t 0 n vi chc Hz), gi tr ca gia tc nh. Cc cm bin thng dng l cc cm bin gia tc o dch chuyn v cm bin gia tc o bin dng.
-

o gia tc rung ca cc cu trc cng hoc cu trc c khi lng ln, tn

s rung t ti hng trm Hz. Cm bin gia tc thng dng l cm bin t tr bin thin, u o bin dng kim loi hoc p in tr.
-

o gia tc rung mc trung bnh v di tn tng i cao (~10kHz), thng o gia tc khi va p, thay i gia tc c dng xung. Cm bin gia tc s

gp khi vt c khi lng nh. Cm bin gia tc s dng l loi p tr hoc p in. dng l cc loi c di thng rng v c hai pha tn s thp v tn s cao. Cm bin o gia tc l cm bin chuyn ng khng cn c im mc, chng khc vi cc cm bin dch chuyn bi v khi o dch chuyn ca mt vt ngi ta phi o chuyn ng tng i ca vt so vi mt vt khc c nh ly lm mc.
b) Chuyn ng rung v phng php o

o rung trong cng nghip c tm quan trng c bit v cc l do:

-

Nhm khng ch bin rung trnh gy tin n c hi cho sc kho. - 118 -

Hn ch mc rung gii hn cho php m bo an ton cho cng Rung ng lin quan n trng thi mi mn v bn mi ca chi tit c kh

trnh.
-

trong my mc. o rung gip cho ngi qun l nm c tnh trng mn ca chi tit t c k hoch bo dng, sa cha kp thi. rung c c trng bi dch chuyn, tc hoc gia tc cc im trn vt rung. Bi vy khi o rung ng ngi ta o mt trong nhng c trng trn. Cm bin rung c th l cm bin dch chuyn, cm bin tc hoc cm bin gia tc nhng c th m t nguyn l hot ng ca chng bng m hnh h c hc c mt bc t do nh trnh by hnh 7.11. Cm bin gm mt phn t nhy cm (l xo, tinh th p in... ) ni vi mt khi lng rung v c t chung trong mt v hp. Chuyn ng rung ca khi lng M tc ng ln phn t nhy cm ca cm bin v c chuyn thnh tn hiu in u ra.
4
M

z
b b a

2 1

h h0

Hnh 7.11 S nguyn l cm bin o gia tc v rung 1) Khi rung 2) V hp 3) Phn t nhy cm 4) Gim chn

Gi h0 l tung ca im a ca v hp, h l tung im b ca khi lng rung. Khi khng c gia tc tc ng ln v hp tung ca a v b bng nhau. Dch chuyn tng i ca khi lng M so vi v hp xc nh bi biu thc:

z = h h0 Khi phng trnh cn bng lc c dng:

d2h dz M 2 = F Cz dt dt Cz - phn lc ca l xo. F dz - lc ma st nht. dt

(7.8)

- 119 -

M Hay:

d2h - lc do gia tc ca khi M gy nn. dt 2 d2h0 d2z dz = M 2 + F + Cz 2 dt dt dt

(7.9)

T cng thc (7.9), ta nhn thy cu to ca cm bin o i lng s cp m1 ( dch chuyn h0, vn tc dh0/dt hoc gia tc d2h0/dt2) ph thuc vo i lng c chn lm i lng o th cp m2 (z, dz/dt hoc d2z/dt2) v di tn s lm vic. Di tn s lm vic quyt nh s hng no trong v phi phng trnh chim u th (Cz, Fdz/dt hoc Md2z/dt2). Trn thc t cm bin th cp thng s dng l:

Cm bin o v tr tng i ca khi lng rung M so vi v hp. Cm bin o lc hoc cm bin o bin dng. Cm bin o tc tng i.

Dng ton t laplace (p) c th m t hot ng ca cm bin rung bng biu thc sau:
Mp 2 h 0 = Mp 2 z + Fpz + Cz

Hoc:
2 p 2 0 z = h0 p2 p + 2 +1 2 0 0

Vi:

0 =
=

C = 2f0 l tn s ring ca M trn l xo c cng C. M

F l h s tt dn. 2 CM

nhy ca cm bin c th tnh bng t s gia i lng in u ra s v i lng o s cp m1.

S= m s s = 2. = S 1 .S 2 m1 m1 m 2

Trong :

- 120 -

S1 =
S2 =

m2 l nhy c ca i lng o s cp. m1

s l nhy ca cm bin th cp. m2

7.2.2. Cm bin o tc rung

S cm bin o tc rung trnh by trn hnh 7.12.

1 2 3 4 5
M b b

Hnh 7.12 S nguyn l cm bin o vn tc rung 1) V hp 2) Khi rung 3) Li nam chm 4) Cun dy 5) L xo 6) Gim chn

Trong cm bin loi ny, i lng o s cp m1 l tc rung dh0/dt, i lng o th cp m2 l dch chuyn tng i z. nhy s cp S1 xc nh bi biu thc:
S1 =
2 m2 p / 0 z = = 2 m1 ph 0 p p + 2 +1 2 0 0

tin li trong s dng, ngi ta cng s dng i lng o th cp m2 l tc dch chuyn tng i dz/dt. Vic chuyn i tc tng i ca khi lng rung so vi v hp thnh tn hiu in thc hin bi mt cm bin v tr tng i kiu in t gm mt cun dy v mt li nam chm. Cun dy gn vi khi lng rung, li nam chm t bn trong cun dy v gn vi v cm bin. Bng cch o sut in ng ca cun dy c th nh gi c tc rung cn o. Mt iu cn quan tm khi s dng cm bin loi ny l phn ng ca cm bin th cp i vi chuyn ng ca khi lng rung th hin thng qua phn lc

f = B.l.i tc ng ln cun dy khi cun dy chuyn ng trong t trng cm ng

- 121 -

B. Gi thit b qua tr khng ca cun dy L, khi phn lc f t l vi tc tng i: f = (Bl )

2

1 dz R dt

Lc ny chng li chuyn ng ca khi lng rung, lm thay i h s tt dn ca chuyn ng.

7.2.3. Gia tc k p in a) Cu to v nguyn l hot ng

Cu to chung ca gia tc k p in gm mt khi lng rung M v mt phn t p in t trn gi cng, v ton b c t trong mt v hp kn. Thng thng cn phi o gia tc theo hai hng dc theo trc nhy cm. Tu thuc vo bn cht lc tc dng (nn, ko hoc ct) trong b cm bin phi c b phn c kh to ng lc c hc t trc ln phn t p in m rng di o gia tc theo hai chiu. Trn hnh 7.13 trnh by s cu to ca cc gia tc k p in kiu nn.
5 3 1 2

Hnh 7.13 S cu to gia tc k p in kiu nn 1) Khi lng rung 2) Phin p in 3) ai c 4) 5) V hp

Cm bin loi ny c tn s cng hng cao, kt cu chc chn, nhy vi ng lc ca . S cu to ca gia tc k kiu un cong trnh by trn hnh 7.14. Phn t p in ca cm bin gm hai phin p in mng dn vi nhau, mt u gn c nh ln v hp cm bin, mt u gn vi khi lng rung. Cm bin loi ny cho nhy rt cao nhng tn s v gia tc rung o c b hn ch.

- 122 -

2 M

Hnh 7.14 S cu to gia tc k p in kiu un cong 1) Khi lng rung 2) Phin p in 3) V hp

b) c trng ca cm bin
nhy c biu din bi biu thc: S= Trong : a - gia tc ca cm bin. Q - in tch c to ra khi cm bin rung vi gia tc a. S1 - nhy c ca h thng khi lng rung. S2 - nhy in ca cm bin. Gi tr ca S1 v S2 xc nh nh sau:
S1 = z = a 1
2 0

Q = S 1S 2 a

2 1 + 2 2 0 0
1 1+ 0
2

S2 =

Q = dC z

Trong : d - hng s in mi. c - cng ca phn t nhy cm.

= 1 - tn s tt di ca h thng cm bin - mch o.

7.2.4. Gia tc k p tr
Cu to chung ca mt gia tc k p tr gm mt tm mng n hi mt u gn vi gi , mt u gn vi khi lng rung, trn c gn t 2 n 4 p tr - 123 -

mc trong mt mch cu Wheatstone. Di tc dng ca gia tc, tm n hi b un cong, gy nn bin dng trong u o mt cch trc tip hoc gin tip qua b khuch i c. Trn hnh 7.15 gii thiu s nguyn l ca mt cm bin gia tc p tr.

3 2

M G 1 F

e b L

Hnh 7.15 S nguyn l ca cm bin gia tc p tr 1) Khi rung 2) Tm n hi 3) p tr 4)

nhy ca cm bin c biu din bng biu thc: V S = S 1S 2 = . m a - nhy in ca cu Wheatstone S1: v 4 u o u c cng mt bin dng nn in p ra Vm ca u o bng:
Vm = e s R = e s K R

Suy ra:
S 2 = Ke s

Trong : es - in p nui cu (10 - 15 V). K - h s u o p tr. R - in tr mt u o. - nhy c S1 ca h thng c kh xc nh theo biu thc:
S1 = A
2 0

1 2 1 + 2 2 0 0
2

Gi tr ca A v 0 ph thuc vo kt cu ca h chu un, v d vi cm bin cho hnh 7.15: - 124 -

0 =
A = 1,5

Yle 3 4 L3 M
be L3

Trong Y l mun Young.

- 125 -

Chng VIII Cm bin o p sut CHT lu 8.1. p sut v nguyn l o p sut 8.1.1. p sut v n v o p sut l i lng c gi tr bng t s gia lc tc dng vung gc ln mt mt vi din tch ca n:
p= dF ds

(8.1)

i vi cc cht lng, kh hoc hi (gi chung l cht lu), p sut l mt thng s quan trng xc nh trng thi nhit ng hc ca chng. Trong cng nghip, vic o p sut cht lu c ngha rt ln trong vic m bo an ton cho thit b cng nh gip cho vic kim tra v iu khin hot ng ca my mc thit b c s dng cht lu. Trong h n v quc t (SI) n v p sut l pascal (Pa): 1 Pa l p sut to bi mt lc c ln bng 1N phn b ng u trn mt din tch 1m2 theo hng php tuyn. n v Pa tng i nh nn trong cng nghip ngi ta cn dng n v p sut l bar (1 bar = 105 Pa) v mt s n v khc. Bng 8.1 trnh by cc n v o p sut v h s chuyn i gia chng. Bng 8.1
n v p sut 1Pascal 1 bar 1 kg/cm2 1 atm 1mmH2O 1mmHg 1mbar pascal (Pa)
1 105 9,8.104 1,013.105 9,8 133,3 100

bar (b)
10-5 1 0,980 1,013 9,8.10-5 13,33.10-4 10-3

kg/cm2
1,02.10-5 1,02 1 1,033 10-3 1,36.10-3 1,02.10-3

atmotsphe (atm)
0,987.10-5 0,987 0,986 1 0,968.10-4 1,315.10-3 0,987.10-3

mmH2O
1,02.10-1 1,02.104 104 1,033.104 1 136 1,02

mmHg
0,75.10-2 750 735 760 0,0735 1 0,750

mbar
10-2 103 9,80.102 1,013.103 0,098 1,33 1

- 126 -

8.1.2. Nguyn l o p sut i vi cht lu khng chuyn ng, p sut cht lu l p sut tnh (pt):

p = pt

(8.2)

Do vy o p sut cht lu thc cht l xc nh lc tc dng ln mt din tch thnh bnh. i vi cht lu khng chuyn ng cha trong mt ng h t thng ng, p sut tnh ti mt im M cch b mt t do mt khong (h) xc nh theo cng thc sau:
p = p 0 + gh

(8.3)

Trong : p0 - p sut kh quyn.

- khi lng ring cht lu.

g- gia tc trng trng. o p sut tnh c th tin hnh bng cc phng php sau: - o p sut cht lu ly qua mt l c khoan trn thnh bnh nh cm bin thch hp. - o trc tip bin dng ca thnh bnh do p sut gy nn. Trong cch o th nht, phi s dng mt cm bin t st thnh bnh. Trong trng hp ny, p sut cn o c cn bng vi p sut thu tnh do ct cht lng mu to nn hoc tc ng ln mt vt trung gian c phn t nhy cm vi lc do p sut gy ra. Khi s dng vt trung gian o p sut, cm bin thng trang b thm b phn chuyn i in. sai s o nh, th tch cht ca knh dn v cm bin phi khng ng k so vi th tch tng cng ca cht lu cn o p sut. Trong cch o th hai, ngi ta gn ln thnh bnh cc cm bin o ng sut o bin dng ca thnh bnh. Bin dng ny l hm ca p sut. i vi cht lu chuyn ng, p sut cht lu (p) l tng p sut tnh (pt) v p sut ng (p) :
p = pt + pd

(8.4)

p sut tnh tng ng vi p sut gy nn khi cht lng khng chuyn ng, c

o bng mt trong cc phng php trnh by trn. p sut ng do cht lu chuyn ng gy nn v c gi tr t l vi bnh phng vn tc cht lu:
pd = v 2 2
- 127 -

(8.5)

Trong l khi lng ring cht lu. Khi dng chy va p vung gc vi mt mt phng, p sut ng chuyn thnh p sut tnh, p sut tc dng ln mt phng l p sut tng. Do vy, p sut ng c o thng qua o chnh lch gia p sut tng v p sut tnh. Thng thng vic o hiu (p - pt) thc hin nh hai cm bin ni vi hai u ra ca mt ng Pitot, trong cm bin (1) o p sut tng cn cm bin (2) o p sut tnh.

cm bin 2

cm bin 1

Hnh 8.1 o p sut ng bng ng Pitot

C th o p sut ng bng cch t p sut tng ln mt trc v p sut tnh ln mt sau ca mt mng o (hnh 8.2), nh vy tn hiu do cm bin cung cp chnh l chnh lch gia p sut tng v p sut tnh.
1 p 2 pt

Hnh 8.2 o p sut ng bng mng 1) Mng o 2) Phn t p in

8.2. p k vi sai da trn nguyn tc cn bng thu tnh

Nguyn l chung ca phng php da trn nguyn tc cn bng p sut cht lu vi p sut thu tnh ca cht lng lm vic trong p k.

8.2.1. p k vi sai kiu phao p k vi sai kiu phao gm hai bnh thng nhau, bnh ln c tit din F v
bnh nh c tit din f (hnh 8.3). Cht lng lm vic l thu ngn hay du bin p. Khi o, p sut ln (p1) c a vo bnh ln, p sut b (p2) c a vo bnh nh. trnh cht lng lm vic phun ra ngoi khi cho p sut tc ng v mt pha ngi ta m van (4) v khi p sut hai bn cn bng van (4) c kho li. Khi t s cn bng p sut, ta c:
p1 p 2 = g( m )(h1 + h 2 )
- 128 -

Trong : g - gia tc trng trng. m - trng lng ring ca cht lng lm vic. - trng lng ring ca cht lng hoc kh cn o. Mt khc t cn bng th tch ta c:
F.h1 = f .h 2
p1 5 p2 6 4

Suy ra:
h1 = 1 .(p p ) (8.6) (1 + F / f )( m )g 1 2

Khi mc cht lng trong bnh ln thay i (h1 thay i), phao ca p k dch chuyn v qua c cu lin kt lm quay kim ch th trn ng h o. Biu thc (8.6) l phng trnh c tnh tnh ca p k vi sai kiu phao.
3 2 1

h2 h1

Hnh 8.3. p k vi sai kiu phao

p k vi sai kiu phao dng o p sut tnh khng ln hn 25MPa. Khi thay
i t s F/f (bng cch thay ng nh) ta c th thay i c phm vi o. Cp chnh xc ca p sut k loi ny cao (1; 1,5) nhng cha cht lng c hi m khi p sut thay i t ngt c th nh hng n i tng o v mi trng.

8.2.2. p k vi sai kiu chung

Cu to ca p k vi sai kiu chung gm chung (1) nhng trong cht lng lm vic cha trong bnh (2).
3 3

p2 A B 2

1 dx dy p1

p2

dH p1

a)

b)

Hnh 8.4 p k vi sai kiu chung 1) Chung 2) Bnh cha 3) Ch th

- 129 -

Khi p sut trong bung (A) v (B) bng nhau th np chung (1) v tr cn bng (hnh8.4a), khi c bin thin chnh p d(p1-p2) >0 th chung c nng ln (hnh 8.4b). Khi t cn bng ta c: d(p1 p 2 ).F = (dH + dy )f .g( m ) Vi:
dh = dx + dy

(8.8)

d(p1 p 2 ) = dh( m )g
fdy = f .dH + ( F )dx

Trong : F - tit din ngoi ca chung. dH - di chuyn ca chung. dy - dch chuyn ca mc cht lng trong chung. dx - dch chuyn ca mc cht lng ngoi chung. f - din tch tit din thnh chung. - din tch tit din trong ca bnh ln. dh - chnh lch mc cht lng ngoi v trong chung. f - din tch tit din trong ca chung. Gii cc phng trnh trn ta c: dH = f d(p1 p 2 ) f .g( m )

Ly tch phn gii hn t 0 n (p1 - p2) nhn c phng trnh c tnh tnh ca p k vi sai kiu chung: H= f (p1 p 2 ) f .g( m ) (8.9)

p k vi sai c chnh xc cao c th o c p sut thp v p sut chn

khng.
8.3. Cm bin p sut da trn php o bin dng

Nguyn l chung ca cm bin p sut loi ny da trn c s s bin dng n hi ca phn t nhy cm vi tc dng ca p sut. Cc phn t bin dng thng dng l ng tr, l xo ng, xi phng v mng mng.

- 130 -

8.3.1. Phn t bin dng a) ng tr

S cu to ca phn t bin dng hnh ng tr trnh by trn hnh 8.5. ng c dng hnh tr, thnh mng, mt u bt kn, c ch to bng kim loi.
e

1
J1

J2 J4

J3

2
a)

r b)

Hnh 8.5 Phn t bin dng kiu ng hnh tr a) S cu to b) V tr gn cm bin

i vi ng di (L>>r), khi p sut cht lu tc ng ln thnh ng lm cho ng bin dng, bin dng ngang (1) v bin dng dc (2) ca ng xc nh bi biu thc:
p r 1 = 1 = k1p 2Y e 1 p r 1 = = k2p 2 Y e

Trong : p - p sut. Y - m un Young. - h s poisson. r - bn knh trong ca ng. e - chiu dy thnh ng. chuyn tn hiu c (bin dng) thnh tn hiu in ngi ta dng b chuyn i in (th d cm bin lc).

b) L xo ng
Cu to ca cc l xo ng dng trong cm bin p sut trnh by trn hnh 8.6. L xo l mt ng kim loi un cong, mt u gi c nh cn mt u t do. Khi a cht lu vo trong ng, p sut tc dng ln thnh ng lm cho ng b bin dng v u t do dch chuyn.

- 131 -

Trn hnh (8.6a) l s l xo ng mt vng, tit din ngang ca ng hnh tri xoan. Di tc dng ca p sut d trong ng, l xo s gin ra, cn di tc dng ca p sut thp n s co li.
N1 N A 2b 2a p p a) b) c)

Nr R A

Hnh 8.6 L xo ng

i vi cc l xo ng thnh mng bin thin gc tm () di tc dng ca p sut (p) xc nh bi cng thc:

= p 1 2 R2 . Y bh b2 1 a2 + x2

(8.10)

Trong : - h s poisson. Y - m un Young. R - bn knh cong. h - b dy thnh ng. a, b - cc bn trc ca tit din van. , - cc h s ph thuc vo hnh dng tit din ngang ca ng. x = Rh/a2 - tham s chnh ca ng. Lc thnh phn theo hng tip tuyn vi trc ng (ng thnh mng h/b = 0,6 - 0,7) u t do xc nh theo theo biu thc:
b 2 48s sin N t = pab1 2 a + x 2 . 3 4 sin + sin . cos = k 1 p

(8.11)

Lc hng knh:
b 2 48s cos N r = pab1 2 . 2 a + x sin . cos = k 2 p

(8.12)

Trong s v cc h s ph thuc vo t s b/a.

- 132 -

Gi tr ca k1, k2 l hng s i vi mi l xo ng nn ta c th vit c biu thc xc nh lc tng hp:

2 N = k 1 + k 2 .p = kp 2 2 Vi k = k 1 + k 2 = f(a, b, h, R, ) . 2

(8.13)

Bng cch thay i t s a/b v gi tr ca R, h, ta c th thay i c gi tr ca , N v nhy ca php o. L xo ng mt vng c gc quay nh, tng gc quay ngi ta dng l xo ng nhiu vng c cu to nh hnh (8.6b). i vi l xo ng dng vng thng phi s dng thm cc c cu truyn ng tng gc quay. to ra gc quay ln ngi ta dng l xo xon c tit din van hoc hnh rng kha nh hnh 8.6c, gc quay thng t 40 - 60o, do kim ch th c th gn trc tip trn u t do ca l xo. L xo ng ch to bng ng thau c th o p sut di 5 MPa, hp kim nh hoc thp di 1.000 MPa, cn trn 1.000 MPa phi dng thp gi.

c) Xiphng
Cu to ca xiphng trnh by trn hnh 8.7.

p
r

2Rb 2Rng

Hnh 8.7 S cu to ng xiphng

ng xiphng l mt ng hnh tr xp np c kh nng bin dng ng k di

tc dng ca p sut. Trong gii hn tuyn tnh, t s gia lc tc dng v bin dng ca xiphng l khng i v c gi l cng ca xiphng. tng cng thng ngi ta t thm vo trong ng mt l xo. Vt liu ch to l ng, thp cacbon, thp hp kim ... ng knh xiphng t 8 - 100mm, chiu dy thnh 0,1 0,3 mm. dch chuyn () ca y di tc dng ca lc chiu trc (N) xc nh theo cng thc:
- 133 -

 = N.

1 2 n 2 Yh 0 A 0 A 1 + A 2 + B 0 h / R 2 b

(8.14)

Trong : h0 - chiu dy thnh ng xiphng. n - s np lm vic. - gc bt kn. - h s poisson. A0, A1, B0 - cc h s ph thuc Rng/Rtr, r/R+r. Rng, Rtr - bn knh ngoi v bn knh trong ca xi phng. r - bn knh cong ca np un. Lc chiu trc tc dng ln y xc nh theo cng thc:
N= (R ng +R tr )2 p 5

(8.15)

d) Mng
Mng dng o p sut c chia ra mng n hi v mng do. Mng n hi c dng trn phng hoc c un np c ch to bng thp.
D D

p Hnh 8.8 S mng o p sut

Khi p sut tc dng ln hai mt ca mng khc nhau gy ra lc tc ng ln mng lm cho n bin dng. Bin dng ca mng l hm phi tuyn ca p sut v khc nhau tu thuc im kho st. Vi mng phng, phi tuyn kh ln khi vng ln, do thng ch s dng trong mt phm vi hp ca dch chuyn ca mng. vng ca tm mng phng di tc dng ca p sut tc dng ln mng xc nh theo cng thc sau:
= 3 pR 4 1 2 16 Yh 3

(8.16)

- 134 -

Mng un np c c tnh phi tuyn nh hn mng phng nn c th s dng vi vng ln hn mng phng. vng ca tm mng un np xc nh theo cng thc:
a= b 3 pR 4 + = h h3 Yh 4

(8.17)

Vi a, b l cc h s ph thuc hnh dng v b dy ca mng. Khi o p sut nh ngi ta dng mng do hnh trn phng hoc un np, ch to t vi cao su. Trong mt s trng hp ngi ta dng mng do c tm cng, khi tm mng c kp cng gia hai tm kim loi.

Hnh 8.9 S cu to mng do c tm cng

i vi mng do thng, lc di chuyn to nn tm mng xc nh bi biu thc:

D 2 N= .p 12 Vi D l ng knh mng. i vi mng do tm cng, lc di chuyn to nn tm mng xc nh bi biu thc:
N= D 2 + Dd + d 2 .p 12

(8.19)

(8.20)

Vi D l ng knh mng, d l dng knh a cng.

8.3.2. Cc b chuyn i in

Khi s dng cm bin o p sut bng phn t bin dng, chuyn i tn hiu c trung gian thnh tn hiu in ngi ta dng cc b chuyn i. Theo cch chuyn i ngi ta chia cc b chuyn i thnh hai loi: Bin i s dch chuyn ca phn t bin dng thnh tn hiu o. Cc chuyn i loi ny thng dng l: cun cm, bin p vi sai, in dung, in tr...
- 135 -

Bin i ng sut thnh tn hiu o. Cc b chuyn i l cc phn t p in

hoc p tr.

a) B bin i o p sut kiu in cm

Cu to ca b chuyn i kiu in cm biu din trn hnh 8.10. B chuyn i gm tm st t ng gn trn mng (1) v nam chm in c li st (2) v cun dy (3). Di tc dng ca p sut o, mng (1) dch chuyn lm thay i khe h t () gia tm st t v li t ca nam chm in, do thay i
t cm ca cun dy. Nu b qua in tr cun dy, t thng tn v tn hao trong li t th t cm ca b bin i xc nh bi cng thc sau:

p
1

2 3

Hnh 8.10 B chuyn i kiu cm ng 1) Tm st t 2) Li st t 3) Cun dy

W2 L= l tb / (S tb ) + / ( 0 S 0 ) Trong : W - s vng dy ca cun dy. ltb, Stb: chiu di v din tch trung bnh ca li t. , S0 - chiu di v tit din khe h khng kh . , 0 - t thm ca li t v khng kh.

(8.21)

Thng thng ltb/(Stb) << /(0S0), do c th tnh L theo cng thc gn ng:

L = W 2 . 0

S0

Vi = kp, ta c phng trnh c tnh tnh ca cm bin p sut dng b bin i cm ng:
L = W 2 . 0 S0 kp

(8.22)

o t cm L ngi ta dng cu o xoay chiu hoc mch cng hng LC.

- 136 -

b) B bin i kiu bin p vi sai

B bin i p sut kiu bin p vi sai (hnh 8.11) gm mt l xo vng (1) v phn t bin i (2). Phn t bin i gm mt khung cch in trn qun cun s cp (7). Cun th cp gm hai cun dy (4) v (5) qun ngc chiu nhau. Li thp di ng ni vi l xo (1). u ra ca cun th cp ni vi in tr R1, cho php iu chnh gii hn o trong phm vi 25%.
1 2 3

I1

R1

p
5 4

R2

Ur

Hnh 8.11 S cu to nguyn l ca b bin i kiu bin p vi sai 1) L xo vng 2) Phn t bin i 3&4) Cun th cp 5) Li thp 6) Cun s cp

Nguyn l lm vic: dng in I1 chy trong cun s cp sinh ra t thng bin thin trong hai na cun th cp, lm xut hin trong hai na cun dy ny cc sut in ng cm ng e1 v e2:
e1 = 2 f .I1M1 e 2 = 2 f .I1M 2

Trong M1 v M2 l h cm gia cun s cp v cc na cun th cp. Hai na cun dy u ngc chiu nhau, do sut in ng trong cun th cp:

E = e1 e 2 = 2fI1 (M1 M 2 ) = 2fI1M

i xc nh bi cng thc: Vra = 2 fI1M ra Gi tr h cm Mra ph thuc dch chuyn ca li thp: M ra = M max max

(8.23)

i vi phn t bin i chun c in tr ca ra R1 v R2 th in p ra ca b bin (8.24)

Trong Mmax l h cm ln nht ca cun s cp v cun th cp ng vi dch chuyn ln nht ca li thp.

- 137 -

T phng trnh (8.23) v (8.24), tm c in p ra ca b bin i:

Vra = 2fI1M max max

(8.25)

c) B bin i kiu in dung

S cm bin kiu in dung trnh by trn hnh 8.12

4 1

p1
3 1

p2
4

p a)

b)

Hnh 8.12 B chuyn i kiu in dung 1) Bn cc ng 2&3) Bn cc tnh 4) Cch din 4) Du silicon

Hnh 8.12a trnh by cu to mt b bin i kiu in dung gm bn cc ng l mng kim loi (1), v bn cc tnh (2) gn vi bng cch in thch anh (4). S ph thuc ca in dung C vo dch chuyn ca mng c dng: C= Trong : - hng s in mi ca cch in gia hai bn cc. 0 - khong cch gia cc in cc khi p sut bng 0. - dch chuyn ca mng. Hnh 8.12b l mt b bin i in dung kiu vi sai gm hai bn cc tnh (2) v (3) gn vi cht in mi cng (4), kt hp vi mng (1) nm gia hai bn cc to thnh hai t in C12 v C13. Khong trng gia cc bn cc v mng in y bi du silicon (5). Cc p sut p1 v p2 ca hai mi trng o tc ng ln mng, lm mng dch chuyn gia hai bn cc tnh v to ra tn hiu im (cung cp bi ngun nui) t l vi p sut gia hai mi trng:
i m = K1 C1 C 2 = K( p1 p 2 ) C1 + C 2

s + 0

(8.26)

(8.27)

- 138 -

 bin i bin thin in dung C thnh tn hiu o lng, thng dng mch cu xoay chiu hoc mch vng cng hng LC. B cm bin kiu in dung o c p sut n 120 MPa, sai s (0,2 - 5)%.
3.2.4. B bin i kiu p tr

Cu to ca phn t bin i p tr biu din trn hnh 8.13a. Cm bin p tr gm silic loi N (1) trn c khuch tn tp cht to thnh lp bn dn loi P (2) , mt trn c bc cch in v c hai tip xc kim loi ni dy dn (3).

3 R1 R3 R2 2 1 JT

R4 60o

a)

b)

Hnh 8.13. S nguyn l cm bin p tr a) S cu to b) V tr t trn mng 1) silic-N 2) Bn dn P 3) Dy dn

Trn hnh 8.13b l trng hp mng nh hng (100) c gn 4 cm bin p tr, trong c hai cm bin t tm theo hng (110) v hai cm bin t bin to thnh vi hng (100) mt gc 60o. Vi cch t nh vy, bin thin in tr ca hai cp cm bin khi c ng sut ni s bng nhau nhng tri du:
R1 = R 3 = R 2 = R 4 = R

o bin thin in tr ngi ta dng mch cu, khi hai u ng cho cu c nui bng dng mt chiu s l: Vm = I (R1 R 2 + R 3 R 4 ) = IR 4

S thay i tng i ca tr khng theo ng lc tnh xc nh theo biu thc: R = R0 Trong l h s p tr ca tinh th (~ 4.10-10 m2/N), khi biu thc in p c dng:
Vm = IR 0

(8.28)

- 139 -

B chuyn i kiu p tr lm vic trong di nhit t - 40oC n 125oC ph thuc vo pha tp. Ngi ta cng c th b tr nh hng ca nhit bng cch a thm vo b chuyn i mt b phn hiu chnh c iu khin qua u o nhit JT.
d) B chuyn i kiu p in

B chuyn i kiu p in, dng phn t bin i l phn t p in, cho php bin i trc tip ng lc di tc ng ca lc F do p sut gy nn thnh tn hiu in.
D d Trc in

p a)

Trc quang

b)

Hnh 8.14 Cm bin kiu p tr a) Phn t p in dng tm b) Phn t p in dng ng

p sut (p) gy nn lc F tc ng ln cc bn p in, lm xut hin trn hai

mt ca bn p in mtin tch Q t l vi lc tc dng:

Q = kF

Vi F = p.S, do :
Q = kpS

Trong : k - hng s p in, trong trng hp thch anh k = 2,22.10-12 C/N. S - din tch hu ch ca mng. tng in tch Q ngi ta ghp song song mt s bn cc vi nhau. i vi phn t p in dng ng, in tch trn cc bn cc xc nh theo cng thc:
Q = kF 4dh D d2
2

(8.29)

Trong : D, d - ng knh ngoi v ng knh trong ca phn t p in. h - chiu cao phn ph kim loi.

- 140 -

Gii hn trn ca cm bin p sut dng b bin i p in t 2,5 - 100 MPa, cp chnh xc 1,5;2. B bin i p in c hi p tn s rt tt nn thng dng o p sut thay i nhanh, tuy nhin chng c nhc im l nhy cm vi s thay i nhit .

- 141 -

Chng IX Cm bin o lu lng V MC CHT lu 9.1. Cm bin o lu lng 9.1.1. Lu lng v n v o Lu lng cht lu l lng cht lu chy qua tit din ngang ca ng trong mt n v thi gian. Tu theo n v tnh lng cht lu (theo th tch hoc khi lng) ngi ta phn bit: - Lu lng th tch (Q) tnh bng m3/s, m3/gi ... - Lu lng khi (G) tnh bng kg/s, kg/gi ... Lu lng trung bnh trong khong thi gian t = t2 - t1 xc nh bi biu thc:
Q tb = m V hoc G tb = t t (9.1)

Trong V, m l th tch v khi lng cht lu chy qua ng trong thi khong gian kho st. Lu lng tc thi xc nh theo cng thc:
Q= dV dt dm dt

hoc

G=

(9.2)

o lu lng ngi ta dng cc lu lng k. Tu thuc vo tnh cht cht lu, yu cu cng ngh, ngi ta s dng cc lu lng k khc nhau. Nguyn l hot ng ca cc lu lng k da trn c s: m trc tip th tch cht lu chy qua cng t trong mt khong thi gian xc nh t. o vn tc cht lu chy qua cng t khi lu lng l hm ca vn tc. o gim p qua tit din thu hp trn dng chy, lu lng l hm ph thuc gim p. Tn hiu o bin i trc tip thnh tn hiu in hoc nh b chuyn i in thch hp. 9.1.2. Cng t th tch Cng t th tch o th tch cht lu chy qua cng t bng cc m trc tip lng th tch i qua bung cha c th tch xc nh ca cng t. S nguyn l ca cng t th tch kiu bnh rng hnh van trnh by trn hnh 9.1.

- 142 -

Cngt gm hai bnh rng hnh van (1) v (2) truyn ng n khp vi nhau (hnh 9.1a). Di tc ng ca dng cht lng, bnh rng (2) quay v truyn chuyn ng ti bnh rng (1) (hnh 9.1b) cho n lc bnh rng (2) v tr thng ng, bnh rng (1) nm ngang. Cht lng trong th tch V1 c y sang ca ra. Sau bnh rng (1) quay v qu trnh tng t lp li, th tch cht lng trong bung V2 c y sang ca ra. Trong mt vng quay ca cngt th tch cht lng qua cngt bng bn ln th tch V0 (bng V1 hoc V2). Trc ca mt trong hai bnh rng lin kt vi c cu m t ngoi cngt.

V2

V1 a) b) Hnh 9.1 S nguyn l cng t th tch c)

Th tch cht lu chy qua cngt trong thi gian t = t2 - t1 t l vi s vng quay xc nh bi cng thc:
V = q v (N 2 N 1 )

(9.3)

Trong : qV - th tch cht lu chy qua cng t ng vi mt vng quay. N1, N2 - tng s vng quay ca cng t ti thi im t1 v t2. Thng thng th tch cht lu chy qua cng t c biu din di dng:
V = q c (N c 2 N c1 )

(9.4)

qc - h s cng t (th tch cht lu chy qua cng t ng vi mt n v ch th trn cng t). Nc1, Nc2 - s trn ch th cng t ti thi im t1 v t2. Lu lng trung bnh:
Q tb = V q v (N 2 N 1 ) = t t 2 t1 (9.5)

Lu lng tc thi:
- 143 -

Q= Vi n =

dV dN = qv = qvn dt dt

(9.6)

dN l tc quay trn trc cng t. dt

m s vng quay v chuyn thnh tn hiu in ngi ta dng mt trong ba cch di y: Dng mt nam chm nh gn trn trc quay ca ca cng t, khi nam chm i qua mt cun dy t c nh s to ra xung in. m s xung in theo thi gian s tnh c tc quay ca trc cng t. Dng tc k quang. Dng mch o thch hp o tn s hoc in p.

Gii hn o ca cng t loi ny t 0,01 - 250 m3/gi, chnh xc cao (0,5 1)%, tn tht p sut nh nhng c nhc im l cht lng o phi c lc tt v gy n khi lm vic. o lu lng dng kh ngi ta s dng cng t kh kiu quay. Cng t (hnh 9.2) gm v hnh tr (1), cc cnh (2,4,7,8), tang quay (3) v cam (6). Khi cnh (4) v tr nh hnh v , p sut cht kh tc ng ln cnh lm cho tang (3) quay. Trong qu trnh quay cc cnh lun tip xc vi mt ngoi cam (6) nh cc con ln (5). Trong mt vng quay th tch cht kh bng th tch vnh cht kh gia v v tang. Chuyn ng quay ca tang c truyn n c cu m t bn ngoi v cng t. Cng t kh kiu quay c th o lu lng n 100 - 300 m3/gi, cp chnh xc 0,25; 0,5.
9.1.3. Cng t tc
7 4 6 5 8 1 2 3

Hnh 9.2 Cng t kh kiu quay 1) V 2, 4,7&8) Cnh 3) Tang quay 5) Con ln 6) Cam

Hnh 9.3 trnh by s cu to ca mt cng t tc tuabin hng trc. B phn chnh ca cng t l mt tuabin hng trc nh (2) t theo chiu chuyn ng ca dng chy. Trc tuabin c t b chnh dng chy (1) san phng dng ri v loi b xoy. Chuyn ng quay ca tuabin qua b bnh rng trc vt (3) truyn ti thit b m (4).
- 144 -

4 2

Hnh 9.3 S cu to cng t tc tuabin hng trc 1) B chnh dng chy 2) Tuabin 3) B truyn bnh rng-trc vt 4) Thit b m

Tc quay ca cng t t l vi tc dng chy:

n = kW

Trong : k - h s t l ph thuc cu to cng t. W- tc dng chy. Lu lng th tch cht lu chy qua cng t:
Q = WF = F n k

(9.7)

Vi: F - tit din dng chy. n - tc quay ca tuabin (s vng quay trong mt giy). Nu dng c cu m m tng s vng quay ca cng t trong mt khong thi gian t t1 n t2 s nhn c th tch cht lng chy qua cng t:
dV = dQdt = F ndt k

V=

F t2 ndt k t1
F (N 2 N1 ) k F t2 ndt k t1

Hay:
V=

(9.8)

Vi N 2 N1 =

- 145 -

Cng t tc tuabin hng trc vi ng knh tuabin t 50 - 300 mm c phm vi o t 50 - 300 m3/gi, cp chnh xc 1; 1,5; 2. o lu lng nh ngi ta dng cng t tc kiu tip tuyn c s cu to nh hnh 9.4. Tuabin cng t (1) t trn trc quay vung gc vi dng chy. Cht lu qua mng lc (2) qua ng dn (3) vo cng t theo hng tip tuyn vi tuabin lm quay tuabin. C cu m lin kt vi trc tuabin a tn hiu n mch o.
1 3

Hnh 9.4 Cng t tc kiu tuabin tip tuyn 1) Tuabin 2) Mng lc 3) ng dn

Cng t kiu tip tuyn vi ng knh tuabin t 15 - 40 mm c phm vi o t 3 - 20 m3/gi, cp chnh xc 2; 3.

9.1.4. Lu lng k mng chn a) Nguyn l o

Cc cm bin loi ny hot ng da trn nguyn tc o gim p sut ca dng chy khi i qua mng ngn c l thu hp. Trn hnh 9.5 trnh by s nguyn l o lu lng dng mng ngn tiu chun. Khi chy qua l thu hp ca mng ngn, vn tc cht lu tng ln v t cc i (W2) ti tit din B-B, do to ra s chnh p trc v sau l thu hp. S dng mt p k vi sai o chnh p ny c th xc nh c lu lng ca dng chy. Gi s cht lng khng b nn, v dng chy l lin tc, vn tc cc i ca dng chy ti tit din B-B c xc nh theo biu thc:
W2 = 1 m
2 2

2 (p1 p 2 )

Trong : p1, p2 - p sut tnh ti tit din A-A v B-B. - t trng cht lu.
- 146 -

 - h s tn tht thu lc. m - t s thu hp ca mng ngn, m = F0/F1. - h s thu hp dng chy, = F2/F0.
F1 A
W1

F0

B F2
W2

p1

p2

p1 p1 p2

p
p2

p
p3

w1

w2

w3

Hnh 9.5 Phn b vn tc v p sut ca mt dng chy l tng qua l thu hp

Thng ngi ta khng o gim p p = p1 - p2 tit din A-A v B-B, m o gim p p = p1 - p2 ngay trc v sau l thu hp. Quan h gia p v p c dng:
' p 1 p '2 = p 1 p 2

Khi :
W2 = 2 m 2 2 (p1 p 2 )

v lu lng khi lng ca cht lu:

G = W2 F2 = W2 F0 = m
2 2

F0 2(p 1 p 2 )

Hay:
G = F0 2(p 1 p 2 )

(9.9)

Vi =

m
2 2

gi l h s lu lng.

- 147 -

T cc biu thc trn v F0 = d2/4, ta nhn c cng thc xc nh lu lng khi (G) v lu lng th tch (Q) ca dng cht lu:
G=
Q=

d 2 2(p 1 p 2 ) 4
d 2 4 2 (p1 p 2 )

(9.10) (9.11)

Trong trng hp mi trng cht lu chu nn, th khi p sut gim, cht lu gin n, lm tng tc dng chy so vi khi khng chu nn, do phi a thm vo h s hiu chnh ( < 1), khi cc phng trnh trn c dng:
G = c (p 1 p 2 )

(9.12) (9.13)

Q = c

1 (p1 p 2 )

y:
c = 2 / 4 l hng s.

- t trng cht lu ti ca vo ca l thu hp. i vi cc dng cht lu c tr s Reynol nh hn gi tr ti hn, khi o khng th dng mng ngn l thu hp tiu chun v khi h s lu lng khng phi l hng s. Trong trng hp ny, ngi ta dng cc mng ngn c l thu hp c bit nh mng ngn c l cn (hnh 9.6a), gicl hnh tr (hnh 9.6b), gicl cong (hnh 9.6c) ... Trn c s thc nghim ngi ta xc nh h s lu lng cho mi l thu hp v xem nh khng i trong phm vi s Reynol gii hn.

a)

b)

c)

Hnh 9.6 Cu to mng ngn l thu hp c bit dng o lu lng dng chy cht lu c s Reynol nh

- 148 -

b) S h thng o
Tu theo yu cu s dng, ngi ta c th s dng h thng o thch hp. Trn hnh 9.7 trnh by s khi ca mt s h thng o dng mng chn.
1 Q Q 1 Q 1

5 4

8 7

3 4 6

a)
1 Q

b)

c)
1 Q

10

11 7

3 4 6

12 7

3 4 6

d)

Hnh 9.7 S h thng o lu lng dng mng ngn 1) Mng ngn 2) Lu lng k vi sai 3) B bin i gim p 4) Dng c o th cp 5) B tch phn lu lng 6) Dng c tnh khi lng cht lu 7) Thit b tnh ton 8) Bin i t trng cht lu trong iu kin lm vic 9) B bin i nhit 10) B bin i p sut 11) B bin i t trng trong iu kin nh mc 12) B bin i t trng cht lu 20oC

9.1.5. Lu lng k in t
Nguyn l ca lu lng k in t da trn nh lut cm ng in t: khi c mt dy dn chuyn ng trong t trng, ct cc ng sc ca t trng th trong dy dn xut hin mt sut in ng cm ng t l vi tc chuyn ng ca dy dn. S nguyn l ca lu lng k in t biu din trn hnh 9.8.
5 2

Hnh 9.8 S lu lng k in t 1 & 2) in cc 3) ng kim loi 4) Milivn k 5) Nam chm - 149 -

Lu lng k gm ng kim loi khng t tnh (3) bn trong c ph lp vt liu cch in (sn may, thu tinh hu c) t gia hai cc ca mt nam chm (5) sao cho trc ng vung gc vi ng sc ca t trng. Trong mt phng vung gc vi ng sc, c hai in cc (1) v (2) c ni vi milivn k (4). Khi cht lu c tnh dn in chy qua ng, trong cht lu xut hin mt sut in ng cm ng (E) :
E = BWD = 4B Q D

(9.14)

Trong : B - cng t trng. W- tc trung bnh ca dng chy. D - ng knh trong ca ng. Q - lu lng th tch ca cht lu. Khi B = const th E sc in ng cm ng t l vi lu lng th tch Q. Lu lng k in t vi t trng khng i c nhc im l trn cc cc xut hin cc sc in ng ph (do phn cc) lm sai lch kt qu o. khc phc nhc im trn, ngi ta dng lu lng k in t dng nam chm in xoay chiu, tuy nhin t trng xoay chiu li lm mo tn hiu ra. Lu lng k in t c dng o lu lng ca cht lng c dn in khng nh hn 10-5 - 10-6 Simen/m. Chng c u im: o lu lng khng cn phi o t trng cht lng, cc phn t ht, bt kh v tc ng ca mi trng (nh nhit , p sut, ...) nu chng khng lm thay i dn in ca cht lu s khng nh hng n kt qu o. Lu lng k in t vi ng knh ng t 10 - 1.000 mm c th o lu lng trong t 1 - 2.500 m3/gi vi vn tc dng chy t 0,6 - 10 m/s vi cp chnh xc 1; 2,5.

9.2. Cm bin o v pht hin mc cht lu 9.2.1. Mc ch v phng php o

Mc ch vic o v pht hin mc cht lu l xc nh mc hoc khi lng cht lu trong bnh cha. C hai dng o: o lin tc v xc nh theo ngng.

- 150 -

Khi o lin tc bin hoc tn s ca tn hiu o cho bit th tch cht lu cn li trong bnh cha. Khi xc nh theo ngng, cm bin a ra tn hiu dng nh phn cho bit thng tin v tnh trng hin ti mc ngng c t hay khng. C ba phng php hay dng trong k thut o v pht hin mc cht lu: Phng php thu tnh dng bin i in. Phng php in da trn tnh cht in ca cht lu. Phng php bc x da trn s tng tc gia bc x v cht lu.

9.2.2. Phng php thu tnh

Phng php thu tnh dng o mc cht lu trong bnh cha. Trn hnh 9.9 gii thiu mt s s o mc bng phng php thu tnh.

2 3 4 6

p0
h

1 5 1 h

Hnh 9.9 S o mc theo phng php thu tnh a) Dng phao cu b) Dng phao tr c) Dng cm bin p sut vi sai

Trong s hnh 9.9a, phao (1) ni trn mt cht lu c ni vi i trng (5) bng dy mm (2) qua cc rng rc (3), (4). Khi mc cht lu thay i, phao (1) nng ln hoc h xung lm quay rng rc (4), mt cm bin v tr gn vi trc quay ca rng rc s cho tn hiu t l vi mc cht lu. Trong s hnh 9.9b, phao hnh tr (1) nhng chm trong cht lu, pha trn c treo bi mt cm bin o lc (2). Trong qu trnh o, cm bin chu tc ng ca mt lc F t l vi chiu cao cht lu:
F = P gSh

Trong : P - trng lng phao. h - chiu cao phn ngp trong cht lu ca phao. S - tit din mt ct ngang ca phao. - khi lng ring ca cht lu.
- 151 -

g - gia tc trng trng. Trn s hnh 9.9c, s dng mt cm bin p sut vi sai dng mng (1) t st y bnh cha. Mt mt ca mng cm bin chu p sut cht lu gy ra:
p = p 0 + gh

Mt khc ca mng cm bin chu tc ng ca p sut p0 bng p sut nh bnh cha. Chnh lch p sut p - p0 sinh ra lc tc dng ln mng ca cm bin lm n bin dng. Bin dng ca mng t l vi chiu cao h ca cht lu trong bnh cha, c chuyn i thnh tn hiu in nh cc b bin i in thch hp.

9.2.3. Phng php in

Cc cm bin o mc bng phng php in hot ng theo nguyn tc chuyn i trc tip bin thin mc cht lng thnh tn hiu in da vo tnh cht in ca cht lu. Cc cm bin thng dng l cm bin d dn v cm bin in dung.

a) Cm bin dn
Cc cm bin loi ny dng o mc cc cht lu c tnh dn in ( dn in ~ 50Scm-1). Trn hnh 9.10 gii thiu mt s cm bin dn o mc thng dng.

h hmin

a)

b)

c)

Hnh 9.10 Cm bin dn a) Cm bin hai in cc b) Cm bin mt in cc c) Cm bin pht hin mc

S cm bin hnh 9.10a gm hai in cc hnh tr nhng trong cht lng dn in. Trong ch o lin tc, cc in cc c ni vi ngun nui xoay chiu ~ 10V ( trnh hin tng phn cc ca cc in cc). Dng in chy qua cc in cc c bin t l vi chiu di ca phn in cc nhng chm trong cht lng. S cm bin hnh 9.10b ch s dng mt in cc, in cc th hai l bnh cha bng kim loi.
- 152 -

S cm bin hnh 9.10c dng pht hin ngng, gm hai in cc ngn t theo phng ngang, in cc cn li ni vi thnh bnh kim loi,v tr mi in cc ngn ng vi mt mc ngng. Khi mc cht lng t ti in cc, dng in trong mch thay i mnh v bin .

b) Cm bin t in
Khi cht lng l cht cch in, c th to t in bng hai in cc hnh tr nhng trong cht lng hoc mt in cc kt hp vi in cc th hai l thnh bnh cha nu thnh bnh lm bng kim loi. Cht in mi gia hai in cc chnh l cht lng phn in cc b ngp v khng kh phn khng c cht lng. Vic o mc cht lu c chuyn thnh o in dung ca t in, in dung ny thay i theo mc cht lng trong bnh cha. iu kin p dng phng php ny hng s in mi ca cht lng phi ln hn ng k hng s in mi ca khng kh (thng l gp i). Trong trng hp cht lu l cht dn in, to t in ngi ta dng mt in cc kim loi bn ngoi c ph cch in, lp ph ng vai tr cht in mi cn cht lu ng vai tr in cc th hai.

9.2.4. Phng php bc x

Cm bin bc x cho php o mc cht lu m khng cn tip xc vi mi trng o, u im ny rt thch hp khi o mc iu kin mi trng o c nhit , p sut cao hoc mi trng c tnh n mn mnh. Trong phng php ny cm bin gm mt ngun pht tia (1) v b thu (2) t hai pha ca bnh cha. Ngun pht thng l mt ngun bc x tia (ngun
60

Co hoc 137Cs), b thu l mt bung ion ho.

ch pht hin mc ngng(hnh 9.11a), ngun pht v b thu t i din

nhau v tr ngang mc ngng cn pht hin, chm tia ca ngun pht mnh v gn nh song song. Tu thuc vo mc cht lu (3) cao hn hay thp hn mc ngng m chm tia n b thu s b suy gim hoc khng, b thu s pht ra tn hiu tng ng vi cc trng thi so vi mc ngng.

ch o mc lin tc (hnh 9.11b), ngun pht (1) pht ra chm tia vi

mt gc m rng qut ln ton b chiu cao ca mc cht lu cn kim trav b thu.

- 153 -

1 2

a)

b)

Hnh 9.11 Cm bin o mc bng tia bc x a) Cm bin pht hin ngng b) Cm bin o mc lin tc 1) Ngun pht tia bc x 2) B thu 3) Cht lu

Khi mc cht lu (3) tng do s hp th ca cht lu tng, chm tia n b thu (2) s b suy gim, do tn hiu ra t b thu gim theo. Mc suy gim ca chm tia bc x t l vi mc cht lu trong bnh cha

- 154 -