Types of Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters are the chemicals responsible for signal transmission between the individual neurons. Most neurons make two or more neurotransmitters, which are released at different stimulation frequencies. 50 or more neurotransmitters have been identified Classified by chemical structure and by function

Criteria to Classify a Biochemical Substance as Neurotransmitter: Substance must be present in the pre-synaptic nerve terminal and packaged into synaptic vesicles The substance must be released from the nerve terminal upon arrival of action potential or depolarization of presynaptic membrane Specific receptors must be present on the post synaptic membrane for the substance

IB Psychology / BLOA / Neurotransmitter and Behaviour Notes / Patricia George / November, 2012

Life Cycle of a Neurotransmitter:

1) Synthesis of the transmitter 2) Packaging and storage in Synaptic vesicles 3) If necessary, transport from the site of synthesis to the site of release from the nerve terminal 4) Release in response to an action potential 5) Binding to postsynaptic receptor proteins 6) Termination of action by diffusion, destruction, or reuptake into cells.

Chemical Classification of Neurotransmitters:

1. Acetylcholine 2. Biogenic Amines Catecholamines: Dopamine, norepinephrine (NE), and epinephrine; Indolamines; Serotonin and histamine (5Hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT) 3. Amino Acids GABAGamma ()-aminobutyric acid; Glycine; Aspartate; Glutamate 4. Neuropeptides Substance P; Endorphins and Enkephalins; Somatostatin, gastrin, cholecystokinin, oxytocin, vasopressin, Leutinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) 5. Purines Adenosine; ATP 6. Gases and Lipids Nitric Oxide (NO); Carbonmonooxide (CO); Cannabinoids

Functional Classification of Neurotransmitters:

1. Excitatory Neurotransmitter 2. Inhibitory Neurotransmitter

IB Psychology / BLOA / Neurotransmitter and Behaviour Notes / Patricia George / November, 2012

Acetylcholine (Ach) Acetylcholine (Ach) was the first neurotransmitter to be identified It is the most abundant neurotransmitter in the brain Released at neuromuscular junctions and some ANS neurons Synthesized by enzyme choline acetyltransferase Degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) Catecholamines Catecholamines -Dopamine, norepinephrine (NE), and epinephrine are synthesized from Tyrosine Is involved in reward-pleasure and learning Dopamine is the principle neurotransmitter involved in Addiction pathway Serotonin Broadly distributed in the brain, derived from Tryptophan Involved in sleep, dreaming, hunger and arousal Play roles in emotional behaviors and the biological clock Depletion of serotonin in brain leads to depression GABA GABA Gamma-aminobutyric acid is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS Synthesized from decarboxylation of Glutamate Involved in regulating anxiety May be related to eating or sleep disorders Endorphins, Enkephalins and Substance P Substance P is the mediator of pain signals Endorphins and Enkephalins act as natural opiates; reduce pain perception They also depress physical functions like breathing and may produce physical dependence

Some of the most common neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine (Ash) Norepinephrine (NE) Dopamine (DA) Serotonin (5-HT) Glutamate (Glu) GABA Enkephalins (Enk)
Excitatory/Inhibitory Excitatory Excitatory/Inhibitory Excitatory/Inhibitory Excitatory Inhibitory Inhibitory

IB Psychology / BLOA / Neurotransmitter and Behaviour Notes / Patricia George / November, 2012

Acetylcholine (Ash):
Acetylcholine acts or is transmitted within cholinergic pathways that are concentrated mainly in specific regions of the brainstem and are thought to be involved in cognitive functions, especially memory. Severe damage to these pathways is the probable cause of Alzheimers disease. Outside the brain, acetylcholine is the main neurotransmitter in the parasympathetic nervous system the system that controls functions such as heart rate, digestion, and secretion of saliva and bladder function. Drugs that affect cholinergic activity produce changes in these body functions. Some antidepressants act by blocking cholinergic receptors and this anticholinergic activity is an important cause of side effects such as dry mouth.

Norepinephrine (NE)
Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) is classed as a monoamine neurotransmitter and noradrenergic neurons are found in the locus coeruleus, the pons and the reticular formation in the brain. These neurons provide projections to the cortex, hippocampus, thalamus and midbrain. The release of noradrenaline tends to increase the level of excitatory activity within the brain, and noradrenergic pathways are thought to be particularly involved in the control of functions such as attention and arousal. Outside the brain, noradrenaline plays an important role in the sympathetic nervous system the system that co-ordinates the fight or flight response. Systemically, therefore, changes in noradrenergic activity may induce changes in a range of functions including heart rate, blood pressure and gastrointestinal activity. This explains the broad side-effect profile associated with drugs that affect monoamine neurotransmitters, such as the tricyclic antidepressants.

Dopamine (DA):
Dopamine is also classed as a monoamine neurotransmitter and is concentrated in very specific groups of neurons collectively called the basal ganglia. Dopaminergic neurons are widely distributed throughout the brain in three important dopamine systems (pathways): the nigrostriatal, mesocorticolimbic, and the tuberohypophyseal pathways. A decreased brain dopamine concentration is a contributing factor in Parkinsons disease, while an increase in dopamine concentration has a role in the development of schizophrenia.

Serotonin (5-HT):
Although the CNS contains less than 2% of the total serotonin in the body, serotonin plays a very important role in a range of brain functions. It is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan. Within the brain, serotonin is localized mainly in the nerve pathways emerging from the raphe nuclei, a group of nuclei at the center of the reticular formation in the pons and medulla. These serotonergic pathways spread extensively Midbrain throughout the brainstem, the cerebral cortex and the spinal cord. In addition, to mood control, serotonin has been linked with a wide variety of functions, including regulation of sleep, pain perception, body temperature, blood pressure and hormonal activity. Outside the brain, serotonin exerts a number of important effects particularly involving gastrointestinal and cardiovascular systems.

IB Psychology / BLOA / Neurotransmitter and Behaviour Notes / Patricia George / November, 2012