Composite Materials

Condensed Book Series by Prof. A.H.V.
COREY
Composite Materials
Prof. Alleson Herman V. Corey M. Sc. Polymer and Composites Engineering Cum Fructo Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium) B. Sc. Mechanical Engineering Cum Laude Central Mindanao University (Philippines)
Dedication
This Condensed Book Series is dedicated to:
The Almighty GOD (God the Father, God the Son Jesus Christ, and God the Holy Spirit). My Wife Ninnin, my Son Elgien, and my Daughter Sheanne.
Introduction to Composite Materials

Composite Material
any combination of two or more different materials at the macroscopic level, in a controlled manner to give desired properties. The properties of a composite will be different from those of the constituents in isolation. Two or more chemically distinct materials which when combined have improved properties over the individual materials. A judicious (good sense) combination of two or more materials that produces a synergistic (combined) effect. A material system composed of two or more physically distinct phases whose combination produces aggregate (combined) properties that are different from those of its constituents.
Composite Material
A material with two (or more) distinct macroscopical phases. They consist of two or more materials combined in such a way that the individual materials are easily distinguishable. A common example of a composite is a concrete.
Composite Material
A combination of two or more materials (reinforcement, resin, filler, etc.), differing in form or composition on a macroscale (visible). The constituents retain their identities, i.e., they do not dissolve or merge into each other, although they act in concert (together). Normally, the components can be physically identified and exhibit an interface (distinct phase) between each other. A structural material that consists of two or more combined constituents that are combined at a macroscopic level and are not soluble in each other.
Reinforcing phase: fibers, particles, or flakes Matrix phase: polymers, metals, ceramics
Composite Material
A material composed of 2 or more constituents. Two inherently different materials that when combined together produce a material with properties that exceed the constituent materials.
Reinforcement phase (e.g., Fibers) Matrix or Binder phase (e.g., compliant or compatible matrix)
Composite Material (cross-section)
In Borsic fiber-reinforced aluminum, the fibers are composed of a thick layer of boron deposited on a small diameter tungsten filament.
Silver Copper Alloy reinforced with Carbon Fibers.
Composite Material (cross-section)
Composite Material (concept)

Concept: Using the high strength of fibers to stiffen and strengthen a cheap matrix material. The load is applied over a large surface area of the matrix. Matrix then transfers the load to the reinforcement, which being stiffer, increases the strength of the composite. It is important to note that there are many matrix materials and even more fiber types, which can be combined in countless ways to produce just the desired properties.
Composite Material (concept)

Composite materials are like sandwiches. A good sandwich contains a variety of ingredients to yield a taste that no single ingredient could provide by itself. Similarly, composite materials are those which are formed from two or more materials producing properties or characteristics that could not be obtained from any one material. Composites consist of one or more discontinuous phases fixed in a continuous phase. The discontinuous phase is usually harder and stronger than the continuous phase and is called the reinforcement or reinforcing material, whereas the continuous phase is termed the matrix.
Composite Material (facts)

Some Facts: The composite industry is new and has grown rapidly in the past 30 years with the development of fibrous composites. In the United States, composites manufacturing is a 25 billion dollar a year industry. There are about 6,000 composites related manufacturing plants and materials distributors across the U.S. The industry employs more than 235,000 people. An additional 250,000 people are employed in businesses that support the composites industry, including materials suppliers, equipment vendors, and other support personnel. About 90% of all composites produced are comprised of glass fiber (reinforcement) and either polyester or vinylester resin (matrix) and are known as reinforced plastics.
Composite Material (Advantages)

Very light materials (light weight) High strength and stiffness (rigidity) Low weight to strength ratio Material can be designed in addition to the structure Design flexibility
Composites have an advantage over other materials because they can be molded into different or complex shapes and size at relatively low cost. This gives designers the freedom to create any shape or configuration. Boats are a good example of the success of composites.
Corrosion Resistance
Composites products provide long-term resistance to severe chemical, temperature, and weathering environments. Composites are the material of choice for outdoor exposure, chemical handling applications, and severe environment service.

Durability (Low Maintenance / Long Term Life)
Composite products and structures have an exceedingly long life span. Coupled with low maintenance requirements, the longevity of composites is a benefit in critical applications. In a half-century of composites development, well-designed composite structures have not yet to wear out (extended service life). FACT: In 1947 the U.S. Coast Guard built a series of fortyfoot patrol boats, using polyester resin and glass fiber. These boats were used until the early 1970s when they were taken out of service because the design was outdated. Extensive testing was done on the laminates after decommissioning, and it was found that only 2-3% of the original strength was lost after twenty-five years of hard service.
Dimensional Stability (stable shape even at elevated temperature)

High specific strength and modulus, as well as high fatigue strength and fatigue damage tolerance. Orientated Strength (base on reinforcement direction) Low Thermal Conductivity Other unique functional properties - damping, low CTE (coefficient of thermal expansion) Consolidation of Parts - can manufacture structures and eliminate joints Large Part Size Possible to manufacture - production of both material and structure or component in a single operation - manufacturing flexible, net-shape, complex geometry (shape). Designable or tailorable materials for both microstructure (reinforcement structure), mechanical properties and aesthetic (beauty) appearance

Composites have a higher specific strength (strength to weight ratio) than many other materials. A distinct advantage of composites over other materials is the ability to use many combinations of resins and reinforcements, and therefore custom tailor (design according) to the required mechanical and physical properties of a structure.

The low properties composite material are associated with simple manufacturing processes and material forms (e.g. spray lay u - p glass fibre), while the higher properties are associated with higher technology manufacturing process (e.g. autoclave moulding of unidirectional glass fibre) and usually applied in the Aerospace (Aircraft) Industry.
Composite Material (Disadvantages)

Composites are heterogeneous (compose of different material components)
Properties in composites vary from point to point in the material. Most engineering structural materials are homogeneous.
Composites are highly anisotropic

The strength in composites vary as the direction along which we measure changes (most engineering structural materials are isotropic). As a result, all other properties such as, stiffness, thermal expansion, thermal and electrical conductivity and creep resistance are also anisotropic. The relationship between stress and strain (force and deformation) is much more complicated than in isotropic materials. NOTE: The experience and intuition (something already known) gained over the years about the behavior of metallic materials does not apply to composite materials.

Mechanical property characterization (determination) of a composite structure is more complex than a metal structure (since composite is a combination of 2 or more materials). High production (manufacturing / fabrication) cost. Difficult to repair - repair process is not simple compared to metals. Susceptible to damage.

Do not have a high combination of strength and fracture toughness compared to metals.

Do not give higher performance in all the properties used for material selection: strength, toughness, formability, joinability, corrosion resistance, and affordability.

Composites materials are difficult to inspect with conventional ultrasonic, eddy current and visual NDI methods such as radiography.
FACT: American Airlines Flight 587, broke apart over New York on Nov. 12, 2001 (265 people died). Airbus A300s 27-foot-high tail fin tore off. Much of the tail fin, including the so-called tongues that fit in grooves on the fuselage and connect the tail to the jet, were made of a graphite composite. The plane crashed because of damage at the base of the tail that had gone undetected despite routine nondestructive testing and visual inspections.

FACT: In November 1999, Americas Cup boat Young America broke in two due to debonding face/core in the sandwich structure.
Composite Material (Economics)

Material costs -- higher for composites
Constituent materials (e.g., fibers and resin) Processing costs -- embedding fibers in matrix
not required for metals Carbon fibers order of magnitude higher than aluminum
Design costs -- lower for composites

Can reduce the number of parts in a complex assembly by designing the material in combination with the structure
Increased performance must justify higher material costs Low Relative Investment
One reason the composites industry has been successful is because of the low relative investment in setting-up a composites manufacturing facility. This has resulted in many creative and innovative companies in the field.
Composite Material (2 Main Types)

Composites can be broadly classified in to two groups: Natural Synthetic (Man-made) Examples: Natural Composite:
Wood is a good example of a natural composite, combination of cellulose fiber and lignin. The cellulose fiber provides strength and the lignin is the "glue" that bonds and stabilizes the fiber. Bamboo is a very efficient wood composite structure. The components are cellulose and lignin, as in all other wood, however bamboo is hollow. This results in a very light yet stiff structure. Composite fishing poles and golf club shafts copy this natural design. Bone, Muscle, Fish fins
Composite Material (2 Main Types)

Synthetic (Man-made) Composite - produced by combining two or more materials in definite proportions under controlled conditions.
The ancient Egyptians manufactured composites! Adobe bricks are a good example. The combination of mud and straw forms a composite that is stronger than either the mud or the straw by itself. Ferro-cement Plywood, Chipboards, Decorative laminates Asbestos Cement Sheets Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) or Polymer Matrix Composite (PMC)
Composite Material (Basic Types)

5 Basic Types of Composite Materials (base on reinforcement shape): Fiber (continuous or long), Particle (small size), Flake (big size particle), Laminar (Laminate or layered), and Filled (short fibers or Whiskers) composites.
Reinforcement
Composite
Composite Material (Basic Types)

Particulate composites Flake composites Fiber composites Nano composites nano-particles (metals, oxides, compounds), nano-flakes, or nanofibers (nano-wires) of very small dimension or diameter (1-100 nm)
Composite Material (Sample Fibers)
(Long / Continuous Fiber) (Aligned)
(usually Glass Fibers) (Short Fibers, Random orientation) (SMC Sheet Molding Compound)
Composite Material (Classification)

Matrix Phase / Reinforcement Phase
Metal
Powder metallurgy parts combining immiscible metals Cermets, TiC, TiCN Cemented carbides used in tools Fiber reinforced metals
Ceramic
Cermets (ceramic-metal composite)
Polymer
Metal Ceramic Polymer

Elemental (Carbon, Boron, etc.)
Brake pads
SiC reinforced Al2O3 Tool materials
Fiberglass
Kevlar fibers in an epoxy matrix
Fiber reinforced metals for Auto parts and aerospace
Rubber with carbon (tires) Boron, Carbon reinforced plastics
MMCs
CMCs
PMCs
Metal Matrix Composites Ceramic Matrix Composites Polymer Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) Include mixtures of ceramics and metals, such as cemented carbides and other cermets, as well as aluminum or magnesium as matrix material then reinforced by strong, high stiffness fibers. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) Least common composite matrix. Aluminum oxide and silicon carbide are matrix materials that can be imbedded with fibers for improved properties, especially in high temperature applications. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) Thermosetting resins are the most widely used polymers as matrix in PMCs. Epoxy and polyester are commonly mixed with fiber reinforcement.

MMC, CMC, PMC
Composites
Particle-reinforced
Fiber-reinforced
Structural
Largeparticle
Dispersionstrengthened
Continuous (aligned)
Discontinuous (short)
Laminates
Sandwich panels
Aligned
Randomly oriented
Composite Material (composition)

A composite material consists of two phases: Primary (Matrix) Forms the matrix within which the secondary phase is imbedded Any of three basic material types: polymers, metals, or ceramics Secondary (Reinforcement) Referred to as the imbedded phase or called the reinforcing agent Serves to strengthen the composite. (fibers, particles, etc.) Can be one of the three basic materials or an element such as carbon or boron

Composites are combinations of two materials in which one of the material is called the reinforcing phase in the form of fibers, sheets (flakes), or particles, and is embedded in the other material called the matrix phase. Reinforcing materials are strong with low densities while the matrix material is usually a ductile or tough. NOTE: Composite properties are less than that of the fiber because of dilution (less concentrated or weakened due to mixture) by the matrix and the need to orient fibers in different directions.

Example:
Glass Reinforcing material (Reinforcing phase) Polyester material (Matrix phase)
Result: Glass + Polyester = GRP (Glass-Fiber Reinforced Plastic) NOTE: If the composite is designed and fabricated correctly, it combines the strength of the reinforcement with the toughness of the matrix to achieve a combination of desirable properties not available in any single conventional material.

Components of composite materials Reinforcement fibers
Glass, Carbon, Organic, Boron, Ceramic, Metallic
Matrix materials
Polymers, Metals, Ceramics
Interface - Bonding surface
Terminology/Classification
Composites:
-- Multiphase material with significant proportions of each phase.
woven fibers
Matrix:
-- The continuous phase -- Purpose:
- transfer stress to other phases - protect phases from environment
0.5 mm
cross section view
-- Classification:
MMC, CMC, PMC polymer
0.5 mm Dispersed phase (Reinforcement):

metal ceramic -- Purpose: enhance matrix properties. Kc = thermal conductivity MMC: increase y, TS, creep resist. CMC: increase Kc TS = tensile stress PMC: increase E, y, TS, creep resist.
-- Classification: Particle, Fiber, Structural
Matrix (Functions)
Functions of the Matrix
Bonds with the fibers (Very important). Separate the fibers. Transmit force (stresses) between fibers Arrest (stop) cracks from spreading between fibers Fibers do not carry most of the load some are shared by the Matrix. Hold fibers in proper orientation Protect fibers from environment mechanical forces can cause cracks that allow environment to affect fibers Protect fibers from surface damage due to abrasion or corrosion (i.e., avoid cracks on surfaces of fibers).
Matrix (Demands)
Demands on Matrix (design consideration)
Interlaminar (from one lamina to the next lamina) shear strength Toughness (resistance to breaking) Ductility Moisture / environmental resistance Adhesion (bonding) to reinforcement Temperature properties (important for application environment / condition, heat resistance) Processing (manufacturing) Method complexity (simple or complex) and equipments Production (manufacturing) Cost
Matrix (Types Metal and Ceramic)

Metal Matrix materials - higher temperature application
Aluminum (matrix) with boron or carbon fibers Aluminum-Lithium, Magnesium, and Titanium as matrix materials. The fibers used are graphite (carbon fibers), aluminum-oxide, silicon carbide, and boron.
Ceramic Matrix materials - very high temperature application

Silicon carbide, Silicon nitride, Aluminum oxide, and Mullite as matrix materials. The fibers used are various (different kinds) ceramics. Fiber is used to add toughness (resistance to breaking) to ceramic matrix, not necessarily higher (little effect) in strength and stiffness (ceramic material is already strong and stiff).
Matrix (Types Polymer)

Thermoplastics
Formed (shaped) by heating to elevated (high) temperature at which softening occurs.
Reversible reaction (soften or harden and vice-versa). Can be reformed (re-shape) and / or repaired. Limited in temperature (application) range up to 150OC.
Examples:
Polypropylene (PP)
with nylon or glass (reinforcement). PP can be injected inexpensive (cheaper manufacturing process since few equipment materials needed). Soften layers (by heating) of combined fiber and PP then place in a mold -- higher costs (more equipment materials needed).

Thermoplastics
Examples:
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
Tougher (resistance to breaking) than Thermosets but lower resistance to temperature (less than 150OC temperature application).
Fibers used:
Glass, Aramid (kevlar), Carbon (graphite), and Boron

Thermosets
Cure (to finish) by chemical reaction (harden)
Heated in oven (autoclave) at more than 100OC
Irreversible Examples:
Polyester and Vinylester
Most common, lower cost, solvent resistance. Polyesters have good mechanical properties, electrical properties and chemical resistance. They are amenable (required) to multiple fabrication techniques and are low cost. Vinyl Esters are similar to polyester in performance and have increased (better) resistance to corrosive environments as well as a high degree of moisture resistance.

Thermosets
Examples:
Epoxy resins
Superior performance, relatively costly. Epoxy resins have improved (better) strength and stiffness properties over polyesters and have excellent corrosion resistance and resistance to solvents and alkalis. Cure cycles are usually longer than polyesters, however no by-products (during curing chemical reaction) are produced. Flexibility and improved performance is also achieved by the utilization of additives and fillers.
Phenolics, Flourocarbons, Polyethersulfone, Silicon, Polyurethane, and Polyimides

Thermosets
Fibers used:
Glass, Aramid (kevlar), Carbon (graphite), Boron

Comparison: Thermoplastics
Soften on heating and pressure, and thus easy to repair High strains to failure (ductile) Indefinite shelf life (storage) Can be reprocessed (re-melt, reuse) Not tacky and easy to handle Short cure (to finish) cycles Difficult fabrication higher temperature and viscosity Excellent solvent resistance
Thermoset
Decompose on heating Low strains to failure (brittle) Definite shelf life (storage) Cannot be reprocessed Tacky (slightly sticky) Long cure cycles Easy fabrication - lower temperature and viscosity Fair (moderate) solvent resistance
Reinforcement (Function)
The typical composite consists of a matrix holding reinforcing materials. The reinforcing materials, the most important is the Fibers, supply the basic strength of the composite. However, reinforcing materials can contribute much more than strength. They can conduct heat or resist chemical corrosion. They can resist or conduct electricity. They may be chosen for their stiffness (modulus of elasticity) or for many other properties.
Reinforcement (Particles)
Particles (small size)
Important for metals and ceramics matrix composites. Particles reinforce a composite equally in all directions (called isotropic).
Impede (stop) dislocation movement in the matrix. Particle materials: Plastics, Cermets, and Metals.
Size: microscopic (less than 1 m) to macroscopic (greater than 1 m)

For microscopic size (< 1 m) particles (15% or less the total composite volume), the imbedded particles strengthens the matrix material. For macroscopic size (> 1 m) particles (25% or more the total composite volume), the imbedded particles share with the carried load of the matrix material.
Example: composite strengthening in cemented carbides, in which tungsten carbide (80% of the total cement volume) is held in a cobalt binder.
Particles used to strengthen a matrix not the same way as Fibers. Particles are not directional like Fibers. Particles spread at random through out a matrix and reinforce in all directions equally.
Cermets
(1) OxideBased Cermets (e.g. Combination of Al2O3 with Cr particles) (2) CarbideBased Cermets (e.g. Tungsten carbide, Titanium carbide)
Metal particles (in Plastic Matrix Composites)

(e.g. Aluminum, Iron & Steel, Copper particles)
Metal and Dispersion Hardened Alloys particles (in Metal Matrix

Composites) (e.g. Ceramicoxide particles)
Examples:
- Spheroidite steel
matrix: ferrite () (ductile) 60 m particles: cementite (Fe 3 C ) (brittle)
- WC/Co cemented carbide
matrix: cobalt (ductile) Vm : 5-12 vol%! 600 m matrix: rubber (compliant) 0.75 m
particles: WC (brittle, hard)
- Automobile tires
particles: C (stiffer)
Advantages of Particle reinforcement:
improved strength increased operating temperature oxidation resistance Examples:
Aluminum particles in Rubber Silicon carbide particles in Aluminum Gravel, Sand, and Cement to make Concrete
Reinforcement (Particles & Flakes)

Nano Particles and Flakes - dispersion strengthened composites (nano composites)
Small particles or flakes (1 to 100 nm) Matrix bears most of the applied load Particles hinder or impede motion of dislocations Plastic deformation is restricted Improves yield and tensile strength. Examples:
Thoria (From Periodic Table of Elements: Th Thorium) dispersed nickel (Ni with up to 3% by volume of ThO2 particles) Sintered (bonding by pressure and heat below melting point) aluminum powder (Al matrix with Al2O3 coated Al flakes).
Large-Particle (<1 m, >1 m) vs. DispersionStrengthened (1 100 nm particles) Composites
Shear
Large-Particle
Dispersion Strengthened
Strong Particle >500 nm

Stress field of dispersion
Dislocation shears through the dispersion
Strong Particle <100 nm
Dislocation stopped
Reinforcement (Flakes)
Flakes (big size particles)
Flat Reinforcement (flat platelet form) in 2-D (reinforce in length & width direction due to Flake Shape). Two-dimensional particles ranging 0.01 to 1.0 mm. across the flake, with a thickness of 0.001 to 0.005 mm. Difficult to orient (align) the flakes. Flake materials are Glass, Mica, and Aluminum. 2-D Reinforcement
1-D Reinforcement
Reinforcement (Flakes)
A flake composite consists of thin, flat flakes held together by a binder or placed in a matrix. Almost all flake composite matrixes are plastic resins. Flakes will provide:
Uniform mechanical properties in the plane of the flakes Higher strength Higher flexural modulus (bending stiffness) Higher dielectric strength and heat resistance Better resistance to penetration by liquids and vapor Lower cost
Reinforcement (Fibers)
Fibers
Diameter range from 0.0001 in. to about 0.005 in. (depending on the material). Generally circular cross-section, but can also be in the form of tubular (tubes), rectangle, hexagonal. Fibers used can be either continuous (long) or discontinuous (short or Whiskers)
Continuous fibers (long) are very long (continuous fiber length). In theory, they offer a continuous path by which a load can be carried by the composite material. Discontinuous fibers (Short / Whiskers / Chopped) are short lengths.
Length based on Length to Diameter (L/D) Ratio L/D = 100 (Chopped Fiber / Short Fiber / Whisker)
Fiber Diameter is very small (thin or filament).
Reinforcement (Dimension)
As fiber diameter becomes smaller, chances of material flaw (molecular or crystal dislocations) is reduced. The molecules or crystals are well aligned one after the other resulting to increase in strength. A fiber bundle (strands of fiber filaments) has more surface area in contact to the matrix (increase in load transfer from matrix to fiber) than one solid fiber of the same diameter as the fiber bundle. Flexibility ability to bend increases with a decrease in fiber diameter. Bending stiffness (the resistance to bending moments) increases.
Fiber Strength as a function of Fiber Diameter (Carbon Fiber)
Reinforcement (Types of Fibers)

Characteristics / Properties of common fibers:
Glass
Many types (from ordinary bottle glass to high purity quartz glass), all can be made into fibers, each type has its own set of properties. High strength, low stiffness (elastic modulus), high density, lowest cost (cheapest), chemical resistance, moisture resistance, thermal resistance (low thermal conductivity), electrical resistance (insulator) Most widely used fiber (ex. Glass Fiber-Reinforced Plastic [GFRP] or Fiberglass) Uses: piping (pipes), tanks, boats, sporting goods Advantages:
Low cost compared to other fibers Corrosion resistance

Glass
Disadvantages:
Relatively low strength High elongation (stretches) Moderate strength to weight ratio (specific strength)
Common types used:

A-Glass C-Glass E-Glass (Calcium-Aluminoborosilicate) electrical (insulator), cheaper, (less than E = 500,000 psi) S-Glass (Magnesia-Aluminosilicate) high tensile strength (650,000 psi) compared to other glass types, 5 times the
tensile strength of steel, about one-third the density of steel.

Glass Fiber manufacturing (processing)
Sizzing Solution is a mixture of:
Binders allow filaments to be packed in strands Lubricants prevent abrasion of filaments Coupling agents better adhesion between the inorganic glass fiber and the organic matrix (during composite manufacturing)
Anti-static agents

Glass Fiber manufacturing (processing)

Aramid (Kevlar [trade name] polyamide [nylon] family, plastic fibers) - aromatic (hexagonal / cyclic) polyamide fibers.
For high performance composite application light weight, high strength, resistance to stress. Highest strength to weight ratio (specific strength) of all fibers, high cost. Uses High performance replacement for glass fiber. Application Armor, protective clothing, industrial, sporting goods. Advantages:
Higher strength, lighter than glass More ductile than carbon

Aramid (Kevlar trade name)
2 Commercial Types:
Kevlar 29 Low density, high strength.
Application Cables, Ropes and Missiles.
Kevlar 49 density is higher than Kevlar 29.

Application Shipping industry, Aerospace, Automobile, and Industrial application.

Graphite (Carbon)
2nd most widely used fiber
Application Areas: aerospace, sporting goods
High strength (high elastic modulus), low cost (cheap), less dense than glass (low density) Graphite fibers are manufactured from any one of the 3 material precursor (origin / start / source):
Rayon Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) commonly use Pitch (petroleum pitch)
Carbon fibers (produced at 1,316 have 93 to 95% C) carbon content. Graphite fibers (produced at more than 1,900 has C) more than 99% carbon content (5 times stronger than steel, density is one-fourth of steel).

Advantages: Graphite (Carbon)
high stiffness and strength Low density Intermediate (moderate) cost Properties:
Standard modulus: 207-240 GPa Intermediate modulus: 240-340 GPa High modulus: 340-960 GPa Diameter: 5-8 m, smaller than human hair Fibers grouped into tows or yarns (bundle) of 2,000-12,000 fibers per bundle (strand)

Carbon Fiber manufacturing (processing)
Carbon fiber is produced using PAN (Polyacrylonitrile) with the help of these processing stages:
Stabilization by holding in tension PAN fibers are stretched to align and are oxidize (200OC 300OC) in air. Carbonization - PAN fiber are heated (1,000OC 1,500OC to eliminate [vaporize] oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen) until transformed into carbon fibers. Graphitization - heating at more than 1,900OC to produce a product of high elasticity.

Carbon Fiber manufacturing (processing)
Fiber precursor (Polyacrylonitrile) heated and stretched to align structure and remove non-carbon material.

Boron
High strength and stiffness (high elastic modulus), highest density, highest cost (limit its application in Aerospace), has tungsten filament at its center. Good Compressive strength, Large Fiber Diameter (200 m).
Metal (Steel filaments)

Reinforcing fiber in plastics
Polyethylene (PE) trade name Spectra Fiber

Commonly use in Textile Industry (textile composites production) High strength Extremely Light weight Low range of temperature usage (application)

Ceramic Fibers
Main fiber materials: Silicon carbide (SiC) and Aluminum oxide (Al2O3). High Elastic modulus, used to strengthen low-density, lowmodulus metals (Aluminum, Magnesium). Very high temperature applications (e.g. engine components) Silicon carbide fiber - in whisker (short fiber) form. Excellent temperature resistance (matrix material use is also Ceramic) Not commonly use
Advanced Fibers (high strength and stiffness [elastic modulus], low weight)
Nylon, Silicon carbide, Silicon nitride, Aluminum oxide, Boron carbide, Boron nitride, Tantalum carbide, Steel, Tungsten, Molybdenum.
Fiber Glass
Graphite Fiber
Fibers in Textile Form
Kevlar Fiber
Kevlar/Carbon Hybrid
Fiber Mechanical Properties
Steel: Density = 7.87 g/cc; Tensile Strength (Stress) = 0.380 GPa; Elastic Modulus = 207 GPa Aluminum: Density = 2.71 g/cc; Tensile Strength (Stress) = 0.035 GPa; Elastic Modulus = 69 GPa
Fiber Mechanical Properties

Fiber Type E-Glass S-Glass Kevlar 29 Kevlar 49 Carbon (HS) Carbon (HM) Carbon (UHM) Density (kg/m3) 2.54 2.49 1.45 1.45 1.80 1.80-1.86 1.86-2.10 EModulus (GPa) 72.5 87 85 117 227 370 350-520 Tensile Elong. Strength (%) (GPa) 1.72-3.45 2.5 2.53-4.48 2.27-3.80 2.27-3.80 2.80-5.10 1.80 1.00-1.75 2.9 2.8 1.8 1.1 0.5 0.2
Fiber Strength
Fiber Density (g/cm3)

Steel Alum E-Glass S-Glass Carbon Aramid 0 2.76 1.99 1.99 1.59 1.38 2 4 6 8 10 8
Fiber Tensile Strength ()

Alum Steel S-Glass Carbon Aramid E-Glass 0 200 400 530 525 500 600 800 20 60 625
x103 psi
Fiber Strain () To Failure

Alum Steel S-Glass E-Glass Aramid Carbon 0 1 1.4 2 3 4 5 6 2.8 0.2 0.16 5 4.8
(%)
Fiber Tensile Modulus (E)

Alum Steel Carbon Aramid S-Glass E-Glass 0 12.6 10.5 10 20 30 40 19 10 29 33.5
x 106 psi
Fiber CTE Longitudinal

x10-6 mm/0C
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 -2 Aramid Carbon S-Glass E-Glass Steel Alum -2 0.5 2.9 5 6.5 12.6
CTE = coefficient of thermal expansion
Reinforcement (Organization/Design)
In fiber composites, fibers reinforce along the line of their length. Reinforcement may be mainly 1-D, 2-D or 3-D. Figures shows the 3 basic types of fiber orientation.
1-D (One-Dimensional) gives maximum strength and stiffness are in one direction fiber direction. 2-D (Planar or 2-Dimensional) gives strength in two directions (ex. in the form of 2 dimensional woven fabric). 3-D (Random or 3-Dimensonal) gives strength equally in all directions (3 directions) ISOTROPIC. Fibers are in different directions. The composite material has the same properties in all directions (length, width, and height directions).
Fiber Alignment (Short Fiber or Whiskers)
aligned continuous
aligned random discontinuous
Reinforcement Organization (Design) fiber arrangement affects the properties of a composite material. Design Types for Continuous (long) Fiber:
Unidirectional non- woven, oriented (straight) in a single direction. Textile Form (Fabric)
Woven series of interlaced yarns at 90O to each other Braided series of intertwined spiral yarns Knitted series of inter-looped yarns Tri-axial Yarns Yarn = strand (bundle) of
fibers
Unidirectional Fiber Design Variations
Textile Form (Fabric)
Fiber Glass
Graphite Fiber
Fibers in Textile Form
Kevlar Fiber
Kevlar/Carbon Hybrid
Woven Fabric
2 systems of yarns (strand / bundle) interlaced in series to each other at right angles (90O) to create a single layer with isotropic or biaxial properties. Physical Properties:
Construction ends & picks (pull through) Weight Thickness Weave Type
Warp fasten or hold
Basic Weave Types

Plain Weave
Basic Weave Types

Satin 5HS
Basic Weave Types

2 x 2 Twill
Basic Weave Types

Non-Crimp
Crimp wave (bending)
Braid (Braiding or Braided)
2 sets of yarns, which are helically (spiral) intertwined in series. Oriented to the longitudinal axis of the braid. High level of conformability (easily follow shape), relative low cost, and easy to manufacture.
Tubular braid form braiding is done on a tube shape guide (solid tube metal). Finished tubular braid is pull-out from the tube shape guide and can be flattened or cut for use in non-tubular products.
Longitudinal Axis
Types of Braids
Triaxial Yarns
A system of Longitudinal Yarns are held in place by the Braiding Yarns. Longitudinal Yarns:
Add dimensional stability, improve tensile properties, stiffness, and compressive strength. Can be added to the core of the braid (tubular braid) to form a solid braid.
Knit
Series of Inter-looped Yarns
Knit
Fibers in Textile (Fabric) Form
Fabric (fiber organization) Effect on Composite Material Properties
Laminate Composites
Stack (2 or more layers of the same or different materials) of Lamina arranged with their main reinforcement in at least 2 or more different directions to give strength where needed.
Lamina (thin layer laminae) any arrangement of fibers (unidirectional or woven) in a matrix. Usually this arrangement is flat, although it may be curved, as in a shell. Example: Speedboat hulls are made of Laminate Composites.
Laminate Composites
Sheets of continuous fiber composites laminated (bonding thin layers together) wherein each layer has the fiber oriented in a given direction. Combine constituents (components of different materials) to produce properties that neither constituent alone would have. In Laminate Composites outer metal is not called a matrix but a face. The inner metal, even if stronger, is not called a reinforcement but a base.
Laminate Composites
Belong to Structural (put together) Composites Stacked and bonded fiberreinforced sheets
stacking sequence: e.g., 0/90 or 0/45/90. benefit: balanced, in-plane stiffness (elastic modulus).
ReinforcedLayer composites Fiber Direction (angle)

0O flexural strengthening 90O column wraps +/- 45O shear strengthening
Angle varies by application
Combined Composites
Combine several different materials into a single composite (Hybrid Laminate). Reinforced-Laminates (MMC, CMC, PMC) well bonded with steel, aluminum, copper, rubber, gold, etc. Example: Modern Ski combination of wood (natural fiber composite), and layers of other materials as laminate composites.
Combined Composites
Particle, Fiber, and Structural (Sandwich) composite.
Sandwich Panel Composites

Sandwich Structures Belong to Structural (put together) Composites Consists of a Skeletal 3-D Core (commonly use Honeycomb) that holds a second material (in Foam form). Thin composite skins (face sheet) bonded to thicker lightweight core. Lightweight (low density Honeycomb core) High bending stiffness (high flexural modulus E)
face sheet adhesive layer honeycomb
Sandwich Panel Composites (concept)

Sandwich Panels Composites are a very efficient way of providing high bending stiffness (Flexural Modulus E) at low weight.
Composite Skins (face sheet - stiff and strong) carry the bending loads. Core resists shear loads. The principle is the same as a traditional I beam.

Thick, Lightweight Core gives large increase in second moment of area (without weight increase in the Sandwich Panel Composite structure). Core needs good shear stiffness (Shear Modulus G) and strength (Shear Loads). Thin Composite Skins (bonded to thick, lightweight Core) carry tension and compression loads (bending loads).
The stiff, strong facing skins carry the bending loads, while the core resists shear loads.
Total deflection = bending + shear Bending depends on the skin properties Shear depends on the core properties

Bending stiffness (flexural modulus E) increased by making beams or panel thicker sandwich of lightweight core (very small increase in weight).
Sandwich Panel Composites (core)

Core Materials and Comparison
Core Materials Property Honeycomb Core Advantages
Polymer (in Foam form): Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Low crush strength Excellent crush strength and stiffness Polymethacrylimide (PMA) and stiffness Increasing stress Constant crush Polyurethane (PU) with strain strength Polystryrene (PS) Friable (brittle) Structural integrity (do Phenolic not break apart) Limited strength Polyethersulfone (PES) High strength Fatigue High fatigue resistance Cannot be formed around curvatures Over-expanded Honeycomb cells design for curvature application

Core Materials and Comparison
Core Materials Wood-based: Plywood Balsa (lightweight soft wood) Particle board Property Honeycomb Core Advantages
High density Excellent strength to weight ratio Absorbs moisture Excellent moisture Degradation (loss of quality or performance) resistance Self-extinguishing (fire), Flammable (easily low smoke burns in fire)

Some Core Materials Properties:
Polymer in Foam form
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Linear high ductility, low properties Cross-Linked high strength and stiffness, but brittle 50% reduction of properties at 40OC - 60OC Chemical breakdown (HCl vapor) at 200oC
Polyuretthane (PU)
Inferior (lower) properties compared to PVC at ambient (environment or sorroundings) temperatures. Better property retention (max. 100oC)
Phenolic
Poor mechanical properties Good fire resistance Strength retention up to 150oC

Some Core Materials Properties:
Wood-based
Balsa
Efficient and low cost Absorbs water (swelling and decompose) Not advisable for primary hull and deck structures (water or sea exposure absorbs moisture) Advisable for internal bulkheads (partitions)

Honeycomb structure hexagonal cells

Over-expanded Honeycomb Cells give extra formability (can follow shapes).
Regular (symmetrical) Honeycomb Cells

Honeycomb is available in polymer (thermoplastic or thermoset), carbon, aramid (kevlar), and GRP (glass-fiber reinforced polymer). 2 common types of Honeycomb use in aerospace applications:
Aluminium Honeycomb Aramid Fiber Honeycomb (Nomex) honeycomb made of aramid fiber-paper impregnated with phenolic resin.
Aluminum Honeycomb relatively low cost best for energy absorption high strength to weight ratio thinnest cell walls smooth cell walls conductive heat transfer electrical shielding machinability Aramid Fiber (Nomex) Honeycomb flammability / fire retardance (slow down fire) large selection of cell sizes, densities, and strengths formability (can follow shape) insulative (insulator) low dielectric (electrical insulator) properties

Sandwich constructions made with other core materials (Balsa, Foam, etc.) have large surface available for bonding the skins (high probability of non-uniform adhesive distribution). Honeycomb core needs only a small fillet of adhesive placed at the edge of the cell walls. Performance of Sandwich Panel Composite depends on:
Uniformity of adhesive distribution. Manufacturing (processing) factors (resin viscosity, temperature, vacuum [porosity], etc).
Composite Material Strength

Depends on following Factors:
Fiber factors: Fiber type (kind) Fiber strength Fiber length Fiber size (diameter / bundle / strand) Fiber volume (fiber volume to composite volume fiber volume fraction) Fiber defects (crystal or molecular / atomic alignment / arrangement). Fiber orientation (angle orientation) Fiber shape (organization / design / architecture). Matrix factors: Matrix type (kind). Matrix properties (physical, mechanical, chemical).

Fiber-Matrix factors: Homogeneity (uniformity) of mixture (reinforcement and matrix). Natural roughness (mechanical interlocking between fiber and matrix). Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of matrix (same with fiber). Bonding quality (interfacial (common boundary) bonding coupling agents) of the fiber and matrix (equal stress distribution). Voids (empty spaces). Moisture absorption (coupling agents prevent moisture entry). Moisture can damage (chemical reaction) the reinforcement, matrix, and interphase bonding.

Bonding Quality interfacial bonding (coupling agents) between fiber and matrix. The chemistry behind the interfacial bonding of fiber and matrix is very important. Fibers are debonded (pulled-out) from matrix if interfacial bonding is insufficeint.

Break Surface
Fiber-Matrix Adhesion
Good Fiber-Matrix Adhesion
Loose fibers are pulled-out (insufficient adhesion). Poor Fiber-Matrix Adhesion

Function of the Coupling Agent
Interfacial bonding (chemical bonding at small extent) between the fiber and matrix.
Effect of Fiber Type

Properties Of Unidirectional Composites
Property Fiber Volume (% in decimal form) Longitudinal Modulus (GPa) Transverse .Modulus (GPa) Shear Modulus (GPa) Poissons Ratio (unitless) Long.Tensile Strength (MPa) Compressive Strength (MPa)
E-Glass/ Epoxy 0.55 39 8.6 3.8 0.28 1080 620
S-Glass/ Aramid/ Carbon/ Epoxy Epoxy Epoxy 0.50 0.60 0.63 43 8.9 4.5 0.27 1280 690 87 5.5 2.2 0.34 1280 335 142 10.3 7.2 0.27 2280 1440
Properties of Reinforced Plastics (PMC)

Mechanical properties of reinforced plastics (PMC) vary with the kind (fiber type), shape (organization / architecture), orientation (angle orientation), length, and relative volume (fiber volume to composite volume fiber volume fraction), and orientation of the reinforcing material (fibers).
Effect of type, length, % volume (fiber volume to composite volume fiber volume fraction), and orientation of fibers in a fiber reinforced plastic (nylon).
Recycling of Composite Materials

Complex process because:
Different types of composites. Different kinds of materials that made up a composite.
Recycling process:
Mechanical Process cheap process. Shredding (strips) separation washing grinding drying extrusion (semi-soft material passes through mold nozzle die). Recycled composite material powder or fiber form. Powder form reused as paste (matrix) for sheet-molding compound (SMC follow complex shape). Fiber form reused for reinforcement in bulk-molding compounds (BMC thick, can follow simple shapes). Recycled composite do not use more than 20% volume fraction (recycled composite volume to composite volume) as replacement degrade (already used materials) impact resistance and electrical properties of product. Recycled plastics are limited only to fences and benches.

Recycling process:
Chemical Process
Pyrolysis material decomposition (break down into simpler components) by heating in an oxygen-free environment (sealed).
Expensive process. Gases and Oils (absorbed due composite usage) are recovered. Recycle composite automobile parts. Residues fillers in concrete and roof shingles (small flat tile). Carbon composite waste has chlorine content needs dehalogenation (removal of halogens - Chlorine, Fluorine, Iodine, Bromine, or Astatine). Use of Recycled Glass Fibers (from recycled composites) PROBLEM low compressive strength of the new material (effects of recycling process on glass fibers).

Recycling process:
Chemical Process
Incineration burning (in order to destroy).
If composites contiutents that cannot be separated (due to absorbed toxic materials from toxic environment during service life). Use as Fuel (polymer matrix composites heating value = 11,622 kJ/kg half of coal). For Low scarp (waste) volume, Minimal cost (just burning), High-volume reduction (ashes), No residual (recyclable) material.
Mechanics Terminology
Mechanical Analysis of Composites
Different from conventional materials metals (composites consist of 2 or more materials). Analysis approach (composite):
Micro-mechanics of Lamina find average properties (stiffness, strength, thermal and moisture expansion coefficient) of a composite ply (lamina) optimize stiffness (elastic modulus E) and strength (stress capacity ). Macro-mechanics of Lamina Develop stress-strain relationship (loading at off-axis or along symmetry-axis of lamina). Develop relationship for stiffness, thermal and moisture expansion coefficients, and strengths of angle plies (fibers oriented at certain angle). Failure theories of lamina based on applied stresses and strength properties.
Analysis approach (composite):
Macro-mechanics of Laminate laminate (stacked laminas) analysis. Stiffness, strength, thermal and moisture expansion coefficients, of the entire laminate. Failure of laminate based on applied stresses and failure theories each ply (lamina). Structural analysis mechanical design (base on micro- and macro-mechanical analysis of lamina and laminate) of structures made of composite materials.
Some Important Terms:
Isotropic Material properties are the same in all directions (ex. Elastic / Youngs Modulus of steel is same in all direction). Homogeneous Material made of one type of material. Uniform properties (isotropic) in any location. Anisotropic Material properties are different in all directions. Non-homogeneous Material made of more than one type of material. Properties depends on location. Composite Material compose of matrix and reinforcement (fiber). Properties depend on location matrix (weak), fiber (strong along fiber but weak transverse to fiber). Nonhomogeneous and anisotropic. Lamina a single flat layer (ply) of unidirectional or woven fibers in a matrix. Laminate stack of plies (layers of laminas). Individual layer can have different materials and various fiber orientation.
Some Important Terms:
Hybrid Laminate (Combined Composite) more than one fiber type (matrix system) in a laminate.
Interply Hybrid Laminates each ply (lamina) is made of different composite system (composite type) . Example: Car Bumper glass fiber epoxy layer (torsional rigidity) and graphite fiber epoxy layer (stiffness). Intraply Hybrid Composites each ply (lamina) has two or more fiber types. Example: Golf Clubs (stick for hitting golf balls) graphite (torsional rigidity) and aramid (tensile strength & toughness) fibers. Interply-Intraply Hybrid Laminates some plies (laminas) having two or more fiber types while other plies (laminas) have distinct composite system (composite type). Resin Hybrid Laminates some plies (laminas) has flexible resin (matrix) while other plies (laminas) has rigid resin (matrix) increase in shear and fracture properties by 50% (compared to all-flexible or all-rigid resin laminate).
Micro-mechanical Analysis of a Lamina

Basic Mechanics
Mechanics study of forces acting on a rigid body. a.) Statics branch of mechanics which considers the action of forces in producing rest (equilibrium) of a body. b.) Dynamics branch of mechanics which treats of the motion of bodies (kinematics) and the action of forces in producing a change in their motion (kinetics).
Force (F) a push or pull. Pressure (P) uniformly applied force over an area, measured as force per unit of area (Pa or N/m2).
Basic Strength of Materials

Stress an applied force or system of forces that tends to strain (deform) a body.
F Stress , = A
where :
= stress, (Pa or
F = force, (N)
N m2
)
( )
A = area to force, m 2
Strain deformation (dimensionless) produced by stress. Ratio of difference in length to the actual length. where : = strain, (unitless) Strain, = L L = Initial Length, (m) = Deformation [length difference], (m)
Stress - Strain Curves
Engineering Stress-Strain Curve for Steel
Stress-Strain Curve for different metals

Stress-Strain Diagram
Elastic Modulus (E) slope of stress-strain curve at Elastic region. Yield Strength (y) at pt. B stress that will produce small amount of permanent deformation ( = 0.002).
Yield Strength, y
Stress where noticeable plastic deformation occurs. when p = 0.002
tensile stress,
For metals agreed upon 0.2%
p = plastic deformation
Elastic recovery
engineering strain,
p = 0.002

Plastic Deformation begins when elastic limit is exceeded (more than). Strain Hardening as plastic deformation increases the material becomes stronger (load to extend or strain increases until maximum value).

Ultimate Tensile Strength (ult.) ratio of maximum load to original cross-sectional area of the material. Necking cross-sectional area decreases rapidly and the load required to continue deformation drops off until the specimen Factures.
NOTE: Broken Lines (CE) consider the thinning (necking) of the crosssection of the material.
Ultimate Tensile Strength, ult.

Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.
Metals: occurs when necking starts. Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts. Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones (long chain molecules) are aligned and about to break.
Ductile vs. Brittle Behavior

Material behavior under load:
Ductile high strain (more deformation / elongation). Brittle low strain (little deformation / elongation)
Fracture Stress is also the Ultimate Stress. Completely Brittle Material (ex. Concrete, Stone, Glass, Ceramic materials) fracture immediately at elastic limit Brittle Metal (ex. Cast iron) small plastic deformation (ductility) before facture.
NOTE: A = Elastic Limit B = Fracture AB = Plastic Deformation

Stress-Strain Curve for Composites

Youngs Modulus measure of the elastic force of any substance, expressed by the ratio of a stress on a given unit of the substance to the accompanying distortion (strain). Simply ratio of stress to strain. E 1 E=
Linearelastic
where : E = Elastic / Young' s / Flexural (Stiffness) modulus, Pa or = stress,
( )
N m2
N m2
= strain, (unitless)

Hookes Law stress is proportional to strain (deformation). Applicable within elastic limit of material. where : E = Elastic / Young' s / Flexural (Stiffness) modulus, Pa or
= E
= stress,
( )
N m2
N m2
Poissons Ratio () ratio of transverse contraction strain (transverse or 2) to longitudinal extension strain (longitudinal or 1) along stretching force direction. Poissons Ratio is unitless.
12 =
- transverse longitudinal
- 2 1
NOTE: (-) = contraction (+) = extension

Shear Strain () angular change in a right angle.
= = tan =
Where:
a h
= shear strain, (unitless)

If use: tan = is in degrees If use: = is in radian (rad.) Conversion: 180O = radian NOTE: At small angle value () tan =

E = Elastic / Youngs Modulus / Flexural (Stiffness), (Pa or N/m2) G = Shear (Rigidity) modulus, (Pa or N/m2) = stress, (Pa or N/m2) = strain, (unitless) = shear stress, (Pa or N/m2) = shear strain, (unitless) = poissons ratio, (unitless) 1 = longitudinal 2 = transverse
Material Behavior in Principal Material Axes:

Isotropic materials
Uni-axial loading
1 = E11 2 = 12 1
12 = G 12 12 G 12 =
12 12
( )
F A II
E1 G12 = 2(1 + 12 )
tan
Beam Theory
Beam - long piece of material (timber or metal) commonly used as horizontal support in construction.
Simply supported beam loaded at center

F = applied load I = moment of inertia L = beam length E = Elastic / Youngs / Flexural Modulus (Stiffness)
FL3 Maximum Deflection , = 48EI M Stress , = y I
Beam Theory
Basic equation in bending stresses in beams
M = I y
We know,
FL M (moment) = 4
We can find the stress using the above equations.
h y= 2
bh I = 12
Cross sectional view of beam
Density & Mass Fractions (Rules Of Mixture)

Density
c = f =
mf
mc
Mass Fraction of Composite Laminate:

mm
m =
Mf =
mf mc
Mm =
mm mc
Where: c = composite m = matrix f = fiber = density, (kg/m3) m = mass, (kg) = volume, (m3) M = mass fraction, (decimal form)
1 = Mf + Mm
Mass of Composite Laminate:
mc = mf + mm
Volume Fractions (Rules Of Mixture)

Density of Laminate Composite: Volume Fraction of Laminate Composite:
c = f Vf + m Vm
Where: c = composite m = matrix f = fiber ) = volume, (m3V =V +
c m m f f
Vf =
f c
Vm =
m c
1 = Vf + Vm
Volume of Laminate Composite:
= density, (kg/m3) V = volume fraction, (decimal form)
c = f + m
Mass Fraction & Volume Fractions

Mass Fraction of Composite Laminate:
(V ) M f = ( f )(V )+ V m f m f
f m
( )
(V ) 1 M m = ( f )(1-V )+ V m m m m
Where: c = composite m = matrix f = fiber = density, (kg/m3) V = volume fraction, (decimal form) M = mass fraction, (decimal form)
Density of Composite Laminate:
1 c
Mf f
Mm m
Strength (Rules Of Mixture)

If consider fiber to be isotropic (reinforce in all directions), the Rule of Mixtures for Composite E and G is:
E1 = Vf E f + Vm E m = Vf E f + (1 - Vf )E m
1 E2
1 G12
Where: f = fiber m = matrix 1 = longitudinal 2 = transverse
=
=
Vf Ef
Vf Gf
+
+
Vm Em
Vm Gm
=
=
Vf Ef
Vf Gf
+
+
(1- Vf )
Em
Gm
(1- Vf )
Where: V = volume fraction, (decimal form) E = Elastic / Youngs / Flexural Modulus (Stiffness), (Pa or N/m2) G = Shear (Rigidity) Modulus, (Pa or N/m2)
Strength (Rules Of Mixture)

Elastic Modulus of Composites (Ec) :
-- two approaches.
E(GPa) 350 Data: Cu matrix 300 w/tungsten 250 particles 200 150
upper limit: rule of mixtures Ec = VmEm + VpEp lower limit: 1 Vm Vp = + Ec Em Ep

20 40 60 80 100 vol% tungsten
(Cu)
(W)
Application to other properties: -- Electrical conductivity, Ke Replace E in the above equations with Ke. -- Thermal conductivity, K Replace E in above equations with K.
Density, Volume and Mass Fractions

Fiber Properties

Matrix Properties

Example:
1.) A glass/epoxy lamina consists of a 70% fiber volume fraction. Determine the following:
lamina (composite) density f = fiber density mass fractions of glass and epoxy w = water density composite volume if lamina is 4 kg. volume and mass of glass and epoxy Elastic (E1 & E2) and Shear (G) modulus of lamina if glass reinforces in all directions 1 = longitudinal
Solution: use Table 2.1 and 2.2

Glass fiber specific gravity, S.G.f = 2.5 (unitless) Recall: f kg f w w m3
2 = transverse
S.G. =
= 1,000
(liquid, 100 C, 0 C)
kg
f = (S.G.f ) w = (2.5)(1,000) = 2,500 m3

m = fiber density Vf = volume fraction fiber
Example:
Vm = volume fraction matrix
Solution: use Table 2.1 and 2.2

Epoxy matrix specific gravity, S.G.m = 1.2 (unitless)
kg m = (S.G.m ) w = (1.2 )(1,000 ) = 1,200 m3 c = f Vf + m Vm = f Vf + m (1 - Vf ) Composite density
kg (2,500)(0.7 ) + (1,200)(1 - 0.7) = 2,110 m c =
Answer
Mass fraction of glass fiber (Mf)
Recall: 1 = Vf + Vm
(V ) = (V ) M f = ( f )(V )+ V f m f m f (m )(Vf )+ (1-Vf ) f 2,500 (1,200 ) M f = ( 2,500 )(0.7 )+ (1-0.7 ) (0.7 ) = 0.83 Answer 1,200
f m f m
( )
( )

Example:
Solution:
c = composite density mc = composite mass
Mass fraction of epoxy matrix Composite volume (lamina) mc mc c c vc c
1 = Mf + Mm Mm = 1- Mf M m = 1 - 0.83 = 0.17 Answer

Mm = mass fraction matrix
v =
4 2,110
= 0.0019 m 3 Answer
Glass fiber volume
v f = (0.7 )(0.0019) = 0.0013 m 3 Answer

Epoxy matrix volume
Vf =
vf vc
v f = (Vf )(v c )
v c = v f + vm vm = v c v f
v m = 0.0019 - 0.0013 = 0.0006 m 3 Answer
vc = composite volume vf = fiber volume vm = matrix volume

Example:
Solution:
Glass fiber mass (mf)
f =
mf vf
mf = f vf
mm vm
m f = f v f = (2,500)(0.0013) = 3.25 kg Answer

Epoxy matrix mass (mm)
m =
mm = m vm
m m = m v m = (1,200)(0.0006) = 0.72 kg Answer

Elastic modulus (E1) From Table 2.1 and 2.2 (epoxy) E1f = 85 GPa (glass) E1m = 3.4 GPa
E1 = Vf E f + Vm E m = Vf E f + (1 - Vf )E m
E1 = (0.7 )(85) + (1 - 0.7 )(3.4 ) = 60.52 GPa Answer

Example:
Solution:
Elastic modulus (E2) From Table 2.1 and 2.2 GPa (epoxy) E2f = 85 GPa (glass) E2m = 3.4
1 E2
Vf Ef
Vm Em
Vf Ef
(1- Vf )
Em
E2 =
1 0.7 + (1-0.7 ) 85 3.4
E 2 = 10.36 GPa Answer

Example:
Solution:
Shear modulus (G) From Table 2.1 and 2.2 (epoxy) Gf = 35.42 GPa (glass) Gm = 1.308 GPa
1 G12
Vf Gf
Vm Gm
Vf Gf
(1- Vf )
Gm
G = G12 =
1 0.7 + (1-0.7 ) 35.42 1.308
G = 4.01 GPa Answer
Void Content
Void (empty spaces) affects the mechanical properties of a composite material.
Theoretical (computed) composite density higher than experimental (actual) density. 1% increase void content = 2% to 10% decrease in mechanical properties of composite material.
Composite volume (vc) consider presence of void (empty space). 3
vc = vf + v m + v v
vv vc
vc = composite volume, (m ) vf = fiber volume, (m3) vm = matrix volume , (m3) vv = void volume, (m3)
Void volume fraction (Vv)
Vv =
vv vf + v m + v v
Vv =
ct ce ct
Vv = void volume fraction, (unitless)
ce = experimental composite density, (kg/m3) ct = theoretical composite density, (kg/m3)
Void Content
Experimental (actual) composite density (ce)
ce =
mc vc
mc = composite mass (by weighing), (kg) vc = composite volume (by submersion into a liquid), (m3)
Theoretical (computed) composite density (ct)
ct =
mc vf + vm
mf +mm vf + vm
mf = fiber mass, (kg) mm = matrix mass, (kg) vf = fiber volume, (m3) vm = matrix volume, (m3)
Void Content
Example:
2.) Base on Problem 1, the glass/epoxy (70% fiber volume fraction) composite has a volume of 0.0020 m3 in actual test (submersion). Determine the following:
void volume (vv) experimental composite density (ce) void volume fraction (Vv) As solved in Problem 1: vf = 0.0013 m3 vm = 0.0006 m3
Solution:
Void volume (vv)
v c = v f + v m + v v v v = v c (v f + v m )
v v = 0.0020 (0.0013 + 0.006 ) = 0.0001 m 3 Answer
Experimental composite density (ce)
Vv =
vv vc
ct ce ct
ce = ct 1
( [ ])
vv vc
Void Content
Example:
Solution:
Experimental composite density (ce)
ct =
mc vc
mf +m m vf + v m
As solved in Problem 1
c = ct = 2,110 kg/m3
ce = 2,110(1 [
0.0001 0.0020
]) = 2,004.5 m
kg
3
Answer
Void volume fraction (Vv)
Vv =
vv vc
0.0001 0.0020
= 0.05 Answer
Elastic Modulus
Fiber, Matrix, and Composite are assumed to be of the same width (h) but of thicknesses tf (fiber), tm (matrix), and tc (composite). Fiber Area (Af)
A f = (t f )(h )
Matrix Area (Am)
A m = (t m )(h )
Composite Area (Ac)
A c = (t c )(h )
Elastic Modulus
V =
Fiber volume fraction (Vf) ( t f )( h )(L c ) vf tf f vc ( t c )(h )(L c ) tc
Lc = composite length, (m) F = force, (N)
V =
Matrix volume fraction (Vm) ( t m )(h )(L c ) vm tm m vc ( t c )(h )( L c ) tc
And
1 = Vf + Vm
Load taken by Composite, Fiber and Matrix. c f Load taken by Composite
F = F + Fm Fc = ( c )(A c ) Ff = ( f )(A f ) Load taken by Fiber

Load taken by Matrix
v = volume f = fiber m = matrix V = volume fraction
Fm = ( m )(A m )
Elastic Modulus
Stresses () taken by:
f = fiber m = matrix
c = (E c )( c ) Composite (c) Fiber (f) f = (E f )( f ) Matrix (m) m = (E m )( m )
E = elastic modulus, (Pa or N/m2)
Elastic Modulus (E) E1 = E f Vf + E m Vm Load Ratio of Fiber (Ff) to the Composite (Fc)
Ff Fc
( )(V )
Ef E1 f
E1 or Ec = composite elastic modulus V = volume fraction
Elastic Modulus
Fiber Properties
Elastic Modulus
Example:
3.) Base on Problem 1, for the glass/epoxy (70% fiber volume fraction) composite, find the ratio of load taken by the fibers to that of the composite. Solution:
Load Ratio of Fiber (Ff) to the Composite (Fc)
Ff Fc
( )(V )
Ef E1 f
85 60.52
From Table 2.1 Ef = 85 GPa (glass) E1 = 60.52 GPa (composite longitudinal elastic modulus in Problem 1)
solved
Ff Fc
=(
)(0.7 ) = 0.98
Answer
Ultimate Strength of a Uni-directional Lamina

Ultimate failure strain of Fiber (f)ult
( f )ult =
( f )ult
Ef
( m )ult =
Ultimate failure strain of Matrix (m)ult
( m )ult
Em
ult = ultimate V = volume fraction m = matrix f = fiber E = elastic modulus
Composite tensile strength (1)ult
= stress
(1 )ult = (Vf )( f )ult + (1 - Vf )(E m )( f )ult

Fiber Properties

Matrix Properties

Example:
4.) Base on Problem 1, for the glass/epoxy (70% fiber volume fraction) composite, find the matrix ultimate failure strain (m)ult , the composite ultimate tensile strength (1)ult , and the fiber ultimate failure strain (f)ult . Solution:
From Table 2.1 Ef = 85 GPa (glass) , (f)ult = 1,550 MPa (glass) From Table 2.2 Em = 3.4 GPa (epoxy) , (m)ult = 72 MPa (epoxy) For the matrix ultimate failure strain (m)ult ( m )ult 72 MPa m ult Em 3400 MPa For the composite ultimate tensile strength (1)ult
( )
= 0.021 Answer
(1 )ult = (Vf )( f )ult + (1 - Vf )(E m )( f )ult

Example:
Solution:
For the Ultimate Tensile Strength of the Composite (1)ult
(1 )ult = (0.7 )(1,550 MPa ) + (1 - 0.7 )(3400 MPa )(0.018) (1 )ult = 1,103.36 MPa Answer
For the fiber ultimate failure strain (f)ult
( f )ult =
( f )ult
Ef
1,550 MPa 85,000 MPa
( f )ult = 0.018
Answer
Coefficients of Thermal Expansion

Major (composite) Poissons Ratio (12)
1 = longitudinal 2 = transverse
12 = (f )(Vf ) + (m )(Vm )
Longitudinal Thermal Expansion Coefficient (1)
= linear thermal expansion coefficient, (m/m/OC) = poissons ratio, (unitless) 12 = major (composite) poissons ratio, (unitless)
V = volume fraction, (unitless) E = elastic modulus, (Pa or N/m2)
1 =
( f )( E f )( Vf )+ ( m )( E m )( Vm )
E1
Transverse Thermal Expansion Coefficient (2)
2 = (1 + f )( f )(Vf ) + (1 + m )( m )(Vm ) (1 )(12 )

Fiber Properties

Matrix Properties

Example:
5.) Base on Problem 1, for the glass/epoxy (70% fiber volume fraction) composite, find the major (composite) poisons ratio (12). Determine the longitudinal (1) and transverse (2) thermal expansion coefficients. Solution:
From Table 2.1 Ef = 85 GPa (glass) , (f) = 0.2 (glass) , (f) = 5 x 10-6 m/m/OC (glass) From Table 2.2 Em = 3.4 GPa (epoxy) , (m) = 0.3 (epoxy) , (m) = 63 x 10-6 m/m/OC (epoxy) E1 = 60.52 GPa (composite longitudinal elastic modulus solved in Problem 1) For the major (composite) poissons ratio (12)
12 = (f )(Vf ) + (m )(Vm )

Example:
Solution:
For the major (composite) poissons ratio (12)
12 = (f )(Vf ) + (m )(Vm ) = (f )(Vf ) + (m )(1 - Vf )

12 = (0.2 )(0.7 ) + (0.3)(1 - 0.7 ) = 0.23 Answer
For the longitudinal thermal expansion coefficient (1)
1 =
( f )( E f )( Vf )+ ( m )(E m )( Vm )
E1
-6 -6
( f )(E f )(Vf )+ ( m )( E m )(1- Vf )

E1
m
m 0C
+ (63 1 = (5 x 10 )(85 )(0.7 )60.52x 10 )(3.4 )(1-0.7 ) = 5.98 x 10-6
Answer

Example:
Solution:
For the transverse thermal expansion coefficient (2)
2 = (1 + f )( f )(Vf ) + (1 + m )( m )(Vm ) (1 )(12 )

2 = (1 + f )( f )(Vf ) + (1 + m )( m )(1 - Vf ) (1 )(12 )
2 = (1 + 0.2) 5 x 10-6 (0.7 ) + (1 + 0.3) 63 x 10-6 (1 - 0.7 ) 5.98 x 10-6 (0.23)
2 = 27.4 x 10
-6
m
m 0C
Answer

Increase in Fiber Volume Fraction Longitudinal Thermal Expansion Coefficient becomes similar or equal with Transverse Thermal Expansion Coefficient (1 2) Thermal Expansion Coefficient Stabilization.
Coefficients of Moisture Expansion

Longitudinal Moisture Expansion Coefficient (1)
1 = longitudinal 2 = transverse
1 =
( m )( E m )( c ) ( E1 )( m )
= linear moisture expansion coefficient, (m/m/kg/kg) = poissons ratio, (unitless) 12 = major (composite) poissons ratio, (unitless) = density, (kg/m3)
E = elastic modulus, (Pa or N/m2)
Transverse Moisture Expansion Coefficient (2)
2 =
(1+ m )( m )( c ) ( m )
(1 )( 12 )

Matrix Properties

Example:
6.) Base on Problem 1, for the glass/epoxy (70% fiber volume fraction) composite, find the longitudinal ( 1) and transverse ( 2) moisture expansion coefficients. Solution:
From Table 2.2 Em = 3.4 GPa (epoxy) , (m) = 0.3 (epoxy) , ( m) = 0.33 m/m/kg/kg (epoxy) As solved in Problem 1 E1 = 60.52 GPa (composite longitudinal elastic modulus) , m = 1,200 kg/m3 GPa (epoxy) , c = 2,110 kg/m3 GPa (composite) As solved in Problem 5 12 = 0.23 (major composite poissons ratio). For the longitudinal moisture expansion coefficient (1)
1 =
( m )( E m )( c ) ( E1 )( m )

Example:
Solution:
For the longitudinal moisture expansion coefficient (1)
1 =
(0.33)(3.4 )( 2,110 ) (60.52 )(1,200 )
= 0.033 kg m Answer
kg
For the transverse moisture expansion coefficient ( 2)
2 =
2 =
(1+ m )( m )( c ) ( m )
(1 )( 12 )
m kg kg m
(1+ 0.3 )(0.33 )( 2,110 ) (1,200 )
(0.033)(0.23) = 0.747
Answer
Macro-mechanical Analysis of a Lamina

Elastic Moduli and Strain Energy
Stress Notation: x xx 11 y yy 22 z zz 33 xy 12 x yz 23 y zx 31 z 1 2 3
Stress at a Point
Resolve into Normal and Shear Components.
Stress at a Point
6 Stress components:
3 Normal Stress x 3 Shear Stress y xy z xz yz
Shear stress that are equal:

xy = yx xz = zx yz = zy Shear stress on 1 face of the cube

Elastic Moduli (singular Modulus)
Recall:
Elastic (Youngs / Flexural) Modulus (E) Shear (Rigidity) Modulus (G)
G=
E 2 (1+ v )
E=
Hookes Law Stress-Strain relationship for 3D Stress State (condition) for Isotropic Material = poissons ratio
1 E
v E 1 E v E 0 0
v y E v z E = yz 0 zx 0 xy 0
v E v E 1 E
0 0 0
1 G
0 0 0 0
1 G
0 0 0
0 x 0 y 0 z 0 yz 0 zx 1 xy G
= normal stress = shear stress = strain = shear strain E = elastic modulus G = shear modulus
0 0

Recall:
Inverting Hookes Law Stress-Strain relationship for 3D Stress State (condition) for Isotropic Material
G=
0 0 0 0 G 0
E 2 (1+ v )
x y z = yz zx xy
E (1-v ) (1- 2 v )(1+ v ) vE (1- 2 v )(1+ v ) vE (1- 2 v )(1+ v )
vE (1-2 v )(1+ v ) E (1-v ) (1-2 v )(1+ v ) vE (1-2 v )(1+ v )
vE (1- 2 v )(1+ v ) vE (1- 2 v )(1+ v ) E (1-v ) (1- 2 v )(1+ v )
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 G 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 G
x y z yz zx xy

Strain Energy (W) energy needed to deform (shape change) a body by the action of external forces.
Strain Energy (W) due to 3D Stress
W=
Example:
( x x + y y + z z )+ ( xy xy + yz yz + xz xz )
2
1.) Stress analysis of a spacecraft structural member (isotropic material, = 0.3, E = 100 GPa, G = 60 GPa) gives the state of stress (see figure). Find the strain energy (W).
= normal stress, (Pa or N/m2) = shear stress , (Pa or N/m2) = strain, (unitless) = shear strain, (unitless)

Example:
Solution: Isotropic Material
E = 100 GPa, G = 60 GPa, = 0.3
Stress Condition:
x = 200 MPa , y = 100 MPa , z = -50 MPa yz = 0 , zx = 0 , xy = -30 MPa (negative shear) (-) = compressive
x y z yz zx xy
1 E v E v E = 0
v E 1 E v E 0
v E v E 1 E
0 0 0
1 G
0 0 0 0
1 G
0 x 0 y 0 z 0 yz 0 zx 1 xy G
0 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0

RECALL: Sign convention for Shear Stress
Basis First Quadrant & Arrow direction
Postive (+) (+)
Negative (-) (-)

Example:
Solution: Isotropic Material
E = 100 GPa, G = 60 GPa, = 0.3
Stress Condition:
x = 200 MPa , y = 100 MPa , z = -50 MPa yz = 0 , zx = 0 , xy = -30 MPa (negative shear) (-) = compressive
x y
z = yz 0 zx 0 xy 0
1 100,000 0.3 100,000 0.3 100,000
0.3 100,000 1 100,000 0.3 100,000
0.3 100,000 0.3 100,000 1 100.000
0 0 0
1 60,000
0 0 0 0
1 60,000
0 0 0 0 0
1 60,000
200 100 - 50 0 0 - 30
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0

1 x 100,000 Example: 0 .3 100,000 y Solution: 0 .3 100,000 z = yz 0 zx 0 xy 0 0 .3 100,000 1 100,000 0 .3 100,000 0.3 100,000 0.3 100,000 1 100.000
0 0 0
1 60,000
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 60,000
0 0
0 0 0 0 0
1 60,000
200 100 - 50 0 0 - 30
0.3 0.3 1 x = (100,000 )(200) + ( 100,000 )(100) + ( 100,000 )( 50) + (0)(0 ) + (0)(0) + (0)(- 30)
0.3 0.3 1 y = ( 100,000 )(200 ) + (100,000 )(100 ) + ( 100,000 )( 50 ) + (0 )(0 ) + (0)(0 ) + (0 )(- 30 )
x = 0.00185
y = 0.00055
0.3 0.3 1 z = ( 100,000 )(200 ) + ( 100,000 )(100) + (100,000 )( 50 ) + (0 )(0 ) + (0 )(0 ) + (0 )(- 30 )
z = 0.0014
(+) = extension
(-) = contraction

1 x 100,000 Example: 0 .3 100,000 y Solution: 0 .3 100,000 z = yz 0 zx 0 xy 0 0 .3 100,000 1 100,000 0 .3 100,000 0.3 100,000 0.3 100,000 1 100.000
0 0 0
1 60,000
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 60,000
0 0
0 0 0 0 0
1 60,000
200 100 - 50 0 0 - 30
1 yz = (0 )(200 ) + (0 )(100 ) + (0 )(- 50 ) + (60,000 )(0 ) + (0 )(0 ) + (0 )(- 30 )
1 zx = (0 )(200 ) + (0 )(100 ) + (0 )(- 50) + (0 )(0 ) + (60,000 )(0 ) + (0 )(- 30 )
yz = 0
zx = 0
1 xy = (0 )(200) + (0 )(100) + (0 )(- 50 ) + (0 )(0 ) + (0 )(0) + (60,000 )(- 30)
xy = 0.0005

Example:
Solution: Strain Energy
(-) = compressive
W=
W=
( x x + y y + z z )+ ( xy xy + yz yz + xz xz )
2
2
([200 ][0.00185 ]+[100 ][0.00055 ]+[-50 ][-0.0014 ])+ ([-30 ][-0.0005]+[0 ][0 ]+[0 ][0 ])
W = 0.255 MPa Answer
Hookes Law for Different Types of C = stiffness Materials

General 3D Stress-Strain Relationship
= normal stress = shear stress = strain = shear strain
C11 1 2 C21 3 C31 = 23 C41 31 C51 12 C61
C12 C22 C32 C42 C52 C62
C13 C23 C33 C43 C53 C63
C14 C24 C34 C44 C54 C64
C15 C25 C35 C45 C55 C65
C16 C26 C36 C46 C56
1 2 3 23 31
C66 12
C = E (Elastic Modulus)
Stiffness Matrix
Hookes Law for Different Types of S = compliance Materials

Inverted General 3D Stress-Strain Relationship
= normal stress = shear stress = strain = shear strain
1 S11 2 S 21 3 S 31 = 23 S 41 31 S 51 12 S 61
S12 S 22 S32 S 42 S52 S 62
S13 S 23 S 33 S 43 S 53 S 63
S14 S 24 S 34 S 44 S 54 S 64
S15 S 25 S 35 S 45 S 55 S 65
S16 S 26 S36 S 46 S56
1 2 3 23 31
S 66 12
Compliance Matrix
Hookes Law for Different Types of Materials

Monoclinic Material one plane of symmetry
Due to Symmetry some Stiffness (C) and Compliance (S) Constants become ZERO.
Stiffness Matrix [C]
Compliance Matrix [S]
Hookes Law for Different Types of Materials

Orthotropic Material three planes (perpendicular to each other) of symmetry.
Due to Symmetry some Stiffness (C) and Compliance (S) Constants become ZERO.
Stiffness Matrix [C]
Compliance Matrix [S]
Hookes Law for a 2D Unidirectional Lamina

Lamina thin (small thickness)
Plane Stress stresses at Direction 3 is small (can be neglected). 2D Stress-Strain Equations
Stress-Strain Relationship Reduced Stiffness Matrix [Q] Compliance Matrix [S]

For the Reduced Stiffness Matrix [Q] For the Compliance Matrix [S]
= poissons ratio 1 = longitudinal 2 = transverse E = elastic modulus G = shear modulus

Mechanical Properties of Unidirectional Lamina
Hookes Law for a 2D Unidirectional Lamina Recall:

Example:
2.) For a graphite/epoxy unidirectional lamina, find the following:
Minor Poissons Ratio (21) Compliance Matrix [S] Reduced Stiffness Matrix [Q] Strains in the 1-2 Coordinate System if the applied stress are 1 = 2 MPa , 2 = -3 MPa (compressive) , 12 = 4 MPa (+ shear) Major Poissons Ratio (12)

RECALL: Sign convention for Shear Stress
Basis First Quadrant & Arrow direction
Postive (+) (+)
Negative (-) (-)

Example:
Solution: From Table 3.1 E1 = 181 GPa , E2 = 10.3 GPa , G12 = 7.17 GPa , 12 = 0.28 (Major Poissons Ratio) For Minor Poissons Ratio (21)
For Compliance Matrix [S]

Example:
Solution: From Table 3.1 E1 = 181 GPa , E2 = 10.3 GPa , G12 = 7.17 GPa , 12 = 0.28 For Compliance Matrix [S]

Example:
Solution: From Table 3.1 E1 = 181 GPa , E2 = 10.3 GPa , G12 = 7.17 GPa , 12 = 0.28 For Reduced Stiffness Matrix [S]

Example:
Solution: Strains in the 1-2 Coordinate System if the applied stress are 1 = 2 MPa , 2 = -3 MPa (compressive) , 12 = 4 MPa (+ shear)

Example:
Solution: Strains in the 1-2 Coordinate System if the applied stress are 1 = 2 MPa , 2 = -3 MPa (compressive) , 12 = 4 MPa (+ shear)
Hookes Law for a 2D Unidirectional Angle Lamina

Local (Material) Axes 1-2 Coordinate System
Direction 1 fiber direction (longitudinal) Direction 2 perpendicular to fiber direction (transverse)
Global (Composite) Axes x-y Coordinate System (off-axes with 1-2 Coordinate System) angle between the 2 coordinate system

Stress Equations Global Stresses ( and ) Local Stresses ( and ) Inverse Transformation Matrix [T]-1
c = cos
s = sin

Stress-Strain Equations Global Stresses ( and ) Local Strains ( and ) Reduced Stiffness Matrix [Q]

Strain Equations Local Strains ( and ) Global Strains ( and )
Reuter Matrix [R]
Transformation Matrix [T] Inverse Reuter Matrix [R]-1

c = cos
s = sin

Global Stress-Strain Equations Global Global Strains Stress ( ( and ) and )
Reduced Stiffness Matrix (Angle Lamina) Q
[ ]

Global Stress-Strain Equations Global Strains ( and ) Global Stress ( and )
Compliance Matrix (Angle Lamina) S
[]

For the Reduced Stiffness Matrix (Angle Lamina) Q
[ ]
c = cos
s = sin

[]
c = cos
s = sin
Engineering Constants for an Angle Lamina

Angle Lamina Matrix (Engineering Constants)
Invariant Form of Stiffness and Compliance Matrices for an Angle Lamina

For the Reduced Stiffness Matrix (Angle Lamina) Q
[ ]
Invariants:
Invariant Form of Stiffness and Compliance Matrices for an Angle Lamina

[]
Invariants:
Strength Failure Theories of an Angle Lamina

Comparison of stress condition of the material to Failure Criteria (bases of decision). Laminate Strength related to individual lamina strength. Failure Criteria based on Normal (tension or compression) and Shear strengths of Uni-directional Lamina.
Maximum Stress Failure Theory resolve applied stresses (x-y Coordinate System) into normal and shear base on local (material) axes (1-2 Coordinate System).
Normal or Shear stress (base on local / material axes) equal or exceed (more than) ultimate strength of uni-directional lamina Failure Occurs (Lamina Fails).

Failure Criteria
Maximum Stress Failure Theory

Failure Criteria
Maximum Strain Failure Theory applied strains (x-y Coordinate System) are resolved to strains (normal and shear) in local (material) axes (1-2 Coordinate System).
Normal (longitudinal & transverse) or Shear (in-plane) strains (base on local / material axes) equal or exceed (more than) ultimate strain of uni-directional lamina Failure Occurs (Lamina Fails).
Hygrothermal Stresses and Strains in a Lamina

Unidirectional Lamina
Stress-Strain Relationship due to Temperature and Moisture Inverted Stress-Strain Relationship due to Temperature and Moisture
T = temperature C = moisture
Hygrothermal Stresses and Strains in a Lamina

Unidirectional Lamina
Thermally (temperature) induced Strains only at the longitudinal (direction 1) and transverse (direction 2). NO SHEAR STRAIN.
= thermal expansion coefficient, (m/m/OC)
Moisture induced Strains only at the longitudinal (direction 1) and transverse (direction 2). NO SHEAR STRAIN.
= moisture expansion coefficient, (m/m/kg/kg)
= change (difference)
Macro-mechanical Analysis of Laminate

Laminate Code
Laminate bonded layers of Lamina Laminate Code special notation for identification of each lamina layer :
By Location By Material (fiber) Type By Orientation Angle of Fibers
Slash sign separation of one ply to another ply.
Laminate Code
Laminate Code [ 0 / -45 / 90 / 60 / 30 ]
(+) angle = counterclockwise (-) angle = clockwise
5 plies (laminas) Each ply same thickness and material type Each ply has different fiber orientation
[ 0 / -45 / 902 / 60 / 0 ]
6 plies (laminas) 902 two 90O adjacent (neighboring) plies Each ply has different fiber orientation
Laminate Code
Laminate Code
[ 0 / -45 / 60 ]S
6 plies (laminas) S symmetric laminate (repeated in reverse order). Plies above mid-plane has same orientation, material type, and thickness as the plies below the mid-plane. Each ply has different fiber orientation.
[ 0 / -45 / 60 ]S
5 plies (laminas) S and 60 symmetry (repeated in reverse order) at mid-surface Each ply has different fiber orientation.
Laminate Code
Laminate Code
[ 0Gr / B ]S 45
6 plies (laminas) S symmetric laminate (repeated in reverse order). Plies above mid-plane has same orientation, material type, and thickness as the plies below the mid-plane. 0O plies graphite/epoxy 45O plies boron/epoxy +45O angle ply followed 45 by -45O angle ply. Each ply has different fiber orientation.
Stress-Strain Relations for a Laminate

F = force, (N)
Stress-Strain Relation loading.

Normal Stress (x)
simple (axial)
A = cross-sectional area, (m2) E = elastic modulus, (Pa or N/m2) = perpendicular
Normal Strain (x)

Stress-Strain Relation moment (M). pure bending
Strain at distance z from centroidal (centroid) line ( xx) Stress base on centroidal distance (xx)
z = centroidal distance, (m) = curvature radius, (m) M = moment, (N-m) I = second moment of inertia, (m4) E = elastic modulus, (Pa or N/m2)

Stress-Strain Relation bending moment (M).
Strain ( xx)
simple (axial) loading and

z = centroidal distance, (m) = curvature radius, (m) = curvature, (1/m) M = moment, (N-m) I = second moment of inertia, (m4) E = elastic modulus, (Pa or N/m2)
In-Plane and Flexural Modulus for a Laminate N = load, (N)

Laminate Stiffness
M = moment, (N-m) [A] = extensional stiffness matrix [B] = coupling stiffness matrix
Where:
[D] = bending stiffness matrix = curvature, (1/m) 0 = strain at midplane [ z = 0 ], (unitless)
In-Plane and Flexural Modulus for a [ ] = transposition N = load, (N) Laminate matrix operation
T
Inverted Laminate Stiffness
M = moment, (N-m) [A*] = extensional compliance matrix [B*] = coupling compliance matrix [D*] = bending compliance matrix
[ ]-1 = inverse matrix operation
Where:
= curvature, (1/m) 0 = strain at midplane [ z = 0 ], (unitless)
Hygrothermal Effects in a Laminate

Hygrothermal Strains Mechanical Strains due to combined effect of Thermal and Moisture (Hygrothermal).
= stress, (Pa or N/m2) = strain, (unitless) = shear strain, (unitless) = curvature, (1/m) Q = reduced stiffness
Hygrothermal Stress combined effect of Thermal and Moisture (Hygrothermal).
T = free expansion thermal strain C = free expansion moisture strain M = mechanical strain
Manufacturing
Manufacturing Processes Of Composites

Structural applications traditional materials :
Steel Aluminum
most designers depend on
REASON Composite Materials are expensive (high production cost). SOLUTION General movement by Composites Industry towards :
Use of less expensive fibers aramid fiber
Boron fiber very costly
graphite fiber and
Reduce processing (manufacturing) cost of Composite Materials.
Manufacturing Goals
Objectives (goals) in Composite Material Production (manufacturing) :
Assemble Fibers Polymer Impregnate (put) Matrix
Resin thermoset for PMC Thermoplastic for PMC Ceramic for CMC Metal (molten / liquid state) thermoset or thermoplastic
for MMC
Shape of the Product (according to designed) Curing of Matrix

Resin solidification by thermo-chemical hardening. Chemical Reaction + Heating (speed-up chemical reaction). Thermoplastic, Ceramic, Metal solidification by cooling.
Manufacturing Process
2 Main Steps in Manufacturing Operations:
Layup arrangement
For Lamina arranging the fiber reinforcements before applying the matrix. For Laminate arranging the laminas to form a laminate. Shaping the laminate to make the desired part.
Curing drying (resin, ceramic) and hardening (polymer, ceramic, metal) of the matrix of a finished composite.
Can be: Unaided (natural / gradual) application of Heat and/or Pressure
3 Main Groups of Lay-up Operation:

A. Winding and Laying operations B. Molding (open & close) operations C. Continuous lamination
Winding and Laying Operation

Filament Winding - continuous filaments (fibers) wound (lay-up) onto mandrel (shape guide).
Common application production of pressure tanks.
Winding Types

Filament Winding Characteristics
The filament (or tape, tow or roving, or band) is either precoated with the polymer or is drawn through a polymer bath (wet filament winding) so that it picks up polymer on its way to the winder. Void volume can be higher (3%). Productivity is high (50 kg/hr). Applications include fabrication of: Composite pipes, tanks, and pressure vessels. Carbon fiber reinforced rocket motor cases used for Space Shuttle and other rockets are made this way.

Filament Winding also called Wet Filament Winding because fibers pass through a matrix bath.
Highly automated
low manufacturing costs if high throughput
Common Products glass fiber pipe, sailboard masts (vertical support or pole).

Filament Winding
Primarily used for hollow, circular or oval components (parts) pipes and tanks (ex. pressure tanks). Fiber tows (rovings) pass through a resin (for thermoset) or molten thermoplastic bath and then wound (lay-up) onto a mandrel (shape guide) which is being rotated at a controlled rate. Fibers are wound in a variety of orientations controlled by a fiber feeding mechanism.

Filament Winding Process
Fibers pass through a liquid resin (for thermoset) or molten thermoplastic. Fibers are wound (lay-up) on a mandrel (shape guide). After layup is completed, the composite is cured on the mandrel. Curing is done by heating for chemical reaction for thermosetting or to melt the thermoplastic for distribution uniformity and good impregnation with the fibers to minimize voids. The mandrel is then removed by melting, dissolving, breakingout or some other method.
Open Mold Operations

Hand Lay-up (contact molding) - the oldest and simplest way of making fiberglassresin (for thermoset) or fiberglass-thermoplastic composites. Gel Coat for best (smooth) surface quality. Mold release agent (silicone, polyvinyl alcohol, fluorocarbon, or sometimes, plastic film) is applied (placed) first. Applications are standard wind turbine blades, boats, etc.

Hand Lay-up (contact molding) - all shapes can be produced.
The resin (for thermoset) or molten polymer and fiber are placed manually. Air is expelled by squeezing (by pressing) if necessary. Multiple layers of fibers can be placed.
Hardening is at room temperature (or speed-up by heating). Void volume is typically 1%. Foam cores may be used for greater shape complexity. Process is slow (deposition rate around 1 kg/hr) and laborintensive. Quality is highly dependent on operator skill. Extensively used for products such as airframe components, boats, truck bodies, tanks, swimming pools, and ducts (centralized air-conditioning system).

Hand Lay-up (contact molding) Process
Resins (for thermoset) or molten thermoplastic are impregnated manually (using rotating roller [nip-roller] or brushes) into the fibers (woven, knitted, stitched or bonded fabrics or textile).
Nip-roller or brush force resin or molten thermoplastic bath into the fabrics (textile).
Laminates are left to cure under standard atmospheric conditions (or by heating to speed-up curing).

Spray Lay-up
A spray gun supplying resin in two converging streams into which roving is chopped. Automation with robots results in highly reproducible production. Labor costs are lower.

Spray Lay-up Process
Chopped fibers and resins are sprayed simultaneously into or onto the mold. Applications are lightly loaded structural panels like caravan bodies, truck fairings (streamlined structures to reduce air drug or friction), bath tubes, small boats, etc.

Vacuum-Bag Molding
For making a variety (different kinds) of components, including relatively large parts with complex shapes. Applications are large cruising boats, racecar components, etc.

Vacuum-Bag Molding
Pressure is applied to the laminate once laid-up in order to improve its consolidation (compacting to minimize voids) done by sealing the plastic film. Air inside the bag (plastic fim) is extracted by a vacuum pump. Up to one atmosphere of pressure can be applied to the laminate to consolidate (compact) it.

Vacuum-Bag Molding Process
Fibers together with resin (for thermoset) or molten thermoplastic is placed inside a vacuum bagging film and sealed with a sealant tape. Heat is applied to keep the thermoplastic in molten state or to speedup chemical reaction of resin. The vacuum bagging film is connected to a vacuum pump for air suction creating a vacuum condition. Vacuum level is controlled by monitoring the vacuum gage.

Pressure-Bag Molding A reverse process (inflating) of vacuumbag molding. Applications are sonar domes, antenna housings, aircraft fairings (streamlined structures to reduce air drug or friction), etc.

Pressure-Bag Molding Process
Fibers together with resin (for thermoset) or molten thermoplastic is placed inside a pressure bagging film and sealed with a sealant tape. Heat is applied to keep the thermoplastic in molten state or to speedup chemical reaction of resin. Compressed air is blown on the pressure bagging film so that it presses and compresses the fibers and the resin or molten thermoplastic contained inside it.

Thermal Expansion Molding
Prepeg or Fibers together with resin (for thermoset) or molten thermoplastic are wrapped around rubber blocks, and then placed in a metal mold. As the entire assembly is heated, the rubber expands more than the metal, putting pressure on the laminate. Complex shapes can be made reducing the need for joining and fastening operations.

Autoclave Molding
Similar to both vacuumbag and pressurebag molding. Applications are lighter, faster and more agile (fast moving) fighter aircraft, motor sport vehicles.

Autoclave and Vacuum-Bag Molding
Most parts made by hand lay-up or automated tape lay-up must be cured by a combination of heat, pressure, vacuum, and inert atmosphere (inert gas environment). To achieve proper cure, the part is placed into a plastic bag inside an autoclave.

Autoclave and Vacuum-Bag Molding
A vacuum is applied to the bag to remove air and volatile products. Inside the autoclave, heat and pressure are applied for curing. Usually an inert gas (Argon, Neon, Xenon, Krypton) is provided inside the autoclave or by introduction of nitrogen or carbon dioxide (prevent other chemical reaction to occur like oxidation) which is cheaper than inert gas. Exothermal reaction (chemical reaction that produces heat) may occur if the curing step is not done properly. Same process for Autoclave and PressureBag Molding only that compressed air is used.

Centrifugal casting
used to form round objects such as pipes, cylinder liner. Composite is placed in a rotating mold. Compaction (consolidation) is by the action of centrifugal force.

Centrifugal Casting Process
Fibers are placed inside the mold. The mold is then rotated and the molten matrix is placed inside the mold using a ladle and a spout. Heat is applied to the rotating mold to keep the matrix in molten state for uniform distribution throughout the fibers. Mold rotation uniformly distributes the matrix to the fibers. Fiber and matrix consolidation (compaction) is through the action of centrifugal force (due to mold rotation).
Matrix Mould Release agent Fibers liquid matrix flow Ladle
spout

Centrifugal Casting

Semi-centrifugal Casting
Fibers and molten Matrix are placed inside the mold. The mold is closed and bolted on a revolving table. Mold rotation uniformly distributes the matrix to the fibers. Fiber and matrix consolidation (compaction) is through the action of centrifugal force (due to mold rotation).

Centrifuge Casting
Fibers are placed inside the mold. Molten matrix pass through a rotating runner. Runner rotation uniformly distributes the matrix to the fibers. Fiber and matrix consolidation (compaction) is through impact action of matrix to the fibers (due to centrifugal force cause by rotating runner).

Continuous Pultrusion
Make straight products that have the same volume all along their lengths. The equivalent of metal extrusion. Complex parts can be made.

Two dimensional shapes including solid rods, profiles, or hollow tubes similar to those produced by extrusion, can be made, hence its name pultrusion.

Production rates around 1 meter / min. Applications are:
Sporting goods (golf club shafts) Vehicle drive shafts (because of high damping [vibration absorption] capacity) Non-conductive ladder rails (electrical service) Structural members for vehicle and aerospace applications.

Continuous Fibers are pulled through the matrix melt bath then pelletized (small dimension compressed material) according to the desired size. The process results to fibers completely surrounded by matrix.

Continuous Pultrusion Process Continuous Fibers (roving strands) positioned by guides are pulled from a creel through a matrix bath and then on through a heated die (gives shape or shape guide). The die completes the impregnation of matrix to the fiber, controls the matrix content and cures (heating) the material into its final shape as it passes through the die. Emerging product is cooled and pulled by oscillating clamps then automatically cut to length (pelletized). Small diameter products are wound up.

All fibers are evenly spaced and completely surrounded (covered) by matrix. Key Advantages "Fiber Skeleton" inside the part leads to: High impact properties Lower creep tendency Lower warpage (twisting) problems Higher heat deflection temperature (HDT) - deflection (deformation) occurs at higher temperature (dimension stability)

Other Advantages: Advantages of Pultrusion Long Fiber Pellets vs. Short Fiber Higher mechanical properties combined with significantly higher impact strength Reduced creep tendency Lower warpage (twist) and better dimensional stability Advantages of Pultrusion Long Fiber Pellets vs. Wire Coating Long Fibers More homogeneous fiber distribution Higher impact strength Better surface / part appearance Lower wear on cylinder and tool (machine use to produce pellets)
Pultrusion Pellet Uniform fiber distribution surrounded by matrix throughout the whole pellet.

Pulforming
Similar in process with pultrusion in many ways. Capable of making straight or curved products with changing shapes and volumes along the product length. Typical pulformed product curved reinforced plastic car spring (shown in figure).
Close Mold Operations

Matched-die Molding consists of closely matched male and female dies (shape guide).
Applications are spacecraft parts, toys, etc.

Compression Molding by compression the composite material (Sheet Molding Compound [SMC] or Bulk Molding Compound [BMC] ) takes the shape of the mold.
Pressure and Heat (using hot hydraulic press) is applied during the molding process.

Injection Molding closed process (mold is closed).
Used in PMC processes. Applications are auto parts, vanes, engine cowling (cover) defrosters and aircraft radomes (dome-shaped radar housing).

Injection Molding Process
Injection process begins with a thermosetting material (or sometimes thermoplastic) outside the mold (feed into the hopper). Polymer matrix (may contain reinforcements or not) is first softened by heating and mechanical working (with an extrusiontype screw) inside the barrel. Polymer matrix is then forced (using screw-type extruder) under high pressure from a ram or screw, into the cool mold (water-jacketed).

Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
Low-pressure (50 100 psi) molding process. Uses resin (thermoset) as matrix. Used when parts with two smooth surfaces are required.

Requires a resin viscosity of 200 to 600 centipoise (since RTM is a low-pressure molding process). Multi-compatible with a variety of resin systems. Resin types:
Modified acrylic and hybrid resins (polyester and urethane) Epoxy Polyester Vinyl Esters Phenolic

Resin Transfer Molding (RTM) Process
Dry Fiber reinforcement fabric (mat / pre-form / textile / woven / hybrid) is laid by hand into a mold. Mold is closed and resin mixture is injected into the mold cavity. Resin curing is done under heat and pressure.

Advantages: Lower chemical fumes emissions (since close mold) than open mold processes (spray-up or hand lay up). High quality finish surface (like those on an automobile). Produce parts faster (5 20 times faster than open molding techniques). Produces product of tighter dimensional tolerances ( .005 inch). Complex mold shapes can be achieved. Cabling and other fittings can be incorporated into the mold designs.

Disadvantages: High production volumes is required to offset high tooling costs (open molding techniques is cheaper). Only limited amount of reinforcement materials due to the flow and resin saturation of the fibers (more fibers, difficult for resins to flow through because RTM is low-pressure molding process). Part size to be produced is limited by the mold.

Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM)
Similar in process with Resin Transfer Molding (RTM). Vacuum is used to enhance the resin flow and reduce void formation. Resin is injected at high pressure.

Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM) Process
Dry Fiber reinforcement fabric (mat / pre-form / textile / woven / hybrid) is laid by hand into a mold. Mold is closed and resin mixture is injected into the mold cavity. Vacuum sucks out air to reduce void formation, enhance the resin flow, and thorough (complete) impregnation (wetting) of resin to fibers. Resin curing is done under heat and pressure.
Continuous Lamination
Sheet Molding Compound (SMC)
Used for compression molding process (hot hydraulic press). Matrix polyester resin, vinyl ester resin
Types of SMC:
SMC R randomly oriented discontinuous fibers. SMC CR containing a layer of unidirectional continuous fibers together with randomly oriented discontinuous fibers. XMC containing continuous fibers arranged in an X pattern together with randomly oriented discontinuous fibers.
Chopped glass fibers are added to polyester or vinyl ester resin mixture.
Prepeg ready-made tape compose of uni-directional continuous fibers (commonly carbon, glass, and aramid) which is pre-impregnate with a partially cured polymer matrix (thermoset or thermoplastic).
Composite Form most widely used for structural applications. Matrix content is between 35% to 45% by volume. Wound on spools
Standard width 25 mm. to 1,525 mm. Standard thickness 0.08 mm. to 0.25 mm.
Prepeg
Storage Temperature:
For thermoplastic matrix room temperature For thermoset (resin) matrix 0OC or lower temperature (slow down curing due to chemical reaction).
Storage (Shelf) Life:

For thermoplastic matrix indefinite time (aviod UV or other chemical exposure). For thermoset (resin) matrix only 6 months (very small curing chemical reaction starts even at very low temperature).
Prepegs
Application on Structure Fabrication
By Lay-up operation prepeg tapes are molded according to desired shape (structure). Several prepeg tape layers are used to achieve desired thickness. Prepreg tape is wrapped in 2 directions or spiral wrapped. During curing no additional matrix (thermoplastic or thermoset) is needed. Typical curing condition (melting the thermoplastic for homogeneous distribution or curing the thermoset) is at 120OC-200OC and 100 psi (pressure for compaction to minimize viods) in autoclave.
Commonly for Tubular Products

Fishing rods (for fishing) Golf clubs Oars (for rowing boat)
Prepeg Process
Several rows of uni-directional continuous fiber rovings (untwisted fiber strands or bundles) passes through a polymer bath (molten thermoplastic or thermoset resin).
Collimator
fiber guide
Prepeg Process
Or uni-directional continuous fiber rovings (untwisted fiber strands or bundles) are sandwiched between release paper (coated with a thin film of molten thermoplastic or thermset resin) and a carrier paper (prevent prepegs from sticking with each other when wound on spool).
Prepeg Process
Impregnated fibers, sandwiched between release paper and carrier paper, are pressed by heated rollers (calendering) to partially cure (thermoset matrix) or uniform distribution (thermoplastic matrix).
Prepeg Process
Final prepreg product is a thin tape consisting of continuous and aligned fibers embedded in a thermoplastic or partially cured resin. Prepegs are winding onto a cardboard core.
Boron/epoxy prepeg tape
Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

Definition and Composition

Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) consisting of a metallic matrix combined with a ceramic (oxides, carbides) or metallic (lead, tungsten, molybdenum) reinforcement (dispersed phase).
Also known as Fiber-Reinforced Metal Matrix Composite (FRMMC). Combine the high tensile strength and elastic modulus of a fiber (reinforcement) with metals (matrix) of low density results to good strength-to-weight ratio (specific strength) and modulus-toweight ratio (specific modulus) of the MMC.
MMC cross-section
Definition and Composition

Metal Matrix Composite (MMC)
Expensive and are only use where improved properties and performance can justify the added cost. Applications are mostly in aircraft components, space systems, and high-end sports equipment.
Scope (range) of applications will increase as manufacturing costs are reduced.
Aluminum reinforced with Silicon Carbide particles
Advantage and Disadvantage

Advantages:
Better wear resistance. Do not absorb moisture. Fire and radiation resistant. Wider operating temperature range. Do not display outgassing (release of trapped gases). Better properties at elevated temperature.
Disadvantages:
Expensive Heavy (metal matrix). Less toughness Difficult to fabricate (manufacture or process). Limited available experience in application (since expensive).
Mechanical Properties
Better electrical (for electrically conductive reinforcement) and thermal (for heat conductive reinforcement) conductivity. Higher specific modulus (modulus-to-weight ratio) and specific strength (strength-to-weight ratio). Lower thermal expansion coefficient (CTE) than metals (minimal expansion at higher temperature). Higher thermal deformation (deflection) resistance. Improvement in stiffness (higher elastic modulus). Strength (reinforcement) and ductility (matrix). Creep and Fatigue resistance.
MMC has reduced Thermal Conductivity.
Depends on the fiber thermal conductivity.
MMC has lower thermal expansion coefficient (CTE) than metals.
MMC has improved Stiffness (Elastic Modulus).
Fiber Length Fiber Volume Fraction
MMC has improved Stiffness (Elastic Modulus).
Wider range of Operating Temperature
Reinforcing Materials
Types of Reinforcing materials
Common reinforcement (reinforcing phase) are:
Particles
Metal Ceramic (usually cerments cemented carbides)
Fibers (Short [whiskers] or Continuous [long]) various materials including other metals.
Ceramic Carbon Boron
Metallic Binders
Cemented carbide composed of one or more carbide compounds bonded in a metallic matrix.
Common cemented carbides:
Tungsten carbide (WC) Titanium carbide (TiC) Chromium carbide (Cr3C2) Tantalum carbide (TaC)
Principal Metallic Binders are:

Cobalt used for Tungsten Carbide (WC) Nickel used Titanium Carbide (TiC) and Chromium Carbide (Cr3C2)
Types of Metal Matrix Composites

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) Types:
Aluminum Matrix Composite (AMC) Magnesium Matrix Composite Titanium Matrix Composite Copper Matrix Composite
Aluminum Matrix Composite (AMC)

Common metal matrix composite (MMC). Usually based on Aluminum-Silicon (Al-Si) alloys and on the alloys of 2xxx and 6xxx series (ASME alloy codes). Properties:
High strength even at elevated temperatures High stiffness (elastic modulus)

Properties:
Low density (light weight) High thermal conductivity Excellent abrasion resistance
Reinforcement:
Alumina (Al2O3) or Silicon Carbide (SiC) particles (Particulate Composite) in amounts 15%-70% Volume Fraction. Continuous Fibers of Alumina, Silicon Carbide (SiC), Graphite (Long-Fiber Reinforced Composites). Discontinuous Fibers (Short Fibers or Whiskers) of Alumina (Short-Fiber Reinforced Composites).

Manufacturing (fabrication) methods:
Powder metallurgy (sintering bond [fuse] metal particles by applying pressure and heat below melting temperature). Stir Casting discontinuous (short or whiskers) reinforcement is stirred (for uniform distribution) into a molten metal which is allowed to solidify in a mold. Infiltration (vapor deposition) fiber is passed through a thick cloud of vaporized metal, coating it.
Applications:
Automotive parts (pistons, pushrods, brake components). Brake rotors for high speed trains. Bicycle Frame and Golf clubs. Electronic substrates (semi-conductor due to Silicon) and Cores for high voltage electrical cables.

Magnesium Matrix Composite
Properties:
Low density (light weight) High stiffness (elastic modulus) High wear resistance Good strength even at elevated temperatures Good creep resistance
Reinforcement:
Mainly by Silicon Carbide (SiC) particles (particulate composite).
Applications: Components for racing cars. Lightweight automotive brake system. Aircraft parts (gearboxes, transmissions, compressors and engine).

Titanium Matrix Composite Properties:
High strength High stiffness (elastic modulus) High creep resistance High thermal stability High wear resistance
Reinforcement:
Continuous monofilament (not strand or bundle) Silicon Carbide (SiC) Fiber (long-fiber reinforced composite). Titanium Boride (TiB2) and Titanium Carbide (TiC) particles (particulate composite).

Titanium Matrix Composite
Powder metallurgy (sintering bond [fuse] metal particles by applying pressure and heat below melting temperature).
Applications:
Structural components of F-16 jet plane landing gear. Turbine engine components (fan blades, actuator pistons, synchronization rings, connecting links, shafts, discs).
Automotive engine components (drive train parts and general machine components).

Copper Matrix Composite
Properties:
Low thermal expansion coefficient High stiffness (elastic modulus) Good electrical conductivity (due to copper matrix) High thermal conductivity Good wear resistance
Reinforcement:
Continuous Carbon Fibers (C), Silicon Carbide (SiC), Tungsten (W), Stainless Steel 304 (long-fiber reinforced composite). Silicon Carbide (SiC) particles (particulate composite).

Copper Matrix Composite
Powder metallurgy (sintering bond [fuse] metal particles by applying pressure and heat below melting temperature). Infiltration (vapor deposition) fiber is passed through a thick cloud of vaporized metal, coating it.
Applications:
Electronic relays. Electrically conducting springs. Other electrical and electronic components.
MMC Processing (Manufacturing)

3 types of MMC manufacturing (processing):
Solid State Method Liquid State Method Vapor Deposition Method
SOLID STATE METHOD for large surface area composite, matrix is particle or foil form (matrix in solid form).
Powder Metallurgy powder (particles) blending and consolidation (compaction).
Powdered metal and discontinuous reinforcement are mixed and then bonded through a process of compaction, degassing (gas removal), and thermo-mechanical treatment (hot pressing or extrusion).
SOLID STATE METHOD

Diffusion Bonding
Layers of metal foil are sandwiched with long fibers, and then pressed (heat + pressure) through to form a matrix (metal foil). Ex. Ti, Ni, Cu, Al reinforced with Boron

LIQUID STATE METHOD (molten) form. matrix is in liquid
Electroplating / Electroforming
Solution containing metal ions loaded with reinforcing particles is co-deposited (by electroplating or electroforming through passage of electricity) forming a composite material.
Stir Casting
Discontinuous reinforcement is stirred into molten metal, which is allowed to solidify.
Reactive processing
Chemical reaction occurs, one of the reactants forms the matrix and the other the reinforcement.
LIQUID STATE METHOD

Spray deposition
Molten metal is sprayed onto continuous fibers or particles.

LIQUID STATE METHOD
Squeeze Casting
Molten metal is injected into a form (mold) with fibers already placed inside it. Ram squeezes the molten metal and fibers for consolidation (compaction).

LIQUID STATE METHOD
Liquid Melt Infiltration
(a) Fibers are placed inside a mold (die). (b) The mold is closed and air is evacuated (removed). (c) Gas pressure is applied to inject the molten metal into the mold.

VAPOR DEPOSITION METHOD in vapor form.
Physical Vapor Deposition
Fiber passed through a thick cloud of vaporized metal which coats it (fiber).
matrix is
Applications of MMC
Applications of different types of MMC
Applications of MMC
Cast Aluminum-SiC multi-inlet fitting for a truss node.
Mid-fuselage (aircraft body) structure of Space Shuttle Orbiter showing BoronAluminum tubes.
Applications of MMC
Aerospace Applications of MMC
Applications of MMC
Cutting Tools common application of Cemented Carbides (usually Tungsten Carbide).
Carbide drills made from tough cobalt matrix with hard tungsten carbide particles. Titanium carbide cermets for high temperature applications.
Cutting tool material for machining steels. Nickel is the preferred binder (superior oxidation resistance at high temperature than cobalt).
Tank Armors
Boron nitride
steel reinforced with boron nitride.

good reinforcement for steel.
Very stiff (high elastic modulus) and does not dissolve in molten steel.
Applications of MMC
Rotor Blade aluminum MMC Automotive disc brakes
Carbon Fiber with Silicon Carbide matrix (for high specific heat and thermal conductivity).
Modern high-performance sport cars (ex. Porsche)
Disc Brake Calipers

Aluminum Matrix Composites (AMC)
Weigh reduction as much as 50%. Increase in stiffness.
Driveshaft (Ford racing cars) aluminum boron carbide MMC. Increase in driveshaft critical speed by reducing inertia.
Driveshaft top speed is increased beyond safe operating speed when using standard aluminum.
Applications of MMC
Cylinder Liners (in Honda) composite in engines.
Honda engines C32B. Toyota engine
aluminum metal matrix
B21A1, H22A, H23A, F20C, F22C, and 2ZZ-GE.
Cylinder Sleeves (Porsche Boxster and 911). F-16 (Fighting Falcon) landing gear monofilament Silicon Carbide Fibers in a Titanium matrix. Bicycle Frames aluminum MMC.
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) and Carbon-Carbon Composites (CC)

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)

Ceramic Matrix Composites

Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC) consisting of a ceramic matrix combined with a ceramic (oxides, carbides) in dispersed phase (fibers).
Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC) is designed to improve toughness of conventional ceramic (main disadvantage is brittleness). CMC are produced by conventional ceramic processes from an oxide (alumina) or non-oxide (silicon carbide).
Advantages and Disadvantages of Ceramics

Ceramics are:
Advantage:
High stiffness Hardness Hot hardness (remain hard even at high temperature) Compressive strength Relatively low density
Disadvantage:
Low toughness and bulk tensile strength Susceptibility to thermal cracking
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) represent an attempt to retain the desirable properties of ceramics while compensating for their weakness.
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC) Properties

High mechanical strength even at high temperature High thermal shock (abrupt temperature increase or decrease) resistance High stiffness (elastic modulus) High toughness (crack resistance) High thermal stability Low density (light weight) High corrosion resistance even at high temperature

High mechanical strength

High toughness (crack resistance) fibers arrests (stops) cracks from propagating (spreading).
LOAD matrix fiber
crack
crack arrest
Reinforcement
Ceramic Matrix Composite is reinforced by either :
Discontinuous (whiskers or short) fibers or Particles Continuous (long) fibers
Discontinuous (Whiskers or Short Fibers) Fibers or Particles

Ceramic Matrix is reinforced by whisker ceramic fibers like Silicon Carbide (SiC), Titanium Boride (TiB2), Aluminum Nitride (AlN), Zirconium Oxide (ZrO2) and other ceramic fibers or particles.
Most of CMC are reinforced by Silicon Carbide (SiC) fibers due to their high strength and stiffness (elastic modulus). Whiskers (short fibers) incorporated (combined) in Ceramic Matrix improve ceramic toughness to resist crack propagation (spread). Failure Characteristic of short-fiber reinforced ceramic matrix composite is catastrophic (complete failure).
Reinforcement
Continuous (Long Fibers) Fibers
CMC is reinforced either by long (continuous) monofilament (single fiber) or multifilament (fiber bundle or strand) fibers. Reinforcing fibers are Silicon Carbide (SiC), Titanium Boride (TiB2), Aluminum Nitride (AlN), Zirconium Oxide (ZrO2) and other ceramic fibers.
Best strengthening effect is obtained by continuous monofilament fibers (Silicon Carbide [SiC] fibers). Monofilament fibers produce stronger interfacial bonding with ceramic matrix improve ceramic toughness. Failure Characteristic of long-fiber reinforced ceramic matrix composites is not catastrophic (do not fail completely).
Matrix
Matrix material for Discontinuous (Whiskers or Short Fibers or Particles) reinforcement are:
Alumina (Alumina [Al2O3] -Silica [SiO2] or Mullite [3AL2O3*2SiO2] ) Boron carbide (B4C) Boron nitride (BN) Silicon carbide (SiC) Silicon nitride (Si3N4) Titanium carbide (TiC)
Matrix material for Continuous (Long Fibers) reinforcement are:

Silicon carbide (SiC) Silicon nitride (Si3N4) Alumina (Alumina [Al2O3] -Silica [SiO2] ) or Mullite (3AL2O3*2SiO2)
Types of Ceramic Matrix Composite and Applications

Alumina Matrix Composite matrix is Alumina or Aluminum Oxide (Alumina [Al2O3] - Silica [SiO2] ) or Mullite (3AL2O3*2SiO2).
Fabricated by Sol-Gel or Direct Metal Oxidation (DEMOX) method. Use for:
Manufacturing heat exchangers Filters for hot liquids Thermo-photovoltaic burners Burner stabilizers Combustion liners of gas turbine engines
Types of Ceramic Matrix Composite and Applications

Silicon Carbide (SiC) Matrix composite carbide (SiC). matrix is silicon
Fabricated by Chemical Vapor Infiltration (deposition) or Liquid Phase Infiltration method. Use for:
Manufacturing combustion liners of gas turbine engines Hot gas re-circulating fans Heat exchangers Rocket propulsion components Filters for hot liquids Gas-fired burner parts Furnace pipe hangers Immersion burner tubes.
Processing
Difficulties in processing:
Need to develop high temperature reinforcement.
Due to elevated temperature during hot pressing or sintering.
Induced residual stress due to the differences in thermal expansion coefficients (CTE or ) of reinforcement and matrix. Whiskers or Short Fibers or Particles (discontinuous) reinforcement
R > M circumferential crack in matrix R < M radial crack in matrix

R = reinforcement (fiber) M = matrix = thermal expansion coefficient (CTE)
Processing
Difficulties in processing:
Long Fiber (Continuous) reinforcement
R > M R < M
residual tensile stress in matrix interface debonding residual compressive stress in matrix matrix cracking
R = reinforcement (fiber) M = matrix = thermal expansion coefficient (CTE)
Processing
For CMC with Discontinuous Reinforcement (Whiskers or Short Fibers or Particles)
Manufactured by mixing the powdered matrix with the reinforcing phase followed by pressing (compaction) at elevated temperature hot pressing or Sintering Method (bond by partly fusing).
For CMC with Continuous Reinforcement (Long Fibers)

Manufactured by Infiltration Method (Process) ceramic matrix is formed from a fluid (gaseous or liquid) which infiltrate (pass through) into the fiber structure or preform (either woven or non-woven or continuous fiber). Prior to the Infiltration Method reinforcing fibers surface is coated with a debonding interphase.
Debonding Interphase provide weak bonding between fiber and matrix so that fiber slides in matrix (during infiltration process) and prevents brittle fracture of fiber.
Processing Infiltration Methods

For CMC with Continuous Reinforcement (Long Fibers)
Not fabricated by sintering method due to:
Mechanical damage of fibers during pressing. Chemical reaction between fiber and matrix (cause degradation) during high temperature. High porosity (during compaction).
Infiltration Methods (Processes)

Slurry Infiltration Sol-Gel Chemical Vapor Infiltration (deposition) Direct Metal Oxidation (DIMOX)

Slurry Infiltration liquid phase infiltration method.
Utilizes a slurry percolating (passing through) into a porous reinforcing preform (woven / textile or non-woven or continuous fibers). Infiltration process is by the capillary forces (capillary action) and once completed, the preform is dried and hot pressed forming a ceramic matrix composite. Slurry ceramic particles dispersion (scattered) in a liquid carrier together with binders (for fiber-matrix interfacial bonding) and wetting agents (help capillary action). Produces denser structure with smaller shrinkage during processing due to higher content of solids (ceramic particles). Pressure or Vacuum assisted slurry Infiltration allows further increase of the density of the resulting ceramic composite.

Slurry Infiltration Process (SIP)
SLURRY INFILTRATION. Reinforcing fibers (tow, tape, woven, non-woven or continuous) passes through a slurry (contains particles of the ceramic matrix) which penetrates into the porous structure of the reinforcing phase (fibers). Infiltration is by capillary effect (can be enhanced by vacuum or pressure). LAY-UP. Prepreg (infiltrated or impregnated fibers) is wound onto a mandrel. Then it is dried, cut and laid-up (stack) to a desired shape (fiber orientation) on a tooling (mold). HOT PRESSING. Hot pressing (sintering and densification) in Graphite die at high temperature and increased pressure which enhance the diffusion (compaction / consolidation for low porosity / voids resulting to high density) of the ceramic matrix between the fiber structure (woven or non-woven or continuous).
Ceramic Matrix Composite (CMC) produced in Slurry Infiltration:

Glass reinforced Ceramic Mullite (3AL2O3*2SiO2) Ceramic Silicon Carbide (SiC) Ceramic Silicon Nitride (Si3N4) Ceramic

Sol-Gel liquid matrix in colloidal (particulate) suspension of fine ceramic particles (sol) soaks (wet) a preform (woven / textile or non-woven or continuous fibers) and then transforms to solid (gel).
Colloidal suspension contain very small (nano) particles (100 nm radius) within a liquid (water or organic solvent).
Intrinsic (basic) part shapes can be produced by Sol-Gel Method.

Sol-Gel Process
Liquid sol (low viscosity) easily penetrates into a preform (woven or textile / non-woven or continuous fibers). Infiltrated preform is then dried.
Drying operation causes matrix shrinkage and pores (voids) formation therefore infiltration-drying cycle is repeated several times until desired density is achieved.
The resulting material is fired (exposed to fire or heat) and hot pressed.

Chemical Vapor Infiltration (CVI) widely used for fabrication of silicon carbide matrix composites reinforced by long (continuous) silicon carbide fibers.
Reacting gases, at isothermal (constant temperature) condition, is carried by a carrier gas (H2, Ar, He) stream and diffuse (spread naturally or by pressure) into a porous preform (woven or textile / non-woven or long fibers) and deposits a material (matrix) on fiber surface. Example Silicon carbide (SiC) matrix is formed from a mixture of Methyltrichlorosilane (MTS or CH3Cl3Si) and Hydrogen as the carrier gas according to the reaction: CH3Cl3Si SiC + 3HCl
Gaseous Hydrogen Chloride (HCl) is removed from preform (fiber) by the diffusion or forced out by carrier stream.

Chemical Vapor Infiltration (CVI)
Deposited material (matrix)
Result of chemical reaction. Fills the spaces between the fibers and form composite material (matrix deposited material, fibers or preform [reinforcement] dispersed phase).

Advantages: Low fiber damage (low infiltration temperature). Matrix of high purity is produced. Low infiltration temperatures = Low residual mechanical stresses. Enhanced mechanical properties (strength, elongation, toughness). Good thermal shock (sudden temperature change) resistance. Increased creep and oxidation resistance. Matrices of various (different) compositions can be fabricated (SiC, C, Si3N4, BN, B4C, ZrC, etc.). Interphases (fiber-matrix coupling agent) may be deposited in-situ (immediately right on) the fiber surface.

Disadvantages: Slow process rate (may continue up to several weeks). High residual porosity (void) 10%-15%. High capital and production costs.

Direct metal oxidation (DIMOX) matrix forms through the reaction of a molten metal with an oxidizing gas.
2 Conditions are necessary for the dispersed phase (reinforcement fibers):
Wetted by the melt (molten metal). Does not oxidize (do not react chemically) with the presence of oxygen.
Process rate 1 mm/hr. 1.5 mm/hr. (slow) Resulting CMC have no pores or voids / empty spaces (present in ceramics fabricated by sintering) and impurities (due to binders, plasticizers, lubricants, deflocculants, water etc.). Use for fabrication of CMC with Alumina or Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) matrix.

Direct metal oxidation (DIMOX)
Oxide growth (oxidized metal which forms ceramic matrix) may continue even after the reaction (oxidation) front has reached the outer surface of the preform so that the aluminum oxide will be deposited over the preform changing its dimensions.
To prevent preform surface is coated with a gas permeable barrier so that the ceramic matrix growth stops when the reaction front reaches the barrier.
Residual Metal non-reacted metal (5-15% of total aluminum volume used) is removed from the part surface.
Some residual metal remains embedded in the inter-granular spaces of the ceramic matrix (oxidized metal).

Direct metal oxidation (DIMOX) process
For fabrication of CMC with Alumina or Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3) matrix.
Lay-up. The preform (SiC or Al2O3 reinforcing fiber, woven or non-woven or continuous fiber) is laid and shaped according to desired form. Application of Interphases. Thin layer (0.1 m - 1 m) of debonding phase (Pyrolytic [carbon obtained after heating a material] Carbon [C] or Hexagonal Boron Nitride [BN] ) is deposited on the fiber surface by Chemical Vapor Infiltration (CVI) method. Deposition (coating) of a Gas Permeable (allow to pass through) Barrier on the preform surface. The surface through which the melt (molten metal) should wick (capillary action) into the preform is not coated.

Metal Oxidation. Preform is put in contact with liquid aluminum alloy (molten at 900OC - 1150OC).
Aluminum alloy is doped (added) with additives (magnesium, silicon) to improve its wettability (capillary effect) on the reinforcing fiber and enhance its oxidation with oxygen.

Metal Oxidation. Molten aluminum wicks (capillary action) into the reinforcing structure (preform or fibers) through the non-coated surface (no gas permeable coating). Oxygen penetrates into the preform (fibers) in the opposite direction passing through the gas permeable barrier (coating).

Metal Oxidation. Liquid aluminum and oxygen meet at the reaction (oxidation) front. Liquid aluminum oxidizes (becomes Al2O3 ceramic matrix) as it comes in contact with oxygen.

Metal Oxidation. A growing layer of oxidized aluminum forms and becomes the ceramic matrix. The process terminates (stops) when the reaction front reaches the barrier (Gas Permeable barrier or coating).

Direct metal oxidation (DIMOX)
Advantages:
Low shrinkage (near-net shape parts can be fabricated). Inexpensive and simple equipment. Inexpensive raw materials. Good mechanical properties at high temperature (creep strength) due to the absence of impurities. Low residual porosity.
Disadvantages:
Low productivity (ceramic matrix growth rate [oxidized molten metal] 1 mm/hr. 1.5 mm/hr). Too long fabrication time 2-3 days. Residual (non-reacted) aluminum may be present in the oxide matrix.
Carbon-Carbon Composites (CC)

Carbon-Carbon Composites
Carbon-carbon composite (CC) compose of a carbon (graphite form or crystalline) matrix reinforced by carbon (graphite form or crystalline) fibers (carbon atoms are well aligned).
Carbon (graphite form) Fibers
Carbon-Carbon Composites
Carbon-carbon composite (CC)
Carbon matrix from phenolic resins that have been repeatedly charred (burned or carbonized) and impregnated (soak) with phenolic resin.
Very long process (up to 6 months for one part or product). Very costly.
For very high temperature environment (up to 3,000OC). Very strong and light weight. FACT: First developed in 1958, but not intensively researched until the Space Shuttle Program (for insulation).
Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
Carbon fibers stops crack propagation (spread) of brittle carbon matrix increase toughness of carbon matrix (gradual failure). Extremely high thermal stability (up to 3,000OC). crack Needs flammability coating (ceramic to prevent burning and oxidation) at very high temperatures. Very strong and light weight (low density).
LOAD matrix fiber
crack arrest
Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages:
Low creep (deform from stress or heat) at high temperature. Good tensile and compressive strengths. High fatigue (cyclic loading) resistance. High thermal conductivity (101 W/m-K). High friction coefficient.
Disadvantages:
Expensive (high production cost). Very long process (up to 6 months for one part or product). Low shear strength. Susceptibility to oxidation (easily oxidizes above 482OC) at high temperature.
Need ceramic coating to prevent burning and oxidation (increase cost of carbon-carbon composite).
Properties
Outstanding durability at temperatures over 2000C (even as far as 3,000OC).
Retain mechanical properties even at high temperature. Excellent heat resistance in non-oxidizing (no presence of oxygen) environment.
Low thermal expansion coefficient (CTE). Great thermal shock resistance (abrupt / rapid temperature change). High melting point (3,600OC). Corrosion resistant. High electrical conductivity. High abrasion resistance. Low density (1,830 kg/m3). High strength and elastic modulus (up to 200 GPa).
Properties
Retain Mechanical Properties even at high temperature.
Properties
Outstanding Specific Strength (strength-toweight ratio) compared to other metals.
Properties
Mechanical Properties of Carbon-Carbon Composite
Processing
Low-Pressure Carbonization graphitization at low pressure. pyrolysis and
Pyrolysis chemical decomposition by heating (982OC1,204OC for Chemical Vapor Infiltration and 538OC-1,000OC for Liquid Phase Infiltration) in the absence of oxygen to produce amorphous (non-crystalline) carbon. Graphitization heating at higher temperature (2,500OC) to convert amorphous carbon into crystalline carbon.
Processing
Low-Pressure Carbonization Process
Carbon fibers (preform or woven or non-woven / continuous) are laid-up and stacked according to desired pattern and structure.
Patterns of woven fibers (fibers are in bundle / strand):
Processing
Carbon fibers (preform or woven or non-woven / continuous) are laid-up and stacked according to desired pattern and structure.
Patterns of woven fibers:
Processing
Carbon fibers (preform or woven or non-woven / continuous) are impregnated with resin (phenolic, pitch, or furfuryl ester).
Impregnated Resin serves as the carbon matrix after pyrolysis and graphitization. Resin impregnation is by: Chemical Vapor Infiltration [deposition] (CVI or CVD) preform (woven or non-woven fibers) is infiltrated with a pressurized hydrocarbon gas (propane, methane, propylene, acetylene, benzene). Liquid Phase (resin bath) Infiltration preform (woven or nonwoven fibers) is infiltrated with a liquid resin (petroleum pitch / phenolic resin / coal tar).
Processing
Impregnated resin is cured (thermosetting). Prolysis (982OC-1,204OC for Chemical Vapor Infiltration and 538OC-1,000OC for liquid phase infiltration) of resin is done to produce carbon (amorphous / non-crystalline) matrix.
Impregnation-pyrolysis is repeated 3-4 times to reduce porosity to acceptable level.
Graphitization (at 2,500OC) to covert amorphous carbon matrix into crystalline carbon matrix.
Processing
Coating the outer layer of carbon-carbon composite with silicon carbide to prevent oxidation at high temperature.
Carbon-carbon composite can oxidizes as low as 450OC.
Oxidation protection of Carbon-Carbon Composites

Ceramic coatings (commonly multi-layer) of carbides, nitrides and oxides can be deposited (coated) by Chemical Vapor Deposition or Infiltration (CVD or CVI). Oxidation inhibitors (stop or slow chemical reaction): inorganic salts, borate, silicate glasses, phosphates, boron oxides, polysiloxanes, halogen (inert or noble gases) compounds.
Applications
Carbon-Carbon Composites are used for:
High performance braking systems (for high speed aircarfts and vehilces).
Brakes of aircraft, racing cars and trains. Brake Pads
Brake of F-1 Fighter Plane
Brake of Airbus A320
Applications
Bicycle frame.
Applications
Refractory (heat resistant) components for hot-pressed dies, heating elements, turbojet engine components.
Rocket nozzles and tips.
Exhaust Tail-Cone (Weaving / 2D Cloth + Stitching at 1,300OC)
Rocket Nozzel
Thrust Chamber (Weaving / 3D-Axial Braiding at 1,800OC)
Applications
Thermal protection of Space shuttle nose cones and leading edges upon re-entry.
Applications
Thermal protection of Space shuttle nose cones and leading edges upon re-entry.
Application Developments
Reason For Composite Material Application

Why do designers are thinking to use composites more and more?
Function integration (combine) (pieces). Weight reduction. Style freedom. reduce of number of parts
Areas of Application
Aerospace Industry Sporting Goods Industry Musical Instruments Shipbuilding Industry Automotive Industry Construction (Civil Engineering) Electrical and Electronics High Temperature operations
Composite Application Distribution
Estimated 1.8 Million Tons of Composite Shipment in year 2000.
Aerospace Industry
Lear Fan 2100 all-composite aircraft (Graphite-Epoxy Composite).
Aerospace Industry
Boeing 767, 777, and 787 airplanes with full wing box made of composite (Graphite-Epoxy Composite and Hybrid GraphiteAramid-Epoxy Composite).
Aerospace Industry
Composite body parts of an aircraft.
Aerospace Industry
Different parts of an airplane made of composite materials.
Aerospace Industry
Sporting Goods Industry
Shoes. Snow Board. Bicycle Body Frame.
Graphite Snowboard
Composite Shoes Composite Bicycle Body Frame
Baseball Bat
Composite (carbon fiber reinforced ) Baseball Bat from Miken Sports
Bow. Tennis Rackets.
Laminated Fiberglass Bow
Tennis Racket Handle made of Carbon Fiber Composite
Musical Instruments
Piccolo Banjo Guitar
Composite Banjo
Composite Piccolo Composite Guitar
Shipbiulding Industry
Ship Hulls.
Yatch Hull Swedish Navy Stealth Ship (2005)
Automotive Industry
Composite body parts of a car.
Dodge Viper Composite body parts
Front Grill of an Automobile
Automotive Industry
Composite body parts of a car.
Skylight (sunroof)
Wipers
Fuel System
Automotive Industry
Composite Seat.
Seat Frame
Construction (Civil Engineering)
Bridge. Asbestos Cement Sheet for roofing material. Ferro-cement (cement with iron particles) for buildings and bridges.
Pedestrian Bridge in Denmark, 130 feet long (1997)
Electrical and Electronics
Epoxy / Glass Fiber Composite
Use in most modern circuit boards. For insulating PCB's and electronic assemblies.
Melamine with Woven Glass Fibers Composite

Insulator against electric arc.
Mica / Glass Fiber Composite in Tapes and Sheets

Useful up to 600OC. Insulator for corona (electrical discharge) and high voltage. Insulator for radiation and moisture.
Silicone / Glass Fiber Composite

Good dielectric (electrical insulator) when dry.
Nylon / Woven Glass Fiber Composite

Electrical insulator. High temperature insulator.
High Temperature Operations
Glass Fiber Composites
Insulator for high temperature operations.

Composite Materials

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Condensed Book Series by Prof. A.H.V.

Introduction to Composite Materials

Composite Material (cross-section)

Silver Copper Alloy reinforced with Carbon Fibers.

Composite Material (cross-section)

Composite Material (concept)

Composite Material (concept)

Composite Material (facts)

Composite Material (Advantages)

Composite Material (Advantages)

Dimensional Stability (stable shape even at elevated temperature)

Composite Material (Advantages)

Composite Material (Advantages)

Composite Material (Advantages)

Composite Material (Disadvantages)

Composites are highly anisotropic

Composite Material (Disadvantages)

Composite Material (Disadvantages)

Composite Material (Disadvantages)

Composite Material (Disadvantages)

Composite Material (Disadvantages)

Composite Material (Economics)

Design costs -- lower for composites

Composite Material (2 Main Types)

Composite Material (2 Main Types)

Composite Material (Basic Types)

Composite Material (Basic Types)

Composite Material (Sample Fibers)

(Long / Continuous Fiber) (Aligned)

Composite Material (Classification)

Metal Ceramic Polymer

SiC reinforced Al2O3 Tool materials

Fiber reinforced metals for Auto parts and aerospace

Rubber with carbon (tires) Boron, Carbon reinforced plastics

Metal Matrix Composites Ceramic Matrix Composites Polymer Matrix Composites

Composite Material (Classification)

Composite Material (Classification)

Composite Material (composition)

Composite Material (composition)

Composite Material (composition)

Composite Material (composition)

Interface - Bonding surface

MMC, CMC, PMC polymer

0.5 mm Dispersed phase (Reinforcement):

-- Classification: Particle, Fiber, Structural

Matrix (Types Metal and Ceramic)

Ceramic Matrix materials - very high temperature application

Matrix (Types Polymer)

Matrix (Types Polymer)

Matrix (Types Polymer)

Matrix (Types Polymer)

Phenolics, Flourocarbons, Polyethersulfone, Silicon, Polyurethane, and Polyimides

Matrix (Types Polymer)

Matrix (Types Polymer)

Size: microscopic (less than 1 m) to macroscopic (greater than 1 m)

Metal particles (in Plastic Matrix Composites)

Metal and Dispersion Hardened Alloys particles (in Metal Matrix

- WC/Co cemented carbide

particles: WC (brittle, hard)

Reinforcement (Particles & Flakes)

Large-Particle (<1 m, >1 m) vs. DispersionStrengthened (1 100 nm particles) Composites

Strong Particle >500 nm