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1. B N CA TN TI 2. QUY TC CA NH LUT 3. THC TI L G ? 4. CC LCH S THAY TH 5. L THUYT CHO MI TH 6. PHP CHN V TR CA CHNG TA 7. PHP MU HIN HIN 8. THIT K V I

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Mi chng ta tn ti, nhng ch trong mt khong thi gian ngn ngi. V trong chc lt y khm ph ch mt mu nh ca ton b v tr. Th nhng con ngi l mt ging loi bit t m. Ta bn khon, ta tm cu tr li. Sng trong mt v tr mnh mng c ln lt t t ri tn nhn, ngm nhn thng gii thm thm bn trn, ngi ta vn thng lun bn khon vi mt tp hp nhng cu hi kiu nh: Lm sao ta hiu c th gii ta ang sng trong ? V tr hnh x nh th no? u l bn cht ca thc ti? Tt c n t u? V tr c cn mt ng sng to? Phn ln chng ta khng b tt c thi gian bn tm ti nhng cu hi ny, nhng hu ht chng ta u bn tm ti chng vo mt lc no trong khonh thi gian ca mnh. Theo truyn thng th tup nhng cu hi ny l dnh cho trit hc, nhng trit hc cht t lu. N khng theo kp s pht trin ca khoa hc, c bit l vt l. Cc nh khoa hc tr thnh nhng ngi mang ngn uc khm ph cho s mnh i tm tri thc. Mc ch ca quyn sch ny l a ra nhng cu tr li c xut t nhng khm ph v tin trin trong cc l thuyt gn y. Chng dn ta ti mt bc tranh v tr mi rt khc bit v v tr v ch ca chng ta trong so vi v tr truyn thng m chng ta vn bit, v bc tranh thm ch cn khc bit ngay vi nhng g chng ta v nn ch mt hai thp k trc . Tuy nhin, nhng ng phc ha cho khi nim mi ny c th ln ngc li t trc gn mt th k. Theo khi nim truyn thng v v tr, mi i tng chuyn ng theo nhng qu o xc nh c th v c mt lch s xc nh. Chng ta c th xc nh v tr chnh xc ca chng ti mi thi im. D cho li miu t ny rt thnh cng cho cc mc ch thng ngy, vo thp nin 1920 ngi ta pht hin rng n khng th miu t chnh xc cc hnh vi c v k quc quan st c trn cc thc th phm vi nguyn t v di nguyn t. Thay vo l s cn thit phi tip nhn mt c cu vt l mi, gi l vt l lng t. Cc l thuyt lng t ha ra va chnh xc mt cch ng ngc nhin khi c dng d on cc hin tng phm vi ny, ng thi c th ti to ra nhng d on ca cc l thuyt c in khi p dng cho th gii v m trong cuc sng thng ngy. D vy, l thuyt lng t v c in li da trn nhng khi nim rt khc nhau v thc ti vt l.

V y trit l ca ti

Thuyt lng t c th c trnh by theo nhiu cch khc nhau, nhng cch m t gn vi trc gic nht c ra bi Richard (Dick) Feynman, mt nhn vt mun mu mun v lm vic ti Vin Cng ngh California (California Institution of Technology Caltech - lnd) v chi trng v ti mt con ng ni ra ph. Theo Feynman, mt h khng ch c mt lch s m l mi lch s kh d. Trong khi i tm cc cu tr li, chng ta s gii thch chi tit cch tip cn ca Feynman, v p dng n khm ph tng v mt v tr m bn thn n khng c mt lch s duy nht, hay thm ch cng khng c mt s tn ti c lp. dng nh l mt tng khc bit t cn bn, thm ch i vi nhiu nh vt l. Qu tht, ging nh nhiu tng trong khoa hc ngy nay, n c v vi phm trc gic chung. Nhng trc gic chung li da trn kinh nghim hng ngy ca chng ta, khng da trn bn thn v tr nh n c ph by qua cc k quan cng ngh c th cho php chng ta nhn su vo cc nguyn t hoc ngonh ngc v v tr thu xa xa. Trc thi ca vt l hin i ngi ta vn c mt nim tin tng qut l tt c kin thc ca th gii c th t c t nhng quan st trc tip, mi vt tn ti theo cch chng hin ra, v c nhn thc thng qua cc gic quan ca chng ta. Tuy nhin thnh cng ngon mc ca vt l hin i, da trn nhng khi nim ging nh ca Feynman vn xung t vi kinh nghim hng ngy, cho thy chuyn khng thnh vn . Ci nhn ng nghch v thc ti t khng th tng thch vi vt l hin i. ng u vi nhng nghch l y chng ta s tip thu mt li tip cn gi l thc ti ph thuc m hnh lun. N da trn tng rng b no chng ta din dch tn hiu vo t cc c quan cm nhn bng cch to ra mt m hnh ca th gii. Mt khi m hnh gii thch thnh cng cc hin tng, chng ta c xu hng gn cho n, cng nh cc yu t v khi nim to nn n, phm cht ca thc ti hay cn gi l chn l tuyt i. Nhng c nhng cch khc nhau m hnh ha cng mt tnh hung vt l, mi cch p dng nhng yu t v khi nim c bn khc nhau.

Nu hai l thuyt vt l hay m hnh d on chnh xc cng mt s kin, khng ai c th ni ci no thc hn ci no; thay vo , chng ta t do chn bt k m hnh no l thun tin nht. Sut lch s khoa hc, chng ta pht hin ra mt chui cc l thuyt hay m hnh cng v sau cng tt hn ci c trc n, t Plato ti thuyt c in ca Newton cho ti l thuyt lng t hin i. Rt t nhin khi xut hin cu hi: Liu tin trnh ny c cui cng chm ti im kt thc, mt l thuyt ti hu cho v tr c th bao gp tt c cc lc v tin on mi quan st chng ta c th thy, hay chng ta s mi mi tip tc tm ra nhng l thuyt tt hn, nhng khng bao gi chm ti c mt l thuyt khng th ci tin thm c na? Chng ta cha c cu tr li nht nh cho cu hi ny, nhng hin gi ta ang c mt ng vin cho l thuyt ti thng v mi th, nu c, gi l thuyt M. Thuyt M l m hnh duy nht c tt c cc c tnh m chng ta ngh l thuyt cui cng phi c, v n s l l thuyt m phn ln tho lun sau ny ca chng ta s da trn n. Thuyt M khng phi l l thuyt theo li ngh thng thng. N l c mt gia nh cc l thuyt khc nhau, mi ci l mt cch m t tt cho ring nhng quan st trong mt phm vi cc tnh hung vt l. N ta ta nh bn . Nh vn thng bit, ngi ta khng th v ton b b mt tri t trn mt bn n l. Php chiu Mercator thng dng dng cho cc bn th gii lun khin cc khu vc phnh rng dn ra v pha bc v nam m li khng th che ph c cc Bc cng nh cc Nam. v c trn vn tri t, ngi ta phi dng mt b cc bn . Mi ci che ph mt khu vc c gii hn. Khi hai bn chng ln ln nhau, chng s ch ti cng mt khu vc. Thuyt M cng tng t. Cc l thuyt khc nhau trong gia nh thuyt M c th trng rt khc nhau, nhng chng u c th coi nh nhng kha cnh ca mt l thuyt c s. Tt c chng u l cc phin bn ca thuyt M v ch p dng c trong mt s phm vi c gii hn v d, khi cc i lng c th ging nh nng lng vn cn b. Ging nh nhng bn ln ln nhau trong php chiu Mercator, khi phm vi ca cc phin bn khc nhau ny chng ln, chng s d on cng mt hin tng. Nhng cng nh vic khng c bn phng no tt i din cho ton b b mt tri t, khng c mt l thuyt n l no c th l i din tt cho mi quan st trong mi tnh hung.

Bn th gii Thc t c th i hi mt chui cc thuyt chng ln ln nhau i din cho v tr, cng nh ta cn cc bn gi chng ln nhau i din cho tri t

Chng ta s m t lm cch no thuyt M c th s a ra cu tr li cho to ha. Theo thuyt M, v tr ca chng ta khng phi l v tr duy nht. Ngc li, thuyt M d on v vn cc v tr c to ra t h khng. S kin to ca chng khng i hi s can thip ca mt ng siu nhin hay cn gi l Cha. Thay vo , v vn cc v tr ny l dng mt cch t nhin t cc nh lut vt l. Chng l cc d on ca khoa hc. Mi v tr c nhiu lch s kh d v nhiu trng thi c th c vo nhng thi im v sau, v d nh vo nhng lc nh hin ti, rt lu sau s bt u ca chng. Phn ln nhng trng thi ny l hon ton khc bit vi v tr chng ta quan st c v hon ton khng thch hp cho bt k dng sng no. Ch mt s rt t cho php nhng sinh vt nh chng ta tn ti. Nn chnh s hin din ca chng ta chn ra t mnh mng trong s ny ny ch nhng v tr tng thch vi s tn ti ca chng ta. Mc d chng ta b mn v khng ng k so vi tm vc v tr, iu ny khin ta thy mnh trong vai cha t ca to ha. hiu c v tr mc su sc nht, chng ta khng ch cn bit cch m n hnh x, m cn phi v sao n hnh x. V sao c th g hn l h khng? V sao chng ta tn ti? Ti sao l b cc nh lut ny m khng phi mt tp hp no khc? y l Cu hi Ti Hu ca S Sng, V Tr v ca Mi th. Chng ta s n lc tr li nhng cu hi trong quyn sch ny. Cu tr li ca chng ta s khng ging nh trong Cm nang cho ngi qu giang ti Ngn H, n gin l 42.

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Skoll ch si sng trong rng Woe C bay ra l li da ch Hng Mt Tri kia sao c mi trn chy Si Hati dng di ca Hridvinir Trong thn thoi Viking, Skoll v Hati rt ui mt trng v mt tri. Khi hai con si chp c mt trong hai, thin thc s xut hin. Khi iu xy ra, con ngi trn mt t li nho nho i gii cu mt trng, mt tri bng cch gy ra cng nhiu ting ng cng tt nhm da bn si. Cng c nhng thn thoi tng t vy trong cc nn vn ha khc. Nhng sau mt thi gian ngi ta phi nhn ra l mt tri hay mt trng ri cng l dng khi thin thc bt chp vic h c chy lng vng va la ht va g vo vt hay khng. Thm mt thi gian na ngi ta nhn ra l thin thc khng xy ra ngu nhin: chng xy ra theo nhng kiu mu thng xuyn lp li chnh chng. Trnh t ny d thy nht i vi mt trng v cho php ngi Babylon c i d on kh chnh xc cc ln nguyt thc d h khng nhn ra rng l do tri t ngn cn nh sng t mt tri. Nht thc vn kh d on hn nhiu bi v n ch c th thy c trong mt vt hp rng khong 30 dm trn tri t. Tuy nhin, mt khi nm bt c, cc kiu mu y chng t rng thin thc chng phi da trn nhng cn hng ty tin ca cc ng siu nhin, m thc ra u b chi phi bi cc nh lut.

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Thin thc Ngi c i chng bit c iu tht s gy ra thin thc, nhng h hn phi ch ti quy cch xy ra ca chng.

Mc cho nhng thnh cng trong d on chuyn ng ca cc thin th, phn ln s kin trong t nhin trng khng th on trc i vi t tin ca chng ta. Ni la, ng t, bo t, dch hi v c ci mng chn mc vo u c v nh xy ra khng c l do r rng hay khng theo quy cch no. Vo thi c i tht l hin nhin khi cho mt phe phi nhng thn th ma mnh hay qui c l nguyn nhn cho nhng vn ng bo lc ca t nhin. Tai ha thng c ging xung nh l du hiu cho thy ai xc phm cc v thn. V d, vo khong nm 5600 TCN ngn ni la Mazama Oregon bng n, ma t v tro bi chy rc hng nm tri, v sau nhiu nm ma ri nc dng y ming h m ngy nay gi l H Lm. Ngi da Klamath vng Oregon c mt truyn thuyt kh n khp vi cc chi tit a kin to ca s kin nhng h cho thm mt cht kch tnh bng cch m t mt con ngi nh ngun cn ca thm ha ny. Nng lc ti li ca con ngi tht ln n ni h lun lun tm ra cch no kt ti mnh. Theo nh truyn thuyt, Llao, t trng ca m Gii phi lng c con gi xinh p ca v t trng Klamath. C khc t ng ta, v tr th Llao tm cch hy dit Klamath trong la. May mn thay, theo truyn thuyt, Skell, t trng ca Thng Gii r lng thng con ngi v giao chin vi ch th m gii ca ng. Ti cui cng Llao, trng thng, rt v bn trong ngn Mazana, li mt ci l khng l, chnh l h lm cha y nc sau ny.

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S mng mui i vi cc cch thc ca t nhin dn nhng ngi c i ti vic ch tc ra nhng v thn lm cha t tt c hay tng kha cnh i sng con ngi. C nhng v thn ca tnh yu v chin tranh; ca mt tri, mt trng, v ca bu tri; thn ca i dng v sng sui; thn ca ma v sm chp; v c ng t hay ni la. Khi cc thy hi lng, loi ngi c i i bng thi tit tt lnh, ha bnh v trnh c thm ha thin nhin hay bnh tt. Khi cc thn thy mt lng, h ging xung no hn hn, no chin tranh, dch bnh v cht chc. Chnh v lin h gia nguyn nhn v hu qu l v hnh trong mt h, nhng v thn c v bt kh thu hiu, v con ngi l thuc s nhn t ca h. Tuy nhin k t Thales ca Miletus (khong 624 TCN khong 546 TCN) gn 2600 nm v trc, mi th bt u thay i. T tng tin rng t nhin tun theo nhng nguyn tc phi mu thun vn c th gii m c ni ln. V ri bt u cho mt qu trnh lu di nhm thay th cho nim tin vo s cai tr ca cc v thn bng khi nim v mt v tr chi phi bi cc nh lut t nhin, v c to ra theo mt bn tho m ngy no ta c th hc c cch c n. Xt trn chiu di lch s nhn loi, cht vn khoa hc l mt n lc cn rt mi. Ging loi ca chng ta, Ngi hiu bit (Homo sapiens), bt ngun t vng Chu phi cn Shahara vo khong nm 200,000 TCN. Ngn ng vit ch xut hin t nm 7000 TCN, l sn phm ca nhng cng ng quy qun quanh cc ma v ng cc. (Mt s trong cc bn vit c nht lin quan ti khu phn bia hng ngy cho mi cng dn.) Nhng ghi chp sm nht t nn vn minh v i ca Hy Lp c i c t th k th chn TCN, nhng nh cao ca nn vn minh , giai on c in, phi n nhiu trm nm sau , bt u trc nm 500 TCN mt cht. Theo Aristotle (384 TCN 322 TCN), chnh vo lc Thales ln u tin pht trin t tng v mt th gii m ta c th hiu c, rng nhng vic phc tp xy ra xung quanh ta c th gi gn li thnh nhng nguyn l n gin hn v c gii thch m khng cn vin ti cc gii thch mang tnh huyn b hay thn thnh. Thales c tin l ln u tin d on ng hin tng nht thc vo nm 585 TCN d cho s chnh xc ca d on c v nh ch l mt c n may. ng l mt nhn vt n khut khng li ghi chp no ca mnh. Qu hng ca Thales l mt trong nhng trung tm tr tu ca vng t Ionia, nh c bi nhng ngi Hy Lp v vn sc nh hng ca mnh t Th Nh K ti tn nc . Khoa hc Ionia l mt n lc ni bt bi nim hng th trong vic lt t nhng nh lut c s gii thch cc hin tng t nhin, mt ct mc k v trong lch s t tng nhn loi. Hng tip cn ca h y l l v trong nhiu trng hp dn ti nhng kt lun tng t mt cch ng ngc nhin so vi cc phng thc tin tin hn ca chng ta ngy nay m chng ta tin vo. N i din cho mt khi u

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ln lao. Nhng qua hng th k, phn nhiu khoa hc Ionia b lng qun ch loay hoay c ti khm ph hoc l ti sng to, lm lc hn mt ln. Theo truyn thuyt, trnh by ton hc u tin chng ta ngy nay c th gi l mt nh lut ca t nhin c ln ngc thi gian ti thi ca mt ngi Ionia tn l Pythagoras (khong 580 TCN khong 490 TCN), ni ting vi nh l mang tn ng: bnh phng cnh huyn (cnh di nht) ca mt tam gic vung bng tng cc bnh phng ca hai cnh cn li. Pythagoras cn c cho l pht hin ra quan h s hc gia chiu di dy trong cc nhc c vi cc t hp ha m ca m thanh. Theo ngn ng ngy nay ta s din t quan h bng pht biu l tn s s dao ng trong mt giy ca mt dy ang rung ng di p lc c nh th t l nghch vi chiu di ca dy. T gc nhn thc t, iu ny gii thch ti sao n guitar bass phi c dy di hn n guitar thng. Pythagoras khng hn nh thc s khm ph ra iu ny ng cng khng pht hin ra nh l mang tn ng nhng c bng chng l mt vi quan h gia dy v m vc c bit n trong thi ca ng. Nu vy, ngi ta c th gi cng thc ton hc n gin l v d u tin ca th m chng ta by gi gi l vt l l thuyt.

Ionia Cc hc gi Ionia nm trong s nhng ngi u tin gii thch cc

hin tng t nhin bng cc nh lut t nhin thay v huyn thoi hay thn l.

Tch bit vi nh l ca Pythagoras v cc dy dao ng, cc nh lut vt l duy nht c bit n chnh xc vo thi c i l ba nh lut c chi tit ha bi Archimedes (khong 287 TCN khong 212 TCN), ch thc l nh vt l nht ng knh vo thi xa. Theo thut ng ngy nay, nh lut v n by gii thch cho vic cc lc nh c th nng cc vt c trng lng ln bi v n by khuch i mt lc da trn t s gia cc

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khong cch tnh t im ta ca n by. nh lut v s ni pht biu rng mt vt nhng vo mt cht lng s chu mt lc hng ln cn bng vi trng lc ca khi cht lng b chim ch. V nh lut phn x xc nhn rng gc gia chm sng ti v gng bng vi gc gia gng v chm phn x. Nhng Archimedes khng gi chng l cc nh lut, cng khng gii thch chng da trn quan st v o c. Thay vo ng coi chng nh cc nh l thun ton hc, trong mt h thng mang tnh tin ging nh h thng m Euclid to ra cho hnh hc. Trong khi nh hng ca Ionia lan ta, li xut hin nhng c nhn khc thy rng v tr s hu mt trt t ni ti, mt trt t c th hiu c thng qua quan st v l lun. Anaximander (khong 610 TCN khong 546 TCN), mt ngi bn v cng c th l hc tr ca Thales, lp lun rng v nhng a tr s sinh l bt lc, nu con ngi u tin bng cch no xut hin trn tri t nh l mt a tr s sinh, n phi khng th tn ti c. Vi tng c th l s m h u tin ca con ngi v s tin ha, Anaximander lp lun, con ngi v vy phi tin ha t nhng loi ng vt khc c con non rn ri hn. Sicily, Empedocles (khong 490 TCN khong 430 TCN) quan st cng dng ca mt dng c gi l clepsydra. i khi dng nh vt mc, n gm mt khi cu vi mt chic c loe rng v mt l di y cu. Khi nhn chm trong nc n s y, v nu nh chic c loe c bt li, mn ny c th c nhc ra m khng lm nc ri khi ci l. Empedocles ch rng khi ta bt chic c li trc khi nhng chm, chic clepsydra s khng th y c. ng lp lun rng iu g v hnh phi ngn khng cho nc chui vo khi cu qua ci l Empedocles pht hin ra thnh t vt cht m chng ta gi l khng kh. Cng khong thi gian , mt vng lnh a Ionia pha bc Hy Lp, Democritus (khong 460 TCN khong 370 TCN) cng ang suy t iu g s xy ra khi ta b hay ct mt vt thnh nhiu mnh. ng lp lun rng bn phi khng th tip tc qu trnh ny v hn. Thay vo , ng gi thuyt rng mi vt, k c cc vt sng, c to nn t cc ht c s khng th b ct hay b thnh nhiu mnh c. ng t tn cho cc ht tn cng ny l atoms (nguyn t), t tnh t Hy Lp ngha l khng ct c na. Democritus tin rng mi hin tng vt cht u l sn phm ca s va chm ca cc nguyn t. Quan im ca ng, tm gi thuyt nguyn t, cho rng mi ht di chuyn chung quanh trong khng gian, v, tr phi c xo ng, s di chuyn thng tin mi mi. Ngy nay tng c gi l nh lut qun tnh. tng cch mng cho rng chng ta ch l nhng c dn bnh thng ca v tr, khng phi nhng thc th c bit tch bit tn ti trung tm v tr, t c nh Aristarchus (khong 310 TCN khong 230 TCN), mt trong s nhng nh khoa hc Ionia cui cng. Ch mt trong s nhng tnh ton ca ng tn ti, mt phn tch hnh hc phc tp t nhng quan st thc t k lng ng thu c t kch thc bng ca

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tri t trn mt trng khi c nguyt thc. ng kt lun rng mt tri phi to hn nhiu so vi tri t. C l c cm hng t tng rng nhng vt nh xu phi chuyn ng xung quanh nhng vt ln xc m khng phi kiu no khc, Aristarchus l ngi u tin tuyn b rng tri t khng l trung tm trong h hnh tinh ca chng ta, thay vo n v cc hnh tinh khc chuyn ng theo qu o xoay xung quanh mt tri ln hn nhiu. N l mt bc nh t tng tri t ch l mt hnh tinh cho ti tng rng mt tri ca chng ta cng khng c g t bit. Aristarchus ng rng chnh l vn v ng tin rng cc ngi sao ta thy trn bu tri m tht ra cng khng hn g ngoi nhng mt tri xa xm. Nhng ngi Ionia ch thuc v mt trong s nhiu trng phi ca trit hc Hy Lp c i, mi phi c nhng truyn thng khc nhau v thng xuyn xung t. Khng may, quan im v t nhin ca nhng ngi Ionia rng t nhin c th c gii thch thng qua cc nh lut tng qut v rt gn thnh mt tp hp cc nguyn l ch pht huy nh hng mnh m trong vi th k. Mt l do cho iu l v cc gi thuyt ca Ionia thng c v nh khng c ch ng cho khi nim ch t do hay mc ch, hay nim v cc v thn c th can thip vo cc cng vic ca th gii. y l mt khc t ng kinh ngc gy bt an mt cch su sc cho nhiu b c Hy Lp cng nh n vn cn lm i vi nhiu ngi ngy nay. Nh trit hc Epirurus (341 TCN 270 TCN), ly lm v d, phn i thuyt nguyn t trn lp trng tt hn nn tun theo nhng huyn thoi v cc v thn thay v tr thnh n l cho s an bi ca cc nh trit hc t nhin. Aristole cng khc t khi nim nguyn t v ng khng th chp nhn tng rng con ngi li c tng hp t nhng vt th v hn, khng s sng. tng ca nhng ngi Ionia v mt v tr khng c con ngi lm trung tm l mt ct mc trong hiu bit ca chng ta v v tr, nhng n l mt t tng ri s b nh tr m khng c oi hoi, hay c chp nhn rng ri tr li, ti tn thi ca Galileo, gn hai mi th k sau . D c sng t nh nhng phng on v t nhin rt ra t , cc t tng ca ngi Hy Lp c i s khng th vt qua kho hch thnh khoa hc c hiu lc trong thi hin i. V mt l, nhng ngi Hy Lp c i khng sng to ra cc phng php mang tnh khoa hc, cc gi thuyt ca h khng c pht trin nhm mc ch tm kim s xc minh t thc nghim. Do th nu mt hc gi tuyn b mt nguyn t di chuyn theo mt ng thng cho ti khi n va phi mt nguyn t th hai v mt hc gi khc tuyn b mt nguyn t di chuyn theo ng thng cho ti khi n m vo mt qui vt ba mt, th cng chng c cch no khch quan dn xp cuc tranh lun. Cng vi , khng c s phn bit rch ri gia cc quy ch ca con ngi v cc nh lut vt l. Trong th k th nm TCN, ta ly lm v d, Anaximaner vit rng mi th ni ln t mt cht c bn, v s quay v l n, nhm trnh np pht v tr gi cho s bt lng ca chng. V theo nh nh trit hc Ionia Heraclitus (khong 535 TCN

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khong 475 TCN), mt tri c x nh n vn vy v ngc li n thn cng l s i trit h n. Nhiu trm nm sau , nhng mn Khng Sn Si, mt trng phi ca cc trit gia Hy Lp ni ln khong th k th 3 TCN, rch ri gia cc quy ch ca con ngi vi cc nh lut t nhin, nhng h cng gp lun cc nhn cch m h coi l thuc v v tr nh s tn knh Cha v phc tng cha m vo chung ch vi cc nh lut t nhin. Mt cch ngc ngo ging vy, h thng miu t cc qu trnh vt l trong khun kh hp php v tin rng chng cn phi c tun phc, mt d nhng i tng c i hi phi tun th cc nh lut l khng c s sng. Nu bn ngh kh m bt ngi ta i ng lut giao thng, th tng tng vic thuyt phc mt thin thch di chuyn trn mt qu o ellipse. Truyn thng ny tip tc nh hng ln nhng b c k tha cc nh khoa hc Hy Lp nhiu th k tip theo. Vo khong th k th mi ba nh trit hc Thin Cha s khai Thomas Aquinas (khong 1225 1274) tip thu quan im ny v dng n xc nhn cho s tn ti ca Thng , ng vit R rng rng (cc thc th khng sng) chm ti kt thc ca mnh khng phi bng xc sut m l bng d nh... Cho nn phi c mt thc th c nhn vi tr tu m t , mi vt c yu cu ti kt thc ca chng. Thm ch mi ti th k mi su, nh chim tinh hc v i ngi c Johannes Kepler (1571 1630) vn cn tin rng cc hnh tinh s hu nhn thc gic quan v tun theo cc nh lut v chuyn ng c chng nm bt bng t duy. T tng cho rng cc nh lut phi c phc tng c ch phn nh s tp trung ca nhng ngi c i i vi vic v sao t nhin biu hin nh cch n ang biu hin hn l n biu hin nh th no. Aristotle l mt trong nhng ngi xut hng u cho cch tip cn ny, khc t tng rng khoa hc ch yu da cc quan st. Cc o c t m v tn ton ton hc thng gp kiu kh khn vo thi c i. tng v c s mi m ta thy rt tin li ngy nay trong cc php ton ch c khong t nm 700 SCN, khi ngi n c nhng bc tin to ln cho vic bin n thnh mt cng c ton hc mnh m. Cc k hiu cho php cng v tr vn cha xut hin mi ti tn th k mi lm. V du bng cng nh cc ng h o c chi tit ti tng giy cng cha xut hin cho ti tn th k mi su. Aristotle, d vy, vn khng coi nhng vn trong o c v tnh ton l tr ngi pht trin mt mn vt l c th a ra cc d on nh lng. Hn na, ng thy khng cn thit phi lm chuyn . Thay vo , Aristotle xy dng vt l ca ng da trn cc nguyn l cun ht ng mt cch hn lm. ng che lp s tht m ng cm thy khng thu ht v tp trung n lc cho cc l do m mi vic xy ra, vi kh t cng sc b ra xem chi tit thc s iu g ang xy ra. Aristotle ch iu chnh cc kt lun ca mnh khi s bt ng l l vi quan st khng th pht l c. Nhng nhng iu chnh thng ch l nhng gii thch kiu ng bin v khng

16

lm c g hn l chp v ln s mu thun. Theo ci cung cch y, khng cn bit l thuyt ca ng chch khi thc t nh th no, ng lun c cch chnh n li va c v nh khng cn xung t. V d nh gi thuyt v chuyn ng ca ng tuyn b rng cc vt th ri vi mt tc khng i t l thun vi trng lng ca chng. gii thch cho s tht l cc vt th tng tc khi ri, ng sng ch ra mt nguyn l mi rng cc vt th tin ti mt cch hng khi hn, thnh th s tng tc, khi chng n gn vi v tr ngh t nhin, mt nguyn l c v nh ging mt miu t ch xc cho mt s ngi c th hn l cho cc vt th khng c s sng. D cc gi thuyt ca Aristotle thng c t gi tr d on, hng tip cn ca ng i vi khoa hc thng lnh t duy phng Ty cho n gn hai ngn nm. Nhng ngi Thin Cha gio k tha Hy Lp khc t tng rng v tr b chi phi bi cc nh lut v t. H cng khc t tng con ngi khng gia mt ch c c n trong v tr . Mc d thi trung c khng h c ly mt h trit l d hiu, bi cnh chung vn l v tr nh mt ngi nh bp b ca cha, vi tn gio l mt nghin cu c gi tr hn nhiu so vi cc hin tng t nhin. Cn thc ra, nm 1277 Gim mc Tempier ca Paris, theo ch d ca gio hong John XXI, xut bn mt danh sch 219 sai phm hay cn gi l nhng iu d gio m s b kt ti. Trong s cc iu d gio c t tng v mt t nhin tun theo cc nh lut, v iu ny xung t vi s ton nng ca Cha. iu th v l Gio Hong John b mt mng di tc dng ca lc hp dn ch vi thng sau khi b trn in ca mnh ri xung u.

Nu c mt iu ta hc sut s trng tr ca mnh, l sc nng tng

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Khi nim hin i v cc nh lut t nhin l dng u tin vo th k mi by. Kepler c v nh l ngi u tin hiu c thut ng ny theo tiu chun khoa hc hin i, mc d nh ni, ng vn cn bo lu mt quan im duy tm v cc vt th vt l. Galileo (15641642) khng dng thut ng nh lut trong phn ln cc cng trnh khoa hc ca mnh. (d n xut hin trong mt s dch bn ca cc cng trnh ny). D c d khng vic dng n t ny, Galileo thc s khm ph ra rt nhiu nh lut v ng h nguyn tc quan trng rng quan st l nn tng ca khoa hc v mc ch ca khoa hc l nghin cu cc quan h nh lng tn ti gia cc hin tng vt l. Nhng ngi u tin xy dng mt cch tng tn v nng n khi nim v cc nh lut ca t nhin nh chng ta hiu ngy nay chnh l Ren Descartes (15961650). Descartes tin rng tt c cc hin tng vt l phi c gii thch trong khun kh s va chm ca cc khi lng di chuyn, b chi phi bi ba nh lut cc tin thn cho nhng nh lut chuyn ng ca Newton. ng qu quyt rng cc nh lut ny lun c hiu lc mi ni v mi lc, v khng nh ch xc rng s phc tng cc nh lut ny khng ng rng cc thc th c t duy. Descartes cng hiu c tm quan trng ca ci m ngy nay chng ta gi l s kin (iu kin u - lnd). Chng m t trng thi ca mt h thng vo im u bt k khong thi gian no m ta i tm nhng d on. Vi mt tp hp cho trc cc s kin, cc nh lut t nhin xc nh mt h thng s tin ha nh th no theo thi gian, nhng thiu mt tp hp cc s kin c th, s tin ha khng th c xc nh. Nu, ly lm v d, ti thi im zero mt con chim b cu ngay pha trn u th ri mt vt, qu o ca vt th c xc nh bi cc nh lut ca Newton. Nhng kt cc s rt khc nhau ty thuc vo, ti thi im zero, con b cu ang ngi yn trn si cp in thoi hay ang bay vi vn tc 20 dm mt gi. p dng cc nh lut ca vt l, ta phi bit mt h bt u nh th no, hoc t nht trng thi ca n ti thi im xc nh no . (Mt ngi c th s dng cc nh lut ln theo mt h ngc v trc theo thi gian.) Cng vi nim tin va hi sinh v cc nh lut ca t nhin cc n lc mi dn xp cc nh lut ny vi nim v Cha cng bt u xut hin. Theo Descartes, Cha c th t hon i chn l hay phi l ca cc tuyn b theo lun thng hay cc nh l ton hc, t nhin khng lm vic . ng tin rng Cha th phong cc nh lut nhng khng c s chn la cho cc nh lut; thay vo , Cha chn chng v cc nh lut m chng ta tri nghim l nhng nh lut duy nht c th. iu ny c v nh xm phm ti thm quyn ca Cha, nhng Descartes lch vng qua iu bng cch tuyn b rng cc nh lut l khng th thay th v chng l s phn nh cho bn cht ni ti ca cha. Nu l tht, ta vn c th ngh l Cha c s chn la to ra v vn cc th gii khc nhau, mi ci tng

18

ng vi mt tp hp khc nhau cc s kin, nhng Descartes cng t chi iu ny. Bt lun sp xp ca mi th nh th no ti khi u ca v tr, ng khng nh, theo thi gian mt th gii tng t vi th gii ca chng ta s li tin ha ln. Thm vo , Descartes cm thy rng, mt khi Cha thit t cho th gii vn ng, Cha b n hon ton n c. Mt kin tng t (vi mt vi ngoi l) c tip nhn bi Isaac Newton (1643 1727). Newton l ngi ginh c s ng thun rng ri cho khi hin i ca nh lut khoa hc vi ba nh lut chuyn ng v v nh lut ca ng v lc hp dn ca ng, l nhng th l gii cho qu o ca tri t, mt trng, v cc hnh tinh, v gii thch cc hin tng i loi nh nhng con triu. Mt nhm nhng cng thc ng to ra, v cu trc ton hc tinh vi m t chng ta chuyn ha chng, vn cn c dy ngy nay, v c vay mn bt c khi no mt kin trc s thit k mt ta nh, mt k s thit k chic xe, hay mt nh vt l tnh ton lm cch no nhm mt tn la cho n p ln sao Ha. Nh nh th Alexander Pope tng ni: T nhin vi nh lut n khut trong m: Cha bo, Newton tn ti! v thy sng bng. Ngy nay hu ht cc nh khoa hc s ni mt nh lut t nhin l mt quy tc da trn s u n quan st c v cung cp nhng d on vt qua tnh hung tc thi m n da trn. V d, chng ta c l vn ch l mt tri mc t hng ng mi sng trong i mnh, v gi s mt nh lut Mt tri lun mc hng ng. y l mt tng qut ha vt qua nhng quan st c gii hn ca chng ta v vic mt tri mc v to ra nhng d on c th kim tra trong tng lai. Mt khc, mt pht biu kiu nh Nhng chic my tnh trong vn phng ny mu en khng l mt nh lut t nhin bi v n ch lin quan ti nhng chic my tnh trong vn phng v khng to ra nhng d bo t nh Nu nh vn phng ca ti mua mt chic my tnh mi, n s mang mu en. Hiu bit hin i ca chng ta v thut ng nh lut ca t nhin l mt vn m cc trit gia ci nhau trng k, v n l mt cu hi tinh t hn nhiu so vi khi ta mi u ngh. V d, trit gia John W. Caroll so snh pht biu Tt c cc khi cu bng vng u c bn knh di mt dm vi pht biu nh Tt c khi cu bng uranium-235 u c bn knh di mt dm. Nhng quan st ca chng ta v th gii bo rng khng c khi cu bng vng no c bn knh rng hn mt dm, v ta c th kh t tin l s chng bao gi c. Tuy nhin, chng ta cng khng c l do g tin rng khng th c mt vt nh th, thnh th pht biu khng c coi l mt nh lut. Mt khc, pht biu Tt c khi cu bng uranium-235 u c bn knh di mt dm. c th ngh nh l mt nh lut ca t nhin v, theo nhng g ta bit v vt l ht nhn, mt khi mt khi cu uranium-235 ln ln ti mt bn knh ln hn khong su inch (1 lng = 2,54 cm - lnd), n s t trit dit bn thn trong mt v n ht nhn. Th nn ta c th chc rng

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nhng qu cu nh th khng tn ti. (V cng khng hay ho g i lm th !) S phn bit ny thnh vn v bi v n minh ha rng khng phi tt c s tng qut ha chng ta quan st c c th ngh ti nh nhng nh lut ca t nhin, v rng hu ht cc nh lut ca t nhin tn ti nh phn nh ca mt h thng phc lin kt rng hn ca cc nh lut. Trong khoa hc hin i cc nh lut t nhin thng c miu bng ton hc. Chng c th hoc tuyt i hoc xp x, nhng chng phi c quan st l ng vng c vi khng ngoi l nu nh khng trn ton v tr, ch t phi di mt tp hp cc iu kin thi hnh. V d, chng ta nay bit cc nh lut ca Newton phi c hiu chnh nu cc i tng di chuyn nhng vn tc gn vn tc nh sng. Nhng chng ta vn coi cc nh lut ca Newton l nh lut v chng ng vng, t nht vi mt s xp x rt tt, trong nhng trng hp cc tc m chng ta gp phi thng thp hn nhiu vn tc nh sng. Nu t nhin tun th bi cc nh lut, ba cu hi l dng: 1. u l ngun gc cc nh lut? 2. C khng cc ngoi l cho cc nh lut, ni cch khc, php mu? 3. C khng ch mt tp hp duy nht cc nh lut kh d? Nhng cu hi quan trng ny c truy vn theo nhiu cch bi cc nh khoa hc, trit hc, v thn hc. Cu tr li truyn thng cho cu hi u tin tr li ca Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, v Newton l cc nh lut l cng trnh ca Cha. Tuy nhin, khng khc g hn mt nh ngha v cha nh l i din ca cc nh lut t nhin. Tr phi ai gn cho Cha mt s c tnh khc, nh l Cha trong kinh Cu c, vn ti Cha nh li p li cho cu hi u tin ch l thay th mt b n ny bng b n khc. Vy nu nh ta Cha can d ti cu hi u tin, nt kt li n cu hi th hai: C khng php mu, hay ngoi l cho cc nh lut? kin v cu tr li cho cu hi th hai b chi r su sc. Plato v Aristotle, cc tc gia Hy Lp c i nhiu nh hng nht, oan chc l khng th c ngoi l cho cc nh lut. Nhng nu nh ta ly quan im kinh thnh, th Cha khng ch to ra cc nh lut m cn gy cun ht bng cch cu nguyn to ra ngoi l hi sinh ngi bnh ang hp hi, hay mang kt thc sm cho nhng cn hn hn, hay phc hi bng gy thnh mn th thao trong Th Vn Hi. i lp vi quan im ca Descartes, hu ht cc cc b c Thin Cha gio u duy tr nim tin rng Cha phi c kh nng tr hon cc nh lut thi trin php mu. Ngay c Newton cng tin vo php mu theo mt kiu. ng ngh rng qu o ca cc hnh tinh phi khng n nh bi v hp dn trng trng ca mt hnh tinh ln hnh tinh khc s gy ra xo trn ti cc qu o v s xo trn s tch ly theo thi gian dn n kt qu l cc hnh tinh hoc s ri vo mt tri hoc s b qung khi thi dng h. Cha phi ang lin tc thit t li cc qu o, ng tin vy, hay tua li ng h thin th, nhm ngn n xung cp.

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Tuy nhin, hu tc Pierre-Simon de Laplace (1749 1827), thng gi l Laplace, tranh lun rng s chch hng s mang tnh chu k, v d, c trng bng nhng vng lp, thay v tch ly . H mt tri do s t thit t li v s khng cn ti s can thip linh thing gii thch v sao n vn tn ti cho n ngy nay. Chnh Laplace l ngi thng c xem nh xng thuyt tt nh khoa hc: C trng thi ca v tr ti mt thi im, mt tp hp hon chnh cc nh lut s trn vn xc nh c c tng lai v qu kh. iu ny loi tr kh nng cho nhng php mu hay vai tr ch ng ca Cha. Thuyt tt nh khoa hc m Laplace xy dng l li p ca cc nh khoa hc hin i cho cu hi th hai. N, thc cht, l nn tng ca ton b khoa hc hin i, v mt nguyn tc quan trng trong sut quyn sch ny. Mt nh lut khoa hc s khng thnh mt nh lut khoa hc nu n ch ng vng khi mt ng siu nhin no quyt nh s khng can thip. Nhn ra iu ny, Napoleon c k li l hi Laplace rng Cha n khp vi bc tranh ny nh th no, Laplace p li: B h, thn vn cha cn gi thuyt . Bi v ngi ta sng trong v tr v tng tc vi cc i tng trong , thuyt tt nh khoa hc cng phi ng trn con ngi. Nhiu ngi, ngc li, trong khi va chp nhn thuyt tt nh khoa hc chi phi cc qu trnh vt l, va to ra mt ngoi l cho hnh vi ca con ngi v h tin con ngi l c ch t do. Descartes, ly lm v d, bo tn t tng v ch t do, qu quyt rng t duy con ngi l g khc vi thi gii vt l v khng tun theo cc nh lut ny. Trong quan im ca ng mt ngi gm c 2 thnh phn, mt thn xc v mt linh hn. Thn xc khng l g ngoi mt c my bnh thng, nhng linh hn th nm ngoi ch ca cc nh lut khoa hc. Descartes vn c hng th i vi gii phu hc v sinh l v lin h mt c quan b xu trung tm no b, gi l tuyn tng nh l ch khu tr nguyn bn ca linh hn. Ti phn tuyn , ng tin rng, tt c ngh ca chng ta c hnh thnh, l ging ngun ca ch t do.

Ti ngh anh nn cn k hn ngay y bc hai

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Con ngi ta c ch t do khng? Nu chng ta c ch t do, u trn cy tin ha n bt u pht trin? Th loi to lam lc hay vi khun c ch t do khng, hay l hnh vi ca chng l t ng v nm trong lnh a ca cc nh lut khoa hc ? Phi chng ch cc c th a bo c ch t do, hay ch cc loi th c ? Ta c l ngh mt con tinh tinh ang thc hnh ch t do khi n chn xi mt qu chui, hay con mo khi n co by b sofa ca bn, nhng cn con sn c tn Caenorhabditis elegans mt sinh vt n gin to thnh t 959 t bo? N c v nh chng bao gi suy ngh, Tht l my con vi khun mn m m mnh chn ba ti y, d n c s u tin cho thc n v s hoc chp nhn mt ba ti km hp dn hoc i bi mc ra th g tt hn, ph thuc vo kinh nghim gn y. Phi chng cng l thc hnh ch t do? D chng ta cm gic l mnh c th chn iu mnh lm, hiu bit ca chng ta v nn tng phn t ca sinh hc cho thy cc qu trnh sinh l tun th cc quy lut vt l v ha hc v do th s tt nh nh qu o ca cc hnh tinh. Nhng th nghim gn y trong thn kinh hc ng h quan im rng b no vt l ca chng ta, vn tun theo cc nh lut bit ca khoa hc, xc nh cc hnh ng ca chng ta, ch khng phi mt th lc no tn ti bn ngoi nhng nh lut ny. Cho v d, mt nghin cu trn cc bnh nhn ang tri qua gii phu no khi tnh pht hin rng bng cc kch thch in ln nhng vng thch hp ca b no, ngi ta c th to ra bnh nhn mong mun di chuyn bn tay, cnh tay, hay chn, hay c ng mi v ni chuyn. Tht kh m tng tng lm sao ch t do c th vn hnh nu hnh vi ca chng ta c xc nh bng cc nh lut vt l, cho nn n cho thy chng ta khng g hn ngoi nhng c my sinh hc v rng ch t do ch l mt o tng. Trong khi tha nhn rng hnh vi ca con ngi thc s c xc nh bi cc nh lut t nhin, n c v hp l khi kt lun rng kt qu c xc nh theo mt cch phc tp v vi rt rt nhiu bin s khin cho n tr nn bt kh thi d on trong thc t. V nh ngi ta phi cn bit ti trng thi khi u ca mi phn t trong hng triu t t cc phn t trong c th con ngi ri gii kiu nh chng y s h phng trnh. Vic y phi mt vi t nm, v s hi tr hp xung mt khi ngi i din ang ngm ng cho mt c nh. V n hon ton phi thc t khi dng cc nh lut vt l nn tng d on hnh vi con ngi, chng ta tip nhn ci gi l l thuyt thc tin. Trong vt l, mt l thuyt thc tin l mt c cu c to ra m hnh ha mt s hin tng c th quan st c m khng phi miu t chi tit tt c cc qu trnh c s. V d, ta khng th gii chnh xc cc phng trnh chi phi tng tc hp dn ca mi nguyn t trong c th ca mt ngi vi mi nguyn t ca tri t. Nhng tt c v cc mc ch thc t

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lc hp dn gia mt ngi v tri t c th c miu t trong khun kh ch mt vi con s, nh l tng khi lng ca mt ngi. Tng t, do khng th gii cc phng trinh chi phi hnh vi ca cc nguyn t v phn t, ta nh pht trin mt l thuyt thc tin gi l ha hc cung cp mt l gii va cho vic cc nguyn t v phn t c x nh th no trong cc phn ng ha hc m khng phi l gii mi chi tit ca tng tc. Trong trng hp i vi con ngi, v khng th gii cc phng trnh xc nh hnh vi ca chng ta, chng ta dng mt l thuyt thc tin l con ngi c ch t do. Ngnh nghin cu v ch ca chng ta, v cc hnh vi xut pht t , l khoa hc tm l. Kinh t hc cng l mt l thuyt thc tin, da trn tng v ch t do v gi nh rng ngi ta s nh gi cc phng thc thay th nhau c th c cho mt hnh ng v chn ly ci tt nht. L thuyt thc tin ch thnh cng tng i trong vic d on hnh vi v, nh ta u bit, quyt nh thng khng duy l hay ch da trn s phn tch vn khim khuyt v hu qu ca la chn. l v sao th gii lun thnh mt m ln xn. Cu hi th ba cht vn v vn liu cc nh lut xc nh c v tr v hnh vi ca con ngi l duy nht. Nu cu tr li ca bn cho cu hi th nht l Cha to ra cc nh lut, vy th cu hi ny hiu l, Cha c t do trong vic chn la chng ? C Plato v Aristotle u tin, cng nh Descartes v tr hn na l Einstein, rng cc nguyn tc ca t nhin tn ti v mt l cn thit, ngha l, l nhng quy tc duy nht to ra s nhn thc logic. Da trn nim tin ca mnh v ngun gc ca cc nh lut t nhin theo logic, Aristotle v nhng ngi i theo ng cm gic rng ngi ta c th suy ra cc nh lut khng cn ch nhiu ti vic t nhin thc s hnh x nh th no. iu , cng s tp trung vo v sao cc i tng tun theo cc quy tc hn l thc s cc quy tc ny l g, ch yu ton dn ng ti nhng nh lut nh tnh thng sai lm v trong mi trng hp khng chng t s hu dng cho lm, cho d l n thng tr t duy khoa hc sut nhiu th k. Ch rt lu sau nhng ngi nh Galileo mi dm thch thc uy th ca Aristotle v quan st t nhin theo cch thc s ca n, thay v iu m l do thun khit bo rng n nn nh vy. Quyn sch ny bm r trn khi nim v thuyt tt nh khoa hc, ng rng cu tr li cho cu hi hai l khng c php mu, hay ngoi l trong cc nh lut ca t nhin. Tuy nhin, chng ta s quay li cht vn su hn cu hi mt v hai, cc vn v cc nh lut l dng nh th no v c hay khng chng l cc nh lut duy nht kh d. Nhng trc tin, ta s cp n vn v th m cc nh lut ca t nhin miu t. Phn ln cc nh khoa hc s ni chng l cc phn nh ton hc ca mt thc ti bn ngoi tn ti c lp vi ngi quan st n. Nhng nu chng ta suy xt cch thc m chng ta quan st v hnh thnh nhng khi nim v mi th chung quanh, chng ta li m u vo mt cu hi, rng chng ta c thc s c l do tin rng mt thc ti khch quan tn ti?

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III
Cch y vi nm hi ng thnh ph Monza, , ngn chn vic cc ch th nui gi c vng trong nhng chic chu c cong. Nhng ngi c sy cho bin php ny gii thch phn no khi tuyn b rng s tht tn nhn khi gi mt ch c trong chic chu vi cc thnh chu cong bi v, khi nhn ra, con c s c mt ci nhn mo m v thc ti. Nhng lm sao ta bit mnh c mt bc tranh chn thc, khng bin dng v thc ti? C th l khng khng khi ni rng bn thn chng ta cng ang trong mt ci chu c vng ln no v tm nhn chng ta b bp mo bi mt ci thu knh khng l? Bc tranh v thc ti ca c vng khc vi chng ta, nhng liu ta c th chc rng n km thc hn? Ci nhn ca c vng khng ging vi chng ta, nhng c vng vn c th xy dng cc cng thc khoa hc chi phi chuyn ng ca cc i tng chng quan st bn ngoi chic chu. V d, do s bin dng, mt i tng ta quan st ang chuyn ng t do trn mt ng thng s c quan st chuyn ng theo mt ng cong bi c vng. Tuy l th, c vng vn c th xy dng cc cng thc khoa hc t h quy chiu b bin dng ca chng v iu s lun c gi ng v cho php chng d on v chuyn ng tng lai ca cc i tng bn ngoi chic chu. Cc nh lut ca chng th phc tp hn cc nh lut trong h quy chiu ca chng ta, nhng tnh n gin ch l vn nm tri. Nu mt con c vng c th xy dng mt cng thc nh vy, chng ta ng ra vn phi cng nhn ci nhn ca c vng nh l mt bc tranh c hiu lc v thc ti. Mt th d ni ting trong nhng bc tranh khc bit nhau v thc ti l m hnh c gii thiu vo khong nm 150 bi Ptolemy (khong 85khong 165) miu t chuyn ng ca cc thin th, Ptolemy xut bn cng trnh ca mnh trong mt chuyn th mi ba quyn thng c bit n di tn gi Rp ca n, Almagest. B Almagest bt u bng cch gii thch cc l do cho vic ngh tri t l hnh cu, bt ng v c t ti trung tm v tr. Mc cho m hnh nht tm ca Aristarchus, cc nim tin c gi ly bi hu ht nhng ngi Hy Lp c hc t nht t thi Aristotle, ngi tin rng bng nhng l do huyn b m tri t nn

25

trung tm ca v tr. Trong m hnh ca Ptolemy tri t ng yn trung tm v cc hnh tinh v ngi sao di chuyn chung quanh n theo nhng qu o phc tp lin quan ti nhng tp lun, nh nhng vng xoay trn nhng vng xoay.

V tr theo Ptolemy Trong ci nhn ca Ptolemy, chng ta sng trung tm v tr

M hnh ny c v t nhin v ta khng cm thy tri t di chn mnh chuyn ng (tr nhng khi ng t hay nhng khonh khc sn si). Nhng hc vn sau ny chu u u da trn cc ngun ca Hy Lp c truyn li, nn cc t tng ca Aristotle v Ptolemy tr thnh nn tng cho phn nhiu trong t duy phng Ty. M hnh v v tr ca Ptolemy c tip nhn bi nh th Cng Gio v c thit t thnh ch ngha chnh thc sut mi bn th k. Phi mi ti nm 1543 th mt m hnh thay th mi c xut bi Copernicus trong quyn sch ca ng De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (Bn v cuc Cch mng ca cc thin cu), xut bn ch ngay nm ng ta mt (d ng lm vic vi l thuyt ny trong my thp k). Copernicus, nh Aristarchus chng mi by th k trc, m t th gii trong mt tri ng yn v cc hnh tinh sp xp xung quanh n trn nhng qu o trn. D tng chng mi, s hi sinh ca n vp phi s phn khng mnh m. M hnh Copernicus b tuyn l nghch vi Kinh

26

Thnh, vn c dn gii l ni rng cc hnh tinh chuyn ng xung quanh tri t, d Kinh Thnh cha bao gi tuyn b r rng iu . Trong thc t, lc Kinh Thnh c vit ra ngi ta vn cn tin l mt t phng. M hnh Copernicus dn ti mt cuc tranh ci ny la rng c khng vic Tri t ng yn, o chung bng phin ta xt x Galileo v ti d gio vo nm 1633 cho vic ng h m hnh Copernicus, v cho vic ngh rng ai c th nm gi v bin h cho mt tng l ng sau khi n c tuyn b v nh ngha trong Thnh Kinh. ng b tuyn c ti, b giam lng ti nh sut qung i cn li, v b buc cng khai rt li tng. ng c k li l lm bm trong hi th ca mnh Eppur si mouve, Nhng n vn ng. Nm 1992 Nh th Cng gio La M cng nhn h sai khi kt ti Galileo. Vy u mi l thc, h thng kiu Ptolemy hay Copernicus? D l khng l g ai ni Copernicus chng minh Ptolemy sai, iu l khng ng. Ging nh trng hp v ci nhn bnh thng ca chng ta v ci nhn ca c vng, ngi ta c th dng bt k bc tranh no lm m hnh cho v tr, nn cc quan st ca chng ta v thng gii c th c gii thch bng gi thit hoc tri t hoc mt tri ng yn. Mc cho vai tr ca n trong cc tranh ci trit hc v bn cht ca v tr, li th thc s ca h Copernicus ch n gin l cc phng trnh chuyn ng s n gin hn nhiu trong h quy chiu vi mt tri ng yn. Mt loi khc v thc ti thay th xy ra trong b phim khoa hc vin tng Ma Trn, trong loi ngi bng cch no ang sng trong mt thc ti o gi lp to ra bi cc my tnh c tr tu gi h n ha v c tha mn trong khi nhng chic my tnh ht in sinh hc t h (hay l g cng c). C l iu ny cng khng qu vin vng, bi v nhiu ngi vn thch dnh thi gian cho thc ti o trn cc website ging nh Cuc Sng Th Hai. Lm sao ta bit ta khng phi ch l nhng nhn vt trong mt b phim truyn hnh pht trn my tnh? Nu chng ta sng trong mt th gii gi lp c tng hp, cc s vic s khng cn thit c logic hay phi mu thun hay tun theo cc nh lut. Nhng ngoi th nm kim sot c th thy th v hay hi hc khi quan st cc phn ng ca chng ta khi, v d nh, mt trng tch lm i, hay mi ngi n king trn th gii pht trin mt s thm thung khng kim sot ni i vi bnh kem chui. Nhng nu nhng ngoi th y thc s p t cc nh lut phi mu thun, khng cch no ta c th ni c l c mt thc ti ng sau ci gi lp. Rt d ni rng ci th gii cc ngoi th ang sng l th gii thc v th gii c tng hp l gi.

27

Nhng nu nh ta cc thc th trong th gii gi lp khng th nhn vo v tr ca h t bn ngoi, s khng c l do h nghi ng bc tranh ca chnh h v thc ti. y l mt phin bn hin i v tng m tt c chng ta u l nhng hnh nh trong gic m ca ngi khc. y l nhng th d mang chng ta n mt kt lun quan trng trong quyn sch ny: Khng c mt bc tranh hay khi nim c lp l thuyt v thc ti. Thay vo chng ta s tip nhn quan im m ta gi l thc ti ph thuc m hnh lun: tng rng mt l thuyt vt l hay bc tranh th gii l mt m hnh (thng l v bn cht ton hc) v mt tp hp cc quy tc lin h cc yu t ca m hnh vi cc quan st. iu ny cung cp mt c cu m cng vi n ta s i din gii khoa hc hin i.

Cc trit gia t Plato v sau tranh ci bao nm v bn cht ca thc ti. Khoa hc c in u da trn nim tin rng c mt th gii thc ti bn ngoi vi cc c tnh xc nh v c lp vi ngi quan st ang nhn thc n. Theo khoa hc c in, cc i tng c th tn ti v c cc c tnh vt l, t nh tc v khi lng, vn c nhng gi tr xc nh c th. Theo quan im ny cc gi thuyt ca chng ta l nhng n lc m t cc i tng v c tnh ca chng, v cc o c v nhn thc ca chng ta tng ng vi chng. C ngi quan st v vt b quan st l cc phn ca mt th gii c s tn ti khch quan, v bt c s rch ri no gia chng u khng c tm quan trng c ngha. Ni mt cch khc, nu bn thy mt n nga vn tranh nhau mt ch trong bi , l v thc s c mt by nga vn tranh nhau mt ch trong bi . Tt thy cc ngi quan st ang nhn s o c cng cc c tnh, v n nga s c cng

28

cc c tnh bt k c ai ang quan st chng hay khng. Trong trit hc nim tin gi l thuyt duy thc. D thuyt duy thc c v l mt quan im cun ht, nh ta s thy sau ny, nhng g ta bit v vt l hin i khin n kh m bin h c. V d, theo nhng nguyn l ca vt l lng t, vn l mt miu t chnh xc v t nhin, mt ht khng va khng c mt v tr xc nh va khng c mt vn tc xc nh tr phi v ti khi cc i lng ny c o bi mt ngi quan st. Cho nn khng ng khi ni rng php o a ra mt kt qu chc chn bi v i lng c o c gi tr ti thi im ca php o. Thc t, trong mt s trng hp cc i tng c bit cn khng c mt s tn ti c lp m l tn ti ch nh mt phn ca mt ng th nhiu phn. V nu nh mt gi thuyt gi l nguyn l nh ni c chng minh ng, ta v th gii bn chiu ca chng ta c l r bng trn bin ca mt khngthi gian nm chiu rng hn. Trong trng hp , tnh trng ca chng ta trong v tr cng s tng t nh ca con c vng. Cc nh duy thc nghim khc thng tranh ci rng bng chng m cc l thuyt khoa hc i din cho thc ti nm trong thnh cng ca h. Nhng nhng l thuyt khc nhau c th miu t thnh cng cng cc hin tng t cc c cu c khi nim d bit. Thc t, nhiu l thuyt khoa hc chng minh thnh cng sau c thay th bi l thuyt khc, nhng l thuyt tng ng da trn nhng khi nim hon ton khc v thc ti. Theo truyn thng nhng ngi khng chp nhn thuyt duy thc b gi l nhng ngi khng thc. Nhng ngi khng thc i hi mt s rch ri gia kin thc thc nghim v kin thc l thuyt. Mt cch tiu biu h tranh lun rng quan st v th nghim u c ngha nhng cc l thuyt khng l g hn ngoi cc cng c hu dng m khng i din bt k chn l su hn no c th l nn tng ca cc hin tng c quan st. Mt vi ngi khng thc cn thm ch mun cch ly khoa hc khi nhng th khng th c quan st. V l , nhiu ngi trong th k mi chn khc t tng v nguyn t trn lp trng l ta khng bao gi c th thy mt ht. George Berkeley (1685 1753) thm ch cn i xa hn khi ni rng khng g tn ti ngoi t duy v cc tng ca n. Khi mt ngi bn mch vi tc gia v nh vit t in ngi Anh TS. Samuel Johnson (17091784) rng tuyn b ca Berkeley khng th b bc b, Johnson c k l p li bng cch bc ti 1 hn to, n, v tuyn b, Ti bc b n y. D nhin cn au m TS. Johson tri nghim chn ng cng l

29

mt tng trong u ng ta, nn ng khng thc s ph nh cc tng ca Berkeley. Nhng hnh ng ca ng minh ha cho quan im ca trit gia David Hume (1711 1776), ngi vit rng d chng ta khng c lp trng c l l no tin vo mt thc ti khch quan, chng ta cng khng c la chn no ngoi hnh x nh n l c tht. Thc ti ph thuc m hnh lun ngn mch tt c cc tranh lun v tho lun gia hai trng phi t duy duy thc v khng thc.

C hai v u c im chung. TS. Davis va pht hin mt ht cha ai tng thy v GS. Higbe va pht hin mt thin h cha ai tng thy.

Theo thc ti ph thuc m hnh lun, s l v ch khi i hi c khng mt m hnh thc, m ch cn c khng vic m hnh ng thun vi quan st. Nu c c hai m hnh cng ng thun vi quan st, th khng ai c th ni ci no thc hn ci no. Ngi ta c th dng bt k m hnh no tin li hn trong tng tnh hung theo nh gi. V d, nu mt ngi ang trong chu, bc tranh ca c vng s hu dng, nhng vi nhng ngi bn ngoi, n s rt ry r khi m t cc s kin mt thin h heo mt h quy chiu ca mt chic chu trn tri t, c bit khi chic chu cn ang di chuyn cng tri t trn qu o xung quanh mt tri v li cn xoay quanh trc ca n. Chng ta to ra cc m hnh trong khoa hc, nhng chng ta cn to ra chng trong cuc sng hng ngy. Thc ti ph thuc m hnh lun p dng khng ch cho cc m hnh khoa hc m cn cho cc m hnh tinh thn c thc v khng thc m chng ta thy u to ra nhm din gii v hiu c th gii hng ngy. Khng c cch no loi b ngi quan st chng ta khi nhn thc ca chnh chng ta v th gii, vn c to ra thng qua cc x l bng gic quan v thng qua cch chng ta suy ngh v

30

l lun. Nhn thc ca chng ta v do quan st ca chng ta ln ci m cc gi thuyt ca chng ta da trn l khng trc tip, m thay vo c nh hnh bng mt loi thu knh, cu trc din gii ca b no con ngi. Thc ti ph thuc m hnh lun tng ng cch chng ta nhn thc cc i tng. Vi th gic, b c ca mt ngi nhn mt chui cc tn hiu truyn xung cc dy thn kinh th gic. Cc tn hiu ny khng kin to nn loi hnh nh bn s chp nhn trn truyn hnh. C mt im m ni cc dy thn kinh th gic kt ni vo nhn cu, v phn duy nht trong trng th gic ca bn c phn gii tt l mt khu vc hp khong mt ca gc nhn chung quanh trung tm ca nhn cu, mt vng rng bng ngn ci ca bn khi dui thng cnh tay. V do th d liu th gi ti no ging nh mt bc hnh ton im nh vi mt ci l trong. May mn thay, b no ngi x l d liu , kt hp tn hiu vo t c hai mt, lp y cc ch trng vi gi nh l cc c tnh th gic ca cc v tr ln cn th tng t v chn cho nhau. Hn na, n c mt dy hai chiu cc d liu t nhn cu v to ra t n tng v mt khng gian ba chiu. B no, ni cch khc, i xy dng mt bc tranh tinh thn hay mt m hnh. B no xy dng m hnh qu kho ti ni nu ngi ta c lp mt cp knh c th xoay hnh nh trong mt h ln ngc xung, b no, sau mt thi gian, thay i m hnh nh vy h c th nhn c mi th lt ng ln tr li. Nu cp knh c ly i, ngi ta s thy th gii b lt ngc trong mt chc, ri iu chnh tr li. iu ny cho thy ngha ca vic khi mt ngi ni Ti thy mt chic gh ch l v ngi y dng nh sng tn x t chic gh xy dng mt hnh nh tinh thn hay m hnh v chic gh. Nu m hnh l ln ngc t trn xung, hy cu may cho b no ca ai kp iu chnh n trc khi c ai th ngi ln chic gh. Mt vn khc m thc ti ph thuc m hnh lun gii quyt, hay ch t cng trnh c, l ngha ca s tn ti. Lm sao ti bit rng mt chic bn vn tn ti khi ti i ra khi phng v khng th thy n? N c ngha l g khi ni nhng th chng ta khng th thy, nh cc electron hay quark nhng ht c bo l to nn proton v neutron tn ti? Ai c th c mt m hnh trong chic bn bin mt khi ti ri phng v hin ra li cng v tr khi ti quay li, nhng s trng khp khing, v nu c g xy ra khi ti ngoi, nh trn nh sp xung chng hn? Lm th no, vi m hnh ci-bn-bin-mt-khi-ti-ri-phng, ti c th gii p thc t l ln tip

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theo ti i vo, ci bn li hin ra tan nt, di ng x bn ca trn nh? M hnh trong chic bn vn t th n gin hn nhiu v ng thun vi quan st. l tt c nhng g mt ngi c th i hi. Trong trng hp ca cc ht di nguyn t m ta khng th thy, cc electron l mt m hnh gii thch cho cc quan st nh cc vt trong khoang sng hay cc im sng trn ng n hnh ti vi, cng nh nhiu hin tng khc. Chuyn k li rng electron c pht hin vo nm 1897 bi nh vt l ngi Anh J.J Thomson ti Phng th nghim Cavendish i hc Cambridge. ng ang lm th nghim vi cc dng in bn trong cc ng knh rng, mt hin tng c bit nh l tia cathode. Cc th nghim ca ng dn ti mt kt lun to bo rng cc tia b n c cu thnh t cc vi th l cc cu t ca cc nguyn t, vn vn c tin l n v c s khng th chia tch ca vt cht. Thomson khng thy mt electron, phng on ca ng cng khng c khng nh mt cch trc tip hoc tng minh bng nhng th nghim ca ng. Nhng m hnh chng minh tnh ch o trong cc ng dng t khoa hc c bn ti k thut, v ngy nay tt c cc nh vt l tin vo cc electron, d cho bn khng th thy chng.

Cc Tia Cathode Chng ta khng th thy cc electron c bit, nhng chng ta c th thy cc hiu ng chng to ra.

Cc ht quark, m ta cng chng th thy, l mt m hnh gii thch nhng c tnh ca cc proton v neutron trong ht nhn nguyn t. Du cc proton v neutron c ni l to thnh t cc quark, chng ta s khng bao gi thy mt quark v lc lin kt gia cc quark tng theo s chia tch,

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cho nn cc quark bit lp, t do khng th tn ti trong t nhin. Thay vo , chng lun tn ti theo nhng nhm ba (to thnh proton hay neutron), hoc cc cp i ca mt quark v mt phn quark (cc ht meson pi), v biu hin ging nh chng c ni nhau bi cc si dy thun. Cu hi liu n c ngha l khng khi ni cc quark thc s tn ti nu bn khng bao gi c th c lp mt ht tng l mt vn gy tranh ci nhng nm u sau khi n c xut. tng rng cc ht nht nh c to nn t nhng t hp mt vi ht di-di ht nhn cung cp mt nguyn l ngn np t rt ra mt gii thch cun ht v n gin cho cc c tnh ca chng. Nhng d cc nh vt l dn quen vic chp nhn cc ht vn ch c suy lun ra s tn ti nh vo cc chp nhy thng k trong d liu lin quan ti cc s tn x ca cc ht, tng gn thc ti cho mt ht m, theo nguyn tc, l khng th quan st c tht kh cam vi nhiu nh vt l. Theo nm thng, du vy, khi m hnh quark dn ti cng ngy cng nhiu cc d on chnh xc, s i lp y phai nht dn. Mt iu chc chn c th l khi mt vi sinh vt ngoi hnh tinh vi mi by cnh tay, my con mt hng ngoi v tp tnh phun kem nh bng khi l tai cng thc hin cc quan st th nghim tng t nh chng ta, nhng s m t chng m khng dng ti cc quark. Cho d vy, theo thuyt l thc ti phc thuc m hnh, cc quark tn ti trong mt m hnh ng thun vi cc quan st ca chng ta v hnh vi ca cc ht di ht nhn. Thc ti ph thuc m hnh lun c th cung cp mt c cu tho lun cc cu hi kiu nh: Nu th gii c to ra cch y mt khong thi gian xc nh, iu g xy ra trc ? Mt trit gia Thin Cha gio thi s khai, Thnh Augustine (354 430), ni rng cu tr li khng phi l Cha i chun b a ngc dnh ring cho nhng ai hi my cu ging nh vy, m l thi gian l mt c tnh ca th gii m Cha to ra v thi gian khng tn ti trc thi im sng to, vn ng tin rng din ra cch khng lu. l mt m hnh kh d, vn c bnh vc bi nhng ngi duy tr nim tin rng m t trong kinh Khi Nguyn l oan chc ng mc d th gii cha ng cc ha thch v cc bng chng khc khin cho n trng lu i hn nhiu. (H t chng le ta chng?) Mt ngi c th c mt m hnh khc, trong thi gian lin tc ngc li cch y 13,7 t nm ti tn v n ln. M hnh c th gii thch hu ht trong cc quan st hin ti, bao gm cc chng c a kin to v lch s, l i din tt nht chng ta c v qu kh. M hnh th hai ny c th gii thch cc thu thp phng x v ha thch v thc t l chng ta nhn c nh sng t cc thin h cch chng ta hng triu nm nh sng, v vy m hnh ny thuyt v n ln th hu dng hn m hnh u tin. D vy, khng m hnh no c th ni l thc hn ci cn li.

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Cc Quark Khi nim v quark l mt yu t ct yu trong cc l thuyt vt l c bn ca chng ta mc d cc quark tch bit khng th quan st c.

Mt s ngi ng h mt m hnh trong thi gian li li thm ch xa hn v n ln. N cn cha r rng nu mt m hnh trong thi gian lin tc trc c v n ln s tt hn khi gii thch cc quan st hin ti v n c v nh cc nh lut v tin ha ca v tr s v hiu ti v n ln. Nu ng vy, s chng c ngha l g to ra mt m hnh trong thi gian tri ra trc c v n ln, bi v nhng g xy ra ti s chng c nhng kt qu quan st c cho hin ti, v vy chng ta cng c l s bm ly tng rng v n ln chnh l im sng to ca th gii. Mt m hnh tt l mt m hnh: 1. 2. 3. 4. Thanh thot. t cha nhng yu t ty tin cng nh c th iu chnh. ng thun gii thch cho tt c c cc quan st ang tn ti. To ra nhng d on chi tit v cc quan st trong tng lai m c th phn chng hay ph nhn m hnh nu chng khng c xc nhn.

V d nh, gi thuyt ca Aristotle rng th gii c to nn t bn yu t, t, kh, la v nc, v rng cc i tng hnh ng hon thnh mc ch ca chng l thanh thot v khng cha cc yu t c th iu chnh. Nhng trong nhiu trng hp n khng to ra cc d on xc nh, v khi n d on, cc d on khng phi lun lun ng thun vi

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quan st. Mt trong nhng d on ny l cc i tng nng hn s ri nhanh hn v mc ch ca chng l ri. C v nh chng ai ngh rng n quan trng i kim tra iu ny cho ti khi c Galileo. C mt cu truyn rng ng kim tra n bng cch th ri cc vt nng t Thp Nghing Pisa. y hn l chuyn c thu dt. Nhng chng ta bit chc ng th ln cc vt nng trn mt mt dc xung v quan st thy chng u tng tc vi cng t l, i nghch vi d on ca Aristotle. Nhng tiu ch trn th r rng l ch quan. S thanh thot, ly lm v d, khng phi th d dng o c, nhng n c tng thng cao gia cc nh khoa hc bi v cc nh lut t nhin th phi nn mt cch c gi ghm cc trng hp c th v mt cng thc n gin. S thanh thot lin quan ti hnh thc ca gi thuyt, nhng n cng lin quan cht ch ti vic c t nhng yu t c th iu chnh, do l mt l thuyt nht y cc nhn t chp v s chng my thanh thot. Tm gn li Einstein, mt l thuyt nn cng n gin cng tt, nhng khng n gin hn. Ptolemy cho thm cc tp lun vo cc qu o trn ca ca cc thin th nhm khin m hnh ca ng c th m t chnh xc chuyn ng ca chng. M hnh ng ra cn c th c lm chnh xc hn bng cch thm cc tp lun cho cc tp lun, hay thm ch hng lot tp lun vo . D s phc tp thm vo c th lm cho m hnh thm chnh xc, cc nh khoa hc nhn xt mt m hnh vn vo cho hp vi mt tp hp cc quan st l khng tha mn, ging nh mt danh mc cc d liu hn l mt l thuyt i din bt k nguyn l hu dng no. Chng ta s thy trong Chng 5 rng nhiu ngi coi m hnh tiu chun, vn m t cc tng tc ca cc ht nguyn t ca t nhin l khng thanh thot. M hnh thnh cng hn nhiu so vi cc tp lun ca Ptolemy. N d on s tn ti ca nhiu ht mi trc khi chng c quan st, v d on kt qu ca v s th nghim qua nhiu thp k vi mt s chnh xc tuyt vi. Nhng n cha hng t nhng thng s c th iu chnh m gi tr phi c chnh cho hp vi quan st, thay v c xc nh bng chnh bn thn l thuyt. Ni v im th th, cc nh khoa hc lun b n tng khi nhng d on mi v gy chong vng c chng minh chnh xc. Ngc li, khi mt m hnh b nhn thy c thiu ht, mt phn ng chung l ta ni th nghim sai. Nu khng chng t ra vn , ngi ta thng khng vt b l thuyt m thay vo n lc cu vn n bng nhng hiu chnh. D cho cc nh khoa hc thc s nhn ni trong n lc gii cu nhng l

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thuyt h ngng m, xu hng hiu chnh cc gi thuyt phai nht dn theo mc khi s thay th tr nn nhn to hay cng knh, v do khng thanh thot. Nu nhng hiu chnh cn cho dung np nhng quan st mi tr nn qu k cc, iu ra hiu cho s cn thit v mt m hnh mi. Mt th d v mt m hnh c phi chu nhng bc di sc nng ca cc quan st mi l tng v mt v tr tnh. Vo thp nin 1920, phn ln cc nh khoa hc tin rng v tr l tnh, hay kch thc khng i. Th ri, nm 1929, Edwin Hubble, xut bn nhng quan st ca ng cho thy rng v tr ang gin n. ng quan st nh sng pht ra t cc thin h. nh sng mang mt ch k c trng, hay ph, da trn cu to ca mi thin h, vn thay i mt lng bit trc nu thin h ang chuyn ng tng i so vi chng ta. T , bng cch phn tch cc ph t cc thin h xa xi, Hubble c th xc nh vn tc ca chng. ng trng i c th tm c s thin h chuyn ng ri xa cng nh tin ti chng ta nh nhau. Thay vo , ng nhn ra rng gn nh tt c cc thin h u chuyn ng ri xa khi chng ta, v cng cch xa chng ta, chng cng dch chuyn nhanh hn. Hubble kt lun rng v tr ang gin n, nhng c nhng ngi khc, c gng bo v cho m hnh trc , n lc gii thch cho nhng quan st ca ng di khung cnh ca mt v tr tnh. V d, mt nh vt l ca Caltech Fritz Zwicky xut rng bng mt l do cha bit nh sng s t t mt i nng lng khi n chu du qua nhng khong cch ln. S st gim nng lng ny tng ng vi s thay i quang ph, m Zwicky gi rng c th bt chc ra cc quan st ca Hubble. Nhng m hnh t nhin nht vn l ca Hubble, v mt v tr ang gin n, v n tin n l m hnh c chp nhn. Trong s mnh ca chng ta tm ra nhng nh lut chi phi v tr chng ta xy dng mt s nhng l thuyt hay m hnh, nh thuyt bn nguyn t, m hnh kiu Ptolemy, thuyt nhin liu, thuyt v n ln, v vng vng. Vi mi l thuyt hay m hnh, cc khi nim ca chng ta v thc ti v v cc cu t c bn ca v tr li thay i. V d, xt gi thuyt v nh sng. Newton ngh rng nh sng c to nn t cc ht nh hay cc vi th. iu ny c th gii thch ti sao nh sng i theo nhng ng thng, v Newton cng dng iu ny gii thch v sao nh sng b gp hay khc x khi n truyn qua mt trng ny sang mi trng khc, nh t kh sang thy tinh hay t thy tinh hoc kh sang nc.

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S khc x M hnh nh sng ca Newton c th gii thch ti sao nh sng v gp khi truyn qua cc mi trng, nhng n khng th gii thch mt hin tng khc m gi ta gi l cc vng Newton.

Tuy nhin, cc vi th khng th dng c gii thch mt hin tng m Newton chnh ng quan st c, m by gi c bit n nh l cc vng Newton. t mt thu knh trn mt bn phn chiu v chiu sng n bng nh sng n sc, nh nh sng hi Natri. Nhn t trn xung, mt ngi s thy mt chui cc vng sng v ti ng tm ti ni thu knh tip xc mt phng. iu ny s kh c th gii thch bng thuyt nh sng ht, nhng c th c l gii trong l thuyt sng nh sng. Cn c theo thuyt sng nh sng, nhng vng sng v ti b gy ra bi mt hin tng gi l giao thoa. Mt sng, ging nh sng nc, bao gm mt chui cc nh v y. Khi cc sng va p, nu cc nh v y xy ra tng ng, chng tng cng ln nhau, dn ti mt sng ln hn. c gi l giao thoa tng cng. Trong trng hp hai sng c bo l cng pha. Ti mt thi cc khc, khi cc sng gp nhau, cc nh ca mt sng s trng vi cc y ca sng cn li. Trong trng hp cc sng hy ln nhau v c bo l ngc pha. Tnh hung c gi l giao thoa trit tiu. Trong cc vng Newton cc vng sng xy ra ti nhng khong cch tnh t tm ti cch bit gia thu knh v bn phn chiu lm cho nh sng phn chiu t thu knh sai bit vi nh sng phn chiu t bn bng mt s nguyn ln (1,2,3) bc sng, to nn giao thoa tng cng. (Mt bc sng l khong cch gia mt nh hoc y ca mt sng ti ci k

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tip.) Cc vng ti, ngc li, xy ra nhng khong cch tnh t tm ti cch bit gia hai sng phn x l mt s bn nguyn (1 2, 1 1 2, 2 1 2,) cc bc sng, gy ra giao thoa trit tiu sng phn x t thu kinh hy sng phn x t bn.

S giao thoa ging nh ngi ta, khi cc sng gp nhau chng thng hoc b tr nhau hoc hn ch nhau.

Trong th k mi chn, iu ny c ly lm khng nh cho thuyt sng nh sng v ch ra rng thuyt nh sng ht sai. Tuy nhin, u th k hai mi Einstein ch ra hiu ng quang in (ngy nay chng ta dng trong truyn hnh v camera k thut s) c th c gii thch bng vic mt ht hay mt lng t ca nh sng m vo mt nguyn t v nh bt ra mt electron. Nh vy nh sng hnh x nh c ht v sng. Khi nim v sng hn i vo ngh ca con ngi v con ngi quan st i dng, hay mt vng nc sau khi mt vin si ri vo .

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Thc t, nu bn c bao gi th hai vin si vo mt vng nc, bn hn phi thy s giao thoa hot ng, nh trong bc hnh bn trn. Nhng cht lng khc cng c quan st c hnh vi theo kiu tng t, ngoi tr ru nu bn dng qu nhiu. tng v cc ht th quen thuc vi nhng hn , vin si, v ct. Nhng lng tnh sng/ht ny tng v mt i tng c th va miu t nh mt ht va nh mt sng th nghe tht xa l i vi kinh nghim thng ngy nh tng rng bn c th ung ht mt m ct.

Giao thoa vng nc Khi nim giao thoa xut hin trong cuc sng hng ngy nh cc vng nc, t ci vng nc ti cc i dng

Nhng lng tnh kiu ny cc tnh hung trong hai gi thuyt rt khc nhau m t chnh xc cng mt hin tng l khng mu thun vi thc ti ph thuc m hnh lun. Mi gi thuyt c th m t v gii thch cc c tnh c th, v khng gi thuyt no c th c bo l tt hn ci kia. Lin h ti cc nh lut chi phi v tr, iu chng ta c th ni l: C v nh khng c mt m hnh hay l thuyt ton hc n l no c th m t mi kha cnh ca v tr. Thay vo , nh chng ta cp bn trn, c v nh tn ti mt mng li cc l thuyt gi l thuyt M. Mi l thuyt trong thuyt M c th m t tt cc hin tng trong mt gii hn c th. Bt k u cc gii hn ny gi chng nhau, th nhiu l thuyt trong mng li s ng thun, v vy chng s c bo l cc phn ca cng mt l thuyt. Nhng khng mt l thuyt n l no trong mng li c th m t tt c kha cnh ca v tr tt c cc lc ca t nhin, nhng ht cm ng cc lc ny, v c cu ca khng gian v thi gian trong tt thy din ra. Du tnh hung ny khng hon thnh c gic m truyn thng ca cc nh

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vt l v mt l thuyt thng nht n l, n c chp nhn trong c cu ca thc ti ph thuc m hnh lun. Chng ta s tho lun v lng tnh v thuyt M su hn trong Chng 5, nhng trc khi chng ta chuyn sang mt nguyn l c s m quan im hin i ca chng ta da trn : thuyt lng t, v c th, hng tip cn thuyt lng t gi l cc lch s thay th. Trong quan im , v tr khng ch c mt s tn ti n l hay duy nht, m thay vo l mi phin bn c th ca v tr tn ti ng thi trong ci gi l siu v tr lng t. iu c l nghe cng chng tai nh gi thuyt trong ci bn bin mt bt c khi no no ta ri phng, nh trong trng hp ny l thuyt qua c mi bi kim tra th nghim m n tng b xem xt.

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IV
Vo nm 1999 mt nhm cc nh vt l o bn mt chui cc phn t hnh-qu-bng- ti mt mn chn. Nhng phn t ny, mi ci to nn t su mi nguyn t carbon, i khi c gi l nhng qu bng bucky v chnh kin trc s Buckminster Fulller xy dng nhng cng trnh c hnh dng . Nhng mi vm cu hn l nhng i tng hnhqu-bng- ln nht tng tn ti. Cn cc qu bng bucky l th nh nht. Chic mn chn m cc nh khoa hc nhm ti, thc ra, c hai khe qua cc bng bucky c th i qua. Pha bn kia bc tng, cc nh vt l t mt vt tng t mn hnh thm d v m cc phn t ti.

Cc qu bng bucky Bng bucky ging nh nh qu bng vi m lm t cc nguyn t carbon.

Nu chng ta cn thit t mt th nghim tng t bng cc qu bng tht, ta s phi cn mt cu th c pht nhm hi hi cn nhng vi nng lc phng cc qu bng mt cch u n mt tc do ta chn. Chng ta s sp t cu th ny trc mt bc tng trn c hai hc. Pha xa bn kia bc tng, song song vi n, chng ta s t mt chic li rt di. Phn ln cc c st ca cu th s trng bc tng v bt li, nhng mt vi trong s i qua mt khng hai hc, v ti c li. Nu hai hc ch rng hn cc qu bng mt xu, hai lun thng chun s l dng t pha bn kia. Nu hai hc rng thm mt cht na, mi lun bng s xe ra mt cht, ging nh trong hnh bn di.

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Ch rng khi ta ng mt trong hai hc li, lun cc qu bng tng ng ca n s khng cn i qua c, nhng iu ny s khng gy ra tc ng no trn lun cn li. Nu ta m li hc th hai, iu ch lm tng s bng p ti im bt k pha bn kia mn, v ta s c tt c bng i qua ci hc vn vn cn m, cng tt c bng n t hc mi va m. iu m chng ta thy khi c hai hc iu m, ni cch khc, l tng ca iu m chng ta thy khi mi hc c m ra mt cch tch bit. l thc ti chng ta quen thuc trong i sng hng ngy. Nhng khng phi l nhng g cc nh nghin cu ngi o tm thy khi h bn cc phn t.

Bng hai khe Mt cu th bng ln cc khe trn bc tng s to ra mt mu hnh rt d nhin.

Trong th nghim o, m thm mt hc thc s lm tng s phn t n mt s im trn mn hinh nhng n lm gim s lng ti nhng im khc, nh trong hnh bn di. Thc t, c nhng im m khng c qu bng bucky no bay ti khi c hai khe c m m chng ch p ln khi ch mt trong hai hc c m. iu trng rt k cc. Lm sao m thm mt hc th hai gy ra t phn t hn bay n mt s im c th?

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Bng Bucky Khi cc qu bng phn t c bn t cc khe ti mn hnh, hnh mu cho kt qu phn nh cc nh lut lng t km thn thuc.

Chng ta c th tm c manh mi cho cu tr li bng cc xem xt chi tit. Trong th nghim, nhiu trong s cc qu bng phn t bay ti mt im trung tm ca c vng m ta cho rng cc phn t ch c th p ln d c i qua khe no. Xa hn mt cht khi v tr trung tm y c rt t cc phn t bay ti, nhng t ch i xa trung tm hn mt cht, cc phn t li ln na c quan st c bay ti. Kiu hnh ny khng phi l tng cc kiu hnh khi mi hc c m mt cch tch bit, nhng bn c l nhn ra n trong Chng 3 ging kiu hnh c trng ca cc sng giao thoa. Cc khu vc m khng c phn t no bay ti tng ng vi cc vng ti cc sng pht ra t hai hc truyn ti ngc pha v to nn giao thoa trit tiu; cc khu vc c nhiu phn t bay ti tng ng vi cc vng c cc sng truyn cng pha, v to nn giao thoa tng cng. Trong hai nghn nm u hay chng y nm t duy khoa hc, kinh nghim bnh thng hay trc gic l nn tng ca gii thch l thuyt. Khi chng ta nng cao cng ngh v m rng gii hn ca cc hin tng chng ta c th quan st, chng ta bt u thy t nhin hnh x theo cch cng ngy cng t ph hp vi kinh nghim thng ngy v do vi trc gic, nh c chng minh trong th nghim vi cc qu bng bucky. Th nghim l tiu biu cho loi cc hin tng khng th bao ph bng khoa hc c in m phi c m t bng ci gi l vt l lng t. Thc t, Richard Feynman vit rng th nghim khe kp nh chng ta m t pha trn cha ng tt c b n ca vt l lng t. Cc nguyn l ca vt l lng t c pht trin trong mt vi thp k u ca th k hai mi sau khi l thuyt kiu Newton b pht hin l khng p ng c cho vic m t bn cht ca cp nguyn t hay di nguyn t. Cc l thuyt nn tng ca vt l m t cc lc ca t nhin v

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cc i tng p ng nh th no vi chng. Cc l thuyt c in ging nh ca Newton c xy dng da trn mt c cu phn nh kinh nghim hng ngy, trong cc i tng vt cht c mt s tn ti c bit, c th nh v ti cc v tr xc nh, i theo nhng qu o xc nh, v ging vy. Vt l lng t cung cp mt c cu cho s nm bt cch m t nhin hnh x phm vi nguyn t hay di nguyn t, nhng nh chng ta s thy chi tit hn v sau, n din t mt s khi nim khc bit, trong v tr, qu o v thm ch c qu kh v tng lai ca mt i tng u khng c xc nh c th. Cc l thuyt lng t v cc lc nh lc hp dn hay lc in t c xy dng t trong c cu . Liu cc l thuyt c th c xy dng da trn cc c cu qu xa l vi kinh nghim thng ngy cng c th gii thch cc s kin hay kinh nghim bnh thng vn c m hnh rt chnh xc bi vt l c in. V d cc nguyn t cu thnh tun theo cc nguyn l ca vt l lng t, mt ngi no c th ch ra rng tp hp ln cc nguyn t to nn qu bng , cy ci v my bay c ln v chng ta s thc s xoay s trnh c s nhiu x khi qua khi cc khe. V vy d cc thnh phn ca cc i tng thng ngy tun theo vt l lng t, cc nh lut ca Newton hnh thnh mt l thuyt thc tin vn m t rt chnh xc cch cc cu trc hnh thnh nn th gii thng ngy ca chng ta hnh x. nghe c v l, nhng c nhiu v d trong khoa hc trong mt tp th ln c v hnh x theo mt cung cch khc vi hnh vi ca cc thnh phn c bit ca n. p ng ca mt neuron n l kh m bo trc cho p ng ca b no con ngi, cng nh bit v mt phn t nc khng ni cho bn nhiu v hnh vi ca mt ci h. Trong trng hp ca vt l lng t, cc nh vt l vn ang lm vic suy ra lm th no cc nh lut ca Newton s l dng t lnh a lng t. iu m chng ta tht s bit l cc phn cu thnh ca mi i tng tun theo cc nh lut ca vt l lng t, v cc nh lut kiu Newton l mt xp x tt cho vic m t cch cc i tng v m to nn t cc thnh phn lng t c x. Cc d on ca l thuyt kiu Newton v vy ph hp vi ci nhn v thc ti m chng ta pht trin nn khi chng ta tri nghim th gii chung quanh. Nhng cc nguyn t v phn t c bit hot ng trong mt cch thc khc bit su sc so vi cch thc trong kinh nghim hng ngy ca chng ta. Vt l lng t l mt m hnh mi v thc ti mang n cho chng ta mt bc tranh v v tr. N l mt bc tranh trong nhiu khi nim c s cho hiu bit trc gic ca chng ta v thc ti khng cn ngha na. Th nghim khe kp c thc hin ln u vo nm 1927 bi Clinton Davisson v Lester Germer, cc nh khoa hc th nghim ti Phng th nghim Bell vn ang nghin cu lm cch no mt chm cc electron cc i tng n gin hn cc qu bng bucky nhiu tng tc vi mt tinh th lm t nickel. Thc t rng cc ht vt cht ging nh cc electron c x ging nh cc sng nc tr thnh mt loi th

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nghim gy sng st v iu truyn cm hng cho vt l lng t. Bi v hnh vi ny khng c quan st trn mt phm vi v m, cc nh khoa hc t lu bn khon rng mt vt ln v phc tp bao nhiu th cn v c th trnh din c cc c tnh dng sng ging vy. N s l mt cn khuy ng nu hiu ng c th c khng nh khi s dng ngi ta hay mt con h m, nhng nh chng ta va ni, mt cch tng qut, i tng cng ln th cc hiu ng lng t cng t r rng v chc chn. V vy kh m mt vi con th no c th i qua cc chn song lng nht ca chng di dng sng. Du sao, cc nh vt l th nghim quan st hin tng sng trn cc ht vi kch thc cn tng mi. Cc nh khoa hc hy vng lm li th nghim bng bucky mt ngy no m s dng mt con vi rt thay vo, vn khng ch ln hn nhiu m cn c mt s coi nh vt sng. C mt vi kha cnh ca vt l lng t cn nm bt hiu c cc tranh lun chng ta s nu ra trong cc chng sau. Mt trong nhng nt chnh l lng tnh sng/ht. Vic cc ht vt cht hnh x ging nh mt sng lm ngc nhin mi ngi. Vic nh sng hnh x nh mt sng th li khng cn lm ngc nhin bt k ai. Hnh vi dng sng ca nh sng c v nh t nhin i vi chng ta v c coi nh mt s tht c chp nhn sut gn hai th k. Nu bn chiu mt chm sng ln hai khe trong th nghim trn, hai sng s l dng v gp nhau trn mn hnh. Ti mt s im nh v y ca chng s chng chp v to thnh mt ch sng; ti cc ni khc nh ca mt sng s gp y ca sng kia, hy chng, v li mt vng ti. Nh vt l Anh Thomas Young thc hin th nghim ny vo u th k mi chn, v thuyt phc ngi ta rng nh sng l mt sng v khng c,nh Newton tin vy, cu thnh t cc ht.

Th nghim ca Young Kiu hnh bng bucky l chuyn quen thuc trong thuyt sng nh sng.

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D mt ngi c th kt lun rng Newton sai khi ni nh sng khng phi l sng, ng ng khi ni nh sng c th hnh x nh th n c to nn t cc ht. Ngy nay chng ta gi chng l cc photon. Cng nh chng ta c to nn t mt s ln cc nguyn t, nh sng chng ta thy trong cuc sng hng ngy l a hp theo ngha n c to thnh t mt s rt ln cc photon ngay c mt bng n m 1-watt cng phng ra mt t t ht mi giy. Cc photon n l thng khng r rt, nhng trong phng th nghim ta c th to ra mt chm sng rt nht gm mt lun cc photon n l, ta c th thm d nh cc c th nh khi chng ta c th thm d cc electron hay bng bucky c bit. V chng ta c th lp li th nghim ca Young mn ti mt chm sng tha cc photon chm ti mn chn tng ht mt, mi ln cch nhau vi giy. Nu ta lm iu , v ri chng tt c cc va chm c bit thu c trn mn hnh pha xa bn kia mn chn, ta thy rng cng nhau chng to nn cng hnh mu giao thoa vn cng c to nn khi chng ta thc hin th nghim ca DavissonGermer nhng thay vo l cc electron (hay bng bucky) c bn ti mn hnh tng ht mt. i vi cc nh vt l, l mt pht hin gy sng st: nu cc ht c bit t giao thoa vi chnh chng, vy bn cht sng ca nh sng l c tnh khng phi ca mt chm hay mt tp hp ln cc photon m l ca tng ht c bit. Mt nguyn l chnh khc ca vt l lng t l nguyn l bt nh, c xy dng bi Werner Heisenberg vo nm 1926. Nguyn l bt nh ni rng c nhng gii hn cho kh nng ca chng ta khi o c ng thi cc d liu, nh l v tr v vn tc ca mt ht, v d nh, nu bn ly tch ca s bt nh v tr vi s bt nh ng lng ca n (khi lng nhn vi vn tc) th kt qu khng bao gi c th nh hn mt lng hng nht nh, gi l hng s Planck. l mt pht biu lm lu li, nhng thc cht ca n c th c pht biu n gin: bn o c tc cng chnh xc, bn o c v tr cng km chnh xc, v ngc li. Ly lm v d, nu bn gim mt na bt nh v tr, bn phi gp i bt nh vn tc. Cng cn phi lu rng, so vi cc n v o c thng ngy ca chng ta nh l mt, kilgram, v giy, hng s Planck l rt nh. Thc t, nu biu din bng cc n v ny, n c gi tr vo khong 6/10.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000. Nh mt h qu, nu nh bn nh v mt vt th v m c mt qu bng , c khi lng mt phn ba kilgram, vi sai lch khong mt milimt theo bt k hng no chng ta vn c th o vn tc ca n vi mt s chnh xc thm ch vn cn chi tit hn mt phn t t t kilmt trn gi. l bi v, khi o c bng nhng n v ny, qu bng c khi lng 1/3, v bt nh v tr l 1/1.000. Khng s no lc bt ton b s nhng con khng trong hng s planck, v th l vic y phi sang cho bt nh vn tc. Nhng trong cng cc n v o mt electron li c khi lng .000000000000000000000000000001, th nn tnh hung tr nn hon ton

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khc i vi cc electron. Nu chng ta o c v tr ca mt electron vi chnh xc mt cch gn tng ng vi kch thc nguyn t, nguyn l bt nh rng buc rng ta khng th bit c tc ca electron mt cch chnh xc vi sai km cng hay tr 1.000 kilmt mi giy, vn chng thy g l chnh xc c.

Nu iu ny l chnh xc, th mi th trc gi ta ngh l sng ha ra li l ht, v mi th ta ngh l ht ha ra li l sng.

Theo vt l lng t, bt lun chng ta c c bao nhiu thng tin hay nng lc tnh ton ca chng ta c mnh m ti y, kt qu ca cc qu trnh vt l khng th c d on vi s chc chn v chng khng c xc nh vi s chc chn. Thay vo , bit trc trng thi khi u ca mt h, t nhin xc nh trng thi tng lai ca n thng qua mt qu trnh vn d khng chc chn. Ni cch khc, t nhin khng rng buc kt cc ca bt k qu trnh hay th nghim no, ngay c trong cc tnh hung n gin nht. Thay vo n cho php mt s cc tnh hung kh d, mi ci c mt kh nng c th c nhn ra. Ging nh, tm lc li Einstein, l Cha nm xc xc trc khi quyt nh kt qu ca mi qu trnh vt l. tng lm bn lng Einstein, v d cho ng l mt cha nhng cha ca vt l lng t, v sau ng li tr ch trch n. Vt l lng t c v lm lung lay tng v t nhin b chi phi bi cc nh lut, nhng khng phi l vn . Thay vo n dn chng ta ti mt hnh thc xc nh khc: Bit c trng thi ca mt h vo mt lc no , cc nh lut t nhin xc nh cc xc sut cho nhiu tng lai v qu kh khc nhau thay v xc nh tng lai v qu kh vi s chn chn. Du iu tht chua cht cho mt s ngi cc nh khoa hc phi chp nhn cc gi thuyt ng thun vi th nghim, ch khng phi nhng tng nh trc ca chnh h. iu m t nhin thc s i hi t mt l thuyt l n phi kim tra c. Nu bn cht xc sut ca cc d on trong vt l lng t c ngha l n bt kh thi i xc nhn cc d on, vy th cc l thuyt lng t

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s khng c chng nhn nh nhng l thuyt c hiu lc. Nhng mc cho bn cht xc sut ca cc d on ca chng, chng ta vn c th kim tra thuyt lng t. V d, chng ta c th lp li mt th nghim nhiu ln v xc nhn rng tng s ca cc kt qu khc nhau hp vi cc xc sut c d on. Th xt th nghim vi bng bucky. Vt l lng t ni vi chng ta rng khng g lun lun nh v ti mt im xc nh bi v nu vy, bt nh v ng lng s phi l v cng. Thc t, theo vt l lng t, mi ht c mt xc sut no c tm thy bt k u trong v tr. Nn cho d c hi tm thy mt ht electron cho trc trong b thit b khe kp l rt cao, lun lun c mt c hi no ta c th tm thy n pha xa ngi sao Nhn M Alpha, hay trong chic bnh ca ngi chn cu trong cn tin vn phng ca bn. Nh mt h qu, nu bn mt qu bng bucky lng t v n bay, khng lng k thut hay kin thc no c th cho php bn ni trc ni n s p xung. Nhng nu bn lp li th nghim nhiu ln, d liu bn thu c s phn nh xc sut tm thy qu bng ti nhiu v tr khc nhau, v cc nh th nghim xc nhn rng kt qu ca cc th nghim nh th ng thun vi cc d on ca l thuyt. Mt iu quan trng cn nhn ra l xc sut trong vt l lng t khng ging xc sut trong vt l kiu Newton, hay trong cuc sng hng ngy. Chng ta c th hiu c iu ny khi so snh cc kiu hnh to nn t lun cc bng bucky n nh c bn ti mn hnh vi kiu hnh cc ci l to nn t cc ngi chi nhm vo hng tm trong tr phi tiu. Tr phi ngi chi tiu th qu nhiu ru, c hi cho mt chic phi tiu cm vo trung tm l ln nht, v gim dn khi bn lui ra xa. Cng nh vi cc bng bucky, mt chic tiu bt k c th p bt k u, v theo thi gian mt kiu hnh cc ci l phn nh xc sut khut sau s l dng. Trong cuc sng hng ngy chng ta c th phn nh tnh hung rng chic tiu c mt xc sut c th p ln cc im khc nhau; nhng nu ni nh th, khng ging nh trng hp cc bng bucky, n ch l hiu bit ca chng ta v cc iu kin ca c phng l thiu hon thin. Ta c th nng cao m t ca mnh nu chng ta bit chnh xc cch thc m ngi chi phng chic tiu, gc ca n, s xoy, vn tc v nhng th ging vy. Theo nguyn tc, t ta c th d on ni m chic tiu s p vi mt s chnh xc nh chng ta mong mun. S p dng cc thut ng xc sut ca chng ta gii thch cho kt qu ca cc s kin trong cuc sng hng ngy do l mt phn nh ch khng phi mt bn cht ni ti ca qu trnh m ch l s m m ca chng ta v mt s kha cnh ca n. Xc sut trong vt l lng t th khc. Chng phn nh mt s ngu nhin c bn trong bn cht. M hnh lng t v t nhin dn tri nhng nguyn l vn khng ch mu thun vi kinh nghim hng ngy ca chng ta m cn c khi nim trc gic v thc ti ca chng ta. Nhng ngi cm thy cc nguyn l y l k d hay kh tin vn cng hi cng thuyn vi nhiu ngi khc, gm c nhng nh vt l v i nh Einstein hay thm ch

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Feynman, ngi m chng ta s sm trnh by m t ca ng v thuyt lng t. Tht t, Feynman c ln vit, Ti ngh ti c th an tm khi ni chng ai hiu c c hc lng t. Nhng vt l lng t li ng thun vi quan st. N cha bao gi tht bi trong mt ln kim tra, v n c kim tra nhiu hn bt k l thuyt khoa hc no khc. Vo thp nin 1940 Richard Feynman c mt nm bt t ph lin quan ti khc bit gia th gii lng t v Newton. Feynman b li cun bi cu hi lm th no kiu hnh giao thoa trong th nghim khe kp l dng. Nhc li kiu hnh chng ta c c khi bn cc phn t vi c hai khe u m khng phi l tng ca cc kiu hnh chng ta c c khi lm th nghim hai ln, mt ln vi ch mt khe c m, v ln kia vi khe cn li. Thay vo , khi c hai khe c m ta c mt chui cc vt sng v ti, m cc di ti chnh l nhng vng ni khng c ht no bay ti. iu c ngha cc ht ch c th bay ti cc vng nhng vt ti nu, gi s, khi ch c khe mt c m, v khng bay ti khi khe hai cng c m. C v nh u trn hnh trnh ca chng t ngun ti mn hnh, cc ht thu c thng tin v c hai khe. Kiu hnh vi khc bit su sc vi cch m mi th c v hnh x trong cuc sng hng ngy, trong mt qu bng s i theo mt qu o qua mt trong cc khe v khng b nh hng bi tnh hung ti khe cn li. Theo vt l Newton v theo cch th nghim s hot ng khi chng ta s dng cc qu bng thay cho cc phn t mi ht i theo mt ng xc nh c th t ngun ti mn hnh. Khng c ch trong bc tranh ny cho mt ng vng m trong ht s ving thm cc ln cn ca mi khe trn dc ng. Theo nh m hnh lng t, ngc li, ht c bo l khng c v tr xc nh sut thi gian gia im bt u v kt thc. Feynman nhn ra rng mt ngi khng nht thit phi hiu l cc ht khng theo mt qu o bt k no khi chng chu du gi ngun v mn hnh. N c th thay vo c hiu l cc ht nhn mi qu o c th ni gia hai im ny. Chnh iu ny, Feynman qu quyt, l iu lm cho vt l lng t khc bit vi vt l Newton. Tnh hung i qua c hai khe l quan trng v, thay v i theo mt qu o xc nh, cc ht nhn mi qu o, v chng i theo tt c cc qu o y mt cch ng thi! iu nghe ging nh khoa hc vin tng, nhng khng h. Feynman xy dng mt biu thc ton hc tng Feynman trn cc lch s biu thc phn nh ton b tng ny v ti to ra mi nh lut ca vt l lng t. Trong gi thuyt ca Feynman bc tranh vt l v dng ton hc khc vi cch trnh by gc, tuy nhin cc d on u tng t. i vi th nghim khe kp nhng tng ca Feynman c ngha l cc ht i theo nhng qu o ch qua mt khe hoc khe cn li; nhng qu o ln qua khe u tin, ngc v t khe th hai, v tip qua khe th nht ln na; nhng qu o ving thm nh hng c mn tm c ri tuyt vi, ri ln vng sao Mc vi ln trc khi nhm thng v nh; thm ch c nhng qu o i dc ngang v tr v quay v. iu ny, theo ci nhn ca

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Feynman gii thch ti sao ht thu c thng tin v nhng khe no ang m nu mt khe m, ht s c qu o i qua n. Khi c hai khe c m, cc qu o trong ht i qua mt khe c th giao thoa vi cc qu o m n i qua khe cn li, gy ra s giao thoa. iu nghe c v in khng, nhng i vi cc mc ch ca vt l c bn c to ra ngy nay v i vi mc ch ca quyn sch ny th cch trnh by ca Feynman chng minh s hu dng hn cch trnh by gc.

Cc qu o ht Cch trnh by ca Feynman v thuyt lng t cung cp mt bc tranh v sao cc bng bucky v electron to nn cc mt kiu hnh giao thoa khi chng c bn qua khe ln mn hnh

Quan im ca Feynman v thc ti lng t l ct yu cho s hiu bit v cc l thuyt m chng ta s sm trnh by, cho nn n ng dnh mt cht thi gian i tm cm nhn v cch n hot ng. Th tng tng mt qu trnh n gin trong mt ht khi hnh t v tr A v di chuyn t do. Trong m hnh Newton ht s i theo mt ng thng. Sau khi mt khong thi gian nht nh tri qua, chng ta s tm thy ht ti mt v tr B c th dc ng thng . Trong m hnh ca Feynman mt ht lng t th mi qu o ni gia A v B, thu c mt s gi l pha cho mi qu o. Pha i din cho trng thi trong chu k ca mt sng, ngha l, nh con sng ang nh hay y hay mt trng thi c th no gia. Bin php ton hc Feynman dng cho tnh ton pha cho thy khi bn cng dn tt c cc sng t cc qu o bn s nhn c bin xc sut m ht, xut pht t A, s i n B. Bnh phng ca bin xc sut s cho xc xut chnh xc m ht s ti c B. Pha m mi qu o c bit ng gp vo tng Feynman (v do vo xc sut i t A n B) c th c trc quan bng mt mi tn c chiu di

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c nh nhng c th ch theo hng bt k. cng hai pha, bn c th t mi tn i din cho mt pha ti ch ca mt mi tn i din pha kia, v nhn c mt mi tn mi i din cho tng. cng thm cc pha, bn ch n gin tip tc qu trnh. Ch rng khi cc pha xp thng hng mi tn i din cho pha c th kh di. Nhng nu chng ch theo nhiu hng khc nhau, chng c xu hng hy bt nhau khi bn cng li, v li mt mi tn rt ngn. tng c minh ha trong hnh bn di.

Cng cc qu o Feynman Cc hiu ng n t cc qu o Feynman khc nhau c th tng cng hoc gim bt nhau ging nh cc sng. Cc mi tn mu vng i din cho cc pha b cng. Cc ng xanh i din cho tng ca chng, mt ng thng t gc ca mi tn u tin ti ngn ca mi tn cui cng. Trong hnh di cc mi tn ch theo nhiu hng khc nhau v do tng ca chng, ng mu xanh, th rt ngn.

thc hin cch trnh by ca Feynman tnh ton bin xc sut m mt ht bt u ti mt v tr A s kt thc ti B, bn i cng cc pha, hay cc mi tn, lin hip vi mi qu o t A n B. C mt s v hn cc qu o, vn lm cho dng ton hi phc tp, nhng n vn lm ra vic. Mt s trong cc qu o c v nh trong hnh di.

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Cc qu o t A n B Qu o c in gia hai im l mt ng thng. Cc pha ca nhng qu o gn vi qu o c in c xu hng tng cng nhau, trong khi pha ca cc qu o xa n hn c xu hng hy nhau.

Gi thuyt ca Feynman cho ta mt bc tranh r rng v cch m mt bc tranh th gii kiu Newton c th l dng t vt l lng t, vn c v rt khc bit. Theo gi thuyt ca Feynman, cc pha lin hip vi mi qu o ph thuc vo hng s Planck. L thuyt ny rng buc rng v hng s Planck qu nh, nn khi bn cng phn ng gp t cc qu o vn gn nhau th cc pha thng bin thin rt ln, v do , nh trong hnh trn chng c xu hng cng li thnh zero. Nhng l thuyt cng cho thy c nhng qu o c th m cc pha c xu hng xp thng hng, v nh th cc qu o ny c chung hn; ngha l, chng gy ra mt ng gp ng k hn vo hnh vi quan st c ca ht. N v l ra rng i vi cc i tng ln, cc qu o rt ging vi qu o c d on bi l thuyt ca Newton s c cc pha tng t v cng dn cho ra ng gp ln nht trong tng, v do ch nhng ch n c mt xc sut ln hn zero mt cch ng k mi l ch n c d on bi l thuyt kiu Newton, v ch n c mt xc sut rt gn vi 1. Th nn cc i tng ln chuyn ng c ging nh nhng g l thuyt ca Newton d on cho chng. Cho n gi chng ta vn gii thch cc tng ca Feynman trong bi cnh th nghim khe kp. Trong th nghim cc ht c bn ti mt bc tng vi cc khe, v chng ta o c v tr, trn mt mn hnh c t bn kia bc tng, ti cc ht kt thc. Mt cch tng qut hn, thay v ch mt ht n l gi thuyt ca Feynman cho php chng ta d on c kt qu hn c ca mt h, vn c th l mt ht, mt tp hp cc ht, hay thm ch ton th v tr. Gia trng thi khi u ca mt h v php o c

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sau ca chng ta v cc c tnh ca n, cc c tnh ny tin trin theo mt hng no , m cc nh vt l gi l lch s ca mt h. Trong th nghim khe kp, ly lm v d, lch s ca ht n gin l qu o ca n. Cng ging nh th nghim khe kp c hi quan st c ht bay ti mt im bt k ph thuc vo tt c cc qu o c th i n . Feynman cho thy, i vi mt h tng qut, xc sut ca mt quan st bt k c kin to t tt c cc lch s kh d c th dn n quan st . Chnh v iu m cch trnh by ca ng ta c gi l tng trn cc lch s hay cch trnh by cc lch s thay th ca vt l lng t. By gi th ta c mt cm nhn v cch tip cn ca Feynman ti vt l lng t, by gi l lc xem xt mt nguyn l lng t ch cht khc m chng ta s s dng sau ny nguyn tc v vic quan st mt h phi lm thay i chiu hng ca n. Liu chng ta, nh khi sp chng ta c mt vt m tt dnh trn cm c y, ch nhn mt cch t ch khng can thip? Khng. Theo vt l lng t, bn khng th ch quan st th g . Ngha l, vt l lng t cng nhn rng thc hin mt quan st, bn phi tng tc vi i tng m bn ang quan st. V d, thy mt i tng theo cch truyn thng, chng ta chiu nh sng ln n. Chiu mt tia sng ln mt qu b ng d nhin s c t tc ng ln n. Nhng chiu thm ch mt tia sng sm ln mt ht lng t nh xu theo ngha, bn cc photon vo n thc s gy ra mt tc ng ng k, v cc th nghim cho thy n thay i kt qu ca mt th nghim ng cch m vt l lng t m t. Gi s rng, ging nh trc, ta gi mt lun ht ti ro chn trong th nghim khe kp v thu thp d liu v mt triu ht u tin i qua. Khi chng ta nh du s ht bay ti ti cc im thm d khc nhau th d liu s hnh thnh kiu hnh giao thoa ta minh ha trong hnh, v khi ta cng cc pha lin hip vi tt c cc qu o kh d mt im bt u A n im thm d B ca mt ht, chng ta s thy xc sut m chng ta tnh ton cho vic bay ti cc im khc nhau ng thun vi d liu. By gi gi s chng ta lp li th nghim, ln ny chiu nh sng ln cc khe t ta bit mt im trung gian, C, m ht s i qua . (C l v tr ca bt k mt trong hai khe.) y c gi l thng tin qu-o-no bi v n cho chng ta bit mi ht i t A ti khe 1 ti B, hay t A ti khe 2 ti B. Bi v by gi chng ta bit mi ht i qua khe no, cc qu o trong tng ca chng ta cho cc ht s ch gm cc qu o i qua khe 1, hay cc qu o i qua khe 2. N s khng bao gi gm c nhng qu o i qua khe mt v nhng qu o i qua khe 2. Bi v Feynman gii thch rng cc qu o i qua mt khe giao thoa vi cc qu o i qua khe cn li, nu bn chiu sng ln xc nh cc ht i qua khe no, do loi b la chn kia, bn s khin cho kiu hnh giao thoa bin mt. V thc s, khi th nghim c thc hin, s chiu sng lm thay i cc kt qu ca kiu hnh giao thoa, sang mt kiu hnh ging vy! Hn na, chng ta c th thay i th nghim bng cch s dng mt nh sng rt tha sao cho khng phi

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tt c cc ht u tng tc vi nh sng. Trong trng hp chng ta c th thu c thng tin qu-o-no ca ch mt tp hp con no ca cc ht. Chng ta thy rng d liu gn lin vi tp con cc ht m chng ta khng c thng tin qu-o-no s hnh thnh mt kiu hnh giao thoa, v d liu gn lin vi tp con cc ht m chng ta c thng tin qu-o-no s cho thy s giao thoa. tng ny cha ng mt ng quan trng i vi khi nim ca chng ta v qu kh. Trong l thuyt kiu Newton, qu kh c gi thit c tn ti mt chui xc nh cc s kin. Nu bn thy mt ci bnh bn mua bn nm ri nm v vn trn sn v a nhc ca bn ng trn vi v mt ch cu, bn c th ln ngc li cc s kin dn ti chuyn ri y: nhng ngn tay b nh vut ra, chic bnh ri xung v n tung thnh ngn mnh khi n chm t. Thc t, khi bit mt d liu hon chnh v hin ti, cc nh lut ca Newton cho php mt ngi tnh ton c mt tranh hon chnh v qu kh. iu ny l khng mu thun vi hiu bit trc gic ca chng ta v, d l n au hay hoan h, th gii c mt lch s xc nh. C th khng c ai quan st, nhng qu kh tn ti chc chn nh bn chp mt lot nh v n. Nhng qu bng bucky lng t th khng th ni c l nhn mt qu o xc nh t ngun ti mn hnh. Chng ta c th ch ra v tr ca mt qu bng bucky bng cch quan st n, nhng gia cc ln quan st ca chng ta, n nhn mi qu o c th. Vt l ln t ni vi chng ta rng bt lun quan st v hin ti ca chng ta c chu ton ti u, qu kh (khng quan st c), cng nh tng lai, l khng xc nh v ch tn ti nh mt ph cc xc sut. V tr, theo vt l lng t, khng c mt qu kh n l, hay lch s. Thc t l qu kh khng c hnh thc xc nh ngha l cc quan st bn thc hin trn hin ti nh hng ti qu kh ca n. iu c nhn mnh mt cch n tng bi mt loi th nghim c ngh ra bi nh vt l John Wheeler, gi l mt th nghim la-chn-b-hon. Mt cch tm gn, mt th nghim la-chn-b-hon th ging vi th nghim khe kp m chng ta m t, trong bn c mt la chn quan st qu o m ht i theo, ch tr l trong th nghim la-chn-b-hon bn hon quyt nh ca mnh c quan st ht y hay khng ch ngay trc khi ht m vo mn hnh. Th nghim la-chn-b-hon cho kt qu v d liu tng t nh vi d liu ta thu c khi ta chn quan st (hay khng) thng tin qu-o-no bng cch theo di cc khe. Nhng trong trng hp ny qu o mi ht i ni r hn, qu kh ca n c xc nh lu sau khi n i qua cc khe v hn phi quyt nh chuyn ch i qua mt khe, vn khng to ra giao thoa, hay c hai khe, vn c to ra giao thoa. Wheeler thm ch cn xt mt phin bn v tr ca th nghim, trong cc ht lin quan l cc photon pht ra t cc chun tinh mnh m cch ta hng t nm nh sng. nh sng c th b tch thnh hai qu o v c tp trung li hng thng ti tri t bng thu knh hp dn ca mt thin

55

h xen vo. D th nghim ny vt xa tm vi ca cng ngh hin nay, nu chng ta c th thu thp photon t tia sng ny, chng phi hnh thnh nn mt kiu hnh giao thoa. Nhng nu chng ta t mt thit b o thng tin qu-o-no ngay trc khi thm d, th kiu hnh s bin mt. S la chn c khng vic nhn mt hay c hai qu o trong trng hp ny c l c thc hin hng t nm trc, trc khi tri t hay thm ch mt tri ca chng ta c hnh thnh, v ri vi s quan st ca chng ta trong phng th nghim chng ta s nh hng ti chn la . Trong chng ny chng ta minh ha vt l lng t c s dng n th nghim khe kp. Trong nhng vic tip theo chng ta s c p dng cch trnh by ca Feynman v c hc lng t ln v tr nh mt tng th. Chng ta s thy rng, ging nh mt ht, v tr khng ch c mt lch s n l, m l mi lch s kh d, mi lch s c mt xc sut ca chnh n; v cc quan st ca chng ta v trng thi hin ti ca n nh hng ln qu kh ca n v xc nh cc lch s khc nhau ca v tr, cng ging nh cc quan st v cc ht trong th nghim khe kp nh hng qu kh ca n. Phn tch s cho thy lm cch no cc nh lut t nhin trong v tr ca chng ta l dng k t v n ln. Nhng trc khi chng ta xem xt cc nh lut ni ln nh th no, chng ta s ni mt cht v cc nh lut l g, v mt vi b n m chng gi ra.

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V
iu kh hiu nht v v tr l n c th hiu c. ALBERT EINSTEIN V tr c th hiu c v n b chi phi bi cc nh lut khoa hc; iu ngha l, hnh vi ca n c th c m hnh ha. Nhng nhng nh lut hay m hnh ny l g? Lc u tin c m t trong ngn ng ton hc l lc hp dn. nh lut hp dn ca Newton, c xut bn vo nm 1687, ni rng mi i tng trong v tr ht mi i tng khc vi mt lc t l thun vi khi lng ca n. N to ra mt n tng to ln trong cuc sng tri thc thi i ca n bi v n ln u tin cho thy t nht mt kha cnh ca v tr c th c m hnh ha mt cch chnhxc, v n thit lp mt c ch ton hc lm iu . tng rng c nhng nh lut v t nhin ny sinh ra nhng vn ging vi iu m Galileo b kt ti d gio gn nm mi nm trc. V d, Kinh Thnh k li cu chuyn v Joshua cu nguyn cho mt tri v mt trng ng li gia ng i ca chng ng c thm mt bui sng kt thc trn chin vi Amorites ti Canaan. Theo quyn sch ca Joshua, mt tri ng yn trong gn mt ngy. Ngy nay chng ta bit rng iu c ngha l tri t lc ngng quay. Nu tri t ngng quay, theo cc nh lut ca Newton bt k th g khng c ct li s tip tc chuyn ng vi vn tc gc ca tri t (1.100 dm mi gi ti xch o) mt ci gi t phi tr cho mt hong hn b tr hon. Khng mt iu no trong s ny lm bn lng chnh Newton, v nh ta ni, Newton tin rng Cha c th v thc s can thip vo cc cng vic ca th gii. Kha cnh tip theo ca v tr m mt nh lut hay m hnh ca n c khm ph chnh l cc lc in v t. Chng hnh x ging nh lc hp dn, vi s khc bit quan trng l hai in tch hay nam chm cng loi s y nhau, trong khi cc in tch hay nam chm khc loi s ht nhau. Cc lc in v t th mnh hn nhiu so vi lc hp dn, nhng chng ta thng khng ch n chng trong cuc sng hng ngy v mt c th v m cha ng s lng hu nh bng nhau cc in tch m v dng. iu ny c ngha l cc lc in v t gia hai c th v m gn nh hy nhau ht, khng ging nh lc hp dn, vn lun lun cng dn ln. tng hin nay ca chng ta v in v t c pht trin trong mt giai on gn mt trm nm t gia th k mi tm ti gia th k mi chn, khi cc nh vt l t nhiu nc ang thc hin nhiu nghin cu th nghim chi tit v cc lc in v t. Mt trong nhng khm ph quan trng nht l cc lc in v t c lin h vi nhau: Mt in tch

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chuyn ng gy ra mt lc ln cc nam chm, v mt nam chm chuyn ng gy ra mt lc ln cc in tch. Ngi u tin nhn ra mt s lin h no l mt nh vt l an Mch Hans Christian rsted. Trong khi chun b cho mt bi ging ca ng ti i hc vo nm 1820, rsted ch rng dng in t cc pin ng ang dng lm chch hng mt kim la bn gn . ng sm nhn ra sau rng in tch chuyn ng to ra lc t, v hnh thnh nn thut ng in t hc. Mt vi nm sau nh khoa hc ngi Anh Micheal Faraday lp lun rng pht biu theo cc thut ng hin i nu mt dng in c th gy ra trng t, th mt trng t cng s c th gy ra mt dng in. ng chng minh hiu ng vo nm 1831. Mi bn nm sau Faraday li khm ph ra mt mi lin h gia in t hc v nh sng khi ng cho thy t tnh tp trung cao c th nh hng tnh cht ca nh sng phn cc. Faraday vn t c c s gio dc qua trng lp. ng c sinh ra trong mt gia nh th rn ngho gn Lun n v b trng t nm mi ba tui lm mt cu hc vic v th ng sch trong hiu sch. Chnh , sut nhiu nm, ng hc v khoa hc bng cch c cc quyn sch m ng phi x l, v bng cch thc hin cc th nghim r tin v n gin lc rnh ri. Cui cng ng c c mt vic lm tr l trong phng th nghim ca nh ha hc v i Ngi Humphry Davy. Faraday lu li sut bn mi lm nm cn li ca Davy, v sau khi ng ta mt, k tha ng. Faraday gp rc ri vi ton hc v cha bao gi hc nhiu v n, cho nn ng phi cht vt truyn ti mt bc tranh l thuyt v cc hin tng in t ng quan st trong phng th nghim ca mnh. Du sau, ng lm c. Mt trong nhng pht kin tri thc to ln nht ca ng l khi nim v cc trng lc. Ngy nay, nh ti sch v v phim nh v my ngi ngoi hnh tinh mt li v cc phi thuyn ca chng, phn ln mi ngi quen thuc vi thut ng ny, cho nn ng l ng phi c tin bn quyn cho n. Nhng trong nhng th k gia Newton ti Faraday mt trong nhng b n to ln nht ca vt l l cc nh lut c v nh ng rng cc lc tc dng xuyn qua khng gian trng chia ct gia cc i tng ang tng tc. Faraday khng thch iu . ng tin rng di chuyn mt i tng, th g phi n tip xc vi n. V do ng tng tng khng gian gia cc in tch v nam chm phi lp y nhng ng v hnh thc hin ng tc ko v y vt l. Faraday gi cc ng ny l trng lc. Mt cch hay trc quan mt trng lc l i thc hin bi trnh din trong lp hc trong mt ci khay knh c t ln mt thanh nam chm v mt st c ri trn tm knh. Sau mt vi ci g nh thot ma st, cc mt st s di chuyn nh th b huch bi mt lc v hnh v t sp xp li chng thnh mt kiu hnh cc vng cung vt t mt cc ca nam chm sang cc cn li. Kiu hnh chnh l mt bn ca lc t v hnh thm thu vo khng gian. Ngy nay chng ta tin rng tt c cc lc c truyn bi cc trng,

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cho nn n l mt khi nim quan trng trong vt l hin i cng nh khoa hc vin tng.

Cc trng lc Trng lc ca mt thanh nam chm, c minh ha bng phn ng ca cc mt st.

Sut nhiu thp k hiu bit ca chng ta v in t hc vn l b tc, ng k n khng c g nhiu hn ngoi kin thc v mt vi nh lut thc nghim: du hiu v vic in v t lin h, nu bng mt cch b n, mt thit; tng rng chng c mt loi lin h no vi nh sng; v khi nim mi manh nha v cc trng. t nht mi mt l thuyt v in t hc tn ti, mi ci trong chng u c khim khuyt. Th ri, trong mt giai on nhng nm 1860, nh vt l ngi Scot James Clerk Maxwell pht trin t tng ca Faraday thnh mt c cu ton hc gii thch cho quan h khn kht v b n ca in, t v nh sng. Kt qu c c l mt b h phng trnh m t cc lc in v t nh nhng mt biu hin ca cng mt thc th vt l. Maxwell thng nht in v t thnh mt lc. Hn c th, ng cn cho thy cc trng in t c th lan truyn trong khng gian nh mt sng. Tc ca sng b chi phi bi mt con s xut hin trong cc phng trnh ca ng, vn c ng tnh ton t cc d liu th nghim c o c mt vi nm trc . Cng vi s sng s, tc m ng tnh c bng vi tc nh sng, vi sai s do th nghim bit c l mt phn trm. ng khm ph ra nh sng chnh n cng l mt sng in t! Ngy nay cc phng trnh m t cc trng in v t c gi l h phng trnh Maxwell. t ngi tng nghe ti chng, nhng chng hn l cc phng trnh c tm quan trng thng mi nht chng ta bit. Khng ch chi phi hot ng ca mi th t cc thit b gia dng ti my tnh, chng cn m t cc sng khng hn ging nh sng, nh sng vi ba, sng

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radio, nh sng hng ngoi, v cc tia X. Tt c chng ch khc nh sng kh kin t mt gc bc sng ca chng. Sng radio c bc sng vo khong mt mt hoc hn, trong khi nh sng kh kin c mt bc sng khong vi phn mi triu mt, v cc tia X c bc sng ngn hn mt phn mt trm triu mt. Mt tri ca chng ta bc x mi bc sng, nhng bc x ca n tp trung nht vng bc sng c th nhn thy i vi chng ta. hn chng phi ngu nhin khi cc bc sng m ta c th thy bng mt thng li c mt tri bc x nhiu nht: N c th l do mt chng ta tin ha vi nng lc thm d cc bc x in t trong vng mt cch t m bi v l vng bc x c sn nht i vi chng. Nu chng ta c bao gi chm trn vi nhng sinh vt t cc hnh tinh khc, chng hn s c kh nng thy cc bc x bt k bc sng no m mt tri ca chng pht ra mnh nht, c hiu chnh bi cc nhn t nh cc c tnh chn nh sng ca bi v cc kh trong kh quyn hnh tinh ca chng. Th nn nhng ngi ngoi hnh tinh vn tin ha vi s hin din y tin x hn s c mt s nghip pht t trong ngnh an ninh hng khng.

Bc sng (Wavelength) Sng vi ba, nh sng hng ngoi, tia X v cc mu khc nhau ca nh sng khc nhau ch bc sng ca chng.

H phng trnh Maxwell rng buc cc sng in t phi di chuyn tc khong 300.000 kilmt mt giy, hay khong 670 triu dm mt gi. Nhng dn ra mt tc chng c ngha g tr phi bn nu ra mt h quy chiu tng i vi th m tc c o. khng phi l iu m bn thng ngh ti hng ngy. Khi mt bin bo gii hn tc ghi 60 dm mt gi, n c hiu l tc ca bn c o tng i vi con ng ch khng phi ci l en trung tm di Ngn H. Nhng thm ch trong cuc sng hng ngy cng c nhng dp m bn phi tnh n cc h quy

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chiu. V d, nu bn bng mt tch tr dc li i ca mt my bay phn lc, bn c th ni tc ca bn l 2 dm mt gi. Ai trn mt t, tri li, c th ni bn ang chuyn ng 572 dm mt gi. khi khin bn ngh mt trong hay ngi quan st c mt mt pht biu ng s tht hn, hy nh trong u rng tri t c qu o xung quanh mt tri, ai ang nhn bn t thin th s khng ng vi c hai ngi v ni bn ang di chuyn tc 18 dm mt giy, l cha tnh ti trng thi trn khng trung ca bn. Vi nhng bt ng , vic Maxwell tuyn b pht hin ra tc nh sng nhy b ra t cc phng trnh ca ng, cu hi t nhin l, tc nh sng trong h phng trnh Maxwell c o trong tng i vi th g? Khng c l do g tin rng thng s tc trong h phng trnh Maxwell l tc c o tng i vi tri t. H phng trnh ca ng, tri li, p dng cho ton b v tr. Mt cu tr li thay th c xt n trong mt thi gian l cc phng trnh ca ng xc nh vn tc nh sng tng i vi mt mi trng cha tng c thm d thm thu ton b khng gian, gi l ether truyn nh sng, hay ngn gn, ether, vn l thut ng ca Aristotle cho cht m ng tin rng lp y v tr bn ngoi a cu. Cht ether gi thuyt ny chnh l mi trng qua sng nh sng lan truyn, cng ging nh m thanh lan truyn trong khng kh. Nu nh ether tn ti, s c mt tiu chun chuyn i cho s tnh (ngha l, ng yn so vi ether) v do mt cch tuyt i xc nh chuyn ng. Ether s cung cp mt h quy chiu c mong i cho ton b v tr, da trn tc ca i tng chuyn ng bt k c th c o. V vy ether c gi thuyt c tn ti trn lp trng l thuyt, thc gic mt vi nh khoa hc tm kim mt cch c th nghin cu n, hay ch t cng xc nhn s tn ti ca n. Mt trong s c chnh bn thn Maxwell. Nu bn phng tht nhanh trong khng kh hng ti mt sng m, con sng hng ti bn nhanh hn, cn nu nh bn phng ra xa khi n, n hng ti bn chm hn. Mt cch tng t, nu ether c tht, tc nh sng s bin thin theo chuyn ng tng i ca bn vi ether. Thc t, nu nh sng hot ng ging nh m thanh, cng nh nhng ngi trn mt chiu siu m phn lc s khng bao gi nghe thy ting ng pht ra t pha sau my bay, vy th cc nh du hnh phng nhanh qua ether cng c th b ri sng nh sng. Vi nhng nh gi , Maxwell xut mt th nghim. Nu ether c tht, tri t phi chuyn ng qua n khi ang quay quanh mt tri. V v tri t phi ang du hnh theo mt hng khc vo thng ging so vi, gi s, thng t hay thng by, mt ngi c th quan st c mt khc bit nh xu gia vn tc nh sng cc thi im khc nhau trong nm hy nhn bn di.

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Chuyn ng qua Ether Nu chng ta ang chuyn ng qua ether, chng ta ng ra c th thm d c chuyn ng bng cch quan st s khc bit theo ma trong tc nh sng.

Maxwell b thuyt phc khng xut bn tng ca ng trong Bin Bn ca Hi Hong Gia bi nh bin tp ca n, ngi khng ngh rng th nghim s thnh cng. Tuy nhin vo nm 1879, khng lu trc khi ng mt v cn bnh ung th d dy au n, Maxwell gi mt l th v ch cho mt ngi bn. L th c ng sau khi ng mt trn tp sang T Nhin, chnh trn n c c, trong s nhiu ngi khc, bi nh vt l ngi M tn l Albert Michelson. Ly cm hng t phng on ca Maxwell, nm 1887 Michelson v Edward Morley thc hin mt th nghim rt nhy c thit k o c tc nh sng m tri t ang chuyn ng qua ether. tng l so snh tc nh sng theo hai hng khc nhau, v vung gc. Nu tc nh sng l mt hng s tng i vi ether, php o phi lm l ra vn tc nh sng c s thay i theo hng ca chm sng. Nhng Michelson v Morley khng quan st c s khc bit no. Kt qu ca th nghim ca Michelson v Morley r rng mu thun vi m hnh sng in t lan truyn qua ether, v ng ra phi lm cho m hnh ether b b i. Nhng mc ch ca Michelson l o tc ca tri t so vi ether, ch khng phi chng minh hay phn chng cho gi thuyt ether, v iu m ng tm ra khng dn ng n kt lun ether khng tn ti. Cng chng ai rt ra kt lun . Thc t, nh vt l ni ting Ngi William Thomson (Cng tc Kelvin) ni vo nm 1884 rng ether l cht duy nht chng ta t tin trong ng lc hc. Mt iu chng ta c th chc chn, l thc ti v vt cht tnh ca ether truyn nh sng. Lm sao bn c th tin vo ether mc cho kt qu ca th nghim Michelson-Morley? Nh

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chng ta ni chuyn thng xy ra, ngi ta thng c gng cu vn cho m hnh bng cc b sung kiu ng bin v lp lim. Mt s ngi gi thuyt rng tri t li ether theo n, cho nn chng ta khng thc s thy chuyn ng tng i vi n. Nh vt l H Lan Hendrik Antoon Lorents v nh vt l Ireland George Francis FitzGerald xut rng trong mt h quy chiu chuyn ng so vi ether, hn do mt tc ng c hc cha bit no , cc ng h s chm li v khong cch s co li, v th mt ngi vn s o c nh sng c tc khng i. Nhng n lc ging vy nhm cu vn cho khi nim ether c tip tc sut gn hai mi nm cho ti khi xut hin mt bi vit xut chng t mt nhn vin v danh tr tui vn phng sng ch ti Berne, Albert Einstein. Einstein mi hai mi su tui vo nm 1905 khi ng xut bn bi vit ca mnh Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Krper (Bn v in ng Lc Hc ca cc Vt Th Chuyn ng). Trong ng t mt gi thit n gin l cc nh lut vt l v ring tc nh sng s biu hin nh nhau i vi tt c cc ngi quan st ang chuyn ng u. tng ny, ha ra, li i hi mt cuc cch mng trong khi nim ca chng ta v khng gian v thi gian. hiu ti sao, th tng tng hai s kin din ra ti cng mt im nhng vo nhng thi im khc nhau, trn mt chic my bay phn lc. i vi mt ngi quan st trn chic phn lc s c mt khong cch zero gia hai s kin. Nhng i vi ngi quan st th hai ang ng trn mt t cc s kin s cch bit bng khong cch chic phn lc i c trong khong thi gian gia hai s kin. iu ny cho thy hai ngi quan st chuyn ng tng i vi nhau s khng ng thun v khong cch gia hai s kin. Gi hy gi s hai ngi quan st quan st mt xung nh sng i t ui my bay ti mi ca n. Cng ging nh th d trn y, h s khng ng thun v khong cch m nh sng i c t s pht ti ui my bay ti s thu ti mi. V tc l khong cch i c chia cho thi gian i, iu ny ngha l nu h ng thun v tc m xung i tc nh sng h s khng ng thun v khong thi gian gia s pht v s thu.

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Chic phn lc gia khng trung Nu bn tng mt qu bng trn mt chic phn lc, mt ngi quan st trn sn my bay xc nh rng n chm cng mt im mi ln bt ln, trong khi mt ngi quan st trn mt t s o c mt s khc bit ln gia cc im bt ln.

Th lm cho n l lng l, d hai ngi quan st o c nhng khong thi gian khc nhau, h ang quan st cng mt qu trnh vt l. Eistein khng ra sc xy dng mt li gii thch nhn to cho iu ny. ng rt ra mt kt lun logic, d gy sng st, rng php o thi gian tri qua, ging nh trong php o v khong cch i c, ph thuc vo ngi quan st ang thc hin php o. Hiu ng l mt trong nhng cha kha n vi l thuyt trong bi vit nm 1905 ca Einstein, vn sau ny c gi l thuyt tng i c bit (thuyt tng i hp - lnd). Chng ta c th thy lm th no phn tch ny c th p dng cho cc thit b o thi gian nu chng ta xt hai ngi quan st ang nhn vo mt ci ng h. Thuyt tng i t bit ni rng ng h chy nhanh hn theo ngi quan st ang ng yn so vi ng h. i vi ngi quan st khng ng yn so vi ng h, ng h s chy nhanh hn. Nu chng ta xem nh mt xung nh sng i t ui ti mi ca my bay vi mt tch tc trn ng h, chng ta thy rng i vi mt ngi quan st trn mt t ng h chy chm hn bi v chm sng phi i mt khong cch xa hn trong h quy chiu . Nhng hiu ng ny khng ph thuc vo c cu ca ng h, n ng cho mi ng h, thm ch c ng h sinh hc ca chng ta.

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S gin thi gian Cc ng h ang chuyn ng c v chm chm li. Bi v iu ny cng p dng ln cc ng h sinh hc, nhng ngi ang chuyn ng s c v gi i chm hn, nhng bn ng hy vng nhiu cc tc hng ngy, khng ng h bnh thng no c th o c s khc bit.

Cng trnh ca Einstein cho thy, ging nh khi nim s tnh tuyt i, thi gian khng th l tuyt i, nh Newton vn ngh. Ni cch khc, khng th no gn cho mi s kin mt thi im m mi ngi quan st u ng thun. Thay vo , mi ngi quan st u c php o thi gian ca ring h, v cc thi im o c bi hai ngi quan st ang chuyn ng tng i vi nhau s khng ng thun. Cc tng ca Einstein i ngc li trc gic ca chng ta bi v cc h qu ca chng khng th nhn bit c cc tc chng ta thng bt gp hng ngy. Nhng chng c lin tc xc nhn bng th nghim. Ly v d, th tng tng mt ng h quy chiu ng yn ti tm tri t, mt ng h khc trn mt t, v ci th ba t trn mt my bay, bay cng hay ngc chiu xoay ca tri t. Quy chiu vi ng h ti tm tri t, ng h trn my bay v hng ng theo chiu xoay ca tri t th chuyn ng nhanh hn ng h trn mt t, cho nn s chy chm hn. Tng t, khi quy chiu vi ng h ti tm tri t, ng h trn my bay v hng ty ngc chiu xoay ca tri t th chuyn ng chm hn ng h trn b mt, c ngha ng h y s chy nhanh hn ng h trn b mt. V chnh xc l nhng g quan st c, trong mt th nghim tin hnh vo nm 1971, mt ng h nguyn t rt chnh xc c ch bay vng quanh th gii. Th nn bn c th ko di cuc sng ca mnh bng cch bay lin min v hng ng vng quanh th gii, d bn c th hi ngn ngm khi xem my b phim hng khng y. Tuy nhin, tc ng ny rt nh, ch khong 180 phn t

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giy mi vng (v cng c th b lm gim i cht t bi tc ng ca khc bit do trng lc, nhng chng ta khng cn tnh ti n y). Nh vo cng trnh ca Einstein, cc nh vt l nhn ra rng bng yu cu tc nh sng phi nh nhau trong mi h quy chiu, l thuyt v in v t ca Maxwell i hi thi gian khng th c i x tch bit vi ba chiu khng gian. Thay vo , thi gian v khng gian bn cht vi nhau. N ging nh thm mt hng tng lai/qu kh vo cc hng thng thng tri/phi, trc/sau, v trn/di. Cc nh vt l gi s kt hn gia khng gian thi gian ny l khng-thi gian, v bi v khng-thi gian gm thm mt hng th t, h gi n l chiu th t. Trong khng-thi gian, thi gian khng cn tch bit khi ba chiu ca khng gian, v, ni mt cch nm na, ging nh nh ngha ca tri/phi, trc/sau, v trn/di th ph thuc vo nh hng ca ngi quan st, vy th hng thi gian cng bin thin ph thuc vo tc ca ngi quan st. Nhng ngi quan st chuyn ng ti cc tc khc nhau s chn cc hng khc nhau cho thi gian trong khng-thi gian. Thuyt tng i t bit ca Einstein do l mt m hnh mi, vt b cc khi nim v thi gian tuyt i v s tnh tuyt i (ni cch khc, ng yn so vi ether). Einstein sm nhn ra khin lc hp dn tng thch vi tnh tng i th cn thit phi c mt thay i khc. Theo thuyt hp dn ca Newton, ti mt thi im bt k cc i tng b ht bi nhau bng mt lc ph thuc vo khong cch gia chng ti thi im . Nhng thuyt tng i c bit bi b khi nim thi gian tuyt i, cho nn khng c cch no nh ngha lc m khong cch gia hai i tng nn c o. Th cho nn thuyt hp dn ca Newton c mu thun vi thuyt tng i c bit v cn c hiu chnh. S xung t c th nghe nh l mt kh khn thun k thut nh nht, c l ch l mt chi tit cn thu xp m khng lm thay i nhiu l thuyt. Ha ra, khng g vt qua s tht. Sut mi mt nm k tip Einstein pht trin mt l thuyt tng i mi, c ng gi l thuyt tng i tng qut. Khi nim lc hp dn trong thuyt tng i tng qut khng h ging vi khi nim ca Newton. Thay vo , n da trn mt xut mang tnh cch mng l khng-thi gian khng phng, nh c gi s trc , m b b cong v bin dng bi khi lng v nng lng trong n. Mt cch tt hnh dung s cong l ngh ti b mt tri t. Mc d b mt tri t ch c hai chiu (v ch c hai hng trn , t l bc/nam v ng/ty), chng ta s dng n lm v d v mt khng gian hai chiu cong th d hnh dung hn mt khng gian bn chiu cong. Hnh hc ca cc khng gian cong ging nh b mt tri t khng ging vi hnh hc kiu Euclid m chng ta quen thuc. V d, trn b mt tri t, di ngn nht gia hai im vn ta bit l on thng trong hnh hc Euclid l mt on ni hai im trn mt ng gi l ng trn ln. (Mt ng trn ln l mt ng trn trn b mt tri t c tm trng vi tm tri t. ng xch

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o l mt v d cho mt ng trn ln, v bt c ng trn no thu c bng cch xoay ng xch o theo cc ng knh khc nhau.) Th tng tng, gi s nh bn mun i t New York ti Madrid, hai thnh ph gn nh cng v . Nu mt t l phng, hnh trnh ngn nht s l nhm thng hng ng. Nu bn lm th, bn s n Madrid sau khi i 3.707 dm. Nhng do s cong ca mt t, c mt qu o m trn bn phng nhn s cong v do di hn, nhng n thc s l ng ngn hn. Bn c th n trong vng 3.605 dm nu i theo ng trn ln, u tin l nhm hng ng bc, ri t t chuyn hng ng, v ri ng nam. S khc bit trong khong cch gia hai hnh trnh l do cong ca tri t, v mt du hiu cho hnh hc phi-Euclid ca n. Hng khng h bit iu ny, v lun lp trnh cho phi cng ca h bay theo cc ng trn ln trong mi trng hp thc t. Theo cc nh lut v chuyn ng ca Newton, cc i tng nh n i bc, bnh sng b, v cc hnh tinh chuyn ng theo nhng ng thng tr phi chu tc ng ca mt lc, v d nh lc hp dn. Tuy nhin lc hp dn, trong l thuyt ca Einstein, khng phi l mt lc nh cc lc khc; thay vo , n l h qu ca thc t l khi lng lm bin dng khng-thi gian, to ra cong. Trong l thuyt ca Einstein, cc i tng chuyn ng theo nhng ng ti cn (ng trc a - lnd), l nhng ng gn vi ng thng nht trong mt khng gian cong. ng thng l cc ng ti cn trong mt phng, v cc ng trn ln l nhng ng ti cn trn b mt tri t. Khi khng c khi lng, cc ng ti cn trong khng-gian bn chiu tng ng vi cc ng thng trong khng gian ba chiu. Nhng khi c vt cht hin din, lm bin dng khng-thi gian, qu o ca cc vt th trong khng gian ba chiu tng ng cong li theo cch thc m cc l thuyt kiu Newton c gii thch bng lc ht hp dn. Khi khng-thi gian khng thng, qu o ca cc i tng c v nh b cong li, to ra n tng rng mt lc ang tc dng ln chng.

Cc ng ti cn di ngn nht gia hai im trn b mt tri t c v cong khi c v trn mt bn phng mt iu nn nh trong u khi nu c bao gi phi lm mt bi kim tra cn.

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Thuyt tng i tng qut ca Einstein ti to ra thuyt tng i c bit khi vng mt lc hp dn, v n to ra hu nh nhng d on tng t nh thuyt hp dn ca Newton trong mi trng hp dn yu ca h mt tri ca chng ta nhng khng hon ton. Thc t, nu thuyt tng i tng qut khng c mang vo tnh ton trong h thng nh hng v tinh GPS, cc li trong nh v ton cu s tch ly vi mt t l khong mi kilmt mt ngy! Tuy nhin, tm quan trng thc s ca thuyt tng i tng qut khng ch ng dng ca n trong cc thit b ch ng cho bn ti nhng nh hng mi, m thay vo l mt m hnh rt khc v v tr, vn d on nhng hiu ng mi nh sng hp dn v l en. V th l thuyt tng i tng qut lt xc vt l thnh hnh hc. Cng ngh hin i nhy cho php chng ta thc hin nhiu kim tra chnh xc ln thuyt tng i tng qut, v n vt qua tt c chng. D c hai u cch mng vt l, thuyt in t ca Maxwell v thuyt hp dn ca Einstein thuyt tng i tng qut u, ging nh c vt l ca chnh Newton, l cc l thuyt c in. Ni r ra, chng l nhng m hnh trong v tr c mt lch s n l. Nh chng ta thy trong chng trc, ti cc cp nguyn t v di nguyn t nhng m hnh ny khng ng thun vi quan st. Thay vo , chng ta phi dng cc l thuyt lng t trong v tr c th c bt k lch s kh d no, mi lch s c mt cng hay bin xc sut ca ring n. i vi cc tnh ton thc dng trong th gii hng ngy, chng ta vn c th s dng cc l thuyt c in, nhng nu chng ta mong mun hiu c hnh vi ca cc nguyn t v phn t, chng ta cn mt phin bn lng t cho thuyt in t ca Maxwell; v nu chng ta mun hiu c v tr s khai, khi tt c vt cht v nng lng trong v tr b vt li trong mt th tch nh, chng ta phi c mt phin bn lng t ca thuyt tng i tng qut. Chng ta cn ti nhng l thuyt nh th v nu chng ta tm kim mt s hiu bit c bn v v tr, n s c mu thun khi mt s nhng nh lut ny li l lng t trong khi nhng ci khc li l c in. Th nn chng ta phi tm cc phin bn lng t cho tt c cc nh lut t nhin. Nhng l thuyt nh th c gi l cc thuyt trng lng t. Cc lc bit trong t nhin c th chia thnh bn nhm: 1. Hp dn. y l lc yu nht trong c bn, nhng n l mt lc tm xa v tc dng ln mi th nh mt lc ht. iu ny c ngha l i vi cc vt th ln lc hp dn lun cng dn ln v c th ln t tt c cc lc khc. 2. in t. y cng l mt lc tm xa v mnh hn nhiu so vi lc hp dn nhng n tc dng ln cc ht c in tch, l lc y gia cc in tch khc du v lc ht gia cc in tch ngc du. iu ny c ngha l cc lc in trong mt vt th ln hy ln nhau ht, nhng trong phm vi nguyn t v phn t chng l

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lc thng tr. Cc lc in t c l nguyn nhn cho tt c qu trnh ha hc v sinh hc. 3. Lc ht nhn yu. N gy ra phng x v ng vai tr ct yu cho vic hnh thnh cc nguyn t trong cc ngi sao v v tr s khai. Chng ta khng, d vy, c dp tip xc vi lc ny trong cuc sng hng ngy. 4. Lc ht nhn mnh. Lc ny gn cc proton v neutron li trong nhn nguyn t. N cng gi vng chnh bn thn cc ht proton v neutron, vn l iu cn thit bi v chng c to thnh t cc ht cn nh hn, cc quark chng ta cp n trong Chng 3. Lc ht nhn mnh l ngun nng lng cho mt tri v nng lng ht nhn, tuy nhin, ging nh lc yu, chng ta khng c tip xc trc tip vi chng. Thuyt lng t cho trng in t, gi l in ng lc hc lng t (quantum electrodynamics source), hay vit tt QED, c pht trin bi Richard Feynman cng nhng ngi khc, tr thnh mt hnh mu cho tt c l thuyt trng lng t. Nh chng ta ni, theo cc thuyt c in, cc lc c truyn bi cc trng. Nhng trong cc l thuyt trng lng t cc trng lc c hnh dung nh to nn t nhiu ht nguyn t khc nhau gi l cc boson, vn l cc ht mang lc bay qua li gia cc ht vt cht, truyn lc. Photon, ht ca nh sng, l mt v d ca boson. N chnh l ht boson truyn lc in t. Chuyn xy ra l mt ht vt cht, v d nh mt electron, pht ra mt boson, hay mt ht lc, v git ngc li, kh ging nh mt khu i bc git li sau khi bn mt pht i bc. Ht lc sau va chm vi mt ht vt cht khc v b hp th, lm thay i chuyn ng ca ht . Theo thuyt QED, tt c cc tng tc gia cc ht c in tch cc ht cm ng vi lc in t c m t trong khun kh s trao i cc photon. Cc d on ca QED c kim tra v c nhn thy l ph hp vi cc kt qu th nghim vi chnh xc cao. Nhng vic trin khai cc tnh ton ton hc c i hi trong QED c th gp kh khn. Vn , nh chng ta s thy sau y, l khi bn cng dn ci iu kin lng t m ta phi tnh n tt c cc lch s kh d m mt tng tc c th xy ra vo c cu trao i ht ni trn v d, tt c cc cch m cc ht lc c th c trao i dng ton hc ca n tr nn phc tp. Cng may l, cng vi vic pht kin ra tng v cc lch s thay th cch hnh dung v cc l thuyt lng t c m t trong chng va ri Feynman cng pht trin mt phng php th gn gng l gii cc lch s khc nhau, mt phng php ngy nay khng ch c p dng cho QED m tt c cc l thuyt trng lng t. Phng php th ca Feynman cung cp mt cch trc quan mi hng t trong tng trn cc lch s. Cc hnh nh ny, c gi l cc biu Feynman, l mt trong nhng cng c quan trng nht trong vt l hin i. Trong QED tng trn tt c cc lch s kh d c

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th c i din nh tng trn cc biu Feynman ging nh nhng hnh bn di, vn i din cho mt s trong nhng cch m hai electron phn tn nhau bng lc in t. Trong cc biu ny cc ng m tng trng cho electron v cc ng gn sng i din cho cc photon. Thi gian c quy c l tin theo chiu t di ln trn, v nhng ch m cc ng nhp li vi nhau tng ng vi cc photon c pht hay hp thu bi mt electron. Biu (A) tng trng cho hai electron tin n nhau, trao i mt photon, ri th tip tc ng ca chng. l cch n gin nht hai electron c th tng tc in t, nhng chng ta cn phi xt n tt c cc lch s kh d. Th nn chng ta phi gm lun cc biu ging (B). Biu ny cng m t hai ng tin li hai electron ang tin ti nhau v hai ng i ra cc electron phn tn nhau nhng trong biu ny cc electron trao i hai photon trc khi bay i. Cc biu c m phng y ch l mt s trong s cc xc sut; thc t. c mt s v cng cc biu , vn phi c phi c gii p bng ton hc.

Cc biu Feynman Cc biu nay lin h ti mt qu trnh trong cc electron phn tn nhau.

Cc biu ca Feynman khng ch l mt cch gn gng hnh dung v phn loi cch cc tng tc xy ra. Cc biu Feynman mang n nhng quy tc cho php chng ta c ra, t nhng ng v giao im trong mi biu , mt biu thc ton hc. Xc sut m, gi s, cc electron ang tin ti, vi mt ng lng ban u no , dn ti vic chng bay khi vi mt ng lng sau cng c th no lc ny thu c bng cch tng cc ng gp t mi biu Feynman. Vic c th tn cht cng sc, bi v, nh chng ta ni, c mt s v hn cc ng gp y. Hn na, d cho cc electron tin ti v bay i c gn mt nng lng v

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ng lng xc nh, cc ht trong nhng vng lp kn hm cha trong cc biu c th c mt nng lng hay ng lng bt k. iu l quan trng v khi thc hin tng Feynman ngi ta phi tng khng ch tt c cc biu m cn tt c nhng gi tr ca nng lng v ng nng . Cc biu Feynman cung cp cho cc nh vt l mt s h tr to ln trc quan v tnh ton cc xc sut ca nhng qu trnh c m t bi QED. Nhng chng khng cha c mt cn bnh m l thuyt phi hng chu: Khi bn cng cc ng gp t v hn nhng lch s khc nhau, bn nhn c mt kt qu v hn. (Nu cc s hng ln lt trong mt tng v hng gim nhanh, n c th khin tng tr nn hu hn, nhng chuyn y, khng may thay, khng xy ra y.) Mt trng hp ring, khi cc biu Feynman c cng dn vo, cu tr li c v nh ng rng cc electron c mt khi lng v in tch v hn. iu ny l ng ngn, v chng ta c th o c khi lng v in tch v chng l hu hn. x l cc v hn ny, mt th tc gi l ti bnh thng ha (hay ti chun ha renormalization lnd) c pht trin. Qu trnh trong ti bnh thng ha lin quan vic tr nhng i lng c xc nh v hn v m theo mt cch m, vi tnh ton ton hc k lng, tng ca cc gi tr v hn m v cc gi tr v hn dng xut hin trong l thuyt hy nhau hu ht, ch cha li mt phn nh cn li, chnh l gi tr c quan st hu hn ca khi lng v in tch. Nhng s vn dng ny nghe ging th lm bn nhn im v chui cho mt k kim tra ton trong trng, v tht s th ti bnh thng ha, nh cch gi ca n, m h v mt ton hc. Mt h qu l cc gi tr khi lng v in tch thu c bng phng php ny trn mt electron c th c gi tr hu hn bt k. iu c thun li l cc nh vt l c th chn cc v hn theo mt cch cho ra c kt qu ng, nhng s bt li l khi lng v in tch ca electron do khng th c d on t l thuyt.Tuy nhin mt khi chng ta c nh khi lng v in tch ca electron theo cch ny, ta c th s dng QED thc hin nhiu d on rt chnh xc khc, vn tt c u ng thun vi cc k su st vi quan st, cho nn ti bnh thng ha l mt trong nhng thnh phn thit yu trong QED. Mt thng li sm ca QED, v d, l d on chnh xc v ci gi l s dch chuyn Lamb, mt thay i nng lng nh mt trong cc trng thi ca nguyn t hydr c khm ph vo nm 1947.

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Cc biu Feynman Richard Feynman li mt chic x thng c cc biu Feynman c sn ln thn. Phng tc ca ngh s ny c to ra biu din cc biu tho lun trn. D Feynman mt nm 1988, chic xe thng vn cn u trong kho gn Caltech California Nam.

Thnh cng ca ti bnh thng ha ca QED khch l cc n lc i tm cc l thuyt trng lng t m t ba lc t nhin cn li ca t nhin. Nhng s phn chia cc lc t nhin thnh bn nhm th hn l nhn to v l mt h qu do s thiu hiu bit ca chng ta. Ngi ta t tm mt l thuyt cho mi th m s thng nht bn nhm v mt nh lut n l tng thch vi thuyt lng t. y s l chic chn thnh ca vt l. Mt du hiu cho thy s thng nht l cch tip cn ng n t l thuyt v lc yu. Thuyt trng lng t m t lc yu t n khng th t ti bnh thng ha; ni r ra, n c nhng v hn (v cng ln-lnd) khng th b hy bng cch tr mt s hu hn cc i lng nh khi lng v in tch. Th nhng, nm 1967 Abdus Salam v Steven Weinberg mi ngi c lp vi nhau xut mt l thuyt trong lc in t c hp nht vi lc yu, v nhn ra rng s hp nht cha c iu t hi ca cc v hn. Lc c hp nht c l lc in yu. L thuyt ca n c th c ti bnh thng ha, v n d on nhng ht mi gi l W+, W-, v Z0. Bng chng cho ht Z0 c pht hin ti CERN Geneva vo nm 1973. Salam v Weinberg c trao gii Nobel vo nm 1979, d cc ht W v Z khng c quan st trc tip mi ti nm 1983. Lc mnh c th c ti bnh thng ha bi chnh n trong mt l thuyt gi l QCD, hay ng lc hc sc t lng t (quantum chromodynamics source). Theo QCD, proton, neutron v nhiu ht nguyn t khc ca vt cht c to ra t cc quark, vn c mt c tnh ni bt m cc nh vt l gi thnh mu (nn mi c thut ng ng lc hc sc t

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lng t, mc d mu sc ca quark ch l cc mc c ch chng lin h g vi mu sc nhn thy c c). Cc quark chia thnh ba ci gi l mu sc, , lc, lam. Thm vo , mi quark c mt cng s phn ht , v mu sc ca cc ht ny c gi l phn-, phn-lc, v phn-lam. tng l ch c cc t hp to thnh khng c th tn ti nh cc ht t do. C hai cch t c cc t hp quark trung ha nh vy. Mt mu v phnmu ca n hy nhau, nn mt quark v mt phn-quark to thnh cp khng mu, mt ht khng bn gi l meson. Ngoi ra, khi tt c ba mu (hay phn-mu) c trn vi nhau, kt qu to ra khng mu. Ba quark, mi ht vi mt mu, hnh thnh nn mt ht bn gi l baryon, vi cc proton v neutron l v d ca chng (v ba phn quark to nn cc phn ht ca baryon). Proton v neutron l cc baryon to nn ht nhn ca cc nguyn t v l nn tng cho tt c vt cht bnh thng trong v tr.

Cc Baryon v Meson Cc Baryon v Meson c coi nh to nn t cc quark buc li vi nhau bng lc mnh. Khi nhng ht ny va chm, chng c th trao i cc quark, nhng cc quark n l khng th c quan st.

QCD cn c mt c tnh gi l t do tim cn. T do tim cn c ngha l cc lc mnh gia cc quark l nh khi cc quark gn nhau nhng tng ln khi chng xa nhau, kh ging nh th chng c ni vi nhau bi cc si dy thun. T do tim cn gii thch ti sao chng ta khng thy cc quark bit lp trong t nhin v cha c kh nng to ra chng trong phng th nghim. Tuy nhin, mc d chng ta khng th quan st cc quark n l, chng ta chp nhn m hnh v n lm rt tt vic gii thch cho hnh vi ca cc proton, neutron, v cc ht vt cht khc. Sau khi hp nht cc lc yu v lc in t, cc nh vt l thp nin 1970 tm kim mt cch mang lc mnh vo trong l thuyt . C mt s ci gi l nhng thuyt thng nht ln hay cc GUT thng nht cc lc

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mnh vi lc yu v in t, nhng chng hu ht u d on rng cc proton, th m chng ta c to ra, s phn r, trung bnh, sau khong 1032 nm. l mt i sng rt di, khi bit rng v tr ch mi 1010 nm tui. Nhng trong vt l lng t, khi ta ni i sng trung bnh ca mt ht l 1032 nm, chng ta khng c ngha l phn ln cc ht sng xp x 1032 nm, c hn km mt cht. Thay vo , iu m chng ta mun ni l, mi nm, ht c mt kh nng 1 trn 1032 s phn r. Nh mt kt qu, nu bn quan st mt b cha 1032 proton trong vi nm, bn s phi thy mt vi proton phn r. N khng phi qu kh xy mt b cha nc nh vy, v 1032 proton c cha trong ch mt ngn tn nc. Cc nh khoa hc thc hin nhng th nghim nh vy. N li ha ra l thm d cc phn r v phn lp chng khi cc s kin gy ra bi nhng tia v tr lin min di xung chng ta t khng gian l chuyn khng d. gim thiu s nhiu, cc th nghim c thc hin di su trong nhng ni ging nh m ca Cng ty Khai m v Luyn Kim Kamioka 3.281 dm (10,7 km) bn di mt ngn ni Nht, vn c che chn tng i khi cc tia v tr. Theo mt kt qu t nhng quan st vo nm 2009, cc nh nghin cu kt lun rng nu proton c thc s phn r i na, th i sng ca proton vn ln hn 1034 nm, tr thnh mt tin xu cho cc thuyt thng nht ln. Bi v cc chng c quan st trn tht bi trong vic ng h cc GUT, phn ln cc nh vt l tip nhn mt gi thuyt kiu ng bin gi l m hnh chun, vn gp lun l thuyt thng nht ca lc in yu v QCD thnh mt l thuyt cho cc lc mnh. Th nhng trong m hnh ny, cc lc in yu v lc mnh tc dng tch bit v khng thc s c thng nht. M hnh chun rt thnh cng v ng thun vi tt c cc chng c quan st hin thi, nh n khng tha ng n cng v, cha k n vic khng thng nht lc in yu v lc mnh, n cn khng k n lc hp dn.

ng mt ci khung xung quanh n, ti e, s chng bin n thnh mt l thuyt thng nht.

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Mi vic chng t s kh khn khi ta sp nhp lc mnh vi cc lc in yu v lc in t, nhng cc vn khng l g so vi vi vn sp nhp lc hp dn vi ba lc kia, hay thm ch l to ra mt thuyt lng t c lp cho lc hp dn. L do m mt thuyt lng t cho lc hp dn thc s kh khn to ra chnh l x l nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg, m chng ta tho lun trong Chng 4. N khng r rng, nhng ha ra l khi xt ti nguyn l , gi tr ca mt trng v t l thanh i ca n ng vai tr nh l v tr v vn tc ca mt ht. Ngha l, mt i lng cng c xc nh chnh xc, i lng kia cng c xc nh km chnh xc. Mt h qu quan trng ca n l khng c th g l khng gian trng. l bi v khng gian trng c ngha l c gi tr ca mt trng v t l thay i ca n l chnh xc zero. (Nu t l thay i ca trng khng phi l zero khng gian s khng tip tc trng khng.) Bi v nguyn l bt nh khng cho php gi tr ca c v t l thay i trng l chnh xc, khng gian s khng bao gi trng. N c th c mt trng thi nng lng cc tiu, gi l chn khng, nhng trng thi l thuc vo ci m chng ta gi l s chp chn lng t, hay s dao ng chn khng cc ht v trng run ng ra ri vo gia s tn ti. Mt ngi c th hnh dung s dao ng chn khng nh l cc cp ht v phn ht xut hin cng nhau ti mt thi im no , chuyn ng tch ri, ri li tin ti nhau v t hy nhau. Trong cc hng t ca cc biu Feynman, chng tng ng vi cc vng lp kn. Cc ht ny c gi l cc ht o. Khng ging nh cc ht tht, ht o khng th c quan st trc tip vi mt my thm d ht. Tuy nhin, tc ng gin tip ca chng, nh cc thay i nh trong nng lng ca cc qu o electron, c th o c, v ng thun vi cc d on l thuyt vi mt chnh xc ni bt. Vn ch cc ht o c nng lng, v bi v c v hn cc cp o, chng s c mt nng lng v hn. Theo thuyt tng i tng qut, iu ny c ngha l chng s b cong v tr v mt kch thc nh v hn, vn r rng khng xy ra. S tai hi ca cc v hn tng t nh vn xy ra trong cc l thuyt v cc lc mnh, yu, v in t, ngoi tr trong cc trng hp ny ti bnh thng ha loi b cc v hn. Nhng cc vng lp kn trong cc biu Feynman cho lc hp dn sn sinh ra cc v hn vn khng th c hp thu bi ti bnh thng ha bi v thuyt tng i tng qut khng c cc thng s c th ti bnh thng (nh l gi tr ca khi lng v in tch) loi b tt c cc v hn lng t khi l thuyt. Chng ta t cn li mt l thuyt hp dn d on rng cc i lng c th, nh l cong ca khng-thi gian, l v hn, vn khng cch no thnh mt v tr c th c. iu ny ngha l kh nng duy nht thu c mt l thuyt hp l phi l cho tt c cc v hn lm cch no t hy, m khng cn dnh dng ti ti bnh thng ha. Nm 1976 mt gii php kh thi cho vn c tm thy. N c gi l siu hp dn. Tin t siu khng c ch dn vo v my nh

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vt l ngh n tht siu nu nh thuyt hp dn lng t ny thc s lm ra vic. Thay vo , siu lin h n mt loi i xng m thuyt ny s hu, gi l siu i xng. Trong vt l, mt h c bo l c tnh i xng nu cc c tnh ca n khng b nh hng bi mt s php bin hnh nh l xoay trong khng gian hay ly i xng gng. V d, nu bn lt mt ci bnh vng ln, n vn trng khng i (tr phi n c mt lp s c la, trng hp ny th ch c v ngon hn khi xi n). Siu i xng l mt loi i xng tinh t hn m khng th lin hip vi mt php bin hnh trong khng gian thng. Mt trong nhng dn ca siu i xng l cc ht lc v ht vt cht, v do lc v vt cht, ch l hai kha cnh ca cng mt th. Ni thc t, c ngha l mi ht vt cht, nh l mt quark, s phi c mt ht cng s l mt ht lc, v mi ht lc, ging nh photon, s phi c mt ht cng s vn l ht vt cht. iu ny dn ti mt tim nng gii quyt vn cc v hn bi v ha ra cc v hn trong nhng vng lp kn ca cc ht lc l dng trong khi cc v hn trong nhng vng lp kn ca cc ht vt cht l m, th nn cc v hn trong l thuyt ni ln t cc ht lc v cc ht vt cht cng s ca chng c xu hng hy nhau. Khng may thay, cc tnh ton cn thit xc nhn nu c mt vi v hn cn li cha b hy trong thuyt siu hp dn th qu di v kh khn v tim n kh nng sai st ln n ni khng ai sn sng m nhn chng. Phn ln cc nh vt l tin rng, d vy, siu hp dn hn l cu tr li ng cho vn hp nht lc hp dn vi cc lc khc. C l bn s ngh hiu lc ca siu i xng s l mt iu d kim tra ch cn xem xt c tnh ca cc ht ang tn ti v xem xem nu chng bt cp. Khng c nhng ht cng s no nh vy tng c quan st. Nhng nhiu tnh ton khc nhau m cc nh vt l thc hin cho du hiu rng cc ht cng s tng ng vi cc ht chng ta quan st phi c khi lng bng mt ngn ln mt proton, thm ch nng hn. N qu qu ln nhng ht nh th c th c thy trong cc th nghim t trc n nay, nhng vn c hy vng l cc ht nh th s cui cng c to ra ti My Va chm Hadron Ln Geneva. tng rng siu i xng l ch cht cho s to thnh siu hp dn, nhng khi nim thc s bt ngun t nhiu nm trc khi cc nh l thuyt nghin cu mt l thuyt s khai gi l l thuyt dy. Theo nh thuyt dy, cc ht khng phi l nhng im, m l cc kiu hnh rung ng c di nhng khng c cao hay rng ging nh cc mnh dy mnh v hn. Cc thuyt dy cng dn ti cc v hn, nhng n c tin rng trong mt phin bn ng chng s hy nhau ht. Chng cn c mt c tnh k l: chng ch khng mu thun trong mt khng-thi gian c mi chiu, thay v l bn chiu thng thng. Mi chiu c th nghe rt thch th, nhng chng s gy ra phin toi ln khi bn qun ch mnh xe. Nu chng hin din, ti sao chng ta khng nhn thy cc chiu thm vo? Theo nh thuyt dy, chng b cong li thnh mt khng gian rt nh. hnh dung iu ny,

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th tng tng mt mt hai chiu. Chng ta gi mt mt hai chiu v bn cn hai con s (v d, cc ta dc v ngang) nh v im bt k trn . Mt khng gian hai chiu khc l b mt mt chic ng ht. nh v mt im trong khng gian , bn cn bit im u dc chiu di chic ng ht, v u trn chiu phng v (v tr trn vng trn - lnd). Nhng nu chic ng rt mnh, bn s c c mt v tr xp x rt tt khi ch mn ti ta dc theo chiu di ng, cho nn bn c th b qua chiu phng v. V nu nh chic ng c ng knh mt phn triu triu triu triu triu inch, bn s khng ch cht g ti chiu phng v y c. l hnh dung ca cc nh l thuyt dy v cc chiu thm chng cong li, hay un li mt cch cao , trn mt phm vi rt nh m chng ta khng th nhn thy chng. Tron thuyt dy cc chiu thm b un li thnh ci c gi l khng gian ni ti, tri ngc vi khng gian ba chiu m chng ta tri nghim trong cuc sng hng ngy. Nh ta s thy, cc trng thi ni ti ny khng ch l nhng chiu n np linh tinh m nhm chng thc s c tm quan trng vt l.

Cc ng v cc ng Mt chic ng c hai chiu, nhng nu bn knh ca n b hay c nhn t mt khong cch n c v nh c mt chiu, ging nh mt ng.

Thm vo cu hi v cc chiu, thuyt dy cn hng chu mt vn khp khing khc: C v nh c t nht nm l thuyt khc nhau v hng triu cch m cc chiu thm vo c th b un li, hon ton l mt iu lm xu h cho kh nng c ngi ng h rng thuyt dy l l thuyt c nht cho mi th. Th ri, khong nm 1994, ngi ta bt u khm ph ra cc lng tnh rng cc l thuyt dy khc nhau, v cc cch khc nhau un cc chiu thm li, ch n gin l cc cch khc nhau m t cng cc hin tng trong bn chiu. Hn na, ngi ta cng nhn thy thuyt siu hp dn cng lin quan ti nhng l thuyt khc theo cch ny. Cc nh l thuyt dy gi b thuyt ph rng nm l thuyt dy khc nhau v siu hp dn ch l cc xp x khc nhau ca cng mt l thuyt c s hn, mi ci c hiu lc trong cc tnh hung khc nhau.

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L thuyt c s hn c gi l thuyt M, nh chng ta cp khi trc. Khng ai c v nh bit M ngha l g, nhng n c th l master, miracle, hay mystery (mu mc, mu nhim, ma qui - lnd, tm dch). N c v l c ba. Ngi ta vn ang tm cch gii m bn cht ca thuyt M, nhng iu c v nh l bt kh thi. C th l gic m truyn thng ca nh vt l v mt l thuyt n l v t nhin b tc, v mt cch cch trnh by n l khng tn ti. C th l m t v tr, chng ta phi mn ti cc l thuyt khc nhau trong cc tnh hung khc nhau. Mi l thuyt c th c phin bn v thc ti ca ring n, nhng theo nh thc ti ph thuc m hnh lun, iu c th chp nhn c chng no cc l thuyt cn ng thun nhau v cc d on ca chng bt c khi no chng gi chng, ni r ra, khi chng u c ng dng. D c d khng vic thuyt M tn ti nh mt phng php thng nht hay ch l mt mng li, chng ta thc s bit c mt s c tnh ca n. u tin, thuyt M c mi mt chiu khng-thi gian, khng phi mi. Cc nh l thuyt dy t lu nghi ng rng d on v mi chiu phi cn c iu chnh, v nghin cu gn y cho thy rng mt chiu thc s b b qua. Hn na, thuyt M c th cha khng ch cc dy rung ng m cn c cc ht im, cc mng hai chiu, cc git ba chiu, v nhng i tng thm ch kh hnh dung hn v chim thm ch nhiu chiu khng gian hn, ti chn. Nhng i tng ny c gi l cc p-brane (vi p chy t khng ti chn). Th cn mt s khng l cc cch un cc chiu b xu? Trong thuyt M cc chiu khng gian thm ny khng th c un li theo cch bt k. Dng ton hc ca l thuyt gii hn cc cch thc m cc chiu ca khng gian ni ti c th b un li. Hnh dng chnh xc ca cc khng gian ni ti xc nh c gi tr ca cc hng s vt l, nh l in tch ca cc electron, v bn cht ca cc tng tc gia cc ht nguyn t. Ni mt cch khc, n xc nh cc nh lut hin hin ca t nhin. Chng ta ni hin hin bi v chng ta nhm ti cc nh lut chng ta quan st trong v tr ca mnh cc nh lut ca bn lc, v cc thng s nh l khi lng v in tch vn c trng cho cc ht nguyn t. Nhng cc nh c s hn chnh l cc nh lut ca thuyt M. Cc nh lut ca thuyt M t cho php cc v tr khc nhau vi cc nh lut hin hin khc nhau, ph thuc vo cch khng gian ni ti b un li. Thuyt M c ccc nghim cho php nhiu khng gian ni ti khc nhau, c l khong 10500, c ngha n cho php 10500 v tr, mi ci c cc nh lut ca ring n. hnh dung s nhiu c no, th ngh rng: Nu mt ai c th phn tch cc nh lut d on cho mi v tr trong s trong ch mt mili giy v bt u vic y t v n ln, n hin ti ai s ch mi nghin cu xong 1020 trong s . V l khng c vic gii lao ung c ph.

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Hng th k trc Newton ch ra rng cc phng trnh ton hc c th cung cp mt m t chnh xc gy sng st v cch m cc i tng tng tc, trn c tri t v thng gii. Cc nh khoa hc c dn ti nim tin l tng lai ca ton th v tr c th c phi by ch cn chng ta bit c l thuyt thch hp v c sc mnh tnh ton. Th ri xut hin no bt inh lng t, khng gian cong, cc quark, cc dy, v cc chiu thm, v kt qu thc cho 10500 v tr, mi ci vi nhng nh lut khc nhau, ch mt trong tng ng vi v tr m ta bit. Hy vng ban u ca cc nh vt l to ra mt l thuyt n l gii thch cho cc nh lut hin hin ca v tr ca chng ta nh mt h qu kh d duy nht ca mt vi gi s n gin c l phi b t b. N li cho chng ta iu g? Nu thuyt M cho php 10500 tp hp cc nh lut hin hin, lm th no chng ta ri vo v tr ny, vi cc nh lut hin hin cho chng ta? V cc th gii kh d khc th sao?

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VI
Ngi Boshongo trung Phi k li rng vo thu bt u v tr ch c bng ti, nc, v v thn v i Bumba. Mt ngy n Bumba, trong cn au tht t d dy, nn ra mt tri. Lt sau, mt tri lm bc hi mt phn nc, l mt t. Nhng Bumba vn cn au, v nn ra tip nhng th khc. No mt trng, cc tinh t, ri th mt vi con vt: con bo, c su, con ra v cui cng n con ngi. Nhng ngi Maya ca Mexico v Trung M cng k v qung thi gian tng t trc lc to th khi tt thy ch c bin, tri, v ng Sng To tn ti. Trong huyn thoi Maya ng Sng To, khng vui v chng c ai tn vinh ng, to ra mt t, ni non v hu ht cc con vt. Nhng cc con vt khng bit ni, ri th ng quyt nh to ra con ngi. u tin ng to ra chng t bn v t, nhng chng ch ni nhng iu nham nh. ng cho chng r i v th li ln na, ln ny thit k nn con ngi t g cy. Nhng con ngi ny th li n n. ng quyt nh hy dit chng, nhng chng trn vo rng, hng chu nhng st m trn ng trn chy v i t t, to ra loi vt ngy nay ta bit n nh loi kh. Sao tht bi ch y, ng Sng To cui cng i n mt cng thc ra hn, v kin to nn nhng con ngi t go trng v ng vng. Ngy nay ta lm ra ethanol t ng cc, nhng vn cn lu mi b c vi k cng ca ng Sng To khi to nhng ngi ung n. Cc huyn thoi sng to nh trn y u n lc tr li nhng cu hi chng ta ra trong quyn sch ny: Ti sao li c mt v tr, v ti sao v tr li nh kiu ca n? Nng lc ca chng ta tm hiu nhng cu hi nh th tng dn theo cc th k k t nhng ngi Hy Lp c i, v tr nn su sc nht sut th k va qua. c trang b vi nhng kin thc t cc chng trc, chng ta gi sn sng trnh by mt cu tr li kh d cho nhng cu hi ny. Mt iu c l hin nhin thm ch trong nhng thi im hin ti l hoc v tr l mt sng to gn y cn khng th nhn loi ch mi tn ti trong mt tch tc ngn ngi ca lch s v tr. l bi v loi ngi tin b mt cch qu nhanh chng v hiu bit v cng ngh n ni nu chng ta c mt trong hng triu nm, nhn loi hn s phi tin xa vi kh nng lm ch ca mnh. Theo nh kinh Cu c, Cha to ra Aam v va ch su ngy sau to th. Gim mc Ussher, tng gim mc ca Ireland t 1625 n 1656, xc nh ngun gc ca v tr thm ch cn chi tit hn, lc chn gi sng ngy 27 thng Mi, nm 4004 TCN. Chng ta nhn mt ci nhn khc: rng con ngi l mt sng to gn y nhng v tr chnh n cng bt u rt

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lu trc , khong 13,7 t nm v trc. Chng c khoa hc thc s u tin rng v tr c mt khi u xut hin vo nhng nm 1920. Nh chng ta nhc n trong Chng 3, l thi m hu ht cc nh khoa hc tin vo mt v tr tnh vn vn lun tn ti. Chng c cho iu i lp l gin tip, da trn nhng quan st m Edwin Hubble thc hin vi chic knh vin vng 100 inch Ni Wilson, trong cc ngn i pha trn Pasadena, California. Bng cch phn tch quang ph chng pht ra, Hubble xc nh rng tt c gn nh tt c cc thin h u ang chuyn ng ra xa chng ta, v chng cng xa th chng cng chuyn ng nhanh hn. Nm 1929 ng xut bn mt nh lut lin quan ti t l chy i ca cc thin h vi khong cch ca chng ti chng ta, v kt lun rng v tr ang gin n. Nu l s tht, vy th v tr phi nh hn trong qu kh. Thc t, nu chng ta ngoi suy v qu kh xa xm, tt c vt cht v nng lng trong v tr s phi b tp trung li trong mt vng cc b vi mt v nng lng khng th tng tng ni, v nu chng quay tr li xa, s c mt thi im khi tt thy bt u s kin m gi ta gi l v n ln. tng rng v tr ang gin n cn mt cch hiu tinh t mt cht. V d, chng ta khng c l v tr ang gin n theo kiu cch m, v nh, mt ngi c th m rng ngi nh ca h, bng cch ko mt bc tng v t thm vo mt ci nh tm mi ni trc kia mt cy si uy nghi vn ng. Thay vo khng gian m rng chnh n, chnh l khong cch gia hai im bt k ni trong v tr ang tng ln. tng l dng vo nhng nm 1930 gia lm tranh ci, nhng mt trong nhng cch tt nht trc quan n vn l mt php n d c trnh by vo nm 1931 bi nh thin vn hc i hc Cambridge Arthur Eddington. Eddington hnh dung v tr nh l b mt ca mt qu bng bay ang phnh ra, v tt c cc thien h nh nhng im trn b mt . Hnh nh ny minh ha r rng ti sao cc thin h xa bay i nhanh hn nhng thin h gn. Ly v d, nu bn knh ca qu bng gp i ln sau mi gi, th khong cch gia hai thin h bt k trn qu bng s gp i sau mi gi. Nu mt thi im no hai thin h cch nhau mt inch, mt ting sau chng s cch nhau 2 inch, v chng c v nh di chuyn tng i vi nhau vi t l mt ich mi gi. Nhng nu chng bt u vi khong cch 2 inch, mt gi sau chng s cch nhau 4 inch v s c v di chuyn khi nhau vi t l 2 inch mt gi. chnh l iu m Hubble khm ph ra: mt thin h cng xa bao nhiu, n cng di chuyn khi chng ta nhanh by nhiu. C mt iu quan trng cn nhn ra l s gin n ca khng gian khng lm nh hng ti kch thc ca cc i tng vt cht nh cc thin h, ngi sao, qu to, nguyn t hay nhng i tng khc c gi li bng mt loi lc no . V d nh, nu chng ta khoanh trn mt cm thin h trn qu bng, vng trn s khng n rng nh qu bng n rng. Thay vo , bi v cc thin h c buc vi nhau bi cc lc hp dn, vng trn v cc thin h trong s gi nguyn kch thc v cu trc

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ca chng trong khi qu bng gin n. iu ny l quan trng bi v chng ta ch c th thm d c s m rng ch khi cc cng c o c ca chng ta c kch thc c nh. Nu mi th u t do gin n, ri n chng ta, thc thang, phng th nghim, v tt thy u gin n cng t l th ri chng ta s khng ch c s khc bit no.

Qu bng bay V tr Cc thin h xa xm ri xa chng ta nh th ton b v tr ang trn mt qu bng bay khng l.

V tr ang gin n l mt thc t khc hn i vi Einstein. Nhng kh nng cc thin h ang chuyn ng ra xa khi nhau c xut mt vi nm trc cc bi vit ca Hubble trn bnh din l thuyt bt ngun t cc phng trnh ca chnh Einstein. Nm 1922, nh vt l ngi Nga Alexander Friedmann xem xt iu g s xy ra trong mt m hnh v tr da trn hai gi thit vn gin lc ha dng ton hc mt cch v cng: v tr trng ng nht theo mi hng, v n vn trng nh vy t mi im quan st. Chng ta bit rng gi thit th nht ca Friedmann th khng tuyt i ng v tr may thay khng ng nht theo mi ni! Nu chng ta ng thng ln theo mt hng, chng ta c th thy mt tri; theo mt hng khc, mt trng hay mt n di ma c rng di c. Nhng v tr thc s c v i khi nh nhau theo mi hng khi c nhn trn mt phm vi rng hn nhiu thm ch rng hn khong cch gia cc thin h. iu kiu no ging nh nhn xung mt cnh rng. Nu bn gn, bn c th phn bit tng chic l mt, hay t nht cng tng ci cy mt, v khong khng gia chng. Nhng nu bn rt cao pha trn n mc khi gi ngn ci ln n s che c dm vung cy ci, cnh rng s c v nh mt mng xanh ng nht. Chng ta s ni rng, trn phm vi , cnh rng l ng nht.

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Da trn cc gi thit ca mnh Friedmann c th pht hin ra mt nghim trong v tr gin n theo cch m Hubble sm sau khm ph ra l ng. C th, m hnh v tr ca Friedmann bt u vi kch thc zero v gin n cho ti khi lc ht hp dn ko n chm li, v cui cng khin cho n sp ln chnh n. (Ngoi ra cn c, ha ra l vy, 2 loi nghim cho cc phng trnh ca Einstein vn cng tha mn cc gi thit cho m hnh ca Friedmann, mt ci tng ng vi mt v tr trong s gin n tip tc mi mi, d n c gim i mt cht, v mt nghim khc v mt v tr trong t l gin n gim dn v khng, nhng khng bao gi t ti .) Friedmann cht mt vi nm sau khi gii thiu cng trnh ny, v cc tng ca ng vn khng c bit ti rng ri cho ti sau khi c khm ph ca Hubble. Nhng vo nm 1927 mt gio s vt l v mt linh mc Cng gio La M tn Georges Lematre xut mt tng tng t: Nu bn ln theo lch s ca v tr ngc li v qu kh, n tr nn b xu v b xu hn na cho ti khi bn i n mt s kin sng to th m gi ta gi l v n ln. Khng phi mi ngi iu thch bc tranh v v n ln. Thc t, thut ng v n ln c c ra vo nm 1949 bi nh vt l thin vn Fred Hoyle, ngi tin vo mt v tr gin n mi mi, v c rng thut ng ch l mt m t ch giu. Nhng quan st trc tip u tin ng h cho tng vn cha xut hin mi ti nm 1965, bng khm ph v c mt nn vi sng m nht khp khng gian. Bc x nn vi sng v tr ny, hay CMBR (cosmic microwave background radiation source), ging y th trong l vi sng ca bn, ch l km mnh hn nhiu. Bn c th quan st c CMBR cho bn thn bng cch d truyn hnh nh bn sang mt knh khng dng n vi phn trm trong nhng m tuyt bn thy trn truyn hnh l gy ra bi n. Bc x ny c khm ph tnh c khi hai nh khoa hc ca Phng th nghim Bell ang c gng loi b s nhiu khi ng ten vi sng ca h. Ban u h ngh s nhiu c th n t m phn chim cu u trong thit b, nhng ha ra vn ca h c mt ngun gc th v hn CMBR chnh l bc x cn li t mt v tr s khai cc k nng v c phi tn ti ngay sau v n ln.Trong khi v tr gin n, n ngui li cho ti khi bc x ny tr thnh tn d m nht m gi ta quan st c. Vo thi im hin ti nhng vi sng ny ch c th hm n ca bn n khong 270 bch phn 3 trn khng tuyt i, v khng c ch n bng ng cho lm. Cc nh thin vn t lu cng tm thy du vt ng h cho bc tranh v n ln v mt v tr s khai nng v b xu. V d nh, trong khong pht u tin, v tr phi nng hn trung tm ca mt ngi sao in hnh. Sut giai on ton b v tr phi tc dng nh mt l phn ng tng hp ht nhn. Cc phn ng s phi chm dt khi v tr gin n v ngui li , tuy nhin l thuyt d on rng iu ny s li mt v tr tng hp nn t ch yu l hydrogen, ng thi khong 23 phn trm l helium, vi mt

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cht lithium (tt c cc nguyn t khc u c to ra sao , bn trong cc ngi sao). Cc tnh ton ny kh tng quan vi s lng helium, hydrogen, v lithium m chng ta quan st c. Cc o c v s ph bin ca helium v CMBR cung cp mt chng c thuyt phc cho bc tranh v n ln nh l mt m t c hiu lc v thu s khai, nhng n l sai lm khi thc s chp nhn v n ln, ni r ra, khi ngh rng ca Einstein cung cp mt bc tranh thc s v ngun gc ca v tr. l v thuyt tng i tng qut d on c mt thi im trong nhit , mt , v cong ca v tr l v hn, mt tnh hung m cc nh ton hc gi l im k d. i vi mt nh vt l iu ny c ngha l cc nh lut ca Einstein v hiu v do khng th dng d on v tr bt u nh th no, ch c th l n tin ha nh th v sau. V vy d chng ta c th mn cc phng trnh ca thuyt tng i tng qut v cc quan st v thng gii tm hiu v v tr s khai, n l khng chnh xc khi mang c bc tranh v tr v c im bt u. Chng ta s mau xt n vn ngun gc ca v tr, nhng u tin l mt vi li v pha u tin ca s gin n. Cc nh vt l gi n l s lm pht. Tr phi bn sng Zimbabwe, ni m lm pht tin t gn y t ti 200.000.000 phn trm, thut ng ny nghe khng qu hm h. Nhng theo nh cc c tnh d dt th, sut s lm pht v tr ny, v tr phi gin n theo mt h s ca 1.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000.000 trong 0,00000000000000000000000000000000001 giy. N nh mt ng xu c ng knh 1 xngtimt bng nhin bng ra gp mi triu ln b rng ca di Ngn H. iu c v vi phm thuyt tng i, vn rng buc rng khng g c th chuyn ng nhanh hn nh sng, nhng gii hn vn tc khng p dng cho bn thn khng gian. tng v mt chng lm pht th din ra c xut ln u tin vo nm 1980, da trn cc nh gi vn vt xa thuyt tng i tng qut ca Einstein v c mang vo c cc kha cnh ca thuyt lng t. Bi v chng ta khng c mt thuyt hp dn lng t hon chnh, cc chi tit vn ang c xem xt, v cc nh vt l vn khng chc s lm pht xy ra mt cch chnh xc nh th no. Nhng theo nh l thuyt, s gin n gy ra bi s lm pht phi khng hon ton ng nht, nh c d on trong bc tranh truyn thng v v n ln. Nhng s khng ng u ny s to ra nhng bin thin cc nh trong nhit ca CMBR trn cc hng khc nhau. Cc bin thin l qu nh c th c pht hin ti nhng nm 1960, nhng chng c pht hin vo nm 1992 bi v tinh COBE ca NASA, v sau c o c bi vt k tha ca n, v tinh WMAP, c phng bm 2001. Kt qu l, chng ta gi c th t tin rng s lm pht thc s din ra. Ma mai thay, d cc bin thin trong CMBR l bng chng cho s lm pht, mt l do khin s lm pht thnh mt khi nim quan trng chnh l s ng nht gn nh hon ho v nhit ca CMBR. Nu bn khin cho

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mt phn ca mt vt th nng hn phn xung quanh v ri ch, ch nng s ngui i v vng xung quanh ca n s nng ln cho ti khi nhit ca c vt l ng nht. Mt cch tng t, mt ngi c th hnh dung v tr c mt nhit ng nht. Nhng qu trnh ny tn thi gian, v nu nh s lm pht khng din ra, s chng c thi gian trong lch s v tr cho sc nng ti cc vng tch bit ca v tr cn bng, gi s l tc ca s truyn sc nng b gii hn bi tc nh sng. Mt giai on vi s gin n rt quyt lit (nhanh hn nhiu vn tc nh sng) gii ta iu v s c thi gian cho s cn bng xy ra trong mt v tr s khai tin lm pht cc k b. S lm pht gii thch cho c pht n trong v n ln, ch t theo kiu l s gin n n i din cho vn quyt lit hn nhiu so vi s gin n c d on bi thuyt v n ln trong tng i tng qut trong khong thi gian m s lm pht din ra. Vn l, cho cc m hnh l thuyt ca chng ta v s lm pht hot ng, trng thi khi u ca v tr phi c thit t theo mt cch rt c bit v rt bt kh thi. Th nn thuyt lm pht truyn thng tho g mt tp hp cc vn nhng to ra mt tp hp khc s cn n mt trng thi khi u rt c bit. Vn thi im zero y b loi b trong l thuyt v s sng to ca v tr chng ta sp sa m t. Bi v chng ta khng th m t s sng to c mn ti thuyt tng i tng qut ca Einstein, nu chng ta mun m t ngun gc ca v tr, thuyt tng i tng qut cn phi c thay th bng l thuyt hon chnh hn. Mt ngi vn s trng i mt l thuyt hon chnh hn ngay c nu thuyt tng i tng qut khng b v hiu bi v n khng tnh ti cc cu trc vt cht kch thc nh, vn b chi phi bi thuyt lng t. Chng ta cp trong Chng 4 rng trong hu ht cc mc ch thc t thuyt lng t khng khng gi nhiu lin h ti vic nghin cu cc cu trc kch thc ln ca v tr bi v thuyt lng t p dng cho vic m t bn cht trn cc kch thc vi m. Nhng nu bn i ngc li thi gian xa, khi v tr cn nh nh kch c Planck, mt phn triu t t t mt xngtimt, l kch thc m thuyt lng t thc s phi c tnh ti. Cho nn d ta cha c mt l thuyt hp dn lng t hon chnh, chng ta bit rng ngun gc ca v tr l mt s kin lng t. Kt qu l, cng nh khi ta kt hp thuyt lng t v thuyt tng i tng qut ch t l cho trc mt suy ra thuyt lm pht, nu chng ta mun i tr li thm ch xa hn v hiu c ngun gc v tr, chng ta phi kt hp nhng g chng ta bit v thuyt tng i tng qut v thuyt lng t. nhn ra iu ny hot ng nh th no, chng ta cn phi hiu nguyn l m lc hp dn lm cong khng gian v thi gian. S cong ca khng gian th d trc quan hn s cong thi gian. Th tng tng v tr l b mt ca mt bn bi da phng. B mt ca chic bn l khng gian phng, t nht trong hai chiu. Nu bn ln mt hn bi trn bn n s i theo

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mt ng thng. Nhng nu chic bn tr nn cong hay lm xung ti nhng ni, nh trong hnh minh ha bn di, th vin bi s ln vng.

S cong khng gian vt cht v nng lng lm cong khng gian, thay i qu o ca cc i tng.

Ta d dng thy lm th no chic bn bi da b ko cong trong v d ny bi v n cong sang mt chiu th ba ngoi, m ta c th thy c. Bi v chng ta khng th bc ra ngoi khng-thi gian ca mnh quan st s cong ca n, s cong khng-thi gian trong v tr ca chng ta th kh m tng tng hn nhiu. Nhng cong c th c thm d ngay c khi bn khng th bc ra v quan st n bng nhn thc ca mt khng gian rng hn. N c th c thm d ngay trong chnh bn thn khng gian . Th tng tng mt con kin hin vi b giam trong b mt ca chic bn. Mc d khng c kh nng ri khi chic bn, con kin c th thm d s cong bng cch thu thp cc khong cch k lng. V d nh khong cch xung quanh mt vng trn trong khng gian phng th lun lun ln hn ba ln khong cch ngang qua bn knh ca n mt cht (h s thc s l ). Nhng nu con kin bng ngang mt vng trn tri trn mt ci ging trn bn nh trong hnh bn trn, n s nhn thy khong cch ngang qua di hn n d liu, ln hn mt phn ba khong cch vng quanh n. Thc t, nu ci ging su, con kin s nhn ra l khong cch xung quanh vng trn l ngn hn khong cch ngang qua n. iu tng t cng ng cho s cong trong v tr ca chng ta n dui hay p cc khong cch gia cc im ngang trong khng gian, thay i hnh hc ca chng, hay hnh dng, theo mt cch c th o c ni trong v tr . S cong thi gian dui hay nn cc khong thi gian theo mt kiu cch tng t.

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S cong khng-thi gian vt cht v nng lng lm cong thi gian v khin chiu thi gian trn vi cc chiu khng gian.

c trang b vi nhng tng ny, chng ta hy tr li vn v bt u ca v tr. Chng ta c th ni ti khng gian v thi gian mt cch tch bit, nh trong tho lun ny, ti cc tnh hung lin dnh ti cc tc thp v lc hp dn yu. Tng qut, ngc li, thi gian v khng gian c th tr nn bn cht, v do th s dui v p cng lin quan ti mt mc trn ln nht nh. S trn ln ny l quan trng trong v tr s khai v l cha kha hiu v s bt u ca thi gian. Vn v s bt u ca thi gian cng l cht g ging nh chuyn ra th gii. Khi ngi ta ngh th gii l phng, mt ngi no c th phi bn khon liu bin c c b trn khi ra ca n. iu ny c kim tra bng thc nghim: Mt ngi no c th i vng quanh th gii m khng b ri khi n. Vn v iu g xy ra ti ra th gii c gii quyt khi ngi ta nhn ra rng th gii khng phi l mt chic khay phng, m l mt b mt cong. Thi gian, ngc li, c v ging mt m hnh ng ry xe la. Nu n c mt bt u, phi phi c ai (ni cch khc, Cha) thit t cho on xe la chy. Mc d thuyt tng i tng qut thng nht thi gian v khng gian thnh khng-thi gian v c dnh ti mt s trn ln nht nh ca khng gian v thi gian, thi gian vn cn khc vi khng gian, v khng ci no c mt bt u hay tin i mi mi. Tuy nhin, mt khi chng ta thm cc hiu ng ca thuyt lng t vo thuyt tng i, trong nhng trng hp cc cong c th xy ra ti mt mc m thi gian biu hin ging nh mt chiu khc ca khng gian. Trong v tr s khai khi m v tr cn nh b chi phi bng c thuyt tng i tng qut v thuyt lng t thc t c bn chiu

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khng gian v khng c chiu thi gian no. iu ngha l khi ta ni v s bt u ca v tr, chng ta ang i chch qua mt vn tinh t l khi nhn ngc thng v v tr rt s khai, thi gian nh chng ta hiu v n khng tn ti! Chng ta phi chp nhn rng tng thng thng ca chng ta v khng gian v thi gian khng p dng cho v tr rt s khai. iu vt qu tri nghim ca chng ta, nhng khng vt qu s tng tng ca chng ta, hay ton hc ca chng ta. Nu nh trong v tr s khai tt c bn chiu u biu hin nh khng gian, iu g xy ra cho bt u ca thi gian? Nhn thc rng thi gian c th biu hin nh mt hng khc ca khng gian ngha l mt ngi no c th tng kh vn thi gian c mt bt u, theo mt cch tng t trong chng ta tng kh c ra th gii. Gi s nh bt u ca v tr l Cc Nam ca tri t, vi cc v ng vai tr nh thi gian. Khi mt ngi i v nam, cc vng ca nhng v tuyn khng i tng trng cho kch thc v tr, s gin n. V tr s bt u ti mt im Cc Nam, nhng Cc Nam cng ging nh nhng im khc. i hi iu g xy ra trc bt u ca v tr s tr thnh mt cu hi v ngha, bi v khng c g pha nam ca Cc Nam c. Trong bc tranh ny khng-thi gian khng c bin cc nh lut tng t vn ng Cc Nam cng nh nhng ni khc. Theo mt cch tng t, khi mt ngi kt hp thuyt tng i tng qut vi thuyt lng t, cu hi v iu g xy ra trc bt u ca v tr b coi nh v ngha. tng rng cc lch s nn l cc b mt kn khng c bin c gi l iu kin khng bin. Sut hng th k nhiu ngi, gm c Aristotle, tin rng v tr phi vn lun tn ti nm trnh n vn n c thit t nh th no. Nhng ngi khc tin rng v tr c mt bt u, v dng n nh mt tranh lun cho s tn ti ca Cha. S nhn thc rng thi gian biu hin nh khng gian trnh by mt gii thch mi. N loi b quan im lu i rng v tr c mt s bt u, nhng cng c l s bt u ca v tr c chi phi bi cc nh lut khoa hc v khng cn phi c thit t vo chuyn ng bi mt v thn no . Nu nh ngun gc ca v tr l mt s kin lng t, n nn c m t chnh xc bi tng Feynman trn cc lch s. p dng thuyt lng t cho ton b v tr trong nhng ngi quan st l mt phn ca mt h m h ang quan st th tht gai gc, mt iu tri ngang. Trong chng 4 chng ta thy lm th no cc ht vt cht c bn ti mn hnh qua hai khe t trng ra mt kiu hnh giao thoa nh cc sng nc. Feynman ch ra rng iu ny ni ln v mt ht khng c mt lch s duy nht. Ni r ra, khi n i t im u A ca ti mt im cui B no , n khng nhn mt qu o xc nh, m thay vo nhn ng thi mi mi qu o kh d kt ni hai im. T quan im ny, giao thoa khng c g bt ng v, ly lm v d, ht c th i qua c hai khe cng mt lc v giao thoa vi chnh n. Khi p dng cho chuyn ng ca mt ht, phng php ca

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Feynman ni vi chng ta rng tnh ton xc sut mt im cui bt k chng ta cn xt n tt c cc lch s kh d m ht c th i theo t im u ca n n im cui . Mt ngi cng c th dng cc phng php ca Feynman tnh ton cc xc sut lng t cho cc quan st v v tr. Nu chng c p dng cho c v tr nh mt tng th, s khng c im A no, nn chng ta phi cng dn tt c cc lch s tha mn iu kin khng bin v kt thc ti v tr chng ta quan st c ngy nay. Trong cch nhn ny, v tr xut hin t ngu, khi u theo mi cch kh d. Phn ln chng tng ng vi cc v tr khc. Trong khi mt s cc v tr th tng t vi v tr ca chng ta, hu ht u rt khc. Chng khng ch khc nhau v cc tnh tit, ging nh liu Elvis thc s cht tr hay liu c ci thnh mt mn trng ming, m thay vo chng khc bit thm ch c nhng nh lut hin hin ca t nhin. Thc t, nhiu v tr tn ti vi nhiu tp hp khc nhau cc nh lut vt l. Mt vi ngi to ra mt b n to ln cho tng ny, i khi c gi l khi nim a v tr, nhng y ch l nhng cch din t khc nhau cho tng Feynman trn cc lch s. hnh dung iu ny, ta hy thay minh ha qu bng bay ca Eddington v thay vo ngh ti v tr ang gin n nh b mt ca mt bong bng nc. Bc tranh ca chng ta v mt s sng to lng t t ngu ca v tr cng cht g ging nh s hnh thnh bng hi nc trong nc si. Nhiu bng nc xut hin, ri th li bin mt. Nhng ci ny tng trng cho nhng v tr nh vn gin n nhng li sp khi vn cn kch thc hin vi. Chng tng trng cho cc v tr thay th kh d, nhng chng khng gy hng th nhiu v chng khng tn ti lu pht trin cc thin h v ngi sao, cha k n s sng c tr tu. Mt vi nhng bng nc nh, tri li, s phnh to t chng khng b sp li. Chng s tip tc gin n vi mt t l mi tng v s hnh thnh cc bng hi nc m chng ta c th thy c. Chng tng ng vi cc v tr vn khi u gin n theo mt t l mi tng ni mt cch khc, cc v tr trong trng thi lm pht.

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a v tr Cc dao ng lng t dn ti s to thnh cc v tr t h khng. Mt vi trong s chng chm ti mt kch thc ti hn, ri gin n theo mt cch thc lm pht, to nn cc thin h, ngi sao, v, trong ch t mt trng hp, cc thc th nh chng ta.

Nh ni, s gin n gy ra bi lm pht s khng hon ton ng nht. Trong tng trn cc lch s, ch c duy nht mt lch s ng nht v c trt t, v n s c xc sut cao nht, nhng nhiu lch s khc vn mt trt t rt t cng c cc xc sut gn cao ging vy. l v sao m s lm pht d on rng v tr s khai c th hi khng ng nht, tng ng vi cc bin thin nh trong nhit m ta quan st c trong CMBR. Nhng s mt trt t trong v tr s khai l may mn cho chng ta. V sao? S ng nht l tt nu bn khng mun kem tch khi sa ca mnh, nhng mt v tr ng u l mt v tr nhm chn. S khng ng u trong v tr s khai l quan trng v nu mt s vng c mt hi cao hn cc vng cn li, lc ht hp dn ca mt chnh lch s lm chm s gin n ca vng so vi cc vng xung quanh. Khi lc hp dn t t ko vt cht li vi nhau, n s cui cng lm ch chng sp vo nhau hnh thnh cc thin h v cc sao, ri s dn ti cc hnh tinh v, ch t mt dp no , con ngi. Vy nn hy nhn k bn ca vi sng v tr. N chnh l bn thit k cho mi cu trc trong v tr. Chng ta l sn phm ca nhng dao ng lng t trong v tr rt s khai. Nu ai c tn ngng, h c th ni rng Cha thc s xc sc.

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Nn vi sng Bc hnh v tr ny c to ra t d liu trong by nm ca WMAP xut bn nm 2010. N h l cc dao ng nhit biu din bng cc mu khc nhau vo 13,7 t nm trc. Cc dao ng c ghi hnh tng ng vi cc khc bit nhit t hn mt phn ngn bch phn. Tuy nhin chng l cc ht ging t tr thnh cc thin h. Thc hin : Nhm khoa hc NASA/WMAP

tng ny dn ti mt ci nhn v v tr khc bit su sc vi khi nim truyn thng, i hi chng ta iu chnh cch mnh ngh v lch s ca v tr. to ra cc d on trong v tr hc, chng ta cn tnh ton cc xc sut cho cc trng thi khc nhau ca ton b v tr hin thi. Trong vt l mt ngi thng gi s mt trng thi u cho mt h v tin ha n ln theo thi gian mn ti cc phng trnh ton hc. Cho trc mt trng thi ca h ti mt thi im, mt ngi c gng tnh ton xc sut m h s mt trng thi no ti mt thi im sau . Gi thit thng thng trong v tr hc l v tr c mt lch s n l. Mt ngi c th s dng cc nh lut vt l tnh ton lch s ny pht trin theo thi gian nh th no. Chng ta gi iu ny l hng tip cn di ln trn trong v tr hc. Nhng v chng ta phi tnh ti bn cht lng t ca v tr nh c din t trong tng Feynman trn cc lch s, bin xc sut v tr hin thi ri vo mt trng thi nht nh n t vic cng dn cc ng gp t tt c cc lch s tha iu kin khng bin v dng ti trng thi trong cu hi ny. Trong v tr hc, ni cch khc, mt ngi khng nn ln theo lch s ca v tr theo hng t di ln v iu gi thit c mt lch s n l, vi mt im u v s tin ha xc nh c th. Thay vo , mt ngi nn ln theo cc lch s t trn xung, ngc li t thi im hin ti. Mt vi lch s s hin nhin hn nhng ci khc, v tng s thng c ch o l mt lch s n l vn bt u vi s sng to v tr v kt cc ti trng thi ang xt. Nhng s c nhng lch s khc nhau cho cc trng thi kh d khc nhau ca v tr ti thi im hin ti. iu ny dn ti mt ci

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nhn khc bit t cn bn v v tr hc, v mi quan h gia nguyn nhn v kt qu. Cc lch s ng gp vo tng Feynman khng c mt s tn ti c lp, m ph thuc vo ci ang c o c. Chng ta to ra cc lch s t quan st ca mnh, hn l lch s to ra chng ta. tng v mt v tr khng c mt lch s duy nht c lp vi ngi quan st c l c v xung t vi cc thc t m ta bit. C th c mt lch s trong mt trng c to thnh t ph mt Roquefort. Nhng chng ta quan st c mt trng khng lm t ph mt, vn l tin xu cho bn chut. Th nn cc lch s trong mt trng c to nn t ph mt khng ng gp vo trng thi hin ti ca v tr chng ta, d chng c th ng gp cho cc v tr khc. iu c th nghe nh khoa hc vin tng, nhng khng h. Mt ng quan trng ca cch tip cn t trn xung l cc nh lut hin hin ca t nhin ph thuc vo lch s ca v tr. Nhiu nh khoa hc tin rng tn ti mt l thuyt n l gii thch cho cc nh lut cng nh cc hng s vt l ca t nhin, nh l khi lng ca electron hay c tnh chiu ca khng-thi gian. Nh v tr hc theo t trn xung rng buc cc nh lut hin hin ca t nhin phi khc nhau vi cc lch s khc nhau. Th xt ti chiu biu hin. Theo nh thuyt M, khng-thi gian c mi chiu khng gian v mt chiu thi gian. tng rng by chiu khng gian b cun li tht nh khin ta khng ch ti chng, li cho chng ta o tng l tt c nhng g tn ti l ba chiu ln cn li m chng ta quen thuc. Mt trong nhng cu hi trung tm trong thuyt M l: V sao, trong v tr ca chng ta, li khng c nhiu chiu rng hn v ti sao nhng chiu no li b cun li? Nhiu ngi s mun ngh rng c mt th lc no khin cho tt c ngoi tr ba chiu khng gian ny b cun li ngu nhin. Thay vo , c th tt c cc chiu bt u u nh, nhng v mt l do c th hiu c no ba chiu khng gian gin n v ton b cn li th khng. N c v nh, tri li, khng c l do vn ng no cho v tr xut hin bn chiu. Thay vo , v tr hc theo t trn xung d on rng s lng cc chiu khng gian ln khng c nh bi nguyn l vt l no. Tng Feynman cho php tt c iu ny, cho mi lch s kh d ca v tr, nhng s quan st m v tr ca chng ta c ba chiu khng gian ln chn ra t nhm con cc lch s c nhng c tnh c quan st. Ni cch khc, xc sut lng t m v tr c nhiu hay t hn ba chiu khng gian l khng cn thit v chng ta xc nhn sn l chng ta ang trong mt v tr vi ba chiu khng gian ln. Chng no m bin xc sut c ba chiu khng gian ln cn khc zero, n khng thnh vn d n c nh bao nhiu so vi bin xc sut c nhng s chiu khc. N ging nh vic i hi bin xc sut cho Gio hong hin thi l ngi Trung Quc. Ta bit rng ngi l ngi c, cho d l xc sut ngi l ngi Trung Quc th cao hn xc sut bi v ngi Trung Quc ng hn ngi c. Mt cch tng t, chng ta bit

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rng v tr ca mnh trng ra ba chiu khng gian ln, v d nhng s chiu khng gian ln khc c th c mt bin xc sut ln hn, chng ta ch quan tm ti nhng lch s c ba chiu. Th cn nhng chiu b cun li? Nhc li rng trong thuyt M hnh dng chnh xc ca nhng chiu b cun li, khng gian ni ti, xc nh c gi tr ca cc i lng vt l nh l in tch ca electron v bn cht ca cc tng tc gia cc ht nguyn t, ni r ra, cc lc ca t nhin. Mi th ng ra s din ra gn gng nu thuyt M ch cho php mt hnh dng cho cc chiu b cun li, hay c l mt vi, tt c ngoi mt trong c th b loi suy bi cc l do no , li cho chng ta ch mt kh nng cho cc nh lut hin hin ca t nhin. Thay vo , c nhng bin xc sut cho c l gn 10500 nhng khng gian ni ti khc nhau, mi ci dn ti cc nh lut v gi tr cho cc hng s vt l khc nhau. Nu mt ngi xy dng lch s ca v tr t di ln, khng c l do no v tr nn ri vo trng hp c khng gian ni ti cho cc tng tc vt l m chng ta quan st c trong thc t, m hnh chun (hay cc tng tc ht nguyn t). Nhng trong cch tip cn t trn xung chng ta chp nhn rng v tr tn ti vi tt c cc khng gian ni ti kh d. Trong mt vi v tr electrong c trng lng ca mt qu bng golf v lc hp dn th mnh hn lc in t. Trong v tr ca chng ta, m hnh chun, vi tt c cc thng s ca n, c p dng. Mt ngi c th tnh c bin xc sut cho khng gian ni ti dn n m hnh chun trn c s ca iu kin khng bin. Cng nh xc sut cho mt v tr c ba chiu khng gian ln, n khng thnh vn bin ny nh bao nhiu so vi cc xc sut khc bi v chng ta quan st sn m hnh chun m t v tr ca chng ta. L thuyt chng ta m t trong chng ny c th c kim tra. Trong nhng th d trc chng ta nhn mnh rng cc bin xc sut tng i gia cc v tr khc nhau t cn bn, v d nh nhng v tr vi mt s khc cc chiu khng gian ln, khng thnh vn . Nhng bin xc sut tng i cho cc v tr ln cn (ni cch khc, tng t), tri li, l quan trng. iu kin khng bin ng rng bin xc sut l ln nht cho cc lch s trong v tr bt u hon ton ng u. Bin b gim i vi cc v tr khng trt t hn. iu ny c ngha l v tr s khai phi hu nh ng u, nhng c nhng mt trt t nh. Chng chng ta cp, chng ta c th quan st c nhng mt trt t ny nh cc bin thin nh trong cc vi sng n t bu tri. Chng c nhn ra l ng thun mt cch chnh xc vi yu cu tng qut ca thuyt lm pht; tuy nhin, nhiu o c chnh xc vn c cn hon ton phn bit l thuyt t trn xung vi cc phng php khc, v cng c hay phn bc n. Nhng o c ny c th s c thc hin tt nh cc v tinh trong tng lai.

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Hng trm nm trc ngi ta ngh tri t l c nht, v c t ti trung tm v tr. Ngy nay chng ta bit c hng trm t ngi sao trong thin h ca chng ta, mt t l ln nhng ngi sao ny c cc h hnh tinh. Nhng kt qu c m t trong chng ny bo hiu rng v tr ca chng ta bn thn n cng l mt trong nhiu v tr, v rng nhng nh lut hin hin ca n khng c xc nh mt cch c nht. iu ny phi gy tht vng cho nhng ai hy vng rng c mt l thuyt ti hu, mt thuyt cho mi th, s d on c bn cht ca vn ng hng ngy. Chng ta khng th d on c nhng nt tch bit nh s chiu khng gian ln hay khng gian ni ti vn xc nh cc i lng vt l chng ta quan st c (v d, khi lng v in tch ca electron v nhng ht nguyn t khc). Thay vo , chng ta dng nhng con s ny chn nhng lch s no ng gp vo tng Feynman. C v nh chng ta ang vo mt im then cht trong lch s khoa hc, trong chng ta phi thay th quan nim v cc mc tiu v v nhng iu lm cho mt l thuyt vt l chp nhn c. N c v nh cc con s c bn, v thm ch hnh thc, ca cc nh lut hin hin ca t nhin khng b i hi bi logic hay nguyn tc vt l. Cc thng s c t do nhn nhiu gi tr v cc nh lut t do nhn bt k hnh thc no dn ti mt l thuyt ton hc t phi mu thun, v chng thc s nhn cc gi tr khc nhau v cc hnh thc khc nhau trong cc v tr khc nhau. iu c l khng tha mn khao kht ca con ngi c c bit hay c khm ph mt gi cha ng tt c cc nh lut vt l, nhng n thc s c v l cch thc ca t nhin. C v nh c mt bc tranh cho cc v tr kh d. Tuy nhin, nh chng ta s thy trong chng k, nhng v tr trong s sng nh chng ta c th tn ti l him hoi. Chng ta sng trong mt v tr trong s sng l kh d, nhng nu nh v tr ch hai khc mt cht, cc thc th nh chng ta khng th tn ti. Chng ta l g to ra s tinh t ny? N c l chng c cho vic v tr ny, sau cng, c thit k bi mt ng sng to nhn t? Hay khoa hc ngh mt li gii thch khc?

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VII
Ngi Trung Quc k v mt qung thi gian sut triu H (khong 2205 khong 1782 TCN) khi tri t v tr t nhin thay i. Mi mt tri xut hin trn khng. Ngi dn thin h phi hng chu sc nng khng khip t chng, th nn hong xung lnh cho mt cung th ni ting bn h nhng mt tri d. Ngi cung th sau c ban thng mt vin n c sc mnh lm cho ng bt t, nhng v ng trm n. V s s nhc c ta b lu y ti mt trng. Ngi Trung Quc ng khi ngh rng mt thi dng h vi mi mt tri th khng thn thin vi cuc sng con ngi. Ngy nay chng ta bit rng, c l ngoi vic ha hn nhng dp rm nng tuyt vi, mt h mt tri a nht bt k hn s khng bao gi cho php s sng pht trin. Cc l do th khng hn n gin nh sc nng rt chy c tng tng trong truyn thuyt Trung Hoa. Thc t, mt hnh tinh c th tri nghim mt nhit d chu khi c qu o quanh nhiu sao, t nht trong mt qung no . Nhng s si nng u lin tc trong nhng khong thi gian di, mt tnh hung c v cn thit cho s sng, s c rt t kh nng. hiu ti sao, hy nhn vo iu xy ra trong kiu n gin nht ca mt h nhiu sao, mt h c hai mt tri, vn c gi l h nh nht. Gn mt na trong tt c sao trn bu tri l thnh vin ca nhng h nh vy. Nhng thm ch nhng h nh nht n gin cng ch c th duy tr cc kiu qu o n nh nht nh, nh loi trong hnh di. Trong mi qu o kiu ny s c kh nng cho mt khong thi gian trong hnh tinh s hoc qu nng hoc qu lnh cm c s sng. Tnh hung cn xu hn i vi cc cm nhiu sao. Thi dng h ca chng ta c nhng c tnh hn khc m nu khng cc dng sng tin tin c l s khng bao gi tin ha. Th d nh, cc nh lut ca Newton cho php cc qu o hnh tinh c th l trn hay eclipse (cc ng eclipse l cc vng trn b p xung, rng hn theo mt trc v hp hn theo trc kia). Mc m mt eclipse b p xung c m t bng mt h s gi l lch tm ca n, mt con s gia zero v mt. Mt lch tm gn vi zero c ngha hnh y ging mt ng trn, trong khi mt lch tm gn mt ngha l n rt phng. Kepler kh chu bi tng rng cc hnh tinh khng chuyn ng theo nhng vng trn hon ho, vy m qu o ca tri t c mt lch tm ch 2 phn trm, ngha l n gn nh trn. Vy l ha ra, l mt c n may him thy.

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Qu o nh nht Cc hnh tinh c qu o quanh cc h sao hn s c thi tit km thn thin, mt vi ma th qu nng cho s sng, nhng ma khc, li qu lnh.

Cc kiu hnh thi tit trn tri t c xc nh ch yu bng nghing ca trc xoay tri t tng i vi mt phng m n chuyn ng quanh mt tri. Sut ma ng Na Cu Bc, ly lm v d, th cc Nam li chm khi mt tri. Thc t l tri t gn mt tri nht trong qung thi gian ch cch c 91,5 triu dm, so vi khong 94,5 triu dm cch mt tri vo u thng By c mt tc ng khng ng k ln nhit khi so vi tc ng ca nghing ca n. Nhng trn nhng hnh tinh vi lch tm ln, bin thin khong cch ti mt tri ng mt vai tr ln hn nhiu. Trn sao Thy, ly lm v d, vi lch tm 20 phn trm, nhit nng hn 200 Farenheit (360 Celcius - lnd) khi hnh tinh tin gn ti mt tri nht (im cn nht) so vi khi n xa mt tri nht (im vin nht). Thc t, nu lch tm ca qu o tri t l gn mt, cc i dng ca chng ta s si khi chng ta chm ti im gn nht vi mt tri, v ng li khi chng ta chm ti im xa nht, khin cho c k ngh ng ln ngh h khng ly g lm d chu. Cc lch tm qu o ln u khng hu thun cho s sng, cho nn chng ta tht tt s khi c mt hnh tinh vi lch tm qu o gn bng zero.

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Cc lch tm lch tm l mt o c v vic mt ellipse gn mt vng trn bao nhiu. Cc qu o trn th thn thin cho s sng, trong khi nhng qu o b p di ra dn ti nhng dao ng nhit theo ma ln

Chng ta cn may mn v quan h gia khi lng ca mt tri i vi khong cch ca chng ta ti n. l v khi lng ca mt ngi sao xc nh nng lng m n pht ra. Nhng ngi sao ln nht c mt khi lng khong mt trm lm mt tri ca chng ta, trong khi ci nh nht li mt trm ln nh hn. Cha ht, gi s nh khong cch mt tri tri t l cho trc, nu mt tri ca chng ta ch nng hay nh hn 20 phn trm, tri t s hoc nng hn sao Ha hin ti hay sao Kim hin ti. Theo truyn thng, khi bit mt ngi sao, cc nh khoa hc s nh ngha vng kh c nh mt khu vc xung quanh ngi sao trong nhit mc nc lng c th tn ti. Vng kh c i khi c gi l vng Goldilocks, bi v iu kin m nc lng tn ti c ngha l, theo Goldilocks, s pht trin ca s sng c tr tu i hi nhit ca hnh tinh l va ng. Vng kh c trong thi dng h ca chng ta, c v bn di, rt nh. May sao cho chng ta vn l nhng dng sng c tr tu, tri t ri ngay vo y.

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Vng Goldilocks Khi Goldilocks ang ly mu cc hnh tinh, b nhn ra ch nhng hnh tinh trong vng mu xanh l thch hp cho s sng. Ngi sao mu vng tng trng cho chnh mt tri ca chng ta. Nhng ngi sao trng hn th ln hn v nng hn, nhng ci hn l nh hn v ngui hn. Nhng hnh tinh gn vi mt tri ca chng hn s qu nng cho s sng, v cc hnh tinh vt qu n th qu lnh. Kch thc ca vng kh c th nh hn cho cc ngi sao ngui hn.

Newton tin rng thi dng h kh c mt cch l lng ca chng ta khng ni ln t hn mang ch bng cc nh lut t nhin. Thay vo , ng tuyn b rng, trt t trong v tr c to ra bi Cha lc ban u v c ngi bo tn ti Ngy nay trong cng trng thi v tnh trng. D hiu v sao mt ngi c th ngh nh vy. Nhng iu din ra tht khng chng vn quy kt li kch hot s tn ti ca chng ta, v thit k thn thin cho con ngi ca th gii ca chng ta, s thc s l mt b n khi h mt tri ca chng ta l duy nht trong v tr. Nhng vo nm 1992 ln u tin xut hin mt quan st c xc nhn v mt hnh tinh c qu o quanh mt ngi sao khc mt tri ca chng ta. Chng ta gi bit hng trm nhng hnh tinh nh vy, v vi ngi ng rng cn tn ti v s nhng h khc gia nhiu t ngi sao trong v tr. iu khin s tnh c ca cc tnh trng hnh tinh ca chng ta mt tri n l, s kt hp may mn ca khong cch mt tri-tri t v khi lng mt tri t phi thng hn nhiu v cng t thuyt phc nh mt bng chng rng tri t c thit k cn thn ch lm hi lng con ngi. kiu hnh tinh tn ti. Mt vi hay ch t mt h tr s sng. R rng, khi cc thc th trn hnh tinh vn h tr s sng xem xt th gii chung quanh chng, chng b buc phi nhn thy mi trng ca chng tha mn cc iu kin chng i hi cho tn ti.

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C th chuyn pht biu va ri thnh mt nguyn l khoa hc: S tn ti ca chnh chng ta t ra nhng quy tc xc nh t ni v lc no chng ta c th quan st v tr. Ni r ra, thc t v s tn ti ca chng ta rng buc nhng c tnh ca loi mi trng trong ta tm thy mnh. Nguyn l c gi l nguyn l v nhn yu. (Chng ta s thy ngay ti sao tnh t yu c nh km.) Mt thut ng hay hn nguyn l v nhn s l nguyn l chn lc, bi v nguyn l lin h ti lm th no nhn thc v s tn ti ca chng ta t ra nhng quy tc s chn lc, ra t tt c cc mi trng kh d, ch nhng mi trng vi cc c cho php s sng. D n nghe c nh trit, nguyn l v nhn c th s dng to ra cc d on khoa hc. V d, v tr bao tui? Nh chng ta s sm thy, cho chng ta tn ti v tr phi cha cc nguyn t nh l carbon, vn c sn xut bng cch nu cc nguyn t nh hn bn trong cc ngi sao. Carbon sau phi c pht tn khp khng gian trong mt v n siu tn tinh, v cui cng c ng li thnh mt phn ca mt hnh tinh trong mt h mt tri th h sau. Nm 1961 nh vt l Robert Dicke tranh lun rng qu trnh mt khong 10 t nm, cho nn ging loi chng ta c y ngha l v tr ch t phi chng y tui. Mt khc, v tr khng th gi hn 10 t nm nhiu, v trong tng lai xa tt c nhin liu cho cc ngi sao s b dng ht, v chng ta i hi cc ngi sao nng duy tr chng ta. Th nn v tr phi khong 10 t nm tui. khng phi l mt d on chnh xc cc k, nhng n ng theo nh cc d liu hin ti v n ln din ra cch y 13,7 t nm. Nh trong vn tui v tr, cc d bo v nhn thng to ra mt tm cc gi tr cho mt thng s vt l thay v xc nh n mt cch chnh xc. l bi v s tn ti ca chng ta, trong khi c th khng i hi mt gi tr c th cho cc thng s vt l, thng ph thuc vo vic nhng thng s ny phi khng bin thin qu xa khi gi tr m chng ta thc t tm ra chng. Chng ta xa hn cn trng ch cc iu in thc t trong th gii ca chng ta s mang tnh tiu biu trong tm cho php v nhn. V d, nu ch cc lch tm qu o khim tn, gi s gia zero v 0.5, c th cho php s sng, th mt lch tm 0.1 s khng lm chng ta ngc nhin v gia nhng hnh tinh trong v tr mt phn kha kh hn phi c cc qu o vi lch tm b nh th. Nhng nu ha ra l tri t chuyn ng trn mt vng gn nh trn, vi lch tm, gi s, 0.00000000001, s khin tri t thnh mt hnh tinh thc s rt c bit, v to ng lc cho chng ta c gii thch ti sao ta tm thy mnh trong mt qu hng d thng nh vy. tng i khi c gi l nguyn l v s thng. Nhng s trng hp may mn c dnh dng ti hnh dng ca cc qu o hnh tinh, khi lng mt tri, v i loi nh th c gi l c tnh mi trng bi v chng ni ln t s may ri ca mi trng xung quanh ta m khng phi mt may mn trong cc nh lut c bn ca t nhin. Tui ca v tr cng l mt tc nhn mi trng, v c mt thi gian sm hn mt

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thi gian mun hn trong lch s v tr, th nhng chng ta phi sng trong k i ny v n l k i duy nht hu thun cho s sng. Cc trng hp mi trng l d hiu v v tr sng ca chng ta ch l mt trong nhiu vng khc tn ti trong hon v. V chng ta d nhin phi tn ti trong mt mi trng sng h tr cho s sng. Thuyt v nhn yu khng qu ng tranh ci. Nhng c mt dng mnh hn chng ta s tranh lun v n, d n vp phi s lnh nht ca nhiu nh vt l. Nguyn l v nhn mnh xut rng thc t chng ta tn ti t ra nhng rng buc cho khng ch mi trng ca chng ta m cn cho chnh hnh thc v ni dung ca cc nh lut t nhin kh d. tng ny ni ln v khng ch cc c tnh k d ca h mt tri ca chng ta c v hu thun mt cch k l cho s pht trin cho s sng con ngi m cn l cc c tnh ca ton b v tr, v n kh gii thch hn nhiu. Cu chuyn lm sao v tr hoang s ton kh hydrogen, helium v mt cht lithium tin ha thnh mt v tr neo u cho mt th gii c cc s sng c tr tu nh chng ta l mt cu chuyn nhiu chng. Nhng chng ta cp trc , cc lc t nhin phi nh th cc nguyn t nng hn c bit l carbon c th c sn xut ra t cc kh s khai, v tip tc n nh cho t nht hng t nm. Nhng nguyn t nng ny c hnh thnh trong cc l nung chng ta gi l cc ngi sao, cho nn trc ht cc lc phi cho php cc ngi sao v thin h hnh thnh. Chng li hnh thnh t cc ht ging khng ng b trong v tr s khai, vn hu nh hon ton ng nht nhng may thay cha cc bin thin mt ch khong 1 phn 100.000. Tuy nhin, s tn ti ca cc ngi sao, v s tn ti ca cc nguyn t to nn chng ta bn trong cc ngi sao, vn cha . c tnh ng lc ca cc ngi sao phi nh th no cho n cui cng pht n, v, hn th, pht n theo mt cch m c th tr li khng gian cc nguyn t nng hn. Thm vo , cc nh lut ca t nhin phi i hi sao cho cc tn d c th ti kt t thnh mt th h cc sao mi, c bao quanh bi cc hnh tinh tch hp cc nguyn t nng mi hnh thnh. Cng nh cc s kin trn tri t s khai phi xy ra cho php chng ta pht trin, th nn mi mt xch trong chui ny l cn thit cho s tn ti ca chng ta. Nhng trong trng hp cc s kin dn ti s tin ha ca v tr, nhng pht trin nh th b chi phi bi cn bng cc lc c bn ca t nhin, v chnh cc lc ny vi s tc ng ln nhau phi va ng cho chng ta tn ti. Mt trong nhng ngi u tin nhn ra rng iu ny c l dnh dng ti mt mc r n may l Fred Hoyle, vo nhng nm 1950. Hoyle tin rng tt c cc nguyn t ha hc phi c c to nn bt ngun t hydrogen, vn ng tin l cht thc s s khai. Hydrogen c ht nhn n gin nht, ch cha mt proton, hoc n l hoc kt hp vi mt hay hai neutron. (Cc dng khc nhau ca hydrogen, hay nguyn t bt k, c cng s proton nhng khc s neutron c gi l cc ng v.) Ngy nay chng ta bit rng helium v lithium, cc nguyn t c ht nhn cha hai hay ba

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proton, cng l cc nguyn t c tng hp t s khai, vi s lng t hn nhiu, khi v tr mi 200 giy tui. S sng, mt khc, ph thuc vo nhiu nguyn t phc tp hn. Carbon l quan trng nht trong , nn tng ca tt c ha hu c. D mt ngi c th tng tng cc th hu c sng ging nh cc my tnh c tr tu to ra t cc nguyn t khc, nh silicon, tht ng ng nu s sng c th ngu nhin tin ha c m thiu vng carbon. Cc l do cho vic l thun k thut nhng vic dnh ti cch thc c nht m carbon lin kt vi cc nguyn t khc. Carbon dioxide, v d, l th kh ti nhit phng, v rt c ch cho sinh hc. V silicon l nguyn t ngay di carbon trong bn tun hon, nn n c cng c tnh ha hc. Tuy nhin, silicon dioxide, thch anh, th c ch cho cho mt b su tp hn nhiu so vi phi ca cc th hu c. Tuy nhin, c l cc dng sng c th tin ha t ba tic silicon v th thn vy ui trong mt cc ao ammonia lng. Ngay loi s sng ngoi lai cng khng th tin ha ch t cc nguyn t s khai, v cc nguyn t y ch c th to nn hai hp cht n nh, lithium hydride, vn l mt cht rn tinh th khng mu, v hydrogen th kh, khng hp cht no trong c kh nng sinh sn hay thm ch bit yu. Ngoi ra, thc t cn li l chng ta l mt dng sng carbon, v iu lm ni ln vn lm th no carbon, c ht nhn cha su proton, v cc nguyn t nng khc trong c th chng ta c to nn. Bc u tin din ra khi cc ngi sao bt u tch ly helium, vn c to ra khi hai ht nhn hydrogen va p v dung hp. S dung hp ny l cch cc ngi sao to ra nng lng si m chng ta. Ti lt hai nguyn t helium c th va p nhau to thnh berylium, mt nguyn t c ht nhn cha bn proton. Mt khi berylium c to thnh, theo nguyn tc n c th dung hp vi mt ht nhn helium th ba to thnh carbon. Nhng iu khng xy ra, bi v ng v berylium c to ra phn r hu nh ngay lp tc thnh cc ht nhn helium. Tnh hung s khc khi mt ngi sao bt u dng ht hydrogen. Khi iu xy ra li ca ngi sao sp li ti khi nhit trung tm ca n tng ln n khong 100 triu Kelvin. Vi cc iu kin ny, cc ht nhn chm trn nhau thng xuyn ti ni mt vi ht nhn berylium s va p vi mt ht nhn helium trc khi chng c c hi phn r. Berylium lc ny c th dung hp vi helium hnh thnh mt ng v bn. Nhng carbon vn cn mt chng ng di hnh thnh cc t hp c trt t ca cc kiu hp cht ha hc bit thng thc mt ly Bordeaux, tung hng cc qu chuy bowling ang chy, hay hi nhng cu v v tr. cho nhng thc th nh con ngi tn ti, carbon phi c chuyn t bn trong cc ngi sao ti nhng vng ln cn gn. iu , nh chng ta ni, c hon tt khi ngi sao, vo cui chu k sng ca n, n tung trong mt v n siu tn tinh, nm vng carbon v cc nguyn t nng khc m sau ny c ng li thnh cc hnh tinh.

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Qu trnh Ba Alpha Carbon c to nn bn trong cc ngi sao t s va p ca ba ht nhn helium, mt hin tng s khng c kh nng nu khng v mt c tnh c bit trong cc nh lut ca vt l ht nhn.

Qu trnh hnh thnh nn carbon c gi l qu trnh ba alpha bi v ht alpha l tn gi khc cho ht nhn ca ng v helium c lin quan, v bi v qu trnh i hi ba ht (cui cng) dung hp vi nhau. Vt l thng thng d on rng t l to thnh ca carbon qua qu trnh ba alpha phi hon ton t. Ch ti iu ny, nm 1952 Hoyle d on rng tng cc nng lng ca mt ht nhn berylium v helium phi gn nh chnh xc bng nng lng ca mt mc lng t ca ng v carbon c to thnh, mt tnh hung c gi l s cng hng, vn lm tng t l ca mt phn ng ht nhn ln rt nhiu. Thi im , khng mt mc nng lng no ging vy c bit ti, nhng da trn xut ca Hoyle, William Fowler ti Caltech i tm v pht hin ra n, cung cp mt ng h quan trng cho quan im ca Hoyle v cch m cc ht nhn phc tp c to thnh. Hoyle vit, Ti khng tin c nh khoa hc no xem xt chng c ny li khng th rt ra suy lun rng cc nh lut ca vt l ht nhn c thit k c ch ch cho h qu m chng to ra trong cc ngi sao. Vo thi im y cha ai bit v vt l ht nhn hiu tm c ca s may ri dn n cc nh lut vt l chnh xc ny. Nhng khi nghin cu hiu lc ca ca nguyn l v nhn mnh, trong nhng nm gn y cc nh vt l bt u t hi mnh v tr s ging nh th g nu cc nh lut ca t nhin b khc i. Ngy nay chng ta c th to ra cc m hnh my tnh c th ch cho chng ta t l ca phn ng ba alpha ph thuc vo ln ca cc lc c bn ca t nhin nh th no. Nhng tnh ton nh th cho thy mt s thay i t i ch 0,5 phn trm trong ln ca lc ht nhn mnh, hay 4 phn trm trong lc in, s pht hy hu nh ton b carbon cng nh

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oxygen trong mi ngi sao, v do th kh nng cho s sng nh chng ta bit. Thay i cc quy lut ca v tr ca chng ta ch mt cht, v iu kin cho s tn ti ca chng ta s bin mt! Bng cch xem xt cc m hnh v tr chng ta to ra khi cc l thuyt vt l c thay i theo nhng kiu nht nh, mt ngi c th nghin cu cc hiu ng ca s thay i i vi nh lut vt l theo mt kiu cch c phng php. Ha ra l khng ch c ln ca lc ht nhn mnh v lc in t c to ra sp xp cho s tn ti ca chng ta. Hu ht cc hng s c bn trong cc l thuyt ca chng ta c v c tinh chnh theo mt kiu m nu nh n b thay i ch nhng lng khim tn, v tr s khc i mt cch nh lng, v trong nhiu trng hp khng thch hp cho s pht trin ca s sng. V d nh, nu lc ht nhn cn li, lc yu, tr nn nh hn nhiu, trong v tr s khai tt c hydrogen trong v tr s chuyn thnh helium, v t s khng c nhng ngi sao bnh thng; nu n li mnh hn nhiu, cc siu tn tinh pht n s khng bc cc lp bao bn ngoi ca chng ra, t khng th gieo vo khng gian gia cc v sao cc nguyn t nng m cc hnh tinh cn dung dng s sng. Nu proton ch nng hn 2 phn trm, chng s sm phn r thnh cc neutron, lm cc nguyn t khng bn. Nu tng cc khi lng ca cc loi quark to nn mt proton b thay i ch khong 10 phn trm, s c t ht nhn bn hn nhiu vn to nn chng ta; thc t, tng khi lng quark c v nh kh c o ni s tn ti ca nhiu ht nhn bn nht. Nu mt ngi gi s rng c qu o n nh trong vi trm triu nm l cn thit cho s sng hnh tinh tin ha, s chiu khng gian cng c c nh cho s tn ti ca chng ta. l v, theo cc nh lut hp dn, ch trong khng gian ba chiu mi c cc qu o ellipse n nh. Cc qu o trn vn c kh nng trong cc khng gian khc, nhng nhng qu o , cng nh Newton lo ngi, th khng n nh. Trong nhiu khng gian tr khng gian ba chiu ch mt s xo trn nh, nh sc ko ca mt hnh tinh khc, s lm mt hnh tinh ri khi qu o trn ca n v khin n hoc xoy vo hoc khi mt tri, cho nn chng ta s hoc b thiu hoc ng cng. Hn na, trong hn ba chiu lc hp dn gia hai vt th s gim i nhanh hn trong ba chiu. Trong khng gian ba chiu lc hp dn s st cn 1 gi tr nu ta gp i khong cch. Trong khng gian bn chiu n s 4 gim cn 1 8. Trong nm chiu n s gim xung 1 16 v tng t. Thnh mt kt qu, trong khng gian hn ba chiu mt tri s khng th tn ti trong mt trng thi n nh vi p sut trong cn bng vi sc g ca lc hp dn. N s hoc vng ra tng mnh hoc sp thnh mt l en, kiu no cng lm hng ngy p ca bn. Trn phm vi nguyn t, cc lc in s hnh x theo cch tng t nh cc lc hp dn. Ngha l cc electron trong nguyn t s hoc thot khi hay xoy vo ht nhn. Trong trng hp no cc nguyn t cng s u khng th m nh chng ta bit v chng.

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S xut hin ca cc cu trc phc tp c kh nng h tr nhng ngi quan st c tr tu c v nh rt mong manh. Cc nh lut t nhin hnh thnh nn mt h thng cc k tinh t, v rt t cc nh lut c th c thay i m khng hy dit kh nng ca s pht trin s sng m nh ta bit. Nu khng c mt chui nhng s trng hp gy sng st trong tng chi tit chi li ca cc nh lut vt l, n c v nh, con ngi v cc dng sng tng t s khng bao gi tr thnh cc thc th. S trng hp tinh t n tng nht dnh ti ci gi l hng s v tr, trong cc phng trnh ca Einstein v thuyt tng i tng qut. Nh chng ta ni, vo nm 1915, khi ng xy dng l thuyt ny, ng vn cn tin rng v tr l tnh, ngha l, khng c gin n hay co li. V vt cht ht ly vt cht, ng gii thiu vo trong l thuyt ca mnh mt lc phn hp dn chi vi xu hng ca v tr t sp ln chnh n. Lc ny, khng ging nh cc lc khc, khng n t nhng ngun c th no m c lun vo cu trc ca khng-thi gian. Hng s v tr m t ln ca ca lc . Khi v tr c khm ph ra l khng h tnh, Einstein loi b hng s v tr khi l thuyt ca ng v gi vic mang n vo l iu ng ngn ln nht i mnh. Nhng vo nm 1998 cc quan st v nhng siu tn tinh xa thm h l rng v tr ang gin n vi mt t l c gia tc, mt hiu ng khng th c kh nng nu thiu mt loi lc y tc dng khp khng gian. Hng s v tr c hi sinh. V chng ta bit rng gi tr ca n khng phi l zero, cu hi cn li, ti sao n c gi tr m n c? Cc nh vt l to ra cc lp lun gii thch n c th ni ln t cc hiu ng c lng t nh th no, nhng gi tr m h tnh c l khong mi m 120 ln (1 vi 120 s khng) ln hn gi tr thc t, thu c t cc v n siu tn tinh. iu ny c ngha l l lun c dng ti trong cc tnh ton sai hoc mt hiu ng no khc tn ti v mt cch thn k hy hu ht tr mt cht b xu ca con s tnh ra c. iu duy nht chc chn l nu gi tr ca hng s v tr ln hn nhiu so vi thc t, v tr ca chng ta hn thi bay chnh n trc khi cc thin h c th hnh thnh v mt ln na s sng m nh ta bit s bt kh thi. Chng ta c th nhn xt g v nhng trng hp ny? Ci hn trong hnh thc v bn cht ca cc nh lut vt l c bn l mt loi rt khc vi ci hn chng ta tm thy trong cc nhn t mi trng. N khng th c gii thch mt cch bnh thng, v c nhng ng mang tnh trit hc v vt l hn nhiu. V tr ca chng ta v cc nh lut ca n c v nh c mt thit k c o ni ng giy h tr chng ta v, nu chng ta tt phi tn ti, n khng cha nhiu ch cho s thay th. N khng d gii thch, v lm ni ln cu hi t nhin ti sao n li nh vy. Nhiu ngi mun chng ta dng nhng s trng hp ny lm chng c cho cng vic ca Cha. tng rng v tr c thit k cha chp nhn loi xut hin trong cc thn thuyt v thn thoi c t hng

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ngn nm trc cho ti hin ti. Theo tng thut huyn s ca ngi Maya Popol Vuh cc v thn tuyn b, Chng ta s khng nhn c vinh quang hay s tn knh t tt c nhng g chng ta to ra cho ti khi con ngi tn ti, v c ph cho tri gic. Mt vn bn Ai Cp tiu biu vo nm 2000 TCN pht biu, Ngi, by chin ca Thn, c chu cp y . Ngi (thn mt tri) to ra bu tri v mt t cho li ch ca chng. Ti Trung Quc nh trit hc o gio Lit Ng Khu (khong nm 400 TCN) din t tng ny thng qua mt nhn vt trong truyn k ni, Tri khin ng cc sinh si, v lm ra cc ging c vy v lng v, ring v ch li ca chng ta. Trong vn ha phng Ty quyn Cu c cha nhng tng v thit k may mn trong cu truyn v sng to, nhng quan im truyn thng ca Thin Cha Gio b nh hng to ln ca Aristotle, ngi tin vo mt th gii t nhin c tr tu hot ng theo mt thit k c ch . Nh thn hc Thin Cha Gio trung c Thomas Aquinas vn vo tng ca Aristotle v trt t ca t nhin tranh lun cho s tn ti ca Cha. Trong th k mi tm mt nh thn hc Thin Cha Gio khc cn i qu xa khi ni rng th c ui mu trng chng ta d dng bn chng. Mt minh ha hin i hn v ci nhn ca Thin Cha Gio c a ra mt vi nm trc khi Hng Y Gio Ch Christoph Schnborn, tng gim mc thnh Vin, vit, Nay, lc khi u ca th k 21, i mt vi cc tuyn b khoa hc nh thuyt Darwin mi v thuyt a v tr (nhiu v tr) trong v tr hc c pht minh ra trnh n chng c p o cho mc ch v s thit k c tm thy trong khoa hc hin i, nh th Cng Gio ln na s bo v bn cht con ngi bng tuyn b rng s thit k ca t nhin mi ni l thc. Trong v tr hc chng c p o cho mc ch v s thit k m hng y ni lin h ti s tinh t ca cc nh lut chng ta din t trn y. Bc ngot ca s khc t mang tnh khoa hc i vi mt v tr nhn-tm chnh l m hnh kiu Copernic v h mt tri, trong tri t khng cn gi v tr trung tm. Ma may thay, th gii quan ca chnh Copernicus l mt ci nhn duy nhn dng, thm ch ti mc rng ng an i chng ta bng cch ch ra rng, mc cho m hnh nht tm ca mnh, tri t hu nh trung tm v tr: Mc d [tri t] khng trung tm v tr, du sao khong cch [ti trung tm] khng l g ng k khi so vi khong cch ca cc ngi sao c nh. Vi pht minh v knh vin vng, cc quan st trong th k mi by, nh thc t l hnh tinh ca chng ta khng phi l hnh tinh duy nht c mt mt trng quay quanh, cng lm nng k cho nguyn l chng ta khng nm gi v tr c n no trong v tr. Trong nhng th k tip theo chng ta cng khm ph v v tr nhiu bao nhiu, hnh tinh ca chng ta cng c v ch l mt hnh tinh bnh thng by nhiu. Nhng cc khm ph tng i gn y v s cc k tinh t ca qu nhiu nh lut t nhin c th dn t nht mt vi ngi trong chng ta tr li tng c rng thit k v i ny l cng trnh ca mt ng

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sng to v i. Ti M, bi v hin php cm vic dy tn gio trong trng hc, kiu tng y c gi l thit k c tr tu, vi mt ng bt thnh vn hiu rng ng sng to l Cha. khng phi l cu tr li ca khoa hc hin i. Chng ta thy trong Chng 5 rng v tr ca chng ta c v nh l mt trong rt nhiu v tr, mi ci vi cc nh lut khc nhau. tng a v tr khng phi l mt t tng gii thch cho s tinh t. N l h qu ca iu kin khng bin cng nh nhiu l thuyt khc trong v tr hc hin i. Nhng nu n l s thc, th nguyn l v nhn mnh c th c nh gi thc t l tng ng vi nguyn l v nhn yu, t s tinh t ca nh lut vt l vo cng ch ng vi cc nhn t mi trng, v n ngha rng vng c tr v tr ca chng ta hin gi l ton b v tr quan st c ch l mt trong v s, cng nh h mt tri ca chng ta ch l mt trong nhiu h khc. Ngha l theo cng mt cch m cc trng hp mi trng ca h mt tri ca chng ta c coi nh khng c g phi thng khi ta nhn ra rng hng t h mt tri nh vy tn ti, s tinh t trong cc nh lut ca t nhin c th c gii thch bng s tn ti ca nhiu v tr. Nhiu ngi qua cc thi k gn cho Cha v p v s phc tp ca t nhin vn c v khng c c li gii p khoa hc trong thi ca h. Nhng ging nh Darwin v Wallace gii thch lm cch no cc thit k mu nhim hin hin trn cc th sng c th xut hin m khng c s can thip ca mt ng ti thng, khi nim a v tr c th gii thch s tinh t ca cc nh lut vt l m khng cn mt ng sng to rng lng to ra v tr v li ch ca chng ta. Einstein c ln t cu hi cho tr l ca mnh l Ernst Straus Cha c s la chn no khng khi to ra th gii? Trong cui th k mi su Kepler b thuyt phc rng Cha to ra v tr theo mt nguyn l ton hc hon ho no . Newton ch ra rng cng cc nh lut p dng cho thng gii cng p dng cho trn tri t, v pht trin cc phng trnh ton hc din t nhng nh lut qu thanh thot khin chng truyn nim tin tn gio tha thit cho nhiu nh khoa hc th k mi tm, vn c v hng hi s dng chng cho thy rng Cha l mt nh ton hc. K t Newton, v c bit l t Einstein, mc tiu ca vt l tr thnh vic i tm nhng nguyn l ton hc n gin nh kiu m Kepler hnh dung ti, v cng vi chng to ra mt l thuyt thng nht cho mi th c th gii thch c mi chi tit v vt cht v cc lc chng ta quan st c trong t nhin. Trong cui th k mi chn v u th k hai mi Maxwell v Einstein thng nht in, t, v nh sng. Nhng nm 1970, m hnh chun c to ra, mt l thuyt n l cho lc ht nhn mnh, yu, v lc in t. Thuyt dy v thuyt M n lt tr thnh mt n lc bao gm lun lc cn li, hp dn. Mc tiu khng phi l ch tm mt l thuyt n l gii thch tt c lc m cn l mt l thuyt gii thch cc con s c bn m chng ta ni ti, nh l ln ca cc lc v khi lng cng

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in tch ca cc ht nguyn t. Nh Einstein din t, nim hy vng c th c ni l t nhin qu c kin to m t c th nu ra mt cch c logic nhng nh lut c xc nh mt cch cht ch m ni trong cc nh lut ch c cc tr s hon ton c l l xut hin (khng cn l hng s, t , vi cc gi tr s ca chng c th c thay i m khng ph hy l thuyt.) Mt l thuyt c nht c v khng th c s tinh t cho php chng ta tn ti. Nhng nu di nh sng t cc tin b gn y chng ta din dch gic m ca Einstein thnh mt l thuyt c nht gii thch cho v tr ny v v tr khc, vi ton b ph cc nh lut khc nhau ca chng, th thuyt M c th l thuyt . Nhng nu thuyt M l c nht, hay c i hi bi cc nguyn l logic n gin? Chng ta c th tr li cu hi, ti sao thuyt M?

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VIII
Trong quyn sch ny chng ta gii thch lm th no s quy c trong chuyn ng ca cc vt th thin vn nh mt tri, mt trng, v cc hnh tinh gi ra rng chng c chi phi bi cc nh lut c nh thay v b l thuc vo cc cn hng v s bc ng ty tin ca thn thnh v ma qu. Ban u s tn ti ca cc nh lut nh vy tr nn hin hin ch trong thin vn hc (hay chim tinh, vn c lin h gn nh nhau). Biu hin ca nhng th trn tri t qu phc tp v l thuc vo nhiu nh hng nn cc nn vn minh s khai khng th nhn thc cc kiu r rng v cc nh lut chi phi nhng hin tng ny. Mt cch t t, d vy, nhng nh lut mi c pht hin trong nhng lnh vc ngoi thin vn, v iu ny dn ti tng v thuyt tt nh khoa hc: Phi c mt tp hp hon chnh, t trng thi bit trc ca v tr ti mt thi im c th, s ch ra v tr s pht trin nh th no t thi im y tr i. Nhng nh lut ny phi ng vng mi ni v ti mi thi im; ngc li chng s khng thnh nhng nh lut. S khng th c ngoi l cho cc php mu. Cha hay qu d s khng th can thip vo gung quay ca v tr. Vo thi im thuyt tt nh khoa hc c xut u tin, cc nh lut chuyn ng v hp dn ca Newton l cc nh lut duy nht c bit. Chng ta m t cch m cc nh lut ny c m rng bi Einstein trong thuyt tng i tng qut ca ng, v cch m cc nh lut khc c khm ph chi phi cc kha cnh khc ca v tr. Cc nh lut t nhin ni cho chng ta bit v tr hnh x nh th no, nhng chng khng tr li cu hi v sao? m chng ta t ra ti phn u ca quyn sch ny: V sao c th g hn l h khng? V sao chng ta tn ti? Ti sao l b cc nh lut ny m khng phi mt tp hp no khc? Ai c th tuyn b cu tr li cho nhng cu hi ny l c mt v Cha ngi chn to ra v tr nh th. N l hp l khi hi ai hay ci g to ra v tr, nhng nu cu tr li l Cha, th cu hi ch b lng sang ai to ra Cha. Theo quan im ny n c chp nhn rng mt thc th no tn ti m khng cn ngi to ra, v thc th c gi l Cha. iu ny c bit nh lp lun nguyn-nhn-u-tin cho s tn ti ca Cha. Chng ta, tri li, tuyn b rng vn c kh nng tr li nhng cu hi ny n thun trong lnh a ca khoa hc, m khng phi ng ti nhng ng thn thnh.

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Theo nh tng v thc ti ph thuc m hnh lun gii thiu trong Chng 3, b no ca chng ta din gii cc tn hiu vo t cc c quan tri gic bng cch to nn mt m hnh v th gii bn ngoi. Chng ta hnh thnh cc nim tinh thn v nh mnh, cy ci, nhng ngi khc, in chy trong cc cm trn tng, nguyn t, phn t, v cc v tr khc. Nhng nim tinh thn ny l thc ti duy nht chng ta bit. Khng c s kim tra thc ti no c lp m hnh. Ko theo l mt m hnh c xy dng chnh xc to nn mt thc ti cho chnh n. Mt th d c th gip chng ta ngh v cc vn v thc ti v s sng to l Tr chi S sng, c pht minh vo nm 1970 bi mt nh ton hc tr ti Cambridge tn l John Conway. T tr chi trong Tr chi S sng l mt thut ng gy lm ln. Khng c k thng hay ngi thua; thc t, khng c ngi chi no c. Tr chi S sng Khng thc s l mt tr chi m l mt tp hp cc nh lut chi phi mt v tr hai chiu. N l mt v tr tt nh: Mt khi bn ci mt thit t khi u, hay mt s kin, cc nh lut xc nh iu g s xy ra trong tng lai. Th gii m Conway hnh dung l mt ma trn cc vung, ging nh mt bn c, nhng m rng v hn v mi hng. Mi vung c th ri vo mt trong hai trng thi (c mu xanh) hay cht (c mu en). Mi vung c tm hng xm: cc hng xm trn, di, tri, phi v cc hng xm trn ng cho. Thi gian trong th gii ny khng lin tc m chy ti theo tng bc cch nhau. Cho trc mt s sp xp cho cc vung sng hay cht, s cc hng xm ang sng s xc nh iu g xy ra k tip theo cc nh lut sao: 1. Mi vung ang sng vi hai hay ba hng xm ang sng s sng tip (sinh tn). 2. Mt vung cht vi ng ba hng xm ang sng s tr thnh mt sng (sinh thnh). 3. Trong tt c cc trng hp cn li mt s cht hoc tip tc cht. Trong trng hp mt vung sng khng c hng xm hay c mt hng xm, n c bo l cht v c n; nu n c hnh hn ba hng xm, n c bo l cht v bon chen. l tt c nhng g n c: Cho trc mt s kin bt k, cc nh lut ny to ra cc th h tip sau cc th h. Mt vung sng bit lp hay hai vung k nhau cht trong th h tip theo v chng khng c hng xm. Ba vung sng trn mt ng cho sng lu hn mt cht. Sau bc nhy thi gian u tin cc vung hai u cht, ch cn li vung gia, vn li s cht trong th h tip theo. Mt ng cho cc vung bt k u bc hi theo cch thc ny. Nhng nu ba vung sng c t ngang trn mt hng, mt ln na gia c hai hng xm v sinh tn trong khi cc vung hai u cht i, nhng trong trng hp ny cc ngay pha trn v di gia tri qua s sinh thnh. T hng ny chuyn

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thnh ct. Tng t, trong th h k tip ct ny chuyn li thnh hng, v c th. Cc thit t dao (chao) ng nh th c gi l con nhy.

Cc con nhy Cc con nhy l mt loi n gin cc i tng a hp trong Tr chi S Sng.

Nu ba vung sng c t thnh hnh mt ch L, mt hnh vi mi xut hin. Trong th h tip theo vung c p bi ch L s sinh thnh, dn ti mt khi 2x2. Khi ny thuc v mt loi kiu hnh gi l s sng tnh v n s tri qua th ny ti th h kia m khng thay i. Nhiu loi kiu hnh tn ti vn lt xc trong cc th h u nhng sm sau chuyn thnh mt s sng tnh, hoc cht, hoc tr li dng gc v lp li qu trnh .

S tin ha thnh S sng Tnh Mt vi i tng a hp trong Tr chi S sng tin ha thnh mt hnh thc m cc quy tc rng buc khng bao gi thay i.

Cn c nhng kiu hnh gi l cc con ln, vn bin hnh thnh cc hnh dng khc v, sau mt vi th h, tr li dng gc ca chng, nhng ti v tr cch mt xung di trn ng cho. Nu bn nhn cc hnh ny pht trin ny theo thi gian, chng c v nh ang trng trn ma trn. Khi nhng con ln ny m vo nhau, cc biu hin gy t m xy ra, ty thuc vo hnh dng ca mi con ti thi im va chm.

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Cc con ln Cc con ln bin hnh qua nhng hnh dng tc thi ny, ri tr li dng gc ca chng, b dch chuyn mt dc theo ng cho.

iu lm v tr ny th v l d vt l c bn ca v tr ny tht n gin, ha hc th c th phc tp. Ngha l, cc i tng a hp tn ti trn nhng thang khc nhau. Ti thang nh nht, vt l c bn ni rng ch c cc vung sng v cht. Trn mt thang rng hn, c cc con ln, con nhy v khi sng tnh. Ti mt thang ln hn na thm ch cn c cc i tng phc hp, nh cc pho con ln: nhng kiu hnh nh ch tun hon sinh ra cc con ln sau ri t v chy xung theo ng cho. Nu bn quan st v tr Tr chi S sng mt lc trn bt k thang no, bn c th c kt cc nh lut chi phi cc i tng trn thang . V d, trn thang ca cc i tng ch vi vung bn c th c cc nh lut kiu nh Cc khi tnh khng bao gi ng, Cc con ln i cho, v nhiu nh lut khc nhau cho vic xy ra khi cc tng va chm. Bn c th to ra c mt nn vt l trn bt k cp no ca cc i tng a hp. Cc nh lut s ko theo cc thc th v khi nim vn khng h c trong cc nh lut gc. V d, khng c cc khi nim nh l va chm hay di chuyn trong cc nh lut gc. Nhng nh lut ch m t s sng v cht ca cc vung c th nh ch. Cng nh trong v tr ca chng ta, trong Tr chi S sng thc ti ca bn ph thuc vo m hnh bn mn ti.

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Thit t khi u ca Pho Con Ln Pho con ln ln gn bng mi ln so vi mt con ln.

Conway v cc sinh vin ca ng to ra th gii ny v h mun bit mt v tr vi cc quy tc c bn n gin nh nhng g h nh ngha c th cha cc i tng phc hp nhn bn hay khng. Trong Tr chi S sng, liu cc i tng a hp c tn ti m, sau khi ch i theo nhng nh lut ca th gii trong vi th h, s ra nhng i tng khc cng loi vi n? Conway v cc sinh vin ca ng khng ch c th xc nhn iu l c kh nng, h cn ch ra rng nhng i tng nh th s, theo mt kiu no , c tr tu! Chng ta c g khi ni nh vy? cho chi tit, h cho thy khi phc hp cc vung khng l t nhn bn l cc my Turing v tr. i vi cc mc ch ca chng ta iu c ngha rng vi bt k tnh ton no mt my tnh trong th gii vt l ca chng ta v nguyn tc c th thc hin c, nu c my c np ng chng trnh vo v d nh, c cung cp mi trng thch hp ca Tr chi S sng th mt vi th h sau c my s trong mt trng thi t mt tn hiu ra c th c c v tng ng vi kt qu ca tnh ton t chic my tnh .

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Pho Con Ln Sau 116 Th H Theo thi gian, khu pho con l nthay i hnh dng ca n, pht ra mt con ln, sau tr li dng v v tr gc ca n. N lp li qu trnh n v hn.

c cht tri nghim vic l nh th no, hy xem xt iu g xy ra khi cc con ln c bn ti mt khi 2x2 n gin cc vung sng. Nu nh cc con ln tin ti ng cch, khi , vn vn nh ch, s chuyn ng ti hay khi ngun ca cc con ln. Theo cch ny, khi y c th m phng mt b nh my tnh. Thc t, tt c cc hm c bn ca mt my tnh hin i, nhng l cc cng AND v OR, c th c to ra t cc con ln. Theo cch thc ny, c nh cc tn hiu in chng ta mn ti trong mt my tnh vt l, cc dng con ln c th c mn ti gi v x l thng tin. Trong Tr chi S Sng, ging nh trong th gii ca chng ta, cc kiu hnh t ti sn sinh l cc i tng phc tp. Mt c tnh, da trn cc cng trnh trc ca nh ton hc John von Neumann, t ra kch thc ti thiu ca mt kiu hnh t nhn bn trong Tr chi S sng vi mi ngn t vung gn bng s phn t trong mt t bo n l ca ngi. Mt ngi c th nh ngha cc thc th sng l cc h phc hp c kch thc gii hn nh v ti sn sinh ra chng. Nhng i tng c m t trn tha mn iu kin ti sn sinh nhng hn khng n nh: Mt xo trn nh t bn ngoi c th ph hng c cu mong manh ny. Tuy nhin d dng tng tng rng cc nh lut hi phc tp hn s cho php cc h phc hp vi tt c cc c tnh ca s sng. Th tng tng mt thc th kiu , mt i tng trong mt th gii kiu-Conway. Mt i tng nh th c th phn ng li cc kch thch mi trng, v t c v nh ra cc quyt nh. Nhng s sng nh th c th nhn thc c bn thn ca n khng? N c t thc khng? y l mt cu hi m cc

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kin v n b chia r su sc. Mt vi ngi tuyn b rng t thc l th g c nht con ngi. N trao cho h ch t do, kh nng chn la gia cc hng hnh ng khc nhau. Lm sao mt ngi c th ni mt thc th c ch t do? Nu mt ngi chm trn mt ngi ngoi hnh tinh, lm th no mt ngi c th ni n ch l mt ngi my hay n c t duy ca ring n? Hnh vi ca mt ngi my c th hon ton c xc nh, khng ging ca mt thc th c ch t do. Nn mt ngi v nguyn tc c th thm d mt ngi my nh mt thc th m hnh ng c th c d on. Nh chng ta ni trong Chng 2, iu ny c th kh mt cch bt kh thi nu thc th ln v phc hp. Chng ta thm ch khng th gii chnh xc phng trnh cho ba hay nhiu hn ht ang tng tc nhau. V mt ngi ngoi hnh tinh s phi cha mt t t t ht thm ch nu n l ngi my, n s bt kh thi gii cc phng trnh v d on iu n s lm. Chng ta t phi ni rng cc thc th phc hp c ch t do khng phi l mt tnh cht c bn, m l mt l thuyt thc tin, mt s tha nhn s bt lc thc hin cc tnh ton c th cho php chng ta d on cc hnh ng ca n. V d v Tr chi S sng ca Conway cho thy rng thm ch mt tp hp rt n gin cc nh lut cng c th to ra cc nt phc tp ging vi nhng nt ca s sng c tr tu. Hn phi c nhiu tp hp cc nh lut vi c tnh ny. iu g chn ra cc nh lut c bn (ngc li cc nh lut hin hin) vn chi phi v tr ca chng ta? Nh trong v tr ca Conway, cc nh lut ca v tr ca chng ta xc nh s tin ha ca h, cho trc trng thi ti mt thi im. Trong th gii ca Conway chng l cc ng sng to chng ta chn trng thi khi u cho v tr bng cch thit t cc i tng v cc v tr ca chng lc bt u ca tr chi. Trong mt v tr vt l, cc i tng tng t vi cc con ln trong Tr chi S sng l cc vt th vt cht bit lp. Mt tp hp bt k cc nh lut m t mt th gii lin tc nh chng ta s c mt khi nim v nng lng, vn l mt i lng bo ton, ngha l n khng i theo thi gian. Nng lng ca khng gian trng s l mt hng s, c lp vi c thi gian v v tr. Mt ngi c th tr i hng s nng lng chn khng ny bng cc o nng lng trong th tch ca khng gian bt k tng i vi nng lng ca cng th tch khng gian trng, nn chng ta cng c th gi hng s l zero. Mt i hi bt k nh lut t nhin no cng phi tha mn l n rng buc nng lng ca mt vt th bit lp bao quanh bi khng gian trng l phi dng, ngha l chng ta phi tn cng tng hp nn vt th . l v nu nng lng ca mt vt th bit lp l m, n c th c to ra trong mt trng thi chuyn ng sao cho nng lng m ca n phi chnh xc cn bng vi nng lng dng ca n nh vo chuyn ng. Nu iu thnh tht, s khng c l do no cc vt th khng th xut hin bt k u v khp u u. Khng gian trng do th s khng

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n nh. Nhng nu phi tn nng lng to nn mt vt th bit lp, s bt n nh nh vy khng th xy ra, bi v, nh chng ta ni, nng lng ca v tr phi gi nguyn l hng s. l iu phi mt lm cho v tr n nh cc b lm cho mi th khng t nhin xut hin khp ni t h khng. Nu nh tng nng lng ca ton v tr lun gi nguyn l zero, v phi tn nng lng to nn mt vt th, lm th no tn b v tr c th c to ra t h khng? l v sao c mt lc ging nh lc hp dn. Bi v lc hp dn l lc ht, nng lng hp dn l m: Mt ngi phi tn cng tch mt h c rng buc bng hp dn, nh tri t v mt trng. Nng lng m ny c th cn bng nng lng dng cn c to ra vt cht, nhng n khng hon ton n gin. Nng lng hp dn m ca tri t, ly lm v d, th nh hn mt phn t nng lng dng t vt cht m tri t c to thnh. Mt vt th nh mt ngi sao c th c nhiu nng lng hp dn m hn, v n cng nh hn (cc phn khc nhau ca n cng gn nhau hn), nng lng hp dn m ca n s cng ln hn. Nhng trc khi n c th tr nn ln hn nng lng dng ca vt cht, ngi sao s sp thnh mt l en, v cc l en c nng lng dng. l v sao khng gian trng li n nh. Cc vt th nh l cc ngi sao khng th ch xut hin t h khng. Nhng c mt v tr th c th. Bi v lc hp dn nh hnh khng gian v thi gian, n cho php khng-thi gian n nh cc b nhng bt n nh cho ton cc. Trn phm vi ton v tr, nng lng dng ca vt cht c th b cn bng bng nng lng hp dn m, v do th khng c gii hn no cho s sng to ca ton b cc v tr. Bi v c mt lc nh lc hp dn, v tr c th v s to ra chnh n t h khng nh cch thc c m t trong Chng 6. S sng to t ngu l l do c th g thay v h khng, ti sao v tr tn ti, ti sao chng ta tn ti. Khng cn thit phi vin ti Cha thp sng bn n v thit t cho v tr chuyn ng. Ti sao cc nh lut c bn li nh cch chng ta m t chng? L thuyt ti hu phi phi mu thun v phi d on nhng kt qu hu hn cho cc i lng m chng ta cn o. Chng ta thy rng phi c mt nh lut nh lc hp dn, v chng ta thy trong Chng 5 rng cho mt l thuyt hp dn d on cc i lng hu hn, l thuyt phi c th gi l siu i xng gia cc lc ca t nhin v vt cht m chng tng tc. Thuyt M l thuyt siu i xng tng qut nht v lc hp dn. Vi nhng l do ny thuyt M l ng vin duy nht cho mt l thuyt hon chnh v v tr. Nu n l hu hn v iu ny cha c chng minh n s l mt m hnh cho mt v tr t to ra chnh n. Chng ta phi l mt phn ca v tr ny v khng cn l thuyt phi mu thun no khc. Thuyt M l l thuyt thng nht Einstein hy vng tm thy. Thc t l nhn loi chng ta bn thn ch l cc tp hp ht c bn ca t nhin c th n gn nh vy ti s hiu bit v cc nh lut chi phi chng ta

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v v tr ca chng ta l mt i khi hon. Nhng c l php mu thc s chnh l cc suy lun tru tng v logic dn chng ta ti mt l thuyt c nht m c th d on v m t v tr mnh mng y nhng s phong ph ng ngc nhin m chng ta thy. Nu l thuyt c xc nhn bng quan st, n s l mt kt lun thnh cng cho mt cuc lng kim c t hn 3.000 nm. Chng ta s tm ra thit k v i.

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T MC
Cc lch s thay th Mt cch trnh by ca thuyt lng t trong xc ca mt quan st bt k c to nn t tt c cc lch s kh d c th dn ti quan st . Nguyn l v nhn tng rng chng ta c th rt ra cc kt lun v cc nh lut hin hin ca vt l da trn thc t l chng ta tn ti. Phn vt cht Mi ht vt cht c mt phn ht tng ng. Nu chng gp nhau, chng s trit tiu nhau, li nng lng thun. Cc nh lut hin hin Cc nh lut t nhin m chng ta quan st c trong v tr ca chng ta cc nh lut v bn lc, v cc thng s nh khi lng v in tch c trng cho cc ht nguyn t ngc li cc nh lut c bn hn ca thuyt M vn cho php cc v tr khc nhau vi cc nh lut khc nhau. T do tim cn Mt c tnh ca lc mnh vn khin cho n yu hn cc khong cch ngn. Th nn, d cc quark b tri buc trong ht nhn bng lc ht nhn mnh, ch c th chuyn ng ni trong ht nhn hu nh th chng khng chu mt lc no c. Nguyn t C s ca mi vt cht bnh thng, cha mt ht nhn vi cc proton v neutron, bao quanh bi cc electron trn qu o. Baryon Mt loi ht nguyn t, nh proton v neutron, vn c to ra t ba quark. V n ln Khi u rt c, nng ca v tr. Thuyt v n ln gi s rng khong 13,7 t nm v trc phn v tr ta c th thy ngy nay ch c kch thc mt vi milimt. Ngy nay v tr ln hn v ngui hn rt nhiu. Nhng chng ta c th quan st cc tn d ca giai on s khai trong bc x nn vi sng v tr thm thu ton khng gian. L en Mt khu vc trong khng-thi gian m, do lc hp dn khng khip ca n, b ct ri khi phn v tr cn li. Boson Mt ht nguyn t truyn lc. Hng tip cn t di ln Trong v tr hc, mt tng da trn gi thit rng ch c mt lch s n l cho v tr, vi mt im u c xc nh c th, v trng thi ca v tr ngy nay l mt s tin tin ha t s bt u . Vt l c in Mt l thuyt vt l bt k trong v tr c gi thit c mt lch s n l, c xc nh c th. Hng s v tr Mt thng s trong cc phng trnh Einstein gy ra cho khng-thi gian xu hng vn c l gin n. a parameter in Einsteins equations that gives space-time an inherent tendency to expand. Lc in t Lc mnh th nh trong bn lc ca t nhin. N tc dng gia cc ht mang in tch. Electron Mt ht nguyn t vt cht c in tch m v chu trch nhim cho mi c tnh ha hc ca cc nguyn t. Fermion Mt loi ht vt cht.

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Thin h Mt h ln gm cc ngi sao, vt cht gia cc v sao, v vt cht ti c gi vi nhau bng lc hp dn. a large system of stars, interstellar matter, and dark matter that is held together by gravity. Lc hp dn Lc yu nht trong bn lc t nhin. N l cch thc m cc i tng c khi lng ht nhau. Nguyn l bt nh Heisenberg Mt nh lut ca thuyt lng t nu ra rng cc cp c tnh vt l nht nh khng th bit c ng thi vi mt chnh xc ty . Meson Mt loi ht nguyn t to nn t mt quark v mt phn quark. Thuyt M Mt l thuyt vt l c bn l ng vin cho l thuyt v mi vt. a v tr Mt tp hp cc v tr. Neutrino Mt ht nguyn t cc k nh ch chu tc dng ca lc ht nhn yu v lc hp dn. Neutron Mt loi baryon trung ha vn cng vi proton hnh thnh nn ht nhn ca mt nguyn t. iu kin khng bin iu kin rng tt c cc lch s ca v tr l nhng b mt knh khng c bin. Pha Mt v tr trong chu k ca mt sng. Photon Mt boson truyn lc in t. Mt ht lng t ca nh sng. Bin xc sut Trong mt l thuyt lng t, s phc c bnh phng gi tr tuyt i ch ra xc sut. Proton Mt loi baryon tch in dng vn cng vi neutron hnh thnh ht nhn ca mt nguyn t. Thuyt lng t Mt l thuyt trong cc i tng khng c mt lch s xc nh n l. Quark Mt ht nguyn t c in tch phn s cm ng vi lc ht nhn mnh. Cc proton v neutron u c to nn t ba quark. Ti bnh thng ha Mt k thut ton hc c thit k lm cc v hn trong thuyt lng t c ngha. im k d Mt im trong khng-thi gian ti mt i lng vt l tr nn v hn. Khng-thi gian Mt khng gian ton hc vi cc im phi c xc nh bng c cc ta khng gian v thi gian. Thuyt dy Mt l thuyt vt l trong cc ht c m t nh l mt kiu hnh rung ng c chiu di nhng khng c chiu cao hay chiu rng ging nh nhng on dy mnh v cng. Lc ht nhn mnh Lc mnh nht trong bn lc t nhin. Lc ny gi cc proton v neutron bn trong ht nhn mt nguyn t. N cn gi vng bn thn cc proton v neutron, vn l cn thit v cc proton v neutron c to nn t cc ht nh hn, cc quark. Siu hp dn Mt l thuyt trong lc hp dn c mt loi tnh cht i xng gi l siu i xng. Siu i xng Mt loi i xng tinh t khng th lin h vi cc php bin hnh trong khng gian thng. Mt trong nhng ng ca tnh siu i xng

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l cc ht lc v cc ht vt cht, t lc v vt cht, thc s ch l hai kha cnh ca cng mt th. Hng tip cn t trn xung Hng tip cn trong v tr hc trong mt ngi ln theo cc lch s ca v tr t trn xung, ngha l, ngc li t thi im hin ti. Lc ht nhn mnh Mt trong bn lc ca t nhin. Lc yu chu trch nhim cho tnh phng x v ng vai tr ch cht trong s hnh thnh cc nguyn t trong cc ngi sao v v tr s khai.

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LI CM N V tr c mt thit k, v quyn sch ny cng vy. Nhng khng nh v tr, mt quyn sch khng xut hin ngu nhin t h khng. Mt quyn sch cn mt ngi sng to, v vai tr y khng ch t trn vai ca cc tc gi ca n. Th nn u tin v trc ht chng ti xin c cm n cc ngi bin tp, Beth Rashbaum and Ann Harris, cho s
nhn ni gn v hn ca h. H l sinh vin khi chng ta cn cc sinh vin, l cc gio vin khi ta cn cc gio vin, v l nhng ngi thc chng ta khi chng ta cn hi thc. H kt cng vi bn tho, v thc hin n vi s nhit tnh, d l tho lun xung quanh vic thm mt du phy hay l s bt kh thi khi gn thm mt mt cong m i xng trc trong khng gian phng. Chng ti cng mun gi li cm n ti Mark Hillery, ngi tht t t c gn ht bn tho v c nhng b sung qu gi; Carole Lowenstein, ngi lm c rt nhiu vi thit k trang sch; David Stephenson, ngi hng dn trang ba hon chnh; v Loren Noveck, ngi m s ch ti chi tit cu chng ta khi nhng li nh chng ta khng h mun thy chng c in ra. Ti Peter Bollinger: cm kch nhiu cho vic mang ngh thut vo khoa hc vi cc minh ha ca anh, v s t m khi m bo s chnh xc trong mi chi tit. V ti Sydney Harris: Cm n anh v nhng bim ha tuyt vi, v s nhy cm tuyt vi i vi cc vi cc nh khoa hc ang i mt. Trong mt v tr khc, anh s l mt nh vt l. Chng ti cng cm kch cc nhn vin ca minh, Al Zuckerman v Susan Ginsburg, v s h tr v khch l ca h. N c hai thng ip m h kin nh gi ti chng ti, chng l n lc hon thnh quyn sch ri, v ng lo khi no anh bn s hon thnh, ri bn s n lc thi. H lun khn ngoan bit khi no th ni cu no. V cui cng, li cm n ca chng ti ti tr l ring ca Stephen, Judith Croasdell; h tr my tnh ca ng, Sam Blackburn; v Joan Godwin. H khng ch cung cp cc h tr tinh thn, m cn cc h tr thc t v k thut m khng c chng chng ta s khng th vit ra cun sch ny. Hn na, h lun bit ch c cc qun ba tt nht.

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Air, discovery of Almagest (Ptolemy) Alternative histories. See also Quantum physics/quantum theory Feynman diagrams and Feynmans sum over histories and the past and quantum vs. Newtonian worlds and universe and Anaximander Anthropic principle strong anthropic principle weak anthropic principle Antimatter Anti-quarks (pi mesons) Anti-realists Apparent laws of nature Aquinas, Thomas Archimedes Aristarchus Aristotle creation as deliberate design four-element theory
The Grand Design

on no exceptions to natural laws rate of falling objects theory reason for principles of nature use of reason instead of observation Asymptotic freedom Atomism Atoms hydrogen, Lamb shift and quarks, protons, and neutrons strong nuclear force and Augustine of Hippo, St. Babylonians Baryon Berkeley, George Beryllium Big bang theory CMBR and evidence of irregular universe and inflation as spontaneous quantum event when it happened Black hole Boshongo people

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Boson
The Grand Design

Brain laws of science and model building of Buckyballs buckyball soccer particle paths Buoyancy, law of Caenorhabditis elegans Carbon as basis for life creation of, in primordial universe triple alpha process and in universe Carroll, John W. Cathode rays CERN, Geneva Chemistry Chinese philosophy and mythology God as Creator tale of the ten suns Christianity creation as deliberate design John XXIs list of heresies, science and miracles
The Grand Design

natural laws as obedient to God notion of free will and purpose Ptolemaic model adopted by Roman Catholic Church rejection of indifferent natural laws Roman Catholic Church acknowledges wrong to Galileo Clepsydra Conway, John Copernicus Corpuscle theory Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) evidence of inflation and Cosmological constant Cosmology. See also Universe bottom up approach grand design and laws of nature as fine-tuned number of dimensions in the universe predictions in top down approach Crater Lake, Oregon

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Creation. See also Life; Universe account in Genesis big bang theory empirical evidence of
The Grand Design

God as Creator as godless of life M-theory and myths origin of the universe spontaneous quantum creation of the universe Curvature/curved spaces geodesics great circle Darwin, Charles Davisson, Clinton Davy, Sir Humphrey Delayed-choice experiments Democritus De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres [Copernicus]) Descartes, Ren Dicke, Robert Double-slit experiment buckyball soccer delayed-choice experiments Feynmans insight particle paths two-slit soccer
The Grand Design

which-path information Dualities Earth as center of the universe cessation of rotation Copernican model and creation curvature of, and geodesics eclipse and ether (luminiferous ether) and gravity and as hospitable to life laws of nature and Mercator projection, world map orbit planetary system of

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Ptolemaic model and seasonal weather patterns speed of Eccentricity of elliptical orbits Eclipse (lunar or solar) prediction of Economics Eddington, Arthur
The Grand Design

Effective theory Egyptian creation myth Einstein, Albert cosmological constant on creation of the universe expanding universe and general relativity photoelectric effect special relativity on time on unified theory on the universe Einsteins theory of relativity general relativity GPS satellite navigation systems and general relativity space-time and general relativity special relativity Electromagnetic force bosons and electroweak force and light and Maxwells equations QED and speed of electromagnetic waves
The Grand Design

Electrons double-slit experiment and Feynman diagrams and particle paths Electroweak force three new particles discovered Elegance, of models Empedocles Energy constant zero of empty space of universe Epicurus

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Ether (luminiferous ether) Euclid Evolution Faraday, Michael Fermion Feynman, Richard (Dick) Feynman diagrams Feynman paths QED and sum over histories van owned by
The Grand Design

FitzGerald, George Francis Force fields bosons fermions Fowler, William Free will Friedmann, Alexander Fuller, Buckminster Galaxies alternative histories and cosmological constant and expanding universe and heavy elements and formation of inhomogeneities in universe and light from distant number of and stars in planetary systems of quantum fluctuations and formation of Galileo rate of falling objects theory Game of Life blinkers evolution of a still life glider guns
The Grand Design

gliders still-life blocks Geodesics Germer, Lester God (or gods) as causal in nature creation and as dice-thrower first-cause argument Joshua praying for the sun and moon to halt

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as mathematician natural laws, human statues and natural laws and Newtons belief in Gods intervention universe as Gods dollhouse what happened before the world existed? Grand design laws of nature as fine-tuned and no-boundary condition and Grand unified theories (GUTS) Gravitational waves Gravity cosmological constant cosmological constant and
The Grand Design

creation of stars, galaxies, planets effective theory and Einsteins general relativity and galaxies and mathematical formulation of theory M-theory and Newtons law of orbits and three dimensions quantum theory and as shaper of space-time standard model not applicable supergravity theory warpage of time and space by as weak force Great circle Greece, ancient distinction between human and natural laws lacking Ionian science laws of nature and questions of creation and scientific method lacking Stoics Grimnismal (The Elder Edda) Harris, Sidney, cartoons by
The Grand Design

Heisenberg, Werner Heisenberg uncertainty principle empty space, impossibility of, and Plancks constant Helium big bang theory and creation of beryllium, carbon, and

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in primordial universe Heraclitus Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy Holographic principle Hoyle, Fred Hubble, Edwin Humans. See also Life creation of, Biblical definition of living beings existence relative to cosmic history free will and natural laws and origins of homo sapiens psychology as study of will and behavior robot vs. self-awareness soul of
The Grand Design

written language and cultivation begun Hume, David Hydrogen fusion, in stars isotopes Lamb shift and in primordial universe Inertia, law of Inflation theory irregular universe and Initial conditions Intelligent design Interference constructive destructive double-slit experiment Newtons rings and puddle interference which-path information and Youngs experiment and Ionian science Johnson, Samuel John XXI, Pope Kelvin, William Thomson, Lord
The Grand Design

Kepler, Johannes Klamath Indians Lamb shift Laplace, Pierre-Simon, marquis de

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Large Hadron Collider, Geneva Law of the lever Laws of nature ancient Greece and apparent laws Aristotles errors changing conception of dependent on history of the universe Descartes and electric and magnetic forces energy and exceptions to (i.e., miracles) as fine-tuned first recognition of four classes of known forces Galileo and generalizations vs. God and grand design gravity, as first in mathematical language
The Grand Design

humans governed by initial conditions and Ionian science mathematical formulation of mathematical formulation of, first modern concept of modern definition M-theory and origin of quantum physics and rejection of indifferent soul exempt from strong anthropic principle and uniqueness of uniqueness of (one set of) Lematre, Georges Lieh Y-Kou Life carbon-based life-form creation of definition of living beings environmental conditions for existence of fundamental constants as fine-tuned
The Grand Design

God as Creator

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Goldilocks zone and intelligent multiverse concept and solar system conditions and strong anthropic principle theory of evolution Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything weak anthropic principle and Light electromagnetism and interference Michelson-Morley experiment Newtons theory of (particle/corpuscle theory) photoelectric effect polarized refraction speed of theory of special relativity and wavelength and wave/particle duality wave theory Youngs experiment Lithium
The Grand Design

in primordial universe Lorentz, Hendrick Antoon Mathematics development of laws of nature phrased in Matrix, The (film) Maxwell, James Clerk Mayan people Mercator projection, world map Mercury Meson Michelson, Albert Miracles Model-dependent realism dualities and four points of a good model Game of Life and meaning of existence and M-theory and quarks and subatomic particles and vision and

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what happened before the world existed? Monza, Italy

The Grand Design

Moon eclipse of as gravitational bound system (with earth) gravity and orbit of in myth of other planets Morley, Edward M-theory eleven space-time dimensions of as grand design multiple universes and p-branes why M-theory Multiverse concept. See also Universe Napoleon Bonaparte Neutrino Neutron Newton, Isaac God as Creator and theories of, limitations Newtons law of gravity Newtons laws of motion earths rotation and macroscopic objects and
The Grand Design

the past and planetary orbits and Newtons rings No-boundary condition Norse mythology rsted, Hans Christian P-brane Phase Photoelectric effect Photon delayed-choice experiments Feynman diagrams and Physics, classical Archimedes and Aristotle and picture of the universe shortcomings for atomic and subatomic scales of existence Physics, modern. See also Quantum physics/quantum theories Feynman diagrams, importance of

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theoretical Plancks constant Plato Pope, Alexander Principle of mediocrity

The Grand Design

Probability amplitude Protons GUTS and rate of decay (lifetime) Psychology Ptolemy Pythagoras Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) asymptotic freedom and Quantum electrodynamics (QED) Feynman diagrams Lamb shift and renormalization and sum over histories and Quantum fluctuations Quantum jitters Quantum physics/quantum theory alternative histories atomic, subatomic scales, and buckyball experiment and determinism and double-slit experiment for electromagnetism (see also quantum electrodynamics) electroweak force
The Grand Design

Feynman paths Feynmans sum over histories of forces four classes of known forces gravity, problem of larger objects and observation of system, and alteration of course origin of universe as quantum event the past and Plancks constant principles of principles of, and reality probabilities and probability amplitude quantum chromodynamics (QCD) quantum superposition

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testing theories uncertainty principle wave/particle duality Quantum superposition Quarks asymptotic freedom baryons and colors
The Grand Design

mesons and QCD and Realism Reality. See also Model-dependent realism anti-realists classical picture of objective existence five-dimensional space-time goldfish bowl example holographic principle law of nature and model-dependent realism multiple histories objective, question of existence of the past and Ptolemaic model of quantum physics and realists simulated or alternative Reference frames Reflection, law of Renormalization Resonance Salam, Abdus Schnborn, Christoph
The Grand Design

Scientific determinism Scientific method Second Life Singularity Soul pineal gland as seat of Space curvature/curved spaces planetary orbits and three dimensions straws and lines three dimensions of warpage by matter and energy Space-time

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cosmological constant as curved and distorted as fourth dimension M-theorys eleven dimensions string theorys ten dimensions warpage by gravity Standard model Stars. See also Sun explosions (supernova) mass Stoics
The Grand Design

Straus, Ernst Strings, law of String theory internal space ten dimensions in Strong anthropic principle Strong nuclear force QCD and Sum over histories multiverse concept and Sun Aristarchus and as center of earths planetary system governed by fixed laws life on earth and in myth solar eclipse strong nuclear force and three dimensional space and wavelengths of radiation Supergravity theory Supernova Supersymmetry Symmetry
The Grand Design

System observation of, and alteration of course Tempier of Paris, Bishop Thales of Miletus Theory of everything. See also Feynman, Richard (Dick); M-theory electroweak force grand unified theories (GUTS) gravity, problem of M-theory quantum chromodynamics (QCD)

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quantum electrodynamics (QED) standard model string theory Theory of relativity. See Einsteins theory of relativity Thomson, J. J. Time. See also Space-time beginning of clock in airplane experiment special theory of relativity and time dilation warpage of Triple alpha process Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything. See also Grand design Ultimate theory of everything. See Theory of everything
The Grand Design

Uncertainty principle. See Heisenberg uncertainty principle Unified theory. See Theory of everything Universe. See also Creation; Life age of alternative histories of ancient interpretations and celestial predictions balloon universe analogy big bang theory binary star systems carbon content classical picture of CMBR and Copernican model of dimensions of earth as center of earths planetary system eccentricity of elliptical orbits Einsteins general theory of relativity and elements in primordial empty space, impossibility of episode of inflation expanding model Feynmans sum over histories and gods as causal in
The Grand Design

as Gods dollhouse grand design gravity and helium, lithium, and hydrogen in human-centered inflation theory inhomogeneities in

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laws of (see also Laws of nature) M-theory and multiple (see also Multiverse concept) multiple-star systems no-boundary condition origin of phlogiston theory planetary orbits planetary systems of Ptolemaic model of rejection of indifferent natural laws size of size of our galaxy space-time warpage spontaneous quantum creation of stars static or steady-state theory
The Grand Design

Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything Ussher, Bishop Vacuum fluctuations Virtual particles Von Neumann, John Wallace, Alfred Russel Wavelength radio waves visible X-rays Wave-particle duality Wave theory. See also Interference double-slit experiment Feynmans sum over histories and interference phase Weak anthropic principle Weak nuclear force quantum field theory of Weinberg, Steven Wheeler, John Which-path information Young, Thomas
The Grand Design

Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Krper (On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies [Einstein]) Zwicky, Fritz

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STEPHEN HAWKING l Gio s Ton hc ti i Hc Cambridge

trong ba mi nm, v nhn rt nhiu gii thng v tn vinh bao gm, gn y nht, Huy chng Tng thng cho T do. Cc quyn sch ca ng cho cc c gi ph thng bao gm tc phm kinh in Lc s thi gian, tuyn tp cc bi vit H en v cc V tr B con, V tr trong v Ht d v Lc s thi gian. LEONARD MLODINOW l nh vt l ti Caltech v tc gi ca quyn sch bn chy nht Cuc Tn b ca Ngi Say: S Ngu Nhin kim sot Cuc sng ca chng ta nh th no, Cnh ca s ca Euclid: Cu truyn v Hnh hc ca cc ng Song Song ti Siu Khng Gian, Cu vng ca Feynmann: Mt cuc tm kim cho V p trong Vt L v Cuc sng, v Lc s Thi gian. ng cng vit cho Star Trek: Th H K Tip. ng sng Pasadena, California.