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Culture Documents
1. C S TON HC.............................................................................................. 3
1.1. L thuyt s......................................................................................................3
1.1.1. Khi nim ng d Modulo ......................................................................3
1.1.2. nh l v ng d thc............................................................................3
1.1.3. Khi nim phn t nghch o ..................................................................4
1.1.4. Thut ton Euclide ....................................................................................4
1.1.5. Phn t nguyn thy v logarith ri rc....................................................4
1.1.6. Thng d bc hai v k hiu Legendre .....................................................5
1.1.7. Mt s thut ton kim tra tnh nguyn t ................................................6
1.2. L thuyt v phc tp tnh ton...................................................................6
1.2.1. phc tp tnh ton................................................................................6
1.2.2. Cc lp phc tp .......................................................................................7
1.3. Hm mt pha v hm ca sp mt pha ..........................................................8
2. GII THIU V M HA ................................................................................. 9
2.1. Cc thut ng ...................................................................................................9
2.2. nh ngha h mt m. .....................................................................................9
2.3. Nhng yu cu i vi h mt m .................................................................10
2.4. Cc phng php m ho...............................................................................10
2.4.1. M ho i xng kho b mt .................................................................10
2.4.1.1. Ni ng dng ...................................................................................11
2.4.1.2. Cc vn i vi phng php m ho i xng .........................11
2.4.2. M ho phi i xng kho cng khai......................................................12
2.4.2.1. Ni ng dng ...................................................................................12
2.4.2.2. iu kin h m ha kha cng khai ...............................................12
2.5. Cc h m ha n gin .................................................................................13
2.5.1. M dch vng...........................................................................................15
2.5.2. M thay th..............................................................................................17
2.5.3. M Apphin ..............................................................................................18
2.5.4. M Vigenre............................................................................................19
2.5.5. M HILL .................................................................................................21
2.5.6. M hon v...............................................................................................23
3. H M HA DES .............................................................................................. 24
3.1. M t DES......................................................................................................24
3.1.1. Thut ton DES .......................................................................................25
1
Trang 1
1. C S TON HC
Trong phn ny s trnh by v mt s c s ton hc ca m ha, iu ny s gip
ta nm c mt cch chi tit hn v cc phng php m ha.
1.1. L thuyt s
1.1.1. Khi nim ng d Modulo
nh ngha 1: Gi s a v b l cc s nguyn v m l mt s nguyn dng. Khi
ta vit a b(mod m) nu b-a chia ht cho m. Mnh a b(mod m) c gi l a
ng d vi b theo moun m.
Gi s chia a v b cho m v ta thu c thng nguyn v phn d, cc phn d
nm gia 0 v m-1, ngha l a = q1*m + r1 v b = q2*m + r2 trong 0 r1 m-1 v 0
r2 m-1. Khi c th d dng thy rng a b(mod m) khi v ch khi r1 = r2 .
Ta s dng k hiu a mod m xc nh phn d khi a c chia cho m (chnh l
gi tr r1 trn). Nh vy: ab(mod m) khi v ch khi (a mod m) = (b mod m). Php rt
gn, thay a bng a mod m th ta ni rng a c rt gn theo modulo m.
Nhn xt: Nhiu ngn ng lp trnh ca my tnh xc nh a mod m l phn d
trong di -m+1,,m-1 c cng du vi a. V d -18 mod 7 s l 4, gi tr ny khc
vi gi tr 3 l gi tr c xc nh theo cng thc trn. Tuy nhin, thun tin ta s
xc nh a mod m lun l mt s khng m.
By gi ta c th nh ngha s hc modulo m: Zm c coi l tp hp {0,1,,m-1}
c trang b hai php ton cng v nhn. Vic cng v nhn trong Zm c thc hin
ging nh cng v nhn cc s thc ngoi tr mt im l cc kt qu c rt gn
theo moun m.
1.1.2. nh l v ng d thc
nh l 1: ng d thc ax b (mod m) ch c mt nghim duy nht x Zm vi
mi b Zm khi v ch khi UCLN(a,m) = 1.
Ta gi s rng, UCLN(a,m) = d >1. Khi , vi b = 0 th ng d thc ax 0 (mod
m) s c t nht hai nghim phn bit trong Zm l x = 0 v x = m/d.
Trang 3
b(n) 1 (mod n)
(1)
a
asad =
p
0 nu a 0 (mod p)
1 nu a l thng d bc hai theo mod p
-1 nu a khng l thng d bc hai theo mod p
Trang 5
Nu n l hp s th:
|{a: 1 a n-1, a a(n-1)/2 (mod n)}| (n-1)/2
n
Trang 7
Trang 8
2. GII THIU V M HA
2.1. Cc thut ng
1. H mt m l tp hp cc thut ton v cc th tc kt hp che du thng tin
cng nh lm r n.
2. Mt m hc nghin cu mt m bi cc nh mt m hc, ngi vit mt m v cc
nh phn tch m.
3. M ho l qu trnh chuyn thng tin c th c gi l bn r thnh thng tin
khng th c gi l bn m.
4. Gii m l qu trnh chuyn ngc li thng tin c m ho thnh bn r.
5. Thut ton m ho l cc th tc tnh ton s dng che du v lm r thng tin.
Thut ton cng phc tp th bn m cng an ton.
6. Mt kho l mt gi tr lm cho thut ton m ho chy theo cch ring bit v
sinh ra bn r ring bit tu theo kho. Kho cng ln th bn m kt qu cng an
ton. Kch thc ca kho c o bng bit. Phm vi cc gi tr c th c ca kho
c gi l khng gian kho.
7. Phn tch m l qu trnh hay ngh thut phn tch h mt m hoc kim tra tnh
ton vn ca n hoc ph n v nhng l do b mt.
8. Mt k tn cng l mt ngi (hay h thng) thc hin phn tch m lm hi h
thng. Nhng k tn cng l nhng k thc mi vo chuyn ngi khc, cc tay
hacker, nhng k nghe trm hay nhng cc tn ng ng khc, v h lm nhng
vic thng gi l cracking
2.2. nh ngha h mt m.
H mt m: l mt h bao gm 5 thnh phn (P, C, K, E, D) tho mn cc tnh cht
sau
P ( Plaintext ) l tp hp hu hn cc bn r c th.
C ( Ciphertext ) l tp hp hu hn cc bn m c th.
K ( Key ) l tp hp cc bn kho c th.
E ( Encrytion ) l tp hp cc qui tc m ho c th.
D ( Decrytion ) l tp hp cc qui tc gii m c th.
Chng ta bit mt thng bo thng c t chc di dng bn r. Ngi gi
s lm nhim v m ho bn r, kt qu thu c gi l bn m. Bn m ny c gi
i trn mt ng truyn ti ngi nhn sau khi nhn c bn m ngi nhn gii m
Trang 9
n tm hiu ni dung. D dng thy c cng vic trn khi s dng nh ngha h
mt m :
EK( P) = C v DK( C ) = P
2.3. Nhng yu cu i vi h mt m
Cung cp mt mc cao v tin cy, tnh ton vn, s khng t chi v s xc
thc.
tin cy: cung cp s b mt cho cc thng bo v d liu c lu bng vic
che du thng tin s dng cc k thut m ha.
Tnh ton vn: cung cp s bo m vi tt c cc bn rng thng bo cn li
khng thay i t khi to ra cho n khi ngi nhn m n.
Tnh khng t chi: c th cung cp mt cch xc nhn rng ti liu n t ai
ngay c khi h c gng t chi n.
Tnh xc thc: cung cp hai dch v: u tin l nhn dng ngun gc ca mt
thng bo v cung cp mt vi s bo m rng n l ng s thc. Th hai l
kim tra c tnh ca ngi ang logon mt h thng v sau tip tc kim tra
c tnh ca h trong trng hp ai c gng t nhin kt ni v gi dng l
ngi s dng
Trang 10
Bn r
M ho
Bn m
Gii m
Bn r
K2
K1
Kho
Trang 11
M ho
Bn m
Kho m ha k1
Gii m
Bn r
Kho gii m k2
Trang 12
2.5. Cc h m ha n gin
i tng c bn ca mt m l to ra kh nng lin lc trn mt knh khng mt
cho hai ngi s dng (tm gi l Alice v Bob) sao cho i phng (Oscar) khng
th hiu c thng tin c truyn i. Knh ny c th l mt ng dy in thoi
hoc mt mng my tnh. Thng tin m Alice mun gi cho Bob (bn r) c th l mt
vn bn ting Anh, cc d liu bng s hoc bt c ti liu no c cu trc tu . Alice
s m ho bn r bng mt kha c xc nh trc v gi bn m kt qu trn
knh. Oscar c bn m thu trm c trn knh song khng th xc nh ni dung ca
bn r, nhng Bob (ngi bit kho m) c th gii m v thu c bn r.
Ta s m t hnh thc ho ni dung bng cch dung khi nim ton hc nh sau:
nh ngha:
Mt h mt l mt b 5 (P,C,K,E,D) tho mn cc iu kin sau:
P l mt tp hu hn cc bn r c th.
C l mt tp hu hn cc bn m c th.
K (khng gian kho) l tp hu hn cc kho c th.
i vi mi k K c mt quy tc m ek: P C v mt quy tc gii m tng ng
dk D. Mi ek: P C v dk: C P l nhng hm m:
dk(ek (x)) = x vi mi bn r x P.
Trang 13
B m ho
B gii m
Bob
Knh an ton
Ngun kho
R rng l trong trng hp ny hm m ho phi l hm n nh ( tc l nh x 11), nu khng vic gii m s khng thc hin c mt cch tng minh. V d
y = ek(x1) = ek(x2)
trong x1 x2 , th Bob s khng c cch no bit liu s phi gii m c x1 hay
x2 . Ch rng nu P = C th mi hm m ho l mt php hon v, tc l nu tp cc
bn m v tp cc bn r l ng nht th mi mt hm m s l mt s sp xp li
(hay hon v ) cc phn t ca tp ny.
Trang 14
10
11
12
13
14
15 16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
(x,y Z26)
2.5.2. M thay th
Mt h mt ni ting khc l h m thay th. H mt ny c s dng hng
trm nm. Tr chi ch "cryptogram" trong cc bi bo l nhng v d v MTT.
Trn thc t MTT c th ly c P v C u l b ch ci ting anh, gm 26 ch ci.
Ta dng Z26 trong MDV v cc php m v gii m u l cc php ton i s. Tuy
nhin, trong MTT, thch hp hn l xem php m v gii m nh cc hon v ca cc
k t.
nh ngha: Mt h mt l mt b 5 (P,C,K,E,D)
Cho P =C = Z26 . K cha mi hon v c th ca 26 k hiu 0,1, . . . ,25
Vi mi php hon v K , ta nh ngha:
e(x) = (x)
d(y) = -1(y)
Bi vy d (A) = d, d(B) = 1, . . .
Bi tp: gii m bn m sau bng cch dng hm gii m n gin:
M G Z V Y Z L G H C M H J M Y X S S F M N H A H Y C D L M H A.
M kho ca MTT l mt php hon v ca 26 k t. S cc hon v ny l 26!, ln
hn 4 10 26 l mt s rt ln. Bi vy, php tm kho vt cn khng th thc hin
Trang 17
c, thm ch bng my tnh. Tuy nhin, sau ny s thy rng MTT c th d dng b
thm bng cc phng php khc.
2.5.3. M Apphin
MDV l mt trng hp c bit ca MTT ch gm 26 trong s 26! cc hon v c
th ca 26 phn t. Mt trng hp c bit khc ca MTT l m Affine c m t
di y. trong m Affine, ta gii hn ch xt cc hm m c dng:
e(x) = ax + b mod 26,
a,b Z26 . Cc hm ny c gi l cc hm Affine (ch rng khi a = 1, ta c
MDV).
vic gii m c th thc hin c, yu cu cn thit l hm Affine phi l n
nh. Ni cch khc, vi bt k y Z26, ta mun c ng nht thc sau:
ax + b y (mod 26)
phi c nghim x duy nht. ng d thc ny tng ng vi:
ax y+(-b) (mod 26)
Lu : -b l phn t i ca b trong Z26.
V y thay i trn Z26 nn y+(-b) cng thay i trn Z26 . Bi vy, ta ch cn nghin
cu phng trnh ng d:
ax y (mod 26)
(y Z26 ).
nh ngha: Mt h mt l mt b 5 (P,C,K,E,D)
Cho P = C = Z26 v K = { (a,b) Z26 Z26 : UCLN(a,26) =1 }
Vi k = (a,b) K , ta nh ngha:
ek(x) = ax +b mod 26
v
v
dK(y1, y2, . . . ,ym) = (y1-k1, y2-k2, . . . , ym-km)
trong tt c cc php ton c thc hin trong Z26
V d: Gi s m =6 v t kho l CIPHER. T kho ny tng ng vi dy s K =
(2,8,15,7,4,17). Gi s bn r l xu: thiscryptosystemisnotsecure
Ta s bin i cc phn t ca bn r thnh cc thng d theo modulo 26, vit
chng thnh cc nhm 6 ri cng vi t kho theo modulo 26 nh sau:
19 7
2 8
21 15
8
15
23
18
7
25
2
4
6
17
17
8
24
2
0
15
8
23
19
15
8
14
7
21
18
4
22
24
17
15
18 19
2 8
20 1
4
15
19
12
7
19
8
4
12
18
17
9
13
2
15
14
8
22
19
15
8
18
7
15
4
4
8
2
17
19
20 17
2 8
22 25
4
15
19
Bi vy, dy k t tng ng ca xu bn m s l:
VPXZGIAXIVWPUBTTMJPWIZITWZT
gii m ta c th dng cng t kho nhng thay cho cng, ta tr cho n theo
modulo 26.
Ta thy rng cc t kho c th vi s di m trong mt m Vigenre l 26m, bi
vy, thm ch vi cc gi tr m kh nh, phng php tm kim vt cn cng yu cu
thi gian kh ln. V d, nu m = 5 th khng gian kho cng c kch thc ln hn
1,1 107 . Lng kho ny ln ngaen nga vic tm kho bng tay( ch
khng phi dng my tnh).
Trong h mt Vigenre c t kho di m,mi k t c th c nh x vo trong
m k t c th c (gi s rng t kho cha m k t phn bit). Mt h mt nh vy
c gi l h mt thay th a biu (polyalphabetic). Ni chung, vic thm m h thay
th a biu s kh khn hn so vic thm m h n biu.
Trang 20
2.5.5. M HILL
Trong phn ny s m t mt h mt thay th a biu khc c gi l mt m Hill.
Mt m ny do Lester S.Hill a ra nm 1929. Gi s m l mt s nguyn dng, t
P = C = (Z26)m . tng y l ly m t hp tuyn tnh ca m k t trong mt phn
t ca bn r to ra m k t mt phn t ca bn m.
V d nu m = 2 ta c th vit mt phn t ca bn r l x = (x1,x2) v mt phn t
ca bn m l y = (y1,y2). y, y1cng nh y2 u l mt t hp tuyn tnh ca x1v
x2. Chng hn, c th ly
y1 = 11x1+ 3x2
y2 = 8x1+ 7x2
Tt nhin c th vit gn hn theo k hiu ma trn nh sau
11 8
( y1 y 2 ) = ( x1 x2 )
3 7
m ,1 ... km,m
3 7
Gi s c kha K =
Trang 21
7 18
23 11
V
11 8
(11, 21)
= (121 + 72,88 + 168) = (11, 22)
3 7
a1,2
a1,1
Tr li v d xt trn . Trc ht ta c:
11 8
Det
=(11.7-8.3) mod 26 = 77 - 24 mod 26 = 53 mod 26 =1
3 7
11 8
7 8 7 18
=
=
(do theo modulo 26)
3 7
3 11 23 11
Trang 22
2.5.6. M hon v
Tt c cc h mt tho lun trn t nhiu u xoay quanh php thay th: cc k t
ca bn r c thay th bng cc k t khc trongbn m. tng ca MHV l gi
cc k t ca bn r khng thay i nhng s thay i v tr ca chng bng cch sp
xp li cc k t ny. MHV (cn c gi l m chuyn v) c dng t hng
trm nm nay. Tht ra th s phn bit gia MHV v MTT c Giovani Porta ch
ra t 1563. nh ngha hnh thc cho MHV c nu ra bn di.
Khng ging nh MTT, y khng c cc php ton i s no cn thc hin khi
m ho v gii m nn thch hp hn c l dng cc k t m khng dng cc thng
d theo modulo 26. Di y l mt v d minh ho
nh ngha: Mt h mt l mt b 5 (P,C,K,E,D)
Cho m l mt s nguyn dng xc nh no . Cho P = C = (Z26 )m v cho
3
1
4
6
5
4
6
2
1 2
3 6
Hon v
3
1
4
5
5
2
6
4
Hon v -1
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
v K-1 =0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0 0
3. H M HA DES
Ngy 15.5.1973. U ban tiu chun quc gia M cng b mt khuyn ngh cho
cc h mt trong H s qun l lin bang. iu ny cui cng dn n s pht trin
ca Chun m d liu (DES) v n tr thnh mt h mt c s dng rng ri nht
trn th gii. DES c IBM pht trin v c xem nh mt ci bin cu h mt
LUCIPHER. Ln u tin DES c cng b trong H s Lin bang vo ngy
17.3.1975. Sau nhiu cuc trnh lun cng khai, DES c chp nhn chn lm
chun cho cc ng dng khng c coi l mt vo 5.1.1977. K t c 5 nm mt
ln, DES li c U ban Tiu chun Quc gia xem xt li. Ln i mi gn y nht
ca DES l vo thng 1.1994 v tip ti s l 1998. Ngi ta on rng DES s khng
cn l chun sau 1998.
3.1. M t DES
Trang 24
3.1.3. M t hm f
Hm f c hai bin vo: bin th nht A l xu bt di 32, bin th hai J l mt
xu bt di 48. u ra ca f l mt xu bt di 32. Cc bc sau c thc hin:
Trang 25
Trang 26
Trang 27
40 8 48 16 56 24 64 32
39 7 47 15 55 23 63 31
38 6 46 14 54 22 62 30
37 5 45 13 53 21 61 29
36 4 44 12 52 20 60 28
35 3 43 11 51 19 59 27
34 2 42 10 50 18 58 26
33 1 41 9 49 17 57 25
1
5
9
13
17
21
25
29
2
6
10
14
18
22
26
30
3
7
11
15
19
23
27
31
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
5
9
13
17
21
25
29
1
Tm hp S ln lt nh sau
S1
14 4
1 15
4
1
15 12
13
7
14
8
1 2
4 14
8 13
2 4
15
2
6
9
11 8 3 10 3
13 1 10
6 12
2 11 15 12 9
1 7 5 11 3
12 5 9
11 9 5
7 3 10
14 10 0
1 7
3 8
5 0
6 13
S2
15 1 8
3 13 4
0 14 7
13 8 10
14 6
7 15
11 10
1 3
11 3 4 9
2 8 14 12
4 13 1 5
15 4 2 11
7 2 13 12
0 1 10 6
8 12 6 9
6 7 12 0
0
9
3
5
5 10
11 5
2 15
14 9
3 15 5 1 13 12 7 11 4
4 6 10 2
8 5 14 12 11
5 3 0 11 1 2 12 5 10
9 8 7 4 15 14 3 11 5
2 8
15 1
14 7
2 12
S3
10 0 9
13 7 0
13 6 4
1 10 13
14
9
9
0
6
3
8
6
Trang 28
S4
7 13 14
13 8 11
10 6 9
3 15 0
3 0 6 9 10 1
5 6 15 0 3 4
0 12 11 7 13 15
6 10 1 13 8 9
2
7
1
4
8 5 11 12 4 15
2 12 1 10 14 9
3 14 5 2 8 4
5 11 12 7 2 14
S5
2 12 4 1 7
14 11 2 12 4
4
2 1 11 10
11 8 12 7 1
10 11 6 8 5
7 13 1 5 0
13 7 8 15 9
14 2 13 6 15
3 15 13
15 10 3
12 5 6
0
9 10
0
9
3
4
14 9
8 6
0 14
5 3
S6
12 1 10 15
10 15 4 2
9 14 15 5
4
3 2 12
9
7
2
9
2 6 8
12 9 5
8 12 3
5 15 10
0 13 3 4 14 7 15 11
6
1 13 14 0 11 3 8
7
0 4 10 1 13 11 6
11 14 11 7 6 0
8 13
S7
4 11
13 0
1 4
6 11
12 14 15
11 7 4
11 13 12
13 8 1
0 8
9 1
3 7
4 10
13 3 12
10 14 3
14 10 15
7
9 5
9 7 5 10
5 12 2 15
6 8 0
5
0 15 14
2
6 1
8 6
9 2
3 12
S8
13
6 15 11
1 10
12
1 15 13
7 11 4
8 10 3 7
1 9 12 14
4 12
2 0
5
6
6 11 0 14
10 13 15 3
9
5
2
8
11
1 14
10
8 13 15 12
14
7
12
20
28
15
23
Trang 29
5
32
19
22
18
27
13
11
31
3
30
4
57
1
10
19
63
7
14
21
49
58
2
11
55
62
6
13
41
50
59
3
47
54
61
5
33
42
51
60
39
46
53
28
25
34
43
52
31
38
45
20
17
26
35
44
23
30
37
12
Vng 2
2 43 26 52 41 9 25 49 59 1
60 27 18 17 36 50 51 58 57
14 20 31 46 29 63 39 22 28
53 13 30 55 7 12 37 6 5 54
11
19
45
47
34
10 33
15 21
23
Vng 3
51
44
61
37
27 10 36 25 58 9 33 43 50 60 18
11 2 1 49 34 35 42 41 3 59 17
4 15 30 13 47 23 6 12 29 62 5
28 14 39 54 63 21 53 20 38 31 7
Vng 4
35 11 59 49 9 42 58 17 27 34 44 2
57 60 51 50 33 18 19 26 25 52 43 1
45 55 62 14 28 31 7 53 63 13 46 20
21 12 61 23 38 47 5 37 4 22 15 54
Vng 5
19 60 43 33 58 26 42 1 11 18 57 51
Trang 31
41 44 35 34 17 2 3 10 9 36 27 50
29 39 46 61 12 15 54 37 47 28 30 4
.5 63 45 7 22 31 20 21 55 6 62 38
Vng 6
3 44 27 17 42 10 26 50 60 2 41 35
25 57 19 18 1 51 52 59 58 49 11 34
13 23 30 45 63 62 38 21 31 12 14 55
20 47 29 54 6 15 4 5 39 53 46 22
Vng 7
52 57 11 1 26 59 10 34 44 51 25 19
9 41 3 2 50 35 36 43 42 33 60 18
28 7 14 29 47 46 22 5 15 63 61 39
4 31 13 38 53 62 55 20 23 38 30 6
Vng 8
36 41 60 50 10 43 59 18 57 35 9 3
58 25 5251 34 19 49 27 26 17 44 2
12 54 61 13 31 30 6 20 62 47 45 23
55 15 28 22 37 46 39 4 721 14 53
Vng 9
57 33 52 42 2 35 51 10 49 27 1 60
50 17 44 43 26 11 41 19 18 9 36 59
4 46 53 5 23 22 61 12 54 39 37 15
47 7 20 14 29 38 31 63 62 13 6 45
Vng 10
41
34
55
31
17 36 26 51 19 35 59 33 11 50 44
1 57 27 10 60 25 3 2 58 49 43
30 37 20 7 6 45 63 38 23 21 62
54 4 61 13 22 15 47 46 28 53 29
Vng 11
25
18
39
15
1 49 10 35 3 19 43 17 60 34 57
50 41 11 59 44 9 52 51 42 33 27
14 21 4 54 53 29 47 22 7 5 46
38 55 45 28 6 62 31 30 12 37 13
Trang 32
Vng 12
9 50 33 59 19 52 3 27 1 44 18 41
2 34 25 60 43 57 58 36 35 26 17 11
23 61 5 55 38 37 13 31 6 54 20 30
62 22 39 29 12 53 46 15 14 63 21 28
Vng 13
58 34 17 43 3
51 18 9 44 27
7 45 20 39 22
46 6 23 13 63
36
41
21
37
52
42
28
30
11
49
15
62
50
19
53
61
57
10
38
47
2
1
4
5
25
60
14
12
Vng 14
42 18 1 27 52 49 36 60 34 41 51 9
35 2 58 57 11 25 26 33 3 59 50 44
54 29 4 23 6 5 12 62 37 22 55 61
30 53 7 28 47 21 14 46 45 31 20 63
Vng 15
26 2 50 11 36 33 49 44 18 25 35 58
19 51 42 41 60 9 10 17 52 43 34 57
38 13 55 7 53 20 63 46 21 6 39 45
14 37 54 12 31 5 61 30 29 15 4 47
Vng 16
18 59 42 3 57 25 41 36 10 17 27 50
11 43 34 33 52 1 2 9 44 35 26 49
30 5 47 62 45 12 55 58 13 61 31 37
6 27 46 4 23 28 53 22 21 7 62 39
3.2. V d
Sau y l mt v d v php m DES. Gi s ta m bn r ( dng m hexa):
0123456789ABCDEF
Bng cch dng kho K m ha l:
123457799BBCDFF1
Kho dng nh phn (khng cha cc bt kim tra) l:
00010010011010010101101111001001101101111011011111111000
S dng IP, ta thu c L0 v R0 ( dng nh phn) nh sau:
L0 = 1100110000000000110010011111111
L1 =R0 = 11110000101010101111000010101010
Sau thc hin 16 vng ca php m nh sau:
E(R0) = 011110100001010101010101011110100001010101010101
K1 = 000110110000001011101111111111000111000001110010
E(R0) K1 = 011000010001011110111010100001100110010100100111
S-box outputs 01011100100000101011010110010111
f(R0,K1) = 00100011010010101010100110111011
L2 = R1 = 11101111010010100110010101000100
E(R1) = 011101011110101001010100001100001010101000001001
K2 = 011110011010111011011001110110111100100111100101
E(R1) K2 = 000011000100010010001101111010110110001111101100
S-box outputs 11111000110100000011101010101110
f(R1,K2) = 00111100101010111000011110100011
L3 = R2 = 11001100000000010111011100001001
E(R2) = 111001011000000000000010101110101110100001010011
K3 = 010101011111110010001010010000101100111110011001
E(R2) K3 = 101100000111110010001000111110000010011111001010
Trang 34
E(R8) = 011010101010101101010010101001010111110010100001
Trang 35
E(R13) = 000011110001011000000110100010101010101011110100
K13 = 010111110100001110110111111100101110011100111010
E(R13) K14 = 010100000101010110110001011110000100110111001110
S-box outputs 01100100011110011001101011110001
f(R13,K14) = 10110111001100011000111001010101
L15 = R14 = 11000010100011001001011000001101
Trang 36
E(R14) = 111000000101010001011001010010101100000001011011
K15 = 101111111001000110001101001111010011111100001010
E(R14) K15 = 010111111100010111010100011101111111111101010001
S-box outputs 10110010111010001000110100111100
f(R14,K15) = 01011011100000010010011101101110
R15 = 01000011010000100011001000110100
E(R15) = 001000000110101000000100000110100100000110101000
K16 = 110010110011110110001011000011100001011111110101
E(R15) K16 = 111010110101011110001111000101000101011001011101
S-box outputs 10100111100000110010010000101001
f(R15,K16) = 11001000110000000100111110011000
R16 = 00001010010011001101100110010101
Trang 38
Trang 39
x1
x2
IV=y0
M ho
Encrypt
eK
eK
y1
y2
y1
y2
Gii m
Decrypt
dK
dK
IV=y0
x1
x2
Ch CBC.
...
...
Trang 40
x1
Ch CFB
IV=y0
eK
M ho
Encrypt
IV=y0
Gii m
Decrypt
eK
x2
eK
y1
y2
y1
y2
x1
eK
...
...
x2
x1,x2,. . . ,xn cng vi MAC. Khi Bob thu c x1. . .xn anh ta s khi phc li y1. . .yn
bng kho K b mt v xc minh xem liu yn c ging vi MAC m mnh thu c
hay khng.
Nhn thy Oscar khng th to ra mt MAC hp l do anh ta khng bit kho K
m Alice v Bob ang dng. Hn na Oscar thu chn c dy khi bn r x1. . .xn v
thay i t nhiu ni dung th th chc chn l Oscar khng th thay i MAC c
Bob chp nhn.
Thng thng ta mun kt hp c tnh xc thc ln bo mt. iu c th thc
hin nh sau: Trc tin Alice dng kho K1 to MAC cho x1. . . xn . Sau Alice
xc nh xn+1 l MAC ri m ho dy x1. . .xn+1 bng kho th hai K2 to ra bn m
y1. . .yn+1 . Khi Bob thu c y1. . .yn+1 , trc tin Bob s gii m ( bng K2) v kim
tra xem xn+1 c phi l MAC i vi dy x1. . .xn dng K1 hay khng.
Ngc li, Alice c th dng K1 m ho x1. . .xn v to ra c y1...yn , sau
dng K2 to MAC yn+1 i vi dy y1. . .yn. Bob s dng K2 xc minh MAC v
dung K1 gii m y1. . .yn.
Trang 42
(1,99)
(2,93)
(3,308)
(4,559)
Trang 44
(5,329) (6,211)
(10,644) (11,654)
(7,664)
(12,26)
(8,207) (9,268)
(13,147) (14,800)
(15,727) (16,781)
(20,582) (21,496)
(25,586) (26,575)
(27,295) (28,81)
(1,175)
(6,44)
(2,328)
(7,554)
(3,379)
(8,724)
(4,396)
(9,511)
(10,440) (11,686)
(15,388) (16,399)
(20,754) (21,496)
(25,356) (26,658)
4.3. H mt RSA
Khi nim h mt m RSA c ra i nm 1976 bi cc tc gi R.Rivets,
A.Shamir, v L.Adleman. H m ha ny da trn c s ca hai bi ton :
Bi ton Logarith ri rc
Bi ton phn tch thnh tha s.
Trong h m ha RSA cc bn r, cc bn m v cc kha (public key v private
key) l thuc tp s nguyn ZN = {1, . . . , N-1}. Trong tp ZN vi N=pq l cc s
nguyn t khc nhau cng vi php cng v php nhn moun N to ra moun s hc
N. Kha m ha EKB l cp s nguyn (N,KB) v kha gii m DkB l cp s nguyn
(N,kB), cc s l rt ln, s N c th ln ti hng trm ch s. Cc phng php m
ha v gii m l rt d dng.
Cng vic m ha l s bin i bn r P (Plaintext) thnh bn m C (Ciphertext)
da trn cp kha cng khai KB v bn r P theo cng thc sau y :
C = EKB(P) = PKB (mod N)
(1)
Trang 45
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Trang 46
Chn p v q
Tnh N=pq
Tnh (N)
Bn r P
KB
Chn kha KB
C = PKB (mod N)
Bn m C
kB
Chn kha kB
P = CkB ( mod N )
Bn r gc P
S cc bc thc hin m ha theo thut ton RSA
V d:
N=11413=101113, (N)=100112=11200=26527. KB phi chn sao cho khng
chia ht cho 2,5,7. Chn, chng hn KB=3533 khi kB = KB-1 = 6579 mod 11200. V
ta c kha cng khai l (N,KB) = (11413,3533), kha b mt l 6579. Php lp m v
gii m l:
EKB(P) = PKB (mod N) = P3533 (mod 11413)
DkB(C) = CkB (mod N) = C6579 (mod 11413)
Chng hn vi P = 9726, ta c C=5761.
Trang 47
50
gi
75
104
gi
100
74
nm
200
4.000.000
nm
300
510
15
nm
500
41025
nm
Trang 49
4.4. H mt Elgamal
Elgamal pht trin mt h mt kha cng khai da trn bi ton logarith ri rc.
H thng ny c trnh by di y
Cho p l s nguyn t sao cho bi ton logarith ri rc trong Zp l kh
gii. Cho Zp* l phn t nguyn thy. Gi s P = Zp*
C = Zp* Zp* . Ta nh ngha:
K= {(p, ,a,): a (mod p)}
Cc gi tr p, , c cng khai, cn a gi kn
Vi K = (p, ,a,) v mt s ngu nhin b mt k Zp-1 , ta xc nh:
ek (x,k) = (y1 ,y2 )
trong
y1 = k mod p
y2 = xk mod p
vi y1 ,y2 Zp* ta xc nh:
dk(y1 ,y2 ) = y2 (y1a )-1 mod p
H mt kha cng khai Elgamal trong Zp*
Trong h mt ny, bn m ph thuc vo c bn r x ln gi tr ngu nhin k. Bi
vy s c nhiu bn m c m t cng mt bn r. Sau y s m t s lc cch
lm vic ca h mt Elgamal. Bn r x c che du bng cch nhn n vi k
to ra y2 . Gi tr k cng c gi i nh mt phn ca bn m. Nu mt ngi bit s
m b mt a c th tnh c k t k . Sau anh ta s tho mt n bng cch chia
y2 cho k thu c x.
V d:
Cho p = 2579, = 2, a = 765. Khi
= 2765 mod 2579 = 949
Trang 50
, trong
p l s nguyn t. Chc chn rng 1 v -1 lun l cc cn bc hai ca 1 theo moun p.
Chng l hai cn bc hai duy nht ca 1. Tht vy, gi s rng x l mt cn bc hai ca
1 theo moun p. Khi :
Trang 51
hoc
,hoc
Nu
Sau mt s hu hn bc
hoc ta c mt ch s k,
hoc ti k=0 ta vn c
Ta c mnh Q(p,a) nh sau:
Nu p l s nguyn t l v p - 1 =
hoc
hoc tn tai k:
sao cho
.
th vi mi a: 0<a<p-1:
, vi mi k=0,1,2,...,s
sao cho
S gi nguyn t
Theo nh l Fermat nh, vi s nguyn t p ta c vi mi a {1,2,...,p-1}:
nh ngha. Hp s n tho mn
vi a no c gi
l s gi nguyn t Fermat c s a.
S Carmichael: Hp s n l s gi nguyn t Fermat vi mi c s a {1,..,n},
CLN(a,n)=1 c gi l s Carmichael.
nh ngha: Hp s n c gi l s gi nguyn t mnh Fermat c s a nu
n tho mn mnh Q(n,a).
Gii thut kim tra Miller-Rabin
INPUT S t nhin l n.
OUTUT NguyenTo: TRUE/FALSE
1. Phn tch
trong s 1 v m l s t nhin l
2. Chn ngu nhin s t nhin a {2,...,n-1}.
3. t b = am(mod n)
4. Nu
th tr v TRUE. Kt thc.
5. Cho k chy t 0 n s-1:
1. Nu
th tr v TRUE. Kt thc.
Trang 52
Theo nh l Bayes trong l thuyt xc sut ta c cng thc tnh xc sut sai ca
kim tra Miller-Rabin l:
P(A|B) =
=
Trong cng thc ny P(A) bit trn, P(B|A)
, cn
= 1 v khi n l
P(A|B)=
qua 50 ln th th P(B|A)
, khi thay vo cng thc vi 50 ln th nu c 50 ln,
php th u "dng tnh" th xc sut sai gim xng ch cn l mt s rt nh khng
vt qu
, th
.
Nu ta mun kim tra s n c l nguyn t khng, ta ly ngu nhin cc s a' v
kim tra xem ng thc trn c ng khng. Nu n khng ng vi mt gi tr a no
th n l hp s. Nu ng thc ng vi nhiu gi tr ca a, ta c th ni rng n l
s nguyn t vi xc sut no , hay l mt s gi nguyn t (pseudoprime).
C th php th s cho ta mt kt qu sai.
S a m
trong khi n l hp s c gi l mt gi Fermat.
Cn nu c s a m
th a c xem nh mt bng chng Fermat chng t n l hp s.
Thut ton v thi gian thi hnh
Thut ton c th vit nh sau:
Inputs: n: gi tr kim tra tnh nguyn t; k: tham s tham gia vo qu
trnh kim tra
Output: hp s nu n l hp s, nu khng nguyn t xc sut
repeat k times:
ly a ngu nhin trong [1, n 1]
if an 1 mod n 1 then
return composite
return probably prime
Khi dng thut ton tnh nhanh lu tha theo moun, thi gian thi hnh ca thut
ton l O(k log3n), k l s ln kim tra vi mi s a ngu nhin, v n l gi tr ta
mun kim tra.
Kh nng vn dng
Trang 54
l
0 nu p chia ht a;
1 nu a l mt bnh phng ng modulo p ngha l nu tn ti s nguyn k
sao cho k2 a (mod p);
1 nu a khng l bnh phng ng modulo p.
Tiu chun Euler
S gi nguyn t Euler
Trang 55
trong
l k hiu Jacobi.
nh l: Nu n l hp s l th tn ti khng qu
s t nhin dng a nh
hn n, nguyn t cng nhau vi n sao cho n l s gi nguyn t Euler c s a.
Gi A l bin c "S nguyn l n l hp s"; B l bin c: "Thut ton SolovaStrassen tr li TRUE".
Xc sut iu kin P(B|A)
.
Tng t php th Miller-Rabin tnh c xc sut sai ca php th SolovaStrasen l
P(A|B)=
Trang 56
5. CH K IN T
5.1. nh ngha
Vi ch k thng thng, n l mt phn vt l ca ti liu. Tuy nhin, mt ch k
s khng gn theo kiu vt l vo bc in nn thut ton c dng phi khng
nhn thy theo cch no trn bc in.
Th hai l vn v kim tra. Ch k thng thng c kim tra bng cch so
snh n vi cc ch k xc thc khc. v d, ai k mt tm sc mua hng, ngi
bn phi so snh ch k trn mnh giy vi ch k nm mt sau ca th tn dng
kim tra. D nhin, y khng phi l phng php an ton v n d dng gi mo. Mt
khc, cc ch k s c th c kim tra nh dng mt thut ton kim tra cng khai.
Nh vy, bt k ai cng c th kim tra dc ch k s. Vic dng mt s ch k an
ton c th s ngn chn dc kh nng gi mo.
S khc bit c bn khc gia ch k s v ch k thng thng bn copy ti liu
c k bng ch k s ng nht vi bn gc, cn copy ti liu c ch k trn giy
thng c th khc vi bn gc. iu ny c ngha l phi cn thn ngn chn mt bc
k s khi b dng li. V d, Bob k mt bc in xc nhn Alice c kh nng lm
iu mt ln. V th, bn thn bc in cn cha thng tin (chng hn nh ngy
thng) ngn n khi b dng li.
Mt s ch k s thng cha hai thnh phn: thut ton k v thut ton xc
minh. Bob c th k in x dng thut ton k an ton. Ch k sig(x) nhn c c th
kim tra bng thut ton xc minh cng khai ver. Khi cho trc cp (x,y), thut ton
xc minh c gi tr TRUE hay FALSE tu thuc vo ch k c thc nh th no.
Di y l nh ngha hnh thc ca ch k:
nh ngha : Mt s ch k s l b 5 (P,A, K,S,V) tho mn cc iu
kin di y:
P l tp hu hn cc bc in (thng ip) c th.
A l tp hu hn cc ch k c th.
K khng gian kho l tp hu hn cc kho c th.
Vi mi k thuc K tn ti mt thut ton k sigk S v mt thut ton xc
verk =
True nu y=sig(x)
False nu ysig(x)
5.2. Hm bm
Chng ta c th thy rng cc s ch k ni chung ch cho php k cc bc in
nh. Thng thng khi s dng mt s ch k, ch k c sinh ra c di ln
hn so vi vn bn k, do vy kch thc vn bn sau khi k s tng ln rt nhiu. V
trn thc t ta cn k trn cc bc in rt di, chng hn, mt ti liu v php lut c
th di nhiu Megabyte.
Mt cch n gin gii bi ton ny l chia cc bc in di thnh nhiu on
sau k ln cc on c lp nhau. iu ny cng tng t nh m ha mt chui
di bn r bng cch m ha mi k t bn r c lp nhau s dng cng mt bn
kho. (V d: ch ECB trong M ha).
Bin php ny c mt s vn trong vic to ra cc ch k s. Trc ht, vi mt
bc in di, ta kt thc bng mt ch k rt ln. Nhc im khc l cc s ch k
an ton li chm v chng dng cc phng php s hc phc tp nh s m
modulo. Tuy nhin, vn nghim trng hn vi php ton ny l bc in k c
th b sp xp li cc on khc nhau,hoc mt s on trong chng c th b loi b
v bc in nhn c vn xc minh c. Ta cn bo v s nguyn vn ca ton b
bc in v iu ny khng th thc hin c bng cch k c lp tng mu nh ca
chng.
Gii php cho tt c cc vn ny l dng hm Hash m ha kho cng khai
nhanh. Hm ny ly mt bc in c di tu v to ra mt bn tm lc thng
bo c kch thc qui nh (VD: 160 bit vi DSS). Sau bn tm lc thng bo s
c k thay v k trc tip trn vn bn gc.
Trang 58
K mt bn tm lc thng bo
Bn tm lc (gi tr ca hm bm) cn c gi l i din vn bn (message
digest). Mt message digest l c chiu di c nh vi cc c im nh sau:
Gi tr tr li ca hm bm duy nht i vi mi gi tr u vo. Bt k s thay
i no ca d liu vo cng u dn n mt kt qu sai.
T i din vn bn khng th suy ra c d liu gc l g, chnh v iu ny
m ngi ta gi l one-way.
Nh cp trong phn m ha kha kha cng khai, n c th s dng kha b
mt ca bn cho vic m ha v kha kha cng khai cho vic gii m. Cch s dng
cp kha nh vy khng c dng khi cn c s b mt thng tin, m ch yu n
dng k cho d liu. Thay vo vic i m ha d liu, cc phn mm k to ra
i din vn bn (message digest) ca d liu v s dng kha b mt m ha i
din . Hnh di a ra m hnh n gin ha vic ch k s c s dng nh th
no kim tra tnh ton vn ca d liu c k.
Trang 59
Phn lp cc s ch k
Trang 60
5.3.1. S ch k km thng ip
S k km thng ip l s c s dng nhiu nht trong thc t. N da
trn cc hm bm m ho hn l da trn cc hm bm bt k v t b li khi b tn
cng theo kiu gi mo. Chng ta c th nh ngha chnh xc s ch k ny nh
sau:
nh ngha : Mt s k i hi thng ip u vo l mt tham s cho qu trnh
xc nhn ch k l s k km thng ip. V d : ElGamal, DSA, Schonor
a. Gii thut sinh kho :Mi mt thc th to mt kho ring cho thng ip
cn kho v mt kho cng khai tng ng cc thc th khc xc nhn ch k
Mi mt thc th A phi chn mt kho ring cng vi vic xc nh khng gian
kho SA,k : k thuc R ca dng chuyn i.
SA,k xc nh mt nh x 1-1 t khng gian Mh vo khng gian kho S gi l dng
chuyn i ch k hay cn l thut ton k s.
SA tng ng (corresponding mapping) VA t khng gian Mh S vo tp hp {false,
true} c ngha l :
VA(m, s*) = true nu SA,k(m) = s*
VA(m, s*) = false trong cc trng hp khc.
VA l kho cng khai ca A, SA l kho ring ca A.
b. Gii thut sinh v xc nhn ch k:
Thc th A to mt ch k s vo nh x M v c xc nhn bi thc th B.
Qu trnh sinh ch k
Chn mt kha k ring k thuc R.
Tnh hm bm m=h(m) v s* = SA,k (m)
Ch k ca A cho m l s*. Cp m v s* dng xc nhn ch k.
Qu trnh xc nhn ch k
Nhn kho cng khai nh danh cho A l VA
Tnh hm bm m'=h(m) v u = VA(m',s*)
Chp nhn ch k ca A cho m l s* nu u = TRUE
Trang 61
M
h
Mh
S A ,k
m'
Mh x S
VA
TRUE
F ALSE
S ch k km thng ip.
5.3.2. S ch k khi phc thng ip
c trng cho s ny l thng ip c th c khi phc t chnh bn thn ch
k. Trong thc t s k kiu ny thng c k cho cc thng ip ngn.
nh ngha : Mt s k c gi l c khi phc thng ip khi v ch khi n l
s m vi n mc hiu bit v thng ip l khng i hi trong qu trnh xc
nhn ch k. V d v cc s ch k c khi phc thng ip trong thc t l :
RSA, Rabin, Nyber-Rueppel vi kha chung.
a. Thut ton sinh kho cho ch k khi phc thng ip
Mi mt thc th A phi chn mt tp hp SA = {SA, k : k thuc R } mi SA,k xc
nh mt nh x 1-1 t khng gian Mh vo khng gian kho S gi l dng chuyn i
ch k SA xc nh mt nh x tng ng VA sao cho VA * SA.k nh x xc nh MS
cho tt c k thuc R.
VA l kho cng khai ca A, SA l kho ring ca A.
b. Thut ton sinh ch k v xc nhn ch k cho ch k khi phc thng
ip
Tin trnh sinh ch k: Thc th A phi lm theo cc bc sau:
Chn mt s k R
Tnh m' = R(m) v s* = SA,k(m'). (R l hm redundancy)
Ch k ca A l s*;
Tin trnh xc nhn ch k : Thc th B phi lm nh sau::
Nhn kho cng khai ca ca A l VA
Tnh m' = VA(s*)
Trang 62
MR
text
m'
S A,k
m'
s* = S A,k ( m')
MS
5.4. S ch k RSA
Sau y chng ta s nghin cu cc s ch k c bn nht v c ng dng rng
ri cng nh ng tin cy nht hin nay.
Chng ta s nghin cu n s ch k RSA v cc s tong t. c im ca
cc s ch k ny l mc tnh ton ph thuc hon ton vo ln ca gii
thut gii quyt cc bi ton nhn s nguyn bi ton ly tha. S ch k bao
gm c hai loi km thng ip v khi phc thng ip. S ch k RSA c pht
minh bi 3 nh nghin cu Rivest, Shamir v Adleman, y l s c ng dng thc
t rng ri nht da trn cng ngh s dng kha chung. Cc phng php tn cng
RSA u tin (multicative property) v cc vn khc lin quan ti ch k RSA
c a ra bi avia v Jonge v Chaum. Sau y l s ch k RSA.
a. Thut ton sinh kho:
Mt thc th A to mt kho cng khai RSA v kho ring tng ng theo phng
thc sau:
Sinh ra hai s nguyn t ln ngu nhin p v q cng kch thc bit
Tnh n = pq v = (p - 1)(q - 1 )
Chn mt s t nhin ngu nhin a tho mn iu kin sau:
1< a < v
5.5. S ch k ELGAMAL
Trang 64
a k(mod p) x(mod p)
l y ta dng h thc:
a + k x (mod p-1)
5.5.1. nh ngha
Cho p l s nguyn t sao cho bi ton log ri rc trn Zp l kh
*
Zp-1
nh ngha :
a
= mod p
=(x-a)
-1
k mod (p-1).
Vi x, Zp v Zp-1 , ta nh ngha :
213
-1
mod 467 = 29
V th ch k l hp l.
5.5.2. an ton ca ch k Elgamal
Xt mt ca s ch k E. Gi s, Oscar th gi mo ch k trn bc in x
cho trc khng bit a. Nu Oscar chn v sau th tm gi tr tng ng, anh ta
.
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-1
trong j
(mod p)
Ta s minh ho bng mt v d
V d: Ging nh v d trc cho p = 467, = 2, =132. Gi s Oscar chn i =
99,j = 179; khi j
-1
V th ch k l hp l.
Sau y l kiu gi mo th hai trong Oscar bt u bng bc in c Bob k
trc y. Gi s (, ) l ch k hp l trn x. Khi Oscar c kh nng k ln nhiu
bc in khc nhau. Gi s i, j, h l cc s nguyn, 0 h, i, j p-2 v UCLN (h - j
, p-1) = 1. Ta thc hin tnh ton sau:
h
i j
mod p
= (h -j)
,
x = (hx+i )
trong (h -j)
-1
-1
-1
mod (p-1)
mod (p-1),
xc minh :
(mod p)
v th (, )l ch k hp l ca x.
C hai phng php trn u to cc ch k gi mo hp l song khng xut hin
kh nng i phng gi mo ch k trn bc in c s lu chn ca chnh h m
khng phi gii bi ton logarithm ri rc, v th khng c g nguy him v an ton
ca s ch k Elgamal.
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-1
mod (p-1).
x1
1
v
(mod p)
2(modp).
x1-x2
Nh vy
1-2
(mod p).
x1-x2
k(1 -2)
(mod p)
x2). Ta nh ngha:
x = (x1- x2)/d
= (1- 2)/d
p = ( p -1 )/d
Khi ng d thc tr thnh:
x k (mod p )
v UCLN(, p ) = 1,nn c th tnh:
-1
= () mod p
Khi gi tr k xc nh theo modulo p s l:
k = x mod p
Phng trnh ny cho d gi tr c th ca k
k = x +i p mod p
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(mod p)
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Ch k DSA
5.6.2. Cc gii thut c bn ca DSS
a. Gii thut sinh kho
Mi mt thc th to mt kho cng khai v mt kho mt tng ng theo cch
sau:
Chn mt s nguyn t q sao cho 2159 < q < 2160
Chn mt s nguyn t p sao cho 2511+64t < p < 2512+64t t [0,8]
Chn s nh sau:
Chn g l mt s nguyn bt k nh hn p, = g(p-1)/q mod p
khc 1
Chn s nguyn a sao cho : 1 a q - 1
Tnh = a mod p
Kho ring ca thc th l a, kho cng khai l b (p,q, , )
b. Gii thut sinh ch k
Khi cn sinh ch k cho mt thng ip x thc th phi lm nhng vic nh sau:
Chn mt s nguyn mt k, 0 < k < q - 1
Tnh = (ak mod p) mod q.
Tnh k-1 mod q.
Tnh = k-1(h(x) + a) mod q
Ch k ca thc th cho x l cp (, )
c. Gii thut xc nhn ch k
Khi cn xc ch k cho mt thng ip m thc th phi lm nhng vic nh sau:
Dnh ly kho cng khai ca thc th k (p,q, , )
Nu iu kin : 0 < , < q khng tho mn th t chi ch k
Tinh w = -1 mod q v h(x)
Tnh e1 = w.h(x) mod q v e2 = w mod q
Tnh v = (e1 e2 mod p) mod q
Nu v = th chp nhn ch k ngoi ra th t chi
d. Tm tt lc ch k s DSS
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V d :
Gi s q =101, p = 78q + 1 =7879.
3 l phn t nguyn thu trong Z7879 nn ta c th ly: = 378 mod 7879 =170
Gi s a =75, khi = a mod 7879 = 4576
Mun k bc in x = 1234, ta chn s ngu nhin k =50, v th c k-1 mod 101 =
99
khi c :
= (17030 mod 7879) mod 101 = 2518 mod 101 = 94
V
= (1234 +75*94)*99 mod 101 = 96
Ch k (94, 97) trn bc in 1234 c xc minh bng cc tnh ton sau:
d-1 = 97-1 mod 101 =25
e1 = 1234 * 25mod 101 = 45
e2 = 94 * 25 mod 101 =27
C (17045 456727 mod 7879) mod 101 = 2518 mod 101 = 94 v th ch k hp l.
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5.7. Tn cng ch k in t
Khi ni n ch k in t, chng ta lun mc tiu an ton ln hng u. Mt ch
k in t ch thc s c p dng trong thc t nu nh n c chng minh l
khng th gi mo. Mc tiu ln nht ca k tn cng cc s ch k chnh l gi
mo ch k; iu ny c ngha l k tn cng s sinh ra c ch k ca ngi k ln
thng ip m ch k ny s c chp nhn bi ngi xc nhn. Trong thc t cc
hnh vi tn cng ch k in t ht sc a dng, d dng phn tch mt s ch
k l an ton hay khng ngi ta tin hnh kim nghim an ton ca ch k trc
cc s tn cng sau:
Total break: Mt k gi mo khng nhng tnh c thng tin v kho ring
(private key) m cn c th s dng mt thut ton sinh ch k tng ng to
ra c ch k cho thng ip.
Selective forgert: K tn cng c kh nng to ra c mt tp hp cc ch k
cho mt lp cc thng ip nht nh, cc thng ip ny c k m khng
cn phi c kho mt ca ngi k.
Existential forgery: K tn cng c kh nng gi mo ch k cho mt thng
ip, k tn cng khng th hoc c rt t kh nng kim sot thng ip c
gi mo ny.
Ngoi ra, hu ht cc ch k in t u da vo c ch m ho kho cng khai,
cc ch k in t da trn c ch ny c th b tn cng theo cc phng thc sau:
Key-only attacks: K tn cng ch bit kha chung ca ngi k.
Message attacks: y k tn cng c kh nng kim tra cc ch k khc nhau
c ph hp vi mt thng ip c trc hay khng. y l kiu tn cng rt
thng dng trong thc t n thng c chia lm 3 lp:
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5.8. Kt lun
Vi s pht trin mang tnh ton cu ca mng Internet, con ngi c th giao tip
d dng trong mt cng ng rng ln. Tuy nhin i vi cc giao dch mang tnh
nhy cm, cn phi c c ch m bo an ton trong phin giao dch . Cn thit hn
c l mi bn cn xc nh chnh xc ngi mnh ang giao tip c ng l i tc
mong i hay khng. Chng ta cp n hai k thut chnh trong an ton thng
tin l m ha v k s. Hai k thut ny cng c p dng phn no trong vic xc
thc i tc trong mi phin giao dch.
V k thut m ha, c hai phng php: m ha i xng v m ha kha kha
cng khai. M ha m bo an ton v thng tin giao tip nhng khng m bo liu
thng tin c b gi mo hoc c b mo danh hay khng. Vn ch yu nm vic
qun l kha m ha v gii m c hai phng php m ha.
i vi phng php k s, da vo ch k cng cp kha ring v cng khai,
chng ta c th xc nh c chnh xc i tc trong giao dch. Chng ta cng tm
hiu hai loi ch k : ch k km thng ip v ch k sinh thng ip cng ba s
k c chp nhn v s dng rng ri: RSA, Elgamal v DSS.
C mt vn t ra i vi ch k s, liu chng ta c m bo chnh xc ch k
hoc kha kha cng khai l thuc i tc hay khng. C rt nhiu cch tn cng vo
ch k s, trong ph bin l phng php mo danh ch k. Gii php khc phc
a ra l s dng chng ch s cho kha kha cng khai nhm m xc thc tnh ng
n ca i tc trong giao dch. Cc vn lin quan chng ch kha kha cng khai
c cp trong phn khc.
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