Proceedings For 13th ICSGE

13
th
ICSGE

P
PR RO OC CE EE ED DI IN NG GS S OF THE THIRTEENTH
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON STRUCTURAL
AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
December 27-29, 2009

ORGANIZED BY

Structural Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering
Ain Shams University

CAIRO- EGYPT

2009
PREVIOUS COLLOQUIUMS

Theme Date
MODERN TRENDS IN REINFORCED CONCRETE
DESIGN
17-19 January, 1984 1
COST EFFICIENT BUIULDING SYSTEMS 5-8 January, 1985 2
THE USE OF MICRO-COMPUTERS IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING
6-9 December, 1986 3
STRUCTURAL SAFETY 12-14 April, 1988 4
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING 16-18 May, 1989 5
INTERNATIONAL COLLOQUIUM ON STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING
14-16 April, 1992 6
SEVENTH INTERNATIONAL COLLOQUIUM
ON STRUCTURAL AND GEOTECHNICAL
ENGINEERING
17-19 December, 1996 7
EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL COLLOQUIUM
ENGINEERING
15-17 December, 1998 8
NINTH INTERNATIONAL COLLOQUIUM
ENGINEERING
10-12 April, 2001 9
TENTH INTERNATIONAL COLLOQUIUM
ENGINEERING

22-24 April, 2003 10
ELEVENTH INTERNATIONAL
COLLOQUIUM ON STRUCTURAL AND
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
17-19 May, 2005 11

TWELFTH INTERNATIONAL
COLLOQUIUM ON STRUCTURAL AND
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

10-12 December, 2007

12

Copyright @ 2009 AIN SHAMS UNIVERSITY, FACULTY OF ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT OF
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING, CAIRO, EGYPT. All papers were refereed and prepared by the authors
according to the guidelines provided by the colloquium committees, and the abstracts have been
photographically reproduced from the original copies. The complete manuscripts of all papers are
available upon request on the official colloquium CD. Please contact the individual authors for permission
to reprint or to use information from their papers.

Printed in Cairo, Egypt
December 2009
PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTEENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON STRUCTURAL AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
ICSGE-13 A-1 December 27-29, 2009
Preface

This is the thirteenth conference to be organized by the Department of Structural
Engineering of Ain Shams University Since 1984. The previous ten conferences
focused on different themes of structural and geotechnical engineering.

It is believed that these colloquiums have been an excellent opportunity for
engineers, consultants and researchers to discus recent developments in different
fields of structural and geotechnical engineering. The eleventh international
colloquium is characterized by distinguished international and national keynote
speakers to deliver special lectures on selected topics relevant to their areas of
expertise. .

A total of 103 technical papers and three keynote lectures are included in the
official conference CD and proceedings, which cover the following main topics:
1) Structural Analysis,
2) Steel Structures,
3) Concrete Structures,
4) Geotechnical Engineering,
5) Properties of Materials,
6) Construction Management, and
7) Composite Constructions.

All technical papers submitted to this conference were evaluated by scientific
referees selected from different Egyptian universities and research centers who have
done an excellent job to assure the high technical caliber of the chosen papers. The
keynote lectures will be delivered over 3 plenary sessions and the technical papers
have been grouped in 24 parallel sessions through the 3-day conference.

We have been fortunate in this conference to attract researchers from almost all
Egyptian universities and research centers, the Arab world (Syria, United Arab
Emirates and Algeria), and the international civil engineering community (USA,
Canada, Germany and Malaysia)

I wish to express my sincere appreciation to the organizing and editorial
committees for their patience and the remarkable effort in responding to the many
demands of the conference. I wish also to thank all authors for their significant
contribution and cooperation towards the success of the conference.

Conference Chairman

Prof. Dr. ABDELRAHIM KHALIL DESSOUKI

December, 2009


CHAIRMAN
Prof. Dr. Abdelrahim Khalil Dessouki

SECRETARY GENERAL
Prof. Dr. Emam Soliman

ADVISORY COMMITTEE
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Mohamed El-Hashimy
Prof. Dr. Adel Helmy Salem
Prof. Dr. Abdel Hady Hosny
Prof. Dr. Saafan Abdel Gawad Saafan
Prof. Dr. Abdel Monem Moussa
Prof. Dr. Kamal Hassan
Prof. Dr. M. Nabil El Atrouzy
Prof. Dr. Gamal Nassar
Prof. Dr. Hamdy Abdel Azim Mohsen
Prof. Dr. Hassan Osman
Prof. Dr. Shaker El-Behairy
Prof. Dr. Abdel Wahab Aboul Enain
Prof. Dr. Said Y. Debaiky
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Abdel Monem Korashy
Prof. Dr. Farouk El-Kadi
Prof. Dr. Samir Hassan Okba
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Ibrahim Soliman
Prof. Dr. Mostafa Kamel Zidan
Prof. Dr. Hassan Ibrahim Hegab
Prof. Dr. Mahmoud Ibrahim El-Banna
Prof. Dr. Mostafa Korashy
Prof. Dr. Amin Saleh Ali
Prof. Dr. Mona Moustafa Eid
Prof. Dr. Fathalla Mohamed El-Nahhas
Prof. Dr. Ezzat Abd El Fattah Emirah
Prof. Dr. Omar El-Nawawy
Prof. Dr. El Sayed Ibrahim El Sayed
Prof. Dr. Abdalla Abou-Zid

SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
Prof. Dr. Mohamed A. Elaghoury
Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Moharram
Prof. Dr. Ali Abdelfattah
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Sherif Essway
Prof. Dr. Amr Ali Abdelrahman
Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Abdelrasheed

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
Prof. Dr. Fathalla Mohamed El-Nahhas
Prof. Dr. Fathy Saad
Dr. Fatma Shaker

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
Prof. Dr. Magda El-Rakabawy
Prof. Dr. Fathy Saad
Dr. Mohamed A. Abdel-Motaal
Dr. Khalid Morsy
Dr. Mohamed Farouk
Dr. Ahmed Abdel Mageed

CD DESIGN AND DATA BASE
Dr. Said Youssef Abou El-Haggag

THIRTEENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
STRUCTURAL AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
13
th
ICSGE - Cairo, 27 - 29 December 2009
Ain Shams University - Cairo, Egypt

CONFERENCE COMMITTEES

SCIENTIFIC REFEREES
(Alphabetic Order)

Prof. Dr. Abdel Hady Hosny (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Abdel-Monem Moussa (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Abdelaziz Mahmoud Ibrahim (Alexadria university)
A. Prof. Dr. Abdelrahim Badawy (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Abdelrahim Dessouki (Ain Shams University)
A. Prof. Dr. Abdelwahab Elghandoor (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Adel Abo El-Yazied El Samadony (Helwan University)
A. Prof. Dr. Adel Fathi (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Adel Helmy Salem (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Sherif Essawy (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Abdelrahman (National Research Center)
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Abdelsalam (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Samieh (Helwan University)
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Atef Rashed (Cairo University )
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Moussa (Helwan University)
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Maged ElHousiny (Ain Shams University)
A. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Hassan (Ain shams university)
A. Prof. Dr. Ahmed Fathy Abdel-Aziz (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Kamal Abdel Khalik Soliman ( 6
th
October University)
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Korashy (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Ahmed Samer Ezeldin
Prof. Dr. Ali Abdelfattah (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Amira Mohamed Mohamed Abdelrahman (HBRC)
Prof. Dr. Amr Abdelrahaman (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Amr Darrag (Cairo University )
Prof. Dr. Amr S. Eldieb (Ain Shams University)
A. Prof. Dr. Amr Helmy (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Ashraf Biddah (UAE University)
Prof. Dr. Ashraf El-Zanaty (Cairo University )
Prof. Dr. Ayman Abou Elfetouh (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Ayman Hussein Khalil (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Ehab Elsalakawy
Prof. Dr. ElSayed Abdelraaouf Nasr (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Emad E. Elbeltagi (Mansoura University)
Prof. Dr. Emam Soliman (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Ezzeldien Yazeed (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Ezzat Emirah (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Farouk El-Kadi (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Fathalla El-Nahhas (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Fathy Abdrabbo (Alexandria University)
Prof. Dr. Fathy Saad (Ain shmas University)
A. Prof. Dr. Fatma Ahmed Shaker (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Gamal Nassar (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Gamil Tadros
Prof. Dr. Gouda Ghanem (Helwan University)
Prof. Dr. Hamdy Mohsen (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Hany El Sawa
Prof. Dr. Hany El-Hashmy (Cairo University )
A. Prof. Dr. Hany El-Shafie (Ain Shams Uinversity)
Prof. Dr. Hassan Osman (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Hesham Sobhy (Cairo University )
Prof. Dr. Hussain Abbas (Azhar University)
Prof. Dr. Hussein Elmamlouk (Cairo University )
Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Abdelrasheed (Ain-Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Shaaban (Zagazig University, Shoubra)
Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Moharram (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Mahfouz (Zagazig University, Shoubra)
Prof. Dr. Ishac Ibrahim Ishac (Zagazig University)
Prof. Dr. Kamal Hassan (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Khaled Soudki
A. Prof. Dr. Khaled Morsi (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Khaled El-Zahaby (HBRC)
Prof. Dr. M. El-Said Essa (Cairo University)
Prof. Dr. Magda El-Rakabawy (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Mahmoud Elbanna (Ain-Shams University)
A. Prof. Dr. Mahmoud Ghorab (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Mashour Ghoniem (Cairo University)
Prof. Dr. Mazhar Mohamed Saleh (Cairo University)
Prof. Dr. Metwaly Abohamd (Cairo University)
A. Prof. Dr. Mohamed Salah (Banha University, Shoubra)
A. Prof. Dr. Mohamed Abdel Moaty (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Mohamedain (Seuz Canal University)
A. Prof. Dr. Mohamed Taha (Ain-Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Mohamed El-Aghoury (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Nour Fayed (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Ammar
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Amer (Cairo University )
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Nagib
Prof. Dr. Mohamed Dabaon (Tanta University).
Prof. Dr. Moheeb El Saed (Cairo University)
Prof. Dr. Mohssen Mashhour (Zagazig University)
Prof. Dr. Mokhtar Seddeik (Cairo University )
A. Prof. Dr. Mona Mostafa (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Mona Eid (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Mostafa Mossaad (Cairo University )
Prof. Dr. Mostafa Zidan (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Mustafa Korashy (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Nabil Grace
Prof. Dr. Nabil Sayed Mahmoud (Mansoura University)
Prof. Dr. Nabil Abdel Badeia Yehia (Cairo University )
Prof. Dr. Nahla Hassan (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Omar El-Nawawy (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Osama Moselhy
Prof. Dr. Osama Elnesr (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Osama Elhoseiny (Zagazig University)
Prof. Dr. Osama Hosny (Helwan University)
Prof. Dr. Osama Hamdy (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Raafat El-Hacha (University of Calgary )
Prof. Dr. Refaat Abdl Razik (Zagazig University)
Prof. Dr. Saafan Abdel Gawad Saafan (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Said Hassanein (Azhar University)
Prof. Dr. Sami Rizkalla
Prof. Dr. Samir Okba (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Samir Hekal (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Sherif Hassan (Ain Shams University)
A. Prof. Dr. Sherif Abdel-Basset Ibrahim (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Sherif Ahmed Mourad (Cairo University)
Prof. Dr. Tahia Abdel Monam (Ain Shams University)
Prof. Dr. Tamer El Maaddawy (UAE University)
Prof. Dr. Tarek Zaed
Prof. Dr. Yasser Elmosallamy (Ain Shams University)
A. Prof. Dr. Yehia Abdel Zaher (Ain Shams University)


EGYPT
13
th
International Conference on
Structural and Geotechnical Engineering
December 27- 29, 2009
CAIRO EGYPT
2009
ORGANIZED BY
ACI Egypt
Egyptian National Group
Main Sponsors


TABLE OF CONTENTS

SUBJECT
Page
GEOTECHNI CAL ENGI NEERI N
1
ENGI NEERI NG MANAGEMENT
180
REI NFORCED CONCRETE
271
STEEL STRUCTURES
604
THEORY OF STRUCTURES
855
STRENGTH OF MATERI ALS
994
COMPOSI TE MATERI ALS
1102


GEOTECHNI CAL ENGI NEERI NG

GEO- 001 NUMERI CAL I NVESTI GATI ON OF SPATI AL PASSI VE EARTH PRESSURE
Somar GHASSOUN, Khalid ABDEL- RAHMAN, and Mar t in ACHMUS
GEO- 002 I MPLI CATI ONS OF EARTHQUAKE AND STRUCTURAL PARAMETERS ON DAMAGE OF
I NELASTI C STRUCTURES
Abbas Moust afa
GEO- 003 TWO DI MENSI ONAL SI MULATI ON FOR THE EARTH RESSURE of Poi nt Load Act i ng
Behi nd a Cant i l ev er Wal l
George Maurice I skander
GEO- 004 SEI SMI CI TY OF EGYPT AND NATI ONAL SEI SMI C NETWORK
Abbas Moust afa
GEO- 005 DESI GN OPTI MI ZATI ON OF URBAN NATM TUNNELLI NG
Most afa Zaki Abd Elrehim and Ahmed Mohamed Marwan
GEO- 006 ASSESSMENT OF VI BRATI ON HAZARDS DUE TO PI LE DRI VI NG
Ali Abdel- Fat t ah Ali, Mohamed Ahmed Abdel- Mot aal, and Tamer Mohamed Sorour
GEO- 007 CHARACTERI STI CS OF SHELLY SAND
Gihan Elsayed Abdelrahman
GEO- 008 I MPACT OF UNDERGROUND PI PELI NES FAI LURE ON STRUCTURES
Kamal Ghamer y Met wally, Manar Mohamed HUSSEI N, and Adel Yehia Akl
GEO- 009 DAMAGE ASSESSMENT USI NG I NTEGRATI ON BETWEEN FEM AND GI S
KAMAL GHAMERY METWALLY, MANAR MOHAMED HUSSEI N, and ADEL YEHI A AKL
GEO- 010 MODELI NG OF GROUNDWATER LOWERI NG I N A SEMI - CONFI NED AQUI FER AREA
Ahmed Mosalem Samieh and Asmaa Hanafy Mahmoud
GEO- 011 3- D FI NI TE ELEMENTS ANALYSI S OF TUNNEL SYSTEM PERFORMANCE FROM
APPLI CATI ON TO PRACTI CE
Sh At rash, Sa Mazek, and Mk El Ghamrawy
GEO- 012 RATE EFFECT ON PORE PRESSURE BEHAVI OUR UNDER COMPRESSI ON TRI AXI AL
LOADI NG
I hcene Lamr i, Must apha Hidj eb, Noureddine Chelghoum, and Harrat Kamel
GEO- 013 THREE- DI MENSI ONAL ANALYSI S OF THE DYNAMI C I NTERACTI ON EFFECTS BETWEEN
TWO SURFACE FOUNDATI ONS
Ahmed Boumekik
GEO- 014 THE ROLE OF SMALL STRAI N CONSTI TUTI VE MODEL FOR PREDI CTI NG DI FFERENTI AL
SETTLEMENT ABOVE TUNNELS
Fat halla Mohamed El- Nahhas and Yasser Moghazy El- Mossallamy
GEO- 015 SHAKEDOWN ANALYSI S OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS UNDER MOVI NG WHEEL LOADS
Most apha Boulbibane
GEO- 016 PORE WATER PRESSURE ARI SI NG DURI NG PI LE DRI LLI NG I N SAND
Fat hi Mohamed Abdrabbo and Khaled El- Sayed Gaaver

ICSGE-13 December 27-29, 2009

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt



Department of Structural
Engineering

Thirteenth International Conference on Structural and Geotechnical Engineering

NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF SPATIAL PASSIVE EARTH
PRESSURE

Eng. SOMAR GHASSOUN
Institute of Soil Mechanics, Foundation Engineering and Waterpower Eng.
Leibniz University of Hannover, Appelstr. 9A, Hannover, Germany
E-mail: ghassoun@igbe.uni-hannover.de

Dr. KHALID ABDEL-RAHMAN
Institute of Soil Mechanics, Foundation Engineering and Waterpower Eng.
E-mail: khalid@igbe.uni-hannover.de

Prof. MARTIN ACHMUS
Head of Institute of Soil Mechanics, Foundation Engineering and Waterpower Eng.
E-mail: achmus@igbe.uni-hannover.de

ABSTRACT:
In order to investigate the spatial passive earth pressure, this boundary value problem
was modelled using the finite element method (FEM) with the program ABAQUS.
The soil was modelled as a sandy soil. The constitutive model used is based on the
theory of hypoplasticity. This special material law simulates the non-linear stress-strain
behaviour of the soil and takes implicitly the stress-dependence of the angle of internal
friction into account. The interface between the rigid walls and soil was modelled using
contact elements. The computations were developed for three different modes of the
wall movement (parallel movement, rotation around the top of the wall and rotation
around the toe of the wall).
The passive earth pressure coefficients for different wall dimensions (breadth/ height)
were calculated. The results are compared with the analytic computation models based
on the German code, in order to be able to derive statements about their quality and
range of their validity.

GEO-001-1
-1-
1 INTRODUCTION
The calculation of passive earth pressures acting on underground structures is a central
problem in soil mechanics. The horizontal pressure acting on a fixed rigid wall is
termed the earth pressure at rest. The earth pressure decreases when the wall is moving
away from the subsoil until a minimum value, which is called the active earth pressure.
On the contrary the earth pressure increases when the wall moves towards the soil
medium until it reaches its maximum soil resistance which is called passive earth
pressure. For a wall with height H and a breadth B much larger than H the two-
dimensional (plane strain) solution of the earth pressure problem applies, with the
passive earth pressure force in non-cohesive soils to be determined by the following
equation:
p
2
p
k B H
2
1
E =
(l)

with:
: Unit weight of soil
H, B: Height and breadth of the wall
k
p
: Passive earth pressure coefficient

The earth pressure coefficient in the two-dimensional case is dependent on the angle of
internal friction of the soil and on the wall friction angle .
According to the German regulation DIN 4085, equation (1) is valid for parallel
movement of a wall. For other deformation modes, the resulting force is smaller. For a
wall rotating around the top the reduction factor can be estimated to about 0.67 and for a
rotation around the toe between 0.5 and 0.67 (DIN 4085).
The problem of two dimensional passive pressure has been sufficiently investigated, in
contrast to its three dimensional counterpart. The latter can be registered in special cases
such as: anchor blocks, anchor plates and retaining walls with limited breadths.
Moreover, the 3-D passive pressure problem affects the design of laterally loaded
beams, piles, pile caps and the supporting walls used in tunneling (or pipes) heading
starting shaft.
The passive earth pressure coefficient for the three-dimensional case is larger than for
the two-dimensional case. According to an approach in DIN 4085 based on
investigations of Weienbach (1961), the increase is dependent on the spatiality ratio
B/H and on the angle of internal friction .
Open questions regarding spatial passive earth pressure concern the exact value of the
earth pressure coefficient, its dependence on the wall deformation mode and the shape
of load deformation curves.

2 PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS OF SPATIAL PASSIVE EARTH
PRESSURE
Different experimental investigations were done firstly by Weienbach (1983) on model
walls (I-beam) with and without vertical wall movements embedded in sand. He
concluded that the spatial passive earth pressure is higher than the classical 2D passive

GEO-001-2
-2-
earth pressure and developed an empirical formula to calculate the spatial earth
pressure. Ovesen (1964) conducted an extensive series of model tests on anchor plates
to investigate the 3-D effects. His tests showed that passive earth pressures are higher
than those predicted using conventional methods. Brinch Hansen (1966) developed a
method for correcting the results of conventional passive pressure theories behind
anchor plates to account for 3D effects. He found also that the dimension of the
supporting structure is an important factor for the analysis of 3D passive earth pressure.
Neuberg (2002) made an experimental model of a retaining wall (I-profile) at University
of Dresden in order to calculate the 3D passive earth pressure. Based on his results, a
computation approach for earth pressure at peak and a mobilization equation were
developed.
A number of investigators developed alternative theoretical approaches for determining
spatial passive earth pressure. Blum (1932) developed a failure mechanism, as in
Coulombs theory, by creating a three-dimensional flat failure surface. Based on the log
spiral method, a spreadsheet was developed by Duncan and Mokwa (2001) to calculate
the spatial passive earth pressure. They obtained a hyperbolic load-deflection
relationship to estimate the spatial passive earth pressure. Soubra and Regenass (2000)
developed a method to calculate 3-D passive earth pressure coefficients based on the
upper-bound method of limit analysis. The method consists of three phases considering
different block mechanisms. Merifield and Solan (2006) published numerical modelling
in order to calculate the capacity of anchors in frictional soils based on a certain failure
mechanism. Stefan (2007) used ABAQUS to investigate the behaviour of a solid pile
wall and derived a mobilization curve for medium-dense sand. Benmebarek et al. (2007)
performed a numerical study of 3D passive earth pressure by parallel movement of rigid
walls using FLAC
3D
. Their results were presented in design tables relating different
geometrical parameters and 3D passive earth pressure coefficients.

3 MATERIAL BEHAVIOUR
The numerical modelling was done for sandy soil. Regarding the well-reported
experimental data about Karlsruhe sand, the material parameters required were
determined for this sand. Karlsruhe sand consists mainly of sub round quartz grains.
The index properties of the sand are given in Table 1. The behaviour of Karlsruhe sand
in triaxial tests was investigated by Kolymbas & Wu (1990). Results with dense
samples (e
0
= 0.53) for different confining pressures (
3
) are shown in Figure 1.

Table 1: Index properties of Karlsruhe medium sand

Unit weight of the grains, kN/m
3
26.5
D
10
, mm 0.240
D
60
, mm 0.443
Uniformity coefficient, C
u
1.85
Min. void ratio, e
min
0.53
Max. void ratio, e
max
0.84

GEO-001-3
-3-
S
t
r
e
s
s

r
a
t
i
o

1

3
/

V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

s
t
r
a
i
n

v
Axial strain
1
Axial strain
1

Fig. 1 Experimental triaxial test results for dense Karlsruhe sand
(Kolymbas & Wu1990)

The modelling of the material behaviour of the soil is of course of crucial importance
for the quality of the computation results. The computations were executed for each
movement mode using the hypoplastic material law developed for sandy soil.
Hypoplasticity was firstly developed at university of Karlsruhe in the following form
(tensor equation):

( ) e D, T, h T
J
=
(2)

with:
T
J
: Jaumanns' stress rate
h: Tensor function
T: Cauchy stress tensor
D: symmetric part of the velocity gradient
e: void ratio

The formulation for sands is rate independent, which means that the function h is
positive homogeneous of first order in D. The constitutive equation allows for the
application for large strain problems.
The numerical modelling is based on the version developed by von Wolffersdorf (1997)
in the following equation

GEO-001-4
-4-
( ) ( ) [ ] D T N f D T L f f T
*
d
*
e b J
+ = ,
(3)
with tensor functions L and N. D is the euclidian norm of the symmetric part of the
velocity gradient. The functions f
e
and f
d
describe the influence of density and f
b
the
influence of mean pressure. T* is the normalized cauchy stress tensor using the trace of
T. The constitutive equation has eight constants, which are measured in a simple way
from standard tests in soil mechanics. The eight constants used in the finite element
analysis are listed in table (2). For a detailed discussion about the mathematical
background and physical meaning of the input parameters for the constitutive model
refer to Herle (1997). For more details concerning this material law refer to Herle &
Gudehus (1999).

Table 2: Input parameters for hypoplastic material law for Karlsruhe Sand.
c
grain stiffness (h
s
) e
d0
e
c0
n e
i0
30.0 5800.0 MN/m
2
0.53 0.84 0.25 1.00 0.13 1.05

4 NUMERICAL MODEL
For the numerical investigation with the finite element method (FEM), the program
ABAQUS was used. The main aspects of the modelling are listed below:

Due to symmetry, only the half of the model was discretized;
The dimensions of the three-dimensional model area were varied in order to fit
different wall dimensions (breadth/height). For example for B=10.0m the
dimensions of the model was set to 130.0m*100.0m*20.0m. The geometrical
model is shown in figure 2. With these model dimensions the calculated
behaviour of the wall is not influenced by the boundary conditions;
The soil was modelled with 8-noded solid elements (Figure 3). The interaction
behaviour in the boundary surface between wall and soil was modelled using
interface elements. Relative displacements occur, if the relationship between
shearing and normal stresses exceeds a defined limited value ();
In the front surface of the model area twelve different smooth rigid walls (W1 to
W12) were specified (s. Fig. 2). The earth pressure on the movable wall was
calculated by integrating the horizontal soil stresses behind the wall. Regarding
the mode of wall movement, parallel movement, rotation around the toe of the
wall and rotation around the top of the wall were examined. The other walls
remain unmoved during the modelling process;
Geometrical non-linearity was also implemented;
For the results reported in this paper, the coefficient of friction between the soil
and the smooth rigid walls was set to zero (frictionless);
The modelling process was made for three different initial void ratios (e
0
=0.55,
0.65, 0.75), i.e. three different relative densities, as shown in Table 3.
The modelling process is executed stepwise. Firstly, the primary stress state using own
weight of the soil medium is generated for different initial void ratios. The following
table (Table 3) shows the required parameters for this stage. The frictions angle was

GEO-001-5
-5-
estimated regarding the initial relative density. In the second step the required rigid
walls were moved under three different basic wall movements as mentioned before.

Table 3: Input parameters for primary stress state.
e
o
void ratio
n
o
porosity
D
relative density
()
friction angle
(/m
3
)
unit weight
K
o
earth press.
0.55 0.355 92.0% 38.5 17.1 0.46
0.65 0.394 56.8% 35.0 16.1 0.48
0.75 0.428 26.0% 30.5 15.1 0.50

Fig.2 Geometrical model used

Fig. 3 Finite element mesh

5 NUMERICAL MODELLING RESULTS
5.1 Effect of the relative Density (D)
The first wall examined with the finite element method (FEM) exhibits a height (H) of
10.0 m and a width (B) of 10.0m (B/H=1.0) for three different initial void ratios. A
parallel movement of 1.30 m to 1.40 m was applied to mobilize the passive earth
pressure conditions. Figure 4 shows the relationship between the passive earth pressure
coefficient (k
ph
) and the normalised displacement (U/H) under parallel movement.

GEO-001-6
-6-

Fig. 4 Passive earth pressure coefficient as a function of the normalized wall
displacement for parallel translation

The earth pressure coefficient at peak ranges from 8.0 by dense sand (e
0
=0.55) till 5.0
by loose sand (e
0
=0.75). According to the German code 4085, the earth pressure
coefficient calculated for plane strain conditions should be multiplied by a correction
factor (
D
) to calculate the spatial passive earth coefficient as follows
( ) ( )
B
H
tan 0.6 1
DIN
+ =
(4)
The following table summarises the obtained results:

Table 4: The earth pressure coefficient from the German Code 4085 and FE-results.
initial void
ratio
friction angle
()
earth press.
coeff. (k
p2D
DIN
)
earth press.
coeff. (k
p3D
fem
)
k
p3D
fem
/k
p2D
DIN
D
0.75 30.5 3.10 5.0 1.61 1.35
0.65 35.0 3.70 6.0 1.62 1.42
0.55 38.5 4.30 8.0 1.86 1.48

From the previous table (Tab. 4), the correction factors obtained from FE-results are
higher than from the German code, which means that the German code is on the safe
side.

5.2 Effect of the wall deformation mode
In order to study the effect of wall deformation mode, another model for a medium-
dense sand (e
0
=0.65) with the same spatiality ratio (B/H=1.0) under three different wall
movements was developed. In the case of rotation around the toe the limit value could
not be reached so an approximate value was calculated for U/H equal to 15%.
The earth pressure coefficient reaches its maximum value (6.0) by parallel movement
and the minimum value (4.0) by rotation around the toe of the wall (Fig. 5). Whereby

GEO-001-7
-7-
the rotation around the top of the wall gives a passive earth pressure coefficient equal to
5.10. This means that the coefficient by rotation around the top of the wall is almost
equal to 0.85 of the coefficient for parallel movement and the coefficient by rotation
around the toe is equal to 0.67 of the coefficient of parallel movement. Compared with
the German code DIN 4085, it is found that ratios are larger, i.e. again the German code
gives results lying on the safe side.

Fig. 5 Passive earth pressure coefficient as a function of the normalized wall
displacement for medium-dense sand (e
0
=0.65)

5.3 Effect of the spatiality ratio (B/H)
In the following, the numerical modelling was done for a certain wall height (H) of
10.0m and the wall breadth (B) was varied from 10.0m till 50.0m. In the Figures 6 a) to
c) the dependence of the passive earth pressure coefficient (k
p
) on the normalized wall
displacement (U/H) is represented for the three different wall movement modes. The
k
ph
-values resulting from the analytic procedures are likewise presented. These figures
show the following:
1. The limit value of the passive earth pressure depends on the wall breadth or
on the spatiality ratio n = B/H for the three different wall movements. With a
higher spatiality ratio (n), the passive earth pressure coefficient (k
ph
)
decreases until it reaches the standard 2D-passive earth pressure condition.
2. The German codes (DIN 4085) gives at peak generally a conservative
passive earth pressure coefficient compared with the numerical results.

6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
For the investigations presented a FEM model was developed to simulate the spatial
passive earth pressure problems in sand. The computations were executed using the
hypoplastic material model developed for granular materials e.g. sand. It is evident that
for the investigated case (smooth wall) the German code gives very reasonable results
compared with the numerical modelling results. The spatial passive earth pressure
coefficient depends mainly on the wall deformation mode and on the relative density
(D). Also the breadth to height ratio (B/H) affects the passive earth pressure.

GEO-001-8
-8-

Fig. 6 (a): Passive earth pressure coefficient (k
p
) as a function of the normalized wall
displacement (U/H) for parallel movement

Fig. 6 (b): Passive earth pressure coefficient (k
p
displacement (U/H) for rotation around the top of the wall

Fig. 6 (c): Passive earth pressure coefficient (k
p
displacement (U/H) for rotation around the toe of the wall

The need for research regarding the spatial passive earth pressure problem is shown by
the numerical calculations. On one hand, the mobilization curves between the
normalized wall displacement (U/H) and the passive earth pressure should be derived

GEO-001-9
-9-
for different wall movement modes. On the other hand, earth pressure distribution
should be investigated. Also a parametric study regarding different soil-wall friction
angle and different wall heights should be performed.

REFERENCES:
[1] ABAQUS (2008). User Manual, Version 6.8.
[2] Blum, H. Wirtschaftliche Dalbenformen und deren Berechnung, Bautechnik
10(5) 1932.
[3] Brinch Hansen. Comparison of Methods for stability Analysis Three-
dimensional Effect in stability analysis resistance of a rectangular anchor slab-
Danish Geotechnical Institute Bulletin No.21, 1966.
[4] DIN 4085. Berechnung des Erddrucks, Deutsches Institut fr Normung. Beuth
Verlag, (2007).
[5] Duncan, M., Mokwa, R. Passive Earth Pressures -Theories and Tests, ASCE
journal of geotechnical and geoenvironment engineering, Vol. 127, No. (3),
248-257, (2001).
[6] Herle, I.,Hypoplastizitt und Granulometrie von Korngersten,
Verffentlichungen des Instituts fr Bodenmechanik und Felsmechanik der
Universit Karlsruhe, Germany, Heft 142, (1997).
[7] Herle, I., Gudehus, G., Determination of a hypoplastic constitutive model from
properties of grain assemblies. Mechanics of Cohesive-frictional Materials, 4:
461-486, (1999).
[8] Kolymbas, D. and Wu, W. Recent results of triaxial tests with granular
materials, Powder Technology, 60, 99-119, (1990).
[9] Neuberg, C. Ein Verfahren zur Berechnung des rumlichen Erddruckes vor
parallel verschobenen Trgern, Verffentlichungen des Instituts fr
Geotechnik, Technische Universitt Dresden, Heft 11,(2002).
[10] Ovsen, NK. Anchor slabs, Calculation methods and Model tests, Danish
Geotechnical Institute Bulletin, NO. 16, 5-39, 1964.
[11] Soubra, A-H, Regenass, P. Three-dimensional Passive earth Pressures by
Kinematical Approach, ASCE journal of geotechnical and geoenvironment
engineering, Vol. 126, No. (11), 969-978 ,(2000).
[12] Stefan,J. Nichtlinearer Horizontaler Bettungsmodulansatz fr
Trgerbohlwnde in mitteldicht gelagertem Sand Verffentlichungen des
instituts fr Bodenmechanik und Grundbau, Technische Universitt
Kaiserslautern (2007).
[13] Weienbach, A. Beitrag zur Ermittlung des Erdwiderstands, Bauingenieur
58, 161-173, (1983).
[14] Von Wolffersdorf, P.A. Verformungsprognosen fr Sttzkonstruktionen,
Verffentlichungen des Instituts fr Bodenmechanik und Felsmechanik der
Universitt Karlsruhe, Germany, Heft 141, (1997).

GEO-001-10
-10-

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt



Department of Structural Engineering


IMPLICATIONS OF EARTHQUAKE AND STRUCTURAL
PARAMETERS ON DAMAGE OF INELASTIC STRUCTURES

ABBAS MOUSTAFA
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Minia University
Minia, P.O. Box 61111, Egypt
E-mail: abbas.moustafa@yahoo.com
IZURU TAKEWAKI
Department of Urban and Environmental Engineering, Kyoto University
Kyotodaigaku-katsura, Kyoto, P.O. Box 615-8540, Japan
E-mail: takewaki@archi.kyoto-u.ac.jp

ABSTRACT
This paper investigates the implications of the earthquake characteristics, such as, the
total energy and energy concentration of the ground motion on the earthquake input
energy, dissipated energies and damage of inelastic structures. Influences of the
structures parameters on the structural damage are also studied. The structural damage
is quantified in terms of Park and Ang damage indices. Strong ground motions recorded
in USA, Japan and Egypt are employed in the numerical investigations. The material
force-deformation relation is modelled using elastic-plastic and bilinear laws. The
numerical analyses carried out in the Matlab platform reveal the significant effect of the
earthquake parameters and the structural properties on damage of inelastic structures.
KEYWORDS
Strong ground motion, earthquake characteristics, inelastic structures, elastic-plastic,
input energy, hysteretic energy, damage indices, Egypt National Seismic Network.
1 INTRODUCTION
Damage of structures during earthquakes depends on the structural properties (natural
frequencies, mode shapes, damping mechanism, material of construction and the
structural model) and also on the earthquake characteristics (source properties, epicentre
distance, earthquake intensity, duration, Fourier amplitude and frequency content). The
12 October 1992 Dahshur earthquake that hit the Greater Cairo area is a remarkable
example on this aspect. Several buildings were severely damaged during this earthquake
while other buildings experienced minor or no damage [1]. In earthquake engineering it
is essential to model nonlinear structural behaviour, which in turn is encapsulated in the
structural model adopted [2, 3]. When dealing with inelastic structures it is of interest to

GEO-002-1
-11-
investigate the structural response in terms of modern measures using energy concepts
and damage indices rather than the structural deformations [4-6]. This is because
structures get damaged due to not only maximum displacement excursion but also due
to accumulated hysteretic energy dissipated by repeated yielding [7-9].
According to the Egyptian seismic code, the nonlinear time-history analysis of
structures constitutes the most accurate way for predicting the structural responses
under strong ground motion [10]. The establishment of the Egyptian national Seismic
Network (ENSN) during 1993-1997, following the 1992 Dahshur earthquake, provided
seismic data on recorded strong ground motions for Egypt territory. However, given
that adequate information on soil conditions beneath recording stations in Egypt is not
currently available, this paper examines implications of adopting alternative earthquake
records, in terms of their characteristics, such as, energy and energy concentration, and
also the structural properties on the structures damage. The next section demonstrates
the dynamic analysis of inelastic structures to earthquake loads. Section 3 explains the
quantification of the structural response using energy concepts. The development of
damage indices for inelastic structures under seismic loads is demonstrated in section 4.
Section 5 provides numerical illustrations and discussions.
2 RESPONSE OF INELASTIC STRUCTURES TO EARTHQUAKE LOADS
The equation of motion for an N multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) nonlinear structure
driven by a single component of earthquake acceleration is given by [11] ) (t x
g
& &
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( t x t t t t
g s
& &
& & &
r M P F X C X M = = + + (1)
where, M and C, are the mass and the damping matrices of the structure, respectively,
is the vector of hysteretic restoring forces, r is a vector of ones, X(t) is the
structure displacement vector and dot indicates differentiation with respect to time. Note
that, for nonlinear damping models, the damping matrix C is a time dependent function.
To proceed further, the incremental form of equation (1) can be written as
) (t
s
F
)] ( ) ( }[ {
1 k g k g s
t x t x & & & &
& & &
= = + +
+
1 M P X K X C X M (2)
); ( ) (
k 1 k
t t X X X
& & & & & &
=
+
); ( ) (
k 1 k
t t X X X
& & &
=
+
) ( ) (
k 1 k
t t X X X =
+
(3)
where K
s
is the stiffness corresponding to the displacement from X(t
k
) to X(t
k+1
). Using
Newmark- method, the velocity and displacement responses at time t
k+1
are given as
2 2
) ( ) ( )
2
1
(
) 1 (
t t t
t
1 k k k k 1 k
1 k k k 1 k
+ + + =
+ + =
+ +
+ +
X X X X X
X X X X
& & & & &
& & & & & &
t
(4)
where and are the parameters of the Newmark- method and is the
time step. Equations (4) can be recast in an incremental form as

k k
t t t =
+1
2
1
2
1

2
1
; 1 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( t t t t t
k k k k k + +
+ + = + = X X X X X X X
& & & & & & & & & &
(5)
Substituting equations (5) into equation (2) we get
P X X X K X X C X M = + + + + +
+ +
] ) ( ) ( )
2
1
( [ ] ) 1 [(
2
1
2
1
t t t t t
k k k s k k
& & & & & & & & & & &
(6)

GEO-002-2
-12-
Substituting in the above equation leads to X X X
& & & & & &
+ =
+ k k 1
P X K X K
X K X K X C X C X C X M
= + +
+ + + + +
& & & &
& & & & & & & & & & &
s k s
k s k s k k
t t
t t t t t
2 2
2
) ( ) (
) )(
2
1
( ) 1 (
(7)
Collecting similar terms and simplifying, it follows that
P X K X K X C X K C M = + + + + +
k s k s k s
t t t t t
& & & & & & &
2 2
) (
2
1
] ) ( [ (8)
Solving for we get X
& &
] ) (
2
1
[ ] ) ( [
2 1 2
k s k s k s
t t t t t X K X K X C P K C M X
& & & & & & &
+ + =

(9)
To represent the solution in a matrix form, equation (9) can be recast as
s k s k s
t t t t t K C M B X K B C B X K B P B X
2 1 2 1 1 1
) ( ; ] ) (
2
1
[ ] [ + + = + =

& & & & &

(10)
From equation (10), the acceleration is given as
1 + k
X
& &
k s k s
k s k s k k k
t t t
t t t
X K B C B I X K B P B
X K B C B X K B P B X X X X
& & &
& & & & & & & & & & &
] ) (
2
1
[ ] [
] ) (
2
1
[ ] [
1 2 1 1 1
1 2 1 1 1
1

+
+ =
+ + = + =
(11)
Substituting equations (11) into equations (5) and making use of equation (3), we get
)]; ( ) ( [ ) ( ) ( or
1 1
1
1
1
k g k g k k
k
k
k
k
k
k
t x t x t t & & & &
& &
&
& &
&
+ = +
+ +
+
+
+
H q G q P H
X
X
X
G
X
X
X
(12)
;
) (
2
1
0
) (
2
1
) ( ) ( 0
) (
2
1
) ( ) (
2
1
) ( ) (
1 2 1 1
1 3 1 2 1 2
1 4 1 3 2 1 3

=

s s
s s
s s
t t t
t t t t
t t t t t
K B C B I K B
K B C B I K B I
K B C B I K B I I
G

(13)
M B
M B
M B
H
1
1
1 2
) (
t
t
Note that the matrices K
s
, G and H are time dependent functions. In the above
formulation a viscous damping model is considered, and, thus the damping matrix C is
constant. Hysteretic nonlinear damping can also be considered in which the damping
matrix is treated as a time dependent function (see Section 5).
The stiffness used in the solution for time step t
k+1
is taken as the secant stiffness from
time step t
k-1
to t
k
. To correct for this approximation, an iterative procedure for the

GEO-002-3
-13-
stiffness K
s
is performed where the initial stiffness is replaced by K
s
(1)
, K
s
(2)
, , K
s
(n)

until a convergence criterion on K
s
is achieved. The next section demonstrates the use
of energy concepts in characterising the structural inelastic response.
3 INPUT AND DISSIPATED ENERGIES BY INELASTIC STRUCTURES
Several studies have characterized the structure response in terms of earthquake input
energy and energy dissipated by the structure [4-6]. These energy terms are quantified
by integrating the structure equation of motion as follows

= + +
t t
g
T
t
s
T T
t
T
d x d d d
0 0 0 0
) ( } { ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( & &
& & & & & & &
1 M X F X X C X X M X (14)
The right side of equation (14) represents the input energy to the structure since ground
starts shaking until it comes to rest. The first energy term of the left side is the relative
kinetic energy E
K
(t) of the masses associated with their motion relative to the ground
=
= =
N
i
i i
t
T
t x m d t E
1
2
0
K
) (
2
1
) ( ) ( ) ( &
& & &
X M X (15)
The second term in equation (14) is the energy dissipated by damping E
D
(t)
=
= =
t
N
i
t
Di i
T
d f x d t E
0
1
0
D
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( &
& &
X C X (16)
For viscous damping models, the above expression reduces to .
The third term of equation (14) is the sum of the recoverable strain energy E
= =
N
i
N
j
t
j i ij
d x x c
1 1
0
) ( ) ( & &
s
(t) and the
hysteretic cumulative plastic energy dissipated by yielding E
H
(t)
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
s
1
0
si H
t E d f x t E
N
i
t
i
=
=
& (17)
The recoverable strain and kinetic energies vanish by the end of the earthquake duration
and the earthquake input energy to the structure is absorbed by damping and hysteretic
mechanisms. The next section explains the use of maximum deformation and hysteretic
energy in developing damage indices for inelastic structures.
4 DAMAGE MEASURES FOR INELASTIC STRUCTURES
The literature on damage measures for structures under earthquake ground motions is
vast, see e.g., Refs. [12-14]. Damage indices can be based on either a single or
combination of structural response parameters. Examples of damage measures that are
based on a single response parameter are the ultimate ductility and number of yieldings
during ground shaking [12,14]. Clearly, these measures do not incorporate information
on how the earthquake input energy is imparted on the structure nor how this energy is
dissipated. Earthquake damage occurs due to not only the maximum deformation or
ductility but is associated with hysteretic energy dissipated by the structure as well. The
definition of structural damage in terms of the ductility factor is therefore inadequate.
The rate of the earthquake input energy to the structure has been used as a measure of
the structural damage [15]. Damage indices can be estimated by comparing the response
parameters demanded by the earthquake with the structural capacities. Ref. [14]

GEO-002-4
-14-
proposed a damage index in terms of the ultimate ductility (capacity) and the
maximum ductility attained during ground shaking (demand)
u
max
1
1
u
max
y u
y max
x x
x x
DI (18)
However does not include effects from hysteretic energy dissipation. References
[12,13] proposed a damage index based on the structure hysteretic energy
DI
H
E
1
) /(
u
y y H
H
x f E
DI (19)
where are the yield force and displacement. A robust damage measure should
include not only the maximum response but also the effect of repeated cyclic loading.
Park and Ang developed a simple damage index given as [7,16,17]
y y
, x f
u
y y H
u
max
u y
H
u
max
PA
) /(
x f E
x f
E
x
x
DI + = + = (20)
Here, are maximum absolute displacement and dissipated hysteretic energy
under the earthquake. is the ultimate deformation capacity under monotonic loading
and is a positive constant that weights the effect of cyclic loading on structural
damage. Note that if = 0, the contribution to DI
H max
, E x
u
x
PA
from cyclic loading is omitted.
The state of the structure damage is defined as: (a) repairable damage ( ),
(b) damaged beyond repair ( ), and (c) total collapse ( ).
These criteria are based on calibration of DI
40 . 0
PA
< DI
0 . 1 40 . 0
PA
< DI 0 . 1
PA
DI
PA
against experimental results and field
observations during earthquakes [17]. Equation (20) reveals that both maximum
ductility and hysteretic energy dissipation contribute to the structure damage during
ground motions. Herein damage is expressed as a linear combination of damage caused
by excessive deformation and that contributed by repeated cyclic loading effect. The
quantities depend on the loading history while the quantities
H max
, E x
y u
, , f x are
independent of the loading history and are determined from experimental tests.
Equation (20) can be used for a structural member or a single-degree-of-freedom
structure. For MDOF structures, the global damage index is expressed as a weighted
sum of members local damage indices
N i E E DI DI
N
i
i i i
N
i
i i
,..., 2 , 1 ; / ;
1 1
G
= = =

= =
(21)
Herein is the energy absorbed by the ith member. In this paper we adopt Park and
Ang damage indices in quantifying the structural damage. The next section provides
numerical illustrations and discussions on the formulation developed in this paper.
i
E
5 NUMERICAL ILLUSTRATIONS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Elastic-plastic single-storey frame building

GEO-002-5
-15-
0 10 20 30 40
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1940 El Centro
0 10 20 30 40
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1966 Parkfield
0 10 20 30 40
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
0 10 20 30 40
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
2001 Egypt 1995 Kobe
Fig. 1: Earthquake records adopted as design inputs to inelastic structures
Time [s] Time [s]
Time [s] Time [s]
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

/

g

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

/

g

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

/

g

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

/

g

Table 1: Earthquake records used as inputs to inelastic structures
Earthquake M

D
ss
(km) Component t
d
(s) Station site Remarks
1940 El Centro
1966 Parkfield
1995 Kobe
2001 Egypt
7.0
6.1
6.9
6.2
12.99
31.04
13.12
30.00
EW
C02065
TAK000
N
40.00
43.69
40.96
45.00
ELC#9
Chol#2
Takatori
Ariesh quarry
USA
USA
Japan
Egypt
M = Richters magnitude, D
ss
= Source-site distance, t
d
= earthquake duration.
This example examines the earthquake input energy, dissipated energy by the structure
and damage state of a single-storey inelastic frame structure to the earthquake records
shown in Fig. 1. Information on these records is provided in Table 1. These records
include recorded ground motions in USA, Japan and Egypt. Note that Parkfield and
Kobe records have narrow frequency contents compared to El Centro and Egypt records
as confirmed by the Fourier amplitude spectra. This could be attributed to source, path
and local soil site effects. All records are normalized to 0.51 g peak ground acceleration.
The Arias intensity measure (square root of area under square of ground acceleration)
for these records was computed as 28.24, 12.77, 37.74 and 17.21 m/s
1.5
, respectively.
The material nonlinearity is modelled using elastic-plastic force-deformation relation.
The frame supports a total mass of 910
3
kg and the initial stiffness of the columns
3.5510 =
0
k
5
N/m. The initial natural frequency of the structure was computed as
=
n
1.0 Hz. A viscous damping model with 0.05 damping ratio is adopted. The yield

GEO-002-6
-16-
strength of columns in tension and compression are taken as 210
4
and -210
4
N,
respectively. The dynamic analysis is performed following the formulation of Section 2.
Figure 2 depicts the input and dissipated energies by the structure from the four records.
The maximum ductility factor is computed as 3.50, 2.45, 8.89 and 0.28 for El Centro,
Parkfield, Kobe and Egypt records, respectively. Thus, Egypt record does not drive the
structure into the inelastic range although the Arias intensity is higher than that for
Parkfield record. In fact, Egypt record has its energy located at the high frequency
range. When is changed such that
0
k =
n
2.0 Hz,
max
is computed as 4.45, 13.23,
16.56 and 1.03, respectively. This points towards the effect of energy concentration of
Parkfield and Kobe accelerations compared to El Centro and Egypt records [18, 19].
The total energy alone does not significantly affect the structural maximum ductility.
Fig. 2: Response of inelastic single-storey structure to earthquake ground motion (a)
Earthquake input energy (b) Hysteretic dissipated energy
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
2
4
6
8
10
x 10
4

1940 El Centro
1966 Parkfield
1995 Kobe
2001 Egypt
(a)
Time [s]
E
I

N

m

0 10 20 30 40
0
1
2
3
4
x 10
4

1940 El Centro
1966 Parkfield
1995 Kobe
2001 Egypt
E
H

N

m

(b)
Time [s]

Table 2: Damage index for the single-storey frame building ( 0 , 15 . 0
u
= . 8 = )
Initial natural frequency of the structure
Earthquake
0.50 1.00 2.00 4.00
1940 El Centro
1966 Parkfield
1995 Kobe
2001 Egypt
0.17 (RD)
0.21 (RD)
0.59 (DBR)
-
*
0.55 (DBR)
0.39 (RD)
>1.0 (TC)
-
*
> 1.0 (TC)
> 1.0 (TC)
> 1.0 (TC)
0.13 (RD)
> 1.0 (TC)
> 1.0 (TC)
> 1.0 (TC)
0.90 (TC)
*
Linear behaviour, RD = repairable damage, DBR = damaged beyond repair, TC = total collapse.
The damage state of the structure is determined using Eq. (20) with 0 . 8 , 15 . 0 = =
u

(see Table 2). The effect of the structure initial natural frequency, the frequency content
and concentration of acceleration energy on DI
PA
is obvious from the numerical values
of Park and Ang damage index shown in Table 2.
5.2 Bilinear inelastic two-storey frame building
The two-storey building frame shown in Fig. 3 is considered under the same set of
earthquake records of Table 1. This structure was studied by Moustafa [20] for
modelling critical design earthquake loads on inelastic structures. The behaviour of
braces 1 and 2 is taken as bilinear (k
1
= k
0
, = strain hardening ratio). The mass and
initial stiffness matrices of the structure are given as

GEO-002-7
-17-
+
=

=
2
2
2
1
1
2 1
cos ;
0
E A
L
E A
L
E A
m
K M
2
2
2
2
2
2
0
L
E A
L
E A
L
m
el
(22)

The floors masses are taken as
5
2 1
10 75 . 1 = = m m kg, the cross-sectional areas of
braces are
4
2 1
10 45 . 6

= = A A m
2
, the Youngs modulus
11
10 59 . 2 = E N/m
2
, and
the strain hardening ratio (ratio of to pre-yield stiffness) = 0.10.
When both elastically, the stiffness ma , if brace 1
yields
1
K K =
s
, if brace 2 yields
2
K K =
s
and if both braces yield
12
K K =
s
, where
post-yield stiffness
braces are behaving trix
el s
K K =

= =
+
=
+
=
L
AE
L
AE
1 1
) 1 (
cos
1
1 2
cos
2 2
L
AE
L
AE
el
el
2
cos ;
) 1 (
cos
;
1
;
1
2
12
2
2
1
K K K
K K
(23)
The first two natural frequencies of the elastic structure are computed as 18 . 6
1
= rad/s
and 18 . 16
2
= rad/s. A Rayleigh proportional damping with a =
irst two mo
s
b a K M C + =
0.2683, b = 0.0027 is adopted. These values are selected such that the damping ratio in
the f des is 0.05. Let the yield strain of braces
y
002 . 0 = for both tension
and compression. Braces yield at a relative displacement 04 . 0 cos / = =
y y
L x m.
Brace 1 yields when 04 . 0 | |
1
= x m and brace 2 yields wh 04 . 0 |
1
= m. The
parameters of the Newmark- method are taken as ; 2 / 1 = = .
Fig. 4 shows the earthquake input energy and energy dissip ng. It is
observed that Kobe record produces the highest i ile t inp
en |
2
x x
and
ated by yieldi
nput energy wh he lowest ut
6 / 1 004 . 0 = t s
energy is produced by Egypt record. The global damage index computed using equation
(21) was 0.41, 0.38, 0.69, and 0 for El Centro, Parkfield, Kobe and Egypt records,
respectively. The effect of the strain-hardening ratio and damping ratio on the
earthquake input and dissipated energies were studied and are shown in Fig. 5. It is seen
that the global damage index reduces for higher values of and . The influence of
the earthquake energy concentration is seen to be higher than the effect of the strain-
hardening ratio. Similarly, the damping ratio significantly influences the earthquake
E, A
2
E, A
1
Brace
Brace
9.14 m
9.14
9.14 m
m
2
m
1
x
2
x
1
) (t x
g
& & ) (t x
g
& &
Fig. 3: Two-storey frame building

GEO-002-8
-18-
input energy compared to the strain-hardening ratio (see Fig. 5). Tab 3 summarizes the
global damage index for alternative values of
le
which confirms these results.
Fig. 4: Input energy and energy dissipated by the two-storey inelastic structure (a)
Input energy (b) Hysteretic energy

Table 3: Global damage index for the two-storey frame building ( 0 . 8 , 15 . 0 = =
u
)
Strain-hardening ratio ( )
Earthquake
0 0.05 0.10 0.20
1940 El Centro 0.44 (DBR) 0.41 (DBR) 0.41 (DBR)
1966 Parkfield 0.39 (RD)
0.75 (DBR) 0.68 (DBR)
0.39 (RD)
0.36 (RD)
0.66 (DBR) 1995 Kobe
2001 Egypt -
*
0.38 (RD) 0.38 (RD)
0.69 (DBR)
-
*
-
*
-
*
*
Li r, pse.
6 CO RE
Th he
structural properties on the damage of inelastic structures. The structural damage is
ng damage indices. Earthquake accelerograms
near behaviour, RD = repairable damage g , DBR = dama e i d beyond repa TC = total colla
NCLUDING MAR S K
is paper investigated the implications of the earthquake characteristics and t
quantified in terms of Park and A
recorded in USA, Japan and Egypt are adopted as seismic inputs to the inelastic
structures considered. The material force-deformation relation is modelled using elastic-
0 10 20 30 40
0
5
10
15
20

1940 El Centro
1966 Parkfield
1995 Kobe
2001 Egypt
Time [s]
E
I

k
N

m

(a)
0 10 20 30 40
0
5
10
15
20
25

1940 El Centro
1966 Parkfield
1995 Kobe
2001 Egypt
E
H

k
N

m

Time [s]
(b)
Fig. 5: Influence of structure properties on earthquake input energy for the two-storey
inelastic structure (a) Strain-hardening ratio (b) Damping ratio
0 10 20 30 40
0
5
10
15
20

= 0.20
= 0.10
= 0.05
= 0
E
I

k
N

m

Time [s]
(a) (b)
20
0 10 20 30 40
0
5
10

15
= 0.01
= 0.03
E
H

k
N

m

(b)
= 0.05
= 0.10
Time [s]

GEO-002-9
-19-
plastic and bilinear laws. It is shown that the concentration of acceleration energy close
to the fundamental frequency of the linear structure has a substantial effect on
producing large structural damage. Other parameters such as the acceleration energy do
not significantly affect the structural damage compared to energy concentration. The
damping ratio is also seen to substantially reduce the damage index compared to the
strain-hardening ratio which has smaller effect on the structural damage.
REFERENCES
[1] Sadek, A.W. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics 26 (1997) 529-540.
al of Faculty of Engineering, Tokyo university 36(2) (1981) 407-441.
E
09)
[2] Otani, S. Journ
[3] Takeda, T., Sozen, M.A. and Nielsen, N. Journal of Structural Division, ASC
96(ST12) (1970) 2557-2573.
[4] Zahrah, T.F. and Hall, W.J. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE 110 (1984)
1757-1772.
[5] Uang, C.M. and Bereto, V.V. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics 19
(1990) 77-90.
[6] Takewaki, I. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE 130 (2004) 1289-1297.
[7] Park, Y.J. and Ang, A.H-S. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE 111(4) (1985)
722-739.
[8] Moustafa, A. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE (2009) in press.
[9] Decanini, L.D. and Mollaioli, F. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 21
(2001) 113-137.
[10] Permanent Committee for Code-201. The Egyptian code for calculation of loads
and forces on structural works and buildings, Cairo (2008).
[11] Hart, G.C. and Wong, K., Structural dynamics for structural engineers, John Wiley
& Sons, NY (2000).
[12] Cosenza, C., Manfredi, G. and Ramasco, R. Earthquake Engineering & Structural
Dynamics 22 (1993) 855-868.
[13] Ghobara, A., Abou-Elfath, H. and Biddah, A. Earthquake Engineering &
Structural Dynamics 28 (1999) 79-104.
[14] Powell, G.H. and Allahabadi, R. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics
16 (1988) 719-734.
[15] Takewaki, I. Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE 132 (2006) 990-1000.
[16] Park, Y.J., Ang, A.H-S. and Wen, Y.K. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE
111(4) (1985) 740-757.
[17] Park, Y.J., Ang, A.H-S. and Wen, Y.K. Earthquake Spectra, 3(1) (1987) 1-26.
[18] Moustafa, A. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 29 (2009) 1181-1183.
[19] Cao, H. and Friswell, M.I. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 29 (20
292299.
[20] Moustafa, A. Journal of Sound and Vibration, 325 (2009) 532-544.

GEO-002-10
-20-

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





TWO DIMENSIONAL SIMULATION FOR THE EARTH RESSURE
of Point Load Acting Behind a Cantilever Wall

G. M. ISKANDER
Department of Structural Engineering, Ain Shams University
El-Sarayat Street, Abbassia, Cairo, P.O. Box 11517, Egypt
E-mail: gmiskander@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
The problem of earth pressure due to point load acting behind a cantilever wall is a three
dimensional one. The lateral earth pressure varies in the vertical and the transverse
directions. In this research, the equations of earth pressure due to point load described in
the Egyptian Code of Practice are integrated and submitted to analytical procedure
through which an equivalent two dimensional equations are developed. A new
parameter known as the design width, which is the horizontal distance retained by the
individual vertical retaining element is introduced. The used procedure and the resulted
equations are tested and verified, by adopting different cases of the design width values
covering the practical range. The resulted equations can be easily used together with the
equations of the line load described in the Egyptian Code of Practice for two
dimensional analysis of the point load.
KEYWORDS
Earth pressure, retaining wall, cantilever wall, point load, and line load.
1 INTRODUCTION
The retaining structures are used to avoid the collapse of the retained soil, and to
support the adjacent structures. The reliable prediction of the effect of external loads on
the retaining structure is very important step to achieve a safe and economic design. The
supporting wall should be designed to limit ground movement, Chandrasekaran and
Hong [1].
There are a number of methods to estimate the effect of external loads on the adjacent
retaining wall. The elasticity solution developed by Boussinesq has been commonly
adopted to estimate the earth pressure due to external loads. Many of the external loads
can be represented by point and line loads. Researchers investigated the lateral earth
pressure on a retaining wall due to point and line loads; Kim and Barker [2], Greco [3],
Wang [4], Greco [5], Wang [6], Wang [7], and El-Attar [8].

GEO-003-1
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Analytical closed form solutions have the great advantage of providing easy, direct, and
powerful tool for the design process. The Egyptian Code of Practice [9] provides semi-
empirical solutions for the cases of point and line loads. In this research, a new attempt
has been performed and discussed to achieve an easier analytical procedure for
analyzing the problem of a point load, by adopting the Egyptian Code equations.
2 ANALYSIS OF EXTERNAL LOADS ACCORDING TO THE EGYPTIAN
CODE
The Egyptian Code of Practice adopts the semi-empirical expressions developed from
experimental work by Terzaghi [10], to estimate the earth pressure due to external
loads.
2.1 Case of Point Load
Consider a point load on the surface of the ground at distance (x) from a cantilever
unyielding rigid wall as shown in Fig. (1). For a free height of wall (H), the lateral earth
pressure distribution on the wall due to point load (Q) in the vertical and the transverse
directions is shown in Fig. (1-a) and Fig. (1-b), respectively.

a- Vertical direction b- Transverse direction
Fig. 1: Lateral earth pressure distribution on the wall due to point load

The induced earth pressure ( on the wall for a point at depth (z) located along the
vertical line just in front of the point load, is given by NAVFAC [11] as follows:
for m > 0.4 (1)
for m 0.4 (2)
Where;
(3)

GEO-003-2
-22-
(4)
The corresponding earth pressure ( for any other point at the same depth, located at
horizontal distance (y) apart from the load location, along the wall in the transverse
direction, is given by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers [12], as follows:
(5)
Where; ( is the horizontal angle as shown in Fig. (1-b), and can be calculated from the
formula:
(6)
Consequently:
(7)
2.2 Case of Line Load
Consider a case of line load (q) on the surface of the ground at distance (x) from a
cantilever unyielding rigid wall as shown in Fig. (2).

Fig. 2: Lateral earth pressure distribution on the wall due to line load
For a free height of wall (H), the induced earth pressure ( on the wall for a point at
depth (z) is given by NAVFAC [11] as follows:
for m > 0.4 (8)
for m 0.4 (9)
Where; (m) and (n) are as previously given by equations (3) and (4), respectively.
3 PROPOSED ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUE
The analysis of a cantilever wall in the vertical direction is a plane strain problem. For
the case of an adjacent point load, the induced earth pressure is usually approximated to
a certain plane strain distribution in order to be included in the analysis. This process is
generally inaccurate one, which may lead to uneconomic or unsafe designed sections.

GEO-003-3
-23-
Gourvenec et al. [13] highlighted the potential significance of three dimensional effects
in the case of a retaining wall. Uncertainties in the geotechnical design variables have a
significant impact on the safety of cantilever retaining walls as stated by Goh et al. [14].
Therefore, it is a great need to consider properly the three dimensional effect of the
point load when analyzing the wall in the vertical direction.
3.1 Design Width
It would be a practically oriented step to define a parameter known as the design width
(2D), which is the horizontal distance retained by the individual supporting element. In
case the supporting elements are not completely working together laterally, the design
width is the width retained by single pile for tangent or secant piles, and width retained
by single panel for case of diaphragm wall, as shown in Fig. (3). For vertical elements
completely working together laterally, this width could be chosen a considerable design
value in the lateral direction or can be evaluated based on practical experience
considering the construction circumstances.

Fig. 3: Lateral earth pressure distribution along the design width due to point load
The plane strain analysis of the wall should be carried out considering the additional
earth pressure due to the point load. The most important case to be considered is the
case of the design width is totally centered with respect to the load location as shown in
Fig. (3), which will result in the highest additional stress due to point load.
Consequently, it is important to evaluate the average earth pressure distribution in the
lateral direction throughout this design width. The average pressure value cannot be
directly obtained, but it should be evaluated through an integration procedure.
3.2 Integration Procedure
It is now required to evaluate the horizontal stress area (2A) bounded by the curve
within the design width as shown in Fig. (4-a).
An infinitesimal portion of this area (dA) of width (dy), shown in Fig. (4-b) is calculated
as follows:
(10)

GEO-003-4
-24-
By substitution from equation (7), we get:
(11)

a- Area (2A) b- Portion of area (dA)
Fig. 4: Area of stress in front of the design width due to point load
Due to the symmetry of the curve, we can calculate half of this area (A) for half the
design width (D) from the following integral:
(12)
Using equation (11), the integral form becomes:
(13)
The exact closed form solution of this integral is not available. However, a very close
solution can be obtained through the following formula:
(14)
By substituting with the integral limits to evaluate its value, we finally get:
(15)
And this represents half the symmetric horizontal stress area bounded by the curve
within the design width. The value of the angle ( ) should be in radians.
Before using this final result, it is important to check the validity of this formula.
4 TECHNIQUE VERIFICATION
Before applying the developed formula, it should be carefully checked, to achieve safe
design for the wall and provide sufficient stability for the ground and the neighbouring
buildings. The induced ground movement affects the building damage risk-assessment,
Aye et al. [15], and the building serviceability assessment, Hsiao et al. [16].

GEO-003-5
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The method of evaluating the accuracy of the formula obtained in equation (15), is
based on calculating the area (A) by another method and comparing the results. The
other method will be the numerical integration; by dividing this area into large number
(100) of small rectangles each having area of (dA), and summing up the areas of these
rectangles to calculate the area (A). The width of each rectangle (dy) will be (D/100).
This testing procedure is been carried out through preparing an Excel sheet. Two
proposed examples are presented and each has two different cases.
4.1 First Numerical Example
The data for this example are: Q = 1000kN, x = 2m, H = 5m, and z = 1m. Therefore
using equations (3) and (4), we get m = 0.4 and n = 0.2, respectively. Since m = 0.4,
then we shall use equation (2); therefore
h
= 56.0kN/m
2
. This example is solved for
two cases.
In the first case; D = 0.5m. By substitution in equation (15), we get A = 27.44kN/m. By
evaluating this area numerically after dividing it into 100 slices as described above, we
get A = 27.31kN/m. The percentage of difference between both methods is 0.5%.
In the second case; D = 2.0m. By substitution in equation (15), we get A = 87.96kN/m.
By evaluating this area numerically after dividing it into 100 slices as described above,
we get A = 83.40kN/m. The percentage of difference between both methods is 5.5%.
4.2 Second Numerical Example
The data for this example are: Q = 2000kN, x = 3m, H = 6m, and z = 1.5m. Therefore
using equations (3) and (4), we get m = 0.5 and n = 0.25, respectively. Since m = 0.5,
then we shall use equation (1); therefore
h
= 50.35kN/m
2
. This example is solved for
two cases.
In the first case; D = 1.0m. By substitution in equation (15), we get A = 48.60kN/m. By
evaluating this area numerically after dividing it into 100 slices as described above, we
get A = 48.21kN/m. The percentage of difference between both methods is 0.8%.
In the second case; D = 3.0m. By substitution in equation (15), we get A = 118.63kN/m.
By evaluating this area numerically after dividing it into 100 slices as described above,
we get A = 112.48kN/m. The percentage of difference between both methods is 5.5%.
4.3 Technique Overview
Two different numerical examples using practical values for the different parameters,
and each has two different cases of the design width values covering the range of the
practical limits, are adopted as testing tools for the validity and applicability of the
developed formula in equation (15). The results indicate that the difference between the
developed formula and the numerical integration is less than 1.0% for values of design
width (2D) of about 1.0 to 2.0m, and is less than 6.0% for values of design width (2D)
of about 4.0 to 6.0m. All the obtained differences are in the direction of the developed
formula; the results of the developed formula are greater than those of the numerical
integration, and this is in the safe side and gives more confidence for the resulted
design.

GEO-003-6
-26-
We can conclude that the developed formula in equation (15) can be practically applied
to obtain a plane strain distribution for the earth pressure due to point load within the
distance of the design width.
5 TWO DIMENSIONAL SIMULATION OF POINT LOAD
From the Egyptian Code equations, it is clear that the earth pressure due to a point load
is a three dimensional distribution, whereas the earth pressure due to a line load is a two
dimensional one. Practically, engineers prefer simple unsophisticated tools in
calculating straining actions for design, considering both economic and safety purposes.
Therefore, the final objective of this research is to develop a two dimensional
simulation of the earth pressure due to a point load, by making use of the previously
developed and verified technique.
5.1 Average Stress
Applying equation (15), thus, the average earth pressure throughout the design width is:
(16)
By substituting with the value of ( from equations (1) and (2) into equation (16), we
obtain equations (17) and (18), respectively:
for m > 0.4 (17)
for m 0.4 (18)
5.2 Equivalent Line Load
The average earth pressure due to a point load throughout the design width evaluated
using equations (17) and (18), can be simultaneously obtained from a corresponding
line load of a certain value. To calculate the equivalent corresponding line load, the
obtained average stress in equations (17) and (18) should be equal to the earth pressure
due to line load in equations (8) and (9), respectively.
Therefore, for m > 0.4, by equating equations (8) and (17), we get:
(19)
Consequently, the equivalent line load value is:
(20)
For m 0.4, by equating equations (9) and (18), we get:
(21)
And, the equivalent line load value is:
(22)
It should be clear that the values of line load, which provides earth pressure equivalent
to that resulted from a point load, obtained in equations (20) and (22) are valid for a

GEO-003-7
-27-
certain depth. For different depths, the value of (n) varies, and consequently, the
resulted value of ( ) differs. Therefore, the earth pressure distribution along the wall
height, equivalent to a point load, will be obtained using different resulted values of
( ). Nevertheless, this obtained distribution has the privilege of being calculated once
and can be safely used as a plane strain distribution within the specified design width
(2D).
6 CONCLUSIONS
In this research, the semi-empirical expressions of earth pressure due to point load and
line load, described in the Egyptian Code of Practice are reviewed. A new parameter
known as the design width (2D), which is the horizontal distance retained by the
individual vertical retaining element is introduced. The case of the design width is
totally centered with respect to the point load location which results in the highest
additional stress due to point load, is considered and subjected to analytical procedure,
through which an integrated formula is developed to evaluate half the symmetric
horizontal stress area (A) bounded by the curve of the transverse earth pressure
distribution within the design width.
Two different numerical examples each has two different cases of the design width
values covering the range of the practical limits, are tested and compared with the
numerical integration results as a corresponding technique. The results indicate that the
difference between the developed formula and the numerical integration is less than
1.0% to 6.0%, and the difference is usually in the safe side for design. The developed
formula becomes valid and can be applied practically to obtain a plane strain
distribution for the earth pressure due to point load within the distance of design width.
The developed formula is used to calculate the equivalent corresponding line load
formula. The resulted equations can be easily used together with the equations of line
load described in the Code of Practice for providing a two dimensional analysis of the
point load.
REFERENCES
[1] Chandrasekaran, B., and Hong, L.P. Performance of a temporary earth retaining
wall designed to limit ground movement, International Symposium on
Underground Excavation and Tunnelling, Bangkok, Thailand (2006) 405-412.
[2] Kim, J.S., and Barker, R.M. Effect of live load surcharge on retaining walls and
Abutments, Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE 128 (10)
(2002) 803-813.
[3] Greco, V.R. Active earth thrust by backfills subject to a line surcharge,
Canadian Geotechnical Journal 42 (5) (2005) 1255-1263.
[4] Wang, C.D. Lateral stress caused by horizontal and vertical surcharge strip
loads on a cross-anisotropic backfill, International Journal for Numerical and
Analytical Methods in Geomechanics 29 (14) (2005) 1341-1361.
[5] Greco, V.R. Active thrust due to backfill subject to lines of surcharge,
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE 132 (2) (2006) 269-
271.

GEO-003-8
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[6] Wang, C.D. Lateral force induced by rectangular surcharge loads on a cross-
anisotropic backfill, Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE
133 (10) (2007) 1259-1276.
[7] Wang, C.D. Lateral force and centroid location caused by horizontal and
vertical surcharge strip loads on a cross-anisotropic backfill, International
Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, 31 (13) (2007)
1443-1475.
[8] El-Attar, A.N. The effect of external load on the excavation supporting system,
M.Sc. Thesis, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt (2009).
[9] Egyptian Code of Practice for Soil Mechanics and Foundations, Part 7 (2001).
[10] Based on work by Terzaghi, K. Anchored bulkheads, Transaction, ASCE 119
(1954) Paper No. 2720. (Quoted from NAVFAC [11]).
[11] NAVFAC. Foundations & Earth Structures, Design Manual 7.02, United States
Department of Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command (1986).
[12] U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Engineering and design retaining and flood
walls, Manual EM No. 1110-2-2502, U.S. Army, Washington, D.C. (1989).
(Quoted from Kim and Barker [2]).
[13] Gourvenec, S.M., Powrie, W., and De Moor, E.K. Three-dimensional effects in
the construction of long retaining wall, Geotechnical Engineering Journal,
Institution of Civil Engineers 155 (3) (2002) 163-173.
[14] Goh, A.T.C., Phoon, K.K., and Kulhawy, F.H. Reliability analysis of partial
safety factor design method for cantilever retaining walls in granular soils,
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE 135 (5) (2009) 616-
622.
[15] Aye, Z.Z., Karki, D., and Schulz, C. Ground movement prediction and building
damage risk-assessment for the deep excavations and tunneling works in
Bangkok subsoil, International Symposium on Underground Excavation and
Tunnelling, Bangkok, Thailand (2006) 281-297.
[16] Hsiao, E.C.L., Schuster, M., Juang, C.H., and Kung, G.T.C. Reliability analysis
and updating of excavation-induced ground settlement for building
serviceability assessment, Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
ASCE 134 (10) (2008) 1448-1458.

GEO-003-9
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13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





SEISMICITY OF EGYPT AND NATIONAL SEISMIC NETWORK

ABBAS MOUSTAFA
Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University, Minia 61111, Egypt
E-mail: abbas.moustafa@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Despite the moderate seismicity of Egypt, many structures in the Greater Cairo area have been
severely damaged during the 12th October 1992 Dahshur earthquake. This is because most buildings
were not designed to withstand seismic loads before 1992. Following this earthquake, the Egyptian
Government established the Egyptian National Seismic Network (ENSN). This network consists of
the main center at Helwan and five sub-centers at Hurghada, Burg El-Arab, Mersa Alam, Aswan and
Kharga. The ENSN contains 70 recording stations, 25 of which represent strong-motion instruments.
This paper provides overviews on the seismic activity of Egypt from an engineering perspective, and
on the development of the ENSN. The paper summarizes also information on historical and recent
earthquakes hit Egypt. Ninety strong-motion records from 14 earthquakes measured by the ENSN are
analyzed. The paper emphasizes the need for upgrading existing strong-motion instruments to
measure the three acceleration components and for installing new strong-motion instruments in
seismically active regions. Given the accumulation of strong-motion earthquakes recorded by the
ENSN over more than one decade, it is essential to construct strong-motion database for the country.
This will facilitate performing seismological applications (locating hypocenters of future earthquakes,
studying source mechanisms and attenuation analyses) and engineering applications (constructing
design response spectra, providing acceleration inputs for time-history analysis of inelastic structures
and safety assessment of lifeline structures, critical facilities and historical monuments).
KEYWORDS
Egypt seismicity, ENSN, NRIAG, seismic codes, Aswan high dam, historical monuments.
1 INTRODUCTION
Egypt seismicity is known for a long period of time and some of the historical earthquakes hit
the country are documented in the annals of ancient Egyptian history [1-3]. Similarly,
destructive strong-motion earthquakes hit the country in 1981, 1987 and more recently in
1992 [2,3]. Egypt seismicity results from the interaction between the three plates of Eurasia,
African and Arabian plates, as well as the Sinai micro-plate that is partially separated from
the African plate by rifting along the Gulf of Suez.
The structural damage and loss of life caused by the 1992 Dahshur earthquake (35 km of
southwest Cairo and magnitude = 5.6) in the Greater Cairo area have been reported in [4,5].
This earthquake resulted in 561 deaths, about 10,000 injuries and structural damage of about

GEO-004-1
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$35 million. Ref. [4] presents information on the earthquake characteristics (location, focal
depth, magnitude, and fault mechanism) of the main shock. Field surveys of the damaged and
collapsed structures such as bridges and buildings have been also carried out [4]. Insightful
and detailed statistical analysis of damage caused by this earthquake is contained in [5]. A
sample of 2270 buildings covering a wide geographical distribution, date of construction and
structural system properties has been considered. The specific percentages of damage
reported provide insight as to the seismic performance of different structures in terms of day
of construction, construction material and type of structural system [5]. Following this
earthquake, the Egyptian Government established the Egyptian National Seismic Network
(ENSN) during 1993-1997. This network has been under a continuous upgrading with new
seismic instruments during the last few years. Meanwhile, actual seismic provisions against
earthquake loads have not existed before 1992. Nowadays, recent versions of the Egyptian
standards contain seismic provisions against earthquake and wind loads.
This paper provides overviews on seismic activity of Egypt from an engineering perspective,
the development of the ENSN and on the evolution of national seismic provisions in Egypt.
Ninety strong-motion accelerograms recorded by the ENSN are also analyzed. The paper
sheds the lights on the need for establishing strong-motion database for the country (detailed
information on strong-motion earthquakes and knowledge on soil profile beneath recording
stations). The next section provides an overview on the seismicity of Egypt.
2 SEISMICITY OF EGYPT
Egypt has moderate seismicity and is known for its seismicity for a long time. In fact, some
of the large historical events are documented in the annals of ancient Egyptian history and in
temples [1-3]. Fig. 1 shows the location of historical earthquakes struck Egypt between 2200
BC and 1900 AD. The largest earthquake has a magnitude of 6.7 on the Richters scale.
Egypt is located close to Hellenic arc, one of the continental fracture system at the
convergence boundary of two big lithospheric plates, namely, Eurasia and Africa. The
country is also affected by the opening of the Red Sea (Mid Oceanic System) and its two
branches, the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba-Dead Sea transform system [2,6,7]. Thus,
Egypt seismicity results from the interaction between the three plates of Eurasia, African and
Arabian plates, as well as the Sinai micro-plate which is partially separated from the African
plate by rifting along the Gulf of Suez. In addition to the seismic activity along these plate
margins, mega-shear zones running from southern Turkey to Egypt have been defined in
some studies [8,9]. Historical and instrumental seismicity in the region is mainly associated
with six tectonic trends, namely, the Levant-Aqaba transform system, the northern Red Sea-
Gulf of Suez-Cairo-Alexandria trend (Suez trend), the Eastern Mediterranean-Cairo-Fayoum
trend, Hellenic and Cyprian arcs, Mediterranean coastal dislocation, and the southern
Egyptian trends. Intensive historic reviews on the seismicity of Egypt, Arabia and the Red
Sea region can be found in [2,3]. The total number of historical earthquakes until 1900 is
reported to be 83 [3]. Some of these earthquakes were initiated from seismic sources outside
Egypt. The lack in number of earthquakes in some eras is attributed to the political situations
and disappearance of documents [3]. The period of observations has been grouped into four
intervals, namely, 2200 BC-1300 AD, 1300-1800 (starts with the beginning of Mamluk
period), 1800-1990 (starts with the end of Ottoman Empire), and 1900-2004. The number of
reported events was 34, 36, 17 and 54, respectively (i.e. 1, 6, 17 and 51 per century). Fig. 1
shows the map of local seismicity from 1900-1997 (before the installation of ENSN) [3]. The
number of observed events has remarkably increased after 1997.

GEO-004-2
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In 7 August 1847 a large earthquake with an estimated magnitude of about 5.5-5.9 shook El
Faiyum-Cairo region. Hundreds of people were killed and injured and thousands of structures
were destroyed. The earthquake was felt across Egypt and much of North Africa with heavy
damage reported as far as Assuit, southeast Egypt.
Fig. 1: Location of historical earthquakes in Egypt (2200 BC-1900 AD) [6]

The surprise occurrence of a moderate earthquake of magnitude 5.3 in 14 November 1981, at
Naser lake about 55 km south-west of Aswan dam, generated significant concern in Egypt
regarding safety of the dam. Note that any damage to Aswan dam would cause catastrophic
consequences on the Egyptian community. A comprehensive study to identify areas of
seismic geology, engineering and other works to evaluate the seismic safety of the dam has
been conducted in [10]. The study concluded that Aswan region is located in a tectonically
stable area, and that future earthquakes would not affect the integrity and safety of the dam.
Similar concerns were recently raised again and the same conclusion was also reached by the
NRIAG center [11]. The local seismic activity during the last few years, however, reflects a
remarkable increase in number of small earthquakes. Note that the large number of recorded
events could be attributed to the increase in recording stations of the ENSN. The installation
of new seismic stations at remote sites has given good azimuth coverage over regions that
were not covered before. In 23 August 1987 an event of magnitude = 3.5 and epicenter near
Gabal Maghara north Sinai, far from faults related to the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba, but along
El Faiyum-North Sinai fold belt. The present seismic activity and well-documented evidence
of historical earthquakes in the region, together with the exploration for economic petroleum

GEO-004-3
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deposits in the Qarun oil field led to understanding of the structural geology of El Faiyum
depression [8]. In general, the regional seismic activity of Egypt during the last few years
shows a cluster of the seismic activity to the southern part of Hellenic and Cyprean arcs. The
seismic activity extends toward north to the southern part of Greece and Turkey. A Few
events were located along Southern Jordan, Northern Sudan and Central Red Sea.
Fig. 2: Distribution of earthquakes hit Egypt during the period 1900-1997

The 1992 Dahshur earthquake of magnitude 5.6 has caused severe damage to many structures
in the Greater Cairo area. While this earthquake represents a moderate event, the large
damage caused is attributed to non existence of actual code provisions for buildings against
earthquakes [12]. Most existing buildings before this earthquake were not designed against
seismic loads. The damage reported is also attributed to old age and poor construction of
some structures and to the dense population in the Greater Cairo area (about 18 million
inhabitants). Cairo is one of most densely populated cities in the world. Thus, the occurrence
of a moderate earthquake in that area could cause large damage and significant loss of life.
3 DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGYPTIAN NATIONAL SEISMIC NETWORK
Instrumental recording of earthquakes in Egypt started in 1899 with the establishment of
Helwan Observatory [3,7]. A Milne-Shaw seismograph (east-west component) was initially
installed. An east-west component of a Milne-Shaw and a vertical component of a Galitzin-
Willip were added in 1922 and 1938, respectively. Modernized short-period Sprengnether

GEO-004-4
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seismographs were installed in 1951. In 1962 a seismic station was installed at Helwan
Observatory as part of the Worldwide Standardized Seismograph Network (WSSN). In 1972
four analog stations (one Japanese short-period and three intermediate Russian seismographs)
were installed at Helwan, Aswan, Abu-Symbil and Matrouh. Following the 14 November
1981 Naser Lake earthquake, a radio-telemetry network of eight seismographs was installed
around the northern part of Aswan reservoir. The network was extended to eleven stations in
1984 and to thirteen stations in 1985. Six analog strong-motion accelerographs were installed
at Aswan dam (about 700 km south of Cairo). Four short-period vertical components
seismographs were added during 1986-1990 at Kottamia (KOT), Hurghada (HUR), Tell El-
Amarna (TAS), and Mersa Alam (MRS) [7].
Table 1: List of recording stations of the ENSN connected to the main-center at Helwan [6]
Location
Station code
Lat. Long.
Height
(m)
Connection mode Components (sensor type)
HLW
KOT
FYM
HAG
FYD
ZNM
KHB
MYD
NAT
AYT
SAF
GLL
SQR
BNS
ZAF
SUZ
RSH
RDS
GRB
TR1
TR2
EDF
NKL
CAT
BST
DHB
NUB
SFG
QSR
ADB
SHL
AGS
DK2
SWA1
SWA2
29.858
29.927
29.692
29.952
30.293
29.375
29.928
29.275
29.633
29.704
29.622
29.577
29.881
28.952
29.282
29.840
30.960
28.711
28.270
28.007
28.385
25.102
29.929
28.775
29.216
28.722
29.027
26.568
25.755
25.351
23.107
24.375
24.320
29.263
29.243
31.343
31.829
31.043
32.093
32.231
32.877
30.972
30.799
30.617
31.153
31.555
31.708
31.196
31.212
32.550
32.830
33.722
33.297
32.786
33.952
33.723
33.181
33.980
33.979
34.732
34.618
33.648
33.929
34.387
34.623
35.399
34.987
28.955
25.709
25.455
115
495
204
480
200
41
265
250
570
160
460
515
115
207
155
275
217
260
175
280
275
410
440
410
200
30
145
460
166
206
147
326
410
50
55
Radio to HLWC
Radio to HLWC
Radio to HLWC
Radio to HLWC
Telephone to HLWC
Satellite to HLWC
Radio to HLWC
Radio to HLWC
Radio to HLWC
Radio to HLWC
Radio to HLWC
Radio to HLWC
Radio to HLWC
Telephone to HLWC
Radio to ZNM
Radio to ZNM
Telephone to HLWC
Radio to ZNM
Radio to ZNM
Radio to ZET
Radio to ZET
Telephone to HLWC
Satellite to HLWC
Satellite to HLWC
Satellite to HLWC
Radio to BST
Radio to BST
Satellite to HLWC
Satellite to HLWC
Satellite to HLWC
Satellite to HLWC
Satellite to HLWC
Satellite to HLWC
Satellite to HLWC
Radio to SWA1
3/3 Components (SP/LP)
3 Component (VBB)
3 Component (SP)
3 Component (SP)
3 Component (SP)
3 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
3 Component (VBB)
1 Component (SP)
3 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
1 Component (SP)
3 Component (SP)
3 Component (VBB)
1 Component (SP)
Until 1992, many parts of the country were not covered with earthquake recording
instruments. Except of the six instruments installed at Aswan high dam, there was no strong-
motion instruments in the Greater Cairo area. Following the 12th October 1992 earthquake in
Dahshur area, the Egyptian Government was prompted to construct the Egyptian National
Seismic Network (ENSN). The network was completed in 1997 and included 63 instruments

GEO-004-5
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covering the Egyptian territory. These instruments contain 47 seismic stations based on
satellite communication, 11 stations based on telemetry communication and 5 stations based
on telephone lines. The network records local and regional earthquakes as well as tele-
seismic events. The data communication system was also upgraded from telephone lines to
satellite to increase the efficiency of the network. By the end of 2002, the installation of the
whole seismic field stations was completed covering the main center and five sub-centers
were also constructed and equipped. The ENSN consists of the main center at Helwan and
five sub-centers at Hurghada, Burg El-Arab, Mersa Alam, Aswan and Kharga. An
Earthquake Disaster Reduction Data Center (EDRDC) was also established and supported by
GIS technology. In 2003, the number of recording stations was upgraded to 70 stations. Table
1 provides information on recording stations connected to the main center. This center
receives seismic data from near distance stations through telemetry communication and from
remote stations and sub-centers via telephone lines and satellite communications.
Although, the ENSN contains 70 recording stations that are geographically distributed to
effectively cover seismically active regions in Egypt, the network contains 25 strong-motion
instruments only. From an engineering point of view this number is small. Furthermore, some
of these instruments measure one or two acceleration components only (see Table 1). Given
the safety requirements of lifeline structures, critical facilities (e.g., Aswan dam, existing and
new proposed nuclear power plants and petroleum and natural gas installations) and historical
monuments, there is an urgent need for upgrading existing instruments and for installing new
three components instruments near new identified seismic regions. Specifically, the number
of strong-motion instruments in the Greater Cairo area needs to be increased.
4 EVOLUTION OF NATIONAL SEISMIC PROVISIONS
Until the beginning of 1990, real consideration of seismic loadings were absent from national
codes of Egypt. Buildings were typically designed to resist gravity loads and lateral load
resistance was provided through consideration of wind loads, mainly, for tall buildings. In
1988 the Egyptian Society for Earthquake Engineering proposed a model code entitled
Regulations for earthquake-resistant design of buildings in Egypt [13]. This code draft was
based on the Uniform Building Code (UBC) of America. However, these guidelines were not
put into practice. Earthquake loads were specified as a percentage of the total weight of the
building. High-rise buildings of 30-40 floors were typically designed based on seismic design
regulations of the United States or England.
The reinforced concrete code published in 1989 by the Ministry of Housing, Utilities and
New Communities was the only exception that considered seismic loading. This code,
however, ignored basic seismic considerations, such as, influence of soil type and dynamic
characteristics of buildings. Seismic effects were represented by lateral forces as a percentage
of the building weight. Two design procedures, the allowable (working) stress design and the
ultimate strength design methods were specified. The allowable stress design method was
more widely adopted by most structural engineers. The loading code issued in 1994 following
the 1992 earthquake, defined the seismic loads based on the structure type. Although this
code adopted significantly simplified assumptions in terms of loading considerations and
design procedures it represented an improvement to previous regulations. Ref. [12] proposed
a revised draft for the Egyptian code for seismic loads on structures. In 2004 a new loading
code [14] was issued, which dealt with most of the shortcomings of preceding standards. The
2004 code introduced the concept of response spectra and force reduction factors for the
design of structures including safety verifications relevant to ultimate and serviceability limit

GEO-004-6
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states. The ECCS code has also gradually introduced ductility concepts and detailing
procedures through its 2001 and 2004 versions [14]. With the recent 2007 203-Egyptian
standards, development of national seismic codes is converging to international standards.
However, the majority of current buildings were not designed to seismic regulations. Hence,
with exception of structures constructed in the last 10-15 years, a high level of seismic
vulnerability exists [15].
Table 2: Information on earthquakes recorded by the ENSN [6]
Earthquake date M

D
(km)
Compo-
nent
PGA
(g)

t
d

(s)
Station No. Station site
31 August 1998

4 September 1999

9 September 1999

13 September 1999

8 March 2000

25 December 2000

5 January 2001

NA

NA

NA

NA

5.7

5.2

4.3

NA

NA

NA

NA

7.0

11.0

25.6
N
E
V
N
E
V
N
E
V
N
E
N
E
V
N
E
N
E
V
N
E
V
N
E
V
N
E
V
N
E
V
N
E
N
E
V
N
E
N
E
N
E
N
E
N
E
0.05
0.06
0.92
0.002
0.01
0.02
0.07
0.08
0.96
0.33
0.09
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.35
0.09
0.91
0.78
1.00
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.14
0.14
0.36
0.02
0.02
0.02
0.04
0.09
0.40
0.20
0.26
0.15
0.09
0.16
0.80
1.00
0.11
0.28
0.10
0.14
0.16
0.03
0.08
0.11
41

45

52

40

48

41

62

67

57

43

58

72

46

43

82

45

43

41

61624307

65624302

61624703

62424700

65625201

62425200

61625600

65625604

62506700

62306700

65906700

66806700

69035900

62735900

65935900

66835900

65900501

66800501

BYD (school)

Observatory

BYD (school)

Yenishehir Plasa hotel

Observatory

Yenishehir Plasa hotel

BYD (school)

Observatory

Nuweiba

NRIAG

Dahab

El-Tur

Sharm Elsheikh

Taba

Dahab

El-Tur

Dahab

El-Tur

GEO-004-7
-36-
Table 2 (cont.): Information on earthquakes recorded by the ENSN [6]
Earthquake date M

D
(km)
Compo-
nent
PGA
(g)

t
d

(s)
Station No. Station site
23 June 2001

11 November 2001

17 December 2001

22 January 2002

18 February 2002

9 April 2002

20 August 2002

6.2

3.9

4.5

6.6

3.8

4.0

NA
30.0

23.0

6.0

25.0

13.4

13.6

NA
N
E
N
E
V
N
E
V
N
E
V
N
E
N
E
N
E
N
E
V
N
E
N
E
N
E
N
E
V
V
N
E
N
E
V
N
E
N
E
V
N
E
N
E
0.23
0.25
0.14
0.64
1.00
0.01
0.06
0.21
0.01
0.06
0.21
0.10
0.46
0.16
0.20
0.27
0.09
0.25
0.11
0.06
0.08
0.27
0.41
0.13
0.15
0.52
0.07
0.11
0.23
0.30
0.23
1.00
0.30
0.23
0.17
0.11
0.20
0.24
0.17
0.17
0.14
0.20
0.15
0.16
45

28

27

26

25

29

29

23

28

24

47

33

36

28

35

26

45

31
60517400

65817400

67117400

67117401

65931500

62531500

65735100

60535100

67102200

65502200

65802200

67102201

69004900

65904900

69009900

65909904

69023201

62323203
Ariesh quarry

Burg El-arab
center

Matrouh

Matrouh

Dahab

El-Tur

Tal El-amarna

Ariesh quarry

Matrouh

Ariesh655

Burg Elarab
center
Matrouh

Sharm Elsheokh

El-Tur

Sharm Elsheikh

El-Tur

Sharm Elsheikh

Hurghada
M = Richters magnitude, NA = not available, D = Focal depth, t
d
= duration, PGA = peak ground acceleration.
5 ANALYSIS OF STRONG MOTION EARTHQUAKES
Table 2 lists information on 90 acceleration records from 14 earthquakes. These records
contain 72 horizontal and 18 vertical accelerograms. The table lists the magnitude, focal
depth, peak ground acceleration, total duration, station code and station site. The earthquakes
magnitude ranges between 3.8 and 6.6 on the Richter scale and the duration ranges between
23 and 82 s. Fig. 3 depicts the time history and associated Fourier amplitude spectrum for the

GEO-004-8
-37-
East acceleration component of the September 1999 earthquake measured at Observatory.
The observed average frequency range for the horizontal accelerations is about (0-15) Hz,
and that for the vertical records is about (0-20) Hz. Some horizontal records, however,
possess narrow frequency range reflecting energy concentration (see, e.g. Fig. 3). It should be
mentioned that the soil condition beneath the recording stations are not yet available. Hence,
it is not possible to classify the ground accelerations recorded by the ENSN based on the soil
type. Fig. 4 shows response spectra for the two horizontal accelerations of 9.9.1999
earthquake recorded at the Observatory normalized to 0.50 g and damping ratio = 0.05.
Fig. 3: Time history and Fourier spectra of EW acceleration component (9.9.1999 at Observatory)
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
x 10
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50
-0.1
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
Frequency (Hz) Time (s)
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

s
p
e
c
t
r
a

(
m
/
s
)

A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
g
)

Fig. 4: Response spectra for horizontal acceleration (9.9.1999 at Observatory)
Frequency (rad/s) Frequency (rad/s)
0 10 20 30 40
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
P
s
e
u
d
o

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
m
/
s
)

0 10 20 30 40
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
P
s
e
u
d
o

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
m
/
s
)

EW NS
5 CONCLUSIONS
Egypt has moderate seismicity and is known for its seismicity for a long period of time.
Large historical events are documented in annals of ancient Egyptian history and
temples. The installation of the Egyptian National Seismic Network (ENSN) has been
initiated in 1993 following the 1992 Dahshur earthquake and has been completed by the
end of 1997. This network consisted initially of 63 recording instruments and was
upgraded to 70 instruments by 2003. Nevertheless, the network contains 25 strong-
motion seismographs. Moreover, some of these instruments measure single- or two-
acceleration components only. Given that this network covers about 1,000,000 km
2
, and
given the recent seismic activity in the country and safety requirements of lifeline
structures, critical facilities (e.g. petroleum and gas installations, electrical and water
networks, nuclear plants and Aswan dam) and historical monuments, there is an urgent

GEO-004-9
-38-
need for installing new three-components strong-motion instruments to effectively
cover recently identified seismic active regions, particularly, in the Greater Cairo area
and in areas of large projects and historical monuments. Existing single- and two-
components instruments need to be upgraded to three-components instruments. For
instance, any damage to Aswan dam would have catastrophic consequences on the
Egyptian community. A dense broad-band seismic network will enable: (1) locating
hypocenters of future earthquakes, (2) studying fault mechanisms and attenuation
relations, and (3) recording near-field strong-motion earthquakes. Furthermore, there is
a need for establishing strong-motion database for the country. Such database should
include information on past recorded earthquakes, such as, digitized accelerations,
response spectra, epicentral distance and knowledge on soil profiles beneath recording
stations. This information will provide acceleration inputs for time-history analysis of
engineering structures and facilitates constructing site response spectra and
seismological and engineering earthquake models that can be used in engineering
design purposes.
8 REFERENCES
cta Geophysica Plonica 29 1 (1981) 37-48.
eismicity of Egypt,
[3] 119-135.
on
[5] 5) 529-
[6] nal Research Institute of Astronomy and Geophysics. Egypt Seismological
[7] Research Letters 76 2 (2005) 149-160.
J.J. Soil Dynamics and
[10] nd Ezzat, M.E. Acta Geodaetica
[11] er 28 October (2008).
rnational Conference on
[13]
[14] ng and urban planning, 8th edition
[15] . Research center for housing, building, and urban planning, 3rd edition
(2007).
[1] Kebeasy, R.M. A
[2] Ambraseys, N.N., Melville, C.P. and Adams, R.D. The S
Arabia and the Red Sea Cambridge University press (1994), UK.
Badawy, A. Acta Geodaetica et Geophysica Hungarica 34 (1999)
[4] Japan International Cooperation Agency. Report of Japan disaster relief team
the earthquake in Arab Republic of Egypt of October 1992 JICA (1993).
Sadek, A.W. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics 26 (199
540.
Natio
Bulletin 1-8 (1997-2007).
Badawy, A. Seismological
[8] Kusky, T. Earthquakes, Facts on file Inc., NY (2008).
[9] Moharram, A.M., Elghazouli, A.Y. and Bommer,
Earthquake Engineering 28 (2008) 795-811.
Haggag, H.M., Gaber, H.H., Sayed, A.D. a
Geomaterial 5 1 (2008) 19-29.
Badawy, A. Al-Ahram Newspap
[12] Abbas, A.M. Proceedings of the fifth Alexandria Inte
Structural and Geotechnical Engineering 20-22 December (2003) (ST153-164).
Egyptian Society for Earthquake Engineering. Regulations for earthquake
resistant design of buildings in Egypt (1988).
ECS-203. Research center for housing, buildi
(2004).
ECP-203

GEO-004-10
-39-

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt




DESIGN OPTIMIZATION OF URBAN NEW AUSTRIAN
TUNNELLING METHOD (NATM)

M. ZAKI. ABD ELREHIM
Department of Civil Engineering, Minia University
E-mail: mostafa_zaki88@yahoo.com
A. M. MARWAN
E-mail: ahmedmarwan0850@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
The New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM) is a conventional tunnelling technique
in which the tunnel section is divided into suitable parts in area and shape. Each part is
sequentially excavated and the exposed ground by excavation is temporarily supported
by a shotcrete lining thus allow a controlled ground deformation, then the permanent
lining is carried out after the completion of the whole tunnel section and reaching
equilibrium. Therefore, NATM as a construction technique requires less mechanical
equipments and low installation costs which are significant factors in underground
projects that require major financial investments. In this paper, 2-D models are
employed to study the effect of construction sequences due to NATM tunnelling on
ground deformation. Then, a 3-D model for the optimal sequence of excavation is used
to investigate the ground deformation behaviour for different excavation lengths.
Furthermore, the 3-D model is used in the calibration of the 2-D model in order to
narrow the gap between 2-D and 3-D results. A main concern is devoted to shallow
tunnelling in soft ground to meet most of the conditions in urban areas. The results
constitute a step forward to automate the safe and economic design of NATM cross
sections in urban areas.
KEYWORDS
NATM, Tunnelling, Soft Ground, Finite Element, Modelling.

GEO-005-1
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GEO-005-2
1 INTRODUCTION
For safe and economic application of NATM, it is important to determine carefully the
design aspects of NATM such as ground support, face stability, excavation sequence,
section profile and monitoring system. Also, engineers should understand the concept of
NATM to avoid misapplication of the method and solve any unexpected problems.
Although NATM was primarily developed for rock soil, it is now one of the appropriate
methods in soft ground conditions. However in cases such as flowing ground or ground
with short stand-up time, using NATM requires solving these unstable conditions by
dewatering, grouting or any other mean of ground improvement [1] [2].
In this paper, different construction sequences of NATM for two metro lines cross
sections are presented and analysed in both two and three dimensional finite element
models. The results of ground movements in terms of surface and crown settlements for
each excavation sequences were assessed to determine the appropriate sequence of
excavation where the ground deformation are kept to a minimum to fulfil the safety
requirements for the construction. The 2-D plain strain model of the selected excavation
sequence is then more investigated by sophisticated 3-D models with different lengths
of excavation. The Finite Element Modelling techniques using FINAL package [3] are
employed to analyse the different scenarios and construction sequences.
2 TWO DIMENSIONAL MODELLING OF NATM
Finite element models have been used in order to understand the interaction between the
surrounding soil and the tunnel supporting system for NATM tunnelling and to predict
the effect of excavation sequence on ground deformation. The assumed tunnel cross
section is suitable for double track metro lines and satisfying the electrical and
mechanical requirements of the trolleys. Based on both geometrical and stress
optimization techniques, an optimal profile for the tunnel is considered [4].
2.1 Geotechnical parameters
The tunnel is assumed to be constructed in a clayey layer at a depth of 14.0m with no
existence of ground water and no specific strengthening technique is applied. In this
paper, the mechanical parameters used in the analysis are indicated in Fig. 1. These
geotechnical conditions can be found in one of the cross sections of Cairo Metro line 3
phase 2 [5].
2.2 Finite element modelling
For the modelling process in FINAL, The soil media is modelled using six node linearly
varying Strain Triangular finite elements (L.S.T) and the shotcrete lining by six node
curved boundary beam elements (Beam6). The mesh adopted for 2-D analysis is shown
in Fig. 1. The movements at the bottom of the model are prevented while only the
horizontal movements are prevented at the side faces of the model.
2.3 Construction sequence simulation
For simulating the excavation sequences and shotcrete installation, the 2-D plane strain
finite element model with different loading cases is employed. The initial loading case
is the geostatic state of stresses and the existing surface loads. Then each part of
excavation is simulated in two steps using stiffness reduction method [6]. In the first
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GEO-005-3
step, the stiffness of the soil in the excavated part is reduced by a factor accompanied by
stress redistribution at the tunnelling periphery. In the second step, the excavated part is
removed and the temporary lining is installed in its fresh state accompanied with a stress
elimination of the excavated soil. In the 2-D analysis of the presented sequences of
excavation, the stiffness reduction factor is assumed to be the same in all sequences.
Then, the 3-D analysis will be used in estimating more accurate values for the reduction
factor needed in the 2-D analysis.

Fig. 1: Finite element mesh with soil mechanical parameters
3 TYPES OF PARTIAL FACE EXCAVATIONS
One of the critical aspects in NATM tunnel design is the excavation sequences. The
cross section of NATM is divided into suitable parts in area and shape in order to allow
efficient and practical construction. Then, these parts are sequentially excavated. The
subdivisions depend on ground condition, soil stand up time, tunnel geometry,
allowable settlement and the space requirements for typical equipments used in NATM
construction. Excavation is usually performed by blasting, hand mining or any other
mechanical means [7].
In this paper, top heading and sidewall drift for partial face excavations, Fig. 2, are
presented and studied. In top heading excavation, Section (A), the crown is excavated
and immediately supported with temporary shotcrete lining then subsequently the invert
is excavated and ring closure is achieved. In single sidewall drift, Section (B), the top
side part followed by the lower side part is excavated and supported then subsequently
the full size excavation are executed in the same manner. While in double side drift,
Section (C), the side galleries are excavated and supported first, and then the central part
is subsequently excavated. The ring closure at the invert comes at the end. The
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GEO-005-4
percentages of excavated area for each part to the whole excavated section, 65.80 mP
2
P,
are presented in Table 1.

Fig. 2: Types of partial face excavations
Table 1: Percentage of excavated area for each part in sections A, B and C
Part Section (A) Section (B) Section (C)
(1) 57.22% 31.19% 20.52%
(2) 42.78% 20.32% 16.83%
(3) -- 28.19% 20.52%
(4) -- 20.30% 16.83%
(5) -- -- 18.32%
(6) -- -- 6.98%
3.1 Results and discussions
In order to study the influence of construction sequence on the ground deformation and
to ensure safety of tunnelling process, the crown settlements for each section are
compared, Fig. 3. The difference between section B and BP
\
P is the removal time of the
inside temporary support. In section B, the removal of this temporary lining is
accompanied by the excavation of the adjacent soil, where in section BP
\
P, the lining is
removed with the excavation of the last part, part (4).
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Excavated Parts
C
r
o
w
n

S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
c
m
)
Section (A)
Section (B)
Section (B')
Section (C)

Fig. 3: Crown settlements for different sections
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GEO-005-5
The maximum values of crown settlement in section (A), (B), (BP
\
P) and (C) are 8.46,
7.55, 5.12 and 5.94 cm respectively and 6.36, 5.77, 4.36, 4.05 cm respectively for
surface settlement.
Although, construction sequence in section (C) is more conservative, it is also more
expensive and slower than other sequences. On the other hand, reducing the
subdivisions as in section (A) causes higher ground deformation. It can be concluded
that the most appropriate sequence is in section (B) with the recommendation to be
constructed as suggested in section (BP
\
P).
4 THREE DIMENSIONAL MODELLING OF NATM

The 3-D analysis is needed for studying the stability at the tunnel face and investigating
the effect of excavation steps on ground deformation due to the inability of the 2-D
analysis to model the tunnel along its longitudinal axis. Furthermore, the 3-D model is
used to calibrate the stiffness reduction factor used in the 2-D model and to narrow the
gap between 2-D and 3-D results. The analysis is carried out with the same mechanical
properties for soil and shotcrete lining. The modelled sequence of excavation is the
single sidewall drift as mentioned previously in section (B). Parallel step wise analysis
was considered for each excavated part. In this paper, a serious of systematic 3-D
models with seven different excavation lengths, ranging from 4.0m to 25.0m, were
analysed
4.1 Finite element modelling
The soil is modelled by cubic Iso-Parametric Quadratic Solid (IPQS) elements with
twenty-nodes. At each node, there are three degrees of freedom describing the
movements in X, Y and Z directions. For modelling the shotcrete lining, eight-node
shell elements are used with six degrees of freedom at each node describing three
movements and three rotations. One of the meshes adopted for 3-D analysis is shown in
Fig. 4. The movements in all directions at the bottom of the mesh and the horizontal
movements at the vertical faces of the model are prevented.

Fig. 4: 3-D finite element mesh
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GEO-005-6
The crown settlement profiles for each excavation length are illustrated in Fig.5, where
the first point of each curve represents the excavation of the first part of the tunnel
section. It can be concluded that higher deformation is expected for longer excavation
lengths. Also, the settlement reaches its maximum value after a progress of
approximately one to three times the excavation length after full section excavation and
the completion of the tunnel profile which is identified by the dashed line in Fig. 5. In
short excavation lengths, the ground deformation after full section excavation has a high
contribution in the maximum settlement compared to longer excavation lengths.
For choosing the appropriate excavation length in soft soil, it should be practically
sufficient for construction works and should be kept as small as possible to reduce the
ground deformation.

Fig. 5: Crown settlement profiles for different excavation lengths
5 ESTIMATING THE STIFFNESS REDUCTION FACTOR
Special attention was paid to the crown deformation in order to calibrate the 2-D model
by determining an appropriate value for stiffness reduction factor (). In 2-D analysis,
each part of excavation is simulated in two steps. In the first step, stress is redistributed
at the tunnel periphery based on the factor of stress reduction. In the second step, the
removing of the excavated part is accompanied by redistribution for the rest of the
stresses. In order to study this influence, the variation of stiffness reduction for each part
of excavation is studied individually while assuming an average value for the reduction
in other parts equals to 50%. Crown settlements due to different values of for parts
(1), (2), (3) and (4) are compared in Figs. 6-a, 6-b, 6-c and 6-d respectively.
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GEO-005-7

Fig. 6: Crown settlement for different values of stiffness reduction factor
Reviewing the results in Fig.6, direct correlation is found between ground deformations
and for all parts except part (3). For the two steps of excavation simulation of each
part, increasing the reduction factor causes settlement increment in the first step and
decrement in the second step. In part (3), the induced crown settlement in the first step
is relatively lower than the second step due to the existence of inner temporary shotcrete
lining of previous parts, Fig. 7.

Fig. 7: Excavation modelling of part (3)

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GEO-005-8
Based on the previous study and for simplicity, two values for will be used in
calibrating the 2-D model; B
1-2
B for part (1) and (2), B
3-4
B for part (3) and (4).
Figs. 8 and 9 illustrate the reduction factor B
1-2
B and B
3-4
B for different excavation lengths
to reach the maximum condition in the 3-D analysis (UB
0
B). Also, reduction factor has
been predicted to obtain 2-D ground deformation higher than that of the 3-D results by
30% (UB
30
B) as a factor of safety for 2-D analyses results.

Fig. 8: B
1-2

Fig. 9: B
3-4
The relation between and the excavation length can be expressed as follow:
B L A + =
*
2 1
(1)
D L C + =
*
4 3
(2)
Where;
2 1
reduction factor for parts (1) and (2)

4 3
reduction factor for parts (3) and (4)
L excavation length
A, B, C & D constants which are determined from regression of points in Figs.
8 and 9 respectively.
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GEO-005-9
Table 2: Constants A, B, C & D
A B C D
UB
0
B 2.3656 5.0407 -0.2016 97.339
UB
30
B 1.5249 55.177 -0.5468 92.611
As an example, these results are used to predict the value of B
1-2
B & B
3-4
B for an
excavation length of 8.0m. The induced crown settlement profile and surface settlement
profile from 3-D analysis and 2-D analyses are plotted in Figs. 10 and 11.
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Excavation advance (m)
C
r
o
w
n

s
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
c
m
)
3D result
2D result
(U0)
2D result
(U30)

Fig. 10: Crown settlement for 8.0m excavation length
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Excavation advance (m)
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

s
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
c
m
) 3D result
2D result
(U0)
2D result
(U30)

Fig. 11: Surface settlement for 8.0m excavation length
-48-

GEO-005-10

6 CONCLUSIONS
The analysis was carried out to study the effect of construction sequence on ground
deformation and to obtain the optimum sequence. In soft soil with difficult ground
condition, more subdivisions for the tunnel cross section minimize the ground
deformation. In this case, sidewall drift is considered the appropriate construction
sequence. It is also recommended that the inner temporary lining should be removed
later with the ring closure of the invert.
The effect of excavation length on ground deformation was investigated and the
optimum excavation length can be determined. Furthermore, more stable deformational
behaviour can be reached when applying a suitable strengthening technique.
Sophisticated 3-D analysis is a powerful tool to predict ground deformation and to study
face stability. However, it is not widely used because its complexity. Therefore, easier
2-D models can be used provided that well calibrated values of should be estimated by
using 3-D modelling in the early design stage.
7 REFERENCES
[1] Oreste, P. and Pelia, D. Study of the behaviour of tunnel reinforcement
techniques using analytical methods, AITES/ITA World Tunnel Congress
2001"Progress in Tunnelling after 2000" (2001) 579-587.
[2] Pelizza, S. and Pelia, D. Soil and rock reinforcement in tunnelling, Tunnelling
and Underground Space Technology 8 (1993) 357- 372.
[3] Swoboda, G. Programmsystem FINAL, Finite element analysis linearer und
nichtlinearer stukturen, version 7.1. (2001).
[4] Abd Elrehim, M.Z. & Marwan, A.M. On the geometrical optimization of NATM
in urban areas. Fourth International Young Geotechnical Engineers Conference.
Alex., Egypt (2009).
[5] Abd Elrehim, M.Z. & Abu-Krisha, A.A. Controlling ground movements due to
NATM tunnelling in urban areas, ECCOMAS Thematic conference on
computational methods in tunnelling. (2007).
[6] Swoboda, G. Numerical modelling of tunnels. In C.S. Desai & G. Gioda,
Numerical methods and constitutive modelling in geomechanics, Courses and
lectures. No. 311 (1990) 277-318.
[7] Karaku, M. & Fowell, R.J. An insight into the New Austrian Tunnelling
Method (NATM), Blgesel Kaya Mekanii Sempozyumu / ROCKMEC2004-
VIIth Regional Rock Mechanics Symposium (2004).
-49-

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





ASSESSMENT OF VIBRATION HAZARDS DUE
TO PILE DRIVING

A. ABDEL-FATTAH
Professor of Geotechnical Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering, Ain Shams University
E-mail: ali_abdelfattah@yahoo.com
M. A. ABDEL-MOTAAL
Associate Professor of Geotechnical Engineering
E-mail: abdelmotal@yahoo.com
T. M. SOROUR
Assistant Lecturer of Geotechnical Engineering
E-mail: tamer_sorour2003@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
This study aims to investigate the propagation of dynamic waves due to pile driving and
their effects on the nearby structures. An advanced finite element program was
employed to simulate the full interaction between pile driving and the dynamic response
of the surrounding soil. The study was also extended to examine the efficiency of using
trenches in screening the vibrations resulting from pile driving in different types of sand
deposits. Analytical dynamic models are prepared using two-dimensional axisymmetric
solid elements to model the soil layers; nine-node elements are used in the y-z plane
with Mohr-Coulomb formulation to assess non-linearity behaviour of the soil. The steel
pile is modelled using two-dimensional two-node Hermitian beam element with a
constant cross-section. Different types of trenches whether non-braced cut, braced with
timber lagging or in-filled with bentonite. Load frequency, pile length, the penetration
ratio of the pile, distance of the trench from the source of vibration and the depth of the
trench from the ground, are the main parameters in the investigation. The results have
been analyzed, and the effects of different parameters on the isolation behaviour have
been illustrated.
KEYWORDS
Soil dynamics, finite element, axisymmetric model, pile driving, wave propagation,
vibration isolation, in-filled trenches.

GEO-006-1
-50-
1 INTRODUCTION
Vibrations generated by construction activities in urban areas often affect surrounding
buildings. These vibrations may disturb sensitive equipment and people in buildings and
cause cracks in walls or facades, Amick and Gendreau [1]. Ground vibrations due to pile
driving and their effects on nearby structures have been the subject of several studies.
On the basis of field measurements, several authors; Wiss [2] and Athanasopoulos and
Pelekis [3] have focused on environmental effects (far field or external effects).
Thandavamoorthy [4] has reported results of pile and ground vibrations due to impact
pile driving in fine and medium sands. On the basis of time history and the frequency
content of the ground velocity, he has shown how ground vibrations can potentially
damage structures in the near field.
Pile driving has been simulated by tracing the penetration of the pile into the soil based
on a slide-line contact-friction algorithm. Accounting for the degradation of the soil
around the pile, Holeyman et al. [5] have developed a one-dimensional radial model.
Using a similar geometric configuration, Ramshaw et al. [6] have developed a model
based on finite and infinite elements, which is capable of modelling all wave
components. Results show that, although the infinite elements can properly simulate the
P- and S-waves, they do not accurately model the propagation of surface waves. Vanden
Berghe [7] has developed a model to calculate the pile response as well as wave
propagation around the pile. Although these efforts mainly deal with the derivability and
the pile response, a more elaborate computational model is required for a deeper
understanding of the wave transmission in the free field. Recently, a numerical and
experimental study on vibrations induced by vibratory and impact pile driving has been
presented by Al-Abdeh [8]. A finite element model with local absorbing boundary
conditions has been used to calculate ground vibrations due to impact and vibratory pile
driving. Near-field results compare well with experimental data, but ground vibrations in
the far field are overestimated, however.
The installation of an isolation barrier in the soil can reduce ground vibrations
significantly by preventing the transmission of vibratory waves to the buildings in a
determined zone behind the barrier. The geometry, the position and the composition of
the barrier affect the isolation performances. A survey of the literature on the results
achieved with the two main types of barriers (open or in-filled barriers) shows that open
trenches appear more effective than in-filled trenches (Segol et al., [9]; Beskos et al.,
[10]; Ahmad and Al-Hussaini, [11]; Luong, [12]). However, in-filled barrier behaviour
is dependent on filling material characteristics. Massarsch [13] demonstrates that a
particular gas cushion barrier made of self hardening cement bentonite has performances
comparable to open trenches. Xu et al. [14] indicate that the traffic- or machine-induced
vibration can be reduced due to the absorption of vibration by soil bags.
Some numerical studies have also been carried out to evaluate vibration-isolation
performances of open or filled trenches (Aboudi, [15]; Fuyuki and Matsumoto, [16];
May and Bolt, [17]; Al-Hussaini and Ahmad, [18]; Al-Hussaini and Ahmad, [19]; Yeh
et al., [20]; El Naggar and Chehab, [21]). The centrifuge model tested by Davies [22]
has been used for numerical simulation (Wang et al., [23]), with several types of
barriers: open trench is the most effective one for blast-induced stress wave but geofoam
barrier is more practicable as a permanent protection layer. The open trench efficiency
using the finite/infinite element method in layered soils has been evaluated by Yang and

GEO-006-2
-51-
Hung [24]. Plastic diaphragm wall seems also to be an efficient solution (Comina and
Foti, [25]).
Wave barriers can be divided into two groups, namely, active and passive isolation
systems, Woods [26]. Barriers placed around the vibratory source are active isolation
systems whereas barriers located farther from the source and close to a site where the
vibratory amplitude must be reduced are defined as passive isolation. Numerical
methods have also been developed to effectively examine vibration isolation problems.
Lysmer and Waas [27] employed the lumped mass method to assess the isolation
efficiency of open and bentonite-slurry-filled trenches in a layered soil. Segol et al. [9]
applied finite element methods (FEM) along with special non-reflecting boundaries to
the same problem. Fuykui and Matsumoto [16] used the finite difference technique to
study the scattering of a Rayleigh wavelet by a rectangular open trench.
In this study, finite element method is used to simulate two-dimensional axisymmetric
cases of vibration isolation by trenches due pile driving by impact and vibratory
machines. The study consists of two parts; the first part represents the verification of the
finite element model by comparing its results with full scale model results. In the second
part, a parametric study is performed to evaluate the efficiency of using trenches in
screening the vibrations resulting from driving piles in different types of soil.
2 SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR EQUATIONS IN DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
In nonlinear dynamic analysis the solution of the finite element equations is usually
obtained by direct integration procedures. The major technique can be employed is the
implicit integration, using the Newmark method or Wilson theta method. A very
common technique used is the trapezoidal rule, which is Newmark's method with = 0.5
and = 0.25. Using implicit time integration, we consider the equilibrium of the system
at time t+t. This requires in nonlinear analysis that iteration be performed. Using the
modified Newton-Raphson iteration, the incremental finite element equilibrium
equations used are
)
(1)
(k-
t t t t
(k) t t (k) t t (k) t t 1
F - R U K
U
C
U
M
+ +
+
+
+

+
= +
(k) ) (k
t t
(k)
t t
U U U + =

+ +
1
(2)
Where , and are the approximations to the accelerations,
velocities and displacements obtained in iteration (i), respectively. The vector of nodal
point forces is equivalent to the element stresses in the configuration
corresponding to the displacements .
(k) t t
U

+ (k) t t
U
+ (k)
t t
U
+
) (k-
t t
1
F
+
) (k
t t
1
+
U
Using the trapezoidal rule of time integration, the following assumptions are employed:
) (
2
U U
U U

+
+
+
+ =
t t t
t t t t
(3)
) (
2
U U U U

+

+
+
+ =
t t t t t t
t
(4)

GEO-006-3
-52-
Using the relations in Eqn. (2) to (4), we thus obtain:
U U
U U U
U

+

+
=
t t k t k t t k t t
t t
4
) (
4
) ( ) 1 (
2
) (
(5)
And substituting into Eqn. (1) we have:
=
+ +
) (k-
t t t t
(k) t 1
F - R U K

+
U U
U U M
t t t k t t
t t
4
) (
4
) 1 (
2
(6)
The energy and force/moment convergence criteria used in nonlinear dynamic analysis
are:
Energy convergence criterion: For all degrees of freedom
ETOL
(0) (0) ) 1 (
1 1 1 ) (
+

+
+
+
+

+
+
F
U
C
U
M - R U
F
U
C
U
M - R U
t
t t t t
t t T
) (i-
t t
) (i t t ) (i t t
t t T
i
(7)
Force and moment convergence criteria: For the translational degrees of freedom
RTOL
RNORM
2
1 1 1
+

+
+
) (i-
t t
) (i t t ) (i t t
t t
F
U
C
U
M - R
(8)
For the rotational degrees of freedom
RTOL
RMNORM
2
1 1 1
+

+
+
) (i-
t t
) (i t t ) (i t t
t t
F
U
C
U
M - R
(9)
In which RTOL is a force tolerance and ETOL is an energy tolerance.
3 MODEL VERIFICATION
El-Shaikh [28] performed a parametric study on full scale pile driving project
during the construction of a bridge and a navigation lock on Damietta Branch of Delta
Barrage, where impact hammers were used for pile driving works. The soil profile at the
site was medium stiff to stiff silty clay stratum extended to a depth of 4.00 meters from
ground surface, followed by 6.00 meters of very stiff silty clay stratum, and finally an
extended layer of dense to very dense sand. The soil stratification and the properties of
each layer are illustrated in Fig. 1.

GEO-006-4
-53-
Very Stiff Silty Clay
Dense to very Dense Sand
= 18.6 kN/m
C = 100.0 kN/m
E = 1.0x10 kN/m
2
3
2
= 0.5
= 0.0
o
u
= 19.7 kN/m C = 0.0
E = 1.0x10 kN/m
3
2
= 0.5
= 0.0
o
5
Medium Stiff to Stiff Silty Clay
C = 50.0 kN/m
E = 3.50x10 kN/m
2
2
u
= 20.0 kN/m
3
= 0.3
= 43.0
o
(+0.00) _
(-4.00)
(-10.00)
3
4

Fig. 1: Soil profile at the site and average soil properties, (after El-Shaikh, 2005)
Driven cast-in-place concrete piles were used in that site, were closed-end steel masts of
diameter 0.60 meter and thickness of 0.019 meter were driven through soil to a depth of
15.00 meters from ground surface. The levels of vibrations were measured during pile
driving at seventeen locations at distances ranges between 0.00 and 140.00 meters from
the driving machine. Figure 2 demonstrates the position of the driving machine at the
site and the distances between it and the measurement points. The measurement of
vibrations in terms of displacement (m), velocity (mm/sec) and acceleration (mm/sec
2
)
were reordered using two test facilities positioned on the ground surface.
Traffic Road
Traffic Road
T
r
a
f
f
i
c

R
o
a
d
T
r
a
f
f
i
c

R
o
a
d
R
i
v
e
r
R
i
v
e
r
R
i
v
e
r
R
i
v
e
r
W
a
t
e
r

B
r
e
a
k
e
r
Driving Machine
0.0 m
5.0 m
10.0 m
15.0 m
20.0 m
25.0 m
30.0 m
35.0 m
40.0 m
45.0 m
50.0 m
60.0 m
70.0 m
100.0 m
120.0 m
140.0 m
Old Delta Barrage
Fig. 2: Site location for driving machine and measurement points,
(after El-Shaikh, 2005)

GEO-006-5
-54-
In order to verify the finite element model used in this study, two-dimensional
axisymmetric solid elements are used to model the soil layers. Nine-node elements are
used in the y-z plane with dimensions 0.5 x 0.5 m. The Mohr-Coulomb model is used to
simulate the soil material formulation. The soil continuum is taken 120.00 meters in
length and 30.00 meters in depth, the soil is divided into three surfaces as presented in
Fig. 3, to simulate the soil layers at the site. The soil average properties were taken
according to the site investigation for the proposed area as shown in Fig. 1.
Concentrated Impact Load
Medium Stiff to
Stiff Silty Clay
Very Stiff
Silty Clay
Spring Elements and Dashpots
S
p
r
i
n
g

E
l
e
m
e
n
t
Ground Surface
Soil Continuum
0.50 x 0.50 m Solid Element
1.00 m Beam Element
Steel Pile
Spring Elements and Dashpots
Dense to Very
Dense Sand
Fig. 3: Model discretization for the soil layers.
The steel pile is modelled using two-dimensional two-node Hermitian beam element
with a constant cross-section, which is a hollow pipe of diameter of 0.60 meter and
thickness of 0.019 meter. The pile is 15.00 meters in length and is divided into 15
elements. The material of the elements is taken as linear elastic with the following
properties; modulus of elasticity is 21.00 x10
7
kN/m
2
, Poissons ratio is 0.30, unit
weight is 78.50 kN/m
3
. The whole problem is modeled in the Y-Z plane. The boundary
condition at the pile and the underneath soil elements was taken as roller support, were
the Y-translation is prevented while the Z-translation is permitted in order to assess the
symmetry of the problem. The base of the soil and its far end was presented by a group
of parallel springs and dashpots elements, as shown in Fig. 3.
Four groups of spring elements were used in that model. The first group represents the
horizontal springs at the end of the medium stiff silty clay layer with the following
properties; element stiffness is 2.50 x10
3
kN/m and element damping is 0.10. The
second group represents the horizontal springs at the end of the very stiff silty clay layer
with the following properties; element stiffness is 4.00 x10
3
kN/m and element damping
is 0.10. The third group represents the horizontal springs at the end of the very dense
sand layer with the following properties; element stiffness is 3.00 x10
5
kN/m and
element damping is 0.10. And finally, the fourth group represents the vertical springs at
the bottom of the very dense sand layer with the following properties; element stiffness
is 2.00 x10
4
kN/m and element damping is 0.05.

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The load is modelled as impact concentrated load with a speed of 25.00 blows/minute,
the time function of the load is demonstrated in Fig. 4, using 0.01 second time step.

Fig. 4: Time function of the applied impact load.
The first case of loading represents the starting of pile driving through the medium stiff
silty clay layer, while the pile tip is still on the ground level. This case represents the
peak value of surface wave produced from the hammering process. The results of the
model are divided into three groups. The first group represents the acceleration
calculations in both vertical and horizontal directions as indicated in Figs. 5 and 6,
where there is a comparison between the field measurements by El-Shaikh [28] and the
finite element model results (FEM). Figures 7 and 8 illustrate the second group, which
represent the relation between the measured and calculated velocities in both directions.
Also, Figs. 9 and 10 demonstrate the displacement calculations in both directions, which
represent the third group.

Fig. 5: Relation between measured vs. calculated acceleration in vertical
direction with distance, pile tip at the ground level.

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Fig. 6: Relation between measured vs. calculated acceleration in horizontal

Fig. 7: Relation between measured vs. calculated velocity in vertical

Fig. 8: Relation between measured vs. calculated velocity in horizontal

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Fig. 9: relation between measured vs. calculated displacement in vertical

Fig. 10: Relation between measured vs. calculated displacement in horizontal
For the first case where the pile is still on the ground level, it is clear from the figures
that there is a good agreement between the measured values and the calculated ones by
the finite element model; especially for the acceleration and velocity calculations. In the
vertical and horizontal displacement calculations, there are a few differences between
field measurements and model calculations especially at points far from the source of
the wave for the vertical displacement, but in the case of horizontal displacement the
major differences are concentrated in the first 35.00 meters from the pile.
The same group of figures are indicated in Figs. 11 trough 16, which represent the case
when the pile penetrates the very stiff silty clay layer at 5.00 meters depth, from the
ground level. For this case, the figures show a significant deviation from the measured
values in the range of 5.00% to 15.00% in both directions.
Generally, there is a good agreement between the field measurements at the previously
mentioned site and the results of the finite element model. The differences between them
could be accepted in most of the cases. So, it could be concluded that the initiated finite
element technique seems to be an excellent tool to simulate the problem of calculating
the level of vibrations conducted from pile driving through different types of soil.

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Fig. 11: Relation between measured vs. calculated acceleration in vertical direction with
distance. The pile is driven 5.00 m from the ground level.

Fig. 12: Relation between measured vs. calculated acceleration in horizontal direction
with distance. The pile is driven 5.00 m from the ground level.

Fig 13: Relation between measured vs. calculated velocity in vertical direction with

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Fig. 14: Relation between measured vs. calculated velocity in horizontal direction with

Fig. 15: Relation between measured vs. calculated displacement in vertical direction

Fig. 16: Relation between measured vs. calculated displacement in horizontal direction

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4 SCOPE AND AIMS OF RECENT STUDY
A parametric study using finite element model is performed to predict the level of
vibrations produced due pile driving in sand before isolation and after isolation using
trenches and then calculating the percentage of reduction in the magnitude of
displacement whether in vertical or in horizontal directions. Also, the magnitude of
displacements in both directions is compared with the level of caution and danger on the
structures according to the hazard chart shown in Fig. 17. It is a plot developed by
Richart [29] for vibrations that gives various limits of frequency and amplitude for
different purposes.

Fig. 17: Limiting Amplitude of Vibrations for a Particular Frequency,
(after Richart, 1962)
5 MAIN PARAMETERS OF THE PRESENT STUDY
a) Two types of dry sand are selected to examine the effect of the initial relative density
of sand on the level of vibrations. The physical and mechanical properties of used
sand are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Physical and mechanical properties of selected sand
Soil Type Description
Bulk
Density
()
(kN/m
3
)
Modulus of
Elasticity
(E)
(kN/m
2
)
Poissons
Ratio
()
Friction
Angle
()
S1
Very
Loose
17.00 1.50 x 10
4
0.30 30.00
S2
Medium
Dense
18.00 5.00 x 10
4
0.30 34.00

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b) The frequency of loading (F); which is taken according to vibratory pile driving
machine with frequencies 50.00 and 100.00 Hz.
c) The length of pile (L); which is taken 10.00 and 15.00 meters.
d) The penetration ratio of the pile in the soil (PR); three levels are taken into
consideration. First, when the pile is driven on the top surface (PR = 0.00%). Second,
when the pile is driven to 50.00% of its length. And finally, when it reaches a level of
100.00% of its length.
e) The distance of the trench from the pile (D); this is varied from 5.00 to 30.00 meters.
f) The depth of the trench from the ground surface (H); which is varied from 1.00 to
20.00 meters.
g) In-filling of the trench; in the first case the trench is open, the second case it is braced
using timber lagging and finally, the trench is in-filled with bentonite slurry.
6 OUTLINE OF THE ANALYSIS RESULTS
Results of the analytical study are presented in more than one chart form; where the
results are recorded at points 1.00, 5.00, 10.00, and 20.00 meters away from the trench
and at a depth of 1.50 meters from ground level which represents the foundation depth
of the nearby structures. These results are in the form of vertical and horizontal
displacement, velocity and acceleration. The curves represent the relationship between
the magnitude of vertical and horizontal displacement before trench and after the trench
is dug with the distance from the trench. Also the relationship between the percentage of
reduction in the magnitude of both vertical and horizontal displacements with the
distance from the trench, considering different parameters such as the frequency of the
load, the pile length, the distance of the trench from the pile and the depth of the trench
from the ground.
7 ANALYSIS PROCEDURE AND SOIL MODEL
The following section represents a part of the study which discusses the effect of filling
the trench with bentonite slurry on the efficiency of the trench as a vibration barrier. The
soil continuum is taken 60.00 meters in length and 30.00 meters in depth. Two-
dimensional axisymmetric solid elements are used to model the soil layer, 9-nodes
elements are used in the y-z plane with dimensions 1.00 x 1.00 meters.
The same elements are used to model bentonite slurry trench, but with different
dimensions. The dimensions of bentonite slurry elements are 0.50 x 1.00 meters, as
illustrated in Figs. 18- a and b. The material of the elements is taken as Mohr-Coulomb
formulation with the following properties; modulus of elasticity is 300.00 kN/m
2
,
Poissons ratio is 0.35, unit weight is 10.50 kN/m
3
, cohesion is 0.00 and friction angle is
28.00
o
.

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Concentrated Vibratory Load
1.00 m Beam Element
Ground Surface
Bentonite Slurry Trench
Soil Continuum
S
p
r
i
n
g

E
l
e
m
e
n
t
Spring Element Spring Element
Steel Pile
Fig. 18-a: Model discretization of the soil continuum with bentonite slurry trench.
Hammering Load
0.50 m
D
H
L
Ground Surface
1.00 m
5.00 m
10.00 m
20.00 m
Observation Points
Steel Pile
Bentonite Slurry Trench
Fig. 18-b: Sketch showing different parameters of the study.
The load is taken as concentrated load on the upper node of the pile (beam) element. The
magnitude of the load is considered as the refusal of the soil according to its state of
compactness and pile penetration depth. Also, the time function of the load represents a
vibrating pile driving machine is indicated in Fig. 19.

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Fig. 19: Time function of the applied vibratory load.
8 VERY LOOSE SAND RESULTS
The properties of the used sand (S1) are shown in Table 1. Two groups of spring
elements were used in that model. The first group represents the horizontal springs at the
end of the very loose sand layer with the following properties; element stiffness is 3.00
x10
4
kN/m and element damping is 0.10. The second group represents vertical springs at
the bottom of the very loose sand layer with the following properties; element stiffness
is 1.50 x10
4
kN/m and element damping is 0.05. The above properties of soil are chosen
according to the Egyptian code of practice - Part 3 [30], and the horizontal stiffness of
springs is taken according to the Egyptian code of practice - Part 4 [31].
Figures 20, 21, 22 and 23 illustrate the relationships between the distance from
trench versus the magnitude of vertical displacement before and after the trench is dug,
the reduction in vertical displacement after the trench is dug, the magnitude of horizontal
displacement before and after the trench is dug and the reduction in horizontal
displacement after the trench is dug, respectively. The distance of the trench is D =
15.00 meters and the depths of the trench are H = 1.00, 2.00, 3.00 and 4.00 meters. F =
50.00 Hz and L = 10.00 meters and PR = 0.00%. Also, D = 5.00 and 10.00 meters are
investigated. Examining these figures, the following could be established:
1. In general, the presence of the trench has a significant effect on reducing the
dynamic response of the nearby soil.
2. As the hammering component is in the vertical direction, the values of vertical
displacements are more severe than the horizontal displacements. Considering the
hazard level, it seems that the horizontal displacement is not dangerous. On the other
hand, the vertical displacement values exceed the level of hazards, especially for the
very close locations (up to 7.00 meters from trench location, 22.00 meters from the
applied hammer load).
3. Increasing the trench depth reduces significatly the soil dynamic response and
consequently the hazard level.
4. In that case, it is sufficient to use trenches of 4.00 meters depths to control the
dynamic vertical response to safe limits. Reduction more than 70.00% could be
recorded.

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Fig. 20: Relation between the distance from trench and the vertical displacement
before and after the trench is dug. PR = 0.00 % and D = 15.00 m.

Fig. 21: Relation between the distance from trench and the reduction in vertical
displacement after the trench is dug. PR = 0.00 % and D = 15.00 m.

Fig. 22: Relation between the distance from trench and the horizontal displacement

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Fig. 23: Relation between the distance from trench and the reduction in horizontal
A group of analytical models were prepared to simulate the advancing of the pile
through the soil. The first case represent the stage when the pile reaches 5.00 meters
from ground level, which means a penetration ratio PR = 50.00%. Various types of
analyses as previously proposed are performed with the same parameters which includes
different distances; D = 5.00, 10.00, 15.00, 20.00 and 30.00 meters. Also, the depths of
the trench used here were H = 3.00, 5.00, 6.00, 8.00 and 10.00 meters. A sample of the
results is presented in Figs. 24 and 25.
The last stage of pile driving, where the pile reaches 10.00 meters below ground surface
or 100.00% of its length is finally investigated, which includes different distances; D =
5.00, 10.00, 15.00, 20.00 and 30.00 meters. Also, the depths of the trench used in the
analyses were H = 3.00, 5.00, 6.00, 8.00, 10.00, 15.00 and 20.00 meters.

Fig. 24: Relation between the distance from trench and the vertical displacement before
and after the trench is dug. PR = 50.00 % and D = 5.00 m.

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Another group of figures are constructed to show the relation between the distance of the
trench from the pile (D) versus the safe distance - points of displacement lower than the
level of caution to structures once from the trench and the other from the hammering
machine as illustrated in Figs. 26 and 27 respectively. The studied heights are H = 1.00,
2.00, 3.00 and 4.00 meters from the ground level. It is clear from the figures that the safe
distance from the trench is decreased as (D) is increased for the same depth of trench.
Also, increasing the depth of trench decreases the safe distance from the trench. Figure
27 shows that whatever the distance of the trench from the pile is; the safe distance from
the hammering machine is almost the same for the same depth.

Fig. 26: Relation between the distance of trench from the pile (D) and the safe distance
from trench, for vertical displacement. F = 50.00 Hz, PR = 0.00 % and L = 10.00 m.

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Fig. 27: Relation between the distance of trench from the pile (D) and safe distance from
pile hammer, for vertical displacement. F = 50.0 Hz, PR = 0.00% and L = 10.0 m.
9 EFFECT OF SAND TYPE
The effect of changing the relative density of sand is examined and the sand is modelled
as medium dense sand, using the properties of sand (S2) as indicated in Table 1. The
trench is in-filled with bentonite slurry. Also, the three penetration ratios are taken into
consideration. Figs. 28, 29, 30 and 31 illustrate the relationships between the distances
from trench versus the magnitude of vertical displacement before and after the trench is
dug, the reduction in vertical displacement after the trench is dug, the magnitude of
horizontal displacement before and after the trench is dug and the reduction in horizontal
displacement after the trench is dug, respectively. The distance of the trench is D =
30.00 meters and the depths of the trench are H = 5.00, 10.00, 15.00 and 20.00 meters. F
= 50.00 Hz and L = 10.00 meters and PR = 100.00%. Also, D = 5.00, 10.00, 15.00 and
20.00 meters are investigated for the same penetration ratio and for PR = 0.00% and PR
= 50.00%.


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Fig. 29: Relation between the distance from trench and the reduction in vertical

Fig. 30: Relation between the distance from trench and the horizontal displacement

Fig. 31: Relation between the distance from trench and the reduction in horizontal

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By comparing these figures with the corresponding ones in the very loose sand; it is
clear that the level of vibrations are already very high in the medium dense sand case
compared with the very loose sand ones, even before the trench is dug; this refers to
high refusal of the medium sand to the pile driving which generates high level of
vibrations. But, the figures shows that the trench is more effective in the medium dense
sand as the percentage of reduction in the magnitude of both vertical and horizontal
vibrations is greater than that in the very loose ones, even though the vibrations are still
very high and dangerous to the structures.
10 EFFECT OF PENETRATION RATIO
The effect of penetration ratio of pile (PR) is examined for D = 30.00 meters in very
loose sand, where the needed trench depth (H) to be safe under the level of caution for
vertical displacement is plotted versus the (PR) as indicated in Fig. 32. The figure shows
clearly that; as the penetration length of pile increases the depth of the trench must be
increased too where there is a need to lengthen the trench to increase the path of
vibrations and decreasing its effect on the surrounding buildings.

Fig. 32: Relation between pile penetration ratio (PR) and the needed trench depth. For
vertical displacement in very loose sand. F = 50.00 Hz, L = 10.00 m and D = 30.00 m.
11 CONCLUSIONS
In this study, finite element model is employed to evaluate the efficiency of using
trenches in screening the vibrations resulting from pile driving in different types of sand.
different types of trenches whether open, braced with timber lagging or in-filled with
bentonite, the load frequency, the pile length , the penetration ratio of the pile, the
distance of the trench from the source of vibration and the depth of the trench from the
ground level, are the main parameters in the investigation. Results of the analytical
program are presented in the form of figures and tables, and have given the possibility to
draw out some conclusions, which are summarized as;
1. Using bentonite slurry trenches is very useful in isolating vibrations produced due to
pile driving in sand deposits.
2. The reduction in the magnitude of horizontal displacement is very much greater than
that of vertical displacement.

GEO-006-21
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3. Increasing the distance of the trench from the source of vibrations increases the
reduction in the magnitude of both vertical and horizontal displacements.
4. Considering the vertical displacement of very loose sand; a trench of at least D =
20.00 meters and H = 20.00 meters - or 200.00% of the pile length - is required to
reduce its hazards on the neighbouring structures, also a trench of D = 30.00 meters
and H = 15.00 meters or more may be used in this case.
5. The safe distance from the trench is decreased as (D) is increased for the same depth
of trench. Also, increasing the depth of trench decreases the safe distance from the
trench.
6. Whatever the distance of the trench from the pile is; the safe distance from the
hammering machine is almost the same for the same depth.
7. As the penetration length of pile increases; the length of the trench must be increased
too in order to screen the vibrations from the hammering machine.
8. The percentage of reduction in the magnitude of displacement must not be the main
criteria to choose either the distance or the depth of the trench as it can be very high
in some cases but the level of vibration is still very harmful to the nearby structures.
9. The level of vibrations is already very high in the medium dense sand case compared
with the very loose sand one, even before the trench is dug.
10. Considering the vertical displacement of medium dense sand; a trench with at least
D = 30.00 meters and H = 20.00 meters or 200.00% of the pile length is needed to
reduce the vibrations under the level of caution to the structures.
11. The trench is more effective in the medium dense sand as the percentage of
reduction in the magnitude of both vertical and horizontal vibrations is greater than
that in the very loose ones, even though the vibrations are still very high and
dangerous to the structures.
From the research work of this study, it can be suggested that further detailed
investigations have to be conducted, in order to investigate the following topics:
1. Study the efficiency of using trenches in screening vibrations resulting from pile
driving in different soil formation like clay or multi layer soil conditions.
2. Perform three dimensional finite element analyses, to verify the two dimensional
axisymmetric results.
3. Conducting more sophisticated analytical models, to investigate the effect of
different materials filling the trench on the efficiency of the trench.
12 REFERENCES
[1] Amick, H, Gendreau, M., Construction Vibrations and their Impact on Vibration
Sensitive Facilities. Proceedings of the 6th ACSE Construction Congress,
Orlando, (2000) FL; 110.
[2] Wiss J.F., Construction Vibrations: State-of-the-Art. Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering (ASCE); (1981) 107(GT2):167181.
[3] Athanasopoulos G.A., Pelekis P.C., Ground Vibrations from Sheet Pile Driving
in Urban Environment: Measurements, Analysis and Effects on Buildings and
Occupants. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering; (2000) 19:371387.
[4] Thandavamoorthy, T.S., Piling in Fine and Medium Sand - a Case Study of
Ground and Pile Vibration. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering; (2004)
24:295304.

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[5] Holeyman A.E., Legrand C., Van Rompaey D., A Method to Predict the
Drivability of Vibratory Driven Piles. Proceedings of the 3rd International
Conference on the Application of the Stress-wave Theory to Piles, Orlando,
U.S.A.; (1996) 11011112.
[6] Ramshaw C.L., Selby A.R., Bettess P., Computed Ground Waves due to Piling.
In Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics III, Seattle, Dakoulas
P, Yegian M, Holtz RD (eds); (1998) 14841495.
[7] Vanden Berghe J.F., Sand Strength Degradation within the Framework of
Vibratory Pile Driving. Ph.D. Thesis, Universite Catholique de Louvain,
Belgium. (2001)
[8] Al-Abdeh, R., Etude des Vibrations Induites dans le Sol Par le Battage et le
Vibrofonc Age de Peiux. Ph.D. Thesis, Universite des Sciences et Technologies
de Lille, France. (2005)
[9] Segol, G., Lee, P.C.Y., Abel, J.R., Amplitude Reduction of Surface Waves by
Trenches. Journal of the Engineering Mechanics Division, (1978) ASCE 104 (3),
621641.
[10] Beskos, D.E., Dasgupta, G., Vardoulakis, I.G., Vibration Isolation of Machine
Foundations. ISBN 0872624927. In: Gazetas, G., Selig, E.T. (Eds.), Vibration
Problems in Geotechnical Engineering. ASCE, New York, (1985) pp. 138151.
[11] Ahmad, S., Al-Hussaini, T.M., (1991) Simplified Design for Vibration Screening
by Open and In-Filled Trenches. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE
117 (1), 6788.
[12] Luong, M.P., Efficiency of a Stress Wave Mitigation Barrier. Proceedings of the
International Conference on Centrifuge Modelling (Centrifuge 94), Balkema,
Singapore, (1994) pp. 28388.
[13] Massarsch, K.R., Ground Vibration Isolation using Gas Cushions. In:
Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Recent Advances in
Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, St. Louis, MO, 1115
March 1991. University of Missouri at Rolla, Rolla, MO, pp. 146170.
[14] Xu, Y., Huang, J., Du, Y., Sun, D., Earth Reinforcement using Soil Bags.
Geotextiles and Geomembranes 26 (3), (2008) 279289.
[15] Aboudi, J., Elastic Waves in Half-Space with Barrier. Journal of the
Engineering Mechanics Division, (1973) ASCE 99 (1), 6983.
[16] Fuyuki, M., Matsumoto, Y., Finite Difference Analysis of Rayleigh Wave
Scattering at a Trench. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 70,
(1980) 20512069.
[17] May, T.W., Bolt, B.A., The Effectiveness of Trenches in Reducing Seismic
Motion. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics 10 (2), (1982) 195
210.
[18] Al-Hussaini, T.M., Ahmad, S., Simple Design Methods for Vibration Isolation by
Wave Barriers. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Recent
Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, St. Louis,
MO, 1115 March 1991. University of Missouri at Rolla, Rolla, MO, pp. 149399.

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[19] Al-Hussaini, T.M., Ahmad, S., Active Isolation of Machine Foundation by In-
Filled Trench Barriers. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE 122 (4),
(1996) 288294.
[20] Yeh, C.S., Liao, W.I., Tsai, J.F., Teng., T.J., Train Induced Ground Motion and
its Mitigation by Trench and WIB. Report of NCREE-97-009, National Centre for
Research on Earthquake Engineering, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC. (1997)
[21] El Naggar, M., Chehab, A., Vibration Barriers for Shock-Producing
Equipment. Canadian Geotechnical Journal 42, (2005) 297306.
[22] Davies, M.C.R., Dynamic SoilStructure Interaction Resulting from Blast
Loading. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Centrifuge Modeling
(Centrifuge 94), (1994) pp. 31924.
[23] Wang, J.G., Sun, W., Anand, S., Numerical Investigation on Active Isolation of
Ground Shock by Soft Porous Layers. Journal of Sound and Vibration 321,
(2009) 492509.
[24] Yang, Y.B., Hung, H.H., A Parametric Study of Wave Barriers for Reduction of
Train-Induced Vibration. International Journal for Numerical Methods in
Engineering 40, (1997) 37293747.
[25] Comina, C., Foti, S., Surface Wave Tests for Vibration Mitigation Studies.
Technical note. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering ASCE
133 (10), (2007) 13201324.
[26] Woods, R., Screening Surface of Waves Soils. Journal of Soil Mechanics and
Foundations 94, (1968) 951979.
[27] Lysmer, J., Waas, G., Shear Waves in Plane Infinite Structures. ASCE Journal
of Engineering Mechanics 98, (1972) 85105.
[28] El-Sheikh, S. A. Effect of Vibration Generated due to Execution of Construction
Works on Nearby Structures, Ph.D. Thesis, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
(2005)
[29] Richart, F.E., Jr., Foundation Vibrations, Trans. A.S.C.E., Vol. 127, part 1, pp.
863-898. (1962)
[30] Egyptian Code of Practice, Part 3, Shallow Foundations, Code No. 202/3.
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[31] Egyptian Code of Practice, Part 4, Deep Foundations, Code No. 202/4. (2001)

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13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





CHARACTERISTICS OF SHELLY SAND

G.E. ABDELRAHMAN
Department of Civil Engineering, Fayoum, University,
Fayoum, Egypt
E-mail:gwakeb2010@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
One of the geotechnical problems for onshore structures is the existence of shell as
pieces or as calcareous fines with the fine sandy soil near the seashore. Shell existence
affects the physical and mechanical sand properties. Experimental study is presented on
the formation of shelly sandy soil. The effect of different compositions between shell,
lime and sand mixed with sea water on the maximum dry density, optimum moisture
content, shear strength parameters, compressibility characteristics and stress- strain
behavior are studied. The shell content for soil samples ranges between10 to 70% of
sand weight. Different lime ratios of sand weight were added to the mixtures as
stabilizing material. For each sample, maximum dry density, and optimum moisture
content were determined using standard Proctor test. For direct shear test, shear strength
parameters were measured and compressibility behavior was studied using Oedometer
test.
KEYWORDS
Shell, fine sand, lime, shear strength, maximum dry density, optimum moisture content.
1 INTRODUCTION
Egypt is rich with its sea shores on both the Mediterranean and the Red sea. Shells are
usually found on shores mixed with soil in different percentages and sizes. Soil mainly
consists of sandy soil with shells wither it is cemented or loose depends on how far from
the shoreline; also existence of shell material changes the soil properties. There are
many projects need to be constructed on the sea shores.
Few researchers discussed the calcareous shelly sand properties and shell effect on shear
strength parameters. El Shennawy [1] studied the effect of shell size on sand shear
strength and concluded that with the increase of shell percentage increases the shearing
angle till 40 %. Mohamed [2] studied the effect of shell size on compressibility of
sand using Oedometer test and concluded that shell content from 20 to 30% improved
the compressibility characteristic of the mixture. Hamdy [3] studied three different shell

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samples collected from Hurgada and concluded that the presence of shell decreases the
bearing capacity of footing, and increases the footing settlement. Joer et al. [4] found
that calcareous soils have a particular character with regard to liquefaction potential.
Ohno et al. [5] concluded that, the calcareous offshore sand has an extreme soil type in
terms of compressibility. Yasufuku and Hyde [6] concluded that the crushable nature of
the shelly sand causes unfavorable strain affecting the pile end bearing capacity. El-
Saadany et al. [7] studied the effect of lime on the collapsibility of compacted fine sand.
This paper studies the properties of shelly sand, different tests were carried out such as
sieve analysis, Standard, and Modified Proctor compaction tests. Also direct shear test
was carried out for all the specimens to study the effect of different shell content, and
lime content, with existence of salty water on the shear strength parameters of shelly
sand. Oedometre test was used to measure the compressibility and stress strain behavior
with different shell contents.
2 EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
2.1 Materials
2.1.1 Sandy soil
The used sand has been classified as poorly graded (SP) according to (USCS). Results
of sieve analysis is shown in Fig. 1, results of compaction test and direct shear test are
shown in Table 1.

Table1: Physical and Mechanical properties of sand
Sand
Properties
C
u
C
c
G
s
C
kN/m
2

d-min

kN/m
3

d-max

kN/m
3
OMC e
min
e
max
SP 1.75 0.85 2.67 2.6 31 14.3 17 12.9% 0.50 0.85

1000 100 10 1 0.1 0.01
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

P
a
s
s
i
n
g

P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

%
Sieve Opening (mm)
Shell
Fine Sand

Fig.1: Sieves analysis of Sand and Shells.

GEO-007-2
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2.1.2 Shells
The used shells were collected from Elarish beach at north Sinai. The delivered shells
were washed and left to dry in air. The shells were sieved as shown in figure1. Dry shell
were chemically analyzed, it contains mainly 88.19 % Calcium oxide (Ca O), and trace
of Sulphur trioxide (SO
3
), Sodium chloride (Na CL) and Magnesium oxide (Mg O),
with some of Silicon dioxide (SiO
2
), Ferrous oxide and Aluminum oxide (FeO+Al
2
O
3
).
Shells size was measured using sieve analysis, it was less than 25 mm as shown in
figure 1, and it was more reliable to use shells with different sizes in all the tests by
weight. The shell contents ranges between10 to 70% of sand weight. During compaction
tests or during preparation of shear box and compression tests samples, the shell size
changes to finer pieces which changes sand gradation.
2.1.3 Lime
In this study, Lime (Ca (OH
2
)) was used as cementing material with the shell and sand.
Also, it works as stabilizing material or as a soil treatment to improve the mixture
properties. Lime powder was used with different percentages 3, 6, 10, 17 and 25 % of
sand weight.
2.1.4 Salty water
In order to simulate the shelly sand on shore, salty water was used during compaction
tests and during samples preparation for direct shear and Oedometer tests. Water
samples from Mediterranean and Red seas were chemically analyzed to measure the
amount of total salts in both samples. Table 2 shows the analysis of both samples. In
this research, salty water with concentration 41 gm/liter was used for all the samples.

Table 2: Chemical analysis of sea water
Chemical
Properties
T.D.S CL SO
3
CO3&HCO
3
pH
Mediterranean
Sea
34 gm/liter 17.2 gm/liter 2.4 gm/liter 0.04 gm/liter 7.5
Red Sea 41 gm/liter 23.4 gm/liter 2.7 gm/liter 0.025 gm/liter 7.6
2.2. Mix Ratios and Specimen Preparation
2.2.1 Standard Proctor compaction test
Standard Proctor compaction test was used to study different shell contents on
maximum dry density,
d
, and optimum moisture content, OMC, comparing to pure fine
sand. The specimens were compacted using a rammer of 2.5 kg, in 0.10 m diameter
mold. Also, to study lime effects on the previous shelly sand samples. Compaction tests
were carried out by adding constant lime ratio, 10%, and compared both cases. Lime
percentages 3, 6, 10, 17 and 25% and constant shell ratio (30%) were used to study the
effects of increasing lime content on the mixture.
2.2.2 Direct shear test
The main objective of this study is to evaluate the direct shear test results as a practical
tool for measuring shear strength parameters for design purposes. For direct shear test,
shelly sand samples were prepared as follows; the dried sand was first mixed with

GEO-007-3
-76-
predetermined shell percentages with or without 10% lime. Then salty water was added
according to OMC which was found in compaction test for the same shell and lime
percentages. Shell, sand, with or without lime and salty water mixture were mixed into a
homogenous mixture. Mixture was compacted in a standard Proctor mold. Direct shear
sampler of 60mm square, was placed in the mold to get a specimen and immediately
tested in shear box with no curing time for the samples contain lime. The direct shear
test was conducted to measure the change in shear strength parameters of the mixture.
The tests were conducted using conventional step loading method with deformation rate
of 0.59 mm/min under various normal stresses 50, 100, 150, and 200 kN/m
2
.
3 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Standard Compaction Test
3.1.1 Effect of Shell Content
Maximum dry densities measured for the tested specimens using different shell content
are presented in figure 2-a. It can be seen that by mixing 10 to 70% of shell (by sand
weight), maximum dry density of the specimens increased from 17 kN/m
3
for pure sand
to 20.3 kN/m
3
for shell content 70 %. This is considered as improvement in maximum
dry density of pure sand.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
21.0
(b)
Pure Sand
d
=1.7301+0.00451 Sc

R
2
=0.98633
M
a
x
i
m
u
m

D
r
y

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
d
)

k
N
/
m

Fig.2: Effects of shell content on maximum dry density and OMC.
3
Shell content Sc %
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
(c)
Pure sand

O
M
C

%
Shell content Sc %
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
Pure Sand
10% Shell
20% Shell
30% Shell
40% Shell
50% Shell
60% Shell
70% Shell
(a)

zero lime percent
M
a
x
i
m
u
m

D
r
y

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
d
)

k
N
/
m
3
WC%

GEO-007-4
-77-
The relation between maximum dry density and shell contents is presented in figure 2-b
as a linear relationship. This means that, increasing of shells content increases the
maximum dry density because the exictance of shell fragment due to compaction
process which changes the sand degradation besides the salty water increases the
maximum dry density. The results between shell content and optimum moisture content
are presented in figure 2-c, it is concluded that no relation between the optimum
moisture content and shell content.
Maximum dry densities measured for the tested specimens using different shell content
with 10% lime are presented in figure 3-a. It can be seen that by adding 10 % lime for
different shell content, maximum dry density of the specimens increased from 17 kN/m
3

for pure sand to 20.6 kN/m
3
for shell content 70 %. Fig. 3-b presents the relation
between maximum dry density and shell content as a nonlinear relationship with the
presence of 10% lime. The results showed that the maximum dry density for shelly sand
samples increases as shell content increases as shown in figure 3-b. Optimum moisture
content decreases as shell content increase by adding 10 % lime as shown in figure 3-c.
Comparing zero and 10 % lime samples, the decrease in optimum moisture content with
is due to lime existing. Note that in both figures 2 and 3 the samples were mixed with
salty water during compaction which means that the decrease in optimum moisture
content is due to lime existence only.

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
16.0
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
21.0
Pure sand
(a)
10% Lime was added to sand

M
a
x
i
m
u
m

D
r
y

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

d

k
N
/
m
3
Wc%
Pure sand
10% Shell
20% Shell
30% Shell
40% Shell
50% Shell
70% Shell

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
16.5
17.0
17.5
18.0
18.5
19.0
19.5
20.0
20.5
21.0
(b)
Shell and sand
Shell, sand and 10% Lime
R
2
=0.99149
d
=1.765+0.00756 Sc-4.7619E-5 Sc
2
Pure Sand
d
=1.7301+0.00451 Sc

R
2
=0.98633
M
a
x
i
m
u
m

D
r
y

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
(c) Shell and sand
Shell, s and 10% lime
OMC=12.72165-0.15206 Sc+0.00255 Sc
2
-1.87476E-5 Sc
3
R
2
=0.97599
Pure Sand

O
M
C

%
Shell content Sc %
d
)

k
N
/
m
3
Shell content Sc %

Fig.3: Effects of shell content and 10% lime on maximum dry density and OMC.

GEO-007-5
-78-
3.1.2 Effect of Lime Content
As known, if lime is added to cohesive soil, as content 3 to 10 %, it is decreases the
maximum dry density and increases optimum moisture content and shear strength
parameters, Senoon [8] and Yasufuku and Hyde [6]. Shell was added to the fine sand
which changes the find sand gradation before adding the lime content. Lime content was
added to the shelly sand with 3, 6, 10, 17 and 25 % percentage with salty water.
Maximum dry densities measured for the tested specimens prepared using constant shell
content 30% and different lime content mixed with salty water are presented in figure 4-
a. It can be seen that by mixing different ratios of lime (by sand weight), maximum dry
density of the specimens increased from 18.6 (zero lime) to 20 kN/m
3
(25% lime). The
increase in dry density is not only caused by adding lime but also is due to the existence
of salt which also causes decrease in OMC. Figure 4-b illustrates the non linear
relationship which shows that the increase in maximum dry density to 20kN/m
3
is due to
lime with existence of salt. Figure 4-c indicates that the existence of lime decreases the
optimum moisture content comparing to the zero lime samples and optimum moisture
content linearly increases as the lime content.

30

Fig.4: Effects of lime content on maximum dry density and optimum moisture content.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
18.0
18.2
18.4
18.6
18.8
19.0
19.2
19.4
19.6
19.8
20.0
20.2
20.4
(b)
Zero Lime
d
=1.866+0.0106 L-2.06E-4 L
2
R
2
=0.988
M
a
x
i
m
u
m

D
r
y

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

k
N
/
m
3
Lime content L %
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

d
(c)
Zero Lime

R
2
=0.9898
OMC =9.514+0.095L
O
M
C

%
Lime content L %
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
17.0
17.2
17.4
17.6
17.8
18.0
18.2
18.4
18.6
18.8
19.0
19.2
19.4
19.6
19.8
20.0
20.2
20.4
(a)
30%shell was added to sand

M
a
x
i
u
m

D
r
y

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
d
)

k
N
/
m
3
Wc %
Zero Lime
3% Lime
6% Lime
10% Lime
17% Lime
25% Lime

GEO-007-6
-79-
3.2 Direct Shear Test
3.2.1 Effect of Shell Content
The results of direct shear tests for the compacted specimens consists of sand, different
ratios of shell without and with 10% lime and salty water content equal to optimum
moisture content are presented in figure 5. The angle of shearing resistance was created
due to the effect of both frictional resistance and interlocking of mixture particles. With
the increase of shell content, the frictional resistance decreases due to the crushing of
shell which also causes a decrease in interlocking of particles. In figure 5-a, the results
show that the increase in shell content from zero to 10 % without lime content increases
friction angle from 31 to 59. Increasing shell content to 70% shell content, decreases
friction angle to 34 which still bigger than of the pure sand. Adding 10% lime to the
previous mixtures causes decrease in sand friction angle till 60% shell content.
Comparing both curves, the 10% lime decreases the friction angle from 59 to 51 at
10% shell.
Direct shear test results showed friction angle and no cohesion for the shelly sand mixed
with salty water. Figure 5-b showed the cohesion, c, measured for specimens at different
shell content with constant lime content (10% to sand) and water content equal to
optimum moisture content, which measured during the compaction test with same shell
and lime content. The existence of 10% lime, salty water, and crushed shell created the
cohesion, c, for the mixture as a non linear relationship. According to the fitting curve,
the cohesion gains increase from 2.6 kN/m
2
for pure sand to 102 kN/m
2
at 70 % shell.
More gain is expected to take place in the shearing resistance parameter c, depending on
increase of lime percentage.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
C =0.02686-0.0012 Sc+2.21429E-4 Sc
2
Pure Sand
(b)
R
2
=0.99824
10% lime was added to sand

C
o
h
e
s
i
o
n

c

(
k
N
/
m
2
)
Shell content Sc %
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
(a) Zero Lime
10% Lime
R
2
=0.97944
0
=54.88429-0.38961 Sc+0.00168 Sc
2
Pure Sand
o
=62504-0.0.416 Sc
R
2
=0.9972

F
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

a
n
g
l
e

o

(
D
e
g
r
e
e
s
)
Shell content Sc %

Fig. 5: Shell content effects on shear parameters.
3.2.2 Effect of Lime Content
Adding lime in range of 6 to 11%, and sodium chloride as salty water increases the
shear parameters, Lamb [9]. Both compensate the loss in shear parameters due to the
shell existence. As shown in figure 6-a, sample contain 30% shell with salty water
increases friction angle from 31 for pure fine sand to 49. Angle of shearing resistance
increases to 57due to add 3% lime content. Increasing lime content more than 8 %

GEO-007-7
-80-
(with shell content 30%) decreases the friction angle more than as zero lime, as
shown in figure. 6-a. Shear parameter, cohesion, c, measured for specimens at different
lime ratios and constant shell content (30%) are shown in figure 6-b, it can be seen that
the increase in lime content causes small increases the cohesion, c, due to the
cementation. According to the non linear fitting line, the cohesion gains increase from 0
to 6 kN/m
2
at 3 % lime content, more gain took place in the shearing resistance
parameter c, depending on increase of lime content to 17%.
In summary, the angle of shearing resistance, , decreases with the increasing of lime
content in existence of Sodium Chloride. While the cohesion, c, increases with the
increase of lime content to 17%. Lime and fines due to shell crushing during sample
preparation processing, with sand particles created cementing agent as semi gel with no
curing time for the samples. This semi gel created lubricates the grains and causes
decrease in shearing angle of friction while increasing the cohesion.

28

Fig.6: Lime content effects on shear parameters
3.3 Compressibility Results
The effects of shells content on compressibility of shelly sand contain 10 % lime and
mixed with sea water were investigated using Oedometer test. For the test, shelly sand
samples were prepared as follows; the dried sand was first mixed with determined shell
percentages with 10% lime. Then salty water was added according to optimum moisture
content which found in compaction test for the same shell and lime percentages. Shell,
sand, lime and salty water mixture were mixed into homogenous mixture. Mixture was
compacted in a standard proctor mold. Six shell percentages 10, 20, 30 40, 50 and 70 %
were tested as shown in figure 7. The Oedometer apparatus was used for consolidation
test. The results showed that the increase of shell content increases the settlement.
Mohamed [2] tested the compressibility of pure shells and found that the
compressibility of pure shells is higher than that of pure sand that is because the shells
contain higher amount of calcareous material which is more compressible than the
siliceous sand. That is explain the increases in measured strains at higher shell contents.
The increases of shell content will enlarge the domination of shell behavior on the
mixture. Also the increase of shells content is expected to reduce the resistance due to
friction and interlocking facilitating the mixture compression.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
(a)
Zero Lime

o
=63.65-1.746L
30% Shell was added to sand

R
2
=0.9929
F
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

a
n
g
l
e

o

(
D
e
g
r
e
e
s
)
Lime content L %

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
0
5
10
15
20
25
(b)
C =-0.00191+0.02236 L-5.21481E-4 L
2
Zero Lime
30% Shell was added to sand
R
2
=0.99946

C
o
h
e
s
i
o
n

c

(
k
N
/
m
2
)
Lime content L %

GEO-007-8
-81-

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400

Axial stress (kN/m
3
)
10% Lime was added to shell content
10% Shell
20% Shell
30% Shell
40% Shell
50% Shell
70% Shell

A
x
i
a
l

S
t
r
a
i
n

%
Fig. 7: Stress-strain of confined compression curves.
3.4 Sedimentation Effect
Three different samples had same shell and lime content was prepared in different
densities. First was prepared in loosest case without any compression, the second was
prepared using standard proctor test and the third sample was prepared using modified
proctor test. These three samples represent different mixture densities, to simulate
different sedimentation in the nature. Oedometer test was used to measure the axial
strain with different stresses for the three mixture densities. Test results are presented in
figure 8 and concluded that the axial strain increases as density or sedimentation of
shell-sand decreases.

Fig. 8: Effects of sedimentation on axial strain.
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800

Axial stress (kN/m
3
)

A
x
i
a
l

S
t
r
a
i
n

%
Loose mixture
standard comp.
Modified comp.
10% Lime was added to 30 % shell content

GEO-007-9
-82-
4 CONCLUSIONS
From previous study, it is concluded that, increasing shell content with no lime and with
salty water, increases the maximum dry density as a linear relationship, and does not
affect on the optimum moisture content. Also increasing shell content to 10% increases
the angle of shearing resistance, but higher shell content decreases it to higher than the
pure sand and no cohesion was created even with existing salty water during sample
preparation. Using sea water in the mixture with increasing the lime percentages,
increases the maximum dry density, decreases the OMC. Increasing the lime contents,
causes slight increase the cohesion while angle of shearing resistance , increases till
3% lime content, and decreases for higher lime content to higher than the pure sand.
Increasing shell content leads to increase the compressibility of the mixture. The
increase of density or sedimentation decreases axial strain.

5 REFERENCES
[1] El-Shennawy, M.T., Effect of Shell on Shear Strength of Sand, Master thesis
Cairo University, Egypt, (1981) 95.
[2] Mohamed, A.M.., Effect of Shell on Compressibility of Sand, Master thesis
Cairo University, Egypt, (1981) 110.
[3] Hamdy D. B., Geotechnical Properties of Shelly Sand at Hurgada, Eleventh
International Colloquium and Geotechnical Engineering. Ain Shams University,
Egypt, (2005) E05GE14-1- 14-8.
[4] Joer, H. A., Bahattaria, B., Fahhey, M., and Randolph, M. F., Assessing the
liquefaction of Calcareous Soil, Proceeding 11
th
European Conference of Soil
Mech. And Found. Engineering. Copenhagen, Vol.3, (1995) 107-112.
[5] Ohno, S., Ochjai, H., and Yasufuku, N., Estimation of Pile Settlement in
Calcareous Sands, Proceeding 2
nd
International Engineering for Calcareous
Sediments, Vol. 1, Bahrain (1999) 21-24.
[6] Yasufuku, N. and Hyde, A. F., Pile End Bearing Capacity in Crushable Sands
Geotechnique 45, No. 4, (1995) 663-676.
[7] El-Saadany, M.M., Abou-Rayan, A. M., and Easa, A. A., Effect of Lime on the
Collapsibility of Compacted Sand, Civil Engineering Research Magazine,
Azhar University, Vol. (24) No. 1, (2002) 214-232.
[8] Senoon, A., A., Effect of Lime Admixture on The Properties of Compacted
Sandy Soil, Journal of the Egyptian Geotechnical Society, Vol. 17, part 2,
(2006)161-175.
[9] Lamb, T.W. and Whitman, R.V., Soil Mechanics, John Wiley and Sons Inc.,
New York, (1969).

GEO-007-10
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GEO-008-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





IMPACT OF UNDERGROUND PIPELINES FAILURE ON
STRUCTURES

K. G. METWALLY
Greater Cairo Sanitary Drainage Company
Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: kghamery@link.net
M. M. HUSSEIN
Department of Structural Engineering, Cairo University
Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: manar@writeme.com
A. Y. AKL
Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: adelakl@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Due to highly increasing population rate and urban development, many structural
problems occurred in many parts of the world when constructing the wastewater
networks. One of the main problems is cracking of pipes as a result of many
factors like bad structures, overloading the roads, erosion and agitation of soil.
These factors lead to a series of problems that can lead to the collapse of
networks by the seepage of groundwater through the cracks into the pipes or
wastewater from the pipes to the soil. The collapse of network affects the soil and
lead to the occurrence of ground surface settlement and soil settlement around
the pipes, which cause settlement of adjacent buildings and structures, in many
cases.
KEYWORDS
Pipelines, sewer, soil, settlement, cracks.
1 INTRODUCTION
The study methodology and the derived numerical model were applied to the network
system in one of the most crowded area in downtown Cairo (the intersection between
Magles Al Shaab St. and Mansour St.) where an incident of soil settlement occurred in
August 2008, followed by the collapse of a structure next to this settlement [1]. All
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GEO-008-2
concerning data of the pipes in this area were collected, including historical indicators
and incidents that happened before the main settlement in 2008. The numerical model
derived enabled stimulating the entrances of the settlement, accurately, over two years
and the accurate simulation of soil settlement in the area of the study, as well as the
value of generated cracks in the surrounding buildings and stages of the damaged
building. A numerical model was designed using all observed and monitored data for
settlements (CCTV, GPR, ) and the size of the mesh used depends on results from
previous extensive parametric study for different factors. Different scenarios was
proposed for failure mechanisms until we choose the one that gives very good
agreement with observed data.
At this location, a concrete sewer pipe, two meters in diameter, which flows wastewater
to CWO (Cairo Wastewater Organization) Tunnel, is buried at a depth of approximately
five meters according to the as-built drawings and field inspections. The selection of
this site is due to the subsidence accident of pavement surface over the last year due to a
leakage and an inflow and infiltration across the buried pipes. In the past years a
significant number of ground subsidences have occurred in this area.
2 BACKGROUND OF THE CASE STUDY
2.1 Overview of the Study Area
The accident of ground subsidence and building damaging at intersection between
Magles Al Shaab Street and Mansour Street within Cairo city took place in August
2008. The main reason for this accident was the structural deterioration of the sewer
pipelines beneath the ground followed by the foundations of the buildings. This study
area presented herein contains two sewer pipelines; the first pipeline is 1600 mm
internal diameter precast reinforced concrete sewer pipeline with pipe segments of 2.00
m length, and the second is 600 mm internal diameter vitrified clay sewer pipeline with
pipe segments of 3.00 m length. Figure 1 shows a layout plan of the pipelines and the
adjacent structures [2].

Fig. 1: Plan of the site investigated.

Microtunnel
-85-

GEO-008-3
2.2 Ground Conditions
The sewer pipeline at this location passed entirely through the 4m clay stratum.
Overlying this is a layer of 4m of made ground and road surfacing [3]. The
pipeline stratum is above sand layer to the end of boring at -15.45m.
Groundwater level is found at -1.20 m from ground surface. A detailed ground
investigation was conducted after the accident. Three boreholes were carried out
at the location of the study area as shown in Fig. 1.
2.3 Pipelines
The study area presented herein contains two sewer pipelines with burial depth
5.00 m; the first pipeline is 1600 mm internal diameter precast reinforced
concrete sewer pipeline with pipe segments of 2.00 m length, and the second is
600 mm internal diameter vitrified clay sewer pipeline with pipe segments of
3.00 m length. The first pipeline was constructed in 1988 by Trenchless-Jacking
method within the Greater Cairo for Sanitary Drainage project to improve the
sanitary of Greater Cairo. The second pipeline was constructed by cut-and-cover
method in 1989.
Historically, the first ground subsidence, had taken place in September 2006, was
a consequence for structural deterioration of the 600 mm sewer pipeline. Figure
2 illustrates the CCTV photo for 600mm sewer pipeline diameter. This photo
shows the fracture in pipes. The fracture is a crack line along pipe wall in which
the pipe material is still intact with a crack line that is visibly open in the sewer
pipe [4]. The Greater Cairo Sanitary Drainage Company (GCSDC) had made the
repair for the three defected pipes by using stainless steel pipes encased in the
fractured pipes.

.

Fig. 2: CCTV of 600mm diameter pipe (Cairo 8/2006).
2.4 Buildings
Many important structures, buildings and fences, surround the accident area.
These structures belong to four organizations; ministry of justice, ministry of
monuments, ministry of finance, and national authority for tunnels. About 15

Fracture
Longitudinal
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structures were monitored after the starting of this accident, three of them
belonging to the ministry of justice were affected. Figure 3 shows the ministry of
justice damaged Notary building before the demolition.

Fig. 3: Views of the front and side of the damaged Notary building.
3 SETTLEMENT MONITORING AND ITS EFFECTS ON STRUCTURES
Three methods of monitoring have been conducted in the selected site. The first
method is the settlement monitoring for the structures by using total station tool.
The second method is the structural monitoring for the sewer pipelines by using
closed circuit television (CCTV). The third method is the subsurface monitoring
by using ground penetrating radar (GPR).
3.1 Settlement Monitoring
The project consultant has completed the daily readings report from 8 to 30
August 2008 for settlement of the ground at the selected site [5]. Survey markers
installed on the selected structures are shown in Fig. 4. Survey readings were
recorded on a daily basis. The elevation data from these readings are provided in
Fig. 5 and 6.

Fig. 4: Plan of buildings showing locations of precise levelling points.
(A) Facade of Notary building
from Mansour Street.
(B) Facade of Notary building
from Magles Al Shaab Street.
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Fig. 5: Settlement in cars shed monitored points.

Fig. 6: Settlement in electric room monitored points.
3.2 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV)
CCTV inspections was conducted to the sewer pipelines within the study area.
This inspection was required to assess structural conditions of the sewer pipeline.
Condition assessment based on CCTV inspection has traditionally been the
approach used for rehabilitation decisions in sewer networks. Current practice for
CCTV evaluation involves examination with a pan and tilt CCTV camera to
record the service condition of the sewer. Survey data is coded by trained
operators according to an accepted protocol such as the WRC Manual of Sewer
Classification 3rd edition and entered into a proprietary database.
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The CCTV video has provided us with information that is beneficial for
determining points of extraneous flow (e.g. displaced joints, cracks, voids, and
leaking, or broken, etc) and identifies mainline and service connection problems.
Figure 7 illustrates the CCTV photo for 600mm sewer pipeline diameter. This
photo shows the breaking in pipes. The Breaking is a visible displacement of
pipe material from its original position [4].

Figure 8 illustrates the CCTV photo for 2000mm sewer pipeline diameter. This photo
shows the open-joint in pipes. The open-joint defects describe visible displacement at
joints in sewer pipes. The open-joint in the pipes was so severe that the soil was visible
through it [4].

3.3 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
Ground penetrating radar (commonly called GPR) is a high resolution electromagnetic
technique that is designed primarily to investigate the shallow subsurface of the earth,
building materials, and roads and bridges.
The radar profile obtained along adjacent damaged building [6]. In the field, the GPR
survey along the mentioned grid line was performed in a continuous base. The graphic
representation of the reflected radar signals shows clearly several anomalies along the
surveyed area. The radar reflections describe certain uniformity along the 5-meter long

Joint open

Broken
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GEO-008-7
survey in the last part of the profile. This uniformity is interrupted in the area at the start
of damaged building indicating a variation in the continuity of the soil stratigraphy.
These irregularities can be the result of disturbances to the sedimentation of the soil
caused by the soil infiltration toward the sewer pipeline.
4 NUMERICAL MODEL
4.1 Ground and Sewer Pipeline
In order to model the site, simplifying assumptions are necessary concerning ground
levels and strata thickness. The choice of boundaries of the model soil block was
governed by keeping a balance between placing them far enough away from the region
of interest so that not to affect the results adversely, while also maintaining economy on
the overall model size. In order to cover all the affected buildings and the zone of
influence of the deteriorated pipeline, a plan dimension was chosen to be 40m x 40m.
Figure 9 shows the overall dimensions taken for the model, including the pipeline and
buildings.
The top surface of the model was set at approximately foundation level of the buildings,
1.5 m below ground level. The top stratum (made ground) was taken as 4.0m thick and
the bottom stratum was taken as 4.0m. The pipeline axis was 6.0m below the top of the
model within the 4.0m middle stratum (clay). The boundaries of the model were set
outside the zones of influence of both the pipeline and the buildings.
Properties for the main soil strata were obtained from the Geotechnical Interpretative
Report for the project. Geotechnical parameters for the soil strata are presented in Table
1. The soil behavior is assumed to be governed by nonlinear elastic relations, while the
convergence problems come from the elastic perfectly-plastic constitutive relation of
soil behavior.
The number of pipes in the model for the 2.0 m diameter pipeline is 20 pipes each 2.0 m
length, where the connections between the pipes are contact element. The contact
element of pipes connection was taken no separation element. In this element (no
separation contact), the two contact surfaces (target and contact surfaces) are tied,
although sliding is permitted. The pipeline encased in a homogeneous soil mass. The
values of coefficient of friction [7] for clay soil (contact) and reinforced concrete
(target) are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Soil and pipeline properties.
Soil properties Pipeline properties
Soil elastic modulus, E
s
=2000 t/m
2
Pipe diameter, D (interior) =1.60 m
Soil Poissons ratio, =0.35 Wall thickness of concrete, e =0.20 m
Soil cohesion, C =2.00 t/m
2
Pipe length, Lp =2.00 m
Angle of internal friction, =30
o
Number of pipes in pipeline =20 pipes
Density of soil over pipe, =1.85 t/m
3
Concrete elastic modulus, E
c
=3.5E6 t/m
2

Soil height above crown,H
t
=5.0 m Concrete Poissons ratio,
c
=0.20
(Between soil& pipes) =0.32 (Between pipes segments) =0.60

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Fig. 9: Magles Al Shaab Street combined 3-D model dimensions.
4.2 Buildings
The 3-D model contains three different buildings in the vicinity of the ministry of
justice (the damaged building, cars shed, and electric room). 3-D solid element type was
used for buildings and masonry wall. The roof slabs of the building were modelled
using four-noded shell element. The behavior of the building is assumed to be linear-
elastic.
The damaged building consists of three bays in length and one bay in width. This
building is modelled by a spatial one level reinforced concrete framed structure 4.0 m
high and its column's spacing is 6.0 m in two directions. The outer and inner walls of
the building are modelled by clay bricks.
The cars shed consists of four bays in length and one bay in width. This structure is
modelled by a spatial reinforced concrete framed structure 4.0 m high and its column's
spacing is 5.0 m in longitudinal direction.
The electric room is one bay in the two directions. This structure is modelled by a
spatial reinforced concrete framed structure 4.0 m high and its column's spacing is 5.0
m and 4.0 m respectively in the two directions. The walls of the room are modelled by
clay bricks.
4.3 Analysis Sequence and Failure Mechanism
The numerical simulations were performed using the finite element program
ANSYS/CivilFEM [8]. Analysis of the pipelinestructure interaction problem is
performed in two steps (steady state and pipeline failure state). The first step (steady
state) is concerned with the determination of initial stresses in the soil mass prior to the
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pipeline failure. It is performed using a finite element calculation considering the own
weight of both the soil and the structure. Displacements are reset to zero at the end of
this stage; consequently, results referred to hereafter are due to the pipeline
deterioration. The second step (pipeline deterioration state) deals with the numerical
simulation for the failure of the pipeline in presence of the structure. The pipeline
deterioration operation is modelled by reducing the stiffness of soil above the pipeline.
The failure mechanism in study area is assumed here by reducing stiffness around and
above the R.C. pipeline in three stages. The reduction in soil stiffness is due to two
reasons; the first reason is the sewage water coming from the deteriorated pipeline, and
the second reason is the infiltration of soil to the 2000 mm diameter pipeline. Figure 10
illustrates the four zones of soil which are reduced in stiffness. Table 2 contains the
different values of soil stiffness (E) for four zones of soil in the three stages. These
values are relative to the value of the existing soil stiffness; E
mg
(stiffness of made
ground stratum) and E
cl
(stiffness of clay stratum).
Table 2: Soil stiffness of different zones in the three stages.
Stage No.
E
mg
1
(400t/m
2
)
E
mg
2
(400t/m
2
)
E
cl
1
(3000t/m
2
)
E
cl
2
(3000t/m
2
)
Stage 1 0.50 E
mg
E
mg
E
cl
E
cl

Stage 2 0.25 E
mg
0.50 E
mg
0.50 E
cl
E
cl

Stage 3 0.25 E
mg
0.25 E
mg
0.50 E
cl
0.50 E
cl

4.4 Finite Element Model and Damage Assessment
The full three-dimensional coupled approach is adopted in this research to study the
influence of the pipeline failure on the adjacent buildings. Finite element analysis for
the coupled model is carried out using the mesh presented in Fig. 11. The finite element
mesh of the ground, pipes, and buildings consisted of 36570 elements and 45821nodes.
The purpose of the coupled analyses (soil, pipeline and building in the same model) is
to investigate the general mechanisms of soil structure interaction that occur in this type
of problem. Each of these analyses produces a large amount of output data. The next
section highlights how the ground surface and building foundation displacement change
due to failure in pipeline.
The cumulative tensile crack width and cumulative principal crack width were
calculated from the output displacement to assess the building condition. The
calculations of tensile cracks were worked with spreadsheets. Damage categories are
based directly on the descriptions of damage [9]. In all data analyses, critical cracking
strain was not included as a criterion (i.e.
c
= 0%). The simple cumulative deformation
was used directly considering that the buildings may have exhibited some initial
cracking due to construction defects, thermal cracking, or from age. In addition, the
calculation of tensile cracks was calculated at the first bay, because it is the nearest
place to the pipe failure.

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Fig. 10: Magles Al Shaab Street combined 3-D model dimensions.

.

Fig. 11: FEM mesh of Magles Al Shaab Street.

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In the Magles Al Shaab Street model, the distribution of settlement looks reasonable,
with the building responding almost as a rigid body with relatively light damage.
Moreover, the magnitude of the building settlement from the model is approximately
equal to what was observed. The best agreement between the model and observations
was obtained when the stage of failure mechanism was stage-3 and with the observed
settlement on the last day (30 August 2008). The initial analyses with stage 1 did not
give particularly good agreement with observations in the detail of the building
performance.
The results show the influence of soil properties on the damage category predicted for
the building, and the study implies that a high quality investigations should be carried to
complement the use of the analysis techniques in practice.
The results are presented in Table 3, for the faades of damaged building, which
illustrate damage category in different stages of failure mechanism. Good agreement
was found in the distribution and severity of damage. This confirmed the applicability
of the general approach of modeling used in this study.
Figure 12 shows the relation between the vertical settlement and the horizontal distance
of damaged building at axis 1 (Fig. 9 and 10), and the soil stiffness changing around and
above pipeline. We can find out that the building deformation increases with decreasing
the soil stiffness above the pipeline. In addition, The settlement profile along the west
and east facades show sudden changes concentrated beneath columns, the highest value
lies under the nearest row of columns to the damaged pipeline.
Table 3: Evaluation of potential damage to in-fill walls and beams in frame
structures due to soil stiffness above pipeline.
Case
Properties
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
Unit
Max. Settlement (S1)
58.9 143.6 147.2 Mm
Min. Settlement (S2)
-6.6 -19.6 -20.5 Mm
Differential Sett. (S)
65.4 163.2 167.7 Mm
Angle of Tilt ()
0.250 0.624 0.640 deg.
Cumulative Tensile crack width (C
t
)

0.0 0.9 1.0 Mm
Cumulative Principle crack width (C
p
)

7.5 18.5 18.5 Mm
Damage Category
Moderate Severe Severe
The settlement profile along the cars shed from the field and model are compared in Fig.
13. In this case, the settlements recorded 20 days after the accident on 30th August 2008
are given. It can be seen that along cars shed the settlements predicted by the model
agree much better with the final settlements in the field rather than with the short-term
settlements.
Figure 14 shows the settlement profile obtained along the west and east faades
footprint of electric room. The profiles for stage 2 and stage 3 are approximately
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similar, as are the extent and severity of settlement to the footings. The settlement
profile along the electric room from the field and model are compared in Fig. 14. In this
case, the settlements recorded 20 days after the accident on 30th August 2008 are given.
The remarkably good agreement of the observed settlements with the model at stage 3
has to be noted. The settlement profiles along the facades of electric room show sudden
changes concentrated beneath columns of the room .

Fig. 12: Effect of soil stiffness on vertical settlement of building at axis-1.


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6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
From our study we can conclude that pipeline failure affects ground surface and
adjacent buildings. The ground surface deformation and buildings differential
displacements are highly affected by the decrease of soil stiffness above pipelines.
After analyzing our case study, we recommend that:
In the event of any major settlement, a total study should be carried within
sufficient area around the incident.
Data should be collected from any previous cases with all available means such
as observations, CCTV or GPR etc. this should be analyzed for future
prevention and remedial of existing damage.
A total analysis should be run for any accident such as pipe cracks and soil
settlement to predict the main reason so that it wont recur again after
temporary remedial and affect adjacent structures.
After such incidents, adjacent buildings should be supported to prevent building
deterioration due to continuous settlement of pipes.
7 REFERENCES
[1] Metwally, K.G., Damage Assessment of Building Due to Deterioration of
Pipelines Using FEM and GIS, Ph. D. Thesis, Dept. of Structural Eng., Cairo
University, Cairo, Egypt (2009).
[2] ACE, "Engineering Works for Settlement location at intersection between
Magles Al Shaab and Mansour Street", ACE Arab Consultants Engineer, Cairo,
Egypt (2008).
[3] ACE, "Soil Investigation for Measure Ground Settlement at Magles Al Shaab
and Mansour street", ARDAMAN ACE , Cairo , Egypt (2008).
[4] WRc ple, Sewerage Rehabilitation Manual, 3rd Edition, Water Authorities
Association, Sewer and Water Mains Committee, U.K. (1994).
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[5] A &A, "Monitoring Report for Structures for Period from 13-8-2008 to 1-9-
2008, A&A Engineers and Consultant, Cairo, Egypt (2008).
[6] CEHM Subsurface Soil Assessment at Intersection Between Magles Al Shaab
Street and Mansour Street, Center for Environmental Hazard Mitigation, Cairo
[7] ECP, The Egyptian Code for Soil Mechanics, Design, and Construction of
Foundations, 7th Edition, The continua Committee for Preparing the Egyptian
Code for Soil Mechanics, Design, and Construction of Foundations, Part 3, ECP,
Egypt (2001) 202-2001.
[8] Swanson, P.G., ANSYS, Inc. Theory, Theoretical Manual, Release 11.0, U.S.A.
(2007).
[9] Boone, S.J., " Assessment Construction and Settlement-Induced Building
Damage: a Return to Fundamental Principles, Proceedings, Underground
construction , Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London, UK (2001) 559-
570.
[10] Bloodworth, A.G., Three-Dimensional Analysis of Tunnelling Effects on
Structures to Develop Design Methods, Ph. D. Thesis, Brasenose College,
University of Oxford, UK (2002).
[11] Burland, J.B., Assessment of Risk of Damage to Buildings Due to Tunnelling
and Excavation, Invited Special Lecture, 1st Int. Conf. on Earthquake Geotech.
Engineering, Tokyo (1995).

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13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





DAMAGE ASSESSMENT USING INTEGRATION BETWEEN FEM
AND GIS

K. G. METWALLY
Greater Cairo Sanitary Drainage Company
Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: kghamery@link.net
M. M. HUSSEIN
Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: manar@writeme.com
A. Y. AKL
Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: adelakl@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The study here uses the three-dimensional (3-D) Finite Elements Method,
utilizing the "ANSYS" software, to simulate the relationship between: pipes,
structures and surrounding soil, with different effects (type and diameter of pipes,
type of soil and wastewater) to calculate the shape of potential settlement of
ground surface under such effects. The results of this numerical analysis were
mapped on a Geographic Information System (GIS) software, to evaluate the
effect of pipe settlement on the surrounding structures and the extent, nature,
shape and values of cracks expected to be generated in these structures. The
study was thus able to provide an integrated technique that combines the results
of numerical analysis (FEM) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to deal
with problems associated with settlement of sewer pipes and forecasting the
shape and value of expected soil settlement and the type of cracks generated in
the surrounding structures.
KEYWORDS
Pipelines, sewer, soil, GIS, settlement, cracks.
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1 INTRODUCTION
The ability of GIS to search databases and perform geographic queries has
revolutionized many areas of science and business. It can be invaluable during a
decision-making process. The information can be presented succinctly and clearly in the
form of a map and accompanying report, allowing decision makers to focus on the real
issues rather than trying to understand the data. Because GIS products can be produced
quickly, multiple scenarios can be evaluated efficiently and effectively. For this reason,
in todays world, the ability to use GIS is increasingly important.
The design process of using FEM and GIS is presented in this study for the example of
an area in Shobra region, suburbs of Cairo, Egypt. A settlement risk assessment is
performed to determine the influence of structural deterioration of a pipeline. The two
main stages in this process are the FE-settlement predictions and its implementation in
GIS. GIS uses the FEM output (settlement predictions in the surrounding soil mass) to
analyze the risks of damage impact in form of a damage classification for each adjacent
building. Both stages are described in this paper. Besides the design stage, these
information tools are of high importance during pipeline or building rehabilitation,
especially when using the observational method. A GIS system, being a powerful
visualization tool, makes it possible to compare the predictions with the actual
monitoring readings and thereby assists in steering the damage assessment process.
In this study, the settlement prediction maps are created by interpolating the settlement
point data, which are obtained from the FEM results. The spatial analyses by using the
GIS modules and the calculation of building deformation by using spreadsheets are used
to categorize the buildings damage. The ArcGIS software is used in spatial analysis and
maps producing. The equations of buildings damage (differential settlements, tilt,
strains, crack width, and building classification) are programmed in Excel spreadsheets.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Haasnoot and Netzel [1] presented the design process of using FEM and GIS for the
example of a station box of the North South Line in Amsterdam. A settlement risk
assessment was performed to determine the influence of construction. It was pointed out
that, the two main stages in this process are the FE-settlement predictions and its
implementation in the GIS. GIS uses the FEM output (settlement predictions in the
surrounding soil mass) to analyze the risks of damage impact in form of a damage
classification for each adjacent building. Beside the design stage, these information
tools are of high importance during construction, especially when using the
observational method.
Yenigul [2] used three-dimensional GIS and two-dimensional (2-D) finite element
modeling to analyze the settlement of subsurface, where these applications were carried
out and the results are compared and correlated. Settlement analysis by using three-
dimensional GIS approach is performed for two different geometrical conditions by
using modified Terzaghi approach or the so-called Koppejan Formula for long-term
settlement. Thereafter, the settlement results are presented as settlement prediction maps
for comparison purposes and as a 3-D isovolumes to reflect the real picture of
settlement predictions. After performing the 2-D based settlement analysis on the
sections taken from the 3-D geology model, the results are compared and correlated
visually and statistically with the 3-D analysis results at the same sections. Statical
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analysis results showed that there is a significant linear relationship and a very strong
correlation between 2-D FEM based and 3-D GIS based settlement analysis results.
2.1 Building Damage Prediction and Classification
Settlement of structures, whether from nearby construction or other causes, can result in
noticeable damage. Such damage can be significant and costly. Usually, the most
settlement sensitive buildings are those with masonry load bearing walls or frames with
masonry in-fill walls. By combining ground deformation patterns, well-known damage
category criteria, strain superposition and critical strain concepts, the potential effects of
building deformations can be readily assessed without undue oversimplification.
Boscardin and Cording [3] extended the framework of limiting tensile strain by linking
strain values to building damage observed from case studies subjected to excavation
induced subsidence. In their work they linked values of limiting strain with the
categories of damage shown in Table 1.
Burland [4] compared the behavior of load bearing masonry walls undergoing
settlement to the bending of a deep beam subjected to a point load at the beam centre.
One of the more important aspects of their work included a summarization of damage
severity based on observed crack width as illustrated in Table 1. This damage
categorization is widely referenced and is intuitive, practical, and related to measurable
evidence. Yet, the deformation and critical strain criteria were not directly linked to
damage category.
Table 1: Severity of cracking damage
Category of
Damage
Normal degree of
severity
Approximate Individual Crack
Width (mm)
0 Negligible < 0.1
1 Very Slight 0.1 to 1
2 Slight 1 to 5
3 Moderate 5 to 15 or a number of cracks > 3
4 Severe 15 to 25 also depends on the number of cracks
5 Very Severe > 25 also depends on the number of cracks
2.2 Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
The literature presents a large number of GIS definitions. A single, reasonably inclusive
definition is that a GIS consists of computer-based tools that are used to capture, store,
update, manipulate, retrieve, analyze, display, print, and otherwise manage large
amounts of geographic and attribute data. Originally, these tools were developed to ease
cartography, but they are currently being used for diverse applications such as,
planning, facilities management, and hydrologic and hydraulic (H&H) modeling.
Alternatively, one can simply define a GIS as a link between a map and a database as
shown in Fig. 1.
A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and
analyzing spatial data. GIS technology integrates common database operations such as
query and statistical analysis with the unique visualization and geographic analysis
benefits offered by maps. These abilities distinguish GIS from other information
systems and make it valuable to a wide range of public and private enterprises for
explaining events, predicting outcomes, and planning strategies. GIS is considered to be
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one of the most important new technologies, with the potential to revolutionize many
aspects of society through increased ability to make decisions and solve problems.

Fig. 1: GIS definition as a link between a map and a database.
3 SETTLEMENT PREDICTION USING FEM
The different scenarios of pipeline failure and its impact on the nearby buildings were
studied as well as the calculation and classification of building damage by Metwally [5].
These scenarios of pipeline failure are pipeline settlement, the influence of the soil
stiffness changing above pipeline, and the influence of the sewage water around
pipeline. The results of these calculations are automatically imported in the GIS system.
The GIS is capable of extracting deformation data along any given line. The Settlement
Risk Module of the GIS will verify the FEM results in relation to the surrounding
structures.
The damage classification system relates the differential ground movements to the
anticipated damage of a structure. The damage classification system for the case of
study is derived from numerical calculations, determining the deformation capacity of
specific reinforced concrete and masonry structures in the study area in combination
with analytical, empirical methods generally used for assessment of damage due to
excavation-induced ground movement. The damage classification describes the
deformation capacity of the buildings in terms of tolerable values for a damage
parameter (angular distortion, horizontal strain deflection ratio, tilt, slope, settlement),
which are related to the expected degree of damage (damage class).
The predicted damage class of each building is determined by projecting the predicted
settlements on the location of the buildings. The damage parameters (Cumulative
Tensile crack width and Cumulative Principal crack width) are calculated with the
(differential) ground movements for each structure and compared with the tolerable
values for the various classes in the damage classification system.
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3.1 Description of the Basic Model
Figure 2 delineates the three-dimensional geometry of the basic model that was
considered to describe a typical and representative model of a deeply buried pipeline.
The pipeline in the model comprises 15 pipes, where the connections between them are
contact element. The type of contact element of pipes connection was taken as no
separation contact element. In this element no separation contact, the two contact
surfaces target and contact surfaces are tied, although sliding is permitted. The
different material properties adopted in the analysis are shown in Table 2. The pipeline
is encased in a homogeneous soil mass.

A. Model geometry B. FEM Model
Fig. 2: Illustration of basic model idealization.
Table 2: Soil and pipeline propertics.
Soil properties Pipeline properties
Soil elastic modulus, E
s
=2000 t/m
2
Pipe diameter, D (interior) =1.60 m
Soil Poissons ratio, =0.35 Wall thickness of concrete, e =0.20 m
Soil cohesion, C =2.00 t/m
2
Pipe length, Lp =2.00 m
Angle of internal friction, =30
o
Number of pipes in the
pipeline
=15 pipes
Density of soil over pipe, =1.85 t/m
3
Concrete elastic modulus, E
c
=3.5E6 t/m
2
Soil height above crown H
t
=5.0 m Concrete Poissons ratio,
c
=0.20
(Between soil& pipes) =0.32 (Between pipes segments) =0.60
3.2 Effect of Settlement on Ground Surface
The influence of settlement in the pipelines is explained by considering three values of
vertical settlement (for the whole section of concrete pipes) in the middle five pipes; 1%
D, 3% D, and 5% D, where D is the pipe diameter. Figures 3 and 4 show the relation
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between the vertical settlement and the horizontal displacement of ground surface, and
the pipeline settlement. The figures exhibits that the minimum results are for the
minimum value of pipeline settlement.

Fig. 3: Effect of pipe settlement on vertical settlement of ground surface.

Fig. 4: Effect of pipe settlement on horizontal displacement of ground surface.
4 SETTLEMENT PREDICTION USING GIS
4.1 Data Structure of the Study Area
The case study presented herein is 1.60 m internal diameter precast reinforced concrete
sewer pipeline with pipe segments of 2.00 m length. The pipeline was constructed by
Trenchless-Jacking method. This pipeline is a part of the Greater Cairo for Sanitary
Drainage project. Figure 5 shows a layout plan of the pipeline and nearby buildings.
Average fill height above the pipe crown is 5.00 meters of soil (silty clay) of density
1.95 t/m
3
.

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The contents of the database (data layer) for the study area comprise spatial data and its
attribute data. These data layer includes basemap (streets, parcels, and buildings), soil,
and sewer networks (pipeline and manholes).

Fig. 5: Layout plan of study area.
4.2 Procedures of Settlement Assessment with GIS
Assessment of settlement using a GIS approach necessitates the establishment of a
conceptual model. In general, a conceptual model is a type of abstraction that uses
logical concepts and hides the details of implementation and data storage. Some of the
existing conceptual models offer powerful concepts to the designers that provide getting
the most complete specification from the real world. Figure 6 illustrates the conceptual
model of procedures of settlement risk assessment.
Data on each adjacent inspected building is stored in the GIS database. Various
functions have been programmed in spreadsheets to determine the damage parameters
(angular distortion, differential settlements, strains, and crack width) at the site of each
building with the given input of the predicted settlements.
The digital map of buildings is overlaid with settlement contours to calculate the
damage parameters. In GIS, the settlement predictions can be visualized with iso-
settlement lines or settlement contours as shown in Fig. 7. The input of settlement
predictions is used in determining the area affected by settlement of pipeline failure.
The risk of damage to each structure in this area is assessed using the programmed
damage classification system and assigned to a damage risk class.
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Fig. 6: Conceptual model of GIS procedures.

Fig. 7: Settlement contours.
4.3 The Results of Analysis
The influence of settlement in the pipelines is explained by considering three values of
vertical settlement in the middle five pipes; 1% D, 3% D, and 5% D, where D is the
pipe diameter. Figures 8 to 11 illustrate the results for evaluating the potential damage
category for in-fill walls and beams within frames due to different values of pipeline
settlement within the study area. The results presented in previous figures show the
effect of pipeline settlement on the adjacent buildings, it is clear that the building
damage increases with increasing the pipeline settlement.

Trough
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Fig. 8: Settlement prediction map of buildings due to pipeline settlement (1%
Diameter).

Diameter).
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GEO-009-10

Diameter).

Fig. 11: Distribution of damage relative to pipeline settlement.
5 CONCLUSION
The major effect of pipe deterioration occurs within soil width equal six times the pipe
diameter or two times the burial depth from vertical axis of pipelines. Therefore, this

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GEO-009-11
zone should be monitored and tested on a regular basis for early prevention of ground
surface failure and pipeline failures.
GIS is a very powerful tool that should be integrated with FEM for damage assessment
of sewer pipelines to determine the impact of the structural deterioration of pipelines on
ground surface and adjacent buildings. This will be time saving for important buildings
and main pipelines in heavy traffic areas.
6 REFERENCES
[1] Netzel, H., and Haasnoot, J.K., Settlement Risk Assessment; Integrating FEM
and GIS, Proc. of the NUMOG 2002 conference in Rome, GL1822, Rome
(2002).
[2] Yenigul, N.B., Comparative Settlement Analysis by Using 3D-GIS and 2-
DFEM Approaches, M. Sc. Thesis, Section Engineering Geology, International
Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC), Delft, Netherlands,
July (2000).
[3] Boscardin, M.D., and Cording, E.J. Building Response to Excavation-Induced
Settlement, Journal of Geotech. Engineering, ASCE, 115(1) (1989) 1-21.
[4] Burland, J.B., Assessment of Risk of Damage to Buildings Due to Tunnelling
and Excavation, Invited Special Lecture, 1st Int. Conf. on Earthquake Geotech.
Engineering, Tokyo (1995).
[5] Metwally, K.G., Damage Assessment of Building Due to Deterioration of
Pipelines Using FEM and GIS, Ph. D. Thesis, Dept. of Structural Eng., Cairo
[6] Bloodworth, A.G., Three-Dimensional Analysis of Tunnelling Effects on
Structures to Develop Design Methods, Ph. D. Thesis, Brasenose College,
University of Oxford, UK (2002).
[7] Boone, S.J., " Assessment Construction and Settlement-Induced Building
Damage: a Return to Fundamental Principles, Proceedings, Underground
construction , Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, London, UK (2001) 559-
570.
[8] Metwally, K.G., Approach to Improvement the Performance of Sewer
Networks Using GIS, Proceeding of Second Ain Shams University
International Conference on Environmental Engineering, Vol. 1, Cairo (2007)
327-338.
[9] Shamsi, U.M., GIS Tools for Water, Wastewater, and Stormwater Systems,
1st Edition, ASCE press, Library of congress catalog card No: 20020744, 7,
ISBN: 0-7844-0583-5, USA (2002).

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GEO-010-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





MODELING OF GROUNDWATER LOWERING IN A SEMI-
CONFINED AQUIFER AREA

A. M. SAMIEH
Department of Civil Engineering, Helwan University
Ibrahim Abd El-Razik Street, El-Naam, Mataria, Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: ahsamieh@hotmail.com
A. M. H. MAHMOUD
ABCAN Engineering Consultancy
11 Lotfy El-Said Street, El-Demerdash, Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: abcams98@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
The impacts of groundwater on underground construction projects are enormous.
Groundwater affects the design of the structures, the construction procedures and the
overall project cost. This study presents the results of a three-dimensional numerical
analysis of a dewatering system that was required for construction of an inlet pumping
station at the Abu Rawash waste water treatment plant. A comparison between the
numerical results and monitored response is presented to exhibit the adequacy of the
proposed numerical scheme. The numerical results compared favourably with the field
measurements. In addition, the results of a numerical sensitivity study are presented to
highlight the influence of some controlling parameters such as the aquifer hydraulic
conductivity and its anisotropy. Furthermore, the dewatering system was analyzed using
the conventional analytical equations of groundwater flow to assess the influence of the
analysis assumptions on the predicted response of the system.
KEYWORDS
Groundwater, semi-confined, aquifer, dewatering, three-dimensional, numerical
analysis.
1 INTRODUCTION
Groundwater lowering is a necessity for underground construction projects especially in
urban areas where groundwater exists. In such cases, it is crucial to adopt an appropriate
dewatering scheme that controls the groundwater without affecting the nearby
structures. Design and analysis of groundwater control systems are mostly carried out
using analytical formulas or numerical models. The analytical formulas consider
simplified assumptions to represent the in-situ characteristics of geologic formations.
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GEO-010-2
The basic assumptions of the analytical formulas are a uniform hydraulic conductivity
through the entire aquifer, full efficient well, well penetrates the entire aquifer, a state of
laminar flow through the aquifer is established, the initial water table is flat and the
drawdown and radius of influence are no longer change with continuous pumping at a
constant rate [1]. The analytical formulas were basically developed by Theim [2] and
Muskat [3]. A good review of these formulas is reported by Mansour and Kaufman [4],
Hausmann [5] and Powers [6]. Complicated flow problems can not be solved by
analytical methods. Some analytical solutions [7, 8, 9] address issues such as leaky
aquifers but they always assume a homogeneous system. Recent contributions [10, 11,
12, 13] provided analytical solutions that can deal with a complex aquifer by dividing it
into several regions of homogeneous properties. However, these types of models can
not represent many important regional hydrologic features that affect groundwater
movement (e.g., aquifer anisotropy, structural features, recharge and discharge) [1].
Numerical models are capable of solving the groundwater flow equations considering
the different site conditions. These models have the ability to overcome the limitations
associated with analytical equations. The continuous advances in computer systems,
regarding computational speed and storage capacity, facilitate handling the modeling of
such big problems. Computer packages of the finite element programs [14] and the
finite difference programs [15, 16] are widely used in numerical analysis of
groundwater flow problems. To study the impacts of a pumping well on groundwater
flow regime, Pinder and Bredehoeft [17] presented an axisymmetric numerical model
designed for a well-test interpretation. Many other efforts focused on developing
numerical models that investigated well-test interpretation, pumping impacts and the
impact of heterogeneity upon the uncertainty of the interpreted results [18, 19, 20, 21].
Numerical groundwater models were found to be the most appropriate tool that allows
simulation of complex three dimensional dewatering problems that contain gravity or
confined aquifers, soil anisotropy, partially penetrating wells, vertical boundaries,
vertical flowetc [22].
This study presents the results of a three-dimensional numerical analysis of a
dewatering system that was required to dry out a wide and deep excavation necessary
for construction of the inlet pumping station at the site of the Abu Rawash waste water
treatment plant (WWTP). A comparison between the numerical modeling results and
the monitored response is presented to evaluate the adequacy of the proposed numerical
scheme. The paper presents, also, the results of a sensitivity study that was carried out
to examine the effect of the aquifer permeability and anisotropy on the system response.
In addition, the dewatering system is analyzed using the analytical equation of semi-
confined aquifer conditions together with the cumulative drawdown concept to
highlight the influence of the analytical equation assumptions on the analytically
predicted response of the dewatering system..
2 SOIL STRATIFICATION AND THE DEWATRING SYSTEM
Construction of the inlet pump station foundations of the extension of the Abu Rawash
WWTP necessitated drying out the pump excavation site that was around 72m by 85m
in plan and 10.6m deep. The soil stratification at the inlet pump station site consisted of
a surface graded sand formation, 3m thick, underlain by a stiff clay layer that extended
to a depth of 8.5m below the ground surface (bgs). The clay formation was underlain by
a medium to fine sand with some silt that extended to the end of the carried out
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GEO-010-3
borehole, 25m bgs. The piezometer reading of the groundwater of the bottom confined
aquifer was 5.6m bgs, no groundwater was noticed in the top sand layer.
The dewatering system constructed at the inlet pump station site consisted of 18
working deep wells in addition to 4 standby deep wells. Figure 1 shows the arrangement
of the deep wells around the excavation perimeter in addition to the piezometer location
within the site. The operating steady state discharge of the wells was 95 m
3
/hr. The
wells were 24m in length. The entire pipe of each well was slotted except the 5.0m at
the well top and the bottom 2.0m of the well pipe.
Fig. 1 Construction dewatering system of the inlet pump station: layout of the deep
wells.

3 NUMERICAL MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF THE DEWATERING
SYSTEM
3.1 Numerical Modeling Scheme
Numerical modelling in the present study was carried out using the groundwater flow
software MODFLOW that is based on the finite difference concept [15, 16]. A three-
dimensional model was established to investigate the groundwater flow regime during
pumping. The numerical model considered an area of 2100m 2100m in plan. The area
was divided into a grid of cells consisting of 165 rows and 165 columns. The cells
ranged in size from a minimum of 3.5 m to a maximum of 30 m. The vertical depth of
the model domain was 100 m and it was divided into 18 stacked layers, of thickness
ranging from 2.5 to 8.0m. Each soil layer in the model was considered to be uniform,
homogeneous and isotropic. The centre of the excavation was located at the centre of
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GEO-010-4
the modeled area. Table 1 exhibits the hydraulic parameters adopted in the current study
for different formations. The hydraulic conductivity of the confined aquifer, bottom
sand layer, was assessed based on the results of an in-situ pumping test.
Table 1: Hydraulic parameters of the different soil layers
Parameters Clay layer Sand aquifer
Hydraulic conductivity (m/sec) 110
-9
2.510
-4

Specific storage (m
-1
) -- 0.001
Effective porosity 0.55 0.35
Total porosity 0.65 0.45
3.2 Analysis Results and Comparison with Field Measurements
The excavation at the site under consideration was 10.6m below the ground surface
(bgs) while the depth of the bottom surface of the clay layer is at 8.8m bgs. In other
words, the excavation was extended through the surface sand layer and through the
entire thickness of the clay layer in addition to a depth of 1.8m through the bottom sand
layer, i.e. the bottom sand aquifer was open to the atmosphere. In such a way, the
bottom confined aquifer became partially/semi-confined within the footprint of the
excavation boundaries. Taking into consideration that the initial groundwater depth was
5.6m bgs and that it was required to lower the groundwater to at least 0.5m below the
excavation bottom, the required system drawdown was more than 5.5m, i.e. lower the
groundwater level within the excavation area to a depth of around 11.1m bgs.
The configuration of the numerically predicted drawdown at and around the inlet pump
station site is shown in Fig. 2. The figure exhibits the distribution of the numerically
predicted drawdown values within the bottom sand aquifer. The numerically predicted
drawdown value at the piezometer location was 6.2m in comparison to a monitored
value of 6.15m that delineates a good comparison between the monitored and
numerically predicted responses of the dewatering system. In addition, Fig. 2 exhibits
that the radius of influence of the entire dewatering system is more than 200m. In other
words, it is crucial to investigate the influence of such dewatering activities on the
settlement of the existing nearby structures.
3.3 Sensitivity Analysis Results
A sensitivity study was carried out to evaluate the influence of some parameters that are
conventionally of major concern on designing dewatering systems. The parameters
considered in the current study were the hydraulic conductivity and soil anisotropy of
the bottom aquifer. The results of the sensitivity analysis are presented and discussed in
the following.
Hydraulic conductivity effect
The hydraulic conductivity (K) of the bottom aquifer was varied between 2.510
-4

m/sec to 410
-4
m/sec to investigate its effect on the drawdown at the piezometer
location. Figure 3 exhibits the drawdown variation with the change of the bottom
aquifer hydraulic conductivity. The figure shows that with increase of the hydraulic
conductivity of the lower sand aquifer the drawdown is decreased. The drawdown
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GEO-010-5
obtained at the piezometer location changed from 6.2m to 4.5m due to change of the
hydraulic conductivity from 2.5x10
-4
m/s to 4x10
-4
m/s, respectively. This reflects the
importance of proper assessment of the aquifer hydraulic conductivity. In other words,
for appropriate design of groundwater lowering systems, it is crucial to asses the
aquifers hydraulic conductivity from in-situ pumping tests.
Fig. 2 Contour lines of the numerically predicted drawdown values of the bottom
sand aquifer, all dimensions are in meter.

Soil anisotropy effect
The analytical formulas of the groundwater flow are based on the assumption that the
hydraulic conductivity is the same in all directions, isotropic conditions. Many aquifers,
however, are anisotropic. It is not unusual to find hydraulic conductivities that differ by
a factor ranging between two and twenty, when measured in two different directions.
Mostly, the vertical hydraulic conductivity (K
v
) is less than the horizontal hydraulic
conductivity (K
h
). The effect of soil anisotropy is more significant for partially
penetrating well systems than fully penetrating well system [6].
Keeping the horizontal hydraulic conductivity constant while reducing the vertical
hydraulic conductivity, analyses of the case under consideration were carried out to
-113-

GEO-010-6
investigate the groundwater drawdown regime due to variation of the hydraulic
conductivity ratio, (K
h
/K
v
), from a value of 1 to 3. Figure 4 presents a comparison
among the predicted drawdown values for the considered anisotropy conditions. Figure
4 exhibits that change of the hydraulic conductivity ratio from 1 to 3 made to slightly
increase the drawdown at the piezometer location, by around 12% for the considered
range of the hydraulic conductivity ratio.

0
2
4
6
8
10
0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005
Hydraulic Conductivity (m/sec)
D
r
a
w
d
o
w
n

(
m
)

Fig. 3 Variation of the groundwater drawdown within the bottom sand aquifer with
change of its hydraulic conductivity
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 1 2 3 4 5
Hydraulic Conductivity Ratio (Kh/Kv)
D
r
a
w
d
o
w
n

(
m
)

Fig. 4. Effect of the aquifer anisotropy on the predicted drawdown values at
the piezometer location
4 ANALYSIS OF THE DEWATERING SYSTEM USING THE ANALYTICAL
APPROACH
Dewatering systems are conventionally designed using the analytical equations of the
groundwater flow because of the simplicity of such equations and the ease of their
implementation in design spread sheets. For a multiple wells system, the analytical
equation is used together with the superposition/cumulative drawdown concept. In this
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GEO-010-7
concept it is assumed that the total drawdown at any point will be the sum of the
drawdown that would have been caused by each well if it were operating alone.
The dewatering system under consideration was analyzed using the analytical approach.
Since the excavation and dewatering activities resulted in making the bottom aquifer
semi/partially confined, the drawdown due to each well was estimated by Eq. (1) that is
used for partially confined aquifer [6].
(1)

Where; (H-h) the drawdown at radius "r"
H the initial aquifer head
D the confined aquifer thickness
Q the well discharge
K the aquifer hydraulic conductivity
R the influence radius
The influence radius was assessed from the analysis of the pumping test results, 290m.
Equation (1) delineates that the drawdown is dependent on the considered aquifer
thickness. Figure (5) shows the variation of the analytically estimated drawdown at the
piezometer location with the aquifer thickness. The figure shows that the drawdown is
increased with decrease of the aquifer thickness that is referred to the point that Eq. (1)
was developed based on the assumption that the pumping well is fully penetrating the
aquifer. Considering the difficulty of assessing the value of the aquifer thickness
especially for semi confined conditions, it is recommended to depend on the numerical
methods in analyzing/designing dewatering systems especially for partially confined
aquifers and partially penetrating wells.

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
40 50 60 70 80
Aquifer Thickness(m)
D
r
a
w
d
o
w
n

(
m
)

Fig. 5 Effect of the aquifer thickness on the analytically predicted drawdown of the
semi-confined aquifer at the piezometer location.
-115-

GEO-010-8
5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
This study presents the results of a three-dimensional numerical analysis of a
dewatering system that was necessary to dry out a wide rectangular and deep excavation
in a semi-confined aquifer area. The monitored groundwater drawdown was compared
with the numerical analysis results. Good comparison was revealed between the
numerically predicted and the monitored drawdown values. A sensitivity study was,
also, carried out to examine the influence of some parameters that are of major concern
on designing the dewatering systems. In addition, the dewatering system was analyzed
using the analytical equation of semi-confined aquifers together with the cumulative
drawdown concept. The following conclusions were reached:
Simulation of groundwater flow using numerical modelling techniques is
recommended to analyze dewatering systems due to their ability to take different
site and boundary conditions into consideration.
It is crucial to asses the aquifer hydraulic conductivity from in-situ pumping tests
due to the significant impact of the hydraulic conductivity on the predicted
groundwater values. As the hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer increases, the
groundwater drawdown decreases and vice versa.
Aquifer anisotropy affects the groundwater drawdown. As the anisotropy degree
(ratio of the horizontal hydraulic conductivity to the vertical hydraulic conductivity)
increases, the groundwater drawdown values increase and vice versa.
Special care should be exercised on using the analytical equations of groundwater
flow in analyzing dewatering systems. In general, analytical equations can, at best,
give only rough values of drawdown. The usage of these equations should be
tempered with judgement based on experience at the project area. However, it is
recommended to analyze the dewatering systems of semi-confined aquifers using
three dimensional numerical approaches.
6 REFERENCES
[1] Driscoll, F. G. Groundwater & Wells, (Johnson Filtration Systems, St. Paul, MN
1986).
[2] Thiem, G. Hydrologische Methoden, (JM Gephardt, Leipzig 1906).
[3] Muskat, M. The flow of Homogenous Fluids through Porous Media, (Mc Graw-
Hill, New York 1937).
[4] Mansur, C. and Kaufman, R. Chapter 6, Dewatering in Foundation Engineering,
in G. Leonard (Editor): Foundation Engineering (McGraw-Hill, New York
1962).
[5] Hausmann, M. R. Engineering Principles of Ground Modification, (McGraw-
Hill, New York 1990).
[6] Power, J. P. Construction Dewatering-New Methods and Applications, (John
Wiley & Sons, New York 1992).
[7] Jacob, C. E. Radial Flow in a Leaky Artesian Aquifer, Trans. of the American
Geophysical Union, (1946) 198-205.
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GEO-010-9
[8] Hantush, M. S. Modification of the Theory of Leaky Aquifers, J. Geophysical
Research, 65 (1965) 3713-3725.
[9] Hantush, M. S. Analysis of Data From Pumping Tests in Anisotropic Aquifers, J.
Geophysical Research, 71 (1966) 421-426.
[10] Barker, J. A. A generalized Radial Flow Model for Hydraulic Test in Fractured
Rock, Water Resources Research J., 24 (1988) 1796-1804.
[11] Butler, J. J. Jr. Pumping Tests in Non-Uniform Aquifer: The Radially Symmetric
Case, J. of Hydrology, 125 (1988) 15-30.
[12] Butler, J. J. Jr. and Lui, W. Z. Pumping Tests in Non-Uniform Aquifers The
Linear Strip Case, J. of Hydrology, 128 (1991) 69-99.
[13] Butler, J. J. Jr. and Lui, W. Z. Pumping Tests in Non-Uniform Aquifer: The
Radially Asymmetric Case, Water Resources Research J., 29 (1993), 259-269.
[14] Brinkgreve, R. B. J., Al-Khoury, R. and Van Esch J. M. (Editors) PLAXIFLOW
(Balkema, A. A., Netherlands 2003).
[15] McDonald, M. G. and Harbaugh, A. W. A Modular Three-Dimensional Finite
Difference Ground-Water Flow Model, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File
Report, (1988) 83-875.
[16] Harbaugh, A. W. and McDonald, M. G. User's Documentation for MODFLOW-
96, an Update to the U.S. Geological Survey Modular Finite Difference
Groundwater Flow Model, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report, (1996)
96-486.
[17] Pinder, G. F. and Bredehoeft, J. D. Application of Digital Computers for Aquifer
Evaluation, Water Resources Research, 4 (1968) 1069-109.
[18] Cooly, R. L. A Finite Difference Method for Unsteady Flow in Variable
Saturated Porous Media, Application to a single Well Pumping Test, Water
Resources Research J., 7 (1971) 1046-1050.
[19] Lachassagn, P., Ledoux, E. and Marsily, G. Evaluation of Hydrological
Parameters in Heterogeneous Porous Media, in Groundwater Management:
Quantity and Quality: IAHS publ. 188 (1989) 3-18.
[20] Herweijer, C. J. Constraining Uncertainty of Groundwater Flow and Transport
Model Using Pumping Tests, in Calibration and Reliability in Groundwater
Modeling: IAHS publ. 237 (1996) 473-482.
[21] Meier, P. M., Carrera, J. and Sanchez-Vila, X. An Evaluation of Jacob's Method
for the Interpretation of Pumping Tests in Heterogeneous Formations, Water
Resources Research J., 34 (1998) 1011-1025.
[22] Powers, J. P., Corwin, B. A., Schmall, P. C. and Kaeck, W. E. Construction
dewatering and groundwater control-new methods and applications, 3
rd
Ed.,
John Wiley & sons, New York. (2007).
-117-

GEO-011-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





3-D Finite Elements Analysis of Tunnel System Performance from
Application to Practice

S. M. Atrash
1
S. A. Mazek
2
M. K. El Ghamrawy
3

ABSTRACT

Development of tunneling is an effective tool to overcome high-density population
challenges such as transportation and utilities activities. Tunnels are used for several
purposes such as construction of sewers, railway, and roadway tunnels. The Greater
Cairo Metro tunnel, El-Azhar road tunnels, and the sewage tunnel in the Greater Cairo
city (CWO) are considered as major projects to solve transportation and environmental
problems. There are technologies to assist in excavation such as the tunnel boring
machine (TBM) and the cut and cover method. To better understand the performance of
the tunnel system, it is necessary to investigate the geotechnical problems related to
tunneling.
In the present study, the finite element model (FEM) is proposed to predict the
performance of the tunnel system under the shadow of three case histories. The three
case studies presented and discussed in this study give good and rare opportunity to
understand the performance of the tunnel system. The constitutive model for this
analysis utilizes elasto-plastic materials. A yielding function of the Mohr-Coulomb
type and a plastic potential function of the Drucker-Prager type are employed. A linear
constitutive model is employed to represent the tunnel liner.
The response of the tunnel system is described by the ground movement caused by
tunneling. The ground movement is presented and calculated using the proposed 3-D
FEM. The recorded measurements are also presented for the three case histories. The
results obtained by the 3-D numerical model are compared with those obtained by the
field measurement to assess the accuracy of the proposed 3-D numerical model. There
is a good agreement between the results obtained by the 3-D FEM and those obtained
by the field recording.
KEYWORDS: tunnels, numerical modelling and analysis, finite element analysis,
deformations.

1
Ph.D. Student, Lecturer, Civil Engineering Department, Military Technical College, Cairo, Egypt.
2
Ph.D. Lecturer, Civil Engineering Department, Military Technical College, Cairo, Egypt
3
Professor, Civil Engineering Department, El-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
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GEO-011-2
1. INTRODUCTION

Tunneling leads to ground movement due to the associated stress change around an
advancing tunnel. The numerical techniques are widely used to predict the ground
movements [1]. Finite element method is considered the most appropriate analytical
technique to solve geotechnical problems [2], [3], [4], [5], [6], [7], [8]. Modeling of
geotechnical properties and tunneling procedure is the sophisticated problem [9], [10].
In this study, the Greater Cairo Metro tunnel, El- Azhar road tunnels, and the Greater
Cairo Wastewater tunnel (CWO) in central Cairo city are considered as three case
studies. The tunnel system performance is studied. The tunnel system model is proposed
using 3-D nonlinear finite element analysis (FEA) under the shadow of the three case
histories. The aim of this study is to understand the performance of the tunnel systems.
In the 3-D nonlinear finite element modeling, the tunneling process and the interaction
effects between the tunnel and the soil around the tunnel are investigated. The 3-D
nonlinear finite element analysis is used to estimate the vertical displacement at ground
surface due to tunneling.
In this Study, the Greater Cairo Metro tunnel, El Azhar road tunnels, and the Greater
Cairo wastewater tunnel are discussed through a comparison between the results
calculated by the 3-D nonlinear finite element analysis and the results recorded by field
measurements to assess the accuracy of the proposed 3-D finite element analysis (FEA).
The typical geotechnical and soil properties used in this study are presented in Table 1.
However, the results calculated by the finite element analysis agree well with those
obtained by the field measurements.

Table 2: Geotechnical properties

2. FINITE ELEMENT MODEL

The finite element computer program (COSMOS /M) is used in this study [11]. The
finite element model takes into account the effects of the vertical overburden pressure,
the lateral earth pressure, and the ground water table. The soil media, the tunnel lining,
and the interface surface are simulated using appropriate finite elements. The numerical
modeling of the soil tunnel system must reflect the characteristic of the ground
continuum and the tunnel. In addition, the interface between the soil and the tunnel
system should be idealized in the numerical model. Solid elements are used for
Soil parameter Fill Silty clay

Sand
) (t/m
3
b

1.8 1.9 2.0
o
k

0.58 0.8 0.37
s

0.4 0.35 0.30
(Degree)
25 26 37
C (t/m
2
) 1.0 0 0
m 300 350 400-600
n 0.74 0.6 0.5-0.6
Depth (m) 0.0 to 4.0 4.0 to 10.0 10.0 to end
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GEO-011-3
modeling the soil media and the thick shell elements for modeling the tunnel liner. The
thick shell element models both membrane (in plane) and bending (out plane) behavior
of the tunnel structure. The solid element is chosen since it posses in-plane and out-of-
plane stiffness. The solid element allows for both in-plane and out-of-plane loads. The
solid element is prismatic in shape. The prismatic solid element and the triangular shell
element interface are used between the soil media and the tunnel liner to ensure the
compatibility conditions at the interface between them as well as the associated stress
and strains along the interface surface.
The vertical boundaries of the 3-D finite elements model are restrained by roller
supports to prevent a movement normal to the boundaries. The horizontal plane at the
bottom of the mesh represented a rigid bedrock layer and the movement at this plane is
restrained in all three directions. The movement at the upper horizontal plane is free to
simulate a free ground surface, as shown in Fig. 1. In the finite element analysis, the
loading attributed to the construction process is considered.

Fig. 1: 3-D finite element model of tunnel system

3. PROPERTIES OF TUNNEL LINING AND SOIL

The three case studies discussed in this study were constructed at central Cairo city. The
project area under analysis lies within the alluvial plain, which covers the major area of
the low land portion of the Nile valley in Cairo vicinity [12], [13], and [14]. Site
investigations along the project alignment have indicated that the soil profile consists of
a relatively thin surficial fill layer ranging from two to four metres in thickness. A
natural deposit of stiff overconsolidated silty clay lies under the fill layer. This deposit
includes occasional sand and silt partings of thickness from four to ten meters. Beneath
the silty clay layers the sandy layer surrounding the entire excavation profile extends
down to the bedrock. The main soil parameters required to model the performance of
different tunnel systems are presented in Table1. The constitutive relationship adopted
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GEO-011-4
in the analysis is an elasto-plastic model. The Mohr-Coulomb criterion is adopted.
The friction angles ( ) adopted for the layers have been obtained using laboratory test
results from reconstituted samples. The vertical initial drained modulus (

) is related
to the effective pressure based on Janbu empirical equation [15], which is given by Eq.
1
n
a
a v
p
mp E ) (
3
=
(1)
In which, the modulus number (m) and the exponent number (n) are both pure numbers
and (
a
) is the value of the atmospheric pressure expressed in appropriate units. The
nonlinear soil parameters used for elasto-plastic finite element analysis for different
types of the soil are presented in Table 1 [3], [14].
The ground water table varies between two meters to four meters from the ground
surface. Figure 2 shows the soil profile along the Greater Cairo City. The ground
surface displacement due to the construction of the tunnel is calculated in this study.
The final diameter (D) for the metro tunnel is 8.98 m, and the excavation diameter of
the metro tunnel is 9.48 m. The final diameter (D) for the road tunnel is 9.06 m and the
excavation diameter of the metro tunnel is 9.56 m. The final diameter (D) for the
sewage tunnel is 4.65 m and the excavation diameter of the sewage tunnel is 5.15 m.
The tunnel lining is assumed to behave in a linear manner in the 3-D nonlinear finite
element analysis. The characteristic of the tunnel lining is tabulated in Table 2.
Table 2: Characteristics of the metro, sewage, and road tunnel

Tunnel
) (t/m
2
b
E

) (t/m
2
c
f
(t) cm
Sewage
6
10 1 . 2
0.18 4000 25
Metro
6
10 1 . 2
0.18 4000 25
Road
6
10 1 . 2
0.18 4000 25

4. GEOMETRIC BOUNDARIES OF 3-D MODEL

4.1 Dimension of model
The 3-D finite element mesh used in the analysis models a soil block with width, height, and
depth in x, y, and z directions, respectively, as shown in Fig. 1. Studies have been adopted for
the metro tunnel located at 18 meter depth from the ground surface, as shown in Fig. 2. Drain
analysis is adopted in the numerical model, where the tunnels pass through the sandy soil
layer. The ground loss of 4 % is adopted in this study. The ground loss will be discussed in
detail in the following section. The suitable geometric boundaries (model width and
model height) are studied to reflect the accurate performance of the tunnel system. By
studying the stresses at the geometric boundaries, the study is conducted to determine
the optimum model width beyond which no changes in stresses are occurred.

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GEO-011-5

Fig. 2: Soil profile along the Greater Cairo City

The 3-D finite element analysis is used to choose the suitable width so as to realistically
reflect the behaviour of the tunnel system. The height of the numerical model is some
where the soil depth beneath the invert the tunnel is 2.5 times diameter of the tunnel
[16]. The studied model width varies from 40 meters to 120 meters. The calculated
settlements at surface of the metro tunnel with different model width are shown in Fig.
3. As the model width exceeds 100 meters there is no change in the estimated surface
settlement. The calculated settlement at crown of metro tunnel with different model
width tunnel also is presented in Fig. 4. The results also show that the model width
exceeds 100 meters there is hardly any change in the estimated crown settlement of the
tunnel.

Fig. 3: Calculated surface settlement due to metro tunnel construction
with different model widths

8
8.5
9
9.5
10
10.5
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Model Width (m)
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
Meaured surface settlement (10 mm)
Calculated surface settlement (9.40 mm)
Optimum
model
width
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GEO-011-6

Fig. 4: Calculated crown and invert displacement of the metro tunnel
with different model widths

The calculated invert heaves of the metro tunnel with different model width are also
presented in Fig 4. The results also show when the model width exceeds 100 meters
there is no change in the estimated invert heave. Hence, the one-hundred-meter model
width is chosen to realistically reflect the performance of the tunnel system.
The one-hundred-meter model width and the fifty-meter model height are used in the
analysis to compare the results obtained by the 3-D finite element analysis and the field
measurement.
For the El-Azhar road tunnel (second case study), similar analysis is also carried out to
help choose the appropriate geometric boundaries. The results also show that the model
width exceeds 100 meters there is hardly any change in the estimated surface settlement
of the road tunnel. The one-hundred-meter model width and the fifty-meter model
height are used in the analysis to compare the results obtained by the 3-D finite element
analysis and the field measurement.
For the sewage tunnel (third case study), similar analysis is also carried out to help
choose the appropriate geometric boundaries. The model width varies from 40 meters to
100 meters. As the model width exceeds 80 meters there is no change in the estimated
surface settlement. The eighty-meter model width is adopted in the 3-D finite element
analysis to compare the results obtained by finite element analysis and the field
measurement.
4.2 Mesh size
The 3-D finite element mesh used in the analysis models a soil block with width, length,
and depth in x, y, and z directions, respectively, as shown in Fig. 1. The suitable mesh
size will be selected to reflect the accurate performance of the tunnel system. The
element size is varied (2 m, 3 m, 4 m, and 5 m) along the outer boundary of the soil
block. The element size is also varied (1 m, 1.5 m, 2 m, 2.5 m, and 3 m) along tunnel
liner. The calculated settlement of ground surface considering different element sizes is
presented in Table 3. The results show that for the soil element size being smaller than 3
m, there is hardly any change in the calculated surface settlement of the tunnel. The
one-meter element size of the tunnel liner is chosen for the rest of the 3-D finite element
analyses.
15
17
19
21
23
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Model Width (m)
C
r
o
w
n

S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
Calculated crown settlement (22.50 mm)
Optimum
model
width
12.75
13
13.25
13.5
13.75
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Model width (m)
I
n
v
e
r
t

h
e
a
v
e

(
m
m
)
Calculated invert heve (13.03 mm)
Optimum model
width
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GEO-011-7
For the mesh size, similar analysis is also conducted for the El-Azhar road tunnel and
the sewage tunnel to choose suitable element mesh size. A three-meter element size of
the soil block and the one-meter element size of the tunnel liner are chosen for the rest
of the 3-D finite element analyses.
Table 3: Estimated settlement of ground surface considering different elements sizes
(Greater Cairo Metro)
4.3 Ground loss
The construction of a tunnel leads to a subsurface movement due to the moved soil towards
the excavated tunnel. The volume loss V
L
is the ratio of the difference between volume of
excavated soil and tunnel volume over the excavate soil volume. The ground loss ranged from
1.5 % to 4.5 % and reached to 6 % at some location along the Greater Cairo metro project
[17]. The ground loss impact on the behavior of the tunnel system is investigated to assess the
accuracy of the 3-D nonlinear finite element. Surface settlement due to the construction of the
metro tunnel is calculated by the 3-D finite element model. The suitable ground loss will be
studied to reflect the accurate performance of the tunnel system.
In the parametric study, the ground loss various from 2% to 6% to choose the suitable
ground loss adopted in finite element analysis due to tunnelling. The ground loss of 4%
is chosen to realistically reflect the performance of the tunnel system. The calculated
surface settlements against different ground loss for the metro tunnel are analyzed and
presented in Fig. 5. The calculated surface settlement due to tunneling is affected by the
ground loss impact. The results show that the increase of the ground loss due to
tunneling leads to increase the maximum surface settlements.
For the El-Azhar road tunnel, similar analysis is also carried out to choose the suitable
ground loss. The ground loss of 4% is also chosen to realistically reflect the
performance of the tunnel system.
For the third case study (sewage tunnel), the ground loss of 6% is chosen to realistically
reflect the performance of the tunnel system.

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GEO-011-8

Fig. 5: Calculated surface settlement due to different ground losses (metro tunnel)

5. SOIL BEHAVIOR

The stress changes in surrounding soils due to tunneling are investigated to study the
detailed soil behavior around the tunnel systems. The stress changes in soil around the
tunnel system due to tunneling are investigated to study the detailed soil behavior. The
stresses in the subsoil have undergone three phases of change. At these phases, the
loading steps of the tunnel construction are simulated using the 3-D finite element
analysis. First, the initial principal stresses are computed with the absence of the tunnel.
Second, the excavation of the tunnel is modeled by means of the finite element method.
The excavation is simulated by the removal of those elements inside the boundary of the
metro tunnel surface to be exposed by the excavation. The excavated tunnel boundary is
free to move until the soil comes into contact with the tunnel liner resulting in ground
loss. The ground loss is considered in this study. The ground loss of 4 % is adopted in
this study. Third, the calculated changes in stresses are then added to the initial
principal stresses computed from the first phase to determine the final principal stresses
resulting from the tunnel construction. The initial in-situ stresses of the excavated tunnel
boundary before tunneling are calculated and plotted in Fig. 6. The final vertical stress
change after tunneling is calculated and compared with the initial in-situ vertical stress
before tunneling, as shown in Fig 6. The results show that the soil above the crown of
the metro tunnel settles downward and the soil under the invert of the metro tunnel
excavation heaves.

6. 3-D FINITE ELEMENTS MODEL VERIFICATION (CASE HISTORIES)

The performance of the three case studies is modeled using the 3-D nonlinear finite
element elements analysis. In this study, the Greater Cairo Metro tunnel, El-Azhar road
tunnel, and the Greater Cairo wastewater tunnel are studied through a comparison
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 6% 7%
Ground loss (%)
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

s
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
Measured surface settlement (10 mm)
Calculated surface settlement
(9.40 mm) [case study]
9.4
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GEO-011-9
between the results calculated by the 3-D nonlinear model and the results recorded by
field measurements.

(b) After tunneling (a) before tunneling

Fig. 6: Vertical stress before and after tunnelling
(The Greater Cairo Metro tunnel)

6.1 Greater Cairo metro tunnel Line 2 (First case history)
This case study is located along the Greater Cairo Metro Line 2, as shown in Figure 2.
The nonlinear 3-D finite element model is used to predict the performance of the metro
tunnel. The computed surface settlement is compared with those obtained by the field
measurements so as to understand the behavior of the metro tunnel, as shown in Fig. 7.
This comparison is used to assess the accuracy of the proposed numerical model,. The
comparison shows that there is good agreement between the computed and measured
readings.
6.2 El-Azhar road tunnel (Second case history)
For the El-Azhar road tunnel project, similar analysis is also carried out to predict the
performance of the road tunnels. The 3-D nonlinear numerical model is also used to predict
soil-tunnel interaction of the El-Azhar road tunnel to assess the accuracy for the numerical
model. The comparison between the calculated results using the numerical model and the
measured values are presented in Fig. 8. The study shows that the results calculated by the
numerical model have a good agreement with the field data.
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GEO-011-10

Fig. 7: Comparison between measured and calculated surface settlement due to the
construction of the Greater Cairo metro tunnel

Fig. 8: Comparison between measured and calculated surface settlement due to the
construction of El-Azhar road tunnels

6.3 Greater Cairo wastewater project (third case history)
For the Greater Cairo wastewater tunnel project, the nonlinear 3-D finite element model
is also used to predict the performance of the sewage tunnel. The computed surface
settlement obtained by the finite element analysis is compared with those obtained by
the field measurements so as to understand the behavior of the sewage tunnel, as shown
in Fig.9. The comparison shows that there is good agreement between the computed and
measured readings.
Generally, the calculated surface settlement due to the tunnel construction
underestimates by up to 10% with respect to the field measurement for the three case
studies. This discrepancy between calculated and measured readings may be caused by
the accuracy of soil strength parameters, soil stress parameters, soil modelling, or
instrumentation.
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from C.L of tunnel (m)
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
Computed Surface Settlement (mm)
Measured Surface Settlement (mm)
The metro tunnel
(9.48 m in diameter)
Metro
Tunnel
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from C.L of twin tunnel (m)
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

s
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
Computed surface settlement
Measured settlement
Road
Tunnel
Road
Tunnel
13.5 mm
The road tunnel
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GEO-011-11

Fig. 9: Comparison between measured and calculated surface settlement
due to the construction of the sewage tunnel

7. CONCLUSIONS

A 3-D nonlinear finite element analysis is used to understand the performance of the
tunnel system under shadow of three case studies. The analysis takes into account the
changes in stress, the non-linear behavior of the soil, and the construction progress, etc.
The following conclusions can be drawn regarding the performance of the tunnel under
the effects of different factors.
1- A 3-D nonlinear numerical model is applicable to analyze and predict the detailed
performance of the tunnel systems under the shadow of the three case histories.
2- The results calculated by the proposed 3-D nonlinear numerical model have a good
agreement with the field data. The predicted surface settlements underestimate by up 10
% for all case histories with respect to the field measurement.
3- The minimum width of the 3-D nonlinear model is set to be ten times the tunnel
diameter in the 3-D numerical model.
4- Ground loss is an important parameter effect on the performance of the tunnel
system.

8. REFERENCES

[1] Berant, S., and cambou, B. 1998. Soil-Structure Interaction in Shield tunneling in soft
ground. Computers and Geotechnics. Vol. 22. No. 34. pp. 221-242.
[2] Karakus, M., and Fowell, R.J. 2005. Back analysis for tunneling induced ground
movement and stress redistribution. Tunneling and Underground Space
Technology 20, pp. 514 524.
-7
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
Distance from C.L of tunnel (m)
S
u
r
f
a
c
e

s
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
Computed surface settlement
Measured surface settlement
The Sewage tunnel
Sweage
Tunnel
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GEO-011-12
[3] Mazek, S.A., Belal, A.M., Kamal, I.M., and Amer, N.H. 2006. Numerical
Modeling of Soil-Tunnel Interaction under new surface load. Procp of the 6th
ICCAE conf16-18, May, pp. 248 257.
[4] Oettl and Hofstetter.1998. A comparison of elastic-plastic soil models for 2-D FE
analyses of tunneling. Computers and Geotechnics 23, pp. 19 38.
[5] Mazek, S.A. 2004. 3-D Elasto-Plastic Finite element Analysis of Crossing
Tunnels. Proc of the 5
th
ICCAE conf. 23- 25 Nov. pp. 364 377.
[6] Karakus, M. 2007. Appraising the methods accounting for 3D tunnelling effects
in 2D plane strain FE analysis. Tunneling and Underground Space Technology
22, pp. 47 56.
[7] El-Nahas, F., El-Kadi, F., and Shalaby, A. 1990. Field measurements during
construction of compressed air tunnel in Cairo. Proc. International and Future,
Chengdu, China.
[8] Addenbrooke, T. I., and Potts, D. M. 2001. Twin tunnel interaction surface and
subsurface effects. The International Journal of Geomechanics. Vol. 1, No2, pp. 249
271.
[9] El-Nahas, F. 1986. Spatial mode of ground subsidence above advancing shielded
tunnels. Proc. Of International. Congress on Large underground Opening,
Fireze, Italy, Vol. 1, pp. 720-725.
[10] Mazek, S.A, Law. K. T, and Lau. D. T. 2004. Numerical Analysis of Crossing
Tunnel Performance. Proc of the 5
th
ICCAE conf. 23- 25 Nov. pp. 378 390.
[11] COSMOS/M program. 2001. Structural Research and Analysis Corporation. Los
Angles, California. USA.
[12] El-Nahhass, F.M. 1994. Some geotechnical aspects of shield tunneling in the
Cairo area. Proceedings of the international congress on tunneling and ground
condition, Abdel Salam (ed.), Cairo, Egypt. Published by Balkema, Rotterdam.
[13] Mazek, S.A., Law, K.T., and Lau, D.T. 2001b. 3-D Analysis on the Performance
of a Grouted Tunnel. Proceeding of Canadian Geotechnical Conference. An
Earth odyssey 2001. Calgary, Alberta, Canada, pp. 111-118.
[14] National Authority for Tunnels (NAT), 1993 and 1999, Project Documents.
[15] Janbu, N. 1963. Soil compressibility as determined by oedometer and triaxial tests.
European conference on soil mechanics and foundation engineering. Wiesbaden.
Germany. vol. 1, pp. 19 25.
[16] Mazek, S.A, and Tehawy, E.M. 2008. Impact of Tunneling Running Side-by-
Side to An Existing Tunnel on Tunnel Performance using Non-linear Analysis.
Proc of the 7
th
ICCAE. 27-29 May, 2008. Cairo, Egypt
[17] El-Nahhas, F.M. 1999. Soft Ground Tunneling in Egypt Geotechnical Challenges
and Expectations. Proceeding of tunneling and underground space technology,
Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 245-256. Published by Elsevier science Ltd.

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GEO-012-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





RATE EFFECT ON PORE PRESSURE BEHAVIOUR UNDER
COMPRESSION TRIAXIAL LOADING

IHCENE. LAMRI
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Skikda
40, rue Med Salah Dhili, Skikda, Algeria
E-mail: ihcene2000@yahoo.fr
MUSTAPHA. HIDJEB
Department of Civil Engineering, Any name University
40, rue Med Salah Dhili, Skikda, Algeria
E-mail: mustapha_hidjeb@yahoo.fr
NOUREDDINE . CHELGHOUM
Department of Civil Engineering, Annaba University
Annaba, Algeria
E-mail: chelghoum_n@yahoo.fr
KAMAL. HARRAT
Department of Civil Engineering, Annaba University
Annaba, Algeria
E-mail: kamelharrat@yahoo.fr

ABSTRACT

In order to achieve accurate pore water pressure measurements and to gain some understanding
of the fundamental behaviour of pore of the saturated clay under slow monotonic loading two
series of tests were performed. The work reported in this paper is about the behaviour of clay
under monotonic triaxial loading. 102mm high x102mm diameter samples of remoulded
undrained Cowden clay.
Depending upon the drainage conditions, there will usually be either a volume decrease
or a generation of excess pore pressure if the volume changes are delayed or prevented,
due to long drainage paths or if the loading imposes high shear stresses or high strain
rate.
Compared to the monotonic loading, under earthquake loading the drainage paths for
excess pore pressure dissipation in clay of a deep excavation are comparatively long.
Considerable excess pore water pressure may develop as a result. Accordingly, it is
reasonable and conservative to assume completely undrained conditions
Although accurate pore water pressure measurements are of paramount importance for a
better understanding of the behaviour of clay under slow monotonic, few studies of clay
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GEO-012-2
soils have included accurate measurement of pore water pressure, because of the low
permeability of clays and the corresponding long response time for pore water pressure
measurement.
KEYWORDS

Pore pressure, rate effect, clay, monotonic loading, stress, compression.
1 INTRODUCTION

The aim of the present work is to assess the behaviour of pore water pressure under
triaxial compression loading.
Compared to the monotonic loading, under earthquake loading the drainage paths for
excess pore pressure dissipation in clay of a deep excavation are comparatively long.
Considerable excess pore water pressure may develop as a result. Accordingly, it is
reasonable and conservative to assume completely undrained conditions.
Anderson et al A series of undrained strain-controlled monotonic triaxial tests carried
out on an undisturbed plastic marine clay (Drammen clay) [1] at a strain rate of 0.05
%/min. They suggested that the difference in undrained strengths may be the result of
the anisotropic preconsolidation and the different stress paths.
Craig [2], conducted a series of undrained triaxial compression tests on saturated
remoulded clay.
He observed a linear relation between strength and the logarithm of time to failure
(between 0.002 and 270 minutes) and that a ten-fold decrease in time to failure caused a
% increase in shear strength. He also reported that, for strain-controlled tests, the
increase in shear strength could be as much as 10%, or higher.
While it is evident that the most obvious undrained shearing resistance may be obtain
from tests on identically prepared samples at different controlled strain rates, the time
requirement associated with slow rates of testing is of a major inconvenience. To
overcome this problem, two other methods of testing can be introduced.
A step-changing procedure: Richardson and Whitman [3]introduced this technique in
which the strain rate applied to a sample is step-changed during a test. Each strain rate
would be applied only long enough to establish the stress-strain relationship for that
stage of the test. remoulded samples do not agree precisely with results from constant
rate tests.
B Kenny ,as reported by Graham [4] developed the step-changing and relaxation
method suitable for the determination of the strain rate effect from a single sample. The
difference between the two methods is that the sample tested with the second method
would go through a period a relaxation after each strain rate application.
Graham et al [4] used the step-changing and relaxation method to perform triaxial
compression and extension tests as well as simple shear tests on slightly
overconsolidated clays.
They reported a linear relation between strength and logarithm of rate. They also
reported that undrained shear strengths decrease with decreasing logarithm of strain
rate. Crawford [5] reported that there was a significant influence of the strain rate on
pore water pressure at failure, and that the high pore pressure in a slow test may be due
to a secondary consolidation effect because more time was allowed for structural
breakdown . He added that a number of tests in which the deviator stress was held
constant for several hours in which the strain was held constant were carried out. He
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GEO-012-3
reported that under constant deviator stress the pore pressure continued to rise, whereas
under a constant strain condition, the pore pressure decreased. He concluded that pore
pressures are dependent on strain and may be considerably influenced by sample
disturbance and isotropic conditions.
Discussing the data reported by M.I.T and Harvard University, Whitman [4] suggested
that as rate increases, gradients of pore water pressure will be set up within the
undrained triaxial samples.
Thus, the pore water pressure within the central zone may be time dependent.
He also suggested that the mineral may, under rapidly applied loads, have a resistance to
compression approaching that of water. Such behaviour, he concluded, would be the
result of structural viscosity. If so, he continued, then the excess pore water pressures
set up during undrained shear in soft saturated soils would decrease.
2 EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS AND MATERIAL

The main laboratory equipments used in this research consisted of a conventional
102mm diameter sample triaxial cell, a conventional triaxial loading machine.
The mid-height pore water pressure measurements were made by means of a miniature
pressure transducer [6]. Cowden clay was used in this investigation.
The index properties, as reported in reference [7], are as follows: Liquid limit=44%;
Plastic= 19%; Plasticity index=25%; Clay fraction(D<0.002mm)=32%; Activity.78; C
V
of remoulded soil (
V
= 480kN/m
2
); m
v
=1.5m
2
/yr.
One final consolidation pressure of 600kN/m
2
was used for preparing remoulded
samples of Cowden. The preparation procedure was as described below.
The vertical consolidation pressure was applied by means of hydraulic pressure
The cell allowed top and bottom drainage.
3 DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS

In this investigation only samples of 102 mm in height by 102 mm in diameter were
used. The free ends (lubricated end platens) technique was used because of its
simplicity and reliability in maintaining a much greater uniformity of stress and
deformation throughout a monotonic compression test.
In the present work, both base and mid-height pore pressure measurements were
carried out. The mid-height pore pressure measurements were carried out by means of a
piezometer probe Druck-transducer mounted flush with the cylindrical surface of the
sample at mid-height. For convenience, pore water pressure results are presented as in
Figure, in terms of plots of excess pore water pressure U
M
and U
B

U
M
= excess
pore pressure measured at the mid-height of the sample; U
B
= excess pore pressure
measured at the base) against axial strain at different strain rates.
The author believes that due to its quick response and adjacent position to the sample,
the miniature Druck transducer consistently measures accurately the pore water
pressure existing at the transducer/clay interface and that the base (Bell and Howell)
transducer may be inaccurate in fast tests due to its remoteness and slow response. Even
in slow tests a difference between the pore water pressure developed at the base and
mid-height can occur due to non-uniform Stress/strain conditions.
These real differences will be greater in faster tests and the observed difference may be
even greater due to inaccuracies in measurements of the Bell and Howell transducer.
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GEO-012-4
Figures.1 shows combined plots of U
M
, U
B
and D (deviator stress) versus axial strain
(
A
) for the tests Comp.1, whichn is similar to tests Comp.2, Comp.3, Comp.4.
I t can be deduced from plots of tests Comp 2 to Comp.4 that U, the magnitude of the
difference between mid-height and base pore pressure generation is larger at small
strains (
A
< 3%) than at large strains.
This is believed to be due to the rapid rate of change of the deviator stress at the start of
the test. However, in Figure1, for test Comp.1, large values of U are observed
throughout the test. This is considered to be erroneous and may be due to the low B
values associated with this test. It can be observed that, while tests Cornp.2, Comp.3
and Comp.4 achieved a fully saturated condition (B
M
= B
B
= 1), test Comp.1 achieved
B
M
= 0.93 and B
B
= 0.9. Bearing in mind the high compressibility of the soil skeleton,
these values probably indicate a significantly large loss of saturation.
A combined plot of excess mid-pressure(IJ
M
) versus axial strain (
A
) for the whole set
is performed. Curves for tests Comp.1 and Comp.2 peak at about. 1% axial strain,
whereas curves for whereas curves for2% and 2.8% axial strain respectively.
It can also be seen that tests Comp.1 and Comp. 2 had higher peak IJ
M
than tests
Comp. 3 and Comp. Also indicated by an arrow for each test is the excess pore pressure
at maximum deviator stress. It. is seen that tests Comp. I, Comp. 2 developed higher
excess pore pressure at maximum deviator stress than test Comp. 3.

However, test Comp.4, although run at the fastest strain rate of 0.3%/min shows higher
excess pore pressure at maximum deviator stress than test Comp.3.
All compression tests presented in Figure 2 show a dilatant behaviour which is a feature
associated with an overconsolidation state.
The author believes that, due to the difference in the initial effective stress (
o
) from
one sample to another, resulting from the sample preparation process, a better
comparison of pore water pressure behaviour could be obtained by plotting U
M
/
0

versus axial strain (
A
), as shown in Figure 3 (test Comp.1 has not been included in
Figure 3 because of its low B values.) It is seen that all the curves show similar peak
values of U
M
/
o
.However, when the final pore water pressure is expressed in terms of
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GEO-012-5
a ratio (U
MC
/
O
'), it is clear that, both in compression and tension increasing strain rate
results in an increasing dilation.
The pore water pressure behaviour discussed clearly suggest that samples used for
monotonic testing were lightly over-consolidated. This is due to the sampling process
(no further reconsolidation in the triaxial cell was carried out).
The over-consolidation ratios (OCRs) for the monotonic tests were computed by
dividing the maximum effective stress in the dometer P
max
, assuming k
0
= 1/2 for
normally consolidated clays, by the initial effective stress in the triaxial cell.
The author believes that at strain rates of 0.03 and 0.3%/min correct failure pore
pressures were still measured. If these are higher than the true values due to pore water
pressure gradients, then the effective stress paths would be closer to the origin than they
should be.
4 CONCLUSIONS

Under monotonic (compression and tension) loading the normalised shear strength
(D
max
/
0
) at failure increased with increasing strain rate.
The effective failure envelope inferred from the slowest monotonic compression tests
had C=0; = 23.4 in compression.
The limited amount of data indicate that increasing strain rate may affect C and .
Accurate mid-height pore water pressures relevant to failure conditions were
consistently measured.
Expressed in terms of the initial effective stress, the excess pore pressure at failure
decreased with increasing strain rate. In terms of effective stress, the increase in shear
strength with increasing strain rate may be partly explained by the reduction of pore
pressure at failure and partly by strain rate effects on C and parameters.
5 REFERENCES

[1] ANDERSEN, K.H., POOL, J.S, BROWN, S.F., ROSENBRAND, W.F. Cyclic
and static laboratory tests on Dramen clay, Proc. A.S.C.E, Vol 106, No UTS,
499-529. 1980.
[2] CRAIG, W.H. Strain rate and viscous effects in physical models. Proc. Conf
.Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Eng., Southampton, 351-365. 1982.
[3] RICHARDSON, A.M., WHITMAN, E.V., Effect of strain rate upon undrained
shear resistance of saturated remoulded fat clays, Geotechnique, Vol No.4,
310-324. 1983.
[4] GRAHAM, J CROOKS, J.H.A., BELL, A.L. Time effects on the stress
behaviour of natural clay. Gotechnique, Vol 33, Mc 3, 327-340. 1983.
[5] CRAWFORD C.B. The influence of rate of strain on effective stresses in a
sensitive clay, Soc. Testings Mat., Special Technical Pub. No. 254, 36-61.
1959.
[6] WHITMAN, E.V.Some consideration and data regarding the shear strength
of clays, Colorado, 581- 614.1960.
[7] BJERRUM, L., Geotechnical problems involved in foundation structures
in the North Sea. Geotechnique, Vol 23, No.3. 319-358. 1973. [geotech
journal. Vol 26 n 1 page 122-131.(1989.
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GEO-013-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF THE DYNAMIC
interaction effects between two surface foundations

A. BOUMEKIK
Department of Civil Engineering, Constantine University
Route Ain Al Bey, Constantine, P.O. Box 25000, Algeria
E-mail: ahboumekik@hotmail.com
H. HASSIS
Department of Civil Engineering, Enit, El-Manar University
Le Belveder, Tunis, P.O. Box 1002, Tunisia
E-mail: hedi.hassis@enit.rnu.tn
B. SBARTAI
Department of Civil Engineering, Skikda University
Al hadaik, Skikda, P.O. Box 21000, Algeria
E-mail: bsbartai@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT
In this paper, a three-dimensional numerical approach, based on the combination of
Boundary Element Method and Thin Layer Method, is used to study the the dynamic
interaction effects between two surface ajacent foundations. The foundations are placed
on the surface of a homogeneous soil layer limited by a substratum. Two modes of
vibrations are considered in the study: horizontal and rocking modes. The approach
consists of an appropriate discretisation of the foundation-soil-foundation domain, and
has the advantage to transform the force displacement relationship from an integral
equation formulation to a linear system of equations, for which the displacements are
expressed as unknowns. The foundation-soil-foundation interaction effects are
formulated in the study through the coupling compliance matrices of foundations. This
approach has been applied to characterize the dynamic interaction effects. Obtained
results show the importance of these effects on the response of each foundation
especially when the two foundations are very close .
KEYWORDS
Discretisation, foundation, interaction, load, soil, response, vibration.
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GEO-013-2
1 INTRODUCTION
The machines as turbo - alternators, compressors, pumps, etc. constitute a dynamic
sources for the supporting foundation. The generated vibrations are transmitted through
the foundation, to the soil and from the soil to ajacent structures. If the vibrations are
not sufficiently absobed by the soil or by special disigned isolators, the transmitted
motion may adversely affect the stability of surrounding soil and structures.
Thus, a correct evaluation of foundations performance and stability, requires the use of
methods that are capable to incorporate the interaction effect with environment. The
foundation-soil-fondation dynamic interaction is by nature a wave propagation problem.
The motion propagation in the soil medium is governed by the elastodynamic
equations. Because of mixed boundary conditions (i.e. rigid body displacement under
the foundations and none traction elsewhere on the soil surface), the analytical solution
of the problem is difficult if not possible, even for simple cases.
Numerical formulation are more efficient to overcome this difficulty and are very
appropriate to treat more complex cases of dynamic foundations: embedded
foundations, layered soil, non linearity etc.. [1]
Finite Element Method is very suitable for analysis of soil-structure-interaction
problems. However, special boundaries must be introduced in the model totake into
account the wave radiation in the infinite soil medium.This method has been extensively
applied by several researchers for various problems of dynamic foundations, [2], 3], [4].
This technique, has been also used in conjunction with consistent boundaries to analyse
the interaction between two foundations subjected to harmonic forces [5]. Due to the
substantial computational effort required by the 3D simulation : most investigations are
limited to the 2D formulation.
The Boundary Elements Method (BEM), seems to be more attractive since the
discretisation scheme is limited to the soil-foundation interfaces and soil layer
interfaces, resulting then in a drastic reduction in unknowns to be determined. The
frequency domain BEM formulation, has been applied by several researchers to analyse
the soil-structure interaction [6], [7], [8]. This approach has been also combined with
the Finite Element Method [9], [10], or with the Thin Layer Method (TLM) [11], for
analysis of the dynamic soil-foundation interaction problems, for semi infinite or
layered soils [12], [13].
In this work, a 3D frequency domain BEM formulation in conjunction with TLM, is
used to study the dynamic interaction between two adjacent foundations, resting on the
surface of a soil layer limited by a substratum. The foundation-soil-foundation
interaction is studied for two modes of vibrations: the horizontal translation mode and
the rocking mode. In this approach, only the soil-foundation interfaces and a part of the
soil domain between the foundations, are discretized. The interaction effects are
investigated for variable distance between the two structures, by using the compliance
functions of the foundations. Obtained numerical results were compared to published
results and showed good agreement. The analysis of numerical results, demonstrates
the importance of these ineraction effects on the response of each foundation
especially if the foundations are closely spaced.
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GEO-013-3
2 NUMERICAL FORMULATION OF THE MODEL
2.1 Continous model
The foundation soil-foundation model is shown on Figure 1. The two ajacent
foundations with same rectangular cross section (2bx2l), are subjected to a harmonic
force (applied in the x direction), and rocking moment acting in the vertical plane. For
the simplicity of presentation, only the loads on the first foundation are represented. The
foundations are placed on the surface of visco-elastic soil layer of depth H, overlaying a
bedrock.
The soil layer is charcterized by : shear modulus G, mass density , Poissons ratio
and hysteric damping coefficient
In fact, the dynamic interaction effects are caused by the transmision of vibrations from
the source (foundation) to the surrounding medium, and constitutes a wave
propagation problem with mixed boundary conditions (rigid displacement at the
interface, free traction elsewhere). The solution of this type of problems may be,
formulated through the boundary integral equation as:

dS t U u . .
= (1)
Where;U
Greens functions, at point due to a harmonic load applied at point

u
displacements point
t
distributed harmonic load

As long as the model is continuous, equation (1) remains difficult to evaluate. However,
if the model is appropriately discretised, this equation may be transformed to an
algebraic system of linear equations with displacements as unknowns.

2.2 Discrete model
The numerical formulation of the problem by the combination of Boundary Elements
Method the Thin Layer Method requires to use two distcretisation procedures The
discretisation procedure is shown on Figure 2.

Fig. 1: foundation-soil- foundation model
H
Foundation 1 Foundation 2
Soil layer
, , , G
z
y
l
b b
x
Px

M
y
d
l
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GEO-013-4
H
d
2l
2b
Thin layer
In the first discretisation, the soil layer is subdivided in the vertical direction into a
number of thin layers. The thickness is taken very small, in such manner that the
displacement could be assumed to vary linearly within each thin layer, with sufficient
accuracy. This discretisation provide the Greens functions of the discrete soil
medium according to the work of Kausel et al [14].
For the second discretisation, only the foundation interfaces are dicretised in horizontal
direction into a number of square elements with small sides compared to the
dimensions of the foundation. Under this condition, the distribution of forces on the
elements could be assumed uniform, without significant errors. The average
displacement of the element is approximate to the displacement of the centre.Within the
discrete model, equation (1) is transformed to a linear system of equations where
unknowns are the displacements:

dS t U u
t
N
. .
1

=
= (2)
Where; N
t
total nombre of discrete elements of the model
2.3 Formulation of the Force Displacement relationship
The flexibility matrix for the discrete medium, could be assembled from the influence
coefficients, calculated from equation (2) by sucessive application of unit distributed
load on all elements. This matrix is written in a form that can separate the mutual
effetcts between foundations 1 and 2.
[ ]

=
22 21
12 11
F F
F F
F
t
(3)
Where; F
ii
(2N
i
x2N
i
) flexibility matrix of the soil foundation interface, i (i =1,2)
F
12
(2N
1
x 2N
2
) , F
21
(2N
2
x 2N
1
) coupling matrices for medium 1 and 2
N
1
, N
2
number of discrete elements of soil foundation interface 1 and 2
Clearly, the coupling matrices F
12
and F
21
. disappear if the interaction between the
foundation is not taken into account.
The same separate form is used in the expression of the force displacement
relationship:

Fig. 2: Horizontal and vertical discretisation scheme
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GEO-013-5
{ } [ ] { } [ ] { }
2 12 1 11 1
. . t F t F d + = (4-a)
{ } [ ] { } [ ] { }
1 21 2 22 2
. . t F t F d + = (4-b)
Where;{t
1
} (2N
1
x 2), {t
2
} (2N
2
x 2) applied load vectors, for medium 1 and 2
{d
1
} (2N
1
x 2), {d
2
} (2N
2
x 2) corespoding displacement vectors
In order to account for the interaction effects, compatibility condition between the soil
and foundation (rigid body motion) must be imposed to the elements at the interface.
This condition is simply formulated as:
{ } [ ]{ }
1 1 1
. D R d = (5-a)
{ } [ ]{ }
2 2 2
. D R d = (5-b)
Where; {D
i
} = {
i
,
i
}
t
rigid body vector of foundation, i (i =1,2)

i
, horizontal and rotation degrees of freedom

i
rotation degrees of freedom
[R
i
] transformation matrices, formed from coordinates of elements, with
dimensions (2N
i
x 2).
The rigid body conditions (5), requires a consistent pattern of distribution, which must
balance the external loads applied to the foundations. This equilibrium condition is
expressed as:
{ } [ ] { }
1 1 1
. t R P
t
= (6-a)
{ } [ ] { }
2 2 2
. t R P
t
= (6-b)
Where; {P
i
} = {P
xi
, M
yi
}
t
external load vectors for the foundations i
P
xi
horizontal force
M
yi
rocking moment

2.3 Numerical Response of Foundations
From minor transformations, relations (4), (5), and (6), give the relation between the
external loads and the rigid body displacements:
{ } [ ] { } [ ] { }
2 12 1 11 1
. . D K D K P + = (7-a)
{ } [ ] { } [ ] { }
1 21 2 22 2
. . D K D K P + = (7-b)
Where; K
ii
(2x2) impedance matrix of foundation i
K
12
(2x2) coupling impedance matrix of unloaded foundation
This relation illustrate clearly the mutual dependance of the numerical responses of two
ajacent loaded foundations, expressed through the coupling impedance matrix.
In particular case of machine foundation transmitting the vibration to a surounding
unloaded foundation, (P
2
= 0), relation. (7-a) becomes:
{ } [ ] { } [ ] { }
1 21 2 22
. . 0 D K D K + = (8)
Then, from relations (7-a), and (8), the nuerical responses may be expressed directy by
using the compliance functions of the foundations
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GEO-013-6
{ } [ ] { }
1 11 1
. P C D = (9-a)
{ } [ ] { }
1 11 1
. P C D = (9-b)
Where; C
11
(2x2): compliance matrix of foundation 1
C
12
(2x2): coupling compliance matrix of unloaded foundation
The last relation expresses the dynamic response of the two foundations and illustrates
clearly the effect of the mutual interaction on this response trough the compliance
matrices which are depending on both dynamic soil properties and dimensions of
foundations.
If the interaction effect is neglected, (D
2
=0), relation (9-a) gives directly the dynamic
response of single foundation.
The numerical formulation presented herein is completely implemented in a computer
program in Fortran, and could be applied to calculate numerical response for the general
of two loaded foundations.
The following application, will use the dimensionless compliance functions c
ij
defined
as:
11 11
C Gb c = (10-a)
12
2
12
C Gb c = (10-b)
Where; c
11
horizontal compliance function of foundation 1
c
12
coupling compliance function

3 RESULTS
3.1 Validation of the model
The present results are compared against those obtained by Karabalis et al.[14], by
using the 3-D frequency domain BEM formulation.
The comparison concerns the case of a square foundations of unit side (b =1/2), loaded
by a unit horizontal force P
x
= 1 and placed at the distance ratio d/b = 2 from a free
foundation having the same size. The foundation are resting on the surface of a semi-
infinite soil. The dimensionless compliance obtained by the present numerical study are
represented on Figure 3 as functions of the dimensionless frequency a
0
= b/2C
s
. The
curves show a good agreement between present results and those reported in previous
reference .
3.2 Application
This application analyses the dynamic interaction effects for various ditances between
the two surface foundations. The first foundation is loaded by unit horizontal force P
x
=
1 and unit moment M
y
= 1, while the second is free . The soil layer is characterized by:
= 1, G = 1 , = 0.333 and = 0.05. To minimize the reflecting effects from the
substratum, the depth ratio was fixed to H/b = 8 which corresponds to a relatively
deep substratum. The soil layer properties are = 0.333 and = 0.05, with unit values
for and G.
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GEO-013-7

-0,03
0,01
0,05
0,09
0,13
0,17
0,21
0,25
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
a
o
c
11
; c
12
present study c12
Karabalis c12
Karabalis c11
Present study c11

Fig.3: Variation Validation of used model

0
0,02
0,04
0,06
0,08
0,1
0,12
0,14
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
a
o
c
11
d/b=2
d/b=4
d/b=6
d/b=8

Fig.4 Variation of the dynamic response of loaded foundation for various distance ratio
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GEO-013-8
The numerical responses of the two foundations are calculated from relations (9), using
the dimensionless compliances functions c
11
and

c
12
defined in the relation (10).The
dynamic responses are reported on Figure 4 (loaded foundation), and Fig. (5)
(unloaded foundation). The results are presented as function of dimensionless
frequency a
0
= b/2C
s
, for various values of the distance ratio (d/b = 2, 4, 6, 8).

4 CONCLUSION
In this paper, the Boundary Element Method was combined with Thin Layer Method
to study the effects of foundation-soil-foundation interaction on the dynamic response
of ajacent foundations. In this approach, only the soil-foundations interfaces and a
limited domain of the soil were apropriately discretised. The numerical responses
derived from the discrete model were presented in a form of impedance or compliance
matrix, where the coupling terms are expressing the dynamic interaction effects
between the two foundations. This study illustrates the significant effect of the
foundation-soil-foundation interaction on the response of foundations. To this end, it is
recommended to take into account this phenomenon for the study of special
structure.The analysis of numerical responses of the two foundations, calculated at
different distance from the excited foundation showed that the unloaded foundation is
much more sensitive to the effects of dynamic interaction. These effects are amplified
when the two foundations are close, and become insignificant for large distances. In
contrast, for loaded foundation, these effects have less influence on the dynamic
response.

-0,04
-0,02
0
0,02
0,04
0,06
0,08
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
ao
c
12

d/b=2

d/b=4

Fig.5 Variation of the dynamic response of free foundation for various distance ratio
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GEO-013-9
6 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful to the Ministry of higher education and scientific research for
supporting this work under grant NJ0400920070143.
7 NOTATIONS
C compliance matrix
F flexibility matrix
H depth [m]
G shear modulus [kN/cm]
K impedance matrix
M
y
rocking moment [kN-m]
P
x
horizontal[kN]
a
0
dimensionless frequency
b half width of foundation [m]
d distance between foundation [m]
damping coefficient
angular frequency [sec
-1
]

REFERENCES
[1] Gazetas G. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 27 12, (1983) 432-457.
[2] Kausel, E., Roesset , J.M. and Waas, G. Journal of Engeneering Mechanical
101, (1975)679-693.
[3] Emperador, J.M, Dominguez, J. Journal Earthquake Engineering and Structural
Dynamics 8, (1989)1105-1117.
[4] Wegner J.L.,Yao M. and Zhang X. Computer and Structures 83, (2005) 2206-
2214.
[5] Lin H.T, Roesset J.M and Tassoulas J.L. Earthquake Engineering and Structural
Dynamics 15, (1987) 323-343.
[6] Beskos D.E. Applied Mechanics review 50, (1997)149-197.
[7] Qian J, Tham L.G and Cheung Y.K. Journal of Sound and Vibration 214 (4),
(1998) 747-759.
[8] Karabalis,D.L., Mohammadi, M. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 17,
(1998) 139-152.
[9] Wang, S., Schmid G. Computational Mechanics 9, (1992) 305-314.
[10] Yazdchi M., Khalili N.

and Valliapan S.

Soil Dynamics and Earthquake
Engineering 18 (7) , (1999) 499-517.
[11] Nogami T. Kazama M. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 16 (5), (1997)
337-351.
[12] Boumekik, A., Nujens, J. And Constantopoulos, I.C. Proceedings of the 50
th

International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. San
Fransisco, (1986) 712-720.
[13] Sbartai B., Boumekik, A. Iset Journal of Earthquake Earthquake Technology 45
(3-4), (2008).
[14] Kausel, E, Peek, R. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 72,
(1982)1459-1480.
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GEO-014-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





THE ROLE OF SMALL STRAIN CONSTITUTIVE MODEL FOR
PREDICTING DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT ABOVE TUNNELS

FATHALLA M. EL-NAHHAS AND YASSER M. EL-MOSSALLAMY
Geotechnical Engineering and Foundations, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt

ABSTRACT
Constructing a soft ground tunnel changes the state of stresses in the soil (or soft rock)
mass resulting in associated strain and deformation fields. The main geotechnical
challenge during tunnelling is to keep the deformations of existing nearby structures
within acceptable limits. The use of bentonite slurry Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs)
has contributed to achieving this task during advancing urban tunnels through water-
bearing sand deposits. Several designs of these machines have been utilized to advance
several kilometres of relatively large size urban tunnels under the Greater Cairo, Egypt
for the Cairo Wastewater Spine Tunnel, Lines 2 and 3 of Cairo Metro Tunnels as well
as Al-Azhar Road Tunnels. Numerical modelling using different 2D and 3D finite
element techniques has been successfully used to represent almost all the construction
details and to predict the overall deformation field around such tunnels. In particular,
the maximum settlement directly above the tunnel centreline can be accurately
calculated during the design stages using the available numerical techniques. However,
prediction of the associated differential settlement, along the settlement trough at/or
near the ground surface, has been less accurate and tends to be on the unsafe side.
This paper focuses on the potential of using a constitutive law utilizing the small strain
stiffness to model the unique deformation field around such tunnels in order to predict a
more reliable settlement trough that can be used to assess the structural safety of
existing adjacent buildings and other structures.

KEYWORDS
Tunnelling, Water-Bearing Sand, Bentonite Slurry TBM, Settlement Trough, Finite
Element, Constitutive Law, Small Strain Stiffness

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GEO-014-2
1 INTRODUCTION
Increased demand on transport facilities in dissecting cities, leads to the construction of
kilometres of tunnels in big cities like Cairo, Egypt. The construction of the metro lines
in Cairo began more than 25 years ago (Abdel Salam, 1984). The first and second lines
are already in operation and the first phase of the third line is currently under
construction. Tunnels of these lines have been advanced below groundwater table
through alluvial sand deposits. The main geotechnical challenge during urban tunnelling
through water-bearing sand is to keep the deformation of neighbouring buildings and
structures within acceptable limits. At the design stage, this requires an accurate
prediction of the expected settlement trough above the tunnel taking into consideration
the proposed tunnelling technology and other construction details. The bentonite slurry
TBMs have proved their effectiveness in controlling ground loss during construction of
urban tunnels in the Greater Cairo (El-Nahhas, 2006). They contributed significantly to
fulfil both serviceability and stability requirements for the neighbouring structures and
utilities. The role of numerical analyses in modelling almost all the tunnelling
construction details has been established during the past two decades. However,
prediction of the associated differential settlement, along the settlement trough at/or
near the ground surface, has been less accurate and tends to be on the unsafe side for
tunnels constructed in different ground conditions using different construction
techniques (Ghaboussi et al., 1978, Eisenstein, 1986, El-Nahhas et al., 1997 and Ahmed
et al., 2003).
This paper discusses the effect of different constitutive laws such as elastic-perfectly
plastic, double hardening (with and without accounting for the small strain behaviour)
on the estimated settlement trough. The results are compared with the field
measurements compiled during the construction of the second line of Cairo Metro
where bentonite slurry machines were used to advance the tunnels through water-
bearing thick sand deposits. Closer matching between calculated settlement trough
using the small strain stiffness model and the measured settlement was achieved. It is
illustrated that constitutive model considering small strain can be used to predict the
unique deformation field around such tunnels more accurately.
2. GEOTECHNICAL CONSTITUTIVE LAWS
A constitutive law in geotechnical engineering is a hypothetical mathematical
relationship between induced stresses and soil (or rock) strains. The predicted soil
deformations depend mainly on the applied constitutive laws and the corresponding soil
parameters. Three different constitutive laws that are already implemented in different
available finite element programs will be applied to estimate the settlement trough of
tunnels as follows:
2.1 Elastic-perfect plastic model
The soil in this model behaves completely elastic till the failure stresses are reached
according to Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, then a plastic deformation takes place
(Fig. 1.a). This model is used as a basic model due to its simplicity. The elastic modulus
is stress independent in this model. Nevertheless, an increased elastic modulus with
depth can be adopted in this model to simulate the stress dependency in a simple way.
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GEO-014-3
2.2 Double hardening model
The shear and compression hardenings are considered in this model in addition to the
traditional Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion (Chanz et al. 1999 and Brinkgrave 2002).
The soil stiffness in this model depends on the stress level as well as on the stress path.
This model can distinguish between unloading and reloading behaviour of the soil (Fig.
1.b). The soil stiffness depends on the applied effective stress level according to the
following relationship:
m
ref
ref
c
c
E E
+
+
=

cot
cot
3
3
50 50
(1)
In which:
ref
E
50
: deformation modulus for primary loading (Reference value)
m: power in stiffness law
c: effective soil cohesion
: effective soil angle of internal friction

a- Elastic perfect plastic model b- double hardening model
Fig. 1: Constitutive laws to model the stress-strain behaviour of soil
This model is similar to the hyperbolic model that was originally developed by Duncan
and Chang (1970). The Duncan-Changs model is based on theory of elasticity applying
a tangent modulus that depends on the stress level. In contrast to the Duncan-Changs
model, the hardening soil model is based on theory of plasticity where the plastic
deformation can be either due to shearing or due to isotropic compression or due to
reaching the ultimate shear strength. Therefore, the plastic deformation is stress path
and stress level dependent. Hence, this model is more appropriate to analyze the soil
behaviour under stress release as in the case of tunnel construction (El-Mossallamy &
Stahlmann 1999).
2.3 Double hardening model concerning the soil small strain stiffness
This model is a further development of the above mentioned double hardening model
considering the increased stiffness of soils at small strains. At small strain levels, most
soils exhibit a higher stiffness than at higher strain levels. Therefore, an equivalent
elastic modulus for small strain coupled with degradation scheme that provides
nonlinear representation with increasing load level is applied in this model.
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GEO-014-4
It was found that soil stiffness detected by shear wave velocity (Vs) measurements can
be applied to the initial static monotonic loading, as well as the dynamic loading of soil
(Burland, 1989). Therefore, the dynamic shear modulus (G
dyn
) could be seen as the
maximum shear modulus, designated G
max
or G
o
, that provides upper limit stiffness.
This is a fundamental stiffness and can be measured in all soil types and fractured rocks.
The corresponding equivalent elastic modulus is determined from: E
o
= 2G
o
(1+)
where is the corresponding value of Poissons ratio of soil at small strains.
Figure 2 shows a typical relationship between the soil stiffness (G/G
o
) and the soil strain
in a semi-log scale according to Atkinson and Sallfors (1991). A characteristic S-shaped
stiffness reduction curve can be detected for most soil types. It can also be recognized
that soil stiffness corresponding to strain levels which can be reliably measured in
classical laboratory tests, i.e. triaxial tests and oedometer tests is often decreased to less
than half its initial value at small strain level.

Fig. 2: Relationship between soil shear modulus and shear strain
A hyperbolic relationship was applied to degrade the initial stiffness with increasing the
strain level (Hardin & Drnevich 1972 and Fahey & Carter, 1993). This relation can be
written as follows:
r
1
1
/
+
=
o
G G (2)
Santos & Correia (2001) suggested using the shear strain
r
=
0.7
at which the shear
modulus G
o
is reduced to 70 % of its initial value.
3. SETTLEMENT TROUGH ABOVE A TUNNEL CONSTRUCTED USING
BENTONITE SLURRY TBM
Bentonite slurry TBMs have been used to control the deformations of existing nearby
structures within acceptable limits during advancing urban tunnels through water-
bearing sand deposits. Several designs of these machines have been utilized to advance
several kilometers of relatively large size urban tunnels under the Greater Cairo, Egypt
for the Cairo Wastewater Spine Tunnel, Lines 2 and 3 of Cairo Metro Tunnels as well
as Al-Azhar Road Tunnels (El-Nahhas, 1993, 1999 and 2003). Figure 3 shows the
typical configuration of the TBMs used for the construction of tunnels of Cairo Metro
Line 2.
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GEO-014-5

Fig. 3: Bentonite slurry TBM used for construction of tunnels of
Cairo Metro Line 2
Numerical modeling using different 2D and 3D finite element techniques have been
successfully used to represent almost all the construction details and to predict the
overall deformation field around such tunnels (El-Nahhas, 1993, Ezzeldine, 1995,
Mansour, 1996, Esmail, 1997 and El-Sayed, 2001). In particular, the maximum
settlement directly above the tunnel centerline can be accurately calculated during the
design stages using the available numerical techniques. However, prediction of the
associated differential settlement, along the settlement trough at/or near the ground
surface, has been less accurate and tends to be on the unsafe side. As a practical interim
tool, El-Nahhas et al. (1997) proposed an empirical modification to the calculated
settlement trough from such numerical modeling before using it for assessment of the
structural safety of existing near-by structures.
The ability of different constitutive laws for predicting the full shape of the settlement
trough above bentonite slurry TBMs is investigated in this paper through a comparison
between measured and calculated settlement trough for a case history in Cairo, Egypt.
3.1 Greater Cairo Metro, Line 2
Greater Cairo metro Network consists of several lines, the first and second lines are
already constructed in the 1980s and 1990s. The first phase of the third line is
currently under construction. The tunnels were lined with precast reinforced concrete
segments assembled within the machine shield. The excavated tunnel diameter of Line 2
was about 9.4 m. An instrumented tunnel section south of El-Khalafawi station of Line
2 (Lot No. 12) will be considered in the present analysis. At this section, the tunnel axis
lies about 18 m below ground surface (Fig. 4). The subsoil condition consists of about 2
m of fill followed by medium to stiff clay and silt layer with thickness of about 8 to 12
m. A medium dense to very dense sand underlies the cohesive soil layer and changes to
a very dense sand at a depth of about 18 m below ground surface. This very dense sand
extends to great depth below the tunnel invert level. The groundwater table lies about
2 m below ground surface at this test section (Esmail, 1997).

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GEO-014-6

Fig. 4: Soil profile at lot no. 12 Metro line 2, Cairo
A plane strain finite element analysis using isoparametric triangular element with 15
nodes as available in Plaxis Software (Brinkgreve, 2002) was conducted to model the
tunnel performance. The tunnel lining was modeled utilizing shell elements. The used
finite element mesh with the geotechnical conditions of the site is shown in Figure 5.

Fig. 5: Utilized finite element mesh
The required soil parameters for both elastic-perfectly plastic and double hardening
models were defined according to the available results from the site investigation and
available experiences in similar soil conditions in Cairo. Table 1 summarizes the
selected soil parameters:

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GEO-014-7
Table 1: Geotechnical parameters of the different applied constitutive laws
a- Elastic-perfectly plastic model (Model 1/1, constant E with depth)
Soil parameter Fill Clay-Silt Medium
to dense sand
Very dense
sand
50
E [MN/m
2
] 10 15 30 50
[-] 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3
/ [kN/m
3
] 18/8 20/10 19/9 19/9
c
u
- 80 - -
c [kN/m
2
] 1 - 1 1
[] 30 - 33 35
k
o
[-] 0.5 0.8 0.46 0.43

Elastic-perfectly plastic model (Model 1/2, increased E with depth)
to dense sand
Very dense
sand
E [MN/m
2
] 10 15 30 + 2 z 50 + 4 z
Where z is the depth measured from the layer surface

b- Double hardening soil model
to dense sand
Very dense
sand
ref
E
50
[MN/m
2
] 10 15 30 50
ref
ur
E [MN/m
2
] 30 45 90 150
m [-] 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.5
R
f
[-] 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
/ [kN/m
3
] 18/8 20/10 19/9 19/9
c
u
- 80 - -
c [kN/m
2
] 1 - 1 1
[] 30 - 33 35
K
o
[-] 0.5 0.8 0.46 0.43

c- Small strain double hardening soil model
to dense sand
Very dense sand
0.7
[-]
2 x 10
-4
2 x 10
-4
2 x 10
-4
2 x 10
-4

o
G [MN/m
2
] 1.25 x 10
5
1.875 x 10
5
3.75 x 10
5
6.25 x 10
5

Where:
E Elastic modulus, Poissons ratio
ref
E
50
Primary loading stiffness
ref
ur
E Unloading/reloading stiffness
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GEO-014-8
ur
Unloading/reloading Poissons ratio = 0.2
K
o
Coefficient of earth pressure at rest
m Power in stiffness laws,
R
f
Failure ratio
c Cohesion, Angle of Internal friction
/ Total / Effective unit weight of soil
G
o
Initial shear modulus at small strain
0.7
Shear strain at which the shear modulus G
o
Based on initial experiences of this type of TBM in the encountered subsurface
condition of central areas of Cairo, the volume of ground surface settlement was
considered about 0.25 % of the tunnel volume. For tunnels in granular soil, the volume
of ground surface settlement is generally smaller than the volume of ground loss at the
tunnel due to dilation and arching effect that takes place above the tunnel crown (Ward
and Pender 1981). Considering this fact and the existing soil profile, a volume of
ground loss at the tunnel level of 0.5% is applied in the analyses. A sensitivity study
was performed to assess and confirm the values of some parameters that are difficult to
be accurately determined. These include the volume of ground loss, the coefficient of
earth pressure at rest, the initial shear strain or the strain at which the shear modulus G
o

is reduced to 70 % of its initial value. The results of this parametric study will be
discussed later in Section 3.3 of this paper.
3.2 Results of the case study
Figure 6 demonstrates a comparison between three different constitutive laws modeling
the stress-strain behavior of the soil of the selected case study of Lot 12 of Cairo Metro
Line 2. The settlement trough is defined here as the settlement at the upper surface of
the silt-clay layer.
Distance (m)
S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t

(
c
m
)
Measurements
1/1
2
3
1/1 Mohr Coulomb Model (MC) with constant E with depth for each layers
1/2 Mohr Coulomb Model (MC) with increased E with depth for sand layers
2 Double Hardening Model (HSM)
3 Small Strain Double Hardening Model (SHSM)
Tunnel C.L.
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
16
12
8
4
0
-4
1/2

Fig. 6: Comparison between different constitutive laws regarding
the settlement trough.
It can be recognized that a simple elastic-perfectly plastic model (the Mohr Coulomb
Model with constant E-Modulus with depth (Model 1/1) is unsuitable to determine
realistic settlement trough due to tunnelling. The elastic modulus of the soil is stress
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GEO-014-9
independent and the soil behaves as a linear elastic material till reaching the failure
conditions according to Mohr-Coulomb. These restrictions in the model make it
unsuitable to determine the complex behavior of soil due to tunnel activity. In case of
increasing E-Modulus with depth (Model. 1/2), the settlement trough seems to be more
realistic. Nevertheless, the results are very sensitive depending on the initial value of the
deformation modulus at the layer surface and its increase value with depth.
On the contrary, the double hardening model gives realistic results concerning the
settlement trough of soil surface. Nevertheless, the calculated settlement trough is flatter
than the measured values. Therefore, the differential settlement and hence the distortion
angle between two points on the settlement trough is underestimated applying the
double hardening model. The double hardening model with small strain leads to more
accurate estimation of the full shape of settlement trough. It should be noted that the
shape of settlement trough is a decisive design criterion for tunnelling in urban areas.
Figure 7 shows the trajectories of the principal stresses using the double hardening
model with small strain in comparison with only double hardening model. The arching
action above the tunnel crown is more pronounced in case of double hardening with
small strain than in case of conventional double hardening model.

a- Double hardening with small strain b- Double hardening
Fig. 7: Principal stress trajectories in case of double hardening model with and
without small strain
In case of Mohr-Coulomb with increasing E-Modulus with depth (MC 1/2), double
hardening (HSM) and double hardening with small strain (SHSM) models, the straining
actions have the same shape with different values. Table 2 summarizes the values of
maximum straining actions for the three models.
Table 2: Tunnel lining straining actions
Straining action MC Model 1/2 HSM SHSM
Max. Bending moment (kNm/m) 263.8 199.1 110
Max. Normal forces (kN/m) 1160 1160 941
Max. Shear forces (kN/m) 123.8 83.3 46.3
Where:
MC: Mohr-Coulomb Model (Model 1/2)
HSM: Double Hardening Soil Model
SHSM: Double Hardening Soil Model with small strain

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GEO-014-10
It can be recognized that there is a big difference in the lining straining actions
calculated by different constitutive laws. As the Mohr-Coulomb model gives small
deformations it is expected that the earth pressure acting on the tunnel lining applying
the MC Model is too high and hence the straining actions are overestimated. The
difference between the HSM and SHSM is mainly due to the strong arching in the
SHSM (figure 7). It is apparent that this point needs still more research to identify the
most realistic model regarding the lining straining actions. Nevertheless, it is
recommended to apply the traditional HSM to determine the straining actions.
3.3 Parametric study
The Mohr-Coulomb Model requires simple and conventional soil parameters (E-
Modulus, c and ). These parameters can be determined for most soil types and stated
in conventional geotechnical reports. In the case of double hardening model, additional
parameters are required (e.g.
ref
E
50
,
ref
ur
E and m). Nevertheless, there is a sound existing
experience with such parameters that can also be determined applying conventional
laboratory tests such as triaxial test. In contrary, the parameters applying the double
hardening model with small strain (e.g. G
o
and
0.7
) require special laboratory tests and
need certain experience with the model. Therefore, a parametric study showing the
sensitivity of these parameters on the results is given in the following paragraphs.
Effect of initial shear modulus at small strain
Several researches (Burland, 1989; Tatsuoka & Shibuya, 1992; LoPresti et al., 1993)
showed that the small-strain stiffness from shear wave velocity (Vs) measurements
applies to the initial static monotonic loading, as well as the dynamic loading of
geomaterials. Thus, the dynamic shear modulus (G
dyn
) has been renamed the maximum
shear modulus (G
o
). The corresponding equivalent elastic modulus is found from:
E
o
= 2 G
o
(1+) where = 0.2 is the approximate value of Poissons ratio at small
strains. There is different published correlation between soil type and the ratio of E
o
/E
stat

(e.g. Alpan 1970 and German recommendations for soil dynamic). Figure 8 shows the
effect of the chosen E
o
related to E
ur
on the results of the calculated settlement trough. A
reasonable range of stiffness ratio E
o
/E
stat
has a minor effect on the settlement trough.

Fig. 8: Effect of initial shear modulus at small strain
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GEO-014-11

Effect of initial shear modulus at small strain
The hyperbolic degradation function (Equation 2) depends on the chosen
r
. Value of
r

is variable depending on soil type (Vucetic et al. 1998, Stokoe and Santamarina, 2000
and Santos and Correia, 2001). Santos and Correia (2001) suggested using the shear
strain
r
=
0.7
at which the shear modulus G
o
Figure 9 demonstrates the effect of
r
on the predicted settlement trough. The results
show that the settlement trough is not sensitive to the value of
r
. This is due to the
nature of the problem where the induced strain due to tunnelling, particularly with
bentonite slurry TBMs, is not too high and the developed shear strength is relatively
small.

Fig. 9: Shear strain at which the shear modulus Go is reduced to 70 %
of its initial value

Effect of ground loss
Ground loss due to tunnelling is a major design parameter of tunnels in urban areas. The
settlement induced on ground surface, and hence the risk of damages of existing
structures, depends mainly on the ground loss due to tunnelling.
Figure 10 demonstrates the settlement trough due to different values of ground losses.
The results show the high dependence of the shape of settlement trough on the ground
loss. As stated in Section 3.1, a volume of ground loss at the tunnel level of 0.5% was
selected in the analysis of the case study based on initial experiences of this type of
TBM in the encountered subsurface condition of central areas of Cairo.

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GEO-014-12

Fig. 10: Effect of ground loss

Effect of coefficient of earth pressure at rest of the clay-silt layer
The tunnel lies completely in granular soil (medium to very dense sand). K
o
-values for
sand deposits are well established in the geotechnical literature and common practice. A
thick layer of clay-silt exists above the tunnel crown. Clay and silt formations in central
Cairo are in most cases Nile sediments that exhibit an overconsolidation nature due to
aging and/or cementations. It is difficult to determine the coefficient of earth pressure at
rest of these formations. However, its value is essential for calculating the initial
stresses in the soil mass. Figure 11 presents the effect of K
o
of the clay-silt layer on the
settlement trough. In the studied case, the K
o
-value of the clay-silt layer has almost no
effect on the shape of the settlement trough. It should be emphasized that this is a
special case where the clay-silt layer lies above the tunnel crown. It is expected,
however, that in cases where the tunnel runs through or intersects a clay layer, the K
o
-
value has a pronounced effect on both straining actions of the lining and on the shape of
the settlement trough.

Fig. 11: Effect of coefficient of earth pressure at rest of the Clay-Silt layer
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GEO-014-13
4. CONCLUSIONS
The shape of the settlement trough is a decisive design criterion for tunnelling in urban
areas. Bentonite slurry TBMs have been used to control the ground deformations during
advancing urban tunnels through water-bearing sand deposits. Estimating of the
maximum settlement as well as the expected differential settlement within near-by
structures are the most important factors for choosing the required additional measures
for structural safety of these structures.
Advanced numerical models with enhanced constitutive laws describing the stress-strain
behavior of soil mass are becoming a main part of each tunnel design. Choosing the
appropriate constitutive law is a basic important design step. It is illustrated in the
presented case history that the double hardening model can be considered as a realistic
model dealing with both straining action of tunnel lining as well as prediction of
settlement trough. Nevertheless, this model underestimates the predicted differential
settlements (distortion angle) at or near the ground surface. On the other hand, the
double hardening model with small strain can give more realistic results concerning the
settlement trough. Nevertheless, there is still a need for more experience with this model
especially regarding the straining action of the lining. This point needs more research.
The elastic perfect plastic (Mohr-coulomb) model with constant E-Modulus should not
be applied dealing with problems where the soil deformation parameters are highly
dependent on the stress path and stress level such as due to stress release (e.g. tunnelling
and deep pit excavation). In such cases, this simple model leads to completely
unrealistic deformations. An increasing E-Modulus with depth can enhance the
performance of this model. Nevertheless, it should be emphasized that the simple
elastic-perfectly plastic model can work relatively good in other cases such as shallow
foundations, single pile analyses or estimating bearing capacity (ultimate conditions) or
stability analyses of slopes. In most these cases, a realistic estimation of the governed
elastic modulus and shear strength parameters is essential to get realistic results.
The conducted analyses show that the most effective way to control settlement trough
due to tunnel activity is to reduce the induced ground loss to minimum values, for
instance; using bentonite slurry TBMs. Special additional measures, such as grouting
through the TBM tail, can be also very effective in reducing the undesired detrimental
effect of settlement on neighboring structures.
5. REFERENCES
Abdel Salam, M. E. (1984) "Grouting of alluvial soil in Cairo underground metro".
Proc. of Conf. on Tunnelling in Soft and Water Bearing Ground, A. A. Balkema,
pp. 135-142.
Ahmed, A. A., Ali, H., El-Sayed, S., and Nour, S. (2003) "Neuronal prediction of
tunnelling induced settlements. " Proc. of the Tenth Int. Colloquium on
Structural and Geotechnical Eng., Ain Shams Univ., Cairo, Paper No. GE37.
Atkinson, J.H. and Sallfors, G. (1991) "Experimental determination of soil properties."
Proc. 10th ECSMFE, Florence, Vol. 3, pp. 915-956
Alpan, I. (1970) "The geotechnical properties of soils." Earth-Science Reviews 6, 5-49.
Brinkgrave, R.B.J. (2002). "Plaxis manual." Balkema, Rotterdam
Burland, J.B. (1989). "Small is beautiful: The stiffness of soils at small strains."
Canadian Geotechnical Journal 26 (4), 499-516.
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GEO-014-14
Chanz, T., Vermeer, P.A. and Bonnier P.G. (1999) "Formulation and verification of the
hardening soil model." Proceeding of the International Symposium Beyond 2000
in Computational Geotechnics: Beyond 2000 in Computational Geotechnics -
10 Years of PLAXIS International, Balkema, Rotterdam.
Duncan, J.M. and Chang, Y. (1970). "Nonlinear analysis of stress and strain in soils."
ASCE, Vol. 96, SM, pp. 1629-1654.
Eisenstein, Z. (1986). "The contribution of numerical analysis to the design of shallow
tunnels. " Proc. of Conf. on Geotechnical Modeling in Engineering Practice, pp.
135-165.
El-Mossallamy, Y.; Stahlmann, J. (1999) "Monitoring and numerical analysis of tunnels
in complex geological conditions." Proceeding of the International Symposium
Beyond 2000 in Computational Geotechnics: Beyond 2000 in Computational
Geotechnics - 10 Years of PLAXIS International, Balkema, Rotterdam.
El-Nahhas, F. (1993) "Tunnelling under Cairo using bentonite slurry machines. " Proc.
of Int. Congress on Options for Tunnelling. Amsterdam, ITA, Elsevier Science
Publishers B. V., pp. 351-361.
El-Nahhas, F.; Ahmed, A.; and Esmail, K. (1997) "Prediction of ground subsidence
above tunnels in Cairo. " Proc. of Fourteenth International Conf. on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Eng., Hamburg, Germany, A. A. Balkema, Vol. 3,
pp. 1453- 1456.
El-Nahhas, F. (1999) "Soft ground tunnelling in Egypt: geotechnical challenges and
expectations. " Journal of Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology,
Pergamon Press, Vol. 14, No. 3, 245-256.
El-Nahhas, F. (2003) "Geotechnical aspects of controlling groundwater levels in urban
areas. " A Keynote Paper, Proc. of the Tenth Int. Colloquium on Structural and
Geotechnical Eng., Ain Shams Univ., Cairo, Vol. 6, KL4.
El-Nahhas, F. M. (2006) "Tunnelling and supported deep excavations in the Greater
Cairo. " Int. Symposium on Utilization of Underground Space in Urban Areas,
ETS & ITA, Sharm El-Sheikh, pp. 27-56.
El-Sayed, S. (2001) "Elasto-plastic three-dimensional analysis of shielded tunnels. "
Ph.D. Thesis, Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering, Ain Shams University,
Cairo, Egypt.
Esmail, K. (1997) "Numerical modeling of deformations around closed face tunnelling
boring machines." Ph. D. Thesis, Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering, Ain
Shams University, Cairo, Egypt.
Ezzeldine, O. (1995) "Design of tunnels constructed using pressurized shield methods. "
Ph. D. Thesis, Geotechnical Engineering, University of Alberta, Canada.
Fahey, M. and Carter, J. (1993). "A finite element study of the pressuremeter using a
nonlinear elastic plastic model". Canadian Geotechnical Journal 30 (2), 348-362.
German recommendations for soil dynamic (2001) "Empfehlung des Arbeitskreises 1.4
Baugrunddynamik der Deutschen Gesellschaft fr Geotechnik e.V. (DGGT)"
Ghaboussi, J., Ranken, R. E., and Karshenas, M. (1978) "Analysis of subsidence over
soft-ground tunnels. " Proc. of International Conf. on Evaluation and Prediction
of Subsidence, ASCE, Florida, pp. 182-196.
Hardin, B.O. and Drnevich, V.P. (1972). "Shear modulus and damping in soils. "
Journal of the Soil Mechanics & Foundations Div. (ASCE) 98 (7), 667-692.
-157-

GEO-014-15
LoPresti, D.C.F., Pallara, O., Lancellotta, R., Armandi, M., and Maniscalco, R. (1993).
"Monotonic and cyclic loading behavior of two sands at small strains." ASTM
Geotechnical Testing Journal 16 (4), 409-424.
Mansour, M. (1996) "Three dimensional numerical modeling of hydroshield tunnelling.
" Ph. D. Thesis, University of Innsbruck, Austria.
Santos, J.A. and. Correia, A.G (2001) "Reference threshold shear strain of soils.
Application to obtain a unique strain-dependent shear modulus curve for soils".
Proc. 15th SMGE, Istanbul, Vol.1, pp. 267-270.
Stokoe, K.H. and Santamarina, J.C. (2000) "Seismic-wave-based testing in geotechnical
engineering" GeoEng 2000: Vol.1, pp. 1490-1536.
Tatsuoka, F. and Shibuya, S. (1992). "Deformation characteristics of soils and rocks
from field and laboratory tests. " Report of the Institute of Industrial Science,
Vol. 37, No.1, Serial No. 235, The University of Tokyo.
Vucetic, M., Hsu, C.C. and Doroudian, M. (1998) "Results of cyclic and dynamic
simple shear tests on soils from La Cienega Site conducted for ROSRINE
project and other research purposes". UCLA, Research Report No. ENG-98-200,
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, University of California, Los
Angeles.
Ward, W. H. and Pender, M. J. (1981) "Tunnelling in soft ground." General Report.
Proc. of Tenth International Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Eng.,
Stockholm, pp. 261-275.

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GEO-015-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





Shakedown Analysis of Asphalt Pavements Under Moving
Wheel Loads

M. BOULBIBANE
School of Civil Engineering, Nottingham University Malaysia Campus
Jalan Broga, Semenyih, 43500, Malaysia
E-mail: Mostapha.Boulbibane@Nottingham.edu.my

ABSTRACT
The performance of a pavement material beyond the elastic limit has substantial
influence on the bearing capacity of a pavement and its serviceability. It is therefore,
important to know whether a pavement structure will experience progressive
accumulation of permanent deformation leading to a state of incremental collapse, or if
this accumulation will cease resulting in a stable and elastic response. Although
experimental data and practical experience have been introduced into the design method
through empirical parameters, there is not a simple relationship between the elastic
strain and the long-term plastic behaviour of pavement materials. This paper describes a
procedure for constructing a mathematical model to predict the long-term behaviour of
pavement structures under repeated loads imposed by vehicle loads. It also enables
characterisation of asphalt pavement deterioration using Mohr-Coulomb based
shakedown. The model differs from extant models, in that the cyclic nature of the
loading on a pavement is recognised from the outset, and the current method, which is
based upon foundation analysis is replaced by a procedure employing shakedown
theory. The basic concepts are described, and results of studies of failure by rut
formation are presented. Implications for design procedures are also discussed.
KEYWORDS
Shakedown theory, cyclic loading, pavements design, granular bases, shear strength, pavement
rutting.
1 INTRODUCTION
Pavements, i.e. roads and runways, are amongst the most difficult geotechnical
structures to analyse and design. Unlike foundations and slopes, pavements have to be
designed against failure resulting from a large number of load applications, occurring
over long time periods, instead of just a single monotonic load application. Although
current design procedures exhibit some elements of rational analysis, they are virtually
all based on empirical relationships between elastic performance and plastic failure. A
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GEO-015-2
strain criterion limiting the vertical elastic subgrade strain is used to limit the risk of
rutting within pavement layers. Base-course/subbase performance is controlled with
material specifications such as grading limits. Moreover, these methods do not consider
the plastic deformation performance of the base-course and subgrade layers. Hence, the
predicted life in terms of ESAs (Equivalent Standard Axles) using these procedures can
sometimes indicate a long pavement life. However, the observed performance (rutting,
surface integrity and roughness etc) can indicate much shorter lives. The complex
nature of the problem clearly requires the development of a mechanistic approach to
flexible pavement design, which incorporates the plastic as well as elastic properties of
the pavement layers, provides prediction whether a given pavement structure will
experience progressive accumulation of permanent deformation and consequently
gradual damage, or the increase of permanent deformation will cease, thereby leading to
a stable and resilient response. This behaviour is referred to as shakedown behaviour.
Field observations indicate that many pavements do in fact shakedown rather than
deform continuously.
Over the last two decades, there has been growing interest in the application of the
fundamental shakedown theorems of Bleich [1], Melan [2], and Koiter [3] to describe
the behaviour of materials/structures under repeated cyclic loads. Initial applications
were to frame structures and pressure vessels. Then later have been extended to cover a
broad category of applications that account for the effects of high temperature, strain or
work hardening, nonlinear geometry e.g. Johnson [4]; Knig [5], dynamic behaviour,
and non-associated plastic flow. More recently applied to model wear resistance of
metal surfaces to repeated rolling and sliding loads, Ponter et al. [6]. Using finite
element analysis made the shakedown theory a useful tool in the design of a wide range
of practical applications such as railway foundations, pavement engineering, roller
bearings, and the machining industry. Thus, it enables the long-term behaviour of
complex structures to be assessed without resorting to computationally expensive step-
by-step analyses.
The application of shakedown theory to the geomaterials that usually make up the
pavement layers requires consideration of a general cohesive-frictional yield criterion.
This feature significantly complicates the determination of the shakedown limit, both in
numerical and analytical computations. In the past, a number of attempts of both types
of calculations have been made. Firstly, in their pioneering paper, Sharp and Booker [7]
introduced the so-called method of conics, which can be seen as an application of
Melans lower bound theorem, and solved a number of two-dimensional problems
where the load was approximated in terms of a trapezoidal pressure distribution. This
method was later given a kinematic interpretation by Collins and Cliffe [8] and the
resulting generalized upper bound method was applied to a number of more realistic
three-dimensional problems by Collins and Boulbibane [9] and Boulbibane et al. [10].
In this paper we discuss a simplified approach that has the potential of predicting the
load-induced deformation, e.g. rutting and surface cracking, of flexible pavements. The
method differs from extant models, in that the cyclic nature of the loading on a
pavement is recognised from the outset, and the current method, which is based upon
foundation analysis is replaced by a procedure employing shakedown theory. In essence
this method seeks the mechanism, from within a class of mechanisms that minimises the
shakedown limit load. A simplified illustrative example is given to show how the
procedure might be utilised. Extensive computer analyses based on the elastic layer
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GEO-015-3
program BISAR developed by De Jong et al. [11] and global optimisation, the
Simulated Annealing procedure devised by Goffe et al. [12], are conducted to simulate
rutting in the asphalt surfaces, base-courses, and subgrades. Also investigations into the
relative structural contributions of wearing course and base course to the load carrying
capacity of the pavement structure, when used at different layer thicknesses/or different
materials, are studied and implications for design procedures are discussed.
2 RUT MODEL FOR ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
It is commonly understood that pavement rutting, caused by a combination of
densification and shear-related deformation, develops with an increasing number of load
applications and may occur in any layer of a pavement structure, which makes it more
difficult to predict than fatigue cracking. The layer(s) in which rutting occurs is
determined by loading magnitude and the relative strength of the pavement layers e.g.
wearing, base course and subgrade. But in all extant current pavement thickness design
guides HMSO [13], AUSTROADS [14] assume that rutting occurs only in the
subgrade. A strain criterion limiting the vertical elastic subgrade strain is used to limit
the risk of rutting within pavement layers. This assumption is assumed to be assured
through the requirement of the unbound granular materials, base and/or sub-base layers,
to comply with material specifications. These specifications for granular materials are
recipe based and typically include criteria for aggregate strength, durability, cleanliness,
grading and angularity, none of which is a direct measure of resistance to rutting caused
by repeated loading. Moreover, accelerated pavement tests done by Pidwerbesky [15]
show that 30% to 70% of the surface rutting is attributed to the granular base and/or
sub-base layers.
2.1 Rutting and its relationship to classic pavement design practices
In reality pavements are multilayer systems and rutting generally occurs in all layers
and not only in the subgrade (see Fig. 1). However, in current design procedures such as
AASHTO and AUSTROADS a trial pavement is analysed using a multi-layer elastic
modelling and the critical strains occurring under specified loading conditions are
established. From there, the various pavement components are assigned a service life
depending on the magnitude of the critical strains. This is typically expressed in terms
of the vertical compressive strain (
v
) at the top of the sub-grade layer:

4843 . 4
v
6
18
f
10
10 077 . 1 N

=

(1)
Where
f
N is the number of cycles to failure. The above equation defines failure as
12.5mm (0.5-inch) depressions in the wheel-paths of the pavement. For a non standard
axle P, the number of the repetitions of the equivalent design axle can be calculated
from the fourth power law which was deduced from the AASHTO road test:
N
P
P
N
4
s
f

= (2)
In which N is the number of the repetitions of load P, and P
s
is the standard axle load. In
this section, equation (1) will be used as the design criterion for flexible pavement. By
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GEO-015-4
substituting equation (2) into (1), the following relationship between the load P and the
critical strain for a given pavement thickness profile is obtained:

223 . 0
v
N 0105 . 0 = (3)
If N=10
6
and P
s
=40 kN, it follows
0129 . 0 P
v
892 . 0
= (4)

Fig. 1: Pavements mode of failure

Fig. 2: Proposed rut failure mechanism
2.2 Shakedown due to lateral movement
In order to utilise the results from the shakedown analysis in the practical pavement
engineering, a rutting development method based on the shakedown analysis is
discussed here. This method takes into account the plastic behaviour of the pavement
layers instead of just using a purely elastic model. It is mainly based on assuming a
certain class of failure mechanisms. Apart from the material deterioration in the
pavement, the structure hardening due to residual stress in the pavement is considered
through the shakedown limit loads. Early research in this area [9], concentrated on
failure in which subsurface or surface slip occurred in the travel direction, paralleling
the metal surfaces wear study of Ponter et al. [6]. More recently calculations have been
made for the complementary mode of failure in unbound pavement structures, where the
subgrade motion is perpendicular to the travel direction and the loaded tyre penetrates
into the pavement so forming a rut [10].
According to the classical theorem given by Koiter [3], the kinematic method provides
an upper bound of the true limit load inducing collapse. This upper bound is obtained by
assuming a failure mechanism and calculating the load factor, which is defined to be the
ratio of the rate of plastic dissipation to the virtual rate of dissipation of the elastic stress
field in the proposed failure mechanism. Illustration in Figure 2 depicts the cross-
section of the road as well as the assumed model for rut failure mechanism:

V
p
ij
e
ij
V
p
ij
p
ij
dV e
dV e
(5)
Asphalt Layer
Original
surface
Subgrade
deformation
Base-course
P
Subgrade
Y
Z
Direction
of travel
X
Asphalt
11

21

31

D
-162-

GEO-015-5
where
p
ij
e and
p
ij
are the time-independent strain rate and plastic stress fields associated
with the assumed kinematically admissible velocity field and
e
ij
is the elastic stress
field produced by the applied load P. The shakedown load is then definitely less than or
equal to P . It is similar to the classic technique of limit analysis, except that the
calculation involves knowledge of the elastic stress distribution. In the calculations
described here we choose mechanisms in which the plastic dissipation is confined to
discrete slip lines. Thus, following Chen [16], for a Coulomb material, the two
dissipation functions in equation (5) can be evaluated from:
i
e
i
i
ti
i
i
ti
l d c ] v [
l ] v [ c
(6)
where c is the cohesion, and ] v [
ti
and
i
l are, respectively, the jump in tangential
velocity and length of the i
th
discontinuity, whilst
e
i
c is termed the elastic cohesion that
can be evaluated on this discontinuity by:
= tan c
e
n
e
t
e
(7)
It is not appropriate here to describe in detail the procedures used for calculating
shakedown load factors. These can be found in the references cited above. In essence
the estimates are obtained by postulating a kinematically admissible velocity field -i.e.
failure mechanism- and equating the elastic and plastic rates of working in this
mechanism. In this investigation, we are mostly concerned with rut failure in three
layered pavement structures as illustrated in Figure 2. It is to be emphasised that this
model only predicts the onset of the rutting and does not attempt to model the complete
development of the rut. This failure mode has one or more defining angles
j , i
(i, j
=1,2,3 where i and j represent variable and layer number, respectively) and depth D.
The discontinuity lines must have a change in slope as they cross the asphalt/basecourse
and base-course/subgrade boundaries whenever the value of the internal friction angle
j
is different in the two layers:
1 j 1 j , i j j , i + +
= (8)
These parameters (
j , i
, D) can be varied, together with the co-ordinate
0
x defining the
position of the (y, z) plane of deformation and the ratio in equation (6) optimised to find
the minimum value of associated with given family of mechanisms. The resulting
value of the load factor is then an upper bound to the actual shakedown load, so that if a
number of possible mechanisms are studied, that producing the smallest load estimate is
the most likely to occur. The minimum value for each class of mechanism is found by
numerical optimization. The selected mechanism shown above is translated into a
nonlinear optimization problem and the simulated annealing has been successfully
applied to determine the optimum mechanism, which is described by the defining
parameters. In this method the ratio of plastic rate work to elastic rate work is the
function to be minimized and the control parameter in the algorithm, which is initially
set to high value decreased in steps until the optimal solution is reached.

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GEO-015-6
3 APPLICATIONS
The proposed numerical method is applied to study the influence of granular
characteristics and layers thicknesses on performance of pavement structures. All
pavement structures are modelled as semi-infinite linear elastic system consisting of
three layers, which are wearing, base course and subgrade. Typical pavement sections
and material characteristics considered in the modeling analysis are summarised in
Table 1. An equivalent 80-kN single-axle load with single tires is used. It is assumed
that the tire load is uniformly applied over a circular area (radius =150mm). The contact
pressure is assumed to equal the tire inflation pressure of 560 kPa (this is not exactly
true, but adequate for approximations). Under axisymmetric condition the resulting
stress distributions within each layer of a pavement structure are determined by applied
load, individual and combined layer thickness, and layer material properties. The
analysis is performed on a soft and stiff subgrades, each with various layer thickness
combinations.
Table 1: Properties of pavement layers

Layer
Elastic
modulus
[MPa]
Poissons
ratio

Layer
thickness, h
[mm]
Friction
angle,
[]
Cohesion,
c
[kPa]
Asphalt
Concrete
4,000 0.35 50, 100, 150,
200
17 4,500
Granular Base
type I
150 0.35 150, 250, 400,
500
45 20
Granular Base
type II
250 0.35 150, 250, 400,
500
45 60
Soft Subgrade
(fine grained)
20 0.45 Infinite 0 20
Stiff Subgrade
(fine grained)
80 0.45 Infinite 0 80

Initial results suggest that shakedown limits are influenced by the geometry of the
assumed failure mechanism. A comparison of the critical shakedown limit pressures
predicted by different rut mechanisms is given in Table 2.
Table 2: Shakedown limits for three-layered pavement structures [MPa]
Number of parameters Type of
Thickness of Granular Base Type I
h
b
[mm]
Subgrade 100 150 250 400 500
j , 3 j , 2 j , 1
= = and
0
x Soft 2.49 2.76 3.10 3.42 3.56
D ,
j , 3 j , 2 j , 1
and
0
x Soft 2.06 2.28 2.66 2.98 3.13
j , 3 j , 2 j , 1
= = and
0
x Stiff 3.51 3.69 3.98 4.26 4.38
D ,
j , 3 j , 2 j , 1
and
0
x Stiff 2.91 3.07 3.37 3.65 3.79

It is found that mechanism when described by a single variable ( = = =
j , 3 j , 2 j , 1
)
gives a higher estimate of the shakedown limit than when it is described by more than
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GEO-015-7
one variable (
j , 3 j , 2 j , 1
and D). Example of actual optimal solution of
mechanism is illustrated in Figure 3. This mechanism bears some similarity to the
familiar limit analysis optimal solution for a foundation - c.f. Atkinson [17], Bolton and
Lau [18] for the plane and axisymetric solutions, but is different in that the displaced
material disturbs the surface very close to the loaded area, rather than over a region 2-4
times the radius of the loaded area.

Fig. 3: Optimal rut mechanism
3.1 Shakedown charts for pavement thickness design
To get an appropriate picture of the size of influence of layer thickness and material
properties, some calculations of response are made and presented in graphs below. For a
given layered pavement (see Fig. 2) with known material parameters, the shakedown
limits are determined from shakedown analysis and compared against the design traffic
loads. The design traffic load obviously has to be less than the shakedown load to
ensure that accumulation of permanent strains will not occur. In the case the design
traffic load is much smaller than the shakedown limit load, the design of the pavement
is conservative and the adjustment of the base-course thickness should be made.
The variations of
v
with h, the depth of the base-course according to equation (1), can
be found from the program BISAR with dual load 40 KN giving a non linear load-
depth relation as is shown in Figure 4 for both soft and stiff subgrades. It can be seen
that pavement loading associated with rutting of the subgrade, is lower or higher than
the shakedown limit, depending on applied load repetitions and pavement component
characteristics. It should be emphasised though that for larger load repetitions used in
conventional mechanistic pavement design (generally > 10
6
), it seems that the
shakedown load is essentially higher than the applied design load. From these figures, it
is also seen that as the depth increases, the shakedown load approaches a finite limiting
value while the design load increases indefinitely. This means that there is a critical
thickness of the base-course layer for which the shakedown load would become more
critical than the design load as calculated by the existing design method.
3.2 Parametric study on shakedown of layered pavements
A part from the geometry of the layered pavement, the mechanical parameters of the
materials in pavements, like stiffness and strength parameters (see Table 1), also
influence the shakedown behaviour of pavements.

0.15

0.35

0.30

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0

0.05

0.1

0.2

Subgrade
Base-
course
Asphalt
-165-

GEO-015-8
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 100 200 300 400 500
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
M
P
a
)
Base thickness (mm)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 100 200 300 400 500
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
M
P
a
)
Base thickness (mm)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0 100 200 300 400 500
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
M
P
a
)
Base thickness (mm)

0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 100 200 300 400 500
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
M
P
a
)
Base thickness (mm)

Fig. 4: Dependence of the axle load on base-course thickness for given load repetitions

For a granular material, these parameters depend on a variety of state variables like
moisture content and temperature in a non-linear manner. Moreover, in the history of
the pavement lifetime, the material parameters could change with time due to
environment changes. The dependency of the shakedown load on these material
parameters is very complicated and it will be very difficult to give a complete analysis.
However, some aspects of this dependency can be predicted from the present theory
based on some basic assumptions.
Results shown in Figure 5 indicate that increasing the thickness of the asphalt concrete
surface could have a significant effect on the increase in shakedown resistance of the
pavement. This increase is more for pavements with stiff subgrade compared to soft
subgrade. The shakedown resistance also increases with increased thickness of the base-
course as illustrated in Figure 6. However, this increase is less significant than that
observed for the asphalt concrete surface. Also improving the base properties in terms
of modulus and shear strength i.e. cohesion and/or friction angle, will result in improved
shakedown resistance as shown in Figure 4. A similar tendency in term of relationships
between shakedown and the thickness of the asphalt and/or the granular base-course can
be observed from Raad and Minassian [19] research for similar pavement structures,
although the shakedown limits are slightly different.
(a) Granular Base Type I
Soft Subgrade
(b) Granular Base Type I
Stiff Subgrade
(c) Granular Base Type II
Soft Subgrade
(d) Granular Base Type II
Stiff Subgrade
Shakedown Limit Shakedown Limit
Shakedown Limit Shakedown Limit
N=10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
N=10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
N=10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
N=10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
-166-

GEO-015-9
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
0 50 100 150 200 250
S
h
a
k
e
d
o
w
n

l
i
m
i
t

(
M
P
a
)
Thickness of Asphalt (mm)
This study
Raad & Minassian [ ]
Fig. 5: Influence of thickness of asphalt
surface on shakedown
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
100 150 200 250 300 350
S
h
a
k
e
d
o
w
n

l
i
m
i
t

(
M
P
a
)
Base thickness (mm)
Raad & Minassian [ ]
This study
Soft
subgrade
Stiff
subgrade
Fig. 6: Influence of thickness of granular
base type I on shakedown

3.3 Effect of load distribution
In the above calculations the shakedown load is calculated assuming a uniform load
distribution as an approximation to the tire load on the pavement. In reality, this is not
exactly true as the applied load on the pavement is distributed in a very complicated
way, which depends on a number of factors such as the speed of the vehicle, the
pressure of the tires and the flexibility of the pavement. Here, an effort is made to
simulate more realistic load distributions using a superposition of 10 uniform load
distributions. Figure 7 shows geometrically the superposition of uniform loads with
different radii to approximate both Hertzian and trapezoidal load distributions. In the
latter, the pressure distribution takes the form of a cone frustum with upper radius b and
lower radius a=150mm. The dependence of the shakedown limit load on the assumed
shape of the loaded distribution is illustrated in Figure 8. It is seen that the shakedown
limit decreases when the uniform pressure is replaced by graded pressure.

Fig. 7: Load approximation
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
100 200 300 400 500
S
h
a
k
e
d
o
w
n

l
i
m
i
t

(
M
P
a
)
Base thickness (mm)
Uniform
Trapezoidal b/a=0.2
Hertzian
Fig. 8: Effect of load distribution

Hertzian load
Trapezoidal load
a
P
P
b
Soft subgrade
Stiff subgrade
19
19
-167-

GEO-015-10
4 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
In this paper a numerical methodology based upon Koiters shakedown theorem is
employed in an attempt to accurately determine the shakedown limits for road materials,
and to reasonably model the various failure mechanisms occurring in pavements. This
paper has dealt entirely with structural shakedown, and has been based upon the use
of a classical Coulomb failure criterion. It has been shown that the shakedown approach
enables the effect of the basic design parameters such as the elastic and strength
parameters on the value of the critical failure design load as well as the estimation of the
contributions of individual pavement layers to rutting resistance to be determined. The
computation performed to date hence enables some preliminary design charts to be
constructed. Although further experimental field and theoretical research is needed, this
new approach to pavement design would provide the industry with an extremely
valuable analytical tool. Additionally, such a method could save taxpayers much of the
costs associated with typical road maintenance and rehabilitation or reconstruction.
5 REFERENCES
[1] Bleich, H. J. Bauingenieur, Vol. 19 (1932) 261-269.
[2] Melan, E. Zur Plastizitat des raumlichen Kontinuums. I. Arch. 9 (1938) 116-126.
[3] Koiter, W.T. Progress in Solid Mechanics, Amsterdam 1 (1960) 165-221.
[4] Johnson, K.L. Contact mechanics, Cambridge University Press (1985).
[5] Knig, J.K. Shakedown of Elasticplastic Structures. Elsevier Amsterdam (1987).
[6] Ponter, A.R., Hearle, A.D. and Johnson, K.L. Journal Mechanics Physics Solids,
33 (1985) 339-362.
[7] Sharp, R.W. and Booker, J.R. Journal of Transport Eng. 110, (1984) 1-14.
[8] Collins, I.F. and Cliffe, P.F. J. Num. and Anal. M. Geomech. 11 (1987) 409-420.
[9] Collins, I.F. and Boulbibane, M. J. of Geotech. and Geo. Eng. 126 (2000) 50-59.
[10] Boulbibane, M., Collins, I.F., Ponter, A.R.S. and Weichert, D. Road Materials
and Pavement Design 6 (1) (2005) 81-96.
[11] De Jong, D.L., Peutz, M.G.F. and Korswagen, A.R. Computer Program Bisar.
Shell, Amsterdam (1979).
[12] Goffe, B., Ferri, G.D. and Rogers, J. Journal of Econometrics, 60 (1994) 65-99.
[13] HMSO, Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Vol. 7, HD 25/94, Part 2 (1994).
[14] AUSTROADS. Guide to Structural Design of Road Pavement, Sydney (1992).
[15] Pidwerbesky, B. PhD. Thesis, University of Canterbury, New Zealand (1996).
[16] Chen, W.F. Limit analysis and soil plasticity. Elsevier, Amsterdam (1975).
[17] Atkinson, J.H. Foundations and slopes, McGraw-Hill Book UK, (1981).
[18] Bolton, M.D. and Lau, C.K. Canadian Geotech. Journal 30 (1993) 1024-1033.
[19] Raad, L. and Minassian, G. Road Materials & Pavement Design 6 (2005) 53-79.

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GEO-016-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





PORE WATER PRESSURE ARISING DURING PILE DRILLING IN
SAND

F. M. ABDRABBO
Professor, Structural engineering department, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria
University, P.O. Box 21544, Egypt,
E-mail: f.m.abdrabbo@excite.com
K. E. GAAVER
Assistant Professor, Structural engineering department, Faculty of Engineering,
Alexandria University, P.O. Box 21544, Egypt,
E-mail: khaledgaaver@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
The pile working load depends on the imperfections which may be taken place in pile-
soil system, during pile construction, among many other factors. This subject attracted
the researcher's attention world wide in the last decades. Types of imperfections either
geotechnical or structural are documented in literature and well explained. Nevertheless,
the influence of these imperfections in pile load calculations still ambiguous. The work
presented herein is devoted to study soil disturbance during construction of piles using
continuous flight auger, CFA. The study of soil disturbance due to drilling needs some
evidence. The source of this evidence is field observations collected from four different
construction sites, which are documented in this paper. The study concluded that the
disturbed zone of soil by CFA has a conical shape and extending laterally to a distance
equivalent to ten times of the pile diameter around the auger at the cutting bits and has
an inclined surface of 4:1 (vertical : horizontal). Furthermore excess pore water pressure
was induced in soil in the vicinity of pile drilling. Due to this excess pore water
pressure, 3.5% to 6.5 % of piles constructed by CFA showed percolation of water from
the top of the piles through fresh concrete. Also, subsidence of fresh concrete in pile
hole was recorded in few of the constructed piles. Pile loading tests showed that the
percolation of water and/or subsidence of fresh concrete have not appreciable influence
on the load-displacement characteristics of the piles. Moreover, percolation of water at
pile heads.
KEYWORDS
Pore water pressure, pile drilling, imperfections, CFA, and water percolation.
-169-

GEO-016-2
1 INTRODUCTION
The process of drilling vertical holes to form cast in-situ bored piles affects the
properties of soil around the piles. These effects are difficult to quantify their influence
on the preformed piles. During boring of a hole, horizontal geostatic stresses at the
exposed surface of the drilled shaft decreases to almost zero, and soil relax towards the
drilling hole. Soil relaxation is followed by water migration towards the surface of the
hole, so softening zone starts to occur. A similar phenomenon occurs at the base of the
shaft, where the vertical geostatic stresses are reduced to about zero. The extent of the
relaxation and softening zone depends on the properties of soil and the length of time
that hole is open before concrete is poured. On the other side, during boring a hole using
continuous flight auger, the auger retained part of the excavated material and the other
part transport to the ground surface. At the same time, narrow gap is formed between
the outer periphery of the auger and the sides of the hole. This gap is performed due to
the relatively flexibility of the auger. The auger flexibility depends upon the auger
length, auger diameter, and thickness of the auger flights. Hence the auger rotates
around a vertical axis passing through the centre of the rotary head and at the same time
around an imaginary axis away form the centre of the rotary head. Keeping in mind that
there is slackness between the auger and the guide fixed in drilling rig. Furthermore,
during drilling the pile, the drilling rig is not stationary in place and may exhibits side
sway. The value of side sway depends upon the auger stiffness and the height of drilling
rig. The gap between the auger and the hole is filled with excavated geomaterial.
Consequently the horizontal stresses acting on sides of the hole is dropped from a
geostatic value which equivalent to (K
0
.
-
v
) to relatively small value. While the base of
the hole formed by drilling is not stress free, contrary to the bored piles. But once the
auger with retained soil is raised up before pouring the concrete to open the bottom tap
of the stem, unbalanced stresses are formed at the hole base. Therefore the drilling
process relieve the geostatic stresses acting on the hole sides and on the hole base.
Abdrabbo [1 & 2] and Polous [3] summarized the sources of pile imperfections during
construction of bored piles. Kenny et al [4] reported soil disturbance during CFA piling
in sand. Carrier [5] illustrated that during construction of continuous flight auger pile, a
single stream of clear water was frequently observed percolating from the top of the pile
through the fresh cement grout as well as one to three streams through the surface of the
surrounding ground. Carrier [5] attributed the percolation of water due to liquefaction
induced by the auger in a zone of loose to very loose sand. Carrier [5] showed that the
reported observation takes place during drilling in sand with average SPT below count
of 5 with about one third of the values equal to 1 or 2.
The work presented herein sheds some light on the phenomenon of water percolation
from the top of the piles through fresh concrete. The paper attempts to discuss the
reasons of the phenomenon and to investigate the frequency of occurring this
phenomenon during construction of CFA piles. Moreover the paper aims to study the
effect of this phenomenon on the pile working load. The subject is considered one of the
most interesting topics in geotechnical engineering, especially in piled foundations.
2 FIELD OBSERVATIONS DURING PILE DRILLING
It was observed that at many construction sites, on which continuous flight auger is
implemented in pile construction and after filling the pile holes with fresh concrete, a
stream of water percolate from the top of the piles through fresh concrete. The water
-170-

GEO-016-3
percolation is continued up to six to eight hours. Another observation was also noted at
some construction sites that a big amount of water suddenly flood to the ground surface
with the excavated material. Furthermore, the transported sand to the ground surface
appears in semi-liquid state. Subsidence of fresh concrete takes place through a pile has
been recently constructed, while auguring a pile hole nearby. Sometimes subsidence of
fresh concrete takes place when topping the pile hole with concrete and without any
drilling nearby. Finally subsidence of ground surface takes place around the drilling
hole. It is worth noting that, the above observations are not noted for all piles at a site.
But some of these observations are noted in some piles at a site and the other piles at the
same site do not exhibit any of theses observations. However all these field observations
confirm that, during drilling the pile hole in sand, pore water pressure increases. The
increase of pore water pressure causes hydraulic gradient towards the pile hole followed
by flow of water, with or without sand particles, up to ground surface through fresh
concrete along the centreline of the pile. The observation was noted in case of ground
water table up to 1.5 m below the ground surface. It was noticed that subsidence of
concrete takes place immediately after filling the pile hole with fresh concrete. Of
course, topping of pile is necessary with more fresh concrete. This subsidence occurred
whether water percolation was noticed in the fresh concrete or not. One meter of
concrete subsidence was recorded, which is corresponding to 7% of the theoretical pile
volume. Also it was noticed that during drilling a pile hole, at a distance equal to ten
times the pile diameter, away from fresh concrete pile which has been formed a
subsidence of 1.2 m of concrete takes place in that pile which corresponding to 8.6% of
the theoretical volume of the pile. It was noticed that percolation of water from top of
piles through fresh concrete never observed in all piles constructed at a site, but this
phenomenon was noticed in 4.3 % to 6.5 % of the constructed piles. From these
observations, it can be concluded that the effects of drilling process on soil properties
extend to more than 10 times of the pile diameter. The subsidence of concrete can be
attributed to volumetric strain takes place in soil as a result of dissipation of excess pore
water pressure. Carrier [5] illustrated that an average grout subsidence of 1.1 m which
corresponds to 8.5% of the theoretical pile volume was noticed. The above observations
are resulted from the effect of drilling process on the properties of soil nearby. The
following sections may explain this mechanism.
During auguring in a soil mass to form a pile hole, cyclic shear strains are imposed on
soil around the auger. Nearly free stress surface is expected to be formed at auger-soil
interface. The amount of excess pore water pressure induced in soil mass around the
drilling hole depends upon many factors such as penetration ratio (L/NP), in-situ density
of sand, stratification of soil which have to be drilled, borehole diameter, depth of
borehole, and normalized shear stress ration (/
-
0
)/(/
-
0
)
L
, fig. (1-a). Where L = depth
of penetration, N = number of turns and P = pitch between flights. Fig. (1-a) illustrates
that the constrained modulus of soil increases from a reduced value at the hole side to
the unaffected value at the outer boundary of the disturbed zone. The excess pore water
pressure developed in the disturbed zone has the profile of bell shape with a small
values at the hole sides and at the outer boundary of the disturbed soil zone. So it is
anticipated that dissipation of excess pore water pressure takes place, horizontally, in
two directions towards the hole and away from the hole. The figure demonstrates
schematic drawing for tangential cyclic strain. The tangential cyclic strain has a
maximum value at pile hole and decreases with distance away from the hole. The
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GEO-016-4
resulted cyclic radial stress has an opposite trend, it is increased with distance away
from the hole. The build-up of permanent volume strain is related to relative density of
sand, number of cycles, and the cyclic shear strain; Silver & Seed [6]. Ishihara et al [7]
and Martin et al [8] produced fundamental models for pore water calculations due to
cyclic loads. While Silver & Seed [6] and Dobry et al [9] confirmed that 0.01% cyclic
shear strain produce inappreciable volume change and hence no significant increase in
pore water pressure. Even though liquefaction may not have occurred during drilling
process, the dissipation of pore water pressure results volumetric change in soil. In this
conditions, pore water pressure generated may be expressed in terms of the normalized
shear stress ratio, (/
-
0
)/ (/
-
0
)
L
. As this ratio increases the pore pressure ratio (U/
-
0
)
increased reaching 1.0 when the normalized shear stress ratio (/
-
0
)/ (/
-
0
)
L
becomes
1.0. Tokimatsu & Yoshimi [10] showed that excess pore pressure is generated when
(/
-
0
)/(/
-
0
)
L
is 0.50. Tokimatsu & Seed [11] point out that volumetric strain
expressed as percentage attained 0.2 just before liquefaction. The excess pore water
pressure at hole-soil interface has a residual small value, due to the expulsion of water
into the hole, fig. (1-a).
For non liquefaction conditions, the amount of reconsolidation volumetric strain
increases with increasing grain size of soil, decreasing relative density, and increasing
excess pore pressure generated during the undrained cyclic loading. But for drilling
numerous pile holes adjacent to each others, the distribution of excess pore water
pressures in soil mass becomes complicated due to the interaction effects between holes.
Furthermore, it is worth noting that the movements of soil grains in soil mass around a
drilling hole will be reversed in the vicinity between a hole which has been recently
drilled and that hole. Fig. (1-b) presents a proposed soil disturbance zone adjacent to a
drilling hole, in which the disturbed zone has a conical shape with side inclination of 1
horizontal to 4 vertical.
Tangential strain
Radial stress
Dissipation
direction
i) Constrained modulus of soil (MC)
Slippage/sliding
of soil grains
ii) Excess pore water pressure dissipation
iii) Distribution of tangential strain and radial stress
Fig. 1-a: Distribution of constrained
modulus, pore water pressure, and radial
stress
1
4
10 D
Ground surface
Drilled hole
Fig. 1-b: Soil disturbance adjacent to a
drilled hole

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GEO-016-5
The above explanations of soil disturbed due to drilling need some evidence. The source
of this evidence is field observations collected from four different construction sites,
which are documented in the subsequent sections.
2.1 Site No. 1
Twelve boreholes were conducted at the site, the recovered soil samples revealed the
following soil stratification; a top fill layer of grey loamy sand which was explored up
to a depth varies between 2.0 m to 6.0 m. The fill overlies very soft clay which is
extending to depth varies from 7.0 m to 9.0 m. A relatively thick layer of medium/fine
sand was encountered at a depth varies from 7.0 m to 9.0 m and extending to a depth
varies between 16 m and 20 m, where a layer of stiff silty clay underlies. The stiff clay
is extending to a depth of 26 m, where a bed of medium to fine sand is extending to the
end of exploration depth which is 40.0 m. The corrected N70% of the top sand layer
varies from 30 to 45 which indicated that the sand is very dense; fig. (2) presents typical
borehole log. The very soft clay has the following properties: undrained shear strength
7.0 kPa, undrained angle of shearing resistance of 3.0 degree, natural unit weight 13.0
kN/m
3
, natural water content 90%. compression index 0.84, coefficient of consolidation
0.014 cm
2
/day, in-situ void ratio 2.2, liquid limit 100%, and plastic limit 35%. The
percentage of fines in sand is 19% and the relative density of sand is about 80%. The
ground water table lies at depth varies from 0.20 m to 0.40 m below the ground surface.
Continuous flight auger was used for the construction of bored piles to support the
structure loads. The piles are extending to depth varies between 12 m to 14 m according
to the soil stratification under each building. For 0.50 m pile diameter, the pile working
load is 550 kN and the pile test load is 900 kN whereas for 0.60 m pile diameter, the
pile working load is 700 kN and the pile test load is 1100 kN
Crushed limestone layer of thickness 0.30 m was placed on ground surface to facilitate
machinery manoeuvring. Therefore, the ground water table becomes at a depth varies
from 0.50 m to 0.70 m below working platform. Careful field observations revealed that
there is no stream of water percolated from any pile heads through fresh concrete of the
constructed piles at north side courts of the site. While streams of water were
percolating from some pile heads through fresh concrete of piles constructed in the
other three courts. The number of piles showed percolation of water through fresh
concrete represents 4.3 % of the total number of piles, and decreased towards the north
direction. The process of pile construction was started at north side of the site and
proceeds towards south. The penetration depth of piles in sand varies between 5.0 m at
north side and 7.0 m at south side. The pile bearing stratum is very dense sand. So it is
impossible to correlate the occurrence of phenomenon of soil disturbance to the initial
condition of sand, because Carrier [5] reported that the phenomenon occurs in loose
sand and in this study occurs in very dense sand. This may be true because pile drilling
process initially changes the initial state of sand, following by a process of liquefaction
at a certain extent. The state of liquefaction depends upon the pre-liquefaction geostatic
state of soil and not on the initial state of soil. This may explain also why some piles
showed percolation of water from pile heads through fresh concrete and other did not.
The Pre-liquefaction geostatic state of sand is very complicated and depends upon order
of pile drilling in a group, distance between piles, and time lag between drilling the
closest pile and the pile under consideration.
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GEO-016-6
Pile loading tests were conducted on seven piles at the construction site where stream of
water percolate from pile heads through fresh concrete. The tested piles of 0.50 m
diameter have code as 51, 217, 378, and 526. For piles of 0.60 m diameter, the tested
piles are 19, 391, and 730. Test pile No. 378 has a grout ratio of about unity. The pile
load tests were conducted in accordance with maintained load test procedure. Fig. (3)
presents the achieved load-settlement of pile loading tests. The results indicated that the
pile displacement after 24 hours after the application of load equal to 1.5 times the pile
working load varies between 1.01% and 2.16% times the pile diameter. The
corresponding non-recoverable displacements are some between 0.8 % and 1.66 times
the pile diameter. The figure revealed that, there is no obvious appreciable effect of
concrete subsidence, and/or grout ratio on the response of the tested piles. All tested
piles carry safely the desired working load. Also there is no appreciable effect of soil
liquefaction due to pile drilling on the behaviour of piles, keeping in mind that the tests
were carried out after 30 days from pile construction.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Load (kN)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
Pile No. 51
Pile No. 217
Pile No. 378
Pile No. 526
Fig. 3-a: Load-displacement relationships,
pile diameter = 0.50 m
Dark grey very soft clay, trace silt,
Fill of grey loamy sand, little crushed stones
Ground surface (Ground water table)
End of boring (depth = 45.00)
trace fine crushed shells
Light grey calcareous silty sand, trace clay
Grey med./fine sand, trace silt
Light grey pieces of crushed cemented sand
Brown grey stiff/hard silty clay
Yell. Grey med./fine sand
(3.00)
(9.00)
(11.00)
(19.00)
(21.00)
(26.00)
o
= 3
= 90 %
w
2
Cu= 7.00 kN m
u
c
N = 35 - 40
70%
Fig. 2: Soil stratification at site No. 1
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Load (kN)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
Pile No. 19
Pile No. 391
Pile No. 730

Fig. 3-b: Load-displacement relationships,
pile diameter = 0.60 m
2.2 Site No. 2
At the second construction site, seven boreholes were carried out to explore the subsoil
conditions. Fig. (4) presents one boring log showing the soil stratification at the
construction site. The boring logs revealed that the top fill layer of grey loamy sand is
extending to depth varied between 2.0 m and 3.0 m. The fill overlies grey very soft clay
-174-

GEO-016-7
which is extending to depth 19.5 m. A layer of sand was explored up to a depth varies
from 24.0 m to 25.5 m, underlies by layers of medium to stiff clay and fine /medium
sand up to depth of 40.0 m. The very soft clay has the following properties; natural
water content 75 %, natural unit weight 12.5 kN/m
3
, undrained shear strength 7.0 kPa,
undrained angle of shearing resistance of 4.0 degrees, compression index 2.15, pre-
consolidation pressure 100 kN/m
2
, and in-situ void ratio 2.0. The SPT values N
70

recorded in top sand layer vary from 70 to 89 which mean that the sand is very dense.
The percentage of fines in sand varies from 1.2% to 6.5 %.
Continuous flight auger was used to construct piles of 0.60 m diameter to support the
structure loads. The piles are designed to transfer structural loads to top sand layer, the
pile length is 21.0 m. Careful field observations of piles during construction revealed
that about 3.5% to 6.5 % of the number of piles showed percolation of water at pile
heads through fresh concrete. The drilling time of piles which is showing percolation of
water varies from 7 to 55 minutes. Also the slump of the poured concrete in these piles
varies from 175 to 220 mm. These observations indicated that percolation of water at
pile heads through fresh concrete takes place irrespective of pile drilling time, or
concrete slump.
2.3 Site No. 3
At the third construction site, twenty four boreholes were carried out to explore the
subsoil conditions. Fig. (5) illustrates one boring log showing the soil stratification at
the site. The retrieved soil samples revealed that the top fill layer of dark grey loamy
sand with little crushed stones is extending to depth of 5.0 m below ground surface. The
fill overlies formation of very soft clay, silty sand, marine shells, silty sand, sandy silt,
Gypsum, and sandy clayey silt up to depth 22.0 m. A bed of very dense sand was
explored up to a depth of 35.0 m, fig. (5). The very soft clay has the following
properties; natural water content 85 %, natural unit weight 13.5 kN/m
3
, undrained shear
strength 6.0 kPa, undrained angle of shearing resistance of 4.0 degrees, compression
index 2.10, pre-consolidation pressure 90 kN/m
2
, and in-situ void ratio 2.1.
Continuous flight auger of 0.50 m diameter was used for construction of bored piles to
support the structure loads. The pile length is 24.0 m. The pile working load is 800 kN
and the pile test load is 1200 kN. During construction of a pile, subsidence in ground
surface was noticed. The subsidence of ground surface has a conical shape with a
maximum diameter of 11.0 m at ground surface. This means that, the noticeable
influenced zone of conical shape has a maximum diameter equal to ten times of the pile
diameter at pile tip and extended to ground surface with an inclination of 4 : 1 (vertical
: horizontal). The work was suspended in this pile, and the drilling hole was backfilled
by rotating the auger in opposite direction to drilling operation. After 40 days, the pile
was re-drilled in the same location and poured by fresh concrete. When the pile hole
was filled by concrete, subsidence in fresh concrete was noted as 1.0 m. Therefore, it
can be pointed out that, the excess pore water pressure during pile drilling last more
than 40 days without complete dissipation. During construction of another pile at the
same site, subsidence of ground surface takes place for 0.90 m depth while the height of
fresh concrete in the hole is 18 m, measured from the bottom of the hole. The fresh
concrete was excavated and the work in this pile was suspended. After one month, the
drilling process and casting concrete for this pile was resumed in the same location. The
-175-

GEO-016-8
Dark grey very soft clay, trace silt
Fill of grey loamy sand
Ground surface
Grey clayey silty sand
Brown stiff silty clay
(3.00)
(15.00)
(18.00)
(24.00)
(31.50)
Ground water table (0.50)
(4.50)
Dark grey clayey silty sand
Yell. med./fine sand, trace crushed cemented sand
(19.50)
Grey med./fine sand, trace silt
(16.50)
Br. stiff silty clay, trace sand
Br. grey stiff silty clay
(33.00)
Yell. med./fine sand
(34.50)
N = 70 - 89
70%
Dark grey very soft/soft clay, trace silt,
Fill of dark grey loamy sand, little crushed stones
(5.00)
Ground surface (Ground water table)
(6.00) Shells, some grey silty sand
trace crushed shells.
(12.00)
(13.00)
(15.00)
(18.00)
(19.00)
(20.00)
(23.00)
(22.00)
Crushed gypsum, little sand
Grey soft clay, trace silt
Grey lime, some fine sand,
Grey Med./fine sand
Grey sandy clayey silt
Yell. weak crushed sand stone
little Gypsum
Crushed gypsum, little sand

pile was constructed successfully without any problem. Furthermore, at the same site,
streams of water from top of some piles through fresh concrete were noted. The amount
of percolating water is sufficient enough to wash out the cement from the top three
meters of fresh concrete in piles. As a result, the crew of drilling pile machine was
unable to insert the steel cage through fresh concrete. This phenomenon was observed in
about 15% of the constructed piles at this site. The final observation in this site is that,
some constructed piles consume more than 2.76 times the theoretical volume of
concrete to form the pile. The stability of fresh concrete in the drilling hole was checked
as; c
u
(
c
.k
c
-
s
.k
o
).H/N
c
, where
c
=12 kN/m
3
, k
c
=0.70,
s
=3.5 kN/m
3
, k
o
=1.0, H=12 m,
and N
c
= 5.7. The above equation gives that; undrained shear strength of very soft clay
should be more than 10.3 kPa, which less than the measured value. Therefore collapse
of some drilling holes in very soft clay is evidence. It is important to note that, the
implementation of the above stability equation for pile drilling holes does not take into
consideration the effects of nearby piles which had been previously constructed.
The pile construction process at this site caused many imperfections in piles, if
compared by other sites. It is worth noting that, the construction site is adjacent to 8-
story building constructed on raft foundation since 25 years ago and surrounding by 15-
story building which recently constructed on piled foundation. Two roads of width 8.0
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GEO-016-9
m and 6.0 m are bounded to the construction site. The building of raft foundation
exhibits tilting away from the pile construction site due to consolidation settlement. It is
anticipated that the excess pore water pressure induced in clay layer due to super
structure loads dissipates vertically and horizontally to the pile construction site.
Especially the construction site is free superimposed stress on subsoil layers. As a result
of this, the pore water pressure built up at the pile construction site is bigger than the
hydrostatic value, which adds another adverse effect and complicated the problem of
pile imperfection during drilling process.
2.4 Site No. 4
At the fourth construction site, it is required to construct two basement floors below the
ground surface. The subsoil investigation revealed that a top fill layer of 4.0 m overlies
soft clay layer. The ground water table lies at a depth of 0.70 m below the ground
surface. A retaining wall of secant CFA piles of 800 mm diameter was constructed. The
piles are extended to depth of 20.0 m below the ground surface. During construction of
piled-wall, cracks were observed in the pavement layers of the adjacent road. These
cracks are extending to a distance of 13.0 m from centreline of the constructed piles.
These cracks conform well that the soil disturbance zone adjacent to a drilling hole
initiated to ten times of the pile diameter at the pile tip and extended with a side
inclination of 1 horizontal to 4 vertical to the ground surface.
3 DISCUSSION OF THE FIELD OBSERVATIONS
To explain the phenomenon of water percolation from top of some CFA piles through
fresh concrete, it is essential to realize the effect of drilling process on the properties of
soil around the pile. During drilling, the cutting bits at the auger head cut the
geomaterial and shear a cylinder of soil around the auger head from a soil mass. It is
known that in many soils, the shear strength differs with depth. As a result of that, the
control of penetration rate of the auger and rate of shear strain are extremely difficult in
drilling process. Therefore, the pile drilling process imposes cyclic shear strain on
surrounding soil. Cyclic shear strain causes degradation of normal stresses in soil, and
results degradation in shear strength of soil. At the same time, cyclic shear decreases
volume of loose granular soil followed by an increase in pore water pressure. The
consequence of cyclic loading under undrained conditions is generally an increase in the
pore water pressure, which causes the effective stress to decrease and the cyclic
deformations of the soil to increase. If the soil is saturated, changes in pore pressure will
occur during fast cycling. That is where the rate of cyclic is such that changed in pore
pressure are not fully dissipated. Furthermore, the grain structures may be mobilized
when the stress state changes. The stress change may be due to coupling effects between
volumetric and shear strains created by drilling process. The grain structure
mobilization resulted soil particle reorientation including soil particles rotation and
sliding relative to each other. This rotation and sliding of soil particles may cause the
soil grain structure to compress or dilate and the soil strength to increase or decrease. In
undrained conditions, large pore water pressure increase may suddenly occur which is
accompanied by a rapid decrease in strength. The phenomenon is described as grain
structure collapse under undrained conditions; the soil grain structure collapse may be
accompanied by a sudden large volumetric compression, Gu & Kraha [12]. The excess
pore water pressure build up in soil mass due to cyclic loading was reported by many
-177-

GEO-016-10
researchers; Silver & Seed [6], Seed & Idriss [13], and El-gamal et al [14], while excess
pore water pressure build up during drilling process is not presented in literature. The
excess pore water pressure generated in a soil during cyclic loading can be separated
into two components coded as transient and residual. In saturated soils, the transient
excess pore water pressures are equal to the changes in the applied mean normal stresses
resulting from the dynamic loading. The transient excess pore water pressures have little
influence on the effective stresses acting on the soil. Conversely, the residual excess
pore water pressures result from the progressive collapse of the soil skeleton alter the
effective stresses acting on the soil. Consequently, the residual excess pore water
pressures are directly influence the strength and stiffness of the soil, Polito et al [15].
The shearing motion of the soil resulted from the rotation of the auger, which causes a
slippage or sliding of soil grains, causes the constrained modulus (M
c
) to be reduced.
The authors believe that the effect of shearing motion extends in the surrounding soil
around the auger to a distance of radius equal to about ten times of the hole diameter at
the cutting head. This zone has a conical shape of 4:1 (vertical: horizontal) inclined
surface. With further cyclic shearing motion, the soil particles do not slide any more and
the soil skeleton recover much of it is original strength but in a slightly consolidated
form. The excess hydrostatic pressure in the disturbed zone will partly dissipate by
horizontal flow towards the hole. In loose soil, cyclic shear strain causes a decrease in
volume and increase in pore water pressure. In dense soil, cyclic shear strain causes
grain structure collapse under undrained conditions accompanied by big volume
compression and an increase in pore water pressure. Therefore the authors believed that,
the phenomenon of pore water pressure increase is not related only to dense soil as
reported by Carrier [5].
4 CONCLUSIONS
Drilling hole in soil mass using continuous flight auger induce cyclic shear strain on
soil, which cause; degradation of stresses in soil , grain structure collapse, decreased in
constrained modulus of soil and increase in pore water pressure. The excess pore water
pressure induced in soil during drilling of pile hole depends upon, normalized shear
stress ratio, pre-liquefaction geostatic state of soil, and number of cyclic shear strain.
Percolation of water from pile heads through fresh concrete of piles constructed using
continuous flight auger takes place irrespective of the initial condition of sand, whatever
loose, dense or very dense. Moreover, drilling time and concrete slump haven't
appreciable effects on excess pore water pressure induced in soil adjacent to drilling
piles. Piles exhibit percolation of water from top of piles through fresh concrete
represents 3.5% to 6.5 % of the number of piles. There are no appreciable effects of
fresh concrete subsidence in a drilling pile hole, percolation of water from pile head
through fresh concrete, and/or grout ratio on load displacement characteristics of the
tested piles. The zone of soil disturbed by continuous flight auger piling has a conical
shape extending laterally to a distance equal to ten times the pile diameter at the cutting
head and has an inclined surface of 4 (vertical) : 1 (horizontal).
-178-

GEO-016-11
5 REFERENCES
[1] Abdrabbo, F. M. Uncertainties arising during drilling and performance of flight
auger cast piles, JL. Faculty of engineering Alexandria university, Alexandria,
Egypt (1992) 127- 150
[2] Abdrabbo, F. M. Effects of imperfections in the construction procedure of auger
cast in place piles on pile response, Tenth Asiapacific conference on structure
Engng, EASEC, Thailand (2006).
[3] Polous H. G. Pile behaviorconsequences of geological and construction
imperfections, JL GT. Engng. (2005)Vol.131 (5) 538-563.
[4] Kenny, M. J., Andrawes, K.Z., and Canakci, H. Soil disturbance during
continuous flight auger piling in sand, Proc.14th Int. Conf. on soil Mechancis
and foundation Engng. Hamburg , Germany (1997)Vol 2, 1085-1090.
[5] Carrier, W. D. Liquefaction induced by auger-cast piles How common?, JL.GT.
Engng. (2007)Vol 133 (2) 224- 226.
[6] Silver, M. L. and Seed, H. B. Volume changes in sands during cyclic loading
ASCE , J. soil Mech . Found. Engng., (1971) 97 (SMG): 1171 1182.
[7] Ishihara, K., Tatsuoka, F. and Yosuda, S. Undrained deformation and
Liquefaction of sand under cyclic stresses, Soils and Foundations (1975) (15) 1 :
29-44
[8] Martin, G.R., Finn, W.D.L. and seed, H.B. Fundamentals of liquefaction under
cyclic loading, Proc. ASCE , (1975)Vol. 101(GT5): 423 438.
[9] Dobry, R., Vasquez-Herrera, A., Mohammad, R. and Vucetic, M. Liquefaction
flow failure of silty sand by Torsional Cyclic tests, ASCE, special publication,
Advances in the Art of testing soil under cyclic condition, (1985) 29-52.
[10] Tokimatsu, K., and Yoshimi, Y. Criteria of soil liquefaction with SPT and fine
content, Proc. of the 8th work conference on earthquake engineering, San
Francisco , Calif , (1984) 255-262.
[11] Tokimatsu, K., and Seed H. B. Evaluation of settlement in sands due to
earthquake shaking, J. of Geo-engng., (1987) Vol., 113, No. 8, 861- 878.
[12] Gu, W. H., and Krahn, J. A model for soil structure mobility and collapse, 15 th
ASCE engineering Mechanics Division Conference, Columbia University, New
York (2002).
[13] Seed, H. B., and Idriss, I. M. On the importance of dissipation effects in
evaluating pore pressure changes due to cyclic loading: soil mechanics,
Transient and cyclic load, Pande, G.N. And Zienkiewicz, O.C. John wiley &
sons LTD, Chinchester (1982).
[14] El-gamal, A., Yang, Z., Parra, E. and Ragheb, A. Modeling of cyclic Mobility in
saturated cohesionless soil, Int. JL of plasticity (2003)19 (6), 833- 905.
[15] Polito, C. P., Green, R. A., and Lee, J. Pore pressure generation models for
sands and silty soils subjected to cyclic loading, Jl. of Geot. & geon. Engng.
(2008), Vol. 134, (10), 1490-1500.
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ENGI NEERI NG MANAGEMENT

MNG- 001
RI SK ALLOCATI ON AND MI TI GATI ON I N THE EGYPTI AN BARRAGE PROJECTS
Mohammmad AboulFtouh Ammar, Adel Aboelyazeed Elsamadony, and Ashraf Abdshaheed Rabie
MNG- 002
OPTI MI ZATI ON OF CONSTRUCTI ON CASH FLOWS WI TH NONLI NEAR COST
DI STRI BUTI ONS
Emad Elsaed Elbeltagi, Mohammad Abo Elfetouh Ammar, and Haytham Mohammad Sanad
MNG- 003
TI ME- COST- QUALI TY- POLLUTI ON TRADE- OFF ANALYSI S FOR CONSTRUCTI ON
PROJECTS
Magdy Madany, Mohamed Marzouk, Azza Abou-Zied, and Moheeb El-Said
MNG- 004
THE PERCEPTI ON OF ENVI RONMENTAL ASPECTS I N CONSTRUCTI ON SME
Hesham Ahmed Bassioni, Wal Kamel, Ahmed Hossam El-Din, and Nawar Abdelrahman
MNG- 005
THE I MPLEMENTATI ON OF I SO- 9000 STANDARDS TO CONSTRUCTI ON
Mohammad ABU-TALEB, Mohammad Ammar, and Tarek Zayed
MNG- 006
ASSESSMENT OF I SO BENEFI TS VERSUS COSTS I N THE CONSTRUCTI ON I NDUSTRY
Mohammad Ammar and Tarek Zayed
MNG- 007
DEVELOPI NG EXPERT SYSTEM USI NG DATA MI NI NG TECHNI QUE I N THE
CONSTRUCTI ON RI SK RESPONSES I N EGYPT
PROF. DR. I A. NOSSIR, ASSOCIATE. PROF. M. EL MIKAWI, and ENG A. M. IBRAHIM
MNG- 008
SCHEDULI NG OF TYPI CAL REPETI TI VE PROJECTS CONSI DERI NG LEARNI NG
DEVELOPMENT EFFECT
Mohammad A. Ammar and Amena F. Abdel-Maged


MNG-001-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





RISK ALLOCATION AND MITIGATION IN THE EGYPTIAN
BARRAGE PROJECTS

M. A. AMMAR
Department of Structural Engineering, Tanta University
Tanta 31521, Egypt, E-mail: mamammar@yahoo.com
A. A. ELSAMDONY
Department of Civil Engineering, Helwan University
Matareya, Cairo, Egypt, E-mail: epm_consult@iec.egnet.net
A. A. RABIE
Tanta 31521, Egypt

ABSTRACT
There is a continuous need to improve the irrigation and navigation system in the Nile
River, which requires replacing old barrage and lock projects or build new ones.
Barrage and lock projects are large size infrastructure projects which usually face
problems and risks during various project stages. Consequently, project objectives
(time, cost, and quality) are often affected. Also, risks are usually leading to claims,
disputes, and adversarial contract relationships. The objectives of this research are to:
identify the most critical risks usually faced in the construction of barrage and lock
projects in Egypt, provide a strategy for proper allocation of risks, and suggest a risk
mitigation framework. To attain these objectives, a questionnaire survey has been done
covering representative of different parties usually engaged in barrage and lock projects.
Based on questionnaire survey results, significant risks were identified according to
their criticality. The contracting parties capable of analyzing and dealing with critical
risks are identified for which these risks have to be allocated. Also, suggestions to
mitigate or minimize the impacts of risks on these projects are discussed. Six real-life
case studies are analyzed to show actual risks associated with these projects. The results
indicate that a large number of risks were allocated to contractors compared with those
allocated to clients. A considerable number of risks have disagreement allocation.
Recommendations to mitigate critical risks and to improve the overall performance of
barrage and lock projects are then summarized.
KEYWORDS
Barrage and Lock Projects, Risk Management, Risk Allocation, Risk Mitigation, Claims
and Disputes.
-180-

MNG-001-2
1 INTRODUCTION
The irrigation and agriculture sector represents a major part in the national economy of
Egypt. Recently, an increase need for developing barrage and lock projects is recorded
to replace old ones, to improve irrigation and navigation system in the Nile River, and
to generate electrical power. As for most infrastructure projects, barrage and lock
projects are usually faced with different types of risks which may lead to cost and/or
time overruns. Construction risks are, also, leading to claims, disputes, and adversarial
contract relationship. The size and complexity of these projects add to the likelihood of
risks occurrence.
Barrage and lock projects are irrigation structures constructed mainly in order to raise
the water level at stated stations across rivers stream. In Egypt, there are 16 main
barrage intakes directly from the Nile River and 32 small regulators (barrages) across
the rayhs and main canals. There is always a need to improve the performance of these
projects and provide strategies for effective management.
There are many factors leading to problems and risks during the construction of barrage
and lock projects Examples are big size, long period of execution, water flow condition,
construction of diversion canal, cofferdams condition, limited area available, safety and
security of existing structures, and dewatering system for construction pit. Moreover,
many contractual parties are participating such as owner representatives, designers,
consultants, contractors, subcontractors, suppliers, etc. Other factors include financial
difficulties, contractual procurement systems, technological complexity, and legal
conditions generate other risks [1].
It is, therefore, important to develop strategies to manage construction risks effectively.
It is crucial to correctly identify critical risks, to properly allocate them, and to present
suggestions to mitigate or minimize their impact. Trying to eliminate all risks in a
construction project is impossible. Thus, there is a need for a formal risk management
process to manage all types of risks. Risk management is a formal and orderly process
of systematically identifying, analyzing and responding to risks throughout the life
cycle of a project to obtain the optimum degree of risk elimination, mitigation and/or
control [2].
Barrage and lock projects are usually associated with high construction costs. For the
successful implementation of these projects, it is important to study and analyze the
risks which may face barrage and lock projects. The primary objectives of this research
are: (1) Identifying major critical risks associated with the construction of barrage and
lock projects in Egypt and (2) Providing a risk allocation and mitigation framework that
can be used for barrage and lock projects in Egypt.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Project risk can be defined as an uncertain event or condition that, if occurs, has a
positive or negative effect on at least one project objective [3]. Managing risks in
construction projects has been recognized as a very important process in order to
achieve project objectives in terms of time, cost, quality, safety and environmental
sustainability.
Construction risks differ from country to another whereas the economic, political, social
and cultural conditions are different. Risk management is greatly influenced by the
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MNG-001-3
uniqueness of the construction industry in a specific country [4]. Risks have been
identified, and analyzed for different types of projects. Causes and effects of delays in
construction industry have been extensively studied.
Hartman and Snelgrove [5] performed an investigation for construction contracts in
Canada, in which the effectiveness of written contract language to communicate risk
apportionment between contracting parties is evaluated. The study indicated that
contracting parties consistently interpret risk apportionment in contract clauses
differently. Tiong et al. [6] identified risk factors associated with international
construction joint ventures (JV). Risk factors are classified into three main groups:
internal, project specific, and external.
Askar and Gab-Allah [7] analyzed risk factors for BOT projects in Egypt. They
classified risks as political risks, construction risks, operation risks, and market and
revenue risks. Nora [8] studied the causes of construction delays of high investment
projects in Egypt in order to identify and quantify time overruns in these projects.
Seventy nine percent of the surveyed projects encountered time overruns. The
frequency, extent and causes of delays are independent of project type, sector, location,
original contract amount and original contract duration.
Shen et al. [9] established a risk significance index to show the relative significance of
risks associated with JV contracts in the Chinese constriction. Wang et al. [10]
identified critical risks associated infrastructure projects in China. Wang and Chou [11]
used a systematic analytical procedure to identify risks in highway projects in Taiwan.
Tommy et al. [12] ranked significant causes of delay and corresponding mitigation
measures in Hong Kong construction projects. Fang et al. [13] adopted an evaluation
index for various risks encountered by Chinese contractors.
Abdul-Rahman et al. [14] identified the main factors that lead to project delays and
suggested recommendations on how to mitigate their effects in Malaysian construction
industry. Delay incidents occur mainly during the construction phase and one or more
parties usually contribute to delay. Frimpong et al. [15] identified and evaluated the
relative importance of significant factors contributing to delay and cost overruns in
Ghana groundwater projects. Patrick et al. [16] prioritized risks according to their
influence on project objectives.
Sweis et al. [17] evaluated the most common causes of delays in construction projects in
Jordan. Monir [18] identified and assessed the significant risks in the UAE construction
industry. Kartam and kartam [19] studied the assessment, allocation, and management
of construction risks of the largest Kuwaiti contractors. Contractors show more
willingness to accept risks that are contractual and legal-related rather than other types
of risks.
In the present study, an integrated approach to manage risks in barrage and lock projects
in Egypt is developed. The proposed approach includes identification of risks,
investigation of most critical ones, and suggestion of a framework for allocation and
mitigation of these risks.
3 CLASSIFICATION OF CONSTRUCTION RISKS
Shen et al. [9] categorized construction risks into six groups in accordance with the
nature of risks (financial, legal, management, market, policy, political, and technical
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MNG-001-4
risks). Smith [1] classified risks in the same way. Flanagan and Norman [20] suggested
three ways of classifying risks: consequence, type, and impact of risk. Perry and Hayes
[21] classified risks in terms of risks retainable by contractors, consultants, and clients.
Fang et al. [13] grouped risks into two subsets: external and internal risks.
In this study, risks are classified into five categories: construction, managerial, natural
(physical), political and financial. It is believed that the 40 risks used in the survey
represent almost all risks that might occur in barrage and lock projects (Table 1). These
risks are used in a questionnaire survey to specify most critical risks in barrage and lock
projects in Egypt.
4 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Data were collected through a structured questionnaire survey, which has been designed
based on both literature review and feedbacks of interviews with project managers. To
ensure meaningful responses, an interview was conducted with each respondent to
explain the objectives of the study and to get feedbacks towards questionnaire design.
Respondents were asked to rank risks on a scale ranging from 1 to 5 (1 stands for not
critical and 5 stands for fully critical). The respondents were also asked to give
suggestions to mitigate or minimize impacts of risks. The respondents are given the
opportunity to add other risks not listed in the questionnaire.
A total of 50 questionnaires were distributed during the study period (From March 2007
to February 2008). Professionals in the field of barrage and lock projects including
consultants, owner's representatives, and contractors were surveyed. They were selected
from different working positions and their working experience ranges from 3 to 30
years, with an average experience of 16 years. A total number of 39 questionnaires were
received, 37 of which are complete (ratio of 74%) while only two are incomplete.
4.1 Sample Size
The sample size necessary to produce accurate results for a specified confidence level
and margin of error can be calculated using central limit theorem [22]. The margin of
error (E) is the maximum difference between observed sample mean (X) and true value
of the population mean (). The sample size can be calculated using Eq.1 [23].

2 /2
] [
E
Z
= n (1)
in which n is the sample size, is the population standard deviation, Z
/2
is the positive
Z value corresponding to the vertical boundary for the area of /2 in the right tail of the
standard normal probability distribution curve, with a confidence level of 1-, as shown
in Fig.1.

Fig.1: Standard Normal Probability Distribution Curve
/2 /2
Z=0 Z
/2

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MNG-001-5
Table 1: Risk Categories, Responses and Evaluation of Surveyed Risks
Risk Frequency Rank
Category
Risk
Code
Risk Name
N
o
t

c
r
i
t
i
c
a
l

(
1
)

F
a
i
r
l
y

c
r
i
t
i
c
a
l

(
2
)

C
r
i
t
i
c
a
l

(
3
)

V
e
r
y

c
r
i
t
i
c
a
l

(
4
)

F
u
l
l
y

c
r
i
t
i
c
a
l

(
5
)

C
r
i
t
i
c
a
l
i
t
y

I
n
d
e
x

S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d

D
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n

C
a
t
e
g
o
r
y

O
v
e
r
a
l
l

C1 Delay in possession of site 2 5 14 6 10 0.70 1.19 5 17
C2 Existing structures 2 4 12 12 7 0.70 1.10 4 16
C3 Lack of resources 1 2 10 20 4 0.73 0.86 2 9
C4 Delay of subcontractors 0 4 19 12 2 0.67 0.75 10 25
C5 Design changes 0 7 17 11 2 0.64 0.82 13 30
C6 Design defects 1 1 7 11 17 0.83 1.00 1 1
C7 Construction method 0 3 16 16 2 0.69 0.73 6 18
C8 Client variations 3 12 14 6 2 0.56 1.00 14 38
C9 variations impossibility 4 12 16 5 0 0.52 0.87 15 40
C10 Water flow effects 4 7 5 15 6 0.67 1.27 11 27
C11 Delay in approvals 0 4 18 11 4 0.68 0.83 9 23
C12 Poor workmanship 0 8 10 14 5 0.69 0.99 8 22
C13 Inefficiency of suppliers 1 3 13 17 3 0.70 0.87 3 15
C14 Equipment breakdown 1 1 18 14 3 0.69 0.80 7 20
Construction
C15 Shortage in providing utilities 1 4 17 14 1 0.65 0.80 12 28
M1 Improper feasibility study 0 3 10 16 8 0.76 0.89 2 4
M2 Bad site layout 3 7 21 6 0 0.56 0.81 11 37
M3 Improper management 1 3 12 20 1 0.69 0.80 6 19
M4 Low productivity 1 1 16 16 3 0.70 0.80 5 13
M5 Change work orders 0 9 16 10 2 0.63 0.86 9 33
M6 Safety and security problems 1 7 16 8 5 0.65 1.01 7 29
M7 Disputes, arbitration and law 2 9 11 13 2 0.62 1.02 10 34
M8 Poor coordination 1 1 7 21 7 0.77 0.86 1 2
M9 Delayed decision making 1 2 15 12 7 0.72 0.96 4 11
M10 Deficiencies in planning 0 1 13 17 6 0.75 0.76 3 5
M11 Environmental restrictions 1 17 15 4 0 0.52 0.73 12 39
Managerial
M12 Labor strike in site 1 8 11 14 3 0.64 0.97 8 31
N1 Subsurface conditions 0 4 14 11 8 0.72 0.95 2 10
N2 Dewatering problems 0 4 10 15 8 0.75 0.93 1 7
N3 Force major 2 8 10 10 7 0.67 1.18 3 26
Natural
(Physical)
N4 Inclement weather 1 15 9 9 3 0.59 1.05 4 36
P1 Changes in law & regulations 3 5 12 6 11 0.69 1.28 1 21
Political
P2 Import restrictions 1 5 14 14 3 0.67 0.92 2 24
F1 Delay of payment 1 0 14 15 7 0.75 0.87 2 6
F2 Inflation 0 3 16 15 3 0.70 0.77 5 14
F3 Exchange rate 1 3 13 15 5 0.71 0.93 4 12
F4 Interest rate fluctuation 2 7 17 9 2 0.61 0.94 7 35
F5 Increase of materials price 2 2 7 19 7 0.75 1.02 3 8
F6 Taxation risks 2 5 17 11 2 0.63 0.93 6 32
Financial
F7 Contractor financial difficulties 0 3 8 19 7 0.76 0.85 1 3
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MNG-001-6
For a confidence level of 85% and a margin of error of 20%, the minimum sample size
needed for the questionnaire is calculated using Eq.1 which is 33. The number of
complete questionnaires received is 37, which can be considered sufficient for the
assumed values of confidence level, margin of error, and standard deviation.
4.2 Risk Evaluation
To evaluate risks according to their criticality and impact on performance of barrage
and lock projects, data obtained from the questionnaire survey were analyzed using
criticality index and standard deviation. Criticality index (CI) measures the criticality of
each risk, which has a value ranges from 0 to 1 (CI=0 means being NOT critical while
CI=1 being FULLY critical). CI can be calculated for a risk using Eq.2 [10].

) n + n + n + n + 5(n
n + 2n + 3n + 4n + 5n
= CI
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
(2)
in which n
1
is the frequency of a risk being fully critical, n
2
is the frequency the risk is
being very critical, n
3
is the frequency the risk is being critical, n
4
is the frequency the
risk is being fairly critical, and n
5
is the frequency the risk is being not critical. Risks are
ranked according to their criticality index value. In case of a tie, risks are then ranked
according to lower standard deviation. Responses, criticality index, and standard
deviation for the 40 risks used in the present study are given in Table 1.
5 RISK MANAGEMENT APPROACH
5.1 Risk Evaluation and Significance
According to the results listed in Table 1, the surveyed risks are ranked according to
criticality index and standard deviation values within each category, as shown in Table
2. Overall ranking of the 40 risks are also given. Also, the most ten critical risks in
barrage and lock projects in Egypt are marked with + sign in Table 2.
Table 2: Significant (Critical) Risks within Each Category
Rank Rank Rank
Category
Risk
Code
C
a
t
e
g
o
r
y

O
v
e
r
a
l
l

Category
Risk
Code
C
a
t
e
g
o
r
y

O
v
e
r
a
l
l

Category
Risk
Code
C
a
t
e
g
o
r
y

O
v
e
r
a
l
l

C1 5 17 M1+ 2 4 P1 1 21
C2 4 16 M3 6 19
Political
P2 2 24
C3+ 2 9 M4 5 13 F1+ 2 6
C6+ 1 1 M8+ 1 2 F2 5 14
C7 6 18 M9 4 11 F3 4 12
C11 9 23
Managerial
M10+ 3 5 F5+ 3 8
C12 8 22 N1+ 2 10
Financial
F7+ 1 3
C13 3 15
Natural
(Physical) N2+ 1 7
Construction
C14 7 20
+ Most ten critical risks
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MNG-001-7
Ranking of risk categories with respect to participating parties (owners, consultants, and
contractors) and overall criticality index are given in Table 3. The results indicate that
financial risks have the first rank for all parties in barrage and lock projects.
Table 3: Ranking for Risk Categories According to Criticality Index
Owners Consultants Contractors Overall Group
Category CI Rank CI Rank CI Rank CI Rank
Financial 0.708 1 0.686 1 0.700 1 0.701 1
Natural 0.700 2 0.644 3 0.675 3 0.681 2
Political 0.695 3 0.638 5 0.690 2 0.679 3
Construction 0.686 5 0.652 2 0.667 4 0.673 4
Managerial 0.688 4 0.640 4 0.657 5 0.668 5
Spearman coefficient (R) has been widely used for determining correlation of data.
High correlation coefficient indicates high degree of agreement between respondents
[18]. Spearman correlation coefficient (R) can be calculated using Eq.3 [24].

N - N
D 6
- 1 = R
3
2
(3)
in which D is the difference between ranking and N is the number of variables (risks).
Spearman correlation coefficient between owners and consultants is 0.913, between
contractors and consultants is 0.873, and between owners and contractors is 0.907.
These values indicate, generally, high correlation between the three parties. It can be
noted that correlation between consultants and contractors has the lowest value, which
indicates some disagreement between them in evaluating significance of risks.
5.2 Risk Allocation
To allocate risks for a contracting party, the risk allocation scale suggested by Hartman
and Snelgrove [5] is used. It indicates the tendency for allocating certain risk to a
contracting party. Fig.2 shows risk allocation scale for two cases of risk allocation:
agreement and disagreement.

Owner Contractor Owner Contractor
40 30 20 10 10 20 30 40 40 30 20 10 10 20 30 40

a. Allocation Agreement b. Allocation Disagreement
Fig.2: Risk Allocation Scale (Hartman and Snelgrove 1996)
In allocation agreement case, the respondents allocate risk for one contracting party
(i.e., same side on allocation scale as shown in Fig.2.a). On the other hand, respondents
allocate risk a differently in allocation disagreement case (Fig.2.b). Risks with
disagreement allocation have higher probability of resulting disputes and claims
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MNG-001-8
between contracting parties. It is, therefore, important that contract clauses regarding
risks with allocation disagreement be clear and unambiguous.
In the present study, risks are allocated using risk allocation scale based on the
questionnaire survey results. Summary of results for those risks with allocation
agreement to either party are given in Table 4, as well as risks with allocation
disagreement. From Table 4, it can be noted that more risks are allocated to contractors
compared to those allocated to owners. Also, conflict in interpretation of risk
responsibility for many risks is noticeable in the form of disagreement allocation of
risks.
Table 4: Risks with Allocation Agreement and Disagreement
Allocation Agreement Allocation Disagreement
Allocated Party
Risk Code Risk Code
Owner C1, C8, C11, M1, M5, F1
Contractor
C3, C4, C7, C10, C12, C13,
C14, C15, M2, M3, M4, M6,
M12, N2, F7
C2, C5, C6, C9, M7, M8,
M9, M10, M11, N1, N3,
N4, P1, P2, F2, F3, F4,
F5, F6
5.3 Risk Mitigation
Based on the feedbacks of respondents and analysis of results obtained from the
questionnaire survey, recommendations and suggestions to mitigate risk effects can be
summarized as follows.
For risks allocated to owner: (1) Owners should adopt a prequalification system and
make sure that contractors are not selected based on the lowest bid only, (2) Owners
should have sufficient budget to pay contractors timely after completion of a work item,
(3) Owners must review and check design and documents carefully to
minimize/eliminate work changes during construction stage, and (4) Owners must make
quick decisions to solve any problems that arise during construction.
For risks allocated to contractor: (1) Contractors should adequately prepare for site
investigation and mobilization, (2) Contractors must choose suitable methods for
construction and owner must review and approve these methods, (3) Contractors should
have qualified site managers for smooth execution of work, and (4) Contractors must
select qualified subcontractors and owners must check and approve such selection.
For risks with disagreement allocation: (1) Risks with disagreement allocation must be
allocated clearly in contract clauses and conditions, (2) Owner and contractor
representatives must work as a team and have to solve timely any problem, and (3) Both
owners and contractors should carefully select and train contract administration staff
within their organization.
6 CASE STUDIES
Barrage and lock projects that have been constructed or under construction in Egypt
during the study period have been studied in order to validate the proposed risk
management approach. These projects include: (1) New Menoufi barrage, (2) New
Tawfiki barrage, (3) Abbasi barrage, (4) New Naga-Hammadi barrage, (5) Zefta lock,
and (6) Delta lock. Comparison between questionnaire results and actual risks
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MNG-001-9
associated with these projects are presented. The data of case studies are obtained from
Reservoirs and Grand Barrages Sector [25].
Actual risks associated with case studies are given in Table 5. It is obvious that the
critical risks (based on the results of the questionnaire survey) occurred actually during
the construction of the case studies on hand. The frequency of occurrence along the six
case studies differs for one critical risk to another. Some of them occurred in all case
studies (C6 and F5), while others occurred once (M7, M11, and P2).
Table 5: Risks Associated with Case Studies
Case Study # Case Study # Risk
Code 1 2 3 4 5 6
Risk
Code 1 2 3 4 5 6
C1 F7
C2 M1
C3 M7
C6 M8
C7 M9
C8 M10
C11 M11
C13 N1
F1 N2
F2 P1
F3 P2
F5
Actual risks of the case studies on hand are compared with the most critical risks
obtained form the questionnaire survey. For space limitations, only comparison with the
most 10 critical risks are given in Table 6. It is apparent that the most 10 critical risks
were actually faced in at least three case studies out of six. It is important to note that
the design defects and sudden increase in raw materials price are common risks.
Table 6: Comparison between Most 10 Critical and Actual Risks
Case Study #
Code Risk Name
1 2 3 4 5 6
C6 Design defects (structure - hydraulic) x x x x x x
C3 Lack of resources (equipment - material - labor) x x x x
M8 Poor coordination x x x x
M1 Improper feasibility study and cost estimate x x x
M10 Deficiencies in planning and scheduling x x x x
N2 Ground water and dewatering problems x x x
N1 Uncertain subsurface conditions x x x
F7 Contractor financial difficulties x x x
F1 Delay of payment x x x x
F5 Sudden increase of raw materials price x x x x x x
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MNG-001-10
Barrage and lock projects often face risks during construction stage, and consequently
project objectives are usually affected. The primary objectives of this study are to
identify the most critical risks, develop strategies to manage construction risks, and
provide mitigation framework for main risks. A questionnaire survey has been done
covering major barrage and lock projects under construction and representatives of
different parties usually engaged. Based on the analysis of questionnaire survey, the
most critical risks are determined. The results indicate that some risks have to be
allocated to either owners or contractors. For those risks which have allocation
agreement, more risks were allocated to contractor compared with those allocated to
owner. Risks with allocation disagreement have a higher probability of producing
disputes and claims and usually lead to cost and/or time overruns. These risks must be
allocated clearly in contract clauses and conditions. Recommendations and suggestions
to mitigate critical risks in barrage and lock projects and to improve overall
performance are outlined. The findings presented in this study provide guidelines and
information that managers can utilize to manage their projects properly regarding risk
management. The research can be extended to cover other types of construction
projects.
8 REFERENCES
[1] Smith, N. (1999), Managing Risk in Construction Projects, Blackwell, Oxford.
[2] Wang, S. Q., Dulaimi, M. F., and Aguria, M. Y. (2004). "Risk Management
Framework for Construction Projects in Developing Countries". Construction
Management and Economics, 22 (3), 237252.
[3] PMI (2004). A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge: PMBOK
Guide. 3rd Ed., U.S.A.
[4] Andi, (2006), "The Importance and Allocation of Risks in Indonesian
Construction Projects". Construction Management and Economics, 24 (1), 6980.
[5] Hartman, F., and Snelgrove, P. (1996), "Risk Allocation in Lump-Sum Contracts-
Concept of Latent Dispute". Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE,
122(3), 291-296.
[6] Tiong, R., Bing, L., and Chew, D. (1999), "Risk Management in International
Construction Joint Ventures" Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE,
125(4), 277-284.
[7] Askar, M., and Gab-Allah, A. (2002). "Problems Facing Parties Involved in BOT
Projects in Egypt". Management in Engineering, ASCE, 18(4), 173-178.
[8] Nora, M. (2002), "Construction Delays of High Investment Projects in Egypt",
M.Sc. Thesis, American University in Cairo, Egypt.
[9] Shen, L. Y., Wu, G. W., and Ng, C. S. (2001), "Risk Assessment for Construction
Joint Ventures in China". Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE,
127(1), 76-81.
[10] Wang, S., Tiong, R., Ting, S., and Ashley, D. (2000), "Evaluation and
Management of Political Risks in China's BOT Projects." Construction
Engineering and Management, ASCE, 126(3), 242-250.
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MNG-001-11
[11] Wang, M., and Chou, H., (2003), "Risk Allocation and Risk Handling ff Highway
Projects in Taiwan". Management in Engineering, ASCE, 19(2), 60-68.
[12] Tommy, Y., Ivan, W. H., and Karen, C. F. (2006). "Construction Delays in Hong
Kong Civil Engineering Projects". Construction Engineering and Management,
ASCE, 132(6), 636-649.
[13] Fang, D., Li, M., and Shen, L. (2004), "Risks in Chinese Construction Market-
Contractors Perspective". Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE,
ASCE, 130(6), 853-861.
[14] Abdul-Rahman, H., Berawi, M. A., Mohmed, O., and Yahya, A. (2006), "Delay
Mitigation in the Malaysian Construction Industry". Construction Engineering and
Management, ASCE, 132(2), 125-133.
[15] Frimpong, Y., Oluwoye, J., and Crawford, L. (2003), "Causes of Delay and Cost
Overruns in Construction of Ground Water Projects in Developing Countries;
Ghana as a Case Study". International Journal of Project Management, 21, 321-
326.
[16] Patrick, X., Guomin, Z., and Jiayuan, W. (2007), "Understanding the Key Risks in
Construction Projects in China". International Journal of Project Management,
25(6), 601-614.
[17] Sweis, G., Abu-Hammad, A., and Shboul, A. (2007), "Delays in Construction
Projects: The Case of Jordan", International Journal of Project Management,
26(6), 665-674.
[18] Monir, S. (2007), "Risk Assessment and Allocation in the UAE Construction
Industry, International Journal of Project Management, 26(4), 431-438.
[19] Kartam, N., and Kartam, S., (2001), " Risk and its Management in the Kuwaiti
Construction Industry: A Contractors Perspective". International Journal of
Project Management, 19(6), 325-335.
[20] Flanagan, R., and Norman, G., (1993), Risk Management and Construction.
Blackwell Science Ltd, Australia.
[21] Perry, J., and Hayes, R. (1985), "Risk and its Management in Construction
Projects". Proc. the Institution of Civil Eng., 1 (78), 499521.
[22] Richard, L., and James, J. (1990), "Probability and Statistics for Engineers". 3rd
edition, University of Florida, USA.
[23] Harak, I. (2002). Risk Management of the BOT Projects in Egypt. M.Sc.
Thesis, Cairo University, Egypt.
[24] Kottegoda, N., and Rosso, R. (1997), "Statistics, Probability, and Reliability for
Civil Environmental Engineers", McGraw Hill, New York.
[25] Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, Reservoirs and Grand Barrages
Sector, "Contract Documents of Barrage Projects", Egypt, (1995-2007).

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MNG-002-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





OPTIMIZATION OF CONSTRUCTION CASH FLOWS WITH
NONLINEAR COST DISTRIBUTIONS

E. E. ELBELTAGI
Department of Structural Engineering, Mansoura University,
Mansoura, 35516, Egypt
E-mail: eelbelta@mans.edu.eg
M. A. AMMAR
Department of Structural Engineering, Tanta University,
Tanta, 31521, Egypt
E-mail: mamammar@yahoo.com
H. M. SANAD
Department of Structural Engineering, Tanta University,
Tanta, 31521, Egypt
E-mail: san25hay@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Cash is an important resource of any construction company. Construction companies
usually fail due to a lack of liquidity for supporting their daily activities rather than
because of inadequate management of other resources. So, cash flow should be
managed effectively in order to enhance cash flow profile and increase liquidity for the
contractor over project duration. In this research, an optimization model has been
developed for contractors to optimize cash flow based on several objectives and
constraints. The objectives considered are to minimize financial charges, monthly
overdrafts, and fluctuations between monthly overdrafts. Two types of constraints are
considered; time constraint to respect the deadline specified by the owner, and overdraft
constraint to satisfy the contractor financial abilities. Also, the model considers
nonlinear distributions of costs over activities' durations in order to reflect actual
financial situations. Ant colony technique is used as an optimization tool for the
developed model. In order to validate the developed model, an example application is
used. The results are then analyzed and the basic conclusions are then drawn.
KEYWORDS
Construction management, Cash Flow, Nonlinear Cost Distributions, Optimization, Ant
Colony.
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MNG-002-2
1 INTRODUCTION
Construction projects involve many resources and tasks that need to be managed
effectively. Cash is the most important resources for construction companies [1]. It
differs substantially from other resources (labours, equipment, and materials), because
cash is transformed by operations into different work items that are transformed in turn
into cash [2]. It is noted that more than 60% of construction contractors' failure is
mainly due to economic factors [3]. So, proper cash flow management plays a strategic
role for all contractors [4].
Cash flow management is an umbrella term that aims at achieving many objectives such
as cash flow prediction, optimization, and monitoring and controlling. Accurate
prediction of cash flow is essential to clarify the futuristic vision of timings and
amounts of cash over project duration. Therefore, the contractor can know his financial
commitments. Cash flow optimization is a proven tool that aims at enhancing cash flow
profiles and increasing liquidity for the contractor which increases profitability.
Effective monitoring and controlling aim at measuring financial performance during the
progress of the construction phase to adjust any deviation.
Factors that affect cash flow are project duration, retention conditions, times for
receiving client payments, arrangement with suppliers or vendors, etc. Also, many
factors exist during construction that may affect the cash flow including time delays,
cost overruns, and change orders [5]. Moreover, construction industry is in a continuous
need for tools that can provide accurate, reliable and timely information to all
participants of a construction project, especially financial issues [6].
The main objectives of the present research are two. First, introducing an optimization
model for cash flow. Second, introducing activity cost distributions to be incorporated
in the model.
2 PROJECT CASH FLOW: AN OVERVIEW
Project Cash flow is a financial model of a project or contract. It is the difference
between cash out (contractor expenses) and cash in (income from client). Project cash
flow plan is developed from cost estimate and project schedule [7]. Estimating
considers use of resources in terms of cost and planning considers the use of resources
in terms of time, as illustrated in Figure 1 [8].
The flow of money from the owner to the contractor is always in the form of progress
payments. Estimates of work completed are made by the contractor periodically (usually
monthly) and are verified by the owner representative. Cash flow analysis, therefore,
helps contractors define the expected expense, income, and other financial issues.

Fig. 1: Cash Flow Estimation
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MNG-002-3
Cash flow analysis begins by loading activities with their cost. After that, project
cumulative cost, revenue, expense, and income can be calculated. Two curves can be
provided (as in Figure 2), the cumulative expense which often has an S-shape; and the
cumulative income of the periodical payments received (ladder shape). The difference
between the expense and income at a particular month represents amount of cash the
contractor needs in each month, called monthly overdrafts (O). Figure 3 illustrates
overdraft profile.

Fig. 2: Typical Project Cash Flow

Fig. 3: Net Cash Flow (Overdraft Profile)
Most contractors have financial limits (constraints), so if the maximum overdraft (O
max
)
exceeds limited overdraft (O
lim
), many financial problems will be raised. Also, the
difference between the area under expense curve (A
exp
) and the area under income curve
(A
inc
) represent the financial charge (F.C). Minimization of F.C is also an important aim
for most contractors because F.C is a part of the project price that the contractor
estimates.
3 LITERATURE REVIEW
For cash flow optimization, approaches used differ in the objectives to be attained and
the optimization technique(s) used. Two optimization approaches are usually used:
mathematical and heuristic methods. Mathematical methods such as linear, integer, and
dynamic programming require very long computational time making them impractical
for real-life projects [9], and they can be trapped in local optima. To overcome such
problem, various heuristic methods have been developed. They provide optimal/near-
optimal solutions in practical time. Therefore, the second category is a practical way for
handling complex real-life projects [10].
Baroum and Patterson [11] pointed out that Russell [12] considered the objective of
maximizing the net present value (NPV) of cash flows in a network. Arafa [13]
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MNG-002-4
introduced a mathematical model for cash flow optimization via rescheduling of
projects. Elazouni and Metwally [2] used a Genetic Algorithm technique to search for
schedules that correspond to desired credit limits. It searches for schedule with debit
values below the specified credit limit, minimizes financing costs, and minimizes
project duration. In a similar study, Elazouni and Gab-Allah [14] developed an integer-
programming model to devise finance-based schedules with the same objectives in the
previous study. Elazouni1 and Metwally [15] expanded their previous financial-based
scheduling model by incorporating it with the techniques of Time-Cost Trade-off (TCT)
analysis, and resource scheduling.
Lam et al. [16] developed a neural-network model that integrates multi-objective linear
programming and neural network techniques. The model deals with multiple-project
cash flow considering resource utilization. Abdel-Raheem [17] solved the traditional
TCT problem then utilized the results in optimizing cash flow. The main objective is
minimizing project total cost considering risk dimension on the cost.
In spite of previous efforts, researches adopted a uniform distribution of activities cost
over its duration, which lead to misleading results.
The last quarter of the 20th century has witnessed the introduction and rise of
optimization techniques of natural origin such as genetic algorithms (GAs) [18, 19] and
ant colony [20]. These techniques are being applied to engineering problems where
classical methods of optimization are inadequate [21].
4 ANT COLONY OPTIMIZATION
Evolutionary Algorithms (EAs) are powerful population-based optimization techniques.
Examples include how ants find the shortest route to a source of food [22]. Ant Colony
Optimization (ACO) is one of the EA techniques. When searching for food, ants explore
the area surrounding their nest randomly and deposit a chemical pheromone on the
ground. The quantity of pheromone will guide other ants to the food source. ACO has
many applications in construction management include scheduling, static and dynamic
site layout planning, time-cost trade-off, and resource allocation.
Implementing ACO requires a representation of S variables for each ant, with each
variable i has a set of n
i
options with their values l
ij
, and their associated pheromone
concentrations {
ij
}; where i = 1, 2 S, and j = 1, 2,., n
i
[22]. The process starts by
generating m random ants. An ant k (k = 1, 2, , m) represents a solution string, with a
selected value for each variable. Each ant is then evaluated according to an objective
function. Accordingly, pheromone concentration associated with each variable value is
changed in a way to reinforce good solutions, as illustrated by equation (1).
( ) ( ) ; 1
ij ij ij
t t + = t =1, 2, , T (1)
where T is the number of iterations;
ij
(t) is the revised concentration of pheromone
associated with option l
ij
at iteration t;
ij
=change in pheromone concentration; and
=pheromone evaporation rate (01).
ij
is calculated by equation (2).
=
m
k
ij k
ij
k l R
1
otherwise 0
ant by chosen is option if fitness
(2)
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MNG-002-5
where R is the pheromone reward factor; The next iteration starts by changing the ants
variable values according to the probability calculated by equation (3).
( )
( ) [ ] [ ]
( ) [ ] [ ]
=
ij
l
ij ij
ij ij
ij
t
t
t k P

, (3)
where P
ij
(k, t) is the probability that option l
ij
is chosen by ant k for variable i at iteration
t;
ij
is a heuristic factor for preferring among available options (this heuristic factor is
generated by some problem characteristics); and and are exponent parameters.
5 MODELLING ACTIVITY COST
Practitioners and researchers usually assume that activity cost is distributed uniformly
along activity duration. However, this assumption doesn't represent actual situations in
real-life practices. Distribution of activity cost may assume several patterns. This
decision depends on several factors such as financial behaviour of the contractor with
his suppliers and vendors, construction method used, characteristics of the construction
site, etc. Figure 5 shows a 4-week activity with its total cost (40,000) and distributed
weekly costs. The cumulative cost curve of these weekly costs is also presented which
clearly not linear. This cumulative curve is called cost distribution curve (CDC).

Fig. 4: Example of Decreased Cost Distribution Curve
Accordingly, each activity needs two types of cost data, cost amount and cost
distribution curve. Table 1 illustrates proposed CDCs with their governing equations.
These equations were derived mathematically to describe various degrees of increasing
and decreasing rates of costs of an activity. Cash flow analysis with CDC starts by
determining cost of each time unit w along activity duration. First, for each time unit w,
its percentage of duration (PD
w
) is calculated. For example, if activity duration is 4 wks,
then PD
1
=25%, PD
2
=50%, PD
3
=75%, and PD
4
=100%. Second, the corresponding
cumulative percentage of cost (P) can be determined using chosen CDC as shown in
Figure 5. Then the percentage of cost (PC) of each time unit is determined using
Equation 4. Finally, the cost of each time unit, C
w
, can be determined according to
Equation 5.
PC
w
=P
w
-P
w-1
(4)
C
w
=(PC
w
/100)*C (5)

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MNG-002-6
Table 1: Proposed Distribution Curves for Activity Cost
Curve Equation Illustration
0
x y =

1
10
5 . 1
x
y =
2
100
2
x
y =
3
1000
5 . 2
x
y =

4 x y 10 =
5 ( )
7 . 0
981072 . 3 x y =
6 ( )
88786 . 0
676 . 1 x y =

7
>
=
50 676 . 1
50 07107 . 7
88786 . 0
5 . 1
x x
x x
y

8
>
=
50 981072 . 3
50 50
7 . 0
2
x x
x x
y

9
>
=
50 10
50 5534 . 353
5 . 0
5 . 2
x x
x x
y

Fig. 5: Analysis of the Cost Distribution Curve for an Activity
6 CASH FLOW OPTIMIZATION USING ANT COLONY
The developed model aims at optimizing cash flow system to minimize negative
features such as big monthly overdrafts and high financial charge. The optimization tool
is the ACO technique. Optimization of the proposed cash flow system by ACO involves
the following steps:
0
1
3
2
6
4
5
7
8
9
x
y
100
100
100
100
x
y
x
y
100
100
Act. Dur. C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

A
c
t
.

C
o
s
t

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MNG-002-7
6.1 Formation of Solutions
Each solution (schedule) k has a length equals to number of activities (s) in the project.
Each division in the solution string has index number I that represents a certain start
time of activity (i) as shown in Figure 6. Critical activities will have index equal to 1
because it have no options for start except its original start date. So, each activity will
have an index equal to its total float (TF) plus 1 (option represents original start date).
For example, activity 4 has I
4
= 2, so its start date equals to the original start date plus 1
time units.

Fig. 6: Structure of the Solution for Cash Flow Model
6.2 Evaluation of Solutions
As mentioned earlier, the objective function (O.F) will contain financial charge (FC)
and overdraft difference (O). O.F can be calculated using Equation 6.
O.F = FC + O (6)
O = O
max
O
min
(7)
Subject to: Project duration contract duration, and O
max
O
lim
(8)
FC = (A
exp
- A
inc
)* r (9)
Where O
max
is maximum overdraft and O
lim
is limited overdraft, r is the interest rate,
A
exp
is the area under expense curve, and A
inc
is the area under income curve.
6.3 Updating Pheromone Concentration
The pheromone concentration is updated according to equation 1. In the first iteration,
all options for all activities will be assigned a pheromone concentration value of 1. In
this study, after several experiments, the suitable pheromone evaporation rate is 0.5.
6.4 Calculation of Selection Probability
Each ant k at iteration t will change the value for each variable according to Equation 3.
Where =1/Activity Start, =2.5 and =0.5.
6.5 Termination Condition
Reaching convergence criterion is the condition used to demonstrate the termination
process. The convergence condition is demonstrated by Equation (8).
% 2
19
1
i
i
i
i
Diff Max (10)
1
1 1

=
i
i i i
i
fitness
fitness fitness
Diff
(11)
1
I
1

Activity no.
Ant
Option no.
I
2
I
3

3
I
4

4
I
j
s
1 1 3 2 1
2
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MNG-002-8
where fitness
i
is the O.F of solution (ant) i, fitness
i-1
is the O.F of the previous solution i-
1,
1 i
i
Diff is the fitness difference between solution i and i-1. Equation 8 stated that: if the
maximum difference in the previous 20 solutions equal to or less than 2 %, then
termination condition is reached.
7 EXAMPLE APPLICATION
A ten-activity project is used to illustrate the proposed model. The planning data are
given in Table 2. The markup is 10%, retention is 10%, monthly investment rate is 1%,
and contract duration is 17wks. The contractor will pay 20% of the activities cost
immediately and 80% will be paid after one month. Also, there is a limitation of
available cash for contractor so that overdrafts will be constrained by 480,000.
The initial schedule using MS-project is generated, with project start date 01/11/2008
and project total cost 1,300,000. The project finish date is 28/02/2009. The maximum
overdraft is 649,334 which is greater than 480,000 so the initial schedule is not
financially accepted.
Table 2: Data of the Application Example
Act. Pred.s Dur.
(wks)
Cost CDC Act. Pred.s Dur.
(wk)
Cost CDC
1 --- 1 40,000 0 6 2,3 1 50,000 0
2 1 6 200,000 4 7 2 6 300,000 4
3 1 3 300,000 5 8 5,6,7 1 50,000 0
4 1 2 100,000 0 9 7 4 80,000 0
5 2,3,4 2 120,000 5 10 2 3 60,000 4
The optimal schedule is shown in Figure 7. The evaluating parameters of the optimal
schedule confirm its optimality. The O
max
became under the constraint (480,000) and
further minimized to be 474,411. Figure 9 illustrates the overdraft profiles.

Fig. 7: Optimal Schedule for the Example (Case of Actual Cost Distribution)
Also, Figure 8 shows a comparison between the generated monthly overdrafts in initial
(linear), initial (actual), and optimal schedules. The regularity between overdrafts in the
optimal schedule is assured, i.e. the fluctuation is reduced to a considerable degree.
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MNG-002-9
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Initial (li near)
Initial (actual )
Optimal
Initi al (li near) 108 596 340 332 164 20
Initi al (actual ) 116.3 649.334 425.56 351.089 164 20
Optimal 83.69 474.411 414.653 466.025 243.612 55.714
1 2 3 4 5 6

Fig. 8: Comparison between Monthly Overdrafts for Initial and Optimal Schedules
7 CONCLUSIONS
The proposed model introduced in this study insures that many initial schedules may
need further modifications and optimization based on financial dimension. The model
introduced cost distribution curves (CDC) which have significant effects on the
generated cash flow of the project. The objectives of the model involve minimizing
financial charges and monthly overdrafts and respecting time and financial constraints.
The optimization engine used was ant colony technique. The model was tested with an
example application to illustrate the capabilities of the model and the enhancements
achieved by optimization. Also, the example was used to show the difference between
the concept of constant and actual distributions for activity cost.
8 REFERENCES
[1] Park, H.K., Han, S.H., and Russell, J.S. Cash Flow Forecasting Model for
General Contractors Using Moving Weights of Cost Categories. Journal of
Management in Engineering 21 (4) (2005) 164-172.
[2] Elazouni, A.M., and Metwally, F.G. Finance-Based Scheduling: Tool to
Maximize Project Profit Using Improved Genetic Algorithms. Journal of
Construction Engineering and Management 131 (4) (2005) 400-412.
[3] Hegazy, T. Computer-Based Construction Project Management. Prentice
Hall New Jersey, USA (2001).
[4] Barbosa, P.S., And Pimentel, P.R. A Linear Programming Model for Cash
Flow Management in the Brazilian Construction Industry. Journal of
Construction Management and Economics 19 (2001) 469-479.
[5] Nunnally, S.W. "Construction Methods and Management." Prentice Hall
New Jersy, USA (1993).
[6] Haas, C.T., Tucker, R.L., Saidi, K.S., and Balli, N.A. The Value of Handheld
Computers in Construction. A Report of Center for Construction Industry
Studies the University of Texas at Austin, Texas, USA (2002).
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MNG-002-10
[7] Ritz, G.J. "Total Construction Project Management." McGraw-Hill Singapore
(1994).
[8] Budawara, N. Ph.D. Thesis "The Assessment of Risks Caused by Owner's
Delayed Payments." Concordia University, Montreal, Canada (1999).
[9] Sanad, H. Optimal Arrangement of Temporary Facilities in Construction
Sites. M.SC. Thesis, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt (2006).
[10] Sanad, H.M., Ammar, M.A., and Ibrahim, M.E. Optimal Construction Site
Layout Considering Safety and Environmental Aspects. Journal of
Construction Engineering and Management 134 (7) (2008) 536-544.
[11] Baroum, S.M., and Patterson, J.H. The Development of Cash Flow Weight
Procedures for Maximizing The Net Present Value of A Project. Journal of
Operations Management 14 (1996) 209-227.
[12] Russell, A.H. "Cash Flows in Networks." Management Science 16 (1970) 357-
373.
[13] Arafa, M.T. Program for Cash Flow Optimization via Rescheduling of
Engineering Projects. M.SC. Thesis, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt (1998).
[14] Elazouni, A.M., and Gab-Allah, A. Finance-Based Scheduling of
Construction Projects Using Integer Programming. Journal of Construction
Engineering and Management 130 (1) (2004) 1524.
[15] Elazouni, A.M., and Metwally, F.G. Expanding Finance-Based Scheduling to
Devise Overall-Optimized Project Schedules. Journal of Construction
Engineering and Management 133 (1) (2007) 86-90.
[16] Lam, K.C., Hu, T., Cheung, S.O., Yuen, R.K., and Deng, Z.M. "Multi-Project
Cash Flow Optimization: Non-Inferior Solution through Neuro-
Multiobjective Algorithm." Journal of Engineering Construction and
Architectural Management 8 (2) (2001) 130-144.
[17] Abdel-Raheem, M.A. Cash Management: A Computer-Based Framework
for Maximizing Profit Using Evolutionary Algorithms. M.SC. Thesis, Cairo
University, Giza, Egypt (2007).
[18] Holland, J.H. "Adaptation in natural and artificial systems." the University of
Michigan Press USA (1975).
[19] Goldberg, D.E. Genetic Algorithm in Search, Optimization, and Machine
Learning. AddisonWesley Publishing Company New York, USA (1989).
[20] Dorigo, M. Ph.D. Thesis "Optimization, Learning and Natural Algorithms."
Politecnico diMilano, Italy (1992).
[21] Toklu, Y.C. "Application of Genetic Algorithms to Construction Scheduling
With or Without Resource Constraints" Canadian Journal of Civil
Engineering 29 (3) (2002) 421-429.
[22] Elbeltagi, E. Using Ant Colony Optimization for Time-Cost Trade-Off in
Construction. Eleventh International Colloquium on Structural and
Geotechnical Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt (2005).
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MNG-003-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





TIME-COST-QUALITY-POLLUTION TRADE-OFF ANALYSIS
FOR CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS

M. A. MADANY
Senior Engineer - Egypt's National Tunnel Authority, Egypt
E-mail: magdymadany@hotmail.com
M. M. MARZOUK
Structural Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Egypt
E-mail: mm_marzouk@yahoo.com
A. K. ABOU-ZIED
E-mail: azzaabouzeid@yahoo.com
M. EL-SAID
E-mail: elsaid1204@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Controlling air pollution during project planning stage is more cost-effective than
establishing control mechanisms during project execution. This paper presents a tool
that can be used to control air pollution generated from the construction activities at
planning stage. The tool performs multi-objective optimization utilizing evolutionary
genetic algorithms. It considers four objective functions that represent; time, cost,
quality and total pollution. The proposed tool consists of two modules; fitness
evaluation module and optimization module. The former module calculates time, cost
and construction emissions. The level of quality is fed manually by the user for each
activity. Emissions are calculated as a result of dust, harmful gases and noise. It takes
into consideration the dynamic nature of construction activities by modeling the
different types of relationships and change in the criticality of activities. The proposed
tool provides decision-makers with a set of solutions to allow carrying out trade-off
analysis, in a flexible manner, with respect to the considered objectives. The tool aims
at selecting the optimal alternatives that achieve minimum duration, cost, and pollution
while maximizing quality. An application example is presented to demonstrate the use
of the proposed and its capabilities in searching large space of possible solutions.
KEYWORDS
Optimization, genetic algorithms, trade-off analysis, construction pollution, quality.
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MNG-003-2
1 INTRODUCTION
Air pollution has been and continues to be viewed as a serious problem that affects
human health and welfare. Improvements in environmental quality reduce the
magnitude of these adverse effects. Investigation of the quantitative significance of
these effects is integral to the formulation and implementation of environmental policies
that aim at improving quality of life. Construction industry poses a major potential
threat to the environment. One reason for the lack of progress in improving
environmental performance in construction is the perception that pollution generated
from construction activities incidents has little impact. This is mainly because of the
shortage of the effective pollution assessment tools. Integrating environment protection
at the project planning stage ensures that measures to avoid and minimize pollution can
be built into the project design and work schedule. This approach is more cost-effective
than establishing controls once the project commences.
Considerable research efforts have been made in the context of construction
environmental issue. However, most of these studies discussed these issues from a
qualitative point of view, without any guidelines for optimizing the pollutants,
associated with construction projects. A number of optimization models have been
introduced in literature to optimize (either individually or collectively) time, cost, and
utilization of construction resources in different applications including earthmoving
operations [1] highways construction [2], site layout [3,4], and maintenance of
infrastructures [5]. More efforts have been elaborated to consider nontraditional
optimization objectives such as quality [6], and safety [7]. This research presents a
multi-objective optimization tool that aids in planning of construction projects utilizing
genetic algorithms. It minimizes the time, cost, and pollutants and maximizes the
quality of projects activities. This tool considers three types of pollutants including;
dust, harmful gases and noise. It is a generic tool and can be applied for any type of
construction projects. It takes into account the dynamic nature of construction activities.
In addition, it retrieves its data from commercially available software Microsoft Project
2003 to facilitate its use.
2 PROPOSED TOOL
The proposed tool searches for optimal solutions among a set of alternatives. In
optimization problems, the analytical methods are not applicable, because the
underlying mapping of solution alternatives to objective values is too complex. One
option is to use evolutionary algorithms, because these algorithms are formulated
independent of the objective function. Evolutionary algorithms are randomized search
algorithms inspired by principles of natural evolution. Alternatives are coded as
individual chromosomes which undergo though cycles of variation and selection in
order to improve steadily. This makes evolutionary algorithms an attractive candidate
for solving multi-objective optimization problems, where different Pareto-optimal
solutions are sought. Genetic Algorithms have been utilized extensively in construction
and proved their efficiency [1,3,5,6].
In the presence of multiple and conflicting objectives, the resulting optimization
problem gives rise to a set of optimal solutions, instead of one optimal solution.
Multiple optimal solutions exist because no one solution can be optimal for multiple
conflicting objectives [8]. For most multi-objective problems, there exists a set of non-
dominated solutions that have a trade off relationship each other and one of the multiple
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MNG-003-3
objectives of each solution cannot be improved without sacrificing any of others. This
concept is known as the Pareto optimality. Instead of finding one perfect solution,
multi-objective optimization problem tend to be characterized by a family of
alternatives that must be considered equivalent in the absence of information concerning
the relevance of each objective relative to the others. Therefore, the first objective in the
multi-objective optimization is to find the Pareto set, and the next is to select a proper
solution from the found Pareto solution set.
The proposed tool is based on a biased sharing non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm
(NSGA) [8]. The idea behind NSGA is that a ranking selection method is used to
emphasize the non-dominant points and sharing function method is used to maintain
diversity in the population. First, the solutions are classified according to whether or not
there exists another solution that is superior to it. The population is ranked on the basis
of an individual's non-domination level and then the sharing function method is used to
assign fitness to each individual. All these non-dominated solutions constitute the first
non-dominated front in the population. The solutions of the first level of non-
domination are disregarded to constitute the second level of non-domination and so on
till all solutions are classified into a level of non-domination. Fitness is assigned to each
individual according to its non-domination level. An individual in a higher level gets
lower fitness. All solutions in a particular non-domination level are assigned an
identical dummy fitness. All solutions in the first non-dominated front are assigned
fitness equals to the population size. This becomes the maximum fitness that any
solution can have in any population. Based on the sharing strategy, if a solution has
many neighboring solutions in the same front, its dummy fitness is reduced by a factor
and a shared fitness is computed. The factor depends on the number and proximity of
neighboring solutions. Once all solutions in the first front are assigned their shared
fitness values, the smallest shared fitness value is determined. Thereafter, the
individuals in the second non-domination level are all assigned a dummy fitness equal
to a number smaller than the smallest shared fitness of the previous front. As a result, no
solution in the second front has a shared fitness better than that of any solution in the
first front. This assures that the solutions proceed towards the pareto-optimal region.
The proposed tool consists of two modules. These are: fitness evaluation module and
optimization module. Fitness evaluation module calculates time, cost, quality and
construction emissions. While, optimization module performs the optimization process
utilizing genetic algorithms (GAs) [9,10,11] which have been used as a powerful tool
for optimization based on heuristic search techniques following random sampling. For
simplicity without losing the generality, the four objective functions time, cost, quality
and pollution are considered equally weighted functions. Generally, the importance of
each objective, mainly, defined by the decision makers. Several factors (e.g., location,
project nature, project type, etc.) may effect on the relative importance of these
functions.
2.1 Fitness Evaluation Module
Fitness evaluation module calculates time, cost and construction emissions. Fitness
evaluation module utilizes Microsoft Project 2003 to estimate projects cost and
duration which are calculated utilizing Equation 1 & 2:
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MNG-003-4
Project Duration =
=
c
1 i
Sen
i
Dur (1)
Project Cost =
=
n
1 i
Sen
i
Cost (2)
Where;
i
Dur duration of activity i on the critical path for a specific scenario of
resources (Sen)
c total number of critical activities on a specific critical path
Sen
i
Cost cost of activity i for a specific scenario of resources (Sen)
N total number of activities.
In order to quantify construction quality in the optimization process, the formulated
function (Equation 3) proposed by [6] is adopted.
Project Quality =
n
k i
K
k
k i
I
i
i
Q wt wt
,
1
,
1

= =
(3)
Where;
n
k i
Q
,
performance of quality indicator (k) in activity (i) using resource
utilization (n)
k i
wt
,
weight of quality indicator (k) compared to other indicators in activity (i)
i
wt weight of activity (i) compared to other activities in the project.
On the other hand, a sub-module, named EnviroConstr_Est, was developed to calculate
the estimated amount of air pollution generated from construction activities. It accounts
for the three main categories by calculating their impact individually. Further, it
calculates the overall pollution during project execution. EnviroConstr_Est application
consists of three components; Dust, Gases and Noise. Dust component uses the
emission factors method to calculate dust emissions in construction projects. Dust
component utilizes the empirical equations that have been introduced by EPA based on
field measurements carried out by EPA. Gases component calculates the harmful gases
emitted from construction equipment using emission estimation models and material
balance method proposed by EPA. In material balance method, emissions are
determined by knowing the amount of a certain material that enters a process, the
amount that leaves the process by all routes, and the amount shipped as part of the
product itself. Material balance is particularly useful for sources resulting in evaporative
losses. Whereas, noise component is essentially a database that stores the noise
associated with construction equipment and activities. By determining the manufacturer,
model type and power of equipment, Noise component estimates the noise level. Detail
description of EnviroConstr_Est application can be found elsewhere [12].
Total pollution is calculated by normalizing the amount of dust, harmful gases and noise
emissions in [01] range (dimensionless) for each considered activity. These
dimensionless values of dust, harmful gases and noise emissions can be summed and
added, adopting multi-attribute utility theory (MAUT), proposed by [13]. The
normalization process is carried out by determining the maximum threshold limit of
pollutant (corresponds to 1) that is considered dangerous or a fatal pollution limit. Such
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MNG-003-5
maximum threshold limits can be determined from environmental regulations and Acts
such as Law No. 4 [14]. As such, the utilities values of dust, harmful gases and noise
emissions can be summed and added, based on utility theory.
2.2 Optimization Module
The procedure that is followed by optimization module has six main steps as follows:
Step1: Initialization of Generation
In this step the module read the genetic algorithm parameters which include number of
generations; population size; mutation rate; and crossover rate. For the initial population
P1 in the first generation (G=1), the module generate random solutions that relate to
population size (S).
Step 2: Calculations of Objective Functions' Values
For each solution (s) in generation (g), the four objective functions (time, cost, quality
and pollutants) are retrieved from Fitness Evaluation Module.
Step 3: Finding Non-Dominated Solutions
For each solution (s) in generation (g), the values of the three objective functions are
compared against the objective functions values, resulted from other solutions.
Considering i and j are two different solutions in generation g. Also, considering V1,
V2, V3 and V4 are the values of the first, second, third and fourth objective unction,
respectively. The following is applied:
i
S Superior
j
S (in all objectives) if V1(
i
S ) V1(
j
S ) and
V2(
i
S ) V2(
j
S ) and
V3(
i
S ) V3(
j
S ) and
V4(
i
S ) V4(
j
S )

i
S Superior
j
S (at least one objective) if V1(
i
S ) V1(
j
S ) or
V2(
i
S ) V2(
j
S ) or
V3(
i
S ) V3(
j
S ) or
V4(
i
S ) V4(
j
S )
In this case
i
S doesn't dominate
j
S . As such,
j
S is marked as dominated solution. All
solutions that are not marked dominated are non-dominated solutions.

Step 4: Determining the Non-Domination Level
All solutions defined as non-dominated solutions in the previous step constitute the first
level of non-domination. We exclude the solutions in the first level of non-domination
and follow the previous step (step 3) to constitute the second level of non- domination.
We repeat the previous procedures till all solutions are classified according to its level
of non-domination. For generation (g) with solutions (S) the levels of non-domination
vary between 1 to S.
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MNG-003-6
Step 5: Fitness Assignment
Fitness assignment is performed in two stages. First, all solutions in a particular non
domination level (or front) are assigned an identical dummy fitness. Then, according to
the crowding of solutions in the front, lonely solutions are emphasized by using a
sharing function strategy [15]. All solutions in the first non-dominated front are
assigned fitness equal to the population size. This becomes the maximum fitness that
any solution can have in any population. Based on the sharing strategy, if a solution has
many neighboring solutions in the same front, its dummy fitness is reduced by a factor
(niche count) and a shared fitness is computed. The factor depends on the number and
proximity of neighboring solutions following [15] procedure. As such, the smallest
shared fitness value is determined based on the pre-defined parameter (
share
) (see
Equation 4). The distance between two solutions (
ij
d ) i
th
and j
th
is calculated as per
Equation 5. This distance is compared with a pre-defined parameter (
share
) which is,
subsequently, used to estimate the sharing value ( ) Sh(d
ij
) and niche count (
i
m ) as per
Equations 6 and 7, respectively.
q
share
5 0.
(4)
Where; q desired number of distinct Pareto-optimal solutions.
=
=
P
p
l
p
u
p
j
p
i
p
x x
x x
1
2
) ( ) (
d
ij
(5)
Where; P number of variables in the problem
u
p
x upper bound of variable
p
x
l
p
x lower bound of variable
p
x .
=
Otherwise
d if
) Sh(d
ij
ij
0
1
share
share
ij
d
(6)
=
=
k
n
j 1
) Sh(d m
ij i
(7)
Although the calculation of (
share
) depends on this parameter q, it was reported by [15]
that the use of above equation with q 10 works in many test problems. Finally, the
shared fitness (
'
i
f ) is calculated based in the dummy fitness (
k
f ) in k
th
front utilizing
Equation 8.
i
k
i
m
f
f =
'
(8)
Individuals in the second non-domination level are all assigned a dummy fitness equal
to a number which is smaller than the smallest shared fitness of the previous front. This
makes sure that no solution in the second front has a shared fitness better than any
solution in the first front. This procedure is continued till all individuals are assigned a
shared fitness.
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MNG-003-7
Step 6: Population Generation
The population is reproduced according to the dummy fitness values. A stochastic
remainder roulette-wheel selection is used which is a form of fitness-proportionate
selection in which the chance of a solution being selected is proportional to its fitness.
Since solutions in the first level of non-domination have the maximum fitness value,
they always get more copies than the rest of population. Three types of population are
created; parents, child and combined. A parent population is used to generate a child
population. The child population combined with the parent population to create the
combined population.
A new child population created using genetic algorithm operation of selection,
crossover and mutation. The selection operation chooses the solutions that will go
through the reproduction process, by favoring those with higher shared fitness. The
crossover operation crosses each pair of the selected solutions at a randomly determined
point and swaps the variables in the strings at this point, resulting in two new solutions.
The mutation operation randomly changes the value of one of the variables in the string
to induce innovation and to prevent premature convergence to local optima [9] as per
the following procedures:
The previous step (step5) is carried out for the new child population to assign
the shared fitness for each solution in the new chilled population.
Combine child population and parent population to form a new combined
population with size 2S.
Repeat (step5) for the new combined population to assign the shared fitness for
each solution.
Top solutions (S) with high shared fitness are kept to constitute the new parent
in the next generation
The previous steps are continued till the number of generations is completed.
3 CASE EXAMPLE
This example considers the work presented by [6, 16]. Figure 1 shows the network of
test problem. Table 1 shows the associated time, cost, calculated total pollution and
calculated quality for the alternatives of each activity. The example consists of 18
activities where each has a number of possible options. Each option is associated with a
certain duration, cost, quality and pollution. Eighteen activities are considered in the
example with an average of 3.56 options as listed in Table 1. As such, more than 843
billion (3.56
18
) possible combinations exist and are required to be examined, which is
too complex to be solved mathematically. The presented optimization module is used to
search this large space of available unconstrained alternatives to provide feasible
solutions. Eight trails have been carried out to test the optimization module and to
evaluate its performance in searching large space of possible solutions. Table 2 shows
the utilized optimization parameters for each trial. As shown in Figure 2 the best
solutions are obtained at trials 7 and 8 whereas, the population size is 400 and the
number of generation is 50. Since the large size of population increases the probabilities
of combinations and by increasing the number of generations the good solutions are
kept to constitute the next generations.
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MNG-003-8

Figure 1: Case example network
Table 1: Alternatives of activities
Activity Alternative Duration Cost Pollution Quality
1 14 2400 63.98 0.02952
2 15 2150 87.45 0.02685
3 16 1900 73.12 0.02487
4 21 1500 122.43 0.02211
1
5 24 1200 109.68 0.01875
1 15 3000 68.55 0.0483
2 18 2400 104.94 0.0457
3 20 1800 91.4 0.0431
4 23 1500 134.09 0.0368
2
5 25 1000 114.25 0.0311
1 15 4500 68.55 0.0794
2 22 4000 128.26 0.06436
3
3 33 3200 150.81 0.0346
1 12 45000 54.84 0.1065
2 16 35000 93.28 0.080575
4
3 20 30000 91.4 0.067265
1 22 20000 100.54 0.0992
2 24 17500 139.92 0.0914
3 28 15000 127.96 0.0748
5
4 30 10000 174.9 0.0616
1 14 40000 63.98 0.1058
2 18 32000 104.94 0.0838
6
3 24 18000 109.68 0.0682
1 9 30000 41.13 0.096
2 15 24000 87.45 0.0713
7
3 18 22000 82.26 0.0637

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MNG-003-9
Table 1: Alternatives of activities (cont.)
Activity Alternative Duration Cost Pollution Quality
1 14 220 63.98 0.0095
2 15 215 87.45 0.0083
3 16 200 73.12 0.0075
4 21 208 122.43 0.0068
8
5 24 120 109.68 0.006
1 15 300 68.55 0.00995
2 18 240 104.94 0.00945
3 20 180 91.4 0.00845
4 23 150 134.09 0.0073
9
5 25 100 114.25 0.00635
1 15 450 68.55 0.00952
2 22 400 128.26 0.0086
10
3 33 320 150.81 0.00654
1 12 450 54.84 0.01914
2 16 350 93.28 0.01458
11
3 20 300 91.4 0.0125
1 22 2000 100.54 0.029415
2 24 1750 139.92 0.02619
3 28 1500 127.96 0.02151
12
4 30 1000 174.9 0.01854
1 14 4000 63.98 0.06818
2 18 3200 104.94 0.05096
13
3 24 1800 109.68 0.04298
1 9 3000 41.13 0.05958
2 15 2400 87.45 0.0477
14
3 18 2200 82.26 0.03822
15
1 16 3500 73.12 0.06958
1 20 3000 91.4 0.02913
2 22 2000 128.26 0.0261
3 24 1750 109.68 0.02376
4 28 1500 163.24 0.02913
16
5 30 1000 137.1 0.01887
1 14 4000 63.98 0.05874
2 18 3200 104.94 0.04398
17
3 24 1800 109.68 0.0375
1 9 3000 41.13 0.048725
2 15 2400 87.45 0.03745
18
3 18 2200 82.26 0.032675
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MNG-003-10
Table 2: Utilized optimization parameters
Trails no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Population 20 50 50 150 150 50 400 400
Generation 20 20 20 20 20 20 50 50
X-over 0. 4 0. 4 0. 5 0. 4 0. 5 0. 1 0. 4 0. 5
Mutation 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.02

100000
110000
120000
130000
140000
150000
160000
170000
140 160 180 200
Duration
C
o
s
t
1st trail
2nd trail
3rd trail
4th trail
5th trail
6th trail
7th trail
8th trail
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Pollution
Q
u
a
l
i
t
y
1st trail
2nd trail
3rd trail
4th trail
5th trail
6th trail
7th trail
8th trail

0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Duration
Q
u
a
l
i
t
y
1st trail
2nd trail
3rd trail
4th trail
5th trail
6th trail
7th trail
8th trail 1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
1900
2000
100000 120000 140000 160000 180000
Cost
P
o
l
l
u
t
i
o
n
1st trail
2nd trail
3rd trail
4th trail
5th trail
6th trail
7th trail
8th trail

0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Pollution
Q
u
a
l
i
t
y
1st trail
2nd trail
3rd trail
4th trail
5th trail
6th trail
7th trail
8th trail

Figure 2: Optimization module results
In order to validate the results provided by the proposed optimization module, they are
compared to those reported in the literature for the same application example [6, 16].
The comparison confirms that the proposed module is capable of generating the same
set of optimal solutions as those reported by [16] for the time-cost trade-off analysis,
and [6] for the time-cost-quality trade-off analysis. Furthermore, the proposed module
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MNG-003-11
provides the added capability of considering and quantifying pollution and visualizing
trade-offs among project time, cost, quality and pollution for the analyzed example. A
sample of optimal solutions is shown in Table 3. It is worth noting that the decision
maker can perform time-cost-quality-pollution trade-off analysis and accordingly selects
the solution that meets his/her objective either to achieve least cost of $105,700
(Solution 1), to achieve maximum quality and minimum duration 0.96 , 145 (Solution
3), and, or to achieve minimum pollution and duration 1182, 145 (Solution 3).
Table 3: Sample of optimal solutions
Sol. Alternative Duration
(days)
Cost ($) Pollution Quality
1 1,5,1,3,4,3,3,3,1,1,1,1,1,2,1,5,1,1 159 105,700 1465 0.719
2 1,1,1,1,2,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,3,1,1 145 165,070 1253 0.964
3 1,1,3,1,2,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1 145 154,120 1182 0.877
4 CONCLUSIONS
A multi-objective optimization framework that tackles construction pollutions was
presented. The framework utilizes evolutionary genetic algorithms to consider four
objective functions that represent project duration, project cost, quality and total
pollution. Construction authorities and environmental bodies can utilize the proposed
framework to carry out time-cost-quality pollution trade off analysis. Also, construction
contractors can utilize the framework to follow the environmental regulations while
keeping the quality, cost and duration of their projects at optimum level. The framework
consists of two main modules: a fitness evaluation module and an optimization module.
The former module calculates time, cost, quality and construction emissions. It takes
into account the dynamic nature of construction activities by taking into consideration
the different types of relationships and change in the criticality of activities. The latter
module (optimization) performs its designated tasks in six main steps: initialization of
generation, calculations of objective functions values, finding non-dominated solutions,
determining the non-domination level, fitness assignment, and population generation.
An illustrative example was performed to test and evaluate the optimization module
performance in searching large space of possible solutions. It was revealed that the
provided results are comparable to those reported in literature. The application provides
decision makers with a set of solutions to allow carrying out trade-off analysis, in a
flexible manner, with respect to objective(s) that is/are deemed important.
5 REFERENCES
[1] Marzouk, M. and Moselhi, O. Multiobjective Optimization of Earthmoving
Operations. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE,
130(1) (2004), 105-113.
[2] El-Rayes, K. Optimum Planning of Highway Construction under the A+B
Bidding Method. Journal of Construction Engineering and. Management,
ASCE, 127(4) (2001), 261 269.
[3] Lam, K.C., Tang, C.M. and Lee W.C. Application of the Entropy Technique and
Genetic Algorithms to Construction Site Layout Planning of Medium-Size
Projects. Construction Management and Economics, 23(2) (2005), 127-145.
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MNG-003-12
[4] Li, H. and Love, P.E.D. Genetic Search for Solving Construction Site-level
Unequal-area Facility Layout Pproblems. Automation in Construction, 9(2)
(2000), 217-226.
[5] Hegazy, T. Computerized System for Efficient Delivery of Infrastructure
Maintenance/Repair Programs. Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management, ASCE, 132(1) (2006), 2634.
[6] El-Rayes, K. and Kandil, A. Time-Cost-Quality Trade-off Analysis for Highway
Construction. Journal of Construction Engineering and. Management, ASCE
131(4) (2005), 477 486.
[7] El-Rayes, K. and Khalafallah, A. Trade-Off between Safety and Cost in Planning
Construction Site Layouts. Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management, ASCE, 131(11) (2005), 1186-1195.
[8] Deb, K., Agrawal, S., Pratap, A. and Meyarivan, T. A Fast Elitist Nondominated
Sorting Genetic Algorithm for Multiobjective Optimization, KANGAL Rep. No.
200001, Genetic Algorithm Laboratory, Institute of Technology, Kanpur, India
(2001).
[9] Goldberg, D.E. Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization and Machine
Learning, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass, (1989).
[10] Holland, J.H. Genetic Algorithms. Scientific American, July 1992, 66-72.
[11] Coley, D.A. An Introduction to Genetic Algorithms for Scientists and Engineers,
World Scientific, NJ, (1999).
[12] Madany, M. Mitigating Construction Pollutions using Multi-Objective
Optimization. Ph.D. Thesis, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt, (2009).
[13] Keeney, R.L. and Raiffa, H. Decisions with Multiple Objectives: Preference and
the Value Tradeoffs, Cambridge University Press, New York, USA, (1993).
[14] Law No. 4, Promulgating the Environment Law, Egypt, (1994)>
[15] Deb, K. Multiobjective Optimization using Evolutionary Algorithms, Wiley, New
York, (2001).
[16] Feng, C., Liu, L., and Burns, S. A. (1997). Using Genetic Algorithms to Solve
Construction Time-Cost Trade-Off Problems. Journal of Computing in Civil
Engineering, ASCE, 11(3), 184-189.
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MNG-004-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





THE PERCEPTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS IN
CONSTRUCTION SME

H. A. BASSIONI
Assistant Professor and Head of Construction Management Group, Arab Academy for
Science, Technology and Maritime Transport, Alexandria, Egypt.
E-mail: hbassioni@yahoo.co.uk
W. KAMEL
Professor of Environmental Engineering and Head of Construction and Building
Engineering Department, Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime
Transport, Alexandria, Egypt.
E-mail: wael_kamel@yahoo.com
A. HOSSAM EL-DIN
Professor of Environmental Engineering, Environmental Engineering Department,
High Institute of Public Health, Alexandria University, Egypt
E-mail: ahhossam@yahoo.com
N. ABDELRAHMAN
MSc Degree Candidate, Arab Academy for Science, Technology and Maritime
Transport, Alexandria, Egypt.
E-mail: nawar_abdelrahman@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
The construction industry has various impacts on the environment. Moreover, the
industry comprises of nearly ninety nine percent of small and medium enterprises
(SME) employing around three quarters of the industry workforce. The objective of this
paper was to explore the perception of environmental aspects in construction SME. Due
to the exploratory nature of the research semi-structured expert interviews were used to
assure that all interviewees were asked the same set of questions, while giving freedom
to the interviewer to probe into other areas and achieve a deeper understanding of the
issue. Results were compiled, reported and discussed to reveal the perceptions of the
SME. The findings showed that interviewees thought construction activities had little
effect on the environment. The majority of interviewees knew about environmental laws
and issues but had disinterest in applying environmental concepts due to the lack of
business / financial motivation in the short term. The general perception was that a
greater authoritative monitoring role, technical assistance and business incentives were
required for environmental issues to be addressed and adopted by SME. Views were
split as to the future development of environmental requirements, where half the
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MNG-004-2
interviewees believed that good environmental performance would be more widely
required to obtain work contracts and incompliant companies would be prosecuted for
environmental breaches. Some companies applied environmental considerations in
terms of reduction of material wastage from a business standpoint and not accounting
for environmental issues. A recent PhD study on an entirely different sample and
published nearly synchronous to the writing of this paper gave conclusions that were in
line with some of the results and discussions of this research, thus acting as validation to
the outcomes of this research. Recommendations induced from the research include the
need for more environmental awareness among construction SME, more authoritative
involvement to enforce environmental considerations, and more technical assistance and
business incentives for companies to adopt environmental issues.
KEYWORDS
Construction, small and medium enterprises (SME), perception, environment.
1 INTRODUCTION
The effect of human activities on the environment is not limited to contemporary times,
but since the industrial revolution of the eighteenth century and throughout the
nineteenth century mankind faced pollution to the environment and exploitation of non-
renewable energy resources at alarming rates [1]. Construction activities have various
impacts on the environment. A simple example is the emissions of NOx and fine
particulates from diesel engines. Water quality is also affected through dewatering and
storm water runoff, sediment loadings, erosion of stream banks scouring of streambeds
due to excessive flow volume, habitat degradation, pollutant, and excess nutrient
transport, and the quantity of solid waste material that is disposed to landfills. Toxicity
of some materials used in construction and related activities, includes paints, cleaning
solvents, fuels and lubricants, concrete (high alkalinity). The problem lies in that many
contractors are not aware of the environmental consequences of certain actions [2].
Until 1972, the public sector has been leading the construction industry in Egypt under
the supervision of the ministry of housing and construction, while the private sector
included the medium and small contracting enterprises most of which were actually
subcontractors [3]. The vast majority of businesses in the world is small and medium-
sized enterprises (hereafter referred to as SME). Thus, the SME collective
environmental impact is significant and so their adoption of sound environmental
practices and production methods is essential for progress towards sustainability. SME
in Egypt forms 99% of all enterprises and majority of informal sector in Egypt, it
provides about 75% of the total employment. SME may be defined according to total
assets, employment, turnover, or paid-up capital. In Egypt, SME are defined as
organizations employing less than 500 employees [4].
The perception of organizations towards environmental issues and aspects is vital to
preserve the environment, and given the shear effect and importance of SME, the
objective of this paper is to explore the perception of environmental aspects in
construction SME. The paper is divided into four further sections as follows: Data
Collection; Results and Discussion; Egyptian Studies in Validation of Research;
Conclusion and Recommendations; and References.
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MNG-004-3
2 DATA COLLECTION
2.1 Expert Interviews in Construction Management Research
Expert interviews have been used in construction management research as a qualitative
research method that can yield both qualitative and quantitative data and are usually
used for exploratory or investigative types of research [5, 6]. Three forms of interviews
can be conducted: structured; semi-structured; and unstructured. Structured interviews
are by definition very specific and include defined questions and limited probing.
Unstructured interviews are on the other end of the spectrum where questions can differ
among interviewees, the interviewer might not have questions prepared and can probe
freely. In the middle of the two extremes are semi-structured interviews. The
interviewer has prepared questions or a frame for the dialogue and the interviewer is
free to probe when necessary.

2.2 Data Collection Approach
The objective of this research is exploratory in nature, and thus expert interviews were
used as an appropriate research methodology. The type of interviews used in this
research is semi-structured interviews to assure that all interviewees were asked the
same questions, and to give freedom to the researcher to probe into other areas in order
to achieve deeper understanding.
2.3 Design of Interview Questions
Questions were designed to contain only one issue, be clear and easily understandable,
and not to contain unnecessary nor extensive requests for data [5]. Closed questions
were used to ease response to interviewees and analysis to the researcher. A column for
remarks was provided for each question for additional remarks or comments. The
interview questions were divided into seven sections. The first section was an
introduction and gathered general information. The remaining seven sections
investigated the perception of participants regarding: financial aspects; legal aspects;
customers, competitors, employees and general public; environmental monitoring;
equipment and drivers. The total number of questions were fifty questions.
2.3 Sample Structure and Size
A sampling frame consisting of a list of names and phone numbers of construction
companies was obtained from the Alexandria Chamber of Commerce. The sample
consisted of owners and organizational managers of construction companies working as
contractors, real estate developers or both. An initial phone call was made to determine,
by name as well as by job title, who is the appropriate person to be interviewed. The
identified person was contacted by telephone, the study and the purpose of the interview
was briefly explained. The interview questions were piloted by a small sample of
respondents to test whether the questions are easy to answer and clear. The feedback of
the respondents helped the researcher to improve the interview questions, fill in gaps,
and determine the time required for completion.
The researcher phone called sixty seven construction companies, only nineteen
companies responded and agreed to be interviewed. Refusals were called to investigate
reasons of non-participation. They stated disinterest, being afraid of giving information,
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MNG-004-4
and believing that their business activities have no impact on the environment. This
gives an idea regarding the low importance of environmental issues among business
activities and the culture of the top management. Data were analyzed for seventeen
respondents only, as two respondents showed clear biases in trying to please the
researcher and were thus deleted.
3.1 General Information
The first group of questions, shown in Fig.1, were an introduction to the interview
questions. The objective of this section was to investigate general information and to
gain the trust of the interviewees so that they answer freely other interview questions.
6%
35%
18%
12%
88%
76%
82%
29%
24%
82%
76%
94%
65%
82%
88%
12%
24%
18%
71%
76%
18%
12% 12%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Existance of an organizational structure with respect to the
environment
Existance of enviromental emergeny plan, in case of
environmental problem
Ever occurance of an environmantal problem
Need for management system to mange company's
environmental imapct
Satisfaction about own company environmental performance
Idea about the environmetal law (law no.4/1994)
Environmental intrests
Idea about EMS
Idea about ISO 14001
Idead about ISO 9000
Idea about ISO
Yes No Not Sure

Fig.1: General Information
The results showed that, the majority of interviewees (76%) were familiar with the ISO
organization and 82% were familiar with ISO 9000. Only 24% were familiar with ISO
14001 and only 29% had an idea about EMS, which showed that ISO 14001 and EMS
in general are less popular than ISO 9000. The majority of interviewees (82%) showed
interests towards the environment and 76% knew about the environmental law no.
4/1994, which through the interviews was found to be due to the increased attention
given to the environment in the Egyptian media and the appearance of the
environmental problems such as the black cloud. However, it was observed that most
interviewees did not translate this interest into actions, shown by the low responses
concerning the need for an EMS, emergency plans and existence of organizational
structures with respect to the environment. This can be because environmental issues
are not part of their business priorities.
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MNG-004-5
3.2 Financial Aspects
The interviewees discussed financial aspects related to the environmental performance
of their companies as shown in Fig.2. The financial issues represent a major incentive
and a major barrier at the same time to the EMS implementation process. Moreover,
financial charges and facilities are one of the drivers to the EMS implementation.
59%
47%
41%
6%
47%
41%
47%
59%
94%
53%
100%
100%
100%
6%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Belief of nancial charges to uncompliant companies in 35
years
Belief of environmental performance to be questioned by
banks and insurers in 35 years
Idea about financial facilities of company due to applying
environmental considerations
Belief of good environmental performance to facilitate
loans or financial facilities
Belief of increased work quality and cost savings if EMS
adopted
Questionning environmnetal performance by insurance
companies
Questionning environmnetal performance by banks
Past financial charges for environmnetal breaches
Yes No Not Sure

Fig.2: Financial Aspects
The interviewees were asked if they have been financially charged for environmental
breaches. All interviewees stated that they have not been charged for breaches of
environmental legislation, and that financial institutions such as banks and insurance
companies never questioned the environmental performance of their companies or put it
as a condition to give loans, or bond letters. However, the interviewees stated that they
might show good environmental performance if banks or insurance companies put good
environmental record of accomplishment as a condition to deal with their companies,
which showed that financial institutions such as banks and insurance companies have an
important role in pushing the EMS in construction.
The interviewees were nearly split in half as for the financial benefits that the company
may gain from EMS implementation. They stated that EMS may improve work quality
but would not provide cost saving due to high implementation cost. Six percent of the
interviewees stated that from their experience with ISO 14001, a good environmental
track record does not ensure financial facilities given by Egyptian financial bodies, but
EMS might facilitate financial facilities or grants given by foreign parties such as the
European Union (EU).
Participants were asked about the future prediction of the development of the
environmental requirements where 47% of the interviewees thought that, in the future,
insurance companies and banks may question the environmental performance of the
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MNG-004-6
company. Moreover, good environmental performance might be set as a condition to
sign a contract or to give a letter of credit, giving reference to the increased foreign
investment in the Egyptian construction industry and to the increased numbers of
foreign banks working in Egypt. Fifty nine percent of the interviewees believed that the
future incompliant companies will be prosecuted for environmental breaches, due to the
increased in the level of awareness and attention given to environmental issues.
3.3 Legal Aspects
The third section of the interview questions, shown in Fig.3, dealt with the legal aspects
related to the environmental performance of the company.
82%
29%
6%
29%
29%
6%
6%
65%
41%
18%
71%
94%
71%
71%
94%
88%
35%
59%
6%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Future development of environmental laws in 35 years
Existance of risk due to noncompliance with the
environmental law in the future 35 years
Existance of risk due to noncompliance with the
environmental law at present
Existance of risk due to noncompliance to environmental
regulations in general
Belief of points of weakness in current management system
that could cause environmnetal breaches
Request for company to report on its environmnetal
performance
Compliance with the Egyptian environmental law (Law
4/1994)
Knowledge about providers of legal information concerning
the environment
Idea about the environmetal laws the company may be
subject to
Yes No Not Sure

Fig.3: Legal Aspects
Although nearly half the interviewees new about environmental laws and legal nearly
two thirds knew of providers of legal information concerning the environment, only 6%
complied to the Egyptian environmental law (Law no.4/1994). Further, only 6% of
companies were requested to report on their environmental performance. The source of
legal information concerning the environment related to construction was mostly from
the company's legal advisor. Other parties included the Egyptian Environmental Affairs
Agency (EEAA), internet and newspapers. This reflects the absence of a central source
of environmental information.
Very low percentages of interviewees could perceive risks in non-compliance to
environmental regulations at present and in the future, although 82% of interviewees
projected environmental laws to develop in the future. Through discussions with the
interviewees, it was observed that reasons of non-compliance to the Egyptian
Environmental laws were due to: the general perception that construction activities have
small negative impacts on the environment; the belief that the Egyptian environmental
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MNG-004-7
law is not subjected to their businesses; lack of communication channels with the
EEAA; fear of dealing with the bureaucracy of the legal institutions, especially that they
were not asked to comply to the environmental law; perception of absence of
authoritative monitoring and environmental law enforcement; lack of communication
channels between the environmental organizations and the construction related
organizations such as the Egyptian Federation of Construction and Building Contractors
(EFCBC) and the Ministry of Housing.
3.4 Effect of Environmental Performance on Main Stakeholders
The forth section of the interview questions, shown in Fig.4, discussed the outcomes of
environmental performance on the company's relation with its main stakeholders
namely customers, competitors, employees, and the general public. Eighty eight percent
of the interviewees stated that customers requirements always concerned prices and
quality, without giving attention to companys environmental performance, although
half of the interviewees identified customers to be more attentive to environmental
issues in the future.
100%
47%
88%
65%
24%
12%
53%
12%
53%
12%
35%
76%
88%
41%
88%
6%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Belief of people having the right to complain against
environmental problems
Past receiving of compalints from neighbours due to
environmental problems
Enhanced work environment due to EMS implementation
Increased work opportunities due to compliance with
environmental regulation
Work opportunities gained by competitors due to applying
environmental specifications
Existance of competitors'environmental requirements
Possibility of customers remarks about the company's
environmental performance in future
Customers of the comapany currently having remarks about the
company's environmental performance
Yes No Not Sure

Fig.4: Effect of Customers, Competitors, Employees and General Public
A mere 12% reported competitors to have environmental requirements and only 24%
identified work opportunities to be due to applying environmental specifications. These
remarks showed the lack of business related reasons in motivating the adoption of EMS
unless working with foreign or oil companies or in international bids. On the other
hand, working on domestic projects and with domestic companies, conforming to
environmental specifications would lower the competitive advantage in price-based
tenders. Nevertheless, 65% of interviewees agreed that work opportunities of the
company and reputation enhancement would be achieved if the company implemented
EMS. The interviewees referred to the increased rate of foreign investment in real estate
sector in Egypt and that there will be improvement in implementing EMS but without
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MNG-004-8
tangible financial profit due to the high financial investment in the implementation of an
EMS. Forty seven percent of interviewees had received complaints from people near the
construction sites of their companies. Complaints included noise, working at night and
in the early mornings or during holidays. In general, there was agreement among
interviewees that the public has the right to complain against environmental problems.
3.5 Environmental Monitoring
The fifth section of the interview questions, shown in Fig.5, dealt with the company's
environmental monitoring and the application of environmental considerations /
specifications. The results showed that 41% of interviewees apply environmental
considerations when purchasing construction materials, probably due to wastage factors
from a business standpoint, and the very same had records to register the air emissions
or water consumption. The objective of this application was due to business
requirements to reduce the cost of raw and construction material not taking into account
the environmental issues. The specifications that might help in reducing noise and air
pollution were investigated, and it was found that 53% of the interviewees minimize
noise and air pollution such as stopping working at times of holidays and in the early
mornings.
82%
53%
41%
41%
41%
18%
47%
59%
59%
59%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100
%
Belief that the application of environmental
specifications creates cost savings
Existance of specifications to minimize noise and
air pollution
Existance of specifications to minimize the
consumption of water, energy,and construction
Existance of records of air emissions and water
consumption
Application of environmental considerations
when purchasing construction materials
Yes No Not Sure

Fig.5: Environmental Monitoring
3.6 Equipment
The sixth part of the interview questions, shown in Fig. 6, was devoted to discuss
perception about the cleaner technology options with the interviewees. Eighty six
percent of respondents had registers of types and numbers of equipment, while three
thirds had periodic maintenance programs for equipment and had an idea about cleaner
technology. Two thirds considered environmental aspects when purchasing equipment.
Eighty two percent of interviewees stated that they would replace old equipment with
cleaner technology options in case of economic feasibility, because new equipment
provided with cleaner technology requirements, are more available, and are easily
maintained than older technology. It was observed that suppliers play a very important
role, and that the availability of economically feasible construction equipment is an
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MNG-004-9
extremely important driver to improving environmental performance in the construction
industry.
82%
65%
76%
76%
86%
18%
35%
24%
24%
14%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Possibility of replacing old equipment to cleaner
technology equipment in case of economic fesability
Application of environmental considerations when
purchasing construction equipment
Idea about cleaner technology
Existance of periodic maintenance programe for
equipment
Existance of registers of types and numbers of
equipment
Yes No Not Sure

Fig.6: Equipment
3.7 Drivers to EMS Implementation
At the end of the interviews, the interviewees the drivers to EMS implementation were
discussed and shown in Fig.7. The majority of interviewees (82%) stated that they
would implement EMS if they were provided with both technical and financial support
and that EMS implementation would enhance the companys image and reputation. The
same percentage believed they would benefit from implementing an EMS. The
interviewees perceived that the government has a very important role in helping
construction companies to implement EMS (82%). For example, authorities can revise
the conditions of their construction contracts to contain environmental conditions.
Finally, all respondents believed in their responsibility towards protecting the
environment for next generations.
100%
94%
82%
82%
6%
18%
18%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Belief of resbonsibility towards protecting the
environment for the next generations
Belief of governemental role importance in helping
companies comply with environmental laws
Belief of company's benefits from implementing an
EMS
Willingness of implementing an EMS in case of
receiving both technical and financial support
Yes No Not Sure

Fig.7: Drivers to EMS Implementation
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MNG-004-10
4 EGYPTIAN STUDIES IN VALIDATION OF RESEARCH
A recent PhD study was published nearly synchronous to the writing of this paper and
on an entirely different sample [7]. The PhD study sample included nearly two thirds
large companies and was not targeted towards SME while the sample of the current
research was all SME even when the SME definition of the PhD study is used.
Furthermore, about one third of the PhD study sample was of Arab Contractors
branches/sectors and such a type of large companies was not the focus of this research.
The PhD study concluded that: selection criteria for contractors do not include
environmental conditions; the implementation of EMS is expected in the future to be an
important requirement; the absence of local government supervision on construction
companies in respect to environment protection; the incomplete role of EEAA in
providing assistance to construction companies; and the high cost of environmental
measurements and systems being an obstacle for construction companies. These
conclusions were in line with some of the results and discussions of this research which
acts as validation to the research.
5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Construction activities have various impacts on the environment. The problem lies in
that many contractors are not aware of the environmental consequences of certain
actions. SME in Egypt forms 99% of all enterprises and majority of informal sector in
Egypt. The perception of organizations towards environmental issues and aspects is
vital to preserve the environment, and given the shear effect and importance of SME,
the objective of this paper was to explore the perception of environmental aspects in
construction SME. The objective of this research was exploratory in nature, and thus
semi-structured expert interviews were used as an appropriate research methodology to
assure that all interviewees were asked the same questions, and to give freedom to the
researcher to probe into other areas and achieve deeper understanding.
The results revealed that the majority of interviewees knew about the environmental
laws but this was not translated into action due to their disinterest in EMS which can be
because environmental issues are not part of their business priorities. The financial
issues represent a major incentive to the EMS implementation process. Views were split
as to the future development of environmental requirements, where half the
interviewees believed that good environmental performance would be more widely
required to obtain work contracts and that incompliant companies would be prosecuted
for environmental breaches.
The source of legal information concerning the environment related to construction was
mostly from the company's legal advisor. Other parties included the Egyptian
Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA), internet and newspapers. Through discussions
with the interviewees, it was observed that reasons of non-compliance to the Egyptian
Environmental laws were due to: the general perception that construction activities have
small negative impacts on the environment; the belief that the Egyptian environmental
law is not subjected to their businesses; lack of communication channels with the
EEAA; fear of dealing with the bureaucracy of the legal institutions, especially that they
were not asked to comply to the environmental law; perception of absence of
authoritative monitoring and environmental law enforcement; lack of communication
channels between the environmental organizations and the construction related
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MNG-004-11
organizations such as the Egyptian Federation of Construction and Building Contractors
(EFCBC) and the Ministry of Housing.
Eighty eight percent of the interviewees stated that customers requirements always
concerned prices and quality, without giving attention to companys environmental
performance, although half of the interviewees identified customers to be more attentive
to environmental issues in the future. Moreover, a mere 12% reported competitors to
have environmental requirements and only 24% identified work opportunities to be due
to applying environmental specifications. These remarks showed the lack of business
related reasons in motivating the adoption of EMS unless working with foreign or oil
companies or in international bids.
Forty one percent of interviewees apply environmental considerations when purchasing
construction materials and had some records to register the air emissions or water
consumption. This was mainly to reduce the cost of raw and construction material from
a business standpoint not taking into account the environmental issues. About half of
the interviewees minimize noise and air pollution such as stopping working at times of
holidays and in the early mornings. The majority of interviewees would replace old
equipment with cleaner technology options in case of economic feasibility, because new
equipment provided with cleaner technology requirements, are more available, and are
easily maintained than older technology. The majority stated they would implement
EMS if they were provided with both technical and financial support and perceived that
the government has a very important role in helping construction companies to
implement EMS in putting it as a condition for gaining construction work.
The general recommendations induced from this research are the need for more
environmental awareness to construction SME as to their impact on the environment,
the need for more authoritative involvement to enforce environmental considerations,
and the need for more technical assistance and business incentives for companies to
adopt environmental issues. From a research standpoint, more work is needed to
identify the drivers and barriers of implementing environmental management systems
and the ways they can be implemented in terms of construction activities and business.
5 REFERENCES
[1] Hunt, D. and Johnson, C. Environmental Management Systems: Principles and
Practices McGraw-Hill, London, UK (1995).
[2] Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency - EEAA Environmental Impact
Assessment Guidelines for Urban Development Projects January (1994).
[3] Lotfi, H. Construction and Total Quality Management Organization and
Implementation PhD Thesis, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University
(2002).
[4] Enhancing Competitiveness for SMEs in Egypt General Framework and Action
Plan. [online]. Available from www.sme.gov.eg [Accessed 31 January 2007].
[5] Fellows, R. L. and Liu A. Research Methods for Construction 2
nd
Edition,
Blackwell, UK (2003).
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MNG-004-12
[6] Bassioni, H. A., Price, A. D. F. and Hassan, T. M. Building a Conceptual
Framework for Measuring Business Performance in Construction: An Empirical
Evaluation, Construction Management and Economics 23 (2005) 495-507.
[7] Hassan, A. M. M. Proposed Systems for the Environmental Management in the
Construction Industry PhD Thesis, Department of Environmental Engineering
Science, Institute of Environmental Studies and Research, Ain Shams University
(2009).

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13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt


THE IMPLEMENTATION OF ISO-9000 STANDARDS TO CONSTRUCTION

MOHAMMAD ABU-TALEB
Graduate Student, Department of Building, Civil & Environmental Engineering, Concordia
University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. abutaleb@engineer.com
MOHAMMAD A. AMMAR
Associate Professor, Structural Engineering Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University,
Tanta, Egypt. Presently: Visiting Scholar, BCEE Department, Concordia University, Montreal,
Quebec, Canada. mamammr@yahoo.com
TAREK M. ZAYED
Associate Professor, Building, Civil, and Environmental Engineering Department, Concordia
University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, email: zayed@encs.concordia.ca

ABSTRACT
Recently, quality issues have become a major concern in the construction industry. ISO-
9000 standards are used now by several construction companies as a mean to provide
guidelines of systematic framework. The question is Is quality as important as other
management issues such as cost and time? Moreover, is there a commitment by the
construction organization to implement the quality standards? Do the construction
companies, who use ISO-9000 standards, realize how this standard is beneficial to their
work or they just consider it a required office procedure? The objective of the present
research is, therefore, to investigate ISO-9000 standards in construction companies in
order to identify its implementation challenges and test its limitations and advantages.
In this paper, an evaluation of implementing ISO-9000 standards in construction
companies in UAE is carried out. The study is performed using questionnaires and
interviews with top management representatives and staff from different designation
levels. The survey included different staff members at different levels and the
representative top management. The level of understanding of ISO-9000 standards was
not the same in the companies that are evaluated in this research. It can be concluded
that ISO-9000 standards have a positive impact on any organization if it is implemented
to an adequate level. Implementing ISO-9000 standards improves the efficiency of work
procedures; i.e., less rework and repair, improves the record keeping process, and
improves the internal communication. The commitment of the top management can
influence to a great extent the implementation of ISO-9000 standards.
KEYWORDS
Construction Companies, ISO-9000 Standards, Costs versus Benefits.
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1 LITERATURE REVIEW
It is believed that successful implementation of ISO 9000 standards can provide basic
benefits to the construction industry and contribute to an increase in quality,
improvement in workmanship and efficiency, decrease in wastage and rework, and
increase in profit (Bubshait and Al-Atigh 1999). Chung (1999) believed that
construction companys operations can be improved by establishing a quality system
designed to standardize corporate procedures. Chini and Valdez (2003) considered ISO
9000 standards as an effective control mechanism that reduces waste and labor
deficiencies in a process so that production quality and delivery processes are ensured.
A survey of the implementation of ISO 9000 standards indicated that 99% of the
participants had experienced benefits from certifications among 1190 surveyed
personnel (Manchester Business School 1995).
The term ISO 9000 refers to a set of quality management standards established in 1979.
ISO 9000 currently includes three quality standards: ISO 9000:2000, ISO 9001:2000,
and ISO 9004:2000. ISO 9001:2000 presents requirements, whereas ISO 9000:2000 and
ISO 9004:2000 present guidelines. ISO 9000 is concerned with the way an organization
manages of projects, not directly the result of these projects. The standards are
concerned with the process, and not directly with the products. Nevertheless, the way in
which the companys organization manages its processes shall affect its final product.
The ISO family is primarily concerned with Quality Management. The organization
must fulfill the following issues (ISO 2005): the customers quality requirements and
regularity requirements, enhance customer satisfaction, and achieve continual
improvement of its performance.
ISO 9000 standards do not fully comply with the unique nature of the construction
industry. Bubshait and Al-Atigh (1999) claimed that it is not easy to implement ISO
9000 in construction industry as it is in the manufacturing industry. They argued that a
construction project is very unique with its collection of people, equipment, material,
location, and even weather conditions. This combination is almost constant in the
manufacturing industry. In addition, the end product of a construction project cant be
just rejected if a noncompliance is present as the case with the manufacturing processes
if there is a defected product. In fact, Bubshait and Al-Atigh (1999) evaluated ISO 9001
clauses in many construction organizations in Saudi Arabia except for servicing clause.
They believe that, unlike manufacturing processes, construction projects are unique and
take longer time (i.e. years) to produce a product.
There are still obstacles and problems related to the implementation of ISO 9000 quality
standards in construction companies where each company has its own specific features
and unique characteristics. While the generic nature of ISO standards often leads to
differences in interpretations, implementation and use, impact of ISO 9000 can vary
among companies and countries (Bubshait and Al-Atigh 1999). The reasons or
motivations for construction organizations to obtain the ISO 9000 certification can vary
from one region to the other. The reasons may include: (1) achieve Total Quality
Management (TQM) level, (2) satisfy customer requirements, (3) increase work
productivity, (4) reduce cost, etc. For many companies, obtaining quality certification
has become a matter of survival for the purpose of gaining contracts since consultants
and contractors are required to show that they have been given the quality stamp of
approval. Under this context, the certification has become a goal by itself, rather than a
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means of implementing an ongoing quality system, which seeks the objective of
sustainable continuous improvement (Love and Li 2000). The implementation of ISO
9000 quality standard in a construction company needs a long-term exercise. It will take
approximately 5 8 years to get people to accept the QM system as part of the daily
routine (Bradley 1998). During this period, many critical factors will affect the
effectiveness of such system, such as the management commitment, vague and unclear
understanding of the standard terms or of the documentation requirements, leadership
styles, employees resistance to change, and conflict within construction organizations
(Low and Chan 1998).
It is, therefore, necessary to study the motivation behind the implementation of ISO
standards in the construction industry. Is it implemented for the purpose of
improvement or is it only an office procedure? Determining the factors that affect the
implementation of ISO standards and evaluating the outcome and benefits from the
implementation of ISO 9000 quality standards are important issues that the research
presented in this paper will undertake.

2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY
ISO standards are adopted by many construction organizations in different countries.
What is the reason or the motivation for these organizations to use ISO standards?
Many researches provided many answers and analysis about why construction
organization shall adopt ISO standards to monitor their quality performance.
Nevertheless, most of these studies, if not all, are based on questionnaires and surveys
that were sent to the construction organization by fax, mail, etc. As a result, the level of
reliability of the collected information is uncertain because it is not verified with an
actual data and records of every surveyed company. In the research presented in this
paper, an investigation was performed that is similar to an internal audit in construction
organizations in order to make sure that the study is based on reliable information. The
study shall determine the reasons why a construction organization obtains ISO
certifications? The primary objective of the present study is to investigate the
implementation of ISO standards to construction companies in order to identify
implementation challenges and test its limitations and advantages.
To attain the previous objective, a literature review of the previous studies is first
conducted. Based on this literature review, the objectives of the research were
acknowledged. Questionnaires were used as a tool to serve the objectives. These
questionnaires have questions that can reflect the level of ISO understanding by several
personnel that will be interviewed. Before that step, a brief evaluation of the
performance of each company that is involved in the research was conducted. This
evaluation shall cover their project performance in terms of time, cost, and quality. This
is done just to have an idea about each company prior to start interviewing their staff.
Then, an interview was performed with the staff of each company for personnel at
different designation levels in order to explore the level of understanding of ISO
standards in each organization. The last part of the interview was conducted with a
representative of the top management of each company. The purpose is to evaluate the
performance of each organization and the effort to implement ISO standards. At the
end, all the data collected was analyzed to come up with a clear picture about the
objective of each construction organization toward the implementation of ISO standards
and to determine if ISO standards can be really beneficial to the construction
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organization. This can be achieved by analyzing the collected data at every stage and
making a comparison between the organizations involved in this study. The steps
followed in the present study are summarized as follows: (1) literature review; (2)
identify study objectives; (3) prepare questionnaires; (4) interview staff and top
management; and (5) perform data analysis and conclusions.

3 DATA COLLECTION
In this study, ISO implementation performance was evaluated on two ISO certified
construction companies that are located in United Arab Emirates (UAE). The names of
the companies shall not be mentioned because of confidentiality where company A and
B shall be used instead. Both companies are major construction companies in the UAE,
which are involved in major large scale projects. These companies are involved in
building construction projects for more than 30 years. This research covered a survey on
their head offices and six projects from each company.
One form and two-phase questionnaires are used in this study. The form, as shown in
Table 1, is used to evaluate project performance of each company in terms of cost, time,
quality, and scope. A brief review was conducted with the engineers of every project
and a review to the project documentation is performed. The first-phase questionnaire is
used to evaluate the ISO standards background and knowledge of the staff members of
each company. The staffs that are interviewed are from different designation levels,
such as project managers, engineers, document controls, foremen, store keepers, etc.
Four questions are included in this first-phase questionnaire, which are: (1) What is
ISO?; (2) To which level do you think that ISO standards make your job easier?; (3) Do
you close Non-Conformity Reports (NCR) that is related to your work in less than a
week?; and (4) Did you go through an ISO training? The personnel intervened are asked
to answer these questions by giving an answer using a scale from 1 to 5, where 1 is
worst and 5 is best, except for question 4 where the answer is either yes or no. One form
is used for every project that includes all the answers of all the personnel in the project.
The number of personnel that are interviewed from every project is 14. This gives 84
interviews of staff members for each company. Distribution of surveyed designations is
shown in Figure 1.
The second-phase questionnaire contains 15 questions, the purpose of which is to
evaluate the ISO implementation performance of each company. The interview is
conducted with a representative of the top management of each company. The
questionnaire and the interview have a style similar to an internal audit procedure.
Documents and records had to be represented and reviewed to prove and support the
answers given by the top management representative. The purpose of the 15 questions is
to evaluate the following issues: (1) the background and knowledge of top management
regarding ISO standards; (2) the commitment of the top management to implement ISO
standards; (3) the company performance (Does the company follow its quality manual
procedure or not?); and (4) any problems that are faced by the organization to
implement ISO standards.

4 DATA ANALYSIS
In the first part of the analysis, a quick evaluation of each company performance is
performed. Six construction projects were evaluated from each company using the
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evaluation form introduced in the previous section. It was found that there were no
problems encountered by company A and B regarding scope management. In terms of
cost and time management, both companies had some problems. Nevertheless, company
A had fewer problems than company B. In terms of quality control, company A has a
total of 108 non-conformity reports (NCR) in the six evaluated projects while company
B has a total of 333 NCR. Tables 1 and 2 provide more information about the projects
that are evaluated from each company. The information given in Tables 1 and 2 are
based on judgment and evaluation of the documents and records of every project, such
as project budget, schedule, quality records, etc. The second part of the analysis is to
evaluate the understanding of the staff members of each company of ISO standards
using the first-phase questionnaire, which is discussed in the following sections.

Table 1: General Information for Projects of Company A
Project Performance
No.
Scope Time Cost
Project
Value($)
Duration
(months)
No. of
NCR
Notes
Project #1 F SP MP 50,000,000 24 43
Project #2 F SP SP 10,000,000 6 21
Project #3 F F F 25,000,000 12 13
Project #4 F F F 400,000,000 36 8
Project #5 F F F 25,000,000 24 12
Project #6 F F F 12,000,000 12 11
Total 522,000,000 108
Symbols: F; Fine, SP; Small Problems, MP; Major Problems, NCR; Non-Conformity Reports

Table 2: General Information for Projects of Company B
Project Performance
No.
Scope Time Cost
Project
Value($)
Duration
(months)
No. of
NCR
Notes
Project #1 F MP MP 60,000,000 10 193 Take 10 more months
Project #2 F F F 150,000,000 24 24
Project #3 F F F 120,000,000 24 14
Project #4 F SP SP 35,000,000 24 37 Will finish in 26 months
Project #5 F SP SP 200,000,000 30 38
Project #6 F SP SP 120,000,000 36 27
Total 685,000,000 333
Symbols: F; Fine, SP; Small Problems, MP; Major Problems, NCR; Non-Conformity Reports

Figure 1: Distribution of Designations of the Surveyed Sample
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MNG-005-6
4.1 Evaluation of Question #1: What is ISO?
The purpose of this question is to determine if employees at different designation levels
understand ISO standards. All the employees are asked to define ISO and what they
know about. A grade from 1 to 5 was given for the answer, where 1 is very poor and 5
represents best understanding. Table 3 provides details of the average results of this
question. As per our evaluation for both companies, it was found that people with
higher level of designations such as managers and engineers has better knowledge about
ISO standards. On the other side, it was noticed that the level of understanding ISO
standards becomes less for people in the lower level designation. When the results of
both companies are compared with each other, it is clear that staff of Company A have
better understanding of ISO standards and procedure than those of Company B at all
designation levels. Comparison between companies A and B for different designation
categories, regarding question# 2 is shown in Figure 2, in which the average value is
calculated for each category.

4.2 Evaluation of Question #2: To Which Level Do You Think ISO Standards
Make Your Job Easier?
This question was asked to determine to what level people at different designation
levels believe that ISO does improve their work at both companies. People that working
as cost controllers, document controllers and quality engineers believe that most ISO
standards do improve their work, as shown in Table 4. The foremen designation level in
both companies is the least designation that does not believe that ISO can improve their
work. Overall, the staff of company A at most designation levels believe more than the
staff of company B that ISO standards can improve their work. In addition, engineers in
different positions have quite different opinions about ISO standards. For example,
Table 4 shows that among the engineers, quality engineers believe that ISO does help
them. Overall, people that are working on the field with less paper work do not believe
that ISO is beneficial to their work. However, people who deal with more paper work
such as quality engineers, cost controllers, and document controllers believe that ISO
standards are beneficial. Comparison of designation categories between companies A
and B regarding question# 2 is shown graphically in Figure 3, for the average value of
each category.

4.3 Evaluation of Question #3: Do You Solve NCR Related to Your Work in Less
than a Week?
This question was asked to determine to which level the employee in each company
takes the quality issues seriously. Table 3 shows the average results for this question, in
which all the staff members in both companies indicated that they handle the NCR with
no delays. However, some NCRs are bending for some time and not closed. The staff
members at different level indicated that NCR can be delayed when some uncontrolled
circumstances are presented or occurred. For example, NCR can be delayed because of
late delivery of materials that is needed to close the NCR. In general, all the staff
members indicated that the consultant always put them under pressure to close the
NCR, otherwise there will be penalty. Overall, both companies records proved that
they work in closing their NCRs even though some NCRs require some time to be
closed. Figure 4 shows graphical comparison between companies A and B regarding
question# 3 for the average values of different categories.
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Table 3: Evaluation of Questions No. 1, 2, and 3
Question #1 Question #2 Question #3
Category Designation
A B A B A B
Project Managers 5.00 3.67 3.83 3.33 4.67 3.67
Managers
Construction Managers 4.83 2.83 3.00 2.50 4.83 3.33
Planning Engineers 4.33 3.00 3.83 3.00 3.83 3.50
Quality Engineers 5.00 4.67 4.67 4.33 4.50 3.83 Engineers
Site Engineers 3.58 1.50 2.67 1.08 3.67 2.58
Cost Controllers 3.67 3.00 3.67 2.83 2.33 3.00
Controllers
Document Controllers 4.83 2.83 4.50 3.33 3.83 3.83
Draftsmen 1.83 1.33 3.00 2.00 2.50 2.67
Technicians
Quantity Surveyors 3.67 2.17 2.83 2.67 2.33 2.83
Store Keepers 2.17 1.00 2.67 2.67 3.67 3.50
Office Workers Purchasing
Representatives
2.00 1.00 2.50 2.00 2.33 2.50
Field Technicians Foremen 1.33 1.00 1.08 1.00 3.00 1.83
Evaluation Scale: 5=Perfect, 4=Good, 3=Acceptable, 2=Low, and 1=Poor

Table 4: Percentage of Trained Personnel (Evaluation of Question No. 4)
Category Designation Company A Company B
Project Managers 100 17
Managers
Construction Managers 100 17
Planning Engineers 67 0
Quality Engineers 100 33 Engineers
Site Engineers 67 0
Cost Controllers 100 0
Controllers
Document Controllers 100 0
Draftsmen 0 0
Technicians
Quantity Surveyors 83 0
Store Keepers 33 0
Office workers
Purchasing Representatives 50 0
Field Technicians Foremen 0 0

4.4 Evaluation of Question #4: Did You Go Through ISO Training?
The purpose of this question is to check if training is performed by each company to
make their employee familiar with ISO standards. If a company does perform a training
session in regular basis, this can be taken as an indication that the organization does
really care about implementing ISO standards, and takes it seriously to increase the
knowledge about ISO standards among its employees.
It was found that many of the staff of company A has been gone through a training
program that is related to ISO standards. The total percentage of the people that have
been trained from the sample that is interviewed is 62%. Most of the people that are
trained are from the higher designation levels in addition to cost and document
controllers. 42% of storekeepers and the purchasing representative had training.
However, no training was given to foreman level. On the other side, Company B does
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MNG-005-8
not give any training to its staff. Only 5% was trained. This percentage only related to
upper level designations like managers and engineers. This training was provided to
them for the purpose of having a record of trained people in order to obtain and
maintain the ISO certification. All the detailed results are presented in Table 4.
Comparing the results obtained in Table 4, it is clear that Company A is concerned
about training its employees. In contrary, Company B does not give much attention to
ISO standards training.

Figure 2: Comparison between Companies A and B (Question# 1)

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5 STUDY FINDINGS AND RESULTS
The research covered different staff members at different designation levels and
representatives of the top management in two ISO certified construction companies.
The level of understanding of ISO standards was not the same in the companies that are
evaluated in this research. The staff of company A had better understanding of ISO
standards than that of company B. This is a result of the commitment of the top
management towards the implementation of ISO standards. Moreover, it was clear that
commitment of company A to ISO standards and quality manual guidelines came with
benefits. The projects performance of company A, which was evaluated early in this
paper, is better than company B.
According to this study, it is outlined that commitment of top management can play an
important rule to implement ISO standards in construction companies. Nevertheless,
problems, such as resistance from some personnel to adjust their working system to
comply with ISO standards and companys quality manual guidelines, require much
attention. On the other hand, construction companies, which look for ISO certification
to only fulfill the market requirements, can face many problems in implementing ISO
standards. It is obvious that staff do not furnish much attention to implement the ISO
standards if top management does not. Such companies sometimes complain that the
implementation of ISO standards requires some time and effort; however, the benefits
of implementing these standards payback this effort and time. Implementing ISO
standards help organizing information and records in place ready for use whenever they
are needed. The more ISO standards is implemented correctly and considered seriously
the more the benefits shall be.

6 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, the implementation of ISO standards in construction companies is
evaluated and analyzed through a survey on two construction companies that are
working in the UAE market. Unlike previous surveys (i.e. external audit), the developed
ISO survey was performed as an internal audit through questionnaires and interviews.
The collected data were supported by proofs, evidences, and documents from the
surveyed companies. The level of understanding of ISO standards was not the same in
the surveyed companies. Moreover, commitment to ISO standards and quality manual
guidelines benefited both companies. It can be concluded that commitment of top
management played an important role in implementing ISO standards in both
companies. And construction companies that implemented ISO standards to only fulfill
the market requirement shall face many problems. The more ISO standards is correctly
implemented and seriously considered the more the benefits shall be.

7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The writers gratefully acknowledge the cooperation and assistance of all staff members
of companies A and B (United Arab Emirates) in data collection and interviews during
the course of this study.

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8 REFERENCES
[ 1] Abdul-Rahman, H. (1997). Some Observations on the Issues of Quality Cost in
Construction, International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management,
14(5), 464-81.
[ 2] Bradley K. (1998). Laying the Foundations: Director of ISO 9000 Certified
Companies in Hong Kong, Trade Development Organization, Hong Kong, 20-
25.
[ 3] Bubshait, A. and Al-Atigh, T. (1999). ISO 9000 quality standards in
construction, Journal of Management in Engineering, ASCE,
November/December, 15(6), 41-46.
[ 4] Chini, A. and Valdez, H. (2003). ISO 9000 and the US construction industry,
Journal of Management in Engineering, ASCE, April, 19(2), 69-77.
[ 5] Chung, W. (1999). Understanding Quality Assurance in Construction: a Practical
Guide to ISO 9000, 1st Edition, Taylor & Francis.
[ 6] ISO (2005). www.iso.org, Surfed in November 2005.
[ 7] Love, P. and Li, H. (2000), Overcoming the Problems Associated with Quality
Certification, Construction Management and Economics, March, 18(2), 39-149.
[ 8] Low, S. and Chan, F. (1998). Quality Management Systems: a Study of
Authority and Empowerment, Building Research and Information, May, 25(3),
158-69.
[ 9] Manchester Business School (1995), ISO 9000: Does it Work? Technical
Report, Manchester, UK.
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MNG-006-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





ASSESSMENT OF ISO BENEFITS VERSUS COSTS IN THE CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY

MOHAMMAD A. AMMAR
Associate Professor, Structural Engineering Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Tanta University,
Tanta, Egypt. Presently: Visiting Scholar, BCEE Department, Concordia University, Montreal,
Quebec, Canada. mamammr@yahoo.com
TAREK M. ZAYED
Associate Professor, Building, Civil, and Environmental Engineering Department, Concordia
University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, email: zayed@encs.concordia.ca

ABSTRACT
The construction industry in particular is plagued by problems of poor quality in which
the costs associated with such deficiencies are very high industry-wide. However, the
implementation of a quality system, such as ISO, is not an overnight process. It requires
extensive auditing and challenging of the existing procedures. Before a company
decides to seek ISO certification, it is important to identify procedures to be followed,
costs involved, and the benefits or profits that can be expected as a result. Thus, the
objectives and the expected benefits must be clarified in terms of client or external
forces, staff or internal forces, and performance or organization forces. The primary
objectives of the present research include: review the cost elements usually incurred by
a company for being ISO certified, review the expected benefits associated with ISO
certification, and assess qualitatively and quantitatively the costs versus benefits of
adopting ISO in the construction industry. Different cost elements involved in becoming
certified as well as benefits of implementing ISO quality standards are thoroughly
reviewed. A cost and benefits analysis model has been suggested based on the multitude
of tasks associated with implementing and maintaining an ISO 9000 quality system. A
case study is presented and the obtained data are analyzed. The costs of ISO
implementation in construction companies as well as the associated benefits are
highlighted. The principles conclusions are finally drawn.
KEYWORDS
Construction Companies, Total Quality Management (TQM), ISO 9000, Costs versus
Benefits.
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1 INTRODUCTION
The ISO-9000 standards are a model for a documented quality system which focuses on
the company and customer needs and expectations (Hiyassat 2000). Typically, ISO-
9000 is a set of quality standards looking beyond product testing to the technical,
administrative and human factors that determine an organization's quality (ISO 2005).
They contain guidelines that can be implemented within an organization and verified by
auditors. However, the implementation of a quality system, such as ISO-9000, is not an
overnight process. It requires extensive auditing and challenging of the existing
procedures. Many changes may be necessary within an organization before certification
can be achieved. Before a company decides to seek such certification, it is important to
identify procedures to be followed, costs involved, and the benefits that can be expected
as a result. In most developed countries, an increasing number of organizations are
seeking ISO certification. Obviously, there must be some forces in the market to drive
such trend. The majority of organizations who seek certification do so in order to satisfy
the requirements of clients, to improve internal performance, to increase team morale,
and to be used as a marketing tool (Love and Li 2000). Moreover, organizations who
seek certification simply, as a result of client pressures, do not fully recognize or enjoy
the benefits of the quality management system (Leung et al. 1999). Thus, the objectives
and the expected benefits must be clarified in terms of client or external forces, staff or
internal forces, and performance or organization forces.
Companies seeking to increase productivity and client satisfaction should look into a
quality system, such as ISO (Garver 1997). According to Pheng and Edwin (2002),
there are eight principles of quality management that are inherent in the achievement of
the quality goals of ISO. These include: customer satisfaction, leadership, involvement
of people, process approach, system approach to management, continual improvement,
factual approach to decision making, and mutually beneficial supplier relationships.
Overall, improve customer satisfaction, increase competitiveness, and superior project
management are cited repeatedly as the most significant advantages of ISO certification.
General internal benefits include enhanced communication within the organization,
better control of documentation, and increased quality and methods of work done.
External benefits include an improvement in the perception of project quality, increased
customer approval, and the resulting increase in competitive edge in the industry
(Pheng and Edwin 2002). However, the majority of these benefits are qualitative. There
is little available published data to either confirm or deny the relationship between ISO
certification and increased profitability of a construction company (Wilson et al. 2003).
It is, therefore, necessary to investigate the costs usually incurred in implementing ISO
standards and consequently the associated benefits.
2 OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY
The primary objectives of the present research include:
Review the cost elements usually incurred by a company for being ISO certified.
Review the expected benefits associated with ISO certification.
Investigate qualitatively and quantitatively the costs versus benefits of adopting
ISO in the construction industry.
To achieve the previous objectives, a literature review was done on the construction
industry goals for ISO certification, various cost elements involved in a construction
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company for becoming certified, and associated benefits of ISO quality standards. A
cost and benefits analysis model has been suggested based on the interpretations of the
literature review. A survey was performed, in which data for ISO-9000 costs and
benefits are collected through a questionnaire prepared to be distributed among ISO-
certified construction companies. The collected responses were presented in tabular and
graphical forms and then analyzed.
The presented research helps practitioners to assess their benefits and costs of being ISO
certified. It also provides academics with a significant background of costs and benefits
of ISO certification, which can be used for further modeling and analysis.

3 COSTS INVOLVED IN BECOMING CERTIFIED
There are many steps involved in implementing a quality standard, such as ISO, and in
auditing the quality system of an organization. It is therefore not surprising that the
costs involved are numerous, not only in the initial phases of obtaining certification, but
also in maintaining the quality system once it is in place. However, the benefits of being
a quality endorsed company will over the course of time recuperate the total expenditure
many times over (Voehl and Ashton 1994). The actual cost can be quite difficult to
determine as it varies considerably according to (1) organizations size, (2) the scope of
its work and products, and (3) services offered. Costs incurred include both direct
monetary costs (i.e. consultant, registration fees, etc) and indirect costs (i.e.
management and staff time required in setting up, documenting, training for, and
following the quality system) (Chung 1999). Figure 1 outlines the costs which may be
incurred at both the implementation and maintenance stages of ISO certification.

Figure 1: Breakdown of ISO Costs

4 BENEFITS OF ISO-9000 QUALITY STANDARDS
ISO standards are often identified as extraneous costs but analysts agree that not
conforming to quality standards can be much more expensive than the implementation
of an effective quality system (Pheng and Jasmine 2004). The costs associated with
Major Elements of ISO Costs
Commitment to Quality
Analysis of Organization
Pre-Audit Preparation
Audit and Certification
Costs of Implementing Standards
and Obtaining Certification
Maintenance of Quality System
Maintenance of Certification
Costs of Auditing and Maintaining
the Quality System
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MNG-006-4
non-quality can be as much as 12% of the total cost of the project (Biggar 1990); 9.5%
due to deviation in design, and 2.5% due to deviation in construction (Hiyassat 2000).
When quality standards are not followed, organizations can expect the added costs of
error reporting and correction, missed deadlines, budget deficiencies, inadequate
planning, time wasted responding to customer dissatisfaction, and the list goes on
(Pheng and Jasmine 2004). However, as awareness of quality increases among staff and
project team members, the overall cost of quality decreases at a significant rate (Chung
1999).
In general, ISO-9000 certified companies enjoy a sales growth rate that is much higher
than the national average (Hiyassat 2000). According to Leung et al. (1999), the
majority of Hong Kong companies report that overall benefits of certification outweigh
the cost and that the resources required for the certification exercise low or reasonable.
In this survey, a 37% response rate received only 29% of which was from the building
and construction sector. In the United Kingdom, approximately 7% of businesses
overall, but only 0.2% of ISO certified companies, experience failure (Garver 1997).
The results given by DUN and Bradstreet findings which cover over 350,000
companies worldwide registered in ISO concluded the following benefits: Improved
consistency of service and product performance, higher customer satisfaction levels,
improved customer perception, improved productivity and efficiency, cost reduction,
improved communications, morale and job satisfaction, competitive advantage and
Increase marketing and sales and bigger opportunities. The investigation showed that
85% of registered firms report external benefits like higher perceive quality and greater
customer demand while 95% report internal benefits like greater employee awareness,
increased operational efficiency, and reduced scrap expenses (Castka et al. 2006).
A study by Allen (1997) showed that ISO has credited for increased productivity,
reduced scrap and waste, record sales level, catching inferior raw materials before they
were used, and new contracts. ISO registration resulted in 30% reduction in customer
claims, 95% improvement in delivery time, reduced defects from 3% to 0.5%, 40%
reduction in product cycle time, 20% increase in on-time delivery, international
acceptance and recognition, facilitated trade in international markets, and promoting of
safety, reliability and quality in food products (Allen 1997).

5 ISO COSTS/BENEFITS MODEL
Based on the previous analysis of companies goals of being ISO certified and the costs
and benefits associated, the most notable costs and benefits are summarized. A
costs/benefits model has been designed, which is based on the multitude of tasks
associated with implementing and maintaining an ISO quality system. The structure of
the suggested model is depicted by Figure 2, which is based on interpretations of the
literature reviewed, in particular Leung et al. (1999) and Weightman (1994). In building
the model, costs are divided into major categories, sub-categories, and individual costs,
as shown in Figure 2. Expected benefits from ISO implementation are also included,
which are categorized into four major items as given in Figure 2. An investigation was
done in 2006, in which 1774 questionnaires were sent to quality professionals who have
a leadership role, a co-ordination role or some level of responsibility for ISO 9000 in
their respective organization (Castka et al. 2006). This sample represents all New
Zeeland ISO 9000 certified companies. The data collected from 472 responses suggests
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that ISO 9000 certified companies are motivated to get ISO 9000 certification because
of improved quality, marketing benefits and improved corporate image. The majority of
the companies found that ISO 9000 certification is beneficial and 41% enjoy substantial
benefits from ISO 9000 (Figure 3). Only 1% of the companies have no benefits and
16% report only minor benefits.

6 MODEL IMPLEMENTATION
It is a very complicated issue to calculate the actual costs involved with ISO
certification, since it depends on a multitude of factors. These factors include size of
company, scope of products/services offered, prior existence and scope of a quality
system within the company, level of standardization sought, geographical location, etc.
The objective here is to provide construction companies with a clear picture of the types
of expected costs as well as the relative significance of each one in the global cost
picture. This applies also to the types of benefits and their relative importance. A survey
was performed to investigate the costs involved in implementing ISO standards in the
construction industry, as well as the associated benefits.

6.1 Data Collection
A questionnaire has been prepared to be distributed among ISO-certified construction
companies in accordance with the suggested cost and benefits model. Ten
questionnaires were handed-out among a sample of large and small companies. Four
questionnaires were received completed for analysis. For confidentiality, these
companies will be referred to by the letters A, B, C, and D.
The survey was, in essence, asking respondents to evaluate each cost element on a scale
of 1 to 5, with 5 being highly significant and 1 being not significant at all. Respondents
had the option to choose N/A if they felt that no such cost had been incurred, or if
they did not know. Also included in this survey was a section of questions on the
perceived benefits experienced by the company following certification, again on a scale
of 1 to 5.
The financial data for another company; E, is available in its web site, which makes it
easy to assess the impact of ISO implementation on the financial performance of
construction industry. Company E started implementing ISO in the year 2002 in order
to improve its quality and customer satisfaction, build a better reputation and leading to
better management and higher profit margins.

6.2 Data Analysis
The responses collected were tabulated averaged for each company and for each major
cost element across the sample, categories, and sub-categories of costs and benefits. In
Figure 4, the average values for each company across the cost categories are compared.
Some variation is seen across the companies, particularly in the early stages of the
process. This is most likely due to the size of the company, as company C is a very
large company which already had a well-developed quality system in place.
Discrepancies are seen more at the maintenance stage, which seems underestimated.
Respondents appear to have placed the most emphasis on costs related directly to
certification, assessment, documentation, and maintenance of the quality system.
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MNG-006-6
Adjustments in the company (aside from documentation and training) appear to be
fairly negligible.

Figure 2: Structure of ISO Costs and Benefits Model

Very
Substantial
Benefits
5%
Substantial
Benefits
36%
Moderate
Benefits
42%
Minor
Benefits
16%
No
Benefits
1%

Figure 3: Overall Benefits from ISO Certification
Costs of
Certification
ISO Costs and Benefits
Commitment to Quality:
Mgmt appointment
Team appointment
Training of team
Outside consultant
Costs of Achieving
Certification
Analysis of Organization:
Quality plan
Flow charts
Quality documentation
Pre-audit Preparation:
General staff
Documentation system
Training
Other adjustments
Audit and Certification:
Selection of Registrar
Pre-assessment
Assessment
Certification
Costs of Auditing &
Maintenance
Maintenance of Quality
System:
Quality staffing
Internal reviews
Training new staff
Maintenance of
documentation
Equipment calibration
Analysis of Certification:
Surveillance audit fees
Re-assessment
Business-Related:
Increased profit
Customer satisfaction
More new clients
Fewer complaints
Staff-Related Benefits:
Improved team spirit
Lower staff turnover
Clearer procedures
Operation-Related Benefits:
Increased efficiency
Reduced operation costs
Shorter lead times
Reduced rework
Overall Costs and Benefits:
Costs were higher/lower
than expected
Benefits were
greater/lesser than
expected
Benefits of Certification
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MNG-006-7

Figure 4: Relative Significance of Cost Categories

It is evident that maintenance cost of the quality system is generally considered to be a
fairly significant. Depending on the size of the company, it may be necessary to devote
an entire department to the tracking of quality and the training of employees. This could
indeed create considerable additional overhead in the firms head office. The other
factor is the documentation, which is the key to ISO standards as was considered by
respondents as well as in the literature to be a very significant cost.
Regarding the benefits of ISO certification, Figure 5 shows that benefits to the operation
are considered to be the most significant, followed closely by benefits to the business
(i.e. marketability). For the question Overall, the benefits are greater/lesser than costs
incurred, the average response was 3.3 is not an overwhelming endorsement.
Considering that 3 out of the 4 respondent companies only recently achieved
certification, it is not terribly surprising that they have not yet experienced all of the
benefits.

6.3 Financial Analysis of Company E
Company E is a general contractor specialized in concrete, finishing, and other
construction items. In 1984, company E has a main office of a total of 15 employees.
From 1984 to 1990, with the same number of employees, its turnover was about $1.5
million with 7% annual net profit. In 1990, company E had more than 30 employees,
with a turnover of $1.5 2 millions for 4.75% profit. In 1996, the company has
introduced the ISO 9000:1994 in, and updated to ISO 9000:2000 in 2003. The turnover
and net profit (as percentage) are summarized in Table 1.
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MNG-006-8
The cost elements of implementing ISO standards for company E include:
Certification fees which assigned by a special establishment that authorized to
give this kind of certifications.
Training costs for employees that should be aware and have a sufficient
knowledge of the system for applying to their work.
More employees are necessary for documentation and filing procedure required
by ISO.
Auditing and improvement are applied continuously to stay with the same level of
performance and updated with all work changes.
Increasing the head office area to cover the ISO requirement as filing,
documentations and employees.
The recorded benefits of ISO implementation for company E are:
High quality.
Decrease the waste (material, time, communication, equipment damage, etc.)
Reducing of change orders and claims.
Dealing with a large amount of projects.
The companys feedback regarding turnover, costs, and benefits are summarized in
Table 2 and Figure 6. It is clear from Figure 6 that costs exceed benefits at the
beginning since the system is new and not familiarized. In 1998, the system started
improving.

Table 1: Turnover and Net Profit of Company E
Year Annual Turnover ($) Net Profit (%)
2000~2003 3.5 million 8.05
2004~2005 4.25 million 8.35
2006 4.75 million 7.90

Table 2: Financial Status of Company E (1996 ~ 2006)
Year Turnover Cost Benefit Cost/Benefit
1996 $2,000,000 $80,000 $30,000 2.67
1998 $2,000,000 $80,000 $90,000 0.89
2000 $3,500,000 $105,000 $125,000 0.84
2002 $3,500,000 $105,000 $200,000 0.53
2004 $4,250,000 $65,000 $300,000 0.22
2006 $4,750,000 $45,000 $300,000 0.15

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MNG-006-9

Figure 5: Relative Significance by Benefit Category

0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006
Year
C
o
s
t
/
B
e
n
e
f
i
t
s

Figure 6: Cost/Benefit Performance of Company E (1996~2006)

7 CONCLUSIONS
The construction sector has turned to the ISO standards as the preferred quality system.
The implementation of ISO requires extensive auditing and challenging of the existing
procedures. The objectives and the expected benefits must be clarified in terms of client,
staff, and performance. In this paper, the cost elements usually incurred by a company
for being ISO certified are reviewed as well as the expected benefits associated with
ISO certification. A model of implementing ISO standards in the construction industry
has been suggested, in which the most notable costs and benefits are divided into major
categories, sub-categories, and individual elements. These costs and benefits are
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MNG-006-10
investigated qualitatively and quantitatively by surveying five ISO-certified companies.
The obtained data from the survey is analyzed and the relative significances are
outlined. Based on the analysis of the data obtained from the survey, it can be concluded
that costs exceed benefits at the early periods of applying ISO standards and afterwards
the system started improving.

8 REFERENCES
[ 1] Allen, M. (1997). Polyguard Bolsters Quality, Productivity with ISO 9000
System Sysprocess, Dallas Business Journal, August 15, USA.
[ 2] Biggar, J. (1990). Total Quality Management in Construction, American
Association of Cost Engineers Transactions, 14(1), 1-4.
[ 3] Castka, P., Balzarova M., and Kenny, J. (2006). Survey of ISO 9000 Users in
New Zealand -Drivers and Benefits: A Descriptive Analysis,
http://www.mang.canterbury.ac.nz/research/iso/index.shtml.
[ 4] Chung, H. (1999). Understanding Quality Assurance in Construction, a Practical
Guide to ISO 9000, E&FN Spon, London.
[ 5] Garver, R. (1997). Are There Benefits to ISO 9000 Registration? More
Importantly, Does Superior Service Really Matter?, Distribution Solutions, Inc.
[ 6] Hiyassat, M. A. (2000). Applying the ISO Standards to a Construction Company:
A Case Study, International Journal of Project Management, 18, 275-280.
[ 7] ISO (2005). International Organization for Standardization, Overview of the ISO
System, http://www.iso.org/iso/en/aboutiso/introduction/index.html#one,
Retrieved 10 October 2005.
[ 8] Leung, H., Chan, K., and Lee. T. (1999). Costs and Benefits of ISO 9000 Series:
a Practical Study, International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management,
16(7), 675-690.
[ 9] Love, P., and Li, H. (2000). Overcoming the Problems Associated with Quality
Certification, Construction Management and Economics, 18, 139-149.
[ 10] Pheng, L. and Jasmine, A. (2004). Implementing Total Quality Management in
Construction Firms, Journal of Management in Engineering, ASCE, 20(1), 8-15.
[ 11] Pheng, L. and Edwin T. (2002). Preparations for ISO 9001:2000 a Study of
ISO 9000:1994 Certified Construction Firms, Construction Management and
Economics, 20, 403-413.
[ 12] Voehl, F. and Ashton, D. (1994). ISO 9000 An Implementation Guide for Small
to Midsized Businesses. St Lucie Press.
[ 13] Weightman, R. (1994). How to Select a Registrar: Benchmarks for the Screening
Process. The ISO 9000 Handbook, 2
nd
edition, CEEM Info. Services, Virginia.
[ 14] Wilson, J., Walsh, M., and Needy, K. (2003). An Examination of the Economic
Benefits of ISO 9000 and the Baldridge Award to Manufacturing Firms,
Engineering Management Journal, 15(4), 3-10.
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MNG-007-1

13
th
ICSGE
27-29 Dec. 2009
Cairo - Egypt

PROF. DR. I. A. NOSSIR
ibrahim_sama@hotmail.com

ASSOCIATE. PROF. M. EL MIKAWI

elmikawi@yahoo.com

ENG A. M. IBRAHIM
structural_ali@yahoo.com

DEVELOPING EXPERT SYSTEM USING DATA MINING
TECHNIQUE IN THE CONSTRUCTION RISK RESPONSES IN
EGYPT
ABSTRACT
In progressing through the construction life cycle, the job passes through distinct stages,
starting from the conception up to the use / operation that require diverse range of
specialized services.
Risk and uncertainties are common features in most construction projects. Ignoring these
risk and uncertainties and their effects will cause time and cost overruns to occur. Project
risk management is undertaken primarily to improve the chances that a project will
achieve its objectives.
Data mining is one of the powerful new technologies with great potential to help
contractors focus on the most important information. Data mining can be thought of as a
process, which is the extraction of hidden predictive information from large databases.

KEYWORDS
Construction Projects-Risk Management-Expert System-Data Mining
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MNG-007-2
1 INTRODUCTION

The construction industry plays a vital role in the economic development program in
Egypt. This sector is considered to have the biggest share in the economic activity in the
country. Many projects are constructed annually to meet needs of the Egyptian society
such as bridges, tunnels, highways, roads, water, sewer systems and water supply
facilities (Ismail, 1999).
The primary goal of every construction project is to meet the owner's functional
requirements. It is noted that quite often, construction projects fail to achieve their time,
quality, and budget goals. This is frequently because of the failure of contractor to
analyze and assess unanticipated risks (Ali, R. 2005).
2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
The importance of risk management becomes even greater in an industry that embraces
many uncertainties such as the construction industry, especially in developing country
such as the case with Egypt (Orabi, 2003).
Most Egyptian construction managers still make decisions based on their intuition,
judgment, and experience rather than through a formal and systematic risk management
process. The main reason why Egyptian contractors don't use risk management
techniques is a lack of familiarity with these concepts and methods.
The ultimate purpose of risk management is risk mitigation, which can be accomplished
by revising project's schedule, budget, or quality so that uncertainty can be reduced
without any significant effect on the project's objectives.
Contractors working in Egypt are in need of a simple tool to help in risk response strategy
to mitigate risks in this field.
3 OBJECTIVES
Develop risk expert system -Risk Strategy- model using data mining tool to help
contractors in selecting the appropriate strategy to respond to any risk all of this based the
collected data. ). (Ali, M.I. 2009)
4 METHODOLOGY
4.1General
The best way to represent the great number of rules gathered under the varying conditions
to develop risk strategy modal is a knowledge base of an expert system, and the best way
for firing these rules to reach conclusions is the reasoning used in an inference engine of
an expert system. This research is a field survey study through a structured questionnaire.
The survey will identify the probability of occurrence and degree of impact of risks, and
risk strategy for each risk factor with the specified action.
Risk mitigation and response is next stage that follows the qualitative risk assessment
stage. The main aim of any response and mitigation strategy is to take a course of action
in order to eliminate risks from a project or, at least, reduce their potential negative
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implications. Within the framework of risk management, there are four alternative
strategies: Risk avoidance, Risk reduction, Risk transfer, and Risk retention.
*Risk Avoidance: This method of mitigation involves the removal of the causes of the
risk and therefore the risk itself. Also risk avoidance may involve considering and
adopting alternative courses of action or using the exemption clauses in contracts. Risk
avoidance approach should be addressed whenever the level of risk is high enough to
render a project unfeasible.
*Risk Reduction: Risk reduction is approach that might be used to mitigate risk. This
method is directed towards decreasing the contractor's potential exposure to risk by two
ways: 1) Reducing the probability of risk; and / or 2) Reducing the impact of a risk. Risk
reduction should be addressed whenever the level of risk is unacceptable and alternative
action is available.
*Risk Transfer: Through negotiation, the contractor can transfer risk to other parties such
as the owner, subcontractors, or suppliers. Transference of risk comprises the passing of
risks to those who are more capable of maintaining control and influencing the outcome
of the risk. This approach should be adopted when the risk exposure is beyond the control
of one party and it's important that each party acknowledges the value of the portion of
risk for which he is responsible.
*Risk Retention: This method of risk retention should be used when all the avenues for
other risk mitigation strategies are blocked. In other words, this method should only be
used in the residual risks that cannot be mitigated by the previous three strategies. In this
method, residual risks undergo a detailed quantitative analysis in order to allocate
appropriate level of contingency for their potential implications.
All the data above will be used as input and output for the expert system model to find
certain pattern to develop the expert system model (Risk Strategy).( Ali, M.I. 2009)
4.2 Motivation of Data Mining
Databases sizes today can reach terabytes of data. Within these masses of data lies hidden
information of strategic importance. The newest answer is data mining, which is being
used both to increase opportunities and to reduce threats. The major reason that data
mining has attracted a great deal of attention in society as a whole in recent years is due
to the wide availability of huge amounts of data and the imminent need for turning such
data into useful information and knowledge. (Fayyad 2001).
Data mining tools perform data analysis and may uncover important data patterns,
contributing greatly to business strategies, knowledge bases, and scientific research. Data
mining is a process that uses a variety of data analysis tools to discover patterns and
relationships in data that may be used to make valid predictions. Data mining is, in some
ways, an extension of statistics, with a few artificial intelligence and machine learning
twists thrown in (Fayyad 2001).
4.3 Data Mining Functionalities
Data mining functionalities are used to specify the kind of patterns to be found in data
mining tasks. In general, data mining tasks can be classified into two categories:
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descriptive and predictive. Descriptive mining tasks characterize the general properties of
the data in the database. Predictive mining tasks perform inference on the current data in
order to make predictions.
Classification is the process of finding a model (or function) that describes and
distinguishes data classes or concepts, for the purpose of being able to use the model to
predict the class of objects whose class label is unknown. The derived model is based on
the analysis of a set of training data. The derived model may be represented in various
forms, such as classification (IF-THEN) rules, decision trees, mathematical formulae, or
neural networks.
Whereas classification predicts categorical (discrete, unordered) labels, it is used to
predict missing or unavailable numerical data values rather than class labels.
Classification and prediction may need to be preceded by relevance analysis, which
attempts to identify attributes that do not contribute to the classification or prediction
process. These attributes can then be excluded.
4.4 Data Mining Process
However, there are lots of models describing the phases of data mining. In this research
the CRISP-DM (Cross-Industry Standard Process for Data Mining) reference model will
be used because of its simplicity and clearness.
The CRISP- DM model for data mining provides an overview of the life cycle of a data-
mining project. It contains the phases of a project, their respective tasks and relationships
between these tasks. Essentially, relationships could exist between any data mining tasks
depending on the goals, the background and interest of the user and most importantly on
the data.
The CRISP- DM reference model breaks down the life cycle of a data mining process
into six phases , which are project understanding, data understanding, data preparation,
modeling, evaluation and, deployment as shown in figure 1. The sequence of the phases
is not rigid. Moving back and forth between different phases is always required. It
depends on the outcome of each phase which phase or which particular task of a phase,
has to be performed next. (Cabena 1997)
4.5 Modelling
The data-mining process uses the prepared data set to build models that are used in
predictions. The modelling technique selection requires reviewing of all possible
operations and techniques that could solve the problem under study and understanding
them in order to choose the best technique that can achieve the objectives. In order to
choose from the different techniques, it is important to retrieve both the objectives, and
data-mining goals.
According to objectives and data mining goals, it can be observed that one of the best
modelling techniques that can solve the problem is the Decision Tree. Decision Tree
constructs a predicative decision tree, which is used to find a model that describes and
distinguishes of risk response strategies, for the purpose of being able to use this model to
predict the risk strategy thats unknown. This technique also can be used to highlight the
important attributes that affect the evaluation of risk strategy. Furthermore, the generated
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model from Decision Tree technique can be exported into the form of rule set, which is
easy and understandable.

Fig. 1: Phases of the CRISP-DM reference model
4.5.1 Generating Test Design (Simple validation)
It is simply separating a part of the database (about the third of whole dataset) as the test
set and is used only to test the model. This test set should be chosen randomly in order to
actually reflect the data being modeled. By this way data is separated into two sets, which
are training and test sets. The model is generated using the training set and then the
generated model's quality is tested using the test set. It should be mentioned the data
mining engine software used to develop the model is Clementine (C5.0).
4.5.2 Model Building
After choosing the modeling technique to be used and the test set as well, it is time to
move on to the next task, which is building the model through running one of the
modeling tools on the training set. The training set is to let Clementine connects to the
desired data source. The Clementine algorithm is used to build either a decision tree or a
rule set.
A Clementine model works by splitting the sample based on the field that provides the
maximum information gain. Each sub sample defined by the first split is then split again,
usually based on a different field, and the process repeats until the sub samples cannot be
split any further. Finally, the lowest level splits are reexamined, and those that do not
contribute significantly to the value of the model are removed or pruned.

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Fig. 2: Importing data from database

Fig. 3: Selecting model variables
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Fig. 4: Selecting Input and output data variables
(Determining the range of values for each variable)
4.5.3 The C5.0 Node Model Options
Model name: Specify the name of the model to be produced.
Output type: Specify here whether you want the resulting generated model to be a
Decision tree or a Rule set.
Mode: For Simple training, most of the C5.0 parameters are set automatically. Expert
training allows more direct control over the training parameters.
Group symbolic: If this option is selected, C5.0 will attempt to combine symbolic values
that have similar patterns with respect to the output field. If this option is not selected,
C5.0 will create a child node for every value of the symbolic field used to split the parent
node.
Use boosting: The C5.0 algorithm has a special method for improving its accuracy rate,
called boosting. It works by building multiple models in a sequence. The first model is
built in the usual way. Then, a second model is built in such a way that it focuses
especially on the records that were misclassified by the first model. Then a third model is
built to focus on the second model's errors, and so on. Finally, cases are classified by
applying the whole set of models to them, using a weighted voting procedure to combine
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the separate predictions into one overall prediction. Boosting can significantly improve
the accuracy of a C5.0 model, but it also requires longer training. The Number of trials
option allows you to control how many models are used for the boosted model.
The C5.0 Node Model Simple Mode Options
Favor: By default, C5.0 will try to produce the most accurate tree possible. In some
instances, this can lead to over fitting, which can result in poor performance when the
model is applied to new data.
Expected noise (%): Specify the expected proportion of noisy or erroneous data in the
training set.
4.5.4 The C5.0 Misclassification Options
In some contexts, certain kinds of errors are more costly than others. Misclassification
costs allow you to specify the relative importance of different kinds of prediction errors.
The misclassification cost matrix shows the cost for each possible combination of
predicted category and actual category. By default, all misclassification costs are set to
1.0. To enter custom cost values, select Use misclassification costs and enter your custom
values into the cost matrix.
To change a misclassification cost, select the cell corresponding to the desired
combination of predicted and actual values, delete the existing contents of the cell, and
enter the desired cost for the cell.
*Results for output field strategy
Some important terms that are used in the figures are defined below:
Coincidence Matrix: For symbolic output fields, if you requested a coincidence matrix in
the analysis options, a subsection appears here containing the matrix. The rows represent
actual observed values, and the columns represent predicted values. The cell in the table
indicates the number of records for each combination of predicted and actual values.

Fig. 5: The final generated mode

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Fig. 6: Model building settings
Performance Evaluation: Shows performance evaluation statistics for models with
symbolic outputs. This statistic, reported for each category of the output field(s), is a
measure of the average information content (in bits) of the model for predicting records
belonging to that category. It takes the difficulty of the classification problem into
account, so accurate predictions for rare categories will earn a higher performance
evaluation index than accurate predictions for common categories. If the model does no
better than guessing for a category, the performance evaluation index for that category
will be 0.
Range: Shows the range (smallest and largest values) of confidence values for records in
the stream data.
Mean Correct: Shows the average confidence for records that are classified correctly.
Mean Incorrect: Shows the average confidence for records that are classified incorrectly.
Always Correct Above: Shows the confidence threshold above which predictions are
always correct and the percentage of cases meeting this criterion.
Always Incorrect Below: Shows the confidence threshold below which predictions are
always incorrect and the percentage of cases meeting this criterion.
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Fig. 7: Misclassification Matrix
X% Accuracy Above: Shows the confidence level at which accuracy is X%. X is
approximately the value specified for Threshold for in the Analysis options. For some
models and data sets, it is not possible to choose a confidence value that gives the exact
threshold specified in the options (usually due to clusters of similar cases with the same
confidence value near the threshold). The threshold reported is the closest value to the
specified accuracy criterion that can be obtained with a single confidence value threshold.
X Fold Correct Above: Shows the confidence value at which accuracy is X times better
than it is for the overall data set. X is the value specified for Improve accuracy in the
Analysis options.

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Fig. 8: Analysis node options

Fig. 9: Model output summary report
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Fig. 10: Predicting the strategy for the unknown cases

Fig. 11: Prediction results
5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Development of a new expert system in a computer software application using data
mining technique, which could help contractors in their preparation of effective risk
management process for projects.
The research can be expanded in future as follow:
1- Expanding model to be applied on different types of construction sectors (e.g. road
construction, residential buildings, commercial buildings, bridges, etc).
2- Providing model with additional capabilities to cover total risk management process,
i.e., risk identification, qualitative risk assessment, and risk mitigation. In this research
Expert Strategy was limited to risk response strategy only. A modified Expert Strategy
model could perform such tasks based on project attributes and execution conditions.

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6 REFERENCES
Ali, M.I. (2009) " Risk Management in Airport Construction Projects in Egypt ", Master of Science
Thesis, Structural Engineering Department, Ain Shams University, Egypt.
Ali, R. (2005). 'The Applicaon of risk management in infrastructure projects", Journal of
Construcon Engineering and Management, August 2005, pp. (20-27.)
Cabena P, Discovering Data Mining From Concept to Implementation, Prentice Hall, New Jersey,
1997.
Fayyad U, Grinstein G, and Wierse A, Information Visualization in Data Mining and Knowledge
Discovery, Morgan Kaufmann, 2001.
Ismail, M.I. (1999) "Main Reasons for Construction Failure in Egypt and the Responsibility of
Failure", Master of Science Thesis, Structural Engineering Department, Cairo University, Egypt.
Orabi, W. M. (2003). "Risk Idencaon and Response Methods in The Egypan Construcon
Industry: Views of Large Scale Contractors", Master of Science Thesis, Construction Engineering
Department, The American University in Cairo, Egypt.

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13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt




Therteenth International Conference on Structural and Geotechnical Engineering

SCHEDULING OF TYPICAL REPETITIVE PROJECTS
CONSIDERING LEARNING DEVELOPMENT EFFECT

M. A. AMMAR
Tanta 31521, Egypt, E-mail: mamammar@yahoo.com
A. F. ABDEL-MAGED
Graduate Student, Department of Structural Engineering, Tanta University
Tanta 31521, Egypt

ABSTRACT
Several techniques have been used to schedule repetition in construction projects; the
most widely used one is Line-Of-Balance (LOB). The primary advantage of LOB is
maintaining work continuity of crews over the consecutive units for all repetitive
activities. Maintaining work continuity leads to maximizing the learning development
effect. Although LOB is applicable for projects that have repetitive nature, learning
development effect that naturally inherent with repetition is not considered. Modelling
learning development phenomenon in planning and scheduling of repetitive projects
provides for a more realistic production forecast over the duration of the project. Several
mathematical models (learning curves) have been developed to investigate the variation
in productivity as a function of the number of units produced. The most practical one is
the straight line model. In this paper, learning development effect was incorporated into
LOB with focusing on maintaining work continuity. The basic equation of the LOB
technique was modified to reflect learning development effect. The straight line learning
curve model is adopted because of its applicability and simplicity. An example project
is used to demonstrate model steps and calculations and the obtained results are then
analyzed. The proposed model provides an effective tool for scheduling repetitive
projects considering learning development, which improves overall project performance
in terms of construction time and cost.
KEYWORDS
Construction Management, Scheduling, Repetitive Projects, Line of Balance, Work
Continuity, Learning Development Effect.
1 INTRODUCTION
The construction of repetitive projects may be described as the continuous
manufacturing of many similar units. A unit could be floor in a high-rise building,
house in a housing project, or section of a pipeline or a highway project [1]. Generally,
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repetitive activities can be classified into two categories: typical and atypical [2]. In
the typical repetitive category, activities in all repetitive units are assumed to have
identical durations. In the atypical category, activities do not have identical durations.
Several approaches have been reported for modeling and scheduling of repetitive
construction projects; the most common and practical one is Linear Scheduling Methods
(LSMs). The origins of LSMs are not clear; there may have been multiple origins.
LSMs have been originally devised to solve industrial production problems and their
consideration for use in construction industry is rather recent event [3]. They include a
multitude of variations that are based on the same resource oriented principles [4].
LSMs are named differently: Line of Balance Schedules [1,3,5], Vertical Production
Method (VPM) [6], Time Space Scheduling [7], and Velocity Diagram [7]; but they
have common features.
The concepts of LSMs are similar and any differentiation between may only be a
question of emphasis. In any case, researchers and practitioners have presented forms of
LSMs either as extensions or modifications to the LOB [8]. LOB technique is based on
the assumption that a uniform rate of output will be used for each activity. AL-Sarrag
(1990) [5] formulated mathematical relations of LOB in an algorithmic form that may
be suitable for computerization.
Repetitive construction projects are characterized by large number of repetitive
activities which are performed in a sequential and repetitive manner. This repetition of
work leads to learning development due to greater familiarity with the task, better
coordination, more effective use of tools and methods, and more attention from
management and supervision [9].
Thomas et al. [9] summarized learning curve models that can be applied to construction
activities. Hijazi et al. [10] discussed the aspects of learning development and its impact
on the time required for repetitive construction process from a simulation perspective.
Farghal and Everett [11] proposed a method considering learning development effect to
predict the time or cost to complete the remaining cycles of an activity in progress.
Specific scheduling methods may be used advantageously for construction projects with
repetitive characteristics, but incorporating learning development effect into estimating
of activity duration may lead to better results [12]. Line of Balance (LOB) technique is
used extensively for scheduling typical repetitive projects. However, traditional LOB
scheduling did not account for learning development effect.
Arditi et al. [13] demonstrated the potential for formalizing the inclusion of learning
effect into LOB scheduling of repetitive-unit construction. Although the proposed
approach was the first attempt to consider learning development effect into LOB
scheduling, the model did not guarantee work continuity which violates learning curve
theory. Considering learning development effect in the planning of repetitive
construction projects provides for a more realistic forecast for project duration and cost.
This results in a higher degree in precision in budget and schedule and can foster more
competitive bidding.
In this paper, a new approach for scheduling repetitive construction projects is
developed for introducing learning development effect into traditional LOB technique.
The developed model has the following features: it satisfies the logical dependency
relationships between similar units of repetitive activities, it maintains work and
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resource continuity all over repetitive units for all crews, and it meets a pre-specified
project deadline.
2 LINE OF BALANCE (LOB) TECHNIQUE
The LOB technique is a resource-driven technique in which difficulties and problems of
using CPM for scheduling projects of repetitive nature are overcome. The basic
advantage of LOB over CPM is maintaining work continuity of crews over consecutive
units for all repetitive activities. The purpose of LOB schedule is to determine the
required resource needs for different activities to meet a pre-specified project deadline
while maintaining work continuity [14]. The basic assumption of LOB technique is that
the progress rate for any activity is constant. Fig.1 shows graphical representation of
traditional LOB in which synchronization and work continuity of crews are maintained.

Fig.1: Synchronization and Work Continuity of Crews in LOB
The LOB representation shown in Fig.1 allows usage of multiple crews in the same
activity assuming constant duration along all units. The objective of LOB formulation is
to achieve a resource-balanced schedule, such that the units are delivered with a rate
that meets a pre-specified deadline, the logical relationships between activities are
maintained, and crews work continuity is maintained. Only one crew is assumed to
work in a unit and the crew spends (d) duration on the unit before moving to the next
similar unit [15]. Quantity of work in each repetitive activity is assumed identical in all
units. The typical duration of each activity taken by a single crew in one unit (d) can be
calculated using Eq.1.
It is possible to formulate a strategy for meeting a pre-specified project deadline, as
shown in Fig.2, by calculating a target rate of delivery (R
Tj
) for an activity j Eq.2. Total
float of non-critical activities are utilized to minimize number of crews employed [16],
where TF
j
is the total float of activity j.
The number of crews required to maintain a project rate of delivery can be calculated
(with reference to Fig.1) using Eq.3, where C
th
is the theoretical number of crews to be
employed in a repetitive activity, and R
T
is the target progress rate. Practicality and
availability of number of crews are considered by Eq.4. As a consequence, the actual
rates of progress (R
a
) for different activities must be calculated using Eq.5.
Units
Time
6

5

4

3

2

1
Crew 1
Crew 1
Crew 3
Crew 2
R
d
N
o
.

o
f

C
r
e
w
s
;

C

Crew 2
Crew 3
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ay Manhours/d
Manhours
=
day per hours x members crew of Number
unit one in work of Quantity
= d(days) (1)

j 1 P
Tj
TF + T - T
1 - n
= R (2)
C
thj
= d
j
x R
Tj
(3)
C
aj
= Round-Up (C
j
), C
aj
Maximum available crews for activity j (4)
R
aj
= C
aj
/d
j
(5)

Fig.2: Desired Project Rate of Delivery
To draw an LOB schedule, one has to specify the dependency relationship between
consecutive activities by comparing progress rate of each activity with that of its
predecessors. Three typical cases can be encountered. When a slower activity follows a
faster activity (e.g., B follows A in Fig.3), activity B is scheduled starting from unit 1.
To avoid interference, buffer time may be added to the start of unit 1. This case is
usually referred to as Divergence and activities B and A are referred to as divergent
activities. Divergence case exists if R
A
<R
P
, where R
A
and R
P
are the progress rates of an
activity and its predecessor, respectively.
When a faster activity follows a slower activity (e.g., C follows B in Fig.3), activity C
needs to be scheduled starting at the last unit, and buffer time may be added at last unit.
This case is referred to as Convergence and activities C and B are referred to as
convergent activities. Convergence between tow consecutive activities exists if R
A
>R
P
.
For consecutive activities having equal progress rate, they are scheduled in parallel
(e.g., D follows C in Fig.3). The parallel case exists if R
A
=R
P
.

Fig.3: Dependency Relationships in LOB
Although LOB is used extensively in planning and scheduling of projects with
repetitive nature, learning development effect was not modelled in a straightforward
Units
Time
n

1
A B C D
Buffer Time
Buffer Time
Units
Time
n

1
R
T
T
1
= CPM Duration of Unit #1
T
P
= Desired Project Duration
n
-
1

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manner till now. Ignoring learning development effect in scheduling repetitive activities
produces impractical schedules.
3 LEARNING DEVELOPMENT EFFECT
Learning curve theory states that time and/or cost for subsequent realizations of a task
decreases by a certain percentage. This reduction percentage is referred to as the
learning rate. Mathematical models, or learning curves, have been developed to
investigate the variation in productivity as a function of the number of units produced.
The learning development effect has gained widespread acceptance as a tool for
planning, analyzing, explaining, and predicting the behavior of time and cost of items
produced under repetition [17].
Thomas et al. (1986) [9] investigated different learning curves that can be applied to
reflect learning development effect. Three theoretical models are commonly used in the
construction and manufacturing industry; Boeing model, Stanford "B" model, and cubic
model. Other models are of minor importance such as piecewise and exponential
models.
The Boeing model is the first introduced learning model [9], in which performance
improvement is assumed following a logarithmic function. It is assumed that, in normal
situations, the crew has no acquired experience. When this model is plotted on a log-log
scale, it forms a straight line. For this, the model is also known as the straight line
model. The mathematical expression of the straight line model is given by Eq.6.
Y
i
= a (i)
s
(6)
in which Y
i
is the time or cost required for unit number (i), s is the slope of the learning
curve calculated by Eq.7, a is the time or cost required for the first unit, and LR is the
learning development rate expressed as a fraction.
s = ln(LR) = log (LR)/log(2) (7)
The straight line model is the most reliable predictor of future performance [18]. For
this reason and due to difficulty associated with estimating parameters of other models,
the straight line model is the most commonly used one. Couto and Teixeira [19]
conducted a survey to examine the applicability and efficiency of the straight line model
in predicting future performance and concluded that it has a wide applicability in
construction activities.
The value of the learning rate denotes the level of learning improvement. For an LR
value of 100%, the curve shows no learning improvement. However, a learning rate of
90% reflects a time improvement of 10% (i.e., 1-LR) to complete the first two
iterations. As the value of learning rate decreases, a higher improvement would be
realized.
The learning rate is usually assumed constant, as it is addressed by the straight line
model. Other models (e.g., cubic model) assume that the value of the learning rate
changes due to the influence of other factors. Thomas et al. (1986) [9] suggested that the
learning rate is not necessarily a constant value.
The learning rate varies from construction activity to another depending on variety of
factors. Hijazi [20] summarized the factors that influence the learning rate into four
groups: management, labor, project, and task characteristics. The specified values of
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learning rate are expected to fluctuate randomly. It is therefore suggested that the
learning rates be modelled as random variables rather than deterministic ones [10,21].
Arditi et al. [13] considered uncertainty of learning rates using fuzzy set theory. In this
paper, the straight line model will be adopted for modeling the impact of learning
development effect into LOB scheduling.
4 PROPOSED MODEL
For modeling learning development effect into LOB schedule, the following
assumptions are considered:
The typical case is only considered (i.e. it is assumed that activities exist in all units
with identical durations),
Only one crew is assumed to work in a repetitive unit,
The straight line curve is used to model learning development effect, and
The learning rate is assumed constant for each repetitive activity.
Based on the first two assumptions, the basic calculations of traditional LOB can be
done. To determine a target rate of output for each activity, it is necessary to calculate
duration of the first unit (T
1
). This is obtained by performing CPM analysis considering
buffer time between activities (if required) and using duration estimate of each activity
neglecting learning effect.
The target rate of output for each activity is then calculated using Eq.2. A synchronized
number of crews are considered by calculating theoretical number of crews (C
th
) to meet
a specified project deadline by Eq.3. The actual number of crews (C
a
) is calculated by
rounding-up C
th
. The actual rate of build (R
a
) is calculated using Eq.5.
Applying the equation of the straight-line learning curve assumes that only one crew is
utilized by each activity for all repetitive units. Using Eq.6, it is assumed that the crew
utilized in a repetitive activity moves sequentially from unit to another. If more than one
crew is used, Eq.6 needs to be modified to suit the general case.
4.1 Modeling of Learning Effect with Multiple Crews
In the present modeling, it is assumed that crews move from one unit to the other within
a repetitive activity following the work sequence shown in Fig.1. For multiple crews
used in a repetitive activity, the crews move from one unit to another with a step equals
number of units in a group (i.e. number of crews). For a number of crews of three, the
first crew moves through units 1, 4, 7, etc. Therefore, the unit duration is constant
within each group and decrease in duration due to learning effect will be observed in
subsequent groups.
Using more than one crew in an activity divides the repetitive units into groups. The
number of groups of an activity j (G
j
) depends on the number of units (n) and the
number of crews utilized by the activity j; C
j
(Eq.8). The group number for a unit i in
activity j; g
ij
, can be determined using Eq.9.
G
j
= Round-up (n/C
j
) (8)
g
ij
= Round-up (i/C
j
) (9)
Assuming only one crew per activity, the unit duration of unit i (d
i
) can be determined
using Eq.6 as d
i
= d
1
(i)
s
. If more than one crew per activity is used, the duration of unit i
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depends on the group number for which the unit is belonging. In this case, the duration
of unit i is calculated using Eq.10.
d
i
= d
1
(g
i
)
s
(10)
Learning development effect is realized in the second group due to knowledge acquired
from the first group. Then the crews will move to the third group with more learning.
So, the learning effect is generated basically from the crews' movement between
successive groups.
From Fig.4 and for number of crews C, the first crew works on unit one with initial
duration d
1
and then moves to unit C+1. So, the learning effect is realized in units C+1
to 2C with duration d
2
. The second crew moves from unit 2 to unit C+2 and the third
crew moves from unit 3 to unit C+3, and so on.

Fig.4: Activity Groups and Crews Movement
4.2 Modeling of Learning Development Effect into LOB Scheduling
The primarily advantage of LOB scheduling is maintaining work continuity of different
crews. It means that the start time of any unit is controlled by the finish time of the
previous corresponding unit for the same crew. The challenge now is to maintain work
continuity of crews and incorporate, in the same time, learning development effect into
LOB calculations.
In the present analysis, it will be assumed that crews move from one repetitive unit to
another with a step equals number of crews (Fig.4). The repetitive units performed by a
specified crew will be referred to as corresponding units. In Fig.4, the corresponding
units executed by crew #1 are 1, 4, 7, and 10. Similarly, the corresponding units
executed by crew #2 are 2, 5, and 8, and so on. Assuming this crew configuration, the
10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1
Units
Crew 2
Crew 3
Crew 1
Crew 1
Crew 2
Crew 2
Crew 3
Crew 3
C+1
2C+1
3C+1
Crew 1
C= no. of crews
Time
3
rd
group
2
nd
group
1
st
group
d
1
/C d
1
/C d
1
d
2

-264-
start difference between unit i in group g
i
and the corresponding unit in group number
one (
i
g
i
SD ) can be calculated as follows.
For the units performed by the first crew, the start difference between the first unit in
any group and the corresponding unit in group one, for a certain activity, is the
summation of durations of first units in the previous groups. In Fig.4, units 4, 7, and 10
are the first units in groups 2, 3, and 4, respectively executed by crew #1. Then, the start
difference can be calculated as:
s
1 1
g
4
) 1 ( d d SD
2
= = ,
) 2 1 ( d ) 2 ( d ) 1 ( d d d SD
s s
1
s
1
s
1 2 1
g
7
3
+ = + = + = ,
3
1
s
1
s s s
1
s
1
s
1
s
1 3 2 1
g
10
g d = ) 3 + 2 + (1 d = (3) d + (2) d + (1) d = d + d + d = SD
4

The start difference between the second unit in any group and the corresponding unit in
the first group is the summation of the durations of the first units in the previous groups
plus d1/C. In Fig.4, units 5 and 8 are the second units in groups 2 and 3, respectively
executed by crew #2. Then, the start difference for these units can be calculated as
follows:
)
C
1
1 ( d
C
1
d ) 1 ( d
C
d
d SD
s
1 1
s
1
1
1
g
5
2
+ = + = + = ,
)
C
1
2 1 ( d
C
1
d ) 2 ( d ) 1 ( d
C
d
d d SD
s s
1 1
s
1
s
1
1
2 1
g
8
3
+ + = + + = + + = ,
Similarly, the start difference between unit 9 in and the corresponding unit in group one
can be calculated as:
C
2
g d SD
1 - g
1
s
1
g
i
i
i
+ =

In general form, start difference between unit i and the corresponding unit in group one
can be calculated using Eq.11. Start and finish times of unit i can be easily calculated
using Equations 12 and 13, respectively.

( ) ( ) g 1 g
C
1 i
d SD
1 g
1
S
i i 1
g
i
i
i
(11)

i i
g
i 1
g
i
SD ST ST + = (12)

i i i
g
i
g
i
g
i
d ST FT + = (13)
4.3 Dependency Relationships between Consecutive Activities
To specify dependency relationships between consecutive activities considering
learning development effect, the rules of plotting LOB discussed in section 2 need to be
rechecked. Not only the progress rate of an activity is to be considered but the learning
rate should also be taken into account.
In case of diverged activities, if learning rate of an activity equals to or greater than that
of its predecessor, the divergence case remains dominant as shown in Fig.5.a. An
ambiguous case arises for diverged activities if LR of an activity is less than that of its
predecessor. In this case, divergence may be changed to convergence due to learning
-265-
effect. In other words, dependency relationship can not be specified directly in case of
R
A
<R
P
and LR
A
<LR
P
.
In case of converged activities, if learning rate of an activity equals to or less than that
of its predecessor, the convergence condition remains dominant as shown in Fig.5.b.
Again, an ambiguous case arises for converged activities if a predecessor has a greater
value of learning rate. In this case, convergence may be changed to divergence due to
learning effect if R
A
>R
P
and LR
A
>LR
P
. For parallel activities, dependency relationships
between consecutive activities may be changed from convergence to divergence or visa
versa depending on values of learning rates.

a. Case of Diverged Activities b. Case of Converged Activities
Fig.5: Dependency Relationships between Consecutive Activities
From the previous discussion, progress rates only do not control dependency
relationship between consecutive activities. If learning development effect is to be
considered, both progress rate and learning rate have to be considered. Instead of
comparing only progress rates or learning rates only, one has to compare the ratio of
progress rate to learning rate of consecutive activities. To specify dependency
relationship between consecutive activities considering learning effect, the rules given
in Table 1 have to be used.
Table 1: Rules Used to Specify Dependency Relationships
No. Rule Dependency Relationship
1 (R/LR)A < (R/LR)P Divergence
2 (R/LR)A > (R/LR)P Convergence
3 (R/LR)A = (R/LR)P Parallel
5 MODEL IMPLEMENTATION
An example project chosen from the literature [22] has been analyzed to illustrate the
features of the proposed model incorporating learning development effect into LOB.
The project consists of 10 identical units. The contract duration is 70 days and a
minimum buffer time of one day is to be maintained between consecutive activities.
Work breakdown for a single unit, estimated activities duration of first unit, and
assumed learning rates are given Table 2.
The example problem is solved manually by applying the developed model described
earlier in the following steps:
Units
Time
R
A
< R
P
LR
A
LR
P
A

P

Units
Time
R
A
> R
P
LR
A
LR
P

A
P
-266-
Perform CPM time analysis for the first unit considering unit duration of each
activity and a minimum buffer time of one day. The resulting CPM duration of the
first unit (T
1
) is 34 days and the critical activities are B, F, and G. The total floats of
non-critical activities in the first unit are given in Table 3.
Since the desired project duration (T
P
) is 70 days, the target rate of delivery (R
T
) can
be calculated using Eq.2 as (10-1)/(70-34) = 0.25 (i.e. one unit every 4 days for
critical activities). The progress rates of non-critical activities are calculated
considering their total float. The theatrical and actual number of crews as well as
actual progress rate of each activity are calculated and are given also in Table 3.
The dependency relationships between consecutive activities are determined using
the rules given in Table 1 and are given in Table 4.
Dividing units into groups according to actual number of crews chosen for each
activity. Applying the modified straight line learning curve equation (Eq.10) to get
unit durations due to learning (Table 5).
Calculating the start difference for all units, start time, and finish time using
equations 11, 12, and 13, respectively. The complete set of results for activity J (as
an example) is given in Table 5.
According to the dependency relationships specified in Table 4, the calculated
timings of activities are plotted graphically for some path B-F-J, as shown in Fig.6.
The resulting project duration is 64.3 days.
Table 2: Planning Data of the Example Project
Activity Predecessors 1
st
Unit Duration (days) LR
A --- 4 0.95
B --- 6 0.85
C --- 2 0.90
D A 8 0.95
E B 10 0.89
F B 16 0.92
G C 6 0.87
H D 4 0.85
I E 8 0.92
J F, G 10 0.87
K H, I 6 0.86
Table 3: Traditional LOB Calculation for the Example Project
Activity d
1
(days) TF(days) R
th
C
th
C
a
R
a

A 4 9 0.200 0.80 1 0.25
B 6 0 0.250 1.50 2 0.33
C 2 14 0.180 0.36 1 0.50
D 8 9 0.200 1.60 2 0.25
E 10 1 0.243 2.43 3 0.30
F 16 0 0.250 4.00 4 0.25
G 6 14 0.180 1.08 2 0.33
H 4 9 0.200 0.80 1 0.25
I 8 1 0.243 1.94 2 0.25
J 10 0 0.250 2.50 3 0.30
K 6 1 0.243 1.46 2 0.33
-267-
Table 4: Dependency Relationships
Predecessor #1 Predecessor #2
Act. (R/LR)
A

Code (R/LR)
P
Relation Code (R/LR)
P
Relation
D 0.26 A 0.26 Parallel
E 0.34 B 0.39 Diverg.
F 0.27 B 0.39 Diverg.
G 0.38 C 0.56 Diverg.
H 0.29 D 0.26 Converg.
I 0.27 E 0.34 Diverg.
J 0.34 F 0.27 Converg. G 0.38 Diverg.
K 0.38 H 0.29 Converg. I 0.27 Converg.
Table 5: Complete Results for Activity J
Unit # g g
s
d
i
= d
1
g
s

i
g
i
SD

i
g
i
ST

i
g
i
FT

1 1 1 10.00 0.00 30.00 40.00
2 1 1 10.00 3.33 33.33 43.33
3 1 1 10.00 6.66 36.66 46.66
4 2 0.87 8.70 10.00 40.00 48.70
5 2 0.87 8.70 13.33 43.33 52.03
6 2 0.87 8.70 16.66 46.66 55.36
7 3 0.80 8.02 18.70 48.70 56.71
8 3 0.80 8.02 22.03 52.03 60.05
9 3 0.80 8.02 25.36 55.36 63.38
10 4 0.75 7.56 26.70 56.71 64.28
Notes: C = 3, LR = 0.87, s = -0.2, d1 = 10

Fig.6: LOB Schedule of Path B-F-J
It is obvious form Figures 8 and 9 that crew work continuity is maintained and logical
dependency between consecutive activities in all repetitive units is satisfied. The project
duration ignoring learning effect, for the same number of crews, was 74 days as
Units
10

1
Time
0

6

7

2
3

3
0

4
0

2
3

2
7
.
2

4
1
.
7

5
5
.
7

5
6
.
7

6
4
.
3

B F J
-268-
reported by Ammar [22]. Consequently, a time saving of 9.7 days is obtained (i.e.,
15.1%).
A practical model for scheduling repetitive projects to benefit from learning
development effect is presented in this paper. Repetitive projects require schedules that
ensure the uninterrupted usage of resources, but in traditional LOB schedule the effect
of learning development is not considered. The developed model incorporating learning
development effect into LOB schedule has the following features: maintaining work
continuity, insuring crews synchronization and availability, satisfying logical
relationships between activities, and meeting a pre-specified project deadline. In
modeling learning development effect into LOB scheduling, the straight line learning
curve model was used, which was modified to allow for usage of multiple crews. Then,
learning development effect was incorporated into LOB scheduling. Dependency
relationships between consecutive activities were modelled to introduce learning
development effect. An example project chosen from the literature is used to implement
the proposed model and to demonstrate model steps and calculations. The obtained
results are then analyzed and compared with traditional analysis. The proposed model
provides both academics and practitioners with a scheduling tool which improves
overall project performance in terms of construction time and cost. Although the
developed model is applicable only to typical repetitive projects, it can be extended to
model atypical case.
7 REFERENCES
[1] Carr, R. and Meyer, W. (1974). "Planning Construction of Repetitive Building
Units." Journal of the Construction Division, ASCE, 100(3), 403-412.
[2] El-Rayes, K. and Moselhi, O. (1998). Resource-Driven Scheduling of Repetitive
Activities, Construction Management and Economics, 16, 433- 446.
[3] Arditi, D. and Albulak, M. (1986). "Line-of-Balance in Pavement Construction."
Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE, 112(3), 411-424.
[4] Birrell, G. (1980). "Construction Planning Beyond the Critical Path." Journal of
the Construction Division, ASCE, 106(3), 389-407.
[5] Al-Sarrag, Z. (1990). "Formal Development of Line-Of-Balance Technique."
Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE, 116(4), 689-704.
[6] O'Brien, J., Kreitzberg, F. and Mikes, W. (1985). "Network Scheduling Variations
for Repetitive Work." Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,
ASCE, 111(2), 105-116.
[7] Stradal, O. and Cacha, J. (1982). "Time Space Scheduling Method." Journal of the
Construction Division, ASCE, 108(3), 445-457.
[8] Johnston, D. (1981). "Linear Scheduling Method for Highway Construction."
Journal of the Construction Division, ASCE, 107(2), 247-261.
[9] Thomas, H., Mathews, C., and Ward, J. (1986). Learning Curve Models of
Construction Productivity. Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management, ASCE, 112(2),245-258.
-269-
[10] Hijazi, A., Abourizk, S., and Halpin, D. (1992). Modeling and Simulation
Learning Development Construction. Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management, ASCE, 118(4), 685-700
[11] Farghal, S., and Everett, J. (1997). Learning Curves: Accuracy in Predicting
Future Performance. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,
ASCE, 123(1), 41- 45.
[12] Pilcher, R. (1992) "Principles of Construction Management" 3rdedition, McGraw-
Hill, Inc., USA.
[13] Arditi, D., Tokdemir, O., and Suh, K. (2001). Effect of Learning on Line-Of-
Balance Scheduling. International Journal of Project Management, 19, 265-277.
[14] Mahdi, I. (2004) A New LSM Approach for Planning Repetitive Housing
Projects. International Journal of Project Management, 22, 339-346.
[15] Hegazy, T. (2002), Computer-Based Construction Project Management,
Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA.
[16] Suhail, S. and Neale, R. (1994). "CPM/LOB: New Methodology to Integrate CPM
and Line of Balance." Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,
ASCE, 120(3), 667-684.
[17] Lam, K., Lee, D., and Hu, T. (2001) Understanding the Effect of the Learning-
Forgetting Phenomenon to Duration of Projects Construction. International
Journal of Project Management, 19, 411-420.
[18] Everett, J. and Farghal, S. (1994). "Learning Curve Predictors for Construction
Field Operations." Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, ASCE,
120(3), 603-616.
[19] Couto, J. and Teixeira, J. (2005). Using Linear Model for Learning Curve Effect
on Highrise Floor Construction. Journal of Construction Management and
Economics, 23, 355-364.
[20] Hijazi, A. (1989). "Simulation Analysis of Linear Construction Processes." Ph. D.
Dissertation, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Ind.
[21] Lutz, J., Halpin, D. and Wilson, J. (1994). "Simulation of Learning Development
in Repetitive Construction." Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management, ASCE, 120(4), 753-773.
[22] Ammar, M. (2003). Integrated LOB and CPM Repetitive Scheduling Method,
10
th
International Colloquium on Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, Ain-
Shams University, Cairo, Egypt, Paper # E03MG04.

-270-

REI NFORCED CONCRETE

RCS- 001

FLEXURAL PERFORMANCE OF PRELOADED RC ELEMENTS STRENGTHENED WI TH CFRP
GRI DS AND POLYMER CEMENT MORTAR
Yasser Rifat Tawfic and Yukikazu Tsuj i n
RCS- 002 DUCTI LI TY AND MOMENT REDI STRI BUTI ON I N CONTI NUOUS T- SECTI ON HI GH
STRENGTH CONCRETE BEAMS
Hossam Aly Elagroudy, Tarek Kamal Hassan, Ahmed Hassan Gallab, Osama Hamdy Abdel- Wahed, and Aly
Sherief Abdel- Fayyad
RCS- 003 LI GHTWEI GHT 3D WI RE PANEL BUI LDI NG SYSTEM FOR LOW RI SE BUI LDI NGS AND
I NDUSTRI AL STRUCTURES: SOME APPLI CATI ONS AND DESI GN RULES
waiel mowr t age
RCS- 004 I MPLEMENTATI ON OF BRI DGE EVALUATI ON I N PRACTI CE
Shehab Mohamed Mourad
RCS- 005 BEHAVI OR OF MASONRY STRENGTHED I NFI LLED REI NFORCED CONCRETE FRAMES
A. Y. ABOUELEZZ
RCS- 006 RESPONSE OF R. C. BEAMS CONFI NI NG USI NG OUT OF PLAI N HORI ZONTAL LOADS
ABOUT MI D- SPAN
Ramadan Abd El Aziz Askar, Hamdy Shehab Aldeen, and Mohamed mohamed El- Met awally
RCS- 007 BEHAVI OR OF HI GH STRENGTH STEEL AS SHEAR REI NFORCEMENT FOR CONCRETE
BEAMS
Ahmed Mant awy, Tarek Hassan, Aly Sherif, and Sami Rizkalla
RCS- 008 FLEXURAL BEHAVI OR OF CONCRETE BEAMS REI NFORCED WI TH HI GH STRENGTH
STEEL REI NFORCI NG BARS
Reham El Tahawy, Tarek Hassan, Osama Hamdy, and Sami Rizkalla
RCS- 009 SEI SMI C RESPONSE OF R.C MULTI STORY BUI LDI NGS WI TH SPECI AL
CONFI GURATI ON
El Most afa Higazy and Moemen El Sharkawy
RCS- 010 RATI ONAL EFFECTI VE MOMENT OF I NERTI A
ayman Aboel- Fet oh Embaby
RCS- 011 BEHAVI OR OF EXTERNALLY PRESTRESSED CONTI NUOUS CONCRETE BEAMS I N
FLEXURE
Ahmed Hassan Ghallab
RCS- 012 SEI SMI C RESPONSE OF ELEVATED REI NFORCED CONCRETE TANKS
Ayman Hussein Khalil
RCS- 013 STRAI N COMPATI BI LI TY FOR RC MEMBERS WI TH BONDED CFRP STRI PS
Ezzeldin Yazeed Sayed- Ahmed, Amr Ali Abdelrahman, and Nigel Graham Shrive
RCS- 014 EFFECT OF SLAB THI CKNESS & STI RRUP SHAPE ON SHEAR RESI STANCE OF HI GH
STRENGTH CONCRETE TBEAMS
MOHAMED EL- SAI D I SSA, MOHAMED TALAT MOSTAFA, Amr Hussein Zaher, and Ahmed Adel Afifi
RCS- 015 ANALYSI S OF SHEAR WALL STRENGTHENI NG WI TH CFRP USI NG THE APPLI ED
ELEMENT METHOD
mariam mohammed ehab ahmed
RCS- 016 BEHAVI OR OF BRACED REI NFORCED CONCRETE COUPLED SHEAR WALLS I N HI GH
RI SE BUI LDI NGS
Omar Aly El- Nawawy
RCS- 017 BEHAVI OUR OF CONCRETE FI LLED FRP TUBES
omar El Nawawy, Amr Abd El Rahman, Hazem Abd El Lat if , and Shady Hammouda
RCS- 018 BOND CHARACTERI STI CS BETWEEN HI GH STRENGTH CONCRETE ( HSC) AND CARBON
FI BER REI NFORECED POLYMERS ( CFRP)
Ayman Ahmed Moust afa, Khaled Hilal Riad, and Amr Ali Abdelrahman
RCS- 019 SEI SMI C RESPONSE OF EXTERI OR SLAB- COLUMN CONNECTI ON
Hamdy Kamal Shehab- Eldin, Mohamed Mahmoud Husain, and Hibat - Alla Mohamed Ali
RCS- 020 PUNCHI NG OF SLURRY I NFI LTRATED FI BER CONCRETE ( SI FCON) FLAT SLABS
Saied Ghoname
RCS- 021 EFFECT OF TRANSVERSE RECTANGULAR OPENI NGS ON THE BEHAVI OUR OF
REI NFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS HAVI NG VARI OUS PERCENTAGES AREA OF STEEL
Osman Mohammed Ramadan, Sherif Kamal Elwan, and Arafa Mahmoud Ahmed
RCS- 022 EXPERI MENTAL BEHAVI OUR OF HI GH STRENGTH CFST LONG COLUMNS
Amr Ali Abdelr ahman, Fat hy Saad, Mohamed Nabil, and Amir Nassif
RCS- 023 CODES COMPARI SON FOR POST- TENSI ONED SLABS I NTERI OR SUPPORT PUNCHI NG
Tamer Ahmad I brahem, Ayman Hessien Hosny, and Amr Abo Hashish


RCS-001-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





FLEXURAL PERFORMANCE OF PRELOADED RC ELEMENTS
STRENGTHENED WITH CFRP GRIDS AND POLYMER CEMENT
MORTAR

YASSER R. TAWFIC
Minia, Egypt
E-mail: yasser_rifat@yahool.com
YUKIKAZU TSUJI
Department of Civil Engineering, Gunma University
Kiryu,Gunma, Japan
E-mail: tsuji@ce.gunma-u.ac.jp

ABSTRACT
This research work is an experimental investigation for the flexural behaviour of
reinforced concrete elements strengthened with carbon fibre reinforced polymers
(CFRP) grids and polymer cement mortar. The experimental program consists of testing
nineteen full scale RC specimens; one of them was tested as a reference specimen, and
the other eighteen specimens were preloaded and strengthened with CFRP grids. The
strengthening process was carried out by fixing the CFRP grid to the bottom surface of
the specimen with anchors or rivets. Afterwards, a layer of polymer cement mortar was
applied using shot-creting system. The main experimental variables were the state of the
CFRP grid (continuous or spliced), the number, diameter and distribution of the anchors
or rivets, the type of the polymer cement mortar as well as the type of loading. Test
results showed that the proposed this technique of strengthening is very effective for
upgrading RC elements; at the same time a reasonable design for the installation of the
spliced CFRP grid is important to prevent brittle de-bonding failure of RC elements.
KEYWORDS
Strengthening; CFRP grid; Polymer cement mortar; Crack width; Anchors; Rivets.
1 INTRODUCTION
Many reinforced concrete structures are facing serious problems due to impairment and
ageing. As for example, a great number of RC road bridges are still used although the
efficiency of these road bridges has deteriorated. At the same time the number and
weight of the trucks and vehicles have become higher than the design loads. These
-271-

RCS-001-2
structures are now in deep need for repair and strengthening to upgrade them. In the last
two decades, carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) have been widely used for the
purpose of repair and strengthening of RC structures as they provide an easy and
durable solution for deteriorated structures. CFRP has good resistance to
electrochemical corrosion, high strength to weight ratio, excellent fatigue resistance and
ease of handling.
Most of researches were conducted to check the efficiency of strengthening RC
elements using CFRP laminates, plates, or rods. Studying the flexural behavior of RC
beams strengthened with different patterns of fiber reinforced polymers (FRP), N. F.
Grace et al.
1
concluded that the use of FRP laminates reduces the deflection and
increases the load carrying capacity of the strengthened beams. They reported also that
all the FRP strengthened beams exhibited brittle behaviour requiring a high factor of
safety in design. However, Lamanna et al.
2
observed that strengthening of reinforced
concrete beams by attaching a composite strip entirely with small mechanical fasteners
allowed a gradual failure after the ultimate state is reached.
In this research work, an alternative technique of repair and strengthening was carried
out by fixing continuous or spliced CFRP grids to the bottom surface of RC elements.
Anchors or rivets were used to fix the CFRP grid. After that, a new layer of polymer
cement mortar was applied. The experimental test results provide the required data to
evaluate the efficiency of this technique. A new formula was proposed to predict the
maximum crack width for the strengthened RC specimens.
2 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
2.1 Specimen Details
Two groups with a total of nineteen RC test specimens were cast with a rectangular
cross section, 500 mm width and 220 mm height. For all the specimens, five steel bars
(13 mm Diameter) were used as tensile reinforcement and five steel bars (10 mm
Diameter) were used as compressive reinforcement. The diameter of stirrups steel bars
was 6 mm. Except specimens C1 and D1, the design concrete compressive strength of
all the specimens was 20 MPa. The design concrete compressive strength of specimens
C1 and D1 was 10 MPa. Either continuous or spliced CFRP grids were used for
strengthening the preloaded test specimens as shown in Fig. 1.

Compressive steel D10
Tensile steel D13
Stirrups D6
200
50
2400
2000
mm
cement mortar layer
mm
L
C
5x100=500 8x150=1200
4x100=400
cement mortar layer
5 bars D10
5 bars D13
m
m
2
2
0
mm 500
Continuous CFRP Grid

(a) Test specimens strengthened with continuous CFRP grids (Groups I and II)
Compressive steel D10
Tensile steel D13
Stirrups D6
200
50
2400
2000
mm
cement mortar layer
mm
L
C
5x100=500 8x150=1200
4x100=400
cement mortar layer
5 bars D10
5 bars D13
m
m
2
2
0
mm 500
Spliced CFRP Grid

(b) Test specimens strengthened with spliced CFRP grids (Groups I and II)
Fig. 1: Details of test specimens
-272-

RCS-001-3
Table 1: Details of test specimens in group I
Test
specimen
Type of
loading

Concrete
strength
MPa
CFRP grid
state

No. of
anchor or
rivet
Total
mortar
thickness
mm

Type of
mortar
A1 Static 20 Spliced 12 (M-8)* 22
A2 Static 20 Spliced 12 (M-8) 7
B1 Dynamic 20 Spliced 12 (M-8) 22
B2 Dynamic 20 Continuous 12 (M-8) 22
B3 Dynamic 20 Spliced 24 (R)** 22
B4 Dynamic 20 Continuous 24 (R) 22
C1 Static 10 Continuous 12 (M-8) 22
D1 Dynamic 10 Continuous 12 (M-8) 22

SBR
*(M-8) = anchors have a diameter of 8 mm. **(R) = rivets have a diameter of 4.8 mm.
Table 2: Details of test specimens in group II
Test
specimen
Type of
loading
CFRP grid
state
No. of
rivets (6
mm)
No. of
openings /
splice
Cover
mm
Type of
mortar
R Static --- --- --- --- Reference
E1 Static Continuous 16 --- 10 SBR
E2 Static Continuous 16 --- 10 Acid proof
E3 Static Spliced 16 2 10
F1 Dynamic Continuous 16 --- 10
F2 Dynamic Spliced 16 2 10
F3 Dynamic Spliced 16 4 10

SBR
The experimental program was designed to check the effect of different experimental
variables, which may affect the bond strength between the strengthening CFRP layer
and the existing concrete on load bearing capacity and flexural performance of the
strengthened specimens. From the practical point of view, transportation and fixing long
span CFRP grid is not possible; therefore spliced CFRP grid must be used. The second
target of the experimental program was to investigate the effect of the presence of a
splice in the middle of the CFRP grid on the flexural performance of the strengthened
specimens. The splice was a butt joint of two main CFRP grids reinforced with a lap
splice of CFRP grid as shown in Fig. 1-b and Fig. 2 respectively.
Tables 1 and 2, show the details of the test specimens in groups I, and II, respectively.
Group I consists of eight specimens; four specimens were strengthened with continuous
CFRP grids and the other four specimens were strengthened with spliced CFRP grids,
see Fig. 3. The mechanical properties of the used CFRP grids are illustrated in Table 3.
The experimental variables were the total thickness of the mortar layer, the number and
distribution of the anchors or rivet (see Figs. 4 and 5), the concrete compressive strength
-273-

RCS-001-4
Table 3: Properties of the CFRP grid
Group Area
mm
2

Tensile strength
MPa
Modulus of elasticity
GPa
I & II 196 1794 181

Fig. 2: Details of the spliced CFRP grid (specimen E5)

(a): Continuous CFRP Grid
(b): Spliced CFRP Grid
Fig. 3: CFRP grids

(a) Rivets before fixation
(b) Rivets after fixation

M-8 Anchors
Fig. 4: Rivets and anchors
as well as the type of loading. Group II consists of eleven specimens; one of them was
tested without strengthening to serve as a reference specimen. Seven specimens were
strengthened with spliced CFRP grids, and finally, three specimens were strengthened
using continuous CFRP grids. The experimental variables were the number and
distribution of rivets, the thickness of the polymer cement mortar cover, the number of
the openings of the CFRP grid within the lab splice, and the type of loading. The length
of the CFRP grid lap splice of specimens E5 and F3 was 250 mm. The length of the
CFRP grid lab splice of the remaining specimens was 300 mm.
The arrangement of the CFRP grid and the distribution of the anchors or rivets for
-274-

RCS-001-5
Table 4: Mechanical properties of the cement mortar
Type of mortar Compressive strength
(MPa)
Modulus of elasticity
(Mpa)
SBR 34 1.45X10
4

Acid proof 52.0 1.7X10
4

4
x
1
0
0
=
4
0
0
5
0
0
2 openi ngs lab splice
15x100+2x50=1600
4
x
1
0
0
=
4
0
0
5
0
0
400
Continuous CFRP grid
Spli ce CFRP grid
2400
400
7x100+2x50=800 400
Main CFRP grid Main CFRP grid
7x100+2x50=800
2400
400
C
L
C
L
(a) Specimen A1, A2, and B1 (Group I)
M8 - Anchor
D6 - Rivet
(b) Specimen E1, E2, and F1 (Group II)

Fig. 5: Arrangement of the CFRP grids

Fig. 6: Application of the mortar layer Fig. 7: Test setup
specimens in groups I and II are shown in Fig. 5. Specimens B1, B2, B3, B4, and D1 in
group I and specimens F1, F2 and F3 in group II were loaded with 2 million cycles of
repetitive load and then statically loaded up to failure.
2.2 Preloading and Strengthening Technique
In order to create severe cracks, the strengthened specimens were preloaded until the
stresses in the tensile steel reinforcement reached 300 MPa, after which they were
strengthened. Preparation of the bottom surface of the test specimens was the first step
for strengthening. The form was originally designed to produce specimens without
concrete cover within the strengthening area. The bottom surface was cleaned using
compressed air to remove the dust. After that, the CFRP grid was fixed with anchors or
rivets, as shown in Fig. 2 through 5, then the surface was washed by water and painted
-275-

RCS-001-6
by primer. Finally, the polymer cement mortar was applied using shot-creting system,
see Fig. 6. The mechanical properties of the used cement mortar are shown in Table 4.
All the test specimens were cured for 28 days under open-air condition.

Fig. 8: Pattern of cracks and mode of failure for specimen E2 (shear failure)

Fig. 9: Pattern of cracks and mode of failure for specimen E5 (splice de-bonding)
2.3 Test Setup and Procedure
All test specimens were subjected to four-point loading, as shown in Fig. 1. The values
of deflection were measured at the supports, load points, and mid-span using linear
voltage displacement transducers. Electrical strain gauges were used to measure the
values of strain in tensile steel reinforcement, compressive reinforcement, compressive
portion of concrete, and CFRP grid, respectively. Cracks were detected and marked on
the side of the concrete surfaces and their widths were measured at every load stage. All
instruments were connected to a data acquisition system in order to record the response
of the test specimens, as shown in Fig. 7.
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSION
3.1 Cracking Patterns and Failure Modes
Preloading of the strengthened specimens created flexural cracks not only in the
constant moment zone but also in the combined moment and shear zone. After
strengthening, test specimens were reloaded forming cracks in the strengthening layer.
Increasing the applied loads, the length and width of the cracks were increased at the
same time new flexural cracks were formed all over the specimen.
Specimens, which were strengthened with continuous CFRP grids failed in shear due to
the extension of flexural cracks in an inclined direction towards the load point. After
reaching the ultimate load, the load was slowly descended and horizontal cracks began
to appear between the strengthening layer and the existing RC specimen. The pattern of
cracks and mode of failure of specimen E2 are shown in Fig. 8. Because of the low
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RCS-001-7
concrete strength, specimen D1 failed due to shear. Specimen R in group II was tested
without strengthening to serve as a reference specimen, which failed in flexure due to
yielding of the main tensile steel reinforcement. The remaining specimens (strengthened
with spliced CFRP grids) failed due to de-bonding of the spliced CFRP grid, see Fig. 9.
Table 5 : Experimental test results
Yield load
(kN)
Ultimate
load (kN)
Ductility
index
Max. strain in
CFRP grid ()

R
g
*
Group

Specimen
Exp. Exp. Exp.
A1 120.0 179.1 5.58 3502 0.35
A2 118.0 134.4 2.53 2308 0.23
B1 123.0 164.8 3.10 3468 0.35
B2 130.0 225.1 3.82 7011 0.71
B3 143.0 195.0 6.47 3548 0.36
B4 125.0 224.1 4.40 7600 0.77
C1 125.0 170.2 2.37 5170 0.52

I
D1 125.7 170.3 2.33 4839 0.49
R 104.0 135.9 6.91 --- ---
E1 144.0 251.1 4.83 7675 0.84
E2 139.0 259.4 4.07 8748 0.88
E3 152.0 188.4 2.98 3929 0.40
E4 147.5 202.7 4.43 3802 0.38
E5 152.5 190.4 3.50 3507 0.35
E6 150.0 193.4 5.13 3830 0.39
E7 150.0 191.5 3.60 5106 0.52
F1 142.0 255.4 4.63 9084 0.92
F2 150.0 192.2 4.67 4276 0.43

II
F3 145.0 185.2 3.09 3645 0.37
R
g
= Ratio between CFRP grid strain at failure and rupture strain of the CFRP grid.
Group I
1
7
9
.
1
1
3
4
.
4
1
6
4
.
8
2
2
5
.
1
1
9
5
2
2
4
.
1
1
7
0
.
2
1
7
0
.
3
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
A1 A2 B1 B2 B3 B4 C1 D1
U
l
t
i
m
a
t
e

L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Ultimate Load (Exp.)
Reference Specimen
Group II
2
5
1
.
1
2
5
9
.
4
1
8
8
.
4
2
0
2
.
7
1
9
0
.
4
1
9
3
.
4
1
9
1
.
5
2
5
5
.
4
1
9
2
.
2
1
8
5
.
2
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 F1 F2 F3
U
l
t
i
m
a
t
e

L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Ultimate Load (Exp.)
Reference Specimen
Fig. 10: Ultimate loads for the test specimens
3.2 Yield and Ultimate Loads
Compared with the reference specimen (R), specimens in group I and II which were
strengthened with continuous CFRP grids showed percentages of increase ranged from
20% to 38% and from 25% to 91% for the values of the yield and ultimate loads,
respectively. However, specimens strengthened with spliced CFRP grids showed
percentages of increase ranged from 14% to 47% and from 21% to 49% for the values
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RCS-001-8
of the yield and ultimate loads, respectively. Load bearing capacities of the specimens
strengthened with spliced CFRP grids were found to be clearly affected by the splice
de-bonding failure. For all test specimens, the experimental values of the yield and
ultimate loads are illustrated in Table 5 and Fig. 10.
Because of the small thickness of the polymer cement mortar layer, same thickness of
the CFRP grid, specimen A2 showed the lowest values of yield and ultimate loads.
Although specimens C1 and D1 were strengthened with continuous CFRP grids, they
showed low percentages of increase for the values of the yield and ultimate loads; this is
mainly attributed to their low concrete compressive strength. Fixing the length and
increasing the number of the openings of the CFRP grid splice did not enhance the
values of the yield and ultimate loads of specimens E3, E4, E5, F2, and F3. It was also
observed that, increasing the thickness of the polymer cement mortar cover from 10 mm
to 20 mm did not affect the values of the yield and ultimate loads for specimen E7. The
comparison for test results of specimens E1 and E2 shows that the use of Acid proof
mortar for strengthening specimen E2 slightly enhanced its value of ultimate load.
Fatigue loading which was applied to specimens B1, B2, B3, B4, D1, F1, F2, and F3 did
not show a clear effect on the values of the yield and ultimate loads, this may be
attributed to the high fatigue resistance of the CFRP grid and the presence of the
anchors or rivets. Using 24 rivets for fixing the spliced CFRP grid of specimens B3
resulted in higher values of yield and ultimate loads if compared with specimens A1 and
B1, which were strengthened using 12 (M-8) anchors. Unexpectedly, the use of 28
rivets instead of 16 rivets for fixing the spliced CFRP grid of specimen E6 did not
enhance the values of the yield and ultimate loads for the test specimens.
0
50
100
150
200
250
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deflection center (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
A1 A2 B1 B4 C1 D1
A1
A2
B1
B4
C1
D1
Group I
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Deflection center (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
E1 E3 E4 E6 E7 F1 F2 R
E1
E3
E4
E6
E7
F1
F2
Reference Specimen
Group II
Fig. 11: Load-deflection relationships for the test specimens
3.3 Deflection and Ductility
A summary of the obtained experimental values of ductility index and mid-span
deflection is presented in Table 5 and Fig. 11. Compared with the reference one, the
strengthened specimens experienced the elastic and inelastic deflection. However, the
strengthened specimens showed considerably lower values of deflection and ductility.
3, 4

At the same time, a considerable enhancement of the rigidity was detected.
4
The values
of ductility index of the strengthened specimens ranged from 34% to 94% of the value
of ductility index of the reference specimen. The brittle nature of the carbon fiber
reinforced polymer, the increase in the gross reinforcement ratio as well as the de-
bonding failure caused a reduction for the ductility of the strengthened specimens.
-278-

RCS-001-9
Load-deflection relationships for the specimens strengthened with either continuous or
spliced CFRP grids were similar up to yielding stage. After yielding, specimens which
were strengthened with continuous CFRP grids showed higher values of rigidity than
the other specimens strengthened with spliced CFRP grids, see Fig. 11. The high
capability of the continuous CFRP grid to restrict the development of the length and
width of the flexural cracks enhanced the rigidity of the strengthened specimens.
Because of their low concrete compressive strength, specimens C1 and D1 showed
lower values of rigidity and ductility than the other specimens strengthened with
continuous CFRP grids. The small thickness of the mortar layer, which was used for
strengthening specimen A2, caused a serious reduction for the strengthening efficiency,
specimen rigidity, and ductility.
Using 28 rivets instead of 16 for fixing the spliced CFRP grid allowed specimen E6 to
sustain higher values of deflection at failure and ductility. The increase of the number of
the rivets delayed the complete de-bonding of the CFRP grid splice. During
experimental work it was observed that, after reaching the ultimate load, the presence of
the anchors or rivets delayed the descending of the applied load and provided an
acceptable part of inelastic deformations before failure
2
.
3.4 Strains in CFRP Grid
For all the test specimens, the experimental values of maximum tensile strain in the
CFRP grid and the ratio between CFRP grid strain at failure and rupture strain of the
CFRP grid were recorded in Table 5. Generally, it was found that the use of spliced
CFRP grid instead of continuous ones for the purpose of strengthening significantly
reduced the values of the maximum tensile strain in the CFRP grid. Specimens
strengthened with continuous CFRP grids achieved a maximum tensile strain in the
CFRP grid ranged from 71% to 104% of the rupture strain of the CFRP grid indicating a
high efficiency for the strengthening system. Because of their low concrete strength,
specimens C1 and D1 achieved about 50% of the rupture strain of the CFRP grid. The
spliced CFRP grid achieved about 50% of the maximum tensile strains in the
continuous CFRP grid. This is mainly attributed to the fixing strength of the spliced
CFRP grid which could not allow the splice to sustain higher values of strain, as shown
in Fig. 12.
Increasing the polymer cement mortar cover for the CFRP grid from 10 mm for
specimen E3 to 20 mm for specimen E7 resulted in 30% increase for the values of strain
in the CFRP grid. Fatigue loading did not affect the maximum tensile strain in the
CFRP grid; this can be explained by the high fatigue resistance of the CFRP grid and
the presence of the anchors or rivets. It was also observed that the number of the
openings of the CFRP grid splice did not influence the strain readings of the spliced
CFRP grid.
3.5 Crack Width
As concrete has low tensile strength, cracks in reinforced concrete members occur under
the service loads. From the experimental test results, Eq. (1) was developed to predict
the maximum side crack width for the strengthened RC specimens. The thickness of the
mortar cover for the CFRP grid (d
c
), the spacing between longitudinal rods (S
lr
), the
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RCS-001-10
0
50
100
150
200
250
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Strain in CFRP grid center ()
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
A1 B1 B2 B3 B4 C1
A1
B3
B2
B4
C1
B1
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
Maximum crack width (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
E1 E2
E4 E6
F2 Proposed Eq.
E2 E1
E6
ProposedEq.
F2
E4
Fig. 12: Strain in the CFRP grid Fig. 13: Maximum crack width
spacing between transverse rods (S
tr
),
5, 6
the modulus of elasticity of the CFRP grid (E
g
),
the ratio between the cross-sectional area of the mortar layer and the area of the CFRP
grid (A
m
/A
g
) as well as the tensile strain in the CFRP grid (
g
) were the main parameters
which were included for the prediction of the maximum crack width (Wc).
The proposed equation is:
( )
g
2
c
2
lr
0.25
tr
0.25
g
m
g
4
c
d
2
S
S
A
A
E
5x10
W

= (mm) (1)

( )
( ) z d
z d
g
s
= (2)
Where; Z depth of the neutral axis
d
s
distance from the extreme compression fiber to tensile steel
d
g
distance from the extreme compression fiber to the CFRP grid
Test results and theoretical values of the proposed formula were plotted in Fig. 13. Up
to yielding stage, specimens strengthened with spliced CFRP grids showed slightly
lower values of crack width than specimens strengthened with continuous ones. This
could be understood because of the presence of two CFRP grids within the lap splice
area. However, after yielding stage, specimens strengthened with spliced CFRP grids
showed higher values of maximum crack width; this may be attributed to the occurrence
of slip for the CFRP grid splice and the splice de-bonding failure.
The proposed formula was found to give good predictions for the values of maximum
crack width if compared with the experimental test results of the specimens
strengthened with continuous CFRP grid. On the other hand, specimens strengthened
with spliced CFRP grids showed higher values of crack width at failure.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experimental studies, the following can be concluded:
1. Strengthening of RC elements with CFRP grid was found to be very effective for
upgrading the test specimens. Compared with the reference one, strengthened specimens
showed higher values of yield and ultimate loads. Specimens strengthened with
continuous CFRP grids showed up to 38% and 91% of increase for the values of the
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RCS-001-11
yield and ultimate loads, respectively. However, specimens strengthened with spliced
CFRP grids showed up to 47% and 49% of increase for the values of the yield and
ultimate loads, respectively.
2. Splice de-bonding failure was the predominant mode of failure for the test specimens
which were strengthened with spliced CFRP grids. Using continuous CFRP grid for
strengthening, a shear mode of failure was the predominant one.
3. Compared with the reference specimen, the strengthened test specimens showed
higher values of rigidity and lower values of deflection and ductility. However, the
presence of the anchors or rivets provided adequate safety from brittle failure.
4. Specimens strengthened with continuous CFRP grids achieved a maximum tensile
strain in the CFRP grid from 71% to 104% of the rupture strain of the CFRP grid
indicating a high efficiency for the strengthening system. The spliced CFRP grid
achieved about 50% of the maximum tensile strains in the continuous CFRP grid. The
fixing strength of the spliced CFRP grid could not allow the splice to sustain higher
values of strain.
5. A new formula was proposed for calculating the maximum crack width for RC
specimens strengthened with CFRP grid and polymer cement mortar. The theoretical
predictions showed good agreement with the experimental test results.
5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge; Mr. Kazuo Kaneda, Mr. Yoshiharu Otagiri,
Associated Prof. Yuuki Qkamura in Maebashi University of Technology (Japan), Mr
Akira Kobayashi in Nippon Steel Composite Co. Ltd, and members in Research
Institute of FRP Grid Method (japan) for supporting this project.
6 REFERENCES
[1] Grace, N. F.; Sayed, G. A.; Soliman, A. K.; and Saleh, K. R. ACI Structural
Journal 96 (5) (1999) 865-875.
[2] Lamanna, A. J.; Bank, L. C.; and Scott, D. W. ACI Structural Journal 98 (3)
(2001) 368-376.
[3] Carlin, B. P. M. Sc. Thesis, University of Virginia Tech (1998).
[4] Bencardino, F.; Spadea, G.; and Swamy, R. N. ACI Structural Journal 99 (2)
(2002) 163-171.
[5] Frosch, R. J. ACI Structural Journal 96 (3) (1999) 437-442.
[6] Yost, J. R.; Goodspeed, C. H.; and Schmeckpeper, E. R. Journal of Composites
for Construction 5 (1) (2001) 18-25.
[7] Yost, J. R., and Schmeckpeper, E. R. Journal of Bridge Engineering 6 (6) (2001)
605-612.
[8] Tawfic, Y. R.; Tsuji, Y.; and Sugiyama, T. Journal of Cement Science and
Concrete Technology, Japan 58 (2004) 460-467.
[9] Stallings, J. M., and Porter, N. M. ACI Structural Journal 100 (1) (2003) 3-10.
[10] EUROCODE 4, Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures,.
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RCS-002-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





Ductility and Moment Redistribution in Continuous T-Section High
Strength Concrete Beams

H. A. ELAGROUDY,
1 Elsarayat Street, Cairo, P.O. Box11517, Egypt
E-mail: husamalagroudy@hotmail.com
T. K. HASSAN
E-mail: tarek.hassan@dargroup.com
A. H. GALLAB,
E-mail: ahghallab@yahoo.co.uk
O. H. ABDEL-WAHED,
A. S. ABDEL-FAYYAD,

ABSTRACT

The evaluation of ductility of reinforced concrete beams is very important, since it is
essential to avoid a fragile collapse of the structure by ensuring adequate deformation
at the ultimate limit state. One of the procedures used to quantify ductility is based on
deformations, namely, the plastic rotation capacity. Knowledge of the plastic rotation
capacity of certain regions of the structure is important for a plastic analysis or a
linear analysis with moment redistribution. An experimental program is described in
this article. It is composed of 4 tests designed to study the moment redistribution and
ductility of continuous T-section high-strength concrete (HSC) beams. Particular care
was given to analyzing how the tensile reinforcement ratio and the concrete
compressive strength influence the section ductility of the beams. A comparative
study was carried out on several codes related to the moment redistribution permitted
and the experimental findings. It was found that the code recommendations for
normal strength concrete (NSC) can be safely applied to high strength concrete.

KEYWORDS

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RCS-002-2
Ductility, moment redistribution, high strength concrete, continuous beams, T-section
beams.

1 INTRODUCTION

The evaluation of the ductility of reinforced concrete beams is very important, since it
is essential to avoid a fragile collapse of the structure by ensuring adequate
deformation at the ultimate limit state. One of the procedures used to quantify
ductility is based on deformations, namely, the plastic rotation capacity. Knowledge
of the plastic rotation capacity of certain regions of the structure is important for a
plastic analysis or a linear analysis with moment redistribution. Utilizing moment
redistribution has several advantages such as; transfer of moments from the most
stressed areas to the lesser stressed areas, less reinforcement placed in the negative
moment zones (in particular beneficial for narrow webs of T-sections), savings of
reinforcing steel, as there is no need to design for the full moments of the moment
envelope obtained for different load arrangements, reduction of congestion of bars
over supports of continuous beams or slabs and therefore improving the conditions for
attaining a good concrete quality in these areas, and more freedom for the designer in
arranging the reinforcement. The redistribution of bending moments is mainly
controlled by the member ductility and therefore, involves the evaluation of available
and required rotation capacities of plastic hinges. The allowable degree of moment
redistribution results from the comparison of the required and the available rotation
capacities of plastic hinges necessary to develop a collapse mechanism in a statically
indeterminate reinforced concrete member. An extensive literature review by Cohn
[1979] revealed the factors that influenced the redistribution of moments. The study
showed that the most important parameter is the available rotation capacity of plastic
hinges. This in turn depends on a number of material and structural factors. One of the
most important member geometry dependent parameters is the geometrical and
mechanical reinforcement ratio, and one of the most important material dependent
parameters is the concrete compressive strength. Many researchers had performed
experimentally investigations for normal strength concrete NSC
3,5,13,14,17
. Although
high strength concrete (HSC) is widely used nowadays, only a few researchers
focused on studying the moment redistribution in HSC
12,15
. Scott and Whittle [2005]
15

concluded that concrete strength has an influence on the total redistribution at the
ultimate limit state. They also concluded that there is no evidence that the maximum
permissible redistribution limits given in the BS8110
4
, EC2
9
and ACI 318
1
should be
reduced. Bernardo and Lopes [2004]
12
concluded that the evolution of the position of
the neutral axis for high strength beams as the load increases is identical to that for
NSC beams. The behavior of the formation and the opening of the cracks for NSC
seem to be valid for HSC beams. Also, the practical rule of limiting the neutral axis
depth on critical sections to assure adequate ductility levels seems to be also valid for
HSC beams. It should be noted that, most of the previous investigations focused on
beams with rectangular cross section and only a few studies, such as Riva and Cohn
[1993]
13
, were conducted to study the ductility and moment redistribution of
continuous beams with T section

1.1 Design Codes' Provisions for Moment Redistribution.

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RCS-002-3
Structural design codes recognize the nonlinear behavior of reinforced concrete
structures and allow limited redistribution of elastic moments. Different formulae for
the redistribution of the elastic moment are proposed by various codes of practice.
These code provisions consider permissible moment redistribution as a section
property and relate it to the relative depth of the compression zone at failure (x/d) or
to the mechanical reinforcement ratio (=A
s
f
y
/bdf
cu
) only. Although x/d or can fairly
well represent the combined effect of stress-strain characteristics of the materials, the
cross section geometry, and the ratio of tensile and compressive reinforcement, it is an
oversimplification to relate moment redistribution to x/d and only.


An experimental program was conducted to study the moment redistribution
properties of two span T-section reinforced concrete beams made of HSC. The
objectives of the program include checking the validity of applying the current codes
provisions to HSC and studying the influence of various parameters on the available
degree of moment redistribution in HSC beams. The key parameters considered were
the level of moment redistribution and the concrete strength. The test program
included preparing and testing four two-span reinforced concrete beams. All the
specimens had a T-shaped section configuration and were all tested under the action
of four concentrated loads. All specimens were made out of HSC except one
specimen made of NSC for comparison. One of the main parameters considered in
this experimental investigation was the designed level of moment redistribution (),
where = (1-) x100 where = Moment after redistribution/Moment before
redistribution. Three different levels of moment redistribution were considered 0%,
19%, and 38%. The different levels of moment redistribution led to variation in the
main reinforcement ratio at the support section from 1.95 to 1.16 and led to variation
in the main reinforcement ratio at the span section from 1.21 to 1.95. All beams had a
constant depth of 300 mm. The flange width, thickness and the web thickness were
kept constant in all beams. Three specimens were made out of HSC (60 MPa) and one
specimen only was made out of NSC (30 MPa). Details of the specimens are shown in
Tables (1) and Figure (1).

Table 1: Details of the specimens
Support Section Mid Span section Beam
no.
L/t
fcu
(MPa) As1 s1 sw1 As2+As3 s2 sw 2
% of

B1 9.83 61.00 418 1.95 0.79 220 1.21 0.25 0.00
B2 9.83 61.00 416 1.55 0.79 216+218 1.75 0.25 18.95
B3 9.83 61.00 316 1.16 0.79 418 1.95 0.25 38.00
B4 9.83 32.00 418 1.95 0.79 316 1.16 0.25 0.00
Where s = As/bd, sw = 2xAstr/bs where Astr is the cross sectional area of the
stirrup and s is the spacing between stirrups, L is the span and t is the beam height.
-284-

RCS-002-4
2.90 m
2.90 m
As2
1.0 m As4
As4
0.5 m 0.5 m
As2
0.1
1.0 m
0.1
1.45 m
Str.1
t
1.45 m
5 8 /m'
As1
As1
Typical Details of Beams
As3 As3
2 10
As3
As2
As2
As3
1.45 m
Str.1
1.45 m
400 mm
80 mm
200 mm
300 mm
As5
As2
As1
Str.1
Sec A-A
400 mm
80 mm
200 mm
300 mm
As5
As2
As4
Str.2
As3
Sec B-B
A
A
B
B
As6
2 10
5 8 /m'

Figure 1: Details of the specimens
2.1 Material Properties
The test specimens used in this program were made from local materials. Coarse and
fine aggregates were composed of ordinary siliceous sand, dolomite of good quality
and free from injurious materials. Cement used in all specimens was ordinary
Portland cement. Normal mild steel and high tensile steel reinforcement bars locally
produced were used. The steel bars have yield strength of 358 MPa and an elastic
modulus of 200 GPa as reported from the manufacturer.

2.2 Instrumentations.

Electric resistance strain gages, mechanical strain gages, LVDTs and load cells were
used to monitor the behavior of test specimens. All the LVDTs and the hydraulic jack
used were calibrated before starting the test. Three, 6mm gauge length, electric
resistance strain gages were installed on the external surface of the main longitudinal
reinforcing bars (facing the concrete cover). One strain gage was installed on one of
the main reinforcing bars used at the intermediate support section. The other two
strain gages were installed on one of the main reinforcing bars used at the mid span
sections. In general the strain gages were applied at the points of maximum hogging
and sagging moments. Six LVDTs were used to measure the vertical displacement of
the beam. One LVDT was placed under the each concentrated load. The other two
were positioned half way between the two concentrated loads on each span. This
position represents the location of maximum deflection. To measure the strain
distribution over the beam section, a mechanical strain gage was used to read the
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RCS-002-5
distance between the pre-placed metallic discs (Demecs) attached to the surface of the
concrete beam at six different levels. These metallic discs were placed under each
applied concentrated load and at above the intermediate support. The distance
between the metallic discs in the direction of the beam axis was chosen about 200
mm. to draw the actual moment distribution along the beam length two load cells
were placed under the two end supports of each beam.


3.1 Effect of Longitudinal Reinforcement Ratio.

3.1.1 Crack Pattern and Failure Load

The first crack in beam B1 appeared at 60 kN above the intermediate support and
under the right applied load. At 80 kN the first crack appeared under the left applied
load. As the load increased flexure cracks continued to develop at both right and left
spans and above the intermediate support. At 320 kN flexural failure occurred under
the left load as shown in figure (2) and then the load capacity of the beam dropped to
170 kN.

The first crack in beam B2 appeared at the intermediate support at a load level of 50
kN. At 100 kN the first crack appeared under both the left and right applied loads. As
the load increased flexure cracks continued to develop at both right and left spans and
above intermediate support. At 340 kN flexural failure occurred under the right load
as shown in figure (3).

under the right applied load. At 80 kN the first crack appeared under the left applied
load. As the load increased, flexure cracks continued to develop at both right and left
spans and above the intermediate support. At 280 kN flexural shear crack occurred
under the left load as shown in figure (4) and then the load capacity of the beam
dropped to 150 kN.

under both the right and left load. As the load increased flexure cracks continued to
develop at both right and left spans and above the intermediate support. At 290 kN
flexural failure occurred under the left load as shown in figure (5).

Figure (2) crack pattern and failure mode for B1

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RCS-002-6




3.1.2 Load -deflection relationship
Figure (6) shows the load vs. deflection at the left load for beams B1, B2 and B3. The
deflection of beam B1 at any load value was higher than the deflection for B2 and B3.
This was expected due to the small reinforcement ratio at mid span in B1 compared to
that used for B2 and B3. Although the reinforcement ratio at mid span for B3 is
smaller than that for B2 but deflection was almost the same throughout the loading
history.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Deflection mm
l
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
B1
B2
B3

Figure (6) applied load vs. deflection at the left applied load
-287-

RCS-002-7

Figure (7) shows the load vs. deflection at the right load. Although the reinforcement
ratio at mid span for B1 is smaller than that for B2 and smaller than that for B3 but
deflection was almost the same throughout the loading history.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Deflection mm
l
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
B1
B2
B3

Figure (7) applied load vs. deflection at the right applied load

3.1.3 Ductility and Moment Redistribution of Tested Beams
Based on the strain distribution on the concrete surface at the critical sections,
curvature at yielding and ultimate loads (y and u respectively) at these section
were calculated, then the relation between the curvature ductility (

= u/y) and
the reinforcement ratio were drawn as shown in Figure (8). Form the curve it is clear
that the curvature ductility increases as the reinforcement ratio increases.
Table (2) shows the values of deflection for the tested beams at cracking load,
yielding load and ultimate load, also the values of deflection ductility and curvature
ductility are given in the table.

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RCS-002-8
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
reinforcement ratio
c
u
r
v
a
t
u
r
e

d
u
c
t
i
l
i
t
y

Figure (8) reinforcement ratio vs. curvature ductility for HSC beams
Figure (9) shows the relation between reinforcement ratio (s) and the degree of
moment redistribution () at the intermediate support. Form the curve; it is clear that
the degree of moment redistribution increases as the reinforcement ratio increases.

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
reinforcement ratio
d
e
g
r
e
e

o
f

m
o
m
e
n
t

r
e
d
i
s
t
r
i
b
u
t
i
o
n

(
%
)

Figure (9) reinforcement ratio vs. degree of moment redistribution

Table 2: Values of deflection, deflection ductility and curvature ductility for the
tested beams

Deflection (mm)
Deflection
Ductility
Curvature
Ductility
crack Yield (y) Ultimate (u) =u/y
= u/y
B1 1.92 9.3 59.4 6.38 2.47
B2 1.2 10.5 15.1 1.43 4.64
B3 0.62 7.1 37.6 5.3 1.21
B4 3 10.4 53.2 5.11 NA
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RCS-002-9

3.2 Effect of Concrete Compressive Strength.
B1 and B4 were two identical specimens except for the concrete compressive
strength. The concrete strength for B1 was 61 MPa and for B4 was 32 MPa.
Figures (10 and 11) show a comparison between B1 and B4 for the load vs. deflection
at the left span and at right span respectively. From these figures, it could be
concluded that concrete strength has almost no effect on the deflection until yielding
of steel. After yielding, B4 which has smaller concrete strength, showed higher
deflection than B1.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Deflection mm
l
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
B1
B4

Figure (10) load vs. deflection at the left applied load.

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Deflection mm
l
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
B1
B4

Figure (11) load vs. deflection at right applied load.
Figure (12) shows the load vs. degree of moment redistribution for B1 and B4 at the
intermediate support. The degree of moment redistribution for B1 was much higher
than that for B4. Redistribution in B1 reached 106% and redistribution in B4 reached
-8%. This remark reflects the influence of concrete strength on the degree of moment
redistribution. As the concrete strength increases the degree of moment redistribution
also increases.
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RCS-002-10
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
degree of moment redistribution
l
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
B1
B4

Figure (12) applied load vs. degree of moment redistribution
Figure (13) shows the relation between concrete compressive strength and curvature
ductility for B1 and B4. From the curve it is clear that the section ductility is quietly
reduced as the concrete strength increases. The section ductility is reduced by 88% as
the concrete strength is doubled from 32 MPa to 61 MPa.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
concrete compressive strength (Mpa)
c
u
r
v
a
t
u
r
e

d
u
c
t
i
l
i
t
y

(
1
/
m
m
)

Figure (13) concrete compressive strength vs. curvature ductility

3.3 Comparing the Experimental Results with the Codes of Practice
Figure (14) shows a comparison between the experimental results and the codes'
provisions regarding degree of moment redistribution. From the figure it is clear that
all the codes' equations are in the conservative side with respect to the experimental
results. This shows that applying the codes' equations for high strength concrete is
applicable.
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RCS-002-11
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
x/d
D
e
g
r
e
e

o
f

M
o
m
e
n
t

R
e
d
i
s
t
r
i
b
u
t
i
o
n

(
%
)
ACI 318-05
BS 1997
CSA A23.3-94
ECCS 203 -2007
Experimental data
Eurocode 2

Figure (14) comparison between the experimental results and the codes'
provisions regarding degree of moment redistribution

4 CONCLUSIONS
The current study included testing 4 continuous T-sec beams to examine the validity
of applying the current codes provisions to HSC and studying the influence of various
parameters on the available degree of moment redistribution in HSC beams, the
results of this study showed the following conclusions.
1. The longitudinal reinforcement ratio has significant effect on the degree of
moment redistribution in high strength concrete beams. The degree of moment
redistribution increases as the reinforcement ratio increases.
2. The curvature ductility increases as the reinforcement ratio increases.
3. The concrete strength has significant effect on the degree of moment
redistribution, as the concrete strength increases the degree of moment
redistribution also increases.
4. The section ductility is quietly reduced as the concrete strength increases.
5. Applying the current codes' equations for high strength concrete is applicable.

5 REFRENCES

[1] ACI Committee 318. 2005. Building code requirements for reinforced concrete
(ACI318-05) and commentary (318R-05). American Concrete Institute (ACI),
Farmington Hills, Mich.
[2] Alca, N., Alexander, S. D. B., MacGregor, J.G. (1997) "Effect of size on
flexural behavior of High strength concrete beams" ACI structural journal, vol.
94, No.1, pp.59-67.
[3] Bosco, C., and Debernardi, P. 1993. "Influence of some basic parameters on the
plastic rotation of reinforced concrete elements" progress report of Task group
2.2 Bulletin d'information No. 218 comite Euro-International du Beton,
Lausanne, Switzerland. Pp. 25-44.
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RCS-002-12
[4] British Standards Institution. BS8110: Structural Use of Concrete Part 1: Code
of Practice for Design and Construction. British Standards Institution, London,
1997.
[5] Chien-Hung Lin and Yu-Min Chien, 2000, "Effect of Section Ductility on
Moment redistribution of Continuous Concrete Beams" Journal of the Chinese
Institute of Engineers, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 131-141.
[6] CEB. 1998. Ductility of reinforced concrete structures. Bulletin d'information
No. 242. Euro-International du Beton , Lausanne, Switzerland.
[7] Cohn. M. Z., 1979, "Inelasticity of Reinforced concrete and structural standards"
ASCE, journal of the structural division, vol. 105, No. ST11, pp. 2221-2241.
[8] CSA. 1994. Design of concrete structures: structures (design). Standard
CAN/CSA A23.3-94, Canadian Standards Association, Rexdale, Ont.
[9] Egyptian Code of Practice 203-2007, ECCS 203-2007
[10] European Committee for Standardization. 2002. Eurocode 2: design of concrete
structures. Part 1: general rules for buildings. European Prestandard, ENV 1992-
1 (revised final draft), European Committee for Standardization, Brussels,
Belgium.
[11] Graubner, C.A. 1997. "Rotation capacity and moment redistribution in hyper
static reinforced concrete beams" in nonlinear analysis: discussion papers from
the working party on Non-linear design methods and safety concepts in CEB
Commission 1. Bulletin d'information No. 218 comite Euro-International du
Beton , Lausanne, Switzerland. Pp. 69-95.
[12] L.F.A. Bernardo and S.M.R. Lopes, 2004, Neutral axis depth versus flexural
ductility in high strength concrete beams, Journal of structural Engineering,
vol. 130 No. 3, March 1, 2004, pp. 452-459.
[13] P. Riva and M. Z. Cohn, "Rotation Capacity of Structural Concrete Members"
Magazine of Concrete Research, 1994, 64, No. 168.
[14] Pisanty, A., Regan P.E., 1997, "Redistribution of moments and possible demand
for ductility, CEB Bulletin d'information No. 218, Comite Euro-International du
Beton , Lausanne, Switzerland. Pp. 149-162
[15] R. H. Scott and R. T. Whittle, "Moment Redistribution Effects in Beams"
Magazine of Concrete Research, 2005, 57, No.1, pp. 9-20.
[16] R. H. Scott and R. T. Whittle, "Serviceability influence on Moment
Redistribution in Beams" Structural Concrete, 2005, 6, No.4, pp. 135-140.
[17] Ricardo N.F. do Carmo and Sergio M.R. Lopes, 2005, Ductility and linear
analysis with moment redistribution in reinforced high strength concrete
beams, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 32, pp. 194-203
[18] Ricardo N.F. do Carmo and Sergio M.R. Lopes, 2005, Influence of the Shear
Force and Transverse Reinforcement ratio on Plastic Rotation Capacity,
Structural Concrete, 2005, 6, No.3, pp. 107-117.
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RCS-003-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





LIGHTWEIGHT 3D WIRE PANEL BUILDING SYSTEM FOR
LOW RISE BUILDINGS AND INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURES: SOME
APPLICATIONS AND DESIGN RULES

WAIEL MOWRTAGE (VAIL KARAKALE)
Assistant.Prof.Dr, Technology faculty, Kirklareli university, Kirklareli,Turkey
E-mail: vail.karakale@kirklareli.edu.tr or waiel.mowrtage@boun.edu.tr

ABSTRACT
Construction of lightweight structures is needed to reduce the earthquake effects on the
buildings. Recently in some countries such as USA, Italy, China and Turkey; a new
building system called 3D wire panel building system use prefabricated lightweight
panels to construct low-rise buildings up to three stories. The panels are fabricated from
polystyrene, steel, and shotcrete concrete .The lightweight of these panels , easy
handling, high construction speed, good heat insulation properties, in addition to their
low cost by avoiding formwork and need for skilled workers make it an acceptable
construction practice. In the literature, there is no enough information on the design
rules of this new building system .In Turkey this building system was used in
constructing more than 500 structures at different applications. This paper presents
some of these applications such as construction of a factory, construction of a three
story villa and construction of mosque domes. Some hits on the design rules are also
presented.
KEYWORDS
3D Panel, shotcrete , shear, concrete
1 INTRODUCTION
In high seismic regions of the world, including Turkey, there are too many low-rise
residential buildings made of rigid masonry walls or flexible moment-resistant frames
with brittle masonry partitioning walls. During even moderate earthquakes, these
buildings suffer heavy damages and brittle failures causing hundreds if not thousands of
people to lose their lives and homes. Hence it is essential to build a house with
lightweight materials that have an earthquake resistance with a proper safety. Recently a
new building system in the United States and worldwide is proposed to construct low
rise lightweight buildings .The system uses prefabricated polystyrene panels with wire
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RCS-003-2
mesh that becomes a structural wall when concrete, or plaster are shotcreted into place.
The proposed prefabricated panel consists of a three-dimensional welded wire frame
utilizing a truss concept for stress transfer and stiffness. Each surface of the wire frame
has a 10 cm square welded mesh pattern of longitudinal and transverse wires of 3mm
diameter, and are made of galvanized steel with yield strength of 500 MPa.. The
expanded lightweight polystyrene core is placed between the two layers of welded wire
fabric. The skin is welded and finished with shotcrete, which is a concrete material that
is sprayed onto the wall at the job site. Cross section details of the panel are shown in
Fig.1.

Fig. 1: Cross sectional details of the light weight prefabricated Panel.

Some preliminary laboratory tests on these panels such as uniaxial-loading tests, and
out-of-plane loading tests [Karadogan et al.,1998] [3] indicate that the panels are
expected to have more ductile behaviour, higher energy absorption capacity, higher
safety margins, and reparable local failures rather than overall brittle failures. Pushover
test of Scale 3D Specimen [W.Mowrtage,2009][1] constructed in the laboratory using
these lightweight prefabricated panels indicate that the lateral load carrying capacity of
the specimen was roughly four times higher load levels than the design earthquake
loads, no important local failures have been detected and only minor fine cracks have
been observed on the surfaces. In the literature there is no enough data on the design
rules and construction technique of this new building system. In this paper some design
guide lines and some application showing the construction technique are presented.

2 CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE

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RCS-003-3
In practice the 3D wire panels are used to construct low rise residential building up to
three stories as an alternative building system to wood-frame and RC construction. It is
known in the US as formless building system. The structural system of 3D panel
building system is a wall carrying system composed of horizontal elements (i.e. slabs)
and vertical elements (i.e. structural walls). Figure 2 shows the construction technique
used in practice to construct one story 3D panel building. In the beginning the
lightweight 3D panels are connected to the foundation by means of shear connecters of
10 mm diameter, then the walls are connected together using L shape or T shape wire
mesh of 3mm diameter. After that the Panel roof stab with additional reinforcement is
mounted on the walls and supported by wooden stake. Finally the panel walls are
converted to structural walls by shotcreting from both sides. One week later (i.e. after
the walls gain their strength) concrete is caste on the roof slab. Connection details of the
walls to the foundation, wall to wall, and roof slab to walls are given in Figure 3.

Fig. 2: One story 3D panel building during construction

15 cm thick
mat foundation
40 cm

10 cm x 10 cm mesh
with L shape and
3mm diameter
Mesh reinforcements
of 8mm diameter
with15 cm spacing
10 cm thick solid slab
Use 25 MPa concrete
3 cm mortar
10 cm x 10 cm mesh
in L shape 3mm
6.5 cm thick
Polystyrene
sheet
10 cm x 10 cm mesh
in L shape 3mm
10 cm x 10 cm mesh
in L shape 3mm
a) Connection Details of two walls in T shape b) Connection Details of two walls in L shape
c) Wall - Foundation Connection Details e) Roof Slab -Wall Connection Details
L shape 10 cm x 10 cm
wire mesh , = 3mm
6.5 cm thick
polystyrene
sheet
L shape wire
mesh , = 3mm
wire mesh, = 3mm
3 cm thick
motar
15 cm thick mat
foundation

Reinforcements mesh
with 15 cm spacing
and 8 mm diameter
wire mesh , = 3mm
10 cm thick
solid slab
d) Roof slab Wall connection details c) Wall Foundation connection details
b) Connection details of two walls in L shape a) Connection details of two walls in T shape
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RCS-003-4

Fig. 3: Connection details of the 3D panel building system
3 DESIGN GUID LINES
In the literature there is no design specification yet for the 3D panel building system,
only some design guide lines based on tests performed by the Structural Engineers
Association of Southern California are provided in legacy report on the 1997 uniform
building code[2]. These guide lines assumes that the 3D panel system can be designed
using the ultimate design method used in designing RC structures as specified in the
ACI-318 and UBC codes. In practice the 3D wire panels are manufactured with
different panel thicknesses and wire diameters. In the following some design guide lines
that the author used in designing 3D panel structures constructed in Turkey using the
panel dimensions shown in Figure 1.

Design of 3D panel walls
The panel walls are vertical structural elements exposed to axial forces only (i.e. interior
walls) or axial forces with flexural bending moments (exterior walls). The axial load
carrying capacity of the 3D panel wall can be calculated using the ultimate strength
method specified by ACI-318 taken into account the P- affects (slenderness).The axial
load carrying capacity of 1 m width of the 3D panel wall with the cross section shown
in Fig.1 using 20MPa concrete compressive strength and a safety factor of 3.2 was
calculated for different free length of inflection (Lf) of the wall and presented in Figure
4. Lf = k x L, where L is wall height and k is a numerical coefficient less or equal to
unity, and depends on the restraining conditions of the wall and on the relationship
between the height L and the width B of the wall. The value of the coefficient K can be
calculated using the equations given in Figure 4 a, b and d.

a) Walls free along the vertical edges b) Walls restrained by orthogonal walls along two vertical edges

L
B

K = 1
L
B

1 for B 2 L
K = 1 + 0.42 ( 1 - L/B ) for 0.5 L B L
1/ 1 + 0.5 ( L/B)
2
for B 0.5 L
L
B

1 for B 2 L
K = 1.5 L/B for L B 2 L
1 + ( L/B)
2
for B L
0
100
200
300
400
0 1 2 3 4 5
Free length of inflection Lf ( m )
A
x
i
a
l

l
o
a
d

c
a
r
r
y
i
n
g

c
a
p
a
c
i
y

(
k
N

)
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RCS-003-5

c) 3D Panel wall axial load capacity d) Walls restrained along one vertical edge

Fig 4. Axial load capacity for deferent Lf values
The exterior walls of the 3D panel building system are usually subjected to both gravity
loads and out of plan loads due to wind or earthquake loads. The axial load- bending
moment interaction diagram of one meter width of the 3D panel wall with the cross
section details shown in Fig.1 is calculated and presented in Figure 5.If the walls is
exposed to high level of out of plan moment design engineer may increase the panel
wall thickness or he may use the practical techniques given in Fig.6 to strength the wall
against out of plan bending moment affects.

Fig 5. Axial force-bending moment interaction diagram for different Lf values

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Eksenel basn kuvveti N ( KN )
M
o
m
e
n
t

(

K
N
.
m

)
Lf = 0
Lf = 1.5 m
Lf = 2.5 m
Lf =3 m
Lf = 3.5 m
Lf = 4.5 m
Lf = 4 m
Axial Force kN
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

M
o
m
e
n
t
s

k
N
.
m

Stiffened wall with
reinforced concrete pillars
cast into forms realised with
the same panel
Wall strengthened by
ribbing or jonts
realiesd with the panel
Strengthened wall by
effect of shape
-298-

RCS-003-6

Fig 6. Practical techniques to increase the out of plan moment capacity of a panel wall
Design of 3D panel slabs

The 3D panel slab may be designed as reinforced concrete slab, it may be one way solid
slab or one way ribbed slab. Fig 7 shows a cross section of a 3D panel ribbed slab (i.e.
by removing some of the foam sheets and inserting the ribs) and its moment curvature
diagram calculated using X-TRACT program. From Fig 5 and Fig.7 it is clear that by
inserting RC ribs in the panel slab the moment capacity of the slab increases by 16
times. The Shear carrying capacity of the slab can be calculated using the rules of RC
slab noting that the benefit affect of the space wire truss will share in increasing the
shear capacity and prevent any brittle failures. The slab system does not need any form
works; just some vertical wooden stakes are needed.

Fig 7. Moment Capacity of 3D panel ribbed slab

Foundation: The foundation of a 3D panel building can be a strip footing or a mat
foundation. The gravity loads transfer from the walls to the foundation as uniformly
distributed loads with low intensity as a result the punching shear affect on the
foundation is very low. In practice a mat foundation of 15 cm thick and 25 MPa
concrete strength is enough to support one story 3D Panel building.

4 SOME APPLICATIONS IN TURKEY

Concrete
Foam sheet voids
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RCS-003-7
The 3D panel building system was used in several applications in Turkey. Figure 8
shows a plan view and a cross section of a factory constructed in the industrial region of
Edirne with a total area of 90 m x 54 m = 4860 m
2
, and a total height of 6 m. The
structural system of the factor consist of 3D panel frames with spans of 10 m .The
frame columns are in a cross shape ,and each column consist of three 3D panels
connected to each other with a minimum percent of reinforcements as specified by ACI
code. The moment axial force interaction diagram of a panel column is shown in Figure
9. In the mathematical model the columns are represented as a frame elements and the
slabs and the walls are modelled as shell elements as shown in Figure 10.

Fig 8. Plan view and cross section details of Edirne factory

1
0
0
0
600
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
K
A
P
I
K
A
P
I
9
8
0
261,25 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 208,75 190 201,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 333,75
B B'
5
4
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
6
5
8
4
0
1
1
6
0
8
4
0
1
0
9
5
2
0
0
9060
15 15
600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 600
1
8
5
1
5
DU
Bay
DU
Bayan
SOYUNMA SOYUNMA
W.C. DU
Bay
DU
Bayan
SOYUNMA SOYUNMA
W.C. DU
Bay
DU
Bayan
SOYUNMA SOYUNMA
W.C. YANGIN CIKISI
261,25 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 208,75 190 201,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 251,25 253,75 95 333,75
2
0
0
1
8
5
1
5
DU
Bay
DU
Bayan
SOYUNMA SOYUNMA
W.C. DU
Bay
DU
Bayan
SOYUNMA SOYUNMA
W.C. DU
Bay
DU
Bayan
SOYUNMA SOYUNMA
W.C. YANGIN CIKISI
30 30 30
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
30 30 30
30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30 30
15
120
15
120
15
120
15
120
15
120
15
120
15
120
15
120
4
0
0
1000
60
ZENON PANEL
koruyucu beton (10cm)
G100-065 Zenon panel
SIVA (3cm)
Demirli Beton(15cm)
SIKISTIRILMIS toprak
SIVA (3cm)
G100-065 Zenon Panel
Zenon Panel
Pimas
5
7
0
Cati egimi :%34
30
PENCERE
Zenon Panel
SIVA (3cm)
1
1
5
450
90 m
54 m
10 m
Cross shape columns
6 m

Three 3D panels forming
cross shape column
90 cm
90 cm
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Fig 9. Moment axial force interaction diagram of the cross shape panel column

Fig 10. 3D finite element model of the factory and a photograph during construction

Another application is a construction of three story villa shown in Fig 11. From the
figure it is clear that the 3D panels are architect friendly and it can easily take any
shape (i.e. it is flexible so that the arches can be constructed easily without need to
form works and roof can take any shape).

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Fig 11. Construction of three story villa

In a recent application the panels were used to construct mosque domes. The panels
before shotcreting can be bent easily to take the dome shape; then additional
reinforcements are added to resist the applied stresses as shown in Fig 12. In this
application no need to any forms only some vertical supporting wooden stakes are
used.

Fig 12. Construction of mosque domes

5 CONCLUSIONS
The 3D panel building system can be designed according to the design rules of RC
structures with some modifications. The applications done in Turkey shows that; this
system is suitable for construction factory buildings; especially that used to store food
because of the heat insulation properties of the panels. Before shotcreting the panels can
take any shape such as arches and domes making it an architect friendly material. More
research is needed to establish design specifications to this composite material panel
building system.

6 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to thanks ZENON Company for offering some photographs used
in the text.

7 REFERENCES
[1] Mowrtage, Waiel and Karadogan, Faruk '' Behavior of Single-Story Lightweight
Panel Building Under Lateral Loads'', Journal of Earthquake Engineering (2009)
13:1,100 107.
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[2] Tests performed by the Structural Engineers Association of Southern California
provided in legacy report on the 1997 uniform building code. http://www.icc-
es.org/.
[3] Karadogan, F., Mowrtage, W., and Saruhan, H. [1998] ZENON sandwich type
shotcreted slab element, Laboratory Report, Istanbul Technical
University,(1998), Turkey.
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13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





IMPLEMENTATION OF BRIDGE EVALUATION IN PRACTICE

SHEHAB M. MOURAD
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, King Saud University
Riyadh 11421, P.O. Box 800, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Professor, Department of Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Ain Shams University, Cairo - Egypt
E-mail: ceg12345@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Bridge maintenance, monitoring and evaluation programs aim to safeguard structural
integrity; and to avoid deterioration which may lead to more costly work or possible live
load capacity restrictions in the future. This paper is outlining the process of bridge
evaluation as adopted in the Canadian Highway Bridge Code (CAN/CAS S6-06, 2006).
Evaluation live load factors are proposed to be applied for evaluating existing bridges in
the Egyptian practice under the action of the final draft of the Egyptian Code for loads
on bridges. An existing bridge was selected as a studied case for bridge evaluation to
determine its live load capacity factors either with/or without some assumed structural
defects in their main girders. It was concluded from the studied case that a properly-
designed bridge according to the bridge live load model adopted in the current Egyptian
Code for loads are capable to withstand the new Egyptian bridge live load model,
provided that no significant defects are observed during inspection.
KEYWORDS
Bridge evaluation, live load factors, Egyptian code, live load capacity, highway bridges

1 INTRODUCTION

Bridges represent the highest unit investment of all elements of the highway and
transport system since they represent a significant part of the infrastructure in most
countries. Additionally, bridge deficiencies can present the greatest danger of all
potential highway failures for disruption of community welfare and loss of life. Bridge
maintenance, monitoring and evaluation programs aim to safeguard structural integrity;
and to avoid deterioration which may lead to more costly work or possible live load
capacity restrictions in the future (Tserng and Chung, 2007). Many factors have led to
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the unsatisfactory infrastructure conditions. One of the primary factors is the
unsatisfactory inspection and monitoring of existing infrastructure such as bridges, with
problems becoming apparent only once bridges are in such dire need of attention that
the cost of repair often approaches that of replacement. Other factors include the
widespread corrosion of steel reinforcing bars in concrete structures, corrosion of steel
structures and components, increase in loads and/or design requirements over time, or
simply overall deterioration and aging (Shuaib, 2006). All tasks involved in regular
inspections, and structural health monitoring (SHM) with the assistance of different
damage techniques, all contribute in identifying the location and severity of the damage
as early as possible in order to take the right decision concerning the bridge condition
(Reynders, et al., 2007). The decision for bridge rehabilitation, strengthening or removal
depends on many factors such as; the severity of damage, economical aspects, available
budget for repair and rehabilitation, importance and expected life of bridge, such
decision could be more difficult especially when the damage has resulted from natural
disasters (Karlaftis, et al., 2007). Repair of bridge damages and/or bridge rehabilitation
will only be addressed if either limited or extended budget is available. In case of very
limited or no budget is available for repair or in case of urgent decision need to be
taken, then the only available option will be to evaluate and rating the bridge
(Minervino, et al., 2004). Bridge evaluation is carried out by qualified and experienced
engineers to evaluate the capacity limit of traffic loads, serviceability or fatigue loading.
Bridge evaluation cannot be undertaken without careful inspection that can be based on
SHM and/or using different damage detection techniques. Recent bridge codes
(CAN/CAS S6-06, 2006 and AASHTO, 2003) are addressing this point with the aim of
analyzing the bridge model using the actual bridge condition in terms of material
properties, dimensions, boundary conditions, location of damages and deteriorations.
The process of bridge evaluation is not only performed on deteriorated bridge condition,
or for unsatisfactory performance in terms of serviceability, but it also is required for
bridge cases to insure its adequacy in carrying higher traffic loads resulted from actual
traffic conditions that is reflected by bridge code upgrades, or bridge alteration traffic.
This paper is focused on highlighting the procedure used for bridge evaluation in
accordance to the Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code (CAN/CAS S6-06, 2006).
The paper suggests adopting such procedure with modifications to be applied on
existing bridges in order to evaluate its live load capacity according to the load model
prescribed in the final draft of the new Egyptian Code for Loads on Structures and
Masonry Works (2009)loads on bridges (Chapter 5). One existing bridge was selected
as a studied case either with/or without damage existence. The purpose of the study is to
establish whether the current bridge situation can safely carry the expected updated
traffic loads and to observe the effect of damage existence on the bridge live load
capacity.

2 BRIDGE EVALUATION

Recent International Codes have been addressing the topic of evaluating and rating the
existing bridges. The Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code, CAN/CAS S6-06 (2006)
included a complete procedure for evaluating existing highway bridges through section
14 of the code. It is based on reliability concept that is consistent with the limit state
philosophy. The CAN/CAS S6-06, (2006), is found to be suitable to be implemented for
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bridge evaluation in the Egyptian practice, since it allows for alternative traffic loads
based on local vehicle and traffic conditions, and the evaluation of dead and live load
factors are determined based on target reliability indices. In addition, the target
reliability index for each bridge component is well defined according to the component
system, behavior and inspection level. The Canadian Highway Bridge Code (CAN/CAS
S6-06, 2006) provides methods to determine live load capacity factors for ultimate,
serviceability and fatigue limit states. In spite that the principles of those methods are
similar to those described in the new AASHTO guide for Load and Resistance Factor
Rating of highway bridges (Lichtenstein, 2000), but CAN/CAS S6-06 (2006) consider
more factors that can affect the bridge evaluation. It is based on determining a suitable
safety level, defined by the reliability index , for each element of the bridge under
evaluation, which varies with the type of element failure to be expected. More safety is
required for an element that fails abruptly, while less safety is required for an element
that will retain its capacity after failure and may shed its load to other members without
collapse. While the complete details of the bridge evaluation process is given in section
14 of CAN/CAS S6-06 (2006), an overview of the main evaluation components is
described to highlight the different parameters involved in bridge evaluation as follows;

2.1 Material Strength

The strength of materials that do not have visible signs of deterioration shall be
determined either from reviewing the original construction documents or from analysis
of test samples obtained from the bridge components. However, the strength of
deteriorated material shall be assessed using nondestructive tests such as ultrasonic
pulse velocity and surface hardness methods to correlate the strength of damaged and
sound regions of a structure.

2.2 Loads used for bridge evaluation

- Permanent loads:
The evaluation of the bridge shall consider all permanent loads as dead loads, earth and
hydrostatic pressure, shrinkage, creep, differential settlement and bearing friction.
CAN/CAS S6-06 (2006) apportioned the dead loads in three categories; D1: includes
the dead load of different bridge components and cast-in-place- concrete excluding
decks; D2: Cast-in-place concrete decks and nonstructural components; D3: includes
bituminous concrete surfacing based on nominal thickness or thickness specified on
drawings.

- Transitory Loads
CAN/CAS S6-06 (2006) specifies that bridges that need to be evaluated for normal
traffic should be based on either one of the three evaluation levels or alternative
loading based on local traffic conditions. Alternative loading to be used for evaluation
shall be the more severe of;
(a) The vehicle for which the bridge is being evaluated, with dynamic load
allowance.
(b) 80% of the vehicle for which the bridge is being evaluated plus a superimposed
uniformly distributed load of 9, 8, 7 and 7 kN/m for highway classes A, B, C and
D respectively without dynamic load allowance.
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2.3 Selection of target reliability index ()

According to CAN/CAS-S6 (2006), the load factors and resistance factors for design of
bridges are calibrated based on a minimum annual reliability index (), equal 3.75.
However, for evaluation, a lower acceptable reliability is more appropriate as the cost
impact due to bridge strengthening or traffic restrictions could be quite significant. The
philosophy behind the evaluation of existing bridges is to maintain a consistent level of
risk to human life for each element of the bridge (Allen, 1992). A consistent level of
risk to human life is maintained throughout the entire structure if a higher probability of
failure (less value of reliability index ) is accepted in elements that are less likely to
produce a loss of life if failure occurs. Figure 1 shows the general relationship used in
bridge evaluation, in which a consistent level of risk to human life is maintained by a
combination of structural capacity and reduced consequences of failure. Therefore,
CAN/CAS S6-06 (2006) doesnt specify a constant target reliability index () for the
whole bridge, but it assigns different target reliability indices for each member in the
bridge for purpose of bridge evaluation according to different system behavior, different
element behavior and inspection levels, as given in Table 1.

Fig. 1 : Relation between risk and probability of failure

Table 1 : Target reliability index ( ) for normal traffic

Inspection Level
System Behavior
Element
Behavior INSP1 INSP2 INSP3
E1 4.00 3.75 3.75
E2 3.75 3.50 3.25 S1
E3 3.50 3.25 3.00
E1 3.75 3.50 3.50
E2 3.50 3.25 3.00 S2
E3 3.25 3.00 2.75
E1 3.50 3.25 3.25
E2 3.25 3.00 2.75 S3
E3 3.00 2.75 2.50

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- System Behavior
System behavior shall consider the effect of any existing deterioration and shall
be classified by one of the following categories;
(a) Category S1, where element failure leads to total collapse; this would
include failure of main members with no benefit from continuity or multiple
load paths, such as a simple supported girder in a 2-girder system.
(b) Category S2, where element failure probably will not lead to total collapse;
this would include main load-carrying members in a multi-girder system, or
continuous main members in bending.
(c) Category S3, where failure leads to local failure only; this would include
deck slabs, stringers, and bearings in compression.

- Element Behavior
Element behavior shall consider the effect of any existing deterioration and shall
be classified by one of the following categories;
(a) Category E1, where the element being considered is subjected to sudden loss
of capacity with little or no warning. This might include failure by buckling,
concrete in shear and/or torsion, suspension cables, bearing stiffeners, over
reinforced concrete beams, connections, concrete beam-column compression
failure, or steel in tension at net area.
(b) Category E2, where the element being considered is subject to sudden failure
with little or no warning but will retain post-failure capacity. This would
include steel plates in compression with post-buckling capacity.
(c) Category E3, where the element being considered is subjected to gradual
failure with warning of probable failure. This might include steel beams in
bending or shear, under-reinforced concrete in bending, decks or steel in
tension at gross section.

- Inspection level
Evaluation cannot be undertaken without inspection. CAN/CAS S6-06 (2006)
classifies three different inspection levels as follows;
(a) Level INSP1, where a component is not inspectable, as hidden members not
accessible for inspection such as interior webs of voided slabs.
(b) Level INSP2, where inspection is to the satisfaction of the evaluator, with the
results of each inspection recorded and available to the evaluator.
(c) Level INSP3, where inspection of critical components has been carried out by
the evaluator and final evaluation calculation account for all information
obtained during this inspection.

2.4 Load Factors

The unfactored load effects for each element under consideration shall be multiplied by
the appropriate load factors, as recommended by CAN/CAS S6-06 (2006), based on the
determined value of reliability index () for normal traffic obtained from Table 1, for
that element.

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RCS-004-6
(a) Load Factors for Dead Loads (
D
)
The corresponding dead load factors (
D
) for different dead load categories are
given in Table 2, to be used for bridge evaluation in cases where dead load effects
do not counteract the effect due to transitory loads.

Table 2: Maximum dead load factors, (
D
)

Target Reliability Index, Dead Load
Category 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00
D1 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11
D2 1.10 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.20 1.22
D3 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50 1.55

(b) Transitory load Factors (
L
)
CAN/CAS S6-06, (2006), specifies live load factors (
L
) for alternative loading,
as given in Table 3. It is worth mentioning that the live load factor is taken for
design 1.70 that corresponds to target reliability index () of 3.75, according to
CAN/CAS S6-06, (2006).

Table 3: Live load factors (
L
) for normal traffic

Target Reliability Index,
2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00
Alternative loading
Spans > 10m
1.35 1.42 1.49 1.56 1.63 1.70 1.77

2.5 Live load capacity factor

For ultimate limit states, the value of the live load capacity factor, F, shall be calculated
from Eq. 1, according to CAN/CAS S6-06 (2006), for all structural components except
for concrete deck slabs and masonry arches.

) 1 ( I L
A D R U
F
L
A D f
+

=

(1)
Where, "R
f
", is factored resistance of the structural component, "U" is a resistance
adjustment factor used for all components that have no visible sign of defect or
deterioration as given by CAN/CAS S6-06 (2006). A value of 1.0 can be used if no
values for "U" is specified. "
D
" and "
L
" load factors for force effects due to dead loads
and live loads as obtained from Table 2 and 3 respectively. "
A
"

load factors for forces
effects "A" due to additional loads including wind, creep, shrinkage, temperature and
differential settlement that may be considered in the evaluation. "D" and "L" are the
unfactored dead load and traffic load effects respectively. "I" is the dynamic load
allowance. If the live load capacity factor value "F" is less than 1.0 for one of the
bridge component, it indicates that such component will not pass the evaluation unless
the live load will be reduced by such factor.
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1.2m
Q
ik
Q
ik

q
ik

3 IMPLEMENTATION OF BRIDGE EVALUATION IN EGYPTIAN PRACTICE

The final draft of Egyptian Code for Loads on Structures and Masonry Works (2009)
loads on bridges (Chapter 5), is adopting the Eurocode 1, EN 1991-2 Actions on
Structures-Part2 : Traffic Loads on Bridges (2003). Different load models are adopted
for different verifications, effects and situations. Load Model 1 is considered for
ultimate limit state verifications and it is intended to cover flowing, congested or traffic
jam situations with a high percentage of heavy lorries and cars. Load Model 1 is
presented in Fig. 2, and its characteristic values are given in Table 4. According to
Eurocode 1, EN 1991 (2003), the ultimate load combinations used in design of new
road bridges are calibrated to produce a minimum liability index of 3.80. Those load
models are expected to have different effects on existing bridges that were designed
according to the current Egyptian Code for Calculation of Loads in Structures and
Masonry Works, 2003. The bridge load model used in the current Egyptian Code is
presented in Fig. 3. The main lane is subjected to a moving 600 kN truck and uniform
load of 5kN/m
2
, while the secondary lane is subjected to a moving truck of 300 kN and
uniform load of 3kN/m
2
, and the rest of the bridge is subjected to 3kN/m
2
. The
dynamic effect is only taken at the main lane loads. Since the Egyptian bridge loads are
upgraded, the existing bridges need to be evaluated accordingly.
The live load model used in CAN/CAS S6-06, (2006), is different than the load model 1
used in the Eurocode 1, EN 1991 (2003) that is adopted in the new Egyptian Code for
Loads on Structures and Masonry works (2009) loads on bridges (Chapter 5). In
addition, the live load factors used in ultimate state verification for design of new
bridges in CAN/CAS S6-06, (2006) and Eurocode 1, EN 1991 (2003) are 1.7 and 1.35
respectively. Since both codes have almost the same reliability indices 3.75 and 3.80
respectively for design, then the live load factors used for bridge evaluation in the
CAN/CAS S6-06, (2006) for alternative loading, Table 3, may be adjusted to be used in
the Egyptian practice for bridge evaluation by multiplying the live load factors in Table
3 by the factor of 1.35/1.7 = 0.794. The resulted live load factors to be used in bridge
evaluation and applied to the Load Model 1 of the new Egyptian Code for Loads on
Structures and Masonry works (2009) loads on bridges (Chapter 5), are given in Table
5. Hence, the value of live load capacity factor can be determined using Eq. 1, with the
values of U taken equal to 1.0 until fine tuning of the resistance factors used in design
are made in order to avoid unnecessary strengthening during bridge evaluation.

Fig. 2: Application of Load Model 1 in the proposed new Egyptian Code (2009)

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Table 4 : Load model 1 : characteristic values

Fig. 3 : Bridge load model used in the current Egyptian Code (2003)

Table 5 : Live load factors for bridge evaluation adapted for the new Egyptian Code
for Loads on Structures and Masonry works (2009) loads on bridges
Target Reliability Index,
2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00
Alternative loading
Spans > 10m
1.07 1.12 1.18 1.24 1.29 1.35 1.41

4 APPLICATION OF BRIDGE EVALUATION

The application of the Canadian Highway Bridge Code CAN/CAS S6-06, (2006) was
applied on an existing bridge in Egypt. The bridge was selected to be Al-Manzala
concrete bridge, that it is one of a series of bridges along the international coastal road-
section 3. The bridge is a two-way with 3-contiouos spans, each way consists of three
lanes on a separate deck with a total width of 14m. Each deck is supported by two
closed hollow trapezoidal reinforced concrete sections. Each hollow trapezoidal section
is composed of two inclined main girders (500mmx1600mm) that are connected by a
lower R.C slab of thickness 150mm, while the upper deck slab thickness is 250mm. The
four inclined main girders on each deck are supported on continuous cross girder
(1500x1500mm) that is supported on three elevated pile caps. Figure 4 shows the
Tandem System
(TS)
UDL system
Location
Axle loads Q
ik
(kN) q
ik
(kN/m
2
)
Lane Number 1 300 9
Lane Number 2 200 2.5
Lane Number 3 100 2.5
Other lanes 0 2.5
Remaining area 0 2.5
3 m
2 m
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
2 m
5 kN/m
2
3 kN/m
2
3 kN/m
2
3 kN/m
2
600 kN Truck
300 kN Truck
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RCS-004-9
details of the bridge layout, cross sections and reinforcements. Since the two bridge
decks are similar, only one deck was analyzed. A 3D finite element model was
developed using SAFI 6.32, 2007. The four main girders and cross girders were
modelled as beam elements, while the upper deck and lower slab as 4-node plate
elements. The bridge was analyzed according to the current Egyptian Bridge live load
model (2003), Fig. 3, and was evaluated according to the proposed Egyptian bridge live
load model (2009), Fig.2. Only the results of the inclined main girders were considered
in this study. The study includes the following three stages;

Fig. 4: General layout and cross section of Al-Manzala Bridge

4.1 Stage 1 : Check the design adequacy of the girders to the current bridge loads.

The purpose of this stage is to insure that the strength of the main girders is capable to
withstand the current code loads that it was designed for. The dead loads included the
bridge own weight, super imposed loads from bituminous wearing surface and
platforms. While the live loads are in accordance to the bridge load model used in the
current Egyptian Code (2003) with the consideration of the worst loading conditions for
the exterior and interior girders. The ultimate state of strength is computed according to
the combination; 1.4 Dead load + 1.6 Live load as given in the Egyptian Code for
Design and Construction of Concrete Structures ECCS 203-2001. The longitudinal
reinforcement layout in the original drawings, as shown in Fig. 5, were used in
determining the girder strength that it was evaluated according to the Egyptian Code for
Design and Construction of Concrete Structures ECCS 203-2001. As given in the
original drawings, the yield strength of longitudinal reinforcement and stirrups is taken
360 MPa and the concrete cubic strength 40 MPa. The exterior girder was found to be
the most critical among the other girders after considering different loading patterns.

The resulted factored envelopes of maximum bending moments and shear forces in the
exterior girder due to the above factored load combination are compared with its
factored flexural and shear strength as shown in Fig. 6. It can be noted that the original
design is just satisfactory especially at the critical sections, indicating that the original
5 cm separation
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design is satisfactory and the main girders strength are adequate to carry the bridge live
loads specified in the current Egyptian Code for bridge loads.

Fig. 5 : Longitudinal reinforcements layout as given in the original drawings

Fig. 6 : Strength of exterior girder as compared to the envelope of maximum factored
bending moments and shear forces for current bridge load code

4.2 Stage 2: Evaluate the girder strength in accordance to the new proposed
Egyptian bridge loads.

According to CAN/CAS S6-06, (2006), for evaluating Al-Manzala Bridge, the
following parameters are considered;
1- Since the bridge consists of continuous multi-girders and cross girders, therefore
the system behaviour is considered category S2 for both main girders and cross
girders.
2- Since both main girders and cross girders are under reinforced concrete members
with gradual failure, therefore the element behavior for both of main girders and
cross girders are considered as category E3.
3- Since the main girders with the lower slab and upper deck form a closed hollow
section, with parts that not inspectable, therefore its inspection level is considered
Level INSP1. While the inspection level of cross girders can be considered as
inspection Level INSP2.
(b) Shear Strength
(a) Flexural Strength
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4- Based on above parameters and according to Table 1, the reliability indexes () for
main girders and cross girders are 3.25 and 3.0 respectively. The resulted
evaluation load factors for the main girders and cross girders for different dead load
categories and live load are given in Table 6.

Table 6 : Evaluation load factors for different dead load categories and live
loads for main girders and cross girders
()
D1

D2

D3

L

Main girders 3.25 1.08 1.16 1.40 1.24
Cross girders 3.00 1.07 1.14 1.35 1.18

The bridge was analyzed and evaluated under the action of dead loads and moving live
loads in accordance to Live Load Model 1 of the new proposed bridge load model, Fig.
2. The resulted factored envelopes of maximum bending moments and shear forces in
the exterior main girder are compared with its factored resistance in Fig. 7, which
indicates that the main girders are capable to carry the Live Load Model 1 with a live
load capacity factor greater than 1.0 for both flexural and shear strength.

Fig. 7: Strength of exterior girder as compared to the envelope of maximum evaluated
bending moments and shear forces for the new proposed bridge load code

4.3 Stage 3: Evaluate the girder live load carry capacity with assumed defects.

In order to investigate the effect of any defect existence in the main girders on its live
load capacity factor, some defects and construction errors were assumed as a result of a
careful inspection after a long period of lifetime of the bridge, as follows;
(b) Shear Strength
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RCS-004-12
1- The first layer of reinforcement (6 32, bars number 1 in Fig. 5) of the main girder
has rust of 25% at distance 5m from exterior support for a length of 1m.
2- The third reinforcement layer (6 32, bars number 3 in Fig. 5) was misplaced and
was discovered to be shifted to the right during construction by 1m from its supposed
position as given in the original drawings.
3- The stirrups at the exterior span near the inner support was inspected and found to be
placed at distances 200mm instead of 125mm, in addition that the outer stirrup
branch was rusted by 50% along 2m from the inner support.
4- The concrete compressive strength was evaluated by testing and found to be 30MPa,
instead of 40MPa as given in original drawings.
Applying the same load factors as given in Table 6, for the main girders with the Live
Load Model 1 in the proposed new Egyptian bridge loads, (Fig. 2), the resulted factored
envelope of maximum evaluated bending moments and shear forces in the exterior
girder were obtained. The obtained bending moments and shear forces envelopes were
compared to the updated factored strength, taking into account the reduced strength as a
result of inspection results, as shown in Fig. 8. It can be observed that, as the result of
the mentioned deteriorations and defects, there is an unsafe zone in the exterior span of
the main girder where the factored flexural strength is less than the factored maximum
bending moment, Fig. 8 (a). The most critical section is found to be at 6 m from the
exterior support, where the factored maximum evaluated bending moment is equal
4778 kN.m while the factored strength is 3777 kN.m. Therefore, that position will
control the least value of live load capacity factor. At that position, the value of factored
bending moments from the dead load categories D1, D2 and D3 are 831.6 kN.m,
855.6 kN.m, and 1186 kN.m respectively, and that resulted from maximum live load is
1904.8 kN.m. Applying Eq. 1, taking the value of resistance adjustment factor U equal
to 1.0, the live load capacity factor will be equal to 0.47, which implies that the live load
on the bridge need to reduced to about 53% in order to achieve the target reliability
index of 3.25. On the other hand, in spite the defects in the arrangements and rust of
stirrups, no reduction in live loads is needed, since the factored strength is greater than
the maximum factored loads all over the main girder, Fig. 8 (b).

Fig. 8 : Strength of defected exterior girder as compared to the envelope of maximum
bending moments and shear forces for the new proposed bridge load code
(b) Shear Strength
Unsafe zone from
4.4m to 6.36 m
The most unsafe
position at 6m
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RCS-004-13
5 CONCLUSIONS

Bridge evaluation is part of the bridge maintenance process that is needed in cases
where either urgent decisions are needed and/or limited budgets are available. Recent
Codes including ASSHTO, (2003) and CAN/CAS S6-06, (2006) adopted the reliability
concept that is consistent with the limit state philosophy to determine the live load
capacity of existing bridges for different limit states. The concept is based on using an
acceptable minimum reliability indices that are lower than those used in design of new
bridges. CAN/CAS S6-06, (2006) uses appropriate load factors based on a target value
of reliability index () for normal traffic. Each bridge component can have a different
target reliability index that depends on its system behaviour, element behaviour, and
inspection level. Therefore, the resulted live load capacity factor for each bridge
component will reflect different factors regarding the whole bridge (system behaviour,
span, type of traffic loading, and bridge importance) as well as the component
behaviour (element behaviour, inspection level, and factored strength). The CAN/CAS
S6-06, (2006), is found to be suitable to be implemented for bridge evaluation in the
Egyptian practice, since it allows for alternative traffic loads based on local vehicle and
traffic conditions, and the evaluation of dead and live load factors are determined based
on target reliability indices. In addition, the target reliability index for each bridge
component is well defined according to the component system, behaviour and
inspection level. The final draft of the new Egyptian Code for Loads on Structures and
Masonry works (2009) loads on bridges (Chapter 5) is adopting the load models used
in the Eurocode 1, EN 1991 (2003), that are expected to have different effects on
existing bridges that were designed according to the current bridge loads (2003). Based
on CAN/CAS S6-06, (2006), live load factors related to target reliability indices for
bridge evaluation are proposed to be applied to Egyptian existing bridges designed
according to the current bridge loads. The proposed live load factors for bridge
evaluations were applied on an existing bridge that was designed according to the
current Egyptian bridge loads. The purpose of the study was to check the safety of the
bridge towards the new bridge loads and to determine its live load capacity factors with
either no defects or with assumed defects as a result of field inspection. From the
studied evaluation bridge case, it was concluded that properly designed bridge
according to the current bridge load model is capable to withstand the bridge Live Load
Model 1 specified in the proposed new Egyptian Code for Loads on Structures and
Masonry works (2009), provided that no defects is observed during inspection.
However, it was observed that the live load capacity factor can be significantly reduced
if some defects and damages were observed in the bridge's elements; hence traffic loads
on the bridge need to be controlled and reduced to the required level until the required
repair or strengthening is carried out. It is recommended that more studied cases on
different bridge systems need to be investigated in order to calibrate the bridge
evaluation process.

6 REFERENCES

[1] Allen, D.E., Canadian Highway Bridge Evaluation: Reliability Index, Canadian
Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 19, (1992) pp. 987-991.

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RCS-004-14
[2] AASHTO, Guide Manual for Condition Evaluation and Load and Resistance
Factor Rating (LRFR) of Highway bridges, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington DC.(2003).

[3] CAN/CAS- S6-06, Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code, Canadian Standard
Association (2006).

[4] Egyptian Code for Design and Construction of Concrete Structures ECCS 203-
2001, Housing and Building National Research Center, Egypt, (2003).

[5] Egyptian Code for loads on Structures and Masonry works, Housing and Building
National Research Center, Egypt, (2001).

[6] Egyptian Code for loads on Structures and Masonry works, Final Draft, Housing
and Building National Research Center, Egypt, (2007).

[7] Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures-Part 2: Traffic Loads on Bridges, European
Standard EN 1991-2, (2003).

[8] Karlaftis, M., Kepaptsoglou, K., and Lambropoulos, S., Fund Allocation for
Transportation Network recovery Following Natural Disasters, Journal of Urban
Planning and Development, ASCE,Vol. 133, No.1, March (2007) pp.82-89.

[9] Lichtenstein Consulting Engineers, Inc. NCHRP Web Document 28;
Contractors Final Report: Manual for Condition Evaluation and Load Rating of
Highway Bridges Using Load and Resistance Factor Philosophy. Transportation
Res. Board Project No. C12-46, (2000).
http://nationalacademies.org/trb/publications/nchrp/nchrpIw28.pdf.

[10] Minervino C., Sivakumar, B., Moses, F., Mertz, D., and Edberg, W., New
AASHTO Guide Manual for Load and Resistance Factor Rating of Highway
Bridges, Journal of Bridge Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineering
ASCE, Vol. 9, Issue 1, (2004), pp. 43-54.

[11] Reynders, E., Roeck, G., Bakir, P., and Sauvage, C., Damage Identification on
the Tiff Bridge by Vibration Monitoring Using Optical Fiber Strain Sensors,
Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE, Vol. 133, No. 2, February (2007), pp.
185-193.

[12] SAFI Quality Software Inc., SAFI 2000 software version 6.32, (2007).

[13] Shuaib, M., Maintenance Program and Condition Rating of Existing Highway
Bridges, International Conference on Bridge Management Systems-Monitoring,
Assessment and Rehabilitation, 21-23 March, (2006) Cairo-Egypt.

[14] Tserng, H. P., and Chung, C. L., Health Assessment and Maintenance Strategy
for Bridge Management Systems: Lessons Learned in Taiwan, Journal of
Infrastructure Systems, Vol. 13, No.3, Sept. (2007) pp. 235-246.
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RCS-005-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





BEHAVIOR OF MASONRY STRENGTHED INFILLED
REINFORCED CONCRETE FRAMES

DR. A. Y. ABOUELEZZ
Lec. , Civil Eng. Dep , Minia University, Minia , Egypt
E-mail: dr_alaa_abouelezz@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Experimental tests have been carried out to study the behavior of different single
store frames with brick masonry infilled under the in-plane lateral load influence. Three
phases of frames were tested , first phase, was conducted on model frame representing
individual reinforced concrete bare frame used as control frame. Second phase was
conducted on two model frames representing individual reinforced frame infilled with
masonry panels constructed between two columns, then constructed the top beam, and
the other constructed as bare frame and then infilled with masonry. Third phase
strengthened with different methods to improve its behavior. Glass fiber reinforced
polymer (GFRP) sheets, steel impeded in frame, plastering and ferrocement meshes.
The drift, toughness, ductility and failure load were improve by using such
masonry wall due to like-shear wall effect which it also increased frame capacity to
resist lateral load.
KEYWORDS
brick masonry infilled , R.C. frames, Glass fiber, ferrocement, masonry wall.
1- INTROUDUCTION
An infill frame is a structural composite system, which consists of reinforced concrete
frame with masonry panels filling the planar rectangular voids between lower and upper
beams and side columns. This system has proven to be effective and efficient in bracing
low-rise and medium-rise buildings to resist in-plane lateral loads due to winds or
earthquake. As a dual system, its structural behavior depends on individual components:
the frame is strengthened by the infills to form a shear-resisting element and, in turn, the
infill panel is strengthened by the beneficial containment effects of the concrete frame.
After initial cracking of the infill, the frame prevents it from disintegration by its
confining action while the infill maintains its stiffening effect of the frame. The
combined effect results in a system, which has a high level of stiffness and strength of
the infill with the ductility of the surrounding frame.
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RCS-005-2
It is a common practice in the Middle East to use reinforced concrete frames infilled
with red brick-type wall in buildings subjected to lateral loads like seismic and wind
loading. The bond between the skeleton and the infill are usually considering either to
be of complete bond or non-integral infill panel
Strength of R.C members
Infill panels can attract substantial forces to adjacent frame members. These forces
can be more demanding of the strength and inelastic deformation capacity of beam and
column members than those resulting from lateral design forces applied to a bare frame.
Because a stiff masonry infill panel can attract more lateral force than a frame can resist,
frames must be checked to see if they are capable of resisting infill forces in the ductile
manner that is assumed for their design or evaluation.As shown in (Fig. 1).

Fig.(1) Estimating forces applied to beams [1]
The research aims at providing in sight understanding the behavior of infilled
frames at cracking and ultimate loa. under lateral loads and many strengthening
technique such as G.F.R.P. laminates, Ferro cement, plastering and dowel bars. Also
choosing the best method of strengthening before and after construction the masonry
wall. Significant parameters affecting system strength includes geometry and strength
of infills, relative infills-to-frame stiffness, plastic bending moment capacity of the
frame members, strength and rigidity of joints, beam-to-column relative stiffness, Infill
reinforcement, effect of adjacent bays and upper stories, also workmanship, climatic
effects, grout and mortar variations, work stoppage, random variation of materials, and
human error.
2- LATERATURE REVIEW
Many experimental works on several infilled frames with various relative
strengths between frame and infill panel was done. It was found that, a weak bare frame
when subjected to monotonically increasing lateral load, it exhibited a fairly flexible
and ductile behavior. However, severe shear cracks developed in the beam to column
joints due to inadequate lateral reinforcement in these regions. Although considerable
research has been devoted to the study of infilled frames for more than four decades,
there is no widely accepted design method for such structures. Because panels are often
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RCS-005-3
considered to be structurally inactive, they are rarely taken into consideration during the
design process. This is explained partly by the complexity of the interaction between
frame and infill and the great number of variables which influence the behavior of such
a composite structure.
Mehrabi et al. (1996)[2] investigated the influence of masonry infill panels on
the seismic performance of reinforced concrete (RC) frames. He investigated the effect
of infill panels with respect to that of the bounding frame, the panel aspect ratio, the
distribution of vertical loads, and the lateral-load history. he concluded that infill panels
could significantly improved the performance of RC frames in terms of the load
resistance and energy-dissipation capability..
Baqi et al. (1999)[3] studied the effect of some important variables such as
masonry compressive strength, cross-sectional dimensions, pre-stressing cable's profile,
and the bond between the pre-stressing steel and the surrounding masonry. Also
Flanagan et al. (1999) [4], performed several bidirectional tests on structural clay tile
infilled frames to assess the interaction of in-plane and out-of-plane forces and to
understand the behavior of damaged infills.
Al-Chaar et al. (2002)[5] investigated the behavior of a type of building popular
in high seismic zones with a lateral-load-resisting system consisting of masonry-infilled
reinforced concrete (RC) frames. The results indicated that infilled RC frames exhibit
significantly higher ultimate strength, residual strength, and initial stiffness than bare
frames without compromising any ductility in the load-deflection response. Also Ali
(1998) [6], conducted an experimental and theoretical program to study the same effect
on the seismic performance of reinforced concrete frames tested under cyclic in-plane
loading.
Perera et al. (2004)[7] investigated a seismic retrofitting technique for masonry infilled
reinforced concrete frames based on the replacement of infill panels by K-bracing with
vertical shear link. Results had shown an energy dissipation capacity
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
3.1 Outline of the program:
The experimental program was planned to evaluate the effect of many parameters
such as: method of building Masonry - "Balady method" or ordinary method, -
strengthening techniques such using these different method such as:
A. Glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) sheets cover a strip of the two
adjustment materials concrete and masonry.
B. Using connectors along reinforced concrete elements (columns-top beams) and
infill interface.
C. Using the ferrocement meshes strip at the two adjustment surfaces of concrete
and masonry.
D. Plastering the whole frame (concrete and masonary).

Dimensioning of all samples was based on designing concept. Frame
reinforcement detailing and dimension's are shown in Fig. (2)
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RCS-005-4
The program was divided into three main phases. In the first phase,
Phase 1 : In this phase, a bare frame is considered and used as a control frame.
Phase 2: In this phase, two, infilled frames were considered.first frame, the wall was
constructed first before casting the two columns and the upper beam, to simulate the
usually method used in construction which is called "Balady Method". In the
second frame, the masonry wall was constructed after removing the frame from the
wooden mould.
Phase 3: In this phase, four infilled frames with masonry wall were constructed using
four different methods of strengthening such as:
1-Connector's dowels bars were used to connect the columns and the upper beam of the
frame with the masonry wall. Holes of 100 mm depth and 13 mm diameter filled with
epoxy resin and steel bar with length of 20 cm and diameter of 8 mm were fixed in each
hole. After that, the masonry wall with brick as shown in Fig. (3) , Fig. (5)
2- using ferrocement, The mesh of ferrocement was used with 20 cm strip of concrete at
the insulation surface between them as shown in Fig. (4)
3- Plastered with 2 cm thickness to cover concrete and all masonry without any
additional.
4- Strengthened using glass fiber un-direction sheet strips. As shown in Fig.(6) .

Fig. (2) Steel reinforcement of frame "Dim in cm"

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RCS-005-5
1
10 cm
2
20cm
2
12 cm
20 cm
1
20 cm
20cm
12 cm
10 cm

Fig. (3) Infilled frame treatment with dowel bars

Fig. (4) Infilled frame treatment with
ferrocement

Fig. (5) Infilled frame treatment with dowel bars

Fig. (6) Infilled frame treatment with GFRP

3.2 Materials properties:
Materials used for the test units were systematically sampled and tested for their
mechanical and physical properties. The tests included compressive tests performed on
mortar cubes, masonry prisms, and concrete cubes. Tension tests were conducted on
reinforcing bars and stirrups.
3.2.1 Concrete mix proportions:
Concrete mix design was made to produce concrete having 28 days cubic strength of
350 kg/cm
2
, the mix proportions by weight for the mix was given in Table (1). The
measured workability of the above mix was 5 cm by using slump test.
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RCS-005-6
Table (1) The proportion of one m
3
of concrete mix
Cement Water Sand Gravel
Weight (kg) 350 160 620 1245

3.2.3 Steel reinforcement:
The used steel in all tested frames was 8mm. normal mild steel and 12 mm in were high
grade steel. The mechanical properties of the used steel bars are given in Table (2).
Table (2) Mechanical properties of steel bars
Bar diameter (mm) 8 mm. 12 mm.
Yield strength kg\ cm
2
2720 5150
Ultimate strength kg\ cm
2
4500 7475
% Elongation at failure 26% 23%
Modulus of elasticity kg\ cm
2
2.06 x 10
6
2.06 x 10
6

3.2.4 Silt masonry units
Fired Silt brick were used , its mechanical properties e are given in Table (3).
Table (3) Physical and mechanical properties for used brick
Compressive Strength kg/cm
2

Water absorption (24-h
test) %
Unit weight
ton/m
3

75 17 % 2.2
3.2.5 Ferrocement
Ferrocement was 2 cm thickness with a steel mesh. The steel mesh with the required
width was fixed on the two adjustment strips of concrete and masonry and fixed with
small nails and after that mortar of cement and water was used for plastering.
3.3 Measuring devices:
All the tested frames were instrumented to measure the deflections at two points,
the steel strains and the strain distribution over the frame surface. The following
instruments were used in this work
3.3.1 Dial gauge:
The horizontal and vertical movements were measured using mechanical dial
gauges at the critical locations which at the right corner of center line of the upper beam
and right column. Dial gauges of 0.01-mm accuracy were used for deflection
measurements. In all the tested frames, the displacements were measured at two
different positions of each frame. Fig.(7) shows the di al gauges locations of the tested
models.
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RCS-005-7
3.3.2 Demec Strain Gauge (surface strains)
Measurement of surface strains on concrete frame is made difficult by cracking
in areas susceptible to cracking-interior and outer surfaces so demec mechanical gauges
were employed. When cracks cross gauge positions, recorded strains become large due
to loss of stiffness and finite crack widths. A "Demec" strain gauge with gauge length of
200 mm and minimum division 0.81 micro-strains were used to determine the strain
distribution at the surface of the frames.

Fig. (7) Details of the positions of the dial gauge
3.3.3 Steel Strain
Electrical strain gauges (EA-13-250-B6-120) and length of 10 mm were used for
measuring the longitudinal Strains in steel bars. The output of strain gauges was
monitored using the p 3500 strain indicator and the SB-10 switch and balance unit.
For each frame five strain gauges were attached to the steel at the expected position of
maximum stresses .
3.4 Detection of cracks:
Visual observations of cracks were made during test. At each increment of load, the
cracks which appeared were marked (load value) and recorded. The loads that produced
the first crack and the load that produce the failure of the frame were also recorded.
Finally, the pattern of cracks for each beam was neatly sketched as well as
photographed.
3.5 Loading Frame Rig:
All the frames in this investigation were tested in the rig at the laboratory of
reinforced concrete of the Faculty of Engineering, El-Minia University. The frame was
made from steel and designed mainly for testing of reinforced concrete beams, frames,
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RCS-005-8
walls and columns, 3.30 ms height, 3.50 ms width and maximum capacity of 100 ton.
The loading frame consists of three horizontal beams, two of them to fix two vertical I-
Beams No 40 to make a close frame and the third horizontal I- beam No 30 is a moving
beam to give different heights in the vertical direction. Hydraulic jack of 50ton capacity
was used to apply load to the tested frame, Stroke 38-362 mm, Maximum operation pressure
700 bar, Hand pump P-392, Hose -Hc-7206 and Gauge model Gp-10s
The load was applied at the horizontal direction in increment of 0.35 ton started the
test. The loading was maintained till the reading of dial gauges and strain gauges were
recorded and also sides' surfaces of the frame and DEMEC points were examined for
crack. After that the next load increment was applied and the whole procedure was
repeated until failure load was occurred.
4- RESULTS OF TESTS
Table (4) summarizes the values of cracking concrete load, cracking masonry load,
ultimate failure load, drift at 0.67 of ultimate failure load and drift at failure load.

Table (4) Measured loads and drifts of tested frames
Phase Frame
(P
cr
) (ton )
in concrete
(P
cr
) (ton)
in masonry
(P
u
) (ton)
(mm)
At failure
(mm) at
0.67 Pu
1 Frame 1 2.1 - 6.0 16.8 7.4
Frame 2 6.5 8.5 14.7 19.8 7.5
2
Frame 3 5.6 8.1 11.9 17.09 7.5
Frame 4 5.6 7.0 14.0 17.36 9.8
Frame 5 6.3 7.0 14.0 24.8 9.8
Frame 6 4.9 8.0 12.6 16.5 7.8
3
Frame 7 6.3 7.8 14.7 32.7 19
4.1 Crack pattern and mode of failure:
4-1-1 Phase one:
Frame 1, Bare Frame; (Frame 1) the first crack was observed at (35% of failure load) ,
the second one was at (46% of failure load), and the third crack was observed at (58%
of failure load). Final cracks were observed in corner between column and base beam at
failure load (6.0t) as shown in Fig. (8)
4-1-2 Phase two:
Frames 2, Frame cast in place over masonry the first crack was observed at (44% of
failure load) and the failure load was (14.7t). The masonry wall, by this way of
construction makes the reinforced concrete frame to behave as a shear wall. Fig. (9)
Frames 3; Infilled frame with masonry, the first group of cracks were observed at (44%
of failure load) in the connection between left column and upper beam and lower left
corner of left column at the tension side, the failure load, which was (12.6t). Fig. (10)

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RCS-005-9

Fig. (8) Crack pattern of frame 1 bare
frame (control frame)

Fig. (9) Crack pattern of frame 2
(cast in place over masonry)

4-1-3 Phase three:
Frames 4: Frame Strengthened with dowel Bars between concrete and masonry, the
first crack was observed at (40% of failure load) and the failure load, which was
(14.0t). as shown in Fig.(11)
Frames 5; Frame Strengthened with Ferro cement, the first cracks were observed at
(45% of failure load) distributed on all areas in diagonal direction. Also the failure load,
which was (14.0 t). as shown in Fig.(12)

(infilled with masonry after casting)

Fig. (11) Crack pattern of infilled frame 4
(Strengthened with dowel bars)

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RCS-005-10
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Drift (mm)
Fig. ( 4-11) Top drift - load at point (A) of different frames of phase two
and bare frame (1) (the control frame)

L
o
a
d

(
k
g
)
frame1
frame2
frame3
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
0 10 20 30 40
Drift (mm)
Fig. (4-12) Top drift -load at point (A) of different framers of phase three and
the contol frame (3)

L
o
a
d

(
k
g
)
frame3
frame4
frame5
frame6
frame7
Frames 6; Frame Strengthened with plastering, first cracks were observed at (38% of
failure load) and the failure load, was is (12.6t).
Frames 7; Frame Strengthened with (GFRP), in the Frame 7 Fig. (13), the first cracks
were observed at (42% of failure load) and the failure load, was (14.7 t).

Fig. (12) Crack pattern of frame 5(Infilled
frame strengthened with ferrocement)

(Infilled frame strengthened with GFRP)

4.2 Load-drift relationship:
Fig. (4-11, 4-12) show the load drift relationships of all tested phases. , it can e
notice that the behavior of tested frames is linear up to certain limit, depending on the
presence of the masonry wall and its method of construction. The linear part of load-
drift is more lengthened for the frames infilled with masonry comparing with the bare
frame and that is very clear in frame which casted in place over the masonry wall. The
curves indicate that the initiation of nonlinearly was different for the tested frames
depending on the presence of masonry wall and its method of construction, -Also this
figure reflects clearly the effect of the presence of the masonry wall and its method of
construction on its drift rigidity.

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RCS-005-11
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
-200 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Micro strain
lo
a
d

(
K
g
)
frame2
frame3
frame4
frame5
frame6
frame7
frame8
frame9
frame10
Fig (4-15) Load Strain in steel reinforcement at position SG1 at the lower left
corner of upper beam
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
0 100 200 300 400
Micro strain
lo
a
d

(
K
g
)
frame2
frame3
frame4
frame5
frame6
frame7
frame10
Fig (4-17) Strain distribuation in SG3 for lateral load
4-2-1 Phase three
Figure (4-16 , 4-17) show the load drift relationship of four strengthened frames
treated with four different methods of strengthening, by means of steel dowel bars
(frame 4), with ferrocement (Frame 5), with plastering (Frame 6) and through
(GFRP) Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer sheets (Frame 7), Also this figure shows the
load drift of frame infilled with masonry after casting frame 3 (the control of this
phase). The curves indicate that the initiation of nonlinearly was almost the same for
all frames of this phase except the one strengthened with GFRP, its nonlinearly
started early. Also they have same rigidity except the frame, which strengthened with
GFRP, which was more flexible. Generally the strengthened frames were stiffer than
the control frame 3 except the one strengthened with GFRP, which had less rigidity
of control frame especially at the earlier stages of loading.

5. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
The analysis illustrates the effect of strengthening method on Mode of failure and
pattern of cracks, Cracking load and Ultimate failure load , Drift characteristic, Ductility,
and Toughness.
5-1 Mode of failure and pattern of cracks:
The pattern of cracks were Generally in form of flexural nature for all tested
frames. All cracks of bare frame were at the tension side of its four corners, except some
minor cracks observed at the loaded area due to the stresses concentration. The general
behavior of the frame was as two-fixed single bay frame. The frame did not resist any
horizontal force when the plastic hinges formed at the upper and lower ends of the
frames two columns. The effect of masonry wall existence, its method of construction
and its way of strengthening on the distribution of the cracking pattern of all tested in
filled frames can be observed clearly through the Figs of the cracking pattern
It can be seen that, the majority of cracks were along the length of the left loaded
column, less cracks noted at the upper left part of the top beam and minor cracks can be
observed at the tension side of the lower part of right column.
The distribution of the cracks in the masonry wall and the separation between
the wall and the frame were depending on the method of wall construction and its way
of strengthening. Generally major cracks were observed diagonally in all infilled frames
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RCS-005-12
but it were very clear in frame cast in place over masonry, frame infilled with masonry
after casting, and infilled frame strengthened with ferrocement and with plastering.
Cracks were distributed all over the wall were observed in infilled frame strengthened
with bowel bars and with GFRP. Generally the structure worked as a wall up to 75% of
the ultimate failure load due to the existence of masonry. The separation between the
wall and the frame were observed in the two frames one infilled with masonry after
casting and the other strengthened with plastering (Frames 3 and 6). No separation
between wall and frame occurred for all other strengthened infilled frames as expected.
5.2 Cracking and ultimate failure loads:
The experimental values of first visible crack and ultimate loads of tested frames
of phase two have been tabulated in Table (5) which show the effect of the existence of
the wall and its method of construction. The first visible crack loads for the two frames
of this phase was roughly three times the cracking load of the bare frame. This
attributed to the existence of the masonry wall, which it may be increased the whole
rigidity of structure. The cracking load of the frame cast in place over masonry was
about 1.18 times the frame which infilled with masonry after casting.
From comparing the values of ultimate loads for the two frames of this phase, it was
significantly effected by the existence of the wall. The ultimate failure load was about
2.45 and 2.1 of the bare for the frame cast in place over masonry and the frame which
infilled with masonry after casting respectively. The ultimate load of the frame cast in
place over masonry was about 1.24 times the frame which infilled with masonry after
casting. This may be attributed to the improvement of bond strength between the wall
and the frame and it is better in case of the frame cast in place over masonry comparing
the frame which infilled with masonry after casting.
Table (5) The experimental values of cracking and ultimate loads of phase (2)
Phase Frame P
cr
(ton) P
u
(ton) P
cr
/P
u
P
cr
/ P
cr bare
P
u /
P
u bare

Frame 2 6.5 14.7 0.44
3.09 2.45
2
Frame 3 5.6 11.9 0.47 2.67 1.98

Effect of method of strengthening:
The experimental values of first visible crack loads and ultimate load of phase three
have been tabulated in Table (6). Also ratios of cracking and ultimate loads to the
control frames cracking and ultimate loads (frame 3) are given in this Table. which
show the effect of the strengthening of the wall and frame. The first visible crack loads
of these frames of this phase was roughly 1.11 the cracking load of the control frame3
expect frame 6, the one with plastering which has same cracking load of frame 3. The
increase in the cracking load may be attributed to the improvement of bond strength
between the contact surface of the masonry wall and the frame.
From comparing the ratios of ultimate loads for these frames of this phase to the
ultimate failure load of control frame 3, it can be seen that, the method of strengthening
has significantly effected on increasing the ultimate load except the plastering has no
effect on both cracking and ultimate loads. The ultimate failure load was about 1.17,
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RCS-005-13
1.17 and 1.24 of the ultimate failure of the control frame 3 for the frame strengthened
with bars, frame strength with ferrocement and frame strengthened with GFRP
respectively.
Table (6) The experimental values of cracking and ultimate loads of phase (3)
Phase Frame
P
cr

(ton)
P
u

(ton)
P
cr
/P
u

P
cr
/P
cr
bare

P
u /
P
u
bare

P
cr/
P
cr
frame(3)

P
u/
P
u
frame(3)

Frame 4 5.6 14 0.39 2.67 2.333 1.0 1.176
Frame 5 6.3 14 0.45 3 2.333 1.13 1.176
Frame 6 4.9 12.6 0.39 2.33 2.10 0.875 1.05
3
Frame 7 6.3 14.7 0.43 3 2.45 1.13 1.239

5-3 Drift characteristics:
The relationship between the applied load and corresponding drift for all tested
frames and the drift at failure load are previously detailed, it show that the slope of the
load-drift diagram in the first stage was steeper than the other stages. Then tensile
cracks stated to from. As the applied load was increased, cracks propagated and their
width and length increased. Also cracks spreading in the masonry wall. Hence, the slope
of the load drift diagram became less steep after that, Plastic hinges started to form,
show signs of failure and the slope of load drift diagram became more inclined.
The drift of frame cast in place over masonry was more lesser at all sages of
loading comparing with the drift of bare frame. Also the drift of infilled frame with
masonry after casting was less than the drift of bare frame at all stages of loading. As it
was expected the existence of masonry wall increases the overall stiffness of the
structural. The drift of the frame which cast in place over masonry wall was less than
drift of infilled frame with masonry after casting at all stages of loading, which means
that the method of construction contact as the effect on the drift by improving the
friction bond between the surfaces of the masonry wall and the frame.
Also, there is minor significant effect of the method of strengthening on the drift
at the first stage of load, for infilled frames strengthened with dowel bras, ferrocement
and plastering but this effect become significant near failure. The drift of the infilled
frame strengthened with GFRP was higher than the others strengthened frames at same
stage of loading that may be due to the elastic behavior of the GFRP.
5.4 Ductility:
Ductility can be defined as the ratio between the drift at ultimate load and to the
drift at 0.67 of the ultimate failure load (which represents the service load), Also the
ductility can be representing by the energy absorption up to failure (toughness). Based
on the ductility measurements mentioned above the ductility of frames tested may be
shown in Tables (7) tabulated the values ductility of each tested frame and also the
ratios of the ductility of each tested frame with respect to its control frame. The
influence of different parameters on the ductility can be summarized as follows:
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RCS-005-14
(a) The existence of masonry wall and its method of construction: the ductility of
infilled frame cast in place over masonry has the largest value comparing with the
bare frame and infilled frame with masonry after casting. The increase in ductility
of this frame was about 1.33 of the bare frame. The ductility of infilled frame with
masonry after casting was the same as the bare frame.
Table (7) The Ductility and Toughness and its ratios to the control frame of frames of
phases one and two
Phase Frame
(mm)
at failure
(mm) at
0.67 Pu
Failure \
at 0.67
Pu
\
Control
frame 1
Toughness
Kg mm
Tou./Tou
control
frame1
1 Frame 1 16.8 8 2.1 1 68340. 1
Frame 2 19.8 7 2.8 1.33 202044 2.96
2
Frame 3 17.09 8 2.27 1.02 132317 1.94
(b) Method of strengthening: Table (8) shows the values of ductility of the frames of
phase three. Also this Table shows the ratios of the ductility of these frames to the
control frame (frame 3) of this phase. There is no effect of the dowel bars and
plastering on ductility (frames 4 and 5). There is a significant effect of
strengthening using ferrocement on the ductility. The ductility of frame 6 which
strengthened using ferrocement, increased by 30% comparing with the control
frame (frame 3). There is significant bad effect of strengthening using the GFRP on
the ductility. The reduction of ductility of frame strengthened using GFRP was
about 23% of the control frame 3.
5-5 Toughness:
Toughness of different frames, representing the energy absorption up to failure, is
calculated as the area underneath the load-drift curve for each frame. Tables (8) show
the result of the values of toughness kg.mm .
(a) The existence of masonry wall and its method of construction: The toughness of
frame two was roughly three times the toughness of the bare frame. This attributed
to the existence of the masonry wall and its method of construction. The toughness
of the frame cast in place over masonry was better than the toughness the infilled
Table (8) The ductility and toughness and its ratios to the control frame of frames of
phase three
Phase Frame
(mm)
At failure
(mm) at
0.67 Pu
failure \
At 0.67 Pu
\
control
frame 3
Toughness
Kg mm
Tou./Tou
control
frame1
Frame 4 17.36 8.5 2.04 0.95 144882. 1.1
Frame 5 24.8 9.08 2.73 1.3 243565 1.84
Frame 6 9.5 7.8 2.115 1 131642 1
3
Frame 7 32.7 20 1.64 0.77 274834 2.07
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RCS-005-15
frame with masonry after casting. Casting over place increasing the toughness by
53% comparing with the infilled frame after casting.
(b) Method of strengthening: The calculated values of toughness of tested frames
weres 1.1, 1.84, 1, 2.07 for frames strengthening with dowel bars, ferrocement
plastering and GFRP respectively of the toughness of the control frame3. The
toughness of the frame strengthened with GFRP was the largest values comparing
with the toughness of the frames of this phase although it had the lowest value of
the ductility of this phase. This may be attributed to the increase in the load
carrying capacity of the frame due to strengthening and the elastic behavior of the
glass fiber sheets.

6- CONCLUSION
1- The existence of masonry wall changed the behavior of Reinforced concrete frame,
bare frame and turned it as a shear wall and it also increased its capacity about
twice times.
2- Glass-Fiber-reinforced polymer system provides significant increase in lateral load
capacity when externally bonded to masonry walls frame connection. Also
ferrocement mesh increases the cracking and ultimate loads and also increases the
ductility and toughness of the infilled frame
3- Anchorage of dowel bars between frame and masonry is essential for preventing
the failure due to bars de-bonding and increasing the ultimate load capacity of
frame infilled with masonry.
4- The Ferrocement strengthening method was recommended to improve the ductility
and ultimate failure loads of the existed frames.
5- Casting concrete of frame over the masonry "Balady" method; increases the
ultimate load capacity of frame by 145% of bare frame ultimate failure load. Also
it increases its ductility and toughness by 33% and 195%
6- The ductility of infilled frame strengthened with forrocement was the best of all
strengthened frames, while strengthening with GFRP increases its ultimate load
carrying capacity but it reduces its ductility.
7- REFERENCES
[1] Angel, R., Abram, D.P., Shapiro, D., Uzarski, J., and Webster M., (1994), "Behavior
of Reinforced Concrete Frames with Masonry Infills", Structural Research Series
No. 589, UILU-ENG-94-2005, University of Illinois at Urbana.
[2] Mehrabi, A.B., Shing, P.B., Schuller, M.P. and Noland, J.L. (1996). "Experimental
Evaluation of Masonry Infilled RC Frames ". Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 122. No. 3. March pp. 228 237.
[3] Baqi, A., Bhandari, N.M. and Trikha, D.N. (1999). " Experimental study of
prestressed masonry flexural elements ", Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.
125, No. 3, pp. 245-254
[4] Flanagan, R.D. and Bennett, R.M. (1999). " In-Plane Behavior of Structural Clay
Tile Infilled Frames ", Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 125, No. 6,
June, pp. 590-599,
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RCS-005-16
[5] Al-Chaar, G., Issa, M. and Sweeney, S. (2002) " Behavior of Masonry-Infilled Non-
ductile Reinforced Concrete Frames ", Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.
128, No. 8, pp. 1055-1063.
[6] Ali, S.A, (1998). " Behavior of Masonry Infilled Reinforced Concrete Frames under
Seismic Load ", Ph. D. Thesis, Cairo university, 243 pp.
[7] Perera, R., Gmez, S. and Alarcn, E. (2004) " Experimental and Analytical Study
of Masonry Infill Reinforced Concrete Frames Retrofitted with Steel Braces ".
Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 130, No. 12, pp. 2032-2039.

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RCS-006-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt



Response of Externally Confined With Out-of-Plane Horizontal
Loads

Ramadan Abd - Alaziz Askar;
Hamdy Shehab Aldeen; M. M. A. El- Metawally
Department of structure Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig P.O. Box 44519 Egypt
Mobile Tel. 0123573384, Email: askarranadan@yahoo.com, raasesra@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Deterioration of bridge girders and parking structures, and the cost of their repair have
become a major concern in recent years. External confinement is considered as a
powerful technique to strengthen and rehabilitate deteriorated girders. In this research
an experimental study is performed to investigate the behavior of reinforced concrete
beams strengthening using external out-of-plane horizontal confinement. In this
experimental program, a several investigated parameters were varied such as:
magnitude of out-of-plain external confinement force, and number of external
confinement bars. Twelve simply supported rectangular R C beams strengthened by
external out of plane horizontal confinement loads were tested. Three beams used as
control beams, and another nine beams divided into three groups, (G1, G2, and G3.),
which confined using; constant number of bars (2, 4, and, 6, bars) for each group
respectively. While each group contains three beams, each one of bars inside each
group carried by a variable magnitude of out of plain horizontal force equals to (10,
15, and, 20), kN per bar, for each beam respectively. The results of this experimental
investigation are reported and discussed including ultimate load capacity, deflections,
mode of failure, and crack characteristics. The test results indicated the provision of
external confinement has the potential significantly increase ultimate strength
capacity of R C beams.

KEYWORDS: External confinement, rehabilitate, strengthening, ultimate strength, beams

1. INTRODUCTION

External confinement is a system in which the concrete structural members are pre-
stressed longitudinally or laterally using post-stressing bolts and steel located
completely outside the concrete element about mid-span. Currently, external
confinement is considered one of the most powerful techniques for strengthening or
rehabilitation existing concrete beams, bridges and parking structures. Presence of
external confinement system around concrete structures produces a structural system
not commonly described in the available codes of practice. The use of an external
confinement to strengthen existing concrete beams is conceptually different from that
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RCS-006-2
used in the traditional design and construction of new girders having bonded pre-
stressing reinforcement. This is due to the fact that stress in confinement is almost
uniform at all sections and depends on the deformations of the whole member.
Therefore, a section analysis based on the strain compatibility is not sufficient to
provide a complete solution as in the case of bonded tendons. Moreover, a second
order effect on the response of the member and the stress in confinement system
depends on the external confinement, with centric confining force, the concrete
sections along confining applied load and with the time-dependent deformations of
the member, Many codes of practices [1-2] and researches, such as (Due, G., and Tao,
X., Tan 1993, Harajli 1993, and Tan 2001[3-15] had been undertaken to investigate
the ultimate behavior of the structural members externally pre-stressed.
Comparatively little attention was directed to the behavior of pre-loaded RC members
strengthened with external pre-stressing. Ramadan Askar used the new technique in
strengthening the concrete beams for flexure in-plain vertical confining loads about
mid-span [16].

2 RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE

The effect of the external lateral load confinement technique at ultimate stage of the
concrete members, and flexural capacity have to be studied. This paper provides an
experimental study to investigate the behavior of beams strengthen using external out-
-of-plain horizontal confinement at mid-span. Based on the test results, simplified
technique introduced to estimate the suitable value of confining forces. The
information provided throughout this research could be very useful in establishing
guide lines for externally confine beams.


In this research, tests were conducted on twelve simply supported R. C. beams. The
parameters considered were the number of confining bars, and value of confining
force per bar. The beams were tested under two-point loading as shown in Fig. 1.

3.1 Material Characteristics

Post-tension steel bars of 10 mm diameter with a proof stress of 36 N/mm
2
, ultimate
strength of 52 N/mm
2
were used for the external Post-tension. High grade deformed
bars were used as internal reinforcement. Normal grade plain bars were used as shear
stirrups. A concrete mix was prepared to obtain 35 N/ mm
2
, 28 days cube strength.
The concrete mix proportions by weight were: 1 cement: 2.8 coarse aggregate
(gravel): 1.5 fine aggregate (sand): 0.45 water for each 1 m
3
of concrete.

3. 2 Test Set-up

Figure 1 shows a schematic view of the test setup and beam dimensions for the
beams. As shown in the figure, the total applied load was monitored using very-
dension machine of 1000 kN capacity. Beam deflection was measured by a set of
three dial-gauges distributed along the beam length under load, and at mid-span. Two
vertical rigid steel plates 20 mm thickness, hall dimensions 200x 300x 20 mm, were
used at the vertical sides of the concrete beam to create the confinement. Six grooves
12 mm, diameter were performed in steel plates, spaced each 75 mm, distributed over
the area, and numbers (2, 4, and 6), bolts 10 mm diameter was used to create the
confining force (post-tension force) using torque key working on nuts at ends of the
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RCS-006-3
bolts. Details of the program of the tested beams are shown in Table 1. Where the first
character of No of P. T. Bars, P. T. Force (kN) per Bar denoting to the numbers of
post-tension bars, and post-tension force per bar respectively, the second character T.
P. T. Force (kN) is the total confining force affecting on the beam in the experimental
program. Three amounts of post-tension force P. T. Force (10, 15, and 20) kN, were
investigated. While three values of numbering the post-tension bars No of P. T. Bars
(2, 4, and 6) were considered in the experimental program.

3.3 Testing Procedure

Tests were carried out on three groups: G1, G2, and G3, the control specimens
contained only the average results of three beams. Beams of group G1 were
strengthened with different confinement forces (10, 15, and 20) kN, and two constant
number of bars, wherever Beams of group G2 were strengthened with different
confinement forces (10, 15, and 20) kN, and four constant number of bars, also Beams
of group G3 were strengthened with different confinement forces (10, 15, and 20) kN,
and six constant number of bars as shown in Table 1. The beams were tested under
vertical load up to failure. The reference beams were tested without any external
confinement.

Table1: Experimental program for the test specimens.
Group No Beam No No of P. T.
Bars
P. T. Force
(kN) per Bar
Total P. T.
Force (kN)
Reference B1 - - -
B2 2 10 20
B3 2 15 30
G1
B4 2 20 40
B5 4 10 40
B6 4 15 60 G2
B7 4 20 80
B8 6 10 60
B9 6 15 90 G3
B10 6 20 120
Fig: (1) beam confinement Details and test set-up under load.
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RCS-006-4

4 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Table 2: showing the analyses of test results. Which includes deflections under mid-
span, and under concentrated machine loads position, moreover contains crack and
ultimate loads.

5 ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

In this section the experimental results concerning cracking loads, failure loads,
deflection, and cracks propagation were reported, compared with the average results
of reference specimens and discussed as follows:

5.1 Vertical Mid-Span Deflections

Figures: (2, 3, to 7) shows load versus deflection curves for all specimens. From these
curves, the relation between load and deflection is nearly linear until cracking occurs,
then the slope of line decreases gradually with the increase of load, from the
experimental results, the following could be observed:

5.1.1 For specimens in group G1 having constant number of confining bars 2 bars, it
was found that: using different confining force per bar (10, 15, and 20) kN, caused a
decrease in vertical deflection by about 23 %, 41 %, and 44 % for beams (B2, B3, and
B4) respectively than reference specimen B1, without any confinement at failure load.
While in group G2 having constant number of confining bars 4 bars, it was found that:
using different confining force per bar (10, 15, and 20) kN, caused a decrease in
vertical deflection by about 36 %, 43 %, and 51 % for beams (B5, B6, and B7)
respectively than reference specimen B1, at failure load. Also in group G3 having
constant number of confining bars 6 bars, it was found that: using different confining
force per bar (10, 15, and 20) kN, caused a decrease in vertical deflection by about 44
%, 58 %, and 72 % for beams (B8, B9, and B10) respectively than reference specimen
B1, at failure load. Thus increasing in number of confining bars, thus decreasing beam
deflection leading to more stiffness, but the effect of increasing in magnitude of
confining force per bar on beam deflection is more than one and halve times.

5.1.2 Comparing specimens in all groups (G1, G2, and G3) having constant confining
force 10 kN, and variable number of confining bars (2, 4, and 6), it was found that
caused a decrease in vertical mid-span deflection by about 23 %, 36 %, and 44 % for
beams (B2, B5, and B8) respectively than reference specimen B1, without any
confinement at failure load. While in case of using constant confining force 15 kN,
and variable number of confining bars (2, 4, and 6), it was found that caused a
decrease in vertical mid-span deflection by about 41 %, 43 %, and 58 % for beams
(B3, B6, and B9) respectively than reference specimen B1, at the load, but in case of
using constant confining force 20 kN, and variable number of confining bars (2, 4,
and 6), it was found that caused a decrease in vertical mid-span deflection by about 44
%, 51 %, and 72 % for beams (B4, B7, and B10) respectively than reference specimen
B1, at failure load. Hence the increasing in number of confining bars caused a
decrease in rate of cracking and an increase in rigidity of beam, thus causing decrease
in deflection. While increase in confining force magnitude through (10, 15, and 20) kN,
had a beneficial effect on decreasing deflection.
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RCS-006-5

Table2: Analyses of test results.
Group
No
Spec
No
P
C

(kN)
P
U

(kN)

1
x
10
-2
mm
2
x
10
-2
mm
P(P
C
/
P
C
r)%
P(P
U
/
P
U
r )%
P(
1
/
1
r )%
P(
2
/
2
r )%
Ductility
ratio
Failure
Mode**
Refe B1 27.0 37.0 125 102 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.84 F
B2 30.0 41.0 96 84 11 11 23 18 1.66 F
B3 34.0 44.9 74 56 26 21 41 45 1.90 F G1
B4 40.3 51.0 70 53 49 38 44 48 1.71 F
B5 30.4 45.9 80 67 13 24 36 34 2.00 F
B6 38.0 54.2 72 51 41 47 42 50 1.71 F
G2
B7 44.0 60.0 61 40 63 62 51 61 2.35 F
B8 36.2 56.0 70 55 34 51 44 46 2.26 F
B9 42.5 63.0 53 39 57 70 58 62 2..08 F
G3
B10 50.0 69.0 35 31 85 87 72 70 2.94 F

* Refe : reference beam, Spec : specimen.
* Pc, Pu: are the crack and ultimate loads in (kN).
* 1, 2: are the mid-span and under machine load deflections at the comparative levels.
* p (P
C
/ P
C
r %) %, and p (P
U
/ P
U
r ) % : are the percentage of increasing in cracking, and
ultimate loads comparing with the corresponding results from reference.
* p (1 / 1r) %, p (2 / 2r) % : are the percentage of decreasing in deflections 1, and 2,
comparing to the corresponding from the reference.
** Failure Mode F Flexure Failure.

5.2. Cracking and Failure Loads

Table 2 shows cracking and failure loads, for different specimens. Cracking load is
defined by the load at which vertical crack crosses mid depth of the beam at flexure
zone. This can be determined by recognizing the crack patterns or from strain in
critical section which increases suddenly at this instant. Figures 8, to 13 shows the
effect of changing confining force magnitude, and changing number of confining bars
on cracking, and failure loads from the experimental results, the following could be
observed:

5.2.1 For specimens in group G1 having constant number of confining bars 2 bars, it
was found that: using different confining force per bar (10, 15, and 20) kN, caused a
increase in cracking, ultimate loads by about (11 %, 26 %, and 49 %), and (11 %, 21
%, and 38 %) for beams (B2, B3, and B4) respectively than reference specimen B1,
without any confinement at failure load. While specimens in group G2 having
constant number of confining bars 4 bars, it was found that: using different confining
force per bar (10, 15, and 20) kN, caused a increase in cracking, ultimate loads by
about (13 %, 41 %, and 63 %), and (24 %, 47 %, and 62 %) for beams (B5, B6, and
B7) respectively than reference specimen B1, at the cracking, ultimate loads. Also for
specimens in group G3 having constant number of confining bars 6 bars, it was found
that: using different confining force per bar (10, 15, and 20) kN, caused a increase in
cracking, ultimate loads by about (34 %, 57 %, and 85 %), and (51 %, 70 %, and 87
%) for beams (B8, B9, and B10) respectively than reference specimen B1, at the
cracking, ultimate loads. Thus could be concluded that increasing in confining force
per bar from (10, 15, and 20) kN, make an good increase in cracking, ultimate loads,
while using different number confining bars from (2 to 6), caused a high increase in
cracking and ultimate loads.

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RCS-006-6
5.2.2 Comparing specimens in all groups (G1, G2, and G3) having constant confining
force 10 kN, and variable number of confining bars (2, 4, and 6), it was found that
caused a increase in cracking, ultimate loads by about (11 %, 13 %, and 34 %), and
increase by (11 %, 24 %, and 51 %) for beams (B2, B5, and B8) respectively than
reference specimen B1, without any confinement at the failure loads. While in case of
using constant confining force 15 kN, and variable number of confining bars (2, 4,
and 6), it was found that caused a decrease in cracking, ultimate loads by about (26 %,
41 %, and 57 %), and (21 %, 47 %, and 70 %) for beams (B3, B6, and B9)
respectively than reference specimen B1, at the failure load, but in case of using
constant confining force 20 kN, and variable number of confining bars (2, 4, and 6), it
was found that caused a decrease in cracking, ultimate loads by about (49 %, 63 %,
and 85 %), and (38 %, 62 %, and 87 %) for beams (B4, B7, and B10) respectively
than reference specimen B1, at the failure load. Thus it could be concluded that
increasing number of confining bars from (2 to 6) caused an increase in failure loads
due to the increase of flexure capacity of beam. Also increase in confining force from
(10 to 20) kN caused an increase in failure loads.

5.3. Cracking Patterns and Propagation

Cracking of reference specimens begins with flexure cracks propagating nearly about
mid-span vertical at the flexure zone of the beam, vertical cracks begin to initiate and
propagate from the zone near the central of beam. While vertical cracks for
strengthened specimens begin with flexure cracks propagating at besides the
confining flexure zone, nearly inclined on vertical. Photo: 1, 2, 3, and 4 show crack
pattern of some specimens.

6 CONCLUSIONS

Tests were carried out on twelve simply supported externally confinement R. C
beams. The experimental results were used to verify the capability of a new
confinement technique to improve the behavior of confinement beams, and to deduce
the effect of tested variables on the flexure cracks, ultimate loads, under load, and at
mid-span deflection. Based on the results of this study, the following conclusions can
be made:
1- The use of external confinement in R.C beams increases the beam stiffness after
first flexural crack, also improves the beam behavior against shear stresses, improves
beam deflection at both service and ultimate loads, while produces a uniform crack
pattern compared to the similar non-confinement beams.
2- In case of constant number of confining bars, and variable of external confinement
force, increases the crack, flexural ultimate capacity, and decreases the under load,
and mid-span deflections of strengthened beams.
3- For the same external confinement force and the variable number of confining bars,
leads to a significant improvement in the load-deflection behavior and the distribution
of the cracks before failure due to the closing of the existing cracks at confining zone.
4- Comparing the results of confining beams up to ultimate load to those of non-
confining beams up to ultimate load, it was found that the ultimate deflection is
greatly influenced by the value of confinement forces. This was not the case for the
ultimate carrying capacity. Moreover, confinement leads to a more uniform cracking
pattern than non- confinement.
5- The results of externally confinement beams are in good agreement compared with
the experimental results of this research.
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RCS-006-7
6- The proposed new confinement technique in this paper gives acceptable
conservative results for practical purposes in rehabilitate and strengthening of
reinforced concrete girders using external out of plain confinement technique.

8. REFERENCES

1. ACI committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI
318-83), American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, 1983.
2. Ansys 5.4, Inc., Ansys 5.4 manual, Ninth edition, SAS IP, 1997.
3. CSA Standards Association, Design of Concrete Structures for Buildings (Can3-
A23.3-M84) , Rexadle, Dec. 1984.
4. Due, G., and Tao, X., Ultimate Stress in Unbonded Tendons of Partially
Prestressed Concrete Beams, PCI journal, V. 30, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 1985, pp. 72-91.
5. Egyptian Standards, Building Requirements For Reinforced Concrete Structures
and Bridges (ECCS 2001), 2001.
6. Harajli, M.H., Naaman, A.E., Evaluation of the Ultimate Steel Stress in Partially
Prestressed Flexural Members, PCI journal, V.30, No.5, Sep.-Oct. 1985, pp.54-81.
7. Harajli, M.H., Hijazi, S.A., Evaluation of the Ultimate Steel Stress in Partially
Prestressed Concrete Members, PCI journal, Jan.-Feb. 1991, pp.62-82.
8. Harajli, M.H., Kanj, M.Y., Ultimate Flexural Strength of Concrete Members
Prestressed with Unbonded Tendons, ACI structural journal, V.88, No.6, Nov.-Dec
1991, pp.663-673.
9. Harajli, M.H., Strengthening of Concrete Beams by External Prestressing, PCI
journal, Nov.-Dec. 1993, pp.76-88.
10. Mattock, A.H., Yamazaki, j., and Katula, B., Comparative Study of Prestressed
Concrete Beams, with and without Bond, ACI structural journal, proceedings, V.68,
No.2, Feb.1971, pp.116-125.
11. Naaman, A.E., Al-Khairi, F.M., Stress at Ultimate in Unbonded Post-Tensioning
Tendons: Part1- Evaluation of the State-of-the-Art, ACI structural journal, V.88,
No.5, Sep.-Oct.1991, pp.641-651.
12. Naaman, A.E., Al-Khairi, F.M., Stress at Ultimate in Unbonded Post-Tensioning
Tendons: Part2- Proposed Methodology, ACI structural journal, V.88, No.6, Nov.-
Dec. 1991, pp.683-692.
13. Tan, K.H., Naaman, A.E., Strut-and-Tie Model for Externally Prestressed
Concrete Beams, ACI structural journal, V.90, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 1993, pp.683-
691.14.
14- Tan, K.H., Al-Farook, M.A. & Ng, C.K., Behavior of Simple-Span Reinforced
Concrete Beams Locally Strengthened With External Tendons, ACI structural
journal, V.98, No. 2, March-April 2001,pp.174-183.
15. Warwaruk, J., Sozen, M.N., and Siess, C.P., Investigation of Prestressed
Reinforced Concrete for Highway Bridges, Part III Bulletin No. 464, University of
Illinois Engineering Experimental station, Urban, Aug. 1962, pp. 105
16. Askar. R. A. A. "Evaluation the Behavior of Partial Coffining R. C. Beams Using
Vertical Loads". Proceeding of the AICSGE 6, Structural Engineering Dept, Faculty
of Engineering, Alexandria University 15-17 April 2007. 15- 25.

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RCS-006-8

Photo: (1) The reference beam B1
With-out any confinement.
Photo: (2) The strengthened beam B2 after
failure using two bars.

failure using four bars.
failure using six bars.

Group (2)
0
20
40
60
80
0 3 6 9 12 15
deflection (mm)x10-1
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
B1
B5
B6
B7

Group (1)
0
20
40
60
80
0 3 6 9 12 15
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
B2
B4
B1
B3

Fig (3): Loads, mid-span (1) relationships
for groups (2). Effect of variable confinement
force with constant bars number, (4 bars).

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RCS-006-9
Group (1)
0
20
40
60
0 3 6 9 12
L
o
u
d

(
k
N
)
B2
B4
B1
B3

Group (3)
0
20
40
60
80
0 3 6 9 12 15
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
B1
B8
B9
B10

for groups (1). Effect of constant bars number
(2 bars), with variable confinement force.

Group (3)
0
20
40
60
80
0 3 6 9 12
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
B1
B8
B9
B10

Group (2)
0
20
40
60
80
0 3 6 9 12
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
B1
B5
B6
B7


0
20
40
60
80
0 4 8 12 16
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
B1
B3
B6
B9

0
20
40
60
80
0 4 8 12 16
L
o
a
d
(
k
N
)
B1
B2
B5
B8

Fig. (9): Loads, (1) relationships for groups
(1, 2, 3). Effect of variable bars number with
constant confinement force, (15.0 kN).
Fig. (8): Loads, (1) relationships for groups
(1, 2, 3). Effect of variable bars number with

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RCS-006-10
0
15
30
45
60
0 4 8 12
L
o
a
d
(
k
N
)
B1
B2
B5
B8

0
20
40
60
80
0 4 8 12 16
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
B1
B4
B7
B10

Fig. (11): Loads, (2) relations for group (1,
2, 3). Effect of variable bars number with

0
20
40
60
80
100
0 3 6 9 12
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
B1
B4
B7
B10

0
20
40
60
80
0 3 6 9 12
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
B1
B3
B6
B9


10
20
30
40
50
60
L
o
a
d

(

k
N
)
2 bars 4 bars 6 bars
Number of Post Tension Bars
B1 B1 B1
B2 B5 B8
B3 B6 B9
B4 B7 B10

Fig. (14): Histograms show the cracking load, and
number of post tension bars for all groups (1, 2, 3).

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RCS-006-11
20
40
60
80
L
o
a
d

(

k
N
)
2 bars 4 bars 6 bars
Number of Post Tension Bars
B1 B1 B1
B2 B5 B8
B3 B6 B9
B4 B7 B10

Fig. (15): Histograms show the ultimate load, and
number of post tension bars for all groups (1, 2, 3).

10
20
30
40
50
60
L
o
a
d

(

k
N
)
0, 10, 15, 20 0, 10, 15, 20 0, 10, 15, 20
Post Tension Force (kN)
B1 B1 B1
B2 B3 B4
B5 B6 B7
B8 B9 B10

Fig. (16): Histograms show the effect of (P.T.F.) in (kN)
on the cracking load for all beams

20
30
40
50
60
70
80
L
o
a
d

(

k
N
)
0, 10, 15, 20 0, 10, 15, 20 0, 10, 15, 20
Post Tension Force (kN)
B1 B1 B1
B2 B3 B4
B5 B6 B7
B8 B9 B10

Fig. (17): Histograms show the effect of (P.T.F.) in (kN)
on the ultimate load for all beams

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RCS-007-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





BEHAVIOR OF HIGH STRENGTH STEEL AS SHEAR
REINFORCEMENT FOR CONCRETE BEAMS

A. M. MANTAWY
Department of Civil and Environmental Eng., USC, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
E-mail: mantawy@usc.edu
T. K. HASSAN & A. S. ABD EL-FAYAD
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shmas University
1 El-Sarayat street, Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: tarek.hassan@dargroup.com
S. H. RIZKALLA
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, NCSU, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
E-mail: sami_rizkalla@ncsu.edu

ABSTRACT
This paper presents the behavior of high-strength and corrosive-resistant steel (HS) as
shear reinforcement for concrete beams. A total of twelve concrete beams reinforced
with HS steel stirrups were constructed and tested under static loading conditions. The
main variables in the study included steel type, concrete compressive strength, web
reinforcement ratio and shear span-to-depth ratio. The behavior of the tested beams was
compared to a control beam reinforced with conventional stirrups. The applicability of
various domestic and international codes and standards for concrete beams with HS
shear reinforcement is evaluated. Research findings indicated that using HS steel
stirrups increased the overall shear strength and enhanced serviceability by distributing
cracks and reducing crack width at service load level. Test results suggested that
combining HS steel with high strength concrete could lead to a better utilization of the
materials. Results of the analysis demonstrated that current design codes can
conservatively be used for the design of HS steel stirrups using the current limit for
yield strength of 420 MPa.
KEYWORDS: beams, concrete, high strength, shear, stirrups.
1 INTRODUCTION
The use of high-strength and corrosive-resistant steel as reinforcement for concrete
structures has increased rapidly over the last five years. The wider use of high-strength
steel bars (HS) could help to mitigate corrosion problems due to its enhanced corrosion
resistance leading to longer life of concrete structures and bridges. In most applications,
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RCS-007-2
the HS steel bars have been used by direct replacement of the amount required for
conventional steel (Grade 60) and, thus, neglecting the benefits of the high yield
strength of the new material. Lack of information regarding the behavior of concrete
members reinforced with this type of material prevents design engineers from utilizing
the full strength of the material. This paper presents test results of twelve medium-scale
reinforced concrete beams tested up to failure to investigate the contribution of the HS
steel stirrups in the shear resisting mechanism compared to conventional steel stirrups.
The key parameters considered in experimental program were the steel type, amount of
shear reinforcement, concrete strength and shear span-to-depth ratio (a/d).
2.1 Test Specimens
A total of twelve medium scale concrete beams were constructed and tested at the
Structural Laboratory of Ain Shams University. Eight beams were reinforced with HS
steel stirrups; three beams had no stirrups and a control beam with conventional steel
stirrups. Beams without shear reinforcement were used to evaluate the concrete
contributions at different (a/d) ratios. All beams were T-section with a total height of
500 mm, a flange of 600 mm wide and 80 mm thick. The thickness of the web was 200
mm. The length of all beams is 3.0 m and was divided into two simply supported spans
of 1.35 m each except for B07, B08 and B09 which had a 2.70 m span as shown in
Fig.1. All beams had identical bottom longitudinal reinforcement consisted of six 25
mm diameter conventional bars. The beams were designed to achieve a brittle shear
failure prior to reaching the ultimate flexural capacity. Anchorage of the flexural
reinforcement was provided using U-shaped bars to prevent any possible slippage.
Details of the tested specimens are given in Table 1.
2.2 Materials
High-strength steel: The high-strength and corrosive-resistant steel used in the current
study was provided by MMFX Technologies Corp., CA, USA. The mechanical
characteristics of the material compared to conventional steel bars are given in Table 2
based on test results conducted at NC State University [1]. The stress-strain behaviour
compared to conventional steel is shown in Fig. 2. The material exhibits an initial linear
elastic portion and there is no observation of yielding plateau or strain hardening. The
yield strength corresponds to 0.2% strain offset is 840 MPa.
Concrete: All beams were designed to have a compressive strength of 25 MPa except
beams B10 and B11, which were designed to have a compressive strength of 45 MPa.
Six standard 150 x 300 mm cylinders were cast with each beam, cured in the same
manner and kept under the same environmental conditions as the beams to obtain the
average compressive strength. Three concrete cylinders were tested at seven days and
the other three were tested at the time of testing of each beam. The concrete
compressive strengths of the test specimens are given in Table 1.
2.3 Instrumentation
To monitor the behavior of the tested beams under the applied loading, the
instrumentation included Linear Voltage Displacement Transducers (LVDTs) for
deflections, electrical resistance strain gauges for steel strains, and displacement gauges
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RCS-007-3
(Demic points) for concrete strains on the concrete surface. Demic-points were mounted
on the web surface of each beam in three directions (rosette shape) and at different
locations to evaluate the shear deformations in terms of the shear crack width and the
concrete strain. Each rosette consisted of three demic lines of a 200 mm gauge length.
One demic line was placed horizontal. The other two demic lines were placed vertically
and diagonally at a 45 angle, respectively as shown in Fig. 1.
2.4 Test Setup
All beams were tested under three point bending configuration according to its a/d ratio
as shown in Table 1. For beams of (a/d) ratio of 1.00 and 1.50, the span of the beam was
1.35 m and the remaining portion of the beam was cantilevered, and therefore,
unstressed so that the beam can be tested again at the far end. The load was applied
using 1500 kN capacity hydraulic jack. The loading was applied at specific location
according to the a/d ratio of the beam. The beams were placed on two steel rails, one at
a distance of 150 mm from the right end of the beam, while the other was positioned at
a specific distance from the left end according to the span of the beam. The beams were
monotonically loaded up to failure using displacement control.
A summary of the test results is presented in Table 1 including shear cracking load,
shear capacity, angle of shear crack and mode of failure. All the tested beams failed in
shear before flexural capacity is reached. No slip of the flexural reinforcement was
observed during any of the beam tests.
3.1 Deflections
The load-deflection plots for all beams are shown in Fig 3 according to its a/d ratio and
concrete compressive strength. For beams B01, B02 and B03 with a/d = 1.00, no
significant increase in the shear capacity was observed for beams with shear
reinforcement (B02 and B03) compared to the beam without shear reinforcement B01.
This is attributed to the small a/d ratio of those beams which makes the arch action
behavior dominant. The load-deflection plots of beams B04, B05 and B06 having a/d =
1.50 compared to the control specimen B00 is shown in Fig 3. A significant increase in
the shear capacity for beams with HS shear reinforcement (B05 and B06) compared to
the beam without shear reinforcement (B01) and the control beam (B00). The same
behavior was also observed for beams with a/d ratio of 2.25. For beams B10 and B11
having a/d = 1.50 but with f
c
' = 45 MPa, the plots are very close up to failure, where
B11 provides higher shear capacity than B10.
It is clear that for different (a/d) ratios, adding web reinforcement to the concrete beams
increased both stiffness and shear capacity significantly except for beams with a/d=1.00
where the increase in the shear capacity is not significant because the shear resisting
mechanism is a pure arch action, which is almost independent on the presence of shear
reinforcement. Also, increasing the shear reinforcement ratio slightly increases the shear
capacity and decreases the deflection at failure without significant increase in the
stiffness. The control beam B00 shows that using HS steel stirrups for beams improved
the behavior and provided significant increase in both shear capacity and stiffness than
conventional steel stirrups.
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RCS-007-4
3.2 Crack pattern
In general, shear cracks are characterized by irregular distribution if compared to
flexural cracks. Shear cracking irregularity is attributed to the minor cracks that usually
link the major shear cracks. As shown in Fig. 4, it was observed that shear cracks
initiated with a steep angle at the tension side of the beam and approached the
compression flange at a relatively flat angle. The angle of shear crack, reported in Table
1, was determined as the angle at which the shear crack intersects the mid-height of the
web. The angle of the shear cracks in the beams without shear reinforcement ranged
between 39 and 41 degrees. This relatively low range for shear crack angles is due to
the absence of web reinforcement where only longitudinal reinforcement exists. The
angle of the shear cracks for beams with shear reinforcement ranged between 43 and 47
degrees which is typical for reinforced concrete beams. It was also observed that, by
increasing the shear reinforcement ratio, the crack angle increases.
For all beams, shear cracking occurred before or at the same time as the flexural
cracking except for beams of a/d=2.25. Beams B01, B02 and B03 with a/d=1.00, almost
have the same crack pattern at shear cracking load. The crack pattern consisted of one
major shear crack from the support to the load, followed by another shear crack
appeared nearly parallel to the major one with other minor flexural cracks. These two
shear cracks can be considered to identify the concrete strut going diagonally from the
support to the load and the shear resisting mechanism in this case is Arch Action.
Also, for beam B04, which had no shear reinforcement, crack pattern is similar to
beams with a/d=1.00. For beams B05 and B06, one major shear crack developed from
the support to the load. Increasing the applied shear resulted in development of small
flexural cracks near the loading area at the bottom of each beam. The shear transfer
mechanism for both beams can be identified as a combination between the arch action
and the contribution of shear reinforcement in a beam action. For beam B07, which has
no shear reinforcement, only one major shear crack appears. Increasing the applied
shear, the crack widens rapidly causing failure of the beam. For beams B08 and B09,
one major shear crack appeared at the middle of the tested shear span with some
flexural cracks. Some of the existing flexural cracks changed its direction to become
flexural-shear cracks. The crack patterns for both beams became more irregular at
higher load levels. The shear transfer mechanism for both beams can be identified as a
typical beam action. The crack patterns of B10 and B11 are somehow similar to the
crack patterns for B02 and B03. The shear transfer mechanism for both B10 and B11
also can be identified as a combination between the arch action and beam action but
with more participation of the arch action than that for beams B05 and B06 having
lower concrete strength. This may be attributed to the high concrete compressive
strength of these beams, which increased both strength and stiffness of the diagonal
concrete strut in the arch action and lead the shear mechanism to approach towards the
pure arch action.
3.3 Crack Width
Total deformations within the strain rosette configuration were used to determine the
width of the shear cracks. For a typical strain rosette at a specific location and
considering diagonal and vertical measurements, the summation of shear crack widths
can be determined [2]. Each beam had one or two strain rosettes in the shear span
according to its a/d ratio. The width of the shear crack was determined based on the
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RCS-007-5
observed number of shear cracks passing within each rosette. The applied shear force
versus the width of shear crack for all specimens is shown in Fig. 5. It is clear that
increasing the amount of shear reinforcement, reduces the shear crack width
considerably. Narrower cracks were observed using high strength stirrups compared to
conventional stirrups at the same load level. This may be attributed to the better bond
characteristics of the high-strength steel than that for the conventional steel [3].
3.4 Failure Modes
All the tested beams failed in shear. In general, the observed mode of failure was either
shear-tension or shear-compression failure. Control beam (B00) failed in a shear-tension
mode due to the yielding of the stirrups that led to the development of a major shear
crack. Beams B01, B02 and B03 having a/d=1.00, failed in a shear-compression mode
due to the crushing of the diagonal concrete strut in the arch action mechanism. Beams
B04, B05 and B06 having a/d=1.50, failed in a shear-compression mode due to the
crushing of the concrete compressive zone under the applied load, except beam B05
where the mode of failure was a shear-tension failure due to the rupture of the HS steel
stirrups. Beams B07, B08 and B09 having a/d=2.25, failed in a shear-compression mode
due to the crushing of the concrete compressive zone under the applied load, except
beam B07 that has no shear reinforcement, which failed in direct diagonal tension of the
concrete web. Shear tension failure was also observed for beams B10 and B11 having
a/d=1.50 but with f
c
' = 45 MPa.
The shear-tension failure due to the rupture of the HS steel stirrups is attributed to the
limited ductility of the HS steel relative to conventional steel. For higher concrete
compressive strength, this type of failure is attributed to the redistribution of a portion
of the high shear carried by the arch action mechanism when the concrete strut softens
near failure causing higher stresses in the stirrups that lead to rupture. Great attention
should be paid to the determination of the minimum amount of shear reinforcement for
the HS steel to account for its ductility as well as the effect of high concrete
compressive strengths to avoid this brittle type of failure.
3.5 Stirrup Contribution
The stirrup contribution, V
s
, can be determined based on the measured stirrup strain and
the mechanical and geometric properties of the stirrups using the concept of smeared
reinforcement in concrete beams. The relationships between the applied shear and the
components of the shear resisting mechanism V
c
and V
s
are presented in Fig. 6. It can
be seen that the concrete contribution component, V
c
, at any load level was almost the
same as the shear force at the initiation of the first shear crack, V
cr
, except for beams
with a/d=1.00 where the concrete contribution increased by increasing the applied shear.
This is attributed to the pure arch action mechanism for those beams where the diagonal
concrete strut is the main component of the mechanism with the longitudinal
reinforcement acting as a tie. In addition, the concrete contribution component, V
c
, at
failure decreased due to softening of concrete strut. It can also be seen that the
contribution of shear reinforcement is higher for beams with a/d= 1.50 and 2.25 than
that for beams of with a/d= 1.00. Therefore, it can be concluded that stirrups in
concrete beams contribute to the shear carrying capacity in two different ways:
1. Creating the stirrup contribution component, V
s
;
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RCS-007-6
2. Maintaining the concrete contribution component, V
c
, almost constant up to failure
by controlling the shear cracks and thereby improving the shear resisted by aggregate
interlock.
4 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
4.1 Effect of Steel Type
The influence of using HS steel stirrups can be evaluated by comparing test results of
the control beam B00 to beam B06. The only difference between these beams was the
type of the steel type used for stirrups. Using HS stirrups enhanced the shear capacity
by 31%. After isolating the concrete contribution from the shear capacity of each beam,
B06 had an increase in the steel contribution by 57% compared to that for B00. The use
of HS steel instead of conventional steel for stirrups changed the mode of failure from a
shear-tension failure mode for B00 to a shear-compression failure mode for B06.
4.2 Effect of Shear Reinforcement Ratio
The influence of the shear reinforcement ratio was examined by changing the stirrup
spacing from 250 to 200 mm in addition to one beam without shear reinforcement for
each a/d ratio. From Table 1, it is clear the shear cracking load wasnt affected by the
shear reinforcement ratio. However, the shear capacity increased by increasing the shear
reinforcement ratio. After isolating the concrete contribution from the shear capacity,
beams with stirrup spacing of 200 mm experienced an increase in the steel contribution
by 10 to 14% compared to other beams having stirrup spacing of 250 mm. The width of
shear crack was also reduced by increasing the shear reinforcement ratio. In all beams
reinforced by HS steel stirrups, the concrete contribution was almost the same as its
value at the initiation of the first shear crack.
4.3 Effect of a/d Ratio
From Table 1, it is clear that increasing a/d ratio, the shear capacity decreases. For the
same shear reinforcement ratio, beams with a/d=1.00, the steel contribution is
insignificant compared to that predicted for other beams with larger a/d ratios. The
crack width for beams dominated by the arch action mechanism is relatively smaller
than those for beams dominated by the beam action mechanism. For all beams, the
concrete contribution was almost the same as the shear value at the initiation of the first
shear crack. Nevertheless, for beams with a/d= 1.00, the concrete contribution continued
to increase after the initiation of the first shear crack then it begins to decrease near
failure due to softening of the concrete in the diagonal concrete strut.
4.4 Effect of Concrete Strength
From Table 1, it can be seen that beams with f
c
' = 45 MPa had an increase in its shear
capacity ranging from 24 to 28% compared to other identical beams with f
c
' = 25 MPa.
It should be noted that those beams with higher concrete compressive strength
demonstrated higher stiffness compared to other beams with lower concrete strength at
the same load level. Increasing the concrete compressive strength resulted in an increase
in the stiffness of the diagonal concrete strut and enhanced the contribution of the arch
action in the shear resisting mechanism. Furthermore, using higher concrete strength
altered the mode of failure to shear-tension failure governed by rupture of the stirrups.
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RCS-007-7
5 CODE PREDICTIONS
Predictions based on the current shear design code provisions were carried out to
evaluate the applicability of these approaches in the design of concrete beams reinforced
with HS steel stirrups. The codes investigated in the current study included ACI 318-05
[4], AASHTO LRFD (2005) [5], CSA A23.3-04 [6], EC-2 (2003) [7], DIN (2001) [8],
BS 8110 (1997) [9] and the Egyptian code for concrete structures ECCS (2003) [10].
Most of the mentioned code provisions include additional considerations for the
relatively deep concrete members that have shear span-to-depth ratios (a/d) less than
2.00. These additions are taken into consideration in predicting the shear capacity of the
tested beams with a/d ratio less than 2.00. Predictions of the shear capacity of the tested
beams were carried without using any material safety factor for both concrete and steel
contributions. The results of code application are summarized in Table 3 with idealized
yield strength of 840 MPa for HS steel. Most of the design codes included in the current
study conservatively predict the shear capacity for HS steel stirrups with an associated
yield stress of 840 MPa. The analysis shows that the high yield strength cannot be fully
utilized under the umbrella of the current design codes.

6 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the findings of the current study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The use of HS steel as shear reinforcement for concrete beams did not affect the
shear cracking capacity (initiation of the first diagonal crack). The angle of shear
cracks in concrete beams reinforced with HS steel stirrups varied between 44 to 47
degrees, which are typical values for concrete beams reinforced with conventional
stirrups.
2. Direct replacement of the conventional steel stirrups by a similar amount of HS steel
stirrups increases the shear capacity of concrete beams, increases their stiffness and
reduces the shear crack width due to the better bond characteristics of the HS steel.
3. HS steel stirrups allowed the concrete contribution to remain unchanged at its initial
value at the initiation of the first shear crack, up to failure.
4. Increasing the shear reinforcement ratio of HS steel stirrups increases the shear
capacity of concrete beams and enhances their stiffness.
5. The use of HS steel stirrups as a shear reinforcement for concrete beams becomes
more effective for shear span-to-depth ratio greater than 1.50.
6. The use of high concrete compressive strength for beams reinforced with HS steel
stirrups increases the shear capacity of the beams, improves their stiffness, decreases
the shear crack width. It also changed the mode of failure for the beams from shear-
compression failure mode to shear-tension-failure mode.
7. Most of the design codes included in the current study conservatively predict the
shear capacity for HS steel stirrups with an associated yield stress of 840 MPa. The
analysis shows that the high yield strength cannot be fully utilized under the
umbrella of the current design codes.
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RCS-007-8
7 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank MMFX Technologies Corporation, CA, USA for the
donation of the materials used in this study. The authors are grateful to NSF for its
financial support for this research project. Special thanks are extended to the technicians
at the Structural Laboratory at the Faculty of Engineering at Ain Shams University.
8 REFERENCES

[1]. El-Hacha, R. and Rizkalla, S., 2002, Fundamental Material Properties of
MMFX Steel Rebars, NCSU-CFL Report No. 02-04, Constructed Facilities
Laboratory (CFL), North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 59 p.
[2]. Shehata, E.F.G. (1999). Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) for Shear
Reinforcement in Concrete Structures. PhD thesis. University of Manitoba:
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
[3]. Seliem, H.M.A. (2007). Behavior of Concrete Bridges Reinforced with High-
Performance Steel Reinforcing Bars. Ph.D thesis. North Carolina State
University: Raleigh, NC.
[4]. ACI Committee 318 (2005). Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (ACI 318-05) and Commentary (318R-05). Farmington Hills:
American Concrete Institute.
[5]. AASHTO LRFD (2005). Bridge Design Specifications and Commentary (3rd
Ed.). Washington, DC: American Association of State and Highway
Transportation Officials.
[6]. CSA Committee A23.3 (2004). Design of Concrete Structures, CSA A23.3-04.
Rexdale, Ontario, Canada: Canadian Standards Association.
[7]. Eurocode No. 2, 2003, Design of Concrete Structures, Part 1: General Rules
and Rules for Buildings, Thomas Telford, London.
[8]. DIN 1045-1, Deutsche Norm: Tragwerke aus Beton, Stahlbeton und
SpannbetonTeil 1: Bemessung und Konstruktion. S. (Concrete, reinforced and
prestressed concrete structures Part 1: Design). Normenausschuss Bauwesen
(NABau) im DIN Deutsches Institut fr Normung e.V. Beuth Verl. Berlin (July
2001) pp. 1148.
[9]. BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITUTION, BS 8110, Structural use of concrete,
Part 1, BSI, London, 1997 and 1985.
[10]. ECCS 203 (2003), Egyptian Code of Practice for Design and
Construction of Concrete Structures (ECCS 203-2003), Egyptian Housing and
Building Research Center, Cairo, Egypt, 2003, 334 pp.

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RCS-007-9
Table-1: Test matrix and results

Table-2 Material Characteristics of used steel types
Steel Type Conventional Steel High Strength Steel
Yield Strength, MPa 420 840
Ultimate Strength, MPa 600 1320
Young's modulus, MPa 200,000 200,000
Yield Strain 0.20 % 0.60 %
Ultimate Strain 8.00 % 5.00 %
Maximum Strain 16.00 % 12.00 %

Table-3 Code Predictions

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RCS-007-10

Fig. 1: Typical beam details and instrumentation

Fig. 2: Stress-Strain behavior for HS steel and Conventional Steel (Grade 60)

Fig. 3: Shear deflection relationships for test specimens.
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RCS-007-11

Fig. 4: Crack patterns

Fig. 5: Applied shear versus crack width for different specimens.
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RCS-007-12

Fig. 6: Applied shear vs. shear components

a/d=2.25
a/d=1.00
a/d=1.50
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RCS-008-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt




FLEXURAL BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE BEAMS REINFORCED
WITH HIGH STRENGTH STEEL REINFORCING BARS

R. G. ELTAHAWY
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University
E-mail: Reham7979@hotmail.com
T. K. HASSAN & O. H. ABD EL-WAHED
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University
1 El-Sarayat street, Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: Tarek.KamalHassan@dargroup.com
S. H. RIZKALLA
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, NCSU, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
E-mail: Sami_Rizkalla@ncsu.edu

Abstract
Corrosion of steel reinforcement in aging highway infrastructure is a major problem
currently facing the transportation engineering community worldwide. Use of Micro-
composite Multi-structural Formable Steel, commercially known as MMFX, as a
replacement for convention steel is gaining popularity in many concrete structures. The
high-corrosive resistance nature and high-strength characteristics of the MMFX rebars
provide additional service life to concrete structures in areas that are prone to severe
environmental conditions. This paper presents a multi-phase experimental program
designed to examine the mechanical characteristics of the MMFX steel, evaluate their
corrosion resistance, and assess their structural performance as main flexural
reinforcement using typical full-scale T-section concrete beams. All MMFX reinforced
concrete beams experienced higher ultimate strength and a comparable amount of
ductility in comparison to beams reinforced with conventional steel rebars. The failure
mode of most beams was classified as ductile flexural failure accompanied by yielding
of the tension reinforcement preceding the crushing of the concrete. Only two beams
failed prematurely due to rupture of the MMFX rebars. Design guidelines are proposed
based on the results of the experimental program.
KEYWORDS: beams, concrete, deflection, flexural, high strength.

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RCS-008-2
1 INTRODUCTION
Corrosion of steel reinforcement in an aging highway infrastructure is a major problem
currently facing the transportation engineering community. The use of deicing salts has
resulted in steady deterioration of bridge decks due to corrosion. This problem has been
documented by several researchers and recognized by highway agencies as one of the
most serious problems facing the civil engineering infrastructure worldwide [1]. Similar
and even worse conditions have been documented in Egypt due to the salt
Mediterranean environment in cities like Alexandria. The condition is more severe since
it is combined by relatively low quality controlled and low strength concrete.
As such, there is a need to use reinforcement that is less susceptible to corrosion than
conventional steel. The microstructure of the steel used to produce MMFX is altered to
eliminate the internal mechanisms that cause corrosion in steel. Its microstructure
consists of alternating bands of austenite and martensite [2]. Consequently, MMFX is
practically carbide free (less than 1% carbon) and consequently, the micro galvanic cell
formation is minimized.
2.1 Test Specimens
All specimens were designed to simulate typical field behavior of concrete beams. All
beams were T-section of 500 mm flange width by 80 mm thick. The web was 250 mm
wide by 400 mm deep. The nominal length of all beams was 4000 mm with clear span
of 3800 mm. The concrete dimensions of the test specimens are shown in Fig. 1. Overall
concrete dimensions were kept constant in all specimens. Details of the tested beams are
given in Table 1. All beams were designed to achieve a minimum strain in the steel of
0.4 %. The reinforcement ratios for all beams satisfied the minimum and maximum
values recommended by ECP [3] and ACI 318-05 [4]. Three concrete compressive
strengths were used in design. All specimens were loaded statically up to failure using a
four point bending scheme.
Two 10 mm Grade (40/60) longitudinal bars were used as compression reinforcement
for all beams, except for beam XC1-4, where three 10 mm were used, to simplify
construction of steel cage. Steel mesh 8 mm Grade (24/35) was used as top flange
reinforcement. Typical detailing of reinforcement for the all eight specimens is shown
in Fig. 1. To prevent undesired shear failure in the beams, adequate shear reinforcement
was provided. A total of 40 closed stirrups of Grade (40/60) were positioned at 100 mm
spacing along the whole beam length to prevent shear failure.
2.2 Materials
High-strength steel: The high-strength and corrosive-resistant steel used in the current
study was provided by MMFX Technologies Corp., CA, USA. The mechanical
characteristics of the material compared to conventional steel bars are given in Table 2
based on test results conducted at Ain Shams University. The properties of MMFX
rebars are presented in terms of modulus of elasticity (E
s
), yield strain and strength (
y
,
f
y
), ultimate strain and strength (
su
, f
su
), and strain and strength at failure (
sf
, f
sf
) [5].
Concrete: Three concrete mixes were used for all beams and were designed according to
ECP [3], using locally manufactured ordinary Portland cement, sand and fine gravel as
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well as additives when needed. Six standard 150 x 300 mm cylinders were cast with
each beam, cured in the same manner and kept under the same environmental conditions
as the beams to obtain the average compressive strength. Three concrete cylinders were
tested at seven days and the other three were tested at the time of testing of each beam.
2.3 Corrosion Resistance
A set of 13 mm, 16 mm and 19 mm MMFX and Grade (40/60) steel bars were
tested in tension to evaluate the mechanical characteristics of the bars before and after
exposure to wet/dry cycles for one year. Each cycle consisted of dipping the bars in a
10% concentration NaCl solution for one week and leaving the bars to dry for another
week. The bars were 500 mm long and were placed inside a reservoir of 1500 mm long,
300 mm wide and 300 mm deep as shown in Fig. 2.The bars were tested in tension after
six and twelve months of exposure. All tests were conducted in accordance with ASTM
A370-024[6].
2.4 Instrumentation
To monitor the behavior of the tested beams under the applied loading, the
instrumentation included Linear Voltage Displacement Transducers (LVDTs) for
deflections and electrical resistance strain gauges for steel and concrete strains. Detailed
descriptions of the instrumentation are shown in Fig. 3.
2.5 Test Configuration
All beams were tested under four point bending. Each beam was tested up to failure
using a 400 kN capacity hydraulic jack. The specimens were positioned on top of a
strong structural concrete floor. A steel pin support was carefully set between the
specimen and the floor at a distance of 100 mm from the left end of the beam, while a
steel roller support was positioned at the same distance but at the right end of the beam
to allow for proper sectional rotation. The setup was carefully leveled and aligned to
prevent any source of errors due to the lateral eccentricity. The loading procedure
comprised one loading cycle, during which the load was incrementally increased by 5
kN up to the appearance of the first visible crack, then the load step was increased to 10
kN. At the end of each load step the load was held constant for 1.5-2 minutes during
which measurements and observations as well as marking the visible cracks were
carried out.
A summary of the test results is presented in Table 3 including failure loads, maximum
mid-span deflections, steel strain gauge readings and concrete strain gauge readings.
The failure mode of most beams was classified as ductile flexural failure accompanied
by yielding of the tension reinforcement preceding the crushing of the concrete. Only
two beams failed due to rupture of the MMFX rebars. One more beam exhibited shear
failure. No bond failure was observed during testing.
3.1 Corrosion Test Results
Typical tension tests results after six and twelve months of exposure are shown in Fig. 4
and Fig. 5 for MMFX and conventional steel bars, respectively. After corrosion, MMFX
bars attained the same behavior but with slightly lower yield and ultimate strength
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values. The measured decrease in the yield strength using the 0.2% offset method was
less than 10% after twelve months of exposure. Conversely, a considerable reduction in
the yield strength was observed for conventional steel bars after twelve months of
exposure. The measured decrease in the yield strength was about 20%. It is also
remarked that the shape of the curve for conventional steel bars changed to some extent
especially after yielding of the bars.
3.2 Flexural Behavior
The load-midspan deflection behavior of XC1-1, XC1-3, SC1-1 and SC1-3 is shown in
Fig. 6. Linear behavior was observed up to the initiation of the first crack at a load level
of 35 kN followed by a non-linear behavior with significant stiffness reduction up to
failure. Yielding of conventional steel rebars Grade (40/60) was observed for SC1-1 and
SC1-3 at loading levels of 65 and 160 kN, respectively. The corresponding mid-span
deflections were 14 and 22 mm. Beam XC1-1 continued to maintain its original
stiffness up to a load level of 130 kN beyond which the MMFX reinforcement reached
the yield strength and led to reduction in the flexural stiffness. Beam XC1-3 continued
to maintain its original stiffness up to a load level of 343 kN, where no stiffness
reduction was observed. The load-midspan deflection behavior for XC1-1, XC1-2,
XC1-3 and XC1-4 are given in Fig. 7. Linear behavior was observed, for all beams up
to the initiation of the first crack followed by a non-linear behavior with significant
stiffness reduction up to failure. Beams XC1-1 and XC1-2 exhibited higher stiffness
reduction, after cracking, due to yielding of MMFX rebars. The measured stiffness loss
after flexural cracking was 90, 60, 45 and 38 percent for beams XC1-1, XC1-2, XC1-3
and XC1-4, respectively. High reduction in the stiffness is primary influenced by the
low reinforcement ratio used in beams XC1-1 and XC1-2. The nonlinear behavior for
beams, from cracking up to failure, is inherited from the non-linearity of the stress-
strain relationship of the MMFX bars. Yielding of the bottom MMFX bars in beams
XC1-1 and XC1-2 was observed at load levels of 150 and 259 kN, respectively. Both
beams suffered additional stiffness reduction where the measured pre-cracking stiffness
dropped from 35.67 to 3.5kN/mm. This behavior was demonstrated by flattening of the
load-deflection curves at these load values.
The load-midspan deflection behavior for beams XC1-3, XC2-3 and XC3-3 are shown
in Fig. 8. Linear behavior was observed for all beams up to the initiation of the first
crack at a load level of approximately 50 kN followed by non-linear behavior with
significant stiffness reduction up to failure. Beams XC2-3 and XC3-3 exhibited higher
stiffness reduction, after cracking, due to yielding of MMFX rebars. The pre-cracking
stiffnesses for beams XC1-3, XC2-3 and XC3-3 were 45, 77 and 230 kN/mm
respectively. The measured stiffness loss after flexural cracking was 80, 90 and 96
percent for beams XC1-3, XC2-3 and XC3-3, respectively.
3.3 Crack pattern
In general, cracks at the constant moment region occurred at an earlier stage and
continued to propagate after yielding of the main steel reinforcement. As the applied
load increased, flexural cracks started to appear outside of the constant moment region.
At high load levels, flexural cracks located within the constant shear region deviated
diagonally and turned into the flexural shear cracks. At approximately 75 percent of the
ultimate loads of the MMFX-reinforced beams, shear cracks began to appear at 45-
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degree angle. All shear cracks were located near the supports. For beams SC1-1 and
SC1-3, cracks were spaced out evenly and ranged from 100 to 150 mm throughout the
beam, which suggested that the position of the crack is influenced by the location of the
stirrups. The observed cracks in beams SC1-1 and SC1-3 at failure were almost 50
percent fewer than those observed for beams XC1-1 and XC1-3 reinforced with MMFX
bars. More cracks were observed for beams with lower concrete compressive strength.
Due to the mechanical characteristics of MMFX bars, as the applied load increases,
more cracks are formed rather than widening of the existing cracks. It should be noted
that more cracks were observed in MMFX-reinforced beams compared to
conventionally-reinforced beams with the same reinforcement ratio.
3.4 Failure Modes
The failure mode of all beams except XC1-1, XC1-2 and XC1-4 was due to crushing of
the concrete at the constant moment zone after considerable deflection following
yielding of the tension reinforcement. Failure of beams XC1-1 and XC1-2 was due to
rupture of tensile reinforcement. Beam XC1-4 exhibited undesirable shear failure mode.
Different failure modes are illustrated in Fig. 9.
4 FLEXURAL ANALYSIS
In order to predict the behavior of the tested beams, an analytical model using iterative
procedures was adopted. Each beam was analyzed using strain compatibility approach
in order to satisfy the section equilibrium. The analytical model was based on the
currently available concrete theory, which utilizes the material characteristics of the
concrete and reinforcement, as described by Collins and Mitchell, 1997 [7, 8].
4.1 Analytical Model
All specimens were designed according to the ACI 318-05

[4]. The designed specimens
also complied with the ECP [3] where the c/d ratio was checked to not exceed c
max
/d,
where c is the depth of the neutral axis and d is the overall depth of the section.
Modeling of each material was based on the experimental measurements from testing
and the analytical models documented in published literature [9, 10]. The midspan
deflection for each beam was determined by integrating the curvature along the beam.
The corresponding curvature at each loading increment was determined from moment-
curvature relationship. The deflection prediction was performed numerically from the
support to the mid-span section. The numerical integration was performed for 10
sections along half of the span. Tension stiffening of the concrete was not accounted for
in the analysis.
4.2 Verification of the Analytical Model
In order to verify the analytical model, the predicted midspan deflections were
compared with the measured values as shown in Fig. 10. The verification process was
performed for both conventionally- and MMFX-reinforced concrete beams. Table 4
presents a summary of analytical and experimental failure loads for all beams.
Throughout the analysis, the predicted and measured service load deflections showed
good agreement with less than 5% difference.
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5 DESIGN GUIDELINES
5.1 Basis of Current Design Practice
Based on the current design practice, the design of a flexural member should take into
account the overall behavior of the member throughout the service range and up to the
nominl capacity of the member. Beginning with the 1963 ACI 318 code, flexural
members were required to have reinforcement ratios not greater than 75 percent of the
balanced reinforcement ratio
b
. By 1993, this criterion had been in use for 30 years,
and the behavior of flexural members was judged to be satisfactory. The current
criterion based on tensile strain in the reinforcement was selected to provide similar
behavior to that experienced under the 0.75
b
criterion.
.
Flexural members designed in
accordance with ECP are required to comply with the limitation of the (c
max
/d) which
corresponds to steel strain ranges from 0.003 to 0.0045 mm/mm.
5.2 Desirable Behavior for Flexural Members
In general, good behavior of a member is related to ductility. Using high-strength
materials as flexural reinforcement, the ductility ratio defined as the ratio of ultimate
curvature/deflection to the curvature/deflection at yielding of the main reinforcement is
not the only measure of desirable behavior. Instead, the ratio of nominal strength
behavior to service load behavior, referred to as the deformability ratio, may be a more
suitable indicator.
5.2 Nominal Strength Analysis
Fig. 10 presents the relationship between the nominal moment capacity of a singly
reinforced T-section and the reinforcement ratio using cracked section analysis. The
measured capacities of the MMFX-reinforced concrete beams are also shown for
comparison. The experimental results are in good agreement with the predicted values
for different beams. The predicted balanced reinforcement ratio,
b
, was 1.36 percent
for the sections considered. For a given reinforcement ratio less than 1.36 percent and
above 0.67 percent, tension-controlled failure occurred. The minimum reinforcement
ratio to be used with the MMFX is 0.67 percent to prevent rupture of the reinforcement.
5.3 Design Resistance Factor Guidelines
ACI 318-02 has included provisions to allow design of flexural members exhibiting
both compression- and tension-controlled failures using conventional steel. Since
sections exhibiting a compression controlled failure exhibit lower ductility and provide
inadequate warning prior to failure, ACI 318-02 requires that designers use a resistance
factor, , of 0.65 for members with a failure strain in the reinforcement of less than
0.002. For tension-controlled sections in which the reinforcement exhibits substantial
plastic deformation prior to failure (strain in the reinforcement greater than 0.005), a
resistance factor, , of 0.9 is permitted. Between these limits, sections are considered to
be in the transition region and the resistance factor varies linearly, Since MMFX has a
yield strain of 0.006, these limits need to be re-evaluated to ensure that design of
MMFX-reinforced concrete members also exhibit adequate ductility [11].
For a general reinforced concrete section and a specified reinforcement ratio, the
moment-curvature relationship of the section can be established. From the moment
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RCS-008-7
curvature relationship, the ductility, , of the section can be calculated as
u
/
y
where
u
is the section curvature at ultimate and
y
is the section curvature at yield. This
procedure can be followed for a series of reinforcement ratios, for a given concrete
strength. Fig. 11 presents the relationship between reinforcement ratio and ductility for
sections reinforced with conventional and MMFX steel for a concrete cylindrical
compressive strength of 25 MPa. Various values of the concrete compressive strength
can be used in ductility calculations to highlight the effect of concrete grade on the
balanced, minimum and maximum reinforcement ratios. Fig. 12 presents the
relationship between reinforcement ratio and ductility for sections reinforced with
MMFX rebars for a concrete cylindrical compressive strength of approximately 25, 42
and 57 MPa, respectively. The balanced reinforcement ratio,
b
, was calculated as 1.36,
1.4 and 1.42 percent for the sections using compressive strength of 25, 42 and 57 MPa,
respectively. For a given reinforcement ratio less than 1.4 percent and above 0.75
percent tension-controlled failure occurred for concrete compressive strength of 42
MPa. Whereas it is observed that for reinforcement ratios between 1.42 and 0.81 percent
for concrete compressive strength of 57 MPa, tension failure takes place. The minimum
reinforcement ratio to be used with the MMFX is 0.67, 0.75 and 0.81 percent using
concrete compressive strength of 25, 42 and 57 MPa, respectively. For design of
flexural members reinforced with MMFX, the maximum ratio of reinforcement, is
0.75 of the balanced ratios proposed above. To permit using a resistance factor of 0.9,
sections reinforced with MMFX should provide a ductility comparable to that of
sections reinforced with conventional steel when the strain in the steel reinforcement at
failure is equal to or higher than 0.005. As recognized from Fig. 11, this corresponds to
ductility, , of 2.24 and a failure strain in the MMFX reinforcement of 0.015 mm/mm.
To maintain consistency with ACI 318-02, it is reasonable to use a reduction factor, ,
of 0.9 for sections reinforced with MMFX when the strain at failure in the section is 2.5
times the yield strain or 0.015 mm/mm. Therefore, for MMFX-reinforced sections,
compression-controlled failures occurs, when the strain in the MMFX reinforcement at
ultimate is less than 0.006. A resistance factor, , of 0.65 should be used for
compression-controlled failures. Tension-controlled failures occurs when the strain in
the MMFX reinforcement at ultimate is greater than 0.015. A resistance factor, , of 0.9
may be used. In the transition region between these two strain limits, should vary
linearly between 0.65 and 0.9. The proposed variation of the resistance factor is
graphically in Fig. 13. The proposed strain limits for use with concrete members
reinforced with MMFX are selected to ensure sufficient ductility and warning prior to
failure of the members. At a reinforcement strain of 0.002 mm/mm, both members
reinforced with conventional steel and those reinforced with MMFX may exhibit similar
crack patterns and deflections. Beyond this strain conventional steel exhibits a
pronounced yielding plateau and substantial increases in crack width and deflections.
MMFX, however, still maintains appreciable stiffness well beyond this strain limit.
Consequently, concrete sections reinforced with MMFX may exhibit larger crack
widths and higher deflections at service load levels than other members reinforced with
conventional steel.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Based on observed behavior, experimental results and theoretical prediction, the
following conclusions can be drawn:
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RCS-008-8
1. The stress-strain relationship of corroded MMFX rebars attained almost the same
behavior after 12 months of severe exposure to wetting/drying cycles.
2. MMFX-reinforced concrete beams exhibited ductile flexural failure and provided
adequate warning through large deformations, and extensive cracking prior to
failure.
3. The use of MMFX provided better crack control after the yielding of reinforcement
in comparison to conventional steel.
4. Flexural behavior of MMFX-reinforced concrete beams can be modeled accurately
using cracked section analysis.
5. New minimum and maximum reinforcement ratios are introduced according to the
concrete compressive strength. These proposed reinforcement ratios should be taken
into consideration in design to ensure tension-controlled ductile flexural failure for
flexural members reinforced with MMFX rebars.

7 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge MMFX Technologies Corporation, CA, USA
for the donation of the materials used in this study. The authors are grateful to NSF for
its financial support for this research project. Special thanks are extended to the
technicians at the Structural Laboratory at the Faculty of Engineering at Ain Shams
University.
8 REFERENCES
[1] Vijay, P.V., Gangarao, V.S. H, and Prachasaree, W. Bending Behavior of Concrete
Beams Reinforced with MMFX Steel Bars. MMFX Steel Corporation: Technical
Resources. July 2002.
[2] MMFX Steel Corporation of America. Retrieved April 17, 2004 from the MMFX Steel
Corporation of America Web site,
http://www.mmfxsteel.com/technical_resources/Default.asp.
[3] ECP Committee, Cairo, 203-2007. Egyptian Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete and Design Aids.
[4] ACI Code (318-02) and Commentary (318R-02), American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI. Building Code requirements for structural Concrete.
[5] El-Hacha, R., and Rizkalla, S.H. Fundamental Material Properties of MMFX Steel
Rebars. North Carolina State University, NCSU-CFL Report No. 02-04. July 2002.
[6] ASTM A370-97-02: Standard Test Method and Definitions for Mechanical Testing of
Steel Products.
[7] Dawood M., Seliem H. and Rizkalla S. Evaluation of the Moment Capacity of Concrete
Beams Reinforced with MMFX Reinforcing Steel. 2006.
[8] Collins, P.M., and Michell D. Prestressed Concrete Basics. 1987.
[9] Park R., and Pauly T. by John Wiley and Sons. Reinforced Concrete Structures. 1975.
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RCS-008-9
[10] MacGregor, James G. and Wight, James K. Reinforced Concrete Mechanics and
Design.
[11] Dawood M., Seliem H., Hassan T. and Rizkalla S. Design Guidelines for Concrete
Beams Reinforced with MMFX Microcomposite Reinforcing Bars. International
Conference on Future Vision and Challenges for Urban Development. Cairo,
December 2004.

Table 1: Test Matrix
Beam
Label
Steel Type Reinforcement Reinforcement ratio %
fc'
MPa
XC1-1 MMFX 2 13 0.26 24.5
XC1-2 MMFX 2 16 0.46 24.5
XC1-3 MMFX 2 19 0.65 21.5
XC1-4 MMFX 4 19 1.3 24
XC2-3 MMFX 2 19 0.65 42
XC3-3 MMFX 2 19 0.65 57
SC1-1 40/60 2 13 0.26 26
SC1-3 40/60 2 19 0.65 26

Table 2: Tensile Strength of the MMFX
Stresses are given in MPa and strain in mm/mm

Table 3: Experimental Results Summary
Specimen
Max Load
Carrying Capacity
(kN)
Average
Maximum Steel
Strain
()
Average
Maximum
Concrete Strain
()
Maximum Mid-Span
Deflection (mm)
SC1-1 100 6000 3300 59
SC1-3 190 17000 3800 48
XC1-1 206 18000 2400 80
XC1-2 302 16000 3600 82
XC1-3 343 7000 3900 35
XC2-3 447 13000 3900 47
XC3-3 480 14500 3900 48
XC1-4 660 6950 4000 41
Table 4: Experimental and analytical Loads at failure
Max Load Carrying Capacity (kN)

Proportional
Limit
Strength
Yield
Strength
at 0.2%
offset
Youngs
Modulus
of
Elasticity
Ultimate
Strength
Strain
at 0.2%
offset
yield
Strength
Strain
at
Ultimate
stress
Strain
at
failure
13 mm 1244.7 1221.3 245000 1367.4 0.00325 0.00684 0.00715
16 mm 938.17 1104.9 163200 1126.4 0.00451 0.00901 0.00946
19 mm 1033.9 985 239800 1208 0.00414 0.00829 0.00863
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RCS-008-10
Experimental Analytical Diff%
SC1-1 100 102 2.0
SC1-3 190 195 2.6
XC1-1 206 210 1.9
XC1-2 302 310 2.6
XC1-3 343 349 1.7
XC2-3 447 450 0.8
XC3-3 480 485 1.0
XC1-4 660 661 0.2

4000
Stirrups
Sec. (1-1)
Main Steel
1600 mm
P/2 Main tensile reinforcement P/2
3800
500
4
0
0
8
0
250
1
1
Hangers

Elevation Side view
Fig. 1: Test specimen

Fig. 2: Corrosion Test Reservoir

L3
L4
L2 L1,4
4000
L1 L2,3
1
1
1200
400
1600 1200
250
Sec. (1-1)
500
4
0
0
8
0

Fig. 3: Locations of LVDTs on beams

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RCS-008-11

Fig. 4: Measured stress-strain behavior for
Corroded MMFX rebars
Fig. 5: Measured stress-strain behavior for
Corroded Grade (40/60) steel
Fig. 6: Load-midspan deflection behavior for
beams XC1-1, XC1-3, SC1-1& SC1-3
Fig. 7: Load-midspan deflection relationship for
beams XC1-1, XC1-2, XC1-3 & XC1-4
Fig. 8: Load-midspan deflection relationship for
beams XC1-3, XC2-3 & XC3-3
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RCS-008-12

Fig. 9: Failure mode for different specimens

SC1-1 SC1-3
XC1-1
XC1-2
XC1-3
XC2-3
XC3-3 XC1-4
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RCS-008-13
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0
Reinforcement Ratio, %
M
/
b
d
2
Analytical Calculations
Experimental Results

Fig. 10: Moment capacity as a function of reinforcing ratios

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
D
u
c
t
i
l
i
t
y
,

Compression Failure
= 2.24
40/60u
= 0.005
40/60y
= 0.002
MMFXu
= 0.015
MMFXy
= 0.006
MMFX Grade(40/60)
fc' = 24.5 MPa

Fig. 11: Effect of reinforcement ratios on ductility

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RCS-008-14
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
D
u
c
t
i
l
i
t
y
,

fc = 24.5 MPa
fc = 42 MPa
fc = 57 MPa
Compression Failure
= 2.24

MMFXu
= 0.015
MMFXu
= 0.006

Fig. 12: Effect of reinforcement ratios with various concrete strength on ductility

0.40
0.0
R
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

F
a
c
t
o
r
,

Transition
MMFXu
= 0.015
MMFXu
= 0.006
0.65
0.90
Compression Tension
Controlled Controlled
= 0.48 + 28

Fig. 13: Resistance factor for MMFX reinforced concrete flexural members

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13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





SEISMIC RESPONSE OF R.C MULTI STORY
BUILDINGS WITH SPECIAL CONFIGURATION

E. M. HIGAZY
Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: m.higazy@acmestrategies.com
M. EL SHARKAWY
Ministry of Irrigation, Egypt

ABSTRACT
It has become clear that the architectural configuration makes a major contribution on
the success or failure of the buildings seismic performance. This paper investigates,
analytically, the effect of soft and/or weak story mechanisms on the seismic
performance of RC frames with specific irregularities. The irregularities have been
classified as stiffness irregularity (soft story), weight (mass) irregularity, vertical
geometrical irregularity and capacity irregularity (weak story). These irregularities
usually caused irregularity in the seismic response of models. Three categories of
models were selected in the study based on soft and weak story criteria or condition and
based on the structural form of the models. The soft and weak stories were initiated with
respect to the definition of the uniform building code (UBC 1997). A time history
analysis was performed on the different models using Drain-2DX program under three
different earthquake records. This study concluded a noticeable increase in the drift at
soft/weak story levels and a reallocation of the stress on the building various elements
affected by the soft/weak story mechanisms.
KEYWORDS
Seismic, concrete, frames
1 INTRODUCTION
The significance of the earthquake problem stems partly, of course, from the terrible
consequences of a major earthquake in a heavily populated area. In this century, major
earthquakes have damaged or destroyed numerous buildings, bridges, and other
structures around the world.
However, the significance of earthquake problem has now extended beyond the
immediate need for earthquake resistant construction in seismic regions. In planning for
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RCS-009-2
the development of main and important buildings or projects, stringent seismic criteria
have been adopted which must be considered in their design.
The principal cause of failure of buildings in earthquakes is ground shaking, and
improving the resistance of buildings to ground shaking is the principal subject of this
study and other several studies.
A great deal of attention has been paid in the Uniform Building Code (UBC 1997), for
the earthquake analysis of irregular structures. The irregularities have been classified as
stiffness irregularity (soft story), weight (mass) irregularity, vertical geometrical
irregularity and capacity irregularity (weak story),
The soft story is defined as the one that the lateral stiffness is less than 70% of the
stiffness of the story above. The mass irregularity shall be considered to exist when
effective mass of any story is more than 150% of the effective mass of the adjacent
story. The vertical geometrical irregularity shall be considered to exist when horizontal
dimensions of the lateral force resisting system in any story is more than 130% of that
in the adjacent story. The weak story is defined as the one whose strength is less than
80% of the story above.
2 STRUCTURE MODEL
The analytical study in this paper was conducted using DRAIN-2DX, which is a general
purpose computer program for static and dynamic analysis of inelastic plane structures.
The structure is modeled as a 2D assemblage of non-linear elements connected at nodes.
The structure mass is assumed to be lumped at the nodes.
Three groups of models have been investigated. The fist group represents buildings
having soft and weak stories in different locations. The second group represents
buildings with soft stories along with mass irregularity in the vertical direction. The
third group represents buildings with weak stories.
Besides introducing different geometrical configurations, three earthquake records were
incorporated in the analysis to cover records with different frequency content.
3 GEOMETRY OF SELECTED MODELS
3.1 First group (soft-weak curtailed wall-frame)
10 and 15 story wall-frames were adopted in the first group. A 3.0 meter floor height
and a 6.0 meter bay width were kept constant. The shear wall is located in the middle
bay of wall-frames. Fig.1 shows the geometry of the 10 and 15 story wall-frames.
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Fig. 1: Geometry of the 10 and 15 story wall-frames
Wall-frames were designed under the Egyptian code of practice, to sustain gravity loads
considering a spacing of six meters between typical frames. Accordingly, the
corresponding mass was lumped at nodes at each floor level. Also, preliminary
equivalent static load analysis was performed to account for the effect of earthquake
loadings.
The wall elements were idealized by beam-column element with corresponding cross
sections, whereas, the beams were idealized by beam-column element having a
specified rigid part to idealize the infinitely rigid wall section. The soft and weak story
is introduced in the analysis by curtailment of the wall in both ground and first floors.
Also, as a control case, the non curtailed wall-frame was also analyzed. Frequency
analysis was conducted to determine the dynamic characteristics of the 10 and 15 story
wall-frames. Fig. 2 shows the finite element idealization of the 10 and 15 story wall-
frames while Fig. 3 shows the curtailed and non curtailed wall-frames.

Fig. 2: Finite element idealization of the 10 and 15 story wall-frames

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Non curtailed wall-frame Curtailed wall-frame
Fig. 3: Curtailed and non curtailed wall-frames
3.2 Second group (soft story)
A skeleton (beam-column) type frame was adopted in the second group. The main
criterion of this frame is the presence of two types of irregularity; first, weight
irregularity that the effective mass of middle story is 175% higher than the effective
mass of the adjacent story. Second, the vertical geometrical irregularity that a horizontal
dimension of the middle story is 175% higher than the adjacent story. The frame is a 10
story frame with 30.0 meter height, and with four bays of 4.0, 7.0, 7.0, and 4.0 meter
wide respectively. This frame has a recess from the fifth floor and the seventh floor
from both sides of the frame.
The frame was designed under the Egyptian code of practice, to sustain gravity loads
considering a spacing of five meters between typical frames. Accordingly, the
loadings.
The case to be analyzed in this model is the soft story phenomena. This soft story was
introduced by increasing the height of the first floor. Frequency analysis was conducted
to determine the dynamic characteristics of the soft story frames.
3.3 Third group (weak story)
A skeleton (beam-column) type frame was also adopted in this group. The main
criterion of this frame is the irregularity in the vertical direction like the existence of a
recess in particular floors of the frame. The frame is a 14 story frame with 42.0 meter
height, and with five equal bays 4.0 meter wide each. This frame has a recess above the
twelfth floor from the left side of the frame.
The frame was designed under the Egyptian code of practice, to sustain gravity loads
considering a spacing of five meters between typical frames. Accordingly, the
loadings.
The case to be analyzed in this model is the weak story phenomena. This weak story
was introduced by increasing the overall strength of the first floor. Frequency analysis
was conducted to determine the dynamic characteristics of the weak story frames.
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a) Second group frame b) Third group frame
Fig. 4: Second and third group frames
4 APPLIED EARTHQUAKE LOADS
In this paper, three different ground accelerations were applied. They had different
intensities ranging from high, intermediate, to low intensities. The available data of the
three used earthquake records are presented in table 1. Fig. 5 shows time history of
different earthquake records.
Table 1: Records of used earthquakes
Record name Date Time interval
Peak
acceleration
(cm/sec
2
)
Time of peak
acceleration
(sec.)
El Centro
Imperial
Valley,
California
Dec. 30, 1934 0.02 sec. -156.821 3.32
Southern
Imperial
Valley,
California
Oct. 15, 1979 0.02 sec 341.705 2.12
Parkfield,
California
June 27, 1966 0.02 sec -425.678 7.50

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RCS-009-6

Fig. 5: Time history of different earthquake records
5.1 Results of first group (soft-weak curtailed wall-frame)
The 10 and 15 story wall-frame models were analyzed on the basis of the following:
Non curtailed wall element (control case)
Curtailment of wall in both ground and first floors.
The investigated elements are shown in Fig. 6. Sample of output results tables are
presented in table 2 to table 5.

Fig. 6: Investigated elements of first group wall-frame
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RCS-009-7
Table 2: Results of first group - maximum drift (mm)
10 story wall-frame
Node II Node III
Earthquake
record
Non-curtailed Curtailed Non-curtailed Curtailed
El Centro
Imperial
Valley,
California
5.0 9.0 27.0 34.0
Southern
Imperial
Valley,
California
10.0 2.2 40.0 48.0
Parkfield,
California
4.0 9.8 25.0 34.0

Table 3: Results of first group - maximum drift (mm)
15 story wall-frame
Node II Node III
Earthquake
record
El Centro
Imperial
Valley,
California
3.0 6.9 30.0 30.0
Southern
Imperial
Valley,
California
7.0 1.4 90.0 99.0
Parkfield,
California
2.5 9.5 27.0 28.0

Table 4: Results of first group - maximum bending moment (m.t)
10 story wall-frame
Sec. II Sec. V
Earthquake
record
El Centro
Imperial
Valley,
California
120 91 105 67
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RCS-009-8
Southern
Imperial
Valley,
California
180 86 170 70
Parkfield,
California
90 77 120 71

Table 5: Results of first group - maximum bending moment (m.t)
15 story wall-frame
Sec. II Sec. V
Earthquake
record
El Centro
Imperial
Valley,
California
120 67 150 40
Southern
Imperial
Valley,
California
150 73 200 40
Parkfield,
California
75 47 150 27
5.2 Results of second group (soft story)
The results of the analysis present the drift of the frame with different ground story
heights for soft story frame (height was 3.0 meters the same as other floors, then was
analyzed with 4.0, 5.0, and 6.0 meters height). The stiffness was reduced that the
relative inertia of the floor is a function of the inertia divided by the cubic height of
column, so the relative inertia or stiffness of the floor is apparently reduced than the
next floor by about 0.42, 0.22, and 0.125. The results of the study carried out on the
second group are presented in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7: Effect of soft story under different earthquake records
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RCS-009-9
5.3 Results of third group (weak story)
The results of the analysis present the drift of the frame with different first story overall
strength. The overall strength of the first floor columns was increased by increasing
their cross section area to be apparently bigger than the ground floor overall strength by
about 150% and 200%.
The frame was analyzed on the basis of that the height of the ground floor equals 3.0
meters the same as other floors of the frame and the overall strength of the ground floor
less than the first floor by 65% and 50%. The results of the study carried out on the third
group are presented in Fig. 8.

Node I Node II
Fig. 8: Time history of horizontal displacement under different earthquake records
6 CONCLUSIONS
The main objective of this paper is to illustrate the behaviour of reinforced concrete
frames under earthquake loadings, with an emphasis on the soft and weak story
mechanisms. The results of the dynamic analysis carried out on the three selected
groups by applying three different earthquake records indicated the followings:
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RCS-009-10
A noticeable increase in the horizontal displacement of the base column head
and the top node of the frame of the first group after the curtailment of the wall
element.
General reduction of bending moment in the wall element in the ground floor
after curtailment for the wall-frame model. This is due to the decrease in cross
section and hence the decrease in bending moment capacity.
A noticeable increase in bending moment in the adjacent column element to the
wall in ground floor after curtailment for the wall-frame model. This is due to
the reallocation of loads on the structural elements as an effect of the
discontinuity of the wall section or discontinuity of overall stiffness and strength
between adjacent floors. This could be very critical with respect to the safety of
the structural elements as they were not originally designed to sustain thin
increase in bending moment.
The curtailment of the wall element has occasionally prevented the collapse of
the frame. This could be attributed to the change that happened in the dynamic
characteristics of the wall-frame due to curtailment.
The soft and weak story initiation can cause a huge increase in the drift of
building at soft/weak story level that can easily lead to actual failure. Also, the
effect of soft/weak story on drifts decreases and might be vanished from the
bottom to top of the building.
7 RECOMMENDATIONS
For the special configuration multi story reinforced concrete buildings, where the
creation of soft and/or weak story is dictated by aesthetics' requirements, it is
recommended to:
Introduce a rational method of analysis for building frame elements.
Inclusion of bracing system where applicable.
Refer to wall/core system for that part of the building.
8 REFERENCES
[1] Moamen El Sharkawy, "Seismic Response of Reinforced Concrete Frames",
Thesis, Ain Shams University, 2001.
[2] ACI publication SP-127, S.K. Ghosh, 1991.
[3] L. Wyllie and J. Filson, "Armenia Earthquake Reconnaissance Report",
Earthquake Spectra, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, El Cerrito,
California, August 1989.
[4] Ayman Abo El Fotoh Abdel Maksoud, "Analysis of Shear Walls Supported on
Frames", Thesis, Ain Shams University, 1987.
[5] DRAIN-2DX Structural Analysis program, user's manual.
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RCS-010-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





RATIONAL EFFECTIVE MOMENT OF INERTIA

AYMAN.A.EMBABY
DAR Al-Handassa (Shair and Partners)
E-mail: Ayman_embabyr@yahoo.com & ayman.embaby@dargroup.com

ABSTRACT
A proposed formula was introduced to rationalize the calculation of the flexural section
rigidity (EI coefficient) based on the secant stiffness. To comprehensively verify the
proposed formula along with the ACI formula, and other formulae available in
literature, a numerical model was developed. In the numerical model the non-linear
stress-strain relationship for concrete in compression was accounted for. Elastic-perfect
plastic stress-strain relationship for reinforcement was adopted. Strip method was
adopted through element cross section as well as member length. In contrast to the ACI
formula, as well as other tested formulae, in which the comparison study showed
relatively non-conservative deflection estimate for most ratios of the applied moment to
cracked moment, the proposed model gives consistent and relatively conservative
estimate for the deflection.

KEYWORDS
Effective moment of inertia, gross inertia, cracked inertia, reinforcement ratio.
1 INTRODUCTION
Branson (1963) derived a historical formula to predict what is called effective moment
of inertia for reinforced concrete sections. The effective inertia (I
eff
) represents
intermediate value between un-cracked sections, and cracked sections. Since then, this
formula has been adopted in the ACI 318 code. The well known formula in its general
expression is expressed as follows:
cr
a
a
cr
gr
a
a
cr
eff
I
M
M
I
M
M
I ) 1 ( ) ( + = (1)
Where M
cr
, and M
a
are the cracked, and the applied moment, I
gr
, and I
cr
are cracked, and
gross moment of inertia of the section. The parameter (a) was taken equal to 3. In the
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RCS-010-2
ACI Code, it is permitted to take the value obtained from Eq. (1) at mid-span section for
simple, and continuous spans, and at support for cantilever.
Several attempts have been dedicated to improve this equation to capture the moment
distribution across the beam length, as well as the mechanistic behaviour of the beam.
Based on experimental results of 200mm square section with 0.4% of the balanced
reinforcement (216-grade 60 bottom reinforcement, along with 110 top
reinforcement, with 38.4 MPa concrete compressive strength), Al-Zaid, et. Al., 1991
proposed the following equation to predict I
eff
:
cr
a cr
cr
a cr
eff
I
L
L
I
L
L
I ) 1 ( ) ( + = (2)
Where, L, and L
cr
are un-cracked and cracked length of the member, respectively. The
power (a), was taken equal to (M
cr
/Ma). 15% difference was reported as maximum
percentage between experimental results, and the proposed model for more than 95% of
the checked values.
Bischoff (2005), based on spring analogy for cracked, and the un-cracked lengths along
the beam suggested that these two zones of stiffness need to be modelled as two springs
in series, rather than in parallel as in Branson formula. Accordingly the following
formula was proposed:

g
g
cr
m
a
cr
cr
eff
I
I
I
M
M
I
I
=
1 1
(3)
Where the power m was found to be taken 2 to be correlated with Branson formula,
having m=3 in its inverted formula.
Other formula was proposed by Ezzeldin, (1998), in which both cracking length of the
beam, as well as steel ratio, and strength are considered.
It is worth noting that all of these formulae are merely empirical expressions that
depend on adjusting some parameters (power of the ratios of M
cr
/M
a
) to fit test results.
Based on the secant stiffness approach, a rational formula for the effective section
rigidity coefficient (EI) was proposed. The predicted deflection from the proposed
formula was compared to ACI formula, and other formulae available in literature.
For this purpose, a numerical analysis was developed to simulate the non-linear material
response of the reinforced concrete sections. In this model the beam length, as well as
the cross section is divided into segments, where non-linear stress-strain relationship,
yielding of the steel, cracking of the concrete, and the corresponding non-linear
moment-curvature relationship are accounted for.

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RCS-010-3
2. PROPOSED FORMULA

Based on a secant stiffness concept (Fig. 1) the following formula is proposed to
rationally express the equivalent section flexural rigidity coefficient (EI
eff
):

( )
( )
) (
cr y
cr y
cr a
cr
av
eff
M M
M M
M
EI

+
= (4-a)

Where,

z
E f
r
cr
/
= (4-b)

b f
f A
d
c
y s
y
7 . 0
002 . 0
= (4-c)

2
cr a
av
M M
M
+
= (4-d)

d f A M
y s y
87 . 0 = (4-e)

f
r
is the concrete tensile stress (f
r
-in MPa) was assumed as per ACI-318-02
c
f 7 . 0 =
(z) is the location of the neutral axis at pure-moment condition (Used to calculate I
cr
for
ACI formula) (d) is the section depth, b is the section width, and M
a
is maximum
moment (as used in other formulae). E is the concrete Youngs Modulus. It is worth
noting that M
a
is replaced with M
av
in Eq. 4(a) for M
a
/M
cr
1.5. This was found to
enhance the results.

Fig. 1 Moment-Curvature Curve
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RCS-010-4
3 NUMERICAL MODEL
3.1 Concrete Stress-Strain Relationship
Ken, and Par (1971) formula was adopted throughout the present model. It is expressed
as follows:
For
o

=
2
2
o o
c
f
(5-a)

For
c o 20

[ ] ) ( 1
0
= Z f
c
(5-b)

Where

o h u
Z
+
=
50 50
5 . 0
(5-c)

1000
3
50
+
=
c
c o
u
f
f
(5-d)

h
s h
s
b
"
50
75 . 0 = (5-e)

Where , and
o
are concrete current strain, and strain associated with f
c
, respectively.
F
c
is the concrete cylinder strength (psi), is ratio of volume of transverse
reinforcement, b is width of confined core measured to outside of hoop, s
h
, is the
spacing of the hoops.
For
o
= 0.002, and f
c
=280 MPa, 6mm stirrups @ 150mm spacing of 300mm-wide
section, the following stress-strain curve is obtained.

Fig. 2. Concrete Stress-Strain curve

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RCS-010-5
3.2 Steel Stress-Strain Relationship

Elastic perfectly plastic stress-strain relationship was assumed, where Es=2100t/cm
2
,

3.3 Section configuration
The nonlinear moment-curvature relationship is first derived through dividing specific
section into segments. The reinforcement of each segment is located at its centre (Fig.
2).

Fig. 3. Section piecewise segmentation

Based on specific location of the neutral axis, as well as predefined strain at the top
edge, the stress at the centre of each segment can be determined for both concrete, as
well as steel, based on the corresponding stress-strain relationship. Forces, as well as
moment are integrated at the centre of the section to give the balances internal forces at
the specific neutral axis location. Predefining specific axial load, and increasing the top
strain in an incremental process, along with searching for the corresponding location of
the neutral axis (z) that would satisfy equilibrium (External specified axial load with the
integrated internal axial load) the spectrum of the moment-curvature relationship can be
obtained, where the curvature () at any specified level of top strain (
top
) is defined as
follows:

Z
top
=
(5)

Accordingly, the flexural modulus of flexural rigidity (EI) is defined as follows:

M
EI =
(6)

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RCS-010-6
3.4 Member deflection

Any specific member is divided into segments at which moment is defined along the
member. In the present study, symmetrical moment was assumed along the member.
The predefined negative moment and load are given to achieve required moment
configuration. As a result of assumed symmetry, only half of the beam was considered,
and divided into eight equal segments (Fig. 4). Using the moment at the centre of each
element, the corresponding curvature () can be obtained from the section M- curve,
and accordingly the EI value can be determined to be used in the numerical integration
of curvature to obtain the deflection.

Fig. 4. Member piecewise segmentation

3.5 Model Verification

Model was verified with test data of 250mm-wide by 300mm-thick beam with 0.31%
reinforcement ratio. Reinforcement yield stress is 415 MPa, and concrete compressive
strength is 28 MPa. The beam is loaded at the third point. Figure 5(a) presents the
predicted load-deflection curves, as well the corresponding experimental results. Figure
5(b) presents the predicted moment-curvature curves adopted in the deflection
calculation.

(a) Predicted Load Deflection Curve
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RCS-010-7

(b) Predicted Moment-Curvature curve

Fig. 5. Model Verification

4. COMPARTIVE STUDY

Comparative study between predicted deflection of the model, and the corresponding
deflection predicted by proposed formula, ACI-formula, as well as those proposed by
Bischoff (2005), and Al-Zaid(1991). A 1.0m (wide) x 0.3m (thick) slab, and 0.3m
(wide)x0.8(thick) beam are incorporated in the present study. 0.5%, and 1%
reinforcement ratios were chosen for the slab, while 0.3%, 4.16%, and 0.8%
reinforcement ratios for the beam where chosen. In both cases, the slab/beam spans
were taken 8.0m. Different levels of Maximum applied mid-span moment (M
a
)
compared to cracking moment (M
cr
) were investigated.

Figures, 6, and 7 presents the relative deflection (deflection predicted by the
model/predicted by other formulae) for different moment configurations, including
having symmetrical negative moment at the member ends for beams, and slabs,
respectively, with 1% reinforcement ratios. Figures 8, and 9 presents the relative
deflection for different moment configurations for beams, and slabs, respectively, with
0.5% reinforcement ratios.
1- Generally, as can be noticed from figures 6 and 7, 8, and 9, at relatively higher
M
a
/M
cr
the proposed formula overestimate the deflection, while other formulae
underestimate the deflection. At lower ratios of M
a
/M
cr
all formulae
underestimate the deflection, with better percentage for the proposed formula.
2- For M
a
/M
c
r 2, and for 1 % reinforcement ratio for both the slab, and beam, and
for different moment configurations, both ACI, Bischoff, and Al-Zaid formulae
give satisfactory prediction for the deflection by underestimating the deflection
by less than 14% for the slab, and beams compared to the predicted results of the
model). On the other hand the proposed secant formula overestimates the
deflection by a maximum 9%.
3- As can be noticed from Fig. 8, and 9 , the proposed formula gives more accurate
estimate for the deflection more than ACI formula, and the other formulae for
members with low percentage of reinforcement. This is more manifested in Fig.
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RCS-010-8
9, where at the time the best estimate of the ACI, Bischoff, and Al-Zaid gives 14
% differences, the proposed formula gives 4 % differences.
4- For slab, and beam with lower reinforcement ratio (0.5%), both ACI, and
Bischoff formula underestimate deflection for M
a
/M
cr
> 1.75, with relatively
higher percentage than in the case of 1%. These ratios range from 10% to 20%.
This response was pointed out by Bischoff for the ACI formula at low
reinforcement percentage, but still suffers from the same, with relatively less
margin. As can be shown, that Al-Zaid formula significantly underestimates the
deflection, compared to the other formulae.

5 CONCLUSIONS

A proposed formula was introduced to determine the equivalent modulus of flexural
rigidity (EI
eq
), in which the secant stiffness was adopted. Comprehensive comparisons
with ACI formula, and other formulae with more rigorous numerical non-linear model
were conducted. The model accounts for nonlinear stress-strain relationship for concrete
and reinforcement. In contrast to the general trend of underestimating the deflected
shape (compared to that predicted by the numerical analysis) for ACI formula as well as
the other formulae, the proposed secant formula overestimates the deflection, being in
the conservative side. However, at lower applied moment, compared to M
cr
, all
formulae overestimate the deflection.

6 REFERENCES

[1] ACI-318, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete
[2] A. Scanlon, and P.H. Bischoff, (2008), Shrinkage Restraint and Loading
History on Deflection of Flexural Members, ACI, Structural Journal, July-
Augst, pp. 498-506
[3] D.C. Kent, and R. Park, (1971), Flexural Members with Confined Concrete,
Journal of Structural Divisions, ASCE, VoL. 97, ST7, July 1971, pp. 1969-1990.
[4] Ezzeldin Y. S., A.H. Riad, and N.G. Sherive, (1998), Short-Term Deflection
Prediction for Reinforced Concrete, Annual Conference of the Canadian
Society of Civil Engineering, Halifax, Nova Scotia.
[5] P.H. Bischoff and A. Scanlon, (2007), Effective Moment of Inertia for
Calculating Deflections of Concrete Members Containing Steel Reinforcement
and Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement, ACI, Structural Journal,
January-February, pp. 68-75.
[6] R. Park and T. Paulay, (1997), Reinforced Concrete Structures, John Wiley &
Sons.
[7] R.Z. Al-Zaid, A.H. Al-Shaikh, and M.M. Abu-Hussein, (1991), Effect of
Loading Type on the Effective Moment of Inertia of Reinforced Concrete
Beam, ACI, Structural Journal, March-April, pp. 184-198.

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RCS-010-9

(a)- M-ve/Ma=0

(b)- M-ve/Ma=0.4

(c)- M-ve/Ma=0.8

Fig. 6 Comparative study for 8.0m-span, 0.3x0.8m beam, with 1% reinforcement

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RCS-010-10

(a)- M-ve/Ma=0

(b)- M-ve/Ma=0.4

(c)- M-ve/Ma=0.8

Fig. 7 Comparative study for 8.0m-span, 0.3x1.0m slab, with 1% reinforcement
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RCS-010-11

(a)- M-ve/Ma=0

(b)- M-ve/Ma=0.4

(c)- M-ve/Ma=0.8

Fig. 8 Comparative study for 8.0m-span, 0.3x0.80m Beam, with 0.5%
reinforcement

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RCS-010-12

a)- M-ve/Ma=0

(b)- M-ve/Ma=0.4

(c)- M-ve/Ma=0.8

Fig. 9 Comparative study for 8.0m-span, 0.3x1.0m Slab, with 0.5% reinforcement

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RCS-011-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





BEHAVIOR OF EXTERNALLY PRESTRESSED CONTINUOUS
CONCRETE BEAMS IN FLEXURE

A. H. GHALLAB,
Associate professor, Structural Dept., Ain Shams University.
Al-Sarayat Street, Cairo, Egypt.
E-mail: ahghallab@yahoo.co.uk
A. S. ESSAWY
Professor of reinforced concrete, Structural Dept., Ain Shams University.
Al-Sarayat Street, Cairo, Egypt.
E-mail: asessawy@rusys.eg.net
M. ELMOGY
M.Sc candidate, Structural Dept., Ain Shams University,
E-mail: mogyman35@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Many bridges in the world are classified as deficient and in need of rehabilitation or
replacement because their load-carrying capacity is inadequate for today's increased
traffic loads. To improve their efficiency and increase their load capacity, several
methods can be used; one of them is the external prestressing. Also, to avoid
corrosion problem that faced this type of strengthening, Fibre Reinforced Plastics
(FRP) can be used instead of steel tendons. Within the different types of FRP, Parafil
rope was established to be well suited for prestressing system, combining the benefits
of light-weight, high strength, easy handling and efficient anchorage system. Five R.C
continuous beams with two spans were tested up to failure, one without any
prestressing, and the rest strengthened externally using Parafil Ropes Type G, four
beams were tested under two third point loading, and one beam under one
concentrated load at mid span. Two factors were studied to investigate their effect on
the behavior of strengthened beams. These factors are the value of the external
prestressing force and the applied load configuration. Also, the methods suggested by
different codes to calculate the ultimate stress of unbonded externally prestressed R.C.
beams were examined. The study indicated that external prestressing using Parafil
rope is a very powerful system for strengthening or rehabilitation of concrete
structures. Also, providing external prestressing force by a moderate amount improves
the stiffness and both cracking and ultimate flexural strength of concrete beams
without significant reduction in ductility. Also the cable profile should be carefully
chosen according to the applied load configuration, as the ultimate moment capacity
is sensitive to the loading configuration.
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RCS-011-2
KEYWORDS
External prestressing, prestressed concrete, continuous prestressed concrete, Parafil
Rope, ultimate moment.
1 INTRODUCTION
External prestressing method is considered as one of the efficient strengthening
methods used to increase the capacity of structural members especially in flexure and
shear.
However, the lack of data regarding the behaviour of external prestressed concrete
beams especially at ultimate can be considered as the main obstacle for wide use of
this system. This is because the behaviour of externally prestressed beams does not
only different than that of ordinary bonded prestressed beams due to the lack of bond
between tendons and concrete but also different than that of internal unbonded
prestressed concrete beams due to the reduction in the effective depth of the tendons
during loading.
Also, to overcome the corrosion problem that appears when used external steel
tendons and reduce or eliminate the maintenance cost of the structures, FRP started,
during the last decade, to replace steel as external tendons due to its high corrosion
resistance and high strength. This adds another difficulty during the analysis of the
prestressed concrete beams strengthened using FRP tendons, as the behaviour of
beams strengthened using FRP tendons may differ than those strengthened using steel
tendons especially at ultimate. This is because of the lower elastic modulus and the
linear stress-strain relationship till failure of FRP that can change the failure type of
the beam and affect on the increase of the tendons stress.
Although, several researches were carried out to study the behaviour of the beams
strengthened using unbonded or external steel tendons and examined the factors
affecting on it[1,2], few studies were carried out to study the behaviour of beams
strengthened externally using FRP tendons [3,4-7]. Also, most of these studies were
focused mainly on the determinate structures; simple beams, while the application of
the external prestressing in strengthening continuous beams, which are commonly
seen in practice, has not been adequately addressed and a few researches were
conducted for this purpose [3,8].
An extensive research was conducted at the faculty of engineering, Ain Shams
University to study the effect of several factors on the behavior of continuous
concrete beams externally strengthened using Parafil Ropes. This paper discusses the
effect of value of the external prestressing force and the loading pattern on the
behavior of the strengthened beams during service and ultimate stages. Also, a
comparison between the codes equations, proposed to calculate the tendon stress at
ultimate, and the test results were made to check their validity to calculate the
ultimate strength of the externally prestressed continuous beams using Parafil rope.
Test results show the improvement in the flexural strength due the external
prestressing
2 EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Five identical continuous beams with rectangular cross section (100x200 mm) and
total length 5.0 m were tested up to failure after externally strengthened using Parafil
rope. Figure (1) shows the concrete dimensions of the beams. Each beam was
-394-

RCS-011-3
reinforced using 2T12 high tensile steel bars at top and bottom. After about one
month from casting, each beam was externally prestressed using two Parafil ropes;
one on each side, then loaded up to failure. The external prestressing force during the
prestressing process and testing was measured in both Parafil ropes using two 100
KN- load cells at the end of the ropes as shown in Figure (2), while deflection at the
mid and at the third span was measured using six linear voltage differential
transducers (LVDTs). Before prestressing process, the load cells, LVDTs, and steel
strain gauges were connected to the data logging system. Table 1 shows the properties
of steel and Parafil rope while Table 2 shows the details of tested beams.
Electrical strain gauges

Fig. 1: Beam dimensions and reinforcement details

Fig. 2. External prestressing layout
TABLE 1. PROPERTIES OF STEEL AND PARAFIL ROPE
Stirrups High tensile steel Parafil Rope
Diameter (mm) 8 12 11/ (7.6)*
Area (mm2) 50.3 113.04 30.55 **
Yield strength 240 410 ----
Youngs modulus 200 200 126.5
Ultimate strength 550 650 1900
Ultimate strain (=
ult
%) 19 20 1.5
*Outside sheath diameter / fibres core diameter. ** Based on area of fibres in the core
-395-

RCS-011-4
TABLE 2: PROPERTIES OF TEST BEAMS (AT TEST DAY)
External prestressing force
Beam no.
L
o
a
d
i
n
g

T
y
p
e

f
cu

(MPa)
h
L
*

P
ex
(kN)
P
ex
/P
ult
*
*
.d
e
. at
midspan
(mm)***
d
e
' at
Support
(mm)***
Number
of
deviators
RC1 39 12 - - - - -
PC 1-2 39 12 36 30% 180 25 5
PC 1-1 40 12 48 40% 180 25 5
PC 1-3
2-L/3
40 12 60 50% 180 25 5
PC 3-2 1-L/2 39 12 36 30% 180 25 5
* L = effective span length ** P
ult
= ultimate tendon load *** measured from upper edge of beam
3 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:
3.1 Cracking pattern and failure mode
In reinforced concrete beam (RC1), cracks appeared over the interior support and
under the applied concentrated loads on both spans at almost the same load (about 35
kN), then spread and extended towards the concentrated load. As the load increased
cracks became more obvious with significant increase in width. Cracks on beam RC1
appeared earlier than those on the externally prestressed beams and its cracking
pattern was characterized by larger number and wider width of cracks compared to
that of externally prestressed beams. Also, the cracks on beam RC1 were more
distributed and extended faster than all other strengthened beams.
Failure of beam RC1 was ductile and accompanied by formation of plastic hinges at
the interior support and at the concentrated load in both spans as shown in Figure 3.

Fig. 3.General view of beam RC1 at failure
During loading, deflection of beam RC1 was higher than that of all the strengthened
beams. After yielding, beam RC1 show higher ductility and better cracks distribution.
Plastic hinges clearly appeared on both spans of beam RC1 before failure.
In externally prestressed beams, cracks appeared over the interior support and in only
one span at almost the same load. Then flexural cracks on the bottom of the other
span appeared at a higher load. As the load increased, additional cracks developed
simultaneously at the interior support and at the mid-span sections and previous
cracks extended. Near the ultimate load the cracks seem to concentrate on only one
span (left or right) and the rate of increase of crack width at this section was greater
than those on the other span.
-396-

RCS-011-5
During loading of strengthened beams and before yielding stage there was no sign of
concentration of deformation at a single crack location. While at failure, concrete
crushing at the bottom fibre of the section at the interior support location due to high
stress concentration at the support area (high bearing stress).
All of strengthened beams failed in flexural mode by forming plastic hinges at both
the interior support and the mid span regions. Figures (4 & 5) shows the failure mode
of beam PC1-2 and beam PC3-2 at mid span and at interior support.

a) At interior support b) At span
Fig. 4. Failure of beam PC 1-2 at concentrated load

a) At interior support b) At span
Fig.5. Failure of beam PC 3-2
3.2 EFFECT OF EXTERNAL PRESTRESSING FORCE VALUE (Group G1)
Increasing the external prestressing force increased the resisting prestressing moment
that counterbalance the applied moment and improved the beam strength. Also,
increasing the external prestressing force increased the compressive stress at the
tension side and hence reduced the net tensile stress. This improved the cracking
resistance of the beam and enabled the beam to resist higher load.
3.2.1 Cracks pattern
The number and the distance between the flexural cracks of beams PC1-2, PC1-1 and
PC1-3 (Pex = 36, 48 & 60 kN respectively) are slightly different. Flexural cracks of
beam PC1-1 appeared at a load (117 kN) higher than that of beam PG1-2 (100 kN)
and lower than that of beam PG1-3 (128 kN). During loading, it was observed that as
the external prestressing force increased the cracks extension and the cracks widths
(using visual observation) decreased. Also, the difference between the cracks patterns
on both spans was significant at the higher prestrstressing values.
3.2.2 Load Deflection Behaviour
Figure (6) shows the relation between load and deflection for beams PC1-2, PC1-1,
PC1-3 (P
ex
= 36, 48 & 60 kN) respectively along with the reinforced concrete beam
-397-

RCS-011-6
(RC1). It can be seen that, and as expected, the load-deflection characteristics were
almost similar up to the cracking load. Beyond yielding, beam PC 1-3 registered a
smaller deflection at any particular load than the other two beams, while beam PC 1-2
had higher deflection at any load.
0.00
50.00
100.00
150.00
200.00
250.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Deflection (mm)
RC1
PC 1-2
PC 1-1
PC 1-3
Pex =58 kN
Pex =35 kN
Pex =48 kN

Fig. 6. Load deflection curves of group G1 at right span.
Comparing the beams before and after cracking, it can be seen that there was a slight
improvement in the beam stiffness as the external prestressing force increased. Also,
as prestressing force increased the ultimate beam strength increased yet the beam
ductility, represented in the maximum deflection, is decreased.
As can be seen from Figure 6, after cracking, deflection of beams in group G1
decreased as the applied external prestressing force increased, and its stiffness
increased as the external prestressing force increased. This is because the increase of
external prestressing force reduced cracks widths and its propagation, hence, reduced
the reduction in the beam stiffness after cracking.
As shown in Figure 6, the increase in the external prestressing force has a negligible
effect on the deflection before yielding, while at ultimate the deflection and ductility
are inversely proportional to the external prestressing force.
3.2.3 Cracking and Ultimate Load Resistances
Both cracking and ultimate loads increased as the external prestressing force
increased. However, the increase in the cracking moment was higher than the increase
in the ultimate moment.
The cracking load of beams PC1-2, PC1-1 and PC1-3 (P
ext
= 36, 48, 60 kN) increased
by 82 %, 150 %, and 200 % respectively, while the ultimate load increased by 83%,
97 and 106% respectively, compared to the reinforced concrete beam.
Comparing the beams PC1-1 and PC1-3 to beam PC1-2, it can be seen that the
increase in the cracking load of PC1-1 and PC1-3 were 37% and 65%, while the
increase in the ultimate loads were 8% and 12%.
The increase in the cracking strength is due to the increase in external compression
force in addition to the increase in prestressing moment that reduced the tensile
stresses in the concrete section and consequently delayed cracking. However, the
ultimate strength of the strengthened beams is slightly affected by the increasing in
external prestressing force.
-398-

RCS-011-7
The ultimate loads of PC 1-2, PC 1-1 and PC 1-3 were slightly different, and
increasing the external prestressing force by 67% (PC 1-3 compared to PC 1-2) just
increased the ultimate load by 12%. This is because the ultimate strength, which
depends mainly on the prestressing tendons (areas and stresses) in tension and
concrete in compression, was controlled by the concrete strength. The failure of the
strengthened beams was due to concrete crushing, while the stress in Parafil rope
never reached its ultimate strength.
From Figure 7 it can be seen that both cracking and ultimate loads vary linearly with
the external prestressing force and the amount of increase in load at both cracking and
ultimate loads are almost the same.

0
50
100
150
200
250
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
.

P
ext
(kN)
Cracking Load Ultimate Load

Fig. 7: Applied load-External prestressing force relation
3.2.4 External Prestressing Force (Parafil Rope Load)
The relation between the applied load and the external prestressing force had a shape
similar to that between the applied load and deflection.
Figure 8 shows the relation between the applied load and the increase in Parafil rope
load up to failure of beams PC1-2, PC1-1, PC1-3 (Pex = 36, 48, 60 kN) respectively
while Table 3 shows the value of external prestressing force at different stages..
Before cracking the increase in the rope load was small. After cracking there was a
rapid increase in the rope load in all beams. The increase in rope load of test beams
before cracking was significantly lower than after cracking.
TABLE 3. EXTERNAL PRESTRESSING FORCE VALUE AT DIFFERENT LOADS
Rope load at different stages (kN)
Beam no. Initial rope load
(kN)
Cracking load
(P
cr
)
Yielding load
(P
y
)
Ultimate load
(P
ult
)
PC1-2 36 36.72 40.46 71.42
PC1-1 48 48.5 56.1 78.6
PC1-3 60 60.84 66 85.62
PC1-2 36 36.72 40.46 71.42
PC3-2 35.28 36.15 40.91 66.53

-399-

RCS-011-8

0
50
100
150
200
250
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Force in prestressing ropes (kN)
PC 1-2
PC 1-1
PC 1-3

Fig. 8. Relation between applied load and prestressing force of group G1
At ultimate, the rate of increase in rope load increased as the initial external
prestressing force decreased. While the ultimate rope load increased as the initial
external prestressing force increased. The increase in rope load at ultimate relative to
the breaking ultimate load of beams PC 1-, PC 1-1 and PC 1-3 was 60%, 66% and
71% respectively.
During loading, the increase in external prestressing of beam PC 1-3 with the highest
initial external prestressing force was lower than the other two beams, also in beam
PC 1-2 with the lowest initial external prestressing, the increase in prestressing force
was the highest in the group.
At cracking stage there was very slight increase in prestressing force in cables,
moreover there was almost no difference in this increase among the beams of the
group, on the other hand at ultimate stage there was a significant difference in the
increase of external prestressing force.

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

i
n

P
r
e
s
t
r
e
s
s
i
n
g

f
o
r
c
e

%

P
ext
(kN)

Fig. 9. Relation between the increase in External prestressing force and the initial external
prestressing force
-400-

RCS-011-9
From Figure 9, it can be seen that the value of the initial external prestressing force
has a negligible effect on the increase in external prestressing force at cracking, while
at ultimate the rate of increase in the external prestressing force decreases as the initial
prestressing force increases. the ratio of the ultimate pretressing force to the rope
breaking force of beams PC 1-2, PC 1-1 and PC1-3 were 60, 66 and 71 %
respectively.
3.3 EFFECT OF LOADING PATTERN (G2)
Using loading configuration composed of one concentrated load at midspan (instead
of two concentrated load at the third span) with external prestressing cable deflected
at the third span resulted in concentrating deformation under the applied load rather
than distributed it between the two concentrated loads. This led to higher deflection,
rapid increase in loss of effective depth of the external prestressing force especially at
ultimate, and rapid failure, hence, reduced the beam strength, which can affect the
optimum utilization of the external prestressing system.
3.3.1 Cracks Patterns
Figures 4 and 5 shows the cracks patterns of beams in group (G2). For beam PC 3-2
(loaded with one concentrated load at the midspan), cracks appeared on top fibre at
the interior support and on bottom fibre at the mid span at almost the same load (50
kN). Cracks were concentrated at the applied loads in the mid span and at the interior
support. As the load increased, cracks were extended towards the concentrated load,
while for beam PC 1-2 cracks appeared at load (100 kN) and extended almost
vertically specially between the applied loads.
PC 1-2 which was loaded with two-third point loading performed a better cracks
resistance with relatively smaller cracks width compared to PC 3-2. The flexural
cracks of PC 1-2 at both sides of the internal support started at a distance shorter than
those observed in case of PC 3-2.
At the same loading level, bending moment due to one concentrated load is different
from bending moment due to third point loading. Therefore the two beams are
compared at the same bending moment level (-ve moment at the interior support).
First crack of PC 1-2 appeared at the internal support at (-12.8 kN.m), while first
crack at the internal support for beam PC 3-2 appeared at (-11 kN.m).
Applying one concentrated load at mid-span (PC 3-2), compared to third point
loading (PC 1-2) resulted in the following:
Cracks were concentrated at midspan with tendency to deviate towards the
concentrated load due to the effect of shear stress, while the cracks were
almost vertical and extended from lower tension fibers to upper compression
fibers in case of two point loads.
More cracks with wider distribution over the intermediate support were
observed in case of one point loading compared to two points loading.
Significant increase in crack width at the same loading level was observed in
case of one concentrated load.
This is can be attributed to the concentration of stresses at the mid-span at the loading
position that was accompanied by a higher rate of loss in effective depth. This
-401-

RCS-011-10
decreased the ability of external prestressing force to counterbalance the applied load
and to resist the propagation of cracks. Consequently, lower cracking resistance of
beam PC 3-2 was obvious compared by beam PC 1-2, with early formation of cracks
at intermediate support and mid-span.
3.3.2 Load-Deflection Behavior
The relation between moment at the internal support and the deflection of beam PC1-
2 and that of beam PC3-2 are shown in Figure 10. As can be seen, both beams had
almost the same moment-deflection relation at early loading stages; however, as the
applied load increased beam PC 3-2 started to suffer rapid decrease in stiffness
compared to beam PC 1-2
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

M
o
m
e
n
t

(
k
N
.
m
)
Deflection (mm)
PC 1-2
PC3-2

Fig. 10. (-ve Moment deflection) relation for G3 at right span
At cracking the maximum deflection were almost equal in both beam PC 1-2 and
beam PC 3-2 as both beams had the same stiffness. After cracking beam PC 3-2
suffered a rapid loss in stiffness compared to beam PC1-2 as cracks concentrated
under the applied load and rapidly extended towards the load. This results in a higher
deflection and rapid formation of the plastic hinges. After yielding cracks spread on
the beam PC1-2 and rapidly extended. This resulted in a rapid loss in stiffness and
higher deflection at ultimate compared to beam PC 3-2.
It can also be seen from figure 11 that the loading type seems to have a slight effect
on deflection at cracking, while at ultimate the deflection is inversely proportional to
the shear span (span between load and support).
-402-

RCS-011-11

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
D
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

(
m
m
)
.

Distance between applied load and external support (m)
At cracking At ultimate

Fig. 11. Deflection-Shear span relation
3.3.3 Cracking and Ultimate Loads
Although beams PC 1-2 and beam PC 3-2 cracked at loads equal 51kN and 44 kN
respectively, It should be noted that though these two loads are different in value, the
corresponding cracking moments were approximately the same (about 9 kN.m). This
is because both beams had the same eccentricity at the critical section. The ultimate
load was approximately 185 and 142 kN corresponding to moments of 35 and 30
kN.m for beams PC 1-2 and PC 3-2 respectively. The difference in these moments is
approximately 16%. This is attributable to the rapid loss of eccentricity of beam PC3-
2 at the critical section.
3.3.4 External Prestressing Force (Parafil Rope Load)
Figure 12 shows the relation between force in prestressing cables and negative
bending moment at internal support for beams PC1-2 and PC3-2.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

M
o
m
e
n
t

(
k
N
.
m
)
Force in prestressing ropes (kN)
PC 1-2
PC3-2

Fig. 12. Relation between (ve) moment and prestressing force of G3

-403-

RCS-011-12
During loading there was a relatively small increase in prestressing force and the rate
of increase in external force was negligible at this stage.
After cracking a difference in the rate of increase between the two beams is observed.
The used load configuration with beam PC3-2 caused formation of yield point at
lower bending moment compared to beam PC1-2. It can be seen that the force in
ropes of beam PC 3-2 started to increase rapidly at lower bending moment relative to
beam PC 1-2.
4 CALCULATION OF STRESS OF PRAFIL ROPE AT ULTIMATE
To calculate the ultimate moment strength of the strengthened beam, the stress in
Parafil rope should be known. Under loading, the increase in strain in the unbonded
tendons is averaged (as no bond exists) over the whole length of the tendon, and thus
it is much smaller than the increase in strain of the bonded tensile steel taken at the
section of maximum moment.
This leads to a difficulty in analysis such type of beams. To simplify the analysis of
externally prestressed concrete beams, several equations have been suggested by the
codes of practice to calculate the stress of the external tendon at ultimate.
ACI 318 [9]
ACI-318 [9] has suggested the following equation to determine stress in unbonded
tendons depending on the span to depth ratio as approximate values.
For a span-to- depth ratio of 35 or less
p
c
pe ps
f
f f
100
'
70 + + =

py

or (
pe
+ 420) MPa (1)
For a span-to- depth ratio greater than 35
p
c
pe ps
f
f f
+ + =
300
'
70

py

or (
pe
+ 200) MPa (2)
Where
bd
A
ps
p
= and f
pe
: effective prestressing
BS 8110 [10]
BS8110 [10] suggested the following equations to determine ps

pu
cu
ps pu
pe ps
f
bd f
A f
d L
f f 7 . 0 7 . 1 1
/
7000
+ =
(3)
Figure 13 shows the relation between actual and calculated results using the previous
equations. As can be seen, BS8110 show higher accuracy than both ACI318
-404-

RCS-011-13

0
400
800
1200
1600
P1-2 PC1-1 PC1-3 PC3-2
S
t
r
e
s
s

o
f

P
a
r
a
f
i
l

R
o
p
e

(
M
P
a
)
Initial stress Actual ACI BSI

Fig.13. Comparison between actual and calculated tendon stress at ultimate.
External prestressed cables of FRP materials have shown to be an alternative to steel
tendons. Good durability properties and a first-rate behaviour in creep and relaxation
have given very good results so far. Within the different types of FRP, Parafil Rope
was established to be well suited for prestressing system, combining the benefits of
light weight, high strength, easy handling and efficient anchorage system.
The effect of several factors on the behaviour of continuous prestressed concrete
beams after externally strengthened using Parafil rope Type G was experimentally
investigated. five continuous prestressed beams, one was ordinary reinforced concrete
beam, and the rest strengthened externally using Parafil Rope type G then tested up to
failure. Two factors were studied to investigate their effect on the behaviour of
strengthened beams; value of external prestressing force and loading pattern.
Based on the results of the experimental and analytical investigations, the following
conclusions are obtained:
5.1 General Conclusions
External prestressing using Parafil rope is a powerful system for strengthening
or rehabilitation of continuous concrete structures.
Parafil rope Type G is an excellent alternative to steel cables. Properties and
anchorage system of this kind of FRP have given very good results so far.
The error resulting from using the effective external prestressing force in
flexural strength calculations during the uncracked stage can be neglected
since the increase in the prestressing force before cracking is very small.
Both BS8110 and ACI318 equations can be used to calculate the stress of
Parafil Rope at ultimate. However, BS8110 shows higher accuracy than
ACI318.
5.2 Effect of External Prestressing Force
The increase in the external prestressing force results in, reducing crack
propagation and improving stiffness after cracking and reducing deflections
-405-

RCS-011-14
Increase in the external prestressing force has a negligible effect on both
stiffness and deflection before cracking while after cracking the increase in
external prestressing force improves beam stiffness and reduces deflections
(less ductile behavior).
Increase in the external prestressing force can change the behavior of
strengthened beams at ultimate from ductile behavior to brittle behavior.
Hence, the external prestressing force should be limited to avoid brittle failure.
The external prestressing force significantly increases both the cracking and
ultimate moments compared to those before strengthening. However, the gain
in the ultimate moment due to the increase in external prestressing force is
relatively small.
The value of the initial external prestressing force has a negligible effect on
the increase in external prestressing force at cracking, while at ultimate the
rate of increase in the external prestressing force decreases as the initial
prestressing force increases.
5.3 Effect of loading pattern
Before cracking, loading pattern has almost no effect on beam stiffness
(ductility) while after cracking stiffness of strengthened beams loaded using
two concentrated loads at the third points of the span is higher than that loaded
using one concentrated at the middle. In addition, at ultimate it showed more
ductile failure.
The loading pattern has a negligible effect on the cracking moment, while the
ultimate moment is inversely proportional with shear span
Before cracking, the position of the applied load has no significant effect on
the increase of the rope load. Nevertheless, after cracking, the flexural strength
of the beam reduces as the shear span increases.
The loading pattern should be taken into consideration when analyzing and
designing externally prestressed continuous beams.
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is funded by Bibliotheca Alexandrina. The authors are most grateful for
this support and also to Linear Composite Ltd (UK) for providing Parafil rope
7 NOTATION
A
ps
=Area of prestressing tendons
b= width of section
d= effective depth of steel bars
f
c
= concrete cylinder strength
f
cu
= concrete cube strength
pe
= Effective prestressing stress
ps
= Stress in unbonded tendons
pu
= Ultimate stress of unbonded tendons
-406-

RCS-011-15
py
= yield stress of unbonded tendons
L = Effective span length.
p
=ratio of prestressing tendons area
8 REFERENCES
[1]. Aparicio A.C., Ramos G. and Casas J.R. (2002) Testing of externally prestressed
concrete beams Engineering Structures 24, pp 73-84
[2]. Harajli M., Mabsout M. and Al-Hajj J. (2002) Response of Externally Post-Tensioned
Continuous Members ACI Structural Journal, V.99, No.5, October, pp 671-680
[3]. Aravinthan T., Mutsuyoshi H., Matupayont S. and Machida A. (1995) Moment
Redistribution in Prestressed Concrete Continuous Beams with External Tendons,
Transactions of the Japan Concrete Institute, v 17.
[4]. Dolan C.W., Bakis C.E. and Nanni A. (2001) Design recommendations for concrete
structures prestressed with FRP tendons FHWA DTFH61-96-C-00019, Final
Report, August.
[5]. Ghallab A. H., (2001), Strengthening Prestressed beams using Parafil Ropes as
external tendons Doctoral Thesis, University of Leeds, UK
[6]. Ghallab A. and Beeby A. W. (2001), Behaviour of PSC beams strengthened by
unbonded Parafil Ropes. FRPRCS-5 Conference, Non-metallic reinforcement for
Concrete Structures. Cambridge, July.
[7]. Ghallab a. and Beeby A. W. (2005), Factors affecting the external prestressing force
in externally strengthened prestressed concrete beams. Cement and Concrete
Composites, vol. 27; number 9-10, pp 945-957.
[8]. Aravinthan T., Mutsuyoshi H.,(2005) Flexural Behavior of Two-Span Continuous
Prestressed Concrete Girders with Highly Eccentric External Tendons, ACI structural
journal , V.102, Issue 3, May,pp. 402-411.
[9]. ACI 318 (2008). Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and
Commentary. American concrete institute, Michigan, USA.
[10]. British Standards Institution (1997). BS8110 Structural use of concrete, Part 1: Code of
practice for design and construction. BSI, London. UK.

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RCS-012-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





SEISMIC RESPONSE OF ELEVATED REINFORCED CONCRETE
TANKS
AYMAN HUSSEIN HOSNY KHALIL
Professor, Structural Engineering Department, Ain Shams University
1 El-Sarayat Street, Abbassia, Cairo, 11551
E-mail: ayman_hh_khalil@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
In determining the response of elevated tanks to earthquakes, neither the stored fluid nor
the elevated tank system might be solved independently of the other due to unknown
interface forces. The finite element technique provides a powerful tool that helps in
obtaining the tank response taking into account the fluid-structure interaction. In the
current paper, it is the intent to examine theoretically the response of elevated tanks
during earthquake events. Different finite element idealizations for the fluid in fluid-
structure interaction problems were developed. The difference between them is, mainly,
in the choice of the degree of freedom representing the fluid. A literature review for the
different idealization methods in ANSYS is presented. The available element types to
characterize fluid in the commercial finite element program ANSYS are presented.
Three verification problems involving fluids and fluid-structure interaction are
presented. Finally, the paper provides a parametric study aiming at determining the
nonlinear time history response of elevated tank systems to scaled El-Centro Earthquake
excitation. The paper concludes with a simplified method for determining the response
of elevated tanks during earthquakes.
KEYWORDS
Sloshing, liquid storage tanks, seismic response, fluid structure interaction, elevated
tanks, rectangular tanks.
INTRODUCTION
Frequently two or more physical systems interact with each other, with the independent
solution of any one system being impossible without simultaneous solution of the
other(s). Such systems are known as coupled and of course such coupling may be weak
or strong depending on the degree of interaction. An obvious coupled system is that of
fluid-structure interaction in liquid storage tanks. In these systems, neither the fluid nor
the structure can be solved independently of the other due to unknown interface forces.
The dynamic interaction between an elastic tank and a fluid has been the subject of
intensive investigations in recent years. The interaction brings together aspects
associated with both fluid dynamics and structural dynamics. The challenge to solve
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RCS-012-2
such systems has attracted the attention of engineers and scientific researchers over the
past few decades [1].
In the present study, it is the intent to introduce and discuss the problem of fluid-
structure interaction in liquid storage reinforced concrete elevated tanks. Elevated
reinforced concrete liquid storage tanks are used in water distribution systems and in
petroleum industries for storing combustible liquids. Typically, tank is supported on a
structural tower composed of a single shaft or structural frame. The significant damage
to elevated tanks during recent earthquakes initiated extensive research on their seismic
analysis of [2, 3, 4] (see Figure 1). This, in part, helped in identifying and improving
deficiencies in codes of practices. As a result, international codes of practice have
undergone significant changes [5]. Seismic analysis of liquid storage elevated tanks
differs from buildings in two ways: (1) during seismic event, liquid inside the tank
exerts hydrodynamic force on tank walls and supporting elements, and (2) liquid-
containing tanks are generally less ductile and have low redundancy as compared to
buildings [6]. Due to low ductility and redundancy, lateral design seismic forces for
tanks are usually higher than that for buildings with equivalent dynamic characteristics.
To accommodate the larger forces, international codes specify lower values of response
modification factor or its equivalent factor. On the other hand, tanks have higher utility
and damage consequences, hence, international codes specify a higher importance factor
for liquid-containing tanks. This, further, raises design seismic forces for elevated
tanks. Though the aforementioned general features are considered by various codes,
their implementation is varied from one code to the other triggering different design
forces [5]. In this paper, two international codes dealing with elevated liquid storage
tanks are reviewed with differences in their provisions are being highlighted. The
literature reports a variety of analytical and numerical techniques for formulating linear
slosh models for simple geometries. All linear analyses share a common presumption
that the disturbance of the free surface is small in magnitude in comparison to the liquid
depth and the wavelength. In such analyses, hydrodynamic forces in a tank-liquid
system are evaluated using mechanical analogy in the form of spring-mass system.
These forces simulate the impulsive and convective mode of vibration of a tank-fluid
system [7, 8].

Figure 1. Failures of elevated tanks during recent earthquakes [4]
This paper discusses the use of the finite element method in predicting the response of
elevated reinforced concrete tanks during seismic events. The method provides a
powerful tool to deal with such problems. Different finite element idealizations for the
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RCS-012-3
fluid in fluid-structure interaction problems were developed. The difference between
them is, mainly, in the choice of the degree of freedom representing the fluid. A
literature review is presented of the different idealization methods in ANSYS.
Verification examples showing the method capability to model the fluid structure
interaction is presented. In the first example, the method is used to compute the
fundamental sloshing and acoustic modes of water in a rectangular tank. In the second
example, the interaction of fluid and structural spring system is evaluated and compared
to approximate theoretical solution. The third example compares the straining actions
and the water movement in an elevated tank to those predicted by Housner [7]. A
parametric study is, then, presented in order to compute the seismic response of elevated
tanks. Finally, conclusions and recommendations for analysis of elevated liquid storage
tanks are provided.
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
Egyptian Code for Loads [9] does not specify any provisions on computing seismic
forces on elevated liquid storage tanks. One focus of this paper is to present the
international code provisions related to the design seismic forces of these structures.
The main objective of the paper is to provide guidelines and examples on modelling the
fluid-structure interaction in the seismic analysis of the elevated tank-liquid system and
on computing the seismic forces in elevated tank supporting systems. Therefore, the
information in this paper has a direct relevance to structural engineering design practice.
CODE PROVISIONS FOR ELEVATED TANKS
ASCE 7-02
ASCE 7 [10] provides a group of guidelines dealing with determination of seismic
forces on elevated liquid storage tanks. The guidelines apply to all tanks, vessels, bins
and silos made of reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, steel, aluminium, and fiber-
reinforced plastic materials. The standard requires the resistance to seismic forces to be
determined from a substantiated analysis based on the approved standards. The
following are suggested: (1) damping for the convective (sloshing) force component
shall be taken as 0.5%, (2) impulsive and convective components shall be combined by
the direct sum or the square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS) method. For
concrete liquid-containing structures, the standard requires that system ductility and
energy dissipation under unfactored loads shall not be allowed to be achieved by
inelastic deformations to such a degree as to jeopardize the serviceability of the
structure. Stiffness degradation and energy dissipation shall be allowed to be obtained
either through limited micro-cracking or by means of lateral force-resistance
mechanisms that dissipate energy without damaging the structure. For elevated
concrete tanks, the standard provides a modified base shear for each of the impulsive
and convective modes. In ASCE 7, the impulsive base shear coefficient has a constant
value in the acceleration-sensitive range, is inversely proportional to the period in the
velocity sensitive range, and in the displacement-sensitive range it is inversely
proportional to the square of the period with a set lower limit. The response
modification factor for elastic response spectrum is 2.00 for the impulsive modes and
1.50 for the convective modes. The importance factor depends on the utility of tank and
damage consequences. In ASCE 7, tanks are classified into three categories (I=1.50,
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1.25, and 1.00), which depend on functional requirements and hazards due to leakage of
their content.
ACI 350
ACI Committee 350 [11] expands on and supplements Chapter 21, Special Provisions
for Seismic Design [12], to provide a set of thorough and comprehensive procedures
for the seismic analysis and design of liquid-containing environmental concrete
structures. The committees recognized that liquid-containing structures were unique
structures whose seismic design is not adequately covered by the available codes and
standards. ACI 350-3 Standard describes procedures for the design of liquid-containing
concrete structures resting on ground subjected to seismic loads. This Standard
provides directions to the designer of liquid containing concrete structures for
computing seismic forces to be applied to the tank structure. Further, the Standard
draws the attention of the designer to consider the effects of seismic forces on other
components, such as piping, equipment, and connecting walkways. The standard
requires that the dynamic characteristics of liquid-containing structures to be derived in
accordance with either Chapter 9 of the standard or through a more rigorous dynamic
analysis that accounts for the fluid-structure interaction. Chapter 9 is based on the
simple idealization of Housner [7]. The idealization has been accepted by the
profession since the early 1960s. In this idealization, the resulting forces during
earthquakes can be separated into impulsive and convective parts. The impulsive forces
are associated with inertia forces produced by accelerations of the walls of the container
and are directly proportional to these accelerations. On the other hand, a portion of the
fluid weight oscillates and produces the convective pressures on the tank walls. In the
model, the convective weight is fastened to the tank walls by springs that produce a
period of vibration corresponding to the period of fluid sloshing. The damping of the
sloshing water is small: approximately 0.5 to 1% of critical damping. The sloshing
increases and decreases the fluid pressure on the wall. ACI 350-3 provides equations
and graphs to compute the convective and impulsive fractions of the liquid mass and
their respective height in relation to the base of the tank for the cases of rectangular and
circular tanks. The equations do not consider the three dimensional side of the problem.
ACI 350.3 assigns the following importance factors: 1.50 for tanks containing
hazardous materials, 1.25 for tanks that are intended to remain usable for emergency
purposes after an earthquake, or tanks that are part of lifeline systems, and 1.0 for other
tanks. The standard mentions that a value greater than 1.5 may be used for tanks
containing hazardous materials, depending on engineering judgment to account for the
possibility of an earthquake greater than the design earthquake. In the latest version of
the ACI 350-3, the response modification factor for elastic response spectrum is 2.00 for
the impulsive modes and 1.00 for the convective modes. In the 2001 edition of the
specifications [13], the impulsive response modification factor had a higher value of 3.
The reduction of the factor in the latest edition reflects the criticality and less
redundancy of the elevated liquid storage tanks. As a result of the horizontal earthquake
acceleration, the contained fluid sloshes with vertical displacement of the fluid surface.
The amount of freeboard required in design to accommodate this sloshing varies.
Where overtopping is tolerable, no freeboard provision is necessary. Where loss of
liquid should be prevented (for example, tanks for the storage of toxic liquids) or where
overtopping may result in scouring of the foundation materials or cause damage to
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RCS-012-5
pipes, roof, or both, then one or more of the following measures should be undertaken:
(1) provide a freeboard allowance, and (2) design the roof structure to resist the
resulting uplift pressures. The amount of freeboard as per ACI 350-3 is
I C
L
d
c
2
max
= (1)
Where
max
d is the maximum amount of vertical fluid displacement,
c
C is period-
dependent seismic response coefficient, and I is the importance factor. In the previous
edition of the standard, the amount of freeboard was given as
ZSI C
L
d
c
2
max
= (2)
Where
c
C is a period dependent spectral amplification factor for horizontal motion of
the convective component, I is importance factor, S is site profile coefficient, and Z
is a seismic zone factor. The standard gives the period of oscillation of liquids in
rectangular tanks,
c
T , as follows,
L
L H g
T
c
)) / ( 16 . 3 tanh( 16 . 3
2
= (3)
Where g is the gravity acceleration, H is the height of the liquid, and L is the width of
the tank in the direction of oscillation. It should be noted that ACI 350-3 does not
provide guidelines for estimating the response of elevated tanks to earthquakes.
However, it refers the user to "acceptable methods of dynamic analysis". For which, it
recommends to use the models by Housner [7] and Haroun [14], and guidelines in ACI
371 [15].
USE OF ANSYS IN FLUID STRUCTURE INTERACTION PROBLEMS
ANSYS is a general purpose computer program for finite element analysis. The
ANSYS program was first introduced in 1970. The current release of ANSYS is
revision 11. In this part, the various types of fluid elements provided in ANSYS are
introduced with special focus on the types that may be used in problems of fluid-
structure interaction. Three problems are solved using ANSYS and compared to the
available theoretical solutions to verify the program in the field of fluid and fluid-
structure interaction analysis. These problems are: acoustic and sloshing modes of
water in a rectangular container having rigid walls, harmonic excitation of a fluid
column supported on a spring and the response of an elevated filled tank to the El-
Centro earthquake using the response spectrum method.
FLUID ELEMENTS IN ANSYS
Fluid flow elements with heat transfer are used when a vessel or a pipe experiences a
net flow past its boundaries. The main concern of such analysis would be to determine
the flow and thermal characteristics of the fluid. ANSYS has two element types,
FLUID15 and FLUID66, meant for fluid flow analyses. In ANSYS, the Naviar-Stokes
equation (equation of motion), the continuity equation and the energy equation are
considered in fluid flow analysis [16]. Some assumptions are made to simplify the
analysis without greatly affecting the results [17]. These include the following: (1) the
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RCS-012-6
fluid is incompressible, and (2) the flow velocities are small. FLUID15 is a two-
dimensional, four-nodded element with heat transfer capability. The degrees of
freedom associated with this element are velocity and temperature at each node and
pressure at the centriod of the element. FLUID66 is a three-dimensional element with
the ability to conduct heat and transient fluid between its two primary nodes and convict
heat to two additional nodes (e.g., the pipe walls). Heat flow is due to the conduction
within the fluid and the mass transport of the fluid. The convention may be related to
the fluid flow rate. The element has two degrees of freedom per each node, temperature
and pressure. Dynamic fluid coupling involves the use of FLUID38, the fluid coupling
element, in structural dynamic analyses. The fluid is contained in the annular space
between two solid cylinders. The coupling is based on the dynamic response of two
points connected by a constrained mass of fluid. The element has two degrees of
freedom per node, the translation in directions perpendicular to the cylinders axis. No
fluid coupling exists in the direction of the cylinder.
Acoustics is the study of generation, propagation, absorption and reflection of pressure
waves in the fluid medium. An acoustic analysis usually involves modelling the fluid
medium and part of the surrounding structure. The analysis is coupled if the fluid-
structure interaction at the interface is taken into account or uncoupled if only the fluid
is modelled and any fluid-structure interaction is ignored. Acoustic elements provided
in ANSYS are FLUID29 and FLUID30. FLUID29 is a two-dimensional, four-nodded
element, but FLUID30 is a three-dimensional, eight-nodded element. These elements
may be used to model fluid medium and the interface in the fluid-structure interaction
problems. The elements have pressure and transitional degrees of freedom at each
node. However, the transitional degrees of freedom are activated only at the nodes on
the interface with structural elements. The formulation of these elements is based on
the wave equation [18] and takes into account the coupling of acoustic pressure and the
structural motion at the interface. It should be noted that the main assumptions to
derive the wave equation are: the fluid is in-viscid but compressible, the velocity is
small compared to the sound velocity in the fluid and the change in pressure is small
compared to the mean pressure (at rest pressure). Thus, there is a need for large
computer storage and computing time. The solution of the coupled system may be
accomplished by solving the two systems separately with the interaction effects
enforced by iteration. The major advantage of this method is that the coupled field
problems may be tackled in a sequential iterative manner. The analysis is carried out
for each field and updating the variables of the fields in the respective coupling terms
accommodates interaction effect.
The last type of fluid analyses provided by ANSYS, the contained fluid, is treated as if
it were a solid with special material proprieties that takes into account the effects of a
contained, non-flowing fluid. The elements in this type are displacement-based
elements. The elements have translations as degrees of freedom. The advantage of the
displacement-based formulation is that the fluid elements can easily be coupled to the
structural elements using standard finite element assembly procedures. For three
dimensional analyses, the degrees of freedom for the fluid domain increase
significantly. The elements are used to model fluid having no net flow. The sloshing
stiffness is included in the element formulation by introducing springs at the free
surface of the fluid. The fluid compressibility and viscosity are also included.
Moreover, the fluid displacements must satisfy the irrotationality condition, otherwise
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RCS-012-7
zero-frequency spurious modes may occur. The basic equations governing material
properties for the element stiffness and damping matrices are,
K p
bulk
/ = (4)
1
.
= (5)
where
bulk
= volumetric strain =
z
u
y
u
x
u
z
y
x
+ + ,
z y x
u u u , , = displacements in the
x, y, and z directions, respectively, p = pressure, K = bulk modulus of the fluid,
.
=
rate of shear strain, = shear stress, and = viscosity of the fluid. The element is
given a very small value of shear stiffness (1x10
-9
of the bulk modulus) to avoid a
singular stiffness matrix. Using the contained fluid elements, with or without structural
elements, produces symmetric stiffness and mass matrices. The two-dimensional
version of these elements is called FLUID79, and the three-dimensional is called
FLUID80 (see Figure 2). Contained fluid elements are the most suitable for analysis of
fluid structure problems dealing with elevated tanks [19]. In the following sections,
three problems are solved using ANSYS and verified using the available theoretical
solutions.

Figure 2. Fluid79 and Fluid80 elements in ANSYS
ACOUSTIC AND SLOSHING MODES OF WATER IN A RIGID CONTAINER
Fluids inside rigid containers have two distinct groups of free of vibrations: acoustic
modes in which the particles of the fluid vibrate around the equilibrium position due to
pressure change and sloshing modes in which standing waves are forming at the free
surface of the fluid [18]. In acoustic modes, the waves propagate due the fluid
compressibility. In sloshing modes, however, no change in volume of the fluid occurs.
In the following, the problem of finding the natural frequencies, associated with both
modes, are solved using the finite element analysis and verified using the theory. This
example shows the ANSYS capability of computing the acoustic and sloshing natural
frequencies of a fluid-filled cavity. This requires forming the mass and compressibility
stiffness matrix of the fluid elements. Acoustic modes in fluid-filled cavity arise from
pressure waves traverse the cavity at the speed of sound. The basic assumptions in
computing the natural frequencies are the same as those used to drive the wave equation
[18]. The natural acoustic frequencies of a two-dimensional rectangular cavity, with
one open end is calculated as follows,
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RCS-012-8
2
1
2 2
) )
2
( ) ((
2
1
h
j
L
i K
f
ij
+ =
(6)
where L = the width of the container, h = the height of the container, i= 0,1,2, .., j =
1,3,5,.... with i and j are the number of the half cosine waves representing the pressure
distribution. Further, the example demonstrates the ability of ANSYS to formulate the
stiffness, slosh and mass matrices of a fluid medium. These matrices are utilized in
mode frequency analysis to compute the sloshing modes of water in rigid containers.
Water in an open container can flow back and forth in standing waves at discrete natural
frequencies. This phenomenon is called sloshing. Solutions for sloshing frequencies
and mode shapes in a rigid container are based on the assumptions that the wave has
small amplitude, the water is incompressible and inviscid and the flow is irrotational.
The natural frequencies and the respective mode shapes of a three-dimensional deep
tank with plan dimensions of a and b are computed as follows,
4
1
2
2
2
2
) (
2
1
b
m
a
n g
f
nm
+ =
(7)
where
nm
f = the natural frequency of the (n,m) mode, g = the gravity acceleration.
The finite element model simulates water in a two-dimensional rigid container 3000
mm wide and 3000 mm deep. The two-dimensional four-nodded, contained fluid
elements, FLUID79, were utilized to model water. Displacements normal to vertical
edges and to the base were prevented. Water was modelled using the four-nodded
acoustic elements, FLUID29. The value of the bulk modulus, K, was 2000 MPa and the
density, , was 1000 N.s
2
/m
4
. It should be noted that circulation modes were produced
(nearly one mode per each unrestrained node) with frequencies much lower than that of
the first mode [20]. However, circulation modes are not associated with any change in
the surface level or in the elements volume. The number of vertical degrees of freedom
at the surface controls the number of sloshing modes. In this analysis, sixty three
circulation modes were obtained with frequencies lower than 0.05 Hertz, eleven
sloshing modes were obtained in the range of frequencies from 0.50 cps to 1.20 Hertz.
The solution after these sloshing modes converges to the acoustic modes with frequency
starting around 120 Hertz, followed by the other acoustic modes. If additional sloshing
modes were required, the number of the surface degrees of freedom should have been
increased. The natural freqncies of the first three modes of both acoustic and sloshing
modes were computed and compared to the theoretical values and those of ACI 350-3 in
Table 1. The results show excellent agreement among ANSYS results and the
theoretical values. They differ considerably from those of ACI 350-3. The sloshing
frequency predicted by ACI 350-3 is considerably higher than that predicted by ANSYS
and theory. Further, ACI 350-3 provides formula for one sloshing mode only. Figure 3
shows the displaced shape associated with the sloshing modes at peak vibration. The
finite element method predicted the frequencies and mode shapes accurately. In
conclusion, the contained fluid based-models calculated modal frequencies were in
excellent agreement with the theory.

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RCS-012-9
Table 1. Comparison among natural frequencies for acoustic and sloshing Modes
Acoustic Modes (Hertz) Sloshing Modes (Hertz)
F
1
F
2
F
3
F
1
F
2
F
3

Theory 121. 270. 363. 0.50 0.71 0.87
ACI 350-3 - - - 0.96 - -
Contained
l id
119. 264. 353. 0.50 0.69 0.82

Figure 3. Sloshing modes of vibration
The equilibrium equation is,
t K x K K x m
f f
= + + sin 1 . 0 ) (
1
1
..
(8)
m
K
f
= (9)
where 1
..
x = acceleration of the rigid plate (lumped mass), x
1
= displacement of the
plate. Equation 5 may be solved for the force in the grounded spring [21],
) sin (sin
] ) ( 1 )[ (
1 . 0
2
t t
K K
KK
F
f
f
s

+
=
(10)
=
+ K K
m
f
(11)
If the stiffness of the spring is very small with respect to that of the fluid column,
resonance occurs and the displacement of the plate and consequently the force in the
spring increases dramatically (Case a). Increasing the stiffness of the spring causes the
rigid plate to oscillate with a frequency higher than that of the resonance and the force
in the spring is bounded (Case b). Figure 4 shows the finite element model of the fluid
column, supporting plate and spring. The fluid column is of height 100 mm with a unit
square cross section. It was modelled using the eight-nodded contained fluid element,
FLUID80, the rigid plate was modelled using the four-nodded shell element, SHELL63,
and the fluid-structure interaction flag was activated at the interface. The plate was
attached to a two-nodded spring element LINK 8. The bulk modulus was 16000
N/mm
2
. The density was 0.001 N.s
2
/mm
4
. The calculated fundamental frequency of the
fluid column was 100 Hz. The forcing function was defined as,
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RCS-012-10
t X
f
200 sin 10 . 0 = (12)

Figure 4. The fluid column supported by a spring, the finite element model and the
displaced shape at T=0.12 second
A transient dynamic analysis was performed with a time step equal to 6.25x10
-4
sec to
determine the response. The problem was solved twice: Case (a) in which the spring
constant, K, was equal to 0.16 N/mm and Case (b) in which the spring constant, K, was
equal to 1600 N/mm. Figure 5 and Figure 6 show comparisons between the grounded
spring force obtained with the approximate theoretical solution and the finite element
method using the contained fluid elements. Near perfect match can be noticed from the
figures. As such, it can be concluded that the finite element solution predicts correctly
the response of the fluid-structure system to dynamic loading in both cases. The
contained fluid elements give excellent results in fluid structure interaction problems.

Figure 5. Force in the ground spring (Case A)
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RCS-012-11

Figure 6. Force in the ground spring (Case B)
RESPONSE OF ELEVATED TANK TO EL-CENTRO EARTHQUAKE
The purpose of this problem is to verify the ability of ANSYS to solve for the forces
and displacements in a fluid container excited by an earthquake. The modal
characteristics, the mode shapes and frequencies of an elevated tank filled with water
and supported by a column, as shown in Figure 7, were determined. These
characteristics were utilized to solve for the response of the tank to the El-Centro
earthquake using the response spectra technique provided in ANSYS. The results of the
analysis were compared to a simplified theoretical solution.
The precise procedure to determine the seismically induced fluid pressure developed in
a tank and, hence, the force acting on the tank and it supporting elements is complex.
The method developed by Housner [7] can be used. This method applies to flat-
bottomed, vertically oriented tanks of circular or rectangular cross section. In this
method, the tank walls and floors are assumed to be rigid. The fluid weight, W, which
is accelerated in the horizontal direction, is divided into two portions (see Figure 7).
Part one remains in rigid contact with the tank walls, W
o
, called impulsive weight.
Consequently, this weight exerts a maximum horizontal force directly proportional to
the maximum horizontal acceleration of the tank wall and bottom. On the other hand,
Part two behaves as if it were a solid oscillating mass, W
1
,

connected to the walls with a
spring K
1
, called convective weight. This part causes additional dynamic pressure on
the wall and the bottom. The method gives simplified procedures to calculate the
weights W
o
and W
1
as well as their locations and the effective elastic connecting spring
constant K
1
.
Figure 8 shows the finite element idealization of the water, tank and the supporting
column. Water was idealized using the four nodded, two-dimensional contained fluid
elements, FLUID79. The tank and the column were modelled using the two-
dimensional, two-nodded elements, BEAM3. The bulk modulus was 2000 MPa, the
density 1000 N.s
2
/in. The stiffness of the column was 1100 kN/m. A relatively high
stiffness was given to the tank walls and floor to approximate the rigidity. The
dimensions are shown in Figure 7 and the width was taken as 0.30 meter. The column
height was 21 meter. The simplified solution was obtained for this problem using the
procedure described in [7]. Figure 8 shows the first two sloshing modes as well as the
fundamental flexural mode from ANSYS analysis. It should be noted that the
simplified theory gives only the first sloshing and bending frequencies. Good
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RCS-012-12
agreement was obtained between the results. The frequency-velocity response of the
El-Centro earthquake was input into ANSYS for different damping ratios.

Figure 7. Elevated water tank-Idealized solution as per Housner [7]

Finite element model Sloshing Mode 1 Sloshing Mode 2 Flexural Mode
1
ANSYS F=0.30 Hertz F=0.43 Hertz F=1.69 Hertz
Housner [7] F=0.30 Hertz F=1.73 Hertz
Figure 8. Finite element model, first two sloshing and first flexural modes of the tank
The ANSYS response spectrum analysis was conducted twice: Case (a), in which only
the fundamental sloshing and bending modes were included (to be compared directly
with the results of the theoretical solution) and Case (b) in which the first ten modes
were included in the ANSYS analysis. The damping ratio for the fundamental sloshing
frequency was 0.5% and that of the fundamental bending mode was 2%. The results
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RCS-012-13
were combined using the SRSS method. In Table 2, comparisons among the maximum
horizontal displacement of the tank, maximum vertical displacement of the water, and
maximum shear and maximum moment at the base of the supporting column are
presented for the simplified theory, Case (a), and Case (b). Case (a) results compared
well to the simplified theory. However, Case (b) results show that the simplified theory
and Case (a) yield slightly non-conservative results due to neglecting higher modes of
water sloshing and column flexure.
Table 2. Comparison between ANSYS and simplified procedure results

Theory ANSYS Case
A
ANSYS
Case B
Maximum horizontal displacement (mm) 310 321 323
Maximum vertical displacement (mm) 444 385 391
Maximum Shear (kN) 71.4 72.8 80.4
Maximum moment (kN.m) 1501 1530 1690
In the previous part, dynamic and vibration problems having fluid-structure interaction
were solved using ANSYS. The ability of ANSYS to compute modes of vibration of a
fluid medium were checked by solving for sloshing and acoustic modes of water in a
rigid container. The finite element solutions were obtained and compared to theoretical
solutions. The modal frequencies and displaced shapes showed excellent agreement
with those calculated by the theory. A second problem was solved, harmonic excitation
of a fluid column supported by a spring. This problem showed that ANSYS correctly
predicted the dynamic response of a structure in contact with a fluid medium. The
spring force-time history was compared to approximate theory. Results of both acoustic
and contained fluid elements showed an excellent agreement with that of the theory.
The last problem was the response of an elevated filled tank to El-Centro earthquake.
The bending moments and shearing forces in the supporting column calculated using
ANSYS compared well to those predicted by the simplified theory. In conclusion, the
three problems confirmed the applicability of ANSYS in solving fluid and liquid-
structure interaction problems. Contained fluid elements may be used in such an
analysis.
PARAMETRIC STUDY
This study investigates the non-linear response of elevated fluid storage reinforced
concrete tanks during an earthquake. Figure 9 shows the typical dimensions of the
investigated tank. The influences of: (1) changing the geometric dimensions of the tank
while keeping its volume constant, and (2) varying the stiffness of the supporting
frames on the response of the tank is evaluated. Time history analysis of the tank
during an earthquake event is performed in ANSYS. The tank top drift, the freeboard
(water vertical displacement), bending moment and shear forces in the supporting
columns are monitored. The design procedures of ACI 350-3 are evaluated in the light
of the results of the current study.
Analyzed Elevated Tanks
Elevated tanks with a total storage capacity of 125 cubic meters were analyzed. The
tank cross section is square with side lengths varying between 4.22 meters to 7.90
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RCS-012-14
meters with storage height varying from 2 to 7 meters (see Figure 9). Each tank rests on
four reinforced concrete square columns. In the parametric study, four column side
lengths were examined: 400, 500, 600, and 700 mm, respectively. Chosen column sizes
satisfy the strength requirement as specified in the Egyptian Code for Loads [9] with
regard to dead, liquid, and wind loads. As shown in Figure 9, columns are connected
with 400 mm wide and 400 mm depth beams at 5.00 meter intervals. The tank bottom
thickness is 500 mm and the wall thickness is 300 mm. For water depths greater than 3
meters, the tank wall is provided with top horizontal beam. The tank bottom is at an
elevation 20.0 meters above the column bases. Three dimensional modelling in
ANSYS was used. The concrete tank walls, floor, and top horizontal beam were
idealized using three dimensional linear elastic quadrilateral shell element, SHELL63.
The element has six degrees of freedom per node. The elastic modulus, density, and
Poisson's ratio of concrete were 20,000 MPa, 1000 N.s
2
/m
4
, and 0.16, respectively. The
aspect ratio of SHELL63 elements used in modelling was kept less than 4:1. Each wall
was meshed by 100 elements (10 elements in the horizontal direction and 10 elements
in the vertical direction). In a similar manner, the floor was divided into 100 elements.
Stored water is modelled using FLUID80 elements having three degrees of freedom per
node. The value of the bulk modulus, K, was 2000 MPa and the density, , was 1000
N.s
2
/m
4
. One thousand fluid elements were used. Three dimensional beam elements,
BEAM188, were used to model the columns and their connecting beams. BEAM188 is
a linear elastic-plastic quadratic beam element with six degrees of freedom at each node.
The formulation of the element support elasticity, creep, and plasticity models. The
finite element model contains approximately 1908 active nodes and 1528 elements. The
model had 7455 degrees of freedom with a maximum wavefront of 41.
The nonlinear behaviour of the concrete supporting elements was considered on the
macro level. A multi-linear stress strain curve is used to model concrete. To do this in
ANSYS, MISO option is used to describe the stress-strain diagram. ANSYS manual
suggests the use of that option for cyclic load histories and for large strain cycling. The
uniaxial behaviour is described by a piece-wise linear total stress-total strain curve,
starting at the origin, with positive stress and strain values. The slope of the first
segment of the curve corresponds to the elastic modulus of concrete. This portion
extended to a stress level of 14 MPa (roughly half the concrete strength). Following
that, flatter segments are used. The slope of the stress-strain curve is zero beyond stress
level of 21 MPa. The study parameters are the column side length (400, 500, 600, and
700 mms) denoted in the figures and tables hereafter C40, C50, C60, C70 and water
height (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 meters) denoted in figures and graphs as H2, H3, H4, H5, H6,
and H7. As such, twenty four finite element models were built. Different options may
be used to account for damping in ANSYS that include: (1) alpha and beta damping
(Rayleigh Damping), (2) material-dependent Damping, (3) constant material damping,
(4) constant damping, (5) modal damping, and (6) element damping. Option 1 was
chosen and damping was assigned in proportion to the natural frequencies. In average,
the average damping ratio was 0.50% for the sloshing mode and 1.2% for the flexural
mode. The fundamental sloshing mode frequency ranged between 0.257 Hertz (water
height = 2.0 meter) to 0.421 Hertz (water height = 7.0 meter). On the other hand, the
first flexural mode of vibration had frequencies as listed in Table 3 for full and empty
tanks.
-421-

RCS-012-15

Figure 9. Typical elevated tank dimensions and finite element model
Table 3. First flexural mode of the full and (empty) tanks(Hertz)
Column size
Water height
400 mm 500 mm 600 mm 700 mm
2.00 m 0.45 (0.51) 0.54 (0.61) 0.63 (0.71) 0.73 (0.83)
3.00 m 0.45 (0.57) 0.54 (0.69) 0.63 (0.79) 0.72 (0.91)
4.00 m 0.45 (0.60) 0.54 (0.72) 0.62 (0.83) 0.71 (0.94)
5.00 m 0.41 (0.59) 0.50 (0.70) 0.58 (0.81) 0.65 (0.91)
6.00 m 0.44 (0.62) 0.52 (0.74) 0.61 (0.86) 0.68 (0.97)
7.00 m 0.43 (0.61) 0.52 (0.74) 0.60 (0.85) 0.67 (0.96)
El-Centro earthquake of 1940 scaled-horizontal-displacement in the North-South
direction was applied to the theoretical model [21] in a time history analysis. The
scaling was performed such that the maximum scaled acceleration is 1500 mm/s
2
. The
chosen scaling yielded a maximum spectral acceleration of approximately 60% of the
gravity acceleration at a damping ratio of 1% and a frequency of 3 Hertz. The scaled
acceleration was integrated twice to yield the ground displacement. The ground
displacement was imposed to the four supports of the tank. The number of load steps
was 2675 with a time step of 0.02 seconds. The computing time ranged from one
problem to the other with an average computing time of 5800 seconds on a computer
with processor of capacity 1.73 gega Hertz and 1490 megabyte memory. The water
vertical displacement, the tank drift, the base shear, and the maximum moments in the
columns were computed and stored for processing.
-422-

RCS-012-16

Figure 10. The scaled acceleration time history of El-Centro Earthquake [21]
Results
The analysis outputs the bending moments and shear forces in the supporting columns
of the tank, water vertical displacement, and the tank drift. The column shears were
used in computing the ratio of the base shear to the total vertical loads. Figure 11 shows
the time history of the tank lateral drift measured at an elevation of 25 meters above the
base for the group of tanks with 5 meter water height. Clearly, the figure shows that
maximum drift during earthquake is inversely proportional to the column cross section
size. The maximum drifts were 146, 130, 81, and 70 mm, for tanks having column
cross section size of 400, 500, 600, and 700 mm, respectively. This corresponds to drift
indexes of 1/171, 1/192, 1/308, and 1/350 for column cross section size of 400, 500,
600, and 700 mm, respectively. In addition, the figure shows that tanks with larger
columns typically have shorter cycle times as a result of larger stiffness. The maximum
response occurred at different times, however, it occurred in the time between 12 to 28
seconds.

Figure 11. The top drift of the tank (water height = 5.00 m)
Figure 12 shows the time history of the water surface vertical displacement at the edge
of the tank for the group of tanks with 5 meter water height. Clearly, the figure
indicates the sloshing of water inside the tank during the seismic event. The maximum
displacements were 550, 538, 547, and 538 mm, for tanks having column cross section
size of 400, 500, 600, and 700 mm, respectively. For this group, the impact of
supporting frame stiffness on the water vertical displacement appears limited. This is in
contrast to what was noted for the group of tanks with water height of 2.0 meters (see
Figure 13). Clearly, the figure shows that the maximum water displacement, although
occurring at different times, is proportional to the column sizes.
-423-

RCS-012-17

Figure 12. Water vertical movement (water height=5.00 m)

Figure 13. Water vertical movement (water height=2.00 m)
Figure 14 shows the time history of the maximum flexural moments at column bases for
the group of tanks with 5 meter water height. Observations from this graph include: (1)
tanks with greater column sizes had higher maximum flexural moments and lower time
periods, (2) maximum response occurred typically within the period of earthquake
motion and specifically within the period from Second 12 to Second 25. The maximum
recorded moments were 121, 224, 251, 362 kN.m for column sizes 400 through 700
mms, respectively. This generated base shear to vertical total weight varying between
8% and 12%. In general, the percentage of base shear to vertical weight for all the
investigated cases ranged from 5% to 13%.

Figure 14. Maximum moments at column bases (water height = 5.0 m)
Figure 15 shows the relation between the size of the supporting column and the
computed maximum drift for different tank configurations. As a general trend, tanks
with greater column sizes had lower drifts. This is obvious by noting the negative
-424-

RCS-012-18
inclination style of all plots in the figure. In some cases, for example at water height =
3 meters, however, increasing column sizes from 400 mm to 500 mm increased the drift
followed by reduction of drifts for larger column sizes. This is probably because of the
enhanced stiffness and the attraction of larger forces during the earthquake event. On
the other hand, tanks with greater height and smaller base area had typically higher
drifts. This is evident by inspecting the maximum drift for tanks with 400 mm column
sizes. For this group of tanks, drifts were 93, 82, 126, 146, 157, and 172 mm for water
heights of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 meters, respectively. As such, computed drifts were
100%, 89%, 135%, 157%, 169%, and 184% for tanks with heights of 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7
meters compared to the tank with height 2 meters.

Figure 15. Effect of tank geometry on the maximum drift
computed water surface vertical displacement for different tank configurations. From
the graph, it is apparent that 5-meter retained water height differentiates between two
trends. The maximum water vertical displacement increases with increasing column
sizes for retained heights of less than 5 meters. At 5 meters, it is approximately
constant regardless of the supporting frame stiffness. On the other hand, it decreases
with increased column sizes for more than 5 meter retained-water height. It should be
noted that several factors contribute to the value of the vertical water displacement that
include: (1) stiffness of the supporting frame, (2) width of the tank, and (3) stored
height. The volume of the tank was kept constant and such the three aforementioned
parameters are interrelated and their effects can not be isolated. The computed
maximum water surface vertical displacements were compared to those predicted by
ACI 350-3 [13] (see Equation 2). The comparison is shown in Table 4. From the table,
it is clear that ACI 350-3 overestimates the maximum water displacement. Amount of
overestimation varies with the retained water height. The maximum difference
(overestimation) was recorded for retained height of 3.00 meters and the minimum
difference is for retained heights of 5.00 meters.

Figure 16. Effect of tank geometry on the maximum water vertical displacement
-425-

RCS-012-19
Table 4. Comparison between maximum vertical displacement from ANSYS and that
predicted by ACI 350-3 [14]
Water Height (m) 2 3 4 5 6 7
ANSYS (mm) 280 370 510 540 620 700
ACI 350-3 (mm) 370 510 550 550 720 890
% Difference 32% 50% 7% 1% 16% 27%
maximum flexural moments at column bases during the seismic event. As a general
trend, tanks with greater column sizes had higher straining actions. This is obvious by
noting the positive inclination of all plots in the figure. On the other hand, it was
expected that higher retained water heights would yield higher moments. However, this
was not true in all cases. For instance, the maximum moments for the 500-mm and
700-mm sized columns were for retained water heights of 5 meters. As stated earlier,
the recorded moments correspond for base shears varying between 5% and 13% of the
vertical full load of the tanks. It should be noted that the computed maximum moments
are within the ultimate capacities of the column cross sections.
To examine the adequacy of the chosen dimensions of the supporting columns, the
analyses of the tanks were re-conducted assuming the columns to be completely linear
elastic under the same scaled earthquake record. This was done for the case of retained
water height of 5 meters. The resulting maximum flexural moments were plotted in
Figure 18 along with those resulting while considering the nonlinear response of the
supporting frame. As expected, the figure clearly indicates that maximum moments
from elastic analysis are consistently higher than those from nonlinear analysis. The
ratios of elastic to inelastic moments were 151%, 134%, 125%, and 120% for column
size 400, 500, 600, and 700 mm, respectively. It should be noted that the ductility
reduction factor of 2.0 in ACI 350-3 should cover the computed ratios provided that the
detailing of columns would satisfy the governing code requirements. This means that
the tanks in the current parametric would survive the scaled El-Centro Earthquake.

Figure 17. Effect of column size on column moments at bases

Figure 18. Moment at column bases considering elastic and inelastic response
-426-

RCS-012-20
A simplified analysis was conducted for the elevated tanks supported on the concrete
frames having columns with side length of 700 mm. Tank heights considered were 2.0,
3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, and 7.0 meters. In this analysis, the fluid elements were removed and
their effect was considered by increasing the mass of the tank walls and floors in
proportion to the combined weight of tank and fluid to that of tank alone. A nonlinear
dynamic analysis was conducted in ANSYS under the effect of the scaled El-Centro
Earthquake. Time histories of the drift and the flexural moments in the supporting
columns were obtained. The obtained results were compared to those computed while
presenting fluid with FLUID80 elements. Comparison of drift is shown in Figure 19 for
drifts and in Figure 20 for flexural moments. From the figures, the following can be
noted: (1) both figures had identical trends, (2) the representation of fluid as added
masses resulted in overestimating the tank drift and the column bending moments, and
(3) the overestimation is not consistent for all tank heights. Overestimation percentages
were 82%, 55%, 7%, 13%, 30%, and 36% for water heights of 2.0 through 7.0 meters,
respectively. It should be noted that the computing time dropped significantly from
5900 second while presenting water with FLUID80 elements to 1670 second while
presenting water as mass only.

Figure 19. Drift of tanks with contained fluid and tanks with equivalent solid masses

Figure 20. Column moments of tanks with contained fluid and tanks with equivalent
solid masses
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The main objective of this paper was to examine theoretically the response of elevated
liquid storage tanks supported on reinforced concrete frames during seismic excitation.
Egyptian code requirements were reviewed and no clause dealing with liquid storage
tanks was found. The paper examines the use of ANSYS to model stored fluid and
fluid-structure interaction problems. Three verification problems were solved and then
a parametric study was conducted to evaluate the time history response of elevated
-427-

RCS-012-21
water tanks to scaled El-Centro earthquake. The following conclusions can be drawn
from the conducted work:
1. ANSYS is a general purpose finite element program that can be used to model fluid
stored in tanks and in fluid-structure interaction problems. Either contained fluid
elements or acoustic elements may be used to model fluids. However, the use of the
contained fluid elements is preferred to reduce solving time. Fluid79 is a two
dimensional contained-fluid element and Fluid80 element is a three dimensional one.
Both elements can be used in modelling fluids with reasonable accuracy and efficiency.
2. ACI 350-3 provides formulas for the fundamental sloshing frequency for liquids in
circular and rectangular tanks. The formulas gave higher estimates for the sloshing
frequencies than those found in the literature or those predicted by ANSYS.
3. The paper provided guidelines to be followed in modelling the contained fluid.
These include: (a) number of nodes at the free surface of the fluid must be greater than
the number of required sloshing modes to be included in the analysis, and (2)
constraining the movement of the fluid normal to surface of the connected wall or floor
with the wall or floor movement.
4. The influence of liquid sloshing and mass on the seismic response of elevated tanks is
evident. The response of elevated tank with a solid mass equivalent to the fluid mass is
significantly different than that of an elevated tank containing a fluid.
5. Increasing the size of the supporting columns significantly affected the drifts, the
water vertical displacements, moments, and shears. In this respect, ACI 350-3 does not
acknowledge the effect of supporting frame stiffness on the expected amount of water
vertical displacement.
6. The tank height to width ratio plays an important role in estimating the significance
of fluid sloshing on the response of the tank during seismic events.
7. Simplified analysis, in which the fluid mass is added to the mass of the tank floor and
walls, provides safe estimates of straining actions in the tank supporting frames and can
be used for roughly estimating the response of the elevated tanks to seismic events.
8 REFERENCES

[1] Veletsos,A.S., and Shivakumar, Tanks containing liquids or solids, In Computer
Analysis and Design of Earthquake Resistant Structures: A Review of Seismic Analysis
of Liquid Storage Tanks Handbook, Editor D.E. Beskos, Computational Mechanics
Publication, 725-774, 1997
[2] HALL, J. F. (Ed.) Northridge Earthquake of January 17, 1994, Reconnaissance
Report, Vol. 1, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Oakland, 1995.
[3] MANOS, G. C.; CLOUGH, R. W., "Tank Damage During the May 1983 Coalinga
Earthquake", Journal of Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, Vol. 1, No.
4, pp. 449466, 1985.
[4] Durgesh C Rai, "Performance of Elevated Tanks in MW 7.7 Bhuj Earthquake of
January 26th, 2001", in the Proceeding of Indian Acad. Sci. (Earth Planet. Sci.), pp.
421-429, Vol. 112, No. 3, September 2003.

-428-

RCS-012-22

[5] Jaiswal, O.R., Rai, D.C., and S. K. Jain, "Review of Seismic Codes on Liquid-
Containing Tanks", Earthquake Spectra, Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
Vol. 23, No. 1, pp. 239260, February 2007.
[6] Choun Y.S. and C.B. Yun, Sloshing analysis of rectangular tanks with a submerged
structure by using Small-amplitude water wave theory, Earthquake Engineering and
Structural Dynamics, Vol. 28, pp. 763-783, 1999.
[7] Housner, G. W., Dynamic analysis of fluids in containers subjected to acceleration,
in Nuclear Reactors and Earthquakes, Report No. TID 7024, U. S. Atomic Energy
Commission, Washington D.C., 1963.
[8] Veletsos, A.S., "Seismic response and design of liquid storage tanks", Guidelines for
Seismic design of oil & gas pipelines system, ASCE, New York, 255-370, 1984.
[9] Permanent Committee for Preparing the Bases of Computing Loads and Forces in
Structural Works and Buildings, The Egyptian Code for Computing the Forces in
Structural Works and Building, Center for Building and Housing Research and Urban
Planning, Ministry of Housing and Utilities, Egypt, 2003.
[10] American Society of Civil Engineers, ASCE, Minimum Design Loads for
Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7, ASCE Standard, SEI/ASCE 7-02, Reston,
VA, 2005.
[11] American Concrete Committee 350, Seismic Design of Liquid-Containing
Concrete Structures and Commentary, ACI 350.3-06, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, Mich., 2006.
[12] ACI 318-08, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, Committee
318, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 2008.
[13] American Concrete Committee 350, Seismic Design of Liquid-Containing
Concrete Structures and Commentary, ACI 350.3-06, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, Mich., 2006.
[14] Haroun, M. A., and H.M. Ellaithy, Seismically Induced Fluid Forces on Elevated
Tanks, Journal of Technical Topics in Civil Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1-
15, 1985.
[15] ACI Committee 371, Guide for the Analysis, Design, and Construction of
Concrete-Pedestal Water Towers (ACI 371R-98) (Reapproved 2003), American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich., 36 pp, 1998.
[16] S.W. Yuan, Foundations of Fluid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 1967.
[17] ANSYS, Inc., ANSYS User's Manual, Canonsburg, PA, 2009.
[18] Eagleson, P.S., and Dean, R.G., Small Amplitude Wave Theory. In Estuary and
Coastline Hydrodynamics, McGraw-Hill Inc., N.Y., 1966.
[19] Cook, R.D., Malkus, D.S., and Plesha, M.E., Concepts and Application of Finite
Element Analysis, John Wiley and Sons, Third Edition, New York, 1989.

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RCS-012-23

[20] Park, K.C., Felippa, C.A., Recent Developments in Coupled Field Analysis
Methods, in Numerical Methods in Coupled Systems, John Wiley and Sons, New York,
pp.327-351, 1984.
[21] A.K. Chopra, Dynamics of Structures, Prentice Hall, First Edition, New Jersey,
1995.
-430-

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





STRAIN COMPATIBILITY FOR RC MEMBERS WITH BONDED
CFRP STRIPS

E. Y. SAYED-AHMED
Structural Engineering Dept., Ain Shams University
1 El-Sarayat Street, Abbasia, Cairo 11517, Egypt
E-mail: eysahmed@gmail.com
A. A. ABDELRAHMAN
Structural Engineering Dept., Ain Shams University
1 El-Sarayat Street, Abbasia, Cairo 11517, Egypt
E-mail: aarahman@gega.net
N. G. SHRIVE
Civil Engineering Dept., University of Calgary
2500 Univ Dr. N.W, Calgary AB, T2N 1N4, CANADA
E-mail: ngshrive@ucalgary.ca

ABSTRACT
Externally bonded FRP systems have been used to strengthen reinforced concrete beams
and slabs in flexure. One major assumption adopted in design codes for calculation of
the moment resistance of the new system is strain compatibility between the FRP
laminates and the concrete section. However, as shown here, strain compatibility is lost
during the early stages of loading. The current design methodologies for the new
system account for premature failure due to interfacial crack debonding mechanisms by
limiting the strains in the FRP to very low values, resulting in the use of only a small
portion of the full FRP capacity. Based on previous experimental investigations
performed on precast bridge girders, hollow core slabs, and beam specimens - all with
CFRP strips bonded to their soffits - the loss of strain compatibility and interfacial
debonding are highlighted. Recommendations are presented to tackle both issues.
KEYWORDS
Fibre reinforced polymer FRP, Interfacial debonding, Flexure strengthening.
1 INTRODUCTION
The use of Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP) in structural engineering has progressed
beyond the experimental stage to implementation in a number of construction projects
worldwide. Flexural strengthening of reinforced concrete beams/slabs is one of the
major applications, and is commonly performed by bonding FRP laminates to the soffit
-431-
of the beam/slab. In such cases, failure modes can be separated into two categories
based on the duration of composite action between the two materials (Fig. 1). When
composite action is maintained until the ultimate load is reached, failure occurs in one
of three modes depending on the reinforcement ratio and the shear strength of the beam:
concrete crushing prior to or following yielding of the steel reinforcement, tensile
rupture of the FRP, or shear failure of the concrete beam.
When composite action is not maintained to the ultimate load, premature failure occurs
due to debonding of the FRP laminates from the beam/slab. This failure mode is termed
interfacial debonding [1-4]. It is the most common failure mode for beams/slabs
strengthened in flexure using externally bonded FRP laminates. Interfacial debonding
[1, 2, 5-8] may occur due to concrete cover separation along the end of the bonded FRP
plate, plate-end interfacial debonding, intermediate (flexure or flexure shear) crack-
induced interfacial debonding (IC), or critical diagonal crack-induced interfacial
debonding (CDC).
Much of the success of externally FRP-bonded reinforced concrete members lies in the
integrity of the bond between the two materials. The degree to which strain can be
transferred, or conversely how much slip occurs in the adhesive, will determine the
forces in each material and the overall resistance of the section.
For steel-reinforced concrete, perfect bond is assumed between the concrete and the
steel reinforcement. Strain compatibility follows this assumption and thus lies at the
heart of many analysis and design methods for reinforced concrete. Strain compatibility
a) b)
FRP rupture
Concrete crushing
c)
d)
Shear cracks
e)
Debonding
f)
Crack propagation/debonding
g)
Fig. 1. Failure modes of RC beams with bonded FRP-strips: a) flexure failure by FRP
rupture; b) flexure failure by concrete crushing; c) shear failure; d) concrete cover
separation; e) plate-end interfacial debonding; f) flexure crack-induced interfacial
debonding; g) critical diagonal crack-induced interfacial debonding
Critical diagonal Crack
i
Critical flexure Crack
i
-432-
through the depth of a reinforced concrete section with externally bonded FRP also
relies on perfect bond: some experimental investigations support the assumption [9-12].
The major factors affecting the bond-slip behaviour (and thus composite action)
between the concrete surface and the FRP laminates are the concrete compressive
strength, the bond length up to a certain effective length, the axial stiffness of the FRP,
the FRP-to-concrete width ratio, the adhesive axial stiffness and the adhesive
compressive strength [2, 13-15]. Many models have been proposed for describing and
determining the bond strength between the FRP laminates and the concrete: these are
summarized elsewhere [16]. However, further investigations are still needed to reach an
effective model for predicting failure due to intermediate crack induced interfacial
debonding.
In current design codes the calculation of the moment resistance of members with
bonded FRP laminates is based on strain compatibility, equilibrium of forces and
controlling the mode of failure. However, perfect bond between the FRP laminates and
concrete does not always occur. The work presented here is based on three
experimental investigations co-authored by the first author [3, 4, 17]. These
investigations involved flexural strengthening with externally bonded FRP to reinforced
concrete precast bridge girders, prestressed precast hollow core slabs, and reinforced
concrete beam specimens. Premature failure was encountered in all three cases due to
interfacial debonding. Strain distributions were recorded during the loading history in
the tests which clearly revealed the lack of compatibility. The incompatibility of strains
and the premature debonding failures are discussed, and recommendations are outlined
tackling the strain limits defined by the ACI 440.2R-08 [18].
2 THE EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Three experimental investigations have been previously described [3, 4, 17] on: (1)
precast reinforced concrete bridge girders strengthened in flexure with soffit-bonded
CFRP strips, (2) precast prestressed hollow core slabs strengthened in flexure to resist
negative moments using externally bonded CFRP strips to their top surfaces, and (3)
reinforced concrete beam specimens tested in the lab with soffit bonded CFRP strips.
2.1 Precast Reinforced Concrete Bridge Girders
HC-Type precast girders (Fig. 2) have an inverted U cross section and are placed,
simply supported, beside each other to form the base of the bridge deck. The girders
tested were 11.6 m long. Over their years in service, these girders had developed major
problems. The initial concrete cover provided was too small in comparison to the
amount of steel reinforcement. As a result, cracks appeared around the reinforcement,
exposing most of the steel in the mid-spans of the girders, with rust developing in the
steel bars.
Two girders were patched, strengthened with CarboDur S1012 CFRP strips (1.2 mm
thick x 100 mm width) and Replark CFRP-sheets (0.12 mm thick x 250 mm width)
and tested in flexure using a 4 point load scheme (Fig. 3). Strain gauges were mounted
on the concrete, the steel reinforcement (before patching) and the CFRP strips. Thus, a
full strain profile could be drawn for the constant moment zone at each applied load
level.
-433-
Fig. 3. HC-Type Girder after rehabilitation using CFRP strips bonded to the soffit
of the web (left) and CFRP sheets bonded at the end of the web (right).
Section 1-1
2
2
920 mm
520 mm
140
140
4 No. 10 (Imperial) 4 No. 10 (Imperial)

2 No. 4 (Imperial)

3 No. 3 (Imperial)
No. 3 @ 180 mm
150
180
Fig. 2. Cross section (above) and section elevation (below) of an HC-Type precast
bridge girder.
150 mm
150 mm
11600 mm
520 mm
150 mm
1
1
Section 2-2
End diaphragm End diaphragm
-434-
Without the externally bonded CFRP strips, the nominal ultimate moment of the girders
was calculated to be 987 kNm. With the bonded CFRP strips, the nominal moment
was calculated based on equilibrium of forces and compatibility of strains, and
estimated to be 1236 kNm. A 25% strength enhancement was thus expected [3].
At a load of about 65% of the ultimate, cracks opened vertically in line with the loads,
above the level of the steel reinforcement. The cracks propagated down and towards the
support from the level of the steel reinforcement at an angle of about 45
o
until they
reached the level of the CFRP strips. The cracks then propagated along the interface
between the concrete and the CFRP strips (Fig. 4), occasionally passing through the
concrete until the strips debonded from the girder with a thin layer of concrete on top: a
typical interfacial debonding mode of failure. The girders failed at an average ultimate
moment of 998 kNm, only an 11% strength enhancement over the experimentally
recorded capacity (899 kNm) of an unstrengthened girder.

The significant discrepancy between the ultimate moment obtained experimentally (998
kNm) and the nominal moment estimated theoretically (1236 kNm) can be explained
using the strain profiles recorded during the test, plotted in Fig. 5. Strain compatibility
between the CFRP strips and the concrete section can be seen to occur only in the very
initial stages of loading, being lost soon after crack initiation. Four different stages can
be defined to generalize the behaviour of the girders retrofitted with CFRP strips. The
Crack propagation
C.L. Point Load
600 mm
Crack Initiation
Steel reinforcement bars
CFRP
Fig. 4. Crack propagation and strip separation from the soffit of the girder
(above), and CFRP strip debonding with tearing of the CFRP sheet (below).
-435-
first stage is elastic behaviour where the strain in the CFRP strips is slightly higher than
the strain in the steel bars but the strains are still roughly compatible. The second stage
starts with cracking of the concrete: the concrete begins to release some of its tension
and the CFRP strips absorb much of this tension. Thus, the strain in the CFRP strips
increases suddenly and continues to increase at a faster rate than should occur
proportionally with the steel strain. In the third stage, the steel reinforcement yields: the
concrete carries no tension and cracks extend to the neutral axis of the section. The
strain in the steel reinforcement increases considerably with little increase in the beam
capacity. Any additional tension is resisted solely by the CFRP strips. The neutral axis
shifts in the beam while the strain in the CFRP-strips continues to increase, but at a
0
100
200
300
400
500
-5 000 -2 500 2 500 5 000 7 500 10 000 12 500 15 000
strain (c)
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n

d
e
p
t
h

(
m
m
)
Stage III: 250 - 320 kN
Stage IV: 320 kN - Failure
Stage IV
Steel Reinf. level
CFRP strips level
c
y

(
s
t
e
e
l
)
Tension Compression
0
100
200
300
400
500
-1 000 - 500 500 1 000 1 500 2 000 2 500
strain (c)
C
r
o
s
s

s
e
c
t
i
o
n

d
e
p
t
h

(
m
m
)
Stage I: 0 - 90 kN
Stage II: 90 -250 kN
Stage II
Stage II
Steel Reinf. level
CFRP strips level
c
y

(
s
t
e
e
l
)
Tension Compression
Fig. 5. Strain profile at a section within the vicinity of the constant moment zone for
Girder G3 before yielding of steel reinforcement (above) and from yielding of steel
reinforcement till final failure (below).
-436-
slower rate compared to the steel strain. There is now a complete lack of strain
compatibility. The fourth and final stage begins with the debonding of the CFRP strips.
Due to the increasing forces in the strips, high shear flow occurs between the strips and
the concrete. The concrete cracks because of this shear and the strips debond from the
girder releasing some of their force. Strain is averaged over the unbonded length. The
CFRP sheets placed at both ends of the girder for shear transfer and anchorage of the
strips hold the strips, temporarily resisting debonding forces, and transferring shear to
keep the CFRP strips under tension. At this stage, the CFRP strips behave as unbonded
reinforcement while the strain in the steel increases dramatically. Final failure occurs
when the CFRP sheets fail to hold the strips. The experimentally recorded strains show
that the maximum strain reached in the CFRP strips was about 0.6% which is
significantly less than the strain predicted at failure based on the assumption of strain
compatibility (1.38%). Thus, debonding of the CFRP strips took place well before the
assumed ultimate strain would have been reached.
2.2 Precast Prestressed Hollow Core Slabs
Precast-prestressed hollow core slabs are typically designed as simply supported panels.
Frequently, architectural considerations require an overhanging part of the floor system
to act as a cantilever. In so doing, the hollow core slabs are subject to negative moments
in contrast to typical usage. To improve the negative moment resistance of the hollow
core slabs, CFRP strips (S&P CFK 200/2000
100 mm wide by 1.4 mm thick) were

bonded to the top side of full-scale hollow core slabs (Fig. 6) in the negative moment
zone using MBRACE adhesive HT65
. The system was tested in flexure to failure.

Nine slabs were tested in three series: the first series was the control, the second had
only longitudinally bonded strips and the third series had transversely bonded strips at
the ends of the longitudinal strips. The second series (longitudinally bonded CFRP
strips) is the series considered here.
Transverse cracks formed in the negative moment zone over the support of the
overhanging cantilever on the top surface of the slab. The cracks did not immediately
cross the CFRP strips after they appeared, but widened with more cracks appearing in
different parts of the negative moment zone with increasing the load. In the early
stages, the cracks formed between the three strips and were not aligned (Fig. 7). Failure
occurred when the major flexural crack (the one over the support) extended to reach the
CFRP strips then ran longitudinally along the interface between the concrete and the
CFRP strips in the epoxy adhesive layer, causing debonding of the strips from the
concrete surface (Fig. 7) - typical intermediate flexural crack-induced interfacial
debonding.
The cantilever tip displacement is plotted against the negative moment over the support
in Fig. 8. Bonding the CFRP strips to the precast-prestressed hollow core slabs
significantly increased the negative moment resistance of the slabs. The cracking
moments were increased 1.83 to 2.25 times that of the control slabs while the ultimate
moments were enhanced by 2.77 to 5.74 times that of the control slabs. However, once
again failure occurred prematurely due to interfacial debonding.
The nominal moment of the prestressed slabs with the surface-bonded CFRP strips was
predicted based on the assumptions of strain compatibility and equilibrium of forces.
The maximum compressive concrete strain was limited to 0.0035 and the maximum
tensile CFRP strain is was limited to 0.007 (limits matching the CSA S806-02 [19] and
-437-
close to those required by the ACI 440.2-08 [18]). This procedures yields a nominal
moment of 115 kNm, which is significantly higher (2.8 times) than the experimentally
recorded ultimate moment of 41.36.5 kNm. It is evident from these calculations that
strain compatibility is again lacking and that the flexural failure mode should not be
considered alone.
110
5.0 m
1.2 m
142 142 142 142 142 142 142 82 82
1
5
0

5
0

3
8

1
9

21
142 142 142
48
142
32 32
1200
1158
284 284
7 no. 9.3 mm strands
3
0

Dimensions in mm
Fig. 6. Details of the precast-prestressed hollow core slabs test in the experimental
programme.
-438-
When the intermediate crack-induced debonding mode was implemented in nominal
moment prediction procedures via limiting the stress in the CFRP strips to the ultimate
intermediate crack-induced debonding strength [4, 20], the nominal moment was
determined to be 67.5 kNm, 63% higher than the average experimental ultimate
moment. The remaining discrepancy indicates that the crack-induced debonding model
adopted is still in need of further refinement.
2.3 Reinforced Concrete Beam Specimens
Twelve simply supported reinforced concrete beams with soffit bonded CFRP strips
were tested monotonically in flexure in four-point loading (Fig. 9) [17]. The outcomes
of these tests are summarized in Table 1. The CFRP strips were externally anchored as
they covered the full length of the beam span, and were trapped between the beam and
its supports.
Fig. 7. Hollow core slabs with bonded FRP (above) and interfacial debonding of the
strips at failure (below).
-439-
Table 1. Results of the experimental investigation of the twelve beam specimens.
Beam
f
c
/

(MPa)
Stirrups
Spacing
(mm)
Failure
load
(kN)
Failure
Moment
(kN m)
Predicted
Moment
(kN m)
Failure
mode
FRP stain
(%)
West
load
East
load
1
69.92.3
160 449 134.7 127.8 IC 0.83 0.38
4
64.12.2
160 426 127.8 122.9 IC 0.43 0.59
2
65.10.7
160 433 129.9 123.7 IC 0.62 0.54
3
57.22.0
160 408 122.4 116.7 IC 0.47 0.59
9
46.11.9
160 406 121.8 109 CC+IC 0.66 0.56
10
48.82.0
160 389 116.7 111 CC+IC 0.58 0.56
11
41.60.4
160 395 118.5 105.1 CC+IC 0.59 0.57
12
40.31.3
160 371 111.3 103.9 CC+IC 0.57 0.49
5
45.42.9
100 425 127.5 108.4 CC+IC 0.62 0.53
6
43.71.5
100 410 123 107 CC+IC 0.59 0.52
7
43.73.5
320 343 102.9 107 SF+CDC 0.49 0.49
8
41.80.4
320 347 104.1 105.3 SF+CDC 0.48 0.65
*IC= intermediate flexure or flexure shear crack-induced debonding, CC = concrete
crushing, SF = shear failure, and CDC= critical diagonal crack-induced debonding.
M-ve
-
+
0
10
20
30
40
50
0 5 10 15 20
Tip vertical deflection (mm)
M

-
v
e

(
k
N
m
)
S2-01
S2-02
S2-03
G3
P2 P1
G1
G2
G4
Gauge G2
Gauge G1
Cracks initiation zone
M=26.2 kNm ~27.9 kNm
Fig. 8. Negative moment versus cantilever deflection for hollow core slabs with top-
longitudinally bonded CFRP strips.
-440-

For high or moderate concrete strength and adequate shear reinforcement beams
(beams 1 to 4), flexural cracks appeared in the constant moment region with shear
cracks forming within the shear span as expected. Simultaneously, the CFRP strips
began to debond from the beam at one end beyond the support. The reaction force
provided by the support prevented this debonding from leading to total separation of the
laminate from the beams. Failures occurred when an intermediate inclined crack
progressed from the level of the steel reinforcement down to the external CFRP
laminate and back toward the support (Fig. 10). After failure, some concrete remained
bonded to the laminate, indicating that failure progressed through the concrete cover
and not through the adhesive layer. As the concrete in the constant moment region did
600
600 600
100
100
1800
100
2000
100
100
100
Fig. 9. Instrumentation of the tested beams and cross section of the tested beam.
20
15
25
240
6
7
8
9
10
11
5 4 3 2
1
500
P
1
=P/2 P
2
=P/2
East point load West point load
West support East support
Steel
beam

Loading
frame
Loading ram
Data
Acquisition
Support
Beams cross section
2
7
5

3
0
0

150
2 No. 20
A
f
= 180 mm
2

-441-
not crush, failure thus appeared to result from the intermediate flexure crack-induced
debonding.

Fig. 10. Failure of Beam 1 in an intermediate flexure crack-induced debonding
mode in front (above), end (middle) and back (below) views of the beam.
-442-
Typical strain distributions corresponding to 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% of the
ultimate load are plotted in Fig. 11 for Beam 1. It is evident that strain compatibility
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
-0.004 -0.002 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
Strain
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
m
)
20% ultimate load
40% ultimate load
60% ultimate load
80% ultimate load
ultimate load
Fig. 11. Strain profiles for Beam 1 at sections under the East point load (above) and
under the West point load (below).
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
-0.006 -0.004 -0.002 0 0.002 0.004 0.006
Strain
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
m
)
20% ultimate load
40% ultimate load
60% ultimate load
80% ultimate load
ultimate load
-443-
between the CFRP strip and the concrete was lost in the section in line with the loading
point where debonding of the strip occurred at a very early stage of loading, but the
support, acting as an external anchor, held the CFRP in place. In the second section,
under the other point load, strain compatibility was also lost between 40% and 60% of
the ultimate load. This loss of strain compatibility was found in all four of these beams,
in agreement with the findings and arguments of other investigations [3, 21, 22]. The
strain in the CFRP strips recorded at the ultimate load varied between 0.38% and 0.82%
under each load point - values well beneath the ultimate breaking strain of 1.7%. This
result indicates that less than half of the CFRP capacity was utilized. At ultimate load,
the sharply reduced reading of the CFRP strain (0.38%) under the East point load shown
in Fig. 11 is caused by the severe cracking of the concrete and debonding of the CFRP
in the vicinity of the strain gauge. The other beams of this group displayed similar
behaviour to this beam.
For beams 9 to 12 with low concrete strength and adequate shear reinforcement,
failure occurred in two distinct modes: concrete crushing in the constant moment region
and intermediate crack-induced interfacial debonding. During testing it was observed
that compressive failure of the concrete occurred prior to separation of the CFRP
laminate from the beam. Crushing occurred away from the external load points.
Cracking resulting from the strip separation extended into the constant moment region
along the line of the steel reinforcement.
The strain distributions for Beam 9 are plotted in Fig. 12, being representative of this
group of beams: the lack of strain compatibility between the CFRP strips and the
concrete section is again confirmed from the early stages of loading. The maximum
values of the CFRP strain measured were 0.56% and 0.66% at the two sections, utilizing
only 39% of the CFRP capacity.
For Beams 5 and 6 with low concrete strength and high shear reinforcement,
cracking progressed similarly to the previous Beams 1 to 4 and in this instance the
tendency of the laminate to peel away from the beam beyond the support tore a chunk of
concrete from the beam which remained bonded to the laminate (Fig. 13). Two distinct
failures were observed for these beams. Like the previous cases, a crack propagated
from the steel reinforcement level to the CFRP strips and back to the support separating
the CFRP strip from the beam with some concrete remaining bonded to the strip:
distinct intermediate crack-induced interfacial debonding. However, crushing of the
concrete in the constant moment region was also apparent: compressive failure of the
concrete was the limiting factor for this beam and the debonding occurred interactively
with the concrete crushing.
Despite the significantly reduced concrete strength compared to Beams 1 to 4, the
ultimate load capacity was only marginally less than, and in some cases slightly higher
than those beams. Shifting of the primary failure mode from the premature intermediate
crack-induced debonding to concrete crushing has allowed more efficient use of the
concrete compression region.
The strain distributions across the depth under the two point loads are plotted in Fig. 14
for Beam 5, with similar results obtained for Beam 6. Again, the figure indicates the
incompatibility between the CFRP strain and the concrete strain particularly for the
section in line with the West point load. However, the degree of strain incompatibility
at ultimate load is less severe compared to Beams 1 to 4 where failure was solely from
-444-
crack-induced interfacial debonding. The CFRP strain gauges provided strains at the
ultimate load of 0.53% and 0.62% for Beam 5, and 0.52% and 0.60% for Beam 6,
Fig 12. Strain profiles for Beam 9 at sections under the East point load (above) and under
the West point load (below).
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
-0.004 -0.002 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008
Strain
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
m
)
20% ultimate load
40% ultimate load
60% ultimate load
80% ultimate load
ultimate load
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
-0.004 -0.002 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008
Strain
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
m
)
20% ultimate load
40% ultimate load
60% ultimate load
80% ultimate load
ultimate load
-445-
implying that only about a third of the CFRP capacity was utilized. Thus altering the
failure mode did not increase the efficiency of use of the CFRP strip.
For Beams 7 and 8 with low concrete strength and low shear reinforcement, a
distinctive mode of failure was evident (Fig. 15). Shear failure was the primary mode,
but acting interactively with critical diagonal crack-induced interfacial debonding.
During loading, a shear crack developed and traversed the entire depth of the beam,
extending from the location of the external load point to the CFRP laminate. In Beam
7, the crack was steeper in the middle region of the beam than in the upper and lower
portions, whereas for Beam 8, the slope was more uniform.
Fig. 13. Failure of Beam 5 in concrete crushing acting interactively with
intermediate crack-induced debonding mode.
-446-
Once the crack reached the CFRP strip, propagation proceeded more slowly than in
previous tests back to the support, separating the CFRP strip from the beam, again
Figure 14. Strain profiles for Beam 5 at sections under the East point load (above) and
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
-0.004 -0.002 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008
Strain
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
m
)
20% ultimate load
40% ultimate load
60% ultimate load
80% ultimate load
ultimate load
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
-0.006 -0.004 -0.002 0 0.002 0.004 0.006
Strain
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
m
)
20% ultimate load
40% ultimate load
60% ultimate load
80% ultimate load
ultimate load
-447-
distinct crack-induced interfacial debonding. At failure, some concrete crushing
occurred under a load point. This may have been a localized effect as it only occurred
in the vicinity of a point load, but it also suggests the flexural and shear capacities of the
beams were nearly equal.
The strain distributions in the concrete and the CFRP strip for Beam 7 in the same two
sections as before are plotted in Fig. 16. There is a lack of strain compatibility between
the CFRP strip and the concrete section from the very early stages of loading. The
maximum recorded CFRP strain in Beam 7 was 0.49%, implying only 29% of the
CFRP capacity was used. Similarly in Beam 8, the maximum recorded CFRP strains
were 0.48 and 0.65%, using only 38% of the CFRP capacity. Thus, altering the failure
mode neither increased the efficiency of CFRP usage nor changed the incompatibility of
strain between the CFRP strip and the concrete section.
Figure 15. Failure of Beam 7 in shear acting interactively with critical diagonal
crack-induced interfacial debonding of the CFRP.
-448-
Three modes of failure were therefore observed in this testing programme: concrete
crushing, shear failure and crack-induced interfacial debonding. Depending on the
Figure 16. Strain profiles for Beam 7 at sections under the East point load (above) and
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
-0.002 -0.001 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006
Strain
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
m
)
20% ultimate load
40% ultimate load
60% ultimate load
80% ultimate load
ultimate load
-300
-250
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
-0.004 -0.003 -0.002 -0.001 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006
Strain
D
e
p
t
h

(
m
m
)
20% ultimate load
40% ultimate load
60% ultimate load
80% ultimate load
ultimate load
-449-
concrete compressive strength and the shear strength of the beam, interactive failure
modes were also observed: interaction between concrete crushing and interfacial
debonding, or shear failure and interfacial debonding.
It is clear from this investigation that concrete strength has a significant effect on the
failure mode and hence, the ultimate load reached during the test. Generally, the
ultimate load sustained by these RC beams with bonded CFRP strips was found to
increase with increasing the concrete compressive strength. The ultimate loads of
beams under-reinforced for shear were lower than those for beams adequately- or over-
reinforced for shear.
Strain compatibility between the CFRP strips and the concrete section was lost from the
early stages of loading in all twelve of these RC beams with bonded CFRP strips.
Increasing the concrete compressive strength or the shear resistance of the beam had no
effect on this behaviour. The strain measurements also revealed that the usage
efficiency of the bonded CFRP strip was reduced because of the interfacial debonding.
4 PROPOSED PROCEDURES FOR PREDICTION OF NOMINAL MOMENT
The ACI 440.2R-08 [18] and CSA S806-02 [19] specifications may be adopted to
predict the nominal moments of reinforced concrete members strengthened in flexure
using externally bonded CFRP laminates. Both specifications base the nominal moment
on strain compatibility, equilibrium of forces and controlling the mode of failure
provided that: a) plane sections remain plane, b) perfect bond exists between the FRP
strips and the concrete, c) the maximum compressive concrete strain is 0.003 (ACI
440.2R-08) or 0.0035 (CSA S806-02), and d) the maximum FRP tensile strain is:

( )
*
/
9 . 0 9 . 0 41 . 0 : 8 . 0 2 . 440
007 . 0 : 02 806
fu E fu
f f
c
fd
fd
C
t nE
f
R ACI
S CSA
c c c
c
= s =
=
(1)
where E
f
is tensile modulus of elasticity of FRP, C
E
is an environmental reduction
factor, n is the number of plies of the FRP laminates, t
f
is the laminates thickness, f
c
/
is
the 28 days concrete cylinder compressive strength, c
fu
*
and is the ultimate rupture
strain of the FRP laminates. The above limit on the FRP strain is defined in order to
prevent intermediate crack-induced debonding failure [1, 8, 23]. However, it is
proposed to replace the strain limit with a limit on the FRP stress corresponding to the
debonding strength using an approach similar to the one adopted by Teng et al. [1, 8]
with minor modifications to the debonding strength equation.
Referring to Fig. 17, equilibrium of forces yields
f f s s sc sc c
F A F A F A b c f T C + + = = ) )( (
1
/
1
| o

(2)
where f
c
/
is the concrete compressive strength, b is the slab width, A
s
and A
sc
are the
areas of the tension and compression steel reinforcements, respectively, F
s
and F
sc
are
the stresses in the tension and compression steel reinforcing, respectively, A
f
is the area
of the FRP laminates and F
f
the stress in the FRP laminates, and o
1
and |
1
are
coefficients for the equivalent concrete compression block defined by the codes of
practice.
-450-
Compatibility of strains requires that:
c
c t
c
c d
c
c d
cu f
s
cu sc
s
cu s
= c c c c c c ; ;
/
(3)
where c
cu
is the maximum compressive (crushing) strain of concrete, c
s
and c
sc
are the
strains in the tension and compression top prestressing strands respectively, c
f
is the
strain in the CFRP strips, t is the member height, d
s
and d
s
/
are the depths to the tension
and compression reinforcements, respectively, and c is the depth of the compression
part of the cross section.
The stresses in the bottom and top steel reinforcement and in the FRP laminates are
given by
*
fu E fu f f f
y sc s sc
y s s s
F C F E F
F E F
F E F
= s =
s =
s =
c
c
c
(4)
where E
s
and E
f
are the elastic moduli of the steel and the FRP laminates respectively,
and F
fu
*
is the ultimate tensile strength of the FRP laminates reduced by the
environmental factor C
E
defined by the ACI 440.2R-08.
Equations 2 to 4 are solved for the compression zone depth c, and the stresses in the
steel and the CFRP strips are determined. However, the intermediate crack-induced
debonding mode of failure must be implemented in the previous equations. This is
achieved by limiting the stress in the FRP laminates (determined by Equation 4) to the
ultimate intermediate crack-induced debonding strength. The following equations are
proposed to determine the debonding strength F
db
(MPa). The equations are modified
versions of those proposed earlier [1, 8].
f
c f
L p db db
t n
f E
F
=
/
| | o (5)
where n is the number of plies of the FRP laminates, t
f
is the laminates thickness, o
db
is
a coefficient which was calibrated against test data of beams and slabs
1,8
(found to be
0.4) and |
b
and |
l
are width and bond length coefficients, respectively, determined by
(
t
= | = <
= | = >
+
= |
e
L
/
c
f f
e
L
/
c
f f
e
f
f
p
L 2
L
sin
f
t E
L L
0 . 1
f
t E
L L
b / b 1
b / b 2
(6)
where L
e
is the effective bond length, L is the length of the FRP laminates E
f
is the
elastic modulus of the FRP laminates, t
f
is the thickness of the laminates, b
f
is the width
of the FRP laminates and b is the cross sections width. It is worth mentioning that the
above limit on FRP laminate stress yields the same value as the limit defined in the ACI
-451-
440.2R-08 when the length of the bonded laminates is greater than the effective length
(|
L
=1) and the laminates cover half the width of the concrete section (|
p
=1).
The stress in the FRP laminates is then obtained using the following equation which
should replace the second part of Equation 4:
*
fu E fu
db
f f
f
F C F
F
E
: of minimum F
=
=
c
(7)
The nominal moment M
n
of the strengthened section is given by
)
2
) (
( )
2
) (
( )
2
) (
(
/ 1 1 1
s sc sc s s s f f n
d
c
F A
c
d F A
c
t F A M + + =
| | |
(8)
Applying these procedures to the beam specimens (Table 1) reveals a good estimate for
the nominal moments of all beams except those that failed in shear or interactive failure
between shear and interfacial debonding. Further work is needed in respect of this latter
failure mode.
6 CONCLUSIONS
Bonding FRP laminates to the tension side of reinforced concrete members subject to
flexure can enhance the flexural capacity of such members significantly. A better
understanding of the causes of failure for these FRP strengthened members will allow
for more precise designs that will balance safety and cost. The experimental
investigations performed on slabs and beams with externally bonded FRP laminates
revealed clearly that crack induced debonding failure is one of the major factors
affecting the flexural strength of the member and should be explicitly considered in
calculating the nominal moment.
A recently proposed debonding model was slightly revised and adopted together with
code provisions in estimating the nominal moments. The model showed reasonable
agreement with the test results. Furthermore, the tests proved that strain compatibility
between the FRP laminates and the concrete section is always lost from the early stages
of loading. The strain measurements also revealed that the usage efficiency of the
bonded CFRP strip was reduced because of the interfacial debonding. A model is
proposed following the procedures in the same codes but including the debonding
strength in the calculation of the flexural strength of reinforced concrete members with
externally bonded FRP laminates.
8 REFERENCES
[1] Teng J.G., Chen J.F., Smith S.T., and Lam L. FRP strengthened RC structures.
Academic Press Ltd, Wiley, West Sussex, UK, 266 pp., 2002.
[2] Lu X.Z., Teng J.G., Ye L.P., and Jiang J.J. Bond-slip models for FRP
sheets/plates bonded to concrete. Engineering Structures, Elsevier, 2005, 27, No.
6, 920-937.
[3] Sayed-Ahmed E.Y., Riad A.H., and Shrive N.G. Flexural strengthening of
precast reinforced concrete bridge girders using bonded CFRP strips or external
-452-
post-tensioning. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 2004, 31, No. 3, 499-
512.
[4] Hosny A.A., Sayed-Ahmed E.Y., Abdelrahamn A.A., and Alhlaby, N.A.
Strengthening precast-prestressed hollow core slabs to resist negative moments
using CFRP strips: an experimental investigation and a critical review of CSA
806-02. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 2006, 33, No. 8, 955-967.
[5] Smith S.T., and Teng J.G. FRP strengthened RC beams I: Review of
debonding strength models. Engineering Structures, Elsevier, 2002, 24, No. 4,
385-395.
[6] Smith S.T., and Teng J.G. FRP strengthened RC beams II: assessment of
debonding strength models. Engineering Structures, 2002, 24, No. 4, 397-417.
[7] Oehlers D.J., Park S.M., and Mohamed Ali M.S. A structural engineering
approach to adhesive bonding longitudinal plates to RC beams and slabs.
Composite: Part A, 2003, 34, No. 12, 887-897.
[8] Teng J.G., Lu X.Z., Ye. L.P., and Jiang J.J. Recent research on intermediate
crack induced debonding in FRP-strengthened RC beams. Proceedings of the 4th
International Conference on Advanced Composite Materials in Bridges and
Structures, Calgary, Canada, 20-23 July, 2004, CSCE. CD-proceedings.
[9] Spadea G., Bencardino F., and Swamy R. N. Structural behavior of composite
RC beams with externally bonded CFRP. Journal of Composites for
Construction, ASCE, 1998, 2, No. 3, 132-137.
[10] Meier U. Strengthening of structures using carbon fibre/epoxy composites,
Construction and Building Materials, 1995, 9, No. 6, 341-351.
[11] Lee Y. J., Boothby T. E., and Bakis, C. E. Slip modulus of FRP sheets bonded to
concrete. Journal of Composites for Construction, 1999, 3, No. 4, 161-167.
[12] Triantafillou T. C., and Plevris N. Strengthening of RC beams with epoxy-
bonded fibre-composite materials. Materials and Structures, RILEM, 1992, 25,
No. 148, 201-211.
[13] Chen J.F., and Teng J.G. Anchorage strength model for FRP and steel plates
attached to concrete. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 2001, 127, No. 7,
784-791.
[14] Uedat., Dai J.G., and Sato Y. A nonlinear bond stress-slip relationship for FRP
sheet-concrete interface. Proceedings of international symposium on latest
achievement of technology and research on retrofitting concrete structures,
Kyoto, Japan, July 14-15, 2003, pp. 113-120.
[15] Yuan H., Teng J.G., Seracino R., Wu Z.S., and Yao J. Full-range behabiour of
FRP-to-concrete bonded joints. Engineering Structures, Elsevier, 2004, 26,
No.5, 553-564.
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[16] Sayed-Ahmed, E.Y., Bakay, R., and Shrive, N.G. 2009. Bond Strength of FRP
Laminates to Concrete: State-of-the-Art Review. Electronic Journal of Structural
Engineering. 9: 45-61, Sept 2009.
[17] Bakay R., Sayed-Ahmed E.Y., and Shrive N.G. Interfacial Debonding Failure
for Reinforced Concrete Beams Strengthened with CFRP Strips, Canadian
Journal of Civil Engineering, 2009, 36, No. 1: pp. 103-121.
[18] ACI 440.2R-08. Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded
FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures. Reported by ACI
Committee 440. American Concrete Institute, USA. 2008.
[19] CSA S806-02. Design and Construction of Building Components with Fibre-
Reinforced Polymers. Canadian Standards Association CSA, Ontario, Canada.
2002.
[20] Hosny A., Abdelrahamn A.A., Sayed-Ahmed E.Y., and Alhlaby, N.A. CFRP
Strengthening of Prestressed/Precast Hollow Core Slabs to Resist Negative
Moments. Proceedings, 10th Arab Structural engineering Conference
(10ASEC), Kuwait, Nov. 2006.
[21] BREA S.F., BRAMBLETT R.M., WOOD S.L., and KREGER M.E.
Increasing flexural capacity of reinforced concrete beams using carbon fibre
reinforced polymer composites. ACI Structural Journal, 2003, 100, No. 1, 36-46.
[22] Esfahani M.R., Kianoush M.R., and Tajari A.R. Flexural behaviour of reinforced
concrete beams strengthened by CFRP sheets. Engineering Structures, Elsevier.
2007
[23] Teng J. G., Smith S. T., Yao J., and Hen J. F. Intermediate Crack Induced
Debonding in RC Beams and Slabs, Construction and Building Materials, 2001,
17, No. 6, 447-462.
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13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





EFFECT OF SLAB THICKNESS & STIRRUP SHAPE ON SHEAR
RESISTANCE OF HIGHSTRENGTH CONCRETE TBEAMS

M. E. ISSA
Professor, Department of structural Engineering, Cairo University, Egypt.
E-mail: me_issa00@yahoo.com
M. T. MOSTAFA
Professor, Department of structural Engineering, Cairo University, Egypt.
A. H. ZAHER
Assistant Professor, Department of structural Engineering, Ain Shams University,
Egypt.
E-mail: amr_h_zaher@yahoo.com
A. A. AFIFI
Researcher, Department of structural Engineering, 6 October University, Egypt.
E-mail: A7med_Afifi@yahoo.com

RABSTACT
This paper presents a study on the effect of slab thickness and shape of stirrups on the
shear strength of point-loaded, reinforced high-strength concrete T-beams. A procedure
to normalize the ultimate strength and calculate a concrete contribution is implemented.
Ten full-scale reinforced concrete beams were tested for this investigation. Each
specimen had simply supported with over all length of beam 3000 mm and with cross-
section of (120 x 300 mm.). All tested T-beams have a width of slab 700 mm. and
different slab thicknesses (30, 55, and 80 mm.). The main variables of this study were
the shape of the section, slab thickness and the shape of stirrups. The characteristic
compressive strength for the used concrete was 100 MPa. The effect of varying the ratio
of slab to beam thicknesses and the stirrups shape on the shear strength of a reinforced
concrete T-beam were analyzed and discussed. An increase in the ratio of slab-to-beam
thicknesses and using slab enclosed by stirrups shown to produce an accompanying
increase in the ultimate shear strength of the tested beams. This increase in the shear
strength with an increase in the ratio of slab-to-beam thicknesses continues until the slab
is wide enough to allow formation of a failure mechanism where the load point punches
through the slab.
KEYWORDS

T-beam, slab thickness, high-strength concrete, shears strength and stirrups shape.
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1 INTRODUCTION
More than 100 years later, the fundamental behavior of concrete relating to the internal
mechanisms of shear resistance is still being actively researched. Concrete codes of
practice such as the American Concrete Institute code, the European model code, and
the Australian code are still using semi-empirical formulations based on the truss model
in the shear design of concrete beams.
Analytical models to calculate the shear resistance of a reinforced concrete beams also
makes use of the truss model assumption as a basis for the formation of the model.
Applications of both of these procedures have yielded promising results. The previous
researches indicate that much of the analytical research and its application to reinforced
concrete beams have focused mostly on RC beams with rectangular cross sections
shape. It was noted that rectangular beams are not representative of elements in real
structures that resist shearing forces. Investigations incorporating the effect of the slab
thickness and stirrups shape on the shear strength of a T-beam reinforced concrete cross
section are sparse.
2 TEST PROGRAM
The present experimental program included testing of ten reinforced concrete beams.
The reinforcement details of the tested specimens are shown in Figs. 1, 2 and 3
respectively. These T-beams were tested in three groups G1, G2 and G3 with different
stirrups reinforcement. G1 has no stirrups, G2 has ordinary stirrups and G3 has slab
enclosed by stirrups. First and second groups consist of four T-beams with different slab
thicknesses (zero, 30, 55, and 80 mm), and the third group consist of two T-beams (55
and 80 mm.). The main reinforcement of all tested T-beams was kept constant and equal
5 18, and the characteristic compressive strength for the used concrete was 100 MPa.
3 DETAILS OF TESTED BEAMS
The beams represent the experimental program includes testing of three groups G1, G2
and G3.
3.1 The first group
Consists of four RC beams without stirrups, one of specimens as a (R-sec) with cross
section (100x300mm) and three of specimens as a (T-sec) with cross section
(100x300mm), slab width of 700mm and with different thicknesses (30, 55, 80mm)
respectively.
3.2 The second group
Consists of four RC beams with 5 8/m ordinary stirrups, one has (R-sec) and the other
three of specimens as a (T-sec).
3.3 The third group
Consists of two T-beams with 5 8/m slab enclosed by stirrups in the cross section.
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Fig. 1: Typical dimensions and reinforcement of group G1



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4. TEST SETUP
The concrete strains were measured using mechanical strain gauges (extensometer) of
150 mm gauge length and 0.001 mm accuracy to measure distance between demec
points mounted on the painted sides of the specimen. The reinforcement strains were
measured using the electrical strain gauge gauges mounted it as shown in Fig. 4. The
electrical strain gauges were coupled to a strain indictor. The deflections were measured
using 4 dial gauges 50 mms capacity and 0.01 mms accuracy and arranged to measure
the deflection distribution to the specimen as shown in Fig. 5. After each load increment
the cracks were traced and marked on the painted sides of the specimen according to
their priority of occurrence.
The specimens were loaded in increments up to failure. The tested specimens were
instrumented to measure their deformational behavior after each load increment. The
recorded measurements include concrete and steel strain, lateral deflection and crack
propagation.

Fig. 4: Position of electrical strain gauges mounted on the reinforcement of specimen

Fig. 5: Position of demec points and dial gauges on the specimen

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5.1 Modes of failure
After the peak of each loading, the crack pattern was marked to provide necessary
information required for defining the failure mechanism of each specimen. Figs. 6. to
15. show the crack patterns of all the tested specimens.
5.1.1 Mode of failure for group G1
For specimen G1B1 the specimen experienced the formation of fine cracks vertically in
the middle of beam span and then fine cracks diagonally started in the both shear zones
left and right sides as shown in Fig. 6. The final failure of that specimen was
characterized by shear failure in the right side with extension of the cracks in the beam.
For specimen G1B2 the specimen experienced the formation of fine cracks vertically in
the middle of beam span and then fine cracks diagonally started in the both shear zones
left and right sides of the beam and then the cracks continues in the bottom of the slab
as shown in Fig. 7.The final failure of that specimen was characterized by shear failure
in the left side with extension of the cracks in the beam and slab.
For specimen G1B3, as shown in Fig. 8, the specimen followed the same behavior as
previous specimen with the different in the load failure and crack size.
For specimen G1B4, as shown in Fig. 9, the specimen experienced the formation of fine
cracks in the middle of beam then starts diagonally in the two sides of the beam. Then
the cracks get wider in the shear zone. Then the diagonal cracks in the beam extension
in the bottom of the slab diagonally and horizontally with the limit line between beam
and slab and then the slab separated from the t-beam before the final failure directly.
The failure was happened in the beam only not in the slab.
For specimen G2B1 the specimen experienced the formation of fine vertical cracks in
the middle of the beam span and then fine cracks diagonally started in the shear zones in
both sides the beam shown in Fig. 10. The final failure of that specimen was
characterized by shear failure in the right side with extension of the cracks in the beam.
For specimen G2B2 the specimen experienced the formation of fine vertical cracks in
the middle of the beam span and then fine cracks diagonally started in the both shear
zones left and right sides of the beam and then the cracks continues in the bottom of the
slab as shown in Fig. 11. The final failure of that specimen was characterized by shear
failure in the left side with extension of the cracks in the beam and slab.
For specimen G2B3, as shown in Fig. 12, the specimen experienced the formation of
fine cracks in the middle of beam then starts diagonally in the two sides of the beam.
Then the cracks get wider in the shear zone. Then the diagonal cracks in the beam
extension in the bottom of the slab diagonally and horizontally with the limit line
between beam and slab and then the slab separated from the T-beam before the final
failure directly. The failure was happened in the beam only not in the slab.
For specimen G2B4, as shown in Fig. 13, the specimen followed the same behavior as
the previous specimen with the different in the load failure, crack size and side of
failure.
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RCS-014-6
For specimens G3B1 and G3B2. The specimen experienced the formation of fine cracks
in the middle of the beam then starts diagonally in the two sides of the beam as shown
in Figs. 14 and 15. Then the cracks get wider in the shear zone. Then the diagonal
cracks in the beam extension in the bottom of the slab diagonally and horizontally with
the limit line between beam and slab. The failure was happened in the beam and the
slab together with the different in the load failure, crack size and side of failure.

Fig. 6: Crack pattern of specimen G1B1 Fig. 7: Crack pattern of specimen G1B2

Fig. 8: Crack pattern of specimen G1B3




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Fig. 12: Crack pattern of specimen G2B3 Fig. 13: Crack pattern of specimen G2B4


Tables 1, 2 and 3 show the load at which the first moment and shear crack appeared, the
failure load and maximum deflection values of each tested beams.

Table 1: Test results for group G1 (specimens without stirrups).

Slab
thickness
(mm)
Failure
load
(KN)
Shear
cracking
load
(KN)
Moment
cracking
load
(KN.m)
Max.
Deflection
(mm)
B1 Zero 17 8 4 11.75
B2 30 mm 18 8 4 13.00
B3 55 mm 19 10 5 13.00
B4 80 mm 22 12 5 16.4

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RCS-014-8
Table 2: Test results for group G2 (specimens with ordinary stirrups).

Slab
thickness
(mm)
Failure
load
(KN)
Shear
cracking
load
(KN)
Moment
cracking
load
(KN.m)
Max.
Deflection
(mm)
B1 Zero 21 11 4 17.04
B2 30 mm 22 11 5 17.00
B3 55 mm 25 13 6 13.4
B4 80 mm 29 14 7 13.87
Table 3: Test results for group G3 (specimens with slab enclosed by stirrups).

Slab
thickness
(mm)
Failure
load
(KN)
Shear
cracking
load
(KN)
Moment
cracking
load
(KN.m)
Max.
Deflection
(mm)
B1 55 mm 30 14 7 15.00
B2 80 mm 33 16 6 20.00
5.2 Deflection
As mentioned before, the vertical deflections were measured through three points of
each beam and one point in the corner of the slab to predict the deflection shape of the
tested beams. The profiles of the tested beams at different stages of loading are shown
in Figs. 16 to 25 respectively.
From these figures and tables, it can be observed that. The load-mid span deflection
curves for the tested beams were nearly linear at the early stages of loading from zero
load up to the first cracking of the concrete The great decrease in stiffness due to
excessive cracking had resulted in relatively great increase in the deflection values,
Approaching the failure load, the deflection continued to increase even with the applied
load being maintained constant. Also test results shows that the deflections of beams
were inversely proportional to the slab thickness. Finally existing of stirrups mean
slightly decreasing in deflection because the cracks decreasing a long the total span.
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RCS-014-9

Fig. 16: Profile of deflection of tested beam G1B1

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RCS-014-14
5.3 Discussion of test results
From the previous figures and tables this part represents a summary of results to make a
comparison between all of the specimens.
Fig. 17 shows the relation between ts/tb (slab thickness / beam thickness ratio) and ratio
of increasing in shear failure load.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Ratio of slab thickness to beam thickness %
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g

i
n

s
h
e
a
r

f
a
i
l
u
r
e

l
o
a
d

%
G1
G2
G3

Fig. 26: Relation between (ts/tb) ratio and ratio of increasing in shear failure load.
6. CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experimental test results obtained from this study, the following
conclusions can be drawn:
- Existence of slab contributed to increase the shear resistance in the T-beams,
where the shear failure loads increasing by 29 % of rectangular section in the T-beams
without stirrups and ratio up to 38% in the T-beams with ordinary stirrups while the
ratio up to 57 % in the T-beams with slab enclosed by stirrups.
- The shear strength increases with the increase of slab thickness. When the ratio
of slab thickness to beam thickness (ts/tb) ratio increases from 10 % to 26 %, the shear
failure load increases by ratio 32 %.
- The slab enclosed by stirrups helps to increase the shear resistance, where the
shear failure loads increases by ratio ranging from 14 % to 20 %.
- The closed stirrups help also in prevent the cracks between the slab and the web
through the slab.
- The increasing in shear resistance is more significant for (slab thickness / beam
thickness) more than 10 %.
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7. REFERENCES
[1] Chong, O. Ultimate shear strength of uniformly loaded concrete tee beams.
M.Sc. thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Glasgow,
Glasgow, Scotland. (1980).
[2] Fok, W.K. The shear strength of reinforced concrete T beams with unreinforced
and shear-reinforced webs. Ph.D. thesis, Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland. (1972).
[3] Gesund, H. Discussion of Recent approaches to shear design of structural
concrete by ASCE-ACI Committee 445 on Shear and Torsion. ASCE Journal
of Structural Engineering, (2000) 126(6): 853854.
[4] Giaccio, C., Al-Mahaidi, R., and Taplin, G. Flange effectiveness in shear
strength of RC T-beams. Proceedings of the 4th AsiaPacific Structural
Engineering and Construction Conference, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, September
2000. Vol. 1. The Construction Technology and Management Centre, Johor,
Malaysia.pp. (2000)463472.
[5] Hoang, L.C. Shear strength of non-shear reinforced concrete elements Part 2.
T-Beams. Technical Report Series R, No. 29, Department of Structural
Engineering and Materials, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby,
Denmark. Hsu, T. 1988. Softened truss model theory for shear and torsion. ACI
Structural Journal, (1997)85(6): 624635.
[6] Hsu, T. Unified approach to shear analysis and design. Cement & Concrete
Composites, (1998)20(6): 419435.
[7] Kotsovos, M. Behavior of reinforced concrete T-beams in shear. Structural
Engineer, Part B, (1990) 65(1): 110.
[8] Pang, X-B.D., and Hsu, T.T.C. Behavior of reinforced concrete membrane
elements in shear. ACI Journal, (1995)92(6): 665679.
[9] Taplin, G., and Al-Mahaidi, R. An experimental investigation of shear critical T-
beams. Proceedings of the 3rd Structural Specialty Conference, London, Ont.,
June 2000. Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, Montral, Que., pp.
(2000)486492.
[10] W. Chung and S.H. Ahmad. Model for Shear Critical High-Strength Concrete
Beams. ACI Structural Journal, January-February. (1994).
[11] John J. Rollar and Henry O. Russell. Shear Strength of High Strength Concrete
Beams with Web Reinforcement. ACI Structural Journal, March-April. (1990).
[12] Shuaib H. Ahmad , A. R. Khaloo and A. Poveda. Shear Capacity of Reinforced
High Strength Concrete Beams. ACI Journal, March-April. (1986).
[13] Kim, Jin Keun and Yon Dong. Shear strength of reinforced high strength
concrete beams without web reinforcement. Magazine of concrete Research,
Mar. (1994).
[14] Marro, P. Bending and shear tests to failure beams made with high strength
concrete. First symposium on Utilization of high strength concrete, stavanger.
(1988).
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[15] Raghu S.P. and Priyan M. Experimental Study on Shear Strength of High-
Strength Concrete Beams. ACI Structural Journal Vol. 97. No. 4. (2000).
[16] Amr H. A. Zaher. The failure behavior of high strength concrete beams. Ph.D.
thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, Ain Shams University. (1996).
[17] Yaser Abd-El Hameed Sayed. Behavior of High-Strength Concrete Beams with
Variable Span to Depth Ratio. M. Sc. Thesis Faculty of Engineering Cairo
University. (1998)
[18] Mohamed El Sayed Mohamed El Sayed. Behavior of Simply Supported High
Strength Concrete Composite T-Beams. M. Sc. Thesis Faculty of Engineering
Cairo University. (2002).

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RCS-015-1

13
th
ICSGE
27-29 Dec. 2009
Cairo - Egypt

Numerical Analysis of Strengthened Shear Walls using CFRP

Ehab,M., Salem,H., and Tageldin, H.
Abstract

This paper presents a numerical simulation to the behavior of strengthened RC shear walls under the effect of
lateral loading. The RC shear walls were strengthened using Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP). The
proposed analysis adopted the Applied Element Method (AEM). The AEM is a discrete element method that adopts
a fully nonlinear path-dependent analysis scheme. The numerical results showed a good agreement with the
experimental work.

Key Words
Shear walls, reinforced concert, applied element method, strengthening

1 Introducon

Carbon fiber Reinforced polymer (CFRP) has been extensively used for strengthening and repair of concrete
structural members [1,3,4,5,7,8]. It gained its popularity from the ease in construction, the lightness and its high
strength per height ratio. The rapid growth in using CFRP in strengthening and repair makes it essential to perform
pre-analysis to evaluate and optimize the strengthening procedure. Few studies have been carried out in the past
for such purpose (6). In this study, a numerical analysis is applied to strengthening of RC shear walls subjected to
lateral load using the Applied Element Method (AEM). The AEM is a nonlinear structural analysis stiffness-based
method that adopts discrete cracking approach and is advantageous in collapse analysis of structures. Analyzed the
AEM first RC frames with infill-wall, the second is RC frames with infill-wall retrofitted with CFRP and the third is RC
frames with infill-wall, where, both were retrofitted with CFRP.
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2 Applied Element Method (AEM )
The Applied Element Method (AEM) is a modeling method adopting the concept of discrete cracking. In AEM, the
structure is modeled as an assembly of relatively small elements as shown in Fig. 1-a. The elements are connected
together along their surfaces through a set of normal and shear springs. The two elements shown in Fig. 1-b are
assumed to be connected by normal and shear springs located at the contact points, which are distributed on the
element faces. Normal and shear springs are responsible for transfer of normal and shear stresses, respectively,
from one element to the other. Springs generate stresses and deformations of a certain volume as shown in Fig. 1-
b.
Each single element has six degrees of freedom: three for translations and three for rotations. Relative
translational or rotational displacement between two neighboring elements cause stresses in the springs located at
their common face as shown in Fig. 2. These connecting springs represent the state of stresses, strains and
connectivity between elements. Two neighboring elements can be totally separated once the springs connecting
them rupture.
Fully nonlinear path-dependant constitutive models are adopted in the AEM as shown in Fig. 3. For concrete in
compression, an elasto-plasc and fracture model is adopted (Maekawa and Okamura 1983). When concrete is
subjected to tension, a linear stress-strain relationship is adopted until cracking of the concrete springs, where the
stresses then drop to zero. GFRP is a brittle material in which linear stress-strain relationship is adopted up to
failure. For more details about constitutive models, refer to Tagel-Din and Meguro (2000).
The concrete is assumed cracked when the principal tensile stresses reach the cracking strength of concrete. If the
cracking direction is parallel to the element faces, the cracks extend in those directions. When the cracking
direction is inclined as shown in Fig. 4, the problem becomes numerically complicated. Two solutions would be
available: the first one is to break the element down into two elements, while the other is to redistribute the
unbalanced stresses on the element faces. The former solution is rather complicated, but more accurate for shear
stress transfer, while the latter is simpler, but less accurate. For simplicity, the second solution is adopted here
given that the accuracy can be greatly improved by reducing the size of the elements.
The AEM is based on a simple stiffness method formulation, in which an overall stiffness matrix is formulated and
nonlinearly solved for the structural displacements. The solution for equilibrium equations is an implicit one that
adopts a dynamic step-by-step integration, as Newmark-beta me integraon procedure (Bathe 1982 and Chopra
1995).
One of the main valuable features in AEM is the automatic detection of element separation and contact. Two
neighboring elements can separate from each other if the matrix springs connecting them rupture. Elements may
automatically separate, re-contact again or contact other elements. For more details refer to the Applied Science
International (www.appliedscienceint.com).
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2.1 AEM versus other numerical methods
In spite of the robustness and the stability of the Finite Element Method (FEM), its ability for simulating progressive
collapse is questionable. The possibility of complete separation of elements is limited and very time consuming. On
the other hand, the AEM is capable of efficiently simulating the progressive collapse of structures. Fig. 5
schematically shows the applicable analysis domain of both the AEM and FEM.
The discrete Element Method (DEM) has been proved to be a successful method for simulating a wide variety of
granular flow situations. In the DEM, The material is assumed to consist of separate, discrete particles that may
have different shapes and properties. Simulation is started by putting all particles in a certain position and giving
them an initial velocity. Then the forces which act on each particle are computed from the initial data and the
relevant physical laws. An integration method is employed to compute the change in the position and the velocity
of each particle during a certain time step from Newotons laws of motion. Then, the new positions are used to
compute the forces during the next step, and this loop is repeated until the simulation ends. Dislike the AEM, DEM
is not a stiffness-based method. The solution depends on force transmission from a particle to another, and
therefore, the DEM is not a practical solution for large-size problems. The maximum number of particles, and
duration of a virtual simulation is limited by computational power. Another obstacle in the DEM is that simulations
are generally limited to spherical particles due to the increase in cost of computation with increasing complexity of
geometry.

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Figure 1 Proposed modeling of structures in AEM
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Figure 2 Stresses in springs due to relative displacement

Figure 3 Proposed constitutive models in the Applied Element Method

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Figure 4 Different techniques for the post-cracking modeling

Figure 5 Relationship between AEM versus FEM

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3 Geometry and material properes of the analyzed specimens

The concrete dimensions and the reinforcement details of the wall specimens are shown in gure 6. The tested
samples are identified as WF-12, WF-12-FV and WF-12-FHV respectively.

Figure 6: Details of the tested RC shear wall
Specimens WF-12-FV and WF-12-FHV are similar to WF-12 but retrofitted with CFRP laminates. Specimen WF-12-FV
is strengthened with four layers of CFRP laminates, two for each side. The CFRP laminates were placed in the
vertical direction for the sample WF-12-FV. The thickness of each layer was 0.1375 mm. Total of eight layers of
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CFRP laminates were bonded to WF-12-FHV, four in each side. The end anchorages of the CFRP laminates were
carefully considered and revealed.
The material properes of the concrete, the steel bars and the CFRP are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Summary of the properties of used materials

4 The Numerical Study

Three models have been constructed for the specimens. First of all, a mesh sensitivity analysis has been carried out
to select the appropriate mesh size; gure 7 shows the eect of number of elements on the lateral displacement of
the wall in the elasc zone .Figure 8 shows the model of the shear wall, columns and foong in ELS. Figure 9 shows
the modeling of reinforcing bars. Figure 10 shows the model for the specimens strengthened with CFRP. The CFRP
wrapped the shear wall by using a high tensile strength material in the model; the meshing of the CFRP is the same
for the shear wall.
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Figure 7 Mesh sensivity analyses

Figure 8- Shear wall model in the ELS
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RCS-015-10

Figure 9- The steel bars in the model

(a) The retrofitted shear wall WF-12-FHV (b) The retrofitted shear wall WF-12-FV

Figure 10- The retrofitted shear walls in the applied element model, the CFRP wrapped the walls

The springs between the CFRP and RC has been modeled as an interface material indicating mortar with high
tensile strength.
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Due to the fact that some parts of the tested specimens spalled and damaged, it was essential to carry out dynamic
analysis to maintain stability of computations. However, the rate of loading was kept low enough to be considered
as quasi-stac loading. The displacement history of the loading is shown in gure 11.

Figure 11- The loading data that simulates the earthquake force
5 Results and Discussion

Load drift relation

Figures 5 through 7 show both analycal and experimental relaons between the applied load and the top dri (%)
for specimens WF-12, WF-12-FV and WF-12-FHV respectively. The comparison shows a very good agreement in the
ultimate load as well as the hysteretic curves for the three specimens.
-481-

RCS-015-12

Figure 12- The sample WH-12

Figure 13- The sample WH-12-FV

-482-

RCS-015-13

Figure 14- The sample WH-12-FHV

Cracking pattern

The cracking pattern in the shear wall at failure obtained from both the analysis and the experimental work is
shown in Figs.12, 13and 14.

-483-

RCS-015-14

Figure 15- Cracking pattern at failure for WH-12

(a) Experiment (b) Analysis

Figure 16- Cracking pattern at failure for WH-12-FV

-484-

RCS-015-15

(a) Experiment (b) Analysis

Figure 17- Cracking pattern at loading end for WH-12-FHV

As shown in Figs. 15 through 17 the shear wall WF-12 without retrong has failed under the shear cracks, on the
other hand, specimens WF-12-FV and WF-12-FHV showed a better behavior where eventually specimen WF- 12-
FHV did not show sever damage. Figure 18 shows the damage in concrete obtained by the analysis, where it is
obviously less than the non retrofitted specimen.

WF-12 WF-12-FV WF-12-FHV
Figure 18- The damage in concrete obtained by the analysis
5 Conclusions

A numerical study is carried out for RC shear wall with and without retrofitting using the AEM. The numerical
results show a good agreement with the experimental ones. The AEM could follow the crack formation of
propagation till the failure of the specimens.

6 References
-485-

RCS-015-16

1. American Concrete Instute (ACI). (2002), Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete, ACI 318-02
and Commentary (ACI 318R-02), Farmington Hills, Michigan.
2. Hatem Tagel-Din and Kimiro Meguro : Applied Element Method for simulation of nonlinear materials: Theory
and applications for RC structures, Structural Eng. Earthquake Eng., International journal of the Japan society
of civil Engineering (JSCE) Vol. 17, No. 2, 137s-148s, July 2000.
3. Hwang, S. J., Fang, W. H., Lee, H. J., and Yu, H. W. (2001), Analycal Model for Predicng Shear
Strengths of Squat Walls, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 127, No. 1, January, pp.
43-50.
4. Hwang, S. J., and Lee, H. J. (2002), Strength Prediction for Discontinuity Regions by Softened
Strut-and-Tie Model, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 128, No. 12, December,
pp.1519-1526.
5. Hwang, S. J., Tu, Y. S., Yu, H. W. (2004), Load Deecon Responses of Low Rise Reinforced Concrete Shear
Walls, under preparation.
6. K. Lee and R. Al-Mahaidi Strength and Failure Mechanism of RC T-Beams Strengthened with CFRP Plates
hp://courses.nus.edu.sg/course/cvetankh/internet/frprcs6/call%20for%20papers.htm
7. Oesterle, R. G., Aristizabal-Ochoa, J. D., Shiu, K. N., and Corley, W. G. (1984), Web Crushing of Reinforced
Concrete Structural Walls. ACI Journal, Vol. 81, No. 3, May-June, pp. 231-241.
8. R. Kotynia"DEBONDING FAILURES OF RC BEAMS STRENGTHENED
WITH EXTERNALLY BONDED STRIPS" http://www.iifc-hq.org/BBFS-Papers/C6_0099.pdf1

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RCS-016-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





BEHAVIOR OF BRACED REINFORCED CONCRETE
COUPLED SHEAR WALLS IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS

AHMED KAMEL EL-BADWY
M.Sc. candidate, Department of Structural Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Abbassia, Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: eng_ahmedkamel@yahoo.com
OMAR ALY EL-NAWAWY
Professor of concrete structures, Department of Structural Engineering,
E-mail: nawawyomar@hotmail.com
AMIN SALEH ALY
Professor of structures, Department of Structural Engineering,
E-mail: aminaly2000@hotmail.com
AMGAD AHMED TALAAT
Assistant Prof of concrete structures, Department of Structural Engineering,
E-mail: amgad070@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
The present work is concerned with the analytical and theoretical study of the behavior
of braced reinforced concrete coupled shear walls in high rise buildings. The braced
reinforced concrete coupled shear walls ( B.R.C.C.S.W ) are used to resist loading in
high rise buildings and lateral forces from wind and earthquakes. A non-linear
analytical model was developed using the Finite Element Program ( ETABS v 9.2 ).
The model accommodates for ( B.R.C.C.S.W ) under the effect of lateral loads.
Using ETABS in the analysis and design of structural three dimensional high rise
buildings: the procedure consists of choosing the units, drawing three dimensional
structural model, choosing material properties, classification of all elements of frame
sections such as ( beams or bracing or beams and bracing and columns ), wall piers and
slabs sections, choosing reinforcing bars for all concrete sections, choosing supports,
defining loads ( dead, live, wind, earthquake and combination ), run the analysis and
design for all cases and parametric studies. In the case studies, buildings are consisting
of columns and walls as well as slabs. Walls are connected together by means of beams
or bracing or both of beams and bracing, in all floors.
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RCS-016-2
Analytical results show that using of bracing instead of beams in coupled shear walls,
decreases the displacement in high rise buildings by about 40 % approximately, and
increases the normal force for walls by about 7 - 10 % approximately while decreases
the moment by about 40 45 %. Analytical results show also the possibility of
increasing durability of high rise buildings against lateral loads, as well as the
possibility of duplication of building height in zone 2, and one time and half in zone 3.
Key words: Reinforced Concrete, Coupled Shear Walls, High Rise Buildings, Lateral
Loads, Bracing, Beams, Non-linear Analysis, Finite Element Method, ( B.R.C.C.S.W ).
INTRODUCTION
The analysis of coupled shear walls in high rise buildings becomes an interested subject
for many civil engineers in recent years. From the standpoint of structural analysis, the
problem is highly redundant, and a mathematical analysis for stresses and deformations
of the coupled shear walls with connecting beams or bracing or both of them is
extremely complex. For this reason, a simplified and more accurate method for analysis
of coupled shear walls would contribute in perfect engineering design. The intention
herein is to illustrate the use of the finite-element method in determining the stress
distributions in (B.R.C.C.S.W) as well as the prediction of more accurate values for the
bending moments, axial and shear forces which act upon the connecting beams or
bracing when the coupled shear walls are subjected to lateral loads.
In high rise buildings, lateral loads such as winds and earthquakes are generally resisted
by the (B.R.C.C.S.W). Since the reinforce concrete building could be as low as one
storey and as high as 120 stories or more, then some special design considerations
should be taken. The definition of the high rise buildings is a subjective matter for all
engineers. Simply, the structural engineer defines the high rise buildings as the one
whose structural system should to be modified in order to make it sufficiently economic
to resist lateral loads within the prescribed design criteria for displacement and comfort
of occupants. Shear walls, coupled shear walls and wall frame were studied by many
researches [4,6,7,8 and 9] and they did not compare the use of beam and bracing in
different floors.
NUMERICAL PROGRAM
In this paper, a numerical program model, using a finite-element program, is developed
to study the behavior of (B.R.C.C.S.W). The program is applied to twelve reinforced
concrete buildings, each of 60 floors, these buildings are divided into two groups: group
(1): buildings without connecting beams for columns defined as buildings without frame
as shown in Fig. (1); and group (2): buildings with connecting beams for columns
defined as buildings with frame as shown in Fig. (2). Each group has six buildings
covering the studied parameters such as the type of connections between shear walls
(beam, bracing and beam and bracing together) and the seismic zone. Table (1)
illustrates the description of the models in numerical program. The present study has
been performed to ascertain from using bracing instead of beams in analysis of the
(B.R.C.C.S.W) by the finite element method (ETABS v 9.2).

-488-

RCS-016-3
Table 1: The description of the models in numerical program.

Each of the twelve buildings has dimensions of 42 m length and 42 m width in plan, and
60 floors with a storey height of 3 ms. And total height (H) of 180 ms. Six building (no.
1 to no. 6) are located in zone 2 while the other six buildings (no. 7 to no. 12) are
located in zone 3. The thickness of slab in all floors is 22 cm with floor cover of 0.15
ton/m
2
and live load of 0.30 ton/m
2
. Concrete dimensions of cross sections for columns
and walls are shown in table (2) and the steel reinforcement was neglected in analysis.
Fig. (3), (4) and (5) show elevations of coupled shear walls connecting by means of
beam, bracing and beam and bracing respectively.

Fig. 1: Typical structural plan of buildings in group (1) without frame.
-489-

RCS-016-4

Fig. 2: Typical structural plan of buildings in group (2) with Frame.
Table 2: Sections columns and walls in buildings.

Fig. 3: Elevation of coupled shear walls connecting by beams.
-490-

RCS-016-5

Fig. 4: Elevation of coupled shear walls connecting by bracing.

Fig. 5: Elevation of coupled shear walls connecting by beams and bracings.
Table 3: Values of displacement, normal force and moment for the walls in buildings.

-491-

RCS-016-6
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Analytical results should be considered for displacement, normal force and bending
moment for the coupled shear walls in all floor levels.
Displacement: Table (3) illustrates the values of displacement for the twelve buildings
in the program at each five floors level. Show in figure. 6(a) illustrates displacement
comparison between three buildings in zone2 without frame. Building (1) connecting
beams between reinforced concrete coupled shear walls was displacement 15.53 cm,
building (2) connecting bracing was displacement 9.31 cm and building (3) connecting
beams and bracing was displacement 9.32 cm. So the connecting bracing is a better
solution than connecting with beams only or beams and bracing in ( H.R.B ). Show in
figure. 6(b) illustrates displacement comparison between three buildings in zone2 with
frame. Building (4) connecting beams between reinforced concrete coupled shear walls
was displacement 11.67 cm, building (5) connecting bracing was displacement 7.03 cm
and building (6) connecting beams and bracing was displacement 7.04 cm. And show in
figure. 7(a) illustrates displacement comparison between three buildings in zone3
without frame. Building (7) connecting beams between reinforced concrete coupled
shear walls was displacement 23.29 cm, building (8) connecting bracing was
displacement 13.97 cm and building (9) connecting beams and bracing was
displacement 13.98 cm. And it show in figure. 7(b) illustrates displacement comparison
between three buildings in zone3 with frame. Building (10) connecting beams between
reinforced concrete coupled shear walls was displacement 17.50 cm, building (11)
connecting bracing was displacement 10.55 cm and building (12) connecting beams and
bracing was displacement 10.56 cm. So the connecting bracing is a better solution than
connecting with beams only or beams and bracing in ( H.R.B ). And maximum
displacement (H/1000) were studied by many researches [1, 2 and 3] whereas total
height (H) of 180 meter. So maximum limit displacement (0.18) meter. So all buildings
safe displacement without building 7 in zone 3 unsafe displacement. Therefore using of
bracing instead of beams in reinforced concrete coupled shear walls, decreases the
displacement in high rise buildings by about 40 % approximately.
Moment of beams: Show in figure. 8(a) illustrates moment for beams comparison
between two buildings in zone2 without frame. Building (1) connecting beams between
reinforced concrete coupled shear walls was maximum moment 18.37 ton.m and
building (3) connecting beams and bracing was maximum moment 0.94 ton.m. So must
be neglected using beams in building (3) because non-effective and using bracing only
in ( H.R.B ). Show in figure. 8(b) illustrates moment for beams comparison between
two buildings in zone2 with frame. Building (4) connecting beams between reinforced
concrete coupled shear walls was maximum moment 13.66 ton.m and building (6)
connecting beams and bracing was maximum moment 0.60 ton.m. And show in figure.
9(a) illustrates moment for beams comparison between two buildings in zone3 without
was maximum moment 27.78 ton.m and building (9) connecting beams and bracing was
maximum moment 1.64 ton.m. And it show in figure. 9(b) illustrates moment for beams
comparison between two buildings in zone3 with frame. Building (10) connecting
beams between reinforced concrete coupled shear walls was maximum moment 20.71
ton.m and building (12) connecting beams and bracing was maximum moment 1.13
ton.m. So must be neglected using beams in buildings (6, 9 and 12) because
non-effective and using bracing only in ( H.R.B ).
Normal force for walls: Show in figure. 10(a) illustrates normal force for walls2
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RCS-016-7
comparison between three buildings in zone2 without frame. Building (1) connecting
beams between reinforced concrete coupled shear walls was normal force 18533.57 ton,
building (2) connecting bracing was normal force 20021.73 ton and building (3)
connecting beams and bracing was normal force 20057.70 ton. These increases in the
normal force for walls by about 7 - 10 % approximately. Show in figure. 10(b)
illustrates normal force for walls2 comparison between three buildings in zone2 with
was normal force 18123.37 ton, building (5) connecting bracing was normal force
19263.71 ton and building (6) connecting beams and bracing was normal force
19297.89 ton. And show in figure. 11(a) illustrates normal force for walls2 comparison
between three buildings in zone3 without frame. Building (7) connecting beams
between reinforced concrete coupled shear walls was normal force 19555.72 ton,
building (8) connecting bracing was normal force 21761.71 ton and building (9)
connecting beams and bracing was normal force 21801.01 ton. And it show in figure.
11(b) illustrates normal force for walls2 comparison between three buildings in zone3
with frame. Building (10) connecting beams between reinforced concrete coupled shear
walls was normal force 18893.36 ton, building (11) connecting bracing was normal
force 20577.93 ton and building (12) connecting beams and bracing was normal force
20614.68 ton. These increases in the normal force for walls by about 7 - 10 %
approximately. These increases from the bracing to convert lateral loads due to winds or
earthquakes to vertical force by most percentage from horizontal force to another walls
in ( H.R.B ).
Moment for walls: Show in figure. 12(a) illustrates moment for walls2 comparison
between three buildings in zone2 without frame. Building (1) connecting beams
between reinforced concrete coupled shear walls was moment 32727.97 ton.m, building
(2) connecting bracing was moment 19441.37 ton.m and building (3) connecting beams
and bracing was moment 19466.68 ton.m. So the connecting bracing is a better solution
than connecting with beams only or beams and bracing in ( H.R.B ). Show in figure.
12(b) illustrates moment comparison between three buildings in zone2 with frame.
Building (4) connecting beams between reinforced concrete coupled shear walls was
moment 25390.58 ton.m, building (5) connecting bracing was moment 15511.34 ton.m
and building (6) connecting beams and bracing was moment 15537.00 ton.m. And show
in figure. 13(a) illustrates moment comparison between three buildings in zone3 without
was moment 47610.87 ton.m, building (8) connecting bracing was moment 27503.78
ton.m and building (9) connecting beams and bracing was moment 27527.60 ton.m.
And it show in figure. 13(b) illustrates moment comparison between three buildings in
zone3 with frame. Building (10) connecting beams between reinforced concrete coupled
shear walls was moment 36592.68 ton.m, building (11) connecting bracing was moment
21604.92 ton.m and building (12) connecting beams and bracing was moment 21629.62
ton.m. So the connecting bracing is a better solution than connecting with beams only or
beams and bracing in ( H.R.B ). Therefore using of bracing instead of beams in
reinforced concrete coupled shear walls, decreases the moment in high rise buildings by
about 40 - 45 % approximately.
Columns: The same result approximately at using beam or bracing or beam and
bracing between coupled shear walls for columns in normal force, shear force and
moment without frame or with frame in zone 2 or zone 3.
Bracing: Design bracing however column tension or compression on status.
-493-

RCS-016-8
15.53
13.98
12.47
10.91
9.31
7.70
6.12
4.60
3.20
1.97
0.97
0.29
0
9.31
8.21
7.18
6.16
5.16
4.19
3.28
2.44
1.68
1.04
0.53
0.17
0
9.32
8.21
7.18
6.16
5.16
4.19
3.28
2.44
1.69
1.04
0.53
0.17
0 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Displacement ( cm )
F
l
o
o
r
Building ( 1 )
Building ( 2 )
Building ( 3 )
Zone 2
without Frame
( a )
11.67
10.51
9.37
8.20
7.00
5.79
4.60
3.46
2.41
1.48
0.73
0.22
0
7.03
6.20
5.42
4.65
3.89
3.16
2.48
1.84
1.27
0.79
0.40
0.13
0
7.04
6.20
5.42
4.65
3.89
3.17
2.48
1.84
1.27
0.79
0.40
0.13
0 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Displacement ( cm )
F
l
o
o
r
Drift building ( 4 )
Zone 2
with Frame
( b )

Fig. 6: Displacement comparison between buildings in zone 2.
23.29
20.97
18.71
16.36
13.97
11.55
9.18
6.90
4.80
2.95
1.46
0.43
0
13.97
12.31
10.77
9.24
7.73
6.28
4.92
3.65
2.53
1.56
0.79
0.25
0
13.98
12.32
10.78
9.24
7.74
6.29
4.92
3.66
2.53
1.56
0.79
0.25
0 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
Displacement ( cm )
F
l
o
o
r
Building ( 7 )
Building ( 8 )
Building ( 9 )
Zone 3
without Frame
( a )
17.50
15.76
14.05
12.29
10.49
8.68
6.90
5.19
3.61
2.22
1.10
0.32
0
10.55
9.29
8.13
6.97
5.84
4.75
3.71
2.76
1.91
1.18
0.60
0.19
0
10.56
9.30
8.14
6.98
5.84
4.75
3.71
2.76
1.91
1.18
0.60
0.19
0 0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
Displacement ( cm )
F
l
o
o
r
Building ( 10 )
Building ( 11 )
Building ( 12 )
Zone 3
with Frame
( b )

Fig. 7: Displacement comparison between buildings in zone 3.
-494-

RCS-016-9
Beam in Zone2
without Frame
10.32
12.52
13.96
15.50
16.88
17.89
18.37
18.15
17.08
14.94
11.51
6.52
1.22
-12.96
-13.52
-14.94
-16.46
-17.82
-18.81
-19.28
-19.05
-17.96
-15.82
-12.39
-7.40
-2.02
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
-20 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20
Moment ( m.ton )
F
l
o
o
r
Moment 0
building ( 1 )
Moment 4
building ( 1 )
Moment 0
building ( 3 )
Moment 4
building ( 3 )
( a )
Beam in Zone2
with Frame
7.39
9.25
10.33
11.49
12.53
13.29
13.66
13.51
12.71
11.11
8.55
4.80
0.82
-10.05
-10.26
-11.32
-12.45
-13.47
-14.21
-14.57
-14.40
-13.60
-11.99
-9.42
-5.68
-1.62
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
-16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16
Moment ( m.ton )
F
l
o
o
r
Moment 0
building ( 4 )
Moment 4
building ( 4 )
Moment 0
building ( 6 )
Moment 4
building ( 6 )
( b )

Fig. 8: Moment comparison between buildings in zone 2.
Beam in Zone3
without Frame
16.13
19.02
21.18
23.50
25.55
27.06
27.78
27.45
25.84
22.63
17.49
10.00
2.03
-18.77
-20.03
-22.16
-24.45
-26.49
-27.98
-28.69
-28.35
-26.72
-23.51
-18.37
-10.88
-2.83
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Moment ( m.ton )
F
l
o
o
r
Moment 0
building ( 7 )
Moment 4
building ( 7 )
Moment 0
building ( 9 )
Moment 4
building ( 9 )
( a )
Beam in Zone3
with Frame
11.75
14.13
15.74
17.48
19.02
20.16
20.71
20.48
19.28
16.89
13.04
7.41
1.43
-14.41
-15.13
-16.73
-18.44
-19.96
-21.09
-21.62
-21.38
-20.17
-17.77
-13.91
-8.30
-2.23
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
-24 -20 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Moment ( m.ton )
F
l
o
o
r
Moment 0
building ( 10 )
Moment 4
building ( 10 )
Moment 0
building ( 12 )
Moment 4
building ( 12 )
( b )

-495-

RCS-016-10
-275.77
-1737.85
-3252.77
-4800.08
-6368.17
-7952.02
-9545.84
-11142.65
-12734.75
-14312.60
-15863.91
-17372.81
-18533.57
-250.23
-1653.13
-3142.34
-4695.69
-6301.32
-7955.87
-9657.28
-11403.79
-13194.00
-15023.58
-16876.32
-18696.88
-20021.73
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
-24000 -20000 -16000 -12000 -8000 -4000 0
Normal Force ( ton )
F
l
o
o
r
Building ( 1 )
Building ( 2 )
Building ( 3 )
Wall 2 in Zone2
without Frame
( a )
-271.52
-1712.17
-3202.26
-4719.65
-6252.34
-7795.70
-9345.03
-10895.06
-12440.36
-13974.33
-15488.41
-16971.39
-18123.37
-252.30
-1648.24
-3119.59
-4642.41
-6204.52
-7802.58
-9434.65
-11099.37
-12796.09
-14522.13
-16265.97
-17986.10
-19263.71
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
-24000 -20000 -16000 -12000 -8000 -4000 0
F
l
o
o
r
Building ( 4 )
Building ( 5 )
Building ( 6 )
Wall 2 in Zone 2
with Frame
( b )

Fig. 10: Normal force comparison between buildings in zone 2.
-289.30
-1820.74
-3411.05
-5042.46
-6703.90
-8389.36
-10090.79
-11797.68
-13497.56
-15174.79
-16809.34
-18375.64
-19555.72
-251.00
-1694.08
-3244.76
-4883.73
-6599.54
-8388.84
-10249.17
-12177.87
-14172.00
-16223.68
-18307.08
-20338.29
-21761.71
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
-24000 -20000 -16000 -12000 -8000 -4000 0
F
l
o
o
r
Building ( 7 )
Building ( 8 )
Building ( 9 )
Wall 2 in Zone 3
without Frame
( a )
-281.74
-1774.74
-3321.72
-4902.54
-6505.57
-8125.47
-9755.81
-11388.68
-13015.08
-14623.86
-16200.61
-17726.82
-18893.36
-252.91
-1679.31
-3197.14
-4784.60
-6429.86
-8129.58
-9881.57
-11683.80
-13534.46
-15428.25
-17346.37
-19225.76
-20577.93
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
-24000 -20000 -16000 -12000 -8000 -4000 0
F
l
o
o
r
Building ( 10 )
Building ( 11 )
Building ( 12 )
Wall 2 in Zone 3
with Frame
( b )

Fig. 11: Normal force comparison between buildings in zone 3.
-496-

RCS-016-11
Wall 2 in Zone2
without Frame
-704.94
-892.85
-841.69
-457.82
340.47
1591.13
3349.40
5689.13
8711.54
12522.14
17137.18
22834.12
32727.97
-410.24
128.72
602.56
1115.90
1750.86
2520.03
3424.92
4466.38
5654.56
7008.76
8540.19
10946.72
19441.37
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
-6000 0 6000 12000 18000 24000 30000 36000
Moment ( m.ton )
F
l
o
o
r
Building ( 1 )
Building ( 2 )
Building ( 3 )
( a )
Wall 2 in Zone 2
with Frame
-653.35
-686.03
-613.95
-322.99
272.73
1206.00
2519.99
4272.83
6540.22
9395.64
12815.07
17025.93
25390.58
-431.41
77.33
465.07
855.99
1334.75
1914.13
2595.94
3380.87
4275.93
5287.23
6379.23
8096.76
15511.34
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
-6000 0 6000 12000 18000 24000 30000 36000
Moment ( m.ton )
F
l
o
o
r
Building ( 4 )
Building ( 5 )
Building ( 6 )
( b )

Wall 2 in Zone 3
without Frame
-812.63
-1295.84
-1282.87
-715.04
482.76
2360.40
4999.58
8510.97
13048.03
18785.16
25827.08
34557.81
47610.87
-373.11
235.21
885.14
1647.84
2600.76
3756.13
5115.14
6678.97
8464.57
10519.06
12950.54
16768.26
27503.78
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
-12000 0 12000 24000 36000 48000 60000
Moment ( m.ton )
F
l
o
o
r
Building ( 7 )
Building ( 8 )
Building ( 9 )
( a )
Wall 2 in Zone 3
with Frame
-733.91
-985.35
-940.88
-512.18
382.14
1784.33
3757.98
6387.67
9790.36
14092.79
19339.14
25839.31
36592.68
-403.44
158.23
678.96
1258.00
1976.49
2847.10
3871.48
5050.54
6396.46
7936.49
9708.59
12493.64
21604.92
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
-12000 0 12000 24000 36000 48000 60000
Moment ( m.ton )
F
l
o
o
r
Building ( 10 )
Building ( 11 )
Building ( 12 )
( b )

-497-

RCS-016-12
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The connecting bracing between reinforced concrete coupled shear walls is a better
solution than connecting with beams only or beams and bracing in ( H.R.B ). The
bracings in building with frame is a better than connecting with beams only or beams
and bracing between coupled shear walls in ( H.R.B ). The braces convert lateral loads
due to wind and earthquakes to vertical forces by most percentage from horizontal
forces so it increases the normal force for walls by 7 % in ( H.R.B ). When
displacement decreases the shear force and moment for columns and shear walls
decreases. It decreases also possibility of failure to buildings and also risk of feeling
fear to people.
We can summarize the important conclusions in this research as follows:
1. The (B.R.C.C.S.W) increase the safety and the stability of in high rise buildings,
specially against lateral loads.
2. The (B.R.C.C.S.W) decrease the displacement in high rise buildings by about 40 %
approximately.
3. The (B.R.C.C.S.W) could increase durability of high rise buildings against lateral
loads.
4. The (B.R.C.C.S.W) could increase the height of high rise buildings with the same
displacement conditions.
5. The connection between walls in order to have ( B.R.C.C.S.W ) result in increasing
the normal forces in walls by about 7 % approximately and decreasing the moment
in walls by about 40 % approximately along the building height, there force this
solution is considered as an economical solution.
6. Decrease cracks in first floors for columns and coupled shear walls in high rise
buildings to against wind and earthquake loads.
7. All structural engineers are encouraged to used bracing between coupled shear
walls in high rise buildings.
REFERENCES
1. ACI Code-318 " Building Code Requirements for Structure concrete (ACI 318-08)
and Commentary ( ACI 318R-08 ) " American Concrete Institute, 2008.
2. Fintel, M. " Response of Buildings to Lateral Forces " Journal of the American
Concrete Institute, Vol. 68, No. 2. 1971, PP.81 106.
3. Fintel, M. " Handbook of Concrete Engineering " chapter 10, Multistory structures,
second edition, 1985.
4. 4- Coull, A., and Smith, B.S, " Tall Building structures: Analysis and Design ",
1991.
5. ECL ( 1993 ), The Egyptian Code for Calculation of Loads and Forces in
Structural and Building Works, Cairo, Egypt.
6. Khan, Fazlur. " Computer Design of 100-Story Jone Hancock Center " Journal of
the Structure Division, ASCE, Vol.92- Dec 1966, Page 55:75.
7. Heidehrecht A.C, " Analysis of Symmetric Coupled Shear Walls " Journal of the
Structure Division, ASCE, No. STS. May 1971, pp. 1407-1422.
8. Girijavallabhan, C.V. " Analyzing of Shear Wall with Openings " Journal of the
Structure Division, ASCE, October 1969, pp, 2093-2103.
9. Coull, Alexander. and Puri, Ravi D. " Analysis of pierced Shear Walls " Journal of
the Structure Division, ASCE, Vol. 94, No. ST1, Jan 1968, pp. 71-82.
-498-

RCS-017-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE FILLED FRP TUBES
SUBJECTED TO COMBINED AXIAL AND BENDING LOADS

O. A. EL-NAWAWY
Structural Engineering Department, Ain Shams University
Cairo, Egypt
A. A. ABD EL-RAHMAN
Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: amr@aace-eg.com
H. M. ABD EL-LATIF
Housing and Building National Research Center
Dokki, Giza, Egypt
E-mail: hazemalatif@hotmail.com
S. M. HAMMOUDA
Housing and Building National Research Center
Dokki, Giza, Egypt
E-mail: shadynabil@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
In the last few decades, Fiber Reinforced Polymers, FRP's, have been widely used in
strengthening and repair of existing structures such as seismic retrofitting and service
loads strengthening. One of the promising application techniques in using FRP's in new
structures is concrete-filled Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymers (GFRP) tubes. This
technique utilizes the best characteristics of the individual materials. The concrete core
support the FRP tube and prevents premature local buckling failure experienced in
hollow tubes, while the tube confines the concrete and increases its strength and
ductility. The concrete-filled tube system also simplifies construction procedures, and
reduces erection time. In this research, an experimental program was carried out to
study the behaviour of concrete filled FRP tubes with internal reinforcement under
eccentric loading, starting from axial compression, eccentric compression, and pure
bending moment respectively. The experimental program consisted of testing 10
specimens using two different strength classes of GFRP tubes, in addition to a control
specimen. The GFRP tubes were manufactured using several layers of chopped fibers
sprayed in random orientation manner, on a rotated mandrel covered with polyester
-499-

RCS-017-2
resin. In all tested specimens, the concrete core was loaded only without loading the
GFRP tubes. The measured deflections, failure modes, ultimate carrying capacity, and
strains of steel reinforcement and concrete and GFRP tubes are reported. The test results
showed a significant increase in the ultimate load capacity of the axially loaded
specimens compared to the values of same circular concrete columns without GFRP
tubes. In the paper an interaction diagram is also developed and compared with previous
theoretical models.

KEYWORDS
Column, Concrete filled FRP Tube, Confinement, Beam, Interaction diagram.
1 INTRODUCTION
There is a great benefit to use durable materials other than the conventional reinforced
concrete for bridge columns and piles existing in aggressive environment. One
promising innovative structural system is concrete-filled fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)
tubes, which provides many unique advantages [1,2]. The FRP tubes act as a stay-in-
place structural formwork to contain the fresh concrete, which will save the cost of
formwork and labor used by cast-in-place or pre-cast industries. At the same time, the
FRP tubes act as a non-corrosive reinforcement for the concrete for flexure and shear.
More importantly, the FRP tubes provide confinement to the concrete in compression,
which significantly improves the strength and ductility.
In this research, an experimental program was selected to study the behaviour of
concrete filled glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) tubes with internal reinforcement
under different loads, starting from axial compression loading, eccentric compression
loading with different eccentricities, and ending by complete bending loading. An
interaction diagram is also reported experimentally in this paper. Also, the reported
interaction diagram is compared with previous analytical models.

2 THE EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
A total of 10 filled-tube concrete tubes with 200 mm internal diameter and 1050 mm
height were fabricated and subjected to different types of loads starting from axial
compression loading, eccentric compression loading with different eccentricities, and
ending by complete bending loading. The GFRP concrete filled tubes specimens were
divided into two groups. The first group consisted of 5 specimens of concrete filled
GFRP tubes. The tubes used in this group were indicated as "GFRP1" tubes. While the
second group, consisted of 5 specimens of concrete filled GFRP tubes. The tubes used
in this group were indicated as "GFRP2" tubes.
For all specimens, the longitudinal reinforcement was six 10 mm steel bars with a
reinforcement ratio of 1.50%, while the stirrups were 6 mm steel bars arranged in a
hoop manner every 140 mm with a volumetric ratio of 0.4%. The details of the
reinforcement were kept the same for all specimens
Table 1 provides details of the columns including the tube materials, the value and
percentage of internal longitudinal steel reinforcement, the value and percentage of
-500-

RCS-017-3
internal transverse steel reinforcement (stirrups), the type of loading, and strength of
used concrete.

Table 1: Details of test specimens
Longitudinal Steel Transverse Steel
Group Specimen
Tube
type
f
cu

(MPa) Reinforcement % Reinforcement %
Eccentricity
(e/D)
C1 GFRP1 200 6 10 1.50 6 @140 mm 0.40 0
C2 GFRP1 200 6 10 1.50 6 @140 mm 0.40 0.15
C3 GFRP1 200 6 10 1.50 6 @140 mm 0.40 0.50
C4 GFRP1 200 6 10 1.50 6 @140 mm 0.40 0.70
G
r
o
u
p
1

B1 GFRP1 200
6 10
1.50 6 @140 mm 0.40

(Bending)
C5 GFRP2 200 6 10 1.50 6 @140 mm 0.40 0
C6 GFRP2 200 6 10 1.50 6 @140 mm 0.40 0.15
C7 GFRP2 200 6 10 1.50 6 @140 mm 0.40 0.50
C8 GFRP2 200 6 10 1.50 6 @140 mm 0.40 0.70
G
r
o
u
p

2

B2 GFRP2 200
6 10
1.50 6 @140 mm 0.40

(Bending)

2.1 Materials
The GFRP tubes used were manufactured using several layers of chopped fibers
sprayed in random orientation manner, on a rotated mandrel covered with polyester
resin. Two different strength classes of GFRP tubes were used to fabricate the
specimens.
The mechanical properties of the tubes were obtained using experimental testing. The
experimental testing included longitudinal strips and circular rings cut out of the tubes
and tested under tension to evaluate the effective elastic modulus and tensile strength in
the axial and hoop directions. In the hoop direction, the split-disk method was used
where a narrow ring was cut from the hollow tube and tested using two semicircular
rigid plates of the same curvature as the GFRP ring to apply the tension force; A 500 kN
hydraulic universal testing machine was used to apply the load. Electrical strain gages
were applied in the hoop and axial directions. Figure 1 shows the details of the test
setup. In the longitudinal direction, tension coupons were tested as shown in Figure 2.
The two ends of the GFRP coupons were glued to another layer of GFRP from both
sides, to avoid the stress concentration at the gripping location. Gripping was applied to
the two ends, and the tested part of the GFRP coupon between the two ends was 150 x
50 mm. Universal tension testing machine of 1000 kN was used in that test. Axial
compression test was also performed on short GFRP rings 35 mm in height to avoid
-501-

RCS-017-4
buckling of the specimen. The load was increased until crushing of the specimen
occurred.
Table 2 provides detailed description of the tubes including material of the tube, wall
thickness, and the different mechanical properties of the tubes.
One concrete mixture was designed to produce concrete of strength 20 MPa. The
average concrete compressive strength was 22.6 MPa after 28 days.
The steel bars used for longitudinal reinforcement were high tensile steel of a yield
stress equal to 360 MPa and ultimate stress of 520 MPa. The steel bars used for
transverse steel were mild steel of a yield stress of 240 MPa and ultimate stress of 360
MPa.

Fig. 1: Testing of GFRP tube in hoop direction

Fig. 2: Testing of GFRP tube in longitudinal direction

-502-

RCS-017-5
Table 2: Properties of the GFRP tubes
Axial direction Hoop direction
Tube
Internal
diameter
(mm)
Wall
thickness
(mm)
fu
(ten.)
(MPa)

(ten)
fu
(comp.)
(MPa)
E
(GPa)
Poisson's
ratio

fu
(ten.)
(MPa)

(ten)
E
(GPa)
GFRP1 200 6.70 12.20
0.009
43.45 21.30 0.15 175 0.0093 18.58
GFRP2 200 6.90 15.86
0.014
56.48 22.45 0.15 232 0.012 17.68

2.2 Test setup
For compression loaded specimens (from C1 to C8), Two steel heads were used to
apply the load to the specimens. The two heads were designed to transfer both the
concentric and eccentric compression load directly to the concrete core without loading
the GFRP tube. Two ball seating were welded to the upper and lower steel heads at the
required eccentricity. The lower ball seating was fixed to the lower machine head to
prevent any movement of the specimens during testing. Strain gages were used to
measure the longitudinal steel strains in both the tension and the compression sides, and
both the longitudinal and hoop strains for the GFRP tube at the tension side. Linear
Variation Displacement Transducers (LVDT) were used to measure both the
compression and tension strains for the specimens, in addition to the lateral deflections
at mid height. Figure 3 shows the test setup for the compression loaded specimens.

For the bending loaded specimens (B1 and B2), the specimens were rested at the two
ends on two curricular supports to avoid local crushing of the GFRP tubes. The
specimens were loaded at mid-span using circular steel rig. Strain gages were used to
measure the strains in the longitudinal tension steel, the GFRP tube hoop direction, and
the GFRP longitudinal direction. LVDT's were used to measure the compression strains,
the tension strains, and the mid-span deflection. Figure 4 shows the test setup for the
bending loaded specimens.

-503-

RCS-017-6

Fig. 3: Test setup for compression specimens

Fig. 4: Test setup for bending specimens

3. TEST RESULTS AND DISSCUTION

For the compression loaded specimens, Table 3 provides a summary for the cracking
loads, failure loads, maximum lateral deflections at mid-height, maximum vertical
compression and tension strains, and maximum strains for the GFRP tube in both hoop
-504-

RCS-017-7
and longitudinal directions at the tension side. Figure 5 shows the load verses
compression and tension strains for different specimens.
For the bending loaded specimens, Table 4 provides a summary for the cracking loads,
failure loads, mid-span deflection at failure load, compression and tension strains and,
maximum strains for the GFRP tube in both hoop and longitudinal directions at the
tension side. Figure 6 shows the load verse the mid span deflection for the two
specimens.

Table 3: Test results for compression loaded specimens

Max. GFRP strains*
Spec.
No.
Failure
load
(kN)
Max.*
Comp.
strain
Max.
Tens.
strain
Lateral
Deflection
(mm)
Hoop Long.
C
0
888.70 -0.003 - 0 - -
C1 1713.0 -0.0191 - 0 0.0095 -0.0097
C2 1150.9 -0.0242 0.0125 0 0.00045 0.0089
C3 426.2 -0.0138 0.0174 19.96 -0.00111 0.0095
C4 273.3 -0.0106 0.0146 19.74 0.00031 0.0072
C5 1865.5 -0.0177 - 0 0.0081 -0.0097
C6 1253.8 -0.0177 0.0083 0 0.00079 0.0055
C7 446.3 -0.0119 0.0135 19.42 0.0021 0.0087
C8 280.8 -0.0100 0.0144 19.31 -0.00083 0.0085

Table 4: Test results for bending loaded specimens

Max. GFRP strains*
Spec.
No.
Failure
load
(kN)
Mid Span
Deflection
(mm)
Failure
moment
(kN. m)
Max.
Comp.
strain
Max.
Tens.
strain
Hoop Long.
B1 117.85 8.88 29.46 -0.00508 0.00865 -0.00029 0.00675
B2 127.88 7.41 31.97 -0.00537 0.01125 0.00006 0.00825

-505-

RCS-017-8
Compression strain
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
-0.025 -0.015 -0.005 0.005 0.015 0.025
Tension strain
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8

Fig. 5: Load- Strain for compression specimens
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Mid-Span Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
B1 B2

Fig. 6: Load- deflection for bending specimens

3.1 Failure modes

All specimens failed by rupture in the GFRP tube which was followed by concrete
failure due to loss of confinement. This finding coincides with those obtained by Fardis
and Khallili 1981 [3] and Mirmiran et al 1998 [4]. For C1 and C5 the failure was
rapture in the GFRP tube in the longitudinal direction. For C2 and C6, in the tension
side, the failure was rapture in the GFRP tube in the hoop direction, while in the
compression side, rapture in the longitudinal direction was observed. For specimens C3,
C4, C7, and C8, in the tension side, the GFRP failed by rapture in the hoop direction,
followed by a crushing in the GFRP tube in the compression side.

For the bending loaded specimens, B1 and B2, a rapid increase in load was noticed
with a small increase in mid-span deflection, then the GFRP tube ruptured in the tension
side where a sudden failure in the load was noticed, after which the load started to
-506-

RCS-017-9
increase again with a rapid increase in deflection till the failure of the tension steel
reinforcement where the specimen totally failed.

3.2 Confinement effect on the ultimate load capacity of specimens

A comparison to evaluate the beneficial effect of confinement on the total load carrying
capacity of concrete-filled GFRP tubes was carried out between the measured load
capacity of the specimens C
0
and C1
,
C
0
and C5
C
0
failed at a load of 888.70 kN with a compression strain equal to -0.003, while C1
failed at a load of 1713.0 kN with a compression strain of -0.019. C5 failed at a load
equal to 1865.50 kN at a compression strain equal to -0.0177. As shown in Table 5, the
maximum carrying capacities were increased by 92.75%, 110% for specimens confined
with GFRP1 tubes and GFRP2 tubes respectively when compared with the unconfined
concrete column.

Table 5: Effect of confinement and tube material type on the behaviour of compression
loaded specimens
Spec. No
Failure load
(kN)
Total Energy
(kN. mm/mm)
% Strength
gain
% Energy
gain
Effect of Confinement
C0 888.70 1.605 ---- ----
C1 1713.0 2.709 92.75 68.72
C5 1865.5 3.623 110.00 78.24
Effect of tube type
C1 1713.0 2.709 ---- ----
C5 1865.5 3.623 8.90 33.73
C2 1150.9 2.496 ---- ----
C6 1253.8 2.728 8.90 9.28
C3 426.2 1.762 ---- ----
C7 446.3 1.855 4.71 5.31
C4 273.3 1.38 ---- ----
C8 280.8 1.442 2.74 4.52

3.3 Effect of tube type on the ultimate load capacity

Table 5 shows the comparison between different specimens fabricated from the
two types the tubes. Specimens C1, C2, C3 and C4 were fabricated from GFRP1 tube,
while the specimens C5, C6, C7 and C8 were fabricated from GFRP2 tube. For the
axially loaded specimens, Test results showed an increase in the ultimate load for C1 by
-507-

RCS-017-10
8.9% when compared with C5. This value did not change for specimens C2 and C6 at
eccentricity e/D =0.15. For specimens C3 and C7 (e/D =0.5), the percentage of increase
of ultimate load decreased to 4.71 %. Specimens tested at eccentricity e/D =0.70, C4
and C8, showed another decrease in the ultimate load gain for the specimen fabricated
from GFRP tube type 2 (C8) compared to the specimen fabricated from GFRP tube
type1 (C4). The recorded increase in the ultimate load was 2.74%. Although GFRP2
tube has a hoop strength 30% higher than that of GFRP1 tube the increase in the
ultimate capacity of the specimens fabricated from GFRP2 tube compared to specimens
fabricated from GFRP1 tube did not exceed 9%.

3.4 Interaction diagram

From the test results, an interaction diagram was developed for both types of the GFRP
tubes. As shown in figure 7, for the axially loaded specimens C1 and C5, the increase in
the GFRP tube strength has a noticeable effect on the maximum capacity of specimens.
With the increase of eccentricity, the effect of tube strength decreases. This can be
referred to the absence of continuous fibers in the tube structure, which if present,
would have worked as a tension reinforcement for the specimen.

Mohamed 2005 [5] introduced a finite element model for concrete filled GFRP tubes.
When comparing the interaction diagram developed in this study with the finite element
model, it can be noticed that although both diagrams have the same trend, the values in
this study is higher that the analytical model. This can be referred to the difference in
the concrete compressive strength between the finite element model and this study.

0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Moment (kN.m)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
GFRP1 GFRP2 Mohamed 2005

Fig. 7: The interaction diagram

-508-

RCS-017-11
3.5 Analytical Study
Many confinement models have been developed to predict the response of confined
concrete. Most of the existing models of confined concrete are predicting the
enhancement in the strength of the steel-confined concrete as a function of one value of
confining pressure that is assumed to be constant throughout the loading history
(Richart et al. 1928 and Mander et al. 1988). These analytical models were extended for
FRP confinement (Fardis and Khalili 1981 and Saadatmanesh et al. 1994). Most of
these models studied the confinement for axially loaded members only. Issa and Tobaa
(1994) studied the strength and ductility enhancement in high-strength confined
concrete.
In this study, existing models for predicting compressive strength of FRP-confined
concrete are first reviewed, and their similarities and differences are highlighted.
Finally, a simple general model for FRP-confined concrete with circular sections is
proposed and performance of proposed model is tested using the results obtained from
the experimental program.
Figure 8 and 9 show Comparison between different analytical models and the
experimental results for GFRP1 tubes specimens and GFRP2 tubes specimens
respectively.

The best models that predicted the confined concrete strength for the two types
of tubes were those proposed by Spoelstra and Monti (1999) and Samaan et al. (1998).
It can also be noticed that for both of the models, they were applicable only for columns
with eccentricities (e/D) less than 0.15. after this eccentricity, there was a great
difference between the interaction diagrams developed by the models and those
obtained from the experimental results.

This difference can be referred to that in large eccentricities, the GFRP tube - in
addition to its confining effect - starts to work as a tension reinforcement in the
longitudinal direction of the column. This behaviour of the GFRP tube increases the
ability of the column to carry additional tensile stresses at the tension side than those
carried by the steel reinforcement only which leads to increasing in the ultimate moment
capacity of the column.

-509-

RCS-017-12
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Moment (kN.mm)x10
3
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
EXP. GFRP1 tube
Samaan et al.
Lam and Teng
Bisby et al.
Fardis and Khalili
Saatcioglu and Razvi
Mirmaran and Shahawy
Saafi et al.
Spoelstra and Monti

Fig. 8: Comparison between different analytical models and the experimental results for
GFRP1 tubes specimens

0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Moment (kN.mm)x10
3
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
EXP. GFRP2 tube
Samaan et al.
Lam and Teng
Bisby et al.
Fardis and Khalili
Saafi et al.
Spoelstra and Monti

Fig. 9: Comparison between different analytical models and the experimental results for
GFRP2 tubes specimens
-510-

RCS-017-13

4 Conclusions

From this study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
GFRP stay-in-place form increased the axial capacity and ductility of concrete
columns by up to 200 %.
Stress-strain response of concrete confined using FRP shells was bi-linear.
The ultimate capacity of concrete-filled GFRP tubes was governed by the
strength of the tube.
The confinement provided by the GFRP tubes depends mainly on the hoop
strength of the Tube

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to the Housing and Building National Research Centre
laboratory stuff for their assistance during the experimental program.

REFERENCES

[1] Stapleman, J., "Pile on The Abuse," Composite Technology, Sept.-Oct., 1997.
[2] Seible, F., "Advanced Composite Materials for Bridges in the 21st Century,"
Proc., of the Advanced Composite Materials in Bridges and Structures, M. El-
Badry, editor,published by CSCE, Montreal, Canada, 1996, pp.17-30.
[3] Fardis, M. N., and Khalili, H., "Concrete Encased in Fiberglass-Reinforced
Plastic" ACI Structural Journal, Proceedings V. 78, No. 6, Nov.-Dec., 1981, pp.
440-446.
[4] Mirmiran, A., Shahawy, M., Michel, S., El Echary, H., Mastrapa, J. c., and Pico,
O., "Effect of Column Parameters on FRP-Confined Concrete," Journal of
Composites for Construction, ASCE, Vol.2, No.4, Nov. 1998, pp. 175-185.
[5] Mohamed, A. T., " Behavior Of FRP Filled-Tube Concrete Columns under
Vertical Loads" Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of engineering, Ain Shams University,
Cairo, Egypt, Dec. 2005.
[6] Fardis, M. N., and Khalili, H., "Concrete Encased in Fiberglass- Reinforced
Plastic," ACI Structural Journal, Title No. 78-38, Nov- Dec. 1981, pp. 440-446.
[7] Mander, J. B., Priestley, M. J. N., and Park, R., "Theoretical Stress- Strain
Mode1 for Confined Concrete," Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.114, No.
8, Aug. 1988, pp. 1804-1826.
[8] Spoelstra, Marijn R. and Monti, Giorpio, "FRP-Confined Concrete Model,"
Journal of Composites for Construction, ASCE, Aug. 1999, pp. 143-150.
[9] Samaan, M., Mirmiran, A., and Shahawy, M., "Mode1 of Concrete Confined by
Fiber Composites," Journal of Structural Engineering, Sept. 1998, pp. 1025-
1032.

-511-

RCS-017-14

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt




Therteenth International Conference on Structural and Geotechnical Engineering

BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE FILLED FRP TUBES
SUBJECTED TO COMBINED AXIAL AND BENDING LOADS

O. A. EL-NAWAWY
1
, A. A. ABD EL-RAHMAN
1
, H. M. ABD EL-LATIF
2
,
S. M. HAMMOUDA
2

1
Structural Engineering Department, Ain Shams University Cairo, Egypt,
2
Structural Engineering Department, Ain Shams University Cairo, Egypt,
3
Housing and Building National Research CenterDokki, Giza, Egypt,
E-mail: hazemalatif@hotmail.com
4
Housing and Building National Research CenterDokki, Giza, Egypt,
E-mail: shadynabil@yahoo.com

INTRODUCTION
There is a great benefit to use durable materials other than the conventional reinforced concrete
for bridge columns and piles existing in aggressive environment. One promising innovative
structural system is concrete-filled fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) tubes, which provides many
unique advantages [1,2]. In this research, an experimental program was selected to study the
behaviour of concrete filled glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) tubes with internal
reinforcement under different loads, starting from axial compression loading, eccentric
compression loading with different eccentricities, and ending by complete bending loading. An
interaction diagram is also reported experimentally in this paper and compared with different
analytical models.

Keywords: Column, Concrete filled FRP Tube, Confinement, Beam, Interaction diagram.

THE EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
A total of 10 filled-tube concrete tubes with 200 mm internal diameter and 1050 mm height
were fabricated and subjected to different types of loads starting from axial compression
loading, eccentric compression loading with different eccentricities, and ending by complete
bending loading. In all specimens tested in compression, the concrete core was loaded only
without loading the GFRP tube.

TEST RESULTS AND DISSCUTION
For the compression loaded specimens, Table 1 provides a summary for the cracking loads,
failure loads, maximum lateral deflections at mid-height, maximum vertical compression and
tension strains, and maximum strains for the GFRP tube in both hoop and longitudinal
directions at the tension side. For the bending loaded specimens, table 2 provides a summary for
the cracking loads, failure loads, mid-span deflection at failure load, compression and tension
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RCS-017-15
strains and, maximum strains for the GFRP tube in both hoop and longitudinal directions at the
tension side.

Table 1:Test results for compression loaded specimens
Max. GFRP strains
Spec.
No.
Crack.
load
(kN)
Failure
load
(kN)
Max.
Comp.
strain
Max.
Tens.
strain
Deflection
(mm) Hoop Long.
C1 1455 1713.0 -0.0191 - 0 0.0095 -0.0097
C2 850 1150.9 -0.0242 0.0125 0 0.00045 0.0089
C3 220 426.2 -0.0138 0.0174 19.96 -0.00111 0.0095
C4 110 280.8 -0.0100 0.0144 19.31 -0.00083 0.0085
C5 1720 1865.5 -0.0177 - 0 0.0081 -0.0097
C6 1050 1253.8 -0.0177 0.0083 0 0.00079 0.0055
C7 250 446.3 -0.0119 0.0135 19.42 -0.00025 0.0087
C8 140 273.3 -0.0106 0.0146 19.74 0.00031 0.0072
B1 27 117.85 -0.00508 0.00865 8.88 -0.00029 0.00675
B2 32 127.88 -0.00537 0.01125 7.41 0.00006 0.00825

INTERACTION DIAGRAM
Figures 1 shows the experimental interaction diagram in comparison with different analytical
models.
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Moment (kN.mm)x10
3
L
o
a
d
(
k
N
)
EXP. GFRP1 tube
Samaan et al.
Lamand Teng
Bisby et al.
Fardis and Khalili
Saafi et al.
Spoelstra and Monti
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Moment (kN.mm)x10
3
L
o
a
d
(
k
N
)
EXP. GFRP2 tube
Samaan et al.
Lamand Teng
Bisby et al.
Fardis and Khalili
Saafi et al.
Spoelstra and Monti

Fig. 1: Comparison between different analytical models and the experimental results

CONCLUSIONS
From this study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
GFRP stay-in-place form increased the axial capacity and ductility of concrete columns
by up to 110 %.
The ultimate capacity of concrete-filled GFRP tubes was governed by the strength of
the tube.
The confinement provided by the GFRP tubes depends mainly on the hoop strength of
the Tube

REFERENCES
[1] Stapleman, J., "Pile on The Abuse," Composite Technology, Sept.-Oct., 1997.
[2] Seible, F., "Advanced Composite Materials for Bridges in the 21st Century," Proc., of
the Advanced Composite Materials in Bridges and Structures, M. El-Badry,
editor,published by CSCE, Montreal, Canada, 1996, pp.17-30.
[3] Mohamed, A. T., " Behavior Of FRP Filled-Tube Concrete Columns under Vertical
Loads" Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
-513-

RCS-018-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





BOND CHARACTERISTICS BETWEEN HIGH STRENGTH
CONCRETE (HSC) AND CARBON FIBER REINFORECED
POLYMERS (CFRP)

A. A. MOUSTAFA
Teaching Assistant, Department of Structural Engineering, Ain Shams University
1El-Saraiat Street, Cairo, P.O. Box 11517, Egypt
E-mail: ay_moustafa@hotmail.com
K. M. HILAL RIAD
Assistant Prof., Department of Structural Engineering, Ain Shams University
E-mail: khilal2@yahoo.com
A. A. ABDELRAHMAN
Professor of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Ain Shams University

ABSTRACT
Although the FRP has very high tensile strength, this is often not fully utilized due to the
possible debonding between the FRP and the concrete surface under relatively lower loads.
This research work aims to investigate the bond characteristics between high strength
concrete beams and carbon fiber reinforced polymers, CFRP.
An experimental program was conducted at the Reinforced Concrete Research Unit at the
Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University to study the behavior of RC beams
strengthened by CFRP strips. The program consisted of testing eight simply supported
beams with different concrete strength, CFRP bond length and various wrapping
configurations. The analytical phase of this study included a rational analysis to predict the
behavior of RC beams strengthened with CFRP strips at the tension side of the beam and
GFRP sheets used as U-wraps.
An assessment regarding some of the existing code provisions and models from the
literature to predict intermediate crack debonding was performed. Based on the
experimental results of the tested beams and the analytical work, new parameters were
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RCS-018-2
proposed to predict the intermediate crack debonding failure for simply supported beams
strengthened with CFRP strips.
KEYWORDS
Bond, CFRP, Composite materials, Concrete structures, High strength concrete,
Intermediate crack debonding.
1 INTRODUCTION

Use of fiber reinforced polymers; (FRP) in strengthening reinforced concrete elements, has
increased rapidly in the last three decades. A significant progress has been recently
achieved in the use of externally bonded fiber reinforced polymers (FRPs) to repair and
rehabilitate aging or damaged structures. However, lack of standards to produce and install
the new material resulted in a wide spectrum of FRP products and different techniques for
material application. Teng et al. [11] underline seven modes of failure for concrete beams
strengthened in flexure by FRP; namely, flexural failure by FRP rupture, flexural failure by
crushing of concrete in compression, shear failure, concrete cover separation, plate end
interfacial debonding, intermediate flexural crack induced interfacial debonding, and
intermediate flexural-shear crack induced interfacial debonding. Bond failure of FRP
laminates is a common failure mode, especially when using pre-cured FRP systems, due to
their large thicknesses compared to the wet lay-up systems. Although the FRP has a very
high tensile strength, it is often not fully utilized due to the possible debonding under
relatively lower loads. The premature debonding is classified in two categories; namely,
plate-end (PE) debonding, as demonstrated by Malek et al. [8], Hassan et al. [7], and Sharif
el al. [10], and intermediate crack (IC) debonding, as clarified by Teng et al. [11], Chen and
Teng, and Neubauer and Rostsy [9]. Accordingly, this paper presents an experimental
investigation to evaluate the bond characteristics of high strength concrete beams
strengthened with externally bonded carbon fiber reinforced polymers and study the
applicability of the existing codes and analytical models in determining the bond failure for
high strength concrete beams strengthened with externally bonded CFRP strips.

2 EXPERIMENTAL WORK

2.1 Beams Details

A total of eight medium scale simple-span RC beams were tested up to failure. A four point
loading test-setup was used as shown in figure (2).
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RCS-018-3
SSG1 SSG2

Fig. 1: Beams details and internal steel strain gauges locations.

All beams had a 300 mm deep rectangular cross-section of 150 mm width and an overall
length of 3000 mm over a clear span of 2800 mm. The beams were similarly reinforced in
flexure with internal tension steel consisting of two bars of diameter 10 mm ( = 0.4 %) as
well as upper reinforcement consisting of two bars of diameter 8 mm in the compression
zone, as shown in figure 1. Finally, figure 1 shows that shear reinforcement provided in all
beams in the form of closed stirrups of 10 mm diameter bars at 150 mm spacing, designed
to prevent shear failures in the strengthened beams (see figure 1).

2.2 Strengthening Scheme

Beams B1, B2, and B3 were strengthened with the same scheme with a bond length of
1000 mm and without any transverse anchorage. The used concrete grade was 25, 50 and
80 MPa for the beams B1, B2, and B3 respectively. Beams B4 and B6 were strengthened
with the same scheme but with bond lengths L
b
of 800 and 600 mm, respectively. Beams
B7 and B8 were different in the anchorage system by providing B7 with two GFRP U-
wraps; one at each end of the beam, and B8 with four GFRP U-wraps; two at the ends and
two near to the maximum moment location, as shown in figure 2.
The application of the CFRP laminates was accomplished according to the manufacturers
specifications and in the light of the ACI 440-02 [2]. This included surface preparation of
the concrete substrate using a grinder and checking of surface deviation. This was followed
by the application of the epoxy resin primer then the adhesive to the concrete substrate
using a brush. Finally, the laminates were placed by hand and pressed onto the adhesive
with a rubber roller. The U-shaped GFRP sheets were applied in place on top of the
laminates using similar steps.
Figure 2 shows the strengthening schemes of the beams. All beams were similarly
strengthened in flexure by one CFRP laminate of 50 mm width and 1.2 mm thickness with
a total effective area of 60 mm
2
. The Youngs modulus for the CFRP strips was 165 GPa as
reported by the manufacturer.
-516-

RCS-018-4
No U-wraps
2 U-wraps
4 U-wraps
B1
B2
B3
B5
B4
B6
B7
B8
S
0
1
S
0
2
S
0
3
S
0
4
S
0
5
S
0
6
S
0
1
S
0
2
S
0
3
S
0
4
S
0
5
S
0
6
S
0
1
S
0
2
S
0
3
S
0
4
S
0
5
S
0
6
S
0
1
S
0
2
S
0
3
S
0
4
S
0
5
S
0
6
S
0
1
S
0
2
S
0
3
S
0
4
S
0
5

Fig. 2: Strengthening schemes and strain gauge locations on CFRP strip.

The investigated parameters of the tested beams are listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Investigated parameters of the different beams
Beam f
cu
[MPa] L
b
[mm] Cover [mm] U-Wrap
B1 25 1000 20 -
B2 50 1000 20 -
B3 80 1000 20 -
B4 80 800 20 -
B5 80 1000 40 -
B6 80 600 20 -
B7 80 600 20 2
B8 80 600 20 4
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RCS-018-5

2.3 Test Setup and Loading Procedure
The simply supported beams were tested in load controlled four-points bending under the
effect of two static loads increasing incrementally from zero up to failure. Each end support
was fixed through sandwiching a steel bar by a top and bottom steel plates, placed between
the beam and the steel base of the test machine, as shown in detail (A) of figure 3. Although
the latter system logically provided a roller support condition at one end of each beam, it
was modified at the other end to create a hinged condition, through preventing the steel
bars horizontal motion by two steel guides, as shown in detail (B) of figure 3.
The loading was applied using a hydraulic jack of 300 kN capacity and 2.5 kN accuracy,
placed between the reaction-frame and a distributing beam provided on top of each tested
beam at the mid-span section and distributing the load to two steel bars, as shown in detail
(C) of figure 3. Each load increment was applied during a period of about 2 minutes, at the
end of which the load was held constant, to allow measurements and observations. One
loading cycle was applied from zero up to failure.

Fig. 3: Test Setup


Fig. 3 Test Setup

3.1 Test Observations
The tested beams experienced intermediate crack debonding mode of failure for the CFRP
strip, as shown in figure 4a. Beam B8 experienced the debonding failure followed by
rupture of the GFRP U-wrap, as shown in figure 4b. The latter figure also shows that
neither the provision of U-shaped end anchors nor the addition of intermediate ones
prevented the debonding mode of failure, but retarded its occurrence at higher capacities. In
this respect, table 2 shows the increased failure loads, P
u
, reached by the variation of
concrete compressive strength, bond length, and use of U-wraps. Table 2 also shows a large
variation in the debonding strain for B5 with larger concrete clear cover.

Detail (A)
Detail (B)
Detail (C)
Detail (B)
Detail (C)
Detail (A)
-518-

RCS-018-6

a) Intermediate Crack Debonding

b) Intermediate Crack Debonding /
Rupture of GFRP U-wrap

Fig. 4: Typical debonding failure of the tested beams

Table 2: Beams failure loads, CFRP strain at failure, CFRP utilization, and modes of
failure
Specimen
No.
P
u
[kN]
fmax
[%]
fmax
/
fu
[%]

Modes of
failure
B1 45 0.503 30 Debonding


B4 60 0.693 41.5 Debonding
B5 60 0.509 30.5 Debonding
B7 70 0.755 45.3 Debonding
B8 80 0.815 49
Rupture of
GFRP U-wrap

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RCS-018-7
3.2 Effect of Variation of Concrete Compressive Strength
Three beams were designed to have different compressive strengths; B1, B2 and B3. The
compressive strengths were 25, 50 and 80 MPa for specimens B1, B2 and B3, respectively.
Figure 5 shows the load-deflection curves of the three beams. Before yield of the steel
reinforcement, the stiffness of the beam increased by the increase of the compressive
strength. The failure loads of the three beams were 45, 55 and 65 kN for B1, B2 and B3,
respectively. The capacity of B3 was increased by 44% compared with the capacity of B1.

Fig. 5: Vertical load-deflection curves for Beams B1, B2 and B3

Figure 6 shows the relation between the load and the maximum longitudinal strain
measured on the CFRP strip of the three beams. It can be concluded that the maximum
CFRP strain was increased when the compressive strength increased. This indicates the
better utilization of the CFRP strip capacity in the High Strength Concrete. There was 49%
increase in strain of B3 (f
cu
= 80 MPa) compared with the strain of B1 (f
cu
= 25 MPa).

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RCS-018-8

Fig. 6: Load-Longitudinal Strain Relationship for CFRP Strip for Beams B1, B2 and B3

Figure 7 shows the strain distribution of the longitudinal strain of the CFRP along the
length of the strip of the three beams at load level = 40 kN which represents the failure load
of B1. It can be noticed that the CFRP strain of B1 was larger when compared to the CFRP
strains of B2 and B3 which were similar at all load levels.

Fig. 7: Strain Distribution for CFRP Strip along the Length of the Strip for specimens B1,
B2 and B3 at load level of 40 kN

3.3 Effect of Variation of CFRP Bond Length
Three beams were designed to have different CFRP bond length; B3, B4 and B6. The bond
lengths were 1000, 800 and 600 mm for specimens B3, B4 and B6, respectively. Figure 8
shows the load-deflection curves of the three beams. The stiffness of the beams was the
same for the three beams. The failure loads of the three beams were 65, 60 and 55 kN for
B3, B4 and B6, respectively.

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RCS-018-9

Fig. 8: Vertical load-deflection curves for beams B3, B4 and B6

Figure 9 shows the relationship between the load and the maximum longitudinal strain
measured on the CFRP strip of the three beams. It can be concluded that the maximum
CFRP strain was increased by a small value by increasing the bond length. There was 13%
increase in the CFRP strain at B3 than the strain at B6. Consequently, due to the occurrence
of intermediate crack debonding mode of failure; the increase of bond length does not
significantly improve the bond capacity.

Fig. 9: Load-Longitudinal Strain Relationship for CFRP Strip for beams B3, B4 and B6

3.4 Effect of Using U-wraps
Three beams were designed to have different wrapping systems; B6 with no U-wraps, B7
with two U-wraps at the ends and B8 with four U-wraps; two at the ends of the CFRP strip
-522-

RCS-018-10
and two near to load position. All the beams were strengthened using one CFRP strip with
bond length of 600 mm. Figure 10 shows the load-deflection curves of the three beams. The
failure loads of the three beams were 55, 70 and 80 kN for B6, B7 and B8, respectively.
This indicates the high efficiency of using u-wraps to enhance the bond capacity of the
CFRP to the concrete.

Fig. 10: Vertical load-deflection curves for beams B6, B7 and B8

Figure 11 shows the relation between the load and the maximum longitudinal strain
measured on the CFRP strip of the three beams. It can be concluded that at the same load
level, the CFRP strain was decreased by using U-wraps. The maximum CFRP strain was
increased by using U-wraps. This indicates that using u-wraps allowed a better utilization
of the CFRP strip capacity. There was 23% increase in strain at B8 than the strain at B6.

Fig. 11: Load-Longitudinal Strain Relationship for CFRP Strip for beams B6, B7 and B8
-523-

RCS-018-11

4 ANALYTICAL STUDIES

The analytical phase of this research work includes a rational analysis to predict the
behavior of RC beams strengthened with CFRP strips at the tension side of the beam and
GFRP sheets used as U-wraps. An assessment regarding some of the existing codes
provisions and models from the literature to predict intermediate crack debonding strain
was performed. New proposed analytical models based on the obtained experimental results
and data from literature are also presented.

4.1 Comparison of Existing Models
This section evaluates some of the existing code equations and available analytical models
to predict the tensile strain at the intermediate crack debonding.
Committee 440 of the American Concrete Institute has produced a document which gives
guidance on the design of concrete structures strengthened with FRP ACI 440.2R-08
Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for
Strengthening Concrete Structures[2]. The intermediate crack debonding strain was
limited to the value given by equation (1).

(1)
Where; Concrete cylindrical compressive strength
n Number of the FRP layers
E
f
Youngs modulus of the FRP
t
f
Thickness of the FRP layer
Analysis of the previous equation shows the lack of this design approach regarding some
important variables; such as the effect of transverse anchorages, like U-wraps; hence it is
stated that this variable is a field for future research [2]. Other variables like bond length
and effect of concrete cover are also not included.
The Egyptian Code of Practice for the use of Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) in the
construction fields ECP 208-2005[5] proposes the use of a bond reduction factor k
m

multiplier to determine the debonding strain,
fe
, in terms of the ultimate rupture strain,
fu
,
to give the debonding strain as given in equations (2) and (3).

(2)

(3)
Analysis of the Egyptian code (ECP 208-2005)[5] equations shows the independency of
those equations of the concrete compressive strength. This may result in big deviations and
bad correlation with experimental results.
-524-

RCS-018-12

The Concrete Society [4] and the Fdration Internationale du Bton (fib)[6] have similar
analytical models for intermediate crack debonding based on a fracture mechanics approach
with different calibration constants. The debonding strain,
db
, according to the fib code is
given by:

(4)
Where; Reduction factor to account for the influence of inclined cracks on the bond
strength ( =1.0 for beams with sufficient shear reinforcing and for slabs,
else =0.9)
kc Factor accounting for the state of compaction of concrete (kc = 0.67 for FRP
bonded to concrete with low compaction, e.g. faces not in contact with
formwork during casting, else kc = 1.0)
c
1
Value can be determined experimentally or can be set equal to 0.64
k
b
Width factor equal to:

(5)
Where; bf / bc 0.33
Mean value of the concrete tensile strength.
The fib 2001 equation is taking more variables affecting the bond between FRP and
concrete into consideration; like shear cracks and degree of compaction. However, some
important variables are not included; such as the effect of transverse anchorages, like U-
wraps, bond length, and effect of concrete cover thickness.

The Chinese code document for the strengthening of concrete structures with FRP (CECS-
146) [12] presents a model for the intermediate crack debonding which limits the strain in
the FRP to a value given in equation (6).

(6)

(7)
The value of L
d
in Eq. (6) is the distance from the FRP plate end to the section where the
FRP plate is fully used. The value is a factor to account for the effect of FRP U-wrap
anchors. When U-wraps are used throughout the length of the beam, a factor of 1.3 is
recommended. If the designer has sufficient experience, then can be set equal to 1.5.
When no U-wraps are used, the factor should be set equal to 1.0.
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RCS-018-13

4.2 Proposed Analytical Models

4.2.1 Proposed Model (1)
Based on the above shown experimental results and available test data in the literature
[1,13], a first proposed analytical model to predict the intermediate crack debonding strain
is proposed which takes a modified form of the ACI 440.2R-08 design guide by proposing
a factor to account for the effect of U-wraps. This model is applicable for beams
strengthened with externally bonded CFRP strips extended from support to support. The
effect of bond length is not considered in this model. The debonding strain according to the
proposed model can be calculated using equation (8).
(8)

Where;
a
is a factor to take into account the effect of U- wraps;

a
=1.14 in case of using two U-wrap at the ends of the beam, and 1.23 to 1.6
in case of using more than two U-wraps at each end of the beam; depending on the
dimensions of the beam and the spacing of the U-wraps. A value of 1.23 is recommended
for conservatism. The values of
a
were calculated using the experimental results and
calibrated using data from literature [1,13].

4.2.2 Proposed Model (2)
A second analytical model is proposed to predict the intermediate crack debonding strain
by taking a modified form of the ACI 440.2R-08 design guide by introducing a factor to
account for the effect of U-wraps and by taking the bond length variation into
consideration. The debonding strain is given by:
(9)

Where;
a
As mentioned in the first proposed model
L
d
Distance from the FRP plate end to the section where the FRP plate is fully
used.

The CFRP strips are typically extended from support to support so the first proposed model
is basically used and is simpler. For some special cases where the CFRP strip length is
limited, the second proposed model is recommended to be used.

4.3 Assessment of Proposed Analytical Models
This section produces an assessment for the two proposed models compared to ACI
440.2R-08 according to the previous results and data from literature.

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RCS-018-14
Figure 12 shows the relation between experimental and calculated debonding strains
according to ACI 440.2R-08, proposed model (1), and proposed model (2), respectively.
A
CI 440.2R-08
Proposed Model (1)

Proposed Model (2)
Fig. 12: Analytical versus experimental debonding strains

Table 3 shows the average error, standard deviation, and correlation coefficient for the ACI
440.2R-08, proposed model (1), and proposed model (2). The table clearly shows the best
correlation for the proposed model (2) with the experimental results.

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RCS-018-15
Table 3: Statistical analysis of the proposed models compared with ACI [2]
Model (2) Model (1) ACI Model
-8.4 -5.3 -9.8 Average Error %
9.3 14.18 15.23 STD%
0.87 0.81 0.70 Correlation
5 CONCLUSIONS

The use of high strength concrete with concrete characteristic strength (f
cu
) equals to
80 MPa increased the debonding strain of the CFRP strips by 49% compared to the
normal strength concrete with f
cu
equals to 25 MPa.
The increase of bond length from 600 mm (L
d
/a = 0.52) to 1000 mm (L
d
/a = 0.87)
increased the debonding strain in the HSC beams by 13%, where a is the shear span
of the beam.
The use of transverse GFRP U-wraps over the CFRP strips increased the debonding
strain for the HSC beams by 14% in case of using one U-wrap at each end of the
beam, and by 23% in case of using two U-wraps at each end of the beam; one at the
end, and the other near to the maximum moment.
It is more effective to use transverse anchorage; such as U-wraps (an increase of
23%) rather than to increase the bond length (an increase of 13%) to enhance the
bond characteristics.
The debonding strain of the HSC beams strengthened with externally bonded CFRP
strips was decreased when the concrete clear cover thickness increased.
The ACI 440.2R-08 design guideline equations showed a good correlation with the
experimental results; however, some important variables are not taken into
consideration; such as the effect of using U-wraps, bond length, and concrete cover
thickness.
A modification factor (
a
) is recommended in the ACI 440.2R-08 model to account
for the effect of using U-wraps, and can be taken as 1.14 in case of using one U-
wrap at each end of the beam, and 1.23 in case of using two U-wraps at each side of
the beam.
A second proposed model taking a modified form of the ACI 440.2R-08 model is
produced considering the effects of U-wraps and bond length, however it is more
complicated.
The use of the proposed models enhanced the prediction of the intermediate crack
debonding strain when compared to self accomplished experimental test results and
other available test data in the literature.

6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors like to acknowledge the support provided by Ain Shams University during the
experiments.
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RCS-018-16

7 REFERENCES

[1] Abdelrahman, A., and El-Ghandour, A., (2007). Effect of U-Shaped GFRP Wraps on
The Bond Behaviour of CFRP Laminates FRPRCS-8 University of Patras, Patras,
Greece, July 16-18, 2007.
[2] ACI Committee 440 2008, Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally
Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures, Design Guidelines.
[3] Chen, J.F., and Teng, J.G., (2001) Anchorage strength models for FRP and steel
plates bonded to concrete, Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 127, No. 7, pp.
784-791.
[4] Concrete Society (2004) Technical Report 55, Design Guidance for Strengthening
Concrete Structures using Fiber Composites Materials, The Concrete Society, UK,
2004.
[5] E.C.P. 208/2005 Egyptian Code of Practice for Design and Applications of FRP,
Ministry of Development, New Communities, Housing and Utilities, National Housing
and Building Research Center.
[6] Fdration Internationale du Bton (2001) Externally bonded FRP reinforcement for
RC structures," fib Bulletin 14, Task Group 9.3 FRP Reinforcement for concrete
structures.
[7] Hassan, T., (2002) Flexural Performance and Bond Characteristics of FRP
Strengthening Techniques for Concrete Structures, PhD. Thesis, University of
Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada.
[8] Malek, A. M., Saadatmanesh, H., and Ehsani, M. R., (1998). Prediction of Failure
Load of RC Beams Strengthened with FRP Plate Due to Stress Concentration at the
Plate End, ACI Structural Journal, V. 95, No. 1, 1998, pp. 142-152.
[9] Neubauer, U., and Rostsy, F.S., (1999) Bond failure of concrete fiber reinforced
polymer plates at inclined cracks experiments and fracture mechanics model,
Proceedings of Fourth International Symposium on Non-Metallic Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures (FRPRCS4), pp. 369- 392.
[10] Sharif, A., Al-Sulaimani, G.J., Basunbul, I.A., Baluch, M.H., and Ghaleb, b.N. (1994)
Strengthening of initially loaded reinforced concrete beams using FRP plates, ACI
Structural Journal, Vol. 91, No. 2, pp. 160-168.
[11] Teng, J. G.; Smith, S. T.; Yao, J.; and Chen, J. F., 2001, Intermediate Crack Induced
Debonding in RC Beams and Slabs, Construction and Building Materials, V. 17, No.
6-7, pp. 447-462.
[12] The Chinese code document for the strengthening of concrete structures with FRP
(CECS-146)
[13] Owen Rosenboom, Tare K. Hassan, Sami Rizkalla, Flexural behavior of aged
prestressed concrete girders strengthened with various FRP systems, Construction
and Building Materials 21 (2007) 764776

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RCS-019-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt



SEISMIC RESPONSE OF EXTERIOR
SLAB COLUMN CONNECTIONS
By
Hamdy Shehab
1
, Mohamed Husain
2
, and Hebat-Allah Mohamed
3

ABSTRACT
Flat slab has been classified by recent seismic codes as a non-ductile lateral load
resisting system; hence they do not recommend their use in high seismicity regions.
However, flat slabs are allowed to provide lateral resistance in areas of moderate and low
seismic activities. Also, they already have been built in high seismicity areas as was allowed
by older seismic codes. The current study is one of the growing research interests aiming
toward understanding the seismic behavior of flat slab systems, and enhancing their ductility.
The experimental and analytical investigation was carried out on five exterior slabcolumn
connections of onethird scale. The specimens were subjected to gradually increasing
reversed loading to simulate those imposed during ground excitations. The major test
variables were the thickness of the slab, the cross section of the column, and the
presence and spacing of shear reinforcement. Finally, the test results are introduced, analyzed
and conclusions are drawn. The results indicate that the use of closely spaced stirrups around
the column substantially improves the connection cyclic lateral response.

KEYWORDS
Flat slabs, punching shear failure, shear strength, lateral loads, seismic codes.

INTRODUCTION
Flat slab offers an efficient and economical method of construction for
both commercial and industrial buildings. It uses simple formwork and reinforcing
arrangements, and requires the least story height. Two different directions are
followed by researchers to evaluate the seismic performance of flat slabs; the first
one is the study of the lateral displacement compatibility between flat slab as a
gravity load system and the lateral load system in areas of high seismic risk
areas. The second is the study of the behavior of flat slab as a lateral resisting system
in low and moderate seismic areas [1, 2, 3, and 5].

Flat slab systems resist earthquakes through framing action between the
columns and the slab, in which the slab-column connections are of paramount
importance. The framing actions under lateral loads prompt moment transfer between
columns and slab, leading to unbalanced moments on slab sections around columns.
The sum of unbalanced moments due to gravity and lateral loads generate high
punching shear stresses which could initiate brittle punching failure prior to flexural
yielding of steel. That scenario is more likely to occur at exterior connections than at
interior connections, where all the slab gravity and earthquake moments are
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RCS-019-2
unbalanced. Earthquake cyclic loading pattern also aggravates the situation, since it
accelerates the formation of full depth cracks around columns, causing substantial
reduction of the slab punching resistance [ 4, 6, and 7].

(1) Vice Dean and professor of reinforced concrete., faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University.
(2) Associate professor, faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University.
(3) Lecturer, (former graduate student), faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University.
The current study is an experimental investigation of the cyclic behavior of
the exterior slab-column connections. The experimental investigation was carried out
on five exterior slabcolumn connections of onethird scale at the Zagazig university
structural laboratory. The objective of the study is to understand the specific features
of the cyclic lateral behavior of flat slab systems in order to propose methods of
seismic response enhancement. The specimens were subjected to gradually increasing
reversed loading to simulate those imposed on them during seismic excitations. The
main specimen variables are the thickness of the slab, the column cross section, and
the presence and spacing of shear reinforcement. Analysis of the experimental results
is conduct, and conclusions and recommendations are drawn.

This paper presents the experimental investigation of the cyclic behavior of
exterior slabcolumn connections subject to cyclic lateral loading. Such behavior has
significant implications on the seismic resistance of flat slab systems.

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Under seismic loads, premature punching shear failure generally occurs
before yielding of tension steel reinforcements at slabcolumn connections, especially
at exterior connections. Such brittle failure is considered unsatisfactory during
earthquakes as it may trigger a sequence of local failures leading to overall collapse.
An experimental work has been carried out to investigate such behavior.

TEST SPECIMENS
The test specimens are onethird scale of a prototype building used in
reference [6] for seismic response analysis. Slab dimensions are 1000 x 620 mm in
plan. Slab thickness of 70 mm, and square column of 150 x 150 mm section are taken
for specimens S1 to S4. While, specimen S5 has 80 mm slab thickness and square
column of 200 x 200 mm section. Columns are extended 500 mm above and below
the slab at the column mid-height (the presumed points of contaflexure), see figure
(1). Load were applied at the top end of the column as shown in figures (2).
The study major parameters are the slab thickness, column section side length, the
existence of shear reinforcements, spacing between shear reinforcement, and the type
of shear reinforcement (stirrups, headed bars).The details of the test specimens are
given in table (1). Also more information can be found in Reference [4].

Ordinary Portland cement, natural clean fine aggregate, and crushed dolomite of
10 mm maximum size coarse aggregates were used for concrete mixes of all
specimens. The reinforcing details of the test specimens are shown in figure (3) and
Photos (1), (2), and (3). Two types of reinforcing steel bars were used: Deformed
high grade steel (36/52) bars of diameter 10 mm were used for main column
reinforcement of specimens S1 to S4 and 12 mm diameter for specimen S5. Plain
normal mild steel (24/37) bars of diameter 8 mm were used for slab top
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RCS-019-3
Vertical Reaction
Lateral Load
Lateral Reaction
reinforcement, 6 mm diameter bars for slab bottom reinforcement and for column
stirrups, and 4 mm diameter bars for slab shear reinforcement in specimens S2, S3,
and S4.

Table (1): Details of test specimens.

Figure (1): Test specimens.

No. of
Specimen
Slab
thickness (
s
t )
Column cross
section (
c
t ) (mm)
Shape of shear
reinforcement
Spacing between
shear reinforcement
S1 70 150 x 150 Without
_
S2 70 150 x 150 Stirrups 50
S3 70 150 x 150 headed bars 50
S4 70 150 x 150 Stirrups 30
S5 80 200 x 200 Without
_
Elevation
Plan
Isometric
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RCS-019-4

Figure (2) : Position of lateral load.

Photo (1) Reinforcement details of S1 Photo (2) Reinforcement details of S2

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RCS-019-5
Shear headed Bars
Photo (3): Reinforcement details of S3

Figure (3) Reinforcing details of specimen S1
A A
0
.
1
4

0
.
1
4

0
.
1
4

0
.
1
4

.
0
1

0
.
1
4

0
.
1
4

0
.
1
4

.
0
1

Sec. A - A
0.15
0
.
1
5

0
.
1
4

0
.
1
5

0
.
1
4

0
.
0
1

0
.
1
5

0
.
1
4

0
.
1
4

0
.
1
2

0
.
0
1

0.15 0.15 0.18 0.12 0.01 0.01
0.62
1
.
0

0.62
0.15 .06 .06 0.15 0.1
0.08
0.01 0.01
1
.
0

0
.
0
1

0
.
1
7
5

0
.
0
1

0
.
1
7
5

0
.
1
5

0
.
1
5

.
0
6

.
0
5

.
0
6

.
0
5

.
0
5

.
0
6

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RCS-019-6

TEST SETUP AND INSTRUMENTATION
The specimens were tested in a steel reaction frame, as shown in
Photo (4). The base of the column was held in position but allowed to rotate
freely by attaching it to the reaction frame through a hinge. Loading was
applied at the top of the column by using hydraulic jack acting in one
horizontal direction and then reversed to act in the opposite direction. Prior to
load application, uniformly distributed gravity loads corresponding to superimposed
dead load and 30 percent of the live load, were applied to the slab surface by
using steel weights.

Photo (4): The test setup.

The displacements of test specimens were measured at two locations,
namely; slab horizontal displacement, and the column top horizontal displacement.
Displacement transducers (LVDT) equipped with digital dial gauges of maximum
reading of 25 mm and an accuracy of 0.01 mm. The locations of dial gauges are
shown in figure (4).

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RCS-019-7

Figure (4) : Locations of the dial gauges.

Reinforcement strains of test specimens were measured at several locations on
the upper and lower reinforcing bars and on the stirrups of the slab. Electrical
resistance 5 mm length strain gauges were applied on the reinforcements. Also,
concrete strains were measured by electrical resistance 20 mm length strain gauges,
see Figure (5). More detailed information on test setup, instrumentations, and
procedure can be found in Reference [4].

Figure (5) : Locations of the electrical resistance strain gauges of specimen S4.

TEST RESULTS
Crack Patterns and Failure Modes
Crack patterns of the five specimens are shown in photos (5) to (9).
For slab S1, of 70 mm thickness, 150 x 150 mm column cross section, and no shear
reinforcement, a flexural narrow crack is formed on the upper side of the slab,
adjacent to the inner face of the column in the first load cycle. Similar flexural crack
has formed at the slab bottom with reversing the load direction. By the successive the
cycles, punching cracks propagated around the column and others traveled at inclined
lines of angles about 45 degrees to the edge of the slab. The flexural cracks
propagated parallel to the column inner face, towards the left and right edges of the
slab. Finally, the cracks adjacent the face of the column grew wider and penetrated the
slab depth until reaching the slab bottom face causing collapse.

A
B
A
0.15 .06 .06 0.15 0.1
0.0
8
0.01 0.01
0.62
0
.
0
1

0
.
1
7
0
.
0
1

0
.
1
7
0
.
1
5

0
.
1
5

.
0
6

.
0
5

.
0
6

.
0
5

.
0
5

.
0
6

1
.
0

B
On
Longitudinal
Steel
On Stirrups
0.15 0.1 0.18 0.12 0.01 0.01
0.62
0
.
1
4
0
.
1
5
0
.
1
4
0
.
0
1
0
.
1
5
0
.
1
4
0
.
1
4
0
.
1
2
0
.
0
1
1
.
0

Top Reinforcement
Bottom Reinforcement
-536-

RCS-019-8
For slab S2, which has the same dimensions and reinforcement of S1, but with
stirrups at spacing 50 mm placed around the slab top and bottom reinforcements
passing through the column and perpendicular to the slab exterior edge. The first
crack was also flexural crack and appeared at the inner face of the column as in S1, it
propagated in straight line until reached the left and right edges of the slab during the
successive cycles. Also, cracks appeared at the left and right side of the column and
others branched from the flexural crack rotated around the column and extended
towards the exterior edge of the slab.

For slab S3, which has the same dimensions and reinforcement of S1, but with
headed bars at 50 mm spacing, see photo (7), a narrow flexural crack appeared at the
slab top face adjacent to column inner face in the first cycle. By successive cycles,
the crack continued in straight line until reached the left and right edges of the slab.
The crack progressed in an inclined plane to reach the back side of the slab,
the width of the crack increased rapidly with further loadings causing failure of the
slab, this crack was far from the critical punching area.

By decreasing the spacing between stirrups to 30 mm in S4, instead of 50 mm in
S2, the number of cracks decreased and only one crack appeared in the short
direction. The cracks are also observed at the left and right sides of the column, one
of these cracks is parallel to the column inner face, and the other is inclined by about
45 degrees. Also, no cracks appeared at the back side of the slab in the connection
area between the column and the slab.

Photo(5): Cracks in specimen S1.

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RCS-019-9

Photo(6): Cracks in specimen S2.

Photo(7) Cracks in specimen S3.

Photo (8) : The cracks in specimen S4.

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RCS-019-10

Photo (9) : The cracks in specimen S5.
For slab S5, with 800 mm slab thickness, 200 x 200 mm column cross section,
and with no shear reinforcement, the flexural crack pattern and its manner of
development were similar to that for other specimens with thin slab thickness
and small cross section of the column. Also, S5 needed large number of cycles to
reach the flexural failure.

The mode of failure of each tested specimen is stated in table (2). A slab
column connection reinforced by shear reinforcement may fail by punching
shear or by flexural. Punching shear failure may be within the shear reinforced
zone or at area outside this zone. The modes of failure and crack patterns as
are affected by the presence of shear reinforcement, spacing between stirrups,
shape of shear reinforcement, slab thickness, and the cross section of the
column.

Table (2) : Modes of failure.
Specimen

Slab thickness
(mm)

Column cross
section (mm)

Shear
reinforcement

Spacing
between shear
reinforcement
(mm)
Mode of failure

S1

70

150X150

Without

_

Punching Shear

S2

70

150X150

Stirrups

50

Combined
Flexural Shear

S3

70

150X150

Another shape

50

Punching Shear

S4

70

150X150

Stirrups

30

Flexural Shear

S5

80

200X200

Without

_

Flexural Shear

Load Drift Hysteretic Loops
The measured lateral load versus the drift ratio for all test specimens as
hysteretic loops are plotted in figures (6) to (10). Significant differences are observed
in the hysteretic behavior of the five specimens. Specimen S1 became unstable after
the third loading cycle with peak load of 1.0 ton and drift ratio + 3.2 % and 4.0 % in
the positive and negative directions respectively. Figure (7) shows the hysteretic
response of specimen S2. It has sustained 4 load reversals and has showed improved
response than S1. It has sustained peak load of 1.2 ton and drift ratio +2.2 % and 3.1
% in the positive and negative directions respectively. In Figure (8), specimen S3
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RCS-019-11
-6.0 -4.0 -2.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0
Drift (%)
-1.2
-1.0
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
L
a
t
e
r
a
l

L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
-4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Drift (%)
-1.0
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
L
a
t
e
r
a
l

L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
-4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Drift (%)
-1.2
-1.0
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
L
a
t
e
r
a
l

L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)

showed a comparable response to S1, i.e. headed bars has shown little effects on
connection response. However, the addition of closely spaced stirrups improved the
connection resistance in terms of sustaining more load cycles, larger strength, and
lower drift as demonstrated by S4 response in Figure (9).

Figure (6): Lateral load - drift ratio for specimen S1.

Figure (7) : Lateral load - drift ratio for specimen S2.

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RCS-019-12
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Drift (%)
-1.6
-1.2
-0.8
-0.4
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
L
a
t
e
r
a
l

L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)

-4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Drift (%)
-1.6
-1.2
-0.8
-0.4
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
L
a
t
e
r
a
l

L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)


Figure (9): Lateral load - drift ratio for specimen S4.

S4 has sustained a peak load of 1.1 ton in the third cycle, and maximum drifts
of +2.8 % and -3.7 % in positive and negative directions respectively. Figure (10)
presents the hysteretic loops of specimen S5. it can be observed that specimen S5 has
superior cyclic response of the rest of the specimen with peak load of 1.25 ton and
maximum drift values lower than or equal to 1.75 %.

From the previous figures, it was found that there is a reduction in values of
drift ratio by using shear reinforcement and increasing in specimen cross section,
for example using stirrups at distance 50 mm leads to the decrease in drift
ratio by 13.25 % comparative by specimen without shear reinforcement. The
use of another shape of shear reinforcement at the same distance leads to the
decrease by 11.4 %, but the use of stirrups at 30 mm leads to 26.5 % reduction
in drift ratio. The increase in slab thickness by 14 %, and column cross
section by 78 % leads to the decrease in drift ratio by 55.8 %.

-541-

RCS-019-13

-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Drift ratio, %
L
o
a
d
,

t
o
n
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5

Figure (11): Envelopes of load drift hysteretic loops.

The envelopes of the hysteretic loops are drawn in Figure (11). Connection specimens
show strength degradation beyond the peak elastic points, as shown in figure (11).
These relationships indicated a significant reduction in drift with increased specimen
dimensions or increased shear reinforcement. Also, the stiffness increases with having
lager dimensions or adding shear reinforcement.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
The peak to peak stiffness is computed for each specimen from the
load- drift plots by dividing the lateral load to the drift ratio for each cycle and
then plotted against the drift in Figure (12). Stiffness decreases with each load
cycle (stiffness degradation), due to the increase of cracks. For specimen S5 the
stiffness decreased by about 53 % in the last cycle. In S4 (with stirrups at 3 cm) the
value of stiffness decreased by about 42 %. For specimen S3 with head bars shear
reinforcement at the distance 5 cm, the value of stiffness decreased by 54 %.
For specimen S2 with stirrups at 5 cm, the stiffness reduced by 44 %. Finally, for
specimen S1 without shear reinforcement, the stiffness value decreased by about 52 %
by repeating cycle of loading. The aforementioned observations indicated that the
increase in slab thickness and column cross section has increased the stiffness
of the specimen. Also, the use of shear reinforcement in shape of conventional
stirrups at distance 3 cm has increased the stiffness. However, using closely spaced
stirrups reduces the rate of stiffness degradation as it delays the punching failure. At
drift ratios over 1.8 % excessive degradation of the strength of the S1 is
observed.

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RCS-019-14
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 1 2 3 4
Drift ratio %
S
t
i
f
f
n
e
s
s
S1
S4
S5

Figure (12) : Stiffness degradation of subassemblies.
CONCLUSIONS
Five exterior slabcolumn connection specimens were scaled from a
prototype design, they were constructed and tested for their response to cyclic
lateral loads. Columns of the subassemblies were extended above and below the slab
where terminated at the inflection points which were assumed stationary at story mid-
heights. Effect of slab thickness, column dimension, and placement of punching
shear reinforcements were studied. The following conclusions are drawn:
1- Punching shear reinforcement reduces lateral drift due to the increase in lateral
stiffness; it also improves the connection toughness and ductility.
2- Stirrups punching reinforcements showed superior ductility and stiffness over the
headed bars, they provide confining to concrete and resist buckling of compression
reinforcements.
3- Stirrups also reduces the stiffness degradation occurs during cyclic loading.
4- Larger slab thickness, and larger column cross sections increase the connection
stiffness and ductility, also reduce the possibility of punching failures.

REFERANCES
1- ACI 318-08, (2008), Building code requirements for structural concrete,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan..
2- Dovich; L. and Wight, J. K., (1996), Lateral Response of Older Flat Slab Frames
and the Economic Effect on Retrofit, Journal of Earthquake Spectra,Vol.12 # 4.
3- ECP 203, (2007), The Egyptian Code for Design and Construction of Concrete
Structures Cairo, Egypt.
4- Ali; H-A. M., (2008), Behavior of Flat slabs Under Cyclic lateral loading, Ph. D.
dissertation, Department of Structural Engineering, Zagazig University, Egypt.
5- IBC, (2006), International Building Code, ICBO (International Conference of
Building Officials), Whittier, CA.
6- Kang; T. H. K., (2004), Shake Table Tests and Analytical Studies of Reinforced
and Post-tensioned Concrete Flat Plate Frames, Ph. D. dissertation, University of
California, Los Angeles, USA.
7- Wallace; J. W., Kang, T. H. K, and Rha. C., (2004), Seismic Performance of Flat
Plate Systems, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
California, Los Angeles, USA.
-543-
Scientific paper
Punching of Slurry Infiltrated Fiber Concrete (SIFCON) Flat Slabs
Saied Ghoname
1
, Hamed M. Salem
2
, Ashraf Shawky
3

Abstract
Punching shear failure is a big issue in flat slab-column connections where the failure is a sudden and brittle. The use of steel
fibers has been proven to enhance the behavior of slabs in punching; however, due to the limitation of fiber contents, the
advantages of the fibers are not fully utilized. In this research, a reinforced concrete slab with high volume of fraction of
fibers, up to 8%, is used. This is achieved with the so called Slurry Infiltrated fiber Concrete (SIFCON). SIFCON has
recently received a great attention in the civil engineering applications. The SIFCON showed a great enhancement in the
matrix properties such as ductility, strength, and energy absorption. Nine slab-column connections were tested for interior
columns. Parameters investigated are the volume of fraction of fibers; the fiber length, the fiber location and the size of the
slab. The experimental results obtained from Nine specimens showed a change in the failure pattern from sudden brittle
failure to more ductile punching failure with higher punching strength. The volume of fibers showed a direct relation to both
the strength and ductility. The role of the fibers was experimentally investigated in both the tension and compression sides of
slab. It was found that the hooked end fibers with 30 mm length and aspect ratio of 60 give the best performance. Design
method is proposed for estimating ultimate punching capacity for SIFCON. The proposed method could be very useful in
establishing design guidelines for future codes.

1. Introduction
Punching shear is an important consideration in the design
of reinforced concrete flat plates and bridge deck slabs.
Punching shear failure is referred to a local sheer failure
that could occur around concentrated loads or column
supports. In design of reinforced concrete flat slabs,
regions around the column always pose.
A critical analysis problem. This is because large bending
moments and shear forces are concentrated at slab-column
connections. In addition, the ultimate strength of flat slabs
is generally governed by the shear punching or punching
capacity of the connections between the slab and the
column.
1
Post graduate student, Structural Engineering Dept
. Cairo University, Giza, Egypt.
2
Associate Professors, Structural Engineering Dept.
Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
E-mail: hhadhoud @ appliedscienceint.com
3
Professors, Structural Engineering Dept.
Cairo University, Giza, Egypt

A number of options for increasing the punching shear
capacity are available to the structural designer,
including the use of shear reinforcement, and additional of
steel fibers. Shear is generally not critical when slabs
carry distributed or line loads and are supported by beams
or walls, because in such cases the maximum shear force
per unit length of slabs is relatively small. However, shear
can be critical in slabs in the vicinity of concentrated
loads, because the maximum shear force per unit length of
slabs is relatively high around such loads, (Park R. and
Gamble, 1980). In the design flat slab building, it has
been widely believed that ductility often governs the
design of slab-column connections, while the punching
shear strength of the slab usually governs the design of
flat slabs. Therefore, increasing the ductility of flat slab
connections and shear strength of slab is very important.
A new trend of increasing the ductility and shear strength
of flat slab structures is to use high-strength concrete
provided with steel fibers as shear reinforcement in the
punching shear areas in the flat slab structures. However,
the practical volume of fraction of fibers in conventional
FRC is not exceed about 2% by the volume because any
-544-
excessive ratio above 2% leads to fiber segregation, fiber
balling, and excessive air entrainment (ACI2002, Hanes
1968, Lankard and Newell 1984). This volume of fibers
will not improve the strength of the concrete in a
significant way; through it will increase the toughness of
the concrete. In order to obtain an increase in strength,
rather than only an increase in toughness, a higher volume
of fibers should be used. Slurry Infiltrated Fiber Concrete
(SIFCON) is a high- performance fiber reinforced
cementitious composite (HPFRCC) in which a high
fraction of fibers is used. It is made by preplacing a large
volume fraction of fibers into the form work, followed by
infiltration of cement-based slurry. SIFCON was first
used in 1968 by Haynes. Later, in 1984, Lankard and
Newell showed the concept of SIFCON use in the
construction of pavement overlays. Later in the 1980s and
1990s, Naaman et al extensively studied the basic
behavior of SIFCON (Homrich and Naaman 1987,
Naaman and Homrich 1989, Naaman et al. 1991, Kosa et
al. 1991,Hamza and Naaman 1996, Naaman and Najm
1991, Naaman et al. 1992, Naaman and Baccouche 1995,
Hota and Naaman 1997, Naaman 2003). The practical
rang of fiber volume fractions in SIFCON is 4 to 12%.
However, volume fractions up to 27% have been reported
in the technical literature ( Naaman et al. 1991). Due to its
high volume of fibers, SIFCON offers superior properties
in terms of tension, compression, shear, bond with
reinforcing bars, and impact. As illustrated by Naaman
(2003) in Fig. 1, for a member under tension, the higher
volume of fibers (Fig. 1.b) would lead to multiple cracks
that follow the first crack, in an opposite manner to the
low volume of fibers (Fig. 1.a) which is only
accompanied by a single crack, Consequently, an increase
in strength takes place in the concrete with higher volume
of fibers and this takes place parallel with the cracking
process in a way similar to strain hardening. Finally,
failure is localized in a single crack and the concrete
experiences softening. Though it is possible to use only
cement slurry, the use is very fine sand in slurry
enhancement the properties of SIFCON. This helps reduce
shrinkage cracking and enhances the bond between the
fibers and the paste. The benefits of using fine sand might
be significant in terms of strength stiffness and cost.
(Naaman et al. 1991). Four main variables affect SIFCON
properties, slurry strength, fiber volume (V
f
) fiber
alignment, and fiber type. The cement slurry is backbone
of the specimen. It affects the elastic modulus, tensile
strength, and compression strength of the SIFCON matrix.
Fiber pullout strength also depends upon the slurry`s
compressive strength. The cracking procedure is directly
affected by the fiber volume as well as fibers alignment (
random , normal to, or parallel to loading). Therefore,
both the fiber volume and alignment greatly affect the
ultimate strength, residual strength, ductility, and energy
absorption. The fiber type was also found to affect the
cracking procedure and the elastic modulus of SIFCON
(Naaman et al.1991).

Fig. 1 Behavior of HPFRCC versus conventional FRC
(Naaman. 2003)
2. Research significance
The research described in this current study is aimed to
investigate the behavior of SIFCON around the column
regions under concentrated loading. Nine flat slabs with
SIFCON were tested under concentric loading in order to
evaluate the critical parameters that control in critical
zone of punching, and compared the application of the
results to a full-scale prototype structure. Parameters
studied include SIFCON volume of fraction, SIFCON
location in depth, fiber length, and size effect. An
analytical model was developed and used to predict the
ultimate loads of each slabs. Comparisons of the
experimental results and the analytical predictions are
made. A new design formula to predict the punching shear
strength for SIFCON in flat slabs is purposed. The
proposed formula would be very helpful to be used in
design.
-545-
3. Experimental program
The experimental program of this group consists of nine
specimens constituting four groups, as shown in Table 1
and Fig.2. The first group consists of five specimens with
different value of fiber fractions (V
f
) 0.0 %, 1.0 % 4.0 %,
0.6 % and 0.8 %, respectively, the fibers used in this
group are hooked-ended steel fibers with 30mm length,
and also we consider the specimen Sv-3 is the reference
for all groups. The second group includes two specimens
beside to reference specimen, the fiber placed in this
specimen in tension and compression side. The third
group includes the specimen with fiber length 50mm with
(V
f
) 4.0 %. Finally forth group which studies the effect of
slab size.
Table 1 Test specimens
Specimen
Fiber length
mm
Fiber type V
f
xc &
xt

Slab size
Sv-1 - -- -- -- -- - - -- -- -- -- - 0 0% % - -- -- -- -- - 1 10 00 0 x x 1 10 00 0 x x 8 8c cm m
Sv-2 30 H Ho oo ok ke ed d- -e en nd d 1% t & C 1 10 00 0 x x 100 x 8cm
GROUP1
SC 30 H Ho oo ok ke ed d- -e en nd d 4% xc&0 1 10 00 0 x x 100 x 8cm
ST 30 H Ho oo ok ke ed d- -e en nd d 4% &xt 0 1 10 00 0 x x 100 x 8cm GROUP2
Sl 50 H Ho oo ok ke ed d- -e en nd d 4% t & C 1 10 00 0 x x 100 x 8cm
GROUP3
SZ 30 H Ho oo ok ke ed d- -e en nd d 4% t & t 1 17 70 0 x x 170 x12cm
GROUP4
Sv-3 30 H Ho oo ok ke ed d- -e en nd d t & C t & C 1 10 00 0 x x 100 x 8cm

Fig. 2 fiber location
3.1 Test specimens
square shape section with side) is 5D8/m and used D6 stirrups with 50mm Each specimen is a
dimension 100x100 and 170x170cm.For all
specimens the main reinforcement (tension side) is
7D10/m, the second reinforcement (compression
spacing. Table 2and Fig. 3 gives the details of tested
slab-column connections.
-546-
1000mm 1000mm

Fig. 3 Details of test specimens
3.2 Material properties
Deformed bars of 10mm diameter were used for the main
reinforcement while the plain bars of 8mm and 6mm
diameters were used for the secondary reinforcement and
stirrups, respectively. Minimum yield stress of 458 Mpa
and 240 Mpa and elongation of 12% and 20% were
recorded for deformed and plain bars, respectively. The
mixes used for both concrete and SIFCON were
developed through trail batching and were designed to
develop concrete and SIFCON compressive strength of 40
Mpa at the age of 28 days. The concrete mix consisted of
ordinary Portland cement, natural sand, coarse gravel
(crushed dolomite), and water. The proportions of the
used concrete mix are given in Table 2. The mix used for
the SIFCON consisted of cement, natural sand, and water.
A water-reducing admixture (super-plasticizer) was added
to the mix to increase the workability and the ability to
infiltrate the fiber matrix without increasing the water
cement. The proportions of the used mix are given in
Table 2. The average recorded compressive strength for
standard cubes of concrete and SIFCON was 40.0 mpa.
The average recorded elastic modulus was 3100Mpa and
3110Mpa for concrete and SIFCON respectively.

Table 2 Proportions of concrete and SIFCON mixes.
Weight ( Kg/ m
3
)
Item Concrete SIFCON
Portland cement 400 900
Natural sand 600 900
Coarse gravel 1130 ----
Water 200 360
Super-plasticizer ---- 11.5
Compressive strength after 28 days
(Mpa)

40

40

3.3 Preparation of test specimens
A A
1000mm
1#8@250mmbottom reinforced 1#10@16.7mm top reinforced Simply supported
7 D 10
80mm
5D 8
5D 6
10mm
-547-
The test specimens were cast in wood formworks in a
horizontal position to facilitate concrete placement and to
prevent any possible cavities or air pockets during casting.
Then steel nets placed in formworks. As shown in Fig.3.
SIFCON mix consists basically of cement, sand and
water. In the beginning, sand and cement are mixed to
form a homogeneous material, followed by adding a
compound from water and Super-Plasticizer. The contents
were then mixed mechanically for a period of four
minutes. The casting process was performed in three
layers. In each layer, the fibers were dispersed uniformly
throughout the mold followed by infiltrating the fibers
with slurry. The SIFCON was placed inside the form and
mechanically compacted using externally vibrator to
ensure full compaction of SIFCON inside the form. As
shown in Fig.4. At the end of the casting operation, the
specimen surface was leveled by Wooden forms were
used in casting the test specimens. The specimens were
cast horizontally in the forms. The sides of the form were
removed after 24 hours from casting date. The slab-
column connections were cured by water after removing
the sides for about ten days.

Fig.3. wood formwork Fig.4. Slurry infiltration into fiber matrix
3.4 Test setup and instrumentation
Steel frame was used for fixing the specimen and load
application as shown in Fig.5. The frame consists of four
column channels welded with vertical bracing. The base
includes steel ribs and square steel plate 20 mm thick. The
slabs tested were loaded from the bottom using hydraulic
jack with 700-KN capacity and had a sufficiently large
stroke of 330mm. The loading was applied by a hydraulic
jack, connected to manual pump to provide oil pressure
and system of plates and rollers that allows the rotation at
the top edge of slabs. The tested slabs column connection
were loaded up to 25% of the ultimate load after failure
by using full computer system, vertical (LVDTs) of
0.001-mm sensitivity were used above specimens at two
different locations to record specimen's vertical
deflections. To recorded the strain in steel reinforcement
two electrical strain gages with 10 mm length, 120 ohms,
gage factor (2.04) were provided and fixed on
'longitudinal reinforcement using epoxy. A computer-
controlled data acquisition system was used to collect the
load, deflections and strain at fixed intervals.

-548-
Loading setup and records
Data acquisition system
Strain gage
LVDTs
Load cell

Fig. 5 Test setup and instrumentation
4. Experimental results and discussion
4.1 Cracking pattern and failure mode
As shown in Fig. 6 the first crack for all specimens started
around column stub (loading area) and propagated
diagonally to the edges of slabs. Cracks were developed in
the bottom surface of the slab as circles closer to the load.
As the load increased, the widths of the cracks increased.
The specimen (SV-1) which has 0% fiber reinforcement
had fewer and wider cracks, and failed at small load in a
brittle manner. The increasing volume fractions of steel
fibers significantly increased the cracking load and
produced better crack propagation. This improvement is
due to the crack arrest mechanism due to steel fibers, and
eventually the specimen failed in punching shear.

Top (Sv-1) Bottom

Top (Sv-2) Bottom
-549-

Top (Sv-3) Bottom

Top (Sv-4) Bottom

Top (SC) Bottom
-550-

Top (ST) Bottom

Top (SL) Bottom

Top (SZ) Botto

Fig.6 crack pattern for all groups

-551-
4.2 Results for group 1 (effect of V
f
).
Figure 7 shows that the relationship between the applied
load and the central deflection is almost linear until
cracking loads, then, the relation showed non linearity
because of degradation of the slab stiffness as the load
increased toward the failure load due to the crack
propagation, and the load raised the punching strength up
to 115% as shown in Fig.8. These results reflect the role
of steel fibers in increasing both the load capacity and the
ductility of the slab due to the additional energy needed to
pull steel fibers out of the concrete.

0
50
100
150
200
250
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d
K
N
.
RC
SIFCON 4%

0
50
100
150
200
250
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d
K
N
.
RC
FRC 1%

0
50
100
150
200
250
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d
K
N
.
RC
SIFCON 8%

0
50
100
150
200
250
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

K
N

.
RC
SIFCON 6%

Fig.7 load deflection relations for group 1
-552-
0
50
100
150
200
250
vf=0% vf=1% vf=4% vf=6% vf=8%
Vf
p
u
n
c
h
i
n
g

l
o
a
d

K
N

Fig. 8 Effect of the volume of fraction on the punching load

4.3 Ductility and Energy Absorption
Figure 9and 10 respectively show that the increasing steel
fibers from 0%to 8% significantly increase the ductility
up to 72%, and the energy absorption to 518%. Which
measured by the area under deflection curve up to peak
(ultimate load).
Ductility
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
Vf =0.0% Vf =0.1% Vf =0.4% Vf =0.6% Vf =0.8%

0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
vf=0% vf=1% vf=4% vf=6% vf=8%
s
t
r
a
i
n

E
n
e
r
g
y

(
K
N
.
m
m
)

Fig. 9 Effect of Vf on ductility. Fig. 10 Effect of Vf on strain energy

-553-

4.4 Results for group 2 (fiber location)
Figure11 show a better behavior for the specimen with
SIFCON In the tension side comparesion by the specimen
with compression side. This result indicates the main
contribution of the fibers was proven to arise from their
existence in the tension side of slab. This is attributed to
the crack bridging of fibers in tension zone.

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

K
N

.
entire depth
compression side

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

K
N

.
tension side
compression side

Fig. 11 Effect of fiber location on load deflection curve


Figure 12and 13 show that the ductility of the specimen
with the SIFCON in the tension zone is better than that of
the specimen with SIFCON in the compression zone. This
could be explained by the fact that the contribution of the
SIFCON in the tension zone is higher than its contribution
in the compression zone due to its large role in bridging
crack surfaces. showed higher energy than in compression
by 27.75%

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
copression 4% tension 4% entire 4%
Ductility

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
copression 4% tension 4% entire 4%

Fig. 12 Effect of fiber location on ductility. Fig. 13 Effect of fiber location on strain energy.

-554-

4.5 Results for group 3 (fiber length)
Figure14. As can be seen, the specimen with shorter fibers
(30 mm.) showed better results. The bad performance of
the large fiber specimen is attributed to the relatively small
thickness of slab, 80mm. compared to the fiber by the 50
mm. This fact is violated here due to the thin slab effect .

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
30 mm
50 mm

Fig. 14 Effect of fiber types on load deflection curve

4.6 Ductility and Energy absorption

Figure 15 and 16 show that the ductility of the specimen
with steel fiber length 30mm and diameter 0.5mm in
specimen increased the ductility measure relative to
specimen whose the steel fiber whose length 50mm and
diameter 0.8 mm by 29%. And the strain energy
significantly increased when using the steel fiber length
30mm. This increase in the energy absorption was five
times that in short length fiber.

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Sl-30mm Sl-50mm
Ductility

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
S L 30 mm S L 50 mm
Energy

Fig. 15Effect of fiber length on ductility. Fig. 16 Effect of fiber length on energy absorption.

-555-

4.7 Results for group 4 (size effect)

Figure 17 shows that a decrease in punching strength with
increase in slab size. And for the same slab size increasing
punching strength with increase steel fibers.
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
4,5
t=80mm t=120mm
q
c
u
p

N
/
m
m
2
RFC slab size
SIFCON.slab size

Fig.17 Effect of slab-size on punching strength
Figure 18 and 19 shows that the ductility of the specimen
increased by increasing slab- size. A similar behavior for
the strain energy is noticed.

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
t=80mm t=120mm
Ductility

0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
t=80mm t=120mm
S
t
r
a
i
n

e
n
e
r
g
y

(

K
N
.

m
m
)

Figure 18 Effect of slab- size on ductility. Fig. 19 Effect of slab-size on energy absorption
5 The proposed equation for SIFCON

+ =
660
65
' 9 . 1
65 . 0
35 . 0
o
c
f
f
c
b
d
f
d
l v
V

Where:
l: fiber length mm.
v
f
: volume fraction of fibers
fc' : 0.85 fcu N/mm2
df: diameter of fiber mm.
bo: perimeter of critical section mm.
d: effective depth mm.
: factor for column location = 1.15 for interior, 1.01 for edge and 0.9 for corner column
: factor for size effect =1.4 .
: factor for column location = 0.5 for interior, 0.02 for edge and 0.01 for corner column

-556-

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
S 0%= S1%= S4%= S6%= S 8%= SZ
P
u
n
c
h
i
n
g

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

K
N
/
m
m
2
Experimental proposed

9 CONCLUSIONS

The present study showed that SIFCON can be
successfully used for increasing the ultimate carrying
capacity, strength, ductility and stiffness of flat slab
column connections. The important conclusions derived
from the current experimental research work are as
follows:

1- Use of SIFCON in flat slab raised the punching strength
up to 115 %, the ductility up to 72 %, and the strain energy
up to 518 %.

2- The punching strength was found to be directly
proportional to the volume fraction of fibers.

3- The ductility was found to be significantly enhanced
with increase of volume of fibers. An increase of up to 72
% could be achieved with V
f
= 8 % compared to the
conventional RC slab.

4- Slab thickness to fiber length ratio 3 was found to be
sufficient for casting proven to significantly enhance the
punching performance.

5- The main contribution of the fibers was proven to arise
from their existence in the tension side of slab. This is
attributed to the crack bridging of fibers in tension zone. In
the compression side, through, the fibers enhance the
concrete compression strength; it is still relatively, not the
main contribution to the punching enhancement.

6- The size effect on punching strength was found to be
greatly diminished due to the use of high volume of fibers.
.

7-Based on the experimental results and the analysis
conducted in the current research program, a new design
formula to predict the ultimate punching load for SIFCON
concrete slab column connections is proposed. The
proposed design formula takes into account concrete
compressive strength, and the volume of fraction of steel
fibers; and aspect ratio. The proposed design formula can
be predicting the experimental results with a reasonable
factor of safety. The design formula would be very useful
for the practical engineers when SIFCON concrete will be
used.

-557-

References
-ACI 544.1R-96 (2002). "State-of-the-art report on fiber
reinforced concrete."
-Balint, P.S. and Taylor H.P.J. (1972). "Reinforcement
detailing of frame corner joints
with particular reference to opening joints. "Cement and
Concrete Association Technical Report No. 42. 462,
London.
-Hamza, A, M, and Naaman, A. E. (1996). "Bond
characteristics of deformed Reinforcing Steel Bars
Embedded in SIFCON. " ACI Materials Journal, 93(6),
578-588.
-Haynes, H. H. (1968). "Investigation of fiber
reinforcement methods for thin shell concrete." Naval
Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port Hueneme, CA, N-979,
1-26. [adopted from Lankard and Newell, 1984]
-Homrich, J. R. and Naaman, A. E. (1987). "Stress-strain
properties of SIFCON in compression." Fiber Reinforced
Concrete-Properties and Applications.
-ACI SP-105, American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
Michigan, 283-304.
-Hota, S. and Naaman, A. E. (1997). "Bond stress-slip
response of reinforcement Bars embedded in SIFCON
under cyclic loading. " ACI Structural Journal, 94(5), 525-
537
-Kosa, K., Naaman, A. E. and Hansen, w. (1991).
"Durability of fiber reinforcement
Mortar." ACI Material Journal, 88(3), 310-319.
-Lankard, D. R. and Newell, J. K. (1984). "Preparation of
highly reinforced Steel fiber reinforced concrete
composites. "Fiber Reinforced Concrete International
Symposium, ACI SP-81, -American Concrete Institute,
Detroit, 287-306.
-Mayfield. B., Kong. F.-K., Bennison. A. and Twiston
Davis, J. C. D. (1971). "Corner joint details in structural
lightweight concrete. " ACI Journal, 68(5), 366-372.
-Naaman, A. E. and Homrich, J. R. (1989). " Tensile
stress-strain properties of SIFCON." ACI Materials
Journal, 86(3), 244-251.
-Naaman, A. E., Otter, D. and Najm, H. S. (1991). "Elastic
modulus of SIFCON in
tension and compression. " ACI Materials Journal, 88(6),
603-612.
-Naaman, A. E. and Najm, H. S. (1991). "Bond-slip
mechanisms of steel fibers in
concrete.' ACI Materials Journal, 88(2), 135-145.
-Naaman, A. E., Reinhardt, H. W. and Fritz, . (1992). "
Reinforced concrete beams with a SIFCON matrix." ACI
Structural Journal, 89(1), 79-88.

-Naaman, A. E. and Baccouche, M. R. (1995). "Shear
response of dowel reinforced
SIFCON." ACI Structural Journal, 92(3), 587-596.

-Naaman, A. E. (2003). "Engineered steel fibers with
optimal properties for reinforcement of cement
composites." Journal of Advanced Concrete
Technology, 1(3), 241-252.
-Nilsson, L. O. (1973). "Reinforced concrete corners and
joints subjected to bending
moments." The National Swedish Institute for Building
Research, Box 27163,
S-102-52, Stockholm 28, Sweden.
-Salem, H. M. (1995). " Application of equilibrium strut-
and-tie model to reinforced
concrete corner connections subjected to opening
moments. " Master Thesis,
Structural Engineering, Cairo University.
-Swann. R. A. (1969). "Flexural strength of reinforced
concrete portal frmes." Cement
and Concrete Association Technical Report No. TRA434,
London.

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RCS-021-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





EFFECT OF TRANSVERSE RECTANGULAR OPENINGS ON THE
BEHAVIOUR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS HAVING VARIOUS
PERCENTAGES AREA OF STEEL

OSMAN RAMADAN
Professor of Structural Eng., Department of Civil Engineering, Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Egypt
E-mail: omoramadan@yahoo.ca
SHERIF ELWAN
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Shorouk Academy
El Shorouk City, Cairo, Egypt.
E-mail: icb_2006@yahoo.com
ARAFA MAHMOUD
Demonstrator, Department of Civil Engineering, Shorouk Academy
El Shorouk City, Cairo, Egypt.
E-mail: arafa_dem@yahoo.co.uk

ABSTRACT
Providing openings through reinforced concrete beams and girders is giving new option
in modern building constructions for passing the utility ducts and pipes. This paper
presents results obtained from a finite element investigation using the ANSYS software
of R.C. Beams containing one rectangular opening. Three series of rectangular R.C.
Beams were modelled under uniform distributed load. Each series is consisted of one
beam without openings as a control beam and another six beams with one rectangular
opening at different positions through the beam length and with the same opening
dimensions. In addition, no special reinforcement is used around the openings to
simulate this more-critical case. The percentage area of steel is the only different
parameter between all series. All beams are loaded gradually up to failure, and the
cracking, deflection, and ultimate load is investigated. Finally guidelines for the best
positions of the opening with respect to the percentage area of steel are presented.
KEYWORDS
Beam, reinforced concrete, finite element, failure, deflection, cracks.
1 INTRODUCTION
With the development of construction technology, and in order to eliminate the dead
space in the buildings that created from placing many pipes and ducts to accommodate
-559-

RCS-021-2
essential services like water supply, and air conditioning underneath or above beams, an
alternative solution have been proposed to pass these ducts through transverse openings
in the floor beams. This arrangement of building services leads to a significant
reduction in the headroom and results of significant saving in total height of the
building especially for the multi-storey buildings as well as the overall loads on the
foundation.
Due to an abrupt change in the cross-sectional dimensions of the beam, the opening
corners are subjected to high stress concentration that may lead to wide cracking and
excessive deflection that is unacceptable from the serviceability viewpoints as well as
the reduction of the stiffness of the beam may also cause a redistribution of the internal
forces and moments in the opening regions. So, the provision of openings in reinforced
concrete beams may change their simple mode of behaviour to a more complex one.
Therefore the design of such beams needs special treatment, which currently the main
objective of many researches concerning with this problem.
During the past fifty years, considerable research efforts have been directed towards
obtaining a better understanding of the behaviour and strength of reinforced concrete
beams with openings. Theoretical and experimental studies have been done on such
beams [1:12]. Although the uniform loads are usually the most practical in most
buildings, few studies have been dealt with this case. The major portion has been
conducted on beams subjected to concentrated loads. In addition, until now there is a
lack of specific information and guidelines on reinforced concrete beams containing
openings in most building codes such as the Egyptian code of practice.

Ali Ibrahim[1] studied the effect of openings on structural elements and directed his
study to the reinforced concrete beams. Different analytical methods to analyze beams
with openings were presented but the use of a numerical method to overcome some
analytical difficult was required. Some beams with openings in the shear zone were
tested. The results indicate that, opening in the shear zone greatly affects the ultimate
load of the beam especially when the concentrated load was applied across the opening.
The deflection line curve differed much from beams without openings. The strain
distribution was affected by the openings.

Nasser et al. [2], and M. Barker et al. [3] studied the behaviour of rectangular reinforced
concrete beams with large openings. Some assumptions in their theoretical approach
were made. The top and bottom cross members of the opening are assumed to behave
similar to the chords of a Verandeel panel. The cross members, when they have
adequate stirrups, carry the external shear in proportion to their cross sectional areas.
The cross members of the openings, when they are not subjected to transverse loads,
have contra-flexure points at their mid span. Finally, there is a diagonal force
concentration at the corners induced by the chord shear, and its value is twice the simple
shear force. To examine their assumptions, the authors tested experimentally some
beams and concluded that the results of the tested beams were consistent with their
assumptions. In addition they observed that, adequately reinforced large openings in
rectangular beams do not reduce the ultimate capacity of the beam, but they reduce its
stiffness. Properly designed openings do not reduce the maximum moment capacity if
the opening does not reduce the compression zone. Also, the openings reduced the
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RCS-021-3
stability and the rotational capacity of the beams. Finally, the decrease in rotational
capacity due to openings would probably reduced by the addition of compression steel
and closed spaced stirrups.
Hemdan [4] studied the behaviour of reinforced concrete beams with end rectangular
openings. A finite element method was used in the analysis, and the results were
verified experimentally. The study concluded that, the position of end openings has no
effect on the maximum values of deflections of the beam and the main parameters
affecting the deflections of the beam with unreinforced openings are the height, length
and rectangularity of the opening. The cracking loads of beams with end openings are
independent on the position of these openings. When the opening is provided closer to
the loading point, the extreme values of longitudinal stresses in this part of opening near
the loading point are increased. A similar behaviour occurs, if the opening is located
closer to supporting point.
Many studies were conducted by Mansur et al. [5, 6, and 7] concerning the analysis and
design of reinforced concrete beams containing openings. The major variables were the
length, depth, eccentricity and location of openings, and the amount and arrangement of
corner reinforcement. The results showed that, both the maximum crack width and
maximum beam deflection increase with an increase in opening length, opening depth,
or moment-shear ratio at the canter of opening. The effect of opening eccentricity is
insignificant for the small eccentricities used in that test program. When the solid
sections are adequately reinforced, the beam fails by the formation of a mechanism with
four hinges in the chords. Total applied shear may be distributed between the top and
bottom chords of the opening accordance to their flexural stiffness, based on either
gross or cracked transformed sections. This distribution applies at both service load and
ultimate conditions irrespective of whether the opening is located within the positive or
negative moment region of a continuous beam. Finally, general guidelines for the best
locations of web openings are suggested.
Abdullah et al. [8] studied the behaviour of concrete beams with openings. The results
of an experimental program on a set of beams containing openings in the shear zone
with different configurations were presented. The study concluded that the opening in
the shear zone of the reinforced concrete beams significantly reduces the loading
capacity of the beam.The opening width has no effect on the beam strength. It is more
preferable to locate the opening in which its edge to be at a distance from the support
not less than the beam effective depth d. It is preferable to choose the opening height so
that it less than half of the beam effective depth d/2.
This paper presents results obtained from ANSYS finite element program of rectangular
reinforced concrete beams containing rectangular openings. The main parameters
considered in this research are the opening position along the beam length as well as the
percentage area of steel.
2 FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Finite element model was developed to simulate three series of rectangular reinforced
concrete beams from linear through nonlinear response and up to failure. Using the
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software package ANSYS10, modelling simplifications and assumptions developed
during this research are presented below.
2.1 Element Types
A solid element, SOLID65, is used to model the concrete in ANSYS. The solid element
has eight nodes with three transitional degrees of freedom at each node. The element is
capable of simulating plastic deformation, and cracking in three orthogonal directions.
A LINK8 element is used to model the steel reinforcement. Two nodes are required for
this element. At each node, degrees of freedom are identical to those for the SOLID65.
The element is also capable of simulating plastic deformation. This option was favoured
over the alternative smeared stiffness capability as it allowed the reinforcement to be
precisely located whilst maintaining a relatively coarse mesh for the surrounding
concrete medium. The inherent assumption is that there is full displacement
compatibility between the reinforcement and the concrete and that no bond slippage
occurs. Also steel plates are added at the support locations to avoid stress concentration
problems. The solid element (solid 45) was used for the steel plates.
2.2 Non-linear Behaviour in ANSYS Program
Nonlinearity of structural system is due to geometric non-linearity and or material non-
linearity. The geometric non-linearity has to be considered if the structure deforms
largely, and lead to change in its geometric configuration. The material non-linearity is
related to non-linear stress-strain relationship of the structural material used. Non-linear
stress-strain relationship of the structural material causes the structure stiffness to
change during the stage of the analysis.
ANSYS program has two different approaches to treat the material behaviour, the linear
elastic behaviour and the non-linear plastic behaviour. For the linear approach, the
program is based on Hook's law and the stress is linear proportional to the strain
according to the secant slope. The non-linear plastic behaviour of material, which is
characterized by non-recoverable strain, begins when stress exceeds certain stress level
depend on the material type. In reinforced concrete structures, ANSYS program uses
Drucker-Prager plasticity option to represent the concrete non-linear behaviour. In this
study, the second approach is used.
3 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
3.1 Concrete material properties
Development of a model for the behaviour of concrete is a challenging task. Concrete is
a quasi-brittle material and has different behaviour in compression and tension. To
model the concrete, ANSYS requires linear isotropic and multi-linear isotropic as well
as some additional concrete material properties to simulate the real concrete behavior.
The required properties are listed in Table 1.
In this study, the ultimate cubic compressive strength of the concrete (f
cu
) was assumed
25MPa. According to the Egyptian Code of Practice (ECP 203-2007) the corresponding
elastic modulus equals 22000 MPa. Moreover, the tensile strength equals 3 MPa.
Poisson's ratio for concrete equals was taken 0.2. The shear transfer coefficient
t

represents conditions of the crack face. The value of
t
ranges from 0.0 to 1.0, with 0.0
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representing a smooth crack (complete loss of shear transfer) and 1.0 representing a
rough crack (no loss of shear transfer) (ANSYS 10). The shear transfer coefficients for
open and closed cracks were determined using the work of Kachlakev, et al. [13] and
Anand Parande [14]. Convergence problems occurred when the shear transfer
coefficient for the open crack dropped below 0.2. No deviation of the response occurs
with the change of the coefficient. Therefore, the coefficient for the open crack was set
to 0.2 while the coefficient for the closed crack was set to 1.0 as shown in table 1.

Table 1: Material properties for concrete elements
Material Model
Number
Element
Type
Material Properties
Linear Isotropic
EX(Mpa)
PRXY 0.2

Multilinear Isotropic
Strain Stress(Mpa)
Point 1 0.00025 5.5
Point 2 0.0004 8.386
Point 3 0.00055 11.067
Point 4 0.0007 13.377
Point 5 0.00085 15.29
Point 6 0.001 16.811
Point 7 0.00125 18.55
Point 8 0.0014 19.19
Point 9 0.0018 20
Point10 0.00275 20

Concrete
ShrCf-Op 0.2
ShrCf-Cl 1
UnTensSt
UnCompSt -1
BiCompSt default
HydroPrs default
BiCompSt default

Solid65

UnTensSt default

Equation (1) suggested by MacGregor. (1992) presents the uniaxial compressive stress-
strain relationship for concrete. This equation was used to plot the multi-linear isotropic
stress-strain curve for the concrete till ultimate compressive strength.
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RCS-021-6
2
1
.
+
=
o
c
E
f
(1)
Where; f = stress at any strain
o
= strain at the ultimate compressive strength fc (=2 fc/E
c
)
fc' = ultimate compressive strength for concrete and according to the E.C.O.P it can be
taken 0.8 f
cu

Stress-strain relationship used for this study is based on work done by Kachlakev, et al.
[13]. Point 1, defined as 0.30 fc', is calculated in the linear range. Points 2 to 8 are
calculated from Equation (1). Strains were selected and the stress was calculated for
each strain. Point 9 is defined at fc' and
0
that indicating traditional crushing strain for
unconfined concrete. The resulting multi-linear isotropic stress-strain curve for the
concrete used in this study is shown in Figure 1.

Fig. 1: Uniaxial stress-strain curve for concrete

3.2 Reinforcement and Steel Plates
The test specimens was constructed with the high strength steel (grade 52). The finite
element model for rebar was assumed to be a bilinear isotropic elastic-perfectly plastic
material and identical in tension and compression as shown in Fig.2. Material properties
for the steel reinforcement for all specimens in this study are as follows:
Elastic modulus (E
s
) = 200,000 MPa, Poissons ratio (PRXY) = 0.3
Yield stress (f
y
) = 360, and 240 MPa for longitudinal and web reinforcement,
respectively, Elastic tangent modulus = 0.0
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RCS-021-7
The steel plates, added to the finite element model, were assumed linear elastic
materials with elastic modulus equal to 200,000 MPa, and Poissons ratio of 0.3.

Fig.2: Stress-strain curve for steel reinforcement

3.3 Geometry, and Modelling
All tested beams had an overall width, depth and length of 200 mm, 500 mm and 5300
mm, respectively. On the other hand, the dimensions of the opening for all beams are
the same and having 400 mm length and 200 mm height (0.8, and 0.4 the overall depth
of the beam). Also the openings were located at the mid height of all beams while the
position of the opening is varied between the beams in each series as will be discussed
later. The web reinforcement was steel bars of 6mm diameter provided every 200 mm in
spacing along all beams while, the longitudinal reinforcement is differed in each series.
All beams were subjected to uniform distributed load. The geometry, reinforcement, and
loading of a typical beam without opening and a typical beam with opening are shown
in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively.
All beams were modelled in ANSYS taking the advantage of symmetry across the width
of the beams. This plane of symmetry was represented using relevant constrains in the
finite element node points. This approach reduced computational time and computer
disk space requirements significantly.

Fig.3: Geometry, reinforcement, and loading of a typical beam without opening
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RCS-021-8

Fig.4: Geometry, reinforcement, and loading of a typical beam with opening
The beam mesh was selected such that the node points of the solid elements will
coincide with the actual reinforcement locations. An additional node points were
provided by sub dividing the mesh, so that a reasonable mesh density was obtained in
the joint regions with recommended aspect ratio of elements. Nodes of the solid
elements (solid 45) were connected to those of adjacent concrete solid elements (solid
65) in order to satisfy the perfect bond assumption. Link 8 elements were employed to
represent the steel reinforcement, referred to here as link elements. To provide a perfect
bond, the link element for the steel reinforcing was connected between nodes of each
adjacent concrete solid element, so the two materials shared the same nodes.
Figs. 6, and 7 shows the finite element model used to simulate a beam without opening
and a beam with opening respectively. The finite element model for each beam without
opening had exactly 4754 total numbers of elements, 4240 solid 65 elements, 22 link 8
elements as main steel bars, 468 link 8 elements as stirrups, and 24 solid 45 elements at
supports. The finite element model for each beam with opening is consisted of 3984
solid 65 elements, 22 link 8 elements as main steel bars, variable number of elements as
stirrups depending on the number of stirrups at the location of opening, and 24 solid 45
elements at supports..

3.4 Loads and Boundary Conditions:
Beams boundary conditions need to be applied at points of symmetry, and where the
supports and loadings exist. The model being used is symmetric about one plane. The
nodes through the plane of symmetry (at Z=0) must be constrained in the perpendicular
direction. These nodes, therefore, have a degree of freedom constraint UZ = zero.
The left support was modelled in such a way that a roller was created. A single line of
nodes on the plate was given constraint in the UY, and UZ directions, applied as
constant values of zero. By doing this, the beam will be allowed to rotate at the support.
Also, the right support was modelled in such a way that a hinge was created. A single
line of nodes on the plate was given constraint in the UX, UY, and UZ directions,
applied as constant values of zero. By doing this, the beam will not be allowed to rotate
at the support. The applied line load was divided into a series of concentrated loads on
all nodes across the beam length. Figure 7 shows the boundary conditions and the loads
of the prepared model.

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RCS-021-9

Fig.5: Meshing of a typical beam without opening

Fig.6: Finite element meshing of a typical beam with opening

Concrete Elements (Solid65)
50 mm Length, 50 mm width, and
25 mm Height
Steel Plate Elements
(Solid45)
50 mm length, and 50 mm
Top Bars Elements (Link8)
50 mm Length
Bottom Bars Elements (Link8)
50 mm Length
Stirrups Elements (Link 8)
25 mm Height
Concrete Elements (Solid65)
50 mm Length, 50 mm width, and 25
mm Height
Part of Opening

Top Bar Elements (Link8)
50 mm Length
Stirrups Elements at Opening location (Link 8)
25 mm Height
Bottom Bar Elements (Link8)
50 mm Length
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RCS-021-10

Fig. 7 : Boundary conditions and loading of the model

3.5 Non-linear solution and failure criteria
In this study the total load applied was divided into a series of load increments (or) load steps.
Newton Raphson equilibrium iterations provide convergence at the end of each load
increment within tolerance limits. The automatic time stepping in the ANSYS program
predicts and controls load step sizes for which the maximum and minimum load step
sizes are required [15].
After attempting many trials, the number of load steps, minimum and maximum step
sizes was determined. During concrete cracking, steel yielding, and ultimate stage, the
loads were applied gradually with smaller load increments. Failure for each model was
identified when the solution was not converging.

3.6 Verification of the Proposed Finite Element Model:
The goal of the verification of the finite element model is to ensure that the proposed
elements, material properties, real constants and convergence criteria are adequate to
model the response of the beam. In order to verify the model, the control beam (C96)
that tested by Tom Norris et al. [16] was analyzed. The tested beam had a 5 in. x 8 in.
(127 mm x 203 mm) cross section, and 96 in. (2440 mm) length. The beam were
designed to be simply supported over a span of 90 in (2288 mm) and loaded at the
quarter points. The longitudinal reinforcement of the beam consisted of two no. 3 (9.5
mm. dia.) grade 60 tension bars, and two no. 3 (9.5 mm. dia.) grade 60 compression
Constraint in the Z- direction
Roller Support
Hinged Support
Uniform Load
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RCS-021-11
bars. The spacing for the no. 2 (6 mm. dia.) stirrups in the central region of no shear was
6.5 in. (165 mm) and in the region between the supports and load points was 2 in. (51
mm). Figure 8 shows the geometry, reinforcement details, and loading of the analyzed
beam.

Fig. 8: Geometry, loading, and reinforcement of beam (C96) Tested by Tom Norris et
al.[18]

The steel rebars and concrete used for the beam were tested to determine their strength.
The steel had an average yield stress of 61,000 psi (420 MPa), and the concrete had an
average compressive strength of 5,300 psi (36.5 MPa) at the time the beam were tested.
The finite elements adopted by ANSYS were used as described previously. A quarter of
the full beam was used for modelling by taking advantage of the symmetry of the beam
and loadings. The load versus mid span deflection plots obtained from finite element
study along with the experimental plots reported by Tom Norris, et al. [18] are
presented and compared in Fig. 9.
As shown in figure, the numerical models show 2.5% decrease in ultimate load, and
25% increase in the maximum deflection when comparing with the experimental values.

Fig.9: Experimental and Numerical load versus mid span deflection plots of Beam
(C96) Tested by Tom Norris et al (1997)

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RCS-021-12
3 THE PARAMETRIC STUDY
Two parameters were taken into consideration through this study, the percentage of the
main longitudinal reinforcement, and the position of the opening along the beam length.
Three series of beams were modelled. Series one had a ratio {( - )/
max
=0.33}, series
two had a ratio {( - )/
max
=0.50}, and series three had a ratio {( - )/
max
=0.75},
where is the percentage of the longitudinal bottom reinforcement, is percentage of
the longitudinal top reinforcement and taken (0.2 of ), and
max
is the percentage of the
maximum reinforcement and taken (1.5*5E-5 f
cu
).
On the other hand, the position of the opening along the beam length was varied and
taken as the ratio S/d in each series is {0, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, and 4.77(centred with the beam
length)}, where S is the clear distance between the opening and the nearest support, and
d is the distance from the centre of gravity of the bottom bars to the upper fibre of the
beam. Besides, the six beams with opening in each series, a control beam without
opening was also analyzed. The details of beams in each series are summarized in Table
2.
Table 2: Details of Test Series
Series No. (- ) /
max
S / d Beam Id
Control beam B10
0.00 B11
0.50 B12
1.00 B13
2.00 B14
3.00 B15
1 0.33
4.77 B16
Control beam B20
0.00 B21
0.50 B22
1.00 B23
2.00 B24
3.00 B25
2 0.5
4.77 B26
Control beam B30
0.00 B31
0.50 B32
1.00 B33
2.00 B34
3.00 B35
3 0.75
4.77 B36

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RCS-021-13
4.1 Crack Patterns and Failure Mode
For all specimens, the loads were applied incrementally and the cracks patterns could be
obtained using the Crack/Crushing plot option in ANSYS, where, Vector Mode plots
must be turned on to view the cracking in the model. The initial cracks in the FE model
were appeared when the applied load creates stress just beyond the modulus of rupture
of the concrete (f
r
). The cracks in all beams can be classified into five types of cracks
according to their positions along the beam as shown in Fig.10. Figure (11) shows the
history of cracks of beam B11 as a typical model for propagation of cracks till failure.
For all beams that having the ratio (S/d=0, 0.5, and 1), the first cracks occurred in the
position B. then some cracks were observed at position C. after that the cracks appeared
at positions D, and E followed by appearing cracks at position A. as the load was
increased, cracks propagated towards the opening corners forming both diagonal and
vertical cracks that led to the failure of the beams in a shear mode.
For all beams that having the ratio (S/d=2, and 3), the first cracks occurred in the
position D, followed by appearing cracks at positions B, C, and A, respectively. As the
load was increased, cracks propagated around the opening as well as at mid span
forming both diagonal and vertical cracks that led to the failure of the beams which
indicating that, the beams failed in a flexure shear mode.
For all beams that having the opening at mid span (S/d =4.77), and for control beams
(without opening), the failure was happened due to increasing of the cracks at mid span
and around the opening which indicated that, the beams failed in a flexural mode.

Fig.10: Types of Cracks According to their positions

4.2 Loads at First Cracks
The values of cracking loads of all beams with openings (W
cr
) were obtained and
compared with the cracking loads of the control beams (W
cro
) as shown in Table 3, and
Fig.12. Comparing the shown results indicate that providing the opening at a distance
S less than one half the beam depth d reduce the cracking load by about 20%, 25%,
and 31% for cases of (- ) /
max
=0.33, 0.5, and 0.75,respectively. This reduction is
decreased with increasing the distance between the opening and the support till reached
zero for all cases of (- ) /
max
at the mid span.

Cr (D) Cr (A)
Cr (C)
Cr (B)
Cr (E)
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RCS-021-14

First cracks of beam B11 at load = 7.75 N / mm

Cracks of beam B11 at load = 8 N / mm

Cracks of beam B11 at load = 8.25 N / mm



Cracks of beam B11 at failure (load = 30 N / mm)
Fig.11: History of Cracks of beam B11

4
th
cracks E
Successive diagonal cracks at failure
2
nd
cracks C
3
rd
cracks D
1
st
cracks B
5
th
cracks A
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RCS-021-15

Fig.12: Relation between S/d and W
cr
/W
cro

Table 3: Ratio of cracking loads for beams with opening to control Beams
S/d W
cr
/ W
cro

(- )/
max
=0.33 (- )/
max
=0.50 (- )/
max
=0.75
0.00 0.79 0.74 0.68
0.50 0.81 0.77 0.70
1.00 0.85 0.81 0.74
2.00 0.86 0.88 0.85
3.00 0.90 0.88 0.85
4.77 1.00 0.99 0.98
4.3 Failure Loads
The values of the failure loads of all beams with openings (W
u
) were obtained and
compared with the failure loads of the control beams (W
uo
) as shown in Table 4, and
Fig.13. Comparing the results indicate that providing the opening at a distance S less
than one half the beam depth d reduce the failure load by about 33%, 30%, and 22%
for cases of (- ) /
max
=0.33, 0.5, and 0.75, respectively. Providing the opening at a
distance S more than twice the beam depth d reduce the failure load by about 13%,
2%, and 12% for cases of (- ) /
max
=0.33, 0.5, and 0.75, respectively. In addition,
providing the opening at mid span reduce the failure load by about 12%, 5%, and 1%
for cases of (- ) /
max
=0.33, 0.5, and 0.75,respectively. It may be concluded that
increasing the percentage of steel reinforcement is significant in reducing the reduction
in the failure load of beams with openings with repect to that of control beam.
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RCS-021-16
Table 4: Ratio of ultimate loads for beams with opening to control beams
W
u
/ W
uo

S/d
(- )/max=0.33 (- )/max=0.50 (- )/max=0.75
0.00 0.67 0.7 0.78
0.50 0.74 0.95 0.79
1.00 0.79 0.61 0.81
2.00 0.93 0.97 0.86
3.00 0.81 0.99 0.86
4.77 0.88 0.95 0.99

Fig.13: Relation between S/d and W
u
/W
uo

4.4 Load Deflection Curves
Figures 14, 15 and 16 show the effect of opening positions on load deflection curves for
cases of (- ) /
max
=0.33, 0.5 and 0.75, respectively. The load deflection relations of
the different beams in each case of (- ) /
max
are qualitatively similar. From the
relations it may be concluded that the differences between the load deflection curves are
wider in the case (- ) /
max
=0.75 and these differences were decreased with
decreasing the ratio (- ) /
max
till they are very small in case of (- ) /
max
=0.33.
the major difference between all cases of (- ) /
max
in

the load deflection curves is
the ratio
u
/ W
u,
where u is the deflection at failure and W
u
is the failure load, where
this ratio is having the smallest value in case of (- ) /
max
=0.75 and biggest value in
case of (- ) /
max
=0.33.
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RCS-021-17

Fig.14: Effect of opening positions on load deflection curves [(- ) /
max
=0.33

]

max
=0.50

]

max
=0.75

]
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RCS-021-18
5 CONCLUSIONS
From the results obtained from the parametric study carried out herein on rectangular
reinforced concrete beams subjected to uniform distributed load and having one
rectangular opening created with dimensions of 0.8 of the beam overall depth in length
and 0.4 of the beam overall depth in height, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The presence of opening in reinforced concrete beams changes the crack pattern
and mode of failure according to opening location. Variation of the percentage
area of steel is not significant in this case.
2. The presence of openings in reinforced concrete beams causes reduction in both
cracking and ultimate load of the beam. This reduction depends on the position
of the opening along the beam length as well as the percentage area of steel.
3. The reduction in both cracking and failure load is noticeable when the opening is
just beside the support. With increasing the distance between the opening and
the support, this reduction decreases. Noting that, the beams that having the
opening at the mid span failed approximately at the same loads of beams without
opening.
4. The effect of the percentage area of steel becomes significant for cases where the
distance between the opening and the nearest support is greater than the overall
depth of the beam, while this effect is almost not found when the opening shifted
closer to the support.
5. Providing opening in a reinforced concrete beam leads to appearing some cracks
around the opening. These cracks increased with increasing the applied load
which leads to quick failure especially when the opening being near from the
supports.
6. Care should be paid in choosing the opening location. It is recommended to
locate openings away from the supports by distance not less than twice the
effective depth. It is preferable to move the opening as much to be more closer
to the mid span.

6 REFERENCES
[1] Ali Ibrahim Mohamed, (1962), The Effect of Openings on Structural Elements
with Particular Reference to Reinforced Concrete Beams M.Sc. Thesis, Cairo
University, Cairo, Egypt.
[2] Karim W. Nasser, A. Acavalos, and H. R. Daniel, (1967), Behavior and Design
of Large Openings in Reinforced Concrete Beams, ACI Journal, Vol. 64, No. 3,
Janury, 1967, pp. 25-33.
[3] Richard M. Barker, (1967), Discussion of the Paper by Karim W. Nasser, A.
Acavalos, and H. R. Daniel, ACI Journal, Vol. 64, No. 3, July, 1967, pp. 418-
422.

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RCS-021-19
[4] Hamdy Hemdan, (1978), Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Beams with
Rectangular Openings M.Sc. Thesis, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt.
[5] M. A. Mansur, K. H. Tan, and S. L. Lee, (1996), Design Procedure for
Reinforced Concrete Beams with Large Web Openings, ACI Journal, Vol. 93,
No. S37, July-August, 1996, pp. 404-411.
[6] Kiange-Hwee Tan, and Mohammad A. Mansur, (1985), Design Method for
Reinforced Concrete Beams with Large Openings, ACI Journal, Vol. 82, No.
46, July-August, 1985, pp. 518-524.
[7] M. A. Mansur, L. M. Huang, K. H. Tan, and S. L. Lee, (1992), Deflections of
Reinforced Concrete Beams with Web Openings, ACI Journal, Vol. 89, No.
S38, July-August, 1992, pp. 391-397.
[8] H. A. Abdalla, A. M. Torkey, H. A. Haggag, A. F. Abu-Amira (2003), Design
Against Cracking at Openings in Reinforced Concrete Beams Strengthened wit
Composite Sheets, Composite Structures, Vol. 60, 2003, pp. 197-204.
[9] Osman M. Ramadan, and Sherif F. Kansouh, (2006), Openings in Pure Bending
Zone of HSC Beams, Scientific Bulletin, Vol. 41, No. 3, September, 2006, pp.
93-109.
[10] Amir F. Abu-Amira, (2003), Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Beams with
Openings Using FRP Sheets M.Sc. Thesis, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt.
[11] M. A. Mansur, (1999), Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams with Small
Openings Under Compined Loading, ACI Journal, Vol. 96, No. S74,
September-October, 1999, pp. 675-682.
[12] Kiang-Hwee Tan, M. A. Mansur, and Weng Wei, (2001), Design of Reinforced
Concrete Beams with circular Openings, ACI Journal, Vol. 98, No. S39, May-
June, 2001, pp. 407-415.
[13] Damian Kachlakev, (2001), Finite Element Modeling of Reinforced Concrete
Structures Strengthened with FRP Laminates, PhD., California Polytechnic State
University, San Luis Obispo, CA 93407.
[14] Anand Parande, P. Dhayalan, M. S. Karthikeyan, K. Kumar and N.
Palaniswamy, (2008), Assessment of Structural Behavior of Non-corroded and
Corroded RCC Beams Using Finite Element Method, Sensors & Transducers
Journal, Vol. 96, Issue 9, pp.121-136.
[15] ANSYS (10), ANSYS Manual Set, ANSYS Inc.
[16] Tom Norris, Hamid Saadatmanesh, and Mohammad R. Ehsani, (1997), Shear
and Flexural Strengthening of R/C Beams with Carbon Fiber Sheets, Journal of
Structural Engineering, Vol. 123, No. 7, July, 1997, pp. 903-911.

-577-
Experimental Behaviour of High Strength CFST
Long Columns

Fathy Saad Amr Abdel Rahman Mohammed Nabil Amir Nassif
Prof. Dr. Prof. Dr. Assistant Prof. Researcher
Department of Structural Engineering, Ain Shams University, Egypt
Abstract
Composite columns consisting of concrete filled steel tubes (CFST) have become
increasingly popular in structural applications around the world, often used in moment
resisting frames, see Mathias Johansson (2001). In an experimental study, thirteen column
specimens were tested to investigate the structural behaviour of slender CFST columns
under both centric and eccentric compression loading. In addition two specimens for pure
concrete section and one steel tube section with the same dimensions were tested as
references. All specimens were tested up to failure and the behaviour was fully monitored.
The impact of different parameters, such as effect of filling concrete strength, steel tube
thickness as well as adding interior steel reinforcement bars were considered in the study.
The test results were illustrated by load deflection and load strain curves. Various
characteristics such as strength, stiffness and failure modes are discussed. The
interpretation of the experimental results showed the beneficial effect of utilizing CFST
system compared to traditional reinforced concrete columns in terms of strength and ductility
increase. The study proves that, despite of the CFT-columns high slenderness ratio, the
ultimate capacity of composite column still exceeds the sum of capacities of its individual
components owing to high confinement, which should be considered in design codes of such
elements.

Keywords: Composite column; Slenderness ratio; Ultimate capacity; Confinement.

1. Introduction

Concrete-filled steel tubes (CFST) provide an effective structural system for a variety of
applications such as bridge columns/piers, columns for high rise buildings, piles, overhead
sign structures and utility poles. This is partially due to their excellent earthquake-resistant
properties such as high strength, high ductility, i.e. large energy absorption capacity.
Additionally, this structural system comprises many advantages such as speedy
construction, the steel tube encloses the concrete core (confinement effect) and the steel
tube is used as both longitudinal and lateral reinforcement. The combination of the CFST
with the high strength concrete enables high normal force and bending moment capacity.
This suits the application for monolithic bridges, in which the columns should be ductile and
slender enough to allow movement under restrained loads, simultaneously to withstand the
combined eccentric loading situation (normal force and bending moment) under service
loads.
The scope of this work can be summarized as follows:
Introducing the high strength CFT- columns for the application in monolithic bridges
Studying the structural behavior of high strength CFT slender columns under centric
and eccentric compression loading

2. Experimental work

An experimental program was conducted to test a total of sixteen column specimens under
both centric and eccentric compression loading. The test specimens were categorized into
three groups. The first group G1 comprised eight column specimens subjected to concentric
-578-
loading; the second and third groups, G2 and G3 consists of four column specimens each,
subjected to eccentric loading with e/D ratios of 0.3 and 0.6 respectively. The column heights
were kept as 2500 mm and the cross-sections were circular with an internal diameter of 100
mm. The filling concrete strengths were 30 and 70 MPa. The steel tubes thicknesses varied
between 3 and 5 mm. The first three columns in group 1 represent control specimens;
specimens C1 and C2 represent traditional reinforced concrete columns with strengths 30
and 70 MPa respectively while specimen C3 represent a hollow steel tube with thickness 3
mm. The loading was applied to the entire cross section including both concrete core and
steel tube. Tables 1a, 1b and 1c give the description and details of the column specimens
considered in groups 1, 2 and 3.

(b) Table 1b Test program for column specimens tested G2 (e/D =0.3)
Specimen
Column
Type
Core
Diameter
D (mm)
Length
L
(mm)
Concrete
grade
F
cu
(MPa)
Steel tube
Thickness
t (mm)
Longitudinal
Steel
Reinforcement
Transverse
Steel
Reinforcement
C9 CFST 100 2500 30 3 --- ---
C10 CFST 100 2500 70 3 --- ---
C11 CFST 100 2500 70 5 --- ---
C12 CFST 100 2500 70 3 68 ---

(c) Table 1c Test program for column specimens tested G3 (e/D =0.6)

3. Materials

The columns were manufactured in the laboratory of concrete structures department and the
concrete was produced by a local manufacturer. All specimens were cast in a vertical
position and with concrete from the same batch. The mechanical properties of the steel tubes
were obtained using experimental testing performed in the Materials testing laboratory. The
experimental testing included four standard tension coupons that were cut of the tubes and
tested in tension to obtain the yield strength f
y
, ultimate strength f
u
and the maximum
elongation of the steel used in tubes. Table 2a gives the mechanical properties of the steel
utilized in the tubes. Two concrete mixes were designed to produce concrete strengths of 30
and 70 MPa. A total of twelve standard cubes (150x150x150 mm), six from each batch, were
casted and cured under water then tested under axial compression to evaluate the average
concrete strength after 7 and 28 days. Table 2b gives the concrete compressive strengths
after 7 and 28 days for each mix.

Specimen
Column
Type
Core
Diameter
D (mm)
Length
L
(mm)
Concrete
grade
F
cu
(MPa)
Steel tube
Thickness
t (mm)
Longitudinal
Steel
Reinforcement
Transverse
Steel
Reinforcement
C13 CFST 100 2500 30 3 --- ---
C14 CFST 100 2500 30 5 --- ---
C15 CFST 100 2500 70 5 --- ---
C16 CFST 100 2500 70 3 68 ---
(a) Table 1a Test program for column specimens G1
Specimen
Column
Type
Core
Diameter
D (mm)
Length
L
(mm)
Concrete
grade
F
cu
(MPa)
Steel tube
Thickness
t (mm)
Longitudinal
Steel
Reinforcement
Transverse
Steel
Reinforcement
C1 R.C 100 2500 30 --- 68 6 @ 70 mm
C2 R.C 100 2500 70 --- 68 6 @ 70 mm
C3
Hollow
tube
100 2500 --- 3 --- ---
C4 CFST 100 2500 70 3 --- ---
C5 CFST 100 2500 70 3 68 ---
C6 CFST 100 2500 70 5 --- ---
C7 CFST 100 2500 30 3 --- ---
C8 CFST 100 2500 30 3 68 ---
-579-
74.2
30.4
0.22 0.35
Strain%

E=24100
N/mm
2
E=36800
N/mm
2

Stress
N/mm
22
Internal steel reinforcement used in the specimens was round smooth bars of diameters 8
mm used as longitudinal reinforcement and 6 mm used as stirrups in the transverse direction
placed every 70 mm. Table 2c shows the yield strength, ultimate strength and modulus of
elasticity of the steel reinforcement used.

4. Test setup and procedure

All the specimens were tested using a hydraulic jack of 1500 KN capacity and the loading
was applied to the entire section including both the concrete core and the steel tube for all
specimens. The boundary conditions, for all columns were set as fixed at base and hinged at
top. The fixation was provided by a rigid steel base consisting of two thick steel plates at the
base, an outer circular steel pipe 10 mm thick and 250 mm height that is provided by two
rows of steel bolts used to enclose tightly two semi circular steel pipes that encase the
specimen. Figure 1 shows test setup and details of bottom steel base (fixation) and upper
steel cap (hinge). The hinged top was provided by an upper steel cap of 200 mm height
comprising steel bolts that enclose the specimen firmly and a cylindrical steel bar placed
above the steel cap to allow the rotation in one plane only. The eccentricity was provided at
the upper end only (hinged end) by placing the steel bar eccentric over the steel cap.
Regarding test instrumentation, three displacement transducers (LVDTs) with a capacity 100
mm each were placed at three different levels on the outer surface of the steel tube in order
to monitor the lateral displacement of the columns and to capture the deformed shape of the
column at various load levels up to failure. The first LVDT was placed at one third of the
column height, the second was placed at mid height of the column and the last one was
placed at two thirds of the column height.
A total of six electrical strain gauges were installed on the outer surface of the steel tube to
measure the longitudinal and transverse strains along the cross-section of the CFST column.
Four strain gauges, S1, S2, S3 and S4, were installed in the longitudinal direction and two
strain gauges, S5 and S6, were installed in the transverse direction. Figure 1 shows
Positions of longitudinal and transverse steel gauges installed on the columns.

Table 2a: Mechanical properties of steel tubes used in tests
Material
Internal
diameter
mm
Tube
thickness
mm
Yield
strength
N/mm
2

Ult.
strength
N/mm
2

y
%

max
%

E
MPa
Poisson
ratio

100 3 364.8 445.4 0.18 17 210000 0.3
Steel
100 5 362.3 478.5 0.18 22.8 210000 0.3
Table 2b: Concrete strengths after ages of 7 and 28 days
Concrete strength (MPa)
Concrete
Mix
Target
strength
7 days 28 days
Mix 1 30 22.8 30.4
Mix 2 70 56.8 74.2
Table 2c: Internal steel reinforcement properties
Yield Strength
(N/mm
2
)
Ult. Strength
(N/mm
2
)
E
s

(N/mm
2
)
Interior
steel
Reinf. 242 370 210000

Stress-strain curves for
used concrete
-580-
5. Experimental Results and Discussion
5.1 Failure loads and modes
Table 3 illustrates the failure loads, lateral deflections and measured strain values at failure
for all tested columns. The failure mode for the reinforced concrete column specimens C1
and C2 was concrete crushing on the compression side of the column. The columns acted in
a stiff manner with relatively low lateral deflection at low load levels. At higher load levels the
lateral deflection increased rapidly and thus the additional bending moment resulting from the
columns lateral deflection increased rapidly causing additional stresses on the columns
compressive side and consequently the concrete crushed on the compression side. Figure 2
shows the failure modes for the columns C1 and C2.

The failure mode for the hollow steel tube column C3 was reaching yield strength of the tube
then the tube began to buckle inwards as the tube was unfilled with concrete. Figure 3 shows
the failure mode for the hollow steel tube column C3. Regarding the CFST column
specimens tested in group 1, the behaviour can be summarized as follows: at the beginning
of loading i.e. at low load levels the column behaved in a stiff manner with low lateral
deflection. The additional moment resulting from the columns lateral deflection (second
order effect) is not obvious at low load levels. As the load increased the columns lateral
deflection increased causing additional moment that increased the stresses on the tube
especially on the columns compression side causing the steel tube to yield on the
compression side. After yielding of the tube, the material nonlinearity reduced the columns
flexural stiffness causing the column to deflect laterally at a high rate and consequently the
additional moment increased rapidly till the column reached failure. After reaching the failure
load the columns lost its stiffness and undergo large lateral deflections as the load
decreased. It was noted from the strain measurements that the entire section of the column
was compressed up to failure. Figure 4 shows the failure mode for the CFST columns tested
in group 1.

Buckling direction
Strain longitudinal dir.
Strain transverse dir.
S3, S4
S2
S1
S5 S6
S2
S1
S5 S6
S3
S4
Fig. 1: Test setup, details of bottom steel base (fixation), upper steel cap (hinge) and
Positions of longitudinal and transverse steel gauges
800
1250
1750
2500
Rigid floor
P
L=
3
L =
2
2L=
3
L=
112 mm
224 mm
2
5
0

m
m
2
0
7
4
1
1
5
6
3
Two steel plates
10 mm each
Steel bolts
Circular steel pipe
Two semi circular
steel pipes
10
Stiffeners
10 mm th.
500 mm
500 mm
Bottom fixation
Loading Plate
Steel cylindrical
bar
Steel bolts
Steel cap
15mm th.
120 mm
200 mm
Upper hinge
P
P.e
LVDT (1)
LVDT (2)
LVDT (3)
-581-
Regarding the CFST column specimens tested in groups 2 and 3 the behaviour can be
illustrated as follows: the application of the load with an initial eccentricity played a significant
role in affecting the long column behaviour. The initial eccentricity caused primary bending
moment in the column sections which increased the columns lateral deflection significantly
and accordingly increased the effective eccentricity. Thus the additional moment caused due
to columns lateral deflection increased and the column failure is accelerated. It was
observed clearly from the longitudinal strain measurements of the column that the column
was subjected to tensile stresses on the tension side which accordingly caused the concrete
core in the tension side to crack and thus the column flexural stiffness is reduced at low load
levels. This reduction in the section stiffness, reaching yield strength of the tube on the
compression face (material nonlinearity) as well as the large column lateral deflections
(geometric nonlinearity) were the major causes for the columns to loose its stiffness and
undergo large lateral deflections at lower load levels rather than the concentric columns
tested in the first group.
Table 3: Failure loads and modes of the tested columns
Strain values at failure
Specimen
Failure
load
(kN)
Lateral
deflection
at failure
(mm)
S1 S2 S5 S6
Failure
mode*
C1 265 5.57 -0.002355 -0.000935 0.000855 0.000182 CC
C2 480 4.56 -0.002044 -0.000567 0.000780 0.000148 CC
C3 320 1.54 -0.003955 -0.001350 0.001203 0.000339 Yst
C4 900 10.90 -0.004619 -0.000656 0.002148 0.000230 CY
C5 975 9.23 -0.004774 -0.000899 0.002210 0.000320 CY
C6 1100 9.52 -0.005620 -0.000666 0.002220 0.000126 CY
C7 620 8.38 -0.004240 -0.001172 0.002085 0.000352 CY
Group 1
C8 675 9.20 -0.004082 -0.001052 0.001956 0.000328 CY
C9 370 13.76 -0.012965 0.003815 0.006003 -0.001199 CY
C10 553 19.88 -0.009173 0.002327 0.003975 -0.000889 CY
C11 735 17.90 -0.010180 0.002112 0.005583 -0.001217 CY
Group 2
C12 625 17.89 -0.009688 0.002548 0.003045 -0.000989 CY
C13 280 22.39 -0.003820 0.001505 0.001890 -0.000369 CY
C14 397 18.74 -0.004176 0.003219 0.002820 -0.000420 CY
C15 525 23.48 -0.007555 0.004046 0.003879 -0.000954 CY
Group 3
C16 450 26.55 -0.005336 0.002003 0.001893 -0.000778 CY
*CC: Concrete crushing at compression side.
Yst: Steel tube yielding and buckling inwards.
CY: Comp. yielding of steel tube at large lateral deflection of column.

Fig. 2: Failure mode for
columns C1 and C2(Concrete
crushing at compression side)
Fig. 3: Failure mode for hollow steel
tube (Steel tube yielding and buckling
inwards)
Fig.4: Failure mode for CFST
columns (C.Y of tube and large
def.)
-582-
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
LATERAL DEFLECTION (mm)
P

(

k
N
)
C9
C10
C11
C12
C11
C12
C10
C9
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
P

(

k
N
)
C13
C14
C15
C16
C13
C16
C14
C15
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Deformation (mm)
Height
(mm)
C1
C2
C4
C5
C6
C7
C8
C9
C10
C11
C12
C13
C14
C15
C16
5.2 Deformational behaviour

Figures 5, 6 and 7 illustrate the load versus lateral deflection measured at one third column
height for tested columns of groups G1, G2 and G3 respectively. As shown in figure 5 the
CFST columns provide larger deformational capacity rather than traditional reinforced
concrete columns, C1 and C2. This high ductility provided by such columns enables adoption
of such columns in high seismic zones. Utilization of high strength concrete in CFST
columns, C4, C5 and C6 increases the columns strength and stiffness significantly when
compared with columns C7 and C8. No significant differences are observed in deformation
values at failure between normal and high strength concrete filled columns.

As shown in figures 6 and 7, applying an initial eccentricity to the loading increases the
columns lateral deflection at low load levels as compared to concentric columns. This is
attributed to the higher bending stresses due to eccentricity of applied loads. The failure
loads for specimens of G2 were between 60 to 70 % of that of Group G1, while the failure
loads for specimens of G3 ranged between 40 and 50 % of those of G1. Figure 8 gives the
deformed shape for all the tested columns at various load levels. As illustrated in figure 8 the
load eccentricity increased significantly the lateral deflection of the columns at failure as
compared to concentric columns.

0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 5 10 15 20
P

(

k
N
)
C1 C2
C4 C5
C6 C7
C8
C1
C7
C8
C5
C4
C6
C2
Fig. 5: Load -lateral deflection for Fig. 6: Load lateral deflection for
Column Specimens tested in G1. Column Specimens tested in G2.
Fig. 7: Load lateral deflection for column Fig. 8: Deformed shape at failure load for
Specimens tested in G3. Columns tested in the three groups
e/D=0.30
e/D=0.60
-583-
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
-0.006 -0.005 -0.004 -0.003 -0.002 -0.001 0 0.001 0.002 0.003
Strain
P (kN)
C4 C5
C6 C7
C8
S2
S1
S1
S5
S5
S1 S5
S2
S2
S6
S5
S5
S1
S1
S2
S2
S6
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
-0.015 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01
Strain
P (kN)
C9
C10
C11
C12
S5
S6
S2
S1
S1
S1
S1
S2 S5
S6
S5
S2
S5
S2
S6
S6
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
-0.01 -0.008 -0.006 -0.004 -0.002 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008
Strain
P (KN)
C13 C14
C15 C16
S5 S6
S2
S1
S1
S1
S1
S2
S2,S5
S2
S5
S5
S6
S6
S6
Fig. 9: Load strain behaviour for CFST
Columns specimens tested in G1.
5.3 Load-strain behaviour

Figures 9, 10 and 11 illustrate the load strain relation for the main strains S1, S2, S5 and S6
for the tested columns of groups G1, G2 and G3 respectively. As illustrated in figure 9
concerning CFST columns tested in group 1, the values for the two longitudinal strains S1
and S2 were compression up to failure. The measured values for the two strains; S1 and S2
were close up to tube compression yielding then they separated significantly owing to the
effect of the additional moment caused by column lateral deflection. The values for the two
transverse strains, S5 and S6 were tension up to failure.

As shown in figures 10 and 11 the longitudinal strain S1 showed compression values while
the strain S2 installed on the columns tensile side showed tension values owing to the
tension stresses caused by the primary bending moment due to load eccentricity. The
transverse strain S5 installed on compression side showed tension values indicating lateral
expansion while strain S6 showed compression values indicating contraction in the
transverse direction.

-584-
5.4 Influence of Concrete Section Confinement
It is of interest to study the effect of increased concrete compressive strength due to the
triaxial compressive stress state caused by confinement of the concrete core. In a CFT
column, compressive confining stresses on the concrete core are induced by passive
confinement provided by the steel tube. A circular steel tube has a high stiffness against
inner pressure perpendicular to the tube wall, and therefore effective circumferential steel
hoop tension can develop to provide lateral confining pressure to the concrete core. In order
to evaluate the beneficial increase in strength and ductility caused by the confinement effect
a comparison is carried between failure loads for specimens C1, C3 and C8, concerning
normal strength concrete and specimens C2, C3 and C5, concerning high strength concrete.
Tables 4a and 4b give the strength gain % between composite column specimens and the
sum of its individual components for both normal and high strength concrete.

Reinforced concrete
column C1 (KN)
Hollow Steel tube
C3 (KN)
Sum C1+C3
(KN)
Composite column
C8 (KN)
Strength Gain %
265 320 585 675 15

As shown from tables 4a and 4b that the percentage of strength gain in normal and high
strength specimens were 15 and 21.8 % which clarifies the fact that the ultimate capacity of
the composite columns still exceeded the sum of its individual components up to a
slenderness ratio KL/i of 55 owing to the confinement effect induced by the steel tube on the
concrete core. Comparing columns C1and C8 illustrates the fact that adopting concrete filled
tubes system increased the ultimate strength and ductility by about 154% and 65%
respectively rather than traditional normal strength reinforced concrete columns while the test
results for columns C2 and C5 show that utilizing the concrete filled system increased the
ultimate capacity and ductility by about 103% and 102% respectively rather than traditional
high strength reinforced concrete columns.
5.5 Effect of Concrete Strength / Steel Reinforcement/ Tube Thickness
The effect of changing the concrete strength appears obviously when comparing specimens
C4 and C7 tested in the first group. When comparing these two specimens we conclude that
utilization of high strength concrete in steel tubes increased strength by about 45 %. Also
comparing specimens C14 and C15 tested in the third group representing eccentric
specimens illustrates that utilization of high strength concrete increased the strength by
about 32 % only which confirms the fact that utilization of high strength concrete in columns
subjected to high flexure is of less benefit compared to concentrically loaded columns. Using
high strength concrete increases the column stiffness at low load levels rather than normal
strength concrete.
The effect of utilizing internal steel reinforcement in the core is illustrated when comparing
specimens C4 and C5 for high strength concrete and specimens C7 and C8 for normal
strength concrete. Comparing C5 with C4 emphasises that using long steel reinforcement
increased strength by about 8.3 % while comparing C8 and C7 shows an increase of about
8.8 %. Thus no big difference is observed between normal and high strength specimens.
Using internal steel reinforcement in the concrete core makes the specimens behave in a
stiffer manner particularly at low load levels.
The effect of changing the steel tube thickness appears by comparing specimens C4 and C6
in the first group and specimens C10, C11 in the second group and finally specimens C13
and C14 in the third group. Comparing C4 and C6 shows an increase in strength about 22 %,
specimens C10 and C11 shows an increase of about 33% finally specimens C13 and C14
Reinforced concrete
column C2 (KN)
Hollow Steel tube
C3 (KN)
Sum C2+C3
(KN)
Composite column
C5 (KN)
Strength Gain %
480 320 800 975 21.8
Table 4a: Strength gain % for normal strength concrete specimens
Table 4b: Strength gain % for High strength concrete specimens
-585-
show an increase about 42 %. The previous comparisons illustrates that changing the tube
stiffness greatly affected the column strength particularly in the second and third groups.

6. Comparison with Euro code (EC4)

6.1 Euro code (EC4) [4] provisions for composite columns

According to EC4 the plastic squash load, N
pl,Rd
, for a short steel-concrete composite column
under axial compression should be calculated by adding the plastic resistance of its
components

(1)

where A
a
, A
c
and A
s
are the cross-section areas of the structural steel, the concrete and the
reinforcement, respectively, f
y
, f
ck
and f
sk
are their characteristic strengths and
Ma
,
c
and
s
are their partial safety factors in ultimate limit state. The reduction of concrete strength by
0.85 due to long-term effects may be omitted for CFT columns, since the development of
concrete strength is better achieved due to protection against the environment and against
spalling of the concrete. Furthermore, for CFT columns with circular sections, account may
be taken of the increase in strength of concrete and the reduction in the axial resistance of
the steel caused by passive confinement. The plastic resistance may then be calculated as

(2)

where t is the steel tube thickness and D is the external diameter of the column. The effect of
confinement is considered when the relative slenderness ratio is less than 0.5. The
slenderness ratio is defined as

(3)

where N
pl,Rd
is the value calculated with the material partial safety factors taken as 1.0. N
cr
is
the elastic critical load of the column; see EC4. This is valid under the condition that the
eccentricity of the normal force calculated by first-order theory, at the same time, does not
exceed the value D/10. If one or both of these two limits are exceeded, = 0 and = 1
must be applied, i.e. no confinement effects.
The column has sufficient resistance to axial load if

(4)

where is the reduction factor which takes into account the influence of buckling in terms of
the relative slenderness ratio and relevant buckling curve; see EC4. Because concrete filled
hollow sections are more ductile than encased sections, the EC4 recommends the use of the
highest European buckling curve.

6.2 Concentrically loaded CFST columns

Table 5 shows a comparison held between the test results and the maximum load bearing
resistance calculated according to EC4 provisions. In order to compare the failure loads
obtained using tests with that calculated using EC4 all the resistance factors are assumed to
-586-
Fig. 12: Mechanism of calculation of section capacity using cracked section analysis
be unity. As shown in the table the EC4 values underestimated the axial strength of columns
obtained using tests for all CFST columns tested in group 1. The percentage of difference
between EC4 values and the tests ranged from 22 to 34%. The test results were higher in all
cases. This difference can be attributed to the beneficial effect of confinement which still
increased the column strength and ductility despite of the columns high slenderness ratio .
The strength gain percentage between composite section and its individual components was
previously discussed in tables 4a and 4b.

6.3 Eccentrically loaded CFST columns

In order to compare the test results for eccentric columns. The full axial load bending
moment interaction diagram for two CFST column sections has been predicted using
cracked section analysis, accounting for equilibrium, strain compatibility according to the
method adopted in [5]. The first section has a concrete strength of 30 MPa and tube
thickness of 3 mm while the second has a concrete strength 75 Mpa and same tube
thickness. Figure 12 shows the procedure adopted to calculate the interaction diagram of the
column sections using cracked section analysis. Also some points obtained from the
experimental results were plotted against the computed interaction diagrams for the two
sections. The points obtained from the experimental data represent the axial load-moment
resistance for the top section of the columns C7, C9 and C13 for normal strength concrete
and columns C4 and C10 for high strength concrete.

Figure 13 illustrates that the interaction diagrams obtained using cracked section analysis
underestimated the axial load and moment resistance of the sections when compared to the
experimental results. This increase in axial as well as flexural resistance illustrated by the
experimental data can be also attributed to the effect of confinement produced by the steel
tube on the core. Though in eccentric sections only part of section is compressed, still the
confinement effect increases the compressive resistance of the concrete core which
consequently increases the section strength.

Table 5: Comparison between test results and EC4 values
Specimen
Test load
(kN)
Slenderness
ratio
Euro code
(kN)
Test/ EC
C4 900 0.843 671 1.34
C5 975 0.839 754 1.29
C6 1100 0.754 885 1.24
C7 620 0.716 472 1.31
C8 675 0.726 555 1.22

-587-
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0 5 10 15 M (kNm)
P (kN)
Cracked section analysis'
Experimental data
0
200
400
600
800
1000
0 5 10 15 20
M (kNm)
P (kN) Cracked section analysis
Experimental data
Fig. 13: Interaction diagram computed with cracked section analysis
plotted against experimental data
f
cu
=30 MPa
f
cu
=75 MPa
P
P.e

8. Conclusions

From the previous study the following conclusions can be driven:
For all tested CFT columns the load bearing capacities were guided by the combined
effect of the columns lateral deflection and the compression yielding of the outer
steel tube. The additional moment due to high slenderness (up to KL/i = 55) played
an effective role in accelerating the column failure and affected in general the column
response.
For centrically loaded columns, the use of concrete filled tubes system increased the
capacity for normal strength concrete columns with slenderness ratio up to (KL/i = 55)
by about 154 % while the capacity increased by about 103 % for high strength
concrete columns with slenderness ratio up to (KL/i = 57) as compared to traditional
reinforced concrete columns.
For centrically loaded columns, usage of concrete filled tubes system increased the
ductility of the column by about 65% for normal strength concrete columns and about
102 % for high strength concrete columns as compared to traditional reinforced
concrete columns.
Despite of CFT-columns high slenderness ratio (KL/i=55), the ultimate capacity of the
concrete filled tube column exceeded the sum of capacities of its individual
components.
Adoption of high strength concrete in CFST system increases columns strength and
stiffness significantly as compared to normal strength concrete filled columns.
Addition of interior steel reinforcement to the concrete core increased the ultimate
strength by about 8.3% for high strength CFT columns and 8.8% for normal strength
CFT columns i.e. core reinforcement slightly enhanced column strength.
The application of an initial eccentricity to the load increased significantly the
columns lateral deflection and decreased the column failure load i.e. accelerated the
column failure.
The Euro code specifications underestimated significantly the maximum axial
capacity of CFST for long columns with slenderness ratio up to (KL/i=55).
The adopted interaction diagrams, based on the assumption cracked section
analysis and on unconfined concrete strength, underestimate the ultimate axial and
flexural strength of the section when compared to experimental data. Therefore, a
consideration of confined stress-strain relationship should be considered in the
design. The results of this section will be published in the near future.
Top section
-588-

9. References
1. Johansson, M. and Kent Gylltoft (2001), Structural behaviour of slender circular steel-
concrete composite columns under various means of load application, Steel and Composite
Structures, Vol. 1, No. 4 (2001) 393-410
2. Johansson, M. (2000), Structural behaviour of circular steel-concrete composite columns:
non-linear finite element analyses and experiments, Licentiate thesis, Chalmers University of
Technology, Div. of Concrete Struct., Gteborg, Sweden.
3. Nassif, A. (2009), Behaviour of High Strength Concrete Filled Steel Tubes for Long
Columns: Master thesis, Department of structural Engineering, Ain Shams University.
4. European Prestandard, Eurocode 4, Design of composite steel and concrete structures, Part 1-
1: General rules and rules for buildings, Ref. No. EN 1994-1-1:2004: E
5. Fam, A., Qie, S. and Rizkalla, S. H., Concrete-Filled Steel Tubes Subjected to Axial
Compression and Lateral Cyclic Loads, ASCE Journal of Composites for Construction,
6(2), 123-132.

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RCS-023-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





CODES COMPARISON FOR POST-TENSIONED SLABS
INTERIOR SUPPORT PUNCHING

A. H. KALIL
Structural Engineering Department, Ain Shams University,
1 Aly abdel Razik Street, Heliopolis, Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: adec_2005@yahoo.com
A. ABO HASHISH
Structural Engineering Department, Helwan University,
Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: amr_abouhashish@pencon-egypt.com
T. A. IBRAHEM
Development control, Zoning authority
Dubai, P.O. Box 450474, U.A.E.
E-mail: tamer_ibr@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
The treatments of punching at interior supports of post-tensioned slabs given in
Eurocode 2 and ECCS 203-2007 recommendations are presented. 40 tests are reported
from literatures and their results are compared with the predictions from the two codes.
Conclusions are drawn on the general adequacy of the design methods and on possible
improvements.
KEYWORDS
Flat slabs; post-tension slab; punching; internal column; vertical prestressing; pre-
compression effect

INTRODUCTION
Brittle punching failure of flat plates can occur due to the transfer of shearing forces and
unbalanced moments between slabs and columns. Design of connections of columns to
flat plates to insure safety against punching failure is presented. This paper presents
recommendations of estimating the punching resistance of post-tensioned slabs at
internal connections for Eurocode 2 [2] and ECCS 203-2007 [1].
There was early work in the 1950s and 1960s on slabs supported by lift-slab collars [3]
and on lightweight aggregate slabs. In it, the tendon distributions were uniform and the
specimens contained no bonded reinforcement. The tests reported by Gerber and Burns
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RCS-023-2
[4] in 1971 included four slabs supported by monolithic columns, two of which
contained some bonded top steel. The test arrangement used by them and subsequently
by Smith and Burns [5] however, applied loads on the column center lines at points
closer to the columns than the slab edges. Other tests in the 1970s and early 1980s [6-8]
were on multi-panel models with slab depths of only 70 mm and were intended
primarily to study overall behavior, with punching tests generally being made only after
overall flexural failures. In most of this work, bonded reinforcement was provided only
in very narrow bands.
The present paper reports the tests of previous researches and uses them together with
other results from the mid 1980s onward to make comparisons with two codes design
recommendations. The recommendations considered are those of Eurocode 2 (EC2) [2]
and ECCS 203-2007 [1]. Their equations are detailed in a subsequent section, but the
following paragraphs give brief descriptions of their main features.
In ECCS 203-2007, the calculations are made for a perimeter of d/2 from a column,
where d is the effective depth of the tendons, but not less than 0.8 times the slab
thickness. The punching resistance from the concrete is calculated by an approximation
to a principal tensile stress criterion of failure, with a reduction factor applied for large
columns. A contribution to punching resistance from the vertical components of tendon
forces can be taken into account, and is calculated as the sum of the vertical components
where tendons cross the control perimeter. Neither the slab depth nor the ratio of
bonded reinforcement has any influence on the limiting shear stress for the concrete.
EC2 has its control perimeter 2d from a column, where d is the effective depth of the
bonded reinforcement. The basic shear resistance at this perimeter is calculated as for a
reinforced concrete slab and depends on the ratio of bonded reinforcement and on a
depth, or size, factor. The effect of the in-plane component of prestress is accounted for
by adding a term linearly dependent on f
pc
to the basic shear stress. The resistance from
the vertical components of tendon forces is calculated at the perimeter d/2 from the
column.
Ricardo [9] made a similar exercise; he performed and reported 16 tests together with
those from 24 tests in the literature, results was compared with the predictions from ACI
318-0 [10], Eurocode 2 [2] and the FIP recommendations [11]. But in Ricardos
calculations for EC2 [2], the resistance from the vertical components of tendon forces is
calculated at the perimeter 2d from the column. This is not matching with the
recommendation of the EC2 and Technical Report 43 2nd Edition [12], TR43 2nd
stating that if a load balancing approach has been used, the total shear applied to the
column can be reduced by the load applied by the tendons within 0.5h of the column.
This value should remain constant for outer perimeters.

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RCS-023-3
ACI and ECCS
EC2
Control perimeter Perimeter to calculate Vp
ACI and ECCS
EC2
+ =
pv
q )
pcc
0.1f
c
cu
f
p
( V d
o
b
ECCS

Fig. 1 Perimeters used in calculations.

CODES METHODS ESTIMATING PUNCHING STRENGTH
ECCS 203-2007

(01)

Where
p
= 0.275 0.80 (d/b
o
+0.15);
b
o
equals the length of the control perimeter d/2 from support;
d equals the distance from extreme tension fiber to centroid of tension
reinforcement 0.8h;
equals 4 for internal columns;
f
pcc
equals the mean effective prestress of concrete; and
q
pv
equals the shear stress resulting from the effects of the vertical components
of forces in tendons, where they cross the control perimeter b
o
.
ECCS 203-2007 limits concrete stresses as follows
f
cu
40 MPa, 0.9 f
pc
3.5 MPa

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RCS-023-4
p
V d u
pc
f d u
c
f K
EC
V + + =
1
1 . 0
1
'
1
100
3
18 . 0
d k / 200 1+ =
y x 1 1

EC2

(02)

where ;
d equals the mean effective depth of bonded tension reinforcement = 0.5(d
x
+
d
y
), where d
x
and d
y
are the effective depths of the bonded tension reinforcement in the
x and y directions;
l
equals the ratio of bonded tension reinforcement = , with the ratios
lx
and
ly
calculated for widths equal to those of the support +3d to each side;
u
1
equals the length of control perimeter 2d from the support; u1 = 4(c + d) for
a square support or (c + 4d) for a circular one; and
V
p
equals the sum of the vertical components of forces in tendons where they
cross a perimeter of d/2 from the support face. The following limits are given in EC2
MPa
c
f d 90
'
, 02 . 0
1
, 0 . 2 / 200 1 +

The previous equations have been presented in a form facilitating comparisons between
the three approaches, each of which represents the total resistance as the sum of three
components. The first V
c
is independent of the prestress. The second V
cp
depends on the
horizontal stresses due to prestress, and the third V
p
is the sum of the vertical
components of prestress forces, assumed to be transferred directly to the support by
inclined compression without producing shear in the concrete.
In EC2 recommendations, V
c
is the resistance of an ordinary reinforced concrete slab
with a ratio of reinforcement equal to that of the bonded reinforcement in the post-
tensioned slab. In ECCS 203-2007, V
c
is around 12.5% less than the resistance for a
reinforced concrete slab, and is independent of both the ratio of bonded reinforcement
and the depth effect represented by the k in Eq. (02).

PREVIOUS TESTS RESULTS
SILVA [13]
Sixteen slabs were tested. They were all 2.0 m square and approximately 125 mm thick
(measured thicknesses are given in Table 1). They were prestressed by 12.7 mm
diameter strands, greased, and placed in plastic sleeves, and contained uniformly
spaced deformed bars in the top and bottom and U-bars at the edges. The principal
variables were the numbers of strands in each direction and hence the mean prestress,
the plan arrangements of the strands (refer to Fig. 3), and the side lengths of the square
support plates (100, 200, or 300 mm). The concrete cylinder strength varied from 37.8
to 44.1 MPa. The slabs were supported on thick steel plates on top of a load cell and a
hydraulic cylinder that provided the upward central load. Reactions were provided at
eight points. Figure 4 shows these arrangements and a typical strand profile. The slabs
were positioned on the jacks and prestressed shortly before testing, with the edge
reactions not in contact. The prestressing forces of all the strands were measured by
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RCS-023-5
load cells, and the values used to calculate fpc were those immediately before the start
of vertical loading. The strand forces were monitored throughout the testing. Following
prestressing, the reactions were brought into contact with the slab and loading was
applied monotonically until failure, which was by punching in all cases.

Fig. 2 Column sizes and tendon locations in tests by Silva.
Corra [14]
Corra tests were of 2.0 m square slabs with h = 130 mm. In two slabs, the tendons were
horizontal and at a mean effective depth equal to h/2. In three other slabs, they were
curved as in the present tests. The tendons were banded in both directions, with the band
width increasing with the number of strands. There was also one ordinary reinforced
concrete slab.

Kordina and Nlting [15]
The slabs by Kordina and Nlting had overall dimensions 2.4 m x 2.4 m x 150 mm.
There were six banded tendons in each direction and four further tendons in the outer
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RCS-023-6
parts of the slab widths. One slab was prestressed by horizontal tendons at mid-height.
In the others, the strand profiles were quadratic parabolas providing very nearly uniform
inclination in the lengths of interest for Vp. One slab was of ordinary reinforced
concrete.

Fig. 3 Tests by Silva loading arrangements and typical slabs sections.
Hassanzadeh[16]
Hassanzadehs slabs had overall dimensions of 2.6 m x 2.6 m x 180 or 220 mm. The
tendons were grouped toward the center lines in arrangements that varied so that
different numbers of strands were within the widths considered in V
p
. The profiles were
similar to those in the present slabs except in one slab that had horizontal tendons at
mid-height.
Shehata [17]
The slabs by Shehata had overall dimensions of 2.35 m x 2.35 m x 175 mm. Slab SP1
had nine tendons, Slabs SP4 and SP5 had 11 tendons, and Slab SP6 had eight tendons.
The tendons were almost uniformly distributed.
Melges[18]
The two slabs from Melges were 2.5 m x 2.5 m x 160 mm. One was an ordinary
reinforced concrete slab and the other was prestressed by eight tendons in each
direction. Table 1 lists the principal data for all the slabs
The results of the tests should be directly applicable to real situations except in two
respects. The short distances between tendon anchorages caused the force increments in
the tendons to be greater than those in normal structures. This effect can be taken care
of by using the actual (measured) tendon forces at the maximum loads in the calculation
of V
p
, for comparisons between experimental and predicted punching strengths, but
retaining the effective prestress as the basis for design calculations. The effects of
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RCS-023-7
tendon force increments on the other components of resistance are small and it makes
little difference that forces are used in determining theoretical strengths. The other
difference between the test specimens and typical interior regions of slabs is that, in a
normal floor, the in-plane compression is practically uniform across the widths of
interior column lines, but in the test slabs, the distances from the anchorages to the
column lines are too short for this to be true if the tendons are concentrated. This would
have very little effect on results for ECCS 203-2007 and EC2 calculations.
Table 1. Data for test slabs
d, mm
Slab Support size, mm f c, MPa fpc, MPa
ECCS EC
l, % Vu, KN
Silva
A1 100 square 37.8 3.31 102 109 0.62 380
A2 100 square 37.8 2.14 108 113 0.47 315
A3 100 square 37.8 3.16 102 109 0.62 352.7
A4 100 square 37.8 1.98 103 104 0.51 321
B1 200 square 40.1 3.39 108 114 0.6 582.5
B2 200 square 40.1 2.23 105 110 0.48 488
B3 200 square 40.1 3.12 102 108 0.63 519.8
B4 200 square 40.1 2.16 100 106 0.5 458.8
C1 300 square 41.6 3.33 105 111 0.61 720
C2 300 square 41.6 2.26 100 105 0.5 556.7
C3 300 square 41.6 3.48 100 106 0.64 636.6
C4 300 square 41.6 2.31 98 102 0.52 497.1
D1 200 square 44.1 3.34 99 100 0.68 497.1
D2 200 square 44.1 2.23 101 106 0.5 385.2
D3 200 square 44.1 2.27 100 103 0.51 395.2
D4 300 square 44.1 2.22 106 111 0.48 531.5
Corra
LP1 150 square 50.7 0 105 105 1.17 327
LP2 150 square 52.4 2.19 104 105 1.17 355
LP3 150 square 52.4 4.28 104 105 1.17 415
LP4 150 square 50.7 0.8 104 105 1.17 390
LP5 150 square 50.7 1.33 104 105 1.17 475
LP6 150 square 52.4 1.76 104 105 1.17 437

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RCS-023-8
Kordina and Nlting
V1 200 33.6 1.7 124 128 0.62 450
V2 200 36 1.66 123 126 0.9 525
V3 200 36 3.09 122 128 0.62 570
V5 200 36.8 0 126 126 0.9 349.5
V6 200 30.4 1.77 120 128 0.62 375
V7 200 31.2 1.77 124 128 0.62 475
V8 200 35.2 1.77 124 128 0.62 518
Hassanzadeh
A1 250 31 2.79 150 150 0.18 668
A2 250 28.7 2.74 146 150 0.18 564
B2 250 43.8 2.12 176 190 0.29 827
B3 250 41.1 2.21 190 190 0.29 1113
B4 250 43.2 1.99 190 190 0.29 952
Shehata
SP1 150 square 36.5 3.94 140 157 0.27 988
SP4 150 square 41.7 4.81 140 157 0.27 884
SP5 150 square 40.9 3.28 140 157 0.27 780
SP6 150 square 42.5 3.5 140 157 0.27 728
Melges
M1B 180 square 26.6 0 127 127 1.58 442
M4 180 square 51.9 1.95 128 134 0.92 773

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RCS-023-9

Fig. 4 Loading and support arrangements.
Table 2. Results from analysis of tests
EC2 ECCS
Vc, kN
Vcp,
kN
Vp,
kN
Vu/VEC2 Vc, kN
Vcp,
kN
Vp,
kN
Vu/V
ECCS
Silva
A1 234.3 63.83 9 1.24 143.34 27.28 9 2.12
A2 224.6 43.99 10 1.13 156.28 19.23 10 1.70
A3 234.3 60.93 0 1.19 143.34 26.04 0 2.08
A4 204.2 35.13 0 1.34 145.46 16.56 0 1.98
B1 306.6 86.25 32.4 1.37 231.42 45.11 32.4 1.89
B2 271.9 53.51 29.9 1.37 222.80 28.57 29.9 1.74
B3 290.2 72.66 12.6 1.38 214.30 38.44 12.6 1.96
B4 261.9 48.80 2.5 1.46 208.71 25.92 2.5 1.93
C1 357.1 95.89 40.5 1.46 295.85 56.64 40.5 1.83
C2 312.2 59.77 35.4 1.37 278.28 36.16 35.4 1.59
C3 342.4 93.38 17.7 1.40 278.28 55.68 17.7 1.81
C4 304.2 58.46 15.4 1.31 271.35 36.04 15.4 1.54
D1 277.5 68.67 10 1.40 205.93 39.55 10 1.95
D2 270.4 50.38 12.1 1.16 211.50 27.12 12.1 1.54
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RCS-023-10
D3 262.7 48.95 0 1.27 208.71 27.24 0 1.67
D4 334.9 63.93 39.9 1.21 299.40 38.22 39.9 1.41
Corra
LP1 336.8 0.00 0 0.97 214.05 0.00 0 1.53
LP2 340.5 44.12 0 0.92 183.78 23.14 0 1.72
LP3 340.5 86.23 0 0.97 183.78 36.98 0 1.88
LP4 336.8 16.12 7.6 1.08 183.78 8.45 7.6 1.95
LP5 336.8 26.80 13 1.26 183.78 14.05 13 2.25
LP6 340.5 35.46 11 1.13 183.78 18.60 11 2.05
Kordina and Nlting
V1 319.1 48.65 65.7 1.04 222.12 21.71 65.7 1.45
V2 361.4 46.24 60.6 1.12 218.99 20.90 60.6 1.75
V3 326.5 88.43 115.6 1.07 218.54 38.83 115.6 1.53
V5 364 0.00 0 0.96 257.77 0.00 0 1.36
V6 308.6 50.65 0 1.04 205.28 21.88 0 1.65
V7 311.3 50.65 67.5 1.11 214.89 22.60 67.5 1.56
V8 324 50.65 70.3 1.16 222.12 22.60 70.3 1.64
Hassanzadeh
A1 276.3 111.70 41.6 1.55 316.00 52.56 41.6 1.63
A2 269.2 109.70 0 1.49 295.94 50.25 0 1.63
B2 510.7 127.74 0 1.30 422.92 51.55 0 1.74
B3 500 133.17 53.5 1.62 456.56 58.01 53.5 1.96
B4 508.4 119.91 0 1.52 456.56 52.24 0 1.87
Shehata
SP1 331.8 159.09 18.5 1.94 282.45 56.84 18.5 2.76
SP4 346.9 194.22 21 1.57 282.45 56.84 21 2.45
SP5 344.7 132.44 0 1.63 282.45 53.27 0 2.32
SP6 349.1 141.33 0 1.48 282.45 56.84 0 2.15
Melges
M1B 415.1 0.00 0 1.06 278.43 0.00 0 1.59
M4 467.3 62.79 26.8 1.39 274.27 30.75 26.8 2.33

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RCS-023-11

Table 3. Means and coefficients of variation of Vu/Vcalc
ECCS EC2

Mean COV, % Mean
COV,
%
33 prestressed slabs with profiled tendons 1.88 16.63 1.34 14.95
Four prestressed slabs with horizontal tendons 1.75 5.52 1.06 0.16
Three ordinary RC slabs 1.49 0.08 1.00 0.06
40 slabs (total) 1.84 16.62 1.29 0.17

ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS
The results of the analyses for individual tests are listed in Table 2, which gives the
components of resistance V
c
, V
cp
, and V
p
and the ratio V
u
/V
calc
according to each of the
two codes. Values of V
p
have been calculated from the tendon forces at failure, which
were measured in most cases, but have been estimated for the slabs by Corra [14]. No
allowances have been made for the increases of tendon inclination caused by the slabs
deflections. The values of f
pc
at the starts of tests, as listed in Table 1, have been used in
the determinations of V
cp
. For the few ordinary reinforced concrete slabs, ECCS
resistances have been calculated using ECCS 203-2007s expression for slabs without
prestress. In calculations of ECCS 203-2007and EC2, no account has been taken of any
variation of prestress across slab widths.
The various restrictions on values of input parameters, given in the texts following Eq.
(1) and (2), have generally been disregarded in Table 2. Ricardo [9] stated that for EC2,
there is an effect from ignoring the limit, k 2.0, on the size effect factor. For ECCS
203-2007, the restrictions on f
c
and f
cp
can have an influence. The restrictions have
been taken into consideration in the values given for V
c
, V
pc
, V
p
, and V
u
/V
ECCS
.
The differences between the overall results for the two codes are not great in terms of
their coefficients of variation of V
u
/V
calc
. But it is great for slabs with horizontal
tendons. In terms of the mean values of Vu/Vcalc, ECCS 203-2007 is using too
approach conservative compared to EC2.
The two methods give lower V
u
/V
calc
ratios for post-tensioned slabs when the tendons
are horizontal and at mid-height.
Figure 4 shows V
u
/V
calc
plotted against u
o
/d, where u
o
is the perimeter of the support.
The data plotted are those for post-tensioned slabs with profiled tendons. There is a
clear trend for V
u
/V
ECCS
to decrease with increasing u
o
/d. No such trend is apparent for
EC2, and it appears that the use of a control perimeter further from the support than
0.5d is an advantage.

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RCS-023-12

Fig. 4 Vu/VEC2 plotted versus uo/d

Fig. 5 Vu/VECCS plotted versus uo/d.
Conclusion
There is little difference in the coefficients of variation of V
u
/V
calc
. The ratios of
experimental to calculated strengths for ECCS 203-2007 decrease systematically as the
ratio of the size of the support to the slab depth increases. This trend could be removed
if the distance of the control perimeter from the support were increased. ECCS 203-
2007 could also be less conservative in considering the pre-compression effect on the
allowable punching shear stress. ECCS 203-2007 increases the punching shear stress by
10% of the pre-compression stress however it can be more realistic if this increase
become 50% of the pre-compression stress.
EC2 method is the most accurate method for calculating punching shear capacity of post
tension flat slab. However EC2 gives low ratios of V
u
/V
calc
in the three cases of ordinary
reinforced concrete slabs.

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RCS-023-13
NOTATIONS
A
s
area of bonded reinforcement in one direction
A
sp
total area of prestressed reinforcement in one direction
b
o
length of control perimeter d/2 from support (ECCS 203-2007)
c width of column (side length or diameter)
d mean effective depth of slab (note difference between ECCS and EC2 values)
d
p
mean effective depth of tendons at slab center lines
d
s
mean effective depth of bonded reinforcement
f
c
cylinder crushing strength of concrete
F
cu
mean cube compressive strength of concrete
f
pc
mean prestress of concrete at start of loading
f
yp
0.2% proof stress of prestressed reinforcement
f
ys
yield stress of bonded reinforcement
h overall depth of slab
u length of control perimeter 2d from support (EC2)
u
o
length of perimeter of support (4c for square support of c for circular one)
V shear (punching) force
V
c
part of V
calc
independent of prestress
V
calc
calculated unfactored punching resistance (V
ECCS
and V
EC
are values of V
calc

according to ECCS 203-2007 and EC2)
V
cp
part of V
calc
dependent on horizontal stresses in concrete due to prestress
V
p
part of V
calc
dependent on vertical components of tended forces near supports
V experimental punching strength
1
ratio of bonded flexural reinforcement
REFERENCES
[1] Permanent Committee for the Code of Practice for Design and Construction of
Reinforced Concrete Structures, Egyptian Code of Practice for Design and
Construction of Concrete Structures (ECCS 203-2007), Housing and Building
Research Center, Giza, 2007
[2] BS EN 1992-1-1-:2004, Design of Concrete StructuresPart 1-1: General Rules
and Rules for Buildings, Eurocode 2, British Standards Institution, London, 2004.
[3] Scordelis, A. C.; Lin, T. Y.; and Mayo, H. R., Shearing Strength of Prestressed Lift
Slabs, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 55, No. 10, Oct. 1958, pp. 485-506.
[4] Gerber, L. L., and Burns, N. H., Ultimate Strength Tests of Post-Tensioned Flat
lates, PCI Journal, V. 16, No. 6, Nov.-Dec. 1971, pp. 40-58.
[5] Smith, S. W., and Burns, N. H., Post-Tensioned Flat Plate to Column Connection
Behaviour, PCI Journal, V. 19, No. 3, May 1974, pp. 74-91.
[6] Burns, N. H., and Hemakon, R., Test of Post-Tensioned Flat Plate with Banded
Tendons, Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, V. 111, No. 9, Sept. 1985, pp.
1899-1915.
[7] Burns, N. H., and Hemakon, R., Test of Scale Model Post-Tensioned Flat Plate,
Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, V. 103, No. ST6, June 1977, pp. 1237-
1255.
[8] Kosut, G. M.; Burns, N. H.; and Winter, C. V., Test of Four-Panel Post-Tensioned
Flat Plate, Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, V. 111, No. 9, Sept. 1985,
pp. 1916-1929.
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RCS-023-14
[9] Ricardo J. C. Silva, Paul E. Regan, and Guilherme S. S. A. Melo, Punching of
Post-Tensioned SlabsTests and Codes, ACI Structural Journal, V. 104, No. 2,
March-April 2007.
[10] ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI
318-02) and Commentary (318R-02), American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, Mich., 2002, 443 pp.
[11] SETO, Design of Post-Tensioned Slabs and Foundations, FIP
Recommendations, London, 1999, 44 pp.
[12] Technical Report 43 2nd Edition Post-tensioned concrete floors Design
Handbook, The Concrete Society, Camberley, 2005, 110 pp.
[13] Silva, R. J. C., Puno em Lajes Cogumelo Protendida, PhD thesis, Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Braslia, Braslia, Brasil,
2004, 223 pp.
[14] Corra, G. S., Puncionamento em Lajes Cogumelo Protendidas com Cabos No
Aderentes, MSc dissertation, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, University of Braslia, Braslia, Brazil, 2001, 153 pp.
[15] Kordina, K., and Nlting, D., Tragfhigkeit durchstanzgefhrdeter
stahlbetonplatten, Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton, Berlin, Germany, 1986, 60
pp.
[16] Hassanzadeh, G., Betongplattor pa Pelare, Dimensionerings Metoder fr Plattor
Med Icke Vidhftande Spnnarmering, TRITA-BKN Bulletin 43, Institutionen fr
Byggkonstruktion, Kungl-Tekniska Hgskolan, Stockholm, Sweden, 1998, pp.
110-130.
[17] Shehata, I. A., Punching of Prestressed and Non-Prestressed Reinforced Concrete
Flat Slabs, MPhil thesis, Polytechnic of Central London, London, 1982, 336 pp.
[18] Melges, J. L. P., Anlise Experimental da Puno em Lajes de Concreto Armado e
Protendido, PhDEng thesis, Escola de Engenharia de So Carlos, Universidade de
So Paulo, So Carlos, Brasil, 2000, 350 pp.

-603-

STEEL STRUCTURES

STL- 001 FATI GUE BEHAVI OR OF I NCLI NED C- SHAPE SECTI ONS
Ehab Hasan Aly and Ghada Nabeel Saudi
STL- 002 BEHAVI OR OF COLD- FORMED Z- SECTI ON BEAMS
Abdelrahim Khalil Dessouki, Ahmed Abdelsalam El- Serwi, and Sher if Ahmed EL- Beshlawy
STL- 003 REHABI LI TATI ON AND RETROFI T OF A DETERI ORATED GUYED TOWER FLARE STACK
Ghada M. El- Mahdy and Brent M. Rheaume
STL- 004 I MPERFECTI ONS I N BATTENED COLUMNS COMPOSED OF FOUR EQUAL COLD FORMED
ANGLES
Maged Tawfick Hanna
STL- 005 NUMERI CAL MODELLI NG FOR STI FFENED AND UNSTI FFENED STAI NLESS STEEL
HOLLOW TUBULAR COLUMNS
Mohamed Ahmed Dabaon, Saher Raafat El- Khoriby, Mahmoud Hassan El- Boghdadi, and Most afa Fahmi
Hassanein
STL- 006 STRENGTHENI NG OF MULTI STORY AND DOUBLE BAY STEEL FRAMES USI NG POST
TENSI ONED CABLES
Nabil said mahmoud, ahmed el said ahmed badr, fikry abdo salem, and mohamed mohamed adel ghannam
STL- 007 POST- LOCAL AND DI STORTI ONAL BUCKLI NG CAPACI TI ES OF SI MPLE LI PPED
CHANNEL CFS SUBJECTED TO AXI AL COMPRESSI VE FORCE.
Maged Tawfick Hanna
STL- 008 NEW DESI GN APPROACH FOR LATERAL BRACI NG REQUI REMENTS OF COMPRESSI ON
FLANGE I N I - SHAPED BEAMS
Abdelrahim Khalil Dessouki, Sherif Abdel- Basset I brahim, and Hany Esam Shabana
STL- 009 BUCKLI NG AND POST- BUCKLI NG OF UNSTI FFENED PLATES UNDER STRESS GRADI ENT
Ebrahim Abdalla Ebrahim
STL- 010 EFFECT OF WI DTH- TO- THI CKNESS RATI O OF TENSI ON FLANGE ON THE BEHAVI OUR
OF STEEL PLATE GI RDERS
Mohammed A. Dabaon, Sherief S. S. Sakla, and Ali E. Elref aie
STL- 011 SOME I NVESTI GATI ONS ON THE VI BRATI ONS OF OVERHEAD TRANSMI SSI ON LI NES
Said Yousif Aboul Haggag
STL- 012 BEHAVI OR OF WELDED SI NGLE ANGLES SUBJECTED TO COMPRESSI VE FORCES
Ahmed Hassan Yousef
STL- 013 ULTI MATE STRENGTH OF UNI PLANAR CI RCULAR HOLLOW SECTI ON JOI NTS
SUBJECTED TO AXI AL AND I NPLANE BENDI NG MOMENT
EMAM Ahmed SOLI MAN, Ahmed Hassan yousef , and MOHAMMED saeed Ahmed
STL- 014 CRACK TI P PALSTI CI TY OF SHORT FATI GUE CRACK EMANATI NG FROM RI VETED/
BOLTED STEEL CONNECTI ON
hossam el den Salam, Ehab boghdadi Mat ar, Alaa Abd el- kader el sisi, and Ossama El- Hussieny abdel salam
STL- 015 TOPOLOGY AND SI ZI NG OPTI MI ZATI ON OF BRACED STEEL STRUCTURES BY GENETI C
ALGORI THM
Payam Asht ari and Farshid Barzegar
STL- 016 SOFTWARE FOR DESI GN AND DRAWI NG OF PI TCHED- ROOF PORTAL STEEL FRAMES
El- Sayed El- Sayed Abd- Elaal, Fikry Abdo Salem, Essam- Eldin Soliman Aguib, and Nabil Sayed Mahmoud
STL- 017 THE RESPONSE MODI FI CATI ON FACTOR I N SEI SMI C DESI GN CODES FOR STEEL MRF
Maha Moddat her HASSAN, Mohammed Hassanien SERROR, and Sher if Ahmed MOURAD
STL- 018 COLD- FORMED C- CHANNEL COLUMNS WI TH VARI OUS CONFI GURATI ONS OF WEB AND
I NCLI NED LI P STI FFENERS
Sherif Kamal Hassan
STL- 019
PRYI NG FORCE ASSESSMENT USI NG NONLI NEAR FI NI TE ELEMENT MODEL
Hesham Sobhy Sayed and Mohammed Hassanien Serror
STL- 020 STUDY OF STEEL BOX GI RDERS WI TH CORRUGATED WEBS UNDER PURE TORSI ONAL
MOMENT
Sherif Abdel- Basset I brahim


STL-001-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





FATIGUE BEHAVIOR OF INCLINED C-SHAPE SECTIONS

DR. EHAB HASAN AHMED HASAN ALI
Structures & Steel Constructions Department, (HBRC)
El Tahrir St., Dokki, Giza, , P.O. Box 1170, Egypt
E-mail: ehabbaly@yahoo.com
DR. GHADA NABEEL SAUDI
El Tahrir St., Dokki, Giza, , P.O. Box 1170, Egypt
E-mail: ghadasaudi@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Fatigue behavior in bending is an aspect not extensively studied for cold formed
sections using numerical methods. The thin-walled cold formed sections are widely
used as supporting elements for covering roofs. Some new shapes of light cold formed
sections were suggested to increase their static bending load resistance. The webs made
to have vertical inclination angle for the portal frame rafter. A comparison between
behaviors of different lipped C-shaped sections was studied to asses the effect of web
inclination on their fatigue capacity in bending. The sections have different thicknesses
of 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 5 mm. The flange inclination angle is changed as 0.0, 3.0, 6.0,
9.0, and 11.0 with the horizontal direction. Stress based-fatigue life analysis was
performed on finite element models of the suggested sections. The numerical method
was used to predict the estimated fatigue life cycles corresponding to different loading
conditions.
KEYWORDS
Fatigue, Thin-walled cold formed section, Inclined C-shape section, Finite element
model, Stress life analysis.
1 INTRODUCTION
Cold-formed steel members have been widely used in building construction in recent
years. The advantages of lighter weight and higher strength than other construction
materials made them popular in the construction of industrial, commercial, and
agricultural applications. The thicknesses of such members usually range from 0.0149
in. (0.378mm) to about 1/4 in. (6.35mm). Lipped C-shaped sections are classified as
structural framing type members [1]. They are usually used as supporting purlins to roof
structures in metal building systems. Based on previous study [2], the elastic stability
-604-

STL-001-2
behavior of cold formed steel Z purlins was compared between the traditional sections
and those with proposed inclined webs. The new suggested shapes count on keeping the
web of sections in vertical direction, while the flanges are to be tangential to the sloping
roofs and cladding. The sections having their webs set vertical with respect to the rafter
inclination showed significant stress reduction compared to traditional ones for different
thicknesses under the same loading condition. That concluded to be effective in
improving the structural performance for the resulting saving in purlins weight.
The work in this paper investigated the fatigue behavior of thin walled lipped C-
sections in cyclic bending load conditions using numerical simulation. The influence of
changing the web inclination and the thickness through analysis of 20 different thin-
walled C-shaped sections on their fatigue resistance was studied. Stress-life fatigue
analysis was applied to predict the fatigue life cycles using fully reversed cyclic load.
Comparison of results for the fatigue life cycles under different loading forces for the
sections was presented. The analysis revealed information about the regions susceptible
to failure in case the number of life cycles exceeds the identified limit. These regions
showed to occur at the zones of maximum alternating stress concentration for each
cyclic loading session. The simulated numerical model showed to offer an efficient
method towards investigating the fatigue behavior of thin cold formed sections under
different loading conditions.
2 FINITE ELEMENT MODEL
The geometry of the model consisted of a beam with total length of 6m and height of
200 mm. The beam was hinge supported at both ends by restraining the displacement in
the X, Y, and Z translational directions at the bottom flange edges. The beam is
restrained in the transversal direction (X-direction) at the mid points for top and bottom
flange against lateral displacement. In ANSYS workbench, the finite element (FE)
model was formed using SHELL181. This element is suitable for analyzing thin to
moderately-thick shell structures. It is a 4-node element with six degrees of freedom at
each node: translations in the x, y, and z directions, and rotations about the x, y, and z-
axes [6]. Meshing the beam produced 646 elements and 1132 nodes as shown in Figure
1. The FE models were constructed for sections having thicknesses of 1.5 mm, 2.0 mm,
2.5 mm, and 5.0 mm. For these thicknesses, the flange inclination angle was taken as
0.0, 3.0, 6.0, 9.0, and 11.0 with the horizontal direction as shown in Figure 2. That
produced 20 different FE models with their properties shown in Table 1. The material
properties were taken as shown in Table 2.

Fig. 1: Finite element model of the beam
-605-

STL-001-3

Fig. 2: Shapes of traditional and suggested Lipped C sections

-606-

STL-001-4
Table (1) Geometric Properties of sections

Shape
T
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

(
c
m
)

Inclined
angle
(degree)
I
1
(cm
4
)
I
2

(cm
4
)
I
x
(cm
4
)
I
y
(cm
4
)
3 328.8 28.2 328.0 29.0
6 328.8 28.2 325.5 31.5
9 328.8 28.2 321.5 35.6
0.15
11 328.8 28.2 317.9 39.1
3 405.1 37.6 404.1 38.6
6 405.1 37.6 401.1 41.6
9 405.1 37.6 396.1 46.6
0.2
11 405.1 37.6 391.7 51.0
3 481.3 47.1 480.1 48.3
6 481.3 47.1 476.6 51.8
9 481.3 47.1 470.7 57.7
0.25
11 481.3 47.1 465.5 62.9
3 862.7 94.6 860.6 96.7
6 862.7 94.6 854.3 103.0
9 862.7 94.6 843.9 113.4
(
T
r
a
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l

)

0.5
11 862.7 94.6 834.7 122.5
3 328.9 28.2 328.8 28.2
6 328.9 28.1 328.8 28.2
9 329.0 28.1 328.8 28.2
0.15
11 329.0 28.0 328.8 28.2
3 405.1 37.6 405.1 37.6
6 405.2 37.5 405.1 37.6
9 405.2 37.5 405.1 37.6
0.2
11 405.3 37.4 405.1 37.6
3 481.4 47.0 481.3 47.1
6 481.4 47.0 481.3 47.1
9 481.5 46.9 481.3 47.1
0.25
11 481.5 46.9 481.3 47.1
3 862.7 94.5 862.7 94.6
6 862.8 94.5 862.7 94.6
9 862.8 94.4 862.7 94.6
N
e
w

(
s
u
g
g
e
s
t
e
d
)

0.5
11 862.9 94.4 862.7 94.6
-607-

STL-001-5
Table (2) Material properties

Structural Properties
Young's Modulus 2.e+011 Pa
Poisson's Ratio 0.3
Density 7850. kg/m
Thermal Expansion 1.2e-005 1/C
Tensile Yield Strength 2.5e+008 Pa
Compressive Yield Strength 2.5e+008 Pa
Tensile Ultimate Strength 4.6e+008 Pa
Compressive Ultimate Strength 4.6e+008 Pa
3 FATIGUE LOAD
In ANSYS fatigue simulation module, the beam was subjected to alternating loads until
reaching maximum life cycles before failure. Fatigue load was applied using fully
reversed loading. Fully reversed indicates that loading is alternating about a zero mean
stress [4] with constant amplitude as shown in Figure 3a. The constant amplitude fully
reversed load was applied in the vertical direction at the mid point of the beam as shown
in Figure 3b. Load Values ranged from 2500N to 40000N according to the maximum
strength reached for the studied sections.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 3: (a) Constant amplitude fully reversed load (b) Load applied to the model

-608-

STL-001-6
4 FATIGUE ANALYSIS
The fatigue analysis type was performed using the stress life method. It is known as
high-cycle fatigue, where stresses and strains are confined to the elastic region. The
method is widely used for high-cycle fatigue applications, the applied stress is within
the elastic range of the material and the number of cycles to failure is large greater than
10
3
cycles [4]. In ANSYS, the solver type was used as a direct solver as it works better
with thin flexible models. Fatigue strength factor was taken equal to 1.0. This factor
accounts for things such as surface finish. For bending load, its value is empirically
introduced as 1 [6]. In ANSYS 11, the default maximum life cycles is set to 1+E6 for
high-cycle fatigue applications.
4.1 Results of the Analysis
Fatigue analysis produced typical deformed shapes of the beam as shown in Figure 4.
The fatigue resistance represented by the maximum life cycles before reaching the
failure limit was determined for the sections at different thicknesses and different
inclinations of the section web. The maximum bending load differs according to the
thickness and the inclination of the section. For sections of 1.5 mm thick, the load range
of 2500 N 7500 N was applied to the beams. The sections with web inclination of 9.0
and 11.0 with the vertical direction failed in the simulated fatigue bending test at the
lower load of 2500 N as shown in Figure 5. For sections having thicknesses of both 2.0
and 2.5 mm the applied load range was 2500 N -10000 N. Higher load range of 2500 N
- 40000 N was applied to the sections with thickness of 5.0 mm. For these sections, the
beam with vertical web section endured a fatigue cyclic load up to 40000 N
corresponding to maximum life cycles of 1400 cycles. For load ranges of 3500 N and
lower, a limit was obtained, where the beam was capable to sustain an infinite number
of cycles without failures as shown in Figure 8. That is indicated by reaching the
maximum number of cycles of 1.00+E6, as identified in ANSYS. The section with
inclinations of 3.0 and 6.0 with the vertical direction produced infinite number of
cycles at load ranges of 2500 N and lower.

Fig. 4: Typical deformed shape of the beam resulting from fatigue analysis
Figures (5, 6, 7, and 8) show the number of life cycles plotted against the fatigue cyclic
load for the different sections. It was shown that sections having the higher thicknesses
sustained higher fatigue resistance. Both thicknesses of 2.0 mm and 2.5 mm produced
close results for the fatigue life cycles as shown in Figure 9. However, the sections with
inclination of 11.0 and thickness of 2.0 mm failed at 2500 N. The newly suggested
-609-

STL-001-7
sections with the vertical web for all thicknesses produced the highest life cycles,
indicating improved fatigue resistance.
The fatigue analysis also produced the indication of failure regions in the beam under
different load levels. These regions are characterized by maximum alternating stresses
that made them vulnerable to failure if the number of cycles exceeds the maximum
number identified by the analysis at every loading level. The analysis showed these
regions to be either at the ends of the beam or at its mid zone. That depends on the load
level applied to the beam. At lower load levels reaching about 50% of the maximum
load, the failure region exists at the ends as shown in Figure 10. For higher loads, the
failure region appears at the mid of the beam as shown in Figures 11 and 12. Whereas
the sections of thickness 5 mm did not exhibit the failure regions at the mid zone of the
beam under the specified load range.
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
2.00E+03 4.00E+03 6.00E+03 8.00E+03 1.00E+04 1.20E+04 1.40E+04
Life Cycles
C
y
c
l
i
c

L
o
a
d

(
N
)
vertical
Inclination 3.0
Inclination 6.0

Fig. 5: Applied cyclic load and corresponding fatigue life cycles for C-sections of
thickness 1.5 mm
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
4.00E+03 1.20E+04 2.00E+04 2.80E+04 3.60E+04 4.40E+04
Life Cycles
C
y
c
l
i
c

L
o
a
d

(
N
)
vertical
Inclination 3.0
Inclination 6.0
Inclination 9.0

thickness 2.0 mm
-610-

STL-001-8
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
0.00E+00 2.00E+04 4.00E+04 6.00E+04 8.00E+04 1.00E+05 1.20E+05 1.40E+05
Life Cycles
C
y
c
l
i
c

L
o
a
d

(
N
)
vertical
Inclination 3.0
Inclination 6.0
Inclination 9.0
Inclination 11.0

thickness 2.5 mm
2000
3500
5000
6500
8000
9500
11000
12500
14000
15500
17000
18500
20000
0.00E+00 2.00E+05 4.00E+05 6.00E+05 8.00E+05 1.00E+06 1.20E+06
Life Cycles
C
y
c
l
i
c

L
o
a
d

(
N
)
vertical
Inclination 3.0
Inclination 6.0
Inclination 9.0
Inclination 11.0

thickness 5.0 mm

Loads corresponding
to endurance Limit
-611-

STL-001-9
1500
5500
9500
13500
17500
21500
25500
29500
33500
37500
1.00E+03 1.00E+04 1.00E+05 1.00E+06 1.00E+07
Life Cycles
C
y
c
l
i
c

L
o
a
d

(
N
)
vertical 1.5mm
Vertical 2mm
Vertical 2.5mm
Vertical 5mm

vertical web profile

Fig. 10: Maximum alternating stress region at the lower flange of the beam

Fig. 11: Maximum alternating stress region at the lower flange near mid span
Load corresponding
to endurance Limit
-612-

STL-001-10

Fig. 12: Maximum alternating stress region at the mid of the beam
5 CONCLUSIONS
The fatigue behavior of C-shape cold formed beams with lipped flange was investigated
through numerical analysis. The simulated model revealed potential results in predicting
the fatigue life and failure regions under various loading configurations. It was
concluded that increasing the thickness of the sections increased their fatigue resistance.
For all proposed models, the sections having vertical webs produced higher life cycles
for all different wall thicknesses considered in the study. However, other sections
exhibited considerable lower fatigue life cycles. Some sections with thicknesses of 1.5
mm failed in the proposed load range. It was also shown that the regions of maximum
alternating stress under cyclic bending load confined to both the ends and the mid-span
section of the beam according to the applied load level. These regions were susceptible
to crack initiation if the number of loading cycles exceeded the number identified by the
analysis. The expected failures mainly showed to initiated at the contact region of the
web and the bottom flange near the supports for load ranges below 50% of the
maximum load. For higher loading force levels, the failure regions occur along the web-
flange contact at the mid-span zone of the beam.
6 REFERENCES

[1] Yu, W.W., Cold-Formed Steel Structures Structural Engineering Handbook, Ed.
Chen Wai-Fah, Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 1999.
[2] Fadel A.M.and El-Saadawy M. M., "Effect of Web Inclination on The Behavior of
Cold Formed Steel Z-Purlins, Journal of Engineering and applied Science, Vol. 52
No. 5, October 2005, PP. 905-920. Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University.
[3] Heinila S., Bjork T. , Marquis G., and Ilvonen R., "Numerical Simulation of Cold
Forming and its Effect on the Fatigue life of Cold-Formed rectangular Structural
Tubes" European Congress on Computational Methods in Applied Sciences and
Engineering, ECCOMAS 24-28 July 2004.
[4] Yung-Li Lee, Jwo Pan, Richard B. Hathaway, Mark E. Barkey, "Fatigue Testing
and Analysis (Theory and Practice)" Elsevier ButterworthHeinemann, 2005.
[5] Izumi Iwamoto, Yoshihiro Kimura and Toshiyuki Ogawa, "Tests of Cold-Formed
Lipped C-Section Members Subject to Compression". Proceedings of the 14th
Engineering Mechanics Conference, American Society of Civil Engineers, May
21-24, 2000.
[6] ANSYS Workbench 11, ANSYS, Inc. Canonsburg, PA, 2007.
-613-

STL-002-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





BEHAVIOR OF COLD-FORMED Z-SECTION BEAMS

ABDELRAHIM KHALIL DESSOUKI
Professor of steel structures, Department of Civil Engineering, Ain Shams University
E-mail: dessouki_ceo@hotmail.com
AHMED ABDELSALAM EL-SERWI
Professor of steel structures, Department of Civil Engineering, Ain Shams University
E-mail: dr_a_serwi@hotmail.com
SHERIF AHMED EL-BESHLAWY
Demonstrator, Department of Building construction, High Institute of Engineering
Culture & science city, October 6 city
E-mail: beshlawyshrief@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT
The effect of different parameters on the ultimate strength and behavior of cold formed
Z-section beams has been studied. A finite element model for this beam has been
prepared and verified by comparing its results with the results of some experimental
studies. A parametric study is performed using the finite element model to study the
effect of different parameters on the ultimate strength and behavior of such beams. A
comparison between the nominal moments calculated using the finite element model,
the Egyptian Code of practice (ECP-2001) and the American Iron and Steel Institute
Code of practice (AISI-2001) is presented.
KEYWORDS
Cold-formed, Thin-walled, Z-Section, nominal moment, flat width to thickness ratio.
1 INTRODUCTION
There are two main groups of steel sections used in design and construction of steel
building; the first group is the hot-rolled or built-up of hot-rolled sections, while the
second group is the cold-formed steel sections. Cold-formed, steel structural members
are normally formed from steel sheets, ranging from 0.4 mm to about 6 mm thickness.
The increasing use of these sections is because they can provide an economical design
for relatively light loads or short spans. Unusual sectional configurations can be easily
produced by the cold-forming process, and a large strength-to-weight ratio can be
obtained for cold-formed steel sections.
-614-

STL-002-2
Many researches studied cold-formed Z section beams in the last decades. A study of
axially loaded cold-formed sections subjected to local buckling was performed by
(Dewolf et al) [1]. Lateral buckling tests on cold-formed Z-beams were studied by (Put
et. al) [2]. The behavior and design of cold-formed channel and Z-section beams were
studied by (Put and Trahair) [3]. The ultimate compressive resistance of cold-formed
angle sections was studied, both experimentally and analytically, by (Polyzois) [4].
Biaxial bending of cold-formed Z-sections was studied by (Put, et. al) [5]. Distortional
buckling formulae for cold-formed steel C and Z-section members was studied by
(Silvestre, et. al) [6]. Lateraltorsional buckling of cold-formed Z beams partially
restrained laterally by metal sheeting was studied by (Li) [7].In this research, a
parametric study has been made on both plain and lipped Z-section beams using the
finite element method. The model was prepared using the multipurpose finite element
computer package (COSMOS/M. ver2.6) [8]. The results are compared by the results
derived using different codes of practice ( ECOP [9], AISI [10].
The multi purpose finite element computer package COSMOS/M ver.2.6 [8] was
selected for the analysis. The main reason for this choice is that COSMOS/M
incorporates highly sophisticated nonlinear analysis routines, addressing both
geometrical and material nonlinearities.
The finite element has 4 nodes with the ability to obtain the stresses at the middle point
of the element. The four node flat shell element chosen has six degrees of freedom per
node. COCMOS/M can model the variation in the material properties such as Youngs
modulus, yield stress and shear modulus. The effect of change in geometry is taken into
account by changing its orientation in space.
The element orientation is updated during the analysis. In addition, the local-global
transformation matrices are also updated, and consequently the global stiffness matrix is
recomputed. In this study, the effect of material nonlinearity was taken into account.
Isotropic hardening, bilinear model was used. The selected software (COSMOS/M)
supports several plasticity models. The selected model is called the Huber-Von Mises
model.
3 PARAMETRIC STUDY
The beam specimen used in the parametric study is a simple beam of span L and Z
shaped cross-section as shown in the figure (1). Adequate lateral bracing is added to the
beam to prevent lateral torsional buckling. A single concentrated load of initial value
equals 0.5 ton is applied at beam mid span as shown in figure (1). This load is increased
incrementally through successive loading steps until failure takes places. A parametric
study is performed on both plain and lipped Z- section beams.
-615-

STL-002-3

Fig. 1: Schematic drawing of the studied beam
3.1 Plain Z-Section Beams
Three different plain Z cross-sections are used in this study as shown in figure (2). To
study the effect of flange width-to-thickness ratio on the ultimate behavior of beams, six
different thicknesses of the cross sections are used ( 0.15, 0.20, 0.25, 0.30, 0.35 and 0.40
cm) . Three different beam spans are investigated (L=300 cm, 450 cm and 600 cm). All
the previously mentioned beam specimens are studied considering three different values
of yield stresses (2.4 t/cm
2
, 3.6 t/cm
2
and 5.0 t/cm
2
). This gives a total number of 18
beam specimens for each span and each yield stress to give a total number of 162
specimens.

Fig. 2: Different cross-section types used in parametric study

-616-

STL-002-4
3.2 Lipped Z-Section Beams
Only one cross-section of lipped Z-section is used in this study, see figure (3). To study
the effect of flange width-to-thickness ratio on the ultimate behavior of beams, six
different thicknesses of the cross sections are used ( 0.15, 0.20, 0.25, 0.30, 0.35 and 0.40
cm). Three different beam spans are investigated (L=300 cm, 450 cm and 600 cm). All
the previously mentioned beam specimens are studied considering three different values
of yield stresses (2.4 t/cm
2
, 3.6 t/cm
2
and 5.0 t/cm
2
). This gives a total number of 6
beam specimens for each span and each yield stress to give a total number of 54
specimens.

Fig. 3: Cross-section type (D) used in parametric study

4 RESULTS
The results are presented in the form of curves representing the relation between the
nominal moments and the different studied parameters. The nominal moments
calculated using the Finite element model, ECP-2001 [9] and AISI-1996 [10] is
presented.
4.1 Plain Z-Section Beams

4.1.1 Effect of flange width-to-thickness ratio (b/t)
Figure (4) represents the relation between (Mn/Mp) and b/t for beam specimen having
cross section type (A), span 300 cm and yield stresses 2.4 t/cm. Figures (5) and (6)
present the same relation for beams having the same cross section and span but with
yield stress 3.6 t/cm and 5.0 t/cm respectively. From these figures, it is clear that
increasing the ratio b/t, reduces the ratio Mn/Mp. It is also concluded that the finite
element results are higher than those calculated using different codes for low values of
b/t. At higher values of b/t, the finite element values are lower than those calculated
using design codes. The intersection between the curve representing the finite element
results and the curves representing different design codes lies at b/t = 41, 31and 28 for
beams having yield stresses 2.4 t/cm, 3.6 t/cm and 5.0 t/cm respectively.
-617-

STL-002-5
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0 10 20 30 40 50
b/t for A-300-2.4
M
n

/

M
p

M (N.F.E.A)
M( ECP)
M( AISI)

Fig. 4: Relation of Mn/Mp and b/t for beam with cross section type A,
span 300cm and yield stress 2.4 t/cm

0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0 10 20 30 40 50
b/t for A-300-3.6
M
n

/

M
p

M ( N.F.E.A)
M ( ECP)
M ( AISI)

Fig. 5: Relation of Mn/Mp and b/t for
beam with cross section type A, span
300cm and yield stress 3.6 t/cm

0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0 10 20 30 40 50
b/t for A-300-5.0
M
n

/

M
p

M ( N.F.E.A)
M (ECP)
M ( AISI)

Fig. 6: Relation of Mn/Mp and b/t
for beam with cross section type A, span

Figures 7 to 9 present the same relation presented in figures 4 to 6, but for cross section
type (B). The same observations are noticed in these figures. The intersection between
the curve representing the finite element results and the curves representing different
design codes lies at b/t = 40, 33and 28 for beams having yield stresses 2.4 t/cm, 3.6
t/cm and 5.0 t/cm respectively.
Figures 10 to 12 present the relation presented in figures 4 to 6, but for cross section
type (C). The same observations are noticed in these figures. The intersection between
the curve representing the finite element results and the curves representing different
design codes lies at b/t = 48, 40and 34 for beams having yield stresses 2.4 t/cm, 3.6
t/cm and 5.0 t/cm respectively.

-618-

STL-002-6

0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
b/t for B-300-2.4
M
n

/

M
p

M (N.F.E.M)
M(ECP)
M( AISI)

for beam with cross section type B,
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
b/t for B-300-3.6
M
n
/

M
p

M ( N.F.E.M)
M (ECP)
M ( AISI)

for beam with cross section type B, span

0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
b/t for B-300-5.0
M
n

/

M
p

M ( N.F.E.M)
M (ECP)
M ( AISI)

for beam with cross section type B,
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
b/t for C-300-2.4
M
n

/

M
p

M (N.F.E.M)
M ( ECP)
M ( AISI)

for beam with cross section type C, span

-619-

STL-002-7
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
b/t for C-300-3.6
M
n

/

M
p
M ( N.F.E.M)
M ( ECP)
M ( AISI)

Fig. 11: Relation of Mn/Mp and b/t for
beam with cross section type C, span

0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
b/t for C-300-5.0
M
n

/

M
p

M ( N.F.E.M)
M (ECP)
M ( AISI)

for beam with cross section type C, span

4.1.2 Effect of beam span
Each beam specimen has been studied using three different spans, (spans equal to 300,
450 cm and 600cm).
Figure (13) presents the relation between ratios Mn/Mp and b/t for beam specimens
type (A) and yield stress equal to 2.4 t/cm. Three curves are plotted representing the
results calculated using the finite element model for three different spans (300, 450and
600cm). It is clear that the three curves nearly coincide on each other. This means that
the beam span has a minor affect on the ratio Mn/Mp of such beams.

0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
47.0 35.0 27.8 23.0 19.5 17.0
b/t for A-2.4
M
n
/
M
p
L= 300 cm
L= 450cm
L=600cm

Fig. 13: Relation of Mn/Mp and b/t for cross section type A, and yield stress 2.4
t/cm
Figures (14) and (15) present the same relation for the same beam using steel of yield
stress equal to 3.6 t/cm
2
and 5.0 t/cm
2
, respectively. The same conclusions observed
from figure (13) are noticed.
-620-

STL-002-8
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
47.0 35.0 27.8 23.0 19.5 17.0
b/t for A-3.6
M
n
/
M
p
L= 300 cm
L= 450cm
L=600cm
Fig. 14: Relation of Mn/Mp and
b/t for cross section type (A) , yield
stress 3.6 t/cm
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
47.0 35.0 27.8 23.0 19.5 17.0
b/t for A-5.0
M
n
/
M
p
L= 300 cm
L= 450cm
L=600cm

for cross section type (A) , yield
stress 5.0 t/cm

4.1.3 Effect of yield stresses
The relation between ratios Mn/Mp and b/t for beams having cross-section type A
and span 300cm are plotted in figure (16). Three curves are plotted representing the
three different yield stresses of base metal (2.4 t/cm
2
, 3.6 t/cm
2
and 5.0 t/cm
2
).
From figure (16), it is clear that, increasing the steel yield stress reduces the ratio
Mn/Mp (at the same value of b/t). This means that the negative effect of local plate
buckling increases with the increase of yield stress.

0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
47.0 35.0 27.8 23.0 19.5 17.0
b/t for A-300
M
n
/
M
p
Fy = 2.4
Fy = 3.6
Fy=5.0

Fig. 16: Relation of Mn/Mp and b/t for cross section type A and span 300cm

Figures (17) and (18) represent the same relation presented in figure (16) for cross-
section type B and C. The same conclusions observed for cross section type A are
concluded.
-621-

STL-002-9

0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
53.6 40.0 31.8 26.3 22.4 19.5
b/t for B-300
M
n
/
M
p
Fy = 2.4
Fy = 3.6
Fy=5.0

for cross section type B and span 300cm

0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
73.6 55.0 43.8 36.3 31.0 27.0
b/t for C-300
M
n
/
M
p
Fy = 2.4
Fy = 3.6
Fy=5.0

for cross section type C and span 300cm

4.2 Lipped Z-Section Beams

4.2.1 Effect of flange width-to-thickness ratio (b/t)

Figure (19) represents the relation between (Mn/Mp) and b/t for beams having cross
section type (D), span 300 cm and yield stresses 2.4 t/cm. Figures (20) and (21) present
the same relation for the same beams having yield stress 3.6 t/cm and 5.0 t/cm,
respectively. From theses figures, it is clear that increasing the ratio b/t, reduces the
ratio Mn/Mp. It is also concluded that the finite element results are higher than those
calculated using different codes for low values of b/t. At higher values of b/t, the
finite element values are lower than those calculated using design codes. The
intersection between the curve representing the finite element results and the curves
representing different design codes lies at b/t = 41, 31and 28 for beams having yield
stresses 2.4 t/cm, 3.6 t/cm and 5.0 t/cm respectively.
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
b / t for D-300-2.4
M
n

/

M
p
M (N.F.E.M)
M (ECP)
M ( AISI)

Fig. 19: Relation of Mn/Mp and b/t for cross section type D and span 300cm and
yield stress 2.4 t/cm
-622-

STL-002-10

0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
b / t for D-300-3.6
M
n

/

M
p

M( N.F.E.M)
M(ECP)
M( AISI)

for cross section type D and span 300cm
and yield stress 3.6 t/cm

0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
b / t for D-300-5.0
M
n

/

M
p

M( N.F.E.M)
M(ECP)
M( AISI)

for cross section type D and span 300cm
and yield stress 5.0 t/cm

4.2.2 Effect of beam span
Beam specimen has been studied using three different spans, (spans equal to 300, 450
cm and 600cm).
Figure (22) presents the relation between ratios Mn/Mp and b/t for beam specimens
type (D) having yield stress equal to 2.4 t/cm. Three curves are plotted representing the
results calculated using the finite element model for three different spans (300, 450and
600cm). It is clear that the three curves nearly coincide on each other. This means that
the beam span has a minor affect on the ratio Mn/Mp of such beams.

0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
54.0 40.0 31.6 26.0 22.0 19.0
b/t for D-2.4
M
n
/
M
p
L= 300 cm
L= 450cm
L=600cm

Fig. 22: Relation of Mn/Mp and b/t for cross section type D and yield stress 2.4
t/cm
Figures (23) and (24) present the same relation for the same beam using steel of yield
stress equal to 3.6 t/cm
2
and 5.0 t/cm
2
, respectively. The same conclusions observed
from figure (22) are noticed.

-623-

STL-002-11

0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
54.0 40.0 31.6 26.0 22.0 19.0
b/t for D-3.6
M
n
/
M
p
L= 300 cm
L= 450cm
L=600cm

for cross section type D and yield stress
3.6 t/cm

0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
54.0 40.0 31.6 26.0 22.0 19.0
b/t for D-5.0
M
n
/
M
p
L= 300 cm
L= 450cm
L=600cm

for cross section type D and yield stress
5.0 t/cm

4.2.3 Effect of yield stresses
The relation between ratios Mn/Mp and b/t for beams having cross-section type D
and span 300cm are plotted in figure (25). Three curves are plotted representing the
three different yield stresses of base metal (2.4 t/cm
2
, 3.6 t/cm
2
, 5.0 t/cm
2
).
From figure (25), it is clear that, increasing the steel yield stress reduces the ratio
Mn/Mp (at the same value of b/t). This means that the negative effect of local plate
buckling increases with the increase of yield stress.

0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
54.0 40.0 31.6 26.0 22.0 19.0
b/t for D-300
M
n
/
M
p
Fy = 2.4
Fy = 3.6
Fy=5.0

Fig. 25: Relation of Mn/Mp and b/t for cross section type D and span 300 cm

Figures (26) and (27) represent the same relation presented in figure (16) for cross-
section type B and C. The same conclusions observed for cross section type A are
concluded.

-624-

STL-002-12

0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
54.0 40.0 31.6 26.0 22.0 19.0
b/t for D-450
M
n
/
M
p
Fy = 2.4
Fy = 3.6
Fy=5.0

for cross section type D and span 450 cm

0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
54.0 40.0 31.6 26.0 22.0 19.0
b/t for D-600
M
n
/
M
p
Fy = 2.4
Fy = 3.6
Fy=5.0

for cross section type D and span 600 cm

5 CONCLUSIONS

From the results of the current study, the following conclusions are noticed :
1- The ECOP (2001) and AISI (1996) give almost the same values of the nominal
moments for the same beam specimen.
2- Increasing the value of flange-width-to thickness ratio reduces the nominal moment
of the beam.
3- For low values of flange-width-to thickness ratio, finite element model gives nominal
moment values higher than the values calculated using ECP and AISI.
4- For the same beam specimen, increasing the yield stress reduces the ratio of nominal
moment to plastic moment.
5- Beam span has almost no effect on the ratio of nominal moment to plastic moment.
6- In all beam specimens, for low values of flange width-to-thickness ratio, the nominal
moment calculated using finite element model are higher than those calculated by
different codes. For relatively high values of flange width-to-thickness ratio, the finite
element model gives nominal moment values lower than the different codes.
7- For lipped Z-section beams the same conclusions are valid.
6 SYMBOLS

b Flange flat width H Section depth
B Flange width M
n
Nominal moment
F
y
Yield stress M
p
Plastic moment

-625-

STL-002-13
7 REFERENCES

1-Dewolf, J. T., Pekoz, T. and Winter, G., Local and Overall Buckling of Cold-Formed
Members, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 100, No. 10, 1974.
2-Bogdan M. Put, Young-Lin Pi, and N. S. Trahair, Lateral Buckling Tests on Cold-
Formed Z-beams, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 125, No. 11,
November, 1999.
3-Bogdan M. Put and Nick Trahair The Behavior and Design of Cold-Formed Channel
and Z-section beam, The University of Sydney, Department of Civil Engineering,
Research Publications, 2001.
4-Polyzois, D., Effect of Temperature and Galvanization on the Compressive Strength
of Cold- Formed Angles, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 17, 1990, PP.
440-451.
5-Bogdan M. Put, Yong-Lin Pi, and N. S. Trahair, Biaxial Bending of Cold-Formed Z-
Beams, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 125, No. 11, November, 1999.
6-N. Silvestre, D. Camotim, Distortional Buckling Formulae for Cold-Formed Steel C
and Z-Section Members, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol.42, p.( 15671597), 2004.

7-Long-yuan Li, LateralTorsional Buckling of Cold-Formed Z-Purlins Partial-
Laterally Restrained by Metal Sheeting, Thin-Walled Structures, Vol.42, p. (995
1011), 2004.
8-COSMOS/M (version2.6), Finite element computer program, Manual Structural
Research and Analysis Corporation,2000.
9-Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Construction and Bridges, Allowable Stress
Design, code no (205), Ministerial decree no 279-2001.
10-American Iron and Steel Institute Code of Practice, North American Specification
for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members, 1996 edition.

-626-

STL-003-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt




REHABILITATION AND RETROFIT OF A DETERIORATED
GUYED TOWER FLARE STACK

G. M. EL-MAHDY
Structures and Metallic Construction Research Institute, HBRC
87 El-Tahrir Street, Dokki, Giza, 11511, P.O. Box 1770 Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: g.elmahdy@hbrc.edu.eg
B. M. RHEAUME
Rheaume Engineering Inc.
Suite 103, 11039 - 78 Ave., Grande Prairie, Alberta, T8W 2J7, Canada
E-mail: brheaume@rheaumeengineering.com

ABSTRACT
The paper describes the case study of a guyed tower flare stack located in Alberta,
Canada that has suffered significant and critical deterioration of its concrete pedestal
foundation. The flare stack is 47.5 m (156) high and is supported at two levels by guy
cables. It is requested that the concrete pedestal be replaced by a steel frame supported
on piles. However, on further examination of the flare stack using non-destructive test
methods, it is found that the flare stack pipe itself has also suffered significant
deterioration in the lower 1.52 m (5) of the stack, and hence also needs strengthening.
The proposed retrofit operation consists of making a steel jacket welded around the
lower part of the flare stack pipe. This also acts as the base plate for 3 triangular
brackets each made of two steel I sections placed symmetrically around the flare stack
pipe with central angles of 120
o
between them. The brackets are stiffened with a gusset
plate. Each triangular bracket is supported on a pile at its far end. The flare stack is
analysed using a nonlinear cable analysis as well as a P analysis under the action of
wind loads with ice effects. The results of the analysis and non-destructive tests are
presented. The solution has proven to be the most economical strengthening solution
for the rehabilitation and retrofit of the deteriorating flare stack.
KEYWORDS
Guyed tower, nonlinear cable analysis, non-destructive tests, P analysis, retrofit,
strengthening, and wind and ice loads.
-627-

STL-003-2
1 INTRODUCTION
With the majority of gas processing facilities in Alberta approaching 30 50 years of
service, the deteriorating condition of many critical structures, such as flare stacks, are
in need of more inspections and preventive maintenance. A flare stack, or gas flare, is
an elevated vertical stack or chimney found on oil wells or oil rigs, as well as, in
upstream gas processing plants, refineries, chemical plants, or landfills. They are used
for burning off flammable, unwanted gases or liquids, released by pressure relief valves
during the unplanned over-pressuring of plant equipment [1,2,3]. In the safe and
satisfactory operation of a process plant, the flare system is the single most important
element for operational or emergency relief of flammable substances in the liquid and
gaseous phases [4]. The flare system performs a key role in the overall safety and
environmental compliance of a hydrocarbon processing plant or production facility [5].
This paper presents the case of a guyed tower flare stack located in Alberta, Canada
with a site layout as illustrated in Fig. 1. The flare stack is 47.5 m (156) high and is
supported at two levels, 19.5 m (64) and 39.0 m (128), by 15.9 mm (5/8) diameter
guy strands. The flare stacks pipe section has an outer diameter of 508 mm (20) and a
wall thickness of: 9.53 mm (0.375) for the lower 15.2 m (50), 7.92 mm (0.312) for
the next 15.2 m (50), and 6.35 mm (0.25) for the top 17.1 m (56) of the flare stack.
The flare stack is fixed to a concrete pedestal, at approximately 0.305 m (1) above the
ground through an octagonal base plate, by 8 - 25.4 mm (1) anchor bolts. The top part
of this concrete pedestal is severely crushed as shown in the photograph in Fig. 2(a),
and a new foundation solution is required for the flare stack. The guy strands are
anchored to the ground at distances of 37.0 m (121) or 47.0 m (154) from the centre of
the flare stack pipe by concrete deadman anchors with surface dimensions of 3.05x0.99
m (10x3.25), and they are placed such that the central angles between the guys are
120
o
. A 305 mm (12") inlet pipe is welded to the flare stack at approximately 0.61 m
(2') from the base plate.
8
.
5
m

[
2
8
'
]
1
9
.
5
m

[
6
4
'
]
47.0m [154']
1
2
0
1
2
0
1
2
0
3
7
.
0
m

[
1
2
1
'
]
3
7
.
0
m

[
1
2
1
'
]
47.0m [154']
762mm [30"]
5
0
8
m
m
[
2
0
"
]
28.6mm [1.13"]
9.53mm [0.375"]
6
6
0
m
m

[
2
6
"
]
Base Plate
t=9.53mm [0.375"]
t=7.92mm [0.312"]
t=6.35mm [0.25"]
45
Deadman anchor
3.05x0.99m [10'x3.25']
Guy strands
O15.9mm [O5/8"]
Base plate and concrete pedestal
0
.
3
0
5
m

[
1
'
]
1
9
.
5
m

[
6
4
'
]
18.5m [60.7']
1
5
.
2
m

[
5
0
'
]
1
5
.
2
m

[
5
0
'
]
1
5
.
2
m

[
5
0
'
]
1
.
8
m

[
6
'
]
4
7
.
5
m

[
1
5
6
'
]
Inlet pipe
O305mm [O12"]

Fig. 1: Site layout of flare stack
-628-

STL-003-3

(a) Crushed concrete pedestal of flare stack

(b) Damage to lower flare stack pipe
Fig. 2: Photos of damaged condition of guyed tower flare stack
It is requested that the crushed concrete pedestal be replaced by a steel frame supported
on piles. However, on further visual examination of the flare stack, shown in Fig. 2(b),
more signs of damage to the steel pipe are detected near the base of the flare stack, and
the strengthening of the lower part of the flare stack pipe is also recommended. Further
non-destructive tests are conducted to determine the feasibility of welding a bracket
attachment to the flare stack pipe. Both a magnetic particle examination and an
ultrasonic examination are conducted on the lower part of the flare stack pipe. It is
found that the flare stack pipe itself has also suffered significant deterioration in the
lower 1.52 m (5) of the stack, and hence needs strengthening. It is proposed that 3
bracket type supports be provided as a replacement foundation for the flare stack. The
flare stack is analysed using a nonlinear cable analysis as well as a P analysis under the
action of wind loads with ice effects.
2 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Non-destructive testing is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and
industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component, or system without causing
damage [6]. The results of two types of non-destructive tests are presented for the flare
stack, namely, a magnetic particle examination and an ultrasonic examination.
2.1 Magnetic Particle Examination
The magnetic particle examination is a non-destructive method for the testing of and the
detection of defects in magnetic materials, such as ferrous materials. It involves the use
of a liquid suspension of fine iron particles applied to a part while it is in an externally
applied magnetic field, alternatively, an electric current can be passed through the
material. The suspension is sprayed or painted over the magnetized specimen during
magnetization. The magnetic particles are attracted by the surface field in the area of
the defect and hold on to the edges of the defect to reveal it as a build up of particles.
The magnetic particle examination shows crack-like indications in the 305 mm (12)
inlet nozzle to flare stack connection fillet weld, crack-like indications at the base of the
flare stack, and six indications in the flare stack to base plate fillet weld.

-629-

STL-003-4
2.2 Ultrasonic Examination
In ultrasonic testing sound waves with high frequencies are used. Very short ultrasonic
pulse waves with centre frequencies ranging from 1-10 MHz are launched into materials
to detect internal flaws or to characterize materials. The technique is also commonly
used to measure the thickness of test objects, for example, to monitor pipe work
corrosion.
An area extending 3.05 m (10) from the base plate of the 508 mm (20) diameter flare
stack has been scanned, at 25.4 mm (1") intervals, at the three locations of the proposed
203 mm (8) wide bracket attachments as shown in Fig. 3. The location of each weld
attachment area has been scanned at approximately 38.1 mm (1.5) on either side of the
scan location for a total of 76.2 mm (3). Fig. 3 indicates the minimum and average
wall thickness of the flare stack pipe at the critical regions, as well as the elevation at
which the wall thickness is significantly reduced. All the flaws are detected in the lower
1.53 m (5) from the base plate. Table 1 shows a sample of the results of the wall
thickness measurements for the lower 1.53 m (5) of the flare stack on either side of the
locations of the proposed bracket attachment welds. The results indicate that a severe
reduction in the 9.53 mm (0.375) wall thickness has occurred, the wall thickness being
reduced to up to less than 1.0 mm in certain locations. This suggests that the lower 1.53
m (5) of the flare stack should be reinforced by a steel jacket and that welding should
not be applied to the flare stack pipe in this region. The locations at which the inlet pipe
nozzle is attached to the flare stack are indicated as an obstruction in Table 1, and the
wall thickness readings that are less than 50% of the nominal wall thickness are shown
in bold italics.
180
o
180
o
300
o
60
o
300 60
o
0
o
52"
68"
120"
20"
41"
79"
4"
48"
72"
38"
82"
43"
77"
45"
75"
Min. 8.7
Avg. 9.1
Top
Min. 7.9
Avg. 8.5
Min. 1.5
Avg. 4.0
Min. 8.2
Avg. 9.3
Min. 1.7
Avg. 4.5
Min. 9.2
Avg. 9.5
Min. 1.8
Avg. 4.5
Min. 9.3
Avg. 9.6
Min. 1.6
Avg. 5.0
Min. 8.5
Avg. 9.0
Min. 2.0
Avg. 5.0
Min. 8.7
Avg. 9.0
Min. 1.6
Avg. 4.0
Min. 8.8
Avg. 9.2
Avg. 9.0
Ultrasonic Scan:
The ultrasonic scan started at the 10'
elevation. Once isolated pitting and
severe corrosion were noted, the
elevation was recorded.
(12" Std. Nozzel)
Notes:
All ultrasonic measurements are in mm.
Scan location.
20"
Base Plate
Left Right
o
Left Right
Left Right
Min. 8.7
Top
Top

Fig. 3: Locations of ultrasonic scan
-630-

STL-003-5
Table 1: Sample of results of wall thickness measurements from ultrasonic examination
Wall Thickness (mm)
300
o
180
o
60
o

Height from
Base Plate
(ft. in.) Left Right Left Right Left Right
4 11 9.2 9.6 9.8 9.3 9.1 8.3
4 9 9.3 9.8 9.9 9.4 9.2 8.7
4 7 9.1 9.6 9.9 9.4 9.1 8.4
4 5 9.1 9.3 9.8 9.4 9.1 8.3
4 3 8.8 9.5 9.8 9.4 9.2 3.3
4 1 2.2 9.4 9.9 9.4 9.2 8.3
3 11 2.0 9.5 9.9 9.4 9.5 8.4
3 9 2.6 9.5 9.3 9.2 9.2 8.2
3 7 3.9 9.3 9.4 9.3 9.1 8.3
3 5 9.3 9.3 7.8 9.0 9.3 6.9
3 3 9.4 9.5 8.7 8.4 8.4 6.9
3 1 9.0 9.3 7.1 7.2 8.8 7.2
2 11 7.7 6.6 6.6 5.6 8.3 7.9
2 9 6.6 6.2 3.8 4.8 7.7 7.1
2 7 7.4 4.6 3.2 4.1 7.7 6.8
2 5 8.5 5.3 2.7 4.5 8.6 8.1
2 3 8.3 7.0 6.4 4.0 8.3 OBS
2 1 OBS 6.0 5.5 5.4 6.3 OBS
1 11 OBS 6.1 5.5 5.7 6.4 OBS
1 9 OBS 6.9 6.2 6.1 6.8 OBS
1 7 6.1 5.3 5.3 6.0 6.0 6.3
1 5 6.1 5.2 5.6 4.4 5.6 6.6
1 3 4.7 4.9 5.2 5.0 3.5 5.7
1 1 4.6 4.8 5.6 4.7 3.5 4.6
0 11 3.8 5.0 4.9 3.9 3.6 3.3
0 9 3.8 4.4 2.5 2.1 2.2 3.0
0 7 2.7 1.4 1.7 1.8 1.8 1.5
0 5 1.9 2.1 1.6 2.3 1.9 <1.0
0 3 3.6 5.3 3.9 5.2 3.5 3.6
0 1 6.8 6.6 6.2 8.4 7.3 7.5
NOTE:
OBS
OBSTRUCTION
All measurements are in millimetres (mm)
50% of Nominal Nominal: 20 x 0.375 (508 x 9.53 mm)
3 LOADS
The primary load for consideration in a guyed tower type structure is the wind load with
the additional effect of the own weight of the structure included. However, as the flare
stack is located in a cold region such as Alberta, the effect of ice must also be included
in the calculation of the lateral wind loads, as well as, in the vertical gravity loads. The
wind and ice loads are calculated according to CAN/CSA S37-01, Antennas, towers,
and antenna-supporting structures [7].
-631-

STL-003-6
3.1 Wind Loads
The design wind pressure is calculated according to Clause 4.3.1 of S37-01 from
e h a g h
qC q C C q P = = e wher (1)
where; P is the design wind pressure.
q is the reference velocity pressure taken as 0.60 kPa for central Alberta.
C
e
is the height factor, C
e
=(H
x
/10)
0.2
; and 0.9 C
e
2.0.
H
x
is the height in meters above grade, which varies from 0 to 47.5 m (156).
C
g
is the gust effect factor, taken as 2.5 for pole structures.
C
a
is the speed factor for wind on structures on roofs, and is neglected.
Hence, the design wind pressure varies from 1.35 kPa at the bottom of the flare stack to
2.05 kPa at the top of the flare stack, and corresponds to a wind speed of 110 km/h.
3.2 Ice Effects
Ice is assumed to accumulate around all sections of the flare stack and guys to a
minimum design thickness of 10 mm. This ice will have the effect of increasing the
surface area exposed to the design wind pressure, as well as, increasing the gravity loads
on the flare stack.
A drag factor, C
d
, should also be included in the wind load, as given in Clause 4.8.1 of
S37-01, such that
) (
i dr r dr f df
A C A C A C P W + + = (2)
where; W is the wind load (kN/m).
C
df
is the drag factor for flat members.
A
f
is the face area of flat members, without ice (bare).
C
dr
is the drag factor for round members.
A
r
is the face area of round members, without ice (bare).
A
i
is the face area of radial ice, as shown in Fig. 4.
The drag factor for the solid post and guys can be taken as 1.2 (Clauses 4.9.2/3 of S37-
01). The drag factor for latticed structures such as a ladder structure depends on the
ratio of the net projected area of one face, A
s
, to the gross area, A
g
, including ice
thickness, such that R
s
=A
s
/A
g
. Assuming a future ladder cage attachment of diameter
762 mm (30) and composed of 4 vertical bars of width 50.8 mm (2) and one end bar
of thickness 6.35 mm (0.25), R
s
=12.2/30.8=0.396. Hence the drag factor for the flat
parts of the ladder can be taken as C
df
=3.4(R
s
)
2
-(R
s
)+3.4=2.1 and the drag factor for the
ice can be taken as C
dr
=C
df
{0.51(Rs)
2
+0.57}=1.4 according to Clause 4.9.1 of S37-01.
d
t
Radial ice thickness
A = b L
A = d L
A = 2t L
where
L =
t =
f
r
i
x
x
x
length of member
ice thickness
b
t

Fig. 4: Face area of radial ice
-632-

STL-003-7
From equation (2), the maximum expected wind load on the flare pipe, including ice
and drag effects, would be W=P(2.1*0.21+1.2*0.528+1.4*0.1)=1.22P kN/m, which
would give a wind load on the flare stack that varies from 1.65 kN/m at the bottom of
the flare stack to 2.50 kN/m at the top of the flare stack.
The finite element analysis is conducted using STAAD.Pro 2007 software [8]. Initially
a nonlinear cable analysis is used to analyse the guyed tower, and then a P analysis is
conducted to check the stress due to the effect of the magnified moment at the
deteriorated part of the base of the flare stack.
4.1 Nonlinear Cable Analysis
A nonlinear cable analysis is used assuming all of the members are linear except for the
cable members. This analysis is based on applying the load in steps using equilibrium
iterations which converge at each step. The cable stiffness is calculated by considering
that the increase in length of a loaded cable is a combination of two effects. The first
component is the elastic stretch, and is governed by the linear stiffness relationship
x
L
EA
x K F
elastic
= = (3)
where; F is the tension force acting on the cable.
E is the modulus of elasticity.
A is the cross-sectional area of the cable.
L is the length of the cable.
x is the change in length of the cable due to the tension force F.
The second component of the cable lengthening is due to a change in geometry, such
that as the cable is pulled taut, the sag is reduced. This relationship can be described by
x
L w
T
x K F
sag

= =
2 3 2
3
cos
1 12
(4)
where; T is the initial installed tension in the cable.
w is the weight per unit length of the cable.
is the angle that the axis of the cable makes with a horizontal plane.
Therefore, the stiffness of a cable depends on the initial installed tension (or sag).
These two effects may be combined to give the combined stiffness, K
combined
, as follows

sag elastic
combined
K / K /
K
1 1
1
+
= (5)

3 2 2 2
12 ) (cos 1 T / EA L w
L / EA
K
combined
+
= (6)
It may be noticed that as the tension increases (or the sag decreases) the combined
stiffness approaches that of the pure elastic situation.
In the nonlinear cable analysis, the cable may have large motions and the sag is checked
at each load step, and for all equilibrium iterations. Although, the minimum amount of
stiffness remaining after the cable sags can be controlled, pre-tensioning loads that will
-633-

STL-003-8
result in sufficient tension in every cable for all loading conditions should be used.
Pretension forces of 15.6 kN and 22.3 kN (3.5 kips and 5 kips) are applied to the lower
and upper guy cables, respectively, to stabilize the structure.
The flare stack is modelled with the wall thickness of the lower 1.52 m (5) of the pipe
section varying from 1 mm to 9.53 mm (0.375). The design of the section of the
deteriorated part of the flare stack is made according to S37-01 using a load factor of
1.5 and a yield stress of 241 MPa. The utilization ratio is plotted in Fig. 5 for the
varying wall thickness.
4.2 P Analysis
To add the nonlinear secondary effect of the own weight of the flare stack and ice on the
lateral deflections of the flare stack to the analysis, a P analysis is performed. In this
analysis the cables are modelled as truss members with an initial pretension force, but
cannot be specified as tension only members. The aim of this analysis is to check the
magnified stresses at the deteriorated base section of the flare stack. Figure 5 shows
that the utilization ratio for the P analysis is slightly greater than that of the nonlinear
cable analysis.
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Wall Thickness (mm)
U
t
i
l
i
z
a
t
i
o
n

R
a
t
i
o
Nonlinear Cable Analysis
P Analysis
Section Capacity

Fig. 5: Utilization ratio for deteriorated pipe section according to S37-01
It can be seen from Fig. 5 that the flare stack base section is unsafe for wall thicknesses
less than 3 mm, which confirms the need to strengthen the flare stacks pipe section at
its base.
5 RETROFIT AND STRENGHTENING OPERATION
The proposed retrofit operation consists of making a 13 mm (1/2") thick steel jacket
welded at its top and bottom edges to the flare stack pipe by fillet welds as shown in
Fig. 6. The top portion of this steel jacket has a reduced 203 mm [8] width to increase
-634-

STL-003-9
the length of the fillet weld along the top side. Whereas, the bottom portion 1.52 m (5)
of this steel jacket is designed to fit snugly around the flare stack pipe with the three
sections being welded to each other using butt welds. This steel jacket will in turn act
as the base plate for 3 triangular brackets each made of two steel W150x30 sections
placed such that one is horizontal and the other is inclined by an angle of 50
o
to the
horizontal. These 3 steel brackets are placed symmetrically around the flare stack pipe
with central angles of 120
o
between them. The brackets are stiffened with a 13 mm
(1/2") thick gusset plate. Each triangular bracket is supported on a pile at its far end. A
photograph of the completed retrofit operation of the flare stack is shown in Fig. 7.
W150x30
762 [30"]
6
6
0

[
2
6
"
]
5
0
8

[
2
0
"
]
7
6
2

[
3
0
"
]
3
0
5

[
1
2
"
]
W
1
5
0
x
3
0
W
1
5
0
x
3
0
2134 [84"]
3
0
5

[
1
2
"
]
6
1
0

[
2
4
"
]
2
1
3
4

[
8
4
"
]
2
1
3
4

[
8
4
"
]
3
0
5

[
1
2
"
]
4
7
0

[
1
8
.
5
"
]
3
0
3
3

[
1
1
9
.
4
"
]
1
6
2
6

[
6
4
"
]
2134 [84"]
1067 [42"]
5
0
W150x30
W
1
5
0
x
3
0
W
1
5
0
x
3
0
W150x30
273 [10.7"]
273 [10.7"]
914 [36"]
2134 [84"]
13 [0.5"] Gusset plate
6
6
1
2
0
1
2
0
1
2
0
13 [0.5"] Gusset plate

6
6
6
10
60
o
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
305 [12"]
3
0
5

[
1
2
"
]
Pile
Pile
Pile
203 [8"]
1
5
2
4

[
6
0
"
]
1
2
0
0

[
4
7
.
2
"
]
Original concrete
pedestal
All dimensions are in mm ["].

Fig. 6: Details of proposed retrofit operation
-635-

STL-003-10

Fig. 7: Photograph of completed retrofit operation
From the results of the non-destructive tests of the deteriorated flare stack and the
results of the finite element analysis, the strengthening of the bottom portion of the flare
stacks pipe section and the retrofit of its foundation is necessary. The solution of using
a steel jacket and 3 triangular brackets supported on 3 piles has proven to be the most
economical strengthening solution for the rehabilitation and retrofit of the deteriorating
flare stack. The type of retrofit operation described in this paper is recommended as a
guideline for operating companies to use as preventive maintenance in a safety and loss
control program.
7 REFERENCES
[1] McKetta, J.J. Editor. Encyclopaedia of Chemical Processing and Design, Marcel
Dekker, (1985) 144.
[2] Beychok, M.R. Fundamentals of Stack Gas Dispersion (Fourth Edition), Self-
published, (2005).
[3] Shore, D. A Proposed Comprehensive Model for Elevated Flare Flames and
Plumes, Proceedings of the AIChE 40
th
Loss Prevention Symposium, April
(2006).
[4] John Zink Company. Safe Flare Systems Design, Technical Paper 54908,
(1993).
[5] John Zink Company. Flare System Design What is Important?, (by Robert E.
Schwartz and Dr. Shin G. Kang), Technical Paper, (1998).
[6] Cartz, L. Non-destructive Testing, ASM International, (1995).
[7] CAN/CSA S37-01. Antennas, Towers, and Antenna-Supporting Structures,
Canadian Standards Association, (2001).
[8] STAAD.Pro 2007 Manual, Bentley Solutions Center, (2007).
-636-
STL-004-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt




Thirteenth International Colloquium on Structural and Geotechnical Engineering

Imperfections in Battened Columns Composed of Four Equal Cold Formed
Angles
A.H. SALEM

Department

of Structural Engineering, Ain Shams University
Abassia, P. O. BOX 11517, Egypt

M. EL AGHOURY
Department

of Structural Engineering, Ain Shams University
Abassia, P. O. BOX 11517, Egypt

aghoury_tc@yahoo.com
M.T.HANNA
Department of Structure and Metallic construction, National Housing and Building Research
Center,87-El-Tahreer Street, Dokki, P. O. Box 1770, Egypt
m_tawfick2000@yahoo.com
AND E. A. AMOUSH
Department of Structural Engineering, Higher Technology Institute,
Tenth of Ramadan City, P. O. Box 228, Egypt
Essamamoush2008@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT:
Any structural elements always contain geometric imperfections and residual stresses that
arise from manufacturing and handling. Presence of such imperfections plays an important
role in evaluating the capacity of these members. This paper presents detailed measurements
of these imperfections for specimens of battened columns composed of four equal cold
formed angles. Specimens varied in the outstand width-thickness ratios of the angle leg, local
slenderness ratios of the angle elements, and the overall slenderness ratios of the member. A
mechanical setup was constructed for measuring the geometric imperfections, while residual
stresses were measured by the cutting method. For the selected specimens, it is observed that
the geometric imperfections range from L/1600 to L/284, where L is the overall length of the
member. In addition, the residual stress pattern characterized by compressive stresses nearly
at the mid point of the angle leg, and tensile stresses spreaded over the rest of the section with
maximum value at the point where the two angle legs intersect. The compressive stresses
range from 0.143F
y
to 0.297F
y
, whereas the tensile stresses range from 0.186F
y
to 0.7F
y
. The
obtained imperfection ranges were included in a nonlinear finite element model to investigate
the variation of the ultimate capacity of such members. The numerical model considers axial,
uniaxial, and bi-axial loading.
Keywords : Structural Engineering; Steel Structures; Stability; Local Buckling; Ultimate
Strength; Slender Sections; Initial Imperfections.
-637-
STL-004-2
1. INTRODUCTION
Imperfections are classified into geometric and material imperfections (residual stresses). A
fundamental knowledge about the imperfections that exist in cold-formed steel members is
essential information for accurate determination of the ultimate capacities of these members.
Generally, ultimate strength curves in design codes usually take into account the effect of
such imperfections based on data collected for hot rolled shapes. However, the pattern of
these imperfections might be different in cold-formed sections from that in compact hot rolled
sections. Due to the slenderness of plates that form the section, local geometric defects with
relative values may arise in those plates. Moreover, the shape and values of residual stress
pattern change because of the different thermal treatments.
Davids and Hancock [1,2] carried out tests on short and long I-section columns fabricated by
welding high tensile steel plates. They measured both geometric and material imperfections.
The local geometric imperfections were found to be between .05 to .1 of the plate thickness.
Its effect on the nonlinear axial stiffness of the tested specimens was comparable with, but not
quite as severe as, that predicted by a nonlinear finite strip analysis. Also, the longitudinal
residual welding strains were found to reduce the experimentally observed local buckling
loads. Sridharan and Ali [3] illustrated the role of imperfections in producing scatter in the
prediction of the ultimate capacity of the thin walled columns. Weng and Pekoz [4] presented
a detailed description of the experimental study of residual stresses in cold formed steel
sections. Results showed that the residual stresses in cold-formed sections were quite different
from those in hot-rolled shapes. It was also shown that this type of stresses may weaken not
only the overall column buckling strength but also the local buckling strength of the
component plate elements of the section. Schafer and Pekoz, [5], characterized the geometric
imperfections and residual stress patterns of channel and Z cold-formed sections aiming to
determine practical distributions and magnitudes for use in numerical modeling of such
sections. Dan Popovic, et al. [6,7], measured the residual stresses and geometric imperfections
of non-slender and slender cold-formed angle sections. They measured the geometric
imperfections at the tips of the legs in the plane perpendicular to the leg, and at the corner in
the plane of the major principal axis. They concluded that, the average measured
imperfections for all test specimens were L/1168 for the tips of the legs and L/2955 for the
corner. They concluded that there is no need to include the additional eccentricity that are
specified in the Australian and American cold-formed steel structures standards to account for
the shift of the effective centroid, and the eccentricity of L/1000 is enough for slender
sections. They also showed that the maximum compressive membrane strain on the inside of
the bend and in tension on the outside was at the corner of the section and it was as high as
1200 microstrain, which was equivalent to a stress of 240 MPa, while the maximum tensile
membrane strain was about 500 microstrain that is corresponding to 100 MPa.
In this paper measurements of the members initial geometric imperfections as well as the
internal residual stresses are described for battened members which are composed of four
equal cold-formed slender angles. Furthermore, a numerical nonlinear finite element model is
developed to study the effect of the mentioned factors on the ultimate capacities of such
members when subjected to axial compressive force with different eccentricities.
2. MEASUREMENTS OF THE GEOMETRIC IMPERFECTIONS
The notation of geometrical imperfections includes all the shape variations in structural
members with reference to their ideal geometry. They may be transverse when related to the
cross section, local imperfections, or longitudinal whenever they concern the bar axis overall
imperfections. In the following section the local and global geometric imperfections of twenty
specimens that consist of four equal angles connected together by series of battened plates as
shown in Fig.1 are measured. The label "1000B80L30B1" defines the following specimen:
the first four digits indicate that the length of the specimen is 1000 mm, the fifth letter
-638-
STL-004-3
indicate that the shape of section is box section, the "80" indicates that the nominal width of
specimen is 80 mm, "L" indicates that the shape of main element is angle, "30" indicates that
the nominal width of angle leg is 30 mm, the "B" indicates that the batten plate, and finally
"1" indicates the number of intermediate batten plates is 1. The dimensions of the specimens
are listed in Table 1. It is important to mention that this work is part of an experimental study
which has been carried by the authors, that aims to determine the ultimate strength of battened
columns subjected to axial compressive force with different eccentricities.

Fig. 1: Specimens geometry
The geometric imperfections were measured by a digital vernier with an accuracy of .01mm.
The specimens were placed on a horizontal table as depicted in Fig.2. Readings were taken
from 7 locations spaced by S= L'/6 along the specimen length, where L' is the length of the
specimen between the end batten plates. At each location, readings were taken at two points
on each leg. The first point is the tip point, while the second one is the corner. Due to
roundness of the corner, measurements were taken at distance away from the corner
(5to10mm). The positive imperfection values mean that the imperfection is in the direction of
the centroid (i.e., inwards, Fig.1). Each reading was taken several times to ensure the
verticality of the vernier.
Table 1: Specimens dimensions
Name No. of
specimens
Main Angel No. of Batten Plates b/t L
z
/i
z
L/i
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
1000B80L30B1 2 4L30x30x1.5 1 20 78 30
1000B80L30B2 3 4L30x30x1.5 2 20 50 30
1000B80L30B6 3 4L30x30x1.5 6
20 20 30
1940B80L30B5 3 4L30x30x1.5 5 20 50 58
1250B100L40B2 3 4L40x40x1.5 5 26 50 30
1250B100L40B7 3 4L40x40x1.5 7 26 20 30
2460B100L40B5 3 4L40x40x1.5 5 26 50 58
i: radius of gyration of the whole section,
i
z
: radius of gyration of single angle about z-axis

-639-
STL-004-4

Fig. 2: Technique of measuring geometric imperfections.
Overall imperfections are the average of subtracting the readings taken at the corner points
from those at the end sections. However, local imperfections were calculated by subtracting
the readings at the tip points from the corner points at each location of reading. The overall
imperfection shape of specimen, 1000B80L30B6, are given in Fig. 3, while Fig. 4 shows the
out of squareness shape which is indicated as dotted lines at three different locations (L'/3,
L'/2, 2L'/3).

Fig.3: Average overall imperfection profile in X & Y directions, specimen 1000B80L30B6

L'/3 L'/2 2L'/3
Fig.4: Out of squareness shape of specimen 1000B80L30B6 at three different locations.

-640-
STL-004-5
Table 2: Maximum values of geometric imperfections
Local, b/ Overall, L/
Angle1 Angle2 Angle3 Angle4 Name
Leg 1 Leg 2 Leg 3 Leg 4 Leg 5 Leg 6 Leg 7 Leg 8
L/
x
L/
y

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
43.5 20.0 17.5 10.0 176.5 16.1 28.8 10.6 668.7 1871.8
1000B80L30B1
12.9 26.1 11.4 12.9 15.0 12.5 25.4 81.1 994.4 1113.1
28.6 22.6 19.6 27.8 13.5 44.1 25.0 14.8 960.4 587.1
36.1 16.4 37.5 16.7 54.5 14.0 69.8 33.0 542.6 364.7
1000B80L30B2
16.2 13.8 90.9 85.7 40.5 33.7 14.1 88.2 831.6 1178.4
10.6 15.0 10.3 12.8 10.3 19.5 15.0 18.4 510.6 450.8
9.6 6.6 9.2 10.0 7.6 6.6 11.6 7.1 277.4 253.5
1000B80L30B6
9.0 10.2 9.2 10.0 7.6 6.6 11.6 7.1 273.1 283.8
5.3 11.6 202.8 9.6 63.5 24.0 12.6 11.5 632.2 1278.6
18.9 8.6 5.4 8.2 12.1 5.2 7.4 14.7 759.3 660.5
1940B80L30B5
10.9 4.3 12.8 5.7 6.1 7.1 5.8 7.5 503.2 495.7
23.0 21.1 61.8 16.7 12.2 22.1 26.7 7.7 542.6 364.7
33.3 121.2 14.8 9.6 35.1 25.5 12.5 26.1 739.0 1540.7
1250B100L40B2
50.0 12.8 57.1 6.6 39.2 21.7 8.7 30.3 848.9 1089.7
22.9 34.5 158.7 12.9 15.2 12.9 29.0 12.6 478.4 602.1
17.9 13.4 17.4 12.3 15.0 36.0 31.0 19.0 666.0 506.7
1250B100L40B7
32.5 11.9 36.7 17.5 12.5 29.4 12.4 14.6 734.4 591.7
14.2 11.8 159.3 62.5 13.2 9.1 26.5 21.7 1853.8 1945.4
12.7 5.6 10.4 5.7 10.7 7.0 14.8 6.8 494.3 515.1
2460B100L40B5
12.0 5.9 11.1 5.9 11.2 7.5 15.1 6.5 494.3 515.1
average 21.0 19.6 47.7 17.9 28.6 18.0 20.2 22.0 746.4 839.5
Max. 5.3 4.3 5.4 5.7 6.1 5.2 5.8 6.8 1865.6 1945.4
Min. 50.0 121.2 202.8 85.7 176.5 44.1 69.8 88.2 273.1 253.5
Table 2 summarizes the maximum local imperfections, b/, and overall imperfections, L/,
values that are obtained from the seven measured locations for each specimen. Columns 2 to 9
represent the maximum b/ for the eight legs (Fig. 1), while column 10 indicates the
maximum L/ in X and Y directions. Note that the maximum L/ is the average of the four
corner readings. Also the frequencies of the local imperfection, b/ , and overall imperfection,
L/ are shown in Fig. 5.
From Table 2 and Fig. 5 it can be seen that, the average local imperfections range from b/50
to b/20 with highest frequency value of b/15. In addition, the overall geometric imperfections
range from L/1600 to L/284 and also the highest frequency value is L/500.

a) Local imperfection values b) Overall imperfection values
Fig. 5: Frequencies of the measured local and overall imperfection values
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STL-004-6
3. MEASUREMENTS OF MATERIAL IMPERFECTIONS (RESIDUAL STRESSES)
Two angles with length equal to 200 mm are prepared to measure the internal residual
stresses. Dimensions of the angles are 30x30x1.5mm, and 40x40x1.5mm. The residual
stresses are determined using the method of sectioning, Ballio and Mazzolani [8], in which
the specimens are marked into strips as shown in Fig. 6. The angle specimen was divided into
10 mm width strips. The middle 100 mm part from the 200 mm specimen length was used for
the actual measurements. The strips were marked on both sides of the angle specimen. The
residual strain was measured by using a digital micrometer with an accuracy of .01mm.

1 2 3
4
5
10 mm 10 mm 10 mm
10 mm
10 mm
10 mm

200 mm 100 mm
10 mm

a) Angles are divided into
strips
b) Two marks on each
side of the strip 100mm
distant apart.
c) Photo shows the strip numbers
Fig. 6: Technique of measuring residual stresses.
Initial readings on both sides of all strips had been recorded. Then the strips were cut slowly
using a band saw with a coolant flowing continuously. After cutting the strips, another set of
readings were recorded on both sides of each individual strip.
The residual strain is defined as the difference between the initial gage length before cutting
and final gage length after cutting divided by the final gage length after cutting. The residual
stress is determined as the product of the measured residual strains and the elastic modulus
using the stress-strain curves. The membrane and bending residual strains measured for the
selected cross sections are drawn in Fig. 7. Membrane strains are calculated, similar to
Popovic, et. al., [6], as the average of readings taken from the two sides of the strips, while the
bending strains are the difference between the readings taken from the two sides divided by
two. It is evident that membrane tensile residual strains are concentrated near the corner and
at the tip of the angle legs. However, the average highest values are at the corner ranges from
750 to 850 microstrain. In addition, membrane compressive residual strains are spread near
the middle of the angle legs with average value ranging from 275 to 400 microstrain. This
pattern is nearly similar to that measured by Popovic, et. al., [6]. However, the membrane
compressive residual strains range from 150 to 470 microstrain and membrane tensile residual
strains range from 900 to 1200 microstrain as illustrated in Fig. 8. Note, yield stress is taken
equal 240 MPa.
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STL-004-7

30x30x1.5 40x40x1.5 30x30x1.5 40x40x1.5
Membrane strain

(strain) Bending strain (strain)
Fig. 7: Membrane and bending residual strains.

50x50x2.5 50x50x4.0 50x50x2.5 50x50x4.0
Membrane strain (strain) Bending strain (strain)
Membrane strain = (Inner + Outer)/2, Bending strain = (Outer-Inner)/2
Fig. 8: Membrane and bending residual strain measured by Popovic, et. al., [6].
4. NUMERICAL FINITE ELEMENT MODEL
Two specimens 1000B80L30B6 and 2460B100L40B5 have been modeled numerically using
ANSYS program [9] to study the effect of geometric and material imperfections on the
ultimate capacity of battened columns. The specimens consist of 4 equal cold formed angles
having dimensions of 30x30x1.5mm and 40x40x1.5mm. The angles are connected by a group
of batten plates along the length of the specimen. Fig. 9 shows the finite element model. Four
nodes isoparametric thin-shell elements that have six degrees of freedom at each node were
used. Both large deflection analysis and elasto-plastic material response have been
incorporated in the model. The elastic modulus of elasticity and yield stress of the steel
material were considered as E=210000 MPa and f
y
=240 MPa, respectively. The shear
modulus was equal to G=81000 MPa. A bilinear stress-strain curve was adopted. The load
was incrementally increased through successive load steps. Newton-Raphson iterations were
used in solving the nonlinear system of equations. The boundary conditions are as follows:
the loaded end of the specimen was prevented from rotation around z-axis and translations in
both x and y directions, whereas at the unloaded end was prevented from translation in the
three directions x, y, z and from rotation around the z-axis.
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STL-004-8

Fig. 9: Finite element model.
Salem et al. [10] found that the ultimate strength is sensitive to overall geometric
imperfections rather than the local geometric imperfections. Therefore, overall geometric
imperfections are considered only by modeling the member with one half-sine wave along its
whole length. The maximum amplitude at the member mid-length, , is the overall
imperfection value as shown in Fig.10. In addition, an average residual strain and stress
patterns are assumed based on the measured patterns as depicted in Fig.11. The patterns are
characterized by tensile stress near the tip and corner points with average values of 0.186F
y

and 0.7F
y
, respectively, and a compressive stress in the remained part with average value of
0.22F
y
. The average membrane residual stress pattern is applied in the finite element model as
pre-stress, which is kept constant while the external applied force increases up to the failure
load.

Fig 10: Assumed geometric
imperfections model.
Fig 11: Assumed average membrane residual strain and
stresses patterns.
5. RESULTS
The effect of the initial overall geometric imperfections on the ultimate strength of specimen
1000B80L30B6 for several types of loading (axial, uniaxial, and bi-axial) is shown in Fig. 12,
where the ratio P
u
/P
y
is plotted as function of the imperfection value, . Note that P
u
is the
ultimate load and P
y
is the yield load (P
y
= gross area of 4 angles multiplied by yielding stress,
F
y
). Also note, in uniaxial loading, the axial load is applied with eccentricity, e
x
/B=1/8, while
it is applied with eccentricities of e
x
/B=e
y
/B=1/8 for bi-axial loading, where "B" is the total
width of the specimen. For all cases, the curvature of the overall imperfection shape is similar
to that due to the applied eccentricities. The figure reflects that, generally, the ultimate
strength decreases by increasing the overall imperfection value. In axial loadings, the ratios
P
u
/P
y
decrease from 0.74 to 0.62 (16%), when the overall imperfection values increase from
L/1500 to L/500. However, in uni-axial and bi-axial loading the reduction in strength is nearly
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STL-004-9
the same since the ratio P
u
/P
y
decreases from .538 to .472 (12%), and from .341 to .301 (12%)
for uni-axial and bi-axial loading, respectively, for the same increase in the overall
imperfection values. Eventually, it can be concluded that the effect of the overall geometric
imperfections becomes less important when the columns are subjected to eccentric loads.

Fig 12: Relationship between (P
u
/P
y
) and different initial overall geometric imperfections for
specimen 1000B80L30B6, b/t=20, L
z
/i
z
=20, L/i=30.

Fig 13: Relationship between (P
u
/P
y
) and axial shortening for specimen 2460B100L40B5,
b/t=26, L
z
/i
z
= 50, L/i=58.
To assess the effect of residual stresses, the specimen 2460B100L40B5 had been modeled
considering the average residual stress pattern that is mentioned in the previous section. The
relation between the ratio P
u
/P
y
and the axial shorting of the axially loaded specimen
2460B100L40B5 is drawn in Fig. 13 for different cases of geometric imperfections and
residual stresses. It is conspicuous that the ratio (P
u
/P
y
) decreases from .45 to .34 (24 %) when
the overall imperfection increases from L/1500 to L/500. Moreover, the ratio decreases
further to be .298 when the residual stress pattern is considered in-addition to overall
imperfection value of L/500. Consequently, it can be concluded that the residual stresses
reduce the ultimate strength by about 15%.
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STL-004-10
Finally, by comparing the results of the axially loaded specimens 1000B80L30B6 and
2460B100L40B5, it can be found that when the overall geometric imperfections increase from
L/1500 to L/500, the ratio P
u
/P
y
decreases by about 16% and 24% for the two specimens,
respectively. Note, specimen 1000B80L30B6 has b/t=20, L
z
/i
z
=20, L/i=30, while specimen
2460B100L40B5 has b/t=26, L
z
/i
z
= 50, L/i=58. So, it is obvious that the effect of geometric
imperfections become more significant by increasing the section width-to-thickness ratio, b/t,
and also the member slenderness ratios, L
z
/i
z
& L/i.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The local and overall geometric imperfections of twenty specimens are measured. In addition,
the residual stress patterns of two sections are determined. Data showed that the average local
imperfections range from b/50 to b/20 with highest frequency value of b/15. Moreover, the
overall geometric imperfections range from L/1600 to L/284 and also the highest frequency
value is L/500. Moreover, the average residual stress pattern measured is characterized by
high tensile stresses concentrated near the corner of the angle with average value ranging
from 0.186 F
y
to 0.7F
y
, and compressive stresses spread near the middle of the angle legs with
average value ranging from 0.143F
y
to 0.297F
y
.
A numerical finite element model is developed to study the effect of initial imperfections on
the ultimate capacity of columns fabricated from built-up cold formed 4 angle sections.
Results declare that, the ultimate strength decreases by increasing the overall imperfection
value. Moreover, the reduction in strength increases by increasing the section width-to-
thickness ratio, b/t, and also the member slenderness parameters, L
z
/i
z
& L/i. However, for
columns subjected to eccentric loads, the effect of the overall geometric imperfections
becomes less important. In-addition the residual stresses reduce the ultimate strength by about
15%.
REFERENCES
[1] Andrew J. Davids and Gregory J. Hancock, (1986) " Compression Tests of Short
Welded I-Sections, " J. Struct. Engrg., ASCE, 112(5), pp. 960 - 976.
[2] Andrew J. Davids and Gregory J. Hancock, (1986) " Compression Tests of Long
Welded I-Sections Columns, " J. Struct. Engrg., ASCE, 112(10), pp. 2281 2297.
[3] Sridharan S., and Ali M. A., (1988) "Behavior and Design of Thin-Walled
Columns," J. Struct. Engrg., ASCE, 114(1), pp. 103 - 120.
[4] Weng C. C., and Teoman Pekoz, (1990) " Residual Stresses in Cold-Formed Steel
Members, " J. Struct. Engrg., ASCE, 116(6), pp. 1611 - 1625.
[5] B.W. Schafer, T. Pekoz. (1998) "Computational Modeling of Cold-Formed Steel:
Characterizing Geometric Imperfections and Residual stresses" Journal of
Constructional Steel Research 47, pp 193210.
[6] Dan Popovic, Gregory J. Hancock,and Kim J. R. Rasmussen, "Axial Compression
Tests of Cold-Formed Angles" Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 125 No.5,
May, 1999.
[7] Dan Popovic, Gregory J. Hancock,and Kim J. R. Rasmussen, "Compression tests on
Cold-Formed angles loaded parallel with a leg" Journal of Structural Engineering,
Vol. 127 No. 6, June, 2001.
[8] Ballio G, Mazzolani FM. (1983) Theory and design of steel structures,Chapman and
Hall.
[9] Desalvo, G.J., and Gorman, R.W., "ANSYS, Version 10", Swanson Analysis
Systems, Houston, PA, 1989.
[10] Salem, A.H., El Aghoury, M., El Dib, F.F., and Hanna, M.T. (2004) Ultimate
capacity of I-slender section columns, Journal of constructional steel research, 60.
1193-1211.
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STL-005-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





NUMERICAL MODELLING FOR STIFFENED AND
UNSTIFFENED STAINLESS STEEL HOLLOW TUBULAR
COLUMNS

M. A. DABAON
Tanta, Egypt
E-mail:m_dabaon@yahoo.com
S. R. EL-KHORIBY
Tanta, Egypt
E-mail:drsaher2005@yahoo.com
M. H. EL-BOGHDADI
Tanta, Egypt
E-mail: mhboghdadi@yahoo.com
M. F. HASSANEIN
Tanta, Egypt
E-mail: mostafa.fahmi@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
This paper presents a numerical modelling for stainless steel stiffened and unstiffened
hollow-section columns under uniform axial loads. The normal-strength austenitic
stainless steel grade EN 1.4301 (304) was used. The main target was to investigate this
type of columns in the constructional stage of concrete-filled stainless steel stiffened
stub columns (before filling the columns with concrete). In these concrete-filled
columns, the stainless steel stiffened tubes were formed to increase the confinement
effect of the concrete core. However, the stiffened sections were fabricated by welding
four lipped angles or two lipped channels at the lips. Therefore, the stiffeners were
formed at the mid-depth and mid-width of square sections and at the mid-depth of
rectangular sections. The ABAQUS 6.6 program, as a finite element package, was used
in this theoretical work. The numerical modelling was verified using the experimental
results of stiffened and unstiffened stainless steel stub columns. To investigate the
buckling behavior of the columns, the critical buckling load was predicted. The
numerical modelling was expanded by a nonlinear analysis carried out on columns with
imperfections, including initial geometrical imperfections and welding residual stresses.
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STL-005-2
The non-linear properties of stainless steel material were taken into consideration in the
finite element modelling. A parametric study was then conducted to cover different
aspects that affect this type of stainless steel columns such as the depth-to-plate
thickness ratio (D/t), the flat width-to-plate thickness ratio (b/t), the length-to-flat width
ratio (L/b), the value of initial imperfection and the cross-sectional area of stiffeners.
However, the numerical modelling showed that the European specification is
conservative for the stainless steel stiffened slender columns of small values of local
geometrical imperfections, while it is unconservative for the higher values of local
geometrical imperfections. Finally, new proposed design formulae are proposed to be
considered in the Egyptian LRFD specifications.
KEYWORDS
Finite element analysis, Stainless steel tubes, Slender plates, Geometrical imperfection,
Residual stresses, Square and Rectangular hollow-sections.
1 INTRODUCTION
Cold-formed stainless steel members are being used increasingly for structural
applications. This is due to their aesthetic appearance, high corrosion resistance, and
ease of maintenance as well as ease of construction. Although stainless steel alloys are
well suited for many applications in structures, their unique material characteristics
make their structural response different from carbon steels.
Cold-formed stainless steel columns tests have been conducted by Gardner [1],
Rasmussen [2], Liu and Young [3], Gardner and Nethercot [4, 5] and few other
researchers. These tests were conducted on stainless steel tubular columns of circular,
square and rectangular unstiffened hollow-sections.
Although the limiting plate width-to-thickness ratios, for which local buckling is
prevented, are specified in codes, in practical designs the stainless steel portion may
exceed those values in some cases. At the same time, the stainless steel structural shapes
are becoming increasingly complex as cold-forming techniques are advancing. Based on
these two points, an investigation on stainless steel slender hollow-section columns was
conducted by Ellobody [6]. In this investigation, longitudinal stiffeners of U-shape were
developed to decrease the effect of local buckling.
In general, it was found that the design strengths predicted by the European [7] and
American [8] specifications are generally conservative for unstiffened hollow-section
stainless steel columns. On the contrary they are slightly unconservative for the
stiffened hollow-section stainless steel columns [6, 9 and 10]. On the other hand, the
results of the experimental study [11, 12] showed that the design rules specified in
European specifications [7] and ASCE standard [8] generally overestimate the column
strengths of stainless steel square and rectangular hollow-section stub columns
fabricated by cold-forming and welding. Each test specimen was prepared from two or
four parts welded together by argon welds, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2.
However, no numerical modelling data were found in literature for normal-strength
stiffened stainless steel tubular stub columns fabricated by cold-forming and welding, as
shown in Fig. 1. For these columns, the effect of imperfections, including residual
stresses and local initial imperfections, may play a significant role on their strength and
behavior.
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STL-005-3
In this paper, theoretical series of finite element models were conducted to investigate
the behavior and strength of stainless steel tubular columns stiffened longitudinally.
Each stiffener was made of two single folded stiffeners welded together by k-welding;
see Fig. 1. The models were applied to both square and rectangular hollow-sections with
lengths up to 3500 mm. In the extended parametric study, the dimensions of the
stainless steel tubes were chosen so that they include slender and non-slender sections
[11].
2 BACKGROUND
2.1 Problem statement
The stainless steel structural shapes are becoming increasingly complex as cold-forming
techniques are advancing. This leads to the ability to generate different stainless steel
cross-sections; see Dabaon et al. [12]. These generated cross-sections were used to form
concrete-filled stainless steel stiffened stub columns, as found in [13], for the same
authors. However, this type of composite stainless steel columns exhibited a high
average of increase in the confinement of the concrete core, as expressed by the same
authors in [14]. The only factors that are not yet investigated and unfortunate did not
appear in [12], was the effect of the imperfections of the bare stainless steel tubes
(before filling the concrete) on the strength and behavior of the final concrete-filled
stainless steel stiffened stub columns (after filling the concrete). Hence, the current
paper simulates the behavior of hollow-section stainless steel columns by including the
imperfection, including welding residual stresses and local geometrical imperfections,
and the welding material in the model.
2.2 Previous finite element modelling of unstiffened and stiffened stainless steel
columns
Finite element model for cold-formed high-strength stainless steel square and
rectangular hollow-section columns was developed by Ellobody and Young [15].
Whereas, an investigation of the buckling behavior of cold-formed high-strength
stainless steel stiffened and unstiffened slender columns was conducted by Ellobody
[6]. The models of [6] were simulated in the same way of [15] but the residual stresses
were not included this time in the finite element model since their effect on the column
capacity was found to be small [1, 15].

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STL-005-4
Fig. 1: Definition of symbols for stainless steel stiffened tubular stub columns

Fig. 2: Definition of symbols for stainless steel unstiffened tubular stub columns
3 CURRENT FINITE ELEMENT MODEL
3.1 General
The finite element program ABAQUS [16] was used to simulate the columns under
axial compression. The model included both the measured geometry and nonlinear
material properties. In addition, the proposed welding residual stresses and initial
geometrical imperfections were also included in the model. The finite element analysis
for buckling requires two types of analyses. First, the buckling modes should be
estimated in the Eigenvalue analysis. This is a linear elastic analysis performed using
the (*BUCKLE) procedure available in the ABAQUS library with the load control is
used. The stiffened stainless steel tubular stub columns were labelled such that the
cross-section shape of the stainless steel tube can be identified from the label. Ten tests
were conducted on stainless steel hollow tubular stub columns denoted by C0 for each
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series. The suffix letter "N" denotes the unstiffened specimens. The first buckling mode
predicted from the Eigenvalue analysis was used. The first eigen modes for group SHS1
are shown in Fig. 3. A load-displacement nonlinear analysis was then carried out on the
columns involving imperfections, including welding residual stresses and initial
imperfections. The load was applied in increments using the modified RIKS method
available in the ABAQUS library. In the RIKS method, the load is applied
proportionally in several load increments. In each load increment the equilibrium
iteration is performed and the equilibrium path is tracked in the load-displacement
space. This method is often used in static analysis and shows to be a strong method for
nonlinear analysis. From this analysis, the ultimate loads, failure modes and load-axial
shortening relationships were determined.

Fig. 3: First eigen buckling mode for SHS1C0N and SHS1C0 of group SHS1
3.2 Finite Element type and mesh
The S4R shell element was used to model the stainless steel stiffened and unstiffened
slender tubular stub columns. The S4R element had six degrees of freedom per node
and provides an accurate solution to most applications. The mesh providing adequate
accuracy and minimum computational time in modelling the stainless steel stiffened and
unstiffened columns was chosen by selecting approximate global size equal to 25 mm.
3.3 Boundary conditions and load application
The top and bottom edges of stiffened and unstiffened stainless steel columns were
considered as fixed ends. Only the displacement at the loaded end in the direction of the
applied load was permitted. The other nodes were released to translate and rotate in any
directions. The load was applied in increments using the modified RIKS method
available in the ABAQUS library to simulate the unstable failure conditions. The load
was applied as static uniform loads at the loaded end using the displacement control.
Therefore, the loaded end was forced to go under the same displacement at each
increment. The non-linear geometry parameter (*NLGEOM) was included to deal with
the large displacement analysis.
3.4 Material modelling
In a study by Rasmussen et al. [17], it was indicated that anisotropy may not be
important for numerical analyses involving monotonic loading. Accordingly, the
anisotropic nature of the stainless steel material was not included in the current
modelling.
The properties of the stainless steel used for tube specimens were determined by tensile
coupon tests. The coupon dimensions were conforming the Australian Standard AS
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STL-005-6
1391 for the tensile testing of metals [18]. For more details about the tensile coupon
tests refer to [11]. The measured static 0.2% proof stress (
0.2
) was 285 MPa for the
tested flat specimens. The calculated Ramberg-Osgood parameter was (n = 4.67) which
defines the degree of curve roundness [19]. The complete stress-strain curve obtained
from the tensile coupon tests for the stainless steel tubes is shown in Fig. 4. The
nonlinear plastic hardening model assumes an initial isotropic yield surface described
by the Von Mises criterion and expands, or hardens, isotropically.
To simulate the stainless steel material behavior, a multi-linear stress-strain curve was
used, as provided by ABAQUS. The first part of the multi-linear curve represented an
elastic part up to the 0.2% proof stress with measured Youngs modulus
o
E , and
Poissons ratio was taken as 0.3. Because the analysis of post-buckling involves large
inelastic strains, the nominal static stress-strain curve was converted to true stress and
logarithmic plastic true strain curve. Accordingly, the true stress
true
and plastic true
strain
pl
true
true, as required by ABAQUS, were calculated using Eqs. (1) and (2):
) 1 ( + =
true
(1)
o
E
true pl
true

+ = ) 1 ln( (2)
On the other hand, the welding material was simulated using a bi-linear stress-strain
curve. The first part presented a linear part up to the yield stress which was taken as 400
MPa, as reported in the ECP 205-2001 [20].

Fig. 4: Stress-strain curve of stainless-steel
3.5 Modelling of initial geometrical imperfections
Unfortunately, the initial local geometric imperfections for the tested hollow-section
stub columns of [12] were not measured, because their effect was expected to be of
minor importance in the behavior of the final concrete-filled stainless steel stub
columns; refer back to section 2.1. Thus, local buckling mode with assumed magnitudes
was recommended in this finite element analysis through a parametric study for each
column. These local buckling modes were obtained by carrying out the Eigenvalue
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STL-005-7
analyses of the column. Only the first buckling mode was used herein. The buckling
modes predicted by the ABAQUS Eigenvalue analysis were factored by the assumed
magnitudes of the initial local geometric imperfections, since they are all normalized to
1.0. Accordingly, each test specimen was compared, at the beginning, to the finite
element model using three proposed initial imperfections. The average values of initial
imperfection (w) were taken as 0.2t and 1.0t, where (t) is the thickness of the test
specimen which equals to 2 mm. The third value of the initial imperfection was taken
equal to the length of the test specimen over 300 (w=L/300), which is the European
code limit [7]. Since the length of the columns varied between them, the third
imperfection value had different values among the columns. However, this third value
was normalized for each test specimen by using its thickness (w=t). The actual initial
imperfection for each column was then estimated via a parametric study to ensure that
the proposed model accords well with the test results.
3.6 Modelling of residual stresses
In the modelling, the residual stresses were included to simulate the stresses generated
due to the use of longitudinal welding in two or four sides of the stiffened columns. The
residual stresses, using the ABAQUS (*INITIAL CONDITIONS, TYPE=STRESS)
parameter, were assumed to be equal to the tensile 0.2% proof stresses in the corners
connected by longitudinal welds (
rt
); see Fig. 5. By applying equilibrium condition to
each face including stiffeners, the compression residual stresses (
rc
) were calculated.
The distribution of welding residual stresses is shown in Fig. 5. On the other hand, these
stresses were not included in the corners bent by breaking press.
4 MODELLING RESULTS AND EVALUATION
The numerical modelling of the stainless steel stiffened and unstiffened columns was
verified using the experimental tests conducted by Dabaon et al [12]. Table 1
summarizes the dimensions and the test strengths (P
Test
) of the specimens. The cross-
section dimensions D and B are outside measurements. The depth of the stiffeners was
fixed to 30 mm for all test specimens. The classification of the cross-sections and the
effective cross-section area of the slender tubes were calculated according the EN 1993-
1-4 [7].
The finite element strength, load-shortening relationship and mode of failure are
presented from the current finite element simulation. The comparison between the test,
numerical and European code results (P
EC3
as computed and given in [12]) are tabulated
in Table 2. Figure 6 shows the deformed shape for four columns from groups SHS2 and
RHS2, while Figs. 7 and 8 provide the load-end shortening relationship of the columns
RHS1C0 and RHS2C0N, for further results refer to [11].
Table 2 shows a satisfactory agreement between the experimental ultimate loads and the
corresponding values of the present finite element model. Accordingly, the
unconservative design strengths according to the European code [7], as observed [12],
can be attributed to the high values of imperfections for these columns which exceeded
the limits of [7] (L/300). However, these high values of imperfections did not affect the
strength of concrete-filled stainless steel stiffened stub columns as presented in [13].
This means that the initial values of imperfections for the stainless steel tubes can
exceed the limit given by the European code [7] if they are acting only as a construction
stage for concrete-filled stainless stiffened steel stub columns.
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STL-005-8
On the opposite, it can be noticed from Table 2 that test strength (P
Test
) for the
specimens SHS1C0N and RHS2C0N is bigger than (P) and (P
FE,
), respectively. This is
because the initial imperfection for specimens SHS1C0N and RHS2C0N was less than
the allowable initial imperfection specified by the EN 1993-1-4 [7] (L/300). This
explains why the design strength according to the EN 1993-1-4 [7] was conservative for
these test specimens; refer to [12].

Fig. 5: Residual stresses for stainless steel stiffened tubular stub columns
5 NORMALIZED LOAD VERSUS STRAIN RELATIONSHIP
In order to investigate the effect of column stiffening, the efficiency of the cross-section
(P/P
y
) was calculated, as given in Table 3. The yield load (P
y
), considered herein, is the
product of the proof stress (
0.2
) of the stainless steel material times the whole cross-
sectional area, i.e. the efficiency of the column is obtained.
The efficiency of the cross-section is, however, increased by stiffening the column. This
means that the generated cross-section shape, as presented in [12], provides a good
solution to increase the strength of slender tubes. However, this increase in column
capacity is accompanied with a slight increase in the cross-sectional area of the column.

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STL-005-9
Table 1: Test specimen dimensions
Group Specimen
Depth
D [mm]
Width
B [mm]
D/B
Thickness
t [mm]
D/t
Length
L [mm]
L/D
Area of
stainless
steel
[mm
2
]
Effective
area of
stainless
steel
[mm
2
]
P
Test
[12]
[kN]
SHS1C0N 120 120 2 60 360 930 580 175
SHS1
SHS1C0 120 120
1.00
2 60 360
3
1351 1275 425
SHS2C0N 160 160 2 80 480 1250 604 166.3
SHS2
SHS2C0 160 160
1.00
2 80 480
3
1671 1429 350
RHS1C0N 140 80 2 70 420 850 561 157.5
RHS1
RHS1C0 140 80
1.75
2 70 420
3
1061 953 251.8
RHS2C0N 170 120 2 85 510 1130 594 175
RHS2
RHS2C0 170 120
1.42
2 85 510
3
1341 1014 262.5
RHS3C0N 180 100 2 90 540 1090 586 157.5
RHS3
RHS3C0 180 100
1.80
2 90 540
3
1301 1013 253.8
Table 2: Comparison between tests, numerical and code results
Verification EC limit [7]
Group Specimen
P
Test

[kN] P
FE
[kN] w/t
P
FE,0.2

[kN]
P
FE,

[kN]
w/t
P
FE,1

[kN]
P
EC3
[12]
[kN]
SHS1C0N 175 172.3 0.18 173.3 154.4 0.6 146.1 165
SHS1
SHS1C0 425 424.3 1.3 533.5 490.4 0.6 455 363
SHS2C0N 166.3 166.5 1.1 189.8 174.8 0.8 168.7 172
SHS2
SHS2C0 350 348.8 0.9 443.6 356.8 0.8 339.5 407
RHS1C0N 157.5 158.3 1.0 179.5 165.3 0.7 158.8 160
RHS1
RHS1C0 258.1 249.7 1.25 302.2 271 0.7 263.6 272
RHS2C0N 175 174.7 0.8 185 173.5 0.85 171.6 169
RHS2
RHS2C0 262.5 260.6 1.6 331.5 298.5 0.85 291 289
RHS3C0N 157.5 158.1 1.6 187.7 180.5 0.9 177.3 167
RHS3
RHS3C0 253.8 252.9 1.15 325.6 270.2 0.9 265.9 289

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STL-005-10
Table 3: Numerical and yield strengths for bare stainless-steel stub columns
Group Specimen
A
[mm
2
]
P
y

[kN]
P
FE,0.2

[kN]
P
FE,

[kN]
P
FE,1

[kN]
P
FE,0.2
/ P
y

[kN]
P
FE,
/ P
y

[kN]
P
FE,1
/ P
y
[kN]
SHS1C0N 930 265.1 173.3 154.4 146.1 0.65 0.58 0.55
SHS1
SHS1C0 1351 385.0 533.5 490.4 455 1.39 1.27 1.18
SHS2C0N 1250 356.3 189.8 174.8 168.7 0.53 0.49 0.47
SHS2
SHS2C0 1671 476.2 443.6 356.8 339.5 0.93 0.75 0.71
RHS1C0N 850 242.3 179.5 165.3 158.8 0.74 0.68 0.66
RHS1
RHS1C0 1061 302.4 302.2 271 263.6 1.00 0.90 0.87
RHS2C0N 1130 322.1 185 173.5 171.6 0.57 0.54 0.53
RHS2
RHS2C0 1341 382.2 331.5 298.5 291 0.87 0.78 0.76
RHS3C0N 1090 310.7 187.7 180.5 177.3 0.60 0.58 0.57
RHS3
RHS3C0 1301 370.8 325.6 270.2 265.9 0.88 0.73 0.72

Fig. 6: Deformed shape for group SHS2 and RHS2
6 EXTENDED PARAMETRIC STUDY
6.1 Parametric study program and results
A parametric study for the stainless steel stiffened and unstiffened tubular columns were
conducted herein as an extension to the current modelling. Square hollow-sections
(SHS) and rectangular hollow-sections (RHS) were considered. The austenitic stainless
steel grade EN 1.4301 (304) was used. The stainless steel strips were of thicknesses
equal to 1, 2, 3 and 4 mm. The stiffened models were fabricated as shown in Fig. 1. The
program of the parametric study consisted of two series; one series of SHS tubes
(SHS2) and one series of RHS tubes (RHS1). The nominal section sizes (D B t) of
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STL-005-11
series SHS2 and RHS1 are 160 160 2 and 140 80 2 mm, respectively, where D
is the overall depth, B is the overall width and t is the plate thickness in mm, as shown
in Figs. 1 and 2. The overall depth-to-thickness (D/t) ratios as well as overall depth-to-
width (D/B) ratios were varied for the hollow-section stainless steel tubular columns of
series SHS2 and RHS1. The lengths (L) were 500, 1500, 2500 and 3500 mm for each
series. The initial imperfection amplitudes as a function of the plate thickness were 0.2t,
0.5t and t. The columns in this parametric study were of fixed ends.

The effective cross-sectional area (
3 , EC eff
A ) for the stainless steel columns were
calculated according to the EN 1993-1-4 [7]. The minimum radius of gyration (i
min
) of
each cross-section and the maximum length (L
max
) of the column corresponding to
maximum slenderness ratio allowed by the Egyptian specifications [20] for compression
members ( 180 = ) are also provided. The yield load (P
y
), as defined in section 5, is
also presented. Tables 4 and 5 provide the full details of the finite element models and a
sample of the related results. The results are the strength of the finite element model
(P
FE
), the end shortening (e
FE
) corresponding to the model strength and the failure
mode.
The stainless steel stiffened and unstiffened tubular columns are labelled such that the
shape of stainless steel tube can be identified from the label. Therefore, the first three
letters defines the cross-section shape whether square (SHS) or rectangular hollow-
section (RHS). The suffix letter "N" denotes the unstiffened specimens while suffix
letter "S" denotes stiffened specimens. Meanwhile, the letter L followed by numbers
before the parentheses represents the length of the stainless steel tube in millimeters.
Finally, the parenthesized number is the thickness of the stainless steel tube. For
instance, the label SHS2NL1500(3) defines the unstiffened square hollow-section of
1500 mm length and 3 mm thickness.

Shortening [mm]
Fig. 7: Load versus longitudinal-end
shortening for RHS1C0
Shortening [mm]
Fig. 8: Load versus longitudinal-end
shortening for RHS1C0N
-657-

STL-005-12
Table 4: Details of conducted parametric study
Group
D
[mm]
B
[mm]
t
[mm]
i
min

[mm]
L
max

[mm]
A
[mm
2
]
A
eff, EC3
[mm
2
]
A
eff, EC3

/A
P
y

[kN]
160 160 1 65.79 23684 625 172 0.28 178.1
160 160 2 65.48 23573 1250 604 0.48 356.3
160 160 3 65.17 23461 1875 1245 0.66 534.4
SHS2N
160 160 4 64.87 23353 2500 2048 0.82 712.5
160 160 1 62.11 22360 835 446 0.53 238.0
160 160 2 61.85 22266 1671 1429 0.86 476.2
160 160 3 61.61 22180 2506 2501 1.00 714.2
SHS2S
160 160 4 61.36 22090 3342 3342 1.00 952.5
140 80 1 35.06 12622 425 167 0.39 121.1
140 80 2 35.06 12622 850 561 0.66 242.3
140 80 3 34.32 12355 1275 1063 0.83 363.4
RHS1N
140 80 4 33.95 12222 1701 1593 0.94 484.8
140 80 1 33.82 12175 530 301 0.57 151.1
140 80 2 34.74 12506 1061 953 0.90 302.4
140 80 3 33.20 11952 1591 1588 1.00 453.4
RHS1S
140 80 4 32.90 11844 2121 2121 1.00 604.5
6.2 Discussion of results
6.2.1 Effect of flat width-to-thickness ratio
The flat width-to-plate thickness (b/t) ratio of the stainless steel columns plays an
important role in the strength and behavior of bare stainless steel columns. To
investigate the sensitivity of the cross-sections for local buckling, the flat width-to-
thickness ratio was varied from 150 to 37.5 for unstiffened square hollow-section
(SHS2N), while it was in the range of 130 to 32.5 for unstiffened rectangular hollow-
section (RHS1N). For stiffened square hollow-section (SHS2S), the flat width-to-
thickness ratio was 70 to 17.5, while this range was 60 to 15 for rectangular stiffened
group (RHS1S). These ratios contain slender and non-slender cross-sections. The width-
to-thickness ratio parameters (R), which accounts for the current stainless steel material
properties, were calculated in this comparison, where the Parameter (R) is defined in
equation (3):
E
k
) 12(1
t
b
R
0.2
2
2
= (3)
Where:
b
is the flat width of stainless steel plate
t
is the stainless steel plate thickness
is the Poissons ratio of stainless steel material ( 0.3 = )

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STL-005-13
* LB: Local buckling modes, Y: Yielding of the gross cross-section
k
is the buckling coefficient ( 4 k = )
0.2
is the proof stress of the stainless steel material ( MPa 285

0.2
= )
E
is the initial Youngs modulus ( MPa 200000 E = )
The values of the width-to-thickness ratio parameter (R) were varied to investigate its
influence on the strength of bare stainless steel columns. The values of parameter (R)
used in this parametric study, are presented in Table 6. The limit value of width-to-plate
thickness ratio, according to class 4 in EN 1993-1-4 [7], is 27.2 as calculated from
equation (4).
7 . 30
t
b
= (4)
Where:
is a factor accounting for different yield stresses ( 886 . 0
210000
E
235
0.2
= =
Table 5: Results of square unstiffened and stiffened finite element models
Group Specimen
D
[mm]
B
[mm]
D/B
t
[mm]
D/t
L
[mm]
P
FE,0.2

[kN]
P
FE,0.5

[kN]
P
FE,1

[kN]
e
FE,0.2

[mm]
e
FE,0.5

[mm]
e
FE,1

[mm]
Failure
mode *
SHS2SL500(1) 500 170.0 161.3 151.2 0.60 0.63 0.68
SHS2SL1500(1) 1500 168.5 156.8 144.4 1.70 1.68 1.72
SHS2SL2500(1) 2500 168.3 156.9 144.8 2.82 2.79 2.84
SHS2SL3500(1)
160 160 1.0 1 160
3500 168.3 156.5 143.5 3.84 3.73 3.69
LB
SHS2SL500(2) 500 459.4 405.1 354.8 0.75 0.80 0.89
SHS2SL1500(2) 1500 453.2 398.2 341.7 2.16 2.12 2.33
SHS2SL2500(2) 2500 446.0 384.5 334.1 3.51 3.06 3.56
SHS2SL3500(2)
160 160 1.0 2 80
3500 451.4 395.5 333.9 5.07 4.96 5.23
LB
SHS2SL500(3) 500 714.3 664.3 590.2 0.99 0.76 1.00
SHS2SL1500(3) 1500 710.5 655.3 566.7 2.62 2.40 2.59
SHS2SL2500(3) 2500 715.1 701.1 675.6 4.13 3.88 3.78
SHS2SL3500(3)
160 160 1.0 3 53.33
3500 716.2 701.7 675.8 5.85 5.49 5.39
Y
SHS2SL500(4) 500 966.6 912.8 893.4 2.32 1.10 1.21
SHS2SL1500(4) 1500 951.5 931.0 893.6 2.93 2.81 2.68
SHS2SL2500(4) 2500 952.9 933.6 893.7 4.80 4.35 4.23
SHS2S
SHS2SL3500(4)
160 160 1.0 4 40
3500 954.7 925.4 891.2 6.70 5.14 5.39
Y

Accordingly, the limit value of the width-to-thickness ratio parameter (R) is 0.55.
Obviously, this is to ensure that the current parametric study contains slender and non-
slender stainless steel cross-sections, as presented in Table 6. Therefore, the finite
element models, herein, represent two main failure modes. In case of slender stainless
-659-

STL-005-14
steel cross-sections, the local buckling mode was the controlling mode of failure
whereas the yielding was the mode of failure which occurred for the non-slender
stainless steel cross-sections.
Table 6: Width-to-thickness ratio parameter (R)
Group
D
[mm]
B
[mm]
D/B
t
[mm]
D/t b/t R Cross-section
160 160 1.0 1 160 150 2.98 Slender
160 160 1.0 2 80 75 1.49 Slender
160 160 1.0 3 53.33 50 0.99 Slender
SHS2N
160 160 1.0 4 40 37.5 0.74 Slender
160 160 1.0 1 160 70 1.39 Slender
160 160 1.0 2 80 35 0.70 Slender
160 160 1.0 3 53.3323.33 0.46 Non-slender
SHS2S
160 160 1.0 4 40 17.5 0.35 Non-slender
140 80 1.75 1 140 130 2.58 Slender
140 80 1.75 2 70 65 1.29 Slender
140 80 1.75 3 46.6743.33 0.86 Slender
RHS1N
140 80 1.75 4 35 32.5 0.65 Slender
140 80 1.75 1 140 60 1.19 Slender
140 80 1.75 2 70 30 0.60 Slender
140 80 1.75 3 46.67 20 0.40 Non-slender
RHS1S
140 80 1.75 4 35 15 0.30 Non-slender
In general, the decrease of column strength is observed with the increase of flat width-
to-thickness ratio parameter. The reduction in columns strength with the increase of
parameter (R) seems to be gradual in case of stiffened columns whereas strength of
unstiffened columns decreases more rapidly with the increase of parameter (R). This is
attributed to the use of stiffeners which reduces the value of the parameter (R) at the
same time of increasing the strength by acting as an additional load bearing elements.
For further results see [11].
6.2.3 Effect of stiffeners
An increase in both column strength (P
FE
) and end shortening corresponding to column
strength (e
FE
) was exhibited in stiffened stainless steel columns compared to the
unstiffened columns. This increase in columns strength (P
FE
) was accompanied by a
small increase in the cross-sectional area of the stainless steel columns. As shown in
Table 7, the increase in cross-section area in case of square and rectangular hollow-
sections, in this parametric study, was about 33.33 and 25 %, respectively.
For the square hollow-sections, the average values of the column strength of the
stiffened columns divided by that of the unstiffened columns was equal to 1.86. The
whole cross-section area of the stiffened columns divided by that of the unstiffened
columns is equal to 1.33. This means that the stainless steel stiffened hollow-section
-660-

STL-005-15
columns offered an average of 40% increase in the column strength over that of the
unstiffened hollow-section columns.
In case of rectangular hollow-sections, the average values of the column strength of the
stiffened columns divided by that of the unstiffened columns was equal to 1.42. Also,
the whole cross-section area of the stiffened columns divided by that of the unstiffened
columns is equal to 1.25. This means that the stainless steel stiffened hollow-section
columns offered an average of 14% increase in the column strength over that of the
unstiffened hollow-section columns.
Table 7: Comparison between unstiffened and stiffened cross-section areas
A [mm]
Group
D
[mm]
B
[mm]
t
[mm]
Unstiffened
A
N

Stiffened
A
S

A
N
/ A
S
160 160 1 625 835 0.75
160 160 2 1250 1671 0.75
160 160 3 1875 2506 0.75
SHS2
160 160 4 2500 3342 0.75
140 80 1 425 530 0.80
140 80 2 850 1061 0.80
140 80 3 1275 1591 0.80
RHS1
140 80 4 1701 2121 0.80
6.2.4 Comparison with the European specification and proposed design strength
A sample of the graphical comparisons between the finite element results with the
European design curve is provided in Fig. 9. The normalized column buckling load was
derived by dividing the finite element strength (P
FE
) by the cross-sectional resistance
(P
EC3
) according to the EN 1993-1-4 [7]. The slenderness parameter ( ) is computed
from Eqn. (5).
cr
EC eff
N
A
2 . 0 3 ,

= (5)
Where,
cr
N is the elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode based on the gross
cross sectional properties [7].
However, the evaluation of the finite element models (with fixed ends) shows that the
current codes are reasonably safe for small imperfection values (w); w/t=0.2 and 0.5.
Therefore, a modification will take place for the European design formula, to be used in
the Egyptian specifications [21], by using a compressive resistance factor (
c
) instead
of the partial material factors (
0 M
). The proposed compressive resistance factor (
c
)
will vary for the stainless steel columns of different imperfection values. Generally, the
compressive resistance factor (
c
) decreases with the increase in the columns
imperfection value, as shown in Table 8. However, the proposed design strength (
op
N
Pr
)
-661-

STL-005-16
for stiffened and unstiffened stainless steel columns will be in the following forms, for
the different classes (1, 2, 3 and 4) specified in Table 5.2 of [7]:
2 . 0 Pr
A N
c op
= for Class 1,2 and 3 cross-sections (6)
2 . 0 Pr

eff c op
A N = for Class 4 cross-sections (7)
Where
[ ]
0 . 1
1
5 . 0
2
2

+
=

(8)
( ) ( )
2
0 1 5 . 0 + + = (9)
cr
y
N
N
= (10)
is an imperfection factor
0 is the limiting slenderness which equals 0.4 in case of stainless steel hollow-
sections (welded and seamless) and
the values of
c
are given in Table 8.
Table 8: Values of the compressive resistance factor
c

w/t
Imperfection
0.2 0.5 1.0
c

0.9 0.9 0.8
The proposed design strengths are drawn in Fig. 9. From these figures, it can be seen
that the proposed design strength for each stainless steel cross-section is divided into
two parts. The first part is a linear horizontal part which reflects the behavior of the stub
columns until the slenderness parameter ( ) reaches 0.4. In the second part, the
strength of the stainless steel columns starts to decrease under the effect of flexural
buckling.
The compressive resistance factor 8 . 0 =
c
, in case of high initial imperfections, may be
used only in case of stainless steel columns in the constructional stage of concrete-filled
stainless steel columns.

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STL-005-17
7 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, numerical modelling was conducted to study the strength and behavior of
stainless steel stiffened and unstiffened hollow-section columns under uniform axial
compression. The austenitic stainless steel grade EN 1.4301 (304) was used. The
stiffened sections were fabricated by welding four lipped angles or two lipped channels
at the lips. Therefore, longitudinal stiffeners were formed at the mid-depth and mid-
width of square sections and at the mid-depth of rectangular sections. The eigenvalue
buckling analysis was carried out to investigate the buckling behavior of the columns.
The buckling analysis was, then, followed by a nonlinear analysis carried out on
columns with imperfection effects. The non-linear properties of stainless steel material
were taken into consideration in the finite element modelling. The numerical modelling
was verified using the experimental results of stainless steel stiffened and unstiffened
tubular stub columns. Good agreement of the proposed model was provided with the
experimental tests. The numerical modelling was, then, expanded by a parametric study
on slender and non-slender columns.
The results showed that the high values of imperfections, including welding residual
stresses and local geometrical imperfections, reduces the strength of bare stainless steel
columns. As a result, the European specifications become unconservative in this case.
On the opposite, using high imperfect stainless steel stiffened tubes in concrete-filled
stainless steel stub columns provides a high increase in the strength of these columns
over the unstiffened once. Therefore, the parametric study showed that the high initial
imperfect columns, in the constructional stage of concrete-filled stainless steel columns,
may be designed with a smaller compressive resistance factor ( 8 . 0 =
c
). However, the
European specification was found to be conservative for stainless steel stiffened and
unstiffened columns with low values of geometrical initial imperfections. At the end,
new proposed design formulae are proposed to be considered in the Egyptian LRFD
specifications.

Fig. 9: Proposed design equation for SHS2N and RHS1N with w/t=1.0
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STL-005-18
8 REFERENCES
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STL-005-19
[16] ABAQUS Standard Users Manual, Hibbitt, Karlsson and Sorensen, Inc, Vol. 1,
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Parameters", NACA Technical Note no. 902, July, 1942.
[20] ECP 2001: "Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Construction and Bridges
(Allowable Stress Design) ", Code No. 205, Cairo, Egypt, 2001.
[21] ECP 2007: "Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Construction (Load and
Resistance Factor Design)", Code No. 205, Cairo, Egypt, 2007.
-665-

STL-006-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





Strengthening of multi story and double bay steel frames using post
tensioned cables

Prof.Dr. NABIL S. MAHMOUD
Department of Civil Engineering, Mansoura university
Mansoura university, Mansoura, P.O. Box 35516, Egypt
E-mail: nsm_eco@mans.edu.eg.com
Prof.Dr. AHMED BADR
Dr . FIKRY A. SALEM
E-mail: drfikry_salem@yahoo.com
Eng. MOHAMED GHANNAM
E-mail: ghannam83@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper is to study the effect of post tensioning techniques in
strengthening multi story steel frames and double bay steel frames. The analysis and the
results are obtained by using ANSYS program. Two techniques are used in
strengthening the double bay frames, also two techniques are used in strengthening the
multi story frame. Comparisons are made between these techniques to determine which
one is better in strengthening the double bay frame and which one is better in
strengthening the multi story frame. It is found that model-2 of the 2
nd
technique (using
Cables in the +ve and the -ve part of the beam) is the best model in reducing stresses on
the double bay frame. For the multi story frames it is found that the 1
st
technique (using
cables in the beams only) is the best model in reducing stress on the beam and the 2
nd

technique (using cable in the beam and column) is the best model in reducing stresses
on column
KEYWORDS
Steel frames, Post tensioning, Strengthening, ANSYS, Techniques.
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STL-006-2
1 INTROPDUCTION
Post tensioning is one of the most effective methods for strengthening an existing
structure to overcome the increase in service load without replacement of parts of the
structure. The aim of this paper is to study the effect of post tensioning in strengthening
multi story steel frames and double bay steel frames using different techniques in each
case. Many researches deal with this solution for different types of structures. Dunker,
K. F. and others, [9] presented a research concerning strengthening of existing single-
span steel-beam with concrete deck bridges,. Klaiber, F.W and others,[8] worked on,
strengthening of an existing continuous-span, steel-beam, concrete deck bridge by post-
tensioning, where the stress was reduced by about 18 %. Ayyub, B.M and others, [7]
presented a paper on prestressing a composite girder subjected to a positive moment.
They found that using strands is preferable than using bars in post-tensioning. Ayyub
,B.M and others. presenteded two papers, one was on Experimental study for
prestressed composite girder subjected to negative moment, and the second on the
analytical study for the last research[5,6], which show that postetnsioneng techniques
decreases the crck in the negative moment region and reduces the required steel. Phares
,B.M and others. [3] presented a research on strengthening of steel girder bridges using
FRP, where the stress was reduced by about 10 %. Nazir, C.P.,[2] presented a research
on prestressed arch steel bridge which shows the great effect of post tensioned cable in
reducing stresses in the arch.
2 STRENGTHENING OF DOUBLE BAY FRAME
In this part a double bay frame is modeled, each bay is 25m span and 12m height. The
beam of the frame is horizontal. Steel of grade 37, is used and the bases of the frame are
hinged. Dead load includes the own weight of the steel frame and a concrete roof of
10cm thickness. Live load is assumed according to the Egyptian code [1]. The layout of
the frame is indicated in fig (1), the sections used in the frames beam and columns is
illustrated here, for beams: h
w
=800mm, t
w
=14mm, b
f
=300mm, t
f
=26mm as shown in
fig(2). A hunch is used at the connection of the beam with the first and the last column
with depth of 1050mm at the beginning and 800mm at the end of the hunch, the length
of the hunch is 2200mm as shown in fig(1). A hunch is used at the connection of the
beam with the internal column with variable depth of 800mm/1400mm, the length of
the haunch is 2600mm as shown in fig (1). For the outer columns, a tapered column is
used. Its section at the top is h
w
=800mm, t
w
=14mm, b
f
=300mm, t
f
=26mm and at the
bottom is h
w
=400mm, t
w
=14mm, b
f
=300mm, t
f
=26mm. The dimension of the interior
column is h
w
= 550mm, t
w
=14mm b
f
=300mm t
f
=26mm. Stiffeners are used with
thickness of 14mm as Shown in fig(2). Where h
w
is the height of web, t
w
is the web
thickness, b
f
is the flange width and t
f
is the thickness of the flange. The connections
between columns and beam are bolted (M24 grade (10.9)).

2462cm 2462cm
5074.6
45.2cm
60.2cm
45.2cm
Fig. 1: Layout of the frame
h1=1050mm
L=2200mm
h2=800mm
L=2600mm
h1=1400
h2=800mm
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STL-006-3
Two techniques are used to model the strengthening of frame using post tensioning
cables. ANSYS finite element programme [4] is used to simulate the behaviour of the
model with elastic and linear analysis. Shell 63 element is used to model the columns,
beams and the stiffeners. Beam 4 element is used to model the bolt. Each bolt is
modelled by using 8 beams element round the centre of the real bolt position as shown
in figs 2 and 3, to avoid concentration of the stresses. The contact between corner
connections plate and the column is done by using contact 52 element, which can carry
axial compression force and shear force between the surfaces of contact. A fine mesh is
used at the location of concentration of the stresses and coarse mesh is used at the
location, where there is small variation in the stresses over the element. The largest
aspect ratio used is 2

2.1 1
st
Technique
Post tensioned cables are used between the inflection points of the moment for each bay
of the frame as indicated in fig 4. The thickness of the bracket supporting the cables is
40mm to avoid any failure in that location. The cables are placed at 200mm under the
bottom flange of the beam as shown in fig 4.

Beam 4 element (with axial capabilities only) is used to represent the cable in the finite
element model. Pretension 179 element is used to simulate the post tensioned cable in
the model. The connection between the cable and the bracket is represented by 8
(beam4 element) connected to 8 nodes in the bracket to avoid concentration of any
stresses at the location of the connection of the cable with the bracket, due to post
tensioning force, as shown in figs 5and 6. The cables that are used in the analysis are of
32 mm diameter (11/4 wire) with ultimate strength of 19.6 t/cm
2
.
Center of bolt
8 elements is used
to model the bolt
Center of bolt
Fig (5-47, 5-48)
8 elements is used
to model the bolt
Fig. 4: 1
st
technique layout
1493cm 1493cm
280cm
649cm
649cm
280cm
260cm 260cm
Fig. 2: Bolt meshing and dimensions of the frame Fig. 3: Illustration for bolt connection
b
f
=300mm
b
f
=300mm
t
f
=26mm
t
f
=26mm t
w
=14mm
h
w
=800mm
t
s
=14mm
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STL-006-4
Fig. 8: Connection between cables and the brackets

2.2 2
nd
Technique
In this technique cables are used in the positive moment regions in the both bays and in
the negative moment region, over the interior column. In this technique, five models are
used to simulate the strenthening of the frame as follows
2.2.1 Model-1
In this model two cables are used in the positeve moment region between the inflection
points of the two bays. Two cables at the negative moment region, over the interior
column connecting between the brackets, as shown in fig 7.

The Connection between cables and the brackets is shown in fig 8.

Cable
Element connecting the
cables with the bracket
Cables
Fig. 7: Model-1 layout
Fig. (5-50)
Cables in the +ve
moment region
Stiffeners
Bracket
Cables in the ve moment region
Stiffener (40mm thickness)
Bracket Cable
Beam
Fig. 5: Bracket of post tensioned cables
1493cm 1493cm
280cm
649cm 649cm
280cm
260cm 260cm
Fig. 6: Detail for the cable
conection with the bracket
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STL-006-5
Fig. 10:Connection of the
cables in the ve moment
region
2.2.2 Model-2
In this model two cables are used in the positive moment regions between the inflection
points of both bays . Two cables are used in the negative moment region, over the
interior column to connect between the stiffeners at the end of the haunch of the beams
as shown in fig 9. Connection of the cables with the bracket in the negative moment
region is illustrated in fig 10.

2.2.3 Model-3
In this model cables are used in the positeve moment regions. The fixing point of the
cable are 3m away from the inflections point in both bays. Two cables in the negative
moment region over the interior column connecting between the stiffeners placed at the
end of the hunchs of the beams, as indicated in Fig 11.

1493cm 1493cm
280cm
649cm 649cm
280cm
260cm 260cm
Fig. 9: Model-2-layout
Cables
Fig (5-52)
Plates of 40mm
thickness
Cable
Hunch
Beam
Cables
Fig. 11: Model-3 layout
893cm
580cm
949cm
260cm 260cm
949cm
580cm
893cm
-670-

STL-006-6
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
post tension force(ton)
I
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

i
n

t
h
e

l
o
a
d
c
a
p
a
c
i
t
i
e
s
(
%
)
1st technique model(2)
2.2.4 Model-4
In this model, two cables are used in the positeve moment regions, away from the
inflection points in the two bays by 2m. Another two cables are used in the negative
moment region, over the interior column to connect the stiffeners at the end of the
hunchs of the beams.
2.2.5 Model-5
In this model cables are used in the positeve moment regions, away from the inflection
points in the two bay by 1m. Another two cables are used in the negative moment
region over the interior column to connect the stiffeners at the end of the hunchs of the
beams.
2.3 Results for the double bay frame
A comparison is made between the 1
st
technique results and the models of the 2
nd

technique results. A post tensioning force of 10ton is applied to all the cables in all
models. Additional uniform load of 2.91 t/m' is applied to the beam of all models.
The following table presents the results of that comparison
Table 1: Comparison between models results of multi bay frame
Max stress in the
beam
Max Stress in end
columns
Models number
Ten
(t/cm
2
)
Comp
(t/cm
2
)
Ten
(t/cm
2
)
Comp
(t/cm
2
)
Max Shear
stress
(t/cm
2
)
Max stress in the
middle column
(t/cm
2
)
Max Def.
(cm)
1
st
Technique 1.342 -1.751 0.814 -1.485 -0.602 -0.481 -4.9961
2
nd
Technique
Model-1 1.313 -1.741 0.795 -1.452 -0.587 -0.483 -4.868
Model-2 1.307 -1.651 0.79 -1.447 -0.582 -0.486 -4.882
Model-3 1.542 -1.946 0.8 -1.62 -0.6127 -0.73 -5.017
Model-4 1.37 -1.942 0.83 -1.517 -0.6174 -0.491 -4.99
Model-5 1.341 -1.897 0.814 -1.485 -0.6013 -0.482 -4.898
Frame without
post tensioning
1.46 -1.911 0.899 -1.617 -0.6645 -0.5 -5.429
It is obvious from the stress results in the last table that model-2 of the 2
nd
technique is
the best model in reducing stresses on the frame where it gives less stresses in both the
beam and columns
Fig 12 shows the effects of pretension force on the critical stresses. The fig shows a
comparison between the results obtained through model-2 of the 2
nd
technique and those
obtained through the 1
st
technique

Fig. 12: Relation between post tension force and the increase of the load capacities
-671-

STL-006-7
3 STRENGTHENING OF MULTI STORY FRAME
This section deals with Multi-story frame strengthened by using post tensioned cables.
The model used for this frame consists of 2 story each has 5m height , 15m span and 6m
spacing .Steel 37 is used. The bases of the frame are hinged.
The dead load include the own weight of the steel frame, which is assumed = 30kg/m
2
.
The floor is covered by a concrete slab of 12cm thickness. The live load for the 1
st
story
is equal to 300 kg/m
2
and 200 kg/m
2
for the 2
nd
story. The total uniform load on the
frame is 3.78t/m on the 1
st
story and 3.18t/m' on the 2
nd
story.
The section of the designed frame is shown below:
For beam: h
w
=600mm, t
w
=12mm, b
f
=200mm, t
f
=20mm. A hunch is used with slope
1:4, its length =1.5m as shown in fig13.
For columns: h
w
= 600mm, t
w
=14 mm, b
f
=200mm, t
f
=24mm. Stiffeners of 10mm
thickness are used as shown in fig 14. Where h
w
is the height of web, t
w
is the web
thickness, bf is the flange width, tf is the thickness of the flange. Fig 13 shows a layout
for the frame. The connection between the column and beam is bolted, 3 stiffeners of
20mm thickness is used at the location of the connection between the beam's flange and
the plate of the corner connection, as shown in fig 14. The same analysis, elements
types and meshing and that are used in the double bay frames technique are used here

Two techniques are used to model the strengthening of the frame using post tensioning
cables.
3.1 1
st
. Technique:
In this technique the cables are used in the positive moment region of the beams as
shown in fig 14. Two post tensioned cables are used between the inflection points of the
beams. The thickness of the bracket which is supporting the cables is 40mm to avoid
failure in this location, the cables are placed at 300mm under the bottom flange of the
beam with length of 600mm. Two stiffeners of 40 mm thickness are used at the ends of
the brackets. Shell63 element [4] is used to model the frames flanges and webs of the
columns and the beam and also to model the stiffeners and the bracket. A meshing with
aspect ratio not more than 2 is used. Beam4 element [4] is used to model the cables
where it carries only axial load. The cables that are used in the analysis are of 32 mm
diameter (11/4 wire) with ultimate strength of 19.6 t/cm
2
. The connection between the
beam and the column is the same as indicted in the double bay frame. Fig 15 gives a
simple layout for this technique.

Fig. 13: Multi-story frame layout Fig. 14: Indication for detail-1
Detail-1
3 stiffeners (20mm)
1.5m
Slope =1:4
t
w
=12mm
t
f
=20mm
b
f
=200mm
t
f
=24mm
b
f
=200mm
h
w
=600mm
-672-

STL-006-8

3.2 2
nd
Technique
In this technique the beam is strengthened by the same way as the 1
st
technique. In
addition cables are placed in the positive moment region of the column. In this
technique two models are used. In the 1
st
model cables that are used in the top of the
column of the second story is attached to the stiffeners opposite to the compression
flange of the beam as indicated in fig 16. In the 2
nd
model cables that are used in the top
of the column of the second story is attached to the stiffeners opposite to the tension
flange of the beam as indicated in fig 17, the connection of the cable with the stiffeners
is obvious in figs 18 and 19.

Post tensioned cable
Fig. 15: 1
st
technique layout
Fig. 16: 2
nd
technique layout (1
st
model) Fig. 17: .2
nd
technique layout (2
nd
model)
Detail -1(fig 17)
Detail -2(fig 18)
Fig. 18: Connection of the cable with the
stiffeners at the middle of the column
Stiffeners
Post tensioned
Connecting
Hinged base
Stiffeners at 520mm from
the base
Fig. 19: Connection of the cable with the
stiffeners near the column base
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STL-006-9
Table 2: Reduction of stresses due to different techniques of multi story frame
3.3 Results for the multi story frame
A comparison is made between the 1
st
technique results and the 2
nd
technique results. A
post tensioning force of 10ton is applied to all cables. Additional uniform load of
3.18t/m' at the 2
nd
floor and 3.78t/m' at the 1
st
floor. The following table presents the
results of that comparison by introducing the stresses at different sectionsof the frame.
Fig 20 indicates the location of section that is used in table 2.

SEC Normal stresses in
the frame with out
post-tensioning
(t/cm
2
)
Normal stresses in
the frame by using
1
st
technique (t/cm
2
)
Percentage of
reduction in
stresses%
Normal stresses on
the frame by using
2
nd
technique (t/cm
2
)
Percentage of
reduction in
stresses%
Interior
side
Exterior
side
Interior
side
Exterior
side
Interior
side
Exterior
side
Interior
side
Exterior
side
Interior
side
Exterior
side
1 0.131 -0.657 0.018 -0.591 86.3 10 -0.075 -0.459 30.1
2 -1.09 0.367 -0.993 0.29 8.9 21 -1.009 0.109 7.4 70.3
3 1.71 -0.981 1.528 -0.903 10.6 8 1.16 -0.888 32.2 9.5
4 -1.449 1.004 -1.286 0.864 11.2 13.9 -1.28 0.621 11.7 38.1
5 -1.921 2.055 -1.702 1.821 11.4 11.4 -1.711 1.849 10.9 10
6 1.164 -1.021 0.823 -0.98 29.3 4 0.811 -0.955 30.3 6.5
7 -2.018 0.943 -1.772 0.808 12.2 14.3 -1.774 0.815 12.1 13.6
8 0.898 -1.15 0.558 -1.067 37.9 7.2 0.543 -1.054 39.5 8.3
Max shear stresses 0.75 0.66 0.72

Max deflection -2.59 -2.09 -2.07

It is obvious from the stresses and deflection results that 1
st
techniques reduses stresses
on the beam more than 2
nd
technique also the 2
nd
techniqe reduce stresses on the column
more than the 1
st
technique
4 CONCLUSION
1-Post tensioned technique is very effective in strengthening double bay and multi story
frames
2- Model-2 of the 2
nd
technique (using Cables in the +ve and the -ve part of the beam) is
the best model used in strengthening the double bay frame
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Interior side
Interior side
Fig. 20: Post tension of the sections used in table2
Exterior side
-674-

STL-006-10
3- For the multi story frame it is found from the percentage of the reduction in the
stresses that 1
st
technique (using cables in the +ve moment region of the beam only)
gives the biggest reduction in the stresses in the beam while the 2
nd
technique (using
cables in the +ve moment region of the beam and column) gives the biggest reduction
of the stresses in the column
4- As the eccentricity of the cable increase the reduction in stresses increase
5- Stresses can be reduced on the frame by nearly 35% by using post tensioning cables
6- Strengthening frames using post tensioning cables can be used in repairing structures
or as a main system of a newly designed frame
5 REFERENCES
[1] Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Construction and Bridges (Allowable stress
design) code no. ECP 205- 2001- Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban
Communities, Housing and Building Research National Centre, Cairo, Egypt
Edition , (2008).
[2] Nazir, C.P., Prestressed steel arch bridge. IE (I) Journal CV , Vol 84,
May (2003).
[3] Phares, B.M., Wipf, T.J. , Klaiber, F. W., Abu-Hawash, A.,
Lee ,Y., Strengthening of steel girder bridges using FRP Iowa State
University August (2003).
[4] ANSYS Verification Manual Release 5.6.2., ANSYS, Inc., (1999).
[5] Ayyub, B.M., Sohn, Y.G., saadatmanesh, H. Prestressed composite girder I
:experimental study for negative journal of structural engineering ,vol.118,No.10,
October(1992).
[6] Ayyub, B.M., Sohn, Y.G., Saadatmanesh, H. Prestressed composite Girder
II :Analytical study for negative moment journal of structural engineering
,vol.118,No.10, October,(1992).
[7] Ayyub, B.M., Sohn, Y.G, Saadatmanesh, H. Prestressed composite girder
under positive moment journal of structural Engineering Vol.116,No.6,june
(1990).
[8] Klaiber, F. W., Dunker, K. F., Planck, S. M.,Sanders, W.W., Strengthening of
an existing continuous-span, steel-beam, concrete deck bridge by Post-.
Tensioning Final Report . ISU-ERI-Ames -90210. Ames: Engineering Research
Institute, Iowa State University , Ames, IA, (1990).
[9] Dunker, K. F., Klaiber, F. W., Beck, B. L., Sanders, W.W., Strengthening of
existing single-span steel-beam and concrete deck bridges. Final Report -
Part II. ISU-ERIAmes-85231. Ames: Engineering Research Institute, Iowa State
University Ames, IA, (1985).
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STL-007-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt




Post-Local and Distortional Buckling Capacities of Simple Lipped
Channel CFS Subjected to Axial Compressive Force

M.T.HANNA
Department of Structure and Metallic construction,
National Housing and Building Research Center,
87-El-Tahreer Street, Dokki, P. O. Box 1770, Egypt
m_tawfick2003@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT:
The objective of this paper is to investigate the post local and distortional buckling
capacities of simple lipped channel sections subjected to axial compressive loads. First,
the elastic buckling loads have been determined using a newly developed constrained
finite strip method, cFSM, in which the three basic buckling modes (local, distortional,
and global) are decomposed and identified from the general buckling shape. This method
employees the mechanical definitions of the different buckling modes that are defined in
the generalized beam theory, GBT, within the context of the finite strip method. Then,
the ultimate loads have been determined using a nonlinear finite element model that
accounts for both the material and geometric non-linearities. A group of simple lipped
channel sections varied in their flange widths and web depths are chosen. The main
findings are that the web is the main element which is responsible for the post buckling
capacity. Moreover, the post-local buckling capacity is much higher than the post
distortional buckling capacity.
KEYWORDS:
Steel Structures; Stability; Ultimate Strength; Cold Formed Sections, Local Buckling,
Distortional Buckling .
1. INTRODUCTION
Cold formed sections often fail in three basic modes which are local, L, distortional, D,
and global, G. Local and distortional modes are characterized by entire deformations,
whether translation or bending of the plates forming the section, while global buckling
represents the whole motion of the cross section. Critical buckling stress calculation for
thin-walled members can be achieved by using several numerical methods such as: (i)
shell finite element method (FEM), (ii) finite strip method (FSM) and (iii) Generalized
Beam Theory (GBT), or by using an approximate analytical formulae.
-676-
STL-007-2
FEM and FSM methods provide general solution for the buckling problem. However,
Generalized Beam Theory (GBT) has the capability of categorizing the general buckling
modes into: (i) rigid body modes (extension, major/minor axis bending, torsion),
(ii)distortion modes, and (iii) local plate modes. Recently, this theory has attracted the
attention of several researchers. Silvestre and Camotim [1-3] developed GBT-based
analytical formulae to estimate distortional buckling stresses in lipped channel, zed and
rack-section steel members. Goncalves and Camotim [4] extended the domain of validity
of the GBT buckling analyses to cover elastic-plastic members with open and closed
cross-sections.
The separation of general deformed shape into global, G, distortional, D, local, L, and
other, O, deformation modes is done by implementation of three mechanical criteria
based on the GBT assumptions, Table 1. Criterion # 1: Vlasovs hypothesis, the
membrane (in-plane) shear as well as transverse strains is zero. The longitudinal
displacements (warping displacements) vary linearly within the flat element of the
section. Criterion # 2: the longitudinal warping displacements is not constantly equal to
zero along the whole cross section, the cross section is in transverse equilibrium.
Criterion # 3: There is no transverse flexural within the flat elements of the section. For
global deformations the three criteria are validated. However, for distortional mode, D,
the third criterion is not satisfied since there is bending within the flat element of the
section. Criterion #2 implies that warping must be non-zero, thus providing a separation
between local plate deformations which have no deformation at the center plane of the
plate (only bending) and other deformation modes. The deformations in the "O" space
are either transverse extension/shortening, or in-plane shear, thus the critiron # 1 is not
satisfied.
Table 1. Mode Classification Table
G
modes
D
modes
L
Modes
O
modes
Criterion #1 Vlasovs hypothesis Yes Yes Yes No
Criterion #2 Longitudinal warping Yes Yes No -
Criterion #3 Undistorted section Yes No - -
Generally, thin plates can carry additional loads after buckling had happened due to the
redistribution of stresses. This additional capacity depends on several factors such as; the
width-thickness ratios of the plates forming the sections, degree of freedom at the ends of
the plate (the intersection lines of the plates forming the sections), and the state of
stresses within the plates. Therefore, local and distortional buckling modes have certain
post buckling capacities, however, global buckling has insignificant amount. Recent
design methods [5, 6] such as direct strength method, DSM, evaluate the strength of the
cold formed sections based on the elastic buckling loads of these sections. Therefore, in
addition to the importance of accurate determination of buckling loads, it is important to
study the post buckling behavior of such sections.
2. SECTIONS CONSIDERED
Simple lipped channel sections subjected to axial compressive force as shown in Fig.1
are considered in this study. The material properties assumed in the study are: F
y
=50ksi
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STL-007-3
(360MPa), E=29500ksi (2.1E5MPa), G=11346.15ksi (8.04E4MPa), = 0.3. Dimensions
of the studied sections are selected from tables provided by SSMA [7].

b
b
h
c
t
c

Fig. 1: simple lipped channel sections.
Table 2. Section Dimensions
Sec. Name h
inc (mm)
b
inc (mm)
c
inc (mm)
t
inc (mm)
400S162-54 4 (100) 1.62 (40.5) .5 (12.5) .054 (1.35)
400S200-54 4 (100) 2 (50) .625 15.62) .054 (1.35)
600S162-54 6 (150) 1.62 (40.5) .5 (12.5) .054 (1.35)
600S200-54 6 (150) 2 (50) .625 (15.62) .054 (1.35)
800S162-54 8 (200) 1.62 (40.5) .5 (12.5) .054 (1.35)
800S200-54 8 (200) 2 (50) .625 (15.62) .054 (1.35)
1000S162-54 10 (250) 1.62 (40.5) .5 (12.5) .054 (1.35)
1000S200-54 10 (250) 2 (50) .625 .(15.62) .054 (1.35)
3. ELASTIC BUCKLING ANALYSIS
The general elastic buckling modes and the corresponding loads are calculated
numerically by the ordinary finite strip method, FSM, in which the cross section is
divided into longitudinal strips, using the general eignvalue problem, equation (1), where
K is the elastic stiffness matrix, Kg is the geometric stiffness matrix, d is the nodal
displacements, and is the eignvalue. However, the pure elastic buckling loads (local,
distortional, global, and other modes) are extracted from the general buckling loads using
the constrained finite strip method, cFSM. It is a newly developed method, S. Adany,
B.W. Schafer, [8, 9], in which a constrained matrix, R, are introduced to the general
elastic and geometrical matrices, respectively. Thus, the pure buckling modes and the
corresponding loads can be obtained by solving the reduced eignvalue problem, equation
(2). Derivation of the constrained matrix, R, is based on employing the mechanical
definitions (Table 1) of the pure buckling modes that are embedded in the generalized
beam theory, GBT, within the context of the finite strip method.
K d = K
g
d (1)
K
r
d
r
= K
gr
d
r
(2)
Where K
r
= R
T
KR, and K
gr
= R
T
K
g
R are the elastic and geometric stiffness matrix of the
reduced DOF problem, respectively.
-678-
STL-007-4
The constrained matrix, R, also helps in quantifying the contribution of certain pure
buckling mode in the general buckling mode. This is done by solving the linear matrix,
equation (3), where D
o
is a square matrix constructed from the d
r
base vector, d is the
given general displacement vector, while "C" is a vector containing the coefficients
which are to be calculated. The contribution of any mode class can be calculated as the
ratio of the sum of the coefficients of this mode and the sum of all coefficients, equation
(4).
D
o
C = d (3)

all
i
e
i
c c
mod
(4)
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
half wave length (inc)
P
c
r
/
P
y

FSM
Local Buckling Modes
Distortional Buckling Modes
Global + Other buckling modes
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
0
20
40
60
80
100
half wave length (inc)
m
o
d
a
l

p
a
r
t
i
c
i
p
a
t
i
o
n

Fig.2 Elastic buckling analysis of simple lipped channel section, 800S162-54
The elastic buckling analysis has been done for the mentioned lipped channel sections
using CUFSM program [10]. It is software that includes the steps of the finite strip
method, FSM, as well as the constrained finite strip method, cFSM. Fig. 2 shows the
general buckling loads as well as the pure buckling loads as function of the half wave
length, a, and also the percentage of each pure buckling mode in the general buckling
mode for section 800S162-54.
Table 3: Elastic local buckling loads.
Sec. Name P
crL
/P
y

a
mm
% L % D % G + O
400S162-54 .557 75 98.02 1.19 .7873
400S200-54 .545 75 98.86 .558 .5791
600S162-54 .258 100 97.72 1.70 .5733
600S200-54 .253 125 97.95 1.46 .5847
800S162-54 .143 150 94.15 5.04 .7994
800S200-54 .143 150 97.63 1.88 .4819
1000S162-54 .092 175 92.13 7.1 .7681
1000S200-54 .093 175 96.96 2.58 .4476
L D
G
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STL-007-5
The pure local and distortional buckling loads and the corresponding half-wave lengths
of all sections are listed in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. The critical local, L, and
distortional, D, buckling loads are defined as the points on the general buckling curve,
FSM, that correspond to the minimum point on the pure buckling curve. Beside, the
contribution percentages of the different pure buckling modes in the general buckling
shape are also indicated in the Tables.
Table 4: Elastic distortional buckling loads.
Sec. Name P
crD
/P
y

a
mm
% L % D % G + O
400S162-54 .929 375 12.6 78.9 8.391
400S200-54 1.00 500 7.18 84.4 8.341
600S162-54 .438 425 25.5 67.6 6.794
600S200-54 .534 550 18.8 73.4 7.675
800S162-54 .206 425 35.9 59.3 4.723
800S200-54 .285 600 27.5 66.2 6.189
1000S162-54 .115 475 36.2 59.9 3.813
1000S200-54 .161 650 31.4 63.5 4.98
Results indicate that both local and distortional elastic buckling loads gets smaller by
increasing web depths, h, and not greatly affected by flange width, b. Also, it is
interestingly to note that, for all sections, at the half-wave length, a, of the pure
distortional mode the general deformed shape includes considerable percentage of local,
L, and global, G, modes in addition to the distortional mode, D. Moreover, when the
section is constrained to deform in pure distortional mode, the elastic buckling load
increases by about 47 % (compare the minimum point in the pure distortional curve and
the corresponding point in the general buckling curve, Fig. 2)
4. NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Fig. 3: Finite element model and the boundary conditions
Nodes at this
section are
restrained against
translation along
X & Y axis and
rotation about Z
axis.
Nodes at this section
are restrained
against translation
along X & Y axis
and rotation about Z
axis.
Nodes at the middle section
are restrained against rotation
around X & Y axis and
translation along Z axis.
a
Point A
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STL-007-6

Nonlinear finite element model has been constructed using COSMOS/M package [11] to
determine the ultimate local, L, and distortional, D loads. An isoparametric 4 node shell
element (shell 4T) accounts for both geometric and material nonlinearities has been used.
The length of the model is the half wave length, a, of each buckling mode that
determined from the elastic buckling analysis. Nodes at the end sections are restrained
against translation in X and Y directions and rotation about Z axis, while nodes at middle
section are restrained against rotation around X and Y axis and translations along Z
direction. This satisfies the deformations of the middle section. The finite element model
and the boundary condition are illustrated in Fig. 3.

Fig.4: Loads applied on the finite element model

Four unequal concentrated loads are applied at the four corners of the both ends of the
section as shown in Fig. 4. Theses loads produce concentric axial compressive force in
the C.G. of the section. The thicknesses of the first and last row of elements (end
sections) are increased to avoid local buckling at load joints. Lateral disturbing forces as
depicted in Fig.4 are used to produce initial deformed shape that accounts for the
presence of geometric imperfections. The lateral forces are applied first, then, the axial
loads are applied on the produced deformed shape. The lateral forces are kept constant
while the axial loads are increased until it reaches the ultimate value. Values of the
lateral force are the values that produce horizontal displacement, U
x
, of point A equal
to h/1000, h/500, and h/250.

Lateral disturbing
force has been
applied to produce
initial deformed
shape that accounts
for the presence of
geometric
imperfections.
Loads are applied
at the corners with
ratios that produce
axial loads at the
c.g. of the section
-681-
STL-007-7
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0 1 2 3
U
x
(mm)
P
/
P
y
h/1000
h/500
h/250
P
crL
/P
y
=.143
.472
.466
.454

Fig.5: P
uL
/P
y
versus U
x
of point A, local mode, 800S162-54.

Figures 5 and 6 show the load lateral displacement curves of point A for local, L, and
distortional, D modes of 800S162-54 section for different initial imperfection values,
respectively. The ultimate local loads slightly decreased by increasing the initial
geometric value. Similarly, the ultimate distortional load, however, when the initial
imperfection value equals to h/250 the ultimate distortional load increases by about 6 %.

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
U
x
(mm)
P
/
P
y
h/1000
h/500
h/250
.447
.439
.466
P
crD
/P
y
=.206

Fig.6: P
uD
/P
y
versus U
x
of point A, distortional mode, 800S162-54.

-682-
STL-007-8

Isometric view X-Y plane

Fig.7: Local mode, 800S162-54

By inspecting the failure shapes of local and distortional modes that shown in Fig. 7 and
Fig. 8 respectively, it is observed that for local mode the failure shapes are pure local for
any initial geometric imperfection value. However, for distortional mode when the initial
imperfection values are h/1000 and h/500 the failure shapes are the interaction of local
and distortional mode, but for initial imperfection value of h/250 the failure shape is pure
distortional mode. Thus increasing the initial imperfection value pushes the section to
fail in pure distortional mode and slightly increases the ultimate load. This is similar to
the elastic buckling analysis since when the section are constrained to fail in pure
distortional mode (eliminate the inclusion of local, global, and other modes) the elastic
buckling loads go up. This indicates that the pure distortional mode is rather a theoretical
mode.

Isometric view X-Y plane Isometric view X-Y plane
h/1000 and h/500 h/250

Fig. 8: Distortional mode, 800S162-54, h/250
6. RESULTS
The ultimate local, P
uL
, and distortional, P
uD
, loads have been determined for the
different simple lipped channel sections. Results are normalized with respect to the yield
load, P
y
, and listed in Table 5. It is evident that the ultimate local and distortional
strengths decrease by increasing the web depths. However, they are slightly affected by
-683-
STL-007-9
increasing the flange widths. In addition the ratios of ultimate loads to elastic buckling
loads for local, P
ul
/P
crl
, and distortional, P
uD
/P
crD
, modes are calculated to asses the post
reserve capacities of the two modes. Results are also listed in Table 5. For the two
modes, the post buckling reserve capacities get bigger by increasing the web widths.
However, increasing the flange widths decreases the post distortional buckling capacities
but do not significantly affect the post local buckling capacities. In addition the post local
buckling reserve capacity is much higher than the post distortional buckling reserve
capacity.
Table 5: Ultimate local and distortional loads.
Local mode Distortional mode
F.E.M. DSM F.E.M. DSM
Section name
y
ul
P
P

crl
ul
P
P

y
ul
P
P

crl
ul
P
P
DSM ul
FEM ul
P
P

y
uD
P
P

crD
uD
P
P
y
uD
P
P

crD
uD
P
P

DSM uD
FEM uD
P
P

400S162-54 .80 1.44 .72 1.29 1.11 .72 .77 .74 .79 .97
400S200-54 .88 1.62 .71 1.30 1.24 .74 .74 .75 .73 .98
600S162-54 .66 2.58 .54 2.10 1.22 .51 1.16 .53 1.2 .96
600S200-54 .62 2.45 .54 2.13 1.15 .55 1.03 .58 1.1 .95
800S162-54 .47 3.27 .44 3.07 1.06 .40 1.97 .35 1.7 1.14
800S200-54 .51 3.60 .44 3.05 1.16 .48 1.68 .42 1.5 1.14
1000S162-54 .41 4.42 .38 4.09 1.08 .34 2.93 .26 2.2 1.3
1000S200-54 .42 4.56 .37 3.97 1.14 .37 2.29 .31 1.9 1.19
For the sake of comparison, the ultimate strengths are compared with that determined by
direct strength method, DSM [6]. It is a new design method based on determination of
the ultimate strength that corresponds to one of the basic failure modes (L, D, and G),
then the strength of the member is the minimum value of these modes.

0
1
2
3
4
5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
PcrL/Py
P
u
l
/
P
c
r
L
DSM
FEM

0
1
2
3
4
5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
P
crD
/P
y
P
u
D
/
P
c
r
D
DSM
FEM

a) Local mode b) Distortional mode
Fig.9: P
u
/P
cr
versus P
cr
/P
y
for local and distortional modes
The ratios of the ultimate loads to the elastic buckling loads of local, P
uL
/P
crl
, and
distortional, P
uD
/P
crD
modes that determined by the FEM and DSM are plotted as a
function of the ratios P
crL
/P
y
and P
crD
/P
y
in Fig.9 for local and distortional modes,
respectively. Generally, results reflect that DSM is conservative for both local and
distortional modes. However, sections that have large elastic distortional buckling loads
the ultimate strength determined by DSM are very close to that determined by FEM.
-684-
STL-007-10
7. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper the pure elastic local and distortional buckling loads and their half-wave
lengths are determined using the constrained finite strip method, cFSM. Also, the
ultimate loads that correspond to each mode of buckling are determined using nonlinear
finite element model that accounts for both geometric and material nonlinearities. Both
the elastic buckling and the nonlinear analyses reveled that the pure distortional mode is
rather a theoretical mode, since the general deformed shape includes considerable
amount of local and global modes. Also, the local as well as the distortional elastic
buckling and ultimate loads decrease by increasing web depth and not greatly affected by
the flange width. Moreover, for the two modes, the post buckling reserve capacities
increase by increasing the web depths. However, increasing the flange widths decreases
the post distortional buckling capacities but do not significantly affect the post local
buckling capacities. In addition the post local buckling reserve capacities are much
higher than the post distortional buckling reserve capacities. Finally, comparison with
direct strength method, DSM, reflects that it is slightly conservative for both local and
distortional modes.
REFERENCES
[1] Silvestre N, Camotim D. Distortional Buckling formulae for cold-formed steel C
and Z sections members: part I derivation. Thin wall struct. 42(11):,
(2004),1567-97.
[2] Silvestre N, Camotim D. Distortional Buckling formulae for cold-formed steel C
and Z sections members: part II validation and application. Thin wall struct.
42(11), (2004), 1599-629.
[3] Silvestre N, Camotim D. Distortional Buckling formulae for cold-formed steel
rack-sections members. Steel Compos Struct. 4(1), (2004), 49-75.
[4] Concalves R. Camotim D. GBT local and global buckling analysis of aluminium
and stainless steel columns. Comput Struct. 82(17-19), (2004),1473-84.
[5] AISI. North American Specification for the Design of Cold Formed Steel
Members, (2007).
[6] DSM. Direct Strength Method of Cold Formed Sections, Design Guide, (2006).
[7] SSMA. Steel Stud Manfuctures Association, Product Technical Information,
(2008).
[8] S. Adany, B.W. Schafer. Buckling mode decomposition of single-branched open
cross-section members via finite strip method: Derivation, Thin-Walled
Structures, 44, (2006), 563-584.
[9] S. Adany, B.W. Schafer. Buckling mode decomposition of single-branched open
cross-section members via finite strip method: Application and examples, Thin-
Walled Structures, 44, (2006), 585-600.
[10] CUFSM v3.12. Elastic Buckling Analysis of Thin-Walled Members by Finite
Strip Analysis, (2008), http://www.ce.jhu.edu/bschafer/cufsm.
[11] COSMOS/M v2.6. Structural Research and Analysis Corporation, S.R.A.C., Los
Angeles, California, (2000).
-685-

STL-008-1

NEW DESIGN APPROACH FOR LATERAL BRACING REQUIREMENTS OF
COMPRESSION FLANGE IN I-SHAPED BEAMS

A. K. Dessouki
1
, S. A. Ibrahim
2

H. E. Shabana
3

1
Prof., Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
dessouki_ceo@hotmail.com
2
Associate Prof., Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
sai23@drexel.edu
3
Researcher, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
hany_eshabana@hotmail.com

Abstract

Lateral-torsional buckling is a limit state that can reduce the full benefit of beam
capacity, especially for long elastic beams according to the big lateral deflection and
cross-section twist of un-braced compression flange. Lateral-torsional buckling can be
avoided by proper designed braces. These braces require not only adequate stiffness but
sufficient strength as well. In this paper three dimensional, 3-D, finite-element models,
for I-shaped girders, are developed using a finite-element program and utilizing it to
investigate braces requirements and the geometrical parameters that may affect these
requirements. These parameters are outstanding flange width-to-thickness ratio "c
fl
/t
fl
",
web height-to-thickness ratio "h
w
/t
w
", flange width-to-web height ratio "b
fl
/h
w
", multiple
braces "n" and un-supported length-to-beam span "L
u
/L
t
". Using the available finite-
element analysis results of the studied parameters, some design equations are proposed
for the design of lateral braces of simply supported I-shaped beams subjected to any
type of loading and restrained laterally by any number of braces.

Keywords: Lateral-torsional buckling; Finite element method; Beam bracing; Bracing
requirements; Stiffness.

1. Introduction

The flexural capacity of beams with large un-braced lengths is often limited by a
mode of failure known as lateral torsional buckling. Lateral torsional buckling generally
involves both an out-of-plane displacement and a twist of the beam cross-section as
shown in Figure (1). Timoshenko (1960) presented the following equation for the
elastic critical buckling moment of a doubly-symmetric beam failing by lateral torsional
buckling.

M
cr
= /L EI
y
GJ +
2
E
2
I
y
C
w
/L
2
------------------------------------------------- (1)

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





-686-

STL-008-2
Where L = the un-braced length, E = modulus of elasticity, I
y
= weak axis moment of
inertia, G = shear modulus, J = St. Venant's torsional constant, and h = distance between
flange centroids. Equation (1) is applicable to beams where the twist and lateral
displacement at the beam ends are prevented.

In practice, beams are braced in variety of ways in order to increase their buckling
strength. Braces can be placed continuously along the length of a beam, as in the case of
floor systems, or they can be placed at discrete intervals. In some cases, bracing of
beams may be provided by another part of the load carrying system such as a slab,
secondary stringer, or purlin.
The effectiveness of a brace is determined by its ability to prevent twist and/or
distortion of the cross-section. For this reason a brace should be placed at the points
where it will best counteract the twisting of the cross-section. For the brace to be
effective in preventing twist, it must posses not only the required strength but also a
sufficient stiffness. Historically, the determination of these requirements has been left to
engineering judgment. Common practice to determine the required brace strength is to
design the brace for 2% of the axial force in the attached compression zone of the beam.
Bracing can be categorized into two main types, lateral bracing and torsional
bracing. Lateral bracing increases the buckling strength of a member by restraining the
lateral movement of the beam. Since most buckling problems involve twisting about a
point near or below the tension flange as shown in Figure (1), lateral bracing is most
efficient when placed at the compression flange of the beam, and the type that will be
investigated herein.
The problem that authors are going to investigate here is the design requirements of
lateral bracing, both stiffness and strength, for compression flange in I-shaped simply
supported beams. The main obstacles in this research are to cover different geometrical
parameters for beams and to study bracing requirements for single versus multiple
lateral braces. Finally, the objective of the research is to propose some design equations
that can be used for any case to provide sufficient lateral bracing in order to get the
maximum capacity of the beam by preventing LTB of the compression flange.

2. Nonlinear finite-element model

To investigate the effect of different geometrical parameters on the bracing
requirements for compression flange in I-shaped girders, a nonlinear finite-element
model has been developed.

Figure (1) Geometry of buckled beam
-687-

STL-008-3
2.1. Mesh and material properties

The nonlinear analysis was performed using the commercial finite-element software
package COSMOS/M Version 2.6 (2000). The material nonlinear influences are
considered in all models. Four side shell elements "SHELL4T" from the program
element library are used to model the web, flanges and stiffeners. Web is modeled with
ten elements across the height, while flanges are modeled with four or six elements
across the width, with keeping the aspect ratio of the elements no more than 2 so as to
obtain accurate results. The mesh arrangement used for analysis is shown in Figure (2).
In order to model the elastic lateral restraint and bracing, a linear elastic axial spring
with one element with two nodes is employed.

The bi-linear elastic-plastic stress-strain
curve, shown in Figure (3), is adopted in this research. Young's modulus E was set to
210 GPa and Poisson's ratio was set to 0.3. Residual stresses were not considered in this
work.

2.2. Loads and restraints

Simply supported I-shaped beams, hinged-roller beams, some under concentrated
load or pure bending with an elastic lateral braces attached to the top compression
flange are investigated in order to study the requirements of the lateral bracing. Beams
are prevented from warping at supports.
All beams are provided with bearing stiffeners at supports, to guarantee preventing
shear failure and cross section distortion at supports, and at load acting points. It should
be also mentioned that, in the finite-element analysis of beams subjected to pure
bending, the end moments were applied as couples in order to prevent web local
yielding.
The Modified Newton-Raphson procedure is used in conjunction with the Arc
Length control iterative strategy and an automatic incrementation strategy is adopted to
solve the nonlinear equilibrium equations. The sign of the initial load increment follows
the sign of the determination of the tangent stiffness matrix.
A convergence criterion based on the maximum norm of the incremental
displacements is adopted. In the incremental-iterative process, each load step consists of
X Z
Y
Figure (2) Finite element mesh and end
supports at roller end
Figure (3) Bilinear Stress-Strain Curve
E
E
t

F
y
= 233.3 MPa E = 210,000 Mpa
G = 81778.613 MPa E
t
= 2100 MPa
-688-

STL-008-4
the application of an increment of the external loads and subsequent iterations to restore
equilibrium.

3. Validation of the modeling technique

In this section the accuracy of the finite-element model of the beams will be
evaluated, in addition to the best representation for the end restraints for the beams. In
order to do so, comparisons were conducted using the available experimental test results
provided in previous researches with interrelated interest with the subject of this paper.

3.1. Experimental test results provided by Yura, J. A. (2001)

In the test program, the bracing requirements of a W12X14 section, 24ft (7.31m)
long, with an elastic lateral brace attached to the top flange at midspan and subjected to
a concentrated load at the same point was examined experimentally. Therefore, the
behavior of the beam is studied using the finite-element model developed in current
research. Five cases of end restraint representation were conducted to choose the most
adequate case, as shown in Figure (4).

The effect of different brace stiffness on the buckling strength is illustrated in Figure
(5) for both the experimental test and the finite-element analysis for the mentioned five
end restraints cases. In Figure (5), the agreement is good between the experimental
results and those obtained by nonlinear finite-element analysis for all end restraints
cases. The most appropriate with the best agreement is case three. We will consider case
three as the default arrangement of the end restraints for simply supported beams in all
models during the study.

Figure (4) Restraints locations at beams hinged ends
AU: restrain
displacements in X, Y
and Z global directions.

UX: restrain displacement
in X global direction only.

UY: restrain displacement
in Y global direction only.

RZ: restrain rotation about
Z global axis only.
Case (4) Case (5)
X
Y
Z
AU+RZ AU UY UY
AU
UX
Case (1) Case (2) Case (3)
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STL-008-5

4. Nonlinear analysis of simply supported laterally restrained I-shaped girders

To determine both the strength and stiffness requirements of the lateral bracing, two
groups of parameters are considered to cover all geometrical factors that may affect
those requirements. The first group represents the effect of geometrical cross-section
changes of the beam, while the second group represents the effect of using multiple
lateral braces of the compression flange.

4.1. Geometrical parameters affecting bracing requirements

Based on previous researches, it is found that out-of-plane moment of inertia I
yt
has a
dominant contribution in preventing LTB failure mode from occurrence. Hence, the first
group of geometrical parameters represents those affecting I
yt
. This group consists of the
following parameters:
- Effect of outstand flange width-to-thickness ratio (c
fl
/t
fl
)
- Effect of web height to thickness ratio (h
w
/t
w
)
- Effect of flange width to web height ratio (b
fl
/h
w
)
The second group of parameters represents the effect of multiple lateral braces
within the beam span and consists of two different parameters:
- Effect of multiple braces (n)
- Effect of unsupported length to the total beam span ratio (L
u
/L
t
)

The compression flange ranges from compact to non-compact, the web ranges from
non-compact to slender, the flange width to web height ratio varies from narrow to
broad flange beams, the number of braces varies from single to multiple braces and for
"L
u
/L
t
" parameter, the beams vary between short, medium and long beams. Figures (6),
(7) and (8) show the geometrical dimensions of the beams representing the pre-
mentioned parameters respectively.

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 100 200 300 400 500
Lateral brace stiffness (N/mm)
B
u
c
k
l
i
n
g

l
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
Test (Yura)
case[1]
case[2]
case[3]
case[4]
case[5]
Lateral brace stiffness (kN/mm)
B
u
c
k
l
i
n
g

l
o
a
d

(
k
N
)

Figure (5) Effect of lateral brace stiffness
-690-

STL-008-6

t
w

t
fl
b
fl

h
800
For c
fl
/t
fl
par. h
w
= 500mm t
w
= 5mm b
fl
= vary t
fl
= vary [non-compact flange]
For h
w
/t
w
par. h
w
= vary t
w
= vary b
fl
= 200mm t
fl
= 8mm [non-compact web]
For b
fl
/h
w
par. h
w
= 500mm t
w
= 5mm b
fl
= vary t
fl
= vary [c
fl
/t
fl
= 12 non-comp.]
Figure (6) First group of parameters' geometrical dimensions
Figure (7) Models geometry for multiple braces parameter
L/2 L/2
equally spaced lateral braces
@ 2m spacing
5mm
8mm
200mm
500mm
Lu=2m
L
Lu=2m Lu=2m
M
L
M
a- Under concentrated load
b- Under uniform moment
Figure (8) Models geometry for L
u
/L
t
parameter
800
equally spaced "n" number of
lateral braces
5mm
8mm
200mm
500mm
-691-

STL-008-7
4.2. Buckling analysis of the models

A nonlinear analysis is carried out for all selected beams. All beams representing the
parameters in the first group are considered with single lateral bracing attached to the
middle of the top flange and subjected to concentrated load. The critical buckling load
for beams are represented in Figures (9), (10) and (11) for the first three geometrical
parameters, respectively. The effect of multiple braces was studied under top flange
concentrated load, and the FEA results of this parameter are represented in Figure (12).
The last parameter, effect of L
u
/L
t
ratio, was studied both under concentrated load acting
at the middle of the top flange and under uniform moment, the results of FEA for this
parameter are represented in Figure (13).

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Brace stiffness (kn/mm)
P
/
P
y
C1 C2 n1 n2 s1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
(
F
b
r
/
F
f
l
)
%
C1 C2 n1 n2 s1
a- Relationship between brace stiffness
and failure load
b- Relationship between brace stiffness and
maximum force in bracing
Figure (9) FEA results for beams with different compression flange slenderness ratios (c
fl
/t
fl
)
and failure load
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
P
/
P
y
C1 n1 n2 s1 s2 s3
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
(
F
b
r
/
F
f
l
)
%
C1 n1 n2 s1 s2 s3
Figure (10) FEA results for beams with different web slenderness ratios (h
w
/t
w
)
-692-

STL-008-8

and failure load
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
P
/
P
y
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1
Figure (11) FEA results for beams with different flange width to web height ratios (b
fl
/h
w
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
(
F
b
r
/
F
f
l
)
%
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1
b- Relationship between number of braces (n) and
the maximum force in braces
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of braces (n)
(
F
b
r
/
F
f
l
)
%
Figure (12) FEA results for beams with multiple braces (n)
a- Relationship between Lu/Lt ratio and
the required brace stiffness
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
lu/Lt
B
r
a
c
e

S
t
i
f
f
n
e
s
s

(
k
n
/
m
m
)
Figure (13) FEA results for beams with different (L
u
/L
t
) ratios under uniform moment
a- Relationship between number of braces
(n) and the required brace stiffness
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Number of braces (n)
B
r
a
c
e

S
t
i
f
f
n
e
s
s

(
k
n
/
m
m
)
b- Relationship between Lu/Lt ratio and
the maximum force in braces
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STL-008-9
4.3. Determining the required stiffness values of the beam lateral bracing

Due to the shortage of available methods to estimate the required stiffness in the
references, the authors calculated the moments which cause the beams to reach the yield
stress F
y
using the full cross-sections properties. Using these moments multiplied by
1.05, just as a confidence factor, the required stiffness using the form of P/P
y
-K curves
is determined.
The data extracted from the results represented in the above given charts are plotted
in the following figure to illustrate the effect of each parameter on the required stiffness.
Figure (14) represents the relationship between the required brace stiffness of the
compression flange and c
fl
/t
fl
ratios. As can be noticed from the figure, the required
stiffness decreases as c
fl
/t
fl
increases (as the compression flange tends to be slender).
Figure (15) represents the relationship between the required brace stiffness of the
compression flange and h
w
/t
w
ratios. As can be noticed from the figure, the required
stiffness initially remains constant as the web is in the compact- non compact zone,
nearly h
w
/t
w
< 120, then increases as the web inters the slender zone, h
w
/t
w
125.
Figure (16) represents the relationship between the required brace stiffness of
compression flange and b
fl
/h
w
ratios. Figure (17) represents a relationship between
P
max(braced)
/P
max(un-braced)
ratio and b
fl
/h
w
ratio. From the figure it can be noted that the
effect of lateral bracing decreases as b
fl
/h
w
increases (as the beam tends to have broad
flanges), and becomes ineffective for b
fl
/h
w
> 0.8, while it has a great effect for narrow
flanges beams as the maximum carrying load can be greater than 450% of the unbraced
case, based on the recent analysis.

Figure (15) Relationship between the
required brace stiffness and h
w
/t
w
ratio
0.4
0.42
0.44
0.46
0.48
0.5
0.52
0.54
0.56
0 50 100 150 200
hw/tw
K
r
e
q

(
k
N
/
m
m
)
Figure (14) Relationship between the
required brace stiffness and c
fl
/t
fl
ratio
0.43
0.44
0.45
0.46
0.47
0.48
0.49
0.50
0.51
0.52
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00
cfl/tfl
K
r
e
q

(
k
N
/
m
m
)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
bfl/hw
P
m
a
x
(
w
i
t
h

b
r
a
c
i
n
g
)
/
P
m
a
x
(
w
i
t
h
o
u
t

b
r
a
c
i
n
g
)
Figure (17) Lateral bracing effectiveness
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
bfl/hw
K
r
e
q

(
k
N
/
m
m
)
Figure (16) Relationship between the required
brace stiffness and b
fl
/h
w
ratio
-694-

STL-008-10
5. Parametric analysis and formulation of design equations

To put the FEA results into a useful form for design procedure, a group of design
equations are derived based on the available results. For this purpose, the dimensionless
parameters KL
3
/EI
yt
and I
x
/I
yt
are introduced for the required brace stiffness and beam's
out-of-plane moment of inertia, respectively. The following steps were followed to
determine the design equations:

1- Plot a relationship between KL
3
/EI
yt
and I
x
/I
yt
for the first group of parameters and
plot upper bound curve, as in Figure (18), to cover all studied cases and all possible
cases that may fit between them.Based on the upper bound curve, as the beams reach
yield, the following equation can be fitted to express the relationship between the
required stiffness and the out-of-plane moment of inertia.

KL
3
/EI
yt
= 5.974 (I
x
/I
yt
) 24.756 ----------------------------------------------------- (1)

2- Equation (1) is applicable only for the concentrated load case. So, to generalize the
proposed equation, the effect of moment diagram is studied within the parameter of the
effect of unsupported length to total beam length, L
u
/L
t
ratio, by studying same beams
both under concentrated load at the middle of the compression flange and under
concentrated moments at beam ends. Table (1) represents the required brace stiffness in
both cases and the ratios between them. The average ratio is found to be about 1.35
which is the same value for C
b
given in different specifications.

Table (1) Ratios between the required brace stiffness for beams with different (L
u
/L
t
)
ratios under concentrated load case to uniform moment loading case

(L
u
/L
t
) 0.5 0.33 0.25 0.2 0.1667 Average
K
req
(c.load) (KN/mm) 0.355 0.463 0.315 0.393 0.421 -----
K
req
(uni.moment)(KN/mm) 0.45 0.27 0.21 0.272 0.33 -----
K(c.Load)/K(un. moment) 0.7889 1.7148 1.5 1.4449 1.2758 1.345
Figure (18) Upper bound limit curve for bracing
stiffness for the first group of parameters
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Ix/Iyt
K
L
3
/
E
I
y
cfl/tfl hw/tw bfl/hw upper bound curve Linear (upper bound curve)
Figure (19) Modified relationships between
dimensionless brace stiffness and corresponding
brace force
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
0 100 200 300 400 500
KL3/EIy
(
F
b
r
/
F
f
l
)
%
KL
3
/EI
y

-695-

STL-008-11
3- By dividing the results presented in Figure (18) by 1.35, C
b
, a new curve that
represents the case of uniform moment can be plotted. By extracting the following
equation, as done before, and adding the C
b
factor to it, the formula for the proposed
equation for the required stiffness would be:

KL
3
/EI
yt
= C
b
[4.5 (I
x
/I
yt
) 18.4] ------------------------------------------------------ (2)

4- For the force generated in lateral bracing, the results are divided by 1.35, C
b
, and
plotted as shown in Figure (19), to represent beams under uniform moment. An upper
bound curve divided into three curves is plotted, and three equations can be derived to
cover all ranges of lateral bracing stiffness as follows:

For (KL
3
/EI
yt
)/C
b
< 25

(F
br
/F
fl
) = C
b
[0.0014(KL
3
/EI
yt
C
b
) 0.008] ----------------------------------------- (3)

For 25 (KL
3
/EI
yt
) 180

(F
br
/F
fl
) = C
b
[0.0001(KL
3
/EI
yt
C
b
) + 0.025] ----------------------------------------- (4)

For (KL
3
/EI
yt
)/C
b
> 180

(F
br
/F
fl
) = 0.041C
b
----------------------------------------------------------------------- (5)

Where;
F
fl
= M / (h
w
+t
fl
)

The proposed equations (2), (3), (4) and (5), can be used for simply supported beams
subjected to any moment diagram. In the next steps the effect of multiple braces will be
added to the proposed equations.

Effect of Multiple braces

5- To take the effect of multiple braces on the required stiffness into consideration, the
available results from the second group of parameters, group of multiple braces, are
used. Based on the results, a modification factor named C
nbr
is extracted to represent the
effect of multiple braces (n) within the same beam span on the required stiffness.
Another modification Factor named C
lu
is extracted to represent the effect of multiple
braces for beams with same unsupported length but with different spans, L
u
/L
t

parameter, as shown in Figure(8) .

6- A modification factor named C
n
is generated and considered equal to the greater
value between C
nbr
and C
lu
at each number of braces, as presented in Table (2) to
represent the effect of multiple braces.

-696-

STL-008-12

Table (2) Modification factors for multiple braces

* For the concentrated load loading case acting at the middle of the beam with two equally
spaced braces, use C
n
= 1.5 x (value in the table)

By multiplying the number of braces modification factor, C
n
, by equation (3), the
general design equation would be;

KL
3
/EI
yt
= C
n
C
b
[4.5 (I
x
/I
yt
) 18.4] ---------------------------------------------- (6)

7- To cover the effect of number of braces on the required strength, the available results
from multiple braces (n) parameter are used. A relationship between [(F
br
/F
fl
)
i
/
(F
br
/F
fl
)
1
] (C
F
) and number of braces (n) were plotted, where (F
br
/F
fl
)
i
is the ratio of force
in braces corresponding to (i) number of braces and (F
br
/F
fl
)
1
is the ratio of force in
single bracing case.

8- Table (2) also represents the values of the force in braces modification factor C
F

corresponding to each number of lateral braces to be used in the design equations.By
multiplying the modification factor C
F
by equations (3), (4) and (5) the design equations
to determine the brace strength become ready to be used for any number of lateral
braces under any moment diagram.

6. Design examples and their verification using FEA

The following part presents some designed examples using the developed equations
and their verification using FEA.

6.1 Design Examples

Using the proposed design equations, the following table shows three different
beams with their designed lateral braces. One can see the variation of the required
bracing with respect to beam geometrical parameters.

n C
nbr
L
u
/L C
LU
C
n
C
F

1.00 1.00 0.50 1.00 1.00 1.00
2.00 0.86 0.33 0.59 0.86 1.03
3.00 0.74 0.25 0.50 0.74 1.05
4.00 0.63 0.20 0.58 0.63 1.07
5.00 0.51 0.17 0.73 0.73 0.40
Many 0.50 0.14 0.88 0.88 0.40
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STL-008-13

6.2 Solution verification

To verify the previous design, a finite element model, simulating the example of the
beam with cross section W 12x14, is built up as shown in Figure (20).
The bracing is modeled using spring elements from the program library and the
stiffness used in the FEM is equal to the stiffness estimated from the design of the
bracing as tension members; this is because the spring element behaves the same in
compression and tension.
From the results of the FEM the following can be observed:

- Figure (21) shows that the bracing forced the beam to buckle into the double curvature
mode between the braced point and the end restraints.

Example 1 Example 2 Example 3
Dimensions
in (mm)

Load (kN)

Cross-sec.
W 12x14
Web 900x9 mm
Flanges 380x18 mm
Web 1100x100 mm
Flanges 460x20 mm
Span (m) 7.3 m 14 m 14 m
Designed
Bracing
L 30x30x4 @ the middle
of the beam
L 40x40x4 @ 2 m intervals L 50x50x5 @ 2 m intervals
F
br(FEA)
/ F
br(eq.)
0.84 0.89 0.87
Figure (20) Finite element model
Example 1
Figure (21) Double curvature buckling
mode - Example 1
25
76.5 76.5 131.5 131.5
-698-

STL-008-14
-Figures (22) and (23) show the stress diagram along the beam span for the case of
braced beam and the case of un-braced beam respectively.

As can be seen the stress in the case of braced beam reached the yield stress, 241
MPa, while in the other case with no bracing the maximum stress reached did not
exceed half the yield stress, 115 MPa only, because the beam failed by lateral torsional
buckling in first mode, as can be seen in Figure (24).

- Figure (25) shows the relation between the applied load and the corresponding
generated force in the bracing. As can be seen, the maximum force in the bracing is
equal to 4.56 kN, which equals to 0.84 of the design force, 5.41 kN, which indicates
good agreement.

- Figures (26) and (27) respectively, represent some of the finite element results for a
model with rigid bracing (K
rigid
= 50 K
req
). By comparing the results of the two models,
model with rigid bracing and the model with designed one, it can be concluded that the
designed lateral bracing can be considered as rigid bracing, and give the same effect on
supporting the compression flange of I-beams laterally.
Figure (23) Stress diagram for case of
un-braced beam
Figure (22) Stress diagram for case of
braced beam
Figure (24) Single curvature buckling
mode - Example 1
Figure (25) Relationship between load and
the corresponding generated brace force
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 1 2 3 4 5
Brace force (kN)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
-699-

STL-008-15

From the previous discussion for the finite element analysis results for the above
design example, it can be concluded that the design procedure is applicable.

6. Conclusion

In this study, the stability requirements of lateral bracing of I-shaped beams are
investigated. For this purpose, a three dimensional finite element model for doubly
symmetric I-beams with elastic lateral restraints is developed based on the assumption
that all beams are simply supported beams. The model is used to investigate the effects
of different parameters on the bracing requirements. These parameters are the effect of
the outstand of compression flange width to thickness ratio c
fl
/t
fl
, effect of web height-
to-thickness ratio h
w
/t
w
, effect of flange width-to-web height ratio b
fl
/h
w
, effect of
multiple braces n and effect of unsupported length-to-beam span ratio L
u
/L
t
.
Compression flange is the only laterally-supported or restrained element of the cross-
section.
It is found that broad flange beams do not need lateral bracing to support its
compression flanges as the increase in beams capacity can be neglected, so, it is
recommended not to use lateral bracing with beams that have b
fl
/h
w
> 0.8 according to
the ineffectiveness of the bracing in this case. For the case of beams under concentrated
load, it is recommended to use lateral bracing at the location of load to prevent lateral-
torsional buckling.
Based on the relationship between the required brace stiffness K and the out-of-plane
moment of inertia I
yt
, some design equations are developed from the studied parameters
using the through upper bound curve that covers all results herein. To cover the design
requirements, the proposed design equations give not only required stiffness for the
braces but also the required strength that must be adopted as well. Equation (7) presents
a relationship between I
yt
and the required stiffness K. While equations (4), (5) and (6)
present the required strength for the braces based on the determined stiffness from
equation (7). The proposed equations are limited only for simply supported doubly
symmetric beams with mild steel.

Figure (26) Stress diagram for beam in
example with rigid brace
Figure (27) Deformed shape for the beam
in example 1 with rigid brace
-700-

STL-008-16
References

[1] Ales, J. M., Yura, J. A. (1993),"Bracing Design for Inelastic Structures",
Proceedings, SSRC Conference-"Is Your Structure Stability Braced?" April 6-7,
Milwaukee, WI, pp. 29-37.
[2] Amin Mohebkhah
a,*
, Hossein Showkati
b
, "Bracing Requirements for Inelastic
Castellated Beams", Journal of Construction Steel Research 61, March 2005,
Elsevier, pp. 1373-1386.
[3] COSMOS/M (Version 2.6), "Finite element Computer program Manual",
Structural Research and analysis Corporation,2000.
[4] Crisfield MA. ,Non-linear Finite Element Analysis of Solids and Structures.
Chichester (England): John Wiley & Sons, LTD; 1995.
[5] Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Construction and Bridges (Allowable Stress
Design), Code No.(205), first edition 2001.
[6] Kerem Murat Ozdemir, Cem Topkaya, "Lateral Buckling of Overhanging Crane
Trolley Monorails", Engineering Structures 28, February 2006, Elsevier, pp. 1162-
1172.
[7] Kirby, P. A., Nether, D. A. (1979), Design for Structural Stability, New York,
John Wiley & Sons.
[8] Nakamura, T., Wakabayashi, M. (1981), Lateral Buckling of Beams Braced by
Purlins, Inelastic Instability of Steel Structures and Structural Elements, U.S.
Japan Seminar, Y. Fujita and T. V. Galambos, Ed.
[9] Nethercot, D. A. (1989), The Design of Bracing Systems for Plate Girder
Bridges, Structural Eng /Earthquake Eng., Vol. 6, No. 1, Review, (Proc JSCE,
No404 / I-11), April, pp. 23-34
[10] Robert William Gedies (1983), "Beam Buckling Tests with Various Braces
Stiffness", Thesis, Presented to the Faculty of The Graduate School of The
University of Texas at Austin, December, 119 p.
[11] Timoshinko, S., Gere, J., (1961), Theory of Elastic Stability, New York: McGraw
Hill.
[12] Trahair, N. S., Nethercot, D.A. (1982), "Bracing Requirements in Thin-Walled
Structures," Developments in Thin-Walled Structures-Vol. 2, J. Rhodes and A. C.
Walker Ed., Elsevier, pp. 93-129.
[13] Winter, G. (1960), "Lateral Bracing of Columns and Beams," ASCE
Transactions, Vol. 125, pp. 809-825.
[14] Yura, J. A. (1995), "Bracing for Stability-state-of-the-Art", Proceedings,
Structures Congress , ASCE, Boston, MA, April, pp. 179-1797.
[15] Yura, J. A. (2001), "Fundamentals of Beam Bracing", Engineering Journal / First
Quarter , pp. 11-26.
[16] Yura, J. A., Philips, B., Raju, S., Webb, S. (1992), "Bracing of Steel Beams in
Bridges," Report No. 1239-4F, Center for Transportation Research, University of
Texas at Austin, October, 80 p.
[17] Zienkiewicz, O., C., Taylor, (1991), "The Finite Element Method", Third Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, England.
-701-

STL-009-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





BUCKLING AND POST-BUCKLING OF UNSTIFFENED PLATES
UNDER STRESS GRADIENT

A. H. SALEM
El-Sarayat Street, Abbasia, Cairo, Egypt
A. A. EL-SERWI
El-Sarayat Street, Abbasia, Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: dr_a_serwi@consultantl.com
E. A. EBRAHIM
Armed forces
E-mail: Ebrahim.2009@live.com

ABSTRACT
This paper presents a numerical investigation to study the strength and behavior of steel
plates simply supported on three sides, with the remaining edge free (unstiffened),
under the effect of different types of stress gradients. A nonlinear finite element model
is developed and verified against previous experimental tests of such rectangular plates.
Both geometric and material nonlinearities are included in the finite element model. The
finite element model predicted the experimental strength and the behavior of these
rectangular plates accurately. The verified finite element model is used for an extensive
parametric study of unstiffened plates of different slenderness ratios and subjected to
different types and values of stress gradients. The elastic buckling and post buckling
analyses of unstiffened plated are performed and the effect of different parameters on
the behavior of unstiffened plates subjected to different stress gradients is studied.
KEYWORDS
Unstiffened plates, Stress gradient, Buckling, Post-buckling, Finite element.
1 INTRODUCTION
Thin-walled sections, generally, have slender plate elements, while hot-rolled
sections consist of component plates that are relatively stocky. As a result, plate
buckling of the component plates is more prevalent in cold-formed sections than in hot-
rolled sections. Open thin-walled sections usually consist of stiffened and unstiffened
component plates. Stiffened elements are flat elements that are supported longitudinally
along both edges parallel to the direction of load, while unstiffened elements are flat
-702-

STL-009-2
element where only one edge parallel to direction of load is restrained while the other
longitudinal edge is free. If plate elements are slender, the section will buckle locally at
a load less than its ultimate load. Unlike one dimensional structural member, such as
columns, plates do not collapse when the buckling stress is reached. Additional stresses
can be resisted after plate buckling by means of redistribution of longitudinal stresses of
the most flexible regions. This redistribution process may be simplified for design
purposes by assuming that certain regions of the cross section are considered effective
up to the yield stress of the material, while the remainder regions are considered
ineffective in resisting load. Current international specifications for the design of cold-
formed steel structures provide design equations to determine the effective width of
stiffened and unstiffened plates and the ultimate capacity of the section is calculated
from the effective section properties.
Recent studies of cold-formed plain channels by Rasmussen (1994) and fabricated I-
sections by Chick and Rasmussen (1999) have demonstrated a marked conservatism in
the effective width method when applied to sections containing unstiffened elements
and subjected to stress gradients. Experimental and analytical results showed that beam-
column capacities were approximately 30 % or more than those estimated by the current
specifications. Rhodes(2000), Beale et al. (2001), Rusch and Lindner (2001), and Yiu
and Pekoz (2001) have also demonstrated undue conservatism in the effective width
provisions for unstiffened elements subjected to stress gradients.
The aim of this study is to develop accurate finite element models to investigate the
strength and behavior of unstiffened plate elements under stress gradients, in order to
obtain more accurate design equations for these elements. The finite element model is
verified against the rectangular plate tests conducted by Bambach and Rasmussen
(2003). The verified model is used for an extensive parametric study of unstiffened plate
elements having different slenderness ratios and subjected to different types and values
of stress gradients.
In order to determine the fundamental behavior of these elements, the analysis is
performed on rectangular plate models simply supported on three sides, as opposed to
treating complete sections, in order to avoid unquantifiable restraints from adjoining
elements.

The multi-purpose finite element computer program "ABAQUS" version 5.8 (1998) is
used throughout this study. In the finite element model (FEM), plate dimensions,
material properties, and initial imperfections are included. A nominal thickness of 5 mm
is used for all plate specimens. All the joints at three edges of plate specimens are
considered simply supported and the other edge is considered free. The simply
supported joints are restrained against translation in the three main directions (X, Y and
Z) in addition to rotation about the plate plane (R
Z
). All the joints at the free edge are
considered free in the main six degrees of freedom. The stability of the plate model is
achieved by restraining one of the corner nodes (joining the longitudinal edge with one
of the short edges) against translation in the other direction perpendicular to the axial
plate model direction. Unstiffened plate specimens of length to width ratio equal to 5
are used throughout this study. Plate width and length are divided into 20 and 100 shell
elements respectively to give shell element aspect ratio equal to unity. The 4 node thin
shell element S4R5 is used to model the plate specimens. A typical FEM of one of the
studied specimens is shown in Figure 1.
-703-

STL-009-3

Figure 1 A Typical Finite Element Mesh for Rectangular Plates

The material properties are determined from tensile tests of coupons performed by
Bambach (2003), where the material properties are summarized in Table 1 and the
stress-strain curves are shown in Figure 2. The material nonlinearity is included in the
FEM by specifying the true values of stresses and strains. The plasticity of the material
is simulated by a mathematical model, known as the incremental plasticity model, in
which the true stresses and true plastic strains are calculated in accordance with
ABAQUS (1998).
Table 1: Nominal and Measured Material Properties
Nominal Measured
Plate

0.2

(Mpa)
E
0.2

u

u
(Gpa) (Mpa) (Mpa) (%)
300 202 271 372 42

Figure 2 Complete Stress Strain Curve

Geometric imperfections are taken into consideration in the finite element analysis
(FEA) by using a linear perturbation analysis. The displacement control loading method
is used in the FEM which is identical to the loading method used in several previous
experimental tests performed by other authors for plates subjected to stress gradients.
Compression loading is obtained by displacing both short edges nodes inwards toward
the specimen in the longitudinal direction. Tension loading is obtained by displacing
S
t
r
e
s
s

Strain
-704-

STL-009-4
both short edges nodes outwards outside the specimen in the longitudinal direction. In
case of applying uniform compression, all the nodes of one edge are displaced in the
longitudinal direction by a uniform magnitude while all the nodes of the opposite edge
are prevented from translation in the same direction. In case of applying stress
gradients, each node at one short edge is displaced by a different magnitude thus
representing at last the required stress gradient to be applied while each opposite node at
the other short edge is displaced by the same magnitude but in the opposite longitudinal
direction. Figure 3, represents displacement of nodes at both loaded edges to apply
compression with uniform compression and Figure 4 presents displacement of nodes at
both loaded edges to apply uniform bending.

Figure 3 Displacement of Nodes at Both
Loaded Edges to Apply Uniform Compression
Figure 4 Displacement of Nodes at
both Loaded Edges to Apply Bending.
3 VERIFICATION OF THE FINITE ELEMENT MODEL
The finite element model is verified against the experimental results of unstiffened plate
tests performed by Bambach (2003). The material properties of steel plates are
identified by true stress-strain curves for the corresponding plate tests. A scale factor of
10% of the plate thickness is used in modelling the geometric imperfections of plate
specimens. The total compressive stresses "F
FEA
", bending moments "M
FEA
" at ultimate
condition, and axial shortening predicted by the FEA are compared with the
experimental results of unstiffened plates under three specific cases of stress gradients.
The comparison between the results obtained experimentally and those obtained using
the FEA is presented in Table 2 and Figures 5, 6, and 7. It is clear that the finite element
results are in excellent agreement with the test results. The finite element results ranged
from 97% to 102% of those obtained experimentally. It is also shown in the comparison
figures, that the load and moment values from the finite element results and test results
nearly follow the same path against axial shortening of the loaded edge.
The behaviour of unstiffened plates derived using the FEM is nearly identical to that
derived experimentally for specimens having the same slenderness ratio, material
properties and subjected to the same loading condition and stress gradient.

-705-

STL-009-5
Table 2: Verification of the finite element model
All specimens : E = 2039 t/cm2, Thickness = 5 mm
Specim. Yield Dimensions Ultimate Force Ultimate Moment about center
Ref. No. Stress (mm) ( N ) EXP. ( KNm ) EXP. Load case
Mpa width Length EXP. F.E.M. F.E.M. EXP. F.E.M. F.E.M.
C0 60 272 60 300 81.55 85.5 0.95
Bambach C0 80 323 80 400 105.6 113 0.93
C0 100 272 100 500 100 102 0.98
2003 C0 120 272 120 600 96.93 100 0.97
C0 175 272 175 875 114 128 0.89
C1 120 2.775 120 600 63 63 1.00 62 63 0.98
C1 205 3.234 205 1025 61.9 65.9 0.94 57 56 1.02
C3 120 2.775 120 600 112 113.08 0.99 105 107 0.98
C3 205 3.234 205 1025 175.4 184.53 0.95 165 169 0.98

Total Force vs Axial Shortening
Specimen=c080, Nominal Slenderness=1,
Nominal Dimensions=80x400x5
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Axial Shortening (mm)
T
o
t
a
l

F
o
r
c
e

(
k
N
)
Experimental results
F.E.M.

Total Force and Moment (about centrewidth)
vs Axial Shortening of the Free Edge
Nominal Slenderness=1, Nominal
Dimensions=172x860x5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Axial Shortening of the Free Edge (mm)
M
o
m
e
n
t

(
k
N
m
)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
T
o
t
a
l

F
o
r
c
e

(
k
N
)
Moment(Test results)
Moment(F.E.M. results)
Total Force (Test results)
Total Force (F.E.M. results)
Free
edge
s.
s.s.
s.s.
F F

Figure 5 Relation between axial force and
end shortening of unstiffened plates
subjected to uniform pressure
Figure 6 Relation between bending
moment/axial force and end shortening of
unstiffened plates subjected to stress
gradient
Total Force and Moment (about centrewidth) vs
Axial Shortening of the Free Edge
Nominal Slenderness=1.25, Nominal
Dimensions=124x620x5
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Axial Shortening of the Free Edge (mm)
M
o
m
e
n
t

(
k
N
m
)
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
T
o
t
a
l

F
o
r
c
e

(
k
N
)
Moment (Test Results)
Moment (F.E.M. Results)
Total Force (Test Result)
Total Force (F.E.M.
Free edge
s.
s.s.
s.s.
F
F

First Group
Second Group
Third Group
ForthGroup
b
Free edge
s.s. s.s.
s.s.
F1
F1
F F2
1
2
F
F
=
Free edge
s.s. s.s.
s.s.
F
1
F
1
F
2 F
2
b
Free edge
s.s. s.s.
s.s.
F F
Free edge
s.s.
s.s.
s.s.
F F
b
Free edge
s.s. s.s.
s.s.
F F
F1 F1
F2 F2
Free edge
s.s. s.s.
s.s.

Figure 7 Relation between bending moment/
axial force and end shortening of unstiffened
plates subjected to stress gradient
Figure 8 Different patterns of stress
gradient
-706-

STL-009-6
4 PARAMETRIC STUDY
The verification of the FE model shows that it can accurately predict the behavior of the
tested unstiffened plates and their strengths. Hence, the model is used for an extensive
parametric study of unstiffened plate slenderness ratios and stress gradients.
Four groups of stress gradients are investigated as shown in Figure (8).
The first group represents compressive stress applied at both edges of the short ends
with maximum stress at the unsupported edge and minimum stress at the supported
edge. The second group represents compressive stress applied at the unsupported edge
and tensile stress applied at the supported edge. The third group represents compressive
stress applied at both edges with maximum stress at the supported edge and minimum
stress at the unsupported edge. The fourth group represents uniform compressive stress
applied at both edges of the short ends. For each of the first three groups, different
stress gradients are investigated,
Where
1
2
F
F
= , (1)

1
F = maximum stress value and

2
F = minimum stress value

Different values of stress gradients "" investigated for the first and third groups ( =
0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8), while for the second group ( = -0.8,-0.6,-0.4, and -0.2). At
stress gradient =0 in the first group, the load case is a case which represents
compressive stress at the unsupported edge and zero stress at the supported edge and at
stress gradient =0 in the third group, the load case is a case which represents
compressive stress at the supported edge and zero stress at the unsupported edge.
A range of plate slenderness ratio "" is used between zero and three where " " is
given by:

cr
y
F
F
= (2)
and
2
2
2
) 1 ( 12

=
t
b
E k
F
cr
(3)

Where F
y
is the yield stress, F
cr
is the elastic critical stress, t is the plate thickness, b is
the plate width and k is the elastic buckling coefficient for a particular stress gradient .
The nominal thickness of plate specimens is taken 5mm, and considered constant for all
plate models. Plate slenderness is achieved by varying the plate width. Six nominal
values of plate slenderness are chosen to be studied for each stress gradient . The
nominal plate widths required to achieve the plate slenderness ratios are shown in Table
3.
A constant aspect ratio (plate length/plate width) equal to 5, is used for all specimens
such that the buckling coefficient "k" is within 8% of the asymptotic value (o.425) for
unstiffened compression elements (Bulson 1970), and end effects are minimized.
Two types of analysis are performed to the rectangular plates for the six values of plate
slenderness being studied and for each stress gradient under investigation; elastic
perturbation analysis and nonlinear post buckling analysis.
-707-

STL-009-7
Table (3): Nominal Plate Widths for Applied Stress Gradient Groups
Nominal First Group
slender-
= 0 = 0.2 = 0.4 = 0.6 = 0.8
_ness
K = 0.59 K = 0.556 K = 0.52 K = 0.494 K = 0.462
b b / t b b / t b b / t b b / t b b / t
0.76 75 15 73 14.6 71 14.2 69 13.8 67 13.4
1 99 19.8 97 19.4 95 19 91 18.2 91 18.2
1.25 124 24.8 120 24 116 23.2 113 22.6 109 21.8
1.5 149 29.8 145 29 140 28 136 27.2 132 26.4
2.13 211 42.2 205 41 198 39.6 193 38.6 187 37.4
2.5 248 49.6 240 48 232 46.4 226 45.2 219 43.8
Second Group
= - 0.2 = -0.4 =- 0.6 = -0.8
K = 0.645 K = 0.69 K = 0.75 K = 0.81
b b / t b b / t b b / t b b / t
0.76 79 15.8 81 16.2 85 17 88 17.6
1 104 20.8 107 21.4 112 22.4 116 23.2
1.25 129 25.8 134 26.8 140 28 145 29
1.5 155 31 161 32.2 168 33.6 174 34.8
2 207 41.4 214 42.8 223 44.6 232 46.4
2.5 259 51.8 268 53.6 279 55.8 290 58
Third Group
= 0 = 0.2 = 0.4 = 0.6 = 0.8
K = 1.77 K = 1.11 K = 0.8 K = 0.64 K = 0.54
b b / t b b / t b b / t b b / t b b / t
0.76 130 26 109 21.8 91 18.2 79 15.8 72 14.4
1 172 34.4 136 27.2 113 22.6 109 21.8 95 19
1.25 170 34 170 34 145 29 132 26.4 118 23.6
1.5 257 51.4 205 41 170 34 155 31 142 28.4
2 343 68.6 272 54.4 240 48 205 41 190 38
2.5 429 85.8 340 68 288 57.6 258 51.6 236 47.2
Forth Group
= 1
K = 0.425
b b / t
0.76 64 12.8
1 74 14.8
1.25 100 20
1.5 120 24
2 160 32

4.1 ELASTIC BUCKLING ANALYSIS
The aim of the elastic buckling analysis is to establish probable buckling modes of the
plate. The eigenmode is then scaled by a factor (scale factor) to obtain perturbed mesh
of the plate for the nonlinear analysis. Typical buckling modes from FEA of unstiffened
plate model is shown in Figure 9. A sensitivity analysis on geometric imperfections of
unstiffened plates under the effect of uniform compressive stresses has been conducted
(Bambach and Rasmussen 2003). It is found that the average maximum measured
imperfection of all plates tested in uniform compression was 10% of the plate thickness.
Therefore the same scale factor is used for the unstiffened plates in this research. The
second aim of the linear buckling analysis is to obtain the critical buckling stress which
is used to calculate the buckling coefficients (k) using equation 2. The obtained results
of the buckling coefficients (k) are presented in Table 3 and plotted against the plate
slenderness ratio for all stress gradient groups in Figures 10 to 12. The figures show
that the value of the buckling coefficients k is almost constant for all plate slenderness
ratios subjected to the same stress gradient.

-708-

STL-009-8
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
slendernes
K
= 0.2
=0.4
= 0.6
= 0.8
F
2
F
2
Free edge
s.s.
s.s.
s.s.
F
1 F
1
=
F1
F
2

Group

Figure 9 Buckled shapes from FEM for
Plate slenderness Ratio =2.5
Figure 10 Buckling coefficient "K"
versus slenderness ratio "" for different
values of " " (1
st
group)

values of " " (2
nd
group)

values of " " (3rd group)

4.2 NONLINEAR ANALYSIS
The plastic model consists of the von Mises yield surface combined with Prandtl-Reuss
flow rules. The model incorporated isotropic hardening. The standard Newton method is
used for solving the nonlinear equilibrium equations. The method of control used in the
analysis is the displacement control, with the Riks Arc Length method of solution. The
Riks solution method is useful in solving unstable static equilibrium problems, and
computes the load-deflection response by displacing the loaded ends of the plates
b
Free edge
s.s s.s.
s.s.
F F
b
Free edge
s.s.
s.s.
s.s.
F
F
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
0.6
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
slendernes
K
= 0.2
=0.4
= 0.6
= 0.8
"=1"
Free dge
s.s.
s.s.
s.s.
F
1
F
2
F
1
F
2
1
2
=
F
F
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
slendernes
K
= 0.2
=0.4
= 0.6
= 0.8
F
1
F
2
Free edge
s.s.
s.s.
s.s.
F1
F
2
=
F
1
F
2

-709-

STL-009-9
incrementally, and solving for equilibrium at each step. For all analyses described, an
automatic time step size was used.
The load-deflection response may be deduced from the FEA obtained by calculating the
net force at each increment, being the sum of the stresses in the longitudinal direction at
each node of the loaded edges. The moment is calculated as the sum of the moments of
the total stress at the nodes of the loaded edges about the centre-width of the plate,
calculated at each increment.
The relation between stresses and axial displacement is used to represent the behavior of
plate specimens. The stresses from the applied force "f" and the applied bending
moments "f
m
" are calculated as the stresses on the gross area from Equations 4 and 5
respectively. These stresses are those which exist if plates remain flat according to
engineering bending theory. The sum of stresses "f" and "f
m
" at the stressed edge gives
the maximum stress on plate specimens.

bt
F
f = (4)

t b
M
I
M
f
y
m
2
6
= = (5)

Where F: Ultimate force (from compressive stress) and
M: Ultimate moment

For the case of pure compression, the ultimate condition is taken as the point at which
the compressive stress is a maximum. This point corresponds to ultimate strain of
approximately the yield strain for all slenderness ratios. Figure 13 shows the ultimate
compressive stresses of different plate slenderness under pure compression.

Total Stresses vs Axial Displacement
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
Axial Displacement of the Unsupported Edge
(mm)
S
t
r
e
s
s

o
n

G
r
o
s
s

A
r
e
a

(
M
P
a
)
b
Free
s.s
s.s.
s.s.
F F
=1.25
=1
=0.76
=1.5
=2.2

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Axial Displacement of the Unsupported
Edge (mm)

S
t
r
e
s
s

o
n

G
r
o
s
s

A
r
e
a

(
M
P
a
)
=1.5
Total stress
Stress f romBending moment
Stress f romCompressive Force
Free edge
s.s
s.s.
s.s.
F F

Figure 13 Relation between axial
compressive force and end shortening
(3
rd
group, = 1.5)
-710-

STL-009-10
0
100
200
300
400
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Axial Displacement of the supported Edge (mm)
S
t
r
e
s
s

o
n

G
r
o
s
s

A
r
e
a

(
M
P
a
)
=1.25
Total stress
Stress from Bending moment
Stress f romCompressive Force
Free edge
s.s.
s.s.
s.s.
F
F2
F1
F2
4 . 0
1
2
= =
F
F

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Axial Displacement of the supported Edge (mm)
S
t
r
e
s
s

o
n

G
r
o
s
s

A
r
e
a

(
M
P
a
)
=2.5
Total stress
Stress from Compressive
F
Free
s.s.
s.s.
s.s.
F
F2
F1
F2
4 . 0
1
2
= =
F
F

(3
rd
group, = 1.25)

(3
rd
group, = 2.5)

For the case of maximum compressive stress at the supported edge and zero stress at the
unsupported edge, the compressive stress and the bending stress peak at approximately
the same value of axial shortening and reduce thereafter, such that the total stress peaks
at the same value of axial shortening, and this point is taken as the optimum condition.
Figure (14) illustrates the ultimate compressive and bending stresses that peak at
approximately the same value of axial shortening and reduce thereafter for plate models
of slenderness ratio = 1.5.
For the case of compressive stress at both edges with maximum stress at the supported
edge and minimum stress at the unsupported edge, for the less slender specimens the
compressive stress peaks at a value of axial shortening slightly before the bending stress
then the compressive stress reduces thereafter while the bending stress remain constant,
such that the total stress peaks at a value of axial shortening in-between (figure 15). As
the slenderness ratio increases, the compressive stress and the bending stress peak at
approximately the same value of axial shortening and reduce thereafter such that the
total stress peaks at the same value of axial shortening (figure 16). The point at which
the total stress reaches its maximum is taken as the optimum condition for this load
case.

-711-

STL-009-11
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Axial Displacement of the Unsupported Edge (mm)

S
t
r
e
s
s

o
n

G
r
o
s
s

A
r
e
a

(
M
P
a
)
=1.5
Total stress
Stress from Bending
t
Stress from Compressive Force
Free edge
s.s.
s.s.
s.s.
F
F
1.9* yield

-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

S
t
r
e
s
s

o
n

G
r
o
s
s

A
r
e
a

(
M
P
a
)
=2.5
Total stress
Free edge
s.s.
s.s.
s.s.
F
F
1.9* yield strain

(1st group, = 1.5)

(1st group, = 2.5)

For the case of maximum compressive stress at the unsupported edge and zero stress at
the supported edge, the compressive stress and the bending stress peak at approximately
the same value of axial shortening and reduce thereafter, for the less slender specimens
only. As the slenderness ratio increases, the specimens tend to maintain compressive
stress while the bending stress decreases (Figure 17). For the most slender specimens,
the stress due to the total compressive force continues increasing while the bending
stress decreases, causing the total stress to maintain approximately its maximum value
up to large values of axial shortening (Figure 18). For this load case the ultimate total
stress is taken as that corresponding to an axial strain of 1.9 times the yield strain. This
value of axial strain was chosen due to considerations of the ultimate strain in sections
that contain unstiffened elements under similar strain gradients, being I-sections and
channel sections in minor axis bending, as recorded by previous experimental studies on
these sections.
For the case of compressive stress at both edges with maximum stress at the
unsupported edge and minimum stress at the supported edge, the bending and
compressive stress curves are almost similar to those of the case of applying maximum
compressive stress at the unsupported edge and zero stress at the supported edge for all
strain gradients analyzed, in which the compressive stress and the bending stress peak at
approximately the same value of axial shortening and reduce thereafter, for the less
slender specimens only and as the slenderness ratio increases, the specimens tend to
maintain compressive stress while the bending stress decreases (Figure 19) and for the
most slender specimens, the stress due to the total compressive force continues
increasing while the bending stress decreases, causing the total stress to maintain
approximately its maximum value up to large values of axial shortening (Figures 20).
For this load case the ultimate total stress is taken as that corresponding to an axial
strain of n times the yield strain, where n is determined according to the stress gradient
value . As for the case of maximum compressive stress at the unsupported edge and
zero stress at the supported edge, the ultimate total stress was taken as that
-712-

STL-009-12
corresponding to an axial strain of 1.9 times the yield strain, and for pure compression
the ultimate compressive stress was reached at approximately an axial strain equals to
the yield strain, the value of n was chosen between one and two according to the stress
gradient value .
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
S
t
r
e
s
s

o
n

G
r
o
s
s

A
r
e
a

(
M
P
a
)
=1.25
Total stress
Stress from Bending
Stress from Compressive
F
Free edge
s.s.
s.s.
s.s.
F1
F2
F1
F2
2 . 0
1
2
= =
F
F
1.6* yield

-180
-130
-80
-30
20
70
120
170
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
S
t
r
e
s
s

o
n

G
r
o
s
s

A
r
e
a

(
M
P
a
)
=2.5
Total stress
1.2* yield strain
Free edge
s.s.
s.s.
s.s.
F1
F2
F1
F2
6 . 0
1
2
= =
F
F

(1st group, = 1.25)

(1st group, = 2.5)

The value of n is chosen equal to 1.6, 1.3, 1.2 and 1.1 for strain gradient equal to 0.2,
0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 respectively. At stress gradient equal to 0.8, a case which is nearly
close to a pure compression case, n was chosen near to one and increases gradually to
reach a value of 1.6 at stress gradient equal to 0.2, a case which is nearly close to
compressive stress at the unsupported edge and zero stress at the supported edge.
For the case of compressive stress applied at the unsupported edge and tensile stress
applied at the supported edge, the bending and compressive stress curves differ in their
path according to the stress gradient , where for the stress gradients = -0.2 and -0.4,
the compressive stress and the bending stress peak at approximately the same value of
axial shortening and reduce thereafter for slender specimens (Figure 21), as the
slenderness ratio increases, the bending stress continues increasing while the
compressive stress continues decreasing then be reversed to tensile stresses at high
values of axial shortening (Figure 22). The ultimate total stress for this stress gradient is
taken as that corresponding to an axial strain of 1.6 times to 0.6 times the yield strain
beginning from the low slender to the most slender plates respectively. For the stress
gradients = -0.6 and -0.8, the specimens maintain low compressive stress which
reaches its maximum rapidly (at a value of axial shortening less than the yield strain)
and reduces thereafter till being reversed to tensile stress that continues increasing till it
reaches its maximum value. The specimens tend to maintain tensile stress as the
bending stress increases that are increasing from the beginning. The ultimate total stress
for this two stress gradients is taken as the point at which the bending stress is a
maximum.
The total ultimate compressive stress and moment values from the plate model analysis
-713-

STL-009-13
for uniform compression and stress gradient are presented in Tables (4) to (6). The
tables give total compressive stress (force) and moment values (about the supported
edge of the specimen), plate dimensions and the ratio of the ultimate strain to the yield
strain.

0
100
200
300
400
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

S
t
r
e
s
s

o
n

G
r
o
s
s

A
r
e
a

(
M
P
a
) = 0.76
Total stress
Free edge
s.s
s.s.
s.s.
F
1
F
F
1
F
2
2 . -0
1
2
= =
F
F
1.6* yield

-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

S
t
r
e
s
s

o
n

G
r
o
s
s

A
r
e
a

(
M
P
a
)
= 2
Total stress
0.8* yield strain
Free edge
s.s
s.s.
s.s.
F
F
F
1
F
2
4 . -0
1
2
= =
F
F

(2
nd
group, = 0.76)

(2
nd
group, = 2)
10 CONCLUSIONS
Investigations into the strengths and behavior of unstiffened rectangular plates, under
the effect of stress gradient using the finite element analysis have been presented. A
finite element model including both geometric and material nonlinearities has been
developed and verified against experimental results. The finite element analysis
prediction is generally in good agreement with the experimental ultimate compressive
stresses and moments of unstiffened plates. Elastic buckling and nonlinear post
buckling analyses are performed on unstiffened plates for different values of plate
slenderness ratios and for several types and values of stress gradients. The plate analysis
results are used to establish effective width equations for unstiffened elements under
stress gradients in further investigation.

-714-

STL-009-14
Table 4: First Group analysis results Table 5 : Second Group Analysis Results
compressive strain at both edges of the Compressive Strain at Unsupported Edge
short ends with maximum strain at of the Short Ends and Tension Strain at
the supported edge and minimum strain Supported Edge Stress Gradients
at the unsupported edge stress gradients =
1
2
F
F

=
1
2
F
F

Ult. Ult.
Spec- b Ult. moment@ Strain/
_imen Force supported Yield
edge Strain
mm kN kNm
C11 75 51.80 2.25 1.9
C12 99 68.00 3.92 1.9
C13 124 70.00 4.14 1.9 0
C14 149 73.92 4.70 1.9
C15 205 113.00 9.01 1.9
C16 248 106.00 9.79 1.9
C121 73 70.16 2.49 1.6
C122 96 69.78 2.74 1.6
C123 120 81.40 3.70 1.6 0.2
C124 145 92.66 4.78 1.6
C125 205 107.60 6.63 1.6
C126 240 137.00 9.34 1.6
C141 71 76.30 2.61 1.3
C142 95 76.00 2.76 1.3
C143 116 87.60 3.63 1.3 0.4
C144 140 99.40 4.56 1.3
C145 198 112.16 5.98 1.3
C146 232 129.00 7.17 1.3
C161 69 78.30 2.58 1.2
C162 91 78.50 2.72 1.2
C163 113 90.15 3.49 1.2 0.6
C164 136 104.41 4.55 1.2
C165 193 110.95 5.42 1.18
C166 226 118.00 6.39 1.18
C181 67 80.00 2.56 1.07
C182 91 78.09 2.58 1.1
C183 109 90.00 3.31 1.1 0.8
C184 132 104.87 4.34 1.1
C185 187 112.50 5.26 1.06
C186 219 113.47 5.70 0.9

Ult. Ult.
Spec- b Ult. moment@Strain/
edge Strain
mm kN kNm
C221 79 61.6 3.5332 0.8
C222 104 47 3.8 0.8
C223 129 43.1 4.26995 0.9 -0.2
C224 155 38.5 4.72975 0.8
C225 207 34.65 6.256275 1.9
C226 259 31.6 7.9922 2
C241 81 39.5 3.21 1
C242 107 12.86 2.63 1
C243 134 7 3.28 1 -0.4
C244 161 0.1 1.2 1
C245 214 -19 4.1 1.4
C246 268 -35 4.31 1.6
C261 85 5 3.15 1.2
C262 112 -60.6 2.038 23
C263 140 -78 2.74 24 -0.6
C264 168 -96 3.48 24
C265 223 -131 4.68 27
C266 279 -163 5.76 30
C281 88 -55 1.16 22
C282 116 -76.3 1.54 23
C283 145 -97.5 1.95 23 -0.8
C284 174 -118 2.34 24
C285 232 -158 2.7 26
C286 290 -201 2.87 27

-715-

STL-009-15
Table 6 : Third Group Analysis Results, Compressive Stress at both Edges of the Short
ends with Maximum Stress at the Unsupported Edge and Minimum Stress at the
Supported Edge Stress Gradients =
1
2
F
F

Ult.moment Ultimate
Spec- b Ultimate about Strain /
edge Strain
mm KN KNm
C31 130 106.30 4.17 1.5
C32 172 134.50 6.40 1.35
C33 214 166.00 8.50 1.4 0
C34 257 158.10 9.58 0.9
C35 343 148.00 11.10 0.8
C321 109 101.00 3.71 1.6
C322 136 118.00 4.90 1.6
C323 170 137.50 6.38 1.33 0.2
C324 205 157.00 8.39 1.05
C325 272 179.73 11.71 0.67
C326 340 177.30 13.40 0.5
C341 91 88.50 3.10 1.4
C342 113 101.30 3.89 1.4
C343 145 120.70 5.27 1.24 0.4
C344 170 133.70 6.28 1.13
C345 240 170.86 10.52 0.74
C346 288 178.94 12.17 0.6
C361 79 80.50 2.71 1
C362 109 96.28 3.59 1.07
C363 132 111.20 4.66 1.04 0.6
C364 155 123.26 5.52 1.03
C365 205 153.09 8.73 0.71
C366 258 174.84 11.37 0.6
C381 72 78.30 2.52 1.03
C382 95 87.60 3.18 1
C383 118 101.80 4.22 1.05 0.8
C384 142 113.50 4.91 1.04
C385 190 142.50 7.76 0.7
C386 236 167.78 10.44 0.65

-716-

STL-009-16

REFERENCES
1. AISI. (2005). Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members,
American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington D.C.
2. Bambach, M. R., and Rasmussen, K. J. R. "Experimental Techniques for Testing
Unstiffened Elements under Combined Compression and Bending." Journal of
Experimental Mechanics, April 2003.
3. Bambach, M. R., and Rasmussen, K. J. R. "Tests of Unstiffened Plate Elements under
combined Compression and Bending." Journal of Structural Division, ASCE, 130(10),
October 1 2004, 1602-1610.
4. Beale, R. G., Godley, M. H. R., and Enjily, V. (2001). "A Theoretical and
Experimental Investigation into Cold-formed channel sections in Bending with the
Unstiffened Flanges in Compression." Computers and Structures, 79, 2403-2411.
5. Bulson, P. S. (1967). "Local Instability and Strength of Structural Sections." Thin-
Walled Steel Structures, Chatto and Windus.
7. Bulson, P. S. (1970). The Stability of Flat Plates, Chatto and Windus, London.
8. Chick, C. G., and Rasmussen, K. J. R. (1999). "Thin-Walled Beam-Columns. 2:
Proportional Loading Tests." Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, 125(11), 1267-
1276.
9. Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Construction and Bridges (Allowable Stress
Design) Code No. ECP 359-2007
10. Hibbitt, Karlsson, and Sorensen. (1998). ABAQUS Standard, Users Manual, Vol. 1,
version 5.7, USA.
11. Rasmussen, K.J.R.(1994). "Design of thin-walled Columns with Unstiffened
Flanges. " Eng. Struct., 16(5), 307-316
12. Rusch, A., and Lindner, J. (2001). "Remarks to the Direct Strength Method."Thin-
Walled Structures, 39, 807-820.
13. Rhodes, J. (2000). "Buckling of Thin Plates and Thin-Plate Members." Structural
Failure and Plasticity, IMPLAST 2000, 21-42.
14. Rhodes, J., Harvey, J. M., and Fok, W. C. (1975). "The Load-Carrying Capacity of
Initially Imperfect Eccentrically Loaded Plates." International Journal of Mechanical
Sciences, 17, 161-175.
15.Yiu, F., and Pekoz, T. (2001). "Design of Cold-Formed Steel Plain Channels. Final
Report." Cornell University, Ithaca, USA
-717-

STL-010-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





EFFECT OF WIDTH-TO-THICKNESS RATIO OF TENSION
FLANGE ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL PLATE GIRDERS

M. A. DABAON
Department of Civil Engineering, Tanta University
Tanta, Egypt
E-mail: m_dabaon@yahoo.com
S. S. S. SAKLA
Department of Civil Engineering, Tanta University
Tanta, Egypt
E-mail: sheriefsakla@yahoo.ca
A. E. ELREFAIE
Higher Institute of Engineering and Technology
Kafr El-Sheikh, Egypt
E-mail: ali_elrfaie@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Research results on the effect of the width-to-thickness ratio of the tension flange of
plate girders on the behavior of this type of structural members are not available in the
literature. In this study, an experimental program was carried out to study the effect of
width-to-thickness ratio of tension flange on the behavior and ultimate strength of
simply-supported plate girders. The experimental program consisted of the ultimate
testing of five simply-supported full-scale steel plate girders having the same span and
steel profile but with different tension flange width-to-thickness ratios. A finite element
analysis was carried out to simulate the experimental study. A good agreement was
observed between the experimental and finite element results. The experimental failure
loads were also compared with the theoretical ultimate loads predicted using different
codes of practice. It was found that the width-to-thickness ratio of the tension flange
does not have any significant effect on the behaviour and ultimate strength of simply-
supported plate girders. However, for plate girders made of compact compression
flanges and un-stiffened slender webs, increasing the width-to-thickness ratio of the
tension flange affects the uniformity of the stresses across the tension flange without
affecting the ultimate strength. An inconsistency was observed among different codes
of practice in estimating the ultimate strength of plate girders.
KEYWORDS
Plate girder, tension flange, ultimate strength, finite element, compact web, slender web.
-718-

STL-010-2
1 INTRODUCTION
A plate girder is a beam built up from plate elements to achieve a more efficient
arrangement of material than is possible with rolled beams. Plate girders are economical
where spans are long enough to permit saving in cost by proportioning for the particular
requirements. It is a common practice to build plate girders by shop welding two flange
plates and one web plate to make an I-shaped cross section. A plate girder with
properly designed and regular spaced stiffeners has the capacity, after instability of the
web plate has occurred, to behave much like a truss with its web carrying diagonally the
tension forces and the stiffeners carrying the compression forces (tension field action).
All codes of practice put limitations on the width-to-thickness ratio of the compression
flange of a plate girder. However, available codes of practice do not provide any
limitations on the width-to-thickness ratio of the tension flange in a plate girder. A
literature survey revealed that no studies are available on the effect of the width-to-
thickness ratio of the tension flange of a plate girder on the behaviour and ultimate
strength of this type of structural members. In order to justify the absence of any
limitations on the width-to-thickness ratio of tension flanges, experimental and
theoretical studies are needed to obtain a better understanding of this issue.
In this study, an experimental program was carried out to study the effect of width-to-
thickness ratio of the tension flange on the behavior and ultimate strength of simply-
supported plate girders. The experimental study was complemented by finite element
verification.

2 EXPERIMENTAL TESTING PROGRAM
2.1 Test Specimens
The experimental program consisted of five ultimate strength tests of simply-supported
plate girders. The plate girders were designed according to the Egyptian Code of
Practice for Steel Construction and Bridges (ECP 2001 [1]). The span of all test
specimens was 2900 mm. Geometrical details of test specimens are shown in Table 1.
The specimens were divided into three groups as follows:
1- The first group, consisting of Specimens SP1 and SP2, was used to study the effect
of changing the width-to-thickness ratio of the tension flange on the behaviour of
simply-supported plate girders made of compact compression flanges and
vertically-stiffened slender webs. The stiffeners layout of Specimens SP1 and SP2
is shown in Fig. 1.
2- The second group, consisting of Specimens SP3 and SP4, was identical to the first
group except for using un-stiffened slender webs. However, two full-depth vertical
stiffeners were utilized at the supports and two half-depth vertical stiffeners were
used at the locations of the concentrated loads to prevent web crippling at these
locations. The stiffeners layout of Specimens SP3 and SP4 is shown in Fig. 2.
3- The third group involved the testing of one beam, Specimen SP5, to study the
effect of changing the width-to-thickness ratio of the tension flange on the
behaviour of beams made of compact compression flanges and compact webs; i.e.
-719-

STL-010-3
Specimen SP5 was identical to Specimen SP4 but constructed using a compact
web.
The webs and flanges of all specimens were made of Grade 37 steel. Cross-sectional
dimensions of all specimens are shown in Fig. 1. To study the effect of changing the
width-to-thickness ratio of the tension flange, the bottom flange of the test specimen
was changed from a 15010 mm plate in Specimens SP1 and SP3 to a 5003 mm plate
in Specimens SP2, SP4 and SP5. However, changing the dimensions of the bottom
flange was accompanied by a change in the depth of the web so that the moment of
inertia of the girder cross-section was kept unchanged for the specimens within the
same group.
Different components of test specimens were cut to the proper dimensions and welded
together. Manual fillet welds were used to join different parts of the built-up plate-
girder specimens. Both sides of the web plate were welded to beam flanges using
continuous fillet welds. The size of fillet welds was 4.0 mm. The intermediate
stiffeners were connected to the web and flanges of the plate girder using intermittent
fillet welds. End vertical stiffeners were welded to the web and flanges of the plate
girder using continuous fillet welds. However, for plate girders with bottom flange
width of 500 mm, intermittent fillet welds were used to connect end vertical stiffeners to
the bottom flange.
2.2 Instrumentation
In order to measure the strain distribution across the tension flange at mid-span of
Beams SP2, SP4 and SP5, six strain gauges were attached to the bottom surface of the
tension flange spaced at 92 mm. The outer strain gages were located at 20 mm from the
edge of the bottom flange. For Specimens SP1 and SP3, strain was recorded at the
centre of the bottom flange only. For the compression flange of all specimens, a single
strain gauge was attached to the top surface of the compression flange to measure the
strain at the centre of the flange at mid-span. In order to detect the yielding pattern
during loading, all the specimens were coated with a thin layer of white wash before
testing and allowed to dry. This brittle coating that flaked off at the points of yielding
exposing the steel surface below provided a very economical solution for detecting
high-yielding zones.

t
f
Bf
h
t w
h
t
w
2900 mm
4 x 242 = 968 mm 482 mm 482 mm
3000 mm
4 x 242 = 968 mm

Fig. 1: Stiffeners layout of Specimens SP1 and SP2
-720-

STL-010-4
t
f
Bf
h
t w
h
t
w
968 mm
3000 mm
968 mm
2900 mm
964 mm

Fig. 2: Stiffeners layout of Specimens SP3, SP4 and SP5

Table 1: Nominal cross-sectional details of test specimens
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3
SP1 SP2 SP3 SP4 SP5
h
w
(mm) 450.0 453.0 450.0 453.0 453.0
t
w
(mm) 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 6.0
Upper b
f
(mm) 150.0 150.0 150.0 150.0 150.0
Upper t
f
(mm) 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
Lower b
f
(mm) 150.0 500.0 150.0 500.0 500.0
Lower t
f
(mm) 10.0 3.0 10.0 3.0 3.0
h
w
/ t
w
(mm) 150.0 151.0 150.0 151.0 75.5

2.3 Test Procedure
All the tests were carried out using the 100 tonnes capacity test frame in the Structures
Laboratory at Tanta University [2]. Details of the test set-up are shown in Fig. 3.
Hinged and roller end conditions were created at the ends of the specimens. Each test
specimen was subjected to two equal concentrated loads applied at the locations shown
in Fig. 3. The load was applied using a 100-tonnes capacity hydraulic jack and a hand-
operated pump. The applied load was transferred from the hydraulic jack to the
specimen by means of a spreader beam. The spreader beam consisted of a piece of
broad-flanged I-beam (BFI 300) supported by two steel cylinders, which, in turn, were
resting on top of the upper flange of the specimen.
A calibrated flat load cell with a digital gage was used to obtain direct load
measurements. To improve the distribution of the applied load over the plate-girder
flange, a 50 mm thick spreader plate was placed between the load cell and the specimen.
The mechanical dial gauge was used to measure the deflection of the plate girder. One
dial gage located at the centre of the bottom flange at mid-span, as illustrated in Fig. 3,
was used to measure mid-span deflection. Each specimen was measured to determine
its actual dimensions, and then painted using white wash which was used as an indicator
of the pattern of failure. The white wash was allowed to dry prior to the application of
the load. After being placed in the test frame, a small load of about one ton was applied
to the specimen at the beginning of loading to eliminate any gap between any of the

-721-

STL-010-5
components of the test set-up that might exist. The load was then released to almost
zero. All dial and strain gauges were now set to zero before loading started.
The load on the specimens was applied slowly in increments of two tons. This load
increment was then reduced to one ton after reaching 70% of the expected failure load.
In all cases, the system was allowed to reach equilibrium, the point at which the lateral
displacements had stopped increasing at a given load, prior to reading the dial gauges.
In all tests, the failure point was the point where a small increment of applied load
caused large displacements and the load remained at the same value. A visual inspection
of the cracks developed in the white wash was made throughout the tests [2].
P
BFIB No 300
Roller support
Hinged support
Dial gauge
Hydraulic jack
Steel cylinder
Spreader plate
Strain gauges
3000
968 mm 968 mm 964 mm

Fig. 3: Details test set-up
2.4 Mechanical Properties
Nine tension tests were conducted on coupons taken from the same stock as that of the
components of the plate girder specimens to determine the yield stress and Youngs
modulus of elasticity of the steel used in different components of the test specimens.
The specimens were prepared according to ASTM E8-04 [3]. The tension specimens of
the 6 and 10 mm plates followed the ASTM standard plate-type specimen while the
tension specimens of the 3 mm plates followed the ASTM standard sheet-type
specimen. For each plate or sheet thickness used in this experimental program, three
tensile specimens were cut and machined to make the tension specimen. The average
modulus of elasticity, E, and the average yield stress, Fy, for each plate thickness are
shown in Table 2. These values were used in all theoretical computations of the
ultimate loads of test specimens.
Table 2: Materials properties of tested beams
Plate thickness (mm) Modulus of Elasticity (t/cm
2
) Yield stress (t/cm
2
)

10 1950 2.22
6 1900 2.20
3 1900 2.15
-722-

STL-010-6
3 THEORITICAL ANALYSIS
3.1 Finite Element (FE) Modelling
A finite element package, ABAQUS [4], has been used to perform a three-dimensional
nonlinear static analysis of the test specimens. Both material and geometric
nonlinearity were considered in the analysis of plate girders.
Based on a convergence study, it was decided to use a mesh of 6010 elements to
model the beam web and 60x8 element to model both flanges as shown in Fig. 4. This
finite element mesh was chosen based on pilot runs and was a compromise between
economy and accuracy. The reduced integration four-node shell element (S4R) [4] with
six degrees of freedom assigned to each node was used to model the test specimens.
This element is valid for both thick and thin shell element analysis and considers
membrane strains.
The steel was modelled as a linear elastic, perfectly plastic material assuming that the
yield surface acts as a failure surface with no strain hardening parameters. Both
Youngs modulus of elasticity and the yield stress obtained from the tension tests were
used in the analysis of the test specimens. ABAQUS uses the von Mises yield criterion
for isotropic metals in the plasticity modelling of the mechanical properties.
In order to simulate the roller support, all bottom flange nodes supported by the roller
were prevented from moving vertically and horizontally perpendicular to the span of the
girder. Nodes of the bottom flange at the hinged support were prevented from
translation in all directions but at the right support the longitudinal motion was
permitted. The top flange of the girder was prevented from moving laterally
perpendicular to the span of the girder at the points of the two concentrated loads. The
two concentrated loads were applied as two distributed loads across the width of the
upper flange to simulate the use of the two steel cylinders for applying loads during the
experimental testing.
Nonlinear static analysis, accounting for both material and geometric nonlinearity, was
performed in order to predict the behaviour and ultimate load of test specimens.
ABAQUS [4] uses the modified Newton-Raphson method to obtain solutions for
nonlinear problems. ABAQUS automatically adjusts the size of the load increments so
that it solves nonlinear problems easily and efficiently. After suggesting the size of the
first increment by the user, ABAQUS automatically adjusts the size of all increments. In
highly nonlinear problems, ABAQUS reduces the increment size repeatedly. The
number of iterations needed to find a converged solution for a load increment will vary
depending on the degree of nonlinearity in the system. By default, if the solution has not
converged within 16 iterations, ABAQUS abandons the increment and starts again with
the increment size set to 25% of its previous value. If the increment still fails to
converge, ABAQUS reduces the increment size again. By default, ABAQUS allows a
maximum of five cutbacks of increment size in an increment before stopping the
analysis. But if the increment converges in fewer than five iterations, this indicates that
the solution is being fairly easily. Therefore, ABAQUS automatically increases the
increment size by 50% if two consecutive increments require fewer than five iterations
to obtain a converged solution.
-723-

STL-010-7

Fig. 4: Application of load and boundary conditions for test specimens

3.2 Finite Element Model Verification
In order to verify the ability of the finite element model to predict the behaviour and
ultimate load of plate girders, it was necessary to compare the finite element results with
the results of experimental tests of plate-girders reported in the literature. Two simply-
supported built-up beams tested by Dabaon [5] were used for validation purposes. These
beams were identified as B1 and B2, respectively. Figure 5 gives a detailed description
of the geometric details of the two beams. The web height was 448.0 mm and the
flange thickness was 8.2 mm for both beams. The flange width of Beams B1 and B2
were 151.0 mm and 152.0 mm, respectively. The web thicknesses were 3.0 mm and
4.0 mm for Beams B1 and B2, respectively.

3000
1450 1450
Hinged support
Roller support
t
f
Bf
h
t w
h
t
w
P

Fig. 5: Details of Beams B1 and B2

Comparisons between the experimental and finite element load-deflection curves of
Beams B1 and B2 are shown in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively. As could be concluded
from these figures, the proposed finite element model can predict, with a reasonable
degree of accuracy, both the behaviour and ultimate load of Beams B1 and B2. The
finite element analysis was capable of predicting the experimental ultimate loads of both
beams within 3% accuracy.
-724-

STL-010-8

0
10
20
30
L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
Beam B1
Exp.
FE

0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection (mm)

Fig. 6: A comparison between
experimental [5] and finite element load-
deflection curves of Beam B1
0
10
20
30
40
L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
Beam B2
Exp.
FE

0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection (mm)

Fig. 7: A comparison between
experimental [5] and finite element load-
deflection curve for Beam B2

4.1 Experimental and Finite Element Results of Group I (Specimens SP1 and SP2)
Specimens SP1 and SP2 were designed to study the behaviour of plate girders made of
compact compression flanges and vertically-stiffened slender webs (h
w
/t
w
= 150). Table
3 shows the experimental elastic and ultimate loads of all test specimens. As shown in
Table 3, Specimen SP2 was identical to Specimens SP1 except for the width-to-
thickness ratio of the bottom flange. During testing, all specimens were loaded
gradually to failure and the deflection at mid-span was recorded. As the applied load
was increased, shear buckling started to develop in the stiffened web panels. Web
panels located between the applied concentrated load and the supports buckled first and
the tension field action was clearly visible as shown in Fig. 8 and 9. Failure of Beam
SP1 was characterized by buckling of the left end stiffeners at ultimate load. In order to
prevent the buckling of end stiffeners in the rest of the specimens, it was decided to
stiffen the end stiffeners by two equal-leg 50505 angles to increase its capacity.
The load-deflection curve of Specimens SP1 and SP2, measured at the bottom flange at
mid-span, is shown in Fig. 10. As could be indicated from Fig. 10, the observed
behaviour of Specimen SP2 since the beginning of loading and up to failure was similar
to that of Specimens SP1.
The ultimate load of Specimen SP2 was higher than that of Specimen SP1 by about
10%. The stiffening of the end stiffeners of Specimen SP2 may have contributed to this
slight increase in the ultimate load. In order to examine the effect of changing the
width-to-thickness ratio of the tension flange on the behaviour of plate girders, it was
necessary to compute the force in the tension flange using the recorded experimental
strains across the bottom flange of all specimens. Figure 11 shows a comparison
between the computed forces in the tension flanges of Specimens SP1 and SP2 which
represent plate girders with vertically-stiffened slender webs. It is apparent from Fig.
11 that the computed force in the bottom flange of Specimen SP1 is slightly higher than,
that computed for Specimen SP2 by about 14%.
-725-

STL-010-9
Table 3 shows a comparison between experimental and finite element failure loads of
all test specimens. The difference between experimental and finite element failure loads
was within 10% for all specimens. It could be stated that the finite element model was
capable of predicting the failure loads of plate girders with a reasonable degree of
accuracy. Figures 12 and 13 show the mid-span load-deflection curves obtained from
experimental testing and finite element analysis for Specimens SP1 and SP2,
respectively. As can be observed, there is a good agreement between the experimental
and theoretical results.
The stress distribution in the tension flange measured at mid-span of Specimen SP2 at
different loading stages is plotted in Fig. 14. It could be noted from Fig. 14 that the
stress distribution across the tension flange is almost uniform. The average stress value
in both the tension and compression flanges at ultimate load was almost identical. In
addition, the value of the average stress in the tension flange of Specimen SP2 was
almost the same as that measured in Specimen SP1. It could be concluded that changing
the width-to-thickness ratio of the tension flange from 15 to 167 did not have any
significant effect on the behaviour of simply-supported plate girders made of compact
compression flanges and vertically-stiffened slender webs as indicated by the load-
deflection curve and strain measurements at different stages of loading.

Table 3: Experimental and finite element results of all test specimens
Beams Group I Group II
Group
III
SP1 SP2 SP3 SP4 SP5
Width-to-thickness ratio of bottom flange 15 167 15 167 167
Stiffened vertically? Yes Yes No No No
Web height-to-thickness ratio 150 151 150 151 76
Elastic limit P
e
[ton] 27.7 30.0 15.8 15.3 29.3
Deflection at elastic limit
e
[mm] 7.2 7.8 4.2 9.0 7.5
Experimental Ultimate Load P
Exp
[ton] 33.5 37.0 15.8 15.3 34.4
FE Ultimate Load P
FE
[ton] 31.5 33.7 15.3 15.2 35.6
P
Exp
/P
FE
1.06 1.10 1.03 1.01 0.97

Fig. 8: Specimen SP1 at failure

SP1
SP2
-726-

STL-010-10
0
10
20
30
40
L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
SP1
SP2

0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection (mm)

Fig. 10: Load vs. mid-span deflection for
Specimens SP1 and SP2
0
10
20
30
40
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
SP1
SP2

0 10 20 30
Force in tension flange (ton)
Fig. 11: A comparison between the
forces in the tension flanges of

0
10
20
30
40
L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
SP1
Exp.
FE

0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection (mm)

Fig. 12: Comparison between experimental
and finite element load-deflection curves of
Specimen SP1
0
10
20
30
40
L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
SP2
Exp.
FE

0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection (mm)
Fig. 13: Comparison between
experimental and finite element load-
deflection curves of Specimen SP2

0
.
3
9
0
.
4
4
0
.
4
7
0
.
5
3
0
.
6
0
0
.
5
0
0
.
7
5
0
.
8
1
0
.
8
4
0
.
9
0
1
.
0
2
0
.
8
1
1
.
2
1
1
.
2
7
1
.
3
4
1
.
4
0
1
.
7
1
1
.
5
5
0.35 (Averaged)
1.31 (Averaged)
1.80 (Averaged)
FE
FE
FE
2
At 100% ultimate load
At 74% of ultimate load
Specimen SP2
Values shown are in t/cm
FE
Exp.

Fig. 14: Experimental and finite element stress distribution in Specimens SP2
-727-

STL-010-11
4.2 Experimental and Finite Element Results of Group II (Specimens SP3 and SP4)
Specimens SP3 and SP4 were designed to study the behaviour of plate girders made of
compact compression flanges and un-stiffened slender webs (h
w
/t
w
= 150). Full-depth
vertical stiffeners were only provided at the supports while half-depth stiffeners were
provided at the locations of the applied load as shown in Fig. 2. The experimental
elastic and ultimate loads of these test specimens are shown in Table 3. For Specimen
SP3, it was observed that failure occurred due to the shear buckling of the slender web.
The buckling in the slender web extended from middle stiffeners to end supports, as
shown in Fig. 15.
Figure 16 shows Specimen SP4 before loading. It could be seen that a significant
amount of out-of-straightness was present in the tension flange before starting the test.
This out-of-straightness developed in Specimen SP4 due to the welding process and the
fairly large width-to-thickness ratio. This out-of-straightness was not noticeable in
Specimen SP2 due to the presence of vertical stiffeners that connected the tension
flange with the beam web. As the applied load was increased, this out-of-straightness
started to straighten due to the developed tensile stresses in the tension flange as
indicated by Fig. 17 and 18. The mode of failure of Specimen SP4 was identical to that
observed in Specimen SP3 and was primarily the shear buckling of the slender web.
Similar to Specimen SP3, buckling extends from the locations of the applied loads to
the end stiffeners at left and right supports as shown in Fig. 18.
Figure 19 shows the mid-span load-deflection curves for Specimens SP3 and SP4.
There is no significant difference in the failure load between the two specimens. The
stiffness of both beams remained almost the same until about 50% of ultimate load. A
comparison between the computed forces in the tension flanges of Specimens SP3 and
SP4 which represent plate girders with un-stiffened slender webs is shown in Fig. 20.
As could be noted from Fig. 20, the computed force in the bottom flange of Beam SP3
is 17% higher than the computed force in Specimen SP4. Figures 21 and 22 show
comparisons between the mid-span load-deflection curves obtained from experimental
testing and finite element analysis for Specimens SP3 and SP4, respectively. As can be
observed, there is a good agreement between the experimental and theoretical results.

Fig. 16: Specimen SP4 before testing

SP4
SP3
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STL-010-12
Fig. 17: Specimen SP4 at 50% of failure
load

0
4
8
12
16
20
L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
SP3
SP4

0 5 10 15 20
Deflection (mm)

Fig. 19: Load vs. mid-span deflection for
0
4
8
12
16
20
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
SP3
SP4

0 2 4 6 8 10
Force in tension flange (ton)
Fig. 20: A comparison between the
forces in the tension flanges of
0
4
8
12
16
20
L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
SP3
Exp.
FE

0 10 20 30
Deflection (mm)

Fig. 21: Comparison between
experimental and finite element load-
deflection curves of Specimen SP3
0
4
8
12
16
L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
SP4
Exp.
FE

0 10 20 30
Deflection (mm)

and finite element load-deflection curves
of Specimen SP4

Figure 23 shows the stress distribution across the width of the tension flange at mid-
span of Specimen SP5 measured at different stages of loading. As could be noted, the
stress distribution is not uniform across the entire width of the beam. The highest stress
value was recorded near the web and the lowest values were measured near the edges of
the tension flange. There is a discrepancy between the experimental and finite element
SP4
SP4
-729-

STL-010-13
stress distributions across the bottom flange. As indicated by finite element results, this
non-uniform stress distribution might not be due to the large width-to-thickness ratio of
the tension flange only but also due to the presence of large out-of-straightness in the
tension flange.
0
.
2
2
0
.
3
2
0
.
3
2
0
.
5
3
0
.
5
6
0
.
0
1
0
.
0
1
0
.
2
2
0
.
3
7
0
.
4
5
0
.
0
1
0
.
0
1
0
.
0
2
0
.
0
2
0
.
3
0
0
.
2
3
0
.
1
2
0
.
1
2
2
0.15 (Averaged)
0.18 (Averaged)
0.44 (Averaged)
FE
FE
FE
Specimen SP4
FE
Exp.

Fig. 23: Experimental and finite element stress distribution in Specimen SP4

4.3 Experimental and Finite Element Results of Group III (Specimen SP5)
Group III involved the testing of Specimen SP5 which is designed to study the effect of
changing the width-to-thickness ratio of the tension flange on the behaviour of plate
girders made of compact compression flanges and compact webs. Specimen SP5 was
identical to Specimen SP4 but constructed using a compact web, h
w
/t
w
= 75. Similar to
Specimen SP4, full-depth vertical stiffeners were only provided at the supports while
half-depth stiffeners were provided at the locations of the applied loads. Similar to
Specimen SP4, a significant amount of out-of-straightness was present in the tension
flange before starting the test. As the applied load was increased, this out-of-
straightness started to straighten due to the developed tensile stresses in the tension
flange. Figure 24 shows Specimen SP5 at failure.
Table 3 shows the elastic and ultimate loads of Specimen SP5. The failure of Specimen
SP5 was due to shear buckling in compact web. The buckling of the web extended from
the location of the two concentrated loads toward the supports but without reaching to
the location of the end stiffeners. A comparison between the mid-span load-deflection
curves for Specimens SP2 and SP5 is shown in Fig. 25. It can be noticed that the
ultimate behaviour of Specimen SP2 is much more ductile than that of Specimen SP5 as
indicated by the shape of the load-deflection curves. This indicates that the use of
vertical stiffeners contributes remarkably to the ductility of plate girders. Figure 26
shows a comparison between the experimental and finite element load-deflection curves
of Specimen SP5.
-730-

STL-010-14
Figure 27 shows the stress distribution across the width of the tension flange at mid-
span of Specimen SP5 measured at different stages of loading. It can be observed that
the stress distribution is not uniform across the entire width of the beam. As for
Specimen SP4, there is a discrepancy between the experimental and finite element stress
distributions across the bottom flange. This non-uniform stress distribution might not
be due to the large width-to-thickness ratio of the tension flange only but also due to the
presence of large out-of-straightness in the tension flange.

Fig. 24: A view of Specimen SP5 at failure

4.4 Comparison with Codes of Practice
Table 4 shows a comparison between the experimental failure loads and the theoretical
ultimate loads predicted using the Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel construction
(ECP 2007 [6]), the AISC Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (AISC 2005 [7]),
and Eurocode 3 - Design of steel structures - Part 1-5: Plated structural elements (EC3
2004 [8]) for all test specimens. The resistance factor of the AISC specification [7] and
the ECP [6] and partial safety factor of the EC3 [8] were taken as one. It is apparent
from Table 4 that different codes of practice were capable of predicting the
experimental failure loads of plate girders made of compact compression flanges and
vertically-stiffened slender webs (Specimens SP1 and SP2) with a reasonable degree of
0
10
20
30
40
L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
SP2
SP5

0 10 20 30 40 50
Deflection (mm)

Fig. 25: Comparison between the
load-deflection curves of Specimens
SP2 and SP5
0
10
20
30
40
L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
SP5
Exp.
FE

0 10 20 30
Deflection (mm)

and finite element load-deflection curves of
Specimen SP5
SP5
-731-

STL-010-15
accuracy. The predicted ultimate loads of Specimens SP1 and SP2 were governed by
flexural resistance. For plate girders made of compact compression flanges and un-
stiffened slender webs, Specimens SP3 and SP4, an inconsistency were observed among
different codes of practice in estimating the ultimate load of this type of plate girders.
While the EC3 [8] slightly overestimated the ultimate load of Specimens SP3 and SP4,
both the AISC [7] and ECP underestimated the ultimate loads by as much as 35%. The
predicted ultimate loads of Specimens SP3 and SP4 were governed by the shear
resistance of the girder web. For plate girders made of compact compression flanges
and compact webs, Specimen SP5, all three specifications were consistent in over-
estimating the ultimate load. The ECP overestimated the ultimate load by as much as
22%. The predicted ultimate load of Specimen SP5 was governed by flexural
resistance.
0
.
0
3
0
.
0
3
0
.
3
8
0
.
3
1
0
.
2
1
0
.
2
0
0
.
2
0
0
.
5
9
0
.
5
1
0
.
4
9
0
.
4
4
0
.
4
9
0
.
8
6
0
.
9
6
0
.
7
9
0
.
7
9
0
.
4
4
0
.
2
1
2
Specimen SP5
0.31 (Averaged)
0.92 (Averaged)
2.20 (Averaged)
FE
FE
FE
FE
Exp.

Fig. 27: Experimental and finite element stress distribution in Specimen SP5

Table 4: Comparison between experimental ultimate loads and the ultimate loads
computed using different codes of practice
SP5

SP4

SP3

SP2

SP1

Specimen
34.4 15.3 15.8 37.0 33.5 P
exp
(ton)

38.7 11.4 11.4 35.0 35.0 P
ECP
(ton)
0.88 1.34 1.38 1.06 0.96 P
exp
/ P
ECP

38.7 10.4 10.4 35.1 35.1 P
AISC
(ton)
0.89 1.47 1.52 1.05 0.95 P
exp
/ P
AISC

39.5 16.6 16.6 30.7 30.7 P
EC3
(ton)

0.87 0.92 0.95 1.09 1.09 P
exp
/ P
EC3

-732-

STL-010-16
5 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of the theoretical and experimental results, the following
conclusions could be drawn:

1- The width-to-thickness ratio of the tension flange of simply-supported plate
girders made of compact compression flanges and vertically-stiffened slender
webs does not have any significant effect on the behaviour of this type of plate
girders, as indicated by the ultimate load, load-deflection curves, and strain
measurements across the tension flange at different stages of loading.
2- For simply-supported plate girders made of compact compression flanges and un-
stiffened slender webs, increasing the width-to-thickness ratio of the tension
flange does not have a significant effect on the ultimate load but affects the
uniformity of the stresses across the tension flange.
3- For simply-supported plate girders made of compact compression flanges, the use
of a compact un-stiffened web or a vertically-stiffened slender web results in
almost the same ultimate load. However, the ductility of a plate girder made of a
compact flange and a vertically-stiffened slender web is by far larger than the
ductility of a similar girder constructed using a compact un-stiffened web.
4- Based on the recorded strains across the bottom flange of test specimens, the
computed force in the tension flange slightly decreases as the width-to-thickness
ratio of the bottom flange increases.
5- An inconsistency was observed among different codes of practice in estimating
the ultimate load of plate girders made of compact compression flanges and un-
stiffened slender webs. While EC3 [8] slightly overestimates the ultimate load of
this type of plate girders, both the AISC [7] and ECP [6] underestimated the
ultimate loads by as much as 35%.
6- For plate girders made of compact compression flanges and compact webs, the
ECP [6], AISC [7] and EC3 [8] were consistent in over-estimating the ultimate
load. The ECP overestimated the ultimate load by as much as 22%.
6 REFERENCES
[1] ECP, Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Construction and Bridges (Allowable
Stress Design), Code No. 205, Cairo, Egypt (2001).
[2] Elrefaie, A.E. Effect of Section Properties of Plate Girder on its Behaviour
Using Non Linear Analysis. Thesis Submitted for the Partial Fulfilment of the
Requirements of the Degree of M. Sc. in Civil Engineering, Tanta University,
Tanta, Egypt (2008).
[3] ASTM E8-04, Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials,
Pennsylvania, USA (2004).
[4] Hibbitt, H.D., Karlsson, B.I., Sorensen, E.P. ABAQUS Users and Theory
Manuals, Version 6.2. Hibbitt, Karlsson, and Sorensen Inc., Pawtucket, R.I.,
USA (2001).
-733-

STL-010-17
[5] Dabaon, M.A. Behaviour and Strength of Partially Encased Beams with Built-up
Sections Having Thin Steel Webs, Scientific Bulletin of Ein-Shams University
37(3) (2002).
[6] ECP, Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Construction and Bridges (Load and
Resistance Factor Design), Code No. 359, Cairo, Egypt (2007).
[7] AISC, ANSI/AISC 360-05, Specification for Structural Steel Buildings,
American Institute of Steel Construction, Chicago, Illinois (2005).
[8] Eurocode 3, EN 1993-1-5: 2004, Design of Steel Structures Part 1.5 Plated
Structural Elements, (2004).

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STL-011-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





SOME INVESTIGATIONS ON THE VIBRATIONS OF OVERHEAD
TRANSMISSION LINES

T.G. ABU-EL-YAZIED
College of Technological Studies, PAAET, Kuwait,
On Leave from Ain Shams University, Egypt
E-mail: tyazied@hotmail.com
S.Y. ABUL-HAGGAG
Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: said_haagag@yahoo.com
K.A. MOUSTAFA
Faculty of Engineering, University of Arab Emirates, U.A.E
E.A. AL-MESHAEI,
College of Technological Studies, PAAET, Kuwait

ABSTRACT
In this work, the vibration of overhead transmission lines has been considered. The
different parameters which affect the sudden failure of conductors have been developed.
The effects of tower-line dynamics, seismic excitation as well as the stochastic wind
excitation have been investigated. It is found that the failure can be attributed to the
excessive vibration of conductors under the stochastic wind excitation. By analyzing
the field data, the maximum amplitude of vibration, and consequently the dynamic
stress in the conductor, is calculated, and conductors life is estimated to be less than 20
years for several sites. Flexible absorbers are introduced to reduce the vibration of
overhead transmission lines, such that the sudden failure of the conductors can be
avoided. The effect of clamping these absorbers on the vibration of the conductor, and
consequently on the dynamic stresses, has been investigated. The estimated life of the
conductor is found to increase to more than 200 years by the implementation of this
scheme.
KEYWORDS
Vibration of Overhead Transmission lines, Flexible Absorbers, Dynamic Stresses, Life Time.
1 INTRODUCTION
In this work the vibration of overhead transmission lines has been considered. Probably
no other large structure has as much of its mass in highly flexible form, as does the
overhead transmission lines. This causes the conductor to be exposed continuously to
-735-

STL-011-2
the wind induced vortices from its top and bottom sides. These vortices create an
alternating vertical pressure on the conductor, which forces the conductor to perform
vertical vibrations. These vibrations produce alternating bending moment at the
clamping points, where the conductor is constrained against vertical motion, and
therefore, the conductor is subjected to fatigue stress at these points. Fatigue failure of
the conductor at the clamping points is the most common cause of failure of the
overhead transmission lines.
During the last three decades, several failures of the overhead transmission lines have
been recorded. The failure analysis of the damaged conductors illustrated that several
mechanical factors have major effects on the conductor failure. These factors could be
mentioned as the conductor tension, type of clamps, damping devices and the stochastic
vibrations induced by wind [1]. Wind-induced conductor vibrations, for instance, are
unavoidable. They may cause wire fractures, mainly in the inner layers of the
conductor. This is discovered after several years of service, which, in most cases, is too
late [2].
According to the failure analysis of the damaged lines, and the comprehensive studies
of CIGRE (Conference Internationale des Grands Reseaux Electriques a` Haute
Tension) [3, 13, 14] several vibration recorders have been manufactured [9]. These
vibration recorders are clamped to the tower wing to measure, and record, the line
vibration as illustrated in Fig.(1). The recorded results illustrate that the vibration is
relatively high and consequently the estimated life-time of the line may be uneconomic.
In order to reduce the vibration, the flexural self damping of the line is investigated [8]
and the tower effect is also evaluated [5]. Also, it is proposed to clamp flexible
absorbers between the lines. These absorbers may have a considerable damping
coefficient and may not [7]. Much of those efforts were devoted to develop the design
procedure and optimizing the parameters for improved performance [4].
These flexible absorbers are clamped between the lines to reduce the vibration level,
according to general recommendations. However, farther investigations are needed to
explore the effect of the line dynamics and damper parameters on the vibration.
In this paper, the effect of the parameters of the flexible absorbers and their locations,
on the line vibration has been investigated. The vibration of the line without flexible
absorbers is studied. The effect of clamping flexible absorbers on the vibration of the
conductor, and consequently on the dynamic stresses, has been investigated. The
estimated life of the conductor is found to increase to more than 200 years by the
implementation of this scheme.
2 TOWER-LINE DYNAMICS
In this section, the dynamic interactions between the tower and line subsystems have
been presented. First, the recorded data of the line is analyzed, and the frequency
response of the line is calculated. Finally, the natural frequencies of the tower are
calculated, both experimentally and theoretically. It is concluded that the effect of
tower dynamics on the line vibrations can be neglected under the normal working
conditions.
-736-

STL-011-3
2.1 Measured Data
Due to failure problems in the 500 kV line, several vibration recorders have been
located on the towers to measure the vibration of the line, at different sites for 60 days.
The measuring sites have been selected according to the direction and the velocity of
wind over two years. A sample of the data, for the life of the line, is given in Table. 1.
The vibration recorders, which have been used in this work, are VIBRAC100 and
VIBRAC300 [9]. Fig.1 illustrates the mounting of the recorder. After the end of the
recording time, the recorded data is analyzed to construct the amplitude-frequency
matrix for the measurements. Figure. 2 represents a sample of this data matrix. It is
clear that the maximum amplitude of vibration occurs between 15 Hz and 25 Hz.
2.2 Dynamics of the Tower Subsystem
In this section, the dynamics of the tower is investigated, by the finite element method
and experimentally. A finite element model which represents the dynamics of the tower
will be developed, in the first step. Hence, the natural frequencies of the tower have
been calculated. Thereafter the impulse technique has been applied to verify the natural
frequencies. It is found that the lowest natural frequencies of the tower are 0.75., and
2.5 Hz. respectively.
2.2.1 Finite element model of the tower
The general layout of the tower under consideration is shown in Fig. 3. This tower is
widely used in Egypt. Each member of the tower is considered as a flexible beam
element. The number of degrees of freedom of every element is considered to be
seven. These seven degrees of freedom are; one representing the axial translation of
the element, two representing the transverse deflections at element ends, two
representing the slopes at ends, and finally two representing the curvatures at ends. The
axial translation is assumed to be the same at all points of the element due to its high
stiffness in the axial direction. The line data can be found in the study [10]. Applying
Lagrange's equation, the differential equation of the considered beam element can be
written as,
M B K P
e e e e e
e
+ + =
&& &
, (1)
where M , B , K
e e
e
are 7x7 element matrices and P
e
is 7x1 vector defined by Al-fiqi et
al. in [2] for an element with uniform cross section. Now, the matrices which transform
the global coordinates of the flexible subsystem to the element coordinates will be
considered. Denoting the flexible subsystem generalized coordinates vector by { },
the following equation is introduced,
ei
= C
i
, (2)
where,
ei
= the coordinate vector of the ith element,
C
i
= transformation matrix of the ith element,
=generalized vector coordinate of the tower.
-737-

STL-011-4
Applying these transformation matrices, equation (2), to the element equation (1), the
global dynamic equation can be written as,
M C K {P} + + =
&& &
(3)
where M and K are the flexible tower mass and stiffness matrices respectively. The
matrix C, is system damping matrix, which is considered to be Raleighs with a
damping factor of 1%, and {P} is the external force vector.
Equation (3) can be written as an eigenvalue problem,
M K 0 + =
&&
(4)
and the natural frequencies of the tower can be calculated. It is found that the lowest
natural frequencies of the tower are 0.75 Hz., and 2.5 Hz respectively. Regarding the
rigidity of the tower in the vertical direction, it is considerably high, and hence, it has a
negligible effect on the natural frequencies of the tower.
A full scale tower was excited to identify the natural frequencies. The two wings of the
tower were set under a force which had the following components;
y
F = 15 kN,
z
F = 25 kN.
The left wing of the tower was then released, from the front, and the response at this
point, in the direction of tension, was recorded. This excitation was similar to the step
excitation. Regarding the system response, the Fast Fourier Transform FFT indicated
that the system had two adjacent frequencies, the first lowest natural frequency was 0.78
Hz. and the second was 2.45 Hz. These frequencies were close to the theoretical natural
frequencies.
2.3 Dynamic Effect of the Tower
It is clear from the above results that the dominant frequencies of the tower are quite
far from the dominant frequencies of the measured response of the line, at normal
operating conditions. This can be attributed to the fact that the response of the line is
the result of the stochastic wind excitation on the line-tower system. Taking the
measured frequencies into consideration, the tower subsystem can be considered stable
and considerably rigid under the normal working conditions. This result will be
employed within this work.
Regarding the response of the tower under the condition of a sudden failure, or
equivalently an impact load, the tower dynamics is dominant, and modifications in the
tower are necessary to avoid successive failure. This point has been discussed in a
recent work by the author [2].
3 FLEXIBLE ABSORBER EFFECT ON THE LINE
In this section, the vibration of the line will be considered. The effect of the flexible
absorber on the line vibrations will be also investigated. The equation of vibration of
the line is derived, and its numerical solution is discussed in 3.1. In Subsection 3.2, the
semigroup approach is summarized. The absorber implementation is presented in 3.3.
3.1. Dynamic Modelling of the Line
Although the swinging of the line has a considerable amplitude, it is found that it has a
minor effect on the line failure. Therefore, the vibration of the line in the vertical
-738-

STL-011-5
direction will be considered. The line will vibrate in the vertical direction, about its
static equilibrium curve, under the stochastic wind excitation, as illustrated in the free
body diagram Fig (4). The changes in the tension of the line, and the slopes are
considerably small. Hence, the equation of motion can be written as follows;
2
2
y(x, t) y(x, t)
m dx T dx p(t) D dx
x x
t

= +

(5)
where T the tension in the line [N], D Diameter of the line [m], m mass per unit
length of the line [Kg/m], l span of the line [m], and p(t) the stochastic pressure,
induced by the wind, [N/m
2
].
Equation (5) is a non-homogenous partial differential equation with stochastic
excitation. The solution of the homogenous partial differential equation associated with
this equation can be derived as;
( )
n
1 n
n 1
x 2
y(x, t) sin D sin t
ml V
=

= +

, (6)
where V T/ m = , and
n
= the frequency of vibration, of the n
th
mode
n
n V/ l = . As mentioned above, the most dangerous harmonic component of the
excitation is that which has the frequency of maximum amplitude, and coincides with
one of the line natural frequencies [2]. In the following, the response of the line to a
harmonic excitation at its mid-span will be considered;
o
P(t) P sin t = , where 2 f = (7)
The response of the line to the above component can be calculated to be;
n
n n
n 1,3,5
x
y(x, t) A sin sin ( t )
V
=

=

(8)
The details of the derived response can be found in Appendix A. A typical response of
the system is represented by the solid curve Fig. 5. It is clear that the response is
generally high near the system critical frequencies. Therefore, single absorber and
double absorbers are implemented to reduce the response.
3.2 Semigroup Approach
The dynamic stress at the clamp is directly proportional to the amplitude of vibration at
the measuring point (see Fig.1). In order to increase the life of the line, the dynamic
stress must be decreased. Therefore, the amplitude of vibration must be suppressed, or
controlled, to reduce the dynamic stress. The idea is to rewrite the above infinite
system in abstract form, and to propose a Hilbert space, such that a semi group approach
can be modified, and implemented, such that the control vector can be selected [11].
The location of the absorber will be similar to a passive control of the system.
Equation (5) can be written in the abstract form as follows (see Appendix B);
d
(t) (A B C) (t)
dt
= + (9)

-739-

STL-011-6
where A has been considered to be densely defined operator, which has a pure point
spectrum with no finite limit point (see Appendix B). The analysis of Appendix B
indicates that the response of the considered system can be controlled if the spectrum of
A is interrupted using suitable control. The optimum control can be achieved if the
control action acts at the mid-span of the considered frequency [6, 11, 12]. This result
will be employed in sub-sections 3.3. If the measured data of the line is considered, it
can be noticed that the amplitude of vibration is less than 2 mm, while the frequency of
vibration, for maximum amplitude, is about 20 Hz. The dominant frequency
corresponds to one of the higher harmonics of the line, and this clear from equation (6)
and the data of the line [Table (2)]. The proposed idea is to introduce single flexible
absorber and double absorbers to suppress the vibration at the considered frequencies.
3.3 Effect of Flexible Absorbers
The proposed type of flexible absorbers is illustrated at Fig. 6. This absorber is
assumed to be attached to the line at a distance D in order to reduce the system
response. The response of the line to the above excitation, in the presence of the flexible
absorber, is the result of both effects i.e.;
( )
t
* *
n
1 n n1 n2 n
n 0
n 0
D 2 1
y (x, t) C sin Z ( ) Z (D, ) sin (t ) d
ml V
=

= +

(10)
where ( ) ) , ( ) (
*
2
*
1
D Z and Z
n n
are the effect of the exciting force and the effect of the
absorber, which is located at xo, respectively (see Appendix A for details).
The effect of the second absorber location on the line response, taking into account
the results of Appendix B, is illustrated by the curves of Fig. 5. For single absorber
DD=D. It is clear that the amplitude of vibrations has been considerably reduced, but
still high near the some of the line natural frequencies. If the second absorber is
introduced, equation (10) can be rewritten as follows;
t
n
1 n n
n 0
n 0
D 2 1
y (x, t) C sin Zt sin (t ) d
ml V
=

=

(11)
where
( )
* * *
n1 n2 n3
Zt Z ( ) Z (D, ) Z (DD, ) = + + , and
( )
*
n3
( Z (DD, ) is the effect of the
second absorber, which is located at DD. If the second absorber is located at a
distance equals a fraction of D, i.e. DD = 0.4D, a maximum reduction of the line
vibration is achieved. This can be attributed to the fact that every one of the absorbers
makes an artificial node to suppress the persisting vibrations. If these artificial nodes
are the same as the line nodes no effect can be obtained. If the first absorber is located
near the mid-span of the considered persisting wave, the result of Appendix B and
section 3.2, a reduction of the vibration can be obtained, by the new artificial node.
4. CONCLUSION
The excessive vibrations of the overhead transmission line, coming from the High Dam,
have been considered. The dynamic interaction between the tower and line has been
investigated. The tower dynamics has been discussed theoretically and verified
experimentally. It is shown that the tower is stable and considerably rigid, under
normal operating conditions.

-740-

STL-011-7
The vibration of the line, at different sites, has been also recorded, and then the life of
the line has been estimated. It is found that the amplitude of vibration is high such that
the estimated life is less than 20 years, at different sites. The dynamic study of the line
illustrates that it is vibrating under tension and stochastic wind load.
It is proposed to use flexible absorbers in order to suppress the vibration of the line.
The partial differential equation of vibration, is derived, and rewritten in the abstract
version to apply the semi group approach to such infinite dimensional system. The
Hilbert space is defined and the vibration control vector is proposed. It is found that it
is better to locate the absorbers away from the nodes of the principle modes of
vibrations. Simulation results, with single absorber and two absorbers, illustrate the
effectiveness of the absorbers. It is found that the amplitude of vibration can be reduced
to one fifth of its original value, by optimizing the location of the absorbers. Therefore,
the estimated life of the line can be increased to about two hundred years.

References
[1] Alt, K., Bauer, K.H., Boos, K.V., Jurdens, C. and Paschen, R., 1984, "Dynamic
Effects on Transmission Lines" Int. Conf. on Large High Voltage Electric Systems,
Paper 22-08.
[2] Al-Fiqi, T.G.A., Al-Fares, F.S., Abu-El-Haggag, S.Y. and Makady, A.M., 2008,
Effect of Tower Dynamics on the Vibration of Overhead Transmission Lines",
Proceedings of the 6th Int. Eng. Conf., Mansoura Univ., Sharm-El-Sheikh, Egypt, Paper
PRE13.
[3] Cauzillo, B.A, Nicolini, P., Paoli, P. and Carpena, A., 1978, Mechanical Design
Criteria and Construction of New UHV Lines, Int. Conf. on Large High Voltage
Electric Systems, Cigre, Paper 22-12.
[4] Filiatrault, A. Tremblay, R. and Kar, R., 2000, Performance Evaluation of Friction
Spring Seismic Mass-Damper, ASCE, J. of St. Eng., pp. 491-499.
[5] Leea, Ph.-S. and McClureb, GH., 2007, "Elastoplastic large deformation analysis of
a lattice steel tower structure and comparison with full-scale tests", Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, V. 63, 709717.
[6] Mathews, J.H. and Kurtis, F., 2004, "Numerical Methods using MATLAB", 4
th
Ed.,
Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ.
[7] Mottershead, J.E. and Ram, Y.M., 2005, "Inverse eigenvalue problems in vibration
absorption: Passive modification and active control", Elsevier Ltd.(2005).
[8] Rawlins, C.B, (2009), " Flexural self-damping in overhead electrical transmission
conductors, Journal of Sound and Vibration, V. 323, Issues 1-2, pp. 232-256.
[9] SEFAG, VIBREC 300, The Universal Vibration Recorder, Technical Data,
SEFAG, 1990.
[10] Study of vibration measurements, SwedPower Report No. 1 on the Egyptian
Overhead transmission lines, Egyptian Electric Authority, (1985).
[11] Sereny, A. (2008), " Some results on Operator Semigroups and Applications to
Evolution Problems", Ph.D. Thesis, Central European University, Hungary.
[12] Yang X.-S., (2008), "Introduction to Mathematical Optimization: From Linear
Programming to Met heuristics", Cambridge Int. Science Publishing.
[13] Siddiqui,F.M. & Fleming,J.F.,Broken wire analysis of transmission line systems,
J. Computers & Structures, Vol.18- 6, 1984.
[14] Paschen, R., Probabilistic Evaluation on Test results of Transmission line
Towers, Int. Conf. on Large High Voltage Electric Systems, Cigre, Paper 22-13, 1988.
-741-

STL-011-8

APPENDIX A
The response of the line can be calculated as follows;
t
n 1 n
n 0
1
(t) I sin (t ) d =

(A1)

where
l
n
1 o
0
x 2
I sin P sin t dx
ml V

=

The response of the line can be written as;

n
n n
n 0
x 2
y(x, t) C sin (t)
ml V
=

=

, (A2)

where
n
C = 1, for n = 1, 3, 5, and
n
C = 0, for n = 0, 2, 4,

Taking the boundary conditions into consideration, the response can be written as;

n
n n n n
n 0
x
y(x, t) C A sin ( sin t sin t)
V
=

=

(A3)

where
n
A is a constant to be determined by the boundary conditions. If the internal
damping of the line is considered, this equation can be reduced as;

n
n n n
n 0
x
y(x, t) C A sin sin ( t )
V
=

=

(A4)

Hence, the constant
n
A can be derived as;

( )
( )
3 2
o
n 3
2
2 2
n o n
F / ( T/ 4l ) 1
A
n
1 r 2 r
=
+
(A5)

APPENDIX B

Let Hi = L(0,l) * L(0,l), then Hi is a Hilbert space with inner product in the form;

l
* *
1 1 2 2
0
[g, h] g (x)h (x).dx g (x)h (x).dx = +
; (B1)
where
=
2
1
g
g
g ; h
h
h
=

1
2

while the star {*} denotes the complex conjugate. The space norm can be defined as;

-742-

STL-011-9
l l
2 2
1 2
0 0
g [g, g] g (x).dx g (x).dx = = +

(B2)
Equation (5) is a non-homogenous partial differential equation with stochastic input.
This equation can be written in the abstract form as follows;

d
(t) A (t) B p(t)
dt
= + (B3)
where
y(x, t)
(t)
y1(x, t)

=

, ) t , x ( y
t
) t , x ( 1 y
= ,

=
0 x
1 0
A
2 2
,
=
0
1
B

The operator A infinitesimal generator of a strongly continuous semi group of
bounded operators, and B is a bound operator from the Hilbert space (control space)
to the Hilbert space (state space). The state feedback can be modified as follows;

) t ( g ) t ( F ) t ( f + = (B4)

where g(t) is a new external input, and F is a bounded operator from the state to
the control space. The state feedback can be written as follows [11];

f t t C g t ( ) [ ( ), ] ( ) = + (B5)
where the C is the observability operator, and the final form of the system will be;

) t ( ) C B A ( ) t (
dt
d
+ = (B6)

where A has been considered to be densely defined operator, which has a pure point
spectrum with no finite limit point [11]; Spectrum (A) = {u = j n , n = 1, 2, ....}.

The definition of the frequency can be found in equation (7), and the semigroup
generated by the operator A is compact [11]. Taking the physical aspects of the
problem, the optimum control can be achieved if the control action acts at the mid-span
of the considered frequency [11, 12]. This result will be employed in sub-sections 3.3.

Fig. 1. Vibration Recorder

-743-

STL-011-10
Table 1: Sample of the Recorded Data
Frequency [Hz] n=No. Cy. * 10
-6
(n/N) p. class %
2 1.794 0.0000 0.0
5 4.238 0.0000 0.0.
10 17.510 0.0050 1.1
15 61.430 0.0941 19.8
20 145.552 0.1745 36.8
25 137.423 0.1503 31.17
30 68.293 0.0470 9.9
34 16.130 0.0024 0.5
40 10.408 0.0006 0.1
45 5.715 0.0001 0.0
50 3.101 0.0000
0.0
59 3.476 0.0000
0.0
83 2.822
0.0000 0.0
100 0.369
0.0000 0.0
143 0.204
0.0000 0.0
200 0.000
0.0000 0.0
(n/N) =
0.474

1 / ( (n/N) ) = estimated lifetime = 2.11 Years

Fig. 2. Spectral Density for one of the Cases

-744-

STL-011-11
Table 2: The data of the 500 kV line.

Outer diameter 2R 30.2 mm
Mass/unit length m 1.8 kg/m
Span of the line l 400 m
Rated strength T
max
146 kN
Number of strands 54
Aluminum layers
Strand diameter 2 mm
Number of strands 19
Steel layers
Strand diameter 2 mm
Bundles at equal spaces
No. of Bundles 6x3

x
Fig. 3. Layout of the Tower (Dimensions are in mm)
z
y
-745-

STL-011-12

Fig. 5. Frequency Response of the Line with Absorbers

Fig. 6. Considered Type of Flexible Absorbers
first
cable
flexible rubber
joints
second
cable
y
dx
x
y
dx
T
T
Fig. 4. Free Body Diagram of the Line
x
-746-

STL-012-1

13
th
ICSGE
27-29 Dec. 2009
Cairo - Egypt



BEHAVIOR OF WELDED SINGLE ANGLES SUBJECTED TO
COMPRESSIVE FORCES

MAHMOUD I. EL-BANNA
Professor of Steel Construction and Bridges, Structural Engineering Department, Ain Shams University
E-mail: dr_albanna_office@yahoo.com
AHMED H. YOUSEF
Associate Professor, Structural Engineering Department, Ain Shams University
E-mail: a_h_yousef69@yahoo.com
MONA M. FAWZY
Post graduate Student, Structural Engineering Department, Ain Shams University
E-mail: mona-fawzy@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Single angle web struts in trusses are usually eccentrically loaded. The current study
presents an analytical approach to monitor the behaviour of single angle web struts. The
aim of this research is to study the ultimate load value of shear centre compression in
contrast to that of centroid compression of single angle welded at both ends. Also, the
ultimate loads are compared with values obtained assuming end pinned joints. A
nonlinear finite element model applicable to steel single angle compression members
eccentrically loaded through one leg is developed using finite element package
(COSMOS/M Ver.2.6). Both geometric and material nonlinearities are considered.
Calibration with other experimental data shows that the model is able to predict
behaviour up to ultimate load when using a relatively coarse mesh. Finally, a numerical
finite element procedure is used to investigate the effect of various parameters on the
behaviour of a single angle welded at both ends. The parametric study accounted for
different member slenderness ratios, loading positions, as well as the ratio between weld
length and member length.
Keywords: Ultimate load, Single angles, Welded connection, Shear center, Nonlinear
analysis, Compression members.
1. INTRODUCTION
Angles are perhaps the most basic and widely used of all rolled structural steel sections.
There is a wide range of sizes available and end connections are relatively simple.
Single angles are commonly used in trusses and transmission towers. Angles are
connected on one side of the gusset plate or on both sides. Angles are advantageous due
to the simplicity of fabrication and erection procedures which reduce their cost. In most
-747-

STL-012-2
applications, steel angles are primarily subjected to concentric or eccentric axial loads.
This requires a through investigation of the strength and behavior of single angles.
Steel angles can fail in flexural buckling, torsional-flexural buckling or local buckling.
This behavior is studied by many researches. A finite element model used to investigate
axially loaded single angles is introduced by Jie Sun and John Butterworth [1]. Initial
geometric imperfections with large inelastic deformations are considered. Ultimate
loads resulting from the model are compared with experimental values where a
parametric study is carried out on a number of equal and unequal leg struts with
slenderness ratios varying from 30 to 300. A modification of the interaction equation of
New Zealand Steel Structures Design Standard, NZS 3404 is also included. Deformed
shape of models show both local as well as overall buckling. Post buckling is sensitive
to both magnitude and direction of initial imperfections. For this, post buckling
behavior becomes difficult to predict. Comparing the results of finite element model
with test results and New Zealand Design Standards, show conservations which can be
treated by multiplying factors to the interaction equation.
Woolcock and Kitipornchai [2] proposed a simplified design method for single angle
struts in trusses considering the effect of buckling and eccentricity in the plane
perpendicular to the plane of the truss. A computer analysis of the truss is carried out
using three dimensional frame programs, where a comparison of the behavior of trusses
with web members connected on the same sides and on the opposite sides is carried out.
The results are that deformation of single angle web compression members is in a plane
perpendicular to the plane of the truss. In addition to that, the line of action of axial
force for welded angles is near to the mid point of the connected leg. However, the most
important result is that single angle struts in trusses whose web members are connected
alternately on opposite sides have less theoretical capacity than the same struts in a one
sided truss.
Experimental investigations of 26 axially loaded hot-rolled steel angles are tested by
Adluri and Madugula [3]. This study has two other objectives, which are determining
distribution of residual and yield stresses and determining initial out-of-straightness of
steel angles. Deformed shape of specimens shows that all angles fail by flexural
buckling. The paper shows that peak value of residual stresses is about 25% of yield
stress, also difference between maximum and minimum yield stresses do not exceed
20%. It is recommended that out-of-straightness is L/1500 of the general length of
member.
Theodore V.Galambos [4] describes the behavior of axially loaded single symmetric
sections by three homogeneous differential equations, two of which are coupled. If the
member is assumed to be hinged at both ends, the solution of the one uncoupled
equation gives the critical load for buckling in the direction of the symmetry axis. The
other two coupled equations describe flexural buckling and torsional buckling modes,
where buckling occurs by the least value of the modes.
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) [5] uses effective slenderness ratios to
neglect the effects of eccentricity on single angle members where the members are
evaluated as axially loaded compression members. This is applied for equal-leg angles
or unequal-leg angles connected through the longer leg which are either individual
members or web members of planar trusses with adjacent web members attached to the
same side of the gusset plate or chord provided that: 1) members are loaded at the ends
-748-

STL-012-3
in compression through the same one leg; 2) members are attached by welding or by
minimum two-bolt connections and 3) there is no intermediate transverse load.
On the other hand, the Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Construction (LRFD) [7]
introduces equations to determine the flexural buckling and flexural torsional buckling
of an un-symmetric section under axial centroid loading. In case of single angles
connected to gusset plate, the provisions of beam column shall apply to consider
bending moment arising from load eccentricity. Alternatively, the computed design
strength may be reduced by 40%.

Finite element models (FEMs) are prepared by COSMOS program [8] to investigate the
effect of various parameters on the behavior of steel angles. The ratio between weld
length and member length (a/L) along with different loading positions and slenderness
ratios are studied.

2. FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
2.1 Description of the used model
The finite element program COSMOS/M Ver.2.6 is used where the steel angles are
modelled using four node thick shell elements with membrane and bending capabilities.
The section is divided longitudinally to a number of shell elements that give reasonable
aspect ratio, usually ranges from 1 to 2, as shown in figures (1) and (2). Solution
technique is the arc length method. This method is used as an incremental control
technique between nodal forces and nodal displacements. Modified Newton Raphson
method is used as an iterative solution. Nonlinear static analysis is adopted with
material and geometric nonlinearities. Ultimate load is accurately estimated by
incremental load increase through successive load steps until failure occurs.

Fig. 1: Proposed finite element model
of single angle with pinned ends
Fig. 2: Proposed finite element model
of single angle with welded ends
The material of the model is defined by bilinear stress strain curve, where tangential
modulus of elasticity is defined as 0.01 times of the real modulus of elasticity and
Young's modulus of elasticity of steel is taken 210 KN/mm
2
. Steel grade 37 is used of
specified yield stress equals 240 N/mm
2
. Shear modulus is taken 81 KN/mm
2
and
-749-

STL-012-4
Poissons ratio equals 0.3. An Initial imperfection of (1/1000) times the length of the
member in the direction of the out-of-plane, is considered at its mid length.
Both ends of the member are connected to thick end plates to avoid stress concentration
at the load and reactions locations. Two different models with different boundary
conditions are studied. The first model has pinned end, while the other has welded end.

2.2 Verification of the proposed model
A comparison is carried out between FEM used and the experimental results obtained
by Adluri and Madugula [3]. Experimental tests are performed on the following angles:
64x9.5, 127x9.5 and 76x12.7 with different slenderness ratios (
v
) that are axially
loaded. All the results are shown in table (1) and figures (3) and (4). There is good
agreement with the proposed finite element model (FEM). For instance, the result of
FEM exceeds experimental result by 11% for angle 64x9.5 with slenderness ratio equals
138, while for angle 76x12.5, with slenderness ratio equals 114, the result of FEM
exceeds the experimental by 6%.

Fig. 3: Ultimate load (KN) and
slenderness ratio (
v
) for angle 64x9.5
Fig. 4: Ultimate load (KN) and
slenderness ratio (
v
) for angle 76x12.7

Table (1): Comparison between model results and those obtained by Adluri
and Madugula [3]
Cross Section
A x T (mm)
Slenderness
Ratio (
v
)
Critical load
(KN) by
F.E.M.
Critical load (KN)
by experimental
work
FEM/Exp.
113.4 173.5 173 1.00
138.4 131.7 119 1.11
163.2 93.8 84 1.12
64x9.5
188.2 73.1 64 1.14
93.5 387 399 0.97
114.1 300 282 1.06 76x12.7
134.4 223.4 194 1.15
127x9.5 92 497.9 557 0.89
-750-

STL-012-5
3. PARAMETRIC STUDY
In this section, wide parametric study is performed using the proposed finite element
model to study the effect of loading position on ultimate capacity of single angles with
welded connection. The parametric study is conducted with different weld length to
member length ratios (a/L). The ratio (a/L) is taken 0.1, 0.07, 0.05, 0.046, 0.042, 0.04
and 0.03 with changing slenderness ratio for each model and considering the weld
length 10 cm. The height of each angle gives a different slenderness ratio of values from
37 to 257. Equal angles used are 60x6, 80x8, 100x10, 120x12 and 140x13. Each model
is loaded by an axial compressive force at both centroid and shear center.
Boundary conditions are different for each of the models used. For instance, the first
model in figure (5) has pinned ends. The centriodal point of the angles at its connections
with the end plates are modelled with all three-translation degrees of freedom restrained
as well as the rotational degree of freedom, R
y
, except for the loaded end of the
member, which is considered free to move in the direction of the axis of the angle (U
y
)
as shown in figure (1). The second model contains welds at one leg where different
ratios between weld length and member length (a/L) are applied as shown in figure (6).
The welded nodes are prevented from translation in X, Y and Z directions as well as
rotation in Y direction R
y
, except for the loaded side of the member as shown in figure
(2). Load is applied at the upper end of the angles as an axial compressive force on the
end plate of starting value equal to 1 KN.

Length of Member
Load at Centroid
End Plate
Load at Shear Centre
A
T

Fig. 5: End conditions of pinned single angles used in the parametric study
Length of Member
Load at Centroid
Load at Shear Centre
A
T
a a

Fig. 6: End conditions of welded single angles used in the parametric study
-751-

STL-012-6
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Figures from (7) to (11) represent the relation between the ultimate load to yield load
ratio (P
u
/P
y
) and slenderness ratios (
v
). The ultimate load due to centroid loading and
shear centre loading are included, where the influence of changing the loading position
is obvious. It is apparent that centroid loading exceeds shear centre loading due to the
effect of eccentricity for pinned single angles. Changing the position of the support is
remarkable, only for angles 120x12 and 140x13. For instance, the ultimate load due to
centroid loading is 1.53 that due to the shear center loading for angle 60x6, as shown in
figure (7), while, it is 1.12, 1.65, 1.63 and 2 times for the other sections respectively.
This is justified by the effect of eccentricity in case of centroid loading. Slenderness
ratios (
v
) affect the correlation between centroid and shear center loading, for large
slenderness ratio (
v
), section capacity reduces.
However, at high slenderness ratios, flexural torsional buckling decreases section
capacity due to centroid loading, this is clear especially at section 60x6 with slenderness
ratio (
v
) 200, where shear centre loading exceeds centroid loading by 30% as shown
in figure (7) as well as for angle 80x8 with slenderness ratio (
v
) equals to 194, the shear
centre loading exceeds centroid loading by 33% as shown in figure (8). This indicates
that the effect of flexural-torsional buckling is increased and overcomes the effect of
eccentricity.
Presence of weld group improves section capacity producing end fixation to the angle.
For instance, angle 60x6 shows an increase of 3.2 times at centroid loading and 3.7
times for shear centre loading at slenderness ratio (
v
) equals to 171, as shown in figure
(7). For angle 80x8, the increase is 4.6 times for centroid loading and 3.9 times for shear
centre loading at slenderness ratio (
v
) equals to 161.3, as shown in figure (8). The
effect of welds in increasing the ultimate load can be also observed for angles 100x10,
120x12 and 140x13 in figures (9), (10) and (11) respectively at different slenderness
ratios.
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
(L 60x6)
P
u

/

P
y
Slenderness ratio
CL Pined CL Welded
SCL Pined SCL Welded

60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
(L 80x8)
P
u

/

P
y
Slenderness ratio
CL Pined CL Welded

Fig. 7: Ultimate load to yield load ratio (P
u
/P
y
)
and slenderness ratios (
v
) of single angle
60x6 with different end connections
Fig. 8: Ultimate load to yield load ratio
(P
u
/P
y
v
) of single
angle 80x8 with different end connections
-752-

STL-012-7

40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
(L 100x10)
P
u

/

P
y
Slenderness ratio
CL Pined CL Welded

40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
P
u

/

P
y
Slenderness ratio
v

(L 120X12)
CL Pined SCL Pined
CL Welded SCL Welded
u
/P
y
)
v
) of single angle
u
/P
y
)
v
) of single angle
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
P
u

/

P
y
Slenderness ratio
(L 140x13)
CLPined SCLPined
CLWelded SCLWelded

0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
P
u

/

P
y
a/L
CL 60x6 SCL 60X6
CL 140X13 SCL 140X13

Fig. 11: Ultimate load to yield load ratio
(P
u
/P
y
v
) of single
angle 140x13 with different end connections
u
/P
y
)
and ratio of weld length to member length (a/L)
of angles 60x6 and 140x13

The effect of changing the loading positions in case of welded end connection is not
significant, since the ultimate load values corresponding to centroid loading and shear
centre loading are nearly alike. This is explained by saying the weld tends to cause
fixation to the ends of the member so changing the loading position is not effective. It is
important to point out that taking the weld length equal at toe and heel, causes the
-753-

STL-012-8
centroid of the weld group to lie in the middle connected leg and not along the line of
action of the load which introduces a moment as a result of this eccentricity.
Another parameter is highlighted in this parametric study which is the ratio between
weld length and member length (a/L). The results in figure (12) show that by increasing
this ratio, values of the ultimate load rise because the buckling length of the member
decreases. In addition to that, the parameter (a/L) is affected by different slenderness
ratios (
v
); by increasing the slenderness ratio, ultimate load of the section decreases.
Figures (13) and (14) show the deformed shape of single angle with welded end
connections loaded at centroid and shear centre respectively.

Fig. 13 Deformed shape of single angle
with welded end connections loaded at
centroid
Fig. 14 Deformed shape of single angle
with welded end connections loaded at
shear centre

5. CONCLUSIONS
This research studies the behavior of single angles with pinned ends and welded ends.
The angles are subjected to compressive force on its shear center and centroid. The out
comes in this research can be summarized as follows:
-754-

STL-012-9
The results demonstrate that the member capacity increases by adding the
weld at the ends. This increase varies from 3.9 to 1.7 depending on the
slenderness ratio as well as section dimensions.
The rate of increase of member capacity when shifting the load from the
centroid to the shear center can be neglected in presence of welds, which
contradicts with the case of pinned ends where the increase in load is up to
2 times.
For higher slenderness ratios (
v
200), the effect of changing loading
positions from centriod to the shear center have an apparent effect on the
section capacity.
Alteration of (a/L) obviously affects smaller sections with low section
capacity, unlike other sections where section capacity reduces slightly.
Finally, further consideration is needed to examine the benefits that are associated with
including the end conditions of angles subjected to compressive force.

6. REFERENCES
[1] Sun J. and Butterworth J.W, Behavior of Steel Angle Compression Members
Axially Loaded Through One Leg, University of Auckland (1996).
[2] Woolcock S.T. and Kitipornchai S, Design of Single Angle web Struts in Trusses
Journal of Structional Engineering (1986).
[3] Adluri S.M.R. and Madugula M.K.S, Flexural Buckling of Steel Angles:
Experimental Investigation, Journal of Structural Engineering (1996).
[4] Galambos T.V. Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures (4th ed.),
Wiley (1987).
[5] American Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, issued by the AISC Board of
Directors (2005).
[6] Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Construction and Bridges, Allowable Stress
Design, 1st edition (2001).
[7] Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Construction, Load and Resistance Factor
Design (LRFD), 1st edition (2008).
[8] COSMOS/M (Version 2.6), Finite Element Computer Program Manual, Structural
Research and Analysis Corporation, (2000).

-755-
1

13
th
ICSGE
27- 29 Dec. 2009
Cairo - Egypt

Thirteenth International Colloquium on Structural and Geotechnical
Engineering

ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF UNIPLANAR CIRCULAR HOLLOW
SECTION JOINTS SUBJECTED TO AXIAL AND INPLANE
BENDING MOMENT

EMAM A. SOLIMAN
Professor of Steel Construction and Bridges, Structural Engineering Department, Ain Shams University
Abbassia , Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: edcc@consultant.com
AHMED H. YOUSEF
Associate Professor, Structural Engineering Department, Ain Shams University
Abbassia, Cairo, Egypt.
E-mail: A_H_yousef69@yahoo.com
MOHAMMED S. AHMED
Assistant Lecturer, Structural Engineering Department, Ain Shams University
Abbassia, Cairo, Egypt.
E-mail: mohammedsaeed_83@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
A theoretical study directed towards the structural behavior of circular hollow section T-
joints is presented. A well validated nonlinear finite element model is carried out using the
nonlinear finite element program ABAQUS. Both material and geometric nonlinearities are
modeled and a modified RIKS algorithm is used to apply the loading. Data on the strength
of the studied joints is presented. The combined action between axial force and in-plane
bending moment in the branch is considered. Yielding of the chord due to punching action
of the branch is observed to be the predominant mode of failure of the joints. The finite
element results are compared to those of the Canadian design guide for hollow structural
section connections. Different joint parameters are considered such as: the diameter ratio
between branch and chord, radius to thickness ratio of the chord, ratio of branch to chord
wall thickness and preloading of the chord.

Keywords: T-joints; Tubular structures; Hollow sections; Welded joints; Offshore
platforms; Uni-planar joints, Joint strength.

-756-
2
1 INTRODUCTION
The use of hollow structural sections (HSS), circular hollow sections (CHS) and
rectangular hollow sections (RHS), has expanded significantly over the years. Architects
love the visual impact of HSS and they regularly achieve their aesthetic goals by creating
elegant structures which incorporate exposed steel. Hollow structural sections have
excellent properties for resisting static loads, not only with regard to buckling, bi-axial
bending and torsion, but also in the overall design of members. They can offer economic
advantages in comparison with other sections. Circular hollow sections are most often
found in heavy offshore structures subjected to oscillating wave loads. Good design of
structures using hollow sections makes use of their specific properties right from the
beginning.
Hollow structural sections are modern constructional forms which are particularly suitable
for joining by welding where they are welded to one another directly without gusset plates.
The connections between hollow sections are simple in form, but not simple when stress
distributions and design calculations are considered. The connection strength largely
governs the selection of the members. Consequently, the designer should have a good
insight into the behavior of hollow section connections and the parameters which influence
the strength of these connections. The economy of hollow section structures is not only
governed by the geometrical properties of the hollow section members, but to a large extent
by the connections.
Connection configurations vary depending on the number of braces and intersection angles
between the branches and the chord, to suit a particular application. Figure 1 shows the
most common types of joints.

Fig. 1: Basic types of joints

(e) Gap K-joint (f) Overlap K-joint
-757-
3

An indication of the importance of hollow section joint design is the number of codes of
practice and design guidelines published by a number of different organizations. Some
of the major current codes include: Design Guide for Hollow Structural Section
Connections (Canadian Institute of Steel Construction CISC) [2], Load and Resistance
Factor Design Specification for Steel Hollow Structural Sections (American Institute of
Steel Construction AISC) [3], Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures [4] and CIDECT [5].
The geometry of the joints is described by the main parameters shown in Figure 2.
Depending on the type of joint, the joint parameters and the loading conditions, several
modes of failure can occur such as:
a) Chord wall plastification (chord bending failure);
b) Punching shear rupture;
c) Chord shear yielding; and
d) Weld rupture or local buckling.

do
to
d
1
t
1
=
d
d
d
t
t
Po Po
t
1
o
1
o
o
o 2
=
=
Po =
chord preload
Lo
L
1
b
r
a
n
c
h
chord

Fig. 2: Symbols used for the main joint parameters

Conventional methods of strength calculation have proved to be inapplicable to hollow
section connections. Many researchers in this field participate in preparing design
recommendations for joints in tubular structures. Soliman (2003) [6] used three
dimensional finite element models for full trusses (not only isolated joints). Comparisons
were made between design recommendations based on isolated joint tests and the joint
strengths obtained using the finite element method. Paul and others (1993) [7] studied the
influences of the brace diameter to chord diameter ratio, the transverse gap to chord
diameter ratio, the longitudinal gap to chord thickness ratio and the out-of-plane angle on
the static strength of multiplanar double K-joints with circular hollow sections under
balanced axial brace loading. A formula for the ultimate capacity of double K-joints was
proposed. Dexter and Lee (1999) [8] compared the ultimate capacity results from an
extensive finite element study of balanced axially loaded K-joints with predictions from
available design guidance, both overlap and small-gap K-joints were included. Connelly
and Zettlemoyer (1989) [9] studied the influence of frame behavior on the ultimate capacity
-758-
4
of tubular joints. Yuji Makino and others (1989) [10] reported an analysis method for the
ultimate strength of simple CHS X-joints using the yield line theory. Coutie and others
(1989) [11] described the results of testing seven large scale trusses formed from RHS.
Comparisons were made between design recommendations based on isolated joint tests,
and the joint strengths observed in the truss tests.
The aim of this research is to study the behavior of uni-planar circular T-joints subjected to
combined axial force and in-plane bending moment. The ultimate strength of the joints is
found taking into consideration the effects of different joint parameters such as the diameter
ratio between branch and chord (), radius to thickness ratio of the chord (), ratio of
branch to chord wall thickness () and preloading of the chord (P
o
). Interaction curves are
drawn for each joint.

2 FINITE ELEMENT MODELING
The numerical study was carried out using the nonlinear finite element program ABAQUS.
A four-node quadrilateral shell element (element S4 from ABAQUS library) was used to
model the tubular members. The element used is fully integrated, general-purpose, finite-
membrane-strain shell element. The element's membrane response is treated with an
assumed strain formulation that gives accurate solutions to in-plane bending problems; it is
not sensitive to element distortion. The element has four integration locations per element
which makes the element computationally expensive. S4 can be used for problems prone to
membrane- or bending-mode, in areas where greater solution accuracy is required, or for
problems where in-plane bending is expected. Both material and geometric nonlinearities
are considered and a modified RIKS algorithm is used to apply the loading. Ultimate load
is accurately estimated by incremental load increase through successive load steps until
failure occurs. No weld modeling was included, as its effect on static strength has been
found to be insignificant. The tubular members were capped with end plates with thickness
equal to ten times the thickness of the tubular members to facilitate the application of
loading and boundary conditions. Material type of all steel members does not include strain
hardening and has a simple linear elastic perfectly plastic stress strain relationship with
yield stress = 331 N/mm
2
, Youngs modulus = 210000 N/mm
2
, and Poissons ratio = 0.3.

Figure 3 shows a typical finite element mesh of circular T-joints. The boundary conditions
and the mode of loading are given in Figure 4.

-759-
5

Fig. 3: Finite element mesh for Fig. 4: Boundary conditions and
circular T-joint loading mode

3 VERIFICATION OF THE PROPOSED MODEL

In this section, a finite element model is used to compare the numerical results of a
uniplanar T-joint in order to check the accuracy of the results. The numerical work was
done by Lee and Llewelyn-Parry (2004) [12]. Five of their specimens are selected for the
verification of the present research. The material curve used was an elastic perfectly plastic
curve with F
y
=254 N/mm
2
. Description and dimensions of these specimens are shown in
Table 1.
The ultimate strength of the axially loaded T-joints obtained from the finite element model
are compared to those of Lee and Llewelyn-Parry numerical models. This comparison is
also presented in Table 1. A relatively good agreement was observed within a range of
deviation +3% to +12.9 %. This indicates that the proposed finite element model can be
widely used to investigate the ultimate capacity of the joints.

Table 1: Dimensions of specimens used and comparison between finite element results
obtained by the authors with those obtained by Lee and Parry [12].

Specimen
d
o

(mm)

t
o
(mm)
L
o
(mm)
d
1
(mm)
t
1
(mm)
L
1

(mm)
FE Result by
the authors
P
u1
(kN)
FE Result by
Lee and Parry
P
u2
(kN)

P
u1
/P
u2

Sp-1 1500 50 7500 750 35 2500 8285 7332 1.129
Sp-2 1500 50 7500 500 35 2500 5453 5003 1.09
Sp-3 1500 50 7500 1200 35 2500 13007 12628 1.03
Sp-4 1500 25 7500 750 17.5 2500 2550 2406 1.06
Sp-5 1500 37.5 7500 750 26 2500 4950 4670 1.06
saddle
tip
Y
X
Z
Prevented displacements
in X, Y and Z directions.
U
x
= = = 0 ( ) U
y
U
z
Prevented displacements
in Y and Z directions.
= = 0 ( ) U
y
U
z
P
Q
Normal = P
Moment = Q x L
1
L
1
-760-
F
4
To s
sectio

Tabl
stren
Tabl
0.5, 0
param
(chor

Note
param

Joint r
T
T
T
T
T
Fig.5: Comp
PARAMET
study the u
ons are cho
e 2 lists th
ngth. They c
e 3 examin
0.6, 0.8 and
meter and
rd preload),
Tab
e: All joints
meters =20
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
J
o
i
n
t
,
s

u
l
t
i
m
a
t
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
k
N
)
reference
T-01
T-02
T-03
T-04
T-05
parison betw
TRIC STU
ultimate beh
sen, their d
he five join
comprise fiv
ned the influ
d 1.0 were u
d the influe
, respectivel
ble 2: Detai
s with geom
0 and =1.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Sp-1
d
o

(mm)
406
406
406
406
406
ween the ult
obtained
UDY
haviour of
imensions a
nts used to
ve different
uence of th
used. Tables
ence of app
ly.
ils of joints
metric dim
0.
Sp-2
t
o
(mm) (
10
10
10
10
10
6

timate stren
d by Lee an

a wide ran
are given in
investigate
t values, 0
he joint para
s 4 and 5 lis
plying diffe

for investig
ensions L
o
=
Sp-3
Specimen
d
1
(mm)
t
(m
162.5 1
203 1
244 1
284 1
325 1
ngth obtaine
nd Parry [12
nge of joint
n Tables 2, 3
e the effec
0.4, 0.5, 0.6
ameter . Jo
st other join
ferent value
gating the in
=2440 mm
Sp-4
t
1
mm)

10 0.4
10 0.5
10 0.6
10 0.7
10 0.8
ed by the au
2]
ts, a list of
3, 4 and 5.
t of the jo
6, 0.7 and 0
oints with
nts to find th
es for axial
nfluence of
, L
1
=1220
Sp-5
P
u,j

(kN)
402.1
521.3
663.5
848.4
960
uthors with t
f chord and
oint parame
0.8. The six
values of
he effect of
force in th
(d
1
/d
o
)
mm and g
Authors
Lee and
Parry
M
u,j
(kNm)
40
65
105
180
290

those
d branch
eter on
joints in
0.3, 0.4,
f the joint
he chord
geometric
s
d
-761-
7
Table 3: Details of joints for investigating the influence of t1/to

Joint reference d
o
(mm)
t
o
(mm)
d
1
(mm)
t
1
(mm)
P
u,j
(kN)
M
u,j
(kNm)
T-06 406 10 244 3 0.3 641.1 60
T-07 406 10 244 4 0.4 652.2 90
T-08 406 10 244 5 0.5 657.5 93
T-09 406 10 244 6 0.6 659.3 97
T-10 406 10 244 8 0.8 662.5 100
T-03 406 10 244 8 1 663.5 105
Note: All joints with geometric dimensions L
o
=2440 mm, L
1
=1220 mm and geometric
parameters =20 and =0.6.

Table 4: Details of joints for investigating the influence of (d
o
/2t
o
)

Joint reference d
o

(mm)
t
o
(mm)
d
1
(mm)
t
1
(mm)
P
u,j
(kN)
M
u,j
(kNm)
T-11 406 20 244 20 10 2107.7 290
T-12 406 15 244 15 13.5 1316.2 180
T-03 406 10 244 10 20 663.5 105
T-13 406 7 244 7 29 373.8 65
T-14 406 5 244 5 40.5 214.5 40
o
=2440 mm, L
1
parameters =0.6 and =1.0.

Table 5: Details of joints for investigating the influence of chord preload (P
o
)

Joint
reference
d
o
(mm)

t
o

(mm)
d
1
(mm)
t
1

(mm)
Chord
preload
(P
o
)(ton)
R=
P
o
/P
yo

P
u,j
(kN)
M
u,j
(kNm)
T-03 406 10 244 10 0 0 663.5 105
T-15 406 10 244 10 82 0.2 640.1 103
T-16 406 10 244 10 206 0.5 541.6 100
T-17 406 10 244 10 290 0.7 411.4
87
T-18 406 10 244 10 350 0.85 265.7 65.1
T-19 406 10 244 10 400 0.97 94.7 31.11
Note: P
yo
is the Yield normal capacity of the chord = Chords area x F
y

o
=2440 mm, L
1
parameters =0.6 ,=1.0 and =20.
4.1 Load-Displacement behavior
Figures 6 to 12 show different load-displacement plots for the joints analyzed. U
y
is the
displacement at saddle in the Y-direction. U
x
is the displacement at tip in the X-direction.
Figures 6 and 7 show the relation between the applied axial load with displacement and
between the applied bending moment with displacement for joints with different values.
It is clear that the increase in gives an increase in joint strength. The mode of failure for
all the joints was yielding in the chords face (see figure 18). Figures 8 and 9 show that
-762-
2
4
6
8
10
12
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

l
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

l
o
a
d

(
P
)

(
k
N
)
chan
bend
figur
stren
chord

Fig.
diffe

Fig.
diffe
0
200
400
600
800
000
200
0
Disp
Load v
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Disp
Load v
nging has
ding strengt
re 19). Figu
ngth. Figure
d preload (c
6: Load-Di
rent value
8: Load-Di
rent value
20
placement (U
vs Displacem
20
placement (U
vs Displace
s almost no
th is decrea
ures 10 and
es 12 and 1
chord axial
splacement
es (M=0)
splacement
es (M=0)
40
Uy) (mm)
ment
T-03 (=
T-01 (=0.4
T-02 (=0
T-04 (=0
T-05 (=
40
Uy) (mm)
ement
T-07
T-06
T-08
T-0
T-10
T-03
o effect on
ased becaus
d 11 show
3 show tha
force).
t curves for

t curves for

8
60
=0.6)
4)
=0.5)
0.7)
=0.8)
60
7
8
09
the joints
se the failu
that increa
at the joint
0
50
100
150
200
250
0
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

m
o
m
e
n
t

(
k
N
m
)

Mo
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

m
o
m
e
n
t

(
M
)

(
k
N
m
)

M
s strength,
re was in t
asing lead
strength inc

Fig. 7: Mo
curves for d

Fig.9: Mom
for differen
100 20
Displace
Moment vs D
100
Displac
Moment vs D
except for
the branch
ds to a decr
creases wit
oment-Disp
different v
ment-Displa
nt values (
00 300
ment (Ux) (m
Displacemen
T-01
T-02
T-03
T-
T-0
200 3
ement (Ux) (m
Displaceme
T-06 (=0.3)
T-07 (
T-08
T
T-0
=0.3 and
(local failu
rease in th
th a decreas
lacement
values (P=0
acement cur
(P=0)
400 500
mm)
nt
01 (=0.4)
02 (=0.5)
03 (=0.6)
T-04 (=0.7)
05 (=0.8)
300 400
mm)
ent
)
(=0.4)
08 (=0.5)
T-09 (=0.6)
T-10 (=0.8)
03 (=1.0)
0.4 the
ure) (see
e joints
se in the
0)
rves

-763-
50
100
150
200
250
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

l
o
a
d

(
P
)

(
k
N
)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

l
o
a
d

(
P
)

(
k
N
)

Fig.
diffe

Fig.1
diffe

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Dis
Load v
0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0
Di
Load
T-1
T

10: Load-D
rent value
12: Load-D
rent R valu
20
splacement (U
vs Displace
20
isplacement (
d vs Displac
18 (R=0.85)
T-19 (R=0.97)
T-

Displacemen
es (M=0)
isplacemen
es (R=P
o
/P
y
40
Uy) (mm)
ement
T-13 (
T-14 (=40
T-03 (=20
T-12 (
T-11 (=1
40
(Uy) (mm)
cement
-17 (R=0.7)
T-16 (R=0.5
T-15 (R=0.2
T-03 (R=

nt curves fo

t curves for
yo
) (M=0)
9
60
(=29)
0.5)
0)
=13.5)
0)
60
5)
)
=0)

r
r

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

m
o
m
e
n
t

(
M
)

(
k
N
m
)

M
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
A
p
p
l
i
e
d

m
o
m
e
n
t

(
M
)

(
k
N
m
)

M
Fig. 11: M
curves for d
Fig.13: Mo
for differen
100
Displac
Moment vs D
0 100
Displa
Moment vs
T-19(R=
oment-Disp
different v
oment-Disp
nt R values
200
cement (Ux) (
Displaceme
T
T
T-11 (=1
200
acement (Ux)
s Displacem
=0.97)
T-18 (R=0
T-03 (R
placement
values (P=0
lacement cu
(P=0)
300 400
(mm)
ent
T-14 (=40.5)
T-13 (=0.5)
T-03 (=20)
T-12 (=13.5)
10)
300 400
(mm)
ment
0.85)
T-17 (R=0.7)
T-16 (R=0.5)
=0)
T-15(R=0.2)

0)
urves
0
5)
0
)
)
-764-
4.2
Figur
Thes
mom
From
(P
uj
)
= 96
stren
Interaction
res 14, 15,
se curves s
ment in the b
m the shown
is 402 KN,
60 kN and
ngth with inc
0
50
100
150
200
250
0
M

(
k
N
m
)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0
M

(
k
N
m
)

n behavior
16 and 17
show the c
branch.
Fig. 1
n curves, it i
and the ult
M
uj
= 290
creasing .
Fig. 1
0 2
Inter
0 100
Inte
7 show dif
ombined ac
14: Interacti
is clear that
timate bendi
0 kNm, wh

15: Interact
200
eraction Cu
200
eraction Cu
10
fferent inter
ction betwe

ion curves f
t for = 0.4
ing strength
hich shows

ion curves f
400
P (kN)
urves for dif
300 4
P (kN)
urves for di
raction curv
een axial f
for different
4, the ultima
h (M
uj
) is 40
the signific
for differen
600
ifferent va
00 500
differnt val
ves for the
force and i
t values
ate axial stre
0 kNm, whi
cant increa
t values
800
alues
T-0
T-0
T-0
T-0
T-0
600
alues
T-03
T-09
T-07
T-06
joints anal
in-plane be
ength of the
le for = 0
ase in the j
1000
03 (=0.6)
01 (=0.4)
02 (=0.5)
04 (=0.7)
05 (=0.8)
700
(=1.0)
(=0.6)
(=0.4)
(=0.3)
lyzed.
ending

e joint
.8, P
uj

oints

-765-

For
= 40
stren
incre
incre
and i

= 10, P
uj
=
kNm, whic
ngth for =
ease in the c
ease in R fr
in the joint
F
M

(
k
N
m
)
M

(
k
N
m
)
Fig. 16
= 2107 kN a
ch shows th
0.3 and 0.4
chord prelo
rom 0 to 0.9
s bending s
Fig.17: Inter
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0
Inter
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0
In
6: Interactio
and M
uj
= 2
e decrease i
4 from bigg
oad leads to
97 leads to
trength by 7
raction curv
500
eraction Cu
100 20
nteraction c
11
on curves fo
290 kNm, w
in strength w
ger values
a significa
a decrease
70%).
ves for diffe
1000
P (kN)
urves for dif
0 300
P (k
curves for d
or different
while for =
with the inc
s is due to t
ant decrease
in the join
erent R valu
1500
ifferent va
400 5
kN)
different R
values
= 40.5, P
uj
=
crease in . T
the local bra
e in the join
nts normal
es (R=P
o
/P
y
2000
alues
T-0
T-1
T-1
T-1
T-1
500 600
R values
= 215 kN an
The differen
anch failure
nts strength
strength by
yo
)
2500
03 (=20)
11 (=10)
12 (=13.5)
13 (=29)
14 (=40.5)
700
R=0
R=0.5
R=0.7
R=0.85
R=0.97

nd M
uj

nce in
e. The
h, (the
y 86%

-766-
12

4.3 Modes of failure
Yielding of the chord due to punching action of the branch was observed to be the
predominant mode of failure of the joints. The load displacement plots show a post-peak
drop in load indicating load-shedding due to chord wall bending.
Local failure of the branch was observed for the parameters (=0.3 and 0.4) and ( =29 and
40.5). Figure 18 shows the spread of plasticity in the chords wall (first mode of failure),
figure 19 shows the branch local failure (second mode of failure).

Fig. 18: First mode of failure (yielding in the chords face) (T-03)

Fig. 19: Second mode of failure (branch local failure) (T-06)

Yielding of the chords
face
Branch local failure
-767-
4.4
From
joint
capac
Figur
joint
Effect of jo
m the previo
s strength.
city of the j
re 22 shows
s strength.
Fig
Fig. 2
oints param
ous results,
. Figures 20
oint.
s that the in
. 20: Effect
21: Effect o
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
0
P
u
j

(
k
N
)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
0
M
u
j
(
k
N
m
)
meters on s
it is clear t
0 and 21 s
ncrease in th
t of and
of and on
0 0.2
0.2
13
strength
that and
how the ef
he chord pre

on joints a

n joints be

0.4 0.6
0.4 0.6
are the m
ffect of the
eload leads
axial strengt
ending stren
0.8
0.8
ost effectiv
se paramete
to a signific
th (=1.0 an
ngth (=1.0
1
=1
=2
=2
1
=1
=2
=2
ve paramete
ers on the
cant decrea

nd R=0)

and R=0)
13.5
20
29
13.5
20
29
rs in the
ultimate
ase in the
-768-
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
P
u
j
(
k
N
)
5
CAN
CON
For T
accor

This
For T
is ob

This
Whe

The p
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0
Fi
STRENGT
NADIAN C
NNECTION
T-joints, th
rding to the
equation is
T-joints, the
btained acco
equation is
re;
f(n) =1
= 1
n =f
o
previous str
d
o
/t
o
< 50
d
1
/t
1
< 0
0.2 < <
F
y
< 355
0.5
R=P
o
/P
y
ig. 22: Effe
TH EQUA
CODE (DE
NS)
he nominal
e following
s based on th
e nominal s
ording to the
s based on th
1-0.3n-0.3n
1.0
f
op
/f
yo
,
rength equa
0
.05E/F
y

<1
N/mm
2

yo
ect of R on j
ATIONS O
SIGN GUI
strength of
equation:
P
n
=f
yo
t
o
he limit stat
strength of t
e following
M
n
=4
he limit stat
n
2
for n
for n>
f
op
: ch
ations are ap
14
1
joints stren
OF CHS
IDE FOR

f the branc
t
o
2
[2.8+14.2
te of chord p
the branch u
equation:
4.85f
yo
t
o
2
d
tes of chord
<0 (compr
>0 (tension
hord stress a
pplied only a
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0
M
u
j
(
k
N
m
)
ngth (=0.6,
T-JOINTS
HOLLOW
ch under pu
2
2
]
0.2
f(n)
plastificatio
under pure
d
1

0.5
f(n)
d plastificati
ression chor
n chord)
as a result o
according to
0
R
=20 and
S ACCOR
W STRUCT
ure axial lo
)
on.
in-plane be
ion.
rd)
f additional
o the follow
0.5
R=P
o
/P
yo
=1.0)
RDING TO
TURAL SE
oad (P
n
) is
ending mom
l axial force
wing limits:
O THE
ECTION
obtained
ment (M
n
)
e
1
-769-
15

6 COMPARISON BETWEEN THE FINITE ELEMENT RESULTS WITH
THOSE OF THE CANADIAN DESIGN GUIDE [2]

Comparison between the finite element results and those of the Canadian code [2] is shown
in Table 6. Not all the joints used in this study were applicable with the codes strength
equations such as: T-06, T-07, T-08, T-09, T-13, T-14 and T-19. The comparison shows
that there is a good agreement between the finite element results and those of the Canadian
design guide.

Table 6: Comparison between the finite element results with those of the Canadian code

Joint reference P
FE

(kN)

P
CAN
(kN)
P
FE
/P
CAN

M
FE
(kNm)
M
CAN
(kNm)
M
FE
/M
CAN

T-01 402.1 306.5 1.312 45 46.6 0.965
T-02 521.3 382.6 1.362 70 72.87 0.96
T-03 663.5 476.8 1.391 105 105.1 0.999
T-04 848.4 588 1.443 165 143.2 1.152
T-05 960 716.4 1.34 213 186.6 1.141
T-06 641.1 NA - 60 NA -
T-07 652.2 NA - 90 NA -
T-08 657.5 NA - 93 NA -
T-09 659.3 NA - 97 NA -
T-10 662.5 476.8 1.389 100 105.1 0.95
T-11 2107.7 1660.25 1.269 290 297.3 0.975
T-12 1316.2 991.6 1.327 180 194.3 0.926
T-13 373.8 NA - 65 NA -
T-14 214.5 NA - 40 NA -
T-15 640.6 454 1.411 103 99.98 1.03
T-16 541.6 369.5 1.465 100 81.38
T-17 411.4 305.3 1.347 87 67.24 1.293
T-18 265.7 252.2 1.053 65.1 55.53 1.172
T-19 94.7 NA - 31.11 NA -
-770-
16
7 CONCLUSIONS
The strength of 19 joints is predicted using a well-validated finite element model. Different
joint parameters are used such as (=d
1
/d
o
), (=d
o
/2t
o
), (=t
1
/t
o
) and R (P
o
/P
yo
). The used
values are (0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7 and 0.8), values are (10, 13.5, 20, 29 and 40.5), values are
(0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0) and finally R values are (0, 0.2, 0.5, 0.7, 0.85 and 0.97).
A comparison is made between the results of the proposed finite element model and those
of the Canadian design guide for hollow section connections. It is observed that and are
the most effective parameters in the joints strength. The main conclusions obtained from
the results can be summarized as follows:

Yielding of the chord is the predominant mode of failure of the joints except for
values 0.4 and values 29 where the failure is in the branch (branch local
failure).
The increase in gives a significant increase in joints strength.
The decrease in leads to an increase in joints strength.
has almost no effect on the joints strength except for small values ( 0.4 )
where the failure occurs in the branch.
The increase in the chord preload leads to a significant decrease in the joints
strength, (the increase in R from 0 to 0.97 leads to a decrease in the joints
normal strength by 86% and in the joints bending strength by 70%).

8 NOTATION
The following symbols are used in this paper:
d
o
= chord outer diameter;
d
1
= branch outer diameter;
f
op
= chord stress as a result of additional axial force;
L
o
= chord length;
L
1
= branch length;
M
uj
= ultimate bending strength of the joint, at (P=0);
P
uj
= ultimate axial strength of the joint, (at M=0);
P
o
= chord preload;
P
yo
= yield normal capacity of the chord (= F
y
.A
chord
)
R = P
o
/P
yo
;
t
o
= chord wall thickness;
t
1
= branch wall thickness;
= diameter ratio (=d
1
/d
o
);
= chord radius/thickness ratio (=d
o
/2t
o
); and
= wall thickness ratio (t
1
/t
o
).

-771-
17
9 REFERENCES
[1] ABAQUS. (2006), Users Manual, Version 6.6
[2] Canadian Institute of Steel Construction (CISC), (1992), Design Guide for Hollow
Structural Section Connections (CAN).
[3] American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), (2005), Load and Resistance Factor
Design Specification for Steel Hollow Structural Sections.
[4] Eurocode 3, (1993), Design of Steel Structures.
[5] Comite International pour le Developpment et lEtude de la Construction Tubulaire
(CIDECT) (1991), Design guide for circular hollow section (CHS) joints under
predominantly static loading.
[6] Soliman, E. A. (2003), Inelastic strength of hollow circular section welded joints. 9
th
International Colloquium on Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, Ain Sham
University, Cairo, Egypt.
[7] Paul, J. C., Ueno, T., Makino, Y. and Kurbane, Y. (1993), Ultimate behavior of
multiplanar double K-joints of circular hollow section members, International Journal
of Offshore and Polar Engineering, Vol.3, No.1.
[8] Dexter, E. M. and Lee, M.M.K. (1999), Static strength of axially loaded K-joints, I:
Behavior.Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 125, No.2, 194-201.
[9] Connelly, L. M. and Zettlemoyer, N. (1989), Frame behavior effects on tubular joint
capacity Third International Symposium on Tubular Structures.
[10] Makino, Y., Kurobane, Y. and Tozaki, T. (1989), Ultimate strength analysis of simple
CHS joints using the yield line theory, Third International Symposium on Tubular
Structures.
[11] Coutie, M. G., Davies, G., Philiastides, A., Roodbaraky, K. and Yeomans, N. (1989).
Fully overlapped RHS joints-Isolated joints and trusses, Third International
Symposium on Tubular Structures.
[12] Lee, M.M.K. and Llewelyn-Parry, A. (2004), Offshore tubular T-joints reinforced
with internal plain annular ring stiffeners, Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol.130,
No.6, 942-951.

-772-

STL-014-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





Crack Tip Plasticity of Short Fatigue Crack Emanating
from Riveted/Bolted Steel Connections

H.E.M. Sallam
Department of Materials Engineering, Zagazig University
E-mail: hem_sallam@yahoo.com
E.B. Matar
Department of Structural Engineering, Zagazig University
E-mail: ehab_bmatar@yahoo.com
A.E.A. El-Sisi
E-mail: alaa_elsisi@yahoo.com
O.M. El-Hussieny
E-mail: bect@tedata.net.eg

ABSTRACT
A numerical study has been carried out to investigate the transition behavior of a
physically short fatigue crack emanating from bolted/riveted joints. Both the stress
distribution in each bolt and the maximum stress concentration factor, i.e. site of crack
initiation, in bolted holes were determined. It was found that, the first bolt has the
highest stress and that value depends on the number of bolts, as well as the type of its
arrangement. Maximum tangential stress (MTS) criterion was adopted to predict the
crack path emanating from bolted/riveted joints subjected to mode I loading. As
expected, the crack path is almost perpendicular to the applied stress as in the case of an
open hole. The deformation accommodated at the tip of a crack artificially advancing
from this site under a cyclic load with stress ratios R = 0.125 and 0.2 was considered.
The development of the monotonic and cyclic crack tip plastic zones were computed
and compared to early fatigue crack growth behavior of short cracks emanating from
stress concentrator sites found in the literature.
KEYWORDS:
Bolted/riveted steel concoction; maximum tangential stress criterion (MTS); crack tip
deformation; stress concentration factor; crack path.
-773-

STL-014-2
1 INTRODUCTION

The permanent assembly of individual manufactured components is an important aspect
of fabrication and construction. There are many ways for accomplishing this including
the use of fastenings such as bolts and rivets, the use of adhesives, and by soldering,
brazing and welding. Joint design is dependent upon the nature of materials to be joined
as well as the method of joining. Cold-formed structural members may be joined with
bolted connections that are designed with the aid of applicable national design
standards. Rogers and Hancock [1] found that the AISI specification cannot be used to
accurately predict failure modes of thin cold-formed sheet-steel bolted connections that
are loaded in shear. It is sometimes necessary to use combination (hybrid) joints in steel
construction. The need for a hybrid joint can rise for a number of different reasons. For
example, the load demands on an existing bolted joint may change with time,
necessitating renovation of that joint. If the geometry does not permit the addition of
more bolts, welds can be added to the connection in order to increase its capacity.
Bonded structures can be of two types based on purely adhesive or an
adhesive/mechanical connections. These types of connections include bonded-welded,
bonded-riveted, and bonded-screwed connections [2-5].
Riveted connections used to transmit forces normal to the rivet axis can fail by any
one of the three following three modes [1,6]: 1- Shearing of the rivet shank, 2- Tensile
necking of the cross-sections weakened by the connection holes, and 3- Crushing of the
contact surface between the rivet and the connected pieces through which force
transmission occurs. The connections are preserved against shear failure by limiting the
shear force supported by the rivet shank. These are the basic failure modes considered
in the technical codes for steel construction as a basis for design.
Bolt fastening is the most widespread methods of joining because it is a non-
permanent joint, it is easy to set up in a variety of conditions, it facilitates disassembly
and repair, and, most of the time, it does not require manufacturing of special parts,
which decreases cost. The determination of the fatigue crack initiation (FCI) of a riveted
or bolted connection requires a precise computation of the stress distribution around the
critical fastener holes [7,8]. Connor et al. [7] found that micro-cracks which are the
cause of FCI initially form in the subsurface in riveted lap joint. There is an evidence to
study the positions of FCI and the propagation of fatigue crack in these sub-surfaces to
avoid catastrophic fatigue failure in the steel connections. For this reason finite element
method (FEM) is a good option to obtain a better understanding of the structural
behavior of bolted or riveted connections and for fatigue evaluation [9-11]. The main
objective of this paper is to compute numerically the crack tip deformation of short
crack emanating from bolted/riveted joints. The effects of bolts number, bolt flexibility
on the stress distribution in the bolts were also studied. Furthermore, a comparison
between the results obtained from 2-D FE and 3-D FE was made. Finally, the relation
between the surface crack growth in the interior surface and the measured strain in the
outer surface was examined.
2 NUMERICAL ANAYSIS
A finite element model using a non-linear finite elements program ANSYS 10.0 [12]
was used for simulating of a typical bridge bolted connections. Finite elements study
includes the following tasks: 2D modeling of bolted connections, 2D modeling of
-774-

STL-014-3
lapped joints, and 3D modeling of double lapped joints. Two material behaviors were
taken, perfect linear elastic and bilinear elastic plastic. Young's modulus of 2x10
5
MPa,
and Poisson ratio of 0.3 were assumed with yield stress, F
y
=350 MPa. The tangent
modulus for the second segment was taken 2000 MPa. In all plastic cases, the von-
Mises yield criterion was used with the associated flow rule. When strain hardening is
present, kinematics hardening is used.
2.1 2D Rigid Bolts Modeling
Seven models were considered in the current study. Each model is composed of a plate
with 80 mm width and varying number of holes (from one to seven) and the length is
varied according to the number of holes. Three hole diameters were used 10, 16 and
22mm. The pitch and edge distances were taken 3 and 1.5 times the hole diameter
respectively. Rigid bolts model with contact capabilities inside each hole was used. The
boundary conditions are taken symmetric about the loading direction and in the
perpendicular direction the plates were supported by the contact with the rigid bolt.
Figure 1 shows the finite element meshes of the previous models for the case of one
bolt.

Fig. 1: Model of one-bolt model

2.2 2D Lapped Joints Modeling
These models were developed to take into consideration the effect of bolt flexibility and
the relative displacement between bolts due to fixation in a flexible plate. Three models
of lapped joints were created. Each one consisted of two plates. The number of bolts
varied from one to three. Moreover, three bolt diameters 10, 16 and 22 mm were
selected. The modeling process was accomplished by creating overlapped areas and
meshing each area individually; then, creating a contact pair between each area and the
bolt separately. Figure 2 shows the components of three-bolt lapped joints.
2.3 3D Modeling of the Double Lapped Joints
In order to investigate the effect of stress concentration in a 3D model behavior in the
lapped joint; one model was created by using a solid element and 3D surface to surface
contact elements. Each one consisted of two plates; each plate having width of 80 mm,
and thickness of 12 mm for the outer plate and, 24 mm for the inner plate. The number
of bolts was three with diameter equals 10 mm. The steel plates and the bolts were
modeled by using 3D brick elements SOLID45 [13 and 14]. Ten nodes tetrahedral
elements SOLID187 for complex geometries were used to model the plates. Figure 3
shows a 3D model containing three bolts. In this model; a study was performed for
-775-

STL-014-4
stress concentration factor (SCF) and the effect of extending a surface edge crack till it
becomes a through-thickness crack on the strain variations for points near the bolt/rivet
head on the opposite surface,

First plate Bolts Second plate
Fig. 2: 2D Model of three-bolts lap joint
2.4 Contact Properties
ANSYS [12] provides a library of several element types to include surface-to-surface
contact and frictional sliding. To simulate the 2D contact between bolt and hole in the
2D modeling, CONTA172 and TARG169 elements were used. The normal penalty
stiffness, which is the parameter which controls the penetration between the contact
surfaces, was taken 10 in the 2D analysis. The friction coefficient was taken 0.3 [12].
Regarding the 3D modeling, surface-to-surface contact element, consisting of contact
elements (CONTAC174) and target segment elements (TARGE170) were used in the
interfaces between the bolt head and the upper plate, the nut and the lower plate, the
upper and lower plates, and the bolt shank and the hole surface. The normal penalty
stiffness was taken equal to 1. The friction coefficient was taken equal to 0.3. The
modeling assumptions were compatible with those assumed in earlier researches [9,11].

BRICK SOLID45 MODEL TET SOLID187 MODEL
Fig. 3: 3D Model of three-bolts lap joint
-776-

STL-014-5

2.5 MODELING OF CRACK
The effect of bolted hole-elastic affected zone on the stress intensity factor (SIF), K
I
, of
artificially advanced crack emanating from the bolted hole was considered in this study.
The loading was considered as monotonic loading for elastic analysis [15]. 2D singular
element is employed, as in analyzing of crack problems, it is known that the
displacements near the crack tip vary as
r
, where "r" is the distance from the crack
tip to any point around the crack tip. To resolve the singularity in stain, the crack faces
should be coincident, and the elements around the head of the crack tip should be
quadratic, with the mid-side nodes placed at quarter points [15]. In a trial to study the
path of the crack in bolted joint the MTS criteria [16] was used for the prediction of
crack angle in each step. In case of plastic analysis, the output parameters are the
monotonic and the cyclic plastic zone sizes, i.e. m and c respectively. The crack path
in the plastic analysis is assumed to be perpendicular to the applied stress, i.e. mode I
crack propagation, and as found from the elastic analysis of bolted joints loaded in
tension based on MTS criteria. Furthermore, it was found experimentally in the
previous works [17,18, and 6] that, Mode I crack propagation is the dominant mode in
crack emanating from bolted/riveted hole.
First the geometry is created and the crack path is modeled as two lines meshed by
coincided nodes which are joined by the ANSYS couple set [12]. The first load step
started with an un-cracked hole, which was incrementally loaded and, then, unloaded in
second load step. At the maximum load of the next cycle, the couple set was deleted and
the reaction force acting on the node located at the notch root was incrementally
released. Incremental unloadingreloading cycles then followed. A similar crack tip
release was performed every two cycles to have further crack tip advance along the
same direction. Possible contact of the nodes along the crack surface during the
unloading mode and their following reopening during the loading mode was modeled,
i.e. possible crack tip contact was accommodated in the present analysis. The load
increment was such that either one element was plastically deformed or contact along
the crack surface changed whichever took place first.
Hammouda et. al. [19 and 20] assumed that, the extent of plasticity, , was estimated as
the diameter of a circle having the same area of the plastically deformed elements. In
present study due to the existence of plasticity in compression under the bolt, the
diameter of the equivalent circle is not applicable to estimate , hence; is estimated as
the maximum extension of plastic zone from the crack tip in the direction of crack
propagation.
Rigid bolt model is assumed to be suitable for cases of small thickness tension members
connected to large gusset plates, where the relative displacement between bolts can be
considered constrained with high steel grade bolts. Figure 4 shows the SCF at each
bolted hole for different number of bolts, ranging from one bolt to seven bolts. In the
case of single bolt, SCF equals to about 13 and this value decreased with increasing the
number of bolts in the joint to reach about 7 in case of three bolts. Increasing the
number of bolts over three has a little effect in decreasing the SCF as shown in Fig. 4.a.
-777-

STL-014-6
1
4
7
10
13
16
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
No. of bolts in the joint
S
C
F

a
t

t
h
e

f
i
r
s
t

h
o
l
e
M10
M16
M22
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Bolt No
S
C
F
,
K
t
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

Fig. 4: Stress concentration factor of bolted/riveted joints

This behavior is due to the distribution of the reactions in the bolts where the first bolts
carried the highest value. Furthermore, increasing the bolt diameter decreased the SCF
at the first bolted hole for all bolted joints regardless of the number of bolts in each
joint. It is worth to note that, the SCF of an open hole is about 3. Based on the present
results, the site of crack initiation in these joints is at the first bolted hole.
The comparison between the 2D rigid bolt model and 2D lapped joint model, in the
case of No. of bolts = 3, in terms of bolt reaction and stress concentration is shown in
Figure 5. In the case of 2D lapped joint, the outer bolts have the same reaction and there
is a little difference with middle bolt. On the other hand, the SCF in the rigid bolt model
is higher than that in the 2D lapped joint model, Moreover; the SCF of the first bolted
hole of the 3D model was used to study the variation of SCF through the plate
thickness.

3D model was made to study the variation of SCF through the plate thickness.
Unfortunately, the highest SCF and the tensile plastic strain were found at the inner
surface of the plate. This means that, a surface crack was emanated from the bolted hole
at the inner surface of the plate, and hence, it can not be detected easily. Therefore, the
strain was traced on the outer surface near the head of the bolt to simulate the
measurements of strain gauge. It is found that, the growth of surface crack in the inner
surface decreased the stiffness of the joint and subsequently increased the strain at the
outer surface. Therefore, the inner surface crack could be predicted by measuring the
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0 1 2 3 4
Bolt No.
S
C
F

Rigid Bolt Model
Lap Joint Model
b)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0 2 4
Bolt No.
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

R
e
a
c
t
i
o
n
Rigid Bolt Model
Lap joint Model
a)
Fig. 5: A comparison between rigid bolt model and single lap joint
b)
Bolt No.
Bolt No.
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

r
e
a
c
t
i
o
n

S
C
F

a)
a)
-778-

STL-014-7
strain in the opposite surface. Figure 6 shows the outer plate of the 3D model which
contains a surface edge crack in its inner surface. Once again, the expected site of crack
initiation is at the first bolted hole in both models.

Fig. 6: Edge crack at the inner surface of the outer
plate
The variation of SIF of short crack emanating from the first bolted hole in three
different bolted joints, i.e. No. of bolts = 1, 2, and 3, is illustrated in Figure 7. Two
different normalizations were applied on the SIF. In the first one, SIF was normalized
by the applied stress (
app
), i.e. normalized SIF = Y x (a)
0.5
. In the second one, SIF was
normalized by (
app
(a)
0.5
) , i.e. normalized SIF = geometry correction factor (Y). It is
clear that, Y decreases with increasing the crack length in the bolted hole-elastic
affected zone. Beyond that, Y slightly increases with increasing the crack length.

Fig. 7: The variation of SIF of short crack emanating from bolted hole.

In the case of rigid bolt models with one and two bolts of diameter 10 mm, the MTS
criteria was used to predict the crack path of crack emanating from the bolted hole.
Figure 8 shows the crack path of such crack, it is clear that the path is approximately
perpendicular to the loading direction as found experimentally by Georg et. al. [17]. The
small deviation in the path, may be due to the bolt contact pressure which has a
Crack tip advance, mm
5
10
15
20
25
0 5 10 15
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

S
I
F
,

K

/

a
p
p

,

m
m
0
.
5
1 2 3
No. of Bolts
a)
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
0 5 10 15
G
e
o
m
e
t
r
y

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r
1 2 3
No. of Bolts
b)
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

S
I
F
,

(
K
I
/
a
p
p
)
,

m
m
0
.
5

G
e
o
m
e
t
r
y

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r

No. of Bolts
No. of Bolts
-779-

STL-014-8
component perpendicular to the loading direction. For the case of two bolts this
deviation becomes less than the case of one bolt.

Fig. 8: The crack path of crack emanated from bolted/riveted joint
In the cyclic elastic-plastic loading regime, the path of the crack is assumed to be
perpendicular to the applied stress. It was observed during the crack advance that, there
exist a transitional behavior for the extents of both monotonic and cyclic plasticity
accommodated at the tip of a crack artificially advancing from the bolted hole-affected
short crack regime to the relatively long crack regime, as found previously by
Hammouda et. al. [19,20] for open hole. Figure 9 shows the transitional behavior of the
crack tip plasticity for loading ratio R=0.125. Both monotonic and cyclic plastic zone
sizes commenced their values by relatively high values, i.e. the monotonic and cyclic
plastic zones of un-cracked bolted hole continuously decreased as the crack length
increased to reach a minimum value. An increase in the values followed to match the
long crack growth behavior. Obviously, the fatigue crack growth rate is controlled by
the amount of the crack tip plastic zones.

Fig. 9: Extents of plasticity accommodated at the tip of a mode I crack artificially
advancing from the bolted joint.
1
3
5
7
9
0 2 4 6 8
C
r
a
c
k

t
i
p

m
o
n
o
t
o
n
i
c

p
l
a
s
t
i
c

z
o
n
e
,

m
,

m
m
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
0 1 2 3 4
C
r
a
c
k

t
i
p

c
y
c
l
i
c

p
l
a
s
t
i
c

z
o
n
e
,
c
,

m
m
C
r
a
c
k

t
i
p

c
y
c
l
i
c

p
l
a
s
t
i
c

z
o
n
e
,

c
,

m
m

C
r
a
c
k

t
i
p

c
y
c
l
i
c

p
l
a
s
t
i
c

z
o
n
e
,

m
,

m
m

Growth direction
-780-

STL-014-9

Therefore, the present numerical results can explain the phenomenon of initiating but
not propagating crack which is occasionally found in bolted/riveted steel connections.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of this study, the following conclusions are made:

1- The favorable site of crack initiation is at the first bolted hole in both rigid bolt model
and the 2D lapped joint.
2- The growth of surface crack in the inner surface decreases the stiffness of the joint
and subsequently increased the strain at the outer surface.
3- Geometry correction factor of SIF decreases with increasing the crack length in the
bolted hole-elastic affected zone.
4- The extents of both monotonic and cyclic plasticity accommodated at the tip of a
crack artificially advancing from the bolted hole showed transitional behavior from
the bolted hole-affected short crack regime to the relatively long crack regime.
5- The transitional behavior of monotonic and cyclic crack tip plastic zones can explain
the phenomenon of initiating rather than propagating crack which is occasionally
found in bolted/riveted steel connections.

References

[1] Rogres, C. A. and Hancock, G. J., Failure modes of bolted-sheet-steel connections loaded in shear, J.
Struct. Engrg., 126(3), pp. 288-296, 2000.
[2] Al-Samhan, A. and Darwish, S. M. H., Strength prediction of weld-bonded joints, Int. J. Adhesion &
Adhesives, 23(1), pp. 23-28, 2003.
[3] Sallam, H.E.M., Ahmad, S.S.E., Badawy, A.A.M. and Mamdouh, W., Evaluation of steel I-beams
strengthened by various plating methods, Advances in Structural Engineering, 9(4), pp. 535-544,
2006.
[4] Keller, T. and Schollmayer, M., Through-thickness performance of adhesive joints between FRP
bridge decks and steel girders, Composite Structures, 87(3), pp. 232241, 2009.
[5] Manuel, T. J. and Kulak, G. L., Strength of joints that combine bolts and welds, J. Struct. Engrg.,
126(3), pp. 279-287, 2000.
[6] Moreno, J., and Valiente A., Cracking induced failure of old riveted steel beams, Eng. Fail. Anal.,
13(3), pp. 247259, 2006.
[7] Connor, Z. M., Li, W., Fine , M.E., and Achenbach, J.D., Fatigue crack initiation and growth in
riveted specimens: an optical and acoustic microscopic study, Int. J. Fatigue, 19(7), pp. 331-337,
1997.
[8] Matar, E.B., Evaluation of fatigue category of riveted steel bridge Connections, Structural
Engineering International, 17(1), pp. 72-78, 2007.
[9] Bursi, O. S., and Jaspart, J. P., Benchmarks for finite element modelling of bolted steel connections, J.
Constr. Steel Res. , 43(1), pp. 1742, 1997.
[10] Osama. K. B., Graeme F. E., A numerical model for analysis of riveted splice joints accounting for
secondary bending and plates/rivet interaction, Thin-Walled Struct., 45(3), pp. 251258, 2007.
[11] Imam B.M., Righiniotis T.D., and Chryssanthopoulos, M.K., Numerical modeling of riveted railway
bridge connections for fatigue evaluation, Eng. Struct., 29(11), pp. 307181, 2007.
[12] ANSYS, Release 10.0 Documentation. ANSYS Inc., http://www.ansys.com.
[13] Chakherlou T. N., Abazadeh B., and Vogwell J., The effect of bolt clamping force on the fracture
strength and the stress intensity factor of a plate containing a fastener hole with edge cracks, Eng.
Fail. Anal., 16(1), pp. 242-253, 2009.
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STL-014-10
[14] Jeong K., Joo-Cheol Y., and Beom-Soo K., Finite element analysis and modeling of structure with
bolted joints, App. Math. Mod., 31(5), pp. 895911, 2009.
[15] Rahgozar, R., Saffari, H., and Tabatabaei, R., Finite Element Analysis of Plasticity- Induced Fatigue
Crack Closure with Singular Element, Amer. J. App. Sci., 4(6), pp. 357-361, 2007.
[16] Erdogan, F., and Sih, G. C., On the crack extension in plates under plane loading and transverse
shear, Trans. ASME, J. Basic Eng., 85D, pp. 519-527, 1963.
[17] Georg, J., Gilbert, Y., Grondin, and Geoffrey, L. K., Fatigue of Bearing-Type Shear Splice, Struct.
Eng. Report 227, University of Alberta, 1999.
[18] Moreno, J., and Valiente A., Stress intensity factors in riveted steel beams, Eng. Fail. Anal., 11(5),
pp. 777787, 2004.
[19] Hammouda, M. M. I., Sallam, H. E. M., and Osman, H. G., Significance of crack tip plasticity to
early notch fatigue crack growth, Int. J. Fatigue, 26(2), pp. 173182, 2004.
[20] Hammouda, M. M. I., Osman H. G., and Sallam H. E. M., Mode I notch fatigue crack growth
behaviour under constant amplitude loading and due to the application of a single tensile overload,
Int. J. Fatigue, 26(2), pp. 183192, 2004.

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STL-015-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





TOPOLOGY AND SIZING OPTIMIZATION OF BRACED STEEL
STRUCTURES BY GENETIC ALGORITHM

P. ASHTARI
Department of Engineering, Zanjan University
Zanjan, Iran.
E-mail: ashtari@znu.ac.ir
F. BARZEGAR
Department of Engineering, Zanjan University
Zanjan, Iran.
E-mail: farshid_civil@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
One of the most popular methods for providing the necessary strength and stiffness in
structural systems against lateral loads is the use of bracing systems. Simple and quick
construction of such systems encourages engineers to its application. The main
objective of this paper is topology and sizing optimization of braces in steel structures.
Geometrical position of braces greatly affects the magnitude of the internal forces of
structural elements. Since, cost of structural systems depends directly on the elements
sizing, therefore, selection of the best arrangement of braces results in an optimized
structure. In this paper, the proposed approach is applied for finding the optimal
position of braces using a new combinatorial evolution genetic algorithm method to get
closer to global optimum point having minimum weight. Also, the proposed algorithm
optimizes the size of elements.
KEYWORDS
braced steel structure, weight optimization, genetic algorithm, penalty function, penalty
coefficient, and combinatorial evolution method.
1 INTRODUCTION
A great majority of structural optimization papers deal with the minimization of the
weight of structures, which consist of structural weight (columns, beams and braces),
non-structural weight such as in-frame elements (partitions and perimeter walls) and
weight of floor decks. Weight of structure constitutes only a part of the total cost. Cost
minimization is the final objective in optimization process. Final cost of structure
depends on many parameters such as material and fabrication cost (including
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STL-015-2
connections, bolts, electrodes and labour costs) and also, cost of materials transportation
to the construction site.
Weight optimization decreases only material cost, but cost optimization process
considers all of the mentioned parameters [1]. In this paper, only the material cost is
taken into consideration, therefore, structural weight optimization is carried out. In the
search space, the genetic algorithm (GA) is applied that is the simplest and the most
efficient approach to reach the optimal point. The importance of genetic algorithms as a
powerful tool for engineering optimization has been widely shown in the last few years
through a vast amount of applications [2, 3]. The most common technique for solving
constrained optimization problems is to use penalties (Arora, 1989). Many researchers
have studied on the penalty functions and they have attempted to derive good
techniques to build penalty functions. For example, Homaifar [4] proposed an approach
in which the user defines several levels of violation, and a penalty coefficient is chosen
for each in such a way that the penalty coefficient increases at the higher levels of
violation. Joines and Houck [5] proposed a technique applying dynamic penalties (i.e.,
penalties that are changed over time). Recently, some researchers who work with
evolution strategies [6] and evolutionary programming [7] have frequently used the
death penalty approach that consists of rejecting infeasible individuals without even
looking at their fitness values. This paper presents a new combinatorial evolution
method for optimization of braced steel structures (topology and sizing). Efficiency of
the present approach is illustrated through three examples.
The remaining sections of this paper are organized as follows: Section 2 includes a brief
review of the genetic algorithms. Section 3 contains problem formulation. Section 4
describes the proposed combinatorial evolution method. Section 5 presents three
illustrative examples, and Section 6 includes the concluding remarks.
2 GENETIC ALGORITHMS FOR FINDING GLOBAL OPTIMUM
The main idea of genetic algorithms (GA) is inspired by Darwin
s theory of evolution
that is the survival of the fittest in the natural law. GA in optimization problems is
gradually improving in search space to reach the global optimum. In this process, the
fittest solution survives and goes to the mating pool and in contrast, solution having low
fitness is removed from this tournament. In mating pool, crossover and mutation
operators are applied to these chromosomes and for the next stage, fitness of this
chromosome is evaluated by fitness function. Another method for solving optimization
problems just solve a set of nonlinear equation and seek a solution in the near of the
starting point. Therefore, if there is more than one local optimum in the problem, the
result will depend on the choice of the starting point and global optimum cannot be
guaranteed. In the design of structures, optimization interfere many variables and it does
not exist explicit functions for these variables. Mathematical methods become
inefficient, because in search space, many local optimums exist.
GA has many advantages with respect to the other optimization techniques. These
advantages make GA as an attractive method in optimization problems. Finding global
optimum starts from a group of points (points in search space) instead of one single
point and all of these points are independent of the others. Starting from a group of
points leads to a fast convergence to near optimum points. Furthermore, for evaluation
of fitness for each point, it is needed only a simple function. The GA is used directly for
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STL-015-3
unconstrained problems, but constrained problem is converted to unconstrained one by
adding a penalty function to the objective function.
3 PROBLEM FORMULATION
In this paper, objective function is minimization of structural weight. It can be written
as:
Minimize:
i i
noe
i
i
L A W

=
=
1
(1)
Subject to:
0 1 | |
i
i
i=1,..., noe (2)

Where:
i
=
L
i
when 0 <
i
(compression stress)
i
=
u
i
when 0 >
i
(tension stress)
And Subject to:
0 1 | |
j
j
d
d
j=1,..., nos (3)
Where noe is the number of elements,
i
is weight per unit volume of element i,
i
A is
cross section area of the element i,
i
L is the length of element i,
i
is stress in member
i,
i
is allowable stress in member i,
L
i
and
u
i
are lower and upper bounds for
allowable stress in member i, respectively,
j
d is relative displacement in story j and
j
d
is allowable relative displacement in story j considering P- effect and nos is the
number of stories. In this section, penalty function is effectively added to the objective
function. This function is evaluation function for fitness per chromosome which can be
written as:
) ( A = )
) 1 | | , 0 max(
) 1 | | , 0 max(
(
1
1
nos
d
d
noe W
W
nos
j
j
j
noe
i
i
i
=
=

+
(4)
Where W normalizes the objective function and depends on the dimension of the
structure and is penalty function coefficient and the main duty of this coefficient is
interacting between objective function and penalty function.
In structural optimization, minimum weight is desirable and GA helps to get near to the
maximal optimum. Therefore, the fitness function is changed:
) ( A
=
A) (
1
(5)
-785-

STL-015-4
Using a small value of in penalty coefficient decreases weight of the structure
because this factor is not big enough to outweigh the value of the objective function and
finally, we have a solution with a good fitness value that is infeasible. In contrast, using
a big value of in problem increases weight of the structure. Because if each constraint
of our problem is violated a few, this coefficient () increases this constraint violation
and consequently, fitness of solution is decreased.
Moreover, Selection basis in GA is fitness value and increasing weight of the structure
along the generations leads to increase fitness (because none of constraints are violated).
In each of two states, our solution is going away from global optimum. Fig. 1 shows the
least penalty coefficient that our solution is feasible. It is known as minimum penalty
rule [8].

Fig. 1: example of minimum penalty rule for the structure with 2 stories and 2 spans.
4 USE OF COMBINATORIAL EVOLUTION METHOD
In the proposed approach, two loops are used for finding the best solution. The outer
loop is used to optimize the penalty coefficient. Also, it has an inner loop as a parallel
process for finding solution of the main problem (the best topology and elements
sizing). Mechanism of this method is very simple. Four parameters play the main rule in
the proposed method, namely the P1, P2, G1, and G2. These parameters define the
number of populations for solving the main problem, number of populations to evolve
penalty coefficient, number of generations to solve the main problem and number of
generations to evolve penalty coefficient, respectively.
Each chromosome in P2 is a penalty coefficient that is decoded by GA. For each
chromosome in P2, there is an instance of P1 that its evolution along the generations G1
results in an average fitness of feasible chromosomes of P1. This process is repeated
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STL-015-5
until all chromosomes in P2 have an average of their feasible solution. Then P2 is
evolved one generation by using crossover and mutation operators and the new P2 is
used to start the same process. At the end of generation G2, the best penalty coefficient
and the best solution is obtained [9]. In the next section, several examples are presented
to find suitable values of four parameters: G1, G2, P1 and P2.
5 EXAMPLES
In this section, three steel braced structures are optimized by the proposed method. To
simplify and increase speed in these examples, assume that all the connections are
hinge. Since, beams does not bear any force against lateral loads, beams have

not any
influence in optimization process and are designed by maximum moment
(
8
2
max
ql
M = , LL DL q + = ). So, beam sections are constant throughout the
optimization loop. Therefore, noe in our equations will be equal to:
number noe noe
new
( = of beam elements ) (6)
Table 1: Parameters of the proposed GA used to solve all the examples.

5.1 Three-bay four-story steel frame
In this example, W is equal to 3000 kg. Column sections are selected from IPE 160 to
IPE 330. Bracing sections are chosen from IPE 220 to IPE 300. Also, IPE 240 is used as
the beam section throughout the frame. Fig. 2.(A) shows the best topology, Fig. 2.(B)
shows the optimization history, and table 2 presents the optimal value of two variables
obtained by the proposed approach.

Parameters value
P1 30
P2 10
G1 30
Crossover rate 0.7
Mutation rate 0.005
Dead load 22 kg/cm
Live load 15 kg/cm
Span length 300 cm
Story length 300 cm
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STL-015-6

(A) (B)
Fig. 2: A) the best topology for this structure, B) weight minimization history through
the generations G2
Table 2: Output after running the GA
Optimal weight (ton) Best penalty coefficient ( )
3.1954 5.8
5.2 Four-bay six-story steel frame
W is assumed equal to 7000 kg. Column sections are selected from IPE 220 to IPE
450. Bracing sections are chosen from IPE 220 to IPE 300. Beam section is obtained
IPE 240 for this loading. The results of this example are shown in Fig. 3 and table 3.

(A) (B)
the generations G2
Table 3: Output after running the GA
Optimum weight (ton) Best penalty coefficient( )
7.02 10
-788-

STL-015-7
5.3 Five-bay eight-story steel frame
W is assumed 10000 kg. Column sections are selected from IPE 220 to IPE 450.
Bracing sections are chosen from IPE 220 to IPE 300. Beam section is obtained IPE
240 for this loading. The results of this example are shown in Fig. 4 and table 4.

(A) (B)
the generations G2
Table 4: Output after running proposed GA
Optimum weight (ton) Best penalty coefficient( )
12.5366 13

6 CONCLUDING REMARKS
In This paper, it is proposed the new combinatorial evolution method for finding
penalty coefficient in weight optimization of structures. At this method, range of the
penalty factor for structures with different spans and storeys is between 5 15 and
four main parameters in this method are between 20 P1 40, 10 P2 20, 30 G1
40, and 10 G2 20. In the simple GA, it is used trial and error process to solve a
certain problem for finding the best penalty factor. But in the proposed method, by less
running process rather than that of the simple GA, better solution is obtained.
Furthermore, this research shows that optimal position of braces is diagonal
arrangement through the height of structure as shown in Fig. 5.
In this figure, it is seen that internal forces of middle columns are reverse (as in columns
b and c). Therefore, design forces of columns are reduced and weight of structure as the
objective function is decreased.

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STL-015-8

a b c d e f g h
Fig. 5: The best topology attained by the proposed genetic algorithm.

REFERENCES
[1] H. Adeli, & K.C. Sarma, Cost Optimization of Structures, John Wiley & sons,
Ltd., 20-28, 2006.
[2] I. Parmee, (Editor), The Integration of Evolutionary and Adaptive Computing
Technologies with Product/system Design and Realisation, Springer-Verlag,
Plymouth, UK, 1998.
[3] T. Back, (Editor), Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on
Genetic Algorithms, Morgam Kaufmann Publishers, San Mateo, CA, July 1997.
[4] A. Homaifar, S.H.Y. Lai, X. Qi, Constrained optimization via genetic
algorithms, simulation 62(4), 242-254, 1994.
[5] J. Joines, C. Houck, On the use of non-stationary penalty functions to solve
nonlinear constrained optimization problems with GAs, in Proceeding of the
first IEEE conference on evolutionary computation, D.Fogel, (Editor), IEEE
press orlando, 579-584, FL, 1994.
[6] H.-P. Schwefel, Numerical Optimization of Computer Models, Wiley, Great
Britain, 1981.
[7] D.B. Fogel, L.C. Stayton, On the effectiveness of crossover in simulated
evolutionary optimization, Bio system 32, 171-182, 1994.
[8] R.G. Le Riche, C. Knopf-Lenior, R.T. Haftka, A segregated genetic algorithms
for constrained structural optimization, in Proceedings of the sixth International
Conference on Genetic Algorithms L.J Eshelman, (Editor), San Mateo, CA,
University of Pittsburgh, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, 558-565, 1995.
[9] C.A. Coello Coello, Use of a Self-adaptive penalty approach for engineering
optimization problems. Computers in Industry Chapter 41, 113-127, 2000.

-790-

STL-016-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





Software for Design and Drawing of Pitched-Roof Portal Steel Frames

S. S. ABD-ELAAL
Assistant Lecturer, Department of Structure Eng., Mansoura University
Mansoura University, Faculty of Engineering, P.O. Box 35516, Egypt
ssam_st@yahoo.com, Egypt
F. A. SALEM
Lecturer, Department of Structure Eng., Mansoura University
drfikry_salem@yahoo.com
E. S. AGUIB
Assoc Professor, Department of Structure Eng., Mansoura University
cadecgroup@yahoo.com
N. S.MAHMOUD
Professor of steel structure and bridges, Dept. of Structure Eng., Mansoura University
nsm_eco@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Civil and structural engineers attempt to improve the analysis and design of structural
systems. This work introduces a software program that provides a complete design and
detailed drawings for pitched roof portal frames steel structures that cover areas of
rectangular shape. The program performs the whole design works and prepares
structural details drawings together with the calculation sheet. The designers have to
insert the data of the structure and the program achieves all the required process from
analysis to design to drawings without any dependency from other program such as
Auto-Cad, SAP. The program also produces a complete calculation for the analysis and
design of all structural elements. This program has intelligent criteria to find the
optimum design under different conditions.
KEYWORDS
Steel structures, Software Program, Calculation sheet, Drawings, Frame, Buckling,
Column.
-791-

STL-016-2
1 INTRODUCTION
To cover a rectangular area by pitched roof portal frames, the designer divides the area,
performs the analysis then starts to design the different elements. The design process
passes through a number of steps from calculating the loads and the internal force as
well as conducting the design of sections and drawing the complete structure including
its details. This work introduces aids to designers by making the last processes by one
click, without help from others programs. The program is build using the visual basic
language [2], [7]. It achieves immediately the most economic design, making all the
necessary checks according to these references [1], [3], [4], [5], [6], [8], and [9].
2 MAIN FORM IN THE PROGRAM
Form in Fig. 1 is the main form in the program. In this form, designers insert data about the area
and the structure which includes
Dimensions of rectangular area.
Clear height of frame.
Slop of roof.
Weight of covering material.
Wind intensity.
Distance between frames or leave it to the program to choose it through the form shown
in Fig.2.
Choice type of the frame sections "rolled-section or built-up section".
Indication whether the designer will use a crane or not. In case of using a crane,
designers should click on the command Crane Details then crane form appears as
shown in Fig. 3. In this form, the designers insert crane data:
o Maximum charge
o Own weight of crane
o Own weight of crane track
o Approach distance for crane
o Distance between crane wheels
o Choice the type of the favorite section for crane track girder "rolled-section or built-
up section".
3 PROGRAM RUNNING
After inserting the data, the program divides the area of the structure into adequate
number of panels, calculates loads on the frame (dead load, live load, wind load, crane
loads if found), calculates straining actions for each case of loading Normal Force,
Shear Force and Bending Moment and then sum these loads to find the worst case of
loading for each section. Then, it begins to design frames elements; columns, beams,
corner connections, apex connections, bolted and welded, bracing system, splices,
purlins, in addition to crane track girder if found
It results the complete drawings of the structure including connect columns, foundation,
bracing system, frame details, crane details, architectural plane, and a complete
calculation sheets for all designed elements. This program leads also to the most
economic and the optimum designs with clear drawings in a short time.
-792-

STL-016-3
Fig. 1: Main form

Fig.2 Form to determination the distance
between frames
Fig.3 Crane details form
-793-

STL-016-4
4 PROGRAM OUTPUT
To obtain the calculation sheets for the design elements click on command Calculation
Sheets in the main form then the form in Fig. 4 appears. It contains the following
information:
Input data
Straining actions
Design of columns
Design of beams
Design of corner connections
Design of apex connections
Design of crane track girder if a crane is used
Design of purlin

To get the structural drawings click on commands from 1 to 5 in the main form and
for architectural drawings click on command from 1 to 3. User can print drawings in
size A1 594x841 mm, A3 297x420 mm or A4 210x297 mm. this drawings contains a
complete details for all elements of structural with complete dimensions. Structural
drawings in addition to Architectural drawings Fig. 5 shows three example of these
drawings.

Fig.4 Calculation sheets
Fig.5 Examples for program
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STL-016-5
5 TABLES USED FOR DESIGN OF FRAMES
The program is also used to produce some design tables, which can be used for the
design of simple frames. These tables are designed for the popular case of loading. The
weight of cover material is assumed =12kg/m2 and haunches are used at corner and
apex connections as shown in Fig.6. The haunches are made from the same sections of
beams with a height that equals the depth of frame beam and length equal 10% of frame
span.
In Tables 1, 2 and 3 the buckling length out of plane for columns equals the height of
columns without lateral support at mid-height while in tables 4, 5 and 6 the buckling
length out of plane for columns equals the half of columns height with lateral support
at mid-height.

TABLE 1: SECTIONS OF COLUMNS AND BEAMS FOR FRAME WITH COLUMN
HEIGHT =5M WITHOUT LATERAL SUPPORT AT MID-HEIGHT.

Spacing (S) m height (H) m SPAN (L) m COLUMN BEAM
4 5 12 IPE No 270 IPE No 180
4 5 14 IPE No 270 IPE No 220
4 5 16 IPE No 270 IPE No 240
4 5 18 IPE No 300 IPE No 270
4 5 20 IPE No 330 IPE No 270
4 5 22 IPE No 360 IPE No 300
4 5 24 IPE No 360 IPE No 330
4 5 26 IPE No 400 IPE No 360
5 5 12 IPE No 270 IPE No 200
5 5 14 IPE No 270 IPE No 220
5 5 16 IPE No 300 IPE No 270
5 5 18 IPE No 330 IPE No 300
5 5 20 IPE No 360 IPE No 300
5 5 22 IPE No 400 IPE No 330
5 5 24 IPE No 400 IPE No 360
5 5 26 IPE No 450 IPE No 400
6 5 12 IPE No 270 IPE No 220
6 5 14 IPE No 300 IPE No 240
6 5 16 IPE No 330 IPE No 270
6 5 18 IPE No 360 IPE No 300
6 5 20 IPE No 400 IPE No 330
6 5 22 IPE No 400 IPE No 360
6 5 24 IPE No 450 IPE No 400
6 5 26 IPE No 500 IPE No 400
-795-

STL-016-6
TABLE 2: SECTIONS OF COLUMNS AND BEAMS FOR FRAMES WITH COLUMN
Spacing (S)m height(H) m SPAN (L)m COLUMN BEAM
4 6 12 IPE No 300 IPE No 180
4 6 14 IPE No 300 IPE No 200
4 6 16 IPE No 300 IPE No 240
4 6 18 IPE No 330 IPE No 270
4 6 20 IPE No 330 IPE No 270
4 6 22 IPE No 360 IPE No 300
4 6 24 IPE No 400 IPE No 330
4 6 26 IPE No 400 IPE No 360
5 6 12 IPE No 300 IPE No 200
5 6 14 IPE No 300 IPE No 220
5 6 16 IPE No 330 IPE No 240
5 6 18 IPE No 360 IPE No 270
5 6 20 IPE No 360 IPE No 300
5 6 22 IPE No 400 IPE No 330
5 6 24 IPE No 400 IPE No 360
5 6 26 IPE No 450 IPE No 400
6 6 12 IPE No 300 IPE No 220
6 6 14 IPE No 330 IPE No 270
6 6 16 IPE No 360 IPE No 270
6 6 18 IPE No 360 IPE No 300
6 6 20 IPE No 400 IPE No 330
6 6 22 IPE No 450 IPE No 360
6 6 24 IPE No 450 IPE No 400
6 6 26 IPE No 500 IPE No 400
4 7 12 IPE No 400 IPE No 180
4 7 14 IPE No 400 IPE No 200
4 7 16 IPE No 400 IPE No 240
4 7 18 IPE No 400 IPE No 240
4 7 20 IPE No 400 IPE No 270
4 7 22 IPE No 400 IPE No 300
4 7 24 IPE No 400 IPE No 330
4 7 26 IPE No 450 IPE No 360
5 7 12 IPE No 400 IPE No 200
5 7 14 IPE No 400 IPE No 220
5 7 16 IPE No 400 IPE No 270
5 7 18 IPE No 400 IPE No 270
5 7 20 IPE No 400 IPE No 300
5 7 22 IPE No 450 IPE No 330
5 7 24 IPE No 450 IPE No 360
5 7 26 IPE No 500 IPE No 400
6 7 12 IPE No 400 IPE No 220
6 7 14 IPE No 400 IPE No 270
6 7 16 IPE No 400 IPE No 270
6 7 18 IPE No 400 IPE No 300
6 7 20 IPE No 450 IPE No 330
6 7 22 IPE No 450 IPE No 360
6 7 24 IPE No 500 IPE No 400
6 7 26 IPE No 500 IPE No 400
-796-

STL-016-7
HEIGHT =5M WITH LATERAL SUPPORT AT MID-HEIGHT.
4 5 12 IPE No 220 IPE No 180
4 5 14 IPE No 240 IPE No 220
4 5 16 IPE No 270 IPE No 240
4 5 18 IPE No 300 IPE No 270
4 5 20 IPE No 300 IPE No 270
4 5 22 IPE No 330 IPE No 300
4 5 24 IPE No 360 IPE No 330
4 5 26 IPE No 400 IPE No 360
5 5 12 IPE No 220 IPE No 200
5 5 14 IPE No 270 IPE No 220
5 5 16 IPE No 300 IPE No 270
5 5 18 IPE No 300 IPE No 270
5 5 20 IPE No 330 IPE No 300
5 5 22 IPE No 360 IPE No 330
5 5 24 IPE No 400 IPE No 360
5 5 26 IPE No 450 IPE No 400
6 5 12 IPE No 240 IPE No 220
6 5 14 IPE No 270 IPE No 240
6 5 16 IPE No 300 IPE No 270
6 5 18 IPE No 330 IPE No 300
6 5 20 IPE No 360 IPE No 330
6 5 22 IPE No 400 IPE No 360
6 5 24 IPE No 450 IPE No 400
6 5 26 IPE No 450 IPE No 400
4 6 12 IPE No 220 IPE No 180
4 6 14 IPE No 240 IPE No 200
4 6 16 IPE No 270 IPE No 240
4 6 18 IPE No 300 IPE No 270
4 6 20 IPE No 330 IPE No 270
4 6 22 IPE No 330 IPE No 300
4 6 24 IPE No 360 IPE No 330
4 6 26 IPE No 400 IPE No 360
5 6 12 IPE No 240 IPE No 200
5 6 14 IPE No 270 IPE No 220
5 6 16 IPE No 300 IPE No 240
5 6 18 IPE No 330 IPE No 270
5 6 20 IPE No 330 IPE No 300
5 6 22 IPE No 360 IPE No 330
5 6 24 IPE No 400 IPE No 360
5 6 26 IPE No 450 IPE No 400
6 6 12 IPE No 240 IPE No 200
6 6 14 IPE No 270 IPE No 240
6 6 16 IPE No 300 IPE No 270
6 6 18 IPE No 330 IPE No 300
6 6 20 IPE No 360 IPE No 330
6 6 22 IPE No 400 IPE No 360
6 6 24 IPE No 450 IPE No 400
6 6 26 IPE No 450 IPE No 400
-797-

STL-016-8

6 NOTES FOR DESIGN OF STEEL COLUMNS
From previous tables important notes depending on the out-of-plane buckling are
presented. When out-plane buckling equals the half height of columns instead of the
total height, the columns weight becomes less (Fig.7). This figure shows the change in
columns of height from 5m to 7m. For frames of small spans as 12m the use of side
beam to reduce out-plane buckling of column is very important, since it reduces the
weight of column nearly 40%. With the increase of the frames span the importance of
the side beam decreases.

4 7 12 IPE No 220 IPE No 180
4 7 14 IPE No 240 IPE No 200
4 7 16 IPE No 270 IPE No 220
4 7 18 IPE No 300 IPE No 240
4 7 20 IPE No 330 IPE No 270
4 7 22 IPE No 330 IPE No 300
4 7 24 IPE No 360 IPE No 330
4 7 26 IPE No 400 IPE No 360
5 7 12 IPE No 240 IPE No 200
5 7 14 IPE No 270 IPE No 220
5 7 16 IPE No 300 IPE No 240
5 7 18 IPE No 330 IPE No 270
5 7 20 IPE No 360 IPE No 300
5 7 22 IPE No 360 IPE No 330
5 7 24 IPE No 400 IPE No 360
5 7 26 IPE No 450 IPE No 400
6 7 12 IPE No 240 IPE No 200
6 7 14 IPE No 270 IPE No 240
6 7 16 IPE No 300 IPE No 270
6 7 18 IPE No 330 IPE No 300
6 7 20 IPE No 360 IPE No 330
6 7 22 IPE No 400 IPE No 360
6 7 24 IPE No 450 IPE No 400
6 7 26 IPE No 450 IPE No 400
Rafter
Column
Fig. 6 Frame drawing
-798-

STL-016-9
Effective of lateral support at mid-height
100%
110%
120%
130%
140%
150%
160%
170%
12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

W
e
i
g
h
t

o
f

c
o
l
u
m
n
s

(
w
i
t
h

m
i
d
d
l
e

b
e
a
m

/

w
i
t
h
o
u
t

b
e
a
m
)

Span of fram in meter

Fig.7: Effect of different bracing system on columns weight

7 CONCLUSIONS
1. The presented program achieves the most economic design using intelligent criteria
where optimization is considered, making all necessary checks needed to satisfy the
codes requirements. It makes the operation of design of steel structure simpler and it
helps the designers to complete the design in a short time.
2. Designers can use the program to get complete calculation sheets with complete
drawings in few minutes for simple steel frames without help from other programs as
SAP or AUTO-CAD. The program conducts the calculations of straining actions
and produces the required drawings.
3. The designers can use the program to determine the most economic design.
4. Engineers can use the presented tables to get frame sections directly without the need
for software applications.

8 REFERENCES
[1] "Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for Structural Steel Buildings,
Chicago, Illinois, USA. (1999). American Institutes of Steel Construction.
[2] Basic Wiring (Sunset New Basic) by Sunset Books (Paperback - Mar 1995).
[3] Economic Design of I Beam sections MARCH 27-3-2006. No. 215 (5th
International Engineering Conference Mansoura-Sharm El-Shekh)
[4] Egyptian code of practice for steel construction and bridges allowable stress
design first edition 2001. Code No. (205) Ministerial Decree No 279-2001
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STL-016-10
[5] Euro code 3,"Design of Steel Structures", ENV 1993 PART 1.1, General Rules for
Buildings. European Committee for Standardization, Brussels.
[6] Manual of Steel Constructor Load & Resistance Factor, Copyright 1994, Design
Volume I, Structural Members, Specifications, Codes.
[7] Programming with Visual Basic 6.0: An Object-Oriented Approach - Introductory
by Michael V.Ekedahl and William A. Newman (Paperback - Jan 29, 1999).
[8] Ravindra, M. K. and Galambos, T. V. Load and resistance factor design for steel.
Proceedings American Society of Civil Engineers. 104 (ST9). September 1978.
pp 1337-1353.
[9] Steel Designer Handbook LRFD Method. By AKBAR R.Tamboil P.E. FASCE
Consulting Engineer Princeton, New Jersey, copyright 1997 by The McGraw-
Hill Companies.

-800-

STL-017-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





THE RESPONSE MODIFICATION FACTOR IN SEISMIC DESIGN
CODES FOR STEEL MRF

M. M. HASSAN
Department of Civil Engineering, Cairo University
Gamaa Street, Giza, Egypt
E-mail: maha8507@yahoo.com
M. HASSANIEN SERROR
E-mail: mhassanien@cosmos-eng.com
SHERIF A. MOURAD
E-mail: smourad_2006@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT
This paper compares the seismic design provisions of the Egyptian code for loads, 2008
(ECP2008), with those of Euro Code 8 (EC8) and Uniform Building Code (UBC 97).
Particularly, it highlights the differences in dealing with steel moment resisting frames.
EC8 and UBC 97 are selected as they are the fundamental base for the Egyptian code.
The study has focused on: calculation of lateral forces, member ductility requirements,
response modification factor, and design peak ground acceleration. Increased interest
has been given to the value of response modification factor. This factor is used to
consider: the range within which the system may go beyond the elastic range; the
consequence of failure or partial failure of vertical elements; and the redundancy of the
system. Despite the fact that it serves the same function in all seismic design codes, it is
denoted different terms and different numerical values. In Egypt, there are not enough
studies that interpret the response modification factor for different structural systems to
ensure different ductility levels. Further, the response modification factor is taken as the
average of those given in EC8 and UBC 97. Accordingly, assessment has been
performed for response modification factor in the Egyptian code. Moreover,
recommendations have been given to define clear boundary between ordinary and
special steel moment resisting frames to ensure the proper ductility assignment as
required by the seismic design code.
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STL-017-2
KEYWORDS
Seismic design code, moment resisting frame, steel building, response modification
factor, inelastic seismic responses, Egyptian Code.
1 INTRODUCTION
The earthquake load is uncertain with respect to its amplitude, duration and frequency
content. Moreover, the dynamic effects require the designated structure to have
considerable energy dissipation capacity. Such nature of earthquake load affects the
design criteria to be of a main concern for earthquake resistant design. If a structure is
designed to withstand the earthquake loads and to remain in the elastic range, heavy and
costly design criteria would be followed. Accordingly, different design codes allow
structures to deform beyond the yield limit during moderate to large ground shaking
within a controllable and acceptable level of damage (performance level). This has been
adopted through the use of response modification factor to reflect the capability of a
structure to dissipate energy through inelastic response.
Prior to Northridge earthquake, the seismic resistance and behavior of steel buildings
were overestimated. Despite the fact that steel is a ductile material, the significant and
unexpected damage that occurred during this earthquake event highlighted the need to
thoroughly investigate the seismic performance of steel structures. Moreover, it was
observed that most of the damage started at the connection level. Since then, increased
emphasis has been placed on ensuring ductile and inelastic behavior through different
connection geometry and configurations that reduce demands on critical zones [8].
It is worth noting that any major change in seismic design codes is usually introduced
upon earthquake event that leads to damage in property or loss of life. This is due to the
fact that seismic design is based upon observations of real buildings behavior during
real earthquakes rather than the theoretical background. In Egypt, within past decades,
structures were designed to withstand gravity loads and, in some cases, wind loads.
However, since 1992 earthquake, seismic design has gained much attention; meanwhile,
it was observed that many buildings are vulnerable to damage under lateral loads.
Most of design codes estimate earthquake forces as equivalent static lateral forces based
on structure dynamic properties and the seismicity of the region. In this paper, three
seismic design codes, ECP2008 draft [3], EC8 [2], and UBC97 [11] have been
investigated; where formulas for base shear, lateral force distribution, and response
modification factor are discussed. In addition, comparison has been introduced to
highlight the concepts adopted concerning seismic design.
2 RESPONSE MODIFICATION FACTOR
Comparison between values of response modification factor (also called behavior factor
and force reduction factor) in different seismic design codes shall not reflect the reality
without taking into consideration other seismic provisions, such as the shape of demand
response spectra. In the following, a review has been introduced for the studies that
compare seismic design provisions in different seismic design codes.
Studies have been implemented to justify the differences between EC8 [2] and UBC97
[11], where different values have been specified for the response modification factor for
the same type of structure. Kappos [4] observed that these differences become smaller if
-802-

STL-017-3
adjustments are made to consider the different partial safety factors used in each code.
Uang [10] and Miranda and Bertero [6] reported that the R factors given by UBC97 and
National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) are too high. Maheri and
Akbari [5] also noticed that UBC97 and NEHRP slightly overestimate the R factor for
taller frames. They argue that these codes do not consider the T-dependence of the
ductility component of the behavior factor. In addition, Riddell et al. [9] mentioned that
using a constant value for the reduction factor in design codes is unconservative for
structures with periods less than 0.4 seconds. Similarly, Miranda and Bertero [6]
concluded that using a constant value for the reduction factor does not provide a
uniform degree of protection for buildings with different periods of vibration. On the
other hand, Borzi and Elnashai [1] argued that European and U.S. standards are too
conservative concerning the behavior factor due to overstrength. Unlike UBC97 [11],
EC8 [2] specifies period-dependent values for the R factor. The code provides a bilinear
curve that relates the behavior factor to the period of the structure. However, Mwafy
and Elnashai [7] and Maheri and Akbari [5] found that the R-values recommended by
EC8 underestimate the reserve strength in regular, ductile buildings especially for
shorter frames.
It is worth noting that different codes specify different ductility classes for the steel
moment resisting frames. These classes determine the level of ductility that the frames
can provide and, in turn, the value of the reduction factor. However, the local ductility
of members should be consistent with the assigned ductility class, where most of the
codes specify limits for the width-to-thickness ratio of flange and web which differ
according to the ductility class.
3 COMPARISON OF SEISMIC DESIGN PROVISIONS
Table 1 summarizes the major seismic design provisions for ECP2008 draft [3], EC8
[2], and UBC97 [11]. These codes employ the seismic load reduction to account for the
structural ductility.
Line 1 of Table 1 shows the formulas for reduced base shear in the three codes. It is
worth noting that the ECP2008 draft [3] uses the same formula as in EC8 [2]. However,
the ordinates of the response spectrum are adjusted to be suitable to the level of
seismicity in Egypt. Generally, the maximum ground acceleration in ECP2008 draft [3]
is lower than UBC97 [11] and EC8 [2]. This may be attributed to the fact that these
codes cover a wide range of seismic zones that vary over a huge area.
Line 2 lists the recommended design peak ground acceleration. Each code provides map
to determine the design peak ground acceleration according to the seismicity of the
region.
Line 3 shows the soil effect on the ground acceleration at the building site. The
concerned three codes specify the soil type based upon soil shear wave velocity.
ECP2008 draft [3] uses two types of response spectrum as in EC8 [2]. However, type
(1) response spectrum in ECP2008 draft [3] is equivalent to type (2) response spectrum
in EC8 [2] and vice versa.

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STL-017-4
Table 1: Comparison of major UBC97, EC8, and ECP2008 draft seismic design provisions
Action UBC 97 EC8 ECP2008 draft
1. Base Shear Smaller of
V=
RT
I C
v
W and
V=
RT
I C
a
W
but not less than
V=
R
I ZN
v
8 . 0
W
V= S
d
(T) W/g V= S
d
(T) W/g
2. Ground
accelerations
Acceleration is:
0.4g for seismically
active regions but is
multiplied by soil-site
factor to obtain C
a

and C
v
.
Acceleration is:
0.4g for ordinary
buildings
0.5g for buildings
with crowd and
strategic buildings
Acceleration ranges
from 0.1g to 0.3g
according to five
different zones
3. Local soil Tabular data varies
maximum design
ground acceleration
by ratio between 0.8
and 3.5 for long
period and between
0.8 and 2.4 for short
period structures
Tabular data varies
design ground
acceleration by ratio
between 1.0 and 1.4
and between 1.0 and
1.6 for type(1) and
type(2) response
spectra, respectively
Tabular data varies
design ground
acceleration by ratio
between 1.0 and 1.8
and between 1.0 and
1.4 for type(1) and
type(2) response
spectra, respectively
4. Period Method A:
T=0.0853H
3/4
Method B:
T=2
i i
n
i
i
n
i
u F g
u W
i
=
=
1
2
1

Method A:
T=0.05H
3/4
H<40m
Method B:
T=2 d

Method A:
T=0.085H
3/4

Method B:
T=2
i i
n
i
i
n
i
u F g
u W
i
=
=
1
2
1

Method C:
Using computer
modelling
5. Response
modification
factor
R= 4.5 for ordinary
moment resisting
frames
R= 8.5 for special
moment resisting
frames
q=1.5-2 (Low class)
q=4 (Medium class)
q=5
y
u
(High class)
R= 5.0 for ordinary
moment resisting
frames
R= 7.0 for special
moment resisting
frames
6. Vertical
distribution of
seismic force
F
j
=
i i
i
N
j j
h w
h w
1 =
(V-F
t
)
F
t
=0.07VT
if T>0.7sec
F
j
=
i i
i
N
j j
h m
h m
1 =
V

F
j
=
i i
i
N
j j
h w
h w
1 =
V

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STL-017-5
Table 1: Comparison of major UBC 97, EC8, and ECP2008 draft seismic design
provisions (Cont.)
7. Drift limits At factored reduced
loads:
s
s
h
R 7 . 0
0.025
if T<0.7sec
s
s
h
R 7 . 0
0.02
if T>0.7sec
At factored reduced
loads:
s
s
h
v
0.005
for buildings with
non-structural brittle
elements
s
s
h
v
0.0075
for buildings with
non-structural ductile
element
At factored reduced
loads:
s
s
h
v
0.005
for buildings with
non-structural brittle
elements
s
s
h
v
0.0075
for buildings with
non-structural ductile
elements
8. Ductility
requirements
For special moment
resisting frames:
Bracing for lateral
torsional buckling:
L
b
2500r
y
/F
y

Slenderness for
flange buckling:
b
f
/2t
f
52/
y
F
Slenderness
requirements for
web buckling:
d
w
/t
w
520/
y
F [1-
1.54(P
u
/P
y
)] for
P
u
/P
y
0.125
d
w
/t
w
191/
y
F [2.33
-1.54(P
u
/P
y
)]
for P
u
/P
y
>0.125
For special moment
resisting frames:
Slenderness for
flange buckling:
b
f
/2t
f
c
y
F / 235
Where c depend on
the ductility class and
type of stress
Slenderness
requirements for
web buckling:
d
w
/t
w
c
y
F / 235
Where c depend on
the ductility class and
type of stress

No provisions are
available for steel
moment resisting
frames.

Line 4 shows approximate methods proposed by different codes to estimate the
fundamental period of a structure. At the preliminary design phase, modal analysis may
not be feasible; hence, design codes provide these simple formulas to estimate the
fundamental period of vibration. The formulas depend mainly on the number of storeys
and the height of the structure, as shown in Table 1.
Line 5 compares the values of response modification factor as specified by the
concerned codes. This comparison is also shown in Fig. 1. ECP2008 draft [3] specifies
two values for the force reduction factor for steel moment resisting frames, which are 5
and 7 for ordinary and special moment resisting frames, respectively. As for UBC 97
[11], the force reduction factor is equal to 4.5 and 8.5 for ordinary and special steel
moment resisting frames, respectively. It is worth noting that these values are
independent of the fundamental period of vibration. EC8 [2] classifies structures into
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STL-017-6
three different ductility classes: low, medium and high. The value of the behavior factor
depends on these classes. For low ductility class, the behavior factor values must be less
than 1.5. This value takes into consideration only the overstrength of the structure. In
other words, the structure is expected to behave elastically during ground motions. For
medium and high classes; however, the structure is expected to undergo inelastic
deformations. For medium ductility class, the behavior factor is equal to 4 for steel
moment resisting frames. For high ductility class, the behavior factor is equal to 5
u
/
y
,
where
u
is the strength at the development of a plastic collapse mechanism; and
y
is
the strength corresponding to the first yielding in the structure. The ratio
u
/
y
accounts
for the redundancy of the structure and is equal to 1.3 for steel moment resisting frames
with more than one story and more than one span. Hence, the behavior factor will be
equal to 6.5 for steel moment resisting frames categorized as high ductility class.

Fig. 1: Values of Response Modification factor as specified in different codes
Line 6 demonstrates that the distribution of base shear in the three codes is based on
linear distribution in proportion to story mass and height. However, UBC97 [11] applies
a concentrated force at the top level to account for higher modes effect.
Line 7 lists drift limits that usually determine the design of steel moment frames. The
three codes determine the actual drift using elastic analysis then multiplies this value by
a factor to account for inelastic deformations. ECP2008 draft [3] uses the same
expressions and limits proposed by EC8 [2].
Line 8 shows the provisions needed by the three codes to ensure that the local ductility
of members will provide the expected level of ductility demand. UBC97 [11] and EC8
[2] specify slenderness limit on flange and web of beams and columns. Nevertheless,
EC8 provides different limits corresponding to the three main ductility classes (high,
medium, and low). These limits classify the member with respect to its local ductility
among four classes: 1, 2, 3, and 4. These cross-sectional classes which depend on
-806-

STL-017-7
width-to-thickness ratio of flange and web determines the overall ductility class of the
structure which consequently determines the value of the allowed reduction factor. For
example, specifying a structure in the high ductility class means that its members should
adhere to class 1 requirements; while specifying a structure in the medium ductility
class means that using members up to class 3 is permitted. Consequently, in low
ductility class structures, members up to class 4 may be used. In addition, EC8 [2]
specifies connection detailing provisions to ensure that bolted or welded connections are
stronger than the connected members.
On the other hand, ECP2008 draft [3] specifies two ductility classes with respect to
moment resisting frames: ordinary and special moment resisting frames (OMRF and
SMRF). However, the Egyptian code does not put clear boundary between these two
classes to ensure the proper assignment of ductility required by the code.
Figures 2 and 3 compare the width-to-thickness ratio for beam flange and web,
respectively, given by UBC 97 [11], EC8 [2], and the Egyptian code for practice and
design (ECP 205)?????? Do you mean the steel code? If so, where is it in the
references? It is worth noting that the compact sections in the Egyptian code are
equivalent to class 1 and 2 in EC8 [2]. Moreover, it can be inferred that EC8 [2] limits
are stricter than UBC 97 [11] limits. However, UBC 97 [11] does not use compact and
non-compact section categories to differentiate between ordinary and special moment
resisting frames. For example, the limit for flange buckling by UBC 97 [11], given in
Table 1, is equal to 18.9/
y
F (using F
y
in t/cm
2
) which may be compact or non-
compact section.

Fig. 2: Limits of Width-to-thickness ratio for beam flange

-807-

STL-017-8

Fig. 3: Limits of Width-to-thickness ratio for beam web
Moreover, it is worth noting that unlike UBC 97 [11] and EC8 [2], the Egyptian code
does not differentiate between steel and concrete moment resisting frames with respect
to the value of the force reduction factor as shown in Fig. 4. However, it is
recommended to define different values for each structural material as they are not
expected to provide the same level of ductility.

Fig. 4: Comparison of reduction factor values in different codes for steel and concrete
structures
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STL-017-9
The main thrust of this paper is to compare seismic provisions of ECP2008 draft [3]
with those of EC8 [2], and UBC97 [11]. The study has focused on: calculation of lateral
forces, member ductility requirements, response modification factor, and design peak
ground acceleration. Increased interest has been given to steel moment resisting frames
and the assigned values of response modification factor in these three codes. EC8 and
UBC 97 are selected as they are the fundamental base for the Egyptian code.
Based on codes comparison, it is observed that limiting the use of non-compact and
slender sections to the ordinary steel moment resisting frames in the Egyptian code may
be a good practice to ensure the required ductility supply for special steel moment
resisting frames. In other words, it might be recommended to include provisions that
limit the use of compact sections for special steel moment resisting frames.
Consequently, this limitation for the class of cross section in dissipative zones will
ensure the local ductility of members to be consistent with the expected demand.
Moreover, it is recommended to use different response modification factors for concrete
and steel buildings.
5 NOTATIONS
C
a
seismic coefficient in UBC 97
C
v
seismic coefficient in UBC 97
F
t
portion of base shear, V, considered concentrated at the top of the structure in
addition to F
N
F
y
yield strength
H height of the building, in m, from the foundation or from the top of a
rigid basement.
I importance factor
N number of storeys
N
v
near-source factor
P
y
nominal axial strength of a member
P
u
required axial strength on a column
R response modification factor (also called force reduction factor and behavior
factor)
S
d
(T) elastic response spectrum value at period T
T elastic fundamental period of vibration, in seconds, of the structure in the
direction under consideration
W total dead load and applicable portions of other loads
Z seismic zone factor
c width of outstanding part of the flange
bf breadth of the flange
d
w
height of the web
h
j
height above the base to level j
h
s
storey height
t
f
flange thickness
t
w
web thickness
u story horizontal displacement
w
j
portion of W located at level j
s
design inter-storey drift
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STL-017-10
u
strength at the development of a plastic collapse mechanism
y
strength at the first yielding
correction factor
v the reduction factor which takes into account the lower return period of the
seismic action associated with the damage limitation requirement.
resistance factor.
6 REFERENCES
[1] Borzi, B., and Elnashai, A.S. Engineering Structures (1999) 1244-1260.
[2] CEN. EuroCode 3: Design of steel structures. Bruxelles: European Committee
for Standarization (1993).
[3] Egyptian Code for Calculation of Loads and Forces for Structural and Building.
Research Center for Housing, Building and Physical Planning, Giza, Egypt
(1993).
[4] Kappos, A.J. Engineering Structures (1998) 823-835.
[5] Maheri, M.R., and Akbari, R. Engineering Structures (2003) 1505-1513.
[6] Miranda, E., and Bertero, V.V. Earthquake Spectra (1994) 357-379.
[7] Mwafy, A.M., and Elnashai, A.S. Earthquake Engineering (2002) 239-273.
[8] Nakashima, M., Reoder, C.W., and Maruoka, Y. Structural Engineering (2000)
861-868.
[9] Riddell, R., Hidalgo, P., and Cruz, E. Earthquake Spectra (1989) 571-590.
[10] Uang, C.M. Structural Engineering (117) (1991).
[11] Uniform Building Code. International Conference of Building Officials,
Whittier, Calif. (1997).

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STL-018-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





COLD-FORMED C-CHANNEL COLUMNS WITH VARIOUS
CONFIGURATIONS OF WEB AND INCLINED LIP
STIFFENERS

SHERIF K. HASSAN
Professor, Structural Eng. Department
Ain Shams University, Abbassia, Cairo, Egypt.
E-mail:skhassan77@netscape.net

ABDEL RAHIM K. DESSOUKI
Professor, Structural Eng. Department
Ain Shams Univ., Abbassia, Cairo, Egypt.

SAFA Y. SAYED
M. Sc. student, Structural Eng. Department
Ain Shams Univ., Abbassia, Cairo, Egypt.

ABSTRACT
The axial capacity of cold-formed, pin-ended, singly-symmetric C-channel columns is
numerically investigated. The prime objective was to quantify the vital effect of
introducing various configurations of web and inclined flange lip stiffeners on the
column strength. The present study investigated a total of 108 stiffened channel
columns. Specimens were classified into three main groups with respect to the angle of
inclination of edge stiffeners. Outward (60), inward (120), and normal (90) flange
edge stiffeners were considered. The parametric study involved C-shaped sections with
various geometric configurations of web stiffeners. These included square, rectangular,
and V-shaped web stiffeners. In addition, C-channels with plain webs without
intermediate stiffeners were also considered for comparative studies. Several finite
element models incorporating geometric and material nonlinearities have been
developed and verified against experimental results. The effects of several numerical
modelling details on the load capacity predictions of single C-channel columns were
investigated. Unfactored load capacity prediction equations were developed as a
function of the minor axis slenderness ratio of the columns (
y
). Numerically predicted
strength values were compared to design strengths obtained using the North American
Specification for the design of cold-formed steel structural members (NAS 2007) [11].
Maximum axial load capacities of C-channel columns were significantly influenced by
the presence of web stiffeners with various geometric configurations.
-811-

STL-018-2
KEYWORDS
Axial capacity, C-channels, pin-ended, numerical modelling, web stiffeners, inclined lip
stiffeners.
1. INTRODUCTION
C-shaped channel is a common type of singly-symmetric sections that could be used as
wall studs as well as chord members of roof trusses. These structural members are
mainly subjected to axial compression and may fail in interactive buckling modes, such
as local, distortional, flexural and flexural-torsional buckling. Obviously, the presence
of adequate lip stiffener provides continuous restraint to the longitudinal edge of the
flanges. These stiffeners could be easily brake-pressed or roll-formed on the free edge
of an unstiffened plate at a specified angle of inclination. Lipped channels with inclined
simple edge stiffeners provide different geometric properties and restraint effect
compared to 90 lipped channel sections.
Young and Hancock [1] conducted a series of compression tests on cold-formed
channels with inclined (inward and outward) simple edge stiffeners between fixed ends.
The nominal section depth for all specimens was 100 mm. The maximum slenderness
ratio of the columns about the minor Y-axis (
y
) was 45. The predominant mode of
failure for all specimens was the distortional buckling mode.
Young [2] adopted finite analysis to predict strengths of fixed-ended columns with
inclined simple edge stiffeners. Zhang et al. [3] performed experimental testing of pin-
ended C-channel columns with inclined simple edge stiffeners, angles of inclinations
were 45, 90 and 135. The nominal section depth, flange width, and wall thickness
were 160, 80, and 3.0 mm respectively for all specimens. In addition, the nominal lip
stiffener depth was kept constant at 20 mm. The maximum slenderness ratio of the
columns about the minor Y-axis (
y
) did not exceed 70. All stub columns failed in
combined local and distortional buckling modes. However, for medium and long
columns, the failure modes observed were combinations of local, distortional and
flexural buckling depending on the inclination angle of the edge stiffener, as well as on
the position of the eccentric load.
The performance of stiffened and unstiffened cold-formed channel members in axial
compression was presented by El-Sheikh et al. [4]. The study focused on the effect of
using V-shape web stiffeners on the member's resistance to torsional and overall
buckling. The results concluded that using V-shape web stiffeners leads to significant
improvement of both flexural, and flexural torsional buckling strengths.
Design guidelines for cold-formed steel sections having edge-stiffened elements are
controlled by the North American Specification (NAS 2001) [5], the American Iron and
Steel Institute Specification (AISI 1996) [6], and the Australian/New Zealand Standard
(AS/NZS 1996) [7]. These specifications are mainly based on experimental tests
performed by Desmond et al. (1981) [8] for C-sections having edge stiffeners
perpendicular to the flange.
Young and Rasmussen [9] conducted a series of both fixed and pin-ended column tests
for plain C-channels with unstiffened flanges. The nominal depth and wall thickness for
all specimens were 96 and 1.5 mm respectively. However, two values for the nominal
flange width were utilized (36 and 48 mm). The maximum slenderness ratio of the
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STL-018-3
columns about the minor Y-axis (
y
) did not exceed 130. Test strengths were compared
with the design strengths obtained using the relevant Australian/New Zealand and AISI
specifications. Design strength predictions by the specifications proved to be
conservative except for specimens having very short effective lengths where the
specifications were slightly overestimated.
2. PARAMETRIC STUDY
Finite element analysis was adopted for axial strength predictions of singly symmetric
C-channel columns with lip stiffeners. A general purpose finite element program
ANSYS [10] was employed for the current study. The proposed finite element model
adopted the arc-length technique to predict the ultimate loads, lateral displacements, and
failure modes of the columns. The numerical model accounted for both material and
geometric nonlinearities. The results obtained from the finite element analysis were
compared to design strength values calculated using the Effective Width Method
(EWM) specified in the North American Specification (NAS 2007) [11].
The specimens were classified into three main groups with respect to the angle of
inclination of edge stiffeners as illustrated in Fig. 1.
Group (1): Edge stiffeners perpendicular to the flange ( = 90).
Group (2): Edge stiffeners inclined outwards ( = 60).
Group (3): Edge stiffeners inclined inwards ( = 120).
where, is the counter clockwise angle of inclination between the horizontal extended
line of the flange, and the lip stiffener. Some dimensions were kept constant. These
include; the overall depth of the section (H), the flange width (B), the wall thickness (t
1
)
and the overall depth of the lip stiffener (D). The chosen values were 200, 80, 2.0, and
30 mm respectively. The rounded inside fillet radius (r) was 3.0 mm for all specimens.
In addition, three geometric configurations of web stiffeners were investigated as
demonstrated in Fig. 1. These include: square web stiffeners with d
1
= 25 mm,
rectangular web stiffeners with d
2
= 50 mm, V-shaped web stiffeners with d
3
= 25 mm.
For square and rectangular web stiffeners, the horizontal distance from the edge of the
web to the far edge of the web stiffener (c) was kept constant at 25 mm. C-sections with
V-shape web stiffeners were assigned three wall thicknesses (t
2
= 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5 mm).
3. NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
Experimental results presented by Zhang et al. [3] for pin-ended channel columns with
inclined simple edge stiffeners were used to verify the validity of three different
numerical models. Excellent correlation was found between the ultimate loads predicted
by the numerical model (P
FE
) and the experimental values (P
ult
) presented by Zhang et
al. [3] as illustrated in Table 1.
Table 1. Ultimate Capacities of Verification Models
Zhang et al. [3]
Specimen

Length
(mm)
Inclination Angle
of Lip stiffener
P
ult
(kN)
FE results
P
FE
(kN)

(%)
Diff
.
0500A45-2 500 45 266.16 264.66 -0.6
1250A135-1 1250 135 280.66 284.58 1.4
2000A45-2 2000 45 259.54 262.34 1.1
-813-

STL-018-4

Fig. 1 : Cross sectional profiles of studied specimens.

3.1. Finite element modeling
The material behavior was defined by a bilinear stress-strain curve having an elastic
modulus (E) of 210000 N/mm, and a yield stress (F
y
) of 240 N/mm. The values of the
tangent modulus (E
t
) and the Poissons ratio () were considered 2% of the elastic
modulus, and 0.3 respectively. The slenderness ratio of the columns about the minor Y-
axis (
y
), ranged between 30 and 170 to account for a wide range of column's height.
Residual stresses, as well as high yield stress values developed at corners of the cold-
formed C-sections were not accounted for in the present study. It should be noted that
the behavior and strength of cold-formed axially loaded columns are highly influenced
by the presence of initial imperfections. Consequently, the value of the minor axis
1A 1B 1C 1D
2A 2B 2C 2D
3A 3B 3C 3D
Group (1) : = 90
Group (3) : = 120
Group (2) : = 60
-814-

STL-018-5
flexural imperfection at the mid-height section was assumed to be 0.2% of the overall
column length. Plastic shell elements that allow for large displacements were utilized
for the nonlinear buckling analysis of all specimens. The element type used was a four-
node, three-dimensional quadrilateral shell element with six degrees-of-freedom at each
node.
3.2. Loading and Boundary conditions
Two 60-mm thick plates were attached to the ends of the specimen as shown in Fig. 2 in
order to prevent any local failure at the vicinity of the specimens ends. The restraining
conditions at both loaded and unloaded ends of the specimen are illustrated in Fig. 3.
All edge nodes of the unloaded end were constrained against translation in longitudinal
Z- direction. Axial compressive loads were applied in successive load steps at the
geometric centroid of the cross-section.

Fig. 2 : Finite Element model of C-channel column
with rectangular web stiffener and inclined lip.

(a) Unloaded end (b) Loaded end

Fig. 3 : Boundary conditions
Y
X
Z
-815-

STL-018-6
4. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Different parameters affecting the strength of axially-loaded, singly-symmetric, C-
channel columns are presented in the following sections.
4.1. Effect of web stiffeners
Maximum load capacities of C-channel columns were highly influenced by introducing
various geometric configurations of web stiffeners for the three groups of specimens.
Figs. 4, 5, and 6 demonstrate the significant effect of web stiffeners on the load carrying
capacity of the columns. It appears evident that maximum strength values were recorded
for C-channels having square web stiffeners, followed by sections with rectangular web
stiffeners, and finally sections with V-shape web stiffeners. Such increase
(approximately 30 %) was more pronounced for values of slenderness ratios (y)
ranging from 30 to 100. The average strength increase for slenderness ratios ranging
between 100 and 170 was about 20%. Curves representing C-channels with square and
rectangular web stiffeners nearly coincide together at slenderness ratios ranging
between 100 and 170. However, for values of
y
greater than 150, it appears obvious
that the presence of V-shape stiffeners has negligible effect on the columns strength
compared to plain C-channels without web stiffeners.
Group (1)
Normal Lip Stiffeners
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Slenderness ratio (L/ry)
U
l
t
i
m
a
t
e

l
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
Plain sec without web
stiffeners
Sec with square web
stiffener (d1 = 25 mm)
Sec with rectangular web
Sec with V-shape web

Fig. 4 : Slenderness ratios versus ultimate load for Group (1) - ( = 90)
Group (2)
Outward Lip Stiffeners
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
U
l
t
i
m
a
t
e

l
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
Plain sec without web
stiffeners
Sec with square web
Sec with rect angular web
Sec with V-shape web

-816-

STL-018-7
Group (3)
Inward Lip Stiffeners
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
U
l
t
i
m
a
t
e

l
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
Plain s ec wit hout web
s t iffeners
Sec wit h s quare web
s t iffener (d1 = 25 mm)
Sec wit h rec t angular web
Sec wit h V-s hape web

4.2. Axial strength equations
Based on the cross sectional dimensions, material properties, loading and boundary
conditions of specimens investigated in the current study, it appears reasonable to
suggest a set of unfactored axial strength equations as a function of the column's
slenderness ratio (
y
= L/r
y
). The following equations reflect the ultimate load
predictions in KN and are bounded for axially loaded single C-channel cold-formed
columns having slenderness ratios ranging between 30 and 170.
For group (1):
- Plain sections: Pult. = -8E-06(L/ry)
3
+ 0.0005(L/ry)
2
- 0.2455(L/r
y
) + 142.22 --- (1)

- Sections with square web stiffener (25 x 25 mm):
Pult. = 3E-05(L/ry)
3
- 0.0129(L/ry)
2
+ 0.8002(L/ry) + 168.21 --- (2)
- Sections with rectangular web stiffener (25 x 50 mm):
Pult. = 3E-05(L/ry)
3
- 0.0121(L/ry)
2
+ 0.8543(L/ry) + 157.49 --- (3)
- Sections with V-shape web stiffener (d
3
= 25 mm):
Pult. = 6E-05(L/ry)
3
- 0.023(L/ry)
2
+ 1.6952(L/ry) + 138.69 --- (4)
For group (2):
- Plain sections: Pult. = 5E-06(L/ry)
3
- 0.0037(L/ry)
2
+ 0.1216(L/ry) + 136.21 --- (5)

Pult. = 3E-05(L/ry)
3
- 0.0141(L/ry)
2
+ 1.0324(L/ry) + 160.33 --- (6)
Pult. = 3E-05(L/ry)
3
- 0.0139(L/ry)
2
+ 1.1283(L/ry) + 149.72 --- (7)
3
= 25 mm):
Pult. = 6E-05(L/ry)
3
- 0.0214(L/ry)
2
+ 1.6088(L/ry) + 141.79 --- (8)
For group (3):
- Plain sections: Pult. = 1E-05(L/ry)
3
- 0.0053(L/ry)
2
+ 0.2211(L/ry) + 135.59 --- (9)

Pult. = 3E-05(L/ry)
3
- 0.012(L/ry)
2
+ 0.7151(L/ry) + 174.55 --- (10)
Pult. = 2E-05(L/ry)
3
- 0.0107(L/ry)
2
+ 0.7593(L/ry) + 162.48 --- (11)
3
= 25 mm):
Pult. = 6E-05(L/ry)
3
- 0.0228(L/ry)
2
+ 1.6244(L/ry) + 144.78 --- (12)
-817-

STL-018-8
Deformed configurations of short and long C-channel columns are presented in Figs. 7
and 8 respectively. Despite the different modes of failure for specimens with low and
high values of column slenderness ratio (y), yet the presence of web stiffeners
prevented the origination of successive local web buckling waves that are observed for
specimens with unstiffened webs.

(a) Without web stiffener (b) with rectangular web stiffener

(c) with square web stiffener (d) with V-shape web stiffener
Fig. 7 : Deformed configurations of short C-channel columns at y = 30

(a) without web stiffener (b) with V-shape web stiffener
Fig. 8 : Deformed configurations of long C-channel columns at y = 130
4.3. Effect of flange lip stiffeners
Obviously, lip stiffeners with adequate stiffness provide continuous longitudinal flange
edge support for C-shaped channel cross sections. Bar charts shown in Figs. 9 and 10
demonstrate the insignificant effect of the angle of inclination of these stiffeners on the
axial load-carrying capacity of C-shaped cold-formed channel columns. Generally,
specimens with inclined outward and inward lip stiffeners (Groups 2 and 3) sustained
slightly higher loads compared to sections with 90 lip stiffeners (Group 1). Such
strength enhancement did not exceed 4% on the average.
-818-

STL-018-9

0
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
1 0 0
1 2 0
1 4 0
1 6 0
1 8 0
2 0 0
3 0 7 0 1 0 0 1 3 0 1 6 0 1 7 0
S l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o ( L / r Y )
U
l
t
i
m
a
t
e

L
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
Group (1) - Normal Lip Stiffeners
Group (2) - Outward Lip Stiffeners
Group (3) - Inward Lip Stiffeners

Fig. 9 : Maximum axial capacity of plain C-channels without web stiffener

0
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
1 0 0
1 2 0
1 4 0
1 6 0
1 8 0
2 0 0
3 0 7 0 1 0 0 1 3 0 1 6 0 1 7 0
S le n d e r n e s s r a t io ( L / r Y )
U
l
t
i
m
a
t
e

L
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
Group (1) - Normal Lip Stiffeners
Group (2) - Outward Lip Stiffeners
Group (3) - Inward Lip Stiffeners

Fig. 10 : Maximum axial capacity of C-channels with square web stiffeners.
4.4. Column strength comparison
The predicted pin-ended column strengths (P
ult.
) of C-channels were compared to
unfactored design column strength values (nominal strengths) of the American Iron and
Steel Institute (AISI 1996) [6], and the North American Specification for the Design of
Cold-formed Steel Structural Members (NAS 2007) [11]. The effective buckling lengths
for flexural buckling about major and minor axes (l
ex
and l
ey
), as well as torsional
buckling length (l
ez
) were all considered equal to the pin-ended column length (l
ex
= l
ey

= l
ez
= L), where L is the actual column length. Both specifications presume that the
applied load will be always acting at the centroid of the effective cross section.
The set of curves illustrated in Figs. 11 to 14 represent a comparative study for design
strengths calculated using the AISI and NAS Specifications (almost identical), and
those predicted by the finite element analysis. The general common feature among all
investigated groups of specimens was that the specifications yielded conservative
design strength estimates compared to those predicted by the numerical model. Such
conservatism was remarkably observed for y values ranging between 70 and 170. On
the contrary, for slenderness ratios ranging between 30 and 70, good correlation was
observed. The numerical model did not consider the presence of high yield stress values
developed at the rounded corners of the cold-formed C-sections. Consequently, finite
-819-

STL-018-10
element results slightly underestimated the strength of stub columns having slenderness
ratios less than 55.
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
C
o
l
u
m
n

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

P

(
K
N
)
AISI
F.E.A
NAS

Fig. 11 : Column strength for plain C-channels without web stiffeners - Group (1)
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
C
o
l
u
m
n

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

P

(
K
N
)
AISI
F.E.A
NAS

Fig. 12 : Column strength for C-channels with square web stiffener - Group (1)

20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
C
o
l
u
m
n

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

P

(
K
N
)
AISI
F.E.A
NAS

Fig. 13 : Column strength for C-channels with rectangular web stiffener Group (2)
-820-

STL-018-11
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
C
o
l
u
m
n

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

P

(
K
N
)
AISI
F.E.A
NAS

Fig. 14 : Column strength for C-channels with V-shaped web stiffener - Group (3)
4.5. Modes of failure
The local buckling mode was the governing mode of failure for C-channels without web
stiffeners, and for slenderness ratios between 30 and 70 as illustrated in Fig.15.
Furthermore, columns having various web stiffener configurations failed by the
distortional buckling mode as shown in Fig. 16. At slenderness ratios (y) > 100, the
observed failure mode was a combination of local and global buckling for channels
without web stiffeners, and combined distortional and global buckling modes for
equivalent columns with web stiffeners. Fig. 17 shows the deformed shapes of the mid-
height cross section for C-channel columns at y = 30. Apparently, the presence of web
stiffeners (square, rectangular, V-shaped) increased the lateral displacements (x)
compared to C-channels without web stiffeners. Eventually, the translations (
x
and
y
)
recorded for the tip of inclined edge stiffeners were influenced by the value of x.
Maximum tip displacements were recorded for channels with V-shaped web stiffeners,
followed by channels with rectangular web stiffeners. The least recorded translation
values were for C-channels with square web stiffeners.

Fig. 15 : Local buckling of C-channels Fig. 16 : Distortional buckling of C-
without web stiffeners. channels with V-shaped web stiffener

-821-

STL-018-12

(a) without web stiffener (b) with square web stiffener

(c) with rectangular web stiffener (d) with V-shape web stiffener
Fig. 17 : Deformed shapes of mid-height cross section for C-channels at
y
= 30
4.6. Effect of wall thickness
The wall thickness of the sections proved to have a noticeable effect on the ultimate
capacity of C-channel columns as illustrated in Fig. 18. The study accounted for three
different thicknesses of channel columns with V-shaped web stiffeners namely 1.5, 2
and 2.5 mm. Increasing the wall thickness from 1.5 to 2.0 mm produced a
corresponding increase in the ultimate load by about 40% for Groups (1) and (3), and
30% for Group (2). However, increasing the wall thickness from 2.0 to 2.5 mm resulted
in an average increase in the ultimate load by approximately 28% for the three groups of
specimens.
Group (1)
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
Slenderness ratio(L/ry)
U
l
t
i
m
a
t
e

l
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
t = 1.50 mm
t = 2.00 mm
t = 2.50 mm

-822-

STL-018-13
Group (2)
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
U
l
t
i
m
a
t
e

l
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
t = 1.50 mm
t = 2.00 mm
t = 2.50 mm

Group (3)
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
U
l
t
i
m
a
t
e

l
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
t = 1.50 mm
t = 2.00 mm
t = 2.50 mm

Fig. 18 : Wall thickness effect for C-channel with V-shaped web stiffener.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Pin-ended, singly-symmetric cold formed C-channel columns were investigated using
numerical analysis. The specimens were classified into three main groups based on the
inclination angle of the lip stiffener. Outward (60), inward (120), and normal (90)
flange edge stiffeners were considered. Beside plain webs without intermediate
stiffeners, the analysis accounted for C-shaped sections incorporating square,
rectangular, and V-shaped web stiffeners. Design strengths were calculated assuming
concentric loading through the effective centroid of the cross section, and an effective
length equals to the column length.
Based on the results presented herein, the following conclusions could be drawn out:
Ultimate load capacities of C-channel columns were remarkably enhanced by
introducing various geometric configurations of web stiffeners for the three
groups of specimens. The average strength increase was 25% compared to
equivalent sections with unstiffened web.
Maximum column strength values were recorded for C-channels having square
web stiffeners, followed by sections with rectangular web stiffeners, and finally
sections with V-shape web stiffeners.
The angle of inclination of flange lip stiffeners proved to produce minor effect
on the axial load-carrying capacity of C-shaped cold-formed channel columns.
Specimens with inclined outward and inward lip stiffeners (Groups 2 and 3)
-823-

STL-018-14
sustained slightly higher loads compared to sections with 90 lip stiffeners
(Group 1). Such strength enhancement did not exceed 4% on the average.
The AISI and NAS Specifications yielded conservative design strength estimates
compared to those predicted by the numerical model. Such conservatism was
remarkably observed for
y
values ranging between 70 and 170.
Finite element results slightly underestimated the strength of stub columns
having slenderness ratios less than 55.
Increasing the wall thickness of thin-walled C-sections resulted in a significant
increase of the ultimate capacity of C-channel columns with V-shaped web
stiffeners.
The results assure the importance of validating current design specifications for
pin-ended, single C-channels with one intermediate web stiffener by conducting
experimental tests for specimens having minor axis slenderness ratios (
y
)
ranging from 100 to 170.

6. REFERENCES
[1] Young B. and Hancock G.J, 2003. Compression tests of channels with inclined
simple edge stiffeners, Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 129, 14031411.
[2] Young B, 2004. Design of channel columns with inclined edge stiffeners,
Journal of Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 60, 183197.
[3] Zhang YC, Wang CG, Zhang ZG, 2007. Test and finite element analysis of pin-
ended channel columns with inclined simple edge stiffeners, Journal of
Constructional Steel Research, Vol. 63, 383395.
[4] El-Sheikh AI, El-Kassas EMA, Mackie RI, 2001. Performance of stiffened and
unstiffened cold-formed channel members in axial compression, Engineering
Structures Research, Vol. 23, pp. 12211231.
[5] NAS North American Specification for the design of cold-formed steel
structural members, 2001.
[6] Specification for the design of cold-formed steel structural members.
Washington, D.C: American Iron and Steel Institute, AISI, 1996.
[7] Australian/New Zealand Standard. Cold-formed steel structures, AS/NZS
4600:1996, Sydney, Australia: Standards Australia, 1996.
[8] Desmond, T.P., Pekoz, T., and Winter, G., 1981. Edge stiffeners for thin-walled
members, Journal of Structural Engineering, 107(2), 329-353.
[9] Young, B., and Rasmussen, K. J. R., 1998. Tests of fixed-ended plain channel
columns, Journal of Structural Engineering, 124(2), pp. 131-139.
[10] ANSYS Version 10 on line user manual. 2001.
[11] NAS North American Specification for the design of cold-formed steel
structural members, 2007.

-824-

STL-019-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





PRYING FORCE ASSESSMENT USING NONLINEAR FINITE
ELEMENT MODEL

H. SOBHY SAYED
Department of Structural Engineering, Cairo University,
E-mail: hsayed@cosmos-eng.com
M. HASSANIEN SERROR
Department of Structural Engineering, Cairo University,
E-mail: mhassanien@cosmos-eng.com

ABSTRACT

Steel connection design using pre-tensioned bolts depends significantly on the value of
the Prying forces exerted from the end plate. The Egyptian Code ECP (205) suggested a
formula that can determine the Prying force value. In this research, the Prying force is
numerically computed in a T-Stub connection using nonlinear finite element techniques.
The model uses plane stress four node elements with two degrees of freedom per node
to simulate the flange of the T-Stub. The bolts are simulated using a truss element with
large deformation capability to allow modelling of the pretension force. Surface to
surface gap elements are used in order to simulate the contact between the T-Stub and
the supporting element. Parametric study on the end plate thickness, bolt size, bolt
arrangement and pretension forces is performed in order to calibrate the Code formula.
The parametric study covers all the practical ranges of the variables. The study revealed
that the Code formula, inaccurately, determines the Prying force in a certain range.
Moreover, a new equation for the prying force is developed using regression analysis on
the finite element results.
KEYWORDS
Prying force, finite element, regression analysis, new equation, and code requirements

-825-

STL-019-2
1 INTRODUCTION
The phenomenon of prying action is associated with steel bolted connections where the
applied force is in tension, parallel to the fasteners length, and the line of force action is
eccentric to the bolt axis. Due to the tensile load, either the connected fitting or the
support deforms and thereby increases the tensile force in the bolt. The prying action is
most commonly encountered in beam-to-column moment connection and tension
hanger (see Fig. 1) while the T-Stub deforms. Furthermore, the stiffness of connected
parts is the key to satisfactory performance. While the stiffness of the connected parts
decreases, prying contact stress develops close to the end of the connector flange. The
resultant of this prying contact stress is known as the prying force.
The scope of this paper is to compare the Egyptian Code ECP-205 [3] suggested
formula for prying force calculation with results of parametric study that is based on
finite element analysis. Section 2 shall furnish the theoretical background of prying
force calculations, Section 3 shall provide the statical system for prying force
modelling, Section 4 illustrates the finite element analysis, Section 5 discusses the
analysis results, and Section 6 shall summarize and conclude the paper work.

(a) (b)
T-Stub
T-Stub
Prying Zone
Prying
Zone
(a) (b)
T-Stub
T-Stub
Prying Zone
Prying
Zone
(a) (b)
T-Stub
T-Stub
Prying Zone
Prying
Zone

Fig. 1: (a) Beam-to-Column Moment Connection, (b) Hanger Connection

-826-

STL-019-3
2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
T-stub connections as a standalone configuration have been widely studied over the past
years. The emphasis in most of the research on this subject was mostly placed on the
assessment of the connection resistance and stiffness properties ( [6], [8], [1]). Several
experimental and analytical studies ( [2], [4], [9], [10]) have been carried out for
exploring the features of T-stub connection, such as the bolt response and the prying
effect.

The behaviour of a connection where tensile loads are transferred to fasteners through
an end plate is highly dependent on the rigidity of this plate. This is demonstrated in
Fig. 2 where three T-stub connections are shown. In the first connection which
represents a rigid end plate, minimal deformation occurs when the tensile load (2T) is
applied, with the plate remaining virtually parallel to the connecting surface. The third
connection, which represents a flexible end plate, deforms as shown when loaded
generating compressive (prying) forces between the contacting surfaces at the tip end of
the flange which increases the tensile bolt forces accordingly. The second connection,
which represents a semirigid end plate, deforms as shown when loaded generating
prying forces with values and locations that are in range between the aforementioned
two extreme cases of rigid and flexible end plates.

Fig. 2: Prying Effect at (a) Rigid End Plate, (b) Semi-Rigid End Plate, (c) Flexible
End Plate

Fig. 3 shows the typical T-stub model for prying action study. In most experimental and
analytical studies, the location of prying force line of action is assumed to develop at the
tip of the connector flange, i.e. at q equal to a. Huang [5] showed that for moment
equilibrium, the bolt load increases as the line of action of the prying force is moved
closer to the bolt. Therefore, the influence of the prying force is most severe when its
line of action is closest to the bolt not when it is at the edge of the connecting element
flange, a - like most studies assume. This was also observed by Nair et al. [8] who
placed a limit on a of 2t, to get a better correlation between their semi-empirical
formulation and their experimental results.
(a) Rigid End Plate (b) Semi-Rigid End Plate (c) Flexible End Plate
Higher
Prying Effect
Prying Effect
(a) Rigid End Plate (b) Semi-Rigid End Plate (c) Flexible End Plate
Higher
Prying Effect
Prying Effect
2T 2T
2T
-827-

STL-019-4
Other investigators have also reported different limits on q. Kulak, et al [7] recommend
a limit on q of 1.25b, which is also the limit specified in the AISC/LRFD code.
However, no approach has been proposed, by any of the previous studies, for
determining the effect of flange stiffness on q. Furthermore, the change in the line of
action of the prying force results in an increase in the bolt load, requiring a higher bolt
strength, which in turn affects the overall connection strength.

Connection strength is governed by the strength of both bolts and connected parts. To
avoid failure of a given connection system, a sufficiently large bolt cross sectional area
and thickness for the connected parts must be specified. Furthermore, as discussed
above, the magnitude of the prying force is affected significantly by the stiffness of the
connected parts. Therefore, when the thickness of the connected parts (the stiffness)
decreases, the prying force increases. This increases the design bolt force, which in turn
increases the required bolt area and strength of the connected parts. This complex
interaction between the two components is usually simplified to obtain a manageable
formulation for design.

b
q b
t
w
a
t
Applied Force, 2T
Bolt Force, F
b
Prying Contact
Stress
P
Prying Force
b
q b
t
w
a
t
Applied Force, 2T
Bolt Force, F
b
Prying Contact
Stress
P
Prying Force

Fig. 3: Typical T-Stub Model for Prying Action Study

The Egyptian Code ECP (205) [3] suggested the following formula for prying force (P)
calculation:

T
A ab
wt
b
a
b
a
A ab
wt
P
s
s
.
30
1
4 4
3
30 2
1
2
4
2
4
= (1)
-828-

STL-019-5
Where a, b, w, and t are depicted in Fig. 3. Meanwhile, b is excluding the fillet radius,
A
s
is the stress area of the bolt, and T is the applied external tension force on one bolt
due to either an applied external tension force or due to the replacement of the applied
moment by two equal external and opposite forces (see Fig. 1) or due to exact analysis
of an end plate moment connection. Hence, the force in the bolt F
b
shall be given as:

T P F
b
+ = (2)

It is worth noting that the Egyptian Code ECP (205) assumed the prying force to be in
effect at the tip of the connecting flange, i.e. q=a. The aim of this paper is to compare
the value of the prying force as suggested by the Egyptian Code formula with results of
parametric study that is based on finite element analysis.

3 PROPOSED STATICAL SYSTEM
In order to accurately simulate the prying force, several issues should be addressed such
as:
a. Relative stiffness (; as defined later in Eq. 3) between the T-Stub flange and
the connecting bolt: This relative stiffness comprises the plate thickness (t), the
pitch (w), the spans (a and b), bolt area and bolt length. Whenever this relative
stiffness factor is high, a decrease in the Prying force is expected as shown in
Fig. 4.

0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0 20 40 60 80
P
/
T
F.E. RESULTS

Fig. 4: Relation between Relative Stiffness () and Prying Force (P)

b. Relative span a/b: Whenever this relative span is increased the Prying force
tends to generally decrease to a certain limit, as shown in Fig. 5. Increasing this
ratio beyond 1.0 has been noticed to be ineffective. This may be attributed to
-829-

STL-019-6
that the contact between the T-Stub flange and the lower plate is maintained at
distance beyond a>b and any increase in a does not affect the prying force
magnitude and location.
F.E. Results
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.4 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5
=a/b
P
/
T

Fig. 5: Relation between Relative Span (a/b) and Prying Force (P)

c. The contact area between the T-stub flange and the lower plate that is developed
due to the bolt pretension. As this area is reduced by applying the external
tension force T, the prying force is increased, as shown in Fig. 6.
a=30, b=20, w=40, t=12, M20(10.9)
-5%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
T / Pretension Force
P

/

P
r
e
t
e
n
s
i
o
n

F
o
r
c
e
FE ECP

Fig. 6: Relation between Tension Force (T) and Prying Force (P)

-830-

STL-019-7
In order to understand the behaviour of a T-Stub Connection using pre-tensioned bolts
and subjected to an external force, a simplified structural system can be proposed as
shown in Fig. 7. The Proposed statical system assumes a hinged support at a virtual
distance q (q= a) and a vertical supports at the bolt locations. The factor is taken as:
=1.0 for a/b 1.0, and =b/a for a/b>1.0. This assumption is in good agreement with
Kulak, et al [7] and Nair et al. [8]. This statical system suffers from two issues; the
first is that the contact between the T-Stub flange and the lower plate is ignored; and the
second is that the virtual location of the hinged support is unknown depending on the
bolt stiffness, the value of pretension force, and the flange stiffness. The bolt pretension
exerts contact pressure between the T-Stub flange and the lower plate. The contact area
is generally unknown in size and shape. While applying the external force, the contact
area starts to be reduced in size and the prying force starts to increase nonlinearly with
the increase of the external force.
P
Prying Force
q= a
b
Applied Force, T
B
o
l
t
T-Stub Flange
F
b
Bolt Force
P
Prying Force
q= a
b
Applied Force, T
B
o
l
t
T-Stub Flange
F
b
Bolt Force

Fig. 7: A Statical System for Prying Force Calculation

This symmetric system has one degree of redundancy. The closed form solution using
virtual work reveals the value of the prying force (P) as follows:

+ +
=
) 1
3
( 2
1
P (3)

Where;
is the relative stiffness that is defined as: ( )( ) [ ]
s
A I a b l
2
2 = , where I is the T-stub
flange inertia ( ) 12
3
wt I = ; l is the bolt length; A
s
is the bolt stress area; and a, b, w and t
are the T-Stub flange dimensions as shown in Fig.3.
is the span ratio that is defined as: ( ) b a =

-831-

STL-019-8
Fig. 8 shows a two dimensional finite element model that has been developed in order
to simulate the behaviour of a T-Stub bolted to a rigid lower plate using pre-tensioned
bolt. A plane stress four node element with two degrees of freedom per node is used to
simulate the flange of the T-Stub. Although the element has the capability to model
material nonlinearity, the stress level is kept within the elastic range by controlling the
external load value and flange thickness. The bolt is modelled using a truss element
with large deformation capability in order to allow modelling the pretension force. A
gap contact element is used to separate the T-Stub flange from the lower plate. Only
half of the T-Stub is modelled using the symmetry properties.

Truss Element
(Bolt, A
s
and l) Contact Elements
Symmetry BC
T-Stub Flange
Rigid Plate
4-node Elements
4-node Elements
b a
t
Truss Element
(Bolt, A
s
and l) Contact Elements
Symmetry BC
T-Stub Flange
Rigid Plate
4-node Elements
4-node Elements
b a
t

Fig. 8: Finite Element Model for T-Stub Bolted Connection Simulation

One thousand six hundreds (1,600) models have been developed to cover different
variety of several parameters as tabulated in Table 1 below.

Table 1: Parameters values used in Finite Element Modelling

Bolt M12 (10.9),
A
s
=84mm
2

Bolt M16 (10.9),
A
s
=157mm
2

P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r

Different values (mm) Different values (mm)
t 20 22 26 28 30 28 30 32 34 36
w 60 80 100 120 60 80 100 120
b 20 30 40 50 25 30 40 50
a 20 30 40 50 25 30 40 50

-832-

STL-019-9
Table 1 (Cont.): Parameters values used in Finite Element Modelling
Bolt M20 (10.9),
A
s
=245mm
2

Bolt M24 (10.9),
A
s
=353mm
2

P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r

Different values (mm) Different values (mm)
t 40 45 50 55 60 50 55 60 65 70
w 60 80 100 120 80 100 120 140
b 30 40 50 60 40 50 60 70
a 30 40 50 60 40 50 60 70
Bolt M27 (10.9),
A
s
=459 mm
2

P
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r

Different values (mm)
t 50 55 60 65 70
w 80 100 120 140
b 40 50 60 70
a 40 50 60 70

Fig. 9 shows a snapshot for the deformed shape of the T-stub bolted connection under
the effect of the external force (T). It is obvious that upon loading the connection, the
contact is being released between the T-stub flange and the rigid plate. Meanwhile, the
pre-tensioned bolt is being elongated having the prying effect. Fig. 10 shows a snapshot
for the induced normal stresses at two locations: bolt axis and boundary of symmetry. It
is clear that the stress level is kept in the elastic range.

TT

Fig. 9: Snapshot for the Deformed Shape of the T-Stub Bolted Connection

-833-

STL-019-10
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

1
S
e
c
t
i
o
n

2

Fig. 10: Snapshot for the induced normal stresses in the T-Stub Bolted Connection,
Section 1 at bolt axis and Section 2 at the boundary of symmetry (N/mm2)

5 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

In order to correlate the results of the finite element analysis with those of equation (3)
for the prying force, a correlation factor has been introduced. The factor is defined
as the ratio between the contact area around the bolt (A
cont
) and the basic bolt stress area
(A
s
), i.e. =( A
cont
/ A
s
). This factor tries to simulate the correlation between the assumed
statical system (where the bolt area is the governing factor that represents the bolt
stiffness) and the finite element results (where the contact area represents the pre-
tensioned bolt stiffness). Moreover, this modified area has been depicted for fitting with
finite element results, substituting the aforementioned drawbacks of the proposed
statical system. Hence, equation (3) shall be modified as:

+ +
=
) 1
3
( 2
1
P (4)

Where / =
Based on finite element results, a linear regression analysis has been performed for the
relation between the correlation factor and the relative stiffness factor . The
regression relation is illustrated in Fig. 11, where the equation is depicted as:
72 . 1 28 . 1 + = .
-834-

STL-019-11
= 1.28 + 1.72
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
rho=Acont/As
Linear (rho=Acont/As)

Fig. 11: Regression Analysis for the Correlation Factor and the Relative Stiffness
Factor

Fig. 12 illustrates the results of the parametric study in comparison with the Egyptian
code formula, equation (1). According to code formula, the prying force decreases as
the stiffness of the T-stub flange increases. This is obvious in the relation against
parameters w and t. On the other hand, the prying force increases as the bolt stiffness
increases or the span b increases. This is obvious in the relation against parameters b
and As. For relation against parameter a; however, there is no clear trend for the prying
force.
Finite element results may look to have the same trend given by code formula for the
increase and decrease of prying force against parameters variation; however, different
values have been depicted. In addition, no negative prying force has been observed
similar to that of code formula.
It is worth noting that the applied tension force T has been limited to a percentage of
80% of the pretension force as obvious in Fig. 6. The nonlinear relation between the
prying (P) and external (T) forces is a result of the nonlinearity of the contact problem.
As the external force increases, more gap elements are opened causing more increase in
the prying force.

-835-

STL-019-12
M12 / t=22 / w=60
-0.20
-0.10
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
a (mm)
P
/
T
b=20 (FE) b=40 (FE)
b=20 (ECP) b=40 (ECP)
M12 / t=22 / w=60
-0.20
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
b (mm)
P
/
T
a=20 a=40
a=20 (ECP) a=40 (ECP)
t=50 / w=80 / b=40
-0.30
-0.20
-0.10
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
200 250 300 350 400 450 500
As (mm2)
P
/
T
a=40 a=50
a=40 (ECP) a=50 (ECP)
M12 / t=22 / b=20
-0.40
-0.30
-0.20
-0.10
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
60 70 80 90 100 110 120
w (mm)
P
/
T
a=20 a=40
a=20 (ECP) a=40 (ECP)
M12 / b=20 / w=60
-0.60
-0.40
-0.20
0.00
0.20
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
t (mm)
P
/
T
a=20 a=40
a=20 (ECP) a=40 (ECP)

Fig. 12: Parametric Study in Relation with the Egyptian Code ECP (205) Formula

Steel bolted connection using pre-tensioned bolts depends significantly on the
phenomenon of prying action exerted from the end plate. Due to the tensile load, either
the connected fitting or the support deforms and thereby increases the tensile force in
the bolt with the prying force. The Egyptian Code ECP (205) suggested a formula that
can determine the prying force value. In this research, the prying force has been
numerically computed in a T-Stub connection using nonlinear finite element techniques.
Hence, parametric study on the end plate thickness, bolt size, bolt arrangement, and
-836-

STL-019-13
pretension forces has been performed to calibrate the Code formula. The parametric
study covers all the practical ranges of the variables.

The study revealed that the Code formula yields to a prying force values that is not in
good agreement with the same value of finite element results. A proposed new formula
for the prying force is given in this research using a regression analysis for the finite
element results.
7 REFERENCES
[1] Astaneh, A. Engineering Journal AISC 22 (2) (1985) 6366.
[2] Bursi, O. S., and Jaspart, J. P. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 43 (1)
(1997) 1742.
[3] Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Constructions and Bridges (Allowable Stress
Design), Code No. (205).
[4] Gebbeken, N., Wanzek, T., and Petersen, Institut fr Mechanik und Static, Univ. des
Bundeswehr Mnchen, Munich, Germany, C. Rep. No.97/2, (1997).
[5] Huang, J. L. Masters in Civil Engineering Project Report, Texas A&M University-
Kingsville, Kingsville, TX (2003).
[6] Kato, B., and McGuire, W. Journal of Structural Division ASCE 99 (5) (1973) 865
888.
[7] Kulak, G. L., Fisher, J.W., and Struik, J. H. Guide to Design Criteria for Bolted and
Riveted Joints 2
nd
Edition, Wiley- Interscience, New York (1987).
[8] Nair, R. S., Birkemoe, P. C., and Munse, W. H. Journal of Structural Division
ASCE 100 (2) (1974) 351372.
[9] Piluso, V., Faella, C., and Rizzano, G. Journal of Structural Engineering ASCE 127
(6) (2001) 686693.
[10] Swanson, J. A., Kokan, D. S., and Leon, R. T. Journal of Constructional Steel
Research 58 (2002) 10151031.

-837-

STL-020-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt




STUDY OF STEEL BOX GIRDERS WITH CORRUGATED WEBS
UNDER PURE TORSIONAL MOMENT

A. K. Dessouki
Cairo, Egypt
Dessouki_ceo@yahoo.com
S. A. Ibrahim,
Department of Civil Engineering, Ain Shams University,
Cairo, Egypt
Sai23 @drexel.edu
M. M. Momtaz

Research student
medmomtaz@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Plate box girders with corrugated webs (PBGCW) have been recently used in many
countries for bridges, curved bridges, interchanges, and ramps. Extensive studies have
been conducted on plate girders with corrugated webs under different types of acting
loads except under torsional moments. This paper basically focuses on plate box girders
with corrugated webs under pure torsional moments. A parametric study is conducted
primarily using the non-linear finite element analysis to determine the optimum cross
section geometrical configuration under this case of loading. Additional finite element
models with the optimum configuration are compared with the corresponding
conventional plate box girders with flat webs. The results show that PBGCW have
more than twice the ultimate capacity of the corresponding conventional plate girders
with flat webs and can carry more than 26% warping stress in the flanges.
KEYWORDS
Steel bridges, Box girders, Corrugated webs, Finite element, Torsion, Warping.
1 INTRODUCTION
Curved bridges are subjected to both bending and torsional forces. The stresses induced
on a member as a result of torsion may be classified into categories, pure torsion (Saint-
Venant) warping torsion (shear stresses and normal-longitudinal-stresses). Saint-Venant
torsion is the result of shear flow around the cross section, while warping normal
stresses is the result of bending deformation in the cross section. In closed sections,
warping torsion can be neglected; however, for closed sections such as box girders, the
-838-

STL-020-2
pure torsional resistance is considerable, making them particularly suited for curved
bridges or long-span bridges. On the other hand, I-section girders have some warping
resistance but is not large compared to the pure torsion of closed sections. The
advantage of web corrugation is not easy to describe in a general term.

Fig. 1: Box Girders with Corrugated steel Webs
A plate box girder is built using two flange plates welded to two web plates to form the
box section. In 1966, in Sweden, the first variant of the thin walled welded plate girder
with a very great slenderness has been fabricated. In France, corrugated steel webs
were used in a composite girder bridge with concrete flanges and corrugated steel webs.
Japan has developed roll forming process to produce corrugated web I-beams and
partially corrugated webs which were used in mobile-modular home construction. In the
United States, beams with corrugated webs are more and more widely used. Many
manufactures are producing such kinds of beams.

Fig.2: Bridge box girder and halls built with girders having corrugated webs
In spite of many researches that have been conducted to the study of plate box girders
under different types of loading and straining actions, torsional moment has not
been widely applied to PBGCW. This research is investigating the analysis and
behavior of plate box girders with corrugated webs under torsional moments since
they might be used in a curved bridge as mentioned above. A parametric study is
conducted using a finite element computer program to investigate the most effective
parameters of the plate box girders under torsional loading. Focusing is on the effect of
the corrugation of the web on the behavior of the box girder cross section and its
influence on the beam resistance to pure torsional moment. A multi-linear regression
analysis using mathematical software is performed on the results obtained from the
finite element analysis. This analysis is used to develop simple expressions -
parametric equation -for the effect of various parameters influencing the behavior of
plate box girder with corrugated webs (PBGCW). The beams are under pure torsional
moment at their mid-span. The parameters considered are finally highlighted to answer
-839-

STL-020-3
the most important question in the whole issue; do plate box girders with corrugated
webs have higher resistance to torsional moment than the conventional plate girders
with plane webs?
2 Finite Element Analysis
The present study considers the different parameters that affect, the geometrical
properties of the cross section and slenderness ratio on the member behavior. The
results obtained are used to formulate a group of parametric equations, which are used
to calculate the strength of PBGCW under torsional moment only. The study explores
as well the change of the ultimate capacity of the girders with the change of the different
geometrical parameters. A simply supported PBGCW with box - shape- symmetric
cross section is investigated through the study with corrugated web and flat plate
flanges subjected to pure torsional moment acting at the mid span of the beam. The
elastic modulus is taken to be 210000 MPa, the shear modulus equals to 80000 MPa and
the yield stress is taken 240 MPa. An initial imperfection equal to 1/1000 of the beam
span is considered at the middle of finite element model.
2.1 Finite Element Modeling of PBGCW
The beam is solved by the finite element method using software package (COSMOS/M)
Version 2.95, which takes into account both geometrical and material nonlinearities
.The program is capable as well of depicting different failure modes of the girder
whether due to buckling; yielding of the material or any other expected failure mode.
The girder chosen for this research is modeled as simply supported under pure
concentrated torsional loading at mid-span which is simulated in the program as a
distributed load over certain elements along the transversal axis of the girder.
Lateral supports are only provided at the ends of the plate girder to restrain
warping whereas the entire length of the girder is kept laterally unsupported. The top
and bottom flanges are modeled using twelve elements per flange width. Twenty four
elements are used to model the height of the web. The horizontal fold is modeled using
four elements in average while the inclined fold is modeled using two to six elements.
The aspect ratio of any shell element did not exceed 2 so as to obtain accurate results.
The finite element mesh is shown in figure (3) and the used element type from the
program library is the four nodes thin shell element SHELL4T.

Fig. 3: F. E. Model of PBGCW under Pure Torsional Moment
-840-

STL-020-4
The steel used is mild steel (A36) with a yield stress (
y
F = 240 MPa ). The typical
stress-strain relationship used in the models is assumed to have a bi-linear
relation. The Youngs modulus of elasticity ( E) is assumed to be ( E = 210000MPa ) up
to the yield stress and tangent modulus
tan
E =2100MPa where
tan
E = E/ 100 in the post
yield range. This stress-strain relationship is used instead of the linearly-elastic
perfectly-plastic relation to avoid encountering problems with convergence of the
solution.
2.3 Models Geometrical Configuration and Parametric Study
The main geometrical parameters of PBGCW investigated are: flange thickness (
fl
t ),
web thickness (
w
t ), corrugation depth (
r
h ) and horizontal fold width ( b ).After many
runs of computer program (over 200 runs), table (1) presents the most effective
parameters used in the study grouped in four families. The profile of the trapezoidal
corrugated webs used in the study is shown in figure (4). The length L of the
girder is chosen as 8000 mm, the web height and flange width are taken constant as
1200 mm and 600 mm, respectively.

Fig. 4: Corrugated Web Profile
The main effective parametric ratios studied are as follows:
1- Flange width to thickness ratio (
fl fl
b / t ) is chosen between 23 and 60 to check
whether corrugated web connection with the flange has the adequate stiffness so that
the flanges can reach yield stress.
2- Web height to thickness ratio (
w w
h / t ) is taken between 120 and 800 Where the
practical common value is above 300, and due to the nature of corrugated webs, it is
investigated up to 800. (All values of these parameter lie within the slender
classification).
3- Corrugation depth to flange width ratio (
r fl
h / 0.5b ) is chosen between 0.167 and
0.85.
4- The horizontal fold width to web thickness ratio (
w
b / t ) is studied to check
whether the torsional moment may affect the local buckling of the corrugated web.
The girders are designated as shown in Table (1).
-841-

STL-020-5
Table 1: Designation of Plate Girders with Different Geometrical Configurations
N.B. c
2
=Max outstanding distance of flange from corrugated web
.
2.3.1 Effect of Flange Width to Thickness Ratio ( /
fl fl
b t )
All the box - girders in this category failed by torsional moment and had non-
linear out-of-plane displacements. Inelastic cross-sectional rotation occurs when the
axial warping stresses in the flanges exceed yielding.
All the specimens exhibited post-yielding strength in the flanges while the corrugated
webs did not exhibit any longitudinal stress except very close to the flanges, which is
Group
NO
w
h

fl
b
mm
w
t
mm
fl
t
mm
r
h
mm
2
c
mm
b
mm

(degree)
a
mm
B 1
1200 600 2 10 100 200 100 45 100
B 2
1200 600 2 12 100 200 100 45 100
B 3
1200 600 2 14 100 200 100 45 100
B 4
1200 600 2 16 100 200 100 45 100
B 5
1200 600 2 18 100 200 100 45 100
B 6
1200 600 2 20 100 200 100 45 100
B 7
1200 600 2 22 100 200 100 45 100
B 8
1200 600 2 24 100 200 100 45 100
Group 1
flange
slenderness
ratio
B 9
1200 600 2 26 100 200 100 45 100
B 10 1200 600 1.5 18 100 200 100 45 100
B 11 1200 600 2 18 100 200 100 45 100
B 12 1200 600 3 18 100 200 100 45 100
B 13 1200 600 4 18 100 200 100 45 100
B 14 1200 600 6 18 100 200 100 45 100
Group 2
web
slenderness
ratio
B 15 1200 600 10 18 100 200 100 45 100
B 16 1200 600 4 18 50 100 100 26.6 100
B 17 1200 600 4 18 100 100 100 45 100
B 18 1200 600 4 18 150 150 100 56.3 100
B 19 1200 600 4 18 200 200 100 63.4 100
Group 3
flange
outstanding
ratio
B 20 1200 600 4 18 250 250 100 68.2 100
B 21 1200 600 4 18 150 100 50 45 150
B 22 1200 600 4 18 150 150 100 45 150
B 23 1200 600 4 18 150 200 150 56.3 100
B 24 1200 600 4 18 150 250 175 63.4 75
Group 4
corrugation
parameter
ratio
B 25 1200 600 4 18 150 200 200 56.3 100
-842-

STL-020-6
expected due to the high axial longitudinal flexibility of the corrugated webs. Figure (5-
a) shows the applied torsional moment to rotation of the girder about its longitudinal
axis where it is clear that with increasing the flange thickness, the ultimate torsional
capacity increases. All the specimens exhibited a non-linear behavior and the stresses
exceeded the yield as shown in figure (5-b). The warping stress is measured at the
top flange edge in the middle span of the girder where it is expected to be
maximum at this point based on the applied distributed torsional moment. The ratio
of the ultimate torsional moment to the transverse moment causing flange yielding
against the flange width to thickness ratio
fl fl
b / t

obtained from the finite element analysis
is displayed in figure (6-a). The expression for this transverse moment is
2
yf y fl fl
M = (1/ 6)(F . b . t ) which can be multiplied by the average web height to
obtain the Bi-moment . The corrugated web gave adequate lateral restraining stiffness
to the flange even with slender flange section
fl fl
b / t = 60 in model (B1) ,see figure (6-
a). Figure (6-b) shows the failure mode of model (B2) due to torsion of the box section.
accompanied by local buckling of the outstand cantilever of the compression flange.
The transverse moment reached 0.7 of the ultimate moment and the warping stress
reached a value of 276 MPa > F
y
= 240 MPa.
Torsional Moment- Rotation
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
(Rad)
M

t

(
k
N
.
m
)

B1
B2
B3
B4
B5
B6
B9
Fig. 5-a: Torsional moment-rotation
relationship
Warping Stress-Torsional Moment
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Mt (kN.m)
z
z

(
M
P
a
)

B2
B3
B4
B5
B6
B9

Fig. 5 -b: Torsional moment- Flange
warping stress relationship

Mt / Myf against bfl / tfl
C
o
m
p
a
c
t

s
l
i
n
d
e
r

n
o
n
-
c
o
m
p
a
c
t
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
bfl / tfl
M
t
/

M
y
f

Fig. 6-a: Mt /Myf against flange width
thickness ratio

Fig. 6-b: Failure mode of model B2
2.3.2 Effect of Web Height to Thickness Ratio (
w w
h / t )
All box - girders in this category failed by torsional moment and most of them had
non-linear out- of-plane displacements similar to the first category. Inelastic cross-
-843-

STL-020-7
sectional rotation occurs when the axial warping stresses in the flanges exceed
yielding. Figure (7-a) shows the failure mode of model (B12).
Figure (7-b) shows the relation between the applied torsional moment and the
longitudinal rotation of the girder. With increasing the web thickness, the rotational
stiffness of the PBGCW cross section increases and gives higher torsional capacity.
Most of the specimens exhibited a non-linear behavior and the stresses exceeded the
yield stress as shown in figure (8-a) but have the same deformed configuration of
failure. Close to failure , it is clear that the bigger the web thickness, the higher
the torsional moment strength due to the higher inelastic restraint of the corrugated
webs to the flanges near to the failure moment value.

Fig. 7-a: Failure mode of model B12
Torstional Moment -Rotation
0
150
300
450
600
750
900
1050
1200
1350
1500
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
(Rad)
M

t

(
k
N
.
m
)
B10
B11
B12
B13
B14
B15

Fig. 7-b: Torsional moment-rotation relationship
The ratio of ultimate torsional moment, obtained from finite element analysis, to the
transverse moment causing flange yielding is displayed in figure (8-b), the web height
to The corrugated web height to thickness ratio
w w
h / t against thickness ratio
w w
h / t is
taken between ( 120 and 800). All the specimens reached the yield value of the
transverse moment, since the flange slenderness ratio is at the edge of non- compact
section requirements regardless of the web height to thickness ratio. It confirms that, for
design economy of PBGCW, the web may be chosen as a slender classified section.
Warping Stress -Torsional Moment
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350
M t (kN.m)
z
z

(
M
P
a
)

B10
B11
B12
B13
B14
B15

Fig. 8-a: Torsional moment- stress warping
relationship of flanges
M
t
/ M
yf
agansit web height to web thickness h
w
/ t
w
c
o
m
p
a
c
t

.
n
o
n
-
c
o
m
p
a
c
t

.
s
l
i
n
d
e
r

.
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
h
w
/t
w
M

t

/

M

y
f

Fig. 8-b: M
t
/M
yf
against web height to
thickness ratio
2.3.3 Effect of Corrugation Depth to Flange Width Ratio (
r fl
h / 0.5b )
All box girders in this category failed by torsional moment and had non-linear out- of-
plane displacements similar to the first category. Figure (9-a) shows the failure mode of
PGWCW model B17. Large cross section deformation is clear in the figure.Figure (9-b)
-844-

STL-020-8
shows that the failure occurs at the flange and the axial warping stresses in the flanges
exceed yielding. Inelastic cross-sectional rotation occurs when the axial warping
stresses in the flanges exceed the yield stress .It is found that with increasing the
outstanding length C
2
, the torsional strength decreases, then local buckling of the
outstand of the flange prevails. Figure (10-a) shows the applied torsional moment versus
the longitudinal rotation of the girder relationship. None of the specimen failed by local
buckling of corrugation webs due to its high value of axial longitudinal flexibility .The
value of corrugation depth to flange width
r fl
h / 0.5b is studied within the range
0.167 and 0.85.

Fig. 9-a: Failure mode of model B17
Fig. 9-b: Warping Stress distribution of flanges
- model B17 (warping stress
zz
).
Figure (10-b) shows that all the specimens exhibited a non-linear behavior and the
stresses exceeded the ratio of ultimate torsional moment to the transverse moment
causing flange yielding obtained from finite element analysis, with a maximum of 336
MPa. The corrugation depth to flange width ratio
r fl
h / 0.5b is displayed in Figure
(11). All the specimens reached the yield value of the transverse moment but they
were reduced when
r fl
h / b gets higher and to come close to 1.0 due to flange local
buckling as indicated before. The top value is at
r fl
h / 0.5b = 0.667 that lies in a
middle region between considering the flange outstand C
2
as simply supported over
the web or fixed together.
Torsional Moment - Rotation
0
200
400
600
800
1000
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
(Rad)
M

t

(
k
N
.
m
)

.
B16
B17
B18
B19

Fig. 1o-a: Torsional moment-rotation
relationship
Warping Stress - Torsional Moment
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 200 400 600 800 1000
M t (kN.m)
z
z

(

M
P
a

)

B16
B17
B18
B19
Fig. 1o -b: Torsional moment-Warping
stress relationship of flanges
-845-

STL-020-9
M
t
/ M
yf
aganist corrugationdepthto flang width h
r
/ 0.5 b
fl
F
i
x
e
d

s
i
m
p
l
y

c
o
n
n
e
c
t
e
d

3.25
3.30
3.35
3.40
3.45
3.50
3.55
3.60
3.65
0.10 0.25 0.40 0.55 0.70 0.85 1.00
h
r
/ 0.5 b
fl
M
t

/

M
y
f

Fig.11: M
t
/M
yf
against corrugation depth to half flange width ratio
2.3.4 Effect of Horizontal Fold Width to Web Thickness (
w
b/ t )
This group (specimens 20,21,22&24) failed by torsional moment and had non-linear
out-of-plane displacements as the other group. Inelastic cross-sectional rotation occurs
when the axial warping stresses in the flanges exceed yielding. Figure (12-a) shows the
failure mode of the PGWCW specimen 20 where it is clear that the collapse occurs at
the flanges. Longitudinal rotation in Z direction ( ) with applied torsional moment of
model 20 is shown in figure (12-b), it clear that the max rotation occurs in the flanges.
The torsional strength did not vary significantly and the effect of local buckling had a
slight effect on the rotation profile. Inelastic cross-sectional rotation occurred when
the axial warping stresses in the flanges exceeded yielding as shown in figure (13-
a). Figure (13-b) shows the relationship between The torsional capacity versus the
longitudinal rotation of the girder, It is clear that when increasing the values of
w
b/ t
, and
2
d (see Fig. 4), higher capacity is reached to a certain limit, after which it is
reduced due to local buckling of the horizontal fold.

Fig. 12-b: Rotation in Z direction ( ) -
model B20
Fig. 12-a: failure mode - model B20.
-846-

STL-020-10

Fig.13-a: Warping Stress distribution in
flanges of model B20 (warping
stress
zz
)
Torsion Moment - Rotation
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
(Rad)
M

t

(
k
N
.
m
)
B 20
B 21
B 22
B 24

Fig.13 b: Torsional moment-rotation
relationship
The specimens (20, 21, 22 & 24) exhibited a nonlinear behavior and the stresses
exceeded the yield as shown in Figure (14-a) but had the same deformed configuration
of failure. The ultimate warping stress varied from a minimum of 290 MPa to a
maximum of 350 MPa, (only 17 % difference). Local buckling did not have much
effect on the warping stresses in the flange .
The ratio of
t yf
M / M against the horizontal fold width to web thickness ratio
w
b/ t
is displayed in Figure (14-b). The ratio of
t yf
M / M ranges from 1.15 to 4.6 as max
value at
w
b / t 43.75 = . With increasing the value of
w
b/ t (more than 43.75) the ratio
decreases. The torsional moment results in vertical compressive stress in the horizontal
fold and by increasing the fold width it will decrease its strength.

Warping Stress - Torsional Moment
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
M t (kN.m)
z
z

(
M
P
a
)

.
B 20
B 21
B 22
B 24
Fig.14-a: Torsional moment-rotation
relationship
M t / M yf aganist horizontal fold width to web thickness b / t w
6
F
o
l
d

y
u
i
l
d
i
n
g

.
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
b / tw
M

t

/

M

y
f

Fig.14-b: M
t
/M
yf
against horizontal fold width
to web thickness
3 Mathematical Model Analysis of the Parametric Study
The present study is concerned with the different parameters that affect the torsional
resistance of cross section of PBGCW, and to get a mathematical formulation from out
put of finite element study included diverse effecting parameters.

-847-

STL-020-11

3.1 Regression analysis of the finite element results
A multi-linear regression analysis using mathematical software (MATHCAD2000) is
performed on the results obtained from the finite element analysis. This analysis is used
to develop simple expressions for the effect of various parameters influencing the
behavior of PBGCW under pure torsional moment at mid span of the beam and are
omnipotent of the ultimate torsional moment. A proposed expression for the ultimate -
to- yield moment (
u y
M / M ) for PBGCW girders is given as follows:

1
0 1 3 4 5 6 7
2
tan 1.0
2 0.5
u w fold fl r
y fl w fl w
M h b b h d
a a a a a a a c
M t t b t d
= + + + + + + + (1)

Where:
4 3 2 1 0
, , , , a a a a a are constants to be determined from a regression analysis.
u
M : is the ultimate torsional moment of PBGCW.
sec
y
M : is the yield moment of PBGCW ., defined as
sec sec
y y
M = f S , where
y
f is yield
stress of the material and
sec
S is the bigger section modulus.
/ L r

= : where r is radius of gyration of the cross section about y- axis and L is the
girder span. The proposed expression can be used for all possible cases of slenderness
ratios
as follows:-

5
1
2
0 . 0 1 1 ( ) 7 . 0 1 3 1 0 ( )
1 . 0 0 7 ( ) 0 . 0 1 7 ( ) 0 . 0 7 5 ( )
0 . 5
0 . 2 4 8 ( t a n ) 3 . 3 8 3 ( ) 1 . 9 3 4
u w f l
y f l w
r
f l w
M h b
M t t
h b
b t
d
d
=
+
+ +
(2)
Table (2) shows the input parameters of simply supported PBGCW subjected to pure
torsional moment at mid-span of the girder. This table shows a comparison between the
u y
M / M as obtained from software package (COSMOS), and that obtained from the
empirical equation (2), and finally the ratio between both moments. A very good
agreement between the finite element results and the results of the proposed empirical
equation is evident.
-848-

STL-020-12
Table 2: Comparison between
u y
M / M of finite element results and those of the proposed
empirical equation.

Mathematical (emp.) = due to empirical equation.
tan

web
b
t

0.5
r
ft
h
b

w
w
h
t

ft
ft
b
t

sec
u
y
M
M

% (emp)
sec
u
y
M
M

%F.E
Group
1 29.787 50 0.333 595 60 1.07 1. 23
1 30.088 50 0.333 594 50 0.99 1. 05
1 30.316 50 0.333 593 42.86 0.93 0.99
1 30.495 50 0.333 592 37.5 0.89 0.96
1 30.639 50 0.333 591 33.34 0.86 0.94
1 30.740 50 0.333 590 30 0.8 0.82
1 30.858 50 0.333 589 27.28 0.81 0.81
1 31.019 50 0.333 588 25 0.80 0.76
1 31.303 50 0.333 587 23.08 0.80 0.71
Group 1
flange
slenderness
ratio
1 30.97 66.67 0.333 800 16.67 0.59 0.75
1 30.64 50 0.333 600 33.34 0.86 1.00
1 30.12 33.33 0.333 400 33.34 1.12 1.05
1 29.67 25 0.333 300 33.34 1.24 1.19
1 28.33 16.67 0.333 200 33.34 1.28 1.41
1 27.25 10 0.333 100 33.34 1.32 1.44
Group 2
web
slenderness
ratio
0.5 27.90 25 0.167 295.5 33.34 0.96 0.93
1 29.30 25 0.333 295.5 33.34 1.04 1.02
1.5 30.62 25 0.500 295.5 33.34 1.09 1.17
2 31.95 25 0.667 295.5 33.34 1.15 1.17
2.5 32.3 25 0.83 295.5 33.34 1.14 1.18.3
Group 3
flange
outstanding
ratio
1 27.87 12.5 0.500 295.5 33.34 0.50 0.35
1 27.87 25 0.500 295.5 33.34 0.65 0.85
1.5 27.87 37.5 0.500 295.5 33.34 1.16 0.99
2 27.87 43.75 0.500 295.5 33.34 1.45 1.50
1.5 27.87 50 0.500 295.5 33.34 0.90 0.93
Group 4
corrugation
parameter
ratio
Average = 0.995
ST. Deviation = 0.024
-849-

STL-020-13
3.2 Summary of parametric study
From the previous four geometrical groups effect discussed on torsional resistance of PBGCW,

lies between 29.2 to 30 and Table (3) shows the optimum ratios of the different geometrical effects
of the empirical equations.
Table 3: Best ratio of different parameters effect on the empirical equations

Parameters Margin
/
fl fl
b t 50 ~ 60
/
w w
h t 300 ~ 400
/ 0.5
r fl
h b 0.667
/
w
b t 50
29.2 ~ 30
45
0
~ 63.4
0
1 2
/ d d 0.33
4 Comparison between box girders with corrugated webs and conventional plate box girders
under pure torsion
Based on the previous parametric study, the best ratios were chosen for the tested geometrical
parameters in this study. The flange width to thickness ratio (
fl fl
b / t ) is found to be 23 to 60 for flat
webs and 30 to 60 for corrugated webs, at the limit between compact and non-compact sections for
this type of steel. The web height to thickness ratio (
w w
h / t ) is found to be 120 to 300 for flat webs
and 120 to 400 for corrugated webs, as a recommendation based on shear design. The corrugation
depth to half flange width ratio (
r fl
h / 0.5b ) is taken as the flange outstand
2 fl
C / 0.5b and is found
to be 0.33 to 0.67 for both flat webs and corrugated webs as mentioned before to overcome the
effect of local buckling in the girders flange. The horizontal fold width to web thickness ratio
(
w
b/ t ), is found to be 50 for corrugated web.
is 23.7 to 25.3 for flat webs, 29.2 to 30 for

corrugated webs and is taken
0 0
45 63.4 ,
1 2
d / d (see fig. 4) is 0.33 for corrugated webs. Plate
box girders with corrugated webs models, B13 to B19 are found to match these values and were
chosen for comparison .The corresponding conventional plate box girders are chosen as B26 to
B32, as indicated in table (4). They have the same flange width and thickness as well as the same
web height. The web thickness is chosen from 2 to10 mm, the flange thicknesses are chosen from
10 to 26 mm, and web height to thickness ratio ranges from 47 to 120.

-850-

STL-020-14
Table 4: Designation of Plate Box Girders with Different Geometrical Dimensions for comparison

Different models have the same shell type; end conditions, length and all other parameters are kept
constant. The top and bottom flanges are modeled using twelve elements per flange width. The
vertical web is modeled using twelve to twenty-four elements in average as shown in figure (19-a).

Fig. 19-a: Finite Element Model of Plate Box Girder
under Torsional Moment (Original
Profile)

Fig. 19-b: failure mode for Model B27.

Figure (19-b) as well shows the failure mode of box girder with flat web which occurs due to
Out-of-plane web buckling.

Group
NO
w
h
mm
fl
b
mm
w
t
m
fl
t
m
r
h
mm
2outstanding
c
mm
fold
b
mm

(degree)
a
mm
B 26 1200 600 4 10 0 100 0 0 0
B 27 1200 600 4 18 0 100 0 0 0
B 28 1200 600 8 18 0 100 0 0 0
B 29 1200 600 10 18 0 100 0 0 0
B 30 1200 600 10 26 0 100 0 0 0
B 31 1200 600 4 18 0 150 0 0 0
Flat
Web
B 32 1200 600 4 18 0 200 0 0 0
B 13 1200 600 4 18 100 200 100 45 100
B 15 1200 600 10 18 100 200 100 45 100
B 17 1200 600 4 18 100 100 100 45 100
B 18 1200 600 4 18 150 150 100 56.3 100
Corru-
gated
Web
B 19 1200 600 4 18 200 200 100 63.4 100
-851-

STL-020-15
Torsional Moment-Rotation relationship
Plate Box Girder - Flat and corrugated Web
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60
(Rad)
M

t

(
k
N
.
m
)
B 15
B 17
B 27
B 28
B 29
0
50
100
150
200
0.00 0.10
M

t

Fig. 20: Comparison of Torsional moment-rotation
relationship- PBGFW to PBGCW
Warping Stress-Torsion Moment
Plate Box Girder - Flat and corrugated Web
0.0
50.0
100.0
150.0
200.0
250.0
300.0
350.0
400.0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
M t (kN.m)

z
z

(
M
P
a
)
B 15 (Corrugated. W)
B 17 (Corrugated.W )
B 27 (Flat.Web )
B 28 (Flat Web)
B 29 (Flat.Web )

Fig. 21: Torsional moment-Warping stress
relationship of flanges - PBGFW to
PBGCW
Figure (20) shows the applied torsional moment to longitudinal rotation of the girder. It is shown
that PBGCW has higher torsional resistance than plate box girder with flat web PBGFW. The
ultimate torsional moment capacity of flat specimen ranges between 116 and 800 kN.m , while for
B16 it is 1400 kN.m, which is almost close to twice the capacity of girder with flat web. The
specimens exhibited a non-linear behavior and the stresses exceeded the yield stress as shown in
figure (21). Warping stress in the flange of B17 is 330 MPa, while for girder with flat web B27 is
245 MPa, which gives a 26 % difference in maximum warping flange stress in favor of plate box
girder with corrugated web.
4.1 Effect of outstanding flange ratio
2 fl
C / b
Torsion Moment - Rodation
Plate Box Girder Outstanding- Flat and Corrugated Web
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(Rad)
M

t

(
k
N
.
m
)
B 27 - Flat
B 31 - Flat
B 32 - Flat
B 17 - Corrugation
B 18 - Corrugation
B 19 - Corrugation
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 (Rad)
M

t

Fig. 22: Torsional moment-rotation
relationship- outstanding of flanges -
PBGFW to PBGCW
Warping Stress - Torsion Moment
Plate Box Girder Outstanding- Flat and Corrugated Web
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050
M t (kN.m)

z
z
(
M
P
a
)
B 27 - Flat
B 31 - Flat
B 32 - Flat
B 17 - Corrugation
B 18 - Corrugation
B 19 - Corrugation

Fig. 23: Torsional moment-Warping stress
relationship outstanding of flanges -
PBGFW to PBGCW
Figure (22) shows the applied torsional moment to longitudinal rotation of the girder. It shows that
PBGCW has higher torsional resistance than PBGFW. The ultimate torsional moment capacities of
flat specimens B26 and B31 are 126 and 288 kN.m respectively, while for B17and B19 are 700 and
900 kN.m respectively, which is more than 3 times the capacity of girders with flat webs. The
specimens exhibited a non-linear behavior and the stresses exceeded the yield stress as shown in
figure (23). Warping stress in the flange of B17 with outstanding ratio 0.667 was 330 MPa, and
torsional moment was 920 kN.m. For girder with flat web B27 with the same ratio of outstanding ,
-852-

STL-020-16
the warping stress is 245 MPa, and torsional moment is 185 kN.m which gives almost five times the
torsional moment resistance. This clarifies and insures that corrugated webs give higher lateral
stiffness to the flanges and thus give higher resistance to warping moment and consequently higher
overall torsional moment capacity of the plate girder.
5 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the previous study, it is concluded that plate girders with corrugated webs have higher
torsional and warping moment capacity than plate girders with flat webs and are recommended for
use in curved girders bridges. The study shows that they have more than twice the torsional
capacity of flat web girders and have higher resistance to warping stresses (about 26 %). Parametric
studies were conducted to investigate the most effective cross-sectional geometrical parameters,
which affect the warping moment capacity and warping stresses in the girder. Optimum values for
flange width to thickness ratio were found to be between 50 and 60, web height to thickness ratio
ranged from 300 to 400, corrugation depth to flange width ratio was 0.667 and horizontal fold width
to web thickness ratio was 50.
6 NOTATIONS
a projection of Inclined corrugated length.
b
fl
flange width.
b,d
1
horizontal fold width of corrugation web.
C
1
min flange outstanding distance from corrugated web.
C
2
max flange outstanding distance from corrugated web.
d
2
length of corrugation width (b + a).
E modulus of elasticity.
E
tan
tangent modulus (
100
E
) in post yield range.
f
y
yield moment.
G shear modulus.
angle of twist.

h
r
corrugation depth.
h
w
web height .
L span of girder.
M
t
torsional moment.
M
cr
critical moment.
M
yf
transverse yield moment of flange.
PBGCW plate box girder with corrugated web.
PBGFW plate box girder with flat web.
R
z
longitudinal rotation about Z axis.
r

radius of gyration.
t
fl
flange thickness.
t
w
web thickness.
X, Y, Z Cartesian axes.
URES resultant displacement.
T
YZ
shear stress in y-z plane.
Angle of inclined corrugated part.
torsional slenderness ratio.

zz
Warping stresses in flanges.

U
X
,
y,z
displacement in the x,y,z directions ,respectively.
S
ysec
biggest section modulus.
S
X, y, z
normal stress in the x, y, z directions, respectively
-853-

STL-020-17
7 REFERENCES
1. Salmon, C. G. and Johnson, J. E., Steel Structures: Design and Behavior, 4th edition, Harper
Collins, New Jersey.
2. Bathe, klaus-Jurgen, Finite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis, Prentice-Hall, New
Jersey, (1982).
3. Lindner, J. and Aschinger, R. (1990), Torsional Stiffness of Welded I-Girder with Trapezoidally
Corrugated Webs, Proceedings of 4th International Colloquium Stability of Steel Structures,
Hungary.
4. Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Construction and Bridges (Allowable Stress Design) Code
No. (205), Housing and Building National Research center, (2005).
5. Lindner, J. (1991), Load Carrying Capacity of Beams Subjected to Local Plate Buckling and
Overall Lateral Torsional Buckling, Proceedings of 4th International Colloquium on Structural
Stability- Mediterranean Session, Istanbul.
6. Lindner, J. (1990), Lateral Torsional Buckling of Beams with Trapezoidal Corrugated Webs,
Proceedings of 4th International Colloquium Stability of Steel Structures, Hungary.
7. Lindner, J. and Haung, B. (1994), Progress in the Analysis of Beams with Trapezoidally
Corrugated Webs, Proceedings of 17th Czech and Slovak Conference on Steel Structures and
Bridges, Hungary.
8. Vlasov, V.Z. (1961) Thin Walled Elastic Beams, English Translation, Washington D.C., National
Science Foundation.
9. P.C.J. Hoogenboom and A. Borgart (2005) Method for including restrained warping in
traditional frame analysis HERON, Vol. 50, No 1 (2005 No. 1, pp. (55-68).
10. Timoshenko, S.P., J.M. Gere (1961) Theory of Elastic Stability, New York, second edition,
McGraw-Hill.
11. Galambos, T.V., (1998) Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures, Fifth Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, New York, USA.
12. Ireneusz Kreja and Czeslaw Szymczak (2002), Numerical Simulation Of A Thin-Walled Beam
With Warping Stiffeners Undergoing Torsion, TASK QUARTERLY 6 No 3 (2002), 453460.
13. Dr. Sherif A. Ibrahim and Prof. Dr. Abdelrahim K. Dessouki (2006),"On the Analysis of Plate
Girders with Corrugated Webs under Torsional Moment".
14. Jiho Moon, Jong-Won Yi, Byung H. Choi, Hak-Eun Lee (2007)," Lateral Torsion Bulking of I-
Girder with Corrugated Webs under Uniform Bending".
-854-

THEORY OF STRUCTURES

STR- 001 MODE SHAPES EXTRACTI ON USI NG THE MCRD TECHNI QUE
AHMED ABBASS ELSHAFEY, MAHMOUD R. HADDARA, and HESHAM MARZOUK
STR- 002 WI ND LOADI NG PROVI SI ONS I N EGYPTI AN CODE A COMPARATI VE STUDY
GHADA NABEEL SAUDI , EHAB HASAN ALI , and SHERI F AHMED MOURAD
STR- 003 A FI NI TE ELEMENT MODEL FOR SPACE TRUSSES ANALYSI S
BOSHRA ABOUL- ANEAN, AHMED A. ELSHAFEY, MOSTAFA M. EL- SHAMI , and KAMEL S. KANDEEL
STR- 004 ELI MI NATI ON OF DYNAMI C TEST AMBI GUI TI ES BY OPTI MI ZI NG THE OBSERVABI LI TY
OF THE STRUCTURE
Hesham I brahim Sayed, Ashraf Mohamed Fadel, Sher if Ahmed Mourad, and Ahmet Emin Akt an
STR- 005 RELI ABI LI TY ASSESSMENT OF SURFACE SETTLEMENT FOR TUNNELLI NG MODELS
Most afa Zaki Abd Elrehim and I slam Araby Hussien
STR- 006 SEI SMI C RETROFI T OF SHOPPI NG MALL SKYLI GHT USI NG SLI DI NG BEARI NGS
waiel mowr t age mowrt age and Eren Kalafat
STR- 007 SOI L- STRUCTURE I NTERACTI ON EFFECTS ON SEI SMI C RESPONSE OF BUI LDI NGS
WI TH MULTI PLE BASEMENT FLOORS
Osman Mohamed Ramadan, Bahaa E- H Mahmoud, and Ahmed H- A Khalaf
STR- 008 BEHAVI OR OF CONCRETE BEAMS REI NFORCED BY FRP BARS UNDER TORSI ON
Hamdy Kamal Shehab, Mohamed Essam El Awady, Mohamed Mohamed Husain, and Sayed Abdel Maksoud
Mandour
STR- 009 BUCKLI NG LOADS OF COLUMNS WI TH SUDDENLY CHANGI NG CROSS- SECTI ON
SUBJECTED TO COMBI NED END AND I NTERMEDI ATE AXI AL FORCES
Magdy I srael Salama
STR- 010 ROLE OF DEAD LOAD I N SHAKEDOWN ANALYSI S
BAHER L. ABOUSTAI T
STR- 011 OPTI MUM DESI GN OF PLANE- FRAME STEEL PI PE- RACK
ahmed maged elhosiny


STR-001-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





MODE SHAPES EXTRACTION USING THE MCRD TECHNIQUE

AHMED. A. ELSHAFEY
Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, Minufiya University,
Post Doctorate Fellow, Memorial University of Newfoundland
E-mail: aelshafey@mun.ca
MAHMOUD R. HADDARA
Professor, Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science,
Memorial University of Newfoundland,
St. John's, Canada
E-mail: mhaddara@mun.ca
H. MARZOUK
Professor, Faculty of Engineering, Architecture and Science,
Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
E-mail: hmarzouk@ryerson.ca

ABSTRACT
The random decrement technique is an averaging technique that can be used to extract
the free decay response of the structure from its random stationary vibratory response.
The free decay response can then be used to identify the vibratory characteristics of the
structure. The main advantage of the technique is that the identification of the
parameters of the structure is achieved without previous knowledge of the excitation
forces.
This paper extends the random decrement technique to obtain the mode shapes of the
structure using the concept of a multichannel random decrement technique (MCRD).
This technique is based on extracting simultaneous random decrement records from
measurements made at several points on the structure. The method is very efficient and
simple. Numerical examples are solved and compared with the exact mode shapes
extracted using classical modal analysis. An excellent agreement between the extracted
modes shapes using the MCRD and those obtained from the classical modal analysis
techniques is achieved. The vibration of an offshore structure excited by white noise
excitation is used to illustrate the method.
KEYWORDS
Mode shapes Multichannel random decrement
-855-

STR-001-2
1 INTRODUCTION
Extracting mode shapes of structures from their stationary vibratory response is one of
the modal analysis tasks. Mode shapes can be used as a tool for damage identification.
This tool can be used to determine the existence of damage as well as its location. This
paper introduces an easy and simple method to extract the mode shapes from the
stationary random response. The response measurements at several points on the
structure are used. The measured responses are used to extract the random decrement
signature of the structure at these points. The random decrement signatures are then
used to extract the mode shapes of the structure. In general, obtaining accurate results
depends on the number of measuring devices distributed along the structure and the
quality of the measured signal.

The Random Decrement (RD) is a mathematical tool that employs an averaging process
in order to determine the free decaying response of a vibrating structure from its
randomly excited stationary response. It was first introduced by Cole (1968) to identify
the damping of an aerospace structure using its stationary random response. The main
advantages of random decrement technique is that it can be used without a prior
knowledge of the excitation forces under the assumption the forces are with zero mean,
stationary Gaussian random process and that it can be used without interrupting the
normal operation of the structure. The method has been applied extensively to detect
damage in civil and offshore structures (Yang et al., 1980, 1984; Zubaydi et al., 2002;
Budipriyanto et al., 2007). In addition, the averaging process is a tool for removing the
noise contaminating the measured data since most of the noise in the measurements is
of the white noise type. The random decrement was used also to detect the natural
frequencies and damping in situ for a 76-storey building (Yang et al. 2004). In 1977,
Ibrahim introduced the concept of cross random decrement functions which allowed one
to apply the random decrement technique for identification of mode shapes. Ibrahim
time domain and vector triggering random decrement (Ibrahim 1998) were used to
identify the modal parameters of beam like structures. Jackson and Caldwell (1978)
applied the random decrement technique in crack detecting and damping measuring in L
shape pipe system. The change in the signature was a sign of crack occurring. Vandiver
et al. (1982) showed that the random decrement can be obtained from the auto-
correlation function by multiplying the auto-correlation function by the threshold or
triggering level. Haddara (1992) extended successfully the use of random decrement
technique to nonlinear systems. Shiryayev and Slater (2006) introduced a study on using
the random decrement on nonlinear dynamic systems. Zubaydi et al. (2000, 2002) and
Budipriyanto et al. (2007) used the random decrement signature to identify the damage
in the side hull of a ship. Elshafey et al. (2008) applied the random decrement technique
for health monitoring of an offshore jacket structure. Elshafey et al. (2007) applied the
use of mode shapes in damage identifications, location, and severity.

2 MULTI-CHANNEL RANDOM DECREMENT APPROACH
This paper deals with extraction of mode shapes using a multichannel random
decrement technique (MCRD). This approach is based on the use of measured response
at different locations on the structure. The triggering condition for one of the channels is
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STR-001-3
used as a base triggering value for the rest of the channels. This is done by saving the
times corresponding to the triggering condition for the signal obtained from the base
signal. The phase shift between the separate random decrements is reserved. The first
value of each signature is used to extract the mode shapes. The sampling frequency of
the signals should be at least twice the highest natural frequency of the structures to be
extracted. It should be noted that to get accurate results with higher modes a smaller
time interval should be applied. A FORTRAN code was written to extract both single
RD and MCRD. The code allows the use of constant level crossing as a triggering
condition and allows also the use of a time interval different from the one used to record
the original data. This capability is needed in some cases for extracting higher modes.
Figure 1 shows the procedure of extracting the MCRD. Figure 2 shows the RD results
for each channel. The triggering condition at channel 1 is used as a base triggering value
for all other channels. The values RD1, RD2, RDn shown in Figure 2 are used to
extract the mode shapes. An FFT analysis helps in determining the number of modes
excited. These are the modes that can be extracted. . A digital filter should be used to
separate the signals corresponding to different modes.

Fig. 1: Simultaneous multichannel signals and triggering condition

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STR-001-4
The following algorithm is used to identify the mode shapes using multichannel random
decrement method:
1. Run FFT analysis to know how many modes were identified.
2. For each identified mode, we can extract the mode shape with very precise
results using random decrement.
3. Use a digital filter to separate the signal corresponding to each individual
identified mode.
4. Run the random decrement analysis for the time history of one of the response
data at certain point and let it be named RD1. Better results are obtained if the
first channel is well chosen. It is a good idea to choose it at the point with
maximum values in the mode shape.
5. Get the random decrement signature for another point using the same times
corresponding to triggering points, let us name it RD2.
6. Do step 5 for all other points and get RD3, RD4, etc
7. Take a certain reading from RD1 (let us say at time lag =0.0 seconds)
8. Get the corresponding readings (as shown in Figure 2) for RD2, RD3 etc.
9. Normalize the values to unity using the maximum reading.
10. Draw the normalized values of RD1, RD2 RDn at corresponding nodes.
11. The resulting shape is the normalized mode shape.

3 MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION FOR RANDOM DECREMENT
TECHNIQUE
The concept of random decrement is not difficult to be implemented numerically. The
random decrement RD can be estimated as the average of the time segments ) x(t
i
+
of the response. The starting point of each segment is considered when the response
function reaches certain value called the triggering condition. The triggering condition
describes the initial condition of the time segments in the averaging process at time lag
(=0). Several triggering conditions can be used. The most commonly used triggering
conditions are level crossing, positive point, local extremum, and zero crossing. The
random decrement of a response function is called auto-random decrement (
XX
RD ) if
the triggering condition is taken from the same function. If the triggering condition is
considered from a different function, the random decrement is called cross-random
decrement (
YX
RD ). The mathematical expression for the auto and cross random
decrements are expressed as
{ }
=
+ =
N
1 i
i xx
) X ( T ) t ( X
N
1
RD (1)
{ }
=
+ =
N
1 i
i YX
) X ( T ) t ( Y
N
1
RD (2)
Where;
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STR-001-5
XX
RD Auto-Random decrement
YX
RD Cross-Random decrement
N Number of summations
Time lag used in random decrement function
) X ( T Triggering condition for variable X
i
t Time at reading i
Equations (1) and (2) describe the auto-random decrement and cross-random
decrements, respectively. The triggering condition (T(X)) used in this work for both
auto and cross-random decrements is the constant positive cross level and it is
formulated by equation (3). The triggering points have alternative slope. The function
XX
RD and all set of
YX
RD functions together are the multichannel random decrement
(MCRD). One triggering condition is used for all signatures.

{ } { }
s
X ) X ( T =

,.... , , i 3 2 1 =

{ } 0 ) t ( X
i
&

,.... , , i 5 3 1 =
(3)

{ } 0 ) t ( X
i
&

,.... , , i 6 4 2 =

S
X is the constant positive level and ) t ( X
&
is the slope of the of the response function.
Once the auto-random decrements and cross-random decrements are obtained as in
Figure 2, the mode shape can be extracted. One may pick a certain lag time () and get
all corresponding values to that time. In this work, the authors have chosen the values
corresponding to =0. Numerical examples are presented to show the validity of the
method.

4 NUMERICAL EXAMPLES:
To validate the method more than one numerical example is required. In this work, two
different structures are studied. One of them is a beam with fixed-pinned ends and the
other is an offshore platform.
4.1 A Fixed-Pinned Beam
This example discusses the extraction of mode shapes of a beam with one end fixed and
the other is hinged. The dimensions and cross section are shown in Figure 3. The wall
thickness of the beam cross section is 1/8 inch. BEAM3 element available in ANSYS
software was used to model the beam. BEAM3 is a uniaxial element with tension,
compression, and bending capabilities. The element has three degrees of freedom at
each node: translations in the nodal x and y directions and rotation about the nodal z-
axis (see ANSYS 2007). The beam material is aluminum with modulus of elasticity of
2 10
m / N 10 7 and Poisons ratio of 0.29. The beam is divided into 20 elements (21
nodes) and was subjected to concentrated random load at node 17. Additional
distributed masses of 13500kg/m
3
were used to reduce the natural frequencies and allow
the excitation of several mode shapes. ANSYS software was used to model the beam
and obtain its random response. The transient analysis with full method available in
ANSYS was adopted. The time interval used was 0.02 seconds.
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STR-001-6

Table 1: Band pass filter properties for beam example

Mode # Low frequency (Hz) High frequency (Hz)
1 1.50 2.50
2 5.80 6.50
3 10.0 12.0

Fig. 2: Simultaneous multichannel RD signatures

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STR-001-7

Fig. 3: Beam dimensions and cross section

0 5 10 15 20 25
Frequency (Hz)
1E-009
1E-008
1E-007
1E-006
1E-005
0.0001
0.001
0.01
0.1
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(
m
)

Fig. 4: FFT analysis for displacement at node 11

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1
0
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
2
0
2
1
Node Number
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
Exact
By RD

Fig. 5: First mode shape comparison

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STR-001-8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1
0
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
2
0
2
1
Node Number
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
Exact
By RD

Fig. 6: Second mode shape comparison

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1
0
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
2
0
2
1
Node Number
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
Exact
By RD

Fig. 7: Third mode shape comparison

Time history records for displacements measurements at each node having a length of
250 seconds were recorded. Fast Fourier analysis (FFT) was performed to determine the
excited modes. Figure 4 shows the FFT for the displacement in the vertical direction at
node 11. From Figure 4, one can notice that several modes are excited. The first three
modes can be easily discerned. The natural frequencies of the beam correspond to the
peaks on Figure 4. In this example only the first three modes are extracted. A digital
band pass filter was used to separate the modes. Table 1 shows the filter band pass
frequencies for each mode. Although the fourth mode can be extracted but theist
accuracy is poor because the low values of the amplitudes. Mode shapes obtained using
the MCRD approach were compared with the exact mode shapes obtained using
classical modal analysis methods. Figures 5, 6, and 7 show the comparison between the
exact and extracted mode shapes. The agreement between mode shapes obtained using
classical modal analysis techniques and the ones determined using the procedure
suggested in this paper is excellent.
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STR-001-9
4.2 An Offshore Cantilever Platform
The platform has a total height of 46m. . A concentrated mass of 3000 kg was placed at
the top point to represent the mass of the deck of the platform. PIPE16 elements were
used to model the platform. PIPE16 is a uniaxial element with tension-compression,
torsion, and bending capabilities. The element has six degrees of freedom at each node:
translations in the nodal x, y, and z directions and rotations about the nodal x, y, and z
axes (see ANSYS 2007). The model was divided into 46 elements. The platform
dimensions and cross sections are shown on Figure 8. The material used is steel with a
modulus of elasticity of
2 11
m / N 10 07 . 2 and Poisons ratio of 0.3. A white noise
random load was applied to the platform at a point 23m above its base. A 250 seconds
long for the history of the stationary response at each node was determined. A Newton-
Raphson method was employed to solve the dynamic equation.

The exact mode shapes were obtained using a classical modal analysis technique. The
Block-Lanczos method was used to determine the mode shapes. The modes obtained
from modal analysis are compared with the mode shapes obtained from the random
decrement method. Figure 9 shows the FFT analysis for the displacement at the top
node. Two modes can be identified as two peaks appear on the curve. A digital filter
was used to separate the two modes. A band-pass filter with a range of 0.8 to 1.6 Hz
was used to obtain the first mode and a filter with a range of 3.8 to 5.0 Hz was used to
obtain the second mode. The mode shapes were normalized for comparison. Figures 10
and 11 show the comparison between the exact and the extracted first and second mode
shapes, respectively. An excellent match is obtained.

5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Extracting mode shapes from the stationary random response of a structure is very
important. Mode shapes can be used to detect changes in the structure performance.
Also mode shapes can be used to locate damages occurring to the structure. The work
presented here is work in progress and will be followed by experimental work.

Mode shapes were extracted successfully using numerically generated data. Examples
were introduced in detail. Up to three modes were extracted with high accuracy.
However, in principle, higher modes can also be extracted. . Only modes which have
been excited can be detected by this method.

6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would to acknowledge NSERC and PRAC for financial support and
Memorial University for providing ANSYS license.

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STR-001-10

Fig. 8: An offshore platform dimensions

0 5 10 15 20
Frequency (Hz)
1.0E-008
1.0E-007
1.0E-006
1.0E-005
1.0E-004
1.0E-003
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Fig. 9: FFT of response at top point when the platform
is subjected to white noise loading

-864-

STR-001-11
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Normalized deflection
0
10
20
30
40
50
N
o
d
e

n
u
m
b
e
r
Exact
Using RD

Fig. 10: Mode shape 1, exact and extracted

1.0 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
Normalized deflection
0
10
20
30
40
50
N
o
d
e

n
u
m
b
e
r
Exact
Using RD

Fig. 11: Mode shape 2, exact and extracted

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STR-001-12
7 REFERENCES
[1] ANSYS Version 11 Help (2007).
[2] Budipriyanto A., Haddara M.R., and Swamidas A.S.J. (2007). Identification of
damage on ships Cross-stiffened plate panels using vibration response. Ocean
Engineering, 34, 709-716.
[3] Cole H.A. (1968). On the line analysis of random vibration. Proceedings of the
AIAA/ASME 9
th
Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference,
Palm Springs, California.
[4] Elshafey, A.A., Haddara, M.R., and Marzouk, H. (2008). The use of random
decrement technique for health monitoring of structures. 5
th
International
Conference on Advanced Composite Materials in Bridges and Structures
(ACMBS-V), Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada / September 22 24, 2008.
[5] Elshafey, A., Haddara, M., and Marzouk, H. (2007). Identifying the damage and
its location using mode shape difference. Proceedings of the Canadian Marine
Hydromechanics and Structures Conference (CMHSC), Oct. 16-17, St. Johns,
Newfoundland, Canada.
[6] Haddara M.R. (1992). On the random decrement for nonlinear rolling motion.
Proceedings, 11th, International Conference on Offshore Mechanics and Arctic
Engineering, vol. II, Calgary, 321-324.
[7] Ibrahim, S.R. (1977). Random decrement technique for modal identification of
structures. Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets. Vol. 14, No. 11, pp. 696-700.
[8] Ibrahim, S.R., Asmussen, J. C., and Brincker, R. (1998). Vector Triggering
Random Decrement for High Identification Accuracy. Transactions of the
ASME, Vol. 120, OCTOBER 1998, pp 970-975.
[9] Jackson, C.S.Y. and Caldwell, D.W. (1978). Method for detecting structural
deterioration in piping systems. Probabilistic analysis and design of nuclear
power plant structure: winter annual meeting, pp97-117, NY, USA.
[10] Shiryayev, O.V. and Slater, J.C. (2006). Application of the random decrement
technique to the nonlinear dynamic systems. Collection of technical papers-
AIAA/ASME/ASCE/AHS/ASC Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials
Conference, Vol. 5, 3561-3575.
[11] Vandiver J.K., Dunwoody A.B., Campbell R.B., Cook M.F. (1982). A
mathematical bases for the random decrement vibration signature analysis
technique. Journal of Mechanical Design, 104, 307-313.
[12] Yang J.C.S., Chen J. and Dagalakis N.G (1984). Damage Detection in offshore
structures by random decrement technique. Journal of energy Resources
Technology, Transactions of the ASME Vol. 106, 38-42.
[13] Yang J.C.S, Dagalakis N. G., Hirt M. (1980). Application of the random
decrement technique in the detection of induced cracks of an offshore platform
model. Computational Methods for Offshore Structures, Special Publication,
AMD, Vol 37, ASME. Library of Congress #80-69180.
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STR-001-13
[14] Yang J. N., Lei Y. and Huag N. (2004). Identification of Natural Frequencies
and damping of in situ tall buildings using ambient wind vibration data. Journal
of Engineering Mechanics. ASCE, Vol. 130, No. 5, 570-577.
[15] Zubaudi A., Haddara M. R. and Swamidas A.S.J. (2002). Damage identification
in a ships structure using neural networks. Ocean Engineering, 29, 51187-1200.
[16] Zubaydi A., Haddara M.R., and Swamidas A.S.J., (2000). Damage
identification in stiffened plates using the random decrement technique. Oceanic
Engineering International, 4 (1), 22-30.

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STR-002-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





WIND LOADING PROVISIONS IN EGYPTIAN CODE A
COMPARATIVE STUDY

DR. GHADA NABEEL SAUDI
El Tahrir St., Dokki, Giza, P.O. Box 1170, Egypt
E-mail: ghadasaudi@yahoo.com
DR. EHAB HASAN AHMED HASAN ALI
El Tahrir St., Dokki, Giza, P.O. Box 1170, Egypt
E-mail: ehabbaly@yahoo.com
PROF. DR. SHERIF AHMED MOURAD
Civil Engineering Department, Cairo University
El Gamaa St., Giza, P.O. Box 12613, Egypt
E-mail: smourad2006@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
This paper follows the development process for the wind loading provisions given in the
Egyptian code throughout the past decades. The research focuses on the technical
changes that are proposed in the last issued code version in 2003 and are published in
the draft dated 2009. The main changes are a new exposure coefficient, broadened to
include three different terrain exposure categories. In addition, the gust effect factor was
introduced as premier in the updated version through a coefficient identified as
structural factor. It allows evaluating the dynamic along-wind response of structures due
to the turbulence induced by wind. The significance of varying the structure geometrical
dimensions on the structural factor was illustrated for the main three terrain exposure
categories newly introduced in the code.
KEYWORDS
Wind load, Wind pressure, Exposure factor, Structure factor, Topographic factor.
1. INTRODUCTION
The first Egyptian code of loads on structures and buildings was published in 1993.
before that code, loading provisions were included in the design codes for steel and
reinforced concrete. Revisions of the first issue took place in 1998 and 2003, and
currently a revision is under preparation to be issued 2009 or early 2010. In the last two
issues, developments in the wind load provisions included the evaluation of wind design
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STR-002-2
loads for domes, cylindrical minarets and mast towers. Further developments were
introduced in the proposed version of 2009. The main changes include an expansion in
the procedure of obtaining the exposure coefficient (k). The surface roughness length
(Zo) was newly introduced to account for the exposure coefficient in three identified
terrain exposure categories. Deterministic values of the main wind speed at different
locations in A.R.E. instead of the wind pressure are also newly given. A topographic
factor was introduced to estimate the main wind pressure. In addition, a new method of
calculating the wind pressure, taking the turbulence gust effect on structures was
addressed. This approach considers the dynamics of wind fluctuations and the load
amplification introduced by the building dynamics [5]. It relies on random vibration
theory to transform the dynamic amplification of loading, caused by turbulence and
dynamic sensitivity of the structure, into an equivalent static loading [7]. A coefficient
identified as the structural factor (C
s
) was recently introduced to account for the gust
effect. The wind load estimation is limited to along-wind response with no account of
across or torsion responses. The paper reviews both the main technical developments
taken and the steps for calculations of (Cs) as given in the proposed version of the code.
An Excel based methodology was utilized to perform the calculations for the structural
factor for different conditions. The change of the value of (Cs) with the building
geometrical dimensions was studied for three locations in ARE representing the three
exposure categories. It is shown that the building geometrical properties have
significant influence on the value of structural factor.
2. ASPECTS OF TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENTS
2.1 Change in Scope
The proposed code has widened the scope of calculating the design wind loads to
include the following Buildings:
1- The buildings and structures with heights greater than 60.0 m
2- The buildings and structures with height-to-least width ratio greater than 4.
3- The buildings and structures which will be constructed in up-normal areas as
mountain tops.
Whereas, the code has excluded - as for the previous issue 2003- both the structures
having unusual geometric irregularity and dynamically sensitive structures having
response characteristics making them subject to across-wind loading, vortex shedding,
instability due to galloping or flutter. Such special structures require either wind tunnel
studies procedure or to consider the wind load to be deduced using the available field
measurements of wind speed, where the statistical analysis is then to be utilized to
calculate the maximum design wind speed and the equivalent main pressure.
2.2 Change in Exposure coefficient
For evaluating the exposure coefficient, a ground roughness length parameter (Z
o
) was
newly introduced in the proposed code issue 2008. The roughness of the surface over
which the wind passes has two effects on the wind speed and turbulence. The rougher
the surface the lower the wind speed but the greater the turbulence [6]. It is given for
three exposure categories: 1) Exposure category (A) for open areas with few
obstructions 2) Exposure category (B) for suburban areas and terrain with moderate
obstructions. 3) Exposure category (C) for city center areas where high buildings are
-869-

STR-002-3
closely spaced. The exposure coefficient varies with height of the building for these
three identified exposure categories. The height of the building ranges from ground
level to 240 m. In the previous code issue, the exposure coefficient varied only with the
building height up to 160 m independent on the terrain exposure properties which were
not considered.
2.3 Introducing the Topographic Factor
The topographic factor is newly introduced considering four topographic local effects;
1- The land surrounding the building is plain with slope rate not exceeding 5% and
with area having radial length of 1 km at least
2- The land surrounding the building is not completely plain, the topography factor
is identified for land slopes ranges from 5% to >25%, and broken up into 5
levels with range width 5% each.
3- The downstream area of mountains and hills
4- The peak of mountains and hills
2.4 Change in Design Wind Pressure
The intensity of wind pressure was directly given for specific locations in ARE in the
previous code issue 2003. For the proposed issue of 2009 the intensity of wind pressure
is to be calculated as given in equation (1)

q = 0.5 V
2
C
t
C
s
(1)

Where, q is the basic wind pressure in N/m
2

is the air density taken as 1.25 kg/m
3

V is the basic wind speed corresponding to a wind gust of 3 seconds duration at
height of 10 m above ground level having annual probability of being
exceeded by 2% for a return period of 50 years.(provided in tables for specific
governorates in A.R.E.)
C
t
is the topographic factor and it depends on the ground surface topography
and its slope characteristics (provided in tables)
C
s
is the structural factor which considers the turbulence dynamic effect of the
wind loading on the dynamic response of the structure. A unity value is given
to C
s
for building having height less than 60 m, lattice mast towers, and
building having height- to- least width ratio less than 4 otherwise, It is
estimated as explained in section 2.5

Table (1) shows a comparison between code issues 2003 and 2009 in estimating the
values of wind pressure intensity for different governorates. The topographic and
structural factors are given a unity value.

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STR-002-4

Table (1) wind pressure values given in code issues 2003 and 2009

Code issue
2003 Proposed code 2009

Change
%
q
N/ m
2

q = 0.5 V
2
C
t

C
s

N/ m
2

C
s
C
t

V
m/sec

Kg/m
3

City
+22.6 900 1103 1 1 42 1.25
Marsa
Matrouh
" 900 1103 1 1 42 1.25 El Dabaah
" 900 1103 1 1 42 1.25 El Zaafarana
+18.9 800 951 1 1 39 1.25 El Saloum
" 800 810 1 1 36 1.25 Al Alexandria
" 800 810 1 1 36 1.25 Hurghada
" 800 810 1 1 36 1.25 Abo Sowier
" 800 810 1 1 36 1.25
Coastal
Regions
-2.70 700 681 1 1 33 1.25 Cairo
" 700 681 1 1 33 1.25 Asuiot
+13.5 600 681 1 1 33 1.25 El-Dakhla
+36.2 500 681 1 1 33 1.25 Aswan
+13.5 600 681 1 1 33 1.25 Seiwa
" 600 681 1 1 33 1.25 Al Oqsour
+12.6 500 563 1 1 30 1.25 El Menia
" 500 563 1 1 30 1.25 El Fayoum
" 500 563 1 1 30 1.25 Tanta
" 500 563 1 1 30 1.25
Moderiet El -
Tahrer
" 500 563 1 1 30 1.25 Damanhour
" 500 563 1 1 30 1.25 El Mansoura

According to the proposed code provisions for estimating the wind pressure, It is shown
from Table (1) that the wind pressure has increased for all sites in A.R.E. except for
Cairo and Asuiot governorates which are assigned slightly less wind pressure.
2.5 Considering the Gust Loading Effect
The proposed code issue references the wind speed at 10 m above ground in a flat, open
exposure, with duration of 3 seconds. To include the gust effect a coefficient identified
as structural factor was introduced as follows:

0 . 1
I 7 1
R B I g 2 1
C
zr
2 2
zr
S

+
+ +
= (2)

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STR-002-5
Where
zr
I is the intensity of turbulence at height Z
r
(equivalent height defined as 0.6h),
where h is the building height above ground level.
=
o
zr
z
zr
ln
1
I ... (3)

Where, h 6 . 0 zr = (equivalent height), z
o
is the ground roughness length (provided in
tables).
g is the peak factor, Based on the probability distribution of the along- wind response of
structures due to wind which is closely Gaussian, Davenport (1964) derived the
following expression for the peak factor
) T ln( 2
6 . 0
) T ln( 2 g

+ = (4)

Where T is the time period to which the peak value is referenced, generally taken as 1 hr
= 3600 sec. and the zero-upcrossing frequency
, is defined as the weighted average of

the background and resonant responses as follows:
2 2
2
1
R B
R
n
+
= . (5)

Where
1
n is the natural frequency of the first mode of vibration of the structure in
along - wind direction, the background and resonant responses of the structure are B and
R respectively.

Widely used approximate formula to estimate the natural frequency is given as:

h
46
n
1
= (h = building height in m)..... (6)

The expression to determine the background response is defined as:

63 . 0
zr
2
L
h b
9 . 0 1
1
B
+
+
= ... (7)

=
t
r
t zr
z
z
L L .. (8)

) z ln( 05 . 0 67 . 0
o
+ = ... (9)

-872-

STR-002-6
Where
zr
L is the turbulent length scale in meter at the equivalent height (0.6h) , h is
the height of the structure, and b is the structure's width perpendicular to the wind
direction. z
o
is the ground roughness length as given previously.
is the power law exponent ,
t
L is a reference length of 300 m, and z
t
is a reference
height of 200 m and the resonant response is described as:
b h L
2
R R S
4
R
= (10)

Where, is the damping ration, given as 0.01 for steel structures, 0.015 for composite
structures, and 0.02 for concrete structures.
L
S is the non- dimensional power spectral
density function defined as:
( )
67 . 1
L
L
L
f 2 . 10 1
f 8 . 6
S
+

= .. (11)

m
zr 1
L
V
L n
f

= , ... (12)

Where,
L
f is the variance spectrum

K V 67 . 0 V
m
= . (13)

Where,
m
V is the mean hourly wind speed at height
r
z
Vis the basic wind speed as previously defined in equation (1)
K is the exposure coefficient (given in tables)

b
R ,
h
R are defined as aerodynamic admittance factors and described as:
( )
b
2
2
b
b
b
e 1
2
1 1
R

=
,
zr
L
b
L
b f 6 . 4
= (14)

( )
h
2
2
h
h
h
e 1
2
1 1
R

=
,
zr
L
h
L
h f 6 . 4
= (15)

The structural factor (C
s
) was calculated using excel based methodology for regular
buildings having different h/b ratios, where b is the building dimension perpendicular to
the wind flow. Three different locations in A.R.E. were chosen to represent the
exposure categories given in the proposed issue of the code. The results of evaluating C
s

are discussed in the following section.

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STR-002-7
3. EVALUATION OF THE STRUCTURAL FACTOR C
S

The significance of varying the geometrical dimensions (b, h) of regular buildings on
the estimation of the structural factor was studied, where b is the dimension
perpendicular to wind direction and is not necessarily the least dimension. The main
three exposure categories defined in the proposed code were considered. Three
governorates were chosen to represent the corresponding exposure category. El-Saloum,
Marsa- Matrouh, and Cairo were assigned exposures (A), (B), and (C) respectively. The
topographic factor was given a unity value for the three sites. For sites of exposure A
and B, the structural factor exceeded unity for height to width ratios given in Table 2 for
different building widths. This is valid for building widths up to 50 m in sites of
exposure A, and up to 40 m in sites of exposure B as shown in Figures 1 and 2
respectively. However, the structural factor is below unity for all heights to width ratios
for sites with exposure C, as shown in Figure 3. Since the minimum allowable value of
the structural factor is given as unity, most of the regular buildings of height to width
ratio equal or less than 3 will be assigned unity for the structural factor for all exposure
categories. Accordingly the wind pressures given in Table 1 are valid for regular
buildings with h/b 3 in plain regions having unity topographic factor.

0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
1.1
0 50 100 150 200 250
Building height (h) m
S
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
a
l

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
C
s
)
building width 10 m
building width 20 m
building width 30 m
building width 40 m
building width 50 m
building width 60 m
building width 70 m
building width 80 m
building width 90 m
building width 100
Minimum value

Figure 1: C
s
values for Saloum governorate (exposure category A)

Table 2 : h/b ratios corresponding to C, exceeding unity
Values of h/b corresponding to C, exceeding unity
b=10m b=20m b=30m b=40m b=50m Exposure
category A >3 > 4.5 > 4.5 > 4.5 > 4.5
b=10m b=20m b=30m b=40m Exposure
category B

7 > 6 > 5.5 > 6
Exposure
category C

C, values do not exceed unity regardless of h/b ratio
-874-

STR-002-8

0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
1.05
1.1
0 50 100 150 200 250
S
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
a
l

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
C
s
)
building width 10 m
building width 20 m
building width 30 m
building width 40 m
building width 50 m
building width 60 m
building width 70 m
building width 80 m
building width 90 m
building width 100 m
Minimum value

Figure 2: C
s
values for Marsa-Matrouh governorate (exposure category B)
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.85
0.9
0.95
1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
S
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
a
l

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
C
s
)
building width 10 m
building width 20 m
building width 30 m
building width 40 m
building width 50 m
building width 60 m
building width 70 m
building width 80 m
building width 90 m
building width 100m

Figure 3: C
s
values for Cairo governorate (exposure category C)
4. CONCLUSIONS
Significant developments were achieved for the revised proposed issue of the Egyptian
Code of Loads on Structures and Buildings in 2009. The code scope is broadened to
include structures which were not previously considered. Evaluation of the wind
pressure for the given sites in A.R.E. produced higher values compared to previous
provisions in 2003 issue, whereas the location of Cairo and Asuiot produced slightly
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STR-002-9
less values. The wind loading provisions include the gust load effect approach which
gained a worldwide acceptance in the man international codes and standards. Describing
the structural factor to account for the gust effect relies on defining newly introduced
parameters. Some parameters describe the site characteristics that affect the wind flow,
others to evaluate the statistical properties of the wind fluctuations, in addition to
parameters defining the dynamic characteristics of the structure represented by its first
linear mode and damping ratio. The given procedure allows determining the design
wind load on structures through their along-wind response only. The structural factor
values of different regular buildings were estimated for the three identified exposures
categories. This revealed that setting the structural factor's value to unity as minimum is
valid to most buildings having heights less than 60 m as specified in the code. It was
illustrated that all regularly shaped buildings in zones of exposure C (as example for
Cairo) are assigned this minimum value regardless of their heights. It was also shown
that the building dimensions represented by its height (h) and its horizontal dimension
perpendicular to the wind (b) have a significant influence on the value of the structural
factor. The structural factor increases with the decrease of the geometrical dimension
(b) for the same height (h). This indicates as excepted that the more the slenderness of
the structure, the more its response is influenced by the wind turbulence.
REFERENCES
1. "Egyptian Code for Calculations Loads and forces on structures and Building
Works", Housing and Building National Research Center, Cairo, Egypt, 2003.
2. "Draft Egyptian Code for Calculations of Loads and forces structural and
Building Works", Housing and Building National Research Center, Cairo,
Egypt, 2009.
3. Davenport, A.G., 1964, Note on the Distribution of the Largest Value of a
Random Function with Application to Gust Loading, Proceedings of the
Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 28, June, pp. 187 196.
4. Davenport, A.G., Gust Loading Factors, Journal of Structural Division,
ASCE, Vol. 93, No. ST3, 1967, pp.11-34.
5. Y. Zhou, A. Kareem, M. Gu, "Gust loading factors for design applications",
Proceedings of the 10th ICWE, Copenhagen, Denmark, 1999, pp. 169176.
6. Tony Gibbs, "B1.1 Determination of Wind Loads for Use in Analysis",
November 2000. www.oas.org/pgdm/document/mhbdc/b1_text.pdf
7. Solari, G., and Kareem, A. (1998). "On the formulation of ASCE7-95 gust effect
factor." J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn., 77 and 78, 673684.
8. Holmes, John D. "Wind Loading of Structures", Second Edition, 2007, Taylor &
Francis Group.

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STR-003-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





A FINITE ELEMENT MODEL FOR SPACE TRUSSES ANALYSIS

BOSHRA ABOUL-ANEAN
Civil Engineering Department, Minufiya University
Shebin Elkom, Minufiya, Egypt
E-mail: boushra_eltaly@yahoo.com
AHMED A. ELSHAFEY
Email: aelshafey@mun.ca
MOSTAFA EL-SHAMI
daels@yahoo.com
KAMEL KANDEEL
Email: kandeel@kandeel.org

ABSTRACT
Space Structures are economical and aesthetically pleasing in appearance. They provide
the right solution for both of architects and civil engineers to accommodate large areas.
Also they satisfy the requirements for lightness, economy, beauty and speed
construction. The general purpose of this paper is to introduce a simplified and
computationally efficient finite element model to investigate the nonlinear behavior of
space trusses. ANSYS program was employed to do this model with elasto-plastic
analysis. Numerical examples are presented to demonstrate the computational advantage
of the proposed model and its ability.
KEYWORDS
Space truss finite element modelling nonlinear behaviour
1 INRTODUCTION
Space trusses consist of two planar networks of members (top and bottom layers parallel
to each other) interconnected by vertical and inclined web members. They can be
formed in a flat or a curved surface. The flat surface type is usually composed of basic
elements according to Iffland (1982) and Lan (1999). These elements are a rectangular
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prism, a triangular prism, a pyramid with square base which is a part of an octahedron
and pyramid with triangular base. Several structural systems for flat surface space
trusses are presented by Iffland (1982). These systems are developed from the basic
elements by varying the direction of the top and bottom chords with respect to each
other and by varying the position of the top chord nodal points with respect to the
bottom chord nodal points. Additional variations can be introduced by changing the size
of the top chord with respect to the size of the bottom chord.
A large number of theoretical and experimental research programs were done to study
the behavior of these structures whose structural systems are with short chord members
or with continuous chord members. Also a lot of researches were investigated to
improve the behavior of space trusses. In the following sections, the previous published
studies on this field are briefly discussed.
Schmidt et al. (1976) performed three tests until collapse happens in space trusses with
different dimension at the University of Melbourne. They investigated a theoretical
analysis method on the tested trusses. This method included two main features; the strut
model and the truss analysis algorithm. The strut was modeled by simplicity of the one
steps linearization. They assumed that the strut theoretically behaves a brittle-type
nature. There may be no reserve of the strength beyond the initial buckling of the strut.
A sharp drop in load capacity immediately after initial buckling may be expected. In
other studies, the strut was modeled by increasing the number of steps linearization to
increase the accuracy of the theoretical analysis of space trusses.
Schmidt and Gregg (1980), Supple and Collins (1981), Smith and Smith (1981), Smith
(1984) and Caglayan et al. (2007) studied the nonlinear behavior of space trusses. They
investigated theoretical model to study the nonlinearity of the space trusses by using a
finite element package. They used a plastic hinge at midpoint of each member with the
member behavior. The main objective of this paper is to introduce and discuss nonlinear
finite element models to analyze space trusses. ANYSY package was used to build these
models. Several numerical examples were presented to demonstrate the ability of the
present models.
2 FINITE ELEMENT MODELS FOR SPACE TRUSSES
2.1 Model # 1
To model the truss members, the authors used link8 element (ANSYS, 2006). This
element can be used to model trusses, sagging cables, links and springs (Stolarski et al.,
2006). Link8 is a uniaxial tension-compression element with three degrees of freedom
at each node. There are translations in the nodal x, y, and z directions. As in a pin-
jointed structure, no bending of the element is considered. Plasticity, creep, stress
stiffening, and large deflection capabilities are included. The element is defined by two
nodes, the cross-sectional area and the material properties.
In this model, each member in the trusses was modeled by three link8 elements as seen
in Fig. 1. Elements 1 and 3 were considered with linear material properties and element
2 with nonlinear properties. Element 2 had a very small length. The nonlinear material
model was adjusted to consider the buckling properties of the element or the tension
behavior. Elements 1 and 3 were assumed to have enough area to be considered rigid
and have no contribution to the compression or tension behaviour of the truss element.
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Only element 2 has an equivalent behaviour that matches the behaviour of the truss
element. Choosing a small length for element 2 is very important and was done using
sensitivity analysis.

Fig. 1: Modeling space truss member in model #1

2.2 Model # 2
In this model, link8 is used to represent the truss members. The link8 chosen was very
stiff such that it did not affect or control the behavior of the truss model. The nonlinear
behavior of the truss member was considered by applying nonlinear spring to substitute
the behavior of the member. Each member of the truss is represented by two rigid link8
elements joined by two COMBIN39 elements; one element is used to prevent rotation
and the other to simulate the nonlinear tension and compression of the space truss
element.

Fig. 2: Generalized force-deflection curve for Combined39
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The element which prevents rotations has high stiffness to ensure the stability of the
space truss element. The COMBIN39 is a unidirectional element with nonlinear
generalized force-deflection capability that can be used in this analysis to represent the
behaviour of the member in compression and tension. The element has longitudinal or
torsional capability in one, two, or three dimensional applications. The longitudinal
option is a uniaxial tension-compression element with up to three degrees of freedom at
each node with translations in the nodal x, y, and z directions. The torsional option is a
purely rotational element with three degrees of freedom at each node; rotations about
the nodal x, y, and z axes. No bending or axial loads were considered (ANSYS, 2006).
The element has large displacement capability for which there can be two or three
degrees of freedom at each node. The element was defined by two nodes and a
generalized force-deflection curve. The points on this curve (D1, F1, etc.) represent
force (or moment) versus relative translation (or rotation) for structural analyses. In this
analysis, the curve in Fig. 2 represents the nonlinear behavior of the truss member. The
force-deflection curve input should be such that deflections are increased from the third
(compression) to the first (tension) quadrants. The last input deflection must be positive.
Segments tending towards vertical should be avoided. If the force-deflection curve is
exceeded, the last defined slope is maintained and the status remains equal to the last
segment number.
3 VERIFICATION OF THE F.E. MODELS
To verify the validity of the approaches with the employed assumptions, the results of
the FEM are compared with published experimental and theoretical results. The authors
studied four different space trusses which have been investigated under nonlinear
analysis by previous researchers.
3.1 Example (1)
Schmidt et al. (1976) carried out theoretical and experimental tests on three spaced
trusses. The overall dimensions of each truss were m . . 83 1 83 1 with a depth
of m .216 0 . Simply supported conditions were employed at each lower chord perimeter
joint and loaded at the four points (see Fig. 3). Each truss had a constant member sizes.
The members were 12mm diameter aluminum tube with 1.5mm wall thickness. Both
models # 1 and 2 were used. The comparison between the results of present models
verses both the experimental and theoretical results of Schmidt et al. (1976) are shown
in Fig. 4. This figure shows the relationship between total applied load on truss and
deflection at the central point of the truss. It can be seen that the space truss had an
almost linear behavior until member yielding or buckling took place. With member
yielding, the truss lost stiffness but continued to carry more loads. On the other hand,
compression-member buckling proved to be more critical. After buckling, a member
lost most of its strength, thus shedding force to neighboring members and frequently
causing them to buckle as well. Fig. 4 shows an excellent agreement between the
present models and the experimental results of Schmidt et al. (1976).
3.2 Example (2)
Mezzina et al. (1975) tested a space truss with over all dimension of m . . 0 9 0 9 and
with depth of m .75 0 . the truss was loaded with a point load at the centre. It was
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supported on four upper nodes near the corners (see Fig. 5). All the members were made
of mild steel tubular section of mm .3 60 outer diameter and mm .9 2 wall thickness.
Mezzina et al. (1975) reported that the buckling load and the residual forces of chord
members were 98.3KN and 34KN and 111.23KN and 40KN for diagonal member as
well. The comparison between the experimental results and the present two models for
total load deflection relationship is shown in Fig. 6. It can be seen from Fig. 6 that the
present models line up well with the experimental results reported by Mezzina et al.
(1975).

Fig. 3: Space truss tested by Schmidt et al. (1976)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Deflection (mm)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
T
o
t
a
l

l
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
Experimental 1
Experimental 2
Theoritical
Model 1
Model 2

Fig. 4: Total load and central deflection relationship for example (1)
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Fig. 5: Space truss tested by Mezzina et al. (1975)

0 5 10 15 20 25
Deflectiom (mm)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
T
o
t
a
l

l
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
Experimental
Model 1
Model 2

3.2 Example (3)
This example was tested experimentally by EL-Sheikh (1991). The overall dimensions
were m . . 0 4 0 4 with depth of m .575 0 (see Fig. 7). It was supported on the four bottom
corner, giving an effective span of m .2 3 in each direction. All bottom chord and
diagonal members (except the corner diagonals) were mm .58 28 outer diameter tubular
members with a mm .63 1 well thickness. The most highly compressed members were the
four special corner diagonals connected to the four bottom chord corner support nodes
and directed toward the center of the truss. These members were used as tubular with a
mm .3 60 outer diameter and a mm .2 3 wall thickness. The top chord members were made
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from a toes-up channel section of mm .6 1 24 40 . All the connections between the truss
members were MER0 connections (2003). The load was equally applied at all loaded
connections (see Fig. 7)
The total load and center deflections relationship for both experimental present models
are shown in Fig 8. The initial collapse of the tested truss started at a total load of
100KN experimentally (El-Sheikh, 1991), 94KN theoretically. Then the total load is
decreased in experimental and model # 2 until total collapse occurred. It can be seen
from Fig. 5 that model # 1 stopped at 94 KN (present models). This is because model #
1 cannot handle any decrease in the stresses after buckling (ANSYS, 2006). In model #
2, the Comin39 is capable (ANSYS, 2006) to handle that because it is controlled by a
force deflection curve (tension compression).
4 CONCLUSION
This paper presents two new finite element models that can easily describe the nonlinear
behaviour of space trusses until failure. The agreement between the published
experimental results from previous researches and the results of the present models
shows the capability of the suggested FEM models to simulate successfully the
nonlinear behavior of space trusses.

Fig. 7: Space truss tested by El-Shekih (1991)

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0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Deflection (mm)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
T
o
t
a
l

l
o
a
d

(
K
N
)
Experimental
Model 1
Model 2

5 REFERENCES

[1] ANSYS, "Program help and manual", 11th

Ed., ANSYS Inc, PA, USA, 2006.
[2] Caglayan, O., and Yuksel, E., "Experimental and Finite Element Investigations
on the Collapse of a MERO Space Truss Roof Structure A Case Study",
Engineering Failure Analysis, accepted on Elsevier Applied Publishers, 2007
[3] EL-Sheikh, A.I., "The Effect of Composite Action on the Behavior of Space
Structures", Ph.D. Dissertation, Cambridge University, England, 1991.
[4] Iffland, J., "Preliminary Planning of Steel Roof Space Trusses", Journal of
Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 108, No. ST11, pp. 2578-2591, 1982.
[5] Lan, T.T., "Space Frame Structures", Structural Engineering Handbook, Chen
Wai-Fah, Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 1999.
[6] MERO GmbH, "MERO-Raumfachwerk. Allgemeine Bauaufsichtliche
Zulassung", German Institute for Civil Engineering, Berlin, Germany, Z-14, pp.
4-10, 2003.
[7] Mezzina, M., Prete, G., and Tosto, A., "Automatic and Experimental Analysis
for a Model of Space Grid in Elasto-Plastic Behavior ", Proceedings of Second
International Conference on Space Structures, Surrey, England, pp. 570-588,
1975.
[8] Schmidt, L. C., and Gregg, B. M., "A Method for Space Truss Analysis in the
Post-Buckling Range", International Journal for Numerical Method in
Engineering, Vol. 15, No.2, pp. 237-247, 1980.
[9] Schmidt, L. C., Morgan, P, R., and Clarkson, J. A., "Space Trusses with Brittle-
Type Strut Buckling", Journal of Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 112, No. ST7,
pp. 1479-1492, 1976.
[10] Smith, E. A., "Space Truss Nonlinear Analysis", Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 110, No. 4, pp. 688-705, 1984.
[11] Smith, E. A., and Smith, G. D., "Collapse Analysis of Space Trusses",
Proceeding of symposium on long Span Roof Structures, ASCE, 1981.
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[12] Stolarski, T. A., Nakasone, Y., and Yoshimoto, S., "Engineering Analysis with
ANSYS Software", Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, England, 2006.
[13] Supple, W. J., and Collins, I., "Limit State Analysis of Double Grids"
International Analysis, Design and Construction of Double Layer Grids, Applied
Science Publishers, London, PP. 93-117, 1981.
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13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt




ELIMINATION OF DYNAMIC TEST AMBIGUITIES BY
OPTIMIZING THE OBSERVABILITY OF THE STRUCTURE

H.I. SAYED
Researcher, Steel structures Institute, Housing & Building National Research Center
87 Tahrir St., Dokki, Giza, Egypt
Email: hheshamhmm@yahoo.com

A.M. FADEL
Professor, Steel structures Institute, Housing & Building National Research Center,
87 Tahrir St., Dokki, Giza, Egypt
Email: ashfadel@yahoo.com

S.A. MOURAD
Professor of steel structures, Department of Structural Engineering
Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, Giza
Email: sherif.ahmed.mourad@yahoo.com

A.E. AKTAN
John Roebling Professor of Infrastructures, CAEE Department, Drexel University
3141 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, PA19104
Email: aaktan@drexel.edu

ABSTRACT
Dynamic testing has become a widely used tool for structural identification, and
damage detection of lab structures as well as for health monitoring of large constructed
systems. The major outcomes of the dynamic testing, obtained by the process of modal
analysis, are the dynamic parameters of the structure, i.e., modal frequencies, mode
shapes and modal damping. One of the challenging pitfalls that frequently face the
analyzers is to have a spectrum of modes covering a range of frequencies with the same
mode categorization. The challenge, then, is to distinguish which of these modes is the
intrinsic mode of the structure and which of them can be considered as repeated modes.
The authors have conducted an experimental study on a cantilever beam in a controlled
lab environment to show the importance of observing the ambient environment to the
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tested structure to eliminate the ambiguity of dynamic test results. A recommendation
for the sensor layout is advised.
KEYWORDS
Modal testing, repeated modes, sensor layout, structure/support interaction, local modes
INTRODUCTION
Structural identification of constructed civil structures using vibration-based testing has
become a widely used tool to serve many objectives; structural assessment, load-
capacity rating, evaluate possible causes of performance deficiencies, health monitoring
for maintenance management among many other objectives [1]. The methods used in
the identification process follow either model-based methods, by calibrating an FE
model, or non-model-based methods by direct stiffness/flexibility calculation [2]. In
both methods, identifying the structure experimentally is indispensible. Many sources of
errors are inherent in every step of the process, some of them are crucial while some
others only deal with the accuracy of the estimated modal parameters [3, 4].
In the modal parameter estimation step, a missing mode can be encountered when
placing excitation and/or sensors at nodal points, but the identification process can go
on without it. On the other hand, sometimes repeated modes with the same
categorization cover a range of frequencies and the analyzer must assure which one of
them is the intrinsic characteristic of the structure. It has been reported to have four
repeated modes identified as the 4
th
bending mode of the same cantilever studied in this
paper covering a range (127-189 Hz) when the boundary conditions were altered [1].
The authors implemented an experimental study on a cantilever beam in a controlled lab
environment to investigate the source of mode repetition and how to distinguish the
intrinsic structure modes from reflected modes from the ambient environment to the
structure.
THE STRUCTURAL IDENTIFICATION PROCESS
The structural identification process usually involves six basic steps (see Fig.1)
conforming an interdisciplinary task that needs contribution from several engineering
disciplines (civil, mechanical, and electrical) as well as other disciplines such as applied
mathematics.
The success of the process depends on the success of each and every step of the cycle
(see Fig. 1). The diagram shows the sequence the process ideally follows and the
disciplines contributing to each step.
Many uncertainties, that need to be avoided to come to a successful structural
identification process, are inherent to each step. Failure to conceptualize the behavior of
the structure; boundary conditions, continuities/discontinuities, and kinematics of
various parts of the structure will endanger the whole process. Although recent advances
in sensing and information technology greatly increase our capability of observing and
measuring the structural responses under test, the reliability of identification results is
often greatly influenced with inevitable errors associated with the modal testing and/or
with the modal parameter estimation techniques. During testing, errors emerge from
electrical and environmental noise, experimental uncertainty due to the nature of input,
nonstationarity and nonlinearity of the structure, etc., while the output modal model is
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dependent on the techniques used during data pre- and post processing [5, 6, 7, and 8].
Furthermore, the mathematical formulation of some algorithms and/or the way they are
implemented may indicate false peaks that are not a system pole [4].

6) Calibrated
model
Validation
3) Testing
& DAQ
Engineering
Judgment/Expertise
Modal Analysis
Theory, FE
Signal Conditioning
and Processing
Applied
Mathematics
Engineering
Judgment
Applied
Mathematics

Fig. 1: Cycle of vibration-based structural identification using FEM updating technique

One of the challenging problems that usually face the analyzers is to have a spectrum of
peaks covering a range of frequencies with the same mode categorization.
Unfortunately, those peaks are not false system poles, but indicate a mode shape that is
repeated due to the interaction between the characteristics of several system
subcomponents. Failure to distinguish the intrinsic structure modes from the reflected
modes from other surroundings produces erroneous modal parameters rather than just
inaccurate ones.
EXPERIMENT
The test specimen is cantilever beam of 7.62x3.81x0.318 cm tube cross-section and is
made of structural steel. The length of the beam between the tip and support location is
298.45cm. The beam was fixed to a steel pedestal so that it would bend about its weak-
axis in the vertical direction. The pedestal is made of I-shaped W12x65 column, cover
and base plates of dimensions 40.64 x 40.64 x 1.746 cm, and the pedestal is fixed to the
strong floor of the DI3 Lab at Drexel University.
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The beam was clamped to the pedestal to approximate fixed boundary conditions and
the fixity was improved by laying a layer of hydro-stone between the pedestal and the
beam (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2: Cantilever beams physical set-up and its fixed boundary conditions

The test specimen was instrumented with six uniaxial capacitive accelerometers Model
3701G3FA3G, five of the accelerometers were installed on the beam in 5 equal spacing
of 59.69 cm on the centerline of the bottom surface while boundary sensor was installed
on the top surface over the edge of the pedestal cover plate (see Fig. 3).

Fig. 3: Modal testing scheme of the cantilever beam

The pedestal was instrumented with six uniaxial piezoelectric accelerometers Model
393C both from PCB Piezoelectronics Inc., to investigate the interaction between the
pedestal modes with the cantilever beam modes. The accelerometers were set in two
levels; each level has one accelerometer in the longitudinal direction of the beam and
two in the lateral direction to capture bending modes in both direction as well as torsion
modes of the pedestal (see Fig. 4).
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Fig. 4: Instrumentation of the pedestal

Characteristics of both types of accelerometer are listed in Table (1). The impact test
was implemented by impacting the beam vertically at all measurement span stations
with an impulse-force hammer (Model 086C02 from PCB Piezoelectronics Inc., with a
sensitivity of 115.963 mV/Kg and a force range of 45.359 Kg which is suitable for
small scale specimens like the beam in hand.

Table (1): characteristics of the piezoelectric and capacitive accelerometers
Parameter
Model 393C
(Piezoelectric)
Model 3701
(Capacitive)
Sensitivity 1000 mV/g ( 15%) 1000 mV/g ( 5%)
Measurement Range 2.5 g peak 3 g peak
Frequency Range 0.025 to 800 Hz ( 5%) 0 to 1000 Hz (( 5%)
Broadband Resolution 0.0001 g rms (1 to 10,000 Hz) 0.00003 g rms (0.5 to 100 Hz)
Nonlinearity 1% 1%
Transverse Sensitivity 5% 3%
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According to preliminary numerical modal analysis, the first five bending modes of the
cantilever beam fall below 300 Hz (see Table 2). Thus, the sampling rate of data
acquisition was set to 800 Hz. This means that the vibration modes under 400 Hz can be
accurately captured and therefore the first five frequencies of the beam would fall in the
effective frequency band.
A Multi-Input-Multi-Output (MIMO) test scheme was implemented by measuring at the
six beam stations and the six pedestal points with roving the hammer around the five
span stations giving (5x12) FRF matrix. The dynamic test scheme is comprised of
automatic generation of FRFs using the X-Acquisition software and the modal
parameter estimation is done by the CMIF algorithm through X-Modal software (see
Fig. 5).
Modal
Testing
Modal
Parameter
Estimation
Applying excitation
Automatic generation of FRF & COH
X-Acquisition
X-Modal
FRF & Freq. band selection CMIF algorithm & modes selection
Modal
Model
f, ,

Fig. 5: Flowchart of data acquisition and signal processing
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The modal parameter estimation was done twice; first by manipulating only the
measurement of the beam sensors, i.e. the (5x6) FRF matrix to get the identified modal
frequencies (see Table 2) and the corresponding mode shapes (see Fig. 6) where two
modes exhibit the characteristics of the 4
th
mode; one at 154.54 Hz and the other at
162.14 Hz, while two modes exhibit the characteristics of the 5
th
mode at 263.20,
279.89 Hz respectively.
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-1.500
-1.000
-0.500
0.000
0.500
1.000
1 2 3 4 5 6
First three modes of the cantilever
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3

-1.500
-1.000
-0.500
0.000
0.500
1.000
1 2 3 4 5 6
Repeated modes as 4
th
mode
Pole8
Pole 7

-1.000
-0.500
0.000
0.500
1.000
1 2 3 4 5 6
Repeated modes as 5
th
mode
Pole 10
Pole 11

Fig. 6: Identified modes for the cantilever beam

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Table 2: Comparing the experimental modal parameters to numerical FE model
f
T
f
N
(f
N
-f
T
)/f
T
MAC
(Hz) (Hz) (%) Value
1 4.79 4.91 2.61% 0.998 1.66%
2 29.83 30.78 3.20% 0.997 0.33%
3 83.88 86.20 2.76% 0.997 0.87%
154.54 9.30% 0.859 0.02% Pole 7
162.14 4.18% 0.992 0.19% Pole 8
263.20 6.11% 0.996 0.15% Pole 10
279.89 -0.22% 0.975 0.01% Pole 11
5 279.28
168.92 4
Modal
Damping
Mode Remarks

The correlation between the numerical FE model and the experimental modal
parameters cannot be used to judge which modes are the intrinsic characteristics of the
beam as in the structural identification process it is sought to solve the inverse problem
by tuning the FE model to match the experimental results. So, a second run for the
modal parameter estimation was done by manipulating the (5x12) FRF matrix to
investigate which of the modes correspond to pedestal modes.
Figures (7) & (8) show that the intrinsic 4
th
and 5
th
modes of the beam are those at
162.14 & 263.20 Hz, respectively, where the pedestal has minimal modal coordinates
while the other poles are associated with some torsion modes of the pedestal associated
with some warping as can be inferred from the modal coordinate at station 1 (over the
pedestal cover plate edge, see Fig 6). The beam responds, due to its high flexibility,
with the closest mode shape to the natural frequency of the pedestal. The fact that the
beam was installed eccentric to the pedestal cover plate made the warping of the
pedestal reflect its torsion modes on the beam, otherwise the two subcomponent modes
would be orthogonal. The reflected modes have a larger modal coordinate at the support
location.

Fig. 7: Repeated modes with the characteristics of the 4
th
mode
f= 154.54 HZ f= 162.14 HZ
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Fig. 8: Repeated modes with the characteristics of the 5
th
mode

After distinguishing beam mode from the pedestal modes, a comparison is made in
Table (3) between the modal parameters identified using once the beam measurement
only (subscript
Tb
) and the other using the beam and pedestal measurements (subscript
Tbp
). By examining the table, no significant alteration is realized for frequencies and
MAC values for the mode shapes. A significant note is made to the estimated modal
damping for the reflected modes when analyzing only using beam measurements (5x6
FRF matrix) where its value was negligible (<0.02%). The same modal damping when
using the whole measurement set (5x12 FRF matrix) increased significantly. This may
be attributed to the fact that at the repeated modes reflected from the pedestal to the
beam, the pedestal acts as an actuator driving a free-free beam.

Table 3: Comparing the experimental modal parameters from the 2 sets of data
f
Tb
f
Tbp
(f
Tbp
-f
Tb
)/f
Tb
MAC
Tb
MAC
Tbp
(Hz) (Hz) (%) Value Value
1 4.79 4.80 0.35% 0.998 0.984 -0.014 1.66% 0.76% 0.46
2 29.83 29.83 0.01% 0.997 0.997 0.000 0.33% 0.34% 1.01
3 83.88 83.78 -0.12% 0.997 0.994 -0.003 0.87% 0.83% 0.95
154.54 155.13 0.38% 0.859 0.843 -0.016 0.02% 0.25% 11.18
162.14 162.13 -0.01% 0.992 0.992 0.000 0.19% 0.17% 0.90
263.20 263.20 0.00% 0.996 0.996 0.000 0.15% 0.15% 1.01
279.89 276.44 -1.23% 0.975 0.921 -0.055 0.01% 0.67% 94.86
5

Tbp
MAC
Tb
Mode
Tbp
/
Tbp
4

CONCLUSIONS:
The problem of repeated modes is a significant one in the experimental modal analysis
process because it is a matter of correctness rather than accuracy.
Instrumentation of support system or subcomponents of a system is essential to
distinguish between global modes and local modes of subcomponents
It is advised to instrument the support system with sufficient sensors, if available, to
capture its modes. If not, a recommended minimum is to install sensors at the
f= 263.20 HZ f= 280.89 HZ
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structure/support junction to get its modal coordinate to help distinguish structure
modes from support modes.
In case of lack of measurements to the support system, reflected repeated modes can be
eliminated by comparing modal coordinates at the supports.
Negligible damping and larger modal coordinates at the supports can be considered as
signs of reflected modes that are not intrinsic characteristics of the structure.
Instrumentation of support system usually involves measurements with a low signal-to-
noise ratio. Thus, it is advised to use those measurements only for distinguishing
support modes from structure modes. In order to estimate the modal parameters of the
structure, it is advised to use the more reliable structure responses with the high signal-
to-noise ratio.
REFERENCES:
[1] Pan, Q., System Identification of Constructed Civil Engineering Structures and
Uncertainty, PhD thesis, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, (2007)
[2] Maeck, j., Damage Assessment of Civil Engineering Structures by Vibration
Monitoring PhD thesis, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium, (2003).
[3] Ewins, D.J., Modal Testing: Theory, Practice, and Application, 2
nd
ed., Research
Studies Press Ltd., (2000).
[4] Allemang, R.J., Experimental Modal Analysis, UC-SDRL-CN-20-263-663/664, (1999),
6-42.
[5] Ciloglu, K., The impact of uncertainty in operational modal analysis for structural
identification of constructed systems PhD thesis, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA,
(2006).
[6] Grimmelsman, K.A., Experimental characterization of towers in cable-supported bridges
by ambient vibration testing PhD thesis, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, (2006).
[7] Peeters, B. and De Roeck, G., Stochastic Subspace System Identification of A
Steel Transmitter Mast Proceedings of IMAC-XVI (1998), 130-136.
[8] Peeters, B., System Identification and Damage Detection in Civil Engineering, PhD
thesis, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium, (2000).

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STR-005-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT OF SURFACE SETTLEMENT FOR
TUNNELLING MODELS

M. ZAKI. ABD ELREHIM
E-mail: mostafa_zaki88@yahoo.com
I. A. HUSSIEN
Cairo Metro Line 3, Egyptian-French JV for C.W.
24 El Falaki st, Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: islam_araby@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
The complex behaviour of tunnelling, as a major soil-structure interaction problem, is a
challenging field for researchers. The problem is dependant on many parameters like
geometry, loading sequence, material parameters..etc. Especially, the ground material
parameters are ill-defined in the early design stage. It is a well known fact that problem
modelling and results using numerical methods like the Finite Element Method (FEM)
are greatly dependant on the accuracy of the input parameters. In this context, the
traditional FEM can not give sufficient information about the effect of variation of these
parameters, the design limits and hence the reliability of tunnelling models. In the
current paper, a Stochastic Finite Element Method (SFEM) procedure is employed to
solve the problem of the reliability of tunnelling models. A computer code is developed
and linked to a deterministic FE package that able to handle large models effectively.
Special focus is devoted to the reliability of the predicted tunnelling-induced surface
settlements. Different approaches are followed to evaluate the reliability measures and
indices. The practical application of the proposed method is examined by considering its
application to Cairo Metro, Line 3 phase 1 as a real case problem. The results help
engineers to enrich their calculation for tunnelling models and to improve the quality of
the usual deterministic FEM.
KEYWORDS
Tunnelling, Finite Element, Stochastic Analysis, Reliability.
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STR-005-2
1. INTRODUCTION
The spatial variations encountered in soil structure interaction problems are greatly
affecting the accuracy of results. Engineers have to take their effect in their problems to
provide rational risk assessments to their designs. Sometimes these variations greatly
affect the accuracy of the results and may it lead the analyst to the wrong way. One of
the most common problems in this field is the tunnels excavation, where complicated
construction phases are usually followed. The tunnelling problems are dominated by a
lake of uncertainty, spatial variability of soil properties, loads and simplifications in the
analytical models which in turn affects the results' reliability.
Generally, in the geotechnical problems, the soil parameters are considered the main
source of the uncertainties which are identified by Phoon and Kulhawy [1] to three
primary sources: First, inherent variability which results primarily from the natural
processes that produced and continually modify the soil mass in situ. Second,
equipment, procedural and/or operator, and random testing effects cause measurement
uncertainties. And third, transformation uncertainty is introduced when field or
laboratory measurements are transformed into design soil properties using empirical or
other correlation models.
The surface settlements around the excavated tunnels are usually limited to small values
in order to avoid the damage in the surrounding buildings. An accurate non-linear Finite
Element Modeling (FEM) with appropriate elements is required in order to asses the
overall stability and settlements. The traditional FEM does not take into account the
effect of uncertainties in input parameters caused by assigning a single value for each
parameter.
The assessments of the failure risk needs probabilistic analysis that is able to expect the
range of risk. The necessity of Stochastic Finite Element Methods (SFEM) appears to
solve the most complicated geotechnical applications with many different techniques
such as FORM, SORM, and Monte Carlo Methods. Monte Carlo Simulation is one of
the most common methods that is used in a wide range for the tunnelling models since it
provides a proper behaviour for the highly degrees non-linear equations. The method
has been applied successfully for foundations [2], deep excavations [3] and stability of
slopes and embankments [4]. The reliability assessment is another common method that
can remove the ambiguity from the geotechnical models [5].
This paper aims to present the current engineering risk concepts in tunnelling in order to
raise awareness of uncertainty in numerical computations, shortcomings of a strictly
probabilistic safety concept and geotechnical models of failure mechanisms. The
assessments of reliability and probability of failure in the tunnelling problems are
discussed in a practical example of non-linear SFEA of Cairo Metro Line 3 phase 1 in
order to present the general framework of the probabilistic analysis on the tunnelling
models and to assess the sensitivity of the variable inputs.

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STR-005-3
2. MONTE CARLO (MC) SIMULATION:

Monte Carlo simulation is employed here as a procedure to simulate stochastic
processes by sampling a set of properties for the materials from their joint probability
distribution function and introducing them in the model. It is a powerful tool that is
applicable to both linear and non-linear problems, but it requires a large number of
simulations to give a reliable distribution of the response. Monte Carlo sampling
concept has been presented as in [6], Fig. 1.

Fig. 1: Probabilistic analysis based on Monte Carlo sampling

The general framework of direct MC method is represented as defining the domain of
possible inputs (geometry, loads or materials). The error range can be specified and
assigned for the probabilistic inputs with a certain probability distribution function
which can be for example Uniform, Triangle, Lognormal, Normaletc. A deterministic
FE calculation is performed for each set of random variables in order to aggregate the
results (displacements, strains and stresses) of the individual computations into the final
results. Statistical information is formed to asses the probability density and the
cumulative distribution functions. A non linear regression should be performed in order
to measure the different variable's effect. The Monte Carlo simulation flowchart is
illustrated in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: General flow chart of MC simulation
Generate a random value
for each driver
Calculate the Outputs and
their response
Calculate all the
Statistical
Information for each
output
Repeat N Times
Choose the most suitable
statistical distribution for
each driver
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STR-005-4
Point estimators provide single value estimates of population parameters, with no
indication of the precision of the estimate, whereas confidence intervals estimate
parameters with a whole range values, and the width of the interval indicates the
precision of the estimate. Hence, confidence level can be considered as a measure of
reliability of the generated population within the interval. In order to provide confident
practical results, the width of confidence interval should be checked. After choosing a
proper confidence level the confidence bounds can be calculated from the following
formula:
n
z

(1)
Where is the mean value, is the standard deviation and for a component
k
Y they are
denoted by:
{ }
{ }
2 2
and
( )
k
k k
Y k
Y k Y
E Y
E Y

=
=
(2)
n samples size z is obtained by calculating the area under the standard normal curve that
equals (1- ) %, see Fig. 3.

Fig. 3: Graphical representation of Confidence limits

3. SFEM CODE

The MC simulation technique involves expensive computations due to the required
successive FE analyses. Consequently, the need for developing efficient computational
techniques emerges, in order to accelerate the MC simulations procedure and make it
more tractable in structural engineering practice. The use of efficient deterministic FE
software with robust computational techniques will be of great help in speeding up the
computation time and hence improving the applicability of MC method.

In the present work, the main concern in designing the SFEM code is devoted to the
possibility of including the stochastic responses to any FE package. The key point for
this task, is to carefully studying and modifying the input and output languages of the
considered package and developing the suitable interface codes between SFEM code
and FE package. The details of the main steps of combining SFEM to standard FE
packages can be found in a previous paper [7].

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STR-005-5
For tunnelling problems, the SFEM code is linked to a modified version of FINAL
package [8]. This package takes into account the complex non-linear soil structure
interaction. In addition, many developments in material models [9] and many
improvements in computational techniques and equation solver strategies [10-11] are
introduced to reduce the computation time and to enhance the overall efficiency of the
package when dealing with large complex models.

In the new version, FINAL_Stochastic, all material constants variables, either elastic or
elasto-plastic, can be treated as random variables. All statistical distributions can be
used and correlation is possible between random variables.
4. ANALYSIS OF BORED TUNNEL USING TBM

The practical application of the proposed method is examined by considering its
application to Cairo metro line 3, phase 1 as follows.

4.1 Description of the deterministic problem
The considered cross section in the analysis is close to the BMT-21 borehole at KP 0.4
from Abbasia station or KP 18.97 in the global system between the TBM entry shaft
and Abbasia station. Figure 4, depicts the soil stratification, dimension and position of
the tunnel at this cross section. It also illustrates the general FE mesh adopted for model
calculations.

Fig. 4: Tunnel geometry, soil stratification and general FE mesh

The geotechnical parameters used in the FE analysis are given in Table 1. These
parameters are extracted from the site interpretative report [12] which results from an
extensive soil exploration and testing program.
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STR-005-6
Table 1 Geotechnical parameters for different layers
Levels (m) Soil Parameters
Layers
From To E (kN/m
2
) Pois. Ratio
(kN/m
3
)

C (kN/m
2
)
Layer 1 31.2 30.2 4000 0.30 17.0 27.0 0.0
Layer 2 30.2 18.5 45000 0.30 20.0 38.5 0.0
Layer 3 18.5 4.1 50000 0.30 10.0 38.5 0.0
Layer 4 4.1 6.8 20000 0.49 8.0 10.0 100.0
Layer 5 6.8 -12.0 50000 0.30 10.0 39.0 0.0

Soil elements are modelled using plain-strain finite elements and following the simple
Mohr-Coulomb elasto-plastic criterion characterized by a Young's Modulus and a
Poissons ratio for the elastic part, cohesion and a friction angle for the plastic behavior
expressed in terms of effective stresses. Concrete segmental lining' elements are
modelled using beam elements as an elastic material, provided that its limit strength is
not reached.

In the deterministic part of the analysis, given parameters in Table 1 are used in the
general FEM. To have more realistic results, the construction sequence should be
perfectly followed in the model. The load cases include:

LC1 The geostatic initial stress before tunnel excavation.
LC2 Application of surface loads.
LC3 Tunnel excavation and application of machine slurry pressure.
LC4 Tunnel lining activation.
LC5 Activation of ground water pressure on lining and long term effect.

The deformational behaviour during tunnelling is of special importance for the safety of
the surface structures (buildings, utilities etc.). The predicted maximum surface
settlement at tunnel center line, as extracted from a single deterministic FE calculation,
is only 11.0 mm.

4.2 Description of the stochastic data

The numerical models of tunnelling problems have many parameters affecting the
results according to their relative weights and effect on the model. Geometry, loading
and unloading sequence, construction sequence, material constant values and material
laws are samples of these parameters. It is not easy or even impossible to include all
these parameters in a stochastic process with a considerable confidence on the output
results. Simplifying assumptions are greatly needed to solve this problem. One of the
ways is to try finding the key controlling parameters that have more impact on the
results, in order to minimize the discrepancy between model and reality, using
sensitivity analyses. These different factors have been examined for the present example
by some variations in simple successive deterministic FE calculations. Following
standard practical modelling techniques for tunnelling problems using TBM machines,
it was found that the mechanical parameters of soil layers have more influence in the
deformational behavior of the model.
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STR-005-7
The assessment of the reliability of the predicted settlement in the previous step is now
investigated under the assumption that the soil parameters of different layers are
homogeneous random fields. The Youngs modulus, cohesion and fractional angels for
every soil layer are considered as random variables with lognormal probability
distribution to avoid possible negative values in the normal distribution. The Poisson's
ratio for every soil layer is considered a random variable with truncated normal
probability distribution to guarantee realistic values (
0 0.5 < <
) and to avoid any
numerical instability during calculation. The considered statistical values for all
variables are given in Table 2 for soil parameters.

Table 2 Soil statistical parameters for different layers
Distribution Function Parameters
Layer Name Soil Parameters
Type
E (RV1) Lognormal 4.00E+03 1600
Poisson (RV6) Truncated Normal 0.30 0.120 Layer 1
Phi (RV11) Lognormal 27.00 10.800
Cohesion (RV14) Lognormal 100.00 40.000

In order to specify the most sensitive parameters, the coefficient of variation
(C.O.V.= / , where is the mean and is the standard deviation) for all soil
parameters is assumed to be 40% . But it should be noted that the considered mean and
C.O.V. are responsible for adjusting most of the generated random values to lie within
the practical range for every layer.

A primarily analysis was done considering 1000 samples with confidence 95%. The
surface settlement at the tunnel center line is reviewed in order to check the validity of
number of samples. Figures 5 and 6 show a slight difference in mean and standard
deviation respectively after 500 samples.
-902-
STR-005-8
-17
-15
-13
-11
-9
-7
-5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Sample No.
M
e
a
n

(

m
m

)
Mean
95% Confidence

Fig. 5: History of mean values for surface settlement at tunnel center line

0
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Sample No.
S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d

D
e
v
i
a
t
i
o
n

Fig. 6: History of Standard deviation values for surface settlement at tunnel center line

4.3 Sensitivity analyses

One of the quite useful applications of SFEM from an engineering point of view is the
evaluation of the response of the numerical model to the uncertainty on any particular
parameter considered in the model. An a priori appraisal of this effect at the design
stage of tunnelling process can be helpful to define the parameters that must be
evaluated with special care.

SFEM requires a combination between the variable parameters to give realistic results.
The developed SFEM algorithm uses a non-linear regression technique to evaluate the
response of each parameter that is contributing in the model's uncertainties. The
influence of the parameters is based on the coefficient of determination "R
2
" which
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STR-005-9
provides a measure of the predicted correlation between the input variables and model
outcomes. The evaluation of the probabilistic inputs sensitivities is plotted in Fig. 7
where it is clear that the effect of modulus of elasticity and Poisson ratio around the
excavated part is high whereas the effect of cohesion and fractional angel is very low
for all soil layers as they don't have a significant effect on surface settlements.
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
E
P
o
i
s
s
o
n
P
h
i
E
P
o
i
s
s
o
n
P
h
i
E
P
o
i
s
s
o
n
P
h
i
E
P
o
i
s
s
o
n
C
o
h
e
s
i
o
n
E
P
o
i
s
s
o
n
P
h
i
C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

o
f

d
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
,
R
2
Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer 3 Layer 4 Layer 5

Fig. 7: The probabilistic inputs sensitivities at the central surface settlement

Sample of the typical results obtained from this type of analysis is illustrated in Fig. 8
where the expected values of surface settlement at tunnel center line is represented due
to a non-linear regression between the outcomes and variable inputs "RV3". In Fig. 8
the effect of the most sensitive parameter (modulus of elasticity for the excavated soil)
on the output results is shown.
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000 90000 100000
Generated Random Values
S
e
t
t
e
l
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)

Fig. 8: Settlement predictions for variation of RV3

Figure 7 depicts that RV3 and RV8 are, in order, the most important parameters
affecting the model. This means that both Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio of the
layer containing the tunnel are the key controlling parameters for accurately predicting
settlement rather than surface or other layers. Graph of the type presented in Fig. 7
provides a valuable insight into the relative importance of the different parameters for
accurate settlement estimation and consequently the relative importance of their
determination.

-904-

STR-005-10

After assessing the most sensitive parameters, a new probabilistic analysis has been
carried out with soil parameters of layers 2 and 3 simultaneously to calculate the
reliability of the surface settlement at the tunnel center line. Despite the small sensitivity
values of soil parameters of layer 2; it has been selected to raise the awareness of its
effect. The coefficient of variation (C.O.V.) for Young's modulus is assumed to be 20%.
The coefficient of variation for Poisson's ratio is assumed to be 10%. These values are
assumed based on the expected allowable tolerance on the geotechnical laboratory
results.

The number of MC simulations has been raised to 3000 for the parameters RV2, RV3,
RV7 and RV8 and it has been repeated to ensure that the results will not change. A
confidence percentage 95% has been applied. The expectation of the surface settlements
and their upper and lower limits are shown in Fig. 9. The limits are expressed in terms
of the mean and standard deviations of the output results.

The assessment of failure risk can be expressed in terms of the probability of failure for
the extracted results. The type of distribution function for the central surface settlements
is assumed to follow the Gaussian distribution. The probability density and the
cumulative distribution function of the surface settlement at the tunnel center line are
shown in Fig. 10. It has Mean () = -10.961 mm and Standard Deviation () = 1.757.

The probability of failure for any settlement occurrence can be assessed as shown in
Fig.10. For example the probability of failure for central surface settlement that exceeds
15 mm is 2.6%.

The reliability index () is another common factor that is used in the geotechnical field
to asses the failure risk and it can be calculated as follows [5]:

] . [
1 ] . [
S F
S F E

=
(3)

Once the reliability index is calculated, the probability of failure can be obtained by:

-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
0 5 10 15 20 25
Distance (m)
U

(
m
m
)
+ -

Fig. 9: Upper and lower safety limits of surface settlement
-905-

STR-005-11
0
50
100
150
200
250
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0
Settlement Values (mm)
P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

D
e
n
s
i
t
y

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

D
i
s
t
r
i
b
u
t
i
o
n

Probability Density
Cumulative Distribution
0.974

Fig.10: Probability density and cumulative distribution function for the central surface
settlement values

) ( 1
f
P (4)

Where is the cumulative normal density function.

If maximum surface settlement is considered to be 15 mm the reliability index and the
probability of failure for the safety factor at surface can be shown in Fig.11, it is clear
that at the tunnel center line = 1.79 and P
f
= 3.62%.

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Distance (X)
R
e
l
i
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

I
n
d
e
x

(
)

0.00%
0.50%
1.00%
1.50%
2.00%
2.50%
3.00%
3.50%
4.00%
P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

o
f

(

>

lim
)
Reliability
Index ()
Probability
of ( > lim)
The Bored Tunnel

Fig.11: The reliability index and the probability of failure for the calculated safety
factor at surface

The assessment of probability of failure for different pre-assigned limits of vertical
deformations is illustrated in Fig. 12.

-906-

STR-005-12
In this particular application, no attempt was made to model spatial variability of
mechanical properties for each layer with random fields. This is due to the fact that the
present analysis attempts to represent the conditions existing at the design stage, when
no data regarding spatial variations of each parameter are available. Spatial variability
in earth works is generally a secondary source of uncertainty as compared to the basic
lack of reliable data on the mechanical properties of the different types of soils forming
the supporting media. Moreover, the results reflect the importance of having a priori
information about the relative influence of different parameters uncertainties on the
output results during and after tunnelling.
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Distance (X)
P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

o
f

(

>

l
i
m
)

lim =1.5 cm
lim =1.4 cm
lim =1.3 cm
lim =1.2 cm
lim =1.1 cm
lim =1.0 cm
The Bored Tunnel

Fig.12: Probability of exceeding the limited vertical deformation along the surface

5. CONCLUSIONS

Due to the spatial variation in geotechnical models the Stochastic Finite Element
method (SFEM) in the tunnelling engineering becomes necessary. The deterministic
Finite Element Method is not able to give accurate results in this type of problems
because it studies the response of a single value for each parameter. More additional
statistical information can be provided by SFEM which helps in assessing the tunnelling
models reliability.

The probability of failure through a practicable example of an existing tunnel model,
Cairo metro line 3 phase 1, has been assessed. A detailed probabilistic Finite Element
analysis has been performed in order to apply the main theory of SFEM using Monte
Carlo simulation. The random inputs have been tested by calculating the width of the
confidence intervals with confidence level 95%. The sensitivity analysis has been
performed by applying non linear regression between the variable soil parameters and
the surface vertical deformations above the tunnel center line. The probability of failure
in Monte Carlo simulation can be assessed directly or by using the reliability index.

The results of FE analysis are dramatically improved by employing the stochastic
analysis techniques. As a general result, engineers can enrich their models with
statistical basis for input/output error behaviour which consequently will result in
increased clarity of regulation guidelines regarding allowable settlement values for
tunnelling projects.
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6. REFERENCES

1- Phoon K., and F. Kulhawy, Characterization of geotechnical variability. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal ; 36(4):612624, (1999).
2- Fenton G.A., D.V. Griffiths, Probabilistic foundation settlement on spatially
random soil. Journal of Geotechnic. and Geoenvironmental Engineering (ASCE);
128(5):381390, (2002).
3- Schweiger H.F. and G. Peschl, Basic Concepts and Applications of Random Sets in
Geotechnical Engineering, in Probabilistic Methods in Geotech. Eng. Edit by
Griffiths, DV. and GA. Fenton. Springer Wien New Work, (2007).
4- Mellaha R., G. Auvinetb and F. Masrouria, Stochastic finite element method
applied to non-linear analysis of embankments. Probabilistic Eng. Mechanics,
(15)251-259, (2000).
5- El-Ramly H., N.R. Morgenstern, and D.M. Cruden, Probabilistic stability analysis of
a tailings dyke on presheared clayshale, Canadian Geotechnical Journal ; 40:
192208, (2003).
6- Schenk C.A. and G.I. Schuller, Direct Monte Carlo Simulation, in: Uncertainty
Assessment of Large Finite Element Systems, LNACM 24, pp. 5961. Springer-
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, (2005).
7- Abd Elrehim, M.Z. and Hussein, I.A., A Stochastic Finite Element Method Applied
to Tunnelling Problems, Ain Shams Journal of Civil Engineering ASJCE, Vol.1
No.1, March (2009).
8- Swoboda G., Programmsystem FINAL, Finite Element Analysis linearer und
nichtlinearer Stukturen, Version 7.1, Druck Universitt Innsbruck, Austria, (2001).
9- Abd Elrehim M.Z., I. Hladik and G. Swoboda, Large computer models for
underground openings in jointed rock. Proc. 5
th
World Congress on Computational
Mechanics, Vienna, Austria, (2002). (http://wccm.tuwien.ac.at/).
10- Abd Elrehim M.Z., Improvement of Computational Techniques and its Application
to FE Geotechnical Models. Scientific Bulletin, Ain Shams University, Faculty of
Engineering, Cairo, Egypt, Vol. 38, No. 3, pp. 115-130, (2003).
11- Abd Elrehim M.Z., M. Reed and G. Swoboda, Impact of Iterative Solvers to Large
Complex Numerical Models. Proc. of the Asian-Pacific Conference on
Computational Mechanics (APCOM), Sydney, Australia, Vol. 1, pp 171-179,
November (2001).
12- National Authority for Tunnels (NAT). Geotechnical report No.
150.G2.AAC.000.N.003: Site investigation interpretative report for tunnel from
TBM shaft to Attaba station, Cairo, (2008).

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13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt




SEISMIC RETROFIT OF SHOPPING MALL SKYLIGHT USING
SLIDING BEARINGS

WAIEL MOWRTAGE (VAIL KARAKALE)
Assistant.Prof.Dr, Technology faculty, Kirklareli university, Kirklareli,Turkey
E-mail: vail.karakale@kirklareli.edu.tr or waiel.mowrtage@boun.edu.tr

EREN KALAFAT
President, ULUS YAPI BUILDING MATERIALS, CONSTRUCTION,
CONTRACTING AND TRADE COMPANY LIMITED, Istanbul, Turkey
E-mail: eren.kalafat@ulusyapi.com

ABSTRACT
In this paper the seismic performance of Skylight pyramidal dome in a Shopping Mall
in Istanbul were investigated. The Skylight is a steel structure supported on 16
reinforced concrete columns at the 10th floor of the Shopping Mall. The horizontal span
of the skylight is 40 m and its total height is 14 m. One half of the skylight structure sits
on block C and the other part sits on block D, which are separated by a seismic joint.
Although these two blocks are structurally designed as identical there exists a chance of
having differential ground motion on the supports of the skylight structure due to the
possibility of different response that the blocks C and D may exhibit during strong
earthquakes. The current support conditions of the skylight structure are not designed to
accommodate any possible differential support motion. As such we decided it will be
prudent to replace the supports on block C with sliding bearings. Nonlinear time history
analysis was performed on SAP2000 finite element model of the skylight with and
without the new support conditions under earthquake excitations. After analysis design
check shows that the existing steel members of the skylight are not satisfactory before
retrofit and are satisfactory after retrofit using sliding bearings .The paper present the
analysis methodology and the retrofit measures.
KEYWORDS
Skylight, Seismic retrofit, sliding bearing
1 INTRODUCTION
Seismic safety of structures is an important issue especially at major shopping malls. A
major Shopping Mall in Istanbul were well designed and constructed to resist seismic
forces , but the support condition of its skylight pyramid were not well detailed to
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STR-006-2
accommodate any possible differential support motion. The shopping Mall consists of
five separate building consisting of blocks A, B, C, D and E. These blocks are separated
from each other by expansion joints. Blocks A, B, C and D are structurally designed to
be identical of each other, and are mainly used for retail shopping. Block E however,
contains recreational and entertainment facilities. A general layout of the Shopping Mall
is presented in Figure 1.

Fig 1. Layout of the Shopping Mall

Block B Block A
Block D
Block C
Block E
Skaylight
pyramidal dome
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STR-006-3

All blocks are 10 stories high; the first 4 storeys are used for parking and service areas,
while the top 6 storeys are for retail shops. The shopping mall covers a total
construction area of 356000 square meters. The structural system of the Shopping Mall
blocks is primarily composed of moment resisting 3D orthogonal frames. Around the
periphery of the structure, at the 1 underground basement floor levels, there are
reinforced concrete walls. These walls are monolithically constructed with the structural
frames. One half of the skylight structure sits on block C and the other part sits on block
D, which are separated by a seismic joint. Although these two blocks are structurally
designed as identical there exists a chance of having differential ground motion on the
supports of the skylight structure due to the possibility of different response that the
blocks C and D may exhibit during strong earthquakes. In this paper a seismic time
history analysis to investigate the performance of Shopping Mall Skylight pyramid
under earthquake excitation were performed and a retrofit project by using PTEF sliding
bearing were proposed.

2 ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY
To assess the performance and safety of the skylight structure and the possible retrofit
measures the following analysis methodology is adopted:
1. Structural modelling of the skylight structure.
2. Simple structural modelling of blocks C and D
3. Selection of the assessment/retrofit design basis earthquake ground motion
4. Determination of the top floor response (which will be used as the input motion for
the skylight structure) assuming that the blocks C and D respond together.
5. Assessment of the differential response of the blocks. For this purpose we have
assigned different yield levels (i.e. different masses assuming same elastic stiffness),
computed their nonlinear response individually and estimated the differential response.
6. Change of support conditions. The current support conditions of the skylight structure
(hence its structural system) are not designed to accommodate any possible differential
support motion. As such we decided it will be prudent to replace the supports on block
C with slider bearings. For the safety and integrity of the skylight structure, such a
change of support conditions would require the installation of two tension elements
across the main supports of the skylight structure as illustrated in Figure 2.
7. Analysis of the skylight structure. The skylight structure will be analyzed with the
new support conditions and the tension elements under gravity loading and earthquake
loading (using the ground motions obtained in 4) to obtain the forces in the structural
elements and the support reactions.
8. Checking the displacement capacity of the slider supports against the differential
motion obtained in item (4) and (5).
9. Provision of a schematic design of the slider supports and the retrofit measures.

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STR-006-4
3 STRUCTURAL MODELING AND ANALYSIS RESULTS
The Skylight pyramidal dome is a steel structure supported on 16 reinforced concrete
columns at the 10th floor of block C and D .The horizontal span of the skylight is 40 m
and its total height is 14.55 m. The skylight was modelled using SAP2000 software, the
steel members were modelled as frame elements and the glass panels were modelled as
thin shell elements.3D view of the model is shown in Figure 2.

Fig 2. Finite element model and a Photograph of the skylight

To design the proposed sliding bearings it is required to know the vertical load acting on
each bearing and to know the possible displacement that they will slide. Hence it is
required first to know the seismic response of the top of the two 10 story building
blocks C and D For this reason each of the 10 story building blocks was modelled as an
equivalent nonlinear single degree of freedom system with equivalent mass and
equivalent stiffness as shown in Figure 3.

Fig 3. Equivalent nonlinear single degree of freedom system

Steel tie pipes
Roller supports
Hinge supports
PTEF sliding
bearing
Block C
Block D
Skylight
M=5 x 10
7
kg
K = 2 x 10
9
N/m
Equivalent single degree of freedom
system for block D
Assumed period
= 0.8 sec
Assumed period
= 1 sec
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STR-006-5

The mass of block D including 30% of the live load is equal to 7 x 107 kg. For the
construction of the equivalent single degree of freedom system we took the 70% of this
total mass to yield 5 x 10
7
kg as the mass (M) of this equivalent SDF model. Assuming
that the fundamental modal frequency of vibration of the 10 story building (i.e. block D)
is equal to about f =1Hz, the stiffness of the equivalent SDF system (K) can be found
as:
K/M = (2 f )
2
, f = 1 Hz, K= 2 x 10
9
N/m
The total height of the equivalent single degree of freedom system= 0.75 x 40 m = 30
m.The capacity (pushover) curve of the equivalent nonlinear single degree of freedom
system was calculated using the HAZUS (1999) [1] methodology, as shown in the
figure below

Fig 4. Building Capacity Curve and Control Points

Where:
Cs = design strength coefficient (function of building weight as specified by the relevant
seismic design code),
T
e
= period of the building fundamental mode of vibration,
1
= fraction of the building weight effective in push-over mode,
= over strength factor relating true yield strength to design strength, and
= over strength factor relating ultimate strength to yield strength.
From Turkish design code
Base shear = Cs .W, where W = building weight and Cs = A
0
.I .S (T
e
)/ R

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STR-006-6
For block D 10 story building
W= 957070 kN , A
0
= 0.3 ,I =1.2,
S(Te) =1.14 and R =7
Then Cs = 0.06, assuming Te= 1 sec and From HAZUS-MH MR3 Technical manual[1]
Table No 5.4 the 10 story block D building type was fund to be Type- C1H, and from
Table No5.5 the values of
1
= 0.77 , = 1.18 , = 3 were obtained.
From the formula in Figure 4 the capacity (pushover) curve of the equivalent single
degree of freedom system for block D was obtained and presented in Figure 5.
Ay = Cs /
1
= 0.06 x 1.18 /0.77 = 0.091
As a result the ultimate load the equivalent single degree of freedom system = Ay W
= 3 x 0.091 x 5 x10
8
= 14 x 10
7
N
Yield displacement = ultimate load/elastic stiffness = 14 x10
7
/2 x10
9
= 0.07 m = 70mm

Fig 5. Pushover curve of the equivalent single degree of freedom system

Using the formulation above similar curve was obtained for block C assuming period of
vibration of 0.8 sec. Then the nonlinear equivalent single degree of freedom system of
block C and D were modelled as a nonlinear link element in SAP2000 program.
The Shopping Mall located at second zone earthquake hazard according on the basis of
the Turkish earthquake code with an effective acceleration coefficient of A
0
= 0.3 .
Investigations of probabilistic earthquake hazard conducted by Erdik et al(2004) [2]
yields the spectral accelerations ( associated with 10% probability in 50 years ) at 1 sec
and 0.25 sec as S
1
= 0.35g and S
s
= 0.8g . Three earthquake time histories compatible

L
a
t
e
r
a
l

l
o
a
d

70 mm
Top Displacement
Ultimate load = 14 x 10
7
N
Stiffness = 2 x 10
9
N/m
-914-

STR-006-7
with the NEHRP( or IBC 2006) [3] spectrum shape based on these S
1
and S
s
values are
generated for use in the structural analysis.
For the assessment of the differential response of the blocks we have assigned different
yield levels (i.e. different masses assuming same elastic stiffness) and computed their
nonlinear response individually. Using the nonlinear equivalent single degree of
freedom SAP2000 model, nonlinear time history analysis was performed two times. In
the first time the equivalent single degree of freedom structural period was about 1 sec
and in the second time (by changing the mass of the structural system, and keeping the
same elastic stiffness) the period of the equivalent single degree of freedom structure
was about 0.8 sec ( See Figure 3 ).The top displacement response for the two blocks
were obtained for the three earthquake records and the maximum difference in response
were plotted in Figure 6.From results it can be seen that maximum difference in the
nonlinear displacement response of block C and D is about 130 mm.

Fig 6. Top displacement response for the two blocks under TH1 earthquake

The skylight structure with the new support conditions and the tension elements were
analyzed under the affect of gravity loads (i.e. dead loads and live loads) and earthquake
loads using nonlinear time history analysis.In the beginning modal analysis was
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (sec)
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
m
)
T1-T0.8 for time history No1
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time ( sec )
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(

m
m

)
T=0.8 sec
T= 1 sec
-915-

STR-006-8
preformed then six nonlinear time history analysis cases were preformed. In each case
the structure was subjected to gravity load ( dead loads +0.3 Live loads ) first with a
ramp function ,then one of the time history records obtained in item (4) ( i.e. the
acceleration response at the top of block C ) were applied to the base of the structure.
Each record was applied once in X direction and once in Y direction making six
nonlinear time history analysis cases.For each analysis case the envelop diagrams of the
internal forces in the skylight members were obtained and steel design check shows
that the steel members of the skylight are satisfactory. Also the time history of support
reaction forces were obtained .From the results it is find that the maximum lateral
reaction force on the higher elevation reinforced concrete column supports will be 300
kN as shown in Figure 7a .This force will case a bending moment at the base of the
column of 300 kN x 7 m = 2100 kN.m .The ultimate moment capacity of the higher
elevation RC column was 1098 kN.m which is less than the applied moments by the
gravity loads and earthquake affects, this means that existing higher elevation RC
support columns need to be strengthened. Also from the analysis results we find that the
maximum axial force on the slider supports is 440kN as shown in Figure 7b.

( a ) lateral reaction of hinge support ( b ) maximum vertical reaction on sliding bearing

Fig 7. Maximum support reactions of the skylight

80 cm diameter RC column
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STR-006-9

Fig 8. PTFE sliding bearing cross section details

In this project PTFE sidings bearing were used for their following advantages:
PTFE has the lowest coefficient of friction, there is no stick-slip action, they have
indefinite life, No maintenance is required, the bearings are easily installed, either pre-
assembled or on site. From the analysis results the maximum displacement of the
sliding bearing was 13 cm, for safety the provided bearings have 30 cm displacement
capacity. Figure 8 shows cross section details of the sliding PTFE bearing.
4 CONCLUSIONS
From the nonlinear analysis results the PTEF sliding bearings of the skylight structures
were designed to withstand the possible differential displacements at the top of the 10
story block buildings C and D during an earthquake. Analysis results shows that by
using the PTEF sliding bearings the seismic safety of the shopping Mall skylight is
satisfied.
5 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors would like to thanks Prof.Dr.M.Erdik and Prof.Dr.S.Tezcan for their valuable
consultations during project analysis, design and construction steps.
6 REFERENCES
[1] HAZUS (1999)
[2] Erdik M,M.Demircioglu,K.Sesetyan,E.Durkal and B.Siyahi,Earthquake Hazard
in Marmara Region ,Turkey Soil Dynamic and Earthquake Engineering(2004)
24,605-631
[3] IBC 2006
[4] SAP 2000 software
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STR-007-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





SOIL-STRUCTURE INTERACTION EFFECTS ON SEISMIC RESPONSE
OF BUILDINGS WITH MULTIPLE BASEMENT FLOORS

O. M.O. RAMADAN
Structural Engineering Department, Cairo University
Cairo, EGYPT
B. E. H. MAHMOUD
Cairo, EGYPT
E-mail: bahaa1960@yahoo.com
A. H. A. KHALAF
Cairo, EGYPT
E-mail: ahmed.hamed1980@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Soil-structure interaction (SSI) has important effects on the seismic response of structures as it
modifies both deformations and internal forces. This alters both the serviceability and strength limit
states. These SSI effects are primarily caused by the unbounded nature of soil medium and the
nonlinear behaviour of soil material. This study investigates the effects of SSI on free vibration and
seismic response of buildings with basements. Nonlinear seismic response analyses of buildings
with basements are conducted via the direct approach in time domain. Finite element simulations
are developed using OPENSEES program. Results are presented for different soil strengths
(Vs=120, 175, 250m/sec, and rigid rocks); number of stories (10, 15, and 20); number of basement
floors (0, 1, 2, and 3); and different earthquake ground motions. In our analyses, interface elements
are used between the structure and soil elements to allow for possible separations. To evaluate the
usually-made assumption of full-bond between soil and structure elements, the analysis is repeated
assuming full bond. Based on numerical results of the considered cases, it is found that foundation
flexibility results in elongation of the fundamental period of 35%, 21%, and 11%, for soils with
Vs=120, 175, and 250m/s, respectively. For the same soils, SSI resulted in a decrease in the
spectral accelerations of 37%, 21%, and 9%, respectively. It is shown that as the number of
basement floors increases these effects become less pronounced and, in some cases, a reverse effect
is obtained for buildings with multiple basement floors. Finally, the usually-made assumption of
full-bond between soil and structure elements is shown to be inappropriate as it could lead to in-
conservative designs in many cases.
KEYWORDS
Seismic response, soil-structure interaction, nonlinear analysis, basement floors, free vibration,
time history analysis.
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STR-007-2
1 INTRODUCTION
Observations during major earthquakes as well as research demonstrated the important effects that
soil-structure interaction (SSI) has on the seismic response of buildings (Preisig 2005, El Naggar
2003, El Naggar et al. 2001, Kutanis & Elmas 2000) and on large structures such as bridges, dams,
and pipelines (see, e.g., Ramadan 2002, Ramadan and Novak 1992 & 1993, and Novak and
Ramadan 1993). These studies employed the substructure method and the direct approach, analyzed
two-dimensional and three-dimensional soil-structure systems, investigated both linear and
nonlinear material behaviours of soil and structure, and considered different peak ground
accelerations and various soil stiffnesses. All studies reported significant effects of SSI on the
seismic response of different structures.
The seismic response of buildings with multiple basement floors is complicated by the effects of
several factors. Among these factors are the nonlinear material behaviour of the structure and soil;
frequency-dependence of soil impedance; and the non-stationary characteristic of seismic ground
motions. As a result, publications on this subject are scarce. El Naggar (2003) performed two
dimensional finite element analyses to investigate seismic response of the Milad TV-tower in Iran.
Two different soil models were used to represent the soil behaviour: a nonlinear model in the near
filed region (bounded medium); and a linear one in the far filed region (unbounded medium). He
concluded that, depending on the conditions, SSI may decrease or increase the drift and base shear
of tall slender structures. Besides, he found that SSI may not always have a favourable effect but
could be detrimental in some cases.
2 MODLLING OF SSI SYSTEMS
The efficiency, accuracy and numerical stability of the seismic response (or dynamic) analysis of
nonlinear SSI systems are controlled by the following key factors.
2.1 Size of Soil Element (L)
The finite element size (mesh size) has a significant effect on the solution accuracy. To accurately
model the travelling waves of all important frequencies, not less than 10 nodes per minimum
wavelength (wave) are required (Preisig (2005). Besides, the grid spacing of the finite element
mesh can be considered sufficiently fine if frequencies up to 10Hz are represented accurately in the
numerical analysis.
2.2 Modelled Soil Region
The size of soil region included in the structure model has important effects on the solutions
efficiency and accuracy. A large-size finite element model is not efficient for nonlinear time history
analysis as it requires large computational runtime and efforts. Alternatively, many analysts divide
the soil medium into two regions: a small, bounded soil region (near-field) in which the nonlinear
behaviour of soil is considered; and the unbounded soil region (far-filed) which is usually modelled
as a linear elastic material. The bounded and unbounded soil mediums are separated by a so-called
interaction horizon. The location of the interaction horizon is very important but it can be
determined in terms of the system characteristic length (EL Naggar et al. 2001).

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STR-007-3
2.3 Damping
In SSI problems, damping arises from two sources (Stewart 1998): material imperfection and wave
travelling in the soil unbounded medium (geometric or radiation damping). The classical damping
assumption (only one value of the damping ratio for the whole system) is not appropriate for SSI
systems as they consist of components (structure, near-field soil, and far-field soil) with
significantly different levels of damping (Chopra 1995).

The modal damping ratio for soil is typically much larger than for the structure. Therefore, the
damping matrix for full SSI system is constructed by direct assembling the damping matrices of its
components or subsystems. In this study, the subsystem damping matrices are constructed by the
Rayleigh damping procedure available in Opensees platform. Opensees allows the user to assign a
different damping ratio for each the various used groups of the elements.
2.4 Time Step (t)
The time step needs to be small-enough to: 1) allow the finite element with size L to sense waves
travelling with speed V i.e. t<L/V; (2) permit accurate capturing of the time variations of
seismic ground motions; and 3) accelerate numerical convergence of the nonlinear solution.
Determination of appropriate t may involve little iteration as the best way to determine whether
the time step is appropriate for a given analysis is to run a second analysis with a reduced time step
and compare the results.
2.5 Domain Boundaries
They are conditions applied at the ends of the finite element mesh to replace the "missing" soil
medium, which extends to infinity. These conditions must act as wave window by absorbing all
out-going waves and preventing wave reflections back into the computational domain. One way to
do so is to use transmitting boundaries consisting of springs and dashpots in direction of all
degrees of freedom at the boundary. More information on this subject is found elsewhere (Khalaf
2009, Preisig 2005, Ismail et al. 2000, and Gazetas 1991). In this study, the transmitting boundary
parameters (springs and dashpots factors) were calculated at a frequency equal to the average of the
lowest three frequencies of the structure.
3 NUMERICAL APPLICATIONS
Ten-story buildings with up to three basement floors (Figure 1) were studied. Different soil
materials varying from very loose to dense sand were considered. The soil shear wave velocity, V
s

is taken to be 60, 120 and 180m/sec. Gravity loads were included in the model as they affect the
nonlinear behavior of structure and soil materials. The model of the building-soil system consists of
three components as discussed below.
3.1 Building
The building, or structure, includes beams, columns, retaining walls, and raft foundation. All are
modelled to represent a typical building portion of tributary width (between frames) of 4.0m.
Structure elements are modelled using a nonlinear element, which is based on iterative force
formulation by defining fiber section. Fiber sections are discretized into smaller regions for which
the material stress-strain response is integrated to give resultant behavior (McKenna 2001).

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STR-007-4
3.2 Soil
Soil is modelled with four-node quadratic elements. The so called PressureDependMultiYield
material from Openseess material library is used to define the nonlinear behavior of soil (Yang
2003).
3.3 Interface Elements
They are used at the soil-structure interface. Nonlinear (no tension) rigid links are used to connect
the retaining wall elements to neighbouring soil elements. These interface elements are able to
transfer only compressive stresses. When the stresses between the retaining walls and soil become
tension, partial separation occurs and the stresses transferred through the rigid links turn to be zero.

The mesh representing the building-soil system consisted of more than 1800 nodes, 115 frame
elements, 1540 quadratic elements, and more than 160 spring elements. As it was not reasonable to
define all input data manually to Opensees, the GID software (The personal pre and postprocessor)
was used as a pre-processor.

Fig. 1: Soil structure models for analyzed cases
4 APPLIED SEISMIC GROUND MOTION
Two strong ground motion records (El Centro 1940 and Loma Prieta, Emeryville station 1989)
were selected as the model free-field or control ground motions. These records, which have
different ranges of excitation frequencies, were scaled to a peak ground acceleration of 0.15g (to
suit Cairo city). Ground motions were applied in X-direction only. Figure 2 presents the time
histories and Fourier amplitudes of the control ground accelerations. The acceleration time histories
applied at the nodes of the interaction horizon (between bounded region and unbounded soil
medium) were obtained by solving the inverse problem. This inverse problem was completed
-921-

STR-007-5
assuming vertically-propagating plane waves and using the well-known computer program,
SHAKE91. Finally, to satisfy this assumption (onedimensional wave propagation in vertical
direction) in our model, the lateral movements of all nodes at each horizontal level was constrained
to be equal.

0 10 20 30
-0.4
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0 5 10 15 20
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
g
)
F
o
u
r
i
e
r

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(
g
)
El Centro

(a)
0 5 10 15 20
-0.3
-0.2
-0.1
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0 5 10 15 20
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
g
)
F
o
u
r
i
e
r

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

(
g
)
Time (sec)
Frequency (Hz)
Loma Prieta, Emeryville station

(b)
Fig. 2: Acceleration time histories and corresponding Fourier amplitude spectra
of the applied ground motions: a) El Centro; b) Loma Prieta

5 EFFECTS OF SSI ON FREE VIBRATION RESULTS
Free vibration characteristics (natural frequencies and modes) are key parameters in the dynamic
behavior of structures. To investigate the effect of the SSI on the free vibration characteristics of
buildings with basements, more than 80 examples for 10-story, 15-story, and 20-story buildings
have been analyzed. These buildings have different numbers of basement floors (up to three). Soil
material is assumed to be linearly elastic and a wide range of the soil low-strain shear modulus,
G
max
is considered.

Figure 3 presents variation of the fundamental period of the 10-story, 15-story and 20-story
buildings with the soil shear modulus. It shows that the fundamental period of buildings with
flexible base is higher than the corresponding value for the fixed-base buildings. It is clear that the
fundamental period of buildings with flexible base decreases as the soil shear wave velocity (or
stiffness) increases.

For buildings without basements, the fundamental period including SSI effects is always larger than
that for the fixed-base case. However, for buildings with multiple basements, the fundamental
-922-

STR-007-6
period including SSI effects can be shorter than that for the fixed-base case. This is due to the
stiffening effect produced by the surrounding (side) layers of soil. In particular, for the 10-story
building with three basement floors and V
s
=250m/sec, the fundamental period (0.72sec) is less than
that of the same building with fixed base (0.895 sec). This indicates that the surrounding soil can
provide a stiffness that is larger than that provided by the fixed base condition, particularly for
buildings with three basements and founded on stiff soil. The same trend is observed for the 15-
story and 20-story buildings but the stiffening effect produced by SSI becomes less pronounced as
the number of above-ground stories increases.

6 EFFECTS OF SSI ON SPECTRAL ACCELERATIONS
To show how the variation in the building fundamental period- due to SSI effects- alters it seismic
design, the UBC 97 design response spectra is utilized. Soil type S
D
is assumed and the PGA is
taken equal to 0.15g to suit the city of Cairo. For this reason, we computed the spectral
accelerations corresponding to the fundamental period of the 10-story buildings for three values of
soil shear wave velocity (120, 175, 250m/sec) and different numbers of basement floors (up to
three).

The computed spectral accelerations were then compared to those obtained assuming fixed base
conditions. Foundation flexibility resulted in elongation of the nature periods and led to a decrease
in the pseudo-acceleration values by up to 37% for V
s
=120m/sec, 21% for Vs=175m/sec, and 9%
for V
s
=250m/sec in buildings without basement floors. Note that the increase in building
fundamental period led to a decrease in the corresponding spectral accelerations because the
periods of the 10-story building lie in the decaying part of the response spectrum.

For buildings with basements, however, it is found that as the number of basements increases, the
increase in fundamental period due to SSI becomes less pronounced. Moreover, for some buildings
with multiple basements, SSI increased the stiffness and, consequently, decreased the fundamental
period, which led to an increase in the pseudo-acceleration. For example, compared to the fixed-
base condition, SSI increased the pseudo-acceleration by 22% in case of the 10-story building with
three basement floors for V
s
=250 m/sec.

7 EFFECTS OF SSI ON SEISMIC RESPOSE
7.1 Drift at Building Top
Figure 4 presents time histories of the drift at the top of 10-story building with three basements due
to Loma Prieta earthquake for three values of V
s
(60, 120, and 180 m/sec). This figure shows that
the building drift decreases as the soil shear wave velocity increases.

7.2 Distribution of Maximum Story Shears
Time histories of the ground floor shear produced by the Loma Prieta earthquake in 10-story
buildings with two, one, and no basements are depicted in Figs. 5a, 5b, and 5c, respectively. These
histories are presented for the three values of V
s
listed above. Besides, the time history of the
ground floor shear corresponding to fixed-base building is superimposed to Fig. 5c. Figure 5 points
out that SSI alters both the frequency contents and the peak values of ground floor story shear. For
buildings without basements, Fig. 5c shows that the ground floor story shear increases
-923-

STR-007-7
monotonically as V
s
increases and converges to the case of fixed-base for very stiff soils.
Neglecting the effects of SSI in this case leads to conservative designs. However, for buildings with
basements, Figs. 5a and 5b show that SSS may increase or decrease the peak story shear in ground
floor.

a-10-Story Building
60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
P
e
r
i
o
d

T

(
s
e
c
)
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
Fixed
No Basement
1 Basement
2 Basement
3 Basement

60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
Fixed Base
No Basement
1 Basement
2 Basements
3 Basements
b-15-Story Building
P
e
r
i
o
d

T

(
s
e
c
)

60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
Fixed Base
No Basement
1 Basement
2 Basements
3 Basements
c-20-Story Building
Soil shear wave velocity (m/sec)
P
e
r
i
o
d

T

(
s
e
c
)

Fig.3: Effect of soil stiffness on the fundamental period of buildings with basements

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STR-007-8
Time (sec)
0 5 10 15 20
-0.15
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
V
s
= 60m/s
V
s
=120m/s
V
s
=180m/s
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

(
m
)

Fig. 4: Top drift for 10-story buildings with 3 basements due to Loma Prieta earthquake

-800
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
S
h
e
a
r

(
k
N
)
a-Building with two basements
V
s
= 60m/s
V
s
=120m/s
V
s
=180m/s

-800
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
S
h
e
a
r

(
k
N
)
b-Building with one basement

0 5 10 15 20
-1000
-800
-600
-400
-200
0
200
400
600
800
1000
S
h
e
a
r

(
k
N
)
c-Building with No basements
Fixed Base
Time (sec)

Fig. 5: Time history of ground floor shear for 10-story buildings due to Loma Prieta earthquake
-925-

STR-007-9
For a more comprehensive view of the effects of SSI on story shears, Figs. 6 and 7 present
distributions of the maximum story shear for 10-story buildings with up to three basements and
variable soil stiffness due El Centro and Loma Prieta earthquakes, respectively. In addition, Table 1
lists the equivalent static force coefficients (
s
) for ground floor (=peak ground floor shear/ sum of
above-ground gravity loads) for different conditions of the 10-story buildings. Figures 6 and 7
together with Table 1 clearly indicate that SSI has important effects on story shear distribution at all
floors of buildings with basements. Presence of basements causes an abrupt change in story shears
in the proximity of the ground floor (see, for example, the effect of El Centro earthquake on the 10-
story building with three basements- Fig. 6a). This change may increase ground floor shear to the
extent that the ground floor shear becomes much larger than that at building base. Also, the story
shear of the ground and basement floors can be larger than the base shear of the corresponding
fixed-base building. Thus, ignoring SSI effects in such cases leads to unsafe designs. In addition, it
is noted that SSI may significantly change the story shear even at the top floor. Moreover, retaining
walls surrounding basements may sustain large shear forces particularly in case of weak soil.

Finally, it is observed that story shears resulting from the Loma Perita earthquake are higher than
those resulting from the El Centro earthquake for some cases (buildings with one or no basements)
but are lower than them for other cases (building with three basements). This discrepancy results
from the differences in the frequency contents between the two earthquakes despite having the
same PGA of 0.15g. Note, from Fig. 2, that the frequency contents of El Centro earthquake can be
classified as a board frequency band whiles the Loma Perita earthquake may be classified as a
low frequency band. Quantitative evaluation of these SSI effects can be easily deduced from the
data in Table 1.

Table 1.Equivalent Static Force Coefficient (
s
) for 10-story buildings
*

s
(%) Applied
Earthquake
Number of
Basements
Vs=60 m/s Vs=120 m/s Vs=180 m/s
Three 11.14 (6.43) 10.33 (7.52) 7.65 (8.39)
Two 8.28 (5.33) 5.95 (6.33) 11.71 (7.05)
One 6.44 (3.30) 5.95 (4.88) 7.30 (6.50)
None 7.64 (7.64) 6.84 (6.84) 5.71 (5.71)
E
l

C
e
n
t
r
o

Fixed base 10.38 (10.38)
Three 13.35 (12.74) 14.54 (13.36) 12.01 (13.14)
Two 12.01 (11.54) 12.79 (12.81) 13.28 (12.64)
One 6.78 (6.30) 9.66 (10.0) 10.97 (11.22)
None 5.88 (5.88) 8.62 (8.62) 10.76 (10.76)
L
o
m
a

P
r
i
e
t
a

Fixed base 11.39 (11.39)
*
Values shown between brackets correspond to full bond between soil and structure

To evaluate the usually-made assumption of full-bond between soil and structure elements, the
analysis was repeated assuming full bond. The resulting equivalent static force coefficients (
s
) are
compared in Table 1 with those obtained allowing for separation between soil and structure
elements for 10-story buildings. Table 1 indicates that the assumption of full-bond between soil and
structure elements generally underestimates the equivalent static force coefficients for soft to
medium-stiff soils. However, for stiff soils, this assumption may underestimate or overestimate
these coefficients depending on the number of basement floors. Thus, assumption of full-bond
between soil and structure elements is shown to be inappropriate for seismic response analysis of
buildings with basement floors.
-926-

STR-007-10

V
s
=180m/sec
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
S
t
o
r
y

L
e
v
e
l
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
a-Three Basements
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
ground Level
V
s
=120m/sec
V
s
=60m/sec
V
s
=180m/sec
V
s
=120m/sec
V
s
=60m/sec
ground Level
ground Level
ground Level
b-Two Basements
c-One Basement
d-No Basements
S
t
o
r
y

L
e
v
e
l
Story Shear (kN)
V
s
=180m/sec
V
s
=120m/sec
V
s
=60m/sec
V
s
=180m/sec
V
s
=120m/sec
V
s
=60m/sec
V
s
=180m/sec
S
t
o
r
y

L
e
v
e
l
S
t
o
r
y

L
e
v
e
l

Fig. 6: Maximum story shear for 10-story buildings for various no. of basements and different soil
stiffness values- El Centro earthquake
-927-

STR-007-11
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
S
t
o
r
y

L
e
v
e
l
a-Three Basements
ground Level
ground Level
ground Level
ground Level
b-Two Basements
c-One Basement
d-No Basements
Story Shear (kN )
V
s
=180m/sec
V
s
=120m/sec
V
s
=60m/sec
V
s
=180m/sec
V
s
=120m/sec
V
s
=60m/sec
V
s
=180m/sec
V
s
=120m/sec
V
s
=60m/sec
V
s
=180m/sec
V
s
=120m/sec
V
s
=60m/sec
S
t
o
r
y

L
e
v
e
l
S
t
o
r
y

L
e
v
e
l
S
t
o
r
y

L
e
v
e
l

Fig. 7: Maximum story shear for 10-story buildings for various no. of basements and different soil
stiffness values- Loma Prieta earthquake
-928-
STR-007-12
8 CONCLUSIONS
Our extensive parametric study to investigate the effects of SSI on dynamic
characteristics and seismic response of buildings with multiple basements yielded the
following conclusions:
1. Ignoring the effect of SSI always results in an overestimates of seismic loads in case
of buildings without basement floors.
2. For buildings with basement floors, ignoring the effects of SSI may lead to:
a) Underestimations of seismic story-shear at ground level especially for buildings
founded on strong soils.
b) Underestimations of the seismic shear carried by the retaining walls especially for
buildings founded on weak soils.
c) Overestimation of building drifts especially for buildings founded on strong soils.
3. Considering the effect of SSI always leads to an increase in building fundamental
period for buildings without basement floors.
4. For buildings with basement floors, SSI may increase or decrease the fundamental
period depending on the number of basements and the relative soil stiffness.
5. Finally, the usually-made assumption of full-bond between soil and structure
elements is shown to be inappropriate as it could lead to in-conservative designs in
many cases.
9 REFERENCES
Chopra A.K. (1995). Dynamics of Structures. Prentice Hall Inc. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersy 07632

El Naggar MH. , Halabian A.M. (2001). Effect of foundation flexibility on seismic
response of reinforced concrete TV-tower. Can. J. Civ.Eng. 28, 465-481

El Naggar MH. (2003). Seismic response of Structures with underground stories.
ICLR Research, Paper series-No 26

Gazetas G. (1991). Foundation Vibration. Chap.15, in Foundation Engineering
Handbook, 2
nd
Ed., H.Y. Fang (Ed.), Van Nostrand Reinhold

GID, the graphical pre and post processor for computer simulation and analysis
software.
http://www.gid.cimne.upc.es.

Idriss I. M. and Sun J. I. (1992). Excerpts from USER'S Manual for SHAKE91: A
Computer Program for Conducting Equivalent Linear Seismic Response Analyses of
Horizontally Layered Soil Deposits." Center for Geotechnical Modeling Department of
Civil & Environmental Engineering University of California Davis, California.

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STR-007-13
Ismail I., Mullen C. L. (2000). Soil-Structure Interaction Issues for 3-D Computational
Simulation of Seismic Response Including Local Nonlinear Behavior. SEXTAM III,
Applied Mech. Conf., Aubrun, Albama.

Khalaf, A. (2009). Soil-Structure Interaction Effects on Seismic Response of Buildings
with Multiple Basement Floors. M.Sc. Thesis- Cairo University, Egypt (under
preparation).

Kumar S., Prakash S. (1998). Effect of Soil Non-Linearity on Natural Frequency
Response of Structures. Proc. 6
th
Nat. Conf. On Eq. Engg., Seattle.

Kutanis M., Elmas M. (2000). Non-Linear Seismic Soil-Structure Interaction Analysis
Based on the Substructure Method in the Time Domain. Turk. J. Eng. Eny. Sci. 25,
617-626.

McKenna F., Fenves, G. (2001). The OpenSees Command Language Manual: version
1.2. Pacific Earthquake Engineering Center, Univ. of Calif., Berkeley.
http://www.opensees.berkeley.edu.

Novak, M. and Ramadan, O. (1993) "Soil-structure-interaction in large structures
subjected to incoherent ground motions" in P. Gulkan and R. W. Clough(eds.),
Developments In Dynamic Soil-Structure Interaction, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Netherlands, pp 147-165.

Preisig, M. (2005). Nonlinear finite element analysis of dynamic soil-foundation-
structure interaction. M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. of Calif., Davis.

Ramadan, O. (2002). Seismic analysis of laterally loaded piles near ground slopes:
case study of El-Ferdan swing bridge over Suez Canal. Proc. 55th Canadian Geot. and
3rd Joint IAH-CNC CGS Groundwater Specialty Conf., Niagara Falls, Canada, pp 57-
64.

Ramadan, O. and Novak, M. (1993). "Response of long gravity dams to incoherent
seismic ground motions," Proc. of The Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering
Conf., SDEE'93, June 14-16, Bath, U.K.

Ramadan, O. and Novak, M. (1992). "Dam response to incoherent ground motions."
Proc. of The Tenth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Madrid, Spain.

Stewart J.P., Seed, R.B., Fenves, G.L. (1998). Empirical evaluation of inertial soil-
structure interaction effects. Report No.PEER-98/07 Pacific Earthquake Engineering
Research Center, Univ. of Calif. Berkeley, California.

Yang, Z., Elgamal, A. (2003). Command Manual and User Reference for OpenSees
Soil Models and Fully Coupled Element. University of California at San Diego.

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STR-008-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt



BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE BEAMS REINFORCED BY
FRP BARS UNDER TORSION

H. K. SHEHAB
1
, M. E. El-AWADY
2
, M. HUSAIN
3

Zagazig, Egypt

SAYED MANDOUR
4
Graduate Student, Zagazig university
Zagazig, Egypt

ABSTRACT
Concrete structures reinforced with normal steel bars has questionable durability in aggressive
environments. They suffer corrosion, cracking, spalling and deterioration that require expensive
repair and continuous maintenance. Moreover, due to its high demand, the row steel abundance is
decreasing year after year. Therefore, researchers have been looking for a corrosion resistant
alternative to replace steel reinforcing bars that has a comparable competence. Reinforcing bars which
manufactured from composite materials made of resin impregnated fibers (FRP) promise a reasonable
substitute to conventional steel bars in concrete structures in aggressive environments. The behavior
of concrete beam reinforced with FRP bars under torsion is not will understood, and researches in the
subject are needed to help designers and structural code officials. This paper introduces an
experimental investigation of the torsional behavior of FRP-reinforced concrete beams. Eighteen test
beams reinforced by FRP and normal steel bars were constructed and tested under combined torsion
and flexure. Results indicate that longitudinal FRP bars are as effective as steel in resisting torsion,
but FRP stirrups are inferior to steel stirrups.

KEYWORDS
Concrete beams, fiber reinforced polymers, FRP rebars, carbon fiber bars, CFRP bars, glass
fiber bars, GFRP bars, torsion.

INTRODUCTION
Concrete structures reinforced with normal steel bars has questionable durability in aggressive
environments. Bridges, water structures, seashore and off-shore structures are some examples
of such structures. They suffer steel corrosion leading to concrete cracking and spalling,
which require continuous maintenance and repair [1,2,3]. Moreover, due to its high demand,
the row steel abundance is decreasing year after year. Therefore, researchers have been
looking for a corrosion resistant alternative to replace reinforcing steel that has a comparable
efficiency. Reinforcing bars manufactured from composite materials such as fiber reinforced
plastics (FRP) made of resin impregnated fibers are rapidly becoming an economic alternative
for concrete structures in aggressive environments worldwide[1,2,3]. Also, FRP bars are
(unlike steel) transparent to telecommunication waves. Among the different types of FRP
-931-

STR-008-2
bars, glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) and carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) are
the most commonly used in civil engineering applications. Currently, concrete structural
members reinforced by FRP bars are the subject of a multitude of experimental as well as
analytical investigations [2, 3, 4, 5]. Their foremost objective is to define their behavior under
different loading conditions.
This study is an experimental investigation aiming to define the torsional behavior of concrete
beams reinforced by FRP bars. Eighteen beams reinforced with GFRP bars, CFRP bars and
steel bars were built and tested up to failure under combined torsional and flexural moments.
The objectives of this study are:
1- Study the behavior of concrete beams reinforced by FRP bars under torsion.
2- Highlight the behavior weaknesses, and devising techniques to improve it.
3- Provide recommendations and guide lines for design engineers and code officials.

Test Beams
Test beam dimensions and reinforcement details are shown in Fig.1. They are classified into
six groups as shown in Table 1. Group (1) consists of four reference beams B1, B2, B3 and
B4, all reinforced by normal steel bars with different reinforcement arrangements. Groups (2)
comprise three beams B5, B6 and B7 are reinforced by normal steel bars as main (top and
bottom) reinforcement, as well as stirrups. They also have GFRP longitudinal bars placed on
the vertical sides of the section (as torsion reinforcement). Group (3) contains four beams B8,
B9, B10 and B11, with all the reinforcements are GFRP bars. Group (4) include three beams
B12, B13 and B14 all reinforced with GFRP bars as main reinforcements, and GFRP stirrups
and normal steel as side reinforcement. Group (5) consists of two beams B15 and B16 contain
GFRP bars as main reinforcement, steel stirrups, and additional closed steel stirrups. Group
(6) include two beams B17 and B18 contains steel bars as main reinforcements, steel stirrups
and additional CFRP reinforcement B17, while B18 contain CFRP as main reinforcement, and
steel stirrups. For more information about specimen reinforcements, see Table 1.

The specimens shape is chosen to create the required internal forces (i.e. torsional and
bending moments simultaneously) on the test zone. The crosssectional dimensions of the test
region are 10 cm 20 cm in cross-section, and length equal 100 cm. The total length of the
specimen is 200 cm. Fig. 1, presents the concrete dimensions of the specimens, and the
reinforcements of B2. Precautions were taken (in reinforcement details) to prevent any
premature failure outside the test zone.

Test Set-up
The test set-up was specially designed and constructed for this study. It consists of a rigid
steel frame has U shape used to transfer the total load from the compression testing machine
to the specimen's cantilever ends. Two, 2 cm thick, square steel plates of 200 cm side length
bolted together to provide rigid support flooring. Fig. 2 shows a general view for the test set-
up. The main purpose for this set-up is to apply simultaneous torsional and flexural moments
on the test zone of the specimens, without any shearing forces. The clear dimension for the
test zone was 100 cm, the total width for specimen 70 cm involved ( total length for the two
cantilevers 2 30 cm and the specimen width 10 cm), the specimen's width was chosen to
achieve the following: First to induce equal flexural and torsional moments on the test zone.
Secondly, to keep the total width of the specimens less than the clear distance between the two
supporting columns for the test machine (80 cm).

The U shape steel frame was placed under the compression test pine which have the total load
P, this total load is divided into two equal loads P / 2 at each cantilever outer end. A torsional
-932-

STR-008-3
moment of (P/2) 30 cm accompanied with vertical force (P/2) is produced on the test zone.
The two vertical loads produce bending moment of (P/2) 30 cm on the test zone. (equal to
the torsional moment) The two vertical loads with the two supporting reactions R1 & R2
produced zero shearing forces on the test zone. That insures that the testing zone is subjected
to torsional moment and bending moment without shearing forces.

Fig.1: Test Beams

Fig. 2: Test Set up
-933-

STR-008-4
Table 1: Test Beams

TEST RESULTS
The initial cracks were observed in the top surface of the test zone then diagonal cracks were
developed and increased with the load. Typical torsional spiral cracks developed around the
specimens, The crack inclination angles to the specimen longitudinal axis were ranging from
40 to 60. As the maximum torque was approaching the cracks widened, then concrete at
the top surface abruptly crushed. Fig. 3 shows the typical failure mode and the crack patterns
of the tested beams.
-934-

STR-008-5

Fig. 3: Typical failure mode for the tested beams

Results of Reference Beams (Group 1)
The results of Group 1 beams are presented in Fig. 4, showing load deflection curves, as well
as bar-chart showing the cracking and failure load. The following were observed:
1. The flexural stiffness of all beams are the same up to the cracking point.
1 . All four beams failed due to crushing of concrete in the compression zone before yielding
of both longitudinal steel or stirrups (brittle failure).
2. The torsional resistance of beam B4 which has two types of the additional torsional
reinforcement (stirrups and longitudinal bars) was 172 % of B1. While the torsional
resistance for B3 which has an additional stirrups (5 + 5 stirrups 8 / m`) was 146 % of B1.
The torsional resistance of B2 which has an additional longitudinal steel (110 in the mid-
height of each side) equals 133 % of B1. The additional longitudinal bars improved the
torsional capacity of the main reference beam B1 by 33 %. The closed stirrups improved it
by 46 %. The addition of the longitudinal bars and closed stirrups together improved the
torsional capacity of the beam by 72 %.

0 4 8 12 16 20
Deflection mm
0
5
10
15
20
25
2.5
7.5
12.5
17.5
22.5
L
o
a
d

K
N
( B4 )
( B1 )
( B2 )
( B3 )
8.3
12.65
10.9
16.85
12.6
18.5
14.3
21.75
0
5
10
15
20
25
K
N
B1 B2 B3 B4
Cracking and Failure Loads for Group # 1
Cracking Load ( KN )
Failure Load ( KN )
-935-

STR-008-6
Fig. 4: Deflcetion , cracking and failure loads for Group 1
Results of tested Beams of Group 2
The results of this group is shown in Fig. 5, the following observations can be made:
1. The additional longitudinal torsion GFRP bars in B5 has increased the torsional capacity by
24 % of beam B1. While the additional longitudinal steel bars in B2 increased its capacity
by 33 %, therefore, GFRP can replace steel effectively as tosion longitudinal bars.
2. The beam B6 has additional GFRP stirrups, it failed at a load lower than beam B1 by about
22 %. Also B7 has failed at roughly the same load as B1, although it has both types of
GFRP torsional reinforcements. This may be because the week bond between the GFRP
stirrups and the concrete in addition to the overstressed stirrups corners.
3. The flexural stiffness of beam B5 is higher than B6 and B7, however they have more
ductility.

0 10 20 30
Deflection mm
0
4
8
12
16
2
6
10
14
L
o
a
d

K
N
Beam ( B7 ) ( Group # 2 )
Beam ( B5 ) ( Group # 2)
10.3
15.7
6.8
9.9
9
12.6
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
K
N
B5 B6 B7
Failure Load ( KN )

Fig. 5: Deflcetion , cracking and failure loads for Group 2

Fig. 6 shows the deflcetions, cracking and failure loads of Group 3. The results show the
effects of additional torsional reinforcement on the torsional strength of beams originally
reinforced by GFRP bars. Also all beams exihibited satisfactory level of ductility. Some other
observations on their behavior can be made:
1. The beam B8 has failed at machine load 6.9 kN, about 55 % of B1, they contain no torsion
resisting reinforcements. The main reinforcement of B8 is GFRP, and B1 is steel. On the
other hand B9 which has GFRP torsion longitudinal bars has faild at higher load of 8.3 kN
120 % of B8, 66 % of B1 and 49 % of B2 which has the same reinforcement arrangements
but with steel bars instead.
2. The GFRP torsion longitudinal bars has increased the torsional capacity of B8 by 20 %,
while the additional GFRP stirrups decreased it by 8 % as results of the weak bond with
concrete.
3. B11 which has the two types of GFRP torsion reinforcements (longitudinal bars and closed
stirrups) failed at load 7.5 kN equal to 109 % of B8, 90 % of B9 and 117 % of B10.
These results show that the GFRP stirrups, has unsatisfactory performance, while the
GFRP longitudinal bars has satisfactory performance in torsion.

-936-

STR-008-7
0 5 10 15 20 25
Deflection mm
0
2
4
6
8
10
1
3
5
7
9
L
o
a
d

K
N
Beam ( B10 ) ( Group # 3 )
Beam ( B11 ) ( Group # 3 )
4.9
6.9
6.2
8.3
3.8
6.4
5.5
7.5
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
K
N
B8 B9 B10 B11
Failure Load ( KN )

Fig. 6: Deflcetion , cracking and failure loads of Group 3
Group 4 beams have GFRP as the basic reinforcement and steel reinforcement as torsional
resisting reinforcements. Deflcetions, cracking and failure loads of Group 4 beams are
shown in Fig. 7, the following is observed:
1. B12 has the same reinforcement arrangements of B2 but with GFRP bars as main
reinforcement (Longitudinal and stirrups), it failed at load equal to 9.2 kN.
2. B13 has failed at load 7.7 kN equal to 84 % of B12, this is against the fact that the normal
steel closed stirrups has better torsional resistance than the longitudinal steel, it may be
because of the existance of GFRP stirrups (main reinforcement).
3. B14 which has additional steel longitudinal bars and closed stirrups, failed at load 10.3 kN
about 112 % of B12, this may be due to the existance of the additional steel (longitudinal
and closed stirrups).

0 4 8 12 16 20
Deflection mm
0
4
8
12
2
6
10
L
o
a
d

K
N
Beam ( B12 ) ( Group # 4 )
Beam ( B13 ) ( Group # 4 )
Beam ( B14 ) ( Group # 4 )
6.50
9.20
5.60
7.70
7.50
10.30
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
K
N
B12 B13 B14
Failure Load ( KN )

Fig. 7: Deflcetion, cracking and failure loads of Group 4

Group 5 beams have GFRP as the top and bottom reinforcement and steel stirrups, with or
without torsional steel resisting reinforcements. Deflcetions, cracking and failure loads of
Group 5 are shown in Fig. 8, the following can be observed:
-937-

STR-008-8

1. B16 has failed at machine load equal to 10.70 kN about 135 % of B15
2. B15 failed at load equal to 63 % of B1 a losses of 37 % of the torsional capacity, while
B16 failed at load equal 58 % of B3 which has same reinforcements but with steel top and
bottom bars.
3. GFRP bars has a torsional behavior less than the normal steel bars as a main longitudinal
reinforcement, due to the lower bond between the GFRP bars and concrete.

0 5 10 15 20 25
Deflection mm
0
4
8
12
2
6
10
L
o
a
d

K
N
Beam ( B 15 ) ( Group # 5 )
Beam ( B 16 ) ( Group # 5 )
5.70
7.90
7.60
10.70
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
K
N
B15 B16
Failure Load ( KN )

It contains two beams with CFRP as an additional longitudinal side bars, or as bottom
main bars. The results are shown in Fig. 9, the following is observed:
1. B17 which has the same reinforcement arrangements of B2 , B5 and B9 , but with carbon
fiber bars as an additional longitudinal reinforcement failed at machine load of 17.10 kN
about the same as B2 which failed at 16.85 kN.
2. B18 which has the same reinforcement arrangements of B1, B8 and B15, but with CFRP
bars as bottom reinforcement with steel stirrups. It has failed at machine load of 10.60 kN
equal to 153 % of B8 and 134 % of B15. This indicate that CFRP bars has higher
torsional resistance than steel and GFRP bars, however in exchange of higher cast.

0 5 10 15 20 25
Deflection mm
0
4
8
12
16
20
2
6
10
14
18
L
o
a
d

K
N
Beam ( B17 ) Group # 6
Beam ( B18 ) Group # 6
10.90
17.10
7.30
10.60
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
18.00
K
N
B17 B18
Failure Load ( KN )

-938-

STR-008-9
Discussion of Results
The results of B1, B8, B15, B18 are redrawn in Fig. 10, they have similar reinforcement
arrangements but with different reinforcement materials. The behavior of B8, B15, and B18 is
more ductile than that of B1, but with lower resistance. B8 has the same reinforcement
arrangements of B1, but with GFRP bars as main reinforcement (Longitudinal and stirrups), it
has failed at load 55 % of B1 resistance. On the other hand B15 which has GFRP bars as main
reinforcement and normal steel bars as a main stirrups failed at machine load 63 % of that of
B1. The torsional capacity of B8 due to the normal steel stirrups, GFRP is not as efficient as
steel being a main reinforcement due to its weak bond with concrete. But the loss in the
torsional resistance is not subistantial. The CFRP bars has superior resistance higher than
GFRP as main and additional torsional resisting reinforcements. B8 result was the lowest one
due to using GFRP stirrups which has weak bond with concrete especially at the corners.

0 5 10 15 20 25
Deflection mm
0
4
8
12
16
2
6
10
14
L
o
a
d

K
N
Beam (B1 ) ( Group # 1 )
8.30
12.65
4.90
6.90
5.7
7.9
7.3
10.6
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
K
N
B1 B8 B15 B18
Cracking and Failure Loads for
B1,B8,B15& B18
Failure Load ( KN )
Fig. 10: Deflcetion, cracking and failure loads for B1,B8,B15& B18

The results of B2, B5, B9, B12 and B17 are shown in Fig. 11. They have the same
reinforcement arrangements but with different reinforcement materials. B5 has GFRP bars as
an additional Longitudinal reinforcement. It has failed at machine load 93 % of the capacity of
B2, therefore GFRP is considered as efficient as steel in torsional longitudinal reinforcements.
On the other hand B9 has GFRP bars as main reinforcement (Longitudinal and Stirrups), and
GFRP bars as an additional longitudinal reinforcement. It has failed at machine load 49 % of
B2 capacity, the torsional capacity is reduced due to the use of GFRP stirrups. B12 has GFRP
bars as a basic reinforcements (Longitudinal and Stirrups), in addition to steel bars as an
additional longitudinal reinforcement. It has failed at machine load 55 % of that of B2. The
torsional capacity of B12 increased than B9 due to use of the normal steel bars as an
additional longitudinal reinforcement. B17 has CFRP bars as an additional longitudinal
reinforcement failed at machine load equal to 17.10 kN, almost the same as B2. The torsional
capacity of B17 increased than B9 and B12 due to use of the CFRP bars as an additional
longitudinal reinforcement.
The above disscusion illustrates that CFRP bars are as efficient as steel when used as
longitudinal torsional reinforcement. On the other hand, GFRP reinforcement is not as
efficient as steel when used as torsional resisting stirrups. Finally, beams subjected to
combined flexural and torsional moments reinforced with GFRP bars are nearly as efficient as
steel as additional longitudinal torsional reinforcement as it almost as efficient as normal steel.
-939-

STR-008-10
0 5 10 15 20 25
Deflection mm
0
4
8
12
16
20
2
6
10
14
18
L
o
a
d

K
N
Beam ( B12 ) ( Group # 4 )
Beam ( B17 ) ( Group # 6 )
10.90
16.85
10.30
15.70
6.2
8.3
6.5
9.2
10.9
17.1
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
18.00
K
N
B2 B5 B9 B12 B17
B2,B5,B9,B12& B17
Failure Load ( KN )

Fig. 11: Deflcetion , cracking and failure loads for B2,B5,B9,B12& B17
Beams with additional closed stirrups are B3, B6, B10, B13 and B16, their deflections,
cracking and failure loads are redrawn in Fig. 12. B6 has failed at machine load about 54 %
of that of B3. B10 has failed at machine load about 35 % of B3, with torsional capacity lower
than B6 due to the use of the GFRP stirrups as both the basic and additional reinforcement.
B13 failed at machine load about 42 % of B3, with torsional capacity higher than B10 due to
use of additional steel closed stirrups. B16 which has the same reinforcement arrangements of
B3, but with GFRP bars as main reinforcement bars, steel stirrups, and additional closed steel
stirrups failed at machine load equal to 58 % of B3. B10 results are the lowest of all beams
due to the use of GFRP bars as main reinforcement (Longitudinal and stirrups) and also as
torsional closed stirrups. The weak bond between concrete and GFRP stirrups has lead to the
crushing of the concrete cover prematurely.

0 10 20 30
Deflection mm
0
4
8
12
16
20
2
6
10
14
18
L
o
a
d

K
N
Beam ( B10 ) (Group # 3 )
12.60
18.50
6.80
9.90
3.8
6.4
5.6
7.7 7.6
10.7
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
8.00
10.00
12.00
14.00
16.00
18.00
20.00
K
N
B3 B6 B10 B13 B16
B3,B6,B10,B13& B16
Failure Load ( KN )

Fig. 12: Deflcetion, ceacking and failure loads for B3,B6,B10,B13& B16

Beams B4, B7, B11 & B14 have both longitudinal bars and additional closed stirrups as
torsional reinforcements. Their deflcetions, cracking and failure loads of B4, B7, B11 & B14
are presented in Fig. 13. B7 has the same reinforcement arrangements of B4, but with GFRP
-940-

STR-008-11
bars as an additional closed stirrups and longitudinal reinforcement. It has failed at machine
load about 58 % of B4 capacity. B11 failed at machine load equal to 35 % of B4 resistance,
the torsional capacity of B7 is lower than B4 due to the use of GFRP stirrups as basic and
additional torsional reinforcement. Finally, B14 failed at machine load equal to 47 % of that
of B4, this loss is due to the use of the GFRP bars as a main reinforcement specially for
stirrups. the torsional capacity of B14 is higher than B11 because of the use of the additional
steel reinforcement bars.

0 10 20 30
Deflection mm
0
5
10
15
20
25
2.5
7.5
12.5
17.5
22.5
L
o
a
d

K
N
Beam ( B11 ) ( Group # 3 )
Beam ( B14 ) ( Group # 4 )
14.30
21.75
9.00
12.60
5.5
7.5 7.5
10.3
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
K
N
B4 B7 B11 B14
B4,B7,B11& B14
Failure Load ( KN )

Fig. 13: Deflcetion , cracking and failure loads for B4,B7,B11& B14

Summary and Conclusions
Eighteen test beams reinforced by FRP and normal steel bars were constructed and tested under
combined torsion and flexure. Different reinforcement details were employed. The results are
presented and discussed. The following conclusions can be made:
1. The additional longitudinal torsional reinforcement made from GFRP bars have
comparable effectiveness as normal steel.
2. The CFRP bars has more effective torsional behavior than GFRP bars and steel bars,
however in exchange with higher cost.
3. Stirrups made of GFRP bars are not preferable as torsional reinforcement due to the weak
bond between GFRP stirrups and concrete in addition to the residual stresses on the
corners arises during the process of bending bars into stirrups.
4. FRP bars have elastic, brittle behavior that cannot be easily bent into stirrups. FRP bars of
thermoplastic resins were used, bars were bent into stirrups during gentle heating. This has
lead to a significant loss in strength around the stirrup corners because fibers on the
outside of the bend are overstressed and those on the inside are buckled.
5. FRP reinforced concrete members are expected to exihibit lower torsional resistance than
their steel reinforced counterparts by 10 % to 50 % depending on the reinforcement
arrangements.

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STR-008-12
References
1. Nanni A., "North American design guidelines for concrete reinforcement and
strengthening using FRP: principles, applications and unresolved issues" Construction
and Building Materials, July (2003), 1-8 pp.
2. Hanus, J. P., Shield, C. K. and French, C. W., "Development Length of GFRP
reinforcement in Concrete Bridge Decks" Final Report Prepared, Published by
Minnesota Department of Transportation. July (2000).
3. Tang, W. C. Lo, T. Y. and Balendran, R. V., Bond performance of polystyrene
aggregate concrete (PAC) reinforced with glass-fiber-reinforced polymer (GFRP)
bars, Journal of Building and Environment 43 (2008) 98107.
4. El-Assal, A. M, Khashaba, U. A., Fatigue analysis of unidirectional GFRP
composites under combined bending and torsional loads, Journal of Composite
Structures 79, Elsevier (2007) 599605.
5. Ogasawara, T., Yokozeki, T., Onta, K. and Ogihara, S., Linear and nonlinear
torsional behavior of unidirectional CFRP and GFRP, Journal of Composites Science
and Technology 67, Elsevier (2007) 34573464.

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STR-009-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt




BUCKLING LOADS OF COLUMNS WITH SUDDENLY
CHANGING CROSS-SECTION SUBJECTED TO COMBINED
END AND INTERMEDIATE AXIAL FORCES

M. I. SALAMA
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering
Kafrelsheikh University, Egypt
E-mail: magdy1000@ hotmail.com

ABSTRACT
In this paper, the elastic stability of a column with suddenly changing in cross section
subjected to concentrated loads applied at the ends and also by a force applied at an
intermediate cross section is presented. The analysis is carried out by using the
minimum potential energy technique. In the present work, columns with pinned ends
and columns with fixed-free ends are studied assuming, for generality, the upper and
lower parts of the column have two different cross-sectional moments of inertia. The
analysis depends on the assumed deflection function, which satisfies exactly the end
conditions. The buckling loads for each case of end conditions for a column with
suddenly changing cross-section subjected to combined end compressive force and an
intermediate axial force at arbitrary position along the column length are given in
simple practical equations with good results.
A comparison between the results of the present analysis and that of some previous
studies and finite elements analysis shows the accuracy and the simplicity of the
developed method to find the critical load in such cases.
KEYWORDS
Buckling loads, Stepped column, Stability, Axial loads, Cross section.
1 INTRODUCTION
Columns are important structural elements such that the stability of columns under
different cases of loading is investigated in many researches and theses to obtain the
critical buckling loads and the critical stresses. The Swiss mathematician Leonhard
Euler solved the question of critical compressive load for uniform cross section column
with a basic equation which frequently termed as the Euler load (P
E
=
2
EI/l
2
) and
equals the lowest critical load for a pin ended member. A buckled column of uniform
cross section is not the most economical form to carry compressed load. The stability of
-943-

STR-009-2
compressed column can be increased by removing a portion of the material from one
part and increasing the cross section over other part. In steel structures such bars are
very often used The cross section changes abruptly, since the increase in section is
accomplished by riveting or welding additional plates or angles along the portion of the
column. In the design of compression members, the case of a column compressed by
intermediate axial forces is sometimes encountered which may be from intermediate
floor. The case of a member with hinged ends compressed by forces applied at the ends
and also by force applied at an intermediate cross section was studied by Jasinsky [1].
Exact stability criteria for uniform cross section columns with intermediate and end
axial loads have been derived by C. M. Wang and I. M. Nazmul [4] which included a
new class of Euler columns where one segment is in tension while the other segment in
compression. In cases of column with sudden change in the cross section, it will be
divided into portions and each one will have a separate differential equation. The critical
value of the compressive force can be obtained by trial and error.
In this thesis, by using the minimum potential energy technique, the stability of columns
with sudden change in the cross section under intermediate and end axial loads is
investigated. For the present study cases, charts and tables are prepared for daily
engineering use. A comparison of the results with the previous theoretical studies and
finite element method is given in this thesis.
2 THEORITICAL INVESTIGATION
2.1 Assumptions
Consider a column shown in Fig. (1) subjected to a concentrated axial load P
2
at top end
and a concentrated axial force P
1
at a distance L from the bottom. The assumptions of
the present analysis are:
- The material, of which the column is made, is linearly elastic.
- The moments of inertia of the lower and upper parts are I
1
and I
2
respectively.
- No local buckling at any cross-section along the column length is allowed.
- The column is perfectly straight (i.e. has no initial imperfections).

a) Hinged-hinged column b) Fixed-free column
Fig. 1: Column with intermediate and end concentrated axial loads
P2
P1
I1
I2
y
x
P2
P1
I1
I2
y
x
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STR-009-3
2.2 Cases of Loading
Cases of loading depending on the magnitude of the two applied loads and their
direction (compressive or tensile). These cases can be summarised as:
Case 1: P
1
and P
2
are compressive forces. P
2
> 0 and (P
1
+P
2
) > 0.
Case 2: P
1
is tension force and P
2
is compression force. P
2
> 0 and (P
1
+P
2
) > 0.
Case 3: P
1
is compression force and P
2
= 0 .
2.3 Method of Analysis and Theoretical Equations
The buckling shape must be firstly assumed in order to apply the minimum potential
energy method. The best approximation can be obtained by taking the deflection y as a
function which satisfies the geometric conditions. One term of the Fourier series in the
deflection function is assumed which gives an exact solution for column with constant
cross section under axial loads at the ends and gives a good approximation for columns
under study.
2.3.1 Hinged Hinged Column
x
l
A y
sin = (1)
L x x
L
y P
y P P M p p 0 ) (
1 1
2 1 1
+ = (2-a)
L x L x l
l
y P
y P M p p ) (
1 1
2 2
+ = (2-b)
Substituting in the energy equations, the strain energy is as follows
x d
EI
M
x d
EI
M
U
l
l
l

+ =
2
2
2
0 1
2
1
2 2
(3)
+
+ + +
+ + + + =
) (
) ( 4
3
2
)
2
( ) (
4
) (
2
3
2
(
4
2
2
1 1 2 1 2
1
3
2
1 2 2
2 1
1
2
2
1
2 1
2 1 2
1
3
2
1 2 1 2
2
1
2
P P P P
P P
EI
l A
P P P
P
EI
l A
U

(4)
Where, ( ) ( ) 2 sin sin
2 1
= =
The work done T due to intermediate and end concentrated axial loads is given by

x d y
P
x d y
P
T
l l

+ =
0
2 1
0
2 2
2 2

(5)

+ + = )
2
(
4
2
1 2
2 2
P P
l
A
T

(6)
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STR-009-4
The critical buckling load can be obtained by the equation

T U =

(7)
Which represents the condition when the equilibrium configuration changes from stable
to unstable mode
From equations (4) and (6), one can obtain
( )
2
2
2 1
l
EI
P P
cr
= + (8)
where,
2 1

+
=
n

( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

+ =
+ + =
+
= =
+ + =
)
2
(
1 4
) (
3
1 2
)
2
(
)
2 2
(
1 4
) 1 (
3
1 2
2
1 (

2
1 1
2
2
1 2
1
3
2
2 2
2
2
2
1 2 2
1
3
2
2
1
2
2 1
2
1 2

m m m
m
m m
P
P P
m
I
I
n m m

2.3.2 Fixed Free Column
= x
l
A y
2
cos 1
(9)
( ) L x A P x
l
A P P M

p p 0
2
cos
2
cos
1 2 1 1
+ = (10-a)
L x L x
l
A P M p p
2
cos
2 2
= (10-b)
Substituting in the energy equations, the strain energy is as follows
+
+ + + +
2 2 1 1
2
1
2
2 2
1
2 2
2 1
1
2
2 2
2
2
2
) ( 4
2
) ( ) (
4
) 1 (
4
P P P
P P P
EI
l A
P
EI
l A
U

(11)
Where, ( ) ( ) sin 2 sin
2 1
= =
The work done T due to intermediate and end concentrated axial loads is given by
+ = ) (
16
2
1 2
2 2
P P
l
A
T

(12)

The critical buckling load can be obtained by the equation
(13)
T U =
-946-

STR-009-5
From equations (11) and (12), one can obtain
( )
2
2
2
2 1
4l
EI
P P
cr
== + (14)
Where,
2 1

+
=
n

( )
( )
( )

+ + =
=
+
= =
+ =

2
2
1
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
1
2
2 1
2
1 2
1 4
2
1 ) (
1 (
1 1
m m
m m
P
P P
m
I
I
n m m

Tables (1), (2) show the critical buckling loads (factor ), which are obtained from the
theoretical analysis in hinged hinged and fixed free end conditions respectively for
various values of factors m, n and (ratio of the magnitude of the intermediate load to
the end load, ratio of the moment of inertia of the lower part to the moment of inertia of
the upper part and the location of the intermediate concentrated load). Also, these
results are plotted in Figs. (2), (3) for the case of (=0.5) in hinged hinged and fixed
free end conditions respectively. Thus, the results obtained from this work can cover
any values of the factors ( m, n, and ).
All cases of loading can be represented by various values of factor (m). If factor (m)>1.0
means P
1
and P
2
are compressive forces. The factor (m) approaches infinity when the
end force P
2
= 0 and approaches 1.0 when P
1
= 0. The factor (m) <1.0 denotes P
1
is
tension force and P
2
is compression force.
4 COMPARISON OF THE RESULTS
Comparison of the results obtained from the present work, with the theoretical results of
some previous studies and finite element method is carried out to check the accuracy of
the present analysis.
For case of hinged-hinged column, Table (3) shows distinctly the accuracy of the
results, for the values of the critical loads calculated from the present equation (Eq. 8),
in comparison with the previous studies carried out by [1] using differential equations
which solved by trial and error in each particular case knowing the ratios m,n and .
Also, for case of fixed-free column, Table (4) shows a comparison between the results
obtained from the theoretical analysis, Eq. (14) and that obtained by finite element
method (Sap2000 program v.14). This comparison clears the satisfactory accuracy of
the present work.
It can be noticed that the present equations may be considered simple and accurate if
compared with the solution of the differential equations of the deflection curve or the
finite element method, which can be rather used by the designer engineers.
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STR-009-6
Table 1: Critical buckling load coefficient () (P
1+
P
2
)
cr
=
2
/ l
2

m 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 3.00

=0.10 0.289 0.551 0.787 1.000 1.191 1.364 1.519 1.659 2.101 3.748
=0.30 0.367 0.640 0.844 1.000 1.122 1.219 1.298 1.363 1.538 1.993
=0.50 0.394 0.663 0.856 1.000 1.110 1.198 1.268 1.327 1.483 1.913
=0.70 0.410 0.682 0.868 1.000 1.098 1.173 1.232 1.279 1.401 1.695 n
=
1
.
0
0

=0.90 0.602 0.830 0.938 1.000 1.040 1.067 1.087 1.102 1.139 1.214
=0.10 0.231 0.441 0.630 0.801 0.955 1.093 1.218 1.332 1.689 3.060
=0.30 0.298 0.522 0.693 0.825 0.929 1.012 1.081 1.138 1.292 1.711
=0.50 0.341 0.581 0.757 0.889 0.992 1.074 1.141 1.196 1.346 1.772
=0.70 0.385 0.648 0.832 0.964 1.063 1.139 1.199 1.248 1.374 1.679 n
=
1
.
2
5

=0.90 0.597 0.826 0.936 0.998 1.038 1.066 1.086 1.102 1.138 1.214
=0.10 0.193 0.368 0.526 0.668 0.797 0.913 1.017 1.112 1.413 2.586
=0.30 0.251 0.441 0.587 0.701 0.792 0.865 0.926 0.976 1.114 1.498
=0.50 0.301 0.518 0.678 0.800 0.896 0.973 1.036 1.089 1.233 1.650
=0.70 0.363 0.618 0.799 0.931 1.030 1.107 1.168 1.218 1.347 1.664 n
=
1
.
5
0

=0.90 0.592 0.823 0.934 0.997 1.037 1.065 1.086 1.101 1.138 1.213
=0.10 0.165 0.315 0.451 0.573 0.683 0.783 0.873 0.955 1.214 2.239
=0.30 0.216 0.382 0.510 0.610 0.690 0.756 0.809 0.855 0.979 1.333
=0.50 0.270 0.466 0.614 0.727 0.817 0.889 0.949 0.999 1.137 1.544
=0.70 0.343 0.590 0.768 0.900 0.999 1.077 1.139 1.189 1.321 1.650 n
=
1
.
7
5

=0.90 0.587 0.820 0.931 0.995 1.036 1.064 1.085 1.100 1.138 1.213
=0.10 0.145 0.276 0.395 0.502 0.598 0.686 0.765 0.836 1.064 1.974
=0.30 0.190 0.337 0.451 0.540 0.612 0.671 0.719 0.760 0.873 1.200
=0.50 0.244 0.424 0.561 0.667 0.751 0.819 0.876 0.923 1.055 1.450
=0.70 0.326 0.565 0.740 0.871 0.970 1.049 1.111 1.162 1.297 1.635 n
=
2
.
0
0

=0.90 0.582 0.816 0.929 0.994 1.035 1.063 1.084 1.100 1.137 1.213

Fig. 2: Critical buckling load coefficient () [hinged-hinged column]
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STR-009-7
Table 2: Critical buckling load coefficient () (P
1+
P
2
)
cr
=
2
/ 4 l
2

m 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 3.00
=0.10 0.250 0.500 0.750 1.000 1.249 1.499 1.748 1.997 2.990 3.980
=0.30 0.258 0.511 0.758 1.000 1.237 1.468 1.694 1.915 2.747 3.499
=0.50 0.287 0.548 0.785 1.000 1.195 1.372 1.532 1.678 2.145 2.476
=0.70 0.365 0.637 0.842 1.000 1.124 1.224 1.306 1.373 1.556 1.663 n
=
1
.
0
0

=0.90 0.613 0.831 0.937 1.000 1.041 1.070 1.091 1.108 1.148 1.169
=0.10 0.208 0.417 0.625 0.833 1.041 1.249 1.457 1.664 2.494 3.321
=0.30 0.231 0.458 0.681 0.900 1.116 1.327 1.535 1.738 2.512 3.222
=0.50 0.271 0.520 0.748 0.957 1.147 1.321 1.480 1.626 2.095 2.432
=0.70 0.357 0.626 0.831 0.989 1.115 1.215 1.298 1.366 1.552 1.660 n
=
1
.
2
5

=0.90 0.612 0.830 0.937 1.000 1.041 1.070 1.091 1.108 1.148 1.169
=0.10 0.179 0.357 0.535 0.714 0.892 1.070 1.249 1.427 2.139 2.849
=0.30 0.209 0.415 0.618 0.819 1.017 1.211 1.403 1.592 2.315 2.986
=0.50 0.256 0.494 0.714 0.917 1.103 1.275 1.432 1.576 2.047 2.389
=0.70 0.349 0.615 0.820 0.979 1.105 1.207 1.290 1.359 1.547 1.657 n
=
1
.
5
0

=0.90 0.610 0.829 0.936 0.999 1.040 1.069 1.091 1.108 1.148 1.169
=0.10 0.156 0.312 0.468 0.625 0.781 0.937 1.093 1.249 1.872 2.495
=0.30 0.191 0.379 0.566 0.751 0.933 1.114 1.292 1.468 2.146 2.782
=0.50 0.243 0.471 0.683 0.880 1.062 1.231 1.387 1.530 2.002 2.348
=0.70 0.341 0.605 0.809 0.969 1.096 1.199 1.283 1.353 1.543 1.653 n
=
1
.
7
5

=0.90 0.609 0.828 0.936 0.999 1.040 1.069 1.091 1.108 1.148 1.169
=0.10 0.139 0.278 0.416 0.555 0.694 0.832 0.971 1.110 1.664 2.219
=0.30 0.175 0.349 0.522 0.693 0.863 1.031 1.197 1.362 2.000 2.605
=0.50 0.231 0.450 0.655 0.846 1.025 1.190 1.344 1.486 1.958 2.308
=0.70 0.334 0.595 0.799 0.959 1.087 1.190 1.275 1.346 1.538 1.650 n
=
2
.
0
0

=0.90 0.607 0.827 0.935 0.998 1.040 1.069 1.091 1.107 1.148 1.169

Fig. 3: Critical buckling load coefficient () [fixed-free column]
-949-
STR-009-8
Table 3: Comparison of the buckling load coefficient () with Ref.[1] [hinged-hinged column]
m 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 3.00
Ref. Eq. (%) Ref. Eq. (%) Ref. Eq. (%) Ref. Eq. (%) Ref. Eq. (%) Ref. Eq. (%)
n
[1] [8] Diff. [1] [8] Diff [1] [8] Diff. [1] [8] Diff. [1] [8] Diff. [1] [8] Diff.
1.00 1.000 1.000 0.00 1.108 1.110 0.22 1.197 1.198 0.07 1.262 1.268 0.47 1.321 1.327 0.41 1.487 1.483 0.28
1.25 0.888 0.889 0.06 0.990 0.992 0.17 1.063 1.074 1.03 1.132 1.141 0.78 1.194 1.196 0.13 - 1.346 -
1.50 0.797 0.800 0.35 0.890 0.896 0.67 0.961 0.973 1.23 1.020 1.036 1.55 1.085 1.089 0.33 - 1.233 -
1.75 0.718 0.727 1.27 0.812 0.817 0.66 0.873 0.889 1.84 0.925 0.949 2.66 0.990 0.999 0.91 - 1.137 -
2.00 0.650 0.667 2.51 0.743 0.751 1.03 0.797 0.819 2.76 0.857 0.876 2.14 0.907 0.923 1.77 - 1.055 -

Table 4: Comparison of the buckling load coefficient () with F. E. method [fixed-free column]
m 0.25 0.75 1.00 1.50 2.00 3.00
F. E. Eq. (%) F. E. Eq. (%) F. E. Eq. (%) F. E. Eq. (%) F. E. Eq. (%) F. E. Eq. (%)
n
M. [14] Diff. M. [14] Diff. M. [14] Diff. M. [14] Diff. M. [14] Diff. M. [14] Diff.
1.00 0.286 0.287 0.29 0.782 0.785 0.39 0.996 1.000 0.40 1.366 1.372 0.41 1.669 1.678 0.54 2.126 2.145 0.88
1.25 0.269 0.271 0.56 0.744 0.748 0.51 0.952 0.957 0.48 1.316 1.321 0.40 1.619 1.626 0.43 2.08 2.095 0.62
1.50 0.254 0.256 0.77 0.708 0.714 0.84 0.910 0.917 0.74 1.268 1.275 0.52 1.569 1.576 0.45 2.04 2.047 0.45
1.75 0.240 0.243 1.20 0.676 0.683 1.03 0.871 0.880 1.04 1.221 1.231 0.82 1.521 1.530 0.59 1.99 2.002 0.44
2.00 0.228 0.231 1.34 0.645 0.655 1.49 0.834 0.846 1.47 1.177 1.190 1.13 1.474 1.486 0.83 1.95 1.958 0.52
-950-
STR-009-9
5 CONCLUSIONS
In this research, the theoretical analysis using potential energy is developed to
determine the buckling loads for columns in case of hinged-hinged and fixed-free with
suddenly changing cross-section subjected to combined end compressive force and an
intermediate axial force at arbitrary position along the column length. A relatively
simple but accurate method is presented for the prediction of the buckling load, hence
the buckling stresses, for columns under study.
From the previous results the following conclusions may be drawn
1. The critical buckling load for column with suddenly changing cross-section
subjected to combined end compressive force and an intermediate axial force at
arbitrary position along the column length can be accurately determined through an
explicit form by means of energy solution tacking into account one term of the Fourier
series in the deflection function. The results were given also in tables and curves.
2. The proposed method of analysis offers many simple expressions from which the
buckling loads can be calculated in the case of the action of combined end compressive
force and an intermediate axial force. The results obtained from this work can cover any
values of ratio of the magnitude of the intermediate load to the end load, ratio of the
moment of inertia of the lower part to the moment of inertia of the upper part and the
location of the intermediate concentrated load (represented by factors m, n and ).
3. The obtained expressions can represent all cases of loading by substituting various
values of factor m (ratio of the magnitude of the intermediate load to the end load).
Finally, the present analysis provides sets of curves and tables which can be of great
help for design purposes in cases of columns under study.
6 NOTATIONS
Upper case Latin letters:
A
i
constant
E Youngs modulus
I
i
moment of inertia in the ith interval
P
cr
critical buckling load
P
E
Euler buckling load
U strain energy
T work done
M bending moment
Lower case Latin letters
( x, y ) cartesian coordinantes
y deflection curve
l length of the column
Lower case Greek letters:
buckling load coefficient

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STR-009-10
7 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author is grateful to Prof. Dr. Talaat H. Abdel-Lateef, at civil engineering
department, Minia University for his kind advice on this paper.
8 REFERENCES
[1] Timoshenko, S. P., and Gere, J. M. Theory of Elastic Stability, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, London, (1983).
[2] A. John Wilson Buckling Load for Stepped Column, International Journal of
Applied Mathematics & Statistics.; Vol. 13, September, (2008).
[3] Column Research Committee of Japan Handbook of Structural Stability, Book
Corona, Tokyo, (1971).
[4] C. M. Wang, C. Y. Wang and I. M. Nazmul Stability Criteria for Euler Columns
with Intermediate and End Axial Loads, Journal of Engineering Mechanics,
ASCE, Vol. 129, April , (2003).
[5] Sap2000, advanced 14.0.0 Computer Software for Static and Dynamics Finite
Element Analysis of Structures, Computer & Structures Inc., Berkely, California,
U.S.A., (2009).
[6] Dinnik, A. N. Design of Columns of Varying Cross Section, translated from the
Russian by M. Moletz, trans. ASME, vol. 54, (1932).
[7] Abdel-Lateef, T. H. Buckling and Collapse Stresses for Eccentrically Loaded
and Imperfect Columns with Variable Cross Section, Bulletin of the faculty of
Engineering & Technology - Minia University, June (1993).
[8] Young, W. C. Roarks Formulas for Stress and Strain, McGraw-Hill, Singapore,
(1989).

-952-
STR-010-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





ROLE OF DEAD LOAD IN SHAKEDOWN ANALYSIS

DR. BAHER L. ABOUSTAIT
Associate Prof., Construction Engineering Department, Misr University for Science &
Technology
6th of October city, Egypt
E-mail: baher_aboustait@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT
Structures are very often subjected to non-repeated invariable loads below their
carrying capacity in addition to variable repeated loads. Shakedown load factors are
evaluated for skeletal structures subjected to the combined action of fixed and cyclic
loading using the static and kinematic shakedown theorems. The finite element
method is coupled with linear programming to determine the optimal loads. The
material of the structure is modeled as an elastic-perfectly plastic with piecewise
linearized yield surface and associated flow rule. In this paper, two procedures for
including the effect of fixed load in the shakedown analysis formulations, are
presented and compared. A computer program developed earlier for evaluating
shakedown and limit load factors and associated stresses and deformations, is
modified to account for these formulations. An application to high rise building
subjected to cyclic wind in addition to fixed dead and live loads, is illustrated. The
results presented can be used to investigate numerical shakedown and limit analyses,
as well as to serve as a theoretical basis for the development of an analytical design
method for tall buildings subjected to wind and seismic loads.

KEY WORDS
Shakedown analysis, Limit analysis, Finite element, Linear programming, Cyclic
loading, Piecewise linear yield surfaces.
1 INTRODUCTION
In addition to dead and live loads, tall buildings are usually exposed to variable
repeated cyclic loading due to the extreme wind and earthquakes that fluctuate
significantly in time, often randomly, or independently. In these situations, the elastic-
plastic structural behavior requires shakedown analysis to discern failure and safe
states. Under repeated loading (loading, unloading, and reloading): There are three
possibilities of structural behaviors as follows:

-953-
STR-010-2
(1) The safe state which is known as the shakedown state: The structure returns to the
elastic state after exhibiting some plastic deformations (Fig.1a), while permanent
deformations and consequent residual stresses remain constant;
(2) The failure state which is known as alternating plasticity: Plastic deformation
constitutes a closed cycle (Fig.1b), the plastic strains remain bounded, but develop
repeatedly with an alternating sign at a certain section in the structure producing local
failure at that section.
(3) The failure state which is known as the incremental collapse: Progressive increase
of permanent deformation (Fig.1c), the plastic strains became unbounded due to
accumulation of plastic deformations of the same sign at the end of each load cycle
until the structure becomes unserviceable and producing global failure.
a) Shakedown State b) Alternating Plasticity c) Incremental Collapse
Fig. 1: Structural Response to Cyclic Loading
Shakedown state guarantees safety of the structure against local failure or excessive
deformation. It is then important to assess the safety factor as the greatest common
multiplier of external actions at which the structure shakes down. The main
limitations of the classical shakedown theorems are due to the following hypothesis:
(a) the material is elastic-perfectly plastic with constant elastic modulus and convex
yield surface with associated flow rule; (b) changes in the configuration do not affect
the equilibrium equations; (c) external loads acts so slowly to enable neglecting
inertia forces and viscous damping resulting in quasi-static loading.
Satisfaction of the yield conditions caused the shakedown formulations to be highly
non-linear. The yield surface is piecewise linearized to adapt the shakedown
formulations into linear programming. The finite element method is coupled with
linear programming techniques to determine the optimal loads. The elastic perfectly
plastic piecewise linear constitutive law for each element is defined using the
piecewise linear yield criterion along with its associated flow rule, by considering
flexural deformation to be lumped at critical sections traditionally known as plastic
hinges.
Melan [1] and Koiter [2] formulated, respectively the static and kinematic shakedown
theorems for elastic perfectly-plastic materials. Maier [3] adapted the non-linear
formulation of these two theorems into linear programming by piecewise linearization
of the yield surface. The finite element discretization and linear programming were
used by Maier to formulate a general matrix shakedown theory, in which, the
shakedown analysis of continuum problems is restated as two dual linear
-954-
STR-010-3
programming problems. Belytschko [4] formulated Melan's theorem as a non-linear
programming problem. An equilibrated finite element model was used to analyze the
shakedown of a square plate of an elastic-perfectly plastic "von Mises" material with a
central circular hole subjected to biaxial variable repeated loading under plane stress
condition. Corradi and Zavelani [5] modified Maier's approach to Melan's theorem, in
terms of the coordinates of the vertices of the linearized yield surface. This procedure
was applied to analyze the same plane stress problem solved earlier by Belytschko
[4], but with a compatible finite element model and piecewise linearized von Mises
yield criterion. Hung and Konig [6] presented a finite element non-linear
programming formulation for the shakedown analysis, based on the static approach
and the yield criterion of the mean. Aboustit and Reddy [7] developed a finite
element-linear programming code for the application of the Kinematic shakedown
theory. The application was illustrated for a plane strain footing resting on Mohr-
Coulomb soil and subjected to eccentric inclined variable repeated loading. Aboustait
[8] showed that the static formulations for both shakedown and limit analyses, provide
more accurate estimate of the collapse load and in some instances were found to
consume fewer iterations than the kinematic formulations.
Aboustait [9] presented shakedown and limit analyses for plain strain application
associated with highway engineering. Unlike continuum mechanics, shakedown
applications to skeletal structures are still in its infancy. Maier [10] applied his
theorem [3] to shakedown and limit analyses of skeletal structures. Saffari, et al [11]
used quadratic programming for shakedown analysis of tall buildings. Shear effects
were included in the yield domain. Fadaee, et al [12] used the same technique for
shakedown analysis of offshore structures. Benfratello, et al [13] presented a plastic
shakedown design of structures subjected to quasi static proportional and cyclic loads
with constraints on deformations. A numerical application to a frame structure
showed that the residual displacements of the structure obtained by means of the
proposed design are very small and compatible with the material ductility as well as
with serviceability of the structure. Aliawdin and Silicka [14] used non-linear
programming to determine the load-carrying capacity for structures under
proportional and variable repeated loading considering geometric non-linearities. The
method is applied to grid structures considering material and geometric non-
linearities. Aboustait [15] developed a computer program for the static and kinematic
shakedown and limit analyses for skeletal structures using two-nodal planar frame
element and considering axial deformation. The yield surfaces considered the
interaction between axial forces and bending moments. The method is then applied to
determine the shakedown load factor for tall buildings subjected to cyclic lateral loads
equivalent to wind Loads.
In this paper, two procedures for including the effect of fixed load in the shakedown
analysis formulations, are presented and compared. The computer program developed
earlier in [15] is modified to account for these formulations. An application to high
rise buildings subjected to cyclic wind in addition to fixed dead and live loads is
illustrated.

2 FORMULATIONS
2.1 Shakedown Analysis Due to Cyclic Loading Programs
-955-
STR-010-4
The response of an elastic perfectly plastic structure subjected to cyclic loading will
be presented in terms of generalized load F(t). A cyclic loading program with a period
T is given as:

F(t) = F(t + T) (1)

However, these loads are applied sufficiently slow that inertia and damping effects are
neglected.
The present study is an application to Maier's quasi-static matrix shakedown theory
[3] which assumes a piecewise linear yield surface and the stresses to be checked for
each element. A planar prismatic two-nodal frame element with cubical transverse
displacement interpolation is employed along with linear axial displacement. The
yield surface is piecewise linearized for every element i, into a polyhedron of Y
i

planes defined by unit normal vectors assembled in the matrix [N
i
] and the normal
distances assembled in the vector from the stress origin to each yield plane K
i
o .Let
i

be the total stress resultant vector for an element i, which includes the axial force and
bending moments at the two end nodes. The yield condition for that element can be
written as:

[N
i
]
T

i
K
i
o (2)

The stress distribution under cyclic loading in the inelastic range can be expressed as
the sum of an elastic solution (fictitious stress, assuming the material has unlimited
elastic behavior),
E
, and a self-equilibrated residual stress distribution,
R
. In this
case, the yield condition for the global system will be:

[N]
T
(
E
(x,t) +
R
(x,t) ) Ko (3)

2.1.1 Primal Program - Static Theorem
Shakedown Static theorem, known as Melan's theorem, basically states that, an
elastic-perfectly plastic structure when subjected to loads F(t), varying within a
prescribed limit with unknown history, will shakedown under these loads if a time-
independent residual stress,
R
(x) can be found such that:

[N]
T
(
E
(x,t) +
R
(x)) Ko (4)

For every x and t; where
E
(x,t) is the linear elastic response of the structure to F(t).
The theorem provides the shakedown load factor as the maximum of all statically
admissible multipliers, k, giving rise to the following linear programming problem,

s = max k,
k,
R

Subjected to:

-956-
STR-010-5
a) [E]
T

R
= 0
,

b) k M +

[N]
T

R
Ko ,

c) k 0 (5)

where M is the maximum with respect to time of the projection of the global elastic
stress vector
E
(x,t) on the yield planes through normality matrix [N]. The constraints
identified at Eq. (5a) represent the self equilibrated residual stress condition, where
[E]
T
is the global equilibrium matrix. The number of equations represented by (5a)
equals the number of degrees of freedom, and those corresponding to constrained
displacements have to be eliminated.
2.1.2 Dual Program - Kinematic Theorem
In linear programming theory, any maximization or minimization problem can be
associated with a minimization or maximization problem respectively, having the
same vectors and matrices and connected with the former by some duality properties,
Pierre [16]. By the dualization, the dual program can be obtained from the primal, and
will be:

s = min Ko
T

q,

Subjected to:

a) [E] q - [N]

= 0
,

b) M
T

= 1,

c) 0 (6)

It was proved, by Maier [3] that the linear program in Eq. (6) represents Koiter's
kinematic theorem, if q and are the vectors of nodal displacements and plastic
multipliers, respectively. This theorem states that, a body will not shake down, i.e., it
will fail by cyclic plastic deformation, if for any admissible plastic strain rate, and any
generalized load combination, the rate of external work over one cycle exceeds the
plastic energy dissipation rate over that cycle. Constraints identified at Eq. (6a)
represent a kinematically admissible plastic strain rate cycle while constraint Eq. (6b)
represents the maximum positive external work condition, and the objective function
represents the internal plastic energy dissipation, Koiter [2].
-957-
STR-010-6
2.2 Shakedown Analysis Due to Combined Loading Programs
Very often, structures are subjected to various kinds of load: dead load, live load,
wind load, earthquake, etc. Some of these loads remain constant with time, but the
other loading types continually vary. Those variations are independent and repeated
with the arbitrary histories.
In general, a structure is subjected to non-repeated invariable loads Fo, below the
carrying capacity of the structure, in addition to variable repeated loads kF(t). These
repeated loads and actions may be monotonically increasing or quasi-static cyclic,
magnified by a load factor k, neglecting any dynamic effects. The non-repeated loads
are constant in time and not affected by k. The fixed load Fo consists of the dead load,
live load, etc, while kF(t) is a cyclic load caused by earthquakes, winds, moving load,
etc.
The resulting combined loading program in this situation will be:

R(t)

= Fo + k F(t) (7)

In addition, by specifying the factor k to correspond only to the variable repeated
applied loads, the self weight will be included in Fo, and M will be due to the variable
repeated applied loads only.
2.2.1 Energy Balance Approach
2.2.1.1 Dual Program - Kinematic Shakedown and Limit Theorems
The energy balance equation is self evident from Eq. (6) by equating external and
internal works for the case of cyclic loading i.e.,

Ko
T
= k M
T

(8)

Considering the external work done by the fixed load integrated over one cycle, in
addition to the work done by the cyclic load, yields the following energy balance
equation:

Ko
T
= k M
T

+ Fo
T
q (9)

Introducing the external work done over one cycle into the objective function of Eq.
(6) gives rise to the following form of the kinematic theorem:

s = min Ko
T
- Fo
T
q
q,

Subjected to:

-958-
STR-010-7
a) [E] q

- [N]

= 0
,

b) M
T

= 1 ,

c) 0 (10)

Eq. (10) is a quasi-static generalization of the linearlized form for the kinematic
theorem of limit analysis, when considering both fixed and proportional loads. For
instance Abdel-Baset [17] gives:

s = min Ko
T
- Fo
T
q
q,

Subjected to:

a) [E] q

- [N]

= 0
,

b) F
T

q = 1 ,

c) 0 (11)

2.2.1.2 Primal Programs - Static Shakedown and Limit Theorems
Applying the duality properties to Eq. (10) reproduces the primal program for the
static shakedown theorem considering the effect of both cyclic and fixed loads:

s = max k,
k,
R

Subjected to:

a) [E]
T

R
= Fo
,

b) k M +

[N]
T

R
Ko ,

c) k 0 (12)
It is worth noting that Eq. (12a) represents the equilibrium of residual stresses with the
fixed loading vector.
-959-
STR-010-8
Also, Eq. (12) is a quasi-static generalization of the finite element-linear programming
approach to the static theorem of limit analysis when considering both fixed and
proportional loads. For instance Abdel-Baset [17] gives:

s = max k,
k,

Subjected to
:
a) [E]
T
- kF

= Fo
,

b) [N]
T
Ko ,

c) k 0 (13)

2.2.2 Reduced Yield Stress Approach
Since Fo lies below the carrying capacity of the structure, then the sum of the elastic
stress response o
E
due to Fo and a suitable residual state will always be inside the
reduced elastic domain. Therefore, Maier [3] proposed replacement of Ko in Eqs. (5)
and (6) by Koe, where:

Koe = Ko - [N]
T
o
E
(14)

Accordingly, the static and kinematic shakedown formulations considering the effect
of fixed and cyclic loads will be rewritten in terms of Koe as follows:
2.2.2.1 Dual Program - Kinematic Shakedown Theorem

s = min Koe
T

q,

Subjected to:

a) [E] q

- [N]

= 0
,

b) M
T

= 1 ,

c) 0 (15)

2.2.2.2 Primal Programs - Static Shakedown Theorem

-960-
STR-010-9

s = max k,
k,
R

Subjected to:

a) [E]
T

R
= 0
,

b) k M +

[N]
T

R
Koe,

c) k 0 (16)

It is worth emphasizing that although formulations (15) and (16) require extra step for
calculating the elastic stress response o
E
due to Fo, more than formulations (10) and
(12), but it can provide early answer to whether or not o
E
lies below the carrying
capacity of the structure. The numerical performance of all these formulations will be
presented in the following section.
3 NUMERICAL RESULTS
The computer program developed earlier by Aboustait [15] for evaluating shakedown
and limit load factors and associated stresses and deformations, is modified to account
for the above two approaches. Since formulations (15) and (16) were used by
Aboustait [15] for shakedown analysis of tall buildings, the same field application will
be reconsidered but using formulations (10) and (12) for a comparative study.
This field application consists of the frame structure of Fig. (2).The material is
assumed to be elastic-perfectly plastic with the following mechanical properties:
Young's modulus E = 20389 kN /cm
2
, yield stress y = 23.5 kN /cm
2
, and specific
weight = 7.849 kN /cm
3
. The yield surface in Fig. (3) is used with P
o
= 0.4 as it is
recommended by American and European Standards as stated by Cohn [18]. In
addition to the self weight, the structure is subjected to vertical dead and live loads,
each = 20 kN/m distributed on the beams and to distributed horizontal wind loads
applied on the columns in the windward and leeward sides as shown in Fig. (4).
The analysis and design of this frame were carried out by the well known SAP2000
program [19] by adopting the load and resistance factor design method using the
AISC-LRFD 99 with the following factored combinations of dead, live, and wind
loads:
U = 1.4D
U = 1.2D + 1.6 L
U = 1.2D + 0.8W
U = 1.2D + 1.6W + 1.0L
U = 0.9D + 1.6W (17)
The result of this design is illustrated in Tables 1.
-961-
STR-010-10
Table 1: Section properties using Load and Resistance Factor Design Method

GROUP ELEMENTS SECTION
1 18 IPE 240
2 8,9,26,27 IPE 300
3 17,42,43 IPE 330
4 7,25,38-41,44,45 IPE 360
5 6,16,24,28-37 IPE 400
6 4,5,15,22,23 IPE 450
7 3,14,21 IPE 500
8 2,13,20 IPE 550
9 1 ,12,19 IPE 600
10 10,11 IPE 750

Fig.3: Piecewise Linear Yield
Surface

Fig.2: Frame Geometry, Loading and Element Numbering

-962-
STR-010-11
To perform shakedown analysis, the same value for the design load is applied to the
structure but in a cyclic manner. Fixed vertical dead and live loads, each = 20 kN/m
are distributed on the beams in addition to the self weight. This is in addition to two
cyclic distributed horizontal wind loads applied on the columns in the windward and
leeward sides as shown in Figure (4). Therefore, this study will determine the
shakedown load factor which represents the wind load cyclic structural capacity factor
with respect to the assigned fixed dead and live load factors. For this purpose and in
line with the above load combinations, four different cases were considered for the
vertical load (V) as follows:

1. The fixed vertical load (V) consists only of dead load (D)
2. The fixed vertical load (V) consists of dead and live loads (D+L)
3. The fixed vertical load (V) consists of 1.2 times dead load (1.2 D)
4. The fixed vertical load (V) consists of live load and 1.2 times dead load
(L+1.2D)

For every case in these four cases, the following load cycles were considered:
1. Alternating plasticity loading cycle consisting of combinations 2, 3, shown in Fig.
(4) namely, (-W,V), (W,V), (-W,V), etc.
2. Incremental collapse loading cycle consisting of combinations 1, 2 shown in Fig.
(4) namely, (0,V), (W,V), (0,V), etc.
3. Limit analysis is carried at one of the vertices of the above loading programs,
namely combination 2 in Fig. (4) namely, (W,V).

Fig. 4: Alternating plasticity loading cycle: Cases (2) and (3)
Incremental collapse loading cycle: Cases (1) and (2)
(Fixed Vertical and Cyclic Wind Loads)
The interaction between the bending moment M and the axial force P has been taken
into account using the yield surface shown in Fig.(3). For each element, this yield
surface consists of 12 interacting yield planes. Therefore, the number of constrains
and variables in this problem are as illustrated in Table 2. The results are summarized
in Tables 3, and 4.

-963-
STR-010-12
Table 2: Number of Variables and Constraints in the Static and Kinematic
Formulations for Both Limit and Shakedown Analyses
FORMULATION NUMBER OF VARIABLES NUMBER OF CONSTRAINTS
STATIC 811 621
KINEMATIC 702 136

Table 3: Shakedown and Limit Wind Capacity Factors and Corresponding Number of
Iterations
STATIC SHAKEDOWN
THEORY
KINEMATIC SHAKEDOWN
THEORY
Eq. (16) Eq. (12) Eq. (15) Eq. (10)

Loads
Collapse Mode Load
Factor
Iter Load
Factor
Iter Load
Factor
Iter Load
Factor
Iter
Alternating
Plasticity
1.65227 185 1.69142 185 1.65227 178 1.69142 162
Incremental
Collapse
3.09124 202 3.09039 179 3.09124 252 3.09039 253

D+L+W
Limit Collapse 4.76546 224 4.81343 204 4.76546 209 4.81343 224
Alternating
Plasticity
1.78814 103 1.78814 121 1.78814 95 1.78814 100
Incremental
Collapse
3.57627 124 3.57627 142 3.57627 157 3.57627 161

D+W
Limit Collapse 5.10399 199 5.14725 222 5.10403 213 5.14725 211

Table 4: Shakedown and Limit Wind Capacity Factors and Corresponding Number of
Iterations after Increasing Dead Loads by 20%.
STATIC SHAKEDOWN
THEORY
KINEMATIC SHAKEDOWN
THEORY
Eq. (16) Eq. (12) Eq. (15) Eq. (10)

Loads
Collapse
Mode
Load
Factor
Iter Load
Factor
Iter Load
Factor
Iter Load
Factor
Iter
Alternating
Plasticity
1.60682 210 1.60650 196 1.60682 158 1.60650 163
Incremental
Collapse
2.93595 189 2.93524 196 2.93595 248 2.93524 245

1.2 D+L+W
Limit
Collapse
4.66708 189 4.69658 245 4.66708 221 4.69658 229
Alternating
Plasticity
1.78814 126 1.78814 139 1.78814 112 1.78814 114
Incremental
Collapse
3.57627 149 3.57627 155 3.57627 164 3.57627 168

1.2 D+W
Limit
Collapse
5.052 213 5.09641 197 5.052 212 5.09641 225

-964-
STR-010-13

Comparing Tables 3, and 4, the following observations could be noticed, in addition
to the observations drawn in Aboustait [15]:
1. Number of iterations does not follow any certain pattern in all shakedown
formulations, but it seems that the energy balance approach, Eqs. (10, and 12)
consumes slightly higher iterations than the reduced yield stress approach Eqs. (15,
and 16). In return, this last approach requires extra step for calculating the elastic
stress response to fixed loads.
2. For all cases of loading, and for the same approach, shakedown static and kinematic
formulations provide exactly the same value for the load factor. This is another
validation for the program based on the duality properties.
3. When reducing the fixed load by excluding live loads, the two approaches provide
exactly the same shakedown static and kinematic load factor.
4. For all cases of loading, the two approaches provide almost the same shakedown
static and kinematic load factor. Unfortunately, there is no available solution in the
literature to check the superiority of either approach.
5. For the sake of completeness and not repetition, some of the findings in Aboustait
[15] are listed below,
a) Alternating plasticity is the most critical mode of failure as it has the smallest
cyclic wind capacity, particularly when both dead and live loads were applied
simultaneously on the structure.
b) Increasing the dead load factor to 1.2 as specified by the LRFD load
combination in Eq. (17) had reduced the wind load capacity factor at the
alternating plasticity mode to 1.60682 which is slightly higher than the 1.6 wind
load factor assigned by that combination indicting safe design and providing more
confidence in this combination.
4 CONCLUSION
Two approaches for including the effect of fixed load in the shakedown analysis
formulations are presented and compared. A computer program developed earlier for
evaluating shakedown and limit load factors and associated stresses and deformations,
is modified to account for these approaches. An application to high rise buildings
subjected to cyclic wind in addition to fixed dead and live loads is illustrated.
The numerical results showed that the two approaches for including fixed load effect
in shakedown analysis provide almost the same load factors and consume practically
same numerical effort. This is in favor of the developed program and method. In
conclusion, there is no preference in using either approach, however the reduced yield
stress approach can provide an early answer to whether or not the stresses due to fixed
load lies below the carrying capacity of the structure. The results presented can be
used to investigate numerical shakedown and limit analyses, as well as to serve as a
theoretical basis for the development of an analytical design method for tall buildings
subjected to wind and seismic loads.

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5 NOTATIONS
i
Total natural stress resultant at a point i.
Y
i
Number of the yield planes at a point i.
Ko
i
Vector of distances from the stress origin to the yield planes at a point i.
[N
i
] Matrix whose columns are the direction cosines of the planes of the yield surface at a
point i.
Ko Assembled Ko
i
vectors for the global structure.
[N] Assembled [N
i
] matrices for the global structure.
F(t) Global external cyclic load vector.
Fo Global fixed load vector.
R(t) Global combined load vector.
E

Global natural elastic stress resultant response to F(t).
R

Global natural residual stress resultant response to F(t).
[E] Global equilibrium matrix.
q Global nodal displacement vector.

Global plastic multiplier vector.
p

Global plastic strain vector.
k Load factor.
6 REFERENCES
[1] Melan E., Theorie Statisch Unbestimmter Systeme, Prel. Publication, 2nd
Congress, International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering, Berlin,
(1936), pp. 43-64.
[2] Koiter, W.T., "A New General Theorem on Shakedown of Elastic-Plastic
Structures", Proc. Koinkl. Ned. Akad. Wetenschap. , B59, (1956), pp. 24-34.
[3] Maier, G., Shakedown Theory in Perfect Elastoplasticity with Associated and
Non- associated Flow Laws: A Finite Element Linear Programming Approach,
Meccanica, Vol. 4, (1969), pp. 250-260.
[4] Belytschko, T., Plane Stress Shakedown Analysis by Finite Elements, Int. J.
Mech. Sci., Vol. 14, (1972), pp. 619-625.
[5] Corradi, L. and Zavelani, A., A Linear Programming Approach to Shakedown of
Structures, Computer Methods in Appl. Mech. Eng., Vol. 3, (1974), pp. 37-53.
[6] Hung, H.D. and Konig, J.A., "A Finite Element Formulation for Shakedown
Problems Using a Yield Criterion of the Mean", Computer Methods in Appl. Mech.
Eng. Vol. 8, (1976), pp. 179-192.
[7] Aboustit, B.L. and Reddy, D.V., Finite Element Linear Programming Approach
to Foundation Shakedown Proceedings of the International Symposium on Soils
under Cyclic and Transient Loading, Swansea, 7-11 January (1980), pp. 727-738.
[8] Aboustait, B.L., "Static versus Kinematic Optimal Load Analysis", 7th Arab
Structural Engineering Conference, Kuwait, Vol. 2, November 24-26, (1997), pp.
581 590.
[9] Aboustait, B.L., "Plane Strain Shakedown Analysis", 19th French Congress on
Mechanics (CFM09) Marseilles, August 24-28, (2009), pp. 1-6.
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STR-010-15
[10] Maier, G., "Shakedown Analysis", Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study
Institute on Engineering Plasticity by Mathematical Programming, University of
Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada, August 2-12, (1977), pp. 107134.
[11] Saffari, H., Fadaee, M., Salajegheh1, J. and Tabatabaei, R., "Shakedown
Analysis of Elastic-Plastic Tall Buildings with Effect of Shear Forces", Int. J. of
Applied Math. and Mech. ,Vol. 4(1), (2008), pp. 75-90.
[12] Fadaee, M., Saffari, H., and Tabatabaei, R., "Mathematical Modelling for
Shakedown Analysis of Offshore Structures", American Journal of Applied Sciences,
Vol. 4 (7), (2007), pp. 449-455.
[13] Benfratello, S., Cirone and L. Giambanco, F., "A Plastic Shakedown Design of
FE Structures with Constraints on Deformations", 6th World Congresses of
Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 30 May - 03
June (2005).
[14] Aliawdin P., and Silicka, E., "Limit Analysis and Failure of Load-Carrying
Systems", 9th International Conference on Modern Building and Materials,
Structures and Techniques, held on Vilnius, Lithuania, May 16-18, (2007).
[15] Aboustait, B.L., "Shakedown Analysis of Tall Buildings", Accepted for
Publication at the Port Said Engineering Research Journal, Suez Canal University,
March (2009).
[16] Pierre, Donald A., Optimization Theory with Applications, John Wiley and
Sons Inc., (1969).
[17] Abdel-Baset, S.B., "Limit Analysis of Skeletal Structures under Combined
Stresses", Ph.D. Thesis in Civil Engineering, University of Waterloo, Canada, March
(1976).
[18] Cohn M Z., "Multi-Criteria Optimal Design of Frames", Proceedings of the
NATO Advanced Study Institute on Engineering Plasticity by Mathematical
Programming, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada, August 2-12, (1977), pp.
173195.
[19] CSI, "SAP2000 Integrated Structural Analysis and Design Software", Computers
and Structures, Inc., Berkeley, CA, (2004).

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13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





Optimum Design of Plane-Frame Steel Piperack
S.Y.ABOUL HAGGAG
Structural Engineering, Ain Shams University
Sarayat Street, Cairo, Egypt
Said_haagag@yahoo.com
A. M. ELHOSINY
amhosiny@hotmail.com
A. K. DESSOUKI
Dessouki_ceo@hotmail.com
M. S. BASSIONY
Petrojet Oil Company
Cairo, Egypt
basiothelion@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT
This research deals with the problem of optimum design of steel pipe-racks, subjected to
both gravity and lateral forces. Theses systems are usually designed to take into
considerations future expansions, thus leading to waste design. In the analysis, the
mathematical model involves an objective function (structure weight) subjected to
constraints equations (deflections and stresses). In this research, the design variables
selected are the frames cross-section dimensions (which are changed, iteratively).
However, the constraints conditions are taken as the allowable material stresses and the
vertical deflections or the horizontal drifts. Static analysis is repeated whenever geometry
or stiffness parameters are changed. In this research, a model had been constructed using
ANSYS structural program. The optimization routine was coded by ANSYS Parametric
Design Language (APDL). The model uses the (First order method) to carry out the
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optimization process. The program model was verified by applying it to several pre-solved
structural systems. Also, it was applied to different existing pipe-rack systems. The
programmed model is relatively general. It is capable of doing the optimum design in two
steps. First, it generates the structural model and perform static analysis. Second, it
performs optimum design through an iterative procedure using the 1st order method to
minimize the objective function, while satisfying the constraints conditions. The model
proved its ability to be applied to similar structural problems.
KEYWORDS
Optimum design, pipe-racks, ANSYS, First order method, constraints, objective function.
1 INTRODUCTION
Pipe-racks are used to support pipelines, when required at industrial or civil obstacles.
Pipe-racks may be used to carry one pipeline, two pipelines or multi pipelines. In this
research, a study is done on optimum design of steel pipe-racks. The steel design of frames
is based on frame geometry, and the choice of members section dimension. In the
optimization process, the objective is to attain minimum cost due to minimum weight.
Design codes such as American Code ASIC [1] and Egyptian Code [7,8] define the
constraints imposed by the optimization process. In pipe-rack construction, design criteria
include the following:

1.battery limit and future requirements,
2.minimum headroom and clearance under overhead piping or supporting steel within
areas,
3.pipe ways and secondary access ways,
4.main access roads,
5.rail roads,
6.standards to be used for minimum spacing of lines in pipe-racks,
7.handling and headroom requirements for equipment positioned under pipe-racks, and
8.operation and safety requirements affecting pipe-rack and structure design.

The initial layout of pipe-racks depend on the plot plan and process flow diagrams. This
step defines which portion of process lines will be located on Pipe-rack. Some idea of
utility piping required must be established and included. Coordination is performed with
instrument and electrical section to assess what additional rack space may be required to
accommodate cable trays. This action provides a preliminary visual idea of the pipe-rack
space required. The width of a pipe-rack is influenced by i) the number of lines, ii)
electrical/instrument cable trays and iii) space for future lines. Pipe-rack elevation is
determined by the highest requirement of i) headroom over main road, ii) headroom for
access to vehicle/equipment under the pipe-rack, and iii) headroom over interconnecting
pipelines and machinery/equipment located outside. In the present research, study is
limited to optimum design of pipe-racks composed of plane steel frame work, which may
be subjected to gravity and/or lateral loads. Structural optimization has enjoyed a vast
amount of research work in the past years, and was widely applied in many design problem
of structural engineering. The design requirements, defined as constraints are taken into
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consideration to achieve an optimum solution. Optimum design of pipe-racks in this study
will be limited to mean reaching of minimum weight of the pipe-rack. The design
variables, which govern the structure cost, are frame members cross-section dimensions,
which will be changed up during the design to reach the optimum value satisfying the
constraints applied. Different approaches may be found in the literature for various
researchers to investigate the frame problems. As shown in the following.

Saka and Kameshki 1998 presented an algorithm for the optimum design of unbraced rigid
frames, which takes into account the nonlinear response of the frame due to the effect of
axial loads. It considers Sway constraints and combined stress limitations. An optimality
criteria approach is employed to handle sway limitations. The new values of design
variables are computed from the recursive relationships. This process of re-analysis is
repeated until convergence is obtained.

David Kazmer, (1999) made a study to feed back the first order effects which drive the
design performance during design synthesis. The approach is an attempt to provide an
estimate of the performance which identifies the need for guided design refinement by
providing performance estimation relative to the stated objective.

A Das, S Mitra, (2003) made a study on the minimum weight design of single-bay single-
storey portal frames, made up of built-up I-sections. The minimum weight design is
subjected to the satisfaction of constraints formulated by Slope-deflection conditions and
stress conditions. The resulting optimization models of this study were solved by using the
projected augmented Lagrangian method of nonlinear programming. The end moments,
end slopes, and end deflections are treated as unknown state variables.

Luisa Maria Gil-Martin (2004) used a first-order analysis to approximate a second-order
analysis for steel structures, using several modern codes such as LRFD and Eurocode 3.
The objective function used in the optimization is the dominant eigenvalue of the linearized
buckling problem. The approximate optimization method was shown to result in substantial
increases in buckling resistance with little change in the total weight of framing members.
Later on, (2005) they developed the method, by using approximate expressions of second-
order phenomena and instability coefficient as a surrogate for the dominant eigenvalue of
the linearized buckling problem. They illustrated that the instability factor was an effective
surrogate for the first eigenvalue.

2 DESIGN OPTIMIZATION METHODS
In optimum design, three types of variables are characterized: design variables, state
variables, and the objective function. The vector of design variables is indicated by:
x = [x
1
x
2
x
3
x
n
] (1)

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Design variables are subject to n constraints with upper and lower limits, that is,

x
i
x
i
x
i
(i = 1, 2, 3,..., n) (2)

where: n = number of design variables.

Now, minimize f = f(x) (3)
subject to

g
i
(x) g
i
(i = 1, 2, 3,...,m
1
) (4)

h
i
h
i
(x) (i = 1, 2, 3,...,m
2
) (5)

w
i
w
i
(x) w
i
(i = 1, 2, 3,...,m
3
) (6)

where: f = objective function

g
i
, h
i
, w
i
= state variables (7)

Optimization methods can be classified as analytical methods and numerical methods.
Analytical methods are most suitable for optimum design of single structural components,
but they can not handle large systems [12].

3. NUMERICAL METHODS
In the numerical methods a near optimum design is often generated in an iterative manner,
checking the convergence to a near optimum solution. Mathematical programming
methods could be classified into three main categories; primal, dual, and transformation
methods.
3.1 Primal Methods
These methods solve the optimal design problem in its primal form i.e. constrained
minimization problem. Examples of these methods are: Optimality Criteria, Sequential
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Linear programming, Sequential Quadratic Programming, Feasible Directions, Geometric
Programming and Generalized Geometric Programming.
3.2 Dual Methods
In these methods the primal constrained minimization problem is converted into a dual
constrained maximization of the Lagrangian function. The dual design variables are
Lagrange multipliers [10].
3.3 Transformation Methods
These methods transform the constrained minimization problem to an unconstrained
minimization problem. Thus, both the objective function and constraints are combined into
one function. Examples of transformation methods are: sequential Unconstrained
Minimization Techniques (SUMT) [4] and Multipliers Methods [5]. Consider a primal
constrained minimization problem, then the transformed unconstrained minimization problem can
be written as [13]:

Minimize
r x G P x F r x
i j i i
), ( ) ( ) , ( + =
(8)

[ ] r x G P
i j
), (
is defined as the penalty function defined in different ways.

Where, r is a real scalar vector of controlling parameters, and P is a real valued function which is
known as the penalty term. The difference, between transformation methods depends on the
choice of the penalty term. In each of the following methods.

3.4 First Order Optimization Method
In this research, a first order optimization method (transformation method) is utilized. The
method calculates and makes use of derivative information. The constrained problem
statement is transformed into an unconstrained one via penalty functions. Derivatives are
formed for the objective function and the state variable penalty functions, leading to a
search direction in design space. Various steepest descent and conjugate direction searches
are performed during each iteration until convergence is reached. Each iteration is
composed of sub-iterations that include search direction and gradient (i.e., derivatives)
computations. An unconstrained version of the problem is formulated as follows.

+ + + + =

= = = =
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , (
3 2 1
1 1 1 1
0
i
m
i
w i
m
i
h i
m
i
g i
n
i
x
w P h P g P q x P
f
f
q x Q
(9)

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STR-011-6
where: Q = dimensionless, unconstrained objective function
P
x
, P
g
, P
h
, and P
w
= penalties applied to the constrained design and state
variables
f
0
= reference objective function value that is selected
from the current group of design sets

Constraint satisfaction is controlled by a response surface parameter, q. Exterior penalty
functions (P
x
) are applied to the design variables. State variable constraints are represented
by extended--interior penalty functions (P
g
,P
h
,P
w
). For example, for state variable
constrained by an upper limit (equation (8)) the penalty function is written as:

2
) (

+
=
i i
i
i g
g
g
g P
(10)
where: = large integer so that the function will be very large when the constraint
is violated and very small when it is not. The functions used for the remaining penalties are
of a similar form. As search directions are devised, a certain computational advantage can
be gained if the function Q is rewritten as the sum of two functions. Defining
0
) (
f
f
x Q
f
=
(11)
and
+ + + =

= = = =
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) , (
3 2 1
1 1 1 1
i
m
i
w i
m
i
h i
m
i
g i
n
i
x p
w P h P g P q x P q x Q
(12)

then equation (9) takes the form

Q(x, q) = Q
f
(x) + Q
p
(x, q) (13)

The functions Q
f
and Q
p
relate to the objective function and the penalty constraints,
respectively.
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STR-011-7

3.5 The Search Direction
For each optimization iteration (j) a search direction vector, d
(j)
, is devised. The next
iteration (j+1) is obtained from the following equation.

x
(j+1)
= x
(j)
+ s
j
d
(j)
(14)

Measured from x
(j)
, the line search parameter, s
j
, corresponds to the minimum value of Q in
the direction d
(j)
. The solution for s
j
uses a combination of a golden-section algorithm and a
local quadratic fitting technique. The range of s
j
is limited to

s
j
j
S
s
* max
100
0
(15)

where:
s
j
*
= largest possible step size for the line search of the current
iteration (internally computed)
S
max
= maximum (percent) line search step size

For the initial iteration (j=0), the search direction is assumed to be the negative of the
gradient of the unconstrained objective function.

) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) 0 (
) , (
p f
d d q x Q d + = =
(16)
in which q = 1, and

) ( ) (
) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) 0 ( ) 0 (
x Q d and x Q d p
p f f
= =
(17)
For the initial iteration the search method is that of steepest descent. For subsequent
iterations (j >0), conjugate directions are formed according to the recursion formula.

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STR-011-8
) 1 (
1
) ( ) (
) , (

+ =
j
j k
i j
d r q x Q d
(18)

[ ]
2
) 1 (
) ( ) 1 ( ) (
1
, (
) , ( , ( ) , (
q x Q
q x Q q x Q q x Q
r
i
i
T
j i
j

=
(19)
When all design variable constraints are satisfied P
x
(x
i
) = 0. This means that q can be
factored out of Q
p
, and can be written as:

Q
p
(x
(j)
, q) = qQ
p
(x
(j)
) if
i
i i
X X X
(i = 1, 2, 3,..., n) (20)

q can be changed from iteration to iteration without destroying the conjugate nature of
equation (110). The justification for this becomes more evident once equation (18) is
separated into two direction vectors:
) ( ) ( ) ( j
p
j
f
j
d d d + =
(21)
where each direction has a separate recursion relationship,

1
1
) ( ) (
) (

+ =
j
p j
j
f
j
f
d r x Q d
(22)

1
1
) ( ) (
) (

+ =
j
p j
j
f
j
p
d r x Q q d
(23)

So far it has been assumed that the gradient vector is available. The gradient vector is
computed using an approximation as follows:

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STR-011-9
i
j
i
j
i
j
x
x Q e x x Q
x
x Q
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
(24)
where: e = vector with 1 in its ith component and 0 for all other components

) (
100
i
i
i
x x
D
x
=

D = forward difference (in percent) step size

3.6 Convergence
First order iterations continue until convergence is achieved. Convergence is assumed
when comparing the current iteration design set (j) to the previous (j--1) set and the best (b)
set.
| f
(j)
f
(j1)
| (25)

and | f
(j)
f
(b)
| (26)

where: = objective function tolerance

4 CONSTRAINTS:-
While designing of analysis model, some constraints are taken into consideration to achieve
a feasible solution. The constraints will conform to the Egyptian code of steel design as
follows:-
1- Bending stress in beams, considering effect of lateral torsion buckling on flanges,
2- Deflection of nodes in the vertical direction,
3- Drift of nodes in the horizontal direction,
4- Local buckling,
5- Shear stress,
6- Normal stresses in columns, caused by axial force and bending moment.

5 COMPUTER MODEL
In this research, a computer model was constructed using ANSYS structural program and
was coded by ANSYS Parametric Design Language (APDL). The model is saved as a text
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file. The program model is divided into several modules. The model starts by geometry
generation and load assignment followed by static analysis. Then the optimization module
begins by defining the an objective function (structure weight) subjected to constraints
equations (deflections and stresses). The deflections and stresses are defined as state-
variables. Then the minimization process is performed in an iterative manner. The model
uses the (First order method), described earlier, to carry out the optimization process. In
this research, the design variables selected are the frame cross-section dimensions, which
are changed, iteratively; explicitly, for each cross-section, the web plate depth and
thickness and the flange plate width and thickness. Therefore, we have four design
variables for each cross-section.. However, the constraints conditions are taken as the
allowable material stresses and the vertical deflections or the horizontal drifts. Static
analysis is repeated whenever geometry or stiffness parameters are changed. Figure (1)
shows the flow-chart of the optimization routine.

6 VERIFICATION PROBLEMS: -
The program model was verified by applying it to several pre-solved optimized structural
systems. Also, it was applied to different existing pipe-rack structures.

6.1 Example 1:
A single span fixed end beam subjected to a working mid-span point load of 20 ton
previously analyzed by Saka [15], is shown in Fig.(2). The beam was designed for stress
constraints only. It is assumed that flange lateral supports are provided at every 2m of
beam's span. The cross-section depth is treated as design variable. The width and
thickness of the flanges and thickness of the web are kept constant throughout the beam.
The self-weight of the beam is not taken into account. The lateral-torsion buckling
constraints are released. Instead, bending stress limitations of 1.6 t/cm
2
were imposed on
the bending stresses and load factor taken equal to (1.5). The modulus of elasticity and
yield strength of steel were taken as 2100 t/cm
2
and 2.8 t/cm
2
(st.44) respectively. The
density of steel was (0.00000785 t/cm
3
). Table (1) shows a comparison of the results
obtained.

6.2 Example 2:
The two-spans steel beam shown in Fig.(3) analyzed by Saka [15] is reanalyzed by the
developed ANSYS model. The width and thickness of the flanges and the thickness of
web are given in the figure. The depth is taken as design variable. The beam was
optimized for a flexural stress constraint of 1.6 t/cm
2
. The modulus of elasticity was taken
as 2050 t/cm
2
. Table (2) shows the final results obtained by our model and those obtained
by Saka [7].
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6.3 Example 3:
The pitched roof frame (on fixed base) shown in Fig.(4), analyzed previously by Saka [15],
is reanalyzed by the developed ANSYS model. Lateral restraints are assumed at the nodes
shown. The frame is designed under stress constraints. Deflection constraints are released,
to enable the stress constraints to govern the design. Table (.3) shows the final results
obtained by our model and those obtained by Saka.

6.4 Example 4:
The pitched roof frame (with pin supports) shown in Fig.(5), analyzed previously by Saka
[15], is reanalyzed by the developed ANSYS model. Lateral restraints are assumed at the
nodes shown. The frame is designed under stress constraints. Deflection constraints are
released, to enable the stress constraints to govern the design. Table (4) shows the final
results obtained by our model and those obtained by Saka.

6.5 Example 5:
A pipe-rack frame with cantilevers resting on fixed supports is shown in Fig.(6). The
model has 20 nodes at which lateral restraints are assumed to be provided. The frame is
already constructed by PETROJET in Suez zone for Suez Oil Processing Company "ballast
water 16" onshore pipeline project". The Engineering department designed the project
according to Egyptian Code of Practice [7,8] and using SAP2000 software. The pipe-rack
already carries 16" water pipeline, but it was designed for future utilization. The steel used
is type 37, yield strength =2.4 t/cm
2
and Young's modulus is equal to 2100 t/cm
2
. The cross
section of girders are IPE 270 with weight 36.1 kg per meter length and the cross section of
columns are HEA 200 with weight 42.3 kg per meter length In this study the frame is re-
designed under stress and deflection constraints. We will assume the width and thickness
of the flanges and the thickness of web are constant, otherwise only the depth of web is
taken as design variable. Table (5) shows the final results obtained by our model and those
obtained by PETROJET Engineering department .

6.6 Example 6:
Fig.(7) shows a pipe-rack with fixed supports previously analyzed by Das, A. et al. [6] who
used Sophisticated optimization algorithm MINOS (Main Injector Neutrino Oscillation
Search). The model has 6 nodes at which lateral restraints were assumed to be provided.
The pipe-rack members are assumed built-up I-sections. The frame is re-designed using the
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STR-011-12
developed ANSYS optimization model. The minimum weight design is subjected to the
maximum limits for allowable combined axial & bending compressive stresses, bending
tensile stresses and shear stresses. The self weight effects is taken into consideration. We
will assume the width and thickness of the flanges and the thickness of web to be constant,
otherwise only the depth of web is taken as design variable. The steel used is type 37, yield
strength =2.4 t/cm
2
and Young's modulus is equal to (2007.22) t/cm
2
. Table (6) shows a
comparison of the results.

7 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS :-
In this research, six structures were analyzed for optimum design using the developed
ANSYS model. The structures were designed according to ECP. For examples 1-4, the
results were compared with the results obtained in previous research work [15] as shown.
From this study the following remarks are observed:
1- In case of systems consisting of beams only, the weight obtained from our model is less
than the weight obtained from Saka research (the maximum difference about 1.4%). Also
based on our model the weight in case of stress constraint only is less than the weight
obtained in case where all constraints (Bending & normal stresses, deflection, drift, local
buckling, and shear stress) are taken into consideration. The maximum depth in tapered
members in Saka research is higher than the depth obtained by our mode.
2- In case of frames (consisting of beams and columns), the weight obtained from our
model is heavier than the weight obtained from Saka research (the maximum difference
about 20.4%). This is due to effect of constant depth design for all members. Tapered
members can lead to saving. Also based on our model the weight in case of stress
constraint only is less than the weight obtained in case where all constraints are taken into
consideration. The maximum depth in tapered members in Saka research higher than beam
depth and less than column depth obtained by our model.
3- In all cases, the maximum deflection obtained from Saka research is higher than the
deflection obtained from our model. Tapered member allow to decrease web weight which
is not achieved in constant-depth design.
Example no.5 when compared with existing pipe-rack in Suez zone, the following remarks
are observed:
1- The weight obtained from our model is less than the weight of existing pipe-rack (the
difference about 10%). Also based on our model the weight in case of stress constraint
only is less than the weight obtained in case of all constraints taken into consideration. The
maximum beam depth obtained from our model is much less than that of existing pipe-rack.
However, the maximum column depth is close to that of the existing pipe-rack.
-979-

STR-011-13
2- The maximum deflection obtained from our model is less than the deflection of existing
pipe-rack.
In Example no.6, the following remarks are observed:
The weight obtained from our model is very close to the weight obtained by the previous
research. Difference between both cases in cross section depth is about 6.5%.

8 PARAMETRIC STUDY :
8.1 Case-1 Inclination Effect :
In this case, we will investigate the effect of column inclination, Figs. (8,9). The angle
between the column and the vertical axis will be the variable parameter. Two cases were
studied; single-column inclined and both-columns inclined. For each case, two sub-cases
were considered; inside inclination versus outside inclination. All cases are solved as per
Linear Geometry and Linear Material and the frame own weight is considered. For each
case, minimum weight design is performed. Fig. (10) shows the effect of columns
inclinatiom on the frame weight, for all cases considered.

8.2 Case-2 Web To Flange Width Ratio :
In that case, Fig. (11), we will assume the frame geometry is fixed, the effect of section
aspect ratio is examined. Section aspect ratio, "V", is defined as the ratio between section
total depth and flange width. Cases with different values for the "V"-ratio are examined.
Typical values for "V", are ( 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25, 1.5, etc.). For each case, minimum weight
design is performed. Fig. (12) shows the effect of section aspect ratio on the frame weight,
for all cases considered.

8.3 Case-3 Beam To Height Ratio:
Here we will assume the span (distance between supports) to be fixed and the total beams
length to be kept constant and is equal to span, Fig, (13). As the columns are inclined, the
cantilevers lengthen (V1 increases) and the middle beam between columns shortens (L
decreases). The beams total length is assumed 400 cm as shown in figure (13) and equal to
(V1+L+V1). Different values for V1 ( 40, 80, 120 and 160 cm) are assumed. For each
case, minimum weight design is performed. Fig. (14) shows the effect of beam/height ratio
on the frame weight, for all cases considered.

8.4 Case-4 Span To Height Ratio:
In this case the total beams length and the columns height are kept constant and the span is
variable (span L is the distance between supports), Fig. (15). As the columns are moved
inside, the cantilevers lengthen (V1 increases) and the middle beam between columns
-980-

STR-011-14
shortens (L decreases). This case will show the effect of span (L) to height ratio. Different
values for span L (400, 320, 240, 160 and 80 cm) are assumed, ( depending on V1 values 0,
40, 80, 120 and 160 cm), respectively. For each case, minimum weight design is
performed. Fig. (16) shows the effect of span/height ratio on the frame weight, for all cases
considered.

9 CONCLUSIONS:
This research deals with the problem of optimum design of steel pipe-racks, composed of
plane frames and subjected to gravity forces. Frame members are composed of built-up I-
sections. In this research, a model had been constructed using ANSYS structural program.
The optimization routine was coded by ANSYS Parametric Design Language (APDL).
The model uses the (First order method) to carry out the optimization process. In the
analysis, the mathematical model involves an objective function (structure weight)
subjected to constraints equations (deflections and stresses). The members design
conforms to the ECP. In this research, the design variables selected are the frames cross-
section dimensions (flanges and web plates thickness and width). The program model was
verified by applying it to several pre-solved structural systems. Also, it was applied to
different pipe-rack systems. The programmed model is relatively general. The model
proved its ability to be applied to similar structural problems. The application problems
indicate several points.

1- Using of built up sections instead of hot rolled save the weight and will be economic
to use.
2- The number of iterations required to obtain feasible solution is problem dependant
and may be determined by trial.
3- The optimum angle between frame columns and the vertical axis is zero
4- When we use cantilevers outside the frame , the weight will be reduced. It's preferred
to utilize cantilevers to obtain economic solution.

10 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES
1. The research work included, may be extended to the optimum design of three-
dimensional structures.
2. Other cross sectional shapes of the frame members, such as box section and tapered
section, need to be investigated for the optimum design.
3. Multiple-bay multiple-storey portal frame systems may be studied for optimum design.
4. Selection from a pre-defined user-table need to be included in the analysis.

-981-

STR-011-15
11 REFERENCES :
1) ANSI/AISC 360 2005 An American National Standard.
2) ANSYS 2005 Release 9.0 SP1 Manual.
3) API Standard 650 Tenth Edition 1998 "Welded Steel Tanks for oil Storage".
4) Belegundu, A. D. and Arora, J. S., 1981 "Potential of Transformation Methods in
Optimal Design," AIAA J., Vol. 19 , No. 10, pp. 1372-1374
5) Belegundu, A. D. and Arora, J. S., 1984 "A Computational Stmiy of Transformation
Methods for Optimal Design," AIAA J., Vol. 22, No. 4, pp. 535-542
6) Das, A, and Mitra, S, 2003, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of
Technology, Durgapur, 713 209.
7) Egyptian code 2008 no.201 for calculation of loads and forces on structures and
buildings.
8) Egyptian Code of Practice 2001 for Steel Construction and Bridges (allowable
stress design) code no.205 Ministerial Decree no.279
9) Gil-Martin, L. M., Hernandez-M.E., and Aschheim, M., (2004), "Engineering
Optimization - Optimal Design of Planar Frames Based on Approximate Second-
Order Analysis".
10) Karmanov, V.G., 1989 "Mathematical Programming," Mir Publ., Moscow
11) Kazmer, D., Fagade, A., Roser, C., Zhu, L., (1999), "Incorporation of Engineering
Analysis within Design Synthesis", University of Massachusetts Amherst
12) Kirsch, U., 1991 "Feasibility and Optimality in Structural Design," Computer and
Structures, Vol. 41, No. 6, pp. 1349-1356
13) Mohsen Fathey, 1993 "Optimum design of trusses considering buckling
constraints.", MS-Thesis, Civil Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams
University.
14) Saka, M. P. and Kameshki, E. S., 1998 "Optimum Design of unbraced Rigid
Frames," Computer & Structures , Vol. 69, pp. 433-442
15) Saka, M. P., 1997 "Optimum Design of Steel Frames with Tapered Members,"
Computer & Structures, Vol. 63, No. 4, pp. 797-811.
-982-

STR-011-16

Figure (2) Comparison problem no.1

D (variable)
B=20 cm
Cross Sectional Area
T=1.5 cm
S=1.2 cm
20 t
200 cm 200 cm
1
2 3
D.L
200 cm 200 cm
4
5
1 2 3 4
-983-

STR-011-17

D (variable)
B=20 cm
T=2.0 cm
S=1.0 cm

12 x 200 cm
1
5
4 x 200 cm
11
17
6 t
3
12 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 15 16 13

D (variable)
B=20 cm
T=2.0 cm
S=1.0 cm
4t
4t 4t
4t
2t
12 x 200 cm
4
5
6
7
8 9 10 11
12
13
14
15
1
3
18
16
4t
4t

D (variable)
B=20 cm
T=2.0 cm
S=1.0 cm
4t
4t
4t 4t
4t
2t
4t
12 x 200 cm
4
5
6
7
8 9
10 11
12
13
14
15
1
3
18
16
3

X

(
2
0
0

)

2
4
0

3

X

(
2
0
0

)

2
4
0

-984-

STR-011-18

Figure (7)
Comparison
problem
no.6

38.5 38.5 36.5 cm
36.5 cm
50
50 100 cm 100 cm
3.8 t 3.8 t
3.8 t
3.8 t
3.8 t
180 cm
551 cm
3.8 t 3.8 t
3.8 t
3.8 t
3.8 t
IPE 270
IPE 270
HEA 200 HEA 200
19
cm
20 cm
27 cm
13.5 cm
19 20
1 2 3 4
5
6 7 8
9
10
11 12 13
14
15 16
18
17

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16
17 19
18
20
Spacing
between
frames equal
to 3.75 m, the
pipes on the
pipe-rack will
be 30" with
thickness 9.53
mm
133.45
KN
133.45
KN
4.572
m
9.144 m
71.2 cm
23
cm
33.7
cm
5mm 5mm
14.1 cm
90
cm
5mm
1
2
3 4
5
6

5mm

5mm

5mm
1
2 3
4
5
Figure (6)
Comparison
problem no.5
-985-

STR-011-19

Figure (10) Effect of columns Inclination

400 cm
67
1
2
3
7
4
V1
250
cm
8 t
4 t 4 t
5
6
133 133 67
V2

400 cm
1
2
3
7
250
cm
V1
4 5
6
67
133
67 133 V2
4 t 8 t 4 t

Figure (8) Frame used to study
columns-inclination outside effect
columns-inclination inside effect
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.60
1.80
0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00 140.00
Summation of both columns angle
W
i
/
W
o
Left column outside
Both columns outside
Both columns inside
Left column inside
Wo : wt of vl col frame
Wi : wt of the current case
-986-

STR-011-20

Figure (11) Frame used to study web to flange width
ratio effect
Figure (12) Web depth to flange width effect

8 t
400 cm
67
1
2
3
7
4
133
250 cm
5
4 t 4 t
6
133 67

D
B
Cross
Sectional Area
T
S
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50
Web depth to flange width ratio "V"
W
i
/
W
o
-987-

STR-011-21

Figure (13) Frame used to study beam height ratio
Figure (14) Effect of beam length L to height ratio on the minimum weight

400 cm
1
2
3
7
4
V1
250
cm
8 t
4 t 4 t

5
6
V2

8 9
Span is fixed
L

D
B
Cross
Sectional Area
T
S
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
beam to height ratio
W
i
/
W
o
-988-

STR-011-22

span to height ratio effect

400 cm
67

1
2
3

7

4
V1
250
cm
8 t
4 t 4 t
6
133 133 67
V1
Span

8

5 9
Span to height ratio effect
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80
Span to height ratio
W
i
/
W
o
Wo : wt of case span = beam length

D
B
Cross
Sectional Area
T
S
Figure (16) Effect of span to height ratio
-989-

STR-011-23

Description
Results as
per Saka[7]
Results as per ANSYS solution
according to our model
Results as per ANSYS
solution with some
modifications
Steel used Type 44 , yield strength =2.8 t/cm
2

Load factor 1.5 - -
No. of Loops 1 3 1
Iterations/loop 37 30 37
Constraints Stress only
Bending and shear stresses,
deflection, drift, local buckling
Stress only
Dead Load Not Taken Taken into consideration Not Taken
Max. depth (cm) 46 34.6 34
Displacement (cm) 1.42 1.09 1.12
Max. Stress 1.0 0.974 0.998 0.998
Critical Section 1&3 1&3 1&3
Final Weight (ton) 0.615 0.638 0.634
Description
Results as
per Saka[7]
solution with some
modifications
2

Load factor 1.4 - -
No. of Loops 1 3 1
Stress only
Max. depth (cm) 83.6 67.8 62.7
Max. Stress 1.0 0.996 0.998 0.998
Critical Section 11 11 11
Final Weight (ton) 3.54 3.72 3.59
Table (1) Comparison problem no.1
-990-

STR-011-24

Description
Results as per
Saka[7]
solution according to our
model
solution with some
modifications
2

Load factor 1.4 - -
No. of Loops 1 3 1
Stress only
Max. depth (cm) 93.92
75.7 for beam
161.4 for column
72.1 for beam
153.4 for column
Max. Stress 1.0 1.000 0.943 0.946
Description
Results as per
Saka[7]
solution according to our
model
solution with some
modifications
2

Load factor 1.4 - -
No. of Loops 1 3 1
Stress only
Max. depth (cm) 106.3
90.47 for beam
170.2 for column
85.6 for beam
144.6 for column
Max. Stress 1.0 0.997 0.998 0.997
-991-

STR-011-25

Description
Results as per the
existing pipe-rack
Results as per
ANSYS solution
according to our
model
solution with some
modifications
2

No. of Loops 3 1
Iterations/loop
Without optimization
30 20
Constraints Stress and Deflection
Bending and shear
stresses, deflection,
drift, local buckling
Stress and Deflection
Dead Load
Taken into
consideration
Taken into
consideration
Taken into
consideration
Girder depth (cm) 24.96 14.22 13.7
Column depth (cm) 17.00 16.98 11
Max. Stress 1.0 0.949 0.996 0.996
Description
Results as per
Dr A Das results [4]
2

No. of Loops - 3
Iterations/loop - 30
Load factor 1.4 1
Constraints
Bending and shear
stresses, deflection
Dead Load
Taken into
consideration
Taken into consideration
Beam final cross
sectional area (cm
2
)
59.1 63.1
Column final cross
sectional area (cm
2
)
63.95 59.1
Max. Stress 1.0 0.949 0.997
Critical Section 5 5
Final Weight (ton) 0.888 0.879
Table (5) Comparison with Existing pipe-rack
Table (6) Comparison with Dr A Das research
-992-
STR-011-26

Case
Weight
ton
Max.
Stress
1.0
Def.
cm
Beam
Depth
(cm)
Column
depth
(cm)
Constraints
Example-1.a "Saka[7]" 0.62 0.974 1.42 46.0 -- Bending stress
Example-1.b "Present
work"
0.64 0.998 1.09 34.6 --
Bending and shear
Example-1.c " Present
work modified"
0.63 0.998 1.12 34.0 -- Bending stress
Example-2.a "Saka[7]" 3.54 0.996 8.74 83.6 -- Bending stress
Example-2.b " Present
work "
3.72 0.998 8.63 67.8 --
Bending and shear
work modified "
3.59 0.998 8.98 62.7 -- Bending stress
Example-3.a "Saka[7]" 4.07 1.000 6.17 93.9 93.9 Bending stress
work "
5.27 0.943 2.92 75.7 161.4
Bending and shear
work modified "
5.13 0.946 3.04 72.1 153.4 Bending stress
Example-4.a "Saka[7]" 4.22 0.997 6.78 106.3 106.3 Bending stress
work "
5.64 0.998 3.06 90.47 170.2
Bending and shear
work modified "
5.3 0.997 3.37 85.6 144.6 Bending stress
Example-5.a "Existing
pipe-rack"
0.94 0.949 0.52 25.0 17.0
Bending stress and
deflection
work "
0.85 0.996 0.39 14.2 17.0
Bending and shear
work modified "
0.80 0.996 0.47 13.7 11.0
Bending stress and
deflection
Example-6.a "Dr A Das
[4]"
0.89 0.949 -- 59.1 64.0
Bending and shear
stresses, deflection
work "
0.88 0.997 1.19 63.1 59.1
Bending and shear
Table (7) Examples Summery of Results
-993-

STRENGTH OF MATERI ALS

MAT- 001 PRESERVATI ON RECOMMENDED OF USI NG CRUSHED LI MESTONE AGGREGATE
mariam farouk ghazy
MAT- 002 PROPERTI ES OF FRESH AND HARDENED SELF COMPACTI NG CONCRETE ( SCC)
PRODUCED BY USI NG LOCALLY AVAI LABLE MATERI ALS
AHMED EL- badawy Sayed Abd- Almoneem, Rabiee Aly Seddik, and yasser Rifat Tawfic
MAT- 003 DURABI LI TY OF PAVI NG UNI TS I N SULPHURI C ACI D
hanan elnouhy and sayeda zeedan
MAT- 004 BEHAVI OR OF RC BEAMS OF NSC AND HSC EXPOSED TO FLEXURAL LOAD AND
ELEVATED TEMPERATURE
Ragab Megahed Abd El- Naby, Emad Mohammed El- Darder y, and Tahn Awad Allah EL- l- Sayed
MAT- 005 AN EXPERI MENTAL STUDY TO PROTECT STEEL REI NFORCI NG BARS FROM CORROSI ON
Rabie Mohamed Ali Seddik and Ahmed El- Badawi Sayed Abdel- Monem
MAT- 006 EFFECT OF CEMENT CONTENT AND CEMENT TYPE ON THE RESI STANCE OF CONCRETE
AGAI NST CHEMI CAL ATTACK.
Ahmed El- Badawi Sayed Abdel- Monem and Rabie Ali Seddik Mohamed
MAT- 008 THI RTEEN YEARS EXPLORATI ON OF MECHANI CAL PROPERTI ES I N HSC UTI LI ZI NG
DESTRUCTI VE AND NON DESTRUCTI VE TESTS
Mohamed M. Yousry El Shikh


MAT-001-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





PRESERVATION RECOMMENDED OF USING CRUSHED
LIMESTONE AGGREGATE

Mariam Farouk Ghazy
Faculty of Engineering, Tanta, Egypt
E- mail: dr.mariamghazi@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
The gravel leakage Egyptian market leads to explore new sources of aggregate. The
crushed limestone is one of the most competitive alternatives in the market. This
investigation studied a vast range of different specimens of crushed limestone. The
specimens were gathered from different quarry. Physical and mechanical properties of
the gathered specimens were investigated. The properties of the crushed aggregate were
compared. Crushing factor test was carried out to evaluate the different specimens then
the expected concrete strength, maintaining the quality assurance of the source. The X-
ray analysis was conducted to classify crushed limestone. The deterioration of the
crushed limestone concrete under attack of sodium hydroxide solution and fire exposure
was investigated using ordinary Portland cement. Moreover, sulphat resisting Portland
cement was used and attacked with sodium hydroxide. The investigation leads to many
valuable conclusions. X-ray analysis gives a primary indicator of the dolomite
percentage. High dolomite in the crushed limestone represents good properties of the
crushed limestone concrete. The crushed limestone may be used under conditional terms
that guarantee good concrete performance against deterioration.
KEYWORDS
Crushed limestone, plain concrete, attack to NaOH, exposure to fire, alkali solution.
INTRODUCTION
Usually, in determining the safe alkali content of the pore solution in concrete made
with aggregate exhibiting alkali-silica reactivity, only the alkalies derived from the
cementitious components are considered. The exception to this is when some aggregates
composed of volcanic aggregates are used, which are known to contribute alkalies to the
pore solution. Alkalies derive from impure limestone, containing illite, may also
contribute alkalies to the pore solution by cation exchange with calcium from pore
solution. This observation is of considerable importance, if even a marginally alkali-
reactive limestone used for the construction of large dams, or other hydraulic structures
-994-

MAT-001-2

in which the concrete is exposed to a moist environment. Under these conditions, due to
the alkali derived from the limestone aggregate, the use of low-alkali cement may not be
sufficient to prevent the deterioration of the concrete [1].
In China, a condition survey was carried out on four affected concrete structures where
dolomitic rocks had been used as coarse aggregates. Compositions, textures and alkali
reactivities of partial coarse aggregates were determined and the deteriorated concrete
cores were subjected to petrographic examination. The results revealed that the
dolomitic aggregates were potentially alkali reactive and were responsible for the
deterioration of the concrete structures. It was the first time that damage to concrete by
alkali-dolomite reaction was recognized [2].
The response of concrete containing potentially reactive aggregates to NaCl
environment has been determined by measuring the length change of concrete cores
immersed in saturated NaCl solution at 80 C and 22C. The length changes at 80C are
correlatable with those obtained in the standard tests (ASTM C 227-81 and CSA A23.2
l4A). It is suggested that the hot saturated NaCl solution test may be suitable for
screening both alkali-carbonate reactive rocks and alkali-silica reactive rocks. The study
also shows that the temperature of NaCl-containing concrete and the type of aggregate
determines the rate and type of alkali reaction, whether expansive or contractive.
However, the database is insufficient to draw any far reaching conclusions, and the
phenomenon needs further study [3].
Several methods are employed for the determination of the potential alkali reactivity of
siliceous aggregates [4-7]. Of the methods used, the quick chemical test is the quickest
arid takes one day to perform. Unfortunately, with this method, some of the quartz
bearing rocks such as greywacke, argillite, granite and quartzite service record of being
deleteriously reactive, often give results that classify them as non-deleterious.
Petrographic examination for determine the presence of reactive constituents although
relatively quick, is very difficult to apply in the case of fine-grained rocks such as
hornfels, and should in general only be used to preliminary screening test.
The National Building Research Institute has developed a quick reliable test, which
gives an indication of the relative alkali reactivity of opaline and of quartz-bearing
aggregates. This study describes the test method and discusses factors that affect the
precision of the results, the ASTM C 227 mortar prism test is probably the most widely
used test for determining the potential alkali reactivity of cement-aggregate
combinations. It has the following disadvantages [8]:
(a) To obtain conclusive results a period of between three and six months is required in
the case of opaline aggregates, and between six and twelve months in the case of quartz-
bearing aggregates;
(b) The National Building Research Institute (NBRI) has found that the test criteria have
to be adjusted for quartz bearing aggregates;
(c) Different cement-aggregate combinations have to be tested in the case of opaline
aggregates to make provision for a pessimum effect.
The concrete prism test has the disadvantages mentioned in (a), (b) and (c) and, in
addition; concrete prisms require much more space than the mortar prisms. The major
advantage of this test is that the materials can be tested in the proportions used in
practice [9].
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MAT-001-3

Model systems for the alkali-aggregate reaction, using sodium hydroxide, calcium
hydroxide and silica gel, have been studied. In one series of experiments powdered
silica gel was agitated with the alkaline solutions, and the changes in solution
concentrations with time were followed some of the solid products were analyzed C-S-
H (calcium silicate hydrate) forms so long appreciable quantities of calcium ion remain
in solution; thereafter the system behaves in the same way as model systems with no
calcium introduced [10].
Sulfoaluminate cement, supersulfated cement and low alkali Portland cement bined with
a high volume of mineral admixtures such as, pulverized fly ash (PFA), granulated
blast-furnace slag (BFS) or silica fume (SF) can prevent concrete from deteriorating to
alkali-dolomite reaction. When Portland cement with equivalent Na
2
O 0.43% and
reactive dolomite limestone from Kingston, Canada are used, the replacement of cement
by 70% PFA, 90% BFS or 30% SF is needed. The key to the problem is to significant
reduce the pH value of pore solutions in concrete [11].
Limestone aggregate concrete was investigated to evaluate fresh and hardened concrete
properties. A comparison of many samples gathered from many places all over the Delta
was conducted (main sources were Attaka mountain, Suez, Hamam (Elalamean city)
and pavement organization). In addition, the research was conducted to determine the
viability of using limestone aggregate in concrete as an alternative of gravel achieving
simulating plain concrete properties. In this paper, the determination of the potential
alkali reactivity of aggregates is measured by compressive strength test of concrete
instead of length change as measured in several methods.
Table 1 shows the experimental program. Four sources of crushed limestones
aggregates were tested and natural gravel was used in compared with limestones. The
deterioration of the crushed limestone concrete under attacked to alkali solution or
exposed to fire, and the effect of using sulphat resisting cement has been investigated.
Materials
The constituents materials used in this study are locally produced. Ordinary Portland
cement (OPC) and sulfate resisting cement (SRC) were used. Using fine aggregate with
finesse modulus 2.5 and confirmed with the Egyptian Standard Specifications (1101-
1992) requirements. Natural coarse aggregate and limestone obtained from various
sources (gathered from many places over the Delta, in restriction, Tanta and Shebein
Alkoum). Natural Suez gravel is also used to compare with limestone aggregate. The
grading of coarse aggregates used is show in Fig. 1.
Mix proportions
The different samples were used to cast concrete mix to investigate the influence of
limestone aggregate on the properties of the concrete. The mix proportion of concrete
specimens was 350, 600, 1200 and 192.5 kg/m
3
(590, 1011, 2022 and 324.4 Ib/yd
3
) for
cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water, respectively. The water/cement ratio was
0.55 and kept constant for all mixes.
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MAT-001-4

Specimens Preparation and Testing
The dry materials required for each batch were weighed and mixed. The water and
cement were mixed for a half minute. Sand is simultaneously charged into the mixer for
half a minute. Then, coarse aggregate was added. The total content was mixed for a
period of two minutes to insure the uniformity of the constituents. The consistency and
the workability of the mixes were measured by slump test, V.B. test, compacting factor
test and flow test.
The hardened concrete specimens cured for 28 days by immerging in water tank 20

C
(68F),

and then left in laboratory atmosphere until the day of testing.
Compression and splitting test were carried out according to British Standard
Specifications. The specimens were tested after 14, 28 and 60 days in compression and
28 and 60 days in splitting, respectively. Standard cubes l50xl50xl50mm
(38.1x38.1x38.1 in) were tested in compression. Moreover, the influence of exposure to
fire after 60 days on compressive strength carried out on cubes l50xl50xl50mm
(38.1x38.1x38.1 in). The concrete cubes were put in fire chamber 400 C (752 F) for
two hours.
Comparative study of concrete cubes 150x150x150mm (38.1x38.1x38.1 in) attacked to
1N NaOH solution at age of 14 days to another 14 days in the solution. The cubes cured
in water, 20 C, for 14 days and then immerged in a container full of 1N NaOH
solution, 80 C (176 F) by immersion a heater with thermostat to control the
temperature, up to 14 days (after immerging in solution the total ages of concrete is 28
days). Then remove the cubes of the container and test them in compression. A
hydraulic testing machine of 1500 kN capacity was used for testing specimens in
compression and splitting. Figure 2 shows the X-Ray test apparatus. The apparatus
consist of three main parts (generator PW 1729, PW1840 diffract meter control and
PM8203 on line recorder).
ANALYSIS AND DISSCUSION OF EXPERIMENTAL TEST RESULTS
Properties of Crushed Limestone
The mechanical properties of the aggregate were summarized in Table 2. Figures 3, 4
and 5 show the texture of the composition by X-Ray patterns and Table 3 concluded
the main minerals in the particle. From this figures, it is recorded that the mineral of
dolomite increased from low to high whereas the calcium carbonate decreased in the
same direction. Compared to the mechanical properties with results given in X-Ray
diffraction showed higher mineral of dolomite which gave lower crushing factor. This
means that the dolomite had higher strength compared to calcite as shown in Fig. 6.
Fresh Concrete
Table 4 summarizes the results of tests. Using different batches of limestone aggregate
changes the workability of the fresh concrete. The non-uniformity of the limestone
aggregate particles shape makes the mixing procedure relatively difficult and reflects a
low workability. In concern, the fine particles had the main effect in the workability that
absorb the mixing water in mixes and dehydrate the mixes. This is clearly showed in
batch B. By washing the aggregate for batch B and take out the fine particle makes the
-997-

MAT-001-5

fresh concrete high workability (batch C). Batch G (gravel) gave higher workability
compared to natural batch of limestone without washing.
Hardened Concrete
Table 5 summarizes the experimental test results of hardened concrete in compression
and splitting at normal conditions. The compressive strength of the limestone aggregate
concrete for all batchs after 14, 28, and 60 days shows that limestone aggregate gave
higher strengths compared to gravel at various ages. The splitting strength of the
limestone aggregate concrete had the same potentials of the compressive strength as
shown in Table 5.
Increasing the fines, the strength of limestone aggregate concrete tends to reduction.
Using sulphat resisting cement also gave the same trend of ordinary Portland cement
that limestone aggregates concrete gave higher strengths compared to gravel at various
ages as shown in Table 6.
Attack to NaOH
The attack to hot 1N NaOH solution for 14 days shows a reduction in compressive
strength up to 22% in batch C cast with limestone (percentage of dolomite 66.2% and
calcite 26.6%) and using OPC cement, while it was 10.2% when using SRC cement.
This means that SRC cement reduce the reduction of concrete compressive strength
attack to 1N NaOH hot solution. Also, for concrete cast with gravel, SRC cement
opposite the reduction to 18.8% increase as given in Table 7, and Fig. 7 illustrates the
effect of attack to NaOH. This results due to hot curing of specimens that gives higher
strength compared to normal curing in water 20

C (68 F).
Exposure to Fire
Using limestone aggregate improves the compressive strength of concrete exposed to
fire for two hour under 400 C (752 F). Table 8 shows the compressive strength of
limestone aggregate concrete exposed to fire and the reduction in strength. The water
absorption of the limestone aggregate tends to store a volume of water in the aggregate
voids. This stored water breaks the severe action of the fire on the concrete this was
seen in concrete mix using batch C that limestone aggregate was full of water and the
reduction was about 25%. The reduction up to 40% in concrete mix using batch B that
the natural limestone was contain a fine material and the mix is low workability. Figure
8 illustrates the test results of exposure to fire.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from the investigation performed in this study:
1. The absorption capacity of the limestone aggregate proved to be however, it must be
measured to evaluate the loss of water during mixing, which affects directly the
workability of the limestone aggregate concrete and the hardened concrete
properties.
2. Curing of the limestone aggregate concrete is very important in early ages to
overcome the volume changes due to the high water absorption.
-998-

MAT-001-6

3. Using a high percentage of fines showed the reduction in the compressive and
splitting strengths of concrete.
4. The X-Ray test is very important for pre study limestone aggregate that show the
minerals in particle (dolomite and calcite). Higher percentage of calcite in limestone
aggregate showed higher reduction in attacked to alkali- solution.
5. The use of sulphat resisting cement is important to reduce the reduction in strength
of concrete cast with limestone aggregate and attacked to alkali- solution.
6. Concrete cast with clear and full of water limestone aggregate showed good
resistance to fire.
Table 1: Experimental program
Test properties of concrete
Agg.
No.
Type of
aggregate
Test
properties of
aggregate
Fresh
concrete
Hardening concrete
1 Attaka, (A)
2
Suez
kilo 101, (B)
3
Suez
kilo 101, (C)
4 Hamam, (D)
5 Pavement, (E)
6 Gravel, (G)
-Grading
-Unite
weight
-Volume
weight
-Crushing
factor %
-%
Absorption
-% Void
-X-Rays
-slump
-V.B.
-
compacting
factor
-flow
-Compressive
strength (14,28,60
days)
-Splitting strength
(28,60days)
- Compressive
strength after attack
to NaOH for 14
days
- Compressive
strength after
exposure to fire at
60 days age
Table 2: Mechanical properties of dolomite
No.
Aggregate
type
Specific
gravity
kg/m
3
(Ib/yd
3
)
Unite
weight
kg/m
3
(Ib/yd
3
)
Crushing
factor %
Absorption
%
Void
%
1 A
2610
(1547.1)
1470
(871.4)
20 1.15 43.7
2 B
2350
(1393)
1410
(835.8)
21.6 1.42 40
3 C
2470
(1464.1)
1410
(835.8)
21.6 1.16 43
4 D
2640
(1565)
1580
(936.6)
29.5 1.25 40
5 E
2450
(1452.3)
1450
(859.5)
28.5 1.45 40.8
6 G
2500
(1482)
1630
(966.2)
19 0.5 35
-999-

MAT-001-7

Table 3: Results of X-Ray tests
Type of minerals % Aggregate
type
Dolomite Calcite Hematite Quartzes
A 51.4 15.9 - -
B&C 66.2 26.6 4.3 2.9
D 18.5 65.6
3.7

12.2

Table 4: Properties of fresh concrete
Aggregate
type
Slump
test, mm
(in)
V.B.
test, sec
Compacting
factor %
Flow
test %
A
120
(4.72in)
7 91.5 65
B
20
(0.79in)
8 86.2 30
C
190
(7.48in)
6 94 100
E
100
(3.94in)
7 85.7 80
G
140
(5.51in)
5 97 120

Table 5: Mechanical properties of hardening concrete cast with
ordinary Portland cement OPC at various ages

Compressive strength,
Kg/cm
2

(Ib/in
2
)
Splitting
strength,
Kg/cm
2

(Ib/in
2
)
Aggregate
type
14 28 60 28 60
A
285
(20.1)
316
(22.3)
445
(31.4)
37
(2.6)
46
(3.2)
B
157
(11.1)
265
(18.7)
285
(20.1)
23
(1.6)
27
(1.9)
C
220
(15.5)
325
(22.9)
345
(24.3)
26
(1.8)
31
(2.2)
E
235
(16.6)
275
(19.4)
305
(21.5)
25
(1.8)
29
(2)
G
190
(13.4)
230
(16.2)
265
(18.7)
19
(1.3)
25
(1.8)

-1000-

MAT-001-8

Table 6: Compressive strength of hardening concrete cast with sulphat resisting
Portland cement SRC at various ages
Compressive strength, Kg/cm
2
(Ib/in
2
)
Aggregate
type
14 28 60
A 240 (16.9) 300 (21.1) 325 (22.9)
B 235 (16.6) 245 (17.3) 260 (18.3)
C 260 (18.3) 295 (20.80 325 (22.9)
E 235 (16.6) 285 (20.1) 305 (21.5)
G 180 (12.7) 202 (14.2) 235 (16.6)
Table 7: Effect of attacked to NaCl for 14 days on compressive strength for
concrete cast with varies cement
OPC
compressive
strength kg/cm
2
(Ib/in
2
)
SRC
compressive
strength kg/cm
2
(Ib/in
2
)
Aggregate
type
Without
attack
After
attack
Reduction
%
Without
attack
After
attack
Reduction
%
A
316
(22.3)
272
(19.2)
14
300
(21.1)
280
(19.7)
6.7
B
265
(18.7)
210
(14.8)
20.8
245
(17.3)
225
(15.9)
8.2
C
325
(22.9)
245
(17.3)
21.8
295
(20.8)
265
(18.7)
10.2
E
275
(19.4)
220
(15.5)
20
285
(20.1)
245
(17.3)
14
G
230
(16.2)
215
(15.1)
6.5
202
(14.2)
240
(16.9)
+18.8
Table 8: Effect of exposure to fire on compressive strength for concrete
OPC
compressive strength,
kg/cm
2
(Ib/in
2
)
Aggregate
type
Without
exposure
After
exposure
Reduction
%
A 445 (31.4) 315 (22.1) 30
B 285 (20.1) 169 (11.9) 40
C 345 (24.3) 260 (18.3) 25
E 305 (21.5) 215 (15.1) 30
G 265 (18.7) 175 (12.3) 34

-1001-

MAT-001-9

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
40 20 10 5
%

p
a
s
s
i
n
g
G
A
B&C
D
upper limite ESS
lower limite ESS
(3/16") (3/8") (3/4") (3/2")
log scale

Sieve size, mm (in)
Fig. 1: Grading of coarse aggregates

Fig. 2: X-Ray test apparatus

2 (4-50)
Fig. 3: X-Ray patterns for limestone aggregates, type A (Attaka (A))
-1002-

MAT-001-10

2 (4-50)
Fig. 4: X-Ray patterns for limestone aggregates, type B and C (Suez kilo 101, (B),(C))

2 (4-50)
Fig. 5: X-Ray patterns for limestone aggregates, type D (Hamam(D))

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
A B&C D
r
e
s
u
l
t
s

%
Dolomite
Calcite
Crushing factor

Aggregate type
Fig. 6: Test results of X-Ray and crushing factor
-1003-

MAT-001-11

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Without attack After attack Without attack After attack
OPC SRC
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

k
g
/
c
m
2
A B C
D G
24.7
17.6
14.1
10.6
7
3.5
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

I
b
/
i
n
2
0
21.1

Fig. 7: Effect of attack to NaOH

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
A B C D G
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

k
g
/
c
m
2
OPC Without exposure
OPC After exposure
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

I
b
/
i
n
2
35.2
31.7
24.7
21.1
17.6
14.1
10.6
7
3.5
0
28.2

Aggregate type
Fig. 8: Effect of exposure to fire
REFERENCES
[1] Grattan-Bellew, P.E., "Alkali Contribution from Limestone Aggregate to Pore
Solution of Old Concrete," ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 91, No. 2, March-April,
1994.
[2] Deng, M., Han, S.F., Lu, Y.N., Lan, X.H., Hu, Y.L. and Tang, M.S.,
"Deterioration of Concrete Structures Due to Alkali-Dolomite Reaction in China,"
Department of Silicate Engineering, Nanjing Institute of Chemical Technology,
China, Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 23, 1993, pp.1040-1046.
[3] Larbi, J.A. and Hudec, P.P., "A Study of Alkali-Aggregate Reaction in Concrete:
Measurement and Prevention," Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 20, 1990,
pp.73-78.
[4] American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM C 289-81, Annual Book of
ASTM standards, Part 14, 1981.
-1004-

MAT-001-12

[7] The Egyptian Code for Design and Construction of Concrete Structures, Annual
Book for Testing of materials, Part 3, 2003.
[8] Oberholster, R.E. and Davies, G., "An Accelerated Method for Testing the
Potential Alkali Reactivity of Siliceous Aggregates," Cement and Concrete
Research, Vol. 16, 1986, pp.181-189.
[9] Oberholster, R.E., Progress Report Submitted to the Technical Steering
Committee Investigating the Deterioration of Concrete Due to Alkali-Aggregate
Reaction in South Africa, 1985.
[10] Glasser, L.S. and Kataoka, N., "On the Role of Calcium in the Alkali-Aggregate
Reaction," Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 12, 1982, pp.321-331.
[11] Min, D. and Mingshu, T., "Measures to Inhibit Alkali-Dolomite Reaction,"
Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 23, 1993, pp.1115-1120.

-1005-

MAT-002-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt




PROPERTIES OF FRESH AND HARDENED SELF COMPACTING
CONCRETE (SCC) PRODUCED BY USING LOCALLY
AVAILABLE MATERIALS

AHMED, E. SAYED
El_Minia, Egypt
E-mail: dr_albadawi@yahoo.com
RABIEE, A. SEDDIK
Assuit,Egypt
E-mail: rabiee1960@yahoo.com
YASSER, R. TAWFIC
El_Minia, Egypt
E-mail: yasser_rifat@yahool.com

ABSTRACT
Self-compacting concrete is defined so that no vibration is necessary for the
compaction. The main criteria of producing SCC have to satisfy the following
characteristics;
1, 2, 3

Ability to flow into and completely fill complex forms under its own weight.
Ability to pass through and bond to congested reinforcement.
High resistance to aggregate segregation.
Self-compacting concrete presents a significant sign in improving the product quality
and efficiency of the building industry. It also enhances the working conditions and the
quality and appearance of concrete.
Japan has been used self-compacting concrete in bridge, building and tunnel
construction since the early 1990.s. In the last decade, SCC has been produced a high
potential for greater acceptance and wider applications in highway bridge construction
in the Europe and U.S. However, till now, there is no application of SCC in the
construction industry in Egypt. Therefore; the main objective of this research is to
produce SCC by using the locally available materials in our region such as basalt,
gravel, sand, limestone powder and silica fume.
Experimental programme was designed to characterize the properties of fresh and
hardened SCC. It comprises different concrete mixes fabricated with different types and
-1006-

MAT-002-2
percentages of constituent materials. Three full-scale reinforced concrete beams were
fabricated from the SCC mixes and tested under flexure. For the purpose of comparison,
an extra RC beam was made of conventional normal concrete to serve as a reference
beam. This study, in general, demonstrated that the applications of SCC in construction
industry offer products with enhanced characteristics as well as could be economical.
KEYWORDS
Self compacting concrete (SCC), lime stone powder, silica fume, workability, slump
flow and L-box tests.
1 INTRODUCTION
Self compacting concrete can be placed and compacted under its own weight. This
concrete should have sufficient cohesion to be handled without segregation or bleeding.
It can be used for casting heavily reinforced sections and complex formwork without
applying vibration. Self compacting concrete was originally developed to overcome the
shortage of the skilled workers meanwhile, it offers many advantages including:
3

Faster construction and reduction in site man-power.
Easier placing and better surface finishing.
Greater freedom in design.
Thinner concrete sections.
Reduced noise levels as a result of absence of vibration.
Improved durability.
Conventionally normal concrete and self compacting concrete consists of the same
components, which are cement, aggregate, water, additives, and admixtures. However,
SCC contains higher amounts of super-plasticizer for the reduction of the liquid limit
and for better workability, higher powder content as lubricant for coarse aggregates,
as well as the use of viscosity-agents to increase the viscosity of the concrete.
1, 4
As a
result of the mix composition, some properties of the fresh and hardened self
compacting concrete differ than the conventional vibrated concrete. The fluctuation in
surface moisture content of aggregate, weight error, ambient conditions as well as the
quality control of the production system highly affect the properties of the fresh self
compacting concrete. Many researches were conducted to check the compressive
strength of self compacting concrete and they made a comparison with that of the
conventional ones. Klaus et al
5
reported that, after 28 days, the reached compressive
strength of SCC and normal vibrated concrete of similar composition does not differ
significantly. However other researches
5, 6
reported that, for the same water cement
ratio, slightly higher compressive strengths were reached for SCC.
The main aim of this research work is to produce self compacting concrete mixes using
locally available materials in Egypt. Fresh and hardened properties of self compacting
concrete mixes were investigated. From the experimental test results and the reported
database of previous research works, empirical equation was developed to identify the
relationship between compressive strength and splitting tensile strength.
2 EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
In order to fulfil the research requirements, several laboratory trial mixes were
fabricated and tested to produce self compacting concrete mixes having enhanced
-1007-

MAT-002-3
mechanical properties. One conventional concrete mix was made of similar materials
for the purpose of comparison with the previous nine SCC mixes.
2.1 Materials Properties
The following materials were utilized for producing the trial mixes and for casting the
reinforced concrete beams.
2.1.1 Cement
Ordinary Portland cement produced by Assiut cement factory (Cemex) was used in this
study. The specific gravity of the cement is 3.15. The physical and mechanical
properties of the cement are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Physical and Mechanical properties of the cement
Test results E.S.S.
Surface area cm
2
/gm
(Blaine Method)
3200

> 2500
Setting time
Initial setting time
Final setting time

2:25 hr.
4:45 hr.
> 45 min.
< 10 hr.
Compressive strength
(kg/cm
2
)
After 7 days
After 28 days

285
379

> 275
> 367
2.1.2 Coarse Aggregates
Basalt and gravel were used to produce the concrete mixes. The average values of
specific gravity for basalt and gravel are 2.65 and 2.6, respectively. The average values
of absorption of basalt and gravel are 0.50 % and 0.58 %, respectively. The maximum
nominal size of basalt and gravel used to fabricate SCC mixes is 14 mm. The maximum
nominal size of the gravel used for the normal concrete mix (No. 10) was 20 mm. It is
of important to mention that, the coarse aggregate was washed and left in the room
temperature for 24 hours before mixing and casting.
2.1.3 Fine Aggregates
Natural sand with 4.75 mm maximum size was used as a fine aggregate. The specific
gravity and absorption were determined and found to be 2.6 and 0.75 %, respectively.
2.1.4 Lime Stone Powder
Fine lime stone powder (particle size smaller than 0.125 mm) was used at different
percentages of the cement weight. The specific gravity of the lime stone powder is 2.7.
2.1.5 Silica Fume
Silica fume produced by the Egyptian Ferro Alloy Company was used to produce the
SCC mixes. It is mainly consists of spherical particles of amorphous silicon dioxide and
is highly pozzolanic. Silica fume dust is collected by filters as a by-product of the
melting process to produce silicon metal and ferro-silicon alloys. The high level of
-1008-

MAT-002-4
fineness and practically spherical shape of silica fume results in good cohesion and
improved resistance to segregation. The specific gravity of silica fume is 2.17.
2.1.6 Admixtures
Superplasticiser having high range water reducer without retarding effect for both
concrete and mortar by the trade name of "Addicrete BVF", was used for the fabrication
of the concrete mixes. Addicrete BVF enables high reduction in water cement ratio and
consequently increases the concrete strength. The specific gravity of the superplasticizer
is 1.15.
2.2 Plain Concrete Mixes
Table 2 presents the mix proportions of all concrete mixes used throughout this
investigation. For all SCC mixes, the cement content was 400 kg/m
3
, the fine to coarse
aggregate ratio was one (by weight) and the superplasticizer content was fixed as 2.5 %
of the cement content. The water cement ratio was almost kept constant. The
experimental variables were the type of the coarse aggregate (Basalt or Gravel), the
silica fume content (0 or 5% of the cement mass) and the lime stone powder content
(10, 15, 20, or 25% of the cement mass). One conventional control concrete mix was
prepared using the same type and content of cement, sand to gravel ratio of 1:2 and
water cement ratio 0.4 (mix No. 10).
The absolute volume method of concrete mix design was employed to design all the
concrete mixes taking into consideration the previous reported ranges of the proportions
in the literature
2, 7
and the Egyptian Technical Specifications for SCC.
Three concrete cylinders (Diameter = 15 cm and height = 30 cm), three prisms
(10x10x50 cm), and six cubes (15x15x15 cm) were cast from every concrete mix. All
concrete specimens were cured in a standard condition for 28 days and tested under
static loading.
Table 2: Mix proportions for concrete mixes

Lime stone
Powder

Silica fume

Water
Coarse
aggregate
(kg/m
3
)
M
i
x

N
o
.

C
e
m
e
n
t

(
k
g
/
m
3
)

%

o
f

c
e
m
e
n
t

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t

W
e
i
g
h
t

(
k
g
/
m
3
)

%

o
f

c
e
m
e
n
t

b
y

w
e
i
g
h
t

W
e
i
g
h
t

(
k
g
)

L
i
t
e
r
/
m
3

W
/
C

W
/
P

F
i
n
e

A
g
g
r
e
g
a
t
e

(
k
g
/
m
3
)

B
a
s
a
l
t

G
r
a
v
e
l

S
u
p
e
r

p
l
a
s
t
i
c
i
z
e
r

(
k
g
/
m
3
)

R
e
m
a
r
k
s

1 400 10 40 5 20 180 0.440 0.380 866 866 -
2 400 15 60 5 20 185 0.463 0.385 850 850 -
3 400 15 60 - - 190 0.475 0.413 856 856 -
4 400 20 80 - - 190 0.475 0.396 846 846 -
5 400 25 100 - - 190 0.475 0.380 836 836 -
6 400 10 40 5 20 180 0.450 0.391 858 - 858
7 400 15 60 5 20 185 0.463 0.385 842 - 842
8 400 15 60 - - 180 0.450 0.391 861 - 861
9 400 20 80 - - 190 0.475 0.396 838 - 838

10*

SCC
10 400 - - - - 160 0.40 - 615 - 1230 6 NC**
*2.5% of the cement content.
**Normal concrete.
water-powder ratio
-1009-

MAT-002-5
2.3 Reinforced Concrete Beams
Four reinforced concrete beams were made with a rectangular cross section (10 cm
width and 20 cm height). Two high tensile steel bars (10 mm, steel 36/52) were used as
main reinforcements and two mild steel bars (8 mm, steel 24/35) were used as
secondary reinforcements. The diameter of stirrups was 6 mm, see Fig. 1. Three beams
(B1, B2 and B3) were made from self compacting concrete mixes (mix No. 1, 6 and 8)
and one beam (B4) was made from a conventional normal concrete (mix No. 10).
2
0

c
m
140 cm 10 cm
2 10
10 cm
2 10
10 cm
Stirrups
2 8
P
35 cm
2 8
P/2 P/2
Cross section
7 6 / m
Fig. 1: Details of tested beams
3 LABORATORY TESTS
3.1 Tests of Fresh SCC
To check the properties of the fresh self compacting concrete, slump flow and L-Box
tests were carried out.
3.1.1 Slump Flow Test
Slump flow test is used to assess the horizontal free flow of self compacting concrete.
The basic equipment and the procedures of the slump flow test is the same as for the
conventional slump test except of not using a tamping rod to compact concrete inside
the frustum cone. The diameter of the concrete circle and the time (T50) taken for the
concrete to reach the 50 cm spread circle were determined. It has been reported in the
literature that, a spread concrete diameter equal 65050 mm and a time T50 ranges from
2 to 5 seconds are acceptable values for the filling ability of the self compacting
concrete
1, 2
.
Slump flow test gives also some indications for the occurrences of segregation for the
concrete mixes. In case of sever segregation most coarse aggregate will settle in the
centre of the pool of concrete meanwhile, the cement paste will spread at the concrete
periphery around the coarse aggregate. In case of minor segregation a border of mortar
without coarse aggregate will occur at the edge of the pool of concrete.
3.1.2 L-Box Test
This test is widely used to verify the filling and passing abilities as well as the
segregation resistance of SCC. Under its own weight, the concrete flows from the
vertical section through a gate to a horizontal section of the L-Box apparatus shown in
Fig 2. When the flow has stopped, the height (H
1
) of concrete at the beginning and the
height (H
2
) at the end of the horizontal section will be measured. The time taken for the
-1010-

MAT-002-6
concrete to flow until reaching the 20 cm (T20) and the 40 cm (T40) marks in the
horizontal section will be detected. A value of the ratio H
2
/H
1
0.8 indicates a good
passing ability for the SCC
1, 2
.
800
6
0
0
2
0
0
400
200
1
5
0
Unit mm
3 12
100
H
H
1
2

Fig 2: L-Box apparatus
3.2 Tests of Hardened Concrete
In order to investigate the mechanical properties of SCC, the cubes were tested under
uniaxial static compressive loads, the cylinders were subjected to splitting (Brazilian)
test, and the prisms were subjected to four-point flexural loading.
3.3 Tests of RC Beams
The four reinforced concrete beams were tested under flexure at the age of 28 days after
the curing processes completed, see Fig 1. The values of deflection at mid-span and the
values of strain in main steel were determined. Cracks were detected as soon as they
appear and then marked on both sides of the beams.
4 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Properties of Fresh Concrete
4.1.1 Slump Flow
Table 3 presents the results of the slump flow test for the nine self compacting concrete
mixes. Generally, the slump-flow diameter was ranged from 60 to 67 cm and the time
T50 was ranged from 220 to 4 00 seconds. The previous mentioned values for the
slump flow diameter and the time T50 are in a good correlation with the values reported
in references
1, 2, 7
at the same time; they give good indications about the filling ability of
the SCC mixes.
It has been noticed that, slightly higher values of slump flow diameter and slightly
lower values of T50 were recorded with the SCC mixes made of gravel (mixes 6 9)
when compared with those of mixes (1 5) which fabricated with basalt. This may be
attributed to the shape of the gravel particles and the fluctuation of the moisture content
when compared with basalt mixes. It is worth to mention that, from the visual
observations of the slump flow test there was no indications for the occurrence of
segregation in the SCC mixes.
-1011-

MAT-002-7
Table 3: Slump flow and L-Box test results
Slump flow L-Box Mix
No. T50
(sec.)
Diameter
(cm)
T20
(sec.)
T40
(sec.)
H
2
/H
1

1 2 80 65 0 78 1 50 0.83
2 3 40 60 1 43 1 81 0.81
3 4 00 62 1 31 2 12 0.80
4 2 50 62 0 97 2 09 0.83
5 2 50 63 1 02 2 33 0.85
6 230 63 0 83 1 93 0.81
7 2 20 65 0 63 1 22 0.86
8 2 70 64 0 48 0 82 0.84
9 2 40 67 0 44 1 04 0.90
4.1.2 L-Box
The values of T20, T40, and H
2
/H
1
were recorded and tabulated in Table 3. The ratio of
H2/H1 were found to be in the range of 0.80 to 0.9 meanwhile, the values of T20 and
T40 were ranging from 0 44 1 43 sec and 0 82 2 33 sec, respectively. All
these values were found to be within the specified values for the self compacting
concrete mixes
1, 2
. Therefore the resulted filling and passing ability of the fresh SCC
mixtures can be considered acceptable to be used in the manufacture of RC structures
needed this type of concrete.
4.2 Mechanical Properties of Hardened Concrete
4.2.1 Compressive Strength
The values of compressive strength, at 28 days age, for the nine SCC mixes as well as
the conventional concrete mix are summarized in Table 4. The compressive strength of
the SCC was found to be highly affected by the constitute materials so that it is difficult
to extract a general trend for the compressive strength when compared with the
conventionally normal concrete. In general, the compressive strength significantly
increased up to 22 % in some SCC mixes when compared with the control one. This
improvement may be strongly due to the use of silica fume, superplasticizer, and lime
stone powder as well as the better micro structure and homogeneity of these mixes., see
Fig 3.
It was found that, the compressive strength for the SCC is highly inversely affected by
the presence of more than 15 % of lime stone powder (by mass of cement) and due to
the absence of silica fume. Adding 25 % of lime stone powder in the mix (No. 5)
decreases the compressive strength by a ratio of 40 %, see Fig 3.
It can be observed that, slightly higher vales of compressive strength were recorded for
SCC mixes fabricated with basalt than those made with gravel because of its higher
crushing strength. A gain in the compressive strength of about 10 % was recorded in
case of using basalt in SCC when compared with similar mixes made of gravel instead.
4.2.2 Splitting Tensile Strength
Table 4 and Fig 4 show the values of the splitting tensile strength for both the SCC
mixes and the reference mix. Generally, the 28-days splitting tensile strength for the
self-compacting concrete mixes were found to be ranging from 22.6 to 36.8 kg/cm
2
. It is
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MAT-002-8
worth to declare that, SCC mixes, to some extent, produce higher splitting strength than
the control mix following more or less the same trend of the compressive strength. The
tendency of increasing the values of splitting tensile strength is attributed to the better
microstructure of the SCC
5
. The highest value of splitting tensile strength was generally
resulted from mixes contain 5 % silica fume.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 No. 7 No. 8 No. 9
Concrete mixes
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
k
g
/
c
m
2
)
Reference Mix (No. 10)

Fig 3: Compressive strength of SCC mixes
Table 4: Mechanical properties of hardened concrete (28 days age)
Mix
No.
Compressive Strength
kg/cm
2

Splitting strength
kg/cm
2

Flexural strength
kg/ cm
2

*
1 441 36.8 51.6 1.40
2 409 35.4 50.1 1.42
3 293 32.1 51.6 1.61
4 271 30.2 44.9 1.49
5 212 22.6 40.0 1.77
6 396 37.3 50.3 1.35
7 372 33.2 47.0 1.42
8 260 27.1 47.3 1.75
9 257 27.6 45.1 1.63
10 360 26.2 45.0 1.72
* Flexural strength / Splitting strength
In order To find out a relationship between the splitting strength and the compressive
strength for self compacting concrete, a database collected from the experimental test
results and the previous research works
4, 5
were plotted in Fig 5. Using these data, the
following formula was developed, from the best curvilinear fitting graph, to identify the
required relationship.

f
sp
= 2.8 (f
c
)
0.43
(1)
Where; f
sp
= Splitting tensile strength (kg/cm
2
)
f
c
= Compressive strength (kg/cm
2
)
The splitting tensile strength values of SCC mixes resulted from applying this formula
were found to be higher than those obtained from the known equations of conventional
concrete mixes.
-1013-

MAT-002-9
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Concrete mix
S
p
l
i
t
t
i
n
g

t
e
n
s
i
l
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
k
g
/
c
m
2
)
Reference Mix
(No. 10)

Fig 4: SCC splitting tensile strength
y = 2.8 x
0.43
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Compressive strength (kg/cm2)
S
p
l
i
t
t
i
n
g

t
e
n
s
i
l
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
k
g
/
c
m
2
)

Fig 5: Splitting tensile strength-compressive strength relationship
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Concrete mix
F
l
e
x
u
r
a
l

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
k
g
/
c
m
2
)
Reference
Mix No. 10

Fig 6: Flexural strength of SCC mixes
4.2.3 Flexural Strength
The flexural strength values of concrete mixes were obtained from testing standard
concrete prisms under standard four point flexural testing procedures. The values of
flexural strength were in the range of 40 to 51.6 kg/ cm
2
, see Table 4 and Fig 6.
-1014-

MAT-002-10
The ratio between the flexural strength and splitting tensile strength () was calculated
for all tested mixes. It was generally found that, this ratio obtained from SCC mixes is
lower than that of normal concrete which indicates the higher beneficial effect occurred
to the splitting tensile strength when compared with the gain in flexural strength, as
clear in Table 4.
4.2.4 Reinforced Concrete Beams
The experimental values of the cracking and ultimate loads obtained from testing the
four reinforced concrete beams were detected and plotted in Fig 7. Generally, similar
values of cracking loads were recorded for the RC beams which were fabricated either
from SCC or conventional concrete meanwhile; higher values of ultimate loads were
resulted from beams B1, B2. The percentage increase in the ultimate loads of B1 and B2
are 10 to 20 % respectively. This increase is due to the higher increase in the
compressive strength of their SCC mixes.
Fig 8 shows the load-deflection relationships for the four RC beams which experienced
the usual elastic and inelastic deflection. The values of deflection at failure and ductility
were almost similar for all beams. However, slightly higher stiffness was observed for
the control beam. This may be expected because of the relatively lower modulus of
elasticity of SCC as a result of using high content of fine materials and additives.
The pattern of cracks and mode of failure of the SCC beams (B1, B2, and B3) as well as
the control beam (B4) is illustrated in Fig 9. Flexural cracks were first formed in the
constant moment tension zone and then spread all over the beam, as the load increased,
reaching the shear span. After that, the flexural cracks were propagated upwards
increasing in width. Finally, the four RC beams were failed due to yielding of the tensile
steel reinforcements in pure flexural mode of failure. It is worthy to mention that,
similar number of cracks was formed for the self compacting reinforced concrete beams
when compared to the control one.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
B1 B2 B3
L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
Mix 1 Mix 6 Mix 8
Cracking load
Control Beam
Ultimate load
Control Beam

Fig 7: Cracking and ultimate loads of RC beams

-1015-

MAT-002-11
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
t
o
n
)
Control Beam B1 B2 B3

Fig 8: Load-deflection relationships of RC beams

Fig 9: Pattern of cracks and modes of failure for tested beams
5 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the present experimental investigation, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
1- Self compacting concrete can be easily produced from the locally available materials
in Egypt. It is worthy to add that, the production of SCC is promising and could be
economic simply because the use of silica fume and superplasticizer involves no marked
increase in the cost as long as they significantly improve and enhance the mechanical
performance of SCC.
-1016-

MAT-002-12
2- The fresh concrete properties in form of slump-flow and H
2
/H
1
ratios are in a good
correlation with those reported in the literature and specifications. This gives an
indication about the excellent filling and passing ability as well as the segregation
resistance of SCC mixes.
3- The resulted values of compressive, splitting and flexural strengths of SCC mixes are
found to be highly affected by the constitute materials. An increase up to 22 % was
gained in the compressive strength when compared with conventional concrete. This
improvement may be strongly due to the use of silica fume, superplasticizer, and lime
stone powder which resulted in better micro structure and homogeneity of SCC mixes.
4- Based on the experimental test results and the collected data, a formula to correlate
between the splitting and compressive strengths for self compacting concrete was
developed.
5- Although higher values of ultimate loads (up to 20 %) were resulted from self
compacting reinforced concrete beams, they produce a slightly lower stiffness because
of the relatively lower modulus of elasticity of SCC resulted from using high content of
fine materials and additives.
6 REFERENCES
[1] Egyptian Technical Specifications for Self Compacting Concrete (2007).
[2] Specification and Guidelines for Self-Compacting Concrete EFNARC (2002).
[3]Masahiro, O., Sada-aki, N., Tomas, O., Sven-Erik, H. ISHPC (2003) 1-20.
[4] Klaus, H., Yvette, K. LACER (7) (2002) 123-134.
[5] Ahmed, M. A., Alidoust, O., Sadrinejad, I., Nayeri, M. International Journal of
Computer, Information, and Engineering 1 (4) (2007) 258-261.
[6] Hajime, O., Masahiro, O. Advanced Concrete Technology 1 (1) (2003) 5-15.
[7] Frank, D., Klaus, H., Dirk, W. Lacer (5) (2000) 115-124.
[8] Mohammed, F. A. Master Thesis Cairo University (2007).
[9] Mohammed, A. H. Master Thesis King Fahd University (2005).
[10] Luiz, A. P., Joao, P. G., Cristiana, N. G., Civil Engineering and Management 3
(XII) (2006) 215-220.

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MAT-003-1

13
th
ICSGE
27-29 Dec. 2009
Cairo - Egypt


Durability of Paving Units in Sulphuric Acid
Dr. S ZEEDAN

Associate Professor,The Housing &Building National Research Center
87 ElTahreer ST.,ElDokki
Sr_zedan@yahoo.com
Dr. H .A. El NOUHY
Researcher,The Housing &Building National Research
Center
87 ElTahreer ST.,ElDokki
elnouhy66@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
This paper considers the sulphuric acid attack on paving units. An accelerated attack
consisting of wetting-drying cycles was adopted throughout this study to determine the
durability of paving units. Compressive strength, water absorption, and abrasion resistance,
as well as ultrasonic pulse velocity and mass loss were measured before and after sulphuric
acid attack. A reference mix was exposed to various sulphuric acid concentrations for
duration of two months after four months from casting. Samples were also visually
inspected before and after sulphuric acid attack. The sulphuric acid concentrations were as
follows: 0.5%, 1%, and 5% H
2
SO
4
respectively. The aim of this research is to accelerate the
reaction by means of continuous wetting and drying cycles. The microstructure was
investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). X-ray diffraction, DTA-
thermographs, as well as, petrography tests were carried out to determine the chemical
compounds in the tested samples.
Keywords: paving units, H
2
SO
4
acid, durability, compressive strength, abrasion resistance.
-1018-

MAT-003-2

1-INTRODUCTION
Interlocking Paving units can be considered as high strength concrete as according to
ASTM standard, high-strength concrete commences at strength of 41 MPa. The constituent
materials of paving units are cement, sand, crushed stone, marble rubble ,and water. This
paper studies the durability of paving units in sulphuric acid concentrations.
Naik, et al [1], studied the engineering properties of high-lime (ASTM Class C) fly ash
concretes. An air-entertained reference concrete mixture without fly ash was proportioned
to have 28-day compressive strength of 41 MPa. Additionally, concrete mixtures were also
proportioned to have cement replacement with Class C fly ash in the range of 0-70% by
weight. For each concrete mixture, specimens were made to evaluate compressive strength,
tensile strength, flexural strength, modulus of elasticity, shrinkage, abrasion resistance, air
permeability, water permeability, chloride ion permeability, air-void parameters, freezing
and thawing durability, and salt scaling resistance, of hardened concrete. The results of this
study established that high-performance concrete incorporating Class C fly ash at 30%
cement replacement can be proportioned for high-strength applications. In general, concrete
mixtures up to 50% cement replacement with fly ash showed satisfactory performance with
respect to strength and physical durability properties appropriate for structural applications
Yen, et al [2] , investigated the abrasionerosion resistance of high-strength concrete (HSC)
mixtures in which cement was partially replaced by four kinds of replacements (15%, 20%,
25% and 30%) of class F fly ash. The mixtures containing ordinary Portland cement were
designed to have 28 days compressive strength of approximately 4080 MPa. Specimens
were subjected to abrasionerosion testing in accordance with ASTM C1138. Experimental
results show that the abrasionerosion resistances of fly ash concrete mixtures were
improved by increasing compressive strength and decreasing the ratio of water-to-
cementitious materials. The abrasionerosion resistance of concrete with cement
replacement up to 15% was comparable to that of control concrete without fly ash. Beyond
15% cement replacement, fly ash concrete showed lower resistance to abrasionerosion
compared to non-fly ash concrete
Chang, et al [3], carried out a research program to improve concrete's resistance against
sulphuric acid attack. Six concretes were investigated, four using calcareous limestone
aggregates and two using siliceous aggregates. Cements used in these concretes included a
Portland cement, binary cement containing ground granulated blast furnace slag, and two
ternary cements containing slag and silica fume or fly ash and silica fume. All the concretes
had the same water/cement ratio of 0.4, with compressive strengths in the range of 45 MPa
and 58 MPa at the age of 28 days. In the experiment, concrete cylinders were immersed in
1% sulphuric acid solution and they were periodically examined for appearance, measured
for mass change and tested in compression up to 168 days. The concrete using limestone
aggregates and the ternary cement containing silica fume and fly ash performed the best
-1019-

MAT-003-3
Naik, et al [4], conducted a research to evaluate abrasion resistance of high-volume fly ash
concrete. A reference plain Portland cement concrete was proportioned to obtain 28-day
strength of 41 MPa. Concrete mixtures were also proportioned to have two levels of cement
replacements (50 and 70%) with an ASTM Class C fly ash. Abrasion tests were carried out
using the rotating cutter method as per ASTM C-944. In this work all the concrete
specimens made either with or without fly ash passed the abrasion resistance requirements
of ASTM C-779, Procedure B.
An accelerated test method was also developed to evaluate abrasion resistance of concrete.
This method used the rotary cutter device having dressing wheels equipped with smaller
size washers. A measured amount of standard Ottawa sand was added to the surface being
abraded at one minute intervals. The accelerated test results exhibited lower abrasion
resistance for high-volume fly ash concrete systems relative to no-fly ash concrete [4].
Mbessa, et al [5], considered the ammonium sulfate attack of high-strength concrete (grade
100). An accelerated attack consisting in wettingdrying cycles was adopted throughout
this study. Compressive strength, mass loss, and length variations were measured before
and after sulfate attack. The microstructure was investigated by scanning electron
microscopy (SEM). No swelling was observed after six cycles of degradation and the
chemical attack was limited to a superficial zone of 5 mm thick.
The concentration of aggressive solution can be increased and/or the reaction surface can
be increased by using specimens of large surface area/volume ratio. In some cases, the
attack can be accelerated by cycles of wetting and drying which, in turn, increase the
crystal pressure.
One of the most widely used ways to investigate the chemical resistance of concrete is to
carry out accelerated tests in the laboratory. The advantage of this method is that the entire
life of the specimen in question can be simulated [6].An acceleration process can be
achieved in different ways [6-10].

2-MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Cement
The cement used was ordinary Portland cement CEM I 52,5N in accordance to ESS 4756-
1/2007. Properties of ordinary Portland cement are shown in Table1, and the chemical
composition is shown in Table 2.

-1020-

MAT-003-4

Table1: Ordinary Portland cement properties according to ESS 4756-1/2007
Property Description Test Results Standard
Requirements
Initial 150 min Not less than 45 min Setting time (min)
Final 195 min -
Soundness (mm) 1 Not more than 10
2 days 23.5 Not less than 20 Compressive
strength (MPa)
28 days 55.2 Not less than 52.5

Table 2: Chemical composition of ordinary Portland cement
SiO
2
Al
2
O
3
Fe
2
O
3
CaO MgO Na
2
O K
2
O SO
3
TiO
2
P
2
O
5
L.O.I. Total
19.95 4.91 3.45 62.35 0.72 0.4 0.272 3.19 - - 4.72 99.96

2.2 Fine Aggregates (sand, and marble rubble)
Siliceous sand was used in this research program. The sieve analysis is shown in Fig. 1.
Table 3 gives the physical properties of fine aggregates, while Table 4 shows the chemical
composition of marble powder.

Table 3: Fine aggregates physical properties
-1021-

MAT-003-5
Property Sand
Specific weight 2.56
Volumetric weight (tons/m
3
) 1.52

Table 4: Chemical composition of marble powder

SiO
2
Al
2
O
3
Fe
2
O
3
CaO MgO Na
2
O K
2
O SO
3
TiO
2
P
2
O
5
L.O.I. Total
1.31 0.19 0.19 54.18 0.02 0.04 0.09 1.3 0.02 0.12 41.99 99.45

Fig. 1: Sieve analysis of sand

2.3 Coarse Aggregates (crushed stone)
Crushed limestone was used in this research. Figure 2 shows the sieve analysis of crushed
limestone, as supplied. Table 5 shows the physical properties of coarse aggregates. The
chemical analysis of crushed limestone is given in Table 6.

-1022-

MAT-003-6

Table 5: Coarse aggregate physical properties
Property Crushed stone Acceptance limits
Specific gravity 2.76
Volumetric weight (tons/m
3
) 1.62
Absorption Percentage 0.55% Not more than 2.5%
(1)
Clay and other fine materials
(%)
0.2% Not more than 3% by
weight
(2)
Impact value (%) 25% Not more than 30%
(2)

(1) According to the Egyptian Code of Practice issued 2001
(2) According to the Egyptian Standard Specifications 1109/2002

Table 6: Chemical analysis of crushed limestone

SiO
2
Al
2
O
3
Fe
2
O
3
CaO MgO Na
2
O K
2
O SO
3
TiO
2
P
2
O
5
L.O.I. Total
0.92 0.18 0.09 55.26 0.14 0.04 0.08 2.03 0.01 0.05 40.9 99.7

-1023-

MAT-003-7

Fig. 2: Sieve analysis of crushed limestone
2.4 Interlocking Mixture Proportions
The control mix design for the manufactured product was selected from previous research
work [11], and tested at age 28 days (as specified by the Egyptian Standard Specification).
However, reference mix was kept for an additional three months in room temperature prior
performing the accelerated acid attack. It should be noted that the reference mix has the
same constituent materials as well as quantities as the control mix. Concrete mixture
proportions and sulphuric acid concentrations are given in Table 7. The product consisted
of two layers. The top layer (facing layer) was approximately 8mm10mm thick while the
bottom layer (backing layer) was about 70mm thick. The testing plan is shown in Table 8.

2.5 Experimental Method
The specimens were exposed to sulphuric acid concentrations for 2 months. The paving
units were exposed to 3 aggressive environmental conditions. The three conditions were as
follows: the specimens were exposed to alternate cycles of immersion in 0.5% H
2
SO
4

solution for 5 days and then placed in oven at 70C for 8 hours. The second and third
conditions were similar to the first except that the specimens were immersed in 1% and 5%
H
2
SO
4
solution respectively. The three conditions were carried out for eight weeks. The
H
2
SO
4
solutions were tested every 2 weeks to ensure the stability of the PH.

Table 7: Paving units mixture proportions and sulphuric acid concentrations
ConstituentMaterials
(kg/m
3
)
Cement Sand Crushed
Stone
Marble
powder
Water
-1024-

MAT-003-8

Facing layer 150 450 _ _ 55
Backing layer 600 1125 675 450 180
Immersed for 5 days in 0.5% H
2
SO
4
and dried in oven
for 8 hours (one cycle)
Immersed for 5 days in 1% H
2
SO
4
and dried in oven
Acid solution
Immersed for 5 days in 5% H
2
SO
4
and dried in oven

Table 8: Paving Units testing plan
Tests carried out on
Products
Testing method Number of blocks
Compressive strength ESS 4382
ASTM C 140
5
Water absorption
percentage
ESS 4382
ASTM C 140
5

Abrasion resistance ESS 4382
ASTM C 418
3
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity ASTM C 597 3
Mass loss - 5

3- RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Compressive strength, water absorption, abrasion resistance, ultrasonic pulse velocity, as
well as, monitoring mass were carried out to evaluate the properties of paving units.
-1025-

MAT-003-9

3.1 Compressive Strength
The compressive strength was tested for the reference specimens as well as the specimens
which were exposed to sulphuric acid solutions. For 28 days after casting, all specimens
were sprayed twice daily and the reference mix was stored for another 3 months in room
temperature without being sprayed.
According to ESS, the specimens should be tested at age 28 days(control mix). It is worth
mentioning that the method of testing in the ESS is the same as that in the ASTMC140.
However, the ASTM states that only three specimens should be tested and did not mention
the method of curing nor at what age should the specimens be tested [12]. The reference
mix was tested after four months from casting.
The results indicate that compressive strength increased for the four mixes when compared
to the control mix as chemical reaction is a function of time to acquire a more stiffening
binding material as cement hydration continues.
The result indicates, as expected, that compressive strength increased for the reference mix
when compared to the control mix by 22%. When comparing the compressive strength of
0.5% H
2
SO
4
with that of the reference mix, the results show that compressive strength
increased by 15% for the mix that was immersed in 0.5%H
2
SO
4
.Sulphuric acid solution of
1% improved compressive strength by 12% when compared with the compressive strength
of the reference mix. The reduction of compressive strength for the 5% H
2
SO
4
solution was
6% higher when compared to the result of the reference mix.
The results demonstrate that as the sulphuric acid concentration increase, compressive
strength decreases yet remains higher than that of the reference mix. This may be attributed
to the fact that though H
2
SO
4
was in high concentration, yet the governing factor for the
high strength is that originally the paving units are of high strength. Consequently, the
effect of H
2
SO
4
was insignificant on the specimens as H
2
SO
4
requires a much longer time
to have a noticeable effect. Also, hydration of cement continued for the two months. The
results reveal that the paving units are durable in the presence of high sulphuric acid
concentration.
According to the ESS, there are three categories for paving units based on compressive
strength, and water absorption percentage. The three categories are; heavy duty, medium
duty, and normal duty. The limits of the various physical properties are shown in Table 9.
The ASTM C 936 [14] criteria are the same as the ESS criteria for heavy duty. In other
words, the ASTM does not have the medium and normal duty categories. The results are
shown in Table 10 and Fig. 3.

-1026-

MAT-003-10

Table 9: Interlocking paving units physical properties according to ESS 4382-
1/2004[6]
Duty Heavy duty Medium duty Normal duty
Property
Compressive
Strength N/mm
2
Avg. compressive
strength of the test
samples shall not be
less than 55N/mm
2

with no individual
unit less than
50N/mm
2
Avg. compressive
less than 35N/mm
2

with no individual
unit less than
30N/mm
2

Avg. compression
less than 30N/mm
2

with no individual
unit less than
25N/mm
2

Absorption
percentage
The avg. absorption
of the test samples
shall not be greater
than 5% with no
individual unit
greater than 7%
The avg. absorption
of the test samples
than 6% with no
individual unit
greater than 8%
The avg. absorption
of the test samples
than 8% with no
individual unit
greater than 10%
Abrasion Resistance Specimens shall not have a volume loss more than 15cm
3
/50cm
2
.
The avg. thickness loss shall not exceed 3mm

-1027-

MAT-003-11

Table 10: Test results of properties of paving units
Abrasion resistance Mixes Average
product comp.
strength
(N/mm
2
)
Avg. product
absorption
percentage
Volume loss
(cm
3
/50cm
2
)
Avg. thickness
loss (mm)
Control 41
(1)

32.1
(2)

6.42
(1)
7.0
(2)
13.5 3.4
Reference 50.0
45.7
4.12
4.24
12 3.2
0.5% H
2
SO
4
57.3
42.4
1.46
1.86
14.73 3.36
1% H
2
SO
4
56
47.7
1.97
2.23
19 3.8
5% H
2
SO
4
53
42
2.52
2.6
20.0 4.25

(1) Average result
-1028-

MAT-003-12
(2) Individual result

3.2 Water Absorption Percentage
According to ESS 4382, average water absorption for normal duty paving units should not
be greater than 8% with no individual block greater than 10%.ASTM C 936 states that the
average absorption of test samples shall not be greater than 5% with no individual unit
greater than 7 % [13]. It should be noted that ASTM does not categorize paving units as
does the ESS.
The ESS and ASTM standards require that the specimens be immersed in water at
temperature 15.6 to 26.7 C for 24h after which the specimens are weighed to obtain the
saturated weight. Subsequent to saturation, the specimens are dried in a ventilated oven at
100 to 115C for 24 h. The specimens are then weighed to obtain the oven-dry weight.
The test results show that the reference mix had an absorption percentage which was less
than the control mix. Also, the three sulphuric concentrations resulted in absorption
percentage that was less than that of the reference mix by 35%, 48%, 61% for 0.5% H
2
SO
4
,
1% H
2
SO
4
and 5% H
2
SO
4
respectively. In general, the obtained trend between absorption
percentage and compressive strength agrees with the traditional trend to a certain extend.
Again, the results demonstrate that the paving units are durable to aggressive acidic
environments. See Table 10 and Fig.4.

Fig. 3: Effects of sulphuric acid concentrations on compressive strength

-1029-

MAT-003-13

Fig. 4: Effects of sulphuric acid concentrations on absorption percentage

3.3 Abrasion Resistance
The abrasion resistance test was carried out by sandblasting. This procedure simulates the
action of waterborne abrasives and abrasives under traffic on concrete surfaces. It is worth
mentioning that the test procedure dictated by the ESS 4382[15] is the same as that of the
ASTM C418 [16]. Also the limits of the Egyptian Standard is the same as that of the ASTM
C936 which covers the requirements for interlocking concrete paves manufactured for the
construction of paved surfaces. In other words, ASTM C418 covers the testing procedure
while ASTM C936 states the limits. The ESS 4382, on the other hand, comprises two parts:
part one covers the requirements for the three parameters: compressive strength, water
absorption, and abrasion resistance; while part two covers the testing procedure for the
three parameters.
The limits of abrasion resistance are shown in Table 9. It should be noted that the given
limits apply to the three categories of paving units in the ESS and ASTM. Figures 5 and 6
illustrate the effects of acidic concentrations on volume loss and thickness loss respectively.
Table 10 shows the test results.
The volume loss criterion was met by the control specimens, as well as, by the reference
mix and 0.5% H
2
SO
4
. The second criterion, however, which is the loss in thickness, was
slightly greater for the three mixes than required by the ESS and ASTM standards. The
results of the mixes which were exposed to 1% H
2
SO
4
and 5% H
2
SO
4
did not satisfy both
criteria of ESS and ASTM.
-1030-

MAT-003-14

Fig. 5: Effects of sulphuric acid concentrations on volume loss

Fig. 6: Effects of sulhuric acid concentrations on thickness loss

3.4 Ultrasonic Pulse Method
Ultrasonic pulse velocity was measured according to ASTM C597 for the reference
mix as well as the mixes that were exposed to the various acidic concentrations.
This test method [17] covers the determination of the velocity of propagation of
compression waves in concrete. It may be used to assess the uniformity and relative quality
of concrete, to indicate the presence of voids and cracks, and to estimate the depth of
cracks. It may also be used to indicate changes in the properties of concrete.
The results of the reference mix were 3.8km/sec. Three specimens comprised a
sample in this test method. The results of mixes after being exposed to 0.5% H
2
SO
4,
1%
H
2
SO
4
, 5%H
2
SO
4
were 3.9, 3.2, and 2.7 Km/sec respectively.
-1031-

MAT-003-15
The pulse is transmitted most effectively by solid media and cracks or cavities are
indicated by a reduction in the pulse velocity. The method is useful for a continuous
assessment of the effects of deteriorating agencies such as frost and chemicals for both in
situ and laboratory concrete [18].
The results indicate that there were less cavities and cracks in the sample of 0.5%
H
2
SO
4
when compared to the reference mix while the sample of 1% H
2
SO
4
and 5% H
2
SO
4
showed more cracks and cavities than the reference mix.

3.5 Monitoring Mass Change and Visual Inspection of Samples
Initial mass was measured for samples prior to exposure to the three acid
concentrations. Each sample consisted of five specimens. Mass of specimens was measured
initially after being immersed for five days in the specific acid concentration and before
oven drying. Subsequently, weight of specimens was remeasured after oven drying for
eight hours (one cycle). This cycle was carried out for eight weeks. The average mass
change for each sample was calculated by deducing the final mass (after eight cycles) from
the initial mass.

Photo1. 0.5% H
2
SO
4
Photo 2 1% H
2
SO
4
Photo 3

5%

H
2
SO
4

The average mass loss for samples were 0.12%, 0.18%, and 0.25% due to exposure
to acid media comprising 0.5%, 1%, and 5% H
2
SO
4
respectively. Results of mass change
show that mass loss was minor. This indicates that the sample exhibited durability to mass
change for the three acid concentrations.
Samples exposed to the acid media (after the eight cycles) were visually inspected. The
reference sample had the usual grayish color. The sample which was placed in 0.5% H
2
SO
4
had also the same grayish color as the reference sample, while the 1% H
2
SO
4
and 5%
H
2
SO
4
samples gave a pinkish and yellowish color respectively. The 5% H
2
SO
4
sample
also showed pitting on the superficial layer as shown in photos 1 to 3.

-1032-

MAT-003-16
4- PHYSIO CHEMICAL TESTS
The physiochemical tests that were carried out on the reference mix and the mixes after
exposure to the various acidic concentrations were as follows: Scanning electron
microscope (SEM), pH test, differential thermal analysis (DTA), and x-ray.

4.1 Scanning Electron Microscope

The reference mix and the 0.5% H
2
SO
4,
1% H
2
SO
4,
and 5% H
2
SO
4
mixes after being
exposed to the acidic concentrations were scanned microscopically at both the upper and
lower layers.
The results were as follows: the reference mix showed no signs of ettringite while
the 0.5% H
2
SO
4
mixes showed traces of ettringite for both the upper and lower layers. Mix
of 1% H
2
SO
4
showed signs of ettringite at the upper surface while the 5% H
2
SO
4
mix
indicated that significant amount of ettringite had been formed at the upper layer. See
photos (4-10)

a) Sample After 4 Months
(Reference)

-1033-

MAT-003-17

Lower surface 0.5% H
2
SO
4
Upper Surface 0.5 % H
2
SO
4

b) Granulated cement very few ettringite crystals (gypsum)

c) Lower surface 1% H
2
SO
4
Upper Surface 1% H
2
SO
4

Few ettringite crystals (gypsum) clear ettringite crystals (gypsum) formed

-1034-

MAT-003-18
d) Lower surface 5% H
2
SO
4
Upper Surface 5% H
2
SO
4

ettringite crystals formed the ettringite crystals can be see (gypsum)

4.2 PhTest
The pH of the reference mix and the mixes (after being exposed to the different acidic
concentrations) of 0.5% H
2
SO
4
, 1% H
2
SO
4
, and 5% H
2
SO
4
was measured for both the
upper and lower layers respectively. The results are shown in Fig.7.

Fig. 7: PH values
The test was carried by removing parts (in powder form) from the samples for
testing. Concerning the reference mix only, only the upper surface was tested for pH as the
lower layer was well compacted and showed no signs of pitting. The results as shown were
in the range of 11 to 11.67 for both the upper and lower layers except for the upper layer of
the 5% H
2
SO
4
sample which had a lower pH.

4.3 Phase Composition of The Formed Hydrates
-1035-

MAT-003-19

The DTA investigates the hydration of cement with the mix components as shown in
Fig(8). The temperature degrees ranging between 53C and 64C refer to removal of H
2
O
included within CH phase. Temperature from 466 C to 469 C is the decomposing
temperature of impure calcite and evolution of the resulting CO
2
.The marked endothermic
effect on impure calcite appears in temperatures ranging between 805 C -808 C as shown
on DTA graph. A very small endothermic peak occurs at temperatures ranging between 585
C- 868 indicating the transformation of -quartz into -quartz.

Fig.8: DTA-thermographs for various sulphuric acid concentrations
4.4 X-ray Diffraction Analyses.
D=Dolomite , CH=Ca(OH)
2
,

Q= quartz C=calcite
The reaction mechanism of the hydration of cement and its reaction with the other
constituent materials is shown in Fig (9). The graph shows that calcite and calcium
hydroxide have been formed.
-1036-

MAT-003-20
Position [2Theta]
10 20 30 40
Counts/s
0
100
200
300
0
500
1000
0
500
1000
0
200
400
600
800
0
500
1000
28 Day
4 M-R
0.5 % H2SO4 Acid
1 % H2SO4 Acid
5 % H2SO4 Acid
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
C
D
C
D
C
D
C
D
C
D
C
C
C
C
C
CH
CH
CH
CH
CH

Fig.9: XRD x-ray diffraction for various sulphuric acid concentrations

5- CONCLUSIONS
1- The increase of sulphuric acid concentrations had a negative effect on compressive
strength of paving units.
2- Paving units were durable in the presence of high sulphuric acid concentration (5%)
in terms of both compressive strength and water absorption.
3- A concentration of 0.5%H2SO4 almost met the limits of ESS4382
4- Abrasion resistance was negatively effected by 1% and 5% sulphuric acid
concentrations
5- Paving units exhibited durability to mass change for the three acid concentrations.
6- SEM showed that ettringite was evident in the samples of 5% sulphuric acid
concentration.

REFERENCES
1) Naik, T., Singh, S., and Houssain, M., Properties of high performance concrete
systems incorporating large amounts of high-lima fly ash, Construction and
Building Materials, (1995), Vol. 9, Issue 4, pg. 195-204.
2) Yen, T., Hsu, T., Liu, Y., and Chen, S., Influence of class F fly ash on the
abrasion-erosion resistance of high-strength concrete, Construction and Building
Materials (2007), Vol. 21, Issue 2, pg. 458-463.
-1037-

MAT-003-21
3) Chang, Z., Song, X., Munn, R., and Marosszeky, M., Using limestone aggregates
and different cements for enhancing resistance of concrete to sulphuric acid attack,
Cement and Concrete Research (2005), Vol. 35, Issue 8, pg. 1486-1494.
4) Naik, T., Singh, S., and Houssain, M., Abrasion resistance of concrete as
influenced by inclusion of fly ash, Cement and Concrete Research (1994), Vol. 24,
Issue 2, pg. 303-312.
5) M.bessa, M., and Pera, J. Durability of high-strength concrete in ammounium
sulphate solution, Cement and Concrete Research (2001), Vol.31, Issue 8, pg.
1227-1231.
6) Romben, L.,Aspects on testing methods for acid attack on concrete,CBI
ForskVol.(1978),Vol. 78,Issue1,pg.1-16.
7) Attiogbe, E.,Rizkalla, S.,Response of concrete to sulphuric acid attack,ACI
Materials Journal (1988), Vol.84, Issue 6, pg. 481-488.
8) Wafa,F.,Accelerated sulfate attack on concrete in hot climate,Cement Concrete
&Aggregates Australia, (1994), Vol. 16, Issue 1, pg. 31-35.
9) Cohen,M.,Mather,B.,Sulfate Attack on concrete-research needs,ACI Materials
Journal, (1991), Vol.88, Issue 1, pg. 62-69.
10) Ghafoori,N.,Mathis,R.,Sulfate resistance of concrete pavers,Journal Materials
Civil Engineering, (1997), Vol9, Issue 1, pg. 35-40.
11) ElNouhy,H., Houssein,Z. and Rashad,A., Effects of Marble Rubble in Interlocking
Paving Units, HBRC International Journal, (2009).
12) ESS 4382-1Concrete Interlocking Paving Units, (2004).
13) ASTM C140 Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Concrete Masonry Units and
Related Units, (2001).
14) ASTM C 936 Standard Specification for solid Concrete-Interlocking Paving Units,
(2001).
15) ESS 4382-2 Concrete Interlocking Paving Units, (2004).
16) ASTM C-418 Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of concrete by
Sandblasting (2005).
17) ASTM C597 Standard Test Method for Pulse Velocity through Concrete (1997).
18) Jackson, N., 5-ConclusionsCivil Engineering Materials, Macmillan Publishers
LTd, 1985.

-1038-

MAT-004-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





BEHAVIOR OF RC BEAMS OF NSC AND HSC EXPOSED TO
FLEXURAL LOAD AND ELEVATED TEMPERATURE

R. M. ABD EL-NABY
Department of Civil Engineering, Benha University
Shoubra Street, Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: dr_rgb@yahoo.com
E. M. EL-DARDERY
T. A. EL-SAYED

ABSTRACT
This paper discusses the behaviour of normal and high strength concrete beams exposed
to elevated temperature. The paper also provides a simple, economical, and reliable
technique that can be used to assess the fire resistance of concrete beams exposed to
multi-action of external loads and elevated temperature simultaneously. The new
technique was verified by testing (36) normal and high strength concrete beams made of
concrete mixes of different w/c and s/c ratios. The tested beams comprised simply
supported and restrained beams, anti-fire coated beams, and beams cooled by different
methods. The results showed that the presented technique is effective and succeeded to
distinguish among the different RC beams. The results also indicated that testing RC
beams subjected to flexural load and then exposed to elevated temperature provided
better understanding to the structural behaviour of the flexural elements in the field. The
results also showed that the restrained RC beams exhibited better fire resistance when
compared to the simply supported RC beams. Using of anti-fire resisting coating
improves the fire resistance of RC beams made of high strength concretes. The results
also emphasised on involving the influence of the cooling methods to evaluate the actual
behaviour of the flexural elements.

-1039-

MAT-004-2
KEYWORDS
NSC (Normal Strength Concrete), HSC (High Strength Concrete), Flexural Load, Silica
Fume (S/C), Anti Fire coating, Temperature Development, Techniques of Cooling.
1 INTRODUCTION
The fire resistance of reinforced concrete structures is mainly affected by several factors
such as type of concrete, intensity of the external loads, fire duration and severity, the
design considerations and construction practices. Design criteria have been based on the
results of testing a standard fire exposures typically expressed in terms of required
reinforcement cover [1]. However, the general applicability and usefulness of this
approach may be debated since the heating regimes in real fires may be quite different. In
particular, initial heating rates can be more rapid and all real fires have a distinct cooling
phase [2]. Both of these conditions are recognized as imposing additional stresses on in-
situ structures which may be highly restrained. The structure in the field is subjected to a
combination of mechanical actions that arise from restrained thermal elongations,
degradation of the mechanical properties of the constituents, and transitional thermal
creep in concrete. Indeed, under the combined action of temperature and mechanical
loads, the microstructure of concrete undergoes physical-chemical changes that result in a
degradation of its elastic and inelastic properties, cracking, thermal dilatation, and
transient creep [3,4]. Therefore, the understanding of the behavior of reinforced concrete
structure when it is exposed to elevated temperature is complex and requires a lot of data
and information such as external loading conditions, the temperature gradients according
to external heat, and the characteristics of the material at a given temperature condition.

Recently there has been increasing demand on high strength concrete in particular for
construction of tall buildings, tunnels, bridges and nuclear vessels [5]. This material
typically has considerably higher compressive strength than normal strength concrete, but
it is markedly less porous and moisture absorbent. While this generally reduces the water
content of the cement, it is also harder for water vapour to escape during heating. It is
some times argued that high strength concrete is more prone to spalling, due to its lower
porosity and hence the increased likelihood of high pressure developing within the
concrete structure [6,7]. However, other recent research has shown that this is not
necessarily the case, with some testing showing higher spalling resistance in these
materials, attributable to the fact that their improved tensile proper ties can effectively
counteract the increase in forces which promote a tendency for spalling[8,9]. Finally, it
should be noted that despite severe challenges derived from the complexity of the
relevant phenomena, modelling of spalling is beginning to show promise, though with
more work still needed [,11].

-1040-

MAT-004-3
2 OBJECTIVES
1- Providing a technique that allows testing either flexural or compression elements
exposed to load and temperature simultaneously. The technique should be inexpensive,
easy to develop, simple to apply, accurate, and simple to interpret.

2- Studying the effect of elevated temperature on the flexural strength of unrestrained and
restrained RC beams subjected to combination of flexural load and heat.

3 Studying the effect of cooling methods on the flexural strength of simply supported RC
beams subjected to flexural load, heat, and combination of them.

4- Comparing the behaviour of normal and high strength concrete beams when they are
exposed to elevated temperature while they are loaded.
3.1 Beams Preparation
The experimental program included testing of 36 RC beams. 18 RC beams were made of
normal concrete mixes of w/c ratio 0.45, 0.5 and 0.6. The other 18 RC beams were made
of high strength concrete mixes of S/C ratios 12.5%, 20%, and 25%. Table 1 shows the
used mixes. Table 2 and Table 3 describe the different loading conditions. Fig. 1 shows
the dimensions and reinforcement of the tested simple and restrained RC beams.
3.2 Technique of Rising the Temperature
Photo 1 and Photo 2 show the technique of inducing temperature in the tested RC beams.
The technique comprised the following:
1-Confining the RC beams with electrical coil which can withstand temperature up to
2000
o
C. Fixed pitch of 100 mm is used to obtain regular temperature distribution on the
surface of the beam.
2- Covering the RC beam with insulating sheet to prevent heat dissipation.
3- Making a very small hole to measure the temperature with the thermocouple at
intervals at fixed locations till reaching the required temperature.
4- Recording the temperature gradient on the surface using the thermocouple to
investigate the influence of density of concrete on the heat transfer inside the tested
beams. More details about testing conditions are given in Tables 2 and 3
4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF NSCB
4.1 Compressive Strength of Concrete Mixes
The results of the cube compressive strength presented in Table 1 show that increasing
the w/c ratio from 0.45 to 0.60 leads to decreasing the average cube compressive
strength. The average cube compressive strength of the three mixes M1, M2, and M3
were 20.4 N/mm2, 17.3N/mm2, and 11.1 N/mm2 at 7days, while they were 28.0 N/mm2,
-1041-

MAT-004-4
25.1N/mm2, and 18.2 N/mm2 at 28 days respectively. The average tensile strength
obtained from the splitting test was 2.72N/mm2, 2.45N/mm2, and 1.98N/mm2
respectively.
4.2 Temperature Development at Surface of Tested Beams
Fig. 2 shows the development of temperature at the surface of the tested beams exposed
to heat and/or load. The results show that the beam NSCB16 achieved 432
o
C at 140
minutes while beams NSBC12, NSCB13, NSCB14, and NSCB15 reached 327
o
C, 330
o
C,
329
o
C, 347
o
C at 135, 130, 120, and 135 minutes respectively. The results indicated that
loading the beam before exposing to heating led to higher resistance to temperature
transfer inside the concrete beam. For example, the beam NSCB16 may need about 45
minutes to reach 200
o
C at the surface while the beam NSCB13 may need about 77.5
minutes to reach the same temperature. Also, at the same time of exposure, NSCB16
reached the highest temperature with respect to the loaded beams NSBC12, NSCB13,
NSCB14, and NSCB15. The temperature development of the concrete beams made with
the mix M2and M3 and coded by NSCB2 and NSB3 showed similar results as indicated
for NSCB1.

The results could also explain the influence of the type of the mix on the temperature
rising. Increasing the w/c ratio from 0.45 to 0.60 (ie decreasing the density of concrete)
led to increase the surface temperature and decreased the time required to reach this
surface temperature. Consequently, an increase of the resistance to temperature transfer
inside the beam is expected. In fact this observation postulated that two factors play an
important role in the distress of the heated beams. Those two factors are the temperature
value and the temperature gradient. Low dense concrete will suffer from the high induced
temperature near surface as well as the non-uniform distribution (stepped gradient). On
the other hand, high dense concrete will mainly suffer from the uniform distribution
through the thickness of the beam. Clearly, the steel reinforcement in low dense concrete
will suffer from more distress low dense concrete
4. 3 Flexural Strength Test Results
4.3.1 Initial cracking load [Pcr]
Table 4 shows the influence of loading conditions on the initial cracking load. The initial
cracking load of the restrained beam NSCB12 represents 92.73% of the reference beam
NSCB11. For normal strength concrete beams made with concrete mix of w/c =0.45, the
initial cracking load of the reference beam NSCB11 was 16.5KN while the initial
cracking load of the heated beam NSCB16 was 6.0 KN. This result indicates that heating
the beam without loading led to a reduction in the initial cracking load by about 63.36%.
For the other three beams, NSCB13, NSCB14, and NSCB15, which are subjected to 60%
of its ultimate capacity, the percentage of reduction in the initial cracking load was about
29% regardless of the method of cooling.

-1042-

MAT-004-5
This observation postulated that exposing the beam to heating caused much severe
damage to the initial cracking load if it is compared with the cases of exposing to loading
and heating respectively. The same observation was noted for the other two groups of
beams made with mixes of w/c ratios 0.5 and 0.6. The difference was in the absolute
values. The beams of the second group showed a reduction in the initial cracking load of
about 67.37% for the case of heating only (i.e. beam NSCB26), while an average
reduction of about 31.25% was noted for the cases of loaded beams (i.e. NSCB23,
NSCB24, and NSCB25. Table 4 shows that there was no influence of the cooling method
on the initial cracking load of the tested beams. Also increasing the compressive strength
of the concrete has a slight influence on the initial cracking load.
4.3.2 The Ultimate Load [P
ult
]:
Table 3 and Fig. 3 presented the result of the ultimate load of the tested beams exposed to
different loading conditions. The ultimate load of the restrained beam NSCB12
represented 87.90% of the reference beam NSCB11. The ultimate load of the reference
beam of with the mix M1 NSCB11 was 35.63KN while it was 11.04KN for the heated
beam NSCB16. A reduction of about 69.01% was occurred due to heating without
loading. For the beams NSCB13, NSCB14, and NSCB15, the ultimate loads represented
75.44%, 57.53%, and 48.44% of the reference beam NSCB11 respectively. Beams of
Mixes M2 and M3 showed similar results.

Table 4 shows the effect of cooling methods on the ultimate load of the tested beams. The
lowest values for the ultimate loads were obtained for the tested beams which left to cool
in air before crushing. The beams NSCB15, NSCB25, and NSCB35 lost about 51.56%,
56.54%, and 51.30% of their original ultimate capacity while beams NSCB14, NSCB24,
and NSCB34 lost about 42.47%, 46.46%, and 42.22% of their original ultimate capacity
respectively. Similar results were obtained for beams made of mixes M2 and M3.
4.4 The Ductility
Fig. 7 shows the load-displacement curves of the tested beams and Table 4 shows the
ultimate displacement recorded at failure. The reference beams NSCB11, NSCB21, and
NSCB31 showed the least values of displacement when compared with the other beams.
Slight increase of displacements of restrained beams was recorded. The displacement
values of the restrained beams NSCB12, NSCB22, and NSCB32 were 9.770mm,
8.988mm and 4.6741mm respectively. The values of the displacement of the reference
beams NSCB11, NSCB21, and NSCB31 were 8.760mm, 8.059mm, and 4.191mm
respectively. On the contrary, the beams NSCB16, NSCB26, and NSCB36 showed the
highest values of displacements and they were 18.300mm, 16.836mm, and 8.755mm
respectively. Similar results were recorded for the beams of mixes M2 and M3.

It is generally accepted that the creep due to temperature change becomes more critical
with temperature. Recently it has been reported that the strain components are assumed to
-1043-

MAT-004-6
be uncoupled and the total strain of concrete at high temperature is assumed as the sum of
three different components and can be written as:
total =th (T) +
( ,T ) +cr (,T ,t )
where th ,
,
cr , T and t represent free thermal strain, stress-induced strain, thermal creep
strain, temperature and time, respectively. The free thermal strain and the thermal creep
strain are originated with the temperature change, while the stress-induced strain is
generated by the external loads. Inelastic strain change due to moisture in concrete is
neglected for the reason that it is so small compared to thermal creep strain at high
temperature and its effects are getting disappear at more than 400C [5].

Cooling the tested beams gradually in air before crushing it causes relatively higher
displacement with respect to the beams cooled suddenly with water. The displacement of
the beam NSCB15 was mm17.300mm while it was 14.670mm for the beam NSCB14.
Similar trend was observed for the beams of mixes M2 and M3.
4.5 Modes of Failure of the Tested Beams
The reference beams such as NSCB11 showed the typical mode of failure under flexural
load. The cracks were initiated in the tension zone within the middle third of the beam.
The cracks were then propagated along the depth of the beam. For beam NSCB16
exposed to heating before crushing, the cracks were initiated and propagated along the
length of the beam. Beams NSCB12, NSCB13, NSCB14, and NSCB15 showed similar
mode of failure as the reference beam but the crack intensity was relatively higher.
5 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF TESTED HSCB
5.1 Compressive Strength of Concretes Mixes
Table 1 shows the results of the cube compressive strength of the different HSC mixes.
The results showed that increasing the S/C ratio from 12.5% to 25.0% led to increase the
average cube compressive strength from 31.10 N/mm2 to 38.60 N/mm2 at 7days, while
they are increased from 87.50 N/mm2 to 122.70 N/mm2 at 28 days. The tensile strength
values were 8.02N/mm2, 9.16N/mm2, and 11.34N/mm2 respectively.
5.2 Temperature Development at Surface of Tested Beams
Fig. 4 showed the development of temperature at the surface of the tested beams. The
beam HSCB16 reached 408C at 60 minutes while beams HSCB12, HSCB13, HSCB14,
and HSCB15 achieved 319C, 328C, 299C, 308C at 70, 75, 90, 90 minutes. This
observation indicated that loading the beam before exposing to fire led to higher
resistance to temperature transfer inside the concrete beam The temperature development
of the concrete beams made with the mix M2and M3 and coded by HSCB2 and HSCB3
indicated similar results as indicated for HSCB1. Increasing the S/C ratio from 12.5% to
25% led to decrease the surface temperature. Consequently, the resistance to heat transfer
inside the beam will be decreased. Therefore, the mix M1 is expected to have a steeper
temperature gradient when compared to the mix M3. In fact this observation postulated
-1044-

MAT-004-7
that the beams made with the mix M1 of s/c=12.5% will suffer from elevated temperature
near the surface while gradual distribution of temperature through the thickness of the
beam is expected for mix M3. Mixes of higher densities will suffer from the vapour
pressure of relatively higher temperature while mixes of relatively lower densities will be
more sensitive to damage near surface.

5.3 Flexural Strength Test Results
5.3.1 Initial Cracking Load [P
cr
]
Table 5 shows the results of the loads and displacement of the tested beams. For high
strength concrete beams HSCB11 made with concrete mix M1 the initial cracking load
was 15.1KN. The unloaded heated beam HSCB16 shows that the initial cracking load
was zero. It seems that severe damage was occurred for the beam due to the induction of
high tensile stresses in the outer layer all around the beam. The initial cracking load of
the restrained beam HSCB12 was 28.30KN and represented 81.46% of the reference
beam HSCB11. The initial cracking load of beams HSCB13, HSCB14 and HSCB15
represented 63.58%, 63.58%, and 83.44% of the reference beam HSCB11. Similar
behavior could be seen for the beams made of mixes M2 and M3. The only difference is
the absolute values.
5.3.2 Ultimate load (P
ult
)
Table 5 and Fig. 5 show the results of the ultimate load of the tested beam. The ultimate
loads of reference beams HSBC11, HSCB21, and HSCB31 were 32.10KN, 35.32KN and
39.73KN for the reference beams and HSCB31 respectively. Increasing the S/C ratio
from 12.5% to 25% leads to increase the ultimate load by about 23.8%. The ultimate load
of the restrained beam HSCB12 represented 88.16% of the reference beam HSCB11. The
results of beams HSCB16, HSCB26, and HSCB36 show the severe effect of heating the
beams without loading them. The ultimate loads of the beams HSCB16, HSCB26, and
HSCB36 represented 1.56%, 0.96%, and 0.28% of the ultimate load of the reference
respectively. The results also show the influence of loading the beams HSCB13,
HSCB23, and HSCB33 before rising the temperature. The ultimate load of the beams
HSCB13, HSCB23, and HSCB33 represented 79.02%, 67.75%, and 63.18% of the
reference beams HSCB11, HSCB21, and HSCB31.

Table 5 and Fig. 5 also show the influence of coating the beams HSCB14, HSCB15,
HSCB24, HSCB25, HSCB34, and HSCB35 with anti-fire coat. An increase was observed
due to the use of the anti-fire coat. The ultimate load of beams HSCB14 and HSCB15
represented 109.1% and 103.1% with respect to the ultimate load of the uncoated beam
HSCB13 respectively. Similarly, the ultimate load of beams HSCB24, and HSCB25
represented 111.8% and 100.9% of the ultimate load of beam HSCB23 respectively. The
results postulated that cooling the beams suddenly with water may lead to less damage if
it is cooled gradually in air. Beams HSCB14, and HSCB15 represented 79.02% and
74.71% of the reference. The ultimate load of beam HSCB14 represented 1.058 of the
-1045-

MAT-004-8
beam HSCB15. Fig. 6 illustrated comparison among the ultimate loads of NSCB and
HSCB However more extensive research work should be implemented specifically the
results of beams made of mixes M2 and M3 indicated that significant differences may be
existed.
5.4 Displacement at Initial Cracking [cr]
Table 5 shows the displacement recorded at the initiation of the cracks. The displacement
values of the reference beams HSCB11, HSCB21, and HSCB31 were 0.368 mm, 0.435
mm, and 0.512mm respectively. The displacement values of the restrained beams
HSCB12, HSCB22, and HSCB32 were 5.120mm, 4.726mm and 4.126mm. The loaded
beams HSCB13, HSCB14, and HSCB15 showed displacement values 0.405mm,
0.972mm, and 627mm respectively which were relatively higher than those of the
reference beam HSCB11. Cooling the tested beams gradually in air before crushing it
causes relatively higher displacement with respect to the beams cooled suddenly with
water. The displacement of the beam NSCB15 was mm19.00mm while it was 17.00mm
for the beam HSCB14. Similar trend was observed for the beams of mixes M2 and M3.
5.5 The Ductility
Fig. 8 shows the load-displacement curves of the tested beams and Table 5 shows the
ultimate displacement recorded at failure.. The reference beams HSCB11, HSCB21, and
HSCB31 showed the least values of displacement which are 6.340mm, 5.852mm, and
5.109mm respectively. A slight decrease of the displacement of the restrained beam was
recorded. The displacement values of the restrained beams HSCB12, HSCB22, and
HSCB32 were 5.120mm, 4.726mm and 4.126mm. On the contrary, the beams HSCB16,
HSCB26, and HSCB36 showed the highest values of displacements and they were
23.000mm, 21.229mm respectively. The loaded beams HSCB13, HSCB14, and HSCB15
showed displacement values 18.00mm, 17.00mm, and 19.00mm respectively. Cooling
the tested beams gradually in air before crushing it causes relatively higher displacement
with respect to the beams cooled suddenly with water. The displacement of the beam
NSCB15 was mm19.00mm while it was 17.00mm for the beam HSCB14. Similar trend
was observed for the beams of mixes M2 and M3.
5.6 Modes of Failure of the Tested Beams
The reference beams such as HSCB11 showed the typical mode of failure under flexural
load. The cracks were initiated in the tension zone within the middle third of the beam.
The cracks were then propagated along the depth of the beam. The beam NSCB12
exposed to heating before crushing it showed that cracks were initiated and propagated
along the length of the beam. Spalling of concrete at different location was observed. The
beam exerted upon by flexural load before heating showed that the cracks were firstly
initiated in the tension zone, propagated along the depth of the beam. The cracks were
accompanied by the spalling of the concrete.

-1046-

MAT-004-9
6 CONCLUSIONS
1- The presented fire technique proved to be easy to develop, practical to use and
inexpensive.
2- The restrained concrete beams exposed to elevated temperature show better behaviour
when compared to the simply supported beams while concrete beams exposed to fire only
exhibited the lowest value of ultimate loads. It should be noted that using this case of
loading will not predict the actual behavior of the flexural element in the field.
3- Using the anti-fire coating improves the ultimate load with respect to the uncoated
beams.
4- The gradual cooling in air in the case of the flexural elements exposed to fire may not
provide the best results. This should be attributed to the propagation of the cracks while
the beam is still loaded. However, more research work to investigate the effect of cooling
methods is needed.
7 REFERENCES
1-American Concrete Institute, Guide for Determining the Fire Endurance of Concrete
Elements, ACI 216R-89.
2-James A.M.,"Analytical Method to Evaluate Fire Resistance of Structural Members",
Journal of Structural Engineering, October 1999, pp.1179-1187.
3-Janotka I, Nurnbergerova T, NadL, Behavior of high strength concrete with
dolomitic aggregate at high temperatures, Mag of Concrete Res 52(6):399406, 2000.
4-Phan LT., Lawson JR., Davis FL., Effects of elevated temperature exposure on
heating characteristics, spalling, and residual properties of high performance concrete,
Mat Structures 34:8391, 2001.
5-Kang , S.W., Hong, S.G.,Analytical behavior of reinforced concrete flexural member
at elevated temperatures, Second International Workshop of Structures in Fire,
Christchurch, pp 243-252, March, 2002.
6-Gawin D., Pesavento F., Schrefler B.A, Modelling of deformations of high strength
concrete at elevated temperatures, Concrete Sci Eng Materials Struct 37(268):218236,
2004.
7. Gawin D., Witek A.,Effect of surface reflection properties of concrete tunnel on its
degradation during fire, (in Polish), In: Proceedings of the National Conference on
Contemporary problems of fire safety in civil and environmental engineering, Poland,
Koszalin-Mielno, pp 126135, 2004.
8-Dita Matesova David Bonen Surendra P. Shah, Factors affecting the resistance of
cementitious materials at high temperatures and medium[0] heating rates, Materials and
Structures, 39:455469, 2006.
9-Y. Msaad1 Y., and Bonnet G., Analyses of Heated Concrete Spalling due to
Restrained Thermal Dilation: Application to the Chunnel Fire, Journal of Engineering
Mechanics ASCE, October, 2006.
10-Bailey C.G., Membrane action of unrestrained lightly reinforced concrete slabs at
large displacements. Engineering Structures, Vol. 23. No. 5., Pp. 470-483, 2001.
-1047-

MAT-004-10
11-Hsu J. H., and Lin C. S., Residual bearing capabilities of fire-exposed reinforced
concrete beams, International Journal of Applied Science and Engineering 4, 2: 151-
163, 2006.

Table 1: Compressive strength of concrete mixes
f
c
(N/mm2) Concrete
Type
Cement Aggregate ID W/C S/C
f
t

(N/mm2) 7 days 28days
M1 0.45 - 2.72 20.4 28.0
M2 0.50 - 2.45 17.3 27.1
NSC
M3 0.60 - 1.98 11.1 18.2
M1 0.30 12.5% 8.02 31.1 87.5
M2 0.29 20.0% 9.16 33.3 107.3 HSC
OPC Dolomite
M3 0.28 25.0% 11.34 38.6 122.7
W/C: Water/Cement ratio S/C: Silica/Cement ratio
Table 2: Description of tested beams NSCB
Notation Description
NSCB11
A beam tested in the flexural test facility at ambient temperature and taken as reference.
NSCB12
A beam restrained in the longitudinal direction, loaded by 60% of the ultimate load, heated up
to the initiation of the first crack and tested in the flexural test facility.
NSCB13
A beam loaded by 60% of the ultimate load, heated to the initiation of the first crack, and then loaded till
crushing.
NSCB14
A beam loaded by 60% of the ultimate load, heated to the initiation of the first crack, cooled suddenly by
water, and then loaded till crushing.
NSCB15
A beam loaded by 60% of the ultimate load, heated to the initiation of the first crack, cooled gradually in
air, and then loaded till crushing.
NSCB16
A beam heated up to the initiation of the first crack and tested in the flexural test facility.
NSCB21
A beam tested in the flexural test facility at ambient temperature and taken as reference
NSCB22
NSCB23
crushing.
NSCB24
A beam coated by anti fire coat, loaded by 60% of the ultimate load, heated to the initiation of the first
crack, cooled suddenly by water, and then loaded till crushing.
NSCB25
crack, cooled gradually in air, and then loaded till crushing.
NSCB26
NSCB31
A beam tested in the flexural test facility at ambient temperature and taken as reference
NSCB32
NSCB33
crushing.
NSCB34
NSCB35
NSCB36
-1048-

MAT-004-11
Table3: Description of tested beams HSCB
Notation Description
HSCB11
HSCB12
HSCB13
crushing.
HSCB14
HSCB15
HSCB16
HSCB21
HSCB22
HSCB23
crushing.
HSCB24
HSCB25
HSCB26
HSCB31
HSCB32
HSCB33
crushing.
HSCB34
HSCB35
HSCB36

Fig. 1: Concrete dimensions and details of reinforcement of tested beams
-1049-

MAT-004-12
Table 4: Recorded Loads and displacements of beams NSCB
Beam I`D
P
cracking
(KN)

cracking
(mm)
P
ultimate
(KN)

ultimate
(mm)
P
cr
/P
cr.r
.
(%)
P
cr
/P
ult.
(%)
P
ult
/P
ult.r.
(%)
NSCB11 16.50 0.367 35.63 8.760 100.00 46.31 100.00
NSCB12 15.30 0.234 31.32 9.770 92.73 48.85 87.90
NSCB13 11.70 3.248 26.88 14.310 70.91 43.52 75.44
NSCB14 11.70 2.470 20.5 14.670 70.91 57.07 57.53
NSCB15 11.70 2.703 17.26 17.300 70.91 67.87 48.44
NSCB16 6.00 1.400 11.04 18.300 36.36 54.35 30.99
NSCB21 16.00 0.338 27.52 8.059 100.00 58.10 100.00
NSCB22 14.50 0.215 23.19 8.988 90.63 62.53 84.27
NSCB23 11.00 2.988 19.85 13.165 68.75 55.42 72.13
NSCB24 11.00 2.272 14.73 13.496 68.75 74.86 53.52
NSCB25 11.00 2.487 11.96 15.916 68.75 91.98 43.46
NSCB26 4.10 1.288 7.4 16.836 25.63 55.41 26.89
NSCB31 11.70 0.176 23.00 4.191 100.00 45.22 100.00
NSCB32 10.80 0.112 19.01 4.674 92.31 56.81 82.65
NSCB33 10.00 1.554 16.10 6.846 96.15 62.11 70.00
NSCB34 10.00 1.182 13.29 7.018 96.15 75.24 57.78
NSCB35 10.00 1.293 11.20 8.276 96.15 86.96 48.70
NSCB36 2.40 0.670 7.20 8.755 23.08 33.33 31.30
Table 5: Recorded loads and displacements of beams HSCB
HSCB11 15.1 0.368 32.10 6.340 100.00 47.04 100.00
HSCB12 12.3 0.488 28.30 5.120 81.46 43.46 88.16
HSCB13 9.6 0.405 23.25 18.000 63.58 41.28 72.44
HSCB14 12.6 0.972 25.37 17.000 83.44 49.67 79.02
HSCB15 12.6 0.627 23.98 19.000 83.44 52.54 74.71
HSCB16 0.0 0.000 0.51 23.000 0.00 0.00 1.59
HSCB21 15.2 0.435 35.32 5.852 100.66 43.04 100.00
HSCB22 13.1 0.577 30.70 4.726 86.18 42.67 86.92
HSCB23 10.3 0.479 23.93 16.614 67.76 43.04 67.75
HSCB24 12.7 1.150 26.77 15.691 83.55 47.44 75.79
HSCB25 12.7 0.742 24.14 17.537 83.55 52.61 68.35
HSCB26 0.0 0.000 0.34 21.229 100.00 0.00 0.96
HSCB31 15.3 0.512 39.73 5.109 100.66 38.51 100.00
HSCB32 13.9 0.679 32.80 4.126 90.85 42.38 82.56
HSCB33 10.4 0.563 25.10 14.504 67.97 41.43 63.18
HSCB34 10.8 1.352 29.11 13.698 83.66 37.10 73.27
HSCB35 10.8 0.872 26.19 15.310 83.66 41.24 65.92
HSCB36 0.0 0.000 0.11 18.533 100.00 0.00 0.28
-1050-

MAT-004-13
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time (min.)
T
e
m
p
.
(
0
C
)
NSCB12 NSCB13 NSCB14 NSCB15 NSCB16

Fig. 2: Temperature development at surface of tested beams (NSCB)
35.63
31.32
26.88
20.5
17.26
11.04
27.52
23.19
19.85
14.73
11.96
7.4
23
19.01
16.1
13.29
11.2
7.2
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
P
u
l
t

(
K
N
)
N
S
C
B
1
1
N
S
C
B
1
2
N
S
C
B
1
3
N
S
C
B
1
4
N
S
C
B
1
5
N
S
C
B
1
6
N
S
C
B
2
1
N
S
C
B
2
2
N
S
C
B
2
3
N
S
C
B
2
4
N
S
C
B
2
5
N
S
C
B
2
6
N
S
C
B
3
1
N
S
C
B
3
2
N
S
C
B
3
3
N
S
C
B
3
4
N
S
C
B
3
5
N
S
C
B
3
6
Beam

Fig. 3: Influence of loading condition and mix type on the ultimate load of NSCB
-1051-

MAT-004-14
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min.)
T
e
m
p
.
(
0
C
)
HSCB12 HSCB13 HSCB14 HSCB15 HSCB16

Fig. 4: Temperature development at surface of tested beams (HSCB)
32.10
28.30
23.25
25.37
23.98
0.51
35.32
30.70
23.93
26.77
24.14
0.34
39.73
32.80
25.10
29.11
26.19
0.11
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
45.00
P
u
l
t

(
K
N
)
H
S
C
B
1
1
H
S
C
B
1
2
H
S
C
B
1
3
H
S
C
B
1
4
H
S
C
B
1
5
H
S
C
B
1
6
H
S
C
B
2
1
H
S
C
B
2
2
H
S
C
B
2
3
H
S
C
B
2
4
H
S
C
B
2
5
H
S
C
B
2
6
H
S
C
B
3
1
H
S
C
B
3
2
H
S
C
B
3
3
H
S
C
B
3
4
H
S
C
B
3
5
H
S
C
B
3
6
Beam

Fig. 5: Influence of loading condition and mix type on the ultimate load of HSCB
-1052-

MAT-004-15
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
1 2 3 4 5 6
Loading condition
P
u
l
t
.
(
K
N
)
HSCB1 HSCB2 HSCB3
NSCB1 NSCB2 NSCB3

Fig. 6: The ultimate loads of NSCB&HSCB
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
45.00
-20 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
Displacement (mm)
P

(
K
N
)
NSCB11 NSCB12 NSCB13
NSCB14 NSCB15 NSCB16

Fig. 7: Load-displacement of NSCB
-5.00
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
45.00
-20 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
Displacement (mm)
P

(
K
N
)
HSCB11 HSCB12 HSCB13
HSCB14 HSCB15 HSCB16

Fig. 8: Load-displacement of HSCB
-1053-

MAT-004-16

Photo 1: Technique of heating the RC beam and measuring displacement using LVDT

Photo 2: The heated beam upon reaching 397
o
C
-1054-
MAT-005-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY TO PROTECT STEEL REINFORCING
BARS FROM CORROSION
___________________________________________________________________________________

Mohamed, R. A. S and Sayed, A. E.
Associate Professors, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of
Engineering, El-Minia University, El-Minia, Egypt.

ABSTRACT

Steel is an essential part of reinforcing concrete and the corrosion of steel is
identified as single largest factor responsible for its deterioration. The alkalinity of
concrete, which protects the steel, may be affected by carbonation of the concrete, or by
ingress of chloride ions. These may arise from sea salts or environmental corrosives.
The corrosion of steel in concrete leads to cracking and eventual spalling of concrete
because the rust product has a greater volume than the steel and hence exerts
considerable pressure on concrete which eventually leads to its disintegration.

Since the 1970s, research projects and field studies have been conducted on
different methods for protecting steel reinforcing in concrete constructions from
corrosion damage. These methods include rebar coatings, concrete coatings, use of
admixtures, methods for decreasing permeability, increasing concrete cover, cathodic
protection, electrochemical method to remove chloride, and corrosion inhibitors.

The purpose of this research is to implement three different protection methods
on the reinforcing steel bars to prevent or minimize the occurrence of corrosion as well
as to detect the most effective method in the protection technology of steel bars. The
parameters studied in this research are the corrosion rate and percentage of chloride.
The three protection methods are, coating the steel bars before embedding them in
concrete using two different epoxy coating materials as well as using sodium nitrite (by
1% of cement content) to be added to the concrete mix to work as a corrosion inhibitor.
Pullout tests have been carried out and their results are discussed to determine the
effect of the implemented different methods for protecting steel from corrosion on the
bond strength. The results indicated that the sodium nitrite give the best results as an
anticorrosive material, adding 1% to concrete mix increases the pull-out load by value
of 300% but the epoxy coating materials produced an increase in pull-out load by
values 215 % and 240 % increase with the two Epoxy coating materials. Three
reinforced concrete full-scale beams protected from corrosion along with a control
-1055-
MAT-005-2
beam were tested under flexure to study the effect of the applied corrosion protection
methods on the mechanical behavior of R.C beams.

KEYWORDS: Sodium nitrite, corrosion protection, epoxy-coated,
reinforcement, corrosion inhibitor.

INTRODUCTION

Corrosion of reinforcing steel bars is considered the most critical factor
affecting the durability of concrete structures. Once the reinforcing bars start
corroding inside the concrete, it is difficult to stop the process of corrosion
progressing and hence the safety, load capacity and design life of the structure are
significantly reduced with time. Previously, several investigations have been
performed to study various techniques for protecting the reinforcing bars against
corrosion and their effect on bond strength between the reinforcing bars and
concrete [1-4].
There are many different corrosion protection methods for reinforcing steel
in concrete that can be classified as barriers. Some of these methods are to prevent
chloride ions from penetrating into the concrete and depassivating the
reinforcement. Others work by reducing the movement of air and moisture into the
concrete and therefore slowing the corrosion process. Procedures such as using good
quality concrete, low water/cement (w/c) ratio and adequate cover have become
standard in reinforced concrete construction. Sealers such as placing low-
permeability concrete overlays or waterproof membranes with asphalt overlays
used on bridge decks and structures in an attempt to keep water and chloride ions
from penetrating the concrete.
A corrosion inhibitor is defined as a substance that will prevent or minimize
corrosion. Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that can slow down or prevent
corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete. Corrosion inhibitors were first
investigated in the 1960s. Some early inhibitors included sodium nitrite and either
sodium or potassium salts of chromate and benzoate. Research studies concluded
that the sodium and potassium salts reduce the strength of the concrete and produce
a protection against corrosion inhibition. However, other inhibitors have shown
promise as methods for protecting reinforced concrete from corrosion damage. A
common inhibitor used today, calcium nitrite, was developed to be used in concrete
as a non corrosive set accelerator [5,6,7,8].
Corrosion inhibiting admixtures are unique among the methods to protect
reinforced concrete from corrosion damage due to the fact that their protection
mechanism becomes an integral part of the concrete matrix. Most inhibitors act by
chemically stabilizing the steel surface, although some also act to reduce the
permeability of the concrete. Corrosion inhibitors are generally used as admixtures
in concrete for new construction, but they can also be used for repairs by being
admixed into concrete for patches, sprayed or painted onto the surface of the
concrete or applied by saturation treatment [7, 8, 9].
-1056-
MAT-005-3
Epoxy-coated steel, along with higher quality concrete and deeper cover,
have provided effective protection against corrosion distress in bridges in the Unites
States and Canada for more than a decade. Many investigators are of the opinion
that epoxy-coated steel is a viable option for long-term protection of reinforced
concrete structures. In their opinion, reports of problems with epoxy-coated
reinforcement are isolated, and each problem is caused by some shortcoming in the
specific materials or construction in the particular structure. However, recently,
several investigators have been led to question the use of epoxy-coated
reinforcement as a realistic strategy for preventing corrosion damage to concrete
structures. These analysts believe that the failures of epoxy-coated steel in structures
are indicative of generic shortcomings in the technology, and that additional
problems will develop as structures continue to age [7, 10, 11].
As the use of epoxy-coated reinforcement increased, some problems were
revealed, such as cracking of the coating during bending and damage to the coating
during shipping and handling on the job site. New methods, such as bending the
bars before coating, increasing the number of supports during shipping, padding
the bundles, and using nylon slings for loading and unloading, were developed in an
attempt to overcome these problems [7]. Specifications also started to require plastic
or epoxy-coated chairs and tie wires when they were in contact with the epoxy-
coated reinforcement to minimize stray currents and to avoid the creation electrical
couples within the structure [11].

EXPERIMENTAL WORK

The Experimental work in this research was directed towards the study of
the efficiency of applying different anti-corrosive techniques to protect reinforcing
steel bars against corrosion. The Experimental program was divided into three
categories. The first category was chosen to carry out some preliminary tests to
induce a noticeable corrosion in embedded steel bars in concrete. Three different
concrete mixes were used to cast 54 concrete cylinders (D=15 cm and H=30cm) and
27 cubes (15x15x15 cm) divided into three groups. Each group consists of 18
concrete cylinders and nine cubes. Each cylinder contained one central (10 mm
diameter) high tensile steel bar embedded in it.

It is of interest to mention that, before casting the specimens, the reinforcing
bars were cleaned by a pickling solution composed of 10% hydrochloric acid as an
inhibitor then, rinsed with water and dried. The bar was cleaned by another
solution composed of 1% sodium carbonate. After another rinse with water, the bar
was again dried. The purpose of that cleaning for every bar was to insure that the
outer surface was completely free from any rust. The bar diameter was measured at
ten different locations of the embedded length, to the nearest 0.05 mm, and
immediately placed in the casting mould. The bar protruded 25 cm from only one
side of the cylinder. In all mixes, the same type and amount of sand, gravel, cement
content and water/cement ratio were used. Complete details of all concrete mixes
are given in table (1).

-1057-
MAT-005-4
A natural siliceous sand and gravel from El-Minia quarries were used as a
fine and coarse aggregates, along with water-cement ratio of 0.45. The physical and
mechanical properties of sand and gravel are given in table (2). Ordinary Portland
cement is used in all concrete mix with 350 Kg/m
3
as cement content. The
mechanical properties of the used cement are given in Table (3). The mixing
operation was carried out in accordance to ASTM C (192-81). Before casting
directly, the internal surfaces of the moulds were coated with a thin layer of mineral
oil to avoid the development of bond between the mould and the concrete.

Table(1): Details of concrete mixes for 1 cubic meter.

Mix proportions Mix
No.
C S/C G/C w/c
% of CaCl
2
by
weight of cement
% of NaNO
2
by
weight of cement
1 1 1.72 3.43 0.45 0.0 0.0
2 1 1.72 3.43 0.45 2.0 % 0.0
3 1 1.72 3.43 0.45 2.0 % 1.0 %

Table(2): Physical properties of sand and gravel.

Property Test results for sand Test results for gravel
Specific weight 2.65 2.65
Volume weight (t|m
3
) 1.65 1.66
Fineness modulus 2.85 1.0 % by weight
% of fine materials 1.0 % by weight 0.9 % by weight
Crushing value - 16 %
Voids ratio 34 % 37.3 %

Table (3). Properties of the used O. P. C.

Mechanical properties Test results E.S.S limits
Specific gravity 3.15 3.15
Fineness % 6.2 % Max 10 %
Specific surface cm
2
/gr. 3975 Min 2500
Water demand % 26 Min 25, max 30
Initial setting time (minute) 140 Min 45 min.
Final setting time (minute) 400 Max 10 hr.
Soundness (mm) 1.0 mm Max 10 mm
At 3 days Kg/cm
2

At 7 days Kg/cm
2

280
300

Min 180 Kg/cm
2

Min 270 Kg/cm
2

All the concrete specimens were casted and compacted according to the
Egyptian Standard Specifications (ESS). Specimens were demoulded after 24 hours,
-1058-
MAT-005-5
and then, cured in water tank for 14 days. They were left in the laboratory condition
till the date of testing. All concrete cylinders were tested at 28 days of age. Each
cylindrical concrete was put in an electric circuit as shown in fig (1) under a
constant voltage of 12V. The exposure of cylinders to the DC electric current
continued for a period of 0.0, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0 and 14 days. Three specimens
from each group were tested for the same duration of the electric current to get the
accurate average reduction of area of steel bars due to corrosion exposure. The
concrete cubes tested after 7, 28 and 56 days to find out the compressive strength of
the three different concrete mixes after certain ages.

Figure (1) The electric circuit used to accelerate corrosion of steel bars.

The second category was designed to study the effect of the corrosion
protection strategy adopted in this research on bond strength by means of
conducting pull out test to the steel bars imbedded in the concrete cylinders. The
reinforcing bars were cleaned properly by the previously mentioned method. The
average diameter of the bars was accurately measured. Three bars were coated with
Kemapoxy 131 and another three were coated with Epoxy celler then, immediately
placed in the casting mould and filled with concrete of mix No2. Another six cleaned
bars were placed in the casting mould without coating, three of them filled with
concrete mix No. 1 and the others with concrete mix No.3. The details of the three
concrete mixes are given in Table (1).

The third category contains four reinforced concrete beams made of the
previous mixes and tested under flexure. Three of them were protected from
corrosion by using the three previous techniques to study the effect of corrosion
protection methods on the behavior of reinforced concrete beams. The details of
those beams are shown in table (4) and their reinforcement is shown in figure (2).

Table (4): Details of used concrete mixes in casting all beams.

-1059-
MAT-005-6
Mix Prportions Beam
No.
Mix
No. 1 n m w/c
% CaCl
2

by weight
of cement
% NaNO
2
by weight
of cement
Epoxy Coating
1 2 1 1.78 3.57 0.45 2.0 0.0 ----
2 3 1 1.78 3.57 0.45 2.0 1.0 ----
3 2 1 1.78 3.57 0.45 2.0 0.0 Epoxy celler
4 2 1 1.78 3.57 0.45 2.0 0.0 Kemapoxy 131

Figure (2) Reinforced concrete beam.

All beams were stripped off 24 hours after casting then curing process was
started. All the four beams were kept in the laboratory temperature and sprayed
with water every day until the day before testing at age of 28 days. After that, they
were put in an electric circuit as shown in fig (3) under a constant voltage of 12V for
fourteen days. In all beams, six rows of demec studs were stuck around the vertical
axis of beams on one side of beam. Each row consists of two demec studs apart.
During testing, strains of concrete were determined at each load increment using a
dial gauge.

-1060-
MAT-005-7
Figure (3) The electric circuit used to induce an obvious corrosion in beams.

Every beam was tested under two points static load by using digital
Universal Testing Machine of capacity 10 ton. A dial gauge has an accuracy of 0.01
mm was used to measure the values of deflection. The applied load was increased
gradually by 0.5 ton. Each increment was maintained for few minutes till recording
the strains of concrete and deflection. The cracks and their propagations were
marked on both beam sides and then sketched.

TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The compressive strength results obtained from testing concrete cubic
specimens at different ages are plotted in figure (4). The obtained results confirm
the known fact of adding calcium chloride to concrete mixes in order to improve the
compressive strength of concrete, (strength-age relationship).

280
300
320
340
360
380
400
420
440
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0.0 % chl oride
1% chlori de
2% chlori de
Time (Days)

Fig. (4) Relationship between compressive strength and time for concrete mixes.

Table (5) includes the average diameter of steel bars before and after
exposing them to electric circuit for different periods of time. It also includes the
percentage of reduction in the area of these bars after inducing the corrosion.

The crack widths occurred in the concrete cylinders as a result of inducing
the corrosion has been measured using an accurate microscope with sensitivity of
0.01 mm. The measured values of crack widths for the three tested groups after 1, 2,
3, 4, 6, 8 and 14 days have been recorded in table (6).

-1061-
MAT-005-8
From table (5), it can be noticed that, as the period of exposing steel bars to
electric energy (200 m.A.) increases, the cross-sectional area of steel bars decrease.
It can be also be resulted that, the % reduction in the cross-sectional area of the
steel bars after 8 days of electric exposing produces about 11 14 % reduction
meanwhile, at 14 days of exposure the average values of the reduction in diameter
increase to 13 17 % i.e., the higher the % of added calcium chloride, the higher
the % reduction in the area of steel bars.

Table (5): Reduction in the area of steel bars for all tested specimens.

Table (6) comprises the test results of the crack widths occurred in the
cylinders for the three tested groups after 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 14 days. As the period
of exposing steel bars to electric energy increases, the width of cracks increases too.

A comparative study was made between the % reduction in the area of steel
bars and the corresponding crack widths for a period of ten days. This study
resulted that,

At (4 - 14) days of exposing steel bars, embedded in the control mix,
the value of the % reduction in the area of steel bars equals to 8.4 - 13
% accompanied with a crack width ranging between 0.0 to 0.73 mm.
Period of electric
exposure
(days)
% of chloride
in concrete mix
Average
original
diameter mm
Reduction in
diameter mm
% reduction in
the area
of bars
0.0 0.0 9.56 0.00 0.000
1 0.0 9.55 0.23 4.759
2 0.0 9.53 0.34 7.008
4 0.0 9.56 0.41 8.393
6 0.0 9.44 0.46 9.508
8 0.0 9.37 0.53 10.993
14 0.0 9.60 0.64 12.889
0.0 1.0 9.85 0.15 3.022
1 1.0 9.68 0.32 6.502
2 1.0 9.66 0.34 6.915
4 1.0 9.55 0.45 9.202
6 1.0 9.44 0.56 11.512
8 1.0 9.39 0.61 12.570
14 1.0 9.54 0.72 14.524
0.0 2.0 9.63 0.37 7.537
1 2.0 9.47 0.41 8.269
2 2.0 9.54 0.46 9.411
4 2.0 9.48 0.52 10.670
6 2.0 9.45 0.59 12.097
8 2.0 9.35 0.67 13.818
14 2.0 9.43 0.82 16.721
-1062-
MAT-005-9

At (4 - 14) days of exposing the steel bars, embedded in 1% calcium
chloride concrete mix, the average % reduction in the area of steel
bars equals to 9.2 - 14.5 % accompanied with a crack width ranging
between 0.64 0.96 mm.

At (4 - 14) days of exposing the steel bars, embedded in 2 % calcium
chloride concrete mix, the value of % reduction of steel area equal to
10.7 16.7 % accompanied with a crack width ranging between 0.68
1.0 mm.
Table (6): Crack widths in cylinderical concrete specimens due to corrosion of steel bars.

Period of
electric
exposiure
(days)
% of
chloride
in
concrete
mix
Crack
width 1
(mm)
Crack
width 2
(mm)
Crack
width 3
(mm)
Crack
width 4
(mm)
Crack
width 5
(mm)
Average
Crack
width
(mm)
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
6 0.0 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.8 0.56
8 0.0 1.2 1.0 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.68
14 0.0 1.2 1.1 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.73
0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 1.0 0.06 0.1 0.1 0.12 0.1 0.096
2 1.0 0.2 0.2 0.18 0.3 0.15 0.2
4 1.0 0.6 0.4 1.0 0.8 0.4 0.64
6 1.0 1.0 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.0 0.72
8 1.0 1.3 1.0 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.82
14 1.0 1.5 1.1 0.5 0.8 0.9 0.96
0.0 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 2.0 0.1 0.08 0.15 0.1 0.2 0.13
2 2.0 0.25 0.2 0.18 0.3 0.25 0.24
4 2.0 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.68
6 2.0 1.4 0.6 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.81
8 2.0 0.6 0.6 0.8 1.6 0.8 0.88
14 2.0 0.8 0.7 0.8 1.4 1.3 1.0

The pull-out test results of the concrete cylinders are indicated in table (7).
The average bond strength as well as the % reduction in the area of the steel bars
are also included in this table. The relationship between the average bond strength
values and the period of exposing the concrete mixes to the electric current (DC) for
the different % of chloride is illustrated in figure (5).

-1063-
MAT-005-10
It can be noticed that, as the period of electric exposure increases the
corrosion rate increases accompanied by a reduction in the bond strength. This can
be explained as follows; the corrosion of steel produces both iron oxide and
hydroxide having a greater volume than the volume of the original steel bar which
leads to increase in the volume of steel bars causing high radial bursting stresses
particularly around the reinforcing bars and finally local radial cracks occurred.
These splitting cracks propagate along the bar formatting longitudinal cracks and
consequently led to a reduction in bond strength see-table (7).

Table (7): Bond strength results of concrete cylinders.

Period of electric
exposing (days)
% of chloride by
weight of cement
Pull-out
Load
Bond stregth % reduction
of area bar
0.0 0.0 1.91 33.776 0.000
1.0 0.0 1.56 27.587 4.759
2.0 0.0 1.55 27.410 7.008
4.0 0.0 1.51 26.703 8.393
6.0 0.0 1.37 24.227 9.508
8.0 0.0 0.65 11.495 10.993
14 0.0 0.60 10.61 12.889
0.0 1.0 1.8 31.831 3.022
1.0 1.0 1.44 25.465 6.502
2.0 1.0 1.39 24.806 6.915
4.0 1.0 0.99 17.507 9.202
6.0 1.0 0.66 11.671 11.512
8.0 1.0 0.3 5.305 12.570
14 1.0 0.27 4.7746 14.524
0.0 2.0 1.66 29.335 7.537
1.0 2.0 1.36 24.050 8.269
2.0 2.0 1.26 22.282 9.411
4.0 2.0 0.79 13.970 10.670
6.0 2.0 0.37 6.543 12.097
8.0 2.0 0.32 5.659 13.818
14 2.0 0.26 4.598 16.721
-1064-
MAT-005-11
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
-5 0 5 10 15
0.0 % chloride
1 % chloride
2 % chloride
Period of electric exposing (Days)

Fig (5) Relationship between bond strength and the periods of electric
current exposure.

The three protection methods employed in this research were applied to
reinforced concrete beams as well as identical concrete cylinders with embedded
reinforcing bars to study the effect of applying these protection methods on the
bond strength and the mechanical performance of reinforced concrete beams. A
control beam and cylinders fabricated from the same mix without any protection
method were casted and tested for the purpose of comparison.

The effect of applying the used anti-corrosive materials on the bond strength
is indicted in table (8) and plotted in fig (6).The values of bond strength resulted
from the protected specimens were as three times as the value of the bond strength
recorded from the control one. The bond strength increased from 4.6 kg/cm
2
to
about 12 kg/cm
2
.

From the following table (8) and Fig (6), it can be noticed that, adding 1% of
sodium nitrite to the concrete cylinders produced an improvement in the pull-out
load with a value of 315 %. Meanwhile, applying an epoxy coating material to steel
bars resulted an increase in the pull-out load by a value of 265 % and 246 % when
using Epoxy celler and Kemapoxy 131 respectively.

Table (8): Bond strength results of specimens protected by using anticorrosive materials.

Mix
No.
Method of
protection
Period of electric
exposure (days)
Pull-out
Load
(tons)
Bond
stregth
(Kg/cm
2
)
%
reduction
in the area
of the bar
M1 Control 14 0.26 4.598 16.72
M2 1% sodium nitite 14 0.82 14.5 8.81
-1065-
MAT-005-12
M3
Coating with
Epoxy celler
14 0.69 12.19 9.56
M4
Coating with
Kemapoxy 131
14 0.64 11.31 10.79
0
5
10
15
No materials NaNo2 Epoxy celler Kemapoxy 131
Type of anticorrosive materials

Fig(6) Relationship between bond strength and type of anticorrosive materials.
Figure (7) shows the relationship between the load and the corresponding
deflection for the reinforced concrete beams tested under bending. As the load
increases the corresponding deflection increases up to failure. The maximum
deflection, measured at 0.9 of the ultimate load, was found to be 2.0 mm with slight
differences between each others.

-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Beam1
Beam2
Beam3
Beam4
Deflection (mm)

Fig(7) Relationship between load and deflection for all tested beam.

It can be recommended that, the economic anticorrosive coating material is
the epoxy celler when compared with the kemapoxy 131. The sodium nitrite is the
best anti-corrosive protecting material although, it is expensive as well as the
hazards of using it in the explosive products.

-1066-
MAT-005-13
The cracking load was recorded for all tested beams at which the first visible
crack occurred. There was no difference in the recorded cracking load of beams B1,
B2 and B3 and equals to 4.0 tons. Beam (B4) which contains kemapoxy 131 coating
produced 5.0 tons cracking load. The ultimate loads for tested beams were also
recorded at which the failure occurred. Beam (B2) contains 1 % sodium nitrite as
an additive resisted up to 13.60 tons failure load. The lowest value of ultimate load
was 11.8 tons and resulted from testing the control beam (B1) which made without
anticorrosive material.

Figures 8, 9, 10 and 11 represent the pattern of cracks in the three sides of
each beam [front (A), back(C) and bottom (B)], the reason of representing the
cracks in three faces is to show the extension of the cracks through them. It can be
noticed that cracks firstly happened in the region of maximum deflection under the
load effect and then spread all over the beam ended by a shear type of failure,
except for beam (B2) a shear bond failure happened at the final stage of load ( just
before failure occurred ).

The general mode of failure for all tested beams was found to be shear
failure that is mainly because the ratio between shear span and depth ( a/d ) = 1.45 .

Figure (8) Pattern of cracks of beam (1)

-1067-
MAT-005-14

Figure (9) Pattern of cracks of beam (2).



-1068-
MAT-005-15
The cracking and ultimate experimental loads for the four tested beams were
recorded in the following table (9). From this table, it can be seen that, adding 1%
sodium nitrite to concrete mix as a corrosion protective material improves the
ultimate load by a value of 15 %, meanwhile, coating steel reinforcing bars only
increases the ultimate load by a value of 2-6 %. The ratio between cracking and
ultimate loads ( P
cr
/ P
ult
) was found to be in the range of 0.29 - 0.33 for beams (B1,
B2, &B3) however, beam (B4) resulted a ratio of 0.42 which may explains the
effectiveness of using epoxy coating as a protective material against corrosion. The
highest value of flexural strength was resulted from testing beam (B2) with 1%
sodium nitrite and equals to 151 Kg/cm
2
.

Table (9): Test results of R.C. beams and the corresponding theoretical.

Beam No.

P
cr
(tons) P
ult
(tons) Flexural stregth
(Kg/cm
2
)
B1 4.0 11.8 131.11
B2 4.0 13.6 151.11
B3 4.0 12.5 138.44
B4 5.0 12.0 133.44

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the present study, the following conclusions, with respect to the
effect of the used different methods to protect the reinforcing steel bars from
corrosion, are drawn;

1. The higher the % of added calcium chloride, the higher the % reduction in the
area of steel bars.

2. As the period of exposing steel bars to electric circuit ( DC current ) increases,
the width of crack increases too.

3. As the period of exposing steel bars to electric energy increases, the necessary
load to pull the steel bars out from concrete decreases, that is because exposing
steel bars to electric energy for long time increases the induced corrosion then
the value of pull-out load decreases. Also it has been found that, as the period of
exposing steel bars to electric energy increases, the value of bond strength
decreases accompanied by increasing the % reduction of area of steel bars.

4. Adding 1 % of sodium nitrite to the concrete cylinders showed an improvement
in pull-out load by value of 300 %. The highest value of flexural strength was
resulted from the beam made of this mix.

5. Sodium nitrite showed the best result as an anticorrosive material in the
reinforced concrete beams tested in flexure. The addition of 1 % of it, increases
-1069-
MAT-005-16
the ultimate load by a value of 15 %, meanwhile coating steel reinforcing bars
only increases the ultimate load by a value of (2 - 6 %).

6. The economic anticorrosive coating material is found to be the epoxy celler
when compared with the kemapoxy 131. Sodium nitrite is the optimum anti-
corrosive additive material but, the hazards of using it in the explosive products
as well as being it an expensive make its usage is difficult.

REFERENCES

1. Hamad, B. S., "Comparative bond strength of coated and uncoated bars with
different rib geometries", ACI, Materials J., Vol. 92, No. 6, Nov. Dec. 1995,
pp. 579-589.
2. Ghaffari, H. A., Choi, O. C., Darwin, D. and Mccabe, S. L., "Bond of epoxy
coated reinforcement: cover, casting position, slump and consolidation",
ACI, struc. J., Vol. 91, No. 1, Jan. Feb. 1994, pp. 59-68.
3. Yehia, N. A., "Experimental study of bond between concrete and reinforcing
steel bars coated for corrosion protection", Journal of Eng. And applied
science., Vol. 42, No. 4, Aug. 1995, Cairo University, Egypt.
4. Rasheeduzzafar, Ali M. G. and Al-Sulaimani, G. J., "Degradation of bond
between reinforcing steel and concrete due to cathodic protection current ",
ACI, Materials J., Vol. 90, No. 1, Jan. Feb. 1993, pp. 8-15.
5. Berke, Neal S., Dallaire, M. P., Kicks, M. C., and Hoopes, R. J. (1993).
Corrosion of Steel in Cracked Concrete, Corrosion Engineering, Vol. 49,
No. 11, Nov., pp.934-943.
6. Berke, Neal S. and Rosenberg, Arnold. (1989). Technical Review of Calcium
Nitrite Corrosion Inhibitor in Concrete, Transportation Research Record,
No. 1211, pp. 18-27.
7. Virmani, Yash Paul and Clemena, Gerardo G. (1998). Corrosion
Protection- Concrete Bridges, Report No. FHWA-RD-98-088, Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.
8. Berke, Neal S., Pfeifer, Donald W., and Weil, Thomas G. (1988). Protection
Against Chloride-Induced Corrosion, Concrete International, Vol. 10, No.
12, Dec., pp. 45-55.
9. Nmai, Charles K., Farrington, Stephen A., and Bobrowske, Gregory S.
(1992). Organic-Based Corrosion-Inhibiting Admixture for Reinforced
Concrete, Concrete International, Vol. 14, No. 4, Apr., pp. 45-51.
10. Clear, Kenneth C. (1992). Effectiveness of Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing
Steel, Concrete International, Vol. 14, No. 5, May, pp. 58-64.
11. Manning, David G. (1996). Corrosion Performance of Epoxy-Coated
Reinforcing Steel: North American Experience, Construction and Building
Materials, Vol. 10, No. 5, Jul. pp. 349-365.
-1070-

MAT-006-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt



EFFECT OF CEMENT CONTENT AND CEMENT TYPE ON THE
RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE AGAINST CHEMICAL ATTACK.
_____________________________________________________________________________

Sayed, A. E. and Mohamed, R. A. S.
Associate Professors, Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of
Engineering, El-Minia University ,El-Minia, Egypt.

ABSTRACT
Mortar and concrete are two important construction materials widely
used in both domestic and industrial constructions all over the world. A
durable concrete is able to withstand the attacks of destructive processes
of chemical, physical or mechanical origin, acting externally or arising
internally. Chemical salt attack is caused by ingressing salts into
cementitious materials, and the reactions with cement hydrates resulting
in either the deterioration of the matrix or loss of corrosion protection of
the steel reinforcement. The chemical resistances of the materials
against deleterious reactions determine the performance of the
materials. Cement type and mix proportions are keys to the resistance of
concrete against chemical attack.
In this paper, the resistance of concrete against sulfate and chloride
attack was investigated in the laboratory by storing different specimens
of concrete cubes in a solution of calcium chloride with concentration
5%, or solution of magnesium sulphate with concentration 5% or in
solution of magnesium sulphate with concentration 5% + sodium
chloride with concentration 5% at different ages (7, 28, 59, 90 and 180
days). Compressive strength is determined for specimens submerged in
the previous chemical solutions. The chemical resistance of concrete is
expressed by the percentage of compressive strength losses for those
specimens exposed to the chemical attack compared with those similar
ones submerged in fresh water. Both specimens were kept in the
condition of laboratory temperature. It is of importance to mention that,
only external attack was implemented in this research because it is the
more common type and typically occurs where water containing
dissolved chloride and sulphate penetrate the concrete.
It can be concluded that, the highest values of compressive strength
were obtained from concrete mix cured in water (control mix)
-1071-
MAT-006-2
meanwhile, the lowest values were resulted from mixes cured in a
solution of magnesium sulphate with concentration 5% + sodium
chloride with concentration 5%.

KEYWORDS: Concrete, chemical attack and compressive strength.

INTRODUCTION
Reinforced concrete is one of the most important structural materials
used in construction. It has excellent structural and durability performance.
Nevertheless, there is evidence of early deterioration when subjected to marine
environments and severe chemical attack. The most common cause of
deterioration is corrosion of the reinforcement, with subsequent spalling of the
concrete. A careful procedure requires to be followed, in both the design and
construction stages, to insure long-term performance of this type of concrete
structures. Selection of materials, mix design, proper detailing of reinforcement,
appropriate construction techniques and a strict control program are the essential
parameters to produce a durable marine concrete structure [1-3].
The Knowledge and understanding of sulfate attack in the field of
concrete constructions remains inadequate but, there is no doubt that dense
concrete, well compacted, and well cured is essential under different conditions to
minimize the effect of sulfate attack on concrete. It has been found that the
sulphate resistance of concrete depends of the chemical resistance of cement and
the physical resistance of concrete. The chemical resistance is strongly influenced
by cement composition or cement type, whereas the physical resistance is
controlled by the concrete mix proportions and in particular the water cement
ratio. Concrete with lower permeability has better physical resistance and thus
would resist the penetration of sulphate ions and thereby improve the resistance
of concrete [ 4-8].
The problem of aggressive attack of sulfate and chloride ions has been of
considerable scientific and technological interest because this attack is one of the
factors responsible for causing damage to concrete. The corrosive action of
chlorides is due to the formation of chloroaluminate hydrates, which causes
softening of concrete. Sulfate ions can enter into chemical reactions with certain
constituents of concrete, producing sulphoaluminate hydrates and gypsum, which
cause the expansion of concrete.
Sulfate attack is a complex process involving a sequence of different
chemical reactions. There are mainly two mechanisms related to sulphate attack,
ettringite and gypsum formation. In general, it is accepted that expansion and
cracking are associated with ettringite formation. Strength loss and mass loss are
associated with gypsum formation [5]. Also sulphates dissolved in the water are
left behind on or near the surface as the water evaporates. In severe cases of
prolonged exposure, this type of chemical assault becomes visually evident as a
line or band of sulfate ctystals and surface scaling just above the grade line. The
scaling in this area is due to the foramation of sulphate crystals immediately
below the surface of concrete, which results in the development of tensile stresses
that literally force the surface skin of the concrete away from the bulk material,
i.e causes spalling of concrete cover[9-10].
-1072-

MAT-006-3
There are two basic transport mechanisms for the penetration of
chlorides, diffusion of chloride ions and transport of chloride ion combined with
water transport. The diffusion resistance of concrete to chloride ions is important
as it governs the rate of penetration of chloride ions. Superior diffusion resistance
would imply that it will take longer for chloride ion concentration at
reinforcement to exceed a critical chloride concentration, for which depassivation
and corrosion of steel can take place [8].
Thus, this study utilizes both compression testing and denesity of concrete
specimens to examine the effect of sulfate and chloride attack on concrete and to
better indicate the effect of cement type and cement content on the concrete's
ability to resist such attack.

EXPERIMENTAL WORK

The experiments include the measurements of the compressive strength of
concrete cubes 15 15 15 cm, (240 cubes in total) cured and tested at different
ages. Two main groups of cubes were made of cement contents equal to 250 and
350 Kg/m
3
. In order to represent the common cement contents normally used with
plain and reinforced concrete constructions. Each group were fabricated by using
either O.P.C. or C-Water cement and then all groups were exposed to sever
chemical attack by submerging them in chloride or sulfate solutions or both for
ages 7, 28, 59, 90 and 180 days. The same type of sand and gravel were used, along
with water-cement ratio of 0.50. All test specimens were cured in four different
conditions. Details of all concrete test specimens are given in table (1).

Table (1). Details of concrete mixes.

Gro
up
No.
Cement
Content
Kg/m
3

Sand

Kg/m
3

Gravel
Kg/m
3

W|C
ratio
Cement
Type
1 250 690 1380 0.50 O.P.C
2 350 600 1200 0.50 O.P.C
3 250 690 1380 0.50 C-Water cement
4 350 600 1200 0.50 C-Water cement
A natural siliceous sand and gravel from El-Minia quarries were used as a
fine and coarse aggregates. The physical and mechanical properties of sand and
gravel are given in table (2).
Table (2). Physical properties of sand and gravel.

Property Test results for sand Test results for gravel
Specific weight 2.65 2.65
Volume weight (t|m
3
) 1.65 1.66
Absorption (24 hrs) 0.65 % by weight 1.0 % by weight
-1073-
MAT-006-4
% of fine materials 1.4 % by weight 0.9 % by weight
Crushing value - 16 %
Voids ratio 37.7 % 37.3 %

The two types of cement used in this investigation are ordinary portland
cement and c-water cement. The mechanical properties of the two types of used
cement are given in Table (3). Tap water was used in all concrete mixes. Mixing of
concrete components was completed by using a horizontal rotating counter flow
mixer pan of 0.09 cubic meter capacity with speed of 13 revolutions per minute.
Prior rotating the mixer pan, the pan mixer was wetted and only the half of the
amount of sand, gravel were added together into the mixer and mixed for 1
minute. While rotating the cement was added into the mixer. The mixing was
performed for another 3 minutes by adding water for the purpose of uniformity.
The mixing operation was carried out in accordance to ASTM C (192-81). Before
casting directly, the internal surfaces of the moulds were coated with a thin layer
of mineral oil to avoid the development of bond between the mould and the
concrete. Fresh concrete was taken from the mixer and poured into the moulds in
three layers by using blunted trowel. The trowel was moved around the top edge
of the cube in order to insure a symmetrical distribution of the concrete and to
minimize segregation of coarse aggregate. Each layer of concrete was compacted
using a standard compacting rod, after compacting the third layer was compacted
by a mechanical vibrator.

Table (3-a) Properties of the used ordinary Portland cement (O. P. C ).

Mechanical properties Test
results
E.S.S limits
Specific surface cm
2
/gr. 3975 Min 2500
At 3 days Kg/cm
2

At 7 days Kg/cm
2

280
300

Min 180 Kg/cm
2

Min 270 Kg/cm
2

Table (3-b) Properties of the used C-water cement.

Mechanical properties Test
results
E.S.S limits
Specific surface cm
2
/gr. 4239 Min 2800
-1074-

MAT-006-5
At 3 days Kg/cm
2

At 7 days Kg/cm
2

329
390

Min 180 Kg/cm
2

Min 270 Kg/cm
2

After that, the top surfaces of the cubes were finished and leveled with a
metal trowel, and then the specimens were kept in the laboratory and covered by
plastic sheets for 24 hours to prevent rapid moisture evaporation and plastic
shrinkage. All the concrete specimens were cast and compacted according to the
Egyptian Standard Specifications (ESS). Cubes were demoulded after 24 hours,
and then, cured in four different conditions until the testing time as follows; the
first group is submerged in a container full of tap water, the second one is
submerged in a solution of 5% calcium chloride concentration, the third one is
submerged in a solution of 5% magnesium sulfate concentration and the last one
is submerged in other full of a solution contains 5% calcium chloride + 5%
magnesium sulfate. All specimens were dried for 24 hours before testing. The
compressive strength test was carried out on the specimens at the ages of 7, 28, 59,
90 and 180 days.

TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The compressive strength results obtained from testing the concrete cubes
of group (1) which made of O.P.C content = 250 Kg/m
3
and cured in the four
mentioned curing regimes (H
2
O, 5 % CaCl
2
, 5 % MgSO
4
and 5% NaCl + 5%
MgSO
4
) for the different periods of time are recorded in table (4) and plotted in
fig. (1).

Table (4) Compressive strength values of concrete made of O.P.C with
cement content = 250 of Kg/m
3
.

Average compressive strength (Kg/cm
2
).
Curing
conditions
Time (days)
H
2
O CaCl
2
MgSO
4
NaCl+MgSO
4

7 200 205 176 155
28 270 238 200 186
59 275 243 223 210
90 278 250 235 230
180 285 255 208 210

-1075-
MAT-006-6
150
200
250
300
0 50 100 150 200
H
2
O
CaCl
2
MgSO
4
NaCl+MgSO
4
Time (Days)

Fig. (1) Relationship between compressive strength and period of curing
for cubes made of O.P.C with cement content = 250 Kg/m
3.

Table (4) and figure (1) indicated generally that, the compressive strength
of concrete cubes increased with increasing time regardless of curing solution up
to 90 days beyond that, the compressive strength at 180 days was decreased with
specimens cured in the solution of 5 % MgSO
4
and the mixture of 5% NaCl + 5%
MgSO
4.
This reduction can be attributed to the sulfate attack which comes from
the curing solutions.
In general, the highest values of compressive strength were obtained from
concrete mix cured in water (control mixes) except for the first few days, the mix
cured in calcium chloride solution produced slightly higher strength than other
mixes (up to 7 days) meanwhile, the lowest values were resulted with mixes cured
in the solution of sodium chloride and magnesium sulfate at all ages of curing.
The percentage decrease in compressive strength of this group was
calculated with respect to time and recorded in table (5) as well as illustrated in
figure (2). The percentage decrease in strength due to curing specimens in calcium
chloride was found to be about 10 % regardless of the ages of curing conditions.
This decrease in strength attributed to the effect of the two transport mechanisms
for the penetration of chlorides, diffusion of chlorides and transport of chloride
ion combined with water. The diffusion resistance of concrete to chlorides is
important as it governs the rate of penetration of chloride ions [8].
Submerging concrete cubes in sulphatic solutions causes a higher
reduction in strength ranging from 15 30 %. This strength reduction occurred
as a result of the deterioration of concrete due to the penetration of magnesium
sulfate into the concrete samples [8] because sulfate attack is a complex process
involving two mechanisms: ettringite and gypsum formation. Expansion and
cracking are associated with ettringite formation. Strength loss is associated with
gypsum formation [5,11].

Table (5) The percentage increase in strength against time for mixes cured at
-1076-

MAT-006-7
different curing conditions.

% Increase in strength Time (days)
Curing conditions
7 28 59 90 180
Remarks
CaCl
2
+2.50 -11.9 -11.6 -10.1 -10.5
MgSO
4
-12.0 -25.9 -18.9 -15.5 -27.0
NaCl+MgSO
4
-22.5 -31.1 -23.6 -17.3 -26.3
C=250
Kg/m
3
(O.P.C)
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
0 50 100 150 200
CaCl
2
MgSO
4
NaCl+MgSO
4
Time (Days)

Fig. (2) Relationship between % increase in strength and period of curin
for cubes made of O.P.C with cement content = 350 Kg/m
3
.

Similar concrete mix was used to fabricate the cubes of group (2) expect of
using cement content equals to 350 Kg/m
3
instead of 250 Kg/m
3.
Table (6) as well
as figure (3) give the relationship between F
c
( Kg/cm
2
) and time (days) for cubes
cured in the same four solutions for periods of 7, 28, 59, 90 and 180 days. Similar
trends for the compressive strength against time were observed

Table (6) Compressive strength values of concrete made of O.P.C with
cement content = 350 of Kg/m
3
.

2
).
Curing conditions
Time (days)
H
2
O CaCl
2
MgSO
4
NaCl+MgSO
4

7 240 243 226 200
28 330 310 293 283
59 335 320 305 300
90 343 325 321 315
180 350 333 305 302
-1077-
MAT-006-8
150
200
250
300
350
400
0 50 100 150 200
H
2
O
CaCl
2
MgSO
4
NaCl+MgSO
4
Time (Days)

for tested cubes made of O.P.C with cement content 350 Kg/m
3
.

The % decrease in strength of concrete cubes of group (2) due to curing
them in the same chemical solutions are given in table (7) and shown in figure (4).
The losses in strength due to curing specimens in calcium chloride was found to
be about 5% meanwhile, it was about 15 % with specimens cured in magnesium
sulfate solution. However, the condition of curing them in sodium chloride +
magnesium sulfate the recorded percentage decrease in strength was about 10%
to 15 %. Therefore, it can be concluded that, increasing cement content from, 250
to 350 Kg/m
3
improve the compressive strength by about 50% regardless of the
curing regimes which logically leads to enhance the mechanical properties of
concrete performance as well as the resistance to chemical attack..

different conditions.

Curing conditions 7 28 59 90 180
Remarks
CaCl
2
+1.30 -6.10 -4.50 -5.20 -4.90
MgSO
4
-5.80 -11.2 -9.00 -6.40 -12.90
NaCl+MgSO
4
-16.7 -14.2 -10.4 -8.20 -13.70
C=350
Kg/m
3
(O.P.C)
-1078-

MAT-006-9
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
0 50 100 150 200
CaCl
2
MgSO
4
NaCl+MgSO
4
Time (Days)

Fig. (4) Relationship between % increase in strength and period of curing
for tested cubes made of O.P.C. with cement content = 350 Kg/m
3
.

The effect of using C-water cement in concrete mixes instead of ordinary
portland cement to enhance the resistance against chemical attack comes from
submerging samples in the curing solutions is identified in the following section;

The compressive strength results obtained from the plain concrete mixes
made of C-water cement equals to 250 Kg/m
3
and cured in the same three
different chemical solutions along with water curing are indicated in table (8) and
plotted in figure (5).

In general, the highest values of compressive strength were obtained from
control concrete mixes ( cured in water ) meanwhile, the lowest strengths were
resulted from those mixes cured in the mixture of NaCl+MgSO
4
.

Table (8) Compressive strength values of concrete made of C-water with
cement content = 250 Kg/m
3
.

2
).
Curing conditions
Time (days)
H
2
O CaCl
2
MgSO
4
NaCl+MgSO
4

7 190 196 182 178
28 255 241 220 215
59 265 245 230 221
90 268 250 235 231
180 270 246 215 220

-1079-
MAT-006-10
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
0 50 100 150 200
H
2
O
CaCl
2
MgSO
4
NaCl+MgSO
4
Time (Days)

for cubes made of C-water cement with C = 250 Kg/m
3
.

Test results emphasized the fact that increasing the compressive strength
with time particularly, with those mixes cured in water. Other concrete mixes
cured in the chemical solutions were resulted a noticeable decrease in strength
after 90 days and up to 180 days. The % decrease in strength of those concrete
mixes are given in table (9) and shown in figure (6).


% Increase in strength Time
(days)
Curing conditions
7 28 59 90 180
Remarks
CaCl
2
+3.15 -5.50 -7.50 -6.70 -8.80
MgSO
4
-4.20 -13.7 -13.2 -12.3 -20.4
NaCl+MgSO
4
-6.30 -15.7 -16.6 -13.8 -18.5
C=250
Kg/m
3
(C-water)

-1080-

MAT-006-11
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
0 50 100 150 200
CaCl
2
MgSO
4
NaCL+MgSO
4
Time (Days)

Fig. (6) Relationship between % increase in strength and period of curing
for tested cubes made of C-water with cement content 250 Kg/m
3
.

It can be concluded that, the rate of decresing the compressive strength of
concrete cubes of group (3) cured in the different chimical solutions is found to be
highly increased at 180 days. The percentage decrease in strength of those mixes
cured in sulphatic solutions is about 20 %.
Table (10) and figure (7) comprises the test results obtained from concrete
mixes of group (4) which they have been fabricated by using C-water cement with
cement content = 350 Kg/cm
3
and cured in the same chemical solutions. Table (11)
as well as figure (8) also show the percentage decrease in compressive strength for
those mixes.

Table (10) Compressive strength values of concrete made of C-water cement with
cement content = 350 Kg/m
3
.
2
).
Curing conditions
Time (days)
H
2
O CaCl
2
MgSO
4
NaCl+MgSO
4

7 240 246 220 196
28 325 305 300 295
59 336 320 315 310
90 350 330 310 317
180 354 326 282 295

-1081-
MAT-006-12
150
200
250
300
350
400
0 50 100 150 200
H
2
O
CaCl
2
MgSO
4
NaCl+MgSO
4
Time (Days)

for cubes made of C-water cement with C = 350 of Kg/m
3
.


Curing conditions 7 28 59 90 180
Remarks
CaCl
2
+2.50 -6.20 -4.80 -6.10 -7.90
MgSO
4
-8.30 -8.30 -6.30 -11.40 -20.0
NaCl+MgSO
4
-18.3 -9.20 -7.70 -9.40 -16.7
C=350
Kg/m
3
(C-water)

-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
0 50 100 150 200
CaCl
2
MgSO
4
NaCl+MgSO
4
Time (Days)

Fig(8) Relationship between % increase in strength and period of
curing for tested cubes made of C-water with C = 350 Kg/m
3
.
-1082-

MAT-006-13
Similar trends and results have been observed with those concrete mixes
made of C-water cement content = 350Kg/m
3
when compared with those mixes
made of 250 Kg/m
3
. It is of importance to mention that, the percentage decrease in
strength has not been influenced by the C-water cement content.

To identify the effect of using C-water cement instead of O.P.C in concrete
mixes exposed to different curing conditions, the relationships between the
compressive strength of concrete cubes (F
c28
) mad of the two used types of cement
with cement contents equal to 250 and 350 Kg/m
3
and cured in the different
chemical solutions are plotted in figures (9 and 10) respectively.

It can be generally reported that, using C-water cement in concrete mixes
enhanced the resistance of concrete against the chemical attack when compared
with identical mixes made of O.P.C. Hhowever, figure (10) emphasized that using
a relatively high amount of O.P.C content (350 Kg/m
3
) improved the compressive
strength of the concrete mixes when exposed to the sever chemical attack e.g.,
improved the resistance of concrete against sulphate attack.

Fig. (9) Relationship between the compressive strength of concrete (F
c28
) and
curing
conditons for concrete mixs made of C = 250 Kg/m
3
.

-1083-
MAT-006-14

c28
) and
curing
3
.

The effect of submerging concrete mixes in the chemical solutions for a
relatively long time (180 days) is illustrated in figures (11 and 12).

c180
) and
curing
-1084-

MAT-006-15
3
.

c180
) and
curing
3
.

It can be generally concluded that, increasing O.P.C content from 250 to
350 Kg/m
3
in concrete mixes resulted a significant increase in the compressive
strength when compared with C-water cement mixes.

The average values of density, obtained from weighing the concrete cubes
after 28 and 180 days, are shown in tables (12 and 13) respectively. These values
were determined after taking them off the curing solutions and leaving them to be
dried.

Table (12) The average density values of different concrete mixes cured in
different
curing conditions (at age of 28 days).

Average density t/m
3

Cement content = 250 Kg/m
3
3

Curing
conditions
O.P.C C-Water O.P.C C-Water
H
2
O 2.175 2.19 2.23 2.21
CaCl
2
2.183 2.2 2.23 2.227
MgSO
4
2.183 2.2 2.218 2.244
NaCl+MgSO
4
2.19 2.183 2.21 2.21

-1085-
MAT-006-16

Table (13) The average density values of different concrete mixes cured in
different
curing conditions (at age of 180 days).

Average density t/m
3

3
3

Curing
conditions
O.P.C C-Water O.P.C C-Water
H
2
O 2.21 2.194 2.24 2.22
CaCl
2
2.183 2.2 2.234 2.227
MgSO
4
2.192 2.192 2.22 2.218
NaCl+MgSO
4
2.175 2.187 2.20 2.21

The average values of density are about 2.2 t/m
3
regardless of curing
conditions or the type of cement. Only a slight decrease of about 2% in density
was noticed with cubes made of O.P.C and cured in (5% Sodium chloride + 5%
Magnesium sulfate) solutions. This slight decrease in density attributed to the
effect of sulfate attack for the short period of curing time.

It has been reported in the literature that [12], concrete quality is the most
important issue in sulfate attack. The negative effects of environment, sulfate
concentration, and composition are most noticeable in concrete of lower quality.
High-quality concrete-- concrete that has been properly designed and cured to
reach high density will not suffer from sulfate attack which agrees with the
previous density results in this research.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the present study, the following conclusions, with respect to the effect of
cement type and content on the resistance of concrete against chemical attack,
are drawn ;

a. The highest values of compressive strength were obtained from
concrete mixes cured in water (control mixes) meanwhile, the
lowest values were recorded for mixes cured in the sulphatic
solutions. The sever condition of chemical attack occurred when
the O.P.C concrete specimens cured in the solution of sodium
chloride and magnesium sulphate. The percentage decrease in
compressive strength was found to be about 10 to 15 %.
-1086-

MAT-006-17

b. Concrete specimens made of O.P.C content=250 Kg/m
3
and cured
in calcium chloride solution generally resulted about 10 %
reduction in compressive strength meanwhile, the reduction was
reduced to 5 % in concrete mixes made with C=350 Kg/m
3
.

c. Using a relatively high amount of O.P.C content (350 Kg/m
3
) in
concrete mixes improves both the compressive strength of concrete
and its resistance against chemical attack. Increasing cement
content from, 250 to 350 Kg/m
3
generally increases the
compressive strength by about 50%.

d. The rate of decresing the compressive strengthof concrete mixes
cured in the different chimical solutions is found to be highly
increased with time. The percentage decrease in strength at the
age of 180 days is about 20 %.

e. Using C-water cement in concrete mixes generally enhanced the
resistance of concrete against the chemical attack when compared
with identical mixes made of O.P.C.

f. A slight decrease of about 2% in density was noticed with cubes
made of O.P.C. and cured in ( 5% Sodium chloride + 5%
Magnesium sulfate ) solutions. This slight decrease in density may
be attributed to either the effect of sulfate attack or the short
period of curing them in chemical solutions.

REFERENCES

1. O. S. B. Al-Amoudi, Rasheeduzzafar , M. Maslehuddin, and S. N. Abdul-
jauwad, "Influnce of chloride ions on sulphate deterioration in plain
concrete and blended cements", Magazine of Concrete Research, 46 (167),
1994, pp. 113-123.
2. A. M. Neville and J. J. Brooks, "Concrete technology", Longman
Scientific and Technical, England 1994.
3. P. Sandberg, L. Tang, and A. Andersen, "Recurrent studies of chloride
ingress in uncracked marine concrete at various exposure times and
elevations", Cement and Concrete Research, 28 (10), 1998, pp. 1489-1503.
4. Haynes, H., O' Neil, R. and Mehta, P. K., "Concrete deterioration from
physical attack by salts", Concerete International, 18 (1), 1996, pp. 63-68.
5. Mehta, P. K., "Mechanism of sulfate attack on portland cement concrete
anthor look", Cement and Concrete Research, 13 (3), 1983, 401-406.
6. g, J. L., "Role of permeability in sulphate attack", Cement and Concrete
Research, 27 (8), 1997, pp. 1179-1189.
-1087-
MAT-006-18
7. Sunil Kumar, "Influence of water quilty on the strength of plain and
blended cement concrete in marine environments", Cement and Concrete
Research, 30, 2000, pp. 345-350.
8. K. Hong, and R. D. Hooton, "Effect of cyclic chloride exposure on
penetration of concrete cover", Cement and Concerte Research, 29, 1999,
pp. 1379-1386.
9. Andrew J. B. and Sidney M., "The use of tension testing to investigate the
effect of w/c ratio and cement type on the resistance of concrete to sulfate
attack", Cement and Concrete Research, 34 2004 pp. 373- 377.
10. Al-Amoudi, O. S. B., "Attack on plain and blended cements exposed to
aggressive sulphate environments, " Cement and Concrete Composite, 24,
2002, pp. 305-316.
11. Gollop, R.S. & Taylor, H.F.W, "Microstructural and microanalytical
studies of sulfate attack: 1- Ordinary portland cement paste", Cement and
Concrete Research, 22(6), 1992, pp. 1027-1038.
12. J. Prasad, D.K. Jain and A.K. Ahuja, " Factors influencing the sulphate
resistance of cement concrete and mortar ", Asian Journal of Civil
Engineering (building and housing) Vol. 7, No. 3 (2006), pp. 259-268.

-1088-

MAT-008-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt




THIRTEEN YEARS EXPLORATION OF MECHANICAL PROPERTIES IN
HSC UTILIZING DESTRUCTIVE AND NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS

Dr. Mohamed M. Yousry El Shikh
Associated Prof., Structural Eng. Dept., Faculty of Eng., El-Mansoura
University, El-Mansoura, EGYPT.
E- Mail Mohamed_elshikh@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT
The use of High Strength Concrete (HSC) in the construction industry has steadily increased
over the past years, which leads to the design of smaller sections. This in turn reduces the dead
weight, allowing longer spans and more usable area of buildings. Knowledge of the evaluation
of the existing structures that constructed from high strength concrete is vital to the application
of these materials in practice. In fact, both pulse velocity and Schmidt hammer are famous in that
respect for the structure constructed from normal concrete. Moreover, HSC mechanical
properties, utilizing destructive and Non destructive tests, have been reported in several previous
researches but during short term, not more than one year maximum. In addition, the previous
researches demonstrate that the chemical (Super plasticizer) and mineral (silica fume)
admixtures of HSC may lead to positive effect on HSC mechanical properties during short term
investigation but these materials may lead to expected negative effect during long term
particularly at 13 years.

Therefore, this paper is concerning to investigate this mater during 13 years as long term.
However, an experimental and analytical program were planned to investigate the compressive
strength, modulus of elasticity, toughness modulus, proof stress and mode of failure of standard
HSC specimens and realistic three beams constructed and casted using different categories of
high strength concrete mixes. In addition, destructive and non destructive tests were considered.
Contributed recommendations and new formulas and curves were established to utilise both the
available Schmidt hammer and pulse velocity as a predictor of compressive strength of high
strength concrete members in realistic cases considering 13 years long term.

KEYWORDS
13 years long term, High Strength Concrete, Pulse Velocity, Schmidt hammer, Compressive
Strength, Modulus of elasticity, Toughness modulus, HSC Beams, Core test.

1. INTRODUCTION
The safety and serviceability of the structure can not be realised without a comprehensive
knowledge of the materials fundamental properties that determine its mechanical properties.
The most important of those are the compressive strength particularly using non destructive
tests.

-1089-

MAT-008-2
Many researches have investigated the compressive strength using pulse velocity as a predictor
of mechanical properties of normal concrete [1-3] (up to 35 MPa). Moreover, other researches
have also studied the mechanical properties particularly compressive strength of high strength
concrete under cyclic loading (up to 150 MPa)[4]. In an earlier study, Yousry El-shikh et al.
have reported the effect of the constituents of VHSC on its fire resistance and how to protect
structures utilizing HSC, and mechanical properties with cube compressive strength up to 150
MPa[5]. It is important to notify that all these investigations reported the results during short
term one year only as maximum concrete age.

Aitcin [6] presented results on seven field normal concretes exposed for periods ranging from 4
to 6 years. Carette et al.[7] reported compressive strength results for a period up to 2 years. Non-
silicafume concretes exhibited an ascending compressive strength during the tested period
while the silica-fume concretes exhibited a plateau or a small decrease in the compressive
strength after one year. Long-term investigations on the effects of natural environmental
conditions of the Middle East on concrete properties, in particular the compressive strength is
rare. However, a long-term investigation (up to 1300 days) was reported by Fattuhi NI[8]
earlier.

Seong-Tae Yi, and et al.., also described a new strength time temperature prediction equation,
which utilizes curing temperatures to improve the accuracy of estimates of long-term
strength[9]. Bertil Persson[10], investigated the effect of high performance concrete (HPC)
constituents on its properties particularly shrinkage at long age during eight years. He also
explained the main effect of silica fume on HPC shrinkage at long age. Husain Al-khaiat, and
Nijad Fattuhi[11], reported a long-term investigation into the development of the compressive
strength of various, subjected to Kuwait hot and arid environmental conditions.

Meanwhile, a little information have been reported concerning compressive strength, modulus
of elasticity, toughness modulus, proof stress of high strength concrete structural members
definitely, beams utilising both Schmidt hammer and pulse velocity particularly at 13 years
concrete age. Actually, both the pulse velocity and rebound hammer have been recommended
by most of the national and international codes such as, Egyptian, British and American, in
concrete structural members assessment.

Therefore, in this paper, the experimental results have been used to study the evaluation of HSC
mechanical properties of realistic members particularly, beams categories with different ages till
13 years, utilising both rebound hammer and the pulse velocity apparatus in order to achieve the
optimum guide line to correlate the results with the destructive testes results.

2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Twelve different concrete mixes were used to represent the trial mixes which represent the base
of three selective HSC mixes. These selective HSC mixes match the strength of 60, 70 and 80
MPa respectively and also represent high performance concrete however, their slump ranged
from 150mm to 220mm as shown in table (1). Three structural members of beams (250 mm
width x 600 mm depth x 3000 mm length) from HSC selective mixes {(B1, 60), (B2, 80), (B3,
70)}were used to be evaluated utilising both rebound hammer and pulse velocity apparatus
during concrete age up to 13 years as long term. Twenty fixed points on each beam have been
tested accurately to investigate and define the critical points which give the minimum values of
compressive strength during the 13 years long term (See Fig. 1).

-1090-

MAT-008-3
150 cm 150 cm
20 35cm 35cm 35cm 35cm

6 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 upper points
16 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10 upper mid points 60 cm
16 +11 +12 +13 +14 +15 lower mid points
16 +16 +17 +18 +19 +20 lower points
5

Fig. (1) Tested beam diagram and tested points

Nine core samples with (94 mm diameter x 152 mm length) have been taken horizontally from
the critical points to be investigated under compression, to indicate the correlation between the
actual results and the core test results (See Fig. 2).

Fig. (2) Core specimen and position technique Fig. (3) Stress strain test technique

Moreover, Comparison between these values and the other that calculated from code
modification has been considered. In addition, stress- strain relationships, Modulus of elasticity,
proof stress, mode of failure, and Toughness modulus have been established utilizing
compression test on core samples (See Fig. 3).

All tests (destructive and non-destructive) were performed at different HSC ages, definitely, 28,
one year, 5 years, 10 years and 13 years respectively. Proportions, fresh concrete properties of
all mixes are given in details shown in Table (1). It was noted that the effect of super plasticizer
on HSC mixes slump values and degree of workability was vital. The following results
demonstrate that there is no negative effect of super plasticizer Type G on strength particularly
at 13 years long age.

Table 1: Composition of high strength concrete trial and selective mixtures,
fresh concrete properties and 7, 28 days cube compressive strength.
C Ms/C PZ / C S nms Slump fc7 fc28
Mix No.
kg/m
3
%
W/(C+Ms)
PZ
Type
% kg/m
3

G/(S+G)
mm mm MPa MPa
Selective
Mix
M1 400 5 0.25 Type G 2 650 0.65 19 10 49 65 No
-1091-

MAT-008-4
M2 400 10 0.25 Type G 2 650 0.65 19 10 54 67 No
M3 400 12 0.25 Type G 3 650 0.65 19 30 68 72 No
M4 400 15 0.25 Type G 3 650 0.65 19 20 65 68 No
M5 450 5 0.25 Type G 3 650 0.65 19 220 53 60 Yes
M6 450 10 0.25 Type G 3 650 0.65 19 100 53 58 No
M7 450 12 0.25 Type G 3 650 0.65 19 25 63 71 No
M8 450 15 0.25 Type G 3 650 0.65 19 10 64 77 No
M9 500 10 0.25 Type G 3 600 0.65 19 150 53 80 Yes
M10 500 12 0.25 Type G 3 600 0.65 19 110 59 77 No
M11 500 15 0.25 Type G 3 600 0.65 19 55 56 70 No
M12 500 20 0.25 Type G 3 650 0.62 19 150 58 70 Yes
C = Cement Ms = Silica fume PZ = Super plasticizer S = Sand G =gravel nms = Nominal
Maximum Size fc7, 28 = 7, 28 days cube compressive strength.

3. MATERIALS
Type I ordinary Portland cement and natural sand with high fineness modulus of 2.65 and
specific gravity of 2.85 were used. Coarse aggregate (natural gravel) with maximum sizes of 19
mm, a crushing strength of 3%, and a specific gravity of 2.58 and an impact value of 2% was
used. Powder silica fume with SiO
2
of 92 %, specific gravity of 2.2 and specific surface area of
16.8 m
2
/g was used. High Range Water Reducers (HRWR) super plasticizers with trade name
(Conplast 430 Type G) with specific gravity of 1.18 was used to improve both fresh and
hardened concrete properties. In fact, this super plasticiser is based on modified polymeric lingo
sulphonates and complied with BS 5075 Part 3 and ASTM C 494.

4. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
All concrete technology for preparing specimens such as mixing, casting and compaction have
been carried out according to British Standard BS 1881: Parts 108, 109 and 110: 1983
respectively. Also, fresh concrete: slump test has been carried out according to British Standard
BS 1881: Part 102:1983.

Concerning the curing regime, normal curing was used. However, the specimens were
submerged in tanks containing clean water (205
o
C), which was replaced once a week
according to British specification BS 1881: Part 111: 1983 for the first 28 days. After that, the
second step commenced when the specimens are moved into an open place and exposed to
atmospheric conditions of Mansoura natural weather (In winter 155
o
C and RH of 755 %
but in Summer 355
o
C and RH of 455 %) for period 28 days and up to 13 years till the
testing time. Hence, the specimens were subjected to sun radiations, higher and more fluctuating
temperatures, and some possibly air pollutants.

Destructive tests were carried out on 100x100x100 mm cubes, according to the British Standard
BS 1881: Part 116:1983 and BS 1881: Part 121:1983. Non-destructive tests were carried out
using pulse velocity apparatus according to British Standard BS 1881: Part 203 : 1986. In fact,
the direct transmission has been used in carrying out the non-destructive on cubes. On the other
hand, using type N rebound hammer with horizontal position ( = 0.0, and its impact energy =
2.207 N.m) according to British Standard BS 1881: Part 205: 1986. Also, core tests results with
modifications according to British Standard BS 1881: Part 121:1983.

5. DISCUSSION ON RESULTS
The important and vital results are displayed in figures 4 to 18. Each value of the results is the
average of three destructive tested specimens and the pulse velocity of non - destructive tested
-1092-

MAT-008-5
points. On the other hand, the average of 15 rebound No. of each test have to be taken into
consideration. It is important to note that the results of this investigation are applicable to the
materials and types of structural members used.

5.1 High Strength Concrete - Pulse velocity Relationship
The correlation curves that indicate the pulse velocity and cube compressive of high strength
concrete have been shown in figure (4).

This figure demonstrates that the available pulse velocity apparatus with the established new
curves are absolutely reliable in HSC applications with some extrapolation particularly over 10
years age of HSC, however, the difference between these curves are getting smaller with the
HSC age over one year as shown in Fig. (4). Hence the established curves for long age are
essentially required in application.

Theoretically, there is a direct relationship between the compressive strength and pulse velocity.
However, the results shown in figure (4) demonstrate experimentally that this relationship is still
valid. Also, figure (4) presents very good trends to these relationships with different ages up to
13 years long age. From figure (4) the relationships between the cube compressive strength and
pulse velocity at any age (up to 13 years) can be established using best fitting exponential
curves and the formulas as follows:

c

13 year
= 1.182e
0.8464V,13years
MPa (1)

c

10 year
= 1.2075 e
0.8398V,10years
MPa (2)

c

5year
= 1.5734 e
0.7823V ,5years
MPa (3)

c

1 year
= 0.3772 e
1.0551V,1year
MPa (4)

c28
= 0.2211 e
1.1372 V,28days
MPa (5)

where:
f
c28
, f
c 1year,
f
c 5 years
, f
c 10 years,
f
c 13 years
= cube compressive strength after 28, 1 year, 5
years, 10 years , and 13 years by (MPa) respectively
V
,28 days
, V
1 year
, V
5 years,
V
10 years,
V
13 years
= pulse velocity after 28, 1 year, 5 years, 10
years , and 13 years in (km/sec) respectively
f
c
ranges from 50-80 MPa
-1093-

MAT-008-6
In fact, these results leads to the conclusion that the available pulse velocity apparatus is still
reliable in evaluating cube compressive strength of HSC with compressive strength range (50 -
80 MPa) during 13 years HSC age considering the established curves shown in Fig. (4).

5.2 High Strength Concrete - Rebound Numbers Relationship
The correlation curves that indicate the rebound number and cube compressive of high strength
concrete have been shown in figure (5).

The available curves that used for Normal Strength Concrete NSC (f
c
< 35 MPa ) have been also
displayed in the same figure (5) for comparison. These figures demonstrate that the available
rebound hammer with the available curves are not absolutely reliable in HSC applications
however, the difference between these curves and the established curves are clearly big
especially at 13 years long HSC age.

Moreover, the results displayed in figure (5) demonstrate that there is direct relationships
between the hammer rebound Number and HSC compressive strength, but the age effect is vital.
However, the cube compressive strength corresponding to a certain rebound number (45) at
HSC different ages definitely, (28 days, 1 year, 5 years, 10 years, and 13 years) are (68, 72, 80,
85, 90 MPa) respectively. Also, the cube compressive strength value corresponding the same
rebound number (45) utilizing the available original curves (at any age till 56 days) may be does
not higher than (48 MPa). This mean that, utilizing the available and original existing curves
and relations to estimate the compressive strength of HSC at different ages till 13 years may
lead to a significant negative error of about (30-47%) compared with the actual strength.

As a result, the established new best fitting exponential curves and corresponding relationships
(shown in Fig 5) to estimate HSC cube compressive strength at different ages till 13 years are
important, valuable and recommended. These formulas may be summarized as follows:-
c 13 year = 35.779e
0.0203N,13years
MPa (6)
c 10 year = 31.74e
0.0219N,10years
MPa (7)
c 5year = 31.675e
0.0204N,5years
MPa (8)
c 1 year = 21.727e
0.0266N,1year
MPa (9)
c28 = 22.411e
0.0245 N,28days
MPa (10)

Where:
f
c28
, f
c 1year,
f
c 5 years
, f
c 10 years,
f
c 13 years
= cube compressive strength after 28, 1 year, 5
years, 10 years , and 13 years by (MPa) respectively
-1094-

MAT-008-7
N
,28 days
, N
1 year
, N
5 years,
N
10 years,
N
13 years
= Hammer rebound number after 28, 1 year, 5
years, 10 years , and 13 years respectively
f
c
ranges from 50-80 MPa

5.3 Beam Compressive Strength
Concerning the HSC beams structural members response to the rebound hammer, figures (6 and
11) show the results of the equivalent cube compressive strength of these members that
represent (B1 for M5, 60 and B2 for M9, 80) at the target point (1-20).

Generally, the results shown in these figures indicate that the compressive strength of all points
increased as the age increased till 13 years of HSC. In additions, the results indicate that, as the
tested point is coming near the beam centre (points 4, 9, 14, 19) as the strength decreased
compared with the outer points in the same level. Also, these figures indicate that, the critical
points always laid at the lower chord of the tested beams such point (19) which gives the
minimum value of the equivalent cube compressive strength (62 MPa, 78 MPa) at 28 days and
13 years respectively for beams B1 and B2. In addition, the bottom layer of the HSC beam
could be found to be the part that produces the minimum values of the equivalent cube
-1095-

MAT-008-8
compressive strength as shown in figures (10 and 15) either at 28 days or at 13 years HSC age.
Finally, the actual compressive strength of critical points in HSC beams were getting lower by
about (10-25%) compared with the equivalent cube compressive strength of HSC mixes.

5.4 Concrete Age - Compressive Strength Relationship
Theoretically, the sun radiation, and higher and more fluctuating atmospheric temperatures, can
affect the concrete in two ways. Aggregate and cement paste have different coefficients of
thermal expansion, and the contraction and expansion process that the concrete is subjected to
can lead to micro-cracking at aggregate-cement paste interface, consequently resulting in lower
compressive strength. Also, higher temperatures lead to quicker evaporation of free water from
hardened concrete, resulting in desiccation (i. e.. stoppage of hydration process).However,
higher temperatures can also lead to higher rates of reaction (hydration) provided that there is
enough moisture in the concrete, hence, higher strength. Carbonation can also lead to an
increase in the compressive strength of concrete.

The compressive strength test results for the various concrete mixes (M1 to M12) are shown in
Figs. (12 to 15). The results generally showed that there was a contentious increase in strength
with time for concrete HSC mixes during 13 years long age definitely, 28, 1 year, 5 years, 10
years, and 13.

It is also indicated that there is a direct relationship between the concrete age and this property
however; the rate of increase is very little compared with the rate of increase during the first 28
days as shown in Fig. (12).

Figures (12, 13 and 14) display the comparison of the effect of silica fume percentage (5, 10, 12,
15, and 20 % as additives of cement) on the compressive strength. An obvious increase is seen
in compressive strength due to the increase of silica fume percent up to 20 % particularly at long
age of 13 years of HSC. However, the compressive strength of mix M12 (C=500, Ms=20%) at
13 years age is higher by about (57 %) than that of 28 days cube compressive strength. This is
because silica fume is very effective pozzolan with the extreme fineness and high silica content.
Also, several mixes exhibited increase in their compressive strengths of more than 40%.
Concrete mix M1 exhibited the lowest gain in strength while concrete mix M12 had the highest
-1096-

MAT-008-9
gain in strength. However, for mix M1 there was almost insignificant increase in the
compressive strength. It can be seen clearly that 10% from silica fume as additives to HSC
mixes may lead to high strength at concrete ages up to 28 days and also give reliable strength at
late ages till 13 years. But an insignificant effect of utilizing 5% of silica fume (M1, M5) on
compressive strength of HSC ether on short or long ages till 13 years. However, the
compressive strength of these mixes at 13 years may lead to an increase of about (5-15%) only
compared with short term strength. Comparing concrete mixes (M2, M6), showed that by
increasing the cement content from 400 to 450 kg/m
3
little advantage in the compressive
strength was gained. The maximum change in strength was about (10 - 25%) for concrete mixes
(M2, M6). As the cement content increased to 500 kg/m
3
with different ratios (10-20%) silica
fume may lead to the maximum increase of compressive strength during 13 years long age (See
the results of M9 to M12).

On the other hand, the best fitting logarithmic curves have been constructed in the results shown
in figure (15) to estimate the cube compressive strength of HSC mixes at any age till 13 years
long age. Hence, the quick estimation formulas are as follows:

For 28 days strength level up to 60 MPa (C=450 +silica fume 5%)
c (MPa) = 2.0544 ln (T, years) + 65.95 (11)
For 28 days strength level up to 70 MPa (C=500 + silica fume 20%)
c (MPa) = 7.7253 ln (T, years) + 89.933 (12)
For 28 days strength level up to 80 MPa (C=500 + silica fume 10%)
c (MPa) = 3.6299 ln (T, years) + 88.439 (13)
Where:
c = cube compressive strength in MPa
T = high strength structural concrete age till 13 years

5.5 Core Test and Correlation
Figure (16) shows the correlation factors of core test results. The results shown in Fig (16)
demonstrate that the code modification of core test to estimate the equivalent cube compressive
strength particularly at 13 years long age is not correct. It can easily seen from this figure that
the equivalent cube compressive strength using code modifications are getting lower by about
(15-20%) than that of the actual cube compressive strength of HSC at 13 years long age.

The following formulas can be used to calculate the equivalent cube compressive strength
compared with the code modification.

-1097-

MAT-008-10
Using new charts
Equivalent Cube c, 13 years (MPa) = 1.8042 (CCS, MPa) - 3.2678 (14)
Using code modification
Equivalent Cube c, 13 years = 1.5456(CCS) (Code modification) (15)

5.6 Stress Strain Relationships
The stress-strain relationship under compression is of great importance for both elastic and
ultimate design methods. Generally, normal strength and some high strength concretes (HSC) up
to 100 MPa have been investigated under short term condition. Most recent research has
produced HSC using silica fume, fly ash, steel fibres, super-plasticizer, and some type of strong
aggregates such as granite to achieve high compressive strength. In fact, high strength concrete
requires the use of at least one of these materials. To the best of the authors knowledge there is
still little information to be found in the published literature about the effect of these materials-
silica fume, super plasticizer, and long age up to 13 years on the stress-strain characteristics of
HSC. Because of this, attempts are made in this research to study the effect of these materials on
strength, elastic modulus, toughness modulus, and proof stress on HSC with cube compressive
strength up to 110 MPa under compression. The tests result presented in Fig. (17) Indicate that
some of the materials have a positive influence on the strength and modulus of elasticity,
especially silica fume, but have a significant negative influence on the toughness modulus,
particularly in the long term.

The elastic modulus, toughness modulus, and the proof stress are the main values that represent
stress-strain characteristics. Therefore, this research explains the effect of the limits mentioned
above on these characteristics in details.

The same steps to determine the stress - strain characteristic were followed except the load was
released when it reached 25% of the ultimate load. The load was released gradually at the same
rate until it returned to zero. While the load was being released, the strain values were again
recorded. After, 3 loading cycles, the tests were performed till 90% of maximum strength and
then stopped because of strain apparatus safety.

5.6.1 Modulus of elasticity (E
c
)
Modulus of elasticity (Ec) is very important in design. Tests were carried out on core specimen
94 x 152 mm cylinder concrete specimens to determine Ec. The main results have already been
used in figure (18) to establish relationships between cube and modulus of elasticity.

Fig. (19) Mode of failure of cores test specimen
Note that for HSC the observed secant modulus becomes nearly equal to a tangent modulus so
that the initial slope of the stress-strain curves is used to represent the modulus of elasticity Ec
as shown in figure (17) that shows the stress - strain relationships.
-1098-

MAT-008-11

This show that the increase in modulus of elasticity is most significant for 20% silica fume
content at 13 years late ages. However, 20% silica fume (M12) gives Ec higher by about 50 %
than Ec of mix M9 (C=450 + Ms=10%) with 10% silica fume at late ages definitely after 13
years. Also, it is indicated that after 13 years, the modulus of elasticity regarding mix M5
(C=400 + Ms=5%) is getting lower by about 25 % compared with the elastic modulus of M9.
This means that, as the cementitious materials particularly silica fume content increase, as the
modulus of elasticity increased during 13 years of HSC. The effects of silica fume on both
compressive strength and modulus of elasticity are very similar at late ages. This means that
there is a relationship between compressive strength and modulus of elasticity for HSC and it is
of great importance to establish such this relationship and it was as seen in Figure (18).

Ec = 12.941e
0.0189 c, 13 years
(16)

Where:-
Ec = modulus of elasticity of HSC after 13 years I GPa
c, 13 years = cube compressive strength of HSC after 13 years in MPa

A comparison is made here between the results obtained established equation and the formulae
that have already been established before definitely, ACI committee 363[12], FIP/CEB
1990[13], Shah and Shuiab[14].

ACI Committee 363[12]
E
c
= 3320f
c
+ 6900 21< f
c
< 83 MPa (17)

FIP/CEB 1990[13]
E
c
= 9500 f
c
0.3
f
c
< 83 MPa (18)
Shah and Shuaib[14]
E
c
= 1070
2.5
f
c
0.325
0.0 < f
c
< 110 MPa (19)
Where: is the dry unit weight in t/m
3

The results shown in figure (18) demonstrate that the research results are greater by about (35%-
110%) than that of all other stated methods. These variances may be due to the concrete age
effect and also the mixes constituent's varieties.

5.6.2 Toughness modulus (TM
c
)
The area under the stress-strain curve is the toughness modulus which represents the capacity of
concrete per unit volume to absorb energy.

Figure (17) shows that the toughness modulus of mix M5 (C=400, Ms=5%) that contain 5%
silica fume was 10% greater than that of the mix M9 (C=450, Ms=10%). Moreover, the values
of toughness modulus of mix with 20% silica fume (M12, C=500 +Ms=20%) is still lower by
10% compared with the mix M9 especially at ages up to 13 years. This may lead the conclusion
that, as cementitious material with silica fume increased as the toughness modulus decreased
particularly at 13 years long age of HSC.

5.6.3 Proof stress
In general, proof stress may be considered a vital property in structural design procedures
particularly with concrete structures. Therefore, this investigation produces some important
information about HSC proof stress especially at 13 years long age.
-1099-

MAT-008-12

Figure (17) indicate that proof stress of mix M5 (C=400, Ms=5%) is greater by about 10% than
the proof stress of mix M9 (C=450, Ms=10%). Also, the proof stress of mix M9 is greater by
about 15% than that of mix M12 (C=500, Ms=20%). This mean that, the proof stress may be
decreased by about (10-15%) due to the increasing of cementitious material particularly with
high dosage of silica fume of HSC at 13 years long age.

5.6.4 Mode of failure
Normal strength concrete usually behaves in a highly non-homogeneous manner with large
differences in the strength and elastic characteristics of components and has a low coarse
aggregate - mortar tensile bond strength. Consequently, aggregate particles resist the
propagation of cracks causing the formation of numerous incipient failure planes before fracture
occurs. In contrast, for high strength concrete, the behaviour becomes more like that of a
homogeneous material, and a crack growth mechanism is developed passing through both
aggregates and the surrounding mortar. Once a potential failure is initiated, it grows
continuously in an almost flat plane until failure occurs. So the number of potential failure
planes is significantly smaller in high strength concrete as shown in figure (19).

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The experimental work was carried out in the structure laboratory of civil engineering
department of Mansoura University, EGYPT. All the academic and technical staff at the
structural department are gratefully - acknowledged.

7. CONCLUSIONS
The results of experimental work on different HSC mixes and the associated compressive
strength results, utilising destructive and non-destructive tests, have been considered in this
paper. On the sound of the results obtained in this paper, the following conclusions can be
drawn.

1- HSC mixes are reliable during long term effect of 13 years.
2- As the cementitious material increased up to (C=500 + Ms=20%), as the strength increased
during 13 years.
3- 10% to 20% of silica fume with 500 kg/m
3
are enough to increase not only the compressive
strength by range of (25-55%) but also their proof stress and elastic modulus at 13 years age of
HSC mixes. Moreover, these mixes achieved some decrease in toughness modulus at late ages.
4- There is no negative effect of utilizing chemical additives (Type G) on mechanical properties
of HSC during 13 years long age, but the positive effect is clearly noted.
5- Utilising the established correlation curves, both the available pulse velocity and rebound
hammer apparatus are reliable in evaluating compressive strength of high strength concrete
structural realistic members. In addition, Core test must be correlated according the new
formula.
6- The critical point of HSC beam is the point lays in the third middle span from the supporting
edge and at the fifth height from the lower edge of the beam cross section.
7- The actual compressive strength of critical points in HSC beams were getting lower by about
(10-25%) compared with the equivalent cube compressive strength of HSC mixes.
8- Formulas to have quick estimation of the equivalent cube compressive strength; modulus of
elasticity, proof stress and toughness modulus for HSC mixes and members at concrete age up
to 13 years have been established.

-1100-

MAT-008-13
8. REFERENCES
[1] David A. Anderson and Roger K. Seals, Pulse Velocity as a Predictor of 28- and 90- Day
Strength, ACI Journal, March-April, 1981, PP 116-122.
[2] Malhotra, V. M., "Testing Hardened Concrete: Non destructive Methods", ACI Monograph
No. 9, American Concrete Institute Detroit, 1976, 188 pp.
[3] Rajagopalan, P. R.; Prakash, Jai; and Narasimhan, V., Correlation between Ultrasonic
Pulse Velocity and Strength of Concrete, Indian Concrete Journal, V. 47, No. 11, Nov. 1973,
PP. 416-418.
[4] YOUSRY EL-SHIKH M. M.; Khan, A. Z. and Abdel-Reheem, Ahmed H. Very High
Strength Concrete Behaviour under Cyclic Loading, Seventh Arab Structural Conference,
24-26 November, Vol. (1), 1997, Kuwait, PP 267-276.
[5] YOUSRY EL-SHIKH M. M., How to Protect Structures from Fire Using Very High
Strength Concrete, 24
th
Conference on Our World in Concrete and Structures, 25-26 August,
1999, Singapore, Vol. XVIII, PP 159-170.
[6] Aitcin PC, Laplante P." Long-term compressive strength of silica-fume concrete" J Mater
Civil Eng, ASCE 1990; 2(3): I 64-70.
[7] Carette GG, Malhotra VM, Aitcin PC, "Preliminary data on long-term strength
development on condensed silica-fume concrete" In: Proceedings of the international Workshop
on condensed silica-fume Concrete. Montreal, Canada: 1987.
[8] Fattuhi NI. "Influence of Kuwaiti atmospheric conditions on the development of
compressive strength for concrete containing admixtures" Durab Build Mater, 1986; (4):127-
135.
[9] Seong-Tae Yi, Young-Ho Moon, and Jin-Keun Kim. "Long-term strength prediction of
concrete with curing temperature" Cement and Concrete Research, 35(2005), 1961-1969.
[10] Bertil Persson. "Eight-year exploration of shrinkage in high performance concrete"
Cement and Concrete Research, 32(2002), 1229-1237.
[11] Husain Al-khaiat, and Nijad Fattuhi." Long term strength development of concrete in
arid conditions" Cement and Concrete Composites 23 (2001) 363-373.
[12] ACI Committee 363, "State of the Art Report on High strength Concrete," ACI 363R-84,
American Concrete institute, Detroit, 1984, 48 pp.
[13] FIP/CEB, State of the Art Report High Strength Concrete August 1990, 61 pp.
[14]Shah, S., and Shuiab, A. Structural Properties of High Strength Concrete and its
Implications for Pre-stressed Concrete PCI journal, Nov. - Dec. 1985, pp 92-119.

-1101-

COMPOSI TE MATERI ALS

COMP-
001
STATI C AND FATI GUE BEHAVI OUR OF HYBRI D HI GH PERFORMANCE CONCRETE BEAMS
Ayman Elmahdy, Raafat El- Hacha, and Nigel Shrive
COMP-
002
EFFECT OF ELEVATED TEMPERATURE ON COLUMNS RETROFI TTED WI TH CARBON
FI BER COMPOSI TES.
A. Y. ABOUELEZZ
COMP-
003
REHABI LI TATI ON OF REI NFORCED CONCRETE FRAMES TO CONFORM TO CURRENT
EGYPTI AN CODES
Osman Mohamed Ramadan, Ahmed Amir Khalil, and Ahmed M. Tawf ik
COMP-
004
A SI MPLI FI ED APPROACH FOR PREDI CTI NG STRAI NS I N FRP- STRENGTHENED
FLEXURAL MEMBERS
Hemdan Okasha Ahmed Said
COMP-
005
POLYMERI C CONCRETE FOR SUSTAI NABLE FUTURES
Muhd Fadhil Nuruddin, Andri Kusbiant oro, and Sobia Qazi
COMP-
006
COMPOSI TE HI GHWAY GUARD FENCE
Ahmed Saeed Debaiky and Hussien Borazghy
COMP-
007
STUDYI NG THE BEHAVI OUR AND DEVELOPMENT OF COMPOSI TE VI RANDEEL
STRUCTURE
Moust afa Abdel Rahman Dawood
COMP-
008
LARGE- SCALE TESTI NG FOR DECOMPOSI TI ON MODEL VERI FI CATI ON AND
VALI DATI ON
Carst en Ludwig, Erich Hugi, Brian Lat t imer , and Zenka Mat hys
COMP-
009
EXPERI MENTAL STUDY ON STRUCTURAL I NSULATED FOAM- TI MBER SANDWI CH WALL
PANELS FOR BUI LDI NG CONSTRUCTI ON
Khaled Sennah and Mahmoud Mohamed
COMP-
010
STABI LI ZATI ON OF DUNE SAND USI NG CEMENT KI LN DUST
Mumt az Ahmed Kamal and Syed Muhammad Hammad
COMP-
011
A STUDY ON CONCRETE BRI DGE BARRI ERS REI NFORCED WI TH COMBAR GFRP BARS
EKATERI NA TROPYNI NA, SERGEY GOREMYKI N, and KHALED SENNAH
COMP-
012
FRI CTI ON EFFECT ON THE TENSI LE STRENGTH OF DEVI ATED CFRP- STRI PS
Mohamed Hwash, Jan Knippers, and Fat hy Saad
COMP-
013
STRENGTHENI NG OF PULTRUDED GLASS FRP SECTI ON COMBI NED WI TH CONCRETE
SLAB USI NG CFRP PLATES
Ashraf Biddah, Khaled El Sawy, St eve Raynor, and Tarek Sheikhoun
COMP-
014
EFFECT OF ELEVATED TEMPRATURE ON STRUCTURAL PERFORNACE OF R.C. COLUMNS
CONFI NED BY CFRP
Adel Ahmed El Kourdi, Aly I br ahim El Darwish, Adel Mahmoud Khalifa, and Alaa Mahmoud Morsy
COMP-
015
FI BER REI NFORCED CONCRETE: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE
BEDDAR Miloud
COMP-
016
MONI TORI NG AND STRUCTURAL SAFETY OF FRP BRI DGES
Markus Gabler and Jan Knippers
COMP-
017
EFFECT OF ALKALI NE SOLUTI ON AND ELEVATED TEMPERATURE ON FRP
STRENGTHENED BEAMS UNDER SUSTAI NED LOAD
El- Sayed A. Nasr, Nahla K. Hassan, and Rasha A. El- Sadani
COMP-
018
I NNOVATI VE TECHNI QUE FOR STRENGTHENI NG RC TWO- WAY SLABS
AMR ALI ABDELRAHMAN, TAMER HASSAN ELAFANDY, and MOATAZ AWRY MAHMOUD


COMP-001-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





STATIC AND FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF HYBRID HIGH
PERFORMANCE CONCRETE BEAMS

A. ELMAHDY
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Calgary
2500 University Dr NW, Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, Canada
E-mail: aelmahdy@ucalgary.ca
R. EL-HACHA
E-mail: relhacha@ucalgary.ca
N. SHRIVE
E-mail: ngshrive@ucalgary.ca

ABSTRACT
An overview of tests on novel light-weight beams with high capacity and high
resistance to corrosion is presented. The beam section consists of a pultruded Glass
Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) hollow box reinforced with externally bonded Steel-
Reinforced Polymer (SRP) or Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) sheets on the
bottom flange. A thin layer of Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) was cast on
top of the section to carry the compressive stresses. Composite action between the
GFRP section and the UHPC slab was ensured through shear connectors and epoxy
adhesive applied on the top flange of the GFRP section. All the materials used have
superior strength and durability compared to conventional construction materials, so can
be utilized in much smaller dimensions than normal. The feasibility of the hybrid
section as a main flexural member was investigated experimentally. The spans of the
beams ranged between 500 and 6000 mm. Eight beams were tested: four beams under
quasi-static loading with both long and short spans to determine the flexural behaviour
and shear strength; and four beams under fatigue loading to assess the fatigue strength
of the beam.
KEYWORDS
Composite beams, dynamic actions, fibre reinforced polymers, high strength concrete,
steel reinforced polymers, fatigue, hybrid, static.
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COMP-001-2
1 INTRODUCTION
The outstanding engineering characteristics of new materials, mainly their high
strength-to-weight ratios and high corrosion resistance, provide great opportunity for the
construction industry and for the rehabilitation of infrastructure. The behaviour of
composite sections where Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRPs) have been combined with
conventional materials has been studied widely in recent years. The concept was first
investigated by Deskovic et al., (1995b), who studied a simple beam comprised of a
Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) box section with a layer of concrete on top and
a layer of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) sheet on the bottom. The long
term behaviour of the hybrid section was also examined (Deskovic et al., 1995a). The
behaviour of GFRP tubes acting compositely with a high early strength concrete slab
was examined experimentally by Fam and Skutezky (2006). The tubes were connected
with GFRP dowels to transfer the shear. Some of the tubes were filled with concrete and
some were not.
The behaviour of an innovative beam is described here. The beam is composed of Ultra
High Performance Concrete (UHPC) in the compression zone with Steel Reinforced
Polymer (SRP) or CFRP sheets on the tension side. These superior materials are
connected via a rectangular GFRP box beam which is also responsible for carrying the
shear forces in the beam. This combination of materials is expected to result in low-
weight, low-maintenance, high performance elements at acceptable costs. The presence
of UHPC on the top side of the beam supports the top GFRP flange which reduces the
potential for this flange to buckle under high compressive stresses. The high deflections
that would occur if the GFRP box section was used alone are greatly reduced by the
addition of the high stiffness materials.
2 MATERIALS
The materials used in the research are: UHPC, , unidirectional CFRP and SRP sheets, a
pultruded GFRP box section, GFRP shear studs, moisture insensitive high modulus
epoxy, and moisture tolerant epoxy.
The SRP consists of brass-coated, unidirectional, ultra-high-strength, twisted steel wires
forming cords, which are assembled into a sheet. The SRP system is similar in concept
to FRP materials but with high-strength steel wires instead of, for example, carbon
fibres as in CFRP. The specific SRP used was formed from 20 aligned cords per 25.4
mm with each cord consisting of five filaments (Hardwire
TM
32-20 Tape). According
to the manufacturer, the cord has a breaking load of 1539 N, and Modulus of Elasticity
of 160 GPa. The effective Modulus for the sheet is 66 GPa, and ultimate tensile strength
of 985 MPa (Hardwire LLC, 2007).
The compressive strengths of UHPC products can reach up to 200 MPa and flexural
tensile strengths up to 50 MPa (Lafarge, 2007). In order to reach maximum strength, the
UHPC should be heat-treated for a few days. Here, the samples were not treated
thermally as that would have affected the bonding efficiency of the epoxy. The UHPC
used reached a compressive strength of 170 MPa after 28 days, and contained steel
fibres to reduce the shrinkage strains on curing.
Based on the manufacturer, the minimum ultimate longitudinal tensile and compressive
stresses for the GFRP hollow box beams are 207 MPa, and the longitudinal tensile and
compressive Moduli of Elasticity are 17,200 MPa (Strongwell, 2007). GFRP studs with
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COMP-001-3
9.5 mm diameter were used as shear connectors having average capacity in single shear
is 10 kN.
The CFRP sheets used in the beams tested quasi-statically have an ultimate tensile
strength of 3450 MPa, Modulus of Elasticity of 230 GPa and an elongation at failure
greater than 1.5% (Sika, 2007a). The average tensile strength of a cured CFRP laminate
is 894 MPa, the Elastic Modulus is 65 GPa, and the average elongation at failure is
1.33% (Sika, 2007a). Two types of epoxies were used - Sikadur 32 HI-MOD and
Sikadur 330. According to the manufacturer, the Sikadur 32 moisture-insensitive
epoxy adhesive has a tensile strength of 33 MPa and Modulus of Elasticity of 3030
MPa, while the Sikadur 330 moisture-tolerant epoxy adhesive has a tensile strength of
30 MPa and Modulus of Elasticity of 3,800 MPa (Sika, 2007b; Sika 2007c).
Two of the beams tested under fatigue were strengthened with Tyfo SCH-41 CFRP
composite. According to the manufacturer, the composite laminate has a typical
ultimate tensile strength of 986 MPa, tensile modulus of 95.8 GPa, and elongation at
break of 1.0% (Fyfe, 2008).
3 DESCRIPTION OF THE BEAM SPECIMENS
The beams tested were composed mainly of a hollow GFRP section with outer
dimensions of 152.4 mm 228.6 mm, and a constant wall thickness of 11.11 mm
(Strongwell, 2007) (Figure 1). Fibre sheets were bonded to the lower flange of the
GFRP section, and a thin layer of UHPC was placed on top of the section to carry the
compressive stresses and to support the upper GFRP flange. The dimensions of the
materials used in each beam are provided in Table 1.

Figure 1: Cross-section of the hybrid FRP-concrete section.
The section was assembled by first sanding the top and bottom surfaces of the box
element. The fibre sheets were bonded to the bottom of the beams with the moisture
tolerant epoxy Sikadur 330. Holes were drilled in the top flange and two 9.5 mm
GFRP shear studs bonded to the box section with the same epoxy. The shear studs are
spaced 75 mm and 100 mm in the transverse and longitudinal direction respectively.
Formwork was created around the top of the beam, the moisture insensitive epoxy was
placed on the top surface of the beam to bond the thin layer of wet UHPC placed in the
formwork to the beam. This layer of epoxy also acted as a barrier between the UHPC
and the GFRP, protecting the GFRP from possible chemical attack from the concrete.

SRP or CFRP sheet
Hollow GFRP Box
UHPC
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COMP-001-4
Table 1: Dimensions of the beams
UHPC Tensile Fibre Sheet
Beam
Span
(mm)
Test
Type
Width
(mm)
Depth
(mm)
Type
Number
of
Layers
Width
(mm)
1 5100 152.4 54 SRP 1 127
2 6000
Flexural
Static
152.4 54
Sika
CFRP
2 127
3 700 152.4 54
Sika
CFRP
2 127
4 500
Shear
Static
152.4 54 SRP 1 127
5 2100 254 42 SRP 1 76.2
6 2100 187.4 53
Tyfo
CFRP
1 76.2
7 1950 187.4 53
Tyfo
CFRP
1 76.2
8 1950
Fatigue
254 42 SRP 1 76.2
4 QUASI-STATIC EXPERIMENTS
The two long flexural beams were tested in four-point bending with 1.20 m between the
middle loading points (Figure 2). These beams were tested 28 days after the UHPC had
been cast. The middle sections of the two beams were instrumented with strain gauges
and Linear Strain Conversion Transducers (LSCT) to measure the longitudinal strains.
Additionally, two string potentiometers were used to measure the deflection at mid-
span, and LSCTs were placed perpendicular to the side of the beams to measure any
lateral translation.

Figure 2: Test arrangement for a long beam (quasi-static loading).
-1105-

COMP-001-5
5.1 Long Beams Samples
Both Beams failed by crushing of the UHPC under one of the loading points (Figure3),
followed by delamination of the concrete from the GFRP box section. The failure
occurred at the section where maximum shear and normal stresses developed. Once the
concrete failed, the load transferred to the top flange of the GFRP box which could not
carry this additional load. The top flange failed and buckling occurred in the region of
the top of the web as shown in Figure 3. The strain distributions measured along the
mid-section of the second beam at different load levels are shown in Figure 4. It is clear
that the strain distribution is linear, and the location of the neutral axis is almost
constant. No cracks appear in the UHPC until failure. Adding the UHPC and SRP sheet
to the GFRP box section increased the flexural capacity of the box section to about 3.7
times that of the manufacturers listed ultimate capacity of the GFRP box alone. The
shear stress between the UHPC and the GFRP box section reached five times the
capacity of the shear studs alone, confirming the effectiveness of the bonding epoxy.
The results reported for the quasi-statically tested beams (Elmahdy et al., 2008a) are
summarized in Table 2.

Figure 3: Typical failure of the long beams under flexural loading.
The flexural behaviour of the long beams was linear up to failure. The analytically
calculated and experimentally measured strains on the bottom of the beams are shown
in Figure 5. The analytical values were calculated assuming linear strain compatibility
between all the materials based on their properties, and were confirmed through finite
element analysis (Elmahdy et al., 2008b).

0
40
80
120
160
200
240
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Beam 1 - Bottom Strain ()
Moment
(kN m)
Experimental
Analytical

Figure 4: Mid-span strain distributions. Figure 5: Bottom strains at different loads.
-1106-

COMP-001-6
Table 2: Summary of results for all statically tested beams
Beam
Maximum
load
(kN)
Maximum
deflection
(mm)
Maximum
moment
(kNm)
Maximum
shear
(kN)
1 257.5 165.8 251 128.8
2 193.6 212.5 232 96.8
3 345.6 9.4 60.5 172.8
4 335.1 2.95 41.9 167.6
5.2 Short Beams Samples
Two short beams were tested quasi-statically, being loaded at their mid-spans. The
results showed that these short beams failed by debonding between the GFRP box
section and the UHPC (Elmahdy et al., 2008c). The wet bonding of the epoxy failed at a
shear stress of about 3.5 MPa. After debonding, tensile cracks developed at the bottom
of UHPC layer. The typical failure of the short beams is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Typical failure for the short beams (quasi-static loading).
6 FATIGUE TESTS
Four beams were subjected to cyclic concentrated load to determine the effect of fatigue
on the concrete-FRP interface. The beams were tested about seven months after the
concrete was cast. Sinusoidal loading was applied to the beams at the mid-span point
ranging between a minimum load of 5 kN and a maximum loading value that varied
every 350,000 cycles. The number of cycles each beam withstood before failure is
shown in Table 3. The load frequency ranged between 2 Hz and 4 Hz.
All the beams failed by a fatigue crack propagating in the GFRP box section, with the
typical failure being shown in Figure 7. The cracks initiated under the loading point at
Debonding
Failure
Tensile Crack
-1107-

COMP-001-7
the top of the box web and propagated towards one of the supports. It is worth
mentioning that the measured surface temperature of the UHPC and the GFRP box
increased before failure of the beams by about 3 and 5
o
Celsius, respectively.
Table 3: Number of cycles for fatigue samples at different loads
Maximum cyclic fatigue load limits
Beam
40 kN 70 kN 100 kN 130 kN
5 350,000 350,000 350,000 67,000
6 ------ 350,000 350,000 239,600
7 ------ ------ 350,000 315,000
8 ------ ------ 350,000 286,900

Figure 7: Typical failure for the beams under fatigue loading.
The fatigue beams should be able to carry more than 260 kN statically, so the failure at
130 kN shows that the fatigue strength limit of the GFRP box section will govern the
design. The beams did not demonstrate a significant increase in strains or deflections
with the loading cycles. The change in the strains at the bottom of Beam 5 and the top
of Beam 7 at different loading values versus the cycles of loading are shown in Figures
8 and 9. As may be seen, there are slight increases in the strains over the first few cycles
at each new higher load, and then the strains stabilized. The load is plotted against mid-
span deflection for Beam 5 under static loading up to 100 kN in Figure 10 the tests
being performed just before and after 350,000 cycles of loading between 5 kN and 100
kN. The deflection of Beam 5 increased slightly after the fatigue loading which suggests
that some degradation was occurring during the cyclic loading.
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COMP-001-8
The distribution of the fibres within the concrete increases the fatigue endurance limits
of the UHPC significantly as reported by Farhat et al., (2007). Shaheen and Shrive,
(2007) also conducted bending fatigue tests on small UHPC prisms with the results
showing that the material has excellent resistance to low and high cyclic fatigue load
even in the presence of a crack. The fatigue tests performed by Parsekian et al., (2008)
on an UHPC girder showed high fatigue resistance with no degradation in the stiffness
of the girder being observed. The failure of the GFRP box section in all the beams
tested here suggests that the degradation of the stiffness occurred mainly in the GFRP
box, and that the design of the hybrid beams will be controlled by the fatigue limit of
the GFRP material.
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
0 50000 100000 150000 200000 250000 300000 350000 400000
SRP Strain
()
Number of Cycles
130 kN
40 kN
70 kN
100 kN

Figure 8: Strains at different loading values on the bottom of Beam 5.

Figure 9: Strains at different loading values for the UHPC on the top of Beam 7.
-1109-

COMP-001-9
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Load (kN)
Mid-Span Deflection (mm)
After Fatigue
Before Fatigue

Figure 10: Load-Deflection relationships for Beam 5.
7 CONCLUSIONS
The work summarized here increases our understanding of the flexural and shear
behaviour of the hybrid beam. The following conclusions can be drawn:
Adding UHPC to the compression side and SRP or CFRP sheets to the tension side
of GFRP box sections increased the capacity of the sections significantly.
Wet bonding of UHPC to the GFRP box section using moisture insensitive epoxy
can provide excellent bond.
The linear behaviours of GFRP, CFRP, SRP, and UHPC materials of the hybrid
beams permit the use of linear analysis to predict the behaviour of similar beams and
can be used in designing composite beams from the same materials allowing for
appropriate safety factors.
Strain gauges can function on UHPC and record accurate readings.
The strain distribution across the depth of the proposed hybrid FRP-concrete beams
remained linear until failure of the beams. This confirmed the assumption that plane
sections remain plane before and after bending. The failure of the proposed hybrid
FRP-concrete beams was sudden and the beams did not show any ductility. Hence,
linear modelling of the hybrid beam should be sufficient to predict its behaviour.
The design capacity of the hybrid beams will be governed by the fatigue limits of the
GFRP box section material.
Under cyclic loading, no sign of weakness is noticed in the beams until failure of the
GFRP box develops.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the Alberta Ingenuity Fund
and the Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada for the financial support
of this work, and Hardwire LLC, Strongwell, Lafarge North America, and Sika Canada
Inc for providing the materials.
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COMP-001-10
REFERENCES
[1] Deskovic, N., Meier, U., and Triantafillou, T. C. "Innovative Design of FRP
Combined with Concrete: Long-Term Behaviour," Journal of Structural
Engineering, 121(7), (1995a) 1079-1089.
[2] Deskovic, N., Triantafillou, T. C., and Meier, U. "Innovative Design of FRP
Combined with Concrete: Short-Term Behaviour," Journal of Structural
Engineering, 121(7), (1995b) 1069-1078.
[3] Elmahdy, A., El-Hacha, R., and Shrive, N.G., "Flexural Behavior of Hybrid
Composite Girders for Bridge Construction", ACI Special Publication on "FRP
Stay-in-Place Forms for Concrete Structures: Research Activities, Case Studies,
and Field Applications", CA, USA, (2008a) (CD-Rom, 19p).
[4] Elmahdy, A., Shrive, N., and El-Hacha, R., "Finite Element Analysis of Hybrid
FRP-Concrete Composites Girders", The 5th International Conference on
Advanced Composite Materials in Bridges and Structures (ACMBS-V),
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, (2008b), (CD-Rom, 10 p).
[5] Elmahdy, A., El-Hacha, R., and Shrive, N.G., Flexural and Shear Behaviour of
Hybrid FRP-Concrete Composite Beams, The 2nd Canadian Conference on
Effective Design of Structures, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario,
Canada, (2008c), (CD-Rom, 10p.)
[6] Fam, A., and Skutezky, T. "Composite T-Beams Using Reduced-Scale
Rectangular FRP Tubes and Concrete Slabs," Journal of Composites for
Construction, 10(2), (2006) 172-181.
[7] Farhat, F. A., Nicolaides, D., Kanellopoulos, A., and Karihaloo, B. L. "High
Performance Fibre-Reinforced Cementitious Composite (CARDIFRC) -
Performance and Application to Retrofitting," Engineering Fracture Mechanics,
74(1-2), (2007) 151-167.
[8] Hardwire LLC, "3X2 Cord and Tape Specification Sheet."
http://hardwirellc.com/, accessed on June 8, 2008.
[9] Lafarge, "Ductal - Technical Characteristics." (2007)
[10] Parsekian, G., Shrive, N., Brown, T., Kroman, J., Perry, V., and Boucher, A. .
"Static and Fatigue Tests on Ductal UHPFRC Footbridge Sections," ACI Special
Publication of the V International ACI/CANMET Conference on High
Performance Concrete Structures and Materials, HPC 2008, Manaus, Brazil,
June 18, (2008).
[11] Shaheen, E., and Shrive, N. "Cyclic Loading and Fracture Mechanics of Ductal
Concrete," International Journal of Fracture, 148(3), (2007) 251-260.
[12] Sika, "Product Data Sheet Sika Carbodur." (2007a)
[13] Sika, "Product Data Sheet Sikadur 32 Hi-Mod." (2007b)
[14] Sika, "Product Data Sheet Sikadur 330." (2007c)
[15] Strongwell, "Metric Design Information." (2007)
[16] Fyfe, "Product Data Sheet Tyfo SCH-41S Composite". (2008)
-1111-

COMP-002-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





EFFECT OF ELEVATED TEMPERATURE ON COLUMNS
RETROFITTED WITH CARBON FIBER COMPOSITES.

DR. A. Y. ABOUELEZZ
Lec. , Civil Eng. Dep , Minia University, Minia , Egypt
E-mail: dr_alaa_abouelezz@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
It has long been known that fire could dramatically reduce the characteristic
strength of the reinforced concrete member. A significant effort has been devoted to
study the effect of fire on the reinforced concrete members. Most of them were focused
on evaluating columns fire resistance and provided some recommendations of structural
fire resistance. Little attention was paid to the behaviour of CFRP strengthened columns
after fire,
The main objective of the present work is to study the behaviour of reinforced
concrete CFRP strengthened columns exposed to fire under axial load experimentally. A
furnace and a loading frame had been built to allow the application of the axial load
driven from a hydraulic jack on the fired specimens at the same time. Sixteen CFRP
strengthened columns with different protections layer subjected to 900 C for 30 min.
and axial load in the same time according to ASTM. were tested. It can be concluded
that the some of the materials used for protection have low thermal conductivity and
good resistance to fire, and CFRP materials can be used, by proving appropriate fire
insulation, endure elevated temperatures of fire under service loads for more than 70
minutes.;

KEYWORDS
Retrofitted, carbon-fiber-composites, fire resistance, elevated temperatures ,
strengthened .
1 INTRODUCTION
Fire in building is nearly always resulting from negligence or error. This can
cause immense damage in terms of lives and property. With a fire, the main problem to
face is the combustibility of the contents and failure of the structure. Extend of ensuing
damage depends primarily on the structural performance of the building both during and
after the fire. One of the the main principles of fire precautions is understand the
-1112-

COMP-002-2
behavior and characteristics of the building materials during and after the fire crises, to
react with them at the new case.
Studies on reinforced concrete elements were started several years ago for
purpose of updating the fire resistance classifications for these elements. These studies
include the development of both experimental and mathematical modelling for the
calculation of the fire resistance of concrete elements of various size and shapes. Also
more attention has been paid to the fundamental fracture properties of concrete at room
temperature. But research on these properties under elevated temperature only started in
the late 1970s, and has since become more frequent. The information about these
properties is very useful for the design of special concrete structures sustaining various
high temperature environments such as nuclear reactor structures, the chemical industry
and fire protection.
The behaviour of a reinforced concrete structure in fire conditions is governed
by the properties of the constituent materials -concrete and steel (reinforcement) at
high temperature. Both concrete and steel undergo considerable in their strength,
physical properties and stiffness by the effects of heating and some of the changes are
not recoverable after subsequent cooling. Chemical changes may also occur, especially
in siliceous aggregate concrete, due to heating. An understanding of these changes is
essential in predicting or assessing the performance of the structure during fire and
subsequent cooling.
When a structural component is exposed to devastating fires accidentally for
long periods (exceeding fire resistance duration) resulting in high rise of temperature
and reduction in strength, the data on residual strength of reinforced concrete members
which is defined as "the reduced strength ", is not always available before deciding
rehabilitation of any component of the structure damaged due to fire.
The conducted survey of available pertinent research works revealed that there is
no available study documenting protection of reinforced concrete strengthens columns
using our Egyptian local coating materials, so thes research aims to evaluate the
suitability of different local Egyptian materials such as perlite, Ferro-cement,
vermiculate, feldspar, quartz, and sand glass. Above dry 5 to provide heat protective
coating to half scale strengthen loaded columns.
The approach to achieve these objective is through the following steps:
Design mortar mixes have suitable compressive and bond strengths and also have
suitable workability in the field.
Study the heat transfer through these mixes after being applied on strengthens
reinforced concrete elements.
Establish experimental relations between different coating type and the residual load
capacity after exposure to fire
2- LITERATURE REVIEW
This study deals with the effect of elevated temperature on the strengthened
reinforced concrete elements by Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic. Many researches are
performing experimental and analytical programs to investigate the response of
advanced composite to fire such as Kucner, L.K., McManus, H.L., [1], they suggested
an experimental program for predicting the effect of fire on graphite/epoxy laminates.
-1113-

COMP-002-3
They subjected the specimens to a propane flame for a period ranging from 3 to 60
seconds. The specimens showed damage on the exposed face. Viewing a cross section
of the burned material under microscope showed progressing of damage through the
thickness. It seemed that each layer insulates the one below it from heat, so the damage
decreases as depth increases. In addition, the thinner laminates suffered greater mass
loss than the thicker ones
Effect of high temperature on concrete:-
The behaviour of concrete is characterized by material property
degradation with increased temperature. The stress-strain relationship is defined
according to the Euro code 2 (ENV1992) [5] as shown in Fig. (1). Here, the initial
elastic behaviour is followed by a plastic-hardening curve up to the ultimate stress, after
which, a decaying zone represents the post-crushing behaviour for concrete. This
relationship has the advantage of allowing the definition of a stress level for large
plastic deformations, usually reached during fire conditions.

Fig (1) Concrete stress-strain relationship at high temperature. [5]
Many investigators have reported test results on properties of concrete due
to elevated temperatures during the last five decades such as
Malhotra H.L. [7] which investigated the effect of elevated temperatures on
compressive strength of concrete by heating 5 cm 10 cm cylinders using various mix
proportions and water-cement ratios. The test results have been expressed as percentage
of unheated strength and plotted against the temperature. Also he noted that E-value of
concrete also drastically reduces with temperature.
Effect of high temperature on steel:-
Like concrete, steel also loses strength with temperature. The magnitude of
the loss and the rate of reduction depend upon the type of steel and its manufacturing
process. Mild steel and hot-rolled high-tensile steel retains only 50 % of its normal
temperature (20 C) yield stress at about 600 C, but up to a temperature of about 300
C the strength (yield stress) appears to be slightly higher than at room temperature. For
cold-worked high-tensile reinforcement, 50 % reduction of the yield stress usually
occurs at a temperature around 550 C. The rise in strength up to a temperature of 300
C is also less. If reinforcing bars are heated up to 600 C, they virtually recover their
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COMP-002-4
full normal temperature strength when cooled to room temperature again. In the Interim
Guidance-Design and detailing of concrete structures for fire resistance [8], idealized
design curves have been given to assess reduction in the strength of reinforcement steel
with temperature
Effect of high temperature on loaded columns:
In 2000 Karamoko S., Frederic D., M.P., and Bernard B. [4], study reinforced
concrete columns designed for stability against fire. A Monte Carlo simulation
technique is used to assess the probability of failure by taken into account the effect of
temperature on statistical distributions. The reliability of columns exposed to fire
appears particularly affected by variations in the parameters such as the design exposure
time, slenderness, and steel ratios. A possibility of reducing the sensitivity is proposed.
Also Rashad A., M., In 2000 [1] evaluated the effect of elevated temperature
on loaded RC columns containing different aggregate types and different mineral
admixtures ,
Muhammad, U. F. K., In 2002 [6], studied experimentally and analytically the
residual vertical and lateral load capacities of short centrically loaded modeled
reinforced concrete columns when the modeled columns were fired in an actual fire
furnace under different circumstances during and after fire test.
In 2003 Helmi, A.I.I., [3], focused on the effect of different protection
materials on the structural response of retrofitted RC columns. Also Ibrahim, H. M,
Marzouq, M. H., In 2003 ([2], evaluated the effect of the method of fire extinguishing
methods on the capacity of reinforced concrete compression members.

Fire protection materials
In 1999 Sakumoto Y., [9], discusses fire-safe design methods incorporating
the application of new fire-protection materials, New fire-protection materials targeted
in the research are an in tumescent coating that foams when heated and a fire protection
ceiling provided with plaster boards to isolate heating coming from the room.
3-EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
This study includes the investigate of the temperature gradient through the depth of
half scale reinforced concrete strengthened columns by CFRP under structural load and
sustained elevated temperature 900
o
C according to ASTM E119, using different
protection coatings materials.

3-1 Test specimens
The tested columns are shown in Table (1) which show all protection materials
thickness and fire duration of investigated specimens, and key legends that will be used
throughout the whole study. Also, the different types of protection are given. For
example C1V refers to Column type 1, protected with vermiculite as a heat barrier. All
specimens were protected with 3 cm layer thickness
Column element consists of 16 specimens of reinforced concrete strengthen
columns of 15*15 cm cross section, 160 cm length and same steel reinforcement as
shown in Fig. (2). Two of these columns were tested without strengthening and without
exposure to fire. The remaining columns were strengthened with 30 cm width of CFRP
sheets the method of strengthening are given in section 3-9-3. On another hand two
CFRP strengthen columns of this group were tested without exposure to fire. They
considered as a control columns. The remaining of the strengthened columns specimens
-1115-

COMP-002-5
were protected with different types (Ferro-cement, Vermiculite, Feldspar, Quartz,
Thermal Brick, Sand Glass, Perlite, Dry A5 and Alumina cement in some mixes) and
thickness of fire protection materials as reported in table (1).

Table (1) Half scale columns specimens.
Time
min.
Temperatur
e
o
C
No. of
specimens
Type Legend
--- ----- 2 Control C
--- ----- 2 Strengthen by CFRP CS
30 900 1 Cement mortar CFC 3 900 30
30 900 1 Alumina Cement mortar CFCA 3 900 30
30 900 1 Vermiculite CV 3 900 30
30 900 1 Vermiculite +Alumina Cement CVA 3 900 30
30 900 1 Feldspar CF 3 900 30
30 900 1 Sand glass CSG 3 900 30
30 900 1
Thermal brick + Alumina
Cement
CTBA 3 900 30
30 900 1 Quartz CQ 3 900 30
30 900 1 Perlite CP 3 900 30
30 900 1 Perlite + Alumina Cement CPA 3 900 30
30 900 1 Dry 5 CD 3 900 30
30 900 1 Dry 5 2 cm CD2 900 30

Fig. (2) Half scale Columns Reinforcement

3-2 Characteristics of materials used in concrete
The used sand is natural desert sand, the used gravel is natural stone of 10 mm
maximum nominal size, and the cement used is ordinary Portland cement. Also tap
water is used in mixing concrete. Water cement ratio of 0.42 by weight was used.
3-2-1 Steel Reinforcement
For half scale column the longitudinal reinforcement used is high tensile steel bars with
nominal diameter of 10 mm. The lateral reinforcement used, hoops, is plain mild steel
with 6 mm nominal diameter. The properties of both longitudinal and lateral steels are
listed in table (2).
-1116-

COMP-002-6

Table (2) properties of reinforcement steel bars in columns.
Property Lateral reinforcement Longitudinal
reinforcement
Diameter (mm)
Yield stress (kg/cm
2
)
6
2900
10
3300

3-2-2 CFRP composites
For half scale column, the sheets were 300mm width and the total length of
rolls were about 50 m. the average thickness of the weave was 1.3 mm. Table (3) show
that the properties of Sika Carbodur Carbon Fiber Laminates according to supplier
specifications of Carbon Fiber sheets.

Table (3) properties of carbon fiber sheets used in columns.
Fiber type High strength carbon fiber
Tensile strength of fibers(N/mm2)
Tensile E modulus of fibers (N/mm
2
)
3500
230000

3-2-3 The adhesive material
The adhesive material used in the test program is Sikadur 330. This type
consisted of resin A and hardener B with ratio of 4:1 by weight respectively
according to the providers instructions. Setting time for both adhesive are 30 minutes
at 35
o
C.

3-2-4 Heat Barriers Materials
This section gives in detailes description of the used material as a protection material

3-2-4-1 Alumina Cement
The cement used in some protection layers is Alumina cement
3-2-4-2 Vermiculite
Vermiculite is 2:1, that meaning it has 2 tetrahedral sheets for every one
octahedral sheet of clay. It is limited expansion clay with a medium shrink-swell
capacity. Vermiculite has been used in various industries for over 80 years. It is used in
the construction, agricultural, horticultural, and industrial markets. Vermiculite is the
mineralogical name given to hydrated laminar magnesium-aluminum-iron silicate
which resembles mica in appearance.
3-2-4-3 Feldspar
Feldspar is not a single mineral. It is a group of minerals related to each other in
structure and chemical composition. Feldspar minerals are aluminum silicates of
potassium, sodium, and calcium. Several rare members contain barium, strontium,
ammonia, etc. The Feldspar minerals form similar crystals, and it makes up nearly half
the earth's crust. Most Feldspar crystallizes in the monoclinic and triclinic systems.
Solid solution series exist between several members
-1117-

COMP-002-7
3-2-4-5 Perlite
Perlite is a generic term for naturally occurring siliceous rock. The
distinguishing feature which sets perlite apart from other volcanic glasses is that when
heated to a suitable point in its softening range, it expands from four to twenty times its
original volume. This expansion is due to the presence of two to six percent combined
water in the crude perlite rock. When quickly heated to above 1600F (871C), the
crude rock pops in a manner similar to popcorn as the combined water vaporizes and
creates countless tiny bubbles which account for the amazing light weight and other
exceptional physical properties of expanded perlite. Expanded perlite can be
manufactured to weigh as little as 2 pounds per cubic foot.
3-2-4-6 Thermal Brick
Thermal Brick has been fire tested under ASTM guidelines and passed a 4-hour
plus fire rating. It achieves the industry's highest fire insurance safety rating and it is a
very strong inorganic reinforced concrete block.
Thermal Brick achieves the high performance "R" rating of 24 (ASHRAE Series
Parallel) due to a combination of offset and constricted thermal pathways and expanded
Polystyrene foam inserts that are highly resistant to heat flow. The higher mass of this
wall system stores a large amount of heat that is slowly released facilitating moderate
indoor temperature changes. These solid walls also effectively seal out uncomfortable
drafts. The economic result is lower monthly operating expense
3-2-4-7 Dry A5
Dry A5, premixed product of fire resistant, super-per spirant, damp-proof,
thermo acoustic insurants mortar, and particularly effective in the damp-proofing of
external and internal walls. Dry A5, mortar is composed of hydraulic binders, volcanic
silicon-aluminum lightweight aggregate, synthetic fibers and several additives. It does
not contain asbestos.
Dry A5 once hardened, is a very light product and its density does not exceed
450 Kg/m
3
. Dry A5, applied in a 3cms thickness on the concrete surface. Table (4) gives
the values of heat barrier thermal conductivity.
Table (4) Thermal conductivity of heat barriers materials.
Material Thermal conductivity w/mk
Cement 0.32
Alumina cement 0.22
Gypsum 0.17
Vermiculate 0.08
Feldspar 1.2
Sand Glass 1.05
Quartz 1.4
Perlite 0.1
Thermal brick 0.84

3-3 Mechanical properties of hardened concrete
-1118-

COMP-002-8
Tests are carried out on standard concrete cubes - The average value of the
concrete grades was 280 Kg/cm
2
The average value of the Modulus of elasticity of
concrete was 198 t/cm
2
. and the average value of Tensile strength was 25 kg/cm
2
.
3-3-1 Reinforcement of columns element
Columns specimens are vertically reinforced with four bars of 10 mm nominal
diameter and 155 cm length. It had two hooks with right angle with 10 cm long each.
The transversal reinforcement of the column is 6 mm diameter. The spacing of the
hoops is about 10 cm. The specimen reinforcement detailing
3-3-2 Application of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics
For achieving the best possible adhesion between Carbon Fiber Sheet and
concrete, the concrete surface was prepared just before the application of adhesive
material. The substrate was grind by the shout blasting and the result dust removed by
air jet, and then the resin solution and the hardener were mixed together and were
applied on the specimens using a paint brush. The CFRP placed on and around the
specimens and hidden air is driven away. And thermocouple positioned in the
specimens

Fig. (3) Placing carbon fiber wrapping on columns

3-3-3 Protection Layer Mixes
A series of trail mixes, and small scale modified ratio of all protection layers
were tested . The best estimation of the trail mixes reported in table (5), that used in the
tested models.
3-3-4 Fire protective coatings preparation
Heat barrier layer to protect the CFRP from high temperature are placed on the
surface of CFRP layer. Different materials and thickness are chosen . Wire mesh placed
in the center of protection material to avoid splitting in the protection layer as shown in
Fig (4). The heat barrier components are shown in table (5) for the test specimens
-1119-

COMP-002-9

Fig. (4) Wire mesh in coating layer

Table (5) Mix proportions by weight of protection layers.
Used in water gypsum material
Alumin
a
cement
Ceme
nt
Mix
B1,B2,C 0.70 1 ------- ------ 1 Ferro-cement
C 0.70 1 --------- 1 -------
Thermal Ferro-
cement
B1/B2 ,C 0.75 0.33 1.33/1 1 Vermiculite1
C 0.75 0.33 1 1 Vermiculite2
B1,B2/C 0.65 0.33 1.33/1 1 Feldspar1
B2 0.55 0.33 1.33 1 Feldspar2
B2 0.9
C 0.7
0.33 1.33 1 Glass Sand
B2 0.87 0.33 1 1 Thermal brick1
B2,C 0.8 0.33 1 1 Thermal brick2
B1,B2/C 0.68 0.33 1.33/1 1 quartz
B2,C 0.70 0.35 0.45 1 Perlite1
B2,C 0.70 0.35 0.45 1 Perlite 2
C As built Dry 5
B2,C 0.70 0.35 0.45 1 Perlite 2
C As built Dry 5

3-4 Loading System
Electrical hydraulic jack with 100 ton capacity was used for loading the columns
specimens. A loading head was connected to the moving arm to minimize the effect of
high temperature on the jack

-1120-

COMP-002-10
3-5 Thermocouples
Thermocouples used were type K. , five thermocouples were connected to the
data logger. the first to get mille-volt reading of the temperature inside the furnace, the
second to get mille-volts readings between coating and concrete surface and the others
to get mille-volts readings through specimens cross section at its mid-height as shown
in Fig. (5)

Posit ion of Thermocaple
Prot ect ion Layer
1
CFRP Layer
Original Cross Sect ion
2
3
Fig. (5) Thermocouple position in column
section
Fig. (6) Column test setup

3-6 Data Acquisition System
A portable machine instruments data Acquisition System (NIDA960) is used in
capturing data from thermocouple. The (NIDA960) was adjusted to sample the data
from thermocouple at a rate up to 100 reading per second per thermocouple. Because of
the long time needed for each specimen in furnace, one reading per second per
thermocouple was recorded. This rate enables to read all events of the test with a
suitable number of readings which can be easily analyzed
3-7 Column Test Procedure
For half scale columns specimens, four control specimens were tested under
static load only and room temperature. Two of them were unwrapped and the last were
wrapped with two CFRP layer. The others specimens are placed inside the furnace and
loaded by the hydraulic jack to the appropriate load level equal to the service load (1/3
of the ultimate failure load). The furnace is then turned on and the temperatures are
recorded at interval until it reached the maximum appropriate temperature, then the
temperature is maintained constant to the specified duration. After reaching the
specified duration, the furnace is turned off and the specimen is let to cool then it is
brought out to be tested to failure and recorded its residual capacity as shown in fig. (6).

3-8 Construction of the Furnace
A furnace with some special specifications was built its dimensions were 0.6*0.8 and
1.5 m height and the maximum temperature can be reached to 1200
o
C. The method of
heating inside the furnace was controlled to simulate the ASTM temperature curve as
shown in fig. ( 7).
-1121-

COMP-002-11
Temperature Time Distrubtion
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Seconds
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

o
C
Furnance Temp.
ASTM Temp.

Fig. (7). Time-Temperature curve of the Furnace compared to ASTM.

4 -1 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Experimental results of 16 half scale were tested, Two of these columns were
tested without strengthen and without expositing to fire and the rest were strengthened
with 30 cm width CFRP sheets and its protection were tested under fire condition
according to ASTME119. Different types of protection material mixes (Ferro-cement,
Vermiculite, Feldspar, Quartz, Thermal Brick, Sand Glass, Perlite, Dry A5 and Alumina
cement in some mixes) were used. Columns were subjected to directly to 900
o
C for 30
minutes and centric service axial compression load in the same time.
The tests were designed To asses, the validity of using some protection material
against fire on the surfaces of reinforced concrete strengthened columns, and to obtain
a better insight into the residual mechanical capacity of columns after exposure to 900
oC. The principal tests results summarized in tables (6)
4-2-1 Column (CFC 3 900 30)
In this test, one strengthened column specimen protected by 3 cm Ferro-cement
layer was tested under fire test 900
o
f for 30 minutes (CFC 3 900 30). During the fire
test the specimen was subjected to centric service compression load. Fig. (8) show the
furnace timetemperature curve compared by ASTM curve temperature at CFRP,
concrete sections and concrete sections. The Ferro-cement protection layer reduced
CFRP temperature by 93 % at 900
o
C and 88.11% at the end of the test, while reduced
temperature at depth of concrete by 94.22 % at 900
o
C and 90.22% at the end of the
test. Temperatures at C.G of concrete were reduced by 95.56 % at 900
o
C and 92.22% at
the end of the test.
4-2-2 Column (CFCA 3 900 30)
One strengthened column specimen protected by Ferro-cement with alumina
cement (CFCA 3 900 30). Fig. (9) show the furnace timetemperature curve compared
by ASTM curve and specimen temperature. The Ferro-cement with Alumina cement
protection layer reduced CFRP temperature by 94% at 900
o
C. At concrete section,
temperature reduced by 94.88 % at 900
o
C and 90.67% at the end of the test. Ferro-
cement with Alumina cement protection layer reduced C.G concrete temperature by
-1122-

COMP-002-12
95.67 % at 900
o
C and 92.33 % at the end of the test. The reduction in the failure load
was 9.4 % of control specimen the (CS).
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Time Sec
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

o
C
1/4 Specimen Temp.
ASTM Temp.
Furnance Temp.
Poly. (CFRP Temp.)
Poly. (C.G.Temp.)

Fig. (8) Time-Temperature curve of column
protected by Ferro-cement (CFC 3 900 30)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Time Sec
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

o
C
1/4 Specimen
Temp.
Furnance Temp.
ASTM Temp.
Poly. (C.G. Temp.)
Poly. (CFRP
Temp.)

Fig. (9) Time- Temperature curve of column
protected by Ferro-cement with alumina cement

4-2-3 Column (CV 3 900 30)
using 3 cm thickness of the vermiculite protection material (CV 3 900 30),
Fig.(10) shows the furnace timetemperature curve compared by ASTM curve CFRP
layer, column section and column section . Protection layer of vermiculite reduced
CFRP temperature by 91.89% at 900
o
C and 88% at the end of the test, while reduced
C.G concrete temperature by 95.11 % at 900
o
C and 92.11 % at the end of the test. The
reduction in the failure load was 21.1 % of the control specimen
4-2-4 Column (CVA 3 900 30)
One strengthened column specimen and protected with 3 cm thickness of the
vermiculite with alumina cement protection material (CVA 3 900 30). Fig. (11) show
that CFRP temperature was reduced by 93.11% at 900
o
C and 88.89% at the end of the
test, while reduced 1/4 concrete temperature by 94.44 % at 900
o
C and 90.22% at the end
of the test. C.G concrete temperatures were reduced by 95.33 % at 900
o
C and 91.22 %
at the end of the test. The reduction in the failure load was 12.5 % for the (CS).
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Time Sec
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

o
C
Furnance Temp.
ASTM Temp.
Poly. (CFRP
Temp.)
Poly. (C.G. Temp.)

Fig. (10) Time-Temperature curve of
column protected by vermiculite
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Time Sec
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

o
C
Furnance Temp.
ASTMTemp.
Poly. (CFRP Temp.)
Poly. (C.G. Temp.)
Poly. (1/4 SPecimen
Temp.)

protected by vermiculite with alumina cement
4-2-5 Column (CP 3 900 30)
-1123-

COMP-002-13
Protected with 3 cm thickness of the perlite protection material (CP 3 900 30)
resurt shown in Fig. (12) which show the furnace timetemperature curve compared by
ASTM curve and cross section temperatures. The perlite protection layer reduced CFRP
temperature by 93.33% at 900
o
concrete temperatures by 94.33 % at 900
o
C and at the end of the test thermocouple
stopped. At C.G concrete temperatures were reduced by 95.22 % at 900
o
C and 91.33 %
at the end of the test. The reduction in the failure load was 15.62 % for the (CS).

4-2-6 Column (CPA 3 900 30)
when perlite with alumina cement were used as protection material (CPA 3 900 30) it
reduced concrete temperatures by 94.67% at 900
o
C and 92% at the end of the test,
while reduced C.G concrete temperature by 95.56 % at 900
o
C and 93.22% at the end of
the test. The reduction in the failure load was 10.8 % for the (CS). shown in Fig.(13).
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Time Sec
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

o
C
CFRP Temp.
Furnance Temp.
ASTMTemp.
Poly. (C.G. Temp)
Poly. (1/4 Specimen
Temp.)

Fig. (12) Time-Temperature curve of
column protected by perlite
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Time Sec
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

o
C
Furnance Temp.
ASTM Temp.
Poly. (1/4 Specimen
Temp.)
Poly. (C.G. Temp.)

Fig. (13) Time- Temperature curve of column
protected by perlite with alumina cement

4-2-7 Column (CF 3 900 30)
Feldspar protection material (CF 3 900 30) also was tested. Fig. (14) show the the
result. The Feldspar protection layer reduced CFRP temperature by 91 % at 900
o
C and
86.44% at the end of the test, while reduced concrete temperatures by 93.33 % at
900
o
C and 89.67% at the end of the test. C.G concrete temperatures were reduced by
94.44 % at 900
o
C and 90.22% at the end of the test. The reduction in the failure load
was 21.87 % for the (CS).
4-2-8 Column (CQ 3 900 30)
quartz used as protection material (CQ 3 900 30) gives reduction in CFRP
o
concrete temperatures by 90.22 % at 900
o
C and 86.44% at the end of the test. C.G
concrete temperatures were reduced by 92.22 % at 900
o
C and 88.67 % at the end of the
test. Data logger power supply cut-off between 33 min. to 53 min. as shown in Fig.(15).
The reduction in the failure load was 31.25 % for the (CS).
-1124-

COMP-002-14
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000
Time Sec
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

o
C
Furnance Temp.
ASTM Temp.
Poly. (CFRP Temp.)
Poly. (1/4 Spec.Temp.)
Poly. (C.G. Temp.)

Fig. (14) Time-Temperature curve
of column protected by feldspar
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Time Sec
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
o
C
CFRP Temp.
C.G. Temp
1/4 Specimen Temp.
Furnance Temp.
ASTM Temp.
Poly. (CFRP Temp.)
Poly. (C.G. Temp)
Poly. (1/4 Specimen Temp.)

Fig. (15) Time-Temperature curve
of column protected by quartz
4-2-9 Column (CSG 3 900 30)
protection by sand glass (CSG 3 900 30) reduced CFRP temperature by 90.78% at
900
o
C and 84.44% at the end of the test, while reduced concrete temperatures by
92.44 % at 900
o
C and 87.56% at the end of the test. C.G concrete temperatures were
reduced by 93.78 % at 900
o
C and 90.78 % at the end of the test. The reduction in the
failure load was 37.5 % for the (CS). As shown in Fig. (16).
4-2-10 Column (CTBA 3 900 30)
protected with thermal brick with alumina cement (CTBA3 900 30) reduced CFRP
o
concrete temperature by 94.44 % at 900
o
C and 91.56% at the end of the test C.G
concrete temperature were reduced by 96.33 % at 900
o
C and 93.56 % at the end of the
test. The reduction in the failure load was 25 % for the (CS). As shown in Fig. (17).
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Time Sec
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

o
C
Furnance Temp.
ASTM Temp.
Poly. (C.G. Temp.)
Poly. (CFRP Temp.)
Poly. (1/4 Specimen
Temp.)

Fig. (16) Time- Temperature curve of
column protected by sand glass
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500
Time Sec
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

o
C
Furnance Temp.
ASTM Temp.
Poly. (C.G.Temp.)
Poly. (1/4 Specimen
Temp.)
Poly. (CFRP Temp.)

protected by thermal brick with alumina cement
4-2-11 Effect Dry A5
Two column specimens protected by Dry A5. Partially failure on the protection
layer surface occurred, The reduction in the failure load was 46.88 %
4-3 Summary and discussion of Column
the crack appearance, distribution on the surface of the protection layer was depending
on, the constituent and proportion of protective material mix, and the layer thickness of
-1125-

COMP-002-15
the protection layer, also, this table reveals that, Perlite, vermiculite and Ferro-cement
protection material have good resistance to thermal flow. Quartz, thermal brick and Dry
5 protection layer had a complete failure on the protection layer surface. Alumina
cement improves the crack propagation of protection layer. as shown in Fig. (18) to
Fig.(21)
4-4 Failure load of protected columns
For all tested specimens the ultimate failure load was less than the
ultimate failure load of the control specimen but was higher than the failure load of the
un-strengthen unfired column specimen (C) except column specimens protected by
DRYA5.

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
CVA CV CFCA CFC CPA CP CTBA CF CQ CSG CD3 CD2
Specimen
T
e
m
p
.
at test end
At 900 C
At 800 C

Fig. (18) Temperature at CFRP layer for column at
800oC , 900oC and at the end of ASTM fire
test.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
Specimen
T
e
m
p
.
CFRP
1/4 Specimen
1/2 Specimen

. Fig. (19) Temperature at reaching 900 C of ASTM
fire test in CFRP layer, specimens and
specimens

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
Specimen
T
e
m
p
.
CFRP
1/4 Specimen
1/2 Specimen

Fig. (20) Temperature at end of ASTM fire test at
CFRP layer, specimens and specimens
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
CFCA CPA CVA CP CFC CV CF CTBA CQ CSG CD31 CD2 control
Specimen
%

o
f

f
a
i
l
u
r
e

l
o
a
d

. Fig. (21) Reduction in the column failure load
compared with the control strengthened and
unfired column

-1126-

COMP-002-16
Table (6) Summery the test result of columns
Response to temperature Response to load
Legend
Protection layer CFRP layer
Failure
load (ton)
Pu/Puc Pu/Pucs
C* ------- ------- 34.30 1.00 0.62
CS** ------- ------- 55.20 1.61 1.00
CFC900 30 Honey combo crack Few change 44.85 1.31 0.81
CFCA900 30 Mesh cracks No change 50.00 1.46 0.91
CV900 30
Lateral and
longitudinal crack
Semi-brown 43.55 1.27 0.79
CVA900 30
Lateral and
longitudinal crack
No change 48.30 1.41 0.88
CF900 30
Lateral and
longitudinal crack
Semi-brown 43.15 1.26 0.78
CSG900 30
lateral and
longitudinal crack
brown 34.5 1.01 0.63
CTBA900 30
Wide Transverse
longitudinal crack
brown 41.40 1.21 0.75
CQ900 30
lateral and
longitudinal crack
brown 37.95 1.11 0.69
CP900 30 Mesh cracks No change 46.55 1.36 0.84
CPA900 30 Mesh cracks No change 49.25 1.44 0.89
CD900 30 Partial failure brown 30.00 0.87 0.54
CD2 900 30 Complete failure brown 27.60 0.80 0.50
* un strengthened and unfired beam
** strengthened and un fired beam

5 - CONCLUSIONS
From the investigation of this study, the following conclusions be drawn: -
1- For beams the exposure of the CFRP layer and the concrete surface to 100
o
C for 1 hr
directly has no effect on the external surface of the specimens and type of failure but
the failure load reduced by 21% compared with the control beam B1S.
2- The thickness of the protection material has a major effect in the reduction of
temperature at the CFRP layer.
3- Ferro cement -with alumina cement coating is the most efficient heat insulator among
the examined coatings. Coating thickness of 3 cm are enough to maintain 90.63 % of
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COMP-002-17
the initial load capacity of the strengthen column after exposure to 900
o
C for 30
minutes. While Perlite-with Alumina Cement maintain 87.5% for the same thickness.
Although the presented test have been carried out on half scale models but it may be
expected that similar results will be obtained when applying this coating to full scale
columns.
4- Although increasing the coating thickness will increase the heat insulation, plain
coating of more than 3.0 cm thick will not be able to stay in place without being
reinforced with suitable wire mesh.
5- CFRP materials can be used in buildings, by proving appropriate fire insulation;
reinforced concrete columns that have been confined with CFRP wraps can endure
elevated temperatures of fire under strengthened service loads for more than 70
minutes.
6 - Recommendations for future research
It is recommended that future research efforts be directed towards the
following:
1- Studying the strengthening of full scale beams and columns using different types of
Fibers such as glass Fiber and different heat barriers. Also
2- Studying the behavior of the reinforced concrete columns exposed to fire under
eccentric loads.
8 REFERENCES
[1] Rashad, A., M. the effect of elevated temperature on loaded RC columns
containing different aggregate types and different mineral admixtures (2000),_",
M.Sc. Cairo Univ.
[2] Ibrahim, H. M. Marzouq, M. H., Effect of fire extinguishing methods on the
capacity of reinforced concrete compression members", (2003), Port-Said
Engineering Research Journal. v7 n2 p513-521.
[3] Helmi, A.I. I. Fire protection of reinforced concrete columns retrofitted
using advanced composite materials"(2003), International Colloquium...
pE03MAT28.
[4] Karamoko S., Frederic D.,M. and Bernard B.,Fire safety of reinforced concrete
columns",(2000) , ACI-Struct-J. v 97 n 4 July-August, p 642-647.
[5] Euro code 2, Design of concrete structures, Part 1-2," Structural Fire Design,
(ENV2001).
[6] Muhammad, U.F.K.., Experimental study for the residual load capacity of
short modeled columns fired in a fire furnace",( 2002) Ph.D. Cairo Univ..
[7] Malhotra, H. L., Design of fire resistance structure",( 1982), Chapman and
Hall, New York,
[8] Wei-Ming L.n, Lin T. D., and Powers-C.L. J., Microstrutures Of Fire-
Damaged Concrete,( 1996), ACI Material Journal, May-June, pp199-205.
[9] Sakumoto Y., research on new fire-protection materials and fire-safe design",
(1999), Journal of Structural-Eng., ASCE, v 000 n 000, Dec. 1999 p 1415-1422.

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COMP-003-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





REHABILITATION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE FRAMES TO
CONFORM TO CURRENT EGYPTIAN CODES

O.M.O. RAMADAN
Professor
Egypt
A.A.B. KHALIL
Assistant professor
Egypt
E-mail: khalilaa@gmail.com
A.M. TAWFIK
Graduate student
Egypt
E-mail: ahmedtaw2@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Many existing buildings and industrial facilities in Egypt were designed and built
according to older codes of practice. Provisions for seismic performance have been
upgraded in newer Egyptian codes. The structures designed based on older codes may
be inadequate if checked based on the requirements of newer versions. Their behavior in
the event of an earthquake may be unsatisfactory resulting in human casualties and
damage to property. This study investigated the seismic performance of old structures in
Egypt that were designed and built till 1993. Seismic performance of those structures
was checked by provisions of the upgraded versions of the Egyptian code of loading
(1993 and 2008). The study focused on industrial halls whose lateral-load-resisting
systems were composed of reinforced concrete frames. Some of the analyzed frames
were found to be compliant with the newer codes but others were found to be under-
designed. Rehabilitation using fiber composites was preferred to traditional
rehabilitation techniques as it requires shorter repair time and causes lesser work
disruption and is also more useful for selective rehabilitation. Nonlinear structural
analysis of the selected frames was performed. Macro-modeling was the technique used
in the analysis because of its simplicity and low computational requirements which
makes it practical for a design engineer. The results from the model were verified by
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COMP-003-2
comparing them to those of published experimental investigations. Results for the
rehabilitated frames were compared to the original frames and to the code requirements.
The rehabilitation schemes were found to be effective in removing the deficiencies and
mitigating the risk for structural frames designed based on older codes.
KEYWORDS
Earthquake; macro-modeling; fiber-reinforced polymers; rehabilitation; reinforced
concrete; portal frame; bond-slip.
1 INTRODUCTION
Building codes are frequently updated due to advances in engineering knowledge and
experience. In Egypt, the famous earthquake that occurred in October 1992 and caused
damage to hundreds of residential buildings, governmental buildings, schools, and
industrial structures in Cairo and surrounding areas played an important role in giving
more attention to the design seismic loads [1].
Major recent changes in the zoning maps and design philosophies occurred in the
Egyptian codes [2] to [5].The 1989 code [2] specified seismic static load coefficients
only based on a rough zoning of the country. The 1993 code [3] divided Egypt into
three seismic regions; excluded some types of low-rise buildings from seismic design
requirements; and recommended few methods for the calculation of the fundamental
period. The effect of local soil conditions was also included in the calculation of seismic
loads. The 2003 and 2008 codes [4 and 5] made major changes in design seismic loads.
Three ways of calculating the fundamental period were recommended. Besides, the
effects of structure characteristics (e.g. statical system and ductility) as well as its
function were considered in the seismic loads calculation. Review of these codes shows
a continuous increase in specified seismic loads. Thus, every new version of the code
suggests that buildings already built following its preceding version are in risk. This
research focuses on the seismic risk for some types of industrial reinforced concrete
frames which were built according to 1989 code requirements due the relatively high
risk of property loss and damage to expensive equipment in case of structural damage.
The study focuses on single-story, single-bay, reinforced concrete frames. Some of the
analyzed frames were found to be compliant with the newer codes but others were
found to be in need for strengthening. Several rehabilitation schemes using fibre
composites were proposed to overcome the problem of incompatibility of studied
frames with the new design codes. Rehabilitation using fiber composites was preferred
to traditional rehabilitation techniques as it requires shorter repair time and causes lesser
work disruption. It is also more useful for selective rehabilitation: for example,
increasing the strength without significantly increasing the stiffness.
2 HISTORY OF SEISMIC LOADS IN EGYPTIAN CODES
Structures designed and built before 1989 were not designed for seismic loads. In the
1989 code [2], all Egypt was considered a low seismicity zone except Red Sea coast,
Southern Sinai, and Aswan. Seismic loading was determined using Equivalent static
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COMP-003-3
force (for structures with height less than 100 m or with height to width ratio- in
direction of earthquake- that does not exceed 5).
The 1993 code [3] provided one additional method to calculate the fundamental period
of a multi storey building and modified the seismic zones but still permitted the use of
the equivalent static method for industrial frames similar to the ones investigated in this
study and the increase in the seismic loads was not significant.
The Egyptian code for loads which was released in 2003 had major changes [4]. One of
the changes is that the calculated seismic loads are calculated to be used according to
the ultimate limit state design. The code provided two formulae for the fundamental
period of buildings. One of them is
1
2 T d = (1)
where d is the elastic lateral displacement at top of structure as a result of taking the
vertical loads as horizontal loads. This formulae gives a fundamental period very close
to the one obtained from dynamic analysis for the type of frames investigated in this
study.
The 2008 code [5] is a modified version of the 2003 one. It divided governorates and
cities of Egypt into five main seismic zones with minor changes from the 2003 code [4].
Nevertheless, the 2008 code yields seismic loads that are generally less than those
calculated by the 2003 code [4].
3 SEISMIC SAFETY OF INDUSTRIAL HALLS
Industrial frames were selected as rehabilitation of industrial frames has more economic
importance than residential buildings. The study focused on structures whose lateral-
load-resisting systems were composed of reinforced concrete frames.
A typical single-story single-bay framed structure is considered. Due to regularity of
this structure, it is sufficient to study a typical intermediate frame (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1: Layout of studied frame showing section labels
4 PARAMETRIC STUDY
Twenty-three cases were considered in this study as shown in Table 1. The parameters
included in this study are the span, height, and section dimensions of the frame; in
addition to the type of base connection (hinged or fixed), the level of live load, and the
level of seismic load. Furthermore, the effect of accidental increase in dead load due to
change in function or errors in construction was investigated for one of the studied
cases.
3
4
2
1
l
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COMP-003-4
Table 1: Studied frames
*

*
F is for Fixed base and H is for Hinged base. Live loads (L.L.) in kN/m
2

The choice of the span, height, and sections dimensions was based on typical
dimensions for actual industrial halls constructed in Egypt in the 1960s; refer to [6] for
more examples of these frames. The ratio of the section depth to the span was taken as
3/40 for all frames. The width of all frames was equal to 0.3 m.
Two values of live loads on the roof were taken into consideration: 1 kN/m
2
represents a
case of inaccessible roof and 5 kN/m
2
represents a reasonable live load for possible
commercial or office use. Preliminary studies showed that using values of live load
higher than 5 kN/m
2
will lead to an increase in gravity loads that makes all the seismic
loads insignificant for all cases under consideration.
To use different values of seismic load, three different locations for the frame were
considered as follows:
The city of-6 October was chosen to represent buildings of Cairo. It was classified as
Zone 1 (Low seismic zone) according to Code of 1989 [2] and Zone 2 (Moderate
seismic zone) according to Code of 1993 [3]. It was classified as Zone 3 (Moderate
seismic zone) according to 2003 and 2008 codes [4 and 5].
Alexandria is one of the major cities that had different degrees of seismic risk in
different codes. Alexandria was classified as Zone 1 (Low seismic zone) according to
code of 1989. However, the 1993 code classified it as Zone 3 (High seismic zone)
which may be due to seismic activities in south of Europe such as Greece and Cyprus.
The 2003 and 2008 codes classified Alexandria as Zone 2 (Below-moderate seismic
zone) [4 and 5].
Frame
l
(m)
H
(m)
Depth
of
frame
(m)
Location
(City)
Type
of
base
L.L

Dead
loads
factor
1 20 8 1.5 6 October F 1 1
2 20 8 1.5 6 October H 1 1
3 20 8 1.5 Hurgada F 1 1
4 20 8 1.5 Hurgada H 1 1
5 40 8 3 Hurgada H 1 1
6 20 15 1.5 Hurgada H 1 1
7 40 15 3 Hurgada H 1 1
8 30 8 2.25 Hurgada H 1 1
9 30 15 2.25 Hurgada H 1 1
10 20 8 1.5 Hurgada H 5 1
11 20 15 1.5 Hurgada H 5 1
12 20 8 1.5 Alexandria H 1 1
13 40 8 3 Alexandria H 1 1
14 20 15 1.5 Alexandria H 1 1
15 40 15 3 Alexandria H 1 1
16 30 8 2.25 Alexandria H 1 1
17 30 15 2.25 Alexandria H 1 1
18 20 8 1.5 Alexandria H 5 1
19 20 15 1.5 Hurgada H 1 1.1
20 20 15 1.5 Hurgada H 1 1.3
21 20 15 1.5 6 October H 1 1
22 20 15 1.5 Hurgada F 1 1
23 20 15 1.5 Hurgada H 1 1.5
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COMP-003-5
Hurgada was chosen to represent the high seismic zone in Egypt. Hurgada is one of the
regions which were classified as high seismic zone in the four considered Egyptian
codes. Table 2 summarizes classification of the three regions for the four codes
considered in this paper.

Table 2: Zone classification of cities according to 1989, 1993, 2003, and 2008 codes
ECCS 89 ECP93 ECP03 ECP08
6-October
City
1 2 3 3
Alexandria 1 3 2 2
Hurgada 2 3 5 5a
5 METHOD OF ANALYSIS
For the parametric study, linear analysis was performed for all the frames. The sections
were designed according to the code of 1989[2] and then checked using the codes of
1993[3], 2003[4], and 2008[5]. All the relevant load combinations for the four codes
were considered. Twelve load combinations were considered as shown in Table 3. The
criterion under investigation was whether the straining actions due to any load
combination in the new codes are larger than the straining actions calculated based upon
[2].
Table 3: Used load combinations according to different codes
No. Combination Code
1 1.5(D+L) All
*

2 0.8(1.4D+1.6L+1.6W89) 89
3 0.8(1.4D+1.6L+1.6S89) 89
4 0.8(1.4D+1.6L+1.6W93) 93
5 0.8(1.4D+1.6L+1.6S93) 93
6 1.12D+L+S03 03
7 1.12D+L+S08 08
8 0.9 D+ 1.6 L All
*

9 0.9 D+ 1.3 W89 89
10 0.9 D+ 1.3 S89 89
11 0.9 D+ 1.3 W93 93
12 0.9 D+ 1.3 S93 93
*
This load combination is specified by all codes
where D is the dead load, L is the live load, W is the wind load, and S is the seismic
load.
6 RESULTS OF PARAMETRIC STUDY
Table 4 shows a summary of the results of the governing straining actions for all the
studied frames. Note that the numbers 1 to 7 refer to the load combinations as given in
Table 3. As seen in Table 4, the 2008 code governs in many cases. There was a
noticeable increase of up to about 30% in shear force for some frames. However, no
shear strengthening is needed because the minimum stirrups supplied in these frames
are sufficient.
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COMP-003-6
Table 5 shows a list of all the frames where the bending moment at the beam-column
joint (Sections 2 and 3) increased according to 2008 code [5] relative to 1989 code [2]
The percentage of increase varied from 2.2% to 26.4% of the critical design
combination (column 2) but varied from 22% to 51% of the seismic load combination
(column 3). The bending moment at the base (Section 4) was found to have increased
only for Frames 1, 3, and 22 with a percentage increase of 3.5%, 22.7%, and 24.4%,
respectively. For the seismic load combination, the increase is huge reaching close to
900% when the structural period is taken as specified by [5]: i.e. T 1.2T
c
, where T
c
is
the empirical, code-estimated value. When the true fundamental period is used, the
increase in seismic effects is reduced but still large (up to 350%). It worth noting that,
for industrial frames, the actual T obtained from dynamic analysis could be more than
few multiples of the code value. Thus, the codes empirical formulas for estimating the
fundamental period can be too conservative for special structures such as large-span,
single-story, industrial frames.
Examining these results leads to some useful conclusions as follows:
The frames with short span (20 m) are more likely to require strengthening than
beams with long span (30m or 40 m). Also, the 15-m high frames are also more
likely to require strengthening than the 8-m high frames. Hence, the design of
frames with long span and shallow height is governed by the gravity loads while
frames with short span and large height are governed by seismic loads.

Table 4: Governing load combinations for studied frames.

Section 2 Section 3 Section 4
Frames
N M Q M Q M
1 1 1 1 1 1 6,7
2 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 1 1 1 1 1 6,7
4 6,7 6,7 6,7 6,7 6,7 1
5 1 1 1 1 1 1
6 6,7 4,6,7 6,7 4,6,7 6,7 1
7 1 1 1 1 1 1
8 1 1 1 1 1 1
9 6,7 6,7 6,7 6,7 6,7 1
10 6,7 6,7 6,7 6,7 6,7 1
11 6,7 6,7 6,7 6,7 4,6,7 1
12 1 1 1 1 1 1
13 1 1 1 1 1 1
14 6,7 4,6,7 6,7 4,6,7 2,4,6,7 1
15 1 1 1 1 1 1
16 1 1 1 1 1 1
17 6,7 6,7 6,7 6,7 6,7 1
18 1 1 1 1 1 1
19 6,7 6,7 6,7 6,7 2,4,6,7 1
20 6,7 6,7 6,7 6,7 2,6,7 1
21 6,7 6,7 6,7 6,7 2,4,6,7 1
22 6,7 1 6,7 1 4,6,7 2,4,6,7
23 6,7 6,7 6,7 6,7 2,6,7 1

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COMP-003-7
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Frame 21 (6 October city) Frame 14 (Alexandria) Frame 6 (Hurgada)
Frame
B
e
n
d
i
n
g

M
o
m
e
n
t

(
k
N
.
m
)
D & L
D, L & S89
D, L & S03
D, L & S08

Fig.2: Bending moment for Section 2 (beam-column joint) for a hinged frame with span of 20 m
and height of 8 m

Table 5: Percentage of increase in bending moment at beam-column joint (Sections 2 and 3) for
[5] relative to [2]

Load combinations* Seismic load case only
Frame
(7) relative to (1) (7) relative to (3) (using 1.2 T
code
) (using T
dynamic
)
4 6% 30% 621% 229%
6 26% 39% 342% 224%
9 2% 22% 343% 224%
10 4% 24% 876% 346%
11 19% 33% 472% 319%
14 26% 51% 785% 224%
17 2% 28% 785% 224%
21 5% 26% 431% 288%
* as specified in Table 3

For fixed base frames, there is a lower probability that the frame will need
strengthening than for hinged-base frames.
Frames in Alexandria and Hurgada (high and moderate seismic zones) are more
likely to require strengthening based on the new codes than frames in low
seismic zones. The straining actions for frames in low seismic zones are larger
when calculated according to the latest codes however the increase in the
straining actions is in the order of 5 % as seen in Fig. 2.

7 REHABILITATION OF STRUCTURES USING FRP
The traditional technique for rehabilitation of structures is concrete jacketing. Concrete
jacketing involves pouring new concrete to increase the thickness and adding vertical as
well as transverse, or diagonal reinforcement. This method is labor intensive, time
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COMP-003-8
consuming, disruptive to the occupancy of the building, and the additional thickness
may affect the function of the building. Increasing the stiffness may be undesirable
since it will attract higher forces. These higher forces may require costly foundation
modifications.
The use of advanced composite materials in repair and rehabilitation of concrete
members has gained wide acceptance in the construction industry especially for
rehabilitation of beams and columns. In recent years, FRP has been successfully used in
rehabilitation of some special structures in Egypt such as The Egyptian Museum, El-
Ahmadi Mosque in Tanta, and Bibliotheca Alexandria [7].
One of the additional advantages of strengthening using FRP sheets is that it does not
significantly increase the stiffness of the strengthened frame. Table 6 shows the period
of a frame calculated according to different versions of the Egyptian code. Values of
the period, T, are calculated based on linear elastic lateral stiffness, k. Differences
occurring in T for different codes are due to variations in assigned mass.
It is seen from Table 6 that using FRP in strengthening reinforced concrete members
does not significantly affect the fundamental period of structure where the change is in
the order of 1%. This means that seismic forces on the structure will not change
significantly. On the other hand, strengthening reinforced concrete members using
traditional concrete jackets increases the stiffness of structure which leads to increase of
applied seismic forces by 20% in this specific case. This will subsequently increase the
seismic straining actions on that structure.

Table 6: Effect of type of strengthening technique on the period

K
(KN/m)
T
89,93
(Sec.)
T
03,08
(Sec.)

Original
(1500 x 300) mm
1189.3 2.1443 2.2753
Strengthened
by FRP
1189.5 2.1441 2.2273
Strengthened by RC
jacket
(2000 x 300) mm
1885.4 1.7385 1.80329
8 DESIGN OF REHABILITATION SCHEME
The design calculations for the strengthening of frames with FRP are done following
both the ACI code [8] and the Egyptian code [9] which produce similar results. The
used FRP material has tensile strength of 717 MPa, tensile modulus of 65087 MPa, and
tensile elongation of 0.98%. Thickness of the used FRP layer is 1.016 mm. Table 7
shows the number of FRP layers needed for strengthening to match the straining actions
based on the 2008 code [5]. The results using the 2003 code [4] loads are exactly the
same as those of the 2008 code [5] except for Frame 14 which would need only two
layers of FRP sheets to resist the straining actions according to 2003 code. Table 7
shows percentages of increase in flexure capacity, M%, relative to the capacity of the
original section. Thus, percentages in Table 7 are different from those in Table 5.
Besides, values of M% corresponding to Frames 19, 20, and 23 are excessive as the
dead load is assumed to be increased after construction as indicated in Table 1. Note
that although Section 3 needs a smaller number of FRP layers than Section 2, the
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COMP-003-9
number of layers can be taken equal for both sections for practical reasons. Finally, the
large percentage of increase corresponding to Frames 20 and 23 exceeds the
strengthening limits set by ACI code [8]. It is left here, however, to see whether such
strengthening level is possible or not.

Table 7: No. of layers required for strengthening of section against loads of [4] and [5]

Section 2 Section 3
Frame M (%) No. of
FRP layers
No. of
FRP layers
6 11% 3 1
14 11% 3 1
19 21% 6 3
20 41% 10 8
23 62% 15 14
9 NONLINEAR ANALYSIS OF DEFICIENT AND REHABILITATED FRAMES
Macro-modeling has gained wide acceptance for nonlinear analysis of structures using
commercially available structural analysis software with relatively inexpensive
computational capabilities. This technique depends on representing the non-linear
behavior of a member with a set of springs at ends of members while representing the
rest of the member with linearly-elastic elements. In the specific macro-model used in
this paper [10, 11, and 12], steel, concrete, and FRP are modeled by equivalent springs
as shown in Figure 3. Steel spring is represented by a bilinear monotonic envelope in
tension and the same in compression, while the hysteretic model for concrete spring is
shown in Figure 4. The FRP model includes a nonlinear monotonic envelope only in
tension till P
fu
and d
fu
which are the maximum tensile force and maximum tensile
displacement, respectively. For simplicity of modeling, the compressive strength of FRP
spring can be neglected [8]. The maximum tensile force in FRP spring can be
determined as follows:
P
fu
= 2.E
f
.A
f
.d
fu
/L
f
(2)
where A
f
, f
fu
, E
f
, and L are the cross-section area, ultimate tensile strength, Youngs modulus,
and length of the FRP sheet.

Fig.3: Macro-model of a beam-column joint Fig.4: Hysteretic model for concrete spring [12]
Elastic element
Rigid
elements
Rigid
element
Elastic element
Rigid
element
1 concrete, steel & FRP
2 Concrete & steel
1 2 2
1
2
2
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COMP-003-10
10 BOND-SLIP MODEL
One of the important features in the used macro-model is that it accounts for bond-slip
relationships between concrete and either steel bars, or FRP sheets. The bond
characteristic of steel bars (or FRP sheets) can be described by the relationship between
local bond stress, , and corresponding local slip, s, of bar (sheet). Slip of steel bar or
FRP sheet can be defined as the relative displacement of bar (sheet) with respect to
concrete. Bond stress depends on material properties and geometry of steel bars or FRP
sheets.
A simple approach with reasonable adequacy was used to model the behavior of
embedded steel bars in concrete elements under monotonic loads [13 and 14]. Figure 5
shows the actual bond-slip relationship and the idealized curve for straight bars; which
was used in the macro-model [15]. Procedure of solution and properties of curve are
described elsewhere [16]. The results of the bond-slip model were verified with
experimental results [17] as shown in Figure 6. Relative error between experimental and
analytical results ranged between 6 % and 13 %.
A bilinear model [18] that describes the relationship between FRP and concrete through
a simple set of equations was used. The model was implemented in the macro-model
analysis and compared to two more advanced and accurate models [19 and 20]. There
was no significant difference in accuracy for the purposes of this analysis. Hence the
simplified model [18] shown in Fig. 7 was used in the analysis. The bond-slip
relationship between FRP and concrete was verified against experimental results [18,
21, 22, and 23] and good agreement was obtained as seen in Figure 8.

Fig. 5: Bond stress-slip relationships for steel bars in concrete: (a) Actual (b) Idealized for
straight bars [15]
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COMP-003-11
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Deformation (mm)
F
o
r
c
e

i
n

s
t
e
e
l

b
a
r

(
k
N
)
S101 Experimental [17]
S101 Analytical
S61 Experimental [17]
S61 Analytical

Fig. 6: Verification of steel bond-slip model against experimental results

Fig. 7: Bond stress-slip relationships between FRP and concrete [18]

Finally, verification of the use of both models simultaneously was performed using
experimental data [24] where good agreement is noticed as seen in Figure 9.

11 PUSHOVER ANALYSIS OF STRENGTHENED FRAMES
Five strengthened frames were analyzed using macro-model technique using the number
of layers specified in Table 7 but with equal number of layers for Section 2 and Section
3. Table 8 shows the percentage increase in strength due to strengthening for the five
analyzed frames as obtained from the pushover analyses. Note that these increase
percentages are less the desired ones (Table 7). The mode of failure for the strengthened
frames was tension failure as the steel springs yielded before the failure of the concrete
springs, and failure occurred when the FRP springs failed.
Additional analysis was done to study the effect of increasing the number of layers
beyond the code requirements. Figure 10 shows the effect of number of strengthening
FRP layers on the lateral force-deformation relationships for hinged frame with span of
20 m and height of 15 m (Frame 6). The rate of increase of the strength of the frame
becomes smaller as the number of layers increases because the section becomes over-
reinforced and reaches its maximum capacity. Figure 11 shows the strength percentage
increase and ductility factor for Frame 6 when using various numbers of layers.
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COMP-003-12
Another investigation was made to study the effect of strengthening location on the
behavior of structure. Frame 22, which is similar to Frame 6 except that it has fixed
base instead of hinged base, was used in this analysis. Three cases were studied, upper
strengthening (only at Section 2 and Section 3), lower strengthening (only at Section 4),
and both upper and lower strengthening. Fifteen FRP layers were used for all the cases.
Figure 12 shows the behavior of Frame 22 due to various cases of strengthening. Table
9 shows the percentage of increase in the strength in Frame 22 due to studied
strengthening locations. It seems that strengthening near the column base (Lower) is
more effective than strengthening near the beam column joint (Upper). This may be due
to the presence of axial compression force at the column base (Lower) while the
capacity at the column top (Upper) is governed by the flexure behavior of the girder.
Note that the effect of axial force in the girder is much less than its effect in the
column).

0.174
-0.080
0.041
0.001
0.018
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
[18] (PG1-11) [22] (PG1-22) [22] (NJ2) [23] (1-11) [24]
Specimen
P
u

(
K
N
)
-0.1
-0.05
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

e
r
r
o
r
Pu Experimental (KN)
Pu Analytical (KN)
Relative error

Fig. 8 Verification of FRP bond-slip model against experimental results
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Deformation (mm)
F
o
r
c
e

(
k
N
)
C1- Experimental [25]
D1- Experimental[25]
C1- Analytical
D1- Analytical
Control C/D - Analytical
Control C/D - Experimental[25]

Fig.9: Overall verification of the macromodel for simply-supported beams C1, D1 and
control specimen C/D. (Note: experimental results are discrete values only)
-1140-

COMP-003-13
Table 10 shows a comparison between Frame 6 (hinged base) and Frame 22 (fixed base)
when strengthened by 15 layers of FRP in upper location. It is clear that the
strengthening is more effective for the frame with fixed base.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Lateral deformation (mm)
L
a
t
e
r
a
l

f
o
r
c
e

(
k
N
)
15 layers
10 layers
6 layers
Unstrengthened

Fig.10: Effect of increasing the number of FRP layers on overall behavior for Frame 6
5.98
4.24
4.07 3.96
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Unstrengthened 6 layers 10 layers 15 layers
Number of Layers
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

i
n
c
r
e
a
s
e

%
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
D
u
c
t
i
l
i
t
y

f
a
c
t
o
r
Strength
increase %
Ductility factor

Fig.11: Effect of number of FRP layers on the strength and ductility of Frame 6

Table 8: Percentage of strength increase for
the analyzed frames.
Table 9: Percentage of strength increase for
Frame 22 corresponding to various
locations of FRP strengthening

Frame
P
Unstrengthened
(kN)
P
Strengthened
(kN)
Strength
increase %
6 198.25 216.25 9
14 198.25 216.25 9
19 196.53 228.1 16
20 192.63 232.97 21
23 187.33 237.91 27
Location
Strength
increase %
Upper 10
Lower 39
Upper and lower 49.5
-1141-

COMP-003-14
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Lateral deformation (mm)
L
a
t
e
r
a
l

f
o
r
c
e

(
k
N
)
Upper and Lower strengthening
Lower strengthening
Upper strengthening
Unstrengthened

Fig.12: Effect of Location of FRP strengthening in Frame 22

Table 10: Percentage of increase in ultimate strength, P
u
, corresponding to maximum
displacement, d
u
, and ductility factor for Frame 22 and Frame 6

Frame
Strength
Increase %
P
u
(kN)
d
u
(mm)
Ductility
factor
Frame 22 (Fixed) 10 470.11 259.19 4.42
Frame 6 (hinged) 24 246.176 289.54 4.75

12 CONCLUSIONS
There is a significant increase in prescribed seismic loads for structures designed
according to the 2008 code relative to older design codes. For industrial single span
reinforced concrete frames, the increase in the seismic load may-in some cases- be more
than several multiples. However, for some frames although the seismic load increases,
the effect on the total load combination is not significant. Nevertheless, for many other
frames an increase of close to 30% was observed in the design bending moment at some
sections. The most vulnerable frames are frames with relatively short span, relatively
large height, located in moderate seismic zones (e.g. Alexandria) or high seismic zones
(e.g. Hurghada). For all the studied frames, it was found that no strengthening was
required in terms of shear strength of the section. The only required increase is in the
flexural strength of some sections.
The codes empirical formulas for estimating the fundamental period can be too
conservative for special structures such as large-span, single-story, industrial frames.
While ECP 201 [5] and other international codes require the used T be not more than
1.2 the code-estimated value, the actual T obtained from dynamic analysis for industrial
frames could be more than few multiples of the code value.
FRP sheets are currently considered an efficient tool for selective rehabilitation of the
flexural strength without significantly affecting other properties such as shear strength
and stiffness. The rehabilitation scheme for five industrial frames was designed
according to both the Egyptian and the ACI codes for FRP rehabilitation.
-1142-

COMP-003-15
The strengthened frames were modeled using macro-modeling technique for nonlinear
pushover analysis. The macro-model took into consideration the nonlinear behavior of
concrete and steel and the bond-slip between concrete and either FRP or steel. The
results of the macro-model were verified against numerous experimental results. The
results of the nonlinear push-over analysis of the strengthened frames showed that the
rehabilitation scheme increased the lateral load capacity of the frames by up to 27%
depending on the design of the scheme. An investigation into the effect of the number
of layers shows that the increase of the number of FRP layers increases the strength of
the frame up to a limit at which the mode of failure in the section shifts to compression
failure; this also applies to the ductility of structure.
Another investigation into the effect of the strengthening location for frames fixed at the
base showed that strengthening the frame near the base is more effective in increasing
the lateral load capacity than strengthening the beam-column joint.
REFERENCES
[1] Badawi, H.S., and Mourad, S.A., Journal of Natural Hazards, 10 (3) (1994)
[2] Egyptian Code for Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Buildings, Housing
and Building Research Center (HBRC), Egypt, (1989).
[3] Egyptian Code for Load Calculation, ECP 201, HBRC, (1993).
[4] Egyptian Code for Load Calculation, ECP 201, HBRC, (2003).
[5] Egyptian Code for Load Calculation, ECP 201, HBRC, Final Draft, (2008).
[6] Hilal, M., Design Of Reinforced Concrete Halls, J. Marcou & Co., Egypt (1993)
[7] Hosny, A., Mahfouz, I., Abdelrahman, A., El-Ghandour , A., The Fifth Middle East
Symp. on Structural Composites for Infrastructure Applications, Egypt (2008) 20-37.
[8] ACI 440.2R-02, American Guide for The Design and Construction of Externally Bonded
FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures (2002).
[9] Draft of Egyptian Code for The Design and Construction Of FRP Systems for
Strengthening and Designing Structures (2005).
[10] Lai, S.S., Will, G.T., and Otani, S., J. of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 110 (11) (1984).
[11] Youssef, M., and Ghobarah, A. , ACI Structural Journal, 96 (6) (1999).
[12] Ghobarah, A., and Youssef, M., Engineering Structures, 21 (10) (1999).
[13] Aliswat, J.M., and Saatcioglu, M., J. of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 118 (9) (1992).
[14] Galal, K.E.M., Ph.D. dissertation, McMaster University, Ontario, Canada (2002).
[15] Eligehausen, F., Popov, E.P., and Bertero, V.V., Earthquake Engineering Research
Center, Report No. UCB/EERC-83/23, Univ. of California, Berkeley, California (1983).
[16] El-Amoury, T., PhD dissertation, McMaster University, Canada (2004).
[17] Ueda, T., Lin, I., and Hawkins, N.M., ACI Structural Journal, 83 (3) (1986).
[18] Yuan H, Teng JG, Seracino R, Wu ZS, Yao J. Engineering Structures 26 (5) (2004).
[19] Lu, X.Z., Teng, J.G., Ye, L.P and Jiang, J.J., Engineering Structures 27(6) (2005).
[20] Lu, X.Z., Teng, J.G., Ye, L.P. and Jiang, J.J. (2004). Proceeding of 2nd International
Conference of Advanced Polymer Composites for Structural Applications in Construction
(ACIC), 10 p. 152-161
[21] Tan Z., MSc Thesis, Tsinghua University; China: (2002) [in Chinese]. Referenced in [19].
[22] Zhao HD, Zhang Y, Zhao M., Proceedings of 1
st
Conference on FRP-Concrete
Structures of China. (2000) 24753.
[23] Takeo K, Matsushita H, Makizumi T, Nagashima G. Proceedings of Japan Concrete
Institute, 19 (2) (1997) 1599604.
[24] Brea, S.F., Bramblett, R.M., Wood, S.L., and Kreger, M.E., ACI Structural Journal 100
(1) (2003).
-1143-

COMP-004-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt


A SIMPLIFIED APPROACH FOR PREDICTING
STRAINS IN FRP-STRENGTHENED FLEXURAL MEMBERS

H. O. SAID
Department of Civil Engineering, Qena Faculty of Engineering,
South Valley University, Qena, P.O. Box 83521, Egypt
E-mail: okasha73@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
External strengthening of concrete structures by fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) has
been gaining wide acceptance worldwide. Therefore, an increasing demand for
understanding the structural behavior of FRP-strengthened structures has been
emerging. Prediction of strains in FRP-strengthened flexural members is one of the
most important issues in this regard. If correctly predicted, strains may be successfully
employed for predicting ultimate capacity, failure mode, and serviceability conditions.
Strains in FRP-strengthened flexural members may be predicted by several methods
such as sectional analysis or finite element procedures. However, these methods require
in most cases sophisticated calculations and special software packages. The current
paper discusses a simple but powerful approach for predicting strains based on the
moment-curvature relationship. The author's model for predicting the moment-curvature
relationship is adopted and then strains can be directly calculated. Comparing the results
of the proposed approach to the results of other existing methods confirmed its
reliability. Finally, a numerical example illustrating the application of the proposed
approach is given.
KEYWORDS
Fiber reinforced polymer, Strains prediction, Sectional analysis, Moment-curvature
relationship, Finite element.
1 INTRODUCTION
The superior ability of FRP plates/sheets to strengthen Reinforced Concrete (RC)
members in both shear and flexure has motivated research in this field worldwide. To
date, an extensive volume of this research has focused upon the evaluation of the
flexural capacity of FRP-strengthened structures, taking into account the premature
failure due to debonding (e. g. Teng et al. [1]; Wu and Niu [2]; Rosenboom and Rizkalla
[3]; Said and Wu [4]). FRP strain is the key issue of these studies. A reliable prediction
-1144-

COMP-004-2
of FRP strains does not only assist in predicting the ultimate capacity and the failure
mode of the strengthened member but also assists in predicting the serviceability
conditions. Similar to conventional RC flexural members, strains in FRP-strengthened
flexural members may be reliably predicted by sectional analysis based on the general
beam theory. When performing sectional analysis the following assumptions are made:
a) Linear strain distribution throughout the full depth of the section, which means plane
sections remain plane.
b) No slip between the longitudinal reinforcing bars and the surrounding concrete.
c) No slip between the external FRP reinforcement and the concrete substrate. Actually
this assumption is not completely valid. It may be accepted up to the initiation of
debonding. However, experiments (e.g. Yao et al. [5]) have shown that the gain in the
load-carrying capacity of flexural members after initiation of debonding is insignificant.
Therefore, many researchers have adopted the sectional analysis method in their studies
(e. g. Yao et al. [5]; Wu and Niu [6]; Fanning and Kelly [7]; Kotynia [8]).
d) No premature FRP separation or shear failure is accounted for.
e) No tensile strength of concrete is considered after concrete cracking.
Another mean for predicting strains in flexural members is the finite element method.
The finite element method is successfully applied for predicting the behavior of
different structural elements under different types of loads. A lot of the available finite
element software packages have the ability to handle various linear and nonlinear
material models of concrete, steel.etc. Recently, the finite element method has
been successfully used in investigating the behavior of FRP-strengthened structures.
Several linear and nonlinear models have been developed for modeling the FRP-
interface and premature failure due to debonding (e.g. Niu and Wu [9]; Lu et al. [10]).
Interfacial models serve in not only predicting the debonding capacity but also in
predicting the structural behavior more accurately prior to failure.
Both sectional analysis and finite element methods require in most cases sophisticated
calculations and special software packages. On the way of seeking for a simpler and
faster tool, the current paper discusses a new procedure for predicting strains based on
the moment-curvature relationship. The author's model [11] for predicting the moment-
curvature relationship is adopted and then strains can be directly calculated. In the next
section, the proposed approach will be presented in detail and then it will be compared
to both the sectional analysis and the finite element methods. Finally, a numerical
example illustrating the application of the proposed approach is given.
2 THE PROPOSED APPROACH
The author's model [11] for predicting the moment-curvature relationship in FRP-
strengthened flexural members is employed for predicting strains. Here are the
procedures of the proposed method:
a) Knowing the dimensions and materials properties of the section where strains are to
be predicted; determine the section properties at uncracked, cracked, and cracked-
yielded stages.
-1145-

COMP-004-3
b) Determine the cracking, first yield, and general yield moments. For detailed
equations, the reader is directed to Said [11] and the solved example in the appendix of
this paper.
c) Apply Said's model [11] to obtain the effective moment of inertia at different stages
as follows:
[ ]
[ ]
>

<
=
y a y e sh cr sh cr
y a cr a cr unc cr cr
cr a unc
e
M M I I I
M M M M M I I I
M M I
I
) / 1 ( 1 /
) / )( / 1 ( 1 /
, , ,
2
(1)
d) Determine the moment- curvature relationship from the following equation:
) /(
e c a
I E M = (2)
e) Based on the assumption of plane section remains plane, the strain can be directly
obtained as follows:
) (
n i i
h d = (3)
in which the subscript "i" refers to FRP, steel or concrete.
3 VALIDATION OF THE PROPSED APPROACH
The accuracy of the proposed method has been checked using several sets of the
documented experiments. Due to the limited space, only the results of two experiments
(Wu and Kurokawa [12]; Said and Wu [13]) are presented in this paper. Table 1 shows
the main data of the surveyed beams. For each beam, the relationship between midspan
FRP strain and midspan bending moment is predicted by sectional analysis, finite
element, and the proposed method.

Tabel 1: Main data of the surveyed beams.
Concrete
b d L a A
s A
s

y
E
s
A
f
d
f
E
f f
c
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

(mm
2
) (mm
2
)
(MPa) (GPa) (mm) (mm) (GPa) (MPa)
CP1-a5 150 160 1800 900 402.1 265.5 364 210 60.0 200.30 235 46.4
CP2-a5A 150 160 1800 900 402.1 265.5 364 210 120.0 200.60 235 46.4
B700-none/2
150 170 1800 700 - 222.4 - 203 33.3 200.11 230 28.6
B700-3D6/2
150 170 1800 700 84.8 222.4 368 203 33.3 200.11 230 28.6
B700-2D12/2
150 170 1800 700 222.4 222.4 428 203 33.3 200.11 230 28.6
B700-2D16/2
150 170 1800 700 397 222.4 383 196 33.3 200.11 230 28.6
B900-2D12/2
150 170 2200 900 222.4 222.4 428 203 33.3 200.11 230 28.6
B500-2D12/2
150 170 1400 500 222.4 222.4 428 203 33.3 200.11 230 28.6
Geometric data Longitudinal reinforcement External reinforcement Reference Beam
Wu and
Kurokawa
[12]
Said and
Wu [13]

In sectional analysis calculations, nonlinear response of concrete in compression is
considered. The widely-used stress-strain curve of Hognestad et al. [14] as shown in Fig
1 is adopted. Steel reinforcing bars are considered as a linear elastic-perfectly plastic
material, while FRP sheets behave in linear elastic manner up to rupture.
In the finite element calculations the following materials and structural models are
considered.
-1146-

COMP-004-4
Concrete Cracking Model
The rotating smeared crack model is adopted in order to simulate initiation and
propagation of cracks. The tensile behavior is modeled by the simplified linear softening
curve as shown in Fig. 2. This curve is based on mode I fracture energy G
f
I
by the
definition of the crack band width h of the element, the value of h related to the square
root of the area of the element is determined automatically by the software whereas the
tensile strength f
t
is calculated according to the CEB-FIP model code [15] as follows:

3 / 2 '
) 8 ( 3 . 0 =
c t
f f
(4)

Material Models
The response of concrete in compression is modeled by the pre-defined parabolic curve
shown in Fig. 3. The parabolic curve is based on fracture energy in compression G
c
by the
definition of the crack band width h of the element.
Steel reinforcing bars are considered as a linear elastic-perfectly plastic material, while
FRP sheets behave in linear elastic manner up to rupture.
Interfacial Model (FRP-concrete interface)
The linear softening model shown in Fig. 4 is adopted to simulate the mode-II fracture
of the adhesive.
Structural Model
Due to symmetry, only half of each beam has been analyzed with appropriate
boundaries. The beams are modeled by 4-node plane stress elements, steel bars are
Fig. 1: Nonlinear response of concrete in compression [14].

2
0 0
'
2

c c
c
c
f

f
c

0.0035
( )
0 '
1
=
c
c
c
k
f

0
0035 . 0
15 . 0

= k

c
c
E
f
'
0
2
=

S
t
r
e
s
s
,

c

Strain,
c

E
c
=tan
G
f
I
/h
Fig. 2: Simplified linear softening curve
for modeling mode I fracture of concrete.
crul
f
t
Fig. 3: Parabolic curve for modeling
concrete in the compressive regime.
c
f
h G
c
/ c
f
3
1


-1147-

COMP-004-5
modeled by 2-node linear truss elements perfectly connected to the concrete. FRP sheets
are modeled by 2-node linear truss elements connected to concrete by zero-thickness
line interface elements. Mesh sensitivity was studied and the most stable mesh of
elements of 10 mm-side length was adopted.
Midspan FRP strain-to-midspan bending moment relationships for the surveyed beams
are plotted in Figures 5 and 6. It is worth mentioning that the measured strains are not
included in these figures because their accuracy are subject to different sources of errors
such as evenness of the FRP surface, initiation of cracks at the strain gauge location,
and the accuracy of the strain gauge itself.

Fig. 4: Linear softening model for FRP-concrete interface.
Local bond stress,
Slip
t
Unloading/reloading
1
G
f
i

K
f
i

t

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Midspan FRP strain (x 10^6)
M
i
d
s
p
a
n

B
.

M
.

(
K
N
.
m
)
Proposed Approach
Sect ional Analysis
Finite Element
b) Beam CP2-a5
Fig. 5: Prediction results of beams of Wu & Kurokawa experiment [12].
a) Beam CP1-a5
0
10
20
30
40
50
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
M
i
d
s
p
a
n

B
.

M
.

(
K
N
.
m
)
Proposed Approach
Sect ional Analysis
Finit e Element
-1148-

COMP-004-6

Fig. 6: Prediction results of beams of Said & Wu experiment [13].
a) Beam B700-none/2
0
5
10
15
20
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
M
i
d
s
p
a
n

B
.

M
.

(
K
N
.
m
)
Proposed Approach
Sect ional Analysis
Finit e Element
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
M
i
d
s
p
a
n

B
.

M
.

(
K
N
.
m
)
Proposed Approach
Sectional Analysis
Finit e Element
b) Beam B700-3D6/2
c) Beam B700-2D12/2
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Midspan FRP st rain (x 10^6)
M
i
d
s
p
a
n

B
.

M
.

(
K
N
.
m
)
Proposed Approach
Sect ional Analysis
Finit e Element
-1149-

COMP-004-7

Fig. 6 (Cont.): Prediction results of beams of Said & Wu experiment [13].
d) Beam B700-2D16/2
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Midspan FRP st rain (x 10^6)
M
i
d
s
p
a
n

B
.

M
.

(
K
N
.
m
)
Proposed Approach
Sect ional Analysis
Finit e Element
e) Beam B900-2D12/2
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
M
i
d
s
p
a
n

B
.

M
.

(
K
N
.
m
)
Proposed Approach
Sect ional Analysis
Finit e Element
f) Beam B500-2D12/2
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
M
i
d
s
p
a
n

B
.

M
.

(
K
N
.
m
)
Proposed Approach
Sect ional Analysis
Finit e Element
-1150-

COMP-004-8
As shown in the figures, three different stages have been observed in the moment-strain
relationship:
- Stage 1: starts from the beginning of loading up to the cracking moment. This stage is
characterized with its relatively low strains. Since the behavior is still elastic, the three
methods (proposed, sectional analysis, and finite element) have almost identical
predictions.
- Stage 2: starts from the cracking moment up to steel yielding. In sectional analysis
method, the tensile strength of concrete is completely ignored and this causes a sudden
increase in strains at cracking initiation. This is not the case in the other two methods. In
both the proposed and the finite element methods, strains increase smoothly. Moreover,
it is observed in this stage that the predictions of the finite element method are less than
those of the other two methods; this may be attributed to the softening branch of the
concrete cracking model which assists in resisting the tensile strains.
- Stage 3: starts beyond steel yielding up to failure. Generally, in this stage the
predictions of the finite element method are larger than those of the other two methods;
this may be attributed to the initiation and propagation of debonding.
As a general, the proposed method has good predictions of strains in FRP-strengthened
flexural members compared to other popular methods (sectional analysis, and finite
element). Moreover, the proposed method is superior in simplicity and applicability for
hand calculations.
4 CONCLUSIONS
In this paper a new simple method for predicting strains in FRP-strengthened members
is proposed. The proposed method is based on the author's model of predicting moment-
curvature relationship. Comparing the proposed method to other existing popular
methods (sectional analysis, and finite element) confirmed its accuracy. Moreover, the
proposed method is superior in simplicity and applicability for hand calculations.
5 NOTATIONS

A
f
cross-sectional area of FRP composites
A
s
cross-sectional area of tensile steel reinforcements
A'
s
cross-sectional area of compressive steel reinforcements
E
f
modulus of elasticity of FRP
E
s
modulus of elasticity of tensile steel
E
s,sh
strain hardening modulus of tensile steel
E
c
modulus of elasticity of concrete
L clear span of beam
M
a
applied bending moment
M
cr
cracking moment
M
y
general yield bending moment
M
y,f
First yield bending moment
a shear span of the beam
-1151-

COMP-004-9
b width of the RC beam (tension face)
d effective depth of the section or depth of tensile steel
d
f
depth of FRP sheets/plates
f
''
c
concrete compressive strength
f
r
rupture modulus of concrete
h height of concrete section
h
n
neutral axis depth for cracked/uncracked section
I
e
effective moment of inertia
I
cr
cracked transformed moment of inertia of unyielded section
I
unc
uncracked transformed moment of inertia
I
e,y
effective moment of inertia at general yield
I
cr,sh
cracked transformed moment of inertia of yielded section
y
yield strain of tensile steel reinforcement
curvature
y
curvature at general yield
y
yield stress of tensile steel reinforcement
6 REFERENCES
[1] Teng, J. G., Smith, S. T., Yao, J. and Chen, J. F. Constr. and Build. Mater 17 (6)
(2003) 447-462.
[2] Wu, Z. S., and Niu, H. D. JSCE J. Materials, Concrete Structures and
Pavements 63(4) (2007) 620-639.
[3] Rosenboom, O., and Rizkalla, S. J. Compos. Constr. 12 (2) (2008) 168-179.
[4] Said, H. O., and Wu, Z. S. J. Compos. Constr. 12 (3) (2008) 284-299.
[5] Yao, J., Teng, J. G., and Lam., L. Advances in Structural Engineering, 8(4)
(2005) 365-396.
[6] Wu, Z. S., and Niu, H. D. JSCE J. of Struc. Engineering 64A (2000) 1431-1441.
[7] Fanning, P. J., and Kelly, O. J. Compos. Constr. 5 (2) (2001) 122-127.
[8] Kotynia, R. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Bond Behavior of
FRP in Structures, BBFS (2005) 247-252.
[9] Niu, H. D., and Wu, Z. S. JSCE J. of Applied Mechanics 6 (2003) 1217-1226.
[10] Lu, X. Z., Teng, J. G., Ye L. P., Jiang, J. J. J. Compos. Constr. 11 (2) (2007)
161-174.
[11] Said, H. O. J. Compos. Constr. (in press). Available online at:
http://ascelibrary.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JCCOX
X000001000001000036000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=Yes
[12] Wu, Z. S., and Kurokawa, T. JSCE J. Materials, Concrete Structures and
Pavements 56 (711) (2002) 1-13.
-1152-

COMP-004-10
[13] Said, H. O., Wu, Z. S. Proc., 4th Int. Conf. on composites in civil engineering
(CD ROM), CICE 2008.
[14] Hognestad, E., Hanson, N. W. and McHenry, D. ACI Journal, 52(4) (1955) 455-
479.
[15] CEB-FIP Model Code (1990).

7 APPENDIX I: NUMERICAL EXAMPLE
Draw the midspan bending moment-midspan FRP strain curve for the beam B700-
2D12/2 mentioned in Table 1.

Solution
Properties of section
MPa E
c
25296 6 . 28 4730 = =
*Uncracked section
Following the principles of plane area mm h
n
9 . 100 = ,
4
118291541 mm I
unc
=
*Cracked section mm h
n
55 . 53 = ,
4
39192395 mm I
cr
=
*Cracked yielded section
Following the same procedures as the case of cracked section and replacing E
s
with
E
s,sh
=E
s
/10=20300 MPa yields, mm h
n
29 . 31 = ,
4
,
13519922 mm I
sh cr
=
Cracking moment
'
62 . 0
c r
f f = MPa 3.32 6 . 28 62 . 0 = =
) /(
n unc r cr
h h I f M =
m KN mm N M
cr
. 96 . 3 . 10 * 96 . 3 ) 9 . 100 200 /( 118291541 * 32 . 3
6
= = =
Yield moment
*Yield strain of steel 002108 . 0 203000 / 428 = =
y

) /(
n y y
h d = mm / 1 0000181 . 0 ) 55 . 53 170 /( 002108 . 0 = =
*First yield bending moment
cr c y f y
I E M =
,

m KN mm N M
f y
. 95 . 17 . 10 * 95 . 17 39192395 * 25296 * 0000181 . 0
6
,
= = =

*General yield bending moment
( ) 2 / ) / 1 ( 4
2 2
, , cr unc cr f y f y y
M I I M M M + + =

{ } m KN M
y
. 51 . 18 2 / 96 . 3 * ) 118291541 / 39192395 1 ( 4 95 . 17 95 . 17
2 2
= + + =

*Effective moment of inertia at general yield
[ ]
2
) / )( / 1 ( 1 /
II
a cr unc cr cr
II
e
M M I I I I =
[ ]
4 2
,
40429757 ) 51 . 18 / 96 . 3 )( 118291541 / 39192395 1 ( 1 / 39192395 mm I
y e
= =

-1153-

COMP-004-11
Effective moment of inertia
[ ]
[ ]
>

<
=
y a y e sh cr sh cr
y a cr a cr unc cr cr
cr a unc
e
M M I I I
M M M M M I I I
M M I
I
) / 1 ( 1 /
) / )( / 1 ( 1 /
, , ,
2

[ ]
[ ]
>

<
=
51 . 18 ) / )( 40429757 / 13519922 1 ( 1 / 13519922
51 . 18 96 . 3 ) / )( 118291541 / 39192395 1 ( 1 / 39192395
96 . 3 118291541
2
2
a a y
a a cr
a
e
M M M
M M M
M
I

Calculation of curvature ) /(
e c a
I E M =
[ ]
[ ]
>

<
=
51 . 18 / 05 . 228 10 * 924 . 2
51 . 18 96 . 3 / 49 . 10 10 * 009 . 1
96 . 3 10 * 334 . 0
6
6
6
a a a
a a a
a a
M M M
M M M
M M

where M
a
is in KN.m and is in 1/mm

Calculation of FRP strain ) (
n i i
h d =
[ ]
[ ]
>

<
=
51 . 18 ) 29 . 31 11 . 200 ( / 05 . 228 10 * 924 . 2

51 . 18 96 . 3 ) 55 . 53 11 . 200 ( / 49 . 10 10 * 009 . 1
96 . 3 ) 9 . 100 11 . 200 ( 10 * 334 . 0
6
6
6
a a a
a a a
a a
f
M M M
M M M
M M

-1154-

COMP-005-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt

POLYMERIC CONCRETE FOR SUSTAINABLE FUTURES

M.F. Nuruddin, A. Kusbiantoro, S. Qazi
Department of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS
31750 Tronoh, Perak , Malaysia. Tel 605-3687282, Fax: 605-3656716,
Email: fadhilnuruddin@petronas.com.my

ABSTRACT
Environmental issues resulted from cement production have become a major concern today. Worlds plan to
develop sustainable futures encourages people to limit the usage of this construction material that can damage
environment quality. Cement replacement material was proposed to partially replace cement portion in concrete.
However another material is needed to fully replace cement function; hence can reduce cement demand throughout the
world. Geopolymer is a part of inorganic polymer material that has similar bonding function like cement in concrete. It
consists of alkaline solutions and geological source material. Alkaline liquids used in this research were sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) 8 M solution and sodium silicate (NaSiO
2
) solutions, while source materials were fly ash and
microwave incinerated rice husk ash (MIRHA). Three different curing regimes, namely hot gunny curing, ambient
curing, and external exposure curing, were applied to obtain suitable method that was suitable with cast in situ
application. Geopolymer concrete samples were tested on their compressive strength and microstructure properties. It
was found that external exposure curing had the highest compressive strength compared to other two curing methods.
Scanning electron microscopy analysis also showed better improvement in interfacial transition zone for concrete
sample with external exposure curing.

Keywords: Geopolymer, Sodium Hydroxide, Sodium Silicate, Fly Ash, MIRHA

1. INTRODUCTION
In 1978, J. Davidovits initiated inorganic
polymeric material that can be used to react with
another source material to form a binder. The
application of this binder is recently being focused to
replace ordinary Portland cement (OPC) portion in
concrete (Duxon et al, 2007). The environmental issues
resulted from OPC production has taken the progress
of polymer researches further nowadays. Depletion of
raw material and CO
2
emission resulted from fuel
combustion and decomposition of limestone has put
cement industry as one of the main source of
environment pollutants (Nuruddin, 2008).
The encouragement to produce environment
friendly concrete can be achieved by limiting the
utilization of raw material, decreasing pollutant rate
from respective OPC production, and diminishing the
cement portion in concrete (Mehta, 2002).
Employment of waste material like fly ash, rice husk
ash, and other cement replacement material (CRM) can
-1155-

COMP-005-2
only replace cement portion until certain percentage.
Geopolymer, named after the reaction between
polymer and geological origin source material, is
proposed to replace all cement portions in concrete as
the main binder (Davidovits, 1994).
The main constituents of geopolymer are
alkaline liquid and source material. Alkaline liquid is
usually a combination of sodium hydroxide or
potassium hydroxide with sodium silicate or potassium
silicate (Barbosa et al, 2000). The use of only alkaline
hydroxide activator will result in low rate reaction
compared to those containing soluble silicate (Palomo
et al, 1999). The addition of sodium silicate solution to
sodium hydroxide solution will enhance the reaction
rate between alkaline liquid and source material (Xu
and van Deventer, 2000).
Source materials used in this research are
combination of fly ash and microwave incinerated rice
husk ash (MIRHA). Both of these materials have
similar specification for calcium content, which is low
in calcium. High calcium content in source material is
not recommended since it can obstruct the
polymerization process (Gourley, 2003). Blended
composition of fly ash and MIRHA is intended to
observe the effect of different silicate content in source
material since MIRHA has higher silicate content than
fly ash (Nuruddin, 2008).
Experimental set up on geopolymer concrete
has been conducted by several researchers. However
the curing method has developed into some limitations
to the geopolymer concrete applications. Heat
requirement in the curing process can only be supplied
by electrical instruments; hence geopolymer concrete
currently can only be applied in precast concrete
industry. Therefore this research is focused in the
curing method to obtain geopolymer concrete that
suitable with cast in situ application.

2. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
2.1 Materials
Alkaline liquids in this research were obtained
from supplier in Malaysia with specific requirements.
NaOH was supplied by QuickLab Sdn Bhd, Malaysia
in pellet form with 99% purity. 8 Molar NaOH solution
was used for all mix proportions in this research. While
NaSiO
2
was obtained from Malay-Sino Chemical
Industries Sdn Bhd, Malaysia with proportion of Na
2
O:
14.73%, SiO2: 29.75%, and water: 55.52%.
Fly Ash used in this research is taken from
Manjung Power Plant, Malaysia with oxide
compositions are described in Table 1. Rice husk used
to produce MIRHA was from Bernas Milling Plant,
Malaysia. Rice husk was first dried under direct
sunlight to remove its moisture content hence
preventing excess smoke generated from combustion
process. Rice husk was then incinerated in microwave
incinerator with temperature setting 400C. The UTP
Microwave Incinerator (UTPMI) used in the research
adopted the Air Cooled Magnetron system with an
overall dimension of 2.3(H)x4.0(W)x4.0(L) with a
chamber capacity of 1 m3. MIRHA was then ground in
ball mill for 2000 times to increase its fineness. The
oxide content of MIRHA is described in Table 2.
Coarse aggregates were prepared under saturated
surface dry (SSD) condition with 20 mm in size. Since
commercial water reducing admixture was not suitable
for mixtures in this research, glucose solution was
utilized in the mixture to delay the setting time during
mixing and casting process.

Table 1. Fly Ash Chemical Composition (Choo, 2007)
Oxide Percentages (%)
SiO
2
51.19 %
Al
2
O
3
24.00 %
Fe
2
O
3
6.60 %
CaO 5.57 %
MgO 2.40 %
SO
3
0.88 %
K
2
O 1.14 %
Na
2
O 2.12 %

-1156-

COMP-005-3
Table 2. MIRHA Chemical Composition (Nuruddin, 2008)
Oxide Percentage (%)
SiO
2
88.90 %
MgO 0.72 %
SO
3
0.32 %
CaO 0.63 %
K
2
O 3.65 %
Al
2
O
3
0.16 %
Fe
2
O
3
0.45 %

2.2 Experimental Setup
Mixture proportion is designed with different
amount of blended source material to investigate their
effect to geopolymer concrete properties. Constant
amount of NaOH and NaSiO
2
were used throughout
the mix proportions. Detail for each mixture is
described in Table 3. Alkaline solutions were prepared
1 hour before mixing process started to prevent
precipitation of NaOH in the solution. Mixing process
was divided into two stages, dry mix and wet mix.
Initially, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, fly ash (and
MIRHA), were mixed together in rotating pan mixer
for 3.5 minutes. Alkaline and glucose solutions were
then poured into the dry mixed material and continued
for wet mixing for 1.5 minutes. Fresh geopolymer
concrete was then hand mixed to ensure the mixture
homogeneity.
Fresh concrete was then cast in 100mm cube
moulds and compacted using poker vibrator. Curing
process in this research is divided into three curing
method; hot gunny curing, ambient curing, and
external exposure curing. In hot gunny curing, concrete
samples were covered with hot gunny sack for 48
hours, with hot gunny was replaced every 24 hours. To
prevent heat being released immediately, the samples
were covered with plastic sheet. In ambient curing,
concrete samples were placed outside the room while
still protected from direct sunlight and rain. In external
exposure curing, concrete samples were placed in a
transparent chamber that placed outside, hence heat
radiation from sunlight can penetrate into the chamber
while still protect the samples from rainfall.
Hardened concrete samples were tested for their
compressive strength on 3, 7, 28, and 56 days for all
curing regime. Analysis on interfacial transition zone
(ITZ) and microstructure properties was conducted
using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) on 56 days
concrete sample.

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Compressive Strength Test
The results obtained from compressive strength
test illustrate polymeric process in geopolymer
concrete with various curing treatment. Compressive
strength development of geopolymer concrete for all
curing regime is described in Table 4.
In hot gunny curing, compressive strength did
not develop rapidly. The presence of high humidity
from hot gunny decreased the concrete strength
significantly because the heat resulted from hot gunny
could not be maintained for a long duration. In contrast
with conventional OPC concrete, water presence in
geopolymer concrete did not take part in polymeric
reaction. It helps only during mixing and casting
process to increase the workability.

Table 3. Detail of Mix Proportion
CA FA NaOH NaSiO
2
Water
Mix
Code*
Fly Ash
(kg/m3)
MIRHA
(kg/m3)
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
Sugar
(kg/m3)
A1 350 0 1200 645 41 103 35 10.5
A2 339.5 10.5 1200 645 41 103 35 10.5
A3 332.5 17.5 1200 645 41 103 35 10.5
A4 325.5 24.5 1200 645 41 103 35 10.5
-1157-

COMP-005-4
B1 350 0 1200 645 41 103 35 10.5
B2 339.5 10.5 1200 645 41 103 35 10.5
B3 332.5 17.5 1200 645 41 103 35 10.5
B4 325.5 24.5 1200 645 41 103 35 10.5
C1 350 0 1200 645 41 103 35 10.5
C2 339.5 10.5 1200 645 41 103 35 10.5
C3 332.5 17.5 1200 645 41 103 35 10.5
C4 325.5 24.5 1200 645 41 103 35 10.5
* A: hot gunny curing; B: ambient curing; C: external exposure curing
Table 4. Compressive Strength Development of Geopolymer Concrete
Compressive Strength (MPa)
Type of Curing Code
% Replacement
by MIRHA
3 days 7 days 28 days 56 days
A1 0 4.67 10.53 15.74 16.62
A2 3 3.43 8.41 12.83 14.96
A3 5 7.11 11.31 19.01 22.66
Hot gunny Curing
A4 7 3.19 7.01 11.5 12.77
B1 0 7.46 14.11 19.73 21.92
B2 3 6.3 11.05 17.92 19.19
B3 5 9.38 14.74 25.3 27.28
Ambient Curing
B4 7 8.55 11.35 16.75 17.03
C1 0 32.78 44.76 48.88 50.96
C2 3 19.93 24.96 35.2 36.35
C3 5 14.14 24.29 28.7 33.62
External Exposure
Curing
C4 7 16.81 30.22 41.34 44.84

However, during drying period (after 48 hours),
water will evaporate from hardened concrete and
leaved micropores inside the concrete. The presence of
these pores will lead to a premature failure of concrete
sample. Blended source material with 95% fly ash and
5% MIRHA provided better result than other samples
in hot gunny curing as showed in Figure 1. The
compressive strength for blended sample could
increase until 36% compared to non blended sample in
the same curing regime It indicates that different
amount of Al-Si material in fly ash and MIRHA
affecting the properties of geopolymer concrete.

0
5
10
15
20
25
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
(
M
P
a
)
Curing Days
A1
A2
A3
A4

Figure 1. Compressive Strength Development of
Concrete Sample with Hot Gunny Curing

In ambient curing, heat generated from the
environment was absorbed by the polymeric material
to initiate the reaction. In this regime, compressive
strength development also performed similar trend
with hot gunny curing. However, the difference of heat
amount in first week maturing period has affected the
-1158-

COMP-005-5
performance of these two methods. Concrete sample in
ambient curing did not have excess water in their
environment from first day; hence polymeric reaction
could take place faster than those in hot gunny curing.
It could bestow the compressive strength up to 24%
compared to non blended sample in the same curing
regime and 64% compared to non blended hot gunny
concrete sample. Similar with hot gunny mixture, 95%
fly ash and 5% MIRHA performed better performance
than other ambient curing samples as described in
Figure 2.
Meanwhile different characteristic was
performed by external exposure curing. Sufficient
amount of heat during daylight has accelerated the
polymeric reaction inside concrete samples. Figure 3
shows that non blended sample provided the best
development among all concrete samples. In average,
concrete sample in external exposure curing has
compressive strength 162% higher if compared to hot
gunny curing sample, and 102% higher compared to
ambient curing sample. It was also observed that the
critical period for geopolymer concrete is within the
first week from mixing-casting process. Lack of
polymeric reaction within this period will result in
lower performance of geopolymer concrete. Alike
conventional OPC concrete, strength development in
geopolymer concrete was also started to stable after 28
days.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
(
M
P
a
)
Curing Days
B1
B2
B3
B4

Concrete Sample with Ambient Curing

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
C
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
v
e
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
(
M
P
a
)
Curing Days
C1
C2
C3
C4

Concrete Sample with External Exposure
Curing

3.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Analysis
SEM analysis was carried out to observe the
microstructure properties of geopolymer concrete.
Figure 4, 5, and 6 shows the inner condition for hot
gunny curing, ambient curing, and external exposure
curing concrete samples respectively.
Figure 4 shows the presence of gap at interfacial
transition zone between aggregate and paste. It
indicates low bonding strength of geopolymer paste
caused by few amount of heats absorbed during
polymeric reaction in maturing period. This ITZ will
connect to another microcracks and micropores path in
paste matrix if concrete sample loaded with certain
loads, which could result in premature failure of
concrete sample.

Figure 4. SEM Image of Hot Gunny Curing Sample

-1159-

COMP-005-6

Figure 5. SEM Image of Ambient Curing Sample

In Figure 5, the presence of ITZ was covered by
paste matrix hence resulted in higher compressive
strength of concrete samples. Even though it did not
completely cover the paste matrix, the bonding
strength gained could give better performance than hot
gunny curing.
Superior strength performance of external
exposure curing sample was verified by the SEM
image in Figure 6. It supports the analysis that elevated
temperature is important to accelerate the polymeric
reaction in geopolymer concrete. With strong bonding
between aggregate and paste, microcrack path will be
discontinued when certain loading applied on the
concrete and resulting in higher compressive strength
of concrete sample.

Figure 6. SEM Image of External Exposure Curing
Sample

4. CONCLUSIONS
In order to develop suitable geopolymer concrete for
sustainable futures proper curing method is
compulsory in geopolymer concrete production. In
high humidity environment, blended source material
with 95% fly ash and 5% MIRHA could improve
geopolymer concrete performance up to 24%
compared to non blended concrete. However in
elevated temperature, blended source material did not
significantly improve concrete strength compared to
non blended concrete. But still the concrete
compressive strength in external exposure curing could
reach 162% higher than hot gunny curing and 102%
higher than ambient curing. It indicates that sufficient
heat amount is needed to increase polymeric reaction
rate.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia for the
research financial support.

REFERENCES
Barbosa, V.F.F., K. J. D. MacKenzie, C. Thaumaturgo.
(2000). "Synthesis and Characterisation of Materials
Based on Inorganic Polymers of Alumina and Silica:
Sodium Polysialate Polymers." International Journal
of Inorganic Materials 2(4): 309-317
Choo, C.S (2007). Performance of Used Engine Oil in
Fresh & Hardened States of Normal and Blended
Cement Concretes. MSc Thesis, University
Teknology PETRONAS.
Davidovits, J. (1994). High Alkali Cements for 21
st

Century Concretes. Concrete Technology: Past,
Present and Future. P. K. Mehta, ACI, Detroit, USA.
SP 144-19: 383-397.
Duxon, P., Provis, J.L., Lukey, G.C., van Deventer,
J.S.J. (2007). The Role of Inorganic Polymer
Technology in the Development of Green
-1160-

COMP-005-7
Concrete. Cement and Concrete Research 37 1590
1597
Gourley, J. T. (2003). Geopolymers; Opportunities for
Environmentally Friendly Construction Materials.
Materials 2003 Conference: Adaptive Materials for a
Modern Society, Sydney, Institute of Materials
Engineering Australia.
Mehta, P.K. Greening of the Concrete Industry for
Sustainable Development. ACI Concrete
International 24 (7) (2002) 23 28
Nuruddin, MF, Kusbiantoro, A, Shafiq, N. (2008).
Microwave Incinerated Rice Husk Ash (MIRHA)
and its Effect on Concrete Properties, IMS
International Conference, American University of
Sharjah.
Palomo, A., M. W. Grutzeck, M.T. Blanco (1999).
"Alkali-Activated Fly Ashes, A Cement for the
Future." Cement and Concrete Research 29(8): 1323-
1329.
Xu, H. and J.S.J. van Deventer (2000). "The
Geopolymerisation of Alumino-Silicate Minerals."
International Journal of Mineral Processing 59(3):
247-266.
-1161-

COMP-006-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





Composite Highway Guard Fence

A. S. DEBAIKY
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Banha University, Egypt
debaiky@hotmail.com
H. BORAZGHY
A. S. Composite, Montreal

ABSTRACT
The use of advanced composite materials made of carbon or glass fibers in adhesion
medium has become growing alternative to traditional steel in several civil applications.
This is primarily due to their inherent properties such as non-corrosive nature, light
weight, and flexibility. In this paper, an innovative new product made using
thermoplastic composite is proposed to replace the traditional metallic highway guard
fence. The most commonly used highway fence used nowadays is the W-shaped steel
one, which is used all over the world. This product has several drawbacks such as
corrosion, heavy weight, and relatively low level of energy-absorption. The proposed
fence made using glass/polypropylene composite is a very promising replacement
simply because it negates all the drawbacks mentioned for the metallic version. This
research reports a pioneering effort to design, fabricate, and test the first composite
highway fence of this type.
KEYWORDS
Highway fence, composite, polypropylene, FRP, thermoplastic, fatigue, crash.

1. INTRODUCTION

In order to establish the need for an alternative to steel guard fence, it is crucial to
understand the basic difference between thermoplastics and steel as a materials. This
includes weight, cost, durability, and environmental impact [1].

Standard galvanized steel guard fence shown in Figure 1 usually weight around 12 kg
per linear meter (based on 3 mm thickness). The proposed thermoplastic guard fence
weight only 3.0 kg per linear meter (based on 3.5 mm thickness). This means about
75% weight reduction. This reduction will result in huge savings in transportation and
labor cost. Transportation cost can be realized by visualizing that one truck will be
needed for every four (4) trucks used to transport the heavy traditional steel guard
-1162-

COMP-006-2
fences. In addition, installation will be completed in much less time, resulting in more
savings in wages and construction costs.

Figure 1: Standard 2.0 mm thick steel highway fence

The composite guard fence is by nature a non-metallic element. This means it is
immune to corrosion from de-icing salts, which is a chronic problem in Canadian
infrastructure. Steel guard fences have to be galvanized in order to fight the corrosion
problem, adding more cost to the product. Galvanic corrosion between the steel guard
fence and the unprotected steel bolts used to fix the guard fences to the wooden supports
will also be eliminated when composite guard fences are used.

The thermoplastic composite guard fence provides several advantages over other
traditional materials regarding to the impact of fabrication on the environment. The
composite guard fence requires very little energy for manufacturing. The production
procedure is fairly simple and requires no hazardous chemicals. In addition, the material
is fully recyclable and produces no volatile emissions. During service life, composites
in general require very little maintenance unlike metallic or timber products.

Finally, the thermoplastic composite guard fence is expected to cost between $10-12 per
linear foot. This is about 50% more than the cost of the traditional galvanized steel
guard fence (2 mm@$3/kg). The increase in cost will be easily offset in part by savings
in labor and transportation cost, and over the long term through saving in maintenance
and replacement cost.

The durability of the thermoplastic composite has been tested by extensive series of
tests around the world. Tests included absorption of fresh and salt water, freeze-thaw
cycling in water and in air, and fatigue under flexure. Water absorption is extremely
important parameter in the durability of any industrial material, absorption of water
leads to degradation in the bond between the fiber and resin thus reducing the strength
of the material over time. In addition, freezing and thawing of the entrapped water
severely damages the material. The growing confidence in composite material led to
their incorporation into major international design codes [2]. The tests performed
revealed encouraging results regarding the water absorption. Tested at different
temperatures ranging from 5
o
to 70
o
C, the absorption rate reached a maximum of 4.0%
and plateaued afterwards. Figure 2 shows the rate of fresh water absorption with time
for 3 mm thick material sheet fabricated by continuous roll forming method. Table 1
shows the basic properties of the material.
-1163-

COMP-006-3

Figure 2: Water absorption on 3 mm sheet over time at different temperatures.

Thermoplastic guard fence is currently being fabricated using vacuum bad molding in
an aluminum mold 2.0 m long, the prototypes made are 3.5 mm thick. The process is
tedious and very time consuming at a rate of one sample every 3 hours. This is due to
the significant thickness of the mold that requires long heating and cooling times during
fabrication. Continuous roll-forming fabrication should in the near future enable high-
rate fabrication.
Table 1 Glass-fibre/Polypropylene Properties [3].

Tensile
Modulus
Tensile
Strength
Flexural
Modulus
Flexural
Strength
12 GPa 229 MPa 10 GPa 189 MPa

2. DETAILS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

Static flexure test has been conducted on one guard fence specimen. The test was a
three-points bending as shown in Figure 3. The loaded span was 1.9 m, identical to that
used in the field (spacing between supporting wood blocks). The specimen was
instrumented with several strain gages on both sides of the guard fence as shown in
Figure 4. The load was applied at centre span using load control through universal
testing machine shown in Figure 5 until the specimen failed.

The failure was initiated by tensile rupture of the material at the bottom (tension) side of
the guard fence, clear breaking voice was heard prior to the failure. Figure 7a shows the
development of strain at the tension outermost fibers with the increase of load, it is clear
that the material reached its nominal ultimate strain at failure (1.5% or 15000 micro-
strain). This means that no premature failure due to web buckling or warping of the
5
o
C
23
o
C
40
o
C
50
o
C
70
o
C
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COMP-006-4
element took place. The load-strain diagram is linear only during the first 10-15% of the
maximum load then it tends to follow a parabolic shape with higher strains with non-
linear behavior. This is probably due to inter-laminar shear failure within the material
thickness. This observation is expected to diminish when the fence is made using
continuous thermo-press technique rather than the vacuum method used in this
specimen.

Figure 4: Elevation view of guard fence specimen in static test.

Figure 5: Cross-section view of the tested specimen with strain gauges.

Longitudinal strain gauge Transverse strain gauge

Figure 6a: Specimen in position for flexure test (left).
Figure 6b: Loading details at mid-span (right).
1.900 m
Steel plate 200x200x20 mm
Rubber pad 200x200x10 mm
0.950 m 0.950 m
LVDT at the center
(26)
(24)
(25)@ 3/4
Middle (21)
Middle (28)
(29)
(1)
(23)@1/4
(20
(27)
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COMP-006-5

Figure 6c: Deformed shape of specimen before failure.

Figure 7a: Load-strain relationship at mid-span on tension side.

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Figure 7b shows the load-deformation curve for the specimen, the linear behavior of the
specimens is clearly visible with minor disturbance near the mid-level of the load. This
is probably due to setting of the supports and/or unforeseen movement of the deflection
dial gauge. Again, some non-linearity can be observed near the end of the test due to the
same reasons mentioned above. Overall, the deflection values were very close to the
theoretical ones calculated using the standard beam deflection equations as follows:

EI
PL
=
48
3

where
P = applied load an mid span
L = loaded span = 1900 mm in the test
E = Elastic modulus of the material = 10 GPa
I = Second moment of inertia of the cross section = 1252190 mm
4

Hence, at 1540 lb (6853 N), the deflection should be equal to

mm 2 . 78
1252190 * 10000 * 48
1900 * 6853
3
= =

which is very close to the recorded value of 84 mm as shown in Figure 7b.

Figure 7b: Load-deflection relationship at mid-span of specimen.

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COMP-006-7
The prototype was tested as simply supported as mentioned above. However, in reality
the guard fence is connected on both ends with adjacent fences using steel bolts. This
bolted connection creates continuity and increase the flexural capacity of the fences
significantly as shown in the table below.
Flexural Moment
Load
@
mid-span
Simple span Continuous
P
4
PL

8
PL

Hence, for continuous span, the failure load is expected to be around double of that
found in the 3-point bending performed or 3,000 lb (13.35 kN).

3. NUMERICAL MODELING

The finite element method is a powerful tool in analysis and design of complex
structures. Several commercial packages are already available in the market for variable
range of applications, each with its own pros and cons. A powerful and user-friendly
package is SAP2000 [4]. This program was used to simulate the behavior of the
composite guard fence, and to evaluate its efficiency. The modeling was made assuming
a central load simulation maximum flexure effect of car impact. The load value can be
changed according to the charts developed above to predict the behavior of the guard
fence for different impact conditions. Modeling was done on one-quarter () of a
complete guard fence panel due to the symmetry of loading and geometry. Figure #
shows the mesh model used in the simulation, standard 4-nodes shell elements were
used to model the 3.5 mm guard fence tested. Figures 8a to d show the model
developed, the deflected shape, and the principles stresses. The maximum deflection at
mid span was 74.9 mm, very close to that calculated from beam theory indicating the
efficiency of the W shape adopted from the traditional metallic fence. This finding,
while may seem trivial, is very important to the acceptance of the new composite fence
since no changes will be required in the vertical post carrying the fences, and no new
vehicle-impact tests will be mandatory for the automotive industry to accept the new
fence.

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Figure 8a: Model of the guard fence SAP2000

Figure 8b: Deflected shape under 1713 N on model

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Figure 8c: Maximum stresses distribution

4. COMPARISON WITH STEEL FENCE

The comparison with traditional steel guard with respect to strength & ductility is
simpler than was initially thought. The ultimate strengths of the mild steel and the
composite are about 370 and 189 MPa, respectively. This makes the failure load of steel
guard about twice that of composite guard (for the same section properties). Since The
profile of the traditional steel guard was obtained by highway research engineers after
years of tests and trials, the choice was to adopt the same profile for the composite
guard. The thickness of the composite guard was then chosen to be 3.5 mm to obtain the
same failure moment of the traditional 2.0 mm thick steel guard.

On another note, the composite guard offers much higher deformation compared to steel
guard due its very low elasticity modulus (~10 GPa versus 200 GPa). This means 20
times the deflection value. Numerically, the steel guard will suffer only 4.0mm
deflection (instead of the obtained 80mm in composite). This reduction means much
less energy absorption in the case of vehicle impact [5]. This is the topic of another
research paper.

4. CONCLUSIONS

The experiments conducted in this research lead to the following conclusions:
Max comp. stresses (failure)
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COMP-006-10

1. Innovative highway guard fence made of thermo-plastic glass
fibre/Polypropelene is a promising alternative to traditional steel guard.
2. The new product is immune to corrosion, light weight, 100% recyclable, and
environmental friendly.
3. stable and almost linear behavior in 3-points bending test is obtained. Deflection
and stress levels at critical location are consistent with theoretical values.
4. The composite guard fence is much more flexible than the traditional steel
counterpart, enabling higher energy absorption that is much desired in highway
fence elements.
5. Improved product shall be obtained by using continuous thermo-pressing
technique rather than the current vacuum bag method. The latter does not fully
ensure full bond between the different layers of the material.

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors present their deepest gratitude to the University of Sherbrooke, Quebec,
Canada, A.S. Composite, Montreal, Canada, and the Ministry of Transportation of
Quebec, Canada for their financial and logistic support during the course of this project.
Special thanks are due to Professor Brahim Benmokrane, and Mr. Jalal Mangalo for
their collaboration and understanding through tough times.

6. REFERENCES

[1] Market Development Alliance (2000). Product Selection Guide: FRP
Composite Products for Bridge Applications, American Composites
Manufacturers Association (ACMA), Arlington, VA., USA.

[2] CHBDC (2000) Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code, Standards Council of
Canada, Ottawa, Canada.

[3] Saint-Gobain Vetrotex (2006). Twintex Woven Products Data Sheets,
www.twintex.com, Chambery, France.

[4] Computers and Structures (2006). SAP2000 software, www.csiberkeley.com,
Berkeley, California, USA.

[5] NCHRP Report 350, Recommended Procedures for the Safety Performance
Evaluation of Highway Features. Transportation Research Board National
Research Council. Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C. 1993, 74
pp.

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13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





Studying the Behaviour and Development of Composite
Virandeel Structure

A. A. MOKHTAR
El-Sarayat Street, Abbaseia, Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: abd_mokhtar@yahoo.com
A. H. KHALIL
El-Sarayat Street, Abbaseia, Cairo, Egypt
E-mail: ayman_hh_khalil@yahoo.com
M. A. DAWOOD
WorleyParsons Company
21 Misr Helwan Agriculture Road, Maadi, Cairo,, Egypt
E-mail: moustafa_dawood2002@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
A 3-D finite element model is proposed and verified with previous numerical and
experimental studies in order to simulate a composite Virandeel structure. The chosen
software package proposed for this study is ANSYS software. The study is based on
statically gravity loads and full interaction between steel section and concrete slab. This
study includes a discussion for the effective width evaluation and comparison with
Eurocode and Egyptian code. The reason for discussing concrete slab width is to
investigate the effect of normal forces in Virandeel girders on the slab width estimation
obtained from codes. A development is proposed to the composite Virandeel system by
making the connection between chord members and columns partially fixed. This
proposal allows the composite chord to behave with its maximum capacity and it is
found that it improves the composite section capacity by 6.5 percent.
KEYWORDS
Composite section, virandeel, finite element, nonlinear analysis, effective slab width.
1 INTRODUCTION
Irregular shape buildings in the vertical direction may require a special structural system
to maintain its stability. The architectural and usage of buildings requires to create a
huge hall or large opening in a certain stores. This condition causes an irregularity in
building stiffness. These halls or openings require suitable structural system to be
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COMP-007-2
constructed above it. This thesis concentrates on the composite virandeel system
behaviour under the effect of vertical static loading. Finite Element modelling is
performed to study virandeel behaviour under vertical static loading as a composite
structure. The detailing of this study is illustrated in the next few sections. Sometimes in
high rise buildings and for an architectural purpose the need to create a large opening in
the building exists. So a structural system should be chosen for the part above the
opening. Figure (1-1) show an example for tall buildings with large opening located in
Saudi Arabia [1]. One of the structural systems used in this case is virandeel system.
This paper will discuss the virandeel as a composite structure. Figure (1-2) shows a
multistory building with a large opening and a virandeel system constructed above the
opening. Virandeel lower chord is subjected to bending moment and tension force,
upper chord is subjected to bending moment and compression force. Assigning
diaphragm constraints in each floor is the reliable modelling used in the computer
program analysis to represent the concrete slab. Such constraint makes horizontal
displacement of all nodes in the plan equal. This means that axial forces in all horizontal
members equals zero. The behaviour of composite virandeel structure should be
discussed and confirm if diaphragm constraint is a reliable mathematical simulation or
not. Also improving the behaviour of composite virandeel structure is required in order
to increase its capacity.

Fig. 1.1: examples for tall buildings Fig. 1.2: Multistory building with large
With Large Opening With Large Opening
2 PROPOSED FINITE ELEMENT MODEL
The purpose of this section is to present and verifying the finite element modelling
technique of composite beams in ANSYS. Modelling the composite beam shall
performed by connecting the element of the steel flange to the element of concrete slab
node to node. This simulation will exclude shear connector from the study. It will focus
on the behaviour of steel section with concrete slab only. The elements which give
reasonable and accurate results will be described in detail in the next few lines.
Three dimensional finite element models are used for the verified experimental
specimens. This is done to obtain results with high accuracy compared with the
available experimental data. The aspect ratio of all types of elements used is kept within
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COMP-007-3
the recommended range of 1 to 3. In addition, using a three dimensional model enables
the use of the 3-D solid elements. There are four elements used in the composite section
modeling, Solid 65 for concrete slab, Link 8 for reinforcement bars, Solid 45 and Shell
43 for steel section [2]. The model layout and stress-strain curves of concrete and steel
used in analysis are presented in Figures (2-1), (2-2) and (2-3).

Fig. 2.1: Composite beam modeling layout in ANSYS

Fig. 2.2: Stress-Strain curve Fig. 2.3: Stress-Strain Curve
of Concrete of Steel
3 VERIFICATION EXAMPLE
A continuous composite beam with two spans is analyzed using numerical procedure
that introduced by Andrea DallAsta et al. [3] using mixed elements PE112, HW112
and PE334 with different meshes. This beam is simulated using ANSYS software and
compared with the results of Andrea. The length of each span 30.0 m. The beam is
loaded with a uniform distributed load. The beam has a solid slab (2300 mm width and
250 mm thickness). The solid slab is supported on beam built-up section (400 mm width
and 25 mm thickness for top flange, 500 mm width and 50 mm thickness for bottom
flange and 1600 mm depth and 15 mm thickness for web). The slab is reinforced by
upper and lower steel bars equivalent to 25 cm2. The shear connection is designed to
prevent collapse before the reinforced concrete slab and/or steel beam reach their
ultimate state. The geometrical and mechanical properties of the cross section are given
in Figure (3-1) and table (3-1).

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Fig. 3.1: Statical System and Cross Section Details
The same composite beam is analyzed using ANSYS 10.0 non-linear finite element
program. To perform full shear connection between solid slab and steel girder, simply
connect all nodes of solid slab to nodes of top flange of steel section. So in this
example, composite beam behavior will be studied excluding stresses in studs. The
Stress-Strain curves used in ANSYS program for reinforced concrete, steel section and
steel bars are given in Figure (2-2) and Figure (2-3) respectively. Also the Stress-Strain
values are summarized in Table (3-1).
To reduce time of analysis, the advantage of symmetry is used and only half of the
model is simulated. Plan of symmetry is performed by assigning roller support at all
nodes in this plan. Also to prevent local failure, stiffeners and steel base plates are
provided at the supports. Stiffening and symmetry are presented in Figure (3-2) and (3-
3) respectively.
Because of using concrete element (Solid 65), several trials are performed to get
convergence solution. In solution control options automatic time stepping is on. The
convergence label taken by forces and the tolerance is 0.05. Shear transfer coefficient
for open crack is taken 0.3 and Shear transfer coefficient for closed crack is taken 0.9.
The distributed load which cause a failure in the beam is around 220 KN/m and the
distributed load which cause plastic hinge is around 120 KN/m.
Figure (3-4) present the comparison between load-deflection curve obtained from
ANSYS with load-deflection curve obtained from mixed element number 16el HW112.
It is be observed that the two curves are very closed, which means that elements used
and simulation method mentioned above are suitable. The collapse load obtained by
mixed element number 16el HW112 is 220.50 KN/m and maximum positive deflection
160 mm. The collapse load obtained by ANSYS is 229 KN/m; about 4% difference and
maximum positive deflection 159 mm; about 0.63 % difference.

30000 30000
2300
400
250
PL.400*25
PL.500*50
PL.1600*15
As = 25 cm
2
'
W
As = 25 cm
2
Statical system
Cross section
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COMP-007-5
Table 3.1: Material Properties Used in the Analysis of Continuous Beam
Material Property Value Stress-Strain relationship
Structural
Steel

f
y
: Yield stress (MPa)
f
t
: Ultimate strength (MPa)
E
s
: Young modulus (MPa)
: Poissons ratio

275
360
200000
0.3
Stress Strain
275 0.001375
275 0.04
360 0.11
Reinforcing
Bars

f
y
: Yield stress (MPa)
f
t
: Ultimate strength (MPa)
E
s
: Poissons ratio

430
473
200000
0.3
Stress Strain
430 0.00215
430 0.02
473 0.1
Concrete

f
c
: Comp. strength (MPa)
f
t
: Tensile strength (MPa)
E
c
: Poissons ratio

33
3.3
22000
0.2
Stress Strain
22 0.001
33 0.0022
28 0.0039

Figure 3-2 Details of stiffeners and Figure 3-3 Plan of symmetry for
base plate at supports Continuous beam

Figure 3-4 Load - Deflection Curves for continuous beam
0
50
100
150
200
250
0 50 100 150 200
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
K
N
/
m
)
ANSYS
Andrea
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4 A 3-D FINITE ELEMENT VIRANDEEL MODEL
4.1 Geometry and Materials
The proposed structure simulated in ANSYS is a virandeel with 25.20 meters span. The
span was divided by virandeel vertical members into three parts, each part 8.40 meters
center to center. Floor height is 4.10 meters. The clear height equals 2.70 meters. Outer
columns are composite sections and the entire vertical members are box steel section
only without concrete. Upper and lower chords are composite sections; consist of
reinforced concrete solid slab fully connected to steel box section.
For the composite columns, encased type was used. It consists of steel box section have
400
800 mm for outer dimensions, with 50 mm flange thickness and 40 mm web

thickness and the concrete dimensions were to be taken 1000
600 mm. The

reinforcement of the columns was 12 16 for longitudinal bars and 8 every 290 mm
for stirrups. Chord members are box steel sections have 500
1200 mm outer
dimensions, with 40 mm flange thickness and 25 mm web thickness. Vertical members
are also box steel sections have 500
620 mm for outer dimensions, with 30 mm for

both flange and web thicknesses. Connecting beams were used between the main
systems for stability requirements in space and no composite action was performed with
the solid slab. The connecting beam was lowered by 50 mm to separate it from the slab.
The reinforced concrete slab has 200 mm thickness and 512/m in both directions. The
general layout of the structure is presented in Figure (4-1) and Figure (4-2). The
material properties will be taken similar to that used for continuous beam in Table (3-1).

Figure 4-1 Elevation for Virandeel System

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Figure 4-2 Plan for Virandeel System
4.2 Loads and Simulation
Preliminary calculations performed using the Eurocode to estimate the effective width
and plastic moment of chord members. Calculations were performed based on pure
bending moments, regardless of the axial forces acting on the member. The calculations
of effective width and moment capacity are detailed in Appendix (I). The applied
external loads (P) are assigned as shown in Figure (4-3).
The applied concentrated loads (P) are increased gradually until the steel elements
reached the ultimate stress and the concrete slab crushed. Quarter of the structure was
modelled using the advantage of symmetry. The plan of symmetry defined in the model
by assign rollers restrained only perpendicular to the plan of symmetry

Figure 4-3 Statical System and applied loads position

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COMP-007-8
The concentrated loads applied as a distributed load on the perimeter of the entire steel
vertical members as shown in Figure (4-4). The reinforcement of the concrete slab and
composite column are modelled using the discreet method by providing link element
(LINK 8) through nodes inside the solid element (SOLID 65).
The analysis is performed for two floor and three floor Virandeel, and is performed five
times because of changing two parameters, using reinforced concrete slab or not and
concrete slab reinforcement ratio changed from 0% to 1.0%. The five cases analysed
were (1), Steel girders and Steel columns (2), Steel girders and composite columns (3),
Composite girders and composite columns with plain concrete slab (4), Composite
girders and composite columns with top and bottom mesh reinforcement in the slab
equivalent to 0.565% and (5) Composite girders and composite columns with top and
bottom mesh reinforcement in the slab equivalent to 1.0%. The analysis also is
performed three times because of changing the virandeel span. The purpose of span
changing is to investigate the influence of beam length on reinforced concrete slab
effective width. The tested spans are 20, 25 and 30 meters.

Figure 4-4 Applied concentrated loads
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Failure loads and maximum deflections for two and three floor Virandeels are
summarized in tables (5-1) and (5-2) respectively. Load-Deflection curves also are
presented for both models for the five cases mentioned in section 4-2 in Figures (5-1)
and (5-2).
For a detailed study, a comparison is done between load-deflection curves for the two
floor and the three floor proposals. Figure (5-3) and (5-4) show the load deflection
curves for both proposals in the cases of steel deck only. It is observed from these two
figures that Virandeel with three floors can resist higher vertical loads. Figure (5-5), (5-
6) and (5-7) show load deflection curves for the two proposals but with concrete slab
with various steel reinforcement ratios. It is observed from these three figures that the
Virandeel with two floors can resist higher vertical loads or approximately the same.
From these Figures it may be concluded that the composite action reduces the ductility
of the Virandeel. However the composite action increases the load carrying capacity of
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COMP-007-9
the Virandeel, especially for the two floor case. The reason may be that the composite
action increases the inertia of the deflection. Also, it increases the load carrying
capacity.
Another conclusion from this study, may be that having two floor Virandeels is more
efficient, especially in composite action that having multiple floor Virandeels. So, it is
recommended to use multiple two floor Virandeel systems.
The effective concrete slab width is calculated using the method mentioned by Johnson,
1975 [4]. The stresses on the concrete slab at the position of maximum moment are
recorded from the ANSYS and summarized in an Excel sheet. Then these stresses are
substituted in Johnsons equations. The effective concrete slab widths are presented for
spans 20, 25 and 30 meters in table (5-3) for both positive and negative moment sides
and for the upper and lower chords. That obtained widths are smaller than width
calculated by Eurocode, [5] and Egyptian code, [6] [see Appendix (I)].
On the other hand, the 25 meter span model has been analyzed as a single floor with the
same steel cross section and slab thickness and reinforcement in order to compute the
effective width without Virandeel action. The obtained slab width after this trial is 5000
mm. It can be observed that effective width of the composite section under pure bending
moment is bigger than the section subjected to bending and axial tension forces
(Virandeel chord). On the other hand, the effective concrete slab width in this case is
very closed to Eurocode calculation.
Table 5.1: Collapse loads and its corresponding deflections in each case for two floor
Virandeel model

Steel girder
& steel col.
Steel girder
& comp.
Col.
Plain
concrete
RFT
512/m
RFT
516/m
F (ton) 622 622 756 836 862
(mm) 256 139 104 129 142
Where F: is the total applied load along the vertical member of Virandeel (F = 2*P)
Table 5.2: Collapse loads and its corresponding deflections in each case for three floor
Virandeel model

Steel girder
& steel col.
Steel girder
& comp.
col.
Plain
concrete
RFT
512/m
RFT
516/m
F (ton) 711 729 720 738 828
(mm) 198 144 79 79 92
Where F: is the total applied load along the vertical member of Virandeel (F=3*P)
Based on the plastic moment calculations of the composite beams in Eurocode, it is
clear that hogging moment capacity equal 20% of the sagging moment, so a trial is
performed to achieve good performance for the proposed composite system. This trial is
to assign a partial fixed moment connection between beam and column. The purpose of
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COMP-007-10
this modelling is to control the hogging and sagging moment values, by increase
positive and reduce negative moments.
Table 5.3: Virandeel span and slab width comparison
Span (m) 20 25 30
Moment side +ve -ve +ve -ve +ve -ve
Slab width on
the lower chord
(mm)
3300 1800 3500 2400 3700 2800
Slab width on
the upper chord
(mm)
4600 2000 4900 2300 5300 2900
In this way the composite beam can be stressed nearly to its full capacity, because of its
low resistance in hogging moment as mentioned before. Partially fixed moment
connection is simulated in this model by erasing part of concrete slab and its
reinforcement near to columns see Figure (5-8). This simulation is just approximate
solution to achieve partially fixed connection but not a practical way.
In this model, the beams reached to yield stress at point load equal to 445 tons and
133.86 mm deflection. This system has strength higher than the original case by 6.5% as
well as more ductility. A comparison between the two proposed models and the original
case are presented in Fig. (5-9)

Fig. 5.1: Load-Deflection Curve for Fig. 5.2: Load-Deflection Curve
the Two Floor Virandeel for the Three Floor Virandeel

Fig. 5.3: Load-Deflection Curve Fig. 5.4: Load-Deflection Curve

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Fig. 5.5: Load-Deflection Curve Fig 5.6: Load-Deflection Curve

Fig 5.7: Load-Deflection Curve Fig 5.8: Partially Fixed Simulation

Fig 5.9: Comparison between Fixed, Partially Fixed and Pinned Connection
6. CONCLUSIONS
1. Good agreement of this proposed three dimension finite element model with the
previous experimental and numerical data concluded its reliability and accuracy in
predicting and studying the overall behaviour of the composite section.
2. Axial forces acting on composite beams have a major effect in the concrete slab
effective width. The estimation of slab width calculated from codes and
specifications is not applicable.

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COMP-007-12
3. Because of the changing in slab width; it is concluded that analyzing tall building
with composite virandeel system should be done carefully when using commercial
finite element software such as SAP or STAAD. The effective width estimation
should be based on a similar prototype.
4. Concrete slab reinforcement ratios have a positive Influence in composite beam
strength and ductility.
5. Controlling the values of negative and positive bending moments in composite
beams using partially fixed connections yields a composite section that has a full
capacity.
REFERENCES
[1] www.icf-eg.com
[2] ANSYS user manual. Swason Analyses Systems, Inc. Houston, Pa., Version
10.0.
[3] Andrea Dall' Asta, Alesseandro Zona, 2004, "Comparison and validation of
displacement and mixed elements for the non-lienear analysis of continuous
composite beams", computer and structures, Vol. 82, pp. 2117-2130.
[4] Johnson, R.P., 1975, " Composite structures of Steel and Concrete", volume 1,
Beams, Columns, Frames and applications in Buildings, the Constructional Steel
Research and development Organization, First Edition, 209 pages.
[5] Eurocode 4, 1994, "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures", Part
1.1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings, Commission of the European
Communities.
[6] "Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Constructions and Bridges", Research
Centre for Housing, Building and Physical Planning, 2001.
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COMP-007-13
APPENDIX (I)
Calculation of plastic moment for the composite section of Virandeel girder according
to Eurocode:

Figure 5: Quarter plan for Virandeel chord arrangement

Figure 6: Cross section of Virandeel girder at sagging moment side
Check the classification of cross section shown in Figure (6):
For web
t
c
=
25
1120
= 44.8 < 72 *
275
235
= 66.6 (class 1)
For flanges
t
c
=
40
450
= 11.25 < 72 *
275
235
= 66.6 (class 1)

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COMP-007-14
Estimation of effective concrete slab width:
- According to Egyptian Code:
The minimum of:
1.
8
span Beam
= 2
8
25
= 6.25 m
2. One-half the distance to center-line of the adjacent beam = 7.5 m
3. The distance to edge of the slab (not included in the currant case).
- According to EuroCode:
1. The effective width of concrete flanges should be determined in accordance with the
following provisions.
2. When elastic global analysis is used, a constant effective width may be assumed over
the whole of each span. This value may be taken as the value beff,1 at mid-span for a
span supported at both ends, or the value beff,2 at the support for a cantilever.
3. At mid-span or an internal support, the total effective width beff , see Figure 7, may
be determined as:
beff = b0 + bei
where:
b0 is the distance between the centers of the outstand shear connectors;
bei is the value of the effective width of the concrete flange on each side of the web and
taken as Le / 8 but not greater than the geometric width bi . The value bi should be taken
as the distance from the outstand shear connector to a point mid-way between adjacent
webs, measured at mid-depth of the concrete flange, except that at a free edge bi is the
distance to the free edge. The length Le should be taken as the approximate distance
between points of zero bending moment. For typical continuous composite beams,
where a moment envelope from various load arrangements governs the design, and for
cantilevers, Le may be assumed to be as shown in Figure 7.
4. The effective width at an end support may be determined as:
beff = b0 + i bei
with:
i = (0,55 + 0,025 Le / bei) 1,0
where:
bei is the effective width, of the end span at mid-span and Le is the equivalent span of
the end span according to Figure 7.
5. The distribution of the effective width between supports and midspan regions may
be assumed to be as shown in Figure 7.
6. Where in buildings the bending moment distribution is influenced by the resistance
or the rotational stiffness of a joint, this should be considered in the determination of
the length Le.
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COMP-007-15
7. For analysis of building structures, b0 may be taken as zero and bi measured from
the centre of the web.

Figure 7: Equivalent spans, for effective width of concrete flange
Based on the currant case, the effective width could be calculated as the following:
In the positive moment side:
b
eff
= 50 +
2
8
2500 7 . 0
480 cm
In the negative moment side:
b
ei
=
8
2500 7 . 0
= 218.75 cm
L
e
= 2500 0.7 = 1750 cm
i
= (0.55 + 0.025
75 . 218
1750
) = 0.75
b
eff
= 50 + 0.75(218.752) 370 cm
Get plastic positive moment:
Referring to Figure (2),
N
c,f
= 0.85334800200 = 26928000 N
N
pl,a
= (1120252+500402) 275 = 26400000 N
M
+ve
=
10000000
) 1300 26400000 100 26928000 ( +
= 3701 m.t
M
+ve
= 3701 m.t

-1186-

COMP-007-16
Get plastic negative moment:

Figure 8: plastic stress distributions for a composite beam with a solid slab and full
shear connection in negative bending moment
N
s1
= N
s2
= 43011315 = 728850 N
= 72.885 ton
N
s3
+ N
a
= [405002 + 251122] 275 = 26400000 N
= 2640 ton
N = 27857700 N
= 2785.77 ton
2
N
=
2
27857700
= 13928850 N
= 1392.885 ton
N
s1
+ N
s2
+ N
s3
= (7288502) + (40500+50h) 275 = 13928850 N
h = 506.9927273 mm
N
a
= (40500+50613.0072727) 275 = 13928850 N
= 1392.885 ton
M
pl
= 1392.8850.3265 = 455 m.t
Plastic negative moment = 455 m.t

-1187-

COMP-008-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt




LARGE-SCALE TESTING FOR DECOMPOSITION MODEL VERIFICATION AND
VALIDATION

C. LUDWIG
Laboratory for Building Science and Technology
Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research, EMPA
berlandstrasse 129, Dbendorf, 8600, Switzerland
E-mail: carsten.ludwig@empa.ch
E. HUGI
Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research, EMPA
E-mail: erich.hugi@empa.ch
B. LATTIMER
Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
E-mail: lattimer@vt.edu
Z. MATHYS
Defence Science and Technology Organisation, Melbourne, Australia
E-mail: Zenka.Mathys@dsto.defence.gov.au

ABSTRACT
The increasing trend towards the use of GFRP materials in load bearing structures with fire
resistance requirements asks for a better knowledge of the highly temperature dependent material
properties. The aim of this application orientated research work was to define an appropriate set
of material data needed for a reliable engineering oriented design approach for a composite
structure in fire. Therefore a series of large-scale fire tests with structural load are realized to
produce a set of validation data for the thermo-structural models developed in the NICOP
program. The large-scale vertical furnace will be used to perform the large-scale tests. The
facility includes a vertical furnace, furnace instrumentation, and loading frame that contains the
test sample. Initial thermo-structural fire tests on composites will be conducted using E-glass
vinyl ester laminates. The composite panels will be 13.4 mm thick. In each test, three different
temperature profiles will be measured through the sample thickness. Standard unexposed side
temperatures will also be measured using a copper disc and felt pad in accordance with IMO
A.754(18) (1998). A verification study is being planned for the different decomposition models
that have been developed in various programs. A separate study will be conducted on the
validation of models. The purpose of the verification study is to compare the thermal and mass
loss predictions of the different programs with respect to a given set of simulations.
-1188-

COMP-008-2
KEYWORDS
glass-reinforced polymer composites, vinylester, fire experiments, thermal and mechanical load,
ship structure
1 INTRODUCTION

Because of their favourable mechanical, physical and chemical properties and high strength to
light weight ratios, polyester resin matrices are used in load-bearing structures [1].With
increasing application of GRP materials in load bearing structures requiring long heating
resistance necessitates experimental, analytical and numerical studies.
Available design guidance does not deal with the resistance of polymer composites to the
combined thermal and mechanical loading and therefore does not cover any risk of failure.
Knowledge of the thermal and mechanical performance of these materials is essential of
protection and evacuation systems in residential construction. The thermo-mechanical response
of polymer composites is also important for integrity, durability and long term performance under
the ISO 834 fire conditions.
However, with organic, flammable matrix resins attention must be paid to fire risk and hazards
from smoke and fumes. In infrastructures, and in many other civil engineering applications of
fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) structures, a fire situation may cause a very rapid rise of
temperature, and consequently strength degradation and final collapse.
The fire performance of composite materials polyester-based is generally assessed by the use of
furnace tests [2, 3, 4, 5].
When the material reaches 100 to 300
o
C, depending on composition and heating rate, chemical
reactions, commonly referred to as pyrolysis, begin to occur. At these temperatures, the resin
constituent undergoes thermo-chemical decomposition and the material breaks down [10, 11, 12].
[6, 7, 8, 9] observed that the organic matrix components are susceptible to combustion and fire
damage because of their chemical structures. Comparison of the post-fire mechanical properties
of GRP composites with a polyester, vinylester or phenolic matrix has been investigated by [8,
9]. They found that stiffness and failure load of all three composites decreased rapidly with
increasing heat flux or time mainly due to the thermal degradation of the resin matrix. However,
post-fire tension and flexure properties of the resole phenolic composite were similar to the
properties of the other composites, despite its superior fire resistance.

2 MATERIALS AND EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
2.1 Composite Panel

The composite test article was a 13.4mm thick single E-glass vinyl ester laminate without
stiffeners, see Figure 1. The laminate was composed of Derakane 411-350 vinyl ester resin and
21 layers of Colan AR105 plain weave (0.82 kg/m2), warp aligned. The panel was fabricated
using the VARTM process. The overall panel dimensions were 2100mm wide and 3000mm high.

One side of the laminate was covered with Thermal Ceramics Superwool 607, 96 kg/m3 fire
insulation blanket. Blanket rolls were 0.60m wide with an uncompressed thickness of 25mm.The
insulation was attached to one side of the laminate using 132 stick pins. Stick pins were 30 mm
long with 30mm square perforated plates for attachment to composite. Pins were generally
located 300mm apart on center. The majority of pins were mechanically attached using two
-1189-

COMP-008-3
screws applied through the plate holes into pilot holes drilled into the laminate. The blanket was
applied over the pins in five vertical sections as shown in Figure 1b. Insulation was held in place
38mm diameter thin metal washers slid over stick pins.

Figure 1. E-glass vinyl ester laminate test article a)before insulating b) after insulating.

2.2 Instrumentation

The test article was instrumented with thermocouples, strain gauges, and displacement
transducers. Figure 2 contains a series of photographs of the instrumentation applied on the
unexposed side of the test article. A close-up of the applied instrumentation on the unexposed side
is provided in Figure 2b. At each instrumentation location, the measurements were made within a
100 mm square area.

Figure 2. a-c) Picture of instrumentation of the unexposed side, d) detail

a left b middle c right d
-1190-

COMP-008-4
Strain was measured using Hottinger Baldwin DMS Series Y, 1-LY41-20/120 strain gauges.
These were attached to the composite surface using Hottinger Baldwin, X 280 two component
epoxy resin (temperature range -70C to 200C) with room temperature cure. Several overcoats
of SL 450 transparent silicon resin (temperature range of -50C to 450C) adhesive were applied
over the attached strain gauge.
Out-of-plane deflections were measured using Pewatron, Model DT-20-A string potentiometer
transducers. The strings were attached to a mount located on the laminate. The mounts were
bonded to the composite with adhesive and mechanically attached to the laminate with screw. In-
plane deflections were measured by monitoring the displacement of the loading beam using two
LVDTs.
Temperatures were measured through the thickness of the test article using Type K
thermocouples. These were installed at the locations shown in Figure 2d. IMO pad type
thermocouples were installed on the insulation surface, composite surface at the insulation-
composite interface, and on the unexposed side of the composite. IMO pad thermocouples
consisted of 12mm diameter, 0.56mm thick copper disks with Type K thermocouples soldered
onto one side of the disk. The copper disk was covered with a 30mm square, 1.93 mm thick
ceramic board, which was bonded to the attached surface with ceramic paste. A thermocouple
was embedded within the laminate. To install the embedded thermocouples, a slot 60 mm long,
5.6-6.1mm deep, and 2 mm wide was milled out of the unexposed side of the composite. A bare
bead Type K thermocouple was placed in the slot so that approximately 50mm of the
thermocouple was in the plane of measurement. The slot was backfilled with an epoxy (Sikadur
330 Part A&B).

2.3 Test setup

Figure 3. a) clamp system, b) load frame, c) concrete frame with test article

The loading frame shown in Figure 3b was constructed of a concrete frame with a steel loading
structure attached to the back of the frame. The concrete frame had an open area of 3000mm high
and 3000mm wide. To accommodate the 2100 mm wide test article, 450mm wide nonstructural
walls were constructed to fill in the open space not occupied by the test article. The concrete
sides of the frame were 350mm wide and 400mm deep. The concrete bottom was 250mm high
and 400mm deep and was set in a 100mm high steel channel. The top of the concrete frame was
a b
c
-1191-

COMP-008-5
430 mm high but only 100mm deep so that the loading beam can move vertically behind the
frame during the test applying load to the panel. The 200mm by 200mm concrete loading beam
was attached to two linear bearings to ensure vertical translation. The hydraulic jacks were used
to apply the load onto the sample.

The test article was tested with the top and bottom clamped and the sides unrestrained as shown
in Figure 3a. The test article was mounted into the loading frame through two clamps located at
the top and bottom of the test article. The clamp at the bottom was located on the fixed part of the
loading frame, while the top clamp was attached to the loading beam. Clamps were constructed
of 10mm thick steel with a clamping height of 50mm. The composite laminate and the insulation
were both placed in the clamps. The loading beam was moved so that the test article was in
contact with the beam, and then the clamps were tightened through a series of four bolts. Bolts
were tightened to a torque of 300 kilopounds-cm. A 150mm high and 50mm thick protective
mineral wool insulation was placed on the exposed side covering the clamps to prevent excessive
heating of the steel clamps. Insulation overlap was 140mm on the bottom and 135mm on the top,
resulting in an effective heated panel height of 2725mm.
The test article was loaded from the top through two hydraulic powered jacks. The applied load
was measured using load cells in line with the jacks.

Figure 4. furnace with burner and thermocouples

The furnace shown in Figure 4 was lined with insulating material and contained six light oil
powered burners located along the side walls. Two windows are located on the back wall to allow
observation of the test article during the exposure. Six plate thermometers were located inside the
furnace 100mm from the sample surface and used to control the furnace temperature in
accordance with IMO A.754(18) (ISO 834).
Additional instrumentation was included to quantify the furnace boundary condition for
modeling. This included a bare thermocouple 100 mm from the sample surface, bare
thermocouple 600mm from the back wall of the furnace, radiometer flush on the back wall, and
total heat flux gauge flush on the back wall. The bare thermocouple was 1.5mm diameter
sheathed, Type K thermocouple in accordance with IMO A.754 (18) furnace temperature probe.
The radiometer was a water-cooled, Schmidt-Boelter type heat flux gauge, range 0-200 kW/m2,
with a Zinc-Selenide window over the surface to shield the gauge from convection. The total heat
flux gauge was a water-cooled Schmidt-Boelter type heat flux gauge. The radiometer was used to
-1192-

COMP-008-6
measure the radiation heat flux from the furnace. By subtracting this from the measured total heat
flux, the convective heat transfer from the furnace can be determined. Using the measured gas
temperature, the heat transfer coefficient in the furnace can be calculated.

The furnace test was performed with an IMO A.754 (18) fire exposure with the test article
loaded. This is the standard cellulosic fire exposure for fire resistance testing. The furnace
pressure was positive during the test. The test article was loaded to 10 kN or 4.75 kN/m, which
was less than the IMO load of 7.0 kN/m. Based on preliminary models, this load would allow the
entire panel to heat up above the glass transition temperature and permit the decomposition of
several plies on the exposed side of the laminate before losing structural integrity.

3 RESULTS

Select results from the test are provided in Figures 5 and 6. Measured furnace temperatures were
in good agreement with the required furnace time-temperature curve as shown in Figure 5a.

time-temperature curve IMO A.754 (18)
0.00
200.00
400.00
600.00
800.00
1000.00
1200.00
0
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
0
:
0
7
:
3
0
0
0
:
1
5
:
0
0
0
0
:
2
2
:
3
0
0
0
:
3
0
:
0
0
0
0
:
3
7
:
3
0
0
0
:
4
5
:
0
0
0
0
:
5
2
:
3
0
0
1
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
1
:
0
7
:
3
0
0
1
:
1
5
:
0
0
0
1
:
2
2
:
3
0
0
1
:
3
0
:
0
0
0
1
:
3
7
:
3
0
0
1
:
4
5
:
0
0
0
1
:
5
2
:
3
0
time [min]
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

[
C
]
average furnace [C] ISO 834
heat flux furnace backside
0.00
50.00
100.00
150.00
200.00
250.00
0
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
0
:
0
7
:
3
0
0
0
:
1
5
:
0
0
0
0
:
2
2
:
3
0
0
0
:
3
0
:
0
0
0
0
:
3
7
:
3
0
0
0
:
4
5
:
0
0
0
0
:
5
2
:
3
0
0
1
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
1
:
0
7
:
3
0
0
1
:
1
5
:
0
0
0
1
:
2
2
:
3
0
0
1
:
3
0
:
0
0
0
1
:
3
7
:
3
0
0
1
:
4
5
:
0
0
0
1
:
5
2
:
3
0
time [min]
h
e
a
t

f
l
o
w

[
W
/
m
2
]
HFM1 [W/m2]

Figure 5. a) Required and measured IMO A.754 (18) furnace time temperature curve, b) total heat
flux in kW/m2 measured at the back of the furnace

As seen in Figure 5b, this exposure produced heat fluxes ranging from 50 kW/m2 early in the
exposure to nearly 200 kW/m2 near the end of the exposure.
In-plane deflections are shown in Figure 6b, with negative values being compression of the panel.
Out-of-plane deflections of the panel are provided in Figure 6a, with the positive values being
deflection into the furnace. In-plane deflections during the first half of the test increased due to
thermal expansion with out-of-plane deflections indicating that the panel was moving toward and
away from the furnace during this time period. During the second half of the test, the in-plane
deflections began decreasing which was attributed to a steady increase in out-of-plane deflection
during this period. The test was stopped at 1:54:36 due to burn-through of one of the non-
structural side panels; therefore, no structural failure occurred in the test.

a b
-1193-

COMP-008-7
panel #1 (IMO A.754 (18))
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
deflection out of plane d(op) [mm]
h
e
i
g
h
t

o
n

p
a
n
e
l

h

[
m
m
]
no load
load 10 kN
Time t 10 min
Time t 20 min
Time t 30 min
Time t 40 min
panel #1 (IMO A.754 (18))
-4.0
-3.5
-3.0
-2.5
-2.0
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
time t [min]
d
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
u
t

o
f

p
l
a
n
e

d
(
o
p
)

[
m
m
]
Pos1 [mm]
Pos2 [mm]
Deflection [mm]

master temperature distribution surface flat panel - 0.00 mm
0.00
100.00
200.00
300.00
400.00
500.00
600.00
0
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
0
:
0
7
:
3
0
0
0
:
1
5
:
0
0
0
0
:
2
2
:
3
0
0
0
:
3
0
:
0
0
0
0
:
3
7
:
3
0
0
0
:
4
5
:
0
0
0
0
:
5
2
:
3
0
0
1
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
1
:
0
7
:
3
0
0
1
:
1
5
:
0
0
0
1
:
2
2
:
3
0
0
1
:
3
0
:
0
0
0
1
:
3
7
:
3
0
0
1
:
4
5
:
0
0
0
1
:
5
2
:
3
0
time [min]
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

[
C
]
average 2/3 [C] average 5/6/7 [C] average 9/10 [C]
master temperature distribution surface flat panel - 12.5 mm
0.00
50.00
100.00
150.00
200.00
250.00
0
0
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
0
:
0
7
:
3
0
0
0
:
1
5
:
0
0
0
0
:
2
2
:
3
0
0
0
:
3
0
:
0
0
0
0
:
3
7
:
3
0
0
0
:
4
5
:
0
0
0
0
:
5
2
:
3
0
0
1
:
0
0
:
0
0
0
1
:
0
7
:
3
0
0
1
:
1
5
:
0
0
0
1
:
2
2
:
3
0
0
1
:
3
0
:
0
0
0
1
:
3
7
:
3
0
0
1
:
4
5
:
0
0
0
1
:
5
2
:
3
0
time [min]
t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

[
C
]
average 2/3 [C] average 5/6/7[C] average 9/10 [C]

Figure 6. a) deflection out of plane, b) deflection in plane, c) temperature distribution hot face, d)
temperature distribution cold face

A plot of the temperatures is contained in Figure 6 c+d. Temperatures were measured to increase
steadily during the initial half of the test, but increased slowly during the second half of the test
due to the more gradual rise in furnace temperature during this period. The unexposed side
temperature exceeded the glass transition temperature (~120C) at approximately 30:00min. The
laminate continued to carry the applied load for the duration of the test even as the temperatures
on the unexposed side of the test article increased to over 200C before the test was stopped.

4 POST FIRE OBSERVATION

Immediately following the fire exposure the frame was removed from the furnace and the
exposed side had the insulation fully intact with the surface glowing orange. The test article was
then cooled with a light water spray. Insulation pins were inspected to determine how well they
were attached after the fire. Pins attached using screws remained attached to the laminate. The
insulation was then removed exposing the laminate.

Figure 7 contains pictures of the laminate on the exposed and unexposed sides following the test.
The exposed side of the laminate was completely charred black with the glass reinforcement
intact. The unexposed side was discolored but still contained the matrix material. Numerous
circular regions were visible of varied dimension, indicating numerous delamination areas within
the laminate.

a
c
b
d
13.4 mm
-1194-

Figure 7. (a) Exposed and (b) unexposed sides of laminate following fire exposure

The cross-section of the laminate was examined by removing a 50mm diameter core at a
width 1100mm and height of 900mm relative to the bottom left corner on the unexposed
side of the laminate. Figure 8 contains the cross-sectional view of the laminate showing
a char region of 7mm and an uncharred region of 13mm. The overall thickness in this
area was 20 mm, which is 33% greater than the initial thickness. Additional thickness
measurements were taken along the sides of the panel. Looking from the unexposed
side, the right side of the laminate thickness ranged from 13.1-17.1mm over the bottom
two-thirds of the panel height. On the top part of the right side of the panel, hot gases
were leaking out of the furnace at this location causing additional damage resulting in
thicknesses of 15.2-23.1mm. The left side laminate had thicknesses ranging from 13.2-
15.7mm. This increase in thickness was to ply delaminations as shown in Figure 7b as
well as expansion of the material due to decomposition.

-1195-

COMP-008-9

Figure 8. (a) Location of core section removed. (b) Cross-section of laminate following
fire exposure

5 CONCLUSION

The experimental investigation showed that the fire resistance was sufficient 112 min. and
the ceramic wool offer a uniform protection of the whole surface.
The unexposed side temperature exceeded the glass transition temperature (~120C) at
approximately 30:00min. The laminate continued to carry the applied load for the duration
of the test even as the temperatures on the unexposed side of the test article increased to
over 200C before the test was stopped. The collapse temperature on the test article surface
is higher than the glass transition temperature, - under combined fire and mechanical load.
With respect to the applied load it is questionable if the load factor of 0.3 was sufficient.
The large scale test result confirmed no appropriate relation between the reduced strength at
elevated temperature and the isotherm temperature front of Tg [10] which moves towards
the core of the tested flat panel. This experiment is the basis of thermo-mechanical test on
a large scale test set; consequently no general conclusions can be made yet through this
experiment.
-1196-

COMP-008-10
Only the combination of large scale tests and thermal analysis permit an extensive
description of load bearing behaviour as the accordance of exothermic reaction temperature
and self ignition.

Further research will include thermal analysis as well as large scale tests with different load
factor.
6 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This research was performed as part of a large collaboration between Swiss Federal
Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research, EMPA, Zurich, Switzerland, Virginia
Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA , Defence Science and Technology Organisation, DSTO,
Melbourne, Australia , Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, School of Aerospace,
Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT, Melbourne, Australia, University of
New Castle upon Tyne, New Castle upon Tyne, UK funded by the United States Office of
Naval Research under the direction of Dr. L. Couchman.
7 REFERENCES

[1] Keller, Th., Use of Fibre Reinforced Polymers in Bridge Construction, IABSE
Structural Engineering Documents, No. 7, Juli 2003.
[2] Davies, A. G., und Currie, P., GRP offshore applications and design for fire,
Advanced polymer composites for structural applications in construction,
Proceedings of the first international conference, Southhampton University, UK,
April 2003.
[3] Currie, P. M., Wang, Y. C. und Davies, J. M., Thermal and structural
performance of GRP panels and short columns under fire conditions,
International Journal of Materials and Product Technology Vol. 19, No.1/2,
2003.
[4] Gibson, A.G., Glass-Reinforced Phenolic Laminates Subject to Hydrocarbon
Fire Tests, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Fibre Reinforced
Composites, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, 1998.
[5] Wang, H. B. und Davies, J. M., Glass-reinforced phenolic laminates subject to
hydrocarbon fire tests, Proceedings of the 7th international conference on fibre
reinforced composites, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK, April 1998.
[6] Sorathia, U., Beck, C., und Dapp, T., Residual strength of composites during
and after fire exposure, Journal of fire science, 11 (3), 1992.
[7] Scudamore, M. J., Fire performance studies on glass-reinforced plastic
laminates, Fire and Materials, Vol. 18, No. 5, September - October 1994.
[8] Mouritz, A., Property Degradation of Fibreglass Composites in Fire,
Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Composites in Fire,
University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK, 15-16
September 2005
[9] Mouritz, A. P., und Gardiner, C. P., Compression properties of fire-damaged
polymer sandwich composites, Composites Part A 33, 2002, pp.609-620.
-1197-

COMP-008-11
[10] Ludwig, C., Glasfaserverstrkte Kunststoffe unter hoher thermischer und
mechanischer Belastung, Dissertation, Universitt Stuttgart, Institut fr
Tragkonstruktionen und Konstruktives Entwerfen, Mai 2009.
[11] Bai, Yu., Structural Performance of fiber-reinforced polymer composites at
elevated and high temperatures, PhD-Thesis, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de
Lausanne, 2009.
[12] Feih, S., Mathys, Z., Gibson, A.G., Mouritz, A.P., Modelling the tension and
compression strengths of polymer laminates in fire, Composite Science and
Technology, No. 67: 551564, 2007.

-1198-

COMP-009-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON STRUCTURAL INSULATED
FOAM-TIMBER SANDWICH WALL PANELS FOR LOW-RISE
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

K. SENNAH
Department of Civil Engineering, Ryerson University
350 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
E-mail: ksennah@ryerson.ca

M. MOHAMMED

ABSTRACT
A Structural Insulated Panel (SIP) considered in this study is a panel composed of
expanded polystyrene insulation (EPS) board laminated between two oriented-strand
boards (OSB). They can be used for residential and commercial building applications to
provides builders and homeowners with energy efficient, structurally superior,
environmentally friendly and easy to install building system. In conventional
construction, roof and floor loads are distributed or carried along joists, typically at 300
to 600 mm o/c., that are supported directly over wall studs at the same spacing. While
loads in SIPs are distributed across the entire panel, allowing greater load capacity.
Replacing traditional 'stick built' construction, SIPs are easy to install and versatile for
exterior walls, foundations, roofs, timber framing and log homes, additions and floors.
The structural adequacy of the developed sandwich panel wall system needs to be
investigated experimentally on full-size to stand on the effectiveness of the foam core in
providing composite action enough to meet both the strength and serviceability
requirements. This paper summarizes part of a research program at Ryerson University
has recently started with the aim to contribute to the efficient design of structural
insulated sandwich timber walls by developing experimentally calibrated models
capable of predicting accurately their response when subjected to gravity loads as well
as combined gravity and wind loads.
KEYWORDS
Sandwich panels, timber design, foam insulation, building, experiments, energy
efficiency, test methods.
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COMP-009-2
1 INTRODUCTION
The structural insulated panel (SIP) is an engineered composite product composed of an
insulating foam core sandwiched to provide the insulation and rigidity, and two face-
oriented strand board (OSB) made of timber to provide durability and strength. The SIP
can be compared, structurally, to an I-beam; the foam core acts as the web, while the
facings are analogous to the I-beam's flanges as shown in Fig. 1. In case of flexural
loading, all of the elements of a SIP are stressed; the skins are in tension and
compression, while the core resists shear and buckling. Under axial concentric in-plane
loading, the facings of a SIP act as slender columns, and the core stabilizes the facings
and resists forces that may cause local bucking of the facings. These panels can be used
in low-rise industrial, commercial and residential construction as loading bearing walls,
roofs and walls. The energy saving insulation, design capabilities, cost effectiveness,
speed of construction and exceptional strength make SIPs the future material for high
performance buildings. Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram of the use of SIPs in
building systems, while Fig. 3 shows views of the use of SIPs in practice.

(a) I-section (b) SIP section Fig. 2: View of SIPs a building
Fig. 1: Comparison of I- and SIP sections system

Fig. 3: Examples of use of SIPs in wall construction in a residential building

A comprehensive literature review on previous research and the history of SIPs can be
found elsewhere [1]. The developed structural insulated sandwich timber panels
comprise insulated foam glued between two OSB boards. To determine the structural
adequacy of the level of adhesion between the foam and the OSB boards and the level
of composite action between them, it is felt necessary to conduct experimental testing
Flange = Facing
Web = Core
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COMP-009-3
to-collapse on the developed structural insulated sandwich timber panels. This paper
investigates experimentally the structural adequacy of the developed sandwich panel
wall system with respect to both the strength and serviceability requirements per
Canadian code for timber design.

SIPs which have been used in the experimental study, are produced by Thermapan Inc.
[2] in standard sizes of 1.2 m wide and lengths of 2.43, 2.72, 3.05, 3.66, 4.27 and 4.90
m. Thermapan SIPs are composed of thick layer of expanded polystyrene insulation
(EPS) board laminated between two sheets of oriented strand board (OSB). The facing
of these developed panels is made of two faces of Oriented Strand Board (OSB), 11 mm
thickness, holding a foam core for floor and wall construction. SIP walls, floors and
roofs are installed by placing the panels side by side as shown in Fig. 4. The joint
between the panels in the span direction can be foam-spline connection, shown in Fig.
5, on which a recess is formed in the foam core at the long edges of the panels. A foam
block, with two OSB facings glued to it, is inserted at the edge of one panel. Then, the
other panel is slide over the spline. The block OSB facings are then nailed to the OSB
of the connected panels which provides structural integrity to the floor or wall. Figures
5 and 6 show a typical section of foam-spline connection before and after assembly,
while Fig. 7 show view of this connection details between two panels.

Fig. 4: Typical floor and wall panel layout for basement and floor construction
2.1 Description of the Wall Panels
Three identical panels were manufactured for wall construction with 1.2 m wide, 11 mm
thick OSB boards for the side facings. They were of 2.73 m length, 165 mm total depth,
and foam-spline connection. The exterior faces of the Thermapan SIPs, are OSB boards
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COMP-009-4
manufactured and grade stamped as per APA [3]. The OSB board fabricate panels had
1R24/EF16/W24 panel mark with 11 mm thickness construction sheathing. The OBS
material properties are specified as follows: modulus of elasticity = 5515 MPa in the
span direction, or 1551 MPa in the direction normal to span direction; modulus of
rupture = 28.955 MPa in the span direction, or 12.409 MPa in the direction normal to
span direction. However, material characteristics as specified in the OSB Design
Manual (2004) for the 1R24/EF16/W24 panel are as follows: bending resistance, M
r
=
228 N.mm/mm; bending stiffness, EI = 730,000 N.mm
2
/mm; axial stiffness, EA =
38,000 N/mm; axial tensile resistance, T
r
= 57 N/mm; axial compressive resistance, P
r
=
67 N/mm; shear through thickness resistance, V
r
= 44 N/mm; shear through thickness
rigidity, G = 11,000 N/mm. The expanded polystyrene (EPS) core type 1, that has been
used to fabricate the panels, demonstrates the following characteristics: nominal density
= 16 kg/m
3;
flexural strength = 172 kPa; tensile strength = 103 kPa; compressive
strength = 70 kPa; shear strength = 83 kPa; and shear modulus = 2758 kPa.

Fig. 5: Typical section at panel foam-spline connection before assembly

Fig. 6: Typical section at panel Fig. 7: View of the foam-spline
foam-spline connection after assembly connection for the tested panels

2.2 Test method for SIPs under Axial Compressive Loading
The objective of this set of testing is to provide design tables of wall panels in the form
of factored design resisting line load. These design tables will assist in establishing the
maximum span of joists of roof/floor panels or the maximum span of SIP floor or roof
served by SIP wall as based on different snow/live loads intensities applied on the roof
or different live load intensities over floors. For the purpose of structural qualifications
of SIPs, the Canadian Construction Materials Commission (CCMC) produced a
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COMP-009-5
technical guide [4] in collaboration with the National Research Council Canada (NRC)
to describe the technical requirements and performance criteria for the assessment of
stressed skin panels (with lumber 1200 mm width and EPS core) for walls and roofs. In
this guide, The performance of the panels for walls and roofs, have been evaluated, as
an alternative solution, with respect to Part 4, Structural Design, and Part 9, Housing
and Small Buildings, of the National Building Code of Canada [5]. The Technical
Guide focuses on structurally qualifying the composite panels to be as good as the
structural capacity of the conventional wood-frame buildings. This NRC/IRC/CCMC
Technical Guide specifies test methods for SIPs which is similar to those specified in
ASTM E72-02, Standard Test Methods for Conducting Strength Tests of Panels for
Building Construction, [6] as well as ICC AC04, Acceptance Criteria for Sandwich
Panels, [7]. The ICC AC04 acceptance criteria are based on ASTM E72 standard test
methods. The 2008 ANSI/APA PRS-610.1, Standard for Performance-Rated Structural
Insulated Panels in Wall Applications, published by APAThe Engineered Wood
Association in USA [8], provides similar structural qualification procedure and criteria
for the performance-rated SIPs to those in ASTM E72-02 and ASTM E 1803-06, Test
Methods for Determining Structural Capacities of Insulated Panels [9].

Fig. 8: Schematic diagram of the elevation of the test setup for axial loading test
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COMP-009-6

Fig. 9: Schematic diagram (a) (b)
of the side view of the test Fig. 10: Views of wall W2 before testing
setup for axial loading test

2.3 Test setup and test procedure
AC04 specifies that load bearing wall panels shall support an axial loading applied with
an eccentricity on one-sixth the panel thickness to the interior or towards the weaker
facing material of an interior panel. The test setup shall be capable of accommodating
rotation of the test panel at the top of the wall due to out-of-plane deflection with the
load applied throughout the duration of the test with the required eccentricity. AC04
also specifies that the test panel shall have wall sill and cap plate details with
connections matching the proposed field installations. Axial loads shall be applied
uniformly or at the anticipated spacing of the floor or roof framing. To prepare for the
test, the wall panel aligned vertically and supported directly over the laboratorys floor
or over an elevated precast concrete slab units. A uniformly distributed line load was
applied on the top side over the 1200 m width using a loading assembly. This loading
assembly was composed of a 120035012 mm steel base plate resting over the top
side of the panel. A 12512512.7 mm HSS box beam of length 1200 mm was welded
to the top side of the steel base plate to transfer the applied jacking load over the panel
width. Two 70709 mm steel angles of 1200 mm length were welded to the steel base
plate, one on each side of the wall panel to stabilize the loading assembly during the
test. The weight of the loading assembly was calculated as 1.25 kN. Figure 8 shows
schematic diagrams of the elevation and side view of the test setup for axial loading.
While Fig. 9 shows schematics diagram of the loading assembly for t/6 eccentric
compressive loading. Figure 10 shows views of Wall W2 before testing,

Four Linear Variable Displacement Transducers, (LVDTs) were used to measure
horizontal displacement at the mid-height of the panel, two on each side of the panel
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COMP-009-7
facing. Four potentiometers (POTs) were installed vertically over the four corners of the
top side of the panels to record their axial shortening under load. For each panel, the
jacking load was continuously increased at a slow rate. Visual inspection was
continuously conducted during the test record any change in the structural integrity of
the wall panel. Each test was terminated after the wall panel failure. Failure of the panel
was considered when the recorded jacking load was not increasing or when the panel
could not absorb more loads while recorded axial shortening was increasing by
continuously pressing the pump handle. Mode of failure was recorded and test data was
then used to draw the load-deflection and load-axial shortening relationships for each
panel.

In this paper, three identical panels, namely: W1, W2 and W3, were tested to complete
collapse under uniformly distributed axial compression load with t/6 eccentricity, where
t is the panel thickness. Figure 10 shows views of wall W1 before testing, while Fig. 11
shows views of the permanent deformed shape of the panel after failure. It was observed
that the failure mode in wall W1 was due to OSB facing crushing at one side of its top
leading to global permanent lateral deformation of the panel as shown in Fig. 11. Figure
12 shows close-up view of the local damage and deformation in the OSB facing in wall
W2. It was observed that the failure mode of OSB crushing near the top part of the wall
on one facing and tensile fracture on the other facing at the same location. Figure 13
shows close-up view of the local damage and deformation in the OSB facing for Wall
W3. It was observed that the failure mode of OSB crushing occurred on one side of the
panel near its top quarter point, associated with diagonal tensile fracture of the foam at
the same location, as well as at the connection with the top wall stud.

Fig. 11: Views of deformed shape of wall W1 after OSB crushing at its top north side
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COMP-009-8

Fig. 12: Views of OSB crushing near Fig. 13: Views of OSB crushing near the top of
top side of Wall W2 and OSB fracture of the south side of Wall W3 in addition to OSB
at same location on the south side crushing near quarter point of the south-east side

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
-28 -24 -20 -16 -12 -8 -4 0
Axial shortening (mm)
J
a
c
k
i
n
g

l
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Pot-1
Pot-2
Pot-3
Pot-4
Average
Wall W-3
t/6 eccentricity
Ultimate load = 268.23 kN

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
-20 -16 -12 -8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20
Lateral deflection (mm)
J
a
c
k
i
n
g

l
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
LVDT-1
LVDT-2
LVDT-3
LVDT-4
Wall W-3
t/6 eccentricity

Fig. 14: Axial load-axial shortening Fig. 15: Axial load-lateral deflection
relationship for wall W3 relationship for wall W3

Figure 14 depicts the jacking load-axial shortening of wall W3, as an example. It was
observed that the failure was abrupt causing a sudden drop in the applied jacking load as
depicted in the load-axial shortening relationship. It was observed that linear elastic
behaviour was maintained till failure. Figure 15 shows the relationship between axial
load and lateral deflection of wall W3. No sign of the traditional Euler bucking failure
was observed. Table 1 shows that the experimental ultimate jacking load was 199.58,
172.36 and 268.23 kN for walls W1, W2 and W3, respectively. As per AC-04, the
ultimate factored design axial resisting compressive load is the experimental ultimate
load divided by 2.5. Thus, the factored design axial resisting load is 79.83, 68.94 and
107.29 kN for walls W1, W2 and W3, respectively. Since the obtained design values of
two of the walls are more than 15% difference with the average value of the three
panels, the design factored axial compressive load for this wall group is considered
68.94 kN, as the least value of the three values [7]. Table 1 shows also that the jacking
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COMP-009-9
loads at 3.175 mm (1/8 inch) axial shortening were 91.72, 59.91 and 92.94 kN for walls
W1, W2 and W3, respectively. Since the obtained design values of two of the walls are
more than 15% difference with the average value of the three panels, the design factored
axial compressive load per on the deflection criteria for this wall group is 59.91 kN, as
the least value of the three values [7]. To meet both strength and deflection criteria, the
wall factored resisting compressive load would be 59.91 kN.

Table 1: Panel configurations and results from axial compressive load tests
Wall
No.
Test type Panel size
Length
Width
Thick.
Experimental
Ultimate
jacking
load (kN)
Design
ultimate
jacking
load (kN)
Jacking load
at 3.175 mm
axial shortening
limit (kN)
W1 Axial loading at t/6 1.22.730.165 199.58 79.83 91.72

Table 2: Design table for SIP wall under axial compressive loading
Maximum supported joist
length
(1), (2)
, based on
ultimate strength, m
Specified snow load, kPa
Test
type

Panel size
Length
Width
Thick.

Design
ultimate
jacking
load, kN
Design
ultimate
uniform load
capacity =
design load
/1.2,
kN/m
Building
storeys
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00
Roof only 22.9 16.9 13.4 11.1 9.5
Roof and floor 10.3 9.7 9.1 7.9 7.0
Axial
loading
(at t/6)
1.22.73
0.165
59.91 49.93
Roof and 2 floors 5.7 5.5 5.3 5.2 5.0
(1)
Supported joist length means half the sum of the joist spans on both sides of the internal wall
or half the joist span of the exterior wall.
(2)
Maximum supported length of roof is based on 0.5 kPa dead load, 1.9 kPa live load for floors
and a specified snow load as shown on flat roofs. Wall (with siding, stucco) weight of 0.4 kPa is
considered as dead load.

4 CODE REQUIREMENTS FOR SIPS STRUCTURAL QULAIFICATIONS
Based on NBCC [5], the following loads and load factors can be used to examine the
structural adequacy of the panels for serviceability and ultimate limit states design: dead
load factor = 1.25, live load factor = 1.50, dead load for roofs = 0.5 kPa, dead load for
floors = 0.47 kPa, live load for residential construction = 1.9 kPa. Manual calculations
were performed to determine the maximum served joist span by the wall. As mentioned
earlier, the design factored axial compressive load obtained experimentally was 59.91
kN. By dividing this load over 1.2 m width of the tested wall, the factored uniform load
over the wall would be 49.93 kN. Three building configurations are considered herein,
namely: (i) a wall carrying single flat roof, (ii) a wall carrying a flat roof and a floor;
and (iii) a wall carrying a flat roof and two floors. For the first case, the factored
combined load would be 1.25D and 1.5S, where D and S are dead load and snow load
on the roof, respectively. Assuming that D is 0.5 kPa for the roof and 0.4 kPa for the
wall, the served joist span is calculated as 22.9, 16.9, 13.4, 11.1 and 9.5 m for specified
snow load of 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 kPa. Results are listed in Table 4.5. In case of a
wall carrying a roof and a floor, two load combinations were considered as follows:
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COMP-009-10
Case (1): 1.25D +0.5S for roof and 1.25D + 1.5L for floor, where L is floor live load.
Case (2): 1.25D +1.5S for roof and 1.25D + 0.5L for floor, where L is floor live load.
Considering the floor live load in residential construction as 1.9 kPa, the served span for
the first and second load combination cases are 10.3, 9.72, 9.3, 8.8 and 8.43 for case (1)
and 12.75, 10.6, 9.1, 7.9 and 7.0 for case (2). The smaller served span for each snow
load is then listed in Table 4.5. Similar procedure was performed for the wall case
carrying a roof and two floors. Final results are reported in Table 2.

5 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experimental findings, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1- The dominant failure mode in panels with foam-spline connection under axial
eccentric uniform load is due to crushing of the panel facing at two main locations
that let to lateral permanent deformation of the wall panel after failure. These
locations are (i) the connection between the OSB facings with the top or bottom stud
plates; (ii) the quarter point area of the wall height; and (iii) shear debonding
between the foam and OSB facing. Moreover, some panels exhibited diagonal crack
in the foam associated with OSB crushing.
2- Based on the data generated from testing a design table was developed to provide
designers with the maximum served joist span when this wall size is used in
residential building. Similar design tables can be established for codes other than the
Canadian one by changing the dead and live load factors and the floor live load.

6 REFERENCES
[1] Sennah, K. and Mohammed, M. Experimental Study on the Structural Behavior of
Insulated Sandwich Foam-Timber Wall Panels in residential Construction.
Technical Report Submitted to Thermapan Structural Insulated Panels Inc., Fort
Erie, Ontario, Canada (2009) pp. 149.
[2] Thermapan Structural Insulated Panels Inc. www.thermapan.com (2007).
[3] APA. Design and Fabrication of Plywood Sandwich Panels. APA The
Engineering Wood Association, Tacoma, WA, USA (1993).
[4] Institute for Research in Construction. Technical Guide for Stressed Skin Panels
(with lumber 1200 mm o.c. and EPS Core) for Walls and Roofs. National
Research Council, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (2007).
[5] Institute for Research in Construction. National Building Code of Canada,
NBCC-2005. National Research Council, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (2005).
[6] ASTM. Standard Test Methods of Conducting Strength Tests of Panels for
Building Construction, ASTM E72-02. American Society for Testing Materials,
Philadelphia, PA, USA (2002).
[7] ICC AC04. Acceptance Criteria for Sandwich Panels. ICC Evaluation Service
Inc., USA (2004).
[8] APA. Standard for Performance-rated Structural Insulated Panels in Wall
Application, ANSI/APA PRS-610.1, APA The Engineering Wood
Association, Tacoma, WA, USA (2008).
[9] ASTM. Test Methods of Determining Structural Capacities of Insulated Panels,
ASTM E 1803-06, American Society for Testing Materials, Philadelphia, PA,
USA (2006).
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COMP-010-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





Stabilization of Dune Sand using Cement Kiln Dust

M. A. KAMAL
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology, Taxila-
47050, Pakistan
E-mail: drmakamal@yahoo.com
S. M. HAMMAD
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology, Taxila-
47050, Pakistan

ABSTRACT
Dune sand was stabilized by adding cement and Cement Kiln Dust (CKD) in varying
proportions. Soil classification, density, California Bearing Ratio and unconfined tests
were carried out as per AASHTO specifications. The sand deposits can be characterized
as brown in colour, deeply homogenized with low bearing capacity. The maximum dry
density and optimum moisture content increased with the increase of cement content in
dune sand. The same trend was observed in tests carried out, once CKD was mixed in
the cement-sand mixture, however the increase in the properties was comparatively less
than that of pure cement-sand mixture. In other words, CKD can be used as a
replacement of cement as a whole or part, but requires more quantity as compared to
cement. It was concluded that 12 to 15 % of CKD by weight of sand can be used to
stabilize dune sand as a backfill or subgrade, 30 % for sub-base for light traffic and 40
percent in combination with 5 % of ordinary Portland cement for subbases for heavy
traffic, or bases for light traffic to satisfy the unconfined compressive strength and CBR
as per criteria proposed by O.G., Ingles.
KEYWORDS
Cement Kiln Dust (CKD), Soil stabilization, Maximum dry density, pavement,
subgrade
1 INTRODUCTION
Pakistan is situated in the western part of Indian subcontinent, with Afghanistan and
Iran to the west, India to the east and Arabian Sea in the south. Cholistan desert is
located along Eastern border, and comprises a vast desolate sandy area of about 16,000
square km. The climate of the area is arid, subtropical and is characterized by a low
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COMP-010-2
sporadically rainfall, high temperature, low relative humidity, high rate of evaporation
and very strong gusty summer winds. The average annual rainfall is about 100 to 150
mm and air temperature ranges from 20
o
C to 50
o
C.
Subsequent to the deposition of the sandy material through wind action and the shifting
of the main river courses of Hakra and Sutlej in Cholistan, (due to stoppage of water
under Indus basin treaty with India) has resulted in the formations of extensive sand
dunes ranging upto 20 m high. In physical geology, a dune is a hill of sand built by
Aeolian process, an activity of the wind to shape the surface of the earth.
Cement Kiln Dust (CKD) is available at a distance of about 50 km from the desert at a
throw-away price. It is a byproduct of Portland cement and possesses health hazards,
storage and disposal problems and is potentially a pollution source. Consuming such
products in civil engineering projects to upgrade the marginal and unsuitable sand,
would help in solving the environmental concerned problems of cement industry as well
as reduction in the overall cost of projects.
The area is under-developed, less populated and lacks in communication infrastructure
mainly due to scarcity of water. However, in the recent past, mega water supply projects
in the area and potable water has been pumped from green belts deep into the deserts
with under ground reservoirs and water supply pipes [1].
In order to boost up the communication infrastructure of the area, low cost road network
is needed. The dune sand available in the area is not suitable for traffic loads, therefore,
stabilization of this soil is important for use in pavements. Though ordinary Portland
cement is the best suited stabilizer for sandy soils, high cost makes this option
impracticable. Soil stabilization is a process by which significant properties of natural
soils can be improved, and this technique is being used for the stabilization of sub-
grades, bases and sub bases for road embankments. The purpose of modifying such soils
is to enhance the desired engineering properties of soils [2].
Baghdadi et al have recommended to use CKD between 12 to 50% for soil
modification. They further reported that above this percentage strength increases but
specimens failed the durability requirements [3].
Miller and Zaman carried out field and laboratory study to evaluate CKD and lime as a
soil stabilizer. They indicated that CKD performed significantly better than quick lime
for soil stabilization [4].
Refeai and Karni showed improvements in almost all the engineering properties with
addition of CKD i.e., unconfined compressive strength, optimum moisture content and
maximum dry density increase while plasticity, liquid limit and permeability decrease
for treated dune sand [5].
This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation to reduce the quantity of
cement required to stabilize the soil to the required strength, improve the dune sand by
mixing cement kiln dust with the sand-cement mix in various proportions. It has been
proposed to use CKD for sand stabilization which ultimately will reduce the project cost
as compared to cement stabilization being used by various authorities, thus making it
viable for the region.
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COMP-010-3
Dune sand samples were collected and tested for classification, insitu and lab density,
specific gravity, CBR and determination of unconfined compressive strength as per
AASHTO Specifications [6,7,8,9] by varying percentage by weight of CKD and
cement.
2.1 Soil Classification
The sand deposits can be classified as A-3 soil, as per AASHTO soil classification,
characterized as brown in colour, deeply homogenized, non plastic and weakly
structured. As per Unified Soil Classification System, it can be classified as Poorly
graded sand, more than 95 % passing # 60 sieve and less than 2% passing # 200 sieve,
having natural moisture content 4.1%, optimum moisture content 14.25%, with
maximum dry density of 99.4 pcf (1591 kg/m
3
), which is in the range recommended by
Holtz and Kovacs [10]. The specific gravity was 2.62, which is slightly less than the
recommended range of 2.65 to 2.67 for sandy soils, by Cheng and Jack [11].
2.2 Moisture Density Relationship
Cement was mixed in varying proportions with dune sand i.e., 3, 5 ,7 ,9 and 11 % by
weight of sand was replaced by cement. Optimum moisture content (OMC) and dry
densities were determined as per AASHTO and the results are shown graphically in
Figure 1, from which it can be observed that optimum moisture content and dry density
increases with an increase in cement content.

Fig. 1: Optimum Moisture Content vs Max Dry Density
Dune Sand +Cement (0,3,5,7,9,11%)
CKD was added in varying proportions i.e., 10, 20, 30, 40 % by weight of sand cement
mix of three different types i.e., Sand + 5% Cement, Sand + 7% Cement and Sand + 9%
Cement to study the moisture-density relationship. The optimum moisture contents and
corresponding dry densities have been shown graphically in Figures 2, 3 and 4,
respectively.
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COMP-010-4

Fig. 2: Optimum Moisture Contents vs Dry densities, varying CKD contents
(Sand + 5 % Cement) + CKD (0,10,20,30,40 %)

Fig. 3: Optimum Moisture Contents vs Dry densities at various CKD contents
(Sand + 7 % Cement) + CKD (0,10,20,30,40 %)

Fig. 4: Optimum Moisture Contents vs Dry densities at various CKD contents
(Sand + 9 % Cement) + CKD (0,10,20,30,40 %)
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COMP-010-5
It was observed that the maximum dry density and OMC increases with an increase in
cement contents due to filling of voids in dune sand by cement and CKD, however, the
effect was less to that of dune sand and cement mixture. This is simple to understand, as
the cementing quality of CKD is far less than that of cement, in other words, CKD can
be used as a replacement of cement as a whole or part, but requires more quantity as
compared to cement. The same trend was observed in a study of soil modification by
CKD carried out by Baghdadi et al [3].
Almost the same densities were achieved for 11% cement-sand mix and the mix with
10% CKD added to 5% cement-sand mix, thus economizing 6% cement. Similarly, the
dry density achieved by addition of 40 % CKD in 5% cement - sand mix was 17 %
more as compared to that of 11 % cement - sand mix and the dry density achieved by
addition of 40 % CKD in 7% cement - sand mix was 22.5 % more as compared to that
of 11 % cement- sand mix.
2.3 California Bearing Ratio
CBR tests were performed in the laboratory on unsoaked samples of dune sand and
CKD mixed in varying proportions ranging from 10 to 50% by weight as per AASHTO
specifications and reported in Table 1.
Table 1 :- Percentage of CKD and Corresponding CBR Values
Dune Sand
+
CKD %
Dune
Sand
Dune Sand
+
10 % CKD
Dune Sand
+
20 % CKD
Dune Sand
+
30 % CKD
Dune Sand
+
40 % CKD
Dune Sand
+
50 % CKD
CBR % 32.5% 49% 72% 111% 132% 133.5%

From Table 1, an increase in CBR can be observed with an increase in CKD. The
criteria proposed by Ingles[12], reproduced in Table 2, is satisfied for CBR value
required for subgrade or backfill and subbases for light traffic, when dune sand was
mixed with 30 % CKD and more. It also satisfies the soil rating for road and highways
tabulated in Table 3 proposed by Baghdadi et al [3].

Table 2: Proposed Criteria of Soil Cement Mixture, after Ingles[12]
S.No
.
Purpose Unconfined
Compressive
Strength (kPa)
California
Bearing Ratio
(Percent)
1 Road Subgrade, Formation, Back fill for
trenches etc.
343-1030 20-80
2 Road subbase for light traffic 687-1373 50-150
3 Subbase for heavy traffic, Base for light
traffic,building block
1373-5492 200-600
4 Base for Heavy Traffic, Embankment
protection, Flood ways
>5492 600
-1213-

COMP-010-6
Table 3 :- Soil Rating For Roads and Highways, after Baghdadi et al [3]
CBR
No.
Rating Uses Unified Classification
System
AASHTO
Classification System
0-3 Very Poor Sub grade OH, CH, MH, OL A5, A6, A7
3-7 Poor to fair Sub grade OH, CH, MH, OL A4, A5, A6, A7
7-20 Fair Sub base OL, CL, ML, SC, SM, SP A2, A4, A6, A7
20-50 Good Base/Subbase GM, GC, SW, SM, SP, GP A1b, A2-5,A3,A2-6
>50 Excellent Base GW, GM A1a, A2-4, A3
2.4 Unconfined Compressive Strength
The compacted and cured specimens of varying percentage of CKD with dune sand
prepared at their optimum moisture content and maximum dry densities were tested for
unconfined compressive strength as per AASHTO. The unconfined compressive
strength achieved at 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 percent CKD by weight are
shown in Table 4 and drawn graphically in Figure 5.

Table 4 : Unconfined Compressive Strength at Various CKD Contents & Ages
CKD
Content % /
Age ( Days)
10 %
Psi/kPa
15 %
Psi/kPa
20 %
Psi/kPa
25 %
Psi/kPa
30 %
Psi/ kPa
35 %
Psi/ kPa
40 %
Psi/ kPa
45 %
Psi/ kPa
50 %
Psi/ kPa
7
41.34/
285
43.66/
301
49.05/
338.2
53.21/
366.9
66.43 /
458
- - - -
14
50.26/
346.5
54.52/
374
64.08/
441.5
70.60/
486.7
79.80 /
550.5
- - - -
28
61.17/
421.8
69.74/
480.8
79.67/
549.4
89.8 /
619
106.88/
733.6
118.45/
818
137.09/
946.4
123.8/
808
108.28/
746.6

Fig. 5: Unconfined compressive strength at various CKD contents & Ages
-1214-

COMP-010-7
The results indicate an increase in unconfined compressive strength with an increase in
CKD content which is due to chemical reaction between water and CKD, as reported by
Baghdadi et al [3]. The chemical and mechanical property of CKD varies with
variation in raw material used, method of collection from kiln, and the unconfined
compressive strength in percentage of dune sand replaced by CKD. This variation will
directly affect the unconfined compressive strength of dune sand and CKD mixture. The
higher the compressive strength of CKD, the higher will be the unconfined compressive
strength of the mix.
In order to ascertain the use of CKD in different layers of road foundation, the
unconfined compressive strength can be compared with the criteria proposed by Ingles
[12] and shown in Table 2.
From the results, it can be observed that the unconfined compressive strength of sand,
mixed with 10% CKD was 422 kPa (28 days) which satisfies the lower limit of 343 kPa,
acceptable as fill material, subgrade and road embankment, but to be on the safer side, it
is suggested to adopt a higher value of 450 kPa, which can be achieved by adding 12 to
15 percent CKD by weight of dune sand as suggested by Hammad [1].
For pavement sub-bases and other similar applications, CKD ranging form 25 to 30
percent by weight is suggested to be used, as it gives strength between 619 to 734 kPa,
which satisfies the criteria as specified by Ingles [12]. The same percentage of CKD
also satisfies the National Highway Authority [13] specifications, which are being
followed in Pakistan.
Based on the results and analysis, the following can be concluded;
The dune sand of Cholistan desert can be stabilized with CKD in isolation and
in combination with ordinary Portland cement.
Minimum amount of CKD required for back fill material, unpaved tracks and
subgrades is recommended from 12 to 15 percent.
For light traffic, pavement sub-bases can be stabilized with 30 percent of CKD
by weight of sand.
The sub-bases for heavy traffic and bases for light traffic can be stabilized with
40 percent of CKD in Combination with 5% Ordinary Portland cement.
Due to hot climate in the area, it is recommended to use slightly higher moisture
content instead of the optimum value to cater the affects of evaporation during
mixing and compaction.
The uniformity with which the CKD would be mixed with dune sand will effect
the various properties of the mix i.e., compressive strength, compaction in terms
of optimum moisture content and maximum dry density and design CBR values.
It is therefore recommended to use mechanical mixing to achieve the desired
engineering properties.

-1215-

COMP-010-8
4 REFERENCES
[1] Hammad S. M., A Laboratory Study of Dune Sand Stabilization of Cholistan
Desert Using Cement Kiln Dust of Portland Cement M.Sc. thesis, University
of Engineering and Technology Taxila, Pakistan, (2007).
[2] Department of Environment, Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Soil
Mechanics for Road Engineers, London: Her Majestys Stationary Office,
(1952).
[3] Baghdadi Z.A., Fatani M. N., Sabban N.A., Soil modification and cement kiln
dust , Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 7, No.4 (1995) 218-222.
[4] Gerald A. Miller, Musharraf Zaman, Field and laboratory evaluation of cement
kiln dust as a soil stabilizer, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the
Transportation Research Board, Vol. 1714/2000, 25-32.
[5] Talal O. Al-Refeai , Awad A. Al-Karni, Experimental Study on the Utilization
of Cement Kiln Dust for Ground Modification , Journal of King Saud
University. Engineering Sciences. Volume 11, No 2. (1999/1419).
[6] American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Soil
Classification M 145-91, (2000).
[7] American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Soil
Density T 99-01, (2000).
[8] American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. California
Bearing Ratio T 193-99, (2000).
[9] American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
Unconfined Compression Test T 208-96, (2000).
[10] Holtz R.D. and Kovacs W.D., Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering,
Prentice Hall, (1981).
[11] Cheng Liu, Jack B. Evett, Soil Properties: Testing, Measurement and Evaluation,
Fifth Edition, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, (2002).
[12] Ingles O. G., Soil Stabilization. Sydney: School of Civil Engineering, (1972).
[13] National Highway Authority, General Specifications, Ministry of
Comunications, Government of Pakistan, (2000).
-1216-

COMP-011-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





A STUDY ON CONCRETE BRIDGE BARRIERS REINFORCED
WITH COMBAR GFRP BARS

EKATERINA TROPYNINA, SERGEY GOREMYKIN, KHALED SENNAH

ABSTRACT
Corrosion of steel reinforcement due to environmental effects is a major cause of
deterioration problems in bridge barriers. A newly developed Schck ComBAR, made
of glass fibre reinforced polymers (GFRP), not only addresses this durability problem
but also provides exceptionally high tensile strength (1100 MPa), and Youngs modulus
(60 GPa). The special ribbed surface profile of ComBAR and end anchorage heads
ensure optimal bond between concrete and the bar and eliminate the unnecessary and
expensive use of custom made bar bends. A recent design work conducted at Ryerson
University proposed the use of 16-mm and 12-mm diameter ComBAR as vertical
reinforcement in the barrier front and back faces, respectively, with 12-mm diameter
ComBAR as horizontal reinforcement in case of PL-3 barrier wall. A 300 mm bar
spacing was proposed as opposed to the currently used 200 mm bar spacing for
reinforcing steel bars. The connection between the deck slab and the barrier wall
utilized the newly developed ComBAR with headed end. This paper reviews the design
procedure of the barrier wall using the yield-line pattern specified in AASHTO-LRFD
Specifications. Two full-scale PL-3 barrier models of 1200 mm length were erected and
tested to-collapse to determine their ultimate load carrying capacities and failure modes.
This paper presents the results from these tests in the form of crack pattern, deflection
history and the ultimate load carrying capacity as compared to the design values
specified in the Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code.

KEYWORDS
Bridge barrier, bridge codes, FRP bars, experiments, cracks, ultimate load, yield-line.

1 INTRODUCTION
In November 2007, The Residential and Civil Construction Alliance of Ontario,
Canada, (RCCAO) released a report on the state of Ontario bridges, entitled Ontarios
Bridges: Bridging the Gap. The report warns that the integrity of Ontarios municipal
bridge infrastructure and public safety are at risk after years of deferred maintenance,
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COMP-011-2
irregular inspections, and lack of government oversight. Recent media coverage on
bridge collapses in Laval, Quebec and Minneapolis, Minnesota, has highlighted the
serious consequences of postponing actions to rehabilitate or reconstruct deteriorated
bridges and the urgent need to take timely responsible action to safeguard the public
from potential infrastructure failure. The study noted that many of Ontarios bridges
were built in the 1950s and 1960s, and it is expected that most bridges will require
costly rehabilitation or replacement after 50 years of life. According to the Provincial
Auditors report in 2004, almost one-third of the approximately 2,800 provincial bridges
under Ministry of Transportation of Ontarios (MTO) jurisdiction are in need of major
rehabilitation or maintenance based on MTOs own figures. However, for the estimated
12,000 municipal bridges in Ontario, the RCCAO report stated that there is a lack of
information on their conditions and a capital investment of at least $2 billion will be
required over the next five years to rehabilitate this aging infrastructure. Bridges built
prior to the 1970s did not use air-entrained concrete and coated reinforcing steel bars to
protect from the effects of freeze-thaw cycles and the application of winter de-icing salt.
This leads to corrosion-induced degradation in bridge decks and barriers as shown in
Fig. 1. Accordingly, bridge decks, railings and barrier walls are all likely candidates for
expensive replacement on the majority of these older bridges. The RCCAO report stated
some recommendations to be made to promote the publics safety and the sustainability
of Ontarios bridges. One of these recommendations includes promoting bridge
engineering designs that improve the life expectancy and reduce maintenance costs of
bridges. This can be achieved by using fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) bars.

Fig. 1: Corrosion-induced degradation of steel-reinforced (a) bridge deck slab and (b)
bridge barrier wall

2 DESCRIPTION OF FRP TECHNOLOGY
Fibre-reinforced polymers (FRPs), as non-corrodible materials, are considered as
excellent alternative to reinforcing steel bars in bridge decks to overcome steel
corrosion-related problems. FRP materials possess the necessary property of high
tensile strength that makes them suitable as structural reinforcement for concrete. Since
it is less expensive than carbon and aramid FRPs, Glass FRP (GFRP) is more attractive
to bridge deck slab applications. Given the GFRPs small transverse strength and
relatively low modulus of elasticity, the shear strength of GFRP-reinforced deck slab is
lower than that for steel-reinforced deck slab. However, this issue is not important since
-1218-

COMP-011-3
shear strength in deck slabs is provided by concrete only. A newly developed Schck
ComBAR (www. Schock.canada.com), made of glass fibre reinforced polymers, not
only addresses this durability problem but also provides exceptionally high tensile
strength (1100 MPa), compared to 400 MPa yield strength of the currently used
reinforcing steel bars. The special ribbed surface profile of ComBAR, shown in Fig.
2a, ensure optimal bond between concrete and the bar. The favorable ComBAR
characteristics include (i) high-strength-to-weight ratio; (ii) resistant to corrosion; (iii)
durable (freeze and thaw resistance); (iv) high chemical resistant; and (v) up to 100
years of service life. Schck has recently developed a ComBAR headed stud connector,
shown in Fig. 2b, to eliminate the unnecessary and expensive use of custom made bar
bends. The headed end is cast over the ribbed bar as shown in Fig. 2b. Most recently,
Pahn [1] conducted pullout tests on No. 16 ComBAR provided with headed stud
connectors to determine their pullout capacity when they are embedded in concrete over
bond lengths of 100 mm and 200 mm. The results from this testing were used as the
basis for the currently proposed connection between the barrier and the deck slab.

Fig. 2: Views of (a) ComBAR reinforcement and (b) ComBAR headed stud connector

3 BACKGROUND OF COCNRETE BARRIER DESIGN
The design process of traffic and bridge barrier walls specified in the Canadian
Highway Bridge Design Code([2], [3]) is based on the AASHTO Guide Specification
for bridge railings [4] and the AASHTO Guide for Selecting, Locating and Designing
Traffic Barriers [5]. Design of barrier wall is based on two aspects. The first is that the
traffic barrier can differ from site to site and traffic barrier performance should match
specific bridge site requirements. This is called the multiple performance level concepts.
CHBDC specifies these requirements in the form of barrier performance level 1, 2 and
3. These performance levels depend on traffic volume, percentage of trucks in traffic
mix, highway type, barrier clearance, highway curvature, highway design speed,
superstructure height above ground level, number of people at risk beneath the bridge
and hazards existing beneath the bridge. The second aspect is that traffic barriers should
be crash tested to confirm that they will meet the requirements of a specific performance
level. A traffic barrier serves dual and often conflicting roles. It must be capable of
redirecting and/or containing an errant vehicle without imposing intolerable conditions
on the occupants of the vehicle. It should be able to do this for a range of vehicle sizes
and weights, impact speeds and angles. The initial design of the proposed PL-3 precast
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COMP-011-4
bridge barrier was carried out to meet the CHBDC design criteria specified for static
loading. CHBDC specifies transverse, longitudinal and vertical loads of 210, 70 and 90
kN, respectively, that can be applied simultaneously over a certain barrier length.
CHBDC specifies that transverse load shall be applied over a barrier length of 2400 mm
for PL-3 barriers. Since transverse loading creates the critical load carrying capacity,
both the longitudinal and vertical loads were not considered in the design of barrier wall
reinforcement and anchorages between the deck slab and the barrier wall. It should be
noted that CHDBC specifies a live load factor of 1.7. Thus, the design impact load on
the barrier wall over 2.4 m length is 357 kN. The following subsections summarize the
AASHTO-LRFD yield-line failure load that was used in this study to determine the FRP
bar sizes both vertically and horizontally.

2.1 AASHTO-LRFD Yield-Line Analysis
The yield-line analysis conducted herein was based only on the ultimate flexural
capacity of the concrete components as specified in the AASHTO-LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications [6]. In the analysis, it was assumed that the yield-line failure pattern
occurs within the barrier wall only and does not extend into the deck slab. This means
that the deck slab must have sufficient resistance to force the yield-line failure pattern to
remain within the barrier wall. If the failure pattern extends into the deck, the equations
for resistance of the barrier wall will not be valid. The LRFD yield-line analysis is also
based on the assumption that sufficient longitudinal length of barrier wall exists to result
in the desired yield-line failure pattern. For short lengths of barrier walls, a single yield-
line may form along the juncture of the barrier wall and the deck slab. Such a failure
pattern is permissible, and the barrier wall resistance should be computed using
appropriate analysis. Moreover, the LRFD yield-line analysis is based on the
assumption that the negative and positive wall resisting moments are equal and that the
negative and positive beam resisting moments are equal. AASHTO-LRFD Design
Specifications assume two yield-line failure patterns based on the location of the truck
collision with the barrier wall, as shown in Fig. 3. A force F
t
distributed over a length L
t

as shown in the figure produces the first yield-line failure pattern caused by a truck
collision within a wall segment. This interior yield-line pattern is assumed to have three
yield lines as shown in Fig. 3-a. Two of the yield lines have tension on the inside face of
the barrier wall and one yield line has tension on the outside face of the barrier wall.
The latter is a vertical crack along the height of the barrier wall at the location of vehicle
impact. The second yield-line failure pattern occurs at the end of the barrier wall as
produced by a force F
t
distributed over a length L
t
as shown in Fig. 3-b. In this case,
there is only one diagonal yield line that produces tension on the inside face of the
barrier. This type of yield-line pattern is assumed to occur at bridge barrier ends and at
locations of deflection joints and expansion joints. A solution is obtained for the barrier
wall load carrying capacity (i.e. nominal barrier wall resistance) by equating the
external work due to the applied loads to the internal work delivered by the resisting
plastic moments along the yield lines. The resisting moment along the yield line is a
resultant of the moment about the vertical axis from the longitudinal reinforcement
(M
w
) and the moment about the horizontal axis from the transverse reinforcement (M
c
).
The angle of the inclined yield lines can be expressed in terms of the critical length L
c

as shown in Fig. 3. The applied force F
t
is then minimized with respect to the length L
c

to get the least value of this upper bound solution. With some algebraic manipulation
based on the principle of virtual work, the critical wall length over which the yield line
-1220-

COMP-011-5
mechanism occurs, L
c
, can be determined. As such, the following equations are
introduced in AASHTO-LRFD Specifications.

(a) Interior region (b) End region
Fig. 3: LRFD yield-line analysis of barrier wall

For impacts within the barrier segment:
The critical barrier wall length over which the yield line mechanism occurs can be taken
as:
+
+
+ =
int
int int
2
) 8
2 2
c
w b t t
ci
M
H M HM L L
L (1)
The nominal barrier wall resistance to transverse load may be determined as:
+ +
=
H
L M
H M M
L L
R
ci c
w b
t ci
wi
2
int
int int
8 8
2
2
(2)

For impacts at end of wall or at joint:
The critical barrier wall length over which the yield line mechanism occurs can be taken
as:
+
+
+ =
cend
wend bend t t
ce
M
H M M
H
L L
L
)
2 2
2
(3)
The nominal barrier wall resistance to transverse load may be determined as:
+ +
=
H
L M
H M M
L L
R
ce cend
wend bend
t ce
we
2
2
2
(4)
Where: L
ci
= critical length of interior yield line failure pattern; L
ce
= critical length of
exterior yield line failure pattern; L
t
= longitudinal length of distribution of impact
force F
t
; H = height of barrier wall; M
bint
= flexural resistance of the cap beam; M
wint
=
flexural resistance of the wall about its vertical axis; M
cin
= flexural resistance of the
wall about a horizontal axis; and R
wi
= total transverse resistance of the barrier wall.

-1221-

COMP-011-6
For use of the above equations, M
c
and M
w
should not vary significantly over the height
of the wall. Where the width of the concrete wall varies along the height, M
c
should be
calculated as the average of its value along the height. The nominal resistance equations
include flexural resistance, M
b
, when a top beam or beam cap is present at the top of
wall. M
b
term is set equal to zero in the computation of the barrier wall resistance since
this beam cap does not exist in the studied barrier wall system. The terminology of
AASHTO-LRFD specifications, R
w
is the nominal resistance of the barrier and it is
compared to the CHBDC nominal transverse load mentioned earlier for structural
adequacy. Resistance factors to both concrete and reinforcing steel were applied to
obtain the factored transverse resistance of the barrier wall.

2.2 AASHTO-LRFD Yield-Line Analysis
Two bridge barrier configurations were considered in this study. The first barrier shown
in Fig. 4 is the currently used barrier with steel reinforcement, incorporating both 180
hooks and bent bars to provide the necessary development length and anchorage. While
the second barrier shown in Fig. 5 represents the proposed FRP-reinforced barrier,
utilizing the ribbed ComBAR with anchorage head shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 4: Steel-reinforced bridge barrier Fig. 5: FRP-reinforced bridge barrier

The yield-line analysis was performed on each barrier wall to obtain the barrier
resistance, R
w
, as a function of the spacing of both vertical and horizontal bars. For
steel reinforcement, the yield strength of steel was taken 400 MPa for M15 bars (i.e. bar
diameter = 15.9 mm). The resistance factors applied to the yield strength of steel
reinforcement and to the concrete compressive strength were taken 0.90 and 0.75 as
specified in CHBDC. For the FRP-reinforced barrier, ComBAR sizes were 16 mm for
the vertical bars in the front side of the barrier and 12 mm for all other bars. A
resistance factor of 0.50 was applied to the FRP bar strength as specified in CHBDC.
Results showed that barrier transverse capacities, R
w
, are 365, 438 and 531 kN for 300,
250 and 200 mm spacing of both vertical and horizontal steel bars. However, they are
-1222-

COMP-011-7
630, 840 and 1026 kN for 300, 250 and 200 mm spacing of vertical and horizontal FRP
bars. It should be noted that all these values are greater that the design transverse barrier
load of 357 kN. Since CHBDC specifies that maximum spacing of FRP bars is 300 mm,
it was decided to choose this spacing for vertical and horizontal FRP bars for further
experimental investigation, in addition to the currently used spacing of 200 mm.

The results of the above-mentioned design proposed using 16-mm and 12-mm diameter
ComBAR as vertical reinforcement in the barrier front and back faces, respectively,
with 12-mm diameter ComBAR as horizontal reinforcement. A 300 mm bar spacing
was proposed as opposed to the currently used 200-mm bar spacing for steel-reinforced
bridge barriers. Figure 5 shows the bar arrangement for 60 mm concrete cover.

Fig. 6: View of FRP bars in model (1) Fig. 7: View of FRP bars in model (2)
50 mm PVC sleeve @ 600 mm c/c
embedded in the deck slab
HSS 305x305x9.5
lenght = 2.4 m
Anchor rod of 50 mm
19 mm thick steel plate
Laboratory rigid floor
Jack
Load Cell
Rigid
100 mm diameter
solid round bar
Locking round plate
LVDT
LVDT
LVDT
diameter @ 600 mm c/c
Wall

Fig. 8: View of the test setup
-1223-

COMP-011-8
Two full-scale PL-3 barrier models of 1200 mm length were erected and tested to-
collapse to determine their ultimate load carrying capacities and failure modes. The
ComBAR reinforcement, shown in Fig. 5, was considered for both barriers except that
the vertical rebar spacing was 200 and 300 mm for barrier models (1) and (2),
respectively. Figures 6 and 7 show views of the FRP bar arrangements in the formwork
of models (1) and (2), respectively. It should be noted that the barrier wall was cast
monolithically with the deck slab. The deck slab was 225 mm thick and reinforced with
top and bottom reinforcement of 16 mm FRP bars at 200 mm spacing and with 16 mm
FRP bars at 250 mm in the direction of the barrier wall. Figure 8 shows view of the test
setup. Each barrier specimen was supported over the Structures Laboratory floor, then,
tied down to the floor using 50 mm diameter threaded rods. Each rod was placed @ 600
mm c-c and tightened by applying a specified torque to control the slab uplift during
testing. A 900- kN hydraulic jack was used to apply horizontal load to the barrier wall.
A universal flat load cell of 900 kN capacity was used to measure the applied loads on
barrier models. SYSTEM 6000 data acquisition unit was used to record readings from
all sensors. Each specimen was tested under increasing monotonic load up-to-collapse.
During the test, jacking load was applied in increments of 10 kN. At each load
increment, the load was maintained for a few minutes to observe crack initiation and
propagation as well as change in barrier geometry as depicted from LVDT (Linear
Variable Displacement Transducers) readings. It should be noted that the data
acquisition unit was adjusted to record one reading per second from all sensors. Failure
of the model was attained when the readings from sensors were increasing while the
model did not take any further increase in load. Figure 8 shows LVDTs locations
which are (i) at the top of the back side of the barrier wall oriented in the direction of
the applied load; (ii) at the mid-depth of the deck slab to measure slab movement under
transverse load; and (iii) at the top of the back side of the deck slab to measure any
possible uplift under load.

Fig. 9: Views of crack pattern from the left and right sides of barrier model (1)
-1224-

COMP-011-9
Figures 9 and 10 show views of the crack pattern of the tested barrier model (1) and (2),
respectively. It can be observed that the first visible crack was observed in the front side
of the barrier wall at 90 and 70 kN for barrier models (1) and (2), respectively. Also, the
separation between the barrier wall and the deck slab at their interface was observed
from the front side of the barrier wall, where maximum tensile stresses exist, at 90 and
80 kN for models (1) and (2), respectively. Although flexural cracks appeared in the
barrier wall and the deck slab portion, failure of the two tested models occurred in the
deck slab in a combined tension and flexural mode. It was observed that the ultimate
load carrying capacities were 181 and 176 kN for barrier models (1) and (2),
respectively, which were greater than the CHBDC design values of 122 kN for the
moment capacity of the barrier-deck slab junction (i.e. 48% and 45% increase for
models (1) and (2), respectively). The results from the study encourage (i) the use of
CHBDC specified concrete cover of 35 mm 10 mm when using ComBAR; and (ii)
using 300 mm bar spacing to reduce material cost. Further tests are planned to
investigate the two-way action of the barrier wall as influenced by the amount of
horizontal bars.

Fig. 10: Views of crack pattern from the left and right sides of barrier model (2)

Figures 11 and 12 depict the applied load-displacement relationship form models (1)
and (2), respectively. It can be observed that both the deck slab uplift and the horizontal
movement at failure are generally less than 4 and 9 mm, respectively, for both models.
These values are considered acceptable and do not significantly affect the structural
response of the barrier wall. One may observe that the maximum lateral deflections of
-1225-

COMP-011-10
the barrier wall at failure were 28 and 45 mm for models (1) and (2), respectively. One
may conclude that both the load carrying capacity and maximum deflection formodel
(1) of 200 mm vertical bar spacing are less than those for model (2) of 300 mm vertical
bar spacing, as expected.

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Displacement (mm)
J
a
c
k
i
n
g

l
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Ultimate load
= 180.87 kN
Uplift
Back movement
Lateral
deflection
Model (1)
200 mm spacing between
vertical bars

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Displacement (mm)
J
a
c
k
i
n
g

l
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
`
Uplift Back movement
Lateral
deflection
Model (2)
300 mm spacing between
vertical bars

Fig. 11. Load-displacement relationship Fig. 12. Load-displacement relationship
For model (1) for model (2)

5 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the data generated from the experimental study, it can be concluded that
ComBAR bars with headed anchorage can be safely used in bridge barrier walls to
resist the applied vehicle impact load specified in the Canadian Highway Bridge Design
Code. The maximum spacing of 300 mm between bars specified in CHDBC is adequate
for strength as proved both experimentally and theoretically. Given the increase in
barrier capacity of 48% over the CHBDC design load, it is recommended to reduce the
specified concrete cover to reinforcement from 60 mm to 35 mm, given the non-
corrosive nature of FRP bars.

6 REFERENCES
[1] Pahn, Matthais. 2008. Monitoring of Bond Test and Pull-out Tests for ComBar
16 Provided with Headed Stud Connectors. Report submitted to Schck
Bauteile GmbH, Technische Universitt Kaiserslautern, Germany, pp. 1-17.
[2] CSA. 2006-a. Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code. CAN/CSA-S6-06.
Canadian Standard Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
[3] CSA. 2006-b. Commentary on CAN/CSA-S6-06, Canadian Highway Bridge
Design Code. Canadian Standard Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
[4] AASHTO. 1989. AASHTO Guide Specifications for Bridge Railings. American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington D.C.,
USA.
[5] AASHTO. 1977. AASHTO Guide for Selecting, Locating, and Designing
Traffic Barriers. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Washington D.C., USA.
[6] AASHTO. 2004. AASHTO-LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. Third Edition,
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington,
DC.
-1226-

COMP-012-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt




FRICTION EFFECT ON THE TENSILE STRENGTH
OF DEVIATED CFRP-STRIPS

M. HWASH
Institute of Building Structures and Structural Design, University of Stuttgart
Keplerstrasse 11, Stuttgart, 70174, Germany
E-mail: m.hwash@itke.uni-stuttgart.de
PROF. DR.-ING. J. KNIPPERS
E-mail: j.knippers@itke.uni-stuttgart.de
PROF. DR.-ING. F. SAAD
Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt

ABSTRACT
In recent years the Institute of Building Structures and Structural Design, University of
Stuttgart (ITKE), has undertaken a large amount of experimental work to determine the load
bearing capacity, strain responses up to failure and the failure mode of CFRP-Strips at
different deviation saddle geometries. Several tests with different deviation angels and
deviation saddle radii were carried out. The results have shown that the tensile strength of the
CFRP-Strip is reduced significantly by deviation, even if the deviation radius in proportion to
the thickness of the CFRP-Strips is comparatively large.
Further tests were carried out to determine the influence of other important parameters on the
load bearing capacity of the strip such as surface properties of the saddle including the friction
of the saddle surface. The results of these tests show that, with the help of a polyethylene
layer (HD-PE) between the CFRP-Strip and the deviation saddle friction could be reduced,
which lead to an increase in tensile strength. The effect of these parameters on the load
bearing capacity of the CFRP-Strip is published in this paper.
KEYWORDS
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CFRP), Pre-stressed, CFRP-Strips, Saddle, Experimental,
Friction
1 INTRODUCTION
CFRP-Materials have been the focus of much attention in the engineering community since
the development of light weight and high stiffness fibres in the 1940s. In the last two
decades, the use of CFRP composites as a reinforcement for concrete members has emerged
as one of the most exciting and promising technologies in materials / structural engineering.
-1227-

COMP-012-2
Due to the high price of CFRP-Strips its application today is mostly found in buildings, where
its strength is highly utilized and the strips are needed in small quantities, e.g. for the
strengthening and rehabilitation of reinforced concrete structures.
In the meantime the new developments/researches concentrate on direct gluing of pre-stressed
CFRP-Strips on reinforced concrete constructions in order to improve their stability. The
applied pre-stress rises the degree of utilization for the CFRP-Strip, at the same time the pre-
stressed CFRP-Strips need to anchor their force locally into the concrete. This is not easy due
to the sensitivity of the carbon fibers to transverse loads. The development for CFRP-Strip
anchorage is presently under investigation in many research institutions and universities.
This strip could also be used for external prestressing of bridges or for unstrained ceilings in
high building structures. Because of the flat and broad cross section of a CFRP-Strip, the
lateral strain at the bearing saddle and the end anchorages are smaller than induced by circular
tension members, this may be of advantage. At present knowledge of the deviated CFRP-
Strips is still missing. How does load bearing capacity change, if the CFRP-Strip is deviated
on a saddle and stressed?
The following section shows part of a comprehensive experimental program which is running
on CFRP-Strips on a deviation saddle. The effect of the deviation angle and the contact
surface between the CFRP-Strip and the deviation saddle on the load bearing capacity and the
deformational behaviour of the CFRP-Strips will be investigated.
2 EXPERIMENTAL WORK
2.1 Program and Test-Setup
A bending test with different deviation angles will be carried out to estimate the relationship
between the breaking load and the angle of deviation on the saddle. CFRP-Strips of
dimensions 50x1.4mm will be tested. According to manufacturer the CFRP-Strip Sika
CarboDur V914 has an E-modulus of 160kN/mm and a tensile strength of at least 2900
N/mm. The CFRP-Strip will be fixed on two sides with hinged joints, so that it can rotate
freely at any loading level without sharp bending of the strip (Fig. 1). The specimens were
tested under single vertical load. A hydraulic actuator with a maximum capacity of 500 kN
and a maximum stroke of 250 mm was used to apply monotonic loads.
Table 1: Test program

The strain in the CFRP strip was measured at five positions along the Strips using electrical
strain gauges [DMS] (Fig. 1). The relative displacements (slip) between the anchorage and the
CFRP-Strips were measured using linear displacement transducers. All measurements were
recorded automatically at each loading level. The automatic program control of the

Group
Test-
Angle
Number Strip Saddle radius Saddle surface
[mm] [mm]
G 110
o
1 90*1,4
150
Steel
A 110
o
3 50*1,4
150
Steel
B 30
o
3 50*1,4
150
Steel
C 30
o
3 50*1,4
1000
Steel
D 30
o
2 50*1,4
1000
CFRP-Strip
E 30
o
2 50*1,4
1000
Polymer sheath
F 15
o
3 50*1,4
1000
Steel
H 0
o
3 50*1,4
-
-
-1228-

COMP-012-3
measurements was carried out with measuring instrument connected to a computer system for
data acquisition.

Fig. 1: Test set-up for deviated angel 110
o

Table 1 summarizes the test program. Figure 1 shows the test setup of the CFRP-Strip for a
deviation angle of 110
o
as an example. The radius of the deviation saddle is 150 mm.
2.2 Applied Anchorage
The adapted anchorage considered the lack of the isotropic, plasticity and the poor physical
properties in the transverse direction to the long fiber direction. The available ratio of surface

Fig. 2: Anchorage of the CFRP-Strip; D1
-1229-

COMP-012-4
area to cross-section area (U/A ratio) of the Strip seems to be suitable for a clamping
anchorage which is based on load transfer by friction. The procedure is based on the basic
principles of the system Leoba CarboDur LC-II of the company Sika Germany [3]. The
efficiency of the temporary friction anchors was increased by arrangement of clamping cross
plate which provides a uniform clamping pressure along the strip width. The use of special
braking pads (HP sheet) guarantees a reproducible and uniform friction coefficient. An
additional gluing of the clamping plate of the permanent anchorage increases the anchorage
force up to the breaking load of the CFRP-Strip (Fig. 2).
2.3 Prestressing Method
Figure 3 shows the prestressing procedure of the CFRP-Strip until the hardening phase of the
permanent anchorage, which can be described as follows:
Applying of adhesive mix at the plate surface and both strip surface, temporary and
permanent anchor are applied, prestressing the first temporary Anker
gradual prestressing the CFRP-Strip on a certain target stress by using the temporary
friction anchors and holding the force in the strip for the hardening duration of the end
anchorage
Prestressing of the permanent anchor after the hardening phase
Shifting of the pretensioning force to the permanent anchor by releasing the
temporary anchor
further loading the strip up to the failure
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time (sec.)
DMS 1 DMS 3 DMS 2
DMS 4 DMS 5
Installation Hckersteg 1,
preparation bond anchroge
Installation
Hckersteg 2
Installation
Hckersteg 3
P
r
e
s
t
r
e
s
s
in
g

P
h
a
s
e

2
P
r
e
s
t
r
e
s
s
in
g

P
h
a
s
e

1
Installation
Hckersteg 4
P
r
e
s
t
r
e
s
s
in
g

e
n
d

P
h
a
s
e

P
r
e
s
t
r
e
s
s
in
g

P
h
a
s
e

3
hardening Phase

Fig. 3: Gradual prestressing of the CFRP-
Strips
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 80000
Time (sec.)
S
t
r
a
i
n

[
m
m
/
m
]
DMS 1 DMS 2 DMS 4 DMS 5

Fig. 4: Prestresing of the CFRP-Strip during
the hardening process for deviation angel 30
o

Figure 4 shows the prestressing process of the CFRP-Strip during the hardening process for a
deviation angle 30
o
as an example. It can be recognized that there is no stress loss in the
CFRP-Strip during the hardening phase. The constant strain value indicates that there is no
remarkable slip between the CFRP-Strip and the anchorage, i.e. perfect anchorage.
3.1 Background of Previous Experimental Work
The first research investigations [2,4,5,6] were conducted at the Institute of Building
Structures and Structural Design, University of Stuttgart (ITKE). Several tests with different
deviation angels and deviation saddle radii, group (G, A, B, and H), were carried out. The
results have shown that the tensile strength of the CFRP-Strip is reduced significantly by
-1230-

COMP-012-5
deviation, even if the deviation radius in proportion to the thickness of the CFRP-Strip is
comparatively large.
0
100
200
300
400
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2
Strain
F

[
k
N
]
DMS 1 DMS 2 DMS 3
DMS 4 DMS 5
[ ]

Fig. 5: Load-Strain curves on Strip 90*1.4 mm for test group G
An initial test was carried out on a CFRP-Strip 90*1.4 mm with a deviation angle of 110
o
, In
order to have a basic idea of the ultimate load of the used anchorages and the deviated CFRP-
Strip. After the hardening phase, the CFRP-Strip is loaded and released up to certain load-
level. Then the CFRP-Strip is loaded gradually to 400 kN (max. load capacity of the testing
machine). So that approximately 55% of the ultimate load (characteristic) is applied. From
Figure 5, one can observe that the maximum strain occurred at gauge 2 (DMS 2), which
located at the free end of the deviated saddle. Due to the friction between the Strip and the
deviation saddle, the lowest strain in the strip is measured at DMS 4 (inside the deviation
saddle). The maximum measured strain was 1.1%, which is 55% of the rupture strain of the
CFRP-Strip. As the result of this test, it was recognized that the deviated CFRP-Strips can be
loaded up to 55% of their characteristic breaking load without reaching failure mode.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0,00 0,20 0,40 0,60 0,80 1,00 1,20 1,40 1,60
Strain
F

[
k
N
]
DMS 1 DMS 2 DMS 3
DMS 4 DMS 5
[ %]

Fig. 6: Load-Strain curves for group A ;
F = Force of the testing device
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2
Strain
F

[
k
N
]
DMS 1 DMS 2
DMS 4 DMS 5
[ %]

Fig. 7: Load-Strain curves for group B ;
As a result, the required test loads were limited by reducing the CFRP-Strip outside the
Anchorage area. Because the fibers are only orientated in the longitudinal direction, it was
sufficient to cut the CFRP-Strip 2cm from each side with scissors, so that under load the 2 cm
cut-off strips fall off. The cut-off strips can be seen in figure 8 and 9.
Figures 6 and 7 show the load-strain diagrams for both groups A and B. It is evident that the
friction between Strip and saddle plays an essential role in the strain of the strip. The highest
strain occurred at DMS 2 for deviation angle 110
o
(group A), while for a deviation angle of
30
o
(group B), the highest strain occurred at DMS 4. The small contact area leads to lower
-1231-

COMP-012-6
friction effects between strip and saddle for group B, while due to the diversion DMS 4 has an
additional strain as a result.

Fig. 8: Test set-up for group A

Fig. 9: Test set-up for group B
3.2 Experimental With Larger Deviation Radius
Other experiments were carried out with a deviation angle of 30
o
and Deviation saddle radius
of 1000 mm in order to determine the influence of these parameters on the load bearing
capacity of the strip (group C). In these experiments, the contact length between the CFRP-
Strip and the saddle is larger than before and therefore the length of the contact pressure
substantially greater than by deviation radius of 150 mm. The strain gauges are positioned
similarly to angle 110
o
.

Fig. 10: Load-Strain curves for group C ;

Fig. 11: Load-Strain curves for group F ;

The greatest strain appeared in DMS 2 (group C) taken in account the strain portion due to
curvature, while due to friction the lower strain was measured at DMS 4 (Fig. 10). Thereby a
tensile strength of 235 kN (about 92% of the breaking force of the CFRP-Strip) was reached
and the lateral pressure is associated with a value of 5 kN/mm, about 6-fold smaller than that
with deviation radius 150 mm (Tab. 2). The obtained results have shown significant
improvement compared to group B. Nevertheless, with this result the acceptance criteria for
mandatory requirements, which are listed in the Guideline for European Technical Approval
of post-Tensioning Kits for Prestressing of Structures (ETAG 013), are not satisfied.
With a small deflection angle of 15
o
and deflection radius of 1000 mm, a breaking load of 250
kN was reached (Tab. 2). This is about 97 % of the breaking force of the CFRP-Strip (group
F). This value is above the value of 95% which is listed in ETAG 013. According to the new
geometry, the first contact line between the strip and deviation saddle was at DMS 3.
-1232-

COMP-012-7
Therefore the largest strain occurred at DMS 3 (Fig. 11), while the lowest strain was
measured at DMS 4, because of friction.
3.3 Friction Effect on the Load Bearing Capacity
The friction between the CFRP-Strip and the saddle is an important parameter. Therefore,
further tests were carried out in order to obtain the effect of the saddle surface on the tensile
strength of the CFRP-Strip. The results of test group D and test group E show that by
reducing the friction the tensile strength of the CFRP-Strip were increased. The breaking
force of the strip was increased to about 97% in compare with the same test group C without
reducing the friction (Tab. 2). Figures 12 and 13 show the load-strain diagrams for both
groups D and E.
Fig. 12: Load-Strain curves for group D ;
Fig. 13: Load-Strain curves for group E ;
4 CONTACT PRESSURE AND REDUCTION FACTOR
It was necessary to carry out a test (group H) on straight Strip with reduced cross-section
outside the anchorage area to determine the correct reduction factor (Fig. 14). The strain was
re-measured to assess the cause of failure. The presented results show that the strip has failed
due to the substantial strain and not because of higher transverse pressure in the anchoring
(Fig. 15).

Fig. 14: Test set-up for straight strip;
group H
Fig. 15: Load-Strain curves for group B ;
A mean strain value of 1.9% and an average tensile strength of 258 kN were measured. Thus,
the measured tensile strength is 20% larger than the characteristic strength of the strip
-1233-

COMP-012-8
according to the manufacturer's instructions. The calculated tensile strengths of the strip, as
well as reduction factors and contact pressures are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Contact Pressure & Reduction Factor
The contact pressure between the CFRP-Strip and the saddle can be calculated as follows:

m kN
b r
T
/
*
= (1)
Where; contact pressure
T force in the strip due to F
r deviation saddle radius
b width of the strip

Fig. 16: Fracture of CFRP-Strip

Fig. 17: Contact pressure representation
It was recognized that increasing the contact area between the strip and the saddle and larger
the deviation angles lead to higher friction forces between the strip and the saddle, which
causes more restraining of the CFRP-Strip and consequentially earlier failure. According to
Group radius specimen F T T
average

average
Reduction factor
[mm] [kN] [kN] [kN] [N/mm]
A 1 305 187
A 2 310 189 A 110
o
150
A 3 320 195
190 25 0.74
B 1 130 222
B 2 134 229 B 30
o
150
B 3 139 235
229 30 0.89
C 1 141 241
C 2 135 231 C 30
o
1000
C 3 135 231
235 4.7 0.92
D 1 150 256
D 30
o
1000
D 2 146 250
253 5.0 0.98
E 1 143 249
E 30
o
1000
E 2 143 249
249 5.0 0.97
F 1 305 187
F 2 310 189 F 15
o
1000
F 3 320 195
190 5.0 0.97
H 1 130 222
H 2 134 229 H 0
o
1000
H 3 139 235
229 - 1.0
r

-1234-

COMP-012-9
the Test group H, the ultimate strength of deviated strip was reduced up to about 75 % for
group A and was increased up to 95% of the ultimate strength of a straight strip by using
smaller deviation angel and larger deviation radius (group D, E and F).
5 CONCLUSIONS
The use of CFRP-Strips as freestanding element for a bridge construction seems to have
promise; high tensile strength of carbon fibre reinforced polymers high compression strength
of the concrete and at the same time durable construction systems. Therefore very slim
structural elements are possible which are architecturally desired and which are of low
weight, allowing practical installation.
The results of the current experimental work showed that the ultimate strength of the deviated
CFRP-Strips is significantly affected by the bending radius, the deviation angle and friction,
so that the following recommendations can be drawn.
For smaller deviation angel 15
o
the reduction factor of the deviated strip was
increased up to 97% without any need of the Polyethylene layer, i.e. there is lowly
contact pressure as well as friction effect on the breaking force of the strip.
With the help of Polyethylene layer (HD-PE) for deviation angle 30
o
and by using a
bending radius of 1000 mm the acceptance criteria for mandatory requirements, which
are listed in the Guideline for European Technical Approval of post-Tensioning Kits
for Prestressing of Structures, are satisfied, i.e. reduction factor up to 95%
For deviation angles between 30
o
and 110
o
an ultimate strength reduction factor up to
0.86 should be considered in the design
Now, further tests with relative movement of the strip to deviation saddle according to ETAG
013 are carrying out to determine the influence of the friction and deviation radius on the load
bearing capacity of the strip for deviation angel 15
o
. The relative movement between the strip
and the saddle increase the friction and may be lead to decrease the tensile strength of the strip
as a result. These test programs could help us to answer this question.
5 REFERENCES
[1] Knippers, J., Saad, F., & Hwash, M.: Application of Pre-Stressed CFRP-Strips in
Bridges, Concept, Analysis and Constrution Details, the Fourth Middle East
Symposium on Structural Composites For Infrastructure Applications MESC-4,
Alexandria, Egypt, 2005
[2] Hwash, M., Knippers, J. & Saad, F.: Experiments on deviated CFRP-Strips for
external prestressing, COBRAE Conference, Benefits on Civil Engineering, Stuttgart,
Germany, 2007
[3] Andr, H.P., Knig, G. & Maier, M.: First Applications of CFRP Tendons in
Germany, Congress Proceedings of IABSE Symposium, Melbourne, Australia, 2002
[4] Knippers, J., Saad, F., & Hwash, M.: Analysis and Behaviour of CFRP-Strips at
Deviation Saddle for CFRP Prestressed Bridges, IABSE Symposium, Weimar,
germany, pp. 190-191, 2007
[5] Hwash, M., Knippers, J. & Saad, F.: Improved Utilization of Externaly Prestressed
CFRP-Strips by Means of Deviation, The Fifth Middle East Symposium on Structural
Composites for Infrastructure Applications Hurghada, Egypt, 2008
-1235-

COMP-012-10
[6] Hwash, M., Knippers, J. and Saad, F.: Behaviour of Deviated CFRP-Strips, Fourth
International Conference on FRP Composites in Civil Engineering (CICE2008),
Zurich, Switzerland, 2008
[7] Hwash, M. and Knippers, J.: Umgelenkte Lamellen aus kohlefaserverstrktem
Kunststoff fr freistehende Spannglieder im Konstruktiven Ingenieurbau, Beton- und
Stahlbetonbau 10/2008, S. 682 - 688
[8] ETAG 013: Guideline for European Technical Approval of post-Tensioning Kits for
Prestressing of Structures, EOTA, Brssel, Edition June 2002

-1236-

COMP-013-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





STRENGTHENING OF PULTRUDED GLASS FRP SECTION
COMBINED WITH CONCRETE SLAB USING CFRP PLATES

A. BIDDAH
Department of Civil Engineering, UAE University
Al Ain, P.O. Box 17555, UAE
E-mail: abiddah@uaeu.ac.ae
K. EL SAWY
E-mail: K.Elsawy@uaeu.ac.ae
S. RAYNOR
E-mail: steve@uaeu.ac.ae
T. SHEIKHOUN
E-mail: Tarek.Salah@uaeu.ac.ae

ABSTRACT
This paper demonstrates the possibility of combining both glass and carbon FRP
composite materials with a low-cost construction material (i.e. concrete) in a hybrid
system that brings higher performance levels to the design of lightweight, corrosion
resistant, yet inexpensive beams providing acceptable structural properties. The
objective of the research is to investigate the behaviour of a hybrid composite section
under flexure. The hybrid section consists of a top concrete slab, Glass Fibre Reinforced
Polymer GFRP beam section and Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer CFRP laminate on
the extreme underside. This maximizes the benefits of each material, that is: high tensile
strength of CFRP, compressive strength and low cost of concrete, light weight and
lower cost of GFRP, and high corrosion resistance of all components. Three beam
samples were manufactured and tested to failure while monitoring deflections and
strains. The study results indicate the benefits of using hybrid Fibre Reinforced Polymer
FRP-concrete beams to increase flexural load carrying capacity and beam stiffness and
provide a numerical model that can be further developed to model more advanced
material arrangements in the future. The outcome of this research provides information
for both designers and researchers in the field of FRP composites.
-1237-

COMP-013-2
KEYWORDS
Experimental, Hybrid, Composites, CFRP, GFRP, Strengthening, Concrete.
1 INTRODUCTION
The use of FRP composites as structural materials has gradually increased in the
construction industry, continuing to replace the more traditional steel and concrete
materials. Properties such as high corrosion resistance, low densities, high durability,
high strength, good stiffness to weight ratios and ease of handling and installation make
composites far more desirable. However, applications in current practice of this type of
structural material are still very rare. Deformability and cost are the main obstacles. To
overcome these disadvantages, many authors have proposed structural elements in
which GFRP is combined with other (less expensive and more massive) structural
materials. For instance, GFRP wires and rods have been proposed as reinforcing bars
for concrete. GFRP box and tubular sections have been used as permanent forms
(having a structural effect as confinement and reinforcement) for concrete columns.
GFRP plates (stuck to an external surface of reinforced concrete beam or slab) have
been used as a repair or strengthening measure. However, the obtained deformation in
the previously mentioned cases is comparatively high [1].
To overcome the disadvantage of high deformability of GFRP, pultruded FRP-to-
concrete slab is proposed in this research to behave under bending as a composite beam.
The composite action between the FRP structural shapes and concrete is supposed to
reduce the previously observed high deformation when FRP rebars were used in
concrete. The results of the proposed research will provide a powerful alternative
construction system of extreme practicality. Shear connectors are installed between the
pultruded FRP beam and the concrete slab. These connectors resist the horizontal shear
at the Pultruded FRP beam-to-concrete slab interface caused by composite action.
This research will study the effects of the combination of GFRP, CFRP and concrete in
composite action. In this experimental investigation three levels of composite action
were investigated. The arrangements to be tested are as shown in Fig. 1.
The first and lowest level is a GFRP beam with a concrete slab connected at the top.
Anchorage to the slab is accomplished by steel shear connectors. This test arrangement
matches the work carried out by Biddah [1] and can be used for calibration of the results
of this paper with previous experimental work. This beam is called GFRP (Fig. 1a) for
identification purposes throughout the study. Levels two and three progressively
increase the level of hybrid in the arrangement. Each are GFRP beams underneath
concrete as in level 1, with the addition of carbon fibre strips on the underside (tension
side) of the GFRP beam. Shear connection of the GFRP to the slab is also provided by
steel shear connectors. The CFRP strips were adhesively bonded to the GFRP beam.
Two levels of carbon fibre are used; One 80mm x 1.2mm strip with Beam CFRP1
shown in Fig. 1b and two 80mm x 1.2mm strips with Beam CFRP2 shown in Fig. 1c.
2.1 Test Specimens
Three large scale specimens were tested. The overall external length of the specimens
was 2.25 m with 100mm support overhang giving it a span of 2.05m. The control
specimen, GFRP, is fabricated from two back to back pultruded channels of size
-1238-

COMP-013-3
152mm x 42mm with 6mm thick web and flanges (Fig. 1d) bonded together with a two
component epoxy resin based adhesive with a top concrete slab of thickness 60 mm and
width 600 mm. The slab was connected to the GFRP section using two rows of 12mm
double nut bolts at a uniform longitudinal spacing of 125mm. The cross gauge of the
bolts was 50mm. The height of the bolt above the slab to GFRP beam interface was
40mm. GFRP stiffeners were glued into place both sides of the flange at the support
points and the load points.

d) GFRP beam details
Fig. 1 Beam cross sections showing arrangement of test beams
Test Specimen CFRP1 consists of a concrete slab over the GFRP beam with the
addition of one strip of CFRP underneath the beam (Fig. 1b and Fig. 2). One 80mm x
1.2mm CFRP strip was epoxy bonded to the underside of the full 2.25m length of the
GFRP beam. Test Specimen CFRP2 consists of a concrete slab over the GFRP beam
with the addition of two strips of CFRP underneath the beam (Fig. 1c and Fig. 2). The
specimen includes the following features: Two 80mm x 1.2mm CFRP strip were epoxy
bonded to the underside of the GFRP beam. The strips were epoxy bonded one on top of
the other.
The specimens were tested in three or four-point bending over a 2.05 m simply
supported span as shown in Fig. 3. Load control was employed and the loading was
applied in increments of approximately 7% of the expected failure load. The loading
was continued up to failure of the specimen. In all specimens, electrical strain gauges
were mounted on the top and bottom surface of the GFRP beam and the CFRP strips at
mid-span section as well as on the concrete top surface. The deflection was measured by
means of LVDT placed at mid-span section.
-1239-

COMP-013-4

Fig. 2: Half elevation of beams CFRP 1 and CFRP2 showing stiffeners and fly braces

Fig. 3: Loading and support arrangement for all beams
The reinforcing bars used as longitudinal and transverse reinforcement in the slab are of
yield strength of 460 MPa. The concrete cube compressive strength is 38 MPa. The
mechanical properties of the GFRP structural shapes are given in Table 1. The CFRP
strips used were of S7P Laminates type CFK 150/2000 of 80 mm width and 1.2 mm
thickness. The tensile strength and the tensile modulus of the laminates are 2,500 and
150,000 MPa.
3 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The experimental results of mid-span deflection, strains and crack propagation were
recorded at different stages of loading till the failure load of the tested specimens has
been reached.

-1240-

COMP-013-5
Table 1 Mechanical and Physical properties of GFRP structural shapes

Tensile and compressive strength (MPa) 207
Shear strength (MPa) 31
Flexural strength (MPa) 207
Tensile and compressive modulus (MPa) 17200
Flexural modulus (MPa) 11000
Full section Modulus of Elasticity (MPa) 17200
Mechanical
properties
Poisson's ratio (MPa) 0.33
Density (gm/mm
3
) 0.002
Physical
properties
Coefficient of thermal expansion
(mm/mm/
o
C)
8 x 10
-6

3.1 Behaviour of the Tested Specimens
A summary of the experimental results is presented in Table 2. It includes the loads and
deflections at ultimate (failure) stage in addition to the modes of failure. Figs. 4, 5 and 6
show the failure of the specimens GFRP, CFRP1 and CFRP2, respectively.

Table 2 Failure loads, deflections and mode of failure of the tested specimens

Test
Specimen
Ultimate
load
(kN)
Ultimate
Moment
(kN-m)
Ultimate
deflection
(mm)
Top strain
at failure

Bottom
strain at
failure
Mode of failure
GFRP 175* 60.0 48.4 mm -0.00229 +0.01174 Web instability at support
CFRP1 100** 51.25 20.7 -0.00118 +0.00573 De-bonding of CFRP
CFRP2 171** 88.0 40 -0.00172 +0.00807 De-bonding of CFRP
* 4 point loading ** 3 point loading
The GFRP specimen failed at a load level that was close to the loading jack maximum
and some difficulty in applying a load increase smoothly was encountered.
Consequently, the testing arrangement for specimens CFRP1 and CFRP2 was changed
to 3 point bending so that specimen failure loads would be below the limits of the
loading jack.
From Table 2, Figures 4, 5 and 6 as well as the observed behaviour of the tested
specimens, the following remarks could be concluded:

GFRP:
At a load of 35kN there was a loud bang but inspection of the beam showed no obvious
source of the noise. Analysis of the test data suggests that this noise was generated by
the breaking of the adhesive bond between the concrete and the top surface of the
GFRP. From approximately 117 kN onwards cracking sounds were audible at every
load application. Also at this point small cracks in the transverse direction were
-1241-

COMP-013-6
observed on the underside of the slab at the left hand load point. (Fig 4-4). Failure was
finally by web instability at the left hand end (Fig 4-2). The failure was sudden.

Inspection of the GFRP specimen after failure showed the following features:
Folding of the web at the left hand end and de-bonding and separation of the webs of
the two channels

Fig. 4 GFRP testing images 1. Test set up with 4 point loading, 2. Web buckling
failure of GFRP beam over one support, 3. Deformation of GFRP at shear connectors at
beam ends, 4. Cracks in the underside of the slab: a) curved crack around shear
connectors on support side b) transverse cracks.

Longitudinal crack along the centre-line of the beam
Crescent shaped concrete cracking emanating from each of the last few shear
connectors at both ends of the beam
Rotation of shear connectors at each end of the beam, also evidence of local failure of
the GFRP around the shear connectors. (Fig 4-3)
No sign of fracture or splitting of the GFRP between the shear connectors along the length of
the beam was evident.

Hybrid Composite Specimens CFRP1 and CFRP2:
CFRP 1 failed by de-bonding of the CFRP at a load of 100 kN. The CFRP de-bonding
at 100kN occurred suddenly with a loud bang. The de-bonding happened over the entire
length of the beam. The CFRP remained unbroken over its full length.
Inspection of specimen CFRP1 after failure showed the following features:
Lateral concrete cracking on the underside of the slab extending the full width of the
beam at mid span (Fig 5-3)
CFRP de bonding over full length of the beam.
Crushing of the concrete on the top surface in the region of the loading rod (Fig 5-2)

-1242-

COMP-013-7

Fig. 5 CFRP1 testing images 1. Test set up with 3 point loading, this image is after
CFRP bond failure, 2. Concrete crushing on the slab top surface under the mid span
loading bar, 3. Results of flexural failure of beam with cracks in the underside of the
slab and failed GFRP.
CFRP2 continued to 171 kN before de-bonding of the CFRP. Again the de-bonding was
sudden, this time occurring over two thirds of the length of the beam. At the point
where the adhesive bond remained intact, about 400mm from the right hand support, the
CFRP showed some damage and a few broken fibres but not major failure. After
approximately 125 kN crushing of the concrete top surface near the loading rod was
also observable, this is confirmed by the strain readings which reached a maximum
strain of approximately -0.002 at this load but did not increase when the load was
increased beyond this value.

Fig. 6 CFRP2 testing images 1. CFRP delamination at one end, 2. Concrete top surface
cracking: a) compression failure full width at mid span

Inspection of beam CFRP2 after failure showed the following features:
Lateral concrete cracking on the underside of the slab extending the full width of the
beam at mid span (Fig 6-2)
CFRP de-bonding over two thirds of the beam length (Fig 6-1)
Slight rotation of shear connectors at the ends of the beam and evidence of local
deformation of the GFRP around the shear connectors.
Crushing of the concrete on the top of the slab in the vicinity of the loading rod.
-1243-

COMP-013-8
3.2 Load-Deflection Behaviour
The applied load versus central-deflection of the tested specimens is presented in Figure
7 from which the following remarks could be concluded:
a) Linear behaviour is noticed till almost 90% of the ultimate loads.
b) The stiffness of the composite beam specimen CFRP2 is higher than that of the
specimen GFRP at all loading stages. This is attributed to the composite action
between the concrete slab and the GFRP and CFRP which improved the strength
and the stiffness of the specimen. The addition of shear connectors does not only
serve to improve the strength of the GFRP beam but also leads to a stiffer
specimen.
c) The addition of a second strip of CFRP at specimen CFRP2 provided a relatively
small increase in stiffness compared to that of the specimen CFRP1. A comparison
of ultimate load could not be completed due to the premature de-bonding of carbon
fibre from CFRP1.
d) The estimated load deflection curve for a GFRP beam only (without concrete top or
CFRP underside) has been calculated and is also shown for comparison. This curve
indicates the significant stiffness gain achieved when the concrete slab is added and
working in composite with the GFRP beam.

Load v Midspan Deflection
for 4 point bending tested beams
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 20 40 60
Mid span deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Beam GFRP
GFRP only

Load v Midspan Deflection
for 3 point bending tested beams
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 20 40 60
Mid span deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Beam CFRP1
Beam CFRP2

Fig. 7 Load-central deflection relationship of the tested specimens and GFRP only beam
3.3 Concrete and FRP Strains
The longitudinal strain was recorded at various locations in the specimens at different
load levels. The total applied load versus strain curves, at mid-span section, is displayed
in Figures 8 to 11.
-1244-

COMP-013-9
All Beams - Strain v beam depth
at 50 kN-m
-0.0020
0.0000
0.0020
0.0040
0.0060
0.0080
0.0100
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250
Distance from U/S of GFRP
S
t
r
a
i
n
GFRP
CFRP1
CFRP2

Fig. 8 Longitudinal strain plotted against
beam depth for all beams at moment of 50
kN-m
Fig. 9 Specimen GFRP - Longitudinal strain
plotted against load at different beam depth
positions
From these figures the following remarks could be concluded:
a) Plotting of the strain profiles indicates that for Beam GFRP the neutral axis was
initially within the depth of the concrete slab and the strain profile was linear at low
loads. As the load increased the effect of the discontinuity across the shear
connectors increased.
b) The strains recorded at the top of the GFRP showed positive strains indicating
tension. This confirms that the neutral axis is initially within the depth of the
concrete. As load increased the strain then began to move in a negative direction.
This change from positive to negative change with increasing load represents the
load at which the adhesive bond between the concrete and GFRP is broken and full
composite action of the section is lost. This occurred at approximately 35kN on
specimen GFRP and corresponded to an audible sound from the beam. The same
pattern is also observable for Beams CFRP1 and CFRP2 at similar loads, although
an audible noise was not recorded in these cases.
c) For any given moment it can be seen that the strains are reduced from Beam GFRP
to Beam CFRP1 and reduced further in Beam CFRP2 showing clearly the
advantage of the added carbon strip. As an example the strain profiles for 50kNm,
the GFRP maximum tensile strain reduced from +0.00954 to +0.0038 and
compressive concrete strain reduced from to -0.0018 to -0.0014.
d) The GFRP strains achieved in specimen GFRP at flexural failure matched closely
with manufacturers data. The failure strain of approximately +0.0117 equates to a
stress of 202 MPa, close to the manufacturers guideline of 207 MPa. From this it
can be determined that specimen GFRP was close to flexural failure at the time of
web failure, therefore the test results can be considered as representing the
complete range of flexural capacity.
Beam GRFP - Strain v Load
-0.00400
-0.00200
0.00000
0.00200
0.00400
0.00600
0.00800
0.01000
0.01200
0.01400
0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 200.0
Load kN
S
t
r
a
i
n
212
152
0
Distance
from bottom
-1245-

COMP-013-10
Fig. 10 Specimen CFRP1 - Longitudinal strain
positions
Fig. 11 Specimen CFRP2 - Longitudinal strain
positions
4 CONCLUSION

1 The addition of CFRP to the underside of the composite concrete and GRFP beam
provides an improvement in load carrying capacity (i.e., bending strength) and a benefit
in deflection control over beams without CFRP.
2 The means of securing of larger amounts of CFRP to the beam is significant in gaining
full benefit from the CFRP. In this experiment addition of a second layer of CFRP did
not produce the full benefit. This was attributed to the method of fixing.
3 The use of adhesive to bond the CFRP to the GFRP provides a potential weakness in the
hybrid system and an additional difficulty in construction as this is highly sensitive to
the quality of workmanship during fabrication or construction.
4 Failure by de-bonding of the CFRP was sudden, giving the failure mode a brittle nature.

5 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Acknowledgments shall follow the text and before Notations or References.
6 REFERENCES
[1] Biddah, A.: Experimental investigation of pultruded FRP section combined with
concrete slab. 6
th
International Symp. on Fibre-reinforced Polymer Reinf. For Conc.
Struct, FRPRCS-6. Singapore. 676-685 (2003)
Beam CFRP1 - Strain v Load
-0.0020
-0.0010
0.0000
0.0010
0.0020
0.0030
0.0040
0.0050
0.0060
0.0070
0 50 100 150
Load kN
S
t
r
a
i
n
212
152
76
0
-2
Distance
from bottom
Beam CFRP2 - Strain v Load
-0.0060
-0.0040
-0.0020
0.0000
0.0020
0.0040
0.0060
0.0080
0.0100
0 50 100 150 200
Load kN
S
t
r
a
i
n
212
152
76
0
-2
Distance
from bottom
-1246-

EFFECT OF ELEVATED TEMPRATURE ON STRUCTURAL
PERFORNACE OF R.C. COLUMNS CONFINED BY CFRP

Adel El-Kurdi
1
, Aly Eldarwish
2
, Ahmed Khalifa
1
, and Alaa Morsy
3
1
Structural Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University
2
Head of Construction & Building Engineering Department, College of Engineering & Technology,
AASTMT
3
Construction & Building Engineering Department, College of Engineering & Technology, AASTMT

ABSTRACT:
The retrofitting of columns by fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) confinement has
become a popular technique over the past decade but when this technique is adopted
to strengthen reinforced concrete (RC) columns, the thermal resistance of the
strengthened column is often a serious design concern. This paper addresses the
structural effectiveness and thermal endurance of R.C. columns confined by CFRP
and subjected to elevated temperature; nine different insulating materials have been
tested to protect CFRP sheets and its epoxy resin. An experimental program has been
conducted to investigate the effect of different temperature levels "100
o
c, 200
o
c,
250
o
c, and at 300
o
c" and durations "4, 8, 12, and 24 hours" on the structural
performance of R.C. square columns. Subsequently, evaluate the effectiveness of
different thermal protection materials in increasing the thermal endurance and
decrease the heat transfer rate to reach CFRP surface. A total of 19 R.C. square
columns were tested thermally using an electric furnace which constructed to serve
this experimental program, subsequently, tested under a monotonic axial compression
load. Based on experimental evidence, the use of thermal insulating material
improves the thermal endurance effectiveness for the insulated columns but to
different extents. This beneficial effect was tremendous with respect to granular
insulating material rather than fibrous insulating materials. According to the structural
effectiveness, no significance deterioration in the CFRP confinement effectiveness
occurs for exposure at constant temperature 100
o
c until 24 hours. While at 200
o
c the
CFRP confinement effectiveness depended mainly on the exposure duration, it lost
only 13 % for exposure for 4 hours, and 20 %, 24.6 %, and 33.3 % for 8, 12, and 24
hours respectively. On the other hand, no significant loss of column ductility has
been measured at this temperature level. Results also indicate that, there is a large
difference between the loss in CFRP effectiveness when exposed to 300
o
c for 4 hours
and 8hours, as it lose 42 % of its load capacity while it loss all of the confinement
effectiveness at 8 hours. All columns tested at 350
o
c lose all of the CFRP
confinement effectives and their failure mode govern by de-bonding between the
CFRP sheets and concrete surface. This finding may seriously be considered for
columns confined by CFRP and subjected to fire temperature.

Keywords: Thermal endurance, CFRP, insulating material, strengthening

INTROUDUCTION
The repair and strengthening of concrete structures is a challenging and growing
segment of the concrete repair industry for both engineers and contractors. Several
studies have been conducted to investigate the axial behavior of concrete columns
confined with CFRP jackets
1-9
. These studies have all indicated that CFRP jackets
enhance the compressive strength and axial strain of confined concrete by providing
1
-1247-
adequate lateral confining pressure to the column. On the other hand, the most
commonly asked question about the use of FRP for strengthening is, quite rightly,
"How does it perform at elevated temperature and fire?" However, when FRPs are
used for column wrapping in interior exposures, such as in building, parking, garages,
and many industrial structures, there is a real concern that FRP material will perform
poorly when exposed to elevated temperature or fire.
FRP materials are sensitive to elevated temperature and experience severe
deterioration of strength, stiffness, and bond properties at elevated temperature. ACI
440 R-06 states that no information is currently available on the specific behavior of
the bond between unprotected externally FRP materials and concrete at high
temperatures
10
. This gap of knowledge is primary factor preventing the widespread
application of FRP.
Preliminary studies conducted on the residual performance of FRP-confined concrete
columns after exposure to elevated temperatures
11-15, 26.
Moreover, Fire tests on FRP
plated concrete beams and slabs have demonstrated that need for thermal protection
for external FRP reinforcement to maintain its structural effectiveness during
exposure to the high temperature
16-20
. Furthermore, all FRP materials are combustible
when subjected to sufficiently elevated temperature. Thus, concerns associated with
the use of FRP in structure can be divided into two major portions: thermally and
structurally concerns. Thermal concerns are associated primarily with improving the
thermal performance of FRP systems by using barrier treatments or coatings. These
treatments function either by reflecting radiant heat back towards the heat source, or
by delaying heat penetration to the FRP through their isolative and/or ablative
properties
21,23
. Structural concerns, which are the focus of this paper, relate to the loss
of the structural effectiveness of FRP materials at elevated temperature.
The fire endurance of R.C. columns has traditionally been defined in terms of their
load carrying capacity during exposure to a standard fire
24,25
, columns are required to
carry their un-factored service load for the required fire duration, which is generally
between two to five hours depending on the type of building and its use and
occupancy.
The paper, specifically concerns the effect of elevated temperature on FRP
strengthening system for both un-insulated and insulated R.C. columns. The bond
between the unprotected externally bonded FRP materials and concrete will be lost
very quickly under elevated temperature or fire exposure, because the externally
bonded system are very thin, and the glass transition temperature Tg of the resin will
thus be exceeded almost instantaneously during a standard fire exposure. For
insulated FRP system, however, it is not clear exactly how long the bond between the
FRP sheets and concrete surface can be maintained during fire. This is due in part to
the effectiveness and thickness of insulating material, exposure temperature level, the
duration that FRP will face this temperature and the post- fire residual behavior of this
strengthening system.

A comprehensive experimental investigation was undertaken to study the effect of
elevated temperature on square R.C. columns confined by one layer of carbon fiber-
reinforced polymer (CFRP) and insulated by supplemental insulation material applied
to the exterior of the CFRP wrap.
The investigation divided into two major portions; first, diagnose the effect of
different levels of elevated temperature with several durations on the structural
behavior of the CFRP confinement. Second; treatment of this elevated temperature
2
-1248-
with varies insulating materials which discussed in details in another complementary
research.
EXPERIMENTAL PLAN
Test Matrix
As mentioned before, the main objective of this experimental study was to
investigate the effect of several experimental variables on the behavior or R.C.
column wrapped with CFRP under elevated temperature, the test variable were:
1. Effectiveness of different fire barriers material
Fibrous Insulation ( Rock Wool Ceramic Fibers)
Granular Insulation (Gypsum Cement Mortar Thermal
Concrete Perlite Mix Sikacrete 213 Cement + Gypsum )
2. Temperatures values ( 70
o
c- 80
o
c -90
o
c -100
o
c- 200
o
c -250
o
c- 300
o
c-
350
o
c)
3. Time Durations (4hrs- 8hrs- 12hrs- 24hrs)
Two control specimens were prepared to evaluate the strength at room temperature;
one specimen was unwrapped and the other was wrapped by one layer of CFRP. The
rest of columns were tested with variable temperature, time, and barrier type, as
shown in table 5.

Table 5 the Experimented Variables
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Col.
No.
Fire
protection
type
Thickness
of
protective
layer
Heating
Duration
"Hours"
Tested
temp. at
CFRP
surface
Average
Furnace
Temp.
Time till reach
FRP surface temp.
1 Control specimen Unwrapped & Not subjected to elevated temperature
2 Control specimen Wrapped & Not subjected to elevated temperature
3 T.C. 40mm
24
70
o
c 320
o
c 35 min
4 G 40mm
24
80
o
c 400
o
c 50 min
5 C.F. 40mm
24
90
o
c 400
o
c 35 min
6 R.W. 40mm
24
100
o
c 480
o
c 40 min
7 C.F. 40mm
4
200
o
c 650
o
c 120 min
8 R.W. 40mm
8
200
o
c 670
o
c 105 min
9 S 40mm
12
200
o
c 800
o
c 350 min
10 G 40mm
24
200
o
c 790
o
c 265 min
11 U N.A. 4 hrs 250
o
c 250
o
c 10 min
12 U N.A.
8 hrs
250
o
c 250
o
c 10 min
13 S 40mm
12 hrs
250
o
c 550
o
c 255 min
14 C+G 40mm
24 hrs
250
o
c 700
o
c 340 min
3
-1249-
15 C.M. 40mm
8 hrs
300
o
c 510
o
c 160 min
16 C.P. 40mm 12 hrs 300
o
c 720
o
c 320 min
17 U N.A.
4 hrs
350
o
c 350
o
c 150 min
18 T.C. 40mm
8 hrs
350
o
c 700
o
c 340 min
40mm 200
o
c
19 P
20mm
8 hrs
350
o
c
770
o
c 310 min

G :Gypsum C.M. :Cement Mortar C.P. :Cement Paste
C+G :Cement + Gypsum T.C. :Thermal Concrete S :Sikacrete
P :Perlite C.F. :Ceramic Fiber R.W. :Rock Wool
Materials
Concrete and Reinforcement
The concrete used throughout the program was produced in laboratory according to
the mix proportions shown in table 1. Since most of RC structures to be repaired was
constructed more than approximately 10 to 20 years ago, then the average
compressive strength of concrete was almost low and determined to be just about 22
to 25 Mpa based on the compression test result of six standard cubes (100*100 mm)
The fine aggregate used was natural siliceous sand with a fineness modulus of 2.6,
specific gravity of 2.63, and unit weight of 1.75 t/cm
3
, while the coarse aggregate was
gravel of 19 mm nominal maximum size. The grading of aggregates satisfied the
requirements of the Egyptian Specification ESS 1109/71. No additives were
incorporated in concrete. The cement content was 350 kg/m
3
and water-cement ratio
was 0.51 based on free water.
Table 1 Concrete mix proportions, kg/m
3

Cement
(kg/m
3
)
Free Water
(Litre/m
3
)
Coarse aggregate
(kg/m
3
)
Fine aggregate
(kg/m
3
)
350 180 1120 650
The concrete slump was 120 mm. High tensile steel deformed bars of grade
360/520 and diameter 10 mm was used as longitudinal steel, while mild steel plain
bars of grade 240/360 and diameter 6 mm was used for the lateral steel in the RC
columns.
CFRP sheets and Resins
The composite strengthening system used in this research study was provided
by Sika for Construction, Inc. The system is comprised of two basic components
namely: Sikadur 330 "2 part epoxy impregnation resin" and SikaWrap 230 C "Woven
carbon fiber fabric for structural strengthening". The combination of these two
components forms a high-strength CFRP wraps. According to the suppliers
information, some mechanical properties of CFRP are shown in Table 2,3.

Table 2 Mechanical properties of epoxy resin, commercially known asSikadur 330
Modulus of
Elasticity
(GPa)
Tensile
strength
(MPa)
Elongation
at break
Thermal expansion
coefficient
Thermal resistance
Density
(Kg/lt)
4
-1250-
4.500
30
0.9% 45*10
-6
/
0
c
Continuous
exposure +50
0
c
1.3 Kg/lt

Table 3 Mechanical properties of CFRP sheets , commercially known as
SikaWrap 230 C
Modulus of
Elasticity
(GPa)
Tensile
strength
(MPa)
Ultimate
strain
Thickness
(mm)
Weight of
CFRP (g/m
2
)
Density
(g/cm
3
)
238 4300 0.018 0.131 230 1.76

Fire barrier materials
This experiment program contains nine types of fire insulating material, with different
chemical compositions. Two of them were fibrous insulation (Rock wool, Ceramic
fiber), and the other six was granular insulation such as (Gypsum, Cement mortar,
Perlite mix, Thermal concrete, Sikacrete 213f, Cement+Gypsum mix, and cement
paste)
Table 4 Thermal and mechanical properties of Insulating material
* The values listed were obtained from manufacturer.
Thermal and Mechanical Properties*
Insulating
Material
Thermal
Conductivity
W/mK
Specific
Heat
J/kg .
o
c
Density

Kg/m
3

Strength

N/mm
2

Max.
Service
Temp.
o
c
Water
Required
(%)
Rock wool
0.04 at 50
o
c
0.052 at 150
o
c
0.069 at 250
o
c
0.097 at 350
o
c
840 100 N.A. 750 N.A.
Ceramic Fibers
0.045-0.06 at 200 oc
0.085-0.1 at 400 oc
0.152-0.2 at 600 oc
1000 128
Tensile
0.06
1316 N.A.
Sikacrete 213 F 0.149 at 20 oc N.A. 550 4.0 1350 100
Thermal
Concrete
0.25 at 20 oc N.A. 1400 3.0 1200 20-30
Structural
Perlite
0.12 at 20 oc 837 1200 1.3-1.4 1280 33
Gypsum 0.17 at 20 oc 1090 2300 6.0 N.A. 100
Standard
Cement
Mortar
1.16 at 20 oc 1200 3120 36 N.A. 40
Cement
Gypsum Mix
N.A. N.A. 2700 25 N.A. 100
Standard
Cement Paste
1.0 at 20 oc 1550 3120 30 N.A. 30
Specimen detail and test setup
The casting molds made of 6 mm steel were constructed and used for casting the
specimens vertically; they were designed to be stiff enough to prevent any significant
movement during placing of the concrete. Moreover the molds construct to have
circular corner with 20 mm radius to avoid any kink damage of CFRP jacket due to
stress concentration at sharp edges.
5
-1251-
Specimens were cast immediately after mixing in the molds, and then compacted
using vibrating table. All specimens were exposed to identical curing conditions.
After casting, specimens were stored in the laboratory for 24 hr., then de-molded and
covered by wet burlap at room temperature for 7 days then allowed to air-dry until
testing. It is believed that such curing regime may represent the concrete behavior in
actual structures where the concrete is cured for a limited time.
The concrete cover was kept constant at 20 mm in all-RC columns. As an attempt to
prevent the occurrence of premature failure at the ends of columns, the 100 mm top
and bottom of each column had extra lateral steel reinforcement spaced at 25 mm.
Both ends were also capped with external steel cap of 5 mm thickness as shown in
Figure. This configuration forced general failure to occur within the test region. Also
the steel cap served to stabilize the column during testing.

11.0
9.0
10.0
11.2 1.9 1.9
R2.0
15.0
100.0
2.5
2.5
15.0
15.0
65.0
16.3
16.3
16.3
16.3
3.8
2.5

Fig1. Schematic of steel reinforcement arrangement and column capping.
CFRP Strengthening Process
Preparation of the concrete substrate and application of CFRP materials were carried
out in accordance with the guidelines for application to concrete that was provided by
the material manufacturers. The surfaces of all columns to be wrapped are ground
using mechanical metallic brush (grinding) to remove any dust or latinate from
concrete surface and to open the pore structure to make the epoxy primer penetrate
through the concrete and ensure strong bond between the concrete and CFRP sheets.
The prepared concrete surface is coated with a layer of epoxy-based primer using a
short nap roller. The function of the primer is to penetrate the concrete pores to
provide an improved bond for the saturating resin. A first coat of saturant resin is
then applied using medium nap roller after primer becomes tack free. The function of
the sturant resin is to impregnate the dry fibers and bond them to the column, to
maintain the fibers in their intended orientation, to distribute stress to the fibers, and
to protect fibers from abrasion and environmental effects.
6
-1252-
One Layer of CFRP sheet is then placed on concrete surface and pressed normally to
the concrete surface using roller brush to remove air pockets from beneath the fiber
sheets. A 100-mm overlap is necessary to provide sufficient anchorage in order to
achieve the full tensile strength of the fiber sheet and prevent slip between layers. In
all cases, the principal fibers were oriented perpendicular to the column axis.
Test Apparatus and Loading Device
The current experimental program considered the behavior of 1/3 scale models of RC
columns, the models were fully wrapped with one layer of CFRP and subjected to
elevated temperature. Furnace temperature was measured by digital control unit
contain thermostat connected to a thermocouple located in the center of the furnace
back wall. Moreover, the specimens were provided by thermocouples to measure the
temperature inside concrete column, on to the interface between the CFRP and the
insulating material and on the surface of the insulating material.
A universal testing machine with capacity 3000kN was used for testing specimen
after cooling the specimen to room temperature, to determine the ultimate capacity.
Also the specimen fitted out with strain gauges to measure the residual strain, to
measure the degradation due to exposure to elevated temperature
In the thermal treatment by insulating material, all specimens were heavily
instrumented by eight chromel- Alumel (Type J) thermo-couples for measuring
temperature at each column side, four of them on the surface of the insulating material
and the other on the CFRP surface, as shown in figure(2). The results recorded for
each test was the average of these four thermocouples as the temperature on each
column side was difference due to the vertical and horizontal air flow inside the
furnace.

150 mm
230 mm
External Thermo-couples
On concrete surface
Internal Thermo-couples
On CFRP surface
Concrete Core
Transverse Reinforcement
Concrete Cover
CFRP Surface

Fig. 2. Test specimens / FRP Wrapping / Insulation layer

On the other hand, in the structural diagnosis, the results recorded for each test
included measurements of strains in both longitudinal and transverse directions for
CFRP at various load stages. The observed crack pattern and mode of failure at
ultimate are reported. In addition, comparisons of test result to investigate the tested
variables affecting both strength and ductility of the strengthened columns are
reported and discussed.

Test Results and Discussions
All columns were get out of the furnace after expose to the tested variable temperature
on the CFRP surface for the specific durations, then the insulating material have been
removed, and prepared to testing using the universal testing machine
7
-1253-
The stress-strain curves were plotted for both vertical and transverse strains for all
tested specimens. The curves to the right represent the plots of axial stresses versus
transverse strains, whereas the curves to the left show the plots of axial stresses versus
axial strains. The tested specimens were grouped to six groups according to the
effecting temperature levels "room temperature, below 100
o
c, 200
o
c, 250
o
c, 300
o
c,
and 350
o
c", each group have different duration for constant temperature level" 4 hrs,
8 hrs, 12 hrs, and 24hrs".
The test results of the nineteen columns are listed in Table 5 that includes the ratio
between column failure stress and the characteristic compressive strength for
concrete, the strains in both axial and transverse directions, mode of failure, ductility
and axial capacity with respect to CFRP control column. Each column is designated
by a code name. The key to this code is given in the appendix (Figure A).

Table 5 Test Results
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Col.
No.
Column f/f
cu

Failure
Mode
Ultimate
Axial
Strain
Ultimate
Transverse
Strain
t,cu

/
t
,
co
Loss in
Confinement
effectiveness with
respect to control
columns
1 CFRP Control 1.78
Crushing
0.015 0.006 1 0.0 %
2 RC Control 1.09
Crushing
0.009 0.0004 0.06 100 %
3 T.C.- 70- 24 1.78
Crushing
0.01 0.006 1 0.0 %
4 G- 80- 24 1.78
Crushing
0.01 0.005 0.83 0.0 %
5 C.F.- 90-24 1.77
Crushing
0.01 0.005 0.83 1.50 %
6 R.W.- 100- 24 1.76
Crushing
0.01 0.005 0.83 2.9 %
7 C.F.- 200-4 1.69
Crushing
0.008 0.005 0.83 13.0 %
8 R.W.-200-8 1.64
Crushing
0.008 0.005 0.83 20.0 %
9 S- 200-12 1.61
Crushing
0.007 0.005 0.83 24.6 %
10 G-200-24 1.55
Crushing
0.005 0.003 0.5 33.3 %
11 U-250-4 1.57
Crushing
0.008 0.005 0.83 30.4 %
12 U-250-8 1.51
Crushing
0.005 0.005 0.83 39.1 %
13 S-250-12 1.47
Crushing
0.005 0.003 0.5 44.9 %
14 C+G -250-24 1.05
De-
bonding
0.006 0.0005 0.08 105 %
15 C.M.-300-4 1.49
Crushing
0.004 0.005 0.83 42.1 %
16 C.P.- 300-8 1.05
De-
bonding
0.001 0.0002 0.03 105 %
17 U-350-4 1.31
De-
bonding
0.001 0.001 0.16 68.1 %
8
-1254-
18 T.C.- 350-8 1.02
De-
bonding
0.003 0.0004 0.06 110 %
19 P-200 / 400-12 1.05
De-
bonding
0.001
0.003 /
0.0004
0.5/0.06 100 %

t, cu
= The maximum transverse strain measured at failure.
t
,
co
= The maximum strain for control specimen.

Behavior of control specimens at room temperature
In the control un-confined reinforced concrete column, the concrete cover spalled off
and the longitudinal steel reinforcement buckled at an applied load of 400 kN, and the
ratio between column stress at failure and concrete characteristic compressive strength
was 0.9. On the other hand, while testing the control confined column, which was
strengthened with one layers of CFRP, an early noise due to concrete cracking was
noticeable when the applied load approached 390 kN. This level may be
corresponding to the unconfined strength of the column. The column could attain an
ultimate load of 650 kN, and the ratio between column stress at failure and
characteristic compressive strength was 1.9. The test was terminated due to the
rupture of CFRP sheets. De-bonding between CFRP and concrete did not occur. Fig.
4 shows Columns mode of failure.

Fig. 4. Failure mode for both confined and Un-confined Columns at room temperature
The stress versus transverse and axial strain for both columns is illustrated in Fig5.
The response of FRP-confined concrete can be considered bilinear with no
descending branch. Other investigators
1,2
also confirm the bilinear trend for circular
and rectangular columns. The response consists of three distinct regions. In the first
region, the behavior is similar to plain concrete, because the lateral expansion of the
core is insignificant. With micro-cracking increasing, a transition zone results in
which the CFRP jacket exerts a lateral pressure on the core to counteract the cores
stiffness degradation. Finally, a third region is recognized, in which the jacket is fully
activated and the stiffness is generally stabilized around a constant rate. The response
in this region is mainly dependent on the stiffness of the jacket.
The presence of one layers of CFRP could improve the column capacity by about
63.3%, and could improve the ultimate transverse strain from 0.0004 for the Un-
confined column to 0.006 for the confined column. The confined Column could
9
-1255-
undergo large axial strain 0.015 as compared to a strain of 0.006 achieved when
CFRP does not exist. It should be reported herein that the maximum measured
transverse strain in CFRP in confined column at failure was approximately 0.006
mm/mm, which corresponded to 38.8 % only of the reported ultimate strain of CFRP.
This implies that failure initiated at a location away from the location of strain gage.
The concrete constituent did not significantly influence the behavior of columns
because the temperatures in the concrete remained well below the temperature (about
300C) at which it begin to play an important role. Similarly, the temperatures in the
reinforcing steel can be assumed (on the basis of the temperatures measured at the
surface of the concrete, to have remained sufficiently low as to not have significantly
reduced the mechanical properties of the steel during the fire test.

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
-0.015 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01
Axial strain Transverse strain
F
/
F
c
u
Axial Strain
"Confined"
Axial Strain "Un-
Confined"
Transverse Strain
"Confined"
Transverse Strain "Un-
Confined"
Control
Specimen

Fig. 5. Axial stress vs. transverse and axial strains for both confined and Unconfined
Columns at room temperature
Behavior of R.C columns confined by CFRP below 100
o
c
In this series, four R.C. columns confined by CFRP were tested under 70
o
c, 80
o
c, 90
o
,
and 100
o
c for 24 hours; they were insulated by Thermal Concrete, Gypsum, Ceramic
fibers, and Rock wool respectively. The aim of increasing the testing temperature
level by 10
o
c only was to ensure that continues exposure to temperature above the
glass transition till 100
o
c havent any effect on the CFRP confining system efficiency.
All columns were subjected to the elevated temperature for 24 hours, a slight decrease
in the ultimate capacity of the column that subjected to 100
o
c for 24hours by only 3%,
in spite of that all R.C. columns failed by the rupture in the CFRP sheets. On the
other hand no change in both strength and ductility for R.C. subjected to elevated
temperature till 90
o
c. De-bonding between CFRP and concrete did not occur as
shown in figure (5).

10
-1256-

Fig. 5 Failure in Columns T.C.-70-24, G-80-24, C.F.-90-24, and R.W.-100-24
Comparisons between the stress versus transverse and axial strain curves for the four
R.C. columns at different temperature levels are illustrated in Figure (5). No
significant deterioration in both axial and transverse strains was observed for all
columns subjected to the raise in temperature till 100
o
c.

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
-0.012 -0.01 -0.008 -0.006 -0.004 -0.002 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008
Axial Strain Transverse Strain
F
/
F
c
u
70oc-24hrs
70oc-24hrs
80oc-24hrs
80oc-24hrs
90oc-24hrs
90oc-24hrs
100oc-24hrs
100oc-24hrs
Under 100
o
c

Fig. 6 Axial stress vs. axial and transverse strains for R.C column subjected to
temperature below 100
o
c
It is interesting to point out herein, that the thermal endurance according to the
thermal tests done on the insulated R.C. columns at temperature 100
o
c on the CFRP
surface
14
is about 4.2 hours for sikacrete213f, 3.4 hours for all of Gypsum, Perlite,
Cement + Gypsum, and cement paste, and about only one hour for thermal concrete,
Cement mortar, Ceramic fiber, and Rock wool.
This finding implies that, the importance in choosing the suitable insulating material
in protecting CFRP sheets and its epoxy resin according to the exposed temperature
level and duration.
Behavior of R.C columns confined by CFRP at 200
o
c
In this series, four R.C. columns were insulated with Ceramic fiber, Rock wool,
sikacrete213f, and Gypsum, and then subjected to the furnace temperature till CFRP
11
-1257-
surface temperature reach 200
o
c and keep constant at this temperature level for four,
eight, twelve, and twenty four hours respectively for each insulating material. The
corresponding ultimate furnace temperatures for the four columns were 650
o
c, 670
o
c,
800
o
c, and 790
o
c respectively.
The loss of the CFRP wrapping effectiveness for columns exposed to elevated
temperature 200
o
c compared to the control wrapped unheated column was 7%,
9%,11%, and 15% for continues exposure four, eight, twelve, twenty four hours
respectively.
Thermal endurance of the insulating materials at 200
o
c is quiet different than 100
o
c,
Sikacrete-213f has the superior behavior they reach 200
o
c in 5.6 hrs, while
Cement+Gypsum, Perlite, and Gypsum reach it about 4.5 hrs, and Thermal concrete
in 3.2 hrs, and all of other insulating material" Ceramic fiber, Rockwood,
sikacrete213f "2nd cycle", and Cement mortar reach 200
o
c in 1.9 hrs only.
The mode of failure was observed in all columns in this series, as shown in figure (7),
the failure occurred by rupture of CFRP sheets at the corner of the columns. The
CFRP sheets and the epoxy resin, pulled off with the concrete cover and the steel
reinforcement was exposed. Also it can be observed small de-bonding spots on the
CFRP surface after being rupture for column G-200-24 that subjected to this
temperature level for 24 hours.

No De-bonding No De-bonding De-bonding Spots

Fig. 7 Failure in Columns C.F.-200-4, R.W.-200-8, S-200-12, and G-200-24
Comparisons between the curves for the four columns are shown in Fig.8. A slight
decrease in both axial and transverse strains was observed in all columns, for the
columns subjected to 200
o
c for 4, 8, and 12 hours their transverse strain decrease by
about 16% compared by the control confined specimen, while it decrease by 50% for
the column that subjected to 200
o
c for 24 hours.

12
-1258-
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
-0.01 -0.008 -0.006 -0.004 -0.002 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008
F
/
F
c
u
1.6
1.8
200-4hrs
200-4hrs
200-8hrs
200-8hrs
200-12hrs
200-12hrs
200-24hrs
200-24hrs

temperature at 200
o
c
o
c
Four R.C.columns have been tested, two of them were insolated and subjected to
250
o
c for 4, and 8 hours. While the other two columns were isolated by Sikacrete213f
and Cement+Gypsum, they subjected to 250
o
c for 12, and 24 hours respectively.
There is a significant loss in CFRP confinement effectiveness comparing to the
control specimen, the percentage of the axial load capacity with respect to the un-
heated specimen was 13%, 17%, 20% for the columns subjected to 200
o
c for 4,8,and
12 hours respectively. On the other hand the G-200-24 specimen fails with load equal
that of the unconfined R.C. column, the (f/fcu) ratio is 1.05 which below the
unconfined control specimen having (f/fcu) ratio is 1.09
Inspection of the failed specimens relevant that there is a partially de-bonding in some
areas of the of CFRP sheet during subjected to continues temperature 250
o
c for 4 and
8 hours, while the mode failure for the specimen subjected to 250
o
c for 12 hours was
govern by de-bonding in the overlap distance between CFRP sheets. Full de-bonding
between the CFRP sheets and concrete surface accompanied by deterioration in the
CFRP sheets have been observed in the specimen subjected to 250
o
c for 24 hours.
Figure (9) shows the different modes of failure for this series of specimens.

13
-1259-

De-bonding Area
De-bonding at the
Overlap surface
Deterioration in
CFRP sheet
4 hrs
12 hrs
24 hrs
Fig. 9 Failure in Columns exposed to 200
o
c at various durations
Figure (10) shows the axial and transverse strain versus (f/fcu) ratio, the ultimate
transverse strain for columns U-250-4, U-250-8, and S-250-12 have been decrease
than the confined control column by 16%, 16%, and 50% respectively. On the other
hand column (C+G -250-24) having ultimate transverse strain of 0.0005 less than the
confined control specimen by 92%, and equal to the unconfined R.C. column, this is
related to the de-bonding in CFRP sheets leads it to behave like the unconfined
columns completely.
It should be noticed that, there is a gradually loss in stiffness and ductility of the
tested specimen while increasing the effecting temperature duration. And it lose all
its ductility for column subjected to 250
o
c for 24 hours

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
-0.01 -0.008 -0.006 -0.004 -0.002 0 0.002 0.004 0.006
F
/
F
c
u
250-4hrs
250-4hrs
250-8hrs
250-8hrs
250-12hrs
250-12hrs
250-24hrs
250-24hrs
250
O
C

temperature at 200
o
c

14
-1260-
o
c
Two columns C.M.-300-4, C.P.-300-8 have been tested under 300
o
c with duration 4
and 8 hours respectively. There is no need to test this temperature level at 12 and 24
hours because it totally failed at 8 hours. There is a significant loss in CFRP
confinement for column C.M.-300-4 due to exposure to 300
o
c for 4 hours that leads to
de-bonding in some areas between CFRP and concrete surface before rupture of
CFRP sheets. On the other hand, in column C.P.-300-8 the CFRP confinement was
negligible, as the de-bonding occurs from the beginning of loading and take the
behavior of unconfined column, as shown in figure (11).
The ultimate capacity for both columns C.M.-300-4, C.P.-300-8 was decrease by
20%, and 44% with (f/f
cu
) ratio equal 1.47 and 1.05 respectively.

Fig. 11 Failure in Columns C.M.-300-4, C.P.-300-8
Comparisons between the (f/f
cu
) ratios versus strain curves for the two columns are
shown in Fig.12. Both ultimate axial and transverse strains have been decreased for
columns C.M.-300-4 by 60% and 16% respectively. It should be reported herein that
the maximum measured transverse strain in CFRP in column C.P.-300-8 at failure
was approximately 0.0002 mm/mm, which corresponded to 3.3 % only of the ultimate
strain of control confined column. The leads us to conclude that the CFRP sheet dont
exert any confinement from the early loading stages, and the column behave like the
unconfined control specimen. Moreover, the measured ultimate axial strain for
column C.P.-300-8 was approximately 0.001 mm/mm, having 91% less than the
control confined column.

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
F
/
F
c
u

15
-0.006 -0.004 -0.002 0 0.002 0.004 0.006
300-4hrs
300-4hrs
300-8hrs
300-8hrs
300
O
C
-1261-

temperature at 300
o
c for 4 and 8 hours.

o
c
Three R.C. columns were tested under 350
o
c for different durations. First column
designated by U-350-4 was un-insulated and subjected to 350
o
c for 4 hours, its (f/f
cu
)
ratio equal 1.27 less than the control confined column by about 30%. The CFRP
sheets lose some of its confinement effectiveness due to a large de-bonding area
between CFRP sheets and concrete surface, while the CFRP sheets itself doesnt
greatly effected. Second column, T.C-350-8 was insulated by Thermal concrete
subjected to 350
o
c for 8 hours; it is clearly shown that CFRP sheets lose all of its
effectiveness before testing as there were fully de-bonding for CFRP sheets, it behave
similar to the control unconfined column having (f/f
cu
) ratio equal 1.02.
Finally, the third column P-200/350-12 was insulated by Perlite and subjected to
200
o
c from three sides and 350
o
c from the other side for 12 hours; this is related to the
variable insulating thickness from 40mm for three sides and 20mm for the other two
sides. While one side only effected by 350
o
c it govern the structurally behavior of the
column, leads to full de-bonding of CFRP along the column height and the (f/f
cu
) ratio
equal 1.05. Figure (13) shows the modes of failure for the columns.

Fig. 13 Failure in Columns U-350-4, T.C-350-8, and P-200/350-12
The failure modes for all specimens tested at this temperature level govern by de-
bonding of CFRP sheets, this leads to large extreme loss of the measured ultimate
axial and transverse strains. The column U-350-4 loss about 83% and 90% for
transverse and axial strain respectively compared by the control confined specimen.
While column T.C-350-8 behaves similar to unconfined column, do not offer a
significant ductility compared with the confined column. On the other hand, column
P-200/350-12 has a remarkable difference between the transverse strains measured on
16
-1262-
the side subjected to 200
o
c equal 0.003 mm/mm, and the corresponding strain
measured at the side subjected to 350
o
c equal 0.0004 mm/mm which equal to the
strain measured for the unconfined control column. Figures (14 a&b) show the
versus transverse and axial strain for tested columns at 350
o
c

Fig. 13.a Fig. 13.b

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
-0.003 -0.002 -0.001 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
F
/
F
c
u
Strain at 350oc
Strain at 200oc
Axial Strain
P-200/350-8
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
-0.004 -0.003 -0.002 -0.001 0 0.001 0.002
F
/
F
c
u
350-4hrs
350-4hrs
350-8hrs
350-8hrs
350
O
C
Fig. (13a&b) Axial stress vs. axial and transverse strains for U-350-4, T.C-350-8 and
P-200/350-12

According to the above mentioned test results for the deterioration of the CFRP
confinement effectiveness with temperature and exposure duration, a comparison
between (f/fcu) ratio which refer to the ultimate load capacity for the tested columns
are shown in Fig.14. No significant deterioration of the CFRP confinement
effectiveness occurs at 100
o
c till 24 hours. Consequently, that leads us to conclude
that the thermal endurance according to the furnace heating rate for the tested
insulating material is about 4.2 hours for sikacrete213f, 3.4 hours for all of Gypsum,
Perlite, Cement + Gypsum, and cement paste, and about only one hour for thermal
concrete, Cement mortar, Ceramic fiber, and Rock wool.
While at 200
o
c the CFRP confinement effectiveness depend mainly on the exposure
duration, it lose only 7% for exposure for 4 hours, and 9%,12%, and 15% for 8, 12,
and 24 hours respectively. Thermal endurance of the insulating materials at 200
o
c is
greater than 100
o
c, Sikacrete-213f has the superior behavior they reach 200
o
c in 5.6
hrs, while Cement + Gypsum, Perlite, and Gypsum reach it about 4.5 hrs, and Thermal
concrete in 3.2 hrs, and all of other insulating material" Ceramic fiber, Rockwood,
sikacrete213f "2nd cycle", and Cement mortar reach 200
o
c in 1.9 hrs only.
The different in the ultimate load capacity of the confined columns subjected to
constant temperature 250
o
c depend mainly on the exposure duration, the columns lose
about 13%, 17%,20% when exposed 250
o
c for 4, 8, 12 hours. While it lose all it
capacity after 24 hours
Partially loss of CFRP effectiveness has been observed at 300
o
c, 350
o
c for 4 hours it
lose about 17.5% and 28.5% from its original capacity, while it lose all its
effectiveness for continuous heat exposure for duration more than or equal 8 hours
17
-1263-

1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
100 150 200 250 300 350
Temprature
o
C
F
/
F
c
u
At 4 hours
At 8 hours
At 12 hours
At 24 hours
CFRP
Control
F/Fcu =1.78
R.C. Control
F/Fcu =1.09

Fig. (14) Deterioration for columns confined by CFRP with temperature and time
A comparison of the thermal endurance for the tested columns is shown in Fig.16.
This difference among the thermal behavior of the different insulating materials
emphasizes their role in protecting CFRP strengthening system from elevated
temperature ranged from 100
o
c to 300
o
c for a specific duration. In fact, the poorest
insulating material were noticeable for Rock wool, Ceramic fiber, Cement mortar,
Thermal concrete, and Sikacrete213f after the 2
nd
heating cycle where their thermal
endurance to reach 100
o
c varied from 40 min to 75 min with an average duration of
about one hour. In spite of Thermal concrete have poor thermal endurance at 100
o
c,
its thermal endurance upgrades with increasing temperature. On the other hand,
Cement paste, Perlite, Gypsum, Cement+Gypsum have more thermal endurance at
100
o
c ranged between 180 min to 215 min with an average duration of about 3.3
hours. Sikacrete213f which was designed for fire protection has the superior behavior
its thermal endurance at 100
o
c equal 4.2 hours.
It is evident from figure 15 that the thermal endurance time increase with increasing
the temperature reaches the CFRP surface, while there is variable deterioration in
CFRP confinement effectiveness according to temperature on CFRP surface and how
long it remains constant at this temperature level, as mentioned before.
It is well documented in the literature that the use of insulating material to protect
CFRP confined columns does not eliminate heat transfer but it merely reduce it and
increase the heat transfer time till reach to the CFRP surface for all tested temperature
levels.

18
-1264-

0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Temprature oc
T
i
m
e

(
m
i
n
)

C+G
P
G
S
R.
C.M.
S dried T.C.
C.P
.
C.F.
Fig. (15) Thermal Endurance for the tested insulating material
From the overall prospective, it may be concluded based on experimental
evidences that the overall structural effectiveness and thermal endurance of
FRP-wrapped columns can be enhanced by applying supplement insulation to
the exterior FRP surface.
APPENDIX

G / 250/ 4
CFRP Surface
Type of Insulating
Under 100 C
Duration
Material
RockWool (R.W.)
Temprature
200 C
250 C
300 C
350 C
4 hours
8 hours
12 hours
24 hours
Ceramic Fiber (C.F.)
Thermal Concrete (T.C.)
Perlite (P)
Sikacrete 213f (S)
Cement Mortar (C.M.)
Cement Paste (C.P.)
Gypsum (G)
Cement+Gypsum (C+G)

Figure. A- Columns codification

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the results of this study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. No deterioration in the CFRP confinement effectiveness occurs for exposure at
constant temperature 100
o
c till 24 hours
19
-1265-
2. According to the furnace heating rate for the tested insulating material, the
thermal endurance to preserve the CFRP surface temperature at 100
o
c is about
4.2 hours for sikacrete213f, 3.4 hours for all of Gypsum, Perlite, Cement +
Gypsum, and cement paste, and about only one hour for thermal concrete,
Cement mortar, Ceramic fiber, and Rock wool.
3. At temperature level 200
o
c, the CFRP confining system lose 13% of its
confinement effectiveness for constant exposure for 4 hours while it lose
20%,24.6%, and 33.6% for 8, 12, and 24 hours respectively. On the other
hand, no significant loss of column ductility have been measured at this
temperature level
4. The time takes to prevent the heat transfer through the insulating material of
the insulated columns to reach CFRP surface at 200
o
c is 5.6 hours for
Sikacrete 213f. While Cement + Gypsum, Perlite, and Gypsum takes about
4.5 hrs, and Thermal concrete in 3.2 hrs, and all of other insulating material"
Ceramic fiber, Rockwood, sikacrete213f "2nd cycle", and Cement mortar
reach 200
o
c in 1.9 hrs only.
5. The CFRP confinement effectiveness for columns tested at 250
o
c has been
decreased by 13%, 17%, and 20% for constant exposure to this level of
temperature for 4, 8, and 12 hours respectively. On the other hand the column
loses all its effectiveness for continues exposure for 24 hours and behave like
the unconfined column.
6. There is a large difference between the loss in CFRP effectiveness when
exposed to 300
o
c for 4 hours and 8hours, as it lose 14% of its load capacity
while it loss all of the confinement effectiveness at 8 hours
7. All columns tested at 350
o
c lose all of the CFRP confinement effectives and
their failure mode govern by de-bonding between the CFRP sheets and
concrete surface during the loading test for U-350-4 column or before
beginning of the test for T.C-350-8 specimen.
8. The only one side of the column that subjected to 350oc for 8 hours govern all
column specimen to loss the CFRP effectiveness while the other three sides
subjected to 200oc only

REFRENCES

1. Nanni, A., Norris, M.S., and Badrofd, N.M. Lateral Confinement of Concrete
Using FRP Reinforcement, ACI Structural Journal, 1996, pp 193-209
2. F.Picher, P.Rochette and P.Labossiere, Confinement of Concrete Cylinders
With CFRP Proceeding of 1
st
International Conference, Composites in
Infrastructure, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, 1996, pp.829-841.
3. Amir Mirmiran and Mohsen Shahawy, Behavior of Concrete Columns
Confined by Fiber Composites, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE,
Vol. 123, No.5, May 1997, pp.583-590.
4. Amir Mirmiran , Mohsen Shahawy, Michel Sammaan , Hazem EL Echary,
Juan Carlos Mastrapa and Odell Pico, Effect of Column Parameters on
FRP-Confined Concrete, Journal of Composites for construction, ASCE, Vol
2,No.4, Nov. 1998, pp.175-185.
20
-1266-
5. Chirs Cole and Abdeldelil Belarabi, FRP Jacketed Reinforced Concrete
Columns, Center For Infra Structure Engineering Studies, Department of
Civil Engineering, University of Missouri-Rolla, May 2001
6. Azadeh Parvin and Wei Wang, Behavior Of FRP Jacketed Concrete
Columns Under Eccentric Loading, Journal of Composites for construction,
ASCE, Vol 5, No.8, August 2001, pp.146-152.
7. Yung C. Wang and Jose I. Restrepo, Investigation of concentrically loaded
reinforced concrete columns confined with Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymers
jackets, ACI Structural Journal, May June 2001, pp 337-385
8. Abdelhady Hosny,Hamdy Shahin,Amr Abdelrahman and Tamer El-Afandy,
Uni-axial Tests on Rectangular Columns Strengthened With CFRP
Proceeding of Structural Composites For Infrastructure Applications
Conference, Aswan, Egypt, 2002.
9. Adel El-Kurdi, Shafik Khoury, Aly Eldarwish, Ahmed Khalifa,& Alaa Morsy,
Behavior of axially loaded columns strengthened with carbon fiber
reinforced polymers Proceeding of Alexandria International Conference for
Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, Alexandria, Egypt, 2003.
10. ACI, 440.XR-06: Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally
Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures, American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, USA, 2006.
11. Bisby, L.A., Green, M.F. and Kodur, V.K.R., Fire Endurance of FRP-
Confined Concrete Columns, ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 10, No. 6, 2005,
pp. 883891.
12. Saafi, M., & Romine, P., Effect of Fire on Concrete Cylinders Confined with
GFRP, Durability of FRP Composites for Construction (CDCC 02),
Montreal, PQ, Canada, June, 2002, pp 512-521.
13. Douglas, B., & James, A., Effect of Elevated Temperature on a Fiber
Composite Used to Strengthen Concrete Columns, Journal of Reinforced
Plastics and Composites, Vol.22, PQ, No.10, 2003, pp 881-895.
14. Bisby, L.A., and Kodur, V.K.R., Modeling the fire behavior of FRP-
strengthened reinforced concrete columns, Structures in Fire, Proceedings of
the 3rd International Workshop, Ottawa, Ontario, May 10-11, 2004, pp. 1-15
15. Bisby, L.A., and Kodur, V.K.R., Numerical parametric studies on the fire
endurance of fibre-reinforced-polymer-confined concrete columns, Canadian
Journal of Civil Engineering, v. 31, no. 6, Dec. 2004, pp. 1090-1100
16. Bisby, L.A., and Kodur, V.K.R., Evaluation of fire endurance of concrete
slabs reinforced with FRP bars, Journal of Structural Engineering, v. 131,
no. 1, Jan. 2005, pp. 34-43
17. Kodur, V.K.R. and Baingo, D. (1999) Evaluation of Fire Resistance of FRP-
Reinforced Concrete Slabs. Proc. Interfalm99: 8th International Fire Science
and Engineering Conference, Interscience Communications, Edinburgh, UK,
927-937
18. Blontrock, H., Taerwe, L., & Vandevelde, P., Fire Testing of Concrete Slabs
Strengthened with Fibre Composite Laminates, FRPRCS-5, London, UK,
July, 2001, pp 547-556
21
-1267-
19. Bisby, L.A., and Kodur, V.K.R., Evaluation of fire endurance of concrete
slabs reinforced with FRP bars, Journal of Structural Engineering, v. 131,
no. 1, Jan. 2005, pp. 34-43
20. Williams, B.K., Bisby, L.A., Green, M.F., and Kodur, V.K.R. 2003. An
Investigation of the Fire Behavior of FRP-Strengthened Reinforced Concrete
Beams. In Forde, M.E. (Ed.), Structural Faults and Repair 2003, London,
England.
21. Sorathia, U.; Ohlemiller, T.; Lyon, R.; Riffle, J.; and Schultz, N., 2001,
Chapter 9: Effects of Fire, Gap Analysis for Durability of Fiber Reinforced
Polymer Composites in Civil Infrastructure, New York, American Society of
Civil Engineers, pp. 100-121.
22. Harries, K. A.; Porter, M.; and Busel, J., 2003, FRP Materials and
ConcreteResearch Needs, Concrete International, V. l 25, No. 10, Oct., pp.
69-74.
23. Blontrock, H.; Taerwe, L.; and Matthys, S., 1999, Properties of Fibre
Reinforced Plastics at Elevated Temperatures with Regard to Fire Resistance
of Reinforced Concrete Members,Properties of Fiber Reinforced Plastics at
Elevated Temperatures with Regard to Fire Resistance of Reinforced
Concrete Members, SP-188, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
Mich., pp. 43-54.
24. ASTM, Test Method E119-01, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2001,
21 pp.
25. CAN/ULC, CAN/ULC-S101-M89, ULC, Scarborough, ON, Canada, 1989, 49
pp.
26. Alaa Morsy., "Performance of RC columns strengthened with CFRP at
elevated temperature," PhD. Thesis, Under Preparation, Structural
Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University,
Egypt, 2009
22
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COMP-015-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





Fiber reinforced concrete: Past, Present and Future

Beddar Miloud
Reader in Civil Engineering Department, Msila University, Algeria

ABSTRACT

Although considerable development work on fiber reinforced concrete is currently in
progress, information about the history of this new construction material is very limited.
This paper will discuss, for this raison, the development of this material from antiquity until
nowadays. A general review about different types of fiber, especially steel fibers used in
reinforcement of construction materials, is presented as well as the current applications and
the future prospectus.

Keywords: Fiber material reinforcement concrete composite

1. INTRODUCTION

The concrete exists in nature in the form of limestone and siliceous conglomerates. But, it is
by far the most widely used man-made construction material which is initially implemented
by the man in a pragmatic way in Roman masonry, it was made of stones bonded by a
pozzolanic mortar, then in a more scientific way as from the nineteenth century.

Today, it is also the most used material in all the construction fields, on all the continents and
under all latitudes. This can be confirmed by a sentence of an American expert J.KELLY
who wrote in 1961 Nobody will think of using wood for the construction of dams, steel in
the roads or bitumen in the buildings, but the concrete may be used in all these cases and
more. But, the concrete is a relatively brittle material, when subjected to tensile stresses,
unreinforced concrete cracks. However, this problem has been solved since the 1800s by
placing steel reinforcing bars within the concrete to carry the tensile loads. This
reinforcement, using steel bars, was a significant stage in the history of concrete material,
which contributed to the development of the structural applications, by ensuring a good
safety. Therefore, the purpose of the introduction of the steel bars is to control macro
cracking. Latter and in order to minimize cracking phenomenon, the construction world
designed the pre-stressed concrete. After that, during the past three decades, fiber reinforced
concrete has been introduced and increasingly used in structural applications.

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COMP-015-2
The main aim of this study is to give an answer of a simple question generally asked by new
researchers in this field which is When was the concept of fiber reinforcement first used in
building materials?

2. HISTORIC INSIGHT
2.1. Early beginnings

Historically there is no confirmation when the concept of fiber reinforced was first used in
building materials. However, a deep analysis of this concept indicates that this idea is old and
dated since antiquity, and thus during the history of materials technology has been marked
out by the appearance of texture composite which
became increasingly more complex.
According to exodus 5:6 [1] Egyptians used straw
to reinforce mud bricks. There is also evidence that
asbestos fiber was used to reinforce clay posts
about 5000 years ago [1]. In other sources [2, 3] it
has been pointed out that straws were used to
reinforce sun baked bricks; horsehair was also used
to reinforce plaster, while asbestos fibers have been
used to reinforce Portland cement. It can be also
noted that a metal alloy was realized by using
carbon fibers in the fifteenth century. This fact has
been confirmed by some researchers [1] who
pointed out that the first fiber-reinforced materials
were man-made by mixing straw or similar
products into building materials or mortars.

But, Professor Alberto Fava of the university of La
Plata in Argentina points out that the hornero is a tiny bird native to Argentina, Chile, Bolivia
and other south American countries; the bird had been painstakingly building straw-
reinforced clay nests on treetops since before the advent of man [Fig 1].

Patents have been granted since the turn
of the century for various methods of
incorporating wire segments or metal
chips into concrete. But, the real
development can be ascribed to Joseph
Lambot [2]. His patent in 1847
suggested the addition to concrete of
continuous fibers in the form of wires or
wire meshes to create a new building
material. Thirty years ago, A.Bernard
from California managed to create an
artificial stone by the addition of
granular waste iron to a concrete mix.

Fig .2- Patent of R . Weakly, Meishke-Smith, 1920

Fig.1-Hornerostraw-reinforced clay nest
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COMP-015-3
In 1910, a series of experiments for strengthening concrete by the inclusion of short fibers
were carried out by Porter [5] and he concluded that the inclusion of cut nails into concrete
increases the tensile and crushing strength of concrete.
Following this, in 1899 a manufacturing process of composite element containing cement and
asbestos was developed by LHATSHELC. In 1910, a series of test to improve concrete
strength was carried out by PORTER [5] who had concluded that the presence of short fibers
in the concrete increases its compressive and tensile strength. He wrote after many years of
study that Indeed it is not at all improbable that, in the not very distance future,
reinforcement of this nature, that is supplying resistance to particles throughout the
mass, by introducing here and there short pieces of steel, on tensile side especially, will
come into use, thus making concrete a more truly homogenous structural material.

In the following years Graham filed the first USA patent [6] of steel fiber concrete in which
he described the use of steel slivers or shavings as a reinforcing mechanism.
One year after, in 1912 a second USA patent on this subject was taken out by Weakley [7],
(Fig 2). He used in his patent steel wire processed with two wires, by means by ring, to
ensure durable bond with concrete.

2.2. From World War I to World War II

In 1914 the first British patent was taken out by William Fickley [8] for the inclusion of
various tortuous shaped pieces of metal reinforcement into concrete. He claimed that
toughness and wearing resistance were increased but there were no improvements in the
tensile and compressive strength of concrete. In contrast to Fickleys claim, a French expert
Alfsen pointed out that the tensile strength of concrete can be improved by the addition of
small longitudinal bodies (fibers) of iron, wood or other materials to the concrete.

Fig 3. Patent of Martin and that of Ethierdge

In 1920 the first German patent was taken out by Kleilogel [2]. He mixed a relatively large
volume of iron particles with concrete. The result of this mix was a mass capable of being
chilled, turned, sawn and filed similarly to an iron mass. Seven years later (1927) two patents
of steel fiber concrete were taken out by Smith and Martin [9] in the U.S.A (Fig.3).

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COMP-015-4
The holder of the first patent used flat
twisted pieces of wire in order to
produce a Ferro-concrete construction,
while the latter holder used plain or
crimped pieces of steel wire to
strengthen concrete pipes.

Some twelve years later Zitkevic
obtained a British patent for an improved
reinforced concrete. He used iron wire
fibers approximately 100mm long and
1.00mm in diameter which were very
similar to the steel fiber in concrete of
today, and he claimed increases in the
compressive, tensile and shear strength
of concrete. By the 1940s a wide variety
of possible improvements in the
performance of concrete by steel fiber
inclusion had been recognized and the
scene was set for a thorough research
effort into this new composite material.

But, it is noted here that patents of
G.CONSTANTINESCO in 1943 and
in1954 in U.S.A and U.K respectively
merits a particular attention [2]. The parameters of reinforcement, which is recommended at
that time, are similar to those of current fiber concrete (Fig 4).
He recommended the use of fibers allowing the improvement of resistance to the cracking
and energy absorption by the concrete mass. He suggested the use of this new composite in
several fields especially the construction of airport tracks and machine foundation and all
similar structures.

2. 3. Towards today

The Portland Cement Association investigated fiber reinforced cement based materials in the
late 1950s[11]. Application of fiber reinforced concrete has been made since the mid 1950s
for roads and slabs. In the USA, in the last twenty-five years, it is estimated that at least
seventy percent of the total fieldwork effort involving fiber reinforced concrete has involved
the construction of overlays, repair of bridge decks, highways, streets and airfield pavements,
and the repair of other concrete structures such as dams and culverts [12].

By the 1960s further advance was made in the development and the application of the
material. A series of patents were taken out, both in Britain and the United States, by the
Battelle Development Corporation [12]. These patents were based on using short steel wires
as reinforcement. Improvements were claimed in the tensile strength, energy absorption and
spalling resistance under sudden application of heat and high energy absorption.
In 1963, two papers were published by Romualdi and Batson [13,14] in which details were
given of the theoretical analysis upon which claims made in the Battelle patents were founded
together with experimental data obtained from bending tests.

Fig.4- Constantinescos Patent
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COMP-015-5
In the following years, many papers were published by Romualdi at Al [15,16] in addition to
a series of patents taken out by the Battelle Development Corporation. It was not until 1970
that the refractory industry began using stainless steel fibers for castable reinforcement
mainly in the USA and Japan [4]. The first fibers used were type 310 stainless steel, cut from
hard drawn wire. The first paper on this concept may be the one which was published by
Lankard and Sheets [17] in which they claimed that incorporation of 1 To 2 volume % of
wire fibers in refractory castable provide a significant improvement in flexural and
compressive strength and enables the material to sustain considerable stress even after
complete failure of the castable matrix has occurred.

During the following years many papers were published, all aiming to ensure that fiber
reinforcement technology can be transferred from laboratory tests to the application in site.

3 . Recent developments of the fibrous reinforcement

The last developments in the fibers field, started at the beginning of the sixties. A multitude
of fibers types were introduced into the trade as being new applications among which we
distinguishes:
Natural fibers, vegetable or mineral ( sisal, Jute, Bamboo, Asbestos)
Glass fibers resistance or not to alkalis
Polypropylene fibers
Steel fibers (straight, hooked ends, indented, enlarged ends, melt extract fibers,. .etc)
Carbon fibers and other types of fibers (ceramic, nylon, polyester).

Theses various types of fibers are presented in various forms: continuous or discontinuous.
Qualities sought for these fibers are as follows:

Good adhesion with the matrix.
Adaptable elasticity modulus ( It is sometimes much higher than that of the matrix)
Compatibility with the binder, it should neither be attacked, nor destroyed in the long
term.
To be of an accessible price taking into account proportioning to be used.
To be short enough, fine and flexible to permit a good mixing, transporting , and placing.
To be long enough, nor fragile so that it is not easy to be broken during mixing process.

Fibers play a primordial role in composite materials, they can give cement mortar or concrete
a considerable amount of apparent ductility which means the ability of such material to
absorb relatively large amount of energy before failure. Also, they give concrete or other
composite materials many significant properties such as:
- Superior resistance to crack propagation
- Significant post-crack residual strength
- The ability to withstand large deformation
- Good tensile , flexural and impact strength
In building materials, the most used fibers other than steel fibers are: Asbestos fibers,
polypropylene fibers and glass fibers. Table 2, gives the average characteristics of different
fibers.

Fiber Diameter
(mm)
Length
(mm)
Specific
gravity
Tensile strength,
GPa
Modulus of
elasticity , GPa
Failure strain, %
steel 0.2 0.5 20 - 50 7.8 1000 -3000 200 000 3 4
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COMP-015-6
Asbestos
Chrysotile)
0.0002
0.002
5 2.6 3.0 300 -1000 80000-150000 2 3
Polypro-
pylene
0.01 0.1 25 - 75 0.9 400 -600 4000 - 8000 15 - 20
Glass
zirconium
0.005
0.020
40 - 70 2.6 1500 -3000 80 000 2 - 3
Carbon 0.005
0.01
Variable 2 2000 400 000
Sisal 0.1 0.5 1.5 800 2

Table 1- The average characteristics of different fibers

But, in this paper we are going to give some details about steel fibers as it was and still the
most used in the civil engineering field,
especially the melt extract fibers.
It is very known that during the past three
decades, many fiber types have been
increasingly used in several applications
(fig.5). The choice of the fiber type is
generally limited to those which have high
modulus, and which can be mixed
successfully with cement or concrete to
produce desirable materials. Steel fibers,
however, fulfill these requirements and have
proved to be the most usable in the concrete
field.
Fiber length, shape cross section, tensile
strength, ductility and bond are the main
factors controlling the performance of steel fibers in the concrete. The first two parameters
(fiber length and shape of cross section) affect the properties of the composite and control
the behaviour of fiber in the bulk and the wet matrix, while tensile and bond strength control
the performance of the concrete under load.

Although steel fibers are already widely used in numerous fields, only some Japanese
Standards in addition to an ASTM specification have been produced [18,19]
The melt extract fibers, widely used in the civil engineering constructions, offer many , if not
all, of the advantages of other fiber types with perhaps the disadvantage in certain situations
for the exposed fibers to rust and stain the surface.
The melt extract process, which was introduced first by the Ribbon Technology Corporation
in the USA in 1975, undoubtedly held the key to the future development of steel fiber
reinforced concrete. This could be due to the fact that unlike the slit sheet or wire drawing
process, the melt extract process is capable of producing fiber from scrap steel in many
forms. Therefore through the use of this new production technique fiber markets in many
countries were offered stainless steel fibers at a price which made fiber reinforced concrete
cost effective over a wider range of applications than had previously been possible with slit
sheet or drawn wire fibers.

4. Current applications of steel fiber reinforced concrete and prospectus to future

Fig. 5- Different fiber forms used in steel
fiber concrete
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COMP-015-7
Since the concept of steel fiber reinforced concrete was known, many considerable
development works on steel fiber reinforced concrete are currently in progress in laboratory.
But, the practical applications of this new construction material are very limited. It is very
important to mention here that this type of concrete, in most cases, should not be viewed as
an alternate to ordinary reinforcement concretes, however, be regarded as a complimentary
ingredient that can significantly reduce the occurrence of plastic shrinkage cracking and may
help minimize the effects of thermal cracking.

By looking at the concept of fiber concrete , its use is naturally oriented towards structure
elements presenting a cracking phenomena with conventional concrete.This not to say that
other strategic fields ( foundries, nuclear centersetc) are not profiting from this type of
materials. It was confirmed [20] that parts of steel fiber reinforced concrete exposed to strong
variations in temperatures were successfully tested and maintained their strength even at very
high temperature.

But, the question which is still faced all the researchers is : is it not time to survey the present
state of the science of steel fiber reinforced concrete, both from the aspect of material
properties and commercial applications ?. To answer this question, it is very important to say
that fiber reinforced concrete have been used in various fields, under different conditions and
throughout the world. So, it is time to assess all benefits. Even, the major benefits at the
present time are improved energy absorbing characteristics compared with plain concrete and
these lead to improved toughness, impact resistance and ductility at failure, but research
should be go ahead to encourage more applications in all fields of civil engineering both in
short and long term.
The table below will give several field applications of steel fiber reinforced concrete.

Applications

Benefits of fiber addition in concrete

Pipes and thin shells slightly solicited
- Behaviour improvements of the green concrete parts.
- Modification of the dimensional variations,
- Cracking stopper
Pavements, manufactured pavements,
concrete slabs, beams and all
structural elements subjected to the
flexion
- Diminution of 40 % of the cracks opening
- Increase in rigidity after cracking
- Increase in the shear strength
- Increase in the wear resistance
Structural elements subjected to
compression ( piles, columns,
foundations,.etc)
- Improvement in the ultimate load
- No catastrophe rupture
Structures subjected to combined
solicitations .
-Increases of resistance and rigidity obtained under
simple solicitations are not inevitably in the case of
the behaviour under combined solicitations.
Structures subjected to the impulse
solicitations ( blast-resistance
structures) , eg: airport runways
- Absorbed energy is very significant
- Shock duration is increased
- behaviour law is strongly modified.
Repair of the road coating, bridge
deck
- Improvement of the impact resistance
- Amelioration of the deformability.
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COMP-015-8
Parts exposed to high variations in
temperature and even to very high
temperature.
- Replacement successfully the refractory bricks
- Diminution of the repair cost of refractory elements

Table 2- Some current application of steel fibre reinforced concrete

5. Conclusions

Historically, as it was reported in this study, fibers have been used to reinforce brittle
materials since ancient time. Patents have been granted since the turn of the century for
various methods of incorporating wire segments, metal ships and steel fibers into concrete.
In summary, steel fiber reinforced concrete has been used in several areas of civil engineering
and proved to be suitable for the most applications where high strength, enough toughness
and good durability required.

It is also clear from the applications cited in this paper that the advent of fiber reinforcement
has extended the version of concrete as a material by providing an effective method of
overcoming its characteristic brittleness.

Finally, research must go to set standards for this kind of material and further developments
are required. These developments are invariably preceded and accompanied by a better
understanding of the mechanics of fiber reinforcement and must point toward a better
understanding and identification of desirable fiber characteristics for any particular
application.

6. References

1. MEHTA, P.K " Concrete : structure, properties, and materials ", Prentice- Hall Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1986.
2. ANTOINE, E.N. " Fibre reinforced for concrete " , Concrete International, March
1985, pp 21-25.
3. ACI COMMITTEE, " State of the art report on fibre reinforced concrete ", J. Am.
Conc., March-April 1984, pp 140-146.
4. BRAUN, M. and MAJDIC, A. " Reinforcing castables with stainless steel fibres".
Intercera., 1980 , 129, 113-118.
5. PORTER, H.F. " Preparation of concrete from selection of materials to final
disposition". J. Am. Conc. Inst., Vol. 6, 1910, pp 296.
6. GRAHAM, G.M. " Reinforced concrete ", US Patent No. 983,274, February 1911.
7. WEAKLEY, B.D. " Bonding means for reinforced concrete structures", US Patent No.
1,046,913,Dec. 10, 1912.
8. VICKLEY, W. " Improvements in reinforcing structures and wearing surfaces of
hydraulic, bituminous or like cement, concrete, asphalt or the like ", British Patent No.
11754, May, 1914.
9. SMITH, W. M. " Ferroconcrete construction ", US Patent No. 1,349,901. June 21,
1927.
10. MARTIN, G.C. " Method of forming pipe ", US Patent No.1, 633,219, June 21, 1927.
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COMP-015-9
11. ZITKEVIC, N. "Improvements in reinforced concretes ", British Patent No 515003,
May 1983.
12. BATTELLE DEVELOPMENT CORPORATION. Concrete and steel material ,
British Patent No. 1068163, December 1963.
13. ROMUALDI, J.P. and BATSON, G.B. The mechanics of crack arrest in concrete.
Proceeding of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 89, No. EM
3
, June 1963, pp
147-168.
14. ROMUALDI, J.P. and BATSON, G.B. Behaviour of reinforced concrete beams
with closely spaced reinforcement . J. Am. Conc. Inst. Proc., Vol. 60, No. 6, June 1963,
pp 775-789.
15. ROMUALDI, J.P. and MANDEL, J.A. Tensile strength of concrete affected by
uniformly distributed and closely. Conc. Inst. spaced short lengths of wire reinforcements
. J. Am Proc., Vol. 61, No. 6, June 1964, pp 657-671.
16. ROMUALDI, J..P. et al. Prevention and control of cracking by use of short random
fibres . J. Am. Conc. Inst. Publication SP-20 Paper No. 10 , 1968, pp 179-203.
17. LANKARD , D.R. and SHEETS, H.D. Use of steel wire fibres in refractory
castables . AM. Cer. Soc., Vol. 63, No. 7, 1971.
18. ASTM : C820-85 A standard specification for steel fibres for fibre reinforced
concrete . ASTM Philadelphia (USA), September 1985.
19. JAPANESE SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, Methods of Test for Steel Fibre
Reinforced Concrete. JSCE- SF1 to JSCE- SF7, Concrete Library of JSCE, No .3,
June 1984, pp 45-74.
20. HAYASHI, T. and HAMAZAKI, Y. Effect of Steel Fibre Addition on the
Properties of castable refractory. Taikabutsu, Vol. 30, No. 6, 1978, pp 334-337.

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COMP-016-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





MONITORING AND STRUCTURAL SAFETY OF FRP BRIDGES
Embedded Fibre Optic Sensors and Smart Materials

M. GABLER
E-mail: m.gabler@itke.uni-stuttgart.de
PROF. DR.-ING. J. KNIPPERS
E-mail: m.gabler@itke.uni-stuttgart.de

ABSTRACT
Bridge decks out of Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP) are a promising new option for
the construction of road bridges. The highly corrosion resistant material is reducing
maintenance costs and traffic interference due to construction and use. The advantages
of FRP decks have been successfully proved with the Friedberg Bridge in Germany
2008. Though, the lack of long-term experience with the new construction material and
the complexity of the material design are still obstacles for a widely use of FRP.
Therefore, a new approach of structurally integrated monitoring is proposed to compete
with these disadvantages. Through continuous monitoring both structural safe design
and an economic construction can be achieved.
The integration of fiber optic sensors (FOS) in the adhesive layer between the steel
girders and the FRP deck has been successfully performed at the Friedberg Bridge.
With truck load tests the load transfer within the superstructure has been investigated,
the results will be presented in this paper. The next step of development is the
integration of fiber optic sensors directly into the FRP element during production. Due
to the fully automated production of the FRP bars several fiber optic sensors can be
routinely embedded into the material. So, continuous control of elongation in
longitudinal and transverse direction and of temperature is possible for every produced
structural element. The development of the proposed smart FRP sections is being
described in this paper.
KEYWORDS
Fibre reinforced polymers (FRP), new materials, bridge deck, fibre optic sensors (FOS),
smart materials, structurally integrated sensors
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COMP-016-2
1 NEED FOR NEW BRIDGE DESIGN
Increase in traffic and workloads for bridges as well as road engineering structures
require methods of building and materials which guarantee safety, durability,
serviceability and minimum maintenance costs during the entire lifetime. Deterioration
of bridge structures is accelerated due to their exposure to adverse environmental
conditions, particularly the use of de-icing salts, increasing traffic volumes and loading.
With increase in the numbers of bridges and engineering structures, maintenance costs
are rising steadily, putting an ever-increasing burden on the shoulders of the tax-payer.
In recent years, the German Authorities have extended their view on life cycle costs.
Looking at construction and maintenance only and neglecting hidden costs, caused by
e.g. traffic jams, detours and accidents during erection would not reflect all expenses.
Until recently, these additional costs could not be considered simply because there were
no figures and guidelines available.
Meanwhile, these aspects have to be taken into account when comparing different
materials and structural systems for design. Aspects such as construction time and
maintenance costs play an increasingly important role for public authorities.
Fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) seem to hold some advantages over known
conventional materials such as concrete, for example:
low weight
high degree of prefabrication through use of pultruded shapes
short erection time through pre-assembly
easy handling on site
corrosion resistance
Based on these findings, the Friedberg bridge was designed and built in 2008. The
ongoing monitoring will serve as basis for future design projects
2 DESIGN OF THE FRIEDBERG BRIDGE
2.1 Location and General Design
The bridge serves a small country lane over a federal road with a span of 27 m - a very
typical situation. A hybrid FRP-option was chosen: two steel girders covered by a
pultruded multi cellular FRP deck. In contrast to All FRP Bridges with main girders of
FRP, a hybrid bridge is economically competitive and also achieves the main
advantages of FRP-bridges as significant reduction of self weight, resistance of the
bridge deck against corrosion and high degree of prefabrication. The overall building
costs were about 20% than for conventional concrete brides. The superstructure is fixed
to both abutments and therewith a frame structure is achieved. Thus, internal forces are
equalized compared to a hinged connection, resulting in both a slender design and a
structure without a central pier. Bridges with a central pier demand a construction site
between the lanes of the lower road, resulting in higher costs and the danger of major
accidents. Because of that, the described design was favored by the authority.
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COMP-016-3
By adhesively bonding the FRP deck to the steel girders, composite action is achieved
which reduces the vertical displacements by approx. 20% compared to the steel
stringers alone.

Fig. 1: Elevation of the bridge

Tab. 1: Friedberg Bridge, dimensions and traffic loads (characteristic values)

Technical data
superstructure 21,45m
span
overall 27,0m
width of upper lane 3,50m
emergency pavement 2 x 0,75m
intersection angle 90 (= 100 gon)
lane 1 9 kN/m
2
uniformly distributed load
(UDL) pavement 2,5 kN/m
2

lane 1 4 x 120 kN
tandem system (TS)
pavement none
concentrated wheel load (punching)
2 x 81 kN
(on 0,4m x 0,4m each)
temperature, wind loads, horizontal loads due
to breaking and acceleration, fatigue
due to code

Fig. 2: Cross section of the bridge [9]
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COMP-016-4
The entire deck has been prefabricated - no cast of in-situ concrete edge casing for the
anchorage of the railings was necessary. The installation time and so also the traffic
interference were reduced to a minimum. There are no rest periods for curing of in-situ
concrete or wearing. A second layer of FRP sections is glued on the bridge deck to
obtain a marginal strip with a kerb. The FRP sections are bonded to the steel girders,
which also reduces assembly time.

Fig. 3: Isometric view of Friedberg Bridge superstructure and elevation
2.2 Installation
After the bridge was completely assembled in shop, the whole superstructure has been
transported to the construction site within a few hours. On the next day the
superstructure was lifted on the abutments within two hours. After that the pockets in
the abutments were filled with concrete to obtain a rigid connection between
superstructure and support. The overall weight of the superstructure was 60 to.

Fig. 4: Lifting of prefabricated superstructure
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COMP-016-5
3 MONITORING OF FRIEDBERG BRIDGE
3.1 Installation of Sensor Network
In contrast to other monitoring project the sensors were installed before assembly of the
bridge. As shown in Fig. 5 sensors were glued on the surface of the FRP deck as well as
on the steel girder. Overall 130 sensors have been installed on the superstructure:
electric strain sensors, fiber-optic sensors, as well as temperature and humidity sensors.
After installation the sensors and cables have been fixed and covered to be protected
during future works.

Fig. 5: Installation of sensors before bonding FRP deck to steel girder

Fig. 6: Sensors in Bridge Cross Section
The adhesive layer between FRP and steel is of special relevance for the safety of the
superstructure. Thus, not only electric but also fiber-optic sensors have been installed at
this point to guarantee a long lifetime of sensors and reliable results of the monitoring.
After one year of service, about 20% of the electric sensors failed due to corrosion and
damage during construction. The fiber-optic sensors (FOS), though, were all still in
excellent condition. Moreover, FOS have the advantage that the length of the cables
connecting them to the measurement unit has no influence on the results. The amount of
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COMP-016-6
cables is additionally reduced compared to electric sensors (Fig. 7). The advantages of
FOS compared to electric sensors can be summarized as:
- Long life due to corrosion resistance
- No influence due to length of connection cables
- Easy installation and reduced works on handling cables and connections.

Fig. 7: Cables for 12 fiber-optic-sensors (left) and 100 electric strain sensors (right)
3.2 Load tests
Load tests were performed with a 10,0-to truck to test measurement equipment and to
check the load bearing behavior of the adhesive layer. The truck was placed in the
specific position to obtain the maximum negative moment on the restraint at the
northern abutment. In the following, only the results of the fiber-optic sensors on the
western steel girder will be discussed. There are sensors attached to the upper flange of
the steel girder and on the lower flange of the FRP deck, between the corresponding
sensors lays the 7 mm adhesive layer out of epoxy grout. The sensor couples show
possible differences between the strain in steel and FRP which would be a hint for a soft
adhesive layer or cracks. None of both could be investigated; the adhesive layer was
proofed to work excellently.

Fig. 8: Load test with 10,0-to truck
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COMP-016-7
In Fig. 9 and 10 the plain results of the measurement unit are displayed, both show same
results but with different scale. The graph G describes the measurement of the
unloaded bride at 12.30 PM local time, while G+Q+ T is under the impact of the
truck load AND temperature shift, it has been performed at 3.00 PM.
Though the measurement unit can automatically calculate residual strain due to load, the
plain results will here be discussed to show the mechanism and sensitivity of FOS. Both
will be important for the desired embedding of FOS directly into FRP (chapter 4).

Fig. 9: Wavelength shift in fiber optical sensors due to truck load and temperature

Fig. 10: Wavelength shift in fiber optical sensors due to truck load and temperature
(detailed view)
The fiber-optic cable at the western girder has a total length of 25 m, 6 measuring points
lay within the cable. Every point can be identified by its specific Bragg- wavelength,
independent of the actual order of the measurement points in row. From the shift of the
Bragg-wavelength the strain and temperature at the measurement point can be obtained:
B nm

= 820
B nm
K
T = 4 , 71 T
K
nm nm
B
+ = 014 , 0 00122 , 0

: shift of strain; T: shift of temperature;
B
: shift of backscattered
wavelength
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COMP-016-8
The influence of strain and/or temperature on the wavelength shift can not be divided
without further knowledge. The measuring point 903 (Fig. 10, Tab. 2), for example,
shows a shift of 0,086 nm which could be due to a strain shift of 70,5 or 6,1 K. With
additional temperature sensors the actual strain shift could be confirmed to be 13,5
with a temperature shift of 5,0 K. The results show that the measurement can be easily
disturbed already by minor temperature shifts.
Tab. 2: Derivation of measuring results, western steel gider
Bragg wavelength
B
[nm]
B
[nm] [s] T [K]
No. location
G G+Q+T due to truck load Q and temperature T
901 south 1529,000 1529,062 0,062 7,0 3,8
902 center 1535,035 1535,105 0,070 -11,0 6,0
903
steel
north 1542,176 1542,262 0,086 13,5 5,0
951 south 1548,896 1548,952 0,056 7,0 3,4
952 center 1555,005 1555,080 0,075 -11,0 6,3
953
FRP
north 1561,627 1561,714 0,087 13,5 5,0

G: dead load, Q: truck load, T: temperature shift

Fig. 11: Strain in adhesive layer due to truck load Q, dead load and temperature effects
eliminated
The adjusted results (without influence of temperature and dead load) show the impact
of the truck load on the stress of the bridge (Fig. 11). The results are well within the
expectations of the performed FEM analysis. The strain on the FRP respectively the
steel is within the couples (901/951, 902/952, 903/953) the identical. Thus, the adhesive
layer is fully working.
When scaling the results due to 10 to truck to full workload of 48,0 to the maximum
strain in the adhesive layer is = 64,8 * 10
-6
which correspond to a stress of
Adh,k
=
0,82 N/mm
2
in the adhesive resp.
FRP,k
= 1,80 N/mm
2
on the lower flange of the FRP
deck and
Steel,k
= 13,6 N/mm
2
on the upper flange of the steel.
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COMP-016-9
4 EMBEDDED STRAIN SENSORS
4.1 Applications
FRP has linear-elastic behavior till breakage. Thus, a collapse of the structure will take
place suddenly without warning. While steel structures yield under high strain and show
overloading by excessive deformation, there is no such thing with composites. Because
of this, engineers and building authorities are still cautious with the use of FRP for civil
structures. A robust long-term monitoring system could balance this disadvantage.
Moreover, FRP allows for implementation of fiber sensors due to its laminated setup.
The sensors are made of glass fibers as is the reinforcement of the structure. The sensor
will not be destroyed during production nor will they interfere with the load bearing
mechanism of the FRP. Other research works could successfully demonstrate the
capability of embedded fiber-optic sensors [11,12,13]. Now, the new technique is being
transferred to automatically production of pultruded FRP bars.

Fig. 12: Pultrusion of FRP bar with integrated fiber-optic sensor (FOS)
The interference between longitudinal strain and transverse strain is still not satisfactory
described. Fig. 13 shows the impact of transverse strain to the Bragg wavelength. The
graph is shifted and deformed. Moreover, the measuring result is sensitive to
temperature. To make the new technique available for standard pultruded shapes the
coupling of embedded sensors has to be solved, too.

Fig. 13: Transverse strain lowers amplitude and shifts wavelength

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COMP-016-10
5 CONCLUSION
The use of FRP is a promising option for bridge decks. The superstructure can be
prefabricated and installed within a few hours. Thus, traffic interference due to
construction works can be minimized.
The lack of experience with new material and the linear elastic behavior till ultimate
load make a continuous monitoring of structures desirable. Thus, the implementation of
long-life fiber-optic sensors into the material is proposed. The interference between
longitudinal and transverse strain as well as temperature is topic of present research.
6 REFERENCES

[1] Kuhlmann, U.; Pelke, E. et al.: Ganzheitliche Wirtschaftlichkeitsbetrachtungen bei
Verbundbrcken. Stahlbau 76 (Heft 2), pp. 105 ff
[2] Knippers, J.: Faserverbundwerkstoffe im Straenbrckenbau. Grundlagenbericht
im Auftrag des Hessischen Landesamtes fr Strassen und Verkehrswesen, 2004.
[3] Knippers, J.: Innovative Design Concepts for Composite Bridges in Germany.
Proceedings of the COBRAE Conference 2005, EMPA Dbendorf. 2005
[4] Knippers, J.; Gabler, M.; New Design Concepts for Advanced Composite Bridges -
The Friedberg Bridge in Germany. Proceedings of the IABSE Conference 2006 in
Budapest, 2006
[5] Luke, S. et al.: Advanced Composite Bridge Decking System Project Asset
Structural Engineering International (2002), May, p 76-79
[6] FIBERLINE COMPOSITES: Detailed Specifications of ASSET Tests. Fiberline
Composites A/S, Denmark
[7] SIKADUR 30, 2-Komponenten-Klebemrtel, Sika Deutschland GmbH, Stuttgart
[8] Grtler, H.W.: Composite Action of FRP Bridge Decks Adhesively Bonded to
Steel Main Girders PhD Thesis No 3135(2004) Lausanne EPFL 2004
[9] KHP (Knig Heunisch Planungsgesellschaft, Frankfurt): plan of execution, BV
Friedberg, 02/2007
[10] Knippers, J.; Gabler, M.: Faserverbundwerkstoffe im Bauwesen. Stahlbaukalender
2007, Ernst&Sohn, Berlin
[11] Udd, E. et al.: Failure Mechnisms of Fiber Optic Sensors Placed in Composite
Materials. SPIE Smart Structures and Nondestructive Evaluation. San Diego, 2005,
Vol. 5758
[12] Frank, A.: Dehnungs- und Temperaturmessung in Verbundwerkstoffen mit
eingebetteten faseroptischen Bragg-Gitter-Sensoren. PhD-Thesis. Eidg. Technische
Hochschule Zrich, 2001
[13] Lebid, S.: Strungen in der Charakteristik von Faser-Bragg-Gitter-Sensoren durch
lokale thermische und mechanische Einflsse. PhD-Thesis. TU Dresden, 2004

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COMP-017-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





Effect of Alkaline Solution and Elevated Temperature on FRP Strengthened
Beams under Sustained Load

El-Sayed A. Nasr, Nahla K. Hassan, Rasha A. El- Sadani
1,2
Professor, Department of civil engineering Ain shams university Cairo
3
Lecturer, National center for Radiation Research and Technology, Ph.D Degree
Email rashasadani@hotmail.com

Abstract
Long term exposure to harsh environmental deteriorates concrete and the need for
repair and rehabilitation is evident. In order to accept these FRP materials, they must
be evaluated for durability in harsh environmental conditions. This paper presents the
results of an experimental study on the effect of environmental conditions on RC.
beams strengthened with FRP under sustained load ultimate load reaching 50 % of
ultimate load. Test variables include the type of fiber (CFRP or GFRP) and the
environmental exposure conditions. Forty RC. beams of 10 x15 cm cross section, 100
cm in length were tested in four different environments as follows: a) room
temperatures for 3,6 and 12 months b) alkaline solution for 35,104 and 138 days c)
100 cycles of elevated temperatures. d) elevated temperature followed by alkaline
solution. At the end of each exposure, the beams were tested under 4-point flexural
test. The load carrying capacity and the mode of failure were examined. The paper
concluded that the short-term exposure to alkaline solution increased the load carrying
capacity of the strengthened beams. However the long-term exposure to alkaline
solution decreased the ultimate load carrying capacity of GFRP beam more than
CFRP beam. There was no effect of 100 cycles of elevated temperatures on CFRP
strengthened beams. However the GFRP strengthened beams was slightly affected by
100 cycles of elevated temperature compared to that of unstrengthened beams. The
exposure of beams to 100 cycles of elevated temperature followed by immersion in
alkaline solution for 138 days reduced the load carrying capacity for unstrengthened,
and CFRP and GFRP strengthened beams.
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COMP-017-2
Keywords: Alkaline solution-Durability-Elevated temperatures-FRP strengthened-
RC. beams.

Introduction
Some researchers studied the effect of temperature only, Alsayed and others (2000)
investigated the durability of beams retrofitted by GFRP sheets and exposed to high
temperature (50
o
C and 50% RH) for 24 hours. The results showed that the high
temperature has a noticeable influence on the flexural strength and rigidity of the
beams. Grace et al (2002) investigated the durability of strengthened beams exposed
to environmental conditions such as 100% humidity, dry-heat, alkaline solution and
salt water solution, thermal expansion, freeze-thaw conditions and repeated load
cycles. They concluded that the reduction in the load carrying capacities of beams
strengthened with CFRP plates after exposure to the different environmental
conditions were less than 15% of their load carrying capacity. The short term
exposure (3000 hr) to salt water and alkali solution increased the load carrying
capacity of beams. However the longterm exposure to salt water and alkali solution
decreased the ultimate load carrying capacity of beams. 35 thermal expansion test
cycles reduced the strength of beams by about 15%.

Experimental Program
A total of 46 RC beams consisting of 20 unstrengthened beams and 26 strengthened
beams with FRP were tested divided into groups as follows:.
Group (1): Consisted of 20 beams subjected to sustained load (50% of ultimate load)
and left in room temperature for 3, 6 and 12 months.
o 8 un-strengthened beams designated as (R-U-35, R-U-104, R-U-138 and R-C-
100).
o 8 Strengthened specimens using CFRP designated as (R-C-35, R-C-104, R-C-
138 and R-U-100).
o 4 strengthened beams using GFRP designated as (R-G-138 and R-G-100).
and alkaline solution for 35, 104 and 138 days.
o 6 unstrengthened beams designated as (A-U-35, A-U-104 and A-U-138).
o 6 strengthened beams using CFRP designated as (A-C-35, A-C-104 and A-C-
138).
o 2 strengthened beams using GFRP designated as (A-G-138).
and elevated temperatures for 100 cycles
o 2 unstrengthened beams designated as (T-U-100).
o 2 strengthened beams using CFRP designated as (T-C-100).
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COMP-017-3
o 2 strengthened beams using GFRP designated as (T-G-100).

and elevated temperatures for 100 cycles followed by alkaline solution for 138 days.
o 2 unstrengthened beams designated as (T-A)-U-(100 cycles-138 days).
o 2 strengthened beams by CFRP designated as (T-A)-C-(100 cycles-138 days).
o 2 strengthened beams using GFRP designated as (T-A)-G-(100 cycles-138
days).
o After exposure the beams were tested under 4-point flexural loading up to
failure.

Construction Details
All the 46 beams were of length 1000 mm and have a rectangular section of 100 mm
x 150 mm. The concrete mix design having a characteristic strength of 35 MPa after
28 days was used. Fig 1 shows the longitudinal and cross- section of test specimens.
The flexural reinforcement consisted of 2 10 steel bars at the bottom and 26 steel
bars as top reinforcement. Stirrups were of 8 steel bars. The center-to-center
spacing was 83.3 mm. The average yield stress of steel bars for main reinforcement
and stirrups were 494 MPa and 336 MPa respectively

One CFRP or GFRP sheet was bonded to the bottom surface and as U shape at the
supports of the beam (fig1) using a structural epoxy. Prior to bonding the CFRP sheet,
all the voids and low spots on the concrete surface were filled using the structural
epoxy and the concrete surface treated with epoxy was cured for 24 hours. The 1.2
mm thick coat of epoxy was applied to the cured concrete surface in the area where
the sheet had to be bonded, as well as on the bonding surface of the FRP sheets. The
sheets were then properly bonded to the epoxy coated concrete surface using hand-
rollers. The CFRP sheet were manufactured by Sika Company. The roll package of
sheets had 304.8 mm width, 0.13 mm thickness and 45.7 m length. The average
modulus of elasticity and ultimate strength were 230 Gpa and 3500 Mpa respectively,
the ultimate CFRP strain was 1.5%. The GFRP sheets were manufactured by M-
BRACE Company. The roll package of sheet had 670 mm width, 0.19 mm thickness,
and 50 m length. The tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of the sheets are 2400
Mpa and 75 Gpa, respectively. The max strain in GFRP was 4%.

LOADING of THE BEAMS
Each two beams from the same type were loaded by placing them face to face,
subjected to sustained 3 1 point loading by means of a pair of steel rods. Two bars
(14 mm diameter) were used at the supports of the specimen. The strain gage was
attached at the middle of bar, and the bolt was tightened until the strain in the bar was
equal to the strain at 50% of the ultimate load. The diameter of rod is 5.5 cm and
length of 15 cm, the diameter of bars is 14 mm and had a length of 45 cm. This
sustained load arrangement is illustrated in figure (2).

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COMP-017-4

Fig. (1): Specimen dimensions, reinforcement and strengthening

Fig (2) Loading of the beams

Environmental Conditions
a) Elevated Temperatures
Each cycle of elevated temperature consisted of rising the temperature of the
beam to 55
o
C1.5
o
C then cooling down to 35
0
C 1.5
0
C. Total duration of each
cycle was 4 hours, as shown in figure (3).
50 mm
150
mm
210
26
100 mm
mm
120
mm
8/m
900 mm
P P
50 mm
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COMP-017-5

Fig. (3) Cycles of elevated temperature

b) Alkaline Solution
The alkaline solution of NaoH had a concentration of 2.5% in the tank with
dimensions of 1 x 1.2 x.75 m, as shown in figure (4.) The tank was instrumented with:
Two heaters placed under the bottom surface to maintain the temperature of
the solution at 60
o
C.
Steel plate on the bottom of the tank.
Thermostat to keep the temperature at 60
o
C
Thermo couples to continuously monitor the temperature inside the tank.

Fig. (4)Tank of alkaline solution
Results and Discussion
Effect of Alkaline Solution on FRP Type
Temperature
0
C
One cycle
35
o
C
55
o
C
2 8
Hours
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COMP-017-6

The effect of FRP is shown in figure (5). It observed that the load carrying
capacity of CFRP strengthened beams (A-C-35), (A-C-104) and (A-C-138) were
higher than the unstrengthened beam (A-U-35), (A-U-104) and (A-U-138) after
immersed in alkaline solution for 35,104 and 138 days by 21.3%, 19.5% and 12.8%..
There was no change between the load of strengthened beam with GFRP (A-G-138)
and unstrengthened beam (A-U-138). From that, it is concluded that the GFRP
strengthened beams did not enhance the load carrying capacity by immersion in
alkaline solution when compared to the CFRP strengthened beams.

In figure (6-a), it is shown that the load carrying capacity of the unstrengthened beams
immersed in alkaline solution for 35 days (A-U-35) had no change when compared to
the beam at room temperature for 35 days. For specimens A-U-104 and A-U-138,
they had an increase in load carrying capacity by 14% and 14.8% compared to that of
the beams at room temperature. This attributed to the improvement in crosslinking
due to secondary curing. Also the figure showed that the load carrying capacity of
unstrengthened beam slightly decreased during the first period of exposure (between
35 days and 104 days), and decreased by 7% during the second period (between 104
days and 138 days). This ass due to the cracking, which was caused by the creep of
concrete.

In figure (6-b), it is shown that the specimen A-C-35 and A-C-104 had a slight
increase in the load carrying capacity compared to that of the CFRP strengthened
beam at room temperature for 35 and 104 days. While the specimen A-C-138 had a
reduction in the load carrying capacity by 11.1% compared to the beam at room
temperature for 138 days. Also, the figure shows that the load carrying capacity of
CFRP strengthened beams decreased by 4.3% and 12.2% during the first and second
period respectively, due to the creep of concrete.

In figure (6-c), it is shown that the specimen A-G-138 had a reduction in the load
carrying capacity by 17.6% compared to that the specimen at room temperature. This
is due to the rate of moisture absorption (hydrolysis) of the epoxy adhesive which
lead to decrease the mechanical properties of the resin. It is concluded that the
strengthened beams immersed in alkaline solution for long- time exhibited a decrease
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COMP-017-7
in load carrying capacity compared to the beam immersed in alkaline solution for
short time. The decrease in the load of specimen (A-C-138) and (A-G-138) were
11.1% and 17.6% compared to that of the specimens at room temperature. From that,
it is concluded that the GFRP strengthened beams were more affected by immersion
in alkaline solution by 1.58 times compared to the CFRP strengthened beams.

Fig (5) Effect of alkaline solution on FRP type of group 2

Fig. (6-a) Ultimate load carrying capacity of unstrengthened beams at room
temperature and immersion in alkaline solution

0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Baseline 35 104 138
Time (days)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Unstrengthened
CFRP
GFRP
79
66
61
77.5
75.3
70
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
35 days 104 days 138 days
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Room temperature Alkaline solution
90
89.6
88.9
90
79
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
35 days 104 days 138 days
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)

Room temperature Alkaline solution
94
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COMP-017-8

Fig. (6-b) Ultimate load carrying capacity of CFRP strengthened beams at room

Fig. (6-c) Ultimate load carrying capacity of GFRP strengthened beams at room

Effect of Elevated Temperatures on FRP Type

The load carrying capacity of unstrengthened and strengthened beams with
CFRP and GFRP subjected to elevated temperatures are shown in figure (7). It is
observed that the beam strengthened with CFRP had a load carrying capacity higher
than the unstrengthened beam and the GFRP strengthened beams by 14.3% and
10.7% respectively.

Figure (8) shows the ultimate load carrying capacity of the three types of
beams subjected to elevated temperatures for 100 cycles compared to that of the
beams at room temperature. The figure illustrates that the load carrying capacity of
unstrengthened beam (T-U-100) was reduced by 13.5% compared to that the beam at
room temperature. This is due to the decrease in the bond between the steel
reinforcement and the concrete and the cracks which increased due to the subjection
of the beams to elevated temperatures.

The figure also illustrates that the load carrying capacity of strengthened beam
with CFRP had a reduction by 13.04% compared to the CFRP strengthened beam at
85
70
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
138 days
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Room
temperature
Alkaline
solution
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COMP-017-9
room temperature. It is observed that the reduction in the load carrying capacity of T-
C-100 was almost the same as the reduction of T-U-100. This indicates that there was
no effect of 100 cycles of elevated temperature on the CFRP strengthened beam. The
figure also shows that the reduction in the maximum load of the beam strengthened
with GFRP (T-G-100) was 16.7% compared to the GFRP beams at room temperature.
It is observed that the reduction in load carrying capacity of GFRP strengthened
beams was slightly higher than the reduction in unstrengthened beams. This indicates
that the GFRP strengthened beam were slightly affected by 100 cycles of elevated
temperatures almost by1.28 times compared to that of CFRP strengthened beams.

Fig (7) Effect of elevated temperatures on FRP type

Fig. (8) Ultimate load carrying capacity of unstrengthened and
strengthened beams of group 3

Effect of Elevated Temperatures followed by Alkaline Solution on FRP Type
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Unstrengthened CFRP GFRP
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)

70
80
77.5
81
92
93
70
80
77.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Room temperature Temperature
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COMP-017-10

Figure (9) illustrates the effect of elevated temperatures followed by alkaline
solution on FRP type, its shown that the load carrying capacity of CFRP and GFRP
strengthened beam were higher than the unstrengthened beam by 15.4% and 7.7%
respectively.

Figure (10-a) shows the load carrying capacity of unstrengthened beam at
room temperature, elevated temperature and beams subjected to elevated temperature
for 100 cycles followed by immersion in alkaline solution for 138 days. It is observed
that the load carries by the beam (T-U-100) decreased by 13.5% compared to the
specimen at room temperature. However, the beam (T-A)-U, decreased by 7.14% and
19.7% compared to the T-U-100 and the beam at room temperature. This means that
the unstrengthened beam was affected by its subjection to elevated temperature
followed by immersed in alkaline solution.

Figure (10-b) shows that the load of CFRP strengthened beam at room
temperature, elevated temperature and beam subjected to elevated temperature for 100
cycles followed by immersed in alkaline solution for 138 days. It is observed that the
max. Load of specimen (T-C-100) decreased by 13% compared to the beam at room
temperature. The beam (T-A) C decreased by 6.3% and 18.4% compared to the
specimen T-C-100 and the beam at room temperature respectively. This means that
the CFRP strengthened beam was affected by subjection to elevated temperature
followed by immersion in alkaline solution.

Figure (10-c) shows the max load of GFRP strengthened beam at room
temperature, elevated temperatures and beam subjected to elevated temperatures for
100 cycles followed by alkaline solution for 138 days. It is observed that the specimen
(T-G-100) decreased by 16.7% compared to the beam at room temperature. The
specimen (T-A)-G decreased by 9.6% and 24.7% compared to the specimen T-G-100
and the specimen at room temperature respectively. This showed that the GFRP
strengthened beams were affected by the combined condition of elevated temperature
followed by alkaline solution.

-1297-

COMP-017-11
From figure (10), it is concluded that all the beams (unstrengthened and
strengthened by CFRP and GFRP) were affected by their subjection to elevated
temperatures for 100 cycles followed by immersion in alkaline solution for 138 days.

Fig (9) Effect of elevated temperatures followed by alkaline solution on FRP
of group 4

Fig. (10-a) Ultimate load carrying capacity of unstrengthened beams of group 4

65
75
70
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
81
70
65
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
R-U-100 T-U-100 (T-A)-U
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
80
75
92
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
R-C-100 T-C-100 (T-A)-C
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
-1298-

COMP-017-12

Fig. (10-b) Ultimate load carrying capacity of CFRP strengthened beams of
group 4

Fig. (10-c) Ultimate load carrying capacity of GFRP strengthened beams of group
4

Conclusion
1-The short term exposure to alkaline solution increased the load carrying
capacity of the strengthened beams due to secondary curing. However the long
term exposure to alkaline solution decreased the ultimate load carrying capacity of
GFRP beam more than CFRP beam, by 1.58 times, due to the sensitivity of GFRP
to alkalinity.
2 There was no effect of 100 cycles of elevated temperatures on CFRP
strengthened beams. However the GFRP strengthened beams was slightly
affected by 100 cycles of elevated temperature by 1.2 times that of
unstrengthened beams.
3- The exposure of beams to elevated temperature followed by immersion in
alkaline solution for 138 days reduced the load carrying capacity for
unstrengthened, and CFRP and GFRP strengthened beams by 19.7%, 18.4% and
24.7% compared to the beams at room temperature
77.5
70
93
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
R-G-100 T-G-100 (T-A)G
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
-1299-

COMP-017-13

References

1. Alsayed, S. H., Almusallam, T.H., Al-Salloum, Y.A., and Ahmed, M.Z,
(2000)." Durability of Concrete Beams Strengthened With GFRP Sheets
Under Hot- Dry and Wet-Dry Environmental Conditions", Advanced
Composite Materials In Bridge and Structures, 3
th
International Conference,
Otawa, Ontario. August 15-18.
2. Grace, N. F., Dalal, V., and Ibrahim, E., (2002). "Durability of RC Beams
Strengthened with CFRP Plates", Structural Composites for infrastructure
Applications December 17-20, Aswan, Egypt.

-1300-

COMP-018-1

13
th
ICSGE

27-29 Dec. 2009

Cairo - Egypt





INNOVATIVE TECHNIQUE FOR STRENGTHENING RC
TWO-WAY SLABS

AMR ALI ABDELRAHMAN
Prof., Structural Engineering Dept., Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
TAMER HASSAN KAMAL ELAFANDY
Assistant Prof., RC Dept, Housing and Building National Research Center, Giza, Egypt
E-mail: tamer_elafandy@yahoo.com
MOATAZ AWRY MAHMOUD
M.Sc. Student
E-mail: moatazawry@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
In the last two decades, use of advanced composite materials such as fiber reinforced
polymers, (FRP), in strengthening reinforced concrete, (RC), structural elements have
been increasing. Researches, design guidelines and codes concluded that externally
bonded FRP could increase capacity of RC elements efficiently. However, the linear
stress-strain characteristics of FRP up to failure and lack of yield plateau have a
negative impact on the overall ductility of the strengthened RC elements. Strengthening
two-way slabs with FRP in the two directions represents a challenge due to the
anticipated reduction in the ductility and strength at onset of failure of FRP in one
direction. Not only the linear characteristics of FRP will reduce the slab ductility but
also the released energy caused by rupture or bond failure of FRP in one direction,
which will affect the bond between the concrete and FRP in the other direction. Use of
two types of FRP laminates, which consists of a combination of either carbon and glass
fibers or glass and aramid fibers change the behaviour of the material to a non-linear
behaviour (Blarabi et al.1999) and (Hosny et al.2005). This paper aims to study the
performance of reinforced concrete two-way slabs strengthened by FRP laminates in
two directions.

The experimental program consists of a total of eight RC two-way slabs with overall
dimensions equal to 1500 x 1500 x 70-mm with clear spans equal to 1400 x 1400-mm.
The slabs were tested under distributed loading up to failure to examine its flexural
behaviour. Different fiber types, orientation and different percentages of CFRP and
GFRP were attached on the slabs to predict the best strengthening scheme. An
analytical model based on the stress-strain characteristics of concrete, steel and FRP
was adopted.
-1301-

COMP-018-2
KEYWORDS
Ductility, Flexure, FRP, Repair, Rehabilitation, Strengthening and Two-way slabs.
1 INTRODUCTION

In the last few decades, moderate and severe earthquakes stroke different places in the
world causing severe damage to reinforced concrete structures. This requires upgrading
of RC structures to resist more loads without increase in its mass and stiffness. In
addition to the several advantages of FRP in strengthening, such as no corrosion
characteristic, lightweight and high strength, this technique does not result in an
increase in the stiffness and mass of the structure and consequently no more seismic
loads are added to the strengthened structural elements. Researches and design
guidelines concluded that externally bonded FRP could increase the capacity of RC
elements efficiently. Unlike the better ductility achieved for columns wrapped by FRP
due to confinement of concrete, beams and slabs strengthened with FRP have low
ductility and failed with limited warning. The linear stress-strain characteristics of FRP
up to failure and lack of yield plateau are the reason of the negative impact on the
overall ductility of the strengthened RC slabs. In seismic zones, ductility of concrete
element is a main design criterion. U. Ebead 2002, 2004 et al. presents two papers
showed behaviour of RC two-way slab strengthened using steel plates and FRP strips;
they concluded that the steel plates showed increase in yield load, stiffness and ductility.
The specimens, which were strengthened with FRP laminates, failed by de-bonding
between concrete and FRP laminates with reduced ductility. Several proposals were
suggested to enhance the ductility of RC elements:
1. Confinement of concrete at the compression zone (Naaman 1993); however, this
method is only practical for beams with rectangular section where no slabs are
attached and not applicable for R.C slabs.
2. Partial de-bonding of FRP at different locations (Lees et al. 2000).
3. Design the beam to fail by compression in concrete (Yost et al. 2001).
4. Use hybrid FRP bars (Apinis et al.1998 & Belarbi et al. 1999).
5. Use hybrid uni-directional FRP-Laminates for strengthening RC T- beams
(Hosny et al.2005). It should be noted that this method has been proven to be
efficient for beams and should be more investigated when used for strengthening
two-way slabs.

Strengthening RC two-way slabs with two types of FRP laminates is introduced in this
paper to increase both of their capacity and ductility in order to insure reasonable alarm
signs before failure. Using a combination of either carbon and glass fibers or glass and
aramid fibers have non-linear stress-strain behaviour (Belarbi et al. 1999). An
experimental program was conducted to study the behaviour of RC-two-way slabs
strengthened with CFRP, GFRP and a combination of CFRP and GFRP laminates. The
program consists of a total of eight two-way slabs with overall thickness equal to 70mm
and span equal to 1500-mm in both directions with clear spans equal to 1400 x 1400-
mm. Different types of FRP laminates were attached to the slabs to predict the best
scheme of strengthening. Relationships between intersecting FRP laminates in both
directions as well as fiber direction were varied. An analytical model based on the
stress-strain characteristics of concrete, steel and FRP was adopted.
-1302-

COMP-018-3
2. EXPERIMENTAL WORK

The experimental program consists of testing eight RC two-way slabs with 70-mm
thickness and span equal to 1500-mm (in both directions). The slabs were simply
supported with a clear span of 1400-mm. The bottom reinforcement of all specimens
were 66-mm in one direction and 76-mm in the other direction with a ratio of
0.242% and 0.283% as shown in figure.1 ,respectively, to ensure the same section
capacity load in the two directions .

CFRP, GFRP and a combination of CFRP and GFRP laminates were used to strengthen
the slabs. The laminates were attached while the fibers were oriented in both directions
to increase the flexural capacity of the slabs and ductility before failure. The overlap
between the CFRP and GFRP laminates crossing each other were changed from bonded
to un-bonded. The thickness of CFRP laminates was 0.131-mm, while its ultimate strain
and modulus of elasticity were 1.8% and 238 GPa, respectively. The thickness of GFRP
laminates was 0.172-mm, with ultimate strain and modulus of elasticity of 2.8% and 76
GPa, respectively. The characteristic compressive strength of the concrete cubes after
28 days was 25 MPa, while the yield stress of the steel reinforcement was 350 MPa.
Lower RFT
T6@148.0-mm
6

6
70
1
4
5
0
1
5
0
0
(12 6)
Lower RFT
7
0
m
7 6 m
(11 6)
1450
1500
1400
CROSS SECTION
PLAN

Fig.1: Steel reinforcement detail of the test specimens
2.1. Test Specimens
The variables considered in this study where, type of FRP, orientation of FRP and ratio
between CFRP and GFRP, as given in Table 1. It is believed that bonding the CFRP to
the intersecting GFRP laminates in the other direction may affect its strength. This is
mainly due to the anticipated energy release by CFRP at its onset of rupture. The
released energy may damage the concrete cover underneath the GFRP laminates and
consequently the integrity of the strengthened slab. Therefore effect of bonding the
CFRP to the intersecting GFRP laminates in the other direction was also studied. Slab
S00 was a control specimen, while the strengthening scheme of the other seven
specimens was as follows:

-1303-

COMP-018-4
Specimen S01
It had five GFRP laminates of 60-mm
width each attached on the bottom surface
of the specimen in both directions with
200-mm spacing. The volumetric
percentage of GFRP laminates is 0.0567%,
as shown in Fig.2a.
60mm@260mm in both directions

Fig.2a- Strengthening scheme of
specimen-S01
Specimen S02
It had five CFRP laminates of 40-mm
width each attached on the bottom surface
of the specimen in both directions with
217-mm spacing. The volumetric
percentage of CFRP is 0.0292%, as shown
in Fig.2b.
40mm@256.6mm in both directions

Fig.2b- Strengthening-scheme of
specimen- S02
Specimen S03
It had a combination of CFRP and GFRP
laminates. GFRP laminates with 60-mm
width each were attached on the bottom
surface of the specimen with 200-mm
spacing. 20-mm width of CFRP laminates
were also attached between GFRP
laminates in both directions of the slab.
The overlap between CFRP and GFRP in
both directions was fully bonded. The
volumetric percentages of GFRP and CFRP
laminates are 0.0567% and 0.0144%,
respectively, as shown in Fig.2c.

Fig.2c- Strengthening scheme of
specimen-S03
Specimen S04
width were attached on the bottom surface
of the specimen with 200-mm spacing. 20-
mm width of CFRP laminates were also
attached between GFRP laminates on both
directions of the slab. The overlap between
CFRP and GFRP in both directions was un-
bonded. The volumetric percentages of
GFRP and CFRP laminates are 0.0567%
and 0.0144%, respectively, as shown in
Fig.2d.

Fig.2d- Strengthening scheme
of specimen-S04
-1304-

COMP-018-5
Specimen S05
It had five GFRP laminates of 60-mm
width attached on the bottom surface of the
specimen in both directions with 200-mm
spacing. The fibers were oriented with 45
angle with the main direction of slab. The
volumetric percentage of GFRP laminates
is 0.0567%, as shown in Fig.2e.

60 mm GFRP @ 200 mm in both directions

Fig.2e- Strengthening scheme
of specimen-S05

Specimen S06
mm width of CFRP laminates were
attached to the concrete between the GFRP
laminates in both directions of the slab.
Overlap of CFRP and GFRP in both
directions was fully bonded. The
volumetric percentages of GFRP and CFRP
laminates are 0.0567% and 0.00576%,
respectively, as shown in Fig.2f.

Fig.2f- Strengthening scheme
of specimen-S06
Specimen S07
mm width of CFRP laminates were also
attached between GFRP laminates in both
directions of the slab .The overlap between
CFRP and GFRP in both directions was un-
bonded. The volumetric percentages of
GFRP and CFRP laminates are 0.0567%
and 0.00576%, respectively, as shown in
Fig.2g.

Fig.2g- Strengthening scheme
of specimen-S07

It should be noted that end of FRP laminates where bonded with one layer of GFRP
laminate (20-mm width) to avoid peeling of the laminates at their ends.

FRP laminates were attached after the concrete had reached an age of 28 days. The
outline of FRP installation included surface preparation of the slabs using a hammer and
-1305-

COMP-018-6
blower and use of two-component epoxy adhesive, as per the instructions of the
manufacturing company of the laminates.
2.2. Test Set-up
The slabs were subjected to a vertical loading up to failure using a hydraulic Jack of
300-kN capacity. The load was measured using a load cell of 500-kN capacity, as
shown in Fig.3a. Distributed load on the slabs were simulated using sixteen square
wood prisms with dimensions (100 x 100 x 50-mm) and a system of steel I beams as
shown in Fig.3a. The data was collected using a data acquisition system and lab view
software at a rate of 1 sample per second.

Strains of the steel and FRP laminates were measured in the two directions using
electric strain gauges, which were attached at the mid span. Deflection was measured at
mid and one third of the span using two (LVDTs), as shown in Fig.3b.

Fig.3a : Test set-up for all specimens

Fig.3b : LVDT positions

3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

The results presented in this paper are for eight specimens, (S00 to S07). Figures from
4a to 4e present the load-deflection relationship of the tested specimens.
-1306-

COMP-018-7
Figure 4a. shows the strengthening effect of different FRP types. The figure shows that
strengthening the slab with FRP laminates increase the load capacity and decrease
ductility. Strengthening the slab using GFRP laminates showed better ductility
compared to slabs with CFRP laminates, while strengthening using two types of FRP
laminates improved both capacity and ductility as given in table.1. In addition, the
specimen strengthened with two types of FRP laminates failed gradually without
decrease in the carrying loads after onset of CFRP rupture. Failure of the control
specimen (S00) occurred by yielding of the steel reinforcement and compression
crushing of the top fibers of the specimen, as shown in Fig.5. Failure of specimens
which were strengthened with one type of laminate, GFRP or CFRP (S01 and S02), was
brittle however, the load decreased gradually due to the incremental rupture of the FRP
laminates, as shown in Figs.6 and 7. Failure of specimen strengthened with two types
of laminates, (S07), was more ductile than S01 and S02. Reasonable alarming signs
were monitored due gradual to rupture of CFRP, as shown in Fig.12.

Figure 4b shows the effect of bonding CFRP at the intersection with GFRP for
specimens with high percentage of CFRP. The figure shows that the specimen
strengthened with bonded connections gave higher load capacity and ductility compared
to the specimen which was strengthened using un-bonded connection. At onset of
rupture of CFRP laminate in the un-bonded scheme the load transferred suddenly to the
GFRP, which could not resist the induced tension forces and consequently rupture
occurred suddenly, as shown in Fig.9. Failure of specimen S03 was brittle but the load
decreased more gradual due to the incremental rupture of the FRP laminates, as shown
in Fig.8.

Figure 4c shows the effect of bonding CFRP at intersection with GFRP for specimens
with low percentage of CFRP. The figure shows that the un-bonded scheme gave better
behaviour unlike specimens with high CFRP ratio. This is because at onset of CFRP
rupture in the bonded specimens, the energy released affected the GFRP laminates
capacity, as shown in Fig.11. However, in the un-bonded specimen, the CFRP laminate
ruptured without affecting the GFRP laminates.

Figure 4d studies the effect of the CFRP ratio for specimens strengthened with two
types of laminates while CFRP was un-bonded at GFRP intersection. The figure shows
that the specimen which had high CFRP ratio failed suddenly without warning at a
lower capacity and ductility compared to the specimen with low CFRP ratio.

Figure 4e studies the effect of the GFRP orientation. The figure shows that specimen
which, was strengthened with 45 angle GFRP laminates showed lower capacity and
ductility compared to the specimen which, had 90 angle GFRP laminates. Failure of
specimen which was strengthened using 45 angle GFRP was brittle, however the load
decreased gradually due to the incremental rupture of the FRP laminates, as shown in
Fig.10.
-1307-

COMP-018-8
The failure loads of the specimens (S00 to S07) were 104.0, 156.3, 155.5, 158.0, 153.0,
139.0, 138.5 and 159.0 kN, respectively. The ultimate carrying capacity of the slabs
(S01 to S07) increased by 50.0, 49.5, 52.0, 47.0. 33.6, 33.1 and 53.0%, respectively
compared to the control specimen (S00). Table 1 shows the details of each tested slabs.
Table 1: Details of the different specimens

Spec No.
CFRP
Ratio (%)
GFRP
Ratio (%)
max

yeild
Failure
load(kN)

Notes
P
ult

P
ult(control)

Failure
mode
shape
S00

6.15 104 ---- 1 Ductile
S01 ---- 0.0567 4.07
156.3

---- 1.503
Gradual
rupture of
FRP
S02 0.0292 ---- 2.90
155.5

---- 1.495
Gradual
rupture of
FRP
S03 0.0144 0.0567 2.92
158.0

CFRP
bonded at
intersection
1.519
Gradual
rupture of
FRP
S04 0.0144 0.0567 2.39
153.0

CFRP un -
bonded at
intersection
1.471
Sudden
rupture of
FRP
S05 ---- 0.0567 2.92
139.0

Fibers
inclined at
45
1.336
Gradual
rupture of
FRP
S06 0.00576 0.0567 2.81
138.5

CFRP
bonded at
intersection
1.331
Sudden
rupture of
FRP
S07 0.00576 0.0567 4.55
159.0

CFRP un
bonded at
intersection
1.529
Gradual
failure with
a good
alarming
signs before
failure
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
S00
S01
S02
S07

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
S03
S04

Fig.4a : Load - deflection curve
(effect of FRP type)
Fig.4b : Load deflection curve
(effect of bonding and un-bonding CFRP at
intersection with GFRP for specimens have high
percentage of CFRP)
-1308-

COMP-018-9
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
S06
S07

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Deflection(mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
S04
S07

Fig.4c : Load - deflection curve
(effect of bonding and un-bonding CFRP at
intersection with GFRP for specimens have low
percentage of CFRP)

Fig.4d : Load - deflection curve
(study the effect of the CFRP ratio for
specimens strengthened with two types of FRP
while the CFRP was un-bonded at GFRP
intersection)

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Deflection (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
S01
S05

Fig.4e : Load - deflection curve
(study the effect of the GFRP orientation)

The maximum deflection measured for the specimens (S00 to S07) at the ultimate load
were 64.4, 44.0., 29.3, 31.5, 25.8, 29.4, 29.6 and 47.0-mm, respectively. The maximum
deflections of the strengthened specimens were measured at complete rupture of FRP,
which coincides with a drop in the carrying load capacity of the slabs, while deflection
of the control specimen was measured at crushing of the concrete at the top of slab.
Failure of the control specimen was ductile since the deflection at failure was 6.15 times
the deflection at yield of steel reinforcement, as shown in Fig.5. Strengthening using
CFRP laminates resulted in a much less ductile failure, where the deflection at the
ultimate load to deflection at the yield load was only 2.90 while strengthening using
GFRP laminates resulted in a much better ductile failure, where the deflection at the
ultimate to deflection at yield was equal to 4.07 Adding combination of CFRP and
GFRP could reach a ductility of 4.55, which is 1.56 and 1.12 times the ductility of slabs
with one type of FRP laminates (CFRP) and (GFRP), respectively.

-1309-

COMP-018-10

Fig. 5 : failure of S00 Fig. 6 : failure of S01

Fig. 7 : failure of S02


Fig. 9 : failure of S04 Fig. 10 : failure of S05

-1310-

COMP-018-11


CFRP ruptured while GFRP in good
contact with concrete
4. ANALYTICAL STUDY

Strain compatibility approach was used to predict the ultimate carrying capacity of the
slabs. A parabolic stress-strain curve was assumed for the concrete (Collins 1997),
while elastic-plastic behaviour was assumed for the steel reinforcement. A linear
behaviour of the FRP laminates was assumed based on the data provided by the
manufacturer. Deflection of the slab was calculated using integration of the curvature
along the span of each slab taking into consideration a flexural load corresponding to
33% of the total applied load in each direction. The load distribution was calculated
using the yield line theory (James G.Mac Gregor and F. Michael Bartlett-2000) and the
linear finite element program. Fig.13 shows a good correlation between the measured
and predicted load capacity of the slabs. It should be noted that a maximum strain of
60% of the ultimate strain values reported by the manufacturer was used as an upper
limit to coincide with the maximum measured strain on the FRP laminates.

Fig.13 shows the comparison between the experimental and the analytical load results
.Fig.14 to Fig.17 show the load deflection curves of both the analytical and
experimental results for specimens (S00, S01, S02 and S07).
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
S00 S01 S02 S03 S04 S05 S06 S07
no of spec
l
o
a
d

v
a
l
u
e
Expermental
Analatiycal

Fig.13 : Comparison between analytical and experimental load results
-1311-

COMP-018-12
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Deflection (mm)
P

(
k
N
)
Analytical
Experimental
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Deflection (mm)
P

(
k
N
)
Analytical
Experimental

Fig.14 : Comparison between experimental
and analytical load deflection curves for
specimen (S00)

specimen (S01)

0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Deflection (mm)
P

(
k
N
)
Analytical
Experiment
l
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Deflection (mm)
P

(
k
N
)
Analytical
Experimental
specimen (S02)

specimen (S07)

5. CONCLUSIONS

Based on testing eight slabs and the analytical study using the strain compatibility
approach, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. Use of CFRP or GFRP laminates for strengthening RC two-way slabs is an
effective method to increase its ultimate carrying capacity however, the ductility
of the slab is significantly reduced. Using a combination of CFRP and GFRP
laminates is an effective method to enhance the ductility of the strengthened slabs.
2. The released elastic energy due to rupture of CFRP laminates negatively affects
the interface between the concrete and GFRP laminates.
3. Debonding CFRP at intersection with GFRP succeeded to prevent the damage
occurred due to rupture of CFRP laminates and succeeded to give reasonable
alarm signs before failure of the slab.
4. The best scheme used to strengthen concrete slabs is to attach CFRP laminates on
the slab bottom surface while debonding it when intersecting GFRP laminates in
both directions.
5. Strain compatibility approach can predict accurately the behaviour of the two-
way slabs.
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COMP-018-13
REFERENCES

[1] Belarbi A., Chandrashekhara K. and Watkins S. 1999, Performance Evaluation
of Fibre Reinforced Polymer Reinforcing Bar Featuring Ductility and Health
Monitoring Capability, Fourth International Symposium on Fiber Reinforced
Polymers (FRP) for Reinforced Concrete Structures, Baltimore, Maryland,
U.S.A., ACI SP 188-29, pp. 1-12.
[2] Lees and Burgoyne 2000, Analysis of Concrete Beams with Partially Bonded
Composite Reinforcement, ACI Structural Journal, Vol.97, No.2, March-April,
pp.252-258.
[3] Naaman A. 1993, Ductility Implications for Prestressed and Partially Prestressed
Concrete Structures Using Fiber Reinforced Plastic Reinforcements, FIP
Symposium, Kyoto, Japan, pp.757-766.
[4] Yost J., Goodspeed C., and Schmeckpeper E., 2001, Flexural Performance of
Concrete Beams Reinforced with FRP Grids, Journal of Composites for
Construction, ASCE, Vol.5, February, pp. 18-25.
[5] U.Ebead and H.Marzouk , Fiber reinforced polymers of two way slabs ACI
Structural Journal, Title no 101-S64, September October 2004.
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13

Greens functions, at point due to a harmonic load applied at point

distributed harmonic load

100 mm wide by 1.4 mm thick) were

. The system was tested in flexure to failure.

13 [0.5"] Gusset plate

is the Poissons ratio of stainless steel material ( 0.3 = )

is the proof stress of the stainless steel material ( MPa 285

PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTEENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON STRUCTURAL AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

i=1,..., noe (2)

is 23.7 to 25.3 for flat webs, 29.2 to 30 for

Angle of inclined corrugated part.

torsional slenderness ratio.

Warping stresses in flanges.

, is defined as the weighted average of

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

PROCEEDINGS OF THE THIRTEENTH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON STRUCTURAL AND GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

51 . 18 ) 29 . 31 11 . 200 ( / 05 . 228 10 * 924 . 2

800 mm for outer dimensions, with 50 mm flange thickness and 40 mm web

600 mm. The

620 mm for outer dimensions, with 30 mm for

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