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SCREW THREAD

General Objective:

To understand the methods of testing and measuring elements of ISO and BSW screw threads.

Specific Objectives:

At the end of the unit you will be able to : Identify the methods of measuring major diameter, minor diameter and mean diameter. Measure and calculate major diameter, minor diameter and mean diameter of a screw thread. To check the thread form by using the optical comparator.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION

All elements of the thread influence the strength and interchange ability of screw thread, but the pitch, angle and effective diameter are much more important than the other elements

1.1 ELEMENTS OF A THREAD To understand and calculate the thread elements, the following definition relating to screw threads should be known (Fig. 1.1). root pitch

major diameter

mean diameter

minor diameter

thread angle

Figure 1.1 Screw thread terminology

1.1.1. Major Diameter It is the largest diameter of the thread. This is the distance between the crests of the thread measured perpendicular to the thread axis.

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1.1.2. Pitch/Mean Diameter The diameter of the thread used to establish the relationship, or fit, between an internal and external thread. The pitch diameter is the distance between the pitch points measured perpendicular to the thread axis. The pitch points are the points on the thread where the thread ridge and the space between the threads are of the same width. 1.1.3. Minor Diameter It is the smallest diameter of the thread. This is the distance between the roots of the thread measured perpendicular to the thread axis. 1.1.4. Thread Angle This is the included angle of the thread form. 1.1.5. Pitch It is the distance between the same points on adjacent threads. This is also the linear distance the thread will travel in one revolution. 1.1.6. Root The surface of the thread that joins the flanks of adjacent threads. The distance between the roots on opposite sides of the thread is called the root, or minor diameter.

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1.2.

MEASURING THE MAJOR DIAMETER To measure major diameter of the screw, a micrometer, with anvils of

a diameter sufficient to span two threads, may be used,( Fig. 1.2).

To

eliminate the effect of errors in the micrometer screw and measuring faces, it is advisable first to check the instrument to a cylindrical standard of about the same diameter as the screw. For such purposes a plug gauge or a set of Hoffman rollers is useful. anvil

Figure 1.2 Checking the major diameter with a micrometer

1.3. MEASURING THE MINOR/CORE DIAMETER The diameter over the roots of a thread may be checked by means of a special micrometer adapted with a shaped anvils, (Fig. 1.3) or a micrometer may be used in conjunction with a pair of vee pieces ( steel prisms ). The second method is recommended ( Fig.1.5). The steel prisms on the It is important , when micrometer are pressed into the thread groove. The ends of the prisms are slightly curved and parallel to the root thread. making the test, to ensure that the micrometer is positioned at right angles to the axis of the screw being measured, and when a large amount of such work is to be done, a special floating bench micrometer ( Fig. 1.4 ) is used. It is because, it supports the screw and incorporates the micrometer

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elements correctly located, as well as providing means for suspending the vee prisms.

Fig. 1.3 Checking the core diameter of a thread with an shaped anvil micrometer

Fig. 1.4. A Floating Micrometer

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The prism values are stated as, Dm = W 2T Note: Dm W T - mean diameter - distance between two prism - prism height (known)

T prism W

Figure 1.5 Checking minor diameter by using a micrometer and prisms

1.4. MEASURING THE MEAN/PITCH/EFFECTIVE DIAMETER The three-wire method is recognized as one of the best methods of checking the pitch diameter because the results are least affected by any error which may be present in the included thread angle. For threads which require an accuracy of 0.001 in. or 0.02 mm, a micrometer can be used to measure the distance over the wires. For threads requiring greater accuracy an electronic comparator should be used to measure the distance over the wires. In the three-wire method, three wires of equal diameter are placed in the thread; two on one side and one on the other side (Fig. 1.6). The wires

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used should be hardened and lapped to three times the accuracy of the thread to be inspected. used. A standard micrometer may then be used to measure the distance over the wires. For greatest accuracy, the best size wire should be

Figure 1.6 Three wire method

The hard round bars (wire) with the same size are positioned opposite to the screw thread groove shown in the diagram above. The distance is measured between the outside of the round bars. The most suitable wire size is 0.57735p. In Fig. 1.7 P is the pitch of the screw thread. The suitable wire size is quite hard to get, usually a size bigger than 0.57735p wire size will be used.

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Fig. 1.7. Conditions when measuring with wires

1.4.1. Best Size Wires. Wires which touch the thread at the pitch diameter are known as "Best Size" Wires. Such wires are used because the measurements of pitch diameter are least affected by errors that may be present in the angle of the thread. The above analysis for the distance over wires holds good provided the wire touches the thread somewhere on its right side, and provided the thread angle is correct. The extremes of wire sizes which touch on the straight sides and which can be measured are shown at (a) and (c), Fig.1.9. For ISO metric, unified and Whitworth threads these limiting sizes are given in Table 1.1

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Table 1.1. Wire sizes for thread measurement ( p = pitch of thread)

Thread Form Unified Whitworth 0.853p 0.506p 0.564p Max. Wire Min. Wire 0.505p Best Wire 0.557p Size range for Best wire 0.534p

ISO metric and 1.01p

0.620p
0.535p 0.593p

Pitch (P)

A W h B DE 60o r C H

2 D
P/2

Figure 1.8. Three-wire measurement

Note: W = Distance over wires DE = Pitch/ Effective Diameter Dw = Wire diameter = 600 From the Fig. 1.8, mean/pitch diameter can be calculated by applying the following formula;

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AD

= AB cosec

= r cosec
P cot 2 2

= DE cot

CD

= 0.5H =

P cot 4 2

= AD CD = r cosec

P cot 4 2

and distance over wires (W) = DE + 2h + 2r = DE + 2 {r cosec

P cot } + 2r 4 2

= DE + 2r cosec

P - cot + 2r 2 2 2 P ) cot 2 2 2

= DE +2r ( 1 + cosec

and, since 2r = d (the diameter of the wire),

P W = DE + d ( 1 + cosec ) cot 2 2 2

(1)

From this general formula we may apply the special adaptation for common threads.

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Figure 1.9. a) ISO metric and unified b) Whitworth

(a) ISO metric and unified Fig. 1.9 (a) The effective diameter lies 0.3248p inside the crest of the thread, Hence

DE = D 0.6496p
= 60 and cosec =2

cot

= 1.732
P ) cot 2 2 2

W (over wires) = DE + d (1 + cosec

=D 0.6496p + d(3) = D +3d- 1.5156p

P (1.732) 2

(2)

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(b) Whitworth Fig. 1.9(b) Depth of thread = 0.64p, so that DE = D 0.64p = 55 and cosec
2

= 2.1657 cot = 1.921 2

2

Hence W ( over wires) = DE + d { 1 + cosec

}-

P cot 2 2
P (1.921) 2

= D -0.64p + d 3.1657) = D + 3.165d - 1.6 p

(3)

1.5.

OPTICAL COMPARATOR An optical comparator or shadowgraph (Fig. 1.10a and 1.10b) projects

an enlarge shadow onto a screen where it may be compared to lines or to a master from which indicates the limits of the dimensions or the contour of the part being checked. The optical comparator is a fast, accurate means of measuring or comparing the work piece with a master. It is often used when the work piece is difficult to check by other method. Optical comparators are particularly suited for checking extremely small or odd-shaped parts, which would be difficult to inspect without the use of expensive gauges. Optical comparators are available in bench and floor models, which are identical in principle and operation. Light from a lamp passes through a condenser lens and is projected against the work piece. The shadow caused by the work piece is transmitted through a projecting lens system, which magnifies the image and casts it onto a mirror. The image is then reflected to the viewing screen and is further magnified in this process. The extent of the image magnification depends on the lens used. Interchangeable lenses for optical comparators are available in the following magnifications: 5 x, 10 x, 31.25 x, 50 x, 62.5 x, 90 x, 100 x, and 125 x.

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A comparator chart or master form mounted on the viewing screen is used to compare the accuracy of the enlarged image of the work piece being inspected. Charts are usually made of translucent material, such as cellulose acetate or frosted glass. Many different charts are available for special jobs, but the most commonly used are linear-measuring, radius, and angular charts. A vernier protractor screen is also available for checking angles .

Since charts are available in several magnifications, care must be taken to use the chart of the same magnification as the lens mounted on the comparator.
Many accessories are available for the comparator, increasing the versatility of the machine. Some of the most common ones are tilting work

centres, which permit the work piece to be tilted to the required helix angle
for checking threads; a micrometer work stage, with permit quick and accurate measuring of dimensions in both direction; and gauge blocks,

measuring rods, and dial indicators used on comparators for checking

measurement. The surface of the work piece may be checked by a surface

illuminator, which lights up the face of work piece adjacent to the projecting
lens system and permits this image to be projected onto the screen.

1.5.1. To check the angle of a 60o thread using an optical comparator 1. 2. 3. thread. 4. Set the work piece between centres. Mount the correct lens in the comparator. Mount the tilting work centres on the micrometer crossslide stage. Set the tilting work centres to the helix angle of the

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5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Mount the vernier protractor chart and align it horizontally on the screen. Turn on the light switch. Focus the lens so that a clear image appears on the screen. Move the micrometer cross-slide stage until the thread image is centralized on the screen. Remove the vernier protractor chart to show a reading of 30o. Adjust the cross-slides until the image coincides with the protector line. Check the other side of the thread in the same manner.

Note: If the threaded angle is not correct or square with the centre line, adjust the vernier protractor chart to measure the angle of the thread image. Other dimensions of the threads, and width of flats, may be measured with micrometer measuring stages or devices such as rods, gauge blocks and indicators.

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helix angle

Figure 1.10 (a). Checking a thread form on an optical comparator

Figure 1.10 (b) Principle of the optical projector

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ACTIVITY

1.1.

Draw and label a schematic drawing of how you would check the core diameter of an external V-thread.

1.2.

Using best wire sizes determine the distance of the wire for M 20 x 2.5 ISO metric thread.

1.3.

Why is the three-wire method is one of the best method of measuring the pitch diameter of a V thread?

1.4.

With the aid of a labelled diagram, briefly explain how you would use an optical comparator to check the thread angle of 60o

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GEAR

General Objective : To understand the concept of gears and gearing Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you will be able to: Know the types and functions of gears in engineering. Know, sketch and label the parts of gears. Understand the method of measuring spur gear.

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2.0

INTRODUCTION Gears are used to transmit power positively from one shaft to another

by means of successively engaging teeth (in two gears). They are used in place of belt drives and other forms of friction drive when exact speed ratios and power transmission must be maintained. Gears may also be used to increase or decrease the speed of the driven shaft, thus decreasing or increasing the torque of the driven number.

2.1.

TYPES OF GEARS 2.1.1. Spur gear Spur gears, Fig. 2.1, are generally used to transmit power between two parallel shafts. The teeth on these gears are straight and parallel to the shafts to which they are attached. When two gears of different sizes are in mesh, the larger is called the gear while the smaller is called the pinion. Spur gears are used where slow to moderate- speed drive are required.

Gear

.
Pinion

Figure 2.1. Spur gears

Figure 2.2. Internal gears

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2.1.2. Internal gears Internal gears, Fig. 2.2., are used where the shafts are parallel and the centers must be closer together and that could be achieved with spur or helical gearing. This arrangement, provides a stronger drive since there is the greater area of contact than with the conventional gear drive. It also provides speed reductions with a minimum space requirement. Internal gears are used on heavy duty tractors where much torque is required. 2.1.3. Helical gears Helical gears, Fig.2.3, may be used to connect parallel shafts or shafts which are at an angle. Because of the progressive rather than intermittent action of the teeth, helical gears run more smoothly and quietly than spur gears. Since there is more than one tooth in engagement at any one time, helical gears are stronger than spur gears of the same size and pitch. However, special bearing (thrust bearings) are often required on shafts to overcome the end thrust produced by these gears as they turn.

Figure 2.3. Herringbone gears 2.1.4. Helical gears

Figure 2.4. Herringbone gears

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Herringbone gears, Fig. 2.4., are resembles of two helical gears placed side by side, with one half having a left-hand helix and the other half a right-hand helix. These gears have a smooth continuous action and eliminate the need for thrust bearings. 2.1.5. Bevel gears When two shafts are located at an angle with their axial lines intersecting at 90o, power is generally transmitted by means of bevel gears, Fig. 2.5.

Figure 2.5. Bevel gears

2.1.6. Miter gears When the shafts are at right angles and the gears are of the same size, they are called miter gears, Fig. 2.6..

Figure 2.6. Miter gears

Figure 2.7. Angular bevel gears

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2.1.7. Angular bevel gears However, it is not necessary that the shafts be only at right angles in order to transmit power. If the axes of the shafts intersect at any angle other 90o, the gears are known as angular bevel gears, Fig. 2.7. 2.1.8. Hypoid gears Bevel gears have straight teeth very similar to spur gears. Modified bevel gears having helical teeth are known as hypoid gears. The shafts of these gears, although at right angles, are not in the same plane and, therefore, do not intersect. Hypoid gears are used in automobile drives, Fig. 2.8.

Worm

Worm gear

Figure 2.8. Hypoid gears

Figure 2.9. Worm and worm gears

2.1.9. Worm and worm gear When shafts are at right angles and considerable reduction in speed is required, a worm and worm gear may be used, Fig. 2.9. The worm, which meshes with the worm gear, may be single or multiple start thread. A worm with a double-start thread will revolve the

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worm gear twice as fast as a worm with a single-start thread and the same pitch. 2.1.10. Rack and pinion When it is necessary to convert rotary motion to linear motion, a rack and pinion may be used, Fig. 2.10. The rack, which is actually a straight or flat gear, may have straight teeth to mesh with a spur gear, or angular teeth to mesh with a helical gear.
Pinion

Rack

Figure 2.10. Rack and pinion

2.2.

GEAR TERMINOLOGY
top land/peak face width 2 Fig. root circular pitch flank thooth thickness addendum
clearance

addendum circle face

pitch liner pitch circle

dedendum pitch diamete r

outside diamete r

base diamete r

dedendum circle

Fig. 2.11 Parts of a spur gear

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2.2.1. Addendum Addendum is the radial distance between the pitch circle and the outside diameter or the height of the tooth above the pitch. 2.2.1. Dedendum Dedendum is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the bottom of the tooth space. 2.2.3. Pitch diameter Pitch diameter is the diameter of the pitch circle which is equal to the outside diameter minus two addendums.

2.2.4. Base diameter The diameter of the circle from which the involute is generated; which is equals to pitch diameter times the cosine of the pressure angle. 2.2.5. Pitch circle Pitch circle is the circle through the pitch point having its centre at the axis of the gear.

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2.2.6. Pitch line The line formed by the intersection of the pitch surface and the tooth surface. 2.2.7. Face width - The width of the pitch surface. 2.2.8. Tooth thickness The thickness of the tooth measured on the pitch circle. 2.2.9. Top land - The surface of the pitch cylinder. 2.2.10. Base diameter - The diameter of the root circle. 2.2.11. Root - The bottoms of the tooth surface.

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2.3.

MEASUREMENT AND TESTING OF GEARS 2.3.1. Gear-tooth vernier caliper The gear-tooth vernier, Fig.2.12, is an instrument for measuring the pitch-line thickness of a tooth. It has two scales and must be set for the width (w) of the tooth, and the depth (h) from the top, at which the width occurs.

AO = R

Figure 2.12. The gear-tooth vernier caliper

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NOTE:

The following considerations of gear elements, the

symbols below will be used for the quantities. T/t P P D/d R/r M = = = = = = = Add/A = Ded/D = No. of teeth Diametral pitch ( inch gear ) Circular pitch Diameter of pitch circle Radius of pitch circle pressure angle Modul Addendum Dedendum = x Modul M

Circular pitch

The angle subtended by a half tooth at the centre of the gear ( AOB), Fig. 2.12, is given by,

= AB = D R

1 360 90 x = ; T 4 T

T = no. of teeth

w 90 90 = AO sin = R sin T T 2

= Modul x No. of Teeth, and =R

MT 2

i.e.

D = 2R =MT and

R=

MT 2

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Hence

w 90 MT 90 = R sin = sin T T 2 2

and

w = MT sin

90 T

(1)

To find h we have that h = CB = OC OB But OC = R + Add =

MT +M 2

And

OB = R cos

MT 90 90 = cos T T 2

Hence

h=

MT MT 90 +M cos 2 2 T MT MT 90 +M cos ] 2 2 T MT 90 [ 1- cos ] 2 T

(2)

=M+

For diametral-pitch gears, (1) becomes w =

T 90 sin T P

And (2) becomes

h=

1 T 90 [1+ ( 1 cos ) T P 2

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Example: To calculate the gear tooth vernier setting to measure a gear of 33T, 6 modul. w = MT sin
90 90 = 6 x 33 sin T 33

= 198 sin 2o 43.5 = 198 x 0.0476 = 9.42 mm. h= M[1+

T T ( 1 cos )] 2 2

=6[1+

33 90 ( 1 cos )] 2 33
33 (0.0011) ] 2

=6[1+

= 6.11 mm

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2.4.

PLUG METHOD OF CHECKING FOR PITCH DIAMETER AND DIVIDE OF TEETH The tooth vernier gives us a check on the size of the individual tooth,

but does not give a measure of either the pitch diameter or the accuracy of the division of the teeth.

Figure 2.13

Fig. 2.13 shows a rack tooth symmetrically in mesh with a gear tooth space, the curved sides of the gear teeth touching the straight rack tooth at the points A and B on the lines of action. O is the pitch. If now we consider the rack tooth as an empty space bounded by its outline, a circle with centre at O and radius OB would fit in the rack tooth and touch it at A and B (since OA and OB are perpendicular to the side of the rack tooth). Since the rack touches

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the gear at these points, the above circle (shown dotted) will rest against the gear teeth at points A and B and will have its centre on the pitch circle.

In triangle OBD: OB = radius of plug required. OD = =

1 circular pitch 4

m 4

< B = 90o, OB = OD cos =

<O=

m cos 4

Dia of plug = 2OD =

m cos 2

This is the diameter of a plug which will rest in the tooth space and have its centre on the pitch circle. Notice that the plug size remains the same for all gears having the same pitch and pressure angle. With such plugs placed in diametrically opposite tooth spaces, it is a simple matter to verify the gear pitch diameter. The accuracy of the spacing over any number of teeth may be found as shown in chordal calculations.

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Example: Calculate for a 36Tgear of 5 mm module and 20o pressure angle, (a) plug size (b) distance over two plugs placed in opposite spaces, (c) distance over two plugs spaced 10 teeth apart. Solutions: (a) Dia of plug = =
5 2

m cos 2

cos 20o

= 7.854 x 0.9397 = 7.38 mm Pitch dia of gear = mT = 5 x 36 = 180 mm (b) Distance across plugs in opposite spaces = 180 + 7.38 = 187.38 mm (c) Distance across plugs spaced 10 teeth apart (Fig.2.14)

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Figure 2.14
Angle subtended by 10 teeth = 10 x = 100o.
360 36

In triangle OAB: AB = OA sin 50o = 90 x 0.766 = 68.94 Centre distance of plugs = 2 x AB = 2 x 68.94 = 137.88 mm. Distance over plugs = 137.88 + 7.38 = 145.26 mm.

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2.5 MEASURE AND INSPECT OF SPUR GEAR Mengukur tebal perentas dengan angkup vernier gigi gear

Rajah di atas menunjukkan sebuah angkup vernier gigi gear. Angkup tersebut dilengkapkan dengan plat penahan yang boleh dilaraskan mengikut ukuran adendum gear yang hendak diukur. Kemudian hujung plat yang terletak di antara rahang angkup itu dikenakan pada puncak gigi gear. Rahang angkup vernier dilaraskan untuk mendapat ukuran tebal perentas gigi.

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2.6 KAEDAH PERENTAS MALAR Perentas malar ialah satu garis rentas yang panjangnya sentiasa sama bagi semua gigi gear yang mempunyai pic di garis pusat dan sudut tekan sama , walaupun bilangan gigi bagi gear mungkin berbeza.

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2.7 KAEDAH TANGEN TAPAK

Alat pengukur seperti angkup vernier yang besar, tolok tinggi vernier, pembandingan tangen tapak atau mikrometer tebal gigi iaitu sejenis mikrometer yang dipasang dengan andas yang besar berbentuk plat bulat,boleh lah digunakan untuk mengukur jarak rentang itu.

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2.8 MEMERIKSA GARIS PUSAT PIC BAGI GEAR TAJI Dalam kaedah ini sepasang guling (rola) atau palam piawai digunakan bersama mikrometer luar. Garis pusat guling hendaklah bersesuaian dengan pic dan sudut tekanan bagi gear hendak diuji. Jika gear bergigi genap, guling guling itu di letakkan dalam lurah yang bersetentangan. Jika gear bergigi ganjil, kedudukan guling mestilah pada lurah-lurah yang paling hampir bersetentangan.

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2.9. THE INDEXING OR DIVIDING HEAD The indexing or dividing head is one of the most important attachments for the milling machine. It is used to divide the circumference of a work piece into equally spaced divisions when milling gears, splines, squares and hexagons. It may also be used to rotate the work piece at a predetermined ratio to the table feed rate to produce cams and helical grooves on gears, drills, reamers, and other parts.

2.10. INDEX HEAD PARTS The universal dividing head set consists of the headstock with index plates, headstock change and quadrant, universal chuck, footstock, and the centre rest ( Fig 3.9 ). A swiveling block mounted in the base enables the headstock to be tilted from 5o below horizontal position to 10o beyond the vertical position. The side of the base and the blocks are graduated to indicate the angle of the setting. Mounted in the swiveling block is a spindle, with 40-tooth worm wheel attached, which meshes with a worm ( Fig. 3.10 ). The worm , at right angles to the spindle, is connected to the index crank, the pin of which engages in the index plate. A direct indexing plate is attached to the front of the spindle. A 60o centre may be inserted into the front of the spindle, and a universal chuck may be threaded onto the end of the spindle. The footstock is used in conjunction with the headstock to support work held between centers or the end of work held in a chuck. The footstock centre may be adjusted longitudinally to accommodate various lengths of work and may be raised or lowered off centre. It may also be tilted out of parallel with the base when cuts are being made on tapered work.

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Long, slender work held between centers is prevented from bending by the adjustable centre rest.

Figure 3.9. A universal dividing head set

Figure 3.10 Section through a dividing head, showing the worm wheel and worm shaft

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2.11 METHODS OF INDEXING The main purpose of the indexing or dividing head is to divide the work piece circumference accurately into any number of divisions. This may be accomplished by the following indexing methods: direct, simple, angular, and differential. However, this modul will only cover direct and simple indexing. Direct indexing Direct indexing is the simplest form of indexing. It is performed by disengaging the worm shaft from the worm wheel by means of an eccentric device in the dividing head. Some direct dividing heads do not have a worm and worm wheel but rotate on bearings. The index plates contain slots, which are numbered , and a spring-loaded tongue lock is used to engage in the proper slot. Direct indexing is used for quick indexing of the work piece when cutting flutes, hexagons, squares, and other shapes. The work is rotated the required amount and held in place by a pin which engages in to a hole or slot in the direct indexing plate mounted on the end of the dividing head spindle. The direct indexing plate usually contains three sets of hole circles or slots: 24, 30, and 36. The number of divisions it is possible to index is limited to numbers which are factors of either 24, 30, or 36. The common divisions that can be obtain by direct indexing are listed in Table 3.3

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Table 3.3. Direct Indexing Divisions

Plate Hole Number 24 30 36 Example: What direct indexing is necessary to mill eight flutes on a reamer blank? As the 24 hole circle is the only one divisible by eight (the required of divisions), it is the only circle which can be used in this case. 2, 3, 4, -, 6, 8, ----- 12 24

2, 3, -, 5, 6, -, -, -, 10, -, -, 15, .30 3, 4, -, 6, -, 9, -, 12, -, 18, 36

Indexing =

24 = 3 holes on a 24-hole circle. 8

Note: Never count the hole or slot in which the index pin is engaged.

Simple Indexing In simple indexing, the work is positioned by means of the crank, index plate, and sector arms. The worm attached to the crank must be engaged with the worm wheel on the dividing head spindle. Since there are 40 teeth on the worm wheel, one complete turn of the index crank will cause the spindle and the work to rotate one-fortieth of a turn. Similarly, 40 turns of the crank will revolve the spindle and

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work one turn. Thus there is a ratio of 40:1 between the turns of the index crank and the dividing head spindle. To calculate the indexing or the number of turns of the crank for most divisions, it is necessary only to divide 40 by the number of division (N) to be cut, or Indexing =
40 N

Example: The indexing required to cut eight flutes would be:

40 = 5 full turns of the index crank 8

If, however, it was necessary to cut seven flutes, the indexing would be
40 5 =5 turns 7 7

Five complete turns are easily made; however, the five seventh of a turn involves the use of the index plate and sector arms.

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ACTIVITY

1.

State three (3) characteristics of the following gears i. helical gear ii. spur gear Sketch and name six (6) parts of a spur gear Calculate the diameter of plug which will lie in the tooth space of a 5 mm module gear with its centre on the pitch circle. If the gear has 50T, find (a) distance over two such plugs spaced in opposite spaces, (b) distance over two plugs spaced 12 spaces apart ( = 20o) (J: 1. 7.38 mm (a) 257.38 mm (b) 178.52 mm)

2. 3.

4.

Determine the diameter of a plug which will rest in the tooth space of a 4 mm module 20o rack, and touch the teeth at the pitch line. Calculate (a) the distance over two such plugs spaced 5 teeth apart. (b) The depth from the top of the plug to the top of the teeth. (J: 5.9 mm (a) 59 mm (b) 10.664 mm)

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SURFACE TEXTURE

General Objectives:

To understand the importance of surface texture in engineering. To understand the methods of calculating the surface roughness. At the end of this unit you will be able to:

Specific Objectives :

Identify the surface finish symbols that appear on a drawing.

Identify the surface texture terms/ definitions. Calculate the arithmetic mean value, Ra. Calculate the root-mean-square average, Rq. Calculate the maximum roughness height, Rt. Compare Ra and Rq.

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4.0

DEFINITION Surface Texture is defined as a degree of finish conveyed to the

machinist by a system of symbols devised by a Standards Association, eg. ASA American Standards Association, BS British Standards Modern technology has demanded improved surface finishes to ensure proper functioning and long life of machine parts. Pistons, bearings, and gears depend to a great extent on a good surface finish for proper functioning and therefore, require little or no break-in period. Finer finishes often require additional operation, such as lapping or honing. The higher finishes are not always required on parts and only result in higher production costs. To prevent overfinishing a part, the desired finish is indicated on the shop drawing. Information specifying the degree of finish is conveyed to the These machinist by a system of symbols devised by Standards Associations, eg. ASA American Standards Association and BS British Standards. symbols provide a standard system of determining and indicating surface finish. The inch unit for surface finish measurement is microinch (in), while the metric unit is micrometer (m)

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4.1.

SURFACE TEXTURE TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Lay direction Flaw Waviness height

Roughness Height, Rt Roughness spacing Waviness width Roughness width cutoff

Surface profile Roughness

Error of form

Waviness

Figure 4.1. Standard terminology and symbols to describe surface finish

Regardless of the method of production, all surfaces have their own characteristics, which are collectively referred to as surface texture, Fig. 4.1. Certain guidelines have been established to identify surface texture in terms of well-defined and measurable quantities (Figure 4.2)

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4.1.1.

Flaws

Flaws or defects, are random irregularities, such as scratches, cracks, holes, depression, seams, tears or inclusions. These defects can be caused during the machining or production process such as molding, drawing, forging, machining, eg, holes cause by air bubbles during casting, crack and tears by forging and drawing process. 4.1.2. Lay

Lay or directionality, is the direction of the predominant surface pattern caused by the machining process and it is usually visible to the naked eye. 4.1.3. Roughness

Roughness is defined as closely spaced, irregular deviation on a scale smaller than that of waviness. It is caused by the cutting tool or the abrasive grain action and the machine feed. Roughness may be superimposed on waviness. 4.1.3.1. Roughness height

Roughness height, Ra is the deviation to the centre line in micro inches or micrometers. 4.1.3.2. Roughness width Roughness Width is the distance between successive roughness peaks parallel to the nominal surface in inches or millimeters.

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4.1.4. Waviness Waviness is a recurrent deviation from a flat surface, much like waves on the surface of water. It is measured and described in terms of the surface between adjacent crests of the waves (waviness width) and height between the crests and valleys of the waves (waviness height). Waviness can be caused by: a) deflection of tools, dies or the work piece b) force or temperature sufficient to cause warping c) uneven lubrication d) vibration e) any periodic mechanical or thermal variations on the system during manufacturing operations. 4.1.5. Profile The contour of a specified section through a surface. 4.1.6. Microinch and micrometer The unit of measurement used to measure surface finish. The microinch is equal to 0.000 001 inch and the micrometer equals to 0.000 001 meter.

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4.2. STANDARD SYMBOLS TO DESCRIBE SURFACE TEXTURE/FINISH

0.02 2 6.3 1.6 0.01

Figure 4.2 A sample of a surface texture/finish designation

Symbols definition: 0.02 2 6.3 1.6 0.01 Maximum waviness height (mm) Maximum waviness width (mm) Maximum roughness height ( m) Minimum roughness height ( m) Maximum roughness width (mm) Lay symbol (Lay perpendicular to the line representing the surface to which the symbol is applied) Sometimes, the roughness number is used as a substitute for the roughness value eg. N7 is equals to 1.6 m, (Table. 4.1). Table 4.2 shows an average surface roughness produced by standard machining processes.

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Table 4.1. Roughness number and value

m 50 25 12.5 6.3 3.2 1.6 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.025 Roughness N12 N11 N10 N9 N8 N7 N6 N5 N4 N3 N2 N1 number

Table 4.2 Average surface roughness produced by standard machining processes

PROCESS Turning Drilling Reaming Grinding Honing Lapping MICROINCHES 100 - 250 100 - 200 50 - 150 20 - 100 5 - 20 1 - 10 MICROMETERS 2.5 - 6.3 2.5 - 5.1 1.3 - 3.8 0.5 - 2.5 0.13 - 0.5 0.025 - 0.254

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4.3. SYMBOLS FOR SURFACE ROUGHNESS The following symbols indicate the direction of the lay (Table 4.3)
Lay Symbol

Interpretation

Examples

Lay parallel to the line representing the surface to which the symbol is applied Lay perpendicular to the line representing the surface to which the symbol is applied.

Lay angular and both direction to line representing the surface to which symbol is applied

Lay multidirectional

Lay approximately circular relative to the centre of the surface to which the symbol is applied Lay approximately radial relative to the centre of the surface to which the symbol is applied

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Pitted, protuberant, porous, or particulate non-directional lay

Figure 4.3. Standard lay symbols for engineering surfaces

4.4 SURFACE ROUGHNESS Surface roughness is generally described in two methods: arithmetic mean value and root-mean-square average. 4.4.1 The Arithmetic Mean Value, Ra. Ra, formerly identified as AA for arithmetic average or CLA for centre-line average is based on the schematic illustration of a rough surface, which is shown in (Figure 4.4). The arithmetic mean value, Ra, is defined as
d e f ... (4.4.1) n Where, all ordinates, a, b, c, , are absolute values, and n is the number of readings

Ra =

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4.4.2. The Root-Mean-Square Average, Rq. Rq, formerly identified as RMS is defined as
a2 b2 c2 n d 2 ...

Rq =

(4.4.2)

The datum line AB in figure 4.4 is located so that the sum of the area above the line is equal to the sum of the areas below the line. The units generally used for surface roughness are m (micrometer, or micron) or in (microinch). ( Note, 1m = 40 in and 1in = 0.025 m ).

A a

f g h i j k b c d e Centre line (datum line)

Figure 4.3. Coordinates used for surface roughness using equations 4.4.1 & 4.4.2
3.4.3. Maximum Roughness Height, Rt Maximum roughness height, Rt, is defined as the height from the deepest trough to the highest peak. It indicates how much material has to be removed in order to obtain a smooth surface by polishing or other means

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Rt =

(h1

h3

h5

h7

h9 ) (h2 5

h4

h6

h8

h10 )

h1 h9 h2

h3

h6

h5

h7

h4

h8

h10

Where, h1, h2......hn M

- height of ordinates in mm - magnification

4.5. COMPARISON OF Ra AND Rq The arithmetic mean value, Ra was adopted internationally in the mid-1950s and is used widely in engineering practice. Equations 4.4.1 and 4.4.2 show that there is a relationship between Rq and Ra, as shown by the ratio
Rq . The table 4.4 below gives this ratio for various surfaces: Ra

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Table 4.4 Ratio for various surfaces

Surface Sine Curve Machining by cutting Grinding Lapping and honing
Rq Ra

1.1 1.1 1.2 1.4

In general, a surface cannot be describe by its Ra and Rq value alone, since these values are averages. Two surfaces may have the same roughness value but have actual topography which is very different. A few deep troughs on an otherwise smooth surface, for example, do not affect the roughness values significantly. However, the type of surface profile can be significant in terms of friction, wear and fatigue characteristics of a manufactured product. It is therefore, important to analyze the surface in great detail, particularly for parts used in critical applications. Some 130 parameters have been identified thus far for measuring surface roughness.

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ACTIVITY 4A

4.1.

Explain why present-day standards relating to surface texture are very important to industry .

4.2. 4.3.

List and explain the types of defects found on surfaces. Explain the following terms: a) roughness b) waviness c) lay

4.4. 4.5.

What do Ra, Rq and Rt stand for? Describe how you would use the surface roughness comparator gauge.

4.6 Define the symbol on figure below. 0.03 1.5 3.2 1.6 0.01

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COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL

General Objective :To understand the concept and principles of computer numerical control (CNC) system. Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you will be able to : Understand the main components of the CNC system, Understand (positioning), the point-to-point system

Understand the contouring system (continuous system), and Write a simple CNC milling program. .

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6.0 INTRODUCTION Computer numerical control is a system in which a control microcomputer is an integral part of a machine or a piece of equipment (onboard computer). The part programmes can be prepared at a remote site by programmer, and it may incorporate information obtained from drafting software packages and from machining simulations, in order to ensure that the part programme is bug free. The machine operator can, however, easily and manually programme onboard computers. The operator can be modify the programs directly, prepare programme for different parts, and store the programmes. Because of the availability of small computers having a large memory, microprocessor(s), and programme-editing capabilities, CNC systems are widely used today. The availability of low-cost programmable controllers also played a major role in the successful implementation of CNC in manufacturing plants. Numerical Control is a system where machine action is created from the insertion of Numeric Data. The Numeric Data is, in the beginning, written words in an easily understood code of letters and numbers (alphanumeric characters) known as a programme, which in turn is converted by the machine control unit (MCU) into the electrical signals used to control the machine movements.

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The relationship between the words "Numerical" and "Control" is shown below. NUMERICAL An instructional expression, in a language of numbers, CONTROL To control such machine actions as: Directing Commanding Prescribing Sequencing Initiating Altering Timing Ceasing Guiding

which represents a series of

commands for specific machine tool movements

Two important points should be made about N.C. First, the actual N.C. machine tool can do nothing more than it was capable of doing before a control unit was joined to it. There are now new metal removing principles involved. N.C. machines position and drive the cutting tools, but the same milling cutters, drills, taps, feeds, and other tools still perform the cutting operations. control? Primarily, the idle time or time to move into position for new cuts is limited only by the machine's capacity to respond. Because the machine receives commands from the machine control unit (MCU), it responds without hesitation. The actual utilisation rate or chip making rate is therefore much higher than on a manually operated machine. The second point is that numerical control machines can initiate nothing on their own. The machine accepts and responds to commands from the control unit. Even the control unit cannot think, judge, or reason. Without some input medium, e.g., punched tape or direct computer link, the Cutting speeds, feeds, and tooling principles must still be adhered to. Given this knowledge, what is the real advantage of numerical

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machine and control unit will do nothing. The N.C. Machine will perform only when the N.C. tape is prepared and loaded and cycle start is initiated. 6.1. NC OPERATION CNC stands for Computer Numerical Control. functions. The functions of a CNC Controller are: 1. 2. 3. 4. To read and store programme information. To interpret the information in a logical command sequence. To control the motion of the machines mechanical members. To monitor the status of the machine. The interpretation of programme commands by a machine control unit and its conversion of those commands into machine motion is complex. The basic elements and operation of a typical NC machine are shown in Fig. 6.1. The functional elements in numerical control and the components involved follow: a. Data input: The numerical information is read and stored in the tape reader or in computer memory b. Data processing: c. Data output: The programmes are read into the This is information is translated into machine control unit for processing. commands (typically pulsed commands) to the servomotor (Fig. 6.2 and 6.3). The servomotor then moves the table (on which the work piece is mounted) to specific positions, through linear or rotary movements, by means of stepping motors, leadscrews, and other similar devices. An N.C. system in

which a dedicated stored program computer is used to perform basic control

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Computer: Input command, Processing, Output command

Position feedback

Figure 6.1. A schematic illustration of the major component of a computer numerical control machine tool

Work table Pulse train

Stepping motor

Gear
Lead screw

Figure 6.2. An open-loop control system for a numerical-control machine

Limit switches

Drive signal

Work table Input

Comparator

DAC

Dc servomotor

Gear
Lead screw Position sensor

Feedback signal

Figure 6.3. A closed-loop control system for a numerical-control machine

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6.2. INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION 6.2.1. Metal Machining Lathes of all types Milling Machines of all types Drilling Machines Jig borers Electric Discharge Machining (including wire cut machines) Laser cutting machines Machining centres Turning centres All types of grinding machines Gear cutting machines 6.2.2. Metal Forming Punching and nibbling Guillotines Flame cut and profiling Folding Pipe bending Metal spinning 6.2.3. Finishing Plating Painting

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6.2.4. Assembly Joining Pick and place robots, spot and seam welding machines and robots, riveting, looming of wires and assembly of components into printed circuit boards. 6.3. CNC AXIS CONVENTIONS CNC axis classification follows the three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system and is established in BS 3635: 1972: Part 1. Fig. 5.3 shows the tree primary axes and the associated rotational axes. Most machines have two or three slide ways placed at right angles to one another. On CNC machines each slide is fitted with a control system, and is identified with either the letter X, Y or Z. Conventions have been adopted as to the naming of each axis. The axis of the main spindle, whether it is the axis of the tool spindle or the axis about which the work piece rotates is called the Z axis. The X axis is the motion of the largest travel of the primary movement (in case there is more than one). The Y axis then makes the third motion and is the shorter primary movement. In addition to these primary linear axes, there is provision for Rotary axes. They are designated A, B and C, with A rotary about the X axis, B rotary about the Y axis, and C rotary about the Z axis. It is often required to command a motion parallel to X, Y or Z axes within the realm of a secondary motion, or a tertiary motion within special automatic cycles such as describing the amount of finish allowance on a turned part, or to describe the distance of advancement of a drill during a drilling cycle etc. etc.

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Table 6.1. NC axes

Linear Axes Rotary Axes Secondary Linear Interpolation X A U I Y B V J Z C W K

Tertiary motion codes differ considerably, but the address characters variously used are P, Q, R, D, L, E, and H. The z-axis is parallel to the main spindle of the machine. It will be horizontal on a lathe or horizontal machining centre and vertical on a vertical machining centre. The x-axis is always horizontal and at 90o to z. The y-axis is at right angles to both the x and z axes.

spindle rotation table

Figure 6.3. CNC axes

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6.4.

NC MACHINE SUB-UNIT We have already seen the many and varied applications of numerical

control to the manufacturing and other industries, now we will look at the methods of controlling machines. There are three sub units to study: The machine tool itself. The control unit. The control system.

6.4.1.

The Machine Tool A machine tool is a device designed to cut away surplus

material and leave a component of the required shape and size. To do this a machine tool must be capable of: - Holding the work piece securely - Holding the cutting tool securely and driving it with suitable power. - Moving the tool and work piece relative to one another precisely enough to achieve accuracy of size and surface finish. In addition, provision must be made for altering the spindle speed and feed rates, tool changing, supply of coolant etc. On a conventional machine an operator controls these functions and sets or alters them when he considers it necessary, the decision resulting from his training, skill and experience. Obviously, the machine settings may differ between operators as will the time taken to read scales, set positions, change tools, alter speeds and feeds, engage drives and set up the work piece etc. CNC Automatic Control can be applied to these functions and so result in consistent and reduced

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machining times through optimised cutting data, fast accurate positioning between cuts and fast automatic tool changing. 6.4.2. The Control Unit The CNC Machine Control Unit (MCU) has to read and decode the part programme, and to provide the decoded instructions to the control loops of the machine axes of motion, and to control the machine tool operations. The main grouping of parts of a control could be considered to be: The Control Panel. The Tape Reader, The Processors The first part of the control panel is the human interface that allows various modes of machine or control operation to be initiated, from switching on and homing, to programme loading and editing, to setting work positions and tool offsets, manually controlled movements and commencing the automatic cycling of a programme. Information about machine status and condition is available to the operator via VDU screens, gauges, meters, indicator lights and readouts. The tape reader is the device used to transfer the programme information contained on a programme tape into the control unit. Most tape readers are of the photo-electric type which offers high speed reading with reliability and accuracy providing the tape is in good condition and the reader is kept clean and free of paper dust particles.

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The processors within a control are the electronic circuits that permit conversion of part programme data into machine motions and they may be classified into two main sections. The data processing unit and the axis control processor. The function of the data processor is to decode the commands of the part program, process it and provide data to the axis control processor which then operates the slide drives and receives feedback signals on the actual position and velocity of each axis. The Data Processing Unit includes the following functions: i. The input device, such a tape reader. ii. Reading circuits and parity checking logic. iii. Decoding circuits for distributing data to the controlled axes iv. An interpolator to supply velocity commands to the axes, either singly or in combination. The axis control processor consists of the following circuits: i. Position control loops for each and all axes. ii. Velocity control loops. iii. Deceleration and backlash take up circuits. An MCU is adaptable to virtually any machine, the differing control motions and codes being a result of the way the control has been programmed. This permanent resident program is known as an executive programme and resides in the read only memory (ROM) of the control, whereas the N.C. programme resides in the Random Access Memory (RAM). RAM allows external access and alteration if necessary, while ROM is programmed by the manufacturer and cannot be accessed through the control keyboard.

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6.4.3. Control System There are two types of control systems used on NC machines. The point-to-point system and the continuous-path system. Point-to-point systems are not so common these days, but they operate only in straight lines, which are suitable for positioning moves on a drilling machine or limited use on a lathe or milling machine, where at best 45% cuts are possible with two axes running continuous path controls allow angular path and radius motion because the control interpolator has the ability to move the axis drive motors at varying velocities. The point-to-point controls were NC controls, while the continuous path controls could be NC or CNC controls. NOTE: NC is a general term used for Numerical Control and is also a term used to describe controls that run directly off tape. CNC is a specific term for Computer Numerical Control. CNC Machines are all NC machines, but NC controlled machines are not CNC machines.

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6.6.

NC PROGRAMMING 6.6.1. Job Planning

1. Sketch the part. Add incremental or absolute dimensions. 2. Ascertain fixturing. Select fixtures which have minimal projections above the part. 3. Identify a set-up point. 1. A corner of the part 2. A spot above the fixture Consider space requirements for: 1. Part loading and unloading 2. Tool change. 4. Plan operation sequence 5. Record necessary data for each movement of the table and tool on the program sheet. 6. Record instructions for Identify, specific: the machine operator. 1. Tools needed. 2. Speed and feed data 3. Tool change points 4. Console switch setting Mark sequence pattern of sketch. Test program data for accuracy. Locate the set-up point near:

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6.6.2. Incremental The word "incremental" may be defined as a dimension or a movement with respect to the preceding point in a prescribed sequence of points. Each positioning move is described quantitatively in distance and in direction from a previous point rather than from a fixed zero reference point. In incremental mode all moves are with respect to the last position reached.

Y
4 0 4 0

N10 G91 N15 G01 X10.Y10.F300. N20 Y10. N25 X20. N30 X10.Y20. N35 X20-Y-30. N40 X-10.Y-10.
X 10 20 30 40 50 60

40 30 20 10

N45 X-50. N50 M02

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6.6.3. Absolute The data in the absolute system describes the next location always in terms of its relationship to the fixed zero point. The zero point when used as a programme datum is known as the programme origin. The G90 code sets the control up in absolute mode. All moves are performed with respect to the axes zero.

N10
Y
4 0 4 0

G90 G01X10.Y10.F300. Y20. X30. X40.Y40. X60.Y10. X50.Y0. X0.

N15 N20 N25 N30 N35 N40 N45

10 20 30 40 N50 50

40 30 20 10

M02 60

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6.6.4. Linear Interpolation Under this command the machine tool will move in a straight line at a defined feed rate. Combined axis motions (angled moves) will be executed at the programming feed rate as the control will reduce the velocity of both axes accordingly. E.g. G01 X200. F250. G01 X200. F250. Move in a straight line A distance of 20O.mm At a feed rate of 250.mm/min.

NOTE: If a new line with G01 is listed again somewhere below, the F250 does not have to be written again. This is called modal.

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Example: A block as shown below is to be machined, write a program in absolute mode. % G90 G01 X100 Y70 X90. Y80
80

10 0

10 0

70

10 0

F300

X10. Y90. XO. M02 6.6.5. Circular Interpolation In circular interpolation mode G02 will cause the path to be transcribed in a clockwise direction and G03 will cause Y80 Y0.
100

counter-clockwise motion.
G02 G03 Clockwise Counterclockwise

In circular interpolation there are a number of points to be remembered: The end point of the arc is defined as X and Y coordinates exactly the same as if commanding linear motion. The centre of the arc is defined with respect to the start point in the I and J words as an "increment" from this point.

74

70

80

X20.

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For G02 and G03 to function the feed rate "F." must be specified. Example: N5% N10 G90 N15 G01 Y110. F200. N20 G02 X20. I10. N25 G03 X30. Y100. I10.
110

N30 G01 X90. N35 G02 X100. Y90. J-10. N40 G01 Y10, N45 G02 X90. Y0. I-10. N50 G01 X0. N55 M02 6.7. PROGRAM DEFINITION

All radius R10

100

To enable the machine to operate automatically it is necessary to put into its memory a programme or set of instructions to carry out the required operation. a) Programme. A programme is a series of instructions to the machine, set out in sequence to -produce a complete machining operation. A programme is made up of a series of blocks.

b) Block.A block or programme line is a set of instructions to the machine that are carried out simultaneously. A block is made up of

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one or more Words and is terminated by an End of Block which is the Line Feed Character. c) Word. A word is a specific instruction to the machine that will affect a particular machine function. Every word consists of a Letter Code and a Numerical value. Examples of Dimensional Words: X100. Y2.345 F0.25 Examples of Non-Dimensional Words: N25 G90 M03 S1200 Dimension words can be written in various ways, depending on the control. Let's take the examples X100. Y2.345 some older controls cannot accept decimal points, so both dimensional words would be written X100000 Y2345, with Y showing all decimal places. With these controls, if the X word was written as X100, it would be interpreted as one-tenth of a millimeter, not one hundred millimeters. If a control accepts decimal points, then ALL dimensional words should have a decimal point. On any control, non-dimensional must NOT have a decimal point. The method of writing words beginning with a letter is known as word address format and is now almost universally used.

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6.7.1. Program (Start of Program) (Material 25.mm. dia.) (Grip 120.m.m. from Front of Jaws) N01 G71G90G95 N02 G50X100.Z130. N03 S2000M03 N04 G00X26.Z119.T0101 BLOCK

(Select Turning & Facing Tool) N05 GO1X2.F.O4 N06 GOOZ120. N07 X24. N08 G01Z20. N09 X26. N10 G00X100.Z130.T0100 N11 M02 WORD ADDRESS The letter at the beginning of each word is called the address character. e.g. XYZ F G M N for for for for for Axis designating word Feed rates Preparatory functions miscellaneous function Sequence numbers WORDS N10 GOOX100. Z130. T0100

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CNC mills, drills and machining centers are all equipped with cycles to perform drilling, reaming, counter boring, boring and tapping operations. Some others have pocketing cycles, slot cutting cycles, hole pattern cycles etc, all of which are designed to save programming time and effort. CNC lathes usually have cycles to cover drilling, grooving/parting, screw cutting, repetitive cut (automatic roughing) operations and others. Each cycle has its own G code to control the sequence of motions and an accompanying set of words to define the parameters of those motions. These words have addresses such as: R,P,Q,D,E,I,K,H,B etc. 6.7.2. Program Preparation CNC programmes can be prepared manually, where the programmer usually roughs the programme out on paper, then produces it via a keyboard device of the type detailed below, or by assisted preparation in which a computer plays a predominant role -such as when CAD/CAM packages have been installed for design and programming. The programmer must posses knowledge and skills in planning machining sequences, fixturing, cutting data, cutting tools, calculations, as well as being familiar with the machines he is programming. To implement these skills to best effect a programmer should be prepared to observe critically his programs in use and modify them as necessary in order to gain maximum machine utilization. 6.7.3. Operation of program Before a machine can set into automatic motion a program must be checked for errors. A simple typing mistake - an incorrect code, a minus sign instead of a zero, the exclusion of a decimal etc, could cause and expensive

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machine crash. Anyone who considers their programmes to be without error and not in need of careful and conscientious trialing has an attitude problem and is placing expensive machinery and operators safety at risk. There may be many ways in which a programme can be checked for errors, but a programme can only be proved 100% by running the machine and producing a part. Error checking can be performed in a variety of ways: Verification: Read through the print-out (NOT the handwritten manuscript) carefully - sometimes mistakes can be seen easily. Trialing: This involves the execution of the programme without actually cutting the part and may be carried out in several ways depending on the type of machine, or control, or even the philosophy of the person in charge. Adhere to the you can put up good reasons for alteration. Trialing usually consists of running the machinewith the single block switch active, that is, each block will only be executed by pressing cycle start, in conjunction with the programme being displayed on the screen. Quite often the dry run mode is switched on to hasten Proceedings. 'Dry Run' results in all machine motion being executed at a preset rate, usually in the region of 50% to 80% of the rapid traverse capability of the machine. The actual axisvelocity can be overridden from 0% to 100%. The disadvantage of dry running a programme is that feed rates will be masked, and attention must be paid to determining theactual later unless

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programmed feed rate for each block. displayed on the screen.

This may be

Every movement the machine makes during programme trialing should be expected and accountable to the programmer, if not, those motions should be checked for viability, sought. Editing: Wherever errors are found, they should be corrected and rechecked, be it on the machine or at the programming station. Whenever a programme is edited on the machine, a note should be made on the print-out so the master or original programme can also be corrected. A better method is to punch out a programme from the control after successfully producing a component. 6.8. TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEM There are two basic types of control systems in numerical control: point-to-point and contouring. a. In a point-to-point system, also called positioning, each axis of the machine is driven separately by lead screws and, depending on the type of operation, at different velocities. The machine moves initially at maximum velocity in order to reduce non-productive time, but decelerates as the tool approaches its numerically defined position. Thus, in an operation such as drilling (or and if necessary, a more thorough understanding of the machine operation should be

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punching a hole), the positioning and cutting take place sequentially (Fig. 5.4). After the hole is drilled or punched, the tool retracts upward and moves rapidly to another position, and the operation is repeated. The path followed from one position to another is It must be chosen to minimize the important in only one respect. time of travel, for better efficiency. Point-to-point systems are used mainly in drilling, punching, and straight milling operations.
15 10 C.P 15 (0,0) 1 2 10 45 4 3 45

Incremental (G90) Position C.P. Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 Point 4 Coordinate Coordinate (X) -15 10 55 55 10 (Y) 15 -10 -10 -55 -55 C.P.

Absolute (G91) Position Coordinate (X) -15 25 45 0 -45 Coordinate (Y) 15 -25 0 -45 0

Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 Point 4

Figure 5.4. Point-to point system

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b. In a contouring system (also known as a continuous path system), the positioning and the operations are both performed along controlled paths but at different velocities. Because the tool acts as it travels along a prescribed path (Fig. 5.5), accurate control and synchronization of velocities and movements are important. grinders, welding machinery, and machining centres. Cutter radius Machined surface Cutter path Work piece The contouring system is typically used on lathes, milling machines,

Figure 5.5. Continuous path by a milling cutter

6.9. PROGRAMMING CODES A number of standard codes are used to reduce the amount of programming effort needed to command commonly used machining operations, instructions and conditions. These are commonly known as: G codes call up machining commands M codes call up machine control activities T codes call up tool selection F codes call up feed rates S codes call

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- modal codes remain active after being entered, unless they are cancelled by another G code; and - non-modal codes are only active in the programme block in which they appear.

6.9.1. G codes (preparatory codes) The majority of manufacturers follow the same practice in designation of codes, but their detailed implementation mav differ. Sample G codes GOO Rapid movement for position GOI Linear interpolation used for straight-line feed G02 Circular interpolation, clockwise G03 Circular interpolartion, counterclockwise G04 Dwell, a programmed stop to the tool movement G17 Circular interpolation xy plane G18 Circular interpolation xz plane G19 Circular interpolation yz plane G20 Inch units G21 Millimetre units G28 Return to home position G29 Return from home position G31 Reverses programmed direction of x axis G32 Reverses programmed direction of y axis G41 Tool radius compensation left G42 Tool radius compensation right G43 Tool length compensation-positive direction G44 Tool length compensation-negative direction G70 G71 G80 G81 G82 G83 G84 G85 G90 G91 Imperial unit Metric units Cancel canned cycle Drilling cycle Drilling cycle with dwell Deep hole drilling Tapping cycle 89-boring cycles Absolute mode Incremental mode

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6.9.2. M codes These control the auxiliary functions of the machine. MOO Program stop M02 End of program M03 Spindle on, clockwise M04 Spindle on, counter clockwise M05 Spindle off M06 Tool change M07 Oil mist coolant on M08 Flood coolant on M09 Coolant off M30 End of tape

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6.10. WRITING A PROGRAM

Figure 5.6. To cut a S-slot/groove with a point-to-point method and a continuous path/contouring system Table 5. Reference points and X and Y coordinates to cut a S-slot/groove with a point-to-point method and a continuous path/contouring system
Position C.P. P. 1 P. 2 P. 3 P. 4 P. 5 P. 6 P. 7 P. 8 Coordinate (X) 0 45.0 70.0 60.0 45.0 60.0 49.393 38.787 15.0 Coordinate (Y) 0 -25.0 -25.0 -65.0 -50.0 -50.0 -75.607 -65.0 -65.0

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To machine the above component (as in programme that can be followed;

Fig.5.6), below is the

N10

G71 G90 S1500 T1

N20 G00 X0 Y0 N30 G00 X70.0 Y-25.0 Z10.0 N40 G01 N50 G03 I-25.0 J0 N60 X45.0 Y-50.0 N70 G01 X60.0 Y -50.0 N80 G02 I0 J-15.0 N90 N110 X49.393 Y-75.607 X15.0 Y-65.0 N100 G01 X38.787 Y-65.0 N120 Z10.0 N130 G00 M00 N140 G00 X0 Y0 Description of The Above Programme NXX block number Block No. 10 set machine to use metric unit, incremental coordinate, spindle speed 1500 rpm, choose tool no. 1. Block No. 20 rapid movement to centre point (C.P). Block No. 30 - rapid movement to point 1 (P. 1), cutting tool distance is 5.0 mm from the surface of the work piece. Block No. 40 cutting tool cuts 10.00 mm deep, feed 250 mm/min Z-5.0 F250

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Block No. 50 circular interpolation, counter clockwise, radius 25.0 mm Block No. 60 tool ends interpolation cutting at P. 4 Block No. 70 linear interpolation until P. 5 Block No. 80 - circular interpolation, clockwise, radius 15.0 mm Block No. 90 - tool ends interpolation cutting at P. 6 Block No. 100 - linear interpolation until P. 7 Block No. 110 - linear interpolation until P. 8 Block No. 120 tool rises up 10.0 mm Block No. 130 program stops Block No. 140 - rapid return to centre point (C.P). 6.11. ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL i. The component programming tape and the tape reader are used once only when the programme is copied into the computer memory, not only this practice wills same time but it will also reduce errors. The programming tape can be edited on the shop floor, when the machine is placed/located. Editing, correction and optimising; such as machine tool operations, spindle speeds and speeds; are usually done in the test run of the tape. Computer numerical control can easily changes into metric system if the programme is in the imperial units. It is widely used in industry. It is easily adaptable in a computerised industry system. Increased flexibility the machine can produce a specific part, followed by other parts with different shapes, and at reduces cost. Greater accuracy computers have a higher sampling rate and faster operation. More versatility editing and debugging programmes, reprogramming, and plotting and printing part shape are simpler. Programmes are stored on the machine ready for use. Programmes and data can be modified on the machine.

ii.

iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix.

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ACTIVITY 6

6.1. 6.2.

Briefly state four (4) advantages of numerical control system. You are given a drawing of a component. List down the steps you would take to operate a NC machine in order produce the component. Write a short paragraph on three (3) basic components of a numerical control system.

6.3.

6.4 Numerical control machine can be done in absolute coordinate (G90) and incremental coordinates (G91). What is the difference between the two coordinates. 6.5 By using G90 and G 91 coordinates write a program to cut a component in is the .below figure.

30 J20 70

20
88

60

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Answer 6.5 Point Origin Point 1 2 3 4 5 G 90 X 0 30 30 70 90 90 Y 0 -70 -40 -15 -35 -70 X 0 30 0 40 20 0 G 91 Y 0 -70 30 25 -20 -35

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SHIELDED GAS ARC WELDING

General Objective: To understand the principles of shielded gas arc welding i.e. TIG and MIG welding. Specific Objectives : At the end of the unit you will be able to :

Identify the principles of shielded gas arc welding i.e. TIG and MIG welding. Elaborate on the TIG and MIG welding principles, welding procedures, welding machines, gas, etc. State the advantages and disadvantages of TIG and MIG compared to manual arc welding. State the weaknesses of TIG and MIG welding and how to prevent them. .

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7.0. INTRODUCTION The objective of welding is to produce a welding joint that contains the same mechanical properties as the base metal. The objective can be achieved if the molten metal is free from atmospheric air. If not, nitrogen and oxygen gases in the atmosphere will be absorbed by the melting pool. The welding produced will have small pore that will weaken the weld. To prevent the welding, molten metal and the end of the filler rode and electrodes from atmospheric air pollution before the molten metal become solid inert gas is blown out from the welding point. These gases will cover the welding pools, the filler rod points and electrode tips to avoid oxidation. 7.1. TUNGSTEN INERT GAS (TIG) The welding of aluminium and magnesium alloys by the oxy-acetylene and manual metal arc processes is limited by the necessity to use a corrosive flux. The gas shielded, tungsten arc process enables these metals and a wide range of ferrous alloys to be welded without the use of a flux. The choice of the either a.c. or d.c. depends upon the metal to be welded. For metals having refractory surface oxides such as aluminium and its alloys, magnesium alloys and aluminium bronze, a.c. is used whilst d.c. is used for carbon and alloy steels, heat-resistant and stainless steels, cooper and its alloys, nickel and its alloys, titanium, zirconium and silver. The arc burns between a tungsten electrode and the work piece within a shield of the inert gas argon, which excludes the atmosphere and prevents contamination of electrode and molten metal. The hot tungsten arc ionizes argon atoms within the shield to form a gas plasma consisting of almost equal numbers of free electrons and positive ions. Unlike the electrode in the manual metal arc process, the tungsten is not transferred to the work and evaporates very slowly, being classed as non-consumable. Small

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amount of other elements are added to the tungsten to improve electron emission.

Gas flow

Torch

Water outlet

Welding machine

Work piece

Water inlet

Figure 7.1. TIG welding equipment

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Electrode (tungsten)

Inert/noble gas

Filler rode Shielded gas

arc Direction of travel 20 30o Melting pool 80 90o

Work piece

Figure 7.2. TIG in progress. The tungsten does not melt into the puddle for filler. This is a nonconsumable electrode.
7.1.1. Preparation of Metal. Gas tungsten-arc processes must start with clean metal which has the proper joint design i.e., V, U, or J. Mechanical and chemical cleaning are often necessary to prepare the base metal. The edges of the joint should be shaped to permit adequate fusion and penetration. It is common practice to reduce or bevel the adjoining edges to 1.6 mm thickness. A strip (backup bar) to support the back side of the base metal should be used when needed. This is especially helpful on aluminium since it aids in shielding. The backup bar may be removed after welding.

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7.1.2. Joint Fit. Good joints make it easier to obtain a good weld. In production work, carefully fitted joints can help save money and can help the welding operator develop standardized welding techniques. requiring close tolerance when fitting joints. 7.1.3. Welding Machine. Gas tungsten-arc welding requires a conventional welding machine, with the following accessories: 1. Torch, lead cable, and hoses. 2. Inert gas supply and flow meter for measuring amount of shielding gas. 3. Water cooling system for water-cooled torches. Air-cooled torches are limited to 150 ampere capacity. 4. High-frequency spark unit attached to the output leads of the power supply (to start and stabilize arc). The finished weld will be greatly affected by type of current and polarity. For example, aluminium is welded with alternating current plus superimposed high-frequency current (ACHF). Stainless steel is welded with direct current straight polarity (DCSP). Improper electrical connections will cause (a) the electrode to overheat, (b) poor penetration, or (c) insufficient cleaning effect upon the base metal. Current selection must be made with care. When an electrode is connected to the negative terminal (DCSP), electrons pass through the arc to bombard the base plate (Fig. 7.3). Root opening (distance apart) and angle of bevel are two major factors

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Welding machine

Electrode

Direction of electron travel Positive surface particles travel Work piece

Deep penetration

Figure 7.3 Power supply with direct current straight polarity

This causes nearly 70% of the arc heat to accumulate in the base metal to assist fusion and penetration. When the electrode is made positive (DCRP), a cleaning effect is created on the surface of the base plate (Fig. 7.4).

Welding machine

Electrode

Positive surface particles travel

Direction of electron travel

Work piece

Shallow penetration

Figure 7.4 Power supply with direct current reverse polarity

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In welding aluminium this method is used to remove surface oxidation. While an electrode positive connection furnishes a cleaning effect, it also heats the tungsten electrode. The electrode may get hot enough to melt, transfer to the weld pool, and contaminate the base metal. When this happens, the electrode must be removed, its end broken off, and it must be ground to shape. Alternating current offers the advantages of both direct current straight polarity (DCSP) and direct current reverse polarity (DCRP). Gas tungsten-arc welding of aluminium and magnesium requires an AC power supply (Fig. 7.5). Gas tungsten-arc welding is not recommended for metal more than 20 mm thick. Welds have been completed on 25 mm thick plate but require a great deal of time and, consequently, are expensive. Most applications are less than 12 mm thick, and require less than 500 amperes of current.

Welding machine

Electrode

Surface particles lifted

Electron flow Work piece

Medium penetration

Figure 7.5 Alternating current power supply

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7.1.4. Welding Torch. The welding torch has a round collet which compresses to hold the electrode and a nozzle to control the gas (Fig. 7.2). Water-cooled torches are used when current values exceed 150 amperes. Maintenance of either torch is more time consuming than with the metal-arc process. Careful selection of nozzle size, proper shaping of the working end of the electrode and correct extension of electrode beyond nozzle are important. Nozzle size influences the flow of gas. End shape of electrode and extension of electrode beyond nozzle control the stability of the arc. Further, it is important that electrode diameter match current value (Table 7.1). If the current is too high for the diameter of an electrode, the life of the electrode will be reduced. When the current is too low for a given electrode diameter, the arc will not be stable.

Table 7.1. Selection of nozzle size and electrode size for gas tungsten-arc welding
Electrode Size (Diameter, Inches) 0.020 0.040 1/16 3/32 1/8 *Not applicable. 4,5 4,5 4-6 5-7 6-8 Nozzle or Cup Sizes Pure Tungsten 5-15 10-60 50-100 100-160 150-210 WELDING CURRENT IN AMPERES ACHF Thoriated Tungsten 5-20 15-80 70-150 140-235 225-325 DCSP Pure or Thoriated 5-20 15-80 70-150 150-250 250-400 DCRP Pure or Thoriated * * 10-20 15-30 25-40

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The end of the electrode should remain bright, as if it was polished. On some metals, such as aluminium and magnesium, the end is contaminated when starting or by touching the base plate. Contamination can be burned off by welding on a scrap plate of metal, or it can be removed by grinding (Fig. 7.6). The electrode should be adjusted to extend beyond the nozzle a distance equal to the electrode diameter (Fig. 7.7)

15o

30o 45o

Grind here

DCSP

DCRP

AC

Figure 7.6 Electrode shapes for gas shielded tungsten-arc welding

3/8 max

Electrode diameter

Figure 7.7. Adjustment of electrode from nozzle

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7.1.5. Shielding Gas. Gas used with this process produces an atmosphere free from contamination and also provides a path for arc transfer. The path creates an environment that helps stabilize the arc. The gas and arc activity also perform a cleansing action on the base metal. Both argon and helium are generally used for this process but argon is preferred because it is cheaper and provides a smoother arc. Helium, however, helps produce deeper penetration (Table 7-2). 7.1.6. Filler Metal. Filler metals are selected to meet or exceed the tensile strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance of the base metal. The usual practice is to select a filler metal having a composition similar to that of the base metal. For most efficient application, select clean filler metals of proper diameter; the larger the diameter of the filler metal, the more heat is lost from the weld pool.

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Table 7.2 Selection of gases for manual application of tungsten-arc welding.

Metal Aluminium Shielding Gas Argon Helium Argon-10% helium Stainless steel Argon Argon-helium mixtures Copper nickel Argon-helium Helium and Argon Easy to control penetration and weld contour on sheet metal. Increases heat into base metal. Highest welding speed. Remarks Easy starting Good cleaning action. Faster and more penetration. Increase in penetration over pure argon. Better control of penetration (16 gauge and thinner). Higher welding speeds.

7.2. TIG WELDING TECHNIQUES After the base metal has been properly cleaned and clamped or tacked together, welding can be started. On aluminium, the arc is usually started by bringing the electrode near the base metal at a distance of about one electrode diameter so that a high-frequency spark jumps across the gap and starts the flow of welding current. Steel, copper alloys, nickel alloys, and stainless steel may be touched with the electrode without contamination to start the arc. Once started, the arc is held stationary until a liquid pool appears. Filler rod can be added to the weld pool as required (Fig. 7.8). Highest current values and minimum gas flow should be used to produce clean, sound welds of desired penetration (Table 7-3).

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Table 7.3
Material Type of Current 1.6mm electrode Current: Argon: Passes: 3.2mm electrode Current: Argon: Passes: 4.7mm electrode Current: Argon: Passes: 190-220 21 cfh 1 125-145 17 cfh 1 60-80 15 cfh 1 Aluminium ACHF

Operating data for TIG

Stainless Steel DCSP 80-100 11 cfh 1 120-140 11 cfh 1 200-250 13 cfh 1 Magnesium ACHF 60 13 cfh 1 115 19 cfh 1 120-175 19 cfh 1,2 Deoxidized Copper DCSP 110-140 15 cfh 1 175-225 15 cfh 1 250-300 15 cfh 1 at 257.4*

*Preheat to temperature indicated. The shielded gas is pure argon and pre-heating is required for drying only to produce welds of the highest quality. All surfaces and welding wire should be degreased and the area near the joint and the welding wire should be stainless steel wire brushed or scrape to remove oxide and each run brushed before the next is laid. The angles of torch and filler rod are shown in Fig. 7.8. After switching on the gas, water, welding current and HF unit, the arc is struck by bringing the tungsten electrode near the work (without touching down). The HF sparks jump the gap and the welding current flows. Arc length should be about 3 mm. Practice starting by laying the holder on its side and bringing it to the vertical position, but using the ceramic shield as a fulcrum can lead to damage to the holder and ceramic shield. The arc is held in one

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position on the plate until a molten pool is obtained and welding is commenced, proceeding from right to left, the rod being fed into the forward edge of the molten pool and always kept within the gas shield. It must not be allowed to touch the electrode or contamination occurs. appearance on the weld metal indicates insufficient argon supply. A black

15o

30o

Direction of travel

Figure 7.8. Example of TIG

The flow rate should be checked and the line inspected for leaks. A brown film on the weld metal indicates presence of oxygen in the argon while a chalky white appearance of the weld metal accompanied by difficulty in controlling the weld indicates excessive current and overheating. The weld continues with the edge of the portion sinking through, clearly visible, and the amount of the sinking which determines the size of the penetration bead is controlled by the welding rate.

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7.3.

METAL INERT GAS (MIG) It is convenient to consider, under this heading, those applications

which involve shielding the arc with argon, carbon dioxide (CO 2) and mixtures of argon with oxygen and/or CO2, since the power source and equipment is essentially similar except for gas supply. With the tungsten inert gas shielded arc welding process, inclusions of tungsten become troublesome with currents above 300 A. The MIG process does not suffer from these advantages and larger welding current giving greater deposition rates can be achieved. The process is suitable for welding aluminium, magnesium alloys, plain and low-alloy steels, stainless and heat-resistant steel, copper and bronze, the variation being filler wire type of gas shielding the arc. The consumable electrode of bare wire is carried on the spool and is fed to a maually operated or fully automatic gun through an outer flexible cable by motor-driven rollers of adjustable speed, and rate of burn-off of the electrode wire must be balance by rate of wire feed. determines the current used. In addition, a shielding gas or gas mixture is fed to the gun together with welding current supply, cooling water flow and return (if the gun is water cooled) and a control cable from gun switch to control contractors. A d.c. power supply is required with the wire electrode connected to the positive pole ( Fig. 7.9). Wire feed rate

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Gas flow meter

Arc welding power supply

Welding power cable

Spool of electrode wire

Inert gas cylinder

Electrode feed rools

Contactor lead,welding current,electrode, and inert gasto welding gun

Contacto r cable Ground cable

Control head forelectrode feed and gas supply

Figure 7.9 . MIG welding equipment

During this process an electric arc is used to heat the weld zone. The electrode is fed into the weld pool at a controlled rate and the arc is shielded by a protective gas such as argon, helium, or carbon dioxide (Fig. 7.9). Gas metal-arc welding can be either the short-circuiting process or the spray-arc process (Fig. 7.10).
Inert/noble gas

Arc

Shielded gas

Melting pool Work piece

Figure 7.10. MIG in progress

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The short-circuiting arc process (short arc) operates at low currents and voltages. For example, 18-gauge sheet metal can be welded at 45 amps and 12 volts.

Work piece

Figure 7.11. Mechanics of the short circuiting transfer process as shown between the electrode and work piece. Electrode dips into pool an average of 90 times a second

In contrast, the spray-arc process uses high currents and voltages,

e.g., Arc action is illustrated in Fig. 7.12. This results in high heat input to the weld area, making possible deposition rates of more than 0.4 lb per minute. (The deposition rate is the weight of filler metal melted into the weld zone per unit of time.) Most applications of the spray-arc process are in thick metal fabrications, e.g., in heavy road-building machinery, ship construction, and beams for bridges.

Electrode maintains steady arc length

Work piece

Figure 7.12. Mechanics of the spray-arc transfer process as shown between the electrode and work

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All metal inert-gas (MIG) welding is classified as semi-automatic, since the electrode feeds into the weld according to a preset adjustment. After making an initial adjustment, the welding operator merely moves the gun along the joint. For effective applications, the welding operator needs information concerning power requirements, welding gun, selection of shielding gas, type of filler metal, and job procedures. 7.3.1. Power Requirements. Conventional power supplies used for shielded metal-arc welding are not satisfactory. A welding machine designed for the MIG process is called a constant potential power source; it produces a constant voltage and also permits the operator to adjust electrode feed rates. The adjustments on the power supply are voltage, slope (limits current), and wire feed rate. Welding current is established by selecting a wire feed rate. Slope adjustment to limit current is not a problem with spray-arc type transfer. However, in short-circuiting arc processes, limitations on short-circuit current are essential to prevent excessive spatter. The electrode feed mechanism, an important part of the welding machine, consists of a storage reel for electrode wire and a power drive which feeds the electrode into the weld at a controlled rate.

Table 7.4 Shielding mixtures for MIG

Metal Aluminium and copper Shielding Gas Argon + helium 20-80% mixture Remarks High heat input Minimum of porosity

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Copper Carbon steels Low alloy steels

Argon + nitrogen 25-30% mixture Argon + oxygen 3-5% mixture

Good heat input on copper Stabilizes arc Reduces spatter Causes weld metal to flow Eliminates undercut May require electrode to contain deoxidizers

Low alloy steels

Mixture of argon, Increases toughness of weld helium and carbon deposit dioxide

7.3.2. Selection of Gas. The primary purpose of the inert gas is to shield the weld crater from contamination. Shielding gas may also affect (1) the transfer of metal across the arc, (2) fusion and penetration, (3) the shape of weld deposit, (4) the speed of completing the weld, (5) the ability of filler metal to flow over the surface without undercutting, and (6) the cost of the finished weld. No single inert gas is satisfactory for all welding conditions. Some specific jobs are more efficiently welded with a mixture of gases. For example, low alloy steels are welded with a mixture of argon, helium, and carbon dioxide (Table 7.4). 7.3.3. Filler Metal.

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Electrodes used for filler metal with the MIG process are much smaller in diameter than those used with the metal-arc process. Sizes may range from 0.4 mm to 5.5 mm in diameter. Small diameter electrodes require high feed rates, from 100 to 1,400 inches per minute. The composition of the electrode usually matches that of the base metal, but for welding high-strength alloys, the composition of the electrode may vary widely from that of the base metal. For example, an aluminium-zinc-magnesium alloy (7039) is welded with an aluminium-magnesium alloy (5356). 7.4. JOB PROCEDURES High-quality welds are obtained by controlling process variables which include current, voltage, travel speed, electrode extension, cleanliness, and type of joint. 7.4.1. Current. Welding current varies with the melting rate of the electrode. Extreme values of current tend to promote defects, but a high current (1.1 mm. electrode at 220 amp) reduces the drop size of the transfer, improves arc stability, and improves penetration. 7.4.2. Voltage. With the MIG welding process, the voltage control determines the arc length. The higher the voltage setting, the longer the arc. A desirable voltage range to establish a short arc is 19-22 volts; defects are more likely to occur outside this range (Fig. 7.14).

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Severity of defect (Increase)

Severity of defect (Increase)

Curve representing undercutting

Curve representing porosity

Voltage

Voltage

Fig. 7.13. Defects related to voltage settings.

Position of welding will determine voltage needed. For example, a higher voltage is more desirable for flat-position welding than for vertical or overhead welding. Table 7-5 indicates typical voltage values. Metal Aluminium Carbon Steel Low-alloy Steel Stainless Steel Nickel Copper *Not recommended. Argon 25 * * 24 26 30 Helium 30 * * * 30 36 Ar-O2 Mixture 1-5%O2 * 28 28 26 * * * 30 30 * * * CO2

Table 7-5 Typical arc voltage for MIG using drop transfer and 1/16 inch diameter electrode.

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7.4.3. Travel Speed. After selecting a current and voltage setting, select the rate of travel. A typical example is 0.6m 0.76m per minute (in./min). If the rate is changed more than a few mm per minute, weld quality will be greatly affected (Fig. 7.15).

No undercut. Travel speed 26 in/min

Undercutting. Travel speed 32 in/min

Fig. 7.15. Undercutting of horizontal fillet on 6.3mm thick aluminium as affected by travel speed. Gas metal arc process was used.

Position of welding will affect the travel speed. For example, if the weld direction is dropped 15 degrees from flat so that the position is slightly downhill, travel speed can be increased. 7.4.4. Electrode Extension. Electrode extension is important. The further the electrode extends from the gun to the arc, the greater the electrical resistance between the output terminals. Higher resistance increases the temperature of the electrode, and the resistance-heated electrode uses less current in the weld puddle. In the spray-arc process, the electrode

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extension should be about 12 mm to 25 mm, for short-circuiting transfer; it should be approximately half this distance. 7.5. MIG WELDING TECHNIQUES There are three methods of initiating the arc. i. The gun switch operates the gas and water solenoids and when released the wire drive is switched on together with the welding current. ii. The gun switch operates the gas and water solenoids and strikes the wire end on the plate operates the wire drives and welding current (known as scratch start). iii. The gun switch operates the gas and water solenoids and wire feed with welding current known as scratch start. As a general rule dip transfer is used for thinner sections up to 6.4 mm and for positional welding, whilst spray transfer is used for thicker sections. The gun is held at an angle of 80o or slight less to the line of the weld to obtain a good view of the weld pool, and welding proceeds from right to left with nozzle held 6 12 mm from the work. The further the nozzle is held from the work less the efficiency of the gas shield, leading to porosity. If the nozzle is held too close to the work spatter may build up, necessitating frequent cleaning of the nozzle, while acting between nozzle and work can be caused by a bent wire guide tube allowing the wire to touch the nozzle, or by spatter build-up short-circuiting wire and nozzle. If the wire burns back to the guide tube it may be caused by a late start of the wire feed, fouling of the wire in the feed conduit or the feed rolls being too tight. Intermittent wire feed is generally due to insufficient feed rolls pressure or looseness wire due to wear in the rolls.

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Excessively sharp bends in the flexible guide tubes can also lead to this trouble. Root run is performed with no weave and filler runs with as little weave as possible consistent with good fusion since excessive weaving tends to promote porosity. The amount of wire projecting beyond the contact tube is important because the greater the projection, the greater the I2R effect and the greater the voltage drop which may reduce the welding current and affect penetration. The least projection commensurate with accessibility to the joint being welded should be aimed at. Backing the strips which are welded permanently on to the reverse side of the plate by the root run are often used to ensure sound root fusion. Backing bars of copper or ceramics with grooves of the required penetration bead profile can be used and are removed after welding. It is not necessary to back-chip the root run of the light alloys but with stainless steel this is often done and a sealing run put down. The importance of fit-up in securing continuity and evenness of the penetration bead cannot be over-emphasized. Flat welds may be slightly tilted to allow the molten metal to flow against the deposited metal and thus give a better profile. If the first run has a very convex profile poor manipulation of the gun may cause cold laps in the subsequent run.

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7.6. DIRECT CURRENT STRAIGHT POLARITY The welding circuit shown in figure 7.16, is known as a straight polarity circuit. It is understood that the electrons are flowing from the negative terminal (cathode) of the machine to the electrode. The electrons continue to travel across the arc into the base metal and to the positive terminal (anode) of the machine. Approximately two-thirds of the total heat produced with DCSP is released at the base metal while one-third is released at the electrode. The choice of direct current straight polarity depends on many variables such as material of the base metal, position of the weld, as well as the electrode material and covering.
Reactor Arc gap Electrode

Work piece
Cathode d Field Holder

Anode

Figure 7.16. Wiring diagram of a direct current, straight polarity (DCSP) arc circuit

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7.7.

DIRECT CURRENT REVERSE POLARITY ARC WELDING

It is possible, and sometimes desirable, to reverse the direction of electron flow in the arc welding circuit. When electron flow from the negative terminal (cathode) of the arc welder to the base metal, this circuit is known as direct current reverse polarity (DCRP). In this case, the electron returns to the positive terminal (anode) of the machine from the electrode side of the arc, as shown in Figure 7.17.

Reactor

Arc gap Electrode

Work piece
Anode Field Holder

Cathode d

Figure 7.17. Wiring diagram of a direct current, reverse polarity (DCRP) arc circuit
When using DCRP, one-third of the heat generated in the arc is released at the base-metal and two-thirds is liberated at the electrode. With two-thirds of the heat released at the electrode in DCRP, the electrode metal and the shielding gas are super-heated. This superheating causes the molten metal in the electrode to travel across the arc at a very high rate of speed. Deep penetration results due to the force of the high velocity arc. There is theory that, with a covered electrode, a jet action and/or expansion of gases in the metal at the electrode tip causes the molten metal to be propelled with great impact across the arc. The choice of direct current reverse polarity depends on many variables such as material of the base metal, position of the weld, as well as the electrode material and covering.

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ACTIVITY 7
1. Explain the term nonconsumable electrode. 2. What does the term inert signify? 3. List the gases used for shielding a welding arc. 4. Explain how TIG welding electrodes are shaped. 5. How far should the electrode extend beyond the nozzle of the TIG torch? 6. Explain why MIG welding is classified as a semiautomatic process. 7. From the standpoint of operation, how are TIG and MIG processes different? How are they similar? 8. What polarity does anode signify? 9. In what direction do the electrons travel when using straight polarity? 10. How much of the heat used for arc welding is liberated at the electrode when using straight polarity? 11. Why is it recommended that a tungsten electrode arc be started on a scrap tungsten surface? 12. What would happen if the tungsten electrode were bent off centre? 13. Name two defects that could occur with gas shielded-arc welding processes and explain how each could be avoided.

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RAPID PROTOTYPING
CONTENT 1 Introduction 1.1 : 1.2 : 1.3 : 2 Introduction of rapid prototyping History of rapid prototyping The advantages of rapid prototyping

Classification of rapid prototyping 2.1 : Three major group of rapid prototyping 2.1.1 : Subtractive process 2.1.2 : Additive process 2.1.3 : Virtual process 2.1.3.1 : 2.1.3.2 : 2.1.3.3 : 2.1.3.4 : 2.1.3.5 : Fused deposition modeling Stereolithography Selective laser sintering Ballistic Laminated object manufacturing

Understanding Direct Manufacturing And Rapid Tooling 3.1 : 3.2 : 3.2.1 : 3.2.2 : Basic methodology of rapid tooling Rapid tooling Benefits of rapid injection tool molding Advantages of rapid tooling for manufacturing

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Topic 1 : Introduction 1.1 : Introduction of Rapid Prototyping Rapid prototyping is a revolutionary and powerful technology with wide range of applications. The process of prototyping involves quick building up of a prototype or working model for the purpose of testing the various design features, ideas, concepts, functionality, output and performance. The user is able to give immediate feedback regarding the prototype and its performance. Rapid prototyping is essential part of the process of system designing and it is believed to be quite beneficial as far as reduction of project cost and risk are concerned. Rapid prototyping is known by many terms as per the technologies involved, like SFF or solid freeform fabrication, FF or freeform fabrication, digital fabrication, AFF or automated freeform fabrication, 3D printing, solid imaging, layer-based manufacturing, laser prototyping and additive manufacturing.

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1.2 : History of Rapid Prototyping: Sixties: The first rapid prototyping techniques became accessible in the later eighties and they were used for production of prototype and model parts. The history of rapid prototyping can be traced to the late sixties, when an engineering professor, Herbert Voelcker, questioned himself about the possibilities of doing interesting things with the computer controlled and automatic machine tools. These machine tools had just started to appear on the factory floors then. Voelcker was trying to find a way in which the automated machine tools could be programmed by using the output of a design program of a computer. Seventies: Voelcker developed the basic tools of mathematics that clearly describe the three dimensional aspects and resulted in the earliest theories of algorithmic and mathematical theories for solid modeling. These theories form the basis of modern computer programs that are used for designing almost all things mechanical, ranging from the smallest toy car to the tallest skyscraper. Voleckers theories changed the designing methods in the seventies, but, the old methods for designing were still very much in use. The old method involved either a machinist or machine tool controlled by a computer. The metal hunk was cut away and the needed part remained as per requirements. Eighties: However, in 1987, Carl Deckard, a researcher form the University of Texas, came up with a good revolutionary idea. He pioneered the layer based manufacturing, wherein he thought of building up the model layer by layer. He printed 3D models by utilizing laser light for fusing metal powder in solid prototypes, single layer at a time. Deckard developed this idea into a technique called Selective Laser Sintering. The results of this technique

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were extremely promising. The history of rapid prototyping is quite new and recent. However, as this technique of rapid prototyping has such wide ranging scope and applications with amazing results, it has grown by leaps andbounds. Voelckers and Deckards stunning findings, innovations and researches have given extreme impetus to this significant new industry known as rapid prototyping or free form fabrication. It has revolutionized the designing and manufacturingprocesses. Though, there are many references of people pioneering the rapid prototyping technology, the industry gives recognition to Charles Hull for the patent of Apparatus for Production of 3D Objects by Stereolithography. Charles Hull is recognized by the industry as the father of rapid prototyping. Present-day Rapid Prototyping: Today, the computer engineer has to simply sketch the ideas on the computer screen with the help of a design program that is computer aided. Computer aided designing allows to make modification as required and you can create a physical prototype that is a precise and proper 3D object. 1.3 : The Advantages Of Rapid Prototyping CAD data files can be manufactured in hours. Tool for visualization and concept verification. Prototype used in subsequent manufacturing operations to obtain final part. Tooling for manufacturing operations can be produced.

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TOPIC 2 : CLASSIFICATION OF RAPID PROTOTYPING 2.1 : Three Major Group Of Rapid Prototyping. 2.1.1 : Subtractive Process The subtractive process is the prevalent process in the history of model making. Model makers once utilized materials like clay and wood or other hard material, to whittle, carve, or sculpt a model component. A complex part could be made in a number of pieces and assembled to create the final product. The excess material was basically chiseled, cut, and sanded to expose the design within the carving medium. This process was understandably time-intensive and resulted in a finished product that was a one-of-a-kind and could not be easily replicated without remaking the part from scratch. Once a part was roughed out in the desired material, hand finishing, applying colors, textures and graphics allowed model makers to achieve a unique part that often closely mimicked the desired future product. Today CAD/CAM programs make the replication of these parts much simpler and provide high tolerances for part specifications. Architectural model makers use laser cutting technology to precisely incise materials like foam core, high- density papers and other materials to replicate panels used in the construction of structural models. Product design model makers may use molds and castings, CNC routers or milling machines to electronically carve parts out of the desired medium.

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2.1.2 : Additive Process

Additive fabrication refers to a class of manufacturing processes, in which a part is built by adding layers of material upon one another. These processes are inherently different from subtractive processes or consolidation processes. Subtractive processes, such as milling, turning, or drilling, use carefully planned tool movements to cut away material from a workpiece to form the desired part. Consolidation processes, such as casting or molding, use custom designed tooling to solidify material into the desired shape. Additive processes, on the other hand, do not require custom tooling or planned tool movements. Instead, the part is constructed directly from a digital 3-D model created through Computer Aided Design (CAD) software. The 3-D CAD model is converted into many thin layers and the manufacturing equipment uses this geometric data to build each layer sequentially until the part is completed. Due to this approach, additive fabrication is often referred to as layered manufacturing, direct digital manufacturing, or solid freeform fabrication.

The most common term for additive fabrication is rapid prototyping. The term "rapid" is used because additive processes are performed much faster than conventional manufacturing processes. The fabrication of a single part may only take a couple hours, or can take a few days depending on the part size and the process. However, processes that require custom tooling, such as a mold, to be designed and built may require several weeks. Subtractive processes, such as machining, can offer more comparable production times, but those times can increase substantially for highly complex parts. The term "prototyping" is used because these additive processes were initially used solely to fabricate prototypes. However, with the improvement of

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additive technologies, these processes are becoming increasingly capable of high-volume production manufacturing, as will be explored in the section on applications. Additive fabrication offers several advantages, listed below.

Speed - As described above, these "rapid" processes have short build

times. Also, because no custom tooling must be developed, the lead time in receiving parts is greatly reduced.

Part complexity - Because no tooling is required, complex surfaces and

internal features can be created directly when building the part. Also, the complexity of a part has little effect on build times, as opposed to other manufacturing processes. In molding and casting processes, part complexity may not affect the cycle times, but can require several weeks to be spent on creating the mold. In machining, complex features directly affect the cycle time and may even require more expensive equipment or fixtures.

Material types - Additive fabrication processes are able to produce

parts in plastics, metals, ceramics, composites, and even paper with properties similar to wood. Furthermore, some processes can build parts from multiple materials and distribute the material based on the location in the part.

Low-volume production - Other more conventional processes are not

very cost effective for low-volume productions because of high initial costs due to custom tooling and lengthy setup times. Additive fabrication requires minimal setup and builds a part directly from the CAD model, allowing for low per-part costs for low-volume productions.

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With all of these advantages, additive fabrication will still not replace more conventional manufacturing processes for every application. Processes such as machining, molding, and casting are still preferred in specific instances, such as the following:

Large parts - Additive processes are best suited for relatively small parts
because build times are largely dependent upon part size. A larger part in the X-Y plane will require more time to build each layer and a taller part (in the Z direction) will require more layers to be built. This limitation on part size is not shared by some of the more common manufacturing methods. The cycle times in molding and casting processes are typically controlled by the part thickness, and machining times are dependent upon the material and part complexity. Manufacturing large parts with additive processes is also not ideal due to the current high prices of material for these processes.

High accuracy and surface finish - Currently, additive fabrication

processes can not match the precision and finishes offered by machining. As a result, parts produced through additive fabrication may require secondary operations depending on their intended use.

High-volume production - While the production capabilities of additive

processes are improving with technology, molding and casting are still preferred for high-volume production. At very large quantities, the perpart cost of tooling is insignificant and the cycle times remain shorter than those for additive fabrication.

Material properties - While additive fabrication can utilize various

material types, individual material options are somewhat limited. As a result, materials that offer certain desirable properties may not be

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available. Also, due to the fabrication methods, the properties of the final part may not meet certain design requirements. Lastly, the current prices for materials used in additive processes are far greater than more commonly used materials for other processes.

2.1.3 : Virtual Process

Virtual prototyping is becoming a cost-effective method used in testing new products and systems. It is an integral part of current rapid prototype Shenzhen methods wherein virtual designs created from computer aided design (CAD) or animation modeling software are used and then transformed into cross sections in a still virtual environment.A special machine is then used to create each virtual cross section in then takes physical form layer after layer until an identical prototype model is created. The whole process enables the virtual model become a physical model with corresponding identical features.

In the additive fabrication of virtual prototypes, the rapid prototyping (RP) machine reads the data from a CAD drawing, and forms successive layers of liquid or powdered material according to the virtual data received. It slowly builds up a physical model from a series of cross sections.These different layers, which match up to the virtual cross sections created from the CAD model, are then glued or fused together to create the final three dimensional prototype model.All the rapid prototyping technologies in current use have many things in common. All make use of additive processes. Rapid prototyping makes use of additive construction as the means of creating solid prototype objects which has the distinct advantage of creating almost

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any shape or form that even the best machining and tooling methods may not be able to achieve. During the ensuing development, virtual prototyping goes through a number of stages that eventually turns designs into fully testable three dimensional models.All the rapid prototyping machines being used slowly form the three dimensional models by putting together thin, two-dimensional layers one at a time. The three dimensional manifestation of the virtual design is formed from the bottom up. Models are formed on an elevator-like platform from virtual CAD designs. The platform is lowered a layer-height at a time once a layer is completed. The thinner the layer, the smoother the finish will be on the completed prototype model. Once the model is completely formed, it may be sanded, plated or painted, depending on material used.Rapid prototyping technologies can either be a "dry" or a "wet" process. Most machines create prototype models by solidifying some sort of loose powder, liquid, or semi-liquid material. A machine may be able to cut through adhesive-coated sheets of prototype fabrication material. The dry powdered materials can either be some sort of polymer, powdered metal, or wax. Some machines may even be able to use starch as the building material for forming the prototype model.Some of the powders used may also require a binder. The liquid materials mainly used are usually photosensitive polymers that solidify when exposed to either a laser or ultraviolet (UV) light. Wet rapid prototype Shenzhen methods generally require a curing phase.

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2.1.3.1 : Fused-Deposition Modeling

The Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) process constructs threedimensional objects directly from 3D CAD data. A temperature-controlled head extrudes thermoplastic material layer by layer.

The FDM process starts with importing an STL file of a model into a preprocessing software. This model is oriented and mathematically sliced into horizontal layers varying from +/- 0.127 - 0.254 mm thickness. A support structure is created where needed, based on the part's position and geometry. After reviewing the path data and generating the toolpaths, the data is downloaded to the FDM machine. The system operates in X, Y and Z axes, drawing the model one layer at a time. This process is similar to how a hot glue gun extrudes melted beads of glue. The temperature-controlled extrusion head is fed with thermoplastic modelling material that is heated to a semi-liquid state. The head extrudes and directs the material with precision in ultrathin layers onto a fixtureless base. The result of the solidified material laminating to the preceding layer is a plastic 3D model built up one strand at a time. Once the part is completed the support columns are removed and the surface is finished.

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FDM process Figure : 2.1.3.1

2.1.3.2 : Stereolithography

Stereolithography is an additive manufacturing process using a vat of liquid UV-curable photopolymer "resin" and a UV laser to build parts a layer at a time. On each layer, the laser beam traces a part cross-section pattern on the surface of the liquid resin. Exposure to the UV laser light cures, solidifies the pattern traced on the resin and adheres it to the layer below. After a pattern has been traced, the SLA's elevator platform descends by a single layer thickness, typically 0.05 mm to 0.15 mm (0.002" to 0.006"). Then, a resin-filled blade sweeps across the part cross section, re-coating it with fresh material. On this new liquid surface, the subsequent layer pattern is traced, adhering to the previous layer. A complete 3-D part is formed by this process. After building, parts are cleaned of excess resin by immersion in a chemical bath and then cured in a UV oven.

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Stereolithography requires the use of support structures to attach the part to the elevator platform and to prevent certain geometry from not only deflecting due to gravity, but to also accurately hold the 2-D cross sections in place such that they resist lateral pressure from the re-coater blade. Supports are generated automatically during the preparation of 3D CAD models for use on the stereolithography machine, although they may be manipulated manually. Supports must be removed from the finished product manually; this is not true for all rapid prototyping technologies. 2.1.3.3 : Selective Laser Sintering, SLS Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) is a layer additive production process that creates three dimensional objects using a CO2 laser to melt, or sinter, and fuse selective powder molecules based on information supplied by a computer aided design (CAD) file. Selective laser sintering (SLS) was born out of the University of Texas and is a popular process used in rapid prototyping and product development. The selective laser sintering (SLS) technology was brought to the forefront of commercialization by DTM Corporation which is now called 3D Systems. The powder material that is fused during the selective laser sintering (SLS) process is commonly called thermoplastic material or, in some cases, thermoplastic binders for use in metals. The selective laser sintering (SLS) technology allows for these materials to be fused together in tiny layers ranging between .003 and .006. This allows selective laser sintering (SLS) to create parts with accurate details and tolerances comparable to stereolithography (SLA). However, selective laser sintering (SLS) has an added benefit in that the strength and durability of the parts it creates is much better. Additionally, the selective laser sintering (SLS) process makes parts that have longer

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stability than stereolithography (SLA) and selective laser sintering (SLS) parts wont lose their shape or post cure over time. There are a variety of different types of materials available for use in the selective laser sintering (SLS) process. The most beneficial characteristic of selective laser sintering (SLS) is how durable and functional the materials are. These durable and functional selective laser sintering (SLS) materials include DuraForm and DuraForm glass-filled (GF) which are nylon based materials that create plastic prototypes. Other selective laser sintering (SLS) materials are CastForm used for investment casting patterns, selective laser sintering (SLS) Flex for elastomeric, rubber-like parts, and selective laser sintering (SLS) LaserForm which makes metal prototypes. Additionally, there is continual research and development going on to bring new selective laser sintering (SLS) materials to market. Each of these selective laser sintering (SLS) materials requires little to no post build processing to be ready to use which cuts out several steps in post processing of selective laser sintering (SLS) parts as compared to stereolithography (SLA). However, all of the selective laser sintering (SLS) materials can be finished in multiple ways to meet the desire or needs of selective laser sintering (SLS) users. Among other types of post processing, selective laser sintering (SLS) parts can be sanded, painted, plated, tapped, or even machined. This allows for a higher grade of smoothness and appearance to selective laser sintering (SLS) parts and assemblies and also gives users an unlimited number of ways to use selective laser sintering (SLS) parts. Other advantages of selective laser sintering parts (SLS) are: Parts and/or assemblies that move and work that have a good surface finish and feature detail

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Selective laser sintering (SLS) gives the capability of flexible snaps and living hinges as well as high stress and heat tolerance Wide variety of materials such as flexible and rigid plastics, elastomeric materials, fully dense metals and casting patterns Tight dimensional tolerances all the way down to thousandths of an inch Finishing capabilities that include painting for presentations, tapping or threading for use and inserts for assemblies Rapid delivery time of most parts and/or patterns in a few days Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) process has evolved into a common option for the creation of end-use production parts. The large assortment of different plastics and metals have made it quicker and less costly to use selective laser sintering (SLS) as opposed to other methods of manufacturing such as tooling. Selective laser sintering (SLS) is especially attractive when a design is complex or customized and the total part production requirements are low. Finally, the selective laser sintering (SLS) technology is well suited for use in rapid tooling. Rapid tooling, or RT, is generally different from conventional tooling in the following key areas: Rapid tooling is generally produced faster than conventional tooling, taking off as much as 80-90% of the time it takes to create first parts. This is where the speed of selective laser sintering (SLS) comes into play as parts can be created in days as opposed to weeks Rapid tooling is typically delivered at a lower cost compared to conventional tooling as much as 90-95% less

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Tolerances for rapid tooling are usually not as accurate as conventional tooling but selective laser sintering (SLS) allows for customization of specs to meet customer needs Rapid tooling life is considerably less than a conventional tool In spite of these differences, for many applications, rapid tooling using the selective laser sintering (SLS) process is ideal for first run parts or short run prototype production until conventional tooling methods can be obtained. Selective laser sintering (SLS) is an avenue that cuts a products time to market down considerably and, since the process can be customized, allows for design changes to be made without having to create a new tool. Harvest Technologies has multiple options for selective laser sintering (SLS) rapid tooling, as well as others, so please allow us to consult with you on the best choice for your requirements.

2.1.3.4 : Ballistic The BPM personal modeler came with all hardware and software enclosed in one compact unit. The BPM is controlled by a DOS based 486 powered PC which is housed within the unit. The BPM utilized ink jet or droplet based manufacturing techniques, where it builds the models by firing micro-droplets of molten wax material from a moving nozzle or jet onto a stationary platform, the platform then lowers and the process is repeated for each layer of the model. The part is built as a hollow shell.

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The parts can be scaled, rotated, or translated to a desired orientation. This is performed on a 5 axis workstation BPM parts are not intended to be finished, however they may be painted.

BPM Process BPM employs a technology called digital Microsynthesis. 1.) In the first step of the process, molten plastic is fed to a piezoelectic jetting mechanism, almost like those of inkjet printers. 2.) Next a multi-axis controlled NC (Numerical Control) system shoots tiny droplets of material onto the target, using the jetting mechanism. 3.) Last, small droplets freeze upon contact with the surface, forming the surface particle by particle.

BPM Uses BPM parts are mainly used for concept visualization. Due to the weakness of the material, the parts arent well equipped for use as functional components. BPM parts are useful during the design process

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BPM Advantages Requires minimal post-processing. Low toxicity. Minimal power consumption. Low cost of cost and materials. Ability to perform in microgravity and vacuum environments. BPM has no size constraints. The process allows use of virtually any thermoplastic. Because of this, there are no heath hazards involved.

BPM Disadvantages Parts produced lack strength and durability.

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2.1.3.5 : Laminated

A manufacturing process that uses a carbon-dioxide laser to create successive cross-sections of a three-dimensional object from layers of paper with a polyethylene coating on the backside. The first step is to create a base on which the paper can attach itself to. This is done by placing a special tape down onto the platform. A sheet of paper is fed through with the aid of small rollers. As the paper is fed through, a heated roller is used to melt the coating on the paper so that each new layer will adhere to the previous layer. The carbon-dioxide laser then cuts the outline of the cross-sectional pattern into the top layer of paper. Once the laser is done cutting the pattern, it creates a border around the build that contains the desired part. This enables the part to stay intact as each new layer is created. Once the border has been cut, the laser then proceeds to create hatch marks, or cubes that surround the pattern within the border. The cubes behave as supports for the part to ensure that no shifting or movement takes place during the entire build. When the build is completed, the part, attached to the platform, needs to be removed from the LOM. Depending on the size of the part, the block to be removed may take more than one person to remove the build from the LOM. After the part has been successfully removed from the LOM, it must then be removed for the actual platform. Again this may take the work of more than one individual. A wire is used and placed between the part and the platform to "cut" the part away from the metal platform.

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The border, or frame of the part is then removed. The next step involves decubing. or removing the supports. Often times the supports can be removed from simple shaking the part; other times it is necessary to use a chisel to pry the cubes away from the part. When all of the cubes have been removed, the unfinished part is sanded down and a lacquer is used to seal the part. Being that LOM parts are made for paper, humidity and temperature affect the structure and composure of the part if it is not coated; hence, the lacquer serves as a protective measure. The LOM is very useful in manufacturing large parts quickly.

Highlights of Laminated Object Manufacturing Layers of glue-backed paper form the model. Low cost: Raw material is readily available. Large parts: Because there is no chemical reaction involved, parts can be made quite large. Accuracy in z is less than that for stereolithography and selective laser sintering.No milling step. Outside of model, cross-hatching removes material Models should be sealed in order to prohibit moisture. Before sealing, models have a wood-like texture. Not as prevalent as stereolithography and selective laser sintering.

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Laminated Object Manufacturing

The figure below shows the general arrangement of a Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM, registered trademark by Helisys of Torrance, California, USA) cell:

General arrangement of a Laminated Object Manufacturing Figure : 2.1.3.5

Material is usually a paper sheet laminated with adhesive on one side, but plastic and metal laminates are appearing. 1. Layer fabrication starts with sheet being adhered to substrate with the heated roller. 2. The laser then traces out the outline of the layer. 3. Non-part areas are cross-hatched to facilitate removal of waste material.

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4. Once the laser cutting is complete, the platform moves down and out of the way so that fresh sheet material can be rolled into position. 5. Once new material is in position, the platform moves back up to one layer below its previous position. 6. The process can now be repeated. The excess material supports overhangs and other weak areas of the part during fabrication. The cross-hatching facilitates removal of the excess material. Once completed, the part has a wood-like texture composed of the paper layers. Moisture can be absorbed by the paper, which tends to expand and compromise the dimensional stability. Therefore, most models are sealed with a paint or lacquer to block moisture ingress.

UNDERSTANDING DIRECT MANUFACTURING AND RAPID TOOLING 3.1:Basic Methodology for RP Process

Methodology of Rapid Prototyping The basic methodology for all current rapid prototyping techniques can be summarized as follows: 1. A CAD model is constructed, then converted to STL format. The resolution can be set to minimize stair stepping. 2. The RP machine processes the .STL file by creating sliced layers of the model. 3. The first layer of the physical model is created. The model is then lowered by the thickness of the next layer, and the process is repeated

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until completion of the model. 4. The model and any supports are removed. The surface of the model is then finished and cleaned.

Method

A general procedure for adopting the rapid prototyping method is outlined below. 1. Allow enough time to create the prototype. If the prototype is to be evaluated with users then allow time to design relevant tasks, recruit the users, evaluate the prototype and report the results. 2. Assemble the necessary equipment, including the hardware and software tools necessary to create the interactive prototype. 3. Develop the prototype itself. 4. Select appropriate users to test the prototype, trying to cover the range of users within the target population. A facilitator will also be required to instruct the users and run the evaluation. 5. Prepare realistic tasks to occupy the users as they work with the prototype. 6. Pilot the evaluation procedure and ensure the prototype can be used to accomplish the tasks. 7. Ensure recording facilities are available and functioning.

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8. Conduct each session. The facilitator instructs the user to work through the allocated tasks, interacting with, and responding to, the system as appropriate. 9. If necessary additional information can be obtained by interviewing users following their use of the prototype. Debrief and thank the user. 10. Analyse the obtained information and then summarise the

observations and user evaluations. Determine the themes and severity of the problems identified. 11. Summarise support this. 12. Where necessary refine the prototype and repeat the above process. When using this method, avoid spending too long on the development of initial prototypes as user evaluation may result in substantial changes. Also, avoid making the prototype too polished as this may force users to accept it as finished. Do not put in features that will raise the users expectations but which are unlikely to be achieved with the real system (e.g. too fast response times, too sophisticated graphics) and do not put too much effort into particular features (e.g. animations) which may not be required. Be aware that the method requires software development skills. Also, although rapid, the method can often be more time consuming than other approaches and that resources required are greater than paper and pens due to the need for software and hardware. design implications and recommendations for

improvements and feed back to design team. Video recordings can

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3.2:Rapid Tooling

Rapid Tooling (RT) describes a process that is the result of combining Rapid Prototyping techniques with conventional tooling practices to produce a mold quickly or parts of a functional model from CAD data in less time and at a lower cost relative to traditional machining methods. Rapid Tooling can act as a bridge to production injection molded parts. Rapid Tooling (RT) typically, either uses a Rapid Prototyping (RP) model as a pattern or uses the Rapid Prototyping process directly to fabricate a tool for a limited volume of prototypes. Expensive tooling cost can be well justified just when the production quantity is massive. Actually the way to produce tooling quicker and more economically, especially for small quantity manufacturing becomes a significant question. Additionally, in the product development cycle, requires always some intermediate tooling to produce a small quantity of prototypes or functional tests, samples for marketing, evaluation purpose, or production process design. RT becomes more and more important to nowadays manufacturing industry. The main advantages are tooling time is much shorter than for a conventional tool. Time to first articles can be less than one-fifth that of conventional tooling; tooling cost is much less than for a conventional tool. Cost can be below five percent of conventional tooling cost. The main challenges are tool life is less than for conventional tools and tolerances are wider than for conventional tools.

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3.2.1 : BENEFITS OF RAPID INJECTION TOOL MOLDING Prototypes in production material in little time. Allows for full fit and function testing. Discover any design imperfection on early stage. Low cost tooling allows for facilitate design refinement and modification. Preceding production process- molds can produce thousands of parts.

New

stations

rapid

milling

CNC

CharlyRobot presenting attractive costs can produce molds or prototypes and in mm x 2100 mm in Fiberglass, or fast aluminum time 3100 Composites

production of products in extremely short dimensions: x 450 mm

even to fraction larger molds modeling.

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3.2.2:Advantages Of Rapid Tooling For Manufacturing

Shorten the Tooling Lead-Time - Normal development time is shortened from months to a few days or weeks. Low Cost - reduced Cost allowing real trials affordable. Allows functional test of parts on initial design stage. Data CAD Direct Transfer - Many imperfections due to drawings misinterpretation can be avoided using the original CAD model all through the RP process and then along to RT process. Due to short tooling manufacture time and low cost in using RT, many engineers prefer to produce parts for functional test in the early design stage. As a result, many design faults are debugged before production, so many design failures are avoided.

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3.2.3:RAPID TOOLING CONSTRAINTS The most rapid RP systems are still too slow and are limited as they can't produce parts in a wide range of materials, at a fast enough rate, to perform the enormous range of industry requirements. Despite the vast progress in direct part fabrication, even conventional processes such as molding and casting are still the only means available. RP is frequently the technological path making these manufacturing processes faster, cheaper and better. Certainly, the tooling fabrication Is actually the most important application of direct manufacturing. The two main ways to make tooling molds using Rapid Prototyping are directly fabricated by an RP system, or indirect or secondary processes RPgenerated parts that can be used as patterns for a mold fabricating.

3.2.4:DIRECT FABRICATION PROCESSES Molding and casting are specialized rapid prototyping processes that have been developed to meet specific application and material requirements. Stereolithography or selective laser sintering are normally forms of basic RP processes and methods developed for specific applications.

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3.2.5:INDIRECT OR SECONDARY PROCESSES Despite RP materials properties improve and expand continuously, a limitless array of applications means will always request to transfer parts fabricated in a material employed in an RP process into another material. As usually it is necessary to use very specific materials to make most tools, several material transfer technologies have been developed. 3.2.6:RAPID TOOLING CHOICE METHODS The clear result is that there are a different number of paths to obtain a final functional part or tool starting from a CAD definition. The choice depends on:

The purpose Volume to be produced Final material and accuracy requirements Applied rapid prototyping process Numerous other factors may influence choices since most technologies are emergent, have significant limitations, and there are usually several competing alternatives.

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3.2.7:TYPES OF RAPID TOOLING PROCESS Low Volume (from tens to hundreds) Soft Tooling Reaction injection molding Bridge Tooling - Direct Access Injection Molding Intermediate (from hundreds to thousands) Metal filled Epoxy Tooling Powdered Metal Tooling Space Puzzle Molding 3.2.8:CONNECTED SERVICES Simulation Consulting and information about simulation techniques Numerical simulation of manufacturing processes Numerical simulation of the mechanical and thermal component behavior Topology and shape optimization Rapid Prototyping Consulting and technology transfer Prototyping of parts Manufacturing of mold insert.

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Enclosure

figure 5.1.1:Example of Rapid Prototyping

Figure 5.1.2:Example of Parts of Rapid Prototyping

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Figure 5.1.3:Example of Fused Deposition Modelling

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Figure 5.1.4:Example Stereolithiography

Figure 5.1.5: 3-D Printing Process

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Figure 5.1.6:Laminated Object Material

Figure 5.1.7:Example of Rapid Tooling

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Figure 5.1.8:Example of Rapid Tooling

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