NASA

CR 61228

CLASSROOM

TRAINING

HANDBOOK

- ULTRASONIC

TESTING

Prepared

under

Contract Division

NAS 8-20185

by

Convair General

Dynamics San Diego,

Corporation Calif.

c:

<

for NATIONAL

George

C.

Marshall AND

Space SPACE

Flight

Center

AERONAUTICS

ADMINISTRATION

N68-28790
(ACCESSION

NUMBER)

(PA_s)

..

(NASA CR Ol_ TMX OR AD NUMBER)

c77, 2<Y g/

(CATEGORY)

GPO CFSTI

PRICE PRICE(S)

$ $

Hard copv Microfiche

ff 653 July 65

(HC) (MF)

PREFACE

Classroom training of those Ultrasonic Although contains NASA's

Training handbooks persons Testing formal material programs

Handbook designed Testing. for

- Ultrasonic use in the It is intended

Testing classroom that this

(5330.18) and handbook Programmed

is one be used

of a series exercise in the

of

practical

portions instruction Handbook -

of Nondestructive

who

have

successfully Vols. training I-III).

completed

Instruction

(5330.13, classroom that

is not

scheduled

at the

present

time,

this

handbook

is beneficial tightly

to personnel scheduled equipment, The failure

engaged

in Nondestructive of only small

Testing. quantities of

involve

procurement

space vehicles and ground support the first as well as later models. failure. approach A major with These each are piece This requirement for to Nondestructive share the of the people Testing.

requiring the of one article necessitates

extreme in reliability for could result in mission a thoroughly disciplined

complete

reliability

responsibility who conduct before or

for

assuring the

such tests

high that mission. must

levels

of reliability Testing confirm -is no room

lies personnel. or reject for --

NASA,

other

Government

agehcies,

and contractor monitor The to its decision

Nondestructive ultimately There be right

of hardware for

it is committed

error -- no chance the first time.

reexamination.

unquestionably

General George Huntsville, The and Space

technical C. Marshall Alabama

questions Space 35812. handbook Quality 35812.

concerning Flight Center,

this

publication Quality

should

be referred Assurance

to the Laboratory,

and Reliability

recipient comments Flight

of this for Center, Alabama

is encouraged of errors and in this Reliability

to submit initial Assurance

recommendations compilation Laboratory to George

for

updating C. Marshall

correction

(R-QUAL-OT),

Huntsville,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This handbookwas prepared by the Convair Division of General Dynamics Corporation under NASA Contract NAS8-20185. Assistance in the form of process data, technical reviews, andtechnical advice was provided by a great many companies and individuals. The following listing is an attempt to acknowledgethis assistance andto express our gratitude for the high degree of interest exhibited by the firms, their representatives, and other individuals who, in many cases, gave considerable time and effort to the project. Aerojet-General Corp. ; Automation Industries, Inc., Sperry Products Division; AVCO Corporation; The Boeing Company; Branson Instruments, Inc. ; The Budd Co., Instruments Division; Douglas Aircraft Co., Inc.; General Electric Co. ; Grumman Aircraft; Dr's Joseph & Herbert Krautkramer; Lockheed Aircraft Corp. ; Magnaflux Corp. ; The Martin Co. (Denver); McDonnell Aircraft Corp. ; North American Aviation, Inc. ; Pacific Northwest Laboratories, Battelle Memorial Institute;
Division St. Corp. Louis of Almar-York Testing Company, Inc. Inc. Rohr Corporation; Inc. ; William Southwest C. Hitt; Pioneer Industries, Institutt Products

Research X-Ray

Laboratories,

; Uresco,

ii

CLASSROOM

TRAINING

MANUAL

ULTRASONIC CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER 1 ....................................... 2 .........................................

TESTING INTRODUCTION PRINCIPLES EQUIPMENT TECHNIQUES CALIBRATING CALIBRATING TESTING UNITS

3 ......................................... 4 5 6 ......................................... ............................ ............................. COMPARISON AND

TRANSDUCERS PROCESSES

7 .............

SELECTION

OF NDT

iii

CHAPTER TABLE

1: OF

INTRODUCTION CONTENTS

Paragraph 100 I01 102

! ! ! | !

Page GENERAL PURPOSE DESCRIPTION 1. 2. Arrangement Locations ........................................ ........................................ OF CONTENTS ........................... .................................... ...................................... APPLICATIONS PHILOSOPHY CRITERIA ....................................... .................................. .................................. ................................... OF ULTRASONIC TESTING ......... ................................ 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-3 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-4 1-5

103 104 105 106 107 108

INDUSTRIAL TESTING PERSONNEL TESTING TEST TEST

PROCEDURES OBJECTIVE

p?_ECEDiNG

PAGE

BLANK

NOT,

FILMED.

CHAPTER 100 The ment. testing, 101 The testing that the the results retest quality either 102 1. The of: a. b. Chapter Chapter 1: 2: Introduction Ultrasonic applications c. d. e. f. g. 2. The Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter S of each figures, chapter and tables consists are 3: 4: 5: 6: 7: Equipment Testing Calibrating Calibrating Comparison GENERAL complexity that and ensure Of the with PURPOSE purpose required proper of the of this test finished test; handbook technique, product; and which expense reliability testing number this of space (testing

1:

INTRODUCTION

programs vehicles without

dictate and test destroying)

fabrication associated provides used.

and testing ground many available, support

proequip-

cedures procedures.

of space

Nondestructive

of these ultrasonic

of nondestructive is concerned,

procedures

handbook

is widely

is to provide assurance interpret, those or combination recognize

the

fundamental personnel of techniques, and evaluation.

knowledge to enable make them is used a sound test results

of ultrasonic to: decision that ascertain the as to require to assure

by quality

and test

evaluate, areas and

of the

of doubtful

or assistance

in interpretation

DESCRIPTION ARRANGEMENT material contained

OF CONTENTS

in this

handbook

is presented

in a logical

sequence

and

consists

and testing and

testing

philosophy with description of procedures,

principles capabilities

techniques testing tran and units

sduc er s selection of NDT processes

LOCATOR first page

of a table listed in each

of contents table

for

the

chapter.

Major

paragraphs,

of contents.

103
Because of both tubing, cally variety quality 104 The

INDUSTRIAL of the metallic plastics, revealing assurance TESTING basic reason and such of dissimilar basic and

APPLICATIONS characteristics nonmetallic ceramics, materials, personnel. PHILOSOPHY for use etc.

OF ULTRASONIC of ultrasonic products Since such

TESTING it is used forgings, testing in material effective to test castings, composition) tools available a variety sheet, in a to

testing, as welds,

and

ultrasonic (variations of the most

is capable

of economi-

subsurface

discontinuities it is one

of nondestructive ground support standards have

testing hardware, been

is to assure fabricated set and test

maximum of many results must

reliability To these meet

of space accomplish

associated reliability,

materials.

NASA standards. 105 PER SONNE L that personnel and the To make keep responsible test procedures. use of new for of the ultrasonic test equipment Ouality testing, There testing and assurance be trained materials, personnel is no substitute and the highly item be must for

It is imperative qualified under equally tests knowledge. 106 When TESTING required using test must with

a technical

understanding optimum abreast

(specimen), continually

qualified.

of ultrasonic developments.

personnel

conducting

CRITERIA by appropriate applicable test they are before block documentation, Nondestructive philosophy required they are which dictates required articles reliability every Testing to perform that vehicle techniques. each item in assemblies, to perform are and discovered reduced and support The and criteria must article be tested sub-assemblies Using earliest must

be tested individually are this tested

is part

of a building

before individually time,

in assemblies. at the cost.

approach,

unsatisfactory resulting

and faulty in higher system

possible 107

TEST

PROCEDURES procedures review available performed, correction for of past ultrasonic history, testing experience similar or checking that the test must specimen tests objective into revised are formulated on like or from similar that test analysis specimens, It is the procedures Procedures of the and are found supertest in-

Approved specimen, formation bility adequately vision for

concerning conducting and and

discontinuities. to ensure to the is accomplished. attention procedure.

responsi-

of personnel

to be incorrect

or inadequate

be brought

of responsible

incorporation

1-4

4mmmm,
108 TEST OBJECTIVE

b
l,

means

The objective of: a.

of ultrasonic

testing

is to ensure

product

reliability

by providing

Obtaining a visual under test. Disclosing Separating determined the

recorded

image

related

to a discontinuity

in the

specimen

b. c.

nature

of the and

discontinuity unacceptable

without material

impairing in accordance

the

material. with pre-

acceptable standards.

2.

No test

is successfully procedures

completed and results

until

an evaluation

of the

test

results test

is made. objective.

Evaluation

of test

requires

understanding

of the

| |

! i
=

1-5

CHAPTER 2: PRINCIPLES TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraph 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 GENERAL ENERGY EARLY WAVE WAVEFORMS SONIC ........................................ MOTION ................................... ................................. ................................. ................................. ............................. ......................... ............................ .............................. RELATIONSHIP DISPLAY OPERATION ....................................... Delay Length Markers .................................... .................................... .................................. ............................ ............................. ...................................... TESTS

Page 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-6 2-6 2-7 2-7 2-8 2-8 2-I 0 2-I0 2-I 1 2-11 2-12 2-13 2-14 2-16 2-17 2-i and Shear Wave ............................ ........................... .................... Modes .......... 2-17 2-18 2-19 2-19 2-19 2-20 2-21 2-21 2-21 2-22 2-22 ............................ ...................... ...................... 2-22 2-23 2-23 2-23 2-23 2-25 2-25 7

GENERATION

PIEZOELECTRICITY SOUNDBEAM TIME/DISTANCE OSCILLOSCOPE OSCILLOSCOPE i. 2. 3. 4. 5. General Sweep Sweep Range Summary

REFLECTION

....................................... FREQUENCIES VELOCITIES MODES

210 211 212

SOUNDBEAM SOUNDBEAM WAVE i. 2. 3. 4. TRAVEL General Comparison Shear and Transducer General Mixed Shear Surface

...............................

....................................... of Longitudinal Surface Waves Beam AND Mode Wave Wave Angles MODE

213

REFRACTION I. 2. 3. 4.

CONVERSION ............................. ............................. ............................

....................................... Conversion Generation Generation

214

5. Summary SNELL'S LAW I. 2. General Shell's Law

...................................... ...................................... ....................................... Calculations

215

3. Typical Problem-Solving Method CRITICAL ANGLES OF REFRACTION i. 2. 3. 4. General First Second ....................................... Critical Critical Angle Angle of Critical ...............................

.............................. Angles .........................

Calculation

2-1

TABLE Paragraph 216 217 SOUNDBEAM SOUNDBEAM I. 2. 3. 218 219 General Beam Soundbeam WAVES Wave Wave

OF

CONTENTS

(CONT) Page

ATTENUATION SPREADING Spread WAVES .......................................

........................... .............................

2-26 2-27 2-27 2-27 2-28 2-28 2-29 2-29 2-30 2-30 2-31 2-31 2-32 2-32 2-32 ............ 2-32 2-32 2-32

................................... Patterns .............................. ..................................

RAYLEIGH LAMB i. 2. 3. General Lamb Lamb General Acoustic Reflected Couplant General Surface Shape Mode Coarse

..................................... Types ................................ Modes ...............................

.......................................

220

COUPLANTS i. 2. 3. 4.

...................................... ....................................... Impedance Energy Selection OF TEST Roughness or Contour Conversion Grain .............................. ................................ ............................... SPECIMEN ON SOUNDBEAM

221

INFLUENCE

...................................... ............................... of Test Within Particles Specimen Test Within Test .................... ................. ............. ..................
J , . .

2-32 2-35 2-36 2-36 2-37 2-37 2-37 2-38 2-38 2-39 2-6 2-7 2-8 2-9

Specimen

Specimen

222

Orientation RESONANCE i. 2. 3. 4. 5. General Material Standing Thickness Summary Sound

and Depth THICKNESS Characteristics Waves Calculations

of Discontinuity MEASURING

....................................... ........................... ............................ .................................

...................................... Generation Wave Generation Measuring Contact Tube Reflection Ultrasonic Cathode-Ray Delay Length Markers Adjustment Adjustment ............................ ......................... .......................... Test Display ................. .......................... ........................... ........................... .............................

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7 2-8 2-9

Wave

Ultrasonic Soundbeam Time/Distance Typical Typical Sweep Sweep Range

2-9 2-10 2-12 2-13 2-14

..................................

2-2

TABLE Paragraph Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figur Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure
V

OF

CONTENTS(CONT) Page

2-10 2-11 2-12 2-13 2-14 2-15 2-16 2-17 2-18 2-19 e 2-20 2-21 2-22 2-23 2-24 2-25 2-26 2-27 2-28 2-1 2-2 2-3 2-4

Pulse-Echo Longitudinal

Unit, Wave

Block Mode

Diagram

...................... Compared .............

2-15 2-17 2-18 2-19 2-20 2-20 2-21 2-22 2-24 2-28 2-29 2-30 ............... 2-31 2-33 2-34 2-34

............................

Longitudinal and Mode Conversion Normal Incident Beam Angle Angle 5* Incident 1st 2nd Critical Critical

_aear Wave Modes ................................. Beam ............................. ................................ ................................ ................................ Angle

Calculation

of Refracted

........................

Beam Spread in Steel Soundbeam Radiation Rayleigh Symmetrical Irregular Convex Concave Mode Dead Back Surface Surface Conversion Zone, Near Waves or Surface

.............................. Patterns ........................ Waves .......................... Lamb Waves

& Asymmetrical Surface Effect Effect Caused Zone,

Effect ........................ ............................. ............................. by Beam and Far Spread Zone ................ ...................

2-35 2-36 2-38

Standing Ultrasonic Critical

.................................. Differences Immersion ....................... Testing ....................

Table Table Table Table

Velocity Angles,

2-16 2-26 2-26 2-31

Critical Angles, Contact Testing ...................... Lamb Wave Modes ................................

_ECEDING

PAGE

.BLANK

NOT

FILMED.

CHAPTER 200 GENERAL may (16 Kc), of sound be defined may The which in air, as sound hear term notes six with octaves used

2:

PRINCIPLES

Ultrasonics ear. second per speed testing, used. 201 Sound by its second. when tion each 202 v away wave, Normal second

a pitch above is used

too high higher middle

to be detected than 16,000 speeds second C, up to about

by the human cycles 20,000 greater per cycles than the

adults (20 Kc).

of frequencies

is about

suPersonic

to describe cycles per

and is never of 200 thousand

as a synonym

for ultrasonic. are

In ultrasonic commonly

frequencies

to 25 million

ENERGY is produced frequency Particles, sound

MOTION by a vibrating (F) or the making through source. is moving the number up the body. The pitch oscillate actual which of the resultant or cycles their the about particles moves note fixed is determined in one positions in mean

of complete medium, The energy,

vibrations

completed

travels from that

a medium. It is the progressively.

do not travel particles

in a direcslightly

WAVEFORMS waves are the measured same from trough to trough as the vibration. wavelength, The or from crest (k). to crest, The same time amount the taken disfor the

If sound tance wave for the

is always to travel source equation:

and it is known of one one complete complete

wavelength

a distance to execute

X, is the velocity

of time

of sound

(V) is given

by the

V = _,F Several types of waves are possible with sound energy traveling through solid matter.

These are longitudinal, or compression, the same direction as the motion of the the particle vibrations within are are certain so that known in a direction limits, it ripples as surface are i.e., is possible, surface cles. shortest visible similar solid with These

waves where the particle vibrations are in sound; and shear, or transverse, waves where at right the order wave may angles to the along motion the of the free sound. or It shear surface waves boundary a few partiThe of very

to produce across of the they or sound as directed, as a boundary of solid, or Rayleigh

of a solid ultrasonic light. to those objects a gas, For

to a depth

of only

(pronounced of magnitude vibrations be reflected, are between bundled these light the

"ray'lee") of the possess focused, beams, object are

waves. wavelength properties in homogeneous with and almost very

wavelengths this reason, waves, vibrations manner acting of light particle same surface or another

ultrasonic

or refracted. little

High-frequency absorption.

waves

propagated

in the At any liquid,

an interface completely

type

soundbeams

2-5

reflected. from of the possible 203 For vibrations,

As with in liquids

echo-sounding enabling or gases, rigidity.

in sonar detection are

applications, presence in the shear,

the ultrasonic and location. mode wave and surface longitudinal

pulses

echo

discontinuities, absence of shear

of their

Ultrasonic only because modes are

propagated

Longitudinal,

in solids. EARLY SONIC men TESTS tested Around to the part with a mallet. In the practical parts the and by hitting turn of this covering 1940's, deep-seated them with a mallet railroad coat looked Firestone and listening men inspected wet, of whiting. developed to W. for a tonal parts Then was the .first of basic C. Hitt by they

centuries, difference. kerosene the part

quality applying struck assumed pulse-echo standards and D. 204 When shown

century,

it with a second where the whiting Dr. testing F. flaws. system A.

In areas early

the part

to be cracked. instrument and C. WAVE a tuning in Figure the first Erdman. GENERATION fork the air. 2-1.

for detecting

The establishment is credited

immersion

is struck These The

with a mallet, waves tuning travel fork

it vibrates through air soon

and die

produces ear

sound

waves as produce

by

compressing

to the

of the

listener

vibrations

out and no longer

MALLET 'LISTENER

STRONGER WAVE TUNING FORK

WEAKER WAVE

Figure waves. excites from to the with the the Similarily, a transducer transducer surface piece, test front in ultrasonic (crystal) then of the with travels test the

2-1.

Sound Wave a short

Generation pulse of electrical tuning may the fork. transducer, the piece. current The oil, hits soundbeam etc., in contact or

testing, which piece. vibrates through

as did the 2-2 shows

a couplant, Figure pulses traveling

which

be water,

soundbeam

through

2-6

::

4.

VIBRATING TRANSDUCER ULTRASONIC WAVES

\
TEST ELECTRICAL PULSE PIECE

Figure 205 PIEZOELECTRICITY practice, crystal. '_ The first

2-2.

Ultrasonic

Wave

Generation

In actual electric" press. produces the Into water object the 206 test crystal,

a high-frequency The refers prefix "plezo" two syllables current, vibrates. and test material. on, or

transmitter is derived phenomenon should

applies from

electrical a Greek like the word words

pulses "pie"

to a "piezo"to and "ease." to as the of vibrated, energy such through

meaning when electric

be pronounced when then through factors, them These other

Piezoelectricity the

to a reversible This transmits among

whereby an electric transforms

a crystal, current the

an electric crystal

conversely, crystal

is applied

mechanical or oil, with

vibrations into the depending

a coupling the density

medium,

pulsed

vibrations

propagate

a speed

and elasticity

material. REFLECTION vibrations object, the crystal, be picked react they in the reflect they are same most or, way of the in most as light. soundbeam cases, into For example, same energy or base is called nature being a are repiece. the test of

SOUNDBEAM ways, strike reflections or transducer. amplified, on a cathode "A-Scan." ray This

In many when These crystal again, line the they

high-frequency an interrupting may then Within and presented tube

energy. by the

up by a second, deflection This factors,

transformed type the

electrical trace exact

as a vertical or oscilloscope. not from give direct several

of a horizontal of presentation about most the important

(CRT) does

Ultrasonics

information

the reflection. knowledge of the flected as echoes The Figure echo from 2-3 shows

is deduced

test piece material and its from both the discontinuity discontinuity that the time is received required for

construction. and the back before the the back soundbeam

Ultrasonic waves surface of the test reflection to travel through

the

is received.

TEST

PIECE

TRANSDUCER

\
BACK SURFACE_

DISCONTINUITY

Figure

2-3.

Soundbeam

Reflection and distance for the

piece to the discontinuity and back is only 2/3rds of the time soundbeam to reach to the back surface and return. 207 The pulse tion) pips) instant The TIME/DISTANCE one-way or main from from that longer the the the distance on the CRT and bang RELATIONSHIP for the the soundbeam (soundbeam produce or base the on the distance line initial screen. measurements screen distance base are line waves screen, to travel as shown traveling two sharp on the pulse the rises appears farther

to a reflecting In Figure through water screen. on the the left 2-4.

surface The in this The side from

can initial

be

measured

or oscilloscope echo surface trace occurs, an echo right and bang

illustracalled screen. precise

reflecting main time

or indications

(usually of the

the horizontal before

oscilloscope

is received,

echo

a discontinuity

or interface As mentioned sion, the 208 Figure it will number

appears earlier, be seen of units

to the time that involved

related. may

In later

discusto match

the oscilloscope in one-way

be adjusted

(as shown).

OSCILLOSCOPE 2-5 shows

DISPLAY ultrasonic Notice actual positions contact of the test of the test setup piece and the resulting indications surface, display or pips on on the

a typical screen. to the

the oscilloscope screen in relation and back surface. In the surface appeared above

the position

displayed front

discontinuity,

illumination, the initial grid

the pulse marked

indications or front "4. " The

on the surface

oscilloscope on the These grid

screen marked

were "0" were

adjusted and the

to back

superimpose just

pip "1."

pip on the

discontinuity,

without

adjustment, accom-

to the right

of the grid

marked

adjustments

2-s

_,

TIME

INITIAL PULSE

FRONT SURFACE Jl

OF PLATE II (ECHO)------71

)
PLATE IMMERSED REFLECTOR IN GLASS BEAKER PLATE

ROUND TRIP TIME (4 UNITS)

OSCILLOSCOPE

SCREEN

Figure

2-4.

Time/Distance

Measuring

------b.

TIME INCH SCALE 0 1 2 3,

I
SURFACE PULSE) FRONT (INITIAL BAC K SURFACE

I
TEST

I
SPECIMEN

FRONT SURFACE

_j

IL.
1

DISCONTINUITY

TRANSDUCER (DISCONTINUITY LOCATED ABOUT 1-1/4 INCHES WITHIN PART) OSCILLOSCOPE SCREEN

Figure

2-5.

Typical

Ultrasonic

Contact

Test

Display 2-9

plished by varying two controls LENGTH or RANGE. 209 1. OSCILLOSCOPE GENERAL

on the instrument,

the SWEEP

DELAY

and

the SWEEP

OPERATION

The oscilloscope displays ultrasonic similar to a television picture tube. its electron The gun. This electronic glass, is coated glows screen emits ceases screen accelerated with tube is made display. compounds sistence. trons nozzle. determined, produced filament, these operation directed may The of specially-tested screen vary in composition at the phosphor and behind similar electrons are then the from similar light to in the for glow.

indications on a cathode ray tube (CRT) Figure 2-6 shows a typical cathode ray or bottle comes with called when various light In many a phosphor brightness, bombarded of glass sizes and end constructed a material a screen at one for and

which is tube and It picture perelecThe spray are a hot means, of a pinthe time

shapes.

compound. colors, by high-speed of the tube. with a water

Phosphor

to produce and produces the

A phosphor

electron to writing a definite At the gun.

gun in the base on a sheet time opposite The light to form period, end bulb. a beam electrons

be considered

its persistence of the tube, are which emitted is the

is prefrom size

electrons

electron

to the

filament

in an ordinary and bunched

By electromagnetic

HORIZONTAL DEFLECTION PLATES (PRODUCE HORIZONTAL SWEEP) ELECTRON

GLASS

TUBE

BASE CONNECTORS

V
PIPS

ELECTRON GUN

FOCUS AND ACCELERATION (PRODUCE ELECTRON BEAM)

VERTICAL DEFLECTION PLATES (PRODUCE VERTICAL SWEEP)

VIEWING SCREEN

HORIZONTAL SWEEP LINE

Figure 2-10

2-6.

Typical

Cathode-Ray

Tube

head altered when line. the the the right. along equals

when

it strikes testing,

the the the

phosphor direction, oscilloscope received. causes edge

screen. like This the screen

The

position a garden

of the hose, is called to sweep As soon shows

spot

on the

screen

is line

by changing there

pointing horizontal electron fixed to the left of the time zero speed a signal vertical relays pip The

of the a bright the from as the high a line known. time

electron horizontal sweep the left beam

beam. or base edge reaches too fast across left to to of

In ultrasonic

usually line beam speed. edge time and time, beam

is no signal to the edge, right

An electronic screen right screen. the line

circuit

at a certain to return

it is caused screen. line may represents from zero. distance. The length the

at a very draws required are this the and

speed, of light from The sweep

be seen

on the Distance distance

In operation, be determined time When

an electron when since the

is a measure

to move

speed

distance by speed may from a pip to test be the

multiplied oscilloscope causing from the back pips the

is known, is relayed deflection signals appears

horizontal to the plates,

adjusted transducer, appear front

to represent a voltage on the and back line. surfaces,

When to the transducer front

is applied When the the

reflected first and these

piece pip

surface

surface

appears some of the distance 2. The on it, used, SWEEP SWEEP

time later in the sweep, between the surfaces. DELAY DELAY control either operator to the operator the that constant. material first of the to the

spacing

between

is a measure

instrument or to the 2-7 the under picked pip. base test

permits left side, shows line (see

the

base while SWEEP

line,

and the

indications the is the

to be shifted remains the related 2-7, the and Notice to allow

right Figure

the spacing DELAY test or left in order setup).

between control to see

indications indications In Figure initial surface into 3. Now view. SWEEP

how the to the Figure

to shift

right

2--5 for

up the front In adjusting the the first

surface

pip (which DELAY, and back has

is also surface

the pips

pulse)

discontinuity to the far left, the distance

the SWEEP discontinuity two pips

the front

pip is moved

bringing between

not changed.

LENGTH delay, the SWEEP LENGTH or RANGE the front and

that the operator has adjusted the sweep

adjustment must be considered.

The operator may

wish to superimpose

back surface pips on the oscilloscope grid lines so that the distance relationship on the screen is related to the actual measurements of the test piece. To do this, the horizontal trace or base line is expanded, the pips displayed. back surface pips, always has the same a. or contracted, to change the distance between relationship, in proportion, in the test piece.

The locations of the discontinuity pip, in relation to the front and

The expansion or contraction of the base line is away from or toward the left side of the screen. That is,"ifthe sweep delay is set so that the start of the

presentation desired is at the leftside of the screen, adjustment of the 2-11

_-_

TIME

---_

TIME

OSCILLOSCOPE f

SCREEN

FRONT SURFACE RFACE SURFACE BACK

'

1 DISCONTINUITY

BEFORE ADJUSTING

AFTER ADJUSTING

Figure SWEEP hand makes segment screen SWEEP LENGTH it possible of the LENGTH to be moved

2-7. moves the

Sweep

Delay

Adjustment pips from the delay part. makes the away The the from sweep test piece allows or toward delay in any the with the the control desired viewing the a leftalso

right-hand

pip which

appears total

to remain depth.

stationary.

to view along control,

the responses In effect, the the depth sweep depth of the

control

In conjunction it possible across

delay with

to examine entire

magnified segment of the part width of the CRT screen.

b.

segment

In Figure entire grids. part

2-8, depth

the SWEEP across the

LENGTH screen

is adjusted and to align

to expand the pips

the with

view the

of the screen

at

Two much tion,

controls, of the if not test the

the

SWEEP

DELAY

and

the

SWEEP time

LENGTH screen

regulate and what

how por-

part whole,

is presented of the part

at one

on the

is presented.

4.

RANGE

MARKERS example, the grid lines on the Figure oscilloscope 2-9 shows screen Range were Markers, used to aid which in

In the previous locating 2-12

the position

of discontinuities.

are

_.P,

TIME

---IP.

TIME

OSCI LLO SCOPE SCREEN

BEFORE ADJUSTING

AFTER ADJUSTING

Figure set tion the the into the display just under within the front

2-8. the the base

Sweep line

Length to aid

Adjustment in immediately are back the first identifying expanded reflection feet, on-off selection of square to be 2-9, (for spacing inches, switch knob the the part permits pip, etc. the locadividing The and of the waves 11 inches the by the

of any space

discontinuity between convenient are adjustment The accurate surface is located into

part. surface

These pip and such

markers

or contracted

to fit the Range marker and the from range 5.

space

increments, knob. higher the to the The the back

as centimeters, MARKER control the Assuming in the closer example 5 inches,

Markers frequency. more the front markers. SUMMARY the up,

controlled

by the RANGE MARKER frequency, surface,

function)

MARKER

measurements.

is known

shown

in Figure

discontinuity

at a depth

of approximately

as determined

Actually, warm ing, matter moving

first

adjustments scale centering. scale screen scribed The choice.

made, The power intensity the

after

the

instrument line intensity, usually This determines Sweep

is turned focus, contains brightness line intensity

on and horizontal a control

allowed centerfor of the at a the a

to

concern: of the

illumination, on the

sweep CRT sweep

and vertical of personal across the

ON switch screen. control line.

brightness

is considered is kept

the brightness

spot

to form

2-13

OSCILLOSCOPE

SCREEN

MARKERS

J_jIRANGE
(SET WITH 11 SPACES FROM FRONT TO BACK SURFACE PIPS)

Figure minimum adjust the the determines sweep and The raises desired line. instruments instrument. A simplified, shown heart pulse is also the 210 Most These front in Figure of the or main routed surface with the line scale lowers line are The block system. bang to the pips are exact no bright starting start the "how learned precise diagram The 2-10. spot point left screen. operate from the capabilities sweep to" at the screen of the edge line

2-9. left

Range end. line screen. line The

Markers astigmatism The on the on the horizontal CRT CRT line screen, screen is aligned manual comes timer from testing or rate surface the vertical and focus usually centering to coincide with for the the of various controls control set to place the scale control with zero ultrasonic the individual same source. is is the initial that and pulse pulse piece.

sharpness

of the at the on the

presentation. sweep of the Usually, and adjust of each shows transducer water operation

centering

The

or base

the base the and pulse-echo that as shown, many

controls

maintenance ultrasonic the the front Is spiked travel

instrument

of a typical illustration testing, The

instrument generator pip initial test and the

In contact identical. are

by an electrical to the

receiver-amplifier. separated by the

In immersion

testing, distance

SOUNDBEAM ultrasonic vibrations units are

FREQUENCIES have far frequencies beyond the available audible range, In a range but still from 200 Kc to 25 Mc. in the test

propagate

2-14

/r
, i

OSCILLOSCOPE

SCREEN RECEIVER AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT

\
T
SWEEP CIRCUIT

PULSER CIRCUIT

MARKER CIRCUIT

1
I

TIMER (RATE GENERATOR)

TRANSDUCER

POWER SUPPLY

"

(TO EACH CIRCUIT)

TEST PIECE

Figure %./

2-10.

Pulse-Echo

Unit,

Block

Diagram 2-15

material fine-grained ference be achieved

as waves material. in the form by using

of particle When of scattering lower

vibrations. using high may

Soundbeams frequencies Selection Ultrasonic material, by a coarse their angle be expected.

of all frequencies in coarse-grained Greater depth frequency

penetrate material, intermay by up to of attenwhen it soundmay in As used the

of penetration is governed

frequencies.

of test beams because structure

the nature of the particular problem. about 1 Mc, readily penetrate the test uation. surface difficult beam beams be used contact They are also small resolving more testing. of the scattered debit flaws. less side, is rough. to resolve with are a better scattered On the

with low frequencies, of the small amount and can be used is large, emit All available not a more higher-frequency making

of divergence transducers is that 10 Mc are

High-frequency A disadvantage

concentrated

power.

by coarse-grained Frequencies fragility of the

material. above thinner

frequencies transducers. decreases

in immersion testing, because

generally

high-frequency

the frequency and approaches 211

of sound vibrations the dimensions VELOCITIES travel or die through (ips the through

increase, the wavelength of the molecular or atomic

correspondingly structure.

SOUNDBEAM waves attenuated waves x 100,000 per to illustrate

Ultrasonic rapidly vibrational most second given largely, longitudinal,

solids

and liquids The velocity

at relatively of a specific material. to ultrasonic (cm/sec are 2-1, in each

high

speeds, for speeds are The

but of

are

out in gases. through various per For (cm//_ range density

mode, testing x 105) given

example, listed per in is due, manual are other by

is a constant

a given materials second sec). and

homogeneous related x 100,000 In Table These elasticity Velocity

authorities

in centimeters x 105). wide microsecond in the Table

or inches in this comparison among

convenience, of velocities.

velocities

centimeters

a meaningful material,

differences

in velocity

to differences

2-1.

Ultrasonic

Differences

MATERIAL

DEN SITY (G/CM 3)

VELOCITY

(LONGITUDINAL) MPH

CMAu SEC .033 149 .267 .b25 1.280

AIR WATER

0.001 1. 000

738 3,333

PLASTIC

(ACRYLIC)

1.180 2.800 1.820

5,972 13,981

ALUMINUM

BERYLLIUM
r,,

28,633

2-16

x.j

factors. which almost 212

Density is less dense identical, WAVE

alone

cannot

account

for the extremely The acoustic times velocity as dense

high

velocity

in beryllium, and mercury are

than aluminum. yet mercury MODES

of water as water.

is thirteen

TRAVEL

i ! i
I

1.

GENERAL are made up of atoms (or tiny particles) lined up in straight lines to form

All materials lattices, the first column, movement compression, 2. Figure Note ducer shear

as shown in Figure 2-11. If we strike the side of this lattice, we find that column of atoms strikes the second column, which in turn strikes the third and so on, In this direction. wave in sequence. case, This mode. OF LONGITUDINAL & SHEAR WAVE MODES waves These is at right in the waves angles same are piece. called the type This motion produces direction motion a wave is called movement same the in the direcor particle-movement of soundwave is the as the wave-

Lion shown.

longitudinal,

COMPARISON 2-12 on the waves shows right because

two transducers on the left is producing

generating is producing kind a different

ultrasonic longitudinal of wave.

that the transducer

waves

and that the transto the wave-

the particle-movement

direction

TRANSDUCER /

WAVEDmECTIOM

WAVE FRONT

.j

Figure

2-11.

Longitudinal

Wave

Mode 2-17

..... -_ ..............

/TRANSDUCER WEDGE

/
TEST PIECE PLASTIC

I
MOTION

I
I i I \ \
SHEAR WAVE WAVE

1
LONGITUDINAL

Figure movement longitudinal wedge so that specific a_le, 3. Shear a plane erated waves about ............. strikes test only face SHEAR waves normal in a thin are 2 per the specimen. at a sharp waves are called cent test direction. waves.

2-12. The Note

Long{tudtnal velocity also, that

& Shear

Wave

Modes

Compared half that of the

of shear the

waves

is approximately transducer

right-hand

is mounted

on a plastic

the ultrasonic waves generated by the crystal enter the material at a depending on the velocity of soundbeam travel within the material. AND SURFACE are, in a sense, to the layer less surface As called corner. direction of particles than WAVES polarized on the as the free particle A special boundary waves, displacements type and of shear These propagate beam of a solid. are oriented is gena velocity surface with in

of propagation. "ray'lee") we_e_:_e wave transducers. travels

wave

Rayleigh

(pronounced shear=waves. plastic a surface The contact

As=sho_in:Ftgure2-13, 1o_- itudinal mode around that resulting transducers in a surface

wh.en a transducer in the reflection waves wedge in the occurring and surof sound shear travel

is:mounted

on a steeply:angled shown,

at an angle

a curve,

produce

angle-beam

_TRANSDUCER

WEDGE

\ \

SURFACE

\
\ SHEAR MODE \(j _ PARTICLE M(]T_N-

) () () ) () ) \

,,y/,
",,/
/

/,"

NOTE THAT BEAMS ARE IN THE LONGITUDINAL MODEIN EACH WEDGE. MODE CONVERSION OCCURS WHEN THE SOUNDBEAM ENTERS THE TEST MATERIAL.

Figure 4. TRANSDUCER may BEAM ANGLES when

2-13.

Mode

Conversion

Confusion

be encountered

angle-beam steel, from

transducers, for example, that of steel. will produce

designed are applied A transducer a beam

to produce

specific refracted rials with acoustic produce a shear-wave

angle in cold-rolled velocities different beam

to other matedesigned to

at 45 in steel,

at 43 in aluminum,

or 30 in copper. 213 1. REFRACTION GENERAL and medium description. in the normal occurs. medium, mode conversion of the ultrasonic to the entire The range direction, 2-14, beam of this when passing beams at an angle when is covered is incident through longitudinal cent from AND MODE CONVERSION

Refraction one material from one following specimen and and second

to another

is comparable When as shown

refraction (L) wave

of light phenomena soundbeam

passing in the to the beam, test the first

to another.

a longitudinal in Figure

(perpendicular)

it is transmitted as a 100-per

no refraction

2-19

TRANSDUCER

1ST MEDIUM

TEST PIECE MEDIUM (STEEL)

I !
I 2 o j

i
I

Figure 2. As the version L and point between medium, both times incident as the MIXED incident occur, shear is reached 90 and where angle the angle. LMODE angle and (S) wave that this CONVERSION is rotated the longitudinal beams is known first and

2-14.

Normal

Incident

Beam

from

the beam "lst

initial

90 position, If the Angle. both "

refraction second up: angle

and

mode further, area

conin both a

is transmitted, percentages. Critical the longitudinal The angle angle occurs

/ f

in the

medium, in the the in Figure beam beam than twice

of varying as the mode beams critical angle, are the

is rotated enters

To sum

beam occur. for quantity the

second 2-15, varies is four the velocity

refraction

conversion produced. refracted beam

'

As shown of each L-wave more the

--

refracted

and S-wave angle,

is changed. Refraction
-

As shown, and the and mode

incident

S-wave

is a little because
1ST MEDIUM (WATER)

conversion

L-wave

TRAN SDUCER---..__

TEST PIECE 2ND MEDIUM

90
(STEEL),_

S-WAVE2 '...._ O Ii-._

!_,,..(

L-WAVE

Figure 2-20

2-15.

5 = Incident

Beam V

changedwhen the beam entered the second medium. The velocity of the shear wave is approximately half that of the longitudinal wave. As the incident angle is rotated further, both refracted angles increase. The first angle to reach 90 will be the L-wave angle, as discussed in the next paragraph. 3.
SHEAR WAVE GENERATION to produce an incident from the test surface, at the are 90", between 1st the the the Critical Angle, through of the angle and transmitted angle incident 1st angle of 15 , the L-wave as shown in Figure 2-16. where the the L-wave medium. at the only beam beam. S-wave second is increased The incident is reflected, rotation the are Angle. When beams

Rotating the transducer to 90 , and is reflected angle and of the S-wave In the produced. 4. Rotating creased S-wave face. medium, they 5. To SURFACE the has WAVE is now positioned only S-wave beam entire beams reaches region, transducer

Further 2nd Critical

increases

refracted

shear-wave Angle,

is positioned

2nd Critical

GENERATION to produce 2-17 mode are shows conversion Rayleigh out. The or gaseous damped an incident that the with angle only some shear medium. waves of 27 , the waves particle are easily are waves S-wave are angle L-waves; in the in the is inthe test water because sur-

transducer Figure medium, waves undergone

to 90 . In an air these

reflected

disturbance detected; not reflected

surface in a liquid

do not propagate SUMMARY summarize: shear the waves

critical alone are

angles

are

those

angles For those

bounding points

each beyond

side the

of the

area

where

transmitted.

2nd Critical

\;
TEST PIECE \| _ ____/____ L-WAVE ____. (ST E E L),,,,,,,_

I\\
_'/

9:0
S-WAVE

l'J ' SEAM

.34.'_X\

A
Figure 2-16. 1st Critical

Angle

._TRANSDUCER,,_

_'_

27 L-WAVE

\
TEST PIECE \ J (STEEL)k_k \ SURFACE WAVE

J
90

Figure 2-17. Angle sound area Both the for and at the critical soundbeam the other. angle SNELL'S GENERAL the soundbeam velocities in the grazing incidence, Angle there into the produces calculated of the into type the

2ridCritlcal Angle reflection medium. Rayleigh for are second of the velocity known. medium, soundwave, in the first (in immersion In contact waves The Snell's testing), testing, in the Law, sine the and test the and specimen. of 1, i. e., second the no

is total second

energy

is transmitted 2nd Critical angles for the are sine

angular

surface medium in the

by the formula angle the

if the velocities of 90 , equation to obtain solved

in the first In other divided the wave for

and second

is substituted medium critical 214 1. When

words,

velocity L-wave

L or S, in the medium

is simply

being

transmitted.

LAW

couplant

used

in immersion

testing,

or the wedge

material used in contact testing, men, the longitudinal (L) beams when puted c. the soundbeam a Dutch from enters developed mathematician. its original the by a formula

are different than the sound velocity passing' through the wedge or couplant test material. Snell's For application, use Law, which Incident after was in ultrasonics, meant or refracted Willebrord Snell's Snell

in the test speciare refracted angles are been commodior Snellius, optical

from

1621,

Law has

fied slightly refraction. 2. The other SNELL'S following angle, couplants:

to explain

LAW CALCULATIONS formula and the may mode be used to calculate the incident solids angle, immersed the resultant in water, reoil, or

fracted

of materials,

including

2-22

Sin _1 _ V 1 Sin 92 Where 91 = incident _2 = angle V 1 = velocity V 2 = velocity NOTE: The quire given cm/sec 2.54 3. Figure plastic second
|

V2 angle from refracted normal beam vibrations in the of the beam in the test in the material. or wedge. test. or refraction Sin) ratios per sec in/sec to by cm/_ reare liquid or wedge.

of the

of incident of vibrations for

in the material

liquid under

calculations the use in decimal x 10 -5 to obtain

determining

angles tables.

of incidence The are sine given (abbr:

of trigonometric fractions. sec) for move cm/sec. METHOD decimal (cm/p

Velocities easiest one place

in centimeters To convert Multiply

microsecond

handling.

to the right.

TYPICAL 2-18 wedge. medium for angle

PROBLEM-SOLVING a contact incident the In this in the known, Law. is fixed ANGLES transducer angle angle case, region

shows are

mounted and the of the only

at an incident of the beam waves the are 1st and

angle

of 35" 30' in the with in the Angles.

on a first the steel, as and

As the Snell's

velocity refracted shear

soundbeam is calculated produced 2nd Critical

formula the 215 1.

incident

between

CRITICAL GENERAL

OF REFRACTION

As discussed

previously,

soundbeams

passing

through

a medium

such

as water

or

plastic (medium 1 for velocity an incident angle; the second velocity beams shear cal where bined 2. As the when the (medium are and Angle, refracted longitudinal waves 2 for velocity and

1, V1) are refracted medium is usually the 2, V2). This testing produced, For small conversion, between region lessening to mode region, thus

when entering a second medium at material under test with a differing angles normal beyond confusing of the resulting the incident and beam, the from 1st the soundof Criticomangle in a combination first signals critical

subjected for are

waves.

incident

is not as useful

as is the

only shear modes. FIRST angle

CRITICAL of incidence beam medium. are

ANGLE is widened, angle reaches selecting transducer First, the 1st Critical 90 . a contact and At this shear Angle point, wave angle is reached only shear angle-beam to produce is that when waves transducer, shear the waves, refracted 2-23 the rein or

fracted

longitudinal adjusting

exist

second

When considered.

an immersed

at an incident of prime

two conditions

importance,

3530'f

SNELLIS

LAW: _-SIN _2

V1 V2

SOUND VELOCITY:

V 1 = VELOCITY VS = VELOCITY

LONGITUDINAL SHEAR

REFRACTED

PLASTIC:

VL =

.267

CM//_SEC

STEEL: NDBEAM

V1 =

.585

CM//_SEC CM/.USEC

VS = .323

GIVEN: STEEL

SIN 91

= SIN 3530

' = SIN 0.58070 FUNCTION TABLES.

FROM TRIGONOMETRIC

SOLUTION OF PROBLEM FOR LONGITUDINAL

WAVES

SOLUTION OF PROBLEM FOR SHEAR WAVES

SIN 9_ (0.58070) SIN 92

V_ .267 V L .585

CM/_SEC CM/MSEC

SIN 91(0.58070) SIN 92

Vlr .267

CM/HSEC

VS .32.3 CM/#SEC

0.58070 SIN 92

.267 .585

0,58070 SIN 92

.267 .323

SIN 92

.585(0.58070) .267

SIN 92

.323(0.58070) .267

SIN 92

1.2723

SIN 92

0.7024

_2

ALL LONGITUDINAL WAVES ARE REFLECTED; NO LONGITUDINAL WAVE CAN EXIST, IF _2 90" OR MORE. IS

92

4437'FROM TRIGONOMETRIC SINE FUNCTION 0.70236, ONLY SHEAR WAVES ARE PRODUCED BY REFRACTION.

Figure

2-18.

Calculation

of Refracted

Angle

Z-24

longitudinal

wave

is totally

reflected

(its

angle

of refraction

must

be 90 ) so that

the of with mate-

penetrating ultrasound is limited the first condition, the refracted the rial 3. requirements method desired at the of the angle. ANGLE further, reaches testing degree. test immersion of testing

to shear waves only. Second, within the limits shear wave enters the test piece in accordance The certain 1st Critical the Angle soundbeam is calculated enters the in the test that

standard. to make

SECOND the shear case waves are

CRITICAL incident beam angle angle

Widening fracted and waves tests areas 4. If the in the

the with the

2nd Critical point, piece the waves liquid show units. test

Angle all

is reached shear waves medium, dampens produced for use

when are

the

reRayleigh

90 . At this testing, Surface experiments bonded ANGLES materials

reflected, the production

of contact to a large

in an air medium been promise have

surface

produced.

In immersion

of surface

in experimental in detecting

on immersed articles. These of bond failure in metal-to-metal CALCULATION soundbeam OF CRITICAL for the

velocities

of the

first

and

second

medium

are

known

(V 1 and V2) , either critical using the sine of 90 , i.e., Thus, steel: in the case of the

angle may be calculated with 1, as the sine of the refracted transducer mounted

the formula for Shell's Law, angle in the second medium. wedge for testing

contact

on a plastic

Sin I Snell' s Law: Sin _2 Sin _1 Sin _2(1. Divide cm/_ V 2 into sec. a. V 1 = 0. 45641 with divided 0000) 1st Critical velocity

V1 V 2 (longitudinal wave)

0. 267 cm/p 0. 585 cm/p Angle. for = 55o45 for

sec sec If the 2nd Critical in steel: 2nd Critical test sec). (V 1 = 0. 267 cm/_ materials the for the given L-wave uranium. L-wave sec), materials, Angle 0. 323 Angle. using

= 27 9' for the soundbeam into

is desired,

V 2 is given V 2 is again Table water 2-2 lists

a shear ' for various

wave the

V 1 = 0. 82662 critical medium wedge angles of uranium. than in the the test

approximate as the first

angles

(couplant) 2-3, with using the for than

(V 1 = 0. 149 cm/p first same S--wave piece. medium test

b.

Table lists 2-1,

a plastic critical

as the for the

approximate plastic testing, either

in Table soundbeam For velocity than V 1.

exception the

This used

is because velocity which

velocity angle-beam is less

.r

is greater couplant velocity

is one for

V 2 should

be greater

k.J

2-25

Table 2-2. Critical Angles, Immersion Testing

FIRST MEDIUM IS H2O TEST MATERIAL 1ST CRITICAL (_ 2ND CRITICAL (_ VELOCITY(CM/_SEC).

BERYLLIUM ALUMINUM, STEEL STAINLESS TUNGSTEN URANIUM 302 17ST

7o 14 15

10" 29" 27 29 31 51

VL=1.280, VL= VL= VL= VL= VL= .625, .585, .566, .518, .338,

VS=.871 VS=.310 VS=.323 VS=.312 VS=.287 VS=.193

15" 17 26

NOTE:

VL=LONGITUDINALVELOCITY,

VS=SHEARVELOCITY

Table

2-3.

Critical

Angles,

Contact

Testing

FIRST MEDIUM IS PLASTIC TEST MATERIAL

1ST CRITICAL

2ND CRITICAL

VELOCITY

(CM/

SEC).

BERYLLIUM ALUNIMUM, STEEL STAINLESS, TUNGSTEN 302 17ST

12" 25 27 28 31

18 59 56 59 68

VL=l.280, VL= VL= VL= VL= .625, .585, .566, .518,

VS=.871 VS=.310 VS=.323 VS=.312 VS=.287

NOTE:

VL=LONGITUDINALVELOCITY,

VS=SHEARVELOCITY

216

SOUNDBEAM

ATTENUATION waves, and to the most passing scattering grain volume where where without due the through at the the losses, interruption to friction in the a material, grain boundaries and is less is greater by grain of the vibrating material are reduced within than than the in power material. grain size, as though where or

High-frequency are This size. the attenuated loss losses

ultrasonic by reflection are

is proportional frequency is due travels through

the wavelength. one-third grain

Scattering attentuation

important

wavelength wavelength attenuation

As the soundbeam is lost

is lowered, a free heat path transfer

to damping.

In damping

is considered boundaries, particles.

energy

2-26

217 1.

SOUNDBEAM GENERAL beam short ideal

SPREADING

An ultrasonic Because linear nounced approaches is considered there is always D2/4X distance outward This wave spread and of the the enough

travels

through shape.

matter involved,

with

very

little becomes

divergence of the beam shorter, This Although

or spreading. is its rectishape is prosoundbeam in reality at the beam the

wavelengths of absolute

a characteristic propagation. all test frequencies. face of the

or straight-sided

As the rectilinear at almost

wavelength

characteristic

to be detected as a straight-sided some from

projection

of the transducer,

spreading. Fraunhofer the face of the transducer. from of the the face center of the of the ratio X/D,

diffraction At this of the transducer. X is the

causes the beam to spread distance, the beam spreads face sine of the of the transducer. half-angle wavelength The of the ultrasonic

to appear D is the

to originate diameter

radiating

spread

is a function

where

is calculated

as follows: X Sin q5 = 1.22-D diameter contact The transducer wavelength is used of the on sound-

For

example:

Assume

that

a 1-inch

aluminum at a frequency beam is 0. 625 centimeter. What Convert D to metric is the system half-angle

of 1 Mc.

of beam

spread? by 2.54 to obtain centimeters.

by multiplying 0,625 2.54

inches

Sin _b = 1.22

Sin @ = 0. 30012 = 17 28' 2. Beam quency, greater crystal ducer small 1/2-inch 25.0 depths Mc. BEAM spread the the SPREAD in steel, larger beam the spread. frequencies limited by the diameter transducers at various crystal, Also, than size have are frequencies, the straighter is less available used. For at lower of the been used there is given the beam; beam frequencies. contact shallow selected in Figure the The depth for smaller for surface. the diameter testing, such testing 2-19. the same At any frecrystal, diameter of the 3/8-and as 5.0 through to greater transas the of

spread

at higher is often as 1/8-inch diameter of material.

Transducers

at the higher is usually

frequencies,

A large-diameter

transducer

_,

2-27

SIN(_

= 1.22

-_-

WHERE

k = WAVELENGTH D = DIAMETER (_ = HALF-ANGLE OF BEAM SPREAD TO HALF-POWER POINTS

FREQUENCY MC 1.0 2.25 5.0

TRANSDUCER CM .581 .259 .116 3/8 48" 10' 19"23' 8"34' 1/2 34 1425 6"25'

DIAMETER (D) INCHES 3/4 21"52' ' 9"33' 4" 16' 1. O 16 13' 7"9' 3"12'

/
POWER POINT (.707

OF INTENSITY)

Figure 3. Figure transducer side ing. beams reflected lobes are SOUNDBEAM 2-20 shows when shown the PATTERNS the in the work, to the reduction figure the when its are

2-19.

Beam

Spread

in Steel

in beam is raised edge

spreading from effects of the with 1.0 caused test

in steel Mc to 2.25 by the specimen effects. only one

for

a 1/2-inch The

diameter secondary Secondary or mountare away

frequency

Mc. manner

of crystal that they

In practical back

primary

beam creating

is the spurious

of consequence. is such The reduction strongest

considered

the geometry central axis,

transducer,

intensity

of the soundbeam from the axis.

is along

a gradual

in amplitude

218

RAYLEIGH waves on the are the

WAVES travel over the surface they were of a solid studied surface a sharp side face and bear by Lord a rough Rayleigh discontinuities Rayletgh corner, are reflected but if the resemblance (c. 1875) at a distance lying waves at the edge to because from just traveling is edge, lower beon the

Rayleigh waves they center. neath the rounded

2-28

surface

of water; component from cracks be seen are continue

the principal Reflections surface off, the may waves of a block

of disturbance in the on the down from the oscilloscope

in an earthquake or from screen. edge and

top face

reflected

D = DIAMETER OFCRYSTAL ,_= WAVELENGTH ULTRASONIC AVEIN STEEL OF W O" = 34" _ = 14" O"

F = 1.0MC ,_. = .581CM D = 1/2 INCH

F = 2.25MC _. = .259 CM D = 1/2 INCH

Figure returning of its almost flection finger their The edges to the are completely over depth the along 2-21. WAVES sending rounded point. off. traced of the surface along

2-20.

Soundbeam waves travel a finger the of travel with Rayleigh

Radiation travel around to the waves oscilloscope are is usually an elliptical the

Patterns entire a cylinder. surface, screen also called no more particle way around Rayleigh so the while than path a cube waves of any the as waves as shown if all are re-

These They also by touching by observing work. direction the surface

absorbed surface the travels

can be easily

moving one

surface motion,

wavelength.

soundbeam

in Figure 219 1. Lamb when

LAMB

GENERAL wave theory Lamb at a given was waves velocity angle developed travel and along by Horace a test Lamb specimen in thin These The proper (c. 1916). with sheets are angle waves Lamb waves are produced to the waves the surface be comof

ultrasonic

a thickness by using transmitted of incidence

comparable longitudinal into may

wavelength. a predetermined of a sheet puted

waves

can be generated frequency. of incidence.

as follows:

_.J

2-29

l
Figure Where V L = Incident Vp

DIRECTI

PROPAGATION

SURFACE

PARTICLE MOTION

2-21. VL

Rayletgh

or

Surface

Waves

Sin _b Vp wave velocity.

= Desired Lamb plate thickness, TYPES classes

wave phase velocity which and the test material.

is a function

of frequency,

2. There

LAMB are

WAVE

two general

of waves

produced

in Lamb

wave

testing.

These

are

termed symmetrical and of vibration are possible that depends wave LAMB 2-4, Lamb on plate velocity. WAVE the waves sec Rayleigh 3.

asymmetrical waves. in a given plate. Each and types frequency, of Lamb Both

Up to an infinity mode propagates and which varies shown are

of modes of each class with a phase velocity from in Figure infinity 2-22. down to

thickness

waves

MODES incident and angles, thick transmitting aluminum sec plate; in water. make them applicable The close that energy are to a wide first travel to the surface variety do of is a 5 Mc ultrasonic with a longitudinal beam, velocity proof

In Table duced

following in the plate

in a 0. 051-inch

0. 635 cm/p The ability

0. 149 cm/_ in thin their or where near which for

of Lamb requiring subsurface as with distance modes of practical

waves

to flow

plates energy

of problems not reveal the medium, siderable required, Examples 2-30

the detection defects, Rayleigh the a phase problems, along since waves. plate, velocity

of subsurface Where

discontinuities. is contained it is desirable

modes

a con-

detection longitudinal the higher

of subsurface velocity modes are

discontinuities employed. are useful,

with

THIN P LATE ,_,,,_

PARTICLE

MOTION

I"ECT'O' PART,CLE OTION M

SYMM ETRICAL

ASYMMETRICAL

Figure

2-22.

Symmetrical Table 2-4.

& Assymmetrical Lamb Wave Modes

Lamb

Waves

INCIDENT ANGLE

PHASE

VELOCITY

MODE

PRODUCED

33.0 31.0

.267 .279 .335 .432 .572 .660 1.067

CM//ISEC.

IST ASYM. IST SYM. 2ND ASYM. 2ND SYM. 3RD ASYM. 3RD SYM. 4TH SYM.

25.6 19.6 14.7 12.6" 7.8"

1) immersed size 220 1. One from tween surface material _-J

inspection and

of thin-walled 2) the testing

tubing

and plates

for

internal plates

defects and

or grain tubes.

determinations; COUPLANTS GENERAL of the the the practical source source because of a dry into and part,

of welds

in butt-welded

problems the the test test great

in ultrasonic specimen. material. little energy difference

testing This

is transmitting by interposing is placed through impedance the

the

ultrasonic a "couplant" with into

energy bethe the

is done

If a transducer is transmitted in acoustic

in contact interface interface. at the

very

of the

2-31

2.
When

ACOUSTIC an ultrasonic

IMPEDANCE wave, traveling through one material or medium, reaches a bound-

ary between it and a second medium while the remainder istic of each test material (z) and acoustic impedance

medium, part of the energy continues through the second is reflected back into the first medium. The characterthat determines the of the amount density of reflection (p) and velocity is known (v), as the is a product expressed:

z=pv 3. REFLECTED ENERGY system second is not the wave air, passes is air, each through almost an interface 100 percent of interface For example, be vastly as surface Experience is with lkluid twice, of the material and different has couplants. once energy will in each result direction ff in a

In a pulse-echo of travel. the the second reflection different If the

medium

is reflected; interface the or minute that the

medium theoretical

combination

percentage However, the the

of reflection. in water-aluminum actual Many percentage waves reflection variables

in a water-steel from shown

is 88 percent, theoretical will of coupling

it is 72 percent, may such

in water-magnesium

it is 54 percent. calculated discontinuities best 4. Acoustic occur another impedance medium specimen. oil, ideal. to the part 221 1. The test for that method

reflection. affect ultrasonic

roughness

of reflection. to a solid

COUPLANTSELECTION impedances in ultrasonic of greatly with with This may testing different a couplant couplant to that oil, various be matched where becomes that may of the water, amalgams. testing, the water impedance. is between be viewed work. glycerin, For by keeping must When necessary. the that them alike; however, from some couplant of the which been a thin and one method source matches made soap-suds, transformer wetting agents to thoroughly using situations medium often into

energy

be transmitted occurs, ideal The

of matching and the the test

is an interposed impedance solutions, added the

an impedance

impedances have Prestone, testing, Usually, bubbles

as a transducer Experiments benzene, contact

of the transducer SAE 20 motor and For with the mercury,

transformer sugar are wet oil appears

immersion couplant. OF

is adequate. of air

oil or water

to ensure

elimination

INFLUENCE GENERAL highest specimen evaluating part as degree the holes,

TEST

SPECIMEN

ON SOUNDBEAM

of reliability and or other influence their effects

in ultrasonic effects are targets, With

testing understood geometry

is obtained and such material test a standard, variables,

when

the

influence A shortcut

of

variables

and considered. properties parts six and the

of test-specimen suitable standard.

is to drill then to use must In one

fiat-bottomed be familiar 2-32

in one of the

a reference with the

or without

operator in all.

of geometric

and material

form or another, the operator will receive spurious or confusing indications from any of the following test specimen variables: 2.
Rough
a

SURFACE surfaces Loss be due the

b.

ROUGHNESS distort of echo discontinuity. of resolving echo. lobe below energy surfaces. the is caused power This which is caused by a lengthening pip into the side back the mask or secondary presence of the on the lobe frontoscilloscope energy. from ultrasonic amplitude at the indications from surface as follows: within the part. This of the loss surface may on

discontinuities of the part

to scatter

or to roughness

Loss surface and Side just

is seen

as a wide of transducer

front-surface

by reflection is normally This surface.

not reflected may

transducer

smooth

condition

of a discontinuity

c.

Widening for a lower

of beam

due to scatter to reduce

from scatter.

the

rough

surface

or to a requirement

frequency

3. Angular loss waves surface from portions surface.

SHAPE

OR CONTOUR

OF TEST

SPECIMEN of the a test left test specimen to the in the sound point the cause with front area waves partial surface, where are In actual so that the or total back the caromed practice, a few weak sound back

boundaries reflection. area returned boundary of the In the are one is sloped

or contoured Figure where to the the

surfaces 2-23 back the they shows surface

of back

specimen side,

an irregular

is parallel surface, out from each

transducer. from until spread

On the front die from

at an angle to another are soundbeam

attenuation.

reflection

IMMERSED TRANSDUCER

"
I TEST

"__

SPECIMEN

Figure
_o,.J

2-23.

Irregular

Back

Surface

Effect 2-33

signals
a

are

received

by the

transducer,

creating

confusing test

indications.

A convex surface is illustrated on the The soundbeam Is widened by refraction boundary. specimen Considerable surface, have less in a flat acoustic power as shown,

specimen shown in Figure 2-24. after passing through the convex is lost signals by reflection Signals received at the reflected from the test from same spread.

and by beam

the discontinuity size discontinuity

amplitude than test specimen.

IMMERSED TRANSDUCER

/RE ECTEO

Figure
b,

2-24. a test are

Convex

Surface with high

Effect surface After passing The to

Figure through identify

=

2-25 the

shows concave signals

specimen the relatively

a concave in amplitude, from the

boundary,

soundbeam

is narrowed test

or focused. be difficult

discontinuity because

but may surface.

==

of unwanted

reflections
IMMERSED TRANSDUCER

SURFACE I "W'l WAVE I / I/ I \1 /

_ \ _, / REFRACTED It I

SPECIMEN

DISCONTINUITY

"

Figure 2-34

2-25.

Concave

Surface

Effect

4.
When tion mode appear are are

MODE the

CONVERSION or contour case occurs the waves first

WITHIN of the at the test

TEST

SPECIMEN is such directly contacted may echoes are that the soundbeam, back beam. to appear they are waves. at angles to the as they changed which are or a portransducer, back they from calwill

shape

specimen is not points These mode then back

of it as in the conversion behind

of beam mode back changes which

spread, boundary

reflected by the slow when

If a direct because Soundbeams

reflection slowed reflected

is obtained, by velocity at angles reflection

conversion reflection. during and are waves

indications

be identified

conversion, by the Law: reflected

longitudinal culated

to shear

to longitudinal

calculated of Snell's VL = _-S of the beam

by the

equivalent Sin PL Sin S

Where:

_L _S

= Incident = Reflected

angle shear of the of the

longitudinal angle. beam

beam.

V L = Velocity V S = Velocity As the the that angle sine the incident of the angle half angle

longitudinal shear beam beam beam to the angle

in the

test

specimen.

in the test is known, to it, or can be easily in accordance The velocity 2-26 reflected of the determined, with the shear shear rule beam beam re-

of the longitudinal reflected is equal the of the longitudinal

longitudinal of incidence half

is equal angle, beam.

of reflection. as the Figure

will

be about the

beam

is about

velocity

longitudinal

shows

soundbeam

TEST SPECIMEN

TRANSDUCER DING BEAM _

S-WAVE __.,.. L-WAVE

_"_'-_

S-WAVE_ /

Figure

2-26.

Mode

Conversion

Caused

by Beam

Spread

flections within a long solid test part.

The spreading beam

contacts the sides of the conversion

part with grazing incidence. Depending on the material, the resulting mode consists of mixed modes of longitudinal and shear waves. 5. COARSE GRAIN PARTICLES WITHIN TEST SPECIMEN

Coarse

or large grain particles within the test specimen

can cause scatter and loss of the wavelength is greater

back reflection, particularly when the size of the particle and the wavelength are comparable. If the frequency is lowered to the point where than grain size, scattering losses are reduced, but sensitivityis also lowered. 6. The result may lie ORIENTATION orientation in the with loss its to the its and long size when AND depth axis DEPTH of the parallel are OF DISCONTINUITY discontinuity echo. to the directed indicates and parallel may In the If the away from caused test the also zones: is at the limit. will will cause case confusing of orientation, a small is angled indications the indication from A sudden from If the by the dead zone, test by the of the the or may discontinuity in the loss depip turned diszone, as the the the V discontiof

of the

discontinuity

soundbeam,

causing discontinuity the

proportion soundbeam, back crease nuity, is small, at an angle continuity. and the shown. leading surface far edge

of the

discontinuity.

reflections

transducer.

reflection, in amplitude the

scanning, is proportional is flat to the loss surface. shows depth edge to the zone,

the presence to the are zone

of a discontinuity. by reflections surface. discontinuity the surface affected

If the discontinuity

to the pip of back three of the

discontinuity compared to the Figure zone. the test The

reflection, principal

is probably depth the pulse of the near length specimen,

Indications of the dead

2-27 trailing

is determined If the

When

pulse

is extended the dead

dead-zone no indication

discontinuity

is just

beneath beyond

within

be displayed. vary the echo

If it is just amplitude

dead zone, in the near zone, phasing effects erable degree as a function of position.

to a consid-

LEADING EDGE OF PULSE (EXTENT i _NEAR TRANS-_ DUCER I -,,---TRAILING ZONE _'_ I I I I EDGE OF PULSE

OF DEAD ZONE)

TEST SPECIMEN

FAR ZONE

Figure 2-36

2-27.

Dead

Zone,

Near

Zone,

and

Far

Zone

The

depth

of the

near

zone

is determined

by extending

dimension

lines

from

the the the zone, the dis-

transducer diameter, side. At this distance, center diffraction transducer, = wavelength causing nuity tance 222 1. With surface coupling the the sults
F

as shown, the beam face. which limit soundbeam). varying is moved from

to intersect with the spreading spreads outward as if it had This effect zone is sometimes to spread intensity may Beyond the (D = diameter be obtained near diminishes the beam Soundbeam indications across the it. discontinuity

beam on each originated from distance transducer in the the in the same far

of the

transducer optics) far of the transducer indication to the

referred at D2/4_ of the is irregular from zone

to as Fraunhofer from and near zone, as the disconti-

(from

causes near

of the

a condition as the of the

where

amplitude

exponentially

inereases. RESONANCE GENERAL the resonance tube, of the medium. of its resonates test thickness at some piece. thickness. or oscillates increase thickness Resonance in its of half occurs measuring well waves The with Acoustic method, below from the a crystal the crystal's crystal is excited, frequency, by means cause the The of the sample crystal sample by means and held of a suitable to vibrate is varied vibration in its of to is equal frequenof vibration sample resonance as: increase in until reof an on the THICKNESS MEASURING

oscillator

frequency

contact frequency

is maintained of vibration intensity. with resonant thickness called the are

Longitudinal

direction sample

maximum vibration of the where These the

in an amplitude voltage. piece number Thus, test

of crystal direction, to express

a consequent frequencies of the harmonic

induced the cies. an exact

at one

%J

wavelengths.

it is possible

thickness

of a material

T=N Where N = Any whole

2 of harmonics

number

= Wavelength T = Thickness 2. Each quency. are occurs. resonance nance smooth and MATERIAL thickness At this Since method in phase, CHARACTERISTICS of a given frequency the velocity a relatively material large and has increase reliable for also a characteristic of it, constant, measure thickness detect when the the in the amplitude or fundamental transmitted of the waves resonant and reflected in the The with same to produce resotwo sides plane as frewaves material

or multiples is a known

frequency

required thickness. of material in the

is an accurate is used parallel, but

of an unknown measurements

primarily it will

discontinuities

lying

2-37

the ously

test

surface. The test

In general, It differs point is the alloys, WAVES occurs in test in that

resonance the the

is applied frequency

much

like the

the is,

other

ultrasonic point of the such

test-

ing systems. varied. under material series 3.

frequency determining

of transmission matches factor.

or can be, materials,

continuas a

at which thickness have

resonance frequency.

Similar

of aluminum STANDING resonance number wave The side are patterns

an almost

constant

resonant

Thickness integral standing aatinodes, length. opposite material

whenever material.

the of the and

thickness ultrasonic In a standing the points nodes a node wave

of the wave. wave,

material Figure the

is equal 2-28 points

to an various as waveat the of the a node

of half referred distance test

wavelengths

shows

of maximum is a half and thickness

displacement

to as nodes between there 3X/2,

of minimum at the

displacement

adjacent In the

or adjacent illustration,

antinodes transducer the

In resonance of the (T) is equal

TEST

testing, piece. to X/2,

PIECE

is always standing X, and

2X, respectively.
/TRANSDUCER

ll

0.5k

=_

_--

-,

1.5A

--

=2k

"

Figure 4. Velocity may THICKNESS is always CALCULATIONS equal as: V F V _-for as to the

2-28.

Standing

Waves

product

of frequency

and

wavelength,

thus

wavelength

be expressed

V equation T = N, -_
results in

Substituting be expressed

X in the 2T = N v F"

NF= 2

N 2_F

which

may

2-38

Since

N is any

whole may

number be calculated

it may

be disregarded. velocity and

Thus resor_ant

V 2T = -_-or frequency

V T = 2"F are

and thickness known. Example:

if the

In a resonance display, Mc, sample 3.31 ? V T harmonic Mc,

thickness peaks Mc, 4.21

test, on the and

a steel screen Mc. 5.11

sample of the What

causes is the

a resonant at 2.4 of the thickness

oscilloscope,

Using where

the

equation

2F in Mc velocity (0.90 in steel Mc average distance between peaks)

F = Resonant

frequency sec, (cm) T -

V = 0. 585 cm/_ T = Thickness

0.585 1.80 (using cm= 0.90 0.128 frequency) inches a thickness (called divided in inches, scale over the which The the K is

T = 0.32 Actual a listing table thickness of velocity determinations constants are given made

by placing

oscilloscope is used

screen, to convert

or by referring frequency T-

to a table in million to thickness K F in inches.

of constants inch/seconds of the part

a K table) by two. using

equation:

Where

T = Thickness K = Constant F = Frequency

of material (veloCity

in million

inch/second or Fundamental

divided

by 2).

in Mc (Resonant T =

Frequency).

For

example:

0. 116 (K for steel) 0.90 Mc inch

T = 0.128 5. SUMMARY oscillator the electrical into is received an audible the transmits energy test by the tone,

A variable-frequency ducer. transmitted vibrational amplified, oscilloscope There, continuously energy and screen, indicated

high-frequency into When This may

electrical mechanical into resonance be a trace

energy vibrations occurs, electrical deflection neon

to a transand of energy, on an indicator. 2-39 a surge

is transformed specimen. transducer, system. a meter

transformed deflection,

on a display

or a flashing

The greatest accuracy is usually obtained with the oscilloscope display. As the oscillator sweeps through the resonant frequency of the test specimen or through any harmonics of that frequency, vertical indications appear on the oscilloscope screen. These indications are used to determine thickness as they indicate the frequencies required to produce resonance at the fundamental frequency or its harmonics.

2-40

CHAPTER TABLE

3: OF

EQUIPMENT CONTENTS

Paragraph 3O0 301 GENERAL PULSE-ECHO 1. 2. 3. 4. 3O2 General Controls A-Scan B-Scan ........................................ UNITS ................................. ....................................... ....................................... Equipment Equipment ................................ ................................ .............

Page 3-3 3-3 3-3 3-3 3-6 3-7 3-7 3-9 3-9 3-10 3-11 3-12 3-12 3-12 3-12 3-12 3-13 3-13 3-17 3-18 3-18 3-19 3-19 3-19 3-19 .......................... Set ....................... 3-20 3-20 3-21 3-22 ....................... ...................... ..................... ......................... ...................... .................... .................... Blocks 3-23 3-23 3-24 3-24 3-26 3-26 3-27 3-29 3-29 3-1

5. C-Scan ULTRASONIC 1. 2. General Ultrasonic

Equipment ................................ TANK AND BRIDGE/MANIUPLATOR ....................................... Tank ..................................

3O3

3. Bridge/Manipulator ............................... TRANSDUCERS ..................................... 1 2 3 4 5 6 General Sensitivity Resolution Materials Crystal Transducer ....................................... ..................................... ..................................... ...................................... Planes Types .................................. ................................

304

7 Frequency COUPLANTS 1. 2. General Immersion

Selection ............................... ....................................... ....................................... Couplant ............................... Couplant ................................. REFERENCE BLOCKS ........................ ....................................... Blocks Set Set Blocks

305

3. Contact STANDARD 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. General

Area/Amplitude Distance/Amplitude Basic Special General Blocks Blocks TESTING

................................. .................................. EQUIPMENT Instrument Instrument Instruments

306

RESONANCE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

.......................................

Inductance-Modulated Capacitance-Modulated Manually-Tuned Bond Tester Resonance Transducers Resonance

.................................... Instrument for Testing Indications Testing Reference Resonance

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

(CONT) Page

Paragraph Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-8 3-9 3-10 3-11 3-12 3-13 3-14 3-15 3-16 3-17 3-18 3-19 3-20 3-21 3-22 3-23 3-24 3-25 3-26 3-27 3-28 3-29 3-30
Typical A-Scan B-Scan C-Scan C-Scan Typical Functional Ultrasonic Typical Typical Pulse-Echo Presentation Presentation Presentation Principle C-Scan Tank Paint-Brush Double Diagram, and Unit Controls ...................... . ............................. .............................. .............................. of Operation Recording C-Scan ........................ System .................... ................. ...................... ......................... ...........................

3-4 3-6 3-8 3-8 3-9 3-10 3-10 3-11 3-11 3-14 3-15 3-15 3-16 3-16 3-17 3-18 3-20 ............... 3-21 3-22 3-22 ........... ......... .... . . . Modulated Tester ....... Modulated 3-23 3-24 3-25 3-25 3-26 3-27 3-28 3-29 .............. 3-30 3-30

Brtdge/Maniuplator ............................... Transducer

Bridge/Manipulator

Transducers

Straight-Beam and Angle-Beam Transducers .............. Flat and Contour-Corrected Transducers ................. Focused-Beam Contact Contact Shortening in Metal ..................... ................ ................ (Hitt) Transducer, Transducer, Externally Internally Reference Reference Blocks, Blocks Basic Blocks Blocks Set Grounded Grounded

Area/Amplitude Distance/Amplitude ASTM Special Functional Meter-Type Oscilloscope-Type Stroboscopic-Type Reference Reference

..................... .................... Tester Modulated

........................... Thickness Inductance Tester, Tester, Tester,

Diagram, Thickness

Resonance Thickness Thickness

Inductance Capacitance Resonance

Functional Diagram, Manually-Tuned Bond Testers ................................... Stroboscopic Resonance Resonance

Light Display .......................... Transducers ............................ Transducer Reference Operating Blocks Range .................... Testing

9 Mc Resonance

3-2

CHAPTER 300 This GENERAL chapter covers the more in most for the

3:

EQUIPMENT

commonly-used cases, unit and provides other this

ultrasonic a review more in the

testing specific

equipment. operation, information. of conflicting

The and Manu-

manufacturer's maintenance facturers' information. 301 1. All

manual, instructions recommendations

of theory, event

supersede

chapter

PULSE-ECHO GENERAL makes of pulse-echo common s. Power for b. to another

UNITS

equipment according

have to the

similar manufacturer.

electronics of the given Each

circuitry, functions unit provides

providing varies the from

basic one

functions instrument essential a.

to all makes.

Nomenclature

following

Supply. units,

Circuits constitute from The the

for a battery

supply

of current, supply which in the of the

for unit.

all basic from

functions line

of the supply or,

instrument, some

power

is served

contained consists

Transducer. crystal vibrations within fication the and converts into test

transducer electrical test

crystal energy

and reflected

its and

holder. introduces vibrations signals for

The from ampli-

energy specimen; and converts

to ultrasonic it also receives into them

the

specimen

electrical

display. The are applied pulser or pulse bursts amplified, display and the pulser test and generator Return routed to the (a thyratron energy pulses display with is the from unit. a sweep image rate source generaof the generaof all tube) the is the by the test

c.

Pulser/Receiver. source timer) specimen of short which are

high-energy received, The

of electrical and

(triggered

to the transducer.

d.

Display/Timer. tor, signals marker received

is usually needed specimen.

an oscilloscope to provide The timer referred

generator, from to the

controls

a visual to as the

timing signals tor or clock. 2. Controls supply, description a. CONTROLS are pulser, (Figure for

is sometimes

3-1) various timer, may vary The functions and from display. one supply on power, type of the instrument system, used such as power following

provided receiver, of controls

The nomenclature of unit to another. controlled are certain

in the

Power and

Supply. After

power

is usually there

by ON-OFF time delays

switches to protect 3-3

fuses.

turning

23

x.J

17 1. SENSITIVITY, VERNIER 2. SENSITIVITY, COARSE 3. OSCILLOSCOPE SCREEN 4. VERTICAL 5. HORIZONTAL 6. INTENSITY 7. SWEEP DELAY, VERNIER 8. SWEEP DELAY, COARSE Figure circuit b. elements 3-1. during The is adjusted by testing, same 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

16

15

14 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

13 TRANSMIT JACK RECEIVE JACK TEST, THRU/NORMAL REJECT FREQUENCYSELECTOR PULSE TUNING PULSE LENGTH

DRUM DIAL, MATERIAL VELOCITY IN #SEC SWEEP SELECTORS FOCUS MARKER, ON/OFF, COARSE MARKER, VERNIER POWER, ON/OFF, SCALE ILLUM ASTIGMATISM Typical instrument pulse PULSE the Pulse-Echo warm-up. energy and and For Unit Controls

Pulser/Receiver. specimen single one jack

of ultrasonic LENGTH transmit

transmitted TUNING circuits are

into

the

test For to

PULSE

controls. connected called Jack is with only. control is in mega-

transducer for the

receive

transducer. or pitch-and-catch one for or

double testing, for

transducer

testing,

through vided

transmission to permit jack switch T and marked Gain or level

a T (transmit) use as a transmitter, for ls

proan

connecting provided for R jacks. THRU

transducer use of another

R (receive) A TEST of the

transducer

receiving for

NORMAL for with the

transmission a range available of FINE

provided

A selector

of operating frequencies and For control is COARSE

frequencies given

usually cycles. selectors with c. low

FREQUENCY controls one control usually marked

consist

sensitivity video display

SENSITIVITY. a REJECT controls are

a clean provided.

noise The of the

eliminated, display SCALE are made, and

Display/Timer. the initial justment. exception

usually and

screwdriver-adjusted ON-OFF controls POWER. seldom unit require are: After

with

ILLUMINATION the their screwdriver functions

adjustments The

ad-

controls

for

the

display

(1)

VERT. screen.

Controls

vertical

position

of the

display

on the

oscilloscope

(2) HORIZ. screen.

Controls

horizontal

position

of display

on the

oscilloscope

(3) INTENSITY. (4) FOCUS. (5) ASTIG.

transit

Varies Adjusts

brightness of trace distortion beam

of display on the

as desired. screen. introduced screen. turns power of grid and that on for lines. controls are The side of by changing

focus for

oscilloscope

Corrects time and unit. controls coarse to suit the with side Other is also right

or astigmatism across Dual oscilloscope control that

of electron SCALE Clockwise usually and material used

(6) POWER
entire Timer which DELAY the visible
d.

ILLUM. rotation consist fine and

adjusts

illumination DELAY rate test pulse of the initial

unit provide

of SWEEP thickness the

SWEEP pulses left

adjustments, to position reflection screen. which are

at the

generated, display

specimen. on the of back

control screen on the Controls.

a back of the controls,

or multiples

reflections

Other are:

refinements

not always

provided

(1)
,E

Markers. to serve the is activated selection. MARKER quency. waves, cuits may are

The

marker

circuit

provides display also

square marks

waves

on the This for switch of the

sweep circuit

line

same or left Usually,

purpose there

as scribe will control

on a ruler.

out of the

by a MARKER be a MARKER selection the the closer measurements. the unit. Correction), TCG (Time to compensate deep timer

ON-OFF or fre-

CALIBRATION marker spacing Since

ADJUSTMENT The higher and the more involved on the DAC and Varied reflected

to permit

the frequency, accurate the timing timer from control

of square marker cirmarker controls

with

or clock,

be located or STC. Control), (Time

(2) DAC Time

(Distance other like Gain) from

Amplitude units used called are

STC for within

(Sensitivity Gain), in amplitest speci-

Corrected a drop the

or TVG

tude of signals men. (3) Damping. which olution adjusts The

discontinuities

pulse the

duration by higher

is shortened train values switch

by the applied

DAMPING

control Res-

length

of the wave

to the transducer.

is improved The full-range

of damping. is used to select the desired type of

(4) IF-VIDEO. display,

IF-VIDEO

IF (intermediate

frequency)

or VIDEO.

Kj

3-5

(5)

Transducer Voltage. High for the transducer with the Alarm. Gated-alarm are within gated

or low voltage TRANSDUCER units enable This may areas

driving current is selected VOLTAGE switch. the use within of automatic by the test alarms setting up specimen. on to

(6) Gated
when Signals specific,

discontinuities controllable appearing

detected. or zoned gates these

is accomplished be monitored

automatically

to operate facsimile Gated-alarm (a) Start loscope (b) Length

visual or aural alarms. or strip chart recorders units or Delay. of the screen. or Width. of the edge. The length gate usually The location have gate three

These signals and to external controls

are also passed control devices.

as follows: control of the gate is used on the for ad-

START of the

or DELAY edge

Justment

leading

oscil-

LENGTH gate

or WIDTH or the location

control of the

is used gate

for

adjustment trailing (c)

of the

Alarm Level or Sensitivity. The alarm LEVEL or SENSITIVITY control is used for adjustment of the gate vertical threshold to turn on signal lights or to activate an alarm a socket is provided for connecting the alarm components. relay. On some units,

relay to external

3. The the The

A-SCAN A-scan material horizontal

EQUIPMENT is a data test line on the on the presentation screen oscilloscope method screen to display as indicates the shown returned in Figure time signals 3-2. (from left from

system under base

of an oscilloscope

elapsed

FRONT SURFACE REFLECTION

C_r

B C

DISCONTINUITY RESPONSE BACK SURFACE REFLECTION

OSCILLOSCOPE

SCREEN

Figure

3-2.

A-Scan

Presentation

3-6

to right), velocity terms sonic flected depth spread, coated that dimensions

and in the

the

vertical or depth sample The to the factors. These

deflection the are sweep known, may Most

shows can the

signal into sweep the

amplitudes. directly, may the or back advantage the sample. time represent

For Conversely, be used the size

a given the

ultrasonic screen, the ultraof the rein

specimen,

be calibrated

across

of distance of the velocities. soundbeams. or distance and with other

of penetration indications be used from A-scan phosphor.

when

to determine intensities discontinuity, soundbeam screen equipment position

vertical

or pips the units front Chief

to determine incorporate to evaluate

of the

discontinuity

surface, of this size and

an oscilloscope

a medium-persistence amplitude information

is of the

it provides

needed

discontinuity. 4. The vides B-SCAN B-scan these a. EQUIPMENT equipment, functions: Retention persistence b. Deflection nism c. with of the image on the coating. spot on the along oscilloscope sample. in proportion to the screen in synchrooscilloscope screen by use of a Iongin addition to the basic components of the A-scan unit, pro-

phosphor of the motion

Image-tracing of the spot transducer

the

Image-traclng amplitude of the system the

intensity

modulation

or brightening

signals

received. useful on the and the where the distribution is of interest. are made signals and shape As to the are of in to

The large

B-scan 3-3, of the

is particularly within a sample tube, connections ray

discontinuities sweep cathode X axis. cross-section to evaluate a permanent

cross-section oscilloscope amplifier/position of the sample the and

shown vertical routed

Figure Y axis

the horizontal persistence are long screen 5. C-scan speed tinuities commonly printing bar C-SCAN equipment automatic in a plan used and displayed. enough for

Chief advantage view of the scanning, entire the

B-scan and the cross-section

equipment is that a longdiscontinuities within it image the is retained oscilloscope

In high-speed record.

sample

to photograph

EQUIPMENT is intended scanning view, a helix recorders to provide a permanent testing. paper 3-4. The record C-scan that of the test when the The between has highdisconmost a

is used but provides use drum

in ultrasonic no depth

displays is passed bar

or orientation

information. printing

a chemically-treated as shown to one terminal sliding in Figure of the output is connected point

a narrow

edge and is connected ultrasonic test unit. drum. As the drum

electrically The o_her turns, the

terminals of the amplifier in the to the helix mounted on the helix between the bar and the helix

contact

OSCILLOSCOPE

I
SWEEP Y-AXIS J 9 TIMER

SCREEN_ X BEAM INTEN SITY

I AMP"F'ER_ _

POLSER ]

-/4----(_ X-AXIS

MECHANICAL LINKAGE

,F
moves point drum ment oscilloscope
PRINTING

,_,,. , _ION

__r.r '_ _

TRANSDUCER 1 _,-_ TE ST SPECIMEN

1
i'_

Figure back determine produces of the and forth the one so that,
BAR

3-3. paper. The

B-Scan

Presentation in electric on the The paper. current at the with contact of the the moveto the

across amount line across whenever

_

the

Variations produced paper surface. movement

of print-out the test

One revolution is also amplitude connected

of scan.

is synchronized amplifier

transducer

a signal
_

(pip) of predetermined
... FLAWS

is displayed,

HELIX DRUM HELIX

Figure 3-8

3-4.

C-Se_

Presentation

a change the recording of the corders the the of the test ing does

of current indicates specimen, not indicate produce

occurs the as the

in the

printing length

bar and

contact. scans of the the in the in Figure outline width

In this the test

manner, surface. and The specimen. to indicate

a record The the Some the by the so that C-scan

of

discontinuities

is produced projected seen depth scan

as the from of the line, the

transducer above

C-scan outline recordreof absence the disoutline

discontinuity test 3-5,

directly as

specimen.

discontinuity shown

a shaded as shown The represented

discontinuity. scan lines, are discontinuities.

On others,

discontinuity 3-6, of some lines where

may

be indicated (no line) of the areas

in Figure by the

the white remainder

represent is repre-

print-out

recorders and the

may be reversed

continuities

specimen

sented by blank space. The extent indicates the size of the recording. A-scan, from and the the produce specimen alarm a change are sensitivity on the control eliminated

of the marked (or unmarked) area of the recording The same signals that generate the pips on the C-scan from setting recording. the recording Figure determines The the front amplitude 3-7 shows and back of the surface gating signal signals circuits, (pip) diagram by the instrument

required to produce a change of the C-scan system. 302 I. ULTRASONIC GENERAL tanks over while Most and test a fairly transversing of these units TANK

on the

recording.

a functional

AND BRIDGE/MANIPULATOR

Ultrasonic ning corder rails, bridge. mounted

bridge/manipulators specimens. large water 3-8. power are Modern tank, Drive units

are

necessary consist move some

equipment of a bridge the bridge from early

for and along side units testing

high-speed manipulator, unit the to side are and tank along

scana reside the

of immersed as shown

units units the

to support power move

a pulse-echo

in Figure

manipulator

automated,

although

manually

RECORDING PAPER FEED MOTION OF TRANSDUCER

DISCONTINUITY

Figure

3-5.

C-Scan

Principle

of Operation

Figure 3-6.

Typical C-Scan Recording

BEAM

GATE

DEPTH l_

IRATE I
GENERATOR

POS,T,ON_ * _

_,_,

"_,_

T
Diagram, recorder C-Scan System mounted

_"
l'v /

._x-_xl;Po_,_-,o.

t'3
I_TRANSDUCER i I TESTING DEPTH

l-I

_='_

Figure operated. as 2. The shown. ULTRASONIC ultrasonic tank TANK may On most

3-7.

Functional units,

automatic

a C-scan

is also

on the

bridge

be of any

size

or

shape

to accommodate

the

test

specimen. _'_

3-10

Figure The for water usually 3. The test Figure moved water support depth Adjustable of the containing maintained is usually

3-8.

Ultrasonic for The For

Tank coverage water operator controls.

and

Bridge/Manipulator of the specimen are in the provided tank the water by a foot on the is clean, or more tank bottom is deaerated of

sufficient and agent.

water.

brackets test a wetting

lazy-susan

turntables couplant comfort,

specimen.

temperature

at 70 F by automatic

BRIDGE/MANIPULATOR bridge/manipulator specimen 3-9 along has the with a bridge tank side unit an immersed with rails. is primarily transducer. a carriage The unit manipulator intended The at each to provide stripped-down end so the is mounted
--

a means version bridge

of scanning shown may in be easily

the

on a traversing
SEARCH OR

mecha-

___CABLE

_SCANNER.

TUBE

<

__

-'_"---.._:.

_"_r___.__J

MANIPULATOR

Figure x_z

3-9.

Bridge/Manipulator 3-11

nism, enabling movementof the manipulator from side to side. The traversing mechanism is an integral componentof the bridge assembly. The search tube is usually held rigid, as shown, at right angles to the surface of the test specimen. Locking knobs are provided on the manipulator to allow positioning of the search tube in two planes for angle-beam testing. When automated, electric motors are addedto power the bridge carriage, the traversing mechanism, and the up-down movementof the search tube. The pulse-echo unit andthe recording unit are also mountedon the bridge, with all power cords secured overheadto allow movementof the bridge along the full length of the tank. 303
1. TRANSDUCERS GENERAL
h,

In ultrasonic energy, information screen. for 2. The the The most the

testing, transducer back part

the

ear

of the echoes

system of the wher'e

is the

transducer. of the matter displayed

After material the

transmitting and relays system, the oscilloscope

sound

hears

condition and for that

to the

instrument

it is visually sensitivity

on the testing

capabilities described

of a transducer, by two terms:

are

and resolution.

SENSITIVITY sensitivity of a transducer sensitivity transducer. manufacturer in a standard is its reference Even transducers do not always ability by the block. produce to detect amplitude Precise of the same identical echoes of its size, transucer indications from response frequency, small from and on a given a given discontinuities. an artificial is unique material oscillosize flatto by

Transducer discontinuity a specific the same

is measured

sensitivity

scope screen. bottomed hole, 3. The and for

Transducer at a specific

sensitivity is rated by its ability to detect depth, in a standard reference block.

RESOLUTION resolution from echo pulse, from the the or from resolving a small to stop is a measure a ringing just power close of a transducer in depth: just beneath power. or vibrating, resolving cause the a wide, surface, refers for after the to its surface. having Long been "tails" by the ability the The to separate time required by a large of sound echo. signal. the echo

echoes

two targets

together

example,

front-surface shocked or bursts front-surface ringing

discontinuity "ringing" of its beneath

transducer

voltage energy A small 4. The

transducer

high-amplitude, is masked

discontinuity, MATERIA LS common sulfate,

three are

most lithium

piezoelectric and polarized lead

materials ceramics. metaniobate,

used The and

in ultrasonic most common zirconate

transducers ceramics titanate.

are at

quartz, present

barium

titanate,

lead

a.

Quartz. with has most tor the

In the

past,

quartz of new hard aging.

transducers materials

were and thermal

used

almost used less

exclusively, and also It also less. has It is insoluble good

but, Quartz in

development chemical,

it is being

excellent liquids of acoustic conversion s. and

electrical,

stability. Quartz it is the least

and is very resists energy

and wear-resistant. Unfortunately, used and requires materials. high

uniformity mode

efficient suffers

generafrom

of the commonly

interference

voltage

to drive

it at low

frequencie b. Ceramic. most voltage, 300 C. conversion c. Lithium receivers sonic sion limited 5. Natural planes.
V

The are They

polarized generators

ceramic unaffected

transducers, energy; by moisture, a tendency transducers and and are are

on the they and to age. are the

other are

hand, well

are on low

the

efficient

of ultrasonic by relatively and have

operate

practically are limited interference,

usable strength,

up to about some mode

low mechanical

Sulfate.

Lithium

sulfate energy

most

efficient of ultraconverand

of ultrasonic energy. They

intermediate affected very fragile,

as a generator little soluble by mode in water,

do not Lithium

age

interference. to use PLANES such crystals Y-cut

sulfate below

is very 165 F.

at temperature

CRYSTAL crystals, X-cut waves. sound

as quartz, are cut crystals

used are

in transducers to the perpendicular cut

are X-axis

cut and

in either produce Y axis

one and

of two

perpendicular

longitudinal produce

sound shear 6.

The waves.

to the

TRANSDUCER are wide and the of the part, generally are a. the factor small made

TYPES in a limitless transducers. for (less The used many performance. beam number The special For spread) transducers transducers penetration. because and chipping. The very wide little uniform paint-brush carefully over beam the sensitivity. transducers matched entire so that length Paint-brush for are the of the made up of deeper of sizes many instance, for a given have transmit The the and shapes the greater more large very shapes are larger frequency. ability sound thin the Size from result the extremely of much small exis a the very the trans-

Transducers to 6-inch perience contributing straighter beams small test are

paint-brush requirement to its

applications.

of a transducer transducer, The for energy narrower detecting into

soundbeam

high-frequency larger to gain to lower

discontinuities. so are limited susceptible Paint-Brush a mosaic of the This provide beam

single-crystal high-frequency

transducers

frequencies

ducers

to breaMng Transducers. pattern pattern

of smaller varies to maintain narrow

crystals,

intensity transducer.

is necessary a long,

transducers scanning 3-13

rectangular

(in cross-section)

U--__X
large test the Figure
COAXIAL

surfaces, specimen. size, shape, 3-10

and their Smaller, orientation, a typical shows

purpose more and

is to quickly sensitive exact location

discover are of the

discontinuities then used discontinuities.

in the to define

transducers transducer.

paint-brush

Illii
r

Ili l llllllllill
A ("

CRYSTAL

BEAM

LENGTH

Figure
b,

3-10.

Typical The double

Paint-Brush transducer

Transducer differs may the from double the single only, unit transa

Double ducer receiver two

Transducers. in that, only, In the receiver. and stacked types while the

single mounted unit, may

transducer and in the same

be a transmitter for for

or both transmitter double They

receiver, holder is the side testing. cross

is in essence other testthe Figure crystals 3-11

single

transducers

pitch-and-catch and the straight-beam

testing. is the ing, are shows

C.

one transducer be mounted for angle-beam to block

transmitter In all cases, interference.

by side

or paired by a sound of double

separated both

barrier

transducers. Transducers or angle-beam are also classified The surface. surface to locate the to the surface, the used as either term "straightinto is transmitted

Angle-Beam straight-beam beam" the other tinuities face. plate ducer test means

Transducers. transducers that direct oriented the the sound normal

transducers. the transducer to the the test test are and specimen

energy

from into

specimen,

(perpendicular) Angle-beam angles are use at an angle also a wedge, of the desired test specimen

Angle-beam at an angle disconslze surand testing, transenergy of

transducers than

soundbeam

90 degrees. at right oriented transducers into the test surface transducers and the surface

transducers to the used surface between by mode usually specimen,

to determine 180 degrees shear,

discontinuities Angled waves face test

90 and

to propagate conversion. of plastic,

In contact between the testing, sound

angle-beam into the

to direct

at the

angle.

In immersion

angulation

3-14

ANGLE-BEAM (PAIRED)

STRAIGHT-BEAM

(STACKED)

Figure of the Both

do

3-11.

Typical

Double

Transducers the test angle part of a straight-beam at the desired 3-12. are wear breakage, the added plates or the front as frontthe to angle.

soundbeam straight Unit or and

is accomplished the soundbeam transducers Transducers. reasons. the fragile substances shaped These angled

by varying Into the are

transducer

to direct

shown

in Figure

Faced the are

Focused for to protect of foreign units at all

Other crystal the

frontal from sound and lenses

members wear, and energy radii distance are sharpen

transducer often added effects surface

various

On contact or liquids, surfaces cylindrical sound-travel

transducers, to protect

harmful electrode. to the surface

Frontal

to direct

perpendicular known the between

points lenses.

on curved out the

contour-correction indication

by evening

_ SIGNAL SEALED CASE.,,.,._ l _ I_/CONNECTOR

s,0.<
CONN EaT OR--...._b __.._ ACKING ,-,_ _

I?iiiiiiii ii:i!!!i!i!!iiiii

ii::il- - -_/_

CRYSTAL

_CONNECTOR/ ii iiiiiiiiiiiii ELECTRODES// _m_,_

GROUND CRYSTAL

_ " " \ " "J_" ANGLE-BEAM TRANSDUCER (CONTACT) PLASTIC WEDGE

STRAIGHT-BEAM TRANSDUCER (IMMERSION)

Figure M.i

3-12.

Straight-Beam

and

Angle-Beam

Transducers 3-15

transducer ducers

and is shown

the

test

surface. 3-13.

A comparison Other acoustic

of flat lenses

and

contoured the

transsoundbeam

in Figure

focus

FLAT TRANSDUCER

CONTOURED TRANSDUCER

Figure from creased maximum The beam surface. moving also the closer test the

3-13.

Flat

and

Contour-Corrected as light into beams a long, the are narrow,

Transducers focused. very Focused small moves in this the transducers beam its case, point of range. the test is The of in-

transducer, the intensity, small has intensity specimen The sound

much energy area. towards the as shown of maximum test which

concentrate in a relatively

blunt-pointed

ts capable Focusing the effect

of detecting but lens, 3-14, closer the

discontinuities its usable

soundbeam

transducer, of a second produces improves

shortens

because the also, (which

ts refracted, point to the

In Figure intensity

when increased

beam

enters

increased

intensity surface)

sensitivity; resolution.

to the transducer near-surface

WA'r E_ L ,.-'/ _ _ FOCUSED

SOUND BEAM

//
J _. _ .,I --_

.....
--SPHERICAL LENS GREATER CONVERGENCE

DIVERGENCE

-I

NEW POINT OF FOCUS IN METAL FOCAL DI STANCE IF IN WATER

BEYOND FOCUS-.... L

I
]

Figure 3-16

3-14.

Focused-Beam

Shortening

in Metal

LJ

disturbing concentrating because continuity noise transducers

e

effects the indications a smaller

of rough sound area

surfaces into

and

metal at. large

noise beam.

are

also area, to the

reduced the true

by simply dis-

energy is being

a smaller

This

is true,

looked

In a smaller compared inches. are made for useful thickness

will

be relatively indications.

combined of focused

of other

irrelevant is approximately

The

range

0. 010 to 2.0 transducers contact the type ground

Contact angle-beam

Transducers. testing. Figure test the

Contact Straight-beam 3-15 shows and the surface

both are the

straightgrounded crystal surface.

and in one

transducers in which through

of two ways. contacts

one face

of the test

is made

CASE COAXIAL C 0 N N E C T 0 R _.._ . J ,_'.//.,//_J_/_

N_

::5.:|i:ii!ii!));isi;ii)_isiSii:-iis?S::i_ "__--_ ELECTRODE

EXTERNAL

_11111111111111111111_

......
Figure These 3-16, ground. grounded. coaxial are 7. The tics higher higher The cable completely 3-15. Contact are used Transducer, only Externally Grounded materials as shown for are since including with

transducers smooth an electrode

on electrically-conductive the unit is faced, transducers transducers water-proofed, of the crystal provides

reasonably

surfaces. on the the front and are

When face

in Figure an internal internally the in use they

All angle-beam In addition, connection, submerged.

immersion-type completely

immersion-type

FREQUENCY frequency are affected the the higher

SELECTION is a determining for sensitivity. the frequency the but contact wavelength; and crystal. factor Sensitivity the crystal Most testing in its shorter use. the Basic characteristhe the related. is done at to 10 Mc

of a transducer by the need the shorter the and

is related thickness ultrasonic is generally

to wavelength: wavelength, are also testing limited

frequency, sensitivity. the

Transducer thinner 25 Mc, 0.2

frequency,

frequencies

between

3-17

COAXIAL C0 NN ECT 0 R _ _.///////_

CASE

.................................................... S,GNAL
iii! / CONNECTOR

I
CONNECTOR - ELECTRODES

Ii;iiii!ii:i ;i
_" WEAR P_T: RYSTAL

Figure because contact

a.

3-16. for

Contact use above

Transducer, 10 Mc are are: of a transducer, the

Internally too thin and

Grounded fragile for practical

crystals testing. The the uation

b.

ground Other higher soundbeam is also lower the the

considerations the frequency and greatest frequency

the

straighter and

(least

beam but the

spread) atten-

the greater and the

sensitivity

resolution,

penetration

is poor. the deeper spread, the the penetration less the and the

The less and

of a transducer, greater

attenuation;

but the

the beam

sensitivity

resolution. given but the frequency, less the the larger the transducer, the straighter the sound-

c.

At any beam,

sensitivity.

3O4 1. The sure all air

COUPLANTS GENERAL couplant, efficient between of liquids, as the A couplant sound this the name implies, between from out the and the pastes, couples the the transducer face to test of the The some to the and the surface. test surface can that couplant solids, surface test The of the surface couplant and will test to enac-

specimen. complishes variety following a.

is used transmission

transducer

transducer irregularities test and surface. even

by smoothing transducer semi-liquids,

by excluding the

be any of a vast satisfy

requirements: A couplant transducer A couplant wets both the and excludes is easy surface all air of the between test specimen them. and the face of the

b.

to apply.

3-18

c.

A couplant is homogeneous case of a nonsolid. A eouplant A couplant A couplant the test is harmless has has specimen, COUPLANT nothing for at 70F COUPLANT the by the is often rough Heavier choice used of couplant on relatively light couplant oils are more a tendency an acoustic preferably

and

free

of air

bubbles,

or solid

particles

in the

d. e. f.

to the

test

specimen on the test between

and transducer. surface, that but of the test is easy transducer surface. to remove. face and

to stay

impedance

approaching

that

of the

2.

IMMERSION testing,

In immersion wetting usually 3. agent,

than

clean, controls.

deaerated comfort,

tap

water, the water

with

an added is

is used

a couplant. by automatic

For

operator

temperature

maintained CONTACT testing, agent,

In contact faces wetting For are used.

depends smooth (such used

primarily glycerine surfaces, surfaces with

on the condition two-parts oil) and with water, and is an excellent

of the and

sura

contacted slightly

transducer.

One-part

couplant. agent,

surfaces, the

as SAE 20 motor on rough is as thin

a wetting effective,

oil and grease

on hot with

or vertical

surfaces. consistent 305 1.

In all cases, results.

selected

as possible,

STANDARD GENERAL

REFERENCE

BLOCKS

In ultrasonic dard. blocks test The blocks, specified

testing, reference for used that are the

all discontinuity standard a given test. in ultrasonic the will may

indications be any Ultrasonic testing from one

are of many

compared reference reference the part.

to a reference blocks blocks, ultrasonic or sets often does equipment

stanof called and two as reof the the test reference selected, indication size

standard to standardize the setting test

to evaluate things: quired; specified, specimen from block grain -nuity

discontinuity

indication

Standardizing is performing all discontinuities within with carefully of sound so that most the the them from

it verifies it establishes or larger,

instrument/transducer or gain the size, test be detected. by comparing of known Standard to meet are was made added series Evaluation

combination at which

a sensitivity

of discontinuities from same made depth

is accomplished same material.

indications at the are blocks are

the

an artificial of the size, present

discontinuity stock treat. blocks the Alcoa one that Test

in a,standard

ultrasonically-inspected and heat holes. blocks is the are bottomed reference

predetermined with A, painstaking

standards care The

attenuation, drilled only flatdiscontisets series of B or

Discontinuities

represented

by carefully three blocks;

intentionally. area/amplitude

familiar Alcoa

3-19

Hltt, distance/amplitude blocks; andthe ASTM basic set of blocks that combine area/ and distance/amplitude blocks in one set. 2.
The each the FBH that screen square. block. No. hole is, AREA/AMPLITUDE Alcoa series A 3/4-inch The diameter, blocks confirm they hole as 8 block, A set BLOCKS consists diameters e.g., that a No. the SET blocks, hole 1/64-inch 3-17. has 3 3/4-inches is drilled No. in the As implied, a 3/64-inch the of the in size from 2-inch of checking (height) increase made long 1 block the block diameter linearity indication of the diameter and through numbers of the on the round test 1 15/16-inches center 8/64-inch refer hole. system; Similar stock. of in to the

of eight are

deep shown

flat-bottomed in Figure

(FBH)

in the bottom

3 block a means

flat-bottomed oscilloscope

Area/amplitude increases

provide

amplitude to the are

in proportion reference blocks

discontinuity.

area/amplltude
TEST SURFACE

NO. 5

NO. 6

NO. 7

NO. 13

Fl

r-1

F-1

[--I

II II
5/64

Ii I I II I I ___LA_ _1_1_
6/64 7/64 ENLARGED VIEW OF HOLES (NO. I THROUGH NO. 4 HOLES NOT SHOWN)

I I ii I I
8/64

Figure 3. The center 3/64, inch half-inch a reference material. or gain screen with 3-20 for DISTANCE/AMPLITUDE Alcoa all series with end. from and 1-inch B or Hitt 3/4-inch These the 8/64-inch as the serve

3-17.

Area/Amplitude BLOCKS SET

Reference

Blocks

blocks deep blocks test diameter shown size so that

set vary

consists in length to the holes.

of nineteen holes of the to provide metal and 1-1/4 at varying setting readable over, are or

2-inch same metal hole. distances inch

diameter diameter, distances Sets are: through are

cylindrical drilled available in the with 1/8in as of 1/16-inch

blocks,

flat-bottomed surface

at one 5/64, through

to 5-3/4-inches

flat-bottom The

1/16-inch, 5-3/4-inch blocks within the on the the serve the test sensitivity

in eightg-tnch

increments, in Figure 3-18. for display size and that of discontinuities it will

increments, to evaluate They of the all test also

Distance/amplitude depths standardizing indications but will

as a reference of a given discontinuities

system of smaller

oscilloscope screen so

discontinuities

not flood

indications

of no interest.

On instruments

---- 2
1/8 DIMENSION 1/4 A 318
112 A

!
i

5/8 1/16 3/4

7/7 3/4 1 1/4 I 3/4

e DIMENSION B 3/64 5/64 8164

2 3 3 4 4 5 5

3/4 i/4 3/4 1/4 3/4 1/4 3/4

C
equipped, tance cation the front these amplitude of the

Figure

3-18

Distance/Amplitude

Reference

Blocks

(Hitt)

blocks correction)

are

used

to

set

the

STC

(sensitivity of a given screen,

time size

control) will

or produce

DAC an

(disindifrom

so that on the

a discontinuity oscilloscope

same

amplitude

regardless

of its

distance

surface.

4. The

BASIC ASTM

BLOCKS basic set drilled

SET consists in the each and 6 of ten center have inches diameter No. relationship, metal set. test distances, It is 3, 5, 2-inch at one from a 5/64-inch from FBH and and the and blocks end. the FBH test that One test and also block surface metal to the have has 3/4-inch a 3/4-inch flat-bottom of 1/8, The inches metal the two and 6 deep, diameter hole. 1/4, remaininches. prodiameter relationship. material be degree properties must be the same, flat-

bottomed FBH The 1/2, ing and next 3/4, blocks

holes a metal seven 1-1/2, have set,

distar_ce blocks 3,

of 3 inches

to the

distances FBH. of 3 3:inch with

surface

8/64-inch the three

metal

distances with the

In this vide FBH Figure or or the

basic

8 blocks the seven

distance,

area/amplitude 5) and shows to that working If test attenuation, varying a basic of the from blocks

blocks the

5/64-Inch

(No. 3-19

provide important Alloy etc., that

distance/amplitude test heat the block treatment, acoustical they

the

similar cold

specimen. rolling,

content, all are affect not

of hot of the similar

forging,

material. In sound

of identical velocity, and

material impedance.

available,

3-21

FLAT-BOTTOM HOLE (FBH) DIA .... TARGET--.--_.____ E(SEE TABLE)

.....

I
METAL DISTANCE (SEE TABLE) I --,,,-3/4 INCH

METAL

DISTANCE,

INCHES INCH

1/8 5

1/4 5

1/2 5

3/4 5

1-1/2 5

3 3

3 5

3 8

6 5

6 8

FBH DIA IN 64THS

Figure 5. The field SPECIAL BLOCKS

3-19.

ASTM

Refereace

Blocks,

Basic

Set

IIW (International calibration use. block, For

.06 /

Institute shown

of Welding) in Figure

reference 3-20, are articles,

_SURFACE

block, examples it is often

C

and the of other necessary

miniature reference to make

angle one

beam of the

standards

in common

irregularly-shaped
HOLE

""'
40" 2 DIA HOLE

50"

60"

'

'L

_.09

I
"_

I
POINT SURFACE A
L-I_ _ J II

SURFACE D

I lea .

i II

II I_T,1 I INSERT

II II II Ii

._._L._, I, "PLASTIC

I I I I "_''"_ SU RFACE B

I
ii iiii i

__UlllATURE

ANGLE BEAM

F_re 3-22

3-20.

Special

Reference

Blocks

test

articles are cases,

into holes, placed

a reference saw cuts, so that

standard notches, they will the

by adding etc. be removed technique detection of the study

artificial cases,

discontinuities these by careful the basis artificial study for machining in the

in the of the article, the

form article.

of

fiat-bottom tinuities In other structive standard. 306 I. Several these quency with

In some

disconof an article by detesting

by subsequent is developed then of discontinuities, become

a special and then

individual verifying The results

ultrasonically,

investigation.

RESONANCE GENERAL types instruments modulation. an oscilloscope is adjusted

TESTING

EQUIPMENT

of ultrasonic differ Figure display. inductor capacitor. thickness and the

testing in the type The 3-21

equipment shows

are

available and diagram capacitor. on the Mc,

commercially. method and of a typical either The variable high Wide tuning inductor tuning

Primarily, width by an range of or the at are of freinstrument

of presentation a functional circuit current oscillator the control

in the

is modulated

electrically-variable frequency motor-driven over lower a limited frequencies

or by a motor-driven frequencies such of scales

by changing At high range, use

of 15-30 for

accuracy harmonic

is obtained ranges lines

as 0. 005 to 0. 035 inch. calibrated multiple

INDICATION S _. SWEEP CIRCUIT COAXIAL

?CALES

VARIABLE OSCILLATOR CABLE,__

$_EP

AMPLIFIER TRANSDUCER
_. STEEL MIO ALUMml,m THICKIILr!;S M THOUSJ_MDTH$ OF" All IliCH ,._

OSCILLOSCOPE

SCREEN

4;
I_Xji
I _C_ t,STANDING , ki!
_ll

;
IJ I

WAVES

TEST

SPECIMEN

Figure

3-21.

Functional

Diagram,

Resonance

Thickness

Tester 3-23

used for coverage of a wide thickness range. Typical wide-scale ranges are 0. 080to 0.640 inch at 0.75 to 1.5 Mc and 0.065 to 0.510 inch at 1 to 2 Mc. 2.
tor

INDUCTANCE-MODULATEDINSTRUMENT (Figure
instruments control when current frequencies of steel may oscillator extension distance of the be read plastic, to the cables to 25 feet Inductance-modulated have an electrically inductor have attained, circuit. range. therefore, measurements up to 3 inches, made length at high the the of transparent from the The on the variable instruments near 30 Mc are by use over the and aluminum directly placed transducer are inserted

3-22

and

3-23) in the oscillathe capaciof indiThick-

Inductance-modulated tuning tance; eating nesses, scales, cable feet from tend

variable relatively they thickness

inductor

is adjusted are

to change capable harmonic screen. ranging components

low oscillator of 0. 004 inch.

at a minimum

of interchangeable oscilloscope limited, oscillator these If the between

Coaxial from 3 is removed to ex-

is usually

frequencies

at low frequencies. transducer.

instrument, working

Figure 3.

3-22.

Meter-Type

Thickness INSTRUMENT have

Tester,

Inductance

Modulated

CAPACITANCE-MODULATED instruments whose display, of the trace motor-driven of the frequencies, indications in Figure disc rotates rotor the across rotation the

Capacitance-modulated driven For zontal change horizontal range has of harmonic instrument, the 3-24 outer capacitor oscilloscope sweep of the axis

an oscillator into the capacit)r screen.

circuit circuit

which

contains brushes with

a motoror wipers. the change. frequency a series mounted on horiThe

is connected

through Each

of the produces

is synchronized cycle frequency range. vertically, The a neon lamp neon with the

oscilloscope indicates line

of capacitance If this giving lamp flashes

capacitor tube the 3-24,

a corresponding a frequency is deflected screen. disc

cathode-ray

resonant frequency as edge.

trace has with

on the

oscilloscope a rotating the capacitor,

stroboscopic-type in phase

shown As the

Figure with upper because the scanned of the

3-23.

Oscilloscope-Type of each these effect.

Thickness rotation. form operator The Viewed

Tester, through rotates

Inductance the the readout

Modulated slot in the lights scale disc

frequency of the dial, stroboscopic

quadrant

flashes

a pattern then

of apparently

stationary harmonic

(center knob The thickness

shown) until division lines most nearly indicator then points to the thickness,

coincide with the light pattern. in inches, on the thickness scale.

Figure
x._j

3-24.

Stroboscopic-Type

Thickness

Tester,

Capacitance

Modulated 3-25

4.

MANUALLY-TUNED instruments units. Figure is manually modulating over a very range If this tone by increased on a circular table. in thick Using plates: Mc.

INSTRUMENTS are tuned. ranges. narrow produces deflection slide wide rule usually shows The range, a resonant of a panel attached the an 8-inch width sweeps pitch at 100 These small, instruments such portable are as 0.5 units available type to 2.0 from the that are with percent test less for either of the complicated a resonance narrow is base an is or

Manually-tuned than wide the larger that frequency tuned system manually frequency. audible indicated is made version ities quency resonance signal produces

3-25

a typical

functional

diagram

narrow-modulating frequency meter. instrument thick per steel Mc, second is 0.1 indication, of the

of instrument specimen,

is produced

in a loudspeaker

or a headset. to the instrument

Simultaneously, Frequency/thickness or is computed detect with each laminar plate will

resonance conversion on a condiscontinufreseven 700-cps

modulation, example, modulating

for

a fundamental produces an audible

of 0. 0145 signals. in a headset.

If the Modulating

sweep

produces sound.

A decrease decrease

in thickness in the

due to a laminar audible

discontinuity

a proportionate

INDICATOR LOADING

lq

TUNABLE R-F OSCILLATOR

CRYSTAL

V
I

__COUPLANT

HEADSET

I I I

MANUAL TUNING

Figure 5. The BOND bond

3-25. TESTER

Functional

Diagram,

Manually-Tuned

Resonance

Tester

tester

is an ultrasonic-impedance in bonded current structures. of constant to the on the coupled

instrument The unit The of the amplitude. amplitude oscilloscope pattern to a bonded and therefore

system transducer voltage crystal

used

for

checking by a at the and screen.

lack face

of bond of the played tal the

or delamination transducer as a function are its thus

is driven developed vibration

varlable-frequency

is proportional of frequency shown

is disof crysWhen panel are

screen. on the panel,

Characteristics oscilloscope regarding

vibration transducer

as a distinctive

is acoustically resistance

information

vibration,

to vibration,

its physical

characteristics,

3-26

shown patterns

on the are

oscilloscope. shown on the

Figure face

3-26

shows oscilloscope

two types screen.

of bond

testers.

Typical

test

of each

TUNING 3 7 @ 21 SWEEP50_160 :

@
i SENSITIVITY3_60i 21

0
INTENSITY

0
FOCUS

I
I

BAND HORIZONTAL VERTICAL 2JL 3 INTENSITY FOCUS

FREQ SHIFT

POWER

CAL

_ OFF

OUTPUT

ON

r_

Figure 6. RESONANCE instrument may indicate are a. INSTRUMENT indications screen. resonant Audible responses. in the following

3-26.

Bond

Testers

INDICATIONS are of two basic lights, heard type Each notes, types; from visual or audible. Visual lights, automatic or reof head-

Resonance responses phones, cording,

be displayed

by warning

on a meter, of indication

by stroboscopic including

on an oscilloscope

a loudspeaker

or a pair

discussed

paragraphs. resonance the operating tube. portable presentation. sweep of the rule instrument The oscilharmonic indications cathode ray frequency are tubes, presented with range a time of the

Oscilloscope as bright-line base scale transducer. over the

Indication. vertical These face long, of the

Oscilloscope peaks which cathode One type with cover are ray

on large-screen interpreted

17 to 21 inches

indications

by placing

a transparent

b.

Stroboscopic displays instrument lator

Indication. thickness contains readings

of battery-powered a stroboscopic with a modified light slide

a capacitance-modulated, in conjunction

motor-driven,

arrangement

3-27

matching type. A small neon lamp, shownin Figure 3-27, is made to flash at the instant the sweep capacitor sweeps the oscillator through the fundamental frequency or any harmonic frequency. This neon lamp is fastened to a disc that rotates with the sweepcapacitor, and is viewed through an arcshapedwindow under a circular slide rule. The stroboscopic effect of the rotating disc results in a steady light pattern related to the thickness of the test specimen. The slide rule is then rotated until the m_rks on its harmonic scale match up with the light pattern. The thickness of the test specimen is then read on the thickness scale.

/NEON

BULB

/,_CASE

THICKNESS

SCALE

HARMONIC

SCALE

ROTATING

'sc

,.-"

Figure
C.

3-27.

Stroboscopic

Light

Display For field work, other with meters, warning a resonant in a loudspeaker on the variations on a finger of the frequency or a hand instrument; or discon-

Headphone, Meter or Warning Light Indication. battery-powered units are equipped for indication lights, from the headset. in others, holding tinuities or headphones. test With specimen, some units, that When the instrument tone lights up when are an audible warning lights

produces mounted worn

is produced lamp,

a wire

is connected

to a ring

the transducer, are encountered. Recording are pre-set within

thickness

d,

Automatic gating signals

Indication. added limits.

For The

automatic

recording thickness

of the range

indications, test edge

circuits

to oscilloscope

instruments and location oscilloscope so that within which

to detect

resonance of the

allowable

specimen usually limits are marked lines or markers.

determines the width on the screen of the The gated gate signal is adjusted

of the gate. Gating by small, vertical resonant limits. operates signal

a strong the

indicating or absence corder, material cuits 3-28 are

a "normal" of this

condition

is included trips a relay,

gated

A loss a recir-

in turn

marking device, automatic sorter, Into a number of groups according used, as they do not Interfere with

or alarm system. To sort to thickness, multiple gating each other.

7.
used variety The range normally range.

TRANSDUCERS with

FOR crystals resonance

RESONANCE made for of quartz,

TESTING ceramic, types applications, to the an oscillator frequency frequency sensitive and barium as titanate are are generally in a 3-28. For is tuning

Transducers

for ultrasonic of shapes resonant is used Figure

testing. specific transducer For than operating transducer REFERENCE units require

Many test

of transducers shown oscillator with

available selected. transducer oscillator

and

sizes

in Figure

frequency with 3-29 As

of the selected.

is matched example, The the resonant

example,

an oscillator 10 to 20 percent

a 4 to 8 Mc tuning

a 9 Mc transducer. higher the the shows shown,

of the of the

maximum frequency is most

of a 9 Mc transducer at its natural

in relation frequency.

to sensitivity. 8.

RESONANCE resonance block in Figure with before

TESTING testing proceeding to the are fine

BLOCKS the test. use The The selected. On these of reference equipment thickness Standard blocks, the standards is standardized and material reference thicknesses thickness for adjusting to the of the blocks, in steps at each or test retest

Ultrasonic the instrument ference specimen shown wedges

at the beginning

of each with

test. the

is related 3-30, a very

reference carefully

block ground

to predetermined

degree

of taper.

FINGERTIP

PENCIL

SWIVEL

RIGID

RIGHT

ANGLE

STRAIGHT RIGID

CONCAVE SPRING

FLAT SPRING

Figure

3-28.

Resonance

Transducers 3-29

0.5

1.0

2.0 FREQUENCY

3.0 IN MEGACYCLES

4.0

6.0

8.0

10

Figure point is clearly

3-29.

9 Mc Resonance When specimen the

Transducer test specimen for

Operating

Frequency with

Range calipers or

indicated. the test

can be measured the

micrometers,

is used

standardizing

instrument.

STEPPED REFERENCE BLOCK Figure 3-30. Resonance Testing

TAPERED REFERENCE BLOCK Reference Blocks

3-30

CHAPTER TABLE

4: OF

TECHNIQUES CONTENTS

Paragraph 40O 401 GENERAL IMMERSION 1. 2. 3. 4. 402 General Immersed ...................................... TECHNIQUES Techniques ........................... ........................... ............................. Techniques ..................... .....................................

Page 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-5 4-7 4-7 4-7 4-7 4-8 4-10 4-11 4-11 4-11 4-12 4-12 4-13 4-13 4-13 Procedure Testing ................. System ............ .................. 4-13 4-17 4-19 4-23 4-28 4-28 4-29 4-34 4-41 4-41 ................. 1-42 4-43 4-46 . ............ .............. 4-6 4-6 4-7

Bubbler Techniques Wheel-Transducer

CONTAC T TECHNIQUE S ............................ 1. General ..................................... 2. Straight-Beam Techniques Techniques Techniques FOR TESTING .................................... Selection Selection ............................ ........................... ............................ ............................. Testing Immersion Testing ........................ ......................... ......................... ........................ 3. Angle-Beam 4. Surface-Wave PREPARATION 1. 2. 3. General Frequency Transducer

403

404
r_ _

4. Reference Standards TESTING PROCEDURE 1. 2. 3. 4. General Typical Immersion Standardizing the Typical Contact

....................................

Procedure

405

5. Angle-Beam INTERPRETATION 1. 2. 3. General Typical Typical

Contact Testing Procedure ............... OF TEST RESULTS .................. .................................... .................. ....................

Immersion Test Indications Contact Test Indications

406

RESONANCE 1. General 2. Typical 3. Typical REFERENCE 4-1 4-2 4-3 Bubbler Water-Path Stationary

TECHNIQUE ........................... .................................... Resonance Resonance TABLES Testing Procedure Test Results ............................. ....................

407 Figure Figure Figure

and Wheel-Transducer Distance and Moving Adjustment Wheel

Techniques .................... Transducers

TABLE OF CONTENTS

{CONT)
Page

Paragraph Figure 4-4 Figure 4-5 Figure 4-6 Figure 4-7 Figure 4-8 Figure 4-9 Figure 4-10 Figure 4-11 Figure 4-12 Figure 4-13 Figure 4-14 Figure 4-15 Figure 4-16 Figure 4-17 Figure 4-18 Figure 4-19 Figure 4-20 Figure 4-21 Figure 4-22 Figure 4-23 Figure 4-24 Figure 4-25 Figure 4-26 Figure 4-27 Figure 4-28 Figure 4-29 Figure 4-30 Figure 4-31 Figure 4-32 Figure 4-33 Figure 4-34 Figure 4-35 Figure 4-36 Figure 4-37 Figure 4-38 Figure 4-39 Figure 4-40 Figure 4-41
Wheel Transducer Angular Capabilities ............... .................. ................. ..................

4-8 4-9 4-9 4-10 4-10 4- 11 4-14

Single-Transducer Double-Transducer

Echo Technique Echo Technique Techniques ..........................

Through-Transmission Shear-Wave Technique Surface-Wave Typical Transducer Sweep Delay Technique Immersion

......................... ....................... Normal to Test Surface ......... .........................

System

Adjustment, Adjustment

4-15 4-16 4-17 4-18 4-19 4-20 4-21 4-21 4-22 4-23 4-23

Sweep Adjustment ............................. Standardizing Indications ......................... Typical Contact Contact Testing System Reference ......................... Plate ....................

Reject Control Back-Reflection Marker

Effects .......................... Multiples ........................ ............................

Adjustment

Sweep Delay Effect ............................ Test Hole Size Comparison ....................... IIW Test IIW Test IIW Test I1W Test Weld Test Block, Block, Block, Block, Basic Lucite Indications Checking Path Sweep Wedge Length from Sensitivity ......................... ......... Adjustment ......... . . . ..... Sound-Path Increased Measurement Sensitivity

4-24 4-25 4-26 4-26 4-27 4-27 4-28 ..... 4-30 4-30 4-31 4-31 4-32 4-33 4-34

.................

Scanning

Butt-Weld Testing With Angle-Beam Transducer Weld Inspection Calculator ....................... Force-Oriented Discontinuity ...................... Amplitude Range of 1/64 to 8/64 Flat-Bottomed

Holes

Large Discontinuity Indications .................... Reduced Back Reflections from Porosity .............. Irrelevant Indication from Contoured Surface ........... Grain Long Size and Indications Interference Short Pulse .......................... ......................... Effects on Display .............. Discontinuity Indications .......... on Back-Reflection Multiples ....... Angle-Beam Contact Technique ............ Technique ..... ..... Dead-Zone

4-35 4-35 4-36 4-36 4-36 4-37

Typical Contact Test Effect of Lamination W4d Indications Using Porosity Surface

and Slag Indications in Weld Seam Crack Indication Using Angle-Beam

V
4-2

TABLE Paragraph Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Table Table Table 4-42 4-43 4-44 4-45 4-46 4-47 4-48 4-49 4-50 4-51 4-52 4-53 4-54 4-55 4-56 4-57 4-1 4-2 4-3 Two-Transducer

OF

CONTENTS

(CONT) Page

Indic ations

....................... Discontinuity ......................... Cylindrical Long Bar ............... Specimen Specimen .......... .......... . . . ......

4-37 4-38 4-38 4-38 4-39 4-39 4-39 4-40 4-40 4-41 4-43 4-43 4-44 4-44 4-45 4-46 4-46 4-47 4-48

Indication of Near-Surface Coarse Grain Indications Irrelevant Irrelevant Irrelevant Irrelevant Irrelevant Irrelevant Indication Indication Surface-Wave Surface-Wave Indication Indication from from from from

Edge Reflection Indication with Plastic Loose

.............. Two Transducers .............. Crystal

Wedge Transducer

Standing Wave Patterns Resonance Test Blocks Typical Resonance CRT Transparent CRT Display CRT Bond Displays Tester

.......................... .......................... Display .................... ...................... Variables ............... ....................

Thickness Scale of Back-Surface of Discontinuities Display of Reflection

............................ ......................... ................... ................. K Table

Percentage Acoustic Resonance

Properties Testing,

of Materials Constant

v_j

2.

2.

PREGED1,NG

AGF= BLANK

NOT

_ILMED.

CHAPTER 400 GENERAL of ultrasonic or immersion with units, of the shows close from path between first, the the test crystal. the test the initial plastic through together. or column. initial in water. with coverage testing testing. specimen, wedges, These a substance pulse In immersion specimen, The pulse with water and are with wear units other and the the the

4:

TECHNIQUES

Techniques contact contact contact the face transmitted usually very tance a water space velocity discussed 401 1. Any where squirter water; transducer tube. surface. transducers through in Figure 2. In the

accomplished testing, a thin only plates, are than front

with the liquid

one film

of two basic is used a couplant. are when from as the for

methods: in direct On some mounted soundbeam unit or at a disthrough wide reduced are over is

In contact

transducer membranes

or flexibIe considered water. surface The

as contact display reflection transmitted on the reflection following.

a contact is used material of the techniques as a fairly

superimposed

testing, distance front following

a waterproof appears surface paragraphs, techniques

transducer into the display because

ultrasound

of sound

In the

immersion

of contact

IMMERSION GENERAL one of three the technique,

TECHNIQUES

techniques transducer where tire that

is used and the rolls the

in the test

immersion are the is transmitted

method: immersed through An adaptation mounted tube like couples light

immersed in water; a column is mounted of the the unit use when

technique, bubbler In the wheelto the passed are shown test or axfe of flowing

both

specimen where test transducer end

soundbeam technique, on the the lower soundbeam bubbler

and wheel-transducer technique In all three that 4-1. TECHNIQUES technique, soundbeam technique a magnifying

transducer

of a liquid-filled A flexible

surface. of the (much and

is a unit with on the the The of these glass).

in the top is the beams

of a water-filled of focused

membrane concentrate

techniques,

a further

refinement

wheel-transducer

techniques

IMMERSED immersed The

both for

the

transducer through

and the

the

test into

specimen the material, or one

are of the

immersed using many either angle-

in water.

is directed generating

water

a straight-beam beam techniques focused-beams continuities The the transducers both soundbeam with

longitudinal

waves

for generating shear waves. are used to detect near-surface the concentrated used and The soundbeam. in immersion angle-beam water-path

In many automatic scanning discontinuities or to define

operations, minute dis-

usually straightdirection.

testing testing distance

are must

straight-beam manipulation be considered

units and

that

acof

complTsh

through

control

in immersion 4-5

WATER-FILLED TEST SPECIMEN

TIRE

0 ,
SUPPLY WHEEL-TRANSDUCER

T .NSO, C
TECHNIQUE

BUBBLER TECHNIQUE

Figure

4-1.

Bubbler

and Wheel-Transducer

Techniques

testing. This through test pear tions. inch metal of the when and area shows

This distance

is the

distance

between than properly, between the

the time the

face the

of the

transducer for the surface and as first or equal sound

and

the

test

surface. through the apone of

is usually When oscilloscope sound will 1/4 path in steel. plus area

adjusted done

so that

ttme required

required front front screen the water distance is gated distance

to send

the

soundbeam will not surface therefore, inches thickness important signalling the test 4-2

the water on the

is greater

to travel back steel;

specimen. In water, of water path part, the test

second the first 1/4 that

reflection

screen velocity appear The on the that

reflec-

is about on the for

of aluminum

oscilloscope setting water-path screen of this and

to four is 1/4 automatic to clear

A rule inch. shown signals

of thumb correct

distance, for is done

is particularly

oscilloscope setting confusion

recording of unwanted the water

operations. path

Careful cause

misinterpretation.

Figure

relationship.

Figure

4-2.

Water-Path

Distance

Adjustment

4-6

3. The

BUBBLER bubbler

TECHNIQUES is essentially through an automated and other through test surface shear a variation a water system a column for waves. TECHNIQUES is an aspect a water-filled axle, may is held of the tire immersion into the test method specimen. while apparatus where wheel moving in that the column for of the into high-speed water, waves immersion test scanning parts. The and method, of plate, soundbeam is directed where The sheet, is pronormal at an angle the

technique is projected used the with forms, material to the to produce

soundbeam is usually strip, jected to the 4. The into

the

specimen.

bubbler

cylindrical

regularly-shaped of flowing longitudinal

(perpendicular) surface

or is adjusted

WHEEL-TRANSDUCER wheel-transducer is projected mounted rotate the past The as freely. it. Figure and material, position to project shown technique through in the The

soundbeam transducer, and tire across is moved ducer. constructed beams 402 i. Contact soundbeam waves in the surface-wave

The the wheel that the axle wheel runs material transmay angled be

wheel wheel

in a fixed

position, fixture, and the 4-3, on the

be mounted the

on a mobile

or it may 4-3 angle 4-4.

be mounted illustrates of the

on a stationary stationary in Figure mounting

transducer shown

straight-beams,as

or to project

in Figure

CONTACT GENERAL techniques wave test

TECHNIQUES

are mode

divided desired: for

into

three

categories, technique for

which for

are

determined shear

by the longitudinal waves, and used in

straight-beam angle-beam Rayleigh

technique or Lamb

transmitting Transducers

specimen,

generating waves.

technique

producing

.WATER-FILLED

TIRE

WATER-FILLED TRANSDUCER.

TIRE _

/_/TRANSDUCER

,;_ jWHEEL OVER MATERIAL _--J --

MATER,AL I MOVES

Figure

4-3.

Stationary

and

Moving

Wheel

Transducers

SOUND

BEAM

DIRECTED

IN FORWARD

DIRECTION

=,,,,"

SOUND

PROPAGATED

INTO

MATERIAL

AT 45 ANGLE

SOUND

BEAM

DIRECTED

TO THE

SIDE

90"

SOUND

BEAM

ANGLED

TO THE

SIDE

AND

FORWARD

ANGLE

OF PROPAGATION POSITION

MAY OF WHEEL

BE VARIED MOUNTING

BY YOKE

ADJUSTING

Figure these for techniques a eouplant. are The

4-4. held

Wheel

Transducer contact with

Angular the material

Capabilities

v
in direct selected using a thin, to remain is relatively transducers liquid thin; and film test recouplant is high enough in viscosity the eouplant on contact on the surface during fer to Chapter couplant 2. The s. STRAIGHT-BEAM straight-beam TECHNIQUES is accomplished test surface) by projecting to obtain where in the are a soundbeam reflections into the from test the to test the test. For 3: Equipment, most contact testing, for more information

technique

specimen

(perpendicular

to the

pulse-echo This technique the internal received

back surface for through interrupt a. the

or from intermediate discontinuities. transmission with two transducers, soundbeam, Techniques. transducers. in use. With receiver, causing Echo a reduction reflections

is also used discontinuities

signal. or double,straight-

Echo beam ducer and

produced

with single

Figure 4-5 shows the single the single unit, the transducer a beam of longitudinal

unit, straight-beam transacts as both transmitter waves into the specimen and

projecting

receiving echoes lying in the beam surface is rough

reflected from the back surface and from any discontinuity path. The double transducer unit is useful when the test or when the specimen shape is irregular and the back sur-

TRANSDUCER

t
I I
I
..J

I I
I I
..J

SOUND REFLECTED BACK TO TRANSDUCER FROM DISCONTINUITY AND BACK SURFACE

Figure face the is not parallel other receives, back

4-5. with as surface

Single-Transducer the shown and over front surface.

Echo One 4-6.

Technique transducer case, even tzansmits the though receiver the transand unit

in Figure discontinuity the

In this echoes,

Is receiving mitter
b,

unit

is not directly

reflectors.

Throu_h-Transmission through-transmission shown receiver. the ties beam in the is picked energy in Figure The travels up at the path reaching the 4-7.

Techniques. Two transducers are used in the technique, one on each side of the test specimen One unit unit the acts as a transmitter a soundbeam to the by the cause unit. For opposite receiving best results and into unit. in the the the Any amount other as a transmitter through opposite receiving of the projects material; and the

as

material surface

surface;

sound

discontinuiof sound the

soundbeam

a reduction

in this

technique,

RECEIVING TRANSMITTING UNIT,_

UNIT

//
/
\\
\__/

/
/ _..-SOUND REFLECTED TO
UNIT RECEIVING

\-

Figure

4-6.

Double-Transducer

Echo

Technique

TRANSMITTING

UNIT

UNIT

i
_DISCONTINUITY REDUCES AMOUNT OF ENERGY TO RECEIVING UNIT

Figure transmitter unit and the receiver energy. lithium 3. The modes Figure fusion ANGLE-BEAM angle-beam produced modes. 4-8 from

4-7.

Through-Transmission

Technique available generaLor of acoustic energy, best available receiver of acoustic transmitter unit is used with a

selected, Is the best unit selected, is the a barium unit.

For example, sulfate receiver TECHNIQUES is used test material

titanate

technique angle to the test Usually, in the

to transmit may

sound

waves to the are longitudinal

into angle used

the and

test shear,

material the shear

at a wave only, testing.

predetermined or surface

surface.

According be mixed transducers

selected, in angle-beam

shear-wave

shows an angle-beam unit dead-zone and near-zone

scanning plate and pipe material. To avoid coneffects encountered with strai_ht-beam trans-

TRANSDUCER

TRANSDUCER

/ /

\ \ /

Figure

4-8.

Shear-Wave

Technique

ducers, this rupted flected unit, zig-zag welds, where ducers indicate 4. The

parts

with the

a thickness soundbeam deflections

less enters

than the from

5/8 test the

inch

are

tested

with

angle-beam angle until direction the used and and because for

units. proceeds is reof the shape trans-

In

technique,

material the beam are made

at an acute boundaries, reverses when which placing are

by successive back path pipe are the

zig-zag to the for taken

specimen

it is interangle-beam testing

by a discontinuity to account the by the units

or boundary effective sheet by case and are length plate

where

transducer.

Allowances

of penetration Angle-beam material, to contact that for show shear and all

is reduced

soundbeam. unable markings in steel

techniques for of the

or tubing, identified angle

specimens surface. direction

of irregular Angle-beam by an arrow

straight-beam

soundbeam waves.

and

of refraction

SURFACE-WAVE surface-wave into For test the test

TECHNIQUES requires where transducers surface-wave TESTING special at a grazing near-surface are used technique angle-beam angle where or transducers almost all surface that of the surface 4-9. project beam are waves the is

technique test specimens The FOR

soundbeam reflected. encountered, in the 403 1.

specimen

discontinuities RayIeigh

surface-wave material.

to generate is shown

in Figure

PREPARATION GENERA test L

Ultrasonic mine ment fixed the

preparations technique; the the test. testing

begin Many unit

with variables

an examination components affect to the are the test immersion

of the selected choice site.

test

specimen available

to deterequipexample, of large, portable For

appropriate specimen may

then,

from

to perform structures,

of technique. tank. This In the may

the test

be too large

to fit in the is moved

case require

Figure
i

4-9.

Surface-Wave

Technique 4-11

testing the test riveted, number technique odd-lot some When

equipment. material, etc.), and of identical with jobs study setting its may

Other test

factors

are: roughness,

the

number methods

of parts of joining

to be tested, (welded,

the nature bonded,

of

surface

the shape of the specimen. parts and a permanent test scanning with practical, an operating is established. or probable found to the parallel plate are in pipe and portable recording contact efficient frequency The

If the record may testing technique.

testing program is desirable, be suitable. units. Each

covers a large an immersion One-of-a-Mnd case will or require

automatic be tested most test,

as to the up any most

is selected, test specimen For flow

a transducer is carefully example; lines; in the rolling

is chosen, studied in forgings, in specidirection; to

and a reference determine laminar plate the men 2. High sonic are common

standard common

discontinuities. to the forging and crack, etc. analysis. surface elongated

discontinuities usually defect parallel and

discontinuities a sample

is a longitudinal to metallurgical

If possible,

is sectioned FREQUENCY test frequencies the

subjected SELECTION are

an advantage frequency. in the A sample the are the part

in immersion Low frequencies but specimen may

testing. permit cause

In contact penetration a loss

testing,

10

Mc is usually waves resolution and

maximum depth

of ultra-

to greater sensitivity.

material, test

of near-surface soundbeam

is used

to evaluate

penetration with a high-frequency Mc for contact) and observing back until may echo, several unit a lower back may frequency reflections to turn be used,

transducer (10 to 25 Mc for immersion and 5 to 10 total number of back reflections. If there is no Successively If near-surface retest following from and lower frequencies side, scan. are applied it obtained. over resolution the opposite is required, or a high-

is required.

be necessary

frequency 3. The

temporarily,

the low-frequency

TRANSDUCER transducer previous

SELECTION is largely governed by the optimum frequency as determined

selection paragraph. testing, for for high-speed greater than

in the

In immersion transducer transducer areas diameter spreading

other

considerations scanning to detect in detecting Note that the

include gross small with other

the

possibility

of using or,

a paintbrush a focused beamis and

discontinuities; discontinuities transducer example, are used

using

sensitivity 2 inches). as the one frequency

in near-surface diameter, of two 3/8-inch the for 15 Mc unit welds testing

(no deeper decreases

a given For units

is raised. angle-beam

transducers, test

10 Mc and testing,

15 Mc frequency,

more directive. relatively thin

In contact material.

4-12

4.

REFERENCE ultrasonic These properties In most from test the cases, the

STANDARDS reference standards are matched responses is sectioned, of the for material form in the comparison are standards adequate or nearly from from subjected and with level allowed is established its of holes are for described many test in the block in detail situations, test hole. test in Chapter provided specimen For analysis, introduced in other establishes In all application cases, of basic sample this and into the are reason, studied cases, sample the and the 3: the test likely a to

Commercial Equipment. acoustic block. to differ sample determine artificial to serve From and nature

matched the test

specimen

discontinuities

in the

indications

received

specimen nature

to metallurgical probable or notches are found which specimen. study

discontinuities.

In some specimens.

discontinuities as a basis these studies, test

discontinuities is determined in the test by careful

an acceptance material program

number the true and

magnitude of the

of discontinuities

is determined

of the

specimen

a sensible 404 1. The the

testing

by an intelligent

theory.

TESTING GENERA following operator

PROCEDURES L procedures for immersion procedures manuals and contact used testing in ultrasonic are intended testing. to clarify to familiarize Reference variations in to

with

basic

operating Vs operating and design.

specific equipment
r

manufacturer nomenclature

is recommended

2. The

TYPICAL following

IMMERSION immersion components immersion Figure 4-10

TESTING

PROCEDURE begins for the to Chapter immersion is adequate operator that for these with 3: the assumption testing Equipment, system. use in this with the procedure operating be repeated as a charfor that system all are

testing tank. shows metal Until

procedure Refer a typical

of the required assembled requirements. A test block with test

of equipment

immersion

at the

equipment

a 3-inch system,

distance the new

simulated

specimen.

is familiar

acteristics of the several times. a. Install

it is recommended

procedures

the

transducer for

on the

lower

end of the connection

scanner between

tube. the

Make tube and

sure

the

O-ring is in place transducer. b. c. Connect Connect instrument d. Turn the the coaxial other panel.

a watertight

cable end

to the

upper

end of the cable to the

scanner "R"

tube. on the

of the

coaxial

receptacle

instrument

on and

allow

it to warm

up for

a few

minutes.

4-13

e,

Place

test

block

in tank

on underwater

support. into the water block surface. so that the

f.

Lower scanner tube, by adjusting transducer face is about 2 inches Position (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) instrument panel controls

the manipulator, above the test as follows: frequency.

g.

Frequency Sensitivity Pulse Pulse Sweep RejectSweep

- Set to transducer - Low, 20% of range.

LengthTuning - Adjust Off. Delay

Minimum. - Tune for for 2-inch maximum division. signal amplitude.

- Set initial

pulse

at first

index

mark

on left

side

of

sc r e e n.

(8) Markers(9) Test

(Normal

Off. or Through screwdriver do not Adjust of trace. burn for a line long level Transmission) controls require for Use or of brilliant periods. on the - Normal. display adjustment. visible inner trace face with of the no bright cathode-ray on the spot at unit may be adjusted.

(io) If required,
These (a) controls Intensity. left end nently screen
TANK WITH MOTORIZED

frequent

minimum care spot on the intensity

in adjusting,

as it is possible to remain

to permatube

if a high
BRIDGE

is allowed

_....._...--SCANNER

TUBE

.._..__

TRANSDUCER

<_

)! j>_

;ANIPULATOR

TEST

SPECIMEN

SUPPORT

FOR TEST

SPECIMEN

Figure 4-10. 4-14

Typical Immersion

System

(b)

Horizontal screen. Vertical Focus vertical

Positioning.

Place

sweep

start

at the

left

edge

of the

(c) (d)

Positioning. and Astigmatism. and horizontal over by the (normal)

Place

trace

ltne each

at zero for

scribe

line. on both

Adjust lines. of the

sharpest

trace

Move is not from

the

transducer

an area flat-bottomed

test

block (FBH). block,

so that Adjust as

the the

soundbeam transducer signals 4-11. indide-

interrupted the top the from the

hole test

perpendicular

to the surfaces left pulse side

surface

to obtain

maximum

amplitude shown in Figure This more shown is the is the first

and bottom pip at the the initial large to move

of the of the and right

io

Observe cation lay 4-11, surface distance. the sured of the

oscilloscope visible screen. initial the screen transducer switch off the of the

screen. unless As pulse dial face

is the sweep

which left

is always

is used

tt to the The sweep

in Figure frontso that measurface top water-travel

next

pip to the distance (where (2 inches)

reflection. Adjust distance test block. the pips distance

between applicable, on the the

two pips is the

to Preset) same and as the the

measured

of 2 inches

between

j.

Observe

to the

right

of the

first

front-surface

reflection. down over reflection

Using

the

manipulator, Note that the

__=

move the scanner distance between

tube slightly up and the first front-surface Some of the as fast as the multiples water-travel

the test block. and the first move These frontmovement

back reflection remains constant. across the screen at a rate twice fast-moving surface
INITIAL PULSE

observed pips will other indications. and subsequent by vertical

pips reflections).

are

called Adjust

water the

(second distance

BACK SURFACE

J
TRANSDUCER OSCILLOSCOPE SCREEN,

L.) L..)

/TEST

[J r1 .
Figure 4-11. Transducer Adjustment, Normal to Test Surface 4-15

of the scanner tube first front and first

k,

so that the back-surface to move screen. vertical

water multiple reflections. the initial The first grid line

does

not appear

between

the

Adjust SWEEP DELAY and off the oscilloscope tioned shown under the first 4-12. In Figure
INITIAL PULSE -,_ _

pulse and the water path front-surface reflection side of the screen,

to the left is posias

at the left

__ _._-_----'-]_

TOP SURFACE

SURFACE

OSCILLOSCOPE

SCREEN

Figure
,

4-12.

Sweep

Delay back

Adjustment to the right. Position the

Adjust

SWEEP

to move

the first

reflection

first back reflection under screen, as shown in Figure the entire MARKERS. front-surface width of the the reflection. Align square

the last 4-13. wave

vertical grid The material markers may with

line at the right side of the depth is presented across of depth the is desired, edge or contracted turn as on leading of the first

screen. The

If measurement markers

be expanded

TOP SURFACE

___

BACK SURFACE

PE =

Figure 4-16

4-13.

Sweep

Adjustment

desired
m,

to represent the transducer block amplitude. the fiat

inches laterally bottom Move

or centimeters until (FBH). transducer oscilloscope TESTING of responses specimen. of the test is set and turn the

depth maximum Increase back and screen. SYSTEM from In this specimen.

in the response the

material. is received for the the FBH from desired and

Move the signal observe

test

hole the on the

sensitivity over

forth

indications THE

3.

STANDARDIZING is defined the responses which and the Select tested. warm b. Place Select material up.

IMMERSION matching the test those

Standardizing block acoustic with

as the from match or gain

standard case, the Once actual type allow

reference block system may the

test has is begin.

the test

properties

standardized, a.

sensitivity

properly,

testing of material the

a suitable

transducer

frequency on instrument,

for the and

being to

Set up equipment,

equipment

two Hitt (distance/amplitude) blocks of the same material should being have tested a metal and a 3/64-inch

test blocks in the immersion tank. as the material in the test specimen. nearest diameter to the thickness of the hole (FBH). flat-bottomed

One block

distance

(Note: If the metal distance of the longest available test block than the thickness of the test specimen, refer to step f.) The should distance c. Position off-center, from the multiple between tiple the pips match should the front the first be 1/2 block, inch. over to the of the the upper surface Adjust to the block of the longest including the No. 3 FBH, except

is shorter second block that the metal

transducer and normal face

block, the

slightly water

surface.

the water-travel surface so that

distance

transducer

(second the first are twice the

front-surface front and the screen. as fast maximum The as the height pips the

reflection) indication or pip does not appear first back-surface reflections. Water multhe transducer multiple reflections. pip. same top surface the pips up and move Manipulate This purpose. from of the block. down across the indication Move the signal first and the observing screen assures the FBH. strength second FBH of 3 pip pip is transwater other to the will

identified

by moving

oscilloscope

at a rate to produce that ducer d. Adjust of one from inches,

L_

transducer A maximum

front-surface serve

the

soundbeam of back-surface laterally instrument full-height until

is normal

number

maximum or sensitivity the FBH,

response

is received

gain For

to produce plus at least for measured

a minimum one height of the

pip from example: FBH second

half-height pip height

the

FBH. the as shown

if the 4-14.

2 inches,

pip is 1 inch,

a combined

in Figure

4-17

e,

Without has one sure height previous bined less the than and

changing metal one-half height

the FBH

instrument distance), pips the the pips the assures equal the and first

settings, observe FBH pip FBH

check whether as in the may pips

the

second the

test step.

block (Note:

(which of Due

1/2-inch near-zone actual of these step. height

minimum

display

is produced, and second height the proper the gain

previous

to the

effect, of first with FBH When setting both If the pips )

not reach pips

full height. the than (for produced the step

Meain the com-

and compare pips is less

combined

combined displayed

height of both in the or signals

of the previous

combined

of the

example: both of the in the blocks, test test

3 inches), height.

increase

sensitivity are that

to obtain from he will thickest

a matching to detect

combined

received

instrument which

operator size

be able area hole with

discontinuities, specimen, blocks.

f.

in the near-zone to the following unless b.) this, step the

and in the (f.), metal a special length. hole drilled Practice and

are

of the flat-bottomed proceed

Disregard step

testing. available of the and machined this block, to make block c. and V the transevidence the until gain mateof the in

This test rial

is not required (referred tested. material diameter with with test steps the the test lower the

distance than test The the

of the block base,

longest

block being

to in step To remedy to the ASTM c. same height specimen the flat-bottomed

is shorter

thickness dimensions, are With

is manufactured

matching 3/64-inch accordance continue the with d. ducer special

required

block in the

Recommended through set as the e. up the

E 127-64. over the longest

If it is not considered equipment being tested.

worthwhile, available steps Move pips duration, for increase Perform pips.

block,

material and observe over

material and observe of back

and number is a loss frequency,

of back-surface the back-surface reflection, the

of attenuation. or sensitivity,

If there

either pulse

or lengthen

B FRONT-SURFACE FLAT-BOTTOM PIP HOLE PIP PIP HOLE PIP

.:
OSCILLOSCOPE SCREEN

JJl
IL.
Standardizing Indications

BACK-SURFACE FLAT-BOTTOM

WATER-MULTIPLE

PIP

Figure 4-18

4-14.

several back-surface pips are obtained. Proceed with testing. 4.

The test Until required area. the Reference TYPICAL following CONTACT contact Figure Plate new testing 4-15 shows for TESTING procedure for use a typical with PROCEDURE begins the contact procedure operating contact the with the testing system. assumption system are An ASME as a simulated characteristics several times. on the instrument opposite panel. end of the that all the in the Ultrasonic specimen. system, it

components

of equipment

assembled Standard test of the

is adequate that the these coaxial

in this

operator

is familiar

is recommended a. b. Connect Install coaxial c. d. Turn

procedures cable

be repeated to the "R"

receptacle transducer

a 5 Mc straight-beam, cable. the instrument instrument on and panel

contact

on the

allow control

it to warm sas follows:

up for

a few minutes.

Position (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Frequency Sensitivity Pulse Pulse Sweep Reject Sweep screen.

- Set to transducer - Low, 10% of range, turn for 1-inch

frequency

(5 Mc).

Length Tuning - Adjust - Off. Delay

- Quarter - Tune for

from

minimum. signal amplitude.

maximum division.

- Set initial

pulse

at first

index

mark

on left

side

of

COUPLANT__----_'_'_

/TESTSPECIMEN

II

I1

II

Figure x_,-

4-15.

Typical

Contact

System 4-19

(8) Markers - Off. (9) Test (Normal or Through Transmission) - Normal. e. Place a few drops of couplant (oil) on edge surface of test plate opposite large test hole. Hold transducer in contact with test block at oiled surface as shownin Figure 4-16. Observe indications or pips appearing on the oscilloscope screen. Move the transducer back and forth over the oiled surface and observe the changes shown on the screen. Position the transducer over the large hole in the test block and vary the amplitude of the indications by adjusting the SENSITIVITY control. Set control so that the back-surface pip is 3 inches high. Vary the PULSE LENGTH control and study the action displayed on the screen. Short pulse increases resolution, and long pulse increases penetration. Turn on the REJECT control and observe the effects on the display. Note that the smallest pips disappear completely when enoughreject is applied. REJECT is used to clip off "grass" or unwantedsignals as shownin Figure 4-17. Turn REJECT OFF for remainder of test. Move transducer to area of test block where hole reflection pips are eliminated. Only the initial pulse and the back reflection are shownon the screen. Vary SWEEPcontrols to causethe back reflection to move to the left toward the initial pulse. Observe that more pips appear and move in from the right side of the screen, as shownin Figure 4-18. The new pips are multiples of the first back reflection and are equally spaced on the trace. The SWEEP controls may be adjusted to enable the operator to see more time, or more depth in the material. In other words, if the metal distance from top to
TRAN_;DUCER _.A..I COUPLANT

f.

g.

h.

i.

O ASME ULTRASONIC REFERENCE PLATE

II II
Figure 4-16. Contact Testing

iI II
Reference

II Ii II
Plate

4-20

REJECT OFF

ON

Figure bottom is 6 inches, travel transducer ten as

4-17. multiples the from of

Reject

Control of the is back

Effects reflection back and turn on the and on represents forth. the alternate MARKER. trace, Obbelow 60 inches

of soundbeam j. Remove serve the (1) the main Turn marker (2) Adjust the

beam the

reflected block markers as

test

appearance trace line.

square-wave markers and VERNIER

Adjust FINE

follows: controls clockwise and observe

MARKER widening. the

ALTERNATE to position

DISPLAY the marker

SHIFT trace

VERTICAL just below

control, the main

with trace

screwdriver, line. INITIAL _

/BACK

_/FIRST

BACK

/1/PULSE/

" /,_ /SURFACE

PULsEINITIA[\f

_",_ACE

PiP

SWEEP

Figure _-J

4-18.

Back-Reflection

Multiples 4-21

(3)

Adjust start

the of the the pulse

ALTERNATE to set initial the pulse.

DISPLAY start of the

SHIFT first

HORIZONTAL marker

control, with

with the

screwdriver,

to coincide

(4)

Replace initial SWEEP side just 4-19, edge

transducer and the back first with controls between

on the back

test

block are at first

at an area shown at last index of the index mark initial

where mark on left as

only

the Adjust right Adleading

reflection pulse three leading

on the

screen.

to position

reflection full

on the side. the

of screen, marker appear

initial until the

square

waves,

shown and

in Figure

edge

pulse

of the back transducer

reflection. over test block full hole Try square and measure to the Turn back depth other inch, and the MARKER reflection has familiar screen. viewed back operator area pulse area of the on the the the initial of hole for test by

(5)

Move counting until for

the number use of scale distance

of markers. index marks,

several waves waves,

measurement example, block, OFF. left off at As to see to be onto switch to the moved material with

combinations; the measuring

two or more

square

is fully

understood. the first initial Only pulse a small the

ko

Vary side the

SWEEP of the screen delay or less as of the

DELAY screen. shown block sweep or and time

controls Observe in Figure is visible. length step area material. of the

to move that the 4-20.

reflection to become display

the back sweep discussed more

It is important to understand sweep Sweep material. length delay

in previous

"i. ",

enables permits the

limited to a specific the screen.

I.

Move

Position

the

transducer to obtain

over

the

largest hole

hole signal,

in the

test

block,

and

set

the

SENSITIVITY

a 2 1/2-inch

as shown

in Figure

4-21.
BACK

INITIAL _/FIRST

I
,

I
,

UP

I
,

PULSE<

\//_SUR FACE

PIP

I
i ..... i

I
' I FULL SQUARE

I
i

Figure 4-19. 4-22

Marker

Adjustment

BACK T A INII L PULSE

SURFACE / /

PIP MOVED TO LEFT SIDE OF REEN SC _

_J!____
..,__TIM E SEGMENT. ,,,.. / INCREASED S ---_ EXPOSEDwEEPDELAY _

Figure Move the height

m,

4-20. the

Sweep smallest as shown

Delay hole to the

Effect and size observe 4-21. of the the difference that in the

the

transducer of the hole

over

height

signals,

in Figure

Observe discontinuity. that

of signal

amplitude control

is related and

Turn ject cult the

on the REJECT may affect its signal use from CONTACT testing

repeat lineartty.

step of the

"1. " The size test

Observe control

use is used

of rewith diffichecking

amplitude make the If reject both

reject to leave

discretion; responses

may

evaluation is used, test block

of a discontinuity it on while specimen.

or impossible.

it is best and the

5. The

ANGLE-BEAM angle-beam
INITIAL _

TESTING procedure
/HOLE

PROCEDURE is similar to the previous procedure used

contact

SENSITIVITY

ADJUSTED

FOR 2-1/2-INCH

_,

COMPARABLE

SIZE OF SIGNAL

HOLE

Figure MJ

4-21.

Test

Hole

Size

Comparision 4-23

for straight-beam testing, except that the soundbeamenters the test material at an angle to the surface contacted. An I.I.W. (International Institute of Welding) test block is recommended for use in this procedure as a simulated test specimen. a.
b.

Select a 5 Mc straight-beam transducer and connect it to the instrument

coaxial cable. and allow it to warm as follows: up for a few minutes. Set the Turn on instrument instrument controls (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Frequency Sensitivity Pulse Pulse Sweep Reject Sweep screen. MarkersTest (Normal drops

- Set to transducer - Low, 20% of range. turn for 2-inch

frequency

(5 Mc).

Length Tuning - Adjust - Off. Delay

- Quarter - Tune for

from

minimum. signal amplitude.

maximum division.

- Set initial

pulse

at first

index

mark

on left

side

of

(8) (9) c. Place

Off. or Through of couplant Transmission) (oil) on edge - Normal. surface as of test shown appear block. in Figure at equal Hold 4-22. intervals the

a few

straight-beam d. Adjust across SWEEP the

transducer LENGTH

on the so that

oiled five

surface reflections 4-22.

screen

as shown

in Figure

_L
O--..--------

"7-4 6
WAVES, A IN.

10

TRANSVERSE

Figure 4-24

4-22.

IIW Test

Block,

Basic

Sweep

Length

Adjustment

e. f.

Remove the straight-beam transducer and replace it with a 2.25 Mc anglebeam transducer. Reset frequency control on instrument panel. Place the angle-beam transducer on the test block as shown in Figure 4-23. Note that with the angle-beam unit, the initial pulse is broadened and small signals appear close behind it. This is a result of reverberations within the plastic wedge on the transducer. These signals are normal and shouldnot be confused with signals from discontinuities or the back reflection. Observe the location of the back reflection received from the test block arc. Note the distance betweenthe 4-inch mark andthe back reflection pip. This is the distance represented by soundtravel in the Lucite wedge on the transducer. Adjust SWEEP LENGTH so that the reflection from the arc occurs at the 4inch mark. Distance on the screen now accurately represents distance of soundtravel in the test block. Increase the instrument sensitivity to sucha level that reflections from the 0. 060-inch hole andthe 90 groove in the test block can be recognized.
These adjust reflections instrument 4-24. angle-beam in Figure reflection specification, Is exactly sweep and transducer 4-25. adjust that the Move the given sensitivity ts obtained in each the for each In the of the indication control specification. instrument is standardized to positions at each shown. until the indicated position, When on the until working of the occur near the 8- and to obtain 9-inch marks on the similar screen. to those Reshown as necessary indications

g.

h.

I.

in Figure J. Place test the block

transducer,

maximum to a test the k. reflection

sensitivity

amplitude

Now that

the

of the

--J
"III 0 'III 2 III 4 II 6 _[I-I 1 Ill 8

it11
I0

----I A
A = SOUND PATH LENGTH IN LUCITE B

Figure _'_

4-23.

IIW Test

Block,

Lucite

Wedge

Sound-Path

Measurement 4-25

-.

k
0 1 2 .3 4

t'".
C Indications steel angle-beam the and

tt
on the

10

Figure the may

4-24.

IIW

Test

Block, of the the

from block, unit

Increased a butt-weld butt-welded of the reduced seam, center the Figure weld. surface unit 4-26,

Sensitivity in a steel steel plate plate by on 1/2 seam. the the skip With path

acoustic be tested. the

properties Place weld.

test

alongside touching screen. distance the from along couplant, along the aid

Determine on the plate marks full on to the

skip observing

distance the weld the

soundbeam indications one at

a finger Draw and of the one the chalk test

2 chalk one at the

parallel skip the distance transducer, as

to the from

of the

centerline mark specimen the path.

move shown scan in the test

in a zig-zag progressing with remain is

other,

to completely transducer Continue and

Contact, must

a good uniform located.

between scanning

the

scanning

until

a discontinuity

/
-.. _.

,]-

=-

7 Figure

Illilll 8 IIW

9 Test

I0 D Block,

2 Sensitivity

10

4-25.

Checking

V
4-26

_CHALK

MARKS

Figure
I.

4-26.

Weld

Test testing in the

Scanning is shown weld,

Path in Figure time and 4-27. unnecessary over the To acsketch or by effort. trans-

The using

soundbeam locate trigonometry,

path the

in butt-weld discontinuity would require a sliding

curately

by making that

a scale

considerable calculator

This is avoided duc er.

m.

by using

is mounted

Figure tration The

4-28 shows

shows area

how the

calculator weld view area

works. and the of the

The

bottom The

part of the

of the

illusscreen

a section shows

of the a plan

position

soundbeam.

center

calculator.

instrument

is shown at the top. The calculator has of the soundbeam, under the transducer, rule. The slider has been adjusted for

been adjusted so that the entry point coincides with the 0 point on the the exact thickness of the plate

E - THE ENTRY POINT OF THE SO'UND BEAM. - THE EXACT ANGLE OF THE BEAM. E T - THE THICKNESS OF THE PLATE.

__.._

Figure

4-27.

Butt-Weld

Testing

with

Angle--Beam

Transducer 4-27

OSCILLOSCOPE

SCREEN

...DISCONTIN UITY ECHO

,NIT,AL
PULSE---__

1t11111
B I I
nl _ " .t "_,.

lllJ_"-I
_I 1 41 ,

I
o,,../r_uL._ " 35MM

SCALE

OF SHEET

J I J'

" .3_.5/- f

._

_ I

I cil_ _

_----.

DEPTH OF DISCONTINUITY

, \

,I i

I IL

l_\x

_" TRANSDUCER

I_ BEAM PATH ',

I I''%
,_ I /

I ,I DISCONTINUITY
I

LOCATION

r---

I i

I
15MM,,.<._/

I
'1 TEST SPECIMEN

"

Figure (30mm) on the the same thickness fracted changeable, 405 i. INTERPRETATION GENERAL test holes evaluating Test are This to the of the are indications of varying the size, conditions, sometimes difficulty probable material, all considered from

4-28.

Weld with of the

Inspection the sloping

Calculator line, representing off the the beam screen, path, and at re-

at Its intersection rule. The position

discontinuity

is read

point on the rule, the depth of the discontinuity is read on the scale. These calculators are available for each of the various angles in standard e.g., OF angle-beam transducers. transducer requires They are not inter-

a 45 angle-beam TEST RESULTS

a 45 calculator.

Ultrasonic are rate usually for bottomed nuities. themselves, interpret. indications Impedance of incidence 4-28

subsurface to those or diameters. position, as contact cause be resolved roughness,

discontinuities from standard These orientation, used in the field, test

within blocks comparisons and and

the

test are

specimen flatfairly accuof discontidifficult ultrasonic conditions. and angle to

related

or compared depths

having

shape, such the may type

impedance the which to the are the test

discontinuities

of ultrasonic with

phenomena reference contour, and size

by experience surface the

in relating

of discontinuity when evaluating

surface

attenuation,

location

of an unknown

discontinuity
i

by its a test experienced defects

echo

amplitude. similar operator those in alloy, also

The

simplest shape,

method and back

is to compare reflections, between false the

the

discontitest speci-

nuity men. from

with The actual

block and

to the

learns

to discriminate which are called

indications

of no interest,

or irrelevant

indications. 2. TYPICAL test IMMERSION indications, and that TEST generally of three are As not the factors: small, surface distance INDICATIONS displayed amplitude compared the of the as the size that case, the of discontinuity amplitudes test of the are is moved surface on A-scan from with pulse-echo from surfaces the the of the specimen of the larger over does reflection so that test than the has discontinuity the test units, of the crystal the surface and crystal specimen the energy size extent that the are article. diamechoes of a flata bit diamwhile of the the

Immersion interpreted loss eter, with bottom smaller eter, are of back are the Individual

by analysis reflection, discontinuities usually test-block within in the the hole than

of reflection

a discontinuity,

transducer and

evaluated echoes. it are test actual block, size.

by comparing as smooth the estimated the In this amplitude refracted, this method the loss Discontinuities

test-specimen block

discontinuity

is generally

evaluated is still the length in one sound crystal. as the large with

by the of time plane.

distance the

crystal

an indication meaning; discontinuity transmitted turned nuity With rate through a. encountered materials discontinuities fiat and plane its to the as well relatively the display the

maintained. A loss

amplitude

no quantitative is evidence

is maintained of back or reflected does with used small from

indicate the the

or absence

is absorbed, Evaluating comparison discontinuities, no back

is not reof the disconti-

not determine

discontinuities. the discontinuity is not may satu-

indication since the

reflection,

soundbeam

transmitted

discontinuity. Small Discontinuity in the Indications. of wrought ingot The shown block are to the to the forces in Figure test flat-bottomed east A significant aluminum rolled, used surface are forged, of the 4-29. block hole The number relatively or extruded tend Such part. of the discontinuities Foreign wafer-thin the disby in into

in ultrasonic or porosity during of the

testing fabrication.

small. to orient

in fabricating

discontinuity indication and its a range

parallel are of test amplitude

a discontinuity of the as shown

ultrasonic indication with 4- 30.

relationship

continuity comparison Figure

indications reflections,

is determined

pared energy, while

b. Large Discontinuity with the crystal size, in Figure the still partial may receiving 4-31. or total

Indications. usually produce Since loss the of back If the

Discontinuities an indication reflects the distance

that are large, when comthat saturates the display, nearly the all The of the dimensions but is three4-29 sound of the is moved

as shown discontinuity

discontinuity reflection

is typical.

be determined an indication.

by measuring

transducer

discontinuity

is not fiat,

FRONT SURFACE _DISCONTINUITY /

BACK SURFACE

DISCONTINUITY

_o_ _r-_'_\
Figure dimensional, over close and together, the scanning extent from 4-29. of the the Force-Oriented third side. article the dimension If the may Discontinuity may

_
Indication

__o_c_

be determined from

by turning sides.

the

article lying

back

possibility be tested

of two discontinuities, all four

is suspected,

1/64

2/64

3/64

4/64

5/64

6/64

7/64

8/64

Figure 4-30

4-30.

Amplitude

Range

of 1/64

to 8/64

Flat-Bottomed

Holes

FRONT SURFACE

BACK

SURFACE

FRONT SURFACE

DISCONTINUITY

I
A

llll

/I I

FAE

Figure c. portant case, Loss when among the of Back causes

4-31.

Large

Discontinuity loss of back

Indication of back individual reflection, reflection are: is most large imIn this grain size,

Reflection. in the absence of reduction of very a sound

Evaluating of significant or loss

it occurs

discontinuities.

porosity, indications

and a dispersion received from

fine precipitate test specimen,

particles. Figure and the indications

4-32 shows the displayed from a

FRONT SURFACE

---J

I,---

SOUND

TEST

SPECIMEN

FRONT SURFACE

BACK

SURFACE

/ TEST

POROUS SPECIMEN

Figure
v

4-32.

Reduced

Back

Reflection

from

Porosity 4-31

similar specimen with porosity. are reduced considerably. d.

it is a good amplitude Reflections tween the is the given toured moved indication toured suspected in localized transducer face piece sharp edges within times from machined transducer
FRONT

Note that the back reflections from the porous plate

When of all the considering indications indications that is passing are over that the may test be irrelevant, in befrom which at a from a conis of the the conof the is strong as the suras a to a the are is will plate As the relasomesuch Near specimen.

Irrelevant rule and

Indications. to be suspicious while

unusually

consistent displayed reflections at a time

appearance

transducer

from fillets and concave surfaces front and back surfaces which are These as the the flat the will areas, is moved be shielded metal, or pip, observed. of the to false rise time the area flat cause within the from spurious required test indications for specimen. of the front will the

may result in responses sometimes mistaken for result from sound from indication as the time, same the received to return will Moving

discontinuities. same distance surface, over surface signal

sound

a discontinuity results the transducer amplitude over amplitude back discontinuity to be consistent around a foreign pips, of back when shiny object

If a suspected indication surface. indication At the

amplitude of the area the

diminish

increase.

transducer as the

flat-area Where or false contoured in Figure edge type

to decrease from an actual will tend with

increases. an irrelevant along as are the

a reflection surface. the 4-33.

indication soundbeam from with usually

Reflections Broad-based a contoured no loss occurs smooth, a thick appeared with which

a contoured as contrasted

may

off by interrupting shown likely This edge finish, located over

of sheet spike

to be reflections reflections, of indication part. For 1/3 Articles

surface. reflection, the

of rectangular 1/2-inch give

shapes,

sometimes

transducer surfaces

of the

with

indications. spurious about the

BACK /

example, article plate,

aluminum received. remained

to a smooth was moved

indications of the of the

to be reflections

a discontinuity,

depth, the

were

surface
SURFACE

indication

SURFACE IRREVELANT

METAL SPOON IS INSERTED IRRELEVANT INDICATION

AT POINT A TO ELIMINATE POINT A

TRANSDUCER /

,.

//"'_'_

__CONTOUR

A Figure 4-32 4-33. Irrelevant Indication from

A Contoured Surface

tively surface nearby thin

uniform waves edge. film

in shape generated They are

and

magnitude. extremely

Apparently smooth the

this surface, surface

type with

of indication possibly wax crayon

results

from a

on the eliminated jelly.

reflecting

from

by coating

or a very

of petroleum

e. principal evaluate. (high lated, case, at right fiat, base line

Angled-Plane Discontinuity Indications. Discontinuities oriented with plane at an angle to the front surface _ire sometimes difficult to detect Usually, it is best to detect the area to scan angled-plane of the plane. at an angle transducer forgings to cause With initially discontinuity, the large at a comparatively The to evaluate soundbeam surface, the because category, discontinuities of the and high transducer its magnitude. to strike that indication tend the have moves change to lie gain setting discontinuities.

their and

sensitivity), later, the angles of the travel. around

is manipuIn this a relatively along in distance at an angle the discontinuity

manipulation to the surface display Bursts

is intended principal but lie as the

smooth

to the

is moved fit this

of sound

in large

of 45 to the f. may fine produce grain. illustration,

surface. Size the Indications. or noise clear cases, indications abnormally Unusually indications, received large large as shown from grain-size grain the size same results in the 4-34. type test specimen same with of back loss

Grain note

"hash" In some
_

in Figure

In the

of material

in a total

FRONT SURFACE

BACK SURFACE

FINE-GRAIN STEEL

FRONT SURFACE

__"HASH"

(FROM PHOTOMICROGRAPHS)

SURFACE

COARSE-GRAIN STEEL

Figure 4-34.

Grain Size Indications 4-33

reflection. These conditions are usually brought about by prolonged or improper forging temperatures, or high temperature during hot working and subsequentimproper annealing of the test specimen. 3.
Contact cussed discussion TYPICAL test in the CONTACT TEST in many paragraphs when contact INDICATIONS instances, are similar test are or identical indications. similar to those Little to immersion disindications. and variadifficult loss article of are all

indications, previous be given will

on immersion indications

additional

Interference from tions in efficiency to recognize back major reflection, factors a. after from plastic most difficult pulse "tail" applied b. in Figure may obstruction the block, contact 4-35. to detect, of the to the initial test

the initial pulse at the front surface of the test specimen of coupling, produce irrelevant effects that are sometimes testing. distance in evaluation Indications. test initial material, pulse. pip by the separation the because when pulse. specimen Discontinuity initial of the Figure where With As of the in immersion discontinuity display. dead which path. responses obscures transducers, initial-pulse 4-36 the shows zone is the length are initial the of the pulse testing, from the signal surfaces amplitude, of the and

in contact used

of the The during water pulse

Dead-Zone the by the front-surface can testing,

soundbeam because is separated such

path, of as a In as shown may be

entering

no reflections testing, Only the by inserting front

displayed a standoff,

In immersion of these

be achieved near-surface interference. are is near

in contact

testing.

surface

indications, discontinuities the short

straight-beam near-surface

Shortening obscured of long and the surface.

initial pulses

be effective

discontinuities a comparison discontinuity Typical

INITIAL PULSE

by the ringing

Typical

Indications.

indications
_IBACK \/"

encountered

in ultra-

_/,.SU RFACE

TRANSDUCER_ f /_II DEAD ZONE FRONT SURFACE_ _

.r

\
TEST SPECIMEN

I r

Figure 4-34

4-35.

Dead-Zone

Interference
_ I

_BABLE RESONANCE LONG PULSE

,SCONT,NU,TY PEC,MEN TEST S

SHORT PULSE

IITY

Figure sonic ure testing 4-37, include in rolled as shown

4-36. those sheet from and

Long

and

Short

Pulse found

Effects

on Display as in back shown in Figand flaking. from a

discontinuities inclusions, plate are View seams, shown

in forgtngs, bursts, display

such

as nonmetallic in Figure

forging the

cracks, received

Laminations multiples normal received welds, as shown zones, seam tions shear

by a reduction

reflection reflections testing of indicated, the The fusion weld a

4-38.

A illustrates

plate and view B shows a reduction in the distance when the transducer is moved over the lamination. a satisfactory in view but in this commonly case, has weld A of Figure area is shown View such Surface transducer, with the B shows as porosity cracks are Figure is located weld the in the and 4-41 4-39. same

between the back In angle-beam zones reflections of the which detected clearly for weld. produce when

fusion center slag

a discontinuity 4-40.

discontinuities

indicausing indi-

as shown wave with

in Figure

sometimes shows

an angle-beam

a surface-wave

INITIAL

PULSE

REFLECTION DISCONTINUITY

i
-

1-11
NON-METALLIC INCLU$1ON

17K]
_., #1
CRACK FLAKING

SEAM

Figure

4-37.

Typical

Contact

Test

Discontinuity

Indications 4-35

kj

VIEW A

VIEW B

Figure

4-38.

Effect

of Lamination

on Back-Reflection

Multiples

WELD

NEAR EDGE

DISCONTINUITY FAR EDGE

Figure

4-39.

Weld

Indications

Using

Angle-Beam

Contact

Techniques

SEAM

POROSITY

SLAG

\ \

Figure
4-36

4-40.

Porosity

and

Slag Indications

in Weld

Seam

cation using tion, ducers beam initial inch

from as with are when pulse below c.

a crack the thin used passing testing. the surface

in the the

surface initial

of the

test

specimen. pulse shows 4-42

With does the The

pitch-and-catch with received

testing, recepfrom soundthe in

two transducers, single test

or transmitted Figure using

not interfere indications transit time advantage separation angle-beam

transducer. specimen, near-surface the left 4-43 Lucite

a relatively

two transducers. resolution. wedge same gives way the

Paired an additional water-path from

transin that occurs only 0.02

to improve through to the Figure of the

of the

is moved

in the shows

immersion

an indication

a discontinuity

material. Coarse-grain as shown material 4-44, causes when reflections the test or "hash"

Irrelevant the width

Indications. of the display,

across

in Figure

is attempted

INITIAL

PULSE

CRACK

IRFACE WAVE INDICATION

Figure

4-41.

Surface

Crack

Indication

Using

Angle-Beam

Technique

/TRANSMITTING

/RECEIVING TRANSMITTED PULSE

TRANSDUCER_TRANSDUCER DISCONTINUITY //?,', / ,,_-__ ECHOES SURFACES PARALLEL I ENTRANT RETURN TO TRANSDUCER, FROM TO SURFACE

/ ', ,;,, /
I I _\ \ / /

,BACK SURFACE REFLECTION

',-Y- /
I I "-.. I \_ \ \/ / II

ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER TO ENTRANT

BEAM

REFLECTED

AWAY NOT

FROM

BY A SURFACE SURFACE.

PARALLEL

Figure
r

4-42.

Two-Transducer

Indications 4-37

kj

DISCONTINUITY

0.02"

BELOW SURFACE

BACK REFLECTION TRANSMITTED

TEST

SURFACE

Figure

4-43.

Indication

of Near-Surface

Discontinuity

Figure at a high lower transducer. transducer surface conversion turning straight ducer. echo frequency. When is not will occurs as reflected soundbeam Surface

4-44.

Coarse or reduce

Grain the

Indications effect of these unwanted by using when pips of the long test the following face the reflections, an angle-beam of the backmode and retrans-

To eliminate and testing curved appear from shear will change the cylindrical to fit the as shown the waves, lessen generated this

the frequency

direction test surface, striking problem

of the

soundbeam especially

specimens, in Figure as shown 4-45. the

additional sides 4-46.

In testing

specimens, specimen directive, diameter cause

soundbeam

in Figure by changing

A more also

to a larger testing

waves

during

straight-beam

unwanted

INITIAL

PULSE DIRECT REFLECTION

ADDITIONAL (SPURIOUS) REFLECTION

Figure 4-38

4-45.

Irrelevant

Indication

from

Cylindrical

Specimen

INITIAL PULSE BACK LONGITUDINAL REFLECTION

S HEA R____,..__

_.,_

:TED SHEAR WAVE INDICATIONS

Figure irrelevant Figure face testing wave Figure wave indications 4-47. with 4-48.

4-46. when across

Irrelevant they the reflect

Indication from will the with the

from edge

Long of the the

Bar test

Specimen specimen caused a small as transducer. unit shown as shown by the When surfacein the dissurin

Movement

of the

transducer display transducers, transmitted

cause movement

indication of the to have recognized

to move

two straight-beam of the This type soundbeam

it is possible to the is easily

PULSE

component

receiving

of unwanted

reflection
INITIAL

by varying

SURFACE WAVE

REFLECTION

Figure

4-47.

Irrelevant

Surface-Wave

Edge

Reflection

INITIAL

PULSE

TRANSMITTER.

....

_ RECEIVER ..___=_-__ .

IRFACE WAVE INDICATION

i
Figure 4-48. Irrelevant Surface-Wave Indication with Two Transducers 4-39

tance between the transducers and watching the indication; when the distance is increased, the apparent discontinuity indication moves away from the initial pulse. Using angle-beam transducers, a certain amount of unwantedreflections are received from the wedge. These indications are shown immediately following the initial pulse in Figure 4-49. Whenthe transducer is lifted off the test specimen, the reflections from within the wedgeare identified becausethey are still present on the display. With continued use, the crystal in the transducer may come loose or fracture. When this happens, the indication is characterized by a prolonged ringing which addsa "tail" to the initial pulse as shown in Figure 4-50. As the prolonged ringing effect
results in a reduced capability of the system to detect discontinuities, the transducer is discarded or repaired.

INITIAL

WEDGE REFLECTI(

I
Figure 4-49.

I
Irrelevant Indication from Plastic Wedge

Figure 4-40

4-50.

Irrelevant

Indication

from

Loose

Transducer

Crystal

406 1. The two plane as

RESONANCE GENERAL resonance sides smooth test as the

TECHNIQUE

technique and resonant beam surface.

is used parallel, As

primarily but it will thickness when received

for also this

thickness detect frequency of a given

measuring discontinuities material (or its When transmitted to vibrate waves are material, has

of material lying in the

with same

each energy in the

a characteristic is applied cause material test speciof the 4-51. wavea range set in Figure Since fundamental a waves into the

or fundamental a continuous of increased surge men;

frequency, of sound beam

multiples) checking over are shown the

to the

test

specimen, are

standing

amplitude is varied occurs frequency are

indications. waves transducer and standing frequencies the wavelength of the

thickness, frequencies; specimen. As shown, length resonant and

a continuous resonance Standing-wave when frequency the frequency

of longitudinal by causing at some for to the from the point, several

the wavelength

up within

patterns related

is increased,

decreases.

thickness the formula:

is determined
TEST SPECIMEN

REFLECTED

WAVE

TR SDUCER
1 MEGACYCLE
F

/
INCIDENT WAVE

(FUNDAMENTAL

FREQUENCY)

L_-----------_.-------_""'" THICKNESS = 1/2 WAVELENGTH

(2ND HARMONIC) 2 MEGACYCLES

-----,,--

THICKNESS

= 1 WAVELENGTH

------..

(3RD HARMONIC) 3 MEGACYCLES

__

THICKNESS

= 1-1/2

WAVELENGTHS

4 MEGACYCLES (4TH HARMONIC)

[_

,,x..s,
-,-----THICKNESS

_,,x,.7,_1
I
= 2 WAVELENGTHS

--

Figure

4-51.

Standing

Wave

Patterns 4-41

/
i

V
F --m

2T

Where:

____

fundamental velocity thickness

frequency of longitudinal of the material.

for

resonance in the given material

V T

= =

waves

With its always ments,

instruments harmonics the the

using appear

an oscilloscope on the between screen any

(CRT) as pips.

display, The harmonics a direct

the

fundamental resonant or pips. from

frequency frequency instruover a scale On most

and is the

fundamental readout

difference actual a meter, the use the off. the is read

two adjacent are

thickness

measurements

CRT display, ments require charts thickness conversion of the by2. 2. In the operator 3: TYPICAL following has longitudinal determined;

or a scale over a stroboscopic of charts or tables to compute frequency A constants the frequency The of each difference on the or K table into given the type K factors between chart is located

light display. the thicknesses. any two adjacent and the

Other instruTo use these harmonics corresponding the thickness the per second, is

or tables,

frequency

or table; used are

is also constant table

for frequency-thickness to obtain derived in million by dividing inches

by dividing in inches. wave

K factor

material

in the

velocity

of material,

RESONANCE resonance assembled for the

TESTING testing

PROCEDURE the assumption at the test of the is made area. that the to Chapter

procedure, equipment description and

necessary

Refer

Equipment, a. Turn

requirements and

equipment. Connect on the the

on instrument

allow

it to warm and install

up a few minutes. the transducer

coaxial cable to the end of the cable. b. Using display. c. Adjust nesses Place For e. a suitable Figure

oscillator

opposite

couplant, 4-52 shows

place

transducer reference

on test test

block blocks.

and

observe

typical

instrument until the thickness marked on the test block. transducer example, on a section a standard and of sheet

indications

match

the known

thick-

d.

or plate

selected

for plate.

this

exercise.

1/4-inch determine

thickness the

Of steel

Observe (the

the display, between

fundamental harmonics). tobe T

resonant

frequency

difference the

any

two adjacent resonant

f.

Assuming

fundamental

Zrequency formula

compute the thickness by using the the following values for K and F: 4-42

0. 461 megacycles K = T and substituting V

_'_/

REFERENCE BLOCK

BLOCK

Figure K F = = 0. 116 0.461 (steel

4-52. constant

Resonance obtained (fundamental 0. 116

Test from

Blocks K table) frequency) K) frequency)

megacycles

resonant (constant resonant

T (thickness)

0. 461 T =

(fundamental 0.25

3.

TYPICAL

RESONANCE using

TEST an on

RESULTS (CRT) as shown pips. display, Figure show 4-53 above the shows the fundamental a typical CRT sweep

Resonance frequency display.

instruments and Two its

oscilloscope the screen are

harmonics

resonance

indications

projecting

horizontal

/-

7 RESONANCE INDICATIONS

CRT SCREEN--_..

HORIZONTAL SWEEP

,w/

Figure *.-_

4-53.

Typical

Resonsnce

CRT

Display 4-43

line. designed readout made

Their line for

height the

represents under scale covers

signal of frequency. test, shown a range

strength over the

or amplitude, face of the over

and CRT, the

their a direct

position thickness

along scale, 4-54, and is

the base

is a function material The and

By placing superimposed

a transparent CRT

thickness in Figure 2nd,

is obtained. for aluminum

of 0. 090 to 0. 180 inch.

The

3rd,

CRTCREEN-. .. I S

.133 .140 150 .160 170 180

Y

ill II'lllllJllllJlllir I
_!_J_L-JJ
3RD HARMONIC 090 ,ll_0 ,Ii0

_L.LJ._L LL [__LI I
120 ,130 .1,LO 150 . 160 .170

I I i il

llfilJl llJJJlIIlJlll,lltJlJillIl Ill

2ND HARMONIC [-J--[--[_ .090 ].I ,0

_J_LL_L.LLU_LI
.II0 .120 j,

HORIZONTAL

SWEEP ,,_ ALUMINUM THICKNESS IN INCHES

Figure 4th harmonics right since for indication it appears detecting are shown. as for

4-54. The each left

Transparent indication

Thickness is read The

Scale and also the

as 0. 100 or 0. 133 inch, correct thickness three different produce thickness testers CRT sharp, are

is read once corrosion,

0. 100 or 0. 148 inch. indication. is indicated Figure Where 4-55

is 0. 100 inch, used from indiTUBE

Resonance by a decrease shows smooth surface

TUBE

which thickness. conditions.

in signal

amplitude

caused

by reduced various

material

displays strong

back-surface
TUBE

CATHODE-RAY

CATHODE-RAY

CATHODE-RAY

TRANSDUCER / SPECI_/../ / SPECIMEN \ [_ TRANSOUCER

H
SMOOTH SURFACE VARIABLE SURFACE PITTED OR CORRODED SURFACE

Figure 4-44

4-55.

CRT

Display

of Back-Surface

Variables

cations, duced resonant resonance resonance from direct CRT

variable amplitude. frequencies. instruments indications.

surfaces Corroded Gross by

produce surfaces

several produce

indications weak are also

of varying signals detected strength resonance The or over

frequency a wide with range

and of

re-

discontinuities changes shows

ultrasonic of the obtained is appearing moved or bond the along set up on the for the test

observing 4-56 types three

in the several

locations indications instrument

Figure various with

a plate thickness screen. by some or

containing measuring Discontinuities a sudden of the bonded

of discontinuities. or four as resonance the or voids are similar a very tester represent from is used

indications is appearance substandard for indicating

are shifting

indicated, indications detecting testers is has

transducer by the or

specimen, of all or

of the For bond Lack

disappearance areas quality in or

indications. structures,

honeycomb soundness Usually ical ing is bond size tested test, i ! CRT the then

of the it is

material. or from empty an

of bond and bond to

to a laminar high shown a void a bonded gage. size, impedance in Figure of known

discontinuity. mismatch. 4-57. size, within the material made up of the the under By A typadjustpattern test. a given being for each The

a void

space

pattern size of the function considered

ultrasonic pattern, responses

resonance with is the similar

compared tester

obtained

specimen

to a "GO-NO-GO" Indications over The possible the a given

Indications mean standards, characteristics

are

good. minimum as

is below must

requirements. closely as

reference physical

simulate

bonded

CONDITION TEST SPECIMEN TRANSDUCER CATHODE-RAY SOUNDPLATE

L

TRANSDUCER STRADDLING EDGE OF DISCONTINUITY

NJ

lie [UJ_

DISCONTINUITY AT 1/2 THICKNESS DISCONTINUITY AT .3/4 THICKNESS DISCONTINUITY AT A SHARP ANGLE DISCONTINUITY AT 1/4 THICKNESS DISCONTINUITY CLOSE TO THE SURFACE

Figure

4-56.

CRT

Displays

of

Discontinuities 4-45

!
R_

SCREEN RESONANCE

Figure specimens areas. 407 In the density, Constant REFERENCE follo_ing and TABLES reference of high acoustic tables, impedance impedance of various Table being tested and also

4-57. must

Bond have

Tester

Display marked "void" and "non-void"

clearly

a high are

percentage in Table given

of acoustic and for 4-3, 4-2

reflection, shear for wave resonance

Table

4-1,

is an indication K values

mismatch. given are

Longitudinal in Table of Reflection

velocities, testing.

a number

of materials.

materials 4-1.

Percentage

L_J FIRST MEDIUM z _J o,:, ALUMINUM STEEL NICKEL COPPER BRASS LEAD MERCURY GLASS QUARTZ POLYSTYRENE BAKELITE WATER OIL (TRANSFORMER) 21 O z 24 0.2 0 (..) 18 0.3 0.8 0 14 1 2 0,2 O 3 9 12 7 5 0 1 16 19 13 I0 1 0 2 31 34 19 23 9 4 0 0.3 27 29 22 16 8 1 0.8 O 50 77 79 75 73 62 8 40 46 O 42 76 75 71 68 55 6 32 17 1 0 72 88 89 87 86 79 75 65 68 12 18 0 74 89 90 88 87 80 76 67 71 17 23 0.6

4-46

Table 4-2. Acoustic Properties of Materials

LONGITUDINAL DENSITY VELOCITY P=GM/CM 3 VL=CM/_SEC.

WAVES

SHEAR WAVES VELOCITY VT=CM/,uSEC.

i

SURFACE VELOCITY VR=CM.bSEC.

WAVES IMPEDANCE ZR=GMX1000/ CM z - SEC.

MATERIAL

IMPEDANCE ZL=GMX1000/ CM 2 - SEC. .033 1,720 1,750 310 2,330 3,610 3,120 2,960 4,180 12 1,450 1,240 242 6,260 400 2,460 1,010 6,350 4,950 127 320

IMPEDANCE i ZT--GMX1000/ CM 2 -- SEC.

AIR ALUMINUM 2S0 ALUMINUM 17ST BARIUM TITANATE BERYLLIUM BRASS (NAVAL) BRONZE (P-57o) CAST IRON COPPER CORK GLASS, PLATE GLASS, PYREX GLYCERINE GOLD ICE LEAD, PURE MAGNESIUM, AM 35 MOLYBDENUM NICKEL OIL, TRANSFORMER PLASTIC (ACRYLIC RESIN-PLEXIGLASS) POLYETHYLENE QUARTZ, FUSED SILVER STEEL STAINLESS 302 STAINLESS 410 TIN TITANIUM (TI 150A) TUNGSTEN WATER ZINC

.001 2.71 2.80 .56 1.82 8.1 8.86 7.7 8.9 .24 2.51 2.25 1.261 19.3 1.00 11.4 1.74 10.09 8.3 .92 1.18

.033 .635 .625 .550 1.280 .443 .353 .450 .466 .051 .577 .557 .192 .324 .398 .216 .579 .629 .563 .138 .267 .153 .593 .360 .585 .566 .759 .332 .610 .518 .149 .417

310 .310 .871 .212 223 .240 .226 .343 .344 .120 199 .070 .310 .335 .296 .i12

840 868 1,600 1,720 1,980 1,850 2,010 865 765 2,320 199 798 539 3,650 2,610 I32

.290 .279 .787 195 .201 193 .314 .313

788 780 1,420 1,580 1,780 1,720 765 698

.063 .287 .311 .264

717 499 339 2,320

2.20 10.5 7.8 8.03 7.67 7.3 4.54 19.25 1. O0 7.1

1,300 3,800 4,560 4,550 5,670 2,420 2,770 9,980 149 2,960

.375 .159 .323 .312 .299 167 .512 .287 .241

825 1,670 2,530 2,500 2,290 1,235 1,420 5,520 1,710

.339 .279 .312 .216 .279 .265

745
-

2,180 2,500 2,290 1,420 5, i00

4-47

Table

4-3.

Resonance

Testing,

Constant

K Table

MATERIAL ALUMINUM ALUMINUM OXIDE BERYLLIUM BRASS BRONZE (P-5%) CAST IRON COPPER CORK GLASS, PLATE GLASS, PYREX GOLD ICE LEAD MAGNESIUM MOLYBDENUM MONEL NICKEL PETROLEUM PLASTIC(ACRYLIC RESIN, POLYETHYLENE PHENOLIC LAMINATE(PAPER RUBBER QUARTZ SILVER STEEL, CAST STEEL, STAINLESS STEEL TEFLON TIN TITANIUM TUNGSTEN TUNGSTEN-SILVER URANIUM WATER (FRESH) ZINC ZIRCONIUM PLEXIGLASS) BASE)

CONSTANT

K(1,000,

O00 IN./SEC.)

0.121 - 0.131 0.188 - 0.193 0.252 0.086 - 0.092 0.0695 0.087 - 0. 110 0.092 - 0.093 0.010 0.114 0.Iii 0.064 0.078 0.047 0.049 0.114 0.116 O. 124 0.106 0.108 0.113 0.115 0.026 (APPROXIMATELY) 0.0525 0.036 0.052 0.0205 0.I14 0.071 0.II0 0.116 0.I12 0.114 0.i15 0.I18 0.0245 - 0.0335 0.065 0.121 0.126 0.102 O.076(APPROXIMATELY) 0.066 0.070 O.028(APPROXIMATELY) 0.082 0.093 0.102

4-48

CHAPTER

5:

CALIBRATING OF

TESTING

UNITS

C
Paragraph 500 501 GENERAL STANDARD 1. 2. 3. 502 1. 2. 3. 4. General Materials Shapes General

TABLE

CONTENTS

Page ......................................... REFERENCE BLOCKS ........................ ....................................... ...................................... ........................................ CALIBRATION Check Check Reference Reference Area/Amplitude Bail Area/Amplitude Axial Beam Distance/Amplitude PROCEDURE ..................... ....................................... ............................. ........................... Check 5-3 5-3 5-3 5-4 5-4 5-6 5-6 5-7 5-8 5-10 5-3 5-5 5-8 5-9 5-10 ........ 5-12 5-12 ................. ................ ..............

TYPICAL

Area/Amplitude Distance/Amplitude Transducer Standard Standard Typical Steel Typical Transducer Transducer

................................ Blocks Block .......................... Design Response Response Response ...................... Curve Curve Curve

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 5-5 5-6 5-7

Distance/Amplitude Characteristics Pattern ..........................

!PRECEDING

PAGE

BLANK. 5:

NOT

[:ILI_ED. TESTING UNITS

CHAPTER 500 Periodic Iinearity rant effects may expect the 4: to reference operator rial and dardizing Chapter size sample rigid ment 501 1. For GENERAL calibration of dispIayed within the standards. confidently an accurate calibrated whmh standard, and with matches of ultrasonic indications testing Once adjust

CALIBRATING

testing and unit the are

units

is frequently proper is calibrated the of the and unit test within made test by calibrating to the

required the values test

to establish performance. instrument standards, of the sample. (refer shape of the is based of the test on a instrutest the mateStanto and IrreIesystem

to ensure eliminated

instrument to known the

equipment

or standardize to values reference dimensions acceptance attention of the BLOCKS

display instrument special the When

of discontinuities blocks,

sample

is done in a specific

Techniques)

of material as nearly testing system

physical

properties sample

as possible. to standardizing REFERENCE

of the is given

considerable

to calibration

instrument (Figure

to sample 5-1)

variables.

STANDARD GENERAL the purpose

of equipment

calibration,

ultrasonic

standard

reference

blocks

are

Figure

5-1.

Standard

Reference

Blocks

manufactured hole Alcoa, dards. and balls, tude length, for drilled

in various into one end.

shapes These

and Inc.,

sizes, are etc, consists

each and are used

with

a standard available

size from

flat-bottomed sources such as stanperformance steel Area/amplisize, shape, block. same and

blocks standard,

readily for

Automation A fundamental checking mounted reference with

Industries, reference reference on steel pins consist blocks are

referred checking when

to as off-the-shelf instrument calibrating. same same of each of varying-diameter of the of the For

blocks,

of a series in couplant of eight diameter lengths. blocks of blocks

and immersed of a series of varying made

blocks flat-bottomed

holes

in the bottom further

Distance/amplitude

in a series varying E127-64.

shape, information,

diameter flat-bottomed holes, refer to ASTM Recommended 2. MATERIALS

but with Practice

Ultrasonic standard reference blocks are made

of carefully selected aluminum

alloy

bar stock (refer to ASTM Recommended Practice E127-64). Various other types of blocks are made from plastic, steel, magnesium, carbon, etc. When testing materials, sensitivitycorrections and adjustments for metal distance made on special reference blocks of a material which most When calibrating, the material may be differIn such cases, the equipment the material of the test specimen.

are most reliable when nearly matches

of the reference block used for checking performance ent than the material found in subsequent test samples.

of the equipment

is standardized to the variables of the material under test, as described in Chapter 4, Techniques. 3. Standard shapes. rection both area accuracy SHAPES (Figure 5-2) are usually of blocks may which manufactured are used; one correction. be used. are Reference which on steel standard, mounted in rectangular set for A basic blocks consists pins and set or cylindrical corcombines for of in which are

reference Commonly, and one set and distance

blocks for

two sets responses diameter,

area/amplitude checked of a series immersed

distance/amplitude reference

by using

a fundamental

steel bails, the couplant.

aw

of varying

Shapes blocks

for are

Area/Amplitude usually made the size

Standards. in sets same size of the one inch, in each 1/64, flat bottom is made hole and hole set

Area/amplitude

standard

reference with

of rectangular

or cylindrical

blocks

each block as nearly only variable is the block block. inch hole or 5-4 to a depth The bottom cutter. hole increments; The

shape as the others in the set. The drilled in the bottom center of each to the vary 3/64, longitudinal etc., axis of the The driI1 and is in a progression drilling as smooth with of 1/64th inch. a flat-end

of 3/4 for finished

perpendicular 2/64, is made

diameters example: block

to 8/64

in each

by final

as possibIe

f-

HOLE PERPENDICULAR TO TOP SURFACE (A). HOLE BOTTOM (C) PARALLEL WITH TOP SURFACE (A).

--,-----2"

TO 2-1/4 DIAMETER

w-----"

1 1 fc
3/4" '_''E (SEE NOTE)

B(SEE

NOTE)

A = ULTRASONIC ENTRY SURFACE. B = METAL DISTANCE. 3 INCHES FOR AREA/AMPLITUDE BLOCKS, VARYING DIMENSION FOR DISTANCE/AMPLITUDE BLOCKS. C = FLAT-BOTTOM HOLE SURFACE. D = BACK SURFACE. PARALLEL WITH TOP SURFACE. E = HOLE DIAMETER. VARYING DIMENSION FOR AREA/AMPLITUDE BLOCKS IN ]./64-INCH INCREMENTS, 5/64-INCH DIAMETER FOR ALL DISTANCE/AMPLITUDE BLOCKS. ]./4-INCH FLAT COUflTERBORE FOR PLUGGING HOLE.

Figure

5-2.

Standard

Reference

Block As will As are

Design be seen each also hole to area used later, bottom size the area is reis located of the hole standard pins The with pins installed parallel is are of

v,j

parallel the lated bottom. tude which fiat made to the hole

to the bottom, to the

top surface when

of the block. and or amplitude, is directly diameters, use block, from rod, the

reflected pip size of varying steel

displayed

on the related

oscilIoscope,

height bails,

of the pip

at a constant Steel consists ends which standard.

distance, Various of a long protrude

as an area/ampli-

corporations 2 inches drill With of the transducer

an unusual by eight side to 1/2 with the inch

area/amplitude press-fit diameter, of the pins the instrument pin tops.

pierced one 1/16 block over

of the block. tops

of standard surface

diameter to the surface the of the block.

perpendicular calibrated
b,

block,

immersed, each

by centering

of the eight

Shapes similar the The sized distance same

for Distance/Amplitude to area/amplitude shape drilled as the

blocks,

Standards. Rectangular or cylindrical are made in sets with eachblock set, inch the except of each in depth. pip that block As size block are each height usually hoie center: 5/64 bottom related

blocks, as nearly inch is to the

others and

in the 3/4

is varied.

holes

in the bottom diameter, bottom

diameter,

fiat-bottomed, of the hole

to a constant

oscilloscope from

is directly

top surface. 5-5

502 i. In the

TYPICAL GENERAL following and Test

CALIBRATION

PROCEDURE

paragraphs, equipment Instrument. testing

a typical as follows: Any

ealibl_ation

procedure

will

be covered,

assuming"

conditions a.

of several

commercially

available

pulse-echo

ultrasonic b. c. Test

instruments. The test frequency transducer shall be 15 Mc. inch diameter quartz; with an

Frequency.

Transducer. operational

An immersion frequency Line

of 3/8

of 15 Mc. voltage with regulation ensured by a voltage regulating

d.

Power

Source.

transformer. e. Immersion large block. f. enough Tank. Any container accurate is satisfactory positioning of the that will hold couplant and the and reference is

to allow

transducer

Couplant. the same reference

Clean blocks.

deaerated

water

is used when

as a couplant. the

The

same from

water, differing

at

temperature,

is used

comparing

responses

g.

Bridge and Manipulator. lator and rigid enough ducer. fine The angular manipulator adjustment Blocks. area and distance of ten blocks blocks diameter

The bridge is strong enough to support the maniputo allow smooth, accurate positioning of the transadequately in two vertical supports planes corrections set. may blocks. a 3 inch length Standard. to the from reference and 1/8 be used; metal which When A basic for the that for by using set example, and relations 5/64 inch transducer are normal and provides to each and other. disset both basic compared -, and set

h.

Reference continuity of blocks area and consisting between 8/64-inch between

Test

sensitivity are

metal which the 3/64 relations

distance combines ASTM are -, are 5/64

responses responses reference containing holes. of varying Reference

accomplished

an area/amplitude

a distance/amplitude

Area/amplitude distance contain

Distance/amplitude

compared holes. reASTM set of

diameter

i.

Fundamental sponses, 15 steel quality, A suitable immersion balls,

calibrating described marks diameter

area/amplitude is the in 1/16 to hold and of bali-bearing inch

an alternate free ranging device, tank. in size such

blocks surface

of corrosion

to 1 inch

increments. ball in the

as a tee pin,

is necessary

each

2.
The from alternate

AREA/AMPLITUDE linear each range of the for a. the

CHECK is determined reference as follows: reference immersion sIightIy and the block tank. off-center, surface (a block Position the containing transducer distance This inch, a 5/64 over distance a the of 3 inches by obtaining blocks (steel the balls ultrasonic may responses as an

of the instrument area/amplitude-type reference a No. diameter surface the blocks}

be used

Place inch upper between

5 area/amplitude hole} of the face accurately, the block the transducer, from the that in the block, crystal within and the

at a water of the block. of 1/32

of the

is adjusted gage b. between

a + or - tolerance crystal. to the surface surface

by using

Manipulate maximum indication the same block.

normal the front soundbeam

of the

block,

to obtain block. serves This top surface

a of the

pip height proves A maximum

reflection

of the to the

is perpendicular surface

number

of back

reflection

pips

purpose. the transducer bottom. the instrument on the blocks the b. and gain set. block each for block each distance with and block, each of the the for other the blocks No. in the 7 and No. set. Repeat a water 8 blocks control ray tube until screen. the pip height Do not is 31% of the this step maximum for the laterally until the maximum response is received from

c.

Move the

hole

d.

Adjust obtainable remaining

cathode in the

repeat

e.

Replace steps distance which

reference c. for

record except

indications.

Maintain

of 3 inches require a water of the the defines

of 6 inches. indications as shown curve in the (in this in Figure instrument. example} range ideal the are and a vertical curve instrument the different (CF) height of indication (CH) and factor 5-3. In the from Amplitudes in the are linear of indiincreased line upAmplitudes a

f.

Plot

a curve line below of the above ideal from point cent The

recorded point the limit

example straight plotted range cation to the ward The per play. height indication the same indication

shown,

where

the

of responses

deviates

of linearity response are This

the limit instrument the limiting linearity

of linear point

and no correction curve. height is done the the factor range, the curve the

is required. by projecting until the that height For each height

in the non-linear

the

actual

of indication

is intercepted. (CI-I) in can actual in actual amplitude is plotted When the is computed dis-

of interception of maximum difference

defines amplitude between

corrected

of indication corrected (CF). the deviation corrected

(AH) is the way, height

correction

in the non-linear because is displayed,

correction

is not constant. indication

(,,,
z o
F--

100

AH = ACTUAL HEIGHT CF = CORRECTION FACTOR

IDEAL LINEARITY_
/ _lw,./

< CH = CORRECTED HEIGHT ----- 80 -ADD CORRECTION FACTOR z__ TO ACTUAL HEIGHT TO uJ OBTAIN CORRECTED HEIGHT -J m AH + CF = CH

8/64"

DIA-CHJ

-/ 7/64" DIA- CHm/_ cg

f
...eA-.--AH

t
CF

o< ,v

60

6/64"_ 40 '< _;
t._

5/64,,mA ,, DIA _,_,"

"_LIMIT

OF LINEAR RESPONSE

20
z
LU n,-

4/64 3/

J"

_ POINT OF STANDARDIZATION

NOTE: IN THIS EXAMPLE, INDICATIONS WITHIN +5% OF IDEAL ARE CONSIDERED LINEAR. I I I I 30 40 50 60 RELATIVE AREA UNITS

,,, o_

" .._'2/64" DIA 0 4"1/64" DIA 0 10

20

70

(RATIO:

1/64TH = 1, 2/64TH =4, 3/64TH = 9, 4/64TH = 16, 5/64TH = 25, 6/64TH = 36, 7/64TH =49, AND 8/64TH =64. DYNAMIC RANGE: 64 TO 1, INTERMEDIATE PIP HEIGHTS IN PROPORTION)

Figure by adding follows: the

5-3.

Typical

Area/Amplitude factor directly

Response to the actual

Curve indication height, as

correction

AH
gi

+ range

CF

CH instrument may also be determined by recording the from method the the maximum over for plotted maxion a

The

linear

of the

ultrasonic 1/8 to 1.0 is used, instrument obtainable 1/2 tained mum curve 3. The inch

responses from inch in diameter following gain on the previous control steel oscilloscope ball.

each of fifteen steel balls, in 1/16 inch increments. steps a. through until each the wtth the f., except transducer the water indications the pip height bail,

ranging in size The immersion that in step d. is 50% of the positioned distance are

is adjusted screen For inch ball. 5-4. and The

diameter

is main-

constant

at 3 + 1/32

transducer

is positioned

response from each as shown in Figure

recorded

DISTANCE/AMPLITUDE distance/amplitude

CHECK of the instrument are determined by obtaining of varyindica-

characteristics from a 5/64 each inch

the ultrasonic responses ing metal distance with tions are recorded

of the reference blocks in a set of blocks diameter hole in each block. The resultant following procedure:

on a curve,

in the

1:: LLI
80_ 70 -AH = ACTUAL HEIGHT CF CORRECTION FACTOR CH = CORRECTED HEIGHT ADD CORRECTION FACTOR TO ACTUAL HEIGHT TO OBTAIN CORRECTED HEIGHT , AH + CF = CH
I O9 Z O w }-< m Z h3 .-J

IDEAL LINEARITYn_

CH I_ _) CF ."'-

/9 / /

_CSy P.....

6O

5O
J /

S
,f/7

LINEAR
RESPONSE

OF STANDARDIZATION
C* < t_ ,v

4O

3O
#

/.
f.-

NOTE: 2O IN THIS EXAMPLE, INDICATIONS Wl [HIN +5% OF IDEAL ARE CONSIDERED LINEAR,

I0

-_

i/8

3116

1/4

5/16

3/8

7/16

1/2

9/16

5/8 11/16 INCHES

3/4

13/16

7/8

15/16

BALL DIAMETER,

Figure a. Place metal the block, of the within and b. the

5-4.

Steel bIock, tank. and the

Bail

Area/Amplltude containing from the a 5/64 the transducer distance block.

Response inch

Curve hole hole surface the the with a in of the face

a reference distance immersion slightly crystal crystal.

flat-bottomed tothe the this upper distance between

of 3. 000 inches Position surface off-center,

top surface over Adjust

bottom,

at a water of the of 1/32 inch,

of 3 inches a gage

between

accurately, block

a + or - tolerance

by using

Manipulate maximum indication of the same

the transducer, pip height proves that from the

normal the front soundbeam number

to the surface of back

surface

of the

block,

to obtain This the top surface serves

reflection surface

of the to the reflections

block.

is perpendicular

block. purpose. the

A maximum

c.

Move the

transducer bottom. maximum reference

laterally Adjust the obtainable block

until

the

maximum gain cathode of the control ray other

response until tube blocks

is received the pip screen. in the set. height

from is

hole

instrument on the with each

25% of the d. Replace steps b. distance the

Repeat

and c. for of 3 inches

each block and record the indications. for each block, except when the basic

Maintain water set is used, which

requires diameter
e,

a water distance of 6 inches for one block containing hole with a metal distance of 3. 000 inches. of the the 2.0 to the the recorded near inch field indications (fresnel) indication. attenuate as shown zone in Figure from beyond

an 8/64

inch

Plot

a curve

5-5. the 0.5 2.0

In the inch inches

example indication increases, 4. TRANSDUCER accuracy

shown,

extends

As the distance or decrease

indications

in height.

CHECK during as modified pattern ultrasonic curve or plot are than can test from also equipment by the a 1/2 test inch calibration, instrument, diameter from that the the steel same curve the are characteristics determined ball steel and immersed ball beam used ultrasonic the 6: transCalithe analysis at a plot with of by

To improve of the recording in water. fixed any water test recorded transducer testing ducer brating may

transducer, A beam distance in this instrument equipment Transducers.

lOO TEST i

or distorted

a distance/amplitude of 3 inches. other used

be obtained to remember transducer in this To ensure equipment

It is well not valid the one used

procedure

if the

is subsequently A complete commercial accuracy, in Chapter used for for the

procedure. with called the maximum apparatus

characteristics be calibrated

cannot in this with In the the

be accomplished special

procedure. following
I 15 MC i

procedure,

checking

t FREQUENCY:

90
Z O

TRANSDUCER: .?,/8-1N CH - DIAMETER QUARTZ WATER DISTANCE: I 1 3 + 1/3,2 INCH [

m r_ Z W .J rn

80 70--

/
....

60 W r_

50

40
h O W "i b-Z

30
20-

/_

rw W

IO

POINTOF
STANDARDIZATION

/
-

---..,

/
0.5
1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5 METAL

3.0

3.5 DISTANCE,

4.0

4.5

5.0

5.5

6.0

6.5

7.0

INCHES FOR NON-LINEARITY)

(INSTRUMENT

CORRECTED

Figure 5-10

5-5.

Typical

Distance/Amplitude

Response

Curve

transducer is the same as that prescribed in the previous paragraphs for calibrating the instrument with reference blocks. The maniuplator is set to allow a range in water distance of 0 to at least 6 inches from the face of the transducer to the ball surface.
a

Adjust water surface this

the

instrument on the

gain

control screen inch beam from care

until the

the pip the face on the

height transducer

is 50% of the positioned transducer maximum of the ball.

maximum at a top

obtainable

oscilloscope Exercise

with

distance of the the

of 3 + 1/32 ball. transducer

of the center

to the

in producing

a true

indication Record

by locating point

center

of standardization. the instrument, set the water distance at 1/4 inch.

b.

After

standardizing

Again, exercise care in using the manipulator beam center on the center of the bail. Record Do not readjust the instrument gain control the procedure. c. Vary the water inches. Record tance, center d. As

to locate the the maximum

transducer indication. steps of

in this

or succeeding

distance in 1/8 inch increments through a range of 1/4 to 6 the maximum indication for each increment of water distime the transducer on the bail. plot and the recorded the is moved back that the beam

using care each remains centered shown in Figure transducer

5-6,

indications axial test is similar in the The peaks instrument to the curve is 1/16

(corrected used curve occur inch.

for in the shown

any retest. in disin

non-Iinearity) sponse The Figure tances water e. of the for 5-6. of 1.25, distance curve

on a curve an acceptable It is important 1.75, for the and

to demonstrate the particular transducer that 3 inches the as peaks

distance/amplitude

at water deviation

shown.

allowable

occurence

of these

Determine the transducer beam pattern by relocating the manipulator obtain a 3 1/32 inch water distance from the 1/2 inch diameter steel to the travel, ducer The scan should profile 30 per face the passes symmetry by rotating not vary has of the of the height over the more side transducer. of the the ball. beam transducer than lobes 10 per with of the is shown While Three scanning from the distinct laterally, bail lobes The the produce no less lobe. The 5-7. 3/8 inch while are displacing of the side total the indication is observed or maximums four entire scans; magnitude

to bali transeach lobes

observed.

of the

is checked cent

by making about will

45 degrees. transducer

perimeter a symmetrical than beam 20 nor pattern

of the beam more than or plot

soundbeam. which cent

An acceptable magnitude transducer

magnitudes center in Figure

of an acceptable

8O

7O

60
POINT OF
z O I h<

J 50

STANDARDIZATION

z i LLJ .J , t-_ . hi P/

40

30

2O

10

illllll
0 I 2 3 WATER DISTANCE, INCHES 4

A -

O I

.......

Figure

5-6.

Transducer

Axial

Distance/Amplitude

Characteristics

110
101

C/L (CRITICAL

POINT)

t,I f_ U.z i_e," -rn,-

BO
70 60 50

\
IMERSlON TRANSDUCER - 3/8-INCH DIAMETER QUARTZ, WITH OPERATIONAL FREQUENCY OF 15 MC.

w_ e_- z

40
ZI.W<

TARGET - 1/2-INCH DIAMETER STEEL BALL AT A WATER DISTANCE OF 3 1/32 INCH.

..30

AJ

SIDE LOBE MAGNITUDE SHOULD BE 20%-30% OF CENTER LOBE.

'22
1/16 1/8 3/16 1/4

\
5/16 3/8

(INCH) TRAVERSE ACROSS FACE OF CRYSTAL

Figure 5-12

5-7,

Transducer

Beam

Pattern V

CHAPTER

6:

CALIBRATING OF

TRANSDUCERS

TABLE

CONTENTS

Paragraph 600 601 602 603 GENERAL GENERAL GENERAL 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 604 General Test Function Recording Manipulative TRANSDUCER ......................................... EQUIPMENT CALIBRATING CALIBRATING ....................................... Setup ...................................... ....................................... Method ................................. ............................. Equipment QUALIFICATIONS TECHNIQUE EQUIPMENT ................... ..................... ..................

Page 6-3 6-3 6-3 6-3 6-3 6-4 6-4 6-4 6-5 6-6 6-6 6-6 PROFILES .................... ..................... Measurements ....................... ........... .............. 6-6 6-7 6-7 6-7 6-7 6-7 6-9 6-9 6-10 6-10 6-10 6-11 6-11 6-11 6-12 6-4 6-5 6-8 6-9 6-9 ........... 6-10

Reflector Targets ................................. Pulser ........................................ Wideband Receiver ................................ System .................................. OF TRANSDUCER BEAM ....................................... Transducer Transducer Measurements Measurements

9. Display RECORDING 1. 2. 3. General Flat-Disc Focused

6O5

4. Cylindrically-Focused Transducer ANALYSIS OF TRANSDUCER DATA 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. General Waveform Frequency Damping Sensitivity Focal Beam Beam Length Amplitude Width and ....................................... ...................................... ...................................... Factor .................................. .................................... Profiles Symmetry .....................................

............................ ........................... .......................

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

6-1 6-2 6-3 6-4 6-5 6-6

Equipment Camera Typical Flat-Disc Focused

Functional Recording Transducer Transducer Transducer

Diagram Method

...........................

Data Sheet ....................... Measurements .................... Measurements Transducer .................... Measurements

Cylindrically-Focused

-PRECEDING PAGE BLANK CHAPTER

600 GENERAL transducers, usually of parts of variations though have in the in crystal identical cutting, transducer

NOT FILMED. TRANSDUCERS

6:

CALIBRATING

Ultrasonic specification, because misalignment 601

in appearance characteristics. areas assembly. of poor

and bond

manufactured anomalies to lens

to the may

same exist and

individual

Acoustic

or backing,

GENERAL

EQUIPMENT transmitting variables. spike received The for distance.

QUALIFICATIONS and receiving that will equipment transducer are manner describe damping not distort is required characteristics, the which the and natural without will amplified special recording beam for accurately the mode crystal of a perma-

Specialized measuring is excited operation. and nent the

wideband transducer by a voltage The information and and signals

To analyze in a fashion by the following is displayed measuring,

transducer in some pages

distortion,

received record.

provide

photographic

instrumentation transducer size, beam sym-

equipment characteristics metry, 602

techniques such focal

or caltbrating

as frequency,

sensitivity,

factor,

beam

GENERAL the a ball

CALIBRATING calibrating bearing, is moved beam, held to the over related the

TECHNIQUE consists reflector, plot return The using camera. are used or articles. EQUIPMENT of the signal of using a smalI is scanned in profile. RF waveform sensitivity manipulative recording uniform test reflector by the in the ultrasonic is produced At the highest is analyzed With symmetry may transducers equipment, resuIts immerbeam. on the amplifor the potenis to data in-

In general, sion tank; As the tude with

technique a flat over RF post, the

or a thin wire beam

transducer of the relating moving and by use for

a changing waveform and

response

oscilloscope portion the

as a distance/amplitude transducer stationary. frequency, the delay target, circuits,

is photographically of the unit. of the beam or selecting

recorded

unrectified precision More

formation transducer tiometers, produced when these be used 603 1.

damping, a dynamic

of an open-shutter measurements materials CALIBRATING

be expected

recorded inspecting

in specifying

TRANSDUCER GENERAL used of the

Equipment sonic screen, the

to accurately is capable signals over the plot camera sent and

measure of reproducing received With soundbeam used

the

send-receive an exact transducer.

characteristics indication, coupled on the on the The to the system

of an ultraoscilloscope also motion, screen. film. 6-3 moves a

transducer transducer

by the

reflector. of the is then

potentiometers is produced the beam

distance/amplitude An open-shutter

oscilloscope on Polaroid

to record

profile

2. The Lucite plant.

TEST transducer or

SETUP is placed so the is by in a couplant immersed placed the use data in the tank (similar and to a small reflector accurate are aquarium) viewed motion made through of the the scanning on the the of cou-

glass

transducer soundbeam table

A reflector ensured convert controls of transducer produced FUNCTION 6-1 shows delay with by

with

transducer crossfeeds position tance are 3. Figure of

of milling into

crossfeeds. signals which

Potentiometers are fed into

motion of the

electrical The

horizontal dis-

oscilloscope. in inches.

horizontal X or

oscilloscope Y directions

display of crystal

shows

traverse simply

Either

movement

switching

potentiometers.

a functional unit, a sharp pulser, spike the later

diagram and and

of the wideband

instrumentation receiver. return the delay The signals unit

equipment, unit repeatedly fed and the back pulser

which

consists the the which,

a timer,

pulses through tube

transducer crystal. at 4. Figure an

then triggers the

amplifies both

In operation, adjustable RECORDING 6-2 shows time,

timer triggers

oscilloscope.

METHOD how the response curve is recorded with an open-shutter camera.

I
DATA SWEEP DELAY [ PLATES HORIZONTAL

I
<o
"TRANSDUCER

:0 _

TIMER

SCOPE

I 1PULSER I

VERTICAL PLATES

RECEIVER WIDEBAND

Figure

6-1.

Equipment

Functional

Diagram

The

data

potentiometers, screen. calibrated This information in damping, A recommended a lock-open

as shown, By this method, in thousandths is related crystal and camera

are

used

to delay describing

the

RF presentation of the the in the and response transducer, uniformity

across curve of the

the is

oscilloscope produced, beam. uniformity. featuring 5. as variations

a permanent of an inch to specific

record

soundsuch non-

abnormalities lens composition, for use while system

thickness, for this a viewing

dimensional Polaroid,

is a scope-mounted photographing.

shutter

port

MANIPULATIVE elevating length are has division the plot, fitted moved and target the micrometer of data

EQUIPMENT and transversing screw slides, mechanisms Milling calibrated and chain the table drives screen; The to the of the other beam movements, are crossfeeds that the required are for used, the precise which Two sweep distance one one without plot 90 from soundbeam consist of the by the the on the is made the in inches of slide

Precision and focal heavy screws use trace per

measurements. with across bezel on the then, Two and one sprocket the

in thousandths develop micrometer

of an inch. delay to the reading

potentiometers. on the

By relating oscilloscope oscilloscope. of the

recording are mounted a plot are

is calibrated potentiometers, so that rotated made

two data one, profile

transverse across first

longitudinal by switching recordings of the

is obtained. mounting

turning

or disturbing

transducer.

UTTER

TRAVERSE ACROSS TARGET

SCOPE

POT _ii_l _ DATA

DELAY ACROSS SCREEN

Figure

6-2.

Camera

Recording

Method 6-5

6.
Unless signal used, selected face This ment post, of ball varies with ducer crystal large produce

REFLECTOR reflector and will particularly of the will of the ball prevent beam. adequate to the reflectors the the beam diameter imperfections. sotmdbeams reflector the with the

TARGETS targets are invalid as small to less carefully chosen, focused as possible. than distortion analyzing amplitude while eliminate to the crystal about example, or For for one-quarter and larger undue diameter is used, testing. the flat equal Best difficulty surface. in size a flat, flat-disc those transducers, produced experiment, diameter In one a bad In most transducers. The size wavelength influence flat provided results target cases, of the can The seriously diameter effective target case, transducer on the a ball distort steel balls ball surmeasuretarget may peruse frequency. of the reflecting the are

produce when is held

information.

precision

calibrating

is maintained

of the of the transducers, In this the are

frequency When signal post

not offer pendicular in holding

profile

recording.

a flat-topped is held from flat the reflectors reflectors compared the fairly small AEC areas, In Hanford balltransthe

as small

in diameter surface in that transducer geometry size to detect. is adequate much size soundbeam

as possible, they

transducer obtained with are

experienced Selection Reflectors to actual circular transducers used

normal of each

of ultrasonic small discontinuities

and lens.

measured,

is expected

reflector used to detect

of one-eighth to detect very

for testing smaller is small. traversed than

Spherically-focused

by unfocused performed ball from

transducers. by the a fine-line

proportion, Laboratories, point 7. This quency with demands resonant ducers, second. 8. ) nanoseconds. pen. PULSER test

a 29-mii

requires of the pulse

a pulser and thaf_ will of the

with the

short

pulse the

capability. crystal into much

To analyze abnormal less than

the

natural

freThis

transducer duration

damping

characteristics,

the transducer oscillation. one period with a rise

is excited of the time natural transof 10

a voltage

not drive For duration

a pulse frequency the

as short crystal. pulse

as possible, analysis

of high-frequency second and

(5 to 25 Mc)

recommended (A microsecond

is 0. 025 microseconds

is one-millionth

a nanosecond

is one-billionth

WIDEBAND the

RECEIVER received signal from becoming receiver and distorted, is one a gain a receiver with of about with 40 db. a wideband of 1.5 to

To prevent RF amplifier 60 Mc, 9. rise

is used. time

A recommended

a bandwidth

response SYSTEM has

of I0 nanoseconds,

DISPLAY

An effective without Type

system

sufficient plug-in.

bandwidth Bandwidth

and

rise

time

to present

the Type a rise

information 547 with time a

distortion. L vertical

A recommended amplifier

oscilloscope

is the

Tektronix

is dc to 30 Mc with

6-6

capability expansion
J

of 0.010 features

microsecond. that are desirable

This

scope for

combination

offers

delay beam

and time profiles.

base

recording

transducer

604 i.

RE_ORDING GENERAL data records various FLAT-DISC 6-4 cut while and the shows in water polished

OF TRANSDUCER

BEAM

PROFILES

Transducer graphic scribe 2. Figure positioned been lel These signal provide 3.

sheets methods

are used

prepared, to obtain

as shown transducer

in Figure The beam

6-3, profiles.

for

mounting

of photode-

and recording

of transducer

analysis.

following

paragraphs

! !

TRANSDUCER a beam over fiat. profile a reflector The

MEASUREMENTS plot flat over of responses made end the from of the reflector with transducer transducer, the drill picked butt and the the are up by a fiat-disc end of a metal crystal four transducer, recorded face parallel drill are paths plus transducer which held has paral-

transducer taken

scans from record

along

shown. a return to

four-beam waveform a permanent FOCUSED

amplitude

profiles, a stationary

taken

a moving

on a photograph

of individual

characteristics.

TRANSDUCER

MEASUREMENTS measurements for a focused transducer. With

Figure 6-5 shows the basic transducer

the reflector stationary, a waveform is obtained and two beam amplitude profile plots are taken with the transducer traversed in the X-axis and the Y-axis. If the depth of field for a focused transducer is required, the beam inside and outside the focal point. 4. CYLINDRICALLY-FOCUSED soundbeam, cylindrically-focused measuring the beam length width of the focused TRANSDUCER in width transducer by traversing beam as shown and MEASUREMENTS unfocused has the immersed 6-6. along the length, over ball is proball the diameter profile may be taken at points

A wedge-shaped duced is used reflector by the for

which

a concave

lens. Correct

A steel

transducer

across

in Figure

depends on the frequency, crystal size, and lens A rule of thumb is to select as small a reflector adequate Since the
|

radii of the transducer as possible which will

being tested. still produce

signal width along and i.e.,

levels

for

profiling. narrow, length, depends crystal are the may size, produced the problem be avoided same and lens of maintaining by substituting factors radii. along over the beam reflector. length over that ball determine alignment of wire ball while for diameter

beam ball,

is usually the beam diameter frequency, profiles translating

traversing selection, Two the beam wire,

a piece

wire

on the

amplitude and then

by translating beam width

across

the ball

6-7

TRANSDUCER

ACOUSTICAL

ANALYSIS

FREQUENCY

DAMPING

FACTOR,

BEAM

WIDTH/DIAMETER,

FOCAL

LENGTH,

BEAM

SYMMETRY

SERIAL

NO-,,., FOCUSED

DATE

TYPE

HOUSING

STYLE 3/16 1/4 RAD.

FREQUENCY

15 MC

CRYSTAL LENS

SIZE.

CRYSTAL

LITHIUM

SULFATE

REFLECTORS

USED: DIA. STEEL BALL

INSPECTOR

A.;
B.

0.039

DRIVER

PULSE:

0.039

DIA.

STEEL

BALL

DURATION,

o. 065

,MICROSECONDS VOLTS

C.

0.039

DIA.

STEEL

BALL

AMPLITUDE

15o

CONNECTING

CABLES: LENGTH TYPE DRIVER PULSE: RECEIVED RO 62 SIGNAL TRACE DBDOWN A

PULSER

TO CRYSTAL

5'

RECEIVER

TO SCOPE

5'

RG 62

TIME

,_

TRACE A. (WAVEFORM) .1 2. o MICROSEC/CM VOLTS/CM

MEASURED TRACE

FREQUENCY A

17'__._._SMCS

-'

FOCAL 20

LENGTH

0.558

INCHES

MICROSEC WATER PATH (ROUND TRIP TIME)

B. 2 5

(Y DIRECTION) MICROSEC/cM VOLTS/CM BEAM WIDTH TRACE B OR DIA.. 3DB AMP. 0.007 POINTS INCH/DIV

/.\..... /_\ -)

DAMPING FACTOR TRACE A

3.0

004

INCHES

C. 2 5

(X DIRECTION) BEAM MICROSEC/CM VOLTS 'CM SYMMETRY:

004

INCH/'DIV

AF:

.......

_//\

'/<X---_ i --_

TRACE TRACE

18o.-36o.
B C

COURTESY AUTOMATION INDUSTRIES, INC. Figure 6-3. Typical Transducer Data Sheet

PI BEAM PROFILES BEAM PROFILES

REFLECT(

RETURN SIGNAL WAVEFORM

PATH

FLAT-DISC CRYSTAL

Figure

6-4.

Fiat-Disc

Transducer

Measurements

BALL REFLECTOR

RETURN SIGNAL WAVEFORM

X-BEAM

PROFILE

FOCUSED TRANSDUCER Y-BIEAM PROFILES

Figure

6-5.

Focused

Transducer

Measurements 6-9

RETURN SIGNAL WAVEFORM

BALL REFLECTOR P_ATH WIDTH PROFILE

REFLECTOR I

PATH LENGTH PROFILE

Figure

6-6.

Cylindrically-Focused

Transducer

Measurements

The area, beam

point the

selected at the waveform

for

the

beam-width of highest recorded. profile transducer,

measurement amplitude. If the is taken with With depth the which

is determined the ball of field reflector are for the nearer

by the focused than the

beam-length in this area focal beam of the in the point

measurement

point is also the

stationary moved

is required, the focal

beam the

to points

soundbeam and beyond 605 i. In the are analyzed 2. At the

(by moving

actually)

point. DATA

ANALYSIS GENERAL following

OF TRANSDUCER

paragraphs, For each

each transducer

of the

main

headings the

on the

transducer

data profile

sheet plots are

discussed.

tested,

waveform

and beam

as follows.

WAVEFORM highest amplitude portion of the beam, as determined by the profile shots, the

return signal waveform This record is calibrated scale, 3. permitting FREQUENCY

is recorded photographically in millivolts on the vertical of crystal frequency,

with the transducer stationary. scale and time on the horizontal damping factor, and sensitivity.

a determination

in this test, the actual the desigu frequency. wave in the water this material, is the

frequency The actual frequency

of transducer operation frequency measurement is the frequency is recorded. that

is measured is a measure energy the used

and compared to of the acoustic when testing of frequency

medium.

As this

of the To record

acoustical

6-10

the base) 4.

transducer, 6-3 is known: DAMPING of crystal of positive in amplitude.

the illustrates

first this

reflected signal. of complete

signal The cycles

from frequency per

the bail may unit

target

is analyzed. if the frequency. equal

Trace period

A in (time-

Figure

be calculated

number FACTOR damping half Trace factor

of time

Extent number cycle produces to return generated

is measured cycles that state when of the very within A in Figure after

by the the 6-3

damping that of the reflected the

factor are this

which greater

is defined than the for This the

as the first half method crystal

RF pulse indicates

measurement. time required the number a measure related of the

a damping to a quiescent by the The The

is a measurement excitation. to the reacting transducer factor, close

By counting pulse, to resolve

of cycles of damping to the transducer damping to re-

crystal ability the arriving

is reached. factor. solve 5.

is directly ability time.

smaller

damping

the better

two signals SENSITIVITY refers reflected sensitivity, is small, defects a flat, the

together

in a given

Sensitivity energy test actual ducers, for reflector

to the from vary

ability with

of the the

transducer target. of the size to detect.

to detect The measured, For crystal the crystal

the minute and lens. or roughly flat, diameter

amount In general, equal

of sound used, in size transBeam in a the to

a relatively to the

small geometry beam

ultrasonic

reflectors

compared transducer

is expected used of fiat successfully

straight-beam

circular

reflector

of one-eighth

is adequate. are much small. The to 0.050 tiny length. length inch balls

sizes of focused transducers, smaller than the beam sizes steel also units culties a small bali. duration known balls used are are The from have for focused diameter vertical in volts pulse down held of the and the been measuring tips used diameter,

to detect very transducers. pens, for width the ranging testing

small discontinuities, The reflector is also in size focused from units. the path With 0.030 These beam beam

of ballpoint the beam in aligning

in are

of cylindrically-focused and ball along unfocused while the received, along traversing lengthwise as factor sensitivity. is recorded

transducers. in the

These If diffidirection, for and the 6-3,

in the width fine wire per

dimension be laid

experienced

may

as a substitute the amplitude receiver

amplitude known, the with

of the plus the

signal

shc_ccn in trace of the wideband in volts

A of Figure

is calibrated

centimeter measure

to measure amplification of sensitivity pulse

constant,

peak-to-peak

or in decibels 6. The length length FOCAL focal length

respect

to the

voltage.

LENGTH information a maximum manually is not photographed return by the signal time base but is recorded on focused measurement on the as the water transducers. oscilloscope path Focal screen

at which is recorded

is obtained

6-11

betweenthe excitation pulse and the water path position at the point of maximum amplitude response. The transducer is held over the center of the ball target and moved toward or away from the ball until the maximum reflected signal is received. 7.
The cycle of the camera duced. tude The curves bonding 8. The BEAM beam with AMPLITUDE profiles scale the PROFILES on the calibrated in mils, target the drives photographs or centimeters, a data recording records and each respect the curve, so on. to one crystal screen. for major show amplitude of transducer of transducer potentiometer With each This cycle another the envelopes return travel. which shutter the respect symmetry lens individual system with The in turn of the cycle next of each signal The half the the

kM

amplitude the scale vertical

in millivolts

and

horizontal composite The cycle

calibrated across across amplitude the next

motion

transducer held open, highest records

delays recording is pro-

RF signal

oscilloscope cycle

a distance/amplitude lower

envelope,

highest

ampli-

of recording to each

produces other.

superimposed symmetry of operation of the BEAM beam

response of these in the

curves curves

from with

individual

is indicative

of uniformity of these or thickness,

send-receive by variations

modes

of the transducer. thickness,

is affected

in damping,

transducer WIDTH

components.

AND SYMMETRY directly from the width 3-db down of the points profile beam profile on each envelope side of the be caused and small profiles. displayed profile propagated normal by backing imperfections on the peak.

width

is read

calibrated Non-symmetry soundbeam. and abnormal variations, in electrodes

horizontal

axis,

or at the critical

of the

is recognized And through conditions lens and centering bonding

as variations analysis

in the of these

patterns envelope may in lenses

variations,

can be identified. or misalignment. have also been

Non-symmetry Porosity linked to distortion

in beam

6-12

CHAPTER

7:

COMPARISON TABLE

AND OF

SELECTION CONTENTS

OF

NDT

PROCESSES

Paragraph 700 701 7O2 7O3 7O4 GENERAL METHOD NDT ..................................... IDENTIFICATION ......................... SELECTION CATEGORIES CHARACTERISTICS ..................................... APPLICATION AND LIMITATIONS .......... ..................... ........................ AND METALLURGICAL

Page 7-3 7-3 7-3 7-3

DISCONTINUITY

DISCONTINUITY DISCONTINUITY ANA LYSIS

7- 6 7-6 7-8 7-10 .......................... 7-10 7-14 _ ................... 7-16 7-18 7-20 7-22 7-24 ...................... 7-26 7-28 ....................... 7-30 7-32 7-34 .......................... 7-36 7-38 7-40 7-42 7-44 7-46 7-48 7-50 7-52 7-54 7-56 7-58 ....................... 7-60

705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732

NDT BURST COLD FILLET

METHODS

........................................ SHUTS .................................... (BOLTS)

CRACKS CRACKS

GRINDING CONVOLUTION

............................... ............................ CRACKING

CRACKS ZONE CRACKS

HEAT-AFFECTED HEAT TREAT

............................. .........................

SURFACE THREAD TUBING HYDROGEN HYDROGEN INCLUSIONS INCLUSIONS LACK OF

SHRINK CRACKS CRACKS FLAKE

CRACKS

................................ (rNCONEL "X")

...............................

EMBRITTLEMENT .................................... .................................... PENETRATION ................................... SEAMS SEAMS ............................... ............................... ............................... ..................................

LAMINATIONS LAPS LAPS AND AND

MICRO-SHRINKAGE GAS POROSITY

UNFUSED STRESS

POROSITY CORROSION TUBING DRAG

.............................. ............................... ..............................

HYDRAULIC MANDREL

................................. ...............................

SEMICONDUCTORS HOT TEARS

.................................... CORROSION

INTERGRANULAR

7-1
V

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

(CONT)

Page Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure 7-1 7-2 7-3 7-4 7-5 7-6 7-7 7-8 7-9 7-10 7-11 7-12 7-13 7-14 7-15 7-16 7-17 7-18 7-19 7-20 7-21 7-22 7-23 7-24 7-25 7-26 7-27 7-28 7-29 7-30 7-31 7-32 Liquid Penetrant Test .......................... 7-4 7-4 7-4 7-6 7-6 7-9 7-11 7-13 7-15 7-17 ............. 7-19 7-21 7-23 7-25 7-27 7-29 7-31 7-33 7-35 7-37 7-39 ......... ........ 7-41 7-43 7-45 7-47 7-49 7-51 7-53 7-55 7-57 7-59 ................ 7-61 ................

Magnetic Ultrasonic Eddy

Particle Test .......................... Test ............................... Test ............................. ............................. ........................... ......................... ........................ ...................... ................... Discontinuity .................... ..................

Current

Radiographic Test Burst Discontinuities Cold Fillet Grinding Convolution Heat-Affected Heat Surface Thread Tubing Hydrogen Hydrogen Weldment Wrought Treat Shrink Crack Crack Flake Shuts Crack

Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Cracks Zone Cracks Crack Crack

Discontinuity Cracking Discontinuity Discontinuity

Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity

....................... ....................... ...................... ................... .................... Discontinuity

Embrittlement Inclusion Inclusion

Discontinuity. Discontinuity

Lack of Penetration Discontinuity ................... Lamination Discontinuity ......................... Laps Laps Gas Stress Hydraulic Mandrel Hot Tear Semiconductor Intergranular and and Seams Seams Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Discontinuity Dis continuity Corrosion in Rolled in Wrought ..................... ........................ ..................... ..................... ..................... ....................... ...................... .......................... Discontinuity Threads Material

Micro-Shrinkage Porosity Unfused Porosity Corrosion Tubing Drag

Discontinuity

7-2

CHAPTER

7: COMPARISON

AND

SELECTION

OF

NDT

PROCESSES

700 The

GENERAL purpose of this chapter is to summarize the NDT methods the which characteristics may of various to detect types each of type

discontinuities, of discontinuity. The when (heat relationship applied treating,

and to list

be employed

between to the

the

various

NDT process, and the

methods discontinuity

and their will

capabilities be shown.

and Such

limitations variables or of

detection

of a specific or plating),

as type

of discontinuity machining,

(inherent,

or service), limitations of testing

manufacturing (metallurgical, and the

processes structural, selection

processing) all will help determine one test method over another. 701 METHOD IDENTIFICATION

sequence

ultimate

Figures 7-1 through 7-5 illustratefive NDT methods. Each illustrationshows the three elements involved in all five tests, the differentmethods in each test category, and tasks that may 702 The part space only ent 703 Each as the 1. NDT be accomplished with a specific method.

DISCONTINUITY that hundreds During of design, the will

SELECTION be reviewed are selection in paragraphs with the of discontinuities which would standards, 706 through various for inclusion 732 are tn this were only a

discontinuities of the a few conditions many of those industry.

that

associated

products changed

of the under

aerodiffer-

section, chosen.

discontinuities

not be radically

configuration, CATEGORIES

and environment

DISCONTINUITY of the specific

discontinuities and service.

are

divided

into with

three categories

general

categories: classified materials, if applicable.

inherent, specific

processing, material

Each and

of these the

is further or nonferrous processes

to whether

the discontinuity configuration,

is associated

ferrous

manufacturing

INHERENT

DISCONTINUITIES are There Inherent related those are discontinuities two types. wrought to the discontinuities and original cover those discontinuities of the metal that are related to the solidification

Inherent of the

discontinuities molten:metal. a. Wrought. which are or ingot.

melting

solidification

_-

7-3

ELEMENT

PROCEDURE

TASK

PERSONNEL

VISIBLE DYE PENETRATE TESTING

DETECT SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES

TECHNIQUES_-'-

I EQUIPMENT _--

FLUORESCENT PENETRANT TESTING

SPECIALIZED APPLICATIONS

Figure

7-1.

Liquid

Penetrant

Test

ELEMENT

PROCEDURE

TASK

TESTING DRY VISIBLE I PERSONNEL_

LOCATE DISCONTINUITY

TEC.NIQUESI I

TESTING WET VISIBLE SPECIALIZED APPLICATIONS

I EQUIPMENT

TESTING __WET FLUORESCENT

Figure

7-2.

Magnetic

Particle

Test

ELEMENT

PROCEDURE

TASK LOCATE DISCONTINUITY

PERSONNEL_-

TESTING

DETERMINE BOND

TECHNIQUES I MEASURE THICKNESS

EQUIPMENT ]-_

SPECIALIZED APPLICATIONS

I
V

Figure 7-4

7-3.

Ultrasonic

Test

ELEMENT

PROCEDURE

TASK

---I

MANUAL CONDUCTIVITY TESTING

CONDUCTIVITY MEASURE

HARDNESS DETERMINE PERSONNELI-'_ MANUAL DISCONTINUITY TESTING DETECT DISCONTINUITIES

TECHNIQUES

MANUAL COATING AND PLATING THICKNESS TESTING

MEASURE PLATING THICKNESS

MANUAL OR AUTOMATIC PHASE ANALYSIS TESTING EQUIPMENTI----DIMENSIONAL DETECT CHANGES AUTOMATIC MODULATION ANALYSIS TESTING APPLICATIONS SPECIALIZED I I

Figure

7-4.

Eddy

Current

Test

C
ELEMENT PROCEDURE TASK OBSERVE FUNCTION __ TESTING FILMLESS PERSONNEL m

DISCONTINUITY LOCATE J TECHNIQUES I "I X-RAY FILM TESTING DETERMINE BOND

__

TESTING GAMMA RAY FILM

APPLICATIONS SPECIALIZED

Figure

7-5.

Radiographic

Test

7-5

b.

Cast. related includes variables

Inherent those such

cast

discontinuities casting, that

are would

those

discontinuities of the cast excessively

which article.

are It

to the melting,

and solidification be inherent feeding, gating,

discontinuities as inadequate entrapped gases,

to manufacturing high pouring

temperature, 2. PROCESSING

handling,

and stacking.

DISCONTINUITIES are those such discontinuities forming, that are related to the various rolling, welding,

Processing manufacturing heat 3. Service service 704 treating,

discontinuities processes and plating.

as machining,

extruding,

SERVICE

DISCONTINUITIES cover such those discontinuities corrosion, that are fatigue, related to the various

discontinuities conditions

as stress

and errosion. ANALYSIS discontinuity The dis-

DISCONTINUITY

CHARACTERISTICS encompasses that illustrate

AND METALLURGICAL an analysis examples of the specific of the discontinuity.

Discontinuity and reference cussion a. b. c. d. will

characteristics actual cover: photos

Origin and location of discontinuity (surface, near surface, or internal). Orientation Shape Photo (flat, (parallel irregularly and/or or normal shaped, typical to the grain). or spiral). overall view of the discontinuity). and at what stage

(micrograph

e.

Metallurgical of manufacture).

analysis

(how the discontinuity

is produced

705 I. The the may the end

NDT

METHODS

APPLICATION

AND

LIMITATIONS

GENERAL technological level of test of the now selectively Ioading reliability would accomplishments reliability zone end product product, been and the specific and takes of the but article. it does in the field reproducibility article. into Such reduce of nondestructive to a point This consideration an evaluation needless where the zoning testing the design upon have the reduces brought structural as the that

engineer as well

is based

application

environment in no way

characteristics of the have

rejection

of material

otherwise

acceptable.

7-6

Just size a die zoned less The the

as the will forging for rigid

structural depending that the rigid control has same control

application on the large level the where masses the

within method

the

article and the

varies, and extremely

the

allowable thin web and

discontinuity For sections zoned example, would for

vary

of manufacture for whole

configuration. The higher, larger method that all forging

of material structural

not require

of acceptance structural specialist specific for NDT for the

forging. are permit

can be

applications

where testing

requirements must article same also type select

discontinuities. which NDT will satisfy can

nondestructive design the objective same

the

of the reliability OF THE method

and not

assume

methods

produce 2.

of discontinuity.

SELECTION the that may

METHOD the may evaluation supplement the such same as: of a specific each task. other The discontinuity and that several of one selection it should NDT method be

In selecting kept over in mind another a. b. c. d. e. f. methods

NDT NDT

methods upon

be capable is based

of performing variabies

Type

and

origin

of discontinuity processes

Material Accessibility Level

manufacturing of article

of acceptability available

desired

Equipment Cost

To satisfactorily task The order portion and 3. The the also rial new must NDT be made methods of the

develop for listed for may

knowledge each for that alter article each

of the requiring discontinuity

above

variables, testing.

a planned

analysts

of the

NDT

in paragraphs However, the rapidly that

706 through when developing

732 are NDT

in that field

of preference chapter techniques

particular be kept the order

discontinuity. in mind of test

reviewing

it should

preference.

LIMITATIONS limitations the test, For NDT applicable material, but these in many reasons, to other test capability many to the and the cases various service the NDT methods reliability are listed slightly all of this the will vary of the for one different limitations chapter with test the ai'ticle applicable affect is may of matelocation, that may be if you

standard, affected. or

environment. that under many The

Limitations

not only discontinuity conditions

structural

limitations discontinuities the do not permit discontinuity. factors that

be applicable environment. and with aware

In addition,

combinations mentioning intent

of environment,

material, associated are made

a specific of the

is fulfilled of a valid

influence

selection

NDT test.

7-7

_.L.-q

706 1. 2. 3. Surface faces which 4.

BURST CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY or internal. tight. forging, Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material

CHARACTERISTICS Straight Usually rolling, or irregular parallel with or extruding. cavities the grain. (See varying Found Figure in size 7-6.) with large material inter-

or very required

in wrought

METALLURGICAL a. Forging processing ment b. during bursts the

ANALYSIS are surface or internal temperature, rolling, or ruptures extruding which operation. is distinguishable are attributed to move-

at an incorrect forging,

or excessive

working

or metal

A burst does from a pipe, Bursts are

not have a spongy appearance even if it should occur at the often large and very seldom

and, therefore, center. during

c.
D

healed

subsequent

working.

NDT a.

METHODS ULTRASONIC (1) (2) Normally Bursts producing (3) Ultrasonic could (4) Nicks, on the

APPLICATION TESTING used are for

AND LIMITATIONS METHOD the detection in the of internal material on the bursts. and scope. varying degrees of burst which they resemble a crack,
L_

definite a very testing

breaks sharp

reflection

is capable by other areas,

of detecting NDT tool adverse

not be detected gouges, article raised may

methods. tears, foreign test material, results. Testing diameter. is gas bubbles

produce

ultrasonic

b.

EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not normally used. restricted to wire, rod, and other articles under 0. 250 inch MAGNETIC (1) Usually internal Results PARTICLE TESTING ferrous METHOD material that has surface

C_

used on wrought burst. are limited

or exposed

(2)
d_

to surface TESTING

and

near

surface

evaluation. used. When

LIQUID fluorescent tested, cleaning

PENETRANT penetrant

METHOD. should first

Not normally previously be removed

is to be applied

to an article

dye penetrant by prolonged

all traces of dye penetrant in applicable solvent.

So

RADIOGRAPHIC as the size, direction and material

TESTING of the burst, thickness

METHOD. close restrict

Not normally interfaces, the wrought capability

used.

Such

variables discontinuity

material,

of radiography.

FORGING EXTERNAL

BURST

BOLT INTERNAL BURST

ROLLED BAR INTERNAL

BURST

FORGED BAR INTERNAL

BURST

Figure

7-6.

Burst

Discontinuities 7-9

707
1. 2. 3.

C OLD

SHUTS Inherent Ferrous and Nonferrous Cast Material v,j

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY

CHARACTERISTICS smooth indentations on the cast surface resembling

Surface and subsurface. Generally a forging lap. (See Figure 7-7.) 4. Cold METALLURGIC shuts are produced AL ANALYSIS during

casting or meeting of one films formed

molten of two surface on cold, meet will

metal. streams before sluggish produce with

They the cold several

may

result coming metal

from from flQws factor are or gates.

splashing, different it, will the over that more

surging, directions. presence prevent prevalent

.

interrupted Also, a fusion of interposing where in castings METHODS LIQUID (1)

pouring, solidification surface two which are

of metal other shuts. metal,

or any sprues

surfaces

They

in a mold AND

NDT a.

APPLICATION

LIMITATIONS METHOD. surface cold shuts in both ferrous and nonv

PENETRANT

TESTING

Normally ferrous Will

used to evaluate materials. as a smooth, parallel to the used Rene

(2)

appear

regular, cross

continuous, section of the

or area base percent

intermittent in which alloys sulfur. and

indication, it occurs. as

reasonably (3) Liquid InconeI (4) Certain removal (5) Geometric buildup continuity.
be

penetrant "X,"

for the

testing not

of nickel 0.5

(such

41) should may have

exceed which may

castings of the

surfaces penetrants (recesses,

may

be blind

from

which

excessive

be difficult. and flanges) any detection may of a dispermit

configuration of wet developer

orifices, masking

thereby

MAGNETIC (1) (2) Normally The some cations portion

PARTICLE used for

TESTING the nature screening

METHOD of ferrous materials. steel are is such These wherein does not. other that do one indiin

metallurgical cases arise exhibits magnetic from

of 431 corrosion-resistant testing structure Indications within the and or other magnetic harmful retentivity discontinuities.

particle a duplex

obtained

which

not result

a crack from strong

material, the

V
7-I0

e.

RADIOGRAPHIC (1) Normally continuities. Appear definite Casting detected

as

TESTING detectable

METHOD by radiography while testing for other casting dis-

(2)

a distinct dark smooth outline. configuration by radiography. TESTING may

line

or band

of variable

length

and width,

and

(3)

have

inaccessible

areas

which

can

only be

d.

ULTRASONIC article testing.

METHOD.

Not

recommended. rule lend

Cast

structure to ultrasonic

and

configuration

do not

as a general

themselves

e.

EDDY figuration

CURRENT and

TESTING

METHOD. variables

Not

recommended. the use

Article of this

conmethod.

inherent

material

restrict

SURFACE

COLD

SHUT

INTERNAL

COLD

SHUT

SURFACE

COLD

SHUT

MICROGRAPH

Figure

7-7.

Cold

Shuts

Discontinuity 7-11

708 1. 2. 3. Surface. inward. 4. Fillet this

FILLET

CRACKS

(BOLTS)

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Located (See Figure

Service Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material

kJ

CHARACTERISTICS of the fillet with the shank of the bolt and progressing

at the Junction 7-8.)

METALLURGICAL cracks bolt occur where repeated to the starting is surface

ANALYSIS a marked stress loading point change risers takes where starts AND METHOD for service associated and discontinuities equipment enable of this on the type. spot in diameter are place, the created. whereby These risers surface stress at the occurs, During the tensile are and such the tensile built as between application Ioad loads in. fluctuates can cause Fatigue inward. the of

head-to-shank in magnitude fatigue failure, failure, which NDT a.

Junction due

where operation at the

in service

of the

mechanism.

phenomenon, APPLICATION TESTING

propagates

METHODS ULTRASONIC (1) (2) Used

LIMITATIONS

extensively

A wide selection of transducers evaluation for fillet crack. Being sharp a definite reflection. ) equipment to give has extreme break

(3)

in the material, propagation

the

scope

pattern

will be a very by using

(Actual

can be monitored

ultrasonics. (4) Ultrasonic should b. LIQUID (1) (2)

sensitivity, and reliable

and

established

standards

be used

reproducible METHOD

results.

PENETRANT used

TESTING during

Normally

in-service ferrous

overhaul and nonferrous

or troubleshooting. bolts, although usually

May be used confined

for both

to the nonferrous. as a sharp damage strippers, may clear result indication. from coating exposure removers, of high strength steels solutions,

(3) (4)

Will

appear

Structural to paint etc.

alkaline

deoxidizer

(5)

Entrapment areas may

under cause

fasteners, corrosion

in holes, due to the

under penetrant's

splices,

and

in similar for moisture.

affinity

V
7-12

c.

MAGNETIC (1) (2) (3) (4) Normally Will Sharp

PARTICLE used

TESTING

METHOD

on ferrous sharp

bolts. indication with a heavy buildup. indications.

appear fillet

as clear areas may

produce

non-relevant

magnetic

17.7 pH is only slightly magnetic becomes strongly magnetic after netic particle tested. TESTING NDT METHOD. methods are

in the annealed heat treatment,

condition, but when it may be mag-

d.

EDDY fillet this

CURRENT cracks.

Not normally more compatible

used

for detection to the detection

of of

Other

type

of discontinuity. TESTING Surface METHOD. in relation Not normally of this to the type thickness used for detection to of material. of

e.

RADIOGRAPHIC fillet cracks. evaluate

discontinuities of crack

would

be difficult

due to size

FILLET

FATIGUE

FAILURE

FRACTURE AREA OF(A) POINT OF FAILURE

SHOWING

TANGENCY

CROSS-SECTIONAL FILLET SHOWING

AREA OF FATIGUE CRACK TANGENCY POINT IN RADIUS

iN

%.J

Figure

7-8.

Fillet

Crack

Discontinuity 7-13

709 1. 2. 3. Surface. direction case Figure 4.

GRINDING CATEGORY. MATERIAL.

CRACKS

k.J
Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous

DISCONTINUITY Very shallow occur and

CHARACTERISTICS and They ceramic sharp are at the Grinding found that root. Similar are heat to heat generally treated treat cracks chrome operations. and usually, angles to the plated, (See

but not always, hardened 7-9. )

in groups. materials

cracks are

at right

of grinding.

in highly

articles,

subjected

to grinding

METALLURGICAL of hardened by local caused feed, NDT a. by lack

ANALYSIS surfaces overheating of or poor cut. AND LIMITATIONS METHOD and nonferrous materials for the detecfrequently of the coolant, introduces surface being cracks. ground. These The ground thermal overheating wheel, cracks is too

Grinding are rapid caused usually

a dull or improperly

or too heavy METHODS LIQUID (1)

6.

APPLICATION

PENETRANT used

TESTING on both cracks. indication of fine most ferrous

Normally tion

of grinding penetrant pattern are the

(2)

Liquid shattered

will lines.

appear

as irregular,

checked,

or

(3)

Cracks longest

difficult time.

discontinuity

to indicate

and require

the

penetration that to the have

(4)

Articles the prior

been and

degreased of the

may

still

have

solvent time for

entrapped evaporation

in

discontinuity

should

be allowed penetrant. METHOD

sufficient

application

b.

MAGNETIC (1) (2) Restricted Grinding although in which (3) Magnetic and

PARTICLE to ferrous cracks case are they

TESTING materials. generally cases may

at right

angles network

to grinding of cracks field.

direction, may appear,

in extreme

a complete

be parallel

to the size

magnetic

sensitivity depth below

decreases the surface

as the

of grinding

crack

decreases

as its

increases.

7-14

c.

EDDY grinding

CURRENT cracks. for

TESTING

METHOD. equipment

Not normally has application. Not normally are more used

used

for detection and can be

of

Eddy current a specific TESTING Other to this

the capability

developed d.

nonferrous METHOD. forms

ULTRASONIC grinding better cracks. adapted

for detection faster,

of and

or NDT

economical,

type

of discontinuity METHOD. cracks for detection

than ultrasonics. Not recommended and small. cracks. of grinding for detection Other NDT of

e.

RADIOGRAPHIC grinding methods cracks. are more

TESTING Grinding suitable

are too tight

TYPICAL

CHECKED GRINDING CRACK PATTERN

r [ t ........

T.

B GRINDING CRACK PATTERN NORMAL TO GRINDING

MICROGRAPH OF GRINDING CRACK

Figure

7-9.

Grinding

Crack

Discontinuity

7-15

710

CONVOLUTION

CRACKS

I. 2. 3. Surface.

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Range of the 7-10. )

Processing Nonferrous CHARACTERISTICS from micro and fractures extend to open fissures. in direction Situated on the (See

in size

periphery Figure 4. The

convolutions

longitudinally

of rolling.

METALLURGICAL rough 'orange which The service pits and peel' stretches roughened

ANALYSIS effect the of convolution material (vibration cracks contains and cracks small is the pits result attack which may form of either such stress stresses photograph. a forming risers. that act

operation treatment. Subsequent on these

or from

chemical flexing) in the

as pickling

surface

application form fatigue

introduce

as shown AND

accompanying

NDT a.

METHODS

APPLICATION TESTING

LIMITATIONS

RADIOGRAPHIC

METHOD

(1) Used extensively for this type of failure. (2) Configuration of article and location of discontinuitylimits detection almost exclusively to radiography. (3) Orientation of convolutions to X-ray source is very criticalsince to X-ray may not register

those discontinuitieswhich are not normal

on the film due to the lack of difference in density. (4) Liquid replace (5) The type penetrant radiographic of marking the area and magnetic particle testing testing. grease may pencil affect the on titanium) structure used of the may supplement but not

and ultrasonic material (e.g,,

to identify article. b. ULTRASONIC convolution and internal sonics. EDDY tion CURRENT

of discontinuities

TESTING cracks. micro

METHOD.

Not normally

used

for

the

detection

of

Configuration fractures are

of the article (double-walled all factors which restrict the

convolutions) use of ultra-

Co

TESTING As itself

METHOD. in the case method

Not normally of ultrasonic of testing.

used testing,

for the

the

detection

of convolution does

cracks.

configura-

not lend

to this

V
7-16

d.

LIQUID detection they creates are

PENETRANT of convolution internal a serious

TESTING cracks.

METHOD. Although

Not recommended the discontinuities over an exterior shell

for the are surface, which

and are problem

superimposed of entrapment.

e.

MAGNETIC

TESTING

METHOD.

Not applicable.

Material

is nonferrous.

TYPICAL

CONVOLUTION

DUCTING

CROSS-SECTION

OF CRACKED

CONVOLUTION

HIGHER ORANGE

MAGNIFICATION PEEL

OF CRACK

SHOWING

MICROGRAPH CRACKING

OF CONVOLUTION ON SIDES

WITH

PARTIAL

Figure

7-10.

Convolution

Cracks

Discontinuity

7-17

711 1. 2. 3. Surface. affect 4.

HEAT-AFFECTED CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Often zone quite

ZONE Processing Ferrous and

CRACKING

%J
(Weldments) Nonferrous

CHARACTERISTICS deep and very (See ANALYSIS zones contain prior of weldments more than to welding. AND TESTING LIMITATIONS METHOD increases 0.30% carbon in severity are prone with to this increasing type of tight. Figure Usually 7-11.) parallel with the weld in the heat-

of the weldment.

METALLURGICAL of heat-affected Steels

Hot cracking carbon failure content.

that

and require NDT a. METHODS MAGNETIC

preheating

APPLICATION PARTICLE

(I) Normally

used for ferrous weldments.

(2) Prod burns are very detrimental, especially on highly heat treated articles. May contribute to structural failure of article. (3) Demagnetization of highly heat treated articles can be very difficult

due to metallurgical structure. b. LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD

(1) Normally

used for nonferrous weldments.

(2) Material that has had its surface obliterated, blurred, or blended due to manufacturing processes should not be penetrant tested until the smeared surface has been removed. (3) Liquid penetrant testing after the application of certain types of chemical film coatings may of the discontinuities. c. RADIOGRAPHIC origin make d. ULTRASONIC TESTING other NDT TESTING METHOD. more Not normally used for the detection suitable. be invalid due to the covering or filling

of heat-affected zone cracking. methods METHOD

Discontinuity orientation and surface

(i) Used where

specialized applications have been developed. are required to develop valid tests. (i. , sharp versus rounded e. factors in deflecting the

(2) Rigid standards and procedures

(3) The configuration of the surface roughness root radii and the slope condition) are major sound beam. 7-18

eo

EDDY detecting used

CURRENT nonferrous

TESTING zone cracking. surface particle

METHOD. Eddy discontinuities; or liquid

Not normally current equipment however,

used has

for

the

detection of

of heat-affected as magnetic

capability

it is not

as universally

penetrant.

MICROGRAPH OF WELD AND HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE SHOWING CRACK NOTE COLD LAP WHICH MASKS THE ENTRANCE TO THE CRACK

MICROGRAPH OF CRACK SHOWN IN(A)

;.,j

Figure

7-11.

Heat-Affected

Zone

Cracking

Discontinuity

7-19

712
1. 2. 3. Surface.

HEAT

TREAT

CRACKS Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought and Cast Material

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Usually

CHARACTERISTICS and forked. Seldom in areas follow with rapid a definite change pattern of material which have and can be in any thickness, been exposed

deep

direction sharp to the 4. During heating thickness.

on the part.

Originate

machining marks, fillets, surface of the material. METALLURGICAL the heating These and

nicks, and (See Figure

discontinuities 7-12. )

ANALYSIS cooling may stress process movement exceed risers localized of the occur the tensile stresses article, (keyways strength may be set up by unequal causing it

or cooling,

restricted stresses

or unequal or grooves}

cross-sectionaI additional

of the material

to rupture. cracks may 5. a. NDT

Where built-in develop. METHODS

APPLICATION PARTICLE

AND

LIMITATIONS METHOD treat cracks are normally detected by mag-

MAGNETIC (1) For netic (2)

TESTING heat

ferrous particles

materials, testing.

The magnetic particles curved indications. Likely points of origin fillets, structure 17.7, and

indications

wilI

normally

be straight,

forked,

or

(3)

are

areas with

that

would

develop

stress

risers,

such

as keyways, (4) Metallurgical steels b. LIQUID (1) (17.4,

or areas

rapid

changes and heat

in material treatable

thickness. stainless

of age hardenable 431) may produce

irrelevant

indications.

PENETRANT

TESTING materials

METHOD liquid penetrant testing is the recommended

For nonferrous method. Likely magnetic points

(2)

of origin

would

be the

same

as those

listed

above

for

particle

testing. be used in LOX systems must

(3)

Materials be tested

or articles that will eventually with compatible penetrants. TESTING METHOD

C.

EDDY (1) (2)

CURRENT

Normally Magnetic

not used. particles and liquid penetrant are more direct and economical.

7-20

d.

ULTRASONIC treat cracks. discontinuity.

TESTING If used the

METHOD. scope pattern wave METHOD.

Not normally will show mode would Not application.

used

for detection indication

of heat of a

a definite

Recommended TESTING Surface for designed

be surface. used easily for detection of by other

e.

RADIOGRAPHIC heat NDT treat cracks. methods

normally are more

discontinuities surface

detected

i
A FILLET RELIEF AND MATERIAL THICKNESS RADIUS CRACKING (LOWER CRACKS LEFT) (TOP CENTER)

H_E'AT TREAT

CRACK

DUE

TO SHARP

MACHINING

MARKS

Figure

7-12.

Heat

Treat

Cracks

Discontinuity 7-21

713 1. 2. 3. Surface. from

SURFACE CATEGORY. MATERIAL.

SHRINK

CRACKS (Welding) and Nonferrous

Processing Ferrous

DISCONTINUITY Situated small, the on the tight, direction

CHARACTERISTICS face and of the shalIow, weld, (See fusion and Figure zone, deep. 7-13.) and base Cracks metal. may run Range parallel in size or

very

to open

transverse 4. Surface heating stresses Restriction cooling,

of welding. ANALYSIS are generally article.

METALLURGICAL shrink that cracks exceed of the or welding NDT a. METHODS LIQUID (1) (2)

the Heating

result of the

of improper material stresses.

heat causing

application, area the may during material

either set up

in

or welding

of the movement may

or cooling or expansion)

in a localized of the

the tensile also set

strength (contraction

to crack. heating,

material

up excessive

APPLICATION

AND LIMITATIONS METHOD normally is easily detected portable and by liquid and penetrant. during

PENETRANT shrink penetrant control which fittings

TESTING cracks are

Surface Liquid in-process

equipment for are will

can be used weldments. intermittent will seep

both ferrous joined retain

nonferrous riveting, which

(3)

Assemblies or press developing

by bolting, the penetrant, surfaces.

welding, out after

and mask

the

adjoining

(4)

When articles are dried sive drying temperature the penetrant. PARTICLE weIdments discontinuities indications

in a hot air dryer should be avoided

or by similar means, to prevent evaporation

excesof

b.

MAGNETIC (1) (2) Ferrous Surface produce field. (3) Areas might solids

TESTING are

METHOD tested parallel do not by magnetic to the interrupt magnetic or distort particle field the method. will not

normally that are they

since

magnetic

of grease be damaged should

fittings, be masked

bearing before

races, testing.

or other

similar solution

items

that

or clogged

by the

suspension

or magnetic

7-22

c.

EDDY (1) (2)

CURRENT

TESTING

METHOD welded be used pipe where and tubing. configuration

L,

Normally Probe permits.

confined or encircling

to nonferrous coil could

article

d.

RADIOGRAPHIC of surface other types

TESTING

METHOD. During the surface METHOD. Other forms are more

Not normally radiographic indications Not normally (liquid economical,

used testing may used and

for

the

detection for

discontinuities. of discontinuities, TESTING cracks. better

of weldments

be detected. for are detection and faster. of magnetic

e.

ULTRASONIC surface particle) shrink give

of NDT

penetrant

results,

TRANSVERSE

CRACKSIN

HEAT-AFFECTED

ZONE

TYPICAL

STAR-SHAPED

CRATER

CRACK

SHRINKAGE

CRACK

AT WELD

TERMINAL

J v

Figure

7-13.

Surface

Shrink

Crack

Discontinuity

7-23

714 1. 2. 3. Surface. thread. 4.

THREAD

CRACKS Service Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Cracks (See are

CHARACTERISTICS transverse 7-14.) ANALYSIS type are not uncommon. act on the stress risers cracks may start in the direction APPLICATION of applied AND High cyclic stresses created by the thread submicroscopic stresses. resulting from roots and and/ to the grain (transgranular) starting at the root of the

Figure

METALLURGICAL failures and/or cracks. of this flexing Fatigue

Fatigue vibration produce or 5. cracks

as fine

discontinuities

and propagate METHODS LIQUID (1) (2)

NDT a.

LIMITATIONS METHOD over as gasoline non-fluorescent. and kerosene are not

PENETRANT

TESTING

Fluorescent Low surface recommended When applying

penetrant

is recommended such

tension solvents cleaners. liquid adjacent penetrant areas

(3)

to components should

within

an assembly masked

or

structure, overspraying. b. MAGNETIC (1) (2) Normally IrreIevent ation. Cleaning may c. EDDY thread ment d. result

the

be effectively

to prevent

PARTICLE used

TESTING

METHOD

on ferrous

materials. may result from the thread configur-

magnetic

indications

(3)

titanium

and

440C

stainless to the

in halogeneated material. used

hydrocarbons

in structural TESTING The article

damage METHOD. configuration

CURRENT cracks. if adaptable.

Not normally would require

for

detecting equip-

speciaIized

ULTRASONIC cracks. Thread

TESTING

METHOD. does

Not

recommended itself

for

detecting testing.

thread

configuration

not lend

to ultrasonic

7-24

e.

RADIOGRAPHIC thread designed tight and extremely cracks. for the surface difficult.

TESTING Surface specific connected,

METHOD. discontinuities condition. their

Not recommended are Fatigue best screened of this cracks

for

detecting method very be are

by NDT type would

detection

by radiography

COMPLETE

THREAD

ROOT

FAILURE

TYPICAL

THREAD

ROOT

FAILURE

MICROGRAPH ROOT

OF (A)

SHOWING

CRACK

AT

BASE

OF

MICROGRAPH OF (B) SHOWING CRACK AT THREAD ROOT

TRANSGRANULAR

Figure

7-14.

Thread

Crack

Discontinuity

7-25

715 1.
2. 3. Tubing (See 4. Tubing

TUBING

CRACKS

(INCONEL

"X") _J

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY cracks Figure formed 7-15. )

Inherent Nonferrous CHARACTERISTICS on the inner surface (I.D.), parallel to direction of grain flow.

METALLURGICAL I.D. a. b. cracks Improper Foreign causing heated c. may cold material

ANALYSIS be attributed reduction may the heating in the to one of the have and annealing rate been cracking operation. to the annealing temperature with possible cracking tube or a combination during fabrication. on the the cold inner worked surface material of the was tubes of the following:

embedded when

embrittlement during

Insufficient occurring

1200-1400

F range. AND LIMITATIONS

5.

NDT a.

METHODS EDDY (1) (2)

APPLICATION TESTING for

CURRENT used

METHOD of this type of discontinuity. (0. 156 inch} are well within

Normally The

detection

diameter

(1 inch) capability.

and wall

thickness

equipment (3) b. Testing

of ferro-magnetic TESTING used variety for

material

may

be difficult.

ULTRASONIC (1) (2) Normally A wide tubing (3) (4)

METHOD gauge tubing. and transducers of this varying type. limitations. high sulfur content are available for screening

on heavy

of equipment

internal transducers

discontinuities have contact an adverse

Ultrasonic Certain which

temperature may have nickel

ultrasonic will have

couplants effect

on high

alloys.

Co

RADIOGRAPHIC (1) Not normally

TESTING used for

METHOD detecting tubing cracks.

7-26

(2)

Discontinuity graphic

orientation

and

thickness

of material

govern

the

radio-

sensitivity. forms and of NDT reliable. TESTING METHOD. would Not recommended to process for detecting and (eddy current and ultrasonic) are more economical,

(3)

Other faster,

d.

LIQUID tubing interpret.

PENETRANT cracks. Internal

discontinuity

be difficult

eo

MAGNETIC nonferrous

PARTICLES under normal

TESTING conditions.

METHOD.

Not applicable.

Material

is

+LL "

TYPICAL

CRACK ON INSIDE OF TUBING SHOWING COLD LAP

MICROGRAPH OF (B)

Figure

7-15.

Tubing

Crack

Discontinuity 7-27

716 1. 2. 3. Internal etched and and 4. Flakes tion found aligned

HYDROGEN CATEGORY. MATERIAL.

FLAKE Processing Ferrous CHARACTERISTICS surface, flakes appear flakes found as bright Sometimes are in heavy silvery known steel areas. as chrome thin and forgings, On an checks generally billets,

DISCONTINUITY fissures surface parallel (See cracks with Figure

in a fractured they appear when the revealed grain. 7-16.)

as short They

discontinuities. by machining, are usually

hairline bars.

extremely

METALLURGICAL are only NDT a. internal in heavy METHODS ULTRASONIC (!) (2) Used fissures

ANALYSIS attributed of hydrogen forgtngs. AND METHOD for the detection of hydrogen flake. successfully using surface condition LIMITATIONS steel to stresses during produced cooling after by localized hot working. transformaUsually

and decreased

solubility alloy

APPLICATION TESTING

extensively

Material in the wrought condition can be screened either the immersion or the contact method. The will determine the method most suited. flake will

(3)

On the A-scan presentation, hydrogen the screen or as loss of back reflection. AI1 foreign removed gouges, tool materials prior to any marks, (loose testing. and scarfing scale, dirt, may

appear

as hash

on

(4)

oil, cause

grease) loss

should such

be as nicks,

Surface

irregularities

of back

reflection.

b.

MAGNETIC (1) (2) Normally Flakes hairline

PARTICLE used

TESTING

METHOD articles. and resemble chrome checks or

on finished

machined discontinuities

appear as short cracks. with

(3)

Machined surfaces of the flake. Where the general

deep

tool

marks

may

obliterate

the detection

(4)

direction

of a discontinuity in two or more

is questionable, directions.

it may

be necessary

to magnetize

7-28

e.

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTINGMETHOD. Not normally used for detecting flakes. Discontinuities are very small and tight andwould be difficult to detect by liquid penetrant. EDDY CURRENT TESTINGMETHOD. Not recommendedfor detecting flakes. The metallurgical structure of ferrous materials limits their adaptability to the use of eddy current. RADIOGRAPHICTESTINGMETHOD, Not recommende_dfordetecting flakes. The size of the discontinuity, its location and orientation with respect to the material surface restricts the application of radiography.

d.

e.

v,.,_

A 4340 CMSHAND FORGING REJECTED FORHYDROGEN FLAKE

CROSS-SECTIONF(A) SHOWING O FLAKECONDITIONIN CENTER OFMATERIAL

Figure

7-16.

Hydrogen

Flake

Discontinuity 7-29

717
1. 2. 3. Surface.

HYDROGEN CATEGORY. MATERIAL.

EMBRITTLEMENT Processing Ferrous CHARACTERISTICS (interface) that was (See with no orientation to pickling 7-17.) or direction. and/or plating Found or in and Service

DISCONTINUITY Small, heat exposed

nondimensionaI material to free hydrogen. ANALYSIS and surface

in highly material 4.

treated

subjected Figure

METALLURGICAL such hydrogen material METHODS MAGNETIC (1) (2) Magnetic Hydrogen follow (3) Magnetic plating. (4) Care or (5) should the as pickling at the

Operations generate face 5. of the NDT a.

cleaning

prior

to electroplattng This hydrogen embrittlement

or electroplating penetrates and the surcracking.

of the material. or delayed

creating

immediate

APPLICATION PARTICLES indications embritflement magnetic particle

AND LIMITATIONS TESTING appear METHOD as a fractured are randomly pattern. orientated and may

cracks field.

testing

should

be accomplished

before

and after

be taken

to produce article steel with

no confusing by overheating. is non-magnetic

or irrelevant

indications

cause

damage

to the resistant

301 corrosion but becomes

in the

annealed

condition,

magnetic

cold

working.

b.

LIQUID (1) (2)

PENETRANT used

TESTING

METHOD hydrogen are extremely may embrittIement. tight, mask the small, and difficult

Not normally Discontinuities to detect.

for detecting surface plating METHOD for detecting and size

on the Subsequent

deposit

discontinuity.

c.

ULTRASONIC (1) (2)

TESTING used

Not normally Article this

hydrogen do not,

embrittIement. in general, lend themselves to

configurations of "testing. has capability

method

(3)

Equipment Recommend

of detecting_ technique.

hydrogen

embrittlement

surface

wave

7-30

d.
F_ -J

EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD. Not recommended for detecting hydrogen embrittlement. Many variables inherent in the specific material may produce conflicting patterns. METHOD. The sensitivity cases in excess Not recommended required to detect of radiographic for detecting hydrogen capabilities.

e.

RADIOGRAPHIC hydrogen embrittlement

TESTING is in most

embrittlement.

"

DETAILED

CRACK

PATTERN

OF HYDROGEN

EMBRITTLEMENT

_:,_:

B HYDROGENMBRITTLEMENT E UNDER CHROME PLATE

C HYDROGENMBRITTLEMENT ROPAGATED E P TI-_I_UGH

CHROME PLATE

L.

Figure

7-17.

Hydrogen

Embrtttlement

Discontinuity

7-31

,_

*.k

718 1. 2. 3. Surface metallic

INCLUSIONS CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY and and subsurface. may (See appear Figure Processing Ferrous and (Weldments) Nonferrous Welded Material

CHARACTERISTICS Inclusions singly 7-18.) ANALYSIS generally material particles entrapped of metals inclusions in the of different are weld oxides, density sulphides, the as compared slag weld or metal may be any shape. They may be metallic throughout or nonthe

or be linearly

distributed

or scattered

weldment. 4. Metallic

METALLURGICAL inclusions or base are

to the weld

metal. foreign

Non-metallic

other non-metallic and the base metal. 5. NDT a. METHODS

or between

APPLICATION

AND LIMITATIONS

RADIOGRAPHIC

TEsTINGMETHOD method inclusions shaped, is universally used. as sharply defined, and may be isolated round, or in V

(i) This

NDT

(2) Metallic
erratically small (3)

appear on the radlograi_h or elongated white spots groups. will appear on the

linear

or scattered inclusions

Non-metallic round singly, generally absorbent absorbent globules linearly,

radiograph shaped root film the weldment. of the

as contours

shadows occurring They weld. and wilI Less more

of

or elongated or scattered in the fusion is indicated

or irregularly throughout zone by a greater film scales,

appear material materials

or at the density. splatter,

density

by a lighter such as loose

(4)

Forci_ material test results. CURRENT

or flux may invalidate

b.

EDDY (1) (2)

TESTING confined standards

METHOD wall welded tubing. if valid results are to be

Normally Established obtained.

to thin may

be required

MAGNETIC (1) (2) Normally Confined or near

PARTICLE not used to machined surface.

TESTING for detecting weldments

METHOD inclusions where the in weldments. discontinuities are surface

7-_2

(3)

The

indications

would and

appear

Jagged,

irregularly

shaped, -

indivtdually

or clustered, (4) Discontinuities between

d,

would

not be too pronounced. when and the improper surface

may magnetic

go undetected particles METHOD for

Conta6texists of the article.

the

ULTRASONIC (1) (2) Not normally Specific ultrasonic

TESTING used

detecting............ inclusions. _:: : of:design oi" of article

_ : ..............._'_T:'_." .... ,>_, _ _- ...... configuration may l'equire-

:: ;_,;

applications testing::

i--..:_ _=:_ _,_,:,_ _ ,_._ ;_7_ , ,i__ -v_,_i _ii.,_ .>iii,_:).,_.,._-_,,, _ E-ST!_-G fissures. _,.E.T_OD .Nqt applicable, Inclasions

:., .... e. .............

L_QUm PEN'ETRAN_
arelormaiiynot open

0
7-33

719

INC LUSIONS

1. 2. 3.

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY (original with and likely large

Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material

CHARACTERISTICS bar) long or surface (after lines in groups. and not parallel Figure ANALYSIS (stringers) melting. APPLICATIONS TESTING used will AND METHOD inclusions in wrought interfaces material. the metal. Small a loss in excessive LIMITATIONS are inclusions caused are by the caused existence by particles of slag or oxides in 7-19. ) machining). The other type lines. There are and Found two quite types: tightly one adherent. as extruded,

Subsurface is non-metallic Often and 4. short rolled a comparatively

straight

parallel

to flow lines to flow

to occur mass (See

is non-plastic, in forged,

appearing

material.

METALLURGICAL inclusions or ingot. during METHODS ULTRASONIC (1) (2) Normally Inclusions billet

Non-metallic the solid 5. billet state NDT a.

Non-plastic

remaining

in the

to evaluate appear

as definite

within

clustered condition or conditions on different back reflection. Numerous small scattered "noise".

planes causing conditions cause

(3) Inclusion orientation in relationship to ultrasonic beam (4) The direction of the ultrasonic beam direction of the grain flow whenver b. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD

is critical.

should be perpendicular to the possible.

(i) Normally

used for thin wail tubing and small diameter rods. materials can be difficult. METHOD surface.

(2) Testing of ferro-magnetic c. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

(i) Normally

used on machined

(2) Inclusions will appear as a straight intermittent or as a continuous indication. They may be individual or clustered.

(3) The magnetic technique should be such that a surface or near surface inclusion can be satisfactorilydetected when its axis is in any direction.

7-34

(4) A knowledge of the grain flow of the material will be parallel to that direction. (5) i
i
d,

is critical

since

inclusions

Certain

types

of steels

are

more

prone

to inclusions

than

other.

LIQUTD
(i) (2)

PENETRANT
used

TESTING

METHOD
inclusions in wrought material. surface. NDT methods

f
e.

Not normally Inclusions

for detecting

are generally TESTING

not openings

in the material

RADIOGRAPHIC designed

METHOD.

Not recommended. suitable for detecting

for surface

testing are more

surface

inclusions.

== =

TYPICAL INCLUSION PATTERN ON MACHINED SURFACES

B STEEL FORGINGSHOWINGNUMEROUS INCLUSIONS

J
C MICROGRAPH OF TYPICAL INCLUSION D

LONGITUDINAL CROSS-SECTION ORIENTATION OF INCLUSIONS

SHOWING

Figure

7-19.

Wrought

Inclusion

Discontinuity

7-35

720 i. 2. 3. Internal running 4. Caused

LACK

OF

PENETRATION

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY or external. parallel with

Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous Weldments

CHARACTERISTICS Generally the weld. irregular (See Figure and filamentary 7-20. ) oeeuring at the root and

METALLURGICAL by root Also face

ANALYSIS of joint not reaching welding fusion rate, temperature too large before weld rod, metal was cold a

deposited. bead. NDT a.

caused

by fast

a welding

or too

METHODS

APPLICATION TESTING

AND

LIMITATIONS

RADIOGRAPHIC (1) Used lack (2) Lack area

METHOD variety of welded articles to determine the

extensively of penetration. of penetration of varying appear

on a wide

wilI length in the

appear width. center

on the of the

radiograph at the

as an elongated junction of multipass

dark

and

It may weld

be continuous

or intermittent

and may bends. (3)

Lack of penetration source is critical. Sensitivity levels di s c ontinuitie s. TESTING used weld for

orientation

in relationship

to the

radiographic

(4)

govern

the

capability

to detect

small

or tight

b.

ULTRASONIC (1) (2) Commonly Complex themselves (3)

METHOD specific applications. or thin testing. appear on the scope as a definite break or a crack and will give a very sharp reflection. test results is difficult unless equipment wail weldments do not lend

configurations,

to ultrasonic

Lack of penetration will discontinuity resembling Repeatability is standardized. of ultrasonic

(4)

7-36

c.

EDDY

CURRENT

TESTING

METHOD

(i) Normally

used to determine lack of penetration in nonferrous welded

pipe and tubing. (2) Eddy current can be used where the configuration requirement d. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING other nonferrous articles can meet

of the equipment. METHOD

(i) Normally (2) e. Lack

used where backside of weld is visible. appears TESTING where backside appears as an irregular METHOD of weld is visible. indication of varying indication of varying width.

of penetration PENETRANT used

LIQUID (1) (2)

Normally

Lack of penetration width. Residue any left by the

as an irregular

(3)

penetrant

and

the

developer

could

contaminate

re-welding

operation.

INADEQUATE

ROOT

PENETRATION

INADEQUATE ROOT WELDED TUBE

PENETRATION

OF BUTT

INADEQUATE FILLET KNOWN AS BRIDGING

WELD

PENETRATION

k.J

Figure

7-20.

Lack

of Penetration

Discontinuity

7-37

721
1. 2. 3. Surface surface Found 4.

LAMINATIONS CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY and internal. of the in forged, material. extruded, Inherent Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material

CHARACTERISTICS Fiat, extremely contain roiled and thin, a thin material. generally film (See aligned Figure parallel the 7-21.) to the surfaces. work

May

of oxide

between

METALLURGICAL are separations

ANALYSIS or weaknesses They and are may made be the thin. AND LIMITATIONS METHOD material makes may selected methods the geometry their detection depending and orientation of lamination directional generally result aligned parallel seam, Laminations to the work inclusions, are flat-

Laminations surface tened of the impurities NDT a. or segregations

material. elongated that

of pipe, by working.

blister,

extremely

METHODS ULTRASONIC (i) For

APPLICATION TESTING gauge

heavier

(normal (2) Numerous

to the wave

beam) modes

limited upon

to ultrasonic. the material manual

be used

thickness or method contact or immersion (3) Lamination reflection. Through very b. MAGNETIC (I) Articles lamination (2) (3) Magnetic Magnetic size c. LIQUID (1) thin will appear

for testing. Automatic are adaptable. interface with

and

as a definite

a loss

of back

(4)

transmission sections. PARTICLE fabricated

and

reflection

techniques

are

applicable

for

TESTING from

METHOD materials are normally tested for

ferrous particle. appear is not

by magnetic indication particle will testing

as a straight, capable

intermittent the

indication. over-alI

of determining

or depth PENETRANT used

of the

lamination. METHOD materials.

TESTING on nonferrous

Normally

7-38

(2)

Machining, and thereby and

honing, close alkalines Thorough

lapping, or mask seriously cleaning

or blasting surface limit of the

may

smear

surface

of material

lamination. the effectiveness is essential. used sheet to detect stock. for detecting in the almost direction impossible. laminaof liquid penetrant

(3)

Acid testing.

surface

do

EDDY tions.

CURRENT If used,

TESTING the method

METHOD. must

Not normally to thin

be confined Not small

ej

RADIOGRAPHIC laminations of the X-ray beam,

TESTING Laminations thereby

METHOD. have very making

recommended thickness changes detection

radiographic

i i

!
I

!
i
_7

LAMINATION

IN 0.250

IN. PLATE

LAMINATION

IN 0.040

TITANIUM

SHEET

LAMINATION IN PLATE SHOWING SURFACE O'RIENTATION

LAMINATION ORIENTATION

IN 1 IN. BAR SHOWING SURFACE

Figure

7-21.

Lamination

Discontinuity

7-39

722
1. 2. 3. Surface. cracks. and 4.

LAPS

AND SEAMS Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous Rolled Threads

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Wavy Found lines,

CHARACTERISTICS often quite (See deep in the Figure and sometime pitch, very and tight, major appearing diameter as hairline of the thread,

in rolled of rolling.

threads

minor, 7-22.)

in direction

METALLURGICAL

ANALYSIS faulty or oversized dies or an overfill of material may over and flattened into the surface of the thread but not

During the rolling operation, cause material to be folded fused. NDT a. METHODS LIQUID

APPLICATION PENETRANT

AND

LIMITATIONS METHOD

TESTING

(1) Compatibility with both ferrous and nonferrous materials makes fluorescent liquid penetrant the first choice. (2) Liquid penetrant indications will be circumferential, slightlycurved, intermittent or continuous indications. Laps and seams individuallyor in clusters. (3) Foreign material may not only interfere with the penetration of the penetrant into the discontinuitybut may penetrant in a nondefective area. (4) Surface of threads may be smeared sealing offlaps and seams. (5) Fluorescent and dye penetrants are not compatible. Dye penetrants due to rolling operation, thereby cause an accumulation of may occur

tend to killthe fluorescent qualities in fluorescent penetrants. b. MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING METHOD as

(1) Magnetic particle indications would generally appear the same liquid penetrant. (2) Irrelevent magnetic indications may configuration. result from the thread

(3) Questionable magnetic particles indications can be verified by liquid penetrant testing.

7-40

e.

EDDY laps

CURRENT and seams.

TESTING Article

METHOD. configuration

Not normally is the Not restrict restricting

used

for

detecting

factor. for detecting laps

d.

ULTRASONIC and seams.

TESTING Thread

METHOD.

recommended ultrasonic

configurations METHOD.

capability. for detecting Iaps

e.

RADIOGRAPHIC and seams. of radiographic Size

TESTING and testing.

Not recommended restricts

orientation

of discontinuities

the capability

TYPICAL

AREAS

OF FAILURE

LAPS

AND

SEAMS

FAILURE

OCCURRING

AT

ROOT

OF THREAD

AREAS

WHERE

LAPS

AND

SEAMS

USUALLY

OCCUR

Figure

7-22.

Laps

and

Seams

Discontinuity

in Rolled

Threads

7-41

723
i. 2. 3.

LAPS

AND SEAMS

%J
CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY
a.

Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous Wrought Material

CHARACTERISTICS Wavy usually smeared (See lines enter closed. Figure Lengthy, with tubing. ANALYSIS blowholes, in the cracks, direction splits, of roiling is very result of the sizing occur from material, part and small. improper corners in material roiling, may being forging, be folded flattened or sizing over or into the tears introduced The in earlier distance between the 7-23.) often grain quite and deep and sometimes spiral when very tight, usually with usually the surface Found not very in wrought pronounced angle. forgings, or tightly Laps plate, may adherent have surface bar,

Lap since and

Surface. they rod.

at a small

openings

tubing,

Do

Seam parallel rolled

Surface. fissures rod and

at times

associated

4. Seams

METALLURGICAL originate and innerfaces are similar During may but not NDT a. exist fused. from elongated of the to seams the

processing adjacent Laps

or forging.

discontinuity and the may may

operations. an overfill surface 5.

processing Laps

during

resulting on any AND

of the article.

METHODS MAGNETIC (1) (2) Magnetic Surface method.

APPLICATION PARTICLE particle

LIMITATIONS METHOD for ferrous and seams may material. be detected by this

TESTING

is recommended laps

and near-surface

(3) Laps and indication. intermittent.

seams They

may may

appear

as a straight,

spiral,

or slightly and continuous

curved or

be individual

or clustered

(4)

Magnetic magnetizing crack

buildup current is necessary. magnetizing

of laps

and

seams than

is very that used

small. for the

Therefore, detection of a

greater

(5) Correct

technique the discontinuity

should

be used lie

when

examining nearly

for parallel

forging laps since to the surface.

may

in a plane

7-42

LIQUID (1) (2)

PENETRANT penetrant and seams penetrant.

TESTING

METHOD for nonferrous tight and difficult material. to detect especially

Liquid Laps

is recommended may be very

by liquid (3)

Liquid penetrant testing of laps and seams can be by heating the article before applying the penetrant. TESTING used wave and METHOD wrought permits and material accurate prior

improved

slightly

c.

ULTRASONIC

(1) (2)

Normally Surface length,

to test technique

to machining. of the depth,

evaluation

size

of Iaps

seams. and seams will appear as definite inner

(3)
d.

Ultrasonic faces within

indication the metal.

of laps

EDDY (1) (2)

CURRENT used

TESTING for can permit. TESTING in wrought the

METHOD evaluation of laps by eddy and current seams where in tubing article and pipe.

Normally Other tion

articles and size

be screened

configura-

e.

RADIOGRAPHIC laps and seams

METHOD. material.

Not recommended Although the ratio

for

detecting the

between

discontinuity size and the material thickness _in most cases, discontinuities have a very direction of the X-ray _ 1m,_,_l imnnssible. beam, thereby making

exceeds 2 % of sensitivity small thickness change in the radiographic detection

TYPICAL

FORGING

LAP

MICROGRAPH

OF A LAP

Figure

7-23.

Laps

and

Seams

Discontinuity

in Wrought

Material 7-43

724
1. 2. 3.

MICRO-SHRINKAGE Processing Magnesium Casting

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY

CHARACTERISTICS

Internal. Small filamentary voids in the grain boundaries appear as concentrated porosity in cross section. 4. METALLURGICAL occurs void while (See Figure 7-24.)

ANALYSIS the metal by its is in a plastic areas by the appearance or semi-molten the time state. shrinkage If sufficient will leave range point cona it

Shrinkage molten void. occurs. stituent The

metal

cannot

flow

into different

as it cools, and by the withdrawal

is identified

in the plastic

Micro-shrinkage from the grain NDT a. METHODS RADIOGRAPHIC

is caused boundaries. APPLICATION TESTING

of the low melting

AND

LIMITATIONS

METHOD

(i) Radiography

is universally used to determine the acceptance level .....

of micr0-shrinkage. (2) Micro-shrinkage resembling

will appear on the radiograph as an elongated swirl

feathery streaks or as dark irregular patches, which are

indicative of cavities in the grain boundaries.

b.

LIQUID

PENETRANT

TESTING

METHOD surfaces. These conditions

(1) Normally_t!sed on finished machined (2) Micro-shrinkage

is not normally open to the surface. areas.

will, therefore, be detected in machined (3) The appearance

of the indication depends on the plane through which varies from a continuous porous indication. porous

the condition has been cut. The appearance hairline to a massive (4) Penetrant may

act as a contaminant by saturating the micro

casting affectingtheir abilityto accept a surface treatment. (5) Serious structural and a dimensional damage to the article can result

from the improper use of acids or alkalies. They should never be used unless approval is obtained.

7-44

c.

EDDY

CURRENT to eddy

TESTING Article current.

METHOD. configuration

Not and

recommended type

for

detecting do not lend

micro-shrinkage. themselves d. ULTRASONIC shrinkage. e. MAGNETIC nonferrous.

of discontinuity

TESTING Cast structure

METHOD. and TESTING article

Not recommended configuration Not are

for

detecting

microfactors. is

restricting

PARTICLE

METHOD.

applicable.

Material

BUSHING

=i. -

ACK

CRACKED MAGNESIUM HOUSING

CLOSE-UP VIEW OF (A)

MICROGRAPH OF CRACKED AREA

Figure

7-24.

Micro-Shrinkage

Discontinuity

7-45

725 1. 2. 3. Surface groups. 4. Porosity

GAS POROSITY CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY or subsurface. at the point. May also Processing Ferrous and Nonferrous Weldments

CHARACTERISTICS Rounded Scattered be concentrated ANALYSIS by gas entrapment cleaning AND METHOD method for the detection in the molten metal, too much moisture or elongated, uniformly at the root teardrop throughout or toe. (See shaped the with weld or without or isolated 7-25. ) a sharp in small

discontinuity

Figure

METALLURGICAL in welds or filler METHODS RADIOGRAPHY is caused metal,

on the base 5. NDT a.

or improper

or preheating.

APPLICATION TESTING

LIMITATIONS

(1) Radiography is the most universally used NDT of gas porosity in weldments.

(2) The radiographic image of a 'round' porosity will appear as oval shaped spots with smooth edges, while 'elongated' porosity will appear as oval shaped spots with the major longer than the minor axis. (3) Foreign material such as loose scale, flux, or splatterwill affect validity of test results. b. ULTRASONIC TESTING METHOD axis sometimes several times

(1) Ultrasonic testing equipment is highly sensitive, capable of detecting micro-separatlons. Established standards should be used if valid test results are to be obtained. (2) Surface finish and grain size will affect the validityof the test results. c. EDDY CURRENT TESTING METHOD

(1) Normally

confined to thin wall welded pipe and tube. than one-quarter inch.

(2) Penetration restricts testing to a depth of more d. LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING METHOD

(1) Normally confined to in-process control of ferrous and nonferrous weldments.

7-46

(2)

Liquid surface Extreme magnetic entrapped

penetrant testing, evaluation. caution (iron and must oxide),

like

magnetic

particle,

is restricted

to

(3)

be exercised and liquid

to prevent penetrant

any

cleaning from

material, becoming

materials operation.

contaminating TESTING to detect would since

the rewelding METHOD gas porosity.

e.

MAGNETIC (1) (2)

PARTICLE used

Not normally Only surface not be clearly

porosity defined

be evident. it is neither

Near strong

surface

porosity

would

or pronounced.

TYPICAL

SURFACE

POROSITY

CROSS-SECTION POROSITY

OF (A)SHOWING

EXTENT

OF

MICROGRAPH OF CROSS-SECTION SHRINKAGE POROSITY

SHOWING

TYPICAL

Figure

7-25.

Gas Porosity

Discontinuity

7-47

726 1. 2.
3. Internal.

UNFUSED

POROSITY

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Wafer-thin which

Processing Aluminum CHARACTERISTICS fissures aligned forged, ANALYSIS to porosity is oxidized processing, which is in the cast ingot. shape. of a foreign in an extremely During If the the rolling, they parallel with the grain Figure flow. 7-26. ) Found in wrought

kj

aluminum 4. Unfused forging, surface will not or void.

is rolled,

or extruded.

(See

METALLURGICAL porosity of these fuse

is attributed operations the discontinuities

or extruding during

it is flattened

into wafer-thin resulting

internal

or is composed

material,

subsequent

thin interface

NDT a.

METHODS ULTRASONIC (1) (2) (3) (4) Used

APPLICATION TESTING for be tested fixes

AND METHOD

LIMITATIONS

extensively may

the detection in the the

of unfused

porosity. configuration. in all three directions. it may be

Material Ultrasonic Where necessary the

wrought

as received of the void

testing general to test

location of the

direction from several and

discontinuity

is unknown,

directions. article porosity configuration to the will material

(5)

Method determine surface.

of manufacture the orientation

subsequent of the unfused

b.

LIQUID (1) (2)

PENETRANT used porosity with

TESTING on nonferrous will the appear grain.

METHOD machined as a straight Liquid articles. line of varying is restricted lengths run-

Normally Unfused

ning parallel evaluation. (3) Surface obliterate the (4)

penetrant

to surface

preparations by masking of liquid agitation

such the

as vapor surface

blasting, discontinuities,

honing,

or sanding

may

thereby

restricting

reliability

penetrant

testing. in a large container may produce foaming.

Excessive

of powder

7-48

c.

EDDY unfused

CURRENT porosity.

TESTING

METHOD.

Not

normally

used

for

detecting

d.

RADIOGRAPHIC (1) (2) Not normally

TESTING used for

METHOD detecting are which unfused difficult that porosity. to detect the by a method be which parallel

Wafer-thin measures and

discontinuities density or

requires X-ray beam. METHOD.

discontinuity

perpendicular PARTICLE

to the

e.

MAGNETIC nonferrous.

TESTING

Not

applicable.

Material

is

FRACTURED SPECIMEN SHOWING UNFUSED POROSITY

UNFUSED POROSITY EQUIVALENT TO 1/64, 3/64, 5/64 AND 8/64 (LEFT TO RIGHT)

TYPlCAL UNFUSED POROSITY

ULTRASONIC SCOPE PATTERN OF (C)

rF.,.j

Figure

7-26.

Unfused

Porosity

Discontinuity

7-49

727 1. 2. 3. Surface. material; 4. Three

STRESS

CORROSION Service Ferrous and Nonferrous

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Range however, METALLURGICAL factors are static likely from

CHARACTERISTICS shallow transverse to very cracks deep, are and usually also possible. follow (See the grain flow 7-27.) of the

Figure

ANALYSIS for stress, faster residual the phenomenon 2) the presence to this levels at high of stress type corrosion to occur: environment, Stress from corrosion of stress. (applied) and

necessary tensile that to occur include

1) a sustained 3) the use is much The type loading. NDT a. more

of a corrosive of failure. as those of stress

of a material of stresses

is susceptible

than at low levels external

(internal)

as well

METHODS LIQUID (1) (2)

APPLICATION

AND LIMITATIONS METHOD used for the detection cleaning spraying of stress of articles, and corrosion. extreme of

PENETRANT penetrant preparation, must

TESTING is normally application,

Liquid In the care the

and final over

be exercised articles.

to prevent

contamination

surrounding cleaning

(3)

Chemical may evaporate.

immediately the test

before results

the if the

application solvents are

of Iiquid

penetrant time to

seriously

affect

not given

(4)

Service will removed.

articles

may

contain and

moisture invalid

within results

the if the

discontinuity moisture

which is not

dilute,

contaminate,

b.

EDDY (1) (2)

CURRENT

TESTING used

METHOD stress corrosion. of resolving with equipment stress corrosion where

Not normally Eddy article current

to detect

equipment

is capable is compatible

configuration TESTING used are

limitations.

c.

ULTRASONIC (1) (2)

METHOD to detect stress corrosion. to surface of material and require

Not normally Discontinuities surface

perpendicular

technique.

7-50

d.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE
(1) (2} Not normally Configuration netic particle used

TESTING to detect

METHOD stress corrosion. nonmagnetic condition exclude mag-

of article testing. TESTING used

and usual

e.

RADIOGRAPHIC (1) (2) Not normally Surface application. with the use

METHOD stress detected technique. corrosion. by NDT can method shown designed stress for such

to detect are proper best

indications of the

However,

radiography

and has

corrosion

%.v

FRACTURED ALUMINUM ALLOY DUE TO STRESS CORROSION

COUPLING

-----7

Figure

7-27.

Stress

Corrosion

Discontinuity

7-51

728 1. 2. 3. Surface deep.

HYDRAULIC CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY and Usually internal. they

TUBING Processing Aluminum and 6061-T6 Service

CHARACTERISTICS Range will which in size has from short to long, (See Figure shallow 7-28.) to very tight the and

be found

in the

direction

of the grain

flow with

exception

of stress

corrosion,

no direction.

METALLURGICAL tubing

ANALYSIS are usually one of the following: material and being

Hydraulic
a.

discontinuities

Foreign embedded Laps Seams in the

material coming into the surface are the result

in contact with of the tube. of material blowholes, and which then are

the tube

b. c.

which which eariler

being

folded

over splits during

and

not fused. introduced

originate processing, corrosion

from

cracks, elongated

and tears rolling.

d.

Intergranular ment. METHODS EDDY (1) (2)

is due

to the presence

of a corrosive

environ-

NDT a.

APPLICATION TESTING used walled

AND

LIMITATIONS

CURRENT

METHOD of nonferrous above) tubing. may not be successfully tested

Universally Heavier due

for testing tubing

(0. 250 and ability of various

to the

penetration nature

of the

equipment. may not be clearly de-

(3)

The specific fined. Test results

discontinuities

(4) (5) (6)

may

not be valid

unless

controlled may foreign

by known

standards.

Testing

of ferro-magnetic be free

material of any

be difficult. material that would invalid

All material should the test results. PENETRANT used

b.

LIQUID (I) (2)

TESTING for

METHOD tubing discontinuities. and with established

Not normally

detecting

Eddy current is more economical, standards is more reliable.

faster,

7-52

c.
L=

ULTRASONIC (1) (2)

TESTING used

METHOD for detecting tubing over range discontinuities. testing since it is faster and non-

Not normally Eddy current

is recommended for this

ultrasonic of surface

and more economical ferrous material. d. RADIOGRAPHIC (1) (2) Not normally The size TESTING used for

discontinuity

METHOD detecting tubing discontinuities. configuration of material of the for this article group

and type

of discontinuity for

and the screening

limit the use of radiography of discontinuities. e. MAGNETIC is nonferrous. PARTICLES TESTING

METHOD.

Not

applicable.

Material

INTERGRANULAR

CORROSION

LAPIN

OUTER

SURFACE

OF

TUBING

EMBEDDED

FOREIGN

MATERIAL

TWIN

LAPS

IN OUTER

SURFACE

OF TUBING

,F
"N_./"

Figure

7-28.

Hydraulic

Tubing

Discontinuity

7-53

729 i. 2. 3.

MANDREL CATEGORY. MATERIAL.

DRAG Processing Nonferrous Thick-Wall Seamless Tubing

DISCONTINUITY

CHARACTERISTICS from shallow even gouges to ragged within the gouged area. (See

Internal surface of thick-wall tubing. Range tears. Figure 7-29. ) 4. During passes portion the Certain 5. METALLURGICAL the manufacture the offset tubing material of material ANALYSIS of thick-wail roils. may may are break more seamless

Often a slug of the material will be embedded

tubing, mandrel

the billet follows over the embedded

is ruptured this mandrel. into than the others. fracture,

as it' a As it does walI.

through of the types NDT a.

As the loose prone be scored

piercing or have to this

and be forced the type

surface

of the

slug

of failure

METHODS EDDY (i) (2) (3) (4)

APPLICATION TESTING for testing are the

AND LIMITATIONS METHOD testing may of thin-wall pipe or tube. materials.

CURRENT used

Normally Eddy

current

be confined

to nonferrous

Discontinuities Several factors

qualitative,

not quantative affect output

indications. indications.

simultaneously METHOD the screening

b.

ULTRASONIC (1) NormaIly drag. (2) (3) i4)

TESTING used for

of thick-wail

pipe

or tube

for

mandrel

Can be used Requires

to test

both

ferrous one side

and only.

nonferrous

pipe

or tube.

access

from

May be used automatic

in support

of production

line

since

it is adaptable

for

instrumentation. of mandrel indications TESTING used drag drag on the or tear scope. will produce very sharp and

(5)

Configuration noticeable

c.

RADIOGRAPHIC (1) Not normally of mandrel (2)

METHOD it has been instrumental welds. around the circumference in the detection

although during

examination several

of adjacent exposures

Complete coverage of the tube.

requires

7-54

(3)

This slow

method and

is not for

designed large

for volumes only

production of pipe

support or tube. and

since

it is very

costly will

(4)
do

Radiograph

disclose TESTING discontinuity

two dimensions

not the

third. for detecting

LIQUID mandrel

PENETRANT drag since

METHOD. is internal METHOD. are Most not

Not recommended and wouId Not close

not be detectable. for surface detectto be

e.

MAGNETIC ing mandrel

PARTICLE drag.

TESTING particles.

recommended to the will occur drag

Discontinuities

enough

detectable by magnetic less stainless steel.

mandrel

in seam-

EMBEDDED

SLUG

SHOWING

DEEP GOUGE

MARKS

SLUG BROKEN LOOSE FROM TUBING WALL

ANOTHER TYPE OF EMBEDDED

SLUG

GOUGE ON INNER SURFACE OF PIPE

Figure

7-29.

Mandrel

Drag

Discontinuity

7-55

730
1. 2. 3. Internal. diodes, 4.

SEMICONDUCTORS

k.$
CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY Appear resistors, Processing Hardware CHARACTERISTICS sizes damaged, capacitors. ANALYSIS such lead as loose between connections AND wire, internal are the weld splash, and flakes, case, of processing solder and balls, and shapes (See and Figure various 7-30. ) degrees hardware. of density. Found They may and Service

in many aligned, and

be misformed,

or broken

internal

in transistors,

METALLURGICAL discontinuities inadequate

Semiconductor loose leads, or voids in seals

clearance

elements product

inclusions errors.

or around

NDT a.

METHODS

APPLICATION TESTING

LIMITATIONS

RADIOGRAPHIC

METHOD method for the detection of discontinuities

(i) Universally used as the NDT in semiconductors.

(2) The configuration and internal structure of the various semiconductors limit the NDT (3) Semiconductors method to radiography. that have copper heat sinks may require more than one

technique due to the density of the copper. (4) Internal wires in semiconductors aluminum, may are very fine and may be constructed

from materials of differentdensity such as copper, silver, gold and If the latter is used with the others, special techniques be needed to resolve its reliability. require the highest sensitivityto resolve. may

(5) Micro-particles may

(6) The complexity of the internal structure of semiconductors of discontinuities due to masking by hardware.

require additional views to exclude the possibilityof non-detection

(7) Positive positioning of each semiconductor interpretation. (8) Source angle should give minimum (9) Preliminary

will prevent invalid

distortion. may be accomplished using

examination of semiconductors

a vidcon system that would allow visual observation during 360 degree rotation of the article.

V
7-56

b,

EDDY struction

CURRENT of the

TESTING discontinuities. article

METHOD. Nature

Not recommended of discontinuity to this form

for detecting and method of NDT. for detectof con-

E-

semiconductor

do not lend TESTING

themselves METHOD.

c.

MAGNETIC

PARTICLE

Not recommended

ing semiconductor d.

discontinuities. METHOD. Not recommended for detecting

LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING semiconductor discontinuities. ULTRASONIC conductor TESTING METHOD.

e.

Not recommended

for

detecting

semi-

discontinuities.

STRANDS

BROKEN

IN HEATER

BLANKET

FINE

CRACK

IN PLASTIC

CASING

MATERIAL

BROKEN

ELECTRICAL

CABLE

FOREIGN

MATERIAL

WITHIN

SEMICONDUCTOR

Figure

7-30.

Semiconductor

Discontinuity

7-57

731 i. 2. 3. Internal

HOT

TEARS Inherent Ferrous Castings

CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY or near Occur

CHARACTERISTICS Appear as ragged (See line Figure of variable 7-31.) width and numerous

surface. singly

branches. 4. Hot Tears sections 5.

or in groups. ANALYSIS caused metal

METALLURGICAL cracks the may that NDT a. (tears) surface originate adjoin are

by non-uniform while its are stresses masses set

cooling temperature which

resulting is still are slower

in stresses in the rapid brittle cooling to cool.

which range. of thin

rupture

of the where heavier

up by the more

of metal, AND

METHODS

APPLICATION TESTING testing and the

LIMITATIONS

RADIOGRAPHIC (1) Radiographic structure (2)

METHOD is the first choice may since the material and is cast

discontinuities

be internal to the source

surface. influence

Orientation of the hot tear the test results. The sensitivity tears. level may

in relation

may

kJ
not be sufficient to detect fine surface hot

(3)

b_

MAGNETIC (1) Hot tears magnetic (2) Article

PARTICLE that are

TESTING exposed method. and

METHOD to the surface can be screened with

particIe configuration

metallurgical

composition

may

make

demagnization (3) Although radiography (4) Foreign test.

difficult. particle be used not removed can for detect final prior near analysis. to testing will cause an invalid surface hot tears,

magnetic should material

co

LIQUID (1) (2)

PENETRANT penetrant penetrant

TESTING

METHOD for nonferrous evaluation. cast material.

Liquid Liquid

is recommended is confined

to surface

7-58

(3}

The ing

use the

of penetrants porous structure

on

castings and affect may be

may the poor

act

as

a contaminant to apply a long surface period for with cast

by

saturatfinish.

%J
(4)
d.

ability after

Repeatability

of indications TESTING METHOD. of this to ultrasonic TESTING structure to eddy

of time. hot do

ULTRASONIC tears. not lend

Not when testing.

recommended associated

detecting structure

Discontinuities themselves CURRENT Metallurgical lend themselves

type

e,

EDDY tears. not

METHOD. along current

Not with testing. the

recommended complex

for

detecting do

hot

configurations

TYPICAL

HOT TEARS IN CASTING

HOT TEARS IN FILLET

OF CASTING

CLOSE-UP

OF HOT TEARS

iN (A)

CLOSE-UP

OF HOT TEARS

IN (B)

Figure 7-31.

Hot Tear

Discontinuity 7-59

732
I. 2. 3. Surface appear from the 4. Two

INTERGRANULAR CATEGORY. MATERIAL. DISCONTINUITY or internal. singly the fact or that (See very

CORROSION Service Nonferrous CHARACTERISTICS A series of small The insidious in any corrosion extend 7-32.) ANALYSIS to intergranular corrosion are: cormicro-openings nature direction or corrosion with product following no definite is visible the grain pattern. results surface. of on the May

in groups. little may

of tntergranular

corrosion

Intergranular material.

corrosion Figure

boundaries

METALLURGICAL factors a. that contribute

Metallurgical rosion such Improper intergranular rosive

structure of the material as unstabilized 300 series relieving corrosion. or heat Either treat

that is prone to intergranuIar stainless steel. may create attack. the susceptibility with

b.

stress atmosphere

to a cor-

of these

conditions

coupled

wiI1 result

in intergranular LIMITATIONS METHOD choice due

5.

NDT a.

METHODS LIQUID (i)

APPLICATION

AND

PENETRANT penetrant of discontinuity. cleaning

TESTING is the first

Liquid type

to the

size

and location

of this

(2)

Chemical

operations may contaminate

immediately the article

before and

the

application affect

of the

liquid penetrant test results. (3)

seriously

Cleaning in solvents corrosion.

may

release

chlorine

and accelerate

intergranuIar

(4) Trapped b. RADIOGRAPHIC

penetrant solution may TESTING METHOD

present a cleaning or removal

problem.

(1) Intergranular corrosion in the more with radiography.

advanced stages has been detected

(2) Sensitivitylevels may prevent the detection of fine intergranular corrosion. (3) Radiography may not determine rosion will occur. on which surface the Intergranu]ar corV

7-60

c.

EDDY (1) (2) (3)

CURRENT Eddy Tube current or pipe

TESTING

METHOD for the screening to this may of intergranular method seriously of NDT affect corrosion. testing. the output

can be used lend themselves

readily material

Metallurgical indications.

structure

of the

d.

ULTRASONIC equipment has

TESTING the

METHOD to detect TESTING Type

Not normally intergranular Not

used

although

the

capability

corrosion. recommended and material for restrict detect-

e.

MAGNETIC ing the use

PARTICLES corrosion.

METHOD. of discontinuity

intergranular of magnetic

particles.

.i

_-

f-

"

"

.1

;% -j

MICROGRAPH SURFACE

OF INTERGRANULAR SUBSURFACE

CORROSION CORROSION

SHOWING

LIFTING

OF

FROM

#____

MICROGRAPH ONLY MINOR

SHOWING EVIDENCE

NATURE OF

OF INTERGRANULAR IS EVIDENT

CORROSION. FROM SURFACE

CORROSION

Figure

7-32.

Intergranular

Corrosion

Discontinuity 7-61