Dai So Tuyen Tinh

TS.
NGUYN DUY THUN (Ch bin)

ThS. PHI MNH BAN TS. NNG QUC CHINH

I S
TUYN TNH

NH XUT BN I HC S PHM

M s: 01.01.90/92. H- 2003

MC LC

LI NI U.......................................................................................... 11
CC K HIU .......................................................................................... 15

Chng I: NH THC............................................................................ 18
M U.................................................................................................. 18
1. PHP TH.............................................................................................. 20
1.1. nh ngha php th............................................................................ 20
1.2. Nghch th.......................................................................................... 21
1.3. Du ca php th................................................................................ 21
2. KHI NIM MA TRN......................................................................... 24
3. NH NGHA V TNH CHT CA NH THC............................. 26
3.1. nh ngha.......................................................................................... 26
3.2. Tnh cht ca nh thc ...................................................................... 27
4. KHAI TRIN NH THC.................................................................... 33
4.1. nh thc con - Phn b i s ........................................................... 33
4.2. Khai trin nh thc theo mt dng..................................................... 34
4.3. Khai trin nh thc theo r dng ......................................................... 38
5. PHNG PHP TNH NH THC.................................................... 42
5.1. Tnh nh thc cp 3........................................................................... 42
5.2. p dng php khai trin nh thc theo mt dng hoc mt ct.......... 43
5.3. a nh thc v dng tam gic.......................................................... 44
5.4. p dng cc tnh cht ca nh thc ................................................... 47
5.5. Phng php quy np v phng php truy hi .................................. 49
5.6. Tnh nh thc bng my tnh b ti v my tnh in t .................... 51
6. NG DNG - H PHNG TRNH CRAMER.................................... 55
6.1. nh ngha.......................................................................................... 55
6.2. Cch gii ............................................................................................ 55
6.3. Gii h Cramer bng my tnh b ti v my tnh in t.................... 58
TM TT................................................................................................. 60
BI TP................................................................................................... 62
VI NT LCH S.................................................................................. 67

Chng II: KHNG GIAN VECT......................................................... 69
M U.................................................................................................. 69
1. NH NGHA V CC TNH CHT N GIN................................ 71
1.1. nh ngha.......................................................................................... 71
1.2. Mt s tnh cht n gin ................................................................... 72
1.3. Hiu ca hai vect.............................................................................. 73
2. KHNG GIAN CON.............................................................................. 74
2.1. nh ngha.......................................................................................... 74
2.2. Tnh cht c trng............................................................................. 74
2.3. Tng ca nhng khng gian con......................................................... 76
2.4. Giao ca nhng khng gian con.......................................................... 76
2.5. Khng gian sinh bi mt h vect ...................................................... 77
3. S C LP TUYN TNH - S PH THUC TUYN TNH.......... 80
3.1. nh ngha.......................................................................................... 80
3.2. Cc tnh cht....................................................................................... 81
4. C S CA KHNG GIAN VECT.................................................... 85
4.1. nh ngha.......................................................................................... 85
4.2. S tn ti ca c s ............................................................................ 86
5. S CHIU CA KHNG GIAN VECT.............................................. 89
5.1. nh ngha.......................................................................................... 89
5.2. S chiu ca khng gian con .............................................................. 89
6. TA CA MT VECT................................................................. 92
6.1. nh ngha.......................................................................................... 92
6.2. Ma trn chuyn................................................................................... 93
6.3. Lin h gia cc ta ca mt vect i vi hai c s khc nhau..... 95
7. HNG CA H VECT- HNG CA MA TRN............................... 97
7.1. Hng ca h vect .............................................................................. 97
7.2. Hng ca ma trn................................................................................ 98
7.3. Cch tm hng ca ma trn ............................................................... 103
7.5. Tm c s, s chiu ca khng gian sinh bi mt h vect bng my tnh
in t..................................................................................................... 107
TM TT............................................................................................... 111

BI TP................................................................................................. 113
VI NT LCH S................................................................................ 121

Chng III: NH X TUYN TNH..................................................... 123
M U................................................................................................ 123
1. NH NGHA NH X TUYN TNH - S XC NH MT NH X
TUYN TNH............................................................................................ 124
1.1. Cc nh ngha.................................................................................. 124
1.2. S xc nh mt nh x tuyn tnh.................................................... 128
2. NH V HT NHN CA NH X TUYN TNH......................... 129
2.1. nh ngha v tnh cht..................................................................... 129
2.2. Lin h gia s chiu ca nh, ht nhn v khng gian ngun........... 133
2.3. S ng cu gia hai khng gian cng s chiu ................................ 135
3. CC PHP TON TRN TP CC NH X TUYN TNH -
HOMK(V, W)............................................................................................. 136
3.1. Php cng hai nh x tuyn tnh ....................................................... 136
3.2. Php nhn mt nh x tuyn tnh vi mt s..................................... 137
3.3. Khng gian vect Hom
K
(V, W) ........................................................ 138
3.4. Tch hai nh x tuyn tnh................................................................. 139
TM TT............................................................................................... 141
BI TP................................................................................................. 143
VI NT LCH S................................................................................ 147

Chng IV: H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH................................. 148
M u.................................................................................................... 148
1. PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH - PHNG PHP GAUSS............. 149
1.1. nh ngha........................................................................................ 149
1.2. Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh bng phng php Gauss (kh dn n
s)........................................................................................................... 150
1.3. Thc hin phng php Gauss trn my tnh in t ........................ 156
2. DIU KIN H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH C NGHIM 159
2.1. iu kin c nghim......................................................................... 159
2.2. Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh bng nh thc ................................ 160

3. H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH THUN NHT ........................ 165
3.1. nh ngha........................................................................................ 165
3.2. Khng gian nghim ca h thun nht .............................................. 166
3.3. Lin h gia nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh v nghim ca h
thun nht lin kt ................................................................................... 170
3.4. Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh bng my tnh in t ..................... 171
TM T T.............................................................................................. 174
BI TP................................................................................................. 175
VI NT LCH S................................................................................ 181

Chng V: MA TRN............................................................................ 183
M U................................................................................................ 183
1. MA TRN CA MT NH X TUYN TNH ................................. 184
1.1. nh ngha........................................................................................ 184
1.2. Lin h gia Hom
K
(V, W) vi Mat
(m.n)
(K) ........................................ 186
2. CC PHP TON TRN CC TP MA TRN................................. 188
2.1. Php cng......................................................................................... 188
2.2. Php nhn mt ma trn vi mt s.................................................... 189
2.3. Php tr............................................................................................ 190
2.4. Khng gian vect Mat
(m,n)
(K) ........................................................... 190
2.5. Tch ca hai ma trn ......................................................................... 191
2.6. Thc hin cc php ton ma trn bng my tnh b ti v my tnh in
t ............................................................................................................ 196
3. I S MATN(K) CC MA TRN VUNG CP N......................... 200
3.1. nh thc ca tch hai ma trn.......................................................... 200
3.2. Ma trn nghch o........................................................................... 202
3.3. Tm ma trn nghch o.................................................................... 204
3.4. Mt vi ng dng u tin ca ma trn nghch o........................... 210
3.5. Ma trn ca mt ng cu................................................................. 211
4. S THAY I CA MA TRN CA MT NH X TUYN TNH
KHI THAY I C S - MA TRN NG DNG................................ 212
4.1. S thay i ca ma trn ca mt nh x tuyn tnh khi thay i c s212
4.2. Ma trn ng dng............................................................................ 213

5. VECT RING-GI TR RING........................................................ 215
5.1. Vect ring- Gi tr ring.................................................................. 215
5.2. Da thc c trng - Cch tm vect ring.......................................... 217
5.3. Tm gi tr ring v vect ring bng my tnh in t...................... 222
6. CHO HO MA TRN....................................................................... 224
6.1. nh ngha........................................................................................ 224
6.2. iu kin mt ma trn cho ho c .......................................... 224
6.3. nh l .............................................................................................. 227
TM TT............................................................................................... 228
BI TP................................................................................................. 230
VI NT LCH S................................................................................ 240

Chng VI: DNG SONG TUYN TNH DNG TON PHNG ... 241
M U................................................................................................ 241
1. DNG TUYN TNH V DNG SONG TUYN TNH.................... 242
1.1. nh ngha, v d.............................................................................. 242
2. DNG TON PHNG...................................................................... 249
2.1. nh ngha........................................................................................ 249
2.2. Ma trn ca dng ton phng.......................................................... 250
2.3. Dng ton phng xc nh.............................................................. 251
3. A DNG TON PHNG V DNG CHNH TC.................... 252
3.1. nh ngha........................................................................................ 252
3.2. nh l ............................................................................................. 252
3.3. Da dng ton phng v dng chinh tc bng my tnh in t....... 257
3.4. nh l qun tnh.............................................................................. 259
4. KHNG GIAN VECT CLIT........................................................... 262
4.1. nh ngha khng gian vect clit ................................................... 262
4.2. C s trc chun .............................................................................. 263
4.3. Khng gian con b trc giao............................................................. 268
4.4. Hnh chiu ca mt vect ln khng gian con................................... 269
4.5. Php bin i trc giao - Ma trn trc giao....................................... 270
4.6. Php bin i di xng..................................................................... 271
4.7. ng dng ......................................................................................... 272

TM TT............................................................................................... 280
1. DNG TUYN TNH, DNG SONG TUYN TNH.......................... 280
1.1. nh ngha........................................................................................ 280
1.2. Ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh ..................................................... 281
1.3. Lin h gia hai ma trn ca cng mt dng song tuyn tnh i vi hai
c s khc nhau....................................................................................... 281
2. DNG TON PHNG...................................................................... 282
2.1. Dng ton phng ............................................................................ 282
2.2. Ma trn ca dng ton phng.......................................................... 282
2.3. Dng ton phng xc nh.............................................................. 282
3. A DNG TON PHNG V DNG CHNH TC.................... 283
3.1. nh ngha........................................................................................ 283
3.2. nh l. ........................................................................................... 283
3.3. Dng phn mm Maple a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc 283
3.4. nh l qun tnh.............................................................................. 284
4. KHNG GIAN VECT CLIT........................................................... 285
4.1. nh ngha........................................................................................ 285
4.2. C s trc chun .............................................................................. 285
4.3. Khng gian con b trc giao............................................................. 286
4.4. Hnh chiu ca mt vect ln khng gian con................................... 286
4.5. Php bin i trc giao - Ma trn trc giao....................................... 286
4.6. Php bin i i xng..................................................................... 287
4.7. ng dng ......................................................................................... 287
BI TP................................................................................................. 288
1. DNG SONG TUYN TNH............................................................... 288
2. DNG TON PHNG...................................................................... 289
VI NT LCH S................................................................................ 293

Chng VII: QUY HOCH TUYN ANH............................................. 294
M DU................................................................................................ 294
1. BI TON QUY HOCH TUYN TNH........................................... 295
1.1. Mt vi bi ton thc t.................................................................... 295
1.2. Bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh........................................................... 297

1.3. ngha hnh hc v phng php th........................................... 302
2. PHNG PHP N HNH V CC THUT TON CA N..... 306
2.1. Mt s tnh cht ca bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh dng chnh tc ... 306
2.2. Phng php n hnh...................................................................... 313
2.3. Gii cc bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh bng my tnh in t ( Theo lp
trnh tnh ton vi Mathematica 4.0)........................................................ 335
TM TT............................................................................................... 339
BI TP................................................................................................. 340
VI NT LCH S................................................................................ 346
LI GII -HNG DN -TR LI ..................................................... 347

TI LIU THAM KHO....................................................................... 385

11
LI NI U
thi i ca chng ta, khoa hc v k thut pht trin nh v bo.
Chng i hi ngnh gio dc phi lun lun i mi kp thi p
ng mi nhu cu v tri thc khoa hc ca thanh thiu nin, gip h c
kh nng lao ng v sng to trong cuc sng si ng. Hin nay
chng trnh v sch gio khoa bc ph thng nc ta bt u v
ang thay i ph hp vi i hi y. Trng Cao ng S phm, ci
ni o to gio vin THCS, cn phi c nhng i mi tng ng v
chng trnh v sch gio khoa. V mc ch , b sch gio khoa mi
ra i, thay th cho b sch gio khoa c.
Cun sch i s tuyn tnh bin son ln ny, nm trong khun kh
ca cuc i mi y. N nhm lm mt gio trnh tiu chun chung cho
cc trng Cao ng S phm trong c nc theo chng trnh mi
(chng trnh 2002), i hi khng nhng phi i mi nhng ni dung
kin thc (nu cn) v c phng php ging dy ca ging vin cng
nh phng php hc tp ca sinh vin. Mt khc, qua mt thi gian di
thc hin chng trnh v sch gio khoa c, n nay c th nh gi
nhng u, khuyt im ca n, s ph hp ca n vi trnh u vo
ca sinh vin cc trng Cao ng S phm. Do cun sch bin son
ln ny cng tha hng nhng u im v khc phc nhng thiu st
ca nhng cun sch c.
i tng s dng cun sch ny l sinh vin v ging vin cc
trng Cao ng S phm trong c nc, cc gio vin THCS cn c
bi dng t trnh chun ho. Cun sch cng c th c dng
cho cc trng i hc v Cao ng khc v cho tt c nhng ai mun t
hc mn hc ny.
C s la chn ni dung ca gio trnh ny l yu cu u ra v
trnh u vo ca sinh vin Cao ng S phm hin nay, ng thi
cng cn tnh n vai tr ca mn hc i vi cc mn khoa hc khc
nh Gii tch, Hnh hc, Vt l, Ho hc,v.v.., v to iu kin cho
ngi hc c th hc ln cao hn. C th, gio trnh ny phi trang b
c cho ngi gio vin ton tng lai trng THCS nhng kin thc
cn thit, y , vng vng v i s tuyn tnh ging dy tt nhng
phn lin quan trong chng trnh ton THCS. Tuy nhin, ni dung v
phng php trnh by nhng ni dung y li phi ph hp vi trnh
12
nhn thc v kh nng tip nhn sinh vin. Mt khc, gio trnh ny cng
phi cung cp y kin thc gip ngi c c th hc c nhng
mn khoa hc khc nh ni trn; ng thi p ng mong mun ca
nhng sinh vin c hoi bo nng cao hn na trnh ca mnh. V th,
ni dung cun sch cha ng nhng iu rt c bn m mi sinh vin
cn nm vng, nhng cng c nhng phn khng i hi mi sinh vin
u phi hiu.
Mn quy hoch tuyn tnh c s dng nhiu kin thc i s tuyn
tnh. Nhiu sch i s tuyn tnh trn th gii xp n nh mt chng
ca mnh di mc "Bt phng trnh tuyn tnh". Trong chng
trnh Cao ng S phm mi ca h o to gio vin dy hai mn, ni
dung ca mn Quy hoch tuyn tnh c gim bt. N cng c xp vo
mt chng trong gio trnh i s tuyn tnh ny.
Cun sch ny gm by chng:
Chng I. Trnh by nh ngha, cc tnh cht ca nh thc v cc
phng php c bn tnh nh thc. l mt phng tin nghin
cu khng gian vect v l thuyt h phng trnh tuyn tnh.
Chng II v chng III. Nghin cu khng gian vect v cc nh x
gia cc khng gian y - nh x tuyn tnh. N l c s ca i s tuyn
tnh. N gip cho vic hon thin l thuyt h phng trnh tuyn tnh.
Chng IV. H phng trnh tuyn tnh. l mt trong nhng
hng m rng ca phng trnh c hc trng ph thng. Vi
chng ny, l thuyt h phng trnh tuyn tnh c coi l hon thin.
Chng V. Nghin cu ma trn v mi lin h gia ma trn vi
khng gian vect. Nh n m cc nh x tuyn tnh c nghin cu su
sc hn.
Chng VI. Nghin cu dng song tuyn tnh v dng ton phng,
mt phn ca l thuyt dng trong i s tuyn tnh nhng li c nh
hng su sc n Hnh hc, Phng trnh vi phn v Phng trnh o
hm ring.
Chng VII: Nghin cu mt s bi ton ca Quy hoch tuyn tnh.
Phn i s tuyn tnh ca cun sch ny c dng chung cho c
hai h o to gio vin ton (h o to gio vin dy mn Ton cng
vi mn th hai, v h o to gio vin dy ch mt mn Ton). Yu
cu i vi mi h c khc nhau. i vi h o to gio vin dy hai
13
mn, chng trnh ch yu cu sinh vin nm c nhng iu rt c
bn. Chng hn, i vi chng nh thc yu cu ch l hiu c nh
ngha nh thc, nm vng cc tnh cht tnh c cc nh thc
thng thng, khng cn hiu k chng minh ca cc tnh cht ny. Song
i vi h o to gio vin ch dy Ton th i hi cao hn c v ni
dung v c v rn luyn v pht trin t duy ton hc. Tuy nhin nhng
i hi ny c thc hin n u cn tu thuc vo trnh sinh vin
tng a phng. l phn mm do m cc trng vn dng linh
hot. Phn Quy hoch tuyn tnh y ch dng cho h o to gio vin
dy hai mn.
Mi chng u c phn m u nu ln nhng yu cu v cch hc
tp ca chng y. Cui mi chng c phn tm tt i nt chnh ni
dung ca chng bn c c dp n tp li. Phn bi tp c mt s
lng c th vt qu yu cu chung i cht v cc tc gi cun sch
mong mun gip cho nhng bn c ham thch mn hc ny c thm c
hi rn luyn k nng. V vy, i vi s ng sinh vin th ging vin
cn ch dn cho h nhng bi c th. Tuy nhin bn c c gng gii
cng nhiu bi tp cng tt. Cc phn in ch nh khng i hi sinh vin
phi c. Chng ch dnh cho nhng ai thch th tm hiu.
hc c gio trnh ny, ngi hc cn c b sung kin thc
v s phc khi m chng trnh Ton THPT cha cp ti; hn na
cng cn c khi nim v cc cu trc i s nh nhm, vnh, trng
tin din t v bt nhp c vi cch trnh by gio trnh; cn cng c
vng vng kin thc ton hc bc THPT.
Gio trnh ny c hc vo nm th nht sau phn cu trc i s
ca gio trnh Nhp mn Ton hc Cao cp.
Khi ging dy gio trnh ny, c th kt hp nhiu hnh thc nh
thuyt trnh ca ging vin, hng dn sinh vin t c sch, t chc
xmina, v.v... Chng hn, c th t chc xmina cc mc: Cc phng
php tnh nh thc; Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh; Cc php tnh v
ma trn. Mt iu m cc tc gi mun lu thm i vi cc ging vin
l: v gio trnh cn c s dng t hc nn c nhiu ch phi t
vn dn dt ngi hc, c nhiu v d. Do khi ging bi lp, cc
ging vin nn la chn nhng iu cn thit nht c thi gian
truyn t nhng kin thc c bn, nhng phn cn li dnh cho sinh
vin t hc. Cng nh ni trn, i s tuyn tnh c nhiu ng dng,
do sinh vin cn c k nng vn dng kin thc v k nng tnh ton.
14
Mun th vic thc hnh ca sinh vin cn c coi trng. Nn c gng
gim bt thi gian hc l thuyt lp ginh thm thi gian cho vic
gii bi tp ca sinh vin, v nu c th thu xp c mt t l gia thi
gian dy l thuyt v thi gian lm bi tp l 1/1 th cng tt.
i vi ngi hc, khi hc gio trnh ny lun lun c giy v bt
trong tay t mnh m t cc khi nim da theo nhng nh ngha; t
mnh chng minh cc nh l sau khi tm hiu k gi thit v kt lun;
vn dng cc khi nim, cc nh l t mnh trnh by cc v d cho
trong sch. Cui mi chng c phn tm tt, bn c nn tn dng n
cng c v h thng li kin thc hc c chng y. Cng cn
ni thm rng i s tuyn tnh l mt trong nhng ngnh khoa hc c
nht nhng cng rt hin i. Nhng iu c trnh by y ch l
nhng iu c bn nht, m u ca i s tuyn tnh trn trng s (m
ch yu l trng s thc). Cn nhiu vn ni dung cha th cp
ti.
Trong cun sch ny ch K c k hiu chung cho c ba trng s,
trng s hu t Q, trng s thc R v trng s phc C, mi khi mun
ni mt iu g chung cho c ba trng s y.
Cui cng, cc tc gi hi vng rng cun sch p ng c nhng
i hi ca chng trnh, nhng mong mun ca bn c. Tuy nhin,
cun sch cha trnh khi ht mi khim khuyt. V th, cc tc gi
mong nhn c nhiu kin ca bn c c th sa cha nhng sai
st lm cho cun sch ngy cng hon thin v ngy cng hu ch hn.
Xin chn thnh cm n!

Cc tc gi
15
CC K HIU

X
n
Tp hp {1, 2,..., n} gm n s t nhin t 1
n n.
=
|
|
\
|
(n)
n
...
...
(2)
2
(1)
1
Php th bin phn t 1 thnh (i).
S
n
Tp hp cc php th trn tp X
n

sgn() Du ca php th .
=
n
1 i
i
a Tng a
1
+ a
2
+...+ a
n
.
J j
j
a Tng cc s a
j
, vi j thuc tp ch s J.
=
n
1 i
i
a Tch a
1
a
2
...a
n
.
J j
j
a Tch cc tha s a
j
, vi j thuc tp ch s J.
A = (a
ij
)
(m,n)
Ma trn A c m dng, n ct,vi cc thnh
phn a
ij
dng th i, ct th j.
A = (a
ij
)
n
Ma trn vung cp n.
Mat
n
(K) Tp hp cc ma trn vung cp n vi cc
thnh phn thuc trng K.
t
A Ma trn chuyn v ca ma trn A.
A
-1
Ma trn nghch o ca ma trn A.
|A| nh thc ca ma trn A.
I Ma trn n v.
ij
~
M
nh thc con b ca thnh phn a
ij
trong ma
trn vung (a
ij
).
16
A
ij
Phn b i s ca thnh phn a
ij
.
r l
r l
i ... i
....j j
M nh thc con xc nh bi cc dng i
1
,.., i
r

v cc ct i1,..., j
r
.
r 1
r 1
i ... i
j ... j
~
M
nh thc con b ca nh thc con
r l
r l
i ... i
....j j
M .
r 1
r 1
i ... i
....j j
A Phn b i s ca nh thc con
r l
r l
i ... i
....j j
M .
hng(A) Hng ca ma trn A.
A + B Tng ca hai ma trn A v B.
AB Tch ca hai ma trn A v B.
Vect, l mt phn t ca khng gian vect.
- Vect i ca .
0 Vect khng.
A AA A = {
1
,
2
,...,
m
} H vect gm cc vect
1
,
2
,...
m
.
hng(A AA A) Hng ca h vect A. A. A. A.
() ={
1
2
,...,
n
} C s () ca khng gian vect.
dim
K
V S chiu ca K- khng gian vect V.
f: V W nh x tuyn tnh t khng gian V n khng
gian W.
f(X) nh ca tp X qua nh x tuyn tnh f.
Imf nh ca khng gian V hay nh ca nh x
tuyn tnh f.
f
-1
(Y) nh ngc ca tp Y.
Kerf hay f
-1
(0) Ht nhn ca nh x tuyn tnh f.
Hom
K
(V, W) Tp hp cc nh x tuyn tnh t V n W.
f + g Tng ca hai nh x tuyn tnh f v g.
gf Tch ca hai nh x tuyn tnh f v g.
. Tch v hng ca hai vect.
17
trc giao vi .
H G Khng gian H trc giao vi khng gian G.
Chun ca .
hch
w
Hnh chiu ca ln khng gian W.
|z| Mun ca s phc z.
z S phc lin hp ca s phc z.
Chng minh iu kin cn.
Chng minh iu kin .
x
*
Phng n ti u.
X
*
Tp phng n ti u.
A
i
Vect dng th i ca ma trn A.
A
j
Vect ct th j ca ma trn A.
18
Chng I
NH THC
M U
lp 9, ta gii h phng trnh bc nht hai n bng phng php
cng i s hoc phng php th. Nhng phng php ny gip ta
d dng gii cc h phng trnh vi h s bng s. Nhng ln lp 10,
khi phi bin lun h phng trnh:

ta thy hai phng php trn km tng qut. Song nu dng khi nim
nh thc cp hai th vic trnh by tr nn sng sa, gn gng.
Ta s thy rng khi khi nim nh thc cp n, (vi n l mt s
nguyn dng tu ) c xy dng, th n c mt vai tr rt to ln. N
cn c p dng vo hu ht cc chng trong gio trnh ny; c bit,
n gp phn a vn gii h phng trnh bc nht tr thnh mt l
thuyt. N cn c p dng trong nhiu b mn khoa hc khc nh
Hnh hc, Gii tch, Vt l, Ho hc, v.v...
Chnh v th m ta cn nm vng cc tnh cht ca nh thc v cc
phng php tnh nh thc, lm nhiu bi tp rn luyn k nng tnh
nh thc c th vn dng tt khi hc tp v nghin cu b mn i
s tuyn tnh ny cng nh nhng mn khoa hc khc.
nh ngha nh thc cp n ta cn cc khi nim php th v ma
trn.
Yu cu chnh ca chng ny l:
- Hiu r v nm vng cc tnh cht ca nh thc.
- Nm vng cc phng php tnh nh thc c th tnh thnh tho
nhng nh thc cn thit.
19
Hn na, trong chng ny ta cn dng mt vi k hiu sau: Tng
ca n s: a
1
+ a
2
+ a
3
+ ... + a
n-1
+ a
n
, (n 1 ), c vit gn l
=
n
1 i
i
a ,
c l "xch ma a
i
, i chy t 1 n n". Tng qut hn, nu ch s chy
khp mt tp I no th ta vit l
I i
i
a , v c l "xch ma a
i
, thuc I".
V d : a
1
+ a
2
+ a
3
+ a
4
+ a
5
+ a
6
+ a
7
=
=
7
1 i
i
a , c l xch ma a
i
, i
chy t 1 n 7.
Tch ca n s: a
1
a
2
a
3
...a
n
. (n 1), c vit gn l
=
n
1 i
i
a , v c l
pi a
i
, i chy t 1 n n. Nu ch st chy khp mt tp I no th ta
vit l
I i
i
a v c l pi, a
i
, i thuc I.
V d: a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
a
5
=
=
n
1 i
i
a , c l pi a
i
, i chy t 1 n 5.
Cui cng trong cun sch ny ta dng t trng K mi khi
mun ni n mt iu no chung cho c trng s hu t Q, trng
s thc R v trng s phc C.
Ta hy tm hiu khi nim php th.
20
1. PHP TH
y ta ch dng khi nim php th nh mt phng tin nghin
cu nh thc ch cha nghin cu su v n. hc chng ny bn
c ch cn hiu v nh nh ngha cc dng php th v tnh cht v du
ca n, khng cn nh chng minh.
1.1. nh ngha php th
a) Gi s tp hp X
n
= {1, 2, 3,..., n}, ( n 1 ). Mt song nh : X
n
X
n
c gi l mt php th trn tp X
n
.
Ni ring, song nh ng nht c gi l php th ng nht.
b) Mt php th trn tp X
n
c gi l mt chuyn tr hai phn t
i, j thuc X
n
nu (i) = j, (j) = i v (k) = k, vi mi k X
n
, k i, k i.
N cn c k hiu bi (i, j).
Ni mt cch n gin, mt chuyn tr ch hon v hai phn t no
ca X
n
, cn gi nguyn mi phn t khc.
Tp hp tt c cc php th trn tp X
n
c k hiu bi S
n
.
Php th : X
n
X
n
c biu din nh sau:

trong (i) l nh ca phn t i X
n
c vit dng di, trong cng
mt ct vi i.
V d 1. =
|
|
\
|
1 4
4 3
2 3
2 1
l php th trn tp X
4
= {1, 2, 3, 4} xc
nh bi:
(1) = 3, (2) = 2, (3) = 4, (4) = 1.
=
|
|
\
|
2 3
4 3
4 1
2 1
l mt chuyn tr hon v hai s 2 v 4. N c
vit gn l = (2, 4).
Ch . nh ca cc phn t ca tp X
n
qua mi php th cho ta mt
hon v trn tp X
n
. Ngc li, mi hon v li xc nh mt php th,
21
(chng hn, hon v (3, 4, 1, 2) xc nh php th =
|
|
\
|
2 1
4 3
4 3
2 1
trn
tp X
4
). V th s cc php th trn tp X
n
bng s cc hon v trn tp
y; ngha l bng n!. Nh vy, tp S
n
c n! phn t.
V d 2. S
3
c 3! = 1.2.3 = 6 phn t. l nhng php th sau:

1.2. Nghch th
nh ngha. Gi s m mt php th trn tp X
n
. Vi i,j X
n
, i j,
ta ni cp ((i), (j)) l mt nghch th ca nu i <j nhng (i) > (j).
V d. Trn X
3
, php th
2
=
|
|
\
|
1
3
3 2
2 1
C 2 nghch th l: (2, 1), (3,
1), php th
2
=
|
|
\
|
1
3
2 3
2 1
c 3 nghch th l: (3, 2), (3, 1), (2, 1).
1.3. Du ca php th
nh ngha. Ta gi php th l mt php th chn nn n c mt s
chn nghch th. c gi l php th l nu n c mt s l nghch
th.
Ta gn cho mi php th chn mt gi tr bng +1, mi php th l
mt gi tr bng -1.
Gi tr ny ca php th c gi l du ca v c k hiu bi
sgn().
Nh vy, theo nh ngha, sgn() =

V d. Trong v d mc 1.2, ta thy php th =
|
|
\
|
1
3
2 3
2 1
l mt
22
php th l v n c 3 nghch th, cn =
|
|
\
|
1
3
3 2
2 1
l mt php th
chn v n c 2 nghch th. Do sgn() = -1, sgn() = 1.
Bn c hy t xc nh du ca cc php th
1
v
j
trong v d 2,
mc 1.1.
H qu 1.

Chng minh. Ch cn chng minh rng
{ }
=
j i,
(j) (i)
j i

1, nu s nghch th l s chn
- 1, nu s nghch th l s l
trong {i, j} chy khp tp cc tp con gm hai phn t ca X
n
. R
rng s nhn t t s v mu bng nhau. Ta s chng minh: nu t s
c nhn t i - j th mu cng c i - j hoc j - i. V l mt song nh nn
ng vi nhn t i - j tn ti h, k X
n
sao cho (h) = i, (k) - j. Nu t s
c h - k th mu s c (h) - (k) hay i - j, nu t s c k - h th mu s
c j = i. Vy
{ }
1
1
(j) (i)
j i
j i,
. Nhng
(j) (i)
j i
l s m nu ((i),
(i)) l mt nghch th v l s dng nu tri li. T suy ra iu phi
chng minh.
H qu 2. Vi hai php thm v trn X
n
ta c:
sgn() = sgn()sgn()
Chng minh. Theo nh ngha v h qu mc 1.3,

= sgn()sgn(), v {(i),(j)} cng chy khp tp cc tp
con gm hai phn t ca X
n
.
23
H qu 3. Mi chuyn tr u l php th l.
V d. Xt chuyn tr =
|
|
\
|
6 2
6 5
4 3
4 3
5 1
2 1
. Cc nghch th ng
dng th hai, tc l dng cha cc (i). S 1 b hn v s 6 th ln hn
mi s trong dng nn chng khng tham gia vo nghch th. Do ch
c:
- Cc nghch th dng (5, r): (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 2)
- Cc nghch th dng (s, 2): (3, 2), (4, 2), (5, 2).
V nghch th (5, 2) c k 2 ln nn ch c 5 nghch th. Vy
l php th l.
Nu bn c mun chng minh h qu ny c th da trn cch l
gii v d va nu.
24
2. KHI NIM MA TRN
Mi nh thc cp hai c xc nh khi bit khng nhng cc s to
nn n m c cch sp xp chng trong mt bng s, ta gi l ma trn.
Di y l nh ngha ca ma trn
nh ngha 1. Mt bng gm m.n s c vit thnh m dng n ct
nh sau:

c gi l mt ma trn kiu (m, n).
Mi s a
ij
c gi l mt thnh phn ca ma trn. N nm dng
th i v ct th j.
Ta thng k hiu ma trn bi cc ch in hoa: A, B,...
C th vit ma trn (1) mt cch n gin bi
A = (a
ij
)
(m,n).

Khi bit r m v n th cn c th vit l A = (a
ij
).
Nu ma trn ch c mt dng (mt ct) th ta gi n l ma trn dng
(ma trn ct).
Nu m = n th ma trn c gi l ma trn vung cp n v vit l A =
(a
ij
)
n
.
V d. A =
|
|
\
|
7
3
5 2
0 1
l mt ma trn kiu (2, 3).
25

nh ngha 2. Ta gi ma trn

l ma trn chuyn v ca ma trn (1) v k hiu l
t
A.
Nh vy ma trn
t
A thu c t A bng cch i dng th i ca A
thnh ct th i ca
t
A v nu A l ma trn kiu (m, n) th ma trn chuyn
v
t
A ma trn kiu (n, m).

26
3. NH NGHA V TNH CHT CA NH THC
Ta thy nh thc cp hai
22 21
12 12
a a
a a
= a
11
a
22
a
12
a
21
l mt tng. Hy
xem u mi hng t c chn nh th no. i vi mi hng t, nu
vit cc ch s th nht dng trn, cn ch s th hai dng di th
c mt php th:

sgn() = 1 v c 0 nghch th; sgn() = - 1 v l mt chuyn tr. Trn
tp X
2
= {1, 2} ch c hai php thm v . Nh vy, c th vit:

Tng qut, ngi ta nh ngha nh thc cp n, (n > 0), nh sau:
3.1. nh ngha
Vi ma trn vung

ta gi tng

l nh thc ca ma trn A v k hiu bi
27

hay |A| hay det(A).
Trong cch k hiu ny ta cng ni mi a
ij
l mt thnh phn, cc
thnh phn a
i1
, a
i2
,... a
in
to thnh dng th i, cc thnh phn a
1j
, a
2j
,..,
a
nj
to thnh ct th j ca nh thc.
Khi ma trn A c cp n ta cng ni |A| l mt nh thc cp n.
Ta thy, mi hng t ca nh thc cp n l mt tch ca n thnh
phn cng vi mt du xc nh; trong mi tch khng c hai thnh phn
no cng dng hoc cng ct.
V d 1. Nu A = (a
11
) l mt ma trn vung cp mt th nh thc
cp mt
|A| = a
11

V d 2. Dng nh ngha vit tng minh nh thc cp 3

bn c s thy rng:

tm c kt qu ny bn phi tm tt c cc php th trn X
3
v
xc nh du ca chng. Cng vic kh vt v. Mun c nhng phng
php tnh ton thun tin hn, hy nghin cu cc tnh cht ca nh
thc.
3.2. Tnh cht ca nh thc
Bn c cn hiu v nh k cc tnh cht sau y ca nh thc p
dng v ch cn bit chng minh ca vi tnh cht n gin hiu k
nh ngha ca nh thc.
28
Tnh cht 1. Nu nh thc

m mi thnh phn dng th i u c dng a
ij
=
'
ij
a +
' '
ij
a th

Chng minh. K hiu hai nh thc v phi ln lt l D v D".
Theo nh ngha nh thc ta c:

Tnh cht 2. Nu mi thnh phn dng th i ca nh thc c tha
s chung c th c th t c ra ngoi du nh thc; tc l:
29

Chng minh. K hiu nh thc v tri bi D', v phi bi D, ta
c: D =
n
S
) sgn( a
1(1)
... (ca
i(i)
...a
n(n)
=
n
S
) sgn( a
1(1)
...a
n(n)
= cD.
V d.
3 1
7 5
3
9 3
7 5

Tnh cht 3. Trong nh thc nu i ch hai dng cho nhau th nh
thc i du, tc l:

V d. Vi n = 2 ta c:

Chng minh. K hiu nh thc v tri bi D', nh thc v phi
bi D v coi D l nh thc ca ma trn (b), trong :

vi mi j {1, 2, ..., n}.
30

t = (h, k), ta c: (h) = k, (k) = h, (i) = i, vi i h, i k.
Do :

Khi chy khp S
n
th = cng vy. T suy ra rng

Tnh cht 4. Nu inh thc c hai dng ging nhau th inh thc y
bng 0.
Chng minh. Gi s nh thc D c dng th i ging dng th k.
Theo tnh cht 3, i ch hai dng ny cho nhau ta c D = - D.
Nhng nh thc D cng l nh thc D. Nh vy, D = - D. Suy ra 2D =
0. Vy D = 0.

31
Tnh cht 5. Nu inh thc c hai dng m cc thnh phn (cng
ct) tng ng t l th nh thc y bng 0.
Chng minh. Xin dnh cho bn c.
Tnh cht 6. Nu nhn mi thnh phn dng th i vi cng mt
sc ri cng vo thnh phn cng ct dng th k th c mt nh
thc mi bng inh thc cho.
Chng minh. Cho

Gi s nhn mi thnh phn ca dng th i vi c ri cng vo thnh
phn cng ct dng th k. Th th ta c.

Theo cc tnh cht 1 v 5, ta c:

32
V d. Cho nh thc
29 6
13 2
.
Nhn dng th nht vi -3 ri cng vo dng th hai ta c:

Tnh cht 7. Vi
t
A l ma trn chuyn v ca ma trn A th
|
t
A| = |A|
tc l, hai ma trn chuyn v ca nhau th c nh thc bng nhau.

Chng minh. t
t
A = (b
ij
). Th th b
ij
= a
ij
vi mi i, j {1, 2,...,
n}. Theo nh ngha ca nh thc, ta c:

Mi c mt nh x ngc . Vi mi i, t r = (i), ta c (i) =
(i) = i. Do

v l php th ng nht nn 1 = sgn() = sgn()sgn(). Suy ra:
sgn() = sgn(). (2)
Hn na khi chy khp S
n
th cng vy. Nh (1) v (2) c th vit:

Ch . Nh tnh cht 7, nu ta thay t "dng" bi t "ct" trong cc
tnh cht 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 th ta li c nhng tnh cht ca nh thc pht
biu i vi ct, chng hn: "Nu i ch hai ct cho nhau th nh thc
i du.
33
4. KHAI TRIN NH THC
Sau khi bit cc tnh cht ca nh thc, ta bt u tm cch tnh
nh thc cp bt k. Ta cn n vi khi nim sau.
4.1. nh thc con - Phn b i s
nh ngha. Cho nh thc D cp n.
1) Nu chn r dng i
1
,..., i
r
v r ct j
1
,..., j
r
, (r < n), th cc thnh
phn nm giao ca r dng v r ct y lp thnh mt nh thc k hiu
bi
r
r
...j j
...i i
M
1
1
v gi l mt nh thc con cp r ca D.
2) Nu xo i r dng v r ct y th cc thnh phn cn li lp thnh
mt nh thc k hiu bi
r
r
...j j
...i i M
1
1
~
v gi l nh thc con b ca nh thc
r
r
...j j
...i i
M
1
1
.
3)

c gi l phn b i s ca
r
r
...j j
...i i
M
1
1
.
Ch . Mi thnh phn a
ij
ca mt nh thc D l mt nh thc con
cp mt ca D. n gin cch vit, nh thc con b v phn b i
s ca an c k hiu ln lt bi M
ij
v A
ij
.
V d. Cho nh thc

Nu chn dng th ba ct th hai th a
32
= 4, l mt nh thc con
cp mt ca D.
34

Nu chn hai dng: th nht v th ba, hai ct: th hai v th ba th:
1 4
5 3
M
23
13
= l mt nh thc con cp hai ca D;
7 6
9 2
M
23
13
~
= l nh thc con b ca
23
13
M ;
23
13
A = (-1)
1+3+2+3

7 6
9 2
l phn b i s ca
23
13
M .
4.2. Khai trin nh thc theo mt dng
inh l. Cho nh thc D cp n c cc thnh phn l a
ij
. Vi mi
i{1, 2,..., n}, ta u c:

Ta ni l cch khai trin nh thc theo dng th i.
Chng minh. 1) Trng hp i = n v cc a
nj
= 0 vi mi j c {1,
2,..., n-1).
Khi :

35

Do trong tng ny ch cn cc hng t ng vi nhng php th S
n

m (n) = n; ngha l:

Thu hp ca mi y l mt php th trn tp X
n-1
= {1, 2,..., n - 1};
ngc li, mi php th S
n-1
li sinh ra mt php th trn tp X
n
=
{1, 2,..., n - 1, n} xc nh bi:
(n) = n, (i) = (i) vi mi i {1, 2,..., n - 1}.
V th c th vit D = a
nn

1 n
S
1) 1( n i(i 2(2 1(1
...a ...a a sgn(gn .
V

1 n
S
1) 1( n i(i 2(2 1(1
...a ...a a sgn(gn = nn
~
M , trong nn
~
M l nh thc
con b ca thnh phn a
nn
, v A
nn
= (-1)
n+n
nn
~
M = (-1)
2n
nn
~
M = nn
~
M nn D
= a
nn
A
nn
.
2) Trng hp i n, v trong dng th i ch c mt a
ij
= 0, cn mi
a
is
= 0 vi s i; tc l:

Ta i ch lin tip n - i ln hai dng lin nhau chuyn dng th i
xung v tr dng th n v c:

36

Tip tc i ch lin tip n - i ln hai ct lin nhau chuyn ct th
i n v tr ca ct th n, ta c:

Mt khc, t
j i
~
M l nh thc con b ca a
ij
, th theo chng minh
trong trng hp 2), ta c:

3) Trng hp tng qut.
Vi i c nh, ta coi a
ij
= 0 +...+ 0 + a
ij
+ 0 +...+ 0, trong c n - 1
s 0 v a
ij
l s hng th i. Theo tnh cht 2 ca nh thc, ta c th vit:

trong mi nh thc v phi u c dng nh thc trng hp 2)
37

Ch . Nh tnh cht 7 ca nh thc, nh l cng ng nu ta thay
t "dng" bi t "ct"; tc l:

H qu. Cho nh thc D vi cc thnh phn a
ij
ta c:

Chng minh. t a
ij
= a
ki
th a
i1
A
k1
+ ... + a
ij
A
kj
+ ... + a
in
A
kn
=
a
k1
A
k1
+... + a
kj
A
kj
+ ...+ a
kn
A
kn
l khai trin ca nh thc D thu
c t D bng cch thay dng th k bi dng th i, cn gi nguyn mi
dng khc; ngha l trong D c dng th k ging dng th i. Vy nh
thc D = 0.
nh l trn y cho php a vic tnh nh thc cp n v vic tnh
nhng nh thc cp thp hn v c th tnh c nh thc cp tu .
V d. Tnh nh thc:

Gii
1) Khai trin nh thc theo dng th nht ta c:

38

Vy D = 2.(- 29) + 5.23 + (- 5) = - 58 + 115 - 5 = 52.
2) Nhn thy dng th ba ca nh thc ch c hai thnh phn khc 0
l a
32
= 4 v a
33
= - 3, nn ta khai trin nh thc theo dng ny s gim
nh vic tnh ton. C th:
C = 4A
32
+ (- 3)A
33
.

tnh nh thc cp 3 cui cng ny, ta li khai trin theo ct th
hai. V s 1 nm dng 1 ct 2 nn phn b i s ca n l:

Vy C - 4.(- 52) + (-3).23 = - 277.
4.3. Khai trin nh thc theo r dng
nh l Laplace. Nu trong nh thc D chn r dng c nh i
1
, i
2
,
... i
r
. M
1
, M
2
,..., M
s
l tt c cc nh thc con cp r ca D chn trong r
dng ny v A
1
, A
2
,..., A
s
l nhng phn b i s tng ng th

Bn c ch cn hiu ni dung ca nh l ny qua v d v s dng
chng, khng cn bit chng minh. Tuy nhin nu thch th bn c th
tm hiu php chng minh sau phn v d.
V d. Tnh nh thc:
39

Gii
Chn dng th nht v dng th ba. Hai dng ny cho ta 6 nh thc
cp hai. cho n gin ta vit chng l:

Gi A1, A
2
,..., A
6
ln lt l cc phn b i s ca M
1
, M
2
,..., M
6
,
theo nh l ta c:

Ch c M
4
0 nn ch cn tnh A
4
. V M
4
c to thnh t cc dng
1, 3, cc ct 2, 3 nn A
4
= (-1)
1+3+2+3
5 4
2 6
= 38.
Vy D = M
4
A
4
= (-11)(38) = - 418.
Chng minh nh l. chng minh ta cn k hiu c th hn. Theo
cc k hiu trong nh ngha 4.1, ta phi chng minh:

Hin nhin iu khng nh l ng vi n = 1. Gi s n > 1 v iu
khng nh ng vi n - 1, ta chng minh n ng vi n.
Trng hp chn r dng u.

40
cho n gin k hiu

Trong
r 1
...i i
M , a
1j
, ng dng 1 ct t. Khai trin
r 1
...i i
M theo dng u,
ta c:

trong ,
r 1
r
...j j
1j
~
N l nh thc con b ca
1
1j
a trong nh thc
r 1
...i i
M . Nh
vy:

Mt khc, khai trin nh thc D theo dng u ta c:

trong ,
r
1j
~
M l nh thc con b ca thnh phn
1
1j
a trong D. Do ch
cn chng minh rng:

V
r
1j
~
M l nh thc cp n - 1 nn theo gi thit quy np, iu khng
nh trong nh l l ng. Chn r - 1 dng u, (chng nm trong cc
dng th 2, 3,..., r chn trong D), ta c:

trong ,
1 r 1
1
...h h
1j
~
P
h l nh thc con b ca
1 r 1
1
...h h
1j
~
P
trong nh thc
r
1j
~
M .
Hin nhin mi
1 r 1
1
...h h
1j P
h l mt
r 1
r
...j j
1j N no v ngc li v chng
l nhng nh thc con cp r - 1 nm trong cc dng th 2, 3,..., r trong
41
D sau khi xo ct th i
t
(Bn c hy t v ra gip mnh d hiu).
Nhng
r
1j
~
M thu c t D bng cch xo i dng 1 v ct j
t
. Do cc
thnh phn cn li cc ct th j
t+1
, i
t+1
+ 1,..., n trong D tr thnh cc
thnh phn ct th i
t+1
- 1, j
t+1
,... n - 1 trong
r
1j
~
M . V th, vi

Do cc tch bng nhau trong (1) v (2) c cng mt du. Vy iu
khng nh c chng minh.
Trng hp tng qut.
Chuyn cho dng i
1
ln dng th nht, dng i
2
ln dng th hai, tip
tc nh th cho n khi chuyn dng i
r
ln dng th r; tc l i ch
hai dng lin k (i
1
- 1 + i
2
- 2 +... + i
r
r) ln, ta c nh thc D v

Ch rng sau khi thay i cc dng nh vy th cc nh thc con
cp r ly trong r dng u vn l cc nh thc con
r 1
r 1
...j j
...i i M ca nh thc
cho. Do , theo chng minh trn:

42
5. PHNG PHP TNH NH THC
By gi nh cc tnh cht ca nh thc ta hy tm nhng phng
php tnh nh thc cp tu . Tuy nhin, i vi cc nh thc cp hai
v cp ba ngoi nhng phng php chung cn c phng php tnh
ring. Ta bit quy tc tnh nh thc cp hai. By gi ta xt mt quy
tc tnh nh thc cp ba.
5.1. Tnh nh thc cp 3
Trong v d mc 4.2, ta tnh nh thc cp ba bng cch khai
trin theo mt dng. Tuy nhin, t nh ngha nh thc cn c mt
phng php tnh ring. Ta bit:

Nhn xt tng ny ta thy c th tnh nh thc cp ba theo s sau:

Mi hng t ca nh thc l mt tch ca ba thnh phn ni vi
nhau bi nhng on thng. Tch c du "+" nu cc thnh phn c
ni bi nt lin, c du "-" nu cc thnh phn c ni bi nt t.
Quy tc ny do nh ton hc tn l Sarus xng, do n c tn
l quy tc Sarus.

43

5.2. p dng php khai trin nh thc theo mt dng hoc mt
ct
p dng nh l 4.2, ta c th tnh nh thc tu . Song php tnh
c n gin ta nn khai trin theo dng (hoc ct) c nhiu thnh phn
bng 0 hoc l nhng s n gin.

Gii
Nhn thy ct th hai c nhiu thnh phn bng 0. Khai trin nh
thc theo ct ny ta khng cn tnh phn b i s ca nhng thnh phn
bng 0. Nh vy,
D = (-1)
1+2
(-2)
9 2 4
10 0 1
3 6 7
= 2[6.10(-4) + 3.12 6.19 7.10.2]

= 2(-240 + 6 - 54 - 140) = - 856.

Gii
Ta cng c th khai trin nh thc ny theo dng hoc ct c thnh
phn bng 0. Tuy nhin nh tnh cht 6, ta c th bin i nh thc
trong mt dng hoc trong mt ct ch cn nhiu nht l mt thnh phn
khc 0. Chng hn, ta s bin i dng th ba. Nhn ct th nht vi 1
ri cng vo ct th hai, nhn ct th nht vi -10 ri cng vo ct th
t, ta c:
44

Gi nguyn ct th hai, cng ct th hai vo ct th nht, nhn ct
th hai vi 6 ri cng vo ct th 3 ta c:

5.3. a nh thc v dng tam gic
nh thc dng tam gic di l inh thc c dng:

nh thc dng tam gic trn l nh thc c dng:

Khi , nh php khai trin nh thc theo mt dng hoc mt ct ta
c: D = a
11
a
22
...a
nn
.

p dng tnh cht 3 v tnh cht 6 ta c th a mi nh thc v
dng tam gic.
45
V d 2. a nh thc v dng tam gic ri tnh nh thc:

Gii
Trong ct th nht ta c th gi nguyn s 3, ri trit tiu cc s 2.
Song mun th ta phi nhn dng th nht vi -
3
2
. Php tnh s phc
tp. trnh iu ta i ch ct th nht v ct th hai cho nhau, ta
c:

By gi, trong ct th nht gi nguyn s 1 v trit tiu cc thnh
phn khc thun li. Nhn dng th nht ln lt vi -1 v 2 ri ln lt
cng vo dng th ba v th t ta c:

i ch dng th hai v dng th ba cho nhau:

Nhn dng th hai vi 8 ri cng vo dng th t:
46

C th tip tc nhn dng th ba vi 15 ri cng vo dng th t,
song c th p dng tnh cht tnh cht 3, a tha s 15 ra ngoi nh
thc :

Hin nhin ta cng c th bin i cc ct hoc bin i c ct ln
dng a nh thc v dng tam gic.
V d 3. a nh thc v dng tam gic ri tnh:

Gii
Nhn ct th t vi - 3 ri cng vo ct th nht, ta c:

Nhn ct th ba ln lt vi 9 v - 2, ri cng ln lt vo ct th
nht v ct th hai:

47
(a tha s chung 3 ct th hai ra ngoi nh thc).
Tip tc nhn ct th hai ca nh thc cui cng trn y vi -16 ri
cng vo ct th nht, ta c:

5.4. p dng cc tnh cht ca nh thc
a nh thc v dng tam gic ta s dng ch yu tnh cht 6,
i khi c s dng cc tnh cht khc. Ni chung, tnh nh thc ta c
th p dng mi tnh cht ca n.
V d 1. Tnh nh thc:

Gii
Cng dng th nht vi dng th hai, ta c:

By gi nh thc c hai dng th hai v th t t l. Theo tnh cht
5, D = 0.
V d 2. Tnh nh thc:

Gii
48
Nhn thy tng cc thnh phn trong cc dng u bng nhau. Do
nu cng vo mt ct tt c cc ct khc, chng hn, cng vo ct th
nht th cc thnh phn ca ct y u bng nhau. Theo tnh cht 6, ta
c mt nh thc bng nh thc cho

Tip tc khai trin nh thc theo ct th nht.

V d 3. Tnh nh thc:

Gii
Nhn thy cc dng th 4, 5 c tha s chung ln lt l 2, 4. Do :

(D l nh thc va tm c). Nhn mi dng ca D vi -1 ta c
D = - D. Chuyn v D ta li c D. Do , theo tnh cht 1, D =
49
D. Nh vy, D = D = - D. Suy ra D = 0. Vy D = 0.
V du 4. Tnh inh thc

Gii
Nhn thy cc thnh phn dng th hai bng cc thnh phn tng
ng ca dng th nht cng vi 19. Do , p dng tnh cht 1 ta c:

nh thc th nht v phi bng 0 v c hai dng ging nhau. a
tha s chung 19 ca nh thc th hai ra ngoi nh thc, ta c:
Vy:

5.5. Phng php quy np v phng php truy hi
Ta bit phng php quy np, cn ni dung ca phng php truy
hi l biu din nh thc cn tnh qua nhng nh thc c cp thp hn
c dng xc nh v theo mt cng thc xc nh. Tnh cc nh thc cp
thp ta s ln lt tnh c nhng nh thc cp cao hn.
V d 1. Dng phng php quy np, tnh nh thc:
50

Gii
Khai trin nh thc theo ct cui ta c:

Hy xt vi trng hp d on kt qu.

T ta d on D
n
= (-1)
n
(n +1)
=
n
1 i
i
a ; Ta th chng minh cng
thc ny. Hin nhin cng thc ng vi n = 1, n - 2. By gi gi s n >
2 v cng thc ng vi n - 1; tc l :
D
n-1
= (-1)
n-1
n
=
n
1 i
i
a Khi :
51

Vy D
n
= (-1)
n
(n + 1)
=
n
1 i
i
a
Gii
Khai trin nh thc ny theo dng th nht:

Ta thy hai nh thc cui cng c cng dng vi nh thc cho.
t chng l D
4
, D
3
, ta c:
D
5
= 4D
4
- 10D
3
.
Tng t, D
4
- 4D
3
- 10D
2
, trong D
2
=
4 2
5 4
= 6.
Tnh c D
3
s tnh c D
4
; tip tc tnh c D
5
.
Ta c D
3
=
4 2 0
5 4 2
0 5 4
= 4D
2
5
4 0
5 2
= 4D
2
40 = 24 40 = - 16
Vy D
5
= 4D
4
10D
3
= 4(4D
3
10D
2
) 10D
3
= 6D
3
40D
2
= 6(-16)
40.6 = - 336.
5.6. Tnh nh thc bng my tnh b ti v my tnh in t
Ngy nay cng ngh thng tin pht trin, ngi ta to ra nhiu
52
chng trnh my tnh gii nhanh chng nhiu php ton. V c nhiu
chng trnh, cc my tnh c th ci t nhng chng trnh khc
nhau nn trong cun sch ny ch nu ln cch s dng mt vi trong s
nhng chng trnh y lm v d. V nguyn tc, khi mt my tnh
c ci t mt chng trnh no th trong chng trnh y c hng
dn c th vic s dng n. Vi mi chng trnh cng c th ci sch
hng dn s dng km theo. y xin ly my tnh b ti "CASIO fx-
570MS" v chng trnh ci t vo my tnh in t Mathematica 4.0
lm v d.
a) Tnh nh thc bng my tnh b ti CASIO fx-570MS.
Ch rng my tnh CASIO fx-570MS ch c th tnh c nh
thc cp n 3.

Gii.
Bc 1. To ma trn ng vi nh thc.
Thc hin theo cc tao tc sau:
- a v tp ma trn bng cch bm cc nt theo th t:
MODE MODE MODE 2
Trn ca s ca my tnh hin th ch MAT; ngha l my m tp
ma trn.
- To ma trn:
Bm cc nt SHIFT MAT 1 .
Trn ca s xut hin hai dng: DIM EDIT MAT
1 2 3
Bm 1 xc nh s dng v s ct ca ma trn.
Ca s xut hin hai dng: A B C
1 2 3

53
Bm nt 1 k hiu ma trn A.
Bm 3 = 3 = xc nh rng A l ma trn vung cp 3.
Nhp cc thnh phn ca ma trn:

Nt AC khng nh lp xong ma trn A.
Bc 2. Tnh nh thc ca ma trn A:
SHIFT MAT
Trn ca s xut hin hai dng: Det Trn
1 2
Bm 1 chuyn sang vic tnh nh thc.
Bm SHIFII MAT 3
Trn ca s xut hin hai dng: A B C Ans
1 2 3 4.

Nhc li rng 1 l k hiu ma trn A.
Bm 1 = .
Trn ca s xut hin s 73. l nh thc ca ma trn A.
b) Tnh nh thc bng my tnh in t (theo chng trnh
MATHEMATICA 4.0)
Vi chng trnh "Mathematica 4.0", my tnh in t c th tnh
nh thc cp bt k.
V d. Tnh nh thc

Gii
M "Mathematica 4.0".
54
Trn mn hnh ta ch vic nh lnh:
Det[{{2,5, -4,1},{21,24,15,20},{1,7,0,1},{5, -1, 2,0}}]
ri n phm Enter tn cng bn phi. Sau mt giy mn hnh xut hin:
Output: 2679.
Nu mun tnh nh thc ca ma trn A c to lp trc, chng
hn:
A = {{2, 5, - 4, 1}, {21, 24, 15, 0}, {1, 7, 0, 1}, {5, - 1, 2, 0}}
th ch vic nh lnh:
Det[A] .
Quan im v vic s dng my tnh
My tnh rt thun li cho vic tnh ton v n nhanh chng cho ta
kt qu ca php ton m ta thc hin. N rt c li cho nhng ngi ch
cn s dng kt qu ca php ton m khng cn bit phng php hay
thut gii bi ton y. Chng ta khng nhng phi bit s dng my tnh
m cn phi s dng thnh tho, v l thnh qu ca khoa hc k
thut, l mt cng c lao ng rt hin i v ngy cng ph cp. Nhng
khi dng my tnh gii mt bi ton th ta ch l ngi xem kt qu
ca bi ton m ngi khc gii. Song, l ngi lm ton v dy ton,
nhim v chnh ca chng ta khng phi ch l bit s dng my tnh
ging dy m l phi bit nhng phng php gii ton, nhng c s l
thuyt da vo m ngi ta xut nhng phng php gii v
to ra nhng chng trnh cho my thc hin. V th ta phi nm vng
nhng l thuyt ton hc v rn luyn k nng gii ton trng Ph
thng cng nh i hc bng t duy v lp lun. Rt c th trong s
chng ta, nh s nm vng l thuyt ton hc v nhng k nng gii ton
m s c nhng ngi sng to c nhng phn mm ton hc c nhiu
ng dng.
55
6. NG DNG - H PHNG TRNH CRAMER
ng dng u tin v quan trng ca nh thc l gii h phng
trnh bc nht n phng trnh, n n.
6.1. nh ngha
1) H phng trnh tuyn tnh n n l h c dng:

Trong : x
1
, x
2
,..., x
n
l cc n, a
ij
, b
i
thuc trng s K, vi i {1,
2,..., m}, j {1, 2,..., n}, a
ij
c gi l h s ca n x
j
, b
i
c gi l
hng t t do.
2) Mt nghim ca h (1) l mt b n s (c
1
, c
2
,..., c
j
,... cn) thuc
trng K sao cho khi thay x
j
= c
j
th mi ng thc trong (1) u l
nhng ng thc ng.
3) Nu h (1) c m = n v nh thc

th n c gi l h Cramer. nh thc D c gi l nh thc ca h
phng trnh.
6.2. Cch gii
Cho h Cramer
56

Vi mi j, trong nh thc D ta thay ct th i bi ct gm cc hng t
t do b
1
, b
2
,..., bn) ta c nh thc:

(ct th j)
V b
i
= a
i1
x
1
+ ... + a
ij
x
j
+ ... + a
in
x
n
nn

Theo cc tnh cht 1 v 2 ca nh thc, ta c:

57
nh thc hng t th j chnh l D, cn cc nh thc khc v
phi u bng 0 (v c hai ct ging nhau). Do D
j
= x
j
D. Suy ra
x
j
=
D
D
j
, vi mi j {1, 2, ..., n}
Vy h phng trnh Cramer c nghim duy nht.
Nh ton hc Thy s tn l Cramer (1704-1752) dng nh thc
trnh by li gii ca mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh m sau ny
ngi ta ly tn ng t cho h phng trnh dng . Tuy nhin ng
khng phi l ngi chng minh cng thc Cramer m ngi chng
minh cng thc ny li l Vandermonde, mt nh ton hc Php.
V d. Gii h phng trnh:

Gii
Ta phi tnh D, v cc D
j
.
58

Vy h c nghim duy nht: (1, -2, 0, 1).
6.3. Gii h Cramer bng my tnh b ti v my tnh in t
a) Gii bng my tnh b ti
My tnh b ti CASIO-570MS ch c th gii c h Cramer vi n
3.
V d. Gii h phng trnh

Gii
a v chng trnh "gii phng trnh" ta bm
MODE MODE MODE 1
Ca s xut hin hai dng unknowns? (n)
2 3 (2 hay 3 n)
59
Bm 3 ( khng nh s n l 3).
Ca s xut hin a
1
? (c ngha l bo ta nhp h s a
1
).
Bm 3 = ( nhp h s a
1
= 3).
Tip tc nhp cc h s bng cch bm lin tip:

Lp tc ca s xut hin x - 1
Bm tm c y = - 2.
Bm tm c z = 0.
Vy h c nghim (1, - 2, 0).
b) Gii bng my tnh din t
My tnh in t c th gii h Cramer n n vi n l s nguyn
dng tu .
V d. Gii h phng trnh trong v d ca mc 6.2:

Gii
To ma trn ca h phng trnh bng cch nh:
A ={{3, 0, -2, 0},{1, 3, 0, 5},{0, 1, 4, 1},{0, -2, -1, -4}}
(Ch phi dng phm enter tn cng bn phi).
Gii h phng trnh bng cch nh lnh:
LinearSolve[A,{3, 0, -1, 0}] .
Mn hnh xut hin :
Out[] = (1, -2, 0, 1). l nghim ca h phng trnh.
60
TM TT
Ta dng php th m t khi nim nh thc. Mt php th trn
tp X
n
= {1, 2,..., n
i
} l mt song nh.
: X
n
X
n
, n c vit nh sau:

Mt cp ((i), (j)) c gi l mt nghch th ca nu i < j nhng
(i) > (j).
Php th c gi l php th chn (1) nu n c mt s chn (1)
nghch th.
Du ca php th k hiu bi sgn() c xc nh bi:
1, nu l php th chn
sgn() =
- 1, nu l php th l
nh thc ca ma trn vung A =
|
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
nn nj n2 n1
in ij i2 i1
1n 1j 12 11
...a ...a a a
....... .......... ..........
...a ...a a a
....... .......... ..........
...a ...a a a
tng
o
S
sgn ()a
1(1)
... a
2(2)
... a
i(i)
... a
n(n)
k hiu bi
hay |A| hay det(A).
nh thc c 7 tnh cht (xem 3). Dng cc tnh cht ny ta chng
minh c nh l v s khai trin nh thc theo mt dng:
D = a
i1
a
i1
+ a
i2
A
i2
+ ...+ a
in
A
in
vi mi i {1, 2,..., n},
trong A
ij
l phn b i s ca thnh phn a
ij
(xem nh ngha 4.1).
Ta cng c:
A
i1
A
k1
+ a
i2
A
k2
+ ... + a
in
A
kn
= 0 nu i k.
Tnh cht 7 ni rng:
61
|
t
A| = |A|
suy ra rng mi tnh cht ca nh thc pht biu i vi dng u ng
i vi ct
p dng cc tnh cht ca nh thc ta c th tnh c nh th cp
tu . C nhiu phng php tnh nh thc, trong hai phng php
thng dng nht l phng php khai trin nh thc theo mt dng
hoc mt ct v phng php a v dng tam gic. Tuy nhit cng cn
bit cc phng php khc vic tnh ton c linh hot. H phng
trnh Cramer l mt ng dng u tin ca nh thc l h phng
trnh c dng:

Trong x
1
, x
2
,.. x
n
l cc n, a
ij
, b
i
K, vi i {1, 2,..., n}, j {1,
2,..., m}; a
ij
c gi l h s ca n x
j
, b
i
c gi l hng t t do v
D =
|
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
nn nj n2 n1
in ij i2 i1
1n 1j 12 11
...a ...a a a
....... .......... ..........
...a ...a a a
....... .......... ..........
...a ...a a a
0.
nh thc ny c gi l nh thc ca h phng trnh (1).
K hiu D
j
l nh thc thu c t D bng cch thay ct th i ca D
bi ct cc h t t do, ta c cng thc nghim ca h Cramer, c gi
l cng thc Cramer:
x
j
=
D
D
j
, vi mi j {1, 2, .., n}.
62
BI TP
1. PHP TH
1. Tm tt c cc php th ca mi tp sau:
X
2
= {1, 2}, X
3
= {1, 2, 3}, X
4
= {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Xc nh du ca mi php th.
2. Vi mi php th sau hy xc nh du ca n, tm php th
nghch o v du ca php th nghch o:

Xc nh cc tch , .

3. DNH NGHA V TNH CHT CA NH THC
3. Cho ma trn A = (a
ij
) cp 4.
a) Trong cc tch sau, tch no c mt trong nh ngha nh thc ca
A:
a
13
a
24
a
31
a
33
, a
12
a
24
a
33
a
41
, a
14
a
22
a
31
a
43
, a
11
a
23
a
31
a
42
.
b) Xc nh du ca nhng tch ni trn nu n c mt trong nh
ngha nh thc ca ma trn A.
4. Chn cc s j, k sao cho mi tch sau c mt trong nh ngha nh
thc ca ma trn A = (a
ij
) cp 5:
a
11
a
22
a
3j
a
4k
a
54
, a
12
a
2j
a
33
a
4k
a
55
.
5. Cho ma trn cp ba: A = (a
ij
). Vit cc tch c du "-" cha a
13
c
mt trong nh ngha ca nh thc ca A.
6. Cho ma trn A = (a
ij
) cp n. Xc nh du ca tch cc thnh phn
nm trn mi ng cho (c mt trong nh ngha ca nh thc ca A).
7. Bit rng 121, 253, 495 chia ht cho 11. Chng minh rng nh
63
thc :

8. Chng minh rng:

9. Khng tnh, dng tnh cht ca nh thc chng t rng cc nh
thc sau bng 0:

4. KHAI TRIN NH THC
10. Tnh cc nh thc bng cch khai trin theo dng hoc ct:

64

11. Dng nh t Laplace tnh nh thc:

5. PHNG PHP TNH NH THC
12. Tnh cc nh thc bng quy tc Sarus:

13. Tnh nh thc bng cch a v dng tam gic:

65

14. Dng phng php quy np tnh cc nh thc:

(nh thc Vandermonde).

6. NG DNG-H PHNG TRNH CRAMER
15. Gii h phng trnh Cramer:

66

16. Gii h phng trnh:

, trong cc a
j
i mt khc nhau.
17. (Bi tp tng hp)
Bn hy tm trong cun sch gio khoa ny, hoc trong cc sch gio
khoa khc v i s tuyn tnh, nhng v d v cc phng php tnh
nh thc (mi phng php c mt hoc hai v d). Ni ring, i vi
phn "p dng cc tnh cht ca nh thc" th mi tnh cht c t nht
mt v d.
Cc nh thc ly lm v d phi c cp n 3. Hn na cc v d ca
bn khng c trng vi v d trong sch gio khoa ny.
67
VI NT LCH S

Ngy nay khi nh ngha nh thc bao gi
ta cng ni: "nh thc ca mt ma trn no
". V th, mt cch t nhin, ai cng ngh
rng khi nim nh thc phi ra i sau khi
nim ma trn. Nhng thc t, khi nim nh
thc ra i trc khi nim ma trn 150 nm.
Ngi u tin a ra khi nim nh thc l
Leibnitz, nh ton hc c,(1646- 1716) v nh
ton hc Seki Kova, ngi Nht bn. N cng
c xut hin trong cng trnh ca mt nh
ton hc Nht bn khc, tn l Takakazu (1642-
1708).
Leibnitz khng cng b pht kin ca mnh c lin quan n nh
thc. ng ch ni n n trong mt bc th gi nh ton hc L'Hopital
bn v vic gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh. , ng ni n khi
nim ny v ht li ca ngi n. Mi ti nm
1850 (tc l sau gn 200 nm), khi th t ca
ng c cng b ngi ta mi bit rng ng
pht hin ra khi nim nh thc. Leibmtz
nhn mnh ch li ca vic nh s bi hai
ch s k hiu cc h s trong h phng
trnh.
Seki chm n khi nim nh thc khi
tm nghim chung ca hai a thc f(x) v g(x)
(vi bc thp). Nhng ng gi b mt
phng php ca mnh v ch tin vo nhng
hc tr thn cn nht. Nm 1674 pht kin
ca Se ki c cng b, v khi phng php ca ng c trnh by
r rng hn.
chu u, Newton, Bezout v Euler, khi nghin cu vic tm tp
nghim chung ca cc phng trnh i s gn cht vic nghin cu
ca mnh vi nh thc. Vo nm 1750, nh ton hc Thy s Cramer
cng b cng trnh tng i tng qut lin quan n nh thc. ng
68
a ra mt biu din nh thc cho li gii ca bi ton tm mt ng
cnic i qua 5 im cho trc. Tuy nhin Cramer li khng phi l ngi
chng minh cng thc Cramer m chng ta thng dng.
Ngi u tin nh ngha v nghin cu nh thc l nh ton hc
Php tn l Vandermonde. ng cng b nhng cng trnh ny vo
nm 1771. ng chng minh quy tc Cramer v tm c mt s tnh
cht ca nh thc. Nhng ng mi ch tnh c nh thc
Vandermonde cp 3. Nm 1772, Laplace (1749-1827) pht hin cng
thc khai trin nh thc theo mt dng hay mt ct.
Tt c cc nh ton hc ni trn pht hin, nghin cu nh thc,
nhng vn cha c tn gi ca nh thc. Tn gi ca nh thc ln u
tin xut hin trong mt bi bo ca Gauss nm 1801. Hai nh ton hc
Php l Cauchy (1789-1857) v Jacobi (1804-1851) trnh by l thuyt
nh thc mt cch h thng. T khi nim nh thc tr nn ph cp
hn.
69
Chng II
KHNG GIAN VECT
M U

Trong chng I ta thy, nh nh thc ta gii c h phng
trnh Cramer. Song nu ch dng nh thc nghin cu vic gii h
phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut (khi m n hoc khi m = n nhng nh
thc ca h phng trnh bng 0) th s c nhiu kh khn, phc tp.
Khng gian vect s gip ta vt qua nhng kh khn y v cng gip ta
trnh by l thuyt h phng trnh tuyn tnh mt cch sng sa.
trng Ph thng trung hc ta dng vect nghin cu hnh hc.
Vect cn c dng nghin cu nhiu ngnh ton hc khc v c
nhng mn khoa hc khc nh C hc, Vt l, Ho hc, a l, v nhiu
ngnh k thut.
Nu xt tp hp V cc vect c chung im gc O m ta hc
trng Ph thng th ta thy tp V cng vi php cng hai vect v php
nhn mt vect vi mt s tho mn nhng iu kin sau:
1) ( + ) + = + ( + );
2) + = + ;
3) c vect khng 0 tho mn iu kin: + 0 = ;
4) mi c mt vect i - tho mn iu kin: + (- ) = 0 ;
5) r( + ) = r + r ;
6) (r + s) = r + s ;
7) (rs) = r(s ) ;
8) 1. = , trong r, s, 1 l nhng s thc.
70
Trong ton hc v nhiu khoa hc khc cn c nhng tp hp m cc
phn t ca chng khng phi l nhng vect hnh hc nh ta va ni,
nhng cng c hai php ton tho mn 8 iu kin nu trn. Chng c
gi l nhng khng gian vect.
Mc tiu ca chng ny l trnh by nh ngha khng gian vect,
cc tnh cht ca n v cu to ca mt khng gian vect, chun b cho
vic p dng n vo l thuyt h phng trnh tuyn tnh v vic nghin
cu n su sc hn trong nhng chng sau c th p dng n nhiu
hn vo nhng b mn ton hc khc cng nh nhng lnh vc khoa hc
khc.
V th ta cn:
- Nm vng nh ngha v cc tnh cht ca khng gian vect, khng
gian con:
- Hiu r rng mi khng gian vect c to thnh t mt h ti
thiu nhng vect ca khng gian m ta gi l c s; bit cch tm c
s v s chiu ca mt khng gian vect;
- Bit c mi lin h gia to ca cng mt vect trong hai c
s khc nhau.
Trong gio trnh ny ta ch xt cc khng gian vect trn cc trng
s Tuy nhin nhng iu trnh by sau y u ng trong mi trng
tu .
71
1. NH NGHA V CC TNH CHT N GIN
1.1. nh ngha
nh ngha. Gi s V l mt tp hp m cc phn t c k hiu
bi , , ,..., K l mt trng s. Trn V c mt php ton gi l php
cng hai phn t ca V (k hiu "+") v php ton th hai gi l php
nhn mt phn t ca V vi mt s thuc trng K (k hiu ".").
Tp hp V cng vi hai php ton ny c gi l mt khng gian
vect trn trng K (hay mt K-khng gian vect) nn cc iu kin sau
c tho mn i vi mi , , , V v mi r, s, 1 K.
1) ( + ) + = +( + );
2) + = + ;
3) c mt phn t 0 V tho mn iu kin: + 0 = ;
4) vi mi V c mt phn t, k hiu bi - , cng thuc V tho
mn iu kin: + (- ) = 0 ;
5) r( + ) = r + r
6) (r + s) = r + s ;
7) (rs) = r (s ) ;
8) 1. = .
V c gi l mt vect, 0 c gi l vect khng, - c gi
l vect i ca .
Bn c c th dng nh ngha ca khng gian vect kim chng
rng cc tp hp cho trong cc v d di y l nhng khng gian
vect.
V d 1. Tp hp V cc vectOA, OB, OC?... chung gc O trong
khng gian (m ta hc trng ph thng) cng vi php cng hai vect
v php nhn mt vect vi mt s thc l mt khng gian vect. N
c gi l khng gian vect hnh hc.
72
V d 2. Mi trng K l mt khng gian vect trn K i vi php
cng v php nhn trn K.
V d 3. Trng s thc R l mt khng gian vect trn trng s
hu t Q.
V d 4. Trng s phc C l mt khng gian vect trn trng s
thc R v cng l mt khng gian vect trn trng Q.
V d 5. Gi s K l mt trng s, tp hp K[x] cc a thc ca n
x vi h s trong K, cng vi php cng hai a thc v php nhn a
thc vi mt s, l mt K-khng gian vect.
V d 6. Kn = K x K x... x K l tch cc ca n phin bn K. Trn
Kn xc nh php cng hai phn t v php nhn mt phn t ca K
n
vi
mt s thuc K nh sau:
Vi = (a
1
, a
2
,..., a
n
), = (b
1
, b
2
,..., b
n
) thuc K
n
v s r K,
(a
1
, a
2
,..., a
n
) + (b
1
, b
2
,..., b
n
) = (a
1
, + b
1
, a
2
+ b
2
, a
n
,..., b
n
),
r(a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
) = (ra
1
, ra
2
, ..., ra
n
).
K
n
l mt K-khng gian vect.
T y tr i, mi khi ni n khng gian K
n
ta hiu rng hai php
ton trong c nh ngha nh trn.
T nh ngha khng gian vect ta suy ra ngay mt s tnh cht n
gian cua n.
1.2. Mt s tnh cht n gin
Gi s V l mt K-khng gian vect.
1) V ch c mt vect khng 0 duy nht.
2) Vi mi V, vect i - duy nht.
3) Vi mi V, -(- ) = .
4) Vi V v r K, = 0 khi v ch khi r = 0 hoc = 0 .
5) Vi V v r K, ta c: (- = -( ) = ( ).
Chng minh.
1) Gi s 0 v ' 0 l nhng vect khng ca V. Theo iu kin 3)
73
trong nh ngha, v 0 l vect khng nn 0 + ' 0 = ' 0 . Tng t, v ' 0 l
vect khng nn 0 + ' 0 = 0 . Vy 0 = ' 0 .
2) Gi s V c nhng phn t i l - v ' . Theo iu kin 4)
trong nh ngha, + (- ) = 0 = + . Do , p dng cc iu kin
1) v 2), ta c :
= + 0 = + [ + (- )] = ( ' + ) + (- ) = 0 + (- ) = - .
3) V -(- ) v u l vect i ca - nn t 2) suy ra -(- ) = .
4)
Nu r = 0 th theo iu kin 6), ta c:
0 = (0 + 0) = 0 + 0 .
Cng -0 vo v u v v cui ta c: 0 = 0 .
Nu = 0 th theo iu kin 5), ta c:
r 0 = r( 0 + 0 ) = r 0 + r 0 .
Cng -r 0 vo v u v v cui ta c 0 = r 0 .
Gi s r = 0 . Nu r 0 th theo iu kin 7) v 8), ta c:
= 1. = (
r
1
.r) = (
r
1
.r )=
r
1
0 = 0
5) V (r ) l vect i ca ra nn nh tnh cht 2), ta ch cn chng
minh (-r) v r(- ) u l vect i ca r .
Ta c: (-r) + r = (-r + r) = 0 = 0 ;
r(- ) + r = r(- + ) = r 0 = 0 .
iu chng t rng (-r) v r(- ) u l vect i ca r . Vy
(-r) = -(r ) = r(- ).
1.3. Hiu ca hai vect
nh ngha. + (- ) c gi l hiu ca v , k hiu bi -
v c l tr .
74
T nh ngha ny v tnh cht ca khng gian vect ta suy ra: H
qu.
1) ( - ) = p - c .
2) ( - ) = - .
2. KHNG GIAN CON
2.1. nh ngha
nh ngha. Gi s W l mt tp con ca khng gian vect V. Nu W
cng l mt khng gian vect i vi hai php ton cho trong V th W
c gi l mt khng gian con ca V.
Nh vy mun chng minh tp con W l mt khng gian con ca
khng gian vect V ta phi chng t rng cc php cho trong V cng
l cc php ton trong W v phi kim tra rng 8 iu kin nu trong
nh ngha khng gian vect u c tho mn. Song ta s thy rng ch
cn kim tra mt s t iu kin hn.
2.2. Tnh cht c trng
nh l. Gi s V l mt khng gian vect trn trng K. W l mt
tp con ca V. Cc mnh sau tng ng:
(i) W l mt khng gian con ca V.
(ii) W v vi mi , thuc W, mi r thuc trng K, ta c
+ W, W.
(iii) W v vi mi , thuc W, mi r, s thuc trng K, ta c
r + W.
Chng minh.
"(i) (ii)": Nu W l mt khng gian con ca khng gian vect V
th W phi cha mt vect 0 ca n. Do W . Cc iu kin cn
li ca (ii) hin nhin c tho mn.
"(i) (iii)": Hin nhin.
75
"(iii) (i)": Gi s cc iu kin ca (iii) c tho mn. Khi ,
vi , thuc W v r = s = 1 K, + = 1 + 1 W;
vi W, r K, ta c: r = r + 0 W ;
ngha l cc php ton trong W cng l hai php ton trong V. Ta phi
kim tra rng 8 iu kin trong nh ngha ca khng gian vect u
c tho mn. Hin nhin cc iu kin 1), 2), 5), 6), 7), 8) c tho
mn v hai php ton trong W chnh l hai php ton cho trong V. Ch
cn cn kim tra cc iu kin 3) v 4). V W nn c mt W.
Theo tnh cht ca khng gian vect, 0 = 0 + 0 , mt khc, theo gi
thit 0 + 0 W. Do 0 W. Tng t, vi mi W ta u c
- = (-1) + 0 W. Vy W l mt khng gian vect trn trng K v
do W l mt khng gian con ca V.
Bn c hy dng nh l 2.2 chng minh nhng iu khng nh
trong cc v d di y:
V d 1. Vi mi khng gian vect V, bn thn V v tp { 0 } l
nhng khng gian con ca V.
Chng c gi l nhng khng gian con tm thng ca V.
V d 2. Tp P
n
gm a thc 0 v cc a thc c bc b hn hay bng
n ca K[x], (xem v d 5, mc 1.1) l mt khng gian con ca khng
gian vect K[x].
V d 3. Theo v d 6), mc 1.1, vi n = 4 v K = R l trng s
thc, th R
4
l mt R-khng gian vect. Tp W = {(a
1
, a
2
, 0, 0}|a
i
R) l
mt khng gian con ca khng gian R
4
.
Tht vy, ta chng minh cho v d 3.
R rng W v (0, 0, 0, 0) W. By gi vi = (a
1
, a
2
, 0, 0),
= (b
1
, b
2
, 0, 0) thuc W v r R, ta c:
+ = (a
1
, a
2
, 0, 0) + (b
1
, b
2
, 0, 0) = (a
1
+ b
1
, a
2
+ b
2
, 0, 0) W,
r = r(a
1
, a
2
, 0, 0) = (ra
1
, ra
2
, 0, 0) W.
W tho mn iu kin (ii) trong nh l 2.2. Vy W l mt khng
gian con ca R4.
C nhiu cch to thnh nhng khng gian con ca mt khng gian
76
vect V.
2.3. Tng ca nhng khng gian con
Mnh v nh ngha. Gi s W
1
, W
2
,... W
m
l nhng khng gian
vect con ca K-khng gian vect V. Khi :
Tp hp W = {
1
+
2
+ ... +
n
|
i
W
i
, {1, 2,..., m }} l mt
khng gian con ca V.
Khng gian ny c gi l tng ca m khng gian con W
i
cho v
c k hiu bi W
1
+ W
2
+... + W
m
hay
=
m
i
i
W
1
.
Chng minh. V 0 W
i
vi mi i {1, 2,..., m} nn 0 = 0 + 0 +
... + 0 W ; ngha l W .
Vi =
1
+
2
+ .. +a
m
W, =
1
+
2
+...+
m
W v r K,
ta c: + =
1
+
2
+
1
+
2
+ ... +
m
= (
1
+
1
) + (
2
+
2
) + ..
+ (
m
+
m
)
V
i
,
i
W
i
v W
i
l khng gian con ca khng gian vect V nn
i
+
i
W
i
, r
i
W
i
, vi mi i {1, 2,..., m}. Do
+ W, r W.
Theo nh l 2.2, W l mt khng gian con ca V.
2.4. Giao ca nhng khng gian con
Mnh v nh ngha. Gi s W
1
, W
2
,..., W
m
l nhng khng gian
vect con ca K-khng gian vect V.
Tp hp U =
I
m
1 i
i
W
=
l mt khng gian con ca V v c gi l giao
ca m khng gian con W
i
.
T mt h (mt s hay mt h) vect ca khng gian V cng c th
to thnh mt khng gian con ca V.

77
2.5. Khng gian sinh bi mt h vect
nh l. Gi s A AA A = {
1
,
2
,...,
m
} l mt h vect ca K-khng
gian vect V. Khi tp hp
W = {r
1
+
2
2
+ ...+

/r
i
K, vi mi i {1, 2,..., m}} l
mt khng gian con ca V.
W c gi l khng gian sinh bi h vect A AA A, cn A AA A c gi l h
sinh ca W.
Chng minh. R rng W v 0 =
1
+ 0
2
+ ...+ 0
m
W.
Gi s , W v t K, chng hn:

T cc iu kin trong nh ngha ca khng gian vect, ta suy ra:

Theo nh l 2.2, W l mt khng gian con ca V.
Ch . Khng gian sinh bi mt vect thng c k hiu bi K .
Nu W l khng gian sinh bi h vect {
1
,
2
,...,
m
} th W =
=
n
1 i
1 K .
Khng gian W trn y sinh bi mt h hu hn vect. Ngi ta gi
n l khng gian hu hn sinh.
C nhng khng gian vect c h sinh v hn nhng khng c h
sinh hu hn no. Trong gio trnh ny ta ch xt cc khng gian vect
c h sinh hu hn
V d 1.
1) Gi s V l khng gian vect hnh hc trong khng gian (xem v
d li trong mc 1.2). OI l mt vect c nh.
Nu O I th tp U = {r OI | r R} ch cha vect0 , l mt khng
78
gian con tm thng ca V.
Nu O I th tp U = {r OI | r R} gm cc vect gc O, nm trn
ng thng OI.

Gi s OJ l vect khng cng phng vi OI . Khi , tp
W = {r
1
OI + r
2
OJ | r
1
R, r
2
R)
l mt khng gian con ca V gm cc vect,,... nm trong mt phng
(OIJ).

Gi s OK khng ng phng vi OI , OJ . Th th { OI , OJ , OK} l
mt h sinh ca V. Tht vy, nh ta bit mi vect OA trong khng
gian u c dng: OA = r
1
OI + r
2
OJ + r
3
OK.
(r
1
OI = r
1
1
OA , r
2
OJ =
2
OA + r
3
OK =
3
OA

79
V d 2. Xt khng gian vect R
4
v khng gian con W trong v d 3,
mc 2.2. H hai vect
1
= (1, 0, 0, 0),
2
= (0, 1, 0, 0), ca R
4
l mt h
sinh ca W.
chng minh iu ny ta phi chng t rng mi W c biu
din di dng = r
1 1 + r
2
2
. Bit rng mi vect trong W c dng
= (a
1
, a
2
, 0, 0) W. Theo php cng v php nhn vi mt s trong R
4
,
ta c:
= (a
1
, a
2
, 0, 0) = (a
1
, 0, 0, 0) + (0, a
2
, 0, 0)
= a
1
(1, 0, 0, 0) + a
2
(0, 1, 0, 0) = a
1 1 + a
2
2
.
Vy { 1 ,
2
} l h sinh ca W.
Ta hy th thm vect (2, 3, 0, 0) vo h vect { 1 ,
2
} v xt
khng gian con W' sinh bi h vect { 1 ,
2
, }. Mi = a
1 1 + a
2
2

+ a W u c th vit thnh:

l mt vect trong W. Nh vy, W W.
Ngc li, mi vect = b
1 1 + b
2
2
W u c th vit di dng
= b
1 1 + b
2
2
+ . l mt vect thuc W.
Vy W = W; ngha l hai h {,
2
, } v {,

2
, } u l h sinh
ca khng gian vect W.
Mt cu hi t ra l trong mt h sinh ca mt khng gian vect c
th c mt s ti thiu vect sinh ra khng gian y hay khng? Tr li
ca cu hi ny lin quan n mt khi nim gi l h vect c lp
tuyn tnh.
80
3. S C LP TUYN TNH - S PH THUC TUYN TNH
3.1. nh ngha
Gi s A AA A = {
1
,
2
,...,
m-1
,
m
} (1)
l mt h vect ca K- khng gian vect V, (m > 0).
nh ngha 1. Nu = r
1
1
+ r
2
2
+ ... + r
m-1
m-1
+ r
1
m
th ta
ni l mt t hp tuyn tnh ca h vect A AA A hay biu th tuyn tnh
qua m vect cho.
nh ngha 2. H vect A AA A c gi l ph thuc tuyn tnh nu c m
s r
1
, r
2
,..., r
m-1
, r
m
thuc trng K, khng ng thi bng 0, sao cho
r
1
1
+ r
2
2
+ ...+ r
m-1
m-1
+ r
m
m
=0 .
nh ngha 3. H vect A AA A c gi l c lp tuyn tnh nu n
khng ph thuc tuyn tnh; ni cch khc, nu
r
1
1
+ r
2
2
+ ...+ r
m-1
m-1
+ r
m
m
=0 .
th r
1
= r
2
= ... = r
m-1
= r
m
= 0.
V d 1. Trong khng gian vect, mi vect khc 0 u lp thnh
mt h vect c lp tuyn tnh. Tht vy, gi s l mt vect khc 0
trong K-khng gian vect V. T r = 0 vi r ~ K, nh tnh cht 4),
mc 1.2, suy ra r = 0; ngha l h vect { } c lp tuyn tnh.
V d 2. Mi h vect cha 0 u l ph thuc tuyn tnh. Tht vy,
gi s {
1
,
2
,...,
m
, 0 } l mt h vect bt k ca khng gian vect V.
Chn r
1
= r
2
= ...= r
m
= 0, r
m+1
= 1, ta c:
0
1
+ 0
2
+ ... +0
m
+1. 0 = 0 .
iu ny chng t h cho ph thuc tuyn tnh.
V d 3. Trong khng gian vect hnh hc V, (xem v d 1, mc 1.1),
ba vect lp thnh mt h ph thuc tuyn tnh khi v ch khi chng
ng phng; c lp tuyn tnh khi v ch khi chng khng ng phng.
Tht vy, OI , OJ , OA ph thuc tuyn tnh khi v ch khi tn ti ba
s thc r
1
, r
2
, r
3
khng ng thi bng 0 sao cho r
1
OI + r
2
OJ + r
3
OA =
81
0 ; chng hn, r
3
0. Khi OA = -
3
1
r
r
OI -
3
2
r
r
OK. iu ny chng t
ba vect ng phng.
V d 4. Xt khng gian vect R
4
. H gm ba vect 1 = (1, 0, 0, 0),
2 = (0, 1, 0, 0), = (2, - 5, 0, 0) l ph thuc tuyn tnh, cn cc h
vect { 1 , 2 }, { 1 , }, { 2 , }c lp tuyn tnh.
Tht vy, = (2, -5, 0, 0) = (2, 0, 0, 0) + (0, -5, 0, 0)
= 2(1, 0, 0, 0) (5, 1, 0, 0)
= 2 1 - 5 2
hay 2 1 - 5 2 + (-1) = 0 ; ngha l h { 1 , 2 , } l ph thuc
tuyn tnh v biu th tuyn tnh qua 1 , 2 .
By gi ta xt h vect { 1 , }. Gi s r
1 1 + r
2
= 0 , ngha l
r
1
(1, 0, 0, 0) + r
2
(2, - 5, 0, 0) - (0, 0, 0, 0)
hay (r
1
, 0, 0, 0) + (2r
2
, - 5r
2
, 0, 0) = (r
1
+ 2r
2
, - 5r
2
, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0, 0).
Suy ra:

H phng trnh hai n r
1
, r
2
ny c nghim duy nht l r
1
= 0, r
2
= 0.
Vy h hai vect { 1 , } c lp tuyn tnh.
Bn c hy t kim tra s c lp tuyn tnh ca hai h { 1 , 2 },
{ 2 , }.
T nh ngha suy ra cc tnh cht sau.
3.2. Cc tnh cht
Theo nh ngha, hai khi nim ph thuc tuyn tnh v c lp tuyn
tnh ca h vect l hai khi nim ph nh ln nhau. V th, khi nim
ny c mt tnh cht g th lp tc suy ra mt tnh cht tng ng ca
khi nim kia.
Tnh cht 1.
1) Nu thm p vect vo mt h vect ph thuc tuyn tnh th c
82
mt h ph thuc tuyn tnh.
2) Nu bt i p vect ca mt h vect c lp tuyn tnh th c
mt h c lp tuyn tnh.
Chng minh. 1) Gi s h vect A AA A = {
1
,
2
,...,
m-1
,
m
} ph
thuc tuyn tnh. Khi tn ti m s s
1
,..., s
m
khng ng thi bng 0,
chng hn s
i
0, sao cho:

Th th:

Theo nh ngha, h vect {
1
,...,
i-1
i
,
i+1
,...,
m
,...,
m+1
,...,
m+p
} ph thuc tuyn tnh.
2) Gi s t h vect c lp tuyn tnh A bt i p vect ta c h
vect B. Nu B ph thuc tuyn tnh th theo 1), thm p vect ni trn
vo B li c h A ph thuc tuyn tnh; tri vi gi thit. Vy B c
lp tuyn tnh.
Tnh cht 2.
1) Mt h gm m vect (m > 1) l ph thuc tuyn tnh khi v ch khi
c mt vect ca h c biu th qua cc vect cn li.
2) Mt h gm m vect (m > 1) l c lp tuyn tnh khi v ch khi
khng c mt vect no ca h c biu th qua cc vect cn li.
Chng minh.
1) "" Gi s h vect

Ca K-khng gian vect V l ph thuc tuyn tnh. Theo nh ngha,
tn ti m s r
i
K, i {1, 2,..., m) khng ng thi bng 0, chng hn, r
i

0, sao cho:
r
1
1
+ ...+ r
i-1
i-1
+ t
i+1
i+1
... + r
m
m
=0 .
Khi r
1
1
= - r
1
1
-...- t
i-1
i-1
r
i+1
i+1
- ... - r
m
0 .
V r
i
0 nn t ng thc ny suy ra
83

ngha l
i
c biu th tuyn tnh qua cc vect cn li.
Gi s trong h vect (1) c vect
i
; tho mn ng thc:

V c s
i
= -1 0 nn ng thc ny chng t h (1) ph thuc tuyn
tnh.
2) Trc tip suy ra t 1).
Tnh cht 3.
1) Mt h gm m vect (m > 0) l c lp tuyn tnh khi v ch khi
mi t hp tuyn tnh ca h u ch c mt cch biu th tuyn tnh duy
nht qua h .
2) Mt h gm m vect (m > 0) ca khng gian vect V l ph thuc
tuyn tnh khi v ch khi c mt vect ca V biu th tuyn tnh c qua
h theo hai cch khc nhau.
Chng minh. 1) Gi s h vect {
1
,
2
,...,
m
} c lp tuyn
tnh v

Nu cn c cch biu th tuyn tnh

th (b
1
b
1
)
1
+ (b
2
- b'
2
)
2
+ ... + (b
m
b
m
)
m
=0 .
V h vect g cho c lp tuyn tnh nn theo nh ngha, b
1
b
1
=
b
2
- b'
2
= ... = b
m
b
m
= 0.
Suy ra: b
1
= b
1
, b
2
= b'
2
,..., b
m
= b
m
; ngha l cch biu th tuyn
tnh ca qua h vect cho l duy nht.
"": Nu mi t hp tuyn tnh ca h vect {
1
,
2
,...,
m
} u
ch c mt cch biu th tuyn tnh duy nht th 0 = 0
1
+ 0
2
+ ... +
84
0
m
cng l cch biu th tuyn tnh duy nht ca 0 . Do , nu 0 = r
1

+ r
2
2
+ ...+ r
m
m
th bt buc r
1
= r
2
... = r
m
= 0. Vy h vect cho
c lp tuyn tnh.
2) Suy ra t 1).
Tnh cht 4.
1) Nu thm vo mt h c lp tuyn tnh mt vect khng biu th
tuyn tnh c qua h y th c mt h c lp tuyn tnh.
2) Nu bt i mt h ph thuc tuyn tnh mt vect khng biu th
tuyn tnh c qua cc vect cn li th c mt h ph thuc tuyn
tnh.
Chng ninh. 1) Gi s A = {
1
, a
2
,...,
m-1
,
m
}l mt h vect c
lp tuyn tnh ca K-khng gian vect V. V l mt vect khng
biu th tuyn tnh c qua h A. Ta phi chng minh h vect B =
{
1
, a
2
,...,
m-1
,
m
, } c lp tuyn tnh. Gi s

Nu r 0 th

tri vi gi thit v . Do r = 0 v r=
1
+...+ r
m
m
= 0 v h A c
lp tuyn tnh. Suy ra r
1
= ... = r
m
= 0. Vy B l h vect c lp tuyn
tnh.
2) Suy ra ngay t 1).
Sau khi c khi nim v h sinh ca mt khng gian vect v h
vect c lp tuyn tnh ta nghin cu cu to ca khng gian vect.
85
4. C S CA KHNG GIAN VECT
Ta nhc li rng, trong gio trnh ny ta ch xt cc khng gian vect
c h sinh hu hn (hu hn sinh) trn trng s.
4.1. nh ngha
Mt h sinh c lp tuyn tnh ca mt khng gian vect khc { 0 }
c gi l mt c s ca n.
Khng gian vect {0 } khng c c s; hay c th ni, s vect trong
c s ca khng gian { 0 } bng 0.
V d 1. Trong khng gian vect Pn gm a thc 0 v cc a thc
thuc K[x] vi bc b hn hay bng n, h vect {1, x, x
2
,..., x
n
) l mt c
s.
Tht vy, mi a thc f(x) P
n
u c dng f(x) = a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
+...
+ a
n
x
n
, a
i
K, vi mi i {0, 1, 2,..., n). iu chng t {1, x,
x
2
,..., x
n
) l mt h sinh ca P
n
. Mt khc, nu a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
+... + a
n
x
n

= 0 th t nh ngha a thc suy ra a
0
= a
1
= a
2
= ... = a
n
= 0; ngha l {1,
x, x
2
,..., x
n
) l h vect c lp tuyn tnh. Vy n l mt c s ca P
n
.
V d 2. Trong khng gian vect R
3
, h ba vect 1 = (1, 0, 0), 2 =
(0, 1, 0), 3 = (0, 0, 1) l mt c s; ngi ta gi l c s chnh tc.
Bn c c th chng t iu .
H ba vect
1
= (1, 1, 0),
2
= (0, 1, 1),
3
(1, 0, 1) cng l mt c
s.
khng nh iu ny ta s chng minh h vect {
1
,
2
,
3
} l
mt h sinh ca R
3
v c lp tuyn tnh. Gi s = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) l mt
vect bt k thuc R
3
. Ta tm ba s r
1
, r
2
, r
3
R sao cho = r
1
1
+ r
2
2

+ r
3
3
hay sao cho:
86

Gii h phng trnh 3 n r
1
, r
2
, r
3
ny ta c nghim duy nht

iu ny chng t {
1
,
2
,
3
} l mt h sinh ca R
3
. Mt khc, v
ba s r
1
, r
2
, r
3
c xc nh duy nht nn mi u c cch biu th
tuyn tnh duy nht qua h sinh ny. Theo tnh cht 3, mc 3.2, h sinh
ny c lp tuyn tnh. Vy n l mt c s ca R
3
.
Mt cu hi t ra l mi khng gian vect u c c s hay khng?
tr li cu hi ny ta hy xt mi lin quan gia h sinh v c s.
4.2. S tn ti ca c s
Trc ht ta xt b sau v mi lin quan gia h sinh v c s
B . Nu khng gian vect c mt h sinh gm m vect th svect
ca mi h vect c lp tuyn tnh ca n khng vt qu m.
Chng minh. Gi s K-khng gian vect V c mt h sinh A = {
1
,
2
,...,
m
}, 0 vi mi i {1, 2,..., m) v e = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
} l mt
h vect c lp tuyn tnh ca V vi n > m. V A l mt h sinh nn

0 nn c mt a
1j
khc 0, chng hn a
11
0. Do

Thay
1
trong h A bi
1
ta c h A
1
= {
1
,
2
,...,
m
}. Gi s
V = b
1
1
+ b
2
2
+ ... + b
m
m
. Th th
87

Nh vy mi V u biu th tuyn tnh c qua h A
1
; do
A
1
l mt h sinh ca V. Ni ring,
2
c dng:

Nu tt c cc h s ca cc
i
u bng 0 th
2
= a
21
1
. Suy ra h e
ph thuc tuyn tnh; tri vi gi thit. V th c mt a
2j
0, Vi j 1.
Nu cn ta nh s li cc
i
gi thit rng a
22
0. Khi

Thay
2
trong A
1
bi
2
ta c h A
2
= {
1
,
2
,...,
m
}. Lp lun
nh trn, A
2
l mt h sinh ca V. C tip tc nh th, ta ln lt thay m
vect ca h A bi m vect u tin ca h e v c h sinh A
m
= {
1
,
2
,...,
m
} ca v. Theo gi thit, n > m nn
m+l
A
m
. Nhng Am l h
sinh ca V nn
m+1
c biu th tuyn tnh qua h vect ny; tri vi
gi thit c lp tuyn tnh ca h e. Vy n m.
H qu. S vect trong hai c s ca mt khng gian vect bng
nhau.
Chng minh. Suy ra ngay t nh l trn.
By gi ta tr li cho cu hi t ra trc mc 4.2.
nh l 1. Mi K - khng gian vect V {0 } u c c s.
Chng minh. Gi s
1
0 l mt vect thuc V. Theo v d 1, mc
3.1, h {
1
} c lp tuyn tnh. Nu mi vect ca V u biu th tuyn
tnh qua h ny th l mt c s ca V. Nu tri li, trong V c
2

khng biu th tuyn c qua
1
. Theo tnh cht 4, mc 3.2, h vect
{
1
,
2
} c lp tuyn tnh. Nu h ny khng phi l mt c s th
88
trong V c mt
3
khng biu th tuyn tnh c qua h {
1
,
2
}. Li
theo tnh cht 4, mc 3.2, h vect {
1
,
2
,

3
} c lp tuyn tnh. Tip
tc, b sung nh th ta c nhng h vect c lp tuyn tnh ca V. V
V c mt h sinh gm m vect no (c th ta khng bit h sinh y)
nn theo b , qu trnh ny phi kt thc vect
n
no vi n m.
Lc ta c h vect
E = {
1
,
2
,

3
,...,
n
}
m mi vect ca v u biu th tuyn tnh c qua h e. Vy e = {
1
,
2
,

3
,...,
n
} l mt c s ca V.
H qu. Trong khng gian vect, mi h vect c lp tuyn tnh bt
k u c th b sung thnh mt c s.
ngha ca nh l trn y l d cho khng bit trc h sinh ca
khng gian vect ta vn c th dng c mt c s ca n. Song khi
bit mt h sinh ca khng gian vect th nh l sau y cho thy c th
chn mt c s trong h sinh ny. l tr li cho cu hi t ra trc
3.
nh l 2. T mt h sinh ca mt khng gian vect khc { 0 } c th
chn ra mt c s.
Chng minh. Cch chng minh nh l ny ging nh cch chng
minh nh l trn; ch khc ch l ng l ta chn cc vect ; trong V
th y ta phi chn chng trong h sinh cho.
89
5. S CHIU CA KHNG GIAN VECT
H qu ca b , mc 4.2, cho thy s vect trong hai c s khc
nhau ca mt khng gian vect th bng nhau. iu cho php ta nh
ngha:
5.1. nh ngha
S vect trong mt c s ca K-khng gian vect V c gi l s
chiu ca V. K hiu: dim
K
V.
Nu khng cn ch r trng K c th, ta c vit n gin l dimV.
V d 1. Khng gian P
n
gm a thc 0 v cc a thc bc b hn hay
bng n c s chiu bng n + 1; tc l dim
K
P
n
= n + 1.
(Xem v d 1, mc 4.1).
V d 2. dim
R
R
3
- 3.
V d 3. Khng gian V cc vect hnh hc trong khng gian c
dim
R
V = 3.
H qu. Trong khng gian vect n chiu mi h vect c lp tuyn
tnh gm n vect u l c s.
Chng minh. Gi s dim
K
V = n v a = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
} l mt h
vect c lp tuyn tnh ca V. Theo h qu ca nh l 1, mc 4.2, c
th b sung vo a c mt c s ca V. V dimV = n, mi c s
gm n vect cho nn khng cn b sung vect no vo a na. Vy a l
mt h sinh c lp tuyn tnh, do l mt c s ca V.
Ta hy tm hiu mi lin h gia s chiu ca mt khng gian vect
vi s chiu ca cc khng gian con ca n.
5.2. S chiu ca khng gian con
nh l 1. Gi s W l mt khng gian con ca K-khng gian vect
V. Th th:
1) dim
K
W dim
K
V.
2) dim
K
W = dim
K
V khi v ch khi W = V.
Chng minh.
90
1) Nu W = {0 } th dimkw = 0 dim
K
V.
By gi gi s dim
K
V = n, dim
K
W = m > 0. Khi W c mt c s,
chng hn, () gm m vect. V () l h vect c lp tuyn tnh trong
W v W V nn () cng l c lp tuyn tnh trong V. Theo b ,
mc 4.2, dim
K
W m n = dim
K
V.
2) Suy ra t h qu, mc 5.1.
nh l 2. Nu U, W l nhng khng gian con ca K-khng gian
vect V th:
dim(U + W) = dimU + dimW - dim(U W).
Chng minh.
Gi s dim U = p, dimW = q, dim(U W) = r v {
1
, ,..,
r
} (1) l
mt c s ca U W. V c s ny l mt h vect c lp tuyn tnh
trong U v trong W nn, theo h qu nh l 1, mc 4.2, c th b sung
thnh c s:

ca U v thnh c s

ca W. Ta s chng minh rng

l mt c s ca U + W. Mun th, trc ht, ta hy chng minh l
mt h sinh ca U + W. V {
1
,...,
p-r
,
1
,...,
r
} U v {
1
,...,
q-r
}
W nn h (4) nm trong U + W. Gi s = + , vi

Th th

ngha l h (4) l mt h sinh ca U + W.
Hn na, h (4) c lp tuyn tnh. Tht vy, gi s
91

V v tri l mt vect trong U cn v phi l mt vect trong W. C
s ca UW l h (1) nn c th vit

V h (3) c lp tuyn tnh nn t ng thc ny suy ra
t
1
= ... = t
r
= z
1
= ... = z
q-r
= 0; (6)
Thay cc gi tr ny ca z
i
vo ng thc (5) ta c

V h (2) c lp tuyn tnh nn
x
1
= ... = x
p
= y
1
= ... = y
r
= 0 (7)
T (6) v (7) suy ra h (4) c lp tuyn tnh. Do n l mt c s
a U+W. Vy
dim(u + W) = p - r + r + q - r : p + q - r
= dimU + dimW - dim(U W).
92
6. TA CA MT VECT
V c s l mt h sinh c lp tuyn tnh ca khng gian vect nn
thi vect ca khng gian u c cch biu th tuyn tnh duy nht qua
c s .
6.1. nh ngha
Gi s () = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
} l mt c s ca K-khng gian vect V,
V c cch biu din duy nht di dng

B n s s (a
1
, a
2
,..., a
n
) c gi l cc ta ca i vi c s
().
Thay cho li ni c cc ta l (a
1
, a
2
,..., a
n
) ta vit: (a
1
,
a
2
,..., a
n
).
V d. Trong v d 2, mc 4, 1 ta bit h () = {
1
,
2
,
3
), trong

1
= (1, 1, 0),
2
= (0, 1, 1),
3
(1, 0, 1) l mt c s ca R
3
. Vect
= 3
1
- 5
2
+
3
c ta i vi c s () l (3,- 5, 1).
Cng nh i vi cc vect hnh hc bit trng trung hc, c
mt mi lin quan gia to v cc php ton trn cc vect.
nh l. Nu k K, v c ta ln lt l (a
1
, a
2
,..., a
n
) v (b
1
,
b
2
,..., b
n
) th:
1) To ca + l (a
1
+ b
1
, a
2
+ b
2
,..., a
n
+ b
n
);
2) To ca k l (ka
1
, ka
2
,..., ka
n
).
By gi ta th tm to ca = 3
1
- 5
2
+
3
trong v d trn
y i vi c s chnh tc, tc l c s () = {
1
,
2
,
n
} trong
1
=
(1, 0, 0),
2
= (0, 1, 0),
3
= (0, 0, 1). Ta c:
93

Vy to ca i vi c s () l (4, - 2, - 4).
iu ny chng t khi i c s th to ca mt vect thay i.
Ta hy xem to ca cng mt vect trong hai c s khc nhau c
quan h vi nhau nh th no. Trc ht, mi lin quan gia hai c s
c din t bi nh ngha sau.
6.2. Ma trn chuyn
nh ngha. Gi s () = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
} v {
1
,
2
,...,
3
} l hai c
s ca K-khng gian vect V,

(v mi vect
i
u biu th tuyn tnh qua c s ()).
Ta gi ma trn vung cp n

l ma trn chuyn t c s ( ) sang c s ().
V d. Xt khng gian vect R
3
vi hai c s
() = {
1
,
2
,
n
} trong
1
(1, 0, 0),
2
= (0, 1, 0),
3
= (0, 0, 1),
v {
1
,
2
,
3
} trong
1
= (1, 1, 0),
2
= (0, 1, 1),
3
= (1, 0, 1),
(Xem v d mc 6.1).
a) Tm ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s ()
94
b) Tm ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s ().
Gii
a) Ta c:

Vy ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s () l

b) Ta phi biu din cc vect
i
qua c s (). C th, ta vit:
(1, 0, 0) =
1
= b
11
1
+ b
21
2
+ b
31
3

ng thc (1) cho ta
(1, 0, 0) = b
11
(1, 1, 0) + b
21
(0, 1, 1) + b
31
(1, 0, 1)
= (b
11
+ b
31
, b
11
+ b
21
, b
21
+ b
31
).
Suy ra:

Gii h ny ta tm c:

ng thc (2) cho ta mt h phng trnh; gii n ta tm c:

Tng t, nh ng thc (3) ta tm c:
95

Vy ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s () l

By gi ta s tm ra cng thc lin h gia cc ta ca cng mt
vect trong hai c s khc nhau.
6.3. Lin h gia cc ta ca mt vect i vi hai c s khc
nhau
nh l. Gi s () = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
) v () = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
) l hai c
s ca K-khng gian vect V, T = (t
ij
) l ma trn chuyn t c s ()
sang c s (), (x
1
, x
2
,..., x
n
) (y
1
, y
2
,...,y
n
) ln lt l ta ca vect
i vi c s () v c s (). Th th:

Chng minh. Theo gi thit ta c:

T s biu th tuyn tnh duy nht ca qua c s () suy ra:
96

Tng qut: x
i
= t
i1
y
1
+ t
12
y
2
+... + t
1n
y
n
=
=
n
1 j
j ij
y t , Vi mi i {1, 2,...,
n}.
V d. Xt khng gian R
3
vi hai c s () v () trong v d mc
6.2. Cho = (- 5, 0 , 1) R
3
. Hy tm ta ca vect R
3
i vi
c s ().
Gii
T v d mc 6.2, ta bit rng ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s
() l:

Gi ta ca i vi c s () l (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
). Theo gi thit ta
ca i vi c s () l y
1
= - 5, y
2
= 0, y
3
= 1. Theo cng thc i ta
ta c:

97
7. HNG CA H VECT- HNG CA MA TRN
nghin cu cc chng sau ta cn bit cch tm c s ca nhng
khng gian con sinh bi mt h vect ca mt khng gian vect. Tuy v
phng din l thuyt, nh l 4.6 cho thy t mt h sinh ca mt khng
gian vect c th tm c mt c s ca n. Song kh c th dng n
vo thc hnh. Trong mc ny ta s xt mt k thut tm c s nh th.
Trc ht ta hy nh ngha mt khi nim tin din t. l hng
ca h vect. Khi nim ny cng c ng dng trong nhiu vn khc.
7.1. Hng ca h vect
nh ngha. S chiu ca khng gian vect sinh bi h vect a c
gi l hng ca h a K hiu hng (a).
H qu. H a gm m vect l c lp tuyn tnh khi v ch khi hng
(a) = m.
V d. Xt v d 2, mc 2.5. H vect a = {
1
,
2
} c lp tuyn
tnh nn n l c s ca khng gian vect W sinh bi a. Theo nh
ngha 7.1, hng (a) = dimW = 2. H b = cng sinh ra khng
gian vect W. Do hng(b) = dimW = 2.
C th gii thch v sao m hng = hng hay khng? Hy xem mnh
di y.
Mnh . Nu thm vo mt h vect mt t hp tuyn tnh ca h
th hng ca h mi bng hng ca h cho.
Chng minh. Gi s a = { 1 , 2 ,...
m
}, hng(a) = n. Thm vo
a vect

Gi W, W ln lt l nhng khng gian sinh bi h a v h b. V
a b nn W W'. Ngc li, gi s W'. Khi l mt t hp tuyn
tnh ca h b, chng hn,
98

Do W W. Vy W = W. Suy ra hng (B) = dim(W') - dim(W) -
hng(A).
7.2. Hng ca ma trn
nh ngha. 1) Cho ma trn

Coi cc thnh phn trong mt dng ca ma trn A nh cc ta
ca mt vect trong khng gian vect V (n chiu) i vi mt c s no
. Ta gi h vect a gm :

l h vect dng ca ma trn A.
H vect ct ca ma trn A c nh ngha tng t.
Ngc li, ma trn A c gi l ma trn cc ta ca h vect a
(i vi c s cho).
2) Ta gi hng ca h vect dng ca ma trn A l hng ca ma trn
A. K hiu hng(A).
99

hng (A) = 1 v h gm mt vect = (1, 0, - 2) 0 c lp tuyn tnh.
V dng th hai ca B l t hp tuyn tnh ca dng th nht nt theo
mnh mc 7.1, hng(B) = hng(A) = 1.
i vi ma trn C ta thy h vect dng ca n gm ba vect:

Chng u biu th tuyn tnh c qua
1
:
2
= 0
1
,
3
= -
5
2
1
.
Do khng gian sinh bi ba vect ny c c s l {
1
}. Vy hng(C) =
1.
Theo nh ngha hng ca ma trn th tm hng ca ma trn cng l
tm hng ca h vect dng tng ng v do bit hng ca ma trn s
suy ra c s v s chiu ca khng gian vect sinh bi h vect dng ca
ma trn y.
Vi ma trn A = (a
ij
) kiu (m, n), nu chn r dng, r ct th cc thnh
phn nm giao ca r dng r ct y lp thnh mt nh thc cp r. Ta
gi n l inh thc con cp r ca A.
nh l. Hng ca ma trn A bng cp cao nht ca cc nh thc
con khc 0 ca A.
Chng minh. Gi s ma trn A = (a
ij
)
(m.n)
v cp cao nht ca cc
nh thc con khc 0 ca n bng r. C th gi thit rng c mt nh
thc con khc 0, cp r nm r dng u, chng hn:
100

(Tht vy, ta c th i ch cc dng t c iu v php i
ch nh th khng lm thay i hng ca h vect dng). Ta s chng
minh rng h gm r vect dng u

l c s ca khng gian vect sinh bi m vect dng ca ma trn A.
Trc ht, h vect (2) c lp tuyn tnh. Tht vy, gi s

p dng cc php ton trong khng gian vect K
n
, ta c:

R rng (0, 0,..., 0) l mt nghm ca h ny. V
101

nn y l mt h Cramer. Do (0, 0,..., 0) l nghim duy nht; ngha l
bt buc x
1
= x
2
=... = x
i
= 0.
iu ny chng t h (2) c lp tuyn tnh. By gi ta chng minh
rng mi vect dng cn li ca ma trn A biu th tuyn tnh c qua
h (2); tc l phi chng minh rng vi mi

Mun vy, phi chng minh rng:

Gi s i c nh. i vi a
ij
ta xt nh thc

y l mt nh thc con cp r + 1 ca ma trn A nn theo gi thit
n bng 0. Khai trin n theo ct cui ta c:

trong A
s
l phn b i s ca thnh phn ai trong nh thc D
ij
, vi
mi s {1, 2,..., r}. V D 0 nn

102
Khi i c nh, j thay i, ma trn

khng i nn cc A
s
khng i v chng l nhng nh thc con cp r
ca ma trn ny. V th t k
s
= -
D
A
s
, vi mi s {1, 2,..., r}, vi i c
nh chn, ta c

Do ng thc (3) c chng minh.
Vy h vect (2) l mt c s ca khng gian vect sinh bi m vect
dng ca ma trn A. Suy ra hng(A) = r.
Ch . Trong php chng minh nh l trn ta thy nu nh thc con
cp cao nht khc 0 ca ma trn A nm r dng no th r vect dng y
l c s ca khng gian vect sinh bi m vect dng ca ma trn A.
V d: Tm c s ca khng gian vect sinh bi h vect gm cc
vect trong R
3
:

Gii
Gi A l ma trn m cc vect dng l cc vect cho:

103
Nh vy
1 2
5 1
l nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 ca ma trn A.

N nm dng th nht v th ba ca ma trn A. Vy h vect {
1
,
3
}
l c s cn tm.
H qu 1. H m vect l c lp tuyn tnh khi v ch khi ma trn
cc ta ca chng c mt inh thc con khc 0, cp m.
Ni ring, trong khng gian vect n chiu, h n vect l c lp
tuyn tnh khi v ch khi nh thc ca ma trn cc ta ca chng
khc 0.
H qu 2. Hng ca ma trn bng hng ca h vect ct ca n.
Chng minh. Gi s A = (a
ij
) l ma trn kiu (m, n). Xt ma trn
chuyn v t A. H vect dng ca
t
A l h vect ct ca A. Theo nh l
trn, hng(
t
A) bng cp ca nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 ca
t
A.
Nhng mi nh thc con ca
t
A li l chuyn v ca mt nh thc con
ca A v ngc li. Mt khc nh thc ca hai ma trn chuyn v ln
nhau bng nhau. Do , |B| l mt nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 ca
t
A khi v ch khi |B| l mt nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 ca A.
Vy hng (A) = hng (
t
A) = hng (h vect dng ca
t
A) = hng (h
vect ct ca A).
7.3. Cch tm hng ca ma trn
Mun tm hng ca h vect ta tm hng ca ma trn cc ta ca
h vect y.
Mun tm hng ca ma trn ta tm nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0
ca ma trn y.
tm nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 ca ma trn A, khng cn
xt tt c cc nh thc con ca n m ch cn xut pht t mt nh thc
con D
1
0 cp s bit ri xt cc nh thc con cp s + 1 cha D
1
. Nu
tt c cc nh thc con ny u bng 0 th D
1
l mt nh thc con cp
cao nht khc 0; do hng(A) = s. Nu c mt nh thc D
2
0, cp s
+ 1 th tip tc xt cc nh thc cp s + 2 cha D
2
. C nh th cho ti
khi tm c mt nh thc D 0, cp r m mi nh thc cp r + 1 bao
quanh n u bng 0. Suy ra D l mt nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0
104
ca ma trn A. Tht vy, v D nm r dng no v mi nh thc con
cp r + 1 bao quanh D u bng 0 nn vi lp lun nh chng minh ca
nh l, h r vect ny l c s ca khng gian vect W sinh bi h vect
ng ca ma trn A. Do dim(W) = r. Vi mi nh thc con D 0,
cp t, v Di nm trong t dng no ca A, th h gm t vect dng ny
c lp tuyn tnh trong W. Vy t dim(W) = r.
p dng. Cho h vect a gm:

a) Tm hng(a).
b) Tm c s ca khng gian vect sinh bi a.
Gii
a) tm hng ca h vect, ta phi tm hng ca ma trn

Theo nh l, ta phi tm nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 ca A.
Xut pht t mt nh thc con khc 0 bt k, chng hn

Ta xt cc nh thc cp 3 cha D
2
.

105
Xt tip cc nh thc con cp 4 cha D
3
. Ch cn hai nh thc nh
th, l:

Vy hng(A) = 3.
b) V D
3
nm ba dng u nn h vect {
1
,
2
,
3
} l mt c s
cn tm.
Cng c th c nh thc cp 3 khc cha D
2
v khc 0, chng hn,

Vy hng(A) = 3.
V D nm ba dng: th nht, th hai v th nm nn h vect {
1
,
2
,
3
} cng l mt c s.
7.4. Tm hng ca ma trn bng cc php bin i s cp
Ta cng c th dng mt s php bin i trn ma trn tm hng
ca ma trn.
nh ngha. Cc php bin i sau y c gi l cc php bin
i s cp trn cc ma trn:
1) i ch hai dng (hai ct) cho nhau;
2) Nhn mi thnh phn trong mt dng (ct) vi cng mt s khc
0.
3) Nhn mi thnh phn trong mt dng (ct) vi cng mt s ri
cng vo thnh phn cng ct (dng) trong mt dng (ct) khc.
106
nh l. Nu thc hin cc php bin i s cp trn mt ma trn th
hng ca ma trn thu c bng hng ca ma trn cho.
Lm dng ngn ng c th ni: Cc php bin i s cp khng lm
thay i hng ca mt ma trn.
Chng minh. Xin dnh cho bn c nh mt bi tp.
V d. Tm hng ca ma trn

Gii
i ch dng th nht v dng th t cho nhau:

Cng dng th nht vo dng th hai; nhn dng th nht vi - 4,
ri cng vo dng th ba; nhn dng th nht vi - 3, ri cng vo dng
th t. ta c:

i ch dng th hai v dng th t cho nhau:

Cng dng th hai vo dng th ba:
107

Cng dng th ba vo dng th t ta c ma trn:

Ma trn cui cng c nh thc cp ba:

l nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 ca B. Vy hng(B) = 3. V
cc php bin i s cp khng lm thay i hng ca ma trn nn
hng(A) = hng(B) = 3.
Nu dng php bin i s cp tm c s ca khng gian sinh bi
mt h vect th ta gp mt kh khn nh trong vic xc nh nhng
vect no ca h lp nn c s, v qu trnh bin i ta i ch cc
dng, cc ct. Bn c hy th tm cch khc phc kh khn y.
7.5. Tm c s, s chiu ca khng gian sinh bi mt h vect
bng my tnh in t
Mun tm c s v s chiu ca khng gian W sinh bi mt h vect
a ta ch cn tm nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 ca ma trn A thit
lp bi h vect cho. dimW = hng(A) v nh thc con cp cao nht
khc 0 nm nhng dng no th nhng vect dng y lp thnh mt c
s. Nh cc php bin i s cp trn ma trn, my tnh in t c th
thc hin cc php bin i y bin mt ma trn cho thnh mt ma
trn cng hng m ta c th nhn ra ngay nh thc cp cao nht khc 0.
T suy ra hng ca ma trn, cng l hng ca h vect, v s chiu
cn tm.
V d 1. Tm s chiu ca khng gian W sinh bi h vect
108

Gii
to ma trn nh lnh:

Trn mn hnh xut hin:
Out[1]: = {{11 -1, 2, 0, -1},{-2, 2, 0, 0, -2}, {2, -1, -1, 0, 1},
{-1, -1, 1, 2, 2},{1, - 1, -1, 0, 1}
lp ma trn thu gn nh tip lnh:
RowReduce[A]//MatrixForm
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[2]:=MatrixForm

Trong ma trn ny ta thy ngay nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 l:

Vy hng ca ma trn bng 4. Nhng cc php bin i m my thc
hin cho ta mt ma trn cng hng vi ma trn A nn hng = hng(A) =
4 = dimW.
tm c s ca khng gian ta cn ch rng khi bin i ma trn,
theo chng trnh Mathematica 4.0, my tnh c th i ch cc dng, do
th t cc dng b thay i. V th nhn vo ma trn thu c trn
109
mn hnh ta khng bit c c s gm nhng vect no trong cc vect
cho. Tuy nhin my tnh khng thay i ct. V vy, ta hy ly cc
vect cho lp thnh ma trn ct. Song, my tnh li khng to ma trn
ct. trnh phi lp mt ma trn ct giy nhp, ta vn lp ma trn
dng ri ly ma trn chuyn v.
V d 2. Tm c s ca khng gian W sinh bi h vect:
a = {
1
= (-2, 4, 2, 5),
2
= (3, 1, 0, 7),
3
= (-1, 9, 4, 17),
(1, 0, 2, 1)}.
Gii
nh lnh to ma trn:
A = {{-2, 4, 2, 5}, {3, 1, 0, 7},{-1, 9, 4, 17}, {1, 0, 2, 1}}
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[1] ={{-2, 4, 2, 5} {3, 1, 0, 7},{- 1, 9, 4, 17}, {1, 0, 2, 1}}.
lp ma trn chuyn v, nh lnh:
tA = Transpose[A]
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[2]={{- 2, 3, - 1, 1},{4, 1, 9, 0),{2, 0, 4, 2},{5, 7, 17, 1}}
tm ma trn thu gn, nh lnh:
RowReduce[tA]//1MatnxForm
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[3]=MatrixForm

Ma trn ny cho ta nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 l:

110
Vy hng ca ma trn ny bng 3: hng(
t
A) = hng(A) = hng(a).
nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 nm cc ct th nht, th hai,
th t, do cc vect ct
1
,
2
,
4
lp thnh mt c s.
111
TM TT
Chng II, trnh by khi nim khng gian vect trn mt trng K.
l mt tp hp V m mi phn t gi l mt vect, trn c php
ng hai vect v php nhn mt vect vi mt s thuc K tho mn 8
tiu kin nu nh ngha 1.1.
Mt tp con W ca V c gi l mt khng gian con ca V nu bn
thn W cng l mt khng gian i vi hai php ton cho trong V.
Mun chng minh W l khng gian con ca V ch cn chng minh rng:
1) W , vi , thuc W v r K, ta c + W, r W;
hoc 2) W , vi , thuc W v r, s K, ta c r + s W. Tng
ca m khng gian con W
1
, W
2
,..., W
m
ca khng gian vect V li l mt
khng gian con W =
)
`
=
m 2,... 1, i , W |
i
i
m
1 i
i .
Nu a = {
1
,
2
,...,
m
} l mt h vect ca K-khng gian vect V
th

l mt khng gian con ca V v c gi l khng gian con sinh bi h
vect a.
H a c gi l c lp tuyn tnh nu t ng thc
=
=
m
1 i
i
i
0 k suy
ra k
1
= k
2
=...= k
m
= 0.
Mi khng gian vect u c mt h sinh c lp tuyn tnh, gi l
c s ca n. Nu () = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
} l mt c s ca K- khng gian
vect V th mi V u c cch biu din duy nht di dng
= a
1
1
+ a
2
2
+...+ a
n
n
.
Cc s a
i
c gi l ta ca i vi c s ().
Mt khng gian vect c th c nhiu c s khc nhau. Ta ca
mt vect trong c s ny khc vi ta ca n i vi c s kia. Bit
ta ca i vi c s () c th tm c ta ca n i vi c
112
s () nu bit ma trn T chuyn t c s () sang c s (). l ma
trn c thit lp nh sau:

Th th

Khi , nu (x
1
, x
2
,..., x
n
) v (y
1
, y
2
,..., y
n
) ln lt l ta ca i
vi c s () v c s () th

Khi nim hng ca mt h vect cng nh hng ca ma trn rt cn
thit cho cc chng sau. Ta nh ngha hng ca mt h vect l s
chiu ca khng gian sinh bi h vect .
Vi A l mt ma trn, ta c: hng(A) = hng(h vect dng) =
hng(h vect ct).
113
BI TP
1. NH NGHA V TNH CHT N GIN
1. Dng nh ngha ca khng gian vect chng t rng:
a) Tp s thc R cng vi php cng hai s thc, php nhn mt s
thc vi mt s hu t l mt Q-khng gian vect;
b) Tp s phc C cng vi php cng hai s phc v php nhn mt
s phc vi mt s thc l mt R-khng gian vect;
c) Tp Q[x] cc a thc ca n x trn trng s hu t Q l mt Q-
khng gian vect;
d) Vi Q l tp s hu t, R l tp s thc, V = Q x R, cng vi php
cng hai phn t trong V v php nhn mt phn t ca V vi mt s
hu t xc nh nh sau:
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d), r(a, b) = (ra, rb), a, c, r l nhng s
hu t b, d l nhng s thc,l mt Q-khng gian vect.
e) Tp Q ( 2 ) = {a + b 2 | a, b Q}, vi php cng v php nhn
vi s hu t xc nh nh sau:
(a + b 2 ) + (c + d 2 ) = (a + c) + (b + d) 2 ,
r(a + b 2 ) = ra + r 2 , r Q
l mt Q- khng gian vect.
2. Cc tp sau c phi l R-khng gian vect khng?
a) Tp Q vi php cng hai s hu t v php nhn mt s hu t vi
mt s thc;
b) Tp s phc C cng vi php cng hai s phc v php nhn mt
s phc vi mt s thc;
c) Tp s nguyn Z cng vi php cng hai s nguyn v php nhn
mt s nguyn vi mt s thc;
d) Tp V ni trong bi tp 1d) cng vi php cng v php nhn vi
mt s thc cng xc nh nh th,
e) Tp D cc a thc bc n vi h s thc.
114
3. Cho G l tp hp cc hm s xc nh trn tp s thc R c dng
f(x) = ax + b, trong a, b R, vi php cng v php nhn vi mt s
hu t xc nh nh sau:
vi f, g G, v f(x) = ax + b, g(x) = cx + d th f + g l mt hm s
xc nh bi
(f + g)(x) = (a + c)x + (b + d),
vi f G v r R, v f(x) = ax + b th rf l mt hm s xc nh bi
(rf)(x) = rax + rb.
Chng minh rng G l mt R- khng gian vect.
4. Cho F l tp cc hm s ca bin s x xc nh trn R (v ly cc
gi tr trong R) vi php cng v php nhn vi mt s thc xc nh
nh sau:
vi f, g F, f + g l mt hm s xc nh bi (f + g)(x) = f(x) +
g(x);
vi f F v r R, rf l mt hm s xc nh bi (rf)(x) = r.f(x).
Chng minh rng F l mt R-khng gian vect.
5. Cho A v B l hai K-khng gian vect. Trn V = AB, xc nh
php cng v php nhn vi mt s thuc trng K nh sau:
( )
1
1 , + ( )
2
2 , = ( )
2 1
2 1 , + + , vi mi
1
,
2
A,
1
,
2
B;
k( , ) = (k , k ) , vi mi k K, mi A, mi B.
Chng minh rng V l mt K-khng gian vect.
6. Trn tp A = {a} xc nh php cng v php nhn vi mt s
thc nh sau:
a + a = a, ra = a, vi mi r R.
Chng minh rng A l mt R-khng gian vect...

2. KHNG GIAN CON
7. chng minh rng:
a) Q l mt khng gian con ca Q-khng gian vect R;
b) R l mt khng gian con ca Q- khng gian vect C (C l tp s
phc);
115
c) Q 2 l mt khng gian con ca Q-khng gian vect R, (xem bi
tp 2f, 1) ;
d) R- khng gian vect G l khng gian con ca R-khng gian vect
F, (vi G v F l nhng khng gian trong cc bi tp 3 v 4, 1).
e) Tp D
n
gm a thc 0 v cc a thc ca Q[x] c bc b hn hay
bng n, (n l s t nhin), l khng gian con ca Q-khng gian vect
Q[x].
8. Cc tp hp sau c phi l nhng khng gian con ca khng gian
vect R
3
khng?
a) E = {(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
| a
i
R, i = 1, 3};
b) F = {(a
1
, a
2
, - a
1
) | a
i
R, i = 1, 2};
c) B = {(a
1
, a
2
, a
1
a
2
) | a
i
R, i = 1, 2};
d) G = {(a
1
, a
2
, a
1
+ a
2
) | a
i
R, i - 1, 2};
e) C = {(a
1
, a
2
, a
2
) | a
i
R, i = 1, 2};
f) H = {(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) | a
1
+ a
2
+ a
3
= 0 a
i
R, i = 1, 2, 3};
9. Tp hp cc s nguyn c phi l mt khng gian con ca khng
gian vect R trn trng Q hay khng?
10. Tp hp cc a thc bc chn thuc R[x] c phi l mt khng
gian con ca R [x] khng?
11. Gi s W l mt khng gian con ca khng gian vect R
4
, (a
1
, a
2
,
4, a
4
) W. Chng minh rng vi mi r R c mt (b
1
, b
2
, r, b
4
) W.
12. Gi s U v W l hai khng gian con ca K-khng gian vect V
tho mn iu kin V = U W. Chng minh rng V = U hoc V = W.
13. Gi s W
1
, W
2
,..., W
m
l nhng khng gian vect con ca K-
khng gian vect V. Chng minh rng U =
I
m
1 i
i
W
=
l mt khng gian
con ca V.
14. Cho V l mt R-khng gian vect, V. Chng minh rng tp
R = {r | r R} l mt khng gian con ca V. R c gi l khng
gian sinh bi vect .
15. Gi s U v W l hai khng gian con ca R-khng gian vect V.
116
Chng minh rng U + W l giao ca tt c cc khng gian con ca V
cha U W.

3. S C LP TUYN TNH-S PH THUC TUYN TNH
16. Cho ba vect
1
= (2, 0, 3),
2
= (0, 2, -1),
3
= (1, 2, 3) thuc
R
3
. Hy biu th tuyn tnh vect = (5, - 2, 1) qua ba vect cho.
17. Cho ba vect
1
= x - 1,
2
= 1,
3
= x
2
+ 1 thuc R[x]. Hy
biu th tuyn tnh vect = x
2
- x + 2 qua ba vect cho.
18. Xt xem cc h vect sau trong R
3
h no c lp tuyn tnh?
a)
1
= (4, 0, 1),
2
= (2, 0, 1),
3
= (1, 2, 1);
b)
1
= (1, 2, 3),
2
= (4, 5, 6),
3
= (5, 7, 9);
c)
1
= (1, 2, 3),
2
= (4, 5, 6),
3
= (9, 8, 7);
d)
1
= (1, 2, 3),
2
= (4, 5, 6),
3
= (2, -1, 0).
19. Xt xem cc h vect sau trong R[x] h no c lp tuyn tnh:
a)
1
= 1,
2
= x,
3
= x
2
;
b)
1
= 1,
2
= x + 1,
3
= x
2
+ 1,
4
= 2x
2
+ x + 3.
20. Cho hai vect = (3, a + b, 5), = (a + 1, b - 2, 10) trong Q
3
.
Tm a v b hai vect ny ph thuc tuyn tnh.
21. Cho ba vect
1
,
2
,
3
ca K-khng gian vect V, c lp
tuyn tnh.
a) Chng minh rng ba vect
1
=
1
,
2
=
1
+
2
,
3
=
1
+
2

3
c lp tuyn tnh.
b Chng minh rng ba vect
1
=
1
+
2
,
2
=
2
+
3
,
3
=
3
+
1
c lp tuyn tnh.
c) Ba vect =
1
+
2
,
2
=
2
+
3
,
4
=
3
-
1
c c lp
tuyn tnh khng?
22. Chng minh rng:
Nu hai vect
1
,
2
ca khng gian vect V l c lp tuyn tnh v
117
R
1
, R
2
l nhng khng gian con ca V ln lt sinh bi
1
,
2
th
R
1
R
2
= 0 .

4. C S CA KHNG GIAN VECT
23. Cho {
1
,...,
i
,...,
n
} l mt c s ca khng gian vect V.
Chng minh rng:
a) Nu thay
i
bi r
i
(vi r 0) th h vect thu c cng l mt
c s ca V;
b) Nu ta cng vo
i
mt t hp tuyn tnh ca cc vect cn li th
c mt c s mi ca V.
24. Chng minh rng cc h vect sau l nhng c s ca khng gian
vect R
3
:

25. Cc h vect sau c phi l c s ca khng gian vect R
4

khng:

26. chng minh rng nu ba vect
1
,
2
,
3
lp thnh mt c s ca
K-khng gian vect V th ba vect
1
=
1
+
2
,
2
=
2
+
3
,
3
=
3
+
1
cng lp thnh mt c s ca V.
27. Gi P
3
l khng gian vect gm a thc 0 v cc a thc f(x)
R[x] c bc f(x) 3. Chng minh rng hai h vect:
1
= 1,
2
= x,
3
= x
2
,
4
= x
3
;
1
= 1,
2
= x - 1,
3
= (x - 1)
2
,
4
= (x - 1)
3

l hai c s ca P
3.

28. Chng minh rng nu {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} l mt c s ca R-
khng gian vect V th V =
=
n
1 i
R
i
v R
i

1 j
R
j
= 0 , vi mi i
118
{1, 2,..., n}, trong
1 j
R
j
l tng ca cc R
j
, (chng hn, R
3

(R
1
+ R
2
+ R
4
+...+ R
n
) = { 0 }. Ngi ta ni rng V l tng trc
tip ca cc khng gian con R
i
, i {1, 2,..., n}.

29. Tm s chiu ca khng gian vect V sinh bi cc h vect sau:

30. Gi s U, W l hai khng gian con ca khng gian vect V v V
= U + W. Chng minh rng dimV = dimU + dimW khi v ch khi U
W = {0 }
31. Gi s U, W l hai khng gian con thc s ca khng gian vect
V, U W.
a) Nu dimV = 3, dimU = dimW = 2 th dim(U W) bng bao
nhiu?
b) nu dimV = 6, dimU = dimW = 4 th dim(U W) c th bng bao
nhiu?
32. Trong R
4
, khng gian con U sinh bi hai vect
1
= (-1, 1, 1, 1),
2
= (1, 2, 1, 0), khng gian con W sinh bi hai vect
1
= (2, -1, 0, 1),
2
= (0, - 5, 6, 0). Tm dim(U + W) v dim(U W).
33. Cho h vect {
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
} l mt c s ca khng gian vect
V. U l khng gian con sinh bi {
1
,
2
,
3
,}, W l khng gian con sinh
bi {
2
,
3
,
4
,}.
a) chng minh rng {
2
,
3
} l mt c s ca U W.
b) Tm c s v s chiu ca U + W.

6. TA CA VECT
34. Tm ta ca cc vect sau i vi c s {
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
}:
119

35. Tm ta ca vect = (5, - 2, 4, 1) i vi c s:

36. Bit ta ca cc vect i vi mt c s () no nh sau:
(0, -5, 4, 1), (2, 7, 0, 9), (4, 0, 1, 2).
Tm ta ca cc vect sau i vi c s ():

37. Gi P
3
l khng gian vect gm a thc 0 v cc a thc f(x)
R[x] c bc f(x) 3.
a) Chng minh rng: () :

l hai c s ca khng gian P
3
.
b) Tm ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s ().
c) Tm ta ca cc vect f(x) = 2x
3
- x + 5 i vi c s ().

29. Tm s chiu ca khng gian vect V sinh bi cc h vect sau:

30. Gi s U, W l hai khng gian con ca khng gian vect V v V
= U + W. Chng minh rng dimV = dimU + dimW khi v ch khi U
W = {0 }.
31. Gi s U, W l hai khng gian con thc s ca khng gian vect(
V, U W.
120
a) Nu dimV = 3, dimU = dimW = 2 th dim(UW) bng bao nhiu?
b) Nu dimV = 6, dimU = dimW = 4 th dim(UW) c th bng bao
nhiu?
32. Trong R
4
, khng gian con U sinh bi hai vect
1
= (1, 1, 1, 1)
2
= (1, 2, 1, 0), khng gian con W sinh bi hai vect
1
(2, -1, 0, 1)
2

= (0, - 5, 6, 0). Tm dim(U + W) v dim(U W).
33. Cho h vect {
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
} l mt c s ca khng gian vect
V U l khng gian con sinh bi {
1
,
2
,
3
}, W l khng gian con su
bi {
2
,
3
,
4
}.
a) Chng minh rng {
2
,
3
} l mt c s ca U W.
b) Tm c s v s chiu ca U + W.

a) Dng hng ca h vect chng t rng hai h vect ny l hai
c s ca R
4
.
b) Tm ma trn chuyn t c s a sang c s b.
c) Tm ta ca = (2, 0, 4, 0) i vi c s b.
d) Dng cng thc i ta tnh ta ca i vi c s.
42. a) Chng minh rng cc php bin i s cp khng lm thay i
hng ca ma trn.
b) Bn hy t tm mt h vect trong khng gian R
4
v dng cc
php bin i s cp chng t rng h vect y c lp tuyn tnh.
c) Bn hy t chn hai h, mi h gm 4 vect, ri dng cc php
bin i s cp chng t rng mt h c hng 3, mt h c hng 2 v ch
ra c s khng gian sinh bi mi h vect cho.
121
VI NT LCH S
Khi nim khng gian vect xut hin mun hn nhiu so vi khi
nim nh thc. Leibnitz l ngi u tin pht hin ra khi nim nh
thc v cng chnh ng l ngi c cng lao ng k trong vic
xng khi nim khng gian vect. Bt ngun t tng mun dng i
s nghin cu hnh hc, c th, mun dng i s miu t khng
ch nhng lng khc nhau ca hnh hc m miu t c v tr ca cc
im v hng ca ng thng trong hnh hc, Leibnitz quan tm
n cc cp im (tuy nhin, ng vn cha phn bit th t ca hai
im).
Hn 100 nm sau khi Leibnitz qua i, tc l vo nm 1833, cc
cng trnh ca ng v vn ny mi c cng b v ngi ta treo
gii thng cho nhng ai pht trin c tng ca Leibnitz trong
nhng cng trnh ny. Nm 1835, c Mbius thng bo tin ny,
Grassmann, mt gio vin th dc ca mt
trng hc thnh ph Stetin thuc nc
c, vi lng ham m ton hc, sau gn mt
nm lm vic, trnh by cng trnh v mt
cu trc tng t khng gian vect. T nm
1832 Grassmann tm c cc dng vect
ca cc lut trong c hc. ng ch ti
tnh giao hon, kt hp ca php cng cc
vect. Cng trnh ca ng qu tng qut nn
n nm 1840 cc nh ton hc vn khng
hiu c tng ca ng. V th n c t
nh hng. Grassmann gi quyn sch u tin ca mnh cho Gauss
v cho Mbius, nhng Mbius khng c ht v khng hiu c
tng ca Grassmann. Nm 1844, cng mt lc vi Hamilton,
Grassmann a ra khi nim khng gian gin n tuyn tnh, (tc l
khng gian vect n chiu ngy nay) cng vi cc tnh cht ca n. ng
cng nh ngha i lng gin n nh l t hp tuyn tnh, nh
ngha khng gian con v khi nim c lp tuyn tnh ca h vect v c
khi nim m ngy nay gi l c s, s chiu, tch v hng. Vi ln,
Grassmann xin c lm vic trng i hc nhng khng thnh, ln
cui cng m ng b t chi l do Kummer nhn xt rng cc bi bo
ca ng trnh by khng c r rng sng sa. Cho n lc cht ng
122
vn l gio vin th dc thnh ph Stettin, qu hng ng.
Vic biu din hnh hc ca s phc l mt bc tin trong qu trnh
hnh thnh khng gian vect. Nm 1837,
Hamilton cng b cng trnh trong s
phc c biu din bi cp s thc. n
nm 1841, ng quan tm n cc b n s thc
v mun c nhng kt qu tng t nh i
vi cc s phc (tc l nhng cp s). Chnh
y l mt tip cn vi khng gian vect. S
quan tm n cc b ba s thc dn ng ti
khi nim quaternion v ng dng khi
nim ny nghin cu ton l. Sau nh
vt l ngi Anh J. C. Maxwell (1831-1879)
v nh vt l ngi M J. W. Gibbs pht
trin thnh khng gian vect. Cc thut ng
vect v v hng l do Maxwell xng. Hamilton cng nh
ngha khi nim tch vect.
William Rowan Hamlton c mt tiu s sng chi. Khi cn nh ng
ni ting l mt thn ng ton hc; 13 tui ng hc c la th t;ng.
Sau khi tt nghip i hc Tnnity Dublin, ng c c lm gio s
thin vn hc trng i hc tng hp. Nm 1837 ng l ch tch Vin
hn lm khoa hc Ailen.
123
Chng III
NH X TUYN TNH
M U
Ta bit cc tp hp lin h vi nhau bi cc nh x. Gi s A v B
l hai tp hp khng rng, mt nh x t A n B l mt quy tc no
cho ng vi phn t a A mt phn t duy nht f(a) B; f(a) c gi
l nh ca a. nh x t tp A n tp B c k hiu l f: A B. nh x
f c xc nh nu bit nh ca mi aA. Cc nh x c phn loi
thnh n nh, ton nh, song nh.
Nu X A th tp hp
f(x) = {bB | b = f(x) vi mt x no thuc X}
c gi l nh ca X.
Nu Y B th tp hp
f
-1
(y) = {aA | f(a)Y}
c gi l nh ngc (hay to nh) ca Y; v.v...
By gi, i vi cc khng gian vect, chng to thnh khng ch
bi nhng phn t, m cn c nhng php ton. V th mi lin h gia
chng cng phi c th hin bi nhng nh x c lin quan n cc
php ton y. l nh x tuyn tnh.
Chng ny dnh cho vic nghin cu nh x tuyn tnh, gm:
- Khi nim nh x tuyn tnh hay cc ng cu khng gian vect,
cc dng nh x tuyn tnh nh : n cu, ton cu, ng cu.
- S xc nh mt nh x tuyn tnh ( ta s thy rng mun xc
nh mt nh x tuyn tnh ch cn bit nh ca cc vect trong mt c
s).
- Khi nim nh v ht nhn, mi lin quan gia nh, ht nhn vi
124
n cu, ton cu v ng cu, mi lin h v chiu ca khng gian
ngun vi s chiu ca nh v ca ht nhn.
Trn tp cc nh x tuyn tnh t khng gian V n khng gian W
cng c th xc nh php cng hai nh x v php nhn mt nh x vi
mt s lm cho tp cc nh x ny tr thnh mt khng gian vect.
cng l nhng iu m bn c cn nm vng c th hiu c cc
khi nim gi tr ring v vect ring ca mt t ng cu, s c
nghin cu tip chng V.
nh x tuyn tnh cn c nghin cu tip nhng chng sau. N
cn c m rng thnh cc khi nim nh x na tuyn tnh, a tuyn
tnh, a tuyn tnh thay phin. Song gio trnh ny cha th trnh by mi
ng nh x nh th. Mt dng c bit ca nh x a tuyn tnh s c
trnh by chng VI. l dng song tuyn tnh.
hiu c nhng iu trnh by trong chng ny, bn c cn
nm vng nhng t thc hc v khng gian vect.

1. NH NGHA NH X TUYN TNH - S XC NH
MT NH X TUYN TNH
1.1. Cc nh ngha
nh ngha 1. Gi s V v W l hai K-khng gian vect. nh x f: V
W c gi l mt nh x tuyn tnh hay mt ng cu nu:

vi mi , , thuc V v mi r K.
f( ) gi l nh ca .
Nu W = V th nh x tuyn tnh f c gi l mt t ng cu.
V d 1. Gi s V l mt K-khng gian vect. nh x 1
v
= V V
xc nh bi
1
v
( ) = , vi mi V
125
l mt nh x tuyn tnh. N c gi l ng cu ng nht trn V.
V d 2. Gi s U l mt khng gian con ca K-khng gian vect V,
nh x j : U V xc nh bi
j( ) = , vi mi U
l mt nh x tuyn tnh. N c gi l php nhng chnh tc.
V d 3. Gi s V v W l hai K-khng gian vect. nh x f. V W
xc nh bi
F( ) = 0
w
vi mi V
l mt nh x tuyn tnh. N c gi l ng cu khng.
Bn c c th dng nh ngha nh x tuyn tnh t kim tra rng
ba nh x ni trn l nhng nh x tuyn tnh.
V d 4. nh x f: R
3
R
2
xc nh bi
f((a
1
, a
2
, a
3
)) = (a
1
, a
2
), vi mi = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) R
3
l mt nh x
tuyn tnh.
Tht vy, ch cn kim tra cc iu kin trong nh ngha; vi (a
1
,
a
2
, a
3
), = (b
1
, b
2
, b
3
) thuc R
3
v mi r R, ta c:

V d 5. Gi s P
n
v P
n-1
ln lt l cc R-khng gian vect gm a
thc 0 v cc a thc thuc R[x] vi bc ln lt khng qu n v khng
qu n - 1, d: P
n
p
n-1
l php ly o hm: d(f(x)) = f '(x). Th th d l
mt nh x tuyn tnh.
Tht vy, vi hai a thc = f(x), = g(x) v mi r R, ta c:

V d 6. Gi s a = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
} l mt h vect trong khng gian
R
m
. nh x (cng k hiu bi a)
a : R
n
R
m
xc nh nh sau:
126
Vi mi = (c
1
, c
2
,..., c
n
) R
n
, a( ) c
1
1
+ c
2
2
+...+ c
n
n

R
m
, l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
Tht vy, vi = (c
1
, c
2
,..., c
n
), = (d
1
, d
2
,..., d
n
) R
n
v vi mi r
R, ta c:
+ = (c
1
+ d
1
, c
2
+ d
2
,.., c
n
+ d
n
) r = (rc
1
, rc
2
,..., rc
n
).
Theo nh ngha ca nh x a, ta c:

Vy a l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
H qu.
1) nh x f: V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh khi v ch khi:
f(r + s ) = rf( ) + sf( ), vi mi , thuc V v mi r, s thuc
K.
2) Nu f: V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh th f( 0
v
) = 0
w
, y 0
v

v 0
w
ln lt l vect khng trong V v W.
Chng minh. 1) Xin dnh cho bn c.
2) V 0 = 0
v
, v f l mt nh x tuyn tnh nn
f( 0
v
) = f( 0 ) = 0f( ) = 0
w
.
nh x gia cc tp hp c phn ra thnh n nh, ton nh, song
nh. Tng ng vi chng, cc nh x tuyn tnh cng c phn thnh
n cu, ton cu v ng cu.
nh ngha 2. Mt nh x tuyn tnh c gi l:
a) n cu nn n l mt n nh;
b) ton cu nn n l mt ton nh;
c) ng cu nn n ng thi l n cu v ton cu.
127
Khi c mt ng cu f t khng gian vect V en khng gian vect W
th ta vit:
f: V W
v ni rng V v W ng cu vi nhau.
V d 7. nh x ng nht l mt ng cu.
V d 8. Php nhng chnh tc l mt n cu.
V d 9. nh x tuyn tnh f: R
3
R
2
trong v d 4, mc 1.1, l mt
ton cu. Tht vy vi mi = (a
1
, a
2
) R
2
u tn ti vect (a
1
, a
2
, 0)
R
3
m
f( ) = f((a
1
, a
2
, 0) = (a
1
, a
2
) = .
iu ny chng t nh x tuyn tnh f l mt ton nh. Vy f l mt
ton cu.
Mnh . nh x tuyn tnh f : V W l mt ng cu khi v ch khi
tn ti mt nh x tuyn tnh f
-1
: W V sao cho f
-1
f = 1
v
, ff
-1
= 1
w
.
Chng minh. Gi s h mt ng cu. Khi b mt song nh.
Do tn ti nh x ngc f
-1
sao cho f
-1
f - 1
v
, ff
-1
= 1
w
. Ta ch cn phi
chng minh f
-1
l mt nh x tuyn tnh; ngha l phi chng minh rng:
f
-1
(r + s ) = rf
-1
( ) + sf-1( ), vi mi , thuc W v mi r, sK.
V ff
-1
= 1
w
nn:

Theo gi thit, f l mt nh x tuyn tnh. Do :

(2) T (1) v (2) suy ra:

Vy f
-1
l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
Nu f
-1
f = 1
v
, ff
-1
= 1
w
th (nh bit trong phn tp hp) f l
mt song nh. Theo nh ngha 1, mc 1.1, h mt ng cu.
128
Ta thy t K-khng gian vect V bt k n mt K-khng gian W
tu lun lun c ng cu khng. Ngoi ng cu khng cn c ng
cu no khc v c cch no xc nh chng?
1.2. S xc nh mt nh x tuyn tnh
nh l. Gi s V, W l hai K-khng gian uect, () ={
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} l mt c s ca V v
1
,
2
,..,
n
l n vect tu ca W. Khi
tn ti duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh f: V W sao cho f(
i
) =
i
, vi
mi i {1, 2,..., n}.
Chng minh. Trc ht ta xc nh nh x f: V W nh sau: vi
mi = r
1
1
+ r
2
2
+... + i
n
n
V, ta t
f( ) = r
1
1
+ r
2
2
+... + r
n
n
W.
thc s l mt nh x v () l c s ca v nn vi , n s r
i
c
xc nh duy nht; do f( ) c xc nh duy nht. Ta phi kim tra
rng f l mt nh x tuyn tnh. Vi = r
1
1
+ r
2
2
+...+ i
n
n
) = s
1
1

+ s
2
2
+... + s
n
n
V v mi k K, ta c:

Theo nh ngha ca f th:

Hn na, vi
i
ta c th vit:

Gi s c nh x tuyn tnh f: V W tho mn iu kin f(
i
) =
i
, vi mi i {1, 2,..., n}. V f' l mt nh x tuyn tnh nn vi mi
= r
1
1
+ r
2
2
+... + i
n
n
V, ta c:
129

Vy f' = f, tc l f xc nh nh trn l duy nht.
ngha ca nh l:
1) Mun xc nh mt nh x tuyn tnh ch cn xc nh nh ca cc
vect c s.
2) Mi h n vect ca W xc nh mt nh x tuyn tnh t V n W
Nh vy, c th c v s nh x tuyn tnh t V n W nu W 0 .
V d. C s () ca R
3
gm
1
= (1, 0, 0),
2
= (0, 1, 0),
3
= (0, 0,
1) v ba vect
1
= (0, 2),
2
= (1, -1),
3
= (3, 0) thuc R
2
xc nh duy
nht nh x tuyn tnh f: R
3
R
2
sao cho f(
i
) =
1
, i = 1, 2, 3. Khi ,
vi mi = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) R
3
,

Khi xt cc nh x gia hai tp hp ta nh ngha khi nim nh
v nh ngc. Chng hn, f: X Y l mt nh x, A X, B Y,
Tp hp f(A) = {f(a) Y | a A} c gi l nh ca A,
Tp hp f
-1
(B) = {x E x | f(x) B} c gi l nh ngc ca B.
Ni chung, chng khng c c im g. Song, cc khng gian vect
l nhng tp hp c php ton v nh x tuyn tnh b rng buc bi cc
php ton y nn chc hn nh v nh ngc cng c nhng c im
ring.
2. NH V HT NHN CA NH X TUYN TNH
2.1. nh ngha v tnh cht
nh ngha. Gi s V, W l hai K-khng gian vect, f: V W l
mt nh x tuyn tnh, A V, B W.
Tp hp f(A) = { W | = f( ), vi mi thuc A} c gi l
130
nh ca A.
Tp hp f
-1
( ) = { V | f( ) B} c gi l nh ngc (hay to
nh+ ca B.
Ni ring, f(V) c gi l nh ca V hay nh ca f v k hiu l Imf
f
1
( 0
w
) c gi l ht nhn ca f v k hiu l Kerf.
V d 1. Cho nh x f: R
4
R
3
xc nh bi:

D thy f l mt nh x tuyn tnh.

T suy ra:

V d 2. nh x g: R
4
R
3
xc nh bi:
f(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
).
g l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
Img = { (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) | a
i
R, i = 1, 2, 3} = R
3
,

T suy ra

V d 3. Cho nh x h: R2 ~ R3 xc nh bi
f(a
1
, a
2
) = (a
1
, a
2
, a
1
- a
2
).
Bn hy t kim tra rng h l mt nh x tuyn tnh.

T suy ra:
131

V d 4. Xt nh x a: R
n
R
m
trong v d 6, mc 1.1.

iu ny c ngha l Im~l l khng gian sinh bi h vect

nh l. Gi s V, W l hai K-khng gian vect, f. V W l mt nh
x tuyn tnh, A l mt khng gian con ca V, B l mt khng gian con
ca W. Khi :
1) f(A) 1 mt khng gian con ca W. Hn na nu h vect {
1
,..,
m
} l mt h sinh ca A th h vect {f(
1
),..., f( m)} l mt h sinh
ca f(A);
2) f
-1
(B) l mt khng gian con ca V.
Chng minh. 1) V 0
v
A nn 0
w
= f( 0
v
) f(A); tc l f(A) .
Gi s
1
,
2
thuc f(A) v r, s thuc K. Theo nh ngha ca f(A) tn
ti
1
,
2
thuc A sao cho
1
= f(
1
),
2
= f(
2
). V f l mt nh x
tuyn tnh nn

V A l mt khng gian con ca V nn r
1
+ s
2
A. Do
r
1
+ s
2
= f(r
1
+ s
2
) f(A).
Theo nh l 2.2, Ch.II, f(A) l mt khng gian con ca W.
By gi gi s {
1
,...,
m
} l mt h sinh ca A. Khi f(
i
) f(A)
vi mi i {1,..., m}. Vi mi f(A), tn ti mt A sao cho =
f( ). Nhng l mt t hp tuyn tnh ca h vect {
1
,...,
m
} chng
hn,

132
Do

Vy f(A) sinh bi h vect {(f
1
),..., f(
m
)}
2) V f( 0
v
) = 0
w
B nn 0
v
f
-1
(B); ngha l f
-1
(B) . Gi s
1
,
2
thuc f
-1
(B) v r, s thuc K. Theo nh ngha ca nh ngc,
f(
1
), f(
2
) thuc B. V B l mt khng gian con ca W, f l mt nh x
tuyn tnh nn

Do

Li theo nh l 2.2, Ch.II, f
-1
(B) l mt khng gian con ca V.
T ta c h qu 1 sau y.
H qu 1. Gi s f: V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
Khi :
1) Imf l mt khng gian con ca W.
2) Kerf l mt khng gian con ca V.
H qu 2. Gi s f: V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
1) f l mt ton cu khi v ch khi Imf = W.
2) f l mt n cu khi v ch khi Kerf = 0
v
.
Chng minh.
1) Hin nhin.
2) Gi s f l mt n cu v Kerf. Khi f( ) = 0 w =
f( 0
v
). V f l n cu nn = 0
v
. Suy ra Kerf = {v}.
Gi s Kerf = { 0
v
}. chng minh f l mt n cu ta phi
chng minh rng nu f(
1
) = f(
2
) th
1
=
2
. Nhng khi f(
1
) = f(
2
)
ta c

133
iu ny c ngha l
1
-
2
Kerf. Suy ra
1
-
2
= 0
v
v Kerf =
{0
v
}. Do
1
=
2
. Vy f l mt n cu.
V d 5. nh x tuyn tnh g: R
4
R
3
trong v d 2, l mt ton cu
v Img = R
3
.
V d 6. nh x tuyn tnh h: R
2
R
3
trong v d 3, l mt n cu
v Kerh = { 0 }.
Khi f: V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh th Kerf l mt khng gian
con ca V cn Imf l mt khng gian con ca W. Tuy nhin s chiu ca
chng c mi lin quan cht ch vi s chiu ca khng gian ngun V.
2.2. Lin h gia s chiu ca nh, ht nhn v khng gian ngun
nh l. Gi s f. V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh. Khi , dimV =
dimImf + dimKerf.
Chng thinh. Gi s Imf c c s () = {
1
,
2
,...,
m
}. Vi mi
i

ta chn mt
j
c nh thuc V sao cho f(
j
) =
j
. Khi {
1
,...,
2
,...,
m
} l mt h vect c lp tuyn tnh ca V.

V h vect () c lp tuyn tnh nn r
1
= r
2
... = r
m
= 0.
Gi U l khng gian con ca V sinh bi h vect {
1
,...,
2
,...,
m
}
ta s chng minh rng V = Kerf + U. Vi V, ta c f( ) Imf. V
() l c s ca Imf nn

Do

134
iu ny c ngha l -
m
1 j
j
j
s Kerf.

Hn na U Kerf = 0 . Tht vy, nu U Kerf th, chng hn,

V () l mt c s ca Imf nn x
1
= x
2
=... = x
m
= 0; suy ra = 0 .
Do U Kerf = 0 . Theo nh l 2, mc 5.2, Ch.II.
dimV = dimU + dimKerf - dim(U Kerf).
Nhng dim(U Kerf) = 0 v dimU = m = dimImf.
Vy dimV = dimImf + dimKerf.
V d. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f: R
4
R
2
xc nh bi:
f(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) = (a
1
- a
2
, a
3
).
Tm s chiu ca Imf v ca Kerf.
Gii
Gi () l c s chnh tc ca R
4
. Theo nh l , mc 2.1, Imf sinh bi
h vect f() = {f(
1
), f(
2
), f(
3
), f(
4
)}. Do ch cn tm hng ca h
vect (f(). Theo nh ngha ca nh x f, ta c:

Hng(f()) bng hng ca ma trn
135

D thy hng ca ma trn ny bng 2. Do dimImf = 2. Theo nh
l trn, ta c:
dimKerf = dimR
4
- dimImf = 4 - 2 = 2.
Nh nh l trn, ta c c mi lin h gia hai khng gian vect
ng cu.
2.3. S ng cu gia hai khng gian cng s chiu
nh l. Hai K-khng gian vect ng cu khi v ch khi chng c
cng mt s chiu.
Chng minh. Gi s f. V W l mt ng cu. Khi f ng
thi l mt n cu v mt ton cu. Do Kerf = 0 v Imf = W. Theo
nh l 2.2,
dimV = dimW + dimKerf.
V dimKerf = 0 nn
dimV = dimW.
Gi s dimV = dimW - n , () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} l mt c s
ca v, cn () = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
} l mt c s ca w. Theo nh l mc
1.2, c nh x tuyn tnh
f: V W s ao cho f(
i
) =
i
, vi mi i {1, 2 ,..., n}.
Theo nh l 2.2, Imf cng sinh bi h c s (). Do Imf = W;
ngha l f l mt ton cu. Theo nh l 2.2,
dimKerf = dimV - dimImf = dimV - dimW = 0.
Theo h qu 2, mc 2.1, f l mt n cu.
Vy f: V W.
H qu. Gi s V v W l hai K-khng gian vect. nh x tuyn tnh
f: V W l mt ng cu khi v ch khi n bin mt c s ca V thnh
mt c s ca W.
136
Theo nh l trn y, mi R-khng gian vect n chiu u ng cu
vi khng gian R
n
. V th, mun nghin cu cc tnh cht chung ca R-
khng gian vect, ch cn nghin cu trn khng gian R
n
. iu ny cho
thy tm quan trng ca khng gian R
n
.
3. CC PHP TON TRN TP CC
NH X TUYN TNH - HOMK(V, W)
K hiu tp hp cc nh x tuyn tnh t K-khng gian vect V n
K-khng gian vect W bi HomK(V, W). Ta s xc nh cc php ton
trn HomK(V, W).
3.1. Php cng hai nh x tuyn tnh
Mnh v nh ngha. Vi hai nh x tuyn tnh bt k f, g
HomK(V, W), nh x f + g: V W xc nh bi:

l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
f + g c gi l tng ca hai nh x tuyn tnh f v g.
Chng minh. Tht vy, vi , V v vi r, s k, ta c:

Vy f + g l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
V d. Cho f, g Hom
K
(R
4
, R
2
), xc nh bi:

Xc nh f + g. Tm Im(f + g) v Ker(f + g.
Gii
Theo nh ngha, vi = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) tu thuc R
4
, ta c:
137

Nh vy vi mi (x
1
, x
2
) R
2
, nu chn a
1
=
2
1
x
1
v a
4
= x
2
, th

ngha l f + g l mt ton cu. Vy Im(f + g) = R
2
.

Suy ra

3.2. Php nhn mt nh x tuyn tnh vi mt s
Mnh . Vi nh x tuyn tnh bt k f HomK(V, W) v s k K,
nh x kf: V W xc inh bi:

l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
kf c gi l tch ca nh x tuyn tnh f v s k.
Vi k = - 1, nh x (- 1)f c gi l nh x i ca f v c k hiu
bi f.
V d. Cho P
2
l khng gian vect gm a thc 0 v cc a thc c
bc b hn hay bng 2, thuc R[x], nh x f: P
2
R
3
xc nh bi:

Chng minh rng f l mt nh x tuyn tnh v 3f l mt ng cu.
Gii
Ta chng minh f l mt nh x tuyn tnh. Gi s ax
2
+ bx + c, a'x
2

+ b'x+ c' thuc P
2
v r, s R. Khi
138
r(ax
2
+ bx + c) + s(a'x
2
+ b'x + c) = (ra + sa')x
2
+ (rb + sb')x + rc + sc'.
Theo gi thit
f(r(ax
2
+ bx + c) + s(a'x
2
+ b'x + c'))
= f((ra + sa')x
2
+ (rb + sb')x + rc + sc')
= (ra + sa', -(rb + sb'), -(rc + sc')) = r(a, -b , -c) + s(a', -b', - c')
= rf(ax
2
+ bx + c) + sf(a'x
2
+ b'x + c').
Theo h qu mc 1.1, f l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
By gi ta chng minh 3f l mt ng cu.
Trc ht, nu ax
2
+ bx + c Ker3f th
(0, 0, 0) = 3f(ax
2
+ bx + c) = 3(a, -b, -c) = (3a, -3b, -3c).
Suy ra 3a = - 3b = - 3c = 0 hay a = b = c = 0. Do Kerf= {0}. Vy f
l mt n cu.
Vi (r
1
, r
2
, r
3
) R
3
, nu chn a thc
3
r
1
x
2
-
3
r
2
x -
3
r
3
P2 th

iu ny chng t 3f l mt ton cu.
Vy f: P
2
R
3
.
3.3. Khng gian vect Hom
K
(V, W)
Mnh . Php cng hai nh x tuyn tnh v php nhn mt nh x
tuyn tnh vi mt s tho mn cc tnh cht sau:
f+ g = g + f,
(f+ g) + h = f+ (g + h);
f+ 0 = f trong 0 l ng cu khng;
f+ (- t) = 0;
k(f+ g) = kf+ kg;
(k + 1)f = kf + lf,
(k1)f= k(1f);
139
1f= f,
vi mi f, g, h thuc HomK(V, W), k, 1, 1 thuc trng K.
Ni cch khc Hom
K
(V, W) l mt K-khng gian vect.
Chng minh. Vi cc nh ngha ca hai php ton ni trn, bn c
c th d dng kim tra cc tnh cht ny.
3.4. Tch hai nh x tuyn tnh
Mnh 1. Gi s f: V W, g: W~ Um hai nh x tuyn tnh. Th
th nh x gf : V U xc nh bi (gf)( ) = g(f( )), vi mi V,
cng l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
N c gi l tch ca hai nh x tuyn tnh f v g.
Chng minh. V f v g l nhng nh x tuyn tnh nn vi , V
v vi r, s K, ta c:

iu ny chng t gf l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
V d. Cho f. R
3
R
4
. g: R
4
R
2
xc nh bi:

Khi nh x tuyn tnh gf c xc nh bi:

Ta thy rng tch gf ch c xc nh khi tp ngun ca g l tp ch
ca f. Do nu V W th, ni chung, trong Hom
K
(V, W) khng c
khi nim tch ni trn ca hai nh x tuyn tnh.
Mnh 2. Gi s f, g , h l nhng nh x tuyn tnh. Khi :.
h (gf) = (hg)f,
h(f + g) = hf + hg, (f + g)h = fh + gh,
nu cc php ton hai v ca ng thc u c ngha.
Chng minh. ng thc th nht l ng i vi ba nh x bt k.
Ta phi chng minh hai ng thc cn li. lm v d, chng minh
140
ng thc h(f + g) = hf + hg.
Gi s f, g: U V, h: V W, ta phi chng t rng h(f + g)( ) =
(hf + hg)( ), vi mi U. Theo cch xc nh tng hai nh x, ta c
(f + g)( ) f( ) + g( ).
Theo cch xc nh ca tch hai nh x ta c:

V h l mt nh x tuyn tnh nn:

Li theo nh ngha ca tch hai nh x, ta c:

Li theo nh ngha ca tng hai nh x:

Kt cc h(f + g)( ) = (hf + hg)( ), vi mi U.
Vy h(f + g) = hf + hg.
Bn c t chng minh ng thc cn li.
141
TM TT
V, W, U l nhng K-khng gian vect.
f: V W, l mt nh x tuyn tnh nu f( + ) - f( ) + f( ),
f(r ) = rf( ) hay
f(r ) + s ) = rf( ) + sf( ) , vi mi , V, mi r, s K.
Nu () = {
1
,
n
} l mt c s ca v th mi h vect {
1
,...,
n
} ca
W xc nh duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh f : V W sao cho f(
i
) =
i
,
vi mi i {1,..., n}.
f l mt n cu nu n l mt n nh, l mt ton cu nu n l
mt ton nh v l mt ng cu nu n ng thi l n cu v ton
cu.
f: V W dimV = dimW.
nh x tuyn tnh f to nn mi lin h gia tp cc khng gian con
ca V v tp cc khng gian con ca W.
A l mt khng gian con ca V th
f(A) = { W | = f( ) vi mt A} l mt khng gian con
ca W.
B l mt khng gian con ca W th:
f li) = { V | f( ) B } l mt khng gian con ca V.
Imf = f(V) c gi l nh ca V hay nh ca f, Kerf = f
-1
{ 0
w
} c
gi l ht nhn ca f.
Nu {
1
,
2
, ,...,
m
} l mt h sinh ca khng gian vect V th
{(
1
), f(
2
), ,..., f(
m
)} l mt h sinh ca Imf.
f : V W l mt ton cu khi Imf = W, h mt n cu Kerf
= {0 }.
dimV = dimImf + dimKerf.
Hom
K
(V, W) l tp cc nh x tuyn tnh t V n W. Vi f, g
Hom
K
(V, W), k K,
142
f + g xc nh bi: (f + g) ( ) - f( ) + g( ),
kf xc nh bi: (kf)( ) = kf( ), vi mi V.
Nu f : V W v g: f : W U th (gf)( ) - g(f( )), vi mi V.
143
BI TP
1. NH NGHA - S XC NH MT NH X TUYN
TNH
1. Trong cc nh x sau y, nh x no 1 nh x tuyn tnh?
a) f: R
3
R
3
xc nh bi f(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) = (a
1
, 0, 0),
b) g: R
3
R
3
xc nh bi g(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) = (a
1
, 0, a
1
-a
2
);
c) h: R
3
R
3
xc dnh bi h(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) = (a
1
, a
2
-2 , 0);
d) k: R
3
R
2
xc nh bi k(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) = (a
1
, a
2
+ a
3
);
e) l: R
3
R
2
xc dnh bi l(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) = (a
1
, a
2
a
3
);
f) P: R
3
R
2
xc nh bi p(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) = (a
1
, 3a
2
);
g) q: R
3
R
4
xc nh bi q(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) = (a
1
, a
1
-a
2
, 0, a
2
-a
3
);
h) t: R
3
R
3
xc nh bi t(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) = (a
1
, a
1
+ a
2
,a
3
) ?
2. Trong cc nh x bi tp 1, nh x no 1 n cu, ton cu,
ng cu ?
3. Cho
1
= (1, 0, 0),
2
= (0, 1, 0),
3
= (0, 0, 1) 1p thnh c s
chnh tc ca R
3
v ba vect
1
= (1, 2, 0),
2
= (1, 0, -1),
3
(0, - 2, 2).
nh x tuyn tnh f : R
3
R
2
c xc nh bi f(
i
) =
i
= 1, 2, 3. Tm
nh ca cc vect = (- 3, 0, 5), = (2, 2, - 7), = (0, 5, 0) , = (x
1
, x
2
,
x
3
).
4. Cho cc vect
1
= (2, 3, 1),
2
= (0, 1, 2),
3
= (1, 0, 0),
1
= (1,
1, -1),
2
= (1, 1, 1),
3
= (2, 1 , 2). Chng minh rng tn ti duy nht
mt nh x tuyn tnh f : R
3
R
3
sao cho f(
i
) =
i
. Tm f(1, 0, 0).
5. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : R
3
R
3
tho mn iu kin:
f(1, 1, 0) = (1, -1 0) , f(1, 0, 1) = (2, 0, 1), f(0, - 1, 0) = (0, - 2, 0).
Tm sao cho: f( ) - (3, 0, 0).
6. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f : V W v h vect a = {
1
,
2
,...,
m
}
trong V. Chng minh rng nu h vect {f(
1
), (
2
),..., (
m
)} c lp
tuyn tnh th h a cng c lp tuyn tnh.
144
7. Cho V, W l hai K-khng gian vect, f : V W l mt n cu
v h vect a = {
1
,
2
,...,
m
} c lp tuyn tnh trong V. Chng minh
rng h vect {f(
1
), (
2
),..., (
m
)} c lp tuyn tnh trong W.
8. Cho V, W l hai K-khng gian vect, f : V W l mt ton cu
v h vect b = {
1
,
2
,...,
m
} c lp tuyn tnh trong W. Vi mi
i

ta chn mt ; c nh sao cho f(
i
) =
i
- 1, 2,..., m. Chng minh rng:
a) H vect a = {
1
,
2
,...,
m
} c lp tuyn tnh trong V.
b) Nu h vect a l mt c s ca V th f l mt ng cu.

2. NH V HT NHN CA NH X TUYN TNH
9. Xt cc nh x tuyn tnh trong bi tp 1.
a) Tm nh v ht nhn ca mi nh x.
b) Nh nh v ht nhn suy ra nh x no l n cu, l ton cu.
c) Tm s chiu ca nh, ca ht nhn ca mi nh x.
10. Cho P
2
l R-khng gian vect gm a thc 0 v cc a thc f(x)
R[x] vi bc f(x) 2. d: P
2
P
2
xc nh bi d(f(x)) = f '(x), y
f'(x) l o hm ca f(x). Tm Imd, Kerd, dimImd, dimKerd.
11. Cho A v B l hai K-khng gian vect. V = A B l K-khng
gian vect vi hai php ton sau:
(
1
,
1
) + (
2
,
2
) = (
1
+
2
,
1
+
2
), k( , ) = (k , k ).
(xem bi tp 5, Ch. II)
Chng minh rng:
a) nh x p: V A xc nh bi p( , ): l mt ton cu. Tm
Kerd.
b) nh x u: B V xc nh bi u( ) = ( 0 , ) l mt n cu. Tm
Imu.
12. Cho f. V W l mt ton cu, {
1
,...,
r
} l mt c s ca Kerf.
B sung vo h vect ny c mt c s {
1
,...,
r
,
r+1
,...,
n
} ca
V. Chng minh rng:
145
a) H vect {f(
r+1
),..., f(
n
)}l mt c s ca W.
b) Gi U l khng gian con sinh bi h vect {
r+1
,...,
n
}. Chng
minh rng
f
|U
: U W l mt ng cu.

3. CC PHP TON TRN CC NH X TUYN TNH
13. Trong mi trng hp di y hy xc nh f + g, f - g, fg, gf
ri tm nh, ht nhn, s chiu ca nh, s chiu ca ht nhn ca chng:
a) f: R
3
R
3
, f(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) = (a
1
, a
2
, 0),
g: R
3
R
3
, g(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) = (ai- a2' 0, a3).
b) f: R
2
R
2
, f(a
1
, a
2
) = (a
1
+ a
2
, a
1
- a
2
),
g: R
2
R
2
, g(a
1
, a
2
) = (2a
1
, 0).
14. Cho f. R
4
R
3
, g: R
3
R
2
, trong f(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) = (a
1
+ a
2
,
a
3
, a
4
), g(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) = (a
1
, a
2
- a
3
,).
a) xc inh nh x gf.
b) Tm Imgf, Kergf.
c) gf c phi l mt ton cu khng?
15. Chng minh rng:
a) Tch ca hai n cu l mt n cu;
b) Tch ca hai ton cu l mt ton cu;
c) Tch ca hai ng cu l mt ng cu.
16. Tng ca hai n cu c phi l mt n cu khng? Cho v d
minh ha cu tr li. Cng cu hi i vi hai ton cu.
17. Cho f. U V, g: V W l hai nh x tuyn tnh. Chng minh
rng:
a) Nu gf l mt n cu th f l mt n cu;
b) Nu gf l mt ton cu th g l mt ton cu.
18. Cho f: V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh. Chng minh rng:
a) Nu f l mt n cu th tn ti mt ton cu g: W V sao cho gf
146
= I
v
, (1
v
l ng cu ng nht trn V).
b) Nu f l mt ton cu th tn ti mt n cu g: W V sao cho fg
= 1
w
, (1
w
l ng cu ng nht trn W).
19. Cho f, g Hom
K
(V, W). Chng minh rng:
a) Ker(kf) + g) Kerf Kerg;
b) Ker(kf) = Kerf vi mi k K, k 0.
20. Cho f. U V, g: V W l hai nh x tuyn tnh. Chng minh
rng:
a) Im(gf) = g(Imf);
b) Ker(gf) = f
-1
(Kerg).
21. Cho f: V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh, A l mt khng gian con
ca V, B l mt khng gian con ca W. Chng minh rng:
a) f
-1
(f(A)) = A + Kerf,
b) f(f
-1
(B)) = W Imf.
22. (Bi tp tng hp) Cho f v g l hai nh x t khng gian vect
R
4
n R
4
xc nh ln lt bi :
f(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) = (a
1
, a
2
, - a
3
, a
4
), g(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) = (2a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, - a
4
).
a) chng minh rng f v g l nhng t ng cu ca R
4
.
b) K hiu h = f + g. nh x tuyn tnh h c phi l mt n cu, mt
ton cu khng?
c) Tm mt c s () ca Kerh v mt c s () ca Imh.
d) Vi mi vect
j
trong c s ca Imh ta chn mt
j
sao cho h(
j
)
=
j
. Gi U l khng gian vect sinh bi cc vect
j
va chn. Chng
minh rng R
4
l tng trc tip ca U v Kerh (xem bi tp 28, Ch. II).
e) Tm vect (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) sao cho gf(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) = (- 2, 0, 1, 0).
f) Gi W l khng gian con ca R
4
sinh bi hai vect
1
= (0, 2, -1,
0),
2
= (1, 0, 1, 0).
Tm mt c s ca f
-1
(w).
Tm mt c s ca g(w).
147
VI NT LCH S
Nh ni trong mc vi nt lch s ca chng II, mt trong nhng
ngi sng to ra khi nim khng gian vect l nh ton hc c tn l
Hermann Gunther Grassmann. Sau , Peano, nh ton hc ngi Italia
vo nm 1888, a ra nh ngha tin ca khng gian vect (hu
hn chiu hoc v hn chiu) trn trng s thc vi cc k hiu hon
ton hin i, ng cng nh ngha khi nim nh x tuyn tnh t mt
khng gian ny vo mt khng gian khc. Peano l mt trong s nhng
ngi sng lp phng php tin , v cng l mt trong s nhng
ngi u tin nh gi ng n gi tr ca nhng cng hin ca
Grassmann. Sau t lu, Pinkerle th
pht trin nhng ng dng ca i s tuyn
tnh vo l thuyt hm. iu gip ng
tm hiu c nhng trng hp "lin hp
Lagrange c bit" ca nhng nh x tuyn
tnh lin hp v n mau chng nh
hng n khng nhng vic nghin cu
phng trnh vi phn m c phng trnh
o hm ring. Kt qu ca Pinkerle c
th hin trong cc cng trnh ca Hilbert v
trng phi ca ng v khng gian Hilbert,
v cng c th hin trong cc ng dng
ca chng vo gii tch. Cng nh nh x tuyn tnh, vo nm 1922,
Banach nh ngha khng gian m sau ny mang tn ng; l nhng
khng gian khng ng cu vi khng gian lin hp vi n.
148
Chng IV
H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH
M U
Ni dung gio trnh ton trng Ph thng l cc tp hp s, a
thc, phn thc, hm s v phng trnh, trong c phng trnh bc
nht. mi ch nghin cu cch gii h phng trnh bc nht hai n.
Mt trong nhng phng hng m rng ton hc ph thng l tng
qut ho h phng trnh bc nht. l h phng trnh tuyn tnh.
Chng ny s trnh by l thuyt tng qut v h phng trnh ny. Ta
s thy y khng i hi mt iu kin no v s phng trnh, s n.
L thuyt ny rt quan trng v n c hon thin nh khng gian
vect v nh thc. N c nhiu ng dng khng nhng trong nhiu
ngnh ton hc khc nh: i s, Hnh hc; Gii tch; L thuyt phng
trnh vi phn, phng trnh o hm ring; Quy hoch tuyn tnh, m cn
trong nhiu lnh vc khoa hc khc v c trong kinh t.
Ni dung ca chng ny l:
iu kin c nghim ca mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut,
- Phng php gii;
- H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht;
- Mi lin h gia nghim ca h tng qut vi h thun nht.
cng l nhng vn m bn c cn nm vng. Bn c cn
gii nhiu bi tp c k nng gii cc h phng trnh v c th vn
dng chng trong khi nghin cu cc mn khoa hc khc hoc ng dng
vo thc t.
hiu c cn k l thuyt h phng trnh tuyn tnh, bn c
cn nm vng nhng iu c bn v khng gian vect nh c s, hng
ca h vect, hng ca ma trn. gii c cc h phng trnh tuyn
tnh cn c k nng tnh nh thc.
149
1. PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH - PHNG PHP GAUSS
Trc ht, ta nhc li nh ngha h phng trnh tuyn tnh c
ni n mc 6.1, Ch.I.
1.1. nh ngha.
1) H phng trnh tuyn tnh n n l h c dng:

trong x
1
, x
2
,..., x
n
l cc n; a
ij
, b
i
thuc trng s K, vi i {1, 2,...,
m}, j {1, 2,..., n}.
a
ij
c gi l h s ca n x
j
, b
i
c gi l hng t t do.
2) Mt nghim ca h (1) l mt b n s (c1, c
2
,..., c
j
,..., c
n
) thuc
trng K sao cho khi thay x
j
= c
j
th mi ng thc trong h (1) u l
nhng ng thc s ng.
3) Ma trn

c gi l ma trn cc h s ca h phng trnh.
Ma trn

c gi l ma trn b sung ca h phng trnh.
4) Hai h phng trnh tuyn tnh c gi l tng ng nn
150
chng c cng mt tp nghim.
Ta c th vit gn h phng trnh (1) di dng:

Nu coi mi ct ca ma trn B nh mt vect trong khng gian K
m
,
chng hn:

th c th vit h (1) di dng:

v gi l dng vect ca h (1). Nh vy, vi ngn ng khng gian
vect gii h phng trnh (1) l tm cc h s x; trong cch biu din
tuyn tnh qua h vect {
1
,
2
,...,
n
}.
Nu xt nh x tuyn tnh a xc nh bi h vect ct a = {
1
,
2
,
n
} ca ma trn A, nh nh ngha v d 4, mc 2.1, Ch.III v
coi = (x
1
, x
2
,..., x
n
) nh mt vect n th h phng trnh (1) c dng:
A ( ) =
l dng nh x tuyn tnh ca h (1). Gii h phng trnh (1) cc
ngha l tm tp cc vect c dng = (c
1
, c
2
,..., c
n
) K
n
sao cho a( )
= , hay tm a
-1
( ).
1.2. Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh bng phng php Gauss
(kh dn n s)
trng Ph thng ta bit gii h phng trnh bng phng
php cng i s. Phng php ny da vo nh l sau y v bin i
tng ng h phng trnh.
nh l.
1) Nu i ch mt phng trnh trong h th c mt h tng
ng vi h cho.
2) Nu nhn mt phng trnh vi mt s khc 0 th c mt h
tng ng vi h cho.
151
3) Nu nhn mt phng trnh vi mt si khc 0 ri cng vo mt
phng trnh trong h th c mt h tng ng vi h cho.
Da vo nhng php bin i ny ta c th kh dn n s ca h; ni
chnh xc hn l, bin h cho thnh mt h tng ng, trong cc
phng trnh cng v cui th s n cng t.
V d 1. Gii h phng trnh:

Gii
Nhn hai v ca phng trnh (1) ln lt vi - 2, - 3 ri cng l lt
vo phng trnh (2) v phng trnh (3), ta c h:

Nhn hai v ca phng trnh (4) vi - 4 ri cng vo phng trnh
(5) c:

T (6) suy ra x
3
= - 2. Thay x
3
= - 2 vo phng trnh (4) ta tnh c
x
2
= 0. Thay x
2
= 0, x
3
= - 2 Vo phng trnh (1) ta tm c x
1
= 1. H
c nghim duy nht (1, 0, - 2).
Phng php gii trn y c gi l phng php kh dn n s
do K. Gauss xut nn cn gi l phng php Gauss.
C th, khi thc hin phng php ny ta ch thc hin cc php bin
i sau y trn cc dng ca ma trn b sung B ca h phng trnh:
a) i ch hai dng cho nhau;
b) Nhn cc thnh phn ca mt dng vi cng mt s khc 0;
152
c) Nhn cc thnh phn ca mt dng vi cng mt s ri cng vo
mt dng khc.
l nhng php bin i s cp trn ma trn ni n mc 7.4,
Ch.II.
Chng hn, gii h phng trnh trong v d 1, ta trnh by nh
sau:

(Phn ca ma trn ng bn tri gch thng ng l ma trn A)
Nhn dng th nht ln lt vi - 2, - 3, ri ln lt cng vo dng
th hai v dng th ba:

Nhn dng th hai vi - 4 ri cng vo dng th ba:

Ma trn cui cng chnh l ma trn b sung ca h phng trnh cui
cng.

153
Gii

i ch dng th nht v dng th hai cho nhau:

Nhn dng th nht ln lt vi - 4, - 2, - 4, ri ln lt cng vo cc
dng th hai, th ba, th t:

Nhn dng th ba vi - 1 ri cng ln lt vo dng th hai v dng

Nhn dng th hai vi - 5 ri cng vo dng th ba:

Ma trn ny l ma trn b sung ca h phng trnh:
154

R rng mi nghim ca h ba phng trnh u ca h ny u l
nghim ca phng trnh cui cng. Do ch cn gii h gm ba
phng trnh u.
H c nghim duy nht: (1, 2, -1).

Gii

i ch dng th nht vi dng th ba ri tip tc bin i ta c:

Ma trn cui cng ng vi h phng trnh:
155

Ta li ch cn gii h gm hai phng trnh u ca h ny.
Vit n di dng:

Nu cho x
3
= c
3
, x
4
= c
4
, vi c
3
, c
4
thuc trng s K th v phi ca
mi phng trnh trong h ny l mt s v h tr thnh mt h Cramer
v nh thc ca n l
2 0
1 1
= - 2 0. Do x
1
, x
2
c xc nh duy
nht bi cc ng thc:

Nh vy h phng trnh c nghim l :

V c
3
, c
4
c th nhn gi tr tu trong K nn h c v s nghim v
ni (*) l nghim tng qut ca h.
Nu cho c
3
, c
4
mt gi tr c th th ta c mt nghim ring ca h.
Chng hn, vi c
3
= 0, c
4
= 1, ta c mt nghim ring l (-1, - 2, 0, 1).

Gii
Bn c hy t tm hiu nhng php bin i sau:
156

Ma trn cui cng ng vi h phng trnh tng ng vi h
phng trnh cho m phng trnh cui cng l: 0x
1
+ 0x
2
+ 0x
3
+
0x
4
= - 1 2. Phng trnh ny v nghim. Vy h cho v nghim.
1.3. Thc hin phng php Gauss trn my tnh in t
Qua cc v d trn, ta thy vic gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh bng
phng php Gauss c thc hin bng cch a ma trn b sung B
ca h v dng m ta tm gi l dng thu gn. Do gii h phng
trnh tuyn tnh bng phng php ny trn my tnh thc cht l yu cu
my tnh a ma trn B v dng thu gn.

Gii
To ma trn b sung B ri thu gn:
{{1, - 5, 4, - 7}, {2, - 9, -1, 4}, {3, - 11, - 7, 17}} //RowReduce//
MatrixForm
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[] =

157
vy nghim ca h phng trnh l (1, 0, - 2) v ma trn ny ng vi h
Phng trnh:

Ta tip tc gii li cc h phng trnh trong cc v d 2, 3, 4 ca
mc 1, 2.

Gii.
{{4, 2, 1, 7}, {1, -1, 1, -2}, {2, 3, - 3, 11}, {4, 1, - 7}}//RowReduce//
MatrixForm
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[] =

Nghim ca h l: (1, 2, -1).

Gii
{{3,-1,-1,2,1},{1,-1,-2,4,5}, {1,1,3,-6,-9},
158
{12,-2,1,-2,-10}}//RowReduce//MatrixForm
Mn hnh xut hin:

Ma trn ny ng v h phng trnh:

Cho x
3
= c
3
, x
4
= c
4
, suy ra nghim tng qut ca h l:


{{4,2,1,-3,7},{1,-1,1,2,5},{2,3,-3,1,3},{4,1,-1,5,1}}
//RowReduoe//MatrixForm
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[] =
159

H v nghim v ma trn ny cho thy phng trnh cui l 0x
1
+ 0x
2

+ 0x
3
+ ox
4
= 1.
2. DIU KIN H PHNG TRNH
TUYN TNH C NGHIM
Ta dng phng php Gauss gii mt h phng trnh tuyn
tnh tu . Song trong trng hp tng qut ta cha tr li cu hi: Vi
iu kin no th h (1) c nghim? nh l sau cho ta cu tr li.
2.1. iu kin c nghim
iu kin ny lin quan n hng ca ma trn A v ma trn b sung
B ca h phng trnh, cho nn ta cn nh li rng: Hng ca mt h
vect bng s chiu ca khng gian sinh bi h vect y; hng ca ma
trn bng hng ca h vect ct ca n.
nh l Kronerker-Capelli. H phng trnh tuyn tnh (1) c
nghim khi v ch khi hng(A) = hng(B).
Chng minh. Ta k hiu a = {
1
,
2
, ,...,
n
} l h vect ct ca
ma trn A, b = {
1
,
2
, ,...,
n
, } l h vect ct ca ma trn b sung
B ca h phng trnh (1), U l khng gian sinh bi h vect a, W l
khng gian sinh bi h vect b. V a b nn U W.
Gi s h c nghim (c
1
, c
2
,..., c
n
). Khi = c
1
1
+ c
2
2
+...+
c
n
n
. iu ny c ngha l ta thm vo h a vect l t hp tuyn
tnh ca h a c h b. Theo mnh mc 7.1, Ch.II, hng(A) =
hng(a) = hng(b) = hng(B).
Gi s hng(A) - hng(B). Th th hng(a) - hng(b). Suy ra
dimU = dimW. V U W nn theo nh l 1, mc 5.2, Ch.II, U = W.
160
Do U. V th tn ti b n s
(c
1
, c
2
,..., c
n
) sao cho = c
1
l
+ c
2
2
+... + c
n
n
. Vy h (1) c
nghim.
V d 1. Mi h Cramer u c nh thc |A| 0. Do hng(a) = n.
Ma trn B ch c n dng v |A| cng l nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0
ca B. V th hng(A) = hng(B). Vy mi h Cramer u c nghim.
V d 2. Xt h phng trnh trong v d 3 ca mc 1.3. Cc php
bin i s cp a cc ma trn A v B v dng thu gn sau y:

Theo nh l mc 7.4, Ch.II, cc php bin i s cp khng lm
thay i hng ca ma trn. Do ma trn ny cho thy hng(A) = 2 =
hng(B). Vy h cho c nghim.
V d 3. Xt h phng trnh trong v d 4 ca mc 1.3. Cc php
bin i s cp a cc ma trn A v B v dng thu gn sau y:

Ta thy hng(a) = 3, hng(b) = 4. H v nghim.
2.2. Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh bng nh thc
By gi ta nghin cu cch gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh (1) bng
nh thc.
Ta bit nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 ca ma trn A cho ta
bit s chiu v c s ca khng gian sinh bi h vect dng ca ma trn
161
A. Gi s hng(A) = hng(B) = r, v khng lm mt tnh tng qut, ta c
th gi thit nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 ca A v B l:

Nu r = n th h phng trnh cho l mt h Cramer, n c nghim
duy nht.
Nu r < n th ta xt h phng trnh gm r phng trnh u.

Mi vect dng ca ma trn b sung B u l t hp tuyn tnh ca r
vect dng u. V th mi nghim ca h (3) cng l nghim ca mi
phng trnh t th r + 1 n th m; do l nghim ca h (1). Ngc
li, hin nhin mi nghim ca h (1) l mt nghim ca h (3). V th
ch cn gii h (3).
Ta vit n di dng:

v gi cc n x
r+1
,..., x
n
l nhng n t do.
Vi mi b n - r s (c
r+1
,..., c
n
) K
n-r
cc v phi ca r phng trnh
ny l nhng hng s. V nh thc D 0 nn khi h (3) tr thnh mt
h Cramer, ta tm c gi tr duy nht ca x
1
,..., x
r
, chng hn, x
1
= c
1
,
x
2
= c
2
,..., x
r
= c=. Khi

l mt nghim ca h (4). Nh vy cc gi tr ca c
1
, c
2
,..., c
r
ph thuc
vo n - r tham s c
r+1
,..., c
n
. Do c
r+1
,..., c
n
c th nhn v s gi tr nn h
phng trnh (4) c v s nghim.
162
Vy khi r < n h (1) c v s nghim ph thuc vo n - r tham s.
Nu coi rng c
r+1
,..., c
n
nhn gi tr tu th nghim (c
1
, c
2
,..., c
r
, c
r+1
)
c gi l nghim tng qut. Nu cho mi c
j
, j = r + 1,... , n, mt gi tr
xc nh th ta c mt nghim ring.

Gii
Tm hng ca cc ma trn:

nh thc D =
3 1 2
0 4 2
1 5 1
= 36. Do hng(A) = 3.
tnh hng ca B ta ch cn tnh cc nh thc con ca B bao quanh
D.
l:

V th hng(B) = 3 = hng(B). Vy h c nghim. Gii h phng
trnh (gm cc phng trnh ng vi cc dng ca nh thc D):
163

l mt h Cramer v D 0. p dng cng thc Cramer ta tm
c nghim l: (1, - 2, 1).
V d 2. Gii h phng trnh trong v d 3 mc 1.2.

Gii
Tm hng ca cc ma trn:

Ta thy nh thc

Tnh cc nh thc con cp ba ca A bao quanh D. Chng u bng
0. Do hng(A) = 2. Lm tng t ta tm c hng(B) = 2. Vy h c
nghim. Gii h (gm cc phng trnh ng vi cc dng ca nh thc
D):

Vit h ny di dng:

Cho x
3
= c
3
, x
4
= c
4
, ta c h Cramer:
164

Nu cho, chng hn, c
3
= 0, C
4
= 1 th c mt nghim ring: (-1, -
2, 0, 1).
V d 3. Gii v bin lun h phng trnh:

Gii

Nu a 1, a - 2 th D 0, h cho l mt h Cramer.
D
x
= - (a -1)
2
(a+1), D
y
= (a 1)
2
, D
z
= (a
2
-1)
2
.
H c nghim duy nht:

Nu a - 1 th h phng trnh ch c mt phng trnh:
x + y + z = 1 hay x = - y - z + 1.
Nghim tng qut ca h l (- c
2
- c
3
+ 1, c
2
, c
3
).
Nu a = - 2 th ma trn
165

c nh thc bng 0 nhng c nh thc con

cn ma trn b sung B =
4
2
1
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2
c nh thc cp ba
4 1 1
2 2 1
1 1 2

=9 ; ngha l hng(B) = 3 hng(A).

Vy h v nghim.

3. H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH THUN NHT
3.1. nh ngha
Cho h phng trnh tuyn tnh:

H phng trnh

c gi l h thun nht lin kt vi h (1).
166
Nu vit di dng vect th h (1) v h (2) c dng tng ng l:

Nu vit di dng nh x tuyn tnh th h (1) v h (2) c dng
tng ng l:
A( ) = (1), a( ) = 0 (2).
Gii h thun nht (2) chnh l tm tp hp cc vect c dng = (c
1
,
c
2
,..., c
n
) K
n
sao cho a( ) = 0 , hay tm Kerha.
V d: H phng trnh:

l mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht.
R rng h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht c mt nghim l (0,
0, 0). N c gi l nghim tm thng. Nu A l ma trn cc h s cn
B l ma trn b sung ca h thun nht th ta lun lun c: hng(A) =
hng(B) v mi thnh phn ct cui ca ma trn B u bng 0.
Gi s hng(A) = r. Nu r = n th (0, 0,... , 0) l nghim duy nht.
Nu r < n th h c v s nghim, do h c nghim khc (0, 0,..., 0).
By gi, ta hy xt xem tp nghim ca h ny c cu trc nh th
no v nghim ca n lin quan vi nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn
tnh lin kt nh th no.
3.2. Khng gian nghim ca h thun nht
nh l. Gi s S l tp nghim ca h phng trinh tuyn tnh thun
nht (2). Khi :
1) S l mt khng gian con ca khng gian vect K
n
.
2) Nu A l ma trn cc h s v hng(A) = r th dimS = n - r.
Chng minh.
1) Xt h tuyn tnh thun nht (2) di dng nh x tuyn tnh. Nh
trong nh ngha 3.1 ni, tp nghim S = Kera. Theo h qu 1, mc
167
2.1, Ch.III, S = Kera l mt khng gian con ca khng gian K
n
.
2) Gi s hng(A) = r. Theo v d 4, mc 2.1, Ch. III, Ima l khng
gian sinh bi h vect ct ca ma trn A nn t nh l 2.2, Ch.III, suy ra:
dimS = dimKera = dimK
n
dimIma = n - hng(a) = n - hng(A) = n -
r.
nh ngha. Mi c s ca khng gian S cc nghim ca mt h
phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht c gi l mt h nghim c bn.
tm h nghim c bn ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht
(2) ta lm nh sau.
Gi s r < n v khng lm mt tnh tng qut ta c th gi thit rng
nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 ca ma trn A l

Khi h (2) tng ng vi h

Mi nghim ca h ph thuc vo n - r n t do: x
r+1
, x
r+2
,.., x
n
.
Cho x
r+1
= 1 x
r+2
= ... = x
n
= 0 ta c mt nghim c dng:
1
= (c
11
,
c
12
,..., c
1r
, 1, 0,..., 0).
Ln lt cho x
r+1
= 0, x
r+2
= 1, x
r+1
= ... = x
n
= 0, v.v... Kt cc, ta
c n - r nghim ring:

l n - r vect thuc S.
Ma trn m cc dng l nhng vect ny c nh thc con cp n - r
168

Do hng ca h vect {
1
,
2
,...,
n-r
} bng n - r. Vy h c lp
tuyn tnh. V dimS = n - r nn theo h qu, mc 5.1, Ch.II, h vect ny
l mt c s ca S. Vy h nghim {
1
,
2
,...,
n-r
} l mt h nghim c
bn.
Ch : Trong cch tm
j
ca h nghim c bn trn y, khng nht
thit phi chn x
r+j
= 1, m c th chn x
r+j
l mt s khc 0 no thun
tin cho vic tnh ton.
V d 1. Tm h nghim c bn ca h phng trnh:

Ma trn cc h s c nh thc con cp hai

H phng trnh cho tng ng vi h:

Cc n t do l x
1
, x
4
. Gii h ny ta c:

Cho x
1
= 1, x
4
= 0, ta c x2 = -2, x
3
= 0. Nghim ring tng ng
l (1, -2, 0, 0).
Cho x
1
= 0, x
4
= 1, ta c x
2
=
3
2
x
3
=
3
5
. Nghim ring tng ng
169
l (0,
3
2
,
3
5
, 1).
Vy h nghim c bn l:

Nu khi tm vect th hai ca h nghim c bn ta cho x
1
= 0, x
4
= 3
th ta c nghim ring tng ng l (0, 2, 5, 3) v h vect

cng c lp tuyn tnh v c nh thc con
2 0
2 1
= 2.V dimS = 2 nn
h vect ny cng l mt c s ca S; do n cng l mt nghim c
bn.
Ch : Bit mt h nghim c bn {
1
,
2
,...,
n-r
} ca h phng
trnh tuyn tnh thun nht l bit tt c cc nghim ca n v khi mi
nghim l mt t hp tuyn tnh ca h nghim c bn ny; tc l mi
nghim u c dng

V d 2. Gii h phng trnh sau bng phng php Gauss, ri tm
h nghim c bn ca h phng trnh:

Bin i ma trn A:
170

H cho tr thnh h tng ng:

Nghim tng qut ca h l (c
3
- c
4
, 2c
3
+ c
4
, c
3
, c
4
)
cho x
3
= 1, x
4
= 0, ta c mt nghim ring: (1, 2, 1, 0).
Cho x
3
= 0, X
4
= 1, ta c mt nghim ring: (-1, 1, 0, 1).
H nghim c bn l:
1) 0, 2, (-1,
0) 1, 2, (1,

Ta xt tip mi lin h gia cc nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn
tnh v ca h thun nht lin kt. Nhc li rng mi nghim ca mt h
phng trnh tuyn tnh n n l mt vect ca khng gian Kt.
3.3. Lin h gia nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh v
nghim ca h thun nht lin kt
nh l. Nu K
n
l mt nghim ring ca h phng trnh tuyn
tnh th mi nghim ca h ny l tng ca vi mt nghim ca h
thun nht lin kt.
Ni chung, nghim tng qut ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh bng
tng ca mt nghim ring ca n v nghim tng qut ca h thun
nht lin kt.
Chng minh. Gi s = (c
1
, c
2
,..., c
n
) l mt nghim ring ca h
phng trnh tuyn tnh (1) v = (d
1
, d
2
,..., d
n
) l mt nghim bt k ca
171
h thun nht (2). Khi :

iu ny c ngha l + = (c
1
+ d
1
, c
2
+ d
2
,..., c
n
+ d
n
) l mt
nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh (1).
Ngc li, gi s = (k
1
, k
2
,..., k
n
) l mt nghim tu ca h
phng trnh tuyn tnh (1); ngha l
=
=
n
1 j
j j B k

iu ny c ngha l l mt nghim ca h thun nht (2). Hn
na t = - Suy ra = + .
Ch . ngha ca nh l trn y l: Nu bit mt nghim ring
ca mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh v bit mt h nghim c bn ca h
thun nht lin kt th bit c tt c cc nghim ca h phng trnh
tuyn tnh y. Nh iu ny m my tnh c th gii h phng trnh
tuyn tnh tu .
3.4. Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh bng my tnh in t
Khi gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh (1) vi hng(A) hng(B) my
tr li h v nghim. Khi hng(A) - hng(B) - r < n th my ch c th
cho mt nghim ring. Nhng v my c th cho h nghim c bn ca
h thun nht lin kt nn ta c th tm c cng thc nghim tng qut
ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh.
Theo mt chng trnh tnh ton ci t trong my tnh ca bn
cng c nhiu phng php gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh. y xin
gii thiu mt phng php n gin nht, theo chng trnh
"MATHEMATICA 4.0""
172

Gii
To ma trn cc h s, nh lnh:
A={{3,-1,-1,2},{1,-1,-2,4},{1,1,3,-6},{12,-2,1,-2}}
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[1]={{3,-1,-1,2},{1,-1,-2,4},{1,1,3,-6},{12,-2,1,-2}}
Gii h phng trnh, nh lnh:
LinearSolve[A,{1,5,- 910}]
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[2]-{-2,-7,0,0}
l mt nghim ring ca h cho.
Tm h nghim c bn ca h thun nht lin kt, nh lnh:
NullSpace[A]
Mn hnh xut hin h nghim c bn ca h thun nht:
Out[3]={{1,5,0,1}, {-1,-5,2,0}}.
Mun tm nghim tng qut ca h cho ta ch vic ly tng ca
mt nghim ring ca h cho vi mt t hp tuyn tnh ca h nghim
c bn ca h phng trnh thun nht lin kt:
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) = (-2, -7, 0, 0) + c
3
(-1, -5, 2, 0) + c
4
(1, 5, 0, 1) = (-2-c3+
c
4
, -7- 5c
3
+ 5c
4
, 2c
3
, c
4
).
Ch : Nu quan st nghim tng qut y vi nghim tng qut
v d 2, mc 2.2, ta thy chng khc nhau. Song nu thay c3 y bi c
3

=
2
1
c
3
th ta c cng thc nghim tng qut v d 2, mc 2.2. Hn
na mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh c th c v s nghim ring v h
thun nht cng c th c v s h nghim c bn. Do , theo nh l
3.4, ni chung, c v s cch biu din nghim tng qut.
173

Gii
To ma trn cc h s.
A={{3,-17-1,2},{1,-1,-2,4},{1,1,3,-6},{12,-2,1,-2}}
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[1]={{3,-1,-1,2},{1,-1,-2,4},{1,1,3,-6},{12,-2,1,-2}}
Gii h phng trnh, nh lnh:
LinearSolve[A,{1,5,-9,10}}]
Mn hnh xut hin:
LinearSolve: nosol: Linear equation encountered which has no
solution
Out[2]=linearsolve[{{3,-1,-1,2},1,-1,-2,4~1,1,3,-6},{12,-2,1,-2}},{1,5,-
9,10}].
iu ny c ngha rng h v nghim. S d h v nghim l v
hng(A) = 2, cn hng(B) - 3.
174
TM TT
Chng ny trnh by l thuyt v h phng trnh tuyn tnh.
V phng din l thuyt, nh cc kin thc v khng gian vect v
nh thc, chng ny cho ta bit: h c nghim khi v ch khi hng(A)
= hng(B), trong A l ma trn cc h s ca h phng trnh, B l ma
trn b sung.
Trong trng hp h c n n, nu hng(A) = hng(B) = n th l h
Cramer, n c nghim duy nht; nu hng(a) = hng(b) - r < n th h c
v s nghim m gi tr ca cc n ph thuc vo n - r n t do. Khi ,
nu cho mi n t do mt gi tr xc nh ta c mt nghim ring nu
coi mi n t do nh mt tham s th ta c nghim tng qut.
V phng din thc hnh, ta c hai cch gii h phng trnh tuyn
tnh: phng php Gauss kh dn n s v phng php dng nh thc.
Khi dng phng php nh thc ta ch cn gii h phng trnh gm
nhng phng trnh ng vi cc dng ca nh thc con cp cao nht
khc 0. Cc n t do l nhng n m h s nm ngoi nh thc con cp
cao nht khc 0 y.
H phng trnh tuyn tnh m cc h s t do bng 0 gi l mt h
phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht. H ny lun lun c nghim v
hng(A) = hng(B). Tp S cc nghim ca h thun nht n n l mt
khng gian con ca khng gian K
n
. Nu hng(A) - r th dims = n - r. Nu
bit mt nghim ring ca mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh th nghim
tng qut ca n bng nghim ring cng vi nghim tng qut ca
h thun nht lin kt.
175
BI TP
1. H PHNG TRNH TUYNTNH PHNG PHP GAUSS
1. Gii h phng trnh bng phng php Gauss

2. Chng minh nh t mc 1.2.
176
2. IU KIN H PHNG TRNH
TUYN TNH C NGHIM
3. Xt xem cc h phng trnh sau c nghim hay khng:

4. i vi mi h phng trnh sau, tm gi tr ca tham s a, b h
c nghim:

5. Tm iu kin cn v h phng trnh

c nghim .
6. Chng minh rng vi mi gi tr ca a, b, c h phng trnh

lun lun c nghim.
7. Tm gi tr ca tham s a h phng trnh sau c nghim:

177
8. Gii cc h phng trnh sau bng phng php nh thc:

9. Vi iu kin no th ba ng thng phn bit
a
1
x + b
1
y + c
1
= 0, a
2
x + b
2
y + c
2
= 0, a
3
x + b
3
y + c
3
= 0 ng quy?
10. Vit phng trnh ng trn i qua ba im: A(2, 1), C(0, 2),
C(0, 1).
11. Tm cc h s a, b, c, d th ca hm s y = ax
3
+ bx
2
+ cx +
d i qua bn im:
M
1
(1, 0), M
2
(0, -1), M
3
(-1, - 2), M
4
(2, 7).
12. xc inh tam thc bc hai f(x) = ax2 + bx + c bit rng f(1) = -1,
f(-3) = 47, f(2) = 12.
178
13. Trong khng gian vect R4 cho h vect:

Hy biu th tuyn tnh vect = (- 12, 3, 8, -2) qua h vect cho.
14. Trong khng gian vect R
3
cho hai c s:

Tm ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s (). Tm ta ca vect
= (-1, 2, 0) i vi c s ().
15. Trong khng gian vect R
3
cho hai c s:

Tm ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s ().

3. H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH THUN NHT
16. Gii cc h phng trnh sau:

17. Dng h phng trnh tuyn tnh v nh ngha ca h vect ph
thuc tuyn tnh chng t cc h vect sau trong khng gian vect R4
l ph thuc tuyn tnh:

179
18. Cc h vect sau:

h no l h nghim c bn ca h phng trnh

19. Tm h nghim c bn v s chiu ca khng gian nghim ca h
phng trnh:

20. Cho hai h phng trnh:
180

Bit mt nghim ring ca h a) l (
3
1
,
3
1
, 0, 0, 0), ca h b l (
3
2
,
6
1
, 0, 0, 0). i vi mi h phng trnh:
Tm nghim tng qut ca mi h nh h nghim c bn ca h
thun nht lin kt tng ng;
Nh nghim tng qut va tm c, tm mt nghim ring m cc
thnh phn ta l nhng s nguyn.
21. Cho h ba phng trnh bc nht:

Dng hng(A), hng(B), hy xt s c nghim v v nghim ca h
trong tt c cc trng hp c th xy ra v minh ha hnh hc cho mi
trng hp.
181
VI NT LCH S
Phng trnh tuyn tnh v h phng trnh tuyn tnh l nhng bi
ton c nht ca i s. Ngay t bui s khai ca ton hc ngi ta
gii nhng bi ton bng mt php nhn hoc mt php chia, tc l tm
nghim ca mt phng trnh dng ax = b. Vic gii cc phng trnh
bc nht c cc nh ton hc Babilon c Hilp bit n. Cc tc
phm ton hc ca iphng l nh cao ca nhng thnh tu nghin
cu ton hc thi k ny (th k th ba trc cng nguyn). Sau
nhng vn v phng trnh li c pht trin bi cc nh ton hc n
nh Ariabkhata (th k th Vi), Bramagupta (th k th VII) v
Khaskara (th k th XII). Ngi ta cng thy nhng bi ton v phng
trnh bc nht Trung Quc t th k th II trc cng nguyn.
Ni tm li, phng trnh tuyn tnh c bit n t rt sm. Tuy
nhin n li pht trin kh mun, v ngi ta coi rng a mt phng
trnh tuyn tnh v dng ax = b th ch cn bit quy tc chuyn B hng
t v ny sang v kia v rt gn cc s hng ng dng l , v mun
gii h nhiu phng trnh tuyn tnh th ch cn kh dn cho n khi ch
cn mt n. Do trong mt thi gian di n hu nh khng pht trin.
L thuyt v h phng trnh tuyn tnh sau ny c pht trin l do
nhng nhu cu v tnh ton, chng hn phi xc nh phng trnh ca
mt ng cong i qua nhng im cho trc. V th lc u ngi ta
ch bit n nhng h phng trnh c s phng trnh bng s n; v
nu c xut hin nhng h phng trnh m s phng trnh khc s n
th ngi ta coi rng bi ton t ra nh th l bi ton ti. Ngc li,
nh c i s tuyn tnh ni chung v h phng trnh tuyn tnh ni
ring m Hnh hc gii tch c hon thin n mc mu mc.
Nh c nh thc a ra bi Leibnitz (1646-1716), Cramer (1704-
1752), v khng gian vect c xng bi Grassmann v Hamilton
(1805-1865) v khi nim ma trn c hnh thnh bi nh ton hc Anh
J. Sylvester (1814-1897) m l thuyt phng trnh tuyn tnh ngy cng
c hon thin. Cramer trnh by li gii bi ton xc nh ng conic
i qua 5 im cho trc bi vic gii mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh nh
nh thc (tuy nhin khi cha c tn gi nh thc). Nh phng php
ca Cramer m sau ny vo nm 1771, Vandermonde (1735-1796), nh
ton hc Php, thit lp cng thc nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn
182
tnh m ngy nay gi l cng thc Cramer. Chnh Sylvester a ra c
khi nim hng ca ma trn nhng cha t tn gi cho ma trn.
L thuyt h phng trnh tuyn tnh nh hng su rng n cc
lnh vc khc nh phng trnh vi phn, phng trnh o hm ring.
Lagrange, Euler ng dng n vo vic nghin cu nhng h phng
trnh vi phn tuyn tnh v chnh cc v ny ni n h phng trnh
tuyn tnh thun nht v coi rng mi nghim ca mt h phng trnh
tuyn tnh khng thun nht l tng ca mt nghim ring ca n vi
nghim tng qut ca h thun nht lin kt. Cn nhiu nh ton hc
khc cng c cng lao trong vic nghin cu l thuyt h phng trnh
tuyn tnh, chng hn, K.Gauss (1777-1855), Kronecker (1823-1891)
(hai ton hc c) trong bi ging ca mnh trng i hc Berlin
Kronecker, a ra nh ngha tin cho nh thc.
183
Chng V
MA TRN
M U
Ta bit ma trn gp phn vo vic nghin cu l thuyt h phng
trnh tuyn tnh. By gi ta tip tc tm hiu ma trn su hn na; c
bit nghin cu mi lin h gia ma trn v nh x tuyn tnh. Ta s thy
rng, ma trn v nh x tuyn tnh lin h mt thit vi nhau. Khi c
nh hai c s ca hai khng gian vect th mt nh x tuyn tnh gia
hai khng gian y cho mt ma trn v ngc li, mt ma trn xc nh
mt nh x tuyn tnh duy nht.
Nh c ma trn m ta xc nh c gi tr ring v vect ring mt nh
x tuyn tnh; do xc nh c nhng khng gian con bt bin ng vi
nhng gi tr ring. Ma trn cng xc nh nhng dng nh x tuyn tnh
c bit c dng n chng Vi nh cc php bin i i xng, bin
i trc giao. Tri li, nh cc vect ring v gi tr ring ca nh x tuyn
tnh m c th a ma trn tr v dng n gin; l ma trn cho.
Ni dng ca chng ny l:
- Cc php ton trn cc ma trn;
- Ma trn nghch o ca mt ma trn vung;
- Gi tr ring, vect ring;
- Cho ho mt ma trn.
Bn c cn nm vng nhng vn ny v chng c p dng vo
ngay chng sau v trong nhiu lnh vc khoa hc khc.
hc tt chng ny bn c cn nm vng nhng kin thc v
khng gian vect v nh x tuyn tnh.
Trong cun sch ny ta k hiu tp hp cc ma trn kiu (m,n) vi
cc thnh phn trong trng K bi Mat(m.n)(K).
184
1. MA TRN CA MT NH X TUYN TNH
1.1. nh ngha. Gi s V v W l hai K-khng gian vect vi c s
ln lt l () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}, () = {
1
,
2
,...,
m
} f: V W l mt
nh x tuyn tnh m

c gi l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f i vi hai c s () v ()
C th vit gn cc ng thc (1) nh sau:

Ch : V () l mt c s ca W nn cc thnh phn an c xc
nh duy nht; do ma trn A c xc nh duy nht.
V d 1. Gi s I
v
= V V l ng cu ng nht ca khng gian
vect V, v () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} l mt c s bt k trong V. Khi :

Do ma trn ca IV i vi c s () l:

185
I c gi l ma trn n v.
Ma trn vung I = (a
ij
) c gi l ma trn n v nu

V d 2. Nu V, W l hai K-khng gian vect vi dimV = n, dimW =
m th ng cu 0 c ma trn i vi mi c s ca V v ca W l ma trn
O kiu (m,n) di y:

O c gi l ma trn khng, tc l ma trn m mi thnh phn u
bng 0.
V d 3. Gi s trong R
2
v R
3
chn cc c s chnh tc:

f: R
2
R
3
xc nh bi f(a
1
, a
2
) = (a
1
, 3a
2
, a
2
- 5a
1
). Khi :

Do ma trn ca f i vi hai c s ny l

V d 4. Gi s P
3
, P
2
l cc khng gian gm a thc 0 v cc a thc
thuc R[x] c bc tng ng khng vt qu 3, khng vt qu 2. d: P
3

P
2
l php ly o hm, () = {1, x, x
2
, x
3
}, () = {1, x, x
2
} ln lt l
c s ca P
3
v P
2
. Th th:
d(1) = 0 = 0.1 +0x + 0x
2

d(x) = 1 = 1.1 + 0x + 0x
2

186
d(x
2
) = 2x = 0.1 + 2x + 0x
2

d(x
3
) = 3x
2
= 0.1 + 0x + 3x
2

Do ma trn ca d i vi hai c s ny l

Trn y ta thy khi c nh hai c s () v () ca V v W,
th mi nh x tuyn tnh f. V W xc nh mt ma trn duy nht.
Ngc li ta s thy, khi mi ma trn cng xc nh nh x tuyn tnh
duy nht.
1.2. Lin h gia Hom
K
(V, W) vi Mat
(m.n)
(K)
Mnh . Gi s V, W l hai K-khng gian vect v
() = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}, () = {
1
,
2
,...,
m
}
ln lt l c s cm ch ca V v W. Khi :
1) Mi ma trn kiu (m, n) xc nh duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh f:
V W.
2) C mt song nh : Hom
K
(V, W) Mat
(m, n)
(K).
Chng minh.
1) Gi s

t a
1j
1
+ a
2j
2
+...,+ a
mj
m
}, vi mi j {1, 2,..., n } th theo nh
l 1.2, Ch.III, c nh x tuyn tnh f duy nht xc nh bi

Hn na, ma trn ca f l A.
2) C nh hai c s trong V v W. Vi mi fHom
K
(V, W), f xc
187
nh mt ma trn A duy nht. Xc nh nh x
: Hom
K
(V, W) Mat
(m, n)
(K) bi (f) = A.
Vi mi AMat
(m, n)
(K), c mt nh x tuyn tnh f duy nht m A l
ma trn ca n; tc l (f) = A. Do l mt ton nh. V f c xc
nh duy nht bi A nn l n nh.
Vy l mt song nh.

188
2. CC PHP TON TRN CC TP MA TRN
Ta bit trn tp hp Hom
K
(V, W) c php cng hai nh x tuyn
tnh v php nhn mt nh x tuyn tnh vi mt s. Hn na, khi c
nh hai c s ca V v W, ta c song nh
: Hom
K
(V, W) Mat
(m,n)
(K).
By gi ta mun nh ngha cc php ton trn cc ma trn sao cho
"ph hp" vi cc php ton trn cc nh x tuyn tnh; chng hn ma
trn ca tng hai nh x phi bng tng hai ma trn ca nhng nh x y.
2.1. Php cng
Mnh v nh ngha. Gi s A = (a
ij
)
(m,n)
v B = (b
ij
)
(m,n)
ln lt
l cc ma trn ca hai nh x tuyn tnh f, g Hom
K
(V, W) i vi hai
c s () v () chn trong V v W. Thm th ma trn ca nh x
tuyn tnh f + g i vi hai c s y l C = (a
ij
+ b
ij
)
(m,n)
.
Ma trn C c gi l tng ca hai ma trn A v B, k hiu l A + B.
Chng minh. Theo gi thit

Vy ma trn ca f + g i vi hai c s cho l (a
ij
+ b
ij
)
(m,n)
. Quy
tc cng ma trn. Mun cng hai ma trn ta ch vic cng cc thnh
phn tng ng (cng dng, cng ct) ca chng:

189

2.2. Php nhn mt ma trn vi mt s
Mnh v nh ngha. Gi sa = (a
ij
)
(m,n)
l ma trn ca nh x
tuyn tnh f Hom
K
(V, W) i vi hai c s () v () chn trong V
v W k K. Th th ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh kf i vi hai c s y
l ma trn C = (ka
ij
)
(m,n)
.
Ma trn C c gi l tch ca ma trn A vi s k, k hiu l kA.
Quy tc nhn ma trn vi mt s. Mun nhn mt ma trn A vi mt
s k ta ch vic nhn s k vi mi thnh phn ca A.

190
2.3. Php tr
nh ngha.
Ma trn (-1) A c gi l i ca ma trn A. K hiu l A.
Vi hai ma trn A v B, tng A + (-B) c gi l hiu ca A v B.
K kiu A - B.
Nh vy, vi A = (a
ij
)
(m,n)
v B - (b
ij
)
(m,n)
ta c: - B = (- b
ij
)
(m,n)
,
A - B = (a
ij
-b
i
j)
(m,n)
.

2.4. Khng gian vect Mat
(m,n)
(K)
Bn c c th d dng chng minh rng, cng nh Hom
K
(V, W),
tp hp Mat
(m,n)
(K) l mt K-khng gian vect.
Mnh . Php cng ma trn v php nhn mt ma trn vi mt s
thuc trng K c cc tnh cht sau:
1) A + B = B + A;
2) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C);
3) A + 0 = A;
4) A + (-A) = 0;
5) k(A + B) = kA + kB;
6) (k + 1)A = kA + lA;
7) (k1)A = k(1a);
8) 1.A = A, (1 l n v ca trng K),
vi mi A, B, C Mat
(m,n)
(K), mi k, l K
Ni gn, vi php cng hai ma trn v php nhn mt ma trn vi
mt s, Mat
(n.n)
(K) l mt K-khng gian vect.
191

mn iu kin 2X + A = B.
Gii. p dng mnh 2.4, cng - A vo hai v ca ng thc 2X +
A - B, ta c :

2.5. Tch ca hai ma trn
Mnh 1. Gi s trong mi khng gian U, V, W chn mt c s
c nh, A = (a
ij
)
(m,n)
l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f: V W, B =
(b
jk
)
(n,p)
l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh g: U V. Th th ma trn ca
nh x tuyn tnh fg l ma trn

Ma trn C c gi l tch ca hai ma trn A v B, k hiu l AB.
Chng minh.
Gi s () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
p
} l c s ca U, () = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
} l c
s ca V, () = {
2
,...,
m
} l c s ca W. Theo nh ngha ma trn ca
nh x tuyn tnh, ta c:
192

Quy tc nhn hai ma trn. Mun tm thnh phn c
ik
ca ma trn tch
AB ta phi ly mi thnh phn a
ij
ca dng th i trong ma trn A nhn
vi thnh phn b
jk
ca ct th k ca ma trn B ri cng li.
C th m t bi s sau:

Ch :
1) Theo nh ngha, tch AB ch c xc nh khi s ct ca ma trn
A bng s dng ca ma trn B.
2) Php nhn ma trn khng c tnh giao hon.
193

V d 3. Gi s () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} v () = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
} l hai
c s ca K-khng gian vect V, T = (t
ij
) l ma trn chuyn t c s ()
sang c s () (x
1
, x
2
,..., x
n
), (y
1
, y
2
,..., y
n
) ln lt l ta ca vect
i vi c s () v c s (). Th th theo nh l 6.3, Ch. II:

Nu vit hai vect ta di dng ma trn ct

th cc ng thc trn y c th vit l:

hay X = TY.
V d 4. Gi s hai K-khng gian vect V v W c c s ln lt l
() = {
1
,...,
n
}, () = {
1
,...,
m
} v ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f
194
i vi hai c s ny l

ta ca vect V i vi c s () v ta ca f( ) i vi c s
() c vit di dng ma trn ct ln lt l

Th th

Mt khc

Suy ra y
i
=
=
n
1 j
j j
x ai , vi mi in {1, 2,..., m}. iu ny chng t Y =
AX.
195
V d 5. Xt h phng trnh tuyn tnh

hay AX = b.
V d 6. Gi s A = (a
ij
)
(m,n)
v I
n
l ma trn n v cp n. Khi :

Tng t, nu I
m
l ma trn n v cp m th I
m
A = A.
Mnh 2. Vi cc ma trn A, B, C v mi s k K, ta c cc ng
thc sau (nu cc php ton c ngha):
1) Tnh kt hp: (AB)C = A(BC);
2) Tnh cht phn phi ca php nhn i vi php cng:
A(B + C) = AB + AC, (A + B)C = AC + BC,
196
3) k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB).
Chng minh. 1) Coi cc ma trn A, B, C ln lt nh ma trn ca
cc nh x tuyn tnh h: U X, g: W U, f: V W (vi c s
chn trong mi K-khng gian vect V, W, U, X). Theo mnh 1, mc
2.5, (AB)C l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh (hg)f, cn A(BC) l ma trn
ca nh x h(gf). Theo mnh 2, mc 3.4, Ch.III, (hg)f-h(gf). Nh song
nh
: Hom
K
(V, X) Mat
(m,q)
(K), (trong m = dimX, q = dimV),
suy ra (AB)C = ((hg)f) = h(gf)) = A(BC).
2) v 3) c chng minh tng t.
2.6. Thc hin cc php ton ma trn bng my tnh b ti v
my tnh in t

a) Dng my tnh b ti CASIO-fx570MS.
Tnh A + B, A - B, 6A.
Gii. Tnh A + B.
Chn MODE ma trn:
MODE MODE MODE 2
To ma trn A kiu (2,3)

ma trn,s 1 th hai l k hiu ma trn A).
Chn cc thnh phn ca A:

To ma trn B kiu (2,3):
SHIFT MAT 1 2 2 = 3 = (s 2 th nht l k hiu ma trn B)

197
Thc hin php cng:

ca s my tnh xut hin: - 5. l thnh phn c ca tng hai
ma trn. Nhy con tr sang phi ta c thnh phn c
12
. Tip tc nhy
con tr sang phi mi ln c mt thnh phn tip theo.
Ma trn A + B =
29
11
7 10
17 5

- Tnh A - B tng t.
- Tnh 6A.
Chn MODE ma trn:

To ma trn A kiu (2,3)

Chn cc thnh phn ca A:

Mn hnh xut hin: 18. l thnh phn c ca ma trn 6A. Nhy
con tr sang phi, mi ln c mt thnh phn theo th t: c
12
, c
13
, c
21
.
V d 2. Nhn ma trn.

Gii.
Thao tc nh khi lm tnh cng.
198

Mn hnh xut hin: 146. l thnh phn c ca tch. Tip tc nhy
con ch sang phi ln lt ta c cc thnh phn tip theo ca ma trn
tch.

b) Dng my tnh in t
Ta thc hin theo chng trnh MATHEMATICA 4.0.
A = {{3, 5,II}, {- 4, 0, 9}}
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[1]= {{3, 5,11}, {-4, 0, 9}}
B={{ - 8, 12, O},{14, - 7, 20}}
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[2]= {{ - 8, 12, 0},{14, - 7, 20}}
A+B//1MatrixForm
Mn hnh xut hin:

A-B//MatrixForm
Mn hnh xut hin:
199

6A//MatnxForm

Php nhn c thc hin bng mi thao tc nh i vi php cng
nhng phi thay du cng ( "+") bi du chm (".").
200
3. I S MATN(K) CC MA TRN VUNG CP N
Ta k hiu tp hp cc ma trn vung cp n vi cc thnh phn thuc
trng K bi Matn(K). Theo mnh 2.4, Matn(K) l mt K-khng gian
vect. Hn na, trong Matn(K) tch ca hai ma trn bt k lun lun xc
nh; tuy nhin, php nhn khng giao hon. Theo mnh 2, mc 2.5,
php nhn c tnh kt hp v phn phi i vi php cng v c ma trn
n v

Trong v d 6, mc 3.1, chng minh ma trn n v I c tnh cht:
AI = A = IA, vi mi A Matn(K). Nh vy, Matn(K) l mt khng
gian vect ng thi l mt vnh c n v, khng giao hon.
Ngi ta ni, Mat
n
(K) l mt i s trn trng K hay mt K-i s.
V mi ma trn thuc A Mat
n
(K) l mt ma trn vung nn n c
nh thc |A|.
Ta hy xt mi lin h gia nh thc v cc php ton trong
Mat
n
(K). Bn c c th cho nhng v d chng t rng: vi A, B l hai
ma trn vung cp n v s k K, ni chung:
1) |A + B| |A| + |B|.
2) |kA| k |A|.
Tri li, ta li c: |AB| = |A|.|B| vi mi ma trn A,B thuc Mat
n
(K).
3.1. nh thc ca tch hai ma trn
nh l. nh thc ca tch hai ma trn vung bng tch cc nh
thc ca hai ma trn y.
Chng minh.
Gi s:
201

Ta xt nh thc

Trong nh thc D, nh thc con gc trn bn tri l nh thc |A|,
mi nh thc con khc to bi n dng u u bng 0 v c mt ct vi
cc thnh phn u bng 0; tng t, nh thc con gc di bn phi
l nh thc |B|, mi nh thc con khc to bi n dng cui u bng 0.
Theo nh l Laplace, D = (-1)
2(1+2+...+n)
|A|.|B| = |A|.|B|.
By gi nhn ln lt cc dng th n + 1 vi a
11
, dng th n + 2 vi
a
12
,.., dng th n + j vi a
1j
,... dng th 2n vi a
1n
, ri cng vo dng
u. Khi dng u ca D bin thnh
0, 0,..., 0, c
11
, c
12
,.., c
1n
.
Tng qut, nhn dng th n +1 vi a
1i
,.., dng th n + i vi a
ij
,...,
dng th 2n vi a
in
ri cng vo dng th i th dng th i trong D bin
thnh
0, 0,..., 0, c
i1
, c
i2
,.., c
in
.
Theo tnh cht ca nh thc, nhng php bin i trn khng thay
i nh thc D.
Do vy:
202

By gi trong n dng u ca nh thc ny c lm gc trn bn
phi, cc nh thc con khc u bng 0. Theo nh l Laplace,

Gi s trong hai K-khng gian vect n chiu V v W c nh hai c
s. Nu A l ma trn ca ng cu f. V W, B l ma trn ca f
1
th theo
mnh 1 mc 2.5, AB l ma trn ca ff
-1
= 1w, BA l ma trn ca f
-1
f :
1
v
. V ma trn ca IV v ma trn ca 1
w
u l ma trn n v I nn AB =
I = BA. Ngi ta gi A v B l hai ma trn nghch o ca nhau.
3.2. Ma trn nghch o
nh ngha. Ma trn A Mat
n
(K) c gi l kh nghch nu tn ti
mt ma trn B Mat
n
(K) sao cho
AB = I = BA.
B c gi l ma trn nghch o ca A, k hiu B = A
-1
.
V d 1. Hin nhin I l ma trn kh nghch v I.I = I. Nh vy I l ma
trn nghch o ca chnh n.
V d 2. Trong Mat
2
(R) ma trn A =
|
|
\
|
3 1
5 2
c ma trn nghch
o A
-1
=
|
|
\
|
2 1
5 3
. Tht vy, ta c:
203

C nhng cu hi t ra l: C phi mi ma trn trong Mat
n
(K) u
c nghch o khng? Nu c th tm ma trn nghch o nh th no?
nh l sau s tr li nhng cu hi ny.
nh l. Ma trn vung A c ma trn nghch o khi v ch khi |A| =
0.
Chng minh.
Gi s ma trn A c nghch o l A 1. Khi theo nh l 3.1,

Gi s li b 0 v

t b
jk
=
A
A
kj
trong A
kj
l l phn b i s ca thnh phn a
kj
ca
ma trn A (xem nh ngha 4.1, Ch. I). Xt ma trn vung B - (b
jk
), hay

Khi AB c thnh phn
204

Nhng theo nh l v h qu, mc 4.2, Ch.I,

Ma trn m nh thc ca n khc 0 c gi l ma trn khng suy
bin. Vi khi nim ny c th pht biu nh l trn nh sau:
Mt ma trn l kh nghch khi v ch khi n khng suy bin.
3.3. Tm ma trn nghch o
1) Tm ta trn nghch o bng nh thc
Chng minh nh l trn y cho ta cch tm ma trn nghch o ca
mt ma trn c nh thc khc 0.
V d. Tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn

Gii. Tnh nh thc lai

Tm cc phn b i s
A
11
= 11, A
12
= - 3, A
13
= - 6, A
21
= -15, A
22
= 5, A
23
= 8, A
31
= - 3,
A
32
= 1, A
33
= 2.
205
Thit lp ma trn nghch o

2) Tm ma trn nghch o bng cc php bin i s cp
Nhc li rng, cc php bin i sau y trn mt ma trn l nhng
php bin i s cp:
1) i ch hai dng (hai ct) cho nhau;
2) Nhn mi thnh phn trong mt dng (ct) vi cng mt s khc
0;
3) Nhn mi thnh phn trong mt dng (ct) vi cng mt s ri
cng vo thnh phn cng ct (dng) trong mt dng (ct) khc. Bn c
c th t kim tra rng vi ma trn A:
Php bin i 1) chnh l nhn ma trn

vo bn tri (phi) ca A.
206


Hn na d thy rng cc ma trn P, Q, R, S u khng suy bin. Do
ta c nh l sau:
nh l. Nu thc hin nhng php bin i s cp nh nhau trn ma
trn khng suy din A v ma trn n v I m A bin thnh I th I bin
thnh A
-1
.
207
Chng minh. Nh nhn xt trn khi thc hin nhng php bin i
s cp trn cc dng ca ma trn A thc cht l nhn vo bn tri A mt
s hu hn nhng ma trn dng P, Q, R. Gi B l tch ca nhng ma trn
nhn vo bn tri A nh th c 1, ta c BA = I. Suy ra:
B = A
-1

Theo gi thit, ta cng ng thi nhn B vo bn tri ca I v c:
BI = B =A
-1
.

Gii. Ta vit hai ma trn A v I lin nhau. Mi khi thc hin mt
php bin i s cp no trn A th cng thc hin php bin i y trn
I.

Nhn dng th nht vi -3 ri cng vo dng th ba:

Nhn dng th hai vi
2
1
:

Nhn dng th hai vi - 3 ri cng vo dng th nht v nhn dng
th hai vi 8 ri cng vo dng th ba:
208

Nhn dng th ba vi -
2
3
ri cng vo dng th nht, nhn dng th
ba vi
2
1
ri cng vo dng th hai:

Ta thy li kt qu tm c v d trong mc 4.3.
3) Tm ma trn nghch o bng my tnh b ti v my tnh in
t
a) Dng my tnh CASIO-fx-570MS.
(Ch p dng c i vi ma trn cp 2 v cp 3)

Gii. To ma trn A nh thng l:

Tm ma trn nghch o
209

Mn hnh xut hin thnh phn ba ca ma trn nghch o. Nhy con
tr sang phi mi ln ta c mt thnh phn tip theo: b
12
, b
13
, b
21
,
b
22
,... Kt qu:

b) Dng my tnh in t (theo chng trnh "MATHEMATICA
4.0").

Gii. To ma trn
B = {{3,1,0,7},{6,-2,2,1},{5,1,7,0},{-4,3,8,-5}}
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[1] = {{3,1,0,7},{6, - 2,2,1},{5,1,7,0},{- 4,3,8, - 5}}
Tm ma trn nghch o:
Inverse[B]//MatrixForm
Mn hnh xut hin:

210
l ma trn nghch o B
-1
.
3.4. Mt vi ng dng u tin ca ma trn nghch o
1) Tm ma trn chuyn.
V ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s () v ma trn chuyn t
c s () sang c s () l hai ma trn ca hai nh x ngc nhau nn
nu T l ma trn chuyn t c s (E) sang c s () th ma trn chuyn t
c s () sang c s () l T
-1
.
V d. Tm ma trn chuyn t c s () gm cc vect
1
= (1, 1, 0),
2
= (0, 1, 1),
3
= (1, 0, 1) sang c s chnh tc ca khng gian R
3
.
Gii. D dng tm c ma trn chuyn t c s chnh tc () sang c
s () l:

Tm ma trn nghch o ca T ta c ma trn chuyn t c s ()
sang c s chnh tc l:

2) Gii h Cramer
V d 4, mc 2.5, cho cch vit h phng trnh di dng ma
trn
AX = b
trong A l ma trn ca h phng trnh, X l ma trn ct cc n, b l
ma trn ct cc hng t t do.
T suy ra: X = A
-1
b.
ng dng ny ch mang tnh l thuyt: n chng minh rng h
Cramer c nghim duy nht. Trong thc hnh, n khng em li li ch
211
g hn cch gii bng nh thc.
u mc ny ta thy nu mt ng cu f xc nh bi ma trn A
th A kh nghch. By gi ta chng minh y mt c trng ca ng
cu bi ma trn.
3.5. Ma trn ca mt ng cu
Mnh . Mt nh x tuyn tnh l mt ng cu khi v ch khi ma
trn ca n khng suy bin.
Chng minh. Gi s f. V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh. C nh hai
c s trong V v W. Gi A l ma trn ca f. Ta c dy cc tng ng
sau y:
f l ng cu tn ti f
-1
= W V vi ma trn B sao cho f
-1
f = 1
v
,
ff
-1
= 1
v
vi ma trn B sao cho BA= I = AB A kh nghch |A| 0
A khng suy bin.
212
4. S THAY I CA MA TRN CA MT NH X TUYN
TNH KHI THAY I C S - MA TRN NG DNG
4.1. S thay i ca ma trn ca mt nh x tuyn tnh khi thay
i c s
Ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f: V W ph thuc vo hai c s ca
V v W Chng hn, v d 1, mc 1.1 cho thy ma trn ca ng cu 1
v
=
V V i vi c s () l ma trn n v I. Gi s S = (s
ij
) l ma trn
chuyn t c s () sang c s (). Khi ta c:

iu ny chng t ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s () l ma
trn ca ng cu ng nht 1
v
i vi hai c s () v (). Nh vy, ma
trn ca 1
v
thay i khi i c s.
Vy tng qut, khi i c s th ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh thay
i nh th no?
nh l. A v B l hai ma trn ca cng mt nh x tuyn tnh khi v
ch khi tn ti hai ma trn khng suy bin S v T sao cho
B = T
-1
AS.
Chng minh. Gi s A l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f: V
W i vi hai c s () v () tng ng trong V v W, B l ma trn ca
f i vi hai c s () v (). Gi S l ma trn chuyn t c s () sang
c s (), T l ma trn chuyn t c s () v (). Nh trn ni, S l
ma trn ca ng cu ng nht 1v i vi hai c s () v (). Tng
t, T l ma trn ca ng cu ng nht 1
w
i vi hai c s () v ().
Hin nhin
1
w
.f = f = f.1
v
.
Theo mnh 3.2, TB l ma trn ca 1
w
.f cn AS l ma trn ca f.1
v

i vi hai c s () v (). Nh vy:
213
TB = AS.
V cc ma trn chuyn kh nghch nn t suy ra:
B =T
-1
AS.
Gi s B T
-1
AS, A l ma trn ca f i vi hai c s () v ()
S v T l nhng ma trn khng suy bin. Coi S v l ma trn chuyn t
c s () sang c s () no , cn T l ma trn chuyn t c s ()
sang c s () no . Khi T
-1
l ma trn chuyn t c s () sang
c s (). Theo nhn xt trc nh l, S v T
-1
ln lt l ma trn ca
cc nh x tuyn tnh 1
v
v 1
w
. Theo mnh 1, mc 2.5, B l ma trn
ca 1
w
.f.1
v

Nhng 1
w
.f.1
v
= f nn B cng l ma trn ca f.
Ni ring, khi V = W v () = (), () = () th S = T v B = T
-1
AT.
4.2. Ma trn ng dng
nh ngha. Hai ma trn A v B c gi l ng dng nu c mt
ma trn T sao cho B = T
-1
AT. K hiu A ~ B.
Theo nh ngha ny, mun tm mt ma trn ng dng vi mt ma
trn A ch cn ly mt ma trn T khng suy bin ri ly ma trn tch T
IAT.
H qu. Hai ma trn ng dng khi v ch khi chng l hai ma trn
ca cng mt t ng cu.
V d. Cho

l ma trn ca t ng cu f. V V i vi c s {
1
,
2
} ca V.
Tm ma trn ca f i vi c s gm cc vect:

Gii. Ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s () l
214

nh ngha 4.2 cho ta thy mt iu l th v mi lin quan gia hai
ma trn ca cng mt t ng cu i vi hai c s khc nhau. By gi
ta mun tin xa hn na: i vi mt t ng cu f: V V ta mun tm
mt c s () = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
} ca khng gian V sao cho ma trn ca n
c dng "p nht", l ma trn A = (a
ij
) c dng

Ta gi l ma trn cho.
Khi f(
j
) = a
jj
j
v ni rng
j
l mt vect ring ca f, cn li l
gi tr ring ca f ng vi vect
j
.

215
5. VECT RING-GI TR RING
5.1. Vect ring- Gi tr ring
nh ngha 1. Gi s V l mt khng gian vect, f: V V l mt t
ng cu. Vect 0 ca V c gi l mt vect ring ca f nu tn
ti mt s K sao cho
f( ) = k .
S k c gi l gi tr ring ca f ng vi vect ring .
Nu A l ma trn ca t ng cu f th gi tr ring ca f cng c
gi l gi tr ring ca ma trn A.
V d 1. Cho php bin i tuyn tnh f: R
2
R
2
c ma trn i vi
c s chnh tc () l

f c hai gi tr ring l k
1
= 1, k
2
= - 2, = (4, - 1) l vect ring ng
vi k
1
, = (1, -1) l vect ring ng vi k
2
. Tht vy, v f(
1
) = 2
1
-
2
, f(
2
) = 4
1
- 3
2
, = 4
1
-
2
nn

C nhng t ng cu m mi vect khc 0 u l vect ring.
V d 2. Gi s f: V V l mt t ng cu ca R-khng gian vect
V, xc nh bi f( ) = 3 , vi mi V. D kim tra rng f l mt t
ng cu ca khng gian vect V. R rng mi vect khc 0 ca V u
l vect ring ng vi gi tr ring k = 3.
216
Li c nhng t ng cu khng c vect ring no.
V d 3. T ng cu f: R
2
R
2
xc nh bi f(a
1
, a
2
) = (- a
2
, a
1
)
khng c vect ring no. Tht vy, nu = ( a
1
, a
2
) l vect ring ng
vi gi tr ring k th k(a
1
, a
2
) = f(a
1
, a
2
) = (- a
2
, a
1
) hay (ka
1
, ka2) = (- a
2
,
a
1
). Suy ra:

V 0 nn, chng hn, a
1
0. T cc ng thc trn suy ra a
1
= -
k
2
a
1
, ko theo k
2
= - 1. l iu v l.
Theo nh ngha ca vect ring ta thy rng ng vi mt gi tr
ring c v s vect ring. Chng hn, nu l mt vect ring ng vi
gi tr ring k ca t ng cu f: V V th mi vect ca khng gian
con U sinh bi cng l vect ring ng vi gi tr ring k; hn na
f(U) U. Tht vy, vi mi r U ta c:
f(r ) = rf( ) = r(k ) = k(r ) U.
Ngi ta ni U l mt khng gian con bt bin ca V i vi f. Tng
qut ta c nh ngha sau.
nh ngha 2. Gi s f: V V l mt t ng cu ca khng gian
vect V. Khng gian con W ca V c gi l mt khng gian con bt
bin i vi f nu vi mi W ta u c f( ) W.
By gi ta xt tp hp cc vect ring ng vi mt gi tr ring.
Mnh . Gi s V l mt khng gian vect, tp hp gm vect 0 v
cc vect ring ng vi gi tr ring k ca t ng cu f: V V l mt
khng gian con bt bin ca V v c gi l khng gian ring ng vi
gi tr ring k.
Chng minh. Gi W l tp hp gm vect 0 v cc vect ring ng
vi gi tr ring k ca f. R rng W v 0 W. Gi s , W v
r, s K. V f l nh x tuyn tnh nn:

iu chng t r + s 1 mt vect ring ng vi k. Do r +
217
s W. Vy W l mt khng gian con ca V. Hn na W bt bin i
vi fv nu W th f( ) = k( ) W.
Cc vect ring ng vi cc gi tr ring phn bit ca mt t ng
cu lin quan vi nhau nh th no?
nh l. Nu
1
,
2
,...,
p
l nhng vect ring tng ng vi cc
gi tr ring i mt phn bit k
1
, k
2
,..., k
p
ca t ng cu f th chng
lp thnh mt h vect c lp tuyn tnh.
Chng minh. Ta chng minh bng quy np theo p.
Khi p = 1, mnh ng v
1
0 .
Gi s p > 1 v mnh ng vi p 1. Ta phi chng minh rng
nu c ng thc
r
1
+ r
2
2
+... + r
p-1

p-1
+ r
p
p
= 0 (1)
th bt buc r
1
= r
2
=...= r
p-1
= r
p
= 0.
V
i
l nhng vect ring ng vi gi tr ring k
i
nn tc ng f vo
hai v ca ng thc (1) ta c:

By gi nhn hai v ca (1) vi p ri tr vo (2) ta c:

Theo gi thit quy np, h vect {
1
,
2
,,...,
p-1
} c lp tuyn tnh.
Do :
r
1
(k
1
k
p
) = r
2
(k
2
k
p
) =... = r
p-1
(k
p-1
k
p
) = 0.
V cc k
i
i mt khc nhau nn r
1
= r
2
=... = ra = 0.
Thay cc gi tr ny vo (1) ta li c r
p
p
= 0 . Nhng
p
0 nn r
p
=
0.
Vy h vect {
1
,
2
,,...,
p
} c lp tuyn tnh.
5.2. Da thc c trng - Cch tm vect ring
tm vect ring ta ch cn tm ta ca chng i vi c s
cho.
218
Gi s ma trn ca t ng cu f. V V i vi c s () l

c ta l (x
1
, x
2
,.., x
n
) l mt vect ring ng vi gi tr ring k khi
v ch khi f( ) = k . Nhng khi ta ca f( ) l (kx
1
, kx
2
,..., kx
n
).
Theo v d 4, mc 2.5,

C th hn l:

hay

Ni tm li l mt vect ring ng vi gi tr ring k khi v ch khi
ta (x
1
, x
2
,..., x
n
). Ca n l nghim ca h phng trnh (**).
V vect ring khc 0 nn h phng trnh ny c nghim khng tm
thng. Do nh thc

iu ny chng t mt t ng cu m ma trn ca n l A =
219
(a
ij
)
(m,n)
, c vect ring khi v ch khi phng trnh (***) i vi n k c
nghim.
nh thc D chnh l nh thc ca ma trn A - kI, trong I l ma
trn n v. nh thc ny vit c di dng mt a thc bc n ca k:
|A kI| = D = (-1)
n
k
n
+... + |A|.
Ch rng nu A v B l hai ma trn ca cng mt t ng cu th
c mt ma trn khng suy bin T sao cho B = T
-1
AT. Do :

Nh vy, i vi mt t ng cu, a thc ni trn khng ph thuc
vo c s ca khng gian vect.
nh ngha. Gi s A l ma trn ca t ng cu f. Ma trn A - kI
c gi l ma trn c trng, cn a thc
|A kI| = (-1)
n
k
n
+... + |A|
c gi l a thc c trng ca t ng cu f.
T nhng iu ni trn suy ra cch tm vect ring nh sau.
Cch tm vect ring.
1) Tm nghim ca a thc c trng (tc l nghim ca phng
trnh (***)). l cc gi tr ring,
2) Thay mi gi tr ring tm c vo v tr ca k trong h (**) ri
gii h ny. Mi nghim ring ca h l ta ca mt vect ring ng
vi gi tr ring y. Khng gian nghim ca h (**) xc nh khng gian
ring ng vi gi tr ring va chn.
V d 1. Cho php bin i tuyn tnh f: R
3
R
3
c ma trn i vi
c s chnh tc l

Tm cc gi tr ring ca f v ng vi mi gi tr ring tm mt vect
220
ring. Tm cc khng gian bt bin tng ng ca f.
Gii. Gii phng trnh

ta c: k
1
= - 3, k
2
= 1, k
3
= 3.
Vi k
1
= 3, h phng trnh (**) l h:

Gii h ny c nghim tng qut l (
5
6
c, -
5
7
c, c).
Cho c
3
= 5 ta c mt nghim ring
1
= (6, - 7, 5).
Khng gian bt bin gm tt cc cc vect c dng (
5
6
c, -
5
7
c, c) hay
5
c
(6, - 7, 5). l khng gian sinh bi
1
.
Vi k2 = 1, gii h

ta c nghim tng qut (- 2c
3
, c
3
, c
3
).
Cho c
3
= 1, c mt nghim ring
2
= (- 2, 1, 1).
Khng gian bt bin tng ng gm cc vect c dng c
3
(- 2, 1, 1) =
c
3
2
. Vy khng gian bt bin ny sinh bi
2
.
Vi kt = 3, gii h

221
ta c nghim tng qut: (0, c, c).
Cho c = 1 ta c mt vect ring ng vi k
3
= 3 l
3
= (0, 1, 1).
Khng gian bt bin tng ng gm cc vect c dng: (0, c, c) =
c(0, 1, 1) = c
3
. Vy khng gian bt bin ny sinh bi
3
.
V ba vect ring
1
,
2
,
2
tng ng vi ba gi tr ring phn bit
nn theo nh l mc 5.1, chng c lp tuyn tnh. V dimR
3
= 3 nn
chng to thnh mt c s ca R
3
.
V d 2. Cho t ng cu f: R
3
R
3
c ma trn i vi c s chnh

Tm cc gi tr ring v vi mt khng gian ring tm mt c s.
Gii. Gii phng trnh

ta c: k
1
= - 9, k
2
= k
3
= 9.
Vi k
1
= - 9, gii h

ta c nghim tng qut: (2c, c, 2c). V hng ca ma trn ca h
phng trnh ny bng 2 nn theo nh l 3.2, Ch.IV, khng gian ring
W
1
tng ng (tc l khng gian nghim) c dimW
1
= dimR
3
- 2 = 1. Do
mt vect ring bt k l mt c s, chng hn, vi c = 1, = (2, 1, 2)
l mt c s.
Vi k
2
= 9, gii h

222
ta c nghim tng qut: (c
1
, - 2c
1
-2c
3
, c
3
). Hng ca ma trn ca h
phng trnh ny bng 1 nn khng gian ring tng ng W
2
(khng
gian nghim) c
dimW
2
= dimR
3
- 1 = 2.
Mt c s ca n l mt h nghim c bn ca h phng trnh.
Vi c
1
= 1, c
3
= 0 ta c nghim ring
1
= (1, - 2, 0), vi c
1
= 0, c
3
= 1
ta c nghim ring
2
= (0, - 2, 1). H vect {
1
,
2
} l mt c s ca
W
2
.
5.3. Tm gi tr ring v vect ring bng my tnh in t
Ta ly li hai v d trong mc 5.2.
V d. Cho mt t ng cu c ma trn

a) Tm gi tr ring.
b) Tm vect ring.
Gii. a) Tm gi tr ring
B={{1,- 4,- 8},{- 4,7,- 4},{- 8, - 4, 1}}
Mn hnh xut hin ma trn:
Out[1]={{1, - 4, - 8}, {- 4, 7, - 4},{- 8, - 4, 1}}
Eigenvalues[B]
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[2]={-9,9,9}.
b) Tm vect ring:
To cc ma trn nh trn. Nu c ma trn trn mn hnh th khng
cn to na.
tm vect ring nh lnh:
Eigenvectors [B]
223
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[]={{2,1,2},{-1,0,1},{-1,2,0}}.
c) Tm ng thi c gi tr ring v vect ring
{vals, vecs}=Eigensystem[B]
Mn hnh xut hin:
Out[]={{-9,9,9},{{2,1,2},{-1,0,1},{-1,2,0}}}

224
6. CHO HO MA TRN
Nh ni trc 5, khi cho ma trn ca mt t ng cu i vi
mt c s no , ta mun tm nhng c s m i vi chng ma trn
ca t ng cu cho c dng p nht- dng cho. Khi ta ni
rng ma trn cho cho ho c.
6.1. nh ngha
Mt ma trn vung c gi l cho ho c nu n ng dng vi
mt ma trn cho.
V d Ma trn

cho ho c. Tht vy, vi T =
|
|
\
|
1 2
1 1
v B =
|
|
\
|
3 0
0 2
ta c: T
-1
=
|
|
\
|

1 2
1 1
v bn c c th kim tra rng A = T
-1
BT, ngha l A ~ B.
Phi chng mi ma trn u cho ho c?
Trc ht ta thy: nu t ng cu c ma trn cho i vi mt c s
no th mi vect ca c s y l mt vect ring. Ta s thy iu
ngc li cng ng.
6.2. iu kin mt ma trn cho ho c
nh l. Mt ma trn vung cho ho c khi v ch khi n l ma
trn ca mt t ng cu c mt h vect ring l c s ca khng gian.
Chng minh. Coi A nh ma trn ca mt t ng cu f. V V i
vi c s ().
A l ma trn vung cho ho c khi v ch khi c mt ma trn T
sao cho:
225

Theo nh l 5.1, iu ny xy ra khi v ch khi B l ma trn ca f i
vi mt c s () m f(
j
) = k
j
j
, vi mi i {1, 2,..., n}; ngha l () l
mt c s gm nhng vect ring.
H qu. Nu A l ma trn vung cp n m a thc c trng |A kI|
c n nghim phn bit th A cho ho c.
V d 1. Cho ma trn

a) Cho ho ma trn.
b) Gi s ma trn cho va tm c l B. Hy tm ma trn T B =
T
-1
AT.
Gii. a) v d 1 mc 5.2, ta thy, nu coi A nh ma trn ca t
ng cu f ca R
3
i vi c s chnh tc th f c ba gi tr ring phn
bit l : k - - 3, k2 = 1, k3 = 3. Cc vect ring tng ng:
1
= (6, - 7,
5),
2
= (- 2, 1, 1),
3
= (0, 1, 1) lp thnh mt c s ca R
3
. Theo chng
minh ca nh l 6.2.

b) Gi T l ma trn chuyn t c s chnh tc ca R
3
sang c s {
1
,
2
,
3
}. V

nn ma trn chuyn t c s chnh tc sang c s {
1
,
2
,
3
} l
226

Theo chng minh nh l 4.1, B = T
-1
AT.
By gi ta xt trng hp a thc c trng ca ma trn A c nghim
bi. Chng hn,

= k
2
(k - 4) c nghim n l k 4, nghim kp k
2
= k
3
= 0.
Vi k
1
= 4, khng gian ring W
1
tng ng gm cc vect c dng
(3c, 2c, c) hay W
1
sinh bi vect (3,2,1). Do dimW
1
1.
Vi k
2
= k
3
= 0, khng gian ring W
2
tng ng gm cc vect c
dng (c, 2c, - c) hay c, 2, - 1); tc l W
2
sinh bi vect (1, 2, -1) v
dimW
2
= 1.
V A ch c hai gi tr ring k = 0 v k = 4 nn nu A cho ho c
th A ng dng vi ma trn c dng

Nu A ng dng vi B th R3 c mt c s {
1
,
2
,
3
} sao cho
f(
1
) = 0 = f(
2
). Suy ra
1
,
2
thuc khng gian ring W
2
. Nhng hai
vect ny c lp tuyn tnh. Tri vi nhn xt trn rng dimW
2
= 1.
Tng t, nu A ng dng vi C. Vy A khng cho ho c.
Tm li, nu s bi ca nghim ring ln hn s chiu ca khng
gian ring tng ng th ma trn khng cho ho c. Khi s bi ca
mi nghim ring u bng s chiu ca khng gian ring tng ng th
sao? Ta c nh l sau.
227
6.3. nh l
Gi sa l mt ma trn vung cp n; k
1
, k
2
,..., k
p
l cc nghim ca
a thc c trng \A kI\, m
i
l s bi ca nghim k
i
, vi mi i {1,
2,..., p}, m
1
+ m
2
+...+ m
p
= n, tc l:

v hng(A k
i
I) = n - m
i
. Khi A cho ho c.
Chng minh. Gi s A l ma trn ca t ng cu f: R
n
R
n
i
vi c s chnh tc. Gi W
i
l khng gian ring ng vi gi tr ring ki.
V hng(A k
i
I) = n - m
i
, nn theo nh l 3.2, Ch. IV,
dimW
i
= n (n - m
i
) = m
i
.
Vi mi i = {1, 2,..., p}, ta chn mt c s {
i1
,
i2
,...,
imi}} ca
W
i
. H vect

c lp tuyn tnh. Tht vy, gi s

V
i
W
i
nn n l vect ring ng vi gi tr ring k
i
. Nhng cc
k
i
l nhng gi tr ring i mt phn bit ca f. Theo nh h mc 5.1,
h vect {
1
,
2
,,...,
p
} gc lp tuyn tnh.
T (3) suy ra
i
= r
1i
il
+...+ r
imi
imi
= 0.
Theo cch chn, h {
i1
,
i2
,...,
imi
} c lp tuyn tnh. Do cc
h s r
ij
= 0, vi mi i {1, 2,..., p} v mi j {1, 2,..., m
i
}. V dimR
n
=
n v h (1) gm n vect ring c lp tuyn tnh nn n l mt c s ca
R
n
. Theo nh l 7.2, A cho ho c.
228
TM TT
Chng ny nu ln cc quy tc tnh trn tp cc ma trn.
Php cng hai ma trn cng kiu v php nhn mt ma trn vi mt
s c thc hin trn cc thnh phn tng ng. Tp hp cc ma trn
cng kiu l mt K-khng gian vect.
Nhn ma trn A = (a
ij
)
(m,n)
vi ma trn B = (b
jj
)
(n,p)
c ma trn C =
(c
ik
)
(m.p)

vi

Php nhn c tnh cht kt hp nhng khng giao hon.
Tp hp cc ma trn vung cp n va l mt K - khng gian vect
va l mt vnh, c gi l mt K - i s.
Trong i s Mat
n
(K) c nhng ma trn kh nghch. l nhng ma
trn c nh thc khc 0, gi l nhng ma trn khng suy bin. Ma trn
nghch o ca ma trn A l ma trn

trong A
ij
l phn b i s ca thnh phn aij ca ma trn A.
Hai ma trn vung A v B c gi l ng dng nu c ma trn T
sao cho
B = T
-1
AT
y ta cng chng minh c nh thc ca tch hai ma trn bng
tch hai nh thc ca hai ma trn y:
|AB| = |A|.|B|
Ma trn c mi lin quan mt thit vi nh x tuyn tnh: i vi hai
c s () v () tng ng ca hai khng gian V v W mt nh x tuyn
tnh f: V W xc nh v c xc nh bi mt ma trn duy nht A =
229
(a
ij
) gi l ma trn ca f i vi hai c s () v (). N tho mn cc
ng thc:

Nu A v B ln lt l hai ma trn ca hai nh x tuyn tnh f v g
th A + B l ma trn ca f + g, ma trn AB l ma trn ca fg (nu cc
php ton c ngha); nu k K th kt l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh
kf.
Ni ring, i vi cc t ng cu f : V V, ta c khi nim vect
ring v gi tr ring. Vect 0 v f( ) = k vi mt s k no
c gi l mt vect ring ca f, cn k c gi l gi tr ring ng vi
. Nh ma trn A = (a
ij
) ca f v nh thc |A kI| ta tm c cc gi
tr ring ca f, l cc nghim ca phng trnh |A kI| = 0. Ma trn A
- kI c gi l ma trn c trng, |A kI| l a thc c trng ca f (hay
ca ma trn A). Mun tm ta ca vect ring ng vi gi tr ring k,
ta gii h phng trnh

Tp hp W gm 0 v cc vect ring ng vi mt gi tr ring l
mt khng gian con bt bin i vi f, tc l f(W) W.
p vect ring ng vi p gi tr ring i mt phn bit th c lp
tuyn tnh. Do nu dimV = n v a thc c trng c n nghim phn
bit th V c mt c s gm cc vect ring.
Ma trn A c gi l cho ho c nu n ng dng vi mt ma
trn cho. Mt ma trn cho ho c khi v ch khi n l ma trn ca
mt t ng cu c mt h vect ring l c s ca khng gian V.
230
BI TP
Trc ht nhc li rng c s chnh tc ca khng gian vect R
a
l c
s gm cc vect:

1. MA TRN CA NH X TUYN TNH
1. Cho hai khng gian vect V v W c c s ln rt l (
1
,
2
,
3
}, (
1
,
2
,
1
,
2
,} v nh x tuyn tnh f: v W xc nh bi:

a) Tm ma trn ca f i vi hai c s cho.
b) Cho = 3
2
+
3
. Tm nh f( ).
2. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f: R
3
R
2
xc nh bi:
f(
1
) = (-2, 3), f(
2
) = (0, 5), f(
3
) = (7, - 1), trong {
1
,
2
,
3
} l
c s chnh tc ca R
3
.
a) Tm ma trn ca f i vi cc c s chnh tc ca hai khng gian.
b) Tm vect f( ), vi = (5, -1, 1).
3. Cho nh x tuyn tnh f: R
3
R
2
xc nh bi

a) Tm ma trn ca f i vi hai c s chnh tc () v () ca hai
231
khng gian.
b) Tm ma trn ca f i vi c s () gm cc vect

1
= (1, 1, 0),
2
= (0, 1, 1),
3
= (1, 0, 1) ca R
3
v c s chnh
tc () ca R
2
.
4. Xc nh nh x tuyn tnh f : R
3
R
3
, bit rng ma trn ca n
i vi c s chnh tc ca R
3
l

Cho = (3, - 2, 0). Tm f( ) i vi c s chnh tc.
5. Cho

l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f: V W i vi c s {
1
,
2
,
3
}
ca v v c s {
1
,
2
} ca W, V c ta l (-1, 2, 3). Tm ta
ca f( ) i vi c s {
1
,
2
}.
6. Cho P
2
, P
3
ln lt l nhng khng gian con gm 0 v cc a thc
bc khng vt qu 2, qu 3, : P
2
P
3
l nh x tuyn tnh xc nh
bi:
(a + bx + cx
2
) = a + (a + b)x + (b + c)x
2
+ cx
3
.
a) Tm ma trn ca i vi c s {1, x, x
2
} ca P
2
v c s {1, x,
x
2
, x
3
} ca P
3
.
b) Cho = 2 - 5x + x
2
. Tm ta ca ( ) i vi c s cho
cu a).
7. Cho php bin i tuyn tnh f: R
4
R
4
c ma trn i vi c s
chnh tc l:

232
a) Tm ta ca f( ), trong = (2, 5, 1, - 2).
b) Tm Kerf.

2. CC PHP TON TRN TP CC MA TRN
8. Cho cc ma trn

Tnh :
a) A + B - C;
b) 2A - 7B;
c) 3A + 5B - 2C.
9. Cho hai ma trn:

Tm ma trn X sao cho:
a) A - X = B;
b) 3B + 2X = A;
C) 5X - 2A = 4B.
10. Cho hai ma trn:

Tm ma trn X trong mi trng hp sau:
a) X = A +
t
B;
b) 3
t
B - 2X = 2A;
c) 3X +
t
A - 2B = 0, (0 y l ma trn 0).
11. Vi iu kin no ca hai ma trn A v B th A +
t
B xc nh?
t
A
233
- B xc nh?
12. Cho:

ln lt l ma trn ca hai nh x tuyn tnh f v g (i vi cng nhng
c s). Tm ma trn ca nh x f- 2g.
13. Nhn cc ma trn:

14. Cho hai ma trn:

Tnh AB v BA. C kt lun g v tnh giao hon ca php nhn ma
trn?
15. Cho cc ma trn:

a) Tnh AB, BC.
b) Tnh (AB)C v A(BC). So snh hai kt qu.
16. Cho ma trn

234
Tm tt c cc ma trn X sao cho AX = I, (I l ma trn n v).
17. Gi s A l mt ma trn vung, f(x) = a
0
+ a
1
x +...+ a
n
x
n
, ta k
hiu
f(A) = a
0
I + a
1
A +...+ a
n
A
n
.
Cho ma trn
A =
|
|
\
|
0 3
2 1
v a thc f(x) = x
2
2x + 3.
Tnh f(A).
18. Cho AB l tch ca hai ma trn A v B. Chng minh rng:
t
(AB)
=
t
B.
t
A.
19. Gi () v () ln lt l c s chnh tc ca hai khng gian R
4
v
R
3
. Cc nh x tuyn tnh f: R
4
R
3
, g: R
3
R
3
xc nh bi:

Tm ma trn ca nh x gf i vi cc c s chnh tc cho.

4. I S CC MA TRN VUNG CP N
20. Chng minh rng vi A v B l hai ma trn vung cp n kh
nghch ta c:

21. Cho cc ma trn

Tnh nh thc ca AB.
22. Tm ma trn nghch o ca cc ma trn sau:
235

23. Cho cc ma trn

Tm ma trn X tho mn ng thc AX + B - C.
24. a) Tm mt ma trn vung A khc ma trn 0, cp ln hn 1, m A
= 0.
b) Chng minh rng nu ma trn vung A tho mn iu kin A
2
= 0
th I + A v I - A l hai ma trn nghch o ca nhau, ( y I l ma trn
n v).
25. Chng minh rng nu mt trong hai ma trn A v B khng suy
bin th hai ma trn AB v BA ng dng.
26. Cho f: V V l mt t ng cu c ma trn i vi c s

236
Hy tm ma trn ca f i vi c s () gm cc vect:

27. Trong khng gian vect V cho c s () = {
1
,
2
,
3
} v c s ()
gm cc vect:

Ma trn ca t ng cu y: V V c ma trn i vi c s () l

Tm ma trn ca f i vi c s ().
28. f v g l hai t ng cu ca khng gian vect R
2
. Ma trn ca f
i vi c s gm hai vect
1
= (1, 2),
2
= (2, 3) l A =
|
|
\
|
3 4
5 3
. Ma
trn ca g i vi c s gm hai vect
1
= (3, 1),
2
= (4, 2) l B =
|
|
\
|
9 6
6 4
. Tm ma trn ca t ng cu f + g i vi c s {
1
,
2
}.

5. VECT RING - GI TR RING
29. Gi s A l ma trn ca t ng cu f ca khng gian vect V i
vi mt c s chn. Hy xt xem trong mi trng hp sau vect no
l vect ring:

237

30. Gi s l vect ring ca hai t ng cu f v g ng vi hai gi
tr ring tng ng l k, k2' chng minh rng a cng l vect ring ca
cc t ng cu fg v f + g. Tm cc gi tr ring ng vi a ca tng t
ng cu y.
31. Tm vect ring ca cc t ng cu c ma trn di y:

32. Tm vect ring v khng gian ring tng ng vi mi gi tr
ring ca cc t ng cu c ma trn di y:

33. Hai ma trn sau c ng dng khng:

6. CHO HO MA TRN
34. Trong cc ma trn sau ma trn no cho ho c? Nu c hy
a n v dng cho.
238

35. Vi mi ma trn A sau y hy tm mt ma trn T
t
|A| l mt
ma trn cho:

36. Gi s A l ma trn ca t ng cu f trong khng gian R
3
i
vi c s chnh tc. Hy tm mt c s ca R
3
ma trn ca f l ma trn
cho:

37. Bi tp t kim tra
Cho f. R
3
R
4
v g: R
4
R
3
xc nh ln lt bi
f(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) = (a
1
, a
2
, a
1
- a
2
, a
3
), g(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) = (a
1
+ a
2
, a
3
, a
4
).
a) Tm ma trn ca f v ma trn ca g i vi cc c s chnh tc
trong R3 v R4.
b) Tm ma trn ca gf v fg i vi cc c s chnh tc.
c) Trong hai ng cu gf v fg, nh x no l ng cu? Tm ma trn
ca nh x ngc ca ng cu.
d) Tm mt c s ca Ker(fg), mt c s ca Im(fg).
e) Tm cc gi tr ring v cc khng gian con bt bin tng ng ca
gf v ca fg.
239
f) Trong hai ma trn ca gf v fg, ma trn no cho ho c? Hy
cho ho trong trng hp c th.
240
VI NT LCH S
Ma trn c t rt sm. Trong cun "Cu chng ton s" ngi
Trung Quc dng ma trn gii phng trnh v nh. Cn Chu
u ln u tin ma trn xut hin vo th k XIX, trong cng trnh ca
nh ton hc Anh tn l J. J. Sylvester (1814-1897) v vic gii h
phng trnh tuyn tnh (tuy nhin lc cha c tn ma trn). Chnh
Sylvester cng nh ngha khi nim hng ca ma trn. V sau, Kelly
(1821-1895), nh ton hc Anh a ra cc quy tc tnh trn cc ma
trn. Cc cng trnh ca Sylvester v Kelly c lin quan n nh thc.
Kronecker (nh ton hc c (1823-1891)) v Capelli (nh ton hc
Italia) cng dng ma trn nghin cu l thuyt h phng trnh
tuyn tnh.
Ngy nay, ma trn c ng dng rng ri trong ton hc tnh ton,
trong Vt l, trong Kinh t v trong nhiu ngnh khoa hc khc.
241
Chng VI
DNG SONG TUYN TNH
DNG TON PHNG
M U
Trong Hnh hc, khi nghin cu nhng ng bc hai, mt bc hai,
vic a phng trnh ca chng v dng chnh tc c mt ngha rt
quan trng, v dng chnh tc ta d nhn bit dng v cc c tnh ca
chng, phn loi chng. Cng vic ny thc hin c nh nhng khi
nim v dng nh: dng tuyn tnh, dng song tuyn tnh, dng ton
phng, v khi nim khng gian vect clit. Nh vy vic nghin cu
Hnh hc c thc hin bng nhng phng tin i s. Bn c s
thy rng phng tin ny t ra rt hu hiu.
Mt nh x tuyn tnh t mt K-khng gian vect n K-khng gian
vect K c gi l mt dng tuyn tnh. M rng khi nim ny ta c
nhng khi nim: dng song tuyn tnh, dng song tuyn tnh i xng,
dng song tuyn tnh thay phin, dng ton phng. Li nh khi nim
dng song tuyn tnh i xng v dng ton phng m ta s nh ngha
c khi mm tch v hng trong khng gian vect - mt khi nim
c lm quen t khi hc lp 10 trng Trung hc Ph thng. Tch v
hng gip ta xy dng khng gian vect clit.
Khi hc chng ny cc bn cn nm c:
- Cc khi nim dng tuyn tnh, dng song tuyn tnh, dng ton
phng;
- Cc phng php a mt dng ton phng v dng chnh tc;
- nh l qun tnh ca dng ton phng;
- Khi nim khng gian vect clit;
- Khi nim h c s trc chun v cch dng mt h c s trc
chun; mt s ng dng ca nhng kin thc ni trn ng thi vn dng
242
c nhng kin thc ny trong vic hc tp Hnh hc v mt s mn
hc lin quan khc.
hc tp chng ny c d dng, bn c cn nm vng cc
kin thc v khng gian vect, nh x tuyn tnh, ma trn.
1. DNG TUYN TNH V DNG SONG TUYN TNH
1.1. nh ngha, v d
nh ngha. Gi s V l khng gian vect.
1) nh x f : V R c gi l mt dng tuyn tnh trn V nu:

2) nh x : V V R c gi l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V
nu:

vi mi ,
1
,
2
, ,
1
,
2
thuc V v mi k R.
3) Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l i xng nu:

Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l thay phin nu:

V d 1. Vi V = R
n
, = (a
1
..., a
n
) ' vi mi i = 1, 2,..., n, ta c php
chiu f
i
t R
n
n R xc nh bi f
i
( ) = a
i
l dng tuyn tnh trn R
n
.
V d 2. K hiu P
n
l khng gian vc t gm a thc 0 v cc a
thc mt n x c bc b hn hoc bng n, vi h s thc, =
=
n
0 i
i
i
x a .
243
nh x f : P
n
R, xc nh bi f ( ) =
=
n
0 i
i
a ; l mt dng tuyn tnh
trn P
n
.
V d 3. Vi V = R
2
, = (a
1
, a
2
), = (b
1
, b
2
). nh x: = R
2
R
2

R, xc nh bi ( , ) =
2 1
2 1
b b
a a
(nh thc cp hai), l mt dng
song tuyn tnh thay phin.
Tht vy, vi bt k = (a
1
, a
2
), = (b
1
, b
2
), = (a'
1
, a'
2
), =
(b'
1
, b'
2
) R
2
v k R ta c:

Hn na ta c ( , ) = -( , )
V d 4. nh x = R
n
R
n
R xc nh bi ( , ) = x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2

+... + x
n
y
n
, vi = (x
1
, x
2
,..., x
n
), = (y
1
, y
2
,..., y
n
), l mt dng song
tuyn tnh i xng trn R
n
.
V d 5. Gi s V l khng gian cc vect (hnh hc) c chung gc O.
nh x t V V vo R xc nh nh sau:
Vi OA= , OB= , ( , ) = | | | | l cos ( , ) (tch v hng
ca v ), l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng.
Tht vy, nh bit trong gio trnh hnh hc trng ph thng, vi
k hiu , l tch v hng ca hai vect v , ta c:
244

Nhn xt:
- Mt dng tuyn tnh trn V thc cht l mt nh x tuyn tnh t V
vo R, R c xt nh mt khng gian vect trn chnh n
- nh x : V V R l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V nu v
ch nu n l dng tuyn tnh trn V i vi bin x khi ta c nh bin y
v tng t l dng tuyn tnh trn V i vi bin y khi ta c nh bin x.
- Mi dng song tuyn tnh trn V u c th biu din c thnh
tng ca mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng v mt dng song tuyn tnh
thay phin trn V.
Tht vy: vi , V t :

D dng chng minh c
1
l dng song tuyn tnh i xng v
2

l dng song tuyn tnh thay phin tha mn =
1
+
2
.
nh l 1. Gi s V l khng gian vect n chiu vi c s l {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}. nh x f : V R l mt dng tuyn tnh trn V khi v ch khi
tn ti n s thc c
1
,..., c
n
sao cho f ( ) =
=
n
1 i
j j
c a vi mi =
=
n
1 i
i i
a V.
Khi f (
i
) = c
i
, vi mi i = 1,..., n v f l dng tuyn tnh duy nht trn
V tha mn iu kin ny.
Chng minh. y l trng hp c bit ca nh l v s xc nh
mt nh x tuyn tnh (Ch.III).
nh l 2. Gi s V l khng gian vect n chiu vi c s l {{
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}. nh x : V V R l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V khi
v ch khi tn ti n
2
s thc {d
ij
| i, j =1, 2,..., n} sao cho ( , ) =
245

= =
n
1 j
ij j i
n
1 i
d y x vi mi =
=
n
1 i
i
i
x , =
=
n
1 i
i
i
y V. Khi (
i
,
j
) =
d
ij
, vi mi i, j = 1,..., n v l dng song tuyn tnh duy nht trn V
tha mn iu kin ny.
Chng minh. Gi s l mt dng song tuyn tnh ty trn V. Vi
mi cp (i, j), i, i =1,..., n t (
i
,
j
) = d
ij
. Khi vi hai vect bt

Ngc li, gi s tn ti n
2
s thc {d
ij
| i, i = 1, 2,..., n } sao cho nh
x t V V vo R tho mn iu kin trong nh l. Khi vi bt k

Tng t ta cng chng minh c ( , + )= ( , ) + ( , )
v ( , k ) = k( , ). Do l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V.
Khi =
i
, =
j
th x
i
= 1 v x
t
= 0 vi t i, y
j
= 1 v y
h
= 0 vi h i.
V vy ta c : (
i
,
j
) = d
ij
vi mi cp (i, j).
Gi s l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V tha mn (
i
,
j
) = d
ij
,
246
khi vi hai vect bt k =
=
n
1 i
i
i
x , =
=
n
1 i
i
i
y V ta c:
( , ) =

= =
n
1 j
ij j i
n
1 i
d y x = ( , ). Vy = . nh l c chng
minh.
V d:
Xt V = R
n
, v {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} l c s chnh tc ca V. Dng song
tuyn tnh trn R
n
xc nh bi ( , ) = x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
+...+ x
n
y
n
, vi
= (x
1
, x
2
,..., x
n
), = (y
1
, y
2
,..., y
n
) V l dng song tuyn tnh duy nht
trn R
n
tha mn (
1
,
2
) =
ij
, trong
ij
= 1 khi i = j v
ij
= 0 khi i
j.
1.2. Ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh
nh ngha. Gi s {
1
,...,
2
,...,
v
} l mt c s ca khng gian
vect n chiu V trn trng s thc R, l mt dng song tuyn tnh
trn V, k hiu (
i
,
j
) = a
ij
R, i, j = 1, 2,..., n. Ma trn vung cp
n sau y c gi l ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh i vi c s
{
1
,...,
2
,...,
v
} cho

Nhn xt: Gi s V l khng gian vect vi c s {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}
v A = (a
ij
)n l ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh p trn V. Khi vi
=
=
n
1 i
i
i
x , =
=
n
1 i
i
i
y V, p dng nh l 2, mc 1.1, ta c: ( , ) =

= =
n
1 j
j i ij
n
1 i
y x a .
Nh vy, nu bit ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh q) i vi mt c
s no , th ta c th xc nh nh ( , ) ca cp ( , ) tu ;
ngha l: mt dng song tuyn tnh c hon ton xc nh bi ma trn
ca n i vi mt c s cho.
247
V d 1. Trong V d 3 ca mc 1.1, nu chn c s ca R l
1
=
(1, 0),
2
= (0, 1 th

V d 2. Trong v d 4 ca mc 1.1, nu chn c s ca V l hai
vect OI = i , OJ = j , trong | i | | j | = = 1 th:

Do ma trn ca l

1.3. Lin h gia hai ma trn ca cng mt dng song tuyn tnh
i vi hai c s khc nhau
Theo nh ngha, ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh thay i khi ta i
c s ca khng gian vect. Ta hy xt mi lin quan gia hai ma trn
ca cng mt dng song tuyn tnh i vi hai c s khc nhau.
nh l. Gi s () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}, () = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
} l hai
c s ca cng mt R-khng gian vect n chiu V, A = (a
ij
)
n
v B = (b
ij
)
n

ln lt l cc ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh trn V i vi cc c
s tng ng () v (), T = (t
ij
)
n
l ma trn chuyn t () sang (). Khi
B =
t
TAT.
Chng minh. V T l ma trn chuyn t c s () sang () nn
248

Ta c c
ki
=
=
n
1 l
lj kl
t a l phn t dng k ct j trong ma trn tch AT v
ma trn ( )
n
'
ik
t l ma trn chuyn v ca ma trn T, nn b
ij
=

= = =
= |
\
|
n
1 k
kj
'
ik
n
1 l
lj kl
n
1 k
'
ik
c t t a t l phn t dng th i v ct th j ca ma trn tch
t
TAT. Vy B =
t
TAT.
V d. Trn khng gian vect R
3
trn trng s thc R cho dng song
tuyn tnh xc nh nh sau: Vi = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
), = (y
1
, y
2
, y
3
),

i vi c s ():
1
= (1, 0, 0),
2
= (0, 1, 0),
3
= (0, 0, 1), c ma
trn l

Nu xt c s () : () = (1, 1, 1),
2
= (1, 0, 1),
2
= (0, - 1, 1) th
ma vn chuyn t c s () sang () l T =
|
|
|
\
|
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1

Ma trn ca i vi c s () s l:

249
Cng c th tm ma trn B bng cch tnh trc tip b
ij
= (
i
,
j
).
Chng hn b
13
= (
1
,
3
) = 2.1.0+1(-1)= 1.1 - 3.1.1 = -1 -1 - 3 = -5.
2. DNG TON PHNG
2.1. nh ngha
nh ngha. nh x : V R (R l trng s thc) c gi l mt
dng ton phng trn V nu tn ti mt dng song tuyn tnh f trn V
sao cho ( ) = f( , ) vi mi V. Khi f c gi l dng song
tuyn tnh sinh ra dng ton phng .
V d: Dng song tuyn tnh f( , ) = 3x
1
y
2
- x
2
y
1
, vi mi vect
= (x
1
, x
2
), = (y
1
, y
2
) R
2
, sinh ra dng ton phng ( ) = 2x
1
x
2
.
Nhn xt
(i) C th c nhiu dng song tuyn tnh cng sinh ra mt dng ton
phng. Chng hn, nu f l mt dng song tuyn tnh khng i xng,
t g( , ) = f( , ), , V th cc dng song tuyn tnh f v g trn
V cng sinh ra mt dng ton phng, nhng f g.
(ii) Ta c th chng minh tn ti tng ng 1-1 gia cc dng ton
phng trn V v cc dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn V; ngha l nu
l mt dng ton phng trn V th tn ti mt v ch mt dng song
tuyn tnh i xng sinh ra .
Thc vy, gi s f l dng song tuyn tnh no sinh ra dng ton
phng , , , V, t ( , ) =
2
1
{( + ) - ( ) -( )}. C
th thy ngay l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn V sinh ra .
Gi s cng l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn V sinh ra .
Khi , V ta c:

V vy dng song tuyn tnh i xng hon ton c xc nh bi
r qua cng thc:
250

Dng song tuyn tnh i xng sinh ra dng ton phng r c
gi l dng cc ca .
(iii) T nh l mc 1.2 suy ra rng nu V l khng gian vect n
chiu vi c s l {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} th nh x : V R l mt dng
ton phng trn V khi v ch khi ( ) =

= =
n
1 j
j i ij
n
1 i
y x a vi mi =
=
n
1 i
i
i
x V, trong a
ij
(i, j = 1, 2,..., n) l dy cc s thc xc nh.
2.2. Ma trn ca dng ton phng
nh ngha. Gi s l dng ton phng tng ng vi dng song
tuyn tnh i xng . Ma trn ca i vi c s {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}
cng c gi l ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s y.
Nh vy nn A = (a
ij
)
n
l ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c
s {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}, th A c tnh cht a
ij
= (
i
,
j
) = (
j
,
i
) = ai;.
Ma trn c tnh cht ny c gi l ma trn i xng.
Vi =
=
n
1 i
i
i
x , biu thc ( ) =

= =
n
1 j
j i ij
n
1 i
y x a c gi l biu thc
ta ca .
V d. nh x : R
3
R xc nh nh sau:
Vi = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
), ( ) = 2x
2
1
- 2x
1
x
2
+ 4x
1
x
3
- x
2
2
+ 3x
2
3
, l mt
dng ton phng ng vi dng song tuyn tnh i xng q) xc nh
bi:
y = (y
1
, y
2
, y
3
). i vi c s () :
1
= (1, 0, 0),
2
= (0, 1, 0),
3

= (0, 0, 1), v c ma trn l:

V ma trn ca dng ton phng l i xng, tc l a
ij
= a
ji
, nn i
251
vi =
=
n
1 i
i
i
x , biu thc ta ( ) =

= =
n
1 j
j i ij
n
1 i
y x a c th vit l:

Chng hn i vi dng ton phng trong v d ta c:

Ngc li, nu dng ton phng c xc nh bi ng thc

2.3. Dng ton phng xc nh
nh ngha. Dng ton phng trn khng gian vect V c gi
l xc nh nu: ( ) = 0 ko theo =0 .
nh l. Nu l mt dng ton phng xc nh th rn c cng
mt du vi mi a V.
Chng minh. C nh vect 0 , vi bt k ca V, ta xt biu
thc:

trong l dng song tuyn tnh i xng tng ng ca .
Nu c gi tr x = k R (k 0) sao cho = k th

Do ( ) cng du vi ( ).
Nu vi mi x R, tc l - x 0 th v l dng ton
phng xc nh nn
252

iu ny c ngha l phng trnh x
2
( ) - 2x( , ) + ( ) = 0
i vi n x v nghim. V th = [( , ]
2
- ( ) ( ) < 0 hay

Vy ( ) cng du vi ( ).
l xc nh dng (m) nu ( ) > 0 (( ) < 0 ) vi mi 0 thuc V.
H qu. Nu l mt dng ton phng xc nh dng (m) trn
khng gian vect V v W l mt khng gian con ca V th thu hp ca
trn W (k hiu l |
W
) cng l mt dng ton phng xc nh dng
(m) trn W.
3. A DNG TON PHNG V DNG CHNH TC
3.1. nh ngha
Gi s l mt dng ton phng trn khng gian vect V. Nu i
vi c s () = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
} ca V biu thc ta ca l

th biu thc ny c gi l dng chnh tc ca dng ton phng .
Trong trng hp ny ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s ()
l mt ma trn cho (a
ij
= a
ji
= 0 vi i j).
Vic i c s n mt dng ton phng cho i vi c s mi
c dng chnh tc c gi l a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc.
3.2. nh l
Mi dng ton phng u a c v dng chnh tc.
Chng minh. Gi s l mt dng ton phng trn khng gian
vect V. Ta chng minh nh l bng quy np theo s chiu n ca V.
253
Nu n > 1 th c biu thc ta dng ( ) = ax
2
. l ng
chnh tc.
Gi s n > 1 v mnh ng vi (n - 1), hn na i vi c s () =
{
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} ca V, c biu thc ta ( ) =

= =
n
1 j
j i ij
n
1 i
y x a , vi
=
=
n
1 i
i
i
x .
a) Trng hp c mt a
ii
0.
Gi s a
11
0, ta vit ( ) di dng:

254
Cng thc ta (I) c th vit thnh:

Cng thc bin i ta (II) cho ta ma trn

M nh thc |T| = 1 0. Do theo cng thc lin h ta ca
i vi hai c s khc nhau th T l ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c
s () = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
}, m i vi n =
=
n
2 i
n j
y . Gi W l khng gian
vect con ca V sinh bi cc vect {
2
,...,
n
}. t =
=
n
2 i
n j
y W, ta
c biu thc ( ) =
=
n
2 i
2
i i
z k + 2
n j i 2
j i ij
y y b xc nh dng ton phng
thu hp ca trn W. Theo gi thit qui np, c th a v dng chnh
tc ( ) =
=
n
2 i
2
i i
z k .
t a
11
= k
1
, y
1
= z
1
, ta c: ( )=
=
n
2 i
2
i i
z k .
b) Trng hp a
ii
= 0 vi mi i = 1, 2,..., n.
Trong trng hp ny biu thc ta ca l (a ) =
n j i 2
j i ij
x x a .
Hin nhin phi c mt a
kh
0. Bin i ta :

Php bin i ta ny xc nh ma trn:
255

Vi |S| = 2 0. S li l ma trn chuyn t c s () sang mt c s
() m i vi n =
=
n
2 i
n j
y v biu thc ta ca c dng:

t b
kk
= 2a
kh
0, ta li tr v trng hp a). nh l c chng
minh.
H qu. Gi s r l mt dng ton phng c dng chnh tc ( ) =
=
n
2 i
2
i i
z k . Th th l dng ton phng xc nh dng khi v ch khi k
1

> 0, vi mi i = 1,.., n.
Chng minh. Gi s l xc nh dng v trong biu din
chnh tc i vi mt c s no c mt h s, chng hn k
1
< 0. Khi
vi ( 0) c ta i vi c s trn l (1, 0,..., 0), ta c. ( ) =
k
1
0.
Tri vi gi thit rng r l mt dng xc nh dng.
Vy k
i
> 0 vi mi i = 1,..., n.
Hin nhin.
C nhiu phng php khc nhau a mt dng ton phng v
dng chnh tc: phng php cho ha ma trn, phng php Jacobi...
Quy trnh rt gn dng ton phng trnh by trong nh l trn c gi
l phng php Lagrange. y l phng php dng lin tip nhiu php
bin i tuyn tnh a mt dng ton phng v dng chnh tc.
V d: a dng ton phng sau trn R
3
v dng chnh tc
256

V d 2. a dng ton phng ( ) = 4x
1
x
2
+ 3x
2
x
3
trn R
3
v dng
chnh tc.
Gii.

Khi ta c:
257

Ta c ( ) = 4
2
1
z - 4
2
2
z
V d 3. a dng ton phng ( ) 2
2
1
x + 3x
1
x
2
+ 4x
1
x
3
+
2
2
x +
3
3
x trn
R
3
v dng chnh tc.

ta nhn dc biu thc ca i vi c s mi ( ) = {
1
,
2
,
3
} l:

3.3. Da dng ton phng v dng chinh tc bng my tnh in
t
Ta c th s dng phng php Lagrange vi s h tr ca phn
mm ton Maple da biu thc ta ca dng ton phng v dng
chnh tc. Quy trnh c th nh sau:
258
Trc tin ta phi s dng hai lnh to mi trng tnh ton l:
>restart;
>with(student);
[D,Diff, Int, Limit, Lineint, Product, Sum, Tripleint, Changevar,
Completesquare, Distance, Equate, Integran, Intercept, Intpart, leftbox,
leftsum, makeproc, midlebox, middlesum, midpoint, powsubs,
rightbox, rightsum, showtangent, smpon, slope, summand, trapezoid]
Trong qu trnh bin i cn ch phn bit trng hp a
1i
0 vi a
ii

= 0.
V d 1. a dng ton phng ( ) =
2
1
x + 5
2
2
x - 4
3
3
x + 2x
1
x
2
-
4x
1
x
3
trn R
3
v dng chnh tc.
Ta s dng lnh ca Maple theo tng bc sau:
Bc 1: nh lnh
>completesquare(x1^2+5*x2^2-4*x3^2+2*x1*x2-4*x1*x3,x1);
Ta nhn c ( ) = (x
1
+ x
2
2x
3
) + 4
2
2
x + 4x
2
x
3
8
2
3
x
Ta t y
1
= x
1
+ x
2
- 2x
3
.
Bc 2: nh lnh sau:
> completesquare(y1^2+4*x2^2+4*x2*x3-8*x3^2,x2);
Ta nhn c: ( ) = 4(x
2
+
2
1
x
3
)
2
- 9
2
3
x + y
1
2
.
Ta t tip : y
2
= x
2
+
2
1
x
3
, y
3
= x
3
.
Ta nhn c biu thc chnh tc ca dng ton phng r l:

V d 2. a dng ton phng ( ) =
2
1
x + 4
2
2
x +
2
3
x + 4x
1
x
2
+
2x
1
x
3
+ 2x
2
x
3
trn R
3
v dng chnh tc.
Ta s dng lnh ca Maple theo tng bc sau:
Bc 1 : nh lnh
259

Bc 2. Tip tc thc hin lnh
> completesquare(y1^2-2*(y2+y3)*(y2-y3),y2),

Ch . gi li c h phng trnh biu din cc php bin i,
ta cn ghi li php t n ph trong qu trnh lm cc cu lnh ca
Maple. Nh vy, sau khi tin hnh gii bi ton bng phng php
Lagrange, ta c th kim tra li tng bc ca cc php bin i lm.
Trong mt s trng hp qu kh, ta c th s dng Maple tm trc
kt qu sau a ra cc php bin i cho ph hp.
3.4. nh l qun tnh
Mt dng ton phng c th c nhiu dng chnh tc. Song chng
c mt im chung c th hin bi nh l sau:
nh l 1. (1ut qun tnh) Trong hai dng chnh tc bt k ca
cung mt dng ton phng s cc h s dng bng nhau, s cc h s
m bng nhau.
Chng minh. Gi s: ( ) = a
1
2
1
x + ... + a
r
2
r
x b
1
2
1 r
x
+
- ... b
3
2
3 r
x
+

l dng chnh tc ca i vi c s (') = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}, trong a
i

> 0, i = 1,... r, b
j
> 0, j = 1,..., s.
(c) = c
1
2
1
y +... + c
t
2
t
y d
1
2
1 t
y
+
- ... - d
u
2
u t
y
+
, l dng chnh tc ca r
i vi c s () = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
}, trong c
k
> 0, k = 1,..., t, d
1
> 0, l =
1,..., u.
Ta phi chng minh r = t, s = u.
Gi s r < t. Xt khng gian con W sinh bi h vect {
r+1
,...,
n
} v
khng gian con U sinh bi h vect {
1
,...,
t
}. Ta c dimW = n - r,
dimU = t. V r < t nn t - r > 0. T suy ra dimW + dimU = n + t - r >
n = dimV.
260
Do dimW + dimU - dim (W U) = dim (U + W) dimV, nn dim
(W U) dimW + dimU - dimV = n + t - r - n = t - r > 0.
V th: W U {0 }.
Gi s W U v 0 ,

l iu khng th c. Vy r t. Thay i vai tr ca r v t, ta
li suy ra t r. Do r - t.
Cng lp lun nh vy i vi s v u, ta c u = s.
nh l trn y c gi l lut qun tnh ca dng ton phng.
pht biu mt tiu chun ca dng ton phng xc nh dng ta
a ra khi nim sau.
i vi ma trn vung

mi nh thc

c gi l mt nh thc con chnh ca ma trn A.
nh l 2. Gi sa l ma trn ca dng ton phng trn khng
gian vect n chiu V. Khi l dng ton phng xc nh dng nu
v ch nn mi nh thc con chnh ca A u dng.
Chng minh. Gi s l dng ton phng trn V v A l ma trn
ca n i vi c s () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}.
Gi V
k
l khng gian con ca V, sinh bi cc vect {
1
,...,
2
,...,
k
}
261
(k = 1, 2,..., n). Khi thu hp ca r trn V
k
(k hiu l |
Vk
l mt dng
ton phng vi ma trn

Nu xc nh dng th |
Vk
, cng xc nh dng. Do D
k

> 0 Vi mi k = 1, 2,..., n.
Gi s D
k
> 0 vi mi k = 1, 2,..., n. Ta s chng minh l
dng ton phng xc nh dng bng qui np theo n.
Vi n = 1, D
1
= a
11
> 0, biu thc ca dng ton phng l ( ) =
a
11
2
1
x > 0.
Gi s vi mi n > 1, iu khng nh ng vi in - 1). Khi dng
ton phng
n-1
= |
Vn-1
c ma trn l A
n-1
. Theo gi thit, cc nh thc con
chnh ca A
n-1
u dng. Do , theo gi thit qui np,
n-1
. Xc nh
dng. V th c mt c s {
1
,
2
,...,
n-1
} ca V
n-1
Sao cho r
n-1
c
dng chnh tc, trong trng hp ny ta c
n-1
( ) = k
i
> 0, i = 1, 2,..., n-1. Khi i vi c s {
1
,
2
,...,
n
}
c ma trn

Trong b
in
= b
in
= (
i
,
n
), vi l dng song tuyn tnh i xng
tng ng ca . vi

262

Tm c c s () = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
} ca V, i vi n, ma trn ca
C dng:

Gi T l ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s () ta c C = T
-1
AT.
Do : k
1
...k
n-1
k
n
= |C| = |T
-1
|.|A|.|T| = |T
-1
|.|T|.|A| = |A|.
V |A| > 0 theo gi thit v k
i
> 0, vi i = 1, 2,..., n- nn
k
n
=
1 n 2 1
...k k k
| A |
> 0. Nh vy i vi c s (), c dng ({

1
,
2
,...,
m
}) =
=
n
1 i
2
i i
z k , trong k
i
> 0 vi mi i = 1, 2,..., n. Vy l dng ton
phng xc nh dng.
4. KHNG GIAN VECT CLIT
4.1. nh ngha khng gian vect clit
nh ngha.
1) Dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn khng gian vect V c
gi l mt tch v hng trn V nu 0 thuc V ta c ( , ) > 0.
Vi , V, s thc ( , ) c gi l tch v hng ca v
, k hiu bi . . Nu = , thay cho . ta vit
2

2) Khng gian vect V c gi l mt khng gian vect clit nu
263
trn V c mt tch v hng.
Ch : Trn cng mt khng gian vect thc V c th xc nh nhiu
tch v hng khc nhau, v ta c th nhn c nhng khng gian vect
clit hon ton khc nhau.
V d 1. Xt khng gian V cc vect hnh hc c chung gc O. Trong
khng gian ny, dng song tuyn tnh c xc nh bi: ( OA, OB) =
| OA|. | OB|cos ( OA, OB), l mt tch v hng trn V, vi tch v
hng , V l mt khng gian vect clit.
V d 2. Trn khng gian R
n
, dng song tuyn c xc nh bi
( , ) = x
1
y
1
+ x
2
y
2
+ ...+ x
n
y
n
, vi = (x
1
, x
2
,..., x
n
) = (y
1
,
y
2
,..., y
n
), l mt tch v hng v R
n
l mt khng gian vect clit, tch
v hng ny c gi l tch v hng chnh tc.
4.2. C s trc chun
nh ngha. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit.
1) Hai vect , ca E c gi l trc giao nu . = 0; k hiu
l .
2) Vi mi E ta gi ( )
2
l chun ca vect , k hiu | |.
Nu | | = 1 th ta ni l vect nh chun.
3) C s () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} ca khng gian vect clit E c
gi l mt c s trc chun nu
i
,
j
=
ij
. (Trong
ij
l k hiu
Kronecker tha mn
ij
= 1 khi i = j,
ij
= 0 khi i j).
V d 1. Trong khng gian V ca v d 1, mc 4.1, 3 vect tu OI ,
OJ , OKi mt vung gc v c di bng 1 lp thnh c s trc
chun.
V d 2. Trong khng gian vect clt R
n
v d 2, mc trn, c s

l mt c s trc chun. C s () c gi l c s chnh tc ca khng
gian vect clit R
n
.
V d 3. H vect
264

l mt c s trc chun trong khng gian R
3
. Vect = (1, 4, 3) R
3
c
biu thc ta i vi c s ( ) nh sau = 4.
1
+ 2 2 .
2
- 2
3

vc t c ta i vi c s ( ) l = (4, 2 2 - 2 ). Ta c | | =
26 .
nh l 1. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit. Khi :
1) Vi E, || || = 0 khi v ch khi = 0 .
2) Vi mi E, mi k R ta c ||k || = |k| .|| ||.
3) Vi mi , E ta c | . | || ||.|| ||, (bt ng thc Cauchy
Bunhiakovsky).
4) Vi mi , E ta c || + || || || + || ||, (bt ng thc
tam gic).
Chng minh. Gi l tch v hng trn E.
1) Hin nhin nu = 0 || || = 0.
Ngc li nu || || = 0 th ( , ) =
2
= || ||
2
= 0. T suy ra
suy ra = 0 (do tnh xc nh ca ).
2) R rng: ||k || =
2
) (k =
2 2
) ( k = |k|.
2
) ( = |k|.|| ||.
3) Vi mi , E, vi mi gi tr ca x R ta c:
0 || - x ||
2
=
2
2x . + x
2
2
.
Do ' = ( . ) -
2
.
2
0 | . |
2
) ( .
2
) (
Vy | . | || ||.|| ||.
Du bng xy ra khi = k. (hai vect , l ph thuc tuyn
tnh).
265

Du bng xy ra khi = k. (vi k 0).
nh l 2. Mi h gm nhng vect khc khng, i mt trc giao
ca mt khng gian vect clit u c lp tuyn tnh.
Chng minh. Gi s
1
,
2
, ,...,
n
l nhng vect khc khng, i
mt trc giao ca khng gian vect clit E, xt ng thc
=
r
1 i
i i
k = 0 .
Vi mi
j
, j = 1,..., r ta c

V
j
nn || || 0 nn ta c k
j
= 0. Vy k
j
= 0 j = 1,..., r.
Vy h vc t
1
,
2
,...,
r
l c lp tuyn tnh.
nh l 3. Mi khng gian vect clit n chiu (n 2) u c c s
trc chun.
Chng minh. Ta chng minh bng qui np theo n.
Vi n = 1 d dng chng minh c mnh .
Vi n = 2, gi s
1
,
2
l mt c s no ca khng gian vect
clit E.

Tm vect c dng: = x
1
1
+
2
, tho mn iu kin:
1
,

Nh vy: =
2
(
2
,
1
)
1
hon ton c xc nh.
266
t: E2 =
, hin nhin ||
2
|| = 1, do
2

1
nn theo nh l 2 ta
c h vect {
1
,
2
} l c lp tuyn tnh, do l mt c s trc
chun ca khng gian clit 2 chiu E.
By gi gi s E l khng gian vect clit n-chiu vi n > 2 v mnh
c chng minh vi mi khng gian c s chiu (n - 1). Gi F
l mt khng gian con (n 1) chiu ca E. Theo gi thit qui np F c
mt c s trc chun, chng hn: {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n-1
}.
Ly ty
n
E\F. Tm vect
n
c dng:
n
=
1 n
1 i
i
i
x +
n
, tho
mn iu kin:
n
.
j
= 0 (vi mi j = 1,2,..., n - 1). Suy ra
1 n
1 i
i
i
x
j
+
j
= 0, j =1,2,..., n - 1.
V
i
j
=
ij
nn ng thc trn ch l: xj +
n
j
= 0.
Nh vy
n
c hon ton xc nh bi cc x
j
= -
n
j
vi mi j =
1, 2,.., n - 1.
t:
n
=
n
n
, hin nhin ln ||
n
|| = 1, ta c mt h trc chun
gm n vect {
1
,
2
,...
n-1
,
n
}. Hn na theo cch xc nh vc t ta
c
n

i
(i = 1,..., n - 1 ) nn theo nh l 2, h {
1
,
2
,...
n-1
,
n
} l
c lp tuyn tnh. V dimE = n nn n l mt c s trc chun ca E.
Vic xy dng h trc chun trn y c gi l qu trnh trc
chun ho Giam - Smit.
Qu trnh trc chun ho c th xut pht t mt c s bt k ( ) =
{
1
,
2
, ,...,
n
} cho trc. Khi ta xc nh
1
=
1
1
sau theo
phng php trn ta xc nh
2
thng qua
1
v
2
,..., xc nh
i

thng qua
1
,...,
i-1
v
i
,..., v cui cng xc nh
n
qua
1
,...,
n-1
v
n
.
Cng thc tng qut ca qu trnh trc chun ny l:
267

Ta nhn c h {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} l c s trc chun cn tm.
nh l 4. Nu () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} l mt c s trc chun ca
khng gian clit n chiu E, th vi E ta c :

Chng minh. V () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} l c s ca E nn c s
biu din duy nht di dng:

Vi mi i = 1, 2,..., n, nhn v hng hai v ca ng thc trn vi
i
; ta c:

Vy c dng cn chng minh.
Nh vy, nu () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} l c s trc chun ca khng
gian cht n chiu E, th ta c th xc nh ngay ta ca mt vc t bt
k i vi c s cho, l (
1
,
2
,..., ) ; ngha l = (x
i
) vi
x
i
=
i
, i = 1,..., n.
V d: Trong khng gian clit R
3
(vi tch v hng chnh tc) xt
h vect sau:
1
= (0, 1, 0) ;
2
= (-
5
4
, 0,
5
3
).
3
(
5
3
, 0,
5
4
). D dng
kim tra c h vect
1
,
2
,
3
l mt c s trc chun ca R
3
.
biu din vc t = (1, 4, 7) l mt t hp tuyn tnh ca c s trn ta
thc hin nh sau:
268

4.3. Khng gian con b trc giao
Nhn xt: Gi s F l mt khng gian con ca khng gian vect clit
E. Tp hp
H = { E | , F} l mt khng gian con ca E.
Tht vy, hin nhin H v 0 H. Vi
1
,
2
H v k
R ta c:
1
. = 0,
2
. = 0 Vi mi F. Do (
1
+
2
). =
1
.
+
2
= 0, F. iu ny c ngha l (
1
+
2
) H.
Tng t, ta c (k ). = k( . ) = 0, F. Do k H.
Vy H l mt khng gian con ca E.
nh ngha. Khng gian con H = { E | , F} c gi
l khng gian con b trc giao vi khng gian con F.
nh l. Nu H l khng gian con b trc giao vi khng gian con F
ca khng gian vect clit n chiu E th F H = {0 } v E = F + H.
Chng minh. Ly ty F H, theo cch xc nh H ta thy
trc giao vi chnh n, ngha l
2
= 0. Theo nh l nh l 1 (4.2) ta c
= 0 vy F H = {0 }.
Gi s {
1
,...,
2
,...,
r
} l mt c s trc chun ca khng gian con
F. B sung vo n c mt c s trc chun ca E: {
1
2
,...,
r
,
r+1
,...,
n
}.
Khi mi vc t E u biu din duy nht di dng:

269

Khi V l khng gian vect tha mn V = F + H, F H = {0 }, trong
F, H l nhng khng gian con ca V, ngi ta ni rng V l tng trc
tip ca F v H.
4.4. Hnh chiu ca mt vect ln khng gian con
Gi s E l khng gian clit n chiu, F l khng gian con ty ca E,
khi E ta lun c biu bin duy nht = + , vi F,
H, trong H l khng gian con b trc giao ca F. Ta s gi vect
l hnh chiu trc giao ca ln F v k hiu l hch
F
, cn vect =
- = - hch
F
c gi l thnh phn ca trc giao vi F.
V d: Xt khng gian clit R
3
(vi tch v hng chnh tc) v
khng gian con F c sinh bi cc vect sau:
1
= (0, 1, 0);
2
= (-
5
4
,
0,
5
3
). D dng kim tra c l c s trc chun ca F. Theo V d
trn ta c h
1
= (0, 1, 0) ;
2
= (-
5
4
, 0,
5
3
) ;
3
= (
5
3
, 0, -
5
4
) l c s
trc chun c a R
3
.
Vi = (2, 1, 3), ta c:

Khi hnh chiu trc giao ca = (2, 1, 3) ln F l:

Thnh phn ca trc giao vi F l :
5
18
3
= (
25
54
, 0,
25
72
).
270
4.5. Php bin i trc giao - Ma trn trc giao
nh ngha. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T
ng cu f. E E c gi l mt php bin i trc giao nu

nh l 1. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T ng
cu f: E E l php bin i trc giao khi v ch khi n bin c s trc
chun thnh c s trc chun.
Chng minh.
: Gi s h mt php bin i trc giao v () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} l mt c s trc chun bt k ca E. Khi f(
1
).f(
j
) =
i
j
=
ij
,
vi mi i, j = 1, 2,..., n. Nh vy ta c f(
i
) f(
j
) vi i j, v ||f(
i
)|| 1
vi i j = 1, 2,..., n.
Vy h {f(
1
), f(
2
),..., f(
n
)} l mt c s trc chun ca E.
Gi s f l mt t ng cu ca E sao cho vi mi c s trc
chun {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} ca E ta c h vect {f(
1
), f(
2
),..., f(
n
)} cng
l mt c s trc chun ca E. Vi =
=
n
i
i
i
x
1

=
n
i
i
i
y
1
ty thuc E ta
c:

Vy f l mt php bin i trc giao.
nh l 2. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit, A l ma trn ca
t ng cu f: E E i vi mt c s trc chun () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}. T ng cu f l trc giao khi v ch khi
t
AA = I (I l ma trn n
v).
Chng minh.
: Gi s f l mt php bin i trc giao c ma trn i vi c s
trc chun () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} l :
271

Nhng
=
n
1 k
kj ki
a a chnh l phn t dng th i v ct th j ca ma trn
tch ta.A.
Vy A.A = I.
Gi s
t
A.A = I, cng nh trn ta c: f(
i
).f(
j
) =
i
.
j
=
ij
. Do
h vect {f(
1
), f(
2
),..., f(
n
)} l mt c s trc chun ca khng
gian vect clit E. Vy theo nh ll f l mt php bin i trc giao.
nh ngha. Ma trn vung A c gi l mt ma trn trc giao nu
t
A.A = I (I l ma trn n v).
H qu. f l mt php bin i trc giao khi v ch khi ma trn ca
n i vi mt c s trc chun l mt ma trn trc giao.
V d: Cc ma trn sau l nhng ma trn trc giao:
a) Ma trn n v I;

4.6. Php bin i di xng
ng cu f: E E c gi l php bin i i xng nn .f( ) =
272
f( ). , , E.
nh l. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T ng
cu f ca E l php i xng nn v ch nu ma trn ca f i vi mt c
s trc chun l mt ma trn i xng.
Chng minh.
Gi s f l php bin i i xng ca E v ma trn ca f i
vi c s trc chun () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} l ma trn A = (a
ij
)
n
. Khi :

V f l php bin i i xng nn
i
.f(
j
) = f(
i
).
j
. Do a
ij
= a
ji
,
Ta c A l ma trn i xng.
: Gi s ma trn ca t ng cu f i vi c s trc chun () :
{
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} l ma trn i xng A = (a
ij
)
n
. Khi ta c cc ng
thc (1) v (2) trn. Vi hai vect =
=
n
i
i
i
x
1
, =
=
n
i
i
i
y
1
tu ca
E, ta c:

V a
ij
= a
ji
do ma trn A i xng nn .f( ) = f( ) .
Vy f l php i xng.
4.7. ng dng
nu ln mt ng dng ca php bin i trc giao ta cn n cc
nh l sau:
nh l 1. Nu A l mt ma trn i xng vi cc thnh phn l
273
nhng s thc th mi nghim ca a thc c trng |A kI| u l s
thc.
Chng minh. Gi s k l mt nghim ca phng trnh |A kI| = 0.
Xt phng trnh (A - kI
n
)X = 0. Gi s X
0
l mt nghim khng tm
thng ca phng trnh , ta c (A - kI
n
)X
0
= 0
t_
0
X (A - kI
n
)X
0
= 0

t_
0
X AX
0
= k
t_
0
X X
0
(*)
Gi s X
0
=
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
n
2
1
u
...
u
u
. Khi
0 t
X = (
1
u
2
u ...
n
u ). Ta c
t_
0
X X
0
=
n
1 i
n i
u u l s thc. Do
k
0 t
X X
0
= k.
n
1 i
n i
u u = k.
n
1 i
i n
u u = k
t
X
0

0
X =
t
(k
0 t
X X
0
). V A l
ma trn i xng vi cc phn t l nhng s thc nn ta c
0 t
X AX
0
=
t
(
0 t
X AX
0
) =
t
X
0 0
X . Do
0
X AX
0
=
t
X
0 0
X =
0 t
X AX
0
. Vy
0 t
X AX
0
l
s thc. T (*) suy ra k
0 t
X X
0
0 l s thc. Theo nhn xt trn c
0 t
X X
0
l s thc, do k l s thc. nh l c chng minh.
nh l 2. Nu f l mt php i xng ca khng gian vect clit n
chiu E th hai khng gian con ring ng vi hai gi tr ring phn b
ca f phi trc giao vi nhau.
Chng minh. Gi s f : E E l php i xng, F
1
, F
2
l hai khng
gian con ln lt sinh bi cc vect ring
1
,
2
tng ng vi hai gi
tr ring phn bit k
1
, k
2
. Khi , vi hai vect ty F
1
, F
2
, ta c
f( ) = k
1
; f( ) = k2 . V f l mt php bin i i xng nn f( ) =
f( ). Do (k
1
). = .(k
2
). Suy ra (k
2
k
1
)( . ) = 0. V k
2
k
1

nn . = 0. Vy F
1
trc giao vi F
2
.
nh l 3. Nu f l mt php bin i i xng ca khng gian vect
clit n chiu E, th E c mt c s trc chun gm nhng vect ring
ca f .
Chng minh. V ma trn A ca f i vi c s trc chun () =
274
{
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} l ma trn i xng nn theo nh l cc gi tr ring
ca f u l s thc.
Ta chng minh bng qui np theo n.
Vi n = 1, nh l hin nhin ng.
Vi n = 2, gi s k
1
l mt gi tr ring ca f v
1
l vect ring
tng ng. Gi F l khng gian con ca E sinh bi
1
=
1
1
1
v H l
khng gian con b trc giao vi F. V F H ={ } v E = F + H, nn
danH = dimE - dimF = 1.
Ta c f( ) H vi H. Tht vy, ly ty F ta c .f( )
= f( ). = 0 v f( ) = k
1
F nn f( ) H.
Gi s
2
l c s ca H. t
2
=
2
1
2
, h {
1
,
1
} l mt c s
trc chun ca E. V f(
2
) H nn tn ti k
2
R sao cho f(
2
) = k
2
2
.
Nh vy h {
1
,
1
} l c s trc chun ca E gm nhng vc t
ring ca f.
Gi s n > 2, v mnh ng vi n - 1.
Gi k
1
l mt gi tr ring ca f v F, H cng l nhng khng gian
nh trn. Lp li lp lun trn ta c dimH = n - 1 v H l khng gian con
bt bin i vi f. Nh vy thu hp f|
H
l mt php bin i i xng ca
khng gian n - 1 chiu H. Do , theo gi thit qui np H c mt c s
trc chun {
1
,...,
1
} gm nhng vect ring ca f. V
1

1
vi mi
= 2,..., n, nn {
1
,
2
,...,
n
} l mt c s trc chun ca E gm nhng
vect ring ca f. Ta c iu cn chng minh.
T y v sau ta ch xt cc dng ton phng trn khng gian vect
cht R
n
, v ta vn k hiu c s chnh tc ca Ra l c s gm cc vect
1
= (1, 0,..., 0),
2
(0, 1,..., 0),..,
n
= (0, 0,.., 1).
nh l 4. Mi dng ton phng trn khng gian vect clit E
n
a
c v dng chnh tc nh mt ma trn trc giao.
Chng minh. Gi s dng ton phng trn E
n
c ma trn i vi
c s chnh tc l A. Khi A l ma trn i xng. Coi A l ma trn ca
275
php bin i tuyn tnh f i vi c s chnh tc. Do A l ma trn i
xng, nn theo nh l 3, tn ti mt c s trc chun ca Rn gm nhng
vect ring ca f, gi s l () = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
}. Khi ma trn B ca
f i vi c s () l mt ma trn cho. K hiu T l ma trn chuyn t
c s chnh tc () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} sang c s () khi T l ma trn
trc giao. Ta c B -
t
TAT l ma trn ca dng ton phng r i vi c
s () v l ma trn cho, nn i vi c s () dng ton phng c
dng chnh tc.
T nh l trn suy ra: Cch tm ma trn trc giao a dng ton
phng trn R
n
v dng chnh tc.
Gi s A l ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s chnh tc
ca Rn. Ta thc hin cc bc sau:
1) Tm cc gi tr ring l nghim ca a thc c trng |A kI|.
2) Tm cc vect ring to thnh mt c s trc chun ca R
n
.
3) Tm ma trn chuyn T t c s chnh tc sang c s trc chun
va tm c.
V d 1. a dng ton phng trn RA v dng chnh tc

Gii. Ma trn ca r i vi c s chnh tc l

Tm nghim ca a thc c trng:

Ta c k
1
= 0, k
2
= 9, k
3
= 14
Tm cc vect ring:
- Vi k
1
= 0, gii h:
276

Vect ring c dng: (3c
1
, 2c
1
, c
1
).
- Vi k
2
= 9, gii h:

Vect ring c dng: (0, c
2
, -2c
2
).
- Vi k
3
= 14, vect ring c dng: (-
3
5
c
3
, 2c
3
, c
3
)
Chn c s trc chun () gm nhng vect ring:

Ma trn chuyn t c s chnh tc sang c s () l

Nu ta ca vect ln lt i vi c s chnh tc v c s ()
l X =
|
|
|
\
|
3
2
1
x
x
x
v Y =
|
|
|
\
|
3
2
1
y
y
y
, th ta c:
277

V d 2. Tm php bin i trc giao a dng ton phng sau trn
Ra v dng chnh tc.

Gii. Dng ton phng c ma trn i vi c s chnh tc l:

a thc c trng:

Cc nghim ca a thc c trng l: k
1
= - 9, k
2
= k
3
= 9
- Vi k
1
= - 9, gii h phng trnh

ta c nghim c dng (2c, c, 2c).
Chn
1
= (2, 1, 2) ta c nghim ring ng vi k
1
= - 9.
- Vi k
2
= k
3
= 9, h phng trnh tng ng l:
278

Nghim ca h phng trnh ny c dng: (d, - 2d - 2e, e).
V hng ca h phng trnh bng 1 nn khng gian cc nghim c
chiu bng 2. Chn mt c s ca khng gian ny:

l hai vect ring ng vi k
2
= k
3
= 9. Theo nh l 2, ta c
2
v
3
trc giao vi
1
. V th, mun c mt c s trc chun ca R
3
gn
cc vect ring ch cn trc chun ho h vect {
2
,
3
}.

Suy ra t = -
5
4

H vect () = {
1
,
2
,...,
m
} l mt c s chun ca R
3
.
V
279

ta c ma trn chuyn t c s chnh tc thnh c s () l:

y chnh l ma trn ca php bin i tuyn tnh trc giao a
dng ton phng cho v dng chnh tc.
i vi c s (), vi = {y
1
1
+ y
2
2
+ y
3
3
} ta c ( ) = - 9
2
1
y
+ 9
2
2
y + 9
3
2
y .
Vic tm php bin i trc giao a dng ton phng v dng
chnh tc nh lm trong cc V d trn s c s dng nhiu khi a
phng trnh ca ng bc hai, mt bc hai v dng chnh tc.
280
TM TT
1. DNG TUYN TNH, DNG SONG TUYN TNH
1.1. nh ngha
Cho V l khng gian vect
1) nh x f : V R c gi l mt dng tuyn tnh trn V nu

2) nh x : V V R c gi l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V
nu

vi mi ,
1
,
2
, ,
1
, thuc V v mi k R.
3) Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l i xng nu ( , ) =
( ), , V. Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l thay phin nu
( , ) = -( , ), , V.
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}. nh x f : V R l mt dng tuyn tnh trn V khi v ch khi
tn ti n s thc c
b
,..., c
n
sao cho f( ) =
=
n
i
i i
c a
1
, vi mi =
=
n
i
i i a
1
V.
Khi f (
i
) = c
i
, vi mi i = 1,..., n, v f l dng tuyn tnh duy nht
trn V tha mn iu kin ny.
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}. nh x : V V R l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V khi
v ch khi tn ti n
2
s thc {d
ij
| i, j = 1, 2,..., n} sao cho
281

trn V tha mn iu kin ny.
1.2. Ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh
nh ngha. Cho {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} l mt c s ca khng gian
vect n chiu V trn trng s thc R, l mt dng song tuyn tnh
trn V, k hiu (
i
,
j
) = a
ij
R, i, j = 1, 2,..., n.
Ma trn vung cp n sau c gi l ma trn ca dng song tuyn
tnh i vi c s {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} cho.

Nhn xt. Gi s V l khng gian vect vi c s {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} v
A = (a
ij
)
n
l ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh trn V. Khi vi mi

Nh vy, nu bit ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh i vi mt c
s no , th ta c th xc nh nh ( , ) ca cp ( , ) tu ; ngha
l mt dng song tuyn tnh c hon ton xc nh bi ma trn ca n
i vi mt c s cho.
1.3. Lin h gia hai ma trn ca cng mt dng song tuyn tnh
i vi hai c s khc nhau
nh l. Cho () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}, () = {
1
,
2
,...,
m
} l hai c
s ca cng mt khng gian vect n chiu V trn R, A = (a
ij
)
n
v B =
(b
ij
)
n
ln lu l cc ma trn ca cng mt dng song tuyn tnh do trn V
i vi cc c s tng ng () v (), T = (t
ij
)
n
l ma trn chuyn t ()
sang (). Khi B =
t
TAT.
282
2. DNG TON PHNG
2.1. Dng ton phng
nh ngha. nh x : V R (R l trng s thc) c gi l mt
dng ton phng trn V nu tn ti mt dng song tuyn tnh f trn V
sao cho ( ) - f( , ) vi mi V. Khi f c gi l dng song
tuyn tnh sinh ra dng ton phng .
Tn ti tng ng 1-1 gia cc dng ton phng trn V v cc dng
song tuyn tnh i xng trn V; ngha l nu r l mt dng ton phng
trn V th tn ti mt v ch mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng sinh ra
.
Dng song tuyn tnh i xng sinh ra dng ton phng c
gi l dng cc ca .
Gi s V l khng gian vect n chiu vi c s l {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}.
nh x : V V R l mt dng ton phng trn V khi v ch khi
( ) =

= =
n
1 j
ij j i
n
1 i
a x x , vi mi =
=
n
1 i
i
i
x , V, trong a
ij
(i, j : 1, 2,...,
n) l dy cc s thc xc nh.
2.2. Ma trn ca dng ton phng
nh ngha. Cho l dng ton phng tng ng vi dng song
tuyn tnh i xng . Ma trn ca i vi c s {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}
cng c gi l ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s y.
Nu A = (a
ij
)
n
l ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s
{
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}, th A c tnh cht a
ij
= (
i
,
j
) = (
j
,
i
) = a
ij
.
Ma trn c tnh cht ny c gi l mt ma trn i xng.
Vi =
=
n
1 i
i
i
x , biu thc ( ) =

= =
n
1 j
ij j i
n
1 i
a x x c gi l biu
thc ta ca .
2.3. Dng ton phng xc nh
l xc nh nu ( ) = 0 ko theo = 0.
283
nh l. Nu l mt dng ton phng xc inh th ( ) c cng
mt du vi mi V.
Dng ton phng trn khng gian vect V c gi l xc nh
dng (m) nu ( ) > 0 ( ( ) < 0 ) vi mi a 0 thuc V. Nu l
mt dng ton phng xc nh dng (m) trn khng gian vect V v
W l mt khng gian con ca V th thu hp ca trn W (k hiu l |
W
)
cng l mt dng ton phng xc nh dng (m) trn W.

3.1. nh ngha. Gi s l mt dng ton phng trn khng gian
vect V. Nu i vi c s () = {
1
,
2
,...,
n
} ca V biu thc ta
ca l

th biu thc ny c gi l dng chnh tc ca dng ton phng .
Trong trng hp ny ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s
() l mt ma trn cho (a
ij
= a
ji
= 0 vi i j).
Vic i c s mt dng ton phng cho i vi c s mi c
dng chnh tc c gi l a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc.
3.2. nh l. Mi dng ton phng u a c v dng chnh
tc.
H qu. Gi s l mt dng ton phng c dng chnh tc ( )
=
=
n
i
i
x k
1
2
1
. Th th l dng ton phng xc nh dng khi v ch khi
k
i
> 0, vi mi i = 1,.., n.
C nhiu phng php khc nhau a mt dng ton phng v
dng chnh tc: phng php cho ha ma trn, phng php Jacobi,
phng php LagTange.
3.3. Dng phn mm Maple a dng ton phng v dng
chnh tc
284
Ta c th s dng phng php LagTange vi s h tr ca phn
mm ton Maple a biu thc ta ca dng ton phng v dng
chnh tc. Quy trnh c th nh sau:
Trc tin ta phi s dng hai lnh to mi trng tnh ton l:
>restart;
>with(student);
[D,Diff, Int, Limit, Lineint, Product, Sum, Tripleint, Changevar,
Completesquare, Distance, Equate, Integrand, Intercept, Intparts, leftbox,
leftsum, makeproc, middlebox, middlesum, midpoint, powsubs, rightbox,
rightsum, showtangent, smpon, slope, summand, trapezoid]
Trong qu trnh bin i cn ch phn bit trng hp a
ii
0 vi a
ii

= 0.
3.4. nh l qun tnh
nh l 1. (1ut qun tnh) Trong hai dng chnh tc bt k ca cng
mt dng ton phng s cc h s dng bng nhau, s cc h s tm
bng nhau.
i vi ma trn vung

mi nh thc

c gi l mt nh thc con chnh ca ma trn A.
nh l 2. Gi s A l ma trn ca dng ton phng trn khng
gian vect n chiu V. Khi l dng ton phng xc nh dng nu
v ch nn mi nh thc con chnh ca A u dng.
285
4.1. nh ngha
1) Dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn khng gian vect V c gi
l mt tch v hng trn V nu 0 thuc V ta c ( , ) > 0.
Vi , V s thc ( , ) c gi l tch v hng ca v k
hiu bi . . Nu = 6, thay cho . ta vit
2
.
2) Khng gian vect V c gi l mt khng gian vect clit nu
trn V c mt tch v hng.
4.2. C s trc chun
nh ngha. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit.
1) Hai vect , ca E c gi l trc giao nu . = 0; k hiu
.
2) Vi mi E, ta gi
2
) (x l chun ca vect , k hiu | ||.
Nu || || = 1 th ta ni l vect nh chun.
3) C s () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} ca khng gian vect clit E c
gi l mt c s trc chun nu
i
,
j
=
ij
(Trong
ij
l k hiu
Kronecker tha mn
ij
= 1 khi i = j,
ij
= 0 khi i j).
nh l 1. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit. Khi :
1) Vi E, || || = 0 khi v ch khi =0 .
2) Vi mi E, mi k R ta c ||k || = |k| .|| ||.
3) Vi mi , E ta c | | || ||.|| || (bt ng thc Cauchy-
Bunhiakovsky).
4) Vi mi , E ta c || + || || || +|| || (bt ng thc tam
gic).
nh l 2. Mi h gm nhng vect khc khng, i mt trc giao
ca mt khng gian uect clit u c lp tuyn tnh.
nh l 3. Mi khng gian vect clit n chiu u c c s trc
286
chun.
nh l 4. Nu () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
} l mt c s trc chun ca
khng gian clit n chiu E, th vi E ta c :
. ) ( ... ) ( ) ( 2 2 1 1 n n + + + =
4.3. Khng gian con b trc giao
nh ngha. Khng gian con H = { E | , ta F} c
gi l khng gian con b trc giao vi khng gian con F.
nh l 1. Nu H l khng gian con b trc giao vi khng gian con
F ca khng gian vect clit n chiu E th F H = { } v E = F + H.
4.4. Hnh chiu ca mt vect ln khng gian con
nh ngha. Gi s E l khng gian clit n chiu, F l khng gian
con ty ca E, khi E ta lun c biu din duy nht = +
, vi, F, H, trong H l khng gian con trc giao ca F.
Ta s gi vect l hnh chiu trc giao ca ln F v k hiu l hch
F

, cn vect = - = - hch
F
c gi l thnh phn ca trc
giao vi F.
4.5. Php bin i trc giao - Ma trn trc giao
ng cu f. E E c gi l mt php bin i trc giao nu f( ).
f( , )= . vi mi , E.
cu f: E E l php bin i trc giao khi v ch khi n bin mi c s
trc chun thnh c s trc chun.
nh l 2. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit, A l ma trn ca
T ng cu f: E E i vi mt c s trc chun () = {
1
,...,
2
,...,
n
}. T ng cu f l trc giao khi v ch khi
t
AA = I (I l ma trn n
v).
nh ngha. Ma trn vung A c gi l mt ma trn trc giao
nu
287
t
AA = I (I l ma trn n v)
H qu. f l mt php bin i trc giao khi v ch khi ma trn ca
n i vi mt c s trc chun l mt ma trn trc giao.
4.6. Php bin i i xng
nh ngha. Gi s E l mt khng gian vect clit n chiu. T ng
cu f: E E c gi l php i xng nu

cu f ca E l php i xng nu v ch nu ma trn ca f vi mt c
s trc chun l mt ma trn i xng.
4.7. ng dng
nh l 1. Nu A l mt ma trn i xng vi cc thnh phn l
nhng s thc th mi nghim ca a thc c trng | A kI | u l s
thc.
chiu E th hai khng gian con ring ng vi hai gi tr ring phn bit
ca f phi trc giao vi nhau.
chiu E, th E c mt c s trc chun gm nhng vect ring ca f.
nh l 4. Mi dng ton phng trn khng gian vect clit E
n

chiu a c v dng chnh tc nh mt ma trn trc giao.
Tm ma trn trc giao a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc:
Gi s A l ma trn ca dng ton phng i vi c s chnh tc
ca R
n
. Ta thc hin cc bc sau:
1) Tm cc gi tr ring l nghim ca a thc c trng | A kI | .
2) Tm cc vect ring to thnh mt c s trc chun ca R
n
.
3) Tm ma trn chuyn T t c s chnh tc sang c s trc chun
va tm c.
288
BI TP
1. DNG SONG TUYN TNH
1. Vit ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh trn R3, y

2. Tm ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn R3:

3. Cho ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh trn R
3
c ma trn i vi
c s chnh tc l

Tm ma trn ca i vi c s gm cc vect:

4. Cho dng song tuyn tnh trn R
3
c ma trn i vi c s () l

Ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s () ca R
n
l

Tm ma trn ca i vi c s () .
289
2. DNG TON PHNG
5. Tm ma trn ca dng ton phng trn R3 c biu thc to
sau:

6. Cho cc dng ton phng sau y c vit di dng ma trn.
Hy vit chng di trng thng thng:

7. Vit cc dng ton phng sau y di dng ma trn:

8. Tm biu thc to ca mi dng ton phng di y sau khi
thc hin Php bin i to tng ng
290

9. a cc dng ton phng sau v dng chnh tc, vi

291

10. Vi cc k hiu trc nh l 6.7, chng minh rng mt dng
ton phng xc nh m khi v ch khi

11. Trong khng gian vect clit ta t: cos v gi
l co sin ca gc gia hai vect v
Hy tnh chun v co sin ca gc gia hai vect sau trong R
3
:

12. Trong khng gian vect clit R
3
cho c s gm:
Trc chun ho h vect
cho.
13. Trong khng gian vect cht R4, hy trc chun ho h vect
gm cc vect sau:

14. Trong khng gian vect clit E vi c s trc chun
Hy tnh

15. Tm ma trn trc giao a cc dng ton phng trn R
3
sau y
v dng chnh tc,
292

293
VI NT LCH S
Cc dng ton phng bt u c nghin cu khong t nm 300
n nm 200 trc cng nguyn bi cc nh ton hc Hy lp Euclid,
Archimedes v Apollonios. Euclid ni ting vi b sch "C s" gm 13
tp trnh by mt cch h thng ton b kin thc ton hc lc by gi.
Archimedes c nhiu ngi nh gi l nh ton hc v i nht trong
lch s bi cc pht minh khoa hc ca mnh. Apollonios ni ting v b
sch "Cc nht ct hnh nn" gm 8 tp vi khong 400 nh l. ng l
ngi a ra cc khi nim trc giao, cng thc chnh tc v chng minh
c s tn ti cc dng chnh tc trc chnh trong trng hp hai chiu.
Chnh Apollonios l ngi a ra tn gi cc mt bc hai nh dp,
hyperbol v parabol. Vic phn loi cc dng ton phng trong khng
gian 3 chiu c hon thnh nm 1748 bi nh ton hc Thy S Euler.
Dng chnh tc ca cc dng ton phng nhiu chiu c Lagrange
chng minh nm 1759. Lut qun tnh c Sylvester v Jacobi pht
hin pht hin vo khong nm 1850. Gauss l ngi u tin s dng
ma trn nghin cu cc dng ton phng.
Khng gian Euclid (clit) ban u c hiu nh l khng gian thc
3 chiu vi h tin Euchd. Nh ton hc ngi Ba lan, Banach (1892-
1945), l ngi u tin m rng s nghin cu sang khng gian nhiu
chiu v ng c coi l ng t ca cc khng gian nh chun. Ma trn
trc giao c nh ngha u tin bi Frobemus. Weierstrass l ngi
a ra chng minh chnh xc "mi ma trn i xng thc l cho ha
c" vo nm 1858.
294
Chng VII
QUY HOCH TUYN ANH
M DU
T tng ti u ho c t thi xa xa, ngay t khi con ngi phi
suy ngh tm cch hnh ng sao cho c li nht cho mnh theo nhng
mc ch xc nh. Nhng yu cu cp bch ca s pht trin nn kinh t
v quc phng li cng lm ny sinh nhng tng tng t. Do
xut hin mt bi ton cn phi gii quyt, l bi ton tm quyt nh
ti u.
gii quyt mt cch c hiu qu bi ton y, trc ht cn phi
xy dng mt m hnh ton hc cho n, trn th hin c bn cht
ca mi i tng c kho st v s lin quan cn phi tn trng
gia chng; ngoi ra, ng nhin cn phi ch r mc tiu mong mun
t c
Bi ton tm quyt nh ti u vi m hnh ton hc c xy
dng c gi l bi ton quy hoch ton hc hay bi ton ti u ho.
S lin quan gia cc i tng c kho st trong qu trnh xy
dng m hnh ton hc thng c th hin di dng mt h phng
trnh v bt phng trnh, coi nh l nhng iu kin (hay rng buc)
khng th b qua. Nu tt c cc hm c mt trong bi ton y l cc
hm tuyn tnh th ta c bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh. Quy hoch tuyn
tnh l mt b phn c bn v c nhiu ng dng thc tin trong lnh vc
ti u ho.
Trong chng ny ta ch xt cc bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh vi
cc phng php v thut ton gii chng, c xem nh mt ng dng
ca i s tuyn tnh.
295
1. BI TON QUY HOCH TUYN TNH
1.1. Mt vi bi ton thc t
1) Bi ton lp k hoch sn xut
Mt c s sn xut d nh sn xut hai loi sn phm A v B. Cc
sn phm ny c ch to t ba loi nguyn liu I, II v III. S lng
n v d tr ca tng loi nguyn liu v s lng n v tng loi
nguyn liu cn dng sn xut ra mt n v sn phm mi loi c
cho trong bng di y:
s lng n v nguyn liu cn dng
cho vic sn xut mt n vi sn phm
Loi nguyn
liu

Nguyn liu
d tr

A B
I 18 2 3
II 30 5 4
III 25 1 6
Hy lp k hoch sn xut, tc l tnh xem cn sn xut bao nhiu
n v sn phm mi loi tin li thu c l ln nht bit rng, bn
mt n v sn phm A thu li 3 trm nghn ng, bn mt n v sn
phm B thu li 2 trm nghn ng. Ta hy xy dng m hnh ton hc
cho bi ton trn. Gi x v y theo th t l s lng n v sn phm A
v B cn sn xut theo k hoch. Khi tin li thu c s l
z = 3x + 2y.
Do nguyn liu d tr c hn nn x v y phi chu nhng rng buc
no , c th l:
2x + 3y 18 (Rng buc v nguyn liu I)
5x + 4y 30 (Rng buc v nguyn liu II)
x + 6y 25 (Rng buc v nguyn liu III).
Ngoi ra cn cc rng buc rt t nhin na l x 0, y 0 v s n
v sn phm khng th m.
Bng ngn ng ton hc, bi ton trn c th pht biu nh sau: Tm
x v y sao cho ti biu thc z = 3x + 2y t gi tr ln nht vi cc
296
rng buc:

Bi ton lp k hoch sn xut tng qut c th pht biu di dng:

Hy tm vect x = (x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
) Sao Cho ti hm f t gi tr ln
nht vi cc rng buc:

2) Bi ton vn ti.
C mt loi hng cn c vn chuyn t hai kho (trm pht) P
1
v
P
2
ti ba ni tiu th (trm thu) T
1
, T
2
v T
3
. Bng di y cho bit s
lng hng cn vn chuyn i mi kho v s lng hng cn nhn
mi ni tiu th, v cc ph vn chuyn mt n v hng t mi kho ti
ni tiu th tng ng:
Trm thu Lng Pht Trm Pht
T1 T2 T3
Pl
P2
5
2
2
1
3
1
30
75
Lng thu 35 25 45
Hy lp k hoch vn chuyn tho mn mi yu cu thu pht sao cho
chi ph vn chuyn l nh nht.
Nu k hiu x
ij
(i = 1, 2 v i = 1, 2, 3) l lng hng cn vn chuyn
t kho P
i
ti ni tiu th T
j
th m hnh ton hc ca bi ton vn ti ni
trn s l:
297
Tm cc s x
ij
(i = 1, 2 v j = 1, 2, 3) sao cho ti biu thc
5x
11
+ 2x
12
+ 8x
13
+ 2x
21
+ x
22
+ x
23

t gi tr nh nht vi cc rng buc:

tng qut ho bi ton vn ti, ta gi m l s trm pht; n l s
trm thu; a; l lng pht t trm pht th i (i = 1, 2,..., m); b
j
l lng
thu ca trm thu th i (j = 1, 2 , , n) ; c
ij
l cc ph vn chuyn mt
n v hng t trm pht th i ti trm thu th j; x
ij
l lng hng cn
vn chuyn theo k hoch t trm pht th i n trm thu th j (i = 1,
2,..., m; j = 1, 2, ..., n).
Bi ton vn ti tng qut c pht biu nh sau:
Hy tm cc s xu (i = 1, 2,..., m; j = 1, 2,..., n), tc l tm ma trn x =
(x
ij
) kiu (m,n) sao cho ti hm

t gi tr nh nht vi cc rng buc:

1.2. Bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh
1) Dng tng qut ca bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh
298
T cc bi ton nu cng rt nhiu cc bi ton thc t khc ta c
th thy bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh tng qut c dng nh sau:

Hy tm vect x = (x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
). Sao cho ti hm t gi tr nh
nht (hoc ln nhn vi cc rng buc:

Trong bi ton trn, hm f(x) c gi l hm mc tiu; cc rng
buc (2) v (3) c gi l cc rng buc cng bc; rng buc (4) c
gi l rng buc t nhin, n cng thuc loi rng buc (2) nhng v
mun nhn mnh nn ta vn tch ring.
Mi vect x = (x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
) tho mn tt c cc rng buc c gi
l mt phng n. Phng n m ti hm mc tiu t gi tr nh nht
(hoc ln nht) c gi l phng n ti u; gi tr y c gi l gi
tr ti u ca hm mc tiu trn tp cc phng n.
i vi bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh i hi gi tr hm mc tiu
t gi tr nh nht (hoc ln nht) ta ni l bi ton cc tiu ho hay
bi ton dng mn (hoc bi ton cc i ho hay bi ton dng max).
Phng n x c gi l tt hn phng n y nu: f(x) < f(y) i vi bi
ton dng mn (f(x) > f(y) i vi bi ton dng max).
Gii bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh c hiu l tm c d ch mt
phng n ti u; hoc l chng t trn tp phng n hm mc tiu
khng b chn, tc l hm mc tiu c th nhn gi t nh tu (hoc
ln tu ) i vi bi ton dng mn (hoc max) trn tp phng n; hoc
l chng t tp phng n l rng (ngi ta chng minh c rng,
299
i vi bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh xy ra mt v ch mt trong ba kh
nng trn).
Ta c th thy rng

Chnh v vy, v mt l thuyt, di y ta ch cp ti cc bi ton
quy hoch tuyn tnh dng mn, c vit di dng gn hn:

vic trnh by c ngn gn, ta a ra cc k hiu v quy c
sau y:
a) Nu A l ma trn kiu (m, n) th A
i
= (a
i1
, a
i2
, , a
in
) l vect dng
(ma trn dng) th i ca A
i
A
j
: (a
1j
, a
2j
, , a
mj
) l vect ct (ma trn
ct) th j ca A.
b) Nu A = (a
ij
) v B = (b
ij
) l hai ma trn cng kiu th bt ng thc
ma trn A B c hiu l a
ij
b
ij
vi mi i, j.
c bit, vi vect (ma trn) x = (x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
) th x 0 c hiu l
x
j
0 vi mi j.
c) Mi vect c xem nh ma trn ct trong cc php tnh ma trn
(nu khng ni g thm hoc khng c quy c g khc).
Nu c = (c
1
, c
2
, , c
n
) v x = (x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
) l hai vect no th
biu thc (cng k hiu tng ng)

c gi l tch v hng ca hai vect c v x.
300
Nu xem c v x l hai ma trn ct th

l ma trn cp 1, trong
t
c l ma trn chuyn v ca c (cn c th k
hiu l c
t
hay c
T
). cho gn, sau y ta s quy c:

Nh vy, vi cc k hiu v quy c nu trn, bi ton quy hoch
tuyn tnh tng qut c vit di dng gn hn nh sau:

trong A = (a
ij
) l ma trn kiu (m, n).
2) Dng chnh tc v dng chun tc ca bi ton quy hoch tuyn
tnh.
Xt bi ton (1) - (4).
a) Nu I = v J = N th ta c bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh dng
chnh tc, n c dng:

trong b = (b
1
, b
2
, .., b
m
); A c gi l ma trn rng buc.
b) Nu I' = v J = N th ta c bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh dng
chun tc, n c dng:
301

D thy rng, bng cc php bin i thch hp ta c th a bi ton
quy hoch tuyn tnh bt k v dng chnh tc hoc l dng chun tc, c
th l:
- Mi phng trnh A
i
x = b
i
c thay bi h hai bt phng trnh
A
i
x b , v -A
i
x -b .
- Mi bt phng trnh Alx > b, c thay bi h
A
i
x - x
n + 1
= b
i
v x
n + i
0
trong n mi x
n + i
c gi l n b (hay bin b)
- Mi bt phng trnh A
i
x b
i
c thay bi h
A
i
x - x
n + 1
= b
i
v x
n + i
0
trong n mi x
n + i
c gi l n b (hay bin b).
- Mi n x
j
khng c rng buc v du u c th vit thnh hiu ca
hai n mi khng m:
- Nu n x
j
c iu kin x
j
0 th ta t x
j
= -t
j
vi t
j
0.
V d 1. a bi ton sau v dng chnh tc:

Gii
Bi ton cho l bi ton dng max nn ta i du hm mc tiu
a v dng mn. a vo hai n b t
4
, t
5
ng vi rng buc th nht v
th hai. n x
3
khng c rng buc v du nn ta t x
3
= t
3
t
6
. Cui
cng, t x
1
= t
1
, x
2
= t
2
, v ta c bi ton dng chnh tc sau:
302

V d 2. a bi ton sau v dng chun tc

Gii
t x
1
= t
1
, x
2
= - t
2
, x
3
= t
3
- t
4
ri th vo bi ton cho, sau khi
nhn hai v ca rng buc th hai vi - 1, ta c bi ton di dng chun
tc sau:

1.3. ngha hnh hc v phng php th
Xt bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh hai n
303

Sau y ta a ra cch gii bi ton cho bng phng php hnh
hc. Trc ht ta hy biu din hnh hc tp phng n ca bi ton
(hnh 1).

Trn mt phng to 0x
1
x
2
cc rng buc c biu din bi cc
na mt phng. Cc na mt phng (1) - (5) c nh s theo th t cc
rng buc ngay trn b ca chng. Khi xc nh mi na mt phng y,
ch na mt phng tng ng b loi b ta xo mt cch tng trng
bi ba vch song song lin nhau vung gc vi b ca n.
Nh vy tp phng n c biu din bi hnh ng gic li
ABCDE, ta k hiu n l X.
Tp cc im (x
1
, x
2
) sao cho ti hm mc tiu nhn gi tr z c
xc nh bi phng trnh f(x) = z, c th l -2x
1
+ x
2
= z. l ng
thng vung gc vi vect c = (-2, 1) m ta s gi l ng mc (vi
mc l z) Khi z thay i ta c mt h ng mc song song.
304
V ng mc (m) i qua mt im no ca tp phng n, nu
n khc rng, chng hn qua im C(0, 1). Khi (m) c phng trnh -
2x
1
+ x
2
= 1 v f(C) = 1, l ng thng c th hin bi ng "nt
t" trn hnh v. Tnh tin ng mc (m) theo mt hng no
nhng vn song song vi chnh n s tng ng lm tng dn gi tr hm
mc tiu, theo hng ngc li, s tng ng lm gim dn gi tr hm
mc tiu. bi ton ny ta phi chn hng tnh tin ng mc (m)
sao cho tng ng lm gim dn gi tr hm mc tiu. Mun vy ta tnh
gi tr hm mc tiu ti mt im no khng thuc (m), chng hn
im D(2, O). Khi ta c f(D) = - 4 < f(C) - 1. Nh vy ta xc nh
c hng tnh tin, c ch r bi mi tn trn hnh v. Theo hng
y ta tnh tin ng mc (m) cho ti v tr gii hn (g), nu c, tc l v
tr vn c chung vi tp phng n t nht mt im, ng thi ton b
tp phng n nm hon ton v mt pha ca v tr y. Trn hnh v, v
tr gii hn (g) c th hin bi ng "chm gch". Khi mi im
chung ni trn l mt plluullg n ti u. R rng ta c X
*
= (g) X l
tp phng n ti u ca bi ton. bi ton ny, X
*
= {A}. Nh vy
bi ton c phng n ti u duy nht, l giao cc b ca na mt
phng (2) v (3), cc to ca n c xc nh bi h phng trnh

vy l phng n ti u ca bi ton cho v

Trong trng hp tng qut, nu tp phng n khc rng m khng
c v tr gii hn th ta kt lun bi ton c hm mc tiu khng b chn.
Ch .
Phng php th ni trn khng nhng gii c cc bi ton c
hai n m cn c th gii c mt lp cc cc bi ton c hai rng buc
cng bc vi s n tu .
Trong trng hp tng qut, nu tp phng n X c Ra ca bi ton
quy hoch tuyn tnh khc rng v tn ti st > 0 sao cho:
305

th bi ton c phng n ti u.
i vi bi ton hai n th, trong trng hp y, X l mt a gic li
(tp X ch c mt phn t cng c xem l mt a gic li) v t nht
mt trong cc nh ca n l phng n ti u.
Tr li v d mc 1.3, tp phng n l a gic li ABCDE.
Ta c: f(A) =
11
82
, f(B) = 5, f(C) = 1, f(D) = -4, f(E) = -6 v f(A) l
gi tr nh nht trong chng. Vy A l phng n ti u.
306
2. PHNG PHP N HNH V
CC THUT TON CA N

Nh ta bit, mi bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh u c th a v
dng chnh tc. T cc kt qu thu c khi nghin cu bi ton c dng
chnh tc ta d dng suy ra cc kt qu tng ng ca bi ton ban
u Di y, ta ch xt bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh dng chnh tc,
gi s n c dng:

trong gi thit rng A l ma trn kiu (m, n) vi m < n v hng (A)=m
2.1. Mt s tnh cht ca bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh dng
chnh tc
nh ngha 1. Mi b gm m vect ct c lp tuyn tnh ca ma
trn A c gi l mt c s ca n.
Gi s {A
ji
| i = 1, 2, . , m} l mt c s ca A. Nn t
J
o
= {j
1
, j
2
, , j
n
} v ma trn B = [ A
j1
A
j2
.A
jm
]
th ta cng ni J
o
hay B l mt c s ca A.
nh ngha 2. Gi s J
o
l mt c s ca ma trn A khi phng
n x = (x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
) ca gi ton (1) c gi l phng n cc bin
ng vi c s J
o
nu x
j
= 0 vi mi j J
o
( Ta cng ni J
0
l c s ca
phng n cc bin ).
Cc n x
j
vi j J
o
c gi l n phi c s. Cc n x
j
vi j J
o

c gi l n c s, gi tr ca chng nhn c bng cch gii h
Cramer

T nh ngha suy ra rng, nu J
o
l mt c s ca A v nghim ca
307
h (2) c t nht mt thnh phn m th khng c phng n cc bin no
ng vi c s J
o
.
Ngoi ra, d thy rng s thnh phn dng ca mt phng n cc
bin ca bi ton (1) ti a l bng m. Mt phng n cc bin c gi
l khng suy bin nu n c ng m thnh phn dng, c gi l suy
bin nu n c t hn m thnh phn dng.
Bi ton (1) c gi l khng suy bin nu mi phng n cc bin
ca n u khng suy bin.
C th thy ngay rng, s phng n cc bin ca bi ton quy hoch
tuyn tnh dng chnh tc l hu hn, bi v s h con c lp tuyn tnh
gm ng m vect ca h hu hn cc vect ct ca ma trn A l hu
hn.
V d. Tm tt c cc c s ca ma trn rng buc v cc phng n
cc bin (nu c) ng vi mi c s y i vi bi ton quy hoch tuyn
tnh dng chnh tc c h rng buc:

Hy biu din hnh hc tp phng n ca bi ton y.
Gii
Ma trn rng buc l

Trong 3 h con gm ng 2 vect ca h gm 3 vect ct ca A ch
c hai h c lp tuyn tnh, l cc h {A
1
,A
2
} v {A
1
, A
3
}; h cn li
l {A
2
, A
3
} ph thuc tuyn tnh v det[A
l
A
2
1 = 4 0, det[A
l
A
3
] = -4 0
v det[A
2
A
3
] = 0.
Hai h con c lp tuyn tnh y chnh l cc c s ca ma trn A:
{A
l
, A
2
}, {A
l
, A
3
}.
- Vi h {A
l
, A
2
} th x
3
= 0; Cn x
1
, x
2
c xc nh bi h
308

V x
1
, x
2
> 0 nn ta c x = (2, 1, 0) l phng n cc bin (n khng
suy bin v c 2 thnh phn dng).
- Vi h {A
l
, A
3
} th x
2
= 0; cn x
1
, x
3
c xc nh bi h

Nh vy, ng vi c s {A
2
, A
3
} khng c mt phng n cc bin
no v x3 = - 1 < 0.
Vy bi ton ch c mt phng n cc bin khng suy bin ng vi
c s {A
1
, A
2
} hay c s J
o
= {1, 2}, l x = (2, 1, 0).
Biu din hnh hc tp phng n:
D thy rng, mi phng n ca bi ton u c x
1
= 2 (cng v vi
v hai phng trnh trong h rng buc).
Vy h rng buc d cho tng ng vi h:

Tp phng n l tia Mz, M l im cc bin (hnh 2)

309
nh l 1. Phng n x = (x
1
, x
2
,, x
n
) 0 ca bi ton (1) l
phng n cc bin khi v ch khi h vect lin kt vi n, tc l h H(x)
= {A
j
| x
j
> 0}, c lp tuyn tnh.
Chng minh. iu kin cn c suy ra t nh ngha. Ta s chng
minh iu kin . Gi s H(x) l h c lp tuyn tnh. Nu tp ch s
J
x
= {j | x
j
> 0} c m phn t th H(x) chnh l c s ca ma trn A tng
ng vi x. Nu tri li, tc l s phn t ca J
x
l | J
x
| < m, th ta c th
b sung vo H(x) mt s vect ct ca A c mt h gm m vect
c lp tuyn tnh, v hng(A) = m v H(x) l mt h con ca h cc
vect ct ca A. Trong mi trng hp ta u tm c mt c s ca A
ng vi x. Vy x l phng n cc bin.
nh l 2. Nu bi ton (1) c tp phng n khc rng th n c t
nht mt phng n cc bin.
Chng minh. Trc ht ta quy c rng, nu vect l phng n
ca bi ton (1) th ta coi n l phng n cc bin. Ta cng gi thit
thm rng, mi vect ct ca A u khc 0 . Gi s x = (x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
) l
phng n c k thnh phn dng v cc thnh phn cn li u bng 0.
Khng lm mt tnh cht tng qut c th gi thit rng x
1
, x
2
, , x
k
> 0;
x
k+1
= x
k+2
= = x
n
= 0.
V x l phng n nn ta c

Gi s hng ca ma trn [A
1
A
2
A
k
] bng r. V hng (A) = m nn ta
c r < m v hin nhin r < k. Nu k = r th r rng x l phng n cc
tin v {A
1,
A
2
, ..., A
k
} c lp tuyn tnh. Nu tri li, tc l r < k, th,
khng lm mt tnh cht tng qut, ta gi thit rng ma trn

l khng suy bin.
Xem (3) l h phng trnh vi cc n x
1
, x
2
, , x
k
n tng ng
vi h r phng trnh u . Gii h ny, vi cc n chnh x
1
, , x
r
v
cc n t do x
r+1
,, x
k
ta c
310

trong p
j
v q
ij
l cc hng s xc nh no .
Nh vy, nu coi x
1
, x
2
, , x
k
l cc n th h (3) v h (4) tng
ng vi nhau.
Vi tham s , h (4) c th vit

Nu t

th t h thc (5) suy ra

so snh (4) v (6) ta thy l phng n ca bi ton
(1) khi v ch khi

Ta chn = min(
o
, x
r+1
). Nu = x
r+1
th , nu =
o
th
311
v nh vy vi cch chn th phng n x c s
thnh phn bng 0 nhiu hn so vi x.
Cho ng vai tr x v qu trnh c tip tc nh trn, sau mt s
hu hn bc s thu c mt phng n m h vect lin kt vi n
c lp tuyn tnh hoc thu c phng n 0, tc l thu c phng n
cc bin.
B 1. Nu phng n x = (x
1
, x
2
,,x
n
) khng phi l phng n
cc bin ca bi ton (1) th tn ti cc phng n phn bit x
1
v x
2
sao
cho

Chng minh. V x khng phi l phng n cc bin nn x 0.
Khng lm mt tnh cht tng qut ta c th gi thit rng, x c r thnh
phn u tin l dng v cc thnh phn cn li bng 0, ngha l n c
dng x = (x
1
, x
2
, , x
r
, 0,,0) vi x
i
> 0 , i = 1, 2 , , r. V x khng
phi l phng n cc bin nn H(x) = {A
1
, A
2
,..., A
r
} ph thuc tuyn
tnh. Khi tn ti cc s
1
,
2
,,
r
khng ng thi bng 0 sao cho:

Vi l s dng tu ta cng c:

V x l phng n nn ta c:

T ng thc (7) v (8) suy ra:
Lp hai vect sau y:

Do x
i
> 0, i = 1, 2, ... , r nn c th chn c > 0 b sao cho
x
i
x
i
0. Khi cng vi ng thc (9), suy ra x
1
, x
2
l cc phng
n. D thy x
1
x
2
(suy ra t cc iu kin > 0 v cc s
1
,,
r

312
khng ng thi bng khng) v r rng ta c

Ch . Trong php chng minh b 1, c th gi thit trong cc
sot,
1
,
2
,
r
c t nht mt s dng. Khi d thy rng, x
1
0
khi v ch khi :

Nu
i
0 vi mi i th x
2
> 0 Vi mi > 0. Nu tn ti ch s i sao
cho
i
< 0 th x
2
0 khi v ch khi 0 < <
-
= min {
i
i
x
:
i
< 0} . Do
ta c th chn sao cho x
1
0, x
2
0, ng thi trong r thnh phn
u tin ca x
1
hoc x
2
c t nht mt thnh phn bng 0, c th l:
Chn =
+
nu
i
0 vi mi i, hoc = min(
+
, a
-
) nu tn ti
sao cho
i
< 0.
Nh vy, t phng n x khng phi l phng n cc bin c th
xy dng c hai phng n phn bit x
1
, x
2
sao cho x =
2 1
2
1
2
1
x x + ,
trong t nht mt trong hai phng n xy dng c c s thnh
phn dng t hn so vi x.
B 2. Nu x
0
l phng n ti u v x
1
, x
2
cc phng n phn
bit ca bi ton (1) sao cho x
0
=
2 1
2
1
2
1
x x + th x
1
v x
2
cng l phng
n ti u ca bi ton .
Chng minh. V f(x) l hm tuyn tnh nn

Vi gi thit xo l phng n ti u, ta c :
f(x
0
) f(x
1
) v f(x
0
) f(x
2
) .
Gi s t nht mt trong hai bt ng thc trn xy ra vi du bt
313
ng thc thc s (<), chng hn:
f(x
0
) < f(x
1
) v f(x
0
) f(x
2
).
T suy ra f(x
0
) <
2
1
f(x
1
) +
2
1
f(x
2
). l iu v l. Vy f(x
o
) =
f(x
1
) = f(x
2
), tc l x
1
, x
2
cng l cc phng n ti u.
nh l 3. Nu bi ton (1) c phng n ti u th n c t nht mt
Phng n cc bin l phng n ti u.
Chng minh. Gi s x l phng n ti u ca bi ton (1). Nu x =
0 th, theo quy c, n chnh l phng n cc bin ti u . Gi s x 0
khng phi l phng n cc bin. Theo b 1(v phn ch khi
chng minh n ) c th xy dng c hai phng n phn bit x
1
v x
2

sao cho x =
2
1
x
1
+
2
1
x
2
; trong t nht mt trong hai phng n xi v
x
2
c s thnh phn dng t hn so vi x, chng hn x
1
. Theo b 2 th
x
1
l phng n ti u. Nu x
1
khng phi l phng n cc bin th cho
x
1
ng vai tr x, ta li xy dng c phng n ti u xa c s thnh
phn dng t hn so vi x
1
. Qu trnh c tip tc nh vy, sau mt s
hu hn bc s xy dng c phng n ti u c h vect lin kt
vi n c lp tuyn tnh hoc n lc thy vect 0 l phng n ti u.
D trng hp no ta cng thu c phng n cc bin ti u.
nh l c chng minh.
2.2. Phng php n hnh
C s l lun
gii bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh bt k no , trc ht ta a
bi ton v dng chnh tc bng mt s php bin i n gin bit.
i vi bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh dng chnh tc, nh trn y
trnh by, nu c phng n th c phng n cc bin, nu c phng
n ti u th c phng n cc bin ti u. iu cho thy vai tr quan
trng ca cc phng n cc bin trong vic xut cc phng php
gii bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh dng chnh tc, ng thi c th s
dng tnh hu hn ca s cc phng n cc bin ca bi ton .
Phng php n hnh l mt trong cc phng php dng gii bi
ton quy hoch tuyn tnh dng chnh tc. tng ca phng php n
hnh l: Xut pht t mt phng n cc bin bit (bng cch no ),
nu n khng phi l phng n ti u th tm cch xy dng mt
314
phng n cc bin khc tt hn phng n cc bin ban u. Qu trnh
c lp li nh vy, sau mt s hu hn bc s thu c phng n ti
u hoc nhn bit c bi ton c hm mc tiu khng b chn.
Gi s cn gii bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh dng chnh tc:

trong A l ma trn kiu (m, n) vi m < n v hng (A) = m.
Rng buc (2) cn c th vit di dng x
1
A
1
+ x
2
A
2
++ x
n
A
n
= b
Ta gi thit rng bi ton (1), (2), (3) khng suy bin (mi phng n
cc bin u c ng m thnh phn dng), v bit mt phng n
cc bin c dng = (x
10
, x
20
, , x
n0
) trong x
i0
> 0 vi i J
0
, |J
0
|=m;
x
j0
=0 vi i J
0
.
Nh vy, c s ng vi l J
0
hay H( ) = {A
i
: i J
0
} v mi
vect A
j
(j = l,2,...,n) u biu th tuyn tnh duy nht qua H( ), chng
c

Nu gi B l ma trn c cc ct l cc vect trong c s {A
i
: i J
0
}
v t x
j
=(x
ij
) R
m
, i J
0
th A
j
= Bx
j
hay x
j
= B
-l
A
j
, i = 1, 2,..., n.
Vi k hiu x
0
= (x
i0
) R
m
v c
0
= (c
i
) R
m
vi i J
0
; A
0
= b th r
rng ta c:

v do x
j
=B
-1
A
j
cng ng vi j = 0.
nh ngha. Ta gi
j
=
t
c
0
x
j
- c
j
, j = 1, 2 ,..., n l c lng ca n x
j

(hay ca vect A
j
) ng vi c s J
0
.
R rng ta c Ch rng, nu j E J
0
th
j
= 0, tc l

315
c lng ca mi n c s u bng 0. Tht vy, gi s J
0
= {j
1
, j
2
, ,
j
m
}. Do B
-1
B = I l mt ma trn n v cp m nn ( I
i
l
ct th i ca ma trn I ).

B 1. Gi s x = (x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
) l phng n bt k ca bi ton
(1), (2), (3). Khi ta c cc h thc:

Chng minh. Ta c

Mt khc , v x l phng n (ch ng thc (4) ) nn:

Vect b biu th tuyn tnh mt cch duy nht qua c s {A
i
: i J
0
}
nn t (6) v (7) suy ra:

T suy ra iu phi chng minh.
nh l 1. (du hiu ti u)
Nn ng vi phng n cc bin c c s J
0
m
j
0 vi mi j
J
0
th l phng n ti u ca bi ton (1), (2), (3).
Chng minh. Gi s x = (x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
) l mt phng n bt k ca
bi ton (1),(2),(3). Nhn hai v ca(5) vi c; ri ly tng theo iJ
0
c
hai v ta c
316

cng c hai v ca ng thc trn vi ta c

v x l phng n nn x
j
0 vi mi j J
0
, cng vi gi thit
j
0 vi
mi j J
0
t (8) ta suy ra f( ) f(x). Bt ng thc ny ng vi
phng n x bt k nn l phng n ti u. l iu cn phi chng
minh.
B 2. Vi mi j J
0
ta xt vect n chiu s
j
= (s
ij
) vi i = 1, 2,..., n
c xc nh nh sau:

Khi ta c
t
cs
j
= - , As
j
= 0, v vi tham s 0 th vect x() =
+ s
j
l phng n ca bi ton (1), (2), (3) khi v ch khi x
0
- x
j
0
Chung minh. R rng
t
cs
j
=
t
c
0
(-x
j
) + c
j
= -(
t
c
0
x
j
- c
j
= -
j

Ch n (4) ta c

Cui cng ta xt vectol xit. R rng ta c Ax() : A + As
j
= A =
b. Do , xit l phng n th iu kin cn v l x() 0.
Nu t x() = + s
j
= x' = (x'
ij
), i = 1, 2 , , n th ta c
317

Nh vy, vi 0 th x' 0 khi v ch khi x
i 0
- x
ij
0 vi mi iJ
0

iu tng ng vi x
0
- x
j
0. nh l c chng minh hon.
Ch .
- Nu x
j
0 th r rng x
0
- x
j
> 0 vi mi 0 V x
0
> 0, v nh
vy khi x() l phng n vi mi 0.
- V x
0
> 0 nn c th chn > 0 nh sao cho x() 0, ngha l
x() l phng n vi > 0 nh.
- Do ngha hnh hc, c m t bi hnh 3, nn si c gi l
hng chp nhn c ti nu x() l phng n, v khi ta ni x()
l phng n tm c theo hng s (t ) .

nh l 2. (Du hiu hm mc tiu khng b chn)
Nn ng vi phng n cc bin c mt ch s j
j
> 0 v x
j
0
th hm mc tiu ca bi ton (1) , (2), (3) khng b chn (tc l, trn tp
phng n hm mc tiu c th nhn gi tr nh tu .
Chng minh. Theo b 2, v ch sau , vi gi thit x
j
0 th
x() = + s
j
l phng n vi mi 0. Ta c
318

Do
j
> 0 nn r rng f (x()) - khi + ,
iu chng t hm mc tiu c th nhn gi tr nh tu trn tp
phng n, tc l hm mc tiu khng b chn. nh l c chng
minh.
Ch .
Theo phn ch sau b 2, vi gi thit x
0
> 0 (hay khng suy
bin) c v s phng n dng x() vi > 0 nh. Khi , nu tn ti
j sao cho
j
> 0 th t (11) suy ra f(x()) < f( ), ngha l c v s
phng n tt hn .
Nu xut hin du hiu hm mc tiu khng b chn (tn ti j sao cho
j
> 0 v x
i
0) th, theo (11), c th tm c phng n m ti hm
mc tiu nhn gi tr cho trc, trong < f( ).
Tht vy, t (11) ta c

Nh vy phng n cn tm l x(
0
) = +
0
s
j

B 3. Nu { A
i
: i J
0
} l mt h m vect c lp tuyn tnh trong
R
m
v nu , trong x
sk
0 m vi s J
0
th h m vectgm
A
i
(i J
0
, i s) v A
k
cng c lp tuyn tnh.
Chng minh. Nu c cc s ,
i
tho mn

th thay A
k
bi biu thc ca n ta c.

v h {A
i
: i J
0
} c lp tuyn tnh nn t (13) suy ra x
sk
: x
ik
+
i

= 0.
319
Nhng do x
sk
0 nn = 0, khi (13) tr thnh

H {A
i
: i J
0
, is} c lp tuyn tnh (v n l h con ca h c lp
tuyn tnh cho) v do t (14) ta c
i
= 0 (i J
0
, is). Vy =
i
=
0 (i J
0
, is). s kin ny c suy ra t (12), v t suy ra iu phi
chng minh.
nh l 3. Nu ng vi phng n cc bin tn ti mt ch s j sao
cho
j
> 0, v vi mi j m
j
> 0 vect x
j
c t nht mt thnh phn
dng th vi mi j , theo hng s
j
c th xy dng c mt phng
n cc bin mi tt hn (trong trng hp khng suy bin).
Chng minh. Gi s k l mt ch s m
k
> 0 v vect x
k
= (x
ik
), i
J
0
c t nht mt thnh phn dng. Theo b (2), vect xit x() +
s
k
l phng n khi v ch khi x
0
- x
k
0 hay

Coi (15) l h bt phng trnh bc nht vi n . Nu vi i no
m x
ik
0 th do 0 nn bt phng trnh tng ng l hng ng. Do
h (15) tng ng vi h

Bng cch gii h (16) ta thy rng xt) l phng n khi v ch khi

Gi s gi tr nh nht trn y dt dc ti ch s i = s J
0
khi ta
hy chn:

R rng
Nh vy vi cch chn th phng n mi
i = 1, 2,., n c xc nh (theo (10)) nh sau :
320

Ngoi ra, theo (11) ta c f(x') = f( ) -
k
k
, v iu chng t f(x')
< f( ), tc l x', tt hn .
Xt h m vect gm A
i
(i J
0
\{s} v A
k
, n c thit lp t c s {
A
i
: i J
0
} ca bng cch thay A
s
bi A
k
v gi nguyn cc vect cn
li. Trn y ch r thnh phn x
sk
> 0; theo b 3, r rng h ang
xt l c lp tuyn tnh. Do phng n x c xc nh bi (17) l
phng n cc bin. nh l c chng minh.
2) V trng hp bi ton suy bin.
Sau y ta xt trng hp bi ton (1), (2), (3) suy bin, ngha l tn
ti phng n cc bin c t hn m thnh phn dng. Ch rng, ngay
c khi l phng n cc bin khng suy bin th phng n cc bin
x vn c th suy bin nu tp
C qu mt
phn t.
Tht vy, gi s s, r K (r s). Khi x
s0
-
k
x
sk
= 0 v x
r0
-
k
x
rk
=
0, ngha l x c nhiu nht l m - 1 thnh phn dng, tc l x l
phng n cc bin suy bin.
By gi ta gi s rng l phng n cc bin suy bin, tc l tn
ti i J
0
sao cho x
i0
= 0. Khi theo (16), vect x = x() = + s
k
l
phng n khi v ch khi = 0, ngha l x = x(0) = v ta thy ng
vi hai c s khc nhau. Nu tnh trng trn xy ra lin tip mt s ln
th c nguy c l gp li mt c s dng trc . Nu khng c bin
php g ngn chn th t c xoay vng mi theo mt dy hu hn cc
c s ca x m vn c khng ri khi c , khng ci thin c g
v gi tr ca hm mc tiu. Ta gi l hin tng xoay vng. R.G
Bland chng minh quy tc trnh xoay vng do mnh xut vo nm
1977, c gi l quy tc Bland c ni dung nh sau:
Tiu chun a A
k
vo c s: k l ch s nh nht trong cc c
321
lng dng, tc l k = min {j :
j
> 0 } .
Tiu chun loi A
s
ra khi c s : s l ch s nh nht trong K.
T suy ra rng, nu a A
k
vo c s theo quy tc Bland v s
phn t ca K l |K| = 1 th khng xy ra hin tng xoay vng.
Cc bin php trnh xoay vng nh phng php nhiu lon,
phng php t vng, k c quy tc Bland, ch l s m bo v mt
ton hc m thi, bi v trong thc t hin tng xoay vng l rt him,
d rng c khng t cc bi ton suy bin. Bi vy, hu nh cc chng
trnh tnh ton trn my tnh in t, ngi ta khng ci t cc bin
php trnh xoay vng. V nhng l trn ngi ta thng dng phng
php ngu nhin chn cc vect a ra v a vo c s, kt hp vi
s cn nhc k cng trong tng trng hp c th.
3) Cng thc i c s.
T c s l lun ca phng php n hnh ta thy rng, xut pht t
phng n cc bin bit, sau khi kim tra thy cha th kt thc
vic tnh ton c (cha xut hin du hiu ti u hay du hiu hm
mc tiu khng b chn) th ta phi tin hnh xy dng phng n cc
bin mi x (c th trng vi nhng c s th khc nhau). Qu trnh
s kt thc sau mt s hu hn bc, khi tm c phng n ti u
hoc kt lun c rng hm mc tiu khng b chn.
Ta ni rng thc hin mt bc lp nu nh i vi mi phng
n cc bin xut hin trong qu trnh ni trn, sau khi kim tra xong ta c
c mt quyt nh tip theo.
Trong mi bc lp ta cn phi xc nh gi tr ca cc tham s x
ij
,
j

; f (f l gi tr hm mc tiu), trong vic xc nh x
ij
l kh khn nht
v vi mi i ta phi gii mt h Cramer tm chng. Do c s ca
phng n cc bin mi bc lp ch khc c s bc lp trc c
mt vect nn ta c th tm c cc cng thc truy ton cho php tm
c gi tr ca cc tham s mi bc, k t bc th hai, t gi tr
ca cc tham s tng ng bc trc.
Gi gi tr ca cc tham s bc trc l x
ij
,
j
, f v gi tr tng
ng bc tip theo l x
ij
,
j
, f.
Gi s c s ca phng n cc bin bc trc l { A
i
: i J
0
},
bc tip theo l { A
i
: i J
0
\ {s}) {k}}, d nhin l k 0 v k J
0
.
322
Vect A
k
a vo c s ( thay th A
s
, s J
0
) c dng

vi mi j = 0, 1, 2 , ..., n vect A
j
biu th tuyn tnh qua c s
bc trc v bc tip theo nh sau:

T (18) suy ra vect A
s
c dng:

Thay A
s
vo (19) ta c

Do A
j
biu th tuyn tnh mt cch duy nht qua c s bc tip
theo nn, so snh (20) v (22), vi j = 0, 1, 2..., n v i J
0
\{s} ta c:

Mt khc, nh ta bit ( xem chng minh nh l 3)

v theo nh ngha ta c:
323

Tuy nhin, nu k hiu f = x
m+1,0
v
j
= x
m+1, j
vi j = 1, 2,..., n th c
th thy rng c bn cng thc (23), (24), (25), (26) u c th thng
nht li thnh hai cng thc (23), (24).
4) Thut ton n hnh gc.
Xt bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh dng chnh tc

trong b 0, v A l ma trn kiu (m, n) vi m < n ng thi trong A
c mt c s n v.
Ta gi bi ton c tnh cht nh vy l bi ton chun. Chng hn h
Ax = b c dng

V b 0 nn khng cn tnh ton g c ta thy ngay mt phng n
cc bin ng vi c s n v, l = (b
1
, b
2
, , b
m
, 0, 0,...,0) .
Theo cng thc x
j
= B
-l
A
j
, vi B = I l ma trn n v cp m ta c x
j

= A
j
, j = 0, 1, 2,..., n.
thun tin cho vic tnh ton ta sp xp cc s liu vo mt bng
sau y m ta s gi l dng n hnh ng vi :
324

Trong bng n hnh u tin ny, ct u tin ghi cc thnh phn
ca c
0
, ng vi cc vect trong c s c ghi ct th hai; ct th ba
ghi cc thnh phn tng ng ca x
0
. Dng trn cng ghi cc thnh phn
ca vect c, dng th hai ghi cc vect x
j
m cc thnh phn ca n c
ghi vo ct tng ng.
V x
j
= A
j
, (j = 0, 1, ... , n) nn cc s liu bng u tin, k t ct
x
0
, chnh l cc thnh phn ca ma trn [b| A], tc l x
i0
= b
i
, x
ij
= a
ij
(i =
1, 2 , ... , m ; j = 0, 1, ... , n) . Dng cui cng ghi f = f ( ) v cc
j
(j =
1, 2 , ... , n) m gi tr ca chng c tnh ton ngay trn bng n hnh,
c th l:
* f = c
0
x
0
: Tnh tch v hng gia cc vect ct c
0
v x
0
.
*
j
=
t
c
0
x
j
- c
j
: Ly tch v hng ca ct c
0
v x
j
ri tr i c
j
(c
j

c ghi pha trn cng ca ct x
j
).
Sau khi tnh c cc c lng
j
ta tin hnh kim tra tnh ti
u ca phng n cc bin ang xt:
- Nu xut hin du hiu ti u (
j
0) vi mi j = 1, 2,..., n) th
phng n cc bin ang xt l phng n ti u vi cc thnh phn c
s c ghi trn ct xo, cc thnh phn phi c s bng 0, v kt thc vic
tnh ton.
- Nu xut hin du hiu hm mc tiu khng b chn (tn ti ch s j
sao cho
j
> 0 v x
j
0 ) th dng li v cho kt lun.
325
- Nu khng xy ra hai trng hp trn th ta tin hnh xy dng
phng n cc bin vi c s mi (nu phng n cc bin ang xt l
khng suy bin), qua cc bc sau:
* Xc nh vect A
k
a vo c s mi theo tiu chun
k
> 0,
thng dng tiu chun
k
= max {
j
:
j
> 0 } .
* Xc nh vect A
s
b loi khi c s c (nu quyt nh a A
vo c s) : Lp t s gia cc phn t ct xo v cc phn t dng
tng ng ( cng mt dng) ct xu xc nh t s nh nht, v t
xc nh ch s s:

Phn t x
sk
c gi l phn t trc, dng ng vi ch s s ( ta cng
gi l dng s) c gi l dng xoay, ct x
k
( ta cng gi l ct k) c
gi l ct xoay.
Tip theo ta lp bng n hnh ng vi phng n cc bin theo c
s mi m cc s liu ca bng c xc nh theo cc cng thc (23) v
(24). Ton b cc php bin i nh vy c gi l php xoay xung
quanh phn t trc x
sk
. Nh vy, bng n hnh mi c suy ra t bng
n hnh trc bng cch, trn dng xoay, thay cs bi chi thay AB bi
A
k
, sau thc hin cc php bin i k t ct x
0
, theo (23) v (24), c
th l:
* Chia mi phn t ca dng xoay cho phn t trc x
sk
, nh vy l s
1 xut hin ti v tr trc.
* tnh dng i mi (i J
0
\ {s}), ta ly dng i c tr i tch ca
dng xoay bin i vi phn t nm giao gia dng ang tnh v ct
xoay. Lm nh vy ta c s 0 mi v tr ca ct xoay, tr v tr trc;
ngha l ct k by gi l vect n v. Vic xc nh f v
j
bng n
hnh mi c thc hin nh bng n hnh trc.
Qu trnh tnh ton c tip tc nh vy, sau mt s hu hn bc s
kt thc khi xut hin du hiu ti u hoc du hiu hm mc tiu khng
b chn.
V d 1. Gii bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh sau:
326

Gii
Bi ton cn gii l bi ton chun. Ta thy ngay = (2, 12, 0, 0, 9,
0) l phng n cc bin ng vi c s n v gm cc vect A
1
, A
2
, A
5
.
Kt qu tnh ton c th hin bng di y; trong bng n
hnh th 3 ( bc th 3) ta c
j
0 vi mi j , l du hiu ti u.
Vy phng n ti u l x
*
= (0, 8, 0, 3, 0, 1) vi f(x
*
) = -17

Gii thch. bng n hnh th nht ta c:
max {
j
:
j
> 0 } = max {
4
= 2 ,
6
= 1} =
4
= 2. Do A
4
c
327
a vo c s, ct x
4
l ct xoay (trn bng
4
= 2 c t trong ngoc);

tc l mn t c ch s s = 1, do A
1
b loi khi c s, dng ng
vi n l dng xoay v phn t trc l x
14
= 1 ( n c t trong ngoc).
* bng n hnh th hai, trong ct c
0
s c
4
= -2 thay cho c
1
= 1,
trong ct ghi c s A
4
thay cho A
1
, cc s liu c suy ra t bng n
hnh th nht bng cch p dng cc cng thc (23), (24). Ta c
6
= 3 l
c lng dng duy nht nn ct x
6
l ct xoay;

t c ch s s = 5, do A
5
b loi v dng ng vi A
5
l dng
xoay, phn t trc l x
56
= 5 (trn bng n c t trong ngoc).
Tng t ta c bng n hnh th 3, ti xut hin du hiu ti u.
V d 2. Gii bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh sau:

Gii
a bi ton v dng chnh tc vi cc n b x
5
, x
6
, x
7
ta c
328

l bi ton chun. Ta c bng sau:

bc 2, do
3
=
4
15
> 0 V x
3
= )
4
17
,
4
7
,
4
3
( < 0 nn ta c kt
lun bi ton c hm mc tiu khng b chn.
5) Thut ton n hnh hai pha.
Thut ton n hnh gc (hay ch cn gi l thut ton n hnh)
dng gii bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh dng chnh tc dng bi
ton chun, tc l c gi thit b 0 v ma trn rng buc A c mt c s
n v. Tuy nhin, trong thc t hu nh khng gp bi ton chun nh
vy Sau y ta s trnh by mt thut ton khc, c gi l thut ton
n hnh hai pha hay thut ton hai pha gii quyt bi ton quy hoch
tuyn tnh dng chnh tc tng qut.
Gi s cn gii bi ton ( m ta s gi n l bi ton chnh)
329

trong A l ma trn kiu (m, n) bt k v b 0.
iu kin b 0 lun c th thc hin c v nu b
i
< 0 th ch cn
nhn hai v ca phng trnh tng ng vi -1 .
Tng ng vi bi ton chnh ta xt bi ton ph sau y:

trong w = (x
n+l
, x
n+2
,., x
n+m
) ; v x
n+i
vi i = 1, 2, ... , m l cc n
mi c a vo, ta s gi chng l cc n gi.
Bi ton ph cn c th vit di dng:

cho tin, ta k hiu A
n+i
= I
i
(i = 1, 2 , ... , m) l cc vect n v
v gi chng l cc vect gi.
Gi tp phng n ca bi ton chnh v bi ton ph theo th t l
X v X
Trc ht ta thy rng, x X khi v ch khi (x, 0) X (ta hiu (x,
0) l vect (x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
, 0, ... , 0) R
n+m
).
Ngoi ra ta c nhn xt: (x, 0) X l phng n cc bin ca bi
330
ton ph khi v ch khi x X l phng n cc bin ca bi ton chnh
(chng c cng mt h vect lin kt, hoc u l vect 0).
Bi ton ph c tp phng n X v (0, b) X , v F(x, w)0
vi mi (x, w) X , ngha l F(x, w) khng th nhn gi tr nh tu
trn X. Do bi ton ph c phng n ti u.
V bi ton ph l bi ton chun nn c th tin hnh gii n bng
thut ton n hnh (gc), sau mt s hu hn bc du hiu ti u xut
hin v ta thu c phng n cc bin ti u
C hai trng hp xy ra:
a) 0, tc l tn ti i {1, 2,..., m} sao cho
n+i
> 0 (c t nht
mt n gi nhn gi tr dng):
Khi ta kt lun bi ton chnh c tp phng n l rng. Tht vy,
nu tn ti x X th (x, 0) X v F(x, 0) = 0. Mt khc, do 0 nn
F( , ) > 0. Suy ra (x, 0) l phng n tt hn ( , ), iu ny tri
vi tnh ti u ca ( , ). Vy X =
b) = 0, tc l mi n gi u nhn gi tr bng 0:
Khi F( , ) = F ( , 0) = 0 . V ( , 0) l phng n cc bin ca
bi ton ph nn x l phng n cc bin ca bi ton chnh.
Ta xt hai tnh hung sau:
Tnh hung 1. Nu mi vect trong c s ca ( , 0) gm ton cc
vect ct ca ma trn A th ta xo b cc ct trong bng n hnh cui
cng k t ct x
n+1
n ct x
n+m
(ngha l xo b cc ct ng vi n gi).
Sau ta gii bi ton chnh xut pht t phng n cc bin bng
thut ton n hnh gc; d nhin l phi thay i dng trn cng, trc
l h s ca hm mc tiu trong bi ton ph, by gi l h s ca hm
mc tiu trong bi ton chnh, ng thi ct co cng phi thay i theo
cho ph hp; tnh li dng ghi cc c lng (cho bi ton chnh)
kim tra .
Tnh hung 2. nu trong c s ca ( , 0) vn cn p vect gi (p 1)
th ta xo b ngay cc ct ng vi cc n gi cn li; iu chnh cc h s
ca hm mc tiu ghi dng trn cng v ct co cho ph hp, vi lu
rng h s ca cc n gi trong hm mc tiu ng vi p vect gi ni
trn ta cho bng 0; tnh li cc c lng kim tra . Sau ta tip
331
tc dng thut ton n hnh gc gii bi ton chnh xut pht t
phng n cc bin , ngay t bng n hnh cui cng, du rng trong
c mt p vect gi ni trn.
Nh vy, gii bi ton chnh ta phn ra hai giai on (hay hai
pha). Pha th nht nhm mc ch tm c phng n cc bin (nu c)
ca bi ton chnh. Pha th hai nhm gii bi ton chnh xut pht t
phng n cc bin (nu c) tm c pha th nht. Chnh v vy ta
gi cch gii l thut ton hai pha.
Ch :
* Nu trong ma trn A bi ton chnh c sn mt vi vect ct l
cc vect n v khc nhau th ta ch cn a vo bi ton ph mt s n
gi va c ng m vect n v.
* Nu mt bc no mt vect gi b loi khi c s th t cc
bc sau ta xo b ct tng ng.
V d 1. Bng thut ton hai pha gii bi ton sau:

Gii
Trong ma trn rng buc A c Ai l vect n v nn ch cn a
vo hai n gi x
6
, x
7
ng vi hai phng trnh cui, ta c bi ton ph

trong w = ( x
6
, x
7
).
332
Vic tnh ton c th hin trong bng di y (xem phn gii
thch)

Gii thch.
- Lc u, ch ghi vo dng trn cng cc h s 1 ca cc n gi
trong hm mc tiu F(x, w); cc h s cn li bng 0 ta khng cn ghi,
cng l ch nh dnh ch ghi cc h s ca f(x) trong pha 2.
- bc 3, du hiu ti u i vi bi ton ph xut hin, trong
c s khng c vect gi. Lc ny, cng vi vic ghi cc h s ca hm
f(x) vo dng trn cng v cc h s ph hp vo ct co ( nhnh bn
333
tri) ta tnh cc c lng
j
(f) ng vi hm f(x) ri ghi vo dng tip
theo c k hiu l f ( phn bit vi
j
(F) l cc c lng ng vi
hm F v ghi vo dng c k hiu l F).
- Ch rng, trong bc hai ta xc nh A
3
vo c s thay cho A
6
,
ngha l t bc ba tr i mi n c s u khng phi l n gi na.
Nh vy, bt u t bc ba ta ch lm vic vi bi ton chnh, do
khng cn tnh cc
j
(F) na m tnh lun
j
(f).
Cui cng ta thu c phng n ti u cn tm l:
x
*
= ( 0, 0, 16, 31, 14 ) vi f(x
*
) = 7.
V d 2. Gii bi ton sau y bng thut ton hai pha:

Gii
Sau khi a vo cc n b x
4
, x
5
0 ng vi cc rng buc cng
bc bt phng trnh, ng thi ch bin i sao cho v phi b 0, h
rng buc cng bc tr thnh:

a vo 2 n gi x
5
, x
7
ta c bi ton ph sau:
334

vic tnh ton c th hin trong bng di y:

Gii thch: bc ba, du hiu ti u xut hin v phng n ti u
ca bi ton l x
*
= (0, 0, 8) vi f(x
*
) = - 32.
Ch rng, bc 2 xut hin du hiu ti u i vi bi ton
ph, nhng trong c s ca phng n ti u y c mt vect gi l A
7
.
Khi ta xo ngay cc ct ng cc vect gi cn li, l ct x
6
, nhng
ct ny b xo ngay t bc hai bi v A
6
b loi khi c s u tin.
335
V d 3. Gii bi ton sau bng thut ton hai pha:
f(x) = 2 x
1
- 2x
2
+ 3x
3
min

Gii
a vo hai n b x
4
, x
5
v n gi x
6
ta c bi ton ph
Ta c bng sau:

bc hai, du hiu ti u xut hin nhng trong c s tng
ng c vect gi A
6
vi gi tr ca n gi l x
6
=
2
1
> 0 nn ta kt lun
bi ton c tp phng n l rng.
2.3. Gii cc bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh bng my tnh in t
( Theo lp trnh tnh ton vi Mathematica 4.0)
1) Gii bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh c dng
336

V d: Gii bi ton

Trc ht ta a bi ton v dng mt bng cch i du hm mc
tiu c
- z(x) = - 2x - 4x
2
- x
2
-x
4
min.
Ta dng cc lnh sau:

Vy p s ca bi ton l :
x
*
=(0, 4/3, 5/12, 0) l phng n ti u vi z(x
*
) = 23/4
2) Gii cc bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh c dng
337

V d. Gii bi ton cho trong v d mc 1).
Ta dng cc lnh sau:

Vy p s ca bi ton l:
x = (0, 4/3, 5/12, 0) l phng n ti u vi z(x
*
) = 23/4.
3) Gii bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh dng chun tc
z(x) =
t
cx min
Ax > b
x > 0
V d: Gii bi ton

338
Ta dng cc lnh sau:

Vy p s ca bi ton l:
x
*
= (0, 2, 3) l phng n ti u vi z(x
*
) = 3 .
339
TM TT
gii bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh bng thut ton n hnh, trc
ht phi a n v dng chnh tc. Sau khi bin i sao cho v phi ca
cc phng trnh u khng m, nu cn, ta s a vo cc n gi vi s
lng va ma trn trong h rng buc cng bc mi c mt c s
n v. T y ta tin hnh thut ton hai pha i vi bi ton chun va
thit lp c.
Trong trng hp bit mt phng n cc bin ca bi ton quy
hoch tuyn tnh dng chnh tc ta tin hnh nh sau:
Thc hin php bin i s cp trn cc dng ca ma trn rng buc
thu c ma trn mi c cc vect (ct) n v khc nhau ng vi cc
n c s. Nu phng n cc bin bit l khng suy bin th c ng
mt c s n v. Nu phng n cc bin bit l suy bin th hoc l
bin i tip, hoc l a thm vo mt s n gi c mt c s n v.
T tin hnh thut ton n hnh gii bi ton.
340
BI TP
1. Mt c s sn xut c th sn xut c hai loi hng I v II t hai
loi nguyn liu A v B.
Tr lng ca cc nguyn liu A v B theo th t l 6 v 8 n v.
sn xut mt n v hng loi I cn 2 n v nguyn liu A v 3
n v nguyn liu B; sn xut mt n v hng loi II cn 1 n v hng
loi A v 4 n v nguyn liu B.
Gi bn mt n v hng loi I v loi II theo th t l 7 v 5 n v
tin t. Qua tip th c bit, trong mt ngy, nhu cu tiu th loi hng
I khng qu 2 n v, nhu cu tiu th loi hng I hn nhu cu tiu th
loi hng II khng qu 1 n v. Vn t ra l cn sn xut mi ngy
bao nhiu n v hng mi loi doanh thu l ln nht.
Hy lp m hnh ton hc cho bi ton thc t trn.
2. Dng nh ngha chng t rng, x
*
= ( 0, 2, 3 ) l phng n ti u
ca bi ton sau:

3. Dng nh ngha chng minh rng, i vi mi bi ton sau x l
phng n ti u:

341

4. a cc bi ton sau v dng chnh tc:

5. Gii cc bi ton sau bng phng php th:

6. Vi bi ton dng chnh tc c h rng buc
342

hy xt xem trong cc phng n sau, phng n no l phng n cc
bin ( khng suy bin hay suy bin ):
x
1
= ( 2, 2, 0 ), x
2
= ( 0, 0, 4), x
3
= (1, 1, 2).
7. Hy tm tt c cc phng n cc bin ca bi ton quy hoch
tuyn tnh c h rng buc:

l bi ton suy bin hay khng suy bin.
8. Cho bi ton

trong t l tham s.
Bng phng php th hy tm tt c cc gi tr ca t sao cho:
a) Tp phng n l rng.
b) Tp phng n khc rng nhng hm mc tiu khng b chn.
c) Bi ton c phng n ti u duy nht.
d) Bi ton c v s phng n ti u.
9. Cho bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh
f(x) =
t
cx min
343

a) Chng minh rng nu x
1
v x
2
l cc phng n th x
1
+ (1 - )x
2

vi 0 1 Cng l phng n.
b) Chng minh rng nu x
1
v x
2
l cc phng n ti u th x
1
+ (1
- )x
2
vi 0 1 cng l phng n ti u.
10. Chng minh rng, i vi cc bi ton sau hm mc tiu khng
b chn:

11. Cho bi ton
3x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 5x
3
- 2x
4
min

Tm phng n cc bin ng vi c s {A
3
, A
4
, A
5
} v kim tra tnh
ti u ca n bng cch tnh cc c lng (A l ma trn rng buc).
344
12. Gii cc bi ton sau bng thut ton n hnh (tn gi chung cho
thut ton n hnh gc v thut ton hai pha):

345

346
VI NT LCH S
S ra i ca Quy hoch tuyn tnh ni ring v Quy hoch ton hc
ni chung c th coi l vo nm 1939. Phng php n hnh ni ting
do gio s Dantzig (George Bernard Dantzig, ng sinh nm 1914)
xut t nm 1947, n nay vn c s dng rng ri nht cho Quy
hoch tuyn tnh. Cui thng 8 nm 1997, hn hai nghn nh khoa hc t
khp cc nc trn th gii tham d Hi ngh quc t "Quy hoch
ton hc" ti Lausanne (Thy S) lm l k nim 50 nm ngy phng
php n hnh c cng b, v ngy cng chnh thc c ly lm
"Ngy Quy hoch tuyn tnh" trn th gii.
Gn y, xut hin phng php ellipsoid ca Khachian (ra i
nm 1979), phng php "im trong" ca Karmarkar (ra i nm 1984),
l nhng thnh tu mi v rt quan trng, c quan tm c v mt l
thuyt ln kh nng gii quyt cc bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh c ln.
347
LI GII -HNG DN -TR LI
Chng I. NH THC
2. a) c 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15 nghch th, sgn() = -1.
b) c nghch th, sgn() = -1.

3. a) Cc tch c mt trong nh thc: a
12
a
24
a
33
a
41
, a
14
a
22
a
31
a
43
.
b) C hai u c du "+".
4. i vi tch a
11
a
22
a
3j
a
4k
a
54
, j = 3, k = 5 hoc j = 5, k = 3.
i vi tch a
12
a
2j
a
33
a
4k
a
55
, j 1, k = 4 hoc j = 4, k = 1 .
5. Ch c mt tch : a
13
a
22
a
31
c du "-".
6. Tch a
11
a
22
a
nn
c du cng;
Tch a
1n
a
2n-1
a
n1
c du l
7. Hng dn: Nhn ct th nht vi 100, nhn ct th hai vi 10,
ri cng vo ct cui.
8. Hng dn: Tch nh thc v tri thnh tng ca nhiu nh
348
thc, b i nhng nh thc bng 0, ri i ch cc ct ca nhng nh
thc cn li.
9. Hng dn: a) Nhn dng th ba vi -1 ri cng vo dng th hai.
b) Cng ba dng: th nht, th hai, th t.
10. S: a) -88 ; b) -3 ; c) -626 ; d) 75 ; e) -180 ; f) -180.
11. S: a) 1 ; b) 876.
12. S: a) -238 ; b) 576.
13. S: a) -1344 ; b) -9 ; c) 108 ; di 24 ;
e) Hng dn: Ly dng th nht cng vo tt c cc dng cn li;
f) Hng dn: Ly dng th nht cng vo dng th hai. Ly dng
th hai va c cng vo dng th ba; ly dng th ba va c cng
vo dng th t; c tip tc nh th.
14. Hng dn:
a) Lm nh v d 2, mc 5.5;
b) Tnh cc nh thc con cp 1, cp 2, cp 3, cp 4 gc trn bn
tri. Coi chng l D
1
, D
2
, D
3
, D
4
, cn nh thc cho l Dn. Nhn dng
cc nh thc D
1
, D
2
, D
3
, D
4
d on kt qu v chng minh d on y.
S : x
n-1
+ 2x
n-2
+ 3x
n-8
+...+ n hay ;
1
n
k
k n
kx
c) Nhn dng th n vi a
1
ri cng vo dng th n, nhn dng th n
- 2 vi a
1
ri cng vo dng th n - 1, c nh th ... , nhn dng th
nht vi - ai ri cng vo dng th hai. Khai trin nh thc va c
theo ct th nht. a nhn t chung cc ct ca nh thc va c
c ra ngoi du nh thc. p dng phng php trn vo nh thc va
c. S:

15. S: a) (-3, 0, 5) ; b) (1, -2, 1) ; c) (3, 0, 1, 1) ; d) (0, 2, -1, 2); e)
(1, 2, 1, 0).
16. Hng dn: nh thc D l nh thc Vandermonde, cn cc Di
cng l nhng nh thc Vandermonde vi aj c thay bi b.
349

350
Chng II. KHNG GIAN VECT
2. Tr li: a) Khng ; b) C ; c) Khng ; d) Khng; e) Khng.
8. Tr li: a) C ; b) C; c) Khngl di C; e) Khng; 0 C
9. Tr li: Khng.
10. Tr li: Khng v n khng c phn t 0.
11. S: Phn t phi tm l |
\
|
4
, ,
4
,
4
4 2 1
ra
r
ra ra

12. Hng dn: Gi s U V. Khi tn ti mt V \ U . Suy ra
W Hy chng minh rng mi U u thuc W bng cch xt
xem + thuc U hay thuc W.
15. Hng dn: Gi s X l mt khng gian con ca V cha U W.
Chng minh rng U + W X.
16. Hng dn: Vit

Gii h phng trnh

s:
17. S:
18. Hng dn: Tm r
1
, r
2
, r
3
sao cho r
1 1
+ r
2 2
+ r
3 3
= . Nu
c r
1
, r
2
, r
3
khng ng thi bng 0 th h ph thuc tuyn tnh.
S: a) c lp tuyn tnh; b) Ph thuc tuyn tnh ;
c) Ph thuc tuyn tnh ; d) c lp tuyn tnh.
351
19. Tr li: a) c lp tuyn tnh; b) Ph thuc tuyn tnh.
20. S: a = 5, b = - 12.
21 . c) Tr li : Khng v
4
=
2
-
1

22. Hng dn: Gi s R
1
R
2
. Th th tn ti r
1
, r
2
thuc
R sao cho r
1 1
= = r
2 2
hay r
1 1
- r
2 2
= . T gi thit suy ra kt
lun ca bi ton.
23. Hng dn: Chng minh rng h vect mi nhn c cng c
lp tuyn tnh.
24. Hng dn: Thc hin nh v d 2, mc 4.1.
25. Hng dn: Trc ht hy xem h vect cho c c lp tuyn
tnh khng. Nu c hy chng minh n l h sinh.
Tr li: a) C; b) C.
28. Hng dn:
Gi s Th th tn ti r
1,
r
2
, ,r
i
,,r
n
thuc R sao

T gi thit suy ra kt lun ca bi ton.
29. Hng dn: Xt xem h vect c c lp tuyn tnh khng. Nu
khng hy xt xem trong h c hai vect no c lp tuyn tnh khng.
Tr li: a) dimV = 2; b) dimV = 3 ; c) dimV = 3.
31. a) Ta c: 2 = dimU dim(U + V) dimV.
Nu dim(U + W) < dimV = 3 th dim(U + W) = dimU
V U U + W nn t suy ra U = U + W.
Do U = W (tri gi thit). Vy dim(U + W) = 3.
Suy ra dim(U W) = dim(U) + dim(W) - dim(U + W) = 1.
b) Nu dim(U + W) = 4 th tri vi gi thit U W. Do dim(U +
V) - 5 hoc dim(U + V) = 6.
352
Tr li: dim(U W) = 3 hoc dim(U W) = 2.
32. Hng dn: Xt xem h vect {
1
,
2
,
1
,
2
} c c lp
tuyn tnh khng.
37.
b) S: T =

c) Hng dn: C 2 cch gii:
Cch 1. Tm ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s () ri p dng
cng thc i to .
Cch 2. Coi to ca f(x) i vi c s () l (y
1
, y
2
, y
3
, y
4
). Dng
cng thc i to vi ma trn chuyn T t c s () sang c s ()
bit trong cu a), ta c mt h phng trnh i vi n y
1
, y
2
, y
3
, y
4
.
s: (6, 3, 2, 0).

38. s: a) T = .

b) (7, 0, 5, -2);
c) Cng l ma trn T trong cu a) .
d) (0, 1, 4, 2).
39. S: hng(A) = 3 ; hng(B) = 2 ; hng(C) = 4 ; hng(D) = 3.
40. S: a) {
1
,
2
}; b {
1
,
2
,
4
} ; c) {
1
,
2
,
3
}.
41. Hng dn:
t T = (a
j
) l ma trn chuyn t c s A sang c s B. Theo nh
ngha ca ma trn chuyn ta c cc h phng trnh i vi cc a
j
.
Gii cc h ny se tm c cc a
ij
.
353

354
Chng III. NH X TUYN TNH
1. Tr 1i: a) ; b) ; d) ; f) ; g) ; h).
2. Tr 1i: n cu: g), h); Ton cu: d) , f); Khng c ng cu.
3. S: Vi = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
), f( ) = (a
1
+ a
2
, 2a
1
- 2a
3
, -a
2
+ 2a
3
).
4. Hng dn: Trc ht chng minh rng
1
,
2
,
3
1p thnh
mt c s ca R
3
. Thc hin nh chng minh nh l mc 1.2.
tnh f((1, 0, 0)) ta cn tm to ca vect (1, 0, 0) i vi c s
ni trn.
Tr li: f((1, 0, 0)) = (0, -2, 2).
5. S: = (3,
2
9
, 0).
8. b) Gi s A 1 mt c s ca V v = r
1 1
+...+ r
m m
, =
s
1 1
+...+ s
m m
sao cho f( ) = f( ) . Th th: r
1 1
++ r
m m
= s
1 1

++ s
m m
. V B l c s ca W nn r
1
= s
1
,..., r
m
= s
m
. Do = .
Suy ra f l mt n cu. Theo gi thit f l ton cu. Vy f l ng cu.
9. S: a)

355
10. S: Imd = P
1
1 tp gm a thc 0 v cc a thc bc khng qu
1 trn R, Kerd = R.
dimImd = 2, dimKerd = 1.
12. Hng dn: Chng minh rng f|
U
1 mt n cu v mt ton
cu.
13.

14.

16. Tr 1i: a) Khng. V d: f: R
2
R
2
1 ng cu ng nht v
356
g: R
2
R
2
xc nh bi g(a
1
, a
2
) = (-a
1
,-a
2
) u l n cu nhng (f +
g)(a
1
, a
2
) = (0, 0) l ng cu 0.
Tng t, f v g u l nhng ton cu nhng f + g khng phi l
mt ton cu.
18. Hng dn : a) Gi s {
1
,,
m
} 1 mt c s ca V. Chng
minh rng h vect {f(
1
) ,, f(
m
)} c lp tuyn tnh trong W. B
sung v h ny c mt c s:
{f(
1
,, f(
m
),
m+1
,.,
n
}. Xc nh nh x g bi gf(
j
) =
j
.
vi mi j {1,..., m}, g(
j
) = 0 , Vi mi j {m + 1,..., n}.
b) Gi s {
1
, ... ,
m
) l mt c s ca W, vi mi
j
, vi mi j
{1,..., m}, c nh mt
j
sao cho f(
j
) =
j
. Xc nh g bi g(
j
) =
j

vi mi j {1,..., m}.
21. a) Ta c f
-1
f(A) f( ) f(A)
tn ti mt ' A sao cho f( ) = f( ')
f( - ') = - ' Kerf
tn ti mt Kerf sao cho - ' = hay = ' + A+
Kerf.
b) f(f
-1
(B)) tn ti mt f
-1
(B) sao cho = f( ) v f( )
B
B Imf.
22. a) f v g l nhng nh x tuyn tnh.
Tht vy, vi = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
),
357

Tng t i vi g.
f v g l nhng ng cu. C nhiu cch chng minh. Xin gii
thiu hai cch.
Cch 1. Chng minh chng l nhng n cu v nhng ton cu.
Chng hn, chng minh cho g:
+ Nu g( ) = = (0, 0, 0, 0) th g(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) = (2a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, - a
4
) =
(0, 0, 0, 0). Do a
1
= a
2
= a
3
= a
4
= 0. suy ra = 0 ; ngha l g l mt
n cu.
+ Gi s = (b
1
, b
2
, b
3
, b
4
) R
4
l mt vect tu .
t = (
2
1
b
, b
2
, b
3
, - b
4
), ta c g( ) = (b
1
, b
2
, b
3
, b
4
) = ; ngha l g
l mt ton cu.
vy g l mt ng cu.
Cch 2. Chng minh rng f v g bin mt c s thnh mt c s. Ly
c s chnh tc ca R
4
, ta c:
g(1, 0, 0, 0) = (2, 0, 0, 0)
g(0, 1, 0, 0) = (0, 1, 0, 0)
g(0, 0, 1, 0) = (0, 0, 1, 0)
g(0, 0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 0, -1).
H vect ny c lp tuyn tnh v nu
r
1
(2, 0, 0, 0) + r
2
(0, 1, 0, 0) + r
3
(0, 0, 1, 0) + r
4
(0, 0, 0, -1) = th
(2r
1
, r
2
, r
3
, -r
4
) = (0, 0, 0, 0). suy ra r
1
= r
2
= r
3
= r
4
=0.
358
V dimR
4
= 4 v h ny c 4 vect nn theo h qu mc 5.1, Ch. II,
l mt c s ca R
4
. Li theo h qu mc 2.3, Ch. III, g l mt ng
cu.
c) h = f + g khng phi l mt n cu v
vi = (0, 0, 0, 1) ta c (f + g)( ) = (0, 0, 0, 1) + (0, 0, 0, -1)
= .
N cng khng phi l mt ton cu v
(f + g)(a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) = (3a
1
, 2a
2
, 0, 0), Vi mi = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) nn
khng c no
(f + g)(

) = (0, 0, 0, 1).
c) = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) Kerh khi v ch khi
(f + g)( a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) = (3a
1
, 2a
2
, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 0, 0)
khi v ch khi 3a
1
= 0 = 2a
2
hay khi v ch khi a
1
= 0 = a
2

Do = (0, 0, a
3
, a
4
) v Kerh = {0, 0, a
3
, a
4
) | a
3
, a
4
R}.
Vy () = {(0, 0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 0, 1)} l mt c s ca Kerh.
Imh = {(3a
1
, 2a
2
, 0, 0) | a
1
, a
2
R}.
Nh vy mi vect thuc Imh c dng (3a
1
, 2a
2
, 0, 0) = a
1
(3, 0, 0, 0)
+ a
2
(0, 2, 0, 0). Do h hai vect () = {(3, 0, 0, 0) , (0, 2, 0, 0)} l mt
h sinh ca Imh. Bn c t kim tra rng h ny c lp tuyn tnh. Vy
l mt c s ca Imh.
d) Ta c h(0, 0, 0, 0) = (3, 0, 0, 0), h(0, 1, 0, 0) = (0, 2, 0, 0). Do
c th chn:
1
= (1, 0, 0, 0),
2
= (0, 1, 0, 0).
Theo gi thit, U l khng gian sinh bi hai vect
1
,
2
.
Vi = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
) tu thuc R
4
, ta c:
= a
1
(1, 0, 0, 0) + a
2
(0, 1, 0, 0) + a
3
(0, 0, 0, 1, 0) + a
4
(0, 0, 0, 1).
V a
1
(1, 0, 0, o) + a
2
(0, 1, 0, 0) U, a
3
(0, 0, 0, 1, 0) + a
4
(0, 0, 0, 1)
Kerh, nn
359
U + Kerh; ngha l R
4
U + Kerh. Mt khc, hin nhin U +
Kerh R
4
. Do R
4
= U + Kerh.
Gi s U Kerh. V U nn = a
1
(1, 0, 0, 0) + a
2
(0, 1, 0,
0).
V Kerh nn = a
3
(0, 0, 1, 0) + a
4
(0, 0, 0, 1). Nh vy:
a
1
(1, 0, 0, 0) + a
2
(0, 1, 0, 0) = a
3
(0, 0, 1, 0) + a
4
(0, 0, 0, 1).
hay (a
1
, a
2
, 0, 0) = (0, 0, a
3
, a
4
).
T suy ra a
1
= a
2
= a
3
= a
4
= 0 . V th = .
Vy U Kerh = { }.
e) (-2, 0, 1, 0) - gf(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) = (2x
1
, x
2
, -x
3
, -x
4
), suy ra (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
,
x
4
) = (-l, 0, -1, 0).
f) Gi s
1
= (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) l nh ngc ca
1
= (0, 2, -1, 0). Th
th (0, 2, -1, 0) = f(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) = (x
1
, x
2
, -x
3
, x
4
).
Do
1
= (0, 2, 1, 0).
Tng t, ta tm c nh ngc ca
2
= (1, 0, 1, 0) l
2
= (1, 0, -
1, 0).
Bn c t kim tra rng h hai vect {
1
,
2
} c lp tuyn tnh.
V f l mt ng cu nn f
-1
cng l mt ng cu. Do
1
= f
-
1
(
1
),
2
= f
-1
(
2
) v f
-1
(W) sinh bi {
1
,
2
}.
Theo bi tp 7, h hai vect ny c lp tuyn tnh. Vy l mt c
s ca f
-1
(W).
Tng t, mt c s ca g(W) gm hai vect g(
1
) = (0, 2, -1, 0),
g(
2
) = (1, 0, 1, 0).

Chng IV. H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH
1. S: a) (1, 1, 1) ; b (-11c
3
+
10
31
,-17c
3
+
10
17
, c
3
) ; c) v nghim ; d)
(1, 2, 1) ;
360
e) V nghim ; f) (-1 - 2c
4
,
19
2
+ 26c
4
,
19
14
+ 14c
4
, c
4
) ; g) V
nghim ; h) V nghim ; i) (
91
9
,
91
102
,
91
159
,
91
93
) .
3. Tr li: a) C ; b) C ; c) V nghim ; d) C.
4. Hng dn: Xt nh thc ca A. Vi nhng gi tr ca a, b, |A|0
th h c nghim. ng vi mi gi tr ca a, b m |A| = 0 , hy xt hng
ca hai ma trn A v B.
Tr li : a) a 1 v a -2 hoc a = 1 ;
b) a 1 v b 0.
5. Tr li: a 1 v a -2 hoc a = 1.
6. Hng dn: Tnh nh thc ca ma trn A c |A| = (b - a)(c -
a)(c - b).
Xt cc trng hp:
a b, b c, c a;
a = b, b c; (tng t: b = c, c a; c = a, a b);
a = b = c.
7. S: a = 27.

j) Hng dn: Tnh nh thc ca ma trn A c |A| = (b - a)(c -
a)(c - b).
a b, b c, c a. H c nghim duy nht:
361

a b, b = c, a d, b d. H v nghim.
a b, b = c, a = d. Nghim: (1, y, -y).
a b, b = c = d. Nghim: (0, y, 1 y).
a = b = c d. V nghim.
a = b = c = d. Nghim: (1 - y - z, y, z).

10. S: a = -1, b = -1, c = 1.
11. S: a = 1, b = c = 0, d = -1.
12. S: a = 5, b = -2, c = -4.
13. S:

= 3
1
- 5
1

14. Hng dn: Gi (y
1
, y
2
, y
3
) l to ca i vi c s ()
dng cng thc i to ta c h phng trnh i vi cc n y
j
.

15. S: T =

16. S: a) (3c
4
, c
4
, -4c
4
, c
4
); b) (-13c, 8c, 11c, 4c); c) (3c, c, 0, 0, 0);
di (3c,-c, c, 2c, 0).
17. S: a) -11
1
+ 20
3
+19
4
= ; b)
1
-
2
+ 2
3
= .
362
18. Hng dn: Trc ht tm hng ca ma trn A ca h phng
trnh.
Suy ra s chiu ca khng gian nghim. Kim tra xem h vect c
c lp tuyn tnh khng.
Tr li: b) l h nghim c bn.
19. Gi S l khng gian nghim ca h phng trnh.
S: a) H nghim c bn: (1, 2, 0, 1), (2, 3, 1, 0); dimS = 2; b) H
nghim c bn: (-3, 1, -6, 1), dimS = l;
c) H nghim c bn: (-3, 0, -1, 2), dimS = l;
d) H nghim c bn: (-l, -1, 1, 0, 0, 1), (3, 1, 2, 0, 1, 0), (2, 1, -1, 1,
0, 0) dimS = 3;
e) H nghim c bn: (1, 1, 0, 3, 0, 2), (-l, -1, 1, -4, 1, 0), dimS = 2.
20. S :
a) H nghim c bn: (1, -5, 0, 0, 3), (0, 1, 0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1, 0, 0).
Nghim tng qut ca h cho: (
3
1
+ a,
3
1
- 5a + b + c, c, b, 3a).
Cho a =
3
2
, b = c = 0, c mt nghim ring: (1, -3, 0, 0, 2).
b) H nghim c bn: (2, 5, 0, 0, 6), (1, -1, 0, 2, 0), (0, 1, 2, 0, 0).
Nghim tng qut ca h cho:(
3
2
+ 2a + b,
6
1
+ 5a - b + c, 2c,
2b, 6a).
Cho a =
6
1
, b = c = 0, c mt nghim ring: (1, 1, 0, 0, 1).
21. Trng hp hng (A) = hng(B) = 1. H c v s nghim.
Phng trnh th hai v th ba l t hp tuyn tnh ca phng trnh
th nht.
Ba ng thng trng nhau.
Trng hp hng(A) = 1, hng (B) = 2. H v nghim.
+ Nu th d
1
trng vi d
2
v d
3
// d
1

363

+ Nu th ba ng thng
song song.
..
Trng hp hng(A) = 2 = hng(B). H c nghim duy nht.
Nu th ba ng thng ng
quy.
Hai ng thng ct nhau, ng cn li trng vi mt trong hai
ng ct nhau.

+ Nu th d
1
ct d
2
, d
3
trng vi d
1
hoc d
2

Trng hp hng(A) = 2, hng(B) = 3. H v nghim.

Nu th ba ng thng i

mt ct nhau nhng khng ng quy.
+ Nu th d
1
ct d
2
, d
3
song song vi d
2
.

Chng V. MA TRN

364

4. S: f(1, 0, 0) = (1, 0, 1), f(0, 1, 0) = (2, 1, 2), f(0, 0, 1) = (0, -2, 1).
f(3, -2, 0) = (-1,-2, -1).
5. Gii :

Vy to ca f( ) l (10, 11).

Kerf l khng gian nghim ca h thun nht:

Vy Kerf c c s l h nghim c bn ca h thun nht. Nhng h
phng trnh ny l h Cramer nn Kerf = (0, 0, 0, 0).
11. Tr li: Nu A l ma trn kiu (m,n) th B t ma trn kiu (n, m).
15. S: (AB)C = A(BC) =
16. Hng dn: V ma trn A kiu (2,3) v ma trn I vung nn n
365

c kiu (2, 2). Do X c kiu (3,2). t X = T ng thc

AX : I ta c mt h phng trnh i vi n xi v mt h i vi n y
j
.
Tr li: C nhiu li gii. y l mt li gii:

c
ki
trong c
ki
l thnh phn ca ma trn AB.
Vy
t
B
t
A =
t
(AB) .

19. S: A =

20. B
-1
A
-1
AB = B
-1
(A-1A)B = B
-1
IB = BB
-1
= I. iu ny chng t B
-
1
A
-1
l nghch o ca AB. Do B
-1
A
-
1 = (AB)
-1
.
21. S: |AB| = |A||B| = 0.(-1) = 0
366

23. S: X =

24. Hng dn: Gi s A = Coi a, b, c, d nh nhng n, t
A
2
= 0 ta c mt h phng trnh.
S: a) C th chn ma trn A =
b) (I + A)(I - A) = I
2
- A
2
- I. Vy I + A v I - A l hai ma trn
nghch o ca nhau.
25. Gi s A kh nghch. Khi BA = (A
-1
A)BA = A
-1
(AB)A. Vy
BA ng dng vi AB.
26. Ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s (') l

Ma trn ca f i vi c s (') l B = T
-1
AT =
4
1

27. Ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s (') l
367

28. Ma trn chuyn t c s () sang c s () l T =

Ma trn ca f i vi c s () l A' =

Ma trn ca f + g i vi c s () l A' + B =

29. a) Hng dn: Gi s chn c s {
1
,
2
}, xc nh nh x
f. Xc nh nh ca mi vect.
Tr li: a) , ; b) ; c) .
30. S: i vi f + g, gi tr ring ng vi l k
1
+ k
2
; i vi fg l
k
1
k
2
.
31. S: a) A: khng c; B: k
1
= -1, k
2
= 5, vect ring tng ng l
= (1, 1), = (-2, 1);
C: k
1
= 1, k
2
= 4, vect ring tng ng l = (1, 2), = (-1, 3);
D: k = 1, vect ring tng ng l = (0, 1).
b) A: k
1
= -3, k
2
= 1, k
3
= 3, vect ring tng ng l = (6, -7, 5),
= (2, 1, 1); = (0, 1, 1);
B: k
1
= -1, k
2
: 3, k
3
= 4, vect ring tng ng l = (2, 0, 1), =
(0, 1, 0); = (-3, -5, 1).
c) A: k
1
= 0, k
2
= 1, k
3
= 2, vect ring tng ng l = (-l, 0, 1, 0),
368
= (1, 0, 0, 0); = (0,1, 0, 0);
B: k
1
= - 9, k
2
= 1, k
3
= 9, vect ring tng ng l = (0, 2, 1, 2),
= (40, -1, -8, 9); = (0, -1, 0, 1).
32. S: a) k
1
= 1, k
2
= 2, vect ring tng ng l = (3, -1, 2),
= (4, -1, 2);
Hai khng gian ring tng ng l W
1
sinh bi , W
2
sinh bi .
b) k = 2, vect ring tng ng l = (0, 0, 1), = (1, 2, 0). Khng
gian ring tng ng W
1
sinh bi hai vect v .
33. Hng dn: Coi A l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f, B t ma
trn ca nh x tuyn tnh g. Tm gi tr ring ca f v ca g. Suy ra rng
A v B cng ng dng vi mt ma trn cho. T suy ra A v B ng
dng.
34. Hng dn: Tm gi tr ring. Nu s gi tr ring bng cp ca
ma trn th khng gian c h c s gm nhng vect ring. Nu s gi tr
ring nh hn cp ca ma trn nhng c th tm c mt c s gm
nhng vect ring th ma trn cho ho c.

35. Hng dn: Tm gi tr ring v mt c s gm nhng vect
ring.
369

36. Hng dn: Tm cc gi tr ring v mt c s gm nhng vect
ring.
S: a) C s gm cc vect ring: (1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1).
Ma trn cho cn tm l

b) C s gm cc vect ring: (-1, -1, 1), (-3, 0, 2), (-1, 1, 0).
Ma trn cho cn tm l:

37. a)

370

c) gf l mt ng cu v |BA| = -2 0. fg khng phi l mt ng cu
v |AB| = 0.
Ma trn ca (gf)
-1
l

d) Cch 1. Ker(fg) khi v ch khi (0, 0 0, 0) = =

khi v ch khi:

C s ca Ker(fg) l c s ca khng gian nghim ca h phng
trnh trn. Nghim tng qut ca h ny l (c, -c, 0, 0) = c(1, -1, 0, 0).
Vy c s ca Ker(fg) l {(1, -1, 0, 0)}.
Im(fg) sinh bi h vect:
371

nn hng ca h ny bng 3 v h vect {fg(
2
), fg(
3
), fg(
4
)} c lp
tuyn tnh.
Vy h vect {fg(
2
), fg(
3
), fg(
4
)} l mt c s ca Im(fg) .
Cch 2. Ker(fg) khi v ch khi

Suy ra k
1
= 1, k
2
= 2 , k
3
= 2
+ vi k
1
= 1, gii h phng trnh:
372

Nghim tng qut ca h l (0, 0, c
3
); nghim c bn l (0, 0, 1).
Khng gian ring tng ng sinh bi vect (0, 0, 1).
+ Vi k
2
= 2 gii h phng trnh:

1
, -(1 + 2 )c
1
, 0), h nghim c bn
l (1, -(1 + 2 ),0)
Khng gian ring tng ng sinh bi vect (1, -(1 + 2 ),0) .
+ vi k
3

1
, ( 2 -1), 0), h nghim c bn l (1,
2 - 1, 0).
Khng gian ring tng ng sinh bi vect (1, 2 - 1, 0).
Cc gi tr ring ca fg:

K
1
= 0, k
2
= 1, k
3
= - 2 , k
4
= 2 .
373
+ vi k = 0, gii h phng trnh:

Nghim tng qut ca h ny l (c
1
, -c
1
, 0, 0); h nghim c bn l
(1, -1, 0, 0).
Khng gian ring tng ng sinh bi vect (1, -1, 0, 0).
+ Vi k
2
= 1, gii h phng trnh:

Nghim tng qut ca h ny l (0, 0, 0, c); h nghim c bn l (0,
0, 0, 1).
Khng gian ring tng ng sinh bi vect (0, 0, 0, 1).
+ Vi k
3
= - 2 , gii h phng trnh:

1
, -(1+ 2 )c
1
, (2+ 2 )c
1
, 0); h
nghim c bn l (1, -(1+ 2 ), (2 + 2 ), 0)
Khng gian ring tng ng sinh bi vect (1, -(1+ 2 ), (2+ 2 ), 0).
+ Vi k
4
374

1
, ( 2 -1)c
1
, (2- 2 )c
1
, 0); h
nghim c bn l (1, 2 -1 , 2- 2 , 0).
Khng gian ring tng ng sinh bi vect (1, 2 -1 , 2- 2 , 0).
f) Ma trn BA cho ho c v n c 3 gi tr ring phn bit.
Trong c s gm 3 vect {(0, 0, 1), (1, -1 - 2 , 0), (1, -1+ 2 , 0)}
ma trn ca gf l ma trn cho

Gi T l ma trn chuyn t c s chnh tc sang c s ny ta c
C = T
-1
BAT
Ma trn AB cng cho ho c. Trong c s gm 4 vect {(1, 1, 0,
0), (0, 0, 0, 1), (1, -1- 2 , 2+ 2 , 0), (1, 2 -1, 2- 2 , 0)} ma trn ca fg
l ma trn cho

Chng VI. DNG SONG TUYN TNH V DNG
TON PHNG
1. Trn R
3
ta xt c s chnh tc e = {
1
,
2
,
3
} vi
1
= (1, 0, 0),
2
= (0, 1, 0),
3
= (0, 0, 1) . Khi ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh
375
trn R
3
vi c s e = {
1
,
2
,
3
} Chnh l A = ( (
i
,
j
)) .

2. Theo nh ngha.
3. Ma trn chuyn t c s chnh tc e={
1
,
2
,
3
} sang c s () l

T = khi ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh trn R
3

i vi c s () l

376

gi tr ring l = - 1, = 2 , ng vi = - 1 c vect ring l

ng vi = 2 c cc vect ring l v , t

P = khi ta c ma trn:

377

Chng VII. QUY HOCH TUYN TNH
1. Gi x
1
, x
2
theo th t l s n v loi hng I, II cn sn xut theo
k hoch trong mt ngy. Khi doanh thu trong mt ngy s l 7xl +
5x
2
. Do tr lng nguyn liu c hn v lng hng sn xut khng vt
qu nhu cu th trng nn ta c:

V tt nhin x
1
, x
2
0. T ta lp c m hnh ton hc cho bi
ton thc t.
2. Tp phng n X v x* X. Vi phng n x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
)
bt k, bng cch cng v vi v cc bt phng trnh trong h rng buc
cng bc ta c 7x
l
+ x
2
3.
V x
1
0 nn f(x) = 84x
1
+ x
3
7x
1
+ x
3
3 = f (x*) vi mi phng
n x.
T suy ra iu phi chng minh.
5. a) (4, 1); b) Tp phng n l rng.
6. x
1
l phng n cc bin khng suy bin, x
2
l phng n cc bin
suy bin, x
3
khng phi l phng n cc bin.
7. C tt c 4 phng n cc bin. Bi ton khng suy bin v mi
phng n cc bin u khng suy bin.
8. Ch rng, rng buc th hai xc nh na mt phng cha gc
to , v b ca n lun i qua im (x
1
, x
2
) = (0, 2), c h s gc l (-
t). Xt tng trng hp khi cho (-t) tng dn t - n + (-/2<
</2, trong () l gc hp bi gia b ca na mt phng th hai v
chiu dng ca trc honh).
p s a) t > 2/3; b) t < -1; c) -1 < t < 2/3; d) t = -1.
10. a) Cch 1. Biu din hnh hc tp phng n, v mt ng mc
ri chng t n khng c v tr gii hn.
378
Cch 2. Tm iu kin v t sao cho x = (t, t) l phng n. Khi
f(x(t)) = 2t v cho qua gii hn ta c iu phi chng minh.
b) Xc nh t sao cho x(t) = (0, t, 0, t) l phng n. Khi , tnh
f(x(t)) v cho qua gii hn ta c iu phi chng minh.

v
j
0 Vi mi i nn l phng n ti u.
12. a) (71/10, 0, 0, 13/10, 0, 2/5) l phng n ti u.
b) (1, 1, 1/2, 0) l phng n ti u.
c) Hm mc tiu khng b chn di.
d) ( 0, 6, 2, 3, 0, 0 ) l phng n ti u.
e) ( 0, 0, 3, 4, 0) l phng n ti u.
g) Tp phng n l rng.
h) ( 1, 0, 6, 3) l phng n ti u.
i) Hm mc tiu khng b chn trn.
k) Tp phng n l rng.
379
BNG THUT NG
Trang
A

nh x 123
nh x tuyn tnh 124
nh ca mt nh x tuyn tnh 129
nh ca mt vect 125
nh ngc 129
n c s 153
n phi c s 153

B
Bi ton chun 37
Bi ton cc tiu ho 330
Bi ton dng chnh tc 331
Bi ton dng chun tc 331
Bi ton khng suy bin v suy bin 338
Bi ton qu hoch tuyn tnh 325
Bi ton quy hoch tuyn tnh tng qut 329
Bi ton quy hoch ton hc (ti u ho) 325
Bng n hnh 355
Bc lp 353

C
Chun ca mt vect 263
Chuyn tr 20
Cng thc i to 96
Ct xoay 357
380
C s ca khng gian vect 85
C s chnh tc 86
C s ca ma trn 337
C s ca phng n cc bin 337
C s trc chun 263

D
Dng cho ca ma trn 213
Dng chnh tc ca dng ton phng 185
Dng cc ca dng ton phng 282
Dng song tuyn tnh 274
Dng song tuyn tnh i xng 274
Dng ton phng 283
Dng ton phng xc nh 265
Dng ton phng xc nh dng (m) 265
Du ca php th 22
Dng xoay 341

a thc c trng 233
i s cc ma trn vung Matn(K) 214
ng cu 136
nh thc 27
nh thc con 35
nh thc con b 35
ng cu 133
n cu 136

381
G
Giao ca nhng khng gian con 84
Gi tr ring 229
Gi tr ti u 314

H
Hm mc tiu 313
Hm mc tiu khng b chn 314
Hng ca h vect 104
Hng ca ma trn 104
Ht nhn ca mt nh x tuyn tnh 139
H nghim c bn ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht 180
H phng trnh tuyn tnh 60
H phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht 178
H sinh ca mt khng gian vect 84
H vect c lp tuyn tnh 88
H vect lin kt 324
H vect ph thuc tuyn tnh 88
Hin tng xoay vng 336
Hnh chiu ca mt vect ln mt khng gian con 284

K
Khai trin nh thc theo mt dng 36
Khai trin nh thc theo r dng 42
Khng gian con 81
Khng gian con b trc giao 283
Khng gian con bt bin 230
Khng gian vect clit 277
Khng gian sinh bi mt h vect 84
382
Khng gian vect 76

M
Ma trn 25
Ma trn cc to 106
Ma trn chuyn (t c s ny sang c s khc) 100
Ma trn chuyn v 126
Ma trn ca mt nh x tuyn tnh 198
Ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh 260
Ma trn i xng 264
Ma trn c trng 233
Ma trn ng dng 227
Ma trn n v 214
Ma trn nghch o 261
Ma trn rng buc 316
Ma trn tam gic di 47
Ma trn tam gic trn 48
Ma trn trc giao 285
Ma trn vung 27

N
Nghch th 22
Nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh 160
Nghim ca a thc c trng 233
Nghim ring ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh 167
Nghim tng qut 167

383
P

Phn b i s 35
Phn t trc 341
Php bin i s cp 114
Php bin i i xng 287
Php bin i trc giao 285
Php cng hai nh x tuyn tnh 146
Php cng hai ma trn 204
Php nhn mt nh x tuyn tnh vi mt s 147
Php nhn mt ma trn vi mt s 204
Php th 21
Php th chn, php th l 22
Php xoay 341
Phng n 313
Phng n cc bin 321
Phng n cc bin khng suy bin v suy bin 322
Phng n n hnh 321
Phng n tm c theo mt hng 333
Phng n ti u 314

R
Rng buc cng bc 313
Rng buc t nhin 313

S
S chiu ca khng gian vect 96

384
T
Tch ca hai nh x tuyn tnh 149
Tch ca hai ma trn 205
Tch v hng 277
To ca mt vect 99
Ton cu 136
T hp tuyn tnh 87
Tng ca hai nh x tuyn tnh 146
Tng ca hai ma trn 202
Tng ca nhng khng gian con 83

c lng 330

V
Vect 78
Vect nh chun 278
Vect i 78
Vect khng 78
Vect ring 229
Vect trc giao 278

385
TI LIU THAM KHO
1. ng vn Uyn. Quy hoch tuyn tnh. NXBGD.1996.
2. Hong Tu. L thuyt quy hoch. Nh xut bn Khoa hc H Ni.
1968.
3. Ph Mnh Ban. Quy hoch tuyn tnh. NXBGD. 1998.
4. Ng Thc Lanh. i s tuyn tnh. Nh xut bn i hc v
Trung hc chuyn nghip.
5. Nguyn Duy Thun. Ton Cao cp A1. Phn i s tuyn tnh.
NXBGD. 2001.
6. Nguyn c Ngha. Ti u ho (Quy hoch tuyn tnh v ri rc).
NXBGD.1996.
7. Trn Vn Ho. i s cao cp . Tp I. i s tuyn tnh.
NXBGD. 1977.
8. Jonathan S. Golan. Foundation of Linear Algebra. Kluwer
Academic Pubhshers. 1996.
9. J.M.Arnaudis- H.Fraysse. Cours de Mathmatiqu-J. Algbre.
DUNOD. Paris.1996.

Chu trch nhim xut bn:
Gim c INH NGC BAO

Tng bin tp L A

Bin tp ni dung:
NGUYN TIN TRUNG

Trnh by ba:
PHM VIT QUANG

I S TUYN TNH
In 600 cun, kh 17 x 24 cm ti Cng ty In v Vn ho phm H Ni.
Giy php xut bn s. 90 -II31/XB-QLXB, k ngy 29/8/2003.
In xong v np lu chiu thng 11 nm 2003.

Dai So Tuyen Tinh

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TS.

NGUYN DUY THUN (Ch bin)

= 2[6.10(-4) + 3.12 6.19 7.10.2]

l nh thc con cp cao nht khc 0 ca ma trn A.

=9 ; ngha l hng(B) = 3 hng(A).

> 0. Nh vy i vi c s (), c dng ({

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