THE

M USEUM

BRITISH

DICTIONARY OF ANCIENT EGYPT

IAN SHAW AND PAUL NICHOLSON

THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO PRESS

This pocket edition first published by EgypL in 2002 by The Americ.:an Uni"crsiry in Cairo Press 113 Kasr d Aini Strect, Cairo. Egypl
www.aucpn..SS.com

1995 The Trustees orThl' Brilish Museum Published by armngemenl withThe British 1\'luscum Press

First published 1995 FirSL published in paperback IlJ97

All rights fl.'scrnd Designed by I larry Grecn

Dar cI Kutub no. 10-153/02

ISBN

9774247620

Primed and bound in Spain by Graros 5.A.,

Barcelona

FRONTISI'IECE

Detail (j/wedjaL-LTt's almvl' aitlse door

with deCflrafioll imilafi/lg lexliles. From lhe wooden

il/ner coJ]i" offhe (omlluwder Sepy. Middle Kingdom,
c. 2000 nC,ji'o1l1 Deirel-Herslra.
I..

2.13 Ill. (15S315)

1',\UES

4-5

7;"0

male Ituesls (1Illtejil1lcmlfiasl oftlte

vizier Ramose ill his lomb {II Tlrebes. 1811t D)'l1{1SI)'.

c. 1.190-1336 BC.
(cR,m., III1.1RRISOV)

CONTENTS

Maps

6
Preface

8
Acknowledgements

9
EntriesA-Z

10
Chronology

310
Appendix 1

313
Appendix 2

313
Index

316
List of bibliographical
abbreviations

328
Note on the illustrations

328

Lower Egyptian nome signs

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19

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f9

ANTINOOPOUS al-Sheikh'lbada

Shutb

9 PANAPOLIS UPPER EGYPT

Akhmim

scale 1: 2 BOO 000

Red Sea

Upper Egyptian nome signs

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C--..?

f
~
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10

13 14

~marn
"--

19 20

Ul
Ooorn
Ou~
~

J~
nome boundary
10 nome number Luxor modern name THEBES classical name MEN'AT-KHUFU ancient name Pithom biblical name

O~

15

21

1
~~
6~
I

4
~

16

22

nome capitals are underlined where known

scale 1: 3 800 000 100km

11

17 18

12

"=-

~
~

Cyrene

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

Mersa Matruh

Siwa Oasis LIBYA Bahariya Oasis'" ,.'

Faratra Oasis

Dakhla Oasis

ARABIA

5DD km

FACING PAGE .Map of Egypt, showing the main sites mentioned in the text. The Egyptians themselves made a clear geographical distinction between Upper Egypt, consisting of the Nile Valley from Memphis to Aswan, and Lower Egypt (or the Delta), where the Nile fails Out into several tributaries in its final descent to the l\ilediterranean. The twenty-two names (provinces) of Upper Egypt and the twenty names of Lower Egypt arc also indkated, and the nome capitals, where known, are underlined. Each nome had its own symbol or standard, often incorporating animals, birds or fetishes sacred to the local deities.

ABOVE Map of the Ancient Near East, showing Egypt's neighbours in western Asia and the Nlediterranean region. For most of the Pharaonic period Egypt was well protected by its natural geographical sunoundings1 consisting of the Sinai peninsula and the Red Sea to the east, the Sahara Desert to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north. In the New Kingdom the Egyptians' 'cmpin' extended well beyond these traditional borders, as they vied with l\llitanni and the Hittites for hegemony over the city~states of Syria~ Palestine. It was only in the Late Period (c. 747-332 Be) that Egypt itself finally succumbed to the invading armies of Nubia, Assyria and Persia.

PREFACE

When this book was first produced, no reliable general dictionary of ancient Egypt was available in English, and the task of deciding what to include here and what to leave out was not easy. Many of the headings in this dictionary are derived from discussions with students and colleagues, but responsibility for the final list is ours. The book largely results from the need to find concise and accurate definitions of key terms in Egyptology, some of which have become obscure and archaic over the years. The principal aim has been to provide a reference work accessible to anyone with an interest in ancient Egypt, as well as to the academic community. The short bibliographies which accompany most entries are given in chronological, rather than alphabetical, order so that the list moves from early sources to more recent studies. The spelling of ancient Egyptian personal names is a continual source of difficulty. Thus the kings cited here as 'Amenhotep' may be found elsewhere as 'Amenhotpe', or in the Greek form 'Amenophis'. We have chosen spellings that are as far as possible consistent with the transliteration of the original Egyptian, which has the added benefit of being consistent with those used by Stephen Qlirke and Jeffrey Spencer. in the British Museum book of ancient Egypt (London, 1992) and other BMP publications. In the headings of entries describing ancient sites, on the other hand, we have opted for the most commonly used name. Alternative forms of names are given in the text and index. We have endeavoured to make the index as comprehensive as possible in the hope that readers will find it helpful in researching topics or individuals not covered by specific headings in the text.
8

The chronological table provided here is that preferred by the Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan in the British Museum. Because of the difficulties in establishing a single absolute chronology for ancient Egypt, both dates and lists of individual rulers tend to differ from one book to another, but most current chronological schemes will be found to be broadly similar to the one used here. Since Egyptologists tend to refer to 'dynasties' and 'kingdoms' in a way which can be confusing to the nonspecialist, we have tried to give absolute dates Be and AD wherever possible. The entries are supplemented by two appendices. The first of these lists the names and dates of Egyptologists mentioned in the text (some of whom have individual entries and bibliographies in the main text). The second appendix lists the recognized numbers ofTheban Tombs (designated TT) and those in the Valley of the Kings (designated KV), along with their occupants and dynasties. Throughout the dictionary there are frequent references to these tomb-numbers, as well as occasional mention of tomb-numbers at other sites, such as el-Amarna (EA), Beni Hasan (B1-1) , Elkab (EK), Giza (G) and Saqqara. Should readers require further detail on certain topics they are advised to consult both the bibliographies at the end of each entry and the following more specialized reference works: M. Lurker, The gods and symbols of ancient Egypt (London, 1974); W. Heick, E. Otto and W. Westendorf (eds), Lexikon der Agyptologie, 7 vols (Wiesbaden, 1975-1988); G. Hart, A dictionary of Egyptian gods and goddesses (London, 1986); R. and A. David, A biographical dictionary of ancient Egypt (London,

1992); J. Baines and J. Malek, Atlas ofancient Egypt (Phaidon, 1984); and W. R. Dawson, E. P. Uphill and M. L. Bierbrier, Who lvas mho in Egyptology, 3rd ed. (London, 1995). G. Posener's A dictional]! of Egyptian civilization (London, 1962), although now somewhat in need of updating and out of print in English, provides a good range of information on many general Egyptological topics.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank a number of individuals and institutions for their help during the course of this project. Firstly we would like to thank the staff of the Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan at the British Museum, who have not stinted in sharing their scholarship with us. We are also grateful to many friends and colleagues with whom we have discussed subjects relevant to this book, including Dr W. Z. Wendrich, who wrote part of the entry on basketry and cordage, Joann Fletcher, who provided valuable information for the entry on hair and wigs, Dr Delwen Samuel, who supplied information on ancient brewing techniques, and Margaret Serpico, who kindly provided information on oils and incense. We would also like to thank Janine Bourriau, Sarah Buckingham, Barry Kemp, Professor Harry Smith and the staff of the various expeditions to Egypt with which we are involved. We should emphasize, however, that the final responsibility for the opinions expressed remains our own. In addition, we would like to

acknowledge the support we have received from University College London and CardifIUniversity. For assistance with various aspects of the production of the typescript and photographs we would like to thank Geoff Boden, Dr Caitlin Buck and John Morgan of Cardiff University and Dr Nick Fieller of the University of Sheffield. Joanna Champness, Celia Clear, Emma Way and Julie Young of British Museum Press gave much useful help and advice concerning the production of the original book, and Carolyn Jones and Christine King on the present edition. For illustrations we are grateful to the staff of the British Museum Photographic Service; to Graham Harrison; the Egyptian Museum Cairo (in particular Dr Mohammed Saleh); the Griffith Institute, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford; the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (in particular Dr Dorothea Arnold) and the Musee du Louvre. Unless otherwise stated the line drawings are by William Schenck, to whom we are also indebted. Finally, we would like to thank Kate Trott, Ann Jones and Nia Shaw, who have helped in numerous ways.
IAN SHAW PAUL NICHOLSON

ABU GURAB

ABU GURAB

A
Abu Gurab (Abu Ghurob)
Sire on the west bank of the Tile between GiZ.1 and S'lqqara, originally known to travellers as the 'Pyramid of Righa" although actually dominated by the remains of a sun temple erected by the 5th-Dynasty King Nyuscrra (2445-2421 Be) whose pyramid stands a shan distance ro the south at ABUSIIL lr became cus~ tamar)' in the 5th Dynasty for the rulers to express their devotion to the Heliopolitan sungod RA by building sun temples in addition to their own pyramid complexes. Abu Gurab is the best preserved of the two surviving examples (the other being that of Userkaf at Abusir), :llthough at' least six arc known to have been built.
The central feature of the temple was a large, squat monument, the proportions of which were midway between a BNBEN STO.'\TE Jnd a true OBELISK. Both the (obelisk' and the tapering platform on which it stood were masonry constructions rather than monolithic. Tn front of the monument" (of which only the corc of the plinth remains) is a large open court, and in the centre of this open area is a massive travertinc ALTAR comprising a disc

50

100m

1 valley building 2 causeway 3 vestibule

4 magazines

5 altar 6 and 7 slaughterhouses 8 corridor 9 'room of the seasons' 10 chapel 11 obelisk 12 model of solar bark

-+N

PIIIIIII!Abll Climb.

General viem ofthe slI111emple ofIhe 5thDY11as(j' Ki11g Nyustrra flt Abu Curab. The m01l11(1 10 Ihe leji is tlu' base ofthe large sqUill obelisk; lhe lraverlille Ililar 10 ils right is obsCllretl by the enclosure wlIlI. 711t: GiZiI pymmitls lire t:isihle 011l1It, skJllille il1lhejilr disllInce. (r. .,: \ IC/IOISO.V)
BELOW

10

ABU ROASH

ABU SIMBEL

surrounded on each side by four carved examples of the hieroglvphic sign hetep ('offering'), giving the whole an unusual cruciform shape. The altar is nanked on the north by a slaughter area and by temple magazines. The entrance to the temple is linked with a 'valley building' by a covered e;.lUseway, like those connecting pyramids with their valley temples. On reaching the remple proper, the causeway becomes a corridor running down the east side of the courtyard and along the south side. This corridor, which contained reliefs of the SED FESTIVAL (ruyal jubilee), led to the 'room of the seasons' (containing painted reliefs depicting the seasons of the Egyptian year) and ended in a chapel decorated with scenes of the dedication of the temple. Although these arc c\"idcntly important scenes, they were carved on poor stone enhanced with a coating of lime plaster - such economies perhaps illustrate the strain on the finances of the Egyptian elite because of the need to build both pyramids and temples. To the south of the temple was a brick-built imiration of the BARK of the sun~god. The site was excavated at the turn of the century by the German scholars Ludwig Borchardt, Heinrich Schafer and Friedrich von Bissing, who sent many of the reliefs to museums in Germany, where a number of them were destroyed during the Second "Vodd War. E. WINTER, 'Zur Deutung der Sonnenheiligtiimer <Ier 5. Dynastic" IVZK1H S-f (1957),222-33. E. EDEL and S. \,VENIG, Die ]ahreJ::.eitenreliejs (illS dem SO."l1el1heiligtuJU des Kiilligs Ne-mer-re, Nlineilungen aus der iigyptischen Sammlung 8 (Berlio, 1974). \v. STEVF...'liSON SMITH, The art ami (JTc!JitecllIre of al1cie11l Egypt, 2nd cd. (Harmondsworth, 1981), 128--32, figs 12+-5. D. "'ILDUNG, Ni-UJer-RE: SOl1l1mkouigSomlengoll (J'vlunich, 1985).

both excavated by Emile Chassinat in 1901. The boat pit contained many fragments of red quartzite statuary, including three painted h"Jds from statues of Djedefra, one of \yhich was probably from the earliest known royal SPIll"'X (Louvre 1'12626), as well as the lower section of a statue of the king accompanied by Q!Jeen Khentetka. Because of the nature of the local topography, the causeway (linking the mortuary temple with the ,alley temple) approaches from the northeast rather than the cast. To the north of the pyramid is Wadi QIrun, site of the still unexcavated valley templc~ as wcll as a number of remains of a much later date, including part of a statue of Queen Arsinoe II, sister and wife of PTOLE.:-'IY II Philadclphus (285-246 BC). Objects bearing thc names of the 1st-Dynasty pharaohs iUM (r..1100 Be) and D"N (c.2950 BC) have also been found at' Abu Roash, indicating a strong Early Dynastic presence at the site. To the east of the pyramid complex is an Old Kingdom cemetery, which was also excavated by Chassinal'. About two kilometres to the south are the remains of a brick-built pyramid, comprising a knoll of rod and a burial chamber. This pyramid, the date of which is unknown, was still relatively well preserved when it was recorded in the early nineteenth

century by the German scholar Karl Richard Lepsius. F: BISSON DE LA ROQUE, Rapport sur lesJouilles d'Abu Roast"h, 3 vols (Cairo, 1924-5). C. DE.'iR<Xl-lf.5-NoBU:COURT (cd.), Ul1 Slide de fouillesfr(lIIfaises ell Egypte, 188{}-1980 (Paris, 1981), {+-53. M. VALLOGIA, 'Le complex funerairc de Radjedef aAbu Roash', BSFE 130 (1994),5-17.

Abu Simbel
Site of two rock.. -cut temples of RJ\MESI::5 " (1279-1213 BC), located about 250 km southeast of Aswan. The temples were discO\'ercd by the traveller Jean-Louis Burckhardt in 1813 and cleared by Giovanni DELZONI four years later. The largesl temple is dedicated to Amun-Ra, Ra-Horakhty, Ftah and the deified Rameses II. The fa,ade is dominated by four colossal seated figures of Rameses II wC<lring the d01Jhle ero,vn and lIemes headc1oth. Between the two pairs of figures is the
Thejafade oIlhe 'greG/temple' o/Ralllcses 11 al AIm SimIJel. The /our seated colossi oIthe king are eat:h 20 mhigh; the rla.magedjigure was leJi ulIrestored when the temple was /lIoved to higher grollnd as part ofthe UNESCO operatiolllO preserve itfrom the lPaters ofLItke Nasser. (/~ 7: NICHO/.SON)

Abu Roash (Abu Ra,,ash) Site of the unfinished funerary complex of the 4th-Dynasty ruler Djedefra (2566-2558 BC), the ancient name for which was 'Djedefra is a sehedu star'. The pyramid, situated to the north of GIZt\ on the west bank of the Nile, was evidently in better condition in 1839, when it W~IS first' examined by Richard Howard Vyse and John PClTing. Sincc then, the site has suffered heavily, having been used as a quarry in the 18805, but enough stone blocks remain to show that it was intended to be partly encased in red granite. The mortuary tcmple on the east side of the pyramid and a large boat pit to the south were
11

ABU SIMBEL

ABUSIR

A 1 2 3 4 5

temple of Rameses II court for sun worship seated colossi of Rameses II large pillared hall side chambers small pillared hall

6 7 8 9 10

sanctuary Hittite marriage stele south rock-cut chapel north rock-cut chapel

";"'''11111'', "III1I",UIHurl,

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1 Btemple of Nefertari and Hathor 1 standing colossi 2 pillared hall 3 vestibule 4 sanctuary 5 extent of modern concrete dome

50

100 m

The temples (}f(A) Rl1l11tSeS /I ami (B) /tis queen, Neji:r/ari, ant! the goddess Hal/lOr at Abu Simbel.

entrance to the cavernous interior of the monument, and flanking it, beneath the feet ilnd throne of the king, arc the ~INE BOWS, the traditional enemies of Egypt. The monument thus symbolized Raml.'Scs II'S domination of NUBIA, as well as his piety to the gods. The 'great temple' is precisely aligned so that twice a year (during February and October) the rising sun illuminates the sanctuary and seated statues of the gods at the rearmost point of the temple. The temple is conventional in its overall layout, with a large pillared hall immediately beyond the entrance leading to a smaller pillared hall, followed by a vestibule and sanctuary. The standard of workmanship on the wall carvings is not high, though they are vigorous and remin their p'linted colour. The temple was decorated in thc 34th year of Rameses' reign, and there is a discernible decline in artistic standard compared with the decoration of the earlier temples at ABYDOS. AI the southern end of the external terrace a stele records the marriage of Ramescs to a daughter of the IlIrrrrE king Hattusilis III, valuable cvidence of diplomatic relations at the time. A little to the north of the great temple ties a smaller rock-cut temple dedicated to Queen NEFERHRJ and the goddess ""THOR of Abshek. This fa~ade features two standing figures of 12

the king, flanking those of his queen, on each side of the entrancc. A passage leads to a sixpillared hall with SISTRUM-capital columns, followed by a vestibule, and finally the sanctuary, where a statue of the goddess Hathor protects Rameses n. In the 1960s these temples were threatened by the rising waters of Lake 1 asser resulting from the construction of the Aswan High Dam and were dismantled, moved and reassembled on higher ground, through the co-operation of archaeologists ilnd engineers working under a UNESCO initiative. \V. NL\CQuITry, /11m Simbel(London l 1965). C. DESROCIII:S- NOBtECOURT and C. KUE.'\:TI., Le pe!illemple d'Abolf Simbel, 2 \"DIs (Cairo, 1968). T S':\\'E-SODERBERGII (cd.), Temples lind lomhs of ancief/! Nubia (London, 1987).

Abusir
Part of the necropolis of .mcienr J\lEi\IPI US, consisting of sevcral pyramids of the 5th Dynasty (2-I9+-23{5 BC), a sun temple (see ABI,.; GUR!\B), and a number of ,\IASIi\IH tombs and Late Period (747-332 BC) shart tombs. Userkaf: founder of the 5th Dynasty, built his pyramid at Saqqara and a sun temple at Abusir, a short distancc to thc north. At least four of his successors (Sahura, Neferirkara, Ranefcref and Nyuserra) therefore chose Abusir as the location for their funerary monumenLs, the ancient names of which were 'The btl of Sahura gleams" 'Neferirkara has become

a b(J" 'The fillS of Raneferef are divine' and 'The places of Nyuserra arC enduring'. The finest of the mastaba tombs at Abusir is that of the 5th-Dynasty vizier Pmhshepses, a relative of Nyuserra, which incorporates two boatshaped rooms presumably meant to hold fullsized boats, an unusual feature of a private tomb. The funerary monument of Sahura (2487-2{75 BC), the most complete of the four royal burials at Abusir, is the quintessential 5th-Dynasty pyramid complex, consisting of valley temple, causeway, mortuary temple and pyramid. The imposing portico of the mortuary temple gave access to a large courtyard with a well-preserved basalt-paved noor and a colonnade consisting of sixteen red granite palm columns (the latter now largely destroyed). The remains of the original limestone walls, with their finc painted decoration, have been transferred to the Egyptian !vluseum in Cairo and the Bodemuscum in Berlin. Beyond the colonnade were a series of store rooms surrounding the 'statue chamber', where the king's statues stood in niches, and immediately adjacent to the pyramid was the sanctuary with its alabaster altar. In the southeastern corner of the complex stood a small subsidiary pyramid. \OVhen Ludwig Borchardt excavated Sahura's complex in 1902-8, he discovered the earliest temple relief of the king smiting his enemies, as well as reliefs depicting the cat-

ABUSIR

ABYDOS

goddess BASTET in a corridor surrounding the palm-columned court. In the New Kingdom
this corridor seems to have been fe-roofed and

used as a sanctuary for a local form of the

Ijoness-goddess SEKlI~IET. The complexes of Neferirkara (2475-2455 BC) and I yuscrra (2445-2421 BC) are both unfinished and poorly preserved. The complex of Neferirkara, although clearly intended to be larger thall that of Sahura, is now best known for the large quantity of papyri frnm the mor-

tuary templc, providing valuable evidence on the ofg-Jnizarion of royal funerary cults in the
Old Kingdom. The papyri date from the reign of Isesi to that of PE.I)Y II, and mainly consist of

rotas for temple personnel, inventories of cult objects, and letters. Neferirkara's causeway

mortuary temple of Raneferef (2448-2445 uc), whose unfinished pyramid was actually transformed into a l\l:\$TAB:\ tomb. Their fmds have included a second papyrus archive, ;) group of seals, a collection of cult objects, and the most important surviving group of 5th-Dynasty royal sculpture, including an unusual painted limestone statue of Raneferef himself with a Horus-falcon embracing the back of his head, as well as wooden statuettes of bound captives. The Czech archaeologists have also uncovered the original pyramid complex and temples of Queen Khentkawes (mother of Sahura and Nererirkara), which was probably a cenotaph, since she also had a ffiasmba tomb between the C<.luseways of Khufu .md Khafra at GIZA. In 1988-9 they exc;\vated the shart-

P. POSEN~){-KRIE.GER, Les archives du temple [umfraire de Neferirkare (Les papyrus d'JlbOflsir), 2 vols (Cairo, 1976). !vI. VERNER, 'Excavations at Abusir, season 1978--9, preliminary excavation report: the pyramid or Quccn Kheotka\yes ("1\")', Z/iS \07 (1980),158-64. - , 'Remarques prelimin:J.ires: sur les nouveaux papyrus d'Abousir', ~gJ'Plen: Dauer llIu/l.J1ulldel (!"lainz, 1986), 35--43.

100 200 300 400 500

1000 m

t
\".
1 2 3 4 5 pyramid complex 01 Sahura mastaba of Ptahshepses pyramid of Nyuserra pyramid complex 01 Nelerirkara Kakai pyramid of Raneleref

Pltm ofthe 5th-Dyutlsty pyramid complexes tit Abusir.

was evidently lIsurped by Nyuserra, who diverted it to his O\vn mortuary temple. The poor quality of the rubble core used in these pymmids has left them in poor condition, especially since the fine blocks of outer casing have been plundered. To the northwest of the pyramid of Sahura are the remains ot" another unfinished pyramid complex, which probably belonged to Shepseska,.a (2455-2448 ec), the ephemeral successor of Net"erirkara. Since the 1970s the work of a team or Czech archaeologists, under the direction ot" Miroslav Verner, has revealed the mud-brick

tomb ot" the Persian-period 'chief physici<.ln\ Udjahorresnet, who served as chancellor to Cambyses and Darius I (see l'rRsIA). L. BORCIIARDT, Das Crabdellkma! des Kiiuigs Neuser-Re (Leipzig, 1907). - , Das Cmbrlellkmal des Kiiuigs Neftr-ir-ka-Re (Leipzig, 1909). - , Das Crabdellkllla! des Kh"lligs Sallll-Re (Leipzig, 1910-13). p. POSENEI~-KRlI~GEI{ and J-L. DE CI-:NIVAL, Hieratic papyri ill the British N[lIse!lm: 'he Jlbusir p"fiyri (London, 1968). H. RICKE, Das SO//llellheiligtlllll des Kiinigs Userk,,/, 2 vols (Cairo, 1965; Wiesbaden, 1969). P. KAPLONY, 'Das Papyrus Archiv von Ahusir', Or;ellllll;" 41 (1972), 180-244.

Abydos (anc. Abdjw) Sacrcd site located on the west bank of the Nile, 50 km south of modern Sohag. "fhe site of Abydos, centre of the cult of the god OSIRIS, nourished from the Predynastic period umil Christian time.> (c.4000 BC-AD 641). The earliest signifie;.mt remains are the tombs of named rulers of the Protodynastic and Early Dynastic periods (c.31 00-2686 BC). The earliest temple at the site is that of the canine god OsirisKhcnrimentiu (Kom el-Sulran). An extensive settlement of the Pharaonic period and numerous graves and cenotaphs of humans and animals have also been excavated. The site is still dominated by the temples of Sety 1 (1294-1279 BC) and his son Rameses II (1279-1213 BC), although an earlier chapel, constructed in the reign of Rameses I (1295-1294 BC), has survived in the form of a number or blocks of relief The cult temple or Sety I is an I.-shaped limestone building, and the iconography of its exquisite painted reliefs has been used to interpret the procedures of the religious rituals that were enacted there. In one scene Rameses u is shown reading out the names of previous kings from a papyrus roll in the presence of his father. The contents of the document are carved on the adjacent wall; this KING LIST (along with a similar list from the temple of Rameses II) has made an important contribution to studies of Egyptian chronology. Behind the temple of Sety 1 is the Osireion, <1 building constructed of huge granite blocks which has been interpreted as a kind of cenotaph of the god Osiris. The structu re is entered via a long descending gallery and decorated with excerpts from the BOOK of Gates and the Book of the Dead, as weU as cosmological and dramatic texts. Tt was once thought to be an Old Kingdom building, because of the grandiose scale of the masonry, but it has now been dated to the reigns of Sety I and ]\Ilercnptah and the style is generally presumed to have been an attempt at archaizing by New Kingdom architects. The Abydos cemeteries, including the Early Dynastic necropolis now known as Umm clC@'ab, were excavated in the late nineteenth and

13

ABYDOS

ABYDOS

carly twentieth centuries by the French archaeologists Auguste Mariette and Emile Amelineau, and the British archaeologists Flinders Petrie and Eric Peet. In the 1960s Barry Kemp reanalysed the results of the excavations conducted by Petrie and Peet, and suggested that the Early Dynastic royal tombs wcre complemented by a row of 'funerary enclosures' to the east, which may well hayc been the prototypes of the mortuary temples in Old

1 Umm el-Qa'ab: Early Dynastic royal tombs 2 Shunet el-Zebib and other Early Dynastic

'funerary enclosures' 3 Kom el-Sultan: temple of OsirisKhentimentiu and surrounding settlement

!
I

4 temple of Rameses II 5 temple of Sety I and Osireion 6 modem village of el-Araba el-Madluna 7 temple of Senusret III 8 Middle and New Kingdom settlement

9 pyramid of Ahmose and temple of Ahmose Nefertari 10 cenotaph otTetisheri 11 and 12 cenotaph and temple of Ahmose 13 cenotaph of Senusret III

400

800

1200 1600
/$

(sec also GIZ,,\ and SA(l9!\RA). In 1991 thc excavations of David O'Connor rcvealed further support for this theory in the form of a number of Early Dynastic
wooden
BCM.T GRAVES

Kingdom

PYRAJ\UD complexes

near the Shunct el-Zebib,

the best presen"cd of the 'funerary enclosures'.

A team of German excavators, who have
010

'lIvo dolomite vases ,pith gold covers.j;om !he lomb oIKing Khasekheml1~Y Ilf Abydos. 211d DylUlSIy. c.2690 BC, 11. of/aller vase 5.7 em. (EA33567-8)
IlELOW

('
70\JIIJf/l'.,,/I1,,.. "'I\\"~

r--

go

ABOVE

PIau ~rAk)ltlas.

entrance corridor

chapels second hyposlyle hall first hypostyle hatl 4 portico (destroyed) Osireion 5 wells 6 pylon (destroyoO)
8 mudbrick magazines 7 king list

~N

.,rr"!""~;~~L

..

been working in the vicinity of the Early Dynastic royal cemetery since 1973, have obtained evidence to suggest that there arc strong cultural links between Petrie's royal graves at Ulllm cl-Q'l'ab (traditionally dated to

Dynasty I, the "cry beginning of thc Early Dynastic phase at Abydos) and the adjacent late Predynastic Cemetery u. They therefore .trguc that the line of powerful historical rulers buried at Abydos may now be pushed further back into what was previously considered to be
'prehistory'.

The tomb of the 1st-D"nasty ruler Djer at Umm e1-Q/ab became identified with the tomb of Osiris from at least the late Middle Kingdom onwards, and during the 12th Dynasty (1985-1795 Be) it became common for indiyiduals from elsewhere in Egypt to be buried at Abydos. It also appears to 113\'e become increasingly common for pri,"ate individuals to make 'pilgrimages' to Abydos so that they could participate posthumously in the festivals of Osiris; large numbers of tombs

and cenotaphs (or (offering chapels') were therefore constructed at the northern end of the site, in the ,~icinity of Korn e1-Sultan. About two thousand stelae and numerous offering tables and statues have been plundered and excavated from these funerary monuments. The stelae have prm-idee! 01 great deal of information concerning the cult of Osiris, the literary structllre of funerary autobiographies, and a wealth of details concerning the middle-ranking officials of the Middle Kingdom and their families. The southern end of the site incorporates both Middle and ew Kingdom archaeological remains; a pyramid temple, cenotaph and terraced temple of AHA'IOSE I (1550-1525 Be) and AH.MOSI~ l\!FEKli\Rl were excavated by Charles Currelly in 1901. In 1993 Stephen Harvey undertook new excavations in this area, revealing fragments of painted reliefs of Ahmose I,
RIGHT

_______ill S

~I-----,",.----II

[
~.

~~ ~

Pla,1l o/the temple of Se~)1 / and the Os/re/on at Abydos.

30

14

ADMINISTRATION

ADMINISTRATION

which perhaps depict his campaigns against the at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty. A. j\IIARIE"ITE, Abydos: dC$criptioll desfouilles exCel/tees sur l'emp!Memelll de celie vi/Ie, 2 vols (Paris, 1869-80). \"l M. F. PETRIE) The "'~Jlall()mbs o/the ear/ies! dYNtlsties, 2 vols (London, 1900-1). A. M. C\LVERLEY and 1',,1. F BROO!'\'IE, The lemple oIking Set/lOs I til A/~)'doS, 4 \'ols (London and Chicago, 1933-58). H. FRAl\JKFORT, The cenotaph o/Sell I (If Abydos (London, 1933). B. J. KEMP, 'The Egyptian 1st Dynasty royal cemctety', AI/tiquity 41 (1967),22-32. W. K. SIJ\'WSOI\", Terrace oIfhe Creal God a{ Abydos: file ofTering chapels 0/ Dynasties /2 and /3 (New Haven and Philadelphia, 1974). A. R. DAVID, A guide 10 religious ritl/al at A/~)Idos
I-IYKSOS

ary works such as the 12th-Dynasty Satire 011 lite Trades and in the popularity of statuary representing high officials in the scribal pose. It was the scribal profession that was responsible for assessing individuals' agricultural produce and collecting taxes on behalf of the king, provincial governor or temple official.

since fewer administrative documents have survived for this period in Lower Egypt. The walls of the Theban tomb of Rekhmira, who was southern vizier in the reigns ofThutmosc III (1479-142.\ Ge) and Amenhotcp II (1427-1400 BC), arc decorated witb his funerary biography as well as an inscription known

(Warminster, 1981). D. O'CONNOR, 'The cenoraphs of the J\lliddlc Kingdom at Abydos', Miltlnges Gamal eddill MokiJ/IIr II (Cairo, 1985), 161-77. - , 'Boat graves and pyramid origins: new discoveries at Abydos, Egypt', Expeditio" 33/3 (1991), .\-17. G. DREYER, 'Umm c1-Qt'ab: Naehuntersuchungen im friihzeitlichen Konigsfi'iedhof 5./6. Vorbcricht', IvlDA1K 49 (1993),23-62 [preliminary repons on earlier seasons published in MDAIK 35,38 and 46]. S. HARVEY, '1\!lonumcnts of Ahmose at Abydos', Egyptian Archaeology 4 (1994), 3-5.

administration
The process of social and economic control of the population was an area of life in which the Egyptians excelled. Many of the surviving artefacts and documents of the EARI.Y DYNASTIC PERIOD (d 100-2686 BC), such as ivory labels and wine~jar sealings, were clearly elements of an emerging administrative infrastructure. The evidence for Egyptian administration consists of two basic elements: prosopography (i.e. textual records of the names, titles .md professions of individuals) and the archaeological remains relating to supply and demand of commodities such as grain, beer and wine. The granaries surrounding the mortuary temple of Rameses II (the RAI'.'IESSEUj\,\), for instance, arc tangible remains of the increasingly elaborate system of storage and distribution that sustained those employed by the temple and state in Egypt. The key factor in the administration of Early Dynastic Egypt, as in the early citystates of Nlesopotamia, appears to have been the usc of writing as a means of political control. The SCRIBE was therefore the most important element of the administration, a fact which is recognized both in '"pro-scribal' Iiter-

In the Old Kingdom (2686--2181 BC) there were two principal state offices apart from that of KING: the VlZIER (!jayt)' sub Ijttt)!) and the overseer of royal works (illly-r kat nesnJ). The title vizier is first attested on inscribed stone vessels beneath the Step Pyramid at Saqqara, suggesting that the office ,vas introduced at least as early as the 2nd Dynasty. After the unification of the country in the late fourth millennium BC, the various regions retained a degree of independence in their role as provinces (or J'\OMES) ruled by local governors (nomarchs). "VVhenever the central administration was weakened, whether through invasion or economic decline, power tended to devolve back to the names, as in the first and second so-called <intermediate periods' (see
CIIRONOLOGY).

Fragment oIa IJ)(tlL-paiJlliJlgji-oJJ1 the tomb 0/ Nebamllil at Thebes, shOlving geese beiJlg counled /or alax asse.wllenl 0/agritultural produce. 18th Dynasty, c./400 Be, 11. 11 CIIl. (,",/31918)
as 'the duties of the vizier" which outline.s the responsibilities of the post. The New Kingdom national administration was divided into three sections: the dynasty, the internal administration and external affairs. The 'dynasty' consisted of royal relatives, most of whom held little political or economic power, perhaps because it was they who might have posed the greatest threat to the king. The internal administration comprised four sections: the 'royal domain" the army and navy, the religious hier'lrchy and the sccular (or civil) officials. The royal domain included such posts as chancellor, chamberlain and chief steward, while the army and navy were led by a commander-in-chief with chief deputies of north and south belmv him. The religious administration was controlled by an 'overseer of prophets of all the gods of Upper and Lower Egypt', a post which was actually held at various times by the vizier or the chief priest of AMUN. The secular part of the internal administration was headed by thc northern and southern viziers, with overseers of the trea15

By the New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC) the Egyptian administration had considerably diversified; because it was no longer possible for the king to control all aspects of government, the role of the vizier had grown more important". The authority of both the king and his vizier had also been strengthened since the 12th Dynasty, apparently as a result of a policy of reduction in the power of the nomarchs. In the 18th Dynasty there were two viziers, northern and southern, but most of the surviving evidence concerns the southern vizier,

AEGIS

AGRICULTURE

suries and granaries below them; it was these officials who controlled the national bureaucracy, judiciary and police. At a local level there were also 'town mayors' (haty-') and councils (kenbel) in charge of the judiciary. The New Kingdom external administration was divided into two sectors: (1) the governors of the three northern lands (i.e. the provinces of Syria-Palestine) and (2) the governor of the southern lands, who was also known as the VICEROY OF KUSII (or King's Soo of Kush). Below the governors of the northern lands were local princes and garrison commanders, and below the Viceroy of Kush were the deputies of vVawar and Kush (the two regions of Egyptian-dominated Nubia), the mayors of Egyptian colonies and the local chicf<; of the Nubians. N. KAN/\\VATI, The EgyptiaJl adminislrcttioll ill the Old Kingdom: evidence ofits ecolJOllli( dei"hllt! (Warminster, 1977). T G. H.Ji\O\ws, Pltamoh 's people: sccnesJrollllifi: ill illlpcrial Egypt (London, 1984),51-72, 154-80. N. STRUDWICK, The arlmillistratioll of Egypt in Ihe Old Kingdom (LondoTl, 1985). B.]. KEMP, (Large Middle Kingdom granary buildings (and the archaeology of administration)', z/is 113 (1986),120-36. S. QUIRKE, Tlte administration of Egypt in lite Late Middle Killgdolll (New Malden, 1990).

Aegyptiaca
Term usually applied to Egyptian objects found outside the horders of Egypt itself; particularly in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Detail ofthe Book ulthe Dead papyrus ofKerlJU1~JI, sltowing the deceased ploughing and sowing. PlolclIloicperiod, e.2So-ISO lie. (A9911. SIIEU 2)
18th-Dynasty Theban official (n69). 'The development of the CALENDAR itself was linked to careful observ.ltion of the agricultural year, the seasons being named in accordance with stages of the annual Nile cycle. Flooding began in mid-June, the time of the New Year, and maximum depth waS usually reached by mid-August, although the exact timing varied from north to south. The reach of the Nile was extended by the digging of irrigation canals which could also be used for moving water at times of low flood. Canals are first attested in the Early Dynastic period and it is likely that the reliefs on the macehcad of King SCORJ)[ON show the use of irrigation in the late I'RlmYNASTIC PERIOD. As soon as the inundation began to subside the farmers blocked canals in order to retain the water, which was not released for a further month and a half In October or November the seed was broadcast by hand and then trampled in by sheep and goats (as well as pigs, according to Herodotus). The principal crop was grain, including barley (Hordeum; particularly the six-rowed variety) and three types of wheat: emmer (Triliw//l (hcoC{mn), einkorn (IiiliCllJ1l. mOl/OcocCl/m) and spelt (Triticum spella). These were used to make bread and beer, the two great staples of Egyptian life. The rich soil could support at least two crops a year, but if a second \vas desired, during the summer, then it

afterlife see

[o'UNERARY BELIEFS

aegis
Greek word ror 'shield', osed by Egyptologists to describe a representation of a broad necklace surmounted with the head of a deity. Depictions of sacred BARKS show that they had an aegis attached to the prow. H. BONNET, Rea./lexikon del' Agyplischell Religiollsge.~chidlle (Berlin, 1952),8-9.

agriculture
The fundamental importance of agriculture in Egypt is attested from early times, with the development of land surveying as a means of re-determining land boundaries after the annual INUi'HJATlON had deposited its load of silt on the fields, and also the measuring of areas of land for TAXATION purposes. Scenes of government surveyors measuring agricultural land are known from the decoration of many tomb chapels such as that of l\1enna, an

AI10VEJasper aegis incorporating

a. ram's head mearing SUI/-disc amI ,""bra, H. 3.5 CIIl. (1:"3360)

RIGHT

Silver tlegi.~ wilh lio/l's head, H. 4.8 CIII. (",,57903)

16

AGRICULTURE

AHA

had to be irrigated manually. In the Old and Middle Kingdoms, a simple yoke <lnd vessels were used to move the water, but the introduction of the SI lADUF in the New Kingdom and the sakkitt (an animal~pQ\."ered water wheel) in the Ptolemaic period not only made irrigation easier but also extended the area of cultivable land. Usually pulses rather than cereals were grown as a second crop, and although these 'fix' nitrogen and so enrich the soil, the envi~ romncntal effect was probably relatively trivial compared with that of the Nile nood. Numerous tomb-paintings depict grain being harvested with sickles, threshed using oxen, then winnowed and stored, while the quantities were carefully measured and recorded by scribes. Vegetables (including onions, garlic, peas, lentils, beans, radishes, cabbage, cucumbers and a type of lettuce) were usually grown in small square plots, attested both in tomb-paintings and in the archaeological record, as in the case of the vegetable plots outside the 'workmen's village' at
EL-Al\lIARNA.

Egypt: the transition from hunting and gathering to honiculUlre in the Nile valley\ The ltrc!weology olAFica, ed. T Shaw et al. (London, 1993),165-226.

A Group (A Horizon) Term first used by the American archaeologist George Reisner to refer to a scmi-nomadic Nubian Neolithic culture of the mid-fourth to early third millennium Be. More recently, W. Y. Adams has suggested that the A Group and their successors the C GROUP should be referred to as the A and C 'horizons', since the usc of thc term 'group' can give the misleading impression that they were two separate

made pottery, have been excavated at such sites as Sayala and Qustul (see BALLANA AND QUSTDL). The grave goods sometimes include stone vessels, amulets and copper artefacts imported from Egypt, which not only help to date these graves but also demonstrate that the A Group were engaged in regular trade with the Egyptians of the Predynastic and Early Dynastic periods. The wcalth and quantity of imported items appears to increase in later AGroup graves, suggesting a steady growth in contact between the two cultures. The A Group was eventually replaced by the C GROUP at some time during the OJ..D KINGDOM. See also B GROUP. H. A. NORDSTROM, Neo!ilhil" amlA-group sites (Stockholm, 1972), 17-32. W. Y. ADt\MS, Nubia: conidor to Ajl-im, 2nd ed. (London and Princeton, 1984), 118-32. 1-1. S. SMITH, 'The development of the A-Group "culture' in northern Lower Nubia', Egypi and Ajl-ica., ed. W.V Davies (London, 199]),92-1]]. ]. H. TAYLOR, Egypt /llld Nllbi" (London, 1991), 9-13.

OILS

were extracted from sesame, castor and

flax (Lil1U1ll usitatissi11luw), the latter also sup-

plying the principal fibre f<')r the making of linen textiles. Grapes were grown for wine, particularly in the Delta region and oases, and there arc numerous scenes showing wine presses in use. Many OSTRACA have also survived from wine-jars, usually recording the contents, date and origins of wine-jars. Wine and beer (see ALCOHOLIC BEVERt\GES) were often flavoured with dates, and the fibres of the date palm were used in the makjng of cordage and BASKETR\'. Most of the agricultural land belonged to the king or the temples, and both kept copious records of its productivity. Officials often inflicted severe punishments on those who failed to meet grain quotas, and in many tombs, such as that of MERERVKA in the Old Kingdom, there are scenes of peasants being beaten for this reasOn. L. KLIMER, 'Agriculture in ancient Egypt', American Journal (~r Semilic Lallglutges (Uul Literature 42 (1926), 283-8. K. BAER, 'An eleventh dynasty farmer's letters to his family',JAOS 83 (1963),1-19 J VANDlER, Manuel d'a,rchevlvgie egyptielllle VI: Scenes de la, vie agricole d l'allciel1 e/. au moycn empire (Paris, 1978). T. G. H. JAJ\'II~S, Pharaoh:, people: sUlIcsjimllliji: ill imperilll EgYPI (Oxford, 1984), 100-31. H. 'WILSON, Egyptial/lood llud drink (Princes Risborough, 1988). E. STROUJ-IAL, Lile ill ancient Egypl (Cambridge, 1992),91-107. W. \VE'ITERSTROM, 'Foraging and farming in

Seleclir)fJ. oIobjeclsji-nm (UI A-Group grave, including Imo Egypli(U/ imports (the tal/jaral/d paillted pot), c.350/}-300/} /JC, II. of tal/jar 45 ,.",. (EA51 193,51187,51188,51191,51192)
ethnic groups rather than ~imply two phases in the material culture of the Nubians. Traces of the A Group, which probably evolved gradually out of the preceding Abkan culture, have survived throughout Lower Nubia. The archaeological remains at sites such as Afyeh (ncar Aswan) suggest that they lived mainly in temporary reed-built encampments or rock shelters, usually in the immediate area of the Nile, surviving through a diverse combination of hunting, gathering, fishing, the cultivation of wheat and barley, and the herding of sheep, goats and cattle. Extensive A-Group cemeteries, typically including black-polished and 'eggshell' hand-

Aha (c.3100 Be) One of the earliest 1st-Dynasty rulers of a unified Egypt, whose name means 'the fighter'. His reign is attested primarily by funerary remains at ABYDOS, SAQ.QARA and NAQ..ADA. When Flinders Petrie excavated at Umm c1Q;t'ab (the Early Dynastic cemetery at Abydos) in 1899-1900, he discovered Tomb BI9/IS, which contained objects bcaring the name of Aha. H.owever, the earliest of the Istand 2nd-Dynasty dite tombs at north Sl\QQ!\RA (no. 3357), excavated in the 1930s, was also dated by jar-sealings to the reign of Aha. Although it was once thought that the Saqqara tomb was the burial-place of Aha (and the Abydos tomb only a cenotaph), scholarly opinion has shifted since thc material from thc two sites was re-examined in the 1960s, leading to the suggestion that Aha was buried in Tomb B 19115 at Abydos and that the Saqqara tomb belonged to a Memphite high official. New research conducted in theUmm e1-Q;t'ab cemetery during the 1980s and 1990s (including the re-excavation of Tomb BI9/15) also suggests that Aha was preceded by a relatively long sequence of earlier rulers of a united Egypt. There is still considerable debate surrounding the possible links between Aha, NARMER and MENI':$ (the semi-mythical founder of MEMPI liS), although two discovcrics arc particuh\r1y relevant to this problem. First, an ivory label, found in the tomb of Ncithhotep (probably Aha's wife) in the late Predynastic cemetery at NAQ>\Di\, appears to givc one of Aha's
17

AHHOTEP [

AHMOSE I

names as 'Men') which has led some scholars to suggest that he and Menes were the same person, or at least closely related. \iVith rCg'Jrd to the place of Narmer in the chronological sequence, a seal impression discovered at Umm el-Q;1'ab in 1985 appears to put him securely at the beginning of the 1st Dynasty, since it lists the first six rulers in the following order: Narmer, Aha) DJER, DJET, DEi": and Merneith (the latter being a female ruler who may have been a regent). On the basis of these two pieces of evidence it is therefore possible that Narmer :lnd Aha were father and son and that one of the two was also called ,Mcnes. A. H. GARDINER, EgYPI of/he Pharaohs (Oxford, 1961),405-H B. J KE~IP, 'The Egyptian 1st Dynasty royal cemetery', Antiquity 41 (1967),22-32.

Ahhotep I (t.1590-1530 uc)

New Kingdom QlJEEt' whose lifetime spanned the crucial transition from the Second Intermediate Period to the New Kingdom, when the HYK$OS rulers were expelled from Lower Egypt, ushering in a new era of stability and indigenous Egyptian rule. As the daughter of the 17th-Dynasty ruler Senakhtenra Taa I, the wife of SEQ!'j'JENlll\ TAA II and mother of AHMOSE I (and arguably also of KAMOSE), she appears to have played an import.1nt part in these wars of liberation. A stele erected by Ahmose I (1550-1525 BC) in the temple of Amuo-Ra at KARNAK praises his mother's heroism: 'she is one who h,1S accomplished the rites and cared for Egypt; she has looked after Egypt's troops and she has guarded them; she has brought back the fugitives and collected together the deserters; she has pacified Upper Egypt and expelled her rebels'. It has been suggested that this unusually active military role played by a royal wife (see QL:JK) might actually have been necessitated by the comparatively young age at which Ahmosc I came to the throne -Ahhotep I might thus have served as regem for a few years until he reached maturity. An inscription on a doorway at the Nubian fortress of IltJ1lEN links the names of Ahmosc I and his mother in such <l way as to imply a COR.EGENCY. It has also been suggested thatAhhotep may ha,e looked after the internal rule of Upper Egypt while her son was engaged in military campaigns. Certainly the titles given to Ahhotep in the Karnak stele include nebel /11 ('mistress of the land'), showing that she probably wielded some power over a geographical area. The coffin of Ahhotep I was found in the royal cache at DF.lR EL-BAI-IRI. The intact burial of another Ahhotep (who was perhaps the wife of KAi\IOSE) was discov18

cred at Ora Abu el-_ Taga in western TIIEln::s in 1859 by agents working for Auguste Mariette. Inside the tomb the excavators found a gilded wooden rish-COFFIN containing the quccn's mummy. There were also numerous items of funerary equipment, including several elaborate ceremonial weapons of Ahmose I, a necklacc consisting of large golden FLIES, which was traditionally awarded for valour in battle, twO model gold and silver BARKS (one placed on a bronze and wooden cart), and various items of jewellery. E 'vv. "ON BISSING, fill 71le/Jal1ischer Grabjimd tlUS dcm Aldrll/g des NCilen Reich.~ (Berlin, 1900). A. MAO' ROTH, 'Ahhorep I and Ahhotep II', Serapis 4 (l977-S), 31-40. C. VAi'.'DERSLEYEN, 'Les deux Ahhotcps" SA K 8 (1980),233-42. rvi. SALEII and H. SOUROUZIAN, The Egyptian Museum, Cairo: official catalogue (iVlainz, 1987), cat. nos 120-6. . GRJ,\\;\L, A history oftll/cielll 1:.gJlpt (Oxford, 1992),199-201.

Ahmose I (Amosis) (1550-1525

BC)

First ruler of the 18th Dynasty, who was the son of the Thehan 17th-Dynasty ruler SEQ),NENRA TAA JI. He came to the throne of a reunited Egypt after he and his predecessor KAMas" had expelled the HYKsaS rulers from the Delta region. Recently excavated reliefs from ARn){)S apparemly depict Ahmose's C'Jmpaigns against the HYKSOS, which dominated his reign. The tombs of the soldiers Ahmose son oflbana and Ahmose Pennekhbet at ELKAB are decorated with autobiographical inscriptions describing the role that they played in the campaigns of Ahmosc I and his immediate successors. In western Asia he extended Egyptian influence deep into Syria-Palestine, <lnd by the twenty-second year of his reign he may even have reached as far north as the Euphrates. He also undertook at leasl two campaigns into Nubia, establishing a new settlement at BUI-IE:'\l as his administrative centre, under the command of a man called '1uri who was to become the first known VICEROY OF KUSII in the reign of AME:'\lI-IOTEP I (1525-1504 uc). In his reorganization of Lhc national and local government, which had probably remained relatively unchanged since the N[iddle Kingdom (sec !\D,\oIlNISTR1\TION), Ahmosc I appears to have rewarded those local princes who had supported the Theban cause during the Second Intermediate Period (1650-1550 BC). Although he is known to have reopened the Tura limestone quarries, little has survived of the construction of religious buildings during his reign, apart from a few

Earliest knowlI r~},," shabti and one oflheftw sculptures ofAhmose I to be securely ide'lll{{ied as mdl by its inscription. The king is POrlrt9,ed mearing a nemes headclolh alfd a uracus. 181h pY1lasIY, c.1550 Be. IillleS/Olle, H. 30 CIII. (E.432191)
additions to the temples of Amun and !'''[omu at KAR~!'K and mud-brick cenotaphs for lEIISI-JERI nod himself at ABYDOS. The examination of his mummified body, which was among those transferred into the DEIR EL-IJ!\IIRI cache in the 21st Dynasty, suggests that he was about thirty-five when he died. The location of his tomb is still not definitely known, but he was probably buried at

AHMOSE II

A HORIZON

Ora Abu cl-Naga in western TIIEBES, where the pyramidal tombs of his 17th-Dynasty pretlecessors were located. C. VANDERSLEYEN l Les g/lerres d'Amosis,flmdaleur de La XVII l' dynnstie (Brussels, 1971). C. DESROCHES-NoBLECOURT, 'Le "bcstiairc" symbolique du liberateur Ahmosis', Feslsdlrijll Westendolf(Giittingen, 1984),883-92. A. M. DODSON, 'The tombs of the kings of the early Eighteenth Dynasty at Thebes', zAs, 115 (1988),110-23. N. GRH\'IAL, A histolY ojantient Egypt (Oxford, 1992), 193-202.

Ahmose II (Amasis, Amosis II) (570-526 BC) Pharaoh of the late 26th Dynasty, who was originally a general in Nubia during the reign of PSAMTEK II (595~589 Be). He came to the throne following his defeat of AI'IUES (589-570 DC) at the 'Battle of Momcmphis', which according to a badly damaged stele - may actually have taken place near Terana on the Canopic branch of the Nile. Ahmose 11 was proclaimed pharaoh by popular demand when Aprics W<lS blamed for the defeat of his troops at the hands of Dorian GREEK settlers. According to the Greek historian HERODOTUS, Ahmose II captured Apries and initially held him ar the palace in SAIS; he is later said to have allowed him to be strangled, although eventually he appears to have accorded him a full royal burial. Although Ahmose II found it necessary to continue to employ Greek mercenaries, he was

more politically shrewd than his predecessor, presenting himself as nationalistic by limiting the activities of Greek merchants to the city of NAUKRATIS in the Delta, where they were granted special economic and commercial privileges (sec TRADE). Later legend also has it that he married the daughter of Apries to the PERSIAN king in order to forestall Persian designs on Egypt, although this seems unlikely. By conquering parts of Cyprlls he gained control of the Cypriot fleet, which he used to assist his allies in their struggles against the Persians. His friendly policy toward Greece included the financing of the rebuilding of the temple of Apollo at Delphi after its destruction in 548 Be, an act that earned him the epithet 'Philhellene'. !-Ie is described by Herodotus as a popular ruler of humble origins, who is said to have had such a strong inclination for drink that he delayed affairs of state in order to indulge in a drinking bout. At the end of his long and prosperous reign he was succeeded by his son I'SA1VlTEK UI (526--525 Be), whose rule was to be abruptly ended some six months later by the invasion of the new Persian ruler, Cambyses. Only a small number of sculptures representing Ahmose II have survived, and his name was apparently removed from many of his monuments by Cambyses. The buildings he constructed at SAIS, I3UTO, MEMPIIIS and ABYDOS have also been poorly preserved; although his tomb, located within the temple precincts at Sais, was ransacked in ancient times, a number of his SI-IABTIS have been preserved. HERODOTUS, The histories, trans. A. de Selincourt (Harmondsworth, 1972), II, 169-74. A. B. Ll.OYD, 'The Late Period', Ancient Egypt: (l social lIistOlT, B. G. Trigger ct al. (Cambridge, 1985),285-6,294. N. GRH,IAL, A his!OI:V oj a.m:ie11l igYPI (Oxford, 1992), 363-4.

the temple of Amun at Karnak. This title was the one most frequently used by Ahmose Nefertari, and it was later passed on to several of her female descendants, including her own daughter Meritamun and Q!leen Ilt\TSHtI'SUT (1473~1458 Be). It was once interpreted as an 'heiress' epithet, marking out the woman whom the king must marry to legitimize his claim to the throne, but it is now considered to have been simply a priestly office relating to the cult of Amun (carrying with it entitlement to an agricultural estate and personnel), which was to acq uire greater political importance during the Late Period. There is considerable textual evidence for Ahmose Nefertari's involvement in the cult of Amun as well as her participation in the quarrying and building projects undertaken by her husband. One stele even documents the fact that Ahmose I sought her approval before erecting 2 cenotaph for TETISHERI at Abydos. She seems to have outlived him by a considerable period, apparently serving as regent during the early years of Amenhotep ,'s reign. An inscription of the first year of the reign of his successor, TlIUTMOSE T, suggests that she was probably still alive even after the death of her son. She became the object of a posthumous religious cult, sometimes linked with that of Amenhotep r, particularly in connection with the workmen's village at DEIR EL-MEDINA, which they were considered to have jointly founded. More than fifty of the Theban tombs of private individuals include inscriptions mentioning her name. 1\1. GnToN, L'ipouse dlt dieu Alm/es N~{erla.rJ', 2nd ed. (Paris, 1981). - , Les divine.l ipouses de la I~ dynastie (Paris, 1984). G. ROBINS, l1!omclI i11 am:ieul EgJlpt (London, 1993),43-5.

A Horizon see A GROUP Aker

Earth-god whose cult can be traced back to the Early Dynastic period. He was most often represented as a form of 'double-sphinx', consisting of two lions seated back to back, but he was also occasionally portrayed simply as a tract of land with lions' heads or human heads at either side. The symbolism of Aker was closely associated with the junction of the eastern and western horizons in the underworld. Because the lions faced towards both sunrise and sunset, the god was closely associated with the journey of the SUII through the underworld each night. The socket which holds the mast of the SOLAR BARK was therefore usually identified with Aker. 19

Ahmose Nefertari (e.1570-1505

BC)

Green schist headfrom a statue ofa Late Period king, possib~)I Ahmose II. 26th Dynasty, c.5S0 BC, H. 38 e11l. (//497)

Perhaps the most influential of the New Kingdom royal women, \vhose political and religious titles, like those of her grandmother TETTSHERI and mother AHI-JOTEI' I, have helped to illuminate the various new political roles adopted by women in the early 18th Dynasty (see QUEENS). Born in the early sixteenth century Be, she was described as mmt ne~'m ('king's mother') in relation to her son AMENI-IOTEP I and hemet llesm meret ('king's principal wife') in relation to her brother and husband AHMOSE I. She was also the first royal woman to have the title hemet netje,. (see GOD'S WIrE OF AMUN) bestowed upon her, an act which was described in Ahmose I'S Stele of Donations in

AKH

AKHENATEN

ABOVE Deillilfrom lire Book oflhe Deat! olAui, shoming hom rtpresenting the god Aker. /91h Dynl/sty, c./250 BC, pl/inted pl/pyrus. (A/0470)

M. F BISSON DE I~"- ROQ.UE, INotes sur Aker" BJ&IO 30 (1930), 575--<'l0. C. m: Wrr, Le role elle seIlS du lio" (Leiden, 1951). E. HORNUNG, 'Aker') Lexikol1 tier A"gypJolog;e I, cd. W. Heick, E. Otto and W. Westendorf (Wiesbadcn, 1975), 114--15. J. R. OGDEN, 'Some notes on the name and the iconography of the god 'kr', VA 2 (1986), 127-35.

akh
One of the five principal elements which the Egyptians considered necessary to make up a complete personality, the other four being the KA, HA, NAi\'!E and SHADOW. The akh was believed to be the fnrm in which the blessed dead inhabited the underworld, and also the result of the successful reunion of the ba with its kl/. Once Ihe a.M had been created by this reunion, it was regarded as enduring and unchanging for eternity. Although the physical form of the (lith was usually portrayed as a' SI-IAllTI-like mummiform figure, the word akh was written with the sign of the so-called crested IBIS (Gerot1licus eremi/a).

De/ail ofthe coJJill ofSeni, shomillg a hieroglyph representing the ere.Hed akh-bird. Middle Kingdom, c.2000 IiC, pI/iI/led //Jood, I/. /5 em. (A3084/)
G. ENGLUND, Akh --' line notioll religieuse dallS I'hgYPle phl/mol/il/lle (Uppsala, 1978). J. P. ALLEN, 'Funerary texts and their meaning" JlIlummies (l.1Id magic, cd. P. Lacovara, S. D'Auria, and C. H. Roehrig (Boston, 1988),38-49.

Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) (1352-1336 BC) The infamous 'heretic' pharaoh, during whose reign the art and religion of Egypt were marked by rapid change. Born in the early

fourteenth century Be, he was the son of AMENHOTE" "' (1390-1352 BC) and Queen TIl'. When he initially succeeded to the throne, probably some years before the death of his father (although there is still considerable debate as to whether there was any COREGENCY between the two), he was known as Amenhotep IV. However, in the first year of his reign, he set the tonc for a new era by establishing a temple at KARNAK dedicated not to AMUN but to the god ATEN, the literal meaning of which was 'the (sun) disc'. In his firth regnal year Amenhotep 'v made two crucial and iconoclastic decisions: he changed his name from Amenhotep ('Amun is content') to Akhenaten ('glory of the sundisc') and he began to construct a new capital city called Akhetaten ('horizon of the Aten') at the site now known as EL-AMARJ'IA in Middle Egypt. This newly founded settlement was evidently intended to replace both THEBES and MEMPHIS as the religious and secular focus of the country. The ensuing phase in Egyptian history, consisting of Akhenaten's reign and that of his ephemeral successor Smenkhkara, is therefore described as the Amarna period. The major religious innovation of Akhcnatcn's reign was the vigorous promotion of the worship of the ATE:'\! to the exclusion of

20

AKHENATEN

AKHETATEN

attribute the introduction of monotheism to Akhenaten mistakenly. Ie has also been asserted, primarily on the basis of the evidence of the A~lI\RNA LETTERS (diplomatic correspondence between the Amarna pharaohs and their vassals in SYRIA-I'ALESTIi\'E), that Akhenatcn neglected forcign policy and allowed the Egyptian 'empire' in western Asia.to be severely eroded. There is, however} a certain amount of evidence for Asiatic campaigning during his reign, and it is also possible that the iconography of the period was deliberately underplaying the view of the king as warrior. It should also be borne in mind that the view of foreign policy in other reigns during the New Kingdom tends to be automatically distorted in that it derives principally from Egyptian temple reliefs and papyri rather than from genuine diplomatic documents such as the Amarna Letters. After a sole reign of only about eighteen years} Akhenatcn was succeeded first by an ephemcral figure called Smenkhkara (which may even have been a pseudonym for Nefcrtiti) and soon afterwards by Tutankhaten, who may have been a younger son of Amenhotep III or a son of Akhenaten. \\lithin a few years the city at eI-Amarna had been abandoned in favour of the traditional administrative centre at Memphis} and the new king had changed his name to Tmankhamun, effectively signalling the end of the supremacy of the Aten. The final mystery of the 'Amarna period' is the disappearance of the bodies of Akhenaten and his immediate family. The royal tomb which Akhcnaten had begun to build for him-

self in a secluded wadi to thc east of e1Amarna appears never to have been completed and there is little evidence to suggest that anyone other than Mekeraten (one of Akhenaten}s daughters) was actually buried there. In 1907 Theodore Davis discovered the body of a young male member of the royal family in Tomb 55 in the VALLEY OF THE K.1l'1GS} apparently reinterred with a sct of funerary equipment mainly belonging to Queen Tiy. This mummy was once identified as that of Akhenaren (a view still accepted by some Egyptologists) but most scholars now hypothesize that it may have been Smenkhkara. G. T .MARTIN} The TOJ'altomb at ei-Amanw} 2 vols (London, 1974-89). D. B. REDFORD} Al.:heuateuthe heret;,; king (Princeton, I98{). J. D. RAy, 'Review of Redford, D. B.} Al.:lwulfeu the heretic kil/g', GA186 (1985), 81-3. C. AI.Dlu:n, Akhenalen: kiuK of Egypt (London, 1988).

Akhetaten see (TELL)

EL-AMARNA

Akhmim (ane. Ipu, Khent-Mim) Town-site on thc east bank of the Nile opposite modern Sohag, which was the capital of the ninth NOME of Upper Egypt during the Pharaonic period (c.3100-332 BC). Thc carlicst surviving remains are Old and Middle Kingdom rock-tombs, which were severcly plundered during the 1880s, much of the
Coffin of/he TPoma" Tamin wearing dllil)' dress. from the Roman-period cemetery III Aklzmim. 2nd (m/liry A/), gilded allll painted car/o1ll1llge and SI//CCO, II. 1.5111. (0429586)

ABOVE

Colossal sla/ue ofAkhenllleufro111 Karnak. 18th Dynasty, c./3-'0 Be, sandstone, II. 3.96111.
(CAIRO J55938)

the rest of the Egyptian gods, including even the state god AJ\'IUN. The reliefs and stelae in the temples and tombs of Akhenaten's reign repeatedly show thc royal family (Akhenaten, his wife NEFERTITI and the royal princesses) worshipping and making offerings to the Aten, which was depicted as a disc with anns outstretched downwards, often proferring WAS SCEP1'RES and ANKII signs, symbolizing power and life respcctively. The names of other deities - especially that of Amun - were excised from temple walls in an apparent attempt to cstablish the Aten as a single Supreme deity, which has led many scholars to

21

AKKADIAN

ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES

funerary equipment subsequently being dispersed among various collections. At around this time a large number of Late Period burials were unearthed. The tombs were first excavated by Percy Newbcrry in 1912 and morc recently fe-examined by Naguib Kanawati. The city originally included a number oftempIes dedicatcd to MIN, the god of fertility, but few stone buildings have survived from the Dynastic period, owing to the widespread plundering of the site in the fourteenth century AD. Recent excavations by Egyptian archaeologists, however, have uncovered colossal statues of RA,IIESES II (1279-1213 BC) and

and Hebrew. The Sumerian language, on the other hand, has no close relatives. Akkadian quickly became established as the lingua franca of the ancient Near East, and remained so over a long period, so that for example most of the AMARN.\ LETTERS (diplomatic corre..c;;pondence between Egypt and the Levant in the mid-fourteenth century Be) are written in the Babylonian langl;lagc, which is a late form of Akkadian. J. OATES, Bahy/olI, 2nd ed. (London, 1986), 22-59. G. Raux, Allcle1lt Iraq, 3rd cd. (Harmondsworth, 1992), 146--60.

form of calcium sulphate quarried principally at Umm el-Sawwan in the Fayum region, may be legitimately described as 'alabaster'. J. A. HARRELL, 'l\1isuse of the term "alabaster" in Egyptology', GM 119 (1990), 37-42. D. and R. KLEMM, 'Calcit-Alabaster oder Travertin? Bcmcrkungen zu Sinn und Unsinn petrographischen Bezeichnungen in der Agyptologie', GM 122 (1991), 57-70.

alcoholic beverages
Beer (hCllket), the most common of the alcoholic beverages, formed an important part of the Egyptian diet. This would be prepared in the household, or by brewers if it was for use in rations of state employees. The Egyptian process for making beer began with the preparation of partially baked cakes of barIcy bread. They were placed on a screen over a vat or jar, and water was poured over them until they dissolved and drained into the \'at, whereupon the resulting mixture was left in a warm place to ferment. It has been suggested that stale bread may have been used as a substitute. Research by Delwen Samuel has challenged rhis traditional view by suggesting that bread was not used. However barley, emmer, or a mixture of both, arc evident in beer residues. Often a variety of flavourings were added to the brew, including dates) honey and spices. The sugar from dates or honeyed bread wou.ld also have speeded up the fermentation. The brew was not necessarily very alcoholic, but had a high nutritional value, and was therefore an important part of the Egyptian diet (see FOOD). In the first century BC Diodorus Siculus praised the quality of Egyptian beer, describing it as barely inferior to wine. Both red and white wine (irep) were regularly drunk and there are many tomb-paintings showing grapes being harvested and pressed, notably those in the tomb nf Nakht at Thebes (Tr52). The juice was collected in vats for fermentation) and when part-fermented was decantcd into amphorae and left to mature, sometimes for several years. It thcn might bc filtered again and have spices or honey added before finally being transported in amphorae. These vessels are frequently inscribcd on the shoulder or have stamps impressed on the mud sealings. Often the inscription lists the king)s regnal year, the variety of wine, its vineyard 1 its owner and the person responsible for production. In effect this served the same purpose as modern wine labels and as a result the locations of certain vincyards arc known. The Delta, the western part of the coast, the Oases of KJ IARGA and D.\KHFJ\ and the Kynopolis area of Middle

Meriramun. The cemeteries of the Christian

period (AD 395-641), which were excavated in the late nineteenth century, have yielded many examples of wool, linen and silk fabrics which have formed part of the basis for a chronological framework for the study of textiles between the Hellenistic and Islamic periods (c.300 BC-AD 700). P. E. NEWBERRY, 'The inscribed tombs of Ekhmim', LAAA 4 (1912),101-20 K. P KUIILMANN 1 'Dcr Felstempel des Ejc bei Akhmim',MDAIK35 (1979), 165-88. N. KANAW:\T1 1 Rock tombs ofe1-Hama.mish: the cemclery oj'Aklmliw, 6 vols (Sydney, 1980-). S. McNALLY, 'Survival of a city: excavations at Akhmim', NARCE 116 (1981-2), 26-30. K.P. KUlILMANN, Malerialeu :.:ur Archiiologie /l1ul Cescllichte des Raumes von Achmim (Mainz, 1983). E. J. BROVARSKI, 'Akhmim in the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period', Mi/twges Camal Eddill Mothlar, I (Cairo, 1985).

alabaster. Egyptian alabaster

The terms 'alabaster' Or 'Egyptian alabaster' have often been used by Egyptologists to refer

Akkadian
Term used to denote a group of Semitic languages that first appeared in northern MESOPOTAMIA, in the third millennium Be, when the south of the country was still dominated by non-Semitic Sumerian speakers. By extension, the term is also used to refer to the material culture of northern Mesopotamia, particularly that of the dynasty founded by Sargon the Great (Sharrukin; 2334-2279 BC). The Akkadians adopted the Sumerians' CUNE1FORI\lt writing system in order to write down their own language. They began gradually to infiltrate SUMER during its Early Dynastic period (<".3 100-2686 BC). Such infiltration can be seen from the Semitic names of scribes at the southern site of Abu Salabikh who wrote in Sumerian; it is likely that many people were bilingual even before the unification of Sumer with Akkad. Akkadian is divided into Old Akkadian used in the third millennium and Assyrian and Babylonian in the second and first millennia and is related to Arabic

Stone vesse/from the tomb ofTutankhamull, inscn'bed mitlt tlte (arlollche ofTltulmose lJl and details ofits capacity (14.5 hill or6.67/itres), c./450 BC, travertille, II. 4/.S em. (elf/RO, NO. 410,
REPRODUCED COURT')Y OF l1/CR/FfTI1IINSTlTUTE)

to a type of white or translucent stone used in Egyptian statuary and architecture, which is a form of limestone (calcium carbonate) more accuf<\te1y described as travertine. From the Early Dynastic period on wards travertine was increasingly used for the production of funerary vessels, as well as statuary and altars; it occurs principally in the area of Middle Egypt, the main Pharaonic source being 1-11\'1'NUB, about 18 km southeast of the New Kingdom city at el-Amarna. The use of the term alabaster is further complicated by the fact that the material often described by Egyptologists as 'gypsum', a

22

ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES

ALEXANDER THE GREAT

ABOVE Copy oI a mine-making scene in Ihe Theball tomb ofKhaeml1JtlSel (1'726/). Nem Kingdom.

Ritual vase jor 'IIVine of LomeI' Egypt/or the deceased lady Noth'met' 18th l~)lllas~J!, H. 79 Oil. (&-159774)

Egypt seem to have been especially fill'oured. Wines might also be imported from SYRIA-PALESTINE and, later, GREECE, and there were a number of fruit wines made from dates, figs and pomegranates. Alcohol was often taken in excess, and a number of private tombs, such as that of Djeserkarascncb (lT38), are decorated with scenes showing guests exhibiting signs of nausea during banquets. In the depiction of a banquet in the tomb of Paheri at ELKAB, a female guest says, 'Give me eighteen cups of winc, for I wish to drink until drunkenness, my inside is like straw'. Such drunkenness was regarded as indicative of the abundance of the feast and therefore to be encouraged. The best-known mythical instance of drunkenness was the intoxication of SEKJ-IMET the lioness-goddess in The DestructioN of iVlaukintl, while the Greek historian Herodotus recorded that the festival of BASTET the cat-goddess was renowned for its drunkenness. H. WILSON, Egyptian/hod aud drink (Aylesbury, 1988). J. GELLER, 'From prehistory to history: beer in Egypt', Thefollomers 0/ Horus, cd. F Friedman and B. Adams (Oxford, 1992), 19-26. E. STROUIIAL, Life ill fl.lIfieml.'gypt (Cambridge, 1992),104--5,127-8,225.

renewal rather than invasion that Alexander immediately made sacrifices to the gods at Memphis and visited srWA OASIS in the Libyan Desert, where the oracle of MvIUN-RA officially recognized him as the god's son, thus appar-

Silver min bearing the head o./Ale.\,({uder the Crea.l, e.330 Be, I). 2.7 WI. (c".,3971E)
ently restoring the true pharaonic line. In a later attempt to bolster his claims to the royal succession, it was suggested, somewhat implausibly, in the Alexander Romallce, that he \vas not the son of Philip II of Nlacedonia but the result of a liaison between his mother Olympias and NECTANrno " (360--343 BC), the last native Egyptian pharaoh. In 331 BC, having founded the city of ALEXANDRIA, Alexander left Egypt to continue his conquest of the Achaemenid empire (see PERSIA), leaving the country in the control or two Greek officials:Kleomenes of Naukratis, who was empowered to collect taxes from the newly appointed local governors, and fYrOLE!\J1Y, son of Lagos, one of his generals, commander of the Egyptian army. Although certain monuments, such as the inner chapel of the temple of Amun at LUXOR, bear depictions of Alexander firmly establishing him as

Alexander the Great (352-323 BC) Tn 332 nC the second Persian occupation of Egypt ended with the arrival of the armies of Alexander the Great. Born in Macedonia in 352 BC, Alexander had already conquered much of western Asia and the Levant before his arrival in Egypt, \vhich appears to have been closer to a triumphal procession than an invasion. It was in keeping with this sense of

23

ALEXANDRIA

ALEXANDRIA

pharaoh, he must have had little opportunity to make any personal impact on the Egyptian political and economic structure, and it' appears that) for a decade or so nfter his departure, the country suffered from a lack of strong leadership. In 323 Ile, hOWC\'CT, he died of a fever and although attempts were made on behalf of his half~brother Philip Arrhidaeus (323-317 IIC) and his son Alexander IV (317310 DC) to hold the newly aeqoired empire together, it eventually dissolved into a number of separate kingdoms ruled by his generals and their descendants. [n Egypt Ptolemy al first functioned as a general alongside the viceroy Klcomencs, but eventually he became the first Ptolemaic ruler of Egypt after the death of Alexander II', in 305 DC. It was Ptolemy I (305-285 DC) who was said to have placed the body of Alexander the Great in a golden coffin at Alexandria. His tomb was probably in the Soma (royal mausoleum), traditionally located under the Mosque of 'ebi Daniel in central Alexandria, but so far it has not been found. \V \V. TARN, Alexander the Creat, 2 vols (Cambridge, 1948). A. BVRN, Alexander the Creat amI the A/liddle East, 2nd cd. (Harmondsworth, 1973). N. G. L. HA~H..loND,Alexal1der fhe Creat: King, Commander and SltIfesmall, 3rd cd. (Bristol. 1989).

Alexandria (anc. Raqote)

Greco-Roman city situated on <1 narrow peninsula at the western end of the l'vlcditerranean coast of Egypt. It was founded by Alexander the Great on the site of an earlier Egypti,m settlement called R;'lqore, archaeological traces of which have so far been found only in the form of the pre-Ptolemaic seawalls to the north and west of the island of Pharos. Alexander is said to have entrusted the design of the city to the architect Dcinokrates and the official KJeomenes, but the principal buJdings were not completed until the reign of Ptolemy II Philaclelphlls (285-246 BC). During the Ptolemaic and Roman periods (c.332 LlC-Al) 395) Alexandria was a thriving cosmopolitan city; by 320 BC it had replaced Memphis as the capital of Egypt and by the mid-first century Be it had a population of about half a million, including substantial numbers of Greeks and Jews. With its gridded street plan, it was essentially a Greek rather than an Egyptian city, and its identity was so strong that it was known as Alexandretl tid Aegypfum: Alexandria 'beside' Egypt rather than within it, as if it were a separate country in its own right. In the late first century AD the Roman orator Dio of Prusa even went so far as to describe Egypt as a mere appendage to Alexandria.

ABOVE VielP ofthe ll1ulergroll1ul chambers of Kom el-Shugaja, Ale.ranrlria. 1s1-2/1d centuries AD.

(GRAI/AM l/ARRISON)
I.EfT Schist headjrom a stafUe oia youllg mall, shoming n combination oj CreeR find EgJlptiall sculpwrllltJ'llilx,jrom Alexandria, C.IsI ceulll1)'
DC, II.

24.5 CIII. (EASS2S3)

The most famous ancient buildings at Alexandria were the Library and Museum, which are supposed to have been burned down, along with an irreplaceable collection of papyri , in the third cemury AD. The major monuments of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods were the SERAPHiM (a temple dedicated to

the god SERA PIS, which may have housed part of the library collection), the CaesariuITI, a Roman stadium and Kom el-Shugafa (a labyrinth of rock-cut tombs dating to the first two centuries AD). The Alexandrian 'pharos', constructed in the early Ptolemaic period on the islet of Pharos about 1.5 km off the coast, was probably the earliest known lighthouse, but unfortunately ,irtually nothing has survived. Excavations at Kom el-Dikka, near the Mosque of Nebi Daniel, have revealed the remains of the central city during the Roman period, including a small theatre, baths, a gymnasium complex and a possible schoolroom. Apart from the fortress of Qait Bey on the Pharos peninsula, which may incorporate a few stray blocks from the ancient lighthouse, there are few surviving Islamic monuments at Alexandria. The archacologiClI exploration of the city has

24

ALTAR

AMARA

been complicated by the f:lCt that antiquities from all over Egypt wcre gathered together in Alcxi.mdria either LO adorn new temples or in preparation for their transportation to other parts of the Roman and Byzi.mtinc empires. Both Cleopatra's Needle (now 011 the Embankment in London) and the Central Park obelisk in New York once stood in t.he Clcsarium, haying been brought there from '1lICT\IOSE Ill's temple to RaAwOl at lIEI.I01'OUS.

known to hil\'c included" large central altar approached by a ramp, as well as courty..t rds full of hundreds of stone offering tahles. From the Late Period (7-17-332 tIC:) onwards, Egypt began ro be more influcm:ed b~ IIellcnistic and Syrian forms of worship

Amara \Vest, perhaps initially set lip as a base for gold-mining and trading expeditions furthcr to the somh, appears to ha\'c taken O\'er from the town of SOI.En as the scat uf the Deput)' or Kush (Upper Nnbia). The site included a stone-built temple of the time of

Little cxcaration has laken place in the

ancient town itself, \\ hich lies directly below

..:..i,.

.::!

....

4- : . . . . . . . . .

-If

the modern city cenrre, but parts of the road

leading from the firer pon ro the sea-harbour

_;~~~ \:~~~ ~."7!-. :J.~.:."" .

~

.#'

: .. ,.j \

wcre examined in 1874. One oCthe most striking sun"j"ing monuments is Pompey's Pilbu, a granite column which was actually erected by the Roman emperor Dioclctian in e.-\IJ 297, c10sc to the site of Ihe SerapeulTI. E. BRFJ.CU, Ale.ralldrea ad Aeg)'pllllll, Eng. trans. (Ber!f.1l11o, 1922).

_."I'I~ -"..~..

0:-.

(. ...

.:

.~

-,..~.~~

~:

E. M.

FORSTER,

Aft.ralldria: (/ hislOIy tlllll gllic!t

(London, 1922). P.]\/1. FRASFI{, Pia/eli/air .-I/e.wllt/ria, 3 \'ols (Oxford, I ~72). H. KourrAJ, 'Rct.:hcrches :lrchilectoniqucs dans les thermes et Ie thearrc dc Kom cl-Dikb:1 Alexandric', Das /'fi'lIIi,l"dJ-/~)I:::'(/litillisdl{, .rj"gYPICII, ed. G. Grimm ct ,,\. ('l'ricr, 1983), 187-94. A. K. Bo\\ \I.'\~, Egypi ajier tht' plwrf/o"s (London, 1986),20+-33. L. C"-'FOR\, '"IIU: 1.:aJ/imed library, trans. J'd. Ryle (London, I ~8~).

Tlte gret/l/rarerlinc ullar III/Itc SJlIllemplc of King 1\~)IUSC,nJ til Aim Cumb. Around 11ll' (;rm/ar ten/ra/ parI of/he allur are "rrf/Ilgedjuur herep
((JjJ~riug.J s(!!IIJ. (,~ '1 ..\/CIIULSO.\)

altar
In the temples of ancient Egypt, the alLar (kltal) was used to carr~t offerings intended to propitiatc deitics or the dece..lsed. The tra\'ertinc ('Egyptian alabaster') altar in the sun temple of 'ruserra (2++5-2421 Be) at Abu Gurab is one of the most imprcssi,c sUITi,ing examples. It consists of a huge monolithic circular slab surrounded b~ four other pieces of trayertine, cach carred in the form of a Itelep ('offering') sign. In the Icmple of.\ \IL;-. at '" \R" \K a pink granitc altar in the form of a /'c/l'p sign (now in the Eg~ plian .\ll1scum, Cairo) ,\"as erected bvThutmose tit (H7~-H25 Re) in the 'iVliddle Kingdom COLIrt'. Relicf scenes can"cd On the iiont of this altar show I\\'0 kneeling figures of the king prescnting offerings t~ Amlln-Ra. In the New J..:ingdom (1550-1069 11(:) Illany large-scale s!'Onc temple altars were prmoide<.! Wil"11 ramps or sets of' steps. A milssiye limeStone altar dedicated to Ra-HorakhtYl still ill Silu On the upper terracc of the temple of Hatshcpsur at DeiI' c1-Bahri , was furnished with a flight of ten sleps on its western side. The GrcatTcmple of theA.ten at el-Amarna is

and the 'horned altar', consisting of a stone or brick-huilt hlock with r..lised corncrs, W<1S introduced from Syria-Palestine. Such an altar was erected in front of thc early PlOlcmaic 10mb of I'l::TOSIRIS, a chief priest of Thoth, <It Tuna e1-Gcbel. See also OFFERL'G
T\B1.E.

1 governor's residence 2 temple 3 resideRtial areas 4 extra-mural settJement

50 100m

G.JEQLtER, 'Autc!', 811',-10 19 (1922), 236-49. 1.511 \\\, l.hluslf:ldes, stairs and altars in the cult or the. Iten at c!-Amarna',]EA 80 (1994), 109-27.

P/au Q/I/U: silt, a/Amara

rve~I.

Amara
T'hc rcmains of two Nubian tO\\"llS (Amara \Vcst and E~tsr) arc located about 180 kill south of Wadi llalfa on either side nfthe Nile. The ,,alled sctt.!cmcnt" of Am:\ra \Vest, occupying an area or ahoUl 60,000 sq. 111, ,\"as;l colonial establishment t()lll1dcll by the Eg~ pli:U1s in the Ramessidc period ((.1295-1069 uc), when most of:\ubi:1 was effectin;I~ regarded as IXIJ"t or Egypr. 1\1" Amara East Iherc was once a town and temple dating to the J\ leroitie (sec \tEROI-:) period ({..lOO ItC.\1) 350), but onl.'" the depleted remains or the enclosure mtll arc srill "isible al the site. R,1I11CSeS IJ, as ,yell as cemeteries, some contemporary wiLh the tOwn and others dating 10 the t"'t.t .. \~.\ period (c. In +00-.143). L. Kiln"", 'Notes :ll1d ncws',.7f:'.11 22 (19.16), 101-2. II. W. F\IR\l,\l\., 'Preliminary excavation reporrs 011 Amara \Vcst".7...12+, 2~, 3+ (1938, 19J9, 19+8). B. J. KEtlll', 'Fonifilxi towns in Nubi:\', lll](ln, JI.'II/clIIl'1I1 (lnd urbanislIl, cd. P. Ucko et a!. (London, 1972),651-6. P. A. 5PE:"cER,Amal"ll lI'1:sl (London, 1997). 2.1

AMARNA, (TELL) EL-

AMARNA, (TELL) EL-

Amarna. rrell) el- (anc. Akhctatcn) Sitc of a ci", located about 280 km south of C.'iro, founded by the pharaoh Akhenaten (1352-1336 BC). Abruptly abandoned follo"iog Akhenatcn's death, after an occupation of only about twenty-five to thirty years, clAmarna is the best-preserved example of an Egyptian settlement of the New Kingdom, including temples, palaces and large areas of mud-brick private housing. There arc also two groups of rock-tombs (largely unfinished) at the northern and sOllthern ends of the semicircular bay of clifflO; to the east of the city; these were built for the high officials of the city, such as the priest Panchsy and chief of pulice Mahu. The plundered and vandalized remains of the royal tombs of Akhcnatcn and his family, sc'"cral kilometres to the cast of the cliffs, were red.iscovered in the late 1880s. Unfortunately, because of the peculiarities of the site's historical background, the cit)" of Akhetaten is unlikcly to have bcen typical of Egyptian cities; nevertheless it presents an invaluable opportunity to study the patterning of urban life in Egypt during the fourteenth century Be. It was founded in about 1350 Be and abandoned about twenty years later; the dearth of subsequent settlement has ensured remarkable preservation of the city plan. The site as a whole is contained within a semicircular bay of cliffs approximately 10 km long and a maximum of 5 km wide; the city itself stretches for about 7 km along the eastern bank of the Nile. The total population of the main city at e1-Amarna has been estimated at between twenty thousand ilnd fifty thousand . .Nluch of the western side of the city, including houses, harbours and the main palace of the king, has now vanished under the modern cultivation. However, a large number of structures have been preserved in the desert to the cast, along with the wells, grain-silos, bakeries and refuse dumps that comprise the basic framework of production and consumption throughout the community. The nucleus of the city. the main components of which are described in contemporary inscriptions at the site, was a set of official buildings - principally temples, palaces and magazines - called the 'Island of Atcn Distinguished in Jubilees'. The three main residential zones of thc city (the so-called north suburb, south suburb and north city) are characterized by a much more haphazard layout than the carefully planned ccntral city; the manner in which they developed, with the spaces between the earliest large houses gradually being filled up with smaller clusters of houses, is usually described as 'organic'. "rhere are also three small areas of planned settlement at cl-Amarna: a block of
26

modern cultivation

Korn el-Nana: / \ Amama-period ~ temple and late Roman settlement modem el-Amariya modem cultivation rnaru-Aten

\]
2km

palace hwt Aten (small Aten temple) south suburb river temple

PIlm of/he (i~)1 oIAkhe/lI/eu lI/ e/~A1l1l1mll.

terraced buildings in the centre of the city (known as the 'clerks' hOllses'), a rcctangular walled settlement located in relative isolation, more than a kilometre to the east of the main city (the 'workmen's village') and an arc:.1 of drystone temporary accommodation situated about halfway betwcen the latter and the cliff, (the 'stone village'). Over the last hundred years the site has been examined by a succession of excavators, including Flinders Petrie, Howard Carter and Leonard Woolley. Since the latc 1970s an expedition from the Egypt Exploration

Societ)' has produced the first dctailed surve,' plan of the entire site, as well as excavating and re-examining a number of parts of the city, including the workmen's village, the small Aten temple and the newly identified Amarnaperiod temple of Kom c1-Nana. W. M. E PETRIE, /CII eI-AIIIIIl"lla (London, 1894). N. DI~ G. DtWIES, The rock tombs olEI AlI1anltl, 6 vois (London, i903-8). T E. PEET ct aI., The city oj'Akhellatell, 3 vols (London, 1923-51). G. T !\t(ARTIN, The nom! tomb at e!-Al1Ial'/w, 2 I"ols (London, 1974-89). L. BORCIIARDT and I I. RiCKE, Die I ViHmlui'ust>T ill Tell el-Alllllmll (Berlin, 1980).

AMARNA LETTERS

AMASIS

of the relationship between Egypt and these states, although there are very few letters from the Egyptian ruler. The state of the empire under Akhenaten is poignantl) documented in thc increasingly desperate pIcas for assistance from Syro-Palestinian cities under siege. As well as giying insights into the political conditions of the timc, the letters also shed light on TR.4.DE relations, diplomatic \Li\RRIAGE and the yalues of particular com-

HIMel from el-Amarlla, inscribed wilh a cmfeijorm /t'llerfrom nl.~hralla of_Milllnni 10 Amenlwlep III. 1811i Dyllf/'I)', c./35. BC, elf/Y, 1/. 9 ClII. (w,29793)

Fragmmt ofpainted pm:emelll from II building called the flilaru-Atell (/1 el-Amamll, shoming dud's
flying oul ofa papyrus thickel. 18th DYlltlsO'.

c./350 HC, pllil/ted plll,/er,

1/.

93 (111. (455617)

B. J. KE;\11' (cd.), A"IIlr1lll reports I-\") (London,

1984-95). B. J. KDII', Al1ciel1/ Egypt: 1I11aIOll~)1 oIa civili;:,(ilioll (London, 1989),261-317.

Amarna Letters
Important cache of documents from EJ.discovered in 1887 by a village woman digging ancient mud-brick for use as fertilizer (Arabic -'ebllkli). This discovery led to further illicit diggings and the appearance of a number of clay CU~ElFORj\1 tablets on the antiquities m~rkct. Their importance was nor immediately recognized, and many passed into private hands, but Wallis Budge of the British Museum believed the tablets to be genuine and purchased a number of thcm; his vlew was confirmed by A. I-I. Sayce. The tablets are held by the British Nluseum, the Bodemllscum
AJ\IARNA,

in Berlin, the LOll'TC, and the Egyptian . 'luseum in Cairo. There are 382 known tablets, most of which derive from the 'Place of the Letters of Pharaoh" a building identified as the official 'records office' in the central city at clAmarna. Their exact chronology is still deb,Hed, but they span a fiftecn-to---thirty-year period (depending upon interpretations of coregencies at this time), beginning around year thirty of M1Ej\1I0TI~P III (1390-1352 Be) and extending no later than the first year of TUTA~Kllf\\IU:"i'S reign (1336-1327 Be), with the majority dating to the time of t\KIIENt\TE:\' (1352-1336 Be). Most arc written in a dialect of the \KKADIAN language, which was the lingua francn of the time, although the languages of the ASSYRIANS, IIlTTITES and Hurrians (Mrli\NNI) nre also represented. A11 but thirty-two of the documents in the archive are items of diplomatic correspondence between Egypt and either the great powers in wcstern Asia, such as Babylonia :md Assyria, or the vassal states of SYRIA and I'ALESTI?'-lE. They provide a fascinating picture

modities such as GLASS, GOI.D and the newly introduced IRO', while the various forms of address employed in the letters indicate the standing of the writers vi.fi-ti-vis the Egyptian court. e. ALDRED, Aldu:lIlltell, King of Eg}lpJ (London, 1988), 183-94E. E C\"'lPIJELL, The chronology oflhe Amanltl Lellers (Baltimore, 196-1). B.]. KJ:..,\p,A"dcul Egypt: flllll/()1IU'Qfa t:ivili:::.tIIion (London, 1989),223-5. \~'. L. MORJ\'\, Tlu'AI111lnm ulIers(London, 1992).

Amasis see 1\1 !.\I0SE II Amenemhat (!\mmenemes)

rour of the 12th-Dynasty pharaohs held the 'birth name' Amenemhat ('AmLin is at the head'), while the rest, apart from Queen SOIlEKNEFEI{U, took the name of SEl\'USI{ET. Alllellelllllll/ I Selietepibra (1985-1955 IlC) was the son of a priest called Senus ret and a woman called Nofrer. He was the first ruler of the 12th Dynasty, but he is prohably already attested at the end of the 11 th Dynasty, when,

27

AMENEMIIAT

AMENHOTEP

as I he vizier of \ \I'SrUIlOTEI' 1\ (1992-1lJSS Be), he led an expedition along the \Vadi

Hammamat to the Red Sea. Ilis Horus name, \,Vchcl11-l11cSU( ('he ,dlO repeats births'), \\"<IS no doubt chosen to celebrate the innuguration of the nc\\' dynasty. It is possible that the literary work known as The

Dis(l)lIrs(' o/lVejerty, in which the emergence

of a ruler called .:.\mcny is supposed to h,1\"C been roretold by a prophet in the Old Kingdom, was composed parLly in order to legitimize his accession. lie moved the royal residence to rhe ncwl~ established LO\\ n of A.mcncmhatitjmwy, in lhe \jcinity af Er.-I.LSI IT, thus shifting the locus of the country north"ards. lie also reorganized the .\IJ.\IL'lsnUTIO,\, ensuring that provilll:ial power was in the hands of his supporters, appointing ne\\ g-oycrnors <"It ASYUI, Cusae and Eleph.mtine and reintroducing conscription into the army. lie founded a new fOrLrcss aL Semna in the region of" the second Nile caLaracL, thus Creating the first of a string of 12th-Dynasty fortresses which probably gave the Egyptians a slTanglcholci over economic COntacts with Upper Nubia and the counrries furlher smuh in Africa. He may also have inLroduced the practice of CORE(jEi\.C\ hy allowing his successor to rule alongside him for the last fe\\ years of his reign, thus helping LO ensure a smooth transi~ tion from one ruler to the next. Since he himself appears to hare been assassinated as a result of a 11.\RI.\1 conspirat:y, this precaution proved 10 be fully justified, and he was sut:ccedcd hy his son Senusret I (1965-1920 Be), who had alread~ been effecti,c1y in t:harge of foreign policy. The political and SOci'll repercussions of this traumatic end to his reign wcre reflected in two new literary works: TIlt: Tall' of Siuul1e and TI1(' Instructioll oI l1//l'lIl'1//hal J (the laner heing the source of the .Issassination slOr~). AmenemhaL's funerary complex at I.I.-I.ISII'I" reintroduced rhe Old Kingdom pyramid-style royal tomb. _-lmeuellfllfll JJ NubJ..>(JJ(1";'1 (1922-1878 Be) succeedcd 10 the thronc after a two-year coregency with his r~lrher Scnusret I, who had 'llrcadj consolidated Egyptian control over I'\ ubi a with the esmblishmcnt of scyeral rurthcr forlresses. Amenemhat II'S reign was thercftm,: relatively peaceful, and it is to his reign that lhc TOI1 'Lreasure' dates: the ".Hicty of rr;Hlc items or 'tribute' represented in this hoard suggests Lbat contacts with wcstern Asia and the 1\1editel'ranean world were nourishing. The discovery or statuary of Amcnemhnt's daughters and officials at a number of si[Cs in Syria-Palestine .1150 indi~ caLes Lhat Egyptian inllucnce in the Leyant

waS continuing to grow. The pyramid complex of Amcncmhat II at IH11SIIUR includcd a mortuary temple and c'llIse,,ay, excayatcd by de ~Irorgan in 189-1-5, but the ,'alley temple has nOL ~et been dist:m-cred. .-11II"""1III1al JJJ Ninwalra (1855-1808 Be) was the son of Seousret III anti the sixth ruler of the 12th Dynasty, His reibm e,-idcntly representee! dIe most prosperous. phase of the dynasty, with the miliL;'lr~ achievements of his predecessors allowing him to exploiL the eco-

unc,cntful, perhaps representing the beginning of the decline of the .Middle Kingdom. I [is pyramid complcx was possibly the southcm mOlll1l11ent :It l\1azghuna, ahout S km to the south or Lhose a' Dahshur. G. POSE'EK, /...i/h;rttJurf fJ poliJiqlll' dff/ls I'Egyplt' ,h-Iff XIII: th'l/lIslie (Paris, 1969). !\. GKI\I \1., ,-I l1is/llry oIlIlItim/.t.'gYPJ (Oxford, 1992),158-81.

Granite !reat! lJ/AlIJcnl'1IIIw/ JJJ, bearing a lHllrpillg imaipJifJl/ n/IIII: 221111 DY"ffSO'. Lulc 12/h PJIIUlSO', c.18201lc,./iml1!JlIbm/is, JJ. 79011. (1:..11063)

nomic resources of Nubia and Syria-Palestinc as well as the mineral deposits of the Sinai and E.lsLern lJesert. l-Ie is particularly associated with the cconomic and politic;'11 risc of the L~~IYllm region, where he completed a largescalc irrigation project inaugurated by his father. His sllnj,-ing monuments in the area include two coloss:ll graniLe statues of himself at Biahmu, Lcmples to SOBEk and KE'\F.:'\LTI:-r at Kiman Pares (J\ledinel c1-Fayum) and \\EDI'I-:T \\ \.\DI rcspecti,-cly, and two pyramid complexes. I.ike his Either und grandfather, he was buried in a pyramid complex at Dahshur, ,,here the mud-brick pyramid has bcen strippcd of its limestone outer casing, but the black granite pyramidion, inscribed with his name, has sun'i"ed. His second complex, ill II \\\ \R \, included lhe multi-roomed mortuary lemple known 10 Classical authors as the 'Labyrinth' . -IIIft:/It:/Idwl /I I\I!{/(fl,:},('rul"tl (lS08-l7lJl) Be) was the son ofAmcncmhat III and the last male rulcr of , he 12th Dynast~. He completed his fathcr's tcmpks at !\'ledinet i\llaadi and probably also builr the unusual temple at Qlsr eISagh'l in the nonhc;,lstern (---'ayum, bUl his reign was otherwise short and comparati"cly

Amenhotep (i\menophis) 'Birth name' (or nomen), me.ming 'Amun is con Lent', which was included in the ROnL TITL I. \RY of four 18th-Dynasty rulers. .IWt'11holl'p J Dje~lTk{frtl (lS25~1504- Be) was the son of \I1\10SE I and \II\lOSE XI.FEKI:\RI, anti the sct:onu pharaoh or the 18th DynasLy. lie appc~lrs to ha,-e pacif.ied l'\ubia, established a Lemple at the Nubian town of S:fi and appoimed Turi as nCEKOY OF "-USI J. He was probably srill ,"cry young when he came to the throne, so it" is likely that his mother scrved ;\s regent for rhe firsr part of his reign. They arc joimly credited wilh the foundation uf the royal tomb-workers' village at IJI':I I{ 1':1.-1\11':1111'\1\, where Lhcy cOllsequently enjoyed personal religious cults until the I<lte Ramesside period. llis burial-place remains unidentified, although his 10mb is mentioned in an official inspection list of the sixteenth year orRamcses I\'S reign (el111 Be)_ He is known to have been the first pharaoh lO build'l separate mortuary temple (or 'mansion of millions of years') :It DEIR I:J.-IHIIRI, some distance away from the tomb itself HmYc,-er, his mortuar~ l:hapcl was later obliterated by the temple of II \TSIIEI'SL"I', .Ind ir is not clear whet her he was buried at Ora Ahu el<'\aga (see THEBES), alongside his 17th-Dynasty ancestors, or in an unrecognized 10mb in the \.\1.1.1:\ OF Till'. ''''(is (perhaps the uninscribcd Tomb ,,\39, although "ork in the 1990s suggests otherwise). His hody, on the other h;md, has sur,i,cd, having been reburied in a cache at IJUR EI.-Il\IlKI. It still has an excellenL G\RTO' '\01-: face-mask :lnd had been rc\\'r~ppcd by rhe priests who mm'cd it in the 21st Dynast)'; it is Ihe onl~ royal mummy th~t has Ilot heen unwrapped in modern times. IlIIell!lo/<,p /I A"/'!f<,p<'l"lIrrt (H27-140lJ Be) W<1S rhe seventh ruler of the 181"h [)ynasty and coregcnt <lnd succeSSor to his father, TIILT\10SI': III (1479-1-+25 IIC). He was born at j\II':I\IPlIIS, his mOl her being Q!lecn J\ilerirraI-Iatshepsut. 'I'he suniving reliefs and texLs give the impression that he prided himself on his physical prowess, 'llthough it is equally possible Ihal a new heroic image of the KI1'.GSIIIP was simply being adopted. EmulaLing the military successes of his father, he undertook

28

AMENI-IOTEP

AMENHOTEP SON OF HAPU

three campaigns into SYRIA, but no militar~ <lcriviry seems to have been considered necessary in Nubia, where he appointed Uscrs.uct as ~'ICEROY OF KUSII and ordered variolls projects of temple construction and deconllion at Amada and .....\L\BSII.\. I-Ie built a number of shrines and temples in the region of TILEB[.';, including structures ilt ""'t"Ah:, .\IED:UILD and TOD. Little has SUTyi\'cd of his mOrlU;lry temple at Thebes, but he was buried in Tomb h:y35

Sielefrom (I !Iol/se/mld ,I}/I'/II( til 1.'1-.4mama, shomillg Amw/IO/ep III mith hi.~ priu(ipa/miji' 11)/ beside It Itlble 0/ ~l1erillgs lIIula tlu' nqls of/hi' All'lI. /81h DJlI1{/.~O', c.13.>O IJe, II. 30.5 an. (".-63799)
in the Valley of the Kings. The decoration of lhis tomb, although unfinished, included a complcte version of the book of Amduat (sec FUNERAR\ TEXTS). \Vhcn it was excayatcd hy Victor Lorer in 1898 it was found to cont'lin not only Amenhotcp II'S mummy (still in his s.1rcophagus) but the hodies of eight other pharaohs (T'hutmosc 1\, Amenhotep III, \1ERENfYli\ll, SEn II, Saptah, R \ \I ESI::." 1\", \ and \1), three women (one ufwhummay be Q!.lecn T1Y) and a young hoy. These mummies were all brought to Amenhotep II'S tomb, on the orders of Pinudjcm (one of the chief priests of Amun at Thebes in the 21 st Dynasty), in order to preserve them from the depredations of tomb~ robbers. Al1Ienhotep III Neh11lfffllrr/ (1390-1352 Be) was the son and successor of Thutmosc 1\' (1400-1390 lie), his mOlher bcing IVlutcrnwiya. He seems to have taken little interest in military affairs and, apart from quelling an uprising i.n Nubia in his fifth regnal year, he was content to maintain rhe order established by his prede<.:essors. This policy was not altogether su<.:cessful and during hjs long reign it is possible that some of the vassal

stares of Syria-Palestine beg'1I1 to brcak away from Egypt, paving the way for thc IIiTITn:s' expansion into the Leyant during the last reigns of the 18th Dynasty. Some of his foreign correspondence has sur..ived in the form of the .l,\I.l,R~\ L1~I~rE.RS. The time of Amcnhotep III is marked by the apparent opulence of the royal court and the high standard of artistic and architectural achie\'cl1lel1ts, earning him the modern epithet 'the magnificent'. The high artistic skill of the time is exhibited in the tombs of such high officials as "\\IOSE (rr55) and Khacmhct (nS7). His principal ~lrehitect, .\.\IE.'\.IIOTEI' SOl\" OF I LWU, was responsible for the construction of the processional colonnade at LUXOR temple, Ihe third pylon at k...\R.'\.AI\:, the mOrtuary temple (the sile of which is marked by the COI.OSSI OF \IE,\It\O=') and his palace at \IALh-AI'!\ on the Theban west bank. Some of the art of his reign shows the naturalistic, informal anitudes characteristic or thc Amarna period, and it secms likely that he chosc the IHI,:N as his personal god, whilst still honouring the other gods, thus anticipating (and presllmably cultivating) the eventual religious rc\olutioll of his SOil, Amenhotep 1\ (M":IIEKATI:'i; U52-1J36 Be), whom he may have appointed as coregent towards the end of his reign, although this remains controversial. His eldest son, and the original heir to the throne, was 'rhullnose, who died young. It has been suggested that Amenhotep IU may also havc been the father of Smenkhkara, TL~II\.'\.h-11 \.\IL.'\. ilnd Princess BaketateI1, bur the evidence for these links is tenuous. 1t has been suggested th~1t his body may hayc heen onc of those reburied among a cache of royal mummies in t..he LOmb of Amcnhotep II (sec above), although this identification has been disputed by some authorities. The body in queslion is that of a man who suffered from ill health and obcsit~ tow~lrds the end of his life. Amenophis HI'S tomh (1\:\"22) ,,as located in the \alley to the Wc.sl of thc main V'llley of the Kinhrs. .It was decorated \yith scenes from the hook of Allldullt and when exc1Yated by Iloward C~rter it still contained about fifty small fragments of Llle lid of the red granite sarcophagus in the burial chamber. AllleJllwtep I/' see i\KIIE~,\'Il:~. I-I. E. WINI.OCX, 'A restoration of the relief.... from the mortuary temple ofi\menhofcp 1',.7J::/14 (1917), 11-15. A. L,\\sl1'\(i: 'Excavations at lhe p'llace of' Amcnhotcp 111 ~lt Thebes" B;\IIJltIA ] 3 O"brch 1926),8-14. j. CERNY, 'Le cultr d'Amenophis ler chez les ollvriers dc b nceropolc thebaine" HI FAG 27 (1927),159-203.

B. VAN DE \o\'.'\l.U:, 'Les rois sporri(<; de l'ancicnne EgYPlC', edt: 13 (1938), 23'1-57. \N C. H.WES, 'Egypt: internal affairs from Tuthmosis I to the de:.lth of Amenophis III" Cawbr;dge Ancient History, eo. 1. E. S. Edwards er aI., 3rd cd. (Cambridge, 1973), 3l3-H6. A. J(OZI.OFF and B. BR\'AN, Egypt 5da::;::.IiJlg slln: AIIICIlIrO/('P III and his world, exh. cat. (Bloomington and Clcvehmd, 1992).

Amenhotep son of Hapu (c.H30-1350 ne) Born in the DcJt.llown of Athribis (TEI.J.ATRIII), about 40 kill north of Cairo, in c.I430 ne, Amenhotep son of Hapu ~also known as Buyrose to a position of influence during the reih'll nf \.\11-:'"0'1'1-:1' ttl (1.190-1352 "C.). [n abOUI 1390 lie he ll1o\'Cd from A thribis to the royal courl at 'fhcbcs, where he is one of the guests portrayed in a banquet scene in the relief decoration of the tomb of his contemporary, the vlzier H,l\I'lOSE (r1"55). I-h; W~IS subsequently promoted to the offices of 'scribe of recruits' and 'director of <111 I he king's works', which might be loosely translated as 'chief royal architect'. In this capacity he would have been in charge of the entire process of temple construction, from the extraction of the stone to the sculpting of rclief"i, as well as the commissioning of such royal Stalues as the COl.OSSI OF 1\IE]\l-"'O~.
Grey granite scribe statue ofA1J1l'1lhOIl'p SOil 0/ I/apu as {/ young 1ll1I1l.Fum tlte 1f:lltli Pylon of
Karnak temple. /8th Dyullsty, c.1365 /lC, 11.1.28/11. (c.IIRo]N861)

29

AMMUT

AMULET

He is known to hayc supervised the construction of the huge temple at SOLEI] in Lower Nubia, where he is depicted .tlongsidc the king in several of the reliefs showing the ritual C011sccf<1tion of the temple. He also built (wo tombs for himself, and in the thirry-first year of Amcnhorcp Ill'S reign he began to build his own cult temple on rhe west bank at Thebes. Amcnhotep's importance during his own lifetime is indicated not only by the unusual size of hi, cult temple but by the fact that it was the only pri\'3tc monument situated among the royal mortuary temples on rhe west bank at Thebes (see I\lEI)INET HABU). In the precincts of the temple of Anum .It Karn.lk he was permitted w set up several S(.ltucS of himself His career has been largely reconstructed from the texts carved on these statues - one limestone block statue bears inscriptions on all four sides. Although one text expresses his desire to reach the age of a hundred and ten, it is likely that he died in his eighties. He was buried in a rock-tomb al the southern end of the Q!trnet Murai, on the 'rheban west bank, and a sur\"iving 215tDynasty copy of a royal decree relating to his mortu:uy temple suggcsts that his cult continucd to be celcbrated at least three centuries after his death. Evcntually, like the 3rd-Dynasty architect I\IHOTEP (c.2650 11(;), Amcnhotep was deified posthumously in recognition of his wisdom and, from the LATE PERIOD, for his healing powers. Tn the Ptolemaic tcmple of Hathor at DeiI' elMedina and the temple of Hatshepsut at Deir c1-Bahri, chapels were dedicated to the worship nf both Imhotcp and Amenhotep ,on of Hapu. C. ROOlClJON and A. VARIJ.LE, Le lell/ple till saibe rOJ!al Ameuholepfils tit' Hilpof/ (Cairo, 1936). A. VARlLI.E, IlISrr;pliollS cOl1cenulIIll'arrhilecle A11/t!1IllOlepjilsde HIlPOIl (C1iro, 1968) D. \VII.DU:,\"G, Egyptiall .willls: deification ill plUll"{follir Egypt (New York, 19i7). A. P. KOZI.OFFand B. M. BR"A~, Egypt'sda:::.::Jiug sun: Aml'nhotep III anti his 1I'0riti (Bloomington and Cbcland, 1992), 4S--Jl.

DetailjiwlIlhe BOOk' oI111i.! Dead off/uncje,., romisling o.fthe viguel/(, aJSOCialed TlJith Chapler J25. //11111/llt is slwJ1JU beside the scales on mhieh the hell/'I Ofthe deceased is meighed. 19th DyUflsO/, c./280 IJC, pail/led papY,l/s. (IU??O/. SllfliTJ) of those whose evil deeds made them unfit to proceed into the afterlife. C. S"]':BER, UlIlerslfdul1Igeu ::;,ur Danlellung des Toteugeridl1s i11l Allell Agypteu (Munich, 1976). R.o. FAULKNEIt, The (wdt'1ft J::'gyptiall !look vIlhe Dead, ed. C. Andrew, (London, 1985), 29-3{.

Amratian see PRF.m1'\t\STIC PERIOD

amulet Term used to describe the small prophylactic charms favoured bv the Egyptians and other ancient peoples. The Egyptians called these items mel'ct, "eltef or s:\ (all words deriving ii'om verbs meaning 'to protect'), although ,he term medja ('well-being') was also used. As well as affording protection, they may h;'l\'e been intended to imbue the wearer with particular qualities; thus, for instance, the bull and the lion may have been intended to provide strength and ferocity respectively. During thc First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 Hr.), parts of the human body were used as amulet shapes, perhaps serving as replaccments tor actual lost or damaged anatomical clements. Howevcr, only the heart amulet became essen-

Ammut Creature in the netherworld, usually depicted with the head of a crocodile, the foreparts of a lion (or panther) and the rear of a hippopotamus, whose principal epithets were 'devourcr of the dead' and 'gre'lt of death'. She is portrayed in vignettes illustrating Chapter 125 of the Book of the Dead (see F "'ERARY TEXTS). The scenes show her waiting beside the scales in the Hall of the Two Truths, where the hearts of the dead were weighed against the feather of .\I:\:H. It was Ammur who consumed the hearts 30

tial. Amulets frequently depicted ,acred objects and animals, and, from the New Kingdom (1550-1069 Hr.) onward" the)' portrayed gods and goddesses, not just st.lte and powerful local deities but also 'household' deities such as IlES and Tt\WERET. The range of funerary amulets increased greatly from the Saite period (664--525 Hr.) onwards. Amulets could be made from stone, metal, glass or, more commonly, FAIENCE, and the materials were selected for their supposed magical properties. Specific combinations of material, colour and Sh~lPC were prescribed for particular amulets in FU:'1ER..;\RY TEXTS from as early as the 5th Dynasty (see PYRMvll1J TEXTS), although recognizable types of amulets ,vcre being made from the Badarian period (c.5500.....J000 Hr.) onwards. The names ascribed to different shapes of amulet are known from a number of textual sources, notably the Papyrus rVlacGregor. A broad distinction can be made betwcen those amulets that were worn in daily life, in order to protect thc be.Irer magically from the dangers and crises that might threaten him or her, and those made expressly to adorn the mummified body of the decea,ed. The second category can include funerary deities such as A:,\'UBlS, SER..K.ET, SO\lS OF I JORCS, but rarely (strangel~r enough) figures of OSIRIS, the god of the underworld. The BOOK OF TI-II': DEAD includes several formulae with illustrative

AMULET

AMUN, AMUN-RA

Many amulets represented abstract concepts in the form of hieroglyphs, as in the case of U1e .'\NKH ('life') and the DJEIJ PILI.!\K ('stability'). Among amulctic forms were the -rYET ('knot of Isis'), the WAS SCEPTRE, the tlkhel ('1I0RIZON') and the ",edjtll-eye (sec 1I0R[;S). Sec also SC.\K1\1J and CO\\'ROID. G. A. REISNER, Allltl/els, 2 I'Dls (Cairo, \907-58). W. M. F. PETRIE,AlIIll/elS(London, 19H}. C. A."'OKEWS, Amulets of'l1/cient Egypt (London, 199{).

Amun, Amun-Ra
One of the most important gods in the Egyptian pantheon, whose temple at K:\R.:'\:\K is the best survi\"ing religious complex of the New Kingdom. He is first mentioned (along with his wife Amaunet) in the 5th-Dynasty PYRA;\IID TEXTS, but the earliest temples dedicated solely to Amun appear to have been in the Theban region, where he was worshipped as a local deity at least as carll' as the 11th Dynasty. Amun's rise to pre-eminence was a direct result of the ascendancy of the Theban pharaohs from Mentuhotep " (2055-2004 Be) onwards, since politics and religion were very closely connected in ancient Egypt. In the jubilee chapel of Senusret J (1965-1920 Be) at Karnak he is described as 'the king of the gods', and by the time of the Prolemies he was regarded as the Egyptian equivalent of Zeus. His name probably means 'the hidden one' (although it may also be connected with the

Selection ofamule/s: ji/iena halld, L 3./ on, IwelJItilite "eadrest, If". 3 c11I,fi,ieuce papyrus, L. 5.6 t:m, camelillll.Hiake's head, L. ../ A em.

Cre)1 grllnite silltlle ofAmllJJ illt!IejiJrm ofa ram pmtecting King Talwrljo, m!Iosefiglm:

is ({[rved belmee" I"/!

paUlS. 2St" DJ',ws~)I. c.690-664I1c. from t"e lel/lpleoI Ul"arljO at Kama, II. /.061/1. (".1/779)

plummet. II. al base 1.8 011, !t{[I!11111liu carpenlers s'I1wre. /I. /.5 ell/.ll/fence slair(({se, I~. J.9 em. carnelilll1/eg, II. 2.1011. glass heart, /I. 5.3 cm, obsidiall pair oflingers. fl. 8.5 em, red jasper tyet or '1.'1101 ofIsis', /-I. 6.5 flJl. Old Kingdom /0 P/ole1ltair period, 1.:,.2300-100 /Ie. (10/2299/.8309, 7-135,8327,8332.3/23,23/23. /4622,8088. 59.iOO, 2(639)
IlllelJllltite

vignettes tholt endow prescribed amulets with magic;:" powers; parriculnr amulets were placed at specific points within the wrappings of a mummy, and Late Period funerary papyri sometimes end with representations of the aPPropriate position of each amulet on the body.

31

ANAT

ANCESTOR BUSTS

ancient Libyan word for water, ({mun) and he was usually represented as a human figure wearing a double-plumed crown, sometimes with a ram's head. Tt is implied, through such

J. it PR[TCHARD, Palt!slillillujigurilles ill rela/ioll/o

l."crlllill goddesses kl/ol1Jlllhruligh li/emllire (New HI\"CIl, 1943),76-80. R. SII\I)l':I.I\\ANN, ~~J!risdl-palti's/i!!l~~(ht'GM/heile" ill AgJlPIe11 (Leiden 1 1967),91-6. A. S. K,\I'ELRUD, 1111: vio/ellt goddess Allat illihe Ras SIU/Illm le.rls (Oslo, 1969).

epithets as 'mysterious of form', that Amun's

true identity and appearance could never be revealed. As well as being part of a divine triad at Thebes (with I\IUT and KIIOi\:S), he was also Amun KClllatcf~ a member of the UGDOA]), a group of eight primeval deities who were worshipped in the region of Hcrmopolis lVlagna.

ancestor busts
Term used to refer to small painted anlhropoid busts serving as a focus tor ancestor WOrship in the New Kingdom. i\tlost were of limestone Or sandstone, but a few smaller examples were made of wood and clay. They were rarely inscribed (the bust of J\1utel1lonct, shown below, being one or the few exceptions), but the predominance or red paint (the typical male skin-colour in Egyplian art) suggests rhat most of them represent men. There arc about 150 surviving examples, about half of which derive Ii'om rhe houscs and funerary chapels of the tombworkers at the village of DEIR EL-.\U:DIl'\A. The cult of the ancestors} eilch of which was known as (/k" il:a en R(/, 'exccllcnr spirit of Ra', was an important aspcct of popular religion among the villagers. These 'excellent spirits' wcre also represented on about fiftylive surviving painted stelae, which, like the busts, could evidently be petitioned by relatives secki..ng divinc aid.

Anum Kematcf (meaning 'he who has completed his moment') was a creator-god able to
resurrect himscICby taking the form of a snake shedding his skin. Another aspect Amlin was an 1["lIYI'llt\I.I.IC (arm, closely relalcd to the fertility god Mli'\ and described as Amun Kamute[ (literaJly 'bull of his mother'). Part or the success of Amun's influence on Egyptian religion for mosl' or the Dynastic period lay in his combination with other powerful deities, such as KA, the sun-god, who had been the dominant l"igure in the Old Kingdom pantheon. It was Amun-Ra, theTheban manifestation of the sun-god, who presided over the expanding Egyptian empire in Africa and the Levant". Eventually the Thebal1 priesthood of Amun-Ra used the prestige of the cull' of Amun in order to legitimize their rivalry with the pharaohs at the end of t"he New Kingdom (sec I WRIIIOR). The rise oC the Kushite pharaohs of the 25th Dynasty led to a renaissance in the worship of Amun, since the Nubians believed that the true home of Amull was the sacred site of Gebel Barkal i..n northern Sudan (sec :-.JAI'ATA). Kushitc kings such as I'[Y, S[ 1:\IIAQ..o and "1":\[ IARQP therefore associated themselves with the cult of Amun and thus sought to renew and reinvigorate his centres of worship. K. SETI 11":, AI/II/1l I/Ild die (ldlf lhgcilfer (Leipzig, 1929). J. ZA \"IWI'~ De f~)'lIIl/ell {/fill Allum vall Paj!J!rllJ Leidell 13.m (Leiden 1 1948). P. BARGULT, Le temple d'.Alllol/-l"e d KlIl"1lt1k: essfli d'e.reghe (Cairo, 1962). E. Ono, Egyptiall art find /he wl/s {~rOsin~~ alfd A/lllm (London, 19(8). - , 'Anlllll" Lexikoll der .'igYPlologic [, cd. W. Heick, E. Otto and 'vv. Westendorf (\Viesbaden, 197J),237-4R j. ASSi\\l\NN, t'gyjJlirlI/ sola}" l"ell~!Jioll in the Nem Kingdom: Rfl Anlllll aud the a/sis o/polytheislII, trans. A. Alcock (Lontlon. 1995).

or

Stele (~(lhl' rhie/royal cr(~/i.\II1f111 f2J'k III Iile lower register Qeh (flld his.f{lJlli(y arc show" mors/lIlJpillg Ihe goddess Anal. 1nlhl' upper register C/i'Ollllcji 10 right) Ihe dei/ie., JHi/l, Qpleshel alld Res/u:/are depi(;led; the indllsiul/ vf;\1in all/ong tI grollp of rIfles/ali Asia/it: deities i.~ presl"!ltlb~)' exp/ailled /~}I hi.,' associaiio/l milll Ihe Eastern DesaI. 19/h DY!las/y, c.1250 l1e, /ill/cs/ollc,Fv1!l Deir el-}\!fedilltl, II. 72011. (h.1191)
kings or the 16th Dynasty (.1560 Br.) included the name An~lt:-her in his titulary. In the 'Third [ntermediate Period her cliit was celebrated in the temple of l\t{ut at L'\NIS. Although she held the beneficent epithets 'mother of all the gods' and 'mistress of the sk yl, she was primarily a goddess of war and was often depicted with shield, axe and lance. The myths surrounding Anat were concerned primarily with her savage exploits, and the Egyptians regarded her as protectress of the king in battle, a role sometimes shared with ASTi\RTE. Although Egyptian texts often used the names of the goddesses Anal' and Astarte virtually interchangeably, their cults were in practice distinct. The Syrian g'ods RESIlEF and Baal were both regarded at various times as Anat's consorts, and she was said to have given bin-h to a wild bull by Baal. At times she is also portrayed as the wire or SET\ [ (another god with Asiatic links), whiJe private monuments sometimes depicted her alongside j\IIN, when rhe strong sexual aspect of her cult was being stressed. As with many other goddesses, her cult waS sometimes syncretized with that of [1'\TlI0R.

Anat
One of a number of deities introduced inro Egypt from Syria-Palest.ine. The cult of Anat is first attested in Egypt in the late j\'Iiddle Kingdom (c.1800 Be) anti one or the IIYKSOS

P)IIl{/S~)I,

Lilllcs/o/le {{/lGD'/or Imsl O//VllllclIlolle/. 19th c.1250 IX. If. -19 Ofl. (/~..J 1198)

32

ANEDJIB

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

J. KElTll-I3ENNI'Tr, 'AnLhropoid busts lJ: nOt

from DeiI' cl Mcdint:h alone', BES J (]lJSl),

43-71. R. J. DEi\'1ARI~E, The "I! ih /I R" slc/ac: 1)11 a/h'eS/UJ" Tl)orship ill (llujell! Egypt (Leiden, 1983). ED. fRII::D.\'IAN, 'AspcCI"S or domestic life <lnd religion', PlJaraoh:, morl'as: IIIe villagers o/Deir ellVledilUl, cd. L. H. Lesko (Tthaca, ]994), 95-117

Anedjib (Adjib, Andjycb, Enczib) ((.2925 lle) Ruler of the late 1st Dynasty who is thought to have been buried in "!<nnb ~ at AllYIJOS, the smallest of the Early Dynastic royal tombs in the cemetery Umm el-Q.l'ab. Part the wooden tlooring waS preserved in the burial chJmber. Tomb 303~ at S:\(lQARA has also been dated to his reign by means of seal impressions which also mention the name of an official called Nebitb who was presumably buried thert. This tomb cont,lined ,1 mud-brick stepped structure inside t"he 1\1 \ST>\IM-like superstructure which is considered to be a possible precursor of step pyramids, and similar 'intcl"lul tUl1luli' have been identified in thc recent rc-e.,xcavations of the 1st-Dynasty royal tombs at Abydos. Anedjib was the first to have rhe IIcbl.J' ("1\\'0 Ladies') t.itle and the lIcs/1J-bil ('I-Te of the sedge and bee') name in his ROY,\L TITULAin', although the nesm-bil title (without a name) had already been introduced in the reign of his predecessor DEN. A number of Stone vessels carved with references to his SED FESTIVAL (ro~'al jubilee) were excavated at Abydos. On mosl of these vases his name had been erased and replaced with that of his successor SE1\\I;:Rk.III:T, IcadiJ1g to suggestions that there may have been some kind of dynastic feud. VV.1V1. I': PETRII':, The no,al IUlI/b,I' oIlhe/irsl (()ll1t1Sl)' I (London, 19(0). vV. B. El\IERY, Creal IOlllbs o/Ihe/irsl (()llIaS~)l1 (Cairo, 1949). - , Arrhaif r.~!J.l'jll (Londun, 1(61),80-4.

or

or

Cupy (!(a mal/-painlillg ill 1111: lomb f}IHf~l', shuwi"g Prilltl' rdA1i(/lll r-,.lm"ba) (/nd (}llter dli4.~, /Jo/11ing !JtjiJrc TIII(IIl/.:halll/lll. ISllf o.J'Jl{/S~J', c.1330 IJC'. (co!'\ nr N',\' I /)}, (; /IUS D II'//:s)
I!l'qall(/~/;

IIigh Dam in 1971 it was submerged by Lake Nasser. G. STEINDORFF, Allilw, 2 vols (GILickst~tdl, 1935-7).

animal husbandry
The keeping and breeding of" animals is aUcst.cd as carly as the Prcclynastic period at Lower Egyptian sites such as j\IERIMDA lW;\I1 SALAMA (r.4900-4300 DC). Even ill ,l1e Old Kingdom, there was still an clement of experimentation domestication of more in the process unusual breeds, judging from such evidence as scenes of" the force-feeding cranes in the 5th-Dynasty tomb of Sopduhotcp at Saqqara, and the depiction of the force-feeding of hyenas in the 6th-Dynasty tomb of ,\'11':RERUh.I\ at the same site. For most of the Dynastic period the most common domesticated animals were cattlc, sheep, pigs, goats, asses and poulITy. Ducks, geese and pigeons were the principal domesticated fin"l; hens deriving fro111 rhe African Jungle Fowl may have been introduced in the )Jew Kingdom, but the earliest published skcleLll evidence dates to the l;lte fifth ()r early sixth celltury AI). Cau:le were important for their Illeat and miJk hut were also kept as draught animals. From the Prcdynastic period to the Old Kingdom, cattlc were mainly of rhc long-horned type, but. thinner short-horned varieties werc gradually introduced from the Old Kingdom on\vards, eventually becoming the norm. In the 18th Dynasty humped Zebu callie were introduced ;"IS draught animals, but they never seem to have become C01111110n,

or

or

Anhur xee ONURIS

Aniba (ane. Miam) Site of a settlement and ce111Ctl:ry in Lower Nubia, f()undcd as an Egyptian IOI~lress in the 1\1idclle Kingdom (2055-1650 B<:). During the 18th Dynasty (1550-12 1 IIC) flniba became )5 the administrative centre of \~rawat, the area between the first and second Nile cat;lracl.~. The reception of tribute from the Nubian Prince of .Miam is portrayed in tbe Theball tomb of Turankhamull \ viceroy, HlI~i ("1"1"40). The site was partially excavated during the 19305, but after the completion of the Aswan

Cattle were tended by herdsmen whu, as in pans of Africa today, stayed with the herd and moved them to new pastures as necessary. L1 the winter the herds grazed in the Nile valley, although milny were moved to the Delta during the suml11er months. Identification 01" hcrds was facilitated by marking them, and a number of branding tools have survived. lr was the meat of oxen which was the most prized for offerings at temples ilnd tombs, and which frequently figures in reliefs there. \Vealthy landowners boast of eTlOrmous herds of cattle, and uther animals, in their tomb inscriptions, and as a sig'n of ,ye<llth they werc also a source of raxab1c revenuc, The J IOI{SI':, introduced around the time of the IIYK.sO.s occupation in the Second Intermediate Period, did not become common until the New Kingdom, and was then used primarily fi:n military purposes. Donkeys were extensively used as pack nnimals and, like cattlc, fiJI' threshing. The C1\,\II], W,lS not used until IaLc in the Pharaonic period, and although there is some possible pictorial evidence from the hne New Kingdom, the usc of domesticated camels is not attested until the ninth century Hr:. Sheep and goats were kepI for me,H, wool, hide and probably milk, althoug'h wool was ncyer as important as linen in terms of textile manufacture. The Egyptians described both sheep and goats as 'small cattle', thus implying lhal all three animals were regarded as being of roughly the same type. Goats, however, were more common lhan sheep, and better suited to grazing on poor land. Pigs were regarded as animals of SETII, thc god of chaos, and fi:)r this reason enjoyed somewhat ambiguous st<ltuS. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, those who kept ("hem formed a kind of undcrclass who could

33

ANKH

ANUBIS

only marry the daughters of other swineherds. However, it is not clC'lf whether this was the case in more ancient times, and a scene from the 6th-DynaslY tomb of Kagcmni at Saqqara shows a swineherd giving milk to a piglet from his own tongue, perhaps implying mar the herders of pigs were not held in any particularly low esteem relative to other farmers. Exca,ations during the 1980s at the site of the EL-,\M1\R\.r\ workmen's village ha\"c rC"caled surprisingly extensive evidence of pig rearing, and similar c\'idcnce has emerged from cxca"ations at Memphis, Elephantine and 1ell elDab'a, indicating that pork must have formed an importanl part of the diet of at least some classes of society. Although pork was neyer L1sed in temple offerings. pigs are ncycrtheless included in lists of temple assets. Amenhotcp, chief steward of Amenhotep "' (1390-1352 Be), states that he donated a thousand pigs to a statue of his master ;u i\/Iemphis. R. JANSSEN and J. J. JANSSEN, Egypt;alllwlI.w:ho!d allimals (Aylesbury, 1989). E. 5"['ROUIl:\I., Ldi- ill llllfil.'lIJ EgypJ (Clmbridge, 1992),109-18, K. C. MAcDo~ALI) and D. N. EDII'''"OS, 'Chickens in Africa: the importance of Qasr Ibrim',All/iqllil)' 67/256 (1993), 584-90. D.]. BREWER, D. B. REDFORD and S. REDFORD, Domestic plallts tlwl fluiwals: the Egyptiall origim (Warminster, 199-1-).

the ankle strap) and a penis sheath. Temple reliefs frequently included scenes in which the king \\,;IS offered the ankh sign by the gods, thus symbolizing the divine conferntl of eternal life. In the Amarna period it was depicted being offered to Akhenaten and Neferriti b,' the hands at the end of the rays descending from the sun disc (see .\TEi'"). The llukh sib'il seems to haye been one of -the few hjeroglyphs that was comprehensible e'-en to the illiterate; thercfore it is commonly found as a maker's mark on ponery ycsscls. The sign was eventually adopted by the COlrnc church as their unique form of cross, known .IS the
tTUXaIlSIlItt.

Anubis (lnpw)
Canine god nf the dead, closely associated with embalming and mummification. He is usually represented in the form of a seated black dog 01';1 man with a dog's head, bur it is not clear whether the dog in question - often identified by the Egyptian word sab - was a jackal. The connection between jacbls and the god of mummifit."ation probably derived

j. R. B:\I:'\ES, 'Ankh sign, belt and penis sheath'. S/iK 3 (1975), 1-2-1. C. Ai'\I)RE\\ S, Amulets u!al1(ienl Egypt (London, 199-1),86.

antelope
Desert-dwelling horned bm-id, which sen-cd as the symhul of the 16th Upper Egyptian nome (province). Three species of antclope arc known from ancient Egypt (~lIt.:t'plwl/ls bme!aphus, O,:),,\' .!fazel/a and Adrlax lla.W/1law/alo). The goddess S,''I'/'.'I' of Elephantine was originally worshipped in the form of an antelope, and her headdress during the Pharaonic period consisted of a combination of antelope horns and the Upper Egyptian r.ROWl\. Satet was responsible for the water of the first Nile cataract at Aswan, and a connection seems to have been made by the ancient Egyptians between water and antelopes, so that the goddess "\'LiJ.;:ET could also be represented by another type of antelope, the gazelle, although she was morc commonly depicted as a woman. The gazelle may also ha"e symbolized grace and elegance, and paintings in the 18thDynasty tomb of .\1>::\'" (Tr69) at Thebes show that it \\'.IS sometimes used in place of a umeus (sec \\.\OJ"T) for minor queens and princesses. The desert links of the antelope and gazelle also led to their association wirh the god SETII, and, correspondingly, the antelope was occasionally shown as the prey of the god IIOKUS in later times. One of rhe earliest forms of amulet took the form of a g'lzelle head, possibly in order 1"0 w:m.1 orf the evil that such desert animals represented. G. J. Bm:ss~EcK, Dic Hallstiere ill Altiigyptcl1 (Munich, 1953). L. 5'1'''1::111':1.11'', 'Anrilopc', Lexil:ol/ ria >igypl(j/ogie I, ed. VV. I leIck, E. Orto and \i\f. Westendorf (Wiesbadcn, 1975), 319-23, E. BRU';1"EK-TR \UT, IGazelle" Lexikoll da /igyplologie II, cd. \AI. Heick, E. Otto and \V_ Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1977), -126-7.

ankh
Hieroglyphic sign denoting 'lifc', which takes the form of .1 T-shape surmoumed by a loop. The pictogram has been yariously interpreted as a sandal strap (the loop at the top forming

Limt'Slone stllluelle offll1l1bis. Ptolemaic period.

e.300-100 /lC,

II.

5/ (III. (E.,J7991)

Ankh, djed alld WilS-SL'eplrl.' amulel. Late Period, c.700-500 JJ(.',]i/l"II[(, /I. 23.1 1"111. (HiN 12)

from the desire to ward off the possibility of corpses being dismembered and consumed by such dogs. The black colouring of Anubis, however, is not characteristic of jackals; it relates instead to the colour of putrefying corpses and the fenile black soil of the Nile valley (which was closely associated with the concept of rebirth). The seated Anubis dog usually worc a ceremonial tic or collar around his neck and held a flail or s,kl/l'/11 sceptre like those held by SJ811iIs, the other principal god of the dead.l'he cult of Anubis himself was eventually assimilated with that of Osiris. According: to myth, the jackal-goel was said to h~lVC wrapped the body of the deceased Osiris, thus cst.lblishing his particular association with the mummification process. Anubis was also linked with the IMIUT fetish, apparently consisting of a decapitated anim.l1 skin hanging at the top of a pole, images of which were included among royal funerary

3-l

ANUKET

APEPI

equipment in the New Kingdom. Both Anubis and the i'llfiliI fetish were known as 'sons of the liesa/-cow'. Anubis' role as the guardi,lTI of the necropolis is reflected in two of his most common epithets: ueb-ta.-djeser ('lord of the sacred land') and kltwly-se!l-uetjer ('foremost of the divine booth'), the former showing his control over the cemetery itself and the latter indicating his association with the embalming tent or the burial chamber. An image of Anubis also figured prominently in the seal with which the entrances to the tombs in the VALLEY OF TilE K1NGS were stamped. This consisted of an image of a jackal above a set of nine bound CAI'TIVES, showing that Anubis would protect the [Qmb against evildoers. Perhaps the most yivid of Anubis' titles was tepv-djl/-ef ('he who is upon his mountain'), which presents the visual image of a god continually keeping a watch on the necropolis from his vantage point in the high desert. In a similar vein, both he and Osiris arc regularly described as khenl;menlill ('foremost of the westerners'), which indic<1ted their dominance over the necropolis, usually situated in the wcst. Khentimentiu was originally the name of an earlier canine deity at :\BYDOS whom Anubis superseded. H. K.EES, 'Anubis "Herr von Sepal) und der 18. oberagyptiscbe Gall', zAs 58 (1923), 79-101 - , 'Kulttopographische und mythologische Beitragc,ZAS71 (1935), 15()--5. - , 'Der Gall von Kynopolis und seine Gottcit', MID 6 (1958),157-75.

Anuket (Anquet, Anukis)

Goddess of the first Nile cataract region around ASWAN, who is g'enerally represented as a woman holding a papyrus sceptre and wearing a tall plumed crown. Her cult is recorded as early as the Old Kingdom, when, like many goddesses, she was regarded as a daughter of the sun-god RA, but in the New Kingdom she became part of the triad of Elephantine along with KJ INUM and SATET. A temple was dedicated to her on the island of Sehel, a short distance to the south of Aswan, and she was also worshipped in Nubia. E. Orro) 'Anuket', Le,rikvlI der.Agyp/ologie I, cd. W. Heick, E. Otto and W. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1975), 333---!.

were also 'lion temples' at MEROE and probably Basa ..IVlany aspects of religion and ritual in the Meroitie period (.300 BC-AD 300) derived from Egyptian practices, AMU>J in particular being as pre-eminent in Ivleroe as he had been in Pharaonic Egypt. But there were also i1 few important Nubian deities, such ,1S the anthropomorphic ARENSNVPIIIS and the creator-god Sebiumcker, foremost .among whom waS the war-god Apedemak. In the lion temple at lVlusawwarat e1-Sufra there were long inscriptions consisting of prayers to the god, inexplicably written in Egyptian HIEROGLYPHS rather th,m the j\1[eroitic script, describing him as (splendid god at the head of Nubia, lion of the south, strong of arm', possibly indicating that he was the tlltelary god of the southern half of the .Meroitic kingdom, where lions were still relatively common until the nineteenth century I\D (few references to the god have survived in Lower Nubi<l). The lion temple at Naqa, founded by Natakamani and his queen Amanitere, consists of a PYLO)\. followed by a pillared court (narrower than the front fa~ade). The walls are decorated with reliefs in which Apedemak is depicted alongside Egyptian deities such as I-lAn-lOR and Amun, even forming a divine triad with ISIS and lIORUS as his consort and child. ]. \v. CROWFOOT and F W. GR1FFITJ-I, TIll: ;slul/{l o/lV!eroe: lHeroitit ;Ilstnp/;olls (London, 1911), 54-61 [temple of Apedcmak at Naqa]. F I-IIt\TZE el i\l., AI!lIsaIPmaral e.I'Sufra 112 (Berlin, 1971). L. V. Z.-\I:I"-:\R, J1pcde/l/aJ:: lirl/l god olA1eroe (Warminster, 1975). \V. Y. ADf\!\IS, NuNa: condor to Ajl-ic(f, 2nd cd. (London and Princeton, 1984),325-7.

Apepi (Apophis) The name Apepi (or Apophis), which occurs in MANETHO, was adopted by at least one of the I-lYKSQS pharaohs who ruled a substantial area of Egypt in the Second Intermediate Period (1650-1550 BC). Inscriptions in the temple at Bubastis (TELL BASTA) preserve the name of Aqcnenra Apepi. A quasi-historical literary work known as the Quarrel of Apophis and Seqenenra describes the Wilr between a Hyksos king called Apepi and his Theban rival, SEQENENRJ\ TAl' II, beginning with a letter sent" by Apepi complaining that he is being kept awake by the sound of hippopotami in Upper Egypt. A more reliable version of the Theban military campaign against Aauserra Apcpi is provided by two fragmentary stelae dating to the reign of the Theban king KAMOSE, and a lat.er I-IIERI\TIC copy of the same text (known as the Carnarvon Tablet). T. SA\'E~S6DERHERGI-I, 'The Hyksos rule in Egypt', JE.ll 37 (1951), 53-71. R. S'I:O\IJI::LJ\lANN, 'Ein Beitrag zum Brief des Hl'ksos Apopbis', MD""IK 36 (1965), 62-9. J. VAN SETERS, The f~}lks()s: a lIellJ illvestigal1ol1 (New Haven, 1966), 153-8. Apis
Sacred bull who served as the BA (physical manifestation) or 'herald' of the god PTAII. His principal sanctuary was therefore located near the temple of Ptah at iVIE.VII'HIS, in the vicinity of which the 'embalming hOllse' of the Apis

BrollZt: vVI;ve group stalueUe nIan u/lluul1ed ruler knee/iug be/ore aJ/ Ap;s bull, 1/1~~ IUlllds held o//t ;1/ offering. II mas dediwted by Pe.fijaJ1)e1JlaJl~)Ill()/; mho ;s Ilamed Oil/he bul/\ pedestal. 26th Dy17asO', c.600 lIe, J1. o(bIlII12..J 011. ("'/22920)

Apedemak
lVleroitic leonine and anthropomorphic lionheaded god, whose principal cult-centres were at the sites ofi\!lusawwarat el-Sufra and Naqa, both located in the desert to the east of the sixth Nile cataract in Sudan, although there 35

APIS

APRIES

bulls has been unearthed. Unlike many other sacred animals the Apis bull was always 11 sin-

gle individual animal, selected lor his particular markings. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, the Apis bull, conceived from a

bolt of lightning, was black with a white

c1ia~

montl on the forehead, the image of a vulture on its back, double hairs on its tail, and a scarab-shaped mark under its tonguc. The cult of the Apis probably dates back to the beginning of Egyptian history,

although Nlanetho) the Ptolemaic historian, claims lhat it originated in the 2nd Dynasty. The bull was closely linked with the
pharaoh, both being divine manircstarions of a god who were crowned at the time of their installation. Like the king, the Apis bull had his Own 'window or appearances' (see P:\!.MYS) and, at least ("rom the Late Period) he was thought to provide ORI\CU:S. Prom the 2211(\ Dynasty onwards, the bull was represented on private coffins, as if accompanying the deceased westwards 10 the tomb or eastwards (presumably towards a new life) and serving as a protector of the dead. At the death or each of the Apis bulls, there was national mourning, ..md the embalmed corpse \\as taken along the sacred way from 1\ilemphis to Saqqara, ror burial in a granite sarcophagus in the underground c<ltacombs known as the SER.\pr:Uj\l, which were in lise li'om at least as early as the New Kingdom. According to Herodotus, the Persian ruler Cambyses (525-522 IJc) mocked the cult and caused the death of the Apis bull of the time, allhough il has been suggested lhal this story may simply have been an attempt to discredit the Persians) since it appears to be contradicted by a textual record of an Apis burial actually conducted by Cambyses. Because of the divine nature of his birth, the mothers of the Apis bulls were venerated as manifestations of the goddess ISIS; the} were accorded similar burials to their olTspring, in the 'Iseul11' (or 'mothers of Apis' cHacomb), ;J sel of galleries rurther to the north in Saqqara which were excavated in 1970 by Bryan Emery. The 'calves of lhe Apis' were also buried ceremonially, but their cHacombs, like the early Pharaonic Apis galleries, remain undiscovered. After his death, the Apis bull became identified with OSIRIS, being described as the syncretic deily Osiris~Apis or Osorapis. Tn the early Ptolemai(; period the cult of SERAI'IS was introduced, combining the traits of the Greek gods Zeus, I-lelins, I-lades, Dionysos and Asklepios with dUlse of Osorapis. A. M;\[~IETTE, I.e Serajlh/II! tie /vTclllphis (Paris, ISS2).

E. BI{UGSCIl, 'Der Apis-J...::reis olus den Zeitt'11 der Pro\emiier nach den hieroglyphischen und demotischen vVcihinschriften des Serolpeul11s von Memphis', zAs' 22 (IS8f), 110-.10. J. VERCOUTTER, 'Une epitaphc royalc incdire du Serapeum', i111D.>/!K 16 (] 9jR), 333-4.;. N1. lVIAuNI:"-'E, G. POSL'\ER, J. VERCOUTTER, Les .\Iefes dll Serapeltlll de .Mt'lI/phis {{II/Husee dll Louvre (Paris, 1961J). VV. B. E,\IEIH, 'Preliminary report on the excavations at -:'\forth Saqq~ra ] 969-70',]E~ 57 (1971),3-13.

lJelailFo/lllhe Book (~(Ih(' Dead ~/I-JII/I:!l"; showillg Ihe sllll-god il/ Ihe form 0/(/ ((II .qI/11b(jli((ff~)' decapitalillg _Ilp{)phi.~. 191h DYllasly. c.1280 1Jc. (H 19901, slnnS)
e1-Bahri, Luxor, Edfu, Dendcra and Philae), apparently in simulation of the removal of Apophjs' eye. The so-called Buuk o/Apuphis was" collection of spells and rites intended to thwart the snake--god, t'he best" surviving reXl being Papyrus Bremncr-Rhind, which dates to the hHe fourth century Be. Other frag'mcntary examples of the Book oj'//pophis date at least as early as the reign or Ramcses III (118+-1153 Br.), and the text was probably originally composed during the New Kingdolll, somewhere in the vicinity of Hcliopolis. Likc the EXECRATION TE'\TS, the various spells were connected with elaborate cursing rituals. I-I. J3()'\'\il~T, Nl'alle.riko/l da (i~!fyjllis(hell Refig/owgesrhirhle (J3erlin, 1952), jl-3. B. STIHCKER, De grote ::.cesf{/Ilg (LeidCIl,.1953)) J. F BORGllOUTS, 'The c,il eye ofApopis'.]E 59 (1973), IIf-f9. G. fl\RT, Egypl/allll~l'fh. . (London, ]9(0),

Apophis Apophis

(IIYI'SOS

rubs) sec

.11'1:1'1

Snake-god of the underworld, who symbolized Lhe forces or chaos ,mel eyiJ. Apophis is usually represented on New Kingdom funerary papyri and on the walls of the royal tombs in the VALl.EY OF TilE KP,GS as the eternal adversary of the sun-god R:\. It was the serpent Apophis who posed the principal threat to the bark of the sun-god as it passed through the underworld. Although in some circulllstances Apophis was equated \vith the god SET' I (and both had Asiatic connections), there arc also vignettes showing Selh comriburing to Ihe defeat of Apophis. The evil 'eye of Apophis' was an importanf mythological and ritualistic Illotif-: which could be thwarted only by Seth or by the eye of the sun-god. There arc about twenry surviving temple reliefs showing the king striking a ball before a goddess (<11' Deir

58 -61.

Apries (l-Iaaibra/Wahibra) (589-570 Be) f"ourth king of the S.'\lTfo: 26th Dynasty and son ofps,p.lTEI( II (595-589I3C), he ,,".,s the Biblical Hophra. Although III':RO[)OTUS claims that the wife or Apries was called Niretis, there arC nO contemporary references naming her. He was

36

APULEIUS, LUCIUS

ARMY

an acth'c builder, constructing additions to the

temples at Athribis ('mLi. \TRIB), IHll.\RI\.\ 0;\SI5, :\IDII'IIiS and S.\IS. In the fourth year of his reign he h.td Ankhncsnefcribra adopted as
~itiqret's

successor as Gon's \rTFI: OF

.'\).IC'.

His foreign policy concentrated primarily on

the defence of the northeastern frontier, with

campaigns against Cyprus, Palestine and 1'1 [OI::'11CI1\. It was shortly after <l defeat by cbuchadnczzar JJ of 1:\i\BYJ.O'J that he was deposed by the l(lrmcr general Ahmosc II in 570 Ile. He fled [he COlin tn and probabh died in b,.nrle in 567 Be, \\hen he attempted lO regain his throne by force with the help of a
1J.\nYI.O'\d.A~ :Jrmy (ahhough Herodotlls suggests that he was caprurcd and bter stTanglcd). His body is S<lid to hayc been carried to Sais

and buried there with full royal honours by Ahmose II. Only one sun iving statuc has been identificd as Apries by his namc and tilles (otlthough se\~cral others h'l\c been assigned to him on stylistic grounds), and only a fc\y figures of private individu,lls bear his cartouchcs. W. M. F. PETRIE andj. H. 'vV\I.KI-:R, The palace ~r Apries (.Memphis II) (London, 19(9). B. GUl\N, 'The stela of Apric~ at Nlitrahina\ ASAE27 (1927), 211-:17. H. DI~ MI~L:U:~AER[, Jlaor!olus fJi:a til' 26xft, DY1/lISlie (Louyain, 1951). 13. V. BoTII\lI~R, Egypliall.mdpllm: oftht' LlIte Period, 700 Hr.-IOO./I) (Brook1m, 1%9), ,8-9.

ing with the former in the syncretic form Shuf\rensnuphis. The Egypti.ms interpreted his name as iIJl-lteml'S-11lfer Cthe good companion'), although the origins of borh the god :lnd his name probably la) much further somh in Africa. His Jbsorption into the Egyptian pantheon is alsu indicated b: the f~lCt that he is depicted in the relier,;; of the Egyptian temple of Dendur, which originally stood about 75 kl11 to the south Aswan (now IT-erected in the J\1ctropolitan l\,llISCUI11, ::"ew York). There \,"as e\Tn a I-.:IOSI-.: dedicatcd to Arensnuphis in the tcmple of the goddcss Isis at 1'1111.:\1-:, which-most unusually-was jointly built :lnd decorated by lhe .\Ieroitil..: king Arkamani (218-200 Be) and the Egyptian ruler IYI"OI.E.\H II Philopator (221-205 Be). E. \r1'\TER, 'Arcnsnuphis: seine :'\ame und seine r-lcrkonfl', RdJ:: 25 (1973), 23,-,0.

or

Arman! (ane. 11Inll-.'Ilontll)

Upper Egyptian site on the west bank of the Nile, 9 km southwcst orLuxor. The excav:lted features Armanl indllde extensive cemeteries and many areas of Predynaslic set:tlement. The Predynastic nccropolis at Armant, exc:!\";lted by Robert t\lond and Oliycr J\ Iycrs

or

during the early 1930s, is probably the bestdOl..:umenlcd site of its date to have bcen exca~ \',lted in the first few decades of the twentieth century. There is also a stonebllilt temple of the war-god \I0YI'L - dating from the 11 th Dyn:lsty [Q the Roman period (f.20..1-0 BC-\D 200) - which W:lS largely destroyed in the late nineteenth century. To the north of the main site are the remains of the Bllcheum, the necropolis of the sacred BUCI liS IlUI.LS ((.1350 Be-I\!) 305), as well as the burial-place of the 'Mother of Buchis' cows. J\1yers al~o excavated an _\-GKOUI' cemetery at the site. R. .\10:-.'D :lnd 0. H. .\IYERs, Tht' BlIdll:ulI1, 3 \ols (London, 193-1). - , Ct'mClt'ril'J oI_lrl11a1/11 (London. 1(37). - , -n.'1IIplt.'J ol_lmul11t: (J pn,limil1f11:)' Jllrn:y (London, 19-10). " .. !-.:..--\ISER, -Zur inncren Chronologie der l\aqadakulrur', Ardull'ologill Gcographim 6 (19,7),69-77. "K. 13.'\RIJ, 'A quantirati\"C analysis of" the predynastic burials in Arman!" ccmerery 1-100-1 ,OU',;f:./ 74 (1988), :19-55.

army
There was no permanent national army in Egypt during the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 Be), although a small royal bodyguard probably alread: existcd. Groups of young men were e\idently conscripted specifically for particular cxpedit ions, ranging from quarrying, mining and trading \'enlllres w purely military C<.lInpaigns. The inscriptions in the funerary chapel of Weni at i\bydos (.2:100 Be) describe ,1 campaign in Palestine undertaken by an army of 'tens of thousands of conscripts', whom the king had requisitioned from I he v<Hious nOl1larchs (prm'ineial governors). During the First Intcrmediate Period (2181-2055 Be) increasing numbers of nomarchs seem to h,lye recruitcd their own private armies, and it seems likely that the early 12th-Dynasty campaigns in :\ubia inyolycd combinations of these local corps rathcr than a single national force. By the time of Senllsrel lit (187+-1855 Be). howe\er, the reduction in the powcr of the prminces and the construction of perm,tnel1l FORTRESSES and garrisons in ,um \ all seem to havc contribured to thc creation of" a large national army. The development of military organization ilnd hicmrchy is indicatcd in the latc Middle Kingdom by the emergence of such specific titles as 'soldier of the city corps' and 'chief of Ihe leaders of dog patrols'. Olher testual sources, such as the 'Semna dispatches' (see I.ETrERs), show that there waS a considerable military infrastructure, m~1I1ncd by

Apuleius. Lucius (C..ID 123-after 161) Classical writer, born at l\ladaura in Africa and educated in Carthage, who traycllcd widely, \isiting Rome and Athens. He was the author of sc\eral literary works, including A1etfil/wrpllO.I"cs or TIll: Colden /1.1'.1', the only L.ltin novell"O have slInived in its emirety. fr desl..:ribcs the exploits of a man called Lucius, who is said to h:lYC been redeemed by the 'mysteries' of the goddess ISIS. Apllieills' \\Titings hm"e thus prm'ided insights into the cults of Isis and OSIRIS in the Roman period. R. GR nT_C;;, TIll' go/d/'ll flSJ (Ilarmondsworth, 1950) archaeology see IlI'I.Z0~1,
ROSEI.I.I~I and W11.J..:J'SO'.

EGnyrUI.OG\;

LEI'SIL,S; \IJ\RIF.Trr~; \\'\SJlI:R(); I'EJRIE; REIS,ER;

Archaic period sa L\RLY

In '\STIC PERIO])

Arensnuphis (Arsnuphis, l-[arensnllphis) Meroitic god, usually reprcsented as a human figufe wearing a feathered crown, whose cult is first attested ,ll: the Upper :\ubian site or 1\1US<l\vwarat c1-Sufra during the reign of Arnakamani (235-218 Be). He was associated with the Egyptian gods SIlL: and O,CRIS, merg-

Salltlsft)11l' stt'It.'.Iiwl1llre Bl/rheum 0/.111"/1/(1111,0/1 lPhich lire J?(JIlUI11 t!lIIperor Diodetia11 is depicted ill till' art oImf/rshippillg a 11111111111i}ied Buchis bul/. Roman period, I/) 288. 11.67 WI. (r 1/696)

37

ARMY

ART

Egyptian craftsmen, from faience A.\IUI.ETS to royal funerary reliefs, were regarded as essentialh the same. The level of aesthetic achiel"emcnt may have "aried considerably, but all of these works had the same purpose: to represent, influence and manipulate the real world. Nothing expresses the nature of Egyptian art mOre succinctly than the fact that the same religious ritual of 'the OI'EJ\ING OF TilE ro.'IOUTII' was performed by Egyptian funerary priests both on the mummy of the deceased and on his or her statuary. The ritual involved touching the face of the statue 01' mummy with a set of special implements in order to bring it to life and allow the K.~ (life-force or essence) of the deceased to takc up residence there. Tn the time of the PLOlemies a similar rite was performed each day in lhe temple of the god Horus at EDFU; its objective was LO bring LO life cvery divine figure 011 the decorated walls, as if the whole temple were a living organism.
Soldier.~ ill lite ,.el~r;fl o/Ha/shep.wl. l",por/tllll evident/! Cflllctl'lling miljlmy 1!(/lIipIIICJII is daived }i'OIll I'I:/it/s SlId! as Ihi~'frOIll !-/ats!Jepslt! \ temple al DeiI' e1-Bahri. (1J. 1'. NICI/OISON)
SLAVES

scribes and other bureaucrats, by the end of the 12th Dynastv. It was in the 18th Dynasty (155Cl--1295 BC), howc\'cr, that the military profession came into its own, and it is significant that men with military backgrounds, such as !lOREi'IIIEIl (1323-1295 Be) and ItJIMESES I (1295-129+ Be), began to rise to the throne, which had previollsly been dominated by a 1110rc scribal and priestly elite. The New Kingdom army was often led by one of the king-'s sons; it consisted of a northern and southern corps, each commanded by a 'chief deputy'. \Vhen campaigns were launched into western Asia, Libya or Nubia, there were usually four or five large divisions, each comprising .1bout five thousand professional soldiers and conscripts. These di,isions were each named after a god, such as AmlUl Or Ptah, perhaps with reference to the deity of the "mlF. (pt",ince) from which the conscripts were drawn. The smallest tactical unit of the army was the 4platoon' of fifty soldiers, generally groupcd into 2S0-strong companies_ From the beginning of the Pharaonic period, mercenaries were used in Egyptian armies: the 1\1l,:n)A\', for instance, were increasingly used as scouts during desert campaigns. From lhe Ramesside period onwards, the relief,; dcpicting military confrontations show that the Egyptian troops had begun to incorporate marc and more foreigncrs, often as branded

who were able to gain their freedom by enrolling in the Egyptian army. In the Saitc period (664-525 IIC) the Egyptians hccame particularly dependent on GREEK and PIIOE~I CIAt'\ mercenaries, who helped to man a fleet of Greco-Phoenician-style war-galleys, enabling Egypt to maintain some control oyer maritime lrade with the Levant. See also C,\IYnn:s;
OI.,\RIOT; SIIJPS A!':D IlO:\TS;
~nt\1'\o.\RDS.

Y. YIG_-\EL, The art ofl1Jtlrfilre ill Biblical lands

(London, 1963).

A. R. SCIIUUIAN, Militla:)1 milk. title alld orga1fi::.atirlJ/ in/he Egyptial/ Nem Kingdom
(Berlin, 196+). A. J. SI'.-\L1NGER, Aspects nft/u' ",ili/rll)' dOWlIIcnlJ oft/u: a1/(;iellt g)/ptialls (N~w Haven, 1982). J. 511.'\\\", Egyptiall /luI/jim! alld weapons (Avlesburv, 1991),25-30.

Arsaphes see HERYSIIEF

art
Just as the works of lhe Impressionists or lhe Cubists can be properly understood only in terms of the particular lime and place in which they were made, so the style and purposes of Egyptian art make Iirtle rca I sense witham a detailed underslanding of ancient Egyptian culture. Egyptian art was essentially functional, in that funerary paintings and sculptures, for instance, were concerned primarily with the continuance of life - the works of art were intended not merely to imitate or reflect reality but to replace and perpetuatc it. \rVhereas in the modern western world a reasonably clear distinction is usually made between art and craft, the products of ancient

Prft(jmastit pQllery liessel bearing red paiuted decoration comprising boats. animals allli human jigureJ, inc/udillg a dauting wQmtlu/goddess mith raised arms. Ear()/i"laqada /I period. c.3500 ne, fimu e1-Amm. II. 29.2 e111. (.135502)
Egyptian art was concerned abm-e all with ensuring the continuity of the uni,crse, the gods, the king and the people - the artists therefore depicted things not as they saw them but as idealized symbols intended to be more signific.mt and enduring than the real day-to-day world. T'hey portrayed each individual element of the subject from the most represent'lti,c angle: the human torso and eye \yere clearly both best viewed from lhe front, whereas the arms, leg and face were

38

ART

ART

best seen from the side. This concern with separate components, at the expense of the overall effect, often causes Egyptian depictions of human figures to appear distorted and internally inconsistent to modem eyes. Even when the figures on the walls of Egypti.m tombs and temples arc acting our myths, rituals and hisrorical events they afC still carved and paimed with the stiffness and formulaic appearance of 11IEROGLYPl [So In an extreme example of this connection between writing and art, the burial chamber of the 10mb of Thutmose III (1+79-H25 Be; "v3{) has the shape of a eWllluclIE, thus enabling the body of the king to take the place of the writing of his own name. The Egyptian writing system was based on the precise visual and phonetic meanings of pictures, and in the same way the works of art werc intended to be 'read' like an elaboriltc code. In some rombs, howe\"er, hieroglyphs representing animals that might prove dangerous - such as snakes - werc sometimes shown mutilmed, or with a knife sticking into them, dispelling their power so that they could serve only as symbols. 1n most recent western art the artists themselves tend to be as well known as their works: their individual styles - and, in the last resort, their signatures - mark out a body of work as their own. The situation in ancient Egypt, however, was almost the reverse - it was essential for the subject of the art to be identified by name in order that the sculpture or painting could servc its religious purpose; the artists, on the other hand, are only rarely mentioned. Egyptian artists themselves wcre regularly regarded as anonymous craftsmen, working in teams and according to strict guidelines, although their works might be highly regarded. Surprisingly perhaps, this simation rarelv scems to h~l\'c resulted in inhibited or u~jnspired art, indeed the most recent studies of tomb-paintings at T'hcbcs have begun to producc c"idcnce for the distinctive styles and approaches of particular groups of craftsmen. The earliest Egyptian art is quite different from that of the pyramids and temples of Ihe Pharaonic period. As early as the eighth millennium Be the first inhabitants of the Nile valley began to make engraved drawings on the cliffs, particularly in Upper Egypt and Nubia. They depicted the fundamentals of their lives, from wild game <lnd hunting scenes in the earlier times to river-boats and herds of cattle in the early Neolithic period. 'fhe art of the Predynastie period (,.5500-3100 Be) has survived mainly in rhe form of small can"ed stone and ivory grave goods and painted pot-

tery vessels, placed ~llongsidc the deceased in simple pit-burials. The small yoti,'e figures of people and animals include many female statuettes made of pottery amI i,ory, whose exaggerated sexual characteristics suggest that they probahly related to early fertility cults (see sExt.:ALrrr). Some of the painted scenes on pottery vessels still reflect the pre~istoric rock-carvings, while others foreshadow the styles and preoccupations of the Dynastic period. A painting

Fragment oImall-pllil1Jillg/rom the lOmb of Kyuelm aJ Dei,. el-Jl1letlil1l1, shomillg the deified ruler A11Ie1Iho!l'p I. 20,h J)YllllS~)I. c.1 J29-1/26 /Ie, pail/ted plaster, II. NOli. (f; 137993)
in the late Predynastic Tomb 100 at Hierakonpolis (the first Egyptian example of ~l decorated [Ql11b chamber), consisting of groups of people, animals and boalS, is the only surviving instance of the transfcrntl of the Predynastic ponery paintings on to the plastered wall of a tomb. In addition, a p~tint cd linen shroud, preserved in a late Predynastic lOmb at GEUELEIi'\ (now in the J\1useo Egizio, Turin), bears depictions of human figures and a boat, all strongly reminiscent of the scenes on contemporary painted

pottery. This suggests that there were prob-ably many other works of art executed on organic materials, such as linen and leather, which havc rarely suryived from such early periods. 10. the final stages of the Predynastic period a range of unusual ceremonial artefacts ,\Ii\CES, I'AI.ETTES and ivory-handled flint knives - began to play an important role in the emerging religious ritu.tl and social hieran.:hy. IVlany of the more elaborate maceheads and palettes, such as those of the kings named SCORJ)IO;,\ and '\lAR\IER, were discovered in the so-called ~main deposit' of the temple at Hierakonpolis. Although the archaeological circumSTances of the discovery are poorly recorded, they were e,-idently deposited as ,otiye offerings, and their caned decoration appears to summarize the importimt e,ems of the year in which they were offered to the god. It is nor elear whether any of the sccnes are depictions of real historical e\"cnts or simply generalized representations of myth and ritual.'T'he distinction between myth, ritual and history in Egyptian art is it problem [hat persists throughout the Pharaonic period. The essential elements of the art of the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC) were the funera,,' sculpture and painted reliefs of the royal fam~ ily and [he provincial C1ite, along with the rem.tins of the earliest sun temples (sec ABC Gt;RAB and IlELlOI'OLlS) and the shrines oflocal deities. One of the most imprt"Ssive statues of the Old Kingdom is the diorite statue of a seated figurer of f\:IIAFRA, builder of the second pymmid at Giza, which was found in [he valley temple of his funerary complex. On the simplest level the statue is a portrait of a powerful individual, but it is also made up of symhols that relate to the general role of the pharaoh. His head and neck are physically embraced by lhe wings of a hawk representing IIORL:S, the di,ine counterpart of the mortal ruler. His throne is decorated on either side with a complex design consisting of the hieroglyph meaning ~union' tied up with the tendrils of the plams representing Upper and Lower Egypt, the whole symbolizing the unified state o\,er which he rules. 10 the same way, all alabaster statue of the 6th-Dynasty ruler I'EPY I (2321-2287 Be) has the rear of the throne carved to imitate a SEREKII with Horus perched on the top; viewed from [he front, on the other hand, Horus stands protectively behind the king, himself the living god. The best Egyptian art achieves a synthesis of the real and the ideal. At the end of the Old Kingdom the provin~ cial governors' tombs became more richly decorated and the royal tombs grew corrcspond39

ART

ART

ingly smaller. This decline in the pmyer of the

pharaohs resulted in the so-called First

Intermediate Period (2181-2055 IlC), when no single ruler was strong enough to dominate the whole country. During this compar:niycly unstable and dccentr'llizcd period, the pn)yinciJI workshops at siles such rlS EI.-I\IO'.\1.1. \ and GEBEI.EIN hegan to create distil1(.:tivc funerary decoration and equipment father than being

inl1ucnccd by the artisls al the royal COllrt, as

they were in the Old Kingdom and the late

lVt idd Ie Kingdom.

The aTl of the .M iddlc Kingdom (2055-1650 Ile) is exemplified both by the fragmcnrs of relief li'om the royal pyramid complexes at D\IISIILR, EI.-I.lSII"I~ ':I.-I._\IIL' and 11\\\ \K.\ and by the spaciolls tombs of the go\"crnors buried at IIE'I II \S \, in 1\ Liddle E.gypt. In the latter, the traditional scenes of the deceased recei"ing oflcrings or hunting and IIshing in the marshes are joined by largescale depictions of wrestling and warfare (perhaps copied from Old Kingdolll royal prototypes). The history of the Middle Kingdom is very Illuch characterized by ,I t"ension between the artistic styles of the v,trious provincial sites (principally funerary art ar Beni Hasan, OEm EL-HERSII.\, .\\I:IR and \SYCT) and the styles of the royal workshops at It;mwy, a new capihll established in the "icinity of c1-Lisht. By the late nLiddle Kingdom the distincti"e prm-incia1 styles had been eclipsed hy the art of the royal Residence, a process which can be traced both in the de,'e1opment of funerary cquipment (from coffins to ceramics) and in the qualit~ and locations of provincial gm'ernors' tombs. In the late seventeenth cCl1lury Be Asiatic rulers (the IIYI,SUS) gained control of a considerable area of Egypt, which they governed from rheir strongholds in the Delta. The works of art sun-i,-ing fi'om the temples ami cities or this phase show that they simply reused and copied traditional Egyptian sculptures ~1I1d reliefs in order to strcngthen lhcir claims lO the throne. There were, howc,-cr, incre~lsing links with the f\lediterrancan world, and cxcayations at the Ilyksos capital of A"aris (TELl. Et.- I)\B' \) hayc rC"calcd j\ 1ino~1I1 style paintings suggesting close contacts with the people of Crele. After the npulsion of the Ilyksos, Egypt became tirlllly established as a major power in Ihe Near East; the fruits of conqucst and international commerce, fl'Om foreign princesses 10 exotic spices, flowed irresistibly into the :'J"ile "~llley. Thc scale and opulence of" the temples and tombs of this period could nor fail to reflect such an influx of people, commodities and ideas.

Slallle (dKlwcllfllJllscl.

l/ .1'/111 ~/Ramcscs

II,

Iwlding Iwo slal/dtlrrls. 'I"lu Sculplor ftas ftad (lIJf)1 pUl'lial suut'ss ill mn.:iug U rlij]imll bal/d (~rpebhfJ' slone across Ifte dft'sl. 191ft DYllusly, c./2-10 m:,
sa1fd.~/(JlIe {ollglomcrall'.jhnl1 Ktll'1ltlk. If.

1.-16""

(r

19~7)

The art of imperial Eg~'pr ranged from the funcrary temples of Queen IIATSltEtSLT (1473-1458 Be) and R \\ItC'ES /I (1279-1213 Ile) to the more intimalC details of the artisans' painted tombs at J)Em EI.-\IEI1I:\:\, The tombs in the \,,\I.I.I-:Y OF '1'1 II': "1~GS and the temples oC f\:J\R:'JAk., I.U.\OR, 1\\I':D1'\JE'I' Ilt\BL and m:m 1':1.Il\IIRI have done mueh to establish Ihc city of Thebes as the ccntre of thc !'Jew KingcJom cmpirc. The scat of power, howcvcr, was actu:llIy the northern cit~ of l\lemphis, ne~lr modern Cairo, where the royal Residence was located. E:xc;,n-ations during the IlJ70s and 19805 at I he New Kingdom necropolis of 1\ lcmphis (particuhtrl~ the tombs of the milifar~ commander 1I0RI.\1IIEB. fhe tre.lsurer l\1aya and the "izier !\pcr-c1) and epigraphic work in the remains thc magnificent tcmple of Ptah h,wc begun to redress the balance in (;nour of .\Iemphis. 'L'lle style of art thaI. emcrged during the socalled '\1\1 \I{'\J,\ period, which roughly curresponded to the reign of .\"III:'\J/HEi\. (1352-1 :l36 Il<:), deserves special mention. 'I'he painting, rclief and statuary of this period "'ere all characterized by ~lJ1 obsessi\'c emphasis on the god HE' and the royal family, with rhe king <Ind his family sometimes being

or

shown in unusu,llly intimate scenes. Both the king and his subjccts ,ycrc represented with unusual Eu.:ial and bodily features, and a new canon of proportions serYed to exaggerate these physical extremes. After the end of the New Kingclom, the rapidly changing artistic styles of the first millennium Be demonstrate, ah{)\'e all, Ihal Egyplian art could assimilate new possibilities while retaining' its essential character and integrity. 'l'he Egyptians of the Late.: Period (7-+7-332 Be), under attack from all sides, attempted to l'e\'i,'C thc classic ill1~lges of the Old and J\liddle Kingdoms, which must h,we symbolizcd a lost sense of stability and ccrtaint~ amid the political turmoiL The green basalt smtue of the 11,1\'411 officer LjdjaholTcsnet uemonstrates th'lt the nativc Egyptian officials were as adaptable as their works of art; it bears a det~lilcd description of his activities both in rhe reib'llS of the native Egyptian kings.\I I,\IUSI. /I (570-526 Be) and I'S.\,IITE' /II (526-525 Be) and in the cnsuing period of Persian rule, when he servcd under Darius I (522--+86 lie) (see Ill:RSlt\). After the conquest of Egypt by '\1.1':'\ \ "'DEI{ '1'1 IE GREAT (332-323 Be), thc nature or Pharaonic art was ~H.lapted to create a compromise between the needs of the native Egyptians ~lIld the preferences of the new Ptolemaic (and later Roman) rulers. Some of the largest survi, ing religious buildings - the temple of Isis at 1'1 II 1..\ E and that of Horus at Edfu - were constructed during this period of over seven hundrcd years, but the rclie.:f... "'ere beginning to appear mass-produced and repetitive. Although such Greco-Roman relief') were incrc;lsillgly poorly formulated and executed, suggesting an Egyptian priesthood thaI was descending into obscurantism and uncertainty, there afC ncve.:rthclcss indications of a skilful patterning or tcxt and iconography which helps to compe.:nsate l()l' lhe apparent aesthctic decline. .'\l the samc time, howe"cr, there were new cultural c1cments absorbed into Egypt from the j\ [editerr,lIle~1I1 world, from the F\Yl \I mummy painrings (wooden funerary portraits painted in a mixturc of W;IX and pigment kno"'n as enL'<1Ustit:) to rhe civic architccture of cities such as Alcxandri.t and Antinoopolis. prom the rvliddlc Ages on,,ards, after l:cnturies in thc shadows, Egyptian art was gradually rediscovcred by Arab and European travellers, After thc sixtcenth century there werc European revi"als of Egyptian artistic and architectural styles. Specific e'cellts produced waves of public reaction and interest: the influence of Howard C.lrter's discovcry of the tomb ofTutankhamun on the art and design of

40

ASHMUNEIN, EL-

ASSYRIANS

Europe in the 19205 is well known, but comparable levels of interest were also proYokcd by the fe-erection of the Vatican obelisk at St Peter's in 1586. Similarly, the f\apolconic campaigns in Egypt and the publication of the work of his s:tyants (see H.iYl'TOI.OGY) ga\'C risc to Egyptianizing decorariyc art. The arri'-01I in London of rhe 'Younger 1\ lemnon' (rne upper section of a colossal St.l[UC of R-\\IE$E.."i II) in 1818 and the opening of the Egyptian Court at Crystal Palace in IS5-t \\"cre also important C\'Cl1ts in terms of the western reaction to Egyptian art'. For discussion of Egyptian architecture sec P\I..\CES; P' K.\.\llDS; TE.\tI'I.ES;
TO;\IBS; TO\\''\S.

K.

LAl'.GE

and .\ 1.

IIIR.\IER, l:.~!{YPf: architcl:IUrt'.

smlplure (fllfl pailJlillg illillree Ihoust/llt/years

(London, 1968). 1--1. SClt~FER, Prilltiples oj"T:gYPliall arl, trans. J. Rtines (Oxford, 1974). C. A.LDI~ED, F.gYPliall arl (London, 1980).
VI. STE\ ENSO:\ St-I1Tl1, 71/1.' (Iff a lid archifalllrc of l/.1/l:iml Egypl, 2nd cd. (I-hrmondsworth, 19SI). T. G. H. j:\,\II:s and \~i. V. DA\ II':S, Egl'Plial/ s{UlplUre (T .0I1don, 1083). T. G. H. JA,\lI:S, I:.'gypliall jJailllillg (London, 1985). G. ROBlNS, Proportio/l alld slyle in ancienl J:.gypliall al'l (London, 1994).

Ashmunein, el- Set! 11EIt.\IOPOLlS ,\I!\GNA

Asia, western
Geographical area [Q the east of the SI:'\"AI peninsula and the Red SC;l, comprising 1\Ilcsopotamia, Arabi,l, Anawlia and thc Levant. At Icast as early as the Predynastic period, Egypt was alrcady trading with lhese areas in order to obtain such raw materials as wood , copper, sih'cr and certain semj-precious stones that were nol available in Egypt. The Egyptians' principal export to western Asia appears to h,wc been gold, obtained from mines in thc Eastcrn Desert 'Ul(.1 Nubia. Thc relationship betwecn the two regions was not always an amicable one, and the fertility of the Nile \"alley made Egypt constantly attracti\"c to settlers fi"om the less prosperous lands of western Asi,l. Thc Egyptians' generally contemptuous view of the Asiatics is exemplified by the Im/flItlion plr Ki//g Allerikara dating to the First. [nrcrmcdiatc Period: "Lo, the miscrable Asiatic, he is wretched because of the place he is in; short of water) bare of wood) its pnths arc 111:1ny and painful because of mountains.' The 'miserable Asiatics' comprised not merch the nomadic BEDOlil"l (Shasu) hut also ;he mnre settled peoples of Syria-Palestine, and although Egyptian paintings and sculptures generally portrayed

FragmcllI o/mall-pahlling./imllille lomb 0/ So!Jcklwlep (II Thebes, silO/ping flsialir em'(~}'s bringi1lg gfjis 10 'lImlllm:,e II: 18/h DYl1fH/Y, e.I-IOO HC, pllil/led plll.'Ie" H I./J III. (",]79910)
the Asiatic as a tribute-bearcr or bound captivc, the real rclalionship must h,we been a more complex amalgam of diplomatic and economic links. 'rhc 18th-Dynasty pharaohs extended the Egyprian 'empire' (perhaps better described as 'sphere of inOuence') in western ,l\sia as Ell" ,IS the Euphrates, le;llling to the inOux of many ftJrcign m:lt"erials, goods and ideas, from the inrroduction of glass to the usc of thc CL.'EIFOK\l script in diplomatic corrcspondcnce (see \\1 \K' \ J.ETrEKs). Gradually, howcycr, the Asiatic territories broke away from EgYPI and new powers arose such as thc 111"1"TITES, .\SSYKI.\'\;S ,tntl PEKSII\"S, thc two laucr powcrs C\cIHually conqucring not only the Lcv;lnt but E.gypt itself ~ I. Ro.\F, Cultural illlas f1IA1esopolalJlia {Iud ,lit' {Iudellf Near Eas/ (Oxford, 1990).

Assyrians
People inhabiting the north-eastern arca or \U:SOI'OT\.\lIA, centred on the;: city or Assur ovcrlooking the Tig-ris. They embarked on a period of imperial expansion between the carly second and early first mjllennia 1If:, most notably from 883 to 612 Be. In 671 UC, during the reign of Esarhaddon (681-669 Be), the)'

invaded Egypt, having been stung by the Egyptians' repcated incitcment of trouble among the Assyrian vassal-towns in the Le\'l11t. On this occasion, however, thcy soon withdrew, allowing the 25th-Dynasty Kushitc pharaoh Taharqo (690-66-1- Be) 10 reg-.lin power tcmporarily. In 669 Be the new Assyrian ruler, Ashurbanipal, launched a ncw campaign into Egypt, culminating in the execution of the rulcrs of the \'arious sm.lll Delta kingdoms, Ica\"ing only :'\'EK...\U I of Sais 10 rule thc country (or Lo\\cr Egypt at le.lst) on Assyria's behalf. 1n 664 Be 'HmutJm,mi, the successor of 'nlharqo, succeeded to the throne of Kush and immediately bid claim to Egypt. Proceeding north, he was actively welcomed at Aswan and Thebes, and thcn marched on \lemphis which he lOok, slaying l'\ekau I in the process. Ashurlxmipal retaliatcd in 66-4-/3 Be, recapturing j\ lemphis and finally sackingThcbes and looting its temples, although 'Thnutam<lni managed to escape to Nubia. PS!\\ITEK I (66+-610 Be), son ofNekau I, was placed in chargc of the country, purporledly as an Assyrian vassal, but actually as an independent ruler. He cominucd his ("alher's uelicate policy of cncouraging n.llive Egyptian reviyal whilc avoiding (,;011flicl. with his nominal overlords. This period of revitalization endcd with the invasion of the I'ERSI,\N king Cambyscs in 525 BC. Thc Assyrian policy of appointing local vassal kings seems to havc minimized their impact on thc society and economy of thc Egyptians, particularly when

-II

ASTARTE

ASTRONOMY AND ASTROLOGY

compared with the effects of the Persian, Ptolemaic and Roman regimes. D. OATES, Sflulies ill/he IIneiem histOly o/uu,.thern Iraq (London, 1968), 19-41 [the early
development of Assyria]. A. J Sl'f\L1NGI~R, 'Assurbanipal and Egypt: a soorcc study',JAOS 94 (1974), .116-28. - , 'Esarhaddon and Egypt: ~m analysis of the first invasiun of Egypt', OriCllIa!ia 43 (1974), 295-326.

N. GRIt\L\I., A his/oJ)' oIaf/ciell/l.gypt (Oxford, 1992), .1+1-5 A rclit:/blnd.:/i(}/J/ lilt' palace o/As!lIIrbauipa/ (c.6-/-S !J(./, s!1011Jing lire As.~yrian amql allad.!ing (Ill Egyptiall tom1/.. II. I. J.I J/l. (n:,Jf24928)

religious entities were regarded as microcosms of the universe itself Just as rhe sky-goddess l'{UT was thought to spread ber star-studded body OVCr the earth, so she was also considered to stretch herself protectively over mummies and the houses of the gods. In the Old Kingdom, [rom the reign of the 5th-Dynasty pharaoh Vnas (2375-2345 Be) onwards, the belief that mortals could be rcbo.rn in the form of the circumpolar stars led to the depiction of large numbers of stars on the ceilings of the corridors and chambers of pymmids. Indeed, one of the utterances in the PYRAMlD TEXTS was a request for Nut to spread herself over the deceased so that he might be 'placed among the imperishable stars' and have eternal life.

cd. Each specific dCGlIl rase above the horizon at dawn for an annual period of tcn days. The brightest of thesc was the dog star Sirius (known to the Egyptians as the goddess SOPDET), whose 'hcliacal rising' on about 19 July coincided with the annual Nile inundation and therefore appears to have been regarded as an astronomical event of some importance. The god SAil, the mythical consort of Sopdet l was the personification of another decan, the constellation of Orion. The c.llcndrical systcm based on deC~lIlS was flawed by its failure to take into account the fact that the Egyptian year was always about six hours shan, adding up to a slippage of ten days every fony ycars. It is therefore unlikely that the J\lliddlc Kingdom 'star clocks' wcre ever regarded as a practical means of measuring time. Ncvertheless, rhe decans were later depictcd on the ceilings of tombs and temples) stan-jng with the tomb of S!'::\IE;\IMUT in western Thehes (rr353; c.1460 Be:). The 'astronomical ceilings' in the Osireion of Set)' I at AI3YDOS ((.1290 RC), and the tomb of RAMESES IV (K\'2) (1:.1 ISO Be) in the Valley of the Kings. include cosmological texts describing the period of scventy days spent in the underworld by each dCGIn.

Astarte
'War-goddess of Syrian origin, probably introduced into Egypt in the 18th Dynasty (1550-1295 BC), usually portraved as a naked woman on horseback wearing a headdress consisting of the alt/crown or bull horns. She was adopted infO the Egyptian pantheon as a daughter of RA (or sometimes of P'l!\! I) and one of the consorts of SETIl, and she was p'lrticularly linked with equestrian and chariotry skills; like '\Nt\T (another Syrian goddess worshipped in Egypt) she was considered to protect the pharaoh's chariot in battle. A stele of Amenhotep 11 ncar the Great Sphinx at Giza, recording her delight in rhe young king's riding skills} is probably the earliest surviving Egyptian textual reference to Astartc. J. LECI.i\NT, 'Astarte acheval d'apres Ics representations cgypticnnes', Syria J7 (1960), 1-67. R. STADELI\lf\NI\, Syrisc:h-paliis/inisd/c Cot/liei/ell ill Agltp/en (Leiden, 19(7), IOI-lO.

astronomy and astrology

The Egyptians often decorated thc ceilings of their temples, tombs and coffins with depictions of the heavens, since most funerary and

The astronomical knowledge of the Egyptian priests and architects at this time is indicated by early examples of the ceremony ofpedj shes ('stretching the cord'), first attested on a granite block of the reign of the 2ndDynasty king Khasckhemwy ((.2686 BC). 1'his method relied on sightings of the Grear Bear and Orion (sce SMI) constellations, using an {instrument of knowing' (merkhet), which was similar in function to an aSITolabe, and a sighting tool made from the central rib of a palm leaf, thus aligning the foundations of the pyramids and sun temples with the cardinal points, usually achieving an error of less than half a degree. Although the tcxts and rclicfli in temples of later periods continued to describc the enactment of this proccdure (as in the temple of [-'orus at EDFU), it appears to have become a mcrc ceremony and in practice the temples were simply aligncd in relation to the river. The earliest dctailed texts relating to astronomy are the 'diagonal calendars' or 'star clocks' painted on wooden coffin lids of the early Middle Kingdom and also of the Late Period. These calendars consisted of thirty-six columns, listing the thirty-six groups of stars ('dec<ms') into which the night sky was divid-

In/erior oI/he lid n.{/lte mooden adlill (~rSl)lel; slw/J}ing NU1.flaliked I~y sigm of/fte zodiac (flld per.wlI!lica/iolls oIthe 24 hours oI/he day. RO/1/un period, 2nd cenllll:JI A{),.f/"011! Abd e1-Qllrna, Thebes, L. 2.13 iii. (LA6705)

42

ASTRONOMY AND ASTROLOGY

ASWAN

From at least as early as the Middle Kingdom the Egyptians recognized five of the planets, portraying them as deities sailing across the heavens in barks. 'rhcse 'stars that know no rest' were Jupiter (Horus who limits the two lands), lVlars (Horus of the horizon or Horus the red), ~1crcL1ry (Scbcgu, a god associated with SETH), Saturn (Horus, bull of the sky) and Venus ('the onc who crosses' or 'god of the morning'). The ceilings of many roy;.tl tombs in the Valley of the Kings were decorated with depictions of the heavens. In the tombs of Ramescs \"I, VII and IX (K\'9, K:d and Kv6 respectively), dating to the second half the twelfth century He, a set of twenty-foul' seated figures representing sLars were transccrcd by grids of horizontal and \-crtieallines, allowing the passage of time LO be measured in terms of the transits of stars through the sky. The concept of the horoscope (the belief that the stars could innucncc human destiny) does not seem to have reached Egypt until the Ptolemaic period, Dy the first century AI) the Babylonian zodiac, represented on the ceiling of the chapel of Osiris on the roof of the temple of Hathor at DE~DERA, had been adopted. "fhe sun-iving lists of lucky and unlucky days appear to ha,'c had no connection with astrolog~, deri"ing instead from the intricacies of religious festi,'als and mythological events.

- , Egyptill1l astronomical texts, 3 ,'ols (Pro\'idenee, 1969). R. P'\RKER, IAnciclU Egyptian astronomy', Philosophical TraJl.wcliol1S oj'the RI~J'/ll SociNy oj' LOlldoll276 (197{), 51-65.

or

Stele oISellllSret Iff Fom Elep!uUltiue, describing Ihe built/iug oIlljiJrfress allhe sile. 121h Dynasty, c./87+-/855I1c, II. 37 CIII. (To /852)

RIGJlT

PllIn ofthe ASJVan region.

Z. ZABA, L'orieltfflfiOIl flsfl'OlIollliquetiam

I'mu.:iClIlIC Egyptc, ella

prc(:e,l',I'ioll de /'axe till IIlOude (Prague, 1953). 0. NEUGI':BAUER and R. PARKER, 'Two demotic horoscopes',]EA 5{ (1968),231-5.

RELO\\" At Asmall till: Qpbbel el-HaJ1JlI (the D011!l' oflhe ltVillds) is lIt'IlUl/~)"he islamic lomb seen 011 lOp ()/II/I~'i hill on Ihe me,\'t b(fll~', but is wide6' med 10 refer 10 tire ({re({ of Old Kingdom lombs {/It illio Ihe hil/side. The elffmllCCS fO seural o/Ihese ((III be sef11111idmay up llu' slopt'. (I'. T. tV/Cf/O/SO\)

4
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

modern Aswan Qubbet el-Hawa rock tombs rock tombs island of Elephantine temple of Satis Nilometer temple of Khnum Roman temple ptolemaic temple unfinished obelisk northern Quarries island of Sehel

13 temple 14 famine stele 15 Rrst Aswan Dam 16 southern quarries 17 island of Aqilqiyya (current site of Philae temple) 18 island of Philae 19 temple on the island of Biga 20 island of el-Hesa 21 High Oam 22 New Kalabsha

G. R, HUGIIES, 'An astrologer's handbook in demotic Egyptian', gYPfOlflgi((l1 sllldies ill hOllor "fR. A. Parka, cd. L. H. Lesko (Hano\'er and London, 1986), 53-69. I-I. BEIXUCII, 'Stern', Lexikou der /fgypfologie \'I, cd. W. Heick, E. OltO and W. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1986), 11-14.

Aswan (ane. Swenet, Syene) Site in Upper Egypt, situated immediately to the north or the first Nile cataract, now at the northern tip of Lake Nasser. It consists of three basic components: the town, temples and granite quarries of Aswan proper on the

43

ASWAN lIIGH DM,,'

AT EN

e.1stcrn bank of the Nile; the rock-cuI tombs of ~Ibbcl cl-Hawa on the western hank; ,md the town, temples and '\ILO.\IETI:R of Elephamine,
an island in the centre of the river. Apart from

12th-Dynasty nomarch Djefahapy contains uniquely dctailcd legal texts of endowmcnt and was later re-uscd as a cult cenrre of
WEP\\,\\\,[T.

TIIUTMOSF. I

(150-1-1+92 IIC), who was portrayed in his temple at Tombos in ubia WC.lring the sun-disc and followed by the hieroglyphic sign for (goo'.

two small Greco-Roman temples there are few

surviving remains of Asw:m itself since the

,uca h;ls continued 1"0 be occupied lip to modern limes. The tombs of the governors of
Aswan 1 at ~Ihhct cl-Hawa, which date mainly to the Old and Middle KingdoJ1ls (26R6-1650 Be), contain important biographical reliefs alllI

E 1.. GRlFFrlll, Tlli' iuscripliow ofSill/ aud Du Rife" (London, 18R9). G. A. RI:IS'E.R, 4Thc tomb ofT-lepzefa, nom arch orSillt',;T:A 5 (1919), 79-98. II. TIIOI\1PSON, A ji//lli~)1 ar(hh1t!./i"ollf Silll (Ox/ord,1934).

inscriptions. 'fhe island of Elephantine has been cxclYated by a German learn since the 1970s; their results show the steady expansion of the settlement from a small E'lr1y Dynastic yillagc and temple to the much larger town of
the Roman period.

Aten
Deity rcpresented in the form of the disc or orb of the sun, the l:ulr of which was parlil:uhtrly promoted during the reigns of Amenhotep IV 11\t':IIE:'\..\TE:'\ (1352-1336 Be)

.E. EllEI., Dil' f't:lsi>f1gniher da Qllbbe/ d-j-Jal1Jt1 bci .1SS/uUl (\Vieshadcn, 1967-). E. BIH:SCI \~I :md S. PER'IGOTrI,. ismail: il /'/Ilpio /olcll/ai((j di hi. I Morelli "ccowli e iserilli (Pisa, 1978).

Aswan High Dam

An ext.ensive artificial reservoir was created in Lower Nubia, when the first Asw.1I1 dam was constnu.:tcd (and height.ened in three phases) between 1902 and 1933, necessitating a ClmP'1ib111 to surrey Nubian sites before they were submcrged. \Vhcn work bcgan on the new Aswan High Dam in 1960, the crem ion of Lake lasscr, one of the largest resernlirs in the world, was initiated. A UNESCO-co-ordinated oper.llion was therefore 1:llInched, not only to record the Nubi'1I1 monuments threatened by this much more extensive nooding but also to dislll<ll1lle ~md move cerl<lin monumcnts (including 1'1I11.t\I~, r\BU SIJ\WEJ. ;md Kt\LABSIIA) to higher ground-h~the completion of the clam in 1971. A. E. WEIU/\J.I., Rl'por/ Oil /hi' anliquilies (~rLt!1J)er Nllbill (Cairn, 19(7). T S \\ E-S6nt"WERGII (cd.), Temples alld /ombs of ""rielll Nubia (Lundun, 1987).

Asyut (anc. Ojaw"'; T.) kopolis)

Capital of the thirtcenth pper Egyptian nome (prmincc), located roughly midway he[wccn Cairo and Asw.1Jl. Despite IlUlllerous textual references to lhc importance of the Pharaonic fown of Asyu[ and its Icmple of the jackal-god \\ EI'\\i\\\ 1':"1", the cxcm-ated remains arc restricted primarily to rhl' rock-tombs of the local elite, dating from the 9th Dynasty [0 the Ramesside period (c.2160-1069 Ilc). The biographical texts on the walls of the Firsl LnlCrmedi:ltc Period and l\Jliddle Kingdom rod:-lOmbs provide historical information on lhe struggle between the rulers of IIF.Rl\KI.EOI~)l.1S \l.\(i,"", and TIIEBES. The LOmb of the

AJ..,lll'twlt'll ("-1i) tllld Nejer/i/i (rig/II) J1)Qrship Ihc A/m (/fJP leli), mlu1Jl' raJ's clld ill hlllld.~, .~()ml' of /hnll exlt'lll/iug 10 Ihe oj]erillg.( piled il/fro11/ of _'Nlenll/ell. Thi!jigltre~' lIrt! ht!lIi'i~J' damllged. parl()' due 10 dift'C/J il1ll1(~ slom' {md par/~)I {H a resull (~rlllr /"L'lIclirm agaim//hr so-called herc.ry of ANlma/i'lI. From/he lomb oITu/ll (F...J8) ill /hi' .wII/hall grnup o./Amal"llll. (/~ 'f: \/CIfOU'OX)
and Smenkhkar.l (IJJR-1336 Be). The close links bCl"wcen thc disc and the sUIl-god have led to some uncerlainty as to whet hcr the Atcn was treated as a divine being in its own rig-hI. Therc is also a certain amount of evidence to suggesl that Akhenatcn may evcn have equilted the Aten with his own father} .HIEi"\1I0TEP III (1390-1352 lie). Earlier pharaohs had been <lssociated with the Aten, as in the case of

Thc popularity of the Aten slowly gTC\\ throughout Lhe f\'ew Kingdom and the ch.1racteristic iconography of the disc with rays in the form of outstrctched arms had alrcild~ appeared in the time of Amenhotep [I (1427-1400 Ilc). The Aten was panicularl) favoured by Amenhotep "' (1]90-1352 lie), during whose reign there is evidence of the presence of priests of Atcn at IIEI.IOI'OJ.lS (the traditional centre of the worship of the sun-god I{ \). Hc also incorporated referenccs to the Aten in the names he ga\T ro his p~lli1ce at .\lAU':..t\l...\, a di\-ision of his army and a pleasure boat. Howeycr, it was under Amenhotcp l\ that the cult of the Atcn rc:.u.:hed its pcak. On his accession as sole ruler, the Aten becamc the 'sole' god, and ;l tcmple, the Pcr-Aten, \\as built on the pcrimct'cr of the templc of Amlin at K!\RNAK. This included at least threc sanctuaries, onc uf which was called the Hwt-benbcn Cmansion of rhe UE:-"BEI' '). 'Vithin a short time the cult of Am un appears to have been seyerely cunailed and eventually proscribed, and the Atcn began to be promoted ~lS the sale, exdusiyc deity. Around the fifth year of his reign, Amcnhotep 1\ took the next logical step, whil:h was ro create a new capiml cir-y with its 0\\ n tcmples dedicated 1"0 the cult of the ALen. J Ie called this new u)undation Akhetaren ('the horizon of the disc') and located it in a virgin site in !\1iddle Egypr Ihat was untainted by the \\"{)rship of olher gods (sec EI.--\'\IJ\Rf\,,\). The king changed his name and ritles from .!\menhotep to Akhcnatcn, although demenls of his titles which already concerned the sungod (rathcr than Anum) were left unchanged. I-Tis acknowledgemenl of thc cults of the sungod included the prmision of a burial place for a \Ii'.""[\ IS bull (lhe physical m.mifeslatioll of Ra) at el-Amarna, although this tomh remains undis(;O\-ered and was perhaps ne\-cr completed. Although Akhenaten is sometimes regarded .1S the firsf proponent of monotheism, his relationship to the cnlt of the Aten and the rest of the EgYPI ian pantheon must he regarded firmly in lhe l:ontext of his time. Erik Hornung's view of the cult of the Atcn as a (orm of henothcisl1l, in which one god W<lS effectively elevated above many others, is probably closer to the mark. Two major tcmples to Ihe Aten wcre huill at el-Arnarna, although, unlike major Theban tcmples, they were huilt largely of mudbrick, perhaps with the intcntion of 1<1[er

++

ATUM

rebuilding them in Slone, "fhe Per-Aten, described by its CXC~lVaLOrs ;IS the Great Temple, was an open, unroofed structure covcring an ;lrca of about 800 X 300 m at the northern end of the ceJ1lral city. The HwtAten (literally 'mansion of the Arcn' but usually described by the c.xC;I\ators as the Small Aten Temple) was a smaller building but of similar design; both were strewn with offering tables, ami the firsl coun of the small temple contained a massive mud-brick altar, which may have been one of rhe fir~a monumcnts to be erected in the ne\\' city. LVlany of the rock-rombs of the elite at dAmama, which were l:.xc.wmcd at rhe nort hern and southern ends of the b'ly of ditls to the Cast of the city, have prayers to the Aten inscribed on the jambs of their dool"\\ays. ~\lost of these prayers appear to be CXlracts from a longer composition, the I~)IIIIJI 10 11u: ..l1l:1I which some scholars believc to ha\'e been composed by Akhenaten himselr. The most complete surviving version of this hymn was inscribed in the wmb of A', 'superintendent of the royal horses', who waS probably the brother of' Qj.leen TlY (Akhenaten's lTIOlher) and later succeeded TU'li\i'KII.\ \IL \1 on lhe throne. This hymn, which has sc,'cral antecedents in e'lrlicr 18th-Dynasty hymns ro the sun-god, has been compared with the Biblical Psalm IlH, although the distinct parallels between lhe n\o arc usually interpreted simpl~ as indications of the common literary heritage of Egypt and ISK.\EI.. The hymn also stresses Akhenaten's role as intermcdi:uy between the Aten and the populace, by which means he perhaps hoped to avoid the creation of ;I srrong priesthood such as that of Amun. There was rigid official adherence to the cult of Ihe Aten alllong thL: elite at cl-Amarna, 111 aIl\' of wh0111 built shrines dedicated to the ne"\\' roral family and the Aten in the g.lrdens of th~ir \'ll1as. h is clear, howe"er, that traditional religious cults continued to be obser\"ed, perhaps co"crtl~, e\'en among the inhabitants of the city at c1Amarna itself Tn lhe 'workmen's yillage" on the eastern edge of the cit~, numerous amulets of traditional gods h,1\'e been found, .IS \\'ell as small pri\'ate chapels prob~lbly dedicated to anceSI-or worship and showing no traccS of the official religion. On Akhenatcn's death there was a re\'ersion to the worship of Amun, and att'e111pts were made to rel11o\'e ;III traces of the cull of the Aten. The citv at c1-AJ11:1rna was abandoned and, perhaps ;;s early as the reign of IIORE\II wn (1323-1295 Be), it begom to be demolished, often lea\'ing onl) the plaster foundations of the Ceremonial buildings. The sLOnc 'I:\I..\'I:\T blocks from the templcs of the Aten were then

re-used, primarily as rubble filling the pylons of new temples dedicated to the traditional official cults. Tn the reliefs at el-Amarna and other sites. the n.llllCS and faces of Akhcnaten, his qucen 'I':FERTITI and all those associated with this 'hcresy' wcre defaced in the aftermath of the Amarna period. l\. PI:\i\"I\:Ol-'l'"l 'T .es grandes compositiuns rcligicuscs du :\i u lI"c1 Empire CI Ia rd'urmc d'!\m"rn,,', BI/o;.10 62 (196+), 207-1~. D. B. RE.OFOlm, 'The sun-disc in Akhcnmcn's prog-ram: its worship and its antccedents l I', J-IIICE 13 (1976), +7-61. - , 'The sun-disc in Akhcnatcn's program: its worship and its antcccdems. II'.J -IRei:.' 17 (1982), 21-3~. - , .1J.../WItlft.'l1 lilt, herdic hug (Princeton, 198-1-), 157-8+. C. ALDItED, _IHU!lItIICU, i.'iug of Egyp/ (London, 19~~), 237---18.

similar in appcarance to ~l pair of lions of the reign of Amcllholcp III from SOI.EIl. A. Rm\"E, 'Short rcport on the eXL'J\"~ltions of the Institute of Archaeology Liverpool;'lt Athribis (TeHAtTib)',. IS.-IE 38 (1938), 52.1-32. P. VEK'\"L'S, Alhrif,;s: Il'xles '1 do(Umculs n:lalif. ,i /a geugraph;,', allx (lilies el Ii I'ltisloirc d'l/IIl! ril/e till DC/lrt ~~YPli(,1/ tf /";POI//l1: phartlol/;I/m' (C,irol 1978). K. MVSl.IWIEC ~lIld T I IERIIIU I, 'Polish archaeolog-ieal activities ~It Tell Atrib in 19R5', Tht' ardlllf:tdogy (d/lte Nile Del/a: problems ifllll priuri/ii's. cd. E. C. 1\1. \';ill den Brink (Amsterdam, 1988), 177-203.

Atum
Creator-god and solar deity of 11I':UOI-'OLlS, where he was gradually syncretized \\ ilJl lhe sun-god R\, to form the gud Ra-Atul11. According to the Hcliopoliran theology, Atum came into heing hef()re he;l\'cn and c.lrlh were separated, rising up from 1\liN, the waters of chaos, to form the I'RIW'~\"l\L _\IOL:2\ltJ. His name means 'the al1', signifying his CREATI01\ and summarion of all that exists. Atum's creation of the universe WilS conceptualized in terllls of <l family of ninc gods known as the Hcliopolitan E:\"~EAtJ. Thus the two offspring of Atum, Silt; (air) and TEF'LT (moisture), bCc.lnle the parents of (jEn (elrth) and :\L'T (sky), and the grandparents of OSIRIS, ISIS, SETII and .'EPllTllrs. Atum W~IS said to ha\'C produced Shu and Tefnut by copulaling with his hand or, according to olher sourccs, spirting them into being. There h;L'i been some debate as to whether Atum's act of procrcation constilllt.cd masturb:uion or copulation, in thai his hand seems to have represented the fl:male principle. Roth Atum and his hand were therc!i.)lL: portrayed as a divinc couple on coff.ins orthe First TntermcdialL: Period. Similarly, the title 'god's hand' was adopted by Theban priestesses supposedly married to the god \\11;'. Arum was regarded as a protecti\'c deity, parriculariy :lssociateu with the rituals of kingship. It was Atum who lifted the dead king from his pyramid to the heavens in order to transform hirn into a st~lr-gud. and in later times he protected the deceased during the journey through lhe underworld. He is usually depicted as an anthropomorphic deity orten wearing the double crown. The animals particularly sacred to him were the lion, thc bull, the IClJi'.EL\ION and [he lizard 1 while he was also believed to be manifested in the S<>\R \H, which emerged frol11 irs ball of dung just as XJ'U1\1 appeared from the primeyal mound. Sometimes he was portrayed in the essentially primordial form of a snake, which was the appc~1fance th~lt he was expcet-

Athribis see TEl.l. IITIII\I Atrib, Tell (:me. HlVt-Hervib, Athrihis) 'l<)\vn site in the central Delta region neilr rhe modern town of Bcnha, about 40 km norrh of Cairo. 11 has been greatly reduced over the years through 10c:11 farmers' large-scalc rCIllO\'al of scbllkh (ancient mud-brick re-used as fenilizer), although in 1924, in the course of such plundering, a large cache of je\\eller~ dating to the Latc Period (747-332 Be) \\"as discO\'ered. A Polish archaeologic.11 expedition under the direction of Pascal VermIs eXC;,l\";lted p~~~f the post-Pharaonic town during the
I~~~and 19905. According to survi\'ing texts, 1<::11 Atrih was occupied at Icast as early as the 4th Dynasly (2fJI3-2494 Be), but" no remains earlier than the 12th DvnaSl)' (1985-1795 Be) have been found. The principal god worshipped in t"he Athribis rcgion was Ilorus Khenry-khety, represented sometimes as a f~llcon-he:lded man and sometimes aS;I c.:rocodile. The major monuments at the sitc were a temple dating to thc time of .\II\IOSE It (570-526 Be), the 10mb of Queen Takhut ".590 Be) and a large settlement and ccmctery of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods (.132 Be-I\) 395). The tcxts indicatc that therc was once also an important tcmple of Amenhmcp III (I3YO-U52 lie) al rhe site, perhaps hecause this was the home-town Of"dlC innucntial chief architect, \L\IE'iII<JTEI' SOi\ OF IlAI'L.. Alrhough nOlhing remains of the rel11ple in 5;/11, it would probably have incurporated the statue of;\ lion now in the collection of the British l\luseul11, which is insc.:rihed with the name of Ramescs II (1279~1213 Be), ~Ilthollgh it origin~llIy bore the cartouche of Amenhotcp III. This sculpture is

+5

AUTOBIOGRAPHIES

AY

De/ail (~(lhl!jjl//cr(IIY slele oI

lire deceased (011 flit' jil,. right) mo/'slJippillg lite sill/-god ill three
SepaJ'{flc.!nnm: Nfl-Homldl/y, A//Im (third./iwll Ihe righl. wearing fhe dOl/ble t'fo1/Ju) tlnd K/lI:pri (with {{ Jell/'ll/! beetle ollltis hcadj./ollomed by the /imlTflry deifies Osiris, lsi,l', Nephll~J's (llld lite

Pedi(f/lleJl1/c1J11esll"(fJl~l', ",llOm/lIg

jad.:al-hl!adl'{1 Anubis. 30th DYUlfsly or fm'6' Ptolemaic period, --lIlt-3rt! (full/ries BC, palmed plas/er Oil 1,'fJOtI,Fnll/ Tlu'bes, II. 74 (111. (E /8-162)
cd to adopt when [he cosmos finaJly collapsed, returning everything to its original primenl state. K. SETIIE, "AWOl als Ichneumon'. z.,IS 63 (1928),5(}-3. E. BRl,;"NER-TRAl.:T, 'Arum :1ls Bogenschiitzc', MDAIK 14 (1956), 2(}-8. P. DERClIi\I~, ILc demiurge et la balance" Religions (11 Egyp/( hellrfl1islique el romaine: {QIIQque de Slrtisbourg (paris, 1969),31-----4. E. HOR:'\L~G, Idell illlo image, trans. E. Bredeck (New York, 1992), -13-7.

autobiographies see

I.ITER 'TURE

Avaris .\"eI' TELl. EI.-n:\n~(\

Ay (1327-1323 Be) Late 18th-Dynasty ruler who came ro the throne after the short reign of TUTi\KK..IIA.\iUN (1336-1327 Be). In his earlier career he was an important official during the reign of :\KI-IENATE'\I (1352-1336 Be). Like YUYA, the father of Queen TIY, he came from AKJlMI~1 and held the tirles 'superintendent of the royal horses' and 'god's f~lthcr'; it has therefore been

argued that he may well have been Tiy's brother, Akhcnarcn's uncle and perhaps uncle or great-unde of Tutankhamun. It has even been suggested that the unusual office of 'god's father' could be held only by the king's f~lther-in-law, which might have made Ay the father of M.I'ERTI"'!. \Vhatcycr the truth behind these theories, there is good evidence to show that he was closely involved in the events of the Amarna period, and had begun La construct one of the largest tombs at EI.-A:\I.\Rt'A, containing the longer of the two surviving yersions of the f~)'mll 10 Ill/! AUII (sec .\:n::'\'). The last decoration in Ay's el-Amarna tomb secms to hayc taken place in thc ninth year of Akhenatcn's reign. The progress of his career between then and the end of Akhenaten's reign is known from a number of inscribed funerary items, showing that he rose to the position of VIZIER and rOy;11 chancclJor, as well as acquiring the unusual epithet, 'doer of right'. A fter the reigns of Akhenatcn and Smenkhkara both Tutankhamun and Ay began to reform the religious heresies of the Amarna period but, bccausc of Ay's close connections with his predecessors, his reign of f(IUr or five years is usually rcgarded as a continuation of the same grip on the throne. On the wall of the burial chamber of the illustrious smallcr tomb in which Tutankhamun was actually buried, Ay is depicted as the loyal heir administering the final rilllals to the royal mummy. The real break was to come with the reign of his successor, the generalIIOREJ\lIIEB, who had no family links with the Thutmosid royal family (except possibly through his wife MUlnedjmet).

Abandoning his unfinished tomb at c1Amarna, Ay usurped a second tomb in a western branch of the Vt\LLEY OF TilE KI~GS (1-::\ 23), which had probably been intended lilt TUlankhamun (and was perhaps originally Ihe tomb of Prince Thurmose, who prcdece;1sed his father Amenhotep '"). The scenes in the romb portray him with his first wif'C Tty rather thail nkhesenpaaten, one of the daughters of Akh' atcn, whom he is thought to ha\c m;lrric in order [Q consolidate his claim to the throne. One unique feature of this tomb is the presence of a scene of hunting in the marshes, which was usually found in nobles' tombs rather than the burial place of a pharaoh. T, DE GAfUS D.\.\ lES, The rock lombs ofe1-flmllnm \'1 (London, 1908), 16-2-1,28-35. P. E. 1 E\\/JEKR\, ~King Ay, the successor of Tumnkhamun',JEA 18 (1932), 5(}-2. ~. C. SEI-:u:, 'King Ay and the dose of the Amarna period',}NES 1-1 (1955),168-80. 0.]. S(]L\DE:,\, 'Clearance of the tomb of King Ay (\\'\'23)',}ARCE21 (198-1), 39-fJ-I. C. AI.IJREIJ, AkhclIlIlell: killg ofl:.gypi (London, 1988), 298-30 l.

46

~~

--=B,-=A~D.::A:.:.R:.:I,-,=.EL=---

B
ba
The Egyptians considered that each indiyidual person was made up of five distinct parts: the physical body, the /10, the K:\, the X\.\IE

and the

The 1m has similarities with our concept of 'personality' I in that it comSIIAJ)Q\\.

prised all those non-physical attributes which made onc human being unique. Howc,"cr, the

concept of the btl also referred to power, and

could be extended w god!\ as well as inanimate objects. Btl was therefore also the term used

for what might be described as the physical manifestations of ccrr:lin gods, so that the
.M emphitc :\PIS bull was the!Ja of OSIRJS; similarly the four sons of IIOHUS were his ba.

the ba, flying freely between tomb and underworld. Howe\'er, it was also belie\'ed that the ba could ndopt any form it wished, ~lI1d there were numerous runerary spells to assist this process of transformation. In order for the physical bodies of the deceased to suni\e in the afterlife, they had to be reunited with the ba e\'ery night, and Spell 89 of the BOOt..:. OF TilE I>I':AI) recommended that a golden btl-bird should be placed on the chest of the mummy in order to facilitate this reunion. The btl-bird was also incorpormed into the decoration of private collins from the 21st Dynasty onwards. Far [rom corresponding to the modern western concept of a ~spirir' (as it is somelimes [mnslated), the btl was closely linked to the physical body, to Lhe extenl that iL too was considered to h,1\'e physical needs for such pleasures as food, drink ;lnd sexual acti\ity. E. "VoJ.r-BRIN~\I.\N:\, Versl/ch riller Del/Jung de.\ Begl"dfi~s 'ba' rmhond der Ubalielenlllg del' Fni'h:::.eitlllld des AI"~n Reirhes (Freiburg, 1968). L. V. Z..\ llK:\l{,.11 .I'll/dy (~r(he ba (()1Icepl in al/denl Egyptian (exls (Chicago, 1968). H. Gm:oICKE, 'rhe I"eporl about Ihe displlle (~ra 11/(//1 milh his ba (P. Balin302.J) (Baltimore, 1970). J. P. AJJ.E~, 'Funerary rexts and their meaning\ .MulI/lllil's alld magic, ed, P. Lacovara, S. D'Auria, and C. 1-1. Roehrig (Boston, 1988),38-49. E. I10RXU:'\G, idea il1JO image, trans. E. Bredeck (New York, 1992), 179-8-1.

R. KOLDF.wEY, 711' c.\'C{f7.:aJiOl1S aJ Bakl,lou (Londnn, 1914). I-I. FIGULLA and 'vV. J. 1\1.ARTIN, LeJJers alJ(l dOfl{mellJS ofJhe Old Bak}!lolliol1 period (London and Philadelphia. 1953). J. O.Hle" BII/~),lolI, 2nd ed. (London, 1986). D. B. RO)FORD, Eg},pJ. Cauaau (llJ(llsmcl i1l allci!'uJ limes (Princeton, 1992), +30-69.

Badari. elA rca of .pper Egypt betwcen .\ILtr-mar and

Q1U, including numerous Prcdynastic cemeteries (notahly !\losragedda, DeiI' ihsa and the cemctcry of cl-Badari itself), as well as at least one early Predynastic settlement at Hammami:l. The finds from c1-Badari form the original basis for the Badarian period (r.5500--!000 lie), the earliest phase or the Upper Egyptian PREDYi\:>\STIC PEHIOD. Thc e)Badari region, strerching for 30 km along the cast bank of the Nile, \\"as first investigated by Guy Brunton and Gertrude CatonThompson between 1922 and 1931. !Vlnst of the cemeteries in the Badarian region have yielded distinctive pottery vessels (particubrly red-polished ware with blackenccl tops), as well as terraCot'ta and ivory anthropomorphic figures, slate palettes, stone vases and flint tools. 'I'he contents of the Predynastic cemeteries at el-Badari haye been subjected to a number of sFatistical analyses attempting to clarify the c1r-0nology and social history of the Badanan penod. G. BRU~""'O~ ct a1., Q!'ulIlld Badari, 3 vols (London, 1927-30). G. BRUNTOX and G. Grro~- TIIO.\II'SON, The BIUlllri'l1/ ciz:i/islIliol1l1llll prelll~~Jorir remllillS lIelir Bodor; (London, 1928). G. BRUNTON, A10sllIgetlda 1I1J(1 Jhe 7ilSilll1 mfJun: (London, 1937). -, A'lrl1mllr (London, 19-18). \V. KAISER, 'Zur Siidausdchnung der "orgeschichtlichcn Deltakulturen und zur friihen Entwicklung Oberagyptens', A/1DAIK-lI (1985),61-87. D. L. HOI..\IES, 'Archaeological cultural resources and modern land-usc actiyities: some observations made during a recent survey in the Badari region, Egypt'.lARCE 29 (1992), 67-80.

Babylonia
.\l1-:501'0T.\.\IIA

De/ai/from the Book ofthe Dead of HUlleJer. consisting oftire t:iguelle associated mirlr Chapter J7, mhich shoms (I ba-bird 011 a shrine-shaped pli11lh. 19Jh D)'U(lS~ll. c.1285 IJC, paiuJed papyrus. 1'011/ Thebes. (".,9901)

Ir was necessary for the deceased to journey from the tomb to rejoin his ka if he was to become transformed into an M':H, and since the physical body could not do this it was the duty of the btl. The Egyptian nameS of the Jabiru stork and the ram both had the same phonetic value as ba, therefore the hieroglyphic signs for these creatures were used to refer to it in writing. It is possible that this accidental association with the stork led to the depiction of the btl as a bird with a human head and Often also with human arms. The Egyptians regarded migratory birds as incarnations of

to the southern part of from the time of Hammurabi (1792-1750 IIC) until the Christian era. Its capital was the city of Babylon, the site of which is located about 80 km south or modern Baghdad. The country cO\'ered those areas described as SC~IER and .'\K..K.!\D during the third millennium BC, and like them its language (Babylonian) \Y;IS written in the CU'I'EIFORAI script. In the late se\'cnrh century BC, the expansion of Babylonian power into Srria-P~11estine clashed with Egyptian interests there. The Saitc pharaoh Nekau II (610-595 BC) opposed the Babylonian advance, but in the battle of Carchemish, the armies of N abopolassar, led by his son Nebuchadnezzar fl, defeated the Egyptian army, thus effectiyely ending Nekau [['S hold on Syria. In 601 DC, however, the armies of Ncbuchadnezzar wcre driven back fi'om the borders of the Delta by an Egyptian army including GIU::B':. mercenaries. In the reign of MIMOSE 11 (570-526 lie) an alliance was established between Egypt and Babylonia but by then the Egyptians were threatened by the growth of PER5H.

Name

gh'cn

Bahariya Oasis
Fenile depression in the northeastern Libyan Desert 200 km west of the Nile. The archaeological remains date primarily from the early New Kingdom to the Roman period (c.1550 Be-I\D 395). Ncar the modern town of Bawit are the tombs of several 26th-Dynasty Egyptian governors of the oasis, the 19thDynasty tom b of the provincial governor Amenhotep Huy and a necropolis of sacred

47

BALAT

BALLANA CUl.TURE/PERIOD

.r(lli.:alio/lS belmeell.-lIm Simbelulld SlIlltm}imllier I: 71Jt' A-Cmup royal cemetery ut Qmllll: feme/a]' L, Oriental Institutc Nubia Expedition III (Chicago, 1986). - , E.rcUHlIio11S hel1J)l'CII AIm SimbelulIll Ihl' SlUluuji-Qll/ier 1\: NuuIN/lliau.Y-Group rel1laim {rom r0.J'al Cl'1I1eleril-s, Oriental Institute Nubia Expedition 1\ (Chicago, ]991).
B.
'VIl.I.I-\\IS, Ihe

Ballana culture/period see BAI.Lo''',' A~I)

<!..USTUL

bark. bark shrine

Since the principal artery of communication in ancient Egypt was the Nile, and the boat was the most oh\ious form of transport, it "~\:-i perhaps ine\imble that the 'bark' should ha\<.' been the accepled \"chiclc in which Egyptian gods wcre transported from one shrine to another. These divine barks wcre similar in shape to Nile boats, except that their prow~ ilnd sterns wcre :Idorned with thc '\HiIS of the god in question, and thc cabin was replaced h~ a 'AOS containing rhe cult image of the deil~. Thus thc bark of i\1\IU'\I, for instancc, was decorated with the head of a rilm at either end. These barks were llsually kept in the inner s,lIlcLuary of the temple, either resting on a plinth before the /UUjS, as in the remple of Horus at EDFtJ, or inside a bark shrin~'l1 (he temples ofh. \R:'\.\K and I.c-\OR. "rhere were often three such shrines in ~l row, one for each member of a divine TRI:\D (group of duel' deities). The barks thcmseh-es were sC<llc models of genuine boars, and arc often depicted in lhe acL of being carried aloft on poles b~ priests, during FFsrl\\I.S and processions. As well as the principal shrines in the temples, there were also S111,111 bark shrines along the routes of ritual processions, usually described as 'resting places', or <way stations'.

birds
'1'1 rOTl [

associated

with

the

worship

of

and

IIORUS,

dating' to the 26th Dynasty

and Greco-Roman period. Also ncar Bawir ;lrc the remains of a Roman triumphal arch and t\\'o temples, one dating to the reign of Apries (589-570 Be) and the other to the time of ILl'..\ "DER TilE GRUT (332-323 Ilc). At the

POllelT.fi"Ol1l &,SI" fbrilll. iud/ldil/g C.\"(/11lpll~S oIfhe lall/holcd goblcts ,!luI (/I't: t!le II/ost typh'{// vessel janus of/he BullalUl pl.'l'iod. 5111-6111 {('II/urics ./1), If. o(liI/h' 1'e.<.l" /2.2 Oil. (u66560. 67980. 7/82/.7/822)
Ballana have helped to prescnT the gnl\ es from the \yidespread plundering that affectcd the earlier elite Kushite ccmeteries of \II~ROE and '\I'\T\. \V, B. E:l.IERyand L. P. "'11m \'. The roya/loJ11bso! Bollana aud Q!,S/UI(C:.liro, 19]8). B. G. TRIGGER, 'The royal rombs at Q!.lstul and Ballana and their !\ leroitic :tntecedents',Jf:A 55 (1969), 117~2H. - , "rhe Balian" culture and the comin~ of Christianity', ,,~ji-ica ill AIII/quily Ihl' arts (~r allCil'1l1 Nubia {{lid the Sill/all I, cd. S. \V('nig (New York, 1978), 107-11. \V.Y. An:\ \IS, Xubia: (/lrridol" to .~/iica, 2nd cel. (London and Princcton, 1984), 40+-1J.

southern lip of the oasis is c1-Hayz, where a

Roman g-Jrrison, a basilica and a small scrtlcmel'll dating to the Roman and Christian periods (c30 BC-II) M 1) hale been nealated. -\.. F \K..IIRY, Baltrill ulIJis, 2 "ols (C"1iro, 19-1-2-50). - , Tl1l' o{{ses oIEgypl1i (Cairo, 197-1-). L. GIDDY, .t.~(YPli{//1 O/lSl'.C Bal/(fr~)I{/, Dakh/a, FfI,.{~/ia (Iliff Klltlrgll dlll'hlg p!Ull"{/{Juh"11II/CS (Warminster, 1987).

Balat see IJMd II.A

OASIS

Ballana and Oustul

Pair of Nubi.m elite m:cropolcis on either side of the ~ile some 15 km south of \IlL SL\IBEL and now submerged beneath Lake :'\asser. ,\n \-GROLl' cemetery of elite tull1ulus gr~n-es dating to the early third millennium He was excavated at Q.lstul hy an expedition from the Chicago Orientallnst"itute. Bal1ana is the type-site of the BaHana period (or 'X-Group phase', c. ,\1) 350-700), which lasted frolll the decline of the ;\Ieroitic empire to the arrival of Christianity, Many of the distinctive tUll1ulus burials, nearly two hundred of which ha\"c been excavated, contained evidence of IIU.\IAK SACRIFICE in the form of the bodies of retainers buried alongside the prcChrislim rulers of Lower Nubia. The drift sand and low scrub co\'ering the rumuu at

Par/ oIa gnmill! rl'prl'5ClIlalioll ofa $0(1"1'{1 Iwrl,ji-oll/ Ilif SOl/flltal]' oIAml/lIlI/A"url/aA-. TII(' i:arifillsl'Il'I1ICIIIS
(~rlhl' .Imlplllre

lilah, lip {f tllrecdimewifllla/ mrilil/j!uI IIJ/ltl'/III1'J)I{l,

Ihe IUlJ11f!Oj" Amt.'IJlwteplll:\ mol/lei: 181h DYllllSly. c./360 Be. L. 2.13 III. (un)

+8

~SKETRY AND CORDAGE

BASTA, TELL

In the case of the festi"als of Amun at Thebes, particularly the Yalley Festi,"al and the Opet FcstiY;II, these model barks wcre placed on orJ1:lt"c river-going barks to make their journey to the Thcban wcst himk and to Luxor l'cmple rcspccti\c1y. Similarly the bark of II.\TIIOR traycllcd from her temple at DI'.~D1,"\ to tha, of 1Jorus at EMu for the cele-

pinnala and IlJIpaa/a (Jllindrittl) or from the rind of the papyrus stem (L)'petlls papYJ"w").
Baskets were made from the leaves of the dom palm (If)'phal'IUI Ihebaim), . I nd, incre"lsingly from the Late Period on\\-ards, the date palm (Plwl'fIi.r dat"/yldera). In modern Egypt, "irtually all haskets are made from date-palm kayes, while rope and Jl1..1(S are made fi'om the coarse fibres at the bases of the lc;I,-e5. From the Ptolemaic period onwards, rushes UUlltll.'" spl!(il!s) wcrc used lor making baskets and mats. The basket-making techniques employed from the .\ lcsolithic period onwards \\"Cre coiling, t\\ining and, to a lesser extent, weaying. In the Prolemaic and Roman periods, a number of other Illethods and styles emerged, including plaiting and stake-and-st r..m d basketry. J\ bny of these techniqucs ;Ire stiJluscd in modern times, thereforc the c"idcncc prm'ided by sur\"iying am:icnt b;Iskcrry can often be supplemcnled

and bencr understood through the ethnoarchaeological study of modern basket-makers. \V Z. \VE,oRlnl, ""I1Q I~~ aFait! ofbash'I/]'? J guidl'lo raording !Jaskl'IIY aut! ((mltlgl~fiJr tlrdu{l'ologisls /lnd IIlIlhropologists (Leidcn, 1991).

bration of the 'feast of the he'1Utiful meeting" a diyine union.

A more specialized funerary f(JrI11 of ritual boat, with origins strelching back at Icast <1S carlv ;1S the 1st Dynasty at \In DOS anti S,\m'\R!\, is the SOl. 'I{ II \I{", which may h:1\c been intended to (,IITy rhe deceased through the netherworld. The best suni"ing example is that of Khufu at G!Z \, \\hich \\as discO\'ercd in a pit beside the pyramid and has no\\" been rcconSITucteu ill .. i/f{. G LEGH..\I', 'Le log'cmcllf Ct transport des OiUqUCS sacrces er des statues des diet\.\: dans quelqucs temples cgypticns', HI f-IO 1J (1917), 1-76. G. fOUCt\lfr, 'Un tcmplc flurr~ll1t: Ie \'aisseau d'or cPAmon-Ra', FUI/dt/tio/l EI/gl;/le Piof: .'\1!O/IlfIllCllf.' cf 1IIt'II/()ircs pu/JIi/. pt/r 1'. Jmd';/Ilic dl'S JuscriPfiol/S ef Belle.l LI:"I"c.'i 25 (]I)21-2), 1-1-3-69. K. A. KrrCl IE" 'Rarkc', !,nil'lIlI del" Agyplologie I, cd. \1',/. Heick, E. Otto and \V. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1975),619-25.

Basta, Tell (ane. Per-Baslel, Bubaslis) Sire of;l rem pie and town in the eastern Nile Delta, about 80 km to the northeasl of Cairo. It flourished from the -Ith Dynast' 10 the end of lhe Roman period (.2613 Be-I[) 395), blll the tn.lin monument at the site is the red granitc tcmple of the cat-goddess B.\STl:T, ,,-hich ",as documenred by the Greek historian Herodotus in the fifth centul'Y Be. "-rhc rcsults of Edouard Na\"illc's cxc;.l\"<.uions in 1887-Y IHO\'ided arch"lcologieal e,'idence confirming many of the del ails of this description. The

modern Zagazig cat cemetery cat c)'metery Protodynastlc -l tomb ka-temple edge of modern ---/ cultivation 60fTeti

modern Zagazig

-Old Kingdom cemetery

basketry and cordage

A class of artefacts that have li-cqucnrly been O\'erlooked by archacologists in the past, panIy because, e,-en in the ..l rid conditions of most Egyptian sircs, the~ are nor presened in the same quantities as pottery and stone ,esscls. Although such Orb'"3nie materials as basketry, matting (both for (loor cm-erings and roofing) and rope clearly played a significant role in the daily lives of the al1l:icm Eg~ ptians, only a small percenrage has slIrYi,-ed in the archaeological record, perhaps beG1USe disC<lrded baskets would often h;1\ e been burned, \yhereas stone <Incl ceramics arc difficult to destroy complctell'. The Egypti:1I1s' uses of baskets ranged from smalJ disposable bags to large decorated storage baskets fi)r clothes, rhe ~1l1cient Egyprian equivalent of the \\ ardrobe or linen closet. The wide varicty of uscs is partly due to the scarcity of wood in Egypl, whereas the materials lIsed to make baskets ~1l1d rope were readily available in the Nilc valley. Rope was made from tall strong grasses (e.g. DeslI/os/(/I;hya bi-

New Kingdom cemetery

t
I 100 I 200 I 300

ka-temple of Pepy I location of 19th-Dynasty hoard

I 400 I 500

tomb of HO~i I tomb of Hori II ( / - temple of Mihos

temple of Bastet

1000m

Tmo (oiled basA'cls tllIIl a r('tlal/gulal" papYfllS-jihre baskel. (f /63-16..;918..;39.;)

BASTA, TELL

BAT

Bastet
Cat-goddess and local deity of the town of Bubastis (TELL BAS'I:>\), whose name means 'she of the bast [ointment jar]'. She was regarded not only as the daughter of the sungod but also <1S the more protective aspect of the mother-goddess, in contrast to the aggressive image of the lioness-headed SEKlI.\tET. In her earliest known form, carved on stone vessels of the 2nd-Dynasty Tuier Hetepsekhemwy (,..2890 BC) at Saqqara, Bastet was represented as a woman with the head of a lioness, frequcntly holding both the {[nkh si6'11 and a sceptre (as well as, occasionally, a 71U!lWI necklace). By the first millennium Be, howcver, she was widely portrayed as a cilt-headed woman, often carrying a SISTRU~1 (<1 form of rattle) and somctimes accompanied by a small group of

festival of Bastet is described by HerodotBs. E. Scon, 'The cal of Bastet', BMMA 17/1 (1958),1-7. z. EL-KoRDY, La deesse Bastel (Cairo, 1968). J. i\tiloU:K, 1''lle cal ill tlncient Egypt (London, 1993).
! .

Bat
Goddess of the se\enth Upper Egyptian nome, usually represented by a cow's head with curling horns, perhaps the earliest depiction being the pair of heads at the top of the :-/AO.\I[R palette (d 100 Be). The iconography of Bat was almost completely absorbed inw the cult of the more important cow-goddess llATHOR by the Middle Kingdom. H. G. FISClIER, 'The cult and nome of the goddess Bat',lARGE 1 (1962), 7-24. - , 'Varia Aegyptiaca: II. B3.t in the :'\Tew Kingdom',]ARCE 2 (1963), Sl}-1.

batter
Architectural term denoting the sloping face of a wall in which the foundation courses are wider than the LIpper courses1 thus adding St:lbility. This functional and decorative technique was regularly employed for the walls of MAST:\BA tombs as well as the enclosure walls of Egyptian temples, where it was associated with I'A~ BEDDIXG and sectional construction.

ParI oj'a granite /empl/! gatcmay };"O/1/ Bllba.ws, showing Osurkon /llIud KlIrol11a, c.87+-8S0 }je,
II. 1.7511I. (le,IOll)

site also includes the ka-temples of the 6thDvnasty pharaohs Teti (2HS~2323 BC) and Pepy 1 (2321-2287 BC) and a pair of 'jubilee chapels' built by Amenemhat 111 (1855-1808 BC) and Amenhotep B1 (1390-1352 BC) respectively, as well as temples dedicated to the gods t\TUJ\\ and lvlihos. 'To the north of the city aTC a series of vaulted mud-brick cat cemeteries and adjacent ateliers. A 19th-Dynasty hoard of gold and sil\'cr \'cssels and jewellery was dis-

Bawit see BAII.>\RIY-\ OASIS

beard
Facial hair in Egypt has an uneven history, It is clear from certain PredYllastic figurines, as well as from the figures depicted on (he ~\R\I"ER palette, that full beards were favoured in the formative stages of Egyptian history. B~ the beginning of the Dynastic period, however, shaving had become fashionable among the nobility, later spreading throughout the rest of the population. The earliest shaving implements appear to have been sharp stonl: blades, but in later periods copper or bronze razors were used. The work of the village barber is known from Egyptian literal ure as well as from tomb scenes such as that of Userher (rrS6) at Thebes, and il seems to have been a mark of poor social status not to sha\"c, except when in mourning or about to depart on ,111 expedition abroad. None the less, officials and rulers of I-he Old Kingdom, such as Prince Rahotep, are depicted with moustaches, and full beards .1re widely shown on mummy masks of the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom, such as that of a 12th-Dynasty individual named Ankhef. Despite the low statu!! apparently attached to facial hair in life, it

covered at the site in 1906 (now in the

Egyptian Museum, Cairo). The city reached its peak when its rulers eslablished the 22nd Dynasty (c.945-7IS BC). Although the capital during this period was probably still T!\;'\IIS (.md to some extent MEMPHIS), Bubasris must have taken on greater significance as the home city of the new kings of Egypt. OSOOKO" 1 (924--889 BC), for instance, appears to ha\e built a hypostyle han in the temple of Bastet, as well as decorating existing walls with a number of new relief" and constructing a small temple to Atum outside the main precincts. Osorkon 11 (874-850 BC) added a new court to the main temple in celebration of his SED FESTIVAL. E. NAVll.1.E, Bub"slis (/881-1889) (London, 1891). L. H-\B.u:III, Tell Basla (Cairo, 1957). C. C. VA '\ Sla~E!' III, 'The city of Basta: an interim report', NARGE 128 (198~), 28-39. 50

Broll:::J.' slalueUe oflhe cal-goddess Bmlrl holding lin aegis ill her left htlnd tlnd tI sislrum in her righl; allu:rfieJ Ihere are.four small /.:iJlem. LMe Period or PJQ!wwir period, c.661--30 /le. II. 26 (111. (DI2.l.l6.i)
kittcns. Her name was commonly inscribed on blue glazed ceremonial 'New Year' flasks, perhaps because, like other lioness-goddesses, she would have been linked with the five epagomenal days in the Egyptian CALEND:\R. The

BEDOUIN

BEER

\Vas considered to be a divine attribute of the

gods, whose closely plaited beards were (like

lapis lazuli'. Accordingly, the pharaoh lI"ould express his status as a living god by wearing a 'false beard' secured by cord. Such beards were usuaJly wider toward the bottom (i.e. the end furthest away from the chin), as in the case of the triad Statues of :\lEi'\l.:..'\L:RA.. It was usuaUy after their death that kings "'ere por-

trayed wearing the divine Osirid form of beard with upturned end, as on the gold
mask of Tumnkhamun. Deceased non-royal individuals arc often shown with short, tuftlike beards. S. QUIRKE and A.]. SPE~CER, The British .W/W'1I111 book o/II/Ir;"/II Eg)'pt (London, 1992),71-2. E. STROUHAL, Lifi: ill 1l11c;ell1 Egypt (Cambridge, 1992),83-4.

bedouin
Nomadic pastoralist's of northern and central Arabia and Egypt's Eastern Desert, where their descendants still live today. The ancient bedouin of the Arabian peninsula arc thought to havc been responsible for domesticating the single-humped Arabian CAM I':!. at the end the second millennium Be, but the earliest evidence for the domesticated camel in the Nile valley dates LO the ninth century BC. Organized smtes have alwi.1Ys felt threatened by nomadic peoples, and the Egyptians were no exception. They knew the bedouin as Shasu, or hel]lm-sh ('sand dwellers'), and battles against them are recorded as carly as the time of Un as (2375-2345 Be), who depicted them on the causeway of his funerary complex at SAQQ;\RA. [11 the First intermediate Period they im'aded parts of the Delta, and although they were eventually expelled they continued to be a source of difficulty. During the reign of the 12th-Dynasty pharaoh Amenemhal I

or

(1985-1955 lie) thcy threatened the TCRQCOISE mines at Scrabit cl-Khadim in the SI1\AI; although defeated, they remained a sufficient threat for defences to be built around the site in the time of ""c'lE\II-IT 11J (1855-1808 BC). The military might of the New Kingdom did not deter the bedouin, and Thurmose II (1492-1479 Be) \\'as obliged to campaign against them well beyond. Egypt's borders. As before, however, this was not a long-term solution to the problem, and his successors, the warrior pharaohs Thutmose III and Amenhotep II, are also kno"'n to ha"e dispat<:hed military expeditions ag-ainst them. The bedouin's way of life made them almost impossible to eradicate, since thcy were always on the move and ready to Oee into the desert where a com'cntional army was not able to folIo\\'. Occasionally, as under Sety I (1294--1279 Be), they had to be dri"cn fi'om the weUs along the Egyptian desert rOllte across Sinai. Their knowledgc of the desert and their ability to move easily across difficult terrain made them valuable military scouts, although their skills were not generally plied on behalf or the Egyptians. When RA.'IESES II (1279-1213 Be) captured two bedouin before his battle with the IU'ITITES at ct"UESII they are said ro have misled him into believing that" his enemy was still distant, with near-fatal consequences. Similarly, it was the bedouin who guided Cambyscs and his PERSI:\:,\T army across the wastes of Sinai in their successful invasion of Egypt in 525 BC. R. GI\'EO:\", LeJ bMouim 51105011 des t!ommcuts (;gJlpliem (Leiden, 19/1).

The Egyptians also collected beeswax for use in metallurgy (i.e. in the moulding of wax images for metal casting by the lost-wax method) as well as in the 'nrnishing' of pigments. Bee-keepers are represented on a relief of Nyuserra (2H5-242I BC) from his sun temple at ABU (jURAB, as early as the 5th Dynasty. This record indicates that apiculture, already attcstcd as early as the Neolithic period, was well organized by the middle of the Old Kingdom, and that honc,' was probably being distributed over large distances. As well as trading honey it is likely that many communities throughout Egypt kept their own bee colonies. Beekeeping is also shown in the 18th-Dynasty tomb of Rekhmira ('1''1'100). The 26thDynas~' tomb of Pabasa (rr279) at Thcbe'S clearly shows bees kept in pottefY hives, although hives made of mud and other material were probably also used. Honey from wild bees was gathered by professional collectors, known as biZ)lJ1), working along the desert fringes. The religious significance of the bee also extended to an association with the goddess l\'EI'J'II , whose temple at" Sais was known as perlJil Crhc housc of the bee'). One of the king's names, from the I st Dynast)' on wards, \Vas nl!sm-bil: 'He of the scdge and the bee', which is conventionally translated as 'king of Upper and Lower Egypt' (see K]i\"GSIIIP and ROrAI.
MEDICINE).

nTULr\R").

bee
According to one Egyptian myth, bees were the leal'S of the sun-god RA. T'hey were undoubtedly of great importance in prm'iding honey, which was used both as the principal sweetener in the Egyptian diet and as a base for medicinal unguent'; thus employing its nar-ural anti-bacterial properties (see

G. Kw->... ~', 'Scenes apicoles dans I'ancicnne Egypte',JNES9 (1950), 84--93. J. LECI .." 'T, 'L'abeille et Ie miel dans l'Egyptc pharaoniquc" Traite de biologic de I'llbcille (WIlS III direction dc RbllJl Clwm:il1) " (Paris, 1968), 51-60. E. CR.\:\"E, The llrchlleology ofbeekeepillg (London, 198-1),3+---13. R. 0.\\'10, The pyrtl1l1id builden ofa11riel1l Egypt (London, 1986), 155-57.

Painted cast (jIll painted r"'iii in the templi' of RameseJ JI (c./2.:;0 /1(:) at Beil el-Hidi. showing the king tramp/iug bt'douiu.

beer set' l\LeOIlOUC BE\rRo\GES and Begrawiya see MEROE

FOOD

Behbeit el-Hagar (anc. Per-hebyt, Iseum) 'lcmple town situated in the northern central area of the Nile Delta, which flourished in the 30th Dynasty (380-343 BC) and the Ptolemaic periud (332-30 Be). The site is dominated by the remains of a large granite temple of ISIS) the importance of which is indicated by the fact that onc of its relief blocks was later incorporated into the temple of Isis in Rome. The plan of the original temple at Bchhcit elHagar has proved difficult to reconstruct owing to damage caused by quarrying and seismic activity.
51

BEIT EL-WALI

BENl

HAS.~

A. LF7.I'\I., 'F.tar present till temple de Bchbcit 10 (I9~9), ~9-57. c1-H"g:lr', B. PORTER and R. L. B. Moss, TOjlo/!,raphim! bi"li()gmp/~l' 1\ (Oxford, 196H), -to-2. r'_W-\]{l>-IVIf.:t:KS, Lc fell/pI,,: de Rehbeif '1I/aguf"{/ (llamburg:, 1991).

,,,'m;

c.

archaeological st~lfl(hrds, he W::lS neyertheless an important pioneer in Egyptology. I Jc did much to encouragc European enthusiasm for Egyptian antiquities, not only through his exhibition ill the Egyptian Hall ill Piccadilly

Beit el-Wali
Rock-cut temple on the west bank of the Nile in Lower ~ubji1, which was dedicated to Amun-Ril and founded in the reign of K \ \IESES II (1279-1213 BC). The reliefs were copied by the German Egyptologist Glinrhcr Roeder in 1907, although casts were made hy Robert llay jJl the 1820s. The sire was nor comprehensively studied until the work of a joint expedition of the Uniycrsity of Chicago and the Swiss Institute in Cairo during thl' 19605. Soon ~lfrcr\\'ards, the temples ~H Beir c1-\Vali mel ncnrby ,,\1. \BSII.\ wcre moyed to New K,llabsha, ....5 km fo the norrh, in order lO SolVC them from the rising "~llers of Lake Nasser (see .\S\\t\ '\! f IIUII IJA.\I). The reliefs include depictiolls of the siege of a Syrian city, the C<lpturc of OJ Nubian vllbgc ilnd the bringing of Nubian tribute into the presellce of the king, painted plaster C,Ists of which arc displayed in the collection of the British !\[useum (sec illustrations accompanying the entries on HEDOLl\ and \ ICEROY OF .... LSII). G. ROt:m:K, Va Fe!stempel'l:()1f Brit cI-ll'iJli (Cliro,193H). H. RICK", G. R.llcl;lll-""nd E. F W"';>:'I"I':, 'he lJeit cl-lVali /emple 1!(Rl/lIIcsses II (Chicago, 11.)67),

(London) in 1821 but also through the pubLished accounts of his disco\cries. In the Great Temple al '\IlL' SL\IBEI., for instance, he and James .\ Lmglcs (a British n~l\'al officer) compiled a phm un "hieh they marked the original positions of the items of statuary. Arter more uun eight years of e:\ploration along the Nile yalley, he embarked on an expedition to find the source of the Niger, but dicd of dysentery at Benin in December 1823. G. BI:I.ZCl\J, Narra/in' oftht' operalil/lIS 1/11d facut di.\'(()jail's withilltlft: p.l'r(/lJfid.~. tell/pIt'S. tombs amI t'x(a1.'fi/iolls ill Egypt (//1(/ Nubia (London, 1820). C. 0. \IR, StHlllg mllll fgyptlllagist (London, 1957). S..\1.\) ES, The gn'l/t Bt:/::'fJlli (T .olltlon, 11.).19),

(the Egyptian phoenix), and hoth Icrms secm to deri\T from the ,,'ord J1lehi'1l meaning 'to rise'. J R. BAINES, 'Bnbn: mytholog'ieal lind linguistir.: notes', Oricll/alia 39 (1970), 38lJ-+04. L, Hi\BACI II, Tht' ohelisJ,:s o/EgYPI (Cairo, 1984).
llF ' \L-IURD ...

5, 10.

BeniHasan
Necropolis located on thc e;lst bank of the ::\ile some 23 km north of el~l\linya, dating princi-

pol""

to

the

II th

and

12th

DYLlilSlics

benben stone
Sacrcd stone at J IEI.IOI'OI ,IS that symbolized the 1'1H\lE\.\J. \I0L '\'11 and perhaps also thc petrified semen of the sun-god R;l-Atl1m (sec ATUd). It sen'ed as the earliest prototype for the OllEI.IS .... ::lnd possibly e\-en the 1'\ R \,\UD. In recognition of these connections, lhe gilded C~lp-stonc placed at the \Try top of cach pyramid or obelisk was known ::lS a IH:lf!J('llcl. The original stone at Hcliopolis was believed to have been the poinl al which rhe rays of the rising sun lirst feH, and its cult appears to date back at \cast as f~lr as the 1st Dynasty. There arc strong links between the beu!Jelf and the

(2125-1795 Ile) although there ;\rc somc small lOmbs elating back to the 6th DYI1ast~ (2345-2181 Be), There arc thirty-nine rockem rombs at Beni Ilasan, se\'cral of Ihcm belonging to the pro\Cinci;ll gO\'crnors of the 'oryx' nome (province). A number of the II thand 12th-Dynasty tombs arc decor::lted with wal1-p<1intin~s of funerary rituals and d:lil~ life, including depictions of Asiatic rradcrs, battle scenes and rows of wrestlers. There is also an extensive Ceml;[ery of l\liddle Kingdom shaft tombs cxcav~Hcd by John Garstang in the C;lrly 1900s. The equipmcnt frorn these undet.:orated tombs, includin~ painted coffins and models, forms an important corpus with regard to the funerary beliefs of the 1\lidtllc Kingdom. At the sOllthern end of the site is a New Kingdom rock-<:ut Icmple, the SIJEOS \KTE\lIDOS.

Copy (~((f

stt:/Ie.fi"fJIlllhe 10/llb (llKllIlllllfhole!' III

Belli Hasal/, s/wlPing men pirkil/gjigs 1l,llIlt,

b(/Imons sit in thc Il't't' ('aling Ihcji-uit. Efllh' 12th f).I'JlflSO'. c./9.)0 tJ{:.

Belzoni. Giovanni (I 77H-1 823)

lt~llian ,Hh'cnturer, explorer and exc,walor, who procu.red large quantities of Eg~vtian antiquities for European collectors nnd museu illS. The scm of a barber, Belzoni was horn in Padua and ::It first pursued a career as i1 circus strong man, travelling throughout Europe. In 181 .... he went to Egypt, where his attempts to seH a new type of water wheel proved unsuccessful, leading him 10 pursue ::l1110re lucrative trade in thc exc;l\,;ttion and IT,l11sport,ttion of ,meicnt mOnU111enLs. In 1816 he heg,lI1 to work for Henry Salt, the British Consul-Gencral in Egypt, inilially helping him with the transportation of the 'young J\lemnon', pan of;l colossal st,Huc of Rameses ll, which W~IS to become one of the first miljor Egyptian antiquities in t.he collection thc I3ritish Muscu111, Ilis discovcric." wcre numerous, ranging from the lOmb of King sEn I at western Thebes to thc Greco-Roman cily of Berenice on thc Red Sea CO::lsl. Although his mcthods were somcwhat unorthouox (and occasionally unnecessarily dcstrueti\'c), judged by modern

or

52

BENU-BIRD

BES

P. E.

NEW1WRRY ct aI., Bfu! Hassall, 4 vols (London, 1893-1900). S. BICKEL and J.-L. CIIAPI'AZ, '.!\tlissions cpigraphiqucs du fonds de l'EgyptOlogie de Genevc all SpcosAnemidos', BSEG 12 (1988),

9-24.

J. D. BOURRIAU , Pharaohs (lnd mortals

(Cambridge, 1988),85-109.

benu-bird
The sacred I-leliopolitan bird, closely associated with the BE!\"BEN STO~E, the OBI'J.JSJ-- and the cult of the sun-gods ATU.\\ and itA. Its name prohably derived from the Egyptian verb mebcJ/ ('to rise') and it was the prototype for the Greek phoenix. There may ,veil be an erymological connection between the two birds' names, ~tnd ccnainJy there arc distinct similarities in their respective links with the sun and rcbinh, although a number of the other aspects of the phoenix legend are quite distinct,

the desire for transformation might refer to the changing phases of Vellus. R. VAI\- DE:'\" BROEK, 711t: II~)'/h (~(/ht: phuenix a((()rdillg If) d{/ssic(// (/1/(1 erl"'~l! chris/iull Iradilioll (Leiden, 1972). L. KAKosr, 'Phonix', Le.rikoll der/i"g.l'P/ologie Ir, ed. W. Heick, E. Otto <lnd W. Westendorf (Wiesh<lden, 1982), 1030-9. G. HART, t'gYPli((/IIl~J'fhs(London, 1990), 16-17. R. KR.:\uss, 'lvI-mjtt hnw (pAnastasi 14.5)',JE.rJ 79 (1993),266-7.

Bes
Dwarf god with grotesque mask-like facial features and a protruding tOnguc. He is often shown with the cars amI mane of <1 lion, although some scholars hare suggested lhal he is simply wearing a lion-skin cape rather than possessing these physici,l characteristics. He is commonly portrayed with a plumed headdress and carrying musical instruments, knives or

Pain/ed lIJoodelijigllre {~rBcs Oil alolll.ijlol1JeI: NClIJ Kingdom, 1-1. 28 OIl, (/~'A20865)

reh4jigllrcs (~rBes alfd a llaked lIJOII1{lI/ or goddc.I'.I' ill the 'Bes Chambers' a! SfllJfJa{"a. (R!:'!'ROnUCIW COUR1'ESl'OF 1'1-11:'
BELO\\' Pain!ed

c/UFFITIIINSTl1'UTE)

Detail of/lte Book (~rllte Dead of/lte saib{' Naklt/; i1/ Ihe bOt/Dill register Nakhl I~~ "homn adoring !/ie bCllu-bird. Ear~)l1911i D.)III{/.I'~ll, e.1280 Be. (I:AIO-l7/)

TEXTS

The be"u-bird appears in the I'YRA.VIllJ as a yellow wagtail serving as a manifestation of (he Hcliopolitan sun-god Atum; in Utterance 600, Atum is said to have 'riscn up, as thc benbcfl in the mansion of the /Jellll in Hcliopolis' Later, hmycycr, in thc 13001( or TilE DEAD, the belill-bird was represcnted as a kind of grey heron (Ardell I:i/l('fa) with a long straight beak and a two-feathercd crest, the llJ\ (physical manifestation) of both Ra and OSIRIS. Because of its connections with Osiris, it is sometimes represented wearing the aIel' crown (sec CROWNS). . Chapter 83 of the Book of the Dead, the 'spell for bcing transform cd into a helw-bird', Was usually accompanied by a depiction of the beut/-bird, 1.n all analysis of the desire to be transformed (like th~ hel/ll-bird' ill Papyrus Anastasi I, Rolf Krauss suggests [hat the bird Symbolized the planet Venus from at least the beginning of the New Kingdom, in which C,lse

53

B GROUP

BIBLICAL CONNECTIONS

the SA hieroglyph representing protection. The name Bes is used to describe a number of similar deities and demons, including the liondemons known from the Middle Kingdom town of Kahun (see EL-LAIIUN and !\'iASKS) and the shaft tombs behind the RAMESSEUM, which arc of a similar date. Bcs was considered to be capable of warding of[ snakes from the house, and was sometimes portrayed in the form of the demon Aha strangling two serpents with his bare hands. Despite his apparent ferocity, he was a beneficent deity, much Ewourcd as a protector of the family, and associated with sexuality and childbirth. [-lis image is therefore found on all of the MAMMISI (birrh~hollses) associated with Late Period temples, as well as being carved On such everyday objects as cosmetic items. Along with TAWERET he was one of the most popular deities represented in amulets. His image was painted on a frieze in a room of Amcnhotep w's palace at tVIAI.KATA, as well as on some of the walls of the workmen's villages at EL-AM:\Rl\:A and OEIR EL-MEDIN:\, perhaps indicating rooms connected with women and childbirth. The sexual aspect of the god seems to have becomc particularly prominent during the Ptolemaic period, when (incubation' or Bes chambers were built' at Si\CLQI\Rl\. J\ilud-plaster figures of Bes and a naked goddess lined their walls, and it has been suggested that pilgrims probably spent the night there in the hope of experiencing healing DREA.MS, perhaps in connection with the renewal of their sexual pow~ ers. In the Roman period he was perhaps adopted as a military god since he was often portrayed in the costume of a legionary brandishing a sword. J. E ROi\'IANo, 'The origin of' the Bes image', 8ES 2 (1980), 39-56. J. D. BOURRIAU, PlwrllollJ a.nd II/orlals (Cambridge, 1988), 110-13. B Group (B Horizon) Nmv-discredited cultural term invented by George Reisner to describe the final stages of the Neolithic A GROllI' in NLlIl'A (c.2800-2300 BC), leading up to the beginning of the cGROUP phase. Two principal reasons have emerged for rejecting the existence of the B Group, at least as Reisner envisaged it. First, there appears to have been great continuity in material culture, settlement patterns and cemetery locations between the A and C Groups and, second, the chronological gap between the two might actually have been no more than three centuries roughly contemporary with the Egyptian 3rd and 4th Dynasties (c.2686-2494 Be). It is therefore possible that

the assemblages usually designated "B Group' might actually have resulted from the relative impoverishment of Lower Nubia or the depredations of early Egyptian imperialism. It has been suggested that there might have been an enforced reversion to pastoralism or t.he local Nubian population might even have temporarily abandoned the region, eventually rChirning in the form of the C Group. G. REISNER, Arclweu/flgiwl survey (~(NlIbi(l: repor,ji,r/907-8 [(Cairo, 1910), 18-52. H. S. SMITIJ, (The Nubian B-group', Kush 14 (1966),69-124. \v. Y ADM!S, Nubia: corridor IV Africo, 2nd cd. (London and Princeton, 1(84), 132-5. H. S. SMITH, 'The development of the A~Group "culture" in northern Lower Nubia', EgyPI {Iud /lFiw, cd. W. V. Davies (London, 1991),92-111.

Biblical connections
'I'he links between ancient Egypt and the events described in the Old Testament arc generally problemat.ic and beset. by cont.rover~ sy_ There are a number of critical problems with the attempt to correlate Biblical narratives with the Pharaonic teXt"l1al and archaeological record. Given that most of the events described in the Bible had taken placc many centuries prior to the time that they were wrir~ ten down, it is extremely difficult to know when they arc factual historical acCounts and when they are purely allegorical or rhetorical in nature. Because of the vagueness of the Biblical chronological fi'amcwork, it is usually also difficult to assign events to particular historical periods with any precision. Another major problem is posed by the possibility that those events that \vere of great significance to the people of Tsrael cannot be assumed to have had the same importance for the ancient" Egyptians, therefore there is no guarantee of any independent Egyptian record having been made (let alone having survived among the small fraction of preserved texts). A great deal of research has therefore tended to concentrate on attempting to date the Biblical stories by means of chance historical clues incorporated in the narratives, although even then there is the danger of encountering anachronisms introduced at the time that the texts were written down. Most interest has focused on the stories of Joseph and J\lfoses, both of which contain many literary and historical details that Sllg~ gest at least a knowledge of ancienr Egypt on the part of the writers. 'The episode in the story ofJoseph involving his attempted seduction by Potiphar's wife is closely paralleled in an Egyptian story known as the 7h1e oIllIe Two

Brothers, while several of the personal names of characters appear to be authentically Egyptian Late Period forms, such as Asenet Cbelonging to the goddess Neith'). However, these literary and linguistic connections with Egypt are of little help in terms of dating the story, \vhich is usually assumed to have taken place during the Egyptian New Kingdom (1550-1069 nc, equivalent to the Late Bronze Age in the Levant), although certain details tie in much more with the political situation of the Saitc period (664-525 Be). The emergence of iVfoses and the events of the Exodus arc thought to have taken place in the early Ramesside period, with RA.\1ES1;S II (1279-1213 BC) being considered the most likely to have been the pharaoh featuring in the narrative. No texts from his reign make any mention of lVloses or the children of Israel, although the name ISR1\I~L first Occurs on the so-calIco Israel Stele of the time of his successor, MERENI'TAI-I. Attempts have Occasionally been made to equate .Moses with the pharaoh l\J...:.IIENATEl\-, on the grounds that the latter introduced a peculiarly Egyptian form of monotheism, but there are no other aspects of this pharaoh's life, or indeed his cult of the Aten, that remotely resemble the Biblical account of l\1oses. Akhenaten's Hyml/ 10 lhe Alen has been shown to ha\'(: strong similarities with Psalm 104, but this is probably only an indication that the two compositions belong to a common literar) heritnge or perhaps even derive from a common Near Eastern original. The same reason is usually givcn for the very close parallels that have been observed between a Late Period wisdom text known as the [,w ruel iOI1 of /Imel/ell/ipel SOil of Krwakhi and the Biblical book of Proverbs, although it has been suggested by some scholars that the writers of Proverbs may even have been influenced by a text of the IllSlrlIoio1f (~r AlIlclIcl/Iipel itself. From the Third Intermediate Period (1069-747 Be) onwards, there are more verifi~ able references to Egypt in the Bible, particularly in terms of the politici:ll events involving conl1ict \vith the ASSYRIANS and PERSIM,'S. The 22nd-Dynasty ruler Sheshonq [ (945-924 BC), the BibliGll Shishak, sacked Jerusalem and the tcmple of Solomon in 925 BC Hosea, the ruler of Samaria, is said to have requested military aid from the Egyptian Prince Tefnakht of SAIS, in his attempt to fend off the Assyrians in the late eighth century nCo P. J\iloNTET, Egypi filld Ihe Bible (Philadelphia, 19(8). D. B. REDFORD, A stll{(J! (~(Ihe Bib/jml story of Joseph (Ceuesis 37-50) (Leidcn, 1970).

54

~TH-HOUSE

BORDERS, FRONTIERS AND LIMITS

S. GROLL (ed.), Pharaollic Egypl. ,he Bible lI"d Chris/jim;/y Uerusalem, 1985). A. F. RA""EY (ed.), EgYPI. Israel. Sillaiarchaeological lIlld "istoriml relotiomhips ill the BibliCi,[ period (Tel Aviv, 1987). D. B. REDFORD, Egypt, Ctulllllli lIm/Israel;l1 lUiciel1/ times (princeton, 1992).

board-games see G""'CS

borders, frontiers and limits

The Egyptians used two principal terms to describe a border or Limit: lash, which refers to a real geographical limit set by people or deities, and djer, which appears to describe a fixed and unchanging universal limit. The lash, whether field boundary or national border, was therefore essentially an clastic frontier, and, in times of strength and prosperity,

boats see SI-UPS AND

Book of the Dead

BOATS

birth-house see MAMMIS, Blemmyes

Nomads active in Lower NUBIA during the X-

Egyptological term used to refer to the funerary text known to the Egyptians as the 'spell for coming forth by day'. It was introduced at the end of the Second Intermediate Period and consisted of about t;vo hundred spells (or
'chapters'), over half of which were derived directly from the earlier PYRAA'IID TEXTS or
COFFIN Tfxrs.

Group phase (LAD 350-700). The Blemmyes are usually identified as the ancestors of the modern Beja peuple. Both the Blemmyes and the Nobatae (another group of nomads in
Lower 1 ubia) are mentioned in Classical texts, but there is no definite archaeological evidence to connect either of these peoples with the royal cemetery at B:\LLANi\ dating to the same period. The situation is summarized by W. Y. Adams: 'We may ... epitomize lhe riddle of post-Meroitic Nubia by observing that historians tell us of two peoples, the Blemmyes and the Nobatac, where archaeology discloses only onc culture, the Ballana; moreover, both history and archaeology leave us in ignorance of the fate of the earlier Meroitic population and culturc.' A. PAUL, A history ofthe Bejatribes ofthe Sudtw, 2nd ed. (London, 1971). W. Y. ADAMS, Nubia: corridor 10 A]nca, 2nd cd. (London and Princ'Cton, 1984),382-429.

Such 'netherworld' texts as the Book of the

Dead were usually inscribed on papyri, although cerrain small extracts were inscribed on AAtULETS. Chapter 301\, for example, was

such rulers as Senusret I (1965-1920 DC) and Thutmose III (1479-1425 BC) could state an intention to 'extend the borders' (stlVesekh IlIsltW) of Egypt. The traditional borders of Egypt comprised the Western Desert, the Sinai Desert,

the Mediterranean coast and the Nile

CATARAcrs south of Aswan. These geographical barriers were sufficient to protect the

known as the 'spell for nol letting the

deceased's heart create opposition against him

in the realm of the dead' and was commonly

inscribed on HEART scanlbs, while a version of Chapter 6 was inscribed on SIIAOTI figures so

that they might perfnrm eorvee work on behalf of the deceased. Chapter 125, the section of the Book of the
Dead that was most commonly illustrated by a vignette, shows the last judgement of the

deceased before

OSIR'S

and the forty-two

'judges' representing aspects of MAAT ('divine

order'). The judgement took the form of the weighing of the heart of the deceased against the feather of Maat. An important element of the ritual was the calling of each judge by
name, while giving the relevant 'neg-ative confession', such as: '0 Far Strider who came

block statue
Type of sculpture introduced in the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC), representing private
individuals in a very compressed squatting position, with the knees drawn up to the chin. In some examples the effect is almost to reduce

forth from Heliopolis, I have done no falsehood; 0 Fire-embracer who came forth from Kherarha, I have not robbed; Nosey who came forth from Hermopolis, I have not been rapacious.' The desired outcomc of these negative confessions was that the deceased was declared 'true of voice' and introduced into

Pari ala hieratic pa.pyrus inscribed mith mililary dispatches scm/rom the Egyptian garrison tit Sem1UI, ontlte !Jorder miLh Upper Nubia. Middle Kingdom, c./84/ BC, from Thebes, II. 16 cm. (EA10752 S"UT 3)
Egyptians from outside interference for many centuries. Later on, in thc Pharaonic period, these natural borders helped to maintain

the human body to a schematic block-like shape, while in others some of the modelling of the limbs is still retained. New Kingdom texts suggest that the origin of the style was the
desire to represcnt an individual in the form of a guardian seated in the gateway of a temple.

Egypt's independence during periods of relativc weakness. Since) however, the pharaoh's

the realm of the deceased. Although vignettes

always optimistically depict a successful outcome, the demon AMMUT ('the devourer of the dead') was usually shown awaiting those who

titulary described him as the ruler of the

entire known world, the political boundaries

of Egypt were theoretically infinite. In practice thc greatest cxtent of the Egyptian empire - achicved during the reign of

One of the practical advantages of the block statue, which became particularly popular during the Late Period (747-332 BC), was the fact
that it provided a very large surface area for inscriptions relating to the funerary cult and the identification of the individual concerned.

might fail the test. The Book of the Dead was often simply placed in the coffin, but it could also be rolled
up and inserted into a statuette of Sokar-Osiris or even incorporated into the mummy bandaging. The texts could be written in the HiEROGLYPHIC, IIIERATIC or DEMOTIC scripts. Since most wealthy individuals wcrc provided with Books of the Dead, numerous copies have survived. R.o. FAULKNER, The ancient Egyptian BOOA' olthe

C. ALDRED, Egyptia""!"t (London, 1980), 133-5.

W. STEVENSON SMITll, The arl (/11(/ af(:hilcctllrl! of ancient EgJlpt, rev. W. K. Simpson (Harmondsworth, 1981), 181-2. R. SCHULZ, Die E1/tmicklul1g und Bedeutung des kuboideu StatuelllJlPUS (Hildeshicm, 1992).

Thutmos III in the 18th Dynasty - was marked by the Euphrates in the northeast and the KURGUS boundary stele (between the fourth and fifth Nile cataracts) in the south. The border with Lower Nubia was traditionally marked by the town of Elephantine (.'SWAN), naturally defended by its island location and surrounded by a thick defensive wall.
The original name of the settlement around the first cataract was Swenet ('trade'), from which the modern name Aswan derivcs; this place name rcflects the more commercial

blue crown see CROWNS !\ND ROYAL REGALIA

Dead, ed. C. Andrews (London, 1985). E. HOR1\'UNG, idea illtO image, trans. E. Bredeck (New York, 1992),95-113.

55

BORDERS, FRONTIERS AND LIMITS

BUHEi\

nature of the southern border, representing opportunities for profitable economic activities rather than the threat of invasion. Because the first cati.lract represented an obstacle to shipping - despite an attempt by the Old Kingdom ruler Merema (2287-2278 BC) to cut a canal all trade goods had to be transported along the bank. This crucial land route to the cast of the ~iile, between Aswan and the region of Philac, was protected by a huge mud-brick wall, almost 7.5 km long, probably built principally in the 12th Dynasty. The northeastern, northwestern and southern borders of Egypt were more or less fortified from the l\1iddle Kingdom onwards. From at least the reign of Amcncmhat I (1985-1955 Be) the eastern Delta was protected by a sITing of fortresses, known as the "Valls of the Prince (il/dllv !lek"). These were intended to prc\'ent im'asion along the coastal route from thc Levant, which was known as the 'Va)' or Horus during the Middle Kingdom. At about the same time a fortress seems to have been established in the Wadi Natlun, defending the \yestern Ddta from the Libyans. The western and castern Delta dcfences were well maintained throughout the second millennium BC. The New Kingdom fortresses and garrisons of the Delta borders - including e1Alamein and Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham in

the west and Tell Abu Safa (Sile), Tell elFarama (Pelusium), Tell el-Heir (Migdol) and Tell el-Maskhuta (Pithom) in the east - were intended to prevent any recurrencc of the HYKSOS invnsion. S. SCI IOSKE .md H. BRUNNER, 'Die Grcnzen \'on Zeit und Raum bei den Agyptern',Archirjiir Orientjorsdlllug 17 (195+-5), 141~5. D. O'CoNXOR, 'Demarcating the boundaries: an inrerpremrion of a scene in the tomb of Mahu, e'--'\marna" BES9 (1987-8), 41-51. S. QUIRKE, 'Frontier or border? The northeast Delta in Middle Kingdom texts', The archaeology, geogl"llp/~JI flUrl his/OI]' oftIl/' Deltfl, od. A. Nibbi (Oxford, 1989),261-74. E. HORNU~(j, idea into ill/age, trans. E. Bredeck (New York, 1992), 73-92. bread see
FOOD

and

OFFERING UIlLE

bronze see COPPER AND

Bubastis see TELL

BRO;.rZE

BASTA

Buchis Sacred bull of MONTU at Hermonthis (Armant) south of Luxor. Just as his northern counterpart, thc APIS, was considcred to be the di\-ine incarnation of the god Ptah, so the Buehis ,,"as belie,'ed to be the principal ph)'si-

cal manifestation (or BA) of R.' and OSIRIS. Like the Apis bulls, each Buchis was chosen on the basis of special markings, consisting of a white body and blaek race, and the Roman writer Maerobius (c.AD -tOO) described the bulls as changing colour with every hour and haying hair which grew back\yards. After death, each successive Buchis bull was interred in a great underground catacomb known as the Bucheum (sec SER.\PEUM), which was discO\"cred in 1927 by Robert Nlond and W. B. Emen. As in the case of the Apis, the mothers of the bulls were also interred, and their catacomb at AI'manr is known as the Baqariyyah. The Buehis bulls' sarcophagi were of sandstone rather them granite, but, as in the case of the Saqqara Scrapeum, the sire was much plundered. Burials were made from the lime of Keetanebo ,,(360-343 BC) until lhe reign of Dioeletian (AD 28+-305). There is e,idenee fur the use of the sile from the 18th Dynasty onwards, but burials dating to that time or earlier remain undiscmcred. R. L. NloNO and 0. H.l\1YERS, The Buchellm (London, 1934). Buhen Egyptian site in Lower Nubia, located on the west bank of the Nile, near the second cataract, and about 260 km upstream from

50

100

150m

1 the 'barbiean' 2 residential areas 3 temple 4 the two rivetside gales 5 quays

~~~!5~~!n_~E;~;~rnl
:'
"

blockA: residence of the fort commander

::::

::=:~~==::.c::.:=~
" " "

3~

, , , :

i~

56

~I-IEN

BURIAL

as the 5th Dynastv (2494--2.145 BC) and in Lhe PYR \ \IID TE\TS, and the cult of the _\I_'\'E\'IS hull of F-1c1iopolis was specifically encouraged by Akhenaten (1352-1336 Ilc) because of its solar associations. There wcre, howcver, also strong links with the mOOn and the conslelhuion of Ursa t\ lajor. A number of bulls enjoyed special smrus as S.\C:RED .\XL\I..U .5, nombly the \PIS and BLClIIS bulls which were interred in catacombs at S.\QQ:\R \ and \R\\ \'\,""1' respecti\-cly. E. O"ITO, Beitri(e.e ::;ur Ccschidl1t' da StierI'IIIIt, ill .-Jegypt(" (l1erlin, 1938). P. BEIIRE'\,s, 'Stierbmpf', LexiI'()11 d('l" . ;:~.J'Ptolf}gi(' \ I, eel. \r. llelck, E. Otto and W. lI'esrendorf(\\iesbaden, 1986), 16-17. \V. IIELC!\:, 'Stiergottcr', l.e.ra'OIl tin Agypwlogie \ I, cd. \v. Heick, E. Duo and \V. \VesLCndorf (Wiesbaden, 1986), 14-16. R. WII."'I'\,S01\, R('(u!illg t.gypli(J1/ art (London, 1992), 56-7.

burial

SCi' Ct\NOI'IC J,\RS; COFFl.'\,lS !\ND

St\RCOI'I IAGl; IlL, '\,!EK'\K~' BELIEFS; 1\lt\STI\BI\;

t\lU~'I\IIFIC:t\'I'IOl\" and PYlUMIDS

Viem of/he J211t-DYl/asty mmparls al Buhell.

(RHPROIJUCL'f) COUNTI:.~I Of<' Tilli 1:'(;1'1''1'

EXPLORATION SOC/fn)

Aswan. The remains were first studied in 1819 but mainly excavated between 1957 and 1964. The settlement .11 Buhen was founded in the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 Ilc) as a centre for Egyptian mining expeditions. An imprcssi'"c array of mud-brick fortifications waS constructed around the settlement in the 12th Dynasty (1985-1795 Be), thus transforming it into a military garrison controlling the area to the north of the second Kile cataract. The 12th-Dynasty settlement consisted of sc\'cral regular, rectangular blocks of housing separated by six major streets. The subsequent New Kingdom town was undoubtedly much more of a civilian scttlcmCIU, as the fromier of Egypt was pushed further south than the fourth Nile cataract, thus considerably reducing Buhen's military importance. The methods employed by W. B. Emery at Buhen were closer to those of the CXGIyators of EL-/\j\\ARNA, A~\AIt!\ \~'est and SESEBI-SAL:I.A during the 1930s and 19405 than those employed by archaeologists working on settlement sites elsewherc in the world during the 19605, However, Emery's approach was necessarily ad hot: owing to the imminence of the Site's noDding by Lake Nasser (see AS\VAi'\' IJIGII D:\M), and the excavations wefe hampered by considerable post-depositional disturbance
tEF1"

rhe 5trarigraphy of the Pharaonic remains the site. R. A. CAWNOS, The Nelli Killgdo1/l I"/IIpll's (~r Bulll:lI, 2 yols (London, 1974). \~'. B. E,\IEln et al. , Tllejurlrt:ss oIBullell, 2 \'ols (London, 1979).

,If

Bulo see TELL 1::J.-l'i\KA 'J.'J

Byblos (Gubla, ]ubeiJ) Ancient coast.al tOWl1, the site of which is locatcd in modern Lebanon (formerly C.\~.\.\.'J), .tbout ..J.O kill north of Beirut. The principal seltiemcl1t, known in the Akkadi.1l1 language as Gubla, has a long history extending from the :\eolithic to the Late Bronze Age when the population appears to ha\c mmed to a nearby site now covcred by a modern ,-illage. The importance of Byblos lay in it'i function as a port, and from around the time of Egypt's unific.ttion it was a source of timber. The famous cedars of I.ebanon, and other goods, passed through it, and Egyplian objects arc found there from as early as the 2nd Dyn<1S1 y (2890-2686 BC). Eg\ptian cui LUre of the j\ liddlc Kingdom had an especially strong innuencc on the court of its l\liddle Bronze Age rulers, and among the objects found from the royal tombs of this period ,Ire sevcral bearing the names of Amenemhat tit (1855-1808 tic) and II (1808-1799 Ilc) of the 12t h Dvnast'-. Egyptian objects included i\"or~-, ehony and gold while local imitations llsed other materials and were exccuted in a less accomplished style. 'The site had several religious buildings including the so-called 'Obelisk Temple" dediCilted to lla'ahlt Gcbal, the 'Lady of Byblos" a local form of t\STAJ~TE. One of the obelisks erected to her was inscribed with hieroglyphs. She was identified \\"ith I-IATIJOR, ..1 connection which may have helped establish Astarte as a goddess in Egypt.
57

bull
Symbol of strength, masculinity and fertilily which, from the earliesl hisrorical times, seems to have been regarded as an embodiment of royal might (see ],\:\R..\IEIt). The heads of hulls, perhaps representing sacrificed animals, were sOllletirnes used in Predynastic and Early Dynastic architecture, as in ~ lasmb'l 350~ at Saqqara, dating to lhe reign of the Ist-Dyn'lsty ruler DJET, ,,-here clay heads furnished with real bulls' horns wcre set in front of the palace-fac;ade-style walls of the lOmb. 'rhe epithet 'mighty bull' or 'bull of Horus' was held by several pharaohs of I he New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC). The king might also be described ;IS the kll /llII/~r('buli of his mother'), and the royal mother might herself take the form of a C:O\\. Similarly, it was the wild bull which waS often depicted as the prey of the king in hunting scenes. 'fhe Kile INL.'\,DATtO,'\,! was sometimes depicted as a bull, since both were strongly associated with the renewal of fertility. 'l'his connection between fertility, water and bulls probably also explains the occasional representations of the primordial lake NUN with the head of a bull. Bulls were also associated wilh solar imagery; the 'bull of R!\' is mentioned as early

or

PIau oflhe lvlit/dle Killgt/oll1jorlress lil Buheu.

BYBLOS

CALENDAR

In the New Kingdom the city features prominently in the M1AR.'M LETrERS, since its ruler, Rihaddi, sought military assistance from the Egyptian pharaoh. On this occasion Byblos fell into enemy hands, but was later regained. A sarcophagus found with objects of Rameses II (1279-1213 Be) and showing Egyptian innucoee is important for its later (tenth century DC) inscription for AhinuTI, a local ruler, which is in early alphabetic characters. However, by the time of Rameses Xl (1099-1069 Ile), last king of the New Kingdom, Egypt had become so weak and impoverished that it no longer commanded the respect of cities such as Byblos, and the Report of JIVeIl(l1111111l tells how an Egyptian official was shabbily treated by a high-handed prince of Byblos, something which would previously have been unthinkable. The import,mce of Byblos itself gradually declined in favour of the neighbouring ports of Tyre and Sidon. P. MONTET, BJiblos etl'EgYPle. 2 vols (Paris,

c
calendar
The earliest Egyptian calendars were based on lunar observations combined with the annual cycle of the Nile INUNDATION, measured with NILOMETERS. On this basis the Egyptians divided the year into twelve months and three seasons: akhel (the inundation itself), peret (spring time, when the crops began to emerge) and she1111J (harvest time). Each season consisted of four thirty-day momhs, and each month comprised three ten-day weeks. This was an admirably simple system, compared with the modern European calendar of unequal months, and it was briefly revived in France at the time of the Revolution. The division of the day and night into twelve hours each appears to have been initiated by the Egyptians, probably bv simple analogy with the twelve months of the year, but the division of the hOllr into sixty minutes was

1928).
!vt. DUN,\ND, Fouilles de Byblos (Paris, 1939-58). N. JIDEJIAN, llyblos through fhe ages (Beirut,

1968).
].-F.
SALI..S,

introduced by the Babylonians. The smallest unit of time recognized in ancient Egypt \Vas the ai, usually translated as 'moment' and having no definite length. The Egyptian year was considered to begin on 19 July (according to the later Julian calendar), which was the date of the heliaeal rising of the dog star Sirius (see :\STROr\o~n' A!\'D j\STROLOGY and SOPDET). Surviving textual accounts of the observation of this event form the linchpin of the traditional chronology of Egypt. However, even with the addition of five intercalary 'epagomenar days (corresponding to the birthdays of the deities Osiris, Isis, Horus, Seth and Nephthys), a discrepancy gradually developed between the lunar YC"Jr of 365 days and the real solar year, which was about six hours longer. This effectively meant that the civil year and the genuine seasonal year wcre synchronized only once every 1-4-60 years, although this does not seem to hare been regarded as a fatal naw until the Ptolemaic period, when the concept of the 'leap year' was introduced in the Alexandrian c.tlendar, later forming the basis for the Julian and Gregorian calendars.
LEvr Flask for maier[rom Ihe rising Nile al the beginning oftheflood, marking the start ofthe New l'ear. This Iype of 'New Year flask' appears in the Late Period, 110 earlier than the 7th celltury Be. palwps inspired by foreign vessel shapes. Lale Period, after 600 /Je, green jaiellCf ofullknown pr01.:t:11anCf, II. J3 cm. (F-A2465/. DRAW."" /JY CUR/STINE I1ARRAn)
OELOW Calendar ill which the lUCk)! ami tmlucklf days oflhe year are marked il1 black and red respectivehl. Third I"Ier111ediate Period 10 Late Period, papyrus (lnd pigment, 11. 24 e11/. (/:/JI047-1,
SHEET 2)

La necropole 'k' de Byblos (Paris,

1980).

58

0MBYSES

CANOPIC JARS

As well as the civil calendar there were also separate religious calendars consisting of FESTIVALS and ceremonies associated with particular deities and temples (e.g. the Feast of Opet at Thebes, celebrated in the second month of a.khet). The priests often calculated the dates of these according to the lunar month of about 29.5 days rather than according to the civil calendar, since it was essential that many of them shuuld coincide with pardcular phases of the agricultural or astronomical cycle. R. A. PARKER, The Cllle"dllrs (~r (lucienl Egypt (Chicago, 1950). _, '5mhic dates and calendar "adjustments" " RdE9(1952),101-8. _, 'The beginning of the lunar month in ancient Egypr',JNES 29 (1970), 217-20. R. KRAuss, Sothis-lI1ltl Jl1omltlll/eI1 (Hildesheim, 1985).
E. HORi'lUKG,/dea into image, trans. E. Bredeck

Canaan, Canaanites
The region that was occupied by the C,naanite people in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages (part of the area described by the ancient Egyptians as Retenu) roughly corresponds to modern Lebanon, on the northern coast of the Levant. This territory essentially consisted of a number of citystates, including UYBLOS, Lachish, MEGIDDO and Ugarit.

as the appearance of alphabetic inscriptions at Serabit el-Khadim in SlJ~AI. These arc known as the Proto-Sinaitic or Proto-Canaanite scripts (sec BmLOs). K. KE:,\'YO:"l, Amorius lind CtI1ltuwites (Oxford, 1966). A. R. Mn.LARD, 'The Canaanites', Peoples ofOItl Testament times, cd. D.]. Wiseman (Oxford, 1973), 29-52. ]. F. HEALY, 'The early alphabet', Reading fIJe past (London, 1990), 197-257. D. B. REDFORD, Egypl, CmltltUl ami Israel ill ancie1lt times (Princeton, 1992), 167-8, 192-213.

canopic jars
Stone and ceramic vessels used for the burial of the viscera removed during .\1UMMIFlCATIOi\". The term 'canopic' derives from the misconception that they were connected with [he human-headed jars which were worshipped as personifications of the god OSIRIS by the inhabitants of the ancient Egyptian port of Gmopus (named after the Homeric character who was Menelaus' pilot). The 'Canopus of Osiris' image appeared on some Roman coins from the Alexandrian mint, and the name was therefore chosen by early Egyptologists to refer to any iar with a stopper in the form of a human head. The practice of preserving eviscerated organs during mummification is first attested in the burial of HHEPIIERES, mother of the 4thDynasty ruler Khufu (2589-2566 BC), at GIZA. Her viscera were stored in a travertine ('Egyptian alabaster') chest divided into four compartments, three of which contained the remains of her organs in NATRON, while the fourth held a dry organic material. In later burials, specific clements of the viscera were placed under the protection of four anthropomorphic genii known as the SONS OF HORUS, who were themselves protected by tutelary deities guarding the four cardinal points. The human-headed Imsety (linked with tSIS and the south) protected the liver; the ape-headed Hapy (linked with NEPHTHYS and the north) cared for the lungs; the jackal-headed Duamutef (linked with Nf.lTH and the east) guarded the stomach; and the falcon-headed Qebehsenuef (linked with SERKET and the west) looked after the intestines. During the First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 BC) the jars began to be provided with stoppers in the form of human heads, and at this time the canopic bundles were sometimes also decorated with human-faced masks. By the late Middle Kingdom a set of canopic equipment could comprise two chests (a stone---earved outer container and a wooden inner one) holding four jars furnished with

(New York, 1992),57-71.

Cambyses see PERSIA, camel

PERSIANS

Although the single-humped Arabian camel (Came/us dromedllrius, more accurately described as a dromedary) figures prominently in the modern popular image of Egypt, it was very much a late arrival among the domesticated animals of the 1 ilc valley. Remains of the double-humped Bactrian camel have been found at sites such as Shahr-i Sokhta in eastern Iran dating to the third millennium He, but the earliest evidence for the domestication of the single-humped species in the Near East dates to the ninth century Ile. When the ASSYRIAN king Esarhaddon invaded Egypt in 671 BC, he is said to have been aided by camel-using BEDOUIN from the Arabian desert. It used to be thought that domesticated camels did not appear in the Nile valley until the Ptolemaic pcriod~ but the earliest date is now considered to be the late ninth cenrury Be, in the light of the discovery of a camcPs mandible and a pellet of camel dung at the Lower Nubian site of Q!\SR IBRL\1. The two finds were excavated during the 1980s from separate archaeological contexts dating to the carly Napatan period, ilnd both dates were later confirmed by radiocarbon analysis. I. Kca-ILER , Zur DO~lJeSlik{{tioll des K{{m~/s (Hanover, 1981). I. L. MASON, 'Camels" Evolution o.fdomeSlicated al1imals, cd.!. L. Mason (London, 1984). P. ROWLEY-CoNWY, 'The camel in the Nile valley: new radiocarbon accelerator dates from Q>sr Ibrim',JEA 74 (1988), 245-8.

A Z),pi(fll 'Canaanite amphora' from el-Amama. 11. 58.8 em. Just tiS the territorial ami ethnic C01111otatiom oftIlt: name 'Canaan' are somemhat ambiguous, so the term 'Canaanite amphora' is cOllVellti0l1a/~)1 applied to this type ofBronze Age poLter]! vessel, although It mas tlsedjOr trtlnsportil1g commodities 110t Qn6' ill Canna" but IhroughoUllhe Aegean, Eastem Medilerrtwefw fwd Egypt. The name reJleclslhefliCtlhat the fOrm c1ear()/ origiuated in Syria-Palestine, although loml copies mere made el~e1Phere.
The Canaanites were a Semitic people related to the llYKSOS, who had invaded Egypt in the Second Intermediate Period. They occupied this part of the Levant during the Late Bronze Age from around 2000 to 1200 BC, after which they were displaced by the Israelites and Philistines from the south and PI-IOE1"IClA~S from the north. Several of their cities, such as Byblos, remained important under their new masters, and much of C1naanite culture is renected in that of the Phoenicians. Canaan acted as a kind of 'clearing house' for the trade not only of itself but of its neighhours, the Egyptians, the HITTITES, and the states of !\'lESOPOTAMIA, and was much influenced by them. It may have been the need to develop sophisticated record-keeping or to deal with traders of many nationalities which led to the development here of an alphabetic script around 1700 BC, roughly the same date

59

CAPTIVES

CAPTIVES

Ashmolean j\luseum. Oxford), a depicLion of an E:lrl~' Dynaslic royal ritual shows three hound captives running bet"'een nyO sets of three cairns (pcrh<.lps symbolizing Egypt's
BOItOERS).

If/ondcll dlllllll~)I

t'tflwpirjars/nr tIll
II.

/11llhlllll'd

perso/l. 21st DYlfasty. <:./000 /JC. header/jar 3 J Oil. (,; /9S62-5)

oll/llJl/{/1/-

stoppers in the form of human heads. In the carly 18th Dynast)' the stoppers were still

hUl11<1n-hC<ldcd, as in the case of the c.mopie

cquipmcIH of TL'T\~K'I\.\IUi'\, hut from the

later 18[h Dynasty onwards it became more

common fill' the stoppers to take I he form of the characteristic heads of each of the four genii, and hy the 19th Dynasty these had completely replaced the human-headed type.
[n the Third Intermediale Period (1069-7-4-] Be) mummified ,-iscera were usual-

palette and many other decorated royal artt'[lels of the late Prcdynastic and Early Dynastic periods fcature scenes of the king inflicting humiliation on foreign captives. The earliest example of the archetypal scene of the pharaoh striking a bound captive was found on the painted wall of Tomb 100 at H1ERAKO:"\lPOLIS in lhc late fourth millennium Be, and the same (smiting scene' was still being depictcd thousands of years later, on the pylons of Egyptian tcmples of the Greco--Roman period, On the Narmer macehead (now in the

Limestone and wooden statues of foreign caplircs h.we been found in the 5th- and 6rhDynasty pyramid complexes of Ranefcrcf, l\yuserra, Djedkara-Isesi. nas, Teti, Pep~ I and Pcpy II at Saqqara and ABCSIR. The French '1rchaeologist Jean-Philippe Lauer has suggcsted thal there may have been as many as a hundred S(;ltucs of capti"es in each pyramitl complex. perh.lps placed in lincs along either side of the C.1Useway linking the "alley and mortuary temples. Later in lhe Ph.lraOJ1lC period, schematic representations of bound capti,'cs were used in cursing rituals, as in the CaSC of fi,'c early 12th-Dynasty alabaster C<11)ti"e figures (now in the Egyptian i\tlusCUIll, Cairo) inscribed with hieratic EXJ-:C1~-\TIO\ TEXTS comprising list.s of the names of Nubian princes accompanied by insults. Throughollt the Pharaonic and GrecoRoman periods the depiction of the bound captive continued to be a popular theme of temple and palace decoration. The inclusion of bound c.lptives in the decoration of aspens of the fittings and furniture of royal palaces particularly contexts where the king mighr
Dflllil oflhi' relieldl'Cortiliol1 nlllhe bllse oia slallll' ol Rall1l'.~t!.~ 11111 Luoror /l'11Iple, shomiug IhreejiJ1"l'/~!!;l1

raplh.:cs, 191h DYlIlIJly. c./250 oe. (um.III)

ly rerurncd to the body, sometimes accompanied by models of the rcle\-ant genii, but empty or dummy canopic jars were occasionally still included in rich burials. Canopic
equipment is found in Ptolemaic tombs but had l:e.lsed lO be used by the Roman pcriod. The lasr known royal canopic jars belonged to \PRIES (589-570 Be), and one of thesc suniycd lhrough its reusc as a ,'esscl containing rhe body of a mummified hawk at Saqqara. Vl. C. IInEs, SapIa flj'E:f~'yPI [(NcwYork,

1953), 321}-6. G. RI'JS,I':H, Cauopies (Cairo, 1967). C. DOLZ 'Nl, IlrlJi ({/llopi (Milan, 1982). 13. L0sClIEI{, Ulilermdlllllgell zU.4gYPfischell Kaliopellkiisll'II (Hildcshcim, 1990). A. DOI)SON, TIl' calwpic CiJllI/}//It!lIf o/Ihe l'illgs nI EgYPI (London, 1994).

captives
The motif of the bound foreign capti"e is one of the most fre<lucnt ilnd potent dements in ancient" Egyplian iconography. The "'.\RJ\tER

60

0Jl-TER, HOWARD

CARTONNAGE

place his feel, such as painted pavements and footstools - ser\'ed to reinforce the pharaoh \ total suppression of foreigners and probabl~ also symbolized the dements of 'unrulc' that the gods required the king to control. There ,Ire therefore a number of depictions in GrccoRoman temples shmying lines of gods capturing birds, wild animals and foreigners in clapnets (sec HL.\Tlj'';C;). nH(llYT birds were also sometimes lIsed as symbols of foreign captives :lod subject peoples. The captives' role as metaphors for the containment of the fCI)"CCS of chaos is also to be seell in the necropolis scalusccl in the Valley of the Kings, which consists or a depiction of L\NUms surmounting nine foreign captives representing thc dangers threatening royal tombs. i\llany of thc relicf.1i in New Kingdom tcmples list the foreign peoplcs and citics whom the Egyptians had conquered (or would havc liked 1"0 conquer), ottcn writing the names of the politics inside schemalic depictions of bound captives. ].-p L:\UER and]. LI':CL\I,T, 'Decouverte de statues de prisonniers ;ILl temple de b pyramidc de Pepi ler', RdE 21 (1969),55-62 . .M. VERNER, 'Lcs statuettes de prisonniers en bois d'Abousir', RdE 36 (1985), H5~52. G. POSENER, Cinqjigllrcs d'cllv01llemelll (Cairo, 1987). R. I-I. VVILKINSOi'\, Reading Egypliall (/1'1 (London, 1992), 18-19.

Carter. Howard (1874--1939) Dorn in Kensington) the son of SamLlel John Carter (an animal painter), it was his talent as a draughtsman that enabled Cartcr to join the Archaeological Survey of Egypt in 1891, when he was only seventeen. I-Ie receivcd his training as an excavator and epigTapher from Somc of the most important Egyptologists or the late njnetccnth century, including Gaston ~.Ji\SPERO and Flinders PETRIE, with whom he worked at EL-AMARNA in 1892. Between 1893 and 1899 he worked as a draug'hrsman for Edouard Navillc <It DEII{ I,~r.-BAI-IIU, and in 1899 he W.lS appointed Inspcctor Gencral of the monuments of Upper Egypt, in which capacity he installed the first electric lights in the VALLEY OF TJ IE KL'\lGS and the temples at ABU SIMBEL. In 1903 he resigned from the Egyptian Antiquities Service after a dispute with French tourists at Saqqara. He then ~vorked for four years as a painter and dealer In antiquities, until the offer of finance from Lord Carnarvon enabled him to return to excavation in the Valley of the Kings. Although he discovered six roval tombs at Thebcs, his most famous achi~vement was undoubtedly the unearthing of the virtually

undisturbed tomb of TUTA'\JKI-JAMUN I in November 1922, finally rewanling Carnarvon for his support over the preceding tifteen years. Carter spent the rcmaining seventeen years of his life recording and analysing the funerary equipment from the tomb, a task which is still incomplete, H. CARTER and P. E. NEWBERRY, The lUlIlb of TllOlllmosis "'(London, 190+). r-r. C.'\lfI'ER , Till: lomb OJ'TlII.Allkh.AlIlell, 3 \'ols (London, 1923-33). T. G. H. ]MI'IES, Howard Carler: Ihe palh 10 lillaukhalllllll (London) 1992). N. REEVES and J. T:WIDR, Homanl CarieI' bc./ore 'lItlaul)W1I/ulI (London, ]992).

Gilded carlO/lllage 1I1l11lmql/llask {~rall l/llllallfCd mlwsc vullure headdrcss almOsl cCJ"I{fill~)1 illdi({{leS lhal . . Ile mas a pl'illuss. Jl1idrlle Kingdom. c.19UO IJC. /-I. 61 e/fl. (fA29770)
I1JOllum,

cartonnage
Nlatcrial consisting of layers of linen or papyrus stiffened with GESSQ (plaster) and often decorated with painr or gilding. It was most commonly used fix making mummy Ml\SKS, mummy cases, anthropoid coffins and othcr funerary items. The earliest cartonnage mummy masks date to the First Intermediate Period, although a few surviving examples of Old Kingdom mummies have thin layers of

61

CARTOUCHE

CATARACTS, NILE

plaster oyer the linen wrappings covering the facc, perhaps representing an earlier stage in the development of the material.

J. H. TtWLOR, 'The development of cartonnage

cases', 1\'I1I1II111ies {lilt! magic, ed. S. D'Auria, P. beovara and C. Roehrig (Boston, 1988), 166-8. - , Egyptian coffim (Princes Risborough, 1989), 23-4,47-53.

mummy, like his name, to be physil-alJy surrounded by the cartouehe. V\T. BAIrB., 'Der Konigsring als Symbol zykliseher Widerkehr', ZAS 98 (1970), 5-16. P. KArlO"Y, 'Konigsring" LexiJ:on del' Agyptologie Ill, cd. \\~ Heick, E. Otto and \v. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1980), 610-26. R. H. WILKJNSON, Readillg EgypliaN art (London, 1992), 194-5.

cartouche (Egyptian slJe1ll1)

Elliptical outline representing a length of knotted rope with which cerrain clements of the Egyptian ROYAl. TITUI..ARY were surrounded. The French word carlOm:he, meaning 'gun cartridge', was originally given to the royal frame by Napoleon's soldiers and savants,

cat
Important both as a domestic pet and as a symbol of deities such as ""STET and RA (the 19reat cat of Heliopolis'). There were two indigenous feline species in ancient Egypt: the jungle cat (Felis tim us) and the African wild cat

Detail oftheftrade of/he 'great temple' al Aim Simbel, cOllSistillg o/a carlom:he cOl1taining the preuomell ofRameses If (User-A'll1l1t-Ra). 191h D)'IIIlS!)', 1279-1213 BC. (I. SJJ.i If')
because of its cartridge-like shape. From the 4th Dynasty (2613-2494 BC) onwards the line was drawn around the king's 'throne name' (prenomcn or lIesrIJ-bil) and 'birth name' (nomen or '" RIl). It proved invaluable to early scholars such as ]e;ln-Fran~ois Champollion who were attempting to decipher the hieroglyphic script, in that it was presumed to indicate which groups of signs were the royal names. The cartouche was essentially an elongated form of the SHE" hieroglyph, and both signs signified the concept of 'encircling protection' denoted by a coil of rope folded and tied at the end. The physical extension of the original shell sign into a cartouche was evidently necessitated by the increasing length of royal names. The symbolic protection afforded by a cartouche, which may have been a diagram of the universe being encircled by the sun, is graphically illustrated by the choice of this sign for the shape of some 18th-and 19th-Dynasty sarcophagi, such as that of Merenptah (1213-1203 BC). Some of the early 18th-Dynasty burial chambers in the Valley of the Kings, as in the tomb of n'UTMOSE '" (1479-1425 BC) (Kv34), were also eartouche-shaped, thus allowing the king's

(Fe/is silvestris li!JyCll), the former being found only in Egypt and southeastern Asia. The carliest Egyptian remains of a cat were found in a tomb at the Predynastie site of Mostagedda, near modern Asyut, suggesring that the Egyptians were already keeping cats as pets in the late fourth millennium Be. The Egyptian word for 'cat' was the onomatopoeic term mim, which, although not mentioned in the PYRAMID TEXTS, found its way inro various personal names from the Old Kingdom onwards, including the 22ndDynasty pharaoh known as Pamiu or Pimay, literally 'the tomcat' (773-767 Be). The earliest Egyptian depiction of the cat took the form of rhree hieroglyphic symbols, each representing seated <-ats. These formed part of the phrase 'Lord of the Cit)' of Cats' inscribed on a stone block from EL-L1SIIT, which may dare as early as the reign of PEPY " (2278-2184 BC). From the 12th Dynasty onwards, cats were increasingly depicted in the painted decoration of private tombs, either participating in rhe scenes of HUNTING and fowling in the marshes or seated beneath the chair of the owner. It was in the funerary texts of the New Kingdom that the cat achieved full apotheosis: in the Amtlull/ (see FLil'\ERARY TEXTS) ir is portrayed as a demon decapitating bound CAI'TIVES and in the Li/any ofRa it appears to be a personification of the sun-god himself, battling with the evil serpent-god . \J>OPIIiS. As a result of irs connection with the sun-god, the cat was depicted on a number of Ramesside stelae found in the Theban region. From the Late Period onwards, large numbers of sacred cats were mummified and deposired in underground galleries at such sites as Bubastis (TELL BASTA) and SPEOS ARTEMJDOS (see also SACRED ANIMALS), and numerous bronze votive statuettes have also survived, including the 'Gayer-Anderson cat' in rhe collection of the British Museum. L. STORK, 'Karze', Lexikol1 de,. iigyptologie III, ed. W. HElLK, E. Otto and W. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1980),367-70. P. L. ARMITAGE and j. Cu..rn-ox-BROCK, 'A radiological and histological in\"es6garion inro the mummification of cats from ancient Egypt', Journal oJArchaeological Science 8 (1981), 185-96. j. J\1ALEK, The cM inlll1cienl Egypl (London, 1993).

cataracts, Nile
Rocky areas of rapids in the middle Nile valley, caused by abrupt geological changes. There are six cataracts in the section of the Nile rhat passes through the area of ancient ubia, between Aswan and Khartoum.

Figure o/a cal sacred 10 the goddess Baslet, wearing protecliu wedjat-tye tmllllel. Late Pen"od, after 600 BC, brol/ze ,villi gold ril/gs, H. 38 CIll. (A64391)

62

TTLE

CHANTRESS

cattle see AN1MAL HUSBANDRY

cavetto cornice
Distinctive form of concave moulding, projecting from the tops of many Egyptian STELAE, PYLONS, ALTARS or walls. The characteristic hollow, quarter-circle shape perhaps derives from the appearance of the tops of fronds of vegetation used in Predynastic huts, before the emergence of mud-brick or stone archi tecture. S. CLARKE and R. ENGELHACII, Ancient EgVPliall mtl.wnry: the building craji (London, 1930), 5-6. [reprinted as Aucicnt Egyptiall fOllstruelioll (Iud architecture (New York, 1990)]

cemeteries see rvlASTAflA and

PYRMvUDS

CGroup (C Horizon) Nubian cultural entity roughly synchronous with the period in Egyptian history between the Old and New Kingdoms (c.2494-1550 BC). The indigenous C-Group people of NUBIA were subjected to varying degrees of social and economic influence from their powerful northern neighbours. Their princi-

B. TRIGGER, Nubia. under Ihe pharaohs (London, 1978). J. H. TAYLOR, Egyplllllr! Nllbill (London, 1991).

C-Croup bom! ofpolished incised ware.Fom Paras, e.2340--/550 BC, H. 8./ ClII. (EAS/230)

pal archaeological characteristics included handmade black-topped pottery vessels bearing incised decoration filled with white pigment, as well as artefacts imported from Egypt. Their subsistence paltern was dominated by cattle-herding, and their social system was essentially tribal. In the early 12th Dynasty the C-Group territory in Lower Nubia was taken Over by the Egyptians, who established a string of FORTRESSES between the 2nd and 3rd Nile cataracts. It has been suggested that one of the effects of the Egyptian occupation in the Middle Kingdom may have been to prevent the C Group from developing contacts with the more sophisticated KER..MA culture that was developing in Upper Nubia.

Champollion. Jean-Fran~ois (1790--1832) French linguist and Egyptologist who \V.1S responsible for the most important achievement in the history of the study of ancient Egypt: the decipherment of '"EROGLYPIIS. He is sometimes described as Champollion 'Ie jeune', because his brother, Jacques-Joseph Champollion-Figeac, was also a scholar. Born at Figcac, he was sent to the Lyceum at Grenoble at the age of eleven and had already delivered a paper on the ancient Egypti.m LANGUAGE by the time he left in 1807. He subsequently studied under the pioneering Egyptologist Silvestre de Sa~y at the College de France in Paris. Equipped with an excellent knowledge of Hebrew, Coptic, Arabic, Syriac and Chaldaean, he embarked on the task of deciphering hieroglyphs, using the ROSETTA STONE (a Ptolemaic inscription consisting of the same decree written in Greek, OEi\IIOTlC and hiero~ glyphics) as his principal guide. After examining Egyptian antiquities in various European collections, Champollion lmdertook a detailed survey of Egypt, along with IppoLito ROSELLJNI in 1828-9. Although his Leltre d M. Dacier of 1822 is usually regarded as the turning point in his studies, he did not achieve a satisfactory understanding of the language until the completion of his grammar and dictionary shortly before his death from a stroke in 1832. ].-F. CHAMPOLI..lON, Lettre d ;\1. Dat:ier rtflalive ti I'a/phabet des hitirog(vphes pJumiliques (Paris, 1822). - , MOlluwe1l1S de I'EgYPle et de!a. Nubie, 4 vols (Paris, 1835-47).

Fragmenl of11Jall-pail1lingjroJJlthe lomb-chapel of Nebalfll/1/ al ThebeJ, s/lOming two chariols. The upper one is pulled !~}1tmo horses, mhereas Ihe lomer onc appears to be dramll J~y mules. /81h Dynasly, e. /400 BC, pailller! plaster, It. 43 ClII. (EA37982) F. LI. GRIJ'FITl-I, 'The decipherment of the hieroglyphs',lEA37 (1951), 38-46. IVl. POURPOINT. C!ta111pollion et l'elligme egYPliC11ne (Paris, 1963).

chantress see CUL'T SlNGERS AND TI~MPLl~

i\'IU$lC1AN$

chariot
Although the origins of the horse~dra\Vn chariot have proved difficult to ascertain, its arrival in Egypt can be fairly reliably dated to the Second Intermediate Period (1650--1550 BC). The surviving textual and pictorial evidence suggests that the chariot (merael or merkebet) arrived in Egypt at roughly the same time as the IrYKSOS. It consisted of a light wooden semicircular, open-backed framework, furnished with an axle and a pair of four- or sixspoked wheels. A long pole attached to the axle enabled the chariot to be drawn by a pair of horses. Its importance as an innovative item of mjjjtary technology was based on its use as a mobile platform for archers, allowing the enemy to be bombarded by arrows from many different directions. Although the chariot is often portrayed in temple and tomb decoration from the New )(jngdom (1550--1069 BC) onwards, only cleven examples have survived, four of which are from the tomb of TUTANKIIAMUN. A Ramesside papyrus in the British Museum (P. Anastasi I) provides an insight into the maintenance of chariou'y with a description of an Egyptian charioteer's visit

63

CHEOPS

CHRONOLOGY

to a repair shop in the Levantinc coastal city of

Joppa.

The chariot was not only used in battle by the 1/J{f/:J!allllll, an elite corps of the Egyptian army in the New Kingdom, it was also regarded as <1n essential part of the royal regalia. Depictions of the king charging enemies in his chariot became a cOmmon feature of the exterior walls of temples as symbols of 'the containment of unrule', roughly comparable with the more ancient theme of the king smiting foreigners with a mace (sec
I(Ji'<c..;SI up).

M. A. LnT,\UER and]. H. CROUWEL, Wheelcd l:ehides ({lid riddell tlllilllals ill/he Allcielll Near East (Lei den and Cologne, 1979). A. R. SCllULtI'l:\N, 'Chariots, charimfY and the l-lyksos',.7SSEA to (1980),105-53. M. A. LnTt\UER and J. H. CROUWEI., Clwrio!s alld relaled equipmellt FOIll/lie tomb 4'TII/ ifllk/J(IIIIl1/l (Oxford, 1985). P. R. S. l\lloOREY, 'The emergence of the light, horse-drawn charior in the Near East r.2000-1500B.c.', HA 1812(1986), 196-215.

Cheops SCl' KIIUFU Chephren SCI' C Horizon children

A great deal of evidence has survived from Egyptian medical and magical documents concerning precautions taken by WOMEN to ensure rapid conception, safe pregnancy and successful childbirth. The graves of children have survived in varia LIS cemeteries from the Predynastic period onwards, and attempts have been made to assess the rate of infant mortality on the basis of the ratios of adult to child burials, as well as rhe study of rhe human remains themselves. Undoubtedly infant mortality was high, but families were nevertheless fairly large, averaging perhaps at about five children who would actually have reached adolescence (assuming the early death of three
or four offspring).
KllAJ<RA

SCI' C GROUP

similar purpose may have been served by the ceramic vessels depicting nursing mothers, which have survived from the lVliddle Kingdom (2055-1650 lJe) onwards. As I:\r as the elite were concerned, wet~nurses were often employed, especially by the women of the royal family; the position of (royal wetnurse' was evidently a prestigious office, often entitling the individual to be depicted in the tomb of the royal individual whom she had nursed. From at least the Old Kingdom onwards (2686-2181 lJr.), bntb boys and girls often wore a SIDELOCK OF YOUTII, marking them out as pre-pubescent. The sidelock, essentially a tress of hail' hanging over the car, was worn until about the age of ten or 1110re. Both inf~lllts and child-gods such as Harpocrat'es (sec IIORUS) were reg'ulady c1epicLcd wiLh one fing'er in their mouths as a symbol of their childishness. Nakedness was also particularly coml11on among children, judging from the surviving paintings and reliefs of the Pharaonic period. It is also clear from such funerary art that children, as in all ages, played many GAr-dES and sports, ranging from dancing and wrestling to ball games and races. A number of balls have survived, but the identification of TOYS has proved mOre controversial, given the tendency for [hem to be

R. M. and l lJ\NSSEN, Crom;lIg IIjJ;1I al/timt Egypt (London, 1990). E. STROUIIO\I., [4e;1I al/c;el// Egypt (Cambridge. 1992), 11-29 G. R()Bl~S, I Vinllell ;11 al/ciclll Egypt (London, 1993),75-91

chronology
J\llodern Egyptologists' cluonologies of ancient Egypt combine three basic appro;lchcs. First, there are 'relative' dating methods, such as srratigraphic excavation, or Lhe 'sequence dining' of artefacts, which was invented by I'linders PI':TRll': in 1899. Second, there arc so-called '"absolute' chronologies, based on calendrical and astronomical records obtained from ancient texts (see ASTI~01\O\n Ai\"D ;\ST[HJI.OGY and Ct\I.E:'\'Di\R). Finall~\ there are 'radiometric' methods (principally radiocarbon dating and thermoluminescence), by means of which particular types of artefacts or organic remains can be assigned dates ill tenns of the measurement of radioactive decay or accumulation. The ancient Egyptians dated important poLitical and religious events not according to the number of years that had elpased since a single fixed point in history (such as the birth of Christ in the modern western calendar) but in terms of the years since the accession of each current king (rcg:-

confused with religious and magical paraphernalia~ a 'doll' for instance might equally well have erotic or ritualistic signilicance (see
SE:XU.'\[TI"Y).

M.any surviving reliefs, paintings and sculptures depict women suckling their babies, including the famous depiction of TIIUTMOSE III being suckled by the goddess ISIS (in the form of a tree) in his tomb in the Valley of the Kings (1-:\'34). The motif of the king being suckled by his mother Isis or 111\'1'1 [OR was an archetypal clement of Egyptian religion, perhaps providing some of the inspiration for the image of Madonna and Child in the Christian era, A number of magical spells were evidently intended to restore mother's milk, and a

Killg hI/FolJI/lte lemple of Rallle:;es fI a/ Abydns. lite lower reg;sla (~rwlticlt repealS the birth alld tlll"f)//e nallles r~rRa'/Jleses II. /9/h Dyllasty, c.1250 Be. pa;lI/ed lilllcs/one, (f. 1.38/lf. (/:."A117)
nal years). Dates were therefore recorded in the following typical format: \lay three of the second month of perel in the third year of 1\1enkheperra (Thutmose [II)'. The situation, however, is slightly confused by the fact that Lhe dates cited in the 5th-Dynasty KING LIST known as the P1\LERL 51'01\'E appear to refer to V10 the number of biennial cattle censuses (hesbe!) rather than to the number of years that the king had reigned, therefore the number of

See also

ClRCU_\,\CISION; CLOTI liNG; EDUCt\-

TION; .\\/\.\1"115[; :\IEDICl1\'I:.

E. FEUCHT, IKind', Lt'xi/..:oll del' .AgYPlolog;e [[I, cd. 'IN. Heick, E. Otto and '\.I, Westendorf (Wiesbadcn, 1980), +24-37. G. PINClI , 'Childbirth and female figurines at DeiI' el-Medina and c1-Amarna', Or;eJl/aha 52 (1983), +05-1+ S. \VIIM,E, 1111' filll/;f)! ill lite Eigltteel/llt DYllas/y of Egypt: (l s/lIr()' of/lte represell/al;oll o/llte.f{lIlI;(J! ill private tombs (Sydney, 1989).

64

~ONOLOGY

CIRCUMCISION

'years' in the date has to be doubled to find out the actual number of regnal years. The names and relatiyc dates of the yarious rulers and m I\:\~TIES hil\-C been obtained from a number of tc.xtual sources. These range from the ~egJ'PliIlCll, ;:1 history compiled by an Egyptian priest called \I"'~ETII() in the early third century Be, [Q the much earlier h:.ll\G LJSTS, mainly recorded on ("he walls of tombs and temples but also in the form of papni (as with the T Rll\ RQnL C\ "o~) or remote desert rock-carvings (as with the \\fadi Hammamat list). It is usually presumed lhal .\lanetho himself used king lists of these types as his sources. The 'traditional' absolute chronologies tend to rely on complex webs of textual references, combining such elements as namcs1 dates and genealogical information into an oyerall historical framework which is more reliable in some periods than in others, The 'intermediate periods' have proved to be particularly awkward, partly because there W.IS often more than one ruler or dynasty reigning simultaneously in different parts of the country. The surviving records of observations of the heliacal rising of the dog star Sirius (SOPDET) serve both as the linchpin of the reconstruction of the Egyptian calendar and as its essential link with the chronology as a whole. The relationship between the calendrical and radiometric chronological systems has been relatively ambiyalent oyer the years, Since the late 1940s, ,yhen a series of Egyptian artefacts were used as a bench-mark in order to assess the reliability of the newly invented radiocarbon dating technique, a consensus has emerged that the two svstems arc broadh- in line. The major problcn~, howcYer, is that- the traditional calendrical system of dating, whatever its failings, "irtually always has a smaller margin of error than radiocarbon dates, which are necessarily quoted in terms of a broad band of dates (i,e, one or two standard deviations), never capable of pinpointing the construerion of a building or the making of an artefact to a specific year (or even a specific decade), The prehistory of Egypt, on the other hand, has benefited greatll' from the application of radiometric dating, since it was previously reliant on relative dating methods. The radiometric techniques h,we made it possible ~ot only to place Petrie's sequence dates with~n a framework of absolute dates (however Imprecise) but also to push the chronology back into the earlier Neolithic and Palaeolithic periods. R. PARKER, 'The calendars and chronology', Th" Legacy ofl:.gyp/, ed.). R. Harris (Oxford, 1971), 13-26.

R. KRAUSS, So/his-lIl1d ,Houdda/en: Stlldim ::..ur IWrollom;sc!1t:lI flUt! tethui~'(hell Chronologie /lllIi'gyp/ellS (Iliidesheim, 1985), 1. ~L E. SHAW, 'Egyptian chronology and the lrish Oak calibration',JNES 44N (1985), 295-317. K. A, Knu IE:'\, 'The chronology of ancient Eg\"pt', I/t1 23 (1991), 201-8.

chthonic
Term lIsed to describe phenomena relating to the underworld and the earth, including deities such as GEB, ,\KER and OSIRIS,

cippus see flORUS

circumcision
The Greek historian Herodorus mentions that the Egyptians practised circumcision 'for cleanliness' sake, preferring to be clean rather than comely'; and the practice may well have been inaugurated purely for reasons of hygiene. Nevertheless, depictions of certain uncircumcised individuals in the decoration of Old Kingdom mastaba tombs suggest that rhe operation wns not universal. The act of circumcision may have been performed as pan of a ceremony akin to the rites of passage in the 'age-grade systems' of many band and tribal societies, A stele of the First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 Be) mentions the circumcision of 120 boys at one time,

Dc/ailoIll relief/iom the mas/aba 10mb of

/lnkh",a/wr fII Saqqara, ~'hOl1Jillg a priest pc/forming tin {fct ()/l;i"cllmc/~'iol1 011 ({ boy. 6th DYlla.<ly. c.2300 (ie.

which pcrhJps implies a group of indi"iduals of "arying ages. It has been suggestcd, howe\'cr, that boys would usually haye been abOlu f(Hlrteen years old when they '''ere circumciscd. The mummy of a young prince aged about c!e\'cn, which was found in the tomb of Amenhotep II, is uncircumcised and retains the SIDF.LOCK OF yor.;'n I hairstyle, which waS therefore perhaps worn by young boys only in the years before circumcision. The ceremony itself, for which the Egyptian rerm was ubi, waS carried our using ;l cun'ed flint knife similar to those employed by embalmers. On the basis of this archaizing equipmenr, iL has been argued that circumcision waS essenrially a religious act for the Egyptians. On the other hand, it may h3\'e simply been a practical expedient, gi\'en the fact thal metal knives would hardly hil\'e surpnssed a newly-knapped flint in terms of sharpness. Moreover, considering the lack of anriscptics, if the cut was as clean and rapid ns possible, the healing process would probably have been more likely to be successful. The 6th-Dynasty mastaba of the vizier Ankhmahor at Saqqara contains a circumcision scene, which appcars to show bOLh Lhe cutting and the application of some sort of ointment, although the latter is unclear, From at least the Late Period onwards (747-332 lie) it became compulsory for priests to be circumcised, as part of the purification necessary for the performance of their temple duties, ;,tnd Ihis further illustrates that it was not compulsory for children to be circumcised at adolescence. In the Roman period, a ban on circumcision (from which only priests were exempt) appears to have been introduced. The Egyptians themsclycs may have regarded circumcision as an ethnic 'identificr', judging from depictions of foreigners in battle scenes of the New Kingdom, such as those depicted in the mortuary temple of Ramescs III at I\lEIJI:'\ET II-\B(;. In enumerating enemy dead, the Egyptians diffcrentiated belween the circumcised Semites, whose hands were cut off, and the uncircumcised foes - notably Libyans"'hose penises were remoyed for the counting. Although Strouhal suggests tlut some ancient Egyptian texts refer to 'uncircumcised' virgins and the Roman wriL'er Strabo mentions that female circumcision was practised by the Egyptians, no physical evidence of the operation has yet been found 011 surviving female mummies, [\ JO"'CKI11~E1{Jo:, 'T.a circonclsion des nnciens Egypt-iens" Cel1/flurus I (1951), 212-34, 0. B:\RDIS, 'Circumcision in ancient Egypt\ flldiflllaJollJ'Jlal/or the Hist01J' o/,Het!io'uc 12/1 (1967),22-.1. 65

CLEOPATRA

CLOTHI~

E. STROUlI:\L, Life il1 al/cient Egypt (C1mbridge, 1992),28-9.

Cleopatra
Name given to seven Ptolemaic queens of Egypt. The last of these, Cleopatra I'll (51-30 Be), was the most illustrious. Clearly intelligent and politically astute, she was reputedly the only Ptolemaic ruler to have learnt the Egyptian language. Surprisingly, however, in view of the later eulogies of poets and playwrights such as Shakespeare, her surviving portraits suggest that the historical Cleopatra was not especially beautiful. Cleopatra VII first shared a COREGEJ,CY with her father Ptolemy XII (80-51 BC) and then with her brother Ptolemy XIII (51-'17 BC) who ousted her from power for a time in 48 BC. Her links with Rome were first forged through Pompey, who had been appointed as her guardian on the death of her father, when he had become involved in the financial affairs of the Ptolemaic court. Defeated by Caesar at Pharsalia in 48 BC, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was assassinated. Tn the same year Caesar eOlered Egypt and restored Cleopatra to the throne as coregent with her second brother, Ptolemy XII' (47-44 HC), whom she married. In 47 Be she bore a son, Ptolemy Caesarion, who she claimed had been fathered b)' Caesar. She visited Caesar in Rome in 46 BC, returning after his assassination, whereupon she bestowed a similar fate on her brother, replacing him with the young Caesarion; her various political manoeuvres then led to her being summoned to meet with lvlark Antony at Tarsus. He spent the winter at Alexandria, after which Cleopatra bore him twins; shortly afterwards they were officially married, and subsequently set about the business of using one another for their own political ends. In 34 Be, in the so-called 'Donations of Alexandria', Mark Antony divided various parts of the eastern Roman empire between Cleopatra and her children, legitimating this action to the Senate by informing them that he was simply installing client rulers. However, Octavian (later Augustus), who was the broth~ er of ~1ark Antony's Roman wifc, led a propaganda campaign against his brother~in-la\V and Cleopatra, dwelling on their supposed licentious behaviour in Alexandria, and in 32 Be Rome declared war on Cleopatra. The following year Octavian defeated Mark Antony at the naval battle of Actium, partly because Cleopatra's fleet unexpectedly withdrew from the engagement. Octavian pursued them both into Egypt, but Antony committed suicide and, on 10 August 30 BC, Cleopatra followed

F(ssures oJ Cleopatra. VII (Ie/i) and her sou kJ' Julius Caesar, Caesarian (right), making o.fTerillgs. Fro/1/the south (rear) mll,1I ofthe temple o/Hat!wr at Dendera. (J~ 7: NICHOLSON)

suit, preferring death to the humiliation of a Roman triumph. Oetavian then had her eldest son, Ptolemy Caesarion, killed. He appointed himself pharaoh on 30 August, theoceforth treating Egypt as his own private estate. J. QUAEGEBEUR, 'Cleopatra \"I] and the cults of the Ptolemaic queens" Cleopatra ~f Eg)lpt: Age oflhe Plolem;es, cd. R. S. Bianchi (New York, 1988), 41-54. L. HUGHFS-I-lALlLIT, Cleopatra (London, 1990). j. W'IITEHORNE, Cleopalra, (London, 1994).

B. CUn-ERELL, F P. DICKSON and]. KAMMINGA, 'Ancient Egyptian water-clocks: a reappraisal', JouI"I/(I1 oIArcJuu:ological Scie1/ce 13 (1986), 31-50. G. HC)lJlL, 'Eine agyptische Wasseruhr aus Ephesus', AI/like Well 17/1 (1986),59-60. S. CoUCI-IOUD, 'Calcul d'un horloge it cau" OSEe 12 (1988), 25-34.

clothing
Despite the fact that arid conditions have facilitated the survival of a number of items of clothing, primarily from tombs of the New Kingdom, textiles have so far not been studied in sufficient detail. Modern studies of ancient Egyptian clothing are therefore still largely based on the srudy of wall-paintiogs, reliefs and sculptures. In general Egyptian clothing was very simple: men working in the fields or involved in craftwork often wore little more than a loincloth or short kilt, although shirt-like garments have survived from the Early Dynastic period onwards, the earliest example being a linen dress/shirt from Tarkhan in Lower Egypt (c.2800 BC). Clothing can often be used as a reliable chronological guide in thaI the Egyptian Clite of most periods were generally subject to changes io fashion. The dress of courtiers of Ramesside times, for instance, could be extremely elaborate and the men often wore pleated kilts with unusual apronlike arrangements at the front. During the Old Kingdom, womeo (and goddesses) arc usually portrayed wearing a kind of sheath-dress with broad shoulder straps, but b)' the New Kingdom this had

clepsydra ('water clock')

Device for ffiC'JSuring tinle, consisting of a water-filled vessel (usually of stone, copper or pottery) with a hole in the base through which the water gradually drained away. The earliest surviving examples date to the 18th Dynasty (1550-1295 BC). There are a variety of fragments of stone clepsydrae in the collection of the British Museum, including part of a basalt vessel dating to the reign of Philip Arrhidaeus (c.320 BC), which is marked with vertical lines of small holes relatiog to the twelve hours of the night. Part of a cubit rod in the Metropolitan Museum, New York, bears the words 'The hour according to the cubit: a jar(?) of copper filled with water ... ', thus implying that the rod was dipped into a copper vessel in order to read the time as the water level fell.

66

~THING

COBRA

evolved into a type of dress with only one

strap, and by the reign of Amcnhotep III (1390-1352 Be) more diaphanous garments
were being worn. Fine clothing became one of the specialist products for which Egypt was known in Roman times. The colourful nature of the fabrics used in daily life (or perhaps the use of bead netting Over dresses) is illustrated by the figures of offering bearers from the tomb of Meketra (rr280) datiog to the early Middle Kingdom. The excavation of the Theban tomb of the architect Kha (rr8) led to the discovery of twenty-six knee-length shirts ancl about fifty loincloths, including shorr triangular pieces

of material that would have been worn in the context of agricultural or building work. Seventeen heavier linen tunics were provided for winter we'lf, while two items described as

'tablecloths' were among Kha's wife's clothes. He and his wife each had their own
individuallaundrymarks, and it is known that there were professional launderers attached to the workmen's village at JJEIR EI.-MEDINA where Kha and his family lived. A few loincloths made of leather rather than linen have also survived, some particularly fine examples having been excavated from the wellpreserved tomb of MAIl IERPRI in the Valley of the Kings (Kv36). The tomb of TUTt\;\IKl-!t\MUN (Kv62) contained a large selection of textiles, including children's clothing. So far linlc of his wardrobe has been scientifically examined, but sOme of the linen contains gold thread, and one kilt was made up of colourful beadwork. Decorated textiles became more common in the New Kingdom, but 'were still not common, some of the best examples deriving fi'om

the tomb of Thuulluse IV (1400-1390 Be, Kv43) and include crowned urrt,ei (sec WADJYT). Howard Carter believed these to be ceremonial garments, but mOre recently it has been sllg~ gcsted that they may havc been lIsed as vessel covers. Priests, viziers and certain other types of officials all marked their status with particular items or styles of dress. The vizier, for instance, was usually depicted wearing a long robe which came up to his armpits, while the scm-priest was usually shown wearing a leopard-skin. R. HALL, Egyp/ian lex/iles (Princes Risborough,
1986).

G. VOGELSANG-EASTWOOD, P/Ull"afJlIlt Egyptiall do/hillg (Lcidcll, 1993).

cobra
Type of snake that served as the sacred image of WAOJYT, patron deiry of the town of Buto (TI~LL 1:I.-I,'ARl\ 'IN) in the Delta, who came to represent Lower Egypt, in contrast to the Upper Egyptian vulture-goddess NEKJ-IBEI. As the ruler of the two lands, the king included the cobra (iarel) and the vulture among his titles and insignia (see C[~OWNS ..\ ND ROYAl. REGALf,\ and ROYAL ITI'ULARY). The limen.' was sometimes described as '"the great enchantress' (merel !leRam) and could be depicted as a cobra with a human head (as on the golden shrine of Tutankhamun). Even before its identification with the king, the cobra's protective attributes were recognized, and it was identified as the EYE OF (v\, sometimes shown protecting his solar disc by spitting fire and venol11. Pairs of cobras also guarded the gates that divided the individual hours of the underworld in the Book (~r Gales (see FUNERARY TEXTS); this is presumed to have been the function of the gilded wooden cobra found in the tomb of Tut.ankhamun. I-I.-\V. FISC,JrER-ELI'ERT, <Uto', I.A!.rikoll dcr Agy/ojJ%gie VI, cd. \Y. Heick, E. Otto and W. Westendorl'(Wiesoaden, 1986),906-11. S. JOIINSO,\" The cobra goddess (!!"al1(ieul Eg)/IJ/ (London, 1990).

LEVI' Earlie:.! surviving Egyptiflngarme1lf: linen sltirt 01" dress, comprising ({ plea/et/yoke and sleeves flffflclted to fI skin lIJi,h mcJi/ringe, c.\"(;avaled in 19/2fro1l/ mos/aba 2050 al Thrklutll. Is/Dynasty, reign o/Djc/, c.2980 fie, r.. I~!"s/cf"/,le (nak edge 10 IIJrist) 58 em. (!'t:Tll/1:" AIUSUW, 286148i)

Triangular /jnenloindo/ltsj;"lJlJI/he lomb of c./330 IlG, (GAl/tO, Nu.SOb)

IJELOW

TlI!allkhallllll1. /81h PJ'/WSZ)',

coffins and sarcophagi

The term 'coffin' is usually applied to the rectangular or anthropoid container in which the Egyptians placed the mummified boely, where.Is the word 'sarcophagus' (Greek: 'flesh-cating') is used to refer only to t.he stone aliter container, invariably encasing one or more coffins. The dist.inction made between these two itcms of Egyptian funerary equipment is theref()re essentially an artificial one, since both shared the same role of protecting the corpse. In terms of decoration and shape,

67

COFFINS AND SARCOPHAGI

COFFINS AND SARCOPHA~.!

coffins and sarcophagi drew on roughly the same iconographic and styListic repertoire. The earliest burials in Egypt contain no coffins and are naturally desiccated by the hot sand. The separation of the corpse from the surrounding sand by the lise of a coffin or sarcophagus ironically led to the deterioration of the body, perhaps stimulating developments in .\IUt'\'II\IlF1CATION. The religious purpose of the coffin was to ensure the well-being of the dl:ccascd in the afterlife, literally providing a 'house' for the KA. The earliest coffins were baskets or simple plank constructions in which the body was placed in ,I Ilcxed position. From these developed the vaulted house-shaped coffins that remained in lise into the 4th Dynasty (26l3-2494 lie). At around this time the Egyptians began to bury the corpse in an extended position, perhaps because the increasingly common practice of e,'isceratioTl (sec CA"mPIC JARS) nude such an arrangement more suitable. By the end of the Old Kingdom (2181 BC) food offerings were being painted on the inside of cottins as an extra means of pnwiding sustenance for the deceased in the event of the tomb chapel being destroyed or neglected. In the Old and Nliddk Kingdoms, a pair or eyes was often painted on the side or the coffin that liKed east when itwas placed in the tomb; it was evidently believed thal the deceased could therefore look out of the coffin to sce his or her offerings and the world from which he Or she had passed, as well as to view the rising SUIl. Decorated collins becamc still more important in the First fntcrmediate Period

(2181~2055 Be), when many tombs contained little mural decoration (sec 13E.NI HASAN). It waS thus essential that coffins themselves should incorporate the basic elements of the tomb, and by the rvliddle Kingdom (2055-1650 Ilc) they often incorporated revised extracts of the PYRAMID TE:\TS, known as the COF]T\' TE\TS. This change reflects the increased identificarion of the afterlife with OSIRIS, rather than the sun-god R!\ (sec Flji\!o:R}\R\ TEXTS).

Anthropoid coffins first appc<lred in the 12tb Dynasty (1985-1795 Be), apparent1v serving as substitute bodies lest the original be destroyed. '\lith the New Kingdom (1550-1069 IIC), this form of coffin became morc popular and thc shape becamc identified with Osiris himsclf~ his BEARD and crossed arms somerjmes being added. The feathered, rislii coffins of the 17th and early J8th Dynasty were once thought to depict the wings of the goddess ISIS, embracing her husband Osiris, but are now considered by some scholars to refer to the n:\ bird. Rectangular coflins were effectively rcplaced by anthropoid types in the lRth Dynasty, but some of their decorative clements were rerained. In the Third Intermediate Period (1069747 [Ie), coffins, papyri and stelae became the main vehicles for funerary scenes that had previollsly been carved and painted on the walls of tomb chapels. 'rhe principal feawre of most of the new scenes depicted on coffins was the Osirian and solar mythology surrounding the concept of rcbirth (sec OSIRIS and RA), including the judgcment of the deceased bcJore Osiris and the journey into the underworld,

thc voyage or the SOL\R BARK and parts of the LittlllY (~r RlI. Among the new scenes intro_ duced in the decoration of coffins and On funerary papyri was the depiction of the separation of the earth-god Geb from the skygoddess NUT. The excavation of the 21st- and 22ndDynasty royal tombs at TANIS has proyided a number of examples or the royal coffins of the period (althollgh the sarcophagi were sometimes rC-lIsed from the .:'\i ew Kingdom). 'fhe cache of mummies of high priests of Amun <lI DEIR EL-U'\I lR] has also yielded a large number of private cofiins of the 21st Dyn<lst~ (1069-945 BC). It lVas also from the end of the New Kingdom onwards that the interiors of coffins began to be decorated again; beneath the lid - especiall~- in the 22nd Dyni1sl~ (945-715 Be) - there was often " reprcsel1ta~ tion of Nut, while the 'goddess of the \ycst' (HKrHoR) or the [)JI:n 1'11.1..'\1{ began 1"0 be portrayed on the coffin floor. During the Late Period exlT<\cts from the BOOI-: OF TIlE DL\D werc sometimes also inscribed inside the coffin. In the 25th Dynasty <\ new repertoire of cof... fin types, usually consisting of sets of two or three (including an inner case with pedestal, an intermediate anthropoid case and a 'fourposter' or anthropoid outer coffin), was introduced, becoming cstablished practice by the 26th Dynasty. Late Period coffins were also characterized by archaism, inyolving the rcPail/led moot/ell C(~!l;1l and lIIl!11l/l~JI o/al/ lIlI/WllIed Tlteball pricsless. 2lsI DYlfflSZJI. c.IOOO fJe,
II.

/.83 III. ("/-1879/-2)

68

fQFFIN TEXTS

COLOSSI OF MEMNON

introduction of c'lrlicr styles of coffin deeOl'arion, such as the proyision of the eye panel. There arc comparatiycly few exc;wated burials dating from c.S2S to 350 Be, bur more coffLns have slIrYi"cd frol11 the succeeding phase (30th Dynast)' and ear" Ptolemaic period), when they typically ha\'c disproportionatel" large heads and wigs. During the early Proiem;lic period many mummies were pro\"ided with canonnagc \1.\5":S .md plaques, fixed on to the body by strips of linen. A. Nl\nNs}.:!. 'ZUf D.tticrung lind Hcrkunft der :I!ragyprischcn Siirgc', Bibliolhem Orimlli/ia-rz

(1985), .\9+-508.
I-l. \VII.LDtS, Cln/sls (~rlije: {/ JllIl~)1 (~(lhe /Jlp%gy {lml r0l1apllliI1 del'c/opwell! oIIl/itftlle J....iugt/ul/1 suwdllrd rltm ro}]im (T .eiden, 1988). A. NIWINSt.::I, 2 hI Dyuasty (o.flinsji"u1I1 nll'hi'S (Mainz, 1988). J. 1-1. TAYLOR, E:!{)lpliall CI!llills (Aylesbury, 1989). N. A. SlI..BER.\\:\N, 'Coflins in human shape: ~l history of anthropoid sarcophagi', H Ii? 16/+ (1990),52--1. G. LAPP, ~)lp(lllJgic del' 5/ti'lgc /llId Sargl'fllllIl/cl'II (llcidclbcrg, 1993).

Coffin Texts
;I group of O\Tr .1 thousand spells, selections from wh ich were inscribed on coffins during the Middle Kingdom, particularly the 11th and 12th Dynasties

Tcrm referring to

(2055-1795 Be). Man\' or the Coffin Texts were derivcd from the 1'\ ]{\\\ID TEXTS, ;l sequence of oftcn-obscure spells clnTd (In the internal walls of rhe Old Kingdom pyramids. During the Old Kingdom the afterlife had been the prerogali\ c of (he king, who in death
was identified with OSIRIS and transformed into a god. For Lhis reason Old J..:..ingdolll courticrs sought hurial close to the king, hoping for inclusion in his funerary cult so that they Loo mighl be gr~1I1ted some 'form of aftcrlife, although rhe best Lh.lt they could hope for Was a continuation of lheir carthh status. However, with the collapse of ~hc Old Kingdom camc grcaLer self-reliance ~lnd with it a proccss which is somctimcs described lw Egyptologists as thc DE\\OCR,\TIZ\TIO\l OF TIl~~ ,\I'TERJ.lFE. This mcant that eYCr\'onc could have access to the afterlife, Wilhout'hcing associated directly with the royal culL These new aspirations of the deceased arc set out in a collection of spells painted in cursiyc hierogl\']Jhs inside l"he wooden corrin. The Coffin 'Texts were intcnded to provide a guarantee of survival in the art-crworld and ~ol11e of them are the ancestors of spells found In the New Kingdom 1l00J-: OF TilE IlEI\IJ. They have titles such as the sc!t:'explanatory '~ot to rot and not to do work in the kingdom of the

dead', and 'Spell for not dying a second death', whil:h was designed to preycnr the deceased from being judgcd unfit to enter the kingdom of Osiris .md so condcmned to oblivion. Both the Pyr;lmid Text.s and the Coffin TexIs present more than one \-crsion of the destination of the deceased: they mig-ht traYe:1 the sl.y with thc sun-god IU or, ahernal-i\c1~, mighr pass do" n into the underworld of Osiris. Th is latter \iew became increasingly common from the time of the Coffin 'Jcxts onwards, setting the scene for the funerary helic'!.; of rhe Ncw Kingdom. R.o. F\LI.""':R, The [gyp!ia/l CoHill Tc.rls. J rols (\Varminster, 1973-8).
A.

Tht illlantl! t!('mmlioll oj'lhe mjlill t~rGf{{f. i1/Jtribttl milh rXIrt1(ISj;m1lIfte Co/lin 'Iexts. 121ft PJ/lUlJly, c./98.;-179.) HC, pai1lutl mwc!,j'mlll Dl'ird-limi/ll. L 0(1'00;112.6/11. (.1308-10)

Colossi of Memnon
'I\\'()

colossal scated sratues of

\.\II:,\1I0TI:I 1 III

(1390-1]52 Be), can'ed from quartzite sandstone, which ;lre located .It the eastern end uf thc silc of his much-plundered mortuary temple in wCS:rTl Thebes; e.lch of the figures is flanked by a rcprescnt<1tion of TIY. In 27 Be;1n earthquakc damaged rhe nonhern staLUc, and perhaps created somc flaw in thc stonc, causing it to producc a characteristic whistling sound each morning. This has been \',lI'iously ascribed to the effect of' the brecze or thc expansion of the Slone, although the precise reason remains uncertain_ Ancient Greek visitors knew the statue as Lhc '\'OCil1 Mcmnon', suggesting thaI the figure was Ihe Homeric character .Memnon, singing 1'0 his mother Eos, the goddess of the dawn. The Greek writer STR..:\BO at first speculated, SOIl1C-

J. SI'E'\C1:1{, Death ill (II/rim!

F.gyP!

(1Iarll1tlnds\\'{)rrh. 1982), 1..f.1-2. H. \VII.I.El\IS, C!Jests (~rld(': {/ SII/{~)I flllI/e Iypoll//!..JI lIlId (Ol!ct'plfllll dt'rt,lopmelll !d'/l1itltlle Kingdo/ll s!fuu/ard class O!l!i1lS (Lcidcn, 1988), 2+t--9.

69

COLOSSI OF MEMNON

COLUMN

Tlu: Colossi of/'rlemuoll 011 lite J1J(sl bauk (1/ Tlll'bl's tlrf: n:pn:seu/tll;OIlS ill quartzite sauds/olll' of Alllfn/Wlep /11. The lIorthern sla/ut (right) is thtll J..1Uwm to tludell! Creel' visitors tiS tlte 'weill
1\1e1ll1l01l', (P.LWCIIOViO,Il,-j

?\kmnon: new slants', ArclweomellJ' 26/2

(198-1),218-29.
D. KI.I:,\I~I, R. KI.E:\L\l and L. STECI.:\C1, 'Die pharnonischcn Stcinbriichc des silifizierten Sandsteins und die Herkunft del' ?\ lemnon-

wh.lt sceptically, that the sound might have been crcated by Egyptians standing nearby, although he claims to ha,'c been e\'entually
convinced of irs supernatural origins. [11 the

Kolosse', MD.UK -10 (198-1), 207-20. and B. BNY,", EgypI S tll1;::)illg .HlII: AmenhoJcp HI tIIlll his nJl1rltl (Bloomington, 1992), 138-9.
A. P. KOZI.OFF

third century the Roman emperor Scptirnius

Sever us (In 193-21 J) repaired the damaged

column
Like much of Egyptian religious architecture, the shapes of stone columns drew inspiration from Egyptian native flora and from Predynastie religious structures made of reeds, branches and logs. "rhe sh;'lft and C<.lpiral were carved in the form of four basic noral types: P\PYRUS, LOTUS, palm and 'composite'. In the Greco-Roman period, the composite capital provided an opportunity for many more elaborate variations and combinations, Thc shafts of columns were also frequently decorated with scenes and inscriptions in paintcd relier. \Vooden columns were used in Egyptian houscs and occasionally also in religious buildings, such as Old Kingdom mortuary chapels, as decorative supports for the roofs and upper

colossus, and in doing so seems to ha,-c rendered it dumb.

As a rC:iult of the identification of the colos-

si with Memnon, the area of western Thebes

itself became known as i\rlcmnonia, and the R\,\IESSEU~' as the J\1cmnoniul11. The term 1\1cmnoniu111 was even applied to the Osircion at ,'Iwnos. 'T'hcsc nan1es were stiLI fashion:'lblc in the ~arly nineteenth century, when Giovanni m:I.Z0i\"1 applied the phrase 'young J\1cmnon' to a colossal head of Rameses 11 which he transported from rheR:'lmesseum to the British JVluseum. A. I-I. G.'Wl>li\d:R, 'The Egyptian Memnon"Jl:.~,tJ

47 (1961),91-9.
II.
BO".\I.<\i\

et aI., 'The northern colossus of

storeys. But the srone pillars and columns in Egyptian religious and funerary buildings served symbolic as weB as functional purposes, forming an essential part of the cosmulogical nature of Egyptian temples. The e~lrliest stone columns were engaged papyrus, ribbed and fluted columns in the cntrance and jubilee court" of the Step Pyramid complex at SAQQ,lR,\. By the ~th Dynasty (2613-2-194 Be), freestanding columns of many different stones were being used in the mortuary and valley temples of pyramid complexes. In the relief decoration the c:.lUseway of L"'HS (2375-23~5 Be), granite palm columns (some examples of which ha\C survi\'cd in Unas' ,'alley temple) ,1re depicted in the prOl:ess of being transported by bo.ll from the Aswan quarries to Saqqara. Fluted 'proto-Doric' columns were first carved in the entrance to the 12th-Dynast) tombs of Khnumhotep (Blt3) and Amenemhat (BIl2) at BEN1 HASI\'\i, and this unusual form W;lS used again in the north colonnade ()f Hatshcpsut's chapel of Anubis at Dr.m ElBt\ll!?.l, where the columns arc made {Q appear more elegant by tapering them LOw.trds the top. On thc most universal level, papyruS columns represented the reeds growing on the

or

70

~UMN

COPTIC PERIOD

PRlJ\{EVAL l'vIOUND at the beginning of time, although on a more practical level the forests of columns that make lip IIYPOSTYLE HALLS were probably also considered essential to avoid the collapse of the roof, especially in the sandstone temples constructed during the New Kingdom. There wcre two types of papyrus column: the dosed form, in which the capital was a papyrus bud, and the 'campaniform' type, in which the flower was shown in full bloom at the top of the column. The lotus column (a relatively rare form except:.It ABUSIR and BEN! HASAN) was also sometimes represented with the capital in flower. Since the PAPYRUS and LOTUS were the plants associated with Upper and Lower Egypt respectively, they could be used as clements of the architectur;\ symbolism surrounding the union of the 'twO lands'. An unusual type is the 'tent-pole' column found in the Festival Hall of Thurrnose IlJ at KARNAK. There were also a number of columns pro-

Deir c1-Bahri and the temple of Hathor at DENl)CRA. Finally, the DJED I'rLL!\R, with four horizontal bars across its capital, is an iconographic motif rather than a physical architectural clement, although the meaning of the word djed ('stability, duration') was closely linked with the concept of support, and in some instances columns were decorated with djed signs, presumably ip order to give thcm greater strength. S. CLARKE and R. Et'\GET.BACH, ~1It:ien' EgYPlion ma.wul1:J': Ihe buildillg (I"(~{I (London, 1930), 136-50. JVl.lsLER, 'The technique of monolithic carving', MDAIK 48 (1992), 45-55. D. ARNOlD, Building i11 Egypl: pharaonic slOllc /}/{{SOl/l)! (New York and Oxford, 1991),46--7.

concubine of the dead see SEXUALITY copper and bronze

The first metal to be exploited in Egypt, as elsewhere in the ancient world, was copper, the earliest surviving examples of which are small artefacts such as beads and borers of the Badarian period ((.5500-4000 BC). By the late I'REDY:-.JASTIC PERIOD, however, large items, such as axe- and adze-heads, were being produced, and the knowledge of copper-smelting and working was already highly developed. It has been suggested that the important late Predynastic settlement of M.'\AIJI, in Lower Egypt, may have prospered on the basis o[ its role as intermediary between the sources of copper in Sinai and the Levant and the Upper Egyptian 'proto~states' whose growth and competition produced a demand for metal tools and weapons. Copper was mined at various localities in the Eastern Desert, Nubia and the Sinai peninsula (such as vVadi Maghara) from at least the early Old Kingdom. The excavation of the Early Dynastic phase of the Egyptian fortress at nUl IEt'\, near the third Nile cat;uac!:, revealed traces of copper-smelting, indicating that mining was one of the earliest reasons for the Egyptian presence in Nubia. The technology of copper-smelting in the Old and Middle Kingdoms (2686-1650 Be) involved the use of crucibles and reed blowpipes. The P;\J.ERjvIO STONE states that copper sLatues were already being created in the 2nd Dynasty (2890-2686 BC), and the most spectacular surviving examples of copper-working fiom the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 Be) are the l.ife-size statue of the 6th-Dynasty pharaoh I'I':I'Y I and another smaller figure possibly representing his son Nlerenra, both in the Cairo l\1useum. These were probably produced by hammering the metal over a wooden core.

Red grfll/i!l' palm colu11ln

ji-Oll/ Ihe valley lemple oI

U1!a.\' al Saqqara. Laic 51h Dynasty, c.2345 lJe, Ii. 3.58/11. (.-11385)

The production of bronze, an alloy combining copper and tin, appears to have spread from Western Asia. Among the first known bronze artefacts in Egypt are a pair of ritual vessels from the tomb of the 2ndDynasty ruler KIIASEKHEMWY at AIn'DOS. It was not until the J\tliddle Kingdom that bronze began to be imported regularly from Syria, gradually replacing the use of copper hardened with arsenic. However, the percentage of tin varied considerably, from about 2 to 16 per cent. Tin lowers the melting point of copper, thus increasing its liquidity for casting. Additions of up to 4 per cent make the artefact stronger and harder, but higher levels of tin impair these qualitie~, unless the artefact is frequently annealed (reheated and allowed to cool). In the New Kingdom a form of bellows, con~isting of a leather-covered day vessel with a protruding tube, was introduced, making the smelting of copper and bronze easier. From the Saite period (664--525 He) onwards, large numbers of votive statucttes of deities were cast in bronze using the lost-wax (eire perdlle) process, which had been known since at least the Old Kingdom. Larger objects could be cast around a core, rather than being made from solid bronzc, thus saving valuable mctal. A. LUCAS, Allriolt EgJI/Jtiau materials alit! industries, 4th cd., rev.]. R. Harris (London, 1962), 199-2z:l. A. RADWA~, Die Kup.fcr- lind Bl"Ouzegefiisse '-:igyptC1lS: VOII dell ~1~/dllgell his ZUlli BegilllJ der Spiilzeit (IVlunich, 1983). M. COWEI.L, 'The composition of Egyptian copper-based metalwork', SciCJla i'll Egyptology, cd. A. R. D,w1O (Manchester, 1986),463-8. .M. A. LEAHY, 'Egypt as a bronzeworking centre (1000-539 lie)', Bronze-morking t:ellll'es oIllVeslem Asia, cd. J Curtis (London, 1988),297-310.

Coptic period
Chronological phase in Egypt lasting from the cnd of the Roman period (c f\1J 395) until the Islamic conquest (c. AD 641). [t is now more accurately described as the 'Christian' period and is roughly equivalent to the Byzantine period elsewhere in the Ncar East. The archaeological and historical definition of 'Coptic' is extremely imprccise, since the term is often applied nOL only to the art and architecture of the Christian period but also to the culture of the third and fourth centuries AD ('proto-Coptic') and the early medieval period (c. AD 700-1200). The Coptic language and writing system (combining Greek letters with six furrher signs taken from the DEMOTIC script) were widely llscd throughout the Christian period

vided with capitals that had iconographic associations with the particular religious context in which thcy stood. Thus, I-If\TlIORheaded (or SISTRUivl) columns were erected in religious buildings associated with the goddess Hathor, such as the temple of ]-Iatshepsut at

71

COREGENCY

COSMETiCS

R. T."M:Jt, 'Bclllerkungcn zur Sukzcssion del' Pharaonen in del' 12., 17. lind 18. Dynastic', Zj5; 101 (197~), 121~9.

cosmetics
From the earliest times Egyptian men and women included yarious cosmetic items among their funerary equipment, suggesting thal oils, perfumes and cye-painls wen.' regarded as yirtual necessities. In the ear" Predynastic period, stone cosmetic P\I.J:n I'~, used for grillliing eye-painl pigments, were already common. The surfaces of som(' these arc still stained with traces of blad, g-.llena or grcen malachite. The gTeen mahtl'hitebased form of paint (/l{(ju) seems to havc becn uscd only until the middle of the Old Kingdom, "'hen it \y.1S replaced by the bhJd galenn-hased form of kohl (11It'sdt'11ll't). These ground pigmcms appear to haye been mi.:\cd with water to form a paste and ,,-ere probahh applied with the fingers until rhe introducti()~ of the 'kohl pencil' in the i\1iddle Kingdom. The types of \'csscls in which kohl \\-;l!oo stored \<tried from one period to ~morhcr; in the ~Iiddle Kingdom and the 181h Dlnas" " small nat-bottomed stone \'essel was u::ocd whereas in the late New Kill~dom a tubuhlr form of yesse! (ori~inally a reed) bccamc more common. The purpose or eye-paint "a:-. no doubt partly the same as in modern til1les (i.e:. the enhancement and <tpparelll enlargement uf eyes), hut il prob~lbly also had religious and symbolic resonances, as well as being a naLUra1 disinfeclant and a means of protecling the eyes from bright sunlight. The Egyptians used ochre as.t form or 'rouge' on their checks (and perhaps also as lipslick) and employed h<:llilil 1'0 colour their hair. There arc many sun i\ ing depictions women applying cosmctics lIsing ;I I\IIRROR, \\'hich \\'015 itself regarded ;.IS :m important item of funerary equipment. Throughout Egyptian history, OilS and fats were considercd essential both for the preparalion of perfumes and L'r:E/'\SE cones ;lnd for thc protection of the skin. 'lltttoos \YC1T also used as carly .IS the Predynastic period to decorale the skin, judging from the presence of patterns on somc fcm,,1c figurines and rhc prcsenation of geometric designs on the Illummies of certain dancers, musician" ;l1ld concubines (as well as in depictions of SOll1l' \\'omen in tOIllb-paintings); onc mUIllI1l.\ of a singer had a small tattoo of l3es presenctl all the thigh, See also II \1H. for discussion ofluirst~ les and hairdressing. A, L. LL C\S, 'Cosmci ics, perfumes and inccllsc in 'lllcicnr Egypt'.]HA If) (1930), ~]-53, I~ JO.'\CKIIEERI., '1....1 "I11<:S(\C111('1": cosmcliquc cI Illcdicarnems cg~ ptiens', I-Jistoin' de la I/j:clt'lfJ/i' 2/7 (1952), 1-12. J. '-\\:I)IEI{ and D. AHll \DIE, Catalogut' des a/~/t'1J tit' !oilcllt' igyplims (Paris, )972). NL STE.\O, !:gl'!;li(/I! I~{i! (Londun. 1986), ~C)-5~,

"'. J. _\ IlR.\:_\:--:E, AUrfl'utEgyptiall aJr('gt'l1rirs

(Chicago. 1977). D. LORTON, "1erms of coregency in the Middle Kingdom', 1:12 (1986).113-20.

corn mummy
Term generally employed 10 describe a type of :lIlthropomorphic funerary objecl made of soil mixed wirh grains of corn, which was lIsually wrapped lip in linen bandages <lnd furnished with;l wax face-mask. ~lost examples measure berween 35 and 50 <':111 in Icngdl and were usually placed in slllall woodell falcon-headed sarcophagi. Thc~ arc lllul11miform in shape, and some were provided with a royal sceptre, an crect phallus, .111 Ule/crown or a white cro\\'n; it is therefore usually assumed that they were intended to refer to the god OSIRIS. Although a few miniature corn mummies have been found encased in Ptah-Sokar-Osiris statues in Llte Period burials, most of thc fifty or so suni\'ing full-size corn mummies dcri\-e from simple pits (rather than rombs) and dare to the Ptolemaic or Roman periods. ~\1aartcn Raycil has pointed out that all those with archaeological provenances appc'lr to derivc from only four sites: \;lcli Q.lbhancl c1-Qirud (in Thebes), Til1lla e1-Gchc1, e1-Sheikh Fadl and the region ofTl.ll1;I e1-Gcbel. The origins of rhe corn mummy (as well as the OSIRIS BED, an item of New Kingdom royal funerary equipment that probably functioned in a similar W:1Y to the corn mummy) can be traced back at le.1st as far .1S the l\liddlc Kingdom} since it is at this period that links began to be established between the cult of Osiris, fcrtilily and the gro\\th of corn. The COFFI"J TEXTS, f(w instance, include certain spells equating the resurrection of the deceased with the sproutingofbarley frol11 the hod~ of Osiris (equatcd with the corn-god Nepe!'). Since tht' corn mummies were not placed in the tombs of individuals, t.hey clearly had a slightly different function from 'Osiris heds' and other sw.:h funerary equipment. which were intended simply to aid the resurrection of one dcce'lscd indi\ idual. Inslcad, Ihe corn mummies appear to ha\'c been connected wilh rhe mysreries of the cult of Osiris itsel[ An inscription in a roof chapel a1 IJE:'\I)F.R\ deslTibcs rituals rchuing to Osiris, including the annual ceremonial burinl of a corn mummy, 1\1. J. R"" EN, 'Corn-l11ummies', OlvIRO 63 (1982).7-.18.

ur

Os/raw" bearing cighlt'l'lIlincs oIp.wlms mrilll'l1 il1 lite Coptic stripl. Ear(}1 Islmllir pc:riod. 7111-8/11 o:J1!l/l'ies .w, polle':)1 mill! piglllCIII, pro!J(/!J(JI./i"UII/ nebcs. II. /3.2 {III. (EII-I030)

in Egypt and arc still employed in modem

times in the liturgics ilnd Biblical texlS of the

Coptic church. The earliest suryjying Coptic

religious establishments include the monasteries of St Anthony, 51 Catherine and St Samuel. R. FI':DD"Z:,\, '1\ study of the!\ lon~lstcry of S"int Anthony\ Ulliursi/.l' ofEgJ'pt Fuculty of--Iris Blllle/l'" 5 (1937),1--61. C. C. Wa;n:RS, JI/()I/(f.~,i( archaeology illl:.:Jtypl (\Varminsrcr. 197..1.,. J. l(,\\llL. CfJptic Egypt (Cairo, 1987).

or

G.

G.\B1C\

_\JJlJl'lI1l1 :111t!

and A. ALC:cx..J..:, Caim, Ihe Coplie old dlllrthes (Cairo, 1993).

10 the periods during which 1\\'0 rulers werc simultaneously i.n po\\'er, usually consisting of an O\Trhtp of sC\'cral years bet ween the end of one sole reign and the beginning of the next. 'rhis system waS uscd, from at least as early as the JVliddlc Kingdom, ill order to ensure that the transfer of po\\'er took place \\'ith the minimum of disruption and instability. It would also h,1\"c enabled the chosen successor to gain experience in the administration before his predceessor dict!. The discovery that coregclH:ics existed waS;ln important stage in the darificat ion of the traditional C1IRO'OLOG' of Egypt. \Y. K. SL\lJ>SO', 'The single-dated monuments of Scsostris I: an aspect of the instilution of coreg:ency in theT\yelfth Dynasry',}NES 1) (1956),214-19.

coregency IVlodcrn tcrlll applied

72

fQ?MOGONY

CREATION

E.

STROUJ-IAI., L~j{: ill (/.11(/elll

EgyjJt (Cambridge,

1992),84-9.

cosmogony see CREATION;

OGDOAD

E\JNEAD

and

COW

Animal which served as the archetypal Egyptian symbol of motherly and domestic qu<tlitics. The two goddesses J IA1'IIOR and ISIS wcre often depicted with the horns of the cow, but only Harhor and BAT were depicted with cow's ears. The image of the cow could also symbolize the mother of the Egyptian king; rj1c bovine image of Harhor was therefore depicted suckling King Amenhorep 11 (1427-1400 Be) at DElI< EI.-IMHRI. An association with the sky and the underworld ,vas characteristic of the bovine deities, so that NUT could he depicted as a cow who bore the SUllgod R,\ on her back each morning. Since the sacred APlS bull represented OSIIUS, it was natural that the cow which gave birth to him should be identified with Isis. Thus, from at least the thirty~seventh regnal year of Ahmose II (570-526 Be) onwards, the so-called Mothers of Apis were mummified and had their own catacombs in the S/\CRHJ f\NIM ..\ L necropolis at Saqqara. On a more prosaic level the cow was also an important domestic animal, providing milk, meat and hides. The first domestic cattle in Egypt, introduced during the Predynastic period, were probably longhorned, bur a short-horned species appeared in the Old Kingdom, and humped Zebu cattle were llsed from the 18th Dynasty onwards. 'Vall reliefs depicting scenes of 'cattle counting', for the purpose of TAXJ\T10N, are common in lambs fr0111 the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 Be) onwards, and numerous funerary models of the IViiddle Kingdom (2055-1650 lie) depict the same activity. Cattle were regarded as status sym~ bois and, as in many other societies, the possession of it large herd was an indication of considerable wcalth. The funerarv reliefs also indicate that techniques of' ANi?I-lt\L 1IU$IJANDRY were well developed, much attention being paid to the depiction of the branding of srock and human assistance in the birth 01" calves. Becf" was evidently the food of the \-,,'calthy elite, and was often" portrayed Ul religious and funerary offering Scenes.

jA:\:SSEN, .Egyptial/ drlll/extie anima.ls (Aylesbury, 1989),27-35. D. J. BREWER, D. B. REDFORD and S. REDFORD, DOlI!cstic pIal/IS {lilt.! {lnimals: tlte EgyJ)/iall origill.l (Warminster, 1994),77-93.

R. JA1\SSEN and j. J.

Jorm o/fitlse beards or sidelod's oI}/uf/th.

MAGNA

Nakl{l(l' aJ1!sistillg oicomroids and beads il1l1/(: !2111 DYl/asZ)/ {Iud New Killgdom, L. 46.3 (11/. (../3077)

cowroid
Name given to a cowrie~shell~shaped amulet, frequently inscribed and serving a purpose similar to that of a SCARAB. The cowrie shell amulet is known ;.IS early as Predynastic times. Its shape was believed to mimic the female genitalia and girdles made from it were used to symbolically protect this area the body. From the 6th Dynasty (234.\-2181 Be) actual shells were imitated in faience ancllarer in carnelian and quartz.

the myth centred on four pairs of primeval deities (the OGDn\o); at IJELIOPOLIS there was a myth involving four generations of deities (the E::"!::"!EAD); and at MEMP1US the account centred on the attributes of the god
PTAI!.

or

creation
During the Pharaonic period 1 a great deal of Egyptian thought regarding creation was simply embedded in their iconography, language and ritual. It was only in the Ptolemaic and Roman periods that the process of cosmogony began to be regularly described in explicit narrative accounts. There are, however, three principal surviving Egyptian creation myths, each rooted in the cults of deities associated with particular localities. At HEKi\'lOPOUS

E. HOR.I\lUNG, Dcr iigYP/l~~(he NlytllOs von der Hilll111elsklllt (Freiburg and Gottingen, 1982). L STOR.K, 'Rind', Le.rikoll der Agyp/ologie ", cd. W. Heick, E. Otto and W. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1984), 257--<i3.

The myth of the Ogdoad dealt primarily with the first mystery of creation: how did 'bei.ng' appear out of 'non-being'? According to the Hermopolitan account, the earliest text of which dates to the Middle Kingdom, the sun~god emerged from a group of four pairs of male and female deities whose names simply describe aspects of the primordial chaos pre~ ceding creation: darkness, formlessness, eternity and hiddenness (or1 in the earliest version, twilight). The myth of the Ennead, on the other hand, was concerned with the next stage in the process of cosmogony: the question of division and mu.ltiplication. How did the creator transform the one into the many? The references to the Ennead in the PYRA.MlD TEXTS show that, at least as early as the Old Kingdom, the progressive fission and proliferarion of life were both seen in terms of divine
73

CREATION

CROWNS AND RO\'AL REGALJ.\

procreation, resulting in ;l succession of symmetrical pairs. In the beginning, according LO the myth of 1he Ennead, there was a mysterious ;let of crcariviLy or fertility by the cn:Mor - the sun-god \TL~I. fill" instance, was considered LO h;l\'c crcmed hjmsclf with the aid of such forces as Heka (the Eg~ ptian term fiJI' \\ \Gre), Sia (a personification of 'perception') and I1t1 ('the diyine \\onl'). Ha\ ing engendered himself, :\.tum (" hose name mc:mt 'completeness') then unde-nook me first act of di\ision or separation, ,\ hich he achie, cd through a comhination of 'm~lstllrhating" spilling and sneez-

ing, thus producing new life and splitting il into twO upposites: air (the god Shu) and moisture (the goddess 'I<:fnur), Shu and Tcfnut then procreated to produce '\LT and GEU, the hea\ en and the earth, and a l:ommOIl \ igncnc in the BOOk 01" TilE 1)1:.\1) shows Shu

Till! 'SlfIll,aqo S/O}/(' ': (f basalt sla/J bearilfg (( le,rl be {{ mfl.l' '!(fl/l all(iml ({Jlllpositio/l describing the eTea/ioll oItlre lIuh:erse kI,/lte gllli Plall. 2.1/ft DY/ltls~J', c.7/0 IJ(:. 1 1.37/1/. (I:" 1-/98) ..
plIrpol'li/fg '0

literally separating the personific.ltion of Ihe sh- from thar of the earth, The myth orthe Ennead not only deals wilh lhe question of creation but also Ie-lds on to the emergence ofhul1lan society in the form of the myths surrounding the sons and c1aug'htcrs or Gcb and Nut: OSIRIS and SETII and their consorts ISIS and 'JEPIITIJYS. These legends, relating principally to Osiris, went beyond cosmogony to deal \\'ith such issues as kl'\G5111.1' and human suffering. The so-called .\ lemphite Theology presents an alternative, but ncvertheless compatible, \'iew of creation by means of the spoken word. The text was probably composed in Ihe late New Kingdom and survives in the form uf the 25th-Dynasty \Shabaqo SLOne\ a basalt slab now in the British I\luseum bearing a hieroglyphic inscription in which lhe i\lemphitc god Ptah creates all things by pronouncing their names. Each local deity - from SOUI::K to BASTET-

was, to .111 intents and purposes, also.1 creatorgod, bur their specific ch.lracteristics often led to rariations on the general theme of cremi\'it~. 'The ram-god hJl'L\l , who was connected with the fertile Nile sill and the porrery vessels that m.~re formed from it, was considered to h.1\ e modelled the first humans on a porter's \\'heel. The fertility god \ II:'\. , on the other hand, "-as portrayed as an icon of m.llc fcrrilit~ "hose creel ph.lllus, combined ,,'ith an upraised hand thrusting into the \-shape formed by Lhe flail o\er his shoulder (in apparem simulation of intercourse), sencd as an unmistakable metaphor for the sexual act itself In the larc ~ew Kingdom the theme of the mound rising out of the watcrs of Nun was transformed into the myth of lhe child-Iikc god ,,:rERTE\I, who "'as thought to ha\T emerged from a lotus noaLing on the face of the rleep. The Book of. he Dead describes the sun-god as a 'golden youth who emergcd from the lot LIS'. It was in order to identify himself \yith Nefertem and the act of creation and rebirth that TUT\'\ihIlAI\lUN (l.B6-1327 He) included among his rllncrar~ equipment a painted wooden representation of his own youthful head emerging from a lotus. The Egyptian concepts of cre.ltion wcre closel~ interlinked" ith their yiews concerning rebirth , renewal and life after death, and their religious and funerary imagery is full of metaphors for the first act of creation, from the PRI\lr.\,\L 'lOUl\!) and the BEl\BE' stone 10 the SC!\I{!\B heetle emerging fi'om a dunghill. The tc.xts make it clear that they regarded creation not only ;IS .1 single event at the beginning of Lhe uni\"crsc bUI as a phenomcnon which const;tntl~ recurred with e;lch new day or season and which was intinutcly connected with the prolonging of life beyond death. The dcity most regularly associated ,,ith creation was thereforc the sun-god, whose appearance at dawn, voyage through the sky during the day and disappearance at the sunset sen'cd to epitomize lhe cyclical nature of the creator, ./. R. AI.I.E:\, Gellfs;s ;1Il:.:~)lpt: the ph;!o.WJp!U ' ,~r IIl1t';l'}/t 1~f{YPI;all cn'at;oll accoJints C\Jc\\' l-la\TIl, 1988). B. t\lJ'.,v, 'Lcs cosmogonies de I'anciennc Egypre" Ut crC"f;fJ11 dam rOr;ent (mciel/ (paris, 1987). G. 1f\ltT, E:t:ypt;all myths (I,ondon, 1990),9-28, E. HORNU:\G. Idea ill'o image, trans. E. Bredeck (New York, 1992),39-5+,

crowns and royal regalia

The king can be depicted wC.lring it number l)f different head covcrings, c.lCh corrl'sp()ndin~ to particular ceremonial situ;ltions. The ei1rli~ cst these to be depicted is a IOI'Jl1 of tall conical headpiece ending in a bulb. This is lhe crown of Uppn F.g~ pt or while Cl'Own (Jut/jet), ,,'hich is seen .IS C.lrI~ as the time of the _"l(.f ,,{_ PIO' maeeheau and the :,\\R\II:R palette (c.300(l Be). It is sometimes referred to as the 'I:rUt or '\rhire Z\efer'. The 1\"arl11er palette also shims the (TO\yn of 1...o,,'cr Eg~ pt, or red (.'1'0\\ 11 (t!esltrl'/), \,"hich comprises a tall 'thair-sh.lped' ,lITangement frolll which protrudes a coil. 'Vith unificariun these nyu tTO\\'IlS were combined LO become rhe 'Two _r-..light~ Ones', thl' double ero" n (psdll:lIt). The king might also wcar the 1Il'lIft$ hCJdclolh. This was a piece nf s.riped cloth pulled tight across the forehead and lied into a kind uf mil <11 the b~lCk "hill' <It each side of the face t\n) !->trands or hlppets hung down. The hnm was decorated \\ ilh the Ul'{{tl/.l (sec \r--\DJ'T) and [he \"UL'TLlH:. This is the head-dress rcprl'sen ted in the famous gold mask of TLT\\ihll \ \Ie,. A plain \'crsion of this \\as Ihe J:lfl/I. From the 18th Dynas~ onwards km~rs also worc the \blue crown' (J:ltt'presh), sometimes erroneollsly dcscribcd as the '\\;11'

or

Jl

crime .~ee

l.AW; ,\IF.IJJA'

and

POLlCE

Crocodilopolis see .\IEDII'ET EL-EIYt;\1 crook and flail

RHi/\L1o\

see CRO"'''S

"'0 ROUI.

tI'ondell S!lflbl; oITlIlllllklwJ1JUII mellrillg Ihe red anum lIlId holdillg tlte crQuk (lIIdflai!, /81h Dj/Ilt/sl)', c./330 lJC.~ 1I, 52 C1I1. (CIlRO. .\'0. 330c: REPRODLU'I)
CUURTES~ OF

11/ CR1FFlTltt\ST/11Tf)

74

qOWNS AND ROYAL REGALIA

CULT SJ:'-IGERS A:"JD TEMPLE MUSICIANS

I.EFT SIll/lit' o/Thlllll/Ml' //I

J1'ean'l1g Ihi' ncmcs

Itt'ddd"th. the uractls 1I11d the rcft'lIIouia! 'jitlse bell I'd'. 18th I~J'l/(lSt.)'. eliSD BC, gr(II1J'lId.:t'. It. 90..1 (111. (u \OR I/t sn 1/. }2. GR 11111111 IRRI.WJ\)

cult singers and temple musicians Prom thL' Old Kinguom uO\\"<uds, 'music.11
troupes' (Idfl'llcr) as well as dancers ;Ire attested as clements or the staff of temple cults, 'They comprised both men and women, the latter somctimcs indi\"idually named, and c1carl~ of greater importance than their ,mon~ mOllS male counterparts. Femalc musicians wcre employcd in the culls of bOlh male .md female deities. By the beginning of the New I'.ingllom the priesthood had become ex:dusiycly male, but wumen of high rank, somc of whom \\cre married to the priests, werC a110\\ cd to sen'C as musici.ms (sht'11I11J'd). The role of Ihcsc women was to play the SISTRL \1, as accompaniment to the ritual chants or cult I [\\\\.s, amI sometimes cyen LO prO\'idc thc chants thcmselyes. Usually, howc\'er, the chant.s were performed by male singers or musicians, although these individuals never used the title 'musician' and were probably of a lower status th.m their ditc fcmale colleagues. G. PI~C1I, 1 OIh't' oj}c'ringJ 10 Hal/III" (Oxford, 1993),212-1:1. G. Rom's, IIoJJ/t'1I ill (lurit'1l1 Eg)lpI (London, 1993),1{5-9.

cuneiform
Type of script, the name of which deri\'es from the Latin word amc/IS ('wedgc'), referring to the wedge-shaped lincs making lip dle pictographic characters used in the earliest writing. This developed in j\IESOPOli\,\llr\ during the fourth millennium, .md was initially used to record qUolnritics, hence the characters were numerals al:companied by ol picture of the thing being quantified. Oyer time, lhcse pictures became stylized into a series of wcdge shapes \\ hieh could readily be impressed into tablet') of wet da~ Llsing a cut reed or other stylus. The script cou.ld be lIsed for pictographic., logographic and syllabic writing .md m'er time came to incorporate all three. It was lIsed to write down lhe SU\II',RL" and .\K~\I1I\'\ languages, hut also a hOSI of other western Asiatic tongues, and despite the dcvelopment: of IlIr~ROGr ,) PI lie writing in Egypt around 3100 BC il was cuneiform \vhich became the hlJ1guagc of diplomatic correspolldence throughout the Near East. The Egyptian court would have supported scribes fluent in the usc or this system. The bcsrknown examples of cunciform script in Egypt arc the .\~l\R..:' \ LElTERS. The script is last

crown', which is shaped like <1 kind or tall, nanged helmet: and I11<ldL: of" cloth adorned
with golden discs. The I(/Icl crown' is effectivelya 'white crown' with a plume on either side and a small disc at the top, which was worn in certain religious rituals. The most prominent items in the ro~al regalia were the so-called 'crook' (licka), actually a sceptre symbolizing 'go\'crnrncnt', ;tnd

end orthcAmarna period" S.-IK 5 (1977), 21-39.

A. LEAHY, 'Royal iconography <lnd dynastic I.:hal1ge,750-525 IJ(:: rhe blue and cap crowns',

]E-/78 (1992),223--\0.
IIEI.O\\

111e major ()'Pt.'s oj"rl'fJfPll.

the 'nail' or 'Oabellum' (lIddlllk!ut), ,,"hich may have derived orilrinall\' frolll a flY whisk. Before it became oi- royal regalia: the nail

;I1'r

was associated primarily with the gods OSIIUS and ~w, as well as with s'lf.:rcd animals. G. A. VV:\Ii\'\\RIGI-IT, 'The red crown in early prehistoric timcs',JFA ~ (1923), 25-33.
A/lJ)EL MONEI!'.l AnUIHKR, Uutt:rSlldl//lIgell /ibcr

white crown of Upper Egypt

red crown of Lower Egypt

double crown of Upper and Lower Egpyt

die altti'gyplischell KrollCII (GlUckst"adt, 1937), E. L. ERTl\II\K, 'The elp crown of Nefertiti: its function and probable origin',]ARCE 13 (1976), 63-7. M. EATON-KR-\CSS, 'The kh(ll headdress to the

atefcrown

blue crown

75

CYNOPHELUS

D1\B'1\, TELL EL-

lIsed in the first century ,\D: interestingly these latest texts lise Sumerian logograms (word signs) even though the language had long since cei:lsed to be in general lISC. The decipherment of cuneiform began with the recognition rhM a series of brief inscriptions at Persepolis (in PERSIA) were each written out in three forms of the script. By 1802 a German, G. F: Grotefend, had achieved some success with the simplest of these, Old Persian, discovering the names of two kings. This work was carried much further by Henry Rawlinson who, in 1835, deciphered a long inscription of Darius from Bchistul1 in Iran. This sire (DO had three versions of the texL and Rawlinson copied all three. Of these the Elamite waS deciphered by Edwin Norris in 1855, and Rawlinson himself deciphered the OABYLO)JIAN text in 1851. This waS of great significance since it could be linked to already discovered Babylonian and . \ SSYR1A,\, texts from l\1esopotamia. C. WALKER, CUflt'ijimJl (London, 1987). J. N. POSTG!\TE, Ear()I A1e.wpolam;a: sociely a1/(/ ('{onomy at the damn oIltisfOlY (London and New York, 1992),51-70.

D
Dab'a, Tell el- (anc. Avaris) Setrlement sire in the eastern Delta, covering an area of some two square kilometres on a natural mound p,lrtly surrounded by a large lake. The town of Avaris, which has been under excavation since 1966, consists of several strata of occupation dating from the First Imcrmcdiate Period to the Second Intermediate Period (2181-1550 Be). There are also considerable remains of a later phase of settlement in the Ramesside period (c.1295-1069 Be) when the city of Piramesse spread across Tellcl-Dab'a) although its nucleus was at Q;'\!',TIR, further to the north. During the Second Intermediate Period the Hyksos capital of Avaris was effectively an Asiatic colony within Egypt, and l\tlanfrcd Bietak's excav.ttions suggest that the colonist's were allocated rectangular areas of land, the patterning and oricntation of which were still oceasionaUy influcnced by the preceding l\tliddlc Kingdom town plan. Both houses and ccmeteries were laid out within thc allocated areas, sometimes in close proximity. The deep stratigraphy at Tell cl-Dab'a allows the changing settlement pattcrns of a large Bronze Age community to be observed over a period of many generations.

cynocephalus
Term meaning 'dog-headed', commonly used to refer to a species of baboon CPt/pio iynocep!tallls), which was one of the principal manifestations of the gods 1'1 lOTI 1 and KlIO:\lS. Typically portrayed in a squatting position, the earliest votive figurines of the cynocephalus baboon have been excavated in the Early Dynastic settlement at AUYDOS, although among the mOsl- impressive surviving statues ofThoth are a pair of 18th-Dynasty quartzite colossal figures still standing /1/ sillf at HEI~ MOI'OLlS :o.'it\GN!\, the main cult-centre of Thoth. The enrhusiasm with which wild baboons greeted the rising sun reinfixced the association between the baboon for111 ofThoth and the sun- and moon-gods. The bases of a number of OBELlS"-S are carved with figures of baboons with their arms raised in characteristic worshipping posture, ilnd il frieze of baboons along the from of the Great Temple at I\RU SlivlBEL also have their arms raised in adoration of the rising SUIl. R. H. \V'LKINSON, Reading Egyptiall al'! (London, 1992),72-3.

In the early 1990s thc main focus of exe;l\ ation at Tcll cI-Dab'a was the substructure of a large palace building of the H yksos period at Ezbet Hclmi on the wcstern edge of dle site. In 1991 many fragments of Nlinoan wall-paint_ ings were discovered al110ng debris coyering the ancient gardens adjoining the palace. Several of these derive frol11 compositions depicting 'bull~leapers', like those in the rvliddle Bronze Age palace at Knossos. \Vhere<ls the iVlinoan and l'vlvcennean potten' vessels previously found' at many l\e,~ Kingdom sites in Egypt are usually interprer~ cd as evidence of trade with the Aegean (sec GREEKS), the prcsence of l\1inoan wall-paintings at Tell e1-Dab'a suggests that the popuhnion of Avaris may actually han~ included Aegean families. It has been suggested that the ficqucnt usc of a red painted background may even mean that the T'cll c1-Dah' a Nlill0.1l1 paintings predate those or Crete and Thera (Santorini). The existence of Nlinoal1 paintings (and thercf{)re presumably l\ilinoan artists) at a site within Egypt itself may help lO explain rhe appe'lrance in early 18th-Dynasty Egyptian tomb-paintings of such Aegean moti(o;; as the 'flying gallop' (i.e. the depiction of animals' fore- and hindlegs outstretched in full flight). Similar fragmcnts of rvlinoan paintings have been found at two sites in the Levant (Kabri and i\.lalakh), where the)' also

Plall of Tell d-Dab'({ and Q!mlil:

13

12

10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
I 1

500

1000

1500 m

13 14

Tell el-Oab'a 19th-Dynasty temple of Seth modern flooded area Ezbet Rushdi el-Saghira 12th/13th-Dynasty palace 12th-Dynasty temple 19th-Dynasty palace possible area of palace lake New Kingdom settlement remains Tell Abu el-Rlus and Ezbet Rusdi el-Kebira and 12 Ezbet Yasergi and Ezbet Silmy Qantir Ezbet Helm;

76

....

VAHSHUR

DAHSHUR

appear to be associated with the ruling elite, as

at Avaris.
In onc of the early 18th-Dynasty strata at Ezbet Helmi immediately above those containing the painting fi'agments Bietak also discovered many lumps of pumice-smne, which may derive fi'om the volcanic explosion on the island of Thera. M. BIETAK, Tell {'I-Dab'a II-\'[ (Vienna l 1975-91). _, .A7.taris alld Piramcm:: ardlllco!og;{(/! exploratiol/ illlltc cas/em Nile ,lflla (London and Oxford,1981). _, 'Tell c1-Dab'a', Arcltivjiir Oricllljorsclllwg 32 (1985), 13~5.

500

1000

2000 m

pyramid of Senusret III

~..r ~

~""""'!II1\"'~

Dahshur
Group of pyramid complexes making up the southern end the i\!lemphite necropolis, the nucleus ohvhich is SM:tQ>\RA. The 1110St prominent of the surviving monuments at Dahshur afC the two pyramids of the first 4th-Dynasty pharaoh, SNEFERU (2613-2589 Be). The three other major pyramid complexes at Dahshur belong to rulers of the Middle Kingdom, namely AMENE!\H1Kr II (1922-1878 BC), SENJ.;SRET III (1874-1855 Be) and Amcnemhat TIl (1855-1808 Be). The site also includes the remains of one of only three surviving 13thDynasty pyramid complexes, containing the sarcophagus and CANOI'IC.L'\RS of Amenyqemau (formerly read as Amenyaamu). The two pyramids of Sneferu were possibly the first such tombs to be designed from the outset as true pyramids rather than step pyramids. The southernmost of the two is the 'bent' or 'rhomboidal' pyramid, so-called because of its marked change of angle from 54 27' in the lower part to 43 22' in the upper part. The reason for this was probably structural, although the pyramid has other unusual features, notably a western eorrance in addi~ tion to the usual northern one. It waS first investigated by the Egyprian archaeologist Ahmed Fakhry inI951-5. Sncferu's other monument at Dahshur is the (northern' or Ired' pyramid, built fi"om the Outset with ;111 ,mgle of 43 22', which stands about two kilometres north of the earlier monument. lts base area is second ani" to the Great Pvramid of his son Khufu 'at GIZA. Sneferu'~ construction of two pyramids at Dahshur (as well as his completion of his father's pyramid at i\'\EIDUM) would have necessitated an amount of materials and labour Outstripping even the efforts involved in the construction of the Great Pyramid. Although eaeh of the three 12th~Dvnastv Pyramids at Dahshur have stone casing~, onl;' the 'white pyramid' of Amenemhat II has a Stone core, the others being of brick.

... ",

.,,,1"

""""""'''''1''''''1",$

or

....,."...""""'... '''''''...... '''''''''---~

pyramid of ..,,'I'IIII/II"""'!'!"'/I,~
Amenemhat II ."",,,,)

edge of cultivation

, ","
...1,,,'\110 .. " """', ..,,",,."'''1,,,.... ""'"

south (bent) pyramid of Sneferu

pyramidOf~
Amenemhat III

~.

Plan oIDahsh/l/:

Amenemhat II'S pyramid is so ruinous that even its exact size is uncertain. The complex was excavated by Jacques de lVlorgan, who dis~ covered a plundered burial chamber containing a sandstone sarcophagus that is bcljeved to have been part. of the original funerary equipment. Nearby are the burials of princesses of the late 12th or earl v 13th Dynasty. Dc Morgan also tunnelled into the pyramid of Senusret m, where he discovered the magnificent granite burial chamber containing a sarcophagus of the same material. This pyramid, the superstructure of which was badly damaged by rVlaspero's work of ] 882-3, ,vas re-examined by Dieter Arnold in the 1980s, revealing that the burial-chamber was painted to resemble limestone, perhaps in order to

allow the sarcophagus to stand out in contrast to its background. The king's remains, how~ ever, have not been found in this pyramid, which may have been simply a cenotaph. The nearby j\IASTAUA tombs contained the rich funerary equipment of the daughters of Senusret III and Amencmhat II, including items of jewellery discovered by de lvlorgan in 1894. The 'black pyramid' of Amenemhat Tn also seems to have served as a cenotaph (the actual tomb probably being the pyramid at IIA\\"ARA), and work during the 19805 revealed a FOUNDATIOi\ DEPOSIT which included pottery, ritual bricks and bull crania. This complex also incorporated the burial of the 13th-Dynasty ruler Awibra HoI', including a fine K,\-statlle. J. DE MORGAN, Fouillcs d J)ahcholll", 2 vols (Paris and Vienna, 1895-1903).

77

DAKHLA OASIS

DA:-iCE

IlC- \1) 39j) include a necropolis .md templc of Thoth ,H cl-Qlsr, a temple dedicated [() Ihe 'Theban triad ,tt DeiI' c1~I-lagilr, Roman tomhs at Qlrct el-i\luz;lwwaqa and a Roman settlemcnt and temple at lsm<lnr el-.I'Jlarab. 11. E. \\'L'LOC:, (cd.), DoNi/eli OaJ;.' (New Yor~. 19.16). L. L. GlDm and D. G.JnTKI.\S, 'Bahn: rappurt prcliminain: des fouillcs:1 '-\yn Asil,1979-NO',

BII' 10 SO (I9XII),l.i7~9.
L. L GlDm, g.l'Plttff/ ouscs:
Blllf(lr~)J(I. DaJ.:M" FamFa (1m! Klwrgll during plu,r(umir limes (\\'arl11inSlCr, 19R7). C. r I(wl., 'Excayariun:-. at 15111,1111 d-J...:.harab ill Iht: DaJ..hlch Oasis'l fgYP/itill /rrhal'ologJI 5 (19 t J..l.),

17-IS.

dance
.\s early as the Prcdynaslic period there "ere depictions on p()[(cr~ \esscls sho"ing fenule figures (pcrhilps goddesses or priestesses) dancing with lheir arms raised ahoyc their heads. The ,lct of dancing was undouhtcdly all import,1l11 component of both l'illJal <Ind cl:khration in ancient Egypt. In normal dail~ lill: musicians and clanccrs ,,ere a common fc,1turc of banquels, hut ccrhlin riTUal dances could also be crucial 10 the successful outcome of
Q!wrl::ile rcliefb/ocA'f;'mlll!It Ret! CIUlpd (II A-aniak. shfJlI'ing IIl/lsirju1/S 111/(/ t!allraJ. 181h
Dynlfsly, c.1-I60
/1(.'. (I. 51/ /11)

lilla/or (Illhe !){If/a/ rlwml)(:r 4'.-!IJ/CllClIllltfl I/f at Dahshlf/: (RfPIWDl CFJ)C01WfL.'1I OFfJ-I/, CIIIW)
1\. F \KIIK\. 71ft, IJ/(Jl/UJllt'l1h' a/Slle.fem til Dllhshllr, 2 \'ols (C1iro. 19S9-61). \'. ..\l.\R.\GIOGLIO :md C. A. Rl'.\LDI. 'Note sulh\ piramidt: eli Amcny 'Aan1u', Orie1J/llli1l37 (1968),
325~38.

R.

5nOEI.\I:\:'\:-",

'Snofru und die Pyramiden \'on

First IIHcrmediatc Period (2181-2055 HC), ncar modern Amhada; and a temple the goddess J\lut oaring LO the latc Ramcsside period (t. J 1.10 ve), ncar Ezbet Bashindi. The Old Kingdom town and cemetery .H Babt show th,n the Egyptians' control extendcd hundreds of mjles into the Libyan Desert from .1 "ery early period. The sun'iring remains of thc Greek and Roman periods (332

or

J\ Icidum und Dahschur', ,VIDA I K.16 (19S0),

+.17-49. D. AR'OI.D. Da Py/"{/lIIiticlI/){'::..irl' des K(j'III~~S .rll11l'lIcmllCllII ill DlIhscllllr r (!dainz, 1987).

Dakhla Oasis
One of a chain of oases lac-ncd in the Libyan Desert, 300 km west of the Egyptian city of

Luxor. The main phar:.lOl1ic sites in Dakhla include a tOW11 site of the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 Be) Jnd its associated cemetery of 6th-Dynasty 1\IAS'mBf\ tombs, nCar the modern rillage of Balat; anothcr ccmetcry dating LO thc

Deir el-Hagar

r
20

el-Qasr

\..

){I::::;:;:~;~~~ll::gdo,~::.:te~
"'''''''''''(''

....

Balal:

t
N

Qaret e!- \,' MU.t 0 Muzawwaqa '~" ""',..,

Old Kingdom settlement Azbat Bashindi

10

30

40

50 60 /0 80 00 km

Pltll1 oJDakhia Oasis.

78

Q.1\NCE

DEIFICATION

Pragmenl (~(II lJ1a1!-paiJlli/lg./imnlhe T/l/:ball tomb olNebalJ/lIl/, shumi/lgji!/I/{/Ie //IlIsiciallS alld t!rlJlars at (f htll1f/uel. 18th Dynasty, c. J.lOO BC, 11.6/ (111. (/:'.13198i-)
religious and funerary ceremonies) as in the Case of the l)fllll-dancers, who worc kilts and reed crowns and performed alongside fUlleral processions. The aCL of dancing appears to have been

Darius sa death see

PERSL\, PERSIA:\S

FU,\WRAUY lWLlEI'S

decans see ;\STRO;\O,\n- .'\ND ASTROLOGY

deification
Ancient Egyptian gods were generally 'born' rather than made. As a result it is relatively unusual to find mortals cle\'ared to the status of gods. The pharaoh himself was not deified, but was born as the living IIOIWS , becoming OSIRIS a[ death. From the 18th Dynasty, however, kings may hayc been seeking to diminish the power of certain priesthoods, notably that of ,\i\lUi\, perhaps fcaring that they would threaten the position of monarchy. Stress was lherefore laid upon the cults of IU and PT'\II instead, and in Nubia rhe reigning king was linked with the official gaels, aspects of the ruler's kjngship being worshipped in the temples. A similar change took place in Egypt itself: where deified aspecrs of kingship were worshipped in the form of royal colossaJ statues ill temples. It is possible that, with his promulgation of the worship of the !\TEi'\, the 18th-Dynasty pharaoh AKJ IEi'\ATE'i may have taken this process a stage further by effectively declaring himself to be the god incarnate. Rameses II (1279-1213 Be) identified himself with a local form of Amlin at his Theban mortuary temple, the R1"\t\[ESSEU,\\. Ir \\"as his imag'c which replaced that of the god in the portable BARK. Likewise his bark probably rested in fronr of the statues of Ptah, Amun, Ra and Rameses II in the Great Temple at ADC

inseparable from music, therefore the depictions or dancing in pharaonic tombs and temples invariably show the dancers either accompanied by groups or Illusici:ms or themselves playing castanets or clappers to keep the rhythm. Little distinction appears to have been made bel WCCIl dancing and what would now be described as acrobatics, with man" dancers being depicted in such athletic posc's as cartwheels, handstands and back-bends. Detailed study of the depictions of danccrs has revealed that the artists were often depicti.ng a series of different steps in particular dances, some of which can thercf(lrc be reconstructed. )\I{en and women are never shown dancing together, and the most common scenes depicr groups or female dancers, often performing in pairs. E. BRUNNER-Tlv\LT, Dcr 711//::' im allell /i"gypteJl (Gluckstadl, 1058). H. WU.IJ, Les dansc sacrces de PEgyptc ancienne', Les daflscs sanies, Sources Oricnlalcs 6 (Paris, 1963),33-117.

J.

VANDIER, kIt/II/Ie/ d'ardd%gle eg)/pllwllc [Y

(Paris, 19M), 391--486.

E. STROUIIAL, Llje ill (lncien! Egypt (Cambridge,

1992),41-3

where he stressed his identity as a manifestation of the sun-god 10\. There were also cerra in king's who received posthumous culrs among the populace, as opposed to their offlcial cliits centred on the mortuary temple. Thus Amcnhotcp ] (1525-1504 DC) and his mother Ahmose 1\efertari were \vorshipped by the royal tomb-workers at DElR EL-i\tEDIKA, in recognition of their supposed role in founding the village. Private individuals - not.lbly rhose with a reputation for great wisdom - were also, in a few rare cases, deified. The earliest of these was IMllOTI'.P, the vizier of the 3rd-Dynasty ruler Djllscr (2667-2648 fie) and the archi,eC] the Step Pvramid a] SAQQ!\RA. I-Ie was deilied about twO thousand years after his death, and revered as a god or wisdom and medicine \"hom the Greeks were quick to identify wilh their own Asklepios. I-lis connection with learning also Icd to a culric link with TI lOTI I and hence an association with the cults of SAClUJ) .\.'\HMALS. A number of other Old Kingdom viziers werc deified soon after their deaths...\.\,I1::\IIIOTEI' SON OF IIAPU, the architect who buiJr the 'ThebJI1 mortuary temple of 1\,\II':"'Jll0TEP [II (1390-1352 Br.) at Kom c1l-Ieitan, was similarly honoured as a god of healing. He was uniquely allowed to build his own mortuary temple among those of the New Kingdom pharaohs, as weU as having statues of himself in the temple of Amun at Karnak and a personal shrine at DE[R EL-IlAl-lRl. 'rhe idea that the drowned also became deified was established by the New Kingdom, and features in the Book oIGMe:; and Amdll{fl, as portrayed in the tomb of Ramcses VI (Kv9).
SIi\l1RI.,

or

79

OUR EL-BAHRl

OElR EL-BAH~

By the Lltc Period, cults began to be established for some of those \\"ho drowned in the Nile, as in the case of Pehar ilnd Petiesis at Dcndur in ubia. In the early second century .\D the city of Antinoopolis became the cultcentre for the Emperor Hadrian's 'fayouritc\ Anrinolls, il[ the spot where he drowned in .\ liddle Egypt. L. H.\IHUII, Fea/ures oIlhe (!l'diwliflll 0/ Ral1u:sscs II (Gluekstadt, 1969).

ABon: TIn: lemple ulf/alshe/wII al DI..ir e1-Bl/hri is huilt il/lu (f nalural embaymeJ11 ill Iht' rhL# J1,/,jrh border Ihe I itlley I~rlhe Kings. ft is beller pn'sulxd Ihall lIfe earlier 1l'lJ1pk of. l1CIIIUlllJll'p II. Ihe s~)'le o/mhjrh ilemulales. (R 7: \XIIOJ.SlJ\)
LH-r

Fragmenl uf rdie/fromlhe adl-Iemple (~r

.l1t'lIluhfJll'P 1/ al Deir el-Baltri, s/1QJ1Jillg Iltt' l..'illg nWlrillg Ihe red fromll. 11th DYllasly, c.2030 nr,
painletl limeslolle. II. 53.3011. (//397)

D. \VILOL",\G, ImhfllL'p /lilt! _-lmeuhotep: C0I1/perduug;111 a/tell. igyplt"1 (Berlin, 1977). - , EgYP//tl1J Juiuls: deijiration;l1 pIWfmJ/l;[ Egypt C'\ew York, 1977).

Deir el-Bahri (Deir c1-Bahari) lmponilnt Thehan religious and funerary site on the wcst bank of the i'\ile, opposite Luxor, comprising temples and tombs dating from the carly 1\liddle Kingdom to the Ptolemaic period. The site consists of n deep bny in the cliff.'i containing lhe remains of the temples of Nebhepetra .\I""TeIIOTEI' II (2055-2004 ec), JlA'I'SIIEPSUT (1-f.73-1f58 Be) and THUT,\\OSE 111 (1479-1425 IIC), as well as private tombs contemporary with each of these pharaohs, The temple of Hatshepsut is the best-preserved of the three, consisting of three colonnaded terraces imitating the architectural style of IUenwhotcp's much earlier funerary complex immediately to the south of it. As well as incorponning chapels {Q Harl-lOr, Anubis and Amun,

cd at Deir c1-Bahri arc those of .\1ekelra (which contained many ~liddlc Kingdom painted wooden funerary models) and SI.'\f":'\leT. An 11 th-Dmasty shaft tomh at the southern end of Deir el-Bahri (disco\ ered and robbed in 1871 and finally ncol\ated hy Gaston .Vlaspero in J881) contained i1 cache of some fony royal mummies from the \ \1.1.1:" OFTlI Kl:'\GS reinterred there by 21 st-D~ nil'ity priests. The kings ,dlOse mummies were fiHlnd in the 'Deir el-Bahri cache' were SJ:QE,"E:-.lR.\ T:\1\ II,
.\II~\OSE

I,

.\.\IE;.iIlOTU' I.

TIIUTj\\OSE I, II

and

III, SET)' I and R..'\~IESI:S II, III

;Ind

the temple is decorated with relief.,; depicting the divine birth of the queen and the exploits of her soldiers on a trading mission to the African land of rU~T. The most important private tombs excavat-

I'X , PiJ1udjem I and 11 and Siamun. Another 'cachc'consisting or 153 reburied mummies af the 21 st-Dynasty priests themselves "';l~ 'llsa found in a tomb at DeiI' c1-Bahri in 1891 E. Nt\nI.I.E, The fl'/1/ple (~(Deir e1-Ba//lIri, 7 mls (London, 189+-1908). I-f. E. \VI'LOC", Ex((n:alions (/1 Dei,. e!-B(/ha"'' /9//-31 (New York, 1942).

80

~IR EL-BAHRI

DEIR EL-BALLAS

LEFT

\"",,,,,,,.... " temple of"'''''' Hatshepsut -",""

1 temple of Nebhepetra Mentuhotep II 2 shrine 3 entrance to royal tomb ....."""..... of Mentuhotep II

4 peristyle court 5 mastabastyle building 6 ramp
."

PIau olDeir cl-Balm".

....."""''\,,

- , 11,l' slain snldiers o/,Yebltl'pelre .Ml'1Itlllmlep (:-lew York, 19~5), J. LIP!:\,sK.,.\. Deir "/-Ballar; II: The lCmple IJI '1hllw/flsis III (\farsaw, 197-1-). D. .'\R.'OLD, The lemplt of_1leulfllwlep ill Dr;,. clBIII""i (:-lew York, 1979).

Deir el-Ballas
SClllemcnr site on the west bank of the Nile some 45 km nonh of TIIEBES, exca\arcd by Geurge Reisner m the turn of rhe cemury .md subscquently sun eyed .md re-examined by an expedition from Boston concentrating on the residential areas. Ballas was probably originally a sraging post in the rcconqucst of northern Egypt by I\..\.\\OSE (t.1555-1550 Be) and \Il\IOSE I (1550-1525 Be). Pctcr Lacovar.l interprels the early New Kingdom phase of Ballas as a prototypc of the 'royaJ city" foreshadowing: such later settlements as Gl,IROIl, 1\\ \U"::ArA and EL-:\l\IAR.."....r\. A ll1<ljor contribution of Lacoy,ua's survey of Ballas is the discussion of the fUllctions of various structures originally excayated by Reisner. I\vo large ceremonial buildings, the so-called ~orth and South Palaces, lie at eithcr end of;l long bay of desert". The South Palace waS in f~lcr probably <1 fortress, while the North Palace may ha\c bcen a royal residence during thc wars agclinst the II,",,"SOS. The area hetween these twO 'palaces' is occupied by rhe city itself, j large Pjrt of which was exccwatcd by Reisner. LacO\,.lra suggests that a group of Kew J-.:.ingdom houses to the west of the
BELO"

..
10

,~~.

second court

forecourt

ramp

first court

..

. _........,.1-1-:.:J~:::~--1110

Bab el-Husan: entrance to royal cenotaph causeway of Mentuhotep II causeway of Thutmose III

kiosk of Thutmose JII 11 shrine of Hathor

Ul..o_...-

~; ~~~eC~~~~~~~~e
14 lower colonnade
15 shrine of Anubis

16 north colonnade
17 causeway of

Hatshepsut

PIau oIDt>;rd-Bul/as.

500

cemetery houses , houses

o
[ north , palace

;.',\"'.,''''\,~~
north wadi

north

hill ",f

modern Village ~

modern village

i
modern cultivation

modern cultivation

100

200

300

400

500 m

8\

DEIR EL-BERSHA

DEIR EL-MED~

North Palacl: were occupied by palace officials, while a huge building interpreted b~' Reisner as a typical c1-Amarna-stylc '"iIb' is now thought to have been a set of palace kitchens. \~r. STE\D\'SON S,\lITII) The {lrl tlllt! IIrchi/eclllre oI {{l/ciCIII .t'gypl (I IarmondswOrlh, 1958, rev. 1981), 278-81. P. L.\COUIL\, SUrl'lfj' at Deil" el-Bal/as (J\blibll, 1985).

Deir el-Bersha
I?uncrary site 011 t"he cast bank of the Nile, 40 km south of modern el-iVlinya. The major components of the site arc a row of tombs in the cliff.'i at the mouth of dlC \,Vadi c1-Nakhb , mostly belonging to the J\!liddle Kingdom governors the fifreenth Upper Egyptian nome. The 12th-Dynasry !"omb chapel of Thuthotcp contains particularly interesting relief." and wall-paintings, including a dcpic-

or

IWI.O\\ rhfj!,moll (~rp(fiJ1led limnlone relieJji"VIl/ Ihe ((jllff; /~rThlllh(llcp til DeiI' cl-lJash{[, sh/}wiJlg a processiol/ olsen.alllS bearillg IJle{[po/ls alld, (II Ihe rigIJl~//{flftl side, (/ ((/l"Iyillg [hair. 121h D)'III/sly. c./870 lie, II. 33 ("/11. (ii,l/ /-/7)

\yell ;lS a temple dedicated to various goels, which was founded in the reign Amenhotep "' (1390-1352 lie) and almost completely rebuilt in the reign of Ptolemy I\" (221~205 l3e). Deir d-lVlcdina was cxcavated by Ernesto Schiaparelli iiom 1905 to 1909 and by Bernard BrU\~cre betwecn 1917 and 1947. 'rhe importance of the site to Egyptian archaeolugy as a whole lies in its. unusual com~ bination of extensive settlement remains with large numbers of OSTIL\CA (used for rough notes and records), providing important evidence of the socia-economic system of Egypt in the 18th to 20th Dynasties. Unfortunately this unrivalled opportunify to synthesize contemporaneous textual and archac()logicll data from a single site has not been fully realized, primarily because of inadequate standards of e:\cav;Hion. B, BIWYI':RF, Rappol'! sur lesjouilles de Drir el .MMinch, 17 \'ols (Cairo, 192+-53). E. SCIIIAPt\RE.LLI, Rela.':.;ollc sui I"vur; della missifille ardlarologica ilaliflJlfl i1l ~!{itlri 11 (Turin, 1927) Nl. L. BIERBRIER, 'Tlie lomb-builtlers oIllie pha/'{/ohs (London, 1982).

or

A130\ E Sfele u/NejerhOll'p, /Il0/'klllfll! III Dn'r dA1edilla. /9111 DYl1asly, c.12.)O JJc, limeslout', II. -1(, ("/11. (HI1S/(,)

tion or the tTansportatioll of a colossal statue of the deceascd from the f-1t\TNUI3 tr~lvertinc qUilrries, somc 30 km to the southeast. Closer to the river is a group of Christian monuments, including a church and monastery (DeiI' Anba Bishuy) which nourished during the sixth and seventh centuries AD. P E. Nnvm:Rlo' and F. L. GRIFFITII, 1-B('I'sl/(:II, 2 vols (London, 1892).

.''f
lombs of the Villagers

Hathor

the great pit

,;;;":;,.~~
P10lemy IV

~''''\\..

V""'II'jl""'"

",. . ",.",. . ,,... ,.

N

""""111

"'If"

Deir el-Medina
Settlement site on the west bank the Nile opposite Luxor, situated in a bay in the c1iff.'i midway bctween the Ramesseum anu i\rlediner Habll. The village of Deir c1-Medina was inhabitcd hy the workmcn who built the royal tombs in the Vf\LLEY Of TilE KtNGS betwecn the early 18th Dynasty and the late Ramesside period (c. 1550-1069 Be). The site also incorporated the tombs of many of the workmen as
50

lemple of Amun

or

t
I !

100

150

200

250 m

PIal!

oIDcil' e1-Jliledilla.

82

~~1c':'A,---

~D~E",,:~~1~O~I~"l:.'::C

0. V!\LlJELI.Y, Le.\ fllI7.Til'l'S de f(/ lomhe. Dei,. dMMim:h d I'CpOfjllt: mmesside (Cairo, 1()85). L. H. LESKO (cd.), P/w/'(/oh:~ JPod'crs: flll~ ril/agas ofDeirel-J\!Iedil/({ (lrhacl and London, 199+).

Delta
Term used to uescribe Lower Egypt, i.e. the region north of ancient "'E.\IP] liS. The name derives from the fclet' that the Nile l~lI1s out into several triburaTies as it appro.Khcs the iVlcditcrranean, creating a ITiangular area of fertile land shapcd hke the Greek letter dellil. It was this contrast between rhe 1l,1ITU\Y :\ilc valley of Upper Egypt .mel the broad Delta in the nonh th'H perhaps led to thl.: concept of there having originally been 'two lands', united into a single state by the first pharaoh. The modern Delta is intersected by only two branches of the Nile (the Damietta and Rosetta). In the Pharaonic period there were five tributaries, but three of them, the Canopic, Sebennytic and Pclusiac branches, had dried up by the Islamic period, probably because of a combin:ltion canal-digging and ;\ small rise in the ground surbce of the eastern Delta. A. NlBm (cd.), Tht! ardlllcolog)I. geography alld histolY Ii/the l."gYPlirlJl Delta dl/ring tht' p!/{/J"{/olli( period (Oxford, 1986). E. C. I've VAN DE:\" BRI"K (ee1.), The Nile Delta ill tnlllsitio/l: -Ith-3rd JIIi1/mlliullI 11(; (Tel Avi,', 1992).

or

Rcsill-((J(iC/wlmouden stall/cite (~/{/ demo/l (which placed by ils 19th-reI/tillY dis{ovCJ"n Ul1 ({ Laic Pa;od plimh). 19/h Dynasty, e/225 lJe',FolJllhe 11dley (!(the Kings, It. oIligun' --/-2.) WI, II. ~/
J/}a.~

s1l01 ('writing for documents'), which, except

plilllllS.2 (III. (I!AoI283)

demons of OSIiUS and his followers. This host

of demons lived at lhe edge of the created

world, where they formed the f()rces of chaos which from time to time affected the lives and afterlives of humans. The demons of the netherworld werc still more terrif~'ing, and the best known of these was AJ\Ii\\Ur, devourer of the hearts of the unrighteous, who features prominently beside the weighing scale in the vignettes illustrating Chapter 125 of the Book of the Dead. The walls of some tombs, norably those ofRameses VI (;:\'9; 1143-1136 Be) and IX (I<v6; 112(>-1108 BC:), show numerous painted demons ti'OIll lhese FLNERARY TEXTS. Like the carthly demons, these too could be warded ofI by their benevolent counterparts who guarded the tomb and its contcllls. The 'household gods\ such as BES and Aha, are sometimes described as benevolent demons, ililhough this is probably only <l reflection of the generally unfocused lise of the term 'demon' in Egyptology. D. l\IIEEKS, 'Gcnie;;s, anges el demons en Egypte', C/:Jlies, III1l!l'S t:I dill/OilS, Sources orientales \ III (Paris, 1971). G. P'SClI, .Magic ill tllIl"It.'1I1 f~!.J.YP/ (l ,omlon, 1994),33-46.

democratization of the afterlife

Phrase used to describe the process of usurping of the pharaoh's funcrary prerogatives by private individuals, panicularly in tcrms of the identification of the deceased with the god OSIIUS. The term 'democratization' is, however, to some extent a misnomer, and it has been argued that the usurping of royal formulae and rituals docs not necessclrily suggest an erosion of belief in the kingship. lnstead, it is suggested that the act of imitation might eyen imply a strcngtheni_ng belief iJl the elfectiveness of" the institution of J-.:1NGSlllP. S. QUIRKE, E~!.:.YPti({IlI"t:II~f{iQI/(London, 19(2), 155-8.

demons In Egyptian religion and mythology, the

demons who affected the living were of two main types: the 'J\ilessengers of SEKJll\\F.T' and those associated with the netherworld. The first- type of demon represents the goddess Sckhmet in her e\'ll aspect, and this category also includes various other spirits, such as the discontented dead, evil spirits and even sleepwalkers. ""fhis type was I-hought 1'0 be especially prevalent at the end of each vear and had to be warded off by the be~evolel1t

demotic (Greek demOlit,,: 'popular Iscript]' or '[script] in common use'; also known as cnchorial, 'of the cOllntry') Cursive script known to the Egyptians as sekh

in religious and funerary matters, h'ld replaced the HIERATIC script - from which it was deriycd - by the 26th Dynasty (66+-525 Be). It was at Erst lIsed only in commercial anti bureaucratic documents but by the Pto1c.maic period (332-30 IK:) it was also being Llsed for religious, scientific and literary texts, including the pseudo-history of the Dt'lllO/i(; Chroniclc, the technical Api.\" EmbalmiNg RiullIl and the Khaemw<lset cycle of stories, <lnd the Sayings 0./ Allk!fs!fcsluJllf]j! (sec \rISDOI\1 LITERATURE). Unlike [IlEHOGI.YPIIS and HIERATIC:, which were intended for mutually exclusive media, dcmotic could be used as a monumental script, hcnce its appearance on STEl.AE and as one of the three texts on the ROSETT.., STOi\E. Demotic continued in usc alongside Greek throughout the Ptolemaic period, its survival being ensured by such features of the administration as the provision of separate Greek and Egyptian lawcourts. The latest surviving business documents wriuen entirely in demotic c1ate to 1\1) 130 and 175-6, and Napthal.i Lewis has suggested that the demise of demotic stemmed principally fi'om the nature of the new regime imposed ;.ll the beginning of the Roman period (c.30 Be), whereby legal and administrative documents began to be written solely in Greek. Nonliterary demotic O~"TH.ACA are found as late as I'D 232/3, but" thereafter the script survived only in the production of literary, religious and scientific texts and in monumental inscriptions (the latest demotic graffito at 1'11Il...AE being dated t"O AD 452). One of the earliest texts containing traces of the COPTIC alphabet (a combination of Greek and demotic) is the demotic 83

DEN

DE:'>iDE~

Papyrlls./i"fJlII Thebes bearing {/ dl'llw/ir imtriplioll

dest:ribi/lg (/ I(J(III filmlf/:allll/d barley. Plolel/lllir

period. 19-1l1c. II. 23 oll.(r..' 10831)

London-Leidcn ~lagic'll Papyrus, dated w the third ccnrur~ \D. P. \v. PEsnu;..., Rneuil de (cortes demoliqucs el bihlJglll'S (T~cidcll, 1977).
VLEE..\IIKG, 'La phase initialc e1u dcmoriquc ancien'. Chmllitjll' d'g)'Ph' 56 (1981),31--48. - (ee1.), .i.-PUls ~rdt:l"uli[" le.\'in)grap/~)I (Louvaill, 1987). :"1. LE\HS. 'The demise of the demotic documcm: when and ,,-hy',JEA 79 (1993),

S.

27(~1.

Den (Dewen, Cdimu) .2950 oe) Ruler of the mid 1st Dynasry who probably

stolle-built architecture in an Egyptian fUllerary contcxt. Twcnty i\"ory .mel ebony labels were eXC-;Ivaretl fro111 the Abydos tomb, eighteen of them having bcen found by Flinders Petrie in 1900 amung the spoil-heaps leCt by the earlier excavator, Emile AmCiincau, One of the ebony tablets shows a scene from the ritual of the 'appearances of the king of Upper Egypt and the king of Lower Egypt', a ceremony which was probably simihlf to the sEn FESTI\ \L (inclu<.ling the earliesl depictions of the king wearing the 'double crown' and .llso running between ritual boundary markcrs). An i\'()ry label for a pair uf sandals (now in the British t\lUSClll1l) shows the king smiting an Asiatic and bears the inscription: 'first time of striking the c~lstcrners'; this Seems to indicate at least.1 ritu.ll interest in the control of southern Palestine. One of the Early Dyn~lstic burials cxc-.l'<.1ted by \v. B. Emery in his first season at Saqqara in 19:15 was Tomb 3035, which contained jarsealings referring W ;1 mnn called Tlemaka, ,yho evidently liycd in the reign of Den. Emery's first report on 'Tomb 3035 uesc..:ribed it as the tomb of King Den's chancellor in the north, but Inter, on the basis of the size and wealth of this nnd other tombs at Sal}qara, Emery argued that it must haye been the actual buri<ll place of f.:.ing Den, relegating the tomb of Den at Abydos to the role of a mere cenomph. However, many Egyptologists now believe that his first theory may have been correct, making Tomb 3015 the burial place of Hemab, Den's chancellor of Lower Egypt. W,.\1. F. PETRII~, TIlt' royal IOlI1bs oflhefirsl dJ"ulSI)' I (London, 1900). \V. B, E.\IER', .Irrhaic Egypi (HarmondsworLh. 1961),73-80. A.j. Sf'I."",", Earl). Egypt (London, 1993). (>+-1i.

sure wall exhibiting the technique of P.\' nr-.D_ DIl'\G. The main entrance is a comparati,-ch small propylon-style gateway rather than ~ large pylon as in most other Upper Egypti:lIt temples from the Nc\\" Kingdom onwards. The c.lrliest surviving building is a .\l\\l\llSI (hirth-house) dating to the reign of Necrancbo I (380-362 Be), on the western side of the fiJrccourt. The main temple, of Prolemait and Roman date, is dedit....u cd to a local form of . l-Iathor who waS closely identified with 'LT, :Is sky-goddess and daughter of R \, as \'t.'11 as being associated with the west and therefore with the dead. Although the present tonslruetion is late, a temple has stood on the site from ~1t least the early ~e\\- Kingdom and texts ill the crypt mention a building from the time of Pepy I (2321-2287 oe) ufthe 6th D,nast;. A number of unfilled Glrtouches reflect the uncertain political conditions of (he first century Be, whjle the south exrerior wall bears a colossal carving of CLEoprrR-\ \'11 and her son Caes:lrion before Lhe gods. This \yall also h:ls a lj\f.St DOOR, in the form uf'1 Hathor SISTRL \1

succeeded his mother

\lI:I~'F.ITII 011

the thronc

(since she may have ,Icted ilS regent while he was too young to rule in his own right). He was Lhe first to add the nesm-bil name ('he of the sedge <Ind the bee') to his ROYAL TITLL\I{r. King Den is associated with tombs :U .\U\DOS and S-\.QQ,\K.\, both of which were constructed with the earliest examples of st'lirways leading down into them, an architectural refinement th<.1t would h'1\"c allowed the tombs, if necessary, to h'1\"e been filled up \\-ith grave goods during the king's own lifetime (thus perhaps acting ns storehouscs for surplus produce). The burial chamber of the tomb at Abydos dating to the reign of Den was also paved with granite slabs and some of the wooden roof supports were placed on granitc blocks; this is the earliest sun-h-ing instance of

Dendera (:lI1c. Junet, lhntcrc, Tentyris) Site of' the ancient capital of the sixth Upper Egyptian .'iO\IE, located ncar modern ~na, close to the mouth of the \Vadi Hammamat route to the Red Sea, making it an important centre in Dynastic times. The Dcndera necropolis rnnges in date from the Enrl~ Dynastic period to the First Intermediate Period, including \I'\ST\J.~:\ tombs. There arc also burials of s;lCred animals, especially the cows associated with the cult of Ilathor, the local goddess, whose temple dominates the site, The ,'arious surviying buildings making up the temple of Hathor date from the 30th Dynasty [Q the Roman period and are surrounded by a well-preserved mud-brick cnclo-

Tllf:Jinl/~J!pfJSlyle hall o/lhe tell/pIe off/alhor (II Del1dera, built ill Ih('firsl Cet/lllly./1) 1~)1111l' I::mperor Tiberius, The (ollil1llI base sllOms dU1Il1t!!( where grains OfSI01U! 1/(l7..:e been groulld oul lor lISt' in}Oll: medicine il1 posl-Pharaollic limes, (R 7: \-IC1l0150.\)

84

~RT

DESERT

PIau oI/he fell/pIe oj1/aJl/(Jr al Dendera,

with wooden canopy (now defaced), where

those not able to enter the temple might petition the goddess.

well
----l
I

The columns of the fa(,:3.c1e and outer

hypostyle hall of thl: temple have capitals in t1~c form of tJ1C he'1(1 of I-bthor surmounted by :I J'Aos-shapcd sistrum. Although most of these columns have been damaged, possibl) during the Christian period, some arc well preserved. The crypts depict various cult objects stored in them, the most important of which was a Bf\ statue of l-bthor. During New

I
I

I
I

I I I
I

sacred lake

I
I
I
I

I I

Year processions this would visit various pans

of the temple including the ."JUT chapel and the roof chapel where the ba was united wirh the solar disc. The roof also has symbolic mortuary chapels (or Osiris, olle of which contained a zodiac (now in the Lounc and replaced by a copy), as well as fig'ures of N lit and scenes relating to the rebirth of Osiris. Outside the main temple, along with the two !//(UIlJl/;S;S, were a small temple to Isis and a sanatOrium for the accommodation :lI1d healing of pilgrims. This may have served as an (incubation chamber' (where pilgrims slept in order to receive hC:lling I)ln:Mvls) but it perh'lps principally functioned as a centre for {i/J/JI/.I" healing (see IIORUS). Belween the two //WlllllliS/~' are the remains ofa basilica of the Christian period. A. NIARIETrE, Delldaa!J, +vols (Paris, 1870-3). \\( 1\11. F PI~Tt{ll~, Delldcre!J (London, 19(0). E. Ct IA$SIN!\T and F DAUJ\li\."i, Le lelll/Jlt' de Dem/al'((, 6 \'ols (Cairo, 1934--52). I-I. G. FISCHER, Dmdc}"(/ ;Il Ihe 3rd millml!;/I1l1 IJC

====:J
courtyard

... I ..

well sanatorium mammisiof Nectanebo I

\
Roman mammisi

(New York, 1968). F. DAUJ\IAS, DClldera clle (eli/pIe d'J-!(/(!Jor (Cairo, 1969).

1 outer hyposlyle hall 2 Inner hyposlyle hall (surrounded by ancillary rooms, e.g. 3 and 4)

Christian basilica

desert
The Egyptians sometimes referred to the desert as tleshrel ('red land') in order to distinguish it from the fertile kemel ('black land'), so called because of the black soil that was deposited along rhe banks of the Nile by the annuaIINUNDATIO:-.J. The epithet 'red god' was therefore often applied lo SETH, the traditional god of chaos, since he was said to rule over the deserts and the general disorder that they represented, as opposed to the vegetation and fertility associated with his mythical counterp'lrt, USIRIS. A variety of deities, such as ,\\I~ and H1\THOR, were considered to watch over the desert routes affordinlT protection to tr,1\'ellers. The descr~s were es:cntially considered to be places dearh: first, in the sense of wildernesses in which wrongdoers might be sent to perish (either ;\s exiles or as forced

i :~~~s::;tibule:
6 7 8 9

3 'Iaboratory'torpertumes hall of offerings second vestibule: hall of Ihe Ennead sanctuary surrounded by chapels corridor stairs to roof

( [

I;'~:

~~

enclosure wall

10

20

30

40

5010

or

workers in mines or quarries); and, second, as the locations of cemeteries. The vVestern Desert was regarded as the entrance to the underworld where the sun disappeared each night. Various FUN"tRARY TEXTS describe the peri lOlls deserts surrounding the kingdom of the dead itself. The hicroglyph for desert consists of a dia-

grammatic "ie\,' of a range of three hills separ:lted by valleys) since the deserts were also mountains, in that they lay at a higher level than the inrervening' Nile valley. The 'desert' hieroglyph was also used as a 'determinative' sign with reference to any foreign country. Although not impassable, the deserts formed a barrier around Egypt protecting it from its

85

.=O-='.=O-=A",C,-,'I,-,'I",C,-'::;L-=I'-,-I':::.El:..:t.:..:A-=T--=U",R",E=-'

O~J.!'!

neighbours and probably hdping to promote the sometimes introspccti,-c tendencies of the Egyprians. I I. Ku:s. rl''''icnl Egypt: u (I//tllm/top(lg1"{fp/~)1 (London, 1961). I. SII\\\, 'The blaek land, Ihe red hllld', Egypt: tlllcieni m/Ilm'. IIwtlali/alltl, ed. J. :\lalek (S,dn<\, 1993), 12-27.

didactic literature see II ISDOII

LlTER,ITLRE

Diodorus Siculus (fl. dO lie) H..istorian born in the Sil.:ilian town of Agyrium, who is \\ ell known for the description of Egypt included in the first book of his Bibliulhem /JiSloriCll, .1 history of the world from the earliest timcs until Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul. Although his O'yn 'York is considcred by scholars to be undistinguished, his writings are often ".tluable for the fragments reproduced from more importalH works. His account of the prol.:ess of \IU.\1J\IIF1C\TIOi'., for instance) gives details not recorded by IWROJ)O']'US, induding rhe fact that the embalmer's incision was made on the left flank. He also records that the Yiscera were washed after their removal, and he claims that the man responsible t()r opening the corpse was usu<lll~ dri\len away by his colleagues (an act which is now gcnemlly presumed to hayc been ritual). Few details h,we sun'h'ed concerning the life of Diodorus, but he is knO\\'n to h,1\-c li"ed until at least 21 Be.
E R. \\"\1.':1"0'\, Dim/orm oISiri(JI (London and Cambridge, -'lA, 196i). A. BeRTo" Diot!nrm Simlus J: {f rnmmelllfll}' (Leiden, 1972).

cross-bars. Its origins seem to be among the fetish symbols of the Predynastjc period, and it has been suggested th,u it mjght represent a pole around which grain Wi.1S tied. O\'er the course of time it came to represem the more .tbstract concept of slabili(~~ and! like the _\2\.KII amI \US sr:EIyrRI: hieroglyphs, was commonly used in this sense in decor;:ui\'e friezes. Although the djed pillar wns ori.ginJlly <lssol.:i.ned with the god SOK \R, I'T\H, the patron deity of .\ lemphis, is sometimes described <IS Ithe noble Djtd'. [t '''as because of the association ofPtah with Sobrand theref()rc also with OSIRIS, god of the dead, that the djed pillar

metaphor for tht stahility of (he monarchy but also symbolized the resurrection of Osiri~. J. \ \, IlER VUET, 'Raising the djed: a rite de marge, .-Iklm "/iil/dlell 1985 JlI, ed. S. Schoskc (llomburg, 1989), {OS-II. R. I-I. \VII ..... "SO', Rr(/{/illg EgJ'pliali uri (Lon dun, 1992), 16+-S.

Djer (1".3000

He)

Diospolis Parva Sl'<' IIIII-SE.'''III>.' diplomacy see

diseases set'
\II'IR" LE'ITERS

REGIO'

\U:D1CI'E

divine adoratrice (Eg\'ptian tllI)(/I-lle!ja)

Religious title held by women, the precise connotations of which arc not fully unclersLOod. It was originally adopted by the daughter of the chief priest of the god .\'IL"\l in the reign of l-Ialshepsur (1473-H58 Be). During the time of the sole reign of Thutmose 111 (ID9-142.i IIC) it was held bv Ihe mother of his principal wife. By the Third Intermediate Period it was held together with lhe title GOD'S
WIFE OF t\i\IU".

AII/u/e! illthi'PJfllI ofa djed pillar. Saitc paind. ji,iclI({'. II. //./ C1l1. (E//223.1)
c\'entually became a symbol of Osiris. Tn the Book of the Dead it is said to represent his backbone, and certain depictions of Ihe pillnr portray it with human arms holding the royal regalia. It was probably at Memphis that kings first performed the ceremony of 'raising the r/jerl pillar', the best-known depiction of which is in the Osiris Hall at AB\'IJOS, although the ritual was also incorporated into one of the SED FESTmll,S or Amenhotep III (1390-1352 He) n< Thebes. This act not only sen'ed as a

Early king of rhe 1st Dynasty, who \\ as prohably third in the sequence of rulers beginning with' \R\lER (as listed on a recently ext.-ar'lIl'd clay seal impression from the royal ceml'tcry iU \uroos). He may 'llso be the same king as hi, \\ ho is mcntioned in the "''\G LIST in the temple of SCI y I at \UrDOS. A rock-can-ing al Gebel Sheikh Suleim<ln W.IS onCl' interpn'ted as cyidencc of a military c;:lmpaign launched into Nubia at this time, but 'Villiam l\lurnane has now shown that it dated earlier than the reign of Dje!". The bll1'ial chamber of his tomb at Abydos (which some scholars st.ill interpret as a Cenotaph rather than an actual burial-place) \\as floored with wooden planks. From the reign of Djer onwanls, each royal t"Omb at Ahydos I.:onrained ,I number of chambers in which different types of grave goods were placed, ranging from stone 'ases sealed with golden Ijds, copper bowls, gold bracelets, food? weapons, tools and furniture made from i\-ory and chol1~. Iliddcn in the northern wall of Djer's ttlmb was a linen-wnlpped human arm adorned \\ iIh bracelets of gold and gemstones, pl'rhaps left behind by tomb-robbers. On arri\'a! al C.1iro _\Iuseum rhe .1rm was discarded and onl~ the jewellery was kept, therefore it is still not c1tar whether the limb was that of Djer himsdf.'\t least as early as the ~ Eddie Kjngdom, his tomb was cOll\'erled into a cenotaph of the gud OSIRIS, and when it was first eXGl\",Ileti by Emile Amclineau, the hurial chamber contained :I stone image of Osiris on a funer.try couch. \V. .i\l. F PETRIE, The roya/tombs oflhe i'i"rst D)'"I/SI)' I (Londun, 1900). \V. 13. E.\IER\, Greta lombs o.(lhe n'nl Dy,/{/s~)'. J \"ols (C1iro and London, 1949-58). \V. J .i\llR' \'\E, 'The Gebel Sheikh SuJeiman monument: epigraphic remarks',]NES-1-6 (19X7),282-5.

G. R..oBlNS, J:.~'{yptiallll}()lJIt'1l (London, 1994), 1+9.

153.

djedpillar
Roughly cruciform symbol with at least three

Djet (Wodj, 'Serpent') (1".2980 BC) Rulcr of rhe 1st Dynasty who was probahly buried in Tomb z at Abydos, which W<lS t::\{;;lv<ltcd by Emile Amclincau and Flinders Pel ric at the end of the nineteenth century and reexcavated in 1988 bv \;Vcrnel' K,;iser ,lI1d Gunther Dreyer. His -rectangular wood-lined burial chamber is now known to have heen

86

QlOSER

DRESS

surmounted by a brick-cased mound or sand or rubble hidden beneath the main rectangular

superstructure. Probably the finest of the 1stDynasty funerary stelae (now in the Louvre)

w,~s found by AmelinCilli in the vicinity of the

tomb; carved from finc limestone, it bears the serpent hicroglyph (the phonetic \"a Illl: of which is ((jel) framed by a royal SEREKII and surmounted by a IIORUS falcoll. Both the impressive Tomb 3504 at Saqqara (probably

belonging to Sekhcmka, ~U1 official during Djet's reign) and a large i\lI\STAB:\ LOmb at Giza have been dated to DjcL's reign by the presence of seal impressions bearing his n'lmc. W. M. F. PETRIE, Thl! royal tOllltH oII!Il:/irsl t()I/I({S(j1 J (London, ]900). 8. E,\u::I{Y, Grc(/llfllll!Js f!!,/licjirsl {()II/t/sty II (London, 1954). -, Ard/llil" .f:!J.)'PI (London, 19(1),69-71. G. DREYER, 'Umm cl-Qlab: Nachuntcrsllchungen im fri-illi'.citlichcll Konigsfricdhof 5./6. Vorbericht" kID.'liK +lJ (1993),57.

'V.

Ojoser (Zoser; Netjerikhet) (2667-2648 Be)

Second ruler of the 3rd Dynast~T, whose architect, I !'I II 10TEP, constructed the Step Pyramid
at St\QQt\R:\, which was not only the first pyramidal funerary complex but also the earliest example of large-scale stone masonry in Egypt (see I'YRM\lIns). Despite the fame of his tomb, few facts arc known concerning Djoser himself or the cvenl"s of his reign, and most of the 'historical' information concerning his reign takes the form hIte sources, such as the Fmnine SteIl' at Sehel (sec FA.\II!"!': and KJ-INUi\l). Only the I-Torus Ilame Nctjcrikhct was found in 3rd-Dynasty inscriptions associated with lhe pyramid, am] it is only through New Kingdom graffiti that an association has been made between this name and Djoser. A number of fragments of statuary rcpresenl ing Nctjerikher were recovered from the pyramid complex, including an almosl life-size sealed statue from the SERlJAB (now in Cainl), <lIld on the waUs of one of the subterranean galleries to the east of the burial chamber were three reliefs depicting I'he king enacting various rituals. C. M. FJRTH, J. E. QLJrBl~LL and J-P. L:\L'ER, '11ft: Sfep I~Jlramidl 2 vols (Cairo, 1935-6). 1. E. S. EDWARDS, Thl' pYI"llJllids '!f'(!f,JljJf, 5th cd. (Harmonchworrh, 199.1), ~4----S8.

or

fhe identifil:ation of specific breeds from such representations is difficult, since modern breed definitions allow little flexibilitv. Suffice it to say that breeds closely related to the ba~enji, saluki and greyhound Can be identified, while there is a 1110re general category of dogs apparently rehned t"O mastiffs <lnd dachshunds. As well as ha\'ing a rple in the hunt, S0111C dogs served as domestic pets or gUilrd dogs and even polict.: dugs. Their qualities of fairhfulness and bravery .1IT sometimes referred to in the names they were given; these names are known from inscriptions on leather l:ollars as wcll as from depictions on stelae and reliefs. Thus we know of 'Brave One', 'Reliable' and 'Good Herdsman" as well as simpler names referring to their colour. There were, however, sometimes more negative aspel:ts of the Egyptians' attitude to dogs: their air of domestic subservience could be used as an insult, <lnd some texts include references to prisoners as 'the king's dogs'. Since the jackal and the dog were not well separated Ln the Egyptian mind they were both regarded as sacred to tU\UBlS, sometimes being buried as SACRED tH\JJ\lt\I.S in the nubieion catacombs a1 Saqqara, although unfortunately there is little information available l:oncerning the particular species of dog at this site. The term 'Anubis animal'. rather than jal:kal, is sometimes used, since its identification is a matter of debate. Domestic dogs might also receive special burial, either along with their owners - a practil:e known from the earliest dynasties - or in their own coffins. ..\11. Ll"RKR, '1-1 unci unci ~folr in ihrer Beziehung zum 'Tade'. /111111;0.' 10 (1969),199-216. II. G. FJsr:JlEl{, 'I-lunde, Hundestele', Le.rikoll der Agyplologie Ill, cd. W. l.--tclck, E. Otto and W Westendorf (Wiesbaclen, 1980),77-82. W. B'\RTA, 'Schabl', Ll.'xil'lJlI dcr AgYPf%gic v, ed. \v. Heick, E. Otto and W. 'Westendorf (Wiesbadcn. 198-1), 5U}-8. R. JANSSEN and J..J. JANSSEN, [g)lpli{/}/ dOIlll.'Slit: {///il//{/Is (Aylesbury, 1989),9-13. D. J. BREWER, D. B. REDFORD and S. REI>FORD, DOIIIC.Ilit jJ/{/lIfS ({lid (///im(/Is: 11ll' l::.~!tyjJli({1! ol'igills (Warminster, 1994), 110--18.

donkeys see

I\NIi\IAI. HUSBAl\'!Jln

Ora Abu el-Naga see THEBES dreams

Dreams played an important role in Eg) ptian culture, principally because they were thought to serve as a means of communicating the will of the gods and serving as clues to future events. Papyrus Chester

dog
One ancient Egyptian word for dog is the Onomatopoeil: imi11J, refcrring to its barking noisc. A number of differeot types of dogs can be reCognized from depictions in tombs, many of them tall sleek breeds suiublc for hunting.

Beatty III in the British Museum, an early Ramcssidc document found al DIER EJ.-l\lFDI'J,\, describes a number of dreams, each of which is followed by an interpretation and an evaluation as to whcther it was good or bad. It is suggested, for instance, that if a man dreamed of drinking warm beer, this was bad and he would inevitably undergo suflering. Although the papyrus itself elates to the early thirteenth century IlCo, the language of the rext suggests that this dream-list was originally compiled in the Ivliddlc Kingdom (2055-1650 He). In royal propaganda (see U\JGSlllP), stelae sometimes recount the pseudo-prophetic dreams of pharaohs as a lllC.lI1S of justifying their sllccession to the thrune. The classic eXilmple of the royal dream stele \yas erencd by TIIUUIOSE I\~ (1400-1390 Be) in front of the Great SPHIi'X ilt Giza, describing' how, as <l young prince, he fell asleep in the shade of the sphinx and was then mid in a dream that if he cleared the sand away from its nanks he would become king' of Egypt. Centuries later, the Kushite pharaoh 1".>\i'.LT.'\.\'l!\NJ (664-656 Be) ser up a similar stele in the temple of Amun at the ~ap<ltan capital city Gebel Barbl (see l""-I'ATA), describing a dream in \yhich the throne of Egypt and Nubia was offered to him hy t\H) serpents, who presumably symbolized the 'two ladies', rhe goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt". TanUla111<lni's stele thus provides a mythical explanation for the unusual Kushite crowns, which are adorned wirh double IIraei: when the king awoke from his dream he was told, 'the two goddesses shine on your brow, the land is given to you in its leng'lh and breadth'. From the Late Period (747-332 Be) onwards it became relatively common for imliyiduals to sleep within temple enclosures so that ORj\CLES could be communicated to them through divinely inspired dreams (sec BES). The Greek rerm (Jlfiroaifes was used La describe the priests whose role \yas to interpret these dreams. J. H. 13RE>\STED, Alldt'lI! retords (~/ E'gy/JI n' (Chicago, 19(6). -169. S. S,\UNI::RON, Les S(JIlgcs t:/ /CI/r i/llcrpre/afioll (PaTis,1959). J. D. R.w, The tll'thh:1' (~/H(Jr (London, 1976), 130-6 C. ZI"JE, Gi::,a (II/ tlellxiJlI/e lI/iI/(!Jwirc (Cai.ro, 1976),130-1. J D. RAY, 'An agricultural dream: ostr:tcon Ii,\! 5671 " Pyramid .III/dies and olha essays presell/ed (f) I. 1:.". S. Edmartls. cd. J. Baines eL ;11. (London 1988), 176-83.

dress see n .OTI-JING

87

DUALITY

DYAD

duality
The Egyptians bclic,"cd that unity waS emphasized by the complementarity of its parts. Thus [)lC king of a united Egypt still bore the title 'lord of the two lands' (lleb I(f/I~l') and 'he of the sedge and the bee' (l1esm-bil). Similarly, the country was diyidcd into the black land (kemel) and the red hmd (tll's"rel), and split berween the east (the land of the living) and the west (the realm of the dead). The earth was distinct from the hcowens but the two together wcre the complemelltary halycs of the created universe, while beyond the DORnERS of the universe waS the 'ullereated" the chaos from

H. KEI::s, .~llIdelll Egypl:

(l

(il/Ilim/lopography,

ed. T G. H.Iames (London, 19(1).

ril:ilizalioJl (London,

B. J Kt::.\II', .llIl'ieul EgYPI: tII/(/lo"~Jt o/a 1989).

The perH111ifiratiol1S ofLOJver Egypt (Ie/i) lind Upper Eg:JlPt (righl) cromll the pharaoh Pto!enql 'f Philomela nJ;th Iht' doubll' cr(mm. DUlllil)' mas (/1/ ill/porla"t part nIEgyptit/1/ tho/lght. Temple oj' !lows (if Et(/il. (/1, 'I: .vfCf-IULSQ\)
which mall and the gods had emerged (see and 'L'). This duality is prescnt at many lcycls of thought and symbolism, so that there arc gods of Uppcr and Lmycr Egypt, and gods of thc living and thc dead. The mythical struggle between I 'ORU~ and SETH was esscntially regardcd as the universal struggle betwecn good and evil, thc triumph of light over darkness and the prevailing of order over chaos. In more pragamatic terms the Kl~G SIIIP (personified by the god Horus) and thc ordered bure'1Ucracy which it encouraged were seen to be strongcr than the powers of anarchy.
CRE,HIO::\

dwarfs and pygmies (Egyptian tlelleg, 1/'111) Although the same EgYPlian term (deneg) appcars to ha\'c been used for both dwarfs and pygmies, the Egyptians' auitud.es to each of these categories differed considerably. Cascs of dwarfism seem to h~l\-e been fairly common; the condition results from the t~1il ure of thc boncs to ossify properly, resulting in srunred growth (achondroplasia), and sevcral such skdclons have survived, as well as numerous dcpictions in reliefs and staruary. One particularly striking late 4-th- or carly 5th-Dynasty 'group statue' depicts the dwarf Seneb and his t:1mily. Seneb held sereral oflicial positions: he was OYCrseer of the palace dwarf..... chicf of the royal wardrobe, and priest of the funerary colts ofl'.hofu (2589-2566 BC) and Djedefra (2566-2558 BC). His statue shows him seated cross-legged besidc his \rife Scnctites, who was of normal staturc, while his children stand immediately in front of him, apparently com-cnicntly masking the area where his legs would hayc been if his limbs had been of normal proportions. The wealth and prestige eyidenlly enjoyed by Scncb, LO judge from his titlcs, tomb and funerary equipment, was not unusual for Egyptian dwarfs in general, many of whom appear to have had skilled or responsible occupations. They arc depicted as jewellerymakers in the Old Kingdom tumb of \IERERL)"-..\ at Saqqara, and they arc also shown tendi.ng anim.tls, undertaking agricultural work, and sometimes prO\-iding entertainment for high officials. Seneb's m.uriagc Lo a woman who \\"as a lady of the <.:ourl and a priestess is onc of many indications th.tt male clwarf.~ were not ohliged to marry women with similar deformirics. The apparent lack of prejudice against dw.trfs is perhaps also indic:lted by the tilet lhat a number of gods, notably BES, show signs of dwarfism. Pygmies, howc\'cr, seem to have received rather less beneficent treatment than dwarfs, no doubt bec<.1llse they were essemially foreigners. They were gencf<llly imported infO Egypt from tropical Africa, often sen-ing as 'dancers before the god', temple dam:ers or acrobat's in the service of Rt\. The decon1tion of the Old Kingdom tomb of Harkhuf (A8) at Qubbet el-Hawa (see \SlrA,') includes a copy of a Icner from the young 6th-Dynasty ruler PEP" II (2278-218{ He), urging I-Jarkhuf, who was on his way back from an expedition to the south of Sudan, to take great care of the danc-

Paill1/'d 1i11lt'sIfJ1I'grf)Up sl(l/l/t' nIi/I(' dmfll/St.'tlcb

milh his miji:: Sellelill's {/mllfteir

-/Ih

I/pO

L'hiltl,.m. I.Alll'

ur l'arly 51ft

I~)I/III.I"/y.

e2500 lu:..f;mll Ciza,

11. .if fill. (CIIRO,}fSI2IiO)

ing pygmy he has acquired. The king is quoted '1S saying, 'my majesty desires 10 see this pygmy more th;)n the gifrs of the mine-land [Sinai I and of Pont'. K. R. \VEEKS, The fllllllo11limll'lIomlt'dge II/Iht'
IIUCh'llI l:.gYPlial1s lIud Ihe represeultlliul1l1./lhc

hlll1lalljigurt' ill EgYPlitifl art (Ann Arbor, 1981).

EI.-AGUIZY, 'Dwar(') and pygmics in ancient EgY]lt', AS.../E71 (1987), 53-60 V. D,\sl':", Dmll1:f.~ /11 fll1c/clll E~~yp/ ((1ft1 Grl'at' (Oxford, 1993).

0.

dyad (pair-statue) Pair of statucs, oftcn can-cd from the same block of material, either representing a man and his wife or depicting two versions of Ihe same person. Sometimes the m.m and wife arc accompanied by their children, usually can'cd next to their legs. There arc also occasional groups of two or three identical funerary Sto1tlies portraying .1 single individual, one the earliest cxamples being the dyad of the 5thDynasty priest of R \, Nimaatsed, from \1 \ST\U,\ tomb 1)56 at Saqqara (now in C1iro). It hilS been suggested that the intention of such 'pseudo-groups' m.ty ha\-c been to reprc~ent the body .md the spiritual manifcstatiuns of the deceased (sec 10\). It is possible that royal dyads, such as the L1nusu.tl granitc double Sl;ttlIC of Amenemhar III from "Etnis (also in Cairo), may portray both the mortal and deified aspects of the pharaoh. ,\1. SALEIl and H. SOLl{QUZIA..~, The EgypJiufI JtIliselll1l. Cairo: official ((I/lt/ogue (!\lainz, 19S7), LOlt. nos {8 and I().I.

or

88

~ASTY

ECONOMICS

dynasty
The division of the Pharaonic period into (h-nasnes was a chronological system introd~ced hy the priest \I.\"ETIIO in the early third century Be, when he composed his hisrory of Egypt (the AegyptillclI). The thir,,'--one dynasties consisted of groups of rulers stretching from the rime of the scmi-mythiGll first pharaoh 1\tE.:\:ES to :\LEX.\.'DER "1"1 [E GREtH. In general IVianetho1s dynasties appear to correspond quire closely to the grouping of kings Suggested by yariolls earlier Klt--G LISTS, such ;15 the TL:RI~ RQ) .\1. C \ \lU\I, ancl in modern chronologies the dynasties afC usually grouped into 'kingdoms' and 'intermediate periods' , The distinction bc[\yccn one dynasty .10<1 another occasionall~ seems rather arbitrary but tWO of the most importi.Jn1 determining factors appear to hayc been changes in royal kinship links and the location of the capital. Bccause of the tendency to regard the kingship as a unique and indi,isihlc phenomenon, Manetho's dynasties, like the groups of rulers in Pharaonic king li5ts, rend La be neated as if the)' occurred in a linear sequence1 one after the other, whereas it is now known dlat some of them (such as the 13th to 17th Dvnastics) represented roughly contemporaneous and overlapping sequences of rulers who COlltrolled only certain parts of the country. See also C1IRO:"OWGY. W. G. \VADDEI.L,. \lll1ll'1/W (Cambridge .\lA, and London, 19~0). \V. r-IELCK, UllterSltdumgeu ::'{I.lIlIl/clho IlIId der iigYPlisclten Kiiuiglistell (Berlin, 1956). D. REDFOR.I), P/lll/'(ffJlJic A'illg-li.m. lIlIl/als alld daybooks: {{ conlribuliolllO tlte SI/I(~)I ollltt' Egypliall S('1/se olltistoJJI (1\t1ississauga, 1(86), S, QUIRK~, 'IVlto men' l!Ie p!la}"(/o!ls? (London, 1990).

E
Early Dynastic period (3100-2686 nr.)
Chronological phase, often described as thc Archaic period, comprising rhe first two dynasties of the Pharaonic period, during which many of thc major aspects of the culturc and society of the Pharaonic period emergcd. Some scholars include the 3rd Dynast~ (2686-2613 Br.) in the Earll" Dmastic period, but most chronologies trcal the 3rd to 6th Dyn..1sties as the 01.1) hl::'\GI.>O\1. The transition li'om the PRU)Y'\\STIC PERIOD to the 1st Dyn;lst~ was once regarded as a sudden politic~ll e\'elll, such .1S an ilwasion. The material culture of the period, huwc\cr, suggesrs that the cmergence of the Early Dynastic monarch~ was a ycry gradual process. f\ cerrain dcgrec of conlTovcrsy still surrounds the question of thc loc1tion of the royal tombs of the 1Sf and 2nd Dynastics, givcn thar there are Clite cemereries of the period at both ABYD<)S and Si\Q.Q\IU, both of which include inscriptions bearing lst- and 2nd-Dyn,lst~ royal names. Current opinion, howcYcr, tends more towards Abydos as the royal cemetcry and Saqqara as the burial ground of the high officials of the time. The tombs at Ab"dos and Saqqara ha, e yielded some of the earliest Egyptian textual c,idence, primarily in the form of stone slclac, wooden and i,ory labels, inscribed pottery jars and chIy seal impressions. On the basis of these documents, together with the evidence of radiocarbon elating, the rough chronological structure of thc pcriod has been reconstructed. The sequence of 1st-Dynasty kings, all of whom wcre probably buried at Abydos, is now widely accepted as ::'\.\R.\IER, -\1-1-\, OJER, DJE1', DE.", _\:'\UJIB, SE'IERf'IIET and Q\';\, with Queen \IER'\EITII sen-ing as a regent, probabl~ either before or after the reib'11 of Den. The chronology of the L'arly 2nd-Dynasty kings, who wcrc probably buried at S.\QQ-\R_\, is more nebulous, perhaps raking the form: l-!ctcpsckhclllwy, Raneb, ~ynetjcr, \\lcneg and Sened. The last two rulers of the 2nd Dynasty wcre PERlBSE-,,- and h:IIASEf'J IE\I\\'\, both buried at Abydos. B. G. TRIGGER, 'The rise of Egyptian ci,ilization',AIIl'it'II( l:.:I!,ypl: a soria I ltisIM:JI, eel. 8. G. Trigger et al. (Cambridge, 1983), l-iO. 1. $11-\\\", 'The Egyptian Archaic period:;) reappraisal of the C-H dates', GM 78 (198~), 79-86.

J...:. BARD, 'Tow;lrd an interpretation of the role of ideology in the c\'oluLion of complcx sociery in
EgYPl',]ollnwl of,Jl1lhropological.~rch{feology II

(1992),1-24A. J. SI'E:'\CER,

E(lr~J' Egypl: Ihe risl' oft:h'ili::.atiolJ ill Ihe _Vill' nt/ley (London, 1993). B. G. TRIGGER, Eflr~)I civilization: tI/Il'iml I:.gypt
ill cOI/It'xl

(Cairo, 1993).
'\D"lINISTR.\TIO:\l;

economics St'/1

I\GRICLI:rURE; COI'I'ER; GOLD; IRO:'\; SI1,\ERj STO'\Ej T'\XATIO::'\; TRADE

and

WOOD.

Edfu (anc. Djeh, :\pollonopolis ~lagna)

Upper Egyptian site dominated by a large, well-preseryed temple dedicated to the hawkgod !lORCS. The earliest securely dated historical e\"idcncc in the region of Edfu is n mckcaning of the name of the I st-Dyn~lsty king DJET (1".2980 Be), in the desert to the east of the main sitc.IS ,,-ell as <1 necropolis of the Early Dmastic period (3100-2686 Be). The main sire includes sCll1ement and funerary remains covering the cntire Dynastic

50m

1 2 3 4 5

pylon gateway ambulatory firsthyp<lstyle halt second hypostyle hall 'laboratory' (inscribed with recipes for incense, etc)

6 offering hall 7 vestibule 8 sanctuary (surrounded by chapels) 9 'Nilometer' 10 'library'

PIau of the lemplt of Horus III EdJiJ.

89

EDUCATION

EGYPTOJ~

./f/ti'

E{!/il. 'lilt: sou/It ()/I/if PY/OII is decorated mill! relit:l~ .I'tumling PtolelllY \'/1 SllfilillgIfm:iglln"s. 011 ci/!l{'J' sid" ({ the galemay (lrc s/al//t".\ uI/he hawk-god [-forus. Plolell/flit pi'riod, i J Be, /f.(~reaslt'l"lll(Jl1?a -1-1 l/l.
PY/OII oIII/1f lemple o/Horus a/
(/~ 'I: .VlCllOtSOS)

period, bur a substantial proportion of the

buildings remain unexcavared. 'The French

and Polish excavators of the 19205 and 1930s examined the temple as well as the GrccoRoman and Byzantine levels of the surround-

ing settlement. The construction of the

Ptolemaic temple of Horus, which was founded on the site of a much earlier Pharaonic temple, dates to the period between the reigns of Ptolemy [lJ and Xil (246-51 13C). The reliefs and inscriptions on lhe walls include the myth of the contendings of Horus and SI':Tl-I (probabl~' performed annually as :l religious drama) and an imponant' account of the ritual founcLttion of the temple. N!. DE ROr.IlEI\IONTEJ.\' and E. CtIASSI'\i\T, Lt lelllfi/crI'Mfil/l(Paris, 1892; Cairo, 1918-). K. i\'[JCJ-JALOWSKJ et 011., Tell EdJilll, -+ HJ1s (Cairo, 1937-50). I I. W. FMR.\lAN, '\Vorship and festiv'l1s in an Egyptian temple', lJulll:lill uJlheJohn 8)111I1Ids Libral)', Alallrllt;sler J7 (195+), 165-203. ~, Thl' Iriulllph oIHorus: ({II ({lIcIelll Egypliall sand drallu! (London, 1974). S. C\Urll.l.I:, I,a IhJologie tI'Osiris ri EI({o1l (Cairo, 1983) - , Erljil/l (Cairo, 1984).

education
Few ancient Egyptians were given any formal education, and the majority of the people were illiterate. For the latter, training was essentially vocational: practical trades and crafts were

passed on from one generation to anot-her, ilnd boys often appear to have served apprenticeships under their fathers. Usually a son would be expected to take over his father's trade or post and eventually to provide the principal means of support for the family. There is little surviving evidence concerning the training or education of women, although daughters generally seem to have acquired domestic skills, such as weaving and cooking, from their mothers. For the elite members of Egyptian society, education \Y<1S essentially a matter of scribal training) since the use of writing was thc key to Egyptian administration and economic organization) and the sphere of the trained scribe extended beyond writing to the roles of manager and bureaucrat. A document from the fourteenth regnal year of Psamtek 1 (664-610 J3C) contains the individual signatures of fifty high officials, ranging from PIUESTS to VIZIERS, thus indicating the widcspread literacy of the members of the ruling elite in thc 26th Dynasty at least. l\tlany of the surviving texts fro111 the Pharaonic period were intended to flUlction not only as literary works but also as cclUCaI"ional textbooks, such as the f\Jlixre/fauie:;, and often the very sun-ivai of these documents is owed largely to constanl copying as a means of acquiring writing skills. The question of the extent of female literacy is still a mattcr of considerable debate; it is possible that a small proportion of women could read and write, since there arc surviving Icttcrs to and fi'om women at the New Kingdom workmen's village of Deir cl-1\tlcdina ((.1500-1100 Be), although it is equally possible that such documents might have been written and read by male SCRIBES on behal f of female patrons.

vVrinen education was rcry clearly addressed boys, and many of the so-callcd '\\ i~d(l1TI 1 texts are presented in thc fiJrm of Sets of instructions spoken by fathers to Sons (sec 1':TIlleS and WIsnO:-'1 LlTEHATUHE). The Sons of the elite seem to have been given a broader education involving reading, writing' ;md \1!\Tl-lI:.\L'\"IICS. Such boys would probahl y hare been taught in a scribal school attached t~ some particular diyision of thc administration such as lhe IIOl;SE OF LIFE in a temple Dr, il~ the most pri\'iJeged cases, at the roY'll COUrt itself For most of the Pharaonic period the l-lII':It'\TIC script would have been the first to be h:arned, with only a few selectecl indi\-iduals thcn being instructed in the more elahorale and artistic I HEHOGUPIIS. '1'he subject of mathematics was evidently taught by means of numerous examples rather than by the liSe of abstract formulae, su that problems \\cre usually brokcn clown into a repetitive scrics of smaller calculations. Learning was by rote, in that most lessons .tppcar to ha\'c taken the form of copying out exercises and commining long passages of [ext to memory. The exercises took the form of model LETI'ERS 1 reports and selections from 'instructions) such as the Book !~r KCIIO'I. Frequently such instructions presented a distinctly biased vlcw of society, praising the scribal profession and sometimes satirizing othcr ways of life (see JIUMOUR). School discipline was strict, .md one text includes lhe memorable phrase: 'A hoy's car is on his back - he listens when he is beaten'. T. G. I L JAW~S, Pharaoh :\. people: S(Cllcsjj'l)lllliji; iI/ OllciCI/I .EgYPI (Oxford, 198+), 136-51. E. STROLl L\I., L~/e in Il//(:icnl EgYPI (Cambridge, 1992),31-7. G. ROBI:-\S, HlOlI/el/ ill alleiclil EgypI (Lundon, 1993),111-14. D. SWEENEY, 1\\10I11cn's correspondence from DeiI' cl-tVlcdinch', Scs/o COllgresS(} llllcl"I/u::.iIJ111J!e tli Egi//ologia, Alii II (Turin, ]993), 523-l.J.
to

Egyptology
Some scholars date the beginning of lhe discipline of Egyptology to 22 September 1822. the day on which jc:.m-Franyois (] IAI\lI'OL1.J()".: wrote his Lellre d Ai. Datier rda/hx d /'a/pltt/bel des hiirog()'phcs p//I}!ll;/iqlles, in which he demonstrated that he had deciphered the IIIEHOGLYPIIIC script. Chaillpollion, hO\\ t\-er, was undoubtedly already drawing on the \\'ork of earlier writers, such as J IOR.\POLln, ,mel Thomas YOUNG, and his work was actuall~ the culminadon of hundreds of years of earlier 'redisc{)\"cry' of ancient Egypt. The Egyptian civilization was already regarded as a venerable and ,l11cient onc by the

90

~PTOLOGY

EGYPTOLOGY

These scientific expeditions lInfortlinarcl~ took place against a background of looting and collecting by such pioneers as Bernardino Dro\'etti and Gio'";lI1ni IWI.ZO'L The <llttiquitics acquired by such men e,-entually formed the nuclei of important national collections, such as the British :\Iuse.:um, the Lou\Tc, the.: Berlin museUlllS and the :\luseo Egiziu in Turin. In 1858 the Pasha appointed a Frenchman, Auguste \L\RIETIl~, to O\ersee all future e\(....I';1tion in Egypt. :\ot onI: did this mark the beginning of more ordtrl~ study but it also reOccred an increasing im cmcnt in the conscnmion and detailed ;.Jnalysis of thc monuments. Gradu;tll~ the subjcct gained rcspe.:ctabilil~, parrly through the c-'it;.Jblishmcnt it number of important academic posts in Egyptology, and schuhlrs such ;IS folinders I'J.TRII. and George RCIS,I:I~ were ahle to de.:,clop il1(.Te;ts-

0"

or

Photograph shomillg 'Cleopatra \- lll'cdlt" inlhi' protess o/bl'illg f!rcpal"edjlir 1/"(/llspl)rl(//if}II/~}llhe British eligilll!a}al/ll!s f)/~rf)lf. 7'l,c o[,eh,"k m(/s platcd
ill (/ speria/()'-II/w!t' lm'fal (I,/iI/del: IOJ1Jed 1~)1 bnat /11 El1g/al/d. alld l't'('JIIl/a!(JI era/cd /III/he Tlulllles
EI/IIJ(IJI~'lIlelll ill /8i8. 01l(V (f.l'ear ((/h,. Di.rolf fwd been (oillrar/ed 10 bring ilji-O/J/I:gypl. (RF:PIWDU:I.'l)

COl"RTES') OP Tllt:(;JUIT'I1I/\SnnT/)

time thal the Greek historian

IIEROJ)OTL:S

(c.48+--120 lie) compiled the firs! general

accOunt or the culture .IS a whole. Pharaonic Egypt was also a source of considerable interest to Ihabie scholars of the .\ I iddle Ages. :\ [any of these carly accounts mixed obSCITation ,,-ith fantasy, and more than a lillIe interest in treasure hunting, but some show a genuine cllriosi~' about the names and histories of the builders of the great monuments. It was obvious to Arabic scholars .md carl: tra,'ellcrs that the tombs and temples wcre coycred in carvings, the mysterious hieroglyphs, and it w.tS this aspect of Egyptian ci"ilization that attracted the attention of European scholars such as the German priest Athanasius Kircher, who undertook important research into Coptic and Arabic m.muscripts before turning his attention to the hieroglyphs. Unfortunately, he mistakenly believed these signs to be purely symbolic and non-phonetic, which led him to the fantastic interpretations of texts that in later times have earned him a somewhat unjustified notoriety, The found,;tions of Egyptological knowledge were laid by such European 'travellers' as Richard Pocockc, Claude Sicard and Frederick Ludwig Norden, whose pioneering accowlts of the Pharaonic sites the," visited are jn some cases the only record of m~nllments that have long since fallen victim to plundering or natural

deterioration. Howe\'er, the first systematic e.:xploration of Egypt waS undertaken .tt the end or the cighteenlh century by a small team or French scholars accompanying ?\apoleon's military expedition through the Nile \';llley. '1'he task of these 'sa\'anls' was to rccord all aspe.:cts or Egypt's nora, ElUna and history, and their resolrs \Yere published be! ween 1809 and 1822 as the t\\"cnl~ -four-,'olumc DesaiplioJl de I'Eg)lftlt!o :'\";tpoleon's c.''\pedition was brought to ;1I1 end by the Brilish, but- the scholars were allowed to continue their ,york LUltill802. \Vhen Alexandria ,yas surrendered to the British, the colkclions made b: the sa,"anL'i wcre also handed o,er, induding certain objects, such ,tS the ROSETn STO'\E, that wefe to prmc crucial to the de, elopmem of Egyptology. Large.: numbers of indiyidual European tra,ellers and collectors began to ,isit Egypt in the nine.:tee.:nth century, along with seyeral further htrge-scalc scientific expeditions, most nOlably the work of Jean-Franc,:ois Champollion and lppolito ROSELLI~I between 1828 and 1829, as well as the amhitious and "ide-ranging researches uf the German scholar Karl Richard I.EPSIcS between 1842 and 1845. Lepsills' expedition undenook extensive mapping and a cert.tin amount of excavation, recording some sites nOt visited by the Fre.:nch as well as adding further de.:tails to the ;.JCCOlInts of known sites; his work "as published under the title of Denk1!l(fe!er rI/I.I' AegyptClf lIud Aelhiopiel/. In the English-speaking world, the first comprehensive and reliable description of Egyptian antiquities and culture was Sir John Gardner WILKI"'l'SO'\j'S monumental JlIlaJ/l1ers flild CffsIOJII.~ oflhe allcielft Egypliafls, publishcd in three volumes in 1837, after twelve years of continuous fieldwork in Egypt and Nubia.

Portrait ill oils oflJo11'f1rd Carter. paintcd I~l,ltis

elder brother IVillialll il1 /92J. (REPRUOf. Ct./) (,'{)L"Rn.\') Of 'tl1E CRlff17111\.,,.T1TL n)

ingly mcticulous techniques of field recording and cxca\";ltion. As a result, from the 18905 onwards the subject became increasingly professional in naturc. Mariette's oyersccing of excavations developed into the Egyptian Antiquities Service (the modern incarnation of which is the Supreme Council for Antiquities), which is now re.:sponsible for gmnting excavation permits to foreign missions, as well 'lS co-ordinating their work in the best interests of the Egyptim people. This increasingly involves thc rescue of sites and monuments endangered by construction works, such as the A5\\1.\1'\ lUGl1 Of\'\! in the 19605, the Cairo 'waste-water project' in the 91

.::E..::L_-

E<::I,=,"~ '

19805, and the el-Salaam canal in northern Sinai during the 1990s. In terms of the popular conception of Egyptology, however, these rescue projects have been disrincrly overshadowed by Howard CARTER'S discovery of the

tomb ofTutankhamun in 1922, which was the

first great 'media event' in the history of Egyptology, capturing the imagination of sub1 part of the town 2 temple of Nekhbet 3 temple ofThoth 4 sacred lake 5 rock-cut sanctuary of Shesmetet 6 el-Hamman: chapel of Setau 7 'vulture rock': rock carvings and inscriptions (prehistoric - Old Kingdom) B chapel of AmeBhotep III 9 rock tombs of New Kingdom nomarchs

sequent generations of scholars. lVlodcrn Egyptologists draw on a huge

diversity of techniques and disciplines, including sophisticated geophysical survey, meticulous CXCilVation and recording in plans and photographs, complltcr-g'cneratcd 1'CCOl1sf-ructions, as well as the more traditional fields of epigraphy (copying of inscriptions, paintings and reliefs) and papyrology. See Appendix 1 for a list of the names and dates of the m:.ljor early travellers and Egyptologists mentioned in the text. K. R. LEI'SIUS, Denhllaeler ails AcgypICIllllld AelhioJJ;ell, 12 vols (Berlin, 18-1-9-59). B. "M. P'\GAN, The rapt o/the Nile: lomb robbers. tOl/rists alld arefUte%gists in Egypt (London, 1977). J. VERCOliTI"ER., The scardlfbr (lUcient EgyPI (London, 1992). D. O'CONi\.OR, 'Egyptology and archaeology: an African perspective', A !IiSloly oI/~/iit-all archaeology, cd. P. Robcrtshaw (London, 1990), modem village of el-Hillal

River Nile

500

1000 m

P/1I11 orE/cab. in the New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC) it eclipsed the city of Nekhen (IlJER!\KONPOLlS) on the opposite bank, becoming the capital of the third nome of Upper Egypt. Its massive mud-brick walls, dating to the Late Period (747-332 Be) and still largely preserved, enclosed an area of abollt 250,000 sq. m. Ncar the centre of ..he town are the remains of sandstone tcmples dedicated to the deities i\EKI-IBET and 1'1101'11, which date primarily to the 18th to 30th Dynasties (1550-343 BC), but the original foundation of the temple of Nckhbet

23(}--51.
V\'. R.
DAWSON, E. P. UPI-L1LL and 1\11. BIERBRIER, 'IVI/O mas mho in EgyplOlogy, 3rd cd. (London, 1995).

el- All site names beginning with 'el-' (Arabic

'rhe') are alphabetized under the second part of the namc, e.g. KUlTu, cl-.

almost certainly dates back to tJ1C latc fom-th millennium Be The rock-tombs of the provincial governors ofElkab in the New Kingdom include those of Ahmose son of lbana (EK5), an admiral in Lhe wars of liberation against the l-lyksos rulers (.1550 BC)l and Setau (1'~K4), a priest during the reign of Rameses tIt (1184--1153 BC). The style of the early 18th-Dynast" wall-paimings anticipates that of the first New Kingdom nobles' tombs at Thebes. In 1967 Paul Vermcersch discovcred a series of well-stratified EPJPALAEOLITlIIC campsites. Radiocarbon-dated to c.6400-5980 BC, these

Elephantine Iec ASWAN

Nekheb) Upper Egyptian site on the east bank of the Nile at the mouth of V\iadi Hillal, about 801m south of Luxor, consisring of prehistoric and Pharaonic settlements, rock-cut tombs of the early 18th Dynasty (1550-1295 Be), remains of temples dating from the Early Dynastic period (3100-2686 Be) to the Ptolemaic period (332-30 Be), as well as part of the walls of ;l COPTIC monastery. I?irst scientifically excavated by James Q;libell at the end of the nineteenth century, the site has been investigated primarily by Belgian archaeologists since 1937. The walled Ph,uaonic settlement of Nekheb was one of the first urban centres of the Early Dynastic period, and for a short time

Elkab (anc.

Selau and h~ mifi seated before a 'aMt (~r n.flcrings. TOJJ1boISelaual Elkab. (P. T. NICHOLSON)

92

~CAUSTIC

ESNA

the type-sites of the Elkabian microlirhic industry, filling;l gap in the prehistoric cultural sequence of Egypt, between the Upper Palaeolithic period (c. I0,000 BC) and the earliest eolithie phase (<:.5500 BC). l E. QUIIlELL, EI-Kllv (London, 1898). _, <L'Elkabicn. Unc nOllyc1lc industrie
,1fC

Eg)!ftl: Ihe olle allll til(' I1Ul1/.l' (London, 1983). N. GKI\I,I,I., A hislory oialleieul EgypI (Oxford, 1992),41-5. E. IloKsu'G, {dM illio iwage, trans. E. Bredeck (New York, 1992),39-54.

Epipalaeolithic
Poorly defined chronological phase between the Palaeolithic and i'\eolithic periods, characterized in Egypt by a subsistence pattern midway between TIt.::'\TI!'\G and ,\GRICU'TURI~. Tn cultural terms, it was roughly cquiyalent to the European ~lesolithic period.

epipa!coliLhi<!uc:i Elkab en Haute Egyprc, sa slr3tigraphic, sa typologie" CdE ~5 (1970),

45-68. P. DEROIAIN and P. VF.Rl\lEERSCJI, ElkalJ, 2 ,"ols (Brussels and Louvain, 1971-8).

encaustic
Painting technique, employing a heated mixture of wax and pigmcnL, which was particularly used for the Fayum mummy~portr<1its of Roman Egypt (sec .\RT and HA\\r\R\).

erotica
Since the definition of 'erotica' or 'pornography', as opposed to the honest portraY"ll of SEXUALITY, is a culturally biased exercise, much of rhe possible erotic significance of Egyptian art and literature may well be in the eye of the beholder. The line between erotic art and religion is not easily drawn, particular-

enchorial see DE,\I0TtC ennead (Egyptian pmdjel)

Term used to describe a group of nine gods. The earliest and mosl- significant instance of such a grouping was rhe Great Ennead HELlOPOLlS, consisting of ATUj\\ (the so-called

or

So-tailed 'Ntlukralicfigure'.frol1ltlte Greek set/lement al Naukmlis. Ptolel1laic period. c.300 Be. II..,.7 fill. (<5-/893)
Iy in the case of the ancient Egyptian culture, in which sexuality and fertility were often important elements of di\,ine cults, such as Those of m:.5, II;\TIIOR and ;\11-". The so-called 'incubation chambers' of Bes at Saqqara appear to have been rooms in which 'pilgrims' hoped to receive erotic dreams leading lO greater fertility. The walls of the chambers were lined with figures of the dwarf-god Bes accompanied by nude females. Simihlrly, symplegU1lflfl (pottery artefacts depicting entangled groups of indi,idllals engaged in sexual acts) were clearly depicting sexual intercourse, but it is not clear whether they were purely erotica or votive in function. A relatively 1I1lcontentious example of erotica has survived liom the 19th Dynasty (1295-1186 Be), in the form of the celebrated Turin erotic papyrus (Turin, .Musco Egizio), which appears to portray rhe adventures of a comic character during a visit to a brothel. A number of ostraca also depict men and women engaged in sexual acts. The genre of love poetry appears to ha\"e

Vigllet/eji-01llthe Bool..' ofthe Delfd papyru.'i(~r Nesilanebtashru. shoming Ilm:t' oflhe 1I/l~1II"erS of lire Hehopulitf/1l El1l1ead: Ceb, 1V1I1 aud Slru. symbolizil1g hC{lven alld earlh separaled by tIlt' sky. 21s1 DYIIIIS(J'. c./025 JJC. (1:.//05.,4, SHEET8?)
'bull of the Ennead') and three generations of his progeny: his children SHU and TEFNUT, his grandchildren GEB :lnd NUT, and his fouf grcatgrandchildren OSIRIS, ISIS, SI':TI-I and NI~I'HTJ-lYS. These nine deities participated in the Heliopolitan CREATI01\ myth, whereby the sungod emerged from the primeval waters of ;"'JUN. E. HOR.i~UNG, COllcepliom olGod /11 tlllcieni

flourished in the marc cosmopolitan atmosphere of the .:\lew Kingdom, ,\"hen Egypt was exposed to new peoples and exotic ideas from abroad. The poems, written on papyri or ostfi.1ca ;md d;:uing primarily to the 19th to 20th Dynasties, seem to h;:l\"e been read ollt loud with musical accompaniment frOTn harpists, and so might be regarded as a form of song. Thc, would perhaps ha,e prmided part of the entertainment at the laY1sh banquets of the nobility, and were unlikely to have been spontaneous compositions. In such poems it was usual for the couple to refer to one another as 'brother' and 'sister', sometimes taking turns to describe rheir feelings of joy or loss at their particular romantic situation, or deli\ering monologues addressed to their own he:llrs. Feasts and banquets in the 18th Dynasty often appear to have included elements of erotica, and both men ;.1I1d women are depicted wearing diaphanous clothing at such OCCasions, when they arc depicted on the walls of tomb chapels. Their entertainment often consisted of naked or semi-naked dancing girls, some of whom may have been prostitutes. It is possible, however, thar the erotic O\'crtones in these tomb-paintings may have been deliberarely intended to emphasize sexuality and fertility in order to enhance the potency of the funerary culr. Naked women, sometimes associated with C;:I[S and ducks, were often used as decoratiyc clements on toilet objects, particularly during the reign of AME:'\HOTEP III (1390-1352 BC). See SI:XLi.,I.ITY for a discussion of the possible relationships between erotit.'a and fertility, including the production of so-called 'fertility figurines'. J. 01\11.1:'\, 'Oer papyrus 5500] und seine s.tririsch-crorischen Zeichnungen und lnschrifren" Cnllllogo tid ;\[useo Egizio tli Toriu" /11 (Turin, 1973). P. OERCJ 1.,1,1:'\, 'La pcrruque et Ie cristaI', SA K 2 (1975).55-14. 1\1. LICIITIIEI\I, ..-II/cielll EgYflli(ll1litemture II (Berkeley, 1976), 181-93. L. ~l.-\:'\:'\ICIIE, Sexunllift ill (llfl:iC1f1 I:.gyflt (London, 1987). E. STItOUlli\l., Life ill (llIcieul Egypt (Cambridge. 1992),11-19,39-49.

Esna (anc. lunyt, Ttl-sellet, Latopolis)

Site on the west bank of the Nile in Upper EgYPI, 50 km somh of Luxor. The main surviving arducological remains are the sacred necropolis of thc Nilc perch (Lates nilo/iellS) and the Greco-Roman temple dedicated to the ram-god KIINUM as well as the goddesses NEITII and Heka (see MAGIC), which was built on the site of a temple mentioned by texts at least as early as the reign of Thutmose III

93

ETHICS

EXECRATION 1 ~

'I~~r;mPle

... ..
4

3 5

-.-~ ~
10

\-

20 m

1 texts of Marcus Aurelius 2 cartouc~les of Ptolemy VI

Philometer 3 cartouches of Antoninus Pius

4 cartouches of Claudius 5 scene of king and gods netting fowl and demons

PIau O/Iltc Ti.'lIIplc fJ/KlnlllJll a! ESI/fl.

(H79-l-l25 uc). Onh the III I'OSTYI.I.ILILL \Yas excavated h~ Auguste 1\ laricLtc, and the rest o(

to ancient Egyptian ethics, representing the original state of tranquillity at thc mument of the CRDTI(J:, of the universe. It waS the rcath~ er 01" the g'Oddess ~laat that WilS weighed against the hean of the deceased to determine \,"hether he or she was worthy of resurrecrion in the afterlife. The so~(alled 'negalive confes~ sian' -.1 list of sins that had not been committed by the deceased - was intended l"O be recited in this 'hall of judgemcnf in order to ensure a successful outcome. A number or practical statements of Egyptian ethits have sun ived in the form of the .lcba)'t (see \r1SDO\1 L1TElUTuln:), main I) wrinen on pap) rus and dating I"rom the Old ~ingdom to the Roman pcriod ((.2686 BC- \1) 395). '1'he earliest of these documents destrihe the qualities required uf a person in order to ensure success both in his or her lifetime and in the afterlife. Individuals wcre expected both to satist\ their superiors and to protect those who were poorer. From the second millcnni~

icaJ defenccs fortifications.

to

back lip the physical military .

The execration texts have helped Eg)'ptologists to identif'~' those who \\'lT~ Con_ sidered to be cncmir:s of Egypt at different periods in their history, although the histllrical \iilue or such lists is reduced by the rClldclln to repeat stock lists of names, which are oftc~ olwiously <lI1<lchronistic. Sometimes the 1l.11llCS

the temple remains buried uncler the surrounding buildings of the modern town. The
building' was probabl~' connected originally

with the Nile by a processional way leading to

a quay, traces of which, bearing cutulIchcs of the Roman CllllRTOl" NLtrclls Aurelius (.\1)

16]-180), have been preserved in sillt.

According to some of the inscriptions in the temple, there were originally four other temples in the region (one of which was recorded by Napoleon's savants), but none of these has surrivcd into modern times. Important late Palaeolithic remains have also been found in the vicinity of Esna. Togethcr with contemporaneous matcrial at "J\QAD!\, Dishna and Toshb, they make up rhe main sources of eridencc for the 'Esnan' lithic industry which nourished ,liongside the (~ldan, Afian and Scbilian industries during rhe Sahaha-Darau period ((.13,000-10,000 Be:). 'The remains at Esnan sites include grinding stones and sickle bbdes associated with the cultivation of domesticated plants, as well as the stone points and scrapers associated with hunting and gathering. S. Sr\UNI':RO,\" ESlla, 5 \'ols (Cairo, 1959-67). D. DOWNES, Thr exct/Z'alifills fit Emo 1905-1906 (Warmi n sterl I974). F \tVENOORf and R. 50-111.0 (cd.) PI'l'h~t(}/y (~rtlll: Nile valley (New York, 1976),289-91.
Lillc~drallJiJlg I!(all 'e.\'aratitilljiKlIre' ((msisllll.~ (I/a sdu;/l/ati( staluelle (~({( b(Jl(lld (tlptii'e inscribed 11,ith {/ hii'rtI/ie mrsil1g ritual. 011(' '~/Fi'1' similarjigllres thaI arr Ihl/ughtto lun:c ht!t'ujill/l/(/ (lille/mllif. The text lists variolls jVlf/JitlffS (Iud I,i/~)'alfs (/S me/I as tm(! EgYPlialf re/Jels. 12i1f Dynasty, c./920 !Jr:, trtll'cl'tilU:, II. 15 (IIf. (r "NO. .Jl~6J95.1. ON /In fO tUCIIIN/) I' INA It\'.WJ,\)

(~rlhe

TJ11(}jii1glllellts uIII papyrus hHtribed IPilh sl'uiollS Instruction ofPtahhotep. /21h D.)'I/(/.I'~)!,

c.1900JJc./I.I.'oll. (1:,10371. 10-135)

lll11 Be, the code of ethics described in fhe Seb{fJ'1 was less worldly, tending to measlll'e virtue more in terms of piery to the gods rhan in terms of material succcss. Sec also LAW. T G. I-I. P!i"rlloli.1 people (OxlorJ, 198-1), 73-99. E. STROUl [/\[., Lde ill (l!/l:iclfl EgyjJ/ (Cambridgc, 1992),31--4.

j""",,,

execration texts
'Type of document listing places, groups of peoplc or individuals regarded as hostile or inherently evil. These texts OCClll' from the late Old Kingdom onwards and were inscribed on stalUettes of prisoners or poner)' j,lrs, which were often broken and buried as part of:l magical process of tTiumphing over the persons or places listed ..Most of the surviving examples were found in the vicinity of tombs at Thebes and Saqqant, but a large numbcr were also excilvated at the .wliddle Kingdom FORTRESS of Mirgissa in Nubia (including texts inscribed on a human skull), no doubt comprising mag-

ethics
The accepted code of social behaviour and the distinction between right and wrong during the Pharaonic period both tend to be closely intcrnvincd with I'U1\ER!\RY BEr .II:FS and cultic requirements. The concept of MAAT (often translated as 'truth' or 'harmony') was central

of the hostile forces are listed in great detail, while in other instanccs thc enemies ;Irc the stereotypical i\'1!':E BOWS, rhe figure 'nine' rep~ rescnting three times threc, which W;lS the 'pluralilY of pluralities" thus designating the entirety of all enemies. A related example of the magic involved in the execration textS is the ceremony of 'breaking red jars' as pan of temple ritual designed to ward orf evil, the j'lrs being the colour of blood. G. l'OSJ':NER l 'Achtungstcxtc', LC.ril.'Oll der .-igyptologic II ed. \tv. IIelck, E. Otto and W. Wcstcndorf(Wicsbadcn, 1975),67-9. ~, Cill'J/igurcs d'cllvuiitclI/eIlt (Cairo, 1987). D. B. REDFORD, Egypt, Canaoll alld lsmc/ ill
{IudCIIllimes (Princeton, 1992),87-93.

R. K. RIT'i'ER, The lIIechanics oIuui'ielll Egyp/if/ II magical praUia (Chicago 199J).

l

eye of Ra
Term used to describe the eye of the sLln~god,

94

~OFRA

FAIENCE

which waS considered to exist as il separate entity, independent of the god himself: The symbolism of the eye of R-\, associated with a ;umbcr of g'oddesses, was complex and

diverse.ln the myth identifying; 1[HI lOR as" the eye, she was regarded as hil\-;ng rr,wcllcd to ~ubia, whence she had to be lured back. The SEKI h\lET \Trsion or the eye, on the other hand, rook the form of a s<\\"agc goddess \\'ho rcycllcd in the shlLlghrer of humans as the instrument of the sun-gad's \\Tath. These two \TTSions of the eye were essentially the two sides of the personality of the goddess. The eye waS also closely idenrificd with the cobra-goddess \r\D.1 fT , the divine personification of the IIrtltl/S (ittrel or Jlesfcl in Egyptian) which \\'ilS worn on the brow of the king in order to spit \TnOm at his enemies (sec COlm \). I I. TE VELDE, '1\ lut, the eye ofRe', _lilell Mli"lldJell 1985111, cd. S. Schoske (l-htmburg, 1989),395--403

F
faience
Ccr.lmic material composed of crushed quartz, or quartz sand, wi.th small amountS of" lime and plant ash or natron. T'his body material is usually coaled with a bright blue or green glaze of" soda-lime~silic;\ type. ft \\"<1S used from the Predynastic period to the fslamic period; typical products include small figurines and amukrs, architectural ornaments and inlays, vessels, and such runerar~ artefacts as SI IMJTI figures. The material waS known to the Egyptians as ~jl!"elll!l, the literal meaning of which \\"as 'brilliant' or 'dazzling' Like GI..\SS, which was introduced in the Ne,,' Kingdom (1550-1069 Be), irs main purpose WaS probably to imitate gem-stones such as TLH<tUOISI': and L.\PIS L-VI11.1. Although blue and green are the most common colours, many others could also be achieved, and polychrome pieces were very popular at certain periods, not least

eye-paint see COSI\\E'I'ICS

during the Nc\y King;dom when elabor;;ltc inlays and pieces of jcwellery were being pnlduced. 13lack decoration \\'as sometimes added to monochrome pieces by painting; in Ilunganese. The technology for producing faience J11a~ hi1\'e devcloped from the process glazing quartz and steatite slOncs. The material is more properly called 'Egyptian Elicnce', in order to distinguish it fi'om the tin-gbzc<' carthcl1\yare originally made at Facnze in lti1l~ h'om late mcdieyal times. llecause the bright colours of the Egyptian material reminded early Egyptologists European 'f"aienee' (now mOre currectly called I/ltIjolim), they used this somewhat misleading name. The body material of faience \\"as mixed with water and thell moulded or hand~ IlHltlellec1 to the required shape. Difficult shapes were sometimes abraded from l"Oughouts when partJy dried, thus allowing very delicate pieces to be prod llced ir necessary. !\'lan~ hundreds of" cla~' moulds tor producing rings, amulets ,l1ld other items of bicncc have

or

or

Egypliflllji/ic/ltt' lJoJ11lji-fJlll 7hebes. Nem Kingdulll. (EIJ790)

95

=-F,-=A~Lc=C=-:O=-:N-,---

1 ,-,'t:.:c:\"'.t.I.!:Y

survived, particularly [rom urban sites such as EL-AM../\R\f,\ and Q;\2'JTIR. Glazing' was achieved in three ways. The fiJ'st of these was 'emorcscence', whereby the

glazing material was mixed with the quartz

body and effloresced on to its surFace as the piece dried~ when fired, this coaring melted to become a ghize. The second method WJ5 'cementation" in which the artcf:lCt to be glazed was surrounded by glazing powder, which bonded with its surf:1CC during firing. The finished piece was then removed from the unused glazing powder, which could be easily cfumbled away. In the third meL hod, known as "application glazing" the object was coated in slurry (or in powder of glazing material) and then fIred. A. K.K.Z.\\ARCZYI{ and R. E. J'v1. I-lEDGES, Anc/clll J:.:~)lpliall.Jflielli:e (\,Varminster, 1983). P. VANDI\'ER and W. D. KIi\'OERY I 'Egyptian faience: the first high-tech ceramic', Ceramics lind ch.. :i!i;:,aliol/ flI, ed. VV. D. Kingery (Coltnnbus l Ohio, 1987), 19-34. P.. T NICHOLSO" Egyp/ialljiliel/t"l' alld glass (Princes Risborough, ]993).

or prey. T'hus, the Horus-falcon image may have been regarded as interch'1I1geable with a whole range of other birds of prey. L. STORK and H. ALT~NiI\OLLER, 'Falke', Le.\'il'oll der Agyptologie II, cd. vv. Heick, E. Ono and Vol Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1977),93-7. R. 'VI1YINSO" Rcading Egyptiall art (London, 1992),82-3

false door
Elaborate stone or wooden architectural element inside Egyptian tombs and mortuary temples, in front of which funerary offerings were usually placed. The false door, westorientated and serving as a link between the living and the dead, was a rectangular imitation doorway which first appeared in tombs of the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 Be). The t}'pical form of the false door evolved out of the 'p;'llace-fa<;:ade' external architecture of the _\I'\STABA tombs of the elite in the EarJy Dynastic period (3100-2686 He), the external sides of which consisted of a series of alternate panels and recessed niches. The false door was effectively a narrow stepped niche surmounted by a rectangular stone slab-stele,

usualJy carved with a figure of the deceased seared before an OFFEIUJ\G "IABI.F. and inscribed with the traditional OFFERIt\G FOI{_ 1\IUl.l\ and the name and titles of the lomb_ owner. Some surviving false doors incorpo_ rate a life-size relief figure of the /.:(1 (spiritu_ al 'double') of the deceased stepping om of the niche. S. VVIEBACH, Die iigJljJtisrhe Scheill/iil" (Hamburg, 1981). N . STRUDWICK, The odlllinistralioll o/EgJIP/llllhl' Old KillgdulII (London, 1985). M. SALEII and H. SOulmuzl:\N, Thc Egyp/it/II ;VIl/scuIII. Cairo: oj}itial WIl/logl/{' (Mainz, 1YS7), CIt. nos. 57~S. G. HAENY I 'Schcinriir', Lexikoll derAgYPIolo!!.lf "", cd. \.v. I-kkk, E. Otto and vv. \Vestcndorl" (Wiesbaden, 198{), .163-71.

familv see CltILDRE.~ famine

Egypt's agricultural prosperity depended On the annual INUNDtHIO;\l of the Nile. For crops to nourish it was desirable that the !'\ile should rise about eight metres above a zero point at the first cataract near Aswan. A rise of only seven metres would produce a lean year, \\ hile six metres would lead to a famine. Thai such famines actually occurred in ancient Eg~ pt is

falcon
One of a number of birds which figured among the SACRED :\:'-JIMALS of ancient Egypt. The falcon (Egvptian bik) or hawk was frequently regarded as the BA of IIORUS, the hawkheaded god and son of OSIRIS (to whom the bird was also sacred). Excavations at IIIEI{;\KONPOLIS ('city of the falcon'), the ancienr Egyptian Nekhen, revealed a fine gold Ellcon head with two plumes and "I"aellS (Cairo, Egyptian Museum), which was once part of a composite statue. The Horus-falcon was the guardian deity of the ruler and is frequently depic.ted with its wings outstretched protectively behind the head of the king, as on the famous statue of the 4th-Dynasty ruler I(IIAFRA. It was also the falcon that surmounted the royal SF.HEKJ I, where it served a similar protective function, an extension of the role it seems to have adopted as early as the beginning of the Pharaonic period, when it was depicted on the palette of NARivIER. The bird was also sacred to the gods j\lO;.JTU and SOK}\]{, and occasionally also associated wit'h the goddess ]-[,\TI-IOR. A falcon on a plumed staff was one of the symbols of the west and the necropoleis, and the BA was sometimes represented as a human-headed falcon. At least as early as the Late Period (747-332 Be) at S,IIQQt\RA there was a catacomb constructed specifically for mummified hawks sacred to Horus. Recent examination of a number of these mummies has shown them to comprise a number of djfferent types of birds

Lillll!strme/itlsl! door 0/ P/ahslu:pses/rOIll his lomb

(1/

Saqqaru ..)/h DYll(l.\OJ. c.2450 Be,

H.

3.66"1/1.

(,1682)

96

~MINE

FARAFRA OASIS

a11cie1l1 f'gYIJI, 2nd cd. (Harmondsworth, 1981), 133-+.

Farafra Oasis (anc. Ta-iht)

Fertile depression in tIle "'estern Desert,

about 300 km west of the modern w\\"n of

ASYUL The slllaliest of the major Egyptian oases, it is first mentioned in texts dating to the Old J(ingdolll (2686-2181 BC), and IJI' the 19th Dynasn (1295-1186 Be) it was said to hm-e been inhabited by Libyans. Howc\"er. no archaeological traces of the Pharaonic phase of ol:cup.nion have yet been discm"cred, the earliest known sites being the settlements and cemeteries at Ain cl-\Vadi and \Vadi Abu Hinnis in the northern pan of the oasis, which date to the Roman period (30 BC-\n 395) ..'\t Ain Dallal", on the northwestcro cdge of the Elnlfra depression, arc the remains of ,1 town of" the early Christian period (I". AD +50). 11.]. L. BEAD"ELL, Fam/ia Oasis (Cliro, 1901). L. GlI1D\', fgyptiall O({Sf~", Balum)ltl, DaNdo. nll(~/i(f alld Klrarga durillg pharaonic limes (Warminstcr, 1987).

The Fall/illc Sle/e oJ//lle is/tlnd (~r Sehel. .Ifill/ii (~r A.mJ(I/I, 'J'lll' rod..' hears 1/ mrn:d inscripliun /ph/eli refers If) (f sei'l'lf-.l'I'urjr/lllil1c lI1/{1 Plfl'/J0/,U In dale 10 Ihe lilllc oIfll(' 3rd-DYll(/.I'I)' ruler Djo.'it'l: Iml (/cllllll~)' belongs 10 the PIn/elf/air paiod. (p. 'f: NJC/IOI_~'O\)
well documented from ~l number of sources, both literary and artistic. On the island of Schel, immediately south

of Aswan, is lhe Famine Stele. This purports

to be a decree of Djoscr (2667-26+8 BC) of the 3rd Dynasty recording his concern O\"er a scycn-ycar famine, which is supposed to have been c\'cntually ended by the ram-god "'-I L'L..\I, who controlled the rising of the waters. In faer the text dates to Ptolemaic times, and may simply be designed to reinforce the claims of the temple of Khnum on Elephantine to tax local produce (although some scholars belie\'e that it is a copy of an authentic document)" That famines LOok place during me Old Kingdom is not in doubt, and the suryiying visual evidencc includes scycf:.11 fragmcnts of relief from the walls of the 5th-Dynasty causeway of the pyramid complex of U'\:\S (2375-23+5 BC) at Saqqara. These reliefs depict numerous emaciated figures, their ribcages clearly visible, scated on the ground and apparelltly weak from hunger. It has been argued by some scholars, partly on the basis of these relieE~, that the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 Be) ended largely beeause of prolonged drought and increasing desertificarion. The 'autobiographical' inscriptions in the tomb of the provincial governor Ankhtifi (c.2100 BC)1 at I~L-~IO'AI.I.'\, describe how hc saved his people from 'dying on the sandbank

of hell'; lhe phrase 'on the sandbank' (em ~ies) pcrh;lps refers to a low inundat"ion and hence to famine. The inscriptions in the tomb of Hetcpi at Elkab also describe a ElIl1ine during the reign OI"INTEE 11 (2112-2063 BC). Prolonged periods of famine, caused by poor inundation, may indeed sometimes have led 10 politic'.ll turmoil and helped to bring abour a tempor;lry end to the establishcd order. The Riblical ston' of Joscph mal' ilself h~\e taken place during the Second Intcrmediale Period (1650-1550 BC), and il has becn suggested that it was a IIYKSOS king of Egypt whom Joseph sayed frum the effects of famine (but see also BIBLICAL

CO, 'Ecno~s).
"rhe building of canals and irrigation ditches did much to alle\"iate the suffering caused by low floods, but such sLramgems \yere not illways sufficient. At lean times people appe;,tr to ha\"c turned to the black market or to theft in order to feed themsclyes, and l:crtain papyri indil:atc that the roY'11 lOmbrobberies of the 20th Dynasn (1186-1069 Be) may have been prompted by the need for gold to buy food during the so-called 'year of the hyenas ' . J. V.\'\DJER , La Jall/iuc dallS I Egyplc flUn"CJ/IIC (Cairo, 1936). S. SCllorr, 'Auf'nahmen yom Houngersnotrclief aus clem Aufweg del' Unaspyramide', RdE 17 (1965),7-1.3. D. B. Rt-:IWORIJ, A S(IIf(Y f~r tht' Bib/hal SIOI)I of Joscpll (Leiden, 1970),91-9. B. BEI.I., 'The dark ages in ancient history. I: The first dark agc in Egypt', AII/cri,l/II .7(Wl"IItl! of Ardwt!ology i5 (1971),1-26. STE\E,\SON 5\11"1"1 I, The arl tlnd a,.,hillYlure oJ

Fara'in. Tell el- (ane. Pc and Del', Per\iVadjyt, Bum) Cluster of three mounds (comprising two fowns and a temple complex) in the northwestern Delta, which was occupied from l;lte Prcdynaslic times until the Roman period (.3300 11C-.\D 395). In 1888 the sile was ideorifted as ancient Buto by Flinders Petric, and in 190+ C. T. Currelly undenook trial exc,,,",\ions. The site waS subsequently not properly examined until the 19605 when the survey and exc:IYiltions of Veronica Seron-\Villiams and Dorolhy Charles\yorth rcyealed Late Period, Ptolemaic and Roman remains, including cemctcries, houses, haths and temples. Textual sources h;l\e identified Buto with 'Pe amI Oep', I he semi-mythical Predyn~stic r-win C~lP imls of Lower Egypt. The Predynastic stratil at the site were first located in the 1980s by Thomas \"on der \\lay, whose excil\,.ltions appear to h;n-c rc\"calcd a stT<ltigraphic level in \yhich Lower Egyptian Predynastic pottery types wcre gradually being replaced by Upper Egyptian Early Dynastic wares (see Plu":m,.\STIC PERIOD).
\~l. )\'1. F. PETRIE and C. T CURREJ.I.Y I Eh1/a.~)I(f (Cliro, 190+). T \'0:\ I)ER \VIW, 'Tell d-rara'in 83-85: Problcl11c - Ergebnisse ~ Perspcktivcn" PrfJh!c/IIs alld priorilics ill E'gYPlitlll ardwl!()logll, cd. J. Assmann e1" al. (London, 1987),299-30+. - , 'Excavations at Tell c1-Fara'in/Buto in 1987-1989'. The Nile Delfa in Iftll1Siliol/: -Ilh-3rd millenllium /Jr;, cd. E. C. M" \Can den Brink (Tel A\'iv, 1992), I-HI.

"v.

97

PARAS

FECUNDITY F1GU~

YlIsse[ channel. The e;ulicst inhabitants of the Fayum werc thc EPU'.\L\EOUTIIlC 'Fa~ urn B' culture, which was succecded by the '\eolithic 'Fayum N culturc in (.5500 Be. Traces of hnth groups were first found by Gertrude GUonThompson ilnd Elinor Gardner in the northern Fayum. Thc region flourished from the \Iiddlc Kingdom (2055-16:')0 Be) onwards, when the Egyptian l:ilpital W<IS relocated at Itjla,,}. somewhere in the region of 1':I.~I.ISII"l', bUL most of the slIITiying archaeological remains d;lIe to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods, when such towns as Karanis (Kolll Allshim)) TcblUnis (Tell Umm cI-Breigat) and Bacchias (!..:"m cIAtl) were at thcir height. K. S. S.\:\.IJFOKI) and \V. J. _-\Rl\:EI.I., PrdliJlflril
slIri'()'ofE..'{),ptulIl/lfi'stefll_lsia:Palto!ithIc1l1tfll

Faras (ane. Pachoras)

Sculcmcnt on rhe border between modern Egypt and Sudan, which was first established as a small Egyptian f()rtrcss in the l\1iddle Kingdom (2055-1650 Be) and continued in use in the 18th to 19th Dynasties (1550-1186 w:) with the construction of five Egyptian temples. \:V. Y Adams argues thal the importance of Faras owed more to indigenous Nubian traditions than to any military significance that it might hm"c had for Ihe Egyptian colon iSIS. 1r continucd to [unction as a religious cenrre after the departure of the Egyptians, and during the Christian period (c..\1) 600-1500) it wns one of the most importanl bishoprics in Kubia. The episcopal eathedral (founded 1"..11) 650) mel the bishop's palace were discoycred in exceptionally good condition when Polish eXC;l\,;llQrS examined a large mound in the centre of the modern village th.u had previously been erroneously interprcted as a typical stratified TELL-site. Although thc site is now submerged under the waters of Lake Nasser the Polish archacologists were able to transfer 169 painted murals from the cathedr.ll LO the museums :11 \Varsaw and Khartoum. The stratified ponery from Lhe site, as well as the paint-layers and stylistic c1c\'c1opment of dlC cathcdral murals] ha\'ccontributcd significantly ro thc deyelopmcnt of a chronological framcwork for Christian Nubia. K. ,\lIClI.\I.O\\SI(I, /;ilrtlS I-II (\Varsaw, 1962-5). - , Faras: teutre arti.\fiqllc dc /(1 Nllbie t:/irltiollll' (Leiden, 1%6). J. Vt\NTr'lJ, "I'lle e.Hai.YlliollS af l(mH (Bolngna, 1970). S. j.\....OIlII:I~':II(I, Fams III (\Varsaw, 1972). j. KCIlJ'\'sK.\. FartH 1\ (\,V3rS;\\\, 197~). \V. Y. .1\]).\.\15, Nubia: corridor to /lfriCti (London and Princeton, 198{), 226, {72-8{.

Smtlhf(jll/? bI(jcR (j/rll'("()rtlfil't.' jiie;;,..ji"Ol1l f/it/int

((It/il'rlmlaf/~/ras. 7th ce11IUlJ!
/I).

1f.].1 CIII. (L/606)

i\~L\Ii\1.

farm animals sa .\GRICLI:rUIU: and

IIUSI.li\~LJR\

Fayum region (anc. '];I-shc, She-Ie,,,

~loeris)

Large fcrtile depression covering 12,000 sq, kill in the J .ibyan Desert about 60 km to the southwcst of Cairo. Thc region incorporatcs an.:hacological sites dating from the late Palaeolithic to the late Roman and Christian periods (.8000 IlC- II) 6{ I). Gntil the Palacolithic period a \'ast s3lt-w3ter lake lay at thc heilrt of the depression) but this was gradually transformed into the smaller, fresh-w.lter Lake !Vlocris, linked to the Nile by the Bahr

(llfd lhe Xi/('--Ni.l'lIf11 di'1.'idl' (Chicago, 1929). G. C.\To:\-TIIU\1PSO,\: nnd E. 0. G.\Rn"I{, The J)e~'('f"f Fayu11I (T .olldon. 19.1-1-). F \V":'I)OHF and R. SOIlI.l) (cds), Prt'hi.~/(JJ:l' the Nile 1~/1Ie.)! (New York, ]976), 15S-fII. E. HCSSEUUN, Karanis: ('.ran.'tllilJlIs t~(t/i( Ulliuersi~)1 (!(A t lidligtlll ill E:!{.VPI, 1928-35 (l\lichigan, 1(79). A. h. EO\\I" " . (!!,ypf alit:!" fhl' plU/rt/ohs (Lundun, 1986), H2-55.

or

fecundity figures see I LII'\ fertility figurines see SE~L\\,ITY festivals

The Egyptiall religious calendar was pllncruPlall oIlhe Fayulll rt'gi(il!.

o Qasr el-Sagha
", "'1111111"'1""

Karanis

o Bacchias

"IIII'"~"",,,,,,.

o Biahmu

..",,"'"
."".

t
10

20

30

40 km

98

~STIVALS

FJELD OF REEDS

~1

ated by numerous festivals, often consisting of procession in which the cult image of a deity was morcd li'om one temple to another (usually providing opportunities for OR_\CLE..'i along the route). In the Festiyal HallufThutmose 111 (H79-1425 Ilc) at K \R'" there is a list of fifty-fouf fC;'lsl-days in one year. _-\ similar text in rhe mortuary temple of Ramcses III (118+-1153 Ilc) at \IEIJI"ET IIAIll: lists six,, fes-

tirals. Some of the most imponanl n;.uional

e\'cnts of this type \Yen: the :\cw Year Fesri,'al, the Fesli\al of SOk \R, the Raising of the Sh and the Festi\al of the POller's \Yhecl, bur there would also have been many purely local

fcsti,"als assoc.:iatcd with the smaller prm-incial

temples. Two of the best-known annual religious events were the Fcsrh"al of Opet and the BC:luriful Festi\al nf the Valle\, both of ,,bieb took place at Thebes from the early 18th Dynasty onwards. The Beautiful Festival of the Valley in\"lJln:d an annual procession t.lking thc cult statues of" the Theban triad (Amun, JVlut and Khons) from Karnak to [JEIR EL-BAIIlU 1 which arc located almost exactly opposite one another, on either side of thc Nile. A later version of this festiyal inyolved a more complex processional route via onc of the morru.u~- temples that" lined the edge of the cultiviltion on the \ycst hank. A similar festival linked T,uxor temple with the temple of Thutmose III at \lEI1I"!':T II\BL (immediately La lhe northeast of R,llllescs Ill'S mortuary temple). The Festiral of Opet also took place annually (in the second month of lhe season of {(kltel), lasting for a period that \"aried from

two to four weeks. The main event in this festival was the ritui.ll procession of the divine images from K.arnak to LU\:OI{, which is depicled on the walls of the colonnade .If Luxor, built bv Amenhotep III (1390-1352 Ile) and dcconIfcd by Tutankhamun (U36-nZ7 Be). The temple at Luxor was in fact conslTlIcled largely as a suitable architectural setling for the Festi,al of Opel. The di,ine images in lheir sacred R\RKS were initially carried to Luxor overland, along a sphinx-lined roUle broken al inrer\"<lls b~ "bark-shrines' or wily-stations, within which the barl..s would be temporarily phlCed en route. By the lale 18th Dynasty, howcycr, the di,inc imagcs werc raken to and from Lu.\or in <1 series of cercmonial boals. The religious purpose of this fe~ti\'al \\,.IS to celebrate the sexual intercourse between Amun and the mother of the reigning king, thus allowing her to givc birth t:o the royal "-.\ (spiritual cssence or double). At' the culmination of the fcsti,'aI 1 the king himself cl1t'ercd the inner sanctum, enabling his physical form to coalesce with lhc crernal fi)rm of the I:a, so that he could emerge hom the temple as .1 god. According ro the 'calendar of feasl and offcrings' at .M.edinCl Habu, such festivals required I he provision of amounts of loan,,'$ varying from eighty-fcJUr in a standard monthly festival to nearly four thousand in dle Festh-al of Sokar. Each festi,-al therefore incorporated a ceremony known :IS lhc 're,ersion of offerings', in which the extra f()()d offerings brough! to thc temple wcre redislributed to the masses. See also SED FE.""I'I\.\L.

G. FOUC."RT, 'Etudes thebaincs: la Belle FeLe de laVallee', Bff/IO H (1924), 1~209. \V \Vou;, Vas Jl"hijl1t' Fesl ("Oil OPt'1 (Leipzig, 1931). S. SUIUIT, D(O' s(hiilll! Fesl 1'QI1I 'ViislCIllllle (Wiesbaden, 1952). 11. W. F \IR.\LL'1 '\\'orship and fcsti,als in an Egypti;m temple', Bullt'li" of/hI' JOhl1 RyltilltlS LiIJrary, .\lalldit'sla 37 (195{), 165-203. c.J. BU:I"."ER, Egyplitlllje.aic:ills: eJltlf/melllso! religiolls n'm'mal (Leiden, 19(7). B. J. l'.E\II',_"'nflml Egypl: (111t11011~)' ofu rlvili:::,l1liol1 (London, 1989), 205-17, fig. 71.

Field of Reeds (Fields of Offerings, Fields orbru) 'Tb L pass through the field of reeds' WaS an Egyptian met'lphor for dearh, since I-he 'field of reeds' was a term used to describe the dOl11ain of OSIRIS. According to Chapter 1-1-5 of the IK>O" OF TilE DEAD it was here Lhal the dcccilscd would galher the abundant crops el11l11cr and baricy; Chapter 109 me'1I1whilc, describes the gigantic sizes of these crops. The field was so synonymous Wilh fert-ility and abundance that: the hicroglyph t()I' field (sc/..:Il/!/) sometimes replaced the hett:p-sign thaI was usually employed to denote the act of offering. SimilarlYl reed-shaped loa,"e5 of bread depiccd on offering tables were occasionally portrayed .IS actual reeds, thus
j

or

Delllil o/milll-pai11ling inlhe lomb (~rSI'l11le(lj"em ill !Jeir d-Aledilla, meSII'1"1l Tht'bes, depicling Ihe tleu(fs{'(1 il1ll11' Field ofReed.1". 191h /)YI/{O'OI. c./2oo 11<:' (GR.IlI./,l/ IURR/SO.\)

99

FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

symbolizing not only the offcrinb'"S of bread but a general abundance of other offerings. Sec also FUl\'ERt\Rr BEI.J1::I,'S. L. LESKO. 'The field of I-Jetep in Egyptian coflin texts',jARCE9 (1971-2), 89-101. R. H. \VU.KI\.SO"i, Reading EgYPI;(11I ttrl (London, f992), 12+-5.

First Intermediate Period (2181-2055

Be)

Chronologil:al phase between the OLD KI"U00.11 (2686--2181 Be) and the ,111I1Il1.E KI"GIlOII (2055-1650 BC), which appears to have been a lime of rehni\'c politic~ll disunity ~lnd instabil-

ity. The period corresponds to \\ \,I~TIIO'S 7th

to 10lh Dynasties and the early pari of the

11th Dynastl. It begins wilh Ihe death of Queen Nitiqrcr, the last ruler of the 6rh Dynasty. ,lJ1d ends in lhc reign of Ncbhcpctra
\IE'\'TLIIOTEI' II.

.~ccording to Manetho, the 7th and 81h Dynasties still gO\"crncd Egypt from the Old

Kingdom capital, .\IE\II'IIIS, but the apparently rapid sllccession of rulers .md thc eomparatiye
lack of major building works are both likely indications of a decline in royal authority. The general lack of information concerning the political dc,c1opments during this pcriod also highlights the extent LO which the knowledgc of other pcriods in Egyptian history is founded on the evidence provided by the suryinl of elite funerary monumcnts. The prescnce of the pyramid complex of the 8th-Dynasty ruler Qlkara Iby at S,\QQAR" suggests that l\Jlemphis at le.lst lay within the control of the 7[h- and 8th-Dynasty kings_ Although most of the rulers of the First Intermediatc Period used the KOY;\!. TITVL\KY, il seems likely that they actually gm-crned only a small part of thc c()untry. W. C. Hayes suggested that Ihe pharaohs of the 8th Dyn~lsty, perhaps lasting about thirty years, were: the successurs of the 6[h- .1I1d 7thDynasty pharaohs through the female line; hence the frcqucnl use of the name Neferkara, which was the throne namc, or prenomcn, of PEPY II. If there were, as the KING I.JSTS suggest, about l\\'enty-five kings in thirty years, they must either h'.I\'e reigned simultaneously or some of Lhem must ha, e been impostors (or perhaps both). This hypothesis, howc\"er, is at odds with lhe listing of sc\cnteen names in (:nrtouches in the -'BYDOS king list, since this lisl was parr of the celebration of the royal cult; therefore theoreticaLly only legitimarc rulers would have been considered eligible. The 9th and 10th Dynasties may have lasted for as long as a hundred years. They comprised a series of rulers originating from HER.\Kl.EOPOUS _\l.\G"\.-\, the first of these probably being Meribra Khet)' I (r.2160 Be). It is nOI

clear where the scat of power lay during this period) and it is e'cn possible thar i\ lemphis still continued to be the principal administrative centre, bur the territory was largely restricted to northern Egypt. The Hcmkleopolitan rulers C<lmc intu conniet with the early Theban 11 th Dynasf!~ beginning Iyith Seherrawy I"TEF I (2125-2112 BC). During this period rhe artistic production of provincial sites such as liEBELEIi', EI.-j\lO'ALLA and ASYLT was flourishing, and the funerary inscriptions of the governors of Ulese .1fe.1S describe both their own ilChie\cments and their a.llegi:.mce to either the Ilerakleopolitan Or Theban rulers. E\-entually the Theban king Menlohotep II (2055-20M Be) succeeded in gaining conh-ol of rhe entire country, although the lack of textual sources for the middle of his reign means that it is not clear whether he did so by the military conquest of Heraklcopolis or by somc f()rm of diplomatic arrangement. It is noticeable, for instance, that relations hetween Thebes and Herakleopolis in the early ?diddle Kingdom do not seem to be characterized by any lingering reSentmenl or hostility. H. E. WI?\1.0r:"" The rise alldfidl olthe A'fit/rl/e Kingdom;l1 Thebes (i"\ew York, 19-47)_ B. G. TRIGGER, B. J. K.L\lF, D. O'Co"'.'\OK and :\. B. LJ.Ol D, Anrient Egypt: a Sf/ria! history (C1mbridge, 1983), 112-16. S. SEIUI ..\I..\YER, 'Wirtschaftlichc und gesdlschaftlichc f.ntwicklung im Obergang: vom Alrcn zlIm!\ littlcrcn Reich'. Prohl/jllls ((lid priorities il/ Egypti((11 ardllle%gy, cd. J. Assmann, G. Borkard and I'. Day;es (London, 1987), 175-218. N. GRI\I:\L .-l hislfII]' o/allcielll hgypt (Oxford, 1992), 137-51.

.1 plj~)'rhmml' glllSsjish i:l'sst,l, mhirh l1'tJu/tllwt"c' beell med as fI L"fJII/a;JIl'rjiJf (Mille/its. 18th !~)II/{/S~}I, c.!3.iO Ilc,JjOlll f'I-AJ11or!la, t.. N ..1 till. Ou.i.1193)
was cut into pieces by SETII his phallus \\:15 tHen by three species of ~iIc fish - the "'\ikcarp (LepidoIIfS), the Oxyrynchus ((\Jom~}IT/I.~) and the PlllIgrus. Despite this <lpparentl~ inauspicious action, the Oxyrynchus fish was regarded as sacred at the town of that name in the fayum rcgion) since one tradition held that this fish camc forth from the wouIllls of Osiris himsclf. [n the tomb of Kabekhnet at Deir el-~ ledina (Tr2) a fish is depicted in Ihe position whcre lhe mummy of thc decei.1sco would usually be shown, '1pparently being embalmed by the god 'NCB IS. Various provinces of Egypt regarded pa.rticular fish as sacred (sec S.\CRElJ \'\I\L\LS). '-IU that a. fish which W~1S T.\BOO in one area could be eaten in another, something \\ hieh is said Lo havc led to occ.1sional conflict. The Delta city of ~I[~IJE~ was the principal cult centre or the goddess I IAT-j\lEI IIT, the 'chief of" the fishes', who was worshipped in the form of either a fish or a woman wearing a fish emblem (sometimes identified itS a dolphin but probably a LepidfJlIIS fish). The Tilapia (or Cltromis) fish, with its colourful fins, and the a!J(!i1l (i.e. Abydos) fish, with its lapis blue colour, hoth acted as pilots for the boal ofthc sun-god RA , warning of the approach of the snake APOI'IIIS during the voyage through the netherworld. The Nile, lhe marshy Delta, the Red Sea ilnd lhe 1\ lediterrancan coast are all rich in cdihle fish, and for the poor people of ancient Eg~ pl lhese would have sened as a substitute tor the more costly meat. vVea1thier people frequent!) kept fish in ponds both fiJl- ornament and as a source uf food. It is known [rom records CXC:l\"ated at DEIR EL-;\If.DI.i'.' that fishermen were employed to provide some of the rations felf the royal tomb-workers, and that temples al~o employed them to proyidc food for lesser olli-

fish
Fish enjoyed a somewhat ambiguous position in ancient Egypt: sometimes sacred, sometimes scorned~ e,llen by some, denied 10 others. According to the Greek writer Plutarch ell) +6--126), when the body of Ihe god OSIRIS

100

FLAIL

FOOD

cials. However, the king, priests and the 'blessed

dead' (see
A~ I)

were not allowed to cat fish,

since it was identified particularly with the evil god SETII. Tn the tc.xt of the Victory Stele of PlY (747-716 BC) the Kushite leader describes his
unwillingness to meet all but onc of the defeated Lower Egyptian princes, on the gTouods that they wcre fish-eaters. Fish were usually caught in traps or nets, some of ,yhich might be dragged along the river channel either by teams of men or between two boats; Chapter 153 of the BOOK OF "1'1-11': DEAD, for instance, is concerned ,yith helping the deceased to <1yoid being captured in a kind trawling nct. Fishing using hooks

or

on a line is <1lso recorded, as is harpooning

from papyrus skiffs, although rhis was presumably rcg,lrdcd more as a sporr than as ,1 means of subsistence. I. GMd.\'IER-VVALLERT, j'/sr!lt' /ll/d Fisr!lkllil im (/JII:1l A~!!;YPh'1/ (Berlin. ] 9iO). 1. DA~NESh[OI.D-S~L\ISOE, (The abomination of the fish in Egyptian religion" Karl Rid/{/I"d LepsillS: Ak/ell del" tt/KlIllg (lIlliis.I'lith seilles 100. Todeslag, cd, E, l'reicr ,111<1 \V, r. Reinecke (Berlin, ] 988), 185-90. D. J. BREWER and R. F. FRII~D-'tAi'\, Fish (flu/fishillg ill audelll [gYPI (\,Varminstcr, ] 989).

Coltlfllllnk/u(l' oj'AhllUlep Imilll three pmdtlu/.I' ill thejill'lll n/:/lics ~rralo{{1' '. JVelP Killgdom. c.IS50 lie, I .. (rhaia) 59 fill, (flJ') 9 ClII. (celil/fI, .7C-/69-/)
including the so-called ''.It\GIC 'wands' Although the precise symbolism of fly amulets remains obscure, the iconographic significance of nies is best known during the New King'dam (1550-1069 8e), when the military decor.uion known as the 'order of the golden fly' (or (fly of valour') was introduced, perhaps because of flies' apparent qualities of persistence in the face of opposition. Ahmose Pennekhbet, a military official in the reign of ThutlllOSC I (],O4--1492 Be), records that he was awarded six of these honorific flies. The best-known example is a gold chain and three fly pendants fiom the Theban tomb of Q!.lecn 1\IIlIOTEP [ (L1550 Be). in addition, the tomb ascribed to three of the wiycs of Thutmosc [1.1 (1479-1425 Be) contained a necklace adorned ",it'h thirt.y-three small flies. A. !-IER.\IAI':'\, (Flicge" Rca/Ic.rikoll.liir AII/II.'e IIlId Chris/el//lIlI! \'[1 (Stuttf{art, 1968-9), ] 110----2+. J\1. '\lEBER, 'Fliege', LcxibOIl rler.'{l.J,llplo!ugie II, cd. W. Heick, E. Otto and W. 'i\Testendorf (Wicshadcn, 1917),264--5. IVl. SALElI and H. SOL;ROU/'.[I\;\', The Egyptitlll kl/lsetlm. Cairo: o.lJiti{// ca/il/oguc (Mainz, ] 98i), 120. C. ANDRl:WS,fJJltien/ f~{{J!Pli(11! (1I1/1l1e1S (Lonuon, ]994),62-3

flail see CROWl\"S _\1\"0

flies

RO'r~i\L REG:\L1:\

The fly was considered ro have apotropaic <lnd prophylactic properties, and stone amulets were being created as early as the Naqada [I period ((.]500-3100 IIC), already depicting it in the form that lhc hieroglyphic \Ieterminative' sign denoting the tly ((~/J) was later to aSSume. The image of the fly was also depicted on various riwal arteElcts during the Old and Middle Kingdoms (2686-]650 BC),

A pair oIgolden 'flies oI I.'a/olll" '. a .I(m/1 oI hollorilic amant. JVem Kingdolll, c.l 500-1250 nc,
L

food
A great deal of information has surviycd con-

2 CIII. (Ji.'i59416-7)

cerning the diet of the ancient Egyptians, both through depictions of food processing and consumption in thcir funerary art, amI in the form of food remains from funerary, religious and domestic contexts. The poorest peoplc in anciclll Egypt seem [Q have subsisted on bread, beer (see \I.COHOI.JC IWVI'J~..'\GES) and a few vegetables, notably onions; according to the Greek writer Herodotus it was with these ,'cry commodities that the builders of the Great Pyramid were paid. Similarly, the OFFERING FOrO\L;LA, inscribed in Egyptian tombs from the Old Kingdom onwards, usually included a request fiJI' '<I thousand of bread, <1 lhoLisand 01" beer. Bread ,vas made from emmer-,vheat (TrilicullI dic()c(:UIII, see t\GRICLTruRE), which was laboriously ground on an arrangement of stones known as a s~lddle quern, replaced in Ptolemaic and Roman times (332 nC-l\D 395) by rhe more efficient rotar~T quem. Stoneground flour ine"itably contained fragmcnts of stone and occasional sand grains, which, judging from SlilTiving human skelctal material, inflicted consider,Jble we,lr on the teeth. Numerous types of 10'lf were produced, .md some of these were made in moulds, especially if thc~ werc intended for ritu,ll usc rather than everyday consumption. It was bread that formed the centrepiece offering' sccnes in tombs, where it was usually portrayed in rows of long sikes on the table. Similarly it was the loaf of bread on a slab that the hieroglyphic sign I,clep ('alTering') was actually depicting. Beer was lLsually made from harlcy

or

101

FOOD
most Egypthms, something to be c.lt"en primarily at FI::STl\.\LS or on other special occasions. . The weahhy \ymild have eaten oxen, and the c,"idencc from the i\lliddle Kingdom (2055-1650 Be) p'Tamid-lOwn of Kahun (ELI. \lIe,) as well as the I\cw "-.ingdom 'workmen's village' at EL--\).l\IU'\ shows that pigs were raised f()l' thcir mcaL Hares, gazelle and other wild ;.mimals would h;l\"~ pn)\"ided a supplcmcm [0 the diet of poorer people, as well as providing IlL~TI"\'G quarry for the elite.

FORTRE~

(Hordeul1l vulgtlre), and seems

to hayc been a thick, soupy liquid, which, although not alwavs strongly alcoholic, was nutritious. In a scen~ in the New Kingdom tomb of Inrefiqcr (,.,.60) a child is shown holding a bowl and the accompanying lines of speech rC~l(I: 'Gi,"c me some ale) for I am hungry', thus emphasizing the natllrc of beer as food rather than simply .1 drink. Beer w.1s also somelimes sweetened with dares or fla,'oured with other fruits.

employed to prepare honey-<.....tkes for the g'Jng of \yorkmen, \V. B. E\IERY, A/imcralY repasl ill (Ill fgYPfi(/l1 IfJlI1b OJ'I/'(' .'lrd/(/i( period (Leiden, 1t)()2). \V. D_-\Rln, Food: lite giji o/Osiris (Lundun, I97i). D. J. CR.\\\ FORD, 'Food: tradition anti change in lIelicnisl ie Egypt, J,"" II (1979-80), 136-46. B. J. I(DIP,. -Juril'lII EgypI: (l/ltIlo/1~}1 f~l/l ririli::-tllioll (I.ondon. 1989), 117-28. P. T )JICIIOI.SO,\ ;ll1d I. 511-\\\ (eeL)," ll1tim! Egypt iI/II lIla/eria!.\ {/lItlledlJ/%gy (Calllhridg:c, 2000). ehaplers by S. Ikram, D. Samuel and

~l. .~. ~lur"l\1

fortresses
The firsl rcpresent.llions of funres~cs in ancient [gypl- take the form of latc PredYll:1stic schcmatic depictions of circular and rectangular fortified towns) but the earliest sun'iring archacological remains of fonifications arc the roughly circular walls at two Early Dynastic settlement sires in l ppcr Egypt: KOIll el-Ahmar (111I]UKO,t)()Us) and
EI.J..:\U.

FJlIlCnllY o17erings l"OJ/SiJlillg o/bread (lndlOwl placed 011 a reed offering-sllIwl. /8111 J)YIIllS~)" c. 1-1.)0 /lc.ji-Oll/ Thein's. 11. (~rslalld 2/.8 011. (EI.iHOj

The [ens on ostmca cXGIyated at the workmen's ,'illage of DEIK EL-.\IEDI:'\.\ indicate that the workers' paymeI1t:s took the form of food rations. Although these men and their f;t111ilies were clearly more nffluem than agricultural labourers, the lists of rations gi'"c some ide;'1 of the foodstuffs commonly a\"ailablc in the :"ew Kingdom (1550-1069 ne). Emmer and barley were the most prized items, since thcy were part of the staple dicl. Beans, onions, garljc, lettuces and cucumbers were among thc mosl rcgular supplies of vegetables) but saltcd FISII also formed an important clement of the rillagers' diet. .\leat was usually proyided in the form of complete catlle from the temple s[Ock~yards, or simply as indh'idual portions. Outside DeiI' el-lvlcdina, meat would have been regarded as a considerable luxury for

Animals wcre also used <IS a sourcc of fat, and in order to proyide milk for cheese making. Ducks and, from thc New Nngdom oO\yards, hens werc kept fl.)r eggs <Ind meat, and wildfowl wcrc huntcd for sport and food. \"arious fruits (such as datcs, figs) grapes, pomegranates, dom-palm nuts and, more rarely, almonds) were ;wi.lilablc both to the inhabitants of the workmcn's vil1nge al Deir el-?\lcdina and to the population ilt large. Grapes were also used in the making of winc, and there arc numerous tomb scenes of vintncrs at work. \Vine, however, appears to ha\'c been gencrall~ consumcd by the ""calthier groups in Egyptian society, and thc jars in whidl it \yas kept frequcntly state its place of origin and year of Yintagc (see .\1.(:01 rOLlC
BE\'EIUGES).

Honey was obtained both from \yild and domesticated BEES, and, in the ;:tbsencc of sug;tr, it \yas uscd to transform brcad into cakcs and to swccten beer. At DeiI' cl-I\lledina it is recorded that confectioners were

Egyptian TOwns were apparently only fonified at times of politiC;tl inst~lbilir:., such as (he Early Dynastic phase (3100-2686 lie) and the three 'intermediate periods'. l\tlilitary fortresses and garrisons, as opposcd 10 fortified sealements, were essential to the defence of Egypt's frontiers (sec BORDERS, FRO,TIER!'; .\'..[) U\IIT~). Inl:hc reign ofAmcnemhat I (1985-1955 Be), a row of forts, known as thc \Valls of thc Prince (iucbm lJl'ka), was established across the northeastern Delta in order to protect Egypt against invasion from the LC\"<\llt. The same border was later protectcd by a number of fortresses set up b, Rameses 11 (1279~1213 lie). During the f\liddle Kingdom (2055-1650 Be) rhe area of T.owcr l'\ubia from the first 10 thc third catanu.:t, "'hich had probabl~ heen pe;}cefull~ exploited by Egyptian mineral prospectors during the Old Kingdom, became part of the Egyptian empire. A group of" at !e;.tst seventcen fortresses were built, 1llainl~ bcn\ cen the reigns of SenUsfct I and 1II ((.1965-1855 Be), apparently sening hoLiI practical and symbolic purpo!'iCs. On the tine hand they wcrc intended to control and protecl lhe king's monopoly on the ,"aluable trade route from the lands to the south, On [he other hand their largc sC;'lle - perhaps disproportionate to the task - Illllst ha\'c sen'cd as physical propaganda in an increasingly militaristic age, The designs of these fonrcsses, stretchlllg from Aswan to Dongola, incurporare many ingeniolls architectural de\'ices which \\ oLlld be more re.Idily associatcd with medi\.'-,tl

102

FOUNDATION DEPOSITS

FROG

architecture. Ten of the fi:>rtn.'sscs (SO lith to north: Scmna South, Kumma, Scmna, Uronarti, Shalfak, Askut, lVlirgissil, Dabenarti, Kor and Buhen) were constructed in

the area of the second cltaract \V-here the Nile

valley is at its narrowest. Although they share

many common architectural features (such as bastions, walls, ditches, internal grid-pi<lns and walled stairways connecting with the Nile)) their ,"ariolls shapes and sizes were each
designed to conform to differing local topographical and strategic requirements. In the New Kingdom (1550-1069 HC), thc

marked with larger pits containing food offerings, including parts of a sacrificed ox and miniature vessels for wine or beer. The tops of these deposits were marked by four mud bricks, three of which contained tablets of stone bearing the ROYAL TITL'L\RY of Nlentuhorep. The tablets were made from stone, wooel ~1I1d metal, thus symboEzing, along with the mud bricks themselves, the four principal materials lIsed in building the temple, Other foundation deposits, such as those of Amcnemhat I (1985-1Y55 Ilc) at 1::1_-

Apart fi'om their ritual significance, these deposits have proved invaluable to archaeologists fr0111 a chronological point of view, since they often include large numbers of plaques inscribed with the name of the ruler responsible ti)I' the construction of the building in question. T'he foundation deposits associated \\"ith a temple of Rameses IV (1153-1147 Be), ncar DeiI' el-Bahri, for instance, contained several hundred inscribed plaques. Many Late Period foundation deposits, such as those excavated at Tell Balamun in the Delta.

Nubian fortresses were substantially rebuilt, but the role of the fortifications appears to have become much more symbolic. Temples
began to be built outside the foru'ess walls and new towns were esrablished \yith relatively perfunctory defences. Essential fortresses and garrisons continucd to be huilt on the wCstern <lnd eastern borders of the Delta during the New King'dom (such as the Ramesside fortifications at Zawiyet Umm el-Rakham in the west and Tdl cl-I-Ieir in the caSt), and the Victory Stele of the 25th-Dynasty ruler PI' (747-716 Ae) menrions nineteen fortified settlements in l'vliddlc Egypt. However, onl~r a small number of fortified structures of the Third Intermediate Period (1069-7+7 Be) and Late Period (747-3J211C) ha\-e been preserved, such as the 'palace' of' Apries (589-570 1](:) at MEMPHIS and the fortress of Dorginarti in Lower Nubia. See also \Y/\IW'\RE. D. DL.-'\IIA.\I and.J. M. A. J"'!'':SSEt\, Sccolld c(l/aral"l.!fJrfS, 2 yols (Boston, 1961-7). y. YADIN. 7'll/: arf oImlll:f(lrc in Biblieal/ands ill flie liglrt (~rard/(/elJlogi(.'(d dis(01.'l'IT (London. 19(3). A. \"-i. L.-\WRE-'CE, 'Anciel1l Eg~vtian fortifications',]EA 51 (]965), 69-n W. B. Ei\IER.r eLl!., Tlre/hrtress (lfill/hl'/l, 2 \'Ols (London, ]977-9).

Ret:Ol/stfllrlt:d/olllldatioll deposit/roJlltlre temple 0/ Ql/een Hiltslrep.l'llt at DeiI' cl-B(/IIJ"i. D. c. 1111.

(RO(;/~'RS Fe\'/)
}'O/?A-,

/925,

11l:TI?OI'OI./TI\ 11[/.'11\.'11 '111\".

2.:;.3.39)

foundation deposits
Buried caches of ritual objects, lIsuaJly placed at crucial points in important buildings such as pyramjds, temples and tombs, [rom the Old Kingdom to the Ptolemaic period (2686-30 Ile). It was belieyed that the offering of model rools and materials would magically seryc to maintain the building for demity. The pits in which the deposits were buried, sometimes brick-lined and occasionally in excess of two metres in \yidth, were generally located in the vicinity of the corners, axes or gateways, In the mortuary temple of the lIth-

D)'nast' ruler Kcbhcpetra Mentuholep

11

(2055-2004 BC) at [)E1R EL-B.\llltl, a series of pits marked the a:\is of the building, Each contained a loaf of bread, \"hile the corners were

incorporated more bricks and a wider range ofbuilcling materials, including E\!Fi\CE. Probably the best-known foundation deposits are those from rhe temple of Hatshepsut: (1473-1+58 Be) at DElI{ EL-IlAIII{I. Fourtecn brick-lined pits, measuring c.l m in diameter and lo5-loS m in depth, were e.lch pbced at a crucial juncrure in the plan of the temple. The contcnts of the pits included food offerings and materials used in I:he construction of the tcmple, as well as SC..ARABS, cO\moros, .\\\CLETS. travertine j'lrs and model tools (such as cruciblcs and thc copper ore. lead are and charcoal for smelting). The particular selections of model tools and yessels in f()Lll1dation deposits can sometimes pro\ide insights into the technology ofthc Pharaonic period, while t.he. swdy of the food offerings has contributed to the knowledge of ancient agriculture and diet.
I.lSIIT,

have proved essential to the dating of temple comple.xes, G. A. REISNER, 'The Barbl temples in 191(J', ]>1 +(]917), 213-27. [comparison of founcbtion deposits li'om Gebel Barbl with those from Egyptian sites] C. I lArES. The seep/a ({Eg}'jJt II (New York, 19.19),8+--8. B. LETELLIER, 'Gri.indungsbeigabe', Ll'xil'oll der ..Jg.l'P/ologic 11, ed. Heick, E. Otto and ,\1. \Vestendorf" ('Viesb,lden, 1977), 906-12.

,v.

"T.

frog
The Egyptians referred to fi'ogs by severa] names, the most cOmmon being the onOmatopoeic Rerer. This attention to the fi'og's call was extended to familiarity with its habits, including aspects of its life-c~:cle, As a result, it became a symbol of fertility, creation and regeneration. The image of the tadpole (h4iler) became the hicroglyph for 100,000 and is commonly found decorating the SI-ll'::-...r ring or the notched staff rcprcsenring: years, thus \yishing the king a reign of 100,000 years. 103

FUNERARY BELIEFS

FUNERARY CON~

The deity most commonly associated with the frog was lIEKI':T, the consort of the creator

god

KII:"JUi\1.

J List

as he created the human

race On his porter's wheel, so she often served as ;.1 personification of childbirth, particularh the final stages of labour. In the .\liddle Kingdom (2055-1650 Be) Heket was often shown on magical objects which wcre probably used in the rituals surrounding concep-

tion and birth.

The connection of" the frog with creation is also demonstrated by the fact that IIEI-I, K[K.

Egyptologists w explore the complexity and grndual elaboration of this belief system, although far morc research is required before the full nature of Egypti,1n views on tJ1C afterlife C:In be understood, particuhuly during the formative period of the Prcdynastic, before the cmcrgcm:c of writing. The Egypti'1I1s beliered that each human individual comprised not only a 'physical body but also three other crucial clements, known as [he h..\, B \ and .\KI-I, each of which was essential to human 5urri"ill both before and after

in both royal and pri"afe funerary texts and rituals. Just i1S the royal mortuary cult inw>lrccl the tnmsformation of the dead king into Osiris, so the funerary equipment of pri";ue indiriduills was designed to suhstitute the deceased for Osiris, so that they could re-enact the myth of resurrection and obtain eternal life for themselves (see DEJ\10CRATli.:.\TtOi\ OF TilE \1' l'LRJ.JFE). In order to be assimilated "'ilh Osiris, however, the deceased first had to prO\~e th.lt his or her ei1rrhly deeds had been \\"orlh~ and

four of the eight members of associated with the Hcrmopolitan CRE:\TIO, myth, were silid to be frog-headed. Frog amulets were sometimes included in the \\Tappings of mummies, or cilrried as talismans. E,'cn in the reign of H':J IE:'\.\TE\: (Ll52-1336 Be), when most traditional religious bcliefs were discouraged, frog amulets were still c'IITicd, many being milnuEIctured ilt Akhenaten's new capital (e1-Amarna). \ith the official arri"al of Christianity in Egypi in the fourth ccmury .\0, the frog was retained as a Coptic symbol of rebirth, I.. SnJRK, 'Frosch', Lexihlll dlT .igyp/ologi( II, eel. V'I. Heick, E. Otto and W. \"Vcstcndorl" (Wicsbaden, 1977),33-1-6.
i\.t\IUi'\,

~U?\

and

the

OODO.\I)

funerary beliefs
During the Pharaonic period, the Egyptians' iIttitudes to life and death wcre influenced by two fundamental beliefs: first, thai death was simply a temporary interruption rilther th.m a complete cessiltion of life; and, second, thal etcrnal life could be ensured by vilrious means, including piery to the gods, the presen'ation of the body through .\IL 'I\IIFIC.\'1'10'\', and the proyision of statuary and other funerary equipment. The sUfri"al of numerous TO.\IIJS and FL:-l"EIUR\ TE_'\TS has enabled

death. They also considered that the ~A,\lE and were liying entities, crucial to human existence, rather than simply linguistic and natural phenomena. l'he essence of each individual was contained in the sum of all these parts, none of \\ hich could be neglected. The process of ensuring any indi,'idual's enjoyment of the afrerliCe was thcreti:>re a delicate business whereby all of these separate clements (the body, ka. btl, ok", shadow and name) were sustained .md prolected from harm. At the most basic level this could be ilchieycd by burying the body wilh a set of funeri1r~ equipment, and in its most elaborate form lhe royal Cliit could include a number of temples complete with priests <lnd a st'cady 110\,- of offerings. usually financed by gifts of agricultural land and other economic resources. The suni,ing funerary texts present an often conflicting set of descriptions of the afterlife, r'111ging from the transformation of humalls into circumpolar stars to the continuation of normal life in i111 ilfrerworld sometimes described as the FIEI.D OF REEDS. The identificiltion of the deceased with OSIRIS, the god of Abydos who W.1S murdered by his brother SETII and brought back to life through the efforts of his wife ISIS, played i1 C1"lIl:iaI part
SI-IAD(J\\,

In/erior t/('ff/il o//he C(~/.lill oIGI/f/, dl!Comled Illiflt I1l1lap Jltomil/g /mo dijJi:rel1/ /'{Iu/es /0 /ltt lUulemJorld (part ofthe Book ofTwo \\"ays), l1/h Dyuasty. c./985-/795 IIC. paiu/ed mond.jhull Deir el-Bl'fJIUI, I.. oIodlill 2.6 IJ/. (1:'..,30839)
,irtuous. Since the individual's IIE,\RT was regarded as the physic:lllllilnif-cslation of their intelligence ilnd personality, the judgement scene depicted on many BOO'" OF TilE III \I) papyri shows the he.ut being weighed ag-,lin.;l the feather of the goddess .\1.\.\"1", symbol of the universal harmony and ethical conduct 10 which all Egyptians aspired (see ETIlIC,)). A. 11. GAHD!i\I':R, The (lffiflldl! (~rflll' {/liciell/ l:'gyplillf/S 10 dell/h (/wllhe delld (Cambridgc, 19]5).

A. .J.

SI'E'XO:R. Dell/h i/l 11llrim/ Egyp/

(Ilarmonds\\orth, 1982), 139-M. E. l-lOR:\l ,ti, Idell in/o imllge, lTans. E, Bredcck C'1ew York, 1992), 167-8-1.

funerary cones
Clay COnes of 1~15 cm in length whjch were placed at the entrances of tombs, particul:lrl~ those in thc Theban area. They are first recorded rrolll the 11th DYnast' (2 J 25-1985 m:) and continue into the J.;He Period (747-332 Be), although most belong to the

104

FUNERARY CONES

FUNERARY TEXTS

Fill/amy (Olle uf lvlelylllusc, c.l LiD BC, pOllc/y,ji"Ullf 7'lll:bcs,

/-f.

16.7 {:IIl,

D,

7.1 all.

(1'./96-19)

Each tomb-owner had about three hundred identical cones, amI the owners of many decorated tombs of the New Kingdom have been readily matched with surviving cones. However, there is no evidence of cones from over three hundred other known tombs. lVlore significant, on the other hand, is the [let that no tombs are known for a fmthcr four hundred or so cones, suggesting that the tombs to which they belonged have been destroyed or rc-used, or else await discovery. N. DE G. DA\ WS and F. L. M . ' CJ\LHM,.rJ corjJlIS (~/ illsaibedjimCl"fIlY (()/Ies I (Oxford, 1957). H. Nl. STEw.. . lrr, l111uIJ/IIDI cases alld ills/:ribcd fUIf(j/'{I/:J' fOJ/es ill/he Pel ric ("ullcrlioll (Warminster, 1986). J. KONDO, 'Inscribed funerary cOnes from the Theban necropolis', OriOI/ 23 (1987),

also found in eight pyramids dating from the 6th to 8th Dynasties (2345-2125 Be), comprise some eight hundred spells or (utterances' written in columns on the walls of the pyramid chambers, but apparently not arranged in any specific order. No single pyramid contains the whole collection of spells, the maximum number being the 675 utterances inscribed in the pyramid of I'EI'Y ]J (2268-218{ Be). The words spoken at the ceremony of Ol'E:'-ili\G 01' THE i\'IOUTII ;Ire first ParI (~rllll' Boo!.: oIllIe Dead jJapvrus ~(tllc roya! saibe _,,'111i, rollsisling o.(llie i.:igllclle asso(."ia!cd milh Chapta /2.), ill wllirh Illl~ hl~art oIlhe deceased i,l' IJlciglled agaills/lhe ji'alhcr oIlhe godde.I)' iHaal. /911! Dynasly, c./2.:;O IJC, painted pap)lrIIs. (/;".01-170, sllt't:'1'3)

New Kingdom and the bulk of them to the 18th Dynasty (1550-1295 Be). The broadest end of the cone is usually stamped with hieroglyphs bearing a name, title ,mel sometimes a shorl inscription Or gellealogy, The earliest, however, afe uninscribed. They were once thought to represent loaves of bread, roofing poles, MUi\lj\\Y LAJ3Io:I.S or boundary stones bUI current opinion suggests a more likely explanation. The pointed cnd allowed them to be sel in plaster as <l frieze above the tomb entrance, while the broad end \vould be clearly visible. It m.l,Y be thaI this broad circular end represented the sun's disc, and \yas part of the solar iconography of rebirth.

D. P. RUN, 'The archaeological analysis of inscribed funerary cones', 1'-:44/2 (1988),

165-70.

funerary texts
The Egyptians' composition of texts relating to death and the afterlife probably stretched back to an original prelitcratc oral tradition, traces of which have survived only in the form of poorly understood funerary artef~1Cts and sculptures. The earliest such writings arc known as the PYRAMID TEXTS, the first examples of which were inscribed in the. 5tl1Dynasty pyramid of UNAS (2375-2345 Be) at Saqqara. These texts, versions of which are

recorded in these funerary texts, along with offering lists. In the pol.itical and social turmoil of the First: Intermediate Period (2181-2055 Be) the practice of inscribing funerary writings on privilte colTms developed. Thesc private funerary documcnts, which were effect ively compressed and edited versions of the Pyramid Texts, have become known as the COFFIN TEXTS, althoug'j, they wcre sometimes also inscribed on papyri or the walls of private tombs. They are often said to reflect a IJI::MOCR.ATJZATI()~ OF 'I'IIE AI'TERI.lFF, whereby individuals were no longer dependent On the ruler [or their afterlife, perhaps as a direct result: of 105

FUNERARY TEXTS

FURNITURE

the gradual decline in the ambitions of royal funerary complexes. Howc\cr. it might Jlso be argued that, in their dcri\'ation from the

Pyramid Texts, they simply

rc-emph~lsize

the

crucial role still played hy the philraoh in pri"ate funerary rituals.

T'he Coffin Texts often included utterances

forming ~guidc-hooks' La the netherworld, known as the Boo/.: I{Tmo ',i,yS. The 'guiding'

function of the fUller,try texts became increasingly important from the Second intermediate
Period (1650-1550
BC)

onwards, e\Tntual1y

culminating in the appearance of the so-called

BOOt..: or TilE DE.\1l (or "spell for cuming fonh by day'), made up of around two hundred spells (or 'chapters'), over h'llf of which "'cre deri,'cd direcLl} from either the Pyramid Texts or the Catlin Tens. Such 'netherwurkl texts' were usually written on papyri, although cer~ tain sections were inscribed on f\\IL'LETS. The netherworld texts comprise a number of relat"ed funerary writings, which together were known to the Egyptians as Amdual or 'that which is in the netherworld!. They included lhe {Juo~' {~r Caverl/s. Book of Cales and the ,rrflil/g ~r Ihe lJiddeu Challlber. The theme of all of these works is the journey of the sun-god Ihrough the realms of darkncss during the twelve hours of the night! leading up to his triumphant re-binh with the dawn each morning..Many copies of these books have been discO\crcd, olien with elaborate "ibrnelteS illustrilting [hc [cxt. During the New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC) 'hey were virtually confined LO royal burials, although from the Third Intermediate Period (1069-747 RC) onwards the: began LO appear in pri,"ate hurials. They were frequently pOftrayed on the walls of the royal tombs in the \ \1.L1~Y OF TIll: ""GS, just as the Pyramid Texts had decoratcd thc funcmr: complexes of thc Old Kingdom. Their placing is significant: fOf example in the 10mb of Rameses ,t (K\ 9; 1143-1136 Be) the Book of Cates is at the entrance 10 the upper level, the Bon!.: of Cat'ullS follm~'s, ~nd in the lower level, fur~ lhest from the cnrr~lIlCC, is the Bnok I~r ,!tal mhidl is in till: Nt,t/termor/d. During the Ptolcm.lic pcriod (332-30 Be) these 'netherworld books' continued to be produced l including such rel11arkable tcxts as the BOIJI.~ I~r Spew/ill/!, Ftemily ;lnd the Book (~r Bl'efl/Mug! which wcrc apparently designed to protect the deccased and facilitate safe passage to the underworld. These later texts reflect the cssential continuity of belief I'hroughout ancient Egyptian history. The differenccs between the texts of differcnt pcriods tend to result fi'OIll changes in funerary practice, such as the shift fi'om regarding the afterlife as being

achie\ablc only \"ia the king to a situation in which individuals incre~lsingly made their o,,n provisions. There was also a gradual mme to\\arus thc concept of righteous liying as a qualification for the enjoyment of an aftcrlife. R. 0. F.\U."1'\ER, TIr,' fll/til'lIl EgYPli(f11/~l'ra1Jlid Tcx/.< (Oxford, 1969). - , The (fl1C;el1ll:.g)lplifl11 ('(Jjli11 Texts,3 ,'ols (Oxford, 1973-8). - , The lIJlC;e11l Egypli(f1/ BQu/.: uflhe Dead, cd. C. Andrews (London, 1985). J. P. AI.I.I~', 'Funerary texts and their me-.ming', ,\1f1l11mil'J aud Alagh. cd. S. D'Auria, P. Lm:m"ara and C. 11. Roehrig (Boston, 1988),38-+9. E. 1-I0R'\t.:~G, Idea illlo il1ll1ge. trans. E. Bn:dcck (New York, 1992),95-113.

1!inioll.\" ilelm uldolllesl;r'/itmilllre: a box of rosmclio, linCII, a bed. II head"('.~/. ajar liud ajtlrslant!..Nem Kingdom. c.llOU IlCFOIll Thebes, II. I{ r!,,'st 6/ (III. (ti.IH70. 6,;26. 6639. /8/96. HillS)
The ,'ast l11ajority of the sun"jying furniture is made of wood, although ilt sites such as u.\ \1 \R'\" \ numerous limestone stools ~re founo. Beds ;;Ire recorded from the 1st Dynasty. ;;I1ll1 comprised a wooden frame, jointed at the corners! ~nd upholstered with matting or IC'"Jther. Chairs ~,ere used only by the most wC;llth: people, and could be yery elaborate. The Icngth of the back support \"aried greatl), as did the st~ndard of workmanship: the mo~1 elaborate could h.1\'c elegant 1.10:\. 's paw fel:l and might he inlaid. l\loSl ch~lirs <Ire of a simple t: pc "ith no arms, but tluone-Like n~r sions arc known, including the famous example li'om TUT\'''II/\\\l,,''S tomb (K\'62), whidl is gilded and inlaid. j\ lost- people would ha\"e uscd low sttJub, and by thc ..l\1iddle Kingdom ;I folding sLOol had been dc,eloped. Somc of these arc fincJ: crafted, ;\s in the example from the lomb of Tumnkhal11ull, the legs of which end in ducks' heads, c;lch grasping a rail in ,heir bills. The Egyprians had a grcat facility for mnking such light" or prcElbricared furniture for usc when travelling or on military expeditions. As early as the -Ith Dynasty a complete travelling bedroom set, including a tent and carrying chair,

furniture
The best <lm:ient Egyptian furniture was heautifully made nnd elegantly proportioned, ilnd it is not surprising thai some of their designs were adopted It)!" Europe~tn furniture 01" the carly ninetccl1lh century (often \yith less success than their prototypcs). By modern staIld'lIds, howc\'er, Egyptian houscs, particularly those of the poor, would have had little furniturc. The l110st C0l111110n itcms wcre beds, chairs, stools and boxes (which served the purpose of the modern sideboard or wardrobe). Low tables were ;\Iso used, two wooden examples being known from TarkhaIl as early as thc tst DYI1asty (3100-2890 BC).

106

FURNITURE

GARDENS

has survived among the funerary equipment IJETI':I'III':/U:S, mother of J..::IIL:FL (2589-2566 Be). A series of poles and rails make lip a frame which could be fitted inside a rent or room to add extra warmth or privacy, serving .lS a sort of portable boudoir. The Thchan tomb of the architect Kha (TT8) contains a representative range of New Kingdom furniture (now in the l\'lusco Egizio,
of (hlccn

G
games
The most popular board game known to the Egyptians was SeNc!, the game 'passing', whi<.:h was played either on elaborate inlaid hoards or simply on grids of squares scratched on the surf-lee of a stone. The two players each had an equal number of pieces, usually seven, distinguished by shape or colour, and they played on a grid of thirty squares knmnl as paw ('houses') and

or

squares', which is thought to have been introduced fi'OIll western Asia. Although several boards have survived and it is known to have been played by two players using five pieces, the rules of the game, as with SI!J1el, have not been preserved. J. VANDlER, J\!Jillllli:/ d'urdlco/ugic egypliellll/! IV (Paris, 1964), +86-527. E. B. PLTSCI r, Das Send Brcl!Spiel /11/ AI/clI ,:ig)'lJlell 1 (Berlin, ](79). T. KI::--IHI.I., 'Games', Eg.J'P/:~go/dl'll age, cd. E. Brovarski, S. K. Doll and R. E. Freed (Boston, 1982),26.1-72. ,~r. J TAIT, Call1l' bo.\'t'J (1//11 auessoriesji'ulII Ihe lomb (j/il//{lI/khalllllll (Oxford, ]1)82).

Wooden (11tI;,: ISth DYllasty.

11.

73 OIl. (EI2-1-79)

Turin), including a toilet box, a chair and a smnd for a pottery vessel. C. AI.DRED, 'Fine woo<.hv-ork',..,.J IJis/o/y of fCt,.'!llIfJ/OjjY I, ed. C. Singer, E. J I-lolmyard, and A. R. Hall (Oxford, 195+),684-703. E. \VANS(:! fER, ",,'ella Ofru/iS, IhejiJ!ding s/oo/: til! {(ufie1l1 ~VIIIIl(J1 (~rdigllil.J' (Copenhagell, 1980). G. Kll.LE;,\" EgJlptianjiml/fllrc, 2 vob (Warm;nster, 1980-9+). - , Eg),plialll1}(){ldworhllg lIudjimlillire (Princes Risborough,199+).

.,\,now: h:o/J,-w'i,'I.'/wl gall/e Iwx/rOIll/he lomb of l;,I(/Ilklf{/.lI1l1l1. milh ivtlly playing picas alld klll/rlde-bolles. ISII! DYllasly c./330 W;, I.. o//;o.r 27.5 on. (C-IINO, NO. 593, NEPROJ)CCEIJ (.'OURTES)
UF TIll;' G'NIFFlTlf li\Sn'nTL)

Hili I I"!" Delail (~tlhe Sa/iriwl Papvms, ill mhit:h allilllals ill/ila/e figl/re,l' injilllC/'(lIy SCelleS. A !iOIl tlllt! al/ alllelopl' are shoml/ playing (/ gallic ~tsenct. Lall' Nfl}) Kingdolll, c.IISO Be, pail/led pam/fIlS, II. 9 Oil. (u/UO/6)

arranged in three rOws or reno lVloves were determincd by 'throw-sticks' or 'astragals' (knuckle-bones). The object was to convey the pieces around a snaking track to the finish, via a number or specially marked squares represcIlting good or had fortUIlC. Sometimes the w;lll-paintings in private tomb chapels depict the deceased playing a hoard-game, but it is nOI clear whether this activity, when portrayed in a funerary context, was regarded simply as entertainmem or as a symbolic conttst intended to replicate the journey through the netherworld. A less popular board game was 'twenty

gardens
In an essentially arid land such ,15 Egypt, the cultivated strip or the Nile vaHey represented an area of fertile green fields and watery irrigation channels. This same lush vegetation, often accompanied by a pool, W;lS a highly desirable asset for houses and temples too. Secubr gardens were mainly cultiYated for vegetables, and were set close to the riYcr Or canal, but by the New Kingdom (1550- 1069 ne) they had developed into more luxurious areas, orten or a semi-formal plan, and sometimes surrounded by high walls. AHached to temples there were often gar-

107

GARDENS

GAZEI:.!:..'::

SCe/fC};"(J/J/ lilt Buok (~/lhe D('(u! papyrus of NaHI/. shuwilfg t!le dc(('({sed {fud his mUe Tjll//{ approaching Osiris flud kIllal ill/heir gardell. /9111
Djll/aSly,

c,1.100 /)(,', (IeJiM?I, .\'/l/ie7'21)

den plots for the cultivation of specific kinds of vegetable; the growing of 'cos lettllces' (sacred to 1'111 "i) is frequently portrayed in reliefs and paintings. Similar small plots, made up or squares or earth divided by walls of mud, arc known from the 'workmen's village at ELA.l\L\Ri\.\, where \'cgcrablcs m'1)" h;n'c been grown for use in the rituals performed at the chapels there. Ornamental trees were sometimes planted in pits in front of temples, such as that of I LlTSIIEI'SUT (1473-1458 Be) at DeiI' c1-Bahri, where pits for two lrees were found, unlike the whole grove of sycamore and mmarisk which stood in front of thc 11 thDynasty tcmple of ~ebhcpetra \IEyrt;1-I0TEP n (2055-2004 Be), The houses of thc wealthy often hild large and elaborate gardens cel1lred on ~l pool, which in the New h..ingdom was sometimes Tshaped. Pools of this sh~lpe arc known also from Hatshcpsut's tcmple at Deir cl-Bahri, and the shape may therefore ha,'c had religious connoralions. Such pools wcre stocked with ornamental fish, and served as havens [or waLerfowl. Flowers, such as white and blue lotuses (a kind of "ater lily), grew in some of these pools, and papyrus is attested in the pools at Deir cl-Bahri. The provision of shade was an important clement of the Egyptian garden, and from the paintings in the Theban tomb chapel of Kenamun (Tr93) it is known that wooden columns were sometimes used to support a pergo1:J armngement of \incs. As well as providing shady arbours, trees were used as a

source of fruil, such as dates, figs and dompalm nuts. Gmpcs might be used for the production of raisins or even home-made wine. The sacred persea tree was grown in both religious and secular gardens. Nineteen species of tree were reprcsented in the garden of Tneni, architect to Thutmose [ (1504-1492 Be), and among the most popular species were the pink-flowered tamarisk, the acacia and the willow. Cornl1owers, mandrakes, poppies, daisies ~lI1d other small flowers were grown ;,lIllOng the trees and, like the lows flowers and some of the tree foliage, could he used in the making of garlands for banquets or other occasions. The pomegranate, introduced in the New Kingdom, became il popular shrub, and its flowers added to the colour of the garden. Thc over,,11 effecl would be one of cool shade, heavy with the fragrance of the 110wers and trees; g~1rdens are therefore one of the most frequent settings of Egyptian romalHic tilles. Unfortunately, gi,en the aridity of the Egyptian climate, g<lrdens required constant attention, not lC.1Sl irrigation, and representations such as that from the tomb of Ipuy (Yr217) sho\\' a SIIADL;F in lise. The gardeners cmployed hy temples ~1I1c1 wealthy households had several responsibilities, including the watl:ring and weeding of plants, as \vell as the artificial propagation of clate palms, a proccss that evidently required considerable skill. G. Goon and P. L,\COVM.,\, 'The garden" Egypt's goldclI ((gl'. cd. E. Brovarski, S. K. Doll :Ind R. E. Freed (Boston, 1982),37-9, J-c. HUjONOT, Lej((rdil/ d((m I'Egyptc (lII(iclllle (Frankfurt, 1989), A. WILKI:"iSUN, CardC11.\ ill (("dent Egypt: lltcir IO(lItioll tllld .\]IIJ1bolism(LondoD, 1990).

gazelle Sl!e ANTElOPE

Geb
God of" the earth, whose sister and wire \\as :-"UT the sky-goddess. Tn the doctrine o!" Hcliopolis he was the son of SHU (god of the air) and TI':Fl\'UT (goddess of moisture), \\ho were thelllsel\cs the children of YfL \1 (see
CREATIO:\,),

Thc offspring of Geb and NUl were nSt.lS, and ~EPIITIIYS, and these nine gods made lip the Heliopolitan E=':"E\1). In the myth of 1I0.US and Seth, Geb acted as judge between them. Since Osiris was the rightful ruler of the world, and had been murdered h) his brother Seth, Geb automatically fa\"oured Horus, son of Osiris and ~lVengcr of his f;tther, making him ruler of the li,'ing. The phar'lOh was therefore sometimes described as lht-ir of Geb', in recognition of Gcb's protective role.
ISIS, SETII

Stclleji'()Jll lire Book o./llre Dead paflYl"lIs oI Ttl/l/l. lliu, ,l'homing all it/~)!plllllli(.figllre(!/Ilrl' earth-god Gl'/J bmel/lli the sky-goddess NI/I. Tltird 111leflllediale Period, c.950 IJ(;, pail/ud papwllS .FolII Thebe.~, 11. (1I.'i ({(I all(Ifm1l11!tI lor/ay) 9.5011.
t

(",10008)

108

~BEL

EL-ARAK KNIFE-HANDLE

GERZEAN

Geb is usually depicted as reclining on his side with one arm bent. As a god of the earth, responsible {tl!' ,"cgemtion, he was sometimes

coloured green, .md might actually be portrayed with ,"cgetation springing from him. He was also sometimes shown with the whircfrontcd goose, his emblem, on his head, although in some other inst.mces he wOre the Lower Egyptian crown. Jsis, as his daughter, might be described as the ~cgg of the goose'. In funerary contexts he was a malc"olent force, imprisoning the buried dead within his body, and it was in I his context that he was often mentioned in the I'YR \ 'lID TEXTS. Earthquakes wcre bclic\'ed to be the 'laughter of Gcb'. In his benevolent <.lSPCcr he was a god of fertility, sometimes cmph.u.;ized by his crect ph'lllus pointing skyward towards his wife. In the Ptolemaic period (332-30 Be) he became idcntified with the Greek god Kronos. W. HELCK, 'Rp't .lllr dem Thrun dcs Geb', Orielllillill 19(1950), -116-.1+. I I. TE VELm:, 'Gcb', Ll',ril'ol/ der '{!iy///%gie lI, cd. W. \-leick, E. Ouo and W. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 19i7), -127-9. C. TRAUNECKER, CuP/os: !W/J/lIlCS eI dim.\" sur /e parvis de Ceb (Lcu"cn, 19(2).

I-I. ASSELBERGI [Sl Chao., ill beheersillg (Leidcl1) 1961), pis xxxviii-ixi. A. T.. KELI.EY 'A rcview of the c"idencc concerning early Egyptian ivory knife h:lI1cJ.lcs'} Tlrc.~n(i,nl 1I~r1d 6(1983),95-102.
1

Gebel Barkal set' :<.IP,I'[\ Gebelein (ane. Per-Hathor, Path\Tis, Aphroditopolis) The distinctivc topography of this site} about 30 km south of Thebes. is indicated b) its Arabic namc which means 'two hills'. The eastern hill is dominated by the remains of ..1 tcmple of Bathol', the decoration of which dates primarily from l"he lith to 15th Dynasties (2055-1550 BC), although the survi"al of a number of Gerzean artefacts suggests that the much-plundered cemeteries were already in use by the late Predynastic period. The temple of Hathor was ccrtainly established by the end of the Early Dynastic period (2686 Be) and waS still in existem:e during the Roman period (30 Be-AD 395). 1\Ilany demotic and Greek papyri have been found at the site, providing a detailed picture of daily life at Gebclcin in the Ptolcmaic period. On Gebclcin's western hill arc a number of tombs, some or which, although much plundered, ha\'C been ahle to he dated to the late Prcdynastic. 1\Ilost date to the First Intermediate Period (2l81-2055 BC), including the tomb of Iti, ,,,hose Willi-paintings arc now in the I\Iuseo Egizio, Turin. The remains of the ullexca"ared town-site arc located at the foot of the eastern hill. G. \V. F .,s>:., 'EI Kab and Gebclcn', PSBA 15 (1893), -196-500. G. STEI:'\I.>ORFF, Cra!Jjillule des '\lli/l/erm Reidles II (Berlin, 1901), 11-3-1. E. SCJIL-\I'-\REI.I.I, 'La missionc italiana a Ghebclein',.lSAE21 (1921), 12W. B. PORTER and R. L. B. 1\10ss} Topagmphiml I>iblivgmpl>J' I' (Oxrord, 1937), 162-3. I L G. Fisci n.R, 'The 1'\ ubian mcrcenaries of Gebclein during the First Intermediate Period" A:uslr 9 (1961), -1+-80. P. W. PE~T\l \", 'Lcs archi"es pri"ees de Pathyris :i 11cpoque ptolcma"iquc' S/udia Papwo/igic(J 11"'io (Pap. Lugd. B;lt :\1\'), ed. E. Boswinkel et al.(Leiden,I965).-I7-105.
1

Vil'l1J I~rl//(' Gt'be/l'/-Silsila saflds/mll' quarries. (I. .1'/1./1/) (c.3-100-3100 Be). Most of the shrines, including the Great SPEOS of Horemheb, are located along the wcst bank and date primarily t:o the New Kingdom (1550-1069 DC). E. PORTER and R. L. B. ,Moss, TnpflgrapIJi({f/ I>iMiogmph)' \' (Oxford, 1937).208-18,220-1. It A. C".,\I,OS and T G. \-I. jA,'UCS, C,I>d ,/ Si/,i/alr I (London. 1963).

Gebel el-Arak knife-handle

Decorated inlry handle or a ripple-flaked nint knife dating to the late Predynastic period (c.3200 BC), ",hieh was purchased in 189-+ hy the French archaeologist Georges Renedite at Gebel c1-Arak in I\liddle Egypt, and is now in the collection of the Lou'Te. Like the Protodynastic palettes and maCehei.lds from .\l1y005 and IIIER.\KO'!>flI.lS, it provides important evidence relating to thc early devclopment of the Egypthm stare. Both sides of the hippopotamus-tusk handle are engraved in a style which is thought to be Lev~1I1tinc or 1\!csoputamian rather than Egyptian. The decoration on one side consists or a depiction of sC"cral wild beasts, including the Mesopotamian or Elamite rnotif of two lions separatcd bv a man. The othcr side of the handle bear~ scenes of hand-lo-hand lighting betwecn foot-soldiers as well as a naval connict between thrce crescent-shaped papyrus skiffs and two unusual verticalProwcd bO~lts possibly representing foreig'ners. The stylc or the Gebel cl-Arak knifehandle constit.utes part of the growing body of evidence for the influcnce of \Vestern Asia on late PredYI1i1stic Egypt. G. n~NI~f)l"rr.:, 'Lc courcau de Gebel el Arak', Fondfl/ioll Ellgellt' Pio/, ll'!oll1lllle11lS e/ Atlhlloires 22 (1916),1-3-1.

Gerzean Si'': gesso

I'REDY~ \STIC PI~Rlon

1\ I.atcrial consisting of a layer of fine plaster to

which gilding was offen attached using an adhesi"e, particularly in the decoration of C:\RTO:'\1\..\GI':. The term deri"es from the Italian word for a chalky substance used in preparing panels for painting during the Renaissance} although it can also be traced back to a term used for gypsum in ancient ;Vtcsopotamia.

Giza
Necropolis located in the immediatc "icinit) of the southwestern suburbs of modern Cairo, where a group of pyramid complexes of the 4th Dynasty (2613~2494 Be)} comprising those or I{IIL"fU, f..:..Il.\FIt.\ and \\I':';KAL:R-\, are located. The Giza plateau c.lIlnOi be regarded ;.\s fully explored, but the earliest known mOI1ulllent is )\l1\.SI-'\B/\ \', which probably dates to the reign of ('he 1st-Dynasty nl1cr DJET (c,2980 Be). The namc of the owner of the tomb is unknown, although the presence of the graves of fifty-six retainers suggests that he or she was an important member of the Early Dynastic elite. Jar-scalings bearing the nallle of the 2nd-D~-nasty ruler Nynctjer ((.2800 Be)

J VANDIER, ;'Vlflllue/ d'ardllf%gie (5gyp/ielllle 1/1

(Paris, 1952),533-9.

Gebel el-Silsila (anc. Khenw, Kheny) Pharaonic and Greco-Roman sandstone quarries, rock-cut shrincs and stelae on both sidcs or the f'\ilc about 65 km north of Aswan. 'The quarries, primarily on tilC C.lSl bank, were in lise fi'OJll the 18th Dynasty onwards, but there arc also petroglyphs and graffiti in [he cliffs dating back to the latc Predynastic period

109

-=G:..:I-=Z.:.:A'-----

G~~

100

200

300

400

500m

16

18

I:8l
pyramid of Menkaura queens' pyramids rock-cut tombs mortuary temple of Menkaura valley temple of Menkaura tomb 01 Queen Khentkawes rock-cut tombs maslaba tombs tomb of Queen Khamerernebty II (wile of Khafra) valley temple of Khafra sphinx temple Great Sphinx mo~uary temple ot Khafra pyramid of Khafra subsidiary pyramid storerooms (?) tomb of Hemiunu weslern mastaba field pyramid of Khufu boat-pits mas!aba-tombs queens' pyramids easfern mastaba field rock-cut tombs New Kingdom temple of Horemakhet modern village 01 Nazlet el-Simman tomb of Hetepheres I
15

17

18

18

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

21
22

[x]l2Jl~\~O 0\\
27 \\

20, -,

,20 ,-

9.126

23

" "

\\
"I'

" " "

26 27

"~'~Il'"''''''

\\, .,\,\\,.:::'~
11

'1"'11'"'' "'"'''''''''lItl''''' "'\\

PllIU of/lw Gi::ll llermpoh.,.

howe also been found in a tomh to the south of the main necropolis.
FERL

Khufu (2589-2566 Be) - whose father S"E(2613-2589 Be) had erected the first

true pyramid - built the largest suryj"ing pyramid, now usually described as the Great Pyramid but originally called 'Khufu is the one belonging to the horizon'. It: was con-

structed from some 3,200,000 blocks of limestone, each weighing an average of 2.5 I"Ons,

and it differs from most P: ram ids in h;n"ing two burial chambers \\"irhin the built slrUl:[lire and a third unfinished ch'lmber below

growld_ From each of the two upper chambers, narrow sloping tunnels were constTlIt.:tcd; these so-called 'air sharts' probahly had linle to do with \'entihuion, and for some time it has been accepted that they may hayc some astronomical functioLl. ]11 1993 a German team led by Rudolf Ganrenhrink and Rainer Stadelmann, using a robol camCril, discovered a scaled door in one of the shafts from the Queen's chamber, which has ted to specuhnion that a fourth chamber might he located there. It has been suggested that in the original design of the Great Pyramid there was to h;1\ e been a subterranean burial chamber, but that

this must haye been ah.mdoned at all early stage of the \\orl.., since it is only partl~ hc\\n. "'hen first recorded the chambers were found empty, perhaps h'.l\-ing been robbed a~ carl~ <1S the Firs' In'ennedi,,te Period (2181-21155 lie) \yhen the cenrral aUlhorin-, which had heen responsible for their consll~uclion, collapsed. Like all pyramids, that of KJ1llfu \\jl:-i p.lrt of a complex, of \,"hich the Lhree subsidiary pyramids (the so-called queens' p~ ramids) .lre the most obviolls part. The temple 011 the cast side is ruined, .1l1d the l:~lIsc\\"a~ leading to the \ alley temple has been robbed out .1IlL! lost bene~1th the modern settlement of 'azler cI-Simman. Se\'eral boat-pits surrounded [he

110

0-ZA
Pyramid would not original1y have been uneven but c()\"ered by a layer of smooth white Tura limestone, probably crowned by gold sheet at the apex. 'This covering was stripped awa~' in mcdieval and Iatcr times. The hurial of IIETEPIIERES, the mother of Khufu, lies just to the cast of the pyramid and givcs some indication of the richcs which might have accompanied a pharaoh of this pcriod. Although Khufu's immediate successor,
~ l~qom

GIZA

subterranean burial chamber. On the nonh and west sides it shows clear evidence of the quarrying necessary to level the site, the removed stone being used for the construction itself. Thc smallest of the thrce pyramid complexes at Giza is that ofI\lenkaura (2532-2503 lie). Unlike its predecessor, the valley temple w~s not of granite but finished in mud brick. [-!owe\er, it was here that a series of superb

Above Sections of the pyramids tooking west:

Khufu: 1 descending passage

2 burial chamber of lhelstplan 3 ascending passage 4 level passage 5 burial chamber of the 2nd plan ('Queen's Chamber') 6 great gallery 7 burial chamber of the 3rd plan ('King's Chamber') B weight-relieving rooms 9 'airshatts' (perhaps of religious significance)
Khalfa: 1 upperen\rance 210werenlrance 3 burial chamber of Ihe 1st plan

nU! pyramids (~j"Gi:::.a. The Creal Pyralllid oI Kllldil (/40 appears slI/aller Ihall Ihal {~r KI/{/fra (aI/Ire). sillte Ihis lauer is buill (1/1 {{ slight ollillC1lce. The slI/ollesl I~\' Ihul (JIAJlenkfl/(ra.

(I'. .,: VIr:JH)I..'W\")

4 burial chamber of Ihe 2nd plan

Menkaura: 1 2 3 4 abandoned descending passageollhe 1st plan burial chamber of Ihe 1st plan descending passage burial chamber of the 3rd plan

Sec/;on dramiJ/gs f~rlhe I!lree Giza /~l'rall/ids.

pyramid, and boats have been found ill t\VO of these. One has been reconstructed and is currently displayed close to thc sitc of its discovery. It has been argued Iha' these boats were used in the funerary ceremonies, and thar perhaps one of them bore the king's body to the valley tcmple. Howcver, it is equally likely that they performed a more symbolic role, as part of the funerary cquipmcnt provided fOr the travels of the deceased king with the Sun-god. Like the other true pyramids, al this site and elsewhere, the superstructure or the Great

Djedefra (2566---2558 Be), began to construct a pyramid complex at .\BU ROt\SI r 8 kill north of Giza, he may have been responsible for some quarrying at Giza, and some scholars h~l\'c attributed work on the Great SPI-IiNX to him, although this sculpture is usually assig'ncd to the reign of Khafra (2558-2532 He), builder of the second of the Giza pyramids. The sphinx is carved from a knoll of rock in a quarry beside Khafi-a's causeway, which leads from hil'i well-preserved granite valley temple to the mortuary temple on the eastcrn side of his pyramid. Stawcs of the king, his head symbolically protected by I JORUS (now in the Egyptian Nluseu11l, Cairo), were discovered by Auguste lViariette's workmen in 1860, during the excavation of the valley tcmple (see KI-lr\FR.'\ iUustration). The site of the pyramid itself" is on a slight eminence; and f()r this reaSOIl, and by yirtlle of its still preserving some of its limestone casing at the apex, it appears larger than that- of Khufu. In ancient times the monument was known as {Great is Khafra', ~nd is morc typical of Old Kingdom pyramid design, \yith its

schist triad stat"Ues were discovered by thc Harvard/Boston expedition in 1908. 'rhey represent the king with IIATHOR, goddess of i\IEi\\PI-II.':i , and i\.O\'IE dcities. Like the pyramid of Khafia, rhat" of l\Ilenbura had its lowest courses cased in red granitc, and like its predecessor had the ch'lmbers below the built structure. Unlike the other pyramids at Giza, howeycr, 'Nlenkaura is Divine' had pahicef<t<;acle carving on its interior walls, This pyramid was the suhje<.:t of S]\ITE interest in the 26th Dvnast\ (664-525 HC), when a new wooden coffin was inserted. In 1838 the original granite sarcophagus was lost at sea while being transported to England, although the wooden coffin lid is in the British Museum. The pyramid complexes arc surrounded by groups of M..\ ST..\IH tombs, in \yhich members of the royal bmily and high officials were buried, The most extensive nustaba cemeteries are arranged in regular ~strects' to the west, 50mh and east of the pyramid of Khufu, each tomb being of a similar size. The earliest private tombs at Giza are cur into the quarry E1CCS surrounding the pyramids of Khafra and iVlenkaura. During the New Kingdom there \\"as renewed activity ill Giza. 1n the 18th Dynasty Amenhotep II (1427-1+00 uc) built a temple to T-Toremakhet ('Horus of the Horizon') ncar the Great Sphinx, and this was bter enlarged by

III

.:::G-"Lc.:A"'S"'S

----:G'=-'c~

SCly I (1294--1279 Be) in the 19th Dynasty. During the Third Intermediate Period (1069-747 Be) the southernmost of the subsidiary queens' pyramids in the Khufu complex was converted into a temple of Isis. In the 26th Dynasty the pyramid 1\!lenkaura was restored, the temple of Isis was enlarged and a number tombs were constructed along the causeway of Khafra, an area which continued to be lIsed ;IS a cemetery as late as the Persian period. 'vv. 1\ l. F PI~TlUE, ]he lnl1'fll/lids alld ICIII/J/es (~r Ci~c;' (London, ISS). H.JUNKER) Giza, 12 vols (Vienna, 1929~55). G. A. REISNER and 'vv. STEVEi\"SON S\lITI I, A liistolT of/he Gi:::,(/ necropolis, 2 \'ols (Cambridge, MA,19-12-5.\) N. 8\1{ \KAr ct a1. , ElaftIJlIIrtgud;c sounder experiments tit fhe pyralllid (!I'Giza (Berkeley, 197.\). J\'I. LEII"'ER, 'A contextual approach to the Giza pyramids', Archil: tla Orit:Il~(iJrsdlllllg32 (1985), 136-58. I. E. S. Emv.-\RDs, Tht' pyramids oIf.'gy/)/, 5th cd. (l-lannondsworlh,199.1),98-151.

or

or

glass
Although the glazing of stones such as quartz and steatite, as well as the making of FAIE:-.JCE, had been known since Predynastic times (t.5500-3100 fie), glass is extremely rare before c.1500 Be, and not certainly attested in Egypt before the late l\lliddle Kingdom. 112

It is possible that the craft: of glass-making was first introduced into Egypt following the campaigns of Thutmose III (1479-1425 He), when captive glass-makers may have been brought to Egypt from MIT:\NN1, where the technology was alrC<ldy available. Glass is certainly one of t'he materials mentioned in lists of tribute in the Allna/s of Till/III/OS(' If! at Karnak, and even by the time of Akhen<1ten (1352-1336 Be) glass was still of sufficient importance to merit inclusion in diplomatic correspondence. In the r\:'IIARNA LI':TITRS the Hurrian and Akkadian terms ehlipakku and IIfckkl/ were used, and these loan-words perhaps point [Q 1he eastern origins of the earliest glass. A distinction should be made between glass-makillg from its raw m.ltcrials (siLica, alkali and lime) and glass-J1)ot,hllg from read)prepared ingots or scrap glass (cullct). The first of these is considerably more difficult than the second, and recent 3nalyses suggest that some of the earliest glass in Egypt was made using materiab from ahroad, so that either finished items or raw glass were imported for use by workers (c.lptive or otherwise) in Egypt. It is likely that, even when the industry became bener esmblished, there were workshops which worked only glass, obtaining their supplies in the form of ingots from more sophistjcatcd installations. Perhaps bec.lUse of an import.ltion of craftsmen from abroad, there arc no surviving

Glass COll!ailll:rs'/or /llIguents and cosmetirs, till

corejormed apart/ro/IJ the gold-rimmed solid tl/sl CHilI/pIe Oil/he le.fi. Thejug, which bean tlll'1/ame
ufT/IIIllI/ose til, is oJ/e oflhe earliest dalable Egypliall glass "i'f..'ssels. 18th DYllasty, c.1-I50 /336 1Jc, L ollisll 14.5 WI. (L/24J9/, -/7620. 2.'>8'1, 55/93, -/7-1/)
instances of trial stages in the making of glass in Egypt, which instead appears as 3 fully fledged industry. Conscquently, technologically difficult pieces, such as clcar dccolorizcd glass, arc known from as earl~i as the rci6'1l of Hatshepsut (1473-14.\8 Be) and colourless glass inlays occur 1I1 the throne of Tutankhamun (1336-1327 Be). As well as bcing used for inlays, beads and amulets, glass was used also in attempts at more ambitious pieces, including vessels. The latter were not made by blowing, which was introduced only in Roman times, but by corcforming. A core of mud and sand in the shape of the vessel interior was formed around a handling rod. This core would thcn be dipped into the viscous molten glass (or the glass be trailed ovcr it) and evened out by rolling the whole on a nat stone (marvcr). The rims and feet of the vessels could be shaped using pincers, but the process was usually more complicated than this. Coloured threads were added to rhe base colour of the vessel (commonly blue or blue-green) so that strands of )cUow, white, red etc. decorated the piece. These were

GLASS

GOD'S WIFE OF AMUN

sometimes pulled with a needle to make swag or feather patterns, and then rolled on rhe marver to impress them into the still soft body

glass.
The finished vcssd was then allowed to cool slo\-...ly in an oven in a process known as annealing, which allowed the stresses dc\'cloped in the glass to be released gradually. Once cold the core could bt: broken up and removed through the vessel opening. It was frequently difficult to remove the core entirely, especially in the shoulders of narrow-necked vessels, and the remains of the core often added to the opacity of these pieces, while those with broader necks appear more translucent. Glass might also be moulded. At its simplest this involved the making of plain glass forms, but it could also be much more complex, with seclions of glass cane of different colours fused together in <l mould to l11;lke multicoloured vessels, such as those with yellow eyes on a green background, or the conglomerate glass pieces with angular fragments of many colours fused into bowls. It was also possible to work glass by cold cutting. In this process, lumps of glass, sometimes moulded to roughly the shape desired, were worked as though they were pieces of stone and so carved to shape. This is an extremely difficult process requiring great skill. None the less some fine pieces, including two he;ldrests made for 'l'utankhamun, were produced in this way. Glass seems to have been regarded as an artificial precious stone, and like such stones is sometimes imitated in painted wooel. Perhaps because of this connection il- never developed forms of its own hut rather copied those traditionally made in stone, faience or other materials. It seems that for much of the Ne,, Kingdom it was a costly novelty material, probably under royal control, and given as gifts to favoured officials. Until recently the production of glass was thought to have declined af'ter the 21 sl Dynasty (1069-945 BC), nOt to be revived on any scale until the 26th Dynastv (664-525 BC), i,ut J. D. Conne) has suggested that it persisted on a much reduced scale. In Ptolemaic times, Alexandria became a centre for glass craftsmanship, with the pro~ dUction of core-formed vessels and, in Roman times, items of cameo glass, probably including the t~InlOUS Pan-land Vase (now in thc British Muscum). The best evidence for glass production comes from Flinders Petrie's excavations at CL-Al\IARNA, where he found a great deal of glass waste, but there arc still enormous areas of technology that are not properly underStood, and excavations at that site during the

1990s havc produced new evidence based primarily on the detailed study of kilns. It seems increasingly likely that glass-making was cafried on alongside faience production, and possibly orher pyrotechnical crafts. As well as the remains at el-Amarna, there are glass-working sites at EL-LlSI IT and ~IALK1\"I!\. B. NOl;rE, Die Clusge/iisse im alh'Il.---igypren (Berlin, 1968). J D. COONEY, Ca!alogue oIEgyptian.dlll/qll/!ics in !/{e Bri!is/{ l\llwCIIIII [\"; Class (London, 1976). C. LIIJ'QCIST and R. J-T. BrUl.L, Sludics iJll'aru' Egyplial/ glass (New York, 1993). 1>. 'T NICl-IOLSON, EgYPliulljiticllcc al/(I glass (Avlesburv, 1993),

claimants to the throne. The god's wife was in fact the most prominent member ofa group of 'Amun's concubines" all virgins and all \\"ith adopted successors. In the 25th and 26th Dynasties (747-525 Be), thc god's wife and her adopted successor

goats sce :\:\111\\1\1. IIUSB.'L'rnRY

god's wife of Amun (lielllel Ile!jer III [lIlell) The title of 'god's wife of Am un' is first attesfed in the early New Kingdom in the form of a temple post endowed by AI-h\10SE 1 (1550-1525 Be) for his wife .\I-I.\IOSE '\EFE1~T"RI. It hHer became closely associated with the title of l)[YIi'\E '\1)ORf\TRICE (dmal-Ilclja) which was held by the daughter or the chier priest or Anum under Hatshepsut (1473-1458 Be)l ;md by rhe mother of the 'great royal wife' (see QUEI':;\'S) in the sale reign of Thurmose III (l-t-79-1425 BC), although its importance ;.\t this time was much reduced. From the time of Amenhotep III (1390-1352 Be) until the end of the 18th Dynasty there appears to have been no royal holder of the office of god's wife of Amun. The function of the god's wife was to play the part of the consort of MIUN in religious ceremonies, thus stressing the belief that" kings were conceived from the union between Amlin ilnd the great roY_II wife. The title 'god's hanlf was also sometimes used, referring to the act of masturbation by ATli!ll by which he produccd SIIU and TEFNUT Atum's hand was thus regarded as remale, In the 19th Dynastv (1295-1186 Be), the title \Va.<.; reintroduced, but its importance was slighI' compared with earli~ cr periods. In the late 20th Dynasty, however, Rameses \'1 (1143-1136 BC) conrcrred on his daughter Isis a combined title of both god\ wife of Amlin and divine adoratrice, thus creating what was largely a political post. This office was from then on bestowed on the king's daughter \"ho, as a priestess, would have held great religious and political power in the city of Thebes. She was barred fi'om marriage 1 remaining a virgin; therefore she had to adopl the daughter of the next king as heiress to her office. In this way the king sought to ensure that he always held power in Thebes and also prevented elder daughters from aiding rival

Grallite staluelll' (lflhc g(j(t:~ 111{fi: Amellirdis t, dal/gll/('/" I)/Ihe Kwhile mlcr Kashttl. Latc 8!1t celltlllY IJC. N. 28.3 WI. (/:'.'1-J.6699)

played an important role in the transference of rOY_II power. This office was sometimes combined with that of chief of the priestesses of AmLIn. Some measure of the wealth and influence of these women is seen by the building of a 'tomb with chapel' by Ameninlis I, sister of King Shahaqo (716-702 BC) or the 25th Dynasty, within the temple enclosure at
j\lEDL,\TET lIABU.

U. HOl.SOlER, Thce.rwvalioll r~r/Vlcd/}[ct HallJl v: Posl-Rfnnc.';sid remai"s (Chicago, 195+). M. GrITO'\', L 'epOl!Sl~ dll dim. Ahmcs N4er!alT
(Paris, 1975), E. GRAEFE, UlIlcr.wdl1lllgCll ::'II/" f/,'rllJ{/lllIlIg
lIltd

Ccschidllc der Instill/liO/l der GOllcsgemah/i1l des

113

-"G:..:O'-'L"'D"---

---'~

AlIIlflll'/llJI Begin des Nmen Re/rhcs 11I~~ zur

brown

unpainted

Spdt"eit (vVicsbadcn, 1981). i\1. Grn-o:\', Lcs divines ipowcs tie fa /& {~J'lltlSlie
(Paris, 198{). G. ROUL\S, II~Jlllel! ill 1993), H9-56.
(II/timl

.f:!!,ypi (London,

gold
'I'hat gold was a precious commodity in Eg'ypt is undoubted, although it was outranked by Sll..\ ER \yhcn this was first introduced. By the
lVliddlc Kingdom (2055-16.10 He), however, gold had become the most precious material, and was eagerly sought. It is no surprise that the oidesl known geological map is a diagram of the g'old mines and beJdlf:l/-stone (siltstone) quarries in the \iVadi T-bmmamat. The late Predynastic town at !\'.\(!{\JJ:\, ncar the mouth of vVadi Ha111J11amat, was known as Nub! ('gold town '), perhaps indicating that it grew rich fi'om the gold trade. Gold W:1S mined hath from the Eastern Desert and from Nubia, where there arc Egyptian inscriptions from Early Dynastic and Old J(jngdom times (3100-2181 Ilc). Ne\\' Kingclom priv,ltc tombs, such as that of Sobekhotep ("I"T63), sometimes include depictions of Nubians bringing gold as tribute. During the New Kingdom (1550--1069 DC) it was obtained also from Syri'1~Palestine by way of tribute, despite the fact that Egypt was ,lll'eady much richer in gold than the Levantine city-states. The Egyptians' prodigious \\'eahh in gold made them the envy of their neighbours in the )Jcar East, and finds frequent 111enl ion in the A.\I1\IC"Ji\ LETI'ERS. For example letter EA 19 from Tushratta of :Mit<lnni reads: 'May my brother send me in ,"cry great quantities gold that has not been worked, and may my brother send me much more gold than he did to my father. In my brother's country gold is as plentiful as dirt. Nlining and quarrying expeditions were carried out Linder military control, and lllany of the labolln:rs were COllYicts (sec STOi'\E \ND <tUARRYI"iG). The laborious and dangerous work may have ensured that t<lr many it was ,1 death sentence. The gold-bearing rock had to be laboriollsly crushed and washed to extract the metal which was then carried off" for refining and working. Gold was regarded as the Oesh OfR'\ and the other gods, ~l di"inc metal that never tarnished. As such it was used in the making of

1 sle)e01 Sety I 2 cistern (orwater-resef\loir) 3 shrine of 'Amun of the puremounlain'

')E;n ~
4 workers' huts 5 slreaksolbrown,perhaps indicating geological variation 6 wadi Iloor, idenlifiedas the 'road thai leads 10 Ihe sea'

CIIPY ~(part olthe "ntr;1/ 1IIill;ng !)({PYl"lts'. the earl;est surl';r;llg geol()gltal !!lap, mhidl rlomlllcllts (/ qual"ly;llg t'.l'pl'ilitioll ill the "i..'Il"Ir!;Z)1 of a gold-mill;ng seltlellll'lll illlhe "'{uli Ilal/ll/lfllJlflf. R('/~f!,n o!Ra!!lcses /I, c. I 1.)3-1 /17 /lC. (n HI\, IIL"SNO rcwo, e 1"1: 11179)
LEI'T

IlELOW ParI v/a !1Jall-pailltillgji'O/l! 1111: tom/!d{{fpl!! (~(Subekl{()t('p (rr63), slwIPillg iYuhilllH presellting gold as tri!Jute 10 the L~f!,.YPti(fll hllg. Thl' gold has beell ({1st illto rings/ur ease (~rfI'(lIlSpf!"f. 18th DYllasty, c:.. f.-IOO Bc.ji'fllll Y'ltcbcs. (I:' ,(21)

images of the god, or as gilt for di\'ine statues; it also adorncd temples and the pyramidions surmounting obelisks and pyramids. The ROY:\L TITUL..\RY included the 'Golden Horus' name, associating the king with the sun, while the goddess Hathor was sometimes described as '1'he golden one This connection with the gods made it the ideal mctal in funerary contexts, as spectacularly witnessed by the mask and coffins of Tutankhamuil (1336-1327 J3c), although lesser individuals aspired to gilded or yellow-painted masks. The sarcophagus chamber in the royal tomb was known as the 'house of gold', while ,It the ends of sarcophagi or coffins '.sIS and ~VI'J-1TIIY.s were orten shown kneeling On the hieroglyphic sign for gold (Ilcbm). In the SthDynasty tomb of ly-Ivlerv at Giza (G6020) an

inscription points out that the shape of the

Ifebm sign was being imit<lt'ed by pairs of

dancers in the funerary dance knO\\'n <IS the f(here}: In times of unrest the golden funerary equipment' acred as ,1 lure for tomb-robhers, as recorded in Papyrus Abbot' which deals with the desecration of the tomb of King Sobkcmsaf II of the 17tb Dmasty (1650-15511 lJe):

Part ~rajloral {"f}lIarjr)l"IIfI:rlji'n/ll gold, comeli({n (flld bl//e glass inlaid elell1t'11t.I, mhith illustrates Ihe we ({the C/(JI:WJIIIU/ technique vI gf/!d/1Jorkillg. Nem Kingdom, c.137{}--1300 IJG, II. (as st/'llllg) 12.2 ClI1. (1.::.-13071)
RIGHT

114

....

GOLD

GREEKS

4,~rc opened their sarcophagi and their coffins ... and found the noble mummy of this King equipped with a falchion [cun-ed sword] '" amulets and jewels of gold were upon his neck, :lnd his headpiece of gold was upon him. The noble Illummy of this King "'as C0111pletely bedecked with t:'old, and his coffins were adorned with gold, . 'vVc collected the gold we found On the mummy of this god. and we set fire to their conins . Gold could also serve the li\ iog, ancl the material melted down b~ the robhers would have been used in exchanges. since there was no .letu.l) coinage. The high \'~duc of gold made it ;,1 suitable reward for emincnt indi"iduals, and there arc represenlJtions of faHlUred !'\C\\ Kingdom officials such as .\ Iaya and !I0RE,\IIIEn being rc\\'ardcd with golden collars by the pharaoh. There arc many sun-i,-ing examples of the 'FIX of \'alour', a military honOur uSll:llly nude of gold. The gold of ancient Egypt became legendary ancl c,'cntllally passed into medieval folklore_ With the discOlen- of the tomb of Tlitankhamun, I-he im;tgination of the twentieth-century press became particularl~ obsessed \\'ith rhe 'gold of the pharaohs', often at the expense of discm'crics that arc archaeologiL"ally more signific'lnt.

j. CEIC\T, 'Prices and wages in Egypt in the Ramcssidc period', G'ahiers d'I-!islfJire -'lOll/fill It' I
(1~5-1), ~03-21.

R. KLE:\L\I and D. D. KI.E\I\I, 'Chronologischcr Abriss dc.-:r antiken Goldgewinnung in del' Ostwiisre .:\gyprens', /vlDAJ K SO (199-l), 29-]5.

great green (Egyptian madj ma)

fecunclit~ tig'ure (sec who appe'lrs to have personified either the lakes within the Nile Delt.1 or the 1\ lcditcrranean se,\. The Ianer interpretation is a matter of considerable debale; il h.1s been pointed out, for instance, that ccrtain texts (such as Papyrus Ramcsscu111 n) describe the crossing of the 'great grcen' by foot, and olher documents USe a determin.ui,e sign for the ter111 that suggests dry land rather than water. J. B\I'I:$, Ft.'(li1l1filyjiguns: EgYPlian P('I"s(Jl/~li({fli(J1/ lIw/lhl! i(011ld0JJ.Y ofa genn: (\Varminstcr, 1986). C. \-\NDERSI.EYF.', (I ,c sens de Ouadj-Our (W'd\~ir)', ,Ai'lm IIII/i/l(III.''' /9851\, cd. S. Schoske (Hamburg, ]991), 3-4-5-S2.

CoPJ' OflllJ'1l1l-plli1lIillgji'0111Ihe /rimb of JImkheperrascneb 01 TlJ('bes, shomillgjim!ig1l rulers from IIII.' Aegeall 1Illlllhi' Yellr Elisl bringing Irilmlc 10 lilt, phllraoh. The proslrale/igllrc o1llhe It:'ji is described liS Ihe 'c!n't{ofJl/(' K(/iim' (usf(({/~)1 (lSSII/11cd 10 be 0 n:fi!l'l!llL'e 10 Crete) alld IIIefigllre fill IIIe/i/l' righlmcars rleg,'11I1 t!olhiug ({lfd curries (/ Illfilluall-slJ'le bull:\' head. l!Jlh PVlltISly, c. !-ISU 11(:.
Greece until well into the Pharaonic period, "ariolls economic and polil'ic:i1 links gradually dc\"c1opeu m'er the centuries. By rhe 12th D,-nast\ (1985-1795 Be) the TOO (reasure shows Greek influence, blll il was in the ~C\\ Kingdom (1550-1069 Be) that contacts bccome mosl clear_ [n Eg'-ptian lombs of 1500-I-HO Be there arc rcprcscnlalions of cups of the type found at \"aphcio in m~linlilnd Greece, which wcre brought to Thebes as tribute by Cretans. Paintings in the tomb of Senenmut (-r1'71) show not only il gianl Vapheio Clip but 'llso .1 bullheaded rhyron, while Cret'ans arc also shown in the tomb of iV[cnkhcpcrrascneb ("nS6). It may be that Cretans and other Greeks visited Egypt during this time and rook away with them notions or Egyptian architecture, since some l\linoan frescos portray papyrus columns. The goddess Tc\WERET was modified to become the so-called Cretan 'genius" losing her hippopota~llthough

'T'crm llsed to refer to a

I If\!'\ )

great royal wife s<'<' (l.LEE~S Greeks

Egypt did not dc\"c1op dose conl.1Cts with

[ [5

GREEKS

mus form until she more closely resembled a donkey. "I'hoth, in his baboon manifestati on, \yas also imported into Crete. Similarly, LVI yccnaean ponery reached Egypt in the New Kingdom, perhaps .1S containers for a particular valued commodity, and has been found in large quantities ill sites such as EI.-:\:\\ \R.':\. Cyprus W;.1$ ;,1lso important as a source of copper, imported as ox-hide ingots. Certain resins

shatt tombs

50
shatt tombs

100

150

200 m

may also h<l\"c been imported frol11 Cyprus (and

elsewhere in Greece) and Cypriot paltCry is also atresred in Eg\'pt. Psamtek I (66-1-610 lie) allowed Greeks from 1\ lilctus to found a commercia l cclHrc at :'\AuhR.\TIS, and under Ahmosc II (j70--526 Be:) [heir trade was limited to this city. The Egyptians levied a duty on commerce there, and this \YaS sent to the tcmple or Neirh at S_\IS. The cir~ struck its own coinage, the only type of coin known from Pharaonic Egypt. lVlercenary soldiers, including some fi'om the l\lediterr;m can, had been used increasingly from the l'\ew Kingdom, but by rhe S:\IT!: period (664-525 Be) Egypr had come to depend eyer more heavily on Greek mercenary troops, who were settled in j\/lcmphis. The rising powcr of PERSIA inc\'it;tbly Icd to the conqucst of Egypt in 525 Be, making Egypt;1 n;1tural ally of the Greek city-slates. In 465 BC, following rhe death of Xerxes I (486-l65 Be), there waS;.l revoIr by Psamtek of Sais, and with Athenian help hc besieged lhe Persi:lI1s at 1\ lcmphis, allhough he was e,-cnrually killed in 454 Be. Through the lasl decades of the fifth century Be, his supporters sun-ived in the Delta marshcs, retaining their contacts with Athens. It was at some time during this period that lhe Greek hisrorian IIElmnOTL:S m;tdc his visit ro Egypt, recording recent political events and 10L';.11 curiosities. 1n .J05 Be Darius II of Persia (42+-405 BC) died and in the following year Amyrtaios (-+0+-399 Be) seized power in Egypt, becoming the only ruler of the 28th Dynasty. Egypt had been drawn cver more into the Greek wodd, and Nepheritcs I (399-393 BC) supporled the Cypriots against the Persians. Later, rerolts in Persia led lcos (362-360 Be) to attempt to rcg;.lin those prm-inccs that had been lost; in this c1mpaign he depended hca"il~ on the Greek mercenarie s prorided by the Sparf:lI1 king Agcsilaus ~lI1d the .l\thcni;m admiral Chabrias. 'rhe power of the Greek mercenaries at this time is indicclled by the fact that a subsequent re\'olt in favouf of Neetanebo II (360-343 BC), nephe,, ofTcos, succeeded primarily because of the suppOTt of Agesilaus. In 3-4-3 IJC thc Persians attacked again, but the Greek merccmlri<.."S were once more disloy<11, and Egypt fell. It W;.lS (he coming of .l\tlacedonian Greeks

N+- -

under \L.' \;{D!:R TilE GREXI' (332-323 Be), ousting the Persians in 332 BC, that brought Egypt rully into the J-lcllenistic world. New cities such <1S \LE,\-\'IlDRt, ' and Ptolcmais were cstablished and scttled by Greeks, while the F\YL \1 JU:GIO:'\. became an important agricultur.l1 Centre. Greek was adopted as the official language, .md numerous papyri or the period ha, e been discoycred ;\1 0.\ YRY~ClILS and else"'here. This mixing of Greeks and Egyptians led to new artistic dcrelopme nts, with traditional subjects depicted in inno,ati"e ways, as in the scenes from the tomb of PETo.SIRIS at Tuna el-Gebel. The Greeks, and through thcm the Romans, held Eg~ pt in high regard as;.l fom of ancient ,dsdom, and in this way Egyptian civilization exerted a strong innuence on the Classical world. The ancien1 Greek kOllrosfigures, ror cxJmple, derived their characteris tic appearance from the Greeks' observation of

Plaa "(Camb.
Egyptian st;Hues. The roots of \\CSlern ci,jlization owe considerab ly morc to Eg~ pt than is commonly realized. 1-1.-]. TIiISSE,\" 'Griechcn in Agyptcn', 1,t'nJ:(1II tier .lgyplologic III, cd. \Y. I-Iekk, E. QLlO ;11111 W, Wcsrendorf(Wiesbaden, 1977), 898-'1Il.1. B. J. KE~IP and R. :\ICRRI1.EES, .llilltJ(/J/ potlt'lT from second mil/(,1I11iu111 t.'gYP' C\1:tin.z, 1(81).

A. K, B(l" \1 \'\, /:''gypl (({ia fhe plwl'flo!t.\ (London, 1986). N. LE" IS, Grech iu Ptolemaic Egyp, (Oxford,

1986).
D. j. TIIO\II'SO~, Afi'lI/phis fluder ,hl' P'lIk//lIi'S

(Princeton, 1988).

Gurob (Medinet el-Ghurob ; anc. >\li-\ler) Settlement site at thc southeaster n end of the Fayum region, occupied fr0111 the e'lrl~ 18rh Dynasty until at least the time of Ramcses r

116

GUROB

HAIR

(I IP-I 143 BC). Excavated between 1888 and ]920, Gurob has been identified with the rown of NIi-weT, which was established by Thutmuse III (1479-1425 BC) as a ruyaIIlAl",\I, 3.nd appears to have flourished in the reign of Amenhutep III (1390-1352 BC). Flinders Petrie excavated part of the Nc\\- Kingdom town, as well as a building identified as it temple, and cemeteries d~lring to the Kc\\ Kingdom and the Prolemaic period (332-30 BC). The 'mrk of subsequent British archaeologists conccntriltcd primarily 011 the cemeteries and temple, although \,V. L. S. Lo~lt mentions the remains of a small 18th-Dynasty village close to a fiJrdfied buiJding, which may have been an carly New Kingdom scnlcment similar ro lhat beside the South Palace at DElI{ F.1.-1I.\l.l-AS. In 1905 the LOwn was examined by the German archaeologist Ludwig Borchardt, who suggested that thc main enclosure-wall contained not a temple ~ ~IS Petrie had argued - but a late 18th-Dynasty palacc and harim as well as the town itself J\'lore recently, Barry Kemp has synthesized the results of the various excavations to construe! an impression of the New Kingdom Iwrim-town which must have superseded the earlier \ilI:1ge. 'rhe main town, contained within an enclosure wall and divldcd into three blocks (each with its own enclosure walls and gateways), appears to foclis on a centr;]l limestone building, doning to the reign of Thutmose III, which was C\Tlltually dismantled by Rameses II (1279-1213 BC). ,Many of the finds from the town are in the collection of the Petrie iVluseu111, London, and havc bcen c~Halogued in the course of a reassessment of the site as a whole. It might be argued that the combination of artefilCtual material from town, temple and cemeteries constitutcs a morc reprcsentati\c set of cvidence than the material at the betterdocumented and better-preserved urban site of EL-Ai\I/\R"t\, which includes very few artefacts from funerarY contexts. W. Ivl. E PETRIE, K(;hUII, Gurub alld Ilamart{ (London, 1890). - , II/ahl/II, Kahlln alld Gurob (London, 1891). W. L. S. LOAT, Climb (London. 1905). L. BoRCIIARDT, Der POrJriillmp[du Kiillig;u Trje: AIIsgrabrmgen der DClltscheu Or;ent-Gt'srl/srlurji;11 Tell e1-Amarl1al (Leipzig, 1911). G. BRli:'XTOX and R. E,\'GELfHCII, Cum" (London, 1927). 13. 1. KEI\lP, 'The harilll-palace ar Nledinet el~ Ghurab', zis IS (1978),122-33. A. P. TIIOi\IAS, ClIrn": (l NelP Killgdom IOITJIl, 2 vols (Warminster, 1981).

H
hair
The style, presence or absence of hair were all of great importance to the Egyptians, nOl only as a ma((cr of personal appearance but also as symbols or indicalions of st.llUS. The act of ritual humiliation and subjection was demonsnated by thc king's action of scizing his enemics by the hair before smiting them. The Egyptians wok great care of their hair, and wcre concerned to .woid greying and baldness, judging from the survival of texts including remedies for Ihese conditions, none of which seems likely to ha\ e been \"ery cfTccti\-c. Nc\-crthclcss, hair ,,-as usually washed and scentcd, and wcalthy individuals emplo~ed hairdressers. The 11 th-Dynasty sarcophagus ofC&eell Kawit from Deir el-Bahri (r.20-l0 lie; now in the Egyptian i\!(USCU111, Cairo) shows such a hairdresser at work. Children wore

sexuali~'.

!Vlen generally worC shoner wigs than women, although their styles were sometimes even more ehlborate. \Vigs were worn On public occasions and at banquets, and, like

\UO\ E Elaborale m;g 1/ulf!t'jiwl1 about 120,000 ltuma1! ha;rs. II l"OI1SL~/S ofa lIIas., of":!(hl-mloured mrl~ 0" toP ofplails. designed 10 aI/om t:elJ/;latiol1. amI mould proI1l1b(j, hare been 11J(In! 011 ajestin' ()("C(H;OU. Nem Kingdom.jiom Dcirel-Aledil1a. fl. 5U..; 011. (, ,256U)

LEJoT Dclail fi"()lll Ihc relic/decoratio/l ({the sarcophagus oIQpet:1l Kawil ((1 m{/e oj"Nt,b!tepelra !\IlelllultOlcp II, ~-JIOI1'I1It(/t"illg heT IUtir llrrf1l1ged kJ' (/ sert'flu/. I lIlt D.JlIlaso'. c.20.)5-200-/oc. I.. of mlin' sarmpltagm 2.62 111 (C.UROJE-/7J97)

their hair at the sidc of lhe hcad sometimcs as one or two {TeSSCS or a plait, and \ycre otherwise shaven. This characteristic SIDELOCK OF YOl'Tll W.1S regularly depicted, even in the portrayals of deities such as the infant" llORUS (Ilarpocrates). Hair-pieces in the form of false phlits and curls were someLi.mes added to the existing hair, e\cn in the Clse of rclatiycly poor indi,jd"als. One of the slain soldiers of ~ [entuholep II (2055-200-1 Be) buried at Deir c1-Bahri was found to be wearing a hair-piece of this type. J\ lore common, hmyc\"cr, wcre fu II wigs, which were not confined to those who had lost their hair but served as a regular item of dress for the elite, as in eighreenrh-cenrur~ Europe. i\lany Egyptian wigs were extremely complex and arranged into careful plaits and strands. \Vomen often wore ,ery long, hc.ny wigs and these were considered to add [0 their

hair, "ould often have been scented (see 1,\ICl~'\lSE). in 1974 a team of Polish archacolo~ gists discovered the rcmains of a wig-maker's workshop dating to the lVliddlc and New Kingdoms in a rocky clen at Dcir c1-Bahri. The objects included a sack and jars containing hair, ~IS well as a model head with lhe outlinc of the wig's attachments. \\figs \yere usually 1ll,lde of genuine human hair, although ycgetable fibres were sometimes used for padding bene.lIh the surf<.lce. Date palm is knO\\"n to hayc been used for this purpose in the 21st DI'nast)' (1069-9-15 IIC). Twu Roman wigs made entirely of grass have also survived, hut Lhe use of t.his material scems to have been wholly exceptional. Contrary [Q persistcnt references in the archaeological literature, therc is no c\idencc for the lise of \\"001 or other animal hair in wigs. From .It least as carly as the :\"ew Kingdom, the heads of rRIEsrs were completely shaven 117

'-I-I'-'-A'-'P_Y'----

-'-l~I~

during their period of office, to signify their subscn'ience to the deity, and 10 reinforce their cleanliness, ;lccording to the Greek historian Herodotus. Times of mourning were oficll marked by throwing ashes or dirt over Lhc head, and sOlllcrimcs c-Ycn J'cI11o\"ing locks of hair. The hieroglyphic detcrminati,c sign for mourning consists of three locks of hair, perhaps alJuding to the myth of Isis CUlling off onc of her locks as a symbol of her grief for Osiris, an .lct hinted at in Papyrus RamessclIll1 \1 and described in derail by the Greek writer Plutarch (c.\I) ~6-126). E. L \S"-o\\'S"-!\-KL"SZT\I., 'Un atelicr de flerruqucrier ,I DeiI' el-Baluri', ET 10 (1978), 83-12U. G. P()SE1\'I~R, 'La leg-ende de Ia ITcsse d'Hathor', L'gYPI/Ilogiml sIJUli('.~ inllfmor ofR.. 1. ParI'a, cd. L. H. I.esko (llanOler and London, 1986), 111-17. J. FI.ETClII~R, '.\ rale of hair, wigs .md lice', EgYPlian tlrdwcolllgy 5 (1994),31-3. - , 'Hair and wigs', ,-ll/cil'1ll .t.~~J'Pli{{1/ IIllIlerials (/llilla/lImloK)', cd. P. T Nicholson and 1. Sh<l\\ (Cambridge, 2000).

Hapv (baboon-god) sec "'''OI'IC J IKS Hapv (god of the inundation) The Egyptians m'lde an impormnt distinction between the Nile itself - which was simply known as iler,?', 'the riyer' - and the Nile I,IT'\IH'I'I01\, which th~y deified in the form of lli1py. He was usually represented ilS a potbellied bearded man with pendulous breasts and a headdress formcd of aquatic plants. These atlributes were designed to stress his fertility and fecundity, and in this sense he was inrerehangeable ,yith a number of other 'fecundity figures' whose depictions draw on the same reservoir of characteristics. It has also been suggestcd that the androgynous features of the phar~lOh '\"'I-IE'\,ATI':~ (1352-1336 Be) - and, 1"0 some extent, 1 \IF.'\!IIOTEI' III .... (LWO-1352 Be) - may reflet.:f a similar desire LO present an image of the body that drew on both male and female aspects of fertility. 1-l::lpy's major cult centres \\ere at GElJEI. EI.SII$II..:\ and \s\\ \~, \\ here he was thought to dwell in the c.lyernS among the rocks of the first cataract. The lower registers of many temple walls, from the 5th-Dynasty mortuary temple of Sahura (2~S7-2475 lJe) al ,'BUSI. to the Greco~Roman temple of Horus and Sobek al "':0\1 oJ\IIJO, were decorated wit h depictions of processional fecundity figurcs hearing tr..iys of offcrinbJ"S. From the 19th Dynasty (1295-1186 Be) onwards there wcrc occasionally reliefs ponraying two fecundity figures, one wearing the papyrus of Lower Egypt and
118

fusing both because it had none of the erotic connot.ttions of the Ottoman hanm and because dle texts and arch.leological remains are difficult to reconcile. On the one hand, the surviving texts describe an important cconomic institution supported from t'IXatlOn, and recci, ing rcgu_ 1.11' supplies of rations, and on the other hand the archaeological remains at GLHOH are clearly identified as the remains of <In independent establishment relating to rOY'll women (a 'lllfrilll-pabce'), founded in rhe reign of Thutlllose III (l-t79-1~25 1Jr.) and oeelJpied throughout the rest of the 18th Dynast~. The inscriptions on stelac, papyri and variollS other inscribed artefacts from the main buildings ill the sire repeatedly include t.he tides of officills connectcd with the royalllllrim (or pl'r-l.:hL'lft'T) of ~ Ii-weI'. There was e,"identl~ a ",imilar establishment in ~IE\IPI liS, but th'1I site hilS nOi suni,cd. Alrhough orher !tarims h.n e in Lhe P;lSI been identified among the remains at such sites as ~II\I."-:\'li\ and 1:J.-'\.\li\R\J/\, which incorporated the palaces of Amenhotep III (1390-1.152 Be) and Akhcnaten (]]52-1J36 Be) rcspct.:li\'c1Yl they arc unlikely to have had any conncction with the !tarim descrihed in the leXlS <Inti usu'llly in fact deri"e more from the imaginJtions of the cxc;,l\-ators than from any hard CYidcnce (although the so~called 1\orth Palace al e1~ Amarna, which ironically was not idenlified as a !tarim by its eXC;l'awrs, bears some l.:ompari-

Qjfarl:zill' slalUt' o.l"l{,,, iJIIl1ldaliulI-god I-Iapy, sIUJ/1J11l1'il{, l!t"j{u:ialjcalllres (~rOsor/,;OIl I, I1I{,OS(' SOil, S{,c.~//(IlIfJ fl. is depitll'd ill rclie.{ (}II l!te Icji side oflheslallle. 2211lIDy,ltlS~)I. c.910oc./I. 2.2111.
(1:/8)

the uther wearing the Upper Egyptian 10tllS, in the act uf binding togethcr the ',"ind-pipe hieroglyph (scilla) signifying the unity of the southern and northern halves or Egypt. D. BO.N:'\E:\L, 1,(( tTlIl' till Ni/. dirillile eK.l'!llieflut' if Irm.:'rs mille fms d'/u"sloirt, (332lfi.'.-6-1-1 ap. ].c) (Paris, 1964).

J. 13\1'1':''), Feamdi~l'.figllrls: (!{Y/Jfian

pl'1"s(JII~limliom lIIulllrt'

irtJllolog)/IJ.{lI genre

(\Varminstcr, 1985). D. 'A:"\ DER Pl. \5, L '/q'11I11e (i /" alll'tllI.\ iI, 2 "ols (Leiden, 1986).

Copy lila rclieIslwII'illg Rallleses III /IIi/!t Iliff ,{111I' prillteJses ill !tis harim. fliSIt'1"1I CalC, .llfd1llft Habll.

harim (Egvptian ipel, pcr~t"ellcr) Term used by Egyptologists to describe an administraLi\"c institution connected with royal women ;)nd probably attached to Pharaonic palaces and yillas during the New Kingdom. However, the usc of this e\'ocativc term in the ancient Egyptian contcxt is con-

son with the buildings al Gurob). As 1:11" .IS thc texlual "ersiOllofl"hc institution is c011l:crned, the women arc said to have undertakcn such tasks;IS the weaving of linen (an acti"ity th,lt is well attested at Gurub). The !tarim was adl11iniSLered h," such male officials as tJx-collectors and scribes. 'Yhose titles hayc been prescn"cd on numerous surviving documents. \Vhen the pharaoh took a ne\\ or

"ire

HARI'OCRATES

HAT-M EI-I IT

concubine she was added to the !tarim, along with her entourage of maidscryants, so that, as

rime wenl by, literally dozens of \,"omen might

be attached to it. Children, including occasional young foreign captives. \ycn.' brought up in the royal Ilflrilll. a practice that may hayc fostered the Biblical story of ~loscs. Giycn the details of the 1\ loses narrati,"c, it is perhaps not surprising LO find that the women of the /wrim occasionally became in\'oln::d in political intrigue. From the 'Turin Judicial Papyrus it is known that Tiy, <l wife of Rameses III (118+-1153 Ill:), plorred \\ ilh other women and some of the male oflicials lO O\"enhrow him in bnlur of her son. In the e,"cnt the plOI waS discO\'crcd and lhe prince W:lS fi)l"Ccd to commit suicide, along with several of the other conspirators, although the fale ofTiy and the other women is not known. A. DE Du:h., 'The judicial p;lpyrus of Turin" ]EA 23 (1937),152-(,+. E. RI~ISE]{, Dcr 1.'(i'II/~rdirhc /larilJl /11/ allclI.}!{)'PICII /ll1d seilte I ('rma/fllng (Vienna, 1972) [reviewed b~' B.]. Kemp,]E/62 (1976),191-21 B. J. KI':1\ll', 'The harim-pa!ace al 1\ lediner elGhurab', zAs 15 (1978),122-33. D. NORD, <The tcrm/lllr. "harem" or "musical performers"r, SII/(lics ill (ll/ticlIl L'gypl. Ihe Aegea1l (lw/lhe SudalJ, cd. \~T.K. Simpson and IV. M. Davis (BoSlon, 1981), 137--45. G. Row,s, lI'tnllclI in autienl J:.:rJ.I'pl (London l 1993),38--40.

was 'son Hathor'. Her role as royal mother is well illustrated by a statue of Hathor in the form of a cow suckling the pharaoh Amenholep II (1+27-1+00 BC) from a chapel al DEIR EI.-B\lIRI (no,, in the Egyptian .\luseum, Cairo). The king, howeYer, was also rcgularl~ described as the son of ISIS, who appears to ha\'c usurped Ilathor's role whcn tllC legend of Isis, SETII ~lI1d OSIRIS was conOated with that of the birth of I-Iorus. . In one myth Harhor was said to h:t\e been scnt to destroy humanity (sec EYE OF R\), but

or

Harpocrates

Ii'e 1I0HLS

Harsomtus see Hathor

lIOHl'S

ting sun, ,,hich she then protected until morning. The dying therefore desired [() bc 'in the following of Hathor' so that the) would enjoy similar protection in the netherworld. I huhor W'1S also one of tile deities who waS thought to be able to detcrmine the destinies of newborn children. She was the goddess mOSt often ~lssociated with the desert and foreign countries, and as such was worshipped as (lady of B\l.lLOS'. At the TLHQLOISI. mines of Serabit e1-~hadim in Sinai a temple was built [Q her in her role as 'lady of turquoise'. By extension she \yas also known as 'htdy of F\IE:'\CE' (thc latter being an artificial sllbsL~1I1ce designed to imitate certain precious stones). The city of 1\ lemphis was an important centre of Hathor \yorship, and she was described there as 'lady of the sycamore', but from as early as ,he Old Kingdom (2686-2181 lie) her principal cult centre waS at I1E'\I1EHA, where a tcmple of the Ptolemait and Roman periods dedicated to the triad of' Harhor, Horus and Ihy is still preserved (on the sitt: of an earlier f()undation). The sanatorium associated wilh this temple probably relates to the healing properties thM were associalcd with the goddess oec;llIse of the mytil in which she restored the sight of llorus "fter llis eye had been put out by Seth. S. Au. \ \I, 8cilni~l!,e ZlIm HalllOr!.:,,11 (hix ::.um End/! des MR) (Berlin, 1963). P. lJERCl1 \1:'\, Hallwr Q!uulrijimx (Istanbul, 1(72). S. QL..IRh.E, .-Indt/JI f:'gyplial/ rdigiol1 (London, 1992), 12(,-30. G. PI'O I, TlIlire oJ}i:rillgs 10 Hallwr (Oxford, 1993).

[mp0rlant bminc goddess worshipped in three filrms: as a woman wiLh the ears of a cow, as a cow, and as a woman wcaring a headdress consisting of a wig, horns and sun disc. Her associations and cult centres were among the most numerous and diverse of any of the Egyptian deities. In her \'Cngeful aspect she sometimes also shared the leonine form of the goddess SE"J1\1ET, and in this guise she \yas regarded as one of' the <eyes' of the sun-god It\. She was also describcd as 'lady of the sky', and her role as the daughtcr of I( \ was reinforccd in the temple of IIORLS at 1':llFU by references to her marriage to Horus of Edf'u , a falcon-god associated with the heavens. The literal meaning ofhcr namc waS (house of Horus" and was written ill the fix111 of a EllCOn contained within a hieroglyph representing a rcctangular building. Since the pharaoh was identified with Horus, H,lthor was correspondingly rcgarded as the divine mother of each reigning king, and one of the royal titles

Hat-Mehit
Fish-goddess of the Delm, who sened as the symbol uf the sixteenth nome of Lower Eg) pt, the capiml of which was the city of \IE:'\DL"i, her principal cult centrc. Her worship aL j\ lClldes bcc~lmc less important with the rise of the ram-god Bancbdjcdet, who came to be reg-.1rded as her consort. She was usually represented either as a I\"ile carp (I...-t'piduIIIS) or as a woman wilh a FISII emblem (once misidentificd ;15 a dolphin) on her hcad.

Fuience sislrum derortlfct! milh Ihl,p,ce oflhe godde.u 11m/un: milh ((J/11~( l'ur." (II/(I disliuClii:l' mrlillg /pig. 261h f)YIUIS~lt. ajia 600 /lC. (E.IJ-I190j
she was more usually associated with such pleasurable aspccts of life as SE:\L.\l.rn, joy and \IU!'iIC. Her connection with music was particularly represented by the SISTKL,\I, ceremonial eXilmples of which wcre often cndowed wilh I hllhor hcads, sometimes surmounted by a \J\()S, and fi'cquenrJy shaken by the pricstesses of d,c cult of Hathor. Shc was also regularly portrayed on the lilli/wI counterpoise attached to necklaces. In her funcrary aspect, 1110SI' notably at western Thebes, she was known as <lady of the \Vest' or 'lady of the western mountain l . Each evening she was considcred to recei\'e the set-

Hatnub
alabaster' (tr~wertinc) quarries and :lssocial'ed seasonally occupied workcrs' settlement in the Eastern Desert, aboul 65 km sOutheaSI or modern el-J\ilinya. The pottery, hieroglyphic inscriptions ancl hieratic graffiti al the site show that it \Y:lS in use intermittently from at least as early as rhe reign of Khufu lIntil the Roman period (1'.2589 IlC-,\J) 3(0). The I-Iarnuh quarry settlements, associated
"Egypfi~1I1

119

HATSHEPSUT

I-IATSHEI~

, 1em of/ht' 0'" Killgdom/rarer/lnt' fj/larlY lit Ha/lIuh. (1.511./11)

with three principal quarries) like those associated with gold mines in the \Vadi f-htmmamal

and elsewhere, arc ch.tractcrized by drystone windbreaks, roads, causc\yays, cairns and
stone alignments. G. W. F'tlSI'R, 'Hal-Nub', I'SBA 16 (189+),

73-82. R. A'\Tllf-S, Die Ft'lsenillSchrijim i'OIl Hawub (Leipzig, 1928).

1.1\1. E. SII\\\, \}\
J"cpurls Ill, cd. B.
SUfYCy:lt

union between Amun and her mother Q!.lecn Ahmose. She ,yas probably ncyer the chosen heir of her father ThUt"I11oSC I, although she claimed to h,lVe been ghen thc kingship during her Euhcr's lifetimc. It is likely, howe,cr, that these reliefs and inscriptions concerning her legitimacy were simply part of the usual paraphernalia of f,:!:\'GSI-IIP rather than selfconsciolls propag'anda on her part". Dllring her reign there was renewed build-

I-Jamub\Amanlll

J. Kemp (London, 198Cl).

BC)

189-212. Hatshepsut (1+73-1+58

Daughter O[TllcT.\[OSI-:' (150+-1+92 Be:) and Queen .\1 "lOSE 'EFEK[\KI, who was married to her half-brother Thlltmose 11 (1+92-1+79 BC), the son of a secondary wife, perhaps in order to strengthen his claim to the thronc. She had a d;wghrcr, :'\cfcfura. by Thutmosc II, but the heir to rhe thronc, the future Thutmose III was the son of one of Thutlnose Il'S concubines. Since Thllm10se "' (1+79-1425 I1c), "'as the only male <.:hilcl, he \Vas married to his half.. sister Ncferura in order to reinfi:Jrce his position. Because Thunnosc III was still young when his father <.lied, Hatshepsut was appointed regem, and she took the funher step of having herself crowned king, allowing her to continue to enjoy a long COIU:(.iE'JCY with the young 'Thulmose, thus effectiycly blocking him from full power. Tn this she appears to ha,c had the support of the pricsts of A.mun, and some of the reliefs in her mori uary temple at DEIR EL-IlAIIRI reinforced her claim by emphasizing her divine birth, the result of a

ing activity at Thebes and elsewhere, in which she was assisted by SESU\ \ILT. archi_ tect, chief courtier and tutor to :\cfcrura. it is possible lhar his political skills had alreadv helped to gain Hatshcpsut her e!t:-yatcd posi~ tion. Her temple at Deir el-Bahri, influcnted by the earlier temple of Ncbhepetra \IE'\_ TLIIOTEP II (2055-2004 BC), was the Iinest of her buildings. Here she recorded lither aspects of her reign, most notably her trading expeditions to I'L:'\T, Il\ BLOS and SI'\ \1 ,IS "ell as the transport of two cnormous granite obelisks from the quarries at Aswan tn the temple of Allllln-R,l at "-.\R'\.\h.. It h,lS, in the P~lst, bccn suggested that the rcign of Hatshepsut was an unusually peaceful pcriod in Egyptian history, hur e, idencc has gradually emerged for the continucd dispatch of milimry expeditions during her reign, despite the ,lpparem cmphasis on trade in the n:licfs at Deir cl-Bahri. Her monuments at Deir c1-Bahri and elsewhere frequenl"ly show her in kingl~ costume, including the royal beard, and they orten refer to her with masculine pronouns and adjcctires as though she were male (ahhough, once ag:lin, it is likely th'lt this was simply a case of ailllering to the accepted decorum of kingship rather than deliberatc deception). In pnu.:ticc, there must have been some sensc of conflict between her sex <lnd the masculine role of the pharaoh, but only the occasional gramm.nical slips in the texIS (and, more importantl), lhe posthumous attempts to remove her name from monulllents) have suryived as indic1tions of sueh feelings of inappropriateness. \Vhen Thutmose III reached maturit), he e,cntually became sole ruler, but il is by no rne~lIlS c1e~lr whether Iiatshepsul simpl~ died or was forcibly removcd from power. 11 has been argued that the apparcnt disappear.mee both of Neferura and Senenmut (who is not attestcd after Thutmose Ill'S nineteenth rcgnal ye~lr) m.lY perhaps h,nc eased rhe transfcr of power. It used to be thought that Thutmosc immcdiately set about remming his "ICPmother's namc from her monuments, ,IS retribution for her seizure of pmYer, but it is nnw known that these defacements did not take place until much later in his reign. Thl.~ redating perhaps calls illlo question the mllrirc of pure ,-engeance or anger, as opposed 10 a feeling that her reign had simply been contraf\' to tradition. On the other hand her tWO mas~i"e obelisks at Karnak appear to h.l\'(' heen deliberateh conel'aled behind masonry, ~md her name w~s among those omitted fro Ol subsequcnt KI'\G LISTS. She had prepared ;l tomb for herself in the Valley or the Kings (Kv20)1 which ,,"as discu v-

Reliefblock.fiolll Ihe Red Chapel OJHltlShepSIII III Karnak, shomillg the {flll'en pCljormillg a religious (crt'mmq' msoriated mith the kingship. 18tft D.)I1lOJO', c.I-/lO He, quart.dte. (CRAII.-/,l/ IIIIWfSON)

120

HAWARA

HAWARA

ered b~' Howard Carter in 190J. There is no evidence that" \'20 was eyer used for her burial, although it contained an empty quartzite sarcophagus originally intended for Thlllmose I (nO\y in the lVIUSCUITI of Fine Arts, Boston). She may hayc been laid to rest in an earlier tomb} the so-called 'SO Lith tomb' in the Wadi Sikket 'Cl(F cl-Zcid in the dirfs to the south or Deir cl-Bahri, which had been constructed before her rise to the throne. H. CAlflTR and T. M. Om,s, TiJe IMlib HfllslwpsillJ (London, 1906). H. CARTER, 'A tomb prepared for Queen Hatshcpsuir and other recent discoycrics at Thebes',]F.A 4 (1917),107-18. F EJ)(~ElnO.'\l, The l'l/ll!/l/osid SIIUC.uIOI1 (Chicago, 1933). P. DOR.\L\:'\, The 11I01lllJIIC1lls vI SeJlCJlIIlII/ (London, 1988). P. DER IVI,\i\'UI':I.II\'\ and C. E. LOElJE:---, '":'\l ew light on the rccarycd sarcophagus or Hatshcpsut and Thutlllose I in the iVI useum of Fine Arts, Boslon',.lEA 79 (1994),121-56. J. Tn.DESI.EY, _Halcl/l:psIII: lite .fi'lIwle pl/{/rtloh (I-Iarmonclsworth, 1996).

or

vv.

.'\1l()\T

ViCJ/l (!llhe pyra/llid ttl

J1({/1)({/"{/.

(I. SII./IV)

Hawara
Royal necropolis in the sOlltheastern Fayum region, the mOSL important element of which was the pyramid complex of A~IE~E~lIIAT III

N/ulIImy (ase o.fArll'lllidoflls, illrorporatillg C/lull/slit pOflrail o.ll!Je dact/sed. Romalf period, ettrf)' 2nd relllllJY -W, pail/led (flld gilded slllcco.Fo/// Ht/mara, 11.1.67/11. (L/21810)
IUGIIT
till

(1855-1808 Be). The mortuary temple constructed immediately to the south orthe pyramid was known to Classical authors as the 'Labyrinth'. It was visited by the Greek historian Herodotus, who described a complex of three thousand rooms connected by winding passages. The site subsequently became parr of the itinerary of Greek and Roman tn.1\"eIlers. Although only a few traces of the mortuary temple havc survivcd, it has been sug'gcstcd that it may originally have had some similarities to the complex surrounding the Step Pyramid of Dioser (2667-2648 Be) at S..\ Q..Q..\RA. Hawara was first identified by Lepsius in 184-3 Jnd later cxcavatcd by Flinders Peuie in ]889-9 and 1910-11. In the yicinity or Hawar;] Petrie also discoyercd a cemetery incorporating a number or Fayum mummy-portraits executed in E:-"'(.AUSTIC or tempera and datillg to the Romal1 period (30 13e-.\]) 395). \V.Jv1. F. PETIUE 1 Ha/IJara. Biahlllll and .-lrsilloc (Lonclon, 1889). - , Kahlill. Gum/! awl HalJlal'{f (London, 1890). W. NI. E Pt':Tlm:, G. A. 'WAINWRIGHT and
E. lVlo\Cl-.::AY, TIl{.' L(f/~vrillfh, Gcrzt:h aud

Plall oIlhe pyramid toll/plc.r o/Alllcncmlllli III al Ha/IJartl.

Ma::::g/{/l('h (London, 1912). A. B. LLOYD l 'The Egyptian Labyrinth',]EA 56 (1970),81-100. D. AR:'\OLD, 'Das Labyrinth und seine Vorbilder" MnilK 35 (1979),1-9.

]21

_H_A_\_VA_\'_'I~S_I-~I,_E_,L~-

H~[~

Hawawish, el- sec 1\".1 b\II,\1

hawk see
FAI.CO,

headdresses

The insigni,l ~lI1d regalia Egyptian rulers and deities included a wide variety of headdresses. The pharaoh in\ariably wore headgear of some kind, ranging' from the double crown to the simple IICllh'S heaclcloth (see (RO\\ '\,IS \'\1)
IUJ)'\I.

or

In:G\u.--\),

Jeities' headdresses \\"tTe often JistincriH:, and from an Egyptological point of view often serve as the principal clue [0 the identity of the deity concernec!. Occasionally such artributes as the headdress arc transferred from olle deity to another in order to reflect the adoption of particular characteristics. 'I'he COmmonest headdresses ,Ire listed belm\: Amcnn.:t (pnsonification of the \VesT): standard surmounted by a leather and bird.
cxtremcJ~

The

An1lm: crown with two tall plumes, also combined \\-ith;t sun disc. J\nuket: crown or cap or feathers. Atum: double crown or upper and Lower Egypl. Gcb: either a goose or the crown of Lowcr Eg~ pl combined with thc tilt/crown, I-b (god or the \Vestern Desert): the hicroglyph for desert or hills. Harhor: cO\r's horns ;lnd sular disc. I-Jeh: norchcd palm frond. Hurus: douhle crown or triple alelcro\\l1. label (personificltiol1 of the East): spear stal1cbnl. Isis: the hieroglyphic sign for tillone, <l pair of' co\\ 's horns ;mel ,1 sO[:lr elise, 01':1 \'tJlture headdress. ~hons: lunar disc ;lnd crescent. Abat: feather. IVlin: double-plumed crown with ribbon or strcamer hanging fi'OI11 thc back. ,Vlut: \'ulturc hc.:<Iddrcss sometimes surmounted by double crowl1. Nefertem: lotus flc)\\cr.

Ncith: shield \\-irh t\W crossed arrows and l:nl\\ n of Lo\ycr Egypt. ~Tekhhct: ndture headdress or crown of Upper Egypt. "\ephth~ s: hieroglyphs denoting 'mistres~ of tilt: hOllse', consisting uf a rectangle surmolllllt.:d h\ a basket shape. . .:\"tll: ceramic \ esse!. Osiris: ({hi crown. Ptah: skull-clp. S;ltet: \\hitt c!"U\yn with :lllTelupt horns Serket: scorpion. Scshat: star of 1\(: or seven points, Shu: ostrich fcather. \faset/Wosrct (goddess ofrhe Theban I1llllll'): \\ SCEPTRE with a rihbon, placed abO\c the hierog:lyphic sig:n f(JI nome (:1 field 1ll,lrked IJlll with irrigation channels).

\:-,

heart
To the Egyptill1s the heart (//((1.1' Or iM, rathl'r than the brain, Wits regilrdcd as the Source of human wisdom and the centre or the emotions anclll1cmory. Its function in the circulation of the blood was not understood, although one religious treatise states that the mon;mcnt of all parts of the bod~- was determined by the hearl. Beclusc of its supposed links with intellect_, persollality <mel melllory, il was l.:ul1sidcrcd to be the most important of tl1l: imcrnal organs. Since it ,,as felt that the heart could rncal a person's (Tue character, even after death, it \yas left in the hody during \IL\L\IIFJ< HIU'\, ~tnd if acciclcntall) removed would be sewn back into place, There \vas some concern that the heart might testify against its O\\l1er ilntl:->o condemn him or her at the judgement; in order to pre\Tnt this, a heart SC,\I{ \Jl \\ as i,:(JIll1l1only wrapped within the bal1dagc~, The inscription 011 this scarab lIsuall~ consiSlCd or Chapter ]fl ii'om the HelO"- 01" TJ Il~ 1JIo~ \D: '0 my hean which 1 had frum my morhcr; () my hC<lrt which I had upon earth, do not rise up agai_nst me as a witness in the presence or the lord of things; do not speak against me concerning' wh'11 I h'1\e dOlle, do not bring up ,ln~ thing against 111e in the presence the weat god of the wcst. In the portrayal of the tinal judgement - a popular vignette in copies of the Booh. Ihe Dead - the heart of the dcceased was :-,ho\\'n being weighed against the !Cather of \1 \Xl (rhe symhol of uninTsal truth and harmony), nut! the god Anubis \\,.\5 sometimes to bt seen adjll~ting the balance slightly in EI\our of the deceased to ensure a salC entry into the underworld, The heart was thullg'h; to be gi\cn hack to the deceased in the afterlife; Chaptcr~ 16-9 uf the Book of rhe Dead were therefore

Neith, Hemsut

, t MT 1
Amentet labet Isis Meskhent Wadjyt Upper Egypt, Hapy Maat,Sllu

Nephthys

Ha

Neith

Nut

Heh

Lower Egypt, Hapy

Atum, Horus

Osiris

Seshat

or

Khnum

Sobek

Nekhbet, Mut, Isis

Hathor, Isis

Ra-HorakhtY,Sekllmet

or

Khans

Satet

Reshef

Amun, Horus

On uris

Anuket

122

HE 1-1

HEIRESS THEORY

A sdt!rlioll "flu'Ilrt ,(((Imbs uud m1lu!t'ls: TOP l.Irr grecu}iliCJ1l'l' .\"raraIJ iUJrTibet/mil" Clmplt!r 3011 (!!'

the Book oI'h" J)t'm!, 3rd /Ulr:rull'dillie Period. L 6.7 nil. (r: /1)68/7) Tal' RIG!JT stealile. iX/T//al,
hflllJ{/l1-lwaded hell 1"/ s((fr{/b illscrihed fllllhl.'

Ulldcrside /17'-111 Chapler 30n ull/Il' ilook {~rlhi' Dl'ad.fur ,hi' mUJ1/a" Isis. .VOIl f.:ingdlJlII, I.. 6.8 OJJ.
(EI38073) BOTlU\IIJ]T gn'fm-gla;:;,et! slcalile smrab in/aid mith ({Jmeliall (lwl bllIl' glass. The mu/asitle bt'liTS Clwpll'I" JOB offill' /JOllA' of/hi' Dl'ad. Sl'JI' A-ingdollf. I . -1.3 tJl1. (I.' /668/-1) nO'ITO\1 U:"'''\TRE po()'ClmJ1IIl' glass hcarl ({mldi'/ mith sliglf/()' (OII1:/!.\'jilt'l!s. 18th Dynasty. /I. 2./ Ofl. (I.' 12926.1) mrrTO'I I<IGII'I' It'gll/ IlIrfjlloisc-b1ul' g!ass.jlaf-/!o(A't'fI. (mli'c.r--.!t/tt'1! hearl. NCIJl Kil/gdo/ll. II. 2.6 (/1/. (1:'./8/28)

intended to ensure thaI lhe heart W~IS restored and could nor bc rcmO\"cd. From the ~e\\ ~ingdom (1550-1069 11<') on\yards, 'heart amulets', r~lkil1g the fiJrlll a vase with lug handles (perhaps representing the blood \Tcsscls), were inrroduccd into the fum:r"ry equipmenl. The heading Chapter 29h in the Book of the Dead stated that such :lmulet'i should be made of s'llerct stone (cornekm), hur there are man) sUITi,-ing examples \yhich are made from 01 her materials, such :lS glass. R.o. F-\LI.... '.I.K, TIlt' tll/rieuf Eg,ypfiall BooI' oI /he Dead, cd. C. Andrews (London, IlJ72), 52-6. C. A'Dlu:\\ S, "ll/ll/lct.~ (!(fllltiem L~f!.)'p/ (London,

or

or

199-1),72-3.

ed. \Y. [[clck, E. Orro and \Y. Weslendorf (\Yiesbadell, 1977), lO82---1. J. F BOKliIlOLTS, '(-Jeh. Oarreichen des', l,exiI'l)lI tier .lgypllI/ogil' II, ed. ,Y. Ilelcl.., E. Orro and W Wesrendorf(Wiesbadell, 1977), [08-1-6.

Heh
God of infiniry, usually represented as a kneeling man either holding a notched palm-rib (hieroglyphic s) mool for ')C'Jr') in each h:lnd or wcaring a palm-rib on his head. Occasionally he is .llso sho\\11 carrying'1I1 \''''11 sign o\er his .lrIn. The primary meaning of the term heIJ was 'millions', but he \\ as transformed into the god of etcrnal life by such s~'mbolic associations with the conccpts of 'yell"' and 'life'. His image "as consequently incorporated into royal iconography as ~I means of ensuring the king's longc,ity. \\'ith typical Egyptian .mcntion to DL \1.1'1", the alternati\'c word for etcrnit), dje/. was represcnted as a female deit). f\ lung "'ith his consort l-!auhet 1 Heh was also one of 1he OGlJo.\I1, a group or tight primcval deities whose main cult centre was at IlER~\()I>()I.IS \l.\('i'..\. The motif of J-leh was often incorporatcd into tbe decoration of royal regal.ia as ;1 means of ensuring longnit). I-lch was also connected with the mnh of the 'celestial eO\\ " who was said to h;l\'~ been supported by a group of eight Heh deities; in the

heiress lheory .ICC

CiU':E'S

111\10Sr ~rFrl(T.II(I and

Heka Ji!t' _\!-\Gte

Lid ofa mirror-ftls.'fmm /ltt' /0111/1 of TI//aul.:/UII//f(II. bl'tlriug a./igllre (!{tltt' god JIt,/" 1/.270Jl. (C/lfm \0. l7te-f), RI.'f'R{)DLCU) COL RrrSl OJ' 7m: GN{FFfTII (\S'/TJ'L '1'1)
same W<lY, Ileh is often reprcsented as holding up the SOl. \1{ U.\I{h: and finally l.ifting it hack into the heavens at the end of its \'0) age through the netherworld. I I. _'\.Ln~'\ \lL.I.LEK, 'I leh', LexiI'oll tla --igyp/%gie II,

Hekel (Heqal) Goddess represented in lhe form of it frog, a typical primordial creature which, at certain times rhe year, was obscrved to emerge from the Nile, apparently reborn and thus perhaps emphasizing the coming of new life. She is first ;1tlested in the 1" I~ \ \lIn TE.\TS where she is said lo ha\ e assisted in lhe journey of the de.leI king to the sk~. 'rhe remains of a temple of Hekel h;l\"c bcen eXGI\'3ted at Qus, and in the lOmb of PETOSII(1S (r.300 Be) at Tuoa el-Gebel there is'l text dealing with <l procession in her honour, in which she requests that her temple at J ler-wcr (a still-unlocated site) he restored and protected from rhe inundation. Ilekct)s strongest association was with childhirth, panicularly the final stages of labour. During lhe .\liddlc Kingdom (2055-1650 Be), she W<lS dcpiclcd or Ilamed on such magical ~lrlefacts as ,,"ory daggers

or

[23

HELIACAL RISING

HERIIl~

and chipper"" in her role

;IS

protector of the

household and guardian of pregnant women: The term 'sen-ant of Hekel' may ha,"c been applied to midwi,cs. Just as the ram-god Kll"L~1 was considered to hayc been responsible for fashioning the first humans on a POl-

ter's wheel. so Heket was porrrayed as his

Diorite-gllt'iss amulel inlhe/or", oIt/uFoggoddess lIl'l:t:I. St'IP Kingdom-3rt! 111ll'rm('ditJl~ Period. II. I.J (III. (E.,1J758) female complement in that she \yas credited
with fashioning the child in the womb and

thm ha,c been mt)Yed elsewhere, including the obelisks re-erectcd in :"\ew York and London, which both datc to rhe reign of Thutmose JII (I+79-H25 BC). The site also incorponHcs a Prcdynastic cemetery and the tombs of the chief priests of l-lcliopolis during the 6th Dynasty (23+5-2181 ur.). In ,In are,l now known as A.rab cl-Tawil there \Yas <l necropolis of sacred :\H\EVIS bulls ur the Ramesside period (1295-1069 Be). w. 1\1. F PETRIE and E. ~IK"o\', Tleliopolis, K(~/i' ."11111/1//1" aud Sh/lrt~{tl (Lon dOll, 1915). r.. H \I.I\ClII, 'Akhcnilrcn in Ileliopolis', Ft'~'Hdmll Rick/!: B/!itrtige :::,ur. (!f.)'plisdleJI BliujorulwlIg l1ud .1/1L'TlIllIIsklllule 12 (C1iro, 1971),35-45. r. Dwo'\o, The pret~)IJI(Hf;( (t!mt'It'f.1' al Ht'!i"polis (C.1iru,1988).

Heqat sa 1WUT Herakleopolis Magna (Ihnasya el-IIJedina; am:. Hcnen~nesw) Site located 15 km to the wesl of modern Beni Suef, which reached its peak as the capiml of the 9th and 10th DYllast"ics during the Pirsl Intermediate Period (2181-2055 BC). It was renamed Hcraklcopolis Magna in the Prolemaic period (332-30 Be), when the Greeks identif.ied the local deit:, a ram-god called IIE.RYSIIEF, with their own god Herakles. The suryiying remains includc two Pharaonic tcmples, one of which was dedicated to Herysher, and thc nearby necropolis of

giving iL life.
Although amulels of Hekel were less popu-

lar than those of m:s or

""\\\,ERI::T,

they arc not

uncommon, c'"en during the reign of .\"-1 IE~ .\TE' (1352-1336 Be), when many other tradilional cults were proscribed. Her life-giving powers associated her with the myths surrounding OSIRIS, the god of the dead, and in this capacity she was depicred as rcceiying otlcrings from SelY l (129+-1279 IIC) in his temple at .\b\dos. C. A'DRE\\S, .-lIllI/INS ofuf/r;e11l J:.:!{yPI (London, 199+).63.

Sedment el-Gebel, ,yhich incorponues a cemetery of thc First lntermedi~lle Period o.nd rock-tombs of the Ptolemaic and Roman pc:riods (332 IIC-\n 395). The main temple of Hcryshef was founded ill least as earl~ as the .\Iidcllc "-ingdom (2055-1650 BC) and si!,'llIficantly enlarged during the reign of Ram~ses 11 (l279-12Llllc), when ;I]l\l)osnl.l: 11\1.1 \\as constructed. The site also flourished during the Third Inl"ermediale Period (1069-747 BC). and the sun'l\-ing remains or this date include a ccm~ tery, a large temple and part of thc settlement. \,"hen the tcmplc \\ as exc~l\"ated by i1 Spanic,;h team during the 1980s, the finds included a libation altar and a pair of inlaid C:l.:S lhought to dcri,-e from a cult ~tatue. The same tl';lm has also cxc;lv:ncd parts of rhe First Intermediate Period ,md Third l.ntermct.l.i:ue Period cemetcries. E. )Jo\\ IJ.U:, -lImtis cl J1t'tliudl (Hemdl'()polu .Ilagua) (London, 189-1-). IV..\ I. F PI:TIOE.l:.'II1I1I.'l'1I 190J (London, I')I);). ]. LOl-'I:Z, 'Rapport prclil11inilire sur les fuuilles cI'l Ierakleopolis (1968)', O,.i'lls ./ill/iql/lI.i 13 (197+).299-316. J. P'\l)RO and .\ L PF.REz-Du:, 'Tra'ilLLX r~ccl1lS til: lit mission archeologique cspagnolc:1 Herakleopolis l\l;tgna', A1,1t'11 .1 [iiudlell 198.' II, ed. S. Sehoske (Hamburg, 1989),229-37. \l. PEREZ-DIE, 'Discmcries at Herad('opoli~ \lah'1la" Egypl;fll1.lrrluu'"llJgy j I (1995), 23-~.

Herihor (fl. 1080-1070 BC)

High priest of Amun at Thebes during the reign of thc last 20th-Dynasty ruler It \\II'.SLS XI (1099-1069 IIC). Inseriplions in the last decade of the Dynasty refer to a 'renaissance era', during which, alrhough Ramescs W;lS stil1 nominally rhe only legitimate rulcr, lhe administration of Egypt W~lS effectivcl~ dh-ided between three l11en: the pharaoh himsdf, whose power-base Wi1S in t\.lemphis and J\ Iiddle Egypt, S\IE:'\l)ES (his cycntual SUCl:CSsor) who controlled most of Lower Eg~ pi fnllll the Delta city of 1'\'\:"15, and Herihor, \\ho dominated pper Egypt and 1'\ubia. The origins of Ilerihor arc poorly knO\\ n, but it is thought likely that his parents \\ efe LilH"an. Thc lextual studics of lanscn\Vi~keln increasingly suggest that PianJ..hi, once thought to be l-Ierihor's son and suc.::CC"isor, was the father-in-law of Herihor (set,; i\E\\' Kli\GDOI\I). By the last c.h.:c.::ade of Ramcses XI'S reign, Herihor had acquired the ritles of high priesr of Amun at Thcbes, gcneralissimo and nO:Rm OF Kl:SI-I, a combination of offices that must hayc brought him to the brink of ruling as a pharaoh in his own right. Indeed, in one relicf in the temple of

heliacal rising see CII.I':"'"'' and SOTIlIC

cn:l.I:

Heliopolis (Tell Hisn; ane. hUllI, On) One of the most important cull-centres of the Pharaonic period and the site of the first known sun temple, dedic~1ted to thc god RaHorakhty (sec R'\), which was probably first constructed in the 1I"1y Old "-ingdom ((.2600 Be). :\Ithough little remains of the site now, its imporlance in the Pharaonic period was such that \R\I\'\T was sometimes described ;lS the 4 sout hern Hcliopolis'. The 5th-Dynasty sun temple of Nyuserra (2++5-2-121 BC) at .\BL GL" III is thought to ha\'c been modelled on the prototypical Hcliopolitan sun-temple complex. Because a great deal of the original telnplc at Hcliopolis is now buried beneath the northwestern suburb of Cairo, the only significant monument still standing in silu is a pink gr~lIlite OHF.US" dating to the time of Sen us ret 1 (1965-1920 Be). There are a number of sun'iying monuments and fragments of rclief from Heliopolis

Granile roluJJm milh tl pal/ll-Ielllmpilllllmm till' h.'mph' ofHl'1yslll{1I1 HUlIk/cop()lis A'agllli. Reign ofR II mcs('J II c.1250 IJC. fJ.5.28/11. (1"1/23)

12+

HERIHOR

HERMOPOLIS MAGNA

modern town of Nlallawi. The site was badly plundered during the early Islamic period but. there are still surviring traces of tcmples dating to the i\fiddle and New King'doms, including a pylon constructed by Ramcses Il (1279-1213 Be) which contained stone blocks quarried from the temples of Akhenatcn (1352-1336 Be) at EL-,I,\\.'RSA, a fe,v kilometres to the sourheast. There arc also substantial remains of a r.OI'TIC basilica consrrucled from the remains of a Ptolemaic temple built enrirely in <l Greek architectural style. The nearby cemetery of Tl::-':.\ ELGEBEl. includes nyO of the rock~cur 'boundary stelae' of Akhenatcn, the tomb~chapel or PETOSIRIS (1'. 300 13C),;t temple ofThoth and extcnsi,'c catacombs dating mainly from the 27th Dynasty to the Roman period (t:.52j IlC-.ID 395). G. ROEDER, HCI"/l/opolis 1929-39 (lliidesheim, 1959).

J. D. COOl"EY, AIJ/(IrJ}a J"eliep FOil!

AIIIl!I"lr(l1l

De/ai! ~r{he B{)(j~' of/he Dmd papyrus of HerihOl; shnmillg the d{'(eased {/lid his IIJ?/i:. Lalt Nem Kingdo/ll. c.J07D He. (,; ,105-11)
Khans at
I(.\R'J:\I',

M,

LIC! 1'1'111-:1.\1, Auri'lll

EgY!lfi(/ll hUI'(lI!lI"' II

(Berkeley, 1976),224-30 [translation of the

Reporl (~j"fI~'I/({lIIlfIlJ
j\ L-A. I301'\III'.\lE, 'Hcrihor, fur-il cffccrivcmcl1t roi", BIFA079 (1979), 267-8+

his name is wrinen in

<l

cartotlchc and he is explicitly portrayed as

equal in status to the king, while in another relief c1sc\yhcre in the temple he is shown wearing the double crown. Both Herihor and his wife Nodjmet were given carrollchcs in the inscriptions on their funerary equipment, but this 'kingship' seems to have heen limited to a few relatively restricted conrexts within the confines of

K. A.
Egypl

KrrCllEN,

The Third il/lerlllcdiale Per/od in (1100-650 UC), 2nd ed. (\Varminster,

Hall/opolis ill (ollertioll.' (Brooklyn, 1965). G, ROEmJ{ and R. H:\:"u, AI/l(/nUl-rt'li(:f.~ {illS Hall/opolis, 2 vols (Hildesheim, 1969-78), A. J. SPE:-JCER and D. Tv1. RUI.Er, E.ran.:aliolls (II el-flsllllllflll'ill, -l- \'ols (London, 1983-93). A.J SPE"CER, 'Ashmun<io 1980-1985: a practical approach to townsite excavation', Problems {I lid priorilies ill Egypt jail (lrdlacolofY, ed . .J. Assmann et al. (London, 1987),255-60.

K. JA.:\SEN-\\iIN"-EI .:-OJ

1986), 16-23,2+8-52,535-+ I 'Das Enue des !'\eul'11 Reiches', Z<J5 Il9 (l992), 22-37.

Thebes, .md it was Ramcscs

Xl'S

name that

appeared in administratiyc documents throughout the country. Apart from the

Hermopolis Magna (c1-AshlUuncin; ane. Khmun) Ancient Pharaonic capital of the 15th Upper Egyptian '\'OI\IE and cult_~centre of Thoth, located to the west of the Nile, close to the

reljcfs at Karnak, the only signific<1nt sun'i,,ing monuments of Hcrihor arc a statue (Egyptian lVluseum, Cairo) and a stele (RijksJ1111SClIJ11 van Oudhedcn. Lcidcn), and no traces of his tomb have been found in western Thebes. His rule over the Theban region was the chronological setting' for the Report (~r JII/eIl{flll/fJl (the text of which is preserved on a single papyrus 110W in the Pushkin lVluSCUI11, lVloscow). This literary classic, which may possibly be based 011 a true account, narrates the difficulties encountered by an Egyptian diplomat sent by l-lerihor to bring back timber from SYRIA at a time ,,,hen Egyptian influence in the Levant" was on the wanc. G. LITtOYRE, His/oire des grallt!.;; plifres d>JIIIOIl de Kamakjllsqll'd la \'V/C r()llIaSfie (Paris, ] 929),

.. seated colossi of Rameses II

100 200 300 400 500 m modern settlement

AB()\"E Qne (!j"l/'e wlossalslutlles oItlle god Tholll as a baboou. at HaJJ/opolis _'\tIl/gila. Reign 0./ AIIlCllIlOlep III, c.I370 ne. (I. S/-I,lJr)

LEFT Piau (~rHermopolis

/V!aglla,

125

HERODOTUS

HES~

Herodotus (<.48+-(.-120 Be) Greek tra'-cllcr and historian born at Halicarnassus in Asia \ linor, whose ,,"orks arc a particularly ,"alliable source for rhe latcr history of Egypl. Some schohlfS h;wc described him as the 'father of history" i.lhhough others h;wc called him >father of lies', bee.luse of his supposedly fanmsril: mles. :'\e,-ertheless, a number uf his srories h,we subsequently been ,"indicated by archaeology (sec TI:l.1. B\ST\). The nine books of Herodotus' llislo!"i!'s were \HiLLen between and Be, and principall~ describe the struggles between the GKITt-.S and the Persians. ahhough the second hook is dC"orcd to F.g~ pi, apP;lrenll~ drawing he;wily 011 personal experiences. His lr<1,"cI5 in EgYPl, which took place in about -4-50 Be, ma~ h:l\ c extended as far south as As\yan, although he gi\"es no dctailed account of Thebes, conccntr~lling instead on the Delta. I-Lis information was largely proyided by Egypti:lI1 priesls, many of ,yhom probably held only minor offices and would perhaps ha,'c becn anxious to rake <1ch"ant;lge of an ~tpP;lrcntly gullible yisitor in ordcr to sho\\' off their ~lssllmed knowledge. .:\eycnhelcss, his account of Egypt in the fifth century RC has been largely suhstantiatcd, and his .Istllte obscn'arions included the identification of the pyramids as royal burial places. :\ m~ljor source of information on .\IL.\I.\IIIIL\TIO' and other .1I1cient Egypti'ln religious and funerary customs, he attracted numerous ancicnt imitators, including STR",BO (\\ ho \'isired Egypt in c.JO IX:) and

taking all Egyptian pun at face ,"aluc. Hcryshcf was at \'arious times associated \,"ith the SUIlgod Ra .mel the god of lhe dc-.ul OSIRIS: he is therefore sometimes portrayed with either rhe sun-disc hcaddress or the {fIef crown (see
OW\\ 's

"I) Rm \1. REGH.I \).

G. l-L\lrr, . J dinjolllflj' of EgypliaN gods {flit! godt!esst'S (London, 1986), 85~7.

Hesyra (l-les\-) (1".2660 Ilc) Oflici<ll of the lime of the 3rd-Dyn"lsty ruler "JOS"O (2667-26+8 Be). whose titles indllded the posts of 'o\'crseer of the royal scribes, greatest of physici'1T1s and dentists'. His .\I:\STlil \ tomb (s2+05 [.\3]), located ro the north of the Step Pyramid at S-\{&-\R"" was discmered b~ :\ugllste .\laricttc in the 1880s, and fl'-cxc;l\'alcd, about thirty years later, hy Junes Qrihdl. The lOmb has an cia borate corridor chapel with pahlce-fa~adl: decoration (sec SI':RI:I"::II) along; its west Willi consisting of cle"en niches, cach of which would originally h.wc been brightly painted in matting patterns. At the bad of" each nidlc stood a carved ,yooden p~lJ1cl, only six of which had sun iyed ilt the time of discOH'ry (nmy in the Egypti"ln l\luseul11, Cairo). The panels arc sculpted

-no

-ns

Hl'.~)lra III

fila moot!ell .':'Ieft' ji-fJllllhc lomb 'd Slu///ara, 3,.t! /)ynllsty. c.26.iU fJC, fl. I{ (IImplt'1' .Ilel,' 11-/011. (I.' IIRO]f185U-!. I. SIIIfI)
-\HO\ E /)('10;1

OIOO(lRLS SICLI.LS.

\\'. G. \\. mDEIJ., fluodfllm. SMA' II (London,

19.19).

J. II"ILSO'. I1md"llIs ill (~)'pi (Leiden.

A. B. LLOYD, f1erodfJ/1I.\ Bon/.:

1970).

1/./:

(JI/

illlrodll(lin1l

(I.eiden. 1975). - , HemdrJlllJ BmlA' 11.2: (Leiden, 1976). (Leiden, 1988).

(lJJIIIIIClllary

1-98

- , HemdfJIlIS BooAII.1: ((JI1I1JI'lIll1ry 99--182

Heryshef (:\rsaphes)
Fertility god lIslIally represented in the form of a ram or ram-headed man, who was worshipped in the region of 1I1:!{\I\:I.EOPOJ.lS \I.\G' \. ncar modern Belli Sucf, from at least as earll, as the 1st [)\'r1;\sty (.1100-2890 Be). according to the l'\LF.R\lU STO"JI';. 'rhe etymology of' Hcryshef's nalllt.', which literally means 'he who is upon his lake', suggests that he was considered to be a creator-god who emerged from the primc"al \\"arcrs of rhe sacred lake. The first-cenrury Greek historian Plutarch rendered the name as Arsaphcs and translated it as 'manliness" bur he was probabl~ simpl~

with the figure of Hesyra in \-arious costumes. while thc bcall!ifull~ caned !licrogl~ph.s present his name and titles. The eastern wall of [his corridor \\<IS decorated with delit':lld~ painted coIn"ings of furniture and offcnn~s, c~lrefl1lly set OUI as if arranged in .1 shell\.:r of matting. In an ourer corridor "";IS th,' earliesl representation of a crocodile awaiting un"ilr~ cattle as Ihe~ crossed a strcam, a theme tll.\( was to be repeated man~ times in 1;ller mast.lbas. The burial itself was locatcd in ;1 subtcrn1l1can chamber connected "ith thl: supcrstruclUre by a shaft. The tomb \n1S tine of the firs! ro incorponnc <1 SERD\B (st;Htle chamber). .\. :\ t \IUErn:, [,('5 III/ullflws dc 1'. Incil'lI F.II/pm (P"ris. 1882-9). J. E. Q!_IHEI.I., The tfJlII!J ()II-It,~)': excm."f/fi"II.1 tit
S(f(/'Iam (Cairo, 1913).

10m

stairs shaft hidden niches painted corridor outer corridor serdab (statue chamber)

'VOOI}, 'A reconstruction of rhe reliefs of l-ksy-re ..J.-IIIG 15 (1978).9-24. 1\1. SH.E!I and 11. SOL ROUZI'\" Thl' E~,{YPli(1II .l'IIISt:III1l. Cairo: oj]itial ((lia/oglll' (.\lainz. 19~7), no. 21.
LEFT

,r.

Tht' l1/{/sla!Ja 10m;' oIHe.~J'ra (S

/QQ If{ /

2-105).

126

I-IETEl'HERES I

HIERAKO:\,POLIS

Hetepheres I (c,2600 lie)

Early -J.th-DynasIY queen, who was the principal wife ofs'EFERu (2613-2589 lie), the mother of "IIL'FL (2589-2566 IIC) and probabll' also the daughter of Huni, last ruler of the 3rd Dynasty. Little is kno\\-n of her life, but her well-preselwd burial at <.itZ\ (<.i7000x) was discOI'ered in 1925 bl' the staff photographer of the I-Ian'ard-Bosron expedition, led b~' George Reisner. The exc;lyation of an area of unexplained white plasler on the eastern side of the Great Pyramid I'C\ c<tlcd a lOmb shaft leading fo <1 smail empty room, dcep below which was a concealed burial chamber. This l:ontaincd a

canopic chcst was not removed, although it is possible [hat Ci7000x was felt to be so close to the satellite pyramid as not to require the transfer of callopic equipment. Ironically. it was probably the lack of a superstrucrure that helped to presen"c the original burial, whereas pyramid liHl W;15 robbed in ancient times. The careful rcsroration of rhe fmJs (no\\- in the Egyptian l\,luseul11, Cairo) has yielded somc of the best c\-idence for funerary equipment during lhe Old Kingdom. pnniding insights into the likely "e~llth of;I full royal burial of the period_ The items of gilded ,n)oclen Fl-IC\ITCR.E included ;l carrying chair, a bed and an elaborale canopy that would probably ha\T been erected mcr the bed. G. A. REIS:\t-:R and \V. S. 5.'IITI1 1 _.J IIisIOI:)1 (!(tJIt: Gi::.(/ necropolis II: Tile lomb o/l1t'1epllerl's. lilt' lllolht'ro/Ch/'()ps(Cambridge, \t'\.. 1955). )1. LEII'ER, 71Il' pYrtll1lid lomb o/Helep-hert'J tlml Iht' sall!/Iilt' pyramid o/A."llldi, (J\lainz, 1985).

CaIlOPY, !It,d ((//(/ rlwir./i'fJ/// 1I11' 10/l/b ofQpcm

Heleplrcres. -1I1f D.l'llasly.
MUSEL'lI, r; /lNO)

c.2600 uc.

(EG}'!''!'I/\

sealed sarcophagus, a mass of gilded wood in a very poor st.lte of prL'SclTatioll, and a number of items of melalwork. Inscriptions on some of the objects indicaled that the mmb belonged to Hetcphercs, the mOlhcr of Khufu, whose funerary clJuipment had apparcntly been hastily rcburied. Although the sarcophagus was empt~~ a concealed niche was found to contain an alabaster C.\MlI'IC box, with residucs bclie"ed to deri,"C from Ihe .\lL \I"IFIC\TIO~ of her body. Reisner bclie,-ed that the remains of Hetepheres' funcrary equipment had been reburicd by Khufu after her origini1l tomb, perhaps located ncar that of Sneferu at DAIISIIL"R, W;15 robbed. However nu tomb of Hctcphercs has yct been found at Dahshur, and indeed the only e\"idence for her existence deril'CS from Tomb c.7000x. This has led .\lark Lehner to suggest thai the Giza shaft tomb Was in fact the qucen's original place of burial but that her body and the 111'1jority of the equipment were reburied under GH1, the first of the 's:l.Icllite pyramids' to lhe east of Khufu's main pyranlid. This theory might also explain the damage innicrcd on the sarcophagus, ponery and furniture of the original tomb. It is srill not clear, howe\"cr. why rhc

Hiba. el- (anc. Teudjoi; .-\.nh'ronpolis) Settlement site incorporating a poorly preserved temple of 'A.I11UI1 of the crag' (or '.'\mun great of roarings '), constructed by Sheshonq I (9~5-92+ BC). From the late 20th to the 22ml Omastl' (1100-715 IIC), Ihe town of'1cudjoi functioned as an important frontier fortrcss between lhe zoncs controlled by the cities of Heraklcopolis i\llagna and Hcrmopolis j\'lagna. Largc numbers of bricks from thc enclosure wall wcre stamped with the names of Pinudjel11 I and ~lenkheperra. \yho wcre powcrful Theban chief priests of Amun-Ra in the early 21 Sl Omast)' (1'.1050 IIC) who presumably esmblished a residence at cI-l-liba.

After a period of declinc during: rhe Late Period (7-1-7-332 Be) the rown regained its importance under the name of Ankyronpolis in the Greco-Rolllan period (c.30~ IlC-,ID 395), when it once more dc,cloped into a miljmry settlement. The earliest exca\"ations at eI~Hiba concentr.lled either on thc cemeteries, where there were caches of Greek and demotic papyri. or on the Greco-Roman areas of lhc town. In 1980. howc"cr, lhc American archaeologist Roben \Vcnte conductcd a surface sur\-cy of the enrire sire, including rcst eXG1\"ations within the settlcmenr, which indicate that Teudjoi \\,;lS founded at least as early as the ~ew Kingdom. B. GHE:\FEJ.1. and A. III '"1", n,c Hibclt papyri I (London, 1906). I I. R~""'E. Koplisrltt' F'ril'dIJldi? bi'i Kamra 1/1111 tier .llluJIlIt'lIIpt'l Sdfl'HllOllks I. bi'i elilib/' (Berlin, 1926). E. G. TCR.'\ER, TI,,' Hihi'lt papyri II (London. 1955). R. J. \\"1-::\,,1-:, .lrdw/,ologi(tlI il/restiguliol/., alrlIlihell 1980: PrdillliJlifly repol"l (1\Ltlibu, 198..1).

Hierakonpolis (Kolll ei-.'\hmar; anc. Nekhen) Settlement and necropolis, 80 km south of Luxor, which ,,as panicularly associated with the hawk-god 110RCS. the Greek namc of thc rown meaning 'city of the hawk/falcon'. 1t nourished during the hue l)j"cdynastic and Earll' Dynastic periods (.4000-2686 BC). One

PIau slwJ1l/'ng !hi' I()rali(Jul~(tITe priucipal sCII/efl/cu! al1d reme/t"]' areas oIflierakoflpolis.

750

1500m

"",,,,,,:.,:;~~"';'"
..,",.....,.\:~~\\\I1I.,".

/<a9c~;;'~'~~ffron

1 Predynastic settlement 2 Predynastic cemeteries 3 2nd-Dynasty 'tori'

historic town with temple ot Horus and 'Main Deposil', overlying Predynastic settlement

127

HIERATIC

HIEROGLYPHS

of the most import~nt discoveries in the Prcdynastic cemetery is Tomb 100, <1 late Gcrzc.m brick-lined burial which was the first Egyptian tomb to be decorated with ,nll-

~~~J,:h:i*:-~'~~Y,t:\:a.:-dki'i\UtEt.-t~~';\'J....o.::.
_~~...a:;'~~~~~~1::'::i-l';.t.!t~~~f,t~~:<t

~'3c.:."u.~'1II\-':;.'1'l:!:-.J1\~~-1I\it"N/r.::~f'o\-...,..!;i~

paintings (sec

\ltT),

but the location of this 50-

~---.:.uo\";,\\o1:l1\.\'1l1'..~::.':lll ..... :kJ\tSl..~~"t:';..'lS.~,",<~1

:..':it\:J1\'"u.:.~t<\~.).I~~...!rJ~"':.k';j::..~'.:..S.'-.fQ,~_l~llU

called Painted Tomb is no longer knO'yn. The poorly rccorllcd cxc3nuion of the town of Hierakonpolis undertaken hy James Quihdl and F. \\'. Green included the diseO\TfY of the

...q~~.~'In~-:::O: ......t.~;""":!.';j.~-1';;"~

.~'d.-~*-'::':':'::d'1

G. l\lOl.Lr,R, Hit,rtllisdu' [l'sesliid'e. 3 yols (Leipzig, 1909-10). - . Hialilischc Pu/(i"f1gmpltil'. 3 ,'ols (Leipzig, 1909-12). R. J. \VILLI \ \IS, 'Scribal training in ancicnr Egypt',J'/OS 92 (1972), 2I+-2J. Y. D-n 11-:5, EgYPliil1l hiemg(l'plu (London, 1987),21-.1.

,r.

':\[ain Deposit', a stratum between two walls

relating to .111 Old Kingdom temple complex within the settlement. The .\lain Deposit seems to h~l\'e consisted primarily of ceremonial objects dating ro rhe Prorodynasric period (f.3000 IK:), including the '-.\R\IER palette and SCORPIO'.; macchcad. Howe\'er, because of a

lack of accurate published plans and strmigraphic sections, rhe rrue date and significance of this crucial Prorodynastic assemblage remain unclear, Further surycy and cxcaY<lrions at Hierakonpolis rook place in the 1970, and 19S0s, nor ol1l~" idenrif~'ing a range of Predynastic sites in the dcsert surrounding the 1"0Wl1 but also shedding further light 011 socioeconomic patterning of the Early Dynastic town and idcnrifYing the only known example of a Prcdyn<lstic shrine, The so-called 'fort' of 1\:1-[ \51':1.:.111':\1\\ \' has now been idenlified as a 'funeraTy enclosure' like the Shunct c1-Zcbib at -\J3ynos. j. E. (:luBEI.I. and F. \\" GR1:I-:', f1if1'tlA-rmpolis, 2 "ols (London, 1900-2). 13. 1- }(I:.\II', 'Photographs of rhe decorated tomb ar Hierakonpolis',]EJ 59 (1973), .16-43. B. ADnIS, _1I1ciclIllliaal'ollpfJ!is (\Varminsrer,
197~).

Om' sheel oflht' Cn'ell 1Iarri.\' Papyrus. (( hitrlliit dotl/melll riJlISisliug I)fa lisl ,~r/l'lIIph' elldml'lm'II1S lIlId II shOl'l SIIIII1IIlIJ:)' oflhe re(f!;l1 ofRllfJU'ses III. 11 is Ihl' In/lgl'.~1 sJln...irillg papyrus roll, 111l'ffJuriug -11111. Ri'/gn ,d'R1l11leSt!s II. c.//50 llc.jiml/ Thebes. II. -12.5011. (1;.1')<)<)9. SIIHT 7.::;)
Be) that hieratic began to be 'Hitten in different styles, r,lI1ging: from the rapid 'businc!:is' hand to the morc aesrhetically pleasing' 'literary' hand. \Vith the dcvclopment of hieratic, scribes \,"cre able to write more rapidly on papyri and ostraca, and this script - rather [hall the more cumbersome hieroglyphs - became the prefen'cd medium for scribal tuition (see EDCC.\T10~). Therc was also an e,'CI1 more cursive form of the scripl known as 'abnormal hicratic', which was used tor business texts in Upper Egypt during the Third Intermediatc Period (I069-7~7 Be). By lhe 261h Dynasty (664-525 DC) thc IJE,\I0TlC script had cmcrged out of the so-called 'business hieratic' of Lower Egypt.

hieroglyphs (Greek: 'sacred caned [lellersJ") The Eg\-pLian hierogh-phic script, consistin1! of thrc~ basic types - of sign (phonogram:, logograms and \Icterminatircs') arrangcli In horizonml and ,ertical lines, was in USc from the lone Gerzean period (c.320() Be) ro the laic fourth century .\1). The last known dat3hle hieroglyphic inscription, on the gare uf Hadrian at Philae, was cancd On 24 August \l) 394. Thc apparently low leyel of literacy 111 Pharaonic Egypt (estimated at perhaps as 1(1\\ as 0.4 per cent or the population) has led to the suggestion thal hieroglyphic texts w~rL: employed by rhe elite as;\ means of restrit,ting knowl~dgc and powcr. The decipherment or hieroglyphs by JcanFran~ois 01'\ \ll'()LJ.IO~, prinurily tluough his examination of the tribngual decree inscrihed on the ROSE'IT" STO):E, was undoubtcdly lhe single greatest e\"em in the development of Egrptolog~, prmiding thc key to an unLlcrstanding of the names, history and intcUeclual achie\-emcnts of the ancient Egyptian!'!.
Painled Itiemg(l'phs on lite inlerior Qflhe OilIer mj}ill oflhe p/~)'Jirilill Sl'IIi. J\liddle Kingdolll. c.2000 IH:. !Jainlt'tI 11l()otl,ji-ollllJeir el-Bersl/tl. II. /5011. rIO 1308-11)

:\1. A,. H()FF\I-\' er 011., '.-\ model of urban development for the llierakonpolis region from plTdynastic through Old Kingdom times',

JJRCE2.1(1986),175-87. B. AIH \IS, Theftrl (ell/eu'IY til Ilieral'ol1polis (extm.:lI1ed 1~)'J(l11I1 Ctlrsltlllg) (London, 1988).

hieratic (Greek iJi<'l""lik,,: 'sacred') Script dating from the end of the Early Dynastic period (t'.2686 Be) onwards. The esscntially cursi\'c hicratic script was based on the hierogl) phic symbols that had cmcrged somc ti,c cenrurics carlier, but if should not be confused with 'cursive hieroglyphs'. which ,vcre used lor most of [he Pharaonic period in such religious writings as the COFFI~ TE:\TS and the BOOK OFTIII': DEr\U. Hieratic was a]w;lYs written from right 1"0 Iert, whereas the oricntation of cursiye hieroglyphs varied. Until the 11th Omasty (2055-1 'i85 Be) hieraric documents were arrangcd mainly in columns, but most tens li'om the 12th Dynasty (1985-1795 [Ie) onwards consisted of horizontal lincs. It "as also in the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650
128

HIEROGLYPHS

HIPPOPOTMvlUS

Hieroglyphs were primarily used as descriptive components of the can"cd reliefs dcconuing temples and funerary monuments. It
W.1S

feil that the hieroglyphic names of gods, people and animals were as c'lpable of posing a ducal as the liring entity itself - for this
reason many of the signs in the P' R \ \110 TEXTS and some CQFF1"\.l TEXTS were deliberately abbre"iated and mutihttcd in order to neutral-

ize any potential dangers within the royal

tomb. Alrhough a total of more than six thousand

hieroglyphic signs ha,'c been identified, thl'

majority of these were introduced during the

Ptolemaic and Roman periods. In the Pharaonic period fewer than a thalls.mel symbols 'lfe attested, and an e\en smaller number
were in regular usc. There was a nucleus of frequenr basic signs, and others were eyidcntIy im'cnted and introduced as the~ became necessary, sometimes proyiding an indic.nion of changes in material culture. The signs wcre written in continuous lines withoUl any pun<.:tuation or spaces to show where words or sentences began or ended. The orientation of the letters W:15 usually towards the right, so that the text was read from right to lefL and top {() bonom, although in certain instances (such i1S the engnn'ing of two symmetrical inscriptions on either side of a stele or relief) the orientation was from left to right. As in Egyptian art, the indi,'idual signs of the hieroglyphic script arc essentially diagrams or the phcnomenon or entity in question; whether the sign is representing a loaf of bread, an owl or a hum;lll figure, it was intended that the ideogram should consist of the most characteristic and \ isually familiar clements of its physical appearance ~ thus lllost birds are shown completcly in profile, but one exception is the owl, which, oecllIse of its distinctive eyes, has its face shown frontally. The logograms and dererminati\'es in hieroglyphic script were both essentiall~ depictions of the thinbrs th'1t the~ represented: thus logograms were indi\ idual signs whosc meaning \\as broadly cquiyalent to their appe;nance (i.e. ~1 shorthand diagram of the sky meant 'sky'). Determinilthes wcre pictures or types of things, ph1ccd at the ends of words made up of phonograms in order to indicate what types of words they were (i.c. the verb ml!slfcb, meaning 'to answer', was followed by a sign consisting of :1 111.111 holding his h<lnd to his mouth). The phonograms consist of three types: twcIHy-six uniconsonilntal signs (each representing a single consonant, e.g. the quail~chick sign, pronounced m), about a hundred biconsonantal signs (pairs of consonams, such as the diagram of it house-

phm, which Wi.1S pronounced pr), and forty to fifty triconsonanral signs (e.g. the logogram representing the adjccti,'c "good', which was pronounced IIIr). The main problem encountered in pronouncing a section of hieroglyphic text is lhat there were no nlwels in the written form of ancient Egyptian, only consonants. The study uf the COPTIC language (which c\olyed OUI of the ancient Egyptian bnguage), as well as rarious slIITiving transliterations of Egyptian words into other ancicIH scripts (SUd1 ilS \SS\ Rl\_', Hf\ BYLO:,\ I " and Greek), has enabled the 'rocalization' or many Egyptian \\ords to be at least partiall~ reconstructed, Howe"er, the conycmional method of making the consonants pronounceable is to read the signs ' ~lIld 3 as if they were lhe letter ", and to insert the lencr e \yhcrc\'er necessary: thus the words l, pI' and 11ft are cOT1\'entionally pronounced as SII, per and mfi'r. There \\"ere three basic stages in the dc\'elopmcnt of the hieroglyphic script: early, middle ilnd late; it was highly cOllsclTiltivc and continually hlgg'cl1 hehind l"he spoken 1..\'\GL.\GE in both VOCilbllhuy and syntax. A crucial distinction therefore needs to be made oet\yeen the stages in the developmem uf the language and the various phases of its wrillen form. The language has onc distinct break, in the .\liddle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC), when 'synthetic' Old and i\liddlc Egyptian, characterized by inflected yerb endings, W.1S replaced, in the spoken language at least, b~ the 'analytical' form of Late Egyptian, with a verbal structure consisting of articulated elements. Egyptian is the only 'language of ilSpCCe for which the change from the 'synt"hetic' slag'e to (analytical' can actually be stlluied in its wrillen rorm. 'T'he hieroglyphic systcm was uscu for funerary and religious texts whjlc the cursive

IIIER.:HIC script \\ as used primarily for administrati,"e and literary texts. By the 26th Omast, (664-525 Be) DE\lOTIC had replaced hieratic, and for i1 number of centuries the Greek and demotic scripts were lIscd side by side, cyenlually being superseded by COPTIC:. Sec L...-\'\GL'.\GE for charr of hieroglyphs. See also fL.'\EH \KY TE\TS; LIBIURII':S; I.ITEH..\Tun:; I'WYRUS and SCKlBES. A. I I. GAIWI'\ER, J:.'gyplitll/ gmlllJ/((f/; being all inlrot!urlifJl/ 10 '/'e sl/u()r (JIlricrogh'flu, -'I'd cel. (Oxford, I YSi). C. A. it'\'DRE\\ S, Tlri' !?o.I"(:II" SliJl/(' (Lund on, 19S I). J. R. B \1",1:""i, 'Liler;,lcy and ancient Egyprian society', ,1111/1 18 (1983), 5i2-Y9. J. D. R-\\. 'The emergcnce of writing in EgYPI', Wllil3 (1986), 3YO-8. "'.\'. D.WIES, Egyplitll/ lri(rog()IPh.~ (London, lY8i). II. G. FISClICR and R. A. C-\\II'\os._-I1fcil'lll t.~!fypli"1/ epigmp/~)llllf(l palaeQgraf/~)I, 3rd cd. (New York, 198i).

hippopotamus
Riverine mammal thaI nourished in Egypt until weJl into Dynastic times. The date of its disappear~lI1ce in Egypt is debauble, bUl it was certainly still present during the 1'\ew Kingdom (1550--1069 BC). Like the crocodile, the male hippopotamus was regarded as a nuisance and a doer of e,il, becJuse it often trampled and de\"oured crops; a ! e\\ Kingdom school text makes this clear: 'Do you not recall the fine of the farmer when the han'esl is regiSI"ered? The \\"orm has taken half the grain, the hippopotalllus has dc\"oured the rest...' It was probably for this reason that hippoporaIllUS hunts were org-anized as early as the prehistorjc period. iVLmy oCthe masraha tombs of the Old Kingdom, such as thar or the 5thDynaslY official TY ar Saqqara (no. 60), included depictions of the spearing or hippopotami.

Faienf" :ilalnelle o/a lrippopfJltllIfllS,

I/.

/2t"-/311r DYf/aSlies, 9.2011. (Ii IJ50H)

129

HISTORY AND HISTORIOGRAPHY

HLTTIT~

Such hunts might have given rise to a royal ceremony in which the king-'s ritual killing of a hippopotamus was symbolic of the overthrow of evil, as in the myth of J lOR-US and SETI!. In this myth, Horus ,yas oftell portrayed in the

act of harpooning Seth as a hippopotamus

(although in other contexts Seth was depicted as it crocodilc 1 an ass Or a typhonian animal). This scene was fi"cqucntly repeated on the walls or temples, most notably that ofI-lorus at EUJlL, as well as in tomb scenes and in the form of royal funerary statuettes such as those showing Tutankhamun with his harpoon ,mel coils of rope.

However, the female hippopotamus had a

beneficent aspect, in the form OfT!\\\'ERET ('the great [female] one'), the pregn.lIll hippopotamus-goddess \yho was among the most popular of the household gods, and particularly associated with women in childhirth. In I'I,l;TI\RUI'S \'ersion of the myth of Horus and Seth, Taweret \yas the consort of Seth, who deserted him for Horus. During the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 Be), large numbers of blue faience figurines or hippopotami were created, probably for funerary use, allhough their popularity with art collectors is such that few h,n-e been obtained from archaeological cxcavation, therefore their provenances are poorly known. It is usually assumed, however, that these staluenes. whose bodies are frequently decorated with depictions of Yegetation, were associated with rertility and the regenerative effect of the Nile. T Si\n:-S0nt~RIlEIU..lll, all t'gVPIIlI1l r('fln'sCl/lalio//s
(f rC/(l!,loIIS mUlive (Uppsaia,1953). H. KEES, (D;lS "Fest del' \Vcissen" und die Stadt S"', ZAS83 (1958), 127-9, A. BI] IR!\IANI\, Das Nilpji:rd in der losleI/u/lgslIJt'1t dt'/' A/lell AgYPll.'1l1 (Frankfurt, 1989).

'!l"hlPPOpoll/ll/lls hU//ling tIS

history and historiography

Defining Egyptjan history is as difficult a task as defining f.gyptian (lit"crature'; in bOlh cases, modern scholars arc inevitably attempting to impose upon the Egyptian sources modern concepts and categories that would often have had no real meaning or relev~ll1ce to the ancient writers. The types of ancient Egyptian texts that are usually described as 'historical' would have had a very different function when they were originally composed (see, for instance, KJl\G LISTS); they therefore have to he carefuUy interpreted if genuinely 'historical' data are to be extracted from them. The Canadian Egyptologist Donald Redford defines true history as (rhe telling of events involving or affecting human beings

(not necessarily, though usuallYl in narrative form), which took place prior to the time of composition, Ihe chief aim of which is to explain t"hose evems for the benefit, predilection and satisraction of contemporarics, and not for the enhancement of" fhe writer's personal reputation'. In f"act \Villiaml-Iayes suggests, in the Call1bridgc .<llIc/eIll Hislmy, Ihat there ;lIT onl~' four sur\"iving Egyptian historical texts that would conform to a definition such as th,lt given by Redford: these arc the stelae of r-.:.,\A1nSE (t.1555-1550 ue), describing his bartles against the Hyksos; the AIlIWI.\' ~r Tl/lIlmuse III (1-1-79-1-1-25 Be), describing his campaigns in Syria-Palesfine; and the Victon" Stele of 1'1\' (7+7-716 lie), describing his conquest of Egypt. RedfiJrd adds to these Halshepsul's speech inscribed in the SPf':OS '\lrI"E\IIDOS rock-temple. a possibly fictional speech made by 1{,\\lESI':S III (] 18+--1153 BC) arthe end of the Gn~at Harris Papyrus and Osorkon's description of rhe Theban rebellions in the Third Tnfermediatc Period (1069-7-1-7 Be). A further text which may now be added to this list is il fragment of the annals of \I\IF.NEl\Uli\T II (1922-]878 BC), disco\'cred at l\llcmphis in the mid-] 9505 but not published until 1980, which shows that something approximating to the modern concepl of ;l historical record (although lacking any analytical component) was already being compiled in the .!\Jliddle Kingdom (20551650 BC), in the form of derailed records of the political and religious c\'ents from each year of a king's reign. However, notwithstanding the few exceptions listed above, the vast majority of such narrative-structured and ceremonial texIs surviving rrom Egypt" were concerned much more with preserving and transmitting national traditions or with performing a particular religious or funerary role, rather than being attempts to present objective accounts of the past. Even the supposedly hisrorical fragments or Egyptian texts such as the Kamose stelae, the Speos Artcmidos 'speech' and the /IJlJJ(//s oIThllllllf)se If! arc effectively componcnts of the temples in which they were found: they therefore differ considcr~ ably from the truc historical tr.ldition in;lugurated by the Greek historian I rRoDOTUS (C.-l-8-1--i'.-I-20 Be) in that they incorporate a high degree or symbolism and pure ritual. In I"heir cull of the king's personality they arc closer to the Res geslae glorifying the deeds or the Roman emperor Augustus than the more 'journalistic' histories written by Thucydides or Tacitus, in which the stated aim at least is to present the objective truth about past events.

The contents of most of the m0l1umellt;11 texts and reliefs on the walls of Egyptian tombs and temples are much closer to the symbolic and static world of myth than 10 history. There is <1 common tendency to rcg;lrd myth as a form of 'primitive history'. bllt~this is rarc1~r the case. Redford makes il good distinction hetween myth and llistory: (The meaning of myths has nothing to do with Iheir having occurred in the past, but rllthcr \\ ith their present significance ... Horus's Ch;llllpioning of his father, Ihe upliftings or Shu, the murder of Osiris - these are all primordial events, timeless and ever-present; and neither king' nOr priest who re-enacts them can be s.lid to fuHil an histOric role, or to be commemorating "history"'. L. Bul.I., 'Ancicnr Eg-ypt', TIll' idl:" o.{IJislrJlY lit Ih(' _'l//ril!1ll Nellr fllsl, eel. J Obcrl1lann (Nc\\ Howen and London, 1955). D. B, Ruwol{J), Phfl/"{/O/lIC ki/lg-lisl.\". IIIl/wls /llld
day-bonA'S:
(f cfllllrlblllifJIIIO Iht: SIIII()' n.Flhc (!!;,V/llil/ll Sl://se (!{ltisl()}:J' Uvlississ<luga, 1986).

E. FloRi'\U,'(j, idea 11/10 l//lage, trans. E. Breded-. (New York, 1992), 1+7-H J -,lbLH,:. 'The ~mn~lls ofAmenemhar 1I',/::!{)'fJllilll Ardlflc%g.l' 2 (1992),18.

Hittites
People of somewhat obscure origins, described by the Egyptians as Kheta, \\"ho settled in Anatolia in the third millennium Be. Although they themselves were speakers of an IndoEuropean l:tnguage, in time their empire absorbed the Hurrian-speaking people \\IT..\ :\INI, and the J\K"-t\DJAN language was frequently used for diplomatic and comlllercial correspondence. During the Hittite Old Kingdom ((,1750-1450 BC), the nucleus the state was established in central Anatolia, with its capiwl initially .1( Kussara and later at the bcllcrknown site of Boghazkoy (ancient ]-LllIUSilS). By the sixteenth century Be: they had conquered Syria, and at one stage the empire stretched as 1~1I' south as IHBYLON, During this period of imperial cxpansion (c, 1450-1200 BC) the Hittites appear to h'l\ C concentrated on reinforcing their grip O'er northern Syria, thus displacing the l\llitannians and bringing them into direct conflicr wil h .\SSYRIA and Egypt. The most famous of their military confrontations with Egypt took pl:tce during fhe early reign of Rameses JJ (1279-1213 nc), culminating in the IMTTLE OF (t'\DESII in 127-1- Be, which was commemorated on mam of Rameses' temples. The stalemate dut res~J1ted from this battle, in which both Rameses and the Hittite king ,Muwatallis appear to have

or

or

130

HIW-SEMAINA REGIOr\

HOREMAKHET

claimeu ,-ic.:tory, c,"cntually led to the signing or a PCilCC u"eaf)' in the twenty-first year of Ramcscs' reign. This document is preserrcd both on Egyptian monuments .1I1d on Akkadian cuneiform tablets from Boghazk(l)'. Ramcscs cemented the alliance by marrying: a Hittite princess, an acl that \\";15 celebrated by the I-finite marriage stele ilt Abu Simbel. This was nOl, hO\\T\-er, the first attempT to link the twO great POWlTS. A lellrr discmTred in the Hittite archives is beliered to hare been sent by it ro~ al womaJl of the hue Amarna period (perhaps Ankhcscn<lllluJ1, withm TL"T\'''11 \\Il':.,), requesting the llittitc king Suppiluliumas I to send one of his sons to he her husband. The prince in questiun, hO\\c\cr, was murdered l'lI routt' to Egypt and the proposcd marriagc seems nc, cr to h:wc raken place. It was :llso during the Hittite imperi:ll phase that a closely guarded lcchniquc for smelling IRQ\! was discoycred, and iron is certainly one of the commodities mentioned in the .\R,\L\R' \ I.ETI'1':I{S as being imported into Egypt in small quantitics. ,'\n iron dagger in the tomb of Tutankhamun nO doubt dcriycd from the same source. Even among the Hirtires themsches, iron seems to h,1\ e been regarded as an cxtremel~ precious metal, suit:lblc only for prestige goods. 'rhe Anatolian he:lrtland of the Hittile empire fin:ll1y beg;.m to disimegnlle in the late lhin-eenth century Be, perhaps as a result of the appearance of the 5E \ I)EOPLES whose migrations also threatened Egypt. This left only the rump of their empire in Syri"l, consisting of a group of 'Nco-Hittite' Cily-slares which werc finally absorbed by \SSYIUA in the eighth century He:.

7 Predynastic Village of Halfia Gibi (site HG) 8 Predynastic Cemetery C

9 and 10 areas of Predynastic settlement

or

(Petrie's site F)
11 Predynastic Cemetery Hand Predynastic

settlement (site SH) 12 modern village of Semaina 13 modern village of Abadiya

);----,~~.---~----7-+---!.6 km

aluminium factory

'/'lll' f1im--Sl'IIwill{l region,

.J. VERGOTI:, '1i1ll/Il/lklWllIflll da/ls fC.I arrhivcs

hil/iles (Istanbul, 1(61),

K. A, KITClIE:", SlIppiflllillJl/a alld ,he _11lwrJ/a pharaohs (Li,crpool, 1962). - , Plumwh /riumpflll1l/: 11ll' I!/i: {lmllimi's of R(",u's,~(',~ /I (\\"arminstcr. 1982),74-95. J G.;\l \CQL:EI~'\, Tlu: HiJfilt's {llItlllll'ir cOlllcmp()mrit's il1.-lsi(J ,11illfJr, 2nd cd. (London, 1986). 0. R. GLR'E\, The HifJilt's, 2nd cd, (1-I:1rmondsworth, 1990).

the exca"ation report on [J1C Predyn<lslic cemcteries of Ab~H.liya and [-liw that formed the basis 1-01' Petrie's compilation of the first relativc chronology of the bte Plu:nY,\(\STIC PERlon (Naqada I-II), which is still largely ,",llid. In 1989 J..::athryn Bani conducted a nc,,' sun'cy of the area, reloc1tlng some of these cemeteries and finding that the Predynastic Cemeleries Land Rand lhe Old Kingdom _\I.\ST.\IH at Cemetery .\ h'ld been destroyed. She also re-examined a few suryiying palches of PredYl1<.lstic settlement rhat Pel ric had mentioncd only briefly in his reporr. At site ~Sll" <1n arca of bte Prcdynastic setllemcnt which Bard discoycrcd ncar Scmaina and beside Petrie's Cemctery II, another surface survey revealed widespread lraces of stonc-working, suggesting that the Hiw-Se01aina region may h:n'c been a Predynastic ccntre for stone vcsscl manuf'lcrure. \\-. \ l. E Pt:TRIE, Diosp()/is Parra: Ihi' <elllc/aiL'S of _If)(uh:l'eh find I-/II (Londun, 1901). K. B \RD, 'Predynasric scltlemcl11 patterns in rhe Iliw-Semainch region, ppcr Egypt', Nl'ame ./kulllu 32 (1989), 2--1.

often fantastic. The llieroglyphica was rediscovered in the fourteenth century \1) amI cxerted great influcnce on the scholars of Renaissance Europe, J()rming the basis of G. P. Valeriano Dolzoni's l-Jierog~)lphi((I, which first appeared in 1556 and was reprinted and enlarged on several oc<.:asions. Unfortunarely it was the allegorical and symholic aspects of Horapollo's work thm led scholars such as Athan:lsius Kirchcr (1602-80) to regard hierogl~ phs as a symbolic language, a "iew which retarded the decipherment of the script for many years. E"en in the nineteenth century a number of scholars, such as Gardner \\"IU,:J::'\SO:'\, were still hcing misled by Horapollo and thus frustrated in their attcmpts at decipherment. IT. R. H\Lt. 'Letters to Sir 'vVilliam Gell from Henry S,llt, (Sir).J. G. Wilkinson, and B~lron von Bunscn',]h>/2 (19I.i), 133-67.

Horemakhet ,ee

II0l<'ZO"

and

IIDI<US

Horemheb (1323-1295 Be)

General and I Sth-Dynas~ pharaoh, whose rule represented a return to companuh-c normality after the" \1 \RX \ period. His military career prob~lbly began during the reign of .\I..:IIE:\"ATE:'\ (1352-1336 Be), when he was perhaps known by the earlier n.1J11C of Paarenemhcb, although this is disputed by many Egypwlogists. Little is known of his background apart from the fact that his family camc from I-Ieraklcopolis. His wife lVlutnedjmet may possibly have been NEFERTITI'5 sistcr, in which case she may have bolstered his claims to the Ihrone. By the reign of TUT;\"\KIIJ\_\IUi"\ (1 336-l.127 Be) he had risen to a position of grear power as generalissimo and hegan work on his tomb at Si\~\R.\, the

Horapollo (fourth centur\' .\D)

Supposedly a nativc of Upper Egypt, whose work, the lIicrog)l'phiro, claimed to be an explanation of the symbolic meaning of various hieroglyphic signs, dcrivcd directly from ancient Egyptian sources, The original was probably written in COPTIC, although the work is known only [rom Greek translations. AI.-JlOugh the meanings of many signs were correctly identified by HorapoHo, the allegorical reasons that he gi,-es for their me-Jnings arc

Hiw-Semaina region (Diospolis Paml)

Group of I'RI':!)YN'\STIC, Pharaonic and Roman-period sites 011 the east bank of the Nile in Upper Egypt. 'T'he I-liw-Sem<lin:I region l which was surveyed and exc;lyatcd by Flinders Petrie in 1898-9, stretches for about 15 km along either side of the modern e1Ranan cal1:11, from the village of I-Iiw in the southwcst to Semaina in the northeast. It was

131

HOREMH EB HORSE

LEVI' Door--jalllb jimNlhe lomb ~r l/orc1I1hl'b, /11i/1I (arred reliefshoming Ihe king;11 ({II allilude 0/ (It/omliol1. 18/h DJ'1I(1S~)I. c./300 /le, II. (int: J"l'slomlhm) 1.83 Ill. (1:" 650)

131::1.0\' Saibc ;ilallle Q/Horel/lhl'b. nJih D.l'"asly, c.13001Jc.1I. 1.lim. (\EII }ONJ.., H/:TROf'f)UT /\ 'I[ SEt II. 23./0./)

horizon was also considered to be protected by ","-Ell.., a god personified by a pair of L10'" sometimes replacing the mOllntains in amulets depicting the horizon. h was perh,lps this link between thc lions and the horizon which led [0 the Great Sphinx at Giza bein~ regarded as the principal manifestation oj, Horemakh el. The appC;lrance of the horizon "as often

.r/I//ulel illlltt'jiu11l a/tlte {fA,ltet Itierog~)'ph rl'prt'Je1lting Iht' lrori::,ol1. (1::.18300)

imitated in the iconography and form~ Egyptian art and architecl,ure, from the guddess of the horizon, whose two breasts somr.:limes replaced the mountains on either sick of the sun, to the twin towers of 1'\ LO'S, which formed parr. of the transforma tion of temples into metaphors for thc cosmos. R_ H. \\'II.f(I'\SO:---. J?mdillg Egyplilill uri (London, 1992),13+-5.
1\1cmphilC necropolis. 'rhis wmb was first located by the German archaeologist Richard Lepsius in the nineteenth century and cxcaY,Hed by an Anglo-Dllf ch expedition during the late 1970s. Its painted relief scenes, fragments of which arc sp,"cad through the coUcclions of many different museums, depict scenes uf his triumphan t return from l11iliti1r~ c3mpaigns, as he attempted to restore the Egyptian empire in Nubia and the Lenll1t. When he succeeded .\Y (1327-1323 Be) on the throne he undertook numerous constructio n works at lhe temples of "0\R'.\K amI LLXOR, and .It GEBEL 1~I.-SII.SIL\ he created a SPEOS (rock-temple). On an administrati,"c leye! he introduced numerous reforms designed primarily to decentraliz e the go\-crnmcn t, and he erected a stele in the temple of l\lul i.1t Karnak bearing an inscription outlining his plans for the restoration of order after the depredatio ns of the Amarna period. It was during Horemheb 's reign that the dismantlin g of Akhcnatcn 's temples lO the ATE\. began, although it is possible that the destruction of the royal romb at clAmarna LOok place slightly later, in the early Ramessidc period. He usurped Ay's mortuary templc in the yicinity of "'EDIKET 1-1"IlL in western Thebes and constructed a new roY'11 tomb fill' himselfin

or

the Valley of the Kings, abandon.ing his yirtu:1lIy completed private LOmo at Saqqar'1. The Theban tomb (","57) was innmative both in its decoration (sunk relief scenes from the Book. r~r Clites) and in its architectural style, consisting of a single straight corridor wilh side-chambers, rather lhan the bent-axis style of the previous 18d1-Dynast)' royal tombs. In the burial chamber his red granitc S<lfcophagus remains ill Jilll, but the mummy has not sllITivcd. R. I-I-\Rl, Horelllheb ella reill' i1/1oll/lfedjmd, 011 la }in (1',l11i' (6 r1UHlil' (Gcnc"a. 1965). E. HOR~L":-'G and F T":ICII,\1 '''~, /Jus Grab de:; Hurcmhab ill/ 7;,1 d/!r Kiifligt' (Berne, 1971). J.-- \l. KRL:C1 nT'-, Lt' rleerel "'Horemheb: fradlle/ioll, (ommel//aire ipl~~raphilfl/l'. phiJologiqlte cf ill.ltilu/iol/ll d (Brussels, 1981). G. T. .\l-\RTI.N. 71,l' AI/!11lphi/1' lomb ofHrm:mlu'h (London, 1989).

horizon The Egyptian hieroglyph denoting the horizon (akltet) was essentially a schematic depiction of the two mountains between which the sun rose, indicating that the horizon was regarded as the home of the sun-god. One aspect of the god 1I0Rl"S, who was closely associated with the sun cult) was therefore described as Horemakh cl ('Horus in the horizon), As the place of sunrise and sunset the

horse The domestic.lIed horse was inrroduced into Eg~ pt from western Asia in the Second Intermedia te Period (1650-1550 Be) ~It roughly the same time as thc C!HIUOT, although a horse skeleton excavated at !JUliE:' may date as early as the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 Be). Scycral horsc burials have been e..xc~natcd at TEI.L EI.-I).'B'" the site of the IIH.. SOS caplt,ll Avaris. Unlike donkeys, which were used for agricultural work from at IC.1st the bcginninl!' of the Pharaonic period ((.3100 BC), horses were essentially status symbols, used for sut.:h acti,-ities as IIL":'\TI'\G, "'Rr\RE and ceremonial processions, They were almosl always uscd to pull cluriots rather than being ridden, although banle scenes in the r\ew l-.:-ingdom (1 S50-1ll6<) Be) occ;.lsionally show indi\'iduilJ soldier<.; mounted on them. On the basis of surviving chariot yokes it has been calculated thaI the aycragc "heigh'- ,,-ould ha,e been around 1.35 m, although some sur\'iving examples "c:rc e,ic1cntly taller, such o1S the 1.5-m-high skeleton found in front of the tomb of SE"~' \ll'I (rr71). By the end of the 18th Dynast)~ (1550~1295 Be), horses were firmly established as prestige gifts between rulers in north .I\fril::t and the ~car Easl, blll" they seem to ha\c becn particularly prized by the Kushitc kings oflhe

132

HORUS

HORUS

RIGHT ReliefMockji'OJ11l'1-.1II/uma bearillg (l depj(lioll a/a pair o/llfIrses, mh;c!J probllb~l' origil/a/()'Jimned pafl oIII depictio!1 (jIll royal chariot professioll. 181h DyIlIlSO', c./350 LJC. H. 23011. (I/L7RO/ JOI./7'J\ HLW:L II, '''''" lORA.
I.

/979.8. /9)

25th DynasC\ (7-17-656 BC), whn had se"eral

horses interred beside their pyramidal tombs

and 'l;RI. A. R. SnILI.\I-\'. 'Egyptian representations of horsemen and riding in the New K..ingdom'. JNES 10 (1957),267-70. ~l. A. L,.,T\LER and j. II. CROLII EL, 1171ee/cd r..:e!Jir!t'S (lilt! riddt'll (/1/i1l/(I/s il1 [he Allciefll Sear East (Leiden <\nd Cologne. 1979). L. SToRe", 'Pfcrd', uxikull tier _Tgyplologie J\, cd. II'. Heick, E. Otto and W. Westendorf (Wicsbaden, 1982), 1009-13. R. and J..l "SSE:", E~~.JIPli{/IIIt(JlIseh(J1dtluill/u/s (Aylesbury, 1989),38-13. C. ROi\L\lEI.\EIH:, !.ex (hn.'lll/x till NOlIl't'1 Empire EgYPfieu (Brussds l 1091),
ilt EL-kLRI{L

cd with other deities. The purpose of the cippm seems to haye been to prm'ide healing po\\'ers to combat such problems as snake bites or scorpion stings, As a son of Isis and OSIRIS, Horus \\as also worshipped under the name of Harsicse, the god who performed the rite of OI'I':;\fI'JG OF Tl IE ,\IGLTll on his dead fathcr, thus legitimizing his succession to the thronc as earthly ruler. in a simibr vein, as ilorus Iun-mutcf~ priests or e]ckst sons wearing p"lI1t'hcr~skin costumes
would ritually purify the path of the

Horus (Harocris l I-Tarpocratl:s, Harsomtus,

Horemakhet, Ra-Horakhty)

F:\LCO,\;-god whose name is attcsted from al least as carly as the beginning of thc Dynastic
period (".3100 Ile). Although not actuallY

deceased's coflln.

named as such, it is probably the Horus-f~lIeon who mlS depicted on the 'Bau]cficld' and 'i'\.lrmcr' ceremoni'll P,\I.ETI'ES l apparently subjugating his enemies in the battles IC<.lding to the unif.ication of Egypt. Tn addition, the TLRI:'\ Ron!. C.\:'\o:'\ (a 19th-Dynasty king list) describes the Prcdynastic rulers of Egypt as 'followers ofllol'us l Usually depicted as a hawk or as a man with the head of a hawk, Horus was not only a god of the sky but the embodiment of di\,inc ""GSIIII' and protector of the reigning
pharaoh. Gradually the cults of other hawk-

The mythology of the Osirian Ilorus (r"lther than any or the other aspect~ of Horus) was principally concerned with his struggles to avenge the murder of his f"llhcr Osiris and to claim his rightful inheritance, the throne of Egypt, by defeating the c\-il god SETH. The latest narratives of the myth tend to combinc scveral different traditions, Tn the first version, Seth was Horus l unclt.: l \yhcrcas in the second \t.:rsion he was his brother, There arc also difTering accounts of their struggles or 'eolHendings\ which wcrc associated with the myth of Horus c\'cn before the cOlltcndings becamc linked with the Osiris myth. The Shabaqo Stone (c.705 Be, now in the British l\luseum), a 25th-Dynasty inscription purporting to be a copy of an Old K.ingclom text. describes thc story of the earth-god lil:n judging berwcen the t\\'o and cyentuaUy :marding the throne to Horus. Howe\'cr, a more li\cl~ \'ersion is pro\'ided by the RamessidL" Papyrus
Chester Beatty
I

(Chester Beart\ Libran,

gods merged \\ ith lhat of Horus, and a complex array of myths becilme associated with him. According 10 one of the most common myths, hc was the child of the goddess ISIS, and in this role (lalcr known as Harpocratcs) he waS usually depicted in human form with the SIIJEI.OC" OF YOLTII and a finger to his mouth l often being seated on his mother's lap (particularly in amulets and bronze yoti\,e statuet tes). From the T c Period to the Roman period ~al (747 m.:-t\!) 395) a new vehicle for the image or Horus l the dppus, bccame popular. This was a form of protective stele or amulet showing the naked child-god Horus sian ding on a CrOcodile and holding snakes, scorpions, lions or othcr animals in his oUfstrerchcd arms. On such dppi Horus was also somctimes associat-

Dublin), which details the Yaried. sometimes ludicrous, ri\'alry of Horus and Seth, including a race in boats of stone. In this \'crsion it is the sun-god R.\ who adjudicates at the end or an eighry-year contest, although as usual it is Ilorus who rmally becomes king ofEg~..,t:. ft is possible thal these mythological cuntendings, an e\'en later account of \yhich is gi\'cn by the Greek writer PJ.LT\RClI, may renect a distant mcmory of the struggles of the 'nro lands' bcf(we unillcarion, although few prehistorians would now attempt to usc such comlxlral-i\'c1~ reCent documents to interpret the late Predyn<1stic archaeological material ((.3200Cippm /)1' '[['Ims sfele', sl/filllillg Horus as u dlild //Jith t/ie pnmer to Oi..'t!I'{IJIIiC htlrJI?/jd.lilras. Li/..'c Nem Kingdom exalllples, this ifem is oImood, hilt tlu.' prolllilll!lIf Bes heud alltl fhree~dimeJlsinl1t11 represclltatio/l oIthl' (hiM Homs poinllo l/ic I.ttle Paiod. mImi mosl e.\'{fwples mere oIs/(lI/c, Ltt/(, Paiod. ajh:r600 He. J1lood.Fmll A,1empI11~~ (?). /1.1901/. (/60958)

.l10D IlC).
During his contendings with Seth, Horus is s:lid to have lost his left eye (which represented the moon), although t(lrtunatcly the goddess I L\'I'IIOI{ was able to rcsrorc it. The IIt(jator medjal-eye (thc 'eye of Horus l ) thercf()re came to symbolize the gener"ll process of 'making whole l and healing, the term IIdjal

133

HOUSE OF LIFE

HUMO~

literally meaning 'sound'. It also represented the waxing and ,,,aIling of the moon, and served as a metaphor for protection, strength and perfection; ]/ledja/-eye i1I11ulcts arc extremely common. Since Horus was a sky-god and ;l cosmogunie deity, h.is eyes wcre interpreted as the sun and moon, and he was frequently described in the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 Be) as a god of the cast, and hence the sunrise. Tn this guise he became ~nowl1 as Horemakhct ('Horus in the I I(JRII.U'. I) and he was also merged \YIth Ra, to bCCOIlH.: Ra-Horakhty. There wcre numerous forms of Horus throughOllt Egypt, hut he is particularly associated with EIWL, the site or the ancient city of1"le5cn. There was a temple of Horus at Edfu fi'om al least as early as the Nc\y Kingdom, and in the wcll-preserved Ptolemaic temple he was ""orshippcd ,1S part or a triad with I-Lllhor and Lheir child HarSOl11tus. Prom at least .lS early as the -hh Dynasty Horus Khenty-Irty was worshipped aL Letopolis (Kom Ausim) in the western Della. Horus W~L" also closely associated with 11mRt\K01\POI.IS (Iitcnilly 'town of the h~nyk') which was known as Nekhcn during the Phar~lOnjc period. From the temple at this site Was excavated the golden falcon head (nmY in the Egyptian ?vluseum, Cairo) which probably formed part of a cult image. In his role as Horus of Behdel, a town in the Delra, he was also portrayed as a winged sun-disc, an image that constantly recurred in the decoration of many other remples, harking back to his originall11anifestarion as a god of the sky. See also KD.\L (}\LIJO and SOi\S Oi' 110RUS. G. D \In:sSY, 7i:.r/('.~ el dessills /IwgiljllcS (Cairo, ]9(3), ]-2. A. H. G"tRJJ1NI']{, Till' CIles/a lJe{/lIy I)(//~)'I"i I (London, 1931). - , 'HonlS the 13ehdetite',]DI 30 (19+1), 23-60. J. G. GRlFF1TIIS, The (fII~/li(t ,!/11urt/s alld SCIIt FO/lf hg,ypliall alld Classi(al SOlfrt!!S (Li\Trpool, lW,O). H. VI!. r'\IRi\II\N, The Iriumph oII-lurl/s: (II! (lIIde1// L~~.J!Pli{/1I s(lcral drama (London, 1974). S. QUlIU':I':, Al/tiClI1 Hgyp/itlll re!tiiull (London, 1992),61-7. C. AN1JRI,:ws,AlIIlIleH o!al/tielll Egypi (London, 1994),43--4.

or

school for SCRIBES and the children of the elite (sec EIlLCITIO'). Tl is also likely that copies of such funerary fexts as the noot\: OF TILE DE..\D wcre produced feu' sale to pri\"ate individuals. '\STRO'\O\I', geography, .\1 \"1"1 IL\L\TICS and L'\\\, as 'Yell .1S the interpretation DIU~'\\lS, would h;n-c been taught in the House of Life, while priests would haye had ample theological material to study. They ,,"o~Ild probabl~ also h,lVC lltilized the tcmpk I.JHRARY, or House of Books (per JIIcdjal), which would 110 doubt have been the principal source of the original documents copied by rhe pupils. The personnel of the House of J .ife also appear 1"0 haye been concerned with \lI':f)LCI\T, and it may be thar the sanatoria associated with a number later temples were connected in some way widl ,he Houses of Life. The priests of the House of Life Illay also haye been concerned with oyerseeing the work of temple craftsmen, and ',"CrC perhaps involved in the design of new pieces for manufacture. Houses of Life are recorded at iVLemphis, Akhmim, Abydos, Koptos, Esna and Edfu and rhere lllust certainly have been examples at Thebes and elsewhere, The House of Life at EL-.\.\\.\Rl'A 1 a complex of mud-brick buildings in the centre of the eily or Akhetatcn, midway between the main temple and pabce, was c1carly indcntifiable when excavated in the 1930s because the bricks were stamped with the words pn (Ilft.-h. In most other respects, however, these buildings were undistinctive, although significantly it ,yas in these rooms fhat one of the rare fragments of papyrus at cl-Amarna (part of a funerary text) was founel. A. II. GARDI.'1Et{, 'The House of Life' ,]EA 24 (]938), ]57-79. A. VOLTEN, DI'IIIf)//~fdll' TrallllldclIl//lIg (Copenhagen, ]942), 17---14.

or

or

servants. It has becn argued that the apparent shared roof coycring many 'subsidiar~, burials' sUITuunding the tombs of certain lst-D~ nasty rulers at Abldos and Saqqara (3]OI)-28YI) IlC:) is an indication that large numbers of royal retaincrs were killed simultaneoLlsl~ in anler to accompany the pharaoh into the aftcrlik This practke would no doubt later have been superseded by the more widespread usc of representations of senants at \york (in thl' form of wall decoration and rhree-dimcn:-'ion_ al models), and the e\,cntual pro\'isioll of SIIABTI figures, \rhose role appears 10 haH; been to undermke agricultural work on hehalf or the deceased, Prom the late Predynasric period oO',;\rus, rotiye objects ;lnd temple walls were ti'equclltIy decorated ,Yith scenes of the king smiting his enemies while gripping them by their hair, hut rhese ;lcts of ritual execution arc usuall~ depicted in the context of wart~lre. The actual sacrifice of prisoners at temples - as opposed 1"0 the depiction foreigners as bound eapti'Ts - is attestcd by t.extual evidence from 'he reign 01' Amenhotep " (1427-1400 l1e). He claims to have executed seven S~Tian princcs in dle temple of AmLin at Karnak, displaying the bodies of six of thL:m On its walls, ;lIld hanging {he body 01" the seventh on the walls

or

of l'\AJ'AJi\.
rhe tale of the +th-Dynasry rukr Khufu He) and rhe magician Djedi, COIllposed in the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 Be) and preserved on Papyrus "iestcar (Berlin), provides a good illustration of the Egypti,lIls' apparent abhorrence of human sacrifice. Khufu is portrayed as a stereotypical t~ rant who asks for a prisoner 1"0 be decapitated so that Djedi can demonstr;He his magical abilit~ to restore severed heads, bUl, according to the story, the magician insists that the lkmonstration be made on a goose rather than a hum,lll. It is ,llso worth noting that the PrR \ \lID 'n:yrs include possible references to cannibalism in the form of the so-called 'cannihal hymn' (Utterances 273--1-), which describes the king 'eating the magic' and 'swallowing I hI.: spirits' of the gods. However, it is difficult to know in rhis instance whether the cuncept of the king eating the gods was purely metaphorical or based on some early s,lcrificial aCL !vI. LIClITIIEI.\l, .-1I1t"i':lIl [gyptif/II lileraillre I (Berkeley, 1975),36-8, 2J7-20.l'cannibalism hymn' and Papyrus Westcar] A.]. SPENC1~R, E([I'~)I L:'.!,yPI (London, 1993), 61-97.

(2589-2566

J. D. S. PE:,\DLEBL"RY, Cily (~r--l/.:l1Cl/{/I(,1/ 111/1

(London, ]951), 115, 150, E. STROL:lif\I., Lije ill al/rielll Egypt (Cambridge, 1992),235-41.

houses see TOWNS

Hu see IlI\r-SEI\IAlj'\"\
human sacrifice

IU~GIO;'\

House of Life (Egvptian per ankh) Templc institution somctimes compared wifh a medieval scriptorium. Although usuall~ associated with a religious institution, the I-louse of Life differed from its monastic counterpart in that it was not simply a place where PRIESTS were trained in the reading and copying of sacred texts but apparently also a

There is no certain evidencc of the practice of human sacrifice in Egypt from the Old Kingdom (2686-ZlSJ Be) onwards, although the practice is known from KEILVIA in Nubia at a time roughly contemporary with the Second Intermediate Period (l 650-1550 BC). Tn the Protodynastic and Early Dynastic period (d200-2686 Be), there may be archaeological indications of the funerary sacrifice of

humour
Since humour and satire are both concerned with the subversion and undermining of the

134

HUMOUR

HUNTING

nl)rl1l~1 decorum of society, they arc notoriously diflil:ult to analyse or dissect in modern times, let '11onc in an anciem culture such as Pharaonic Egypt, when cyell the most bOlSic framework of the system of decorum (or social mores) is not

t!f IYr.rerly, in which the disintegration of society is described in terms of deliberate re\-crsals
and inyersions of the narur,ll world, S. CL'RTO, La stllira IId(ulllirn EgillQ (Turin,

19(5).
13. \:\'- DE 'V\J.I,E, L '!If/mImI' dum III lilleralllft' t'I dl/IIS I'arl de I'{/I/rit:lluc 1:.~!.{l'Plc (Leiden, 1969),

fully undcr:->tood. ~ot withstanding this basic prohlem, there are'l few relatively unambiguOliS sUI"\'i,"ing examples of visual humour, such as the scene, among the relicfs in the temple of
l-blshepslIl (1+73-H5~ He) al DEli{ I'I.-H.\II"', that portrays the orcrwcight figure of the queen of Pl:;\"T followed by a small donley, whose caption rcads 'the donkey that had to

Huni see ,\I!':rl)L;\\

and

S:'\EFERL

hunting
Although hunting in the Pharaonic period was rehnively unimpormnr as a means of subsistence, ir still retained a great de,ll of ritualistic ,md religious significance, T,yo basic types of hunting were regularly represented on the walls of tombs and temples throughout the Pharaonic period: 'fowling and fishing' and 'big-game', the former consisting prim,lrily of small-scale fishing and bird-snaring on the hanks of the :\"ilc, :md the latter consisting of the hunting of wild deer :.l11d lions in deserr terrain, and bulls, crocodiles and IIIPPOI'OT.\.\ll in the marshes. These two categories also correspond roughly to the private and royal domains, with scenes of 'fowling and lishing: in the marshes' being ,I common component of pri,;.ttc tomb decorillion but only in one case appelring in a roynl tomb (thaL of King \\, h.\23 in theYalley of the Kings). By the )Jew Kingdom (1550-1069 Be), descriptions of [he pharaoh's exploits as a hunter of such beasts as wild bulls, L10:,\S, elephanrs and rhinoceroses formed an essential part of the characteristic Egyptian sryle of KI'\TGSllIP, 1:\\'0 series of commemorativc SC\IL\US of \\IE,\IIOTEP III (l390-13S2 Be) were

carry the queen'. The comic impacl or this

scene on anciem Egyptians is perhaps indicated hy rhe SUf\"j'",ll of an mtrK..\C();\. bc.uing a rough sketch of the queen c1e~uly copied from the original. Such rilles ;]s Salin: UII I!lt' lratlt's and Be (f srribt' are used by Egyptologists to describe parricular ~'pes of text from the ..:\ liddle and New K.ingdoms thar poured scorn on all trades and professions other than that of the scribe, Although the Egyptian scribe's superiority complex was so highly developed tlut parts of the \atircs' nuy eren have been regarded as factual rather than ironic, there is undoubtedly a considcr~lble clement of comical exaggeration and Guicature in the descriptions of the rarious trades, prO\'iding a liten.Jr~ counterpart fC)f the gentle visual mockery of some of the labourers depicted in prh-,He tomb-p'lintings, On the wholc. there seem to h<1\ e been relath-c1y fc\\' outlets for humour within the confines of official funerary ,md religious arr and literature; therefore most of the more lighthearted aspects of Egyptian culture tend to be restricted ro rhe arena of rough sketches and OSTRAC..\, depicting such T'\BOO subjects as a pharaoh with unsecmly stubble on his chin. A large number of such sketches, howeycr, E11I into the cltegory of 'animal fahles', in which animals - particularly cats ~1I1d mice - are depicted engaged in typical hum.m activities such as beating capti,'cs, dri,'ing chariots or making obeisance to a ruler, ln a few instances these scenes arc portrayed on pjpyrus, ,1S in the case of rhe so-called Satirical Papyrus (now in the British l\luscum), which dates to the late New Kingdom and includes scencs of;'l lion and antelope playing a board-game (see Gt\..\IES for illustration) and a c.lt herding geese, It has becn suggested that these images of animals may be all th,u- survive of 'beast fablcs', although no Iitcrary coulHcrparts have survived, and there is currently no sure way of determining whether the pictures were either intended to be humorous or connected in some way with such didactic writings as the Discourse

inscribed with detailed descriptions of his hunting of wild bulls nnd lion.">, and the decoration of the first pylon of the morrtli.lr~ temple or Rameses BI (I 18+--1 153 Be) at \II'DI'ET I1'\BC includes ,1 demiled depicrion of the king and his soldiers hunting bulls, Such royal hunts appear to hn,"C taken place within deliberately enclosed areas, so that the animals would have no escape, and the exc,lYat"ion of the \Jew J..:..ingdol11 settlement at SOLEB in ~ubia has yielded traces of post-holes which may well indic,ue the presence of an enclosure surrounding a large hunring park cu,-cring an area or 600 m x 300 m. There arc also a fell' pri,-ate tombs that shmy the deceased Imming wild game in the desert. thus pro,'iding the artists \\-ith;\ rare opportunity to depict rhe distinct1,'e Sa,'anna and desert landscapes in \\'hich the hunt occurred, Com'crsel~, the simple netting of birds became an important parr of tern pic decOI'arion, with the king and v,lrious gods often being depicted hauling clap-nets containing both birds and beasts, \-Vhcreas tht.: depictions of fowling in private tombs no doubt reflected the aCIll,,1 actiyitics of the elite, the temple scenes arc usually interpreted as allegories of the presenation of harmony by hunting down and suppressing cyil and unstable phenomena (symbolized by the birds and animals struggling in nets), In the Old Kingdom, the pyramid com-

I t'all-pailllil1gfmm IItl' lomb-dltlpl'l ofNd){I11lfI11, sltoming lite dcreased millt Iti,~fil1l1ihll/lf1l1;"g binls in lite marsltes, 1811t Dyuasl.l'. c.1-100 /lC, pail/led plaster.ji'fllII TItebi.'s, 11,81 fll1, (F.1379ii)

135

HUSBANDRY

HYKSOS

RdieldarJr(lIiOIl on thl' fwel: oIIII/:jinl py!rJ11 of Ihe mortuary Jemple ofRmut'seslll (118-1-1153)
at J/Il'dillt'! J-!a!JlI, s!lomillg llu' killg IlllI/lillg mild

Hyksos (Eg'~ptian Ireka Hili''''/: 'rulers of

foreign lands') Term used to refer to a Palestinian group (or perhaps only their rulcrs) who migr~llcd inlO EgYPI during Ihe late i\liddle Kingdom (c.1800-1650 BC) and rose to power in Lowcr Egypt during the Second lntcrmediate Period (1650-1550 DC). [t used to be assumed that the Hyksos conqucred Egypt at the cnd of the 13th Dynasty, bUI it is now recognized that the process was prohably En more gradual and peaceful; according to Donald Redford, 'it is not unreasonable to assume that with the gradual weakening of royal authority, lhe Delta defenses were allowed 1"0 lapse, and groups of transhumants found it

bulls.

tlud thrusling 1I !oug IUl11fmg sptllr at Dill'

is portrayed slul/diug in his dlllrio/ olt/u: hulk TIlt' larding grnup (~(.mldiers ill t!le !fJII'CI" regis/a are slIfWi/l firing arrows. appa/'m/()I
R([1I1eSl'5

engaged ou(p illlhe more 1II1111t/(/l1(' pursuit of/ht'

birds ant/Jish (~rlhr marsh-lauds. (I. SIIIII)

plexes of Sahura (2487-2+75 Be) and Pcp,' " (2278-2184 BC) contained depictions of thc king hunting a hjppopotamus rendered at a larger-than-life scale; the allegorical nature of these scenes, in [crms of the king's containment of chaos, is demonstrated by the rcliefs in the temple of IIORes :1l ElJrL, which transform the aCI of hinding and spearing a hippopotamus into a dramatic re-enactment of the mythical conniet between the gods Horus anu SETII. T. S \\ E-SOl)EIWEIHjll, 01/ Egypl;a}/ ft'presl'l!ftlliollS
/{hippuPIJIUIIIIIS hUl/ling (IS
tI

easy to cross the horder and senle in LO\\er Egypt". Ha\-ing persuaded oneself of thi~, the Hyksos assumption of power rcycals itself as a peaceful takeoycr from within b~ a racial c1cment already in the majority.' The Semitic nameS of such 15th-and 1()[hDynasty l-Iyksos rulers as Khyan, Joam and .Iakbaal (c. J650-1.>50 BC) dearly indicate their non-Egyptian origins, A number 1\e\\ Kingdom texts, including the Ramcssidc Papyrus Sallier I (c 1220 Be), suggest that the llyksos interlude was essentially the rUlhb,1" imposition of Asiatic culture on thaI of tht: n.lti\'c Egyptians, but these were unduuhtcdl~ biased accounts. and the archaeological c\ i(knee is considerably morc ambiguous, The ccmeteries, temples and stratified sett1cmcnt remains at such e.lstern Delta sitcs as TELL EI.-O\11'\, TEI.I. EL-\\ \S,,"IIL"T\ and TiLl EL-nIlLIJIU include considerable quantities of Syro-Palestiniau material dating to lhe ~ riddle Bronze Age II period (c.2000-700 lie), but the Hyksos kinl:!s thcmseh'es ha\-e left fc\\ distinctively 'Asiatic' remains. The sJllall number of royal sculptures of the H~ ksos period largely adhere to the iconographic Jnt! stylistic traditions of the l\lidlllc t..:.ingdol11. There is some e\-idcl1l:c 10 suggest that Ihe rulers supported the traditional forms of gm"crnment ilnd adopted an Egyp[ian-Sl~ Ie ROYo\!. TITLL.\Rr, alrhough j\lh\nfrcd Bit.:ta" has discU\'cred a door jamb al Tell d-Dah'a bearing the name of Ihe T-Iyksos king Sokarher with the title ht/Nt khllsm/, Their major deity was SET!I but thcy also \'01'shipped other Egyptian gods as well as \, n and AST-\RTE, two closely related goddesses (If S)To-Palcstini~lI1 origin. Con\'cntional forms

or

.~I

St,!et:lioll ofscllrabs tlll/illg 10 ,hl'

r~J'hos pai(lt!,

(\/;11 )'ORI\, l/ETROIOI.lI 1\ lILSEI

II)

rcligio/lS mOlh'"

(Uppsala, 1953). J. LELJ.-\'\T. 'Un pan.: de chasse de 13 ~ubic phar:lOnique\ Li'SO!. !u pam!t' cll'eail. 2000 lIW tI'hisloire aFimilll'; mi/lmgl's etIllOlIIlI/agf' ,i
(Paris, 1981), 727-3-L \V. DEC,,"ER, SpOrlJ (fill! games fJIllncienl 1~:f{)IPI, trans, A. Guttmann (i'\'ew Haven. 1992), 147-67. E, STROLl 1.0\1.. Lije ill oJ/ciml EgypI (Cambridge,
RaJ'l1/olltl.lI(fI/1~J'

A~,

' .. =:;

1992), 118-22

husbandry sec
IIUSB.\.'DR\

'GKICGI:rcKE

and, "1'1.\1.

136

HYKSOS

HYPAETHRAL

of Egyptian literature, such as the Rhinu _\!athematical Papyrus (see \I \TIIE\I HIC~) l:onrinucd to be composed or copied. Ha,"ing established their capiml at AY:lris, they appear to have gradually spread westward. establishing centres such as TEI.I. ELnIILmY.\, and taking control of the important Egypti<ll1 cit~ of _~lcmphis. The discO\"cry of;1 small number of objects inscrihed with the names of Hyksos kings at sires such as Knossos, Baghdad and Boghazk(}'y (as well as the remains of -'linoan frescos at l.;thD~ nasty A,"aris) suggest that the ncw rulers maintained trading links with rhe Ncar East and lhe Acgc~lIl. Seals .It the :"Jubian site of .,.J:It\\ \ be.1r the name Shcshi, appilrcntl~ a corrupted form of Salitis, the earliest known Hyksos king. The presence of these seals probably indicarcs that thefe was ~lJ1 alliance between the I lyksos and the kingdom of I':erma, which \\ould hu\'e helped them both to counter opposition in Uppcr Egypt, \yhere ;l ri\'nl group. the 17th Thcban Dynasty, were \'iolcntly opposed to foreign rule. The Second Stele of "".IIOSE, describing onc of the Theb~m campaigns agotinst the Hyksos, includes clear references to a Kubian-Hyksos alliance by the end of the 17th Omas,y. During the Hyksos period, greater use was madc of IIOKSF"S, and their use in warfnre was developed through the introduction of the CIURIOT, which facilil.ltcd the de\'cIopment of new military techniques and strategies. The curyed sword (khepesh) was introduced, along with body armour . mel helmct<i. Ironically, it was probabl~ the adoption of such ne,,- military technology by the Thcbans that helped their rulers to dcfcar the Hyksos, and tu l:smblish ,\II.\lOSE I (1550-1525 lie) as the first king of the 18th Dynasty, and founder of the :\ell" Kingdom (1550-1069 uc). The gra\'e goods in Upper Egyptian pri\"iltc ccmcteries of the Hyksos period (such as Abydos and Qtu) sho\\" greilt continuity with the prc-Hyksos period, suggesting that the cultural impact of the Hyksos rulers may hiwe been restrict cd to the Deltil region. E\Tn sites in the j\rll:mphitc region and the western Delta show few indications of Palestinian influence. It has also heen suggested by Barry Kemp that the appareJ1l Icultural hiatus' in thl: Fayum region during the Second Intermediate Period may simply be iln indication of political disruption in those areas which had pre\ iously had a strong association with the _\liddle Kingdom central administration.
]. \,0, BE(XER,rrJ-l, Ullfenllcllungell
;;:'1/1"

j. y\, SETERS, TIlt, /7yksos. a Jlem im:e.aiglltioll (:\e\\" (-];"'en, 1966). B. .f. KE..\II, 'Old f.:ingdorn, ~liddlc Kingdom and Second Tntermediate P(,;riod'. AI/rimt Egypt: II soria/ltistOlT, B. G. ~[j'iggcr ct al. (Cambridge. 1983),71-182. D. B. RCDFORD, Eg)lpt. Ctll/lllllllllltllsrtlt'1 ill lIucienllillles (Princt:ron, 1992),98--129.

hymns and litanies

One of the most l:ommon types of religious text in ancient Egypt was the hymn, usually consisting of .1 eulogy incorporating the names, titles and epithets of a deity. The mythological details indudcd in many hymns help [Q compensate for the general dearth of naffatiye-style myths in Egyprhm literature. Hymns could be inscribed on the walls uf both tombs and temples as well as on papyri; although they were generally intended to be recitl'd as part of the ritual of a cult - Papyrus Chester Beatt~ 1'\ (recto) now in the British ~Iuseum), for instance, includes hymns to be sung: by the worshippers in a temple- but they were sometimes composed simply as 'lil"el'i1ry' documents in their own right, as in the l ..lse of the ff,'IWl It) the _Yilt: lUl/mlll/;ol/ (one \-crsion of which is recorded on Pap~ rus Chester Beatty \"). Ofll:1l the f"unction of the hYllln can be difficult to ascertain: a cycle of five hymns to SE"LSKn III (187+-1855 BC) were found in the town associated with his pyramid at EL1.",IIL.', but it is not clear when thc~' would have beell recited) whether as part of [he regular cult at the pyramid complex or on a special occasion such as the \'isit of the reigning king. Numerous funerary stelae were inscribed \\ith hymns W OSIRIS, the god of thl: dead, and

the LilllllY of RlI, a hymn to the sun-god, was inscribed in milny Ramessidc royal tombs in the \.\I.I.EY OF TilE ""GS. .4.mong the most poelic of the h~-111ns to the sun was the l!)lJJI1l 10 tht _lien, the longest \'ersion of which was inscribed in the tomb of w at EL-;\ \HR:'\.\. Irs description of the role of the rrE..." in the sustenancc of the world from dawn to sunset has often been compared with Psalm 104) although the uncloubred similarities between the two compositions ~t1most certainly result from a conmlon literary heritilge rather than as some scholars hiwe argued - frum any connection between the worship of the Aten ilnd the origins of Jewish Illonothl:ism. In "lddition, it has oficn becn pointcd out that there is link in the 1~)'mll 10 Ihl' _ -lltll that docs not already appear in e..trlier Egyprian hymns to the sun-god. A.. B-\ItLcQ.aJld r. D_-\l \1 \S, fflrll/llc'S i'l prieres de I'E:!fl'pte ll1l(Jt'lIl1i' (Paris, 1980). .\1. LICIITIIEI\I, _1110"ellt EgyptitlJllituliturr II (Berkeley. 1976),81-118. P. AUFI'Jn:T, f~}!1I11lt'S tIl:.~~YPI(' l'l d'lsral!/: etlfde.~ tic sfm(/ures /ittertlires (Frcihurg, 1981).

hypaethral
Term Llsed to describe a building that has no roof and is thcrefore open to the sky, as is the case in the Kiosk ofTrajan at I'HIL.",E.

hypocephalus
Amuletic discs inscribl:d with extr.lcts from Chapter 162 of the HOOF-.: 0]1 TilE: DUD and oCC<.lsionally bearing \"ignettcs reprcsenting certain deities. Thcy wcre intended to 'warm' the head of the deceased. The earliest examples simply consisted of pieces of inscribed papyrus, but: the hypocephali proper consist of
l~l'P{J(l'plt(l/us fJIXl'shorpllkht'rl'd.
{I

1l'1I1pll'1I1ItS;rill1l. deroratedl1Jitli lilt' prr?/i/c figures o//;Jl/I"

IwbU/IllS

l1'fll'shippilJg Ihe .HIII. LlIft, Pc'riod or P/O/eJllll;t period. -Ith~]rd re1Jtltric.~ 11C. pillstued lil1CII 1I1ll1 p(~I/Ie1II,ji-o", Thebes. fl. f.I (III. (c 136/88)

polifl:~cllcll

Gesellidar tier :::..meileu Zmisdu'//:.:.ril ill /-i.~)lplt!n (Gli.ickstadt and New York, 19(5), 137

HYI'OSTYLE HALL

HYI'OSTYLE HALL

p;tp~ rlls ShL'Ct':i mounted on small c.\RTO,";\:\GE discs, which have been discoycred in il few tombs from the 261h D~nast)" (66+--525 Be onwards). There are also ;l few suryiving examples madc from metal. 1n keeping with their intended function, they were usually placed betwcl:11 the head of the mummified hody and the funcnlry headrest.

hypostyle hall
Large temple court filled ,,,it'h columns, forming an essential clement in Egyptian religiolls architecture, the name dcri,-ing from the Greek for 'resting on pillars'. There was a distincl lransition frol11 the PYLO:,\ into the open courtyard and then into the hypostylc hall. The hall was crowded with pillars and lit only by clerestory windows in the uppermost pan of the walls. The columns coulll be of ,"arying diameter and height, 'llrhough those lining the axis route of the temple \ycre usually the tallest and broadest. 1r \\'<.1S not uncommon for a single temple to ha\'e two hYPos(~'le halls. 'T'he symbolism expressed by the hypostylc hall is that of the reed swamp growing at the fringes of the I'RI\IEnL 1\IOL\lD, since Lhe entire IT\\PLE was regarded as a microcosm of the prO<.:css of CRE.\TI()~ itself Beyond the h'll1, the roof of the temple inyariably became lower and the floor higher, while the dimensions of Lhe rooms grew smaller, until the sanctuary itself was reached. This cosmogonic symbolism is well illusrratcd in the temple of Amlin at 1-\'\Rl\Ah:, where;'\ dense fores\. of 134 columns spring fi'om bases reminiscent of the earth around the roots of papyrus plants. The great columns along lhe axis route <.Ire each 23 m in height, and end in massiye open papyrus flowers, while the rest of the columns han: closed papyrus bud capitals. In the temple of .J...:..hnuI11 .11 f:.S:\'.\, the 'swamp' symbolism is reinforced by the can'ing of insects on the column capitals. The archilravcs above the columns, <.IS well as the ceiling itself: arc representati\'c of the sky (see \STRO,\,O\\Y '\ '.m \STROI.OGY), while the lowest parts of the enclosing walls often be'lf scenes of rows of offering bearers walking along the ground surface. P. A. SP":~CER, nil' I:.gyptialt temple: a lexiwgmphiwl Jt/l(~)1 (London, 198.J.). E. I IOR'LJ'\'G, Idcu into image, trans. E. Bredeck (Nell'York, 1992), 115-29.

Pal't oIthe Creat J-Jypo5tyl' Hall (~Fthe temph' of .4/1/1/" at Karnak. These afe the slJ/allel; doscd flapyl'lls hud coll/II/m: tltc OpCII papyrus i'OIl/II/IIS along the axial fOIl/e slalld 23111 high. (p. 7: ,\ tG-IOI,SOX)

138

IBIS

ILLAHU~

I
ibis
The sacred ibis (Tltreskiomis tll'/hiopj(w) is rhe best knO\\ n of the: principal species of ihis in Egypt; its disrincti,"c fe.llurcs include a white body, a dark cunul bill and a black neck, wing-tips. hindquarters <.111<1 legs. Until the nineteenth century it WilS rchnirdy common in Egypt but by 1850 it had almost dis<.lppcarcd. This bird W~lS regarded as an incarnation of TIIOTIJ, and in the Lac Period (7~7-332 Be) and Ptolemaic times (332-30 Be) sacred ibises were mummified in \';lst numbers .1I1e1 buried in catacombs at TC\:i\ EL-(iEllI:l., S 'Qq. \R.' and elsewhere (see
S"-CREI> \'T\L\I.S).

The GrccJ.. historian

IIER0l10TLS

states that

Lipper hack and wings. Like the sacred ibis, it was frequently depicted in tomb reliels frum the Old "-ingdum (2686-2181 Be), usualh" being painted as if it ,,"cre eompletcl~ black. _J\ct:ording to Herodorus it fought with winged serpents ,Yhich flew to Egypt from Arabi~1. The 'hermit ibis' (Geronliells t!rfJl/ila) has <1 long neck, long legs and a distim:ri"e ruff: le'luing some scholars roo describe it as the 'crested ibis'. Its image sen'ed as the hieroglyph meaning 'to shine' (sec \"11). In modern Egypt it is a rare :Iccidental migrant, but it may ha,-c becn more common in ancient times. Since it is not a w..ltel'sick bird, it features less commonly in ancient scenes set on the banks of the Kilc, which lIsuall~ include the sacred ilnd gloss~ \"lrieties. J. D. R.'\\, lYI, flrdu','c 4'Hor(London, 197(l)" G. T l\hRTIi\, The sulTt'd flJlillltll /ll'{ropo!is III Sorlh SlIljqara (London, 1981). P. F. HOLl.III", 111t'''i,.tlSiJfllll(il'llll:.~!!;.,I'PI (\\'arminstcr, 1986)126-32,1-+6-7.

.-U'adclllic tier' /i.\sellsdwjiell ill G',i""iJlp:CIl (1965), 123-63. - , 'ichneumon', 1.l!xiI'lIl1 tier _lgyplolngil' III, cd. I\". Heick, E. 0110 and " .. "estendorf (Wicsbaden, 1980), 122-3. J ;\ 1\LEI-.":, The wI in (fllrielll EgYPI (f .ondon, 1l)t)3), 32~9.

lIIahun $('(' EI.-I.\1tL" Imhotep

Vizier and archirect of the first pyramid, the Step PITamid of IlJOSER (2667-2M8 Be) of the 3rd Dynasty. \I.\.\.ITIIO credits him (under the Grcck form of his name, Imouthcs) with the im'cnrion of building in dressed stone, Jle is also said to howe wriLten a number of 'instructions' (.I'eIJffyl, see \\ ISI){).\1 I.JTEIUTLIU:.), although nonc has surYi"cd. It was tor his great le.trning that he '\';1S most respcctcd and, somc two thousand years after his death 1 the first c"idcnce appcars of his deific.ttion, a gre.tt rarir-,' for non-royal indi,-idu"lls in ancient Egypt. He WilS considered ro be a god 01" wisdom, writing and ,\\EL>JCI'\E, and as ;l result beeline linked ,\'ith the cults of the gods
'1'1 lOTI I

in his time it waS an ofTence to kill an ibis. Hmycrcl', it is known fi'om examination of rhe

ichneumon
Type or mongoosc common in Arrica, which is larger than a domestic Glt, and thus higger th;1I1 its Indian counterpart. The creature is realistically ponntyed in .1 number of Old Kingdom tombs such as that of the 5thDynasty noble .,., ((.2~00 Be; "lomb 60 at Saqqara), and less rcalisLicall~' depicted in some of the :\cw J-.:.ingdom rombs, such as that of ~ lenna (rr69) at Thebes. U," the ~liddle "-ingdom (2055-1650 Be) the ichncumon was included among the SAClH:n ''\I'I.\I.S and by Ramessicle times (1295-l06Y Be) it sened as a symbol 01" the spirits of the underworld. Its skill in despatching snakcs led to the myth that the sun-goo It, once lOok the form of an i<.:hneumon in order to fight \POPIIIS, the gre;ll serpent of the underworld. This sohlr identificat ion is rcsponsible lor the sun disc surmounting some ichneumon ligures. Sometimes this disc is accompanied by 0.1 uraCIIS, \\ hich sen es to identify the creature ",ith \\.\1))' '1', the goddess traditionally asSOciatcd with Lowcr Egypt. The mongoose emblem of the goddess l\bfdet suggests that she may ha"e originally adopted this manifeslation, \\hich would h,we been p'1rticularIy suitable gi,-cn her supposed PO\\ er oyer snakes and scorpions. i\ bny bronze figurines of ichncumons h~l\'e SLllyj,"ed, although most time from the Late Period (7-+7-332 oc) or Ptolemaic period (.)32-30 DC), ",hen its depiction can be ditlicult to differentiate from that of the sluc\\. E. BI{L:"KER-TI{-\L"T, 'Spitzmaus um! ichneumon als Ticre des Sonncngortcs', NlldmdtlclI dcl'

and

I'T\l1.

A JIIllllfJII{jieti i/Jisjimlllhl' Sacred _'IIl/lIIal

Nampolis all/orlh Saqqtlnl. Plolt!lIIair period. c. /.;0 HC (EI682/9)

mummified remains of these birds that some must" hilYC been hastened to their death; in addjtion it scems that they were being dclibcratcl~ hred for the purpose of "oriYc mummification. h has been suggested thai their eggs were artificially incubated in m-cns; bULh mummified eggs and the remains of other species of ibises are knO\Yll from the cuacombs .11 Saqqara. Thc cult ofThoth led to the production of numerous ihis amulets and statuettes, many of which hayc sun'iyed at Tun.1 c1-Gcbcl and Saqqara. The mummificarion of ibises and the production of Y(Hi,'c items mllst han~ phtyed .In important part in the economy, and a \.triety of fnlUdulent practices arc recorded in the archi"e of a priest called HoI' at Saqqara. The 'glossy ibis' (Pleg(fdi.~ jilkiut!/II1S) has a characteristic curved bill, as well as long legs and ,111 iridescent" bronze-colourcd gloss on ils

1olh:/! bnm:::'1! stalue11t' u/lhl' (Ie~rit'd archiltrl, lmhotep" LaIc Paif)d, 61h-llh fl'''IIfric.l' IIC

(,,/6]800)
139

IMIUT

INCE:--iSE

The Greeks identified him with their O\Y11 god of medicine, :\sklcpios. and his cult centre at Saqqara, the 'Asklcpion" became a centre for pilgrimage by those seeking healing. ~ 1any worshippers left a mummified LBIS as it \ Olive offering to him in the great underground cat.lcombs nearby. and some of these birds bear appliques of lmhorep on their \\Tappings. Pilgrims '1lso left clay models of diseased limbs and organs in the hope of being healed by lmhmcp. Bronze figurines of the deified lmhorcp arc common from the Late Period 011\\ .wds. J-Ie is usually represented as a seated scribe unrolling a papyrus aCross his knees. The b;.lSC of lhe Staluclle sometimes bears the names and titles of its donor. The Saqqanl cat;lcombs extend bcne~lth the 3rd-Dynasty \\ \ST\11 \ tombs, a Eltt which led the British archacologisr~V. B. Emery to search the area ror the tomb or Tmhotep himself, a process which ina(iYertcntly led to the discovery of the s \eRED .\ ..... I.\I.\L necropolis. The tomb of Imhotcp has still nOI been discovered, although some have argued that it may be the large uninscrihed m<lstaba 3518 <It Saqqara. As well as haring a cult centre at Saqqara, Imhol:cp was also worshipped al K..\RX.H:-. nEm EI.-B.\lIRI, !IIlL.\E and in the Ptolemaic temple to Hathor al DEm EI.-\II-:DI\..\. where he was ,"enerated alongside .\.\IE:'\lIOTrr so, OF 1+\PlJ. another impOrlanl deified official. D. \VIUJL '-:"G, lm!lfltcp lIIlt!. 1111('//llOtt:p: GUl/lI'adtwg i/1/ a/tL'1f Agyptl'J/ (Berlin, 1977). ~, Egyptian SlliJlfs: deijiCfltioll ill pharaonic F.gypt (~!<~\\ York. 1977).

T'mo imilll}l'lishes (fir ~'JlIl1his}elJ~~hes') ji(jll/ lht: lomb f~rTi/la1/ldftllflll1f. 1::Jlh D.)'lIflS~l" c. 133(J He,
11./67011. (CIIRO, .\OS

/9-1 /.\/)202,

IUPRODl elf)

COl R1E.\j} OF 1"1. Clur,..rrlf "STlTlT!.)

been somewhat ,'aguely used by Egyprologish 10 describe ;l range of aromatic substanCt..'S used for burning in temples and for scenting rhe person. 'lncense trees' were one of lh~' commodiries brought to Egypt by Hatshcpsur

(1+73-1458 DC) as a result of the expedition that she sent to the African land of pc, r, and
aromatics were also imported from thl .\Icditerranean. Sellt'Uu. howe"er, is nO\\ known to come from ~l species of PiSI{uill. The funer-ion of "incense cones' is a m.mer of SOme debate. There are numerous representations of guests ar banquets and public func[ions, as in the tomb of Nebamun, wearing their heil\y wigs, on top of which a cone of incense mixed with Elt was placed. Tradilionall~' it has bcen assumed that these cones would gradually melt in lhe \yarm atmosphere and run down the \yig and c10lhing or the guest to lc~lVe them fragrant and (onl. No stich cones have been discmered archaeoI{ s/f{)millg gflt'slS /1l('{ITing i1l(Cmf (Om's at (f banquet. ISlh DY1lasty. c./-IOO BC. pail/It'd p/a~If1:.li"(JfJl Thebes. II. 61 mI. (.J37Y8-1)
lVc!Ja/J1ff1l,
BELO\\ Fragmt!1I1 (~r11Jall~p{/illlillgFf)/Illht> ImnIJ

imiut
Fetish symbol consisting or the stuffed, headless skin or <1n animal (often a fcline) tied to a pole which was mounted in a pot. It is recorded as early as the 1st Dyn~lst~ (311111-2890 BC), but is best known through its nssimihnion with the worship of A.nubis, being depicted in the Ch'lpcl of Anubis at DElI{ EI.-n\llRI and clscwhcre. As a resulr, lhe iminl is sometimcs described as the ~Anubis fetish' and selTes as one of the cpithcts of the god. i'\lodcls of the emblem were sometimes included among funerary equipment, 3S in the case of the tomb of TUTAl\KllA.\IUJ'\ (1336-1327 BC). C. N. RI]~\'I~S, Tlu> ((Imp/ell' T"lal/klll/lI/ulI

(London, 19911), 135.

incense
The most common Egyptian word for the product used as incense is selle~ier (meaning ~to make diyincl HmYc,-er, the term incense has

1-+0

Il\STRUCTIONS

INYOTEF

logically, however, ,md Joann Fk[(.:hcr has put forward an argument that the depiction of the conc is used simply as il hieroglyphic s~ mbol ro

depict the fact that the wigs \\-ere scented. It

seems unlikely that guests would h~we wished
to

have their

\'cr~'

elaborate and expensive wigs

matted with congealed fat or their fine linen garments marked ,md smincd (although some

paintings perhaps suggest that this did happen). The yie\\ that the cone illustratcs something that would otherwise be impossible to represent seems a plausible one. A. ~I. BL \C~\l.\'\, 'The significance of" incense and libations in funerary and temple rituals', Z i~) 50 (1912), 69-75. J. fLETCIIER . -If/rim' Egyptitl1/ hair: (I sfllt()' ill Jo,le.]Orm (/l/djil11t/ioll (unpublished dissertation, M:m<:hcster University, 1995). 1\IL SERPICO and R. VVIIlTE, 'The bot.mical identity and transport of incense during the Egyptian New Kingdom', _llItiq/li~lr 7{ (2000), 88+-97.

and Lower Egypt" since the enJ of the Old Kingdom. The name Inter was also taken by three Theban rulers of the 17th Dynasty, who ruled Upper Egypt during a period of instahiJity immediately preceding the emergcnce of rulers (in this case "'''lOSE and AII\IOSE I) who reunited the two hah'es of the country. P. E. NE\\llElun. 'On the parentage of the Tnter kings of the Ele\CIlth D,nast'', z.~S 72 (1936), 118-20.

H. E_ \VI'l.OCI', Tht' fist' {flld.!;dll~rt!Je Hidtllt' A"illgdoll/ i1l Thebes (Nc\\ York, 19{7). \\~ SCIIE't>..EL, .IIt-mphis. Heral.:l(opolis. Thf/!ell: tlil' t'p~l!.rtlphisdlel1 Zeugllisse tier 7.-1 J. Dyllmtie
.i!(l'ptel/S (lriesbaden, 1965).

D. .\R:'\OLl>, CHi-bel' de,\' .1ItCl1l1lfd .lfiflleri'll R",id'l'S ill EI-1t/riICf\.1ainz, 19i6),

inundation
Tcrm used to describe the annllill nooding of the i ilc in Egypt, which has nOt taken place since lhe complction of the \s\r:\:'\ IIIGI' D.\.\\ in 1971. Such was the importance of the l'\ilc inundation to the ancicnt Egyptians that the~ worshipped 1/\1''", a personitic~ltion of the noods .md the ensuing fertility. The Egypti.lI1 seasons wcre based on the annual 1':ile cycle, and named accordingly: "ldlct thc inundation, percl the growing se:lson, and s11l'1//1/ the drought season. However, the inundation only occasionally occurred in the calendrical season of ilklu!!, since the ci\'il C\LE'\D-\R itself became gradually more and more out of step with the seasonal and lunar measurements of time. Each year between June and September the Nile Jnd its tributaries, the Dlue :\ilc "nd the Atbara, recci\'C the heaYy summer rains of the Ethiopian highlands. These riYers greatl~ increase their yolume and nood along the Nile's course. For thousands of years, prior to the construction of the High Dam, the flood would h~l\-e become noticeable at Aswan by the laSl week of June. and would h~l\'e reached its full height in the \-icinily of Cairo by Scplember. The floods would begin to subsidc about two weeks l:ner. The nooding of the land led to thc dcposition of a nc\\- layer of fertile silt eyery year, so that fertilizer was not generally necessary, the soil being replaced e~1Ch year. The importancc of recording the le\'ei of the inundation, in terms of predicting soil fertility and crop yields, led to the devising of methods for the rccording of thc Nile's height, using XII.Q\IETERS (although there is no c\-idcnce for them in the earliest periods). Howcyer, there is no firm e\'idcncc that such records were used to calcuhnc crop yields as a basis for '[i\X \T10N.

instructions Sl'l'

\rlSUO.\1 I.ITER..\TLRI:

Intel (I nyotc!) Name taken by three rulers of the Theh.ln J Ith Dynasty (2125--1985 BC), who were all buried in rock-cut S.W, TO\lUS, in the cI-1i.trif region of western Thches. They called themselves .lfter an 8th-Dynasty Theban nomarch (provincial governor) and chief priest, listed as a ruler in the so-ealled ']"ble of Karnak (an 18th-Dynasty Thehan "J,G Llsr), who was the father of \lE"TcHOTEI' I (c.2125 BC), the founder of the 11 th Dynasty. ll/I~r, SeilerlllIP)! (2125-2 112 IJc), the son of Mcntuhotcp I, initially rook the title 'supreme chief of Upper Egypt', bur later in his reign he conquered the ri\-al cities of ~()I"'OS, /)L,OERA and IllER \~O"P()I.IS and adopted a Rm.\L
TITULAR) .

The first crops could be planted in October and ;\O\-embcr and would ripen in _\ brch or April, at which rimc the rin:r had re~lChcd its !O\\est Icyel (see -\GRJCLTrLltE). During this time little watering would hil\ c bcen necessary. The water could be ret.lined longer on the land by the lise of basins and canals, .md it could be raised from thc ri\'cr by irrigation deYiccs such as the SII.\IJLF. Thc extensiye nootling of the hmd aJso produced an un'l\'oidable 'slack period' in the agricultural year, during which certain corvec tasks could be undertaken. In the Old Kingdum (2686-2181 lie), prR \\IIU building was one such task, and the high water le\'cls could be used to ship stone closer to construction sites than would otherwise hiwe been possible. The inuncl~ltion was also a time of celcbra~ tion, and offerings wcre made to 11.\1'\, the god who personified the ~ile nood. The 1/)rlJ111 to /he _Yile [/lundatiou, prohabl~ composed in the .\liddle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC), praises the ri\-cr f(}r the renewed life it brings to Egypt each year. B. I-I. STR1C:/.,ER, De {/i:as/rowing rail de Nijl (Leidcn, 1956). D. 80' 'j'."-L', La lTlle till Sit (Paris, 196{). f..:.. Bl.TZER, Ea"~)1 hydraulic tir:ilizatirJl/ in Rgypl (Chicago, 1976).
VI/.

So IE:-\KI:I., Dil' Bemiiss('rtllIgsrn:llluIJIJJ! illl

allell_~gJ'Pten (Maillz. 1978). ]. j. J.\~SSE', 'The dny the inundation beg4.m', ].YES ~612 (1987), 129-"6.

Invotel see '''TEF iron

Although iron \yas introduced into westcrn Asia by the third millennium Be, the first e\idencc of iron smelting in Egypt, dating to the sixth century Be, was exC<.watcd by Flinders Per-ric at the Oelta dry of K:\Uk.RAT1S. 'rhere are a number of earlier examples of iron artefacts in Egypt, stretching back to the e:lrly Old Kingdom (,2600 uc), but muSI- of these are assumed to have inYoh-ed naturally occurring meteoric rather lhan smelted iron. A fragment of iron f()lllld in the pyramid complex of Khufu at GIZ,\ has bcen shown to be much huer in date than the Old Kingdom. Lmil the 22ml Dynast' (9~5-71 5 BC) iron artefacts were primarily restricted to ritual contexts. such as royal tombs, as in the casc of the small iron dagger found in the tomb of TcT\'IKIl\\lc:-- (KY62; 1336-J.127 BC). The L\L\R,"\ LE'JTERS include references to gifts of iron sent from western Asiatic rulers to Amenhorep BI (1390-1352 BC) and .'\.khenaten (1352-1336 Be), indicating the prestigious nature of the mcral at this date (see lIlTTlTES).

fl/I~rll WIIIIIII/kil (2112-2063 IJc), the son of Intef I Sehertawy, succceded in consolidating the military successes to achie\'e genuine control m'cr Cpper Egypt. The inscriptions in the tomb of Hetepi at Elkab deseribe a F\\II'" during his reign. In addition, the lo\yer portion of <1 stele (Egypti~ln J\luseulll, Cairo) was found in 1860 by Auguste 1\ilarictte. outside Inter II'S tomb at el-Tarit: describing his conquests and pOrlr~tying him \yith (i\'e namcd dogs at his feet. f""'l"l }\'{fkllll/eblepl/~(er(206"-2055 BC) is thought to have restored the funerary chapel or the deified nomarch I-Ieqaib iH Elephantine_ His reign is generally more poorly documented than his two predecessors, although he is usually described as Inref the Great. His son, Nebhcpetra ,\IE:"oiTUIIQTEP II, was to becomc the first ruler of both Upper

141

IRRIGATION

ISIS

It ""as only during the Roman period (30 BC~ :\11 395) that iron rools ;Ind weapons beC~1l11C rehlliycly common in Egypr. For rhe usc of iron in r\"uhia, sec \\U{OI: . -\. LLL\S . 1uc;cUI Egyptiall /JUlla/als aud
;m/us/rits. 4th eel., re\. J. R. I (arris (London,

1962).235--13.
iron metallurgy in the T\car Iron (/ut! Stu/lustilUll' ofJlIplIlI 15/2 (1975). 59-68.
R. \1 \l)DI'.
IEarl~

East"

Tralw!(I;oJ/J ({fhl'

R. F T\ I.FCOTF. 'The origin of iron smelting in

--'Jriea', II !'Sf _ -I/r;((l1I JUlinttll (JI_lrdll/I'ulogy S (1975). 1-9. B. SClI[!:!., I:.'gyptitlJl1lll'fa!l, Jorlillg tlut! lOuIs
(Princes RisborcJugh. 1989), 17-18.

irrigation see

\(iIOCl"ITL"RE; l',r:--'DXno.'\;

Sl.()I{I'IO~ and Sfl \I>LF

ished tree SCt' TREES

Isis

Goddess who cnc;lpsularcd the yirrues lhc archl:[ypal Egypt ian \\ ire ilnd mother. She was the sisrc.:r-witC to OSIRIS and mother to 110RLS, and as such became the symbolic mother or the Egypli'1J1 king, who mlS himself regarded as a human manifcsmrion of Horus. The aSsOciarion bCI wcen Lsis and the physical rO~'<ll throne itsclf is perhaps indicated by the f~lct that hcr name may han; originally meant 'seat'. and the emblem thill she wore on her head was the hieroglyphic sign ror throne. From the ~ew Kingdom (1550-1069 Be) oInYards, she was closely connected with 1I..I,1'IIOR .md so sometimes "are a solar disc between CO" horns. Her maternal role included that of the 'Isis-eow', mother to the ,\I'IS bull, and 'gre'l( white sow of Hcliopolis', I LeI' origins are uncertain, although she seems to haye been first wurshipped in rhe Delta; in the Hcliopolitan theolog-~ she was regarded as a d"lughter of the deities (jEll ..lI1d '\.LT. She is lx:st kno" n mythologically as the dc'orcd wife of Osiris, "'hose bod~ she sought after his murder b: SETII. She is said to hayc made the first mummy from the dismembered limbs of Osiris, using her wings to breathe life into him and magicillly cOl1cci,'ing her son Horus in the process, In the temple of Hathor af nE~lJER \, there arc rdicfs depicting this necrophiliac act of conception, showing Isis hovering over thl.: mummy in the form of a kite. In reference to this role, she is often depicted in the form of a woman with long eleganr wings, often emhracing rhe pharaoh or, in pri'ate funerary scenes, the deceased. According to the myths, Osiris became ruler 01" the underworld, while Isis g;l\ e birth to her sOn at f.:..hemmis in the Delta. :"Jul11erous bronzes and

or

reliefs show her sud,ling Llorus in the f<JrI11 of the ~ollng king seated on her lap. As 'Isis greal in magic' she could he called upon to protect the young, and would be imoked at times of injur). She was also able to combine her medicinal skills with great cunning. \Vhen the sun-god H \ '\"as birren hy a snake (fashioned by Isis {iom earth mixed wilh Ra's sali,a) she is said to have offered to CUlT him in rerum for knowlcdgc of his secret' n;\mc. I L;lving found out this name, she beelIlle 'misrress of the gods who knows R.l by his own name' and passed on her knowledge to Horus, thus enabling him to acquire great powers. Her great cunning W'1S also described in thl' story of the contendings of Horus and

Gi!l. bmll::.t tI/l(! moot! sltI/1ft'lIe oIlsis Jud'liug /-Iorus, TIll' /1l(lorlm dwir (fud pnlt'5w/ tire origllltf!
tI/u!I"t./iur (lj'I!1t' godrlt',(( i.( g/"IJ. l,tlII! Period,
(~/ier

600 l1e./im// I/on" Saqqal"{f, (i /6i186)

If.

23 Oil.

Seth, in whidl she was instrulllental in 11:1, ingScth condemn himscll~ so lhal" her son" olJld become the earthly ruler of Eg~"pt. Her most famous and long-lived saI1ctU;Jr~ "as on Ihe island of PII1I.AE ncar As,,-an, bUI as a uni"crsa! goddess she was widely '\01'shipped, with significant cults at Egyplian sites such ;IS m:.'\I)ER.\ as well as at In III ,0,'" in Syria-Palestine. The grc.1l importance atta(!1cd to her Clilt by the )Jubians is demonsuarcd

1.f2

ISRAEL

ITHYPI-IALLIC

by the sun"j,',,1 of her worship at Philac (Ull the border between Egypt and :,\lubia) until the

sixth century

\D,

by which tim!.: virtually all or

Egypt had become Christianized. In post-Pharaonic times her cult was adopted as one of rhe Classical 'mystery' culls, gradually spreading through the Hellenistic world and the Roman empire. There wcre temples crecfcd to her in Rome itself, including a subsranti<11 complex at the Campus 1\ lartius. The Classical writer Apuleius (r. \I) I{O) described a ceremony of i.nitiation inw rhe cult of [sis in his .\1t'/(IIJ1(Jrphoses, ;llthough the filu! rile in the ceremony \\:IS not disclosed. In Greco-Roman times, her cult began to surpass that of Osiris in popuhlriL~, seriousl: ri,"alling both the traditional Roman ~ods ilnd early Christianily. I I. \r..\IU.I.ER, 'Isis mit dem Horllskinde', .11.71..: I{ (1963). 7-38. .\ L .\lL,sTER, CI/Jasud1llugen ::,ur Ciilliulsis i."ow Allen Ri,jrh bis ;':11111 Emit' ties ,\ eut'll Reirhes (Berlin. 19(8). J. G. GRIFFlTI IS, PllIlart/':, Dc [side 1'1 Osiride (Swansea, 1970). R. F.. WrIT, lsis illlhe Cmem-!?lJIllall world (London. 1971). J. LUL\VI', IIIi"t'Illll;n' bibliographi'llll' ties lsitlw. 2 "ols (Leiden. 1972--{). E DL:,-"n, L(' mIle d'his dllllS Ie bas.,ill orimlfllt: tie la AUdili'rffl//{;e, J \'ols (Leidcn, llJi3). R. A. "Vll.l), /lrl!n illlhe mlll'( !p1/1)'hip (d1sis IIlId Sari/pix (T.eiden, 1981).

Israel
The Israelites ;HC .Ittcstcd in Syria-Palestine from the late llronzt' I\ge onwards. Their cultural and ethnic origins are difficult to clarifY, partly because the archaeological and Biblical sources or c\'idencc are dil"ficult to reconcile. The Biblical accoulllS of the origins of the people of Israel, which .lrC priOl:ipally described in the books of ::\umbers, Joshua and Judges, .lre ortcn at odds both \\ iLh other al1l:icnt te\:lUal sourccs and with the an.:hacological e\"idcncc for the settlement of C",\.\' in the late Bronze Age and coldy lron Age ((.1600-750 lie). Israel is first tcxtuall~ attested as a political entil~ in the so-c'lllcd Israel Stele, an inscription of the fifth year of the reign of \IEKI':'1'T\11 (1213-1203 lie), \\hid, includes a list of defeated peoples: \Their chiers prostrate themsel\"cs <lnd beg for pe<lce, Canaan is ell'\"astated, Ashkclon is \"anquished, Gezr.:r is t'lkcn, Ycnoam <lnnihilMed, Isri.1Cl is laid waste, its seeu exists no more, Syria is made a widow for Eg~ pi, and all lands h'l\"C been pacified.' Donald Redford has suggested that the [sraelites were probabl~ emerging as a distinct
'I'll(' so-mlled 'Israel SIl'1l" or 'i:itlory sit/Ie (d' (f lisl /!t

.\l('n:u/llah, l1'ht'rh i.~ i1/S(n1Ji'd milh

d~/i:(fIt'd pt'oples. il/ellfdillg Ihe/irsl /"'ll///})II 1IIt'lIlioll

slered by the fact that the hieroglyphic detcrminati\"e written in front of the name !snltl on the Israel Stele indicates that it" \,"as regarded <IS a group 01" people rather lh,Jn a cit~. f\Jthough, unlike Israel, the Shasu arc often mentioned in Egyptian lextS, their pi.lstoral Iifest~ Ic has left few traces in the i.lrchacological record. By rhe end uf the thirteenth ce11l1lry IIC the Shasu/lsr'll.:lires were beginning to establish 5111;111 sctt1t:ments in the uplands, rhe ;In.:hitcet"ure of which closely rescmbled contemporary Canaanitc \'illages. In the remh ccntur~ Be Solomon ruled 0\ er an Israelite kingdom thai had 0\ crcome both Canaanites and Philistines, emcrging as the dominant stmc in lhc LC\";l11l. .'\r rhe capiml, Solomun's Jerusalem, only the barest ruins tcmple .uHI palace 11,1\'(' sur\"i\'ed ..J.\frer his reign, the territory \\'as split betwecn the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, which sUITi\'ed unril 722 and 587 Ill. respel:ti\"cly. In the Eg~ pti'1I1 Third lmermediate Period (l069-7{7 Be) and Late Period (747~JJ2 Be) there are a number of references in F.btyptian te\:ts to Egyptian political dealings with Israel, Judah and orher Syro-Paicsr.illian politics, particul;jrl~ in the f()q:6ng of alliances to hold back the threats posed by the \SS\KI.\'S and I'EltSI \'s. See also 1lIB1.JC \1.0" 'ITTIO:'\S. \\". .\1. F. PETRIE, Six lempli's al TltdJt's (London, 1897), 1.1. E. I [OJ{,'L '<I, 'Die Israclslelc des.\ ltrcnptah" (r:ypJelllllltl.II",s TeJla/!/l.'III 5 (19SJ), 22+-..-3J. G. \\". AIII.STRO\I, 111m Il'eri' Jhl' Israeliles? (Irinona Lake, [",1986). .\l. 5\1.1-:11 :lnd fl. SOLlU>LZI \', The 1:.:~YPli(l1l .11//Sl'/Il1/. Cairo (.\lainz, 1987), no. 212. D. J3. Rl:IlFC)l{IJ, h~f{)'PI, CaJ!({(l1/ alld IsrtfN ill (1/II"iCllllilllt:.\' (Princcl:on, 1992), 25i-82.

or

(~rlsmN ([)I~T\IL \Iln\ I~). Thl! .I'/f/l.' mas t'n'tled I~JI .I lamplah ill his/i(1/('ruly le1l1pk aJ 1111'/)".1'. 191h PI'flUSO', /21 J 1203 Be. grey grullile, fl. 3. 18m. (c IIHOP.3 NOS)

ithyphallic
~ot specifically an E~yptological term, but gencrally used to refer 10 deities or human figUITS ha\ ing an erect penis, particularl~ Ihe gods \.\IL_' and \11'.

c1emcnt of Canaanjte culture during the century or so prior to this. Some authorities h;1\'(' argued thar lhc early Israelites were an oppressed rural group of Canaanites who rebelled against the Call<1anite cities along the coast, while others hmc hypothesized thai thc~ were the sun in)rs of;1 dccwle in the fortunes of Ci.1nJan who established thcl11scl, es in the highlands .11 the end 01" the Bronze .'\ge. Redf()J"(.I, ho\\'c\"er, makes a good c:lse ror equaling: the "cry earliest Israelites with the semi-nomadic people in the highlands of central Palestine, known to the Egyptians as the Sh.lsu (sec BEI>OLl'), who constantly disrupted rhe Ramesside phi.lraohs' sphere of influence in S~Tia-Palcstine. This theory is bol-

;uwen (Egyptian ill''': \pillar') Pilhtr-shaped fetish of the cil~ of I JEI.IOPOf.lS which was .1 s~ mhol of the moon, in the samc way that the ()BEI,IS" \Y:IS associated wilh the sun-god. The name was also applied to the moon-god manifcstalioll of OSJI{I~. K. :\ 1\RTI:'\, fill Ctlrllul.q'lllhfll tle.( Lchcl/s (Hildesheim, 1977), 16-18. - , 'Iun-Plcikr', Ll'.l'iJ.'/l1l der.{'{.YPlulfJgit' [II, cd. \\. Heick, E. Quo and \\'. \\"estcndorf ("-jesbaden, 1980), 213-H_

1-+3

JACKAL

JEWELLERY

jackal :;ce
jewellery

'\NLHlS, DOG

and \H~P\\A\n:T

From the carliest times in ancient Egypt, jewellery- was Llsed as a means of sdf-adornmc.:nt and .1lso as an indication of social statliS. Thus, it is not surprising to find that jewellery is among the lirsl lypes of artefact known from Egypt. During the Badarian period (c.5500-l000 IIC) broad belts or 'girdles' of green glazr.:d stone beads were made. Later in the PREDYKASTIC I'ER..IOD neckh1ccs of faience beads were \\ orn, along with bracelets and amulets of shell and ivory. In the 1st-Dynasty tomb ofoJ!::R at Abydos a dismembered arm decorated with four bracelets was discO\"ered by Flinders Petrie. These early examples of jc\ycllcry show tonsidcrablc sophistication, and such precious materials as GOLf), L:\J'lS L\ZL:l.l, TunCtCOISE and amethyst were already being used. Although the actual burial was nut preserved in the 3rdDynasty tomb of SEI-.:I-1F\\J..::IWT at Saqqara, the excavations did reveal itcms of spectacular jeweLlery, including a delicate bracelet of gold hall-beads. The 4th-Dynasty tomh of Q.ICen lIE'l'EPlIERES I at Giza contained numerous pieces of royal jcwellcr~~ including silver bangles inl<lid with butterfly desig'ns, In certain periods the Egyptians seem to have regarded SII.\ ER as more \'aJlIable than gold, and this find gi\'cs some indication of the rich jeweUery that must have accompanied the burials of the pharaohs during the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 Be). The peak of Egyptian jewellery-making was undoubtedly the l\1iddle Kingdom (20551650 Be), when works of great elegance and refinement were produced, as in the case of the je\yellery of Princess Khnemel, who was buried at IJAIlSIIUR during the reign of the 12thD)'nam ruler Amenemhat II (1922-1878 Be). Her equipment included two beautifully made openwork diadems inlaid with semi-precious stones, and the famous Cretan-influenced 'bull mosaic' pendant, which, until recently, was widely believed to be GL1\SS. "rhe Dahshur treasure \\"lIS rivalled only by the late 12thDynasty jewellery or Sithathoriunet from a shaft-tomb at EL-LAlllJ;\., which included a diadem, :1 gold collar and rwo pectorals, as well as necklaces and bead-girdles (now in the iVlet:ropolitan j\luseum, New York and I"he Egyptian Nluseul11, CaiTo). I'rom the royal necropolis at EI.-I.ISHT came

Egyptiall mYlllje/pclle!:JI (~(the AtJiddlc Kingdo/ll {fml Scculf(/lnlcrlllcdia/e Period (c,/880-/590 Be). TOP e/a/rulll !pingcd smmb. ililaid !pith (Orne/ian, grcclljelr/sf!a/" (flld laf!/~,I(f:::'lIli. (F.A,ii-i-60j '\HOVE C:E1\'TIU~ r~iollnf gold plaqllc shuming .-1/11e11cml/(/1 /I rdli.>rillg 1lIlgIlCll//O ."1111111. (1:..6919i-) CE~Tl{Egold jinger-rillg /pill/lapis lazuli be::..cl. (/;'.157698) I.EFT .\.'\0 RIC.il-lT I/pO bl't/({!/el .1"/IifCCl'-bal'S C/"o/}Jued I~JI reclining Cl/ls, wilh Imch.:e Ihre({ding II/bes; the iI/slTiplifJn 011 the base ,~re(/{"h !Wllles l\'ubkhepel'rtI JII"{lIl1r1 III~' mifi SobkclIlSlf{ (".157699. 57700) BOrrO;\1 hUI1IIIIl-headed grcclljllsper heart st"tlf(f1J of Sllb~'(,llIsaIII. (/ rollg!l~)I-ilf(:i.w!d rt!"s/! O/Chupler 30fJ/imnlhc Boo/..: (~(lhe Dead aroulld Ihi' gold plin/h. (F.. 17876) I.. ulhl!arl s(aJ"({!J 3.6 011.
the fine jewellery of a 12th-Dynast: noblewoman named Senebtisy, whose 'broad collar' incorporates faience, turquoise and gold leaf However, the fact that this piece has no fasrcn-

ings suggests that it may have been made specificaHy for funerary usc, The same tomb contained gold hair ornaments in the. fi:,rm of flowers, a bead belt with <1 gold buckle decorated with Senebtisy's name, and ~I further broad colJar with [Ikoll terminals. T'he je\\ellery of [his period W<lS ro influence products in neighbouring hinds, and excavations at the Syro-Palcstinian city or Byblos have revealed numerous Egyptianizing items, including a gold 'breast-plate' bearing d,e pattern or an Egyptian broad collar. The earliest significlT1t finds of je\\'elh::r~ in rhe New Kingdom derive from the tomb of Q!.ICel1 ..\[IIiOTEI' [I, whose equipment indudcd magnificent inlay work. and an extremely tinc chain made from looped six-ply gold wire, The jewellery of l\Ilenwi, J\!lcrri and .Menhet, three foreign wives of Thutl110se III (1479-1425 BC), was discovered in a much-

144

JEWELLERY

JUDGE~IENT

OF THE DEAD

plundered rOl:k tomb at \radi Gabhancr c1Q!.lrud, about three kilometres to the ,,-cst DeiI' c1-Bahri in m.:stcrn Thebes. The finds (11m\" in the ~ IClropolitan !\ luSCUI11 orA-rtf New York) include g'lass clements ;llllong the g'clllstones and gold. Although gbss \raS prCl:iOllS

or

a son of Ramoses " (1279-1213 BC) ,,-hose rllnCr~try chapel was attached to the SH \PI:L \\ at Saqqara. T,,'o 01" the .\Pls-bull burials made by the prince also comaincd jc;,Ycllcry, although this is generally regarded as clumsy and poorly made.

hayc rC"calcd large quantities of fired clay moulds used for the making of Eliencc amulets, beads and finger rings. Blue faience disc be.lds were evidelltly produced (and los() in their thousands ill such It)th-n~n'lsly to'YIl siles as cl-!\.marna and Nlalkata. I-I. E. \\I'\J.(x:". The Irl'tlsure o/Ihn't' E:~)'p/il/lI priflt"t'sseJ (,'\ic" York. 194-8). C. .-\tDRt:n,.7cmds (~rlht' pJulftlflhJ (I,omlun.
1~71)_

C. A. R..-\'\nRE'\~, Calalugue ()Il<~)'pljal/

allli/lui/it'S ill IIIl' Brili.dl
JIIISOI1I1 \

I: .7('/111'1/('1]1

(Lonr/ol/./981).
]. OUUI':',}l'IPc/It'ly I~l(h{' (ll/riml
/llfI/-}d (London, 11)82)_ C. A. R. .'\ '\DRE\\S . ll/tj"1I1 fgrp/ialljl'Jl'elJeJY (Londun. 1~90)_

judgement of the dead

m:I.lEFS

sct' FL " " IRY

F'mgmtmJ (~rm(/lI-p{lill1il1gJi'{)//II"l' 1//11/h

td'
Il"lp/e

SO!JCIdWli'P(1T63) ..(!wlJ1iugje/11dleql-l1lllk'l'rS amI melfll-mOrRl'rS ilia king bead... (flld praiolls O/~it!f/.l'.
Sn'eral oj'fhe
II/milt/! l/.I'illg

fjl/(ulruple

fllld

/ltIrd-sloJlf beads. 18111 1J.)llltlSlJ'. n:/:Jfn (!l71m/JIlost' II. C. 1395 He. pail//t'd plusler,ji'(J1I/ 1111.'bcs. 11.66 CI11.(I. jCJ20)
II) P;C!'{I'

bom drills

at this time, the \,"adi (blbbanet d-Qjrud finds mark the beginning of a Irend wherehy New Kingdom jeweller~ became increasingly elahorate and garish, making: more use of artificial stones, and gradu~lll~ becoming less delicate. The fabulous jewellery of TLj\'I...:Jr\\lU' (1336--1327 Be) is sometimes described ;15 cxpcnsi\'c costume jewellery, lacking rhe refinement of the .\Iiddle Kingdom ;.md early ~ew Kingdom work. The major find of the 19th Dyn,lsty is the jewellery of I-.:.haemwasct,

During rhe i\ew K.ingdom car ornamenlS became relatiycly common, ;:'lI1d ;l \'ariety of earrings were produced, particularly in stone and glass. Pierre 1\ lonrCI"'5 ex-caY;}! ions ilt '1'\ '\!IS in 193CJ-+O led to the discovery of ro~;\1 jewellery of the Third Inrermedii'ltc Period (1069-747 m:), which, although less accomplished (han some of the e;.lrlier work, is clearly of a gcncrall~ similar type to the ~e\, Kingdom matcrinL The scientific and aesthetic stuJ~ of Ihe sUITi\'ing items of jewellery has been sllpplcmenred by pictorial cyidcnce, from tombs such as those IU:KI1\\IR!\ ('1''1'100), Amenemopet (TT276) and Sobckhotep ('1"1'63), as well ~lS the debris of F'\IE'\CE workshops such as those at 1:1.-\\\ \K' \. The jewellcry \Yorn by poorer people was mostly made from Icss yalunhle gcmstoncs or faience. The c:xcayations of (he 18th-Dynasty city at c1-!\marna

or

145

KA

KALABSH.\

K
ka
Almost untranslatable tcrm llsed by the Egyptians to describe the l:reativc life-force of each individual, whether human or divine. The Ka, rcprescmcd by ;l hicroglyph consisting of a pair of arms, was considered to be the essential ingredient thill' differentiated a li\'ing person fi-om a dead one, and is therefore somelimes (ranslated as 'sustenance'. It came into existence at the same moment that the indi,ojdual was born, subsr.:qucnrly sen-ing as his or her ~double' :tnd sometimes being depicted in funerary ilrt as a slightly smaller figure slanding beside the li\'ing being (see I]\,\D). Somelimes the crcilwr-god K.IL"Ci\1 was shown modelling [he A'a on a potter's wheel at the same time as he was forming the bodies of humanity. vVhcn any individual dicd, the /.:a continucd to live, ,md so required rhe samc sustenance a5 the human being had enjoyed in life. For this rC,lson it was proyide<.l either with genuine food offerings or with representations of food depie,ed on the wall of the tomb, all of ,,hieh were i)l:tivatcd b~ thc orrERI"G FOR.\ICL.'\, addressed diree,h~ the kfl. It appears ,hat ,he J!a was thought not to cat thc offerings physically but simply to assimilate their lifepreser\'ing force. In gi\ing food or drink to one another in normal daily lifc, the Egyptians therefore sometimes used the formula "f{}r your ka' in acknowledgement of this lifegiving force. Consequently the offerings themselvcs came to be known as l'({/IJ and wcre somctimes replaced in reprcsentations of thc OFFERI'\'G T.'\Bl.E by the J!a sign - two OUlstretched arms that magically warded off the forces of cvil. It was to the J!a that offerings ,,cre made before the E\L~E DooKS set up in lambs. Funerary statues were regarded as images of ule ka of the deceased, and sometimes these too incorporated the Jm symbol, as in the case of the image of the 13th-Dynasty ruler --\wibra Hor from D\lISIlI;R (.1750 Be; Egyptian i\luscum, Cairo), which depi(;ls the deceased \vith the Ra hieroglyph in the form of <1 headdrcss. It was thought that the reunion of the BA and /..'a in the underworld effectively transformed the deceased into an f\J-.:.1l (one of the 'blessed dead')~ J. P. ALLE', 'Funerary texts and thcir meaning', ""tllllmie.laml J1fagil", eel. P. 1.<1<.:O\':U<1, S. D'Auria and C. II. Roehrig (Boston, 1988),38--19.

E. HORl\L:'G} Idea iuto illlage, trans, E. Breded (NmYork, 1992), 167-{H.

Kalabsha (ane. Talmis)

Site of an unfinished, free-standing temple in Lower Nubia. about 50 kill south of Aswan, The complex was built in sandstone masonn and consisted of a pylon, forecourt , hypostyl~ hall, twO vestibules and a sam:tu:lry. Il \\:1<.; dedicated to thl: lo(;al god 1'vbndulis and dales primarily to the early Roman period (.30 1lC), but the colony at Ellmis evidently dares back to at least the reign of !\menhorcp II (1427-1+00 Be), II"ho is depic'ed in the painted wall reliefs or ,he h,pos,,-Ie hall. In 1962-3 the buildings were dismantled, in order to save them from the waters of Lake ! asscr, and in 1970 they \,"ere reassembled at :l new location 750 m to the south of the
-\s\n:"1I1GIIIJ.\\1.

f..:.. G.

Sll~GLEI(, Kalabsllll. Arrhitel,tur lmd BlJugeschirhtc des l'c'mpcls (Berlin} 1970).

'0

Ka-statlle (!lKing Ami/Jra 1-10/; disuJi;ered mithill its IIlI()S iJla tomb /() the "ortlt oIthe pyramid oI Amme111hatlll (1/ Dahsllllr. 13th Dynasty, c./700 lJe, II. IIlIOS 2.07m, t-I. oIstatue 1.7 UI.
(c.IfHo;EJ09J8)

Kamose (1555-1550 Be) Last ruler of rhe Thchan 17th Dynasty, Slll'cessor of SEQE"E~R,\ "'A IJ ((.1560 Be) and predecessor of AllJ\IOSE [(1550-1525 Be), the first 18th-Dynasty ruler. T'he principal doculllent;;; relating to his reign are two large stelae at f.:-arnak (both recounting his campaigns against the IIrKSOS rulers). as well as thc Carnarvon Tablet, which appears to be a hucr scribal copy of the stelae. The rext dcrh'ed fr0111 these three documents begins b~ describing the "ar between Seqencnra 1aa II and the Hyksos king _'\..auserra \1'1:1'1 (1585-15+2 Be) and goes on to narrate Kamose's cOlltil1ll<llion of the conflict after his father's death ..He was buried in it pyramidal-style tomh at Ora Abo e1-Naga (see "1'IIEm:s), where thc c:ulicr 17th-Dynasty royal tombs are located, and it appears lhal his tomb had still not been robbed O\er four hundred years later when the necropolis was inspected during the reign of Rameses 1\ (1126-1108 He). His coffin was diseo' ered at Dra Abu c1-:--Jaga in IR57, but his mummified body disimegnllcd as soon as it ,,,IS opened. A. H. G \RDL'ER, 'The dcfcat of lhe Hyksos by Kamose',]L1.1 (1917), 9,-110. H. \VINLOCh:., 'The tombs of the kings of rhe Seventeenth D)nasty at Thebes',]L:>IIO (In4), 217-77. I-l. G_-\.UTJ-IIJo:R, '1 .(;s deux rois Kamose (-"\"lie dynastic)', Studies Grillith, cd. S. R. K. Gbl1\ille (Oxford, 1932),3-8. L. 1-1-\.II-'ClII, 7111: .~ecolld stele of Kal//{J.~e aud his struggle agai1lstthe I-~),ks(}s ruler (Iud his (apital (GluekSladt,1972).

H6

KAMUTEF

KARNAK

Kamutef
Divine epithet meaning 'bull of his mother" which \Y<1S Llsed from the New Kingdom onwards to refer to the combined ithyphallic form of "-1\IUI\" and !\Hi'\. Amun-lVlin-Kamutcf is frequently depicted receiving offerings of lettuces, or standing beside them <IS the~ grow. H. R1C"F., Dm K{/lII/lleI-I-leilt~!{'/l11I HalSd'l'pSIlIS wid 'l/llltll/OSeS III (Cairo, 1939). H.Ji\RITZ l 'Kamutef', Le.ri/..:oll da AgYP/ldogie HI, ce!. \\1. l-lelck, E. Otto and ,\1. \Vestendorf (Wicsh,dcn, 1980),308-9. G. H.-\F::-.!Y, 'Zum Kamutcf', CAll 90 (1986), 33-4.

PRECINCT

... r_::: i
ram-headed sphinx.es

100

200 m

OF MONTU t,mpl,of Monlu

PRECINCT OF AMUN-RA

,~:::::::~
temple of Plah

__

~t':m~p~leOfThutmosel

chapel of Osiris Hekadjet

Karanog
Large town-site and necropolis located in Lower Nubia abollt 60 \.:111 south of AswaIl, which flourished in the rVIeroitic and postIVleroitic periods (c.100 m-:-AIJ 550). By at least as carly as the third century Be, Kar<tnog had developed into ;t major town; the unusually scattered settlement was unique among Nferoitic administrative centres (e.g. Ff\RAS, Gebel Adela and Qo\SR IBRL\I) in being protected by a huge three-storey mud-brick 'castle' rather than a surrounding enclosure wall. \Vhereas j\lferoitie sites in Upper Nubia consist principally or temples and tombs, the remains or Karanog and other suniving Lower Nubian _IVlcroitic settlements are dominated by palaces and fortifications, and there is a distinct lack of royal sculptures and inscriptions. In view or Ihis discrepanc~' vv. Y. Adams has proposed that Lower Nubian towns sueh as Karanog may have been go\"erned by local feudal rulers rather than bei.ng under the direct control of" the l\Ileroilic kings in the south. C. L. \VOOLl.EY and D. RA~n:\LL-J\ll:\ch EI~, Kurtll/og, ,hl' I?olll(l/lo-Nub/all (C11le/elY (Philadelphia, 1910). e. L. \VOOI.1.E', KlIrflllOg. ,he !OWII (Philadelphia, 1911). \V. Y. ADAMS, 'Meroitil' north and south, a study in cultural contrasts', ;\111'1'0/,/((/2 (1976),11-26. ~,Nubia: (orridor loAF/ca, 2nd cd. (London ,nd Princeton, 198+),356-7,371-8.

I_a_v_en_u_,_of__ . . 2 f o r e c o u r:t T 5 1 : E 7 10

8~

East Karnak

sacred lake

enclosure of sacred fowl

L..:-

19

.-.....__J
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 first pylon triple shrine of Sety II temple of Rameses III second pylon Great Hypostyl, Hall third pylon fourth pylon fjfth and six.th pylons Middle Kingdom court festival hall of Thutmose III 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 first ('cachette') court seventh pylon second court eighth pylon ninth pylon sed-festival temple of Amenhotep II temple of Khans tenth pylon temple olOpet temple of Khans Pa-Khered temple of Mut temple of Rameses HI

sanctuary of Amun Kamutef

bark station of Thutmose III and Hatshepsut

Karnak (ane. 1pct-isut)

Huge complex of religious huildings C(wcring over a hundred hectares in the northeastern area of modern Luxor) <.:onsisting: of three major sa<':l'cd precincts dedicated to the deities Ai\Wi\'-Rf', MUT and 1\\O.\lTU, e(1<.:h surrounded by trapezoidal mud-brick enclosure walls. The enclosures also cn<.:ompassed several smaller temples dedical'ed t:o I'Tl\ 1-1 , Opet and Kl jO.'\ls respectively. The main temples were continu-

temple of Nectanebo II

Pla/1 ofl/IC temple (Olllp/e.r 01 K(/rII{fl~.

147

KAW A
KENA~llJ.

BC-\D

ally exten ded and embel lished by the rulers of Egypt fi"OIll at least the .\Iidd lc Kingd om (2055 -1650 lie) u11Iil the Roma n period (30

the south of rhe juncti on bel WCen the two axes S\CRI ]) I.\"E. The first court on the nOrth-SQUlh axis is also known as 'cache ne cOllrt " sil1Ce an impre ssin.: collec tion of thou~-ands of fragmenTs of ro~;ll ~lnd pririlt c statua ry (most ly no\\' in the Eg~ pt ian J"luse um, Cairo ) was discov ered here in 1902, huried under the templ e noor. Altho ugh Karnak has been subje ct to nume rous exc:l\";ltions since the late nineteenth centur y, the \,ast major iry of resou rces ha\'c becn derot ed to the conse rvatio n and reerecti on of the stand ing monu ments . It is the BnlJ/:::.e slolllClle uIa Kushile /.:ing (perhaps larges t and best-p reserv ed rem pie comp lex of 7itlUlrqo)/jtJll1 Tt:mph' Tal KlI/l'lI . 2.11h the :"Jew Kingd om, and its reliefs D.II1UHQI. and inscri pe.690 lie, II. /1.2 (//1. (>:/63595) tions incor porat e \aluab le epigr aphic data conce rning the politic.}1 and religio us 'lcti\-ities regain ed its impo rtanc e ;lnd of imper ial Egypt . SII.\B. \Q..O (716- 702 Be), Shabi tqo (702690 l1e) and Karna k was surro unded b~ the growi ng cit~ T\ll\R (l!) (690- 66f Be) all comri huted new of Thebe s (ane. ,"Vaset), which was the relibuildi ngs, reliefs ;lnd statua ry. 'Elhar qo effecgious centre of Egypt for most of I he Dynas tic ti\'ely create d ;l new S;lnct uary or \j\IU,\ COI11period . ln (.667 He the tcmpl e and town wcre p;lrab lc with that at Gebel 13arka l, alter which sacked by rhe \SS\ RL\' ruler Ashur banip al and thc Kush ite kings were oblige d to carry out from then on the city centre gradu ally moved impor tanl rituals at Kaw.1. Tahar qo's work was two kilom etres south\ \"ilrds to the area aroun d comm emora ted by a stele, stiJI in Silll, dating to 1.\...\01{ tcmpl e. 1\IIuch of the ancie nt Theba ll the sixth year ufhis reign. settle ment theref ore lies under ne;lIh mode rn .\1. r. L. ~i\l..\D\\I, Tht' Il!lJIplt's oI"'(l1I J1I, 2 \'ols Luxor , rende ring it largel y inacce ssible 10 (Oxl(lI"(l, 19~9-.i.i). afchac()!{lgislS. G. LEC,R \1'\, Ll'S It'mph'.\" tI/i "~{/n1lf/.: (Brussels. Kernatef Sf<' I,IIL' 1929).

axis exlt:nds the templ e soutlnrards to\rards the nearby prCcinl:l of the godde ss _\ lul. To

fi'om west to easr, incorp oratin g the Great l-hpos tylc llall of Rame ses II (1279 -1213 lie), which is on:1" 0.5 hectar es in arca. 'The secon d

shrine s ilnd altilrs. The earliest axis stretc hes

ards inters perse d \\ ith obelis ks, small er templ es,

Kingdom, consiscd of two axes, each COlllprisin g'l slIccession of jJ) Ions and courty

date to the 'lew I-:ing dnm (1550 -1069 lie). The princi pal templ e at Karna k, ckdic ated to :\.l11un-Ra, the pre-e minen t god of the J\.cw

395), but most of the suryjy ing rem.ti ns

surro unded , in stark contra st, hy the dcscrt , known to the Egypt ians as Deshr cl ('the red land') . This sense of n~llllral DL \LlT\ \\"i!S deepl y ingrai ned in the Egypt ian world -ric\\, in lhat their land was that of the LOTU ; and the p.\I'\nL S, of the red CrQ\\"1 l and the \\hite, of Uppe r and LO\\"cr Egypt .

H. K.EI'.S, ,-tnrim l ('{)'PI : (I mllllrall(jpfl grt1pj~)I,\xl. T G. H.J"tl les(Lo ndon, 1961).

is a ,-ast rectan gular

Kenarnun (Qcna mun) .1 ~51J--l ~Oillle ) High ufoci,,1 of the 18th D\nas ty, \\"hose \\"ellprcser \'ed Theh an tomh (rr93 ) \\"3S ne\ cr propcrI~ excl\".ltcd sinc(' it was alread y kllo\\ n to early tra"eU ers in the eighte enth centur~ \D. He was chief stcwa rd to \.\IE'1I 0T!'.P " (1~27-HOO Be) and sUJler intend enl or the docky ard of Peru- nefcr ncar :\lemp his. 'The fact thai he was thc son of the roY'11 nur~L: Amcn emop et is perha ps an indica tion that high admin istrati ye posts could. he gaine d during the New Kingd om e\ CI1 by indi\-i duals with relath-ely indire er Ijnks to thc royal family. A 51' \Il"n of J..-:.cnamun, proba bly gi\ en to him by the king, is the first known picce or three- dimen sion;l l Egypt ian sculp turc to he forme d from (jJ~\SS (altho ugh ;1 glass sculp ture of the hc;ul of i\men hotep II, now in the Corni ng .\ luscu m of Glass . New York, would h~l\-c been roughl~ contc mpor~lry). This Kenal11un shoul d not be cunfust .:c1 with bis n;lmcs.lke, who was J\ layor of the Sourh crn City (Thch es) in lhe reign of Amcn hotcp lit (1390-1 ]52 liC), and owne r of anoth er Theb an tomb (rrI62 ). N. de G . D\\'IES , The 10mb oIKo h 11111/11 01 TI1l'bt'sl 2 yols (Lond on, 1930). J. D. Coo'! ':\, 'Glass SCUlprufC in JncicllI Eg)l)I ', .7/1lfrl /f/j oIGlr w ~"l~//ldil's 2 (1960), l2-H. Kerrna
Town -sitc of the early secon d millen nium He, ncar the third ~ile catara ct in uppe r :"Juhi;l, which was almos t cenJi nly thc capita l of tht: ,,"ush itc Kingd om durin g thc Egypt ian Old and ~Iiddlc I-:ing doms (2686 -1650 lie) - il is theref ore the type-s ite fi)r the Kerm a cultur e ((.250 0-150 0 11(:), proba bly to be identi r,cd with the Egypt ians' 'land of Yam'. The site of Kerm a incorp orates a large scttle ment of Ihe Secon d lnlerm ediate Perio d (1650 -1550 lie), a ccme tery of late Kcrm a-cul ture tumu lusgravc s (inclu ding the IOmbs of rulers ). 'fhesc elite burial s also incorp orated Iargc numb t'fS of sacrif iced retain ers. The sitc is domin ated by two cnigm atic mud- brick struct ures, known ;lS the dcJ]i(fil. dating to the sc\'en recnth centu ry Be. The Lshapc d weste rn deJJi(f{I, almos t certai nly a te111pic, is in the centre of the town, while the east-

C1:;\T1H: Fit -\ ,C .o-!::(j" PTlI:" l>'f:TLl )I'. DI':S TE\lI'I. ES

IJI: .... \R'''k ,

"('.n~~esl'

P. B \RCiL!i':T, Lc Il'lIJplt' tI~ fmoll-Nt' (i Kal"l/( /l': I!ssai

(eliro , 1(62).

Cahias de f.:al"1fal', 6 \'ols (19-4-3-82).

Kernet
The name that the ancien t Egypt ians used to descri be Egyp t itself The literal mean ing of Kcmc t is 'bhH.:k land" a refere nce to the fcrtile Nile silt which was annuall~ sprea d across the l:lI1d by the "L'~Df\Ti()'\. The Egyp tians referr ed 1.0 thems elves as the rClflcJ (h C11 Kellll'J ('the peopl e of" the hlad land') . For the Egypt ians, theref ore. bhlck was essent ially the colou r of rebirt h and rcgen crario n, proba bly ha\'in g none of the weste rn conno tation s of dcath and decay. The fertile , black landsc ;lpe of Kel11ct was

Kawa
Temp le sit,e loc:Hed oppos ite Dong ola in the he~lrtland of the Nubia n kER.\! \ cultur e. The templ e cOlllplex W;lS found ed by \ \11':"1110'1'1':1' III (1.190 -1352 Be) but it had been \~irtuall\" abandoned hr the reih'll or Rame ses \ll (1136 --1129 IIc). Event-uillly, with the emerg ence of the Kushi te 25th Dyna sty (7-4-7-656 Be), the sitc 148

KHAFRA

KHARGA OASIS

J!fllldlllllt/t, 'KalJla marl" "('(fl'cr/hllll 7/i/llulm "{II f{ul/la, C/assit A:afllif phase. c.1 1.10-/550 If(.', II. 11.6 (III. (L6.;~2-/)

its synchronicit~ with the 4th-Dynasty pyramid complexes. "hafra's gn.lnite-lined ,'aJley temple, exca'-,Hed by Auguste i\ larieuc in 1860, was found to contain se\-eral roy,ll statues, including a magnificenr monolithic scatcd statue of the king "'ith a Horus falcon embracing the b'H.:k of his head, which is onc of the masterpieces of Old K-ingdom sculpture (now in the Egypti'1I11\luseum, Cairo). The diorite-gneiss from" hich the statue was caned was obt,lined b~ an expedition sent to the so-called 'Chephrcn quarries' in Lower l\uhia. some 240 km soulh-\\eSl of modern ;\S""'1I1. The hcall of a pink granitc SL~1tue of a similar type, representing Khafra, h.1S also becn discO\'cred more recently_ j\ I. S \LEII .mel 1-1. SOLTROLZI \.'\, 171C EgypJiall Ilmcul1!. Cairo: oJIida/ taJa/ogut' (.\1ai.l1z, 19H7), car. no. 31,

c. V \1\DERSI.EH=', 'Unc tetc de ChHrcn en

granite rose'. RilE 38 (1987), 9+-.7. 1\. GU.I\I \1., ..J hisJ01]r oft/1Icil'IlJ EgYPI (Oxford,

1992).72--1.
I. E. S. ED\\ \lmS, TIll' PJ,rtll/lids of f..'gypl, 5lh ed. (I-htrmondsworth, 1993), 121-37.

Kharga Oasis
Thc southernmost and, at around 100 sq. km, lhe largest of rhe major Egyptian "estern oases, which is Im':'ltcd in the Libyan Desert ~Ibout 175 km east of Luxor. There arc tr.1ces of \Iiddle Palaeolithic (~\loustcrian) occupa-

ern d([!;dil, a type offullcrary chapel, is part of the cemetery at the southern end of the site. Each of the d41i1;,.I" was originally illl almost solid blot:k or mud bricks covering 0111 area uf roughly 1500 sq. Ill. G. R.EIS'\'ER, I::,rl"m.'oliol/S at Kallla ]-IY, 2 mls (Cambridge, 1\ lA, 1923). B. GR.\TIE:\. Lt's mIlan:.. Kenl/a: ('..sai tit: c1assijiCfllirlll (I.ilk, 1978). C. BO'\,i\ET. 'La dcffufa occidcnt~tlc '-1 Kcrma: cssai d'inlcrprCl;ltion'. BII~ 10 81 Supp. (1981),

205-12.
- , "Excavations at the Nubian royallOwn of Kcrma: 1975-91', Illliquil.l' 66 (1992), 61 1-25

Qasr elMustafa Khasif Nadura, Roman temple el-B?qawat, Christian cemetery Hibis, Persian and ptolemaic temple of Amun modern town of el-Kharga Qasr el-Ghueida, temple of Amun, Mut and Khans, Late Period and ptolemaic Qasr Zaiyan, Ptolemaic and Roman temple and town (Tchonemyris) modem town of Bufaq modern town of el-Maks el-Qibla 10 Qasr Dush. Roman temple of Isis and serapis

030

o 2

~,

04

06 07 08

t
,\

\,
\\"

/'
/

~"') t

\.
'\,9

10 ' ....- ......... o \!;- ~-f"\.....:

'\..

Khafra (Chcphrcn, Rakhaef; 2558-2532 oc) Son of" 1l,I'L (2589-2566 BC), fourth ruler of the ..h h Dynasty and builder of the second
pynunid ar GIZ \. He succeeded to the throne after the death of his half-brother Djedefra (2566-2558 Be), who had constructed his pyramid al \Be RO\SII r~lIher than Giza (leading to suggestions from some schohtrs thai Ihere was a tcmporar~ religious schism between rhe younger and cider branches of Khufu's successors). Khafrn's ROY:\LTITLL:\R\ included the new .HI RII ('son of Ra') epithet, which Djcdefra had used for lhe first time. His pyramid complex at Giza was similar to that of' Khuf'u, allhough slighl1y smaller and currently better preserved. It is usually assumed that t he head or l"11e Great Sphin.x was C<lrvcd into the appearam:c of Khafra, sincc it is situated immediately nexl" to his causeway and valley temple. There h,we been suggestions thaI the geological condition of the sphinx indicates that it was carved at a somewhat earlier date, but the archaeological and circumstantial evidence appear to support

P/lIII nI"'lwrga Oasis,

lion at Kharga and its material culture \\';15 clearly c1ose1~ connected with that of the Nile yalley throughout the Pharaonic period. l-Iowc\'cr, 1110S1 of the sur\"i\'ing architectural remains (including settlements, stone temples ~lJ1d cemeteries) dale from the Ptolemaic period to Coptic times (.. 332 BC-\lJ 500). G. C \TO'-TIIO\II'SO', J..:Jlflrga Oasis ill pn:hi.I'/(}I:J' (London, 1952). L GII)I>\. fgypli(t1I oases: 8ahrm:l1fl, O"kh/a. Fara}TfI (J1lI1 K/ullga during p!tarf/onir Jimes (\Varminster, 1987).

Khasekhemwy (Khasekhem) (".2686 Be) T.ale 2nd-Dynasty ruler, whose reign is particularly important because he was the last Abydcnc ruler (sec AUYDOS). The reign of nJosER (perhaps his son) was marked by the transfer of power to j\1Er\\PIJIS, the introduction of large-scale stone masonry and the orficial tmnsfer to a new royal cemetery at SM~\RA,

pyramid (omp/ex lIJ

DioriJe-gm:iss scaJcd sJaJuc ofK/lllfra F011l his Gi:::'lI. 41h PJIIUUO', c,2500 /Jr:, II. 1.6811I. (r:Allf(JJi:l0062)

149

KHASEKI-IEM WY

KI-IEPRI

One of Khasckhemwy's wives, NimaathcPI

was later worshipped as the ancestress of the

3rd Dynasty (2686--2613 Be). The name Khasckhcn1wy was lIsually writ-

ten inside a SEREKI' frame surmounted by depictions of a SETII animal alongside the usuallloRLS falcon. Since the serekh of his predecessor PERIBSE' was surmounted by it Seth animal ,lione, it has been suggested that Khasekhemwy's reign represented J return to religious (and perhaps also political) normality, after a period of turmoil under his predecessor. This, hOWC\'Cf, is probably an csccssiycIy historical explanation for what may essentially hu\"c been an iconographic phenomenon.

generally considered to have been a mortuary monument comparable with the Shunet elZebib, although the poor standard of Emile Amclineau's exc"l\'ation in 1897-9 and 1905 has hindered any more definite statement regarding its function. P. E. NF.\\ BERR' , 'The Ser rebellion of the second dynasty" Ancient Egypt (1922),-f.0..-6. R. El':GEI.IlACII, 'A foundation scene .of the second dynasty,]./20 (193-1),183--4. 1\ l. Hon,\I.\:\, l:.g.l'Pt be./iJre the pharaohs (London, 1980),3-18-5-1.

(c.JOO Be), he is depicted wearing the

CRO\\':'>.

ll/I!}

khekerfrieze
Decorative morif commonly employed in ancient Egyptian architecture from at least as early as rhe 3rd D\'nasty (2686--2613 Be). The earliest shrines and temples were constructed from reeds Lied into bundles or mattingJ and sometimes the tops of these were clabor~tcly knotted. As techniques of STOne architecture developed, these rows of knots were u'anslated into decorative carved or painted fi'iczes around the upper edges of buildings, thus constantly alluding to the idea of the first shrines built on the PRJi\IEV!\1. J\lOLNIJ 3S it arose from the waters of NU;\I.

The debate about the political events at the

end of the 2nd Dynasty hinges partly on the question of whethcr thc myth of the sU'ugglc of Horus and Seth had any historical antecedents. The picture was once bclieved ro be fUrlher complicated by the existence of the name Khasekhem, which was thought to refer to another ruler reigning bet-ween Pcribscn and Khasckhcmwy. However, the name is now generally considered to be an alternative spelling for Khasekhcmwy. The principal surviving monuments from Khasekhemwy's reign are Tomb v in the E.lr1y Dynastic cemetery at" Umm eI-Q!t'ab and thc Shunet cl-Zebih, both of which are at ABYDOS, ,IS well as the so-called 'fon' of Khasckhemwy at IIJERAKO:'>.P()J.IS. Two statues of fhe king, as well as an inscribed granite door jamb (bearing his name and a depiction of the temple foundation ceremony), decorated stone "essels (both bearing depictions of the goddess '\I~KI mET) and a fragment of a stele, were all exc:mlted from the E;.trly Dynastic temple at Hierakonpolis. The depictions of slain enemies on the two statues ha\'c been inrerpretcd as e"idence of military activities during his reign. His tomb. nearly 70 III in length, is nor only the last royal tomb in cemetery B at Umm c1Q,'ab but also the largest and most unusual. The suhstructure consists of a central corri~ dol', flanked by thirty-three store-rooms for funerary offerings, leading fo a srone-lined burial chamber which is then followed by a continuation of the corri<.lor flanked by tcn further magazines. The Shunet e1-Zehih, a huge double-walled Illud-brick enclosure located <It the desert edge, is the best surviving example of a group of 'funerary cnclosurcs\ probably the f()rerunners of the valley temples in pyramid complexes, celch of which was erected by one of the rulers buried in cemetery B. The Hierakonpolis 'fj)rt\ a large mud-brick enclosure also located close to the floodplain, is now

Khenty-khety see TELL ATRlB Khepri

Creator-god principally manifested in the form of rhe sr. .\H, \Il or dung beetle, although he . was sometimes depicred in tomb paintings and funerary p'lpyri as a man with .1 scarab as a head or as a scarab in a hoar held aloft by i\L:'>.. In the tomb of I'I'TO"015 at Tona e1-Gebel

of the god Osiris. Because the Egyptians observed that scarab beetles emerged, apparently spontaneously, from halls of dung, it was perhaps not surprising that they came to belie\'e that the scarab was associated with the process of eRE \'I'to, itself Rhepri is attested from at least as early '15 the 5th Dynast) (2-19+-23-15 Be), when One of the spells in the PYR.\.\IIIJ TE:\.TS illYoke<.l the sun to appear in his name of Khepri (the literal meaning of which W.IS 'he who is coming: into heing'). Because he was self-created, hl' was identified with the creator-god .'\TL.\I, and because the movement of the sun from easl to west W.IS believed to be the result of being physically pushed like a dung-ball, hc was also idenrified with the sun-god R.-\. As a deit~ dosely <1ssociated with resurrection, Khepri was also believed to be swallO\n~d by his mother '\IVT each evening, and passed through her body to be reborn each morning. He appear~ in this guise in Chapter 83 of the BOOK OF Tl IJ m:AD: 'T h,l\'C l"lown lip like rhe primeyal ones, 1 have become Khepri. From the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 Be) onwards, the scarab form of amulet was being produced in very large quantities. On a more monumental scalc, it is considered likely rhat each temple originally incorporated a coloss3j

GraJ1ilt, tolossal statue "fa sCflrab beetle. pmbab()1 rcpn:senling tire god Khepri. thejorm /aken k)' till! sUI/-go" til the time o/his birth ill/he morning. 11 lI'lIsJinmd iI/ COllstantillople, wlrere it had probab(y hew takw in Rowall/iwes. Dale {/llli prrn;emmce Ifnlmfl11111. It. 89 on. (f:.,7-1j

150

KHNUM

KHONS

stone scarab on a plinth, representing the temple <15 the PRL\lE\'t\l. ~IOL:l\.1) li'OIll which the sun-god emerged to begin the process of cosmogony. Such a sc<trab is still prcscncd ill situ beside the sacred lake in the temple of Amun
at Kt\]{j\"!\h':.

J ASSi\lAKN, 'Cheprc', Lex/koll del' .ri"gypla!ogit: I,

ed.W. Heick, E. Otto and IV. Westendorf (Wicsbaden, 1975),93+--10.

Khnum
Ram-god whose principal cliit ccntTc was on the island of Elephantine at ASWA '\!, where he was worshipped, probably from the Early Dynastic period (3100-2686 lie) onwards, as paft of a triad with the goddesses SATET and ANUKET. In his earliest" form he appears ro have

principal creator-gods (sec C1{EAT10'\). This creative role stemmed inevitably from the combination of the crcati,'c symbolism of moulding pottery, the traditional potency of the ram and the fact that the Egyptian word for ram, HA, also hacJ the meaning of 'spiritual essence' (although the latter was usually written with the stork hieroglyph). Perhaps partl~r because of this punnin'g connection with the concept of the /Ja, Khnum was reg;.uded as the quintessential /Ja of the sun-god R/\, who was therefore depictcd with it ram's head as he passed through the netherworld in the solar bark. The best-preserved temple of Khnum is Ihe Greco-Roman construction at F_'i""!:\, where his consort was ivlenhyt, a relativcly unknown

to Khnum at a time of famine caused by low inundations. A. lV\. B.\DAWI, Der Coil Chill/III (Gliicksladt, 1937). L. IIAIIACIII, 'Was Anukis considered as the wife of KIlIlum or as his daughter?', A5'A 50 (1950), 501-7. P. Ro\RGL.t:T, La slele de III Jil1l1illi! ,i Sihel (Cairo, 1953). P. BEJlRl~:-"S, '''Vidder', Lexi/wII der .rlgYPlologie n, cd. W. Heick, E. Otto and W. Westendorf (Wicsbadcn, 1986), 1243-5.

Khons
j\lloon-god, whose name means 'wanderer', typically represented as a mummiform human figure (occasionally hawk-headed) holding

VUlit:e .~/e1e, the upper register ofmhieh depil:/S a sealedfigurt: of/he god Khom rccei"i;ing a liba/ioll mltl ufferings. 18111 Dynasly, c./550-/295 He, limes/one. II. 38.1 em. (1:..-1/297) sceptre and flail and wearing the SIDELOC:K OF YOUTII with a headdress consisting of a horizontal crescent moon surmounted by a full moon. Like TIIOTII (another lunar deity), he was also portrayed as a CYi\OCEI~IIAI.US baboon. He appears to have originally been associated with childbirth, and in the Thcban region he was considered to be the son of Al\IUN and "l!T. In the 20th Dynasty (1186-1069 lie) a temple of Khons was built within the precincts of the temple of Amun at KARNAK. At "OM Ol\'lBO, however, he was regarded as the son of the deities SOBEK and 11ATJ-IOR.

been portnlyed as the first type of ram domesticated in Egypt (O.i, Inllgipes), which had corkscrew horns extcnding horizontally outwards from the head, as opposed to the later specics (Ovis pla/ym), which had horns curving inwards rowards the face and was more often associated with the god A;\IUi'\. Khnum's strong association with both the Nile INUi'\Dr\TIOi'\' and the fertile soil itself contributed to his role as a potter-god and therefore also to his cosmogonic role as one of the

Fmgme11l ()[slI11dsI01/e wlIlI-relieldewrtlletlmilh 1I represlW/fIlion oflhe god Klmu111 ll.( 1I rtlm-helltled mlln. 181h DYIJ(IS~)I, c. /300 lie, fl. -I.) em. (",16.1.1"") lioness-goddess, although the goddess ~Ern-I also features prominently in rhe reliefs. The tcxts on the walls of the Esna temple celebrate his creation of rhe entire universe including gods, humans, animals and plants. The socalled Ft\MINE Stelc ;,It Sehcl describes appeals

151

KHUFU

KING I.lSTS

One manifestation or Khons, known as 'the proyillcr" was credited with the ability to dri,'c our cril spirits. 'rhe Bentrcsh Stele (ncm" in the Luuuc) is <111 inscription composed in the fuurth century Be bur purporring to date to the reign uf Rameses 11 (I27Y-1213 BC). It claims that the pharaoh senT a statue ofKhons to a Syri.m ruler in on.lcr tu f~lcililare rhe cure of an .tiling foreign princess calIco Rcmresh.
';\lythcs ct dicux lunairt"S en Egyptc'. Sourus fJrimlalcs .): La Itllli'. /11yfhes el rile.! (paris, 1962), 'Y-68. G. POSl':.'\ER, 'Vne rcintcrprcurion tardi\'c ell! nom du dieul\:honsuu', Z.-iS93 (1966),115-19. H. BIU.":.'\i\I~R, 'ChOIlS', l.l'xil011 tla /(iJypJologil' I, cd. Iv. Heick, L Olin and IV. Westendurf (Wicsbadcn, 1975),960-3.
P. DERCII \1'\,

ing completc representation of Khufu himself is a small ivory statuette of a ruler wC<lring the red crown of Lowcr Egypt and seated on .1 throne caned with Khufu's Horus-name, which was cxc;1\,:Iled from the temple of Khentimcilriu at \uroos by Flindcrs Petrie, ilnd is now in the Egyptian .\luscum, Cliro. Sncral rock-can ed texts at remote quarrying sites such as II \T'\L"H and \Vadi ~\bghara suggest thm his reign} not une,<pectedly, W:lS marked by considerable quarrying and mining
acti\'it~.

Khufu (Cheops) (258Y-2566 BC)

Second ruler of the 4th Dynasty, whose name is an abbreviation of the phrase K/11I1111l-1..>IIC[ffi CKIINLJ\l protects mc'). I Ic was the son of SNEFERU (261J-258Y Be) and the builder of the Great Pyramid at (lIZI\. His own burial chamber was found to con lain ollly all empty sarcophagus, blll part of the funerary equipment of his mother, IIETEI'IIEIH:S I) survivcd in a ,\IAST'\IJA tomb ncar his pyramid. Despite the fame of his funerary complex, the only surviv-

Tn later tradition he was repured to h,l\e been a tyrannical ruler, although these traclitions cannot bc substantiated by contemporary c\"idencc and perhaps rehne simply to the imposing scale of his pyramid. 'V. 1\1. E PeTRIE, .1I~}ldlJ.\1I (Londun, 1903), 3U, pis IJ-J.!. Z. I L\\\,.\ss. 'Thc Khufu S(;.ltuette: is it an Old Kingdom SCUlpl Lire:', J11c:/allges Gall/a! A'loIlJ..ht({r I (Cairu, 1985), .17Y-94. 1. E. S. EI)\\!\IH>S, '1'1/1: p)ll"(lIl1ids oI1:.'gYPI, 5Lh cd. (Hal'l11onds\Vorlh. )1)93),98-121.

Khyan (Sellserenra, LI600

A 15th-Dynasty
IIYKS(JS

Be)

fvm]! sltlllfclle oIKIIIIJil, mhosc J-!O/'IIS 1/fIIIIC is imailJed 011 Ihe riglll side ofille Ihrnne: his car/oud/(:, ill.I'aibed on llie olher side, is parlf)1 broken. "litis is Ihe onf)! surviving represenlaf./on oj' Ihe builder oflhe Creal Pyramid af. Gi::.a. -1111 Dynasty. c.2570 IIc. ./iwn A!~)l(lo.~. II. 7..) on (c.II"oJI36/43)
152

ruler of Lower EgYPl, whose 'lluone name' was Seuscrenr,l. Unlike the other Ilyksos pharaohs, who commissioned ,'cry few architectural or sculptural monumcms} Khyan was responsible for the decoration of religious slructures at GEUELEIl\. (along with his successor Aauserra '\1'1:1'1) ilnd llubastis (TEl.1. n"sT.\). The international innuencc of Khyan is perhaps indicated by the disco"cry of a number of objects bearing his name at sites outside Egypt, including scarabs and sC;,ll impressions in the Le":tnt, a travertine \'asc lid at Knossos, part of an obsidian "cssel ,ll the Iliuitc capital of ((altUS,lS (Bughazki)y). Although the two latter items wcrc presumably prestigc gifts or trade goods, it is possible that the SC:lls indicatc a degrce of I-Iyksos conlrol O\'er southcrn Palestine. The granite lion bearing Khyan's namc that was found buill" into a housc wall at Baghdad and is now in the collection of the British I\luscum is usuall~ assumed to have been removed from Egypt some time after U1C Hyksos period. R. GI\ 1':0,\, 'A scaling of Khyan from the Shephcla or southern Palestine',JEA 51 (1965), 202-4. W. C. 11 \YES, I EgYPL fi'om the death uf AI11I11CI1CI11CS III to Seqel1cllrc II', Cflmbridgl' Allcielll!-h+;tOly 11/1. cd. f. E. S. Edw~lrds et aI., .1rd cd. (Cambridge, 1973),42-76.

king lists
Term used by Egyptologists to refer to sun'iv-

ing lists of the names and titlcs of rulers or Egypt, somc which also incorporate information concerning the length amI principal C\'cnts of indi"idu:11 reigns. YirtLlally all of the sunjying examples deri,'c from religious or fun crary contexts and usually rehIle to the celebr.llion of thc cult of roy,ll anceSlOrs, "hcreb~ c:leh king established his own legitimac~ and place in the succession by making rcgular offerings ro a list of the names of his predecessors. The lists arc often surprisingly accur.llC, although they arc also noticeahly sc1ectiyc, regularly omirting ccrt;,lin rulers, such a~ \KIIE;".\TE:'\ (1352-1336 Be who \\'ere considered to ha"c been in any W,ly illegitim<ltc or inappnlpriatc. Se"cral such lists exist, although onl~ thtl! in the temple of Sery I (129+-1279 BC) at \Innos, listing sc\'cnty-six kings from \IE::'\ES 10 SCI-y himse1f~ remains in its original cOTHexl. .'\ second list, from the nearby temple of Rameses II (I27Y-12IJ BC), is now in the British l\ilusellm, and an earlier example fi'OI11 the templc of Amun at K:\ Rl'\!A t\:, listing sixtytwo kings from ~iJenes to ThutmosL: III (1-1-79-1-1-25 lie), is now in the Louvre. The Saqqara 'T:1blct. ,Ill cxample of a pri\'atc funcrary clIlr of the royal ancestors. was fOllnd in the 10mb of a scribc called Tenro)"; it lists fifty-sc,'en rulers from the 1st Dynasty umit Lhc reign of Rameses II. Another pri\'ate ex.lmpic of a king list W;,lS found in tllC tomb Amcnmcssu at Thebes (IT373; (,1300 Be), where rhc deccased is shown worshipping the stalUl'S of thirteen pharaohs. The hieralic papyrus known as the TLRI'\ KOY.\!. (",,\'\0'\. compiled in dle 19th Dynast). and the basalt stele known as the I'\U:R \I() STO'I':, daring from the end of thc 5th Dynasty, are "aluable records. although both .1re incompletc.much of the Turin C:lI1on h<l\ing been losl in modern times. There arc also a few much briefer king lists1 such as .1 graffito at the mining and quarrying sitc of 'Vadi Ilammamat, dated palacographically to th\: 12th f)~nasty (1985-1795 BC), which consists of the names of fiyc 4th-Dynasty rulers and princcs. 'I'hc historian \1 \ '\1-:"1'110 must h:l\'c used such king lists} prcsumably i.n the f<ll"m of" papyrus cupies in temple LIBR \IUES, whcn he was compiling his ;lCCouI1l of the history of Egypt, which is known only hom the somctimes contradiclory fiagmcl1t"s preserved in the works of other ancient authors. 'vV. B. EI\lt':RV, Ardlllic EgyjJt (I-1armondsworth. 19(1),21-+. D. 13. REDFOIW. Pharaol/ic king-!isls, (lII1W/S (l1/(! day-books: a ((illlrilm/ion lo Ihe .~/llIf)1 fllthe E:!{)ljJlirlll selw'oIhi.+;tOly (Mississauga, 1986).

or

or

KINGSHIP

KIOSK

13. J.

KE.\II',

(h'i1i;::'lIli()//

.ll1clcl/l F.gy/JI: 1I11{/1(l1I~11 (London, 1989),21-3.

//Ia

kiosk
1\pe of small openwork temple with supporring pillars, the best known examples being that of Senusrel I (1965-1920 lie) al "-IB' IK, and thaL ofTrajan (.11> 98-117) at 1'1>11 ..11'. The term is sometimcs also employed fo refer to a small sun-shade or p~l\'ilion for the use of a king or official.

kingship
The com:cpt of kingship and the di"inity of the pharaoh wcre l:clllral (0 Egyptian society and religion. At the vcry beginning of Egyptian history, the e"idence from such sites as \UH>OS, '\. \Q)IJ\ and S_\~t\R \ suggesls that the basic l1al"urc of Eg~ pti~m \n.\IL\I~-nnTI02\. and the strong associi.uion between the king and the falcon-god IIORL'S had alreildy hecome well established. A grc,u deal of the ideology surrounding Egyptian kingship can be deduced to some extent from the dc,c!opmcnl of the RO) \1. T1TLL \R\. which fulfilled a number of roles, including the establishment the rcl;uionships between the king and the gods, and rhe cxphtn<ltion of how e~H.;h reign rdated to the kingship as .1 whole. The title IIfJ1JJ..-bit (liter<lll~ 'he of the sedge and the bee') is usually tnmslated <1S 'King of Upper and Lower Egypt' but its true meaning is quite diffen.;nt, and consider'lbly Illore COIllplex, in that neSJ1) appears to mean the unchanging di\'ine king (.llmost (he kingship itsell), while bil seems to be a more ephemeral reference to the individual holder of the kingship. Each king was therefore it combination of the divine and the mortal, the IICSJ1J and the bil, in the Same way that the li,-ing king ,,as linked with Horus and the dead kings, the royal anccstors (sce t,:!'\'(i LISTS), were associatcd with OSrKIS. ldeally tht; kingship passed from Either to SOil, and each king was usually keen to demonstrate his (ilial links with the IJrC,-ious ruler. On a practical Ic,-c1, the ruler could demonstrate the continuity of the kingship b~ ensuring thm his predecessor's mortu;lry temple and tomb were completed, and 011 a more political level he ,Yould do his best to demonstrate thai he was the chosen heir whose right to rule W.IS ensured by his own divinity. SOl1letimt.'S the anempts of certain rulers to demonstrate rheir unquestioncd right to thc kingship h.we heen misinterpretcd as 'propagandist:' efforts to distort the truth by mcans of thc various reliefs and inscriptions depicting such e,'cnts .IS thcir di"ine hirth .1l1d thc bestowal of the kingship hy Ihe gods. Although there may have heen a certajn amount of political (rather than religious) impctus behind the works of such unusual rulers as Queen 1l.ITSIlEI'SLT (1473-1458 Be), most of the sun i,ing references to the kingship belong much morc ,rithin the orcrall role of the king in imposing order and prcrcnting chaos. The f'unetjon of the king as the representative or the gods was to preserve and

kohl see COS\lETIC'i

koru
Dctail (~r(f .'iatioll (~rI11all-n.:lliliu the it'll/pic oI HlltlfOr atlJl'IIdl'Ta, ~h()mil/g the mriting oftht' mortl 'plulI"fwh' (pcr-'la) ill (l rarlOliche. The in.HTlpti(JIl.\' illlc'I1IPk.~ (~rthc' Ptolemaic (lnd RuwlIn
pniod.l' tdicll indllde {(Jrfol/r!lcs imaif,ed 'Pith Ihis
gel/air 1i'1"II1./()/' l!Ii' king, rallter Iltall mith a

or

.l'jJl'(Uic' ruler:~ JIlllne. (I. SII 1/1)

Term which has eJ1lcrcd Arabic from the Coptic word xmp <,"illagc') and is generall~ used to refer 10 the. mounds made up of the ruins of ancient settlements. Its mc'1l1ing is therefore similar to the Arabic ,Yord lell, although [Jle latter is 1110re commonly applied to fhe higher settlement mounds of the Le,-anl .llld .\lesopotamia.

restore the original harmony of rhe uni"ersc, therefore a great deal of the il:onography in Egyptian temples, tombs and palaces was cono:rncd much 1110re with this overaLl aim than with the indi,idual cirl:ul1lslol1ll:es of the ruler at any particular poim in time. Just as it was esscntial to stress the king\ divinc hirth, so the cclebratjon and depiction of each SED FESTI\-A1. (royal jubilee) was intcnded to ensure that the king was still capable or performing his ritual role. The term per-llll Cgrcat housc') - whidl ,,-as c,cntually transformcd, ria Greek, into the \\urd pharaoh - \\as initially used to describe the royal court or indeed the stare itsel r, in the sense that the 'grc.1t house' was the ovcrarching cntity responsihle lor the T\X\TIO' orthe lesser 'houses' (pam), such as the temple lands and pri,-atc estates. B~ extension, from the latc I Sth Dynasty omyards, the term hegan to be used to refer to the king himself H. FR'''''FORT, King.~hip aud the gods (ChiclgO, 19{8). 1-1. \V. F \IR_\"\="-, 'The kingship rituals of Eg~ pt', .\~)Ith. riwa! lIIfd kingship, cd. S.ll. Hooker (Oxlord, 1958), 7+-10{. G. POSE\!':R, DI! 1(/ divinih; till plUlrtlll1l (Paris, 1960). B. G. TRIGGER ct aJ.,Allcienl Egypl: II Slid,,! hi.'iUny (Cambridge, 1983),52-61,71-(1, 20+-2S, 288-99. N. GRI\l \1., Li'S lerllles de la pr"'pa.'!,lflldl' n~J'a! i:gyplil'lIlIl! de la xixi' thflUlSlil' ti la {(Im/llile tI>llexulU!n' (Paris, 1986). I\L A. BO,III::\lE and A. FOGE \L, P/UlflU>1I, le.~ $l'(Tl'ts tlli pom:oir (Paris, 1988). J. D. R-n, 'The pharaohs and their court', Egypl: I/IIt:iell/ wltllre, lIIodem laud, cd. J. Malek (Sydney, 1993),68-77.

Koru Abu Billo C1erenuLhis) Site or a Pharaonic and Greco-Roman town situated in the western Delta, which deri,'es irs Greek name from th.u of the snakcgoddess RE\C'\""CTET, whose cult \\ as celebrated in the ~1I"C'1. 'The early Pwlemaic temple remains, exc<wated hy F T.I. Griffith in 1887-8, were dedicated to the goddess l-I,rrllOI{ in her manifesmtion of 'mistress of turquoise', and there arc nearby burials of' sacred cows presumably rehuing to the cult of I-Lllhor. The imporl. .11lce of this temple rests primarily 011 (he f;ttt that it is one of the few monumenls l:onstructed during the reign of' the. first 1''''01.1':.\1'' (Prolemy I Soter; 305-285 IlC). During the Roman period the economic importance of Tcrcnuthis rested on the role il played in the procurement ~lIld trading of ',\TRO' and salt, owing to the proximity of the road leading 10 \Vadi Natrull. The nearby cemetery spans a much broader period) ranging from the Old Kingdom to the late Roman period. Some of the Nc" f..:ingdolll graycs contajnl:d 'slipper-coffins' made of pottery and decorated with ugly facial features, while many of the Roman-period tombs were marked by unusual stelae l:onsisting of relief representations of the deceased either standing or lying on a COUdl and accompanied by all inscription in IJE.\\OTIC or Greek. A. 111'.1{,\1 \i\i\, 'Die Ddrasradt 'lCrClllllhis uno ihre Giirrin', .HD.'IIK 5 (I 93{), 1119-72. B. PORTEI{ and R. L. I3. l\lo!'ls, 7'opographiat! IJ1Ni(Jgrap/~)II\, 1st ed. (Oxford, 1934),67-9. J. G. GRJI"FITIIS, 'lc.rcnurhis" Le.ril..'011 da AgyplfJlogii' \'1, ed. W. 1-1ckk, E. Otto and W. Westendorf (Wieslmkn, 1986), 4H.
153

KOM EL-AI-IMAR

KOM aMBO

Dettlilofa sec/ion ofmil II-reliefill/he /l'Il1ph' of /-fOrtH {f1U1 Sobel- al Kom Om"o. shom;ng P/ol('1l~}, /I Philopa/or l11ai'illg offirillgs In Ihe O'omtlill'-gotl So"ek. Ptolemaic period. c.Z2/-20S IlC (I. SIIIII)

Piau ,~rthe doubl" 1i'll/flle (~tlJ()I"IIS III/d So/Jd,' {I/

KOII/Om!Jo.

10

20

30

40m

12

tln

~ [~I]
11

~...::,:,:
Kom el-Ahmar see I UE~'KO"I'OI.IS Kom el-Hisn (anc. Imu) Site of the town of Tmll, located in the western Dclra, about 12 km south of "iAUKRATIS. When it was first surveycd by E LL Griffith, in 1885, <l large proportion of the mound was still in existence, but it is now much reduced by the work of sebaR!lin Cfan11crs quarrying ancient mud-brick for use as fertilizer). The principal mound is dominated by the ruins of a temple dedicated to the local goddess, S[KII~IET-II:\THOK, which was established by SE"USRET I (1965-1920 Be) in the earlv 12th Dynasty. \:Vhen the large rectangular temple encloSUfe was exca\~ltcd in 19-+3-6 by the Egyptian archaeologists A. Hamada and ~L e1-Amir, it was found to contain yariolls items of Middle and New Kingdom sculpture, including statues of Amencmhat [II (1855-1808 Be) aod Rameses II (1279-1213 IIC). In the New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC), the town of lOll! rephlCcd the c~rlicr (still undiscovered) [Own of Hwt-ihyt as the capital of the third Lower Egyptian nome. The nearhy cemetery contains hundreds of graves, most of which date from the First intermediate Period (2181-2055 BC) to the New Kingdom.
154

J:.... j

I-~_

..

According to the brief report describing a Cmadian sun'cy of the site in 1980, Ihe most imprcssi\'c suniving archircctur;.ll feature al Kom cl-Hisn is the painted, stone-built Middle Kingdom tomb of KheslIwcf, 'O\'crseef of prophets'. E. A. G'\IWi\'EK, N{/flkrlltis II (London, 1888), 77-80. G. Dt\RESSY, 'Rapporr sur KOI11 cl-T lisn', ASAJ:: 4 (1903), 281-3. B. PORTER and R. L. B. ~I()ss. Topographiml bibliography 11', 1st cd. (Oxford, 19.14),51-2A. H
\\1-\11-\

~ .. I:W,,., ,](J. ,

1 2 3 4 5 6

:N\,,2 :
.. III ......

and S. F,-\RID, 'Exca\"ations aL KOIll

c1-1 Iisn, s",lson 1945', .ISA 46 (1947), 195-205. - , 'Excavations at Kom c1-1 IisH, 1946', ASAE +8 (1948), 299-325. I~ BRODIE ct aI., 'Kom e1-llisn" Cities of/he Del/a I: Nllllkl'llliJ(~lalibu, 1981),81-5.

inner vestibule forecourt altar (northern) sanctuary of first hypostyle hall Horus (Haroeris) second hypostyle hall 9 (southern) sanctuary of Sobek outer vestibule 10 inner corridor middle vestibule 11 outer corridor 12 position of false door stele

Kom Medinet Ghurob see GUROB Kom Ombo (ane. ambos) Temple and assol:iatcd settlement site located 4-0 km north of Asw.m, with suryiving structural remains dating from at least as early as the 18th Dynast\' (1550-1295 BC), although there are also a number of Upper Palaeolithic sites scattered oycr the surrounding region.

The su.niving temple buildings, first dcarcd of debris by Jacques de I"lorgan in 1893, "ere dedicated 10 the dcities Sobek and Haroeris (see I-I()RUS) and date mainly to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods (.132 UC-,\D 395), mOSl of the relief decoration having been completed in the first century IIC. The i1JThitcctural plan of the temple is unusual in that it effecti,'c1~ combines two traditional cult temples into one, each side having its own individual succession of gateways ilnd chapels. ]. DE ~\IORGA" cr aI., KOI1l Ombos, 2 "ols (Vienn;l, 1909).

KOM EL-SHUQAFA

KUSH

Kom el-Shuqafa see ,ILEX,"".'A Koptos (Qift, anc. Kcbel) Temple ilnd (Own si[C located abollt 40 km north of Luxor, at the entrance to the "Vadi Hammamat. This ,"alley contained gold mines and breccia quarries and also scrycd as the principal trade-route between the Nile ,-alley and the Red Sea. The benefits of the town's loc'lrion, on the east bank of the NUc, arc considered LO h;1\"C been the primary reason for the foundation and subsequent prosperity of the Pharaonic settlement at Koptos. To the cast of the main site there arc cemeteries dating to the late Prcdynastic period (c.3300-3100 BC), when !,-,'o,'DA, situated almost opposite Kopros on the west bank, was the dominant town in the region. The surviving settlement remains at Kaptos date back to the beginning of the historical period (c.3000 BC), including lhree eolussal

B. J. KE.\\I', flneiem EgYPI: 1lIU11011~)' ola ch:i/i::::fl1ioll (London, 1989),6+-91. C. TRALSECKER and L. P:\;\T\L.\CCI, 'Le temple eI'lsi a EI Q11'a pres de Copros', ./U'Jcll Ailiif/chell 1985111, eel. S. Sehoske (Hamburg, 1989), 201-10.

Kumma see 5[.\1:'\.\

Kurgus
Site in the fifth-cataract region of Nubia, where Th utmose I (150-1-- H92 HC) and Thutmose III (1479-H25 BC) both carved inscriptions on boulders marking the southern fionticr of Egypt. The choice of this spot for the erection of the stelae, close to the southern end of the so-called Korosko Road, suggests that an importanL oyerlanc1 trade-route, passing through the gold-bearing region of the Wadis Allaqi and Gabgaba, was pruhably already being used in the early New Kingdom.

the royal tombs at c1-Kurru were built in the style of miniature Egyptian pyramids, starting with that of I'IY (747-716 BC), the founder of Ihe 25th Dynasty. Undecorated rectangular funerary chapels were located immediately beside the east f~lces of each of the supersrrucHires. The subterranean burial chambers could be entered clown long flights of steps leading from shafts also siruatcd to the cast of ei.1ch pyramid. Adjacent to the pyramidal tombs, which include those of SIL\II:\QO (716-702 IIC), Shabitqo (702-690 BC) and TA~LT-\!\IAi\1 (66-1-656 Be), are twenty-four roughly conrcmpor:lry horse burials. After the mid seventh century Be, el-Kurru \\"<lS effectively abandoned and Nuri became the sire of the new cemerery of rhe Naparan rulers. D. DL"'llnl, TlteroJ!,lIce11lf/eriesoIKffslt,/: EI-KIIITIl (Boston, 1950).

Kush see kER\P,;

~LIII.'\

and

\ICERQ) OF K.USII

Limes/olle sl/lIl' relic/depicting Senwrt:l J engaged ill a sed-je.aival rilua/ in Ihe preSf11Cf o//lte ftrJili~)'-god,\'lin. The killg is showII runlling helmccu bOlUular.y slOIlCJ symho/i:::.illg lire limils Qf his hngdom; illfronl nfhim arc his ,hroue name and Horus mlJ}U!. The lille of vertical/ext belom lite 1lames reatls '/uwellil1g k)/ b01l1 to A1in. Ihe greal got/mho is ill Ihe mitisl of/us dO". /21h D.J'nllJ~)" c./950 BC, 11. /.1/111. (N.TRlf IILS1:"U.II, 1J786)

limestone statues of the local fertility-god 1\IIN and various other items of 'preforma!' sculpture, ,Yhich were cxc~l\'atec1 by rlinders Petrie in an Eouly Dynastic context at the temple of l\1in. The ,isible remains of the temple date mainly from the New Kingdom onwards. The Greek and Roman I11onUl1ll,;nts at Koptos, including a small temple of ISIS at the nearby site of el-Qtl'a, haye been studied by Claude Traunecker and Laure Pantalacci. W. M. l' PETRIF., Kop/o.< (London, 1896). A.]. REINAClI, Rapports SlIr It'sjouilles tie KopI()J (Paris, 1910).

\V. y. ADo\1'.lS, Nubia: corridor 10 /~fi"ica, 2nd cd. (London and Princeton, 1984), fig. 33.

Kurru. elRoyal necropolis of the Napatan period (.1000-300 He), situated in Upper Nubia on the Dongola reach of the Nile. Thl,; sire was first used from c.IOOO Be onwards for the tumulus-burials of the rulers of the kingdom of Kush, the political focus of which waS i\t\PIrn, which also includes the sites of Gebel Barkal, ~URI and Sallam. In the later ~apatan period (r.750--653 BC),
155

LA~IUN,

F.I.-

LANGUAGI::

L
Lahun, elNecropolis and town-sill', loc .1lcd .n the eastern edge of the F" L \1 IH:GIO', .lballt 100 km southeast of Cliro. The principal monument is the pyramid complex of Scnusret [I (1880-187-1- He). The internal arrangement of the superslfucIUfC consisted of a knoLl of rock, surmounlcd by a network uf stone-buill reraining walls smhilizing the mud-brick matrix of" the building. One of the most unusual features SCllusrcr II'S 1ll0IUIIl1Cnt is the fact that, unlike most other pyramids, lhe entrance is frum the south rather than the norrh, perhaps because he \\ as more concerned with the sc(urity of the tomb than irs alignment \\ jlh the circlImpolar stars. The burial chamber contains an exquisite red granire sarcophagus and a tr<lvcrt"inc offering table. In onc of the four sh~lfi.-[()mbs on the south side of the pyramid, Flinders Pc(]ic and Guy Brunton discO\crcd the JE\\TI.I.I':ln of Sithathoriuncl, illl:luding items bcaring the

or

The pyralllhl f~rSC/lligf/ /I {fl el-Lallllll is OJllSlrlft;/!'d ,~rlllffd-br;(k arol/lld a ser;cs I!I' limes/ulle malh. sOll/e I~rmh;rh {fiJI be set'll 1/1 Iht' btl.lc oftht' pymll!id. The .1'/1"11(1/11"" has IIISI i,s (Jill{'/' casillg {lIltl:iO hilS J1Il'tlllwwllfJ {/ roulfded projile.
(/~

II. E,
York,

Wli\1.0Cr-::, The lI"e(l.wl"c

IY~+).

l!rO-fllll/lll (Ne\\'

7:

.\lCIIOI.SU\)

13. GL '\ '\, "rhe name ot' the pyramid toWIl of Sesos'risII ',.7E I ~I (19+5), 106-7. U. Lun, 'l1lahul1srudicn', Oil'III1N'lll' j (1982), 101-56; + (IY8~), 121-79; 5 (1986), 117-5~.I,hc p<.\p~ ril B. .J. KI':\ll', .-ludelll Egyp/: {fllalol1qr '!I'a (i6Ii::'(//;1I1I (London, 1989). 149-37. U. LLvr, /)w ...Jrchii iOIl fllalllm (Hi('J"{/li.H-//I' Papyri) (Berlin, 1992). I. E. S. Em\ \RDS, 'lilt' p)'f"{/I//itls ofEgYPI, 5th cd. (I-Iarmonds\\orth, 1993),212-13.

cemelery pyramid of Senusret II

rock tombs

'V-\
~-ll
\

--

rock tombs

cemetery

900
alley temple -,'Acropolis'

Kahun town

canouchcs of Scnusrci II and Amcnemhat III (1855-1808 Ile). Bcside Sellusret II'S Valley Temple arc the remains of h:allll11, a rectangular, planncd sClllemcnr, rncasuring about 384 m x 335 m, which is thought to han~ originally housed the officials responsible for SenusrCl's royal mortuary cult but was later regardcd as a to\\ n in its own right, h~l\"ing 'l/wly-'(mayor). Small sunjving areas of such settlemcnts h<.l\C been found at other siLcs in the immediatc yicillil~ of Old and .\Iiddle I-.:...ingdom pyramids..1.\ large number of IllER \TIC papyri, daring to the late .\fiddle Kingdom (t.185U-1650 Be) and ranging from religious dOl:lll11enLs to pri\ aLe COITcspondcllce, wcrc discol ered hI Flinders Pe,rie in 188Y-YO (now in Lhc Petrie i\lusculll, Uni\ersiL~ College London), Further documcnt<i wcrc later disl:o\"ered as <1 result or illicit excaViltions; thcse papyri, the business letters or thc templc scribe l-Iorclllsaf, arc now in Berlin and have nor ycr becn fully published. w. J\I. I': PI':TKIE, /(ahllll, G/lmh (l1lt/ HII/lI(f/"{1 (London, IR91J). - . I//lfhlll/, Kal/ll1l alld Gumh (London, 1891).

language
A.m:ient Egyptian is probably rhc sccond old cst wriHcn language in the world, being preccded only by SL\I1:RI\' in western Asia. It forms onc of the fiyc branches of a family of languages spol..cn in north Africa anti thc 'lI1ciem Ne.tr East, known as Afro-Asiatic (or HamilO-Scmitic). Bccause of \arious common c1emcnts of yocabulary and grammar, these liyc ling-uisLic branches arc thought to tIeri\L' from an earlier 'proto-language'. .'1.ncicn! Egyptian Lhcrefore includes certain words that arc identicli to those in such langll~lgcs m, Hehre\\, Berber <lnd Tuareg. Egyptian is ~llso thc earliest written language in which \'crbs hayc different 'aSpCl:IS' rathcr than tenscs, which mcans thaI thl' cmphasis is plal:cd on \yhethcr an aCLion has becn complcted or not, r<lLhcr than whether it occurred in the past, prescnt or futurc, A crucial distinction needs LO be made bct\yecn Ihe stages in lhc dc\'c)opment of the Egypti.m languagc and the \'arious pluscs of its writtcn

F. 1..1.
PIal! (~(JI/l' pyrllJlud (Oll/plex ofSel///Srel c1-/..alwlIlIlld IlIe ass(J(ialed ,,,,-,"le1lle11l.
If

GRIFFITH, j-/jt'I"{/(it p(lpyriJimll J.:(///Ifll (Iud

B"uvro~ and \L A. (London, 1923).

Gumh(l.ondon,IH98),

al

w. ~L E PETKW, G.
!\ILRRH, LahUl/II

156

LANGUAGE

LAPIS LAZULI

~
~

glottal stop

II

11
~

as q in

queen

~
~

SI1'

~
D

plants

301";

-e>

111,-

copper or bronze

~~

y
\\

ru
deep guttural, Semitic

Q
stronger

asgin

good

->(j1

ss./m

sun, time

~
@

~I

=
~

t
as I in tune

-"I;
man,
occupation,

I?
name
people

cloth

tOyi11

lV

I;

as eh in loch

~
~J
III

2=:J

book (papyrus roll), abstracts

J
0
~

softer ~,

-++-

as =

originally

~
!12::ifJ
'd

as d in dune

~
h

senses

f@

'lib

'to live'

f
III

r
=
s
(Jlhierog()'phir

originally

nv

as S5
as sit in

motion animal (-skin)

r
~~

@ c==o -<=>- I I I

sb rw

'plans, condition'

1\
Chllrl
dll/mtler....

ship

h'

/VVVV'.. '\:)

=I:=r

I -ylII

'sea'

~'Ilf1J1lillg ,11(' dij}i.'rml ~)IPt'...

form. The language has one distiner- break, in the "tiddle Kingdom (2055-1650 Be), \I-hen 'synthetic' Old and .\liddlc Egyptian, charac.: . lcrizcd b~ inncc.:tcd ,"crb endings, \\as replaced, in l"ilC spoken language at least, by the morc complex 'nnalytical' form of Lltc EgypLi;m, with a ,"crbal strucllIrc consisting of ~lrtict1hl1cd clements. Egyptian is the only 'language asprer' 1'01' which thc changc from the 'synthetic' stagc to 'analytical' can actually be studied in its wriltcn form. The wrillcn form of Egyptian, on the other hand, passed through sC\'eral phases:. In the first stage, I he slOnc-calTcd J 111]{()(il.Yl'lllC system was used f()r funerary and rclig'ious te.\ts while thc cursiyc IllEIU'I'lC script ,ns used for administrativc and litcrary texts. By the 25th to 26th Dynaslies (jn-52:; BC) m:,\I()TIC emcrged, and fill' a number of centuries lhc Greek and demutic scripls wcrc uscd side by side. The demotil: and hieroglyphic "Titing systems beg~1Il to be replaced in the third centur~ I\D by COPTIC, which consisted of the Greek

or

alphabet combined with six demotic signs. This was ~lt.:'lually a Icss suitable means of rendering the Egyptian language, bur it W.IS introduced for purely religious and cultural rC'lsons: Egypt had become a Christian country and the hieroglyphic system and its deri\ali\cs were considered to be fundamcntally 'prcChristian' in their connotations. Ne\'erlheless, the Egyptian language ilself, despitc being ,nillen in an adaptation of the Greek alph~l bet. has sun-j\Td in a fossilized form in the liturg~ of the Coptil: church cycn after I"he emergence of A rabic as the spokcn language of Egypt. Sinl:e the pre-Coptic Egypti.lIl \\Tiling s~s tems consistcd purely of consonants, Coptic texts (as \Yell as occasional instances of Greek. Akkadian and Babylonian documt;nts that transcribe Egyptian \\'orlIs and namcs intu ntlwr sl:ripts) havt; proyed extremdy useful in terms 01" working oul the "ol:<llization of the EgYPlian Ianguagc. A. I-I. G \RIJI'\I':R. Egypliall gnlllll/u//; beillg {[II IIII/w/llctloll 10 tIll' .~I/I{()llJlltil!rog()lpk~.3reI cd. (O,lol"d, 1957). T. C. [IOl>til':, ,-!lim/sialic: ({ SlI/T()' (The Haguc, 1971)_

J and T Th,o'\: (cds), /-l1l1llilo-Si.'l1lilim: pm(('ctlings filII ((JlloquilJllllleltl/~), Ilu: h~/ori(lIl

suluJI/ oI111I: l.illguisliCSjlssOl"ialifJl/ (Crt'al Bntain). \lfudl l<JiO(Thc Hague, 1975). C. C. \\' \1:n:RS 111 ell'lIwlllI1:J' Coptic grall/mar (If '''l'Sallitlietliala/, 2nd cd. (Oxford, 198.l).

lapis lazuli (Egl"j)li"n khl'sl,,-d) .:\lcnlmorphosed form ofljmcstone, rich in the blue mincrallazuritc (a complex fddspathoid), \\'hich is dark blue in colour and often necked \\ ith impurities of cakitl', iron pyrites or gold. The Egyptians considered that iL" appearance imitated thar of the hea\"ens, therefore the~ considered il to be supl'l"ior to all m~lIcrials other than gold and sih-cr. They used it extensively in JE\\'~I.LEI{\ until the Late PerioJ (747-332 BC), when it was particularly popular for amulcts. II was ticquentl~' dcsuibcd as 'rrue' Nles!J{!d, to distinguish it from imitations madc in h\IE'\:CE or (fuss. Its primary use was as inlay in jewellery, althoug'h small vessels are also known, and il could also he used ~IS inlay in the eyes of llgurines. Unlike 1110sl- olher stones lIsed in Egyptian jewellery, it docs not occur naturally in the desens Egypt but had to he imported

or

157

LAPWING

LATE PERIOD

De/ail of" bracelet consisting of a/a pis la:::-uli scarab SCI ill gold. The beads (Ire o.{gold. come/iflll ({utlji/iel/ce. L ofscaralJ 2.8 011. (,/6.16/6)
either directly from Badakhsh<1J1 (in north-

eastern Afghanistan) or indirectly, as tribute or trade goods from the Near East. Despite its exotic origin it was already in usc as early as the Prcdynasric period, showing that farreaching exchange networks between north Africa and western Asia must have already existed in the fourth millennium Be:. Ir is represented in temple scenes at \1EDI:'\IET I-IA-BU
and
aL J..::\JU,AK.

A. Luc-\s, AIlC/ilil E:.'gYPlia1//!/alerials (Iud

intlm/rit's, -J.th ed. (London, 1962), 3lJ8-400.
G. IIERR.\I:\N'\, (Lapis lazuli: the c;lrly phnses of its trade', Irat{ 30 (1968), 21-57. J C. P.w~t-:, 'Lapis lazuli in early Egypt', iraq 30

(1968),

58~61.

'A lapis lazuli figurine from Hicrakonpolis in Egypt', !rallica Allfiquu IS (1980), 17.i~80.
POR.\IH,

E.

lapwing see

RF.KIII'T BIR"

late Period (747-332 Be) Phase of Egyptian hislOry comprising the 25th to 31 st Dynasties, stretching from the end of the TIIIRD I:>.TEIUIEDIHE PERIOD (1069-7D ue) to the arri\"al of \I.EX.\NIJER TilE GRE.\T (332 Be). The Third lntermedi,tte Period was dominnted hy simultaneous dynasties of rulers in the Delta and the Theban region, hut SIl:\[l:\QO (716--702 liC), the second ruler of the Kushite 25th Dynasty, exerted Nubian inOuence over the north hath by milit,uy conquest and by mo\"ing rhe administrarive centre back from Thebes to Memphis. Despite the fact that the 25th-Dynasty
158

kings ruled over a larger territory than in the preceding pcriod, thc state does not seem to have been truly unified during this period, wirh loc'11 princes apparently maintaining considerable independence. Nevertheless, rhe combined kingdom of Egypt and Nubia was a formidable onc, ri\"alled only by the rising empire of the -\SSYRI.\:\ rulers. The Egyptian kings attempted to thwart the spread of Assyria into the Levant by joining forccs with somc of the Palestinian rulers. Not only did they fail to overthrow thc Assyrians, but in 67-1- Be thcy were themselves threatened, when Esarhaddon (681 ~669 Be) mounted an invasion of Egypt. This attack failed, and although his second campaign, in 671 BC, was morc successful, he was still unable to suppress all opposition. Thc Egyptian king TAII.\RQO (690-664 BC), who had fled to Nubia, was therefore able to reoccupy j\/lemphis. l-lowcYer, the Assyrians attacked again, this time under Ashurbanipal (669-627 uc), who was aided by tWO local rulers from SAIS NJo:KAU I (672-66{ BC) and his son Psamtek <lnd was thus able finally LO establish Assyrian rule O\'er Egypt. Nekau I was left as governor, but was killed by the armies of T.'NUH"" "I (66.f-656 BC), the son and successor ofTaharqo. The constant breaking of Assyrian rule led to seycre reprisals, and Ashurbanipal returned to Egypt at some point" after 663 Be, laying waste to great areas of the country and forcing 'I~lIlutamani to flee back to Nubia. However, this by no means put paid to Egyptian independence: a rebellion in HABYLO:\I:\ caused Ashurbanipal to withdraw, and, with Tanutamani also gone, ::'\'ekau I'S son, PS:\\ITEK I (66~1O BC), was able to appoint himself king

as the first full ruler of the 26th SAITE D"nasl\' (66.f-525 BC). Psamtek was an astute ruler and sought ro establish a sense of national identity while at the same time making usc of foreign mercenaries, nombly Greeks and Carians, to suppress those local rulers who might oppose him. From this time onwards Egypt was increasingly drawn into the Classical and Hellenistic sphere. Later in the dynast~, a trading colony of GREEKS was established; the Greek writer Herodotus credits this act to .'\I-I\IOSE II (570-526 Be), although it is morc probable that Ahmose simply reorganized one of a number of existing Greek settkments. }()reign policy in the 26th Dynasty had largely been concerned with attempting to preserve the bahmce of power, but by the time rh~lt Ahmosc II'S son, Psamtek III (526-525 Be), succeeded to the throne, PERSIA had become the dominant power. In 525 BC Cambyses (525~.i22 BC) invaded Egypt, establishing the Persian 27th Dynasty (525-404 BC). He appears ro have been 0111 unpopular ruler, but his successor Darius I (522-486 uc) undertook major building works, including the completion of projects that had been initiated by Saitc rulers. The Egyptians, howe"er, presumably inspired by Greek "ictorjc.'i oyer the Persians, embarked on a course of rebellion, supported by military aid from the Greeks. In 404 Be Egyptian unrest reached a dimax iJ1 the revolt by Amynaios of S~lis which resulted in the expulsion of the Persians, first from the Delta, and within four years from the whole countn. But Amyrtaios (40.f-399 He) prOl'cd to be the only king of the 28th Dynasty: in 399 Be the throne was usurped by Nefaarud (Nepherites) I (399~393 uc), ruling

LAW

LAW

from another Delta city, j\IE"n!::.s. He and his successors of the 29th Dynasty (399-380 BC)
relied hea\"ily upon foreign merccn~U"ics for their military power, nod in this way were able to srave off further Persian incursions. Finally

they were themsehcs displaced bl' the .lOthDynasty rulers, beginning with
).'[CT\:'\EIIO I

(380-362 BC).
This new line continued the 'nationalistic' air of the 25th and 26th Dynasties, particularly in terms of the renewal of building

activity and increased devotion to traditional cults. The cults of SACRED .\.'lI.\l.\I.$ were parricuhlrly important ;.It this time, and it is possible that the Yari01l5 industries amI priesthoods associated with the sacred animal necropoleis became an import,mt part of the
economy.

Persian attempts al re-conquest were thwarted until 343 BC when Nectanebo II (360-3..f.3 Be), the last native pharaoh, W~IS defeated by Artaxerxcs III Ochus (343-338 BC) who established the 31st Dynasty or Second Persian Period (343-332 BC). This short second phase of Persian dOl11ill,nioll was particularly unwelcome; therefore the conquering: armies of Alexander the Great (332-323 BC) in 332 BC appear to have encountered little opposition. 'Vith the IVlacedonian conquest, Egypt became cstablished as part of the Hellenistic and i\1edilernmean world, under the control of Alexander's successors the Ptolemies (see
lyrOLDIAIC PERIOD).

Egyptian law, like the codes of [TIIIC~, was essentially based on the concept of ,\I HT ('decorum' or 'correctness'), in other words the common-scnse vicw of right and wrong as defined by the social norms of the day. Since Lhe pharaoh \vas a living god, ruling by di\'inc right, it was dearly he who was rhe supreme judge and law-giver (see J..::L\JGSIIII'). However, as with his priestly duti-cs, it was often found necessary [Q dcleg:uc his authority. The principles of the Pharaonic legal system are thought to have been codified [() some extent, bur no such documents haye sun'in:d. There arc, howcver, a number of f uncrary texts outlining thc duties of such high officials as the \'IZIER, which Cdn shed some indirect light on the legal practices. In theory, anyone with a grievance could take a case to the vizier, although actually gaining an audience would

E K. KIE:\ITZ, Die polilische Gesdlicll/(' .,{f{)lptem 7. his :::'U11I -I. .7ahrillmdert 1'01' du Zeitmellde (Berlin, 19.i3). E. R. RUSS\I:\.NN, The n~p,.esel/tatioll (~rthe hug. xxvth Dynasty (Brussels, 1974). A. J. SI'ALINGER, 'Esarhaddon and Egypt: an analysis of the first invasion of Egypt', Orientalia 43 (1974), 295-326 A. LI.OYD, 'The L~lte Period, 66+-323 riC', Ancient Eg)lpl: a social history, cel. B. G_ Trigger et al. (Cambridge, 1983),279-348. N. GRL\IAL, A historJ' o!(lncit:lIt Egypt (Oxford, 1992),3.14--82. ]. H. JOIINSO~ (cd.), Life ill (l millti-cultuml $(JcieO': Eg:yptji'ol1l CamlD'ses In Cf)I/S/(lIItil1e mul beyond (Chicago. 1992).
VQm

Detailji'fl1l1lhe Sail Papyl'lls, mlticlt cO/ltains lite petilioN QIthe !1Jorkmal/ AmenllaN,le del/fllIl/cing tlte (fimes ultlrejoreIJ/r11l Pr11leh. Late 19th DYI/as.()!, c./lOO 11C,ji-fIIJ1 Dl'irel-Medillu.
(f~IJOO.'S)

law
A Greek writer states that there was a Pharaonic legal code set Ollt in eight hooks, but this is known only from the Late Period (747-332 lie); therefore the situation in earlier times is more difficult to assess. The law is a particularly difficult area of study because the translation of ancient terms into modern legal language tends to give them a misleading air of precision.

no doubt often have been difficult. Thal some were clearly dealt with in this W~lY is reflected in the popular Middle I\:.ingdom (2055-1650 BC) narrative known as the Tide tlte Elf/quelll Peasant. Definitions of official roles probably existed for all important offices, thus allocating them placcs in the overall administrative hierarchy. The Egyptians do not appear to have differentiated between administrativc and legal functions, so that any person in authority might, in certain circumstances, make legal judgements. However, the title 'overseer of the six great mansions' seems to ha,-c been held by the ancient equivalent of a 'm'lgistrate' and the term (mansions' probably referred to the main
C~lses

or

hlw court in Thebes (although there must surely h~l\-C been other such courts). Tr is thought that a gold .\I.UT pcndant (nn\l' in the British .i\lllselllll) may ha,'c been the official 'badge' held by legal officials. Some slIrvi,-ing sratues of high officials from the Late Period are shown wearing such a chain and pendant. The cases that they examined would be reported 10 the pharaoh, who may have been responsible for deciding the punishment in the most serious Cases. Verdicts and punishments were probably based loosely on precedent wilh v;;triations being introduced where appropriate. Since the records of C.lSCS were archived at the rem pie or ,-izierate offices, references to past cases were nO doubt usually possible_ It was thanks to this practice of ,1Utomatic~t1ly ;;trchi,-ing such documents that the famous trial of tomb-robbers, recorded on Lhe Leopold II-Amherst Papyrus, was prc!)crvccl. nfortunately, this papyrus docs not record rhe sentences of the accused. I t seems, however, that Egyptian law issued similar punishments to aU those who had committed similar offences, irrespective of variations in wealth or status (except in the case of SI.AVES). Judgements and decisions were evidently recorded by official scribes. Tn cases ,,-here indi\-idll'lls were sentenced to exile, their children were automatically outlawed along with them. Simihtrly, families could suffer imprisonment if a relative deserted from milimry service, or defaulted on the cor\'(~e labour demanded by the state. Papyrus Brooklyn 35.1446, dating to the 13lh Dynasty (c.1795-1650 BC), records the punishment duties imposed on labour defaulters. IVlinor cases were tried by councils of elders, each town having its own local J.>enbct in charge of the judiciary. For eX<llllple, a number of cases survive from the New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC), in the form of thc records of the workmen at I)EIR EL-.\IEIJI'-:I\, mostly dealing with small matters such as non-repayment of loans. Individuals frequently kept their own noles of such cases on OSTRAQ\, presumably so that if repayments were not made in the agreed lime they could remind those preselll at the judgement and receive redress. Cases were sometimes judged by divine ORi\C..LES rather I han by human magistr~tcs. It is known from DeiI' el-Nledina, for instance, that the deified founder of the village, Amenhotep I (1525-1504 BC), was oftcn asked to decide on particular cases. It is unclear how this divine judgement W~IS actually given, but it seems that ostraca for and against the aCCllsation would be put at each side of the street and the god's image would incline LOward whichever verdi,t was deemed appropriate.

159

LEONTOI'OLIS

LETTERS TO THE DEAD

J\ national variant on ,-his was the gi\ ing of the law through the oracle of Amlin, which was pra<.:tiscd during the 21 st Dynasty (I 069-9~5 Be). Tn the Ptolemaic period (332-30 Be), Eg.' ptian 1:1\\ existed alon~rsidc that of the Greeks, although only certain cases could be tried under it. Greeks \\cre fan>Urcd by the
law, and cases against them were generally h(.;ard in the Slate cuurts. The Rumans introduced a system of law thaL \Y<lS common throughout the empire, with unly sllmmar~

Keeper of the Egyptian collections in the llcrlin l\ll1sClll1l, and thc following year he returned to Egypt with an expcdition to record the monuments of the eastern Delta and Suez region, in the course of which he discO\'crcd thc C1I10pUS Decree at T\'\'IS, a bilingual doculllenl that providcd a uscful linguistic comparison \\ iLh the ROSErL\ STU'!:. His career conrinued with l1UI'I1CroUS furLher publications as well <1S the editing of rhe principal German EgypLological journal
(Zeilst/lrJ/i jlir t;gYPlisdlt Sprat/Ie /lilt! _lIler/lIll/sl.:wu/t'), and in 1869 hc \'isired Egypt

modifictlions.

WII50" 'Authority and ht" in anciC:1l1 Egypt',

JUI/rna/ of/he .lmeri{(/1/ On'mlal SQrieJy

Sljljll"III""117(195~), 1-7.

S. P. VLEDILV"i, 'The days on ,,"hich the f(lIb, used to gather'. GleaullIgs.!ioJII Deird-.I1edi!lll. eel. R. J. Demaree and j. J. Janseen (Lciden, 1982), 18.1-92. J. S \RR_\F, La 1;o/I/Jf/ till tfmi/ tf'lfprcs It's tllIr;em lx)'plims(\'atiC3n City, 19S~). I. 11.\1{ \RI, 'Les decrcts royaux: source e1u droit" IX 8 (1987),93-101. J. TYLDEsl.n, The jutfgclIlI.'1/1 oIII1l' ph(/raoh: (rill/t' (//1(1 plllfi:dl1111'111 ill (/JI(il'lll Egypl (London 20(0).

for the last time in order to witness the inauguration of the Suez C._anal. Hc died in Berlin in lR8~, h.wing Illaclc one of the greateST individual conrributions in the history of Egyptology. 1(. R. LEI'SILS, Dellkmtlt'll!r tltIS. -/fgypleJ1Um/ .lethifJpie", 11 vols (Leipzig, 184-9-59). - , DiscOi:t'ri('J in EgYPI (London, 1852). - , f{/j",I1:~slJ1fdl dn tllleJ1.--{t'!I)'Plu, 2 pts (Leipzig, 18.18).

numerous latc Ramesside pri\.uc letters, and Lhe foyal diplomatic correspondcncc fjom c1Amarna (sec 1\,\I'\R'J \ I.CJTI:RS), which \\,:lS written in cunciform on clay tablets. A large numbcr or actual items of correspondem.:e \Hitten on papyri hare survircd, such as the t\\O lettcrs written by an oil-boiler at c1Amarna. One of the most importanl texts used in scribal [caching during this period was lhc satirical Ll'lIer I~r flo!"; in which one orficial writcs lO .1 colleague, ridiculing his abilities .1Ild setting tcsts of his nureaucnltic knowledge. This document would h'l\'c cduc'ltcd scribes in the protocol of letter-writing. G. ,\1 \SI'ERO, 0/1 gl'l1n' (;piSlolllin' rhe::.le.~ t:~J'Plil'1J.~ tfl' 1i.~p(Jqllc phartlolliqllc (Paris. 1872). G. H. }\\1I'.s, Thc I/Ckffl/(/Nllc j)(fpas tilld ollter t'ffr()' Alit/dll' KingdoJII d/J(lfll/clIls (Nc,,' York, 1962). E. \\'t:.'\TE. LL'lIt!rS/rolllllllrielll E:~J'pt ( th1l1[a, 1990).

or

- , DtIS bi/il/glll' Dc/.:rel1-'oll A'-tll/f/p1lS ill tier On:l.fil1algro:mlIIilli'lJ/.'rJCI:::,ulIg beida Tc.rlt,

(Leipzig, 1886).

j..I \~SSI':', I.ale RlIlI/f.'.uidl' 1('lIcn lIml COIllI1lI1Il;alliollJ (ltilTlilir papyri illlltt' Brilislt !\'IIIS('IIIIf) (Londun. 1991). R. B. P'\RI..:I'SO~, f oin:sji-olll (luo"elll L:~}lpl
(London, 1991),89-95, H2-5.

G.

EBERS, Riduml

[,('psius, Eng. trans. (New

Leontopolis see TELL

'.I.-\ILQD.\.\1

York, 1887).

letters to the dead

The Egyptians bc1ie\"Cd th,lt thc worlds of the liring .md the dcad Q\crlapped (sec FL;\.ER-\R\ IlEI.1EFS), so Ihat it was possible for the c1ead to C01ll.inue to take an interest in the aflairs or their Elmilics and acquilintances, and perhaps c,cn lO wreak ,engcancc on the Ih-ing. The rclatiyes of the deceased thercfore often sought to communicate wiLh thcm by \\TiLing letters, invariably requcst.ing help or asking fiJI' forgi\'eness. Fewer than twenty of these leltcr)o,

Lepsius, Karl Richard (18 I (}-8~) German Egyptologist \yho led the Prussian cxpedition 10 Egypt in 1842-5. He was born in Naumburg-<lm-Saalc and educated at the uniycrsities of Leipzig, Gottingcn and Bcrlin, completing ,I doctorate in 1833. It \'as aftcr the completion of this disscrtation that he began to study Egyptology in Paris, using jcan-Franc;ois (J 1'\i\11'OLLlOi' 's ncwl~ publishcd grammar to learn thc ancient Egyp! ian language. Like Champollion, he spent sC\'cral years \-isiting European collcctions of Egyptian .tntiquities befiJre making his first \isit to Egypt in 18~2. He took with him a tcam of Prussian scholars, including a skillcd draughtsman, and his main aim was to rccurd the major munuments and collect 'lIltiquitics, in the samc Wil)' as the earlier Napoleonic expedition (sec E(~"YI'UI.()GY). He also worked in Suchm and Palestine, sending some firtecn thousand antiquities and plaster casts back to Prussia in the course of his tnI\cls. In 18~9-59 he published the results of d,C expedition in the form of an immensc rwelvevolume work, DI!/lkll/aclcr ({lIS /Iegyfl/en [{wi .I1elhiupicn, which, like the Napoleonic Descriplioll de I'E'gyple, still prO\idcs useful information for modern archacologists (many of the sitcs and monuments having severely detcriorated since the mid nineLecnth century). tn 1865, Lepsius W,IS appoinlcd as
160

letters
Therc arc two ways in which Egyptian ICltcrs havc been preserved in the archacological record: sometimes the originals theIllschTs havc sUiTived (in the form of papyri, ostraca and wooden boards), but in many other cases such commemoratiye documents as stelac, inscriptions or tcmple archi,-cs incurponlte transcriptions or letters, whether real or imagined. The earliest known lettcrs belong to the hltter category, being hieroglyphic copies of letters sent by King Djedkar<t-lsesi (H 1+-2.175 IlC) to the officials Scnedjemib and Shepsesra .It .\HLSIR. Only a fe\\ other letters h.we sun'i\'cd from the Old Kingdom (2686-2 I 81 BC), such as Ilark.huf's record or a letter sent to him by thc )oung I'EI'\ II (2278-218~ ilL). Most or those rrom thc !\liddlc Kingdom (2055-1650 He) are madc up of an archiye of eighty-six letters from Kahun (see 1:1.-1..\1 tL ,) .mel a set of cle,'cn items of corrcspondence betwecn Ilekanal..htc and his family, ,tlthough all impOrlanL specializcd form of letter from this period has survived in the form or the so-callcd 'SE\\'\JI\ dispatches' (12th-Dynasty military cOl1lmuniciltions hetween'fhehes and the Nubian FORTIU:SSES). j\ lany items of prhate and royal correspondence fi'OJn thc lew Kingdom harc sun-i,-ed, including the simple hieratic notes on oslraca sent by rhc workmen at DEI\{ EL-.\I EIJI'.-\ ,

,-I lelia 10 Ihl' dmd mrillL'1I /If/lhe illltrior

(RIGI rr)

alld eXlcrior (I.En) oflhe ;Ca;m Boml'. (I rou7h fed POllclY vessel mhich would pm;'(/h~)1 have hl'(,/! ji/h'd IJli/hjootfojJi'rillgs t/Ild plt/ced i11 ({ IOIllb. The Il'//l'r isj;o11llf f1)Q11ItIIl cal/ed Dedi 10 Iter delfd IliIsl)(md, iufor11ling himlhal/heir serl"tlul-girl is ill tlllt! appett/iug 10 hi11ljor help ill martling'drlht' il/m'ss. Ear(), /21h D.Jf1/a.l'O', c.1900 HC, o. -100".
(ou III \ In R. Ill/ad \So.v)

LIBRARIES

LIBYANS

have SUryi\Td, but it h~lS been paimed Out that their cxtcnsiyc geographical distribution probably indicates a widespread sense of the need to communicate with the <.lead because of the magical powers lhat they "-ere thought to h;wc acquired in the afterlife. The (cllers date from the Old Kingdom to rhe l'\cw Kingdom (2686-1069 BC), but they appear to have been replaeeo in the Late Perioo (7-17-.1:>2 m:) by leuers addressed directly to deities. Some letters to the dead wcre simply written on papyrus but a number of shrewder individuals adopted the plo~ of inst:ribing the texts 011 the bowls in ,,-hich food was offered to the deceased in the tomb-ehapcl. One of the bcs(known such letters was scm from .1 Ramcssidc military officer to his dead wifc} whom he addressed as 'the excellent spirit, l\nkhiry', asking her why she had ;lbandoncd him and thrcatcning to comphtin to Lhe gods ahout the unhappiness that her untimely death had caused.
/0

A. II. G:\R])I~E]{ 31lU K. SETIIE, I:.gy/lliall fe/h'rs the dcad (London ItJ2S).

\V. K. SIJ\\I'SUX, 'The lettcr!u fhe dead from lhe [()mb of .Menl (N3737) ill Nag' ed-Deir',}EA 52 (1966),39-52. -, "A late Old Kingdom lei ter ro the dead from Nag' ed-Deir ,3500',JEA 56 (1970), .18-64~ L Gl'IUIOT, 'Lettrc a une cpo use defuncte (Pap. Leiden I, 371)', Z,L~99 (1973), 9-1-103. R. PARK.I2\'SO~, 1oifesJi'01l1 (II/rim/ Egypt (Lonoon, 1991), 142-5.

libraries
The gcncral queslion of the nature of ancient Egyptian librarics is orcrshadowcd by thc loss of the Great Library at AI.E\:\l\"DRI/\, which was burned LO the ground in the Iarc rhird ccntury 1\D. The.: Alexandria library had prab;\bl)' bce.:n established by IJTOI.EI\lr I Soter (305-285 Be), who also founded the ~luseum ('shrine of the Muses'), initially cre~lling both institutions as an.nexes to his palace. L;tter in the Ptolemaic period, another large librnry was created, probably within the Alexandria SER \1'[\,;\1, but this too was destroyed in \1) 391. Although the papyri thcmseh'es ha,'c not survived, the legacy of the Alexandria libraries can be measured also in terms of the scholarship underlakcn by such writers as l\pollonius of Rhodes and Aristophanes of Byzantium, who both served ns directors of the Great Library. As far as the libraries of the Plur.lOnic period arc concerned, there is certainly evidence that the Alexandrian institutions stood at" the end of a long tradition of EgYPlian archivism. The I lOUSE OF LIFE (per lIukh), where Egyptian SCRIBES generally worked ;md learned their trade, has been identified at stich citic.o;; as

\lE:\\PIIiS and EI.-\\I.\1C\.\, but temple libraries and official archives ha,"e generally proved more difficult to locate. The term pu 11/l'lIj(l1 ('house of papyrus rolls') is used to describe the repositories of papyri associated with go"ernmCnt buildings and tcmple complexes. A numbcr of temples, such as those at ES'\ \ and PlllLAE, h.we lists of texts wriuen on ccrtain walls, hut the only. definitely identifie.:d temple library is il niche-l.ikc room in lhe southern wall of the.: otHer hypostylc hall of lhe Greco-Roman temple of Horus at EIJFL (c.80 BC). An inscription Q"cr the entrance to this room describes it as the 'library of Horus" although it is pussiblc that it simpl~ cont~\incd thc fcw rolls necessary It)!' the daily rituals. The localion (or indeed the ,"ery existcnce) of a library in the R \ \IESSEL,;\I (c.1250 Be) at Thcbes has pro"ed a more comentiolls question, with most modern Egyptologists I~\iling to identify any rOOI11 that equates "ith thc 'sacred library' mcntioned by the Greek hislOrian Diodorus (c.300 IIC), although archives of lhe late New Kingdom administrarion were found in the immecliate vicinity of the murtuary temple of Ramcscs III at ~lEDL\'ET liMn.. (r.1170 BC). The existence of I"Oval libraries is indic<lted by the survi\'~tl of thrce faience 'bookplates' bearing the names of A:\II'::'\IIO"l'I]' III, two of which ,Ire also inscribed with the names of the literary works written on thc papyrus rolls to ,,-hich they were anachcd. A small temple library of the Roman period, exca,"ared from a room in the Fayum city of 'Tcbturlls, contained a number of literar~ ~1I1d medic~ll works along with the purely religious texts that had no doubt dominated mosl earlier temple libraries in the Pharaonic period. l\ list of the texts llse.:d by Egyptian priests was compiled by Clement, bishop of Alexandria in the late second ccnlury 1\IL In 1896 James Quibell excavated shaft-tomb no. 5 under the R.lI11csseuITI, discovering a wooden chest containing a set of papyri belonging to a lector-priest of the I Jth Dynast' (c.1795-1650 lie). This collection of lexts - the mosl valuable single find of.\ liddlc f'.:.-ingdom papyri - is ofren referred to as ;l 'library', but in Ihis context the tcrm refers more loosely to an assemblage of documcnts rather than an .\clual institution or building. Nevertheless, the texts prO\'ide a good idea of lhe wide ,ariety of texts which might have been included in a 1\1 iddle Kingdom library, including literary narratives, military dispatches from SEj\INA fortress (see J.ETnJ{s)) an O\:O.\IASTIC.O'\', medical remedies, magical spells, a hymn to Sobek and fragments or a dr:.\matic or ritualistic composition. The word 'library' is also used to describe the large col-

Icetion of papyri owned by a succession of scribes at DElI{ 1-:l.-\lEI)I\:\, including lhe ChC;.'Ster Be,Illy papyri. J E. QLlBEI.I., 'till" RlIlIleSSClI11I (London, 18(8). 1-1. R. I hu., 'An Egyptian bookplate: the ex-libris of Am enol' his III and"Ieie',JJ:"/12 (1926), 30-.1. \ .. WESSETZ" \, 'Dic agyplischc 'lcmpelbibliothek', L.,iS 100 (1973),54-9. - , 'Die Bi.icher1iste des Tempels "on Edfll lind Imhotcp', G,H R.1 (1984), 85-90. G. nUKK..\Kl), 'Bibliotheken in alLen Agypren', Biblili/hd:: ForsdulIIg lI1fd Pm.rJ~~ -J. (1980), 78-115. J D. BOuKKI \L, I'I1lIr(w!tJ tl1fd "'Orltll.~ (C1mbridge, 1988),79-80, 110. L. C\'\,FOR \J '11,,: i:tlllislll'tllibrury, lrans. 1\ L Ryle (Lonoon, 1989), 147-60.

Libyans (Tjehenu, Tjemehu, ~lesbllesb, Libu) In the Ohl and J\liddle Kingdoms, the \"'estern Descrt, beyond Egypt's frontiers, was home to the Tjchcnll, usually t.ranslated as 'Lib~;\l1s'. Thcy were regularly depicl'ed by the Egyptians as bearded and light-skinned) but they wcre also occasionally sho\\'n as fairhaired and bluc-eyed. They seem to have been semi-nomadic pastoral.ists, and they m~lke occ~\sional appearances in Egyprian art from early times, although they ;\re often difficulr to distinguish satisfactorily from the inhabitants of the wcstern Delta of Egypt irself. h is thought likely, however, thaI thc defeated enemy depicred on the late Predynastic Ilattlefield Palene (.3100 BC) were Lihyans. King !)JEIl (cJOOO BC) of tbe 1st Dynasty is said to have sent an expedition against the Libyans, and other campaigns arc recorded unoer S~E""':RU (261.1-2589 BC) or the 4th Dynasty and Sahli,." (2487-2475 BC) orthe 5th Dy-nasly. S;lhura's mortuary temple contained relief... showing Lhe dispatching of;\ Libyan chicf by lhe king, a scene repe;\ted in the mortuary temple or Pep) II (2278-2184 IIC:) of the 6th Dynasty, and still currcnt in hncr times. Until tbe Nell Kingoom (1550-1069 lie), action a~inst the Libyans was gcncr;\lIy little more than plInith'e raiding. By the time of Scty 1 (129-1-1279 BC), a people knO\nl as the i\ileshwcsh and T.ibu had settled in the territory prc\"iollsly occupied by the Tjchellu and were attempting to settle in rhe Delta. They were held at hay by Set)' and his son R"meses II (1279-1213 IIC)) but it was left to 1\ II:IH:/\,!'TA I I (1213-1203 lie) to repulse them. I-Ie f"ceo a force comprising not on.l)" l\Ileshwesh and Libu but ;llso Ekwcsh, Shckelcsh, Tcresh, Sherden and "arious Aege;tn groups. This confederation became known as the SE.' PEOPLES. They attacked Egypt in rvIerenptah)s

l6l

LIBYA'S

LIO

anarchy, and the motif of I"he smiting of a Libyan ehier reappeared in the temple or 'Elharqo (690-6M Be) at ',III"A, 0. J3-rn:.<;, TIll! easlau Lik)'II1IJ (London, 1914). G. \VAIX\rRIGlIT, 'The ~1cshwesh"J.EA48 (1962),89-99, N. K. SANDi\RS, T'lle Sell Peoples: IVfI,.,.iflJ'S oIl/it: easlern Medilerranean (London, 1978), 11+.--19. A. SP-\UXliER, 'Some notes on the' Libyans of the Old Kingdom and later hisroriClI reflexes', .7SSEA 9 (1979),125-60. J\'l. A. LEt\11Y, 'The Libyan period in Egypt: an essay in imcrpretation\ LibYlllI Sludies 16 (198.1), 51-65. -, LibYlIlIllIl Eg)lpl, ".1300-750 He (London, 1990),

lion
By the Pharaonic period the number of lions
Stele showing" Ljlm chielt~ni:rillg lite hierog6'plt
for
COlll1lr'y.~ide
{i

10 lhe 1:':IfYPliall deities SekltmcJ

IIlld He!..lI,

t/fl11f11ioll rill/cd ill lite hieratic lexl

be/om to ycar 7 (~lShesJ/{mq I' tllld speq/icd (II len tlrouras (a/8JUI seven at"I"Cs). 221/{/ DY1llHJy.

c.760 IlC,limcstol1t:,

/I.

30.,) (111. (E._J73965)

fifth regnal year, and although the initial response was slow the king eventually drove them hack, supposedly killing six thousand and taking nine thousand prisoners. But the victory was not fin.11 and they returned under Ramoses III (118+-1153 Be), onl" to be dereatcd in a bloody naval barrie. Ironically, many of the prisoners taken in such actions were forcibly settled in Egypt and gradually became a powerful group, .It first serving the generals rulingl'hebes in the 21st Dynasty (1069-945 Be), who were probably Ihemselves of Libyan ancestry. Ultimately the Libyans came 10 power in their own right, as the 22nd and 2Jrd Dynasties (945-715 lie), ruling from nuhastis (TELl. IHSTA) and T.\t'\IS respectively (see OSORKO" and SIII:SIIO'Jq). This so-called 'Lihyan period' was heset by rivalries between different claimants to the throne, and some scholars argue thal the existence of contemporaneous lines of rulers was characteristic of Liby.m society. The aggressive and anarchic spirit of these times is perhaps renected in the demotic Cycle nf Petlu!Jaslis (see J.lTER:\TURE). Despite this politic:!1 unccrtainl"y, particularly during the 2Jrd Dynasty, certain crafts such as bronze work nourished, although there seems to have been little monumental construction taking place. The reunification of Egypt under the Kushite 25th Dynasty and Saite 26th Dynasty put an end to the period of Libyan

in Egypt had declined compared with prehistoric times, when their symbolic and religious associations first became esmblishcd. Jr is possible that the connection between the king and the lion stemmed from the hunting of these animals by the tribal chiefs of the Predynastic period. A Greek papyrus mentions lion burials at S.lqqilra in the SACRED ANI"'!\!. necropolis, but these have not yet been laconed. Since lions characteristically lived on the desert margins, they came to be considered as the guardians of Ihe eastern and western horizons, the places of sunrise and sunset. In this connection they sometimes replaced the eastern and western mountains, symbolic of past and fmure, on either side of the IIDRIZON hierogl.vph (akhe/). Headrests sometimes took the form of this lIkhef hieroglyph, supported by two lions; on an example from

Tumnkhamun's tomb they flank SHU, god of the air, who suppons the head of the king, representing the sun. Since the sun itself eould be represented as a lion, Chapter 62 or the BOOK OF TilE DEAD st<Ucs: 1~1i1Y I be granted power over the wmers like rhe limbs of Seth, for I am he who crosses the sky, 1 ~lm the Lion or Ra, I am the Shll'et who eats the roreleg, the leg or beer is extended to me, The lion-god i\h.ER guarded thc gateway to the underworld through which the sun came and wCnt each day. Since the sun was horn each morning and died each evening on the horizons, so the lion was also connected with death and rebirth and was thus portrayed on funerary couches or biers, as well as embalming tables. The beds ilnd chairs of the living wcre sometimes also decorated with lions' paws or heads, perhaps in order that the occupant roo wou ld rise renewed after sleep or rest. The g:!rgoyle rainspollts of lemplcs were often made in the form oflions' heads because it W~lS im'lgined that the lion stood on the temple roof absorbing the evil rainstorms of SETII and then spirting them out down the sides of the building. The Delta sire or Leontopolis (TELL ELj\lUQPM.I) in the Delta was sacred to Ihe lion god IVlihos (Greek Mysis), ;jnd Shu and TEF1'.UT were also venerated in leonine form at S,alUl' oIa Ij(m, pmbab~), smlpletl inlhe reign of Amen/lOlep III bUI bearing a dedicalory lexl of TlIlallkhal1llln und a11 il/scriplion ~tl"e A1lcroilh rn/cr AJJlunis!o. 181h D.)IIIU.l'~JI. c./3S0 He, gralli/i'. /rom Gebel Barka!. original(),ji'om Soleb, II, J, J7 111, (fel2)

162

LISHT, EL-

LITERATURE

the site, since they wcre sometimes regarded as lion cubs created by ATUr-.1. .Most leonine deities wcre female; the most important of these was SEJ,J l\tI::T, whose cult was eventually merged with those of 1l.'STET and .\I<;T. She was regarded as one of the "EYES OF RA " and in one myth she was almost responsible for the annihilation of mankind. Sec also SPIIINX. U. SCI IWEITZER, U/J1)l' 1I1/t! sphillx illl (fltcn AgJlPlell (Gliiekstadt, 19{5). C. DE. \Vrr, Le role clle SCI/S tlllliOI/ dims 1'1:.gypIC lll1c'ie1l111:(Leiden,1951). U. R6SSI.EK-I-.:..()III.EK, 'Lowc-Kopfc; Lowc-St;HlIcn" LexiI'oll tier Agyplologie Ill, cd. W. I-leick, E. Otto and W. Westendorf" (Wie,baden, 1980), 1080-90. R. H. \VII.KIi\SON. Reudiug Egypliall art (London. 1992),68-9.

courtiers, including that of Scnusrct-ankh, chief priest of 1"Ii\ll, located :lbout 200 m LO the east of the outer enclosure ",,111 of Senusret J. Senusret-ankh's burial chamber contains cxtncts from the PYJl,\..\lID TEXTS executed in sunk hieroglyphs. \\1. K. 51\II'SO:\', 'The residence of Ir-rowy" lARCE 2 (1963), 53-M. D. ARNOI.I), 7'l1t: S01l11l (ClIIl'leries ().rLl~\It/ I: TlU' pyramid 1~I'Sel1/11o,\"'1!/ / (New York, 1985). - , Till' ,Wllflt ame/uies oILislt/ II: Tlll'tontrol liMes {lmllellm 111l1rh' (l'\ew York, 1990), - , TIlt: .wlI/1l {('me/aiL's ofLiS/II Ill: Tllc pyrllmid {/Implex ofSellfflOsre/ / (New York I 1992).

literature
The term 'Egyptian literature' is oftcn employed to refer LO the enrire sUrYiving corpus oftcxLs fi'om the Pharaonic period (usually excluding such pfi1ctical documents as LETTERS or administrati\'e texts), rather than being used in its much more restricted sense LO describe overtly 'literary' ompul. However, the individual documenrs cm, like othcr ancient texts, be v:lriously grouped ilnd categorized on the basis of such diverse critcria as physical media (e.g. OSTRACA, I'\I'YRI or STEI ..\E), script (1IiEROGL\ 'IIIC.ll, IIIERxnc. lJl-:),IO"'Ie, Greek or COPTIC) and the precise date in the hisLOry of the language. Although many texts have been ,Issigned to particular genTes (such as WISUO\I J.ITElV\TUHI': or love pocms), they are usually best understood in terms of the specific historical and social context in which rhey were wrirren. Inscriptions listing the coments of temple arcru\'cs and I.IBRARIE.";, as well as a few surviving caches of papyri and ostraca owned by individuals or institutions, proyide a good sense of the range of texts that" were deliberately collected and preserved during the Pharaonic period, including technical manuals such as medic-dl .1I1d mathematical documents. \Vithin particular periods of Egyptian history, there were many different genres of texts. The Old Kingdom literary record was dominated by religious I'Li"ER!\I{Y TEXTS, parLicularly the PYI{A \IID TEXTS, used in roY'11 tombs, and the 'funerary autobiography', used in pri\-atc tombs to provide a poetic description of the \'irtues of the dece'lsed. There is also some evidence of the composition of such technical texts as medical treatises, although no actw11 documents have sun-i"ed. Although a form of verse was used for many 'non~practical' writings, there W.IS no literature in ,-he narrowest sense of the term. As far as IIISTORY :\"0 IIISTORIOGR.\PII\ is concerned, a few fragments or annals have sun;ived (see It.:11\'G LISTS).

Lisht. elNecropolis including the pyramid complexes of the two earliest" ] 2th-DynaslY rulers, .\1\11':'1;:l\'UIAT J and SENL.SRET J ('.1985-1920 Be), located on the west bank or rhe Nile, about 50 km south of Cairo. The est:lblishmcm of a royal necropolis ar el-Lisht was a direcr result of the found.ing of <1 new royal residence, ltjtawy, which appears to hare temporarily replaced .\IE,\IPIlIS as lhe scat of government. ltjtawy is often mentioned in texts of the period and probably lay a short distance to the cast of cl-Lisht. The actu.,1 town-site has not yet been located, because, like many Egypti'lI1 settlements, it has probably been covered by cultivated land. The pyramid of Amenemhat I,.H the northern end of the site, was origin:llly about 58 111 high; its core included limestone blocks taken from Old Kingdom buildings at S!\(~l!\RA, lts mortuary Lemple was loc'lted on its east side. A stone causeway leads down from the mortuary temple towards the \alley temple exc~l\atc<.l by the Antiquities Inspectorate. The complex of Senusret I is similar in basic plan to that of his {':lther, comprising a limestone pyramid, originally 61 m high, surrounded by nine small subsidiary pyramids. Just to the north of the mortuary temple, tcn se,ncd life-size statues of the king were found (now in thc Egyptian Nluseum, Cairo). Thc pyramids :lre surroundcd by I he remains of numerous i\ll\~'l'.\BA rombs of

Slaluctlc o/a god or king (p{Jssib~)I SCllusrel I) /rom 'he lomb oflm/wlep in Ihe sOlllh pyramid

cemelery (II e/-Lisht. /2111

gessoal tlud pain/l'd mood,

DYII{1s~}I.
fl.

c./950 ne, N ..1.17)

58011.

(METROI'OI.n"v Ml'SELII. SEW) OHA.

163

LITERATURE

LIVESTOCK

The Middle Kingdom \Y;lS particularly characterized by the introduction of slIch fictional literature as rhe 7hle of fltt' S/tipIPral.!t1t! Sailor, the Tale (~r Ihe E/flqJfl'11J PellSalll, the Tides oj" l1imdn (PapHLls \\'cslear) and the Tide ufSiullltC, all of which purport to be historicli aCColints, ahhough m;.tny of the details of their plots indic;l1c that they were fantasies designed to cnrcrmin anti edify ntthcr than to record .lCwal c\-cnrs. ~ lany of these fictional narratiycs

lVollf/m board, prt'/wn:d wilh gt'SSIJ {II pJ"(Jl'itle 1I good /pri/jllg SIII:!{/tC. {, milS probab(y suspended/i'ol!l II pe!!, f,y passing (f (ort! Ihmllgh Ihe hole IJ// Ihl' righl. The lexl is Ilu: o!lh'
rc(/.w/l{/f,~)1

slfrrh,,';llg 7.'cr,\/rm (~rlh(' Discourse of

Khakhcpc1'1':ISCllCb, (/ li/'rmy dis{fIJlr.H' (()/I({'ming sf/tial and pNsr}/fal (haos. !:'ar(l' 18th D.l'l1l1..ty, t:.15UO IIC, pail1ted mood, prrn'l'J/lIl1((, II1llmOmll, II. 30011. (I:' 156-15 I)
(somctimes described, rathcr mislcadingl~ and anachronistically, as 'propaganda') prm'lde a good counterpoint to oflicial texts, in that the~ prcsent a much more :lmbi"alent "icw of ancicnt Eg~ pi, showing the subtle shades of distinction hetwecn good and e,il. Tn the religious sphere. the COFFI' TE~TS, based on the Pyramid T(;.,\(s, began to be used in priyate tombs. i\1:muscripts hare surviyed more plentifully from the 12th and 13th Dynasties, induding a much \\ ider range of types of te'\t. from, Ir\I:'\S .\'1J 1.I'li\:'\IES TO O~O'I,\STIC.\. III the l\ew Kingdom (1550-1069 BC) mam of the existing ~enres were augmcnted and cxpanded, including such Glteguries as annals, offering lists, prayers, hymns, journals) 'funerary biographies', funerary texts (e.g. the B(){)"'OFTlIE DE\D), mathematical and diagrammatic texts, king lists, onomastica, decrees and treaties. It is noticeahk thal literary texts began to be composed in Late Egyptian. whereas official inscriptions conl"inued to he written in Middle Egyptian (sec !."'''GUAGE). The style of New Kin~dom narratives, such as the Thle of the Predestined Prince and the Title (~r the Captllrc nfJoppa, is generally considered to be more light-hearted and episodic. f\ ncw fc)rm of text is the so-c:.llled \miscclJany\ consisring of collections of prayers, hymns or didactic

text's, similar to the modern amhology. In addition, n1.my more 'personal' types of documenr began to be composed, including loye poems, wriTTen in hieratic fi'om the Ramesside period onwards and usually consisting of dramatic monologues spoken by one or both of the 100'ers. There arc also numerous suryi,'ing records of economic transactions from the ::\cw K.ingdom (e.g. deeds of sale, tax documents, census lists, see "1"-\'\ \"1"10_'\ and TR_\DE). as well as man~ ICg;.11 records (e.g. trials and wills, see I. \\\), magical spells and medici.tl remedies (sec \\ \Gle), 'd'1y-books' (dail~ scrib:11 accounts of royal acti,'iries) ,md u:rrERS. Although the demotic script, introduced in the Late Period, was initially lIsed only fl.)r commercial and administratiye texts, it began to be used for literary texts from at least Lhe earl,' Ptolemaic period onwclrds. The rJnge of demotic literary genres was jusr as wide JS in hieroglyphs and hieratic, altl)()Ugh no love poetry has yel been attested. The t"o outstanding examples of demotic narr.nive fiction arc the '1i11f'S (~r Se/llel KI/(/elllnJaset and the Cycle (~rJIf(/ros/ Pedulwsfis, each consisting of;j set of slOries dealing with the exploilS of a heroic indi,idual. 11 has been suggested that some oflhe themes and motifs in these demotic tales were borrowed from, or at least influenced by, Greek works such as the Homeric epics or Ilcllenislic noyc1s and poetry. Throughout the Pharaonic period it is often difficult 10 distinguish hel"ween fictional narn.1ri\"es and accounts uf actual e"ents, and part of this problem stems from a gt'neral inabilil"~ to recognize the aims and collfexls of particular texts. '1\"0 hue Nc\\ ~ingdom documents, the Ncporl of IIt:1I1l1lf1l1l and the LiJcrtllJ' [,cller oI "ltu', excmplif~ this problem, in tllat we cannot be sure whether they arc official accounts of actual individuals or simply stories with comparatively accur.1te historical backgrounds, 1\lany such documents arc perhaps besl regarded as semi-fictional \\orks and their original function and intended audience may nevcr he properly c1arificd. The related question of the extent of Iileraey is also contro,'crsial. lViany scholars have argued that thc percentage oflitcratc members of Egyptian society may h.we been as low as 0.+ per cent of the population, although others have suggested, on lhc basis of the copious written records from IJEm EL-MEI>I2'JA (admittedly an atypical community), that the ability to read and write was considerably more widespread. It is noticeable, howevcr, tl1at virtually all of rhe surviving 'Literary' texts were primarily aimed at (~lI1d wrinen by) a small elite group. Sec also EDUCATION; 1I0u~E OF LIFE;
L1~TI'EIlS TO

J. 11. BIU:ASTI':D,_JllrlCllt rcam!.l" l!rE:~)'pl, -t ,'ols

(Chicago. 190(,). G. POSI.'I:I{, U,,';ralflre et pulitiljlle dullS fE,gypt' de la \lte t()'l/(wit' (Paris, 19j6).

.J. Ass\I.\:"~,

'Ocr lirernrischc Tnre im Alten

.\gYPlcn: \'erslich cincr Bcgriffbcstimmung'. au 69 (197-1).117-26.

- , 'Egypli,m Litcrarure', The Alldwr 8iMe DittiOJulIY. "01. 2, cd. n ::\. Freedman (Nt"\\ York, 19n). 378-90.
1\ L

1.10 ITIIU'I, .-III(iCIII Egyptiall literuturt', 3 ,ob

(l.ondon. 1975-80). J n 'I'\L~. 'Liter:lc~ and ancienr Egyptian SOCiCI~', ,\lUll n.s. IS (1983), jTl.-99. R. B. P \Rh:I'SO'. I iJiteslm11l aUfie1ll Eg)lpt: III/ IIntlllllo,'.!..)' of.lliddlt- F...:iugd/J11IIl'ritil1gs (London,

1991).

livestock see
IJLSB\~I)RY

\GR1Clxn':RE

and

\:'\'1\\ \1.

lotus
Botanical term used by Egyptologists to rcfer lO the w:ltcr lily (S'SIIt.'I/), which served as the emblem of Upper Egypt, in contrast to rhe Lower Egyptian Pl\1'YRU~ plant. The lorus ilml papyrus are exemplified by two types of granitc pillar in the 11all of Records at h:!\R,\l\". During the Pharaonic period there were essentially two kinds of 10lus: the white 1\~)'lIIpltllell lot liS, whose petJls are bluntly poinled and which has ,'cry large flowcrs, and the blue Nympllflert raulllac, which h,lS pointed petals .md a slightly smaller flO\ycr. In hllcr limcs, howcver, probably afrer j25 BC, a third typc, lVelulIIlJo lIf1q/era, was introduced from India. It is the blue lurus which is most commonly dcpicted in art, frequently held to {he noses of banqueters in tomb scenes, ahhough the fragrance may not be 'Try strong. The Greek historian Herodotus states lhJt p,lrtS of the plant were somctimes eaten, and recent researchers ha,'c suggcsted lh~1t the lotus had hallucinogenic properties, The lorus was symbolic of rebirth, since one of the CIlE \'1'10'\ myths describcs how lhe newborn sun rose out of a lotus noating on the waters of 'C~. The buds form under water ~md gradually break the surface before opening suddenly :l few days later, The centre of (he nowers is yellow, and the blooms generally last only a single day, ~1I1d cerrai.nly no more than four, bcfllrc closing and sinking beneath the water, fi-om which they do not rc-emerge. Chapter g 1 of the BOOK OF TIlE m:"\1) is COllcerned with the act of being transfllrmed into such a lotus: '] am the pure onc who issucd from Ihe fCll Oh Lotus belonging 10 the scmblanee of Nefcnem, .. ' The bluc lotus was also the emblcm of the god NEFERTL\I, 'lord of

TilE DEAD; SCRIBES.

J6.f

LOVE POEMS

L XOR

perfumes'. A painted wooden sculpture fi'om the tomb of Tutankhamull (l3J6-1327 Be)
appears to depict the head of the king in
dlC

obelisk seated colossi of Rameses If pylon of Rameses II colonnade of Amenhotep III hyposlyle hall first antechamber ('Roman sanctuary') second antechamber 'birth room' bark shrines of Amenhotep III and Alexander the Great '0 transverse hall , 1 sanctuary of Amenhotep III

.... "'l ::::5::::

: : peristyle court of : : Amenholep III

\
The head oj"7illfluHwlIIlIlIl'11u:rgillg olJi nIlI/uIIIS. from his /Q11Ib i1l tire I;'/'cy (~rlhe Killgs. /8111 DY1/(f.~/y. c.1330 11r:, paillted mood. II. ]0 till. (c /fRO, '\0.8. NI,PROIJL Ch'l) em RTI:'S\ OF TIIH
CRIFFl7'111.\5;/"lTlT/.-)

.4.

(l }23-1295 BC.), is nanked Iw a frieze depicting the celebration of the Fcstiyal of Opet, which is one of the fcw surviying examples of temple relief from the reign of TLT\,~I"\IL' (]}36--1327 Be). The perislTle court, the p~ Ion entrance and m'o OIlEI.IS"S were added b~ Rall1eses 11. Thc pylon con mined T\J..\T\T uux:"s deriving fi'om a now-destroyed templc to the \TE'. Only onc of the obelisks rcmains ill situ; the other, gi\cn to thc French in 1819, now stands in thc Place de 1a Concorde in Paris. The main sanctuary the tcmple, wh.ich had perhaps 1"lIen into disrepair b) the Late Period (747-.B2 Be), was reconstructed in the late fourth ccnlLlry Be b~' :\lcxandcr the Grcat, who claims to hayc restorcd it 1"0 its original st.lIe 'in the time of Amcnhotcp'. The temple was transformed into .1 shrine of the imperial cult in the Roman period and eventually partially overbuilt by the mosque or Abu Haggag. In 1989 a c;.H:hcttc of exquisitely can'ed stone statuary (similar to the "-.\K'\I\: cachenc) \"as cxcavatcd from beneath the noor of' the court of Amcnh()[ep Ill. The statues. dating mainly to the 18th Dynasty (1550-1295 Be), had perhaps been buried there by d,C pricsthood in order to protect them from the pillaging of in\adcrs.
1I0RE.'II IEII

or

C.

A. G\\ ET, L"/flllp/edt LOllxflr(Cairo, 189-1-). Kt.:E'TI.. Lajira' Jud dll Iflassift's/ dll p.J'lrl1led, Ralllses /I ti l.uuxor(Cliru, 1971).

form of :\Tefcrtcm emerging from a lotus (sec illusrrat ion). \V. B. I-bREI{, 'Phannacologic:11 and hiological properrics of the Eg~'ptian lo[us'.}.-l ReE 22 (1985),49-54. A. NIHlll, 'The so-called plant of Upper Egypt', DE 19 (It)91), 5.J--US. C. OSSI ", 'The most bcttluiful ofnowcrs: w,ller lilies and lotuses in ancient Egypt'. Kil/T 10 (1) (1999),4S-59.

L. BEI,I., 'Luxor remple and rhc culr orLhe royal //I'.]NfS H (1985), 251-94. .\ l. ABIJEL-R-\ZIQ, Dus Saui:liwr .Jlllelloph~ /11 im L/Ixor-Tclllpr/(Toho,1986). t\ t. EI.-S \(II11R, The discorcly (~(thl' sla/mllY eadli'lle oILuxur /1!I1lpft> (1\ lainz, 1991).

100m

love poems SIX EROTIC\ and SE\L \LlT'

Luxor
lVlodcrn name for a 'T'hcban religious site Lledicated to the cult of \ \IL~ K~lmlllef, consisting of the ipel-re.ry/ Ctcmple of the southern private quarters' or 'southern !Jariw'), which W,lS founded in the rcign of Ai\IENIlO'l'EP III (1390-1352 m:) ~lIld augmented by sllccessi\'c pharaohs, including R.\\IESES II (1279-12l3 Be) and AI.E'\:\~DER TilE GRE.\T (332-323 Be). The primary function of the original temple was as a setting for the FESTlrl\L orOpet, in which lhe cult statue of the god Anum was carried

Plan

f~(/IU'

1l'1Ifpl(' o./AlI1fflf-A"(fI/ll/lt.ia/

1..11,\'01:

annual1~ along: an avcnue of sphinxcs leading

from thc temple of Anum at "-..\R' \" to J.uxor. Onc of the purposes of the Opel fcsti\'al was to cnable thc human king to 'mcrgc' with his di\,inc rOY~ll "'\ in the presence of Amun, and thcn to rcappear with his royal and di\inc esscnec reju\'cnatcd. The inscriptions in the templc describc him as 'Foremost of all the living bs' when he emcrges from the inner s,11lctllar~~ The processional colonnadc at J.uxor, constructed by Amcnhotcp III ::Ind later usurped by

165

MAADI

MACE

M
Maadi
Late Prcdynaslic settlement-site of abollt 18
hectares, loc,Heei 5 km to the south of modern C~iro. 'fhe settlement, consisting of W:1ttlc'lIH.I-daub oval and crescent-shaped huts, as

well as tugc subterranean houses, nourished

from K'lqada I to II; recent c.xc:wations suggest that the eastern part was occupied earlier than

the western. At the northern edge of the settlement there were one-metre-high pottery
storage jars buried lip [Q their necks. There were also large numbers of storage pits containing carbonized gl"Jin, carnelian be.lds and

Tel c1-Eralli suggest that ~Ilaadi was functioning as an cntrepot in the late Predynastic period. The mcans by which rhe trade goods were transported has perhaps been confirmed by the discO\ery of bodies of donkeys at ,Vlaadi. 1\ I. A \IER, 'Annual report of the l\ laadi cxc;lyarions, 193.:;', Cdl:.' II (1936), 5+-7. i\'l. A.I-IoFFJ\I'\'\, EgYPI belore Ihe /,!/(/"aohs (New York, 1979), 200~1+. I. RtZK \'\ \ and J. SHIlEH., 'New light on the relation oL\laadi to the Upper Egyptian culrural sequellce', AID. 11K +0 (19S+), 237-52. J. C\RERA,.\1. FIU,\GII'\RE and A. P-\L\UERI, 'Prcdynastic Egypr: llew data fi()m t\badi" Aji-i((llf Ardwcolllgicl/l Iki.'icm 5 (1987),105-14. I. RIZK..\Rt\ and J. SI:EJ lEI{, iHtlat/i, 4 yols (jvbinz,

~md

other \'aillable items at the southern end of tbe sileo The bodies of foetuses and children were
sometimes buried within the senlcmcllt, bur there were als() three cemeteries nearby, that at W'adi Digb being the richest. There was less evidence of hunting and gathering <It J\badi thiln at earlier Lower Egyptian Predynastic sites. As well as agriculIliral remains, there was also extcnsiyc e\ idcnce of craft specialization, including the processing and trading of copper, the 'lI1alysis of which suggests lhat it probably derivcd fiom mines atTimna and the \\iadi Arabah, in sourhcastern Sinai. Over eighty per cent of the pottery is of a local ware (nor known from Upper Egyptian sites), but the presence of Gerzean pottery and stone .lncfacts also implics thm there was increasing contact with Upper Egypt. It should be noted that Ihe remains of cemeteries at el-San and I-Tarageh (in tVliddle Egypl) contain ilems rhat are characteristic of the "!\1aadian' culture, suggesting th~H lhere may also ha\'e been a cermin amount of cultural expansion southwards in the late Prcd~'lastic period. The exca\'<1rion of J\'laadi has revealed large quantities of imported poner} ii'om Palestine dating to the Early Bronze Age I phase (including thirty-one complete jars); these mainly consisted of a globular jar with a broad, flat hase, high shoulders and long cylindrical neck. The imported ceramics also included the socalled \Vare \' pottery, made with unusual manufacturing techniques and, according 10 petrographic analysis, from Palestinian clay. The combination or Palestinian products found at .\Ilaadi (including copper pins, chisels, fishhooks, basalt \-essels, tabuJar-like nint tools, bitumen and cornelian beads) and the presence of typical Nlaadian and Gerzean products at such Paleslinian sites as \Vadj Ghazzeh (Sitc II)

19Si-90). j. SI~EIIER, .\badi - cine priidynasriche Kulrurgruppc zwischen Obcragyplcn und Palesun.l', Pmelti.'ilorisehe ZeiIJdmfl65 (1990), 123-56.

Maat
Goddess pcrsoni(ving truth, justice and the essenlill harmony of the universc, who was usually portrayed as a seared wOl11an wearing an ostrich feather, although she could sometimes he represented simply by the fcarher itself or by the plinth on \\hich she sat (probably a symbol of the I'JU\IEr:\1. \10L,'\I)), which is also sOJ1lcl'1l1les shown beneath the thronc of OSiRIS in judgement scenes. On a cosmic scale, ~[aar also represented the divine order of the unjycrsc as originally brought into being at the moment of CRE.\TIO', It was Ihe power of i\l:tat that was belieyed to regulate the seasons, the movement of the stars and the relations between men and gods. The concept was

therefore central both to the Egypti:ms' idc<ls abollr the universe and to their codc of ETJ fJ(:S. Although the figure of 1\1aat is widely rcprescnted in the lcmples of othcr deities, only a few temples dedicated to the goddess herself have sun'ived, including a slllali structure in the precinci of i\lontu at h:"-R'\.'\k. Her cult is arrestcd from the Old Kingdom (26S(}-2ISI Be) onwards and by the 18th Dynasty (1:;501295 Be) she was being described as the 'daughter of Ra', which was no doubt an expression of the fact that the pharaohs were considered to rule through her authority, The imagc of ~\la~ll was the supreme utfering gi\en by thc king to the gods, and many rulers held the epithet 'helovcd of j\ bat'. Even ,u;:m::'\::\TE'\ (1J52-1336 lie), whosc dCl'lltion ro the cult of thc tnEi\. was later reviled as the antithesis of 1\ bat, is described i.n the Theban tomb of the vizier R.\_\IOSE (rr:;5) as 'Ii\'ing by .\Jaat'. Since the goddess elecrivcly embodied the concept of juslice, it is not surprising to find rhat the nZIER, who com rolled the L\\\ courts of Egypt, held the tirle 'priest of 1\ la~1t') and it has been suggested that a gold chain incorporating a figure of the goddess may haye served as the badge of office of a legal official. 1\ bat was also present at the judgement of the de-Jd, when the liE \RT of the deceased was weighed against her feather or an image of thc goddess, and somctimes her image surmounts rhe bJIante itself. 'rhe place in which the judgement rook place was known as the 'hall of the two truths' (llIfIllO'), R. A'\"TIIES, Dil' ,\I{1ll1 dl's r:."dIlW/()11 rOJl,1111flnUl (Baitilllore, 1952). V. A. 'fOUl'\, '.:\la'at and Silm: some cOlllparatin: considerations of Eg:yplian :llld Greek thought', J,IIICJ::2+ (1987), J 13-21. J. ASS\IA:'\'\", i\lla 'fl/: Gercdl/igl'eit lind Um/erbliehkeil illl alleu A pll'lI (i\1unidl, 1990). E. TEETER, 7//' pn'sclllalioll of,Halll: Ihc f(lJ/Ulgrtlp/~)la11t/ Iheology {JIlI11 {111tie11l Egyp/ian oiTaillg ri/ulIl (Chicago, 1990). E. 11oRxu'\G, !tIt'll i11ln imagi', trans. E. Bredcck (Ne,,' York, 1992), 1.11-16.

gy

mace
Early weapon consisting of it SlOne he;,ld attached to il shaft of wood (or sometimes of i\'ory or horn), often tapcring towards the end that was grippcd. r\'lany maceheads h;\\'c been excavated from Predynastic and Earl~ Dynastic cemeteries. The earliest examples, dating to the Taqada I period (.40003500 Be), wcre disc-shaped, although many of these appear to ha\e been either roo lighl or too small to h.1\e been actually used in hattIe, The discO\cry of a clay model macehead at l\/(osmgedda suggests that they may oftell h.l\c

Guldell ehaillwi/h a goldfail /,t'llIltl111 i1/ Ilu'jnrm of/he goddess Jl1(f(J/. mllieh 11U1)1 hm:l' serret/ liS 1I judge S im(~lIill, 261h lJylllwy or fraer, {dier e.600 /iC, II. 2.8011. (u-/8998)

166

MACE

MAGIC

trcatments (ses!ul1v), medicinal prescriptions (pekltret) and religious texts (I'm). A somewhat artificial distinction is usually made betwcen the religious texts in tombs and temples and the 'magical texts' or lspelb;' that were intended Lo soh'c the cYeryday problems of individuals. These texts r~1I1gc from the Book oICales in New Kingdom royal tombs to curses inscribed on OSTR!\C'\, or e"cn spells to cure nasal catarrh, but ~11l of them would have been regarded by the Egyptians as roughly comparable methods of gaining di"ine assistance. All employed heiNl, the prime,-al potency that empowered the creillor-god at the beginning of rime. \\'hcreas magic, in the modcrn sense of the word, has become relatively peripheral to the esmblished religions, in ancient Egypt it lay ;It the vcry heart of reli~ gious ritual ane! liturgy. JVlagic was the means by which the restoration of ;111 forms of order and harmuny could be ensured, Thc royal uraeus (see COBR.' and \\ \DJYT), perhaps the most Yi"id symbol of the pharaoh's powcr, \\a5 somelimes described as 11Jfrel htRum: 'great of magic'. Probably the best-known litcrary description of the practice of magic in Egypt is a fictional narrativc composed in the rVliddle Kingdom (2055-1650 Be:) and preservcd on the 18th-Dynasty Papyrus \Vestcar. This text describes \'arious marvels performed by the magicians Djadjacmankh and Djecli at Ihe courts of S~EFERL' and t-J 11IFU in the 4th Dmasty (2613-2{9{ BC). .'\s in many other cultures the tcchniques employed by Egyptian magicians werc based largely on the concept of imitation - the belief that thc replication of a name, image or mythical event could produce an effect in the real world. The imitation of names mcant that \'erbal trickery, such as puns, metaphors and acr05ti's, wcre regarded as powerful forms of magic rather than simply litcrary skills. In the

A diorite dis(-s//(fped Pre{~)IIl(Hli( mtlcelwuljhllll el-/lI/a/ltlSJ/a. dliling Iu the Ntlqlldll I period (-I00G-3500 l1e), o. 8.8 Oil, aud a red brad" pl'lIr-.~lltlpcdmafelu:at! n.{t!lI! Nal/ru/" II period (c.3500-3100 lie), 1/. 6.9(11I. (,,+19003.Lvli 32089)
been intended as ritualistic or symbolic objects. [n the Naqada " period ((.3500-3 J00 BC), the discoid form was superseded by the pearshaped head (as well as a narrow, pointed form that may have been introduced from western Asia). By the hue Prcdynastic period both ceremonial P.\I.E"ITES .mel macchcads had become part of the regalia surrounding the emerging KIi\GSI-IIP. Tn Thmb 100 at IIIEIUKO~I'OLIS the painted decoration includes a scene in which a warrior, who may c\-en be an early pharaoh, threatens a row of C \PTI\ ES with a mace. The im;:lgc of the triumphant king brandishing a mace had already become an enduring im,lge of kingship by the time the :-';A~\IER palette (Egyptian !\luscum, Cairo) was canoed. This ceremonial mudstone palene, showing King Narmcr (c.3]OO or:) wearing the white CRu\r.:--. and preparing to strike a foreigner with his mace, was found in the '~Ilain Deposit' (probably incorporating a cache of votive items) in tJ,e Old Kingdom temple ;It Hierakonpolis. 'fhe same deposit included nyo limeslOne maccheads c~lned with elaborate reliefs, one belonging LO King SCORPIOI\ and the other to ~larmer (Oxford, Ashmolean [V1.uscum), showing: that the macehead itself had become a \'chicle for royal propaganda. The archetypal scene of the mace-wielding pharaoh was of such iconographic importance that it continued to be depicted on templc walls until the Roman period.

The mace WaS associated with the healthy cye of the god IIURLS, whose epithcts included the phrase 'lord of the mace, smiting down his foes\ and its importance in terms of the kingship is re-emphasized by the presence of two gilt wooden model maces among the funcrary equipment of TLT.\,'f\:II"" \IL" (1336-1327 HC). vv. \VOLF, nit' BemajTllIl/Ig dt's a!liigypllsdlm Ileeres (Leipzig, 1926). B. ADA.\IS, /llldell/ HiemJ.'ol1po!is (\Varminster, 197.),5-13. V"T. DECI-:ER, 'KcuJe, KClIlcnkopf', Le,rikrlll cia Agyplo!og,e III, eel. W. [leick, E, anD and \V. Wesrendorr (Wiesb"den, J980), .1-1-15.

magic
The Egypt ialls used the Lerm heka ro reter to magical power, in the scnse of a di"ine force (sometimes personified "s the god I-Ieka) that could be invoked both by dcities and humans to solve problems or crises. In modern timcs a clear distinction is usually made betwcen the lise of pmyers, \IEDICI,E or 'magic" but in ancient Egypt (and many other cultures) these three categories were regarded as overlapping and complementilry. Thus, a singlc problem, whether a disease or ~1 hated ri\-al, might be soh'cd by a combination of magical rituals or

('/In.-a! ;mag/(' JI1(/lfd. ill(;,I'ed m;lh.f/glll'l!,I' vfde/I/es aud 1I~)llh/('(J! beusls, probably iUlmt/r:d II) prolCt'1 1!1t' 1)f1111erfrom harm. ,Hit/till' K/ngdom. c./800 11C, hippopOlamu.\il'(I1]I, l.. 36cm. (1:'118/75)

167

MAGIC BRICKS

MALKATA

case of the E\ECR -\TIO", "l'1:\'1'S, the act of sm:lshing osrraca or figurines hC;lring the names of enemies "as cunsidered to be an cffccri,'c way of th\\ arting them. Similar1~, the creation of Sl..lIUCrrCS or figurines of gods Of
enemies, which could then he either propitiated or I11l1tihnetl, \\as regarded as an cffccri,"c \\'a~ of gaining control over c,"il forces. Tn a sophisticated combination of \ erbal, yisual and physical imitation, it was bclic\'cd that waleI' poured oyer tipp; IIORLS (stelae depicting Horus the child defeating snakes, scorpions and other dangers) would confer healing 011 those who drank it.

or

'1'hc shaft tomb of a priest of the hIll'

\Ii,klle Kingdom ((.1700 Be) c,ca"ared li'om heneath the Ramesscum in "estern Thebes contained a mixture of 'religious' and 'magiCOlI' artefacts, includin~ a sl~1tuCrrc of a woman "cOlring a lion .\t\Sf... and holding two snakewands, an iyur~ clapper. a secLion of J magic rod. a lcmalc fertility figurine, a bronze cobrawand, amI a box of pap~ ri inscribed with a wide range of religious, literary and magical reXlS (see 1.111I{'\RII':S). This single collection of equipment clearly demonstrates the "ast specIrum of 5trategies which would hayc been ill\"oh-cd in Egyptian magic, cnabling an indi"idual priest to draw un the power of the gods with a wide Yariel~ of mc.111S and for a number of differenl purposes. 1\1. r.IC1ITIJI.I.\I, ~ll1C;l'1If f.'gypfioulifUOfllrl (Bcrkele,', 1973), 215-22.II'"""us Il"cSlc"r] .J. E r10f{GItOLTS, ~ 11Io'l'1If fgypfi,," magia/lltxlS (Leidcn,1978). .\ I. R \ \\ 1:" ""a.\. in Egypri:lJl magic and symbolism', O/ltl/(cid/..'III1t1J~!!.C JJl'tll!delillgcl/ fli! /(el I?ij/"'SI/IIISWIII L'llll Ol/{I/wlcnle l,eidcII6+ (19R3),

!I'/(/gi{ brir/: l1,ilh shabti-Iih' IfII/lUIII jigl/re,ji'IJJJI Iht' IIllrf/( IPollli/,hl' bl/rial dUlll/her ill I{,e ff)lIfl, f~j' '1iIlllllk{,allllll/. 18,11 DYliusly, c.1330 fir;.
II.

1.1./

Oil.

(c 1I1U1,

\().

2.19,

NDJR()J)( CI.'J)

ern NTrS} or T"I:(,'RlrFrrll f\STlnTE)

7---11.

e..1 \UL F.gyplillll //lagit', tT;I11S. .J. j\ 1. Dayis (\Varminslcr, 1985). A..\1. Br. \C"- \1:\:'\, Tilt> slOlT 1~{A'illg A:llcrJps 111Id flU' II/agirillw. Iral1Stribl>dFmu Papyrus Ilt'sua!' (IJalill Papyrus 3(33), cd. \V. \. Da,ics (Reading, 1988). J F BORGIIOl. TS, ''\ bgical pnH:riccs among lhe "ill:lgcrs', Plwn/fill:~ l1'(}rh-rs: IIlI' i:;l!agas of Dl'i,. d- \ltdilltl, ed. L. I L LesJ-o (Irh;u..:a :lnd London, 1994), 119-30. R. K. RIT'I.R, Tilt' I//alufllirs lif'l/Iln'l'1J1 Egypfiall IIwgiml PI'IICf;f/' (Chicago, 199.1). G. PI".lr, ,llagit ill al/timl Hgyp, (London, 199+).
magic bricks
SCl of f<JUr mud bricks dl~lI were often placed on the four sides of the tomb during lhe :\e\Y I'-ingdom (1550-1069 Be) in order to protecl the deceased iom e,il. Survi"ing examples dare from al least as early as the reign of

Thurmose III (1479-1425 BC) umil the time of Rameses II (1279-1213 nr.). A. socket in each hrick supporred an \\ILlT, Ihe form of which depended on the cOlrdinal point where the hrick was placed: rhus thl' brick beside rhe western wall included a faience DJI']) pillar. that beside the e.ISlern wall incorporated all unfired clay .\'\lIllS, .md those beside thl' southern and northern w~l\ls contained <I reed \yith a wick resembling a torch and a mummiform SI L\IlTJ-like figure respccti\'el~. The amulcts Ihcl11selycs Llsually faccd tmrards the opposite ,,,all. The bricks were inscribed "'ith seClions of rhe hier:1tic te~t of Chapter 151 of lhe uc)() .... OF Tt rE DE \1), describing the role they played in protecting the deceascd from the enemies of OSIRIS. E. TIIO"-\S, 'The four nidll:s and allluictic figures in 'fhc:ban royallolllbs',].-IRCr: 3 (1 96..J.), 71-8. S. Q.. rR"1: and J. SI'E.'\CER, Tilt' BrilJ:~b .1 I IISt'lIm L IwoJ: n/oJ/l'il'lll 1~!!,,)'pI (London, 1992),9+-,).

disposition ur the items within rhe hurial chamber, ~1l1d lhere is not c,-en a ddinitiyc list of the ObjcCls I hemscl Yes. Because of the fine quality of the burial and its loc~ltion among the royal tombs of the l\e\\ Kingdom. it has heen su~gesled that ~biherpri, who held the tilles 'ran bearer on the right hand of the king' and 'child or thc rroyall nursery', must hare enjoyed consider;lblc royal EI\"()lIr, perhaps being; a l-<)stefbrother or son of one of the early Nc\\ ~ingdom rulers, while his physical features (dark t:omple),ion and curl~' hair) indicate: thal he was of ~llbian descent. There are fc\\ clues as tu the ruler umkr whom he sen cd; possible candidares arc I "'tshepsllt (1473-1458 1lC:). whose name \\ as inscribed on a piece of linen in rhe 10mb. ThuLmosc '" (1479-1425 lie), Amcnholcp" (1427-1400 Be) and Thutl1loSC 1\ (1400-1390 lie). The runer<1r~ equipment included a larg-e black resin-co, cred wooden sart:ophaglls containing t\\'o smaller coffins, both or which were empty. The hody itself lay in a second set of coffins to onc sidc of" the sarcophag'us. 'rhe funerary equipment included all imprcssi\c nOOh: or Till: IJE.\J) papyrus, as well as Ic:lthcr tJui,-crs full of ~lITO\\S (some tipped wilh flim) which reinforce his identification ,IS a standard-bearer in the Eg~ pfian army (perhaps c,-en <1 ro~al bodyguard). Other leather ilems prcsened among his funer,lr~ equipment "ere two clog collars, one of which W:IS inscribed ,,ith lhe animal's name (Talllanuel), as well as a box containing learher loincloths. which Hmrard Carler hucr discO\-cred buried under;t rock outside thc tomb. 11. C\JrrER, 'Rcport on general work done in the southern inspectorate I: Biban cl-!\lolouk', .lSlE 4 (19113), +6. \ I. S \1.EII and II. SOL:ROL-ZI \ '\, Tbi' 1:~t!,YI"iali .11wt'lllll. Cairo: (dlidal w(alo}!:Jlc (,\ binz, 1987), no. 142. C r\. REE\ ES, Thl' f itllt:), ({til(' Kil1gs (London, 1990), 140-7.

Malkata
Settlement ,md palace site at the southern end of western Thebes, upposite modern Luxor. dating to Ihe carl~ f<llIrteenth ccnlllr~ Be. Essentially rhe remains of a community that grew tip around lhe Thehan residence of Amcnhotep III (1390-1352 Be), it \Yas eXCilY~lI ed hctwcen lR88 and 1918, but only ~l small part or this work has been published, and the more recenl re-examination of the site by Da"id O'Connor and Barry Kemp in the earl~ 1970s has only p;lrtially remedied this siwalion. The exc;watcd area of the sire comprises seyeral large official buildings (including fOllr

Maiherpri (i\bhirpra) (.1450 BC) f\lilitary official of lhe early 18th Dynasty, whose small inlact romb (1':\ 36) was found in western 'f'hebes b~ Victor T.orel in 1899. It was the first unplundercd lomb to be discovered in the \.\L1.E) OF TilE "J'\GS in modern times. although the poor records of ilS exc<1yalion mean rhat linle is known ,tbom the original

16S

MAMMISI

MANETHO

probable palaces), as mJI as kitchens, storerooms, residential areas and a tcmpk dulicatcd to the god Amllll.

10 the cast of 1\tblbt~l arc the remains of a huge artificial lake (the Birkel Habu) c\-itlcntl~ created at rhc same time as Amcnhotcp Ill'S
palaces. probably in connr.;ctioll with his SED FESTlr:\L. The southern end of the site (Kom cJ-Samak) was surYl:ycd and cxc:lyatcd during the 1970s and 19ROs I", a Japanese expedition

from \,Vascda Uni,-crsit-y, rcrealing an unusual

ceremonial pain led platform-kiosk approached by a stair and ramp. R. I)E P. Tn"us, .-f prelilll/Ill//T reporllJlI {he Pl"l~ extort/l/o1! (~r{hl' pa/acc oI.imcllho/l'jlllI (New York, 1903). \\t. H.WES, 'Inscriptions h'ml1 the pabee o( Amenhu,ep 1I1',]NLS 10 (1951), 35---l0. B. J. KE,\\l' and D. O'CU'\!'\()l{l 'An ancient Nile h:lrbour: Uni'Trsity i\[useum cxc;l\-atiolls at thl: Birkel Habu', Tl/teJ"llaf/olla!.7ol/l"IItll/!(Nal/l/(a! Arrhalfulogy alltl L'ntlrrllJala EXIIII/ratioll 3/ I (197+),101-36. y, 'V:rm:"i \ Ill': and r...::. SJo:KI, The arch/fettilre I~(

Kom E! Sal/wR III .\'la!Rata SOl/lh: {/ stl1l(JI (!( archi,c(/u/"{/I rest/mllioll (Tok~'Ol 1986).

mammisi (Coptic: 'birth-place'l 'birth-house') Artificial Coplk term invented by the nineteenth-century Egyptologist ]can-f'ran<;ois Champollion to describe a panieular type of
l'lu' mammisi (~(HorllS illl:'/((lI mas [OIlSlmOn! by PlolclII)' I'll il/U! Yilt autl was Ihe SCllil/gjil1" {{llIIlW! '1J~}'sl('lY plays' (ol/(allillg Ihe hirllt (!(lhe god. (/~ 'r: \ tC/fOLS().\)

building attached to certain temples, such as I':IWL, m:~m:R'\ and 1'1111.1\1':, fi'om the I.;He Pcri()(l to the Roman period (7-P nC-.\lJ 395), often placed at right angles to the main temple axi::;. The Ptolemaic Il/aJJJlllisi usually consisted of a small u.:mplc, surrounded by a colonnade ,,,ith intercolumnar screen walls, in which the rituals of the marri,lge of the goddess (Isis or Bathol') and the birth of the child-god were celebrated. There appear La have been carlier counterpans of the IIWllllllisi in the form of 18th-Dynasty reliefs describing the di\-inc binh uf J-Iatshepsur (1+73-1+.18 "':) al I1E'" F,I.~II\llIU and th,H of :\mcnhotep 111 (1390U52 1;(:) at r.LXOIL The temple complex at Dcndcra includes two Illtlllllllisis in front of Ihe main temple. One of these dares 10 the Roman period, while lhe other is a much earli.er construction of Ncctancbo I (380-362 Be) in ,,,hich 'Illystcr~ plays' concerning; the births of both the god [hy (see 111\"1"1 lOH) and the pharaoh are said fO have been cnacted, comprising thirteen acts and two interyals. rt is highly likd~' that similar dramas and rituals lOok place in other birth-houses, with the i11lenrion of ensuring agricultural success and the continuation of the royal line. E. 01 \SSI'\l\T, I.I! 1Ilt/l/llIlisi t!'Et(jOlf, 2 yols (eliro, 1939). - , Lcs 1I/II11l111isi ties lell/ples (:y,ypticu.I' (Paris, 1958). F D-\LT~I.\S, Lt'.I" II/al/Ill/isis de DL'Iltlill"{f (Cairo, 1959). ]. JL..'\.h:ER ,md E. \\lI\'TER, Dm Gebllrlshill/s des '1;'lIIpl'!s til'/' h'is ill Phild (Vil:nna, 1t.J63),

Manetho (1.305-285 lie) Egyptian priest and h.istorian. Little is known his life, and it is disputed whether he was born at \IENDES or lIEl.IOI'Ol.lS. It is clear, hm\"ever, that he was Egyptian and could read Egyptian scripts, although he '\Tote in Greek. His major work l a 111STOR\ of Egypt called the .~legYPliac(/, was probably prepared during his Lime at the temple of Schenn~'tos, which is ne,lr the modern town of Samannud ill the Delta. it has been tentatively sllg'~cstcd that his priestly dlllies included a role in rhe establishmcI11 of the cult or SI':R'\l'lS under Prolemy I Soter (305-21)5 He). As a priest he would have had access to the archircs of Eg-ypt's temples (see !.IBR:\RIES), and with his abilit~- to read hieroglyphs he waS able to produce a valuable sludy, which he dedicated to Ptolemy II (285-2+6 IIC). Unfc)J"tunatdy his history has not survived intact", but is prescrn.:d ill a series of" some~ limes cOl1tradictor~' fragments in the works of other writers, notably the Jewish historian Josephus (first eentury .\1)), and the Christian writers Julius f\rric,lIlus (to AD 220), Eusebius ((. '\1) 320) and George called Synccllus (c. .\1) 800). Nevertheless, his division of the earthly rulers into thirty OY,\\STWS (with the later addition of a thirty-first) has been a major influenc!,; On modern perceptions of the outline of Egyptian history, and the system was used by Jean-Fran~ois Champollion in ordering the sequence of C\RTOL:C1l1':S he discovered from his decipherment of the hieroglyphs. 1\11<1netho is credited wilh a further seven works: TIlt, S(/(I'ed BOOR, .dll Epitollle oj'

or

Dorlrilles, 0" Festiva!s, 01/ Allt/clIl Rill/a! alld Rell:rtirlll, 01/ fIJt: JlIfaRiJig r~F ~J'phi (the latter being a typc of incense), Crilicisl/Is (~r [-laodollfs and TIJe Bllok r!FSOIIJis. The last of these was certainly not the work of !vlanetho l and it is equally possible that some of the other works were nC\Tr c\"cn written. 1\ 1'\'\.1':"1"110, /lcgJlPli(/({/, cd, and trans. \'\T. G. Wadell, Loeb Classical Library (London, 19+0). A. T.I.n, I), 'i\ l~lnctho and rhe Thirty-fiirst D.'"nasl~", J~J!I"al/lid sll/dil's al/d fI/!Jcr essays jm:sC1llctl In I. E. S. F:t!martls, l:d. OJ. rhines ct ,11. (London, 198R), 15+-60.

P!~)lsi(a!

maps and plans

The question of ancient" Egyptian usc of maps, plans and diagrams is complicated by the differences between modern conceptions of" art and representation and those that prevailed in the Pharaonic period. There are therefore Egyptian depictions of such phenomena as landscapes and architectural features that might. be described - in modern terms - as 'diagrammatic" in the sense rhat they combine

169

MAPS AND PLANS

MARRIAGE

several different perspectives. For instance, in Ramcsc~ II'S depictions of the Battle of Q;\IWSII (c.1274 Be), there is a bird's-eye view of the immediate context of Qtdcsh (i.e. a tract of land bounded by two branches of the R..i\TI" Grames), but the city itself is depicted as if seen from the side. 'There arc also, however, a small number of surviving dr~l\vings on astraC<l and papyri that differ from mainstream Egyptian works of an in that they appear to have had various practical uses as diagrams, whether as the working drawings of architects or, on a more metaphysicallevel, as a means of na\"ig,lting through tht: afterlife. The earliest surviving Egyptian maps arc of the Janer type, consisting of schematic depictions ofthe route ro the netherworld (the BOIJk (!( 1',PO I1l(lyS) painted on coffins of the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 Be). The earliest surviving Egyptian map of an actual geographical region is the so-called Turin Mining Papyrus, an annotated pictori~ al record of an expedition to the beklrellstone (greywacke or siltstone) quarries of 'Vadi I-fammamat in the Eastern Desert. 'T'he Turin 1\1ining Papyrus, now in lhe .Museo Egizio, Turin, ch1l'es to the mid-twelfth century Be:; it was evidently a document eirher created to assist in a beldu1I-srone quarr~-'ing expedition in the reign of Ramcses J\ (1153-1147 l1e), or, at the very least, composed in order to commemorate the details of the event. The map identifies the essential elements of a group of gold mines (.It a site now known as Bir Umm Fawakhir) as weB as the principal quarries, which are located I"lIr~ ther to the east. The textual and pictorial details 01" the papyrus have recently been re-analysed J and its meaning and archaeological context re~ assessed. It- incorporates colour-coded geological zones, the locations of the mines and quarries, a miners' settlement, a cistern (or 'water-reservoir'), three ancient roads, two locations associated with the processing and transportation of minerals, a shrine dedical'ed to 'Amun of the pure mountain' and a commemorative stele from the time of SETY [ (1294-1279I1c). An ostracon of thL: Ramesside period in the British j\lIuseum bears a rough architectural plan annotated with measurements and accompanied by a hieratic text describing the orientation of the drawing in relation to .In actual building, which remains unidentified. '1\"0 other architectural drawings have been recognized as plans of specific royal tombs in the VALLEY OF TJ IE f\:INGS. A papyrus in Turin bears part of a detailed ink plan of the tomb of Rameses 1\', while a less detailed plan on an

Ostracon in the Egyptian NI useum, Cairo has been identified as the tomb of Ramcses IY.(1126-1108 HC). H. C\RTER and A. I L GARDINER, 'The tomb of Ralllcsses JLmd theTl.lrin plan ofa royal lomb', JE" 4 (1917),130-58. E. I IORKUNG, 'ZUlll Turiner Grabplan', P)'/"{/lIIitl studies tllld OIher essays prCSfJllt'd to 1. E. S EfhlJ(lJ"{/s, ed. J Rlines et al. (London, 1988), 138--42. . R. B. P'\RKIN~();\, l.fuitt'.\./i"o/ll all(ielll Egypt (London, 1'NI), 134-6. [plan of tbe nethenyorld] ]. A. IL\IUU:J.1. andY 1'\'1. BRO\\':\I, 'The oldesl sur\,i\'ing topographical map fi'olll ancient Egypt: Turin Papyri 1879, 1899 and 1969', ]fIIlCE 29 (1992), 81-103.

Mariette, Auguste (1821-81) french Egyptolog'ist who exclyated many of the major Egyptian siles and monuments and (oundcd the Egyptian Antiquities Service. He was born and educated in Boulogne-sur-1\!lcr and in 1839--40 he lived in England, teaching Frcnch and drawing in Stratford and working unsuccessfully as a designer in Coventry. In 1841 he returned to Boulogne to complete his education, and the following year he developed an enthusiasm tor Egyptology when he examined the papers bequeathed to his famjly by his cousin Nestor L'J-T6te, who produced huge numbers of drawings as a draughtsl11<1n On C1IAJ\IPOLLJOi'\'S expedition lo Egypt in 1828-9 Between 1842 and 1849 1\tlarielre taught himself hieroglyphics (using Champollion's grammar <lnd dictionary) and studied Coptic, eventually obtaining a post in the Louvre, where he made an inventory or all 01" the Egyptian inscriptions in the collection. In 1850 he W<lS sent to Egypt to acquire papyri 1'01' the Louvre, but instead embarked on the excavation of the Saqqanl SER.f\PEU.\'l; the ensuing four years were probably till' most successful of his archaeological career. Tn 1855 he became Assistant Conservator at the Louvre and two years later he returncd to Egypt. vVith the financial support of Said Pasha, the viceroy 01" Egypt, he undertook several simultaneous excavations, including work at Giza, Thebes, Abydos and Elephantine. In June 1858 he was appointed as the first Director of the newly created Egyptian Antiquities Service, which enabled him to gather together sufficient antiquities to establish a national museum at Bulaq, ncar Cairo. His subsequent- excavations at thirtyfive different sites, regularly using large numbers of relatively unsupervised workers, were criticized by later, more scientific, exca-

vators such as Flinders PETIUE and George REIS1'\ER, but he is nevertheless dcseryedh honoured b~' modern archa~ologists as th~ creator of the Egyptian Antiquities Sl.:ITicc and the Egyptian rV{useum, without \yhjch the plundering of Egypt would h<lye carried on ,Il a far greater pace in the late nineteenth century. He died al Buhiq in IRSI and was buried in a sarcophagus which was laler moved to t.he forecollrl of the modern Egyptjan j\lluseum in Cairo. A. j\,IARWTTE, Lc Sh'ap';lIllI de JI1elllphis (Paris, 1857) - , lVo/icc tics prillojwlfJ" /l/O/lll/lIl'1/'S exposes tI(/II~' /es ga/cries pnnisoirt's till A1l/lsee... ti Bllulal, (Cairo. 1864). - , Tht' 1I/01l1fll/iJIlIs (II Upper Egypf (London, 1877). E. ]\il!\luETTE, _Marielfe Pac!w (Paris, 190-J.). G. D:\NIEL, _f II/(/ldl'l't/yetlrs (!(arc!wc%,I.J..)', lSI cd. (London, 1950), 160--4.

marriage
Although many current descriptions of ancient Egypt tend to assume that marriage in the Pharaonic period was similar to the modern institution, there is surprisingly little cyidence either for marriage ceremonies or for the concept of the married couple (as opposed to a man and woman simply living together). The word helJlel, cOIl\Tntionally translated as 'wife" is regularly used to identify a man'5 female partner, but it is not clear what the social or legal implications of the term were. In addition, ir has been pointed out that tile equivalent lllale term hi ('husband') is onl~ rarely encountered. This is one of the lllOSt obvious results of the fact that most of the survi\'ing sculptures and texts relate to male funerary cults; then:fore womcn are prilllaril~ identified in terms 01" their relationships with men (rather than the men being defincd by their links with women). The work hehslPf seems to have been used to refer to another cat'egory of female partner, which is occasionally translatcd as 'concubine', bUl the siwalion is confused by till; existence of some texts of the New Kingdum (1550-1069 DC) that describe a woman as both hemel and hebslPf at the same time. HebslPl is therefore sometimes taken to refer to a man's second or third wife, if he remarried after the death or diyorce 01" an earlier spouse. Very few documents describing the act of marriage have survived from the Pharaonic period, although a number 01" legal texts, often described as 'marriage contracts', haye survived from the period spanning' the Late and Ptolemaic periods (747-30 Be). These texts,

170

MASKHUTA, TELL EL-

MASKS

frequently incorporating the phrase sltep 1:11 schemel ('price for [marryingl a woman'),
appear to lay down the property rights of each of the partners in .1 marriage, rather than specifically documenting or endorsing the act

"..".,'. canal

,0." .. ,0",,,,,,.,,,,.

,,,.,,, ..,,.. ,u'''''

On the basis of its ancient name, Pcr-Tcmu, the site was identified with the Biblical city of Pirhom, but more recent excavations by a tcam from the University of Toromo have disprm'cd this theory, demonstrating that there

of marriage itself. The actual ceremony of m'llTiage is poorly documented, but there arc more frequent records of dinJ[ces. Bmh rcm,trriage and multiple marriages were possible, bur it is not
clear how common it was for men to take

1 enclosure wall 2 storehouses (?) 3 central buildings 4 temple (?)

was a In KSOS level helow the remains of the cit\' founded b\' :\ckau " (610-595 BC) which

(30
modem Villagel modern cultivation

more than one wife. It has been pointed out that the numbers of roOIllS in tht New Kingdom tomb-,yorkcrs' cOllll1lunity of 1)1]1{ EL-MVDI'!\ appc;u" to conform with monogamouS rather than polygamous arrangements.

was still nourishing in the Roman period BC~.'D 395). The lluctuaring importance of the site appC<lTs LO ha,'c been closely linked [() the fortunes of the \,"adi Tumilat. through which an ancient canal connected the apex of

Howc\'cr, from ;ll le.lst as early as the 11th Dynast\' (1".1795-1650 Be), polygam,' '\;IS certainl~ practised by the Egyptian kings,
being cited as rhe 'great royal wife' (//('11/('1 m's", merel, sec
QUEE~S).

the Delta with the Red Sca. 1-1. E. NJ.\ ILLE, Th" sIOn'-l"it.l' ,~(Pi"lOlII and Ihe rOllle (~(Ihl' Erodll.' (London, 18~5). J. S. HULL \1)\\ ,Jr, Cilics oIlhl' Dt:!/a Iff: Ti.-/I 1.'1A111sHI/IIII (~lalihu, 1982).

Ill",'!

masks
300 400m

with one consort

uSll:J.l1~

100

200

The custom of brother-sisrer and fathcr-cbughrcr marriage appears to have

been confined to the royal family, perhaps partly hecause the dclibcratc praclice of

Plall (!FTcll td-j\!lmNlIIlll.

incest, commonly occurring in the myths of Egyptian deities, ""as regarded as a royal prerogarj,"c, cffecti\-cly setting the king apart from his subjects. In the l\cw ~ingdom, many pharaohs also took foreign wi,"cs in so-called 'diplomatic
marriages" which were lIsed either as a means of consolidating alliances with the kingdoms of d1C ancient Ncar East or as an indicuion of the complete subjugation of a foreign prince, who would have been obliged to send his daughter to the king bOlh as an act of surrender and as a means of ensuring his subsequent loyalty.

P.

PEST\lo\i\, IHarriagt' and I11mrimnnilll pr(Jpcr~)' ill

1I11ciml EgYPI (Leiden, 1961). \V. K. SI,\II'SO'\, 'Polygamy in Egypt in the tVliddleKingdom"]V/60(19N),100-i A. R. SCIIUL,\I,", 'Diplomatic m~lrriage in the Egyptian New Kingdom',JNES 38 (1979), 177-94. S. ALl.A,\', 'Quelques aspects du mariage Jans l'Egypte ancicnnc',jEA 67 (1981), II (>-35. E. STROLJII \l., Life in (l11rie11l Egypt (Cambridge, 1992),51-8. G. RomJ\s, Homen il1l1l/rie/ll f.:!{ypI (London, 1993),56-74.

Maskhuta. Tell el- (anc. Per-TemB, Tjeku)

lown-site and capital of the eighth nome of Lower Egypt during the Late Period (747-332 Be), located at" the eastern edge of the Delta, 15 km west of modern [smailiva and the Suez Canal. The site was first ex~a\"ilted b,

Edouard Navillc in 1883 on bchalf of th~ newly established Egypt Exploration Fund.

Bldck gral1ile ('olire ji(/rol1 ofRa11leses 11. 19J1,

DYllusly. /279-/2/3 Bc.ii-lI111 Tell el-JlllsJdlllta. 1/95 CIII. (Ii 11006)

'T'hc question of the extem to which masks '''ere used in Egyptian religious and funerary rituals has not yel been satisfactorily resolved. Paintings, reliefs and statuary throughout the Pharaonic period regularly include depictions of human figures with the heads of various crcat"urcs, from jackals to falcons, It is unccrmin, however, whether these depictions are always intended to represent physical manifestations of the gods themselves, or whether, as seems possible in some instancc.", the figures are masked pricsts representing the deity in question. Some of the ceremonial P.\LE1TES of the late Predynastic and Early Dynastic periods (c.3300-2900 Ilc) arc carved with depictions or bird- and animal-headed humilOs, sometimes described as masked figures, although thc~ arc not necessarily any more likely to he masked than equi,alent depictions of the Ph~lraonic period. Studies concerning priests' lise of masks are h~lmpcred by the facI that only two examples have survi\"cd. Tn the Romer-Pclizacus M lIseum ill I-1ildesheim there is a painted ceramic bust of Anubis of unknown provenance} nearly 50 em high and dated to the fifth or sixth ccntury Be. A pair of holes were bored through the ponery below the snoU[, presumably in order to allow the priest to sec OUl; the 'mask' also had nOlches on either side of the base to fit o\'er the wL'arcr's shoulders. A relief in the Ptolemaic temple of Harhor at Dendera shows a priest apparently wearing :1 similar jackal-head mask} with his own head visible inside the olltline of the jackal's head. At One of the houses in the town of KahuJ1 (see EJ.-I.AI1UN), Flinders Petrie excavated a C:\lrroJ\";\"AGE lion's head mask proyided with eye-holes, which would probably have allowed the wearer fO assume the identity of the magical demon Aha. This mask, dating to the

171

MASKS

MASTABA

l\liddle 1:...ingtlom (2055-1650 Be), is now in

the collection of" Lhe l\lam:hcsrcr J\luscum. The unusual sci or hue 1\ liddle Kingdom objccrs found in shaft-tomb :) under the RilIlH;SSClIl11 included a wooden ligurinc representing either ;l lion-headed goddess Or a

painted plaster heads and the sO-C<llled Ipayull1 portraits' (depicting the face of the deceased in E.'\f: \L:STIC or tempera 011 a \y()ouen board) began to be used alongside the traditional car-

tonnage masks.
Thc forerunners of mummy-masks d:w.: to the {th to 6th Dynasties (261.1-2181 He), taking the form of thin coatings of plaster moulded either directly oyer the f~\cl' or (~n fOp of the linen wnlppings, perhaps fulfilling a similar purpose to the -I-th-Uynasry RESER\ E liE \US. !\ plaster mould. ,lpparcntly mkcn directly from the f,tec of il corpse, was excavated from the 6th-Dyn<1SIY mortuary temple of '1'1':'1'1 (23-+5-2323 Ile), but this is thought 10 be of Greco-Roman date. 'l'he superficially similar plaster 'masks' that were cxc~w~1tcd in the house of the sculptor Thutlllose ,It EL-.\.\\ \R' \ were probably not death-masks al all hut copics of sculptures, intended to aid the sculptors in making accurate rcprcsent,lriollS of Lhe c1-Amarna elite. W. j\L F: Pl':TR1E, KU/lIl11. Climb (lml f!a/1l((/'{f (London) 18~O), 30, pI. \ 111.27. .J. E. QUIIJE!.!., Exnli:alifills ill SaqquJ"{f (NIJ7-/91J8) (Cairo, 1~09), 112, pl.1s. C. L. J3I.EE"EI~, 'Die l\l;tskc: \erhiillung lind Offcnbarung', The .~tl(fl!" bridgl' (Lt'idcn, 19(3), 2.16-49.

as Dircl:tor of the Egyptian AntiquitiL'S Sen'icc and the Bulaq i\luseum, he cXC<lyatcd at numerous siles from Saqqara to the Valley of the h:..ings. His distinguished career, which included the first publication of the l'YIL\\lID IEOS and the discovery of the cache of royal mummies at DI:lR EI.-B\IIRI, W:lS c\'entuall~ broughl to an end through illness, which forced him to return to france in IlJ14. He died t\\O ~elrs later, just hefore he waS about to address a mceting of thc ~L\cadcIllY in Paris. G. .\ t \SI'I:IHJ, Lt's mOll/ie.' J"(~)'fIk.'i tic Deir ('I-Ballari (Cairo, lX8~). - , EllUl!!.\" de 110 ' lllologic el tI'urdu;ol/igie ~!! .l'PliL'IIIIC, R\'015 (p~lris, 1893-1(16). - , I.cs iusnipliom dl'.' pyramitles (It Sa(j(jal'{//t (Paris, IH9{). - . Hi.'luirc (l1I(i(,111Il' til'S pel/pll'S tI,- I'Oriell/, J \ ols (Paris, 1895-9). G. \ 1 \SPI:RO and A. B \RS.\:'\TI, Fouillt's all1llllf til' III {J)'J"tImitl" ,I'Om1ll.' (C1iro, 1900) G. 1\1 \SI'UW, ;\'('/1) 1t~'.!;111 0/1 (/1I(inll1:.:!fJ'PI
(1,011<1011, 1~lJ8).

\YOlllan wcaring a similar kind of mask, which

probably connected in some wa~ with the performance of .\1 \GIL It is possible th.ll many other mas}..s wcre m'ldc of organic m.Hcrials such as cartonnagc, linen or le.Hher, which, e\en in Egypt's climate, would not nccessaril~ have suryjycd in the archacologiGl1 record.
""'IS

- , Guide'll/l risilell/"alllllll:it;" dll Gaire, -hh cd . (Cairo, 1915). \v. R. D\\\ so~, 'T .erters from i\ laspcro to Amelia Edwards',]E/.1.1 (19n), 66-89.

mastaba (."-rabie:

'bench')

C. A. ~~'IJRI-:\\S,
198{),27-30.

1~,{.l'Plilln 1/111111111iCJ

(London,

Arabic term applied 10 style of Egyptian tomh in which [he superstructure resemhles the 10\\
mud-brick benches outside Egyptian houses.

A. \VOU'S"I, 'Ancient Egyptian ceremunial Illasks', DE 6 (1986), {7-53.

.lld~'lieg

ll. P:\'\1.\lli\<'jt-:I~, 'Anubis-j\ bske', /i"gyjlfCIIS zur 'Vcllllllld/I, exh. Gil. r-lildcshcim, cd. A. Eggcbrcdu (l\lainz, 1978),312-13. W. D.wls, Jlll1Jl'illg Iht' bioII': Jlu: san.: (d'
repn-JCllflllifJl/ illlllfe pn-hiJ/o1"l( 1:.:~.J'Plilfllllrl

l\1asmba tombs have sloping walls, so lhat the roof arC.l is smaller th,111 that of the base. The m;lslaba tomb WilS L1sed for both
royal ;111<.1 pri\'ate burials in the Early Dynastic period (.1100-2686 lie) but onl\ lor pri,ate burials in the Old Kingdom (268(}-2181 BC).1t comprises ,1 substructure, lIsually consisting of the burial chamber and magazines, surmounted hy a mud-brick or SLOne supcrstruclUre. Ancillary buildings, notably ch'lpcls, wcre originally attached to thc superstnu.:lure but were gradually incurporated inlo it-. The best cyidence for mastah.ls the Earl~ Dynastic period dcri\'cs from \11) 1l0S and S \Q.Q.\R \, supplcmel1led b~ those at ,"\Q,\I1\. For the Old Kin~dolll, GIZ \, S \QQ.\K.\, .\HUSIK and \II':II)L \1 are all important maslaba ccmcterlcs. Early Dynastic l11;1smhas comprise a pit cut into the rock and di\-ided by brick partitions. The central chamber, thnt for the burial, was sometimes decorated. In the carliest examples, the underground rooms did nol have connecting doors, ;)nd all were roofed over with timher. As a result the burial h'ld to he made before the hrick superstructure \\-as completed. From the mid 1st Dyn.lsty onw,1I'ds a stairwa~ was incorporated into the design allowing easier access to the tomb, and completion of the

Prrdilt i:iC/11 t~rJltlJil1ll'mr.J' mad, of

'1iIItI1lHItlIlll/lI..FolII his I(lmb ill lht' I ,,11(1' (~(il/l' f:illgs. The dwt({tlaislir !Jc"rd haJ hem remm:erl
ill/hi.I' plw/ogrll{JlI. 18/11 DYffasty, c.I.130 11e, gold, la(lis !a:;:II!i, ,omelial/. quart::::., ullsidial/, lurqlloise IIl/d mlo/lred gillss, If. 5-/- (llf. (c //!?{) JI:60672,
Il/J J /UJI)( CFJJ(,'O/ JUrSl ()F'I'IIJ,(;UII'I'I'I"II

(Berkeley, 1992), 38--10, 72-82. D. S\\ EE'E) , 'Eg~ ptian masks in motion', C \1 1.15 (199.1),101--1. ].11. T\YI.UK, 'I\lasks in nncient Egypt: the image of divinity', Ala.,J.:s: Iltt' tlr! (~rt:.rprt'ssi(jll, cd.). .\laek (London, 199{), 168-89. (18{(}-j916) French Egyptologist who succeeded Auguslc \\ \IUI:Tn: as Dircctor of the I':gyptian..\ lusculll ,It BuhH.1 ,111<.1 cdited the first fift~ \'ulul11es of the immense catalogue of the collection there. lie was born in Paris and cducated at lhe Lycce Louis Ie Grand and the Ecole Normalc, c\'cnwally becoming Professor of Egyptolog~ at" rhe Ecole des Hautes Etudes in 186Y, at the agc of only twcmy-thrcc, ha\ing studied with both !\lariette and Oli\'ier de Rouge. Tn .1880 he made his first trip to Egypt at the head of a French archaeologiL"d1 mission that \yas C\'cnt ually to become the Inslitut Franc;ais d'Archcologic Orientale. Prom 1881 onwards,

or

Maspero. Gaston

1\."'lIH n)

The lise of masks in funerary cOn!cxts is much better documented, ranging from the famous gulden masks of TLT\,"h.1l \\IL' (1.1:>6-1:127 Be) and "SLSE~~rs I (10.19-991 Be) to the humbler painted ca!"tonnage masks that wen: introduced in the First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 Be) to assist in the idelllilicalion of the linen-wrapped mUll1my. The (<11'tolln,lgc mummy mask W,IS llsed in Ihe First lmcrmediatc Period, rhe _\Iiddlc ~ingJom, the 18th and 26th Dynasties and the GrecoRoman period (32 IIC-\I) 395), \\ hen hollow

172

MASTABA

MATHEMATICS AND NUMBERS

1 burial shaft 2 burial chamber with sarcophagus 3 chapel where false door stele and offering table are localed 4 serdab for stalue of tomb-owner

CIII-amay tlramilJg uIlllI Old KingdolJl pri7:(J!l'

!//(/s!a!Ja fUll/b.

superstructure before burial was made. This smirway W~lS blocked by portcullises in an attempt [Q prevent robbery of the burial and magazines, some of which bcg-.1I1 to be incorpOnIted into the superstructure. By the Inrc 2nd Dynasty a series of rock-clIt chambers sometimes led from a centra) corridor beneath the superstructure. Tombs \\cre surrounded by an enclosure wall, which, like the superstructure, took the f(H'm a palacc-fa\=adc design (sec SEREKII) during the 1st Dynasl). Some of these tombs were ~lCcompanicd also by boat pits. Superstructures of the 2nd Dynasty were plainerl except for niches at the north and south ends of the eastern wall. During the ord Dynasry (2686-261] Be), the PYRMdln complex developed as the royal burial monument, but the maSI'<1ba continued to be used by the rest of the elite, although the number of subterranean rooms was gradually reduced until, by the ..f.th Oynast~ (2613-2494 BC), only a burial dumher remained, connected lO the superstructure by a vertical shaft which could be blocked with rubble. This type of mastaba \yas built throughout the rest of the Old Kingdom. Panelled fa<;ades regained populari~- during the 3rd Dynasty, although not ahvays on all sides of the tomb, and by the 4th DynaslY stone had become the preferred building material. Similarly, the southern offering niche, which had c\'oh'cd into a simple chapel, became larger, de\'e1oping into a distinct room within the superstnH.:ture, and by the 5th and 6th Dynasties (249+-2181 Ill:) a whole series of rOoms had de\"c1opcd in the superstructure,

or

transfi:)rming it inlo ,1 funerary chapel. These often bore elaborate decoration, including scenes of daily lifc which are valuable for the understanding or agricullural and craft activities (scc 1\IEIU~RU" \ and "1'\'). The chapel conmincd the Fc\l.SI". DOOR stele and altar, usually loc.lIed in an oflcring ch"lmbel' abo\c the burial. Here the family would come to make their ufferings to the dcccilscd. An OFFI':RI:,\G FOR\ICI. \ can"Cd on thc \\alls would also magic'1l1y ensure susten,mce for the deccased. statues of whom were walled up in a SERIJ.\B and \'isiblc only through small openings in the masonr~. During the Old Kingdolll, the afterlife of officials depended un royal EIYOUr, and their tombs, granted by the king, c1uslcrcd around his monumClH, as in the 'streets' of IOlllbs at (ilZI\ and SAQft'\lt\. Mastaba tombs continued to be constructed for pri\ate individuals ,II sites such as AJlLSm, 1':])10'1., ~lta and Quhaniya during the 1\liddlc Kingdom, sometimes copying the pyramids of the 12th Dynas.y (1985-1795 Be) in lheir lise of elaborate open-exca\-ation corridors. At most other siles, lhe rm..:).;.. .n tt tomb had essentially replaced the maslaba as the principal form of pri\iltc funerary archilecllIrc. In the 2\ew Kingdom (1550-1069 Be), however, the so-caHed '"chapel-tombs', particularly exemplificd by the l\ Icmphitc tomb of I IORE1\IlIEII at Saqqara, have been likened by some scholars 10 Ihe mastaba form. The superstructure of these chapc1-t"ombs usually had the appearance of a shriJlc or lemple consisting of a SCi of rooms arranged along an axis, in contr,lst 1.0 the relati\-cly solid mass or the Old :Ind .Middle Kingdom mast"abas. Sh,lfts led down 10 the burial chamber from the courtyards of the supcrstructure"

Chapel-tombs were also common after the end of the ~ew "'-ingdom, as in the case of the royal tombs of the 21st and 22nd Dynasties (1069-715 Ile) in the precineLs of the temple of Amun at 'C\~IS, which probably originally had superstructures of this type (although only the substructures have sun i\"cd). The Late Period rombs of the Gon's wln:s OF 1\\IUl\ ,It .\IEDINET ItABU were also in lhe same architectural tradition. W.n. E.\\I:RY, .Ir(//(/i( E:fIypl (Ilarmondswonh, 1961). J. BIUXKS, '1\lasfaba und Pyramidcl1lcmpel- cin slrllklllrcilcrVergleieh', G.\'I 09 (1980), 45-60. A. J. SPE'CEI{,IJNtlh ill {lllril~t1I J:.gypl (Harmonds\\orlh, 1982),45-11 1. p. \\'_-\'1'50'" l::!{}'plilill Pyrtlmids (JIltl Jllt/Sltl/w lumbs (i\vlcsbllry, 1987). s. O'ALRI-\, P. L\C.O\",\Iu and C. H. ROEIIRIG (cds).. \fummies alld magic (l3051On, 1988). I\". 0 IERI'[O', Jlll1swb(/s e/I~}lpngies d'.ll1dm Empire: 1/, problc1/ll' de la dala/io/l (Brussels, 1989).

mathematics and numbers 'T'he Egyprian numcrical system was a combi~ nation of the decimal and the repetitive" ft lacked a s~ mbol for zero, but scribes occasionally left ,1 g-.lp hetwcen numbers as though such a sign existed. The f{)llowing signs wcre lIsed 1O represent numbers:

10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 [often meaning 'more than -I C<1n count'l.
~ umbers were wrinen from the largest to the sm<.llIest. so that 1,122 (re;'lding q fi-om right 10 feft) would he: II nn ~ ,I, Unlikc the Greeks, the Egyptians did not dc\"Clop abslrilct formulae, but proceeded by <1 series of smililer calculmions. The st.Ite of mathen1<\tic,-ll knowledge in the Pharaonic pcriod has been deduced from a sm<111 number of mathcl11'llic'll texts, t'omprising four papyri (the Moscow, Berlin) Kahun and} mOst famously, Rhind), a leather scroll and two wooden tablets. A number of l1la[hematical papyri written in thc 1J1':1\IO'l'[C script h<lve also survived from the PtOlemaic period (302-00 He). The modern surve~ s of monumcnts hayc enabled much to be dcdm:cd conccrning the Egyptians' practical use of mathematics, and-

173

MATHEMATICS AND NUMBERS

MEASUREMENT

However, the Egyptians' major achievement in geometry was the calculation of" the area of a circle according to the (ength of irs diameter. This was done by squaring eightninths of the diameter's length, which gives 3n approximate value for pi of 3.16. \Vith their knowledge of area, they were .llso able to <:<11culatc volume, including that for a cylinder and pyramid, even when truncated. This again was achieved by a series of smallcr calculations, which, although they lack rhe c!eg'l11cc of formulae, are nevertheless COITeer. Tn the absence of formulae, scribes learned their mathematics by copying out ser examples, replacing the figures with their own. Unlike the Nlesoporamian mathematicians the Egyprians were more interested in praclica.liries than in theory. Neyertheless, certain calculations in the Rhino l'vlathematical Papyrus end with the short phrase mill pm ('it is equal'), which is used where calculations could not be exactly matched to proofs. C. E NL\lS, 'The bread and beer prohlems of" lhe j\tloscow Nlathcmatical Papyrus\JE,t14+ (1958), 56-65.
SCtJ;OI1 f?FlIu' Rltilld ,Walltc1!luliw/ Papyrus, written in lite Hyl.'sos period. but claiming 10 be (f copy (JIll 121h-DYllilsly motk. This part o.(thc lexl {OllsislS (?(a series (d"Prob/CIIH (ol/urning l/ie 'volullles oIrc(.'/{lJ/g!es, lriauglrs find pyramids. /5/h PJI1lIl.\ZJI, c./550 11(;, papyrus,Jimll Tl1Cbcs, 11.32 {llf. (1:I100S7, SIII'I",,8)
.H

least since the rime of Flinders Petrie's sur-

vey of GIZA - it has been dear that the meth-

ods involved in setting out the pyramid COI11~ plcxcs (2686-1650 Be) were pragmatic rather than mystical. The Egyptians' calculation of whole numbers was relatively simple: La l11uhiply by tell, for cxampl~ the appropriate hieroglyphs were changed for the next highest, so that ITn, for instance, could become one hundred. In other calculations, a sum equal to the desired multiplier was reached by a process of doubling, while the multiplicand was il'self doubled as many timcs as Ilccessary for the multiplier. Thus the sum 17 X 19 would be calculated by tirst deriving the multiplier fi-oIll the table below, in which 16 + 2 + I = 19:
i\'IUITIPI.II-:R MUITII'I.ICM\!I)

l'
2' 4 8
16'

17"
34' 68 136

272'

Once a number was reached which was equal to half or more of that desired, no further doubling was needed. Thus, in the else cited above, 16
174

is morc than half of 19. All that was now necessary was to read acrOSs the table and add the relevant figures (marked above by an asterisk), 272 + 34 + 17 = 323, which is the product of 17 X 19.1-1ence there was no need for multiplication t"lbles, simply tables of duplication. Division was achieved by reversing this process. The usc of fractions appears to have caused more difficulties, particularly as the Egyptians recognized only those in which the Ilumerator was one, all of whieh were written by placing Lhe hieroglyph 'I" above thc relevant number: thus one-third wouJd have been rendered as ~ . There were, however, also some special signs for such commonly used liaetions as two-thirds, three-quarters. four-fifths and five-sixths, and the H..hind Papyrus is exceptional in presenting a table of fractions in which the numcrator is two. Complicated fractions were written by reducing them to two or three separate fractions, the first of which had the smallest possible denominator. Thus twoftfths was written as one-third + one-fifteenth. In calculations fi'actions were broken down and thus treated as whole numbers. The Egyptians lIsed rhe observation of practical situations to develop geometrical knowledge early in their history. They knew a rectangle was equal to irs that the area length multiplied by its width. They had also found that if a triangle was drawn inside the rectangle, having the same length as its sides and the same height as its width, then its area would be half that of rhe rectangle.

R. J.

GII.J.li\!GS, AJ[alhl'}I/alif,i" ill the lilllC (~(lh('

pharaoh.\"

(Cambridge} ]\11A) 1972).

R. A. PARKER, DelllOli" I!wlhclII(tli(lt! papyri

(London, 1972).

J. SVI\ST!\L, 'Beitrag zur Erforschung del'

Gesehidu.e tkrVermcssungskunde im alren Agypten', .lela PufJ1lcdllliw, Puin' C VUT v Pm"" 13 (1983), 69-80. G. ROBINS and C. SIIL;TE, The Rhim/ lIlalhemalim!paPJll.us (l.ondon, 1987).

or

measurement Knowledge of weights and measures was fundamenral to rhe smooth running of rhe Egyptian bureaucracy. This is evident fi'om tomb scenes showing scribes recording the amount of grain or counting cattle (sec '1)\.'\!\TION), and from the measured rations and weights of copper issued at D!:m 1:I.-J\WD1NA, ;IS well as vignettes of the weighing of the heart in the BOOK OF THE DEAIJ. The main unit of measurement" was the royal cubit (52.4 em), approximately the length of a man's forearm and represented by the hieroglyph ~ . The royal cubit comprised 7 palm widths each of -f. digits of thumb width (thus 28 digits to the cubit). Artists generally used a grid to layout thciJ' drawi.ngs, and until the end of the Third Intermediate
Period (1069-747 "c) they used the 'short cubit' of 6 palms (44.9cm) which was roughly the length from elbow to thumb tip, conventionally 45 cm. From the SAlTl:: PERIOD (664-525 Be) onwards, however, the royal cubit was lIsed by artists. During tile Persian

MEASUREMENT

MEDICINE

occupation, on the other hand, the royal Persian cubit of 64.2 em was sometimes used, although a reference cubit for this measure at Abvdos is actually 63.85 em long. The length of the double remel/ was equal to that of the diagonal of a square with sides of 1 royal cubit (74.07 em). The double remC1I, divided into fony smaller units of 1.85 em each, was the measurement lIsed in land surveying, long with the la (or mch-ta) of 100 royal cubits. Area was measured by seljll/ (100 cubic square),
later c.1Ued the t/ronrtf. A numher of measuring rods, including the wooden examples lIsed by craftsma.ll and

surveyors, have survived.The most detailed knowledge of the cubit derives not fi'om workaday measures, which could vary considerably, but from ceremonial cubit-rods cut in stone and deposited in temples, or occasionally buried with officials. These were also inscribed

the l,;te measured silver or gold only, They were used to describe the equivalent valuc of a wide variNy of non-metallic goods, thus forming a rudimentary price system in the non-monetary economy of the Pharaonic period (sec 'I'R;\DE). j\lIeasures of capacity also cxisted, notably thc hill (about 0.47 I): tcn lIil1m making one lJekal of ahout 4.77 I, and one kIWI" making 160 lJillJ1l (75.2 I). The 11i11 could be subdivided into units as small as Y;2' as well as into thirds, known as kllllJ'. Scribcs measuring grain arc depicted in the tomb or l\'lenna. A. VV':lOAI.l., IYciglilS alld balill/ct.?s (Cairo, 1905). J C!':RN", 'Prices and wag;es in Egypt in the Raml:sside period', Cl/lliers tI'fJi.'iIOin' !\'Iol/(!ialc 1 (1954),903-21. F G. St\.I:-.'NER, 'l\llcasures and weights',A hisfo/:ll 1~(Jedlllol()gy I, cd. C. Singer, E. J. I-Iolmyanl and A. R. Hall (O,lord, 19.14), 77+-84.

the main tcmple, a much earlier phase, dated by pOl:tery to the late Old Kingdom (c.2300~2181 Be), was uncovered in 1939. This consisted of a polygonal enclosure wall containing a grove of trees surrounding a small, roughly rectangular mud-brick temple. At the rear of the small temple there were two winding corridors, each leading to a small chambcr, and each chamber being covered by an ovaJ mound of soil, perhaps symbolizing the I'KII\IEVt\L MOU.\'I). This carly 'shrine' appears to lie outside the normaJ conventions of Pharaonic temple design. C. ROBlClIO.:'\ and A. V'\IULtE, cIVlcdamoud: fouillc!-i tlu Musce tIu Louvre, 1938', CdE \-1-/27 (1939),82-7. ~! Dcs(ripfi()ll sflJ!lJllfIiri' tlllfempll' pr;lJ!if~rde /vldtllfJ!l(Wt! (Cairo, 1940). B. J. KEI\\I', Ana'elll E:!!,ypl: (//llll(l"~)ll~ra (i"Hli:::.af;oll (London, 1tJS9), 66-9.

ABOVE

IIVoot/en mbil-rod. Lale paiod. (EA23078)

f..

_,3.3 Oil.

RIGIIT Pragmcllf (~rs{hiSf mbif-rod. Nl~m

Kingdom.

L.

/5.2 Oil. (H 136656)

with other useful informarion such as Ii'\U~n,\ TJo::'-J levels or references to names (provinces), forming a kind of compendium of the sort once found in school exercise books in Europe. A knotted rope was used in surveying land, the boundaries of which could he marked with stones, as portrayed in the tomb or Menna at Thebes ('1T69, (.i400 1)(:). Weights were also commonly lIsed, and a large number in stone, pottery and bronze have survived; the c"lrliesl, excavated at Naqada, date to the Predynastic period (c.3S00-3100 Ge). Many weighls in the Dynastic period arc inscribed, while others are in the shape of bulls' heads, cattle or other animals. \"eights were traditionally made in units known as debem, weighing about 93.3 g, but after the 12th Dynasty (198.1-179.1 lle) this unit was supplemented by the "ile of 9-1 0 g, and the dcbell itself was increased to weigh 10 kile. The delnJl/ was a measure of copper, silver or gold, whereas

Medamud (ane. Madu)

Site an ancielll rown localed 5 km northeast of KARl'\:\K temple, at the northernmost edge of Thebes. 'i'he modern site is dominated by ~l temple of the falcon-god MONTU \"hich dates back at least to the J\!liddle Kingdom (2055-1650 m:), although the nucleus of the complex is of the 18th Dvnasty (1.1.10--1295 ilL) and the outer sections are Greco-Roman in date (332 BC-ill) 395). The temple is dedicated to the local triad comprising Montu, Ra'ttawy and Harpocrates (the child-like form of r IORUS). Nex! to the main Greco-Roman temple was a SACRED LAKE and behind it was a smaller temple dedicated to the bull manifestation of Montu, similar to u1e Bucheum at .\RM.ANT. The ground-plan of the ~1iddlc Kingdom phase of the temple of Montu has been ohliterated by the later phases superimposed on it, but numerous stone architectural clements such as columns and royal statues have survived, re-used elsewhere on the site. Beneath

medicine
Egyptian medicine was a mixture or magical and religious spells with remedies based on keen observation of patients, and any attempt to impose thc modern distinction between vlt\GIC and medicine usually only confuses rhe picture. The most common curc fiJI' maladies was probably the /\MULET or the magic spell rather than medical prescriptions alone., since many illnesses tended to be regarded as the result of malignant influences or incorrect behaviour. However, at least as early as the 3rd Dynasty (2686-2613 Ilc), there were already individuals corresponding roughly to the modern concept of a doctor, for whom the term siul7J was used. There were also surgeons (called 'priests of Sekhmet') as well as the ancient equivalents of dental and vetcrinary practitioners. The Greek historian HERODOTUS, writing in the fifth century Be, claimed that Egyptian doctors each had their own specializations, such as

or

175

MEDICINE

MEDINET

EL-FAYU~1

F:iugr/(lIII,

Detail (?{,he I.o/ldoll.\ledic(fl Papyrus. Sen) d.WIJ-/21i1i /Ie. (u/IJIi.i9).

gynaccology or osteopathy} but there is no e, icicocc Lhal this WitS so in the Pharaonic period. Egyptian doctors appear to have been m<linl~ men, given the f~lC[ that only one wom~m doc(or is definitely attested, although this c"i~ dcncc l11;IY well be hiased, in that the prim:ipal sources arc inscriptions on runcrary monuments, most of which were created men rather than wOlllen. A number of sun-j"ing mcdil:al papyri pro,'ide information com;crning dlC Egypti;.1ns' knowledge of medicine and the composition of the body. Such medical texts l11a~ ha\"c been hOllsed in temple archives (sec L1BR.\RIES), although thl' only e"idence for this is the assertion of the Greek physician Galen (t ..\)) 129-99) th,u rhe ancient temple archi\-es at i\ femphis were being (onsulted by Greek and Roman do(tors of his 0\\ n time. The Edwin Smith i\ledical Papyrus (c 1600 m:) was once thought to be the work of a militar~ surgeon, but recent opinion suggests that its aurhor may h;l\e been a doctor associated with ~t pyramid-building workforce. The text deals m'linl~ wilh such problems as broken bones, dislocations and crushings, diyiding ils forty-eight cases into three classes: 'an ailment which I will treal', 'an ailment with which I will contend' Jnd an 'ailment not to be treated'. The symptoms of cach case an: described and where possible a remedy prescribed. Although it cannot he claimed that the writer fully undersrood the conccpt of" Ihe cin':lliation of the blood, he clearly recognized that the condition of the heart could he judged by the pulse: 'The counting of i11lything with the fingers lis done] to recognize the way lhc heart goes. There <lrc vessels in it leading to crery part of the body \,yhen a Sckhmet priest, any sill/}) docror . puts his fingers to the

ror

hcad to the two lunds, to the place of the heart il speaks .. in every \"esse!, cyery part of thc bod~.' The Kahun ,\Iedieal Pap\Tus (r.2100~1901l Be), \\ hich may also hc thc original source lor the R,ll11CSSClim 1\-\ and Cill"lsberg \111 papyri, deals with thc ailmcnts of women and is particularly conccrncd with the womb and the determination of fertility. It also dcscribes such methods of contraception as the consumption of 'excremelll of crocodile mixed with sour milk' or the injection of'l mixture of honc) and n~1tron into the vagina. The Berlin Papyrus (c. 1550 Ill:), on the other hand, contains thc c:lrliest kno\yn pregnancy tcst: ']Jadey and cmmer'. 'The ,,omen must moistcn it with urine e\cry day .. _ if both grow, she will gi\c birth. [f the barley grows, it mcans .1 malc child. If the cmmcr gro,,s it means .1 female child. If neither grows she will not give birth.' .\lodern experiments hase shown thai thc urine of a woman who is not prcgnant ,,ill actually prc\ent the grO\\ th of barle~, suggesting surprising scicntific support for this test. The Ehers :\ ledieal Papyrus (d555 Be) was originally (H'el" 20 III long and consisted simply of a list of some 876 prescriptions and rcmedics for such ailments as \\ounds, stomach complaints, gynaecological problcms and skin irritations. Prescriptions were made up in proportions according 10 fractions based on parts 01" the eye of IIORU~, each part symbolizing a fraction from I / (,~ to 1/1" Thc I-lcarst Pap~ rus (r.1550 I~C) is inscrihcd with mcr 250 prescriptions, <1 numher of whieh deal wilh brokcn boncs <lnd biles (including that or the hippupotamus) The Brooklyn Papyrus deals with snakebitcs it( grcal lengt"h, while the Chester Beatty \ J Papyrus (t.1200 BC:) is concerned only with dise;.lses of the anus. Thc London Papyrus is one of the best examples of the Egyptian three-pronged approach to healing,

which might be described as holistic in modern terms. It consists of a combination of magical spclls, ritu<lls and practical prescriptions, all of which would ha\c heen considered equally essent"ial to thc recO\cry of the patient. It is dc.lr from these \yorks that it would b~ incorreci to suppose th:1t the diss~ction ilwol\'cd in mummification pro\'ided the Egyptians \\ ith a good knowledge of the" 01'1..ings uf the h lIman body. The purpose of numerous organs remained unknown; for example., although il was known dl;1t brain damage could cause paralysis, it was not re;llized t h.1t the hr:tin had :lI1ything to do " ith thl' act of thinking, an actiyity ,,hich the Egyptians ascribed to the heart. The purpose of the kidneys was also unknown, and it "as belic\ ed th,ll all bodily fluids, such as blood, urinc, c:\crel1lcnL :lnd semen, ,,cre const'lnrl~ circuhning around the body. III the Ptolemaic period (332~30 Be) Grcek forms of mcdicine were combi.ned with those of the Egyptians, just as the local deities wen; assimilated with those of thc Greeks. Thus the deified !i\111()"1'i':1' become idcntified with the Greek god Asklepios, and the Asklcpiciol1 ,It Saqqara became a centre lor medicine. P.lticl1ts somclimes also stayed mcrnight in 50called incubaTion chambers al such temples, as in the cult-place of IWS at Saqqara, in the hope of rccei\'ing a cure through diyincly inspircd ilKI': \.\I~. From the L;.Itc Period (7-t7~332 Be) onwards, sanatoria were often attached to major templcs such as the cult~centrc of Hat hor at DE'DER.,\. J. [I. BKI..\~-n:lJ. The T:t/mill Smith Papyrus, 2 \ol~ (Chicago. 1930). A. G \lWI'EK, Tht' Ra1llt'Ht:II11/ Papyri (O.\.fon.l. 1955). P. GJ t \L!OL 'GLI, The p/~)'sir;{f1fS /If p!f{{rlfflllit (~)'PI (eliro, 1983) A.-I'. LIL\, La mit/aim' igyptiflwe tl/II1!1IlPS t/t'.~ plwl"llo/ls (Paris, 1983). J. l\L;\", .llltit!ll1 1':':~YPlitl/ll11{'{li(illt,(London, 1995)

Medinet el-Fayum (Kiman rares; anc,

Shedyet, Crocodilopolis) Silc of the cult centrc of the crocodile-god SOUl':", located in thc centre of the F." L \I REG10'J. I t is not clear when the settlement of" Shedyct was f{)lllldcd, but Ihe earliest knu\\ 11 archilccillral remains deriyc fiom a temple of Sobek construcrcd in [he 12th Dynasty (1985-1795 Be) and restored by Ramcses II (1279-1213 lie). The settlement and the temple must harc particularly flourished during the late 1\ liddle Kingdom, when scyeral rulers of the 13th Dynasry (I795~1650 lie) tollk

176

MEDINET l-IAnU

MEDINET J-1ABU

names including references to Sobc1. !\lost of" the sun"iving remains (including another temple, a sacred lake and some baths) d.uc to the Greco-Roman period (3.12 BC-\D 31)5). \yhen the town was rhe capital of the pro\'ince of Arsinoc. In the carl~ l\\cnticlh century \1>

the sire still cU'"crcd an area of some three

hundred acres, but it has 110\\ diminished considerably because of the nonhwestward exp;'1Ilsion of thl' modern cit~. L. K\hOS\, '"hroJ..odilskulre'. 1.e.rih)1l tla AgypffI!ogil' Ill, cd. \\t. Heick, E. Quo and \V. \\'cstendorf(\\'ieslmdcn, 1980),801-11.

courtyard of Antoninus Pius Ptolemaic pylon easlern (fortified or 'Migdol') gateway tomb chapels of god's wives ot Amun temple of Amun (of HalshepsuVfhutmose III) sacred lake first pylon

8 9 10 11 12 13 14

first court second pylon second court hyposlyle hall first vestibule second veslibule sanctuary

15 Gale ot Rameses III

16 palace

17 18 19 20

western gateway residential areas magazines indicates position of the house of Bufehamun

15

Medinet Habu (ane. Djamct; Djeme)

Temple complex d.lling from tht.:' NI.:\\'
Kingdnm to the Late Period (c.l550-332 Itc)

at the southern end of the Thcball \ycst bank, opposite modern Luxor. !\Lost of the archacologic'l! and epigraphic work at the site ""as undertaken by the Chicago Epigraphic Sun'e~" in the 1920s and 1~30s. The earliest section of the complex "as a small temple built by Hatshcpsul' (1-173-1-158 ue) and Thlltmosc III (1-179-1-125 Be), bur this was later eclipsed by the construction of the monuary temple of Ralllcscs III (1184-1153 1Ir:). The latter is aligned roughly southeast to northwest, but convcnlionally the side facing: the Nile is described as cast. The" hole complex is surrounded by massi\"c mud-brick walls, with ;I cop: of a Syrian fortress, known as a 11I~t!d"l, scn'ing as ils e.lSlern gateway (sometimes called the 'p;lvilion gate'). T'he heads of foreign capti\es .1re displayed below windows in the eastern passage of the gone" a:. In rooms aho\'c the gate arc scenes showing Ramescs III at leisure, playing dr,mghts with the women of his II'RI\L It is possible t1ut it was in this pri\ate suile of rooms that an unsuccessful ,lncmpt to assassinate Ramescs III took place. i'\earb: "as a landing stage where boats could moor, having re,lChed the site b: i1 canal from the Nile. The exterior walls of the temple are decofmed with scenes from the rarious campaigns of Ramcscs III, notably his w~lrs "ilh the L1llY.\'\;S .111d the St"", PEOPI.ES, \rho arc also depicted in the first court of the temple. The first PYI.(),\ shown the king smiting his enemies) while rows of' human-headed 'name rings' depict the conquered lands. The second coun is devoted to sccneS of religious processions) notably those or \11'\J and SOh: 'R. Despite t"hc gcnerally good state of preservation of the temple, the llYPOS"]"' u: 11'1.1. hilS suffcred greatly, the columns being reduced to onl\ a few mctres Howcrer in the southwest ~orncr is a tre~l~ury build'ing with scenes depicting somc of the tcmple

18

18

n,l' WI/pic mll1plcx (~(R{/Illescs Ilf al A1edilfci !JaIJII"

equipment, Other temple \'aluables were probably kept in i1 betler concealed building immedionely in (ront of the north ,,"all of I he

sanc!.Uary, The focus of the main axis of the temple is the sanctuary of Amun, bchind which lies a false door for 'Amun-Ra united "ilh eternity" namely the divine tC:Jrm of Rilmescs Ill"

177

MEDINET I-IAllU

MEDJAY

Reiehes ill
1~5-').

~ledine[

J\ladi', IHDAIK 8 (1~39),

Medjav
NOll1,ulic group originally from the eastern dcserts of Nubia, who were commonl~ employed as sc.:outs and light infamry from the Second Intermediate Period (1650-1550 BL) onwards. 'fhcy hayc been identified with the archaeological remains of the sO-C"J.lled r\'\,GR'\\ E CL.I:IL"RE, although some scholars disagree with this association. E. E,nESI'EI.DE (cd.), .i~)lpten l1ud Kusdf (Berlin, 1977), 227-8. B. j. "-E.\II', 'Old "-ingdom. \ riddle "-ingdolll and SCl:ond Lnrcrmedi;nc Period', .-l11cicl/l Egypt: a so(illllJislfI1Y, B. G. Trigger ct al. (C1mbridgc, 19H3), 7J-I~2 (169-71).
11,e temple (~r"lcdilll'1 Habn, SClml,IIII11///lt/brick cllr!osure malls (Iefi (lilt! right) is f/ie mortl/my It.'l/1p/e (~rR(/lIfeses III. the firs! pylol/ oI mhirh is slw11Jn !Iere. tis mell m ()/Iu}' buildiugs. 111 Ihe.fi1l'lfgrlJ/lJld (It!ji) Ilu: rllapels I~rlhc /!.(J(rl' mires (dAmllll WII bt SCCII. (f~ .,: "'fU!()f.SON)

On the southeastern side of the temple are the rem.tins a royall'.\I.,\CE, which was probably much smaller than the king's main residence, scrying as a spiritual palace as well as for occasional royal \'isits. lr \Y<lS originally decorated with glazed liles, many of \\ hich .lre now in the Cairo l\luscum. and its bathrooms were lined with limestone (0 protect the n1udbrick. From the palace the king could enter the first court, or peruse it from .1 "window of appearaOl:es' on its southern side Because of its strong fortificatjons, ~lcdinct Habu becamc a rcfuge in unsettled times, and the residents of the workmen's yillage at IJEIR EI.-\IEDI' \ mO"cd there during the late 20th Dynast) (.1100-1069 Be); the remains of the housc of onc of the "illage scribes, Butchamun, arc at the western end of the tcmple. At some later time, howe"er, the temple defences were oycrwhelmcd and the west gate demolished, Ncar the e.lstern gate are a group or ~chapel-lOmbs\ beneath which several of the 25th- and 26th-Dynasty Gon's Wl\'ES OF "IUN (Shepenwepct II, Amenirdis J, Shepcnwepet III and iVLehitcnwesckhet) were buried. The route to the AnuJI1 temple of Hatshepsut and Thutmosc [II underwent modifications in the 25th Dynasty (7-+7- 656 Be), and in Ptolemaic allll Roman rimes. In the Ptolemaic pcriod the town of Djclllc ,yas built within thc main walled compound. It derived its name from the ancient Egyptian term for the site, Tjamcr or Djamet, and took advantage

or

of the protection offered by the site. During this time the secund court of Ramescs Jll's temple was uscd as a church. For a disclission of the an.;hacologir.:al significance or New Kingdom mortu;lry temples, see RA.\ILSSl':u,\t (on which thc basic plan or Ramcses Ill's mortuary tcmple was modellcd). EI'IUIUPlliC SLR\'E', CJ 1IC:\.(iO, _"ledillci Ha!Ju, 8 "Dis (Chil:agu, 1930-70). U. IloIR'iClIER, The e.rcul'ulioll (!( lIedillcl !!alm, :} "ols (Chic'lgO, I 93+-S-l). \r. J. i\ ILR'-\i\E, Un/lnl milll elerniql: (f cmfcisl' gu/rlt' 10 Ihe IIItnllllllClI1S (JIJledillef Habit (ChiclgO and Cairo, 1980).

Megiddo. Battle of
Conflict bel wcen the armies of the I thDynasty ruler TllUT,\lOSE III (H79-1{25 Be) and those of the princ.:e of the Syro-P.llestinian city of Qldesh. 'The latter was no doubt backed by the military might or the stilte of j\IlT'\NNI, ,,hic.:h had created a network of vassal citY-Slates in Syria during the early 15th century ur:. The 'annals' of the reign nf Thutmose Ilt, c.:ompiled by the military scribe Tjaneni and inscribed on the walls of the Hall of Annals in the temple of Amun at I';:'\I{,\,,,", h;1\'c pro,-idcd the details of the Battle of _1\-1egiduo, as well as sixteen further campaigns in the Levant. Less than ;l year after assuming sole rule of Egypl (i.e. aftcr the death of II rrsln:psLT), Thurmosc embarked on a campaign to de.11 with .111 uprising of Syro-Palcstinian cit~ states. A council of war between the king and his generals rC"caleu that there were three possible strategies for 'lrtacking the prince of Qlllcsh, whose armies wcre cnc.:amped near the city of i\legiddo: lO take a southerly route ,i'l a town c.:allcd l:1;mach, which la~ abuut eight kilometres southeast of .J:\lcgiddo; tu march northwards to the town of Djefty, emerging to rhe west of Nlegiddo; or to head directly across the ridge, ,Yhich would allo'" them to appear from the hills about nyO kilometres from Nlegiddo. 1n time-honoured fashion, the pharaoh chose the direci approach, against the advice of his generals and despite the dangers involved in a rhrceday march single-file through :l narrow pass. This route, however, W,lS ncgotiated successfully, allowing them to launch a surprise frontal ,luack on the enemy. In the ensuing slaughtcr, the Asiatics fled into the city, leaving behind the kings or Qldesh and Nlegiddo, who had to be hauled on to the battlcments by rheiJ

Medinet Maadi (,me. Dja; \!armouthix) Site in the southwestcrn fayum region where a temple or Ihe cobra-goddess RE...'E...'\,LTET (a han'est deity) was founded during the reigns or ""'.'1""1 IT III and II (1855-1799 Be). [t wax later expanded and embellished during Ihe Greco-Roman period. The dark sandstOne inner part of the tcmplc consists of a small papyrus-columned hall leading to a sanctuary comprising threc chapels, each containing sl;Hues of deities. The central chapel incorporared a large slatue of Rcnemllet, with Amencmhat III and J\ standing on either side of her. The Ptolemaic parts of the temple comprise a pa' ed processional way passing through an eight-c.:olumncd KIOSK leading to a ponico and transverse vestibule. It has been suggested that thc unusually good preSery.ltion of this t.emple complex, excavated by ;l team of arch;lcologisls from the University of !vlilan in the 1930s, may have been due simply to its rclati,'c seclusion. A. VOGI.lAi'\O, Primo (l'setOlldo) rappfJrlfj degli smt'/ coude"i del/If R. Ullh..cnila tli .Mila1/u III!//a Zfj//a di i1ladilU:1 A'III(/(li, 1935-6 (~,lilan, 1936-7). R. N'L \I.'\NN, 'DcrTclllpei des Mittleren

178

MEIDUM

MEIR

clothing. After a seven-month siege, Megiddo \VaS captured, bringing the campaig'n to a successful conclusion. H. H. NFLSO", 'lire Im"le l~rjHegiddfJ (Chjcago, 191.1) H. GR!\I'O\\', Sludit'Il:::'1I tlm_ll/Nalell Tllllllllosis des driflelllll/d:::'lI ihllm VCFIJJlllldlt'lI his/oristlll'll Bt!ridrlell des NetiC/! Reichl's (Berlin, 1949). A. J. SI','\L1.\GElt, 'Some notes on the Battle of Megiddo and reflections on Egyptian military writing', /vW1JK 30 (197~), 221-9. _, 'Some .Idditional rtmarks on the batrle of Megiddo', GM 33 (1979), ~7-54.

Meidum
Funerary site of an unusual early pyramid complex ,lOtI ilssociated pri,;lte cemerery, situated close to the Fayum region. The pyramid

(although Sneferu's 'north' pyramid at Dahshur may have been the earLiest to have been designed as such from the outset). It was once suggested that the outer casing of the N.leidum pyramid collapsed early in the -I-th Dynasty, and thus inspired the change of angle in the final stages of Snefcru's 'bent"' pyramid at Dahshur, assuming that both were being built simultaneously. HQwever, the presence of ;1 well-established cemetery of early -I-thDynasty \IASTAJ3!\ tombs surrounding the pyramid, as well as the New Kingdon) graffiti in the mortuary temple, all make it more likely thal rhe collapse came much hner, and certainly no earlier than the Ne\\" Kingdom. The corbelled burial chamber was built into the superstructure of the pyramid at the level of thl" old groll.nd surface, and, in its architcc-

reliefs and statuary. The internal walls of the superstructure of the tomb of Ncfcrmaat and his wife Atet were decorated with painted scenes of daily life, including the celebrated depiction of the 'jVlcidum Geese'. The same tomb also includes an inno\'<ltive, but apparently short-lived, form of wall decoration using coloured paste inlays. The painted limestone statlles of Rahotep and Nofret (Egyptian lVluseum, Cairo), probably a son and daughter-in-law of Sneferu, were discovered by Auguste iVbriettc in 1871 in a mastaba to the north of the pyramid. The earliest surviving mummy, oaring to the 5th Dynasty, was excavated by Flinders Petrie at ;'vleidum in 1891, but it was btcr destroyed when the Royal College of Surgeons was bombed during the Second World War.

50

100 m

Cross-sert;olllhrollgh ,!II' pJll"{{lIlid ((I .\!Ie/dulll, shoming 110m lire on~f.(i1ltl/ slepfled prtdiles (1, 2) lJ)ere iidilll'd to gii'C fhe SlllflO/1z pHdi/e (3). Thl! burial dwmher is labclled-l.

is usually ascribed to Huni (2637-2613 Be), last king of the 3rd Dynasty, although his name docs not appear anywhere on the monument and it is perhaps more likely that his fun crary monument \muld have been located at S:\QQ\R:\ (possibly in an unexcavatcd enclosure to the wcst of the step pyramids of DJOSfR and SEKI-IE;\1t,J lET). The Mcidum pyramid may have belonged to his son Si\EFERV. whose name is mentioncd in graffiti dating to the New Kingdom (1550-1069 DC) in the passag'e and chamber of a small mortuary temple at the Site. Alternatiyely it ma~' hayc been completcd by Sneferu but begun by Huni, since Sneferu himself appears to have had twO pyramid complexes at D:\I-IS1 fUR. The modern appearance of thc .Nleidulll pyramid is that of a stepped tower, but it was originally constructed as a scven-stepped pyramid, amended to eight steps, and finally provided with a smooth outer casing to transform it into the earliest true pyramid

Tile pyramid of NTeidll1ll JlOW presellts a tOlJJcr-like a]Jf!('{//'{/llcc tllle In till' loss {Jli/s origillal emillg. It /1){/S probllb(v rOIlS/meted I~)I eitller III/ili (lr /lis SO/I.

vv. ]\11. F

VV. M. F. PI':TRIE, J11eydlllll (London, 1892). PETRIE, E.l\ll:\{x!\Y and G. A.

SI/{fcru.

(/~ 1: \tGtlO/..')'Ov)

tural sophistication, it is regarded as second only to the 'grand gal1ery' in thc Great Pyramid of Khufu (2589-2566 Be) at GIZA. The building interpreted as a mortuary temple on the east side of the pyramid was found to incorporate two enormous uninscribed round-topped stone stelae probably f()rming part of an offering chapel. An open causeway led to the \'alley temple, which has not yet" been eXG1Yiltcd. The mast"ab<l cemeteries, located north and cast of the pyramid, have provided some of the best examples of early 4th-Dynasty paintings,

W O\INWIOUIIT, i\ifeydlllll alld J1!lemphis III (London, 1910). K. ME1'-DEI.SSOi\, 'A building disaster at the Meidum pyramid',.7EA 59 (1973), 60-71. 1. E. S. EDWARDS, 'The collapse of the l\ileidum pvramid',.7EA 60 (I97~), 251-2. R. ST\OEI.\IAN1'" 'Snofru und die Pyramidcl1 von Meidulll und Daschur', MDAIK 36 (1980),
~37-9.

N1. SAl.EII and 1-1. SOLJROUZII\N~ The Ej{Jlptiall ;t1mc/lm. Caim CMainzl J987), nos 25-7. 1. E. S. EDWARDS, The pyramids (~r Egypt. 5th cd.
(Harmonds\Vorrh, 1993),71----8.

Meir
Group of decorated rock-cut tombs in iVliddle

179

MEMNON

MEMPHIS

Egypt, about 5U km northwest of" modern Asyut. The tombs, dating to the 6th and 12th ])\Ilasties (2345-218] and ]985-1795 I)l: respectively), \\TIT badly pillaged during the nineteenth ccntllr~' and c\'cntuall~ excavated and n:cordnl by Aylward Blackman between 1912 and 1950. They contained the funerary rcmain~ of the governors of Cusac and members o[ their families, while the shaft-tombs of their Scn'.ll1ts were cut into the surrounding
clifTs. Among the most important tombs
,11T

palace 01 Apries nortllernenclosurewall modern village of Mit Rahina enclosure wall of the temple 01 Ptah hyposlyle hall west pylon embalming hOllseofApis oulls 'alabaster' sphinx colossi of Rameses II

10 temple of Rameses II 11 Korn Rabia 12 Kom Fakhry: area of First Intermediate Period lombsand section of Middle Kingdom settlement 13 templeofPtah 14 palace of Merenptatl 15 ruins of unidentified strucfure

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Memphis (Men-ncb)
Capilal cit)' of Egypl for most of the Pharaonic period 1 thc site of which is centred on the modern yiJbge of lViit Rahina, some 2-+ km south of modern Cairo. It W'1S capital or the lirst Lower Egyptian ,'\o.\W and the adminiSlrarive capital during the Early Dynastic period (3100-2686 Ile) anel Old Kiogdom (2686-2181 Be). It is said to have been f()lInded by the 1st-Dynasty ruler j\lI':W:S. The '1\1emphite necropolis', located to the wcst of thc ciry, includes (north ro south) \IILT Rt)J\SII, GIZA, Z!\\\ I~ 1':'1" I:I.-_\In.\:'.', .\BL'SIR, St\(~~\R\ and D\IISIILR, co\ering ~l dist.ance of approximately 15 km. Saqqara) hO\\'(::n.T, is both dlC largest and nearest section or Ihe nccropolis. Very ICw tombs arc actually located at Nkmphis ifsclf~ although a few /i'om the First Intermediate Period (2I8l-2()55 Be) havc becn discovered close to iVlil Rahina, while at KOI11 Fakhry therc arc tombs of22nd-Dynasty high priests (9-1-5-7] 5 IlC). The name r\Jlcmphis seems to derive from the pyramid town associated wilh the pyramid of' Pepy I (2321-2287 Be) at Saqqara, which was called J\ifen-nder (meaning 'established and bcautifuF). A more ancient name fix the city was lncb-hedj ('''Vhite \'Valls' or '\\Thite Forlress'), which probably rcferrcd to the appearance of the fortified palace of onc of the earliest kings. It has been suggested that this original town may have bccn located ncar the Illodern village or Abusir and that the settlement gradually shifted southwards toward modern ivlit Rahina. The lOCH ion of lhc site al the apex of' the Delta madc it well suited f()r the COol 1'01 of both this and the Nile \'alley, sO that it was sometimes also known as the 'balancc of the two lands'. The remains of early l\\cmphis lie beneath thick deposits of Nile allllYillIll, and much is below the water table. 1-1O\\"c\-cr, a SlllTe~

directed by David Jeffre"s on behalf nf the Egypt Exploration Socicty is attempting to locate ,111 e<lrly seulement in an area of ancient higher ground by means of a serics of drill corings fonlling Lhe basis for a map of the subsud;lCe topography. The 1110st obyious l11onul11cnts at the site belong; to the I\"ew Kingdom, the timc \yhen TIIEBES had become the religious and admil1istrati\T centre of Eg~'IH. Neverthclcss, Memphis retained :1 great deal of" importance, and continued to seryc as the northern capital. Indeed l11an~ scholars see it as the 'real' administrativr capital for most of Pharaonic hislory. The visible New I-.:.ingdom l110llllmCllts comprise the tcmple of 1'"["-\11, patron or Ihe ci,-~, much or \\"hich datcs to the time of Ramcses II (]279-]2]3 Be). f-1owe\"er 1 Pt..lh, who at .\'lcmphis formed a TKL\lJ with SI':"IL\IET and '\!EFFltTI': \\, was one of the mOSI ancient deities or Egypt, and earlier temples to him c1earl~" existed. Part of the Ramessitle temple rC-llses pyramid casing blocks, perhaps brought fro111 Saqqara, and earlier elcments, including a lintel of Amcllemhat JJI (l855-1808Ilc), havc been found thcre, inclieating that older strUCl"Ures remain to be disco\'ered. A fallcn colossus of Rameses II and

an 'a1i.lbasler' sphinx the )!cw Kingdom arc thosc fcatures of the sire mOSI C0l11111on]~ \'isited in modern ti111(:s, since the tcmplc is uften nooded O\\-ing to the high water table. The Kom Qlla area of the site contains the remains of a palacc of i\r[e.renptah (12131203 IK), successor 10 Ramcses Il, along with a smallcr Ptah temple. ::\earby Petrie discovered the remains of an industria] sitc of the Roman period, where F'\fIo:'\Cr-: was bcing produced. The Kom Rabia area \yas thc f()Cus of a British cxclVatioll during the] 980s, yielding ;l "aluable ceramic chronological scquence fill thc New Kingdom and pan of the J\liddle Kingdom , as well as giving greater insights into a small pan or Ihe ancient city. An l.:mbalming housc fClr the .\I'IS buil, liying manirestation of Pfah, was built b~ Sheshonq I (945-924 lIe) of the 22ml Dynasty, prob,1bly replacing an earlier structurc, and traces of this, including cnormous travertine cmbalming tables, are still visible. This too has becn the subject of reccnt CXG1\ation. North of rhe precinct of Plah is an enclosure of the Lire Period, besr known f()[ thc imprc5siyc 26thD~'nasty palace mound of f\prics (5R9-570 IIC). Perhaps intcntionally, this mound \Hmld ha\T provided /-\pries wilh a clear \iew the Saqqara necropolis, which was a source of inspirarion for artistic revi\"al during the S.\ITI~ PERIOD. In Ptolcmaic limes the ciry dwindled in importance, losing out to the new sea-port at \1.I':'\i':DIU \, while t.he founding of Fustat, ultimately to become part of Cairo (aftcr the Arab conquest in (41), dealt the final blow to the city, Its remains were still clearly Yisible

or

or

180

MENDES

MF.NKAURA

in the twelfth century

.\1\

hut like the stone

buildings of its necropolis they have suffered fro111 "quarrying' and the activities of se!Ja/... hiJl (farmers using ancient mud-brick as fertllizcr). W. M. E P":'I'R,E, Ml'llIfi/II's I (London, 19119). R. ANTIIES, JHilrahil/tI 1956 (Philadelphia, 196j). B. PORTER and R. L. B. !\luss, 7i)p{J{!.Ttlphi(({/ bibliogl'llfi/IJ' Ili/2 (O,ford, 1978),8311-75. D. G. JEFFREYS. The slIn:ey ,!(JI,fcmphis (London, 1985). D. G. JEFFREYS and A. T-\\:\RJ-.s, 'The historic landscape of Early Dynastic L\ lemphis', Jl[lJrJ fA 50 (1994),143-74

also traces of minor Ramesside buildings at the site. fresh fieldwork during the 1980s has rcyealcd senlement remains of the late Predynastic and Early Dynastic periods. II. Ol-:.i\ II-:LI.E'\'\ERE and P. j\ L\CK_n-, .M mdcs II (\Varminster, ] 976). D..I. B]{E\\ ER ami R. .J. \~fl':',,"F, 'Transilion~l] tIle Prcclynaslic-Early Dynasli(: oenlDations at l\lcndes: ~l preliminar~ repon', Ti,e Nile Dclll! III 1f/lllSilioll: -I-/!I .inlmillcl/llil/1ll /fC, cd, E, C. l\1. "an dell I3rillk ('lei '\\i", 1992), 191-7.

Menkaura (2532-250.1lJc)
Penultimate king of the +th Dynasty, and builder of the third pyramid ill GIZ:\, He was the son of K:11;\FR1\ (2558-2532 Be) and grandSOil or KJ ICFt.: (2589-2566 BC), the builders of the lwO other p~Tamids at thc site. The sUl'\iving details of his life arc largely anccdotal and (!l.:ri\"e principall~ from the Greek historian lIFROI)OTLS, who describes him as a piolls and

Mendes (ane. Per-banebdjedet) Tell el-Rub'a is the site uf Per-banebdjedet, the capital of the sixteenth T.O\yer Egyptian
;'\IOi\lE.

Menes (dOlJO Ill:) According 1"0 the EgYPlian historian :\1.\,,,",,ETll0 ((.305-285 lH.:), j\[enes was the founder of the Egyptian state, responsible for

'I'he chief deity here was originally the goddess [11\'1'-,\11':1 lIT, but from the 2nd Dynasty

(2890-2686 Be) onwards she was increasingly

replaced by her consort, the ram-god Banebdjedet (!Ja ImanifcstationJ of the Lord of Djedct). Their Son Harpocran.:s (sec JlORUS) completed the rvlendesian triad. The earliest surviving structures at the site arc _\I\ST\I{\ tombs of the late Old Kingdom, and a granite NAOS or the time of Ahmosc " (570-526 Be) is the carliest of the temple ITl1l;lins. The ass()ci~ ated city may have been the home-town, and perhaps also the capital, of some 01" the rulers of the 29th Dvnastv (399-380 Bt:). The Greek historian Herodolus, who visited Egypt around +50 ue, noted the sacrifice of goats at Nlendcs, in COlllraSl to lhe usc of sheep elsewhere in Egypt. It is possible, however, th,lt he mistook the sacred ram for a gont. There arc

IusaipII(}// Oil al! inNJ' lavcljin all oiljal; 11'111, {{ rcaml (d'('IYIl(S 1I/I11C relgl/ (~(KIllg .--IIf({. ,~IIIIf(: rigill-lullul sidc /!!"lhc IUp rcglslcl' is Iltc hlt'mg~)lflh men, mhirtl has hem ill!eljJrclcd as ,I,C IWIIiC 0/ .I;leues. Eal"~}1 DYllasllr Pa;()d, c.3/0() IlC, hfJI]'. FIIII/ Ihe muslava IOlllb o/Neillt!wlcp al iVaI/ada, II. -1.8 ClII. (el/NO .7f3/773)
the Lnificatiol1 of the Two Lands. unfort"unately it is not c1car \vhclhcr l\ifcncs is to he identified with the historical ligures i\..'\R,\lI~l~ or ,\11A. An ivory plaque rroml,\i\(~.'\D.\ beaTS the name of both IvIenes (1Vlcn) and Aha, although il has been argued that il probably records a yisit by the latter to a place connccted with ~1enes. :Many scholars now believc that Narmcr is the legcndary Nh.:nes, since lhe two namcs arc linkcd on jar-scalings fi'OIll .\13\ LJOS, Hmye\-er, the identification remains uncertain. Tn either casc we know ,-irtually nothing' of the reign uf this ruler. His great achic\'Clllcnt. the unification of Egypt, nmy st;}nds as his only memori'll. The Grcek "Titer Herodotus credits him with draining the plain of ,\IE\\PllIS, but \yithout ,1l1y evidence, To the ancient Egyptians he was the (-irst human ruler, whereas earlier kings were regarded as demi-gods. W, B. E/o,IEln', Arr!la/I" t."gypi (J-brmondsworth, 1961). I Nwdcl/ odJiIl/imlllltl! pyramid o/lllc -1111DYl1asly mIl!/" J\IICI//..'fl1lra al Giza. 26111 DYlIasly,

c.66f-,;2.) lie. (duM7)

just ruler. 'Vhell told by the oLKle or llUTO that he had only six years to lin:, he is said to have effectively doubled his remaining lifc by banquet ing throug'h the hours of each night. His pyramid complex was eXC;l\',\l"ed by George REIS.\lE]{, although the pyramid itself had been entered pIT\'iously by a numbcr of' early nineteenth-century Egyptologists, including Colonel Vyse, who removed a fine sarcophagus (decorated in tht: palace-bpde sl'ylc; sec SEREKll) and attempted to send it baCK to England by boar. Unfi)l'wnatcly it was lost when thc merchant ,'cssel Reauice sank in October 1838. Ho\Ycycr) part of an anthropoid coffin bearing the namc of the king was safely ITmo\'ed to London along' \yith honcs fi'om the burial chamber. It is now Known that the date of the coffin cannot bc any earlier than SAITI':

Thc 'ram o/J\!loulc:i'. 26L!1 D.)'IIIISI.1', c.6UO glas.~, l.. (~r/l{/s(' 9 WI. (E.16.1772)

IlC,

IS]

MENNA

MENTUEMHAT

Gn:ymill;ke Ir/tul s/tl/ue fJI/\JImhllfra.

{/(((JlII[Jtll/ied by tile g(}ddes.~ flat/wI' (Ull !lis right)

{Iut! fhe per,Wl/ijical;rJ!l nI'he J7th !lO//ll' of Upper Egypt ((II/Iris leji). 11/1)(/.1' exmv{/Ied by Iht' J-JaITarr!-BoSlnJl e.rpedilioll jimn IIII' 7..'lIlllT tempI!' oI/Vlenkaurri al Giza ill 190/'l, alrmg /Ilith 'lira fJlher In'ads i/1 peJ.fl'C{ (Ourlilioll (Jilt! aji'agllli'lfl (~l a/Uik -1-111 DJ!II{/S~JI, c.25(){} HC, If. 92.501/.
(<:lIlIu.7""0679)
<1 breI' rcburi,ll of remains believed to be those of the king, although the associated bones hayc' been dated to the Coptic period. The p~Talllid, which covers less lhan a quarter of the area of the Great Pyramid, underwent several changes of plan, and was probably nC\Tr finished. Its lowest sixteen courses are of red granite, and it is possible that the whole was to be covered in this way; SOme of the passages are also lined with granite, occasionally carved into palace-Eu;adc de<.:oration. from the complex Comes a statue or thc king and his wife, Q.!.Ieen Khamerernebty . II, while a number of fine 'I'RI,\1) statues have also been discovered. These arc among the finest examples of Old Kingdom sculpt"Ure and are now in the Egyptian iVluSCUI11, Cairo. i\tIenkaura was succeeded b~f Shcpseska[

rimes (664-525 Be), and was probably

(2503-2{98

I1C)

who chose to be buried in a

large mastaba-shaped fllmb (the A1lastabat Fara'un) midway between S:\QQ!\R.\ and
D'\IISIIUIL

REIS.'\tER, Tlte temples (~rthl' third pyramid at Giza (Cambridge, J\11A' l 1931). I. E. S.. ED\U.RDS J TIll! pyramids f~rE:!ZJ,ftt, 5th cd.

G.. A.

(I-Iarmondsworth, 1993), 137-51.

Menna (t, HOO BC) An 'estate inspector' in dle reign ofThutmosc

II' (HOO-1390 BC), whose Theban lOmb ('1'"1' 69) at Sheikh Abd cl-Qyrna included important scenes depicting land surycy. The w~lll decorations also include the agricultural actiyities overseen by ~Ilenna, as well as religious and funerary scenes, including the weighing of the IIE1\RT. B. PORTER and R. L. B. lVloss, Topogmphiral /li/ilio/{rtfj;!Jv 1/1 (Oxford, 1960),13-+-9.

Mentuemhat (<'.700-650 Be) 'Prince of the city' and 'fourth prophet of Amun', who rose Lo power in the Theban region during the reign or rhe Kushire pharaoh T/\!-!:\IUl!) (690-664 lie), on whose behalfhc constructed various additions to the temple af KARl\r\". His career spanned the transition between the 25th and 26th Dynasties l surviving the turmoil of the mid seventh century Be, during which Egypt was
182

MENTUHOTEP

MERENPTAII

(wicc conquered by the \SSYRI \ ,s and 111harqo's successor, 'r;mu[i.lmani, struggled for scver,t1 years against the Saitc pharaohs, "\Et..:.AC I (672-66-+ BC) allll PS.I."TE' I (66+-610 BC). Despite the f~ll:t that the first Assyrian invasion in\'olvcd the sacking of Thebes by Esarhaddon's armies, ~lcntucmhat appCi.lfS

ahout JHenlulrolep I, who W<1S the father of I~TEF I (2125-2112 Be), the first fully recognized ruler of the Theban region. 1\10st chronologies therefore list Intef I, rather than J\lentuhorcp I, '1S the earliest lith-Dynasty ruler of the Thcban region. Tn the reign of SenusrcL I, howc\"Cr, hoth !\Ientuhotep I and Tntef I were giycn their own religious cults and the fictitious llorus name Tepy-a'l ('ancestor') was imcmed for i\lelltuhotcp I, since he and I nref I were both rccob.'llizcd as the founders of the :\Iiulile Kingdom. The most important of Ihe four llth-

Grey gra.llile .I'la/llt: (~/AIIf'l/llffmlf(/I,.li()11l1Irc

Cachelle COllrl in/hl' It'll/pIe (~/AI!1I1I/ til Kawai'.

2.1,"-26,/' DYII/lsties, <:-.670 flC,

II.

1.37 III.

(e I/RO ee-l2236)
to have maintained a liglll grip over lhe Thcban region, and a cylinder-seal of Ashurbanipal dcsuibcd him as Iking of 'rhebes'. At the death of TanuLamani in (.656 lie, he controlled a large area, sometimes described as a 'lcmplc SIi.UC', stretching from Asw.m in the south to perhaps as far north as Hermopolis l\lagna. J\'lentucmhal"'s tomb in western Thebes (rr34) consisted of a decorated subtcrranL-an burial chamber and a huge stone and 111udbrick supersr-ructure with talJ papyrus columns in its forccourt. The rclie(1) are typical of the archaizing tendencies of the 25th and 26th Dynasties, drawing extensi\'ely on the styles and subject-matter of scenes in Old and ew Kingdom tombs. j. LEO.AXT, Ml'lIloucmllfJl, fJlltilrieml' proplu;ll' tI'Amoll, priucctie la i:illl'(Cairo, 1961). D. EIG"IER, Die 1111J11I/1//cnlalen GmblmulclI tla Spiil:::.eil in tier Iheballischell Nekropole (Vienna, 1984).

Paiult'd Jamlsloui' lIead nla s/tl/llf.' n.fAJenlulwlep

" Neblrepelrtl.Folll his ruillemple til Deir e1-

the Old Kingdom \\ \ST>\IH and lhe symbolism of the PRI\IF.\'\1. \Iou,n. Six hundred years later its plan was copied and elaborated by II ITSlWI'SLT (1-f7J-1-f58 BC) in lhe design of her mortuary temple, which is loc~1f cd immediately to the north. _\lcntuhotep II'S complex incorporated il cenotaph containing ~1 se.1tcd statue of the king as well as the tomhs of six of his queens, including a mab'11ificellt set of limestone sarcophagi. His successor, .I'leuluhl/lcp III Suuk!lkllrl/ (200+-1992 Be), was buried in another \"~1IlCY a short distance to the somh of Deir el-B<.thri, but his funcnuy complex, consisting of a similar combination of ramp anti podium, was unfinished and uninscribed. I Je rebuilt the fortresses along the border of the eastern Delta, ,,-hcre a cult was later dcclicolt.ed to himself and the I-leraklcopoliran ruler KhelY III al rhe site of el-Khatana. The name uf the fimll 11lhDynasty ruler, NICIIIIl!lOICP II NebttlW)lrtI (1992-1985 Be), is recorded on a stone howl from EI.-I,ISIIT, bur would otherwise be praclic:ll1y unknown if it were not tor the rockcarved records of his quarrying expeditions to the \Vadi c1-Huui amethyst mines and the \Vaeli I:lammamat siltstone quarries, the latter venture being led by a \"IZIER named Amcncmhat, who 01.1)" h.we later become \\1I'."E\IIIrr I (1985-1955 Be), the lounder of the 12th Dynast\' (1985-1795 Be). E. N \\ ILLE, Tht' \-1/11 D'yl1l1S~)IIl'mple al Dl'i,. clBlIlwri,.1 \"ols (J ,ondoll, 1907-13). H. E. \VI'\1.0<:...., nil' slain so/tlias nf.Ve/J/repelrt: All'IIIUllOlep (New York, 19..J.5). - , 'lI,C risc lI1ulfitil o/Iht' .1Iiddle A:illgtlom ill Thebes (New York, 194-7). D. .\R'\OI.D, Der 7i:mpd deJ Kiilligs. \leulflluJlep t'OIl Deir el-IJalwri, 2 yols (-''!ainz, 1974). N. GRL\\ \L, ...l hislnry nI1I11cieli/ Egypl (Oxford, 1992), l.i-l-8.
'1'0\111,

Rallri. Illh rIC.,720)

f)YIllIS~)1. 1:._2055-200-1 BC, /I.

38 Oil.

Mentuhotep
(Birth name' (meaning 't\IONTU is contcnt'), held hy a ,eries of three Theban kings of the 11 th Dynasty (2055-1985 Be) and nne of their ancestors. Their reigns (particularly that of Mcntuhotcp II) heralded a return to political stability after the comparative confusion and decentralization of the First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 Be). Very little is known

Dynasty rulers of Egypt was lWe11lullf11ep /I Nebl1t:pt:lra. lie assumed control of the country as a wholc, primarily by ovcrthrowing thc Ilerakleopolitan 10th Dynasty, whu had been thc principal rivals of the earl~r 11th-Dynasty rulers. lie subsequently moved the capiral to Thebes, rc-established the post of VIZIER, launched military campaigns against thc I.IBYANS and the Sinai 11I':1J0UI1'-., and regained a cerrain degree of control over i'\UHlA. At IlEJR U~-I3J\III{I, in western Thebes, he built an unusual Icrraccd funerary complex, thc precise reconstruction of which is a m.ltter of dcharc, although it: appears to have been an ingenious combination of clements of the S,\FF

Merenptah (121.1~ 1203 Be) '1'he cxtraordinary length of the reign OfR \ \11-:SES" (1279-12I.1Bc) meant that at Icasttwclve of his sons died before him, including Khacm\\'<lset, who was for sc\cral years the appointed heir. J\1crenptah, rhe fourth pharaoh of the 19th Dynasty, was therefi)re probably already in his fifties by the time he c:lITIe to the lhronc. Apart from an incident in which he sent food supplies to the ailing ll1TTITE empire, the major event of his reign was an attempted invasion by the I.1BYi\NS and SEt\ PI':OI'I.ES, which he managed to fend off in the fifth year after his accession. Just as Rall1cses 11 had recorded the Battle of (1'\I)I':SII in both prose olnd poetry, so _i\1erenptah described his victory in prose f()rm on a wall beside the sixth pylon at KARNAK and in poetic form on a large
183

MERF.RUKA

MERIMDA I3E-"II SALAMA

granite stele (Egyptian ~luscum, Cairo), which was discon:rcd b~ Flinders Petrie in 1896 in the first COLIn of .i\ terenptilh 's mortuary temple at \ycslcrn '1'1 WBES. This monument is usually described as the Israel Stele because it is the earliest sun i\ ing Egyptian tc:Xl to mention the people of lSI{ \10:1. (in a list of cities and states defeated b) \ lerenptah). Little of the l11ortuar~ temple 110\\ remains il1 siJIl and it mosll~ consisted of fe-used stone blocks, columns and slehle from the nearby mortuary
temple of \\IF.'\.lllrn:1' III.

Unusually, gi"cll the gcncr'lll~ poor prcscr'arion of I'\UCES, the best sun"j, ing structure from .\lcrcnptah's reign is the royal residence that he built nc~r LO the temple of Prah at _\le.\IPillS. It \\as cXC:I\;lfcd in 1915-19 b~ Clarence m,lsonry arc Fisher, and many fragments now in thc collection of the Cnircrsity !\luscllm Philadelphia. Tlis other major surriring monumenl is tOl"nb I.. \ S in the \.\LLEY ()FTIIE "I~GS, which still contains rragll1cnts of his stone sarcophag;i, <Illhough the magnificent granite lid the oulcr san:ophag"us was CXGIrated from an intact royal burial at '1"'\ ~IS, whcre it had been I'e-uscd to cover lhe conjns and mummy I'SLSE~ ~ES (Pascbakhaelll1iut) I (1039-991 Be). The body or ,\Ierenplah himself was found among the c.lche of" mummies reinterred in the LOmb of .'\mcnhotcp II ("r35). Following the brier reign of a usurper cllled Amcnmcssu, he \\as succeeded hy his son SET\" " (1200-119+ Be). \\1. ..\1. F. PETRU'., S;.r It'll/pies al Thebes (London, 1897). G. E. S\IITII, 'Reporl on the unwrapping of the momm) of J\lenephmh', .IS.IE 8 (1907), 108-12. G. A. \\' \1'" kIGIIT, "" lerneptah's aid LO lhe Hittires,JEt +(, (1%0), 2+-5. .\1. LICIITIIEI\I . .~II/(I1'1If f:g.,l'PI;ul/ hleralure 11 (Ikrkcle\, 1976),73-8. D. G.JEFFRE\!'i, 7'l1l' JfI1l.':l' oj',II"mph;J I (London, 1%5), 19-20.

c1cg:antl~- decorated with numerouS daily-life scencs, including depictions of attempts to domcsticatc gazelles ,md hyenas (see \"\"1\1 \1. IILSU"DR\), and craft :H.:ti\"ilies which arc a \";lluahlc source of information on tht' socicty ami economy of the 6th Dynasty. The funcrary statuc of _\lcrcruka is situated at the northern side of his si),-columned hall. The mastaba ,tlso incorporated a number. of SERI"l\BS (statuc chambers). G. E. J. D \RF.,SS\, Lf IIllIslaha dc Ilao (Cairo. 18'18). P. DLI.I.L, Tift' IIIlIslaha of Herem!.:a (Chicago, 1938). B. PORTER and R. B. .\los~. 7iJpograplJ;ntl IJiNiogr{/p/~}' 111/2 (Oxford, 1978),525-37.

r..

ur

meretchest
Cercmonial chesrs containing linen or clothing of four different colours, which symbolized the cloth that was used to wrap up thc body of OSIRIS. Each of the fC)lIr chests \ras bound up on the outside and decorated with four upright ostrich l'eathers. From lhe 17th Dmasry (1650-1550 IlC) fa the Roman period a ritual called 'consecratjon of the llIl'rcl chests' or 'dragging the llIatl chests' \\ as celebrated by the pharaoh and oftcn depicted in tcmplc relicfs. 'The f"our chests symbolized the four corners of the earth and therefore the whole of Egypt. and thc ritual inrohTd the presentation of each chest four times berore a god. The symbolic link between Egypt and the chesls appears to h,we deri\"cd at leas I partly from the phonetic similariry between the term la 1111'1''1 (mertl chest) and the phrase III mCI:>' (bclm'ed land). Since the dismemberment, reasscmhl~ and revival of the dead god was a cruchtl clement in thc myth of Osiris, the presl'lltation of the chests also symbolized resurrection and renew.t!' A. E<...liERTS, 'Consecrating the 1/lt'Tt'I-chests: some rencetions on;lIl Egyptian ritc...J.INeu .llii"(//I'//. /985, cd. S. Schosl..e (I Ltmburg. 1989). 241-7. R. H. \VIl .... I'SO', .))I11I/{1i find l11ag;c ill l:.gypl;(/J! (IfI (London, 1994). 175-6.

or

O~'lrtI{"(I// sltom;ug til(' ,porA'l//an K/IIIlIl////WSI' JIlonlt;pping lite serpclIl jorm 0IIIII: gmlt/e.u J tarlseger. 191IJ I~)I//(/.\ql. c.1200 Be. PlI;,l/tt! li/lfI'S/"1/('./i'fJI/J D,'il'l'I-.I/i.'I/;l/Il. TI,,bcs. 1/. 16.., Oil. (uS51!!)

or

or

who dedicated nuny stelae to her. She W;lS to punish by blindness or venom those who committed crimes, and the stehle frequcntly seek ro make aroncmelll lor such wrongdoing;s in the hope or a cure. The cult of" l\leretscgcr bcg;1I1 In decline fi-om the 21st Dynasty (1069-945 Be) onwards, at rOllghl~ rhe samc pace as the abandonment of rile Thebiln necropolis itsclf B. BRL \ 1':10':, ,\lerl Sega ti Dt';r 'I.\lCd;'lelJ (Cairo, 1930). 1\ I. I.I(] rlIIEI.\I, Allc;I'lIl J:':!'(.l'PI;ulI hll'mlflft' II: Thl' XfJl' A.-;l1gdll/lI (London, 1976), 107-9.
belien~Ll

Merimda Beni Salama

nastic settlement site in the \\ estern m,trgin of the Delta, about 60 kill northwest of Cairo, where excayations b~ German archaeologisl"s in 1928-.19 and the 1980s haH' revealed the earliest cridencc for full~ sedentary ,-illage life in the :\ile ralley. The 'n lerimda' phasc of the Lower Eg~ pi ian PRID\ ~.\STIC I'I:RIOJ) appears to ha\T been roughI~ contemporary with the late Uadarian and Amrarian phases in Upper Egypt- The tOl:.l1 e:'\tcnt of the site is estimated at 180.000 sq. m. and somc areas of debris arc up to 2 111 dcep. Radiocarbon dates suggest that it \\'a"i inhabited hetwet'n about suno and 4500 B< . Karl Butzer has estimated the population al abollt sixteen thousand, but this mar bc iln overestimate, since Barry Kcmp argucs th;\t [he emirc sile may have been one small bur gradually shifting community rathcr than a large set of simultancously occupied villages. The gr,,,'cs within the scnkmclll are largcl~ those of childrcn and are cntirely lacking in grave goods. The pOller) and lithics arc similar 1"0 thosl:
Pred~

Mereruka (,.2350 Be)

Vizier, chief justice and inspector of the prophets and tcn:lI1ts of the p~ ramid of Tcti (2.H5-2323 Be) of the early 6th Dynast\, I\lso known h~- the nickname 'f\ lera', he was the son of cdjelcmpcl, a royal ;H.:ql1aintam.:c. I lis wife was the Princess 'vVatctkhethor (nick.named Seshseshet) and, in keeping with the practice of the Old Kingdom, it was due to his connections with the royal family that he held high office. His ,\1 \ST\It\ tomb at S.\Q.Q.\R\ is lhe largest known at the site, with some thirty-two rooms, ;md incorporated thc burial or his wife and son, _\lcri-TcLi, as well as himself The rDmb is

Meretseger
Theh;1J1 cohra-goddcss, thc literalmcaning of whose namc is 'she who loves silence'. Her cult is primarily attested during the New Kingdom (1550-106911(:). She was thought to lire on the mountain overlooking the Vt\l.u:r 01'" TIll: I...II'GS) which in ancient times bore her nallle; as;l result of this l"Opographic connection) she was also sometimes known as 't he peak of Lhe wcst'. Iler rC:l1111 encompassed the whole of Lhe Thchan necropolis, and she was especiall~ re\Tred by the workmen of DEli{ El.-\IEDlI'.\

18+

MERKHET

MEROE

of the Fayum A culture (sec 1;:WL'j\\ REGION), but the shapes and decoration of the pottcr~ arc 1110re elaborate and varied at j'vlcrimda. polished black pottery has been found in the upper strata, .IS ",ell as pear-shaped stone

m<1cchcads possibly deri\'ing from Asiatic examplt.:::s, which have been interpreled as prototypes for the Upper Egyptian GcrZC<111 macchcads (sec J\l:\CE). The presence of fish bones, hooks, net weights and harpoons suggests that fishing was an important subsistence activity. The eartiest houses at 1'Vlcrimda Beni S,llama wcre simple \\'ind-hrcaks and polcframed huts, while the later strata include th<: remains of mud-brick huts (probably wilh

pitched roofs), measuring no morc dun 1111 in

diameter. The high Icyc1 of organization within the villages is indicated by the prcscm:e of numerous 'granaries', taking' the t()J"Jl1 of jars or baskets, and b) lhc [Itt thaI a number of the mud huts were laid out in rough rows as if arranged <llong streets. H. JUNf..:J'o:I{, ViJr/ti"t!li..'r Ba;d/I /iber tlie Grt/bul/g tiel .I1katlemic tier I VissclISc!udint ill IlficlI flld'tler lIe,,/;I;Sthell S;edllllfg ('Oil ;Illcr;/Ildc-Bclli Sa//illle, 6 \'ols (Vienncl, IY29---!O). B. J. K.E,\I1\ 'iVlcrimda alld the theory of house burial in prehistoric Egypt', CdE 4."3 (19M)), 22-33. 1\11. A. I-IOI'Ft\I'\N, fgllJlI (If/a Ihe !IIUI/"({o!l.'i (Nc\\ York, 1979), 167-81 ]. EnvJ\i\GER, lHa;/IIde-Bflli.'i(l!tillle, 2 vols (J\!lainz, 1984--8)

AllO\E Frt/glllcll/ (~rn:lie/rmll/ the sOl/lh m(/II (!Flhe jilll('fflly dwpd ~(pY/,(/IIl;d NIl (/1 )\IIaot', mhieh

merkhet set' :\STR()i\'O.\IY ,\,1) ASTIU)IJK;Y

Merneptah sel!
j\ lI':RE"\'P"!"-\ I 1

pro!Jab(JI !Jdvi/Ked 10 QjleclI S/wkdakhetc (c. 2nd CClltlll:JII1C). l!lejir.\lji!/IUt!C rula ,~rJlIIr:r{)c. Site i.1 Ilcre shOl1'1l enlhrollcd millt (f printc allr! prolcrlt'd IJ)I Ihl' millgs (~rlhe godtll'.I"s hi.( /-1. 2..,2 III. (H../719)

Meroe
Type~sitc 01" the )\Ilcroitic period
AD

(r.30n BeI.IY"I"

350), located on the Cilst bank of thc Nile in the Butana region of Su(hl.J1, cxca\atcd by john
Garstang, George Reisncr and Peter Shinnie,

(({1I;1It'

Gold fl1"/I1/11IC1I1 represenling sfllllcjbrlll ,~r onillla!, perhaps {/ jadwl. A//hough ;1 is

G~llrelll'

said tolun;e hcelljilfllld IIcar

dC(/r(ll (~rJlllt'roili( mork (11ft!
I~)I

To the eaSI or the town of Nleroc. which became the centre of the Kushite kingdom in
the fifth century Be, and adjaccnr to the modern village of Begarawiya is it cemetery of small pyramidal royal tomb chapels of the Ivlcroitic period, the earliest which were locmed at the sOllthern end. 'The city iJlcludcs a number of palaces (possibly t\Vo-storc\'ed) <l tcmple Isis datin o - to thc NAIWll\i\'" l;erio~1 (c.l000-300 Be) an~1 a temple 01" Amun which was established in the seventh century He and elaborated in the first century AI). To lhc east of the town there \Vas also a temple of :\I'EI)E1\l.\"'-, the Nubian liollgod, founded in the third ccntun- ne. One of the most striking features of th~ site is the

i/l Libya_ il;s is close()' puwlkled 3.1

O/!.

olher exal/lp/esjiJIIlld ;11 Ihe pyrtill/;r! (~j"Qjlel'lI

/}lIIf1llishal-!,elo. lsI cell/Illy JJC, II.

(c/68502)
presence of large slag heaps deriving fiom the smelling of IHO.'\J , which may well have been one of the mainsta)'s of the city's prosperity. II" was once suggested that Ihe 1\ileroitic kingdom supplied iron to the rest of Africa, but iron artefacts do nol appear to have been unusually prominent in l\lleroitic scttlcmenrs or graves and it was nol until fhe jJost-Meroitic period that iron became crucial to the economy of Nubia. New insights into the end of the Meroitic period - suggesting that there was no dramatic collapse of the civilization but simply a process of t:ultur~11 ch<lnge- have been provided b) the excavation of ;t 'post-l\lleroitic' lllmllius burial at the site of el-I--lobagi, abollt 60 km southwest of lVleroe. D. DU'."IIA1\\ and S. CJ IAI'\ll\i\, 7J1l: rO)ltl! U:lIlc/eril's (!j"KlI.'ili, lIl-V (Bas lon, 1952-6~). p. L. SIIIN,11E, l\lIl'rtll': (/ (h..';!iZf/I;O/l vlt/,c Stu/all (London, 19(7). P. L. SIIIN:\J1-: and F. J KE:\SI':, 'lVlcroitic.: iron

or

or

185

MEROITIC

MIDDLE KINGDOM

working\ lvIcroilic slutlies, ed. N. B. j\llilIcl <lnd 1\. L. Kellel' (Berlin, 1982), 17-28. P. LENOlll.E and N. D. Nt SItARIF, 'Barbarians at the gates? the royal mounds of d-Hobagi and the

Meskhent
Goddess of childbirth, who is represented in the form of a female-headed hirth-hriek (on which anclent Egyptian women delivered their children) or as a woman with a brick on her head. At the time of a child's birrh she ,llso determined irs destiny. However, from the New Kingdom (155lJ-.-I069 Be) onwards this role could be taken by the male god SHAY. Papyrus \Vcstcar describes how she told each of the first three kings of the 5th Dynasty (2494-2345 Be), all of whom were buried ill ABLSIR, that they would erentually come to rule Egypt. She was also .1 funerary goddess and was present ,tt the judgement of the deceased to aid in their rebirth into the afterlife, just as she had in life itself Sec also BES; IIEKET; T\WERET. G. PIN(] I, l\J!agit, ill (/!/{:ielll ,r.;jljJt (London,

end of IVlcroc', AIl/iqllily 66 (1992), 626-35.

L. TC)R()I\:, kIno' {;~)I: (London, 1997).
(11/

UUC;CJ!l .-~fii((/II (({pllft!

Meroitic sec .\'lEI{()[

Mersa Matruh (anc. Paraetonium)
Harbour-site un the Egyptian lVleditcrrancan coast, abOllt 200 km wcst of Alexandria, which was the site of the Ptolemaic city of Paractonium. 1n the late second millennium Be colonists rrom the eastern lvlcditerranean appear 1:0 have founded the first small scnlc-

1994),127-8 Mesopotamia 'IeI'm used to describe the area covered by

modern Iraq, encompassing at various times the ancient Kingdoms of !\Kh:i\O, SUl\'IER, IJABY1.0;\11\ and AssrRI/\. The word derives from the Greek term mcaning '[the IandJ between the rivers', the rivers being the Tigris and Euphrares. M. ROM" CII/fural atlus (~rMl's{Jp()lfllIli{/ (New York and Oxford, 1990).

metals and metalworking see

G01.f); mON

COPPER;

and

SI1.n:R

Middle Kingdom (2055-1650

Basa!J
FOIll
1;C.~.q:! (~ra

1lC:)

Iype 1/wugll!

IIrI:f!.in: sill/i/ar slolle vessels

If) be o/LikV({J/ hare bel'li e.n:avalet!

gmres in/he i.'ll:ill;ly oj'J'lIel"sfI JHfltmh. Ear()l3rd millellniulIl IJC, If. 27..1 (Ill. (I~' /6-135-1)

ment at Mersa :Nlatruh on an island in the lagoon. The excavated artefacts from the island include large quantities of SyroPalestinian, Nlinoan, Cypriot and lVlycenaean potrery vessels, indicating a wide r,lllge of trade links between the Aegean region and the north African COast during the New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC). The earliest traces of Egyprian occupat'ion in the area are the ruins of a fortress of Rameses II (1279-1213 Be) at' Z:1wiyal Umm el-Rakham, about 20 km to the west of the site of Paraetonium. D. 'VVllITE, 'Excavations at !vIersa i\tlatruh, slimmer 1985', NAIICE 131 (1985),3-17. - , 'The 1985 excavations on Bates' Island, Marsa Matruh',j'IIICE 23 (1986), 51-84. - , 'University of Pennsylvania expedition La Marsa Man-uh, 1987', NAIICE 139 (1987), 8-12.

Chronological phase thilt began with the reign of lhe Theban ruler t\H:i'\TUlIOTEI' II Nebhepetra (2055-2004 BC) and ended with Ihe demise of the 13th Dynasty (c 1650 BC); it is usually divided into two phases, the carly 1\!liddle Kingdom (consisting of the late 11 th and early 12th Dynasties) and the late Middle Kingdom (from the reign of $I':NUSRET 111 to the end of the 13th Dynasty). 'J'he divcrse literary output of the j\t1".iddle Kingdom, including the proliferation of WISDOM LlTERKruRE, provides some insights into the social and political concerns of the period, a.1Lhough many of the classic texts, such as the Title oI Si1flthl' and the Di.'WlIl"Sl' oI Ndl'l"ly, arc difficult to analyse because of uncertainty as to their original functions, audience and inl'ent. In the New Kingdom the KING LISTS suggest thilt ,Mentuhotep II was regarded as the founder of the i'Vliddle Kjngdom, and at this period his funerary monument at DEIR EL-BI\IIRI was cvidently considered to be one of lhc fincst achievements of the period. Little textual evidence has survived concerning

lvlentuhotep IV Ncbtawyra l the last .1 ItbDynasty ruler, but it is possible that his vizier, Amenemhat, may be the same indjvidual as the first king of the 12th Dynas!"y, i\.\'1I~:-'IE:\III.'\T I, who established a new capital called Amenemhatitjtawy ('Amcnemhat takes possession of the two lands'), often abbreviated to Ttjtawy. The archaeological remains of this city, where the Rcsidence (royaJ court) was situated until the end of the J\!liddle Kingdom, have not yet been located. It is usually assumed to h;]\"c been on lhe west bank or the Nile in the vicinity of rhe pyramid complexes of Amenemhat I and his successor Senusret I at EI.-I.IS11T, midway between !vlcmphis and Nlcidum. The early 12th Dynasty was characterized by the clarirication of rhe bouncbries or nomes, the agricultural development of the FAru\\ and the gradual annexation of LO\\L:I" NUBI!\. The principal sources of evidence for the royal court or the 12th Dynasty derive from the pyr.nnid complexes located at elLisht, I':L-L\IIU~ (Senusret JI), JJ!\IISlllTR (Amencmhat II, Senusret III and Amenemhnt Ill) and III\W'\RA (l\menemhat Ill), but dite prO\incial cemeteries at sites such as AS) l '1', IW1R EL-HERSIIA, illEIR and BEi\'llli\SAN also continued to flourish during the early 12th Dynasty at least. By the late 12th Dynasty the royal pyramid complexes began 1.0 be surrounded by more substantial remains of the tombs of courtiers, perhaps indicating stronger links between the nomarchs (pnJYincial governors) and the Rcsidence. As far as the non-funerary architecturc of the period is concerned, a few examples of religious buildings have survived, including the earliest known phases of the tcmple of Amlin at IV\R~f\J{ and the temple of Sobek and Amencmhat III ar l\IEDb'ET M:\i\DI, but 111<ll1y appear to have been dismantled and re-used in the course of the foundation of thc temples of the New Kingdom. \RYnos bcc.lme particularly important as a centre of pilgrimage as <.1 result- of the inere,lsing significance of the god OSIRIS, whose burial place was identified with that of DJER, in the Umm el-Ql'ab rcgion of the site. The reign of Senusret III secms to have constituted a watershed in the Nliddle Kingdom, bmh in terms of the administrative system and the nature of the surviving funenlry remains. It was during his reign that the string of FORT]{ESSES in Nubia were strengthened, thus consolidating the Egyptian grip on the resourceS of Nubia. At the same time, the excavation of a channel through the first Nile cataract at Aswan would have had the effect of allowing boats to travel unhindered from the second cataract to the lVledirerranean coast.

186

MIN

MIN

Although ~1anetho's 13th Dynasty evidently continued to rule fr0111 ltjrawy, there appear t~ have been a large number of rulers with ,'crv shorr reigns. nonc of whom were in pO\~ler for long enough to construct funerary complexes on the same scale as their 12thDrnasrv predecessors. In other respects, howcv"er, the marcrhll culture and political .md social "'stems of the late 12th and 13th Dvnastics were relatively homogeneous. \v. C. H;yes argued that the real central jJO\ycr during the 13th Dynasty resided largely with the VIZIERS, bur it is now considered morc likely that royal aU[horiL~ was maintained, despite a general lack of political continuity. The fragmented nature of the 13th Dynasty undoubtedly h~ld a damaging effect on the control of Egypt's borders, resulting in a relaxation of the grip over Nubia and an influx oL'\siatics in the Delta (particularly app.lrenl in the archaeological remains at TELl. EI.-IHB'..\ in the eastern Delta). The end of the Middle Kingdom was marked by the abandonment of lrjtawy at roughly the same time lhaL the minor rulers of parts of the Delm were supplanted by the lteka-khas1/Jt ('rulers of f(]reign lands'), rendered in Greek as the JlYKSOS. See also BUIIEI"~ C (iRO!..:!'; COFrli': TEXTS; MIRGISSt\ and SEM:".\. H. E. WI'l.oo,::, 'Ihe riu {//III}it/I ufillt' A'litldh' Kingdom ill Thelu's (New Yurk, 19-1-7). \v C. H \YES, ."'1 papyrus oflht' lale AIIiddle Kingdom inlhe Brookhm MlISt'lim (Brooklyn, 1955). G. POSENER, [.il/iraillre el pu/iligUt' dans {,EgYPle tie la XII f~J'lf(lSIit. (Paris, 1956). I. E. S. E"'''KDS, C. J. G.\DD ,md N. G. L. I lA.'l\lO"n (cd.), Cambridge Allclew !lisIUJ)1 1/2: Ear6' hislory o/tht' A'liddll' Easl, 3rd ed. (Cambridge, 1971),46-1-531. j. BoURRll\U, Pharauhs alltl morlals: EgYPliall arl ill lite Middle Kiugdom (C1.mbridge, 1988). D. FRA.!'KE, 'Zur Chronologie des J\1illleren Reiches: I & II', OriClI/alia 57 (1988),113-38, 245-74. R. B. PARKINS()~, VOices/rom allrielll Egypl: au 11l1thology oIA'lifft/It, Kingdom mrilings (London, 1991). S. QUIRKE (cd.), A1idd/c Kingtlom sludil's (New Malden, 1991).

him <1$ a l1'lllmmjform human figure hulding his erect phallus wiLh his left hand, while his right ann is raised in <1 smiting gesture, with a flail simultaneously poised above his hand. He

three limestone colossal statues exc.lvatell by Flinders Petrie at the siLe of Koptos. If these figures (now in the Ashmolean IVluseum, Oxford) dale 10 the Earl\~ Dynastic periud (3100-2686 BC), as many scholars have soggested on art-historit:al grounds, thc~ would he the earliest suryiving three-dimensional ycrsions of the anthropomorphic aspect of l\1in. This was cyidently the form taken by a st'atuc of ..he god which, according to the 1'\ LEI{ \10 STO'E, a "I,G LIST dating to the 5th Dynasty (2-1-94-23-1-5 BC), was carved b~ royal decree in the I st Dynasty. I.n a 5Lh-Dynasty tomb at GiZ:l a 'procession of l\ lin' is mentioned, and it has been suggested that he may h.n'e fealured in the P\ IUI\l11> TE:\TS as 'the one who raises his arm in the cast'. In lhe Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC) the cult of Nlin-like that of SOI'l':I>, another dcity of the Eastern Desert-was often assimilated with the myth of 1I0\U':S, and he was ISiS. At sometimes described as thc son other times, howcvcr, he was considered to be part of a TR!."!), with Isis as his consort and Horus as their son. By the New Kingdom (1550-1069 Be), Min

or

Cere/Jfouia/ palclll' ((f1"1.:ed in Ih".limn (~rsrhl'lJl(fli( birds' hcads allht' top (fud bcaring lIlt' ~J'/llbol (~r thcjertilitY-l!.od 1\11ill in raised rdief LaiC Prc'()/J/(/stit~ c.3100 nc, srhisl.Irom e/-Amrtf. fl. 29.5 (11/. (1:.,35.,OI)
usually wore.1 low crown surmounted by two plumcs and with .1 long ribbon trailing do,,n behind him. At least as early as the 61h Dynasty (23~S-2181 Br.), he was particularly associated with the long (or 'cos') lettuce (Ill"tum st/t/t:lI), probably because of a percci"cd link between lhe milky sap of lettuces ~lI1d human scmen, and the depictions of !\'lin often show a set of letfuces placed on an offering lable beside him. He was already being worshipped in the late Predynastic period (c.3100 BC), whcll his emblem - a slr:mge shape consisLing of a horizont::!1 line embellished with a central disc flanked by LWO hemispheric'11 protrusions ("ariously interpreted as a door-bolt, barbed arrow, lightning bolt or pair of fossil shells) \Vas depicted on pottery vessels, maceheads and patcltes. This emblem, often placed on a standard, later became part of the hieroglyphic rcpresentation of the god's name and also that of the ninth Upper Egyptian nome, of which Akhmim was Ihe capital. An ink drawing on a stone bowl from the tomb of rhe late 2nd-Dynasty king Khasekhemwy (c.2686 HC) is probahly the earliest examplc of the anthropomorphic, ithyphallic portrayal of Min, but there are also

Fmgmew oIIi basil II dt.'p.~l'dm ('miller dod' 'J mn:ed mit!J sanes ofoJ]i:riu[!. im..:ohil1,f!. Iht'

J1111"etlollililf king, Philip Arrhidlll:ffS, anti (011 tlu'

le.fi) 1//1 it/~)Ip//ll/licjigflre oIA1in. J1111fedollial1 period, c.J20 BC, II. .1.1011. (1:../938)
had effectively become the primeval crcatorgod manifestation of ,",\IL;'./. The ceremonies surrounding the coronations and jubilees of" Egyptian kings (see SED FESTlVi\L) therefore lIsually incorporated a festival of J\llin designed to ensure the poreney of the pharaoh. Senusret [ (1965-1920 Be) is portrayed in the act of performing certain jubilee rituals in front of Min on a limestone relief 187

Min
fertilit), god and symbol of male POtcncy, who served also as the protecLor or mining arcas in the Eastern Desert. He was associated first with the site or KOPTOS and later with AKIIMIM, which became known as Panopolis in the Ptolemaic period, because or the Greeks' association of lVlin with the god Pan. Characteristic Pharaonic depictions show
rn-IYPI\AI.I.IC

MINSI-IAT AUU OMAR

MIRROR

now in the Petrie .i\lusculll, J .ondon (sec "011for illusrration). A. ~,Iin fesrival is also depicted among the reliefs in rhe second court 01' ,he temple or Ramcses III (118-!-J 153 IJ(:) at 1I.ll:nl\fET JlAIlL, where the king is shown scything <l sheaf of wheill in rCl:ognirion of l"lin's role as;.lIl agricullllra! god. \\'. \1. E PETRII'., KoplO' (London, 1896), pis
TOS
111-1\

50

100m

/N
granary block

outer gateway

mirror
As might he c:xpccled of an implement which reflects an image, the mirror had both runctional and symbolic uses. _J\!lirrors occur from at leasl as early as the Old Kingdom (2686---2181 Be). They consist or a nat disc, usually of polished bronze or copper) ilttacheli to a handle. From the ~liddle Kingdom (2055---1650 Be) onll'ards they ,ake the form or a sun-disc, and the handle is frequently rcprl'sen led as :.1 P.\PYRL-S stalk, or as the g()ddes~ II\TIIOR, to whol11 two mirrors might he offercd as {hc~- were to the goddess \lll. Handles could also take the rorm of tCmale flgurcs, probably carrying erohc overtones amI scn'ing as an extension of the Hathor themt-:o \ greatcr di,-crsity of t~ pes of handle is known li'om the :-;ew Kingdom (1550-1069 Be), I'ethaps hCL"':.1USC mctal was commonly used fflr lhe handles of this Iimc., while wood and iYor~ were more cummon in earlier perjod~. Occasional representations show mirrors in Lise, such as a Iaely applying kohl in the Turin Erol ic Papyrus (sec EI~OT[C\). I I. SClI~FE.R, 'Die Ausd(;utllng dcr Spicgclplallt' als Sonnenseheibc'. Z. is 68 (1932), 1---/. e. EnURD--DERRIt-.S, 'A propos des miroirs cgypliens ~i manche en forme de statlleltc feminine', Rl'rlle til'S .lrdu!ologilfllt'S L'/ Hisloril'lIJ tI'.-lrl dl' LUIfi.'aiu 5 (1972), 6-16. 1-1. SC.lI.\FER, 1~~YPli(/1I111irrorsFom Ihe earliesl limes IlmwKh 11u.~ .l/ii/tlll' Kil/gdolll (13erlin, 1979). C. LII.HlUIST, 'i\1irrors', Eg.l'Pt'sgoldi'1I age, cd. E. Brovarski et:ll. (Boston, 1982), 18+-8.

1,
()

residential area--unexcavated

"-

r
,...

~
3 tCh

R. GEI(\lI~,{, 'Die Bedeutung des Lmichs als pnanze des ,\lin', S.If,: 8 (1980),85-/. J. R. OGI>O'\, 'Some notes on rhe iconography of 1\lin', BES / (1985-6),29---\1.

Jl:steps leadmg........., . j
to Nile

B. J.

1:...Ei\lP, _I",;m! .J:.~f!:YPI: {/I/lIIOII~J' f{1I

~""rili;:'{/Iioll (London,

1989),79-81,85, fig. 28. immediately to dlC west of thc southern end of the second Ni1c cataraCl, 350 km south of modern r\SW~lIl. The site has been suhmerged beneath L~lke KJsscr since the completion of the .-\5\\ \ , 111(;11 D\ \1 in 1971, but the suni,'ing remains consisted of a pair of 12th-Dyn~lsty uJrtresscs (one on the deser! plateau and one on the yalley floor) as well itS two ccmeteries. The phltcau filrtress was surrounded by a ditch and inner and outcr enclosure w~llls. Covering ;\ rot~ll ~lre<l of some four hectares, it was I he 1:1rgcst of eleven fortresses built in the reign or Senllsret III (187-!-1855 Be) between the seconu anuthird cataracts, protecting the royal monopoly on trade from the south. The site included granaries, an armoury (whcre spears, jayclins and shields were manufactured and stored), an e-xtcnsi,c quayside and a Illudlined slipway (so that boats could be dragg;ed along the bank, thus avoiding the Kabub rapids). Thcse factors suggest thaI Mirgissa was not onlY:l garrison bUI also a depot for the warehousing of trade goods. On Ihc island of D:Iben~lrti, about a l..ilometre cast of _ Iirgissa, arc the remains of an unfinished fortified mud-brick outpost, apparcmly uf similar date. The presence of only four potsherds al this smaller sifC suggests rhat il was never actually occupied; it nuy perhaps haye been intended as a lemporary outpost fO which lhc l.\lirgissa garrison could be transferred in an emergency. S. CL \Rt(E, "Ancient Egyptian fromier lonresses',JE /3 (1916), 155-/9. J. \V. Rl:In, 'Preliminnry rcport of the Uni\ersit~ of California expedition 10 Dahcnani, 1963', KII'</I 12 (1964), 54--6. D. DUNI!.-\\I, Secolld ((/lat(frl/nrH II: Umllarli. ,Yllalfill'. Jl'firgis.w (BoslOn, 1967), 141-76. J. VERcOli:rrER, !Y/irgiss(/, 3 \'ols (Paris and Lille, 19/0-6).

R. H. WIl..KI\:SO:,\, 'Ancient Ncar Eastern raiscd-

arm figures and lhl' iconograph~ of the Egypri'\Il

god \[in', BES II (1991-2),109-18.

cemeTer~ site locaTed in the Cilstcrn Delta, about ISO km northeast of Cairo, 'Yhich, like the roughly COnlCmpOr~lry settlement at _\H.\DI, shows cvidencc of trade with southcrn Palestinc. ExcaY<lt1ons in the late 19705 and 1980s rcvcalcd a sequcnce or nearly four hundrcd gr.wcs stretching from r\aqada II to the 1st Dynas~. Our of a lOtal of ~lbour two thousand potrery ycsscls, twenty were dcfinitely identified as Palestinian imports_ Thc dates of these imported vessels (mainly wm-y-handled and loop-handled jars) suggest that the l\1inshat Abu Omar trade links with the T,evant bcgall slightly later th;1Il those of iVlaadi but continlied until a slightly later date. Therc is ~llso a larger proportion of Gerzean potter! at f..linshat Abu Omar than at 1\ la~ldi, suggesting much stronger links ,,-ilh Upper Egyptian hlle Prcdynastic sites. An auger-oore sun-ey of the surrounding region has indicatcd the presence of late Predynastic and Early Dynastic serrlcIllcnt about 500 m fiom the ccmctery. K. KHOEI'ER and D. \,Vll.J)L;Vi, Mill$lwl Abu O/l/(/r: Afiil/t1mer ()s/dell(/~H.rpcdili(}11 llfJrbaidll 19/8-1984(~llInieh, 1985). K. Kl(m:I'I:R, 'The cxcl\"ations of" (he ;\lunidl 1~;lsr-DclLa expedition in !\1inshaL Abu Omar', Tht' an:haelJlugy III/he .Vile Della: problems tlml priorilies, cd. e. ~1. ,an den Brink (Amsterdam, 1988),11-19. I,. KRZYZA:-'-I-\t-., 'Rccent :lfchaeological cvidcnce nn lhe earliest scltlcment in the t.:astcrn Nile delta', Laic IJrehislWl' f~rlhe Nili' Hasill allillhe Sahara. cd. T.. Krzyzaniak :.tIll! 1\1. Kobusiewiez (Poznan, 1989), 26i-85.

Minshat Abu Omar Prcd~rnaslic ;.mel Early DYllilstic

Bronze lIJirror mill! tI hamill' ill Ilrejbrlll (~/(( papyrus pIt/ill

slInJwlIllled I~}' 111'0

Mirgissa (ane. Iken')

Fonified site of the ~Iiddlc Kingdom (2055-1650 Be), located in Lower Nubia,

jiJ!((1I/s. Nem
11.2'; CIII.

f.:illgdom. c.1300 BC. (Lf32.i83)

I8H

~TANNJ

MONTU

Mitanni
One of Egypt's most powerful riyals in "estern Asia, the .Mit3nni.m stale developed in the area of the Tigris and Euphrates ri"crs some

time before 1500 Be, and was ovcrthro\\"ll by

the IIITITI'ES and ASS'Rt\'\1S around 1370 m:, having formerly been their equal. The capital of .\titanni was \V;lshshukanni, which has [cntati\Tly been idcmificd with the site ofTell cI-Fakhariych in 'Tllrkcy. The countn- was probably known to the Egyptians as N'ahrin, while the Assyrians rclerred to it as Hanigalbat", and the] !illites described it .IS 'the land of the Hurrians', The names of the Miranniall rulers suggest that they were TndoEuropc'1I1s, although the mass of the popuhtfion were HUlTian, a people whose language is unrelated to other main groups. This people scem to have originalcd around r-he C1spi,m Sea during the third millennium m:, and gmdually mmcd south into Syria. The campaigns of TIlLT\lOSE 111 (J-I.791425 Be) took him be)ond the yassaI cities of Syria (sec IlAnI.E OF \lEUlnno) and imo the jVIitanni hC<1rLland itself In thc reign of Thul1nose II' (1400-1390 Be) there were diplomatic marriages between the two countries, with Mitannian princesses entering the Egyptian HARL\\. Such allhmces probably sought to Om-ict the threat from the Hittite empire. That friendl~ relations between Egypt and ~ii(<.mni foU{)\\"eo is witnessed by the sending, on two occ<.lsions, of the Ninevite goddess Ishtar (the Nlesopota111ian namc for /\S'li\RTI':) LO Egypt, in order to help cure Amenholcp III (1390-1352 ne) of an illness. The AI\I/\I{N/\ J.ETI"EKS contain rererenees to Nlitanni at this time and during the reign or Akhenaten (1352-1336 BC). G. CoXTE..."",\U, Ut ch:iliSll/ilJ1t dCJ I-fi//ites e/ dt:s .\lIi/tt1l1tielll's (Paris, 193-J.). M. LIVER" .... I, 'I-Iurri e ;\titanni', Oricm AUlifjllUS 1 (1962),253-7, 1-1. KI.J~NGEI., 'Mitanni: Problcme seiner Expansion lind politischc Strllklur', Re-':lIc !Ji/lile e/ flJian;fjllc 3(1 (197~), 94-5. M. RO.'\F, Cui/ural at/as uj";\I!Csopolllmia (:'\Ie\\ Yorkand Oxlord, 1990), 132-10. D. B. REDFORD, I:.gyP/, CfI1UUllI alltl hrad i1/ (Weiel1/ /imt:J (Princeton, 1992), 159-7-J..

markings was appointed in its place. \Vhile the Apis was usuall~ <1 blat:k bull selected because of the diamond-shaped patch of whire hair on its lorehcad, the Mnevis bull "',IS required to be t'Otally black and \\',IS usually represented with a sun-disc and IIrtft'llS (sec \\ \I)J\'T) betwcen its horns. The hisLOrian I'J.LT\RClI daimed that the \lne\ is bull was second only to tht, Apis in rank, and that, like the Apis, he gare OR.\CI.F_'j to his worshippers. Just as the mothers of the Apis ilnd Buchis hulls were gircn separate cults, so also the mother of the i\lncvis bull was rc\'ercd in the guise of the cow-goddess Hcs.lt. Ramcsside burials of lVlncvis hulls are known from Arab e1-Tawil, to the northeast of the destroyed temple of Heliopolis. Eventually lhe cult of the :.\ Incris bull bcclme subsumed into that of the cre.ttur-god Ra-yrL\1. Bec,lUsc of his close connections" ith the sUIl-god, the Nlnc\'is was one of the fe\\ di\ inc beings recognized by Akhenaten (1352-1336 Be), who stated 011 onc of the 'boundary stelae' at 1:I.-,\\!\ltNt\: 'Let a ccmetery for thc Mnevis bull be made in the eastern moun rain of Akhetatcn that he Illay be buried in it'. Howcvcr the location or this burial, possibly close to Akhen.ttcn's tomb, is unknown. \Y.j. .\lLR:'\.\l\ and C. C. UN SIO.I-:,III, The "nwult"T s/lltlt' of_-lkhClltllt'" (London. 1Y93), -1-1, 169, L K.\J.:os" '_\lnnis', IA'xil'lI1t tier fi"gYPlologic 1/, cd. \~i. I leick, E. Guo ;lnd \V. \Vcstcndorr (Wie,b"c1en, 19X2), 165-7.

Montu Uvlonth, !\lonthu) F:.llcon-headed god of war, usually represented with il headdress consisting of a sun-disc and two plumes. His cult is lint attested at various sites in the Theban rcgion, and major temples, dating li'om the !\Iiddle Kingdom (205S-1650 Be) to the Roman period, "'ere constructed at \R\\ \'\T, "--\R ..... \h.. \IEIH\II.:O and TO]). His two consorts wcrc the goddcsses Tjcncnyet and Ra'tt.lwy, both also associated with theThcban district. The saned IIU:lllS (",kiI) bulls, huried in the so-called Bucheum at .'\rmam, were regarded <1S physical manifestations of1\lontll, just. as rhe \['IS bulls were associated with PT'\II (sec SER \1'1':U\I) and the \1'\E\'IS bulls linkcd wilh Ra at llEI.lOl'lll.lS. j\ lolltu played an important role in the 11 th

Mo'alla, elRock-cut cemetery of the First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 BC), located on the cast bank or lhe Nile, about 2-J. km south or Luxor. The only two decoratcd tombs belong to the gm'crnors Ankhtifi and prO\incial Sobckhotep; the biographical texiS on the walls 01" Ankhtifi's tomb provide imporlOlnl historical inf()rm<llion concerning the complicated political C\'cIHS in rhe iml11edia(e arl'crmath or the end of the OILl Kingdom (sec
F\]\II .... I:).

/ll'ed gmlli/cjiJllr-sitlcd //lollllmenl (~tllllk1/()/l'l1

11I01lf/1llCl//

J. \' '",,"IER, .l/f)'ttlla. la /u11lbe tI~ 11lHt/~F i'/ Itt

lombt' tit: Sibd..hu/(p (Cliro, }950).

pttrpfJsejimJlI!Je /cmpk ((IWp/i'x til A-amak. The is (fIITetimi/!J six 11l~!(h-n'lidjigllrt:s. m11lpfi~'ilfg I11J{) "fAlo1l/11-Ra (olleoj"IJ,!Jidt is slum",

Ull /11t'}ttf

leji ill Jln'il/us/ra/io,,).

/tlJfJ

nITlm/llU1st'

Mnevis (Mer-wer)
Sacred bull regarded as the II.' ('power' or physical manifestation) Qf the sun-god at llEUOPOI.JS. \,Vhcreas many sacred birds and animaJs, such as ibises, cats ~tnd baboons, were slaughtered and mummified in large numbers <IS votive offerings, therc W~IS only one \PIS, nuclus or i\llnevis bull at anyone time. \\'hen the sacred bull died it was u~lIall\' buried with great ceremony and a new buU- with similar

'The. date of Ankluifi of "to'alla', GM7X (198{), 87-H

D. 51'\'\I-J.,

///. tlml/11'O olJln' gf)("k.(~ Ha/lun: 18/11 Dy1lasly. n:(~1l (~r'l'11lI11ll(}Si' 1//. c.I-/50 fie. 1/. 1.78 Ill. (L~ 112) Dyn"'ty (2125-19R5 Ile), when f<lur of the kings held the 'hinh name' \11'::'orTLIlOTEl' ('Monlu is content'). But. fhe cmcrgence of the 12th Dynasll' (1985-1795 Ile), including a number of rulers named "\11':'\''1-:.\111 \T ('Amun is in the forefront'), cltlrly indicated that J\lonru was being o\'ershadowed by another Theban deity, \\IL;,\,. Nc\"erthelcss i\lontu 189

modi us
Term for ,I tall cylindrical comainer, which is usually el11ployed to refer to a Roman mcasure or c'lpacity. Howc"er, in Classical ;lrt ,mel Egyptology I hc term is used also to describe a cylindrical headdress (of \"ariable height), cOl11l11only worn b~ such deities <1S the hippopotamus-goddess T\\\'ERI:T.

MOURNI:--IG

MUMMIFICATIO:\

retained a considerable degree of importance as a personification of the morc aggrcssi\c aspects of the kingship, particularly in the conquest of neighbouring lands during the New Kingdom, and, like AmLIn, he evenlually became fused with the sun-god as lVlol1IU-Ra. G. LEGRAI1\., 'NUles sur Ie dicu \lomou" JJI f-lO 12 (1912), 7;-124E BIsso;", DE L \ R{xtu:, 'Notes sur Ie dicu 'Iunton', BIF-/040(1941), 1--49. E. K. \rt-:R'ER, TlreXlJlli1'[oIl1lf:/rolll,heearlil'sl alll'Sfflfio1lS /0 fht' t'/1I1 of/ht' OM Kil/gdollJ (Ann Arbor, 19X6) - , 'Monlll and the "f~llcon ships" ofthc Eigllleelllh Dynasr)',]-/lICE23 (1986),107-23.

In the best treatment, first all they draw out the hrains through the nostrils with"ln iron hook.

or

When the)' have removed what they can this way

they nush our the remainder with drugs. Nextlhe~ m;lkc all incisioll in the nank wirh a sh~lrp Ethiopian sront:: [i.e. obsidi,1l1 bladel through which they extraCt all the internal organs. They thell dean OUl Ihe body ca,ity, rinsing it with palm wine ami pounded spices, all except fra"kincensc, and stitch it up ag;.lin. Ami \\ hen they han done this they cover the corpse wilh natron for se\cnty days, but for no longcr, and so mummify it. Alief Ihe se,-cnry days are up, they wash Ihe corpse :1I1d wrap it from head 1.0 10(' in bandages of the tlnt'st tint.:n anointcd wilh gum, which lhe Egyptians
lISC

for

mourning see

FLi'\ER \RY BEI.lEFS

the mOst parr instead of glut.:. Finally they hand over rhe body to the rehtrivl's who place it in ;t \\ooden coOin in the shape 01':1 man bclore shutting it up in:.l hurial chamber, propped upriglll 3gainst a wall. This is the most costly method of preparing rhe dead. Those for whom the second and less cxpensi\c way has been chosen arc tre:Hcd as follows: rhe embalmers lill their syringes with cedar oil which they inject into the abdomen, neither cuning the flesh nOr cxtTacting the internal organs bur introducing I he oil through lhe anus which is lhen Slopped up. Then Ihey mummify rhe bod~ for the prescribed number of d:lys, at the end of which they a 110\\ rhe nil which had been injected lO escape. So great is its strengrh that il brings away

mummification
The prcsen'ation of the body was an essential parr uf ancienr Egypti,,1n funerary pral:ticc, since it ,,,as to the body that the" -\ ,Yould return in order LO lind sustenance, If the bod~ had decayed or was unrecognizable the /at would go hungry, and the afterlife be jeopardized. iVlummificatlon was therefore dedicated 1:0 the prevention of decay. It has often been statcd thal the practice grew from obscrving that thc hOf, dry sand prescfYcd thosc bodies buried in it; and that, having seen the effcct on Predynastic corpses, lhe Egyptians sought to improve upon nature. This seems an inadequate and flawed exphlOiltion, and it is probably best LO assullle th:ll the pr;H.:tice evolved simply to prcserve the image of the body, and as techniqucs became morc sophistic'lrcd so more of Ihe actual body was retained. Somc support for this is found in thc fact that mummies from rhe Old Kingdom (2686-2181 or.) seem tn have had their form and features preservcd in plastcr and p'lint, while the actual body decayed :I\\'ay beneath. The Greek historian IIF.R()DOTLS (cASO Be) provides the best-literary account of the mUIllmification process, although the techniquc would ha,-c becn well past its peak by the time he observed ir. He states: There arc those who aTe established in Ihis
profession and who practise the eraf!. When a corpse is brought to them they show Ihe bearers wouden models of mummies, painled in imitation of I he real thing. The best method of" embalming: is said to be lhal which W<lS practised on one whose l1amc I call1lot Illcnlion in this come;..:l !"i.e. OSIRIS]. The second method they demonSITatc is somewhat inferior ami costs less. The third is cheapest of all. I-laving indicated the differences, they ;lsk by which method Ihe corpse is to be prepared. And when the beu-ers have agreed a price and dcp:lrtcd, the embalmers :lrc left to begin their work.

all the internal org-J.l1s in liquid form. 1\'10reo\'cr lhe

natron cats away the flesh, reducing the body to skin and bone. After they h,I\'C done this the embalmers give back the body withoul furrhcr ado. The third mel hod of embalming, which is pr:lctiscd on the bodies 01" the poor, is this: I he embalmers wash OUI dle abdomen with OJ purge, mummil~\ I-he corpse for seventy days then gi\'c it back to be taken aW:Iy.

Embalmers e,idently took some pride in their work, and wcre morc highly organized than I--lerodotus implies. 'rhe overscers held priestly tilles, stemming fi'om the distant" past when only ro~'<1lty and the highest nobility wcrc cmbalmcd. It should be remembered that fur most of Egyptian history the poorest people must ha,'c been inlcrred in simple graves in thc s.lIld and relied on natural presen;ttion. Tn charge.: of mummification was the 'O\'crseer of the mystcrics' (he,:J' seshtll) who lOok the part of the jackal-god \ 'UBIS. His assistant

CojJin alld mrapped IIJll"IIII~jicd bO{~)1 (!/ lret/lOreru. The 1I1lJ1111J~J' is./ilmished mith (J gilt 1I1l1sk alld corered;1I (J beat! IIellillg decorated m;th llfigure ofthe sky----goddess Nut ora the brc(lst. 26th DY1UlSty, c.600 BC (?}.fmmAkhmim. 1/. 1.65/11. (,u20N5).

190

M-UMMIFICATION

MUMMIFICATION

was the (seal-hearer of the god' (lteJl!m11J "dja), a tiLle formerly borne by priests of Osiris. It was the 'Iecror priest' (hel]' lu:b) who rC;;ld the magicli spells. Together these men O\"CI"saw the 'handagcrs' (me/JIm) who undertook most of the actual evisceration and band3ging. As these titles indicate, mummification was 110t only ,,1 technical process but also a ritualized one, the whole act seeking to repeat the stages in the making of the original mummy, that of Osiris. \Vc know from two papyri of the first ccntur~ _\1) describing (the ritual of embalming' (copied from carlier sources) that "cry specific rituals accompanied c\'cry stage of the \\ork. Shord~ after death a body would be taken to a tenl known as the ibm or 'Place or Purificarion' where it ,,"auld be \\"ilshed in '\TH01\. solution} before being taken to ~1I1oth cr area enclosing a further tent and known as the 'I-louse of Beauty' (pa lIt'ji'r), where rhe actual mummific<ll ion took placc. In thc first" method deseribed by Herodotus the body would be eviscerated, except for the heart and kidneys. This was achicved by making an incision in the left flank, which would hirer be covered by an cmbalming plate. Prior to the :'\l ew Kingdom (1550-1069 Be), hO\\"evcr, c,"isceration was not always practised, and Ihe brain was usually discarded. \Vhen the viscera were rcmovcd, thcy wcre dricd, rinsed, b..m daged and placed in C.j\~OPIC J \RS or parcels, which wcre placed with the budy or, in the Third Intermediate Period (1069-7-17 BC), returned to the bo,h ca,;n, dccorarcd on the exterior wilh the images of the four so's OF IIORLS. \Vax figures of the latter were also frequently includcd in the visccral packages. atron would then be piled orcr the corpse ro desicC<lte it. Until quite rccently scholars belicved that the body was placcd in a liquid natron solmion, but" experimental work has shown that dry natron is morc cffectire. From the discO\ery of a wooden embalming lable at Thebes, and from the travenine embalming rabIes of the :\PIS bulls ;.It 1\ lcmphis, it is dear that the natron was moundcd ovcr the body. Packets of natron might also be inserted into the body C<1Vil~ during this period, to assist in the dehydration process. During this time up to 75 per cent of [)lC body weight would be lost. Aftcr some forty days the temporary stuffing would be removed (although it contained pari of the deceased and was therefore retained for the burial), and the body cavity was packed with bags of clean natron, resin-soaked bandages and various aromatics in such a way as to give the body a more natural shape. In the 21st Dynasty (1069-945 BC), subcutaneous
+

191

MUMMIFICATION

MUSIC, MUSICAL Il\STRUME"ITS

p'lcking \Y;lS sometimes lIsed to model the Illusculature or arms and legs and fill out the facC'. This was attempted, somewhat m-crenthusiastically, on the mlll1ll11~ of the 215Dynasty priestess HClluttawy (wife of the chief" priest of Anulll, Pinudjcm 1), whose checks cracked as the skin shrank and dried. '1"hc brain cayity was also filled with resin or linen, the openings lO the skull wcre packed, and artificial eyes \\ere often added. The whole body waS then coated in resin, thus adding to the already darkened colour of the skin. The Arabs mistook this bhtckening for the effects bitumen, and it is from their word for this - Illlfllllll/)/{f - thaI I-he word 'mummy' derives. In [let bitumen is rarc1~ t<>und un mummies, 'llthough many hm"c lhc appc,mmce of hein~ co.ucd with it, Cosmetics were sometimes added, in ordcr to gi,'e the body its final life-like appearance, and the \\hole \\-as then bandaged, \\ILI.ETS being wrapped among the layers in the appropriate pl<lces dictated by their function, The type, material, and placing of such amulets is described in I he IIOOh. OF Till: I)!': \1 l. 'I'he bandaging fOOl. some fifteen days, and used many metres of linen, Tlluch of it from old clothing. In the cheaper methods cyisceration \\ as undertakcn through the anus, much as Herodotus states, and the bod~ desiccated. The emire process ~ from death to burial usuall~ took sc\'cnl'y days, a pcriod of time probably connected with the phases of the dog star Sirius (sec SOTIIIC netJ':), In the Old Kingdom, the deceased was belie,'cd to return as a star, and the period of mummification coincided with the time during which the star was im isihle..'\. t the end of the process the deceased was renewed, and one of the embalming spells concludes with the assurance: 'You willli,'c again, you will lire for e,-er. llehold, you arc young 'lgain for ever.' T,ess is known about the mummification of animals, although research into the mummification of cats :tnd ibises has recently been undertaken. A demotic papyrus in Vienna records the procedures thai accompanied mummification of the Apis bull. See also

:\. F. SIIORE, 'Human .1I1d diyine l11ummificltion', S'lillit's il1 p/uJr(wllir rdigioll allli .HI(il'ly pre~'ell/l'd 10] GI1~JIII CrUft/h, ed. A. B. L101'd (London, 1992), n(l-s. L. TROY, 'Creating a g:t)(]: the l11ummification ritual', li"ICI:: 4 (1993), ,,-81. E DLR"I) and R. Llclrn:,\IIERG, .1111I1Jllllt,s: /I jourllq into ('/l'mi~)1 (London, I99..J.).
R. P\KTRII)G[, Fun's nlpharfwlts: n!)'oI1l11111111Iit's lind ndTillsfmm fl1lfienJ nll'IIt'., (London, 199..J.).

cd at I.eontopolis (to the west of the mJin ruins). During the Ptolemaic period Taremu becamc known as Leonlopolis Clion city') and the c1e,'cnth Lowcr Egyptian was capital nomc (pro,-ince).

or

E. N\\ 1I,I.E._JlIIIIIS 1'1 ;Iletli"dl

(Ht'mde(/plJh~,

or

mummy label (Grcek (lIbllI) During the Greco-Roman period, when corpses were regularly being transported from the homc \'0 the cemetery (and somcfimcs, if the de~th occuITcd away from homc, b~ck to their village), they were usually idcntified by tags made of wood, and occasionall~ stone. ..\ lummy labels were inscrihed with shon i.nk texts in Grcd. or demotic (or occJsionally in both languages), gi"ing such yital information as the name, age, homc-to,,n and destination of the dcceased, although some bear mOre elaborate inscriptions ranging from thc cosr of transport 1.0 shorr fUllerary pra~'crs. In the C,lSC of poorer indi,idu<1ls, it appears rhat the labels might cyen ha,-c sencd as cheap STEI. \I~ Or tombstones in the graycs thcmseh-es.
W. 5Pll~G1:J.IlERG, AgypJisrht' flllt! griahiJdll'
E(!!,CIIIUl1lll'lI f/llf.llu1IImiflldikt'//t'lI tll'r riiIllJ:w'/u!n

.I Jagl1a) (Londoll, 1894), 27~31. 1(. A. KrrclIE:'\, T/}(' Third 1IlII'nlll'ililllt, Paifltl U1 Egypt (1100-650 lJe), 2nd ed. (\\';trminstcr, 1986),128-30. P. A. 51'1:.'\0:R and 1\, J. SI'E:'\C1~R, tNotes on late Libyan F.g'pt',JE J 72 (1986), 198-201. C..'\.lh:u'10L'\I';md R, PRIEI)\I-\,\, 'The 1993 field season of the BerkclcyTeU e1-.~luqdam project: prcliminar~ report l , i\~ IRel...' 16'{ (win!'cr 1994), 1-10.

music, musical instruments A great dcal of Egypt-ian religiuus and secular

celebration W.IS marked by the performance both music .md IJ\'\\.I .. 'I'he depiction of mU"iicians on such late Predynastic artef:lcts as ceremonial palettes and stone 'csscls indicates the importance accorded to music e"en in prehistoric times. A wide variety of instrulllenrs wcre played, ranging fi'om pairs of simple ivory clappers (probably already depictcd on Prcd~11astic pottery ,'cssels of thc mid fourth millennium Be) to the harps and lutes th.lt \yere frequently played at b.111quets during the :'\cw f..:ingdot11 (1550-1069 m:). The importance of music in ancient Egypt i"i attested b~ thc large number of instrllll1Cnl~ in muscum collections, Anciellt Egyprian mllsical instruments consisted of four basic types: idiophones, mCll1branophone~, acrophoncs anti cordophones. The idiophones, including CL1Ppers, sistra, cymb'lls and bell.., were particubrIy associat-ed with religious worship, 'The I11CIllbranophones included the tambourine, uSllall~ played hy girls at banquel.s or in Oludonr ceremonies, ~nd also the drum, a l11ilitar~ instrument that was sometimes used in religious processions. Thc earliest Egyptian aCrophone \\-as the flute, but there were also douhle 'clarinets', double 'oboes' and trumpets or hugles (mostly connected ,,;111 the army). The chordophones consisted of tluce types: rhc harp (an indigenous Egyptian instrumcnl) allll thc lute and lyre (both Asiatic imporr~). Perhaps the beST indication of the ancient Egyptians' sheer enjo~ ment of music is to he f(>lInd in a 'satirical' papyrus (!\ I LISCO Fgizio. Turin) depicting ,In ass \yith a large archcJ harp, a lion with <l lyre, <l crocodile with ;l hlle and a monkcy with a double tohoe'. 11. IIICK_\U"'\, 15 siidl'.( tit' IIIl1siqUt' dtllls I'Eg..l'pu
f1udt'//1/t' (Paris, 1956).

or

Kaisa:::.ei/

(T.cipzig, 1901).

t 1 lumm~-Iags rrom the Ashmol~lIl \ Museum, Oxford" GIE..J.5 (1970), 13+-'52, I': B\I{\'ITE and B. 130'/\\'\1., 'Catalogw.. des ttiqucucs dc l110mies dUl\luscc du LOLJ\Tc\ CRII'1::1.2 (1974),155-204. .J. QL_UGEBELR, ':\lumm~ labels: an oriemation'.

J. C. 51IEI:I'O',

Tl'XIt'S griYS. ,h;/III}/iqlle~'l't biliugllcJ (l~ L. /Jal. I')).

cd. E. Boswinkcl :.mJ P.

\r. Pesflllan (Leidell,

1978),232-59.

OPI:'1:-.G OF TilE \\OLTII CERE.\\U",

G. E.

S'IlTI

,.1 ((I1fJribllliou

10 llit' ""1Il()' II[

1II/1111mdimlifJlI ill {Jucit'lIl Egypl /IIi/it special

rt}iTel/t"l' 10 lite mel/Sf/res adopled during lite 21.1'1 0/1//1' hOl(J' (Cairo, 1906) A, and E. COCKIILR'\, AluJl/llIil's. d/~"c/lSe {{lid alltiell/ culiurt'S (Cambridge, 1980). J Il\RRIS .1Ild E. F. \VE:-.~rE, .111 \-ray alllls of/ht' rr~)'(l11I11/1I1mil's(Chic.1~w, 1980). 11 AD\\IS, [gyptiaJl mll11ll11il'S (Aylesbur~, 198-1) C. A,OREWS, Egyptiaf/1I1I1mmil'J (London, 19M4)
1J.111/I/sl.v.(ol" /lIIIIIMiug Ihe.f{mlJ

Muqdam, Tell el- (anc. lilrCI11U; Lconlopolis) L;lrgc settlement site in the central Delta, which was prubabl~ the power-base of the 23rd Dynast) (818-715 lie). T'hc eastern sector of the sire of the ancienr tOWI1 ofTafcmu is still dominated by the remains of the temple of the local I.lo,-god :\ I ihos. The htrge-scalc remoyal and re-liSC of relief blocks from the temple has made the building difficult to date precisely, although surYi,-ing stelae and sL.1tuary indicale that- therc "-as alread~ il tcmple at Tarclllu in thc 181h Drnasry (1550-1295 Ile). 'fhe site is usually assumed 1.0 have incorporated thc royal cemetery of the 2Jnll)ynas.. ~, although it has recentl~ been argued Ihat the capital at this rimc may actually h.n-e been at Khclllenu (III:R.\10POI.IS \I.\G~.\)_ Only the tomb of Queen "Kama(ma), mother of OSORh:O:-' III (777-7-+9 Be), has so far been 10c.1t-

R. D. r\ ,OERSO" .l/miml imlnl1lU!1I1S (London. 1976).

192

~T

MYCERINUS

Mycerinus set'

\lE'kILR.1

mythology
The activities of the gods of the Pharaonil: period, as well as their interactions with humans, arc largely encapsulated in divine \lltriburcs' (such :IS epithets and iconographic fc:uurcs) or such genres as IIY\I,\S, spells and rites, r.uher th.m being expressed in cOlwention:I1 narr;1ti,'c forms. On the basis of these scattered fragments of inform:uion, hmrc,-cr, it has praycd possible to reconstruct versions of a ,-aricty of 'myths' of rhc Pharaonic period, associated wilh such issues as CRI':ATlOl\, KI'\0SIIIP and life aftcr death (sec FL '\,1:RAln BEI,WFS and OSIRIS). T'herc arc, hmre,cr, also a number of SUr\'iring literary texts that morc c1oscl) ;lpproximatc to thc Classical concept of a narrati'T-stylc myth, such as the ~r;"e (~r l10rus lIlId Sl',h and the 7fdt' (If J.~i.~ (/1/(/ ,ht' SnxIJ S(()1'piollS. In addition, thc reliefs and inscriprions in the ambulatory of the Ptolemaic tempIc of IIORLS ..11 EUFU (as "'e11 as rhe 1\1idtlle Kingdom 'Ramcsscum Dr<ll11:ltic Papyrus') have been interpretcd by many scholars as the texts of a mythological 'drama" consisting of rhe enactment of lhc triumph of the god Horus m-er his rh'al SETII. Sec also .\ \IL '\; U<X1k OF TIlE DE \0; COFFI:\. TE\TS; FLi\.ER.\R\ TE\TS; P\ R.\.\III) 1I-:\T5 and
REI.IGIO'_

Delail ofa[mgmelll nlmllll-pllilllil1gfm11l {/ TheblJllI0mb-dlllpd. s/wming./hl1a/t 11lllJitill1lS singing ([1ll1 playing rarifJ/IS imlrummts (lUll'S, {/ double abot' rlud (/ !u/1/bourilll'). /81h 1J.)11U1S()" c. NOD BC, painted p/as/n:.f/"olll 711('/10. 11. 6/ rill. (E 13798/)
C. ZIEGI.EK, Les illS/rtllI/ellls til' mils/que eg.l'plit'JIS (lJI "-fusii' till LU/lITt: (Paris. 1(79). L..M \"''\ICIIE, ,\lusj( flllt/1I/tIJicillllS iUlIlIcit'Uf Egypt (London, 1991).

Mut
Vulture-goddcl-is who lIsurped the role of Amaunct in the Thchan Tnl\!) as consort of
!\1\'!U:"J ,mel 111ot"her of KJ IO:'\S.

She

W<1S

usually

Detail 0/11 .~(JI/(I.~/nlle side n:(ordiug rcpairedjlootl damage, slwmillg 'ht' Rnwall flllpl'mr Tibaim OJfirillg lIjigl/re of/he godde.u ,II(fUllo the deities illlI/ flud KhouSli. RowuII puiu". IIJ 1+-.17. 11.66.3 ellJ. (IC 1398)

depicted as a woman wearing a long hrightly Cololl.Ted (sometimes feather-patterned) dress and a ,ulture hcaddress surmounted by rhe 'white crown' or 'douhle crown' (sec CRO\\ '\s). She usually also held a long 1',\I'YRUS sceptre symbolizing Upper Egypt. Like ISIS and I IAn lOR she essenlially played I'he role of di"lnc moL her to the reigning king; therefore many amulcts representing f\lut show her as a seated \\oman suckling a child, often only distinguishable as ~Iut rather than Isis becausc of the prcscm:e of a crown or an inscription naming the figure, The royal women holding the title of GOD'S \\11-"1': OF \\It,;, wCre aJi portrayed ,,ith iconogr'lphic features linking them with j\llul. She also, howc,-er, had a more aggressive asp(;ct as a feline goddess closely linked with SE"II\U,T, and many of the Slatues in her tcmpic at .... \R'\ \1-: represent her in this lionessheaded form. Sekhmcl, ,\IUI .md TEF'\LT ,,cre aU daughters of the sun-god, or 'UI:S OF In', senlto terrorize thc peoples of the earth. 11. TE YI',l.m:, 'Towards i1111inimal definition of the goddess ~\lul',.7EOL 8/26 (1979-80), 3-9. I J. 1)1-,1\ II.L 1.1':'\ \I':R.E, 'lsi el 1\ lout des mamJllisi', SI/uli" Nasla II, cd.]. Q!.tal:geheur (Leuvel1, 1(82). 11. TEVEI.IW, 'ThcC1L1S s:lCrcd animal orrhc guddess 1\lur', SllIIhcJ ill/~r~.Yfllitlll n'ligioll dedimud /(} ProJi:ssorJ(1ff Z(IIult'l:, cd, \1. I kenna ,"anYosscl al. (Leidcn, 1982), 127-37. -,'..\Jut, the eye ofRc',.Il,!t,,/ \liilldfCI/ /98_11(1, ed. S. Sehoske (Hamhurg, 1989),395-103.

FR:\~,,"FORT, Kir/g.~hip af/(/Ihi' gluts: (/ sI1U6, uf Near Emf"rJ! religion liS Ihe iUfl'gmlioff oIsorielJ'

1-1,

alld Illflllre (Chil:ago, 19-+8).

II. W, F \llUl:\N, The Iriumph o/J-/rmlS (London, 197-1). H, AI:rE~.'IUI.l.EI{, 'Dramarischcr Ramc.'.iscumspapyrus" L,'xikul/ dcr /i.~),plo/(Jgi,' I, cd, \\I, Held, E. Ono and W. \Veslcndorf (Wiesbaden, 1975), 1132--40. J. A":is\I \"\\, 'Die Ycrborg-cnhcil des!\ lythos in Ag~ptcn" G 1125 (1977), 7----+t, F., BRU'J,ER-TR \l T, 'l\lythos', Ll.ri~fJlf da -i.~llfll(//()gil' 1\, cd, \,V, r Jdd, E, Ono and W. WeS[endorf" (Wiesbaden, 1982),277-86. J. It AI.l.E,\, Gmesis ill Egypi ~ Iht' fllrilo_WJp/~l,/~r alltiml t':~..J'Plill" lTt'alifJlf lI((flllffls (r\cw H.lyen, 1988) G, II \In, EgYPliaf} 110'llls (London, 191)0)_

193

NAG EL-DEIR

NAOPHOROL:S

N
Nag el-Deir (Naga-el-Der) Cemetery in northern Upper Egypt situated on the cast bank of the Nile south of ..\ KI-IJ\llj\l and spanning the Prcdynaslic period to the Middle Kingdom (c.4000-16,O BC). Its excavation was begun in 1901 by the American scholar George REISi'ER, whose tcam recorded the excavation in meticulolls derail and excavated the cemetery as <1 whole, rather than concentrating only on indiyidual, potenti311y rich tombs, as had been the case with the work of many late nineteenth-century eXCilyators. As a result, it has proved possible to gain some ide.} of rhe development of the cemetery and to examine the buri'll practices closely. Reisner made a full publication of c;Jeh Prcdynasric tomb, radlcr than simply publishing those thai he considered to be significant. \~rith this comprehensive style of publication, he surpassed his predecessors (and indeed many later excavators of Egyptian sites). His c~1reful excavations revealed such details as lhe clothing and position of the bodies, which would have otherwise been lost information. Among the finds from the Dynastic period is a 6thDynasry LfTrER TO '11 IE DE/\Il from the tomb of
~Ileru

li"cd during the reign of Thutmose IY (I-fOO-1390 BC). He is bcsr known for his lI'ellpreserved tomb (rr,2) in the Theban cemetery of Sheikh 'Abd ci-Qurna, wbich is decorated with many paintings depicting scenes from daily life, including agricultural actiritics, as well as the entert~linmcnt of guests at it banquet. The name of the god AnulI1 was excised from this tomb duri~g the time of Akbenaten (1352-1336 Be) as pan of the nE~ 'heresy'. N. m: G. DAVIES, The 10ll1b oj'Nflkht lit ThebeJ (New York, 1917). B. PORTER and R. L. B. .\loss, Topogmphiml bibliographJ' 1/1 (Oxford, 19(0),99-102.

names
Egyptians set great store by the naming of people and objects, ~md the name was reg~lf(l ed as an essential clement of every human indi"idual, just as necessary for surviral as the K:\, BA or AKII. Fashions in personal n~Hnes often follow those of the rulers of the time, :.wd often incorporate the name of il deity chosen either because they were pre-eminent

(i'\3737).

The work condueled by Reisner and Alberl Lythgoe at the N7000 Predynastic cemetery was sufficiently detailed LO allow recent reanalysis of the remains. Their excavation records included unusually detailed descriptions of the skeletons themselves, provided by the anatomist Grafton Elliot Smith, thus supplying modern biological anthropologists with a good database for further research. G. A. Rf~IS:"iER and A. i\1"r.E, The Early DY1lflsti( a:lIIl'teries oI1Vagfl-l'd-Dcr (Boston, 1908-9). G. A. REIS'\ER, A prOi:incifll cemetery of the pyramid flge: Nflgfl-ed-Dfr (Oxford, 1932). A. LYTIIGOE, The Pre(61J1f1stir cemetery \'7000, l"fI~!{fl-(d-Der, Part 1\', cd. D. Dunham (Berkeley, 1%5). P. V. POIJZORSKI, Their b(}lIe.~ Jlwl/ /10/ perixh: (111 '.rfllllil1f1I;(}1/ f)f PredYllflstic hUfllflN Jkdetfll remaim Fom Naga-ed-Der i1/ Egypt (New Malden, 1990). -,'The correlation of skeletal remains and burial goods: an example from Naga-ed-Der '\17000', ilioingicfli fll1thmpnlogy tllld the s/lu()' of (l//(i'1lt Egypt, cd. 'V. V, Da,-ics and R. \Valker (London, 1993), 119-29.

Limestmll' '1l(/IIll'-.wme' fJfllatshepsut from thl' of her 1Iitlley Temple al Deir t'! Bahr;. SUdl stQlIes arl' especia/~)1 (Om11101l at the temple (Ind seem 11) hmo'e sen.:etlll (;Olit'e purpose, The other side of this l'Xample bt'lirs (/II ill/.: illSrriptioll mentioning Sl'1It'1Imllf rllld the date 'semnd month (~(the SIiIl/11!er .~efl.W1/, day 9'. Thebes. II. 28 cm. (r, 152882)
t'i(illi~)1

('Ra is satisfied') or Khasekhemwy ('the n\O powers appear'). The import.lOce of words and names, l10t merely as abstract symbols but as physical manifestations of the named phenomena themselves, is re-emphasized by the so-called l\1emphite "rheology, inscribed on the SIIAB:\QO Stone, in which the god 1''1'-\11 creales everything in the universe by pronouncing each of the namcs (see CREATIO'\l). In rhe same way, thc Egypti~1l1 reference works known ,IS O~OMj\STIC.:\ simply consisted of lists of namc~ for such things as people, professions and places, without any description or definition, since it was presumably felt that the name or word was in itself a perfect expression of lhe phenomenon concerned. Like the SII \ DO\\', the name was regarded as ~l liring pan of each human being, which had to be assigned immediately ~1t birth, otherwise it was felt that the individual would not properly come into existence. rn the case of "-1;\10 I.ISTS inscribed on the walls of temples and tombs, the cult of the royal ancestors was celebrated by writing out the C:ARTOUClIES of past rulers, and in a sense it was the list of names on which the cuI ric rituals focused rather d,an the indi"idual rulers themselves. The symbolic importance of the name abo meant that the remoral of personal or royal names from monuments or staruary was considered to be equivalent to the destruction of the "ery memory and existence of the person to whom the n~lme referred. Conversely, the addition of a new name to a relief or statue (an act usually described by Egyptologists as the 'usurping' of a work) was considered LO imbue it with the essence and personalilY of the new owner, regardless of its actual physical appeamncc. See also Ron I. TITUI..\R\. P. L<\C;\u. 'Suppressions des noms divins dans Ics textes de 1;1 chambrc funeraire', ASAE 26 (1926). 69-81. 11. R.-\NKE. Dil' iigyptische PlTJ(Jl/i:lIl/{mWI, 3 \'ols (Hamburg, 1932-77). G. POSL'\ER, 'Sur I'attribution d'un nOI11 a un enfant', RdE 22 (1970), 20+--,. S. QUIRKE, ''''lro mere tlrt' plrarflohs? (London, 1990),9-19. E. !-!OILNl':-\G, Idea iI/to iwage, trans. E. Bredeck (NC\\ York, 1992), 177-8.

Nakht
Scribe and astronomer of \ \IL~ who probably

at that period or locally impOrl"anl in lhe place \vhere the individual was born. The name of an individual is therefore ofren <l clue as to date or geographical origins. Although some names ;Ire simply nouns or adjecti\'es, such as I'\efcret ('be~lutiful woman'), others rake the form of st<\tements such as Rahotep

naophorous see ".IOS naos

Ancient Greek ter111 for the innermost part of a temple or shrine, which is used by Egyptologists to refer to a type of shrine <.:011-

194

~PATA

NAQADA

raining the cult-image or sacred BAR!\: of a deity kept in the sanctuary. Generally taking the form of a rectangular chest or box hewn ii'om a single block of wood or stone, the //(fOS could also be used as <l container for a funerary statue or a mummified animal. Egyptian 'naophorous' statues portrayed the subject holding a shrine, sometimes containing a divine image. G. ROEDER, Naos, 2 vats (Leipzig, 191f).

S/{{Ildillg l1aophorOlis

(naos-bearing) statile

(JIa mani"
tradi/ional EgYPliall

posture; lite naOs ('{mlaius aJigure 0/ lite god A/lIlIl wearing

the double rromll.
R01/1a.u
If.

period,

lSI

rcn!llI:JlAD, basal!,

46 CIII. (E,65443)

considerable importance throughout the Mcroitic period (300 BC-AD 300). 'T'hc main site of Napata, located to the south of the Nile (which at this point is flowing from cast to wcst), incorporates a cemetery, a possible palace building and a partially excavated settlement. To the north o[ the ri'"cr arc the remains of an unusual temple of {\,\I UJ' at Gcbel Barkal ('pmc l1~ountain') and probably also another seulement, although the latter has not yet been satisfactorily cxamined. The district of Napata in its wider sense includes the royal cemet"eries at EL-KURRU and NtJRI and an extensive settlemem and cemetery at Sana Ill, where F Llewellyn Griffith eXCavated about fifteen hundred non-royal graves. Although the Naparan religiolls and funerary rem<lins have been Llsed to COnStruct a derailed chronology for the Nap~ltan period, there has still heen very little excavation of Napatan sct~ dements, rhercfore little is known of the economic and social aspects of Kush in the urst millennium BC. ELl. GRIFFITH, 'Oxford exc;muions in Nubia" Liverpool AIII/als oIArdult!olo!J.Y ali(I Allthropology 9 (1922), 67-124. D. DL:XHMI, The I"(~l'al cemeteries (~rKlIsh, 4 vols (Boston, 1950-7). B. G. HAYCOCK, 'Towards a better understanding of the Kingdom or Cush (Napata-_Meroe)', Sudtl/1 Notes lind !?I!{ords 49 (1968), I-J 6. D. DUNI IA~l, TIll: 8ar/..:al tell/pies (Boston, 1970). 1: KENDALL, Gebel BarRal elJip,'I"ilphic SUITt!)' 1986: prelimillury report to the Visitillg Committee (~rthe Department ()If~fJ.yptian Ar' (Boston, 1986).

Napata
District of NU1l1A on the Dongola reach of the Nile, about 30 km southwest of the fourth cataract, wh.ich has given its name to the Napatan period. The area was settled in the mid-fifteenth century BC as a southern outpost of the Egyptian empire. \Vhen I-he empire declined, however, Napata emerged as the political ccntre of the kingdom Kush (c. 1000-300 Be), whieh had previously been dominated by the KI':Rlv!'\ culture. The location of Napata would have allowed the Kushite kings of the Napatan period to control trade along two important desen routes: the northern road to the town or f..:r\WA and the SOuthern to j\IEI{()E (which gradually replaced Napata as political centre from the early sixth century Be onwards). It is clcar, however, that Napata was still an area of

Naqada (anc. Nubt, Om bas) One of the largest Prcdynastic sires in Egypt, located about 26 km north of Luxor on the west bank of the Nile. 'fhe Predynastie cemeteries of Tukh and el-Ballas, about 7 km north of the modern yillage of Naqada, were

excavated by Flinders Petrie and James Quibell in 1895. IJetrie initially misinterpreted the contenls of over two thousand graves as the remains of foreigners dating to the First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 Be), whom he described as the 'New Race'. Eventually, primarily <IS a result ofJacques de LVlorgan's identification of Prcdynastic remains at AIWDOS, Petrie recognizcd that the material he had excavated at Naqada and J-11\\'-SE\\;\INA, including pottery, pressureflakcd flints and ivory combs, was prehistoric, forming the basis for the chronological phases Naqada I and II, -'.4000-3100 Be, now more commonly described as the Amratian and Gerzean periods (see 1'1{1'~I)Y'.rASTIC PERIOD). Cemetery T at Naqada is a collection of fiftyseven brick-built and richl~' equipped gravcs which are lhought to have belonged to the ruling elite of the late Naqada fI (Gerzean) period. The site also includes the remains of a Predynastic walled town (the 'South 'Town') founded at least as early as 3600 Be. The his~ torieal name for Naqada was Nubt, meaning 'Gold[-townr) suggesting that the inhabitanrs may well have benefited from their location opposite KOPTOS and the \;Vacli Hammamat, through which they would have been able to exploit the precious minerals of the Eastern Desert. The South 'lawn at Naqada continued to flourish lip to the beginning of the Early Dynastic period, when it appears to have been eclipsed by the growing political power of" the settlements at I IIERAKO:\fPOLlS and AIlYDOS. The sire also incorporates a town and temple of the Dynastic period. An Early Dynastic mud-brick MASTt\l3t\ tomb with palace-fac;ade ,,alls surrounding its superstructure- which closely resembles those at SAQ(l!\IU and Abydos-was discovered about

PIau 4Naf/ada

1 Predynastic settlement 2 south town 3 Predynastic cemetery

4 cemetery T: an elite Predynastic cemetery 5 to 7 Predynaslic cemeteries 8 temple at Seth

9 Pharaonic period settlement 10 step pyramid ofTukh 11 to 14 Predynaslic cemeteries

or

195

:-JAQ!\DA

NARl\IER

Red/l'rches Sill' les origiues tic I'fgyptt,2 \'ols (Paris, 1896--7). E. B-\L \IG\RTEl., Petrie s.Vtll/tlda l'xrlfi:aliOIl; 11 5l1ppleml'1I1 (London, 1970). J. J. C-\STII.I.OS, '_-\.11 analysis of the tombs in lhe Pred~'1:tstie cemeteries <It l'ag-Jlhl.JSSE J 10 (1981).97-106. \\-. DAns, 'CemeterYT at 'Kaqada'. AfD_-IIK 39 (1983), 17-28. C. B 'ROC\S, 'Fouilles de I'IstitulO Uniwrsirario Oricn",lc (!'\aples)" Zawa,dah ("aqadah. "South Town" de Petrie): c-.lmpagnc 198{', .-lkkll .lliiudun 1985 II, cd. S. Schoskc (Hamburg, 1989),299-303. 1-.:. R\RD, 'The e"olurion of social cornpl('xit~ in predyn'lstie Egypt: an analysis orthe !\agad'l cC111crcrics',J.IL-/212 (1989). 223--18.
].1)10: 1\ IU1(0-\,'\':,

Narmer (t.3 JOO BC)

Early Egypti'lll ruler who is sometimes identified with J\J1':r"\ES, the semi-mythical rounder or \IE\lPlllS. He is thought to ha,'e been buried in 'Hm1]) u17-IS in the Umm d-Q/ab roY'11 ccmetcry at r\B~ DOS. He is primarily known, however, from ;t mudstone ceremonial palette (Egyptian 1\l11Sellt11. Cairo) and a limestone m:lcchcad (Ashmolean, o.xford), both or which were cxc,l\-atcd at IIlER\KO:'\1POJ.lS in Upper Egypt. The archaeological contexts of the two an-efacts were poorly documented hUI

Thl' Nanna Palelle./i-rllll 11ll' .w-callC'd '. \'lain Deposil' {II Hieral'oupolis. 011 one side (ldi) Nanllcr. 11Jl'arillg the frfHPll oj' Uppa Egypt. S1llilt'J ajfm'iglll'r. On Ihl' olhn sidl' (nihl) he 1pears the (rom" ofLoTPcr Egypt. PmlfJl()/IIlHlir. c..3000 IIC. IIl11d.l'tf/l/c. "- 6-1011. (cIIH0.7J:321()l)j
BEI.O\\
\HO\ 1:.1 pm Offill' ,"af/mlll /I paint! (c.3.'OD lie). pail1tetimiJll dl's,:!{"S o/IJlJaI$ lind IUlI1ll1ujigl/rl's. 7'ltis ~l'pe (~rdemrtllioll tli~'(lppears ill pharaonic

lil1ll'~. II.

30..) CIII.

(I:

136327)

three kilometres northwest of Naqada village hy Jacques de l\lorgan in 1897. It contained fragments or SlOne ,oases and ivory labels .lS well as day scalings bearing the Ilames of Lhe 1SI-D) nas" ruler III I (1".3100 BC), and a woman called NcilhholCP (perhaps his wife), to whom the tomb may ha\c belongcd.

Another monUlllent in the vicinity is a small

stone-built step pyramid Ilcar I he village of Tukh. This is one of" <11 kast seven slllall step pyramids of unknown function erected at differellt siles from Scila down to Aswan, possibly in Ihe reign of the 3rd-D~rn'lsfy ruler Huni (2637-2613 BC). W. i'd. F. PkTH.IEilndJ E. QUlm:I.1 . Na(jadlllll/{l Bal/as (I ,ondun, 1H96).

196

~RMER

NAUKRATIS

the macehcacl appears to

h,lYC

been one of a set

nalron
occurring compound largely consisling sodium carbonate and sodium bic~lr bonate. h was important principally for ilS use in purification rituals, not least during \IC.\L\lIFIC:\TIO:\", and was subject to a royal monopoly
~atllrally

ofProrodynasric "mire items (described as the ')\,lain Deposit') buried beneath the flour of
the temple building of the Old Kingdom

or

(2686--2181 Be), while the palette was discoycred a few metres ~l\\'ay. Both hare been dated sr,-listically ro (he Protodynastic period (c:3100-2950 Be).
Only fragments of the macchc.lll were

feco,-ered, whereas the palette has sun"j,"cd

intact and in rirrually perfect condition. Both faces afC c.lITcd with reliefs showing an Egyptian ruler who is identified as ':'\armer'

bv twO carly hieroglyphic characters canoed in f;onl" of him. On one side he is shmYIl as;,1 king wearing the white eRQ\r, of upper Egypt
smiting a foreigner (possibly a LlBr.~'\!) in the presence of rhe ha""k-god, while on the

capilal of the 26th-Dynasty rulcrs. under whom Naukratis was reorganized. The modern name of the site itself is K.om Gi'cif, although the ancient name appears to h"\'e sun ired in (he name of the nearby "illagc of el-Niqrash. According (Q the Greek historian Herodotus, the site was gi,-en to the Greeks by Ahmose II (570--526 Be), along with a rnonopoly on seaborne TR.\IJE to Egypt, although it is more likely that Ahmose II simply reorganized an existing settlement of foreigners, gi"ing them new tnlding privileges. It is clear from such finds as Corinthian 'transilional' pottery that the Greek settlement ;H the site dates back to c.630 Be. The levy on trade was direCled to the temple of :'\EITlJ ~lt Solis.

reverse he is depicted in the red crown 01" Lower Egypt apparently taking part 111 a procession with standard-bearers, moying towards rows of decapitated prisoners perhaps suggesting a vie wry celebration. Until the 1980s, the Narmcr palette waS widely regarded ;IS il memorial relating to a set of specific military successes over Libyans and/or northern Egyptians, accomplished by the king of Upper Egypt in the course of unifying Egypt, and there are still some adherents to this view. J-[owc,-cr, it now seems less likely that the decorations on rhe :'\armcr palette and other contemporary yotiyc objects (such as the Narmer macehead, Libyan palette and SCORPIOi' macehead) are documems of specific historical e'-cllts. :\icholas ~\lillet argucs that the depictions ilre instead iconographic summarics of the parricular year in ,yhich the object concerned "'as presented to the temple, and warns ag~linst construing the e'-ents shown on these objects as 'in themseh-es necessarily important and "historical"'_ \Yhitncy Da"is interprets the images on the Protodynastic palettes, including that of Karmer, as "isual memphors for the process by which the king/artist/hunter creeps up on his prey and delivers the death-blow. J E. QCIIlEI.L, Hiel'lllwllpllli, I (London, 19(0),
pI.
X;\IX.

!Jag u/l/{lfl'()lIji'o/IJ D~ir cl-Bahri. Noll'I.)// is ({

(()IIIIIWII

(lil/still/ellf o.{(({dles oIl'l/IhIlIJJlt'J's'

IIUlIt'ria/s,

ml'l/ A'Ufl/IJII/i'()1!f 7'llcbes. 18th DyllfHfy.

temple oj tile Dioscuri temple of Apollo temple of Hera town with temple of Aphrodite and so-called scarab factory the 'Great Temenos' or temple enclosure wall south mound

modern settlements; 7 Tell Abu Mesh!a 8 Tell Gebril Abas 9 Tell Abas Kassem 10 Kom Hadid 11 Kom Gi'eil

rIC 1-17807)
100 200 m

\v. B. EMER', AI'rh"ir E~f{,J'pt (l-brmondsworth,

1961), {2-i.
l\L
S.-\LEII

and 11.

SOL'ROL:ZI.\:\, QlJirill1

catalogue: Ihe Egyptiall fl'lllselllll, Cairo (l\lainz ,

I98i), cat. no. 8. E. \:V1U.IMIS, 'Narmer and the Coptos colossi', J1RCE25 (1988), 93-101. K MILLET, '"fhe Nanner maccht'ad and related objccts',}>IRCE 2i (1990), 53-9. W. A. F >\IRSERVIS II', '1\ revised "jew of the Na'r01r palene',j'JIICF. 28 (1991), 1-20. O,WIS, At/asking the blof1l (Berkeley, 1992).

in the Ptolemaic period (332-30 Be). It waS often used in daily cleansing, serying those purposes for which soap or toOthp~lste would now be used. It had a Yaricty of 'industrial' llses, the most important of which was the making of GL.\SS and glazes, although it does not seem to ha'"e been widely used as an alkali source in glass-making before (he Ptolemaic and Roman periods. "fhe best-known source of natl'on is the \\'adi ::\"atrun in Lower Egypt, although deposits arc also known at ELI\:.\B in Cpper Egypt, as ,,-ell as in the Beheira pr<)\-ince of Lower Egypt. In all of tht'se regions. the substance has accumu);lled on the shores and beds of ancient lakes. The deposits al Wadi N"atrun ~1I1d Elkab are menlioned in tntual sources from lhe Pharaonic period. and rhe historiaos S"'abo (l'.M Be-Il) 21) and Plin,' (.\1) 23-79) both mention the presence of natron in Egypr. A. LL"C \S, /11I(i('lIf IIllllerials allt! illdllstries, -hh cd. (London, 1%2), 263-i. A....r S,\'\'I)ISO'\, 'The lise Ofl1;1[1'On in mummification in ancient Egypt', JIVES 22 (1963),2.19-67.

53
r

\"

l-

........,
;>,.r'

f ":-.
\ .....
.~

"-

10
\",.

-;,.

.,,,, ~..",,,,,.~

,v.

Naukralis (I':OIll Gi'eit) Site of a Greek settlement on the C.'\'\OPIC branch of the Nile in the western Dclt~1. It was located only about 16 kill from 5"-IS, the

The earliest Greeks at rJle site secm to have bcen Corinthians, but it was the J\ lilesians ancl a number of other groups who were most influential in Saite times. The Hellenion building served the communal needs of these ,-arious Greek communities.

197

NAVY

NEFAARUD

There were temples to various deitics, including Chian Aphrodite and Samian Hera (whose name is known from votive pottery) as well as the Milesian Apollo. The site was excavated by Flinders Petrie in 1884-5, when it was found to be in poor condition. It was also later im'cstigarcd by E LL Griffith and D. G. Hog-arth, and, during the 19805, by an American tcam of archaeologists. In the southern part of the town, Petrie discovered a fAIEXCE workshop which produced such typically Egyptian items as 5CAIU135, as well as various Greek and Egyptianizing products. Evidence for pottery production has also been discovered at the site. Silver and bronze coins, comprising the only coinage known from Pharaonic Egypt, were struck at Naukratis, and it is likely that coins struck elsewhere in the Greek world emered Egypt via this important settlement. Under the Ptolemies thc importancc of N:1Ukratis dcclined in favour of \U:XA:"WRlt\. W. i\l. F. PI:TKIE and E. A. GAlm'ER, Nallkratis I (London, 1886). D. G. HOGARTH, 'Excavations at" Naueratis', AI/null/ ofllie Brilt:~h School {/t.~tl/(:m j (1898-9), 2(>-97. D. G. HOG.\RTII, H. L. LORIMER and C. C. EDGAR, 'Naukratis 1903',]fwnwlofHellel/ir SlIId;" 25 (1905), 105-36. j. BO-\RD\IA:", Till' Greeks fH.;eneflS (Ilarmondsworth, 196-1). "V. 0/\\ IS, 'The Cypriotes at Naukratis', GA/141 (1980),7-19. W. D. E. COl..iI.SO:\, ~lIld A. LEONARD Jr, Cities oflhl'Delltl I: NlIukmlis: prclimil/{f/]' l"t!porl 011 Ihe 1977-1f)7811I/d 1980 scasom (1\1alibu, 1981). - . 'The Kaukratis project 1983', "'lusl' 17 (1983),6+-71.

navy see ARfI,'lr;

BO,\TS

SEA I'EOPLES

;lnd

SIIII'S :\:'\'1)

Necho see ."EKAL: Nectanebo

';lmc employed by the Egypti:m historian to refer to two Egyptian rulers of the 30th Dynasry (380-3-13 oe), who actuaHy held two diffcrent 'birth names': Nakhtnebef (Nectanebo I) and Nakhthorheb (Neetanebo II). Nee/llllcbll / Kheperkllrll (380-362 Be) of Sebennytos seized the throne after the deaths of the 29th-Dynasty rulers Hakor (393-380 Be) and Nepherites II (]80 Be). Sis years later the Persian satrap Pharnabazes launched an invasion of Egypt, sending a nect manned mainly by GREEK soldiers from northern Palestine to the mouth of the
;\1,\ '-:ETIIO

)\ lendes;an tributary of the Nile. Although the Persians \\-el"C initially vcry successful, they were eventuaIJy delayed in their \'ictorious march south as a result of dissension between Pharnabazes and the Greek general Iphikratcs, thus allowing NcctJnebo to reassemble his armies and expel the Persians from the Delta. The rest of his reign was relatively peaceful, although the Egyptians appe.u to ha\'c been \"irtually alone in their defiance of the Persians. Towards the end of the reign, his son Teas (362-360 Be) e\'cn led a campaign into Syria-Palestine. Nectanebo undertook programmes of construction and decormion ;lt virtually ,Ill of the major Egyptian temples, including the building of the First Pylon in the temple of Amun at KAR'-AK. He built the earliest suryiving section of the temple of Isis at PIIII.AI-: (although blocks of the reign ofTaharqo have been found beneath the temple floor) and awarded new endowments and tax exemptions to a number of religious instirutions. During his reign thcre was also a growth in the popularity of the cults of S:\CRED ANIMALS, relleeted in new constructions at III':R,\lOPOI.IS .\IAGNA, \IE'\!DES and 5aft el-Hinna. It has been suggested that the culti\'ation of the animal cults by the 30th-Dynasty rulers was pan of a concencd effort to emphasize the native culture of Egypt, thus making a stand against increasing foreign influences and incursions. In 362 He Nectancbo was succeeded by Teos. NCdtlnc!J" IJ Sellcdjcmibra (360-343 Be) was enthroned through the machinations of his father Tjahepimu, who declared him king \yhilc he WilS campaib",ing in Syria-Palcstinc with his uncle Teos. Having the general support of the armies, Nectanebo II was ablc to depose Teas, who then fled to the court of the Persian king. The ensuing reign was to be the last period of rule by a nativc Egyptian king until modern times. As well as constructing ;l huge temple to Isis at m:II8EIT EJ.-J li\G!\R, he continued the support of the cults of sacrcd animals by undertaking new works ,md restoration ;It .\R.\IA'T, Bubastis (TELL B\ST\), the Saqqara SERAPI-:U.\\ and the nearby complcx associated with the ~Iothcr ofApis. Aftcr an unsuccessful invasion in 351 Be Arta.xerxes [II eventually reincorporated Egypt into the Persian empire in 343 Be, reputedly plundering many temples and slaughtering ,'\I'IS and BUCllIS bulls in the process. Nectanebo II appears to have temporarily held on to Upper Egypt (and was briefly succeeded by an Egyptian or Nubian pharaoh named Khababash). Egypt, however, had effectively been absorbed into the Persian empire once

morc, and was to remain a satrapy until the arrival of \U:X\'\!f)ER TilE GRI~-\T. J.-J. CLi':RE, 'Vne sl;\lucttc du fils aine du rai Necmncbo', EdE (1951), 135-56. H. JI:N~I, Das D{'R()}"({ti()lIsprogralJlll/{/ dcs SarA'opllflges Nektl/lu:b()s II (Gene\'~l. 1986). N. GRI\\AL, .J1I/1~~/(Jry ofallcienl f~'.~.YPI (Oxford, 1992).375-81.

Nefaarud (:-\epherites) see LATE I'I'RIO" nefer

Hieroglyphic sign with many meanings, the most common being 'beautiful' and 'good" although 'happy' CJon also be meant. These positive associations made it <l popular c1emenr

litrqlloise-b/Ilt!.f{liellfejclIJc/leJJ' clemenl ill lite }orll/ o.fa nefer sign. New Kingdo1l1, II. 2.3 (/11. (F.. ,71390)
in personal names, perhaps the bcst knO\\-n in modern times being "\EFERTITI Cthe beautiful onc is come'), wife of Akhenatcn (13511336 lie). The neli'/" sign is usually said to depict lhe stomach and windpipe of an animal, althoug-h it is more likely that the heart and windpipe were intended. As an t\,\ILLET it occurs onl~ as ~m clement of bracelets or necklaces, ralher than as an individual piecc. It was particularly popular in jewellery of the 18th Dyna'ty (1550-1295 oe), and is well represented among pieces from the lOmb of the foreign wi,es of Thutmose III (1-179-1425 Be) in the Wadi Qubbanet e1-Qjrud at Thebes (sec )I.\rEL1.ERY). Occasionally the white CRO\r~ of Upper Egypt was referred to as the 'Nel"cr', and depicted in such a way as to emphasize this association by making it resemble the ucla sign. R. H. \VII.KIi'\SO~, Rl'tulil1g EgYPlirm urI (London, 1992),78-9.

198

~ERTARI

NEFERTITI

C. ANDREWS, Amulels oItllltieut Egypt (London, 1994),87-8.

Nefertari (c.1300-1250 Be) Principal wife of RA~IESES " (1279-1213 BC), often depicted at his side for at least the first twenty years of his reign. Her unusual prominence is indicated by the fact that the smaller temple at ABU SL\1BEL was dedicated both to her and to the goddess Hathor. Nefcrtari was thus probably the only royal wife, apart from the 18th-Dynast" (1550-1295 Be) Queen TIY, to be deified during her lifetime (see QUEE..'\'S). .1\ CLiNEIFOR" tablet from the III"ITITE city of Boghazkoy appears to be inscribed \yith a letrer from Ncfcnari to the Hittite king Harwsilis, although the presen":uion of letters from Ramcscs II to Harrusilis' wife Pudukhcpa suggests that Nefcrtari's Hittite counterpart mny have been cven more influential in the politics of the time. Ncfermri's elaborate rock~tomb was the largest and most beautifully decorated tomb in the VJ\LLEY OF TilE QL'EE:\IS (Qy66); its magnificent wall-paintings began to seriously dcterioroue in the mid-twentieth century, but they have now been largely restorcd by the Getty Conservation Institutc, C. DESROCHES NOBl,ECOLIrr and C. KUI'::-':TZ, Le petit templetl/lbou Simbel, 2 \'ols (Cairo, 1968). W. HELCK, 'Nofrcrcrc', Lexikoll der /Tgyptologie 1\, ed. IV Heick, E. Otto and IV Westendorf (Wicsbaden, 1982),518-19. 1\1. A. CoRZO (cd.), II~"I pflin/ings nftlIl! tomb of iVeji!rltlri (C1iro and !\lalibu, 1987). 1\1. A. CoRZO and ;vl. A"'S\I-\R (cd.), .-Irt and rUm;ty: /Ilt: Nejertar; 1IIf111 pfl;n/;/lgs (()11St'n:lIf;OIl projerl (i\lalibu, 1993). Nefertari. Ahmose (1570-1505
A11~IOSE

headed and occasionally it was suggested that the cal-goddess IlASTET was his mother. At BCTO in the Delta he was regarded as the son of the Lower Egyptian cobra-goddess, \\ADJ'Cr. His epithet kltener /(I11J]' ('protector of the two lands') perhaps suggests a role as guardi.m of the unified State of Egypt. S. !\IOltE\TZ ;lndj. SOIl:BERT, Der Cot/llultier Blume: (';11 ti'gyptischl' KosIl/8goJ/;e 11I111 ilm! mel/1J1t:ill: 8ilt!1J1irkuug (Ascona, 1954-). I L SClII.OGI., Der SOIllIl'l1gol1 {It/fda Bliill' (Basel. 1977). - , 'Ncfcncm', 1.A.'xiJW1/ tier Ag)lptolog;e 1\, eel. IV. Heick, 1::. Otto and IV Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1982),378-80.

Nefertiti (c.1380-J.HO Be) Principal wife nf the 18th-Dynasty ruler AKIIE:\I!\TE~ (1352~1336 Be) during the '.l\.marn;'l period'. She may also h.we been the daughter of -\Y (1327-1323 BC), one of Akhcnatcn's important officials, who W;IS later to succcct! TCTI""IlA.\IL" (1336--1327 Be) on the tbrone; this blood link would probably h;'l\'e made her Akhcnaren's cousin. She had six daughters by Akhenaten, but therc is no mention of any male heir, and the princcsses arc gi\"cn an unusual degree of prominence in lhe templc and palace reliefs at the new (:apital city of EL-:\.\L\R_'\"A, often being shown processing behind the king and queen as they brought offerings to the .\TE~) Or playing on (he laps of the royal pair in scenes of extraordinar) intimacy. In AkhenaLcn's sixth year he built a new tcmple to the f\ten which seems to have been associated with his SED FESTI\'AL, and the reliefs and statuary surrounding its walls are surprisingly dominatcd by figures of Ncfcrriti. She is rcgularly portrayed officiating in religious cercmonies alongside the king, oftcn

BC)

see

:\IEFERIi\RI

Nefertem
God of the prime,",ll 1.0Tl;S blossom, who is represented by the blue lotus (llymphflefl cau/efl)" He was lIslially depicted as a m.m with a lotlls-flower IIEADDRESS, sometimes with the addition of two plumes and lwo ncck~ lace counterpoises, which arc symbols of fertilit)' through their connection with I IATI lOR. Since the sun was believed to have risen from alottls, Nefertcm was linked with the stln~god, and is therefore described in the I'YRAJ\11D TEXTS (Utterance 266) as the 'Iotlls blossom which is be{()re the nose of RA', probably an allusion to the usc of this scented flower bv guests at banquets. . At Memphis he was regarded as the son of SEKl-Ir..'IET, the lioness-goddess, and PTA I-I. As a result he was sometimes depicted as l.lON-

-\BO\"[ Columl1ji'agnwl/ bearing 1I re!;e/tlep;t/iol/ oINejert;/;. 1,le extellded arm mi/h hand touching the llraeus 011 ireI' crown is (JlJe o.(,he rays oI/he Aten /0 mhom she u.OersJlomers. Qlle oIlier dallghters stands behi/1/! her with (I siStrulll, 18th lJyllllSO', c, 1.150 I1C, /I. 36.2 WI, (GRfFFlTlI tNS'I'ITUTf NO, 1893.1.41, REPRODUCE/) co U/n'/:'sV

OF T/lf G/?lrt,n'll /NS'I'ITU'I'I)

LEioT BrOllze s/lItuelJe u/Nejertem ;lIla;d m;th silver tllld gold. Ltlle Period, fl. 37 CIIl. (A464880)

199

NEITI-J

NEKAU

unique type of ern\yn. and on One c1-Amarna temple, rellsed at IIER.'IOPOLlS:\\ \G'\ \, she is shown in the traditional pose of the phamoh smiting a foreigner. E,"cn by the smndards of 18th-Dynasty royal W0I11CI1, who included among their ranks the powerful figures of \1 1I10TEP I (C. 1560 Be) and I I.\TSIIEPSL"'r (H73-1-l-58 Be), she seems to hayc achieved unusual power and innucncc. It is possible thilt she was able to build on thl: achic,"cments of her predecessor Queen '1'1\, who li\'ed on after the de.Hh of -\1\11o:'1I0TEP 111 (1390-] 352 Be:) and even appears to h.we yisitcd lhe new court at el-Amarna. In the workshop of the sculpror 1'1I1;1'\IOSI-: at c1-.'\Jn'lrna, the Gcrmnn cXC"J\"alor Ludwig Borchardt disCOYCITd the famous p'linted limestone bust of Nefertiti. Thc circumstances of its subsequent export to the Berlin museum. howeYer, were a source of some controyersy at the time. In the twelfth year of Akhenatcn's reign. ~efcrtiti receded inw comparati,'c obscurity, her place apparenlly being filled by another queen, Kiya, and probably also by one of her daughters. 1\leritaten. By the fourteenth year, she appears to haye died, although it has been suggested rhat she herself may ha,e assumed the role of a eoregent in order to succeed her husband on the throne, simply taking the name Smenkhkara (whose second namc, Keferneferuatcn, she shared). As with many aspects of the Amarna period, there is insufficient c,idcnce either w prm'c or to discount this theor~ completely. However, there is a reasonably good case for identifying as Smenkhknra the body of a young man buried with various items of Amarna-period royal funerary equipment. (some of which were originally intended for the queens Tiy and Kiya) in the enigm.nic romb ... \ 55 in the Valley of the Kings. Ql.leen Nefertiti w",s probably buried in the royal tomb in ;l ,radi to the east of e1-Amarna, <llong with her husband. although no traces of royal mummies hayc suryircd at the site, and the wall decoration proyidcs e,idence only of the funeral of princcss t\ Ickct:1tcn. R. fl,"TIIES. Die IJIis/{,' da A.iill(!!.ill J"ojrelf.'/t' (Berlin, 1968). D. REDFORD -/Huu(I!{'J/. the herdir l,illg (Princeton. 198{).
<1

wcaring

T\lsnT BLOCK: from all

:l11l::ient s~'mbol was a warlike motif consisting of:l shield and crossed arrows which is attested as earh' as the 1st Dmast'- (3100-2890 BC), in the form of inscribed funerary stelae and labels ii'om the Early Dynastic grmes at -\11'DOS and an inhtid amulet from a romb ar '\, \G EI.-I)I-:II{. Two of thc most important IstDynasty royal women, l'\eithhorep (see '\,'\Q\D.\) and lVIerneith, had names referring to Ncirh, and a wooden label from Abydos appears to depict :1 risit m'lde by King .\11:\ (c.3100 Be) to a sanct'tl:try of Keith (or possibly the f(llLndation of her templc). She was usually shown wearing the red CHo\\;'" of Lower Egypt, thc region wi1l1 which she was most closely associated. By the time of the Old f.:ingdom (2686-2181 BC). hlm-el'er, shc had also come to bc regarded as the conson of the god SETI I and the morher of the crocodile-god SOBEk. This association with crocodiles may hiwc stemmed from her connections ,vith the Delta region. The maternal aspect of her cult led to a link with the sky, under lhe epithet 'Great Cow', thus leading to potential confusion wilh the sky-goddesses ~L:T antI IL\TIIOR. In Roman times, inscriptions in the temple of Khnum at ES"\l \ sought to identify f\eith as an Upper Egyptian creator-goddess who had only bter settled at Sais. In this cosmogonic role, Neith was sometimes depicted as a sexless being, equated with the

hlkc of :\.L:", the primordial waters of challs that prcceded creatlon. From the Old K.ingdom onwards i\cith was associ:Hed with funerary rituals. utterance 606 in the PYlH \III) TE\.TS speaks of her \\i1H::hing oyer the deccased OSLRJS illongside 1.... 1S. KEPI ITI IYS and SER"'ET. Each ofthesc four goddesses WilS depicted on one parricuhtr side uf the COFF1'\,1 and took care of one of the I(JUI" su,s OF 1I0RLS (the genii associated with the C>\'OI'IC JARS), Ncilh being depicted on the east side of conins and serying as protcCtre...s of Duall1utef: As rhe mythical ilwcl1tor (II" ,yeaying, she was also linked with the mummy bandages. She became particularly important during the 26th O"nasty (66+-525 BC), ,yhen Solis "a, capital of Eg~ pt. From the reign of Ahmo!o,e II (570-526 Be) onwards some of her temple rc,coue deri,cd from the Greek-dominated trading settlement at ~ \eKR\TIS. The Greeks identified her with Athena. probably because orhcr warlike aspect. D. l\ [\1.1.1-:"1', Lc wl/e tic Neil Cf Sai:\' (Paris, 1888). Vi. C. Il.WEs, S(cplervIEgYPI J (New York, 1953).321. R. EI.-5<\\ ED, La dt!e.(~t Nei/h de Sa;s (Cairo. 1982).

Brrm::;('J/alllt'lIl'nf ]'+eilh. Lalt' Period. .Ii-rl111/ht' Fayum. /I.

211.5 (III. (1,,//0//)

]. S:\.\IS0,",

Nticrli/i (llId Cleopalra: rJlIel!lI-

IllOlwrdlS (~r(fJll;;elll t."gyPI

(T ,ondon, 1985). C. ALDRED, AHwfOlell, l';llg f!l8g.l'PI (London, 1988),219-30.

Neith
Cre~ttor-goddess

centre was at

S'\IS

of great antiquity whose cult in the Delta. Her most

Nekau (Necho) The 'birth name' held hy two rulers of the 26th Dmasty (66+-525 BC). Xektltl 1 (672-66{ BC) ,,-as nominall) the first of the S.\ITE pharaohs. \Yhen thc .\SSl RI \\ king Esarhaddon conquered Egypt in 671 Be he appointed 'Ncbu of Solis and j\ iemphis" one of the Delta princcs, as vassal ruler uf Egypt. [t seems likely that Nebu was killed b~ rhe Kushite pharaoh Tt\ "JUTMIr\NI in 664 He. leaving the rh1'ol1c of Lower Egypt to his son, Psamtek I (66+-610 BC). "'hom Esarhaddon had placed in charge of the city or Athrihis (Tl:l.I. rl"KlB). Few monuments of Nck:lUI hi.lrc slIni\"ed. although a glazed smtuctte of Horus is inscribed with his full royal titulary. _Vektlll II Weiit'll/ibm (610-595 BC) was the third Saitc pharaoh and succcssor to 1'5 \ \ITI".'" I. 'Yithin a year of his accession he had capitalized on the decline of rhe Assyrian empire hy seizing control o,"cr the kingdoms of ISR \1,1. and Judah. He therefore rc-established lhl' Egyptian empire in the Levant: for about fUllr years, but by 60 I Be his own eastern bonJcrs were threatened hv Balwlonian armies. Nebu II cnco'uraged Greek traders and sailors to establish colonies in the DClt~l .1I1e1 created the first full Egyptian n:wy. manned by Greek mercenaries. He also ordered the eXC;l,"ation of a new canal along the \Vadi 'T'umiI<H. thus linking the Pdusiac branch of the 'ik

200

~KHBET

NEPHTHYS

with the northern end of the Red Sea. It was in connection with this nc\y activity in the \Vadi Tumilat that Nckau founded the new city of Per Temu Tjeku ('the house of Alum of Tjeku ') at the site now known as TELL EL~1t\SKJ-IU'l!\.

J. YOYOTTE, 'Ncch;IO" SupplclI/eII/ fill Die/lolIl/aire

de I" Bible VI (Poris, 1960), 36.1-9+.
N. GRI.M!\L, A lzis!OlJ' o/fll/riCUl Egypl (Oxford. 1992),145-6, .159-61.

Nekhbet
Vulture-goddess whose iconographic significance was firmly rooted in the DUALrn of the Egyptian kingship. She and the cobra-goddess WADJYT represented dominion over Upper and Lower Egypt respectively. In recognition of this, the king's five names therefore included the uc/JIy ('twO ladies') title from at least as

carlv as the reign of

'\;\IEDJIB

(:2925

Be)

in the

1st Dynasty; this name waS written with depictions of the vulture and cobra beside it. Occasionally both goddesses were represented as cobras, as in the two llrael worn on the headdresses of QUEE\iS from the 18th Dynasty (1550-1295 fie) onwards, but the Nekhber cobra is sometimes distinguished from \Vadjyt by wearing the white CRO\\'\i of Upper Egypt. lVlost commonly, however, Nekhbet took the form of a vulture with wings outspread and talons holding SllE~ signs (symbols of eternity), and it was this form that she usualI~T assumed on royal pectorals and regalia, In paintings and reliefs she was frequently depicted in a protective posture with one wing outstretched as she hovered oyer the scene below, Nekhbet's cult was first" celebrated in the ancient city of Nekheb (El.KAIl), which derived its name from her. In the PYHA\IID TEXTS she is described as the 'white crown' and associated with the principal shrine of Upper Egypt, but her maternal aspects arc also emphasized: she is described as 'the great white CO\Y that dwells in Nekheb' and is said to have pendulous breasts. Because she was also considered to serve as nurse to the pharaoh she "'as later identified with Eileithyia l the Greek goddess of childbirth. l\~~. l-h:ERI\L-\ VAN Voss, 'Ncchbce, LexiRoll del' AgYPIologie IV, ed, W, Heick, E, Ono and \Ii. Westendorf (Wicsbadcn, 1982),366-7.

Nepherites see Nephthys

UTE PERIOD

DClail./i"fi/ll a ((J/lin (~rpalmed ulrlOlll/llgl' {,clol/gll/g

nemes see CROWNS 1\:\1])

nerose! vesse I

RonL REGALlJ\

Form of spouted vase or lustration vesselusually employed in ritual contexts such as the OPEN1NG OF TiLE '\IOLTll CERE1\\O)JY, which was a ritual intended to instil life into funerary statues or mummies.

Goddess of the Hc1iopolitan EN'\E:\n, who appears to have possessed no cult ccntre or temple of her O\,"n, Her name me.ms 'Lad~- of the i\!{ansion' and her emblem l worn On her heael, comprised the hierogl~Tphs for this phrase. She was usually said to have been the wife of the cyil god SETl I and, in latcr tradition, she was regarded as the mother of ANUBIS from a union with OSIRIS. l\ilore important, however, was her role as sister of ISIS, and this positive connection apparently freed her from any of the negative associations that might have been expected through her relationship with Seth. She was usually represented alongside Isis,

[sis (Ieji) alit/ Nephfhys (right), both ({{/'lYing tll//.:/1 sigm'.jlaIlR Osiris illlhejhrm o/a djedpillm: 111 Ihe 1()Iller regl~'ilcr Hol'lls (Ieji) alld Thofh (1'l:~11I) pllr~J.jJ the dead JlJulI/a//l/lifh wafer represellted by ankh and was U'IIl/Jols. Third illfermediafc Pl'I'iot/, c. 900 lJe,

10 a m01!lallll({lI/ct/ulllllllllengeIJliu. AIII,e lop

.limn Thebes. ('.122939)

and the twO could both take the form of kites at either end of the bier of the deceased. She was a protector of thc dead, and on New Kingdom royal sarcophagi she was depicted on the external northern wall (next to the head of the deceased), while Isis was portrayed at the southern end, by the feet. Although Nephthys continued to be associated \yith the head of the coffin throughout the Pharaonic

201

NEW KINGDOM

NILE

periud, tllcre arc a few pri,"atc coffins on which she and Isis were both portrayed at the (head'. The fWD goddesses often appeared in judgement scenes illustrating c.:apies of the BOOK OF
TIlE DEAl).

TITES,

He also I11med thc capital from

TIIEI3ES

to Pinlmesse t\:'\!TIR), where it remained for

Ncphrh)s was also the protectress of the baboon-headed Hapy, guardian of the lungs (sec C,"OIICJ\RS). ~ll1mmy wrappings, rhemSChTS a gift: of '-:ITI1I in her mortuary aspect, were likened to the tresses of her 11.\IR, from which the deceased king had to free himself in order to attain rhe afterlife. In rhe Late Period (7~7-332 Be) she \,"as associated wiLh the goddess ,\'';C''ET, and worshipped alongside her at Kom :\Ier, between F.S:'\:\ and ELl\. \Il, in Upper Egypt. B. Al:n~:\ \IL:I.LER, 5)ll1kreti.Hl1w;1/ tim SlIrgtextm (Wiesbaden, 1975),92-1. E. GIt.\EFI:, INcphrhys" Lexiko/l dl'/" ;igYP/fJlogit' 1\, cd. W. Heick, E. Ono and \v. \tVestendorf (Wiesbaden, 1982), {57-60.

New Kingdom (1550-1069 Be)

\\lith the expulsion of the I Jn~s()s at the end of the SECO:\'I) INTI]{illl~I)L'TE PEnIOD (1650-1550 BC), the Egyptian army pushed beyond the traditional frontiers of Egypt into Syria-Palestine. The Thcban conquerors established the 18th Dynast)' (1550-1295 BC), creating a gre~1t empire under a succession of rulers bearing the names TllliTl\IOSE and H\E:'\1IUTEI'. l'hc newly reunificd land had a stronger economy th:m prc\'iously, and this was supplemented by the resources of the empire in ,LIJI" and western Asia. The cmpire was n source not only of foreign tribute but of exotic innuenccs and ideas. It is possible that the cosmopolitan atmosphere of the court of Amenhotep [II (1390-1352 BC) sened as part of the inspiration for lhe radical religious changes instituted under his son Amenophis 1\ 1.IKIIE,,,,rE" (1352-1336 BC). The loosely defined period around Akhenatcn's reign is sometimes referred to as the 'Amarn;l period" named after EL-.\,\L\R:\.-\, the modern site of Akhenaten's new capital. After this period of religious heresy the old order was re-established under TUT.'" ,Kilt' \IC~ (1336-1327 BC), w (1327-1323 Br.) and 1I0RE\lIlEB (1323-1295 Be). The latter is \'ari~ ously regarded as the last ruler of the 18th Dynasty, or, less commonly, the first of the 19th (1295-1186 BC). The 19th Dynast)' was dominated by a slle~ cession of kings, mosliy called R.H'IESES or SET"- Rameses II (1279-1213 Be) evidently campaigned vigorollsly and his many battles are depicted on temples throughOllt Upper Egypt and Nubia. Notable among his exploits was the lli\n'1.E OF Qj\DESIJ against the HIT202

the rest of the New Kingdom. The succeeding 20th Dynast' (1186--1069 BC) comprised ten reigns) nine of whose rulers also took the namc R~lmescs. 'rhesc, howe\cr, were troubled times, and Rameses [II (1184--1153 BC) had to defend himself against the incursions of thc SEA PEOPLES .md 1.1 BY.-\XS. Under subsequent pharaohs the country became pre~ lO regular raiding. The Theban region became so unsafe that the inhabitants of the tomb-\yorkers' yillage at DEli{ [I.-\lED1'\..' were mm-ed into the precinct of the temple of ),IEf)ISET II \BL, protected by its great enclosure walls, Although the 20th-Dynast~ kings ruled from the Delta, they wcre buried in the ULLEY OF Till: KI\:US at Thebes. Thcir oyerall weakness and distance from Thebes, a traditional scat of royal power, left rhe way open f()1" riYal powers to emerge. Panchsy, \"feERor UF J..::L"SII, attempted 1"0 scize Thebes but was defeated and n;trcated inro Nubia. "fhe Libyan g-encral, IIERIIIOR, however, came t.o power in ye nine.lr teen or Rameses.\I (1099-1069 IIC). He efree~ tively ruled Upper Egypt, establishing his OWI1 daring systcm and assuming the ROY.\L TITliI.ARY, and was cventually succeeded by Pinudjem [ (who also held both the royal titu~ larv and the office of High Priest). There is some debate, hmycycr, concerning the figure of Piankhi, who was once thought to have been Herihor's son and successor. According to Jansen-\Vinkeln's study of inscriprions and papyri of the late 20th ~lI1d early 21st Dynasties, Piankhi ~ often descrihed simply as 'the general' (imy-r mes/lll) and apP~lfently never holding the royal titulary must ha,c actually preceded Herihor, who would probably ha\'e been his son-in-law. If Piankhi, rather than Herihor, was the immediate successor of Panehsy (the Viceroy of Kush), it would therefore h,1\"e been Piankhi who cflccLively established the new line of Libyan generals who were to dominate eyents in the 21st Dyn~lsty. Herihor himself should probably thcrefore be seen simply as (-he first of the Libyan generals to assume the royal titulary, C. NI.\IS, Thebes n.flhe pharaohs (London, 1965). C. RF.lWURIJ, 1-/is/fJly {iud chronology oflhe Eighleenth DYI/asly o/EgJlpt: sC'I.cn studies (Toronro, 1967). B. .J. KF.~11', 'Imperialism and empire ill New Kingdom EgYPl (c.1575-1087 Be)', Impaialism illill/! (fllcit:lI/ world, cd, P. D. A. Garnsey and C. R. Whittaker (Cambridge, 1978),7-';7, 28+-97, .168-7.1. D. o'eo, '01{, 'New Kingdom and Third Intermediale Period, I SS2~66-t 11(:', Anciel/I

1:.:!!.J!Pf: a social his/u1:J', cd. B. G. Trigger eL al. (C1mbridge, 1983), 183-278. T G.lf. JU11::5, Pharaoh 5 pl'ople: SC"t'ncsfmmld~' il1 imperial Eg}lp/ (Oxford, 198-1). G. T.:\1 \RTL'\, .,1 bibliograpJ~), oflhe .--11I/unlll !,('riot! find i/s aJIt'f11ll1/h (London, 1991). N. GKI.\I-\J., A his/ol)' ofancien I t~!!.)IP/ (Oxford,
IY92),199-292.

Nile
The longest riyer in the world, stretching for 67{ 1 km rrom East Africa to the l\lediterranean, which is unquestionably the: single most important clement of the geography of both ancient and modern Egypt. 'itholll the waters and fertile flood-plain of the Nile, it is highl)' unlike11' that Egypti'lI1 civiliz~1tion would have developed in the deserts of north-eastern Africa. The study of the topography and geology of the Nile valley has revealed a complex sequence of phases, whereby thc river gradually changed its location and size o\er tht: course of millions of years. Eyen in recent millennia, thc course of the river has continucd to shift, resulting in the destruction or submcr-

NINE BOWS

tEJ-WI' Vil'l1J of/he Nile ttdleJ'. looking lforthjfol/J the d~/Js oflleni HaSlll1. (GRAH-l.l/ I-I.IRR/SOY)

BEI.O\\"

Thi' sU'ps ofthe lVilo11/eta Oil the islaml of EIt'plllllltillc lit ASIPlIlIl1u'asuredtlte height of the Nile. This l.rampll: dalt's to thl! R011/an period.

0' ."

\fC/fUISO\)

D!\TIO~, as well as the generaJ level of the river, could be measured. Records of the maximum height of the inundation were kept) although there is no firm c\-idence that thesc records were used in any systematic way in the determination of 'r-\X_\TIO~ on the amount of agrieulturaliand flooded. There arc sun'i\'lng lilometers associated with the temples at Philae, EMu, Esna, r;:um Ombo and Dendera, but one of the bestknown examples is located on the island of Elephantine at .'SI\".\". The Elephantine L\"ilometer was rebuilt in Roman times, .md the markings still \'isible at the site date from this later phase. It \\'as also repaired in 1870 by the Khedive Ismail. .-\.t Geziret el-Rhoda in Cairo there is an Islamic Nilometer dating back to .\1) 70j~15} although it W;lS possibly built on the site of an earlier Pharaonic example. The Islamic Nilometcr \\"orkcd on the samc principles as its ancient counterparts, except tor the use of an octagonal pillar (rather than steps) as the measure. W. POPI'E1~, 7'llt' Cairo Ni/Olllela (Los Angeles, 1951). P. (-lEIJ.pOR\', 'Les nilometrcs d}Elcphantine ella rlare de Ia erlle' edE ('.J/127-'iJ (1989),283-5. V. SETO~-\\ 11.1.1:\ \IS and P. STOCKS, BIlle guide: Egypt, 3rd cd. (London, 1993), 220} 635.

~ of

-~. _--Jjii;;::!~;: . ~
ing in the completion of the '\sw"->\ IIIGII 0,\.\1 in 1971. A ftcr more than a dcc'lde of rescue \york} Lower Nubiil was largely nooded by Lake :\"asser. Since then, the Egyptian section of the Nile valley has ceased to be subject to the inundation, thus allowing thousands of acres of ne\v land to be culth'ated through irrig~ltion schemes, as welJ as thc production of electricity from a hydroelectric plant ;ltl<lched to the dam. Sec also .\GRICUI:rLRI':; D1':I:n;
\!I'TER I-I:\!'\';
1i'\t.:"D-\TIO~;

Nine Bows
A ncienr term used to refer to the enemies of
Egypt, presumably both bec;luse of their use of bows and arrows in warf~lJ'e and because of the ritual of physically 'breaking the bows' as ~1 metaphor for miliury defeat and surrender. The particular enemies desibrn<.ned by the term were a matter of choice, but the selection generally included Asiatics and :\ubians (sec EXECR,\TIO~ TEXTS). The Nine Bows were usually represented in the form of rows of bows (although the actual number varies), and they were regularly used to decoratc such royal furniture as footstools and throne b<.lscs, so that the pharaoh could symbolically tread his enemies underfoot. On monuments they often appeared as a series of bound f:APTlrEs, and were e\'en depicted on the inner soles of the sandals of Turankhamun (1336-1327 Be). The depiction of nine bound captives surmuunted by a jaekal, on the seal of the necropolis of the VALLEY OF THE KINGS, was evidently intended to protect the tomb from the depredations of foreigners and other sources of evil. D. TO~lll\IUIL", 'A propos de I'originc du mot cgypticn "Ncuf-Ares1l1 , Orief/IO, Bulle/ill oftIll: Sot:ie~)I.for Nenr Emtern Studies in Japan 24 (1981),114-24. D. VAI.BELLE, Les IIfllfi tires (Paris, 1990). 203

sian of archacological remains, particularly of the PREDYl':ASTIC PERIOD. Three rivcrs flowed into the Nile from the south: the Blue :'-Jile, the White Nile and the Atbara. The southern section of the iile proper, betwecn .\S\\.\'\ and Khartoum, was interrupted by six 'cmaracts' each of which consists of a series of rapids produced by changes in the type of rock forming the riycr bed. This seerion of the Nile yalley corresponds to the I::md of "lJlllA, convcmion'l11y diyidcd into Lower Nubia (the northern half), between the first and second cataracts, and Upper Nubia, between the second and sixth cataracts. The border between the modern stmes of Egypt and Sudan is located just to the north of the second cataract. From the earliest times, the waters of the Nile) swollen by monsoon rains in Ethiopia, nooded over the surrounding valley every year between June and September - an event known as the INUNDATIOJ\' - and new layers of fertile soil were thus annwJ1ly deposited on the flood-plain. From the early nineteenth ~entury onwards, however, the Nile was subJcct to a series of dams and sluices, culminat-

"ILO-

and SIIADL"F. J. I-I. SPEKE,Jounwl oIthe dis(o"i.l'1]' o/tlte .WfIf"Ct' oflhe Nih', 2nd cd. (London, 1906). D. BO:--::'\'l~AL', La erue dll Nil: diril1i/e eg)'pticmfe, (/ /ra1:f!/",I' mille aus d'ltisloire (Paris, 196+). K. VV. BUTZER} Ear6' hyt!ml/!ir (ivilizllt;ull in I:.gypt: {/ Sll/(~)I in mlli/ral Nology (Chicago, 1976). D. BONNE:\U, Lc regimt' adlllill/~ftmt~rde I'tl/ll dll Nil dam' I'Egyp//! greqllt:. romaine et byzallli/l/: (Lei den, 1993).

Nilometer
Device for measuring the height of the Nile) usually consisting of a series of steps against which the increasing height of the IMJi'\-

NOMARCH

NUBI.\

R. II.

\VII,k"SO~, Rl'(ulillg

Egyptia" ilfl (London

1992). 18-1-5.

nomarch Jf!r AD\IJ:'.ISTR \'1'10", and

nome, nome symbols

:,\O).IE

In the Ptolemaic period the Greek term 1I(JJlIt' began to be L1sed to refer to the forty-two traditional provinces of Egypt) which the ancient Egyptians called sepal. A system of diyision into provinces had been in existence since at least the beginning of the Pharaonic period (,..3100 IIC). In the late 3rd Dvnasty, probably during the reign of Huni (2637-2613 DC), a set of sel'en non-sepulchral

along which groups of personifications of esm(es or names processed around the temple, bearing food offerings to the cult. Sec map on page 6 for nOllle symbols and boundaries. G. STEI,OORFF, Die ligYPlisdml Galle IIlfd iltre P(Jlili.~rhc ElflJlJirJ?!ullg (Leipzig, 1909). P. \loyn:T, Giographil' dl'l'Egyplt lIlfrinll/e, 2 "015 (Paris, 1957). 11. KFFS, .-lllricIII Egypl: {/ (If/Illmi (opogl"(/p/~l' (London. 1961). W. HELCJ..::, Die tI/fi(fJYPliglu: Galli! (\Viesb;ldcll,

1914) -, 'Gall'. Le.rikoll dl'r ,-i'gyplologie II, ed. \\'. Heick, E. Ouo and \Y. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1977).

step pyramids W~lS erected at certain sites perhaps corresponding to proto-capitals of

names: Zawiyet el-\Iayitin, Abydos, ~aqada. el-Kula. Edfu. Seila and the island of Elcphaotine (\SII.\,,). 'rhe capitals of some l10mes shifted o\'er time, while the locarion of others remains uncertain. For most of the Dynastic period, thcre were twenty-two Upper Egyptian nomes, each governed by <1 nomarch and having its own symbol, usually represented in the form of a standard, thus le~lding to prodnces being described by such names as the 'hare nome' or the 'ibis nome'. The twenty Lower Egyptian nome signs are much later in date, and did not incorporate standards. The reliefs in many temples and shrines include a lower register

Nubia (anc. Yam, !rem, '[.,-se,,, f-:ush)

In termS of modern political boundaries the land of ~lIbia cncompasses both northern Sudan and the southern end of Egypt, although most of the Egyptian section of :'\ ubia has been submerged under Lake :\asscr since the completion of the AS\\':\i\- lUG! [ D:\:\I in 1971. Aptly defined b,' W. Y. Adams as the 'corridor to Africa', r\ubia has served as a crucial trading conduit, channelling the resources of tropical Africa northwards to (he civilizations of the \'lediterranean and western Asia from at least the fourth millennium uc until the ~r[iddle Ages. This traditional image, howc,cr, has been challenged by John AJcxander and ~Iark Horton, who argue instead that

:\ubia ',",IS pril11~1rily controlled from the sOlllh, with the periods of Egyptian inf1ucnce being shon interludes compared with (he many centuries during which it \,"as essential!." an aUlOnomous African ci\"ilization. The are:l occupied by 1\ubia is the narrm, strip of culti\"3ted land surrounding the !Vliddle :r<ilc bct\\"ccn -\$\\."'- and Khartoum, which is punctuated b~r the six Nile C1t;lraC(~, a series of rocky areas of rapids marking the abrupt geological changes in this section of the Nile ,alb. Although the climate or :"Jubia i, more exO"cme than Lhat of Egypt, ranging from (he dry arid nonh to (he tropical souLh, the ancienL agricultural base of both countries was fairly similar (and remains so in modern times), being characterized primariJ~ by cereal crops, cattle, sheep and goats. The earliest Egyptian act.ivities in l'\ubia date back aL least to the late Predynastic period (1'.3500-3100 BC) and a number of sUrI'i,ing rock-drm,ings from the Early Dynastic period (3100-2686 IIC) probably indicate the earliest incursions by the newly unified Egyptian state into territories occupied by the Nubian .\ GROUP -.3500--2800 Be). In the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 Be) the inmh-e-

Fmgmenl ofa mall-pail1lillgjiwlllhe Thebtm lomb-chapel ofSobekhotep. Jhomillg .VubiaJis presenting exolic gijis 10 TlIIhmosl'lI. 11.80 CIII. (/922)
IlELO\\

Section o/relie/ill the secolld wllrt ofthe temple nj"f1nrw (llld Sobek at Kn1l1 Ombo, depictillK afemale personification of/he /8th nomt oj" Lomer EgYPl (lhe mpital ofmhirlt lPas BulHlSlis) bringing ojfirings to Halhor. Reign 0/ ..-JuguslIlS. c.30 BC-AD /-1. (I. S/L'III)
ABO\'E

204

~UBif\

NUBll\

ment of the Egyptians in Nubia was restrict-

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

ed primarily to trading and mining activities. .Ar this period the term Yam seems to ha,"c been used by the Egyptians to refer to Nubia.
Just to the north of the second cataract, at the

site which \Vas huer occupied by the ~\liddlc Kingdom fortress of BU n-:" there appc~1rs to
have been a small \\.tlled settlement containing traces of copper smelting, dating to the

and 5th DInasties (2613-23~5 BC). B, the earlv 12th Dynast' (.1950 BC) the Egyptians had- begun to cst~lblish <.l string of FORTRESSES
between the second and third cataracts. The purpose of these military establishments 1.1ppears to have been to g<tin :l stranglehold on

~th

\..j BAHARIYA OASIS

/ .... /J.

-.~

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Memphis Asyut Moslagedda Thebes (luxor) Qubaniya Elephantine Aswan Beit el~Wali Oakka Quban 11 Wadi es~Sebua 12 sayala

13 Amba 14 Toshka 15 Abu Simbel 16 Faras 17 Qustul 18 Buhen 19 Wadi Haifa 20 Mirgissa 21 Semna 22 Amara West 23 sa, 24 Soleb

EGYPT

the economic resources of LO\\"er :\ubi a and rhe countries fUrLhcr to the south, (including
CIIRO;\,OLOGIC.\LT\B1.1'.: i'.LBIA

DAKHLA OASIS

700,000-100,000 BC Lower Palaeolithic 100,000-26,000 BC Middle Palaeolithic 26,000-10,000 BC Upper Palaeolithic 10,000-6000 BC Final Palaeolithic (Arkinian) 6000-3500 Be Kharwu1l1 lVlcsolithic ~000-3000 BC Khanoum .\Ieolithic Cataract Tradition (Gemaian, Q1dan and ~~bkan industries) 3500-2800 uc A Group (A Horizon) C Group (A I-Iorizon) 2300-1500 BC Kerma 2500-1500 BC :\ew Kingdom (Eg"ptian 1550-1069 BC occupation) Naparan period 1000-300 BC 25th Dynasty (Nubian rule N7--U56 BC oler Egypt) \lleroitic period 300 BC-.\D 350 X Group (X Group, Noba, AD 350-550 Ballana) Christian period .ID 550-1500 Islamic period ~\D 1500such important commodities as GOLD) i,'orYI ebony, animals and sla,es). The boundary STELE erected by Senusret UI (1874-1855 BC) at SE~L"I", ncar thc third cataract, clearly statcs this policy: Isouthern boundary... in order to prevent that any negro should cross it, by Water or by land) with a ship or any herds or the negroes; except a negro who shall come to do trading in Ikcn [probably J\lIRGISSA] or with a commission'. "fhe fortresses not only served as important symbols of Egyptian military strength as far as the local C-GROUP people were concerned but in the case or Buhen, ]\1irgissa and Asku~ in particular, acted as temporary depots for the imported materials.

LOWER
NUBIA
BATN
EL~HAGAR

22 23

24

25
Third Cataract

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

Sedeinga Sesebi Kerma New Dongola Oebba Napala Gebel BarkaJ Abu Hamed Kurgus Kadem Khartoum

300m

Egypt (Jlltl ""Ubill: JI,,: prindpal sitesfmll1 the Neolithit 10 Ihe Neill Kingdom.

AI the end of the ,\Iiddle Kingdom -.1650 Be), ,.. . hen Lower Egypt tCil under the control or the I IYKSOS, Lower Nubia bcc:une dominated instead by an indigenous Kushite culture centred on the site of KER'\IA in the comparatively fertile terrain of the Dongola reach. The Egyptians of the late Middle Kingdom had already been aware of a rising power in Upper Nubia which they still described as the land of Yam. The Kerma culture reached its hcight during the years of the Second Intermediate Period (1650-1550 Be:) but was eventually forced into retreat by the resurgence or a

united Egypt at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty (1550-1295 Be). The arch.lcological remains clearly indicate that the socio-economic strength or I he KerIna culwrc was gmdually amI inexorably cdipscd by the empire of New Kingdom Egypt (1550-1069 BC). The Egyptians appear to have consolidated their control over Nubia as fill' south as the fOLlrth cataract, establishing such new towns as AMAlu' \-Vcst and SESI]Il-SUDI.f', where the emphasis moved away fi'0111 fortifications LOwards the building of temples) a clear indication that Illost of Nubia had begun to be considered as part or Egypt itself rather than alien territory. By the beginning of the 18th Dynasty the post of VICEROY OF I':L,S\I (or 205

UBIA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

1 Alexandria 2 Sais 3 Memphis 4 Dahshur 5 el-Ashmunein 6 Thebes (Karnak) 7 Aswan 8 Philae 9 Kalabsha 10 Qasrlbrim 11 Ballana 12 Faras 13 Gebel Adda 140ustIJi 15 Gemai 16 Firka 17 Tabo

18 Kawa 19 Old Dongola 20 Gebel Barkal 21 Napata 22 elt<urru 23 Nun 24 Sanam 25 Tanqasi 26 Meroa 27 Wad Ban Naga 28 Musawwarat es-Sufra 29 Naga 30 SOba 31 Khartoum 32 Sennar 33 Gebel Maya 34 Axum 35 Adulls

!\It\IIIERI'RI; .\IEDJAY; Nt.:RI; Pi\~-GRi\\'E CL'I:rURF.;

SEDEISGAj SL \n;~s; SOLEH.

A. J. ARKF.I.I.,.I histor)1 ofthe SUdilllji-011l the eilrliesllimes to /82/, 2nd cd. (London, 1961). \v. B. E:\lERY, Egypt ill Nuhia (London, 1965). B. G. TRIGGER, f-listOlJ! aUf! s,'lIlcmcl// i1/ LO/}1er Nubia (New I laven, 1965). E \VE;\.[)ORf (ceL), nil' prehislory of.Vubia , 2 \ols (Dallas, 1968). B. G. TRIGGER, Subia under the plwTflohJ (London, 1976). F. }-It"TZE, 'The ~Vleroiric period"_'Uh((/ ill (/Iltiqlli~)', ed. S. Wenig (Brooklyn, 1978), 89-10i W. Y. AO_\.\IS, Nubia: {orridfJr to .-IJi-iw, 2nd ed. (London and PrinccLOn , 1984). D. O'CO"OR, "The locations of'r"am and Kush
and rheir histurical implicltions',.7ARCE 23

(1986),27-50. J. Au::.: \ '-OER , 'The Saharan divide in lhe Nile Y;l11cy: the c\'idcnce from Qasr Ibrim,,_,jji-i({/l1 .-J.rdweologiml Rt'~'il'm 6 (1988), 73-90. 1\1. I IoR'"ro~, 'AfriC'J in Egypt: new c\'idencc from Qisr Ibrim" l:.:~YPlll1/{'--IFica, ed. \V.v. D~\';cs (London, 1991), 26+-77.
16

Nun
Third Cataract

.~ "

God \"ho personified the original formless Occ..11l of chaos from which the I'RI\IE\.\L \IOU:'\D of the sun-god ATr.;:\t arose. The mass of negatiye forces represented by Nun \r~S considered to have conrinuccl to exist ~t lhc edges of the uniycrse, cyen after the first ;let of creation had taken place. ~ un was therefore the dwelling place of all that lay outside the

35

.f./DlptllndlVulJia: Ihe prilltipal sitl!sfrom the NapllllU/ to the Christian period.

King's son of Kush) had been cre.lred, enabling Nubia 10 be go\'crned as <1 separate region (consisling of the t\'iO pro\-inces of \Vawat and Kush), just as the Egyptiandominated areas of Syria-Palestine were transformed inro thrce administrative units under Egypti'\I1 controL By the elevcnth century BC, however, the Egypthll1 grip ovcr Nubia had diminished, and the local rulers at t'\.\.VATA were ablc to assume control, just as their Kerma-culture predecesSOrs had. The Napamn rulers, however, capitalized on the divisions within Egypt during 206

the Third Intermediate Period (I069-7~7 ue) to create a new kingdom that was c,"cnrually able to absorb Egypt itsclf~ inaugurating the reigns orthe 'Kushitc' 25th Dynasty (7-t.7-656
Be; sec PlY; SII.\Il'\QO; SIIMllTQO; T'\IIARQO

and T' '-"L'I".\,\I:\ 'I). From the Late Period (747-332 Be) onwards the l'\ubians were able to continue to dc\'c)op separately from Egypt, during the Nleroitic (sec 1\IEROE), BALl.AN:\ (X Group) and Christian periods, although inc\'it'lbly there were continued religious) political and social influences from their northern neighbours. Sec also :\~lIt"; ,WEDDIAK; ARE:\,SNUJlIIIS; B
GROlW; BElT EL-WAU; BLE,\\l\IYES; CAPTIVES;
FAR.'\S; Ki\Li\llSIIA; KAWA; KURGUS; EJ.-KURRU;

Detail oIthe Boo~ oIthe DerJd papyra, oIthe pries/eJs Allhai Jhowiug NUl1, the god ofthe primevlIllPtflers, !ijiiug lip the so!ar bark. 20,11 D)'lIasly, e.// 00 Be. (DI / 04 72)

~Rl

NUT

bounds of the uni,"crsc, such as stillborn babies or condemned souls (sec T'UlOO). Ie has been suggested rh;,lt the P.-\~ BEDDI~(j

(aJrcrnation of com"ex nnd canCJYC courses of

bricks) used in the enclosure walls of many Egyptian TE\lPI.I::.'>, such as h:..-\R~:\h: and DE'\PER.:\, was intended to symbolize the undulations of the waters of ~un. The warcry chaos was thus clfeetirc!,' being held back at thc margins of the temple, which \".1S itself a

metaphor for the uniycrse. Since I\un also s"mbolized the depths of the netherworld, he \~'as oftcn portrayed as a bearded figure holding up the SOL\R B:\RK. Along with his ,onson
Naunet he was one of the eight crc.ttor deities of the Hcrmopolitan OGDo.\D. E. 1-IOI{j'\L'G, idea into image, trans. E. llrcded (New York, 1992),95-113,

Nuri
Napatal1 funerary sire located in Upper Nubia, aboLit 25 km soulhwest of the fourth Nile cataract and a few kilometres to the northeast of X.\IWI"\ (one of the principal

political centres of the kingdom of Kush). It

was the burial site of the Kushitc royal family from the mid seventh to the carly third

\BO\'E I~)I/,(f/llids fOVt'l'illg

the burials (~(iht' killgs f~/

(IJl:'Ht:'f,.:

Kwh

(It

Nur; ill Upper Nubia.

w/:'l..\'ln)

century Be (i.e. after the tombs at and before those at southern

According to the site's principal

EL~t-:URRL \IEIWE). cxcaV~1l0r,

George Reisner, there were :H least nineteen Napatan royal burials al i'\ uri, including that
of the 25th-Dynasty pharaoh TAII-\RQ.O (690-6M BC), each of which ,,'as cm'ercel by a small pyramidal superstructure built of rhe

local sandstone. In the substructure of the kings' tombs. usually consisting of three
chambers, the mummified body of the deceased was placed in a wooden coffin or stone sarcophagus surrounded by funerary offerings including many luxury items imported from Egypt. The stylistic changes in the N.1patan royal tombs were used by Reisner as a basis for his relatiyc chronolog\' of Kushitc kings. As at cl-Kurru, th~ Napatan queens were buried in a separate section of the cemetery comprising more than fifty tombs. D. DUNII'\,\I, TIll: royal temclerics of Kush, II: Nllri (Boston, 1955), W. Y. ADM.IS, Nubia: corridor /() .I~j1-i((l (London :md Princeton, 19S4), 278-85,

The skI/-goddess .VuI. her bOth' ardled tJi:er S/Ill ellcltei:ming tlml gh:illg "irlh 10 il Melt worning. TIlt' scene is sluwm Oil/he ailiug {JIll kiosk-like dlllpel ill Ihi' lemple o/Hallwr (II Dendera. Irent( Ilrt' image t~r 11"lllOr tJu1Jlhirlr lire .'1m ~( raJ's 1;111. (/~ 1: Y/CJlUUiO\)
RIGIIT

Ihe carlh. is sl!I!n s11JllllfJmil1g lite

Nut
Sky-goddess, whose body symbolized the vault of the sky, In the l-Ieliopolitan doctrine uf the ENNE/\D, she was considered to be the daughter of SIIU, sister-wife of GEB and mother of OSIRIS, ISIS, SETH and ~EPJITITYS. She was usually shown in hum~n form, but more rarely

she was also portrayed as.1 cow) thus leading to occasional confusion with the bm'ine images of .mother sky-goddess, I-IATIIOR. The Greek writer PltIlarch adds Apollo (the Greek equi,'alent of J IORes) to the list of her progeny, in a story which relatcs how the sun-god Helios (RA) cursed Rhea (Nut) pre,'enling her from giving birth on any of the 360 days or (he calendar. The fivc children '''''cre able to be born only through the intervention of l-fermcs (TJ [0'1'(1) who provided five cxtra days of light. This myth was therefore lIsed to explain the existence of the five epagomenal days in the Egyptian CALEI'\DAR. Nut's body, e.1ch limb at a cardinal point, w.tS thought to be arched over the earth. [\'ery evening she swallowed the setting sun, Ra, and every morning gave birth to him

again from her womb. Depictions of this :lct arc commonly found on the ceilings of temples as well as in the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings, where they arc accompanied on the walls by the nightly journey of the sun through the underworld. The two versions of the palh of the sun were not regarded as contradictory. Nut's body was also interpreted as the course of the stars, which arc shown as decorations on her dress, and it is thought likely Ill.H she also personified one particuhlr constellation, probably located ncar the celesti:ll equator. As the renewer of the sun each day, she was clearly regarded as a suitable funerary deity, and several of the utterances in the PYRJ\i\\ID TEXTS speak of her 'enfolding the body of the king'. Another utterance asks: '0 my mother,

207

NUT

OBELISK

Nut, spread yourself over me, so (hat I may be placed among rhe imperishable stars and nC\'lT die', and il. ycrsion of this prayer was inscribed

on one of the golden shrines ofTurankhamun (1336-1327 Be). Such imagery ga,"c rise to her
identification with the lid of the COFFl.\, and texts during the Old Kingdom (2686-218111<:) refer to the chest of rhe sarcophagus as ",wI

o
obelisk (Egyptian tekhm) Tapering, needle-like stone monument, rhe tip of which was caned in the form of a pyr.lmidion (Egyptian bel/bwet). The shapes of both obelisks and pyramidia were dcriycd ultimately from the ancient llE:'\IJE:'\ stone in the temple of the sun-god at 111':1.I0POI.IS. T'his SLOne was bclic,'ed to be that on ,,hich thc fays of the rising sun first fell, and \\'as sacred at least ,IS earl\" as the 1st O,'"ast\ (3100-2890 IlC). The Egyptian word for obelisk (lekhen) may be related to the \nJrtl mebeu meaning 'to shine', rurther emphasizing the connection with the cult of the sun. The role of the obelisk as a solar symbol was often rc-emphasized by c.u\'etl figures of baboons ilt the base, since wild baboons were c\'idently known to greet the rising sun with great chattering and excitement. The pyramidion at the apex of each obelisk was usually gilded in ordcr to reflect the sun's f<lYS. The masonry obelisk in the 5th-Dynasty sun temple of ,YLSERR' (2-145-2+21 IlC) at "ilL UUUB "'ould originally havc been onc of rhe largest obelisks, although irs bro.ld, squat proportions would hm'c been more reminiscent of the beubt!J1 stone than the elegant monolithic obelisks of later periods. The use uf obelisks was at first fairly limited, spreading gradually from l-leliopolis. As early as the Old Kingdom, small obelisks were sometimes erected outside pri,',ue tombs, ,llthough it is with temples that Lhey are most orten associated. The usc of such small obelisks in front of tombs continued in the i'\ew Kingdom (1550-]069 Be), and a pair of obelisks arc represented in the tomb of the 18th-Omaslv vizier "E~II.'IIR,\ ("1"1100). They also formed part of the decoration of SII \BTI-boxes of the Third Intermediate Period (l 069-747 IIC), and from the Late Period (7+7-332 Be) onwards their importance in funerary architecture Icd to t"11e crcation of obelisk-shaped amulets. In the New Kingdom large monolithic obelisks were often erected in pairs in front of temple pylons, Sadly, no such pairs remain ill .~ill1 roda~-, the last two having been separated when i'v[uhammcd Ali presented one of the LL:\OR obelisks to the French gm-crnment in I R19, Ie.wing only one in front of the temple, while the other now srands in the Place dc la Coneorcle in Paris. An unf"inishcd granite obelisk, probably daLing ro the New Kingdom, is still lying in

('mother').

From

the

I\c,,'

Kingdom

(1550-1069 I1c) onwards, she "as regular1,

depicted on the underside of Lhe lid of many

coffins and sarcophagi, arching her body over

that of the deceased. The dead person was

thus both back inside the body of the mother. ready for rebirth, and fe-enacting the journey

of the sun-god between hem'en and earth.

NUL has also been idcmified as the inspiration behind the so-called 'swimming-girl' cosmetic spoons, which date to the Nc\,' Kingdom and usually portray a nude woman swimming, often holding a goose in outstretched arms. These artefacts are now regarded as rebuses of the diyine pair NUL and Gcb, whose roles in the funerary cquipmcnt may therefore have been more complex and ritualistic than prc,'iously thought. J. BCRG\! \~, ')Jur - HimmclsgottinBaumgonin - Lebensgcbcrin', J-!Ul/umiltlS re/igif/sa; FeslUh,.~(i jiir fl. Bie::,ais (Stockholm, 1979),53-69.

rhe northcrn quarries at '\S\\'.\i\. 'Vith a lengrh 01"41.75111 and a Iyeight of 1168 tons, it would have been the largest monolithic obelisk crer cut if it had not de"eloped a fatal naw during rhe inirial quarrying. Experiments by Reginald Engelbach showed that it took an hour to rcmoyc 5 111m of stone from a strip 0.5 111 "ide across the ohelisk, using basalt pounders. The mO\'ing and raising of obelisks was a major feat of organization in itself, presenring diffiCulties cyen to those who hayc altemptcd it in thl' twentieth century. Nc\-ertheless, man~ obelisks were obviollsly successfully cut in ancient times, and the quarrying and transport of two enormous granite obelisks for l-latshepslll (1473-1458I1c) is recorded in her temple at DEIR 1:I.-B;\IIRI, while the monuments themselves ilre still loe<lfed in the temple of Amunat I>..\JP\:\K. The obelisk rapidh became popular with other cultures outside Egypt. It was copied b~ the Canaanites (see BYBLOS), and thc \SS) RI." ruler Ashurbanipal (669-627 BC) is said to h,we remoyed two bronze-clad exam p1cs from TIlEBES after his inrasion of 669 Be. in later rimes, many obelisks wcrc remm'ed by the Prolcmies .md [he Romans, with the result that Rome now has thc greatest number of obclis1.s

E. HUR;.IL:-"G, Der iigYPlische /VIJ'lhf).~ 1.'01/ dt:r Hi111I11e/skuh: eiue .-iii(-'/ogie dt'S U/I.:ollk0111/1lt'JIt'1I
(Freiburg. 1982). A,l\:.OZLOFF and B. BR'-\', E~S:J'pls da::,diug .m,,: ~-/I1f{'lI/lfJlI!P JfI and his world (Bloomington and Cleyelal1d, 1992),331---+8. D. .\lEE"s and C. r \URD-i\h:EI-.:S, I,ll tie qU()lidieu/l{' des dieux egypliem (Paris, 19(3), 166-72,238-9.

Red grill/ile obdisl- (~r }jatsllep$l/l.18111 Dynasty, c./-I73-/-I58 Ilc.lmfl1 Q!lsr !brim. VII""a,lI. /.83 III. (EIIS3-1)

208

OFFERING FORMULA

OFFERING TABLE

anvwhere in the world, including rhe tallest, th~ so-called Lateran Obelisk. In modern times obelisks hayc been re-crecrcd in many major cities throughout the "'orld, for example London, Paris and ~cw York. R. E?'GELBACH, The .1.Ol'lllJ obdisl' (C1iro, 1922). C. KUE~TZ, Ob/listjllt'J (Cairo. 1932). [part of the c'lralogue of the Egyptian l\luSClIl11, Cairo.] B. DIJl~ER, J1I!0i'i/lg the obelisl's (Cambridge. MA,
19iO). E. IVF.RSE~'. Obelisl's ill e.\'Ik (Copenhagen, 1972). L. 1-I,-\1IACI-II, The obelisKs (~( Cgypi (London. 19i8).

R. I-hyw-\RD.

Clt'flpnlrfl:< IIfl'flleJ

(BUXLOll, 1978).

offering formula
The helep-di-UfJ111 (':1 gift which rhe king gi"es') or 'offering formula' was a prayer asking for offerings to be brought to the deceased. It first appears as lhe principal inscription On the FILSE DOOR stclae of the Old lilllgdoJ11 (26862181 Be), which lormed the focus of f"ud offerings in early private tombs, but it continued to be used on funerary stelae (and larcr <1lso on COFFINS), throughout the Pharaonic and Greco-Roman periods. On stelae the formula is often accompanicd by a depiction of the deceased sitting in front of an OFFERI:'\G "B.DLE heaped with food, and on coffins of the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 Be) it was often written on the exterior (sec illustral:ion), while a number of different offerings were depicted in neat rows on the inrerior. Typically the first line of the offering formula asks for the king to make gifts to The gods QStRIS or '\_'UIlIS; the rest of the inscription then usually consists of a list of the various quantities of items of food and drink that the I.:(~ of the deceased requires. The inscription sometimes <lIso asks visitors to the tomb to recite the forlllula so that the necessary offerings would appear. Jl is clear from rhe nature of the formula that the sustenance of rhe ka of the deceased \vas not simply the responsibility of the sun-i\'ing relatives - it was necessary for the king to intercede with the gods on his or her behalf This illustrates the essential role played by the king as di"inc intermeclian' at the heart of each indi"idual's funerary c~lt, establishing the crucial link between the fatc of the indi"idual and the festi\'als of Osiris. It also reflect's the common practice of di"iding up temple ufferings and redistributing thcm among the funerary cults of individuals. A. 1-1. GARDLXER, Eg)Jpli((1I grammar, 3rc.l cd. (Osford, 195i), I iO-3. R. B. P:\Rf..:ISSO:\" /o;aJlrolll all(it'lIl Egypi (Lundon, 1991), 136--12.

DellIiI oIlhi> oJJerillgjimllula (helep-c1i-ncsw). ({

praJ't'r aSk'iug Ihe king la proi'ir!e oJJeril1gs. 011 I!I('

eXlerior oflhe ollla l'(~nill OIlllc p/~)'si{ioll Seni.

J\lIiddle Killgdo/ll, c.2()()O JJC. poillled moor/. 11.1.'011. ("1.l0S"!)

offering table
One of the most important elements of the Egyptian priv;lte tomb throughout the Pharaonic and Greco-Roman periods, It was usually placed in an accessible location such as the chapel, so that oHcrings could actually be brought to it by the funerary priests or rclatiycs of the deceased.

The hieroglyph represenTing the ancien! Egyptian word hfleft (the most literal mc.111ing of which is 'offering') consists of a depiction of a wm'cn mat surmouJ1lcd by a loaf of bread. doubtless reflecting the most basic method of presenting an offering. This simple visual image not only sen'ed as a metaphor for the act of offering itself but also came to be rhe characteristic shape of the physic.Ii surface on which offerings were placed fro111 the beginning of the Pharaonic period ol1\yards. The upper surfaces of offering tables were often can'ed \"ith the loa\'cs, trussed ducks and yessds required by the cult, so that the srone-can'ed images could scr,'C as magical substitutes for the rcal food offerings, usually \\'ith the additional back-up of the hieroglyphic OI'FERL\lG FOR.\IUI.!\ .mel lists of produce. Often there wcre cups, groOYCS or channels cut into the surface so thaI such liquids as water, beer or wine could be poured on to the table. The so-called 'soul houses' placed beside the mouths of the shaft-burials of com paratiyely poor indiyiduals of the First Intermcdiate Period and .:\liddle Kingdom (2181-1650 lie) were essentiall, an elaborate form of offering table. Flinders Petrie, who excn-.lted large numbers of lhem ,ll the site of Riteh, was able to trace the c"olution of soul houses from simple potler.:- LntyS (imit.ning stone offering lables) to later more elaborate examples consisting of models of houses, the forecourLs of which were strewn "'ith food offerings. 1n this way the soul house neatly and economically combined the concept of rhe burial place as rhe symbolic home of' the deceased KIlt:f..'!il1g slttlUt: oIRoulI.'ses 1l1lOldillg '111/~Ol'ril1g (1 hcs-i'ase. /9"1 DYl1aso', C./2.1() Ile. limeslfllle.from .A/~)'dfJS. II. 98 em. (I:' 196)
lab/t' Oil

209

OGDOAD

OLD

KINGDO~I

with the expression of a desire for food offerings to sustain the 10\. Sec also t\1:li\R. C. KUENTZ, 'Bnssins ct [abies d'offrandes', IJII'40 81 (1981), suppl., 2n-82. I-I. ALTEi\. \ILLLER, 'Opfer', Lexikoll de,. .-lgypJo/Qgie 1\ I cd. \V Heick, E. Otto and W. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1982), 5i9-84. J. BOL"RRl<\L, Pht/molts {fllli morlals: EgYPliall arl il/ 'he A1idtl/t Kingdom (Cambridge, 1988), 101-3.

Ogdoad (Egyptian khllJ/I/I) The Hermopoliran Ogdoad were a group of eight deities whom the priests ;1t IIER.\10POUS
\1 \G~.\) the principal cult-place of THOT! I, identified as the primcral <.lctors in a CRExno," myth. During the Pharaonic period Hcrmopolis even derived irs nilme (Khmun) from the ;!Ocient Egyptian word t(lr 'eight', and this ancient toponym has sUTri\-cd in the modern pl:tce-namc of el-Ashmuncin_ The Ogduad comprised four frog-gods and four snake-goddesses, each frog being paired with one of the snakes_ The four p'lirs symbolized different aspects of the chaos before the creation. 'fheir names were xu1\ and Nallnet (water), A \1C"~ and f\mallnct (hiddenness), IJEII and Hauhcl (infinity), and Kek and Kauket (darkness). It was thuught that these deities brought into being the original I'RIJ\IE\',\L \10V,'O on which, according to one myth, the egg of the sun-god was placed. E. I-IORNU,\u, idea illl(J imoge, tmllS. E. Bredeck (New York, 1992),41-2.

werc also included in daily temple riulUl. Some of the seven sacred oils are known fi'om lstDynasty wooden and ivory labels, but the group appears not to have becn used collectively lIntil the Old Kingdum (268(,-2181 Be), when they were represented as part of the OFFERL'G FOR_\ILL:\ on the walls or Eo\LSE DOOR stelae of tombs. The earliest' known actual set of the seven sacred oils is from the tomb of Hetepheres, but small stone tablets with depressions for these oils were sometimes placed in burials throughout the Old Kingdom. Like the other known sets of jars from 1\liddle Kingdom (2055-1650 Be:) burials, Hetepheres' set contained eight jars, but the identity of the contents in the eighth jar was never consislent. Based on tomb and temple reliefs, iL would seem that the group had been further extended to nine or ten oils during the New Kingdom (1550-1069 Be). They were gi\'en the following names, usually lisled in this order: sf/i-heb (odour of fesriyals), heltenm (oil of praising), seftt, llthclle11l, Imam/ (these three untranslatable), halelnel :~!J (first-quality oil of conifer?), !Jalel ltel Jjehenm (fust-qualitv oil or Libva). A. Luc.o\s, .-Infiem Eg)lPlilfll nltlll'l'ials aud iudmlries, -fth cd. (London, 1962), 327~37. .\1. SEKI'ICO and R. \VIIITE, 'Oil, fat and wax', AuciCl/1 EgYPlian malerials (Iud lerlmology, cd. P. T Nicholson and I. Shaw (Camhridge, 2000), 390-429.

oil
Important material in lx)th funerary ritual and daily life during the Ph'lraonie period. Oil and fnt served ns the bases for many of the Egyptians' unguents and scents (there were 110 true - distilled - perfumes). Various aromatic herbs and spices were adeled to the oil in order to imbue it with certain aromas_ At a more prosaic IcYcl, oil W.IS the fuel used in bmps, which seryed as lighting in housl.'S as well as illuminating tombs and mines. It seems lhat salt was added to the oil to reduce the amount of soot produced when it was burnt. The idemifictltion of the ancient names for oils with the actual plants from which the oil was produced has prO\'cd to be extrcmely difficult, and many early atlempts Sl.'C111 to haye becn erroneous. Jars ofoils or fats, possibly once scented, were included in the burial equipment from Prcdynasric times onwards. One group of seemed oils of particular importance is known today as the ~seven sacred oils', although the Egyptians rcferred to them only .IS 'the oils'. These formed an integral part of religious ritual and were used for anointing the deceased in the OP.'HNG OF 'rlIE I\IOl;TII CERE~IONY_ They 210

Old Kingdom (2686-2181 Ile) Chronological phase consisting of the 3rd to 6th Dynasties, during which most of the royal PYR..UIIlJ complexes and private _\L\$T.o\BA tombs of the 1\ Icmphite necropolis were built (see .\1 1',\1 I'll IS and "(~~\R4 The first significant ruler of Ihe 3rd Dynasty was DJOSFH Netjerikhet (2667-2648 Ile), whose Step Pyramid still dominates the skyline of northern Saqqara. .:\ear the southwest corner of Djoser's enclosure is the unfinished step pyramid of his successor SEKJIE.\l"III:T. The -fth Dynasty bega,n with the reign of SNEFERU, who is associated with no fewcr than three pyramids (one at ,\IF.IDUi\I, which may have belonged to his 3rd-Dynasty predecessor, Huni, and two at D,\IISIlLR). Of the next fiye rulers, three (KIILFL, "'HFR.\ and ME!':".\ RA) built their pyramids at GIZA, while the burial places ofoJEIJI':FR.\ and SI-IEPSESK.AF were located at ABU ROASII and S!\Q.QARJ\ respectively. A sixth unknown -fth-Dynasty rulcr seems to have had a pyramid complex at Z:\\\,IYET H.-ARYAN. The 4th Dynasty not only represented a distinct peak in terms of the resources devoted to pyramid building but it was also the apogee of the cult of the sun-god, with lhe adoption of the royal title sa R" ('son of the sun-god').

The 5th-Dynasty rulers (Userkaf, Sahura, Tcfcrirkara, Shcpscskara, Ranefcref Nyuscrra, Nlcnkauhor, Ojedkara-Jsesi and U;.;'AS) were buried either at ABC"sm or S'lqqara, .mel sc,er'll of the earlier rulers of this dynas~ also built sun-temples, in whil:h the royal cult seems to ha,-e been assimihucd with the WOrship of the sun (sec \IlU GL'RAB and I WLiOPOI.Js). Although the architectural and artistic achievements of the 4th and 5th Dynasties arc undoubtedly impressi\'c, the intellectual anti social developments arc poorly known, sinn' few documenrs ha\-e suniyed. The pyramids and rombs of the 6th-Dynasl~ rulers and their COllrt were all constructed m Saqqara. The increased number of surviving texts fi'om lhis period (particularly the I'Y]{.\j\IlIJ TEXTS and Abusir papyri) has ensured that the religion, society and economy of Lhe late Old Kingdom arc better documemed than in t.lr1ier periods. r\ numher of 6th~Dynasty 'funerar~ autobiographies' (see I.ITER..\TLRE) h,n-e also enabled aspects of thc politil:'.11 history of the period to be tcnt,nivciy reconstructed, including the launching of camp,ligns and trading missions to "l!BlA and western Asia. lL is unccrt'lin as to whether events and political situations were typical of the Old Kingdom as a whole or only of the 6th Dynasty, because of the patchiness of the textual record. 'I'he Old Kingdom effectively came to ;111 end wilh the death of PEPr II, who was perhaps succeeded by a female ruler named l'\itiqrct. Some scholars, howc\'cr, have argued lhat the 7th and 8th Dynasties continued to rule from J\ iemphis and that the political struct'urc during this period remained relath-c1y intact despite a rapid succession of kings with extremely brief reigns (sec FInST INTER \IEDI '\'1'1'. PERIOD). A variety of factors seem to have: brought about the fall uf the Old Kingdom; suggestions include climatic deterioration, consisting of lower annual rainfall and/or lower Nile Ii'\!.;'-:"nrno"s; a possible increasc in power of Lhe provinci~ll rulers, whose offices bec.lme hereditary; and a decline in the size and quality of royal funerary monuments which may have been a result or symptom of a decrease in roy.II wealth and authority (perhaps partly due to the granting of too many ta:\ exemptions). 1-1. GOEDICKE, Kiilll:rtlichc Dokuwe11le (l1/J dem Alten Reich (\Viesbadcn, 19(7). l. E. S. EmvAIlns, C. J. GAI'!) and N. G. L. H.'\~L\10:\1) (eel.), Call/bridge (lJ/cie11l hiS/ol)! 1/2: Earljl history oj'lhe Jl1iddle ElISI, 3rd cd. (Cambridge, 19i1), H5-20i. E. MARTIN-P.-\RDEY I Ul1lersurllUllgcu Zlir iigyptischcn Provil1:::.ialvermalllll1g bis zum Emle des Altell Reiches (Hildesheim, 19i6).

OMARI, EL-

OPENING OF THE MOUTH CEREMONY

P. POSE:'-IF.R-Kf{II~GEn, Lex al"chh:es tlu temple [iou/rain'de Ne/crirkarc-Kakai" (Ic:; papyrus d'Abowir): fraductioll el CI)JlIlJlclI/.airc, 2 \"ols (Cairo, ] 976). N. KANAWATI, The Egyptiau admillislmliol/ ill the Old Killgdom: evideuce VII ils ('(Ullmmc tied/lie 0VarminstcI", 1977). B. J. KEMP, 'Old Kingdom, Nliddle Kingdom and Second Tntermediate Period', Allcielli Egypl: (/ social hi.IOl]!, B. G. Trigger ct 011. (Cambridge, 1983),71-182. J. MALE 1(, 11/ fhe s!Jrlt!o/IJ oIlhe pyrtll/lids: l:'gypt during ,he Old Kingdolll (London and Oklahoma, 1986). G. HAR'f, Phol"{/ol!.\' (1I1d p)!ramids (London, 1991). N. GRIl\'IAL, A his/OIY oIolfcicnl Egypt (Oxford, 1992),63-101. J. VERCOU'lTER, 'Le fin de PAncien Empire: un nouvel cxamen" Alii di Vi Ctmgn:.uu tli Egittologia H (Turin, 1993),557-62.
Omari. elType-site of the el-Omari phase of the Lower Egyptian PREDYNt\ST1C PERIOD, consisting of several Predynastic settlements and cemeteries clustered around the \Vadi HoE) between modern Cairo and Helwan. The two main settlements (el-Omari r\ and B) have provided radiocarbon dates that suggest they were roughly contemporary with the Amratian and Gerzean phases of the Upper Egyptian Prcdynastic. 'The pottery is predominantly red or black, bearing very little decoration. The cemeteries were mingled with the settlement areas, as at Merimda, bur each body was laid on the left side with its skull facing to the south, as in Upper Egyptian Predynastic cemeteries. A third area of settlement (elOmari c) appears to have still been occupied in the Early Dynastic period. r. DEI3QNO, 'La civilization prcdynastiquc d'EI Omari (nord d'Helouan)', BJE 37 (1956), 329-39. Nl. A. Horr.\]}\'\', Egypt ajier the pharaohs (New York, 1979), 191-9. K. A. Bt\RD, 'The Egyptian Predynastie: a review of the cvidencc',}olll"l1a/ of field /lrdwc(j/(jgV21 (1994),265-88

Shu) Onuris was often given the epithet 'son ofRa'. Sec also LiO!\". H. JUNKER, Die Ouuris/egende (llerlin l 1917). J. [NDRODI, 'Statue de bronze d'Onouris et de Nlckhit', Bu//etill dll/Husee HOllgrois des Beallx /11'1.' 55 (1980), 9-16.

opening of the mouth ceremony

Ritual by which the deceased and his or her funerary statuary were brought to life, the (full version' of which is perhaps an assemblage of different rituals. l\!lost of the surviving evidence derives from the New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC), in the form of vignettes fi'om the BOOK OF TilE m:l\o and tomb paintings. In the Old Kingdom (2686--2181 Be), a virtually identical ceremony was known as the 'offering ritual' and incorporated into the PYRAMID TI,:XTS (usually Uttcrances 20-2 inscribed in the hurial chamber). At this date it is likely that the ceremony was regularly carried Ollt on statues of the king in the vallcy tcmple of his pyramid complex. During the New Kingdom the ceremony \vas codified into seventy-five separate acts, thc earlicst full copy of which is known from scenes in the tomb of the vizier REKIII.\HRI\ (TI'100). The ritual was usually carried out by the son and heir of the deceased as a final act of piety. Thus, where royal succession is concerned, it was sometimes a way of legitimizing succession. Such is the case with AY (1327-1323 Be), represented in the robes of a sem-pricst performing the ceremony on the dead king in the tomb ofTutankhalllun (Kv62; 1336-1327 HC). f\1ummies and statues that" underwent this ritual were effectivcly transformed into vessels fur the KA of the deceased. The ritual could be performed in a number of diffl:l"ent locations, from the 'house of gold' itself" (i.e. the burial chamber) to the workshops of the sculptor or embalmer. New Kingdom papyri frequently depict scenes from the ceremony, showing the coffin standing upright in front of the priest or heir. From the 25th Dynasty (747-656 BC) onwards, an enlarged pedestal base on the coHin may well have assisted in keeping it in this position throughout the ceremony. The ritual was a very elaborate one involving purification, censing, anointing and incantations, as well as the touching of various parts of the mummy with different objects so that the senses were restored not only to the mouth, so that it might cat and speak, but also to the eyes, ears, nose and other pans of the body. One of the most important object:--<.; used in the ritual was the pe.\'esli-kef, probably originally a flint knife with a bifurcated blade shaped like a

Cast si/ver.figure ({tile warrior god 01lul'i.~ armed mith (/ /t/nce. Thirr/ illiermer/iale Period, II. 4.8011.

(E,/66629)

J E. OSING, 'Ein spiithicratischcs Onomaticon

aus Tebtunis" ARten !l1iiJldlCn 1985 JlI, ed. S. Schoske (Hamburg, 1989), 183-7.

On uris (Anhur, Tnhert)

God associated with war and hunting, whose name means 'he who brings back the distant one'l referring to his principal mythical rolc in which he returned from Nubia with his consort, the lioness-goddess lvIehit. This legend parallels the Hcliopolitan myth of the god of the air, SHU, who was also considered to have brought back his consort (the goddess TEFNUT) from Nubia. Onuris' cult is first attested in thc Thinitc region surrounding ABYDOS in Middle Egypt. By the Late Period (747-332 Be), however, he was closely associatcd with the Dell:a site of Sebennytos, where a tcmple was dedicated to Onuris-Shu by :'\IECTANEBO 11 (360-343 Be). In the Ptolemaic period (332-32 HC) he was identified with the Greek war-god Ares. He is usually portrayed as a bearded man carrying a spear or rope (with which he pursued I'vlehit) and wearing a headdress consisting of four long plumes. He held the epithet (lord of the lance'l and his association with the spear and ropes provided an inevitable link with the mythical struggle between HORUS and SI':1'II, in which the hawk-god used the same weapons to entrap and kill his foe, the 1111'POPOTt\.,\1US. Onuris was also portrayed as an avenger defending Egypt on behalf of the SUll~ god Rl\. Just' as l\!fehit was identified with ;mother lioness-goddess, SI':KHMET, who was the (EYE OF Rt\" so (in another parallel with

onomasticon
Type of ancient text consisting of lists of various categories of NMW$, from plants and animals to cities or professions. The onomastica were presumably intended to servc both as repositories of knowledge and as training exercises for scribes (see I:DUCATION). A. [-I. GARDINER, /l//('ielll Egyptian Ol!o/lltlStim (London, 1947). M. V. Fox, 'Egyptian onomastica and Biblical Wisdom', Veills Testt/JIIcnlll1l/36 (1986), 302-10.

211

OPENING OF THE MOUTH CEREMO NY

ORACLE S

\IJO"E S('( O[imlfll1Jlf!11IS dtllil/g/i-om tilt' Old Kingdom mhirh lI'oltld hare In~l'I1 /I.Iwl

i11 tltt' opl'llin/!, ~{tlte 11/0JlIIt {eren1fJ'~)I.

II n/li11ll'stolU! lable il1 ,hi' centre 8.9 em. (I' 68-/0-/)

fish tail, many finc examples of which hayc been exc,Wilted fi'om Prcdynasti c grm'cs as earh as the Naqada I period (cAOOO-3500 Be), dllls probably indicating that a similar ceremony \\"as already being lIsed well before the firsl cyidence for many other aspects of Egyptian funerary ritual. Other implement s used arc uescribed as nf(jt'ri-bladcs and were principally made from mctcOl:ic IRO" although occasionall y othc..T metals were used. In addition the right leg of a specially slaughtered ox was sometimes extended (o\\";lrd lhe mummy or statue, perhaps in an attempt to pass on the intrinsic pmycr of the ox. .-\. "I. BUCh:\L\:--, 'The rite of opening the mouth in ancient Egyprantl Babylonia" ]E.lI0 (1924), -17-59. E. Orm, Das (igyplist!u: J1I/IIuliJJ"'lfll/g.~rilllal (Wieshaden, 1960). R. \-\'\ \V\L<;jE\\, Thcp.~"-J.:r an im'esrigation of an ancient I;:gyptian funerary instrument', Oudheidh/lllll(!!;e ,IIedetli'!illgellllil hi'l RijkslllllSt'1I111 7:al1 Olldlu:ideu Ii' Ll'itlell59 (1978-9),193-2-1-9. A. R. SCHL'U\'\:'\, "The iconographic theme, "opening of the mouth" on stclae',.7ARCE 21 (1984),169 -96. A. J\L ROTII, 'Tht, p.~.\=-kJand the "opening of the momh" cercmon~: a ritual ofbirrh :lnd rebirth', JE4 78 (1992),113 -17. - , 'Fingers, stars and the "opening of the mOllth'" ,J..J 79 (1993), 57-80.

oracles
\~ihcn important decisions needed to be justified or endorsed, the Egyptians llIrned (() the gods for oracles. \>\Then oracles first gained prominenc e in the early ::\e\\ Kingdom (1550-1069 I3C), they were sought c\'en by the pharaoh and the highest gm efnment offici;'lls, oftcn as a \"ery public means of obtaining divine approval for their actions. In bter periods the method was used more regularly to resoh'c local 'ldministr~ltive or legnl disputes, although ~1 stelophoro us (STU.!bearing) statue of OSORW:,< 11 (87+-850 Be) :n Tanis is inscribed with a prayer ro the god Amun in which he asks for an oracle appro\"ing his regime. At a purely local leYel, as in the \yorkmen \; \'illagc at DEIR EL-\IELJIY\ , oracles were cmployed - whether consciously or not - as a mechanism for soothing pOtential fbshpuims of social tension. There must often have hecn situations in which the Kl'IIbi'l (local council) might h~l\"C been accused of bias or t:wourirism if they had not been ablc to call all SOI11C form of objccti,e olilside guidance (although it IS not clear to what extent the oracle could be 'fixed' by Ihe priests). The consulting of the god for oracles rook place \,hen the di\'ine image "as being carried through the sn'cets ben\-cen temples, usually on the occasion of a particular religious HSTI\:\L. This prm'ided the ordinary Egyptians ,,'irh their only real opportunit y to approach the god, since his image was usually hidden away in the darkest sanctuary of the temple. \~lhcn individuals addressed questions to the god (in either spoken or written form) the priest.s carrying the fl,\Rt\: shrine "'cre able to tilt il onc way or another in order to indicate a simple yes or no. AI DeiI' el-f\ledina the image used for the orJclc was usually that of the deified \\\E:\"I-IOTEP I, which was carried through the streets of the village at festival limes. The types of questions v..lried enormousl~ from health problems LO disputes O\'er property 1:1\\. If" the \'crdict gi\-cn by the or:lck of one god was regarded as ullsatisfactory, petitioners were evidelltly able to consult the oracles uf one or morc other deities.

ParI oIIIIl' Book 1.J.{lhe Dead papJ'l'fIs n/llUII(:!i.'/: il/lI.amling Spell 23, lite opmillg oflite 1IIOll1h (er(,IIIf1I~)!. Priests mise Ilu: rill/fli implemeJlts 10 tlh' mOlllh IJ.rIlfllle.{i'1":~ mlll11'I~)'. while behind Ih/'1II11 sem-prii-'.I'/ illleopard-shll robl's Irold.~ (/ amer. Behind Ih(' mll/JlIl~I' slauds a priesl111t'aring all Anubis l1lt1JI', whiM Ihe mUe Q.rllr~' dl'(l'ased II1mmlJ IJl:(r,re Ih" coHill, 'If, Ihe righl i.l' Ihejill/el'{llT chllpel milh its p.J'mlllitll1! roo/ami ajilllerury stell'. (E,99016)

212

~ACLES

OSIRIS

C. LEBL\:'-C, 'Pilicrs et colosses de typc

c.

'losiriquc" dans Ie contexte des temples dc cultc royal', Brn080 (1980). 1>9-89. LF.IlL-\:'-C. :1nd I. EL-SAYED, Le R{/11Jt'$.~t'1I1JI Ix/2: Lt',~ piliers osiri{{{lllI!S (C"liro, 1988),

Osiris
One of t he most important deities of :1ncient Egypt, whose principal association is with death, rcsurrection and fertility, I1e is usually depictcd as a mummy ,yhose hands project through his wrappings to hold the rOY;l) insignia of crook and flail. He wcars the distinct'ire alef CRmr:'\", consisting of the tall 'white crown' flanked by two plumes, sometimes shown ,Yith the horns of a ram, His flcsh W;'lS sometimes shO\\"Tl as white, like rhe mUlllmy wrappings, black to signif~ the fertile Nile allU\>ium, or green in allusion to resurrection. Osiris "-as one of thc earliest Egyptian gods, probably originally regarded simply as il ClITIIOi\"lC fertility-god overseeing the growth of crops, and perhaps with some connection 1O the I~Ui'D.'\'nOi'- as a source of fertile allm'iulll. Tn later rimcs his connection with the rin.:r W,lS still occasionall~- maintained. As his cult spread through the country, he gradually rook on the ;utributes of lhose gods on whose cult centres he encroached. It seems likcl~, for instance, th,lt his insignia wcre taken fi'01TI ,L\ndjety, <1 god of Rusiris (;mcient Djedu) in the Delta. It is likely that the legend of Osiris as the dead form of an e;lI'lhly ruler "-;1S :lIso

Copy oIlI f}J(fIl-paillfingji-o/ll DeiI' eI-. \kdiu(f

s/w1J)illg ({II JJJ1age (JIJlll' dl'~jietl_~lJJll'ItlJ(Jlep IIJl'il1g

A, L,

BL\C"'.\I,\:'-,

'Oracles in ancient Egypt

J',

].111 (1925).

2~9-55.

(arried inll proCt'ssioll so 'ha/ his !i(({(/fl' coult! be tou.wlled tiS fill ora(/l'. (Go/,)"/))" S/YI DE G/HIS
IJAfJES)

- , 'Or:1des in a1ll.:icllt Egypt Il"JE112 (1926),

From the 21s1 Dynasty omnlrds. the 'festinl of the oracle' was celebrated in the courryard between the nimh and lemh pylons;u the temple of K \R'\ \". In the Third Intermediate Period (1069-7-+7 Be) a new rorm or oracle, known as an oracular amulctic dccrcc\ was also inlroduced. This lOok the [arm of a small cylindrical amulet worn on a necklace and containing a divine decree s.lid ro ha' e been
issued in the form of an oracle and effccti,-c1y

171>-85. I. E. S, ED\\ \RDS, Ommlur amutt'lir deaees oflhe lalt: Ae/1l l\-illgdoJ1/ (London, 1960). G, Rm.llI:R, Kulll!, Oral'tllI/lfl Xalun:t'n'lmlllg illl 1111<"11. (UPI<II (Zurich. 1960). J.CER", 'Egyptian oracles', .-1 Sailt: Made papyr/IJj"r(}1II Thebes, eu. R. P-\R"'ER (Pro\"idem:c, 1962). J. D. Rn, 'l71t'ar(hin!(~rH(Jr(Lonuon,1976), 130-6. J. 1\1, J..:.RLCI lTC', Lt grtllltll('X{t' o1"llmlairt> til' lJ.il;h()II~J'"I1HI' (Brusscls, 1986),

prOlcctinJ.!: the wcarer against (,"cn- concci,"able disas~cr. In the L;lt<.~ Period (7~7-332 IlCo)
anll Ptolcmaic period (332-30 Be), a large number of so-c~lllcd 'dream-tcxts'. written in Greek and I)E~10TIC, have been excaV,1ted from such sites as the Sacred Animal Necropolis at Si\(~t\I~A. 'These texts suggest th;lt the interpretation of IJR,E,\.\IS had bccome closely linkcd with the consulting or oracles. Individuals requiring an answer to a partiClIJilr problem or dilemma appear 10 have deliberately slept on sacred ground so that the god would send them dreams serving as somewhat cryptic oracles.

Orion

set' S\1l

Osirid pillar
Square pillar with olle of its faccs carved into the form of";\n cngaged colossal statuc depicting the l11u111mifcml1 figurc uf the god OSIRIS or the dead king. FroJ11 the Nc\\ Kingdom (1550-1069 Ilc) onwards, porticoes incorporating Osirid pillars were a COJ11mon I'eature of royal mortuary tcmples. Examples arc to bc found 011 the upper terrace or the temple or Halshcpsut (1-+73-1-+58 He) ;1t DElI{ EI.-B.\IIRI, in the second court or the 1{1\\lF,SSEU\l and on rhe eastern side of the first court of' :\IEIJI'{ET I L\BU at Thebes.

Pari of/ht' Book of/he Dead J!llpY/"ll.~ Id'j-llIlIt!ji.'I;

;/Il1SII'fII;JJg .)'pe/I/2.i Osiris i.I' siw//JJ/ sculttl ill
judgl'II/l'//llIIula a ({/110J!.)'.
(flld J

Behiud hilll sfaud 1.1';.1' ephtlq's. mll1"1c iu.fi-lml o/trim are Ihe/igllrt,s

o/llrl!jimrSo1/s o/f]nrm. s{audillgo/f a 101m

.fIom<l: (E/9901I3)

213

OSIRIS

OSIRiS

taken over fi'om Andjcty's cu.lt. Subsequently, when various sites claimed to be associated with the individual parts of Osiris' dismembered body, Busiris claimed his backbone, the I)JI-:I) 1>1I.I.t\R, a symbol that had Illany other connotations and was simply assimilated into the cult of Osiris, perhaps losing' its original meaning in the process. His main southern cult centre was at /\BYDOS (ancient Ahdjw), which was said to be the burial place of his head. In the ~ew Kingdom (1550-10691](:), the tomb of the 1st Dynasty ruler D.lER (c.3000 BC) was claimed to be his burial place, and the site became a centre of pilgrimage. As well as a chapel for Osiris in the temple of Set)' t (1294-1279 Be) thete waS also the so-called 'Osircion\ the masonry which was evidently intended to resemble a temple or the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 Ilc), although it was actually the work of Merenptah (1213-1203 BC). Although his best~known epithet is \ennefer, meaning 'eternally good' or 'eternally incorruptible' (i.e. not suffering the decay of death), he also took on the title 'chief of the westerners ' , which was the liferal meaning of the name of the jackal-god Khentimentiu, the earlier god of the dead at Abydos. Osiris' epithets also included 'he who dwells in HEUOI'OI.IS'1 whjch thus associated him with the cult-centre of the slln~god RA, ThcHeliopolitan priests attempted to provide a genealogy for Osiris in the form of the El'\1'\EAD, a group of nine deities whose relationships arc first described in the PYRMI'\II) TEXTS. Other funentry associations may have evolved as a result of his assimilation with the hawk-headed SOKAR, another underworld god associated with PTAH, patron of the city of I'vlcmphis. The combination of his fertility and funerary aspects naturally transformed Osiris into lhe quintessential god of resurrection. By at least the 5th Dynast)' (2494-2345 BC) t.he dead king was identified with Osiris, while the liying ruler was equated with his son 110RUS (see KINGSHIP). \~rith the so-called 'democratization of the afterlife' that took place during the First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 Be) it appears to have become possible for any deceased person to be resur~ reeted in the guise of Osiris (see COFFIi\ TEXTS), Thc phrase (Osiris of X' is frcqllent~ Iy used to refer to the deceased, in order to identify him or her with the god. In order to gain eterm'll life, it \vas essential for the mummified body to imitate the appearance of Osiris as closely as possible. The Greek writer IIERODOTLS therefore described the most expensive tcchnique of

or

as being (in the manncr of OsiJ'is', As the judge of the dead, Osiris is shown in judgement scenes illustrating the BOOK OF TlIE DE!'I1. Ncvertheless, the Egyptians had a somewhat ambivalent attitudc toward the underworld (dmat) and texts sometimes refer to the negative aspect of Osiris as a malevolent deily. Thus the decreased might also request ~he protection of Ra, so that they could journey in the light rather than the darkness, It W.IS also perhaps for this reason that the concept of the (double soul' developed, wherehy Osiris \yas the I3A of Ra, and therefore could be thought of as the 'night sun', sometimes equated with (-he moon, By the same logic, Tsis and Nephthys, previously both connected principally with Osiris and Seth, were considered to wait each morning to greet the newborn sun, the resur~ rection of the god. Between roughly lhe 18th and 21st Dynasties there was a gradual progression towards the unification of solar and Osirian concepts of resurrection. As early as the Old Kingdom, many of the main elements of the Osiris myth were in existencc, including his death by drowning, and the discoverv of his bod v by Isis. That. Ser:h w.'ls his murderer is explicit by the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 Br.), althoug'h there is no mention lhat Osiris was dismembered by him. By the New Kingdom, however, many of the I'U\.ERARY TEXTS connected the deceased much more closely with Osiris, and the descriptions of the f~lte of the deceased effectively iUusn'ate parts of the story of Osiris, The themes of Osiris' impregnation of Isis and the conception of his son I-:Lorus ('avenger of his father') had already developed in Pharaonic times and certai.n aspects of the myths were illustrated on the walls of the chapel of Sokar in the tcmplc of Set)' I at Ab)'dos. It was at Abydos that the annual f'ES'r(VAL of Osiris took place. Thi.s involved the procession of the god in his IIARk, known as neslllllel l pre~ ceded by his herald, the jacbl~god WEPWf\\\'ET Scenes fi'olll Osiris) triumph over enemies were enacred in the course of the journey before the god returned to his sanctuary for purificalion. The rites connected with the 'mysteries' of Osiris were enacted in the temple, prob'lbly celebrating his original function as a fertility god, ah:hough little is knuwn or these rituals. The most coherent, although not neces~ sarily the most accurate, account of the Osiris legend is that compiled by the Greek historian PLUTARClI, Cenain of the elements in Plutarch's version can be corroborated from Egyptian sources, while others must remain dubioLis. He states that Osiris was
.\\UJ\L\,11I'1C,:\T10N

once an earthly ruler who governed well, and so aroused the jealoLlsy of his evil brother Seth. Seth secretly discovered the meaSllre_ ments of his brother's body and had a magnificent casket" made to fit him. He next organized a banquet to which he invited seventr_ two accomplices as well as Osiris. During the feast he brought forward the chest and declared that whoe\"er fitted it exactly shtJuld have it as a gift. Having stepped into the coffin, Osiris was locked inside and the lid \\'as scaled with molten lead. The coffin was Cast into the Nile and then drifted to the city of I3YBLOS, where it became ent.angled in ;t cedar trec, Although rhe reference to Byblos is unsupported by Egyptian written account!\, there is a depiction of Osiris in a coffin among the branches of a tree in the temple uf I-bthor at I1ENI1EIL-\. Isis eventually rescued the casket and returned it to Egypt, hiding it in the marshes prior to giving it decent burial to her husband. However, while she was engaged in looking for her son Horus (already born in Plutarch's story), Seth is said to have stumbled on the casket and angrily dismembered the body of his brother, ~cattcring the parts throughout Egypt. The aCCOll.nt" of tile number of pieces varies from fourteen to forty-two. Isis the11 searched till' the pieces and buried each at lhe place where it was found. The phallus, howner, had been eaten by the Nile carp (Lepido/lfs), the PlJagrll.\ and the o.rJ!IJllldlllS FISI I, so t"har ,m artificial penis had to be manufactured. In the Egyptian accounts it" was at this slage that t"he dismembered body was reasscmbled into the form of the first mUlllln~i, from \\ ruch Isis conceived the child Horus, Subsequenlly Horus was said to have avenged his falher's death in a series of contests with his uncle Seth, the so-called Contendings of Horus and Seth. According to these myths, the struggle lasted for eighty years, until Osiris was finally declared ruler of the underworld and his son Horus was confirmed as ruler of the li\'ing, leaving Seth to rule the deserts as the god of chaos and evil, the archetypal outsider and the antithesis of Osiris. E. OTTO, Osiris 11Ilt! Alii/III. Kllltll1ld Hcih~t.:e Stiil/cli (rVlunich, 1966). E. CJ 1:\SSI>-AT, Lt' II~JlSICre t!'O.l"in~~ (III //lois dc Kilo/at, 2 \'ols (Cairo, 1966-8). J. G. GRlI"FITl IS, Plulard/:~ De hide el Osiridt' (Swansea, 1970). - , The origin;; o/Osiris alld Iris at/I (Lei den, 1980). [vI. EATON-KIV\USS, 'The earliest represent..tlion ofOsiris?\ 1~-I3 (1987), 233-6. A. NIW!i\Sh.1 l 'The solar-Osirian unity as principle of the theology of the "state of Amun"

214

~IRIS BED

OSORKON

in Thebes in the 21st Dynasty',JEOL 30 (1987-8), 89-106. M. C. LAVIER , 'Les mystcrcs d'Osiris aAbydos d'aprcs les steles du 1\110)"Cll Empire et elu Nouvel Empirc',AktelllvliilldlCl/ /985 [II, cd. S. Schoske (Hamburg, 1989),289-95. S. QyJRKE, ""lIn';elll Egyptiall religioN (Londol\ 1992).

Osiris bed
Item of New Kingdom royal funerary equipment consisting of a wooden frame in the

form of the god

OSIRIS,

which was filled with

alluvial silt and sown with seeds of barlcy. The germination and gTowth of the grain probably symbolized the aa of resurrection .mcl the triumph of Osiris over his adversary SETH. Only seven Osiris beds have been found) including one from the tomb of
TUTANKJ-IAMUN

(Kv62; 1336-1327 ne), which

is a virtually life-size figure, measuring 190 em in height. It has been suggested that the concept of an Osiris bed (sometimes also described ,,\5 <l 'germinated Osiris figure') may possibly have derived from the observation of pigs tralTI-

piing seed into the ground. Since the pig W<lS associated with the cult of Seth, the sowing of the seeds in the Osiris figure might have symbolized Seth's initial defeat of Osiris, while the Cycntual sprouting of the barley would, in its turn, have symbolized the rebirth of Osiris. Certainly the overall symbolism of the Osiris bed was concerned not only with resurrection but also with the role of Osiris <IS a god of fel:tility and harvest, in which he was closely associated WIth the grain-god Neper. There are also a number of ceramic bricks which may be later developments of the Osiris bed; one in the collection of the i\1etropolimn .M useum, New York, measuring 24 cm long and about 10 cm wide, has a hollow figure of Osiris carved into its upper surface, evidently ser\'ing as a magical receptacle f()r soil and grain. See also CORi'\ MLj\I..MIES. IV1. A. LEAHY, 'The "Osiris-bed" reconsidered', Orlellllllill 46 (1977) 42+-34. Ivf.]. RAVEN, 'Corn-mummies', OlvIRO 63 (1982), 7-38

Osorkon
Libyan name held by five rulers orthe 21st to 23rd Dynasties as thei.r 'birth name' or nomen (see ROYAL TITULARY). Owrko1/ tlIe ddl:!; .f1aklu:perra Selepellra (984-978 fie), listed in 1\1.\1\I-:TI-IO'S history as Osochor, was the fifth of the 21st-Dynasty rulers. Judging [rom a pair or inscriptions in the temple ofKhons at Karnak, he was the son of a wOman called .Nlehtenweskhet and therefore probably the uncle of the first 22ndDynasty ruler, SIIESIIOl'Q r (945-924 IIC). 'Osorkon the elder' is poorly attested in inscriptions, but it may have been during his six-year reign that the Biblical figure Hadad the Edomite stayed in Egypt, having been initially offered protection by Amenemope (993-984 lie), Osorknn's predecessor. OsorRoll I Sekhelllkheperra Selepenrfl (924889 IJc) was the second ruler of the 22nd Dynasty and successor to Sheshonq I. His reign is much better documented than that of Sheshonq I, and a fine inlaid bronze statuelte bearing his clrtouches (Brooklyn J\tluseum, New York) was found at Tl-:LL EL-yt\I-1UDfY-\. The upper part of a statue presented to Elibaal, the ruler of Byblos, has also sUITived. Tn the Delta city of Bubastis (TELL Uf\ST.\), which was the initial power-base of his father Sheshonq, he constructed a small temple to .\TUM and made numerous additions to the principal temple of BASTET. He outlived his son and coregent 1 Sheshonq II, who was probably also the chief priest of Amun at Thebes,

Osiris bedIrom Ihe lomb ~rTlIlaJlkl{(lIl1lfli. JI has beenp l{/.1Iled milh seed mrll, lhe remains oj"mhirh are clearly visible. 181h PJ"wsly. c. 1330 He. L. 190 (.:m. (CAIRO NU. 288.-/; REPRODUCED
COURT!:SY OP TIIF. GRIFF/Til INSTlTU'IF)

and was eventually succeeded by a second son! T","'ELOT r (889-874 Be). Osorkoll 1/ Usenll(ltltra Sell!pell{{lllllJl (87+850 BC) was Tlkclot I'S son and successor and t.he fifth ruler of the 22nd Dynasty. During the early part of his reign his innuence in Upper Egypt was thwarted by the power of the chief priest of" Amlin at Thebes, Harsiese. I-Io\vever, when J-Iarsiese died, Osorkon 11 W;.\S able to appoint one of his own sons, Nimlot, as the new chief priest, thus regaining control of the Thcball region. In the twenty-second year of his reign Osorkon celebrated his SED FEST1\AL, probably at Bubastis, where he constructed J new coun ilnd gareway for the occasion . He also constructed additions to the temple of Anum at 'I)\:\IS (the 22nd-Dynasty capital) and rebuilt an earlier tomb for himself within the temple precincts, eventually sharing it with his SOI1, T-Tornakht; this tomb was onc of those excavated by Pierre l\ilontet in 1939-40. Osorko}/ 1/1 USfrll/tl{/lr{f Setepe1ltl1ll1l1l (777749 BC) was one of the 23rd-Dynasty pharaohs who ruled from the Theban region, controlling cities such as lIERj\10POUS MAG:"!:\ in Nliddle Egypt, and perhaps Leontopolis (TELL I:L-MLlQPA.\'l) in the Delta. It was the throne of Leontopolis that Osorkon 111 inherited fiom the short-lived Sheshonq IV. He appointed his son 'rakclot as ruler of Herakleopolis and later also as chief priest at Thebes, thus establishing control over a great deal of Egypt, leaving his contemporary Sheshonq v of Tanis \yith correspondingly diminished territories. Osorkoll I" Aakhepcrra SelepCn01ll1l1l (730715 Be) succeeded Sheshonq V as the last of the 22nd-Dynasty rulers, by which time the geographical area over \vhich he reigned was restricted to the region surrounding Bubastis and Tanis. It was during his reign that rhe Kushite pharaoh PI Y swept north wards to conquer Egypt. o IlC.AGO ORIE:-';TJ\L L'!STITUTE, Reliefs ttlld ill.\t.:n/Jliol/s ill KaJ'll(/~' Ill: The Bu!Jaslilc portttl (Chicago,1954). R. A. C/\I\IINOS, The chronicle o.(PriJlcc o.wr/..:oll (Rome, 1958). J YOYO'ITI':, '050rkon, fils de IVlchyrouskhe, un phar"on oublie', BSFE77-8 (1977), 39-54. \v. BARI/\, 'Dit, Scdfcst.-Darstcllullg Osorkons II. im Tempel von Bubastis', SAK 6 (1978), 2.i--42. K. A. KrrClIE:">.', The Third Illtermcdiate Period ill Egypi (1100-650 uc), 2nd cd. (Warminster, 1986),273-4,287-354,542-5. J. Ym'OTI'F et aI., 'nfl/is. 1'01' rlC.I plwraolls (Paris, 1987). D. A. ASTO:\', 'Takcloth II - a king of the "Theban 23rd Dvnasty"!',.7EA 75 (1989), 139-53.

215

OSTRACOI\

PADDLE DOY:

ostracon (Greek mIra/am; plural oSlmht:

'potsherd') lerITI lIsed by archaeologists to refer LO shcrds of potter~ or flakes of limestone hearing texts <Inc! drawings. commonly consisting of per-

sonal jottings, letters, sketches or scribal exercises, but also often inscribed ,,-ith literary texts, in the ItlEH \TIC, DDIOTIC, cOlync and

Greek scripts (sec

I.ITERXI'UU.).

The lise of

ostraca was ob,"iollsly much cheaper (h'111 writing or drawing on P\PYRCS. and many hun-

dreds of these documents have been recO\'crcd

from CXC<lY;l1 ions. Thousands of ostrac<l, including more than liftccn hundred literary CXCl:rpIS, such as the

j. CI:R"\Y, Cli/a/oglll' des OJ/mea "iira/if/lles fI(m hltiraire.\" dc /)l,jrt'!-Alctlilll'!J, 7 "ols (C1iro, 19.15-70). J VA'\IJIER U'!\IiI1-\lm:, Call1!ogllc dcs uSlra((/./igllr/~ de DeiI' ,,1-kIM/llch, +"ols (Cairo, 1937-+6). J W. B,\I{\ES, The AS/lIIIOlct/1I IIslrt/(oJ/ filS/III/he (Oxrord, 1952). G. POSE,\t.R, Call1/fJglU'dcs flsI1"Ifmlriiralifjllt'.\' Iillerain'S til' Dl'ir cl.lledillt:h (Cliro. 1972). .:\ t. A ..'\.. -LR EI.-DI;"', The dCJII()/ic /lstft/til (T.eiden, 197{). \v. l-l. PeCK, Eg)'plitl1l dramiJlgs (London, 1978).

p
paddle dolls see SE\L II.lTY palace
'j'he close association between the king and his residence reached its logical conclusion in the late i'\e\\ Kingdom (1550-1069 Be), when the term ptr-{{{1 ('great hOllse'), which had pre,"iollsly referred only to lhe royal palace, \\ as applied instead to the king hjmsclf~ e'Tnlualhbeing transformed into rhe familiar (Cn;l

E. BRL~;"'ER-TR.\lT,

E:~J'Pli({JJ IIrtisH' .d.'l'/chcs:

.figured fJSfmkaji-ol/llhe Gayer _-IIIr/cr:wlI ('(II/celioll

iI/JIlt, Fi,:::,millitlJII J\t1wcUIII (Clmbridgl', J 979).

'pharaoh' _
The term pa/flt"(' tcnds to be ust.'d ralher loosely 10 refer to any htrge building in which Ihe king or his immcdiJLc famil~ rc.",idcd, whereas the arch::lcological and teXTual t:"yidcncc suggests thallhe situation was not quite so str::lightforward. There ,,"ere 111.111) diffl:n:nt types ofhuilding associated with the r':gyplian royal r~l1l1i1y, varying primarily in their specific fUIlc.:tions and length of usc. There \\ crt' almost riw::llistic or symbolic palaces .1ltac.:hcd to f'\ew Kingdom mortu.uy temples suc.:h as the 1{-\\IESSEL.\1 and \lCDI;...CT II \Be (the laner being the best preser\'ed) and there were al~() huge ceremonial buildings such as the Great Palace at EL-:\.\I.\I{2' \ and the palace of Set: 1 at Q\ '\'I'IR, ,yhich must h~ve had more to do \\ ith the reception of f()reign ,-isirors and the Cl);\ctment of cercmonies than thc actual housing of the pharaoh and his family_ Rchll i,"c1y few Ihe SlllTi,-ing 'pal~ccs' h'l\'e the air of actual residences, but a large ,-ilia opposite the Great Palace at c1-Amarna was identified b~ rhe cxcn-ators as the 'king's house'; this scems !O hayc functioned ~s a sel of domestic apartments for the rO,':11 family in the yery ccntn' of the cil-y. At the more ephemeral end of the scale, a brick platf(Jrm at K01l1 el-Abd, in southwestern Thehcs, has been intcrprclcu as a royal 'rest-house" perh;lps for use during charior c\"crcises. Since palaces "cre constructed primariJ~ Ill' mud-brick antI timber Lhey tend not (0 be as well prescn'ed as SlOne-built TE\IPI.ES of similar d;llC. On the olher hand, the~ were oflcn less prone to plundering and destruction than the temples, which were frequentl~ deliberately dismantled, even in ;l11cient times, in order to rc-usc their ,-alliable stone. t\ [though a building from the reign of the ~liddk K.ingdom ruler Amellcmhat III al l3ubastiS (TELL U.\ST\) h..1S bcen identified as a palace, most of the sun-i"ing Egyptian royal re~i dences datc to the )Jew Kingdom, including

Tale

(~rSillll!ll'

(the largest survi\'ing ostracon.

now in Lhe collection of lhe Ashmolc:1ll

:\ IUSClllll, Oxford), were cxc..w;lrcd at the site of the l'\ew Kingdom Theban workmen's \'il-

LilJll'Slolle (hip bearing a SA'elth (jIll t()(kael../i"Ol1J Ihe I it/ley (~(Jhe Kings. 191h f.)Y/f({S~)I. c.1200 IJe. II_ 1.1_7 nil. (I: 1(8539)

or

lage of DElI{ I.I.-\IEDI'-\, pnn'iding an ilwaluahle record of the daily Ii, es of the workmen, while also supplying information concerning Ihe naturc of Egyptian economy and society at Ih;1I time. The so-called 'trial skelches', oftcn {(wnd on limestone ostraca, arc among the Ii, c1icst sUITiying products of Egyptian anists. !\ hmy such skell.:hes proyide ,-i,-id glimpses Eg~ ptian ilL \l(lL I{ and satire, which would otherwise be poorly represented in the artistic.: and literary record. .'\t urban sites such as EI.-\'I \1{'\ , and Q\'\TJR, Ihe ,"ast majority of so-called ostraca belong to thc r::lrher different categorics of 'jar labels' ::lnd \Iockets" ,\"hic.:h usually simply desc.:ribe I-he foodsruffs or liquid c.:o11l.ained in the vessel, and, in the else of wine, pro,ide clet::lils of the Yint;lge and origins (sec \1.f:0110l.le BEnJUGEs).

or

'J. DE G_ 0 ""IE..", 'Egyptian drawing~ on limestone nakes',.7I:/1 { (1917), 2.H--lO. 216

~ACE

PALACE

those of Amenhotep 111 (1390-1352 Be) at Akhenaten (1352-1336 Be) at c1Amarna and Merenptah (1213-1203 Be) at Memphis. .i\1any palaces included a 'window of appearances', consisting of a ceremonial window at which the king appeared in order to undertake such activities as the reception of visitors, the conducting of ceremonies or the dispensing of rewards to his loyal courtiers. ]11 the case of the small palaces associated with the mortuary temples of Ramcscs II (1279-1213 Be) and 111 (1184-1153 Be), the window represented a visible threshold between the sacred and profane aspects of the king's rule, a means of passing between palace and temple, the two most important institutions in the central government of Pharaonic Egypt.
MALKATA,

The lhrolleroom i11lhe palace of Rameses Ill, beside his morlf/OIY lemple al "1edillel Habit. The palace mas {oCaled il1 Ihe area imlllediale~)IIO Ihe sOUlh of lhe prst COllrt o/Ihe temple (see enlly Oil A1edincI Holm/ur pIau). Althollghlhe bllildiug mas large()' WlIslruffed o/flllld-brick, Ihe vestibule, inner hall fwd lhroneroom ,olllflilled slOlle colulIlm. This is Ihe besl pn'served Ihroner()u/l/ /Q have mrl,ivedFom PharaQllic /:.gYPI; lhal ofMerenplah {II j\'lemphis. jOr eXlimple, is badly damaged. (I. SfLlII)
been enacted. A number of suniving fragments of painted plaster and faience tiles suggest that the walls and floors were frequently painted both with rhe iconography of KIi\'GSHIP (such as depictions of the "IKE BO\'S and foreign CAPTln:s) and with such pastoral scenes as flocks of birds flying through papyrus marshes. Probably thc most complex surviving groundplan of a New Kingdom palace is that of the Great Palace in the central city at c1Amarna, which was connected by a bridge with the smaller 'king's house' on the other side of the main road_ The large courtyards and hypost)'le halls of the central palace sug-

The architectural style and decoration of the palaces varied to some extent, although they tended to combine large-scalc domestic apartments (sometimes including sets of r~oms tentatively identified as the HARIM) WIth reception halls, courtyards, pools and ceremonial areas in which rituals might ha\-e

gest a building with a very different function to the palaces attached to Ramesside mortuary temples, and it has even been argued that the Great Palace was actually a temple to the Atcn. The much later (palace of Apries' at l\1emphis, excavated by Flindcrs Petrie, is equally difficult to intcrpret and, with its massive casemate mud-brick platform, may have functioned more as a ciradel or fortress than a palace. \V. Nl. E PETRIE, The palau ofApries, Memphis II (London, 1909), 1-13. E. P UPllILL, 'The concept of the Egyptian palace as a "ruling machine"\ MilU, sellleme1l1 aud urbanism, ed. P.]. Ucko, R. Tringham and G. W. Dimbleb\' (London, 1972),721-34. R. STADEI.l\lANN, (Tempelpalast und Erscheinungsfenstcr in def Thebanischcll Totentempcln', MDAIK29 (1973), 221-42. B. J. KEMP, (The window of appearance at clAmarna and the basic structure of this city' .lEA 62 (1976), 81-99. \v. STErENSO:,\' S;\IITH, The ar/ ami MchileClUre of (l1lcieut Egypl (Harmondsworrh, 1981),279-95, 314-38. 8. J. KEMP, Aucienl Eg:JlPI: flualomy ola civiliuuioll (London, 1989),211-25,276-81.

217

PALERMO STONE

PAN BEDDI~

Palermo Stone
Broken fragments of a basalt stele dating to the 5th Dynasty (2494--23-15 BC) and inscribed on both sides with a set of royal annals stretching back to the quasi-mythical rulers before the beginning of Egyptian history. The principal ti"agmcnt has been known since 1866 and is currently in the collection of the Palermo ."-rchacological ~'[uscllm, Sicily, although there arc further pieces in the Egyptian .Nluscum, Cairo, and the Petrie Museum, London. The slab must originally have been about

The e.lrliest examples were simply rectangular in shape, bur by rhe NaeFJda I period (c-lOOO-3500 BC) they ,,ere general" clI'ed into more elabor;1te geometric forms - including a rhomboid which resembles the symbol of the laler fertility-god ~II:\ - or the schcm;l{ic silhoueltes of ~Ulimals such as hippopommi and turtles (somctimes with inlaid eyes). By this time cosmctic palelles had ,~lmost cerrainIy acquired ritu.llistic or magical connomrions, Tn lhe "aqada " period (c.1500-3100 BC) the

pan bedding
Type of construction, usually in mud-hrick, consisling of cunTd courses. It is mOst ofkn seen in temple enclosure \\alls from the Late Period (7-1-7-332 Jl(:) ol1\v<.lrds, which arc usually buill: in sections and with a pronoullct'd B.\TTER. It has heen suggested that rhis: Scc.:tiona I building, along with pan betldina allo\\cd the walls LO mO\-e without collaps~~ as the ground expanded and conlracted fiom the inundation. Olhers hayc noted that the

2.1 m long and 0.6

III

wide, but most of it is

now missing, and dlcrc is 110 surviring informiltion about its provenance. ''I'he text enumerates the annals of the kings of Lower Egypt, beginning with many thousands of years taken up by mythologiC'JI rulers, until the time of the god 1-I0RlJS, who is said to have given the throne 10 the mOrlal \IE~ES. Human rulcrs arC thcn listed up to the 5th Dynasty. The texl is di,idcd into a series of horizontal registers divided by vertical lines which curve in ill the top, apparently in imitation of the hieroglyph for regnal year (rellpl'/), thus indicating the memorable eventS of individual years in each king's reign. T'he sorts of cycnts record cd included religious FE..liTI\,\Ui, militar~- <..-ampaigns and the crC"Jtion of particular royal and divine stanles. The name of the ruler was inscribed above rhe rele\;mt block of compartments. The Palermo Stone - along with the 'daybooks', the annals and f...:ING LlSTS inscribed on temple walls, and the papyri held in temple and palace archives (see UBIV\RIES and TURI~ RorAI. C.\:\'ON) - was doubtless the kind of document rhal the historian ,\1 \"I':TIIO used TO compile his list of dynasties. H. SnL\FER, Eiu Bruehsllid' (flliigyfJlisdur AlItl/t" (Berlin, 1902). G. DAK.!':SSY, 'La pierre de Palennc etla chronologie de l'alH.:icn empi.re', 81 FAO 12 (1916),161-214. B.J. KE,\ll',AIlt:le1l1 Eg)lpl: ({IUlloIIO' oj"a eh,:iliztllifJl1 (London, 1989),21-3.

Scribal palelle imuibed milh Ihe lilies oI.lhlllnse I Ilitas dl'preJsionsftr Iwo l"llkt'J IJfpiglllt'fl/ utili (I 5101./or 111l' ret't! PC'IIS_ /8J1t J)Y'llIS0', mood. 1128011. (ul2i8J) preferred sh;lpes tended to be the forms of fish Or birds, rilthcr than animals, and many werc shield-shaped, with two birds' heads ;lt the top. By the lerminal Prcdynastic period the r:.mgc of shapes of thc smaller cosmctic palettes had become considerably reduced, but simultaneously a ncw and more elaborale ceremonial form beg-dO ro be produced. Thesc palettes (usually OIal or shield-shaped) were employed as \'otiyc irerns in temples rather than as gl"<lVC goods, and a hlrg'c number were found in the form of a cache in the r.<1r1y Dynastic templc al f-1IERAKOKPOLlS, They werc carved with reliefs depicting rhe idcology and rituals of the emerging elite, ;lnd the quintessential surviving example is the 'Narmer paletle~ (now in the Egyptian l\luseum, Cairo; see ;'\AR,\tER for illustration). Strihal palellt's generally consisted of long rectangular pieces of wood or stone (aycr:lging 30 cm long and 6 cm wide), each with <1 shallow ccntral groove or slot' to hold the reed brushes or pens and onc or two circular depressions at one end, to hold cakes of pigment. The hieroglyph used as the dClerminatiyc for the words 'SCRIBE' :.md 'writing' consisted of;1 set of scribe's equipment, including a shorter ,'ersion of the palctte. J. E. QLlBEI.J~, .rirdwit- objt'C/.I", 2 \'ols (Cairo, 1904--5). A. EGGJ-:llln:C1 IT ct aI., Das "Ife ,A"gypllfll (Munich, 198-1),3-17-63. 1\-l. 5:\I.EI-I and I-I. 50UROUZI.\~, EgyfJlitlll ""[meum. Cairo: official Cfllalogue (!\hinz, 1987), cat. nos 7-8, 233. A.j. SI'E"CER. Early Egypt (London, 199-1), 29-31,51-8.

W<.l\"Y effect of the w;lll tops, resulting from the hedding, eIn gi\-e the impression of \\,iter, thus adding to the symbolism of the tcmple in rerms of the PR!.\'!':\A!. _\IOU1\'1) surrounded by i'\L~, the waters of chaos. Good examples of pan bedding can be found in the cn<.:losurewall of the temple of" Hathor at DE;\I)ER \ and t.he Willis of the town at ELJ-.:..-ill. A. j. 5I'EKCER. Briel, IIrdll"JerlItJ"l' il1 (/lll"ielll Eg.J'pI (\\'arminster, 1979).

pan-grave culture
_Vlaterial culturc of a group of semi-nomadic Nubian cattlc herders who entered Egypt in the late Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 ItC) and during the Second Intermediatc Period (1650-1550 nCo). Thel' arc particularly well attested in the Easrern Descrt, and their characteristic shallow circular pit-graves, the socalled 'pan gf<1\es" ;lrc known throughout pper Egypt as ,,-ell as Lower ::\iubia. Thc gra\"Cs preservc thc typically ::\ubian tradition of burying skulls and horn'i of gazelles, oxen and sheep, sometimes painted. An example from J\lost'lgedda in Upper Eg~-pt depicts what is presumably a chieftain wilh his weapons, His namc is written in hierugl~ phs, showing that comacr with thc Egyptian population was \\ell established. Their I'OTfEln is of a distinctiyc handmade tradition, bearing inciscd decoration. The\ also used bhicktopped red warc. These ~eramics sho\\ links with thc C GROL:I' and KER,\L\ culture as \\ell ;15 with nomads of the Eastern Desen and tht: Gash Delta near the Red Sea (from IIhieh shells must have been taken for some of their distinctivc jewellery). Skeletal evidence suggests that they were a robust people, physically different from the C GrollI' and probJbly also from the Kerma culture. Thc\ often appear to ha\'c worn distinctive leath~r kilrs. Some h;l\-c equated them with the .\IEDJ\'i who

Palestine, Palestinians see Bllll.l'clL

CO~~Ecno~s; C\l\" \ \ ,,; ISRAEL
S'RIA-P:\LE!,-rl'\!E

and

palette
Term used to refer to two distinct artefacts: cosmetic and scribal palettes, Cosmelidt.'crcmol1;al palel/e.I, usually of siltstone (greywackc), have been found in the form of gra,-e goods in cemeteries as early as the Badarian period (c.5500--l000 Be). They werc used to grind pigments such as malachite or galena~ from which eye-painr was made. 218

~YRUS

PASEBi\KHAENNIUT

were employed as military I11cn.:cnarics and as kind of POLlC:E f()rcc, patrolling specific ,lre,IS such as the \.\1.1.1'.\ OF TilE .... 1'\GS. 1\1. BIE"I'''''', AusgmlJllugt'lI iu.S'0.J'a!a-.Vubiell /96/-/96.:;. f)('1!l'uui'/er t/a C-Gruppt' flIut dt'r Pll1l-Crtiber-Kullur ("jenn:.!, I96fi). E. STROL'l HI. and J JL '\G\\ urn l, '.-\nthropological problems of the.!\ liddle Empire and T.Hc Roman S;l\"aht', AIilleilllugell tla Alllhmpo!og,-sdll'lI C;,ell,dlllji ill lIi<1I 101 (1971), H1--23. S.J. Knll', 'Old Kingdom, .\liddle ~ingdum
;1

provide material for the creation of tourist papyri. Growing from the dense Nile mud, it \\",IS thought of as the phmt Ihal nourished on lhe I'I{I\IE\ \1. \IOL '\1) of creation and so was chosen f()f the Lolumns of IIYI'OSTYU. II.\I.L"I, which some scholars hil'"C suggested might aCLually hmc become flooded during the I.\.L , D\TIO" adding to the symbolism. Such columns had twu types, of capital: buds or widc. open umbels. .'\s a symbol of yOlllh or joy (and the hieroglyphic sign meaning

Ihatle aXi' 11'ilh IPfj(1(Il'l1lltflldle from a palf grm:l' al A1oslagedda. The blade betlrs fhe mrullirhe oIII kil/g IIl1l11ed NelJII/(/tlfl'tI mho is olht!l'/1lise llllkl/o/1lll. Secolld inlerllledillle Period. I. -II OIl, (1:'16322-1)

and Second Inrcrmcdiare Period' ~ll1l"i('//1 l.:!(yPI: social hislolY, B. G. Triggl:r et al. (Cambridge, 1983),71-182 (169-71). JI-I, TAYLOR, (r~.YPllllld Nllbi" (LondOl\ 1991).
II

'green'), papyrus W.IS panicularly appropriate for presentlltion to the goddess [1".T[IOR and could serve as a mag;ical sceptre presented to a ,'ariety of deities including the cat-goddess
B:\STET.

papyrus (C)/p<I'IIS papyl'lls)

The heraldic pl;mt of Lower Egypt. The name for Lower Egypt could be written as several papyrus plants growing out of the sign for 'land'. This was a logic:'11 choice since the plant must have grown particularly profusely in the Delta marshes, although it also occurred elsewhere in Egypt. [n modern times it is limited LO a few specially planted areas designed to

Papyrus roll/rolll Deirel-Bahri. 21s1 Dynasty,

11.33 0 /1. (IC"I0793)

The halTested papyrus stems could be used f()r many purposes, such as the manufacture of ropes (sec I.lt\S"-ETK\) and the caulking of boats, although in this use they were gradually replaced, in the post-Pharaonic period, by esparto gr:.lss (Cur/lllIgo spar/aria). They could also be lashed together to form boats or skifr.li for hunting (sec SIIIPS .\.\.D Bo-rrs). Gradually, howcYer, the srems became waterlogged and the boats cycntually had to be discarded and replaced. This ability to absorb water also made the planr suitable for transformation into a papcrlike writing material, which is also known as papyrus. Egyptologists have often named indi\idua) papyri after the modern owner or finder; thus 'Papyrus Chester Beany' refers to a document once in the collection of the American-British industrialist and art collecror, Sir Alfred Chester Beatty. It is not known whcn papyrus was first used, although the c.trlicst surviving sheets (uninscribcd) were discovered in the ISf-Dynasty tomb of I-Iemaka at Saqqara n(35). In rhe production of papyrus sheets, the triangular stcms were cut and their exterior stripped. They were then soaked in water ;md cut into strips. The length of the page does not usually exceed about one 'short cubit' (c 45 cm). The strips would then be beaten with ;.I hammer to break down and tlatten the

fibres. i\"exl indiyidual strips would be laid on top of one another at right anglc.,; and beaten so that the feltcd texturc of the pith meshed together. Contrary to popular belief: the strips "cre not wo\'en together. A weight would then be placed on top of the sheet whilc the strips dried together. The indiyidual squ:.tres of papyrus could then be rn.ed together to make 11 roll, cOlwel1tionall~ consisting of twenty squares, although sc\er.11 rolls might be joined togcther to make a longer document. The papyrus was usually unrolled in such a wa~ th;ll the insidc, known as the recto, would be "ritlcn on first. The other side, the \'erso, was ofren left blank, and was sometimes the surface used b~ poorer people who unly had access ro used p'lpyrus, as in some households in Lhc workmen's yillagc at DEIR EI.-\IEIJI"\. Discarded papyri were sometimes used for the production of w\RTO~:\".\GE, and "aluable texts have somctimes been recO\'cred as a result of this re-usc. The usc of papyrus continued through the Greco-Roman period and infO the lslamic caliphate, until the introduction of cloth paper from the Far East in the eighLh to ninth centuries AU. J. CI':I~N', p"per /Iud h()flk~ illllllc/ml EgJlpl (London, 19.;2). E. G. TURNER, Gra/.: papyri: all inlmdul"liflll (Oxrnrd, 19(8). N. LEWIS, Papyrus iUl."lassiml anliquily (Oxford, 1974). M. L. BIEKIlRIEK, cd., PaPJlflls: slnu:lure lImlllSilgi' (London, 1986). J. J. J \'551-:', 'The price of papyrus', DE 9 (1987),3.1-5. R. P'\I~"I"50"1 and S. QL1RKE, Papl'I"lIS (London, 1995).

Pasebakhaenniut ,ee I'SLS"""".5

pataikos
j\ Linor amuletic deity whose modern name derh'cs from the Greek writer Herodotus' description of a form of Phoenician dwarfish protectiyc image. The Egyptian pfllaikos, consisring of:1 small human figure (usuaUy with :1 bald human head or a falcon's head) standing in a pose similar to that of the dwarf-god BES, is identified wil"h 'Ptah the dwarf'. Rclati\'c1y crude figures probably representing palaikns first appear in the late Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC), but the earliest representations that can genuinely be described as pa/ail'oi appear in the New Kingdom (1550-1069 Be). lV!ost or the finest examplex date to the Third Intermediate Period (1069-747 BC) and later. C. A. ANDREWS, A1IIulelS (J/Iluden' Egypl (London, 1994),38--9.

219

PEPY

PERIBSEN

Pepy (Pepi) The 'birth name' (nomen) held by L 6th11"0 Dynasty rulers. Pepy I JHerjlrtl (2321-2287 BC) was the successor to the first 6th-Dynasty ruler, TETI, with only the brief reign of Userkara (either a usurper or a regent) intervening between them; his mother, Queen Iput, probably acted as regent when he first came to the throne. He had an active reign, lasting at least forty years, during which he constructed and decorated various temples at AUYDOS 1 Bubastis (TELL BASTA), DENDI':RA, ELEPIIi\NTINE and possibly IIIERt\KOXPOU$. It was al Hierakonpolis thaL Frederick Grecn and James Quibcll discovered the e:trlicst examples of copper statuary, consisting of a life-size copper statue ofPepy, and inside it a second smaller copper statue which is usually assumed to represent his son and successor, i\1crcnra. AILhough few substantial monuments of Pep)' I have survived, there are many surviving fragments of inscription incorpor;lting his names and titles, both during and ,Jfter his lifetime. i\ block from the funerary chapel of an official called \\leni at Abydos is decorated with a long inscription recounting the part that he played in the evenl.s of the reigns of Teti, Pepy I and Merenra, the first three rulers of the 6th Dynasty (2345-2181 BC), including" reference to a possible HARlj\\ conspiracy in the reign of Pep)' I. This was clearly thwarted, but it has been suggested that it may) in some obscure way, ha\'e been the reason behind the late marriage he made LO two women called Ankhenesmerira, both daughters of Khui, an official at Abydos. '1'he enormous influence that Khui must have wielded as a result of these two marriages can be gauged from thc fact that these two women gave birth to the next two kings, lVlcrenra and Pep)' II respect.ively, and, in addition, Khui's son Djau became Vlzn:R during both of their reigns. There arc some grounds for arguing that there was a COREGENCY with IVlerenra during the last few years of Pep)" I'S reign, since this would then make it more plausible that \Veni could havc served under 1\1erenra as well as Teti and Pep)" I, given the considerable lengths of the two latter reigns. There is, however, no definite proof of such an early coregency. Pep)' I'S pyramid complex in south 5i\(~Q.ARA, although not the first to include PYRAt\IID TEXTS, was the first in which funerary texts of this type were discovered, when it was excavatcd by Emile and Heinrich Brugsch in 1880-1. Although his sarcophagus had been destroyed, a metre-deep rectangular pit near the south wall of the burial chamber contained a CANOPIC chest still holding one of the bundles

in which his viscera had been placed, and a few pieces of the stone jar in which it had originally been kept. PepJlll Neferklll"lI (2278-2184 BC) was a son of Pepy 1 who came to the throne after the premature death of his half-brother Merenra) who had reigned for ahour nine years. He himself is thought to have been only about ten years olel at the time of his accession, a fact which may possibly be documentcd by the inscriptions on the walls of the tomb of Harkhuf~ a governor of Aswan who was buried at Qubbct c1-I-lawa (Tomb A8). The Lexts recount yarious missions that Harkhuf undertook 011 behalf of thc 6th-DynaslY kings, including a journey into southern Sudan during which he acquircd a pygmy. The letter senL to him by the young pharaoh has an air of authenticity and perhaps c\"en historic;.tl fact) with the king's expressions of eagerness to see the pygmv and his solicitous pleas that guards be set around him to see that he did not fall out of the boat at night. It is also clear from the texts in Harkhuf's LOmb that the Egyptians were continuing to exert <1 certain amount of economic influence over Lower Nubia. It is thought possible that the very long reign ofPepy II may have partly contributed to the gradual demise of the Old Kingdom, both by causing the central administration to stagnate and by producing a succession crisis as his appointed heirs perhaps died too early, leaving \'arious rivals in comention for the throne. Pcp)' II was buried in a pyramid at south SAQQ.ARA, like his farher) but the plan of his funerary complex has been preserved much more clearly. It was excavated in 1926-36 by Gustave Jcquier, who uncovered a number of fragments of relief, including not only the usual processions of subjects bearing offerings but also depictions of the king, in the form of a SPIIlNX and <1 griffin, trampling his enemies, and a scene showing the goddess SE$HAT compiling a list of captives and spoils of war. Much of the decoration is derivative of that in the complex of Sahura (2487-247511<') at ABUSIR, and the scene of the defeated Libyan chieftain and his family in the central transverse corridor seems to ha\'e been copied faithfully in every detail (thos calling into question the historicity of many scenes containing named individuals in Egyptian religious or funerary contexts). Like several other pyramid complexes of this period (including Pepy t's), the mortuary temple contained fragments of a number of stone statues of bound Cl\PTIVES, which may have played a role in the celebration of the king's victories over foreign lands.

G. JEQUIER) Le m011lW1C1lJ fiweraire de Pep'- II, 3 yols (Cliro, 1936-41). E. DRIOTON,' Totes diverses 2: lInc corcgencc de Pepy ler de Mereure (1)', ASAE 44 (1945), 55-6. L. HARKIII, Tell Basla (Cliro, 1947). j. LECU'\T, RecIJer(IJes dalls la pyrtlmide el {lU temple haUl dll plll/filon Pep'- I ti. Sllqqllrah (Leidcn, 1979). - , 'A la quete des pyramides des reincs de Pcpi 'cr', BSFE 113 (1988), 20-31. N. GRI,\IAL, A hiS101]1 ofllllcielli Eg)lpl (Oxford, 1992),81-9 I. E. S. EDWr\RDS) rhepyrami"x oftgypl, 5th cd. (Harmondsworth, 1993), 179-94.

Peribsen (Sekhemib) (c.2700 IIC) Ruler of the 2nd Dynasty (2890-2686 HC), whose principal surviving monument is Tomb P in the Umm c1-Q1'ab cemetery at AB\ DOS. Jar-sealings found in the tomb bear two names: Peribsen and Sekhemib. The name Peribsen 1 which was also found on the two gneiss stelae associated with I'he tomb, was written in a SEREKII frame surmounted by a SETH animal and sometimes accompanied by the epithet" 'conqueror of foreign lands', \\hile the sereklt surrounding the name Sekhemib was surmounted by a HORUS falcon. \Vhile it was initially suggested that these were two consecutive rulers (just as KHASI~KIIEl\I\\'\ and Khasekhem were once thought to refer to r\Vo separate individuals), mosr Egyptologists now consider that the two names were held b~ the same ruler. According to the latter theory thc name Sekhemil> would have been held br the king in the first part of his reign, when the cult of Horus was still dominant, whereas the assumption of the name Peribsen is taken to indicate a change in policy whereby the god Seth was elev<1red to greater prominence in thc cult of KINGSHIP. It has even been argued LilaI' the apparent struggle between the cults of Horus and Seth is indicarive of a resurgence of the conflict between the southern and nonhern halves of Egypt, which would eventually hayc been resolved in the reign of Khasekhemwy. Seal-impressions bearing Peribsen's name were found at Elephantine (see AS\\A') in 1985, confirming that the kingdom cxtended as far south as the first Nile cataract at this date. It is also perhaps signjficant that a temple of Seth is known to have existed at Elephanline (although the surviving remains are later than the 2nd Dynasty). w. 1\1. F: PETRU:, The l"O.J!lIl/(jmbs oI/he earlil'.~1 {~)l/Il1slieJ II (London, 1901), 11~12, pIs 1.\'111, L\I P. E. NEWIlERRY, 'The Set rebcllion of the second dynasty', Allciell/ EgYPI (1922), 40-6. A. GARDINER, EgYPI of/he pharaohs (Oxford, 1961),416-20.

220

PERIPTERAL

PETOSIRIS

N. GRlM!\L, A J992), 55-6.

lti~'/()rJ! oltt/ujeul

Egypt (Oxford,

peripteral
Architectural term denoting a building surrounded by an external colonnade, such as Mt\J\l1MISI (although the term is sometimes confused with PERlSTYI.E).

peristyle
Architectural term used to describe a type of open COLIrt surrounded by an inrernal colonnade, as in the case of the second court of the mortuary temple of Ramescs III at MEDI!'\ET iH.BU. See also PERIPTEKAL.

Persia. Persians
The Persians, like their neighbours the l\1cdcs, were an Indo-Iranian group whose heartland lay in the region of modern lran during the first millennium Be. The land of 'Parsun" apparently situated next to Urartu and to the south of Lake Urmia, is first mentioned in the annals of the Assyrian kjng Shalmaneser III (c.858-824 BC). The two principal cities uf the Persian heartland in lhe fifth and siXlh centuries BC were Pas~lrgadae and Pcrsepolis (T.1kht-i Shamshid), dIe lalter comprising a succession of palaces built by Darius I and his successors, cach of which incorporated clements derived fro111 Egyptian, Median, Babylonian and Greek architecture. 'The extent to which the Persians also drew on the artistic resources of the various satrapies is indicatcd by the discovery of an Egyptianstyle statue of Darius I (.\22-486 BC) at thc site of Susa in western Iran. At its height in c..500 He the Persian empire extended from Libya to the Indus region and from Babylonia to wcstern Turkey, comprising about twenty 'satrapics't each contributing regular tax and tribute to the Persian king. Tn the late sixth century Be, when the Achaernenjd empire was expanding inexorably, the transformation of Egypt into a new satrapy began to look inevitable, although it was temporarily delayed by the death of Cyrus" in 529 lie. Eventually, however, in the spring of 525 BC, Cambyses (525-522 BC) dcfeated the armies of PSAMTEK III (526-525 Be) at Pclusium and went on to capture Memphis. The most interesting surviving document from the ensuing first Persian period (or 27th Dynasty, 525--404 BC) is the text inscribed on a Statue of Udjahorresnet, an Egyptian priest and dOCtor who collaborated with the new rCbrirne, although there is some evidence that he looked after such local interests as the ~aintenancc of the cult of NEfTJ-I at his homeCity of Sais.

Egypt was subject lO a second period of Persian domination, which some Egyptologists would describe as the '31st Dynasty', covering the decade between the end of the indigenous 30th Dynasty (343 BC) and dIe arriyal of ALEXANDER THE GREAT in 332 BC. The stele of a priest of lIERYSI-IEF called Somtutefnakht (now in the laples Museum), which originally stood in the temple of HCfyshef at Herakleopolis iVlagna, was inscribed with an autobiographical inscription generaJly interpreted as a description of a career stretching from the reign of Ncctanebo 11 to that of Alexander the Great. Like Udjahorrcsnet, Somtutefnakht seems to have prospered by providing assistance to the new regime. When Alexander defeated the armies of Darius 111 (336-332 IIc) and took Egypt, Somtutefnakht appears to have witnessed the battle from the Persian side. G. POSE.NFR, La premiere domiuatioll Peru en Egyple (Cairo, 1936). J. YorDrr..:, 'Une statue de Darius decouverte a Suse' ,Jolln/al AsialilJuc (1972), 235-66. M. LIGlTm:l;\'I, Al1cie11ll:.gyp/itm Ii/em/ure III (Berkeley, 1980),41--4. [Somwrefnakht] r. HOFMANN, 'Kambysis in Agyptcn', SAK9 (1981),179-200. A. B. LLOYD, 'The inscription ofUdjahorresnel: a collaboraror's rcstamenr',lEA 68 (1982), 166-80. N. GHIMAL, A hislOl:JI olancietll Egyp/ (Oxford, 1992),367-82.

Scene oIgmpe-pickillg in/he lomb-chapel ol Pelosins. This i"f}/nbiues (llradiliotlaltheme mi,h Ihe artislic s~Jlle (lud costume ofIhe Greek world.
(CRAHAM IJ.IRRISON)

Petosiris (c.300

BC)

High priest of THOTII in the late fourth century Be who is best known for the chapel he built for himself and in honour of his father 5eshu and brother Djedthutefankh at TV'" EL-GEHI:L, near Hermopolis Magna in Middle Egypt. The tomb chapei is in the form of a small rectangular temple of early Ptolemaic style, in front of which stands a horned 'fire' altar of Greek type, which is also known from KARi\'AK. The temple is entered through a half-columned portico with composite capitals, like those at EDFU or IJENDERA. Most of the texts on the walls of the chapel concern Petosiris and his titles. This chamber then gives access to a sanctuary with four square pillars, the walls of which arc decorated with texts concerning his father and brother. Towards the southern end of this sanctuary is the shaft leading to the subterranean burial chambers some 8 m below. The tomb is best known for its carved and painted decoration which combines traditional Egyptian subjects, such as harvcsting, wine pressing and furniture-making, with a distinctly Hellenistic style. For instance, the Egyptian farmers arc depicted in Greek c1oth-

221

PETOSIRIS

PHARAOH

ing and in poses reminiscent of the Classical rather than the Egyptian tradition. The scenes in the porticocd prollaos arc the most stylistil.":1lly mixed, while those in the sanctuary tend more 10 the traditional Egyptian style, although some Greek influence can still be detected.

C.

PICARD, 'Lcs influences ctrangercs au tombcau de Petosiris: Greee au Persc?' 811': 10

30 (1931), 201-7. 1\1. LICIITIIEI\I, AI/cjcnt EgyptitlllliJcmture III (Berkeley, 1980), +1--9.

Petrie. William Matthew Flinders

( 1853-1942) \Videly recognized as the fir!\t scientific eXC<l\",Uor in the history of Egyptian arcluco!ogy, Perrie was born in Charlton, Kent, the son of \iVilliam Petrie, a civil engineer and surveyor, and Anne Flinders, daughter of an explorer. In i.l long and illustrious c,ncer, he cxc.I\-;Itcd many of the most imponanr <lncicnI Egyptian sites, from the Prcdynastic ccmeteries at SAQ\DA to the Early Dynastic royal tombs at /\BYDOS and the city at EI.-Mvlf\R'\JA. Ilis energctic fieldwork was matchcd by his excellent publication record, including many books dealing with general topics, such as 7tH,Is lIml mellpo11S, Ancient mt:ights autl measures and l:.g.l'Plillll arfhilerlllre. It was typical of his work as a whole that his research began with an innovative metrological analysis cncompa..l.;sing Stonehenge and the GII'~\ pyr~mllds. Nluch later in his CUCCI' he developed the ingenious method of 'sequence dating" whereby the PRED\-NJ\SI'If: I)ERIOD was di\"idcd into a series of cultural stages that arc still broadly recognized by modern archaeologists (see ARMAYr). He was able to spend long periods of time c-xcJ\'<lting in Egypt primarily because of the financial support provided by the writer Amelia Edwards) who was also the founder of the Egypt Exploration Fund (Society) and who endowed a chair in Egyptology for him at University College London. Petrie's techniques of excavation were \'astIy superior to those employed by most of his contemporaries. Above all, he was determined to preserve and record as much of the evidence as possible, rather than concentrating purely on the kinds of objccts that would command a good price on the art markct. Perhaps the only aspect of his work that is regretted by modern scholars is his tendcncy to synthesize and condense his published results, rather fhan prescnting the dcmiled field notes in their entirety_ Since few of the original records have survived, much of his excwated material is now difficult to re-analyse or reinterpret. 'tN. i\1. E PETRIE, IlIduClive metrology (London,

Portrail oIFllmlen Petrie.

(Pf:TRII:: illl'SITII)

- , Seum)' years il/ ardlfleology (London, 1931). - , Tht'lIIaki"go[f-gypt (London, 1939). i\l. S. DROWI-:K, Flinders Petn-e: (I lift ill ardulf.:ology (Lon cion, 1985). B. G. TRIGGI':R, A histOly o/ard/(ll!ologiwl I!wuglll (Cambridge, 1989),200-2.

pharaoh
Term used regularly by modcrn writers to refer to the Egyptian king (see KINGSI liP). The word is the Greek form of the ancicnt Egyptian phrase per-(l(f ('great house') which was originally used to refer to the royal P\ I \CE rather than the king. The 'grc.1t house' was responsible for the taxation of the lesser <houses' (perm), such as the temple lands and private estates. Prom thc New Kingdom (1550-1069 Be) onwards, the term was often used to refcr to the king himself. H. PRANKJ'ORT, Kingship lIlld the gods: II J/II(~)' (II Near Eastern rel('iil.m aJ the il1legmti'lf/ O]".WdL'Of tlntl Iw/ure (Chicago, 1948). J. D. RAY, 'The pharaohs and their court', l~~)pPI: tll1t:iellt culture. mudem Ifllul, cd. J. Malek (Sydne)', 1993),68-77.

The illlla {fjj]ill o/Petosiris is 111adc/ro111 blackened pine mood illlait! mith multi-coloured glass hieroglyphs. Early PM/emait period, c.350 1lf:,j;Of1! the lomb o/Pc/osiris al 'lima

e/-Gebel,

I..

1.95 III. (cAIJIO.7lc46592)

Although the burials of Petosiris, his wife and one of his sons had been robbed in antiquity, the two wooden coffins and the stone sarcophagus of Pctosiris were discovered during Gustave Lefebvre's excavation of the tomb in 1920. The inner coffin of blackened pine is well preserved, with inlaid eyes and five columns of inscription inlaid in multicoloured GLASS hieroglyphs.
G.
1.1:FI~nvRE, P'losin~',

Philae
The original island site of a temple of rhe goddess isis, located about eight kilometres south of Asw~lIl. '"rhe surviving elements of the sandstone temple, dating from the 30th Dynasty to the hue Roman period (380 HC-:\D 300), were transferred to the nearby island of Agilqiyya during the early 1970s in order to save it from thc rising waters of Lake Nasser (sec t\S\\;\~

3 vols (Cairo, 1923-4).

E. SUYS, Vic de Pelosin~f (Paris, 1927).

1877). - , The pyramids (11/(1 temples o[Gizeh (London, 1883). - , Tell e1-AIIWrtUI (London, 1894). - , Diospolis Parva (London, 1901). - , Nlethods and aims ill arclllleology (T .ondon, 1904).

222

~ILAE

PI-IILAE

11I1I11 DAM). On the ;'ldjacent" island of Biga is a

'pure mound', which was regarded as a tomb

of OSIRIS, the mythical consort of Isis. The worship or Isis at Phi lac can be dated back as early as the reign or the 25th-Dynasty pharaoh Taharqo (690-66-+ BC), since blocks from his reign have been found at the site, bur

the earliest \-isible remains date to the reign of

Nectanebo t (380-362
BC).

Most or the temple

was constructed between the reigns of

Ptolemy II Philadclphus (285-H6 BC) and Diocletian (AD 284-305). The complex incorporales a temple to the Nubian god .\RE.:~ S:\'UI'IIIS, built by Ptolemy 1\' Philopator (221-205 Be) and the Meroitic ruler Arkamani
tEl-T
Imo

The temple oIlsis lit Philae, slwmillg lite firsJ

pylons lind/Ill' CO/U1I1I1S oldie mammisi be/mew them. The temple J1)a.~ 111(rvedjrrJlll ifS origiual sile 10 the 1~';/{{f1(1 ofAgi/ql)~)!{{ ill order (0 preSCfve il frOIll Ihe walers afLake Nasser.
(/~

J:

NleI/OI..s'ON)

BEI.OW

the 1/1Ollffmellls.

The island (~r Phi/at: prior 10 the re-sitillg 0/ Alllld-brid' sfnutures are omitted.

1 hall of Neclanebo 2 west colonnade 3 first east colonnade 4 temple of Imholep 5 gale of Ptolemy II Philadelphus

6 chapel 7 first Dylon 8 mammisi

50

100m

9 second east colonnade 10 chapel

223

PHOENICIANS

POLICE

(c.218-200 BC), in a rare instance of gyptoubian architectural colJaborarion. The cult of Isis on Philac appears [0 have survived well into the Christian era, and the latest surviving hieroglyphic inscription occurs at the site. It was nO{ until the reign of Justinian (C.AD 535) that the temple was finally abandoned. H. JUNKER, Der grosse Pyloll des Tempels tier lsis ill PiJilii (Vienna, 1958). H. ]UNKF.n and E. WINTER, Dtls Gebllr'shaus des Tempels del' lsis iI/ Philii (Vienna, 1965). E. VASSll.IKA, Ptolemait Philae (Leuvcn, 1989).

Phoenicians
Wcst-Semitic-speaking people who occupied the coastal area of the northern Levant (the western half of modern Lebanon) during Lhe first millennium BC It was in this region that the Phoenician cit.ies of BYIJI.OS, Sidon and Tyre flourished, having displaced the settlements of earlier CAi\AANITE people. A number of ancient Egyptian texts (including the Middle Kingdom Tale of Sinuhe) use the term FeJleklm\ apparently with reference to Canaanites living in the region surrounding Byblos, who are presumably to be identified with the Phoenicians. It was perhaps because they were successful sailors and traders, gradually establishing colonies across the Mediterranean region (including the city of Carthage), that their works of art largely consisted of iconography and styles borrowed from Egypt, 1\1csopotamia and the Aegean. The Phoenicians are also usually said to have been responsible for the invention of the alphabet. w. \"'Alm (ed.), The role ofthe Phoellicjl/m" in/he illlerac/ioll ofMeditermllctU/ dviliztltio1lS (Beirut, 1968). D. Hr\lmEN, The Phoellidal1s (Harll10ndsworth, 1971) D. R. AP 1'1 101\""5, 'The Phoenicians', Peoples of Old 'li:sfOmell//imes, cd. D. J. \~'iseman (Oxford, 1973), 259-86. P. r\ll. BII0\U, 'The late Phoenician pottery complex and chronology" Bulle/i" oI/he AmeriClI1t Sclwols afOrieu/al Researclt 229 (1978), 47-56.

Be). Ir is clear thaI his father, Kashta, had already pushed as far north as ASWAN, where he dedicated a stele to Khnum on Elephantine, and it has even been suggested that he exened some inOucnce in the Theban region_ Piy himself seized control of pper Egypt within the first decade of his reign, and his sister Amenirdis [ was adopted by Shcpcnwepet I as the next GOD'S WIFE OF AM UN, thus acquiring Theban territories previously controlled by OSORKON III (777-749 lie). In 728 BC, when Tcfnakht", the prince of Sais, created an alliance of Delta rulers to counter the growing Nubian threat, Piy swept northwards and defeated the northern coalition, describing his successful campaign on the so-called Victory Stele, which he erected in the temple of Amun at Gebel Barkal (sec ''''PATA), placing further copies in the principal temples at Karnak and Nlemphis, although only the original text has survived. Piy's stele borrowed much of its phraseology and style from earlier Egyptian royal 'recitations'. He therefore effectively set the tone of archaism and reverence for the past which was to characterize most of the artistic output of the 25th Dynasty, with the Kushitc pharaohs constantly seeking to outdo their Egyptian predecessors in theil" concern for Egyptian religion and tradition. In 716 HcI)iy died after a reign of over thirty years. He was buried in an Egyptian-style pyramidal tomb at EL-KURRU, accompanied by a number of horses, which were greatly prized b)' the Nubians orlhe Napatan period. (Ie was succeeded by his brother SIIAB;\QO (716-702 BC), who reconquered Egypt and took full pharaonic titles, establishing himself as the first full ruler of the 25th Dynasty. J. H. BREASTED, AI/delll retords oIEgypl IV (Chicago, 1906),796-883. N. GRI'\IAJ., La slele Iriomplutle de Pi('anldt)y till Musee du CUlre, lie 8862 el -17086-47089 (Cairo, 1981). K. A. KITCHEN, The Third intermediate Period i1/ E.~)'PI (1100-650 Be), 2nd cd. (Warminster, 1986),363-78. N. GRI\lAI., A history of{l1l(;im/ Egyp/ (Oxford, 1992),335--13.

J. G. GRIFFI11-1S, Plutarch s De Iside eJ Osiride

(Swansea, 1970). D. A. Rt.:sSELL, (Plutarch" Tlte Oxford CllISsjrtll dictjouary, cd. N. G. L. I-Iammond and I I. H. SeuJlard (Oxford, 1970), !U8-50.

police
For most of the Pharaonic period there is C\'jdcnce of a variety of officials whose roles roughly approximated to certain aspects a modern police force. 'I'hey can be divided intu two basic categories: those performing a quasi-military role of guarding and parrolling and those enforcing justice and inOicting punishmenL. Groups of men called 1/1VTP are described as patrolling the desert with trained dOk'"S in order to guard a!,rainsl BEIX)L'IN incursions, while the UllJti11J tjesell1P are credited with the protection of quarrying and mining expeditions in the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 Be). By the New Kingdom (1550-1069 Br.), these tasks seem to have been undertaken increasingly by groups of l\lElJJAY mercenary soldiers, who also guarded temples, palaces and ccmeteries. A morc specialized title (s's/Ill.) was held by the officials who kept order in pj!:H:e

or

IIARll\lS.

Phoenix see BEl'\t;-R1RD

Piankhy see PlY

Pigs see ANIMAl. HUSBANDRY Piramesse see QANTllt and
TELL EL-])AH':\

Piy (Pi)'e, Piankhy) (747-716 BC)

Kushite ruler of the :"JAIWli\N period who was the first Nubian to conquer Egypt, laying the foundations for the 25th Dynasty (747-656

Plutarch (C.AD 46-126) Greek writer of the Roman period who spent most of his life in his home town of Chaeronca, although he also visited Athens, Italy and Egypl. He is important to Egyptologists principally for his De hide cl Osiride, an account of the myth of HORUS ,mel SETII, hut ,"here is debate as to how accurate this is. It is possible that much of what he recorded was based on a late version of (he story.

The tasks of arresting individuals for such crimes as non-pJyment of tax (see T.o\X \TIO') and the subsequent inflicting of bastinado as punishment were both assigned to the holders of the title sa-per in the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC), although these same officials are later also mentioned as the guards aCcompanying Middle Kingdom desert expeditions. The continued use of this title in terms of the maintenance of law and order, however, is indicated by the Ptolemaic inscriptions at KOMO,'vIBO, which elevate the term to a more universal role, describing the crocodile-god Sobek as a sa-per smiting rebels. J. YOYOlTE, 'Un corps de police de I'Egyptc pharaonique', RdE9 (1952),139-51. J. CER-'"Y, A cOI1U1ltwi/Ji ofmorkmen a/ Thehes til /lte Ramesside perind (Cairo, 1973), 261-8-t. G. ANDREU, 'Sobek compare a un policier', l-i'.:rt' dll Cm/maire, cd.]. Vercouner (Cairo, 1980). 3-7. - , 'Polizei', Lexilto" der .iigyp/ologie 1\, ed. W. Heick, E. Otto and W. Weslendorr (Wiesbaden,1982).

pornography sec EROTIC,\ pottery

and

SEXU,\L!T\

From the Predl'nastic period (c.5500-31 00 Be) onwards pottery was one of the most important of Egyptian artefacts, and is certainly the one which survives most readily in the archae-

224

~TTERY

POTTERY

ological record. Because its broken fragments, or sherds, arc almost indestructible, massi,"c quantities of pottery have been preserved at sites throughout Egypt. However, it is only in relatively recent times thar Egyptologists have come to value the importance of pottery in the Dynastic period,

LEFT

Badaritlll PO! mill! blackened r//II. IJ(!$pile

their fflrly dtlle flud simple talm%g)! pOlS SUdl as

,!ley,e art' {/mongst/liefines! erer produced il1 l~!5J1PI. Fijih mil/l'1lllium Rct/rom e1-Bar/ari, 11.22.8[111. (69691)
UELOW Afillc blue-pai"tt'd bironicaljarfr0111 elA111ama. j\'IoS( aucient g}/p/itlll pOllery of/he Pharaonic period milS 1I11decoraud. the bill/!paimed UJafC being exceptional ill/his reJpecJ. /81h

DJ""lSfy. e.1350 He, II. 70 C/". (E.1568~ I)

having previously placed greater reliance on inscriptional sources. Egyptian pottery can be divided into two broad groups according to the generalized type of clay used. The first is 'Nile silt ware', those pots made from the alluvial deposits of the Nile valley, and which fire to a red-brown colour. Tbis group makes up tbe great bulk of Egyptian pottery, and is most commonly used for the coarse, utilitarian wares, although it may be decoJ"<ned as in the case of the 'blue painted' pottery during the New Kingdom (155f}-..1069 Be). Tbe second group is tbe 'marl clay' vessels. These arc made from calcarcous clays which have a limited occurrence in Egypt, the best-known source being around Qcna in ppcr Egypt. f\ lar! clays tend to be the products of more specialized industries and are usually emplo\'ed for tbe betterquality wares. Often their surfaces arc deliberately compacted, using a pebble or similar smooth object) before they are fired in the kiln. This process, known as burnishing, leaves them with a shiny surface, which is not a glaze, although it is sometimes mistakenly referred to as such. In fact, the application of it glaze to pottery (as opposed to F>\IENCE, which is a nonclay ceramjc) does not appear until Roman times. These two basic pottery fabrics have been subdivided according to the materials added to them, known as filler or temper, as well as natural impurities in the clay_ These subdivisions are devised by each archaeological expedition, but arc usually related to an internationally recognized system for the classification of Egyptian pouery known as the Vienna System. 'This has the benefit of allowing archacologists working all over Egypt to understand one another's pottery descriptions. Predynastic ponery is often of extremely high quality. From the Baclarian period corne handmade vessels (i.e. those made without Lhe use of the potter's wheel), burnished to a lustrous finish and fired so that they have a black top section witb tbe rest left red. Tbis is a considcrable technical achievement, and demanded great skill on tbe part of tbe POLtel', particularly ;.lS it is likely that thesc ycsscls were open-fired (using a kind of bonfire) Or produced in only the most rudimentary of kilns. Baclarian vessels are among the most beautiful ponery ever made in Egypt. Frccform painted decoration is known from Naqada I times (1'.4000-3500 Be), with animals, patterns, boats and human figures all being portrayed. This kind of representational art on ponery dies out in the Dynastic period. Tbe pottery of the Old Kingdom (2686-

225

POTTERY

PREDYNASTIC PERIQQ

2181 BC) "as formed bl hand and I,.ith the aid of a turntable, although hy the late Old K.ingdom the true paner's whed, which uses ccnrrifubral force to 'throw' pottery, had developed. 'This latter device requires finer clay preparation, which in turn ncccssit~ncs greater control during firing. The chimney-like updraughr kiln (with the fire placed beneath rhe pots and separated from them by a griddcd floor) was probably developed in the Dynastic period, perhaps around the time [hat the \,"heel came into general lise. The first wheels were hand-turned and relied on a smooth bearing to dC\Tlop centrifugal force. 'l'hey were ,"cry simple, comprising onc stone set illro another, :md highly polished to form the hearing. The more familiar 'kick wheel\ with its foot-operated ny-whcel. \\JS probably introduced in Persian or _Ptolemaic rimes (i.e. after <".500 1lC:). The \Yheel allowed vessels to be made more quickly, in <l simple form of mass production, but certain types of \'essel continued to be handmade, alongside these thrown rypes. nrc:ld~molilds) the formers for loaves of bread, particularly for offering use, continucd to be shaped around a core known as a
plllri.\".

on ,1specrs of Egyptian culture that ha\'c pre\'iously been undocumented. \V. i\ 1. F. PI-Tim:, Diospolis Parra (London,

1901).

.J. 0. BOURIU.-\L,
19XI).
B. .J.
h.E.\IP

lImm d-Qa'(lb: putJlTylmm Iltt'

Nile i.:allcy bejim' lite Arab (I)JU/IIl'S! (Cambridge.

and R.
MERRII.EES,
!VIil/(I(lII

pOI/fiJI

Fum StXo//t! mil/t'lIl/illlll t:gypI (.vlainz,

\98\).

P. RICE, P/lll"':JII!III/~)lsis:1/ .HlUJ'CC bno!': (Chicago, 1987). j. IJ. BOl... RRJ-\U and P. T 'ICIIOLSU'-. 'Marl day portery fabrics of the New Kingdom from 1\lemphis, Saqqanl and Amarna.JEA 78 (1992),

29-91. D. AR"OLD and J. D. l3oLRRI\l' (cd.), _-1"

inlrmluCliolll0 ll1lcil!lI1 Egyp/ilill pOffery (J\ lainz.

1993).

Pottery was used f(lI' many of those purposes for which we would now usc plastics, and alongside B,\SJ..:ETRY proyided the main form of conti-liner. The differing combination of pottery fabric, technology and form allow archaeologists ro use ponery as a chronological indicator, particularly significant on sites where there is no olher dear dming cridence, It was the observation of lhis fact that first allowed Flinders PETHII': to develop his 'sequcnce dates' f()!' the PREDY'\'.\STIC PERIOD, building up a noating chronology, which, with lhe adyent of radiocarbon dating, has been tranSf(lfllled imo:t system of absolute dates. Regional \'ariation and lrade can also be traced duough pouer), since a famili.uily \\ irh Egyptian clays allows imporlcd wares to he identified relatively simply, particuhlrly with the use of such scientific tcchniqucs as cer~lm ic petrology (thin seclioning) <lnd neUiron acri\"alion an<llysis. Recent dC\'elopments in archacological science also f.lcilitate the study of the contents of pOllcry, thus prO\'iding infc)rmation on the usc ofpanicular vessels. In 'lddition, the study of the I'cchnological dcyclopmcnt of pouery, and its relationship to olher crafts, is of \'aluc in itself. The study of ancienr Egyptian pOllery is a rapidly de\'c1oping area of recent E(iYI'T{)1.0G', and one which has considerable potenli,,1 to modify many of the exisling \'iews of Egyptian society ilnd economy, prO\'iding inform,uion

Predynastic period (1'.5500-3100 BC) The late Neolithic period in Egypt. generally described as the 'Predynastic', began in the sixth millenniulll Be. The evidence from Upper Egypt diffcrs significantly from the Lower Egyptian data; not only is each of the two regions apparently characterized by very different sequcnccs of material culturc. but the exca\l<lted sires in Upper Egypt arc mainly cemeteries while those cxcayared in Lower Egypt primarily consist of settlement rcmi-lins. This situation makes direct comp~lrisons between the prehistoric cultures of northern and southern regions of Egypt extremely difficult. Exci-wiltions from the 1970s onwards have sought to redress the balance by obtaining more senlemcl1t data from the south and vice \'ersa. In addition, Ihe provision of radiocarbon dales on malCrial from both Upper and

Lower Egyptian sites has gmdu<1l1y facilitated the construction of a tcnl"ti\'e absolute chronology for the whole geographical and chronological range of I he Predynastic. relative dates for the midA framework to late Prcdynastic period in Upper Egypt. i.e. the Amratii-lI1 and Gerzean periods (see \ \(.t\1)'\), was first eSlablished by Flinders Petrie in the carly 19005 (see also (:IlRO'i01.0m; 111\\SE_\lAJI'\A In:(jIO'i and POTTERY). \\'hCll Gertrude CatoJ1-Thompson excwatcd at I-lammarnia in the EI.-BADARI region in the 19205, she flJllJ1d stratigraphic conlirl11<ltion of Petrie's d.lting system and considerahle c\idence of the earliest Upper Egyplian phase, the l3adariall period (c.5500-l000 Be). Perrie's 'sequcnce dares' sn}-su30, which he had allocated only in a preliminary fashion, were duly assigned to the \arious ph'lses of Ihe Badarian. Radiocarbon and thermoluminescence dates from the c1-Radari region suggesr th,lI the period stretched back at lei-1st as car" as

or

5500

Be.

Cemeteries of rhe Amriltian phase (,1Iso known as Naqada ,; c.4000-:l500 l1e) hove survived al a number of sites in Upper Egypt, from DeiI' 'nlSa in the north to the Lower Nubian site of Khor Bahan. 1\ rectangular Amnuim house has been excavated at IIILRAKO,I'()J.JS and small areas of late Gerzcan sel-dcment were eXC:l\-ated at :\BYIXlS and dBadari. Tn addition, a possible Gerzean religious structure h~IS been uncO\'ercll al

1/{tlltrtll()1 deJicctlled 1~}lllte hOI. lby. t!t'.I'al

Pret(J '1UiSlit burial i11mhiell Ihe !m(()1 has !1ti.'11 sand. Naqada 11 period, c.3200 IJf:, /.. (uJ/jlexl!tI) 1.63/11. (,,,327,,1)

226

~EDYNi\STIC

PERIOD

I'REDYNASTIC PERIOD

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

1.t~TI' Sill'S a,UoG"ialed mil"

Pret(Jll1l1stic ririliz(lfiull.

1 Buto 2 Mendes 3 Minshat Abu Omar 4 Samara 5 Tell Ibrahim Awad 6 Beda 7 Merimda Beni Salama B Heliopolis 9 Maadi 10 el-Oman 11 Tarl<han 12 Gerza 13 Abusir el-Malaq 14 Harageh

m~LOW h:or)' figurine. with inlaid t'ye5 of lapis !a:::.uli. Fiji}, 11Ii/lewritllll nc, II, II cm. (EI321-11)

<j

~itterLakes

19

20"1;, 21 22 25 26
KHARGA OASIS 27

23

24

+ Early PredynasUc Sites o Middle Predynastic Sites late Predynastic Sites

First Cataract

200km

Delta region itself, both sites showing c\'idence of cultural influences from Gerzean Upper Egypt. The currcnt view of the late Predyna~tic period in Egypt as a whole is that the inhabitants of Lower Egypt gradually assimilarcd various aspects of Upper Egypti<ln material culture in the late fourth millennium He (this 'transitional I phase being particularly

attested al Tell c1-Fara'in) and that the Delta

was eventually subsumed politically into a unified st;ttc dominated by Upper Egypt in about

Hicrakonpolis. The transition from the Gerzean period to the E_\RI.Y DY, \Sl"IC I'EHIOD Was considered by Petrie to have been a SCp3fatc cultural phase (the 'Scmaincan'), corresponding to 5D65 onwards, but this final phase of the Prcc1vnastic is now described lw some

archaeologi~ts as the' Protocknastic'. .

The earliest Lower Eg;'ptian Neolithic

~cmains are the 'Fayum A' encampments, (brIng back to (.5000 Be, which were cffccti\'e1y the first agricultural settlements in Egypt. The next stage in the Prcdynastic sequence is represented by three periods of occupation at

the latest phase of which seems to ha\c been contemporary with lhe settlements and cemeteries of EL-Q:'.l\RI, south of Cairo, The nexi phase of the Lower Egyptian Prcdynastic is represented at the site of ,\1 \:\DI, which seems LO h;l\'c flourished in the c::l.rly to mid fourth millennium lie. 1\1ost of the available information for tl1<.' Lower Egyptian Predynastic deriYes from sites at thc southern periphery of the region, but exeaYations during lhe 1980s at \1I~Sl-I.rr \ltL O;\L-\R and TELL EL-F.\IU'I~ (BuLO) ha"c begun to pro"ide crucial new evidence in the heart of the
\IERL\\l)!\ BEKI Sr\LA,\IA 1

.1100 "e. The 2500-year period of the Predl'nastie

W,15 once widely considered to ha,'c been culturally distinct from rhe Pharaonic age that succeeded it. !\hmy authorities ha,-c argued Ihat the apparently abrupt change at t.he end of the Predynastic - from tllC characteristic skeletons and artefacts of the early Gerzcan people ro those of t.he Early Dynastic clile buried at Naqada, Hicrakonpolis and Abydoswas e,idcnce of a sudden inyasion from western Asia. Such ~diffllsion Ihcorics' for the origins of the Egyptian state have come to seem less plausible, and most scholars now agree

227

PRENOMEN (THRONE NAME)

PRIESTS

th,lt there was a steady and relatively unbroken progression in the Uppcr Egyptian material culture from the Badarian to the Early Dynastic: the archaeological case for social continuity is currently far more convincing than rhar for sudden invasion or migration. Sec also AGRICULTURE; AR;\It\~T and EI.K:\B. I-l. J. K.t\NTOR, 'The final phase of predynastic culture: Gerzcan or Scmainc;\n?\JNES 3 (19H),110-36. M. A. l!OFFI\IA:-\l EgJlpl before the pharaohs (New York, 1979). B. G. TRIGGER, 'The risc of Egyptian ci"iliz<ltion\ Ancienl Egypt: tI sO(;;lIl history, cd. R G. Trigger etal. (Cambridge, 1983), 1-70. F. BASS",,', 'The Prcdynastic of Egypt' ,Jourl[(ll oflVorid Pre";sto,), 2 (1988),135-85. E. C. ~l. V.-\;.) J)E~ BRINK (cd.). Tlte Ni/~ De/Ill ill 11"{11I5;1;01l: 7/h-3rd millenllium He (Tel Ayiv, 1992). B. MIOA.':T-REY.'\'ES, P,-ehisto;re de I'g),pte (Paris, 1992). w. \VErrERSTROi\I, 'Foraging and farming in Egypt: the transition from hunting and garhering to horticulture in the Egyptian Nile valley', The archat:olog)' oIAFiw: food, metals and ffmms, ed. T. Shaw, B. Anchlh and P. Sinclair (London, 1993), 165-226. K. A. BARD, 'The Egyptian Predynastic: a review of the evidence', Jour/wi 0/ Field Arclweology 21 (I 99~), 265-88.

prenomen (throne name) see ROr.'L

ITrUI.ARY

priests The Egyptian priest should not be viewed in the S,llne way as a modern religious leader, such as a clergyman, mullah or rabbi. The term 'priest' is simply a modern translation for a number of religiolls offices connected with the Egyptian TEl\tPLE. 'I'he Egyptian priest, literally described as a 'servant of god' (hem lletjer), was not necessarily well versed in religious doctrine (see I~I)UC[\TIO~), and, particularly in the Old and ,vliddlc Kingdoms, he did not necessarily work full-time for the temple. The common modern transhuion of hem "etjer as 'prophet' has led to a certain amount of misunderstanding reg-.uding the role of this onida!' He \yas employed al the temple to look after the cult statue of the deity. Like mortals, lhe god or goddess was thought to have daily needs for food and clothing. l\tJost priests would not havc come into contact with the cult image, and, in theory, only the pharaoh, the high priest of evcry cult, had the privilege of attending the god. In practice, however, his authority was delegated (Q the chief priest. who was supported by lesser priests who would have attended to offerings

A scm priest iff leopard-skill robe. 111 his lejl hallt! he holds {f cellser. Detail[rom the Bnol: o/the Delld papyrus o[A"i. 19th Dy"asty, c.1250 ne. (EA10-l70. SIII:U 5)
and minor parts of the temple ritual. The 'second prophet' attended to much of the economic organiz;;ltion of the temple, wh.ile lower ranks, known as mab priests ('purifiers') attended to numerous other dunes. 'There \nlS also a female ,crsion of the hem uetjer title (hemet neljer) and many elite women of the Old and j\ fiddle Kingdoms sen'ed as priestesses of the goddess I-JXrI-IOR. The chief priest, or (first prophet', could wield significant po,,er, and this position allowed him great innuence in what would now be rcgarded as secular matters. During the 18th Dynasty (1550-1295 BC) the priesthood of the god Al\\Ui\' became extremely powerful, and it is possible that they may have been tempor,lrily suppressed in the reign of AKIIENt\TE~ (1352-1336 Be). In the 21st Dynasty (1069-9~5 BC), a succession of Libyan generals took control of the Theban region, using the tide High Priest of f\mun to legitimate their power.

There were also groups of priests with specialist knowledge. including 'hour priests' whom Serge Sauneron interprets as astronomers; he suggests that these men would have determined the time at which FE.'iTlVAI.$ rook place. This \yas an import,lnt duty, since the Egyptian CALEND!\I{ was rarel" in step with the seasons. Astrologers somc~ times determined 'lucky and unlucky' d,lyS, and books of these predictions have sun i\ cd (see l\STRO~O!\IY AND ASTROLOGY). The J IOl SE OF tlFE had its own priestly orfieials, who attended to the teaching of writing :ll1d copied out texts, while it waS the 'lector priests' (/lt1]' Iteb) who would recite the words of the god. Various CULT SI1\GERS .\ 'D TE:\IPLE :\IL.SJCI "S were needed to accompany the rituals, and women of noble birth, who sometimes hdd titles such as 'chantress of Anum', were occasionally depicted in this role, sometimes holding a SISTRU:\1. III the cult of Amun the god was also considered ro have an earthly wift, Lhe GOD'S WIFE OF AI\lUJ'\, which also heC<llllc an important political title, although the tille is not attested before the 18th Dynasty. During the New Kingdom, adminislralOrs, in association with the 'second prophet', O\crsaw the provisioning of the temple from estates and endowments. They ensured thaL Lhe requisite numbers of offerings were brought in each day, and that the labourers wcnt about their msks properly. Onl~ the essence of the offerings was thought to be I.:'onsumed by the god, but the physical substance was consumed by the priests through a process now known as 'reversion of offerings'. Various foods were prohibited by particular temples so thal" the priests' diet may often 11;1\'c been atypical, bur sllch food Ti\BOOS afC common in many religions. The Greek historian Herodotus states that Egyptian priests were required to wash I wice during the day and <I further twice durin~ the night, as well as being entirely clean shann and without body hair. He also says thin thc~ were obliged 10 be circurl1cised and l since rhere was no prohibition on marriage. to abstain from sexual intercourse during Iheir period of office. He claims thal tJ1CY were prohibited from the wearing of wool or leilthl'r. in favour of fine linen, and that" their sandals had to be made from P,\PYRCS. Particular ranks of officials also wore special garments, such as the leopard skin worn by se11l priests. tn addition, there were regulations and prohibitions connected with particular cults. However, although these rules ,\cre strict, they applied to indi,idual priests only during three months of the year. This waS because thc priesrs were di,-ided into four

228

PRIMEVAL MOUND

PSUSENNES

groupS of identical composition. These arc nOW known by the Greek word phyles, although the Egyptians called them SlilP ('watches'). Each pltyle served for only one month before returning to their usual professions for a further three months. Such offices

could be very lucrative, in that the prie..<irs were

granted a fixed portion of temple revenuc while in the service of the temple. Since religious knowledge was not <l prerequisite, it is not surprising to find that priests often simply inherited their posts [rom rheir fathers, although appointments wcrc also generally endorsed by the king. In cenain circumstances, priestly offices could eYCIl be purCh:lsed. a method that became common under Roman rule. It should be remembered too that in many of the small pro\'incial temples the priests might often hm-e been less important, and the full hierarchy may not have been represented. Despite the apparently prosaic methods of entering the priesthood, there was a definite code of ETIlIC.", including proscriptions against discussing tcmple rites or practising fraud. The extcnt ro which such codes were actually obeyed is unknown, although cases of malpractice are recorded. I-I. KrES, Das Priester/11m ill iigyptischen Staat vom Ilet/en Reirh "is ::.",. Spiifzeit, 2 vols (Leiden and Cologne, 1953-8). - , Die Hiihellpri('ster 1.:011 AI/11m 1;011 Kanwk VOIl Herihor his ZllIlI Emle da .lthiopieu:::.eit (Lciden, 1964). S. Sl\Ui\-ERON, The priests oj'lInciellt Egypt (:'\'ew York, 1969). E. BRESCIANI, 'Tempclperson:.lll (:\.R)', Lexikoll der Agyplo!ogie \'1, cd. \V. I leIck, E. Otto and W. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1986),387--401. A..M. ROTIl, E'gypliall p/~J'/cs ill Ihe Old Killgdo/ll (Chicago, 1991). S. QUIRKE and A.j. SPE,r.ER, Tire Brilislr AIIlISeuJII hook ofallt:ielll EgYPI (London, 1992), 7-J.-.-S, E. STROUlIAL, L~fe ill IIl1c;e111 Egypi (Cambridge, 1992),223-34.

ingly the Heliopolitan BENBE.'\' STO:'\TJ~, which was closely asociatcd with Arum's cult, appears to have been a physical manifestation of the mound. The shape of the pyramids themselves may have deri\-ed, like the bellben, from the primeval mound. 'rhe power of the S(:AKAII as a metaphor for the rebirth of the sun-god was due partly to the observed fact that beetles emerged from dung-hil.ls. The concept of the original hill of virgin land was maintained in the practice of building the sanctuaries OfTE1\II'I.I':S over low mounds of pure sand. Similarly tombs and cenotaphs, such as the Osireion at \BYDOS, often incorporated a symbolic 'island' at their centres. A. 01:: BUCK, De Egyp/isrhe l/oorstellingell betrefJi:1It1l' dell Oerhelln! (Lcidcn, 1922). I-I. R. I-h.LL, 'Rc\'iew of De Buck, Dt' Egyp/isrhe ... (1922)',JEA 10(19H), 185-7. A. A. SALEII, 'The s(}-C'dlled "prime,'a! hill" and other related elevations in ancient Egyptian mythology', MDA1K25 (1969),110-20. B. A. SUIL()GL, Der Cott TiJfellell (Freiburg, 1980). K. iVl:\RTIN, 'Urhligel', Le.rikfJlI cia .rigYPfO/ogie VI, ed. \V. Heick, E. Otto and lvY. \Vestendorf (Wiesbaden, 1986),873-5.

Psammetichus see I'S' \ITEK Psamtek (Psammetiehus)

'Birth namc' given to three kings of the 26th (or SAlle) Dynasty (66-1-525 BC). Pstlllliek I "Vtlhibrtl (66-1-610 "c) and his father 2'lEK.AU , of SA'S (672--ti64 BC) were both carried off to Nineveh by the ASSYRIAi'\S, following their invoh'cment in a plot led by the Kushite ruler "lAI"'RQO (690-664 BC). While in exile they were supposedly indoctrinated into Assyrian ways (Psamtek being given the name Nabu-shezibanlli), before being returned to Egypt as vassals of Ashurbanipal. At this time power was conccntrated in the Delta, and the Assyri:lI1s placed Memphis and S~lis tUlder Nekctu I and Athribis (TELl. ATKIB) under Psamtek 1. In 664 He, however, Nekau died and Psamtek I rook o\"cr his rule, becOlning the first true ruler of the new 26th Dynasty. \Vith the help of urian and GREEk mercenaries, he effectively took control of the \d1Ole of the Delta. The increased numbers of foreigners in Egypt led to me;lsurcs to control them 1 and archaeological evidence suggests that the site of i<\i\UKRKnS, among ot"hers 1 may have been set up during his reign. Upper Egypt was still in Kushite hands, perhaps under nNUT,I.\IA'\' (66-1-656 BC), son of 'Taharqo. However, by his ninth regnal year Psamtck I was recognized as ruler of both Upper and Lower Egypt.

primeval mound
The hill that emerged from the primeval Waters of :'\u:'\ was an important element in Egyptian religious thought and imagery. The potency of the image of fertile ground emerging from water must have owcd a great denl to the cycle of the annualli\-UNDATIO:-"- of the Nile, whereby fresh agriculmral land regularly appeared au t of the flood WOlters. The primeval mound was the principal symbol of the act of creation and the J\iIemphite god TATJENEN (whose name mcans 'raising of the land') was a personification of the hill itself The sun-god ATU\I is sometimes described in the PYRA.\IID TE..XTS as 'hill', and correspond-

To cement his rule over Thebes, he obliged the GOD'S WIFE or A.\n';N Shepenwepet Il and her appointed successor, Amenirdis II, to adopt his daughter Nitiqret (Niweris) as their ultimate successor. Psamtek then gradually replaced Theban officials, as each died, purting his own proteges in their places and thus tightening his grip on Upper Egypt. 'Nell established as he now was, he ceased any prctence to be an Assyrian vassal. The 26th Dynasty was to be characterized by renewed natjonalism; Psamtek's artists therefore carefully studied and copied the art of the Old Kingdom. There was also a renewed respect for old-established religious practices, including rhe worship of Si\C.llED . ,\i'\'lJ\lAI-S, whose cults grew dramatically, eventually becoming a significam part of the economy, Psamtek was succeeded by his son, Nekau tt (610-595 BC). P'"l11lek II NeJeribra (595-589 BC), son and successor to Nekau u, is well known because of the numerous surviving monuments bearing his n,l 111 e. He is also known to have launched an expedition against the Kushites, which penetrated deep imo NUIll/\. Like his predecessors, he relied heavily on foreign mercenary troops, and at ABU SL\IBEI. there are graffiti left by his Carian, Greek and Phoenician soldiers. Among his generals was AHl\lOSE II (570-526 BC), who was e\'entually to supplant his son AI'RJES in the succession to the throne. Pstlllliek 111 Allkhkllellrtl (526-525 BC), the son of Ahmose II, was the h1st king of the 26th Dynasty. His rule lasted for only some six months, following which he was executed by the Persian ruler Cambyses (525-522 BC) who invaded Egypt in 525 HC l Ym'OTrE, 'Le martclagc des noms royaux ethiopiens par PS<lmmetique II', RdE 8 (1951), 215-39. F K. KJE;\,ITZ, D;e pohtische Cesc!u'clJ/e. {gyp/em \." (l3erlin, 1951). R_ A. C:\~II~OS, 'The Nitocris adoption stela', JEA 50(1964), 71-101. E. CRl;Z- RillE, 'On the e:xistence of Psammetichus" Suap;s 5 (1980), 35-9.

Psusennes (Pasebakhaennillt)
'Birth name' taken by two kings of the 21 st Dynasty, who ruled from Tanis in the Delta at the stal'l. of the Third Intermediate Period. PSIISe1llleS I fJakheperra SClepClfalJllII1 (1039991 Be), successor of Smendes (1069-1043 BC), the founder of thc 21st Dynasty, was perhaps the most important ruler of the dynasty. I-lis tomb was discovered at Tanis by Pierre .Montet in 1940. The richness of the funerary items (see TAl'IS) has been described as second

229

PTAH

PT'l!:!

only to those from the tomb OfTUT:\t\KII;\\lC:\!, although the timing of the find led to their

being overahadowec1 by Howard C<lrtcr's earlier discovery. It is likely that Psuscnncs concentrated most of his activities at Tanis, where he built an enclosure wall for the temple complex. During his reign Upper Egypt waS under the control of the Libyan generals ruling from Thebes (sec 'EW KL"\IGDOI\l). However, there docs not seem 1"0 have been great rivalry between the Thcoan and '[mite rulers; Psusenncs I himself was probably the son of the Theban High Priest Pinudjem t and, in addition, one of his daughters was married to a Theban priest. PSUSelllleS 1/ Till,,'heperura Sell'penta (959945 flC), the last king of the 21 st Dynasty, may have been the son of the Thcban High Priest Pinudjem " (990-969 BC). He might therefore h.we reunited the rule of Upper and Lower Egypt when he acceded to the Tanitc throne on the death of Sial1lun (978-959 BC). Aftcr Psusenncs' death, however, the crown passed into the hands of the Libyan rulers of the 22nd Dynasty, and it has been suggested that the 'Emite ruling family may by then have been companniyely povcrrystricken. The 22nd-Dynasty pharaoh OSORKOJ' I (92+-889 BC) subsequently seems to have attempted to gain support for his claim by marrying PSlIscnnes' daughter, Maatkara, who g',wc birth to SHCSII01\Q II .890 BC), thus estahlishing a blood link between the two dynasties. P. ;\II01\TET, LlIl/iaopole mYlI/e de '!illU'S I: Les (OI1S1r/lrt;o11S el Ie lombell/l de PsollJseulIes li Jimis (Paris, 1951). K. A. KITClJEl", The TMrrl !lIlerma!iale Period ill F:gl'PI (l!UI}-6.)O IJL), (Warminster, 1986), 283-6. A. DODS()~, 'Psuscnnes II" Rtf' 38 (1987), 49-54.

Raweses III before Ihe triad u.r"'Iell/pl/l:~ (jiw/f leji to right): Nejertem. Sekl/lJlel (mil Ptalt. 20lh Dyuasty, c.//50 BC, l!tird illustmtiou!rom lhe Grrlll JIlIm,' PlIPYrI/S, 1/. 12.5 fill. (Ei9999f.13)
whose relationship with Ptah is unclear. L\1I10TF.P, the deificd architect of the Saqqara Step Pyramid, came to be rcgarded as a son of Ptah, although he was not considered to be a member of the !v(emphite triad. Ptah's original cultic association seems to hm'c been with cr.lfrsmen, and the High Priest of Ptah held the title mer kherep he111nJ ('supreme leader of craftsmen '). This connection with the production of artefacts probably contributed to the elcyation of his culr into that of a uni,rersal creator-god. He was thought ro hayc brought the world into existence by the thoughts emanating from his IIEART and the words cmerging from his tongue. Although he was clearly already rcgarded as a creator as early as the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC), the references to him in the P\ RI\ 'liD TEXTS arc minimal. It has becn suggested that this "irlual omission from the royal funerary cult may have resulted from the reluctance of the Old Kingdom priesthood of It"- at IIELlOPOLlS to allow a i\lemphite deity to riyal the sun-goel. Ptah was, however, credited wilh having devised the OPENII'G OF TIlE 'IOLiTII CERE~\IO:"Y, and it was perhaps in a similar spirit of theological ri,'alry that rhe priests of Ptah thcmsch'es dcyiscd a CIU::\TI01\ myth (the ~ 1emphitc Theology) in which Prah ga,-c birth to Ra and his E):~E.\D. During the Old Kingdom the cult of Ptah
:":EFERTDI,

Ptah
Creator-god of 1\lE\IPIIIS who was usually portrayed as a mummy, with his hands protruding from the wrappings, holding a staff that combines the 0JEIJ pillar, .\NKII sign and wt\s sceptre. His head was shaven and covered by a tight-fitting skull-cap leaving his ears exposed. Prom rhe ~liddlc Kingdom (2055-1650 Be) onwards, he ,yas reprcsented with a straight beard. The basic iconography of his images remained virtually unchanged throughout the Phar.lOnic period. In Hellenistic times he was identified with the Greek god Hephaistos. Ptah himself was part of a TRL\D at _\'lemphis, along with his consort (the lioness-goddess SEKII,\IET) and the lotus-god

gradually impinged on that of another Nlemphitc deity, thc hawk-god so" \R, resulting in the emergence of a fUnCfilry deit~ known as Ptah-Sokar (see also twmms). By the Late Period (747-332 Be) this combined deity had also taken on the attributes of OSIRIS, the god of the dead, resulting in the appearance of Ptah-Sol..arOsiris. 'Vooden images of Ptah-Sokar-Osiris were regularly included among the funerary equipment of printe indiyiduals during the Late Period, usually taking thc form of :l standing mummiform human-headed figure on a hollow wooden pedestal, sometimes with miniature falcons on the base. An earlicr version of Ihis type of funerary figure, first attested in the 19th Dynast y (129 5~ 1186 lie), simply consisted of a mummiform image of Osiris standing on a pedestal (sometimes with a BOOK OF TilE DEr\D papyrus sccreted inside). The temples of Pmh at j\'lcmphis were gradually expanded during the Pharaonic period, and furthcr important cult centres werc established at Karnak and the ~ubi;tn sites of ."-BU SI~IBEL and Gerf Husein. It has been suggested that thc name of one of his Nlemphirc shrincs, Hwt-ka-Pmh, may hare bcen corrupted by the Greeks into the word A iguptos, from which the modern nllme 'Egypt' derives. ~1. STOLK, (Berlin, 1911). .\1. S:\~I)\IA~ 1 IOI._"UE.RG, TIlt' god Pta" (Lund. 19{6). H. A. SClILOGL, Der GOII Tatem'lI (Freiburg. 1980),110-17.

P'li"

230

PTOLEMAIC PERIOD

PUNT

H. TE VEL])J~, 'Ptah\ Le.rikull der figy!J(%gie cd. W. Heick, E. Otto aod W. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1982), 1177-80. C. iVL,\\,STRE, Les grallds prEJrt'S dt' PIal! tic A1.emphis (Frciburg, 1992).

1\,

Ptolemaic period sa PTOLL\I\, Ptolemv

Name held by a sllccession or firtecn Hellenistic rulers or Egypt from 305 to 30 Be.

perhaps to usc it as a unifying political force, but in practice it was the cult of the goddess ISIS that grew and spread from Egypt. The lVbccdonians ancl other Greeks were already l~lmiliar to the Egyptians long before the arrival Alcx;lIldcr, since the Egyptian army in the Late Period (747-332 llC) had invariably included large numbers of" GREEKS as mercenaries. Ptolemaic rule, however, did not remain popular, and there were revolts in the Thcban area in 208-186 BC and 88-86 BC. As Ptolemaic

or

ing missions were sent frum at least the 5th Dvnasty (249+-2.145 IIC) onwards. There is srill some debate regarding the precisc location or Punt. Although it was once identified with the region of modern Somalia, a strong argumenr has now been made for its location in southern Sudan or the Eritrcan region of Ethiopia, where the flora and fauna correspond best with those depicted in Egyptian reliefs. Punt (the 'land of lhe god') was the source of many exotic produCI"s, such as GOI.D, arOmatic resins, African blackwood, ebony, jvory, Sl.AVES and wild animals) including monkeys and the sacred CYNOCEPHALUS baboons. The Egyptians also appear to have brought pyg~ mies hom Punt (see DWARFS .\:'\1) P\ G.vm:s), judg'ing from lhe funerary inscription of I-Jarkhul~ illl expedition leader of the reign of
1'1:1'\'"

(2278-2184

IIC).

Limes/olle rdie/s/wmillg PIO/('JI~J' lolfi:ring.flo1JJl'J"s to oue r~(the }/1fIJ/deSla/iollS oj"f/a/hor. Plo/ell/tlie period, c.JOO IJc.FoII! Kom Abu Billo, II. 3301/.
(1~,M9)

In this dictionary the 'Ptolemaic period' is taken to include the brief preceding 'Macedonian' phase (332-305 Be), encompassing thc reigns of t\LEX!\2'JDER TIIF. GRI~.'\'I (332-323 He), his h"lt~brothcr Philip Arrhidaells (323-317 lie) and his son Alexander II' (317-310 BC). The policy pursued by Alexander the Great, in which he portrayed himself as an Egyptian ruler and effectively grafted the new administration on to the existing political and religious structure, appears to have been followed by his Ptolemaic successors with varying degrees of enthusiasm and success. NIany Egyptian temples, including those at IXi\:nERt\, EDFU, ESNA and 1'01\1 Q,\lIJO, were either rebuilt, repaired or ncwly founded. Such Pharaonic administrative ;lI1d religious centres as Thebes, :Memphis and Tanis were replaced by ALEXANDRIA, a new capital city on the shores of the lV1cditerranean, the very position of which indicated the Ptolcmies' realignment of Egypt towards the .IVleditcrr:mcan region rather than Africa or western Asia. Ptolemy I Soter I (305-285 Be), founder of the Ptolemaic line, rose to the throne of Egypt after the death of Alexander IV, having aclrninistercel Egypt as a general (then knO\vn as Ptolemy of Lagos), since the death ofAlexander the Great. Ptolemy I devised the cult of SI':RAPIS from the existing cult of Osiris-A pis, hoping

rule weakened, so the Ptolemics relied ever more heavily on Rome, and eventually the actions of CLwmTI<A VII (51-30 lie), rhe daughter of Ptolemy XII (80-51 He) and sister-wife of Ptolemy XIlJ (51--47 Be), provided" pretexr for the Roman conquest- of Egypt under Octavian, the future Emperor Augustus (30 Be-AD 14). D. J. CIU\\vFORD, Kcrkcosiris, tlll1.:!J.)lpliall viI/age ill Ihe Plolemaicpcriod (Cambridge, 1(71). I I. _MAEl-ILER and V. 1vl. STROCKA (cds), Das plulemiiische .r/egYPlel/ (Mainz, 1(78). A. K. BOWi\IAN, Egypl ((Vcr Ihe pharaohs (London, 1986). N. LF,WIS, Gret'k.~ ill Plo/ell/uir EgJlpl (Oxford,

Some trading missions evidently travelled overland to Punt, but the more common route was by sea, usually departing from the pons of Quseir or lVkrsa Gawasis on the west coast of the Reel Sea. As a distant and distinctly nOllEgyptian land, Punt gradually acquired an air of fantasy, like "hat of Eldorado or Athmtis. For this reason it sometimes features in narrative tales such as rhe Title ~r Ihe Shipmra!..ed Sailor in the j\l liddle Kingdom (20551650 Be), and is also mentioned in various love poems in the New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC; see EROTIC!\). The best-documented trading expedition to Punt" waS rhaT of the reign of T-Iatshcpsut

1986).
\:V. M.
EI.LlS,

Pffl!elJl,V

r~rEgypl

(London, 19(4).

Punt (Pwcnet)
Name llsed by the ancient Egyptians to describe a region of east Ahica to which trad-

LilllfslO1le re/iej"b/ocksFoJII Ihe lemple oj" DeiI' el-Bahri. Part:l/ll, ruler oj" PUIl/, I1Jttl/..:S ill FUIlI (~rM~ obi'si' miji: Ali, mllOse tOlldilioll is Cf!llSidercd I~JI some scholars 10 be Ihe r('slI/1 OfIJl:/"t:ll111 \ distaSi'. Behilfd Iho/l (ome men tanying gUis/iJr JJalSllcpslIl 5expedilir)ll. 181h l~}Ilf(H~l', /473-1-158 Be, max. II. (~r/JItld\' "9.3 Oil. (r:,,"w.7IiU27f> .'NIJ.7J:896(,J)
}jalsl/l:pSIII al

231

PURIFIC ATION PYLO\!

(1473-1458 BC), scenes from which are depicted on the second terrace of her f uocrary

temple at DEIR EL-UAHRl. These relief.., show the

process of trading, which may have raken the particular form of barter known to anthropologists as 'silent trade\ by which the two parties in the transaction do not negotiate verbally but set out exchange-g oods until both are satisfied that the respective amounts are sufficient. Only then does actual exchange take

place. The scenes also include depictions of

conical reeel-built huts built on poles above the ground and entered via ladders. The surrounding vegetation includes palms and

'myrrh trees', some already in the process of

being hacked apart in order to extract the myrrh. \rVhcrcas the ruler of Punt was distinguished from the Egyptians prlmarily by his he.trd and unusual costume, his wife was evidently much more memorable . She is depicted as an obese woman, and the saddled donkey that carried her is singled out for particular attention, not only because of the Queen's great weight but also because it was still relatively unusual for the Egyptians HI ride either donkeys or horses at this time. The scenes also show myrrh trees being loaded on to the ships so that the Egyptians could produce their own aromatics from them. Trees such as these might eventually have been replanted in the temple at Deir el-Bahri, judging from the surviving traces of tree-pits. A stele in the mortuary temple of Amenhote p III (1390-135 2 BC) records a speech delivered by the god Amun, in which the king is informed: 'Turning my face to sunrise T created a wonder for you, I made the lands of Punt come here to you. with all the fragrant flowers of their lands, to beg your pe.lCC and breathe the air yOll give.' vv. STEVENSON SI\IITII, 'The land of Punt', lARCE 1 (1962), 59-60. R. I IERZOG, I'nll/I/ (GliiekSladt, 1968). D. M. DIXON, 'The transplantation of Punt incense lrecs in Egypt',}A 55 (1969), 55-65. K. A. Krrcm:N, 'Punt and how to get thert', Oriell/alia 40 (1971),18+-207. 1\11. LIOrll-lT::l,\I,Am;iellt Egyptian literature II (London, 1976),4/>--7. R, Ft\"rrovl\.II, 'The problem or Pum in the light of recent fieldwork in the eastern Sudan', Akten Miillcheu 1985 IV, cd. S. Schoske (Hamburg, 1991),257-72. K.A. KITun:x, 'The Land of Punt', The archaeology ofAfrica, cd. T. Shaw ct :11. (London, 1993),587-608.

purification see I'RTESTS; SACRED LAKE; 'I:AROO

and 232
WATER

pylon (Greek: 'gate') Nlassive cercmonia l gatcway (Egyptian bekhenet) consisting of two tapering towers linked by a bridge of masonry and surmounted by a cornice. Rituals relating to the sun-god were evidently carried out on top of the gateway. The pylon was lIsed in temples from at least the Middle Kingdom to the Roman period (c.205S BC-AD 395). It has been tentatively suggested that the earliest known pylons Inay have been constructe d in the pyramid complex and sun temple of the 5th-Dynas ty ruler Nyuserra (2445-2421 Be) at ",'USI. and ABU GURAIJ, but the oldest intact examples are those in Theban royal mortuary temples of the New Kingdom (1550--1069 BC), such as \IED'''ET HAUL" and the RA.\IESSEli\ l, The pylon was usually filled with rubble (often consisting of blocks plundered from earlier temples) as in the case of TAI.ATAT BLOCKS), but many also contained internal stairs and rooms, the purpose of which is uncertain. Ancient depictions of pylons show that the deep vertical recesses visible along the f:u;ades of surviving examples were intended to hold flagsmffs; above each groove was a small window through which the nag could be attached. Such flags would have h'1d particular sibrnificance in the context of the temple, in that the Egyptian word for 'god' (netjer) rook the form of a symbol usually interpreted as a fluttering pennant. Pylons were frequently decorated with reliefs enhanced with bright paint and inlays, in which the scenes tended to emphasize the theme of royal power, since the outer pylon would have been the most visible part of the

First pyloll of/ht temple oIiJis at Phil(le. Thl're/iris on the outer Jaces ofthe pylon's tomeI'S are typical. shoming the ki1lg (Ptolemy XII Nco.\' Di01~)ISO.\') strikil1g}Oreigu captives /1Jith {{ 11Iace. The scenes mould originally have been painted. (t, 511 m)
temple for the great mass of the population who were forbidden to pass beyond the first courtyard. The most common motif on the pylon was that of the king smiting foreign enemies or offering captives to a god. Many temples had only one pylon, but d,e morc important religious complexes consisted of long successions of pylons and courtyards, each added or embellished by different rulers; the temple ofAmul1 at KAR.L\:AK, for i.nstancc, has ten pylons. In the unusual temples dedic-ned to the Aten in the city at EL-/\M;\Ri\A , the p.\lons appear to havc been somewhat different, consisting of pairs of separme LOwers wir-hout any bridging masonry between them. It is likely Ihat the pylon represented the two mountains of the IIQIUZO:-.l (llkltet) bet\\ccil which the SUIl rose, thus contributin g to the TF.:\II'LE'S role as a symbol of the cosmos and the act of creation. The towers were each identified with the goddesses ISIS and NEIll ITI..n s. F. \. \'ON 13ISSI'\IG et aI., Das Re-Heiligtll/1/ tit'S KQl1igs Ne-IVoser-Re I (l.. cipzig, 1905),8-10 , 19-24. L. BORCI/.\RDT, Das Gmbdellkmal ties Kijlligs ",,lISer-Rt" (Leipzig, 1907), 97. T DOMBARIH, 'Del' zwcitiirige Tempelpylon altagyptiseher Baukunst und seine religiose Symbolik', EgyptiallRd igioll 1 (1933), 87-98. P. A. SPENO:R, The Egyptian temple: a lexicogm.phiml study (London, 198+), 193-+.

PYRAMID

PYRAMID

pyramid
Funerary monument, built usuaIJy of Stone masonry and consisting of four triangular sides meeting in a point. It served as the focal point - or at least the most visible componcm _ of Egyptian royal funerary complexes from the 3rd Dynasty (2686-2613 BC) to the Second Intermediate Period (1650-1550 BC). Throughollt the rest of the Pharaonic period private tombs occasionally incorporated 5ma11scale mud-brick or stone pyramidia'. The Illodern term derives from the Greek word pyro111s ('wheat cake'), presumably because cakes orrhis type wcre pyramidal in shape; the ancient Egyptian word, however, was mer. In purely architectural terms, pyramids can be divided into two broad types: 'step pyra-

mids' and 'true pyramids'. The first step

pyramids appear to 113\-0 developed initially out of the rectangular royal and private i\lAS'rAIlA tombs of the Early Dynastic period (3100--2686 ne), but by the carll' 4th Dyna>ty the first smooth~sidcd true pyramid had bccn constructed at OM'SIlUR. Ovcr the next thousand years the pyramid gradually acquired a wide range of symbolic meanings. 1'hc full-scale 'pyramid complex' consistcd of a true pyramid with its mortuary and valley temples, a causeway between the two lattcr, and usually a number of smaller 'subsidiary pyramids'; this had evolved by the beginning of the 4th Dynasty. However, the origins of the pyramid complex can be discerned in the royal LOmhs and <funerary enclosures' at Early Dynastic ABYooS and the Old Kingdom Step Pyramid complex at SAQ<tAlu\. Chronology and development: The first" step pyramid was built by the architect IMI-IOTEP for the 3rd-Dynasty ruler Netjerikhet DJOSf.R (2667-2648 BC) at 5i\ClQ!\RA. From the reign of Djoser onwards the pyramid complex was established as the royal funerary monument and burial-place. Djoser's pyramid seemS to have initially taken the form of a huge mastaba, built in stolle rather than mud-brick, but it was gradually extended and elaborated until it became a pyramidal superstructure consisting of six massive steps and reaching a height of 60111, making it clearly visible from the capital city of Nlemphis. A passage from the nonh side led to the subterranean royal buriaJ chamber, and elevcn subsidiary chambers for members of the family. A series of ancillary chambers and corridors were decorated with elaborate bluc FAII~NCE tiles and relief sculpture showing the king performing: rites at his royal jubilee (SED FI'5TII'AL). In Djoser's complex the recesscd, 'palacefac;ade' style of the superstructures of Saqqara mastaba tombs of the Early Dynastic period

was used to decorate the great enclosure wall surrounding the pyramid and its ancillary buildings. It is thus thought likcly that Djoser's monument was a combination of a royal tomb and a 'funerary enclosure' (or 7idbezirk), such as those of the 15t- and 2ndDynasty rulers at Abydos (e.g. the Shunet e1Zebib complex of KHASEKl tEM\\~'). To the cast of Djoser's pyramid was an open area surrounded by rows of solid 'dummy' buildings apparently intcnded to replicate various provincial shrines. This part of the complex waS almost certainly connected with the celebration of the sed festival, although it is not clear whether the ritual itself would h.lve been enacted there during the king's lifetime. A mortuary temple, now badly ruined, stood on the north side of the pyramjd, <md a large rectangular structure known as the ~south mastaba' lay at the south end of the enclosure (perhaps serving as a cenotaph balancing the main pyramid and thus symbolizing the DUALITY of the Egyptian kingship). The complex as a whole seems to have been simultaneously a permanent monumental equivalent of the sed festival and the celebration of the royal funerary cult. As later pyramids became more concerned with the king's solar connections, the importance of the sed festival as an element of the funerary complex appears to have diminished correspondingly. Thc remains of the unfinjshed step-pyramid complex of SEKlIE.\IKlIET (2648-2640 BC) arc situated a short distance ro the southwest of Djoser's complex. A few other surviving traces of enclosure walls at the western side of the Saqqara necropolis, including the so-called Great Enclosure (currently being investigated by a team from the Royal Museum of Scotland), suggest that further 3rd-Dynasty rulers probably began to crect similar mOnuments. It is also worth pointing ollt that lhe use of steps in pyntmid-building nevcr truly died out, in thaI many true pyramids continued to consist of a stepped slTucture, which was simply transformed by the application of a smooth outer casing. The late 3rd-Dynasty (or early 4th-Dynasty) pyramid at j\lEIDUM, for example, was originally conceived as a step pyramid; in this instance, however, the smooth outer casing eventually collapsed, and the original stepped core of the superstructure was revealed. The two pyramids of SNEFERU (26132589 BC) at DAHSHUR were probably the first royal funerary monuments to be conceived as true pyramids from the outset. The southernmost of these is known as the 'bent pyramid' (or 'rhomboidal pyramid'), owing ro the

marked change of angle part-way up its profile, from 54 27' in the lower part to 43 22' in the upper. However, the 'northern pyramid' (or 'red pyramid') was successfully completed with a constant angle of 4Jo 22'. From this time onwards the practice of giving names to pyramids is regularly attested; thus the north pyramid was known as 'Sneferu appears in glory' and the bent pyramid as 'Sneferu of the south appears in glory'. Howcver, it was Sneferu's son KIIUFU (2589-2566 Be) whose name came to be most intimately linked with pyramjd construction, since his funerary monument is the Great Pyramid at (jIZA, the largest sun'iving pyramid. It stands alongside two other smaller pyramid complexes belonging to two of his successors, KII.\FRA (2558-2532 Be) and l\lENKt\UR,\ (2532-2503 Be) (although the unfinished pyramid complex of his immediate successor, Djcdefra (2566-2558 BC), was located further lO the north at ABU ROASll). As far as the overall devcloprncnt of the pyramid complex was concerned, the basic components were already prescnt" in the Giza monuments, which were first scientifically studied by Flinders Petrie in 1880-2. Each pyramid was entered by a passage from the north, and on its cast side was a mortuary temple, usually interpreted as the royal equiv~ alent of the MASTAUA funerary chapel. A walled (later roofed) causeway led down from the mortuary temple to the valley temple, which was associated with the royal funeral riles and statue cults. All of the Giza pyramids, as well as mosl other surviving pyramids, were accompanied by 'subsidiary pyramids' of varying size and number, located within l'he main pyramid enclosure; some of these are described as 'qucen's pyramids" since they were probably built for the king's wives, while others may have served a similar purpose to the 'south mastaba' in Djoser's complex. The internal anangements of the Great Pyramid were atypical in that there were three burial chambers - onc subtcrranean and the other two built into the core of the superstructure - whereas most other pyramids had only one subterranean burial chamber hewn out of the bedrock below the superstructure. Small shafts, usually known as lair shafts', lead from the uppermost chamber of the Great Pyramid to the outside of the pyramid, while similar ones lead from the so-called 'Queen's chamber' several metres below. Thc investigation of one of these vents in 1993 revealed the presence of a blockage midway along the passage, which may be ~l door to a fourth chamber or perhaps simply closes off the shaft. 233

I'
PYRAMID PYRA'.1.1D

I t has long been suggested that the 'air shafts' in the Great Pyramid actually scrred

some astronomical function, since they arc evidently carefully aligned with ,"ariolls stars,
including the constellation of Orion (the Egyptian god SAIl), which might have heen the intended destination of the king's 13i\, when he ascended to mkc his place among the circumpolar Slars. A certain amount of asrronomiC'JI obscn'..u-ion WilS clearly used in the process of pyramid-building, p..u ticularly in terms of the pn.::cise alignment with the cardinal points, but there seems to be little foundation for the suggestion that the layout of the three pyramids at Glzil was intended to symbolize the shape of the belt of Orion.

The pyramids 01" t\BUSIR, which date to the 5th Dynasty (2494-2345 BC), are regarded as the peak of de,e1opmem of the standard pyramid complex, alt.hough both their architectural quality and their size are less imprcssive than those of the Giza pyramids. h has been suggested that the more modest scale of the Abusir pyramids might have partially resulted from the diversion of resources into the sun temples that began 10 be erected in the 5th Dynasty (sec ,\Ill) Gul<AIl). The layout uf the complexes differs only in the sense that they show less variability, and .1 subsidiary pyramid began to be regularly placed in the southeast corner of the enclosure.

The last 5th-Dynasty ruler, L\I\S (2J75-2345 BC), seems to have been the tirstto inscribe the PYR,\ \IID TEXTS on the internal walls of his pyramid at Saqqara. This practice was then taken lip by the rulers of the 6th Dynasty (2345-2181 BC) and their quceos, pro"iding Egyptologists with a set of almost eight hundred early religious 'uneranees' that h~nc prm'ided a useful body of eyidence with regard to the symbolism and purpose of pyramid complexes. The standard of workmanship of pyramids appears to have declined along with the political and economic structllre of the Old Kingdom, ~tnd the pyramid complex all hut disappeared in the First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 Be). However, the form began to be used again in the lVliddlc Kingdom, when the state had been reunified. The unusual funerary complex of the 11th-Dynasty ruler "E"TUlIOTE" II (2055-200{ Be) at 1)1.1" t,l.l1.\IIRI may have incorporated a pyrarni();ll sliperstrllcrure (although opinions differ on this poilU), but the full pyramid complex was reintroduced with the complexes of -\\IE'\'EMIIAT I and SI:'"U.SRET I al EL-L1SI-IT. Later 12th- and 13th-Dynast)' pharaohs built pyramids at Dahshllr, II:\WARA, Saqqara, ~Ilazghuna and EI.-1.1\lIU.'\!. These pynlmids made extensive usc of mud-brick, llsing stone only for cross walls which were then infiUed with rubble or mud-brick, although the whole edifice was given a casing of fine limestone so that externally it would have appeared as well built as those of the Old Kingdom. However, the subsequent removal of these outer casings has reduced them to a more severely weathered state than their stone-built predecessors. No pyramids have sun-ivcd from the 14th to 16th Dynasties (1750-1650 Be), although there were a few small mud-brick 17thDynasty pyramjds at western Thebes, and the 17th-Dvnasty ruler IIL'tOSE I (1550-1525 BC) is known to have constructed a cenmaph at Abydos in the form of a mud-brick pyramid. Thereafter, the 'pyramidion' became a comparatively minor clement in the pyr;lll1idshaped superstructures of pri,-atc funerary chapels, as in the case of the cemetery of the f'\ew Kingdom workmen at IlEIR EL-\I1 ilL' \ . .M.anv hundreds of "C;lrs after 1he construction or t1~c last Egypti-all pyramid comp1L'\, the pyramid form was revived - albeit" on a smaller scale and with much steeper sides - in the

The pyrtlmids ofKlll~rll, Khafra fIIlll J\1eul'arml (1/ Gi:::.a, midllhe sulw'diarypyramids ()!Jlmhw rll in IITefim:growrd. -I,IT Dy"ll.If:)1 e. 2589-250311G".
(G/UII.JM Il-IRR/SOV)

234

PYRAMID

PYRAMID TEXTS

funerary monuments of the Nilp~llan and Mcroiril: kings of Nuhia (sec .\lEROE, '\J;\P\T\

and "URI).

A1eJllOds of fOIlS/rIIt/ion: "rherc has been considerable speculation concerning the I11CJns used to construct the pyramids. No textual records outlining such methods hasc sunivcd l although presumably this omission is a result of the aCl.:idcnt of prcscn.ttion (or perhaps cyen a proscription on the description of such a sacred (;lsI\); the suggestion is occasionally made that no records were kept because pyf;lmid construction was regarded as a comp.uatively prosaic activity not worthy of record, bur this is surely unlikely, gi"cn the Yast resources and amounts of labour i,wohcd in such projects. The careful sun'cy work begun by PETRIE, and extended in rCl:cnt timcs by .Mark Lehner, has shown that the Giza site was carefully levelled, probably by l:utling i-l series of trenches as " grid and flooding thcm with water, then reducing the surrounding stone "islands' ro the desired level. The cardinal points would subsequently have been determined astronomically (see t\STROI'\'O,\'1 AND ASTROLOGY). Much of the required stonc was obtaincd from sources immcdiately adjaccnt to the l:omplcxes themselves, with only the fine limestone for the outer casing being brought from Tur;.l aeross the river. \hen granite was needed, for such purposes as the lining of burial chambers or, in the case of ~Ilenkaura, part of the casing, it was brought up the Nile from Aswan (and indeed reliefs in the causeway of Unas show granite columns being conveyed by boat from the quarries to ,he temple). The fInal stage of transporting the stone would probably not have been as difficult as it now appears, since the nood waters of the annual l'IUr\IJATIOi\ would have allowed the boat'i to bring lhe stone close to the pyramid itself. Since the Oood also produced 'l slack period in the agricultural year, the king was able to employ large bodies of seasonally available labour. The methods hy which Ihe stone blocks were raised into position remains a contentiolls issue. A variety of techniques have been suggested} from the usc of simple nancs (based on the $I-IAIJUF style of" irrigi.ltion) to elaborate systems of levers and rockers, which would certainly have been used in positioning the blocks. What seems certain, from the archaeological evidence, is that ramps were used. These would have grown longer and higher as the pyramid became hlloger1 and would no doubt have been major fcats of engineering in themselves. There arc only surviving traces of long, straight ramps, but it has been suggested that the terraced nature of thc

pyramid core would hayc often made it" 1110re convenient to usc a series of much smaller r:trnl's buill along the sides of the pyramid from stcp 1:0 step; the remains of these would no doubt have been lost when the outer casing was applied. The l.i.lsing would h:lve been smoothed fi'om top ro bottom while the sC'Jffolding or ramps were gradually cleared ;lway. Once the debris had been clc.lred from the site, the mortuary temple and subsidiary pyramids would no doubt hayc been completed. It is also possible that the causeways from pyramid to "'lIlC~ temple originally sen-cd as construction ramps from quay ro building site, and the miley temple would ha,"c been built beside a quay connccred with the Nile by canal. SYIlI/Jo!ism alJ(! purpose: There is general agreement that the fundamental purpose o[ rhe pyramid WaS to serve as a highly visible superstructure for royal burials (with the cxception of seven late 3rd-Dynasl)' non-scpukhral step pyramids, perh"lps erected as symbols of royal power at provincial capitals; sec NOMES). There is, however, still a grcat deal of debate concerning the symbolism of it:s shape and design. It has been suggesred that it represented the PRIMEVAl. 1\10UND of creation, on which the sun-god W..IS thought ro have been born, and which was probably first symbolized by the Hcliopoliran BE~IlEJ\ SIDNE. Sinl:e thc pyramidion at the top of cadI pyramid was often gilded and was closely connected with the sun, it has been proposed that the building was intended to symbolize the sloping rays of the sun. However, it has also been suggl."Stcd thal, particularly in the case of the step pyramids, there may ha"e been an as."iociation with the idea of ascending to the hel\'ens on a stairway, since it was believed, from at least the Old Kingdom onwards, th.lt the deceased were able to rise up to the night sky, becoming transformed into 'imperishable stars'" There is also a great deal of symbolism in the ,"..l rious 10c.1tions of such features of the pyramid complex as the entrance to the pyramid, the mortuary and valley temples, the subsidiary pyramids, as welJ as more detailed fe"lll1rcs, such as the position of the sarcophagus and the orientation of the internal corridor and chambers. The Greek historian IIERODOTUS (,-.484420 Be) gave an account of the pyramids, hut: Pliny (iH) 23-79) scems to have been the (irst ancient writer to suggest that they might have contained treasure. After the Arab conquest (AI) 641), such stories of buried riches led to numerous attempts to open the pyramids, although the contents of the burial chambers were always found to have been long since

plundered. Various myths concerning the origins and significance of pyramids pcrsisted among Europcan travellers, including the ingenious theory that they had funcrioned as the granaries of the Biblical]oseph. In modern timcs, much stranger theories continue ro he concocted concerning the nature of pynllnids, and the pragmatic accounts of generations of archaeologists have done little to dispel the popular belief that they arc emhodiments of some lost mystic knowledge and/or the key to the ulldcrsmnding of the uni,crse. W. -"I. F. PETRIE, The pyrt/mids tl1ullemples of Ci",h (London, 1883).
D. ARSOJ.D, Built/illg ill
l.~!{J'PI: pharaonic slullt!

mtl.wllry (Oxford, 1991).

G. l"l\RT. Pharaohs tllld pYrfl1l/itl.~ (London, 1991). J-P. L'LER, I,fs P.JlJ"tI/1/ities til' Stllktlrfl, 6th cd.

(Cairo, 1991). I. E. S. EDWARDS, 'l'Il' pyramids oIfgypt. 5th ed. (llarmondsworth, 1993). C. S<..:1\I00:, 'The meaning of death: funerary beliefs and the prehisrorian', The (Jllcit'lIll11illd: elt'lIIcn/.l' oj"(ogllilivc archaeology, cll. C. Renfrew and L B. W. Zubrow (Cambridge, 1994),75-82. R. ST,\rl!-:I ..\MN\, 'Dic sogcn<1l1l1ten Luftkaniilc del' Chcopspyramidc 1\Ilodellkorridurc fur den Aufsricg des Konig's zum I limmer, A/IDA1K 50 (1994),53-6.

Pyramid Texts
The earlicst Egyptian funerary texts, comprising some eight hundred spells or '"utteranccs' writtcn in columns on the walls of the corridors and burial chambers of nine pyramids of the late Old Kingdom (2375-2181 Be) and First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 ue). In modern texts and translations of the Pyramid Texts the individual utterances arc conventionally numbered in a sequence relating to their usual position in the pyramid, progressing frol11 the burial chamber outwards, although it has been suggested that the opposite order (from tlle entrance to the burial chamber) may in fact be a more logical sequcnce. Siegfried Schott, for instance, has argued thar the tcxts make up a ritu;tlistic description of the funereal progress of the king's dead body from its arrival in the vi-llley temple to its deposition in the burial chamber. Although the carliest surviving Pyramid Texts are inscribed in the 5th-Dynasty pyramid of UNA, (2375-2345 Be) at Saqqara, the examples in the pyramid of I'EI'Y I, a short: distance to thc south, were the first to be discovercc!. They were inscribed in the pyramids of' six king, altogether (all buried at Saqqara between the 6th and 8th Dynasties), as well as in Lhe three pyramjds of Pepy II'S queens. No single pyramid contains the whole collection

235

PYRAMID TEXTS QADESH ,

BATTL E~

of spells, the maximum number being 675 utterances in the pyramid of Pcpy II (2278-2184 BC). The constant references to the cult of the sun-god in the texts suggest that they were probablv composed by the priesls of llEl.lOPOLIS. There appear to have been several basic categories of utrerancc, including what might be described as 'magical' spells aiming to prevent harm to the deceased; these often usc archaic language perhaps indicating the Predynasti c origins of the ideas. Indeed, sometimes these magical utterances seem to be referring to aspects of the funerary cull that wcre no longer current at the time that the pyramids were builr, as in the case of Ulteranees 273-4 (the 'Cannibal Hymn'), which appear only in the pyramids of Unas and TETI (see I-IUMAN SACRIFICE). A nodlcf type of utterance seems to consist of the texts of various rituals which would have been performed at the royal funeral, with the deceased addressed as OSIR'S. This type of spell, which includes texts dealing both with offerings and with the resurrectio n, was inscribed in the burial chamber itself, no doubt the most sacred part of the pyramjd. The OPENING OF "1'1 [f. J"IOVTH CEREr...IONY is first recorded in these ritual texts, along with the carly offering ritual. Another category of spell, generally inscribed on the walls of the ante-cham ber and corridor l seems to have been intended to be uttered by the tomb owner personally. I-I. RICKE, Bemerkungel1 Z/lI" Ii'gyptischel1 Sal/kunst des Abell Reich.'i (Zurich and C'liro, 1944-50). S. SUIO"JT, BemerJnwgell :::.um iigyptischell Pyramidenkult (Cairo, 1950). R.o. FAULKNER, The lIncient Egyptilln pyramid lexlS (Oxford, 1969). J. P. AJ.I.E!'\, 'The Pyramid Texts ofQ.leens Ipwt and Wdbt-m. (j)',]AIICE 23 (1986),1-2 5 \v. B.O\R:r.\, 'Die Pyramidcnte..xtc auf den Privatsargen des Nlittleren Reichcs', zAs 113 (1986), 1-8 J OSING, 'Zur Disposition der Pyramidentexte des Unas', MDAIK, 42 (1986),131-44.

~ Oa'a (Ka'a) (c.2890

'Na'am troops '\

BC)

Egyptian camp

Last ruler of the 1st Dynasty (3100-2890 BC), who was probably buried in Tomb Qat ABY1>05, excavilted first by Emile Amelineau and later by Flinders PETRIE at the turn of the century. 'rhe tomb was re~excavatcd by Gunther Dreyer and Werner Kaiser in 1991-2. Two typical royal funerary stelae bearing the king's name were found on the cast side of the tomb. The recent excavations show that the tomb WilS built in stages, with the thick walls of the central burial chamber eventually being hollowed out to create extra magazines. The discovery of seal impressions and other artefacts bearing the name of Hetcpsekhemwy, the first ruler of the 2nd Dynasty (2890--2686 BC), suggests that there may have been no real brea.k between the 1st and 2nd Dynasties. Four tombs at Saqqara have been dated 10 Q!I'a's reign, including the large MA~n:I\.B.'\ tombs 3500 and 3505. The latter incorporates a set of rooms on the north side of the superstructure, where the lower parts of two wooden statues were found. It has been suggested that this maze of rooms may have served as an offering chapel which would perhaps have been an antecedent of the mortuary temple in pyramid complexes. The stelae of two of ~'a's officials, i\1erka and Sabef, bear more complex inscriptions than those of earlier reigns, suggesting an increasingly sophisticated usc of the hieroglyphic script. \V. 1\11. F. PETRlE, The royal tombs ofthe firsl dyllasty I (London, 1900). "V. B. Er,IIERY, Creal lombs ofthefirsl (~}'l1asty III (London, 1958). w. B. EMERY, Archaic Egypt (London, 1961), 86-91. A. J. SPENCER, Early Egypt (London, 1993), 83-4.

.... ::

Hittites

The Bailie ofQatlesh. In the summer of the fourth year of his reign (c.I275 BC), Rameses II launched a military campaign into the Levant. He succr.;cded in consolidat ing Egyptian control of the provinces of Canaan and Upi and recaptured Amurru without coming into direct conflict with the Hittites, Egypl's principal riYals in the region. Because Rameses then forced the prince of Amurru to sign a vassal treat) wi1Jl Egypt, the Hittite king lVluwatallis is s:lid to have sworn to regain the Syrian territories. tor his part Rameses was now keen to cnpitalize on his successes by pushing forward into the area of central Syria and the city of Q!ldesh in the spring of 1274 Be. In his second campaign, Ramescs sent :1 division of elite troops (the Na(arn) northwards along the Phoenician coast, while the main army, divided into four divisions (named Amun, Pre, Prah and Seth), marched through Canaan and Upi to approach Qtdesh from the south. i\1~nwhile, i\1uwatallis had assembled an army said to have been more than double the size of the Egyptian forces. \Vhile Ramescs and his army were passing rhrough the wood ofLabni, a few miles to the

Oadesh (goddess) see Q1:0ESIIET Oadesh. Battle of (c. 1274 BC) Military clash between RAMESES" (1279-1213 Be) and the HJ1~nTE king l\1uwatallis, which was the first major conflict in the ancient world to be described in detail. There arc thirteen sUT\iving Egyptian accounts of the barrie, recorded both on papyri and on the walls of many of Rameses II'S temples in Egypt and Tubia. These thirteen versions are also written in three different literary forms: poem, bulletin and captioned reliefs.
236

Q!l.NTIR

QEBEHSENUEF

south of ctIdcsh, two captured 8EIJQUIN convinced them that the Hittites were still a considerable distance away, in the area of Aleppo. By the time it was realized that the Hittites wefe in fact camped nearby, just across the Orontcs, Ramcscs had already set lip camp near ~desh and his three other divisions wcre still some way behind. Before anything could be done to remedy this situation the Hittite chariots launched their attack, taking the Pre division by surprise and sending them fleeing north towards Rameses and the Egyptian camp. Although Rameses is said to have rallied the combined troops of Amun and Pre in an attempt to rescue the situation, it is clear that the Egyptians might have been routed at this stage if it had not been for thc timely arrival of the Na'arn troops. Thc Egyptians wcre thcn able to regroup and push back the Hittite chariotry, thus allowing the Ptah and Seth divisions finally to catch up with the rest. The following morning the battle resumed but eventually they reached a stare of stalemate. In the subsequent exchange of envoys Rameses (unlike his lather SETY I) refused to make a treaty and returned to Egypt with the control of Amurru still unresolved. Moreover, as soon as he had retreated, the Hittites gained control of both Amurru and Upi, thus pushing back the Egyptian frontier to the borders of Canaan. Despite Rameses I1'S euphemistic accounts of the battle, he was finally obliged to make a treaty with a new Hittite king, Hattusilis Ill, in 1259 BC, in order that Egypt and the Hittites could form a united front in the face of the growing threat or the ASSYRIAN empire of Shalmancscr I. J l-l. BREASTED, The Bailie of Klldes;', II SllId), in Lhe earlies/. kl10mn mili/.alY s/.rategy (Chicago, 1903). H. GOEDICKE, 'Considerations on the Battle of Kadesh',JEA 52 (1966), 71-80. K. KITCHEN, Pharaoh frill1J1plull1/ (Warminster, 1982), 53-62. H. GOWICKE (cd.), Perspet/ives oll/;'e Batlie of Klldes;' (Baltimore, 1985). B. OCKINGA, 'On the interpretation of the Kadesh record', edE 62/123-4 (1987), 38-48.

TI1JO pO~)lcllI'(J1/lej{liellce liles sllOming an aquatii" scene, F0111 a palnce ofRa1/1eses II al Ql1ltir. L. 59.7 CW.
(UF7ROI'OUTIlN MUSEUM, NEW YORK, ROGHRS FUND AND EDJf'/lRD S. HANKNESS GIF'I;

35.1.104)

vations in the 1980s have reveal cd military barrack-rooms and workshops, also dating to the Ramesside period. By the end of the New Kingdom (d069 BC) the city had diminished in importance and a great deal of its stonework was transferred to the temples at TANIS in the 21st Dynasty and Bubastis (TELL BASTA) in the 22nd Dynasty. W. C. HAYES, Glazed tiles/rom a palai"e (!{ Ra.11Iesses II at Kantir (New York, 1937). E. UPIIII.J., The temples QIPer Ramesses (Warminster, 1984). M. BIU'AK, Avaris and Piramesse, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1986). E. PUSGI, 'Bericht tiber die sechste Hauptkampagne in Q?ntir' Piramesse-Nord herbst 1988', GM 112 (1989), 67-90. - , 'Auslrindisches Kulturgut in (~ntir Piramessc', Aklen Miilldwi 1985, cd. S. Schoske (Hamburg, 1989),249-56.

ing to the Meroitic, IV,LLANA, Christian and Islamic phases of the site's history. W. B. Ei\'IERY and L. P. KIRWAN, The excavations (wd Sllrvey between Wadi es-Sebua tlud Adilldan /919-31 (Cairo, 1935),268-77. R. A. C.-\MJNOS, The shrines alld rock insetipliollS oI Ibrilll (London, 1968). W. Y. ADAMS, 'Q?sr Ibrim: an archaeolog'ical conspectus', Nubitlll Stlldies: proceedjllp oflhe ~)llJlposiuI11Jo" Nubian sludies, 1978, cd. J. Plumley (Warminster, 1982),25-33. A. J. )\1ILLS, The fewe/aies oIQpsr lbrjm (London, 1982). M. HINDS and V. MENAGE, Qpsr Ibrim in the Ottoman period (London, 1991). M. HORTON, 'Africa in Egypt: new evidence from Qlsr Ibrim', Egypt alld Africa, cd. W. V. Davies (London, 1991),264-77.

Qebehsenuef see SONS OF

1I0ltUS

Qantir (anc. Piramesse) Site of the ancient Egyptian harbour-town of Piramesse, located in the eastern Delta near modern e1-Khatana. Piramesse was founded by Sety I (1294-1279 BC) and transformed into a new royal residence and scat of government by his successor Rameses II (1279-1213 BC). A mUd-brick PALACE dating to the earliest phase of the town was discovered in 1929, and exca~

Gasr Ibrim (anc. Pedeme, Prim is) Site of a Lower Nuhian multi-period fortified settlement, now located on a headland in Lake Nasser about 240 km south of Aswan, which has been excavated by the Egypt Exploration Society every two ycars since 1961. The earliesl activity at QIsr Ibrim dates to the late New Kingdom (c 1000 BC), and the site was occupied throughout successive periods until the early nineteenth century AD, when the garrison was still manned by Ottoman soldiers from Bosnia. The principal surviving building is a Nubian cathedral dating to the eighth century AD. Remains from earlier periods include fouf rock-shrines dating to the New Kingdom (d550-1069 BC) and a number of temples dating from the 25th Dynasty (747-656 BC) to the late MEROITIC period (C.AD 100-350). To the north and south of the main town-site there are a number of cemeteries, mainly dat-

Qedeshet (Q,'desh, Q,ldshu) SYRIAN goddess, generally portrayed as a naked woman (viewed frontally), holding flowers and snakes, and standing on the back or a lion. Her cult began to be celebrated in Egypt at least as early as the 18th Dynasty (1550-1295 BC).

Limestoue relie/fragment depii"ting tire Asiatic goddess Q!deshe/.. She holds a 10/llS ill ouc haud and snakes ill tire olher. 19th Dj/nasty, e.1250 lie, /1.25.5 WI. (EA60J08)

237

QUDSI-IU

QUEE~

Such was her assimilation into Egyptian religion that sht; was considered to be a member of a THUD along with the fertility g'od ,\IIN and

the Asiatic

dcit~, RESIIIT.

She was also linked

both with the Egyptian goddess llATllOH and with AN.'\'!' and ASTARTE, two other Asiatic goddesses ,,-hose cults had filtered into Egypt. j. LEIBOrITClI, tUne imitation d'cpoque grccoromaine d'tme stele de la dcessc Qldcch', ASAt' 41 (1941), 77-R6. 1. E. S. Emv!\RDS, 'A relief of Qu.lshu-As[;lrtcAnath in the vVinchcstcr College collcction\ .JiVES 14 (1955), 49-51.

R. ST\UEI,,\\'\:\i\', Syriscli-paliisfillisdle GOlllieitell illri"gyptell(Leith:n, 1(67), 110-23. C. Ct.A,\IER, 'A gold plaque from Tell Lachish', Journal ({Ihi' tel Ariz' Ulli;;t.'rsi~)' 1m/illile (~r /lrdwcoll)gJl 7 (1980), 152-62.

Oudshu see Iv:m:S1IET queens

Term usually applied to various female relatives of the pharaoh, although considerable caution is necessary in using the word in an ancient Egyptian context) since there is nO Egyptian term precisely corresponding to it. Instead, the Egyptian texts tend to highlight a number of important women who arc defined by their kinship ",ith the king. There are three main types of 'queen': the Lgreat royal wife' (hcme//lc.I"11l mere!), the 'king's mother' (lII}})l /les}})) and the 'king's wives' (ltelll}})/ lIesm). The great royal wife appears to have been second only to the king in terms of the politiGlI and religious hierarchy, and she is often represented alongside him on monuments. Very occasionalJy, as in the case of NEFERTITI, she was also represented alone. ft was usually one of the sons of the great royal wife who was heir to the throne. For many years scholars believed that succession to the throne \Vas purely via the female line; it was thus suggested that each king, irrespective of whether he was the son of Lhe previous ruler, had to marry a sister or half-sister in order to legitimize his claim to the throne. This so-called 'heiress theory' would have meant that one of the daughters of the previous king would always have become a great royal wife in the subsequent reign. However, it has been pointed out that there arc several clear instances where kings married women who were not their sisters, as with the marriage of Amenhotep 111 (1390-1352 Be) to TIY, the daughter of a chariotry officer, therefore the theory is no longer accepted. II has been suggested that the popularity of the 'heiress theory' may have been due partly to the attempts of carlier scholars to explain the

Brol/ze slatuelle o/tl quem, Itlle Nem Kingdom,

11.22 Wi. (1:..154388)

Egyptians' apparent acceptance of the royal practice of incest (sec ~'ll\I{RIAGI::). The 'mother of the king' was an important member of the royal family, and, like the great wife (and sometimes also the royal (bughter), she was often depicted alongside the king all his monuments. For example, Queen Til' still enjoyed considerable prominence in the reign of her son I\KlIF:~i\TEN (1352-1336 Be). The third category of queen, the 'king's wives\ were simply the Ol"her women to whom he 'vas married, most of whom would have resided in the IIt\RIM. From the New Kingdom (l550-1069 Be) onwards these wives would often have included foreign women married as part of a diplomatic arrangement. It seems to have been COlllmon fiJI' foreign rulers to be asked to send their daughrers to Egypt, where they would have effectively been treated either as tribute or as hostages, guaranteeing the preservation of good relations between the two rulers. The relationship thus established was perhaps more of a link between two ruling families than between two states, since a newly

.lccedcd foreib'1l ruler waS orten asked to pro\ride a new daughter, even though the daug:h_ ITr of his predecessor was no doubt still liyingand married to the Egyptian king. Because the conventions at" Egyptian .In and literature t"ocus largely on the king and his exploits, little information has survi\'ed Concerning l:ven the most E1l110US queens, such as Tiy, Nefertiti and ~EI'TRTAI{I, the wire Rameses II (1279-1213 lie). There arc also comparatively few surviving personal det.lils concerning II,HSIlEPSUT (1473~145R lIe)1 who waS both a queen and a king, in that she ruled initially as a regent and then assumed the full attributes of kingship for many years. 1\lost of" her monuments were damaged and ah:ered by her stepsun and succcssor, Thutmosc III (1-f.79~1425 I3c) who, late in his reig'n, appc~lrs to have reacted against the idea of a female king, which might have been regarded as ;111 abnormality, a contLl\Tntion of the Egypti.1I1 conception of M,\AT (truth and harmony). h is clear, therefore, that ~ however powerful queens may have been and howeyer much influence they might have wielded O\'cr Lhl' kings' decisions ~ they remain shadO\\-y figures, effectively masked by the powerful iconography of the king, which usually suggests that it was the p1:lce or the king's wife or mother to be the epitome of feminine grace while her husband typified the essence of masculine power. B. J. KE1\!I', 'The harim-palace at Nledinet c1Ghurab', zAs 105 (l9iS), 122-33. A. R. Sf] IUI ..\'lAN, 'Diplomatic marriage in the Egyptian New Kingdom',JNES 38 (]<)79)1
177~9J.

or

G. ROBl:'\'S, 'A critical examination of the theory that the right to the throne of ~lIlcient Egypl passed through the female line in the 18th Dynasty', eM 62 (1983) 67-77. L. TROY, Pal/ems (~(qllcell.\"ip in ({I/rim/ ExyjJf;al/ myth al/(I his/IJ1Y (Uppsala, 1(86). G. ROlliNS l WiJlll'll ill tllIri'llt Egypt (London, 1993),21-55.

238

!0~

---=R.:.:A.:.:C=E

R
(Re) Heliopolitall sUl1~god whose cult is first atrcstcd in the name of the 2nd-Dynasty ruler Ralleb (c.2865 m:). The cliit of the slln IVa' celebrated particularly at 111':I.IOPOI..1S (ancient runu), now largely covered by the nonhcrn suburbs of Cairo. Numerous aspects the material culture and religion of the Old Kingdom were influenced by the cull' of Ra, but it W.1S not until the hh Dynast \ (2613-249-+ BC), ,,hell the ro\al title Sl' Ra ('son of Ra') IVaS introduced by Djcdefra (2566--2558 BC), that the worship of the sungod rCi.lched its pC<1k. In the 5th Dynasty sc\"eral sun temples incorporating large masonry OBELISKS (sec AIR.. GLI{.>\11 and BE.NBE.,,\") wcre constructed, apparently all modelled on the earliest temple of Ra at I-Icliopolis, although no trace of this has suryivcd in the archaeological record. The sun-god was usually represented <1S <1 hawk-headed human figure wearing a sWl-disc headdress, but in the underworld, through which he sailed in the SOI..,\R UARt..:, he waS portrayed as ram-headed. Ra exerted such a strong innuence on the rest of the Egyptian pantheon that vlfw<llIy all of the most significant deities were c"cnru;lll~' subsumed into the universalist sun--eult by a process of SY::,\CRETIS~I; thus A.\IU\! became Amun-Ra, !\IO~TU became lVlontu-Ra and I JORUS became RaHorakhty. In his manifestation as creator-god, the sun-goel himself took the name of AtumRa, combining with ,mother Hcliopolitan sun-god, ATU1\1, whose name means Ipcrfection' (see CREATIO,' and E'\NE/\D). The Li/{lJO' ~r Ra, a text of the Ncw Kingdom (15501069 Be) inscribed on the walls of some of the royal tombs in the \.\l.I.EY OF TIlE I-.J:\"GS (the earliest example being in that of Thutmose 111, K\' 34), is essenrialh a celebrarion of Ra's idcntific.1.tion with O;'RIS, the god of the underworld. It was during the reign of /\KI--IJ~'ATE' (1352-1336 BC) that the concept of the sungod as a uniyersal deity (into whom all other deities could be absorbeJ) seems 1:0 have come closest to a monotheistic position. The worship of the ATEi'" (Iitcrally the 'disc'), represented almost diagrammatically in the form of a Sun-disc from which arms stretched down offering life and power to the royal family, was substituted for the culls of anthropomorphic figures such as Ra-Horakhty or Amun-Ra, and

Ra

or

Sheetff-om a papyrm depic/iug the pril's/t'SS fleJlJlfJIvy pros/ra/iug haselfiuat!ofll/ioll be.fiJre the SUIl. mhich emergesjffJIll Ih,' tlt'ser/ horizon ami cOlltaim the ~)'t' of Hums. /hm spdlillg ullllltt' rebm oflite god Rll-Hortlklt~)/. 2/s1 Dyllasq'. Il. 20 Oil. (IC/IOOIS, SIlICI:r I)
Akhenatcn's I1JIIl/}/ 10 'he _--1/ell appears 1O describe a deity whose power perme~Hcs all aspects of life, thus effectively superseding the traditional Egyptian 'pantheon' A. PIANKOFF, The ii/aiD' ofRl' (New York, 196-1-). ]. Ass.\!'\i\''\', Dcr Kiillig fll.\" S(}l/llellprie~'/"r (Gliiekstadt,1970). D. B. REDFORD, <The sun-disc in Akhenaten's program: its worship and antecedents I,,]ARCE 13 (1976), +7~1. S. QUIR"-E, A1fcielll l:.gyptiall religion (London, 1992),21-51. J. Ass.\L-\~~, Egyp/iau SO/liT religion i/l lilt! Nem Kingdom: Ret AnI/ill lIlIl//he crisis oIpo()'/heism, trans. A. Alcock (Loodoo, 1995).

often been most hotly debated, with a number of scholars, including \V. B. Emery, claiming that the Predynastic Egyptians were effecti\"cIy conqucred by ,I ne,,- race from the east. AIL.hough the skeletal e\'idence for this theory is still considered to be indicatiyc of some kind of physical or racial change, it is no\\" thought that there was a slower period of transition which probably involved the indegcnous Egyptian population gradually being infiltrated by a different physical typc fr0111 Syria~ Palestine, via the Delta region (sec PREIH'NASTIC PERIOD).

race
The apparently simple question of the racial origins or characteristic racial type of the Egyptians is both ditlicult to answer and in some measure irrelevilnt. \~le know that their 1.:\ 'I"(jL"GI~ belonged to the group known as Afro-Asiatic or Hamito-Semitic, which simpl~ means that they shared some common traits with the languages of parts of Africa and [he . ear East. L<tnguages of this group can be spoken by people of "astly different racial type, just .IS Spanish may be spoken by Spaniards and South Amcrican Indians. Examination of human rcmains from the Predynastic period shows a mixture of racial types, including negroid, i\JIediterranean and European, and by the time that Pharaonic civilization had fully emerged it was no longer meaningful [Q look for a particular Egyptian racial type, since they wcre clearly already, to some extent at le,lst, a mixed population. It is in the context of the Protodynastic period (.3100-2900 Be) that the issue of race has

A morc fruitful avenue is to inquire how the Egyptians saw themselves. The answer to this is partly defined in the negati\'c, in that they clearly did not consider themselves to be either African or Asiatic; that much is obyious from their art and literature (see CAIY1'1\ES). As 'Egyptians', they were automatically different from all their neighbours, even when certain Egyptian indiriduals may have appeared 'foreign' in their racial characteristics, as in the case of the New Kingdom military official 1\lt\JHI~RPR1, who held an important post and yet was clearly of negroid origins. Clearly, despite the highly developed iconography of f()reigncrs, it was nevertheless possible for many different r,lcial types to consider themseh'es

TIlt' euemit'~' of/:.'g.l'P/TPere I/sua/(J' portrayed as caplii'est ill /his (fiSt' all Asia/ic {l1ld {I Nubian art .~J'mbo/i(fl/~)I bOl/lld to Ihe sudlof Tu/allkllllmUII and so a/mays ill/he royal grip. (c JlRO vo jOel; REl'ROm. CEl)
COCRTE51 OF TilE CR'FlTl'1I1.vSTJ71Tl::)

239

RADJEDEF

RAMES-I.

Egyptian. Perhaps the clearest example of this is the case of the skeletal remains from the 'tomb of (Wo brothers' at Rireh, dating to the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC), where the physical appearance of one of the men was negroid, while thar of his brother was morc European. I t has recently been argued by certain scholars, notably Nlartin Bernal, the author of BIlleK AI/WUl , thaL the Egyptians were essentiallya (black African' culture., and that ancient Egvpt should therefore be regmded as a pinnacle of negroid ~lchievcmcnt, the artistic and cultural influence of which instigated the earliest achievements of the Classical civilizations in the Mediterranean. Although "aluable in drawing attention to African contributions to western culture, Bern.l\'s hypothesis might be accused of missing the essential point, in that 'civilizations' cannot necessarily be defined in purely racial terms. While the population at large may consist predominantly of one or another racial group, its 'culture' and the archaeological record of its characteristics arc often the product of the interaction of many racial groups. D. E. DERRY, 'The dynastic race in Egypt\.J..EA 42 (1956), 80-5. A. C. BeRRY, R. j. BERRV and P. J. Ucm, 'Genetical change in ancient Egypt\ Man n.s. 2 (1967), 551-68. A. C. BERRY and R. J. BERRY, IOrigins and relations of the ancient Egyptians\ Population biolog]1 ofthe af/rient Egyptia11s, cd. D. R. Brothwcll and B. A. Chiarelli (New York, 1973), 200-8. B. G. TRIGGI~R, 'Nubian, Negro, Black, Nilotic?', flji-ira;11 aflliquity: the arts ofOf/dOli Nubia and the Sudalll, cd. S. Hochfield and E. Riefstahl (Brooklyn, 1978),26-35. Nl. BER.'\"\L, Blark Athe"a: the Ajro-/hiatic roots ofc1assiml civili:::.atirJ!1, 2 \ols (London, 1987~91). F J. YURCO, (\,yere the ancient Egyptians black or white?', BAR 15/5 (1989), 24--9, 58.

Banebdjedet (sec MENDES) were represented. A second species, OV/~'i aries pla/ym lIegyp/iaco, appeared somewhat later in Egypt, perhaps around the 12th Dynasty (1985-1795 BC); this ram had a lighter build, fat tail and curved horns, the form often attributed to the god Amun. Khnum, the local deity of Esna and Elephantine, was the most prominent of the ram deities, worshipped as the creator of humankind. From the ~ew Kingdom onwards, the cult of the god A,\IU~ absorbed that of Khnum, and Amun himself was commonly represented in ram form, aJthough with the cuning horns of the plt/tyra species. The Delta town of Mendes was a cult centre for the ram-god Banebdjedet, who held the epithet 'lord of Djedct' and was regarded as the BA of the god OSIRIS. The Greek hislOrian HERODOTUS, who visited Egypr around -1-50 Be, noted the sacrifice of goats at .t\tlendes, in contrast to rhe usc of sheep elsewhere in Egypt, although his reliability on this point is questionable. At Herakleopolis Magna the ram was worshipped under the name I-IERYSHEF. At many of these cult centres rams were regularly mummified and buried in catacombs at various cult centres (see S:\CRED A~I,\1AL.r;). L. STORK, (Schaf', Lexikol1 da .Agyptologie v, cd. W. Heick, E. OLIO and W. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1984),522-3. P. BEIIRENS, '\\fidder', Lexikol1 da jigyptologie VI ed. W. I leick, E. Otto and \II. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1986), 1243-5. R. \VII.KINSON, Readillg t:r:yptialf art (London, 1992),60-1.

Rameses
'Birth name' used in the ROBL TITUL-\RY of cle\'cn rulers in the 19th and 20th Dynasties. This phase of the lew Kingdom is therefore often described as the IRamesside' period. Rflllleses I Meupelilj!r11 (1295-1294 BC) was" military officer from the eastern Delta who rose to the rank of rlZIER under IIORE,\IHEB and founded the 19th Dmastv (1295-1186 BC). His adoption as heir by Horemheb is recorded in the form of an inscription added to the granite interior coffin (Egyptian Museum, Cairo) which was apparently made for him while he was still vizier. He was married to <l woman called Satra, whose father was also a soldier, and she bore him a son, the future SETY l. Although his reign lasted barely two years he managed to build temples at ABYDOS and nUl tEN and completed the construction of the second PYI.OK at KARNAK, as well as almost completing his tomb in the V,\LLEY OF TilE KINGS (KYI6), which was decorated with scenes from the Book of GaleS like those in the

Upper pari oia granitejigure of RomeJes 1/ wearing the double cr01P11l1l1t1 holdi11g the (roo/': lwd flail, ~)Imbols ofroJ1alo'. 19th !J.)'IIlISty, c.1250 ne. II. I.n III. (,67)
tomb of Horemheb. The style of the suryi\ing funerary equipment, such as the wooden (guardian statues' now in the British 1\ ru~eum, is said to be innuenced by the art of much earlier rulers at the beginning of the 18th Dynasty. Ra11leses 1/ Userwl/a/rtl Se/epel1rt1 (12791213 BC) was the I"hird ruler of the 19Lh Dynasty. A vast number of temples, monUments and statuary were created (or usurped from earlier rulers) during his extremely tong reign, including the construction of snerat Nubian rock-cut temples at ABU SIMBEl.,;\ \1:\!U\ ';Vest, BElT EL-Wt\L1, Derr and GerfHusein.Hc was also an active builder in Egypt irself, where his projects included numerous temples at 1'v'E~wHrs, the court and pylon of LL \:OR temple, the RAi\"lESSEUI\'1 at western Thebes (his mortuary temple), another temple at Abydos,

Radjedef (Djcdefra) see ABU RO.'SH and

KJ IAFRi\

Ra-Horakhty see IIORUS and ram

RA

Like the UULL, the ram (Egyptian ba) was venerated by the Egyptians for its fertility, and although sheep were regarded as unclean, and thus unsuitable food fe)r purified persons, the ram was worshipped from early times. The earliest ram-gods seem to have been based on the Ovis IOllgipes palaeoaegyptiaca species, which has long wavy horns and a heavy build; this was the form in which KHNUM and 240

RAMESES

RAMESSEUM

rhe completion of his father's temple ne.1rby, and rhe decoration of the great HYPOSTYLE HALL at Karnak (as well as other addirlons to [he complex). The ITInjor c\-cnt of his reign, celebrated repeatedly on the walls of his major Lcmples, was the confrontation \yirh the HITTITES known as the IH'ITJ.E OF QADESH, which ~ if not the great victory he would clearly howe liked - ensured that the Hittite empire was kept at bay and Egyptian interests in the Levant were 1110rc or less protected. Eventu;lI1y he signed a treaty with the Hittites, and the 31-chi,'c of CLi'\t~IFOR,\1 tablets at Boghazkoy contains a large number of I.ETTERS sent by Rameses LO Lhe Hinirc king and his wife. SUf\'iving stelae also record Ramcses' further (ol1solidarion of relations with Harti through his marri,lges to two Hittite princesses in the thirty-third and forty-fourth years of his reign (sec QCEE:\S). His principal wife was '\!EFERTAR1, to whom Ule smaller temple at Abu Simbcl was dcdicated, and when she died his daughter .Merita11111n was elevated to this position. In Ole eastern Delm, where his family origins lay, he established a new capital called Piramesse (sec Q;\NTIR and TELL EL-IJAO'A) at a site ncar modern el-Khamna where Sety I had previollsly built a palace. This \\,;.15 to be the capital city for the rest of the Ramcsside period, although the royal cemetery was still in the VAI.LEY OF TilE KI~GS at Thebes. Rameses' own tomb was },T7 but his mummy was one of those found in the DEIR EI.-B:\IIRI mummy cache. During the first part of Rameses' lifetime the heir to the throne had been Amunherkhepeshef, one of his sons by Ncfcrtari, but it was Khacmwaset, the son of another wife called Isernofret, who waS heir for mOst of the latter half of his reign. Despite a vigorous c.treer as chief priest of Ptah at .\Ilemphis, Khaemwaset died in the fifty-fifth year of Rameses' reign, about ,1 decade earlier than his father, and when Rameses finally died it was his thineelllh son, '1ERE:\llTAII, who succceded him on the throne. Even Nlerenptah seems to have been middle-aged by the time that he came to power; he ,,,as the first of several shorr-lived rulers who had perhaps already passed their peak as a result of Rameses' unusually long' reign. Rameses !II USl'I'II/{/fllm JV!CITfI}JlUII (l 184II S3 Be) was the second king of [he 20th Dynasty (1186--1069 BC). He appears to have consciously set" out to emulate his illustrious predecessor Rameses Il, not only in his titles and military campaigns but also in the architectural style of his temple-building. He was

[he son of the short-lived ruler Sethnakhte (I 186--1 184 Ilc) by his wife Tiye-merencse. He himself married a woman called Ese but, in common "'ith most New Kingdom rulers, he also had many minor 'Yives, by whom he bore numerous children. Defensive foreign policy occupied much of the early part of his reign. His first conflict, in the fifth ~T'ar of his reign, was with the LIBYANS and their allies, whoin he defeated and brought back to Egypt as sla,es. Three years laler the great coalition of displaced and migr'lI1l peoples from the north, knmyn as the SEA PEOPLES, who had been repulsed by 1\ lerenplah in the late thirteenth century lie, ..d''ll1ced into Syria, apparenrly with the aim of settling. 'T'he Sea Peoples, as their namc indicates, were backed up by nayal forces, including Sherdcn troops, who ,,,cre nOled seafarers. Although presumably not used to fighting maritime baLLlcs, lhe Egyptian navy m:.lI1aged to destroy rhe Sea Peoples' neet, while simultaneously defeating the rroops in Syria on land. Ap:lrt [rom anothcr campaign against the Libyans in his eleventh ycar, the remaining two decades of Rameses Ill'S reign were peaceful. These campaigns, along with several others that may well be fanciful copies based on scenes from the RA!\IESSEL:\I, were recorded in some of the reliefs on the walls of Rameses UI'S l11orru.uy temple ,H ,\IEDli'\'I~T J-I'BL:. Delails of his life can also be gleaned from the Great Harris Papyrus, the longest known papyrus roll (now in the British ~luseum)l a list of temple endowments compiled by Rameses I\' (I153-llf7 Ile) a[ [he time of his father's death, which concludes with a description of the de'ld king's 'lchie\'ements. The way in which he died may be indicated by the accounts of a trial of participants in a 'harim conspiracy', preserved in se,-eral documents, the most important of which are the Lee and Rollin Papyri and the Turin Judicial Papyrus. It appears that a secondary queen wished to place her son on the throne in place of the king, whom she sought to murder wilh the assistance of other women of the harim. It is not clear whcthcr the plot succeeded, but the king's body, originally buried in K\ 11, was preselTed in the I)EIR EI.-Bi\I-IIU cache and shows no signs of a "iolent death. There were, however, other problcms in Ramcses 111'5 reign, which seem to have resulted from poor communication between the king and his officials. /I. STRIKJC of the workmen of DI':IR FI.-1dEOl'\!A occurred in the twcmy-ninth year of his reign as a consequence of the irregular and delayed delivery of r:nions.

He was succeeded by one of his sons, Ramcses IV, who was the first of a series of increasingly weak rulers. Eventually, in the reign of Rameses XI (1099-1069 Be) a[ the end of the 20[h Dynasty, [he control ofThebes fell into [he hands of Libyan generals bearing [he rille High Priest of Amun, and by the late 22nd Dynasry much of the kingdom dissolved into independenr princedoms. \V. ERICIISEi'., Papyrus Harris (Brussels, 1933). A. DE BUCK, 'The judicial papyrus ofTurin I, JI:.A 23 (1937),152--67.
A. G.-\RDlXER, RllJJlessirle arlmil1islrali1.'f rlOCUIIlt:lItS

(Oxford, 19f8).
\~'. r. EDGERTO~, 'The slrikes in Ramscs Ill'S twenty-ninth year',JNES 10(1951) 137-45, K. Krl'cllf::'\!, Phamoh triumphant: Ihe liji! a1/{1 ,iI/I('s o./RalllcHcs II (\arminster, 1982). D. POI..Z, 'Die Sarge des (Pa-)Ramessu\ ,HDAJK f2 (1986),145-66.

E, J-10R'UNG, Zllm'

R{fIIIl':lsi(h~c!Je Kiilligsgrti'ln:r:

17.

(Mainz, 1990). Le de:ruier p/{(/I"(lOI/: R{fIlISCS /11 011 h~ cnJpwwk d'/lIlt: civilizaliulI (PariSI 191)2), K. A. KITCI JI':N, Ral/lt'sside illsaijJliolJs, 7 yols (Oxford, 1993-)
Rtl1l/sfs II {/lid Rall/ses III
FI~\'RI':l

Ramesseum
lVlorfuary temple of Rameses II (1279-1213 Be), localed on the west bank of the Nile at western THEBES, opposire modern Luxor. It was misleadingly dcscribed by DIOOORUS as the (lomb ofOzymandias', which in turn inspired Shelley's verse. The principal building, in which the funerary cult of the king was celehrated, was a typical stone-built New Kingdom temple, consisting of two successi\'e courtyards (each entered through a pylon), a 11\'I'OST"LE IIALL with surrounding annexes, leading to a room for rhe s;:lcred BARK (a ritual boat containing a cult image) and the sanctuary. The complex includes lhe remains of a royal P.\L\CE and large numbers of mud-brick granaries and storerooms. BOlh pylons arc decor:lred with scenes from the Battle of
QAIJESII.

'T'he reliefs and architecture, as at other funerary complexes such a5 the mortuary templc of R.AJ\lSES 111 at MEDINET J-IABU (the plan of which was closely modelled on that of 1"I1C RamcssclIm), constitute an important body of evidence concerning the beliefs and rituals relating to the royal funerary clIlt, while the surrounding granaries indicate t.he importance or the New Kingdom tcmples with regard to the overall economy of Egypt. Evidence concerning the existence of a scribal training school at the Ramesseum has survived in the form of <l large pile of ostraca (sec EDUC.ATIO~ and I lOUSE or LIFE). 241

RAMESS EUM
RAMESSE~

1 first pylon 4 hyposlyle hall 7 second vestibule ('Ubfary') 10 sanctuary 2 temple palace 5 temple of Sety I 8 third vestibule 11 storerooms and workshops 3 second pylon 6 first vestibule ('Astronomical Room') 9 bark hall

50

100m

11 11

11

11

It
11

-\Bon:

Plall nfl/If: Rfl1IICSSeUIII.

JYFT FOllr ulllu! Osirid pil/ars offlle secoud (Ollrl of/he RUlllt'SSCU11I, {lllill/~}1 RtlJJll'Sl'S IIlll Thd'es. Tlu: building lafa sen,:('(/ (IS (llfloddJin' fIll' l//(Jrll/{I/:JI lelllp/e o/RUJIlCSl'S {If (/1 Medillt'l [-Joli/(,
(,~ T. \lCIIOUiO \)

Bcnt.:ath the 0001' of the mUrluary temple a sbaft tomb of a priest of the laiC .\Iiddlc Kingdom ((.1700 He) was exc;1\,;.ltcd b~ Jnm cs ~libcll in the late nincLccmh cCl1tur:. The burial chamber contained a box of pap: ri .lOcI a range of religious ilnd magical artefacts (sec LIBR:\I{JI':S I '\I:\Gle and i\l'\SKS). As filr as the later hiswry of the site is (00cerncd, a number of p~I-)yri of the Third Intcrmedia te Period (including fragments of OXO,\IASTIC A) ha\'c bccn discovered, in addition to the rcmains of <1n elite ccmetery of roughly the same dilte. J. E. QLlBEU., The Ral1lesseul11 (London, IS9H). B. PORTER and R. L. B. .!\ loss, 'lopographi(u! bibliogrtlp/~)1 II, 2nd cd. (Oxford, 1972), -f32--+3.

242

RAMOSE

REKI-lMIRA

1-IELn.;:, Die Rillftlldarstellllllgc}/ des Ramesscu111s I (\Vicsballcn, 1972). R. S't:-\DEL\L\:'\)i, 'Ramcsscum'. Lexiltoll cia Agyptul"gie '", cd. \. Heick, E. OlLO and W. lVestcndorf(\l'iesbaden, 1984), 91~.
\~'.

Ramose
Vizier under Amenhotep '" (1390-1352 lie) and A khenaten (1352-1336 Ill:), whose Thehan tlImb at Sheikh Abd e1-Qu]'J1a (rr55) is of particular importance bCt,:;lUSC it includes reliefs executed in both the distinctive" \ \I.\I{,\,\ style' of Akhcnaten and the more rraditiOlul style of' his father. The somhcrn W;lU depicts the funcrar~ processions of Ramose, while the wcst side presencs one of the earliest depictions of Akhcnatcn worshipping rhe HE\. Like many Thcban pri, alC lombs, it remained unfinished, and the Ene of its O\yncr, as with m.tny of those who held office before Akhcnalcn's 11100'C to c1-Amarna, is un.kno\\ n. 'rhe tomb was once known .IS 'Stuart's Tomb', since it was cleared by II. \\T. Villiers Stuart in 1879, although it had been kno,yn to Egyptologist's since l8()O. A. E. J~ \VElG,'I.l., A guide 1/1 11ft! "1fliqui/it's (II Upper Egypt (London, 1910), 160-5. N. DE G. D "'II':S, 7'lu' I(lmb o/Ihi' ri::,ia Ram(lse (London, 1941). B. PORTER and R. L. Ill\ loss, Topographical bibliflgrapby, (Oxford, 1960). 105-11.

The mri:il/.If il1l11e Imllb oflite t'i::.ier Ramose til 'l'Ifebl's is anumgsllh('.!illl!sl (lfiH film', llal'I/pI) 11/(/ Ie gm'sls II re tlepicled (/1 (/ jimera r.l,.!elHl. 181It /)yI1I1St)'. c.1Jl)()-1336 fJe. (CN 1If.l1l JLlNNJ.liO\)
the shaft-tomb of Quecn IIETEPIIF.RI':'o;; I at GilA:1. The larrer was his most fa.mous discovcry, sincc it still cont~lined much the queen's funerary equipmcnt, aILhough the hody itself seems to have becn buried clscwhere, Reisner conLriblltcd se\'cral volumcs to the catalogue of' antiquities in t'hc collection of the Egyptian JVlllsc.unl at Cairo. After a period of twentycight years as Professor of Egyptology ~11 llalTard, he died at Giza in 19-1-2. G. A. Rns'I':R, .-Imulels (CaiTo, 1907), G, A. RUS'EI( and A. j\1 \CE. The Ear()l DYI/astic Ct.111l'Jeries 0ISagll-l'd-Di,., 2 \'ols (Boston. 1908-9). G. A. REIS'I:R. A/odds oIships am! boats (Cairo, 191.1). - l Excm,:fltiolls (lJ Kama, 2 \oIs (Glll1bridg-c,

red crown set' C:RO\\j\.S

\'\D RonL RI:li '1.1 \

Reisner. George Andrew (1867-1942)

American Egyptologisl who set new standards in Egyptian archaeology with his mericulous excavation methods, which were then comparable only with those of the British <lfchaeologist Flinders I'I:TRIE. 130m in Indianapolis or German parents, he ;H first studied law ,11 Harvard, but in 1893-6 he acquired;l trayclling fellowship enabling him to study Scmitic h1l1guages at Berlin Uni,'crsity. c\'cnlu,llly gra\'itating towards Egyplology, Just as Pctrie was supported for much of his career by the novelist Amelia Edwards, so Reisner's long-tcrm CXC<I\'arions at GIZ.\, :'\.\G EI.-lJEIR, KER.\I\ and DEl!t EI.-IlAI.I,-\S relied Iargcl) on the finallcial assistance of the philanthropist Phoebe f\ppcrsun. At the Nubian sites '\L.RI , EI.-"':LRRL and Gebel Ilarkal (i'\.\lwm) he discovcred the pyramidal tombs sevcnty-three Nubian rulers, inclucling the 25th-Dynasty pharaohs (7-1-7656 Bt:). I:-lis attemion to derail, which involvcd the earliest Egyptological usc uf sect ion drawings as wcll as plans, rcsulted in lengthy reports (several of which were unfortunately still unpublished at his death) describing such monumcnts <1S the \"alley templc of \IE'.. ...:'U;R \ and

or

or

or

~IA, 1923). G. A. REIS'\ER illld \v. S'I'I-:\ E'SO;': 5\IITII. II hislmy of the Ci::,a JIt'rmpolh, 2 \'ols (Cambridge, "'lA, 1942-55). J. A. WilSON, .)'(tf;II,I' alld 1IJ/)"dl!l'.~ UPOIl ph{//"{/oh (Chicagn, 1%4), 145-58. Nt. LI::II'I'](, The pymmid IfIlllb oIf-Iclep-here,l' tlild 1I/e sflldlilc pyramid o/KIIl!lil (.!\'lainz, 1985).

Rekhmira
Vizier under Thurmose "' (1479-1425 Be) and

.'\menhotep II (1427-1400 m:), whose lomb (.,-,.100) at Sheikh Abd ci-Q;IrI"l is unique ~lmong the pri\~1te tombs in the 'rhcban necropolis, Texts on its walls describe lhe inslallalion of rhe \ IZIER, a post of great importance particularly at a time of imperi,lI expansion. A furl her set of texts dcscribe the duties oCthe \'izicr, and the moral codc within which his administration \yas inlcnded to opcrate (see ETI lies). It is stated thai: ~lhcre was nothing of which he [the vizier] was ignorant" in heaven, in earth, or in an)' quarter of the undcrwOI'ld', 'l'he painted decoration includes numerous scenes relating to agriculture and craflwork, many of which pro,"ide i.nformalion concerning such acti\'itics as jewellery-making and the acti,'ities in sculptors' studios, which ha\-e served to supplement archaeological and experimclllal chua. One of the walls is decOl'ated with scenes from the presentation of forcib'1l tributc by Nubians, Syrians, Cretans and reprcsentati\'es of yarious othcr ncighhouring countries, These scenes include valuable information on TRADE and lTibute, indic~lting the kinds of ntw materials and artefacts that were acquired fnl!TI particular geographical areas, which hilS also prO\'cd useful in dating survi\"ing imported goods. Funerary sccnes are also represent cd in thc tomb, including the OPEXL,\G OF TilE !\IOCTII CERE,\IO,y bcing performed on Rckhmira's mummy, following the funeral procession 1,0

243

REKHYT BIRD RELlGIC!. !'!

the tomb. The tomb chapel has no burial shali below it, and it has been suggested that Rekhmira was buried in a shaft tomb in the VollIey of the Kings, although the location of this burial-plac e remains unknown. K. SE'Il-Il~, Die illSeIZ1fng dcs Ve::,ier.~ II1ller der 18. Dynllstie. /nschrifi im Gmbe des Rekh-mi-re::;'11 Schuh Abd el Gunlll (Leipzig, 1(09). A. E. ]~ WEIGALL, ,/1 guide 10 ,hi' {fllliquilies of Upper Egypt (London, 1910), Il.i-17. N. DE G. Do\YIr.s, The !omb oj" Re/.:h-mi-re (If Thebes (New York, 19-+:1). B. PORTI::R and R. L. B. Moss, '/opugraphiCflI "i"li.graph), 1/1 (Oxford, 1960), 20t>-1{.

rekhytbird
Egyptian term for the hlpwing (Valldlus i.:lfllcl1m), a species of plover with a dislincri\-e crcslctl he'lel. It was often L1sed as a symbol for subjct:t peoples, probably because, with its wings pinioned behind its back, thus prc\"cnting it from nying, it roughly resembled the hieroglyph for a bound CAPTIVE. The symbol is first attested in the upper register of relief decoriltion on the late

ing of the birds (to modern eyes at least) since they could, in different conrexts, be taken ro refer either to the enemies of Egypt or to the loyal subjects of the pharaoh. The reklu,t bird icon, sometimes taking the form of winged and crested human figure, was llsed regularly in the decoration of Egyptian palaces and temples throughout the }>haraonic and Greco-Rom an periods. The bird was usually depicted with a pair of human arms upraised in [he tradirional gesture of worship and in many cases it \\"as perched on ~1 neb hieroglyph (meaning 'all') with an accompany ing star-shaped tlm(f hieroglyph ('to adore'), thus forming a rebus signifying 'all subject peoples adore lthe pharaoh]'. P. F Hm.. L1I1A'\", The birds ofulldmt EgypJ (\V:l1"lllinster) 1986),93-5 . A. NIBlIl, Lapmil/gs amI LibYflllS i" /II/dew t.g)'pJ (Oxford, 1986). - , '''fhe rhj.t people:;"ls pcrmanenr foreigners in ancient Egypt', DE9 (1987), 79-96. C. V.\f\DERsLE n::-., 'The rckhyt and the Delta', The archaeology. geography (lnd his/fllY of/he D,./ta, ed. A. Nibbi (Oxford. 1989),301-1.

religion
Ancient Egyptian 'state religion' \\as concerned with the milil1lcnal1ce of rhe divine order; this entailed ensuring that life was conducted in accordance with .\tAA1', and preventing the encroachm ent of chaos. In such a sysrem it was necessary for religion to permeate every aspect" of life, so that it was embedded in society ..mel politics, rather than being a sepanlte category. The Egyptian view of t.he universe was capablc of incorporati ng a whole series of apparently contradicto ry CR,\TION myths. This holistic \icw also led to the treatment of prayer, \If\G1C and SClI'~'JCE as realistic and comparable alternati\'es ; as a result it made good sensc to combine wha1 might now bc described as medical tl'cat-ment with a certain ~lmount of ritu~ll and the recital ion of prayers (see \IEIJIClKE), each componen t of the overall treatment h'l\ing the same aim: 10 suppress c\'il and maintain t.he harmony of the universe. The TJ::'\IPLES and their attendant I'RJE..'iTS therefore served as a perpel-ual means of stabilizing the universe. Each day the)' attended to the needs of the god (who was thought to be manifested in thc cliit image), made offerings to him, and thus kept the forces of chaos at bay. A djstinction is sometimes made bctween, on the one hand, [he important state gods (e.g. HORUS or ISIS) and local deities (e.g. Banebdjed et ,n _\IENUES) and} on the other hand, the 'popular' or 'household ' deities such as BES and 1't\\\'ERET_

Seclion ofrl'liefOil a colli/lin inlhl' temple of Kom Ombo. sllOmi/lg a rekhyt bird (llIpming). represe11liug lite kings subja/.( ill {III tlllirude of llH,rsltip. (t . .'Ill 1/1)
Predynastic 'Scorpion macehead' (c.31 00 BC); a row of lapwings are shown hanging by their necks from ropes attached to the ~-rA,Ll"'RDS representin g Upper Egyptian :'\01\IE5 (provinces) . In this contexl the rekltyJ appears to be representin g the conquered peoples of northern Egypt during Ihe crucial period when the country was transforme d into a single unified state. In the 3rd Dynasty (268t>-26U Be), however, another ro\\ of lapwings were depicted in the familiar pinioned form, illongside the 1'1:'\ BOWS (symbolizin g Egypt's enemies), crushed under the feet of a stone statue of DJOSER from his Step Pyramid at Saqqara. From that point onwards there was a continual ambiguity in the symbolic mean-

In actwl1 practice the only major difference seems to have been the lack of major c1lltplaces dedicated tn the latter (and e\en 1aweret effectively had a cult-place at K \R:'\ \K in the form of the-temple dedicated to her prc~ decessor Opet). A more useful distinclion can be made between the tendency of the state religion to focus on the concerns of the state and I he kingship, whereas surviving ostraca, stehle ilnd \'oti\'e offerings show that the indi\ iUlIa) Egyptians regarded religion primarily a\ a method of <Ivening disaster or harm on a more pcrsonallcv el. Since childbirth was a particuhU"l~ dangerous rime in the lives of ordin'lr~ people, it is not surprising that the 1110S[ pupular household gods were credited with particular protcclive powers in this regard, while Ihe processes of procreation and birth were both arcas in which magic} prayer and medi~inc were inextricably entwined. Neglect of thc gods, or blasphemy against them, could lead to punishmen t. Various stelae from DI'~IR EI.-\IEDINA, {or instance} descrihe how an offence against the cobra-godd ess \IERETSI:~GER led to blindness or other COOlplnints, and how, aftcr penitence, the dciQ had cured the wrongdoer. Although concerned with maintainin g i'vlaat, Egyptian religion generally was not O\erlly directed rowards lhe personal morality that was implicit in upholding l\tlaat. However, the WISDOM LlTERt\Tl R provides some insight into the Egyptians' views on morality, and somc of the same concepts are reflectcd in the FUNERARY T1,XI"S of Ihe New Kingdom. Egyptian FUNER,\RY BEJ..[EFS were i-llso direetcd rowards the continuilnc e of the established order. The dead person attempted to ensure thar through MU\I\UFICA '1'I0"" and the provision of the established offerings and funerary goods, the K!\ would recci\e nourishment and the UA find the body. The dece~lsed would ,,,-oid the perils of the umlcrworld ~lIld lravel safely in the BARK of the sungod RA. See also -\"n:1'\"; DEIFICATIO,; ,,\O~ ;Ind SIIRI:'\E. S. S:\UNI:RU1\, The IJries/s (~rfl"l"iCllI Hgypi (London, 1960). S. \IORE.'\"Z, I:.gyprian rdigi{Ul (London, 1973). E. LIPI-\1SKI (cd.), ..) '!((/e a 11I1 'eli/pIt' e({JlIlJII~l' iI/ llil! fI1llit!1lllleareaSI, 2 \ols (Lcm'en) 1979). E. HOR'\"Ui'\G, CQ1/cep/ions ofgod ill a11cil'l1/ Rgyp!: the Olle alld tl1l' I1UI1~J' (London, 1983). J. ASS~II\Kf\, Agyptm: Tlteologie ll1U! Frol11111igltll eincr.friihell Hod/kill/III" (Stllrtg:ut, 198-1-). J. P. ALI.EN ct aI., Religion and philosoplry ill aurienl Egypt (New Haven, 1989). S. QUIRKE, AI/{;ic!l1 Egyptia!l religioll (London, 1992).

244

RENENUTET

RESHEF

Renenutet (Greek Therlllo",!,is) Cobra-goddess, protector of the king, and

goddess of fertility who was represented as a
cobra or a woman with a cobra head, sometimes nursing a child. Her name may be translated as 'the nourishing snake'. In the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 Be) she was regarded as an important guardian of the king, who united

'reserve head'
Type of funerary sculpture, consisting of a limestone human head, usually with excised (or unsculpted) ears and enigmatic lines carved around the neck and down the back of the cranium. About thirty examples arc known, aU deriving from private mastaba tombs in the MemphiLe necropolis (principally aL GIZA) dating to the Old Kingdom, primarily from the reigns of KlIUFU and KlLAFRA (2589-2532 Be). They were pl<1eed in the burial chamber dose to the corpse, whereas other Old Kingdom statues were usually placed in the chapel or the
SI':RO,,\B.

R. TEFNIN, 'Les teres magiqucs de Gizeh' BSFE 120 (March 1991),25-37.

Reshef (Reshep, Reshpu)

Al1'lOrite war-god whose cult is strongly attested in Egypt during rhe 18th Dynast)' (15501295 Be), no doubt as a result of the inOuences emerging from rhe Egyptian 'imperial'

with

WADl"T

as a fire-breathing cobra

LO

pro-

rcet him in Ihe afrcfworld. She was also the

Stele Jhowing Se/al/, the Viceroy ofKmh duri1Jg the reign ofRlimeses If, pouring a libation before the goddess Rellcllulel, mho is depicted;l1 Jhejorm ofa serpelll. 19,h DJ'llas~)I, c.J300 /lG, limeslljfle, Fo", Bllliell, If. SO em. (fJ/IDSS)
protectress of lhe linen garment worn by the
king, which was thought to instiJ fear into his enemies in the afterlife. By extension, she was sometimes connected with the provision of mummy bandages. As the 'lady of renilc fields' and 'lady of granaries' she was responsible for securing and protecting the harvest. Her cult enjoyed particular popularity at the cit)' of Oja (MEDINET J\lI/\1\0I) in the l'iWU~1 REGIO:'oJ where a FESTIVAL was annually celebrated for her, and Where she was linked with the gods SQnEK and II0RUS (this triad being known by the Greeks as Hcrmouthis, Sekonopis and Ankhocs). In this role as a corn goddess she was associated with OSIRJS in his youthful form of Neper (Ncpri). Her part in the Osiris l11yth is extended by a mention in the UooK OF TilE DEAD in which she is said to be the mother of Horus from a union with ATU~l. This led to her being identified with the goddess ISIS, who was herself regarded as a divine mother. ]. BROEKJ-IUIS, De godin Rellellmete/ (AsSCI1, 1971).

The English term (reserve head' refers LO the theory that the sculptcd head W<1S intended to act as a substitutc for the real head of the deceased in the afterlife. The facial features, although idealizeu) are lhought to have been intended to be more 'realistic' than was usually the case with Egyptian st.ttuary, although this view has been cOnLestcd by Rolnnd Tefnin. According to Tefnin, the heads had a morc complex religious funclion, simultaneously serving both as <1 means by which the spirit could idenlify its own body and as <1 symbol of the ritual decapitation and mutilation of the deceased, thus protecting the living from the ill will of rhe dcad. E. NAVILLE, Les liltes de pierl't' dipusies dalls les /owbcaux igypliellS (Geneva, 1909). C. L. VA;"\DERSLEYEN, 'Ersatzkopf', Le-rikon tier Agypt%gie II) cd. Vol I-leick, E. Otto and W Weslendorf(Wiesbaden, 1977), 11-14. N. B. MJLLET, 'The reserve heads of the Old Kingdom', Essays ill ho//oro/Dums Dunham, eel. WK. Simpson and W. 'V\. Davis (Boston, 1981), 129-31.

Late Period stlltlie ofthe mllr-got! Res/u'lllfJlding II spelo'lIud II shield lIud meariug Ihe mhite cronm mith a gazelle's heat! oll/heFout. II is /he ml!JI sUl'viving slolle s/(llue ofReshef Lale Period. provenance J/ulmomll, II. 29 em. (MfTROPOUTAN
,I/USfUM, /\/;'". rORA', CtFTOF JOSEPH If: DReXEL,

/889,89.2.2!5)
presence in the Lev'1I1t". In the same way as the goddesses cuml,:slIET, !\NA'1' and AS'li\RTE) he became thoroughly absorbed into Egyptian religion and was usually represented as a bearded figure wearing an Upper Egyptian white CROW;.! with a GAZELI.I~'S head at the front (in place of the sacred cobra or uraells of WADJYT) and a ribbon hanging down

Asiatic

Limestone 'reserve head' from GiZll. Old Kingdom, late 4th Dynasty. e.2550 Be. II. 27 e111.
(JifHTROPOUTAN MUSEU"",, NEW VORK. ROCERS
FUND

48.!56)

245

ROMANS

ROMA~

at the rear. Sometimes he was portrayed in the act of wielding a mace or spear, like the Egyptian war-god 1\10"TU, with whom he developed considerable affinities. Although there are many bronze statuettes the god, and he is depicted on a number of stelae from sites such as /V[emphis and ~ntir (often being portrayed alongside other Asiatic deities), only one stone statue has survived (fvletropoliran Museum of Art, New York). It should be noted that these images arc rarely named, therefore they could, in theory, represent other Asiatic gods. B. GHDSF.l.0FF, Les tie/JIlts till mIte de Rahel!:11 EgyPlt' (Cairo, 1942). 'IIV. K. 5IMJ'SO,\, '.An Egyptian sralllcrrc of a Phoenician god', BAlM,! x/6 (1952),182-7. H. DE MEL1.EN\ERE, De cullus va1/ Resjelill Egyple (Leuven, 1955). \V. J. Flil.f:O, The Cal/lllll/ile god Resep (New Ha,en,1976). A. R. SCIIUL\I \', 'Reshep at Zagazig: a new document', Sludiel1::'u Sprat:"e llIul Rt:ligi(JI/ jigyplem: Feslsd/riji Ii/( I'flcslelu/o/I(Gortingen, 1984),855-63.

or

Romans
The Romans' earliest involvement in the affairs of Egypt dates to the period when Pompey became engaged in the financial affairs of the Ptolemaic court, ultim~Hely becoming the guardian of CLEOI'\TRA \"11 (51-30 Be:) on the death of her father I'TOLE,\'" XII (80-51 lle). When Pompey was defeated by Caesar at Pharsalia in 48 Be he fled to Egypt, but was assassinated there. C~lesar then entered Egypt and reinstated Cleopatra (who had been hricOy deposed in ...J.8 Be) as en-I~EGE:'\'T with hcr second brother, Ptolemy Xl\' (47-44 Be), who became her husband. Howevcr, in -1-7 Be Cleopatra gavc hinh to .1 SOil, Ptolemy Caesarion, whom she claimed to have been fathered by Caesar. Her visit to Rome, in 46 BC, attracted a great deal of attention, as did her political m;lOoeuvres on her return to Egypt, im'olving the assassination of her brother and lhe installation of Caesarion on the throne. Having heen summoned by the Romans 1"0 meet with IVlark Antony at 111rsus, she soon afterwards bore him twins. Ln 3-1- Be, ,Mark Antony divided various parts of the eastern Roman empire between Cleopatra (nnw his wife) and her children, while infc>r1ning Rome that he was simply installing client fulers. However, Oct3vian (later Augustus) organized a propaganda cal11paib'Tl against Antony, and in 32 Be Rome declared waf on Cleopatra. The following year Octavian defeated 1\1ark Antony at the naval battle of Actium. Both Mark Antony and

Bnm::.e .Wllue o/Horus dressed in Romall armour. R01/la1/ period. prrrue1/l/1/{(, ImlmonJl1, H. -/7 (111. (I, /360(2)

Clcopatra committed suicide, and Octavian had Caesarion killed, thus effectively hringing an end to the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Octavian Augustus appointed himself pharaoh on 30 August 30 UC1 thcnccfonh treating Egypt .IS an imperial est~1te, rather than a Roman prO\fincc. This special staWs was rctained under subsequent emperors. Greek remained the official language, and ,\LEX/\i'\I)IUA the dominant city. The country underwent a sparsc military occupation, although outposts arc known throughout the country as far as (l.!\SR IBKI~I in Nubia. Augustus ruled from 30 Be to AU 14, during which time he appc<lrs to howe done little to en<.1l.'<1I" himself to the n~lIiYe Egyptian elitc) Ilot least through his contempt for traditional religion and his refusal to visit the sacred ,\PIS bull at Memphis. Superficially) Iloman rule was a continuation of the Ptolemaic period, except that no ruling fami.1y was resident in Egypt. This had important consequences, in that it may have removed any incentive for Egypt to create wealth, given that it was effectively being exploited at a distance, as a source (If food for Rome. Improvements in irrigation that had been introduced by the Ptolemies wefe exploited to the fuLl by the Roman administ"racion, and the produce was gathered up in tax

by govcrnors who could be held personallv liable for any shortfalls. . Thc official adoption of Egyptian practices, such as the completion of Ptolemaic temples (e.g. DE:"JIWR!\, 1\:0,\1 O\IBO and PIIlLAE) in Egyptian style, and the depiction of the cmperors in Egyptian garb did linIe to distract attention from the harsh conditions under which the poor laboured. There were \ariOtls revolts, including an uprising of Jews in \I) 115-17. The emperor Hadrian (\LJ ][7-38) looked more Ewourably un Egypt, and lrJ\,e1led widely in the country_ He even incorpu_ rated a SERAPEUl\l into his villa ill Ti"oli, along ",ith statucs of Egyptian gods. The inOucncc of Egyptian relib,rion on Rome became \en great at this period. 1-Io",c,cr, condjrioTt"i i~ Egypt prob'lbly improved little as a result of the imperial visit, which seems to have rcsulled only in the fjRlIlding of new scnlemems such as AntinoopoLis in !\1iddle Eg~ pt. During the reign of 1\1arclls ,\urelius (11lI 61-80), Egypr was stricken bv a plague, which can only have added to Ihe gradual dcpopuhllion or the country, while a ri".11 bid for power made by A,idius C1ssius in .\1) 175 did nothing to help the situation. Conditions improYcd slightly under Septimius Snerus (All 19J-211) who reorganized the local AIHllxISTRATIOi'\ and carried out yariolls building works, notably thc repair of the COI.OSSI OF \IE\Ii'\O," at Thebes. This conciliaLOr~r phase was shari lived, and in \1) 215 CaracalJa (", I 98-217) banned Egyptians from Alexandria, ordering the killing of ,III rhe youth of the city because of ~I slander m'llic by lhe inhabitants. The reign of Dioclerian (:\1) 284--3(5) WitS infamous for its persecution of Christians (known as Copts in Egypt) and Egypt \\a~ nor sparcd, perhaps evcn suffcring more gril"ousI~ through the inOucnce of Sossi"nus Hicrocles, a fanmical persecutor. This WitS an anempr to enforcc tradil ional Roman religion, but it was not to be effective. Nor nlll~ did Christianity survivc, but Eg~ ptian l:ulrs, notably that of ISIS, were already cS(;lhli')hcd within the Roman empire, Although the liWL:l\1 RE<.iIOi'\, he;l\il~ scttled by Greeks) continued to be fa"oured b) Ruman \isitors (who needed special permission to ,isiL the country), il too graduall~ undcf\,cnt depopulation, evident by the fourth century :\11. In ;\1) 384 Theodosius (/\D 379-(5) issued an edict commanding the closing of .111 pilg<ll1 temples, and ordering rhe adherence of the entire populace to Christianity. Howe,cr, some areas resisred, and PI 111.1\.1-: remained an outpost of traditional religion for it considerable time. The Egypl"ian Christians continued to sci up

246

ROSELLINI, IPPOLITO

ROYAL TITULARY

churches and monasteries in some of the ancient temples, and to estahlish settlements
(sec
COPTIC PERIOD).

r. G. MILNE, A his/(jl:JI oJ EgJlftllllldcr RO/J/a1/ mitfht'

(London,1924). (-1. 1. BEL1., J:.gyptji"()l/l .-I./extflldcr Ihe Creal /0 Arab Wllljllt'sl (London, 19:'6). P. A. BRUi\'r, 'The administrators of Roman Egypt',Jollnla! (~rRolJI(f1l SlJulies 65 (1975),
12~7.

N. LEWIS, Ldi.> i1l Egyp!

(London, 1983).

lIuder ROl/lan mlc

A. K.

BOWI\I!\N, Eg)lpl ajier the Pharaohs (London, 1986). D. PEACOCK, Rome ill tlu:t1csal: a .qlfllbol o!I)(J/PI:I' (Southampton, 1992).

Rosellini, (Niccolo Francesco) Ippolito

(1800-43) Italian Egyptologist, born and educated in Pisa, who accompanied Jcan-Fran~ois C11!\MI'OI.UON on the Fr.mco-Tuscan expedition to Egypt in 1828-9. Although his career was rel~

atively short, his ten-volume description of the major monuments of Egypt, published betwcen 1832 and 1844, was one of the most inOuential Egyptological publications of the mid-nineteenth celltury, rivalling the principal publications of his contemporaries, Karl Richard LEI'SIUS and Sir John Gardner
WILKJNSON.

The Rosel/a Slolle, i/lsaibert in hicrog~J!Phics (IUp), demolif (eCJJue) ami Greek (hol/um), provided (J. kcylo Ihe deciphermenl oIlhe hieroglyphic stript. ..41t1wugh./oJ/'lul [f/ el-Rashid (Rosella) al1d recording (l. decree issued ill Memphis, illl/aJ! f)rigill{//~)llw1Je bcclI erected in Sa Is. Ptolewaic periud, 196 Br., graui/it stone, fl. I./-Im. (/;',-/24)
Early Egyptologists such as SilvestTe de Sal')', Johann David Akerblad and Thomas Young recognized the potential of the Rosetta Stone in terms of the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs. Young deciphered the demotic text, but it was Jean-Franyois Champollion who made the final breakthrough, announcing in his famous Lel/re d J1!I. Dacia in 1822 that the Rosetta Stone had not only enabled hjm to decipher the names of Ptolemy and Cleopatra, as Young had, but also provided him with the means to understand the basis of the phonetic and ideogrammatic system employed in hieroglyphic texts. C A. ANDIU~W~, 7,1e Rosella Slolle (London, 1982). s. QJJI~KE and C. A. ANDREWS, The Rosella Slune: (/ Pits/Illile drawing (London, 1988).

the perccived division of Egypt into two lands, both under the control of the pharaoh. The 'birth name' (also known as the nomen), such as !\:VIENEi\IHAT or RAi\IESES, \vas introduced by the epithet 'son of RA' It was lIsually the last name in the sequence in inscriptions giving the king's name and titles, but it was the only one to be given to the pharaoh as soon as he was born. The other four names (Horus; He of the two ladies; (Horus of) Gold; and He of the SEDGE and BEE) were given to the ruler at the time orhis installation on the throne, and their components may sometimes convey something of the ideology or intentions of the king in question. In the late fourth millennium Be the earliest kings' names are attested. These simple 'Horus names', pai.ored on pottery vessels and carved on fragmentary ivory and wooden labels, typically consisted of a falcon perched on a SEIU~Kl r frame containing the name of the king in question. By the end of the 1st Dynasty (3100-2890 Be), all elements of the full titulary, apart fi'om the 'son of Ra' (sa Ra) name had appeared, although often they made their initial appearance as isolated symbols and epithets rather than as full-blown names. For

I. ROSELUKl, J mO//llme",i del/'E:t!.if/o l~ della Nubia, diseglltfli dalla spcf!Jziv//e sriellldi(:o-lellcraria Tosu/1fa i// Egif/fJ, 3 ptS, 10 \'ols (Pisa, 1832--44). G. GABI~rELl, IpjJUlilo Rosel/illi e iI suo girmwle del/a spedi::.io//e IClferaria Tosca1/o ill T:gilfo I/(:gli a/l/li 1828-29 (Rome, 1925). E. BRECCIA (cd.), SiTi"i dedicali alia lIIe1lloria di Jppolilo Rosel/illl'lIe primo eellle//ario della //lorle (Florence, 1945). G. BOTI"I (cd.), SUIfIi il/ //lemoria tli Rosel/illi Ilel primo eel/leI/a rio del/a /!Iorle, 2 vols (Pisa. 1949-55).

Rosetta Stone
Black granitic stele discovered in 1799 at the village or el-Rashid (Rosetta) in the western Delta of Egypl. The Rosena Stone (now in the British Museum) is inscribed with a decree issucd at .Memphis and dated to 27 Nlarch 196 BC, the anniversary of the coronation of PTOLEJ'l'!Y" Epiphancs. The main significance of the text lies not in its content, a record or benefits conferred on Egypt by Ptolemy", but in the fact that it is written in three scripts: IllEROGLYPH1CS, 01::.\10TIC and Greek. It should be noted, however, lhat the text is an jmportant source for the re-cstahlishmcnt of Ptolemaic (Alexandrian) rule over Egypt after the secession of a great deal of the country at the end of the reign of Ptolemy IV, len ycar~ earlier.

Royal Canon of Turin sa TURtN

CANON

ROYAl.

/l/~)"I()s.

royal ka see Ki\ royal titulary

The classic sequence of names <lnd litles held by each or the pharaohs consisted of five names (the so-called 'fivefold titulary'), which \Vas not established in its entirety until the l\liddlc Kingdom (2055-1650 Be). The five epithets to somc extent encapsulate Egyptian views On KINGSI nr, in the sense that three of thcm stress his role as a god, while the other two emphasize

FragmclIlofiv01y.lhJlIl the lomb of King Den at The killg\' 'ffortls /lfl/ne' appears il1 a serekh surmoulfted k)' L!tcj{t/roll-god Horus. 1st DyllfWy, c.2950 He, II. 6 on. (r:..J3SSS2)

instance, the 'He of the sedge and bec' title (nesm-bil) was fjrst used in the reign of DEi'\" (c.2950 BC), but it was ANED]IB (".2925 Be) who was the first to have both the title 'he of the sedge and bee' and also a second name (Merpabia) linked with it. Two further crucial developments in the royal titulary took place during the 4[h Dynasty: Huni (2637-2613 BC) introduced the

247

ROYAL TITULARY

SACRED ANIMA~

usc of the CARTOUCl-IE to frame his 'He of the sedge and bee' namc, and Djcdcfra (2566-2558 BC) was the first to use the 'son of Ra' title. By the II th Dynasty (2055-1985 BC) the two names by which the king was most regularly known were the two 'cartouche names': 'he of the sedge and bee' (the throne name) and 'son of Ra' (the birth name). The religious implication of this change was that the king was no longer first and foremost a manifestation of Horus; instead he was seen primarily in terms of his rule over the two lands and his relationship with the sun-god. 'The importance of the royal titulary in terms of legitimizing and enshrining each king's right to the throne is indicated both by the apparent: care taken in choosing names and by the lengths to which 111any foreign rulers or Egypt went to acquire authentic titulary. In the reign of the Persian ruler Cambyscs I (525-522 Be), for example, an Egyptian priest called Udjahorresnet was employed to create a suitable throne n.Ime for him (see PERSIA). H. GAUTHIER, Le livre des rois d'Egyple, 3 vols (Cairo, 1907-17). P. KAPLONY, 'Konigstitulatur', Lexikoll ria AgYPlolog;e III, cd. W. Heick, E. Otto and W Westendorf (Wieshaden, 1980),641-59. N. GRL\'li\L, Les tames de la jlropaganrle n~yale Jg)!p/ielllle (Paris, 1986). S. QUIRKE, Who mere the pharaohs? (London, 1990).

s
sa Hieroglyphic sign meaning 'protection', which may have originally represented the rolled-up reed mat that would have sheltered herdsmen; it. might also have served as a type of papyrus 'life-vest' for boatmen. It is clear that the sign soon acquired rhe more general meaning of 'protection', and, like the ANKlI sign, it was used either as an amulet in its own right or as a symbol held by the deities BI':S and TAWERET In the lVliddle Kingdom
Amulet ill tlze forI/} of 1he sa hierog!:J,ph made ill electrmn mire. l\!fiddle Kingdmn, c.2055-/650 IIC, Il. 4 Oil. (D/65332)

(2055-1650 Be) the sa. shape was llsed as a single, repeated element in jewellery and on magic wands, while in the New Kingdom (15501069 J3C) it usually occurred in combination with other signs such as thc ANKH, I)JI]) or TYET (Isis knot). Virtually all of the surviving amulets in the form of the sa sign date to the Middle Kingdom. R. H. \OVII.KINSON, Reading Egyptian aN (London, 1992), 196-7. C. ANDREWS, A11Iu/eJs oIalicienl EgVPl (London, 1994),43.

sacred animals
The Egyptians held a number of animals to be sacred as the living manifestations of various gods (see Rt\). The belief may have COIlle froIll Prcdynastic times, when animals were revered for particular qualities, such as the bull for its strength and the lion f()r its aggression. Some of the NOME gods may have had their origins in such totem istic beliefs. tn some cases, after t:.700 fie, a whole species of animal, bird or fish was rcvered, as with the THIS (sacred to the god Tl 10'1'11) or the falcon (sacred to IIORUS and OSIRIS), while in
248

other cases individual animals might repre_ sent the god, as with the CYNOCEP}-L\LUS baboon of Thoth, or more especially the APIS bull at Saqqara (see sE,,-,rEvM). In the latter case only one Apis bull existed at anyone time, and this animal was selected and fe'Ired with great care because of its distinctive markings. The sacred animal cults were overseen by their own priesthoods, who cared for the animals and ultimately arranged for their muOlmification and burial. In thc case of an Apis, BUf:lI1S Or .~INEVIS bull, the burial would be very claborate, involving funerary equipment and ceremonies similar to rhose Surrounding a royal funeral. The hawks and the ibises, on the other hand, were donated in their thousands as votive offerings, therefore many of the mummies were placed in wooden boxes or scaled pottery jars. Pilgrims would pay for the embalming and burial of one of these birds as an act of piety. "fhe jars containing mummified birds or animals were buried in underground galleries such as the extensive complexes at SACtQ!\RA or TU\JA ELGEBEl., while the Apis and Buchis bulls, as well as their mothers, were each allocated splendid hypogea (subterranean tomb chambers) with individual granite sarcophagi. At Saqqara the sacred baboons were found buried in wooden shrines set in stone niches in their O\lln gallery. These cults grew in importance from the late New Kingdom onwards, reachjng a peak in the Late Period (747-332 BC), when they rna)' have formed an important part of the economy. The Sacred Animal Necropolis at north Saqqara was excavated by the Egypt Exploration Society during the 1960s, and two more recent expeditions at the site) during the 1990s, have concentrated firstly on the analysis of the chronological development of the galleries, and secondly on the usc of the mummified remains to study the genetic history of primates. As well as the numerous galLeries of sacred animals at Saqqara, there were important centres for the cult of sacred rams at ,vIENDES, IIERAKLEOI'OLIS .t\'IAGNA, ESN ..\ and 1-:1 .EIlI IANTINE, sacred cats at TELL BAST.\ and BENI IIASAN, Mnevis bulls at I JELiOPOJ.lS (and possibly EI..-I\JvlARNA), Buchis bulls at ARM ANT, the sacred cow of Hathor at nENDEltJ\, and sacred crocodiles at KOM (l\IBO, MEDINET E1.-FAYUlvl (Crocodilopolis) and cIMaabda. J. D. RAY, 'The world of North Saqqara', lE4 10/2 (1978), l49-57. G. T. MARTIN, The sacred {{llima/11eaopoli.\ ttl Nor/It Saqqara. (London, 1981).

SACRED LAKE

SAFF TOMB

B. GESSLER-LoIIR, Die he;/igeu Seen ill iigypI;seher Tempel (Hildesheim, 1983).

safftomb
Type of rock-cur tomb constructed primarily in the eI-'TI1rif area of western Thebes for the local rulers of the Tbeban II tb Dvnast)' (I"TEF I-Ill; 2125-2055 Be). The term sllfI (Ambic: 'row') refers LO the rows of rock-cur pillars which stood around Lhree sides of a large trapezoidal sunk forecourt, forming the distinctive frontage of each of the tomb chapels. Private stiff tombs have also been excavated at ARMANT and DEt\DERA. D. ARNOLD, Cdiher lb AI/CUll/it! i\!lillfercll Reidll:s in EI-Trlrif(Mainz, 1976).

Saft el-Hinna see SOI'ED Sah (Orion)

Personification of lhe principal southern con-

Amulets vIsix sacred aI/iII/a Is. '1'01' LEfT TO RIGIIT Ra.m il1l11rquoise.jitienu:, 'nlirtl lllfermediale Period. Ibis il1 lurquoise ({ud dark bIlle, representing Tho/It; the bill is supported by Ihe feaJlterOfiHllllJ. Late Period. L. -/.5 WI. Apis bull iUlUrqIloiseji,icuu, Salle period, L. 2.9c11I. BOTTOM I.EFT TO RIGHT Com, probably represell1ing Hal/lOr, ill brollze. Lale Paiod. Lion ;11 pale grull./i/ience. repreSe11lil1g NeJer/em, Saile period. Jackal, prob(l.b~JI representing Hlepmamel, Third Intermediale Period. (/:'/111896.36451, 61622,11600,64617,36H8)
D. KESSLER, Die Heiligefl 1i'ere tuu! der Kijllig , (Wiesbaden, 1989). R. PERIZONIUS C( oIl.. ',Monkey mummies and north Saqqara'. l:."'gypliall Elrclweology3 (1993). 31-3. P. T NID-IOLSON, ~Archaeolog)' beneath Saqqara', Egypt;an Al'dweology -1- (1994),7-8.

sacred lake
Artificial expanse of water located within the precincts of many Egyptian temples from the Old Kingdom to the Rnman period (2686 BeAD 395). The most common type is that of the Temple of Amlin at KARN\K: a rectangular} stone-lined reservoir filled by ground water and entered via several stairways, which the Egyptians described as a site /feljeri ('divine pool'). The sacred lake fulfilled a number of different cui tic purposes} serving as a setting for the sailing of BARKS containing images of the gods, the home of such aquatic sacred animals as geese or crocodiles} and a source of pure water for the daily ritual ablutions and libations of the temple. well as the conventional rectangular lake found at such sites as

The stlcretilaKe iu 11//: predJ1t"J.~ of/he temple of f/(lfhor (If Dendera. (I. SII./II')
:\R,\lt\'\T} ).lEOI~EI IIABU, DE'\DER.'\

As

and TA~IS, there were several other forms, such ..IS the horseshoe-shapcd pool (known as an ishcrmwatcr) that enclosed the main buildings in the sacred precinct of M ut ill Karnak. There were also circular reservoirs completely surrounding the main cult-place the Osircion at M~Y DOS and encircling the shrines the M'lruAten at EL-}\.\lAR~A. H. BONNET) Realle-ril:QlI der iigypljscheu Religiomgeschidae (Berlin, 1952),694-5. P. j\'IONTI-:T, Le fae stlerc de Tim;s (Paris, 1966).

or

or

stcllation that was later known as Orion. The god was described ..15 the 'gloriolls soul of OSIRIS' and formed a divine triad along with the dog star SOI'I)ET (50th is) and his son SOI'ED, who was the god of the eastern border. I~ CASr\~O\A, 'De quelques Icgcndcs astronomiqucs arabes considerccs dans leurs rappons avec]a mytho logic cgyptiennc', BIFAO 2 (1902),1-39 (17-24). K. PREISEi'.'D.O\NZ, Papyri Graecue II/(lgime: Die griechiIchm Ziluberpilpyri (Stuttgart, 1973), 26-33. 1-1. Bnuu:"s, (Orion', 1xil:Oll det A"gyptolog;e 1\, cd. W. Heick, E. Otto and W. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1982), 609-11.

249

SAlS

SAQQA~

Sais (Sa el-Hagar)

Town in the western Delta) the remains of which arc mostly covered by the modern village, and date principally ro the eighth to sixth centuries Be. It'i patron goddess was "nTlI, whose cull is attested at le,lst as early as the 1st Dynasty (3100-2890 Be), suggesting that Sais itself must hayc been occupied from the late Prcdynasric period 011 wards. It was the prm incial cariml of the tifH, nome of J,ower Egypt and the scat of the rulers of the 2{lh and 26th Dmasties (727-715 and 66+--525 Be). There appear to be no sUfYi,"ing remains earlier than the late New Kingdom (c. I I 00 Be). The remains of Ihe fell ha,-e been largely destroyed by sebakhill (farmers removing mud-brick deposits for lise as fertilizer), leaving only a

few relicf blocks ill silll, and the site has not
yet been scientifically exc;l';lted_ Sec also
S.\ITE PERIOD.

B. PORTER ;lnd R. '\loss, Topographit:ll! bibliograp/o' 1\' (Oxford, 19.H), {6-9. L. l-I.\B:\(:III, S'lis and irs monul11cnrs', .IS_-tf: 42 (19{2),369--116. R. EL-S:\YED, DO(/flllt:nts rC!llt~'(s tI Sais 't Si'S dh.:illitis (Cairo, 1975). - , LII deeSSl! Nt'ith deSllis (Cairo, 1982)_

Saite period
Term applied to the 26th Dynast\' (66+-525 Be), when Egypt was ruled fromlhc city of SAIS in the Delta. The overall character of the period stems from the fact that the first S.litc ruler, PS","TE~ I (66+--610 Be), had shaken 011' .-\SS\ RIAN .10<1 Kushite rule, thus ushering in a new era of Egyptian nationalism. This cultural change was expressed primarily by the sculpture and painting of the period, which were ofren consciuusly modelled on carlier work, particularly that of the Old and Middle Kingdoms (2686--1650 Be), a process that had already begun in the latc Third fnrermediatc Period ami especially in the 25th Dynasty (747-656 Be). when f..:ushitc kings sought 10 Icgilimize their rule hy using est.lblished Egyptian artistic styles. Thc cnormous c<lre with whil:h Saite artists l:opied ancicnt works of art is indicatcd by the fact that they appe.lr to have merlaid some of the panels in thc Step Pyramid at S\{&\IU wilh grid lines in order to reproduce rhe relicf.'\. c\-cn creating a new cnlrancc into Ihe pyramid in order to gain access to the subtcrrancan chambers. It is interesting to note, however, thaI the copies did nor necessarily reproduce the originals in precise detail. Instead, therc were often artistic innO\-ations, as in the case of Ihe rclicf.'\ in the tomb of .\IE:'\TLE~III.\T (TrJ4; c.700-650 Ite) which, although apparently dra\ying on scenes from the nc'lrby lSlh250

Dynasty tumb of ("1"1"69; c.I {OO Ite), nevertheless added new details. Such observations have led to suggestions that the Saite period should be regarded as a time of ,-igorous renaissance rather than slavish archaizing. Similarly, traditlonal religious practices were reinforced hut often simultaneously reshaped; thus the S.\CRED _'\:'\1.\1.\1. cults grew in importance, and their upkeep became an increasingly important clement of the Egyptian economy_ The cult-centre of the goddess :'\EITII .It Solis "-;.lS exp;lI1ded and embellished, while new temples were (onstruclcd at .\IE\1PIIIS (still Ihe administrati,'c centre) as well as 011 Thehes and other major cities througholll Egypt". During this period the 'T'hchan region was effectively controlled by lhe Gon's WIFE OF t\ \IUK. In another indication that the Saitc period was a lime of progress as well as re"i'"al, the DL\lO-rlC script, first .lttesred in t.700 UC, gained wide accept.mce under the 26th-DynaSTY rulers. The Egyptian army C;.In1C increasingly to depend upon <,il~F.EK mercenaries) and as early as 630 Be a settlemcnt for Greek traders was founded 011 ~\L:K.R_\TIS in the Delta. The town was later reorganized under -\II.\IOSE II (570-526 Be), who waS traditionally credited with its foundation, This economic connection with the Greeks ine\'itably led to Egypt's closer involvement in the affairs of the J'vlediterranean, and a change in outlook. Frol11 this time onwards, many Grecks tra"clled to Egypt, including IIEROOO'IUS, who described Egypt in the period immediately following the Saitc dynasty. Sce also L\TE PERIOD_

,\IE"""

J. 0_ COO'l"E', "]'hrce early Saite tomb relicfs.', .7NES9 (1950), 193~203. H_ KEES, 'Zur lnnenpolitik del' Siiitcndynaslic'.
Narhrirhtcl1 tier Geschidfte /Iud H'i.uemdulji. Gijttil1geu Phi!_-Hiu, A'!asse 1(1963),96-106. A. B. Ll.m 1>, 'The Lare Period, 664-323 IlC', .-Incimt Egl,pt: a sm:ilf! !I;story, R G. Trigger et "I. (Cllnbridge, 1983), 279-3{8. P. DER j\lANLEUAN, f.im-/lg il/ the pasl (London, I 99{).

Saqqara
SiTc of the principal necropolis of lhe ancient l:ity of \IE:\lI'IIIS, situated some 17 km from Ihe liIZ.\ suburb of Cairo, which was in use frum the 1st Dynastv (3100--2890 Be) to the Christi"n perind (till 395-540). The entire length of the sile is about six kilometres, \\ ith ;l maximum width of ahout 1.5 km. It has been suggested that the namc of the sire m;'l~ bc derived from that of the god SOK..\R, although :\rab chroniclers state, more plausihl~-, Lb:l1 it derives from the name of an Ar:lh tribe unee resident in rhe :lrea. The importance of the Saqqar'l necropolis is indicated by the ,ery crowded nature of the hurials, with some ha,-ing been re-used rn.my limes and most haying becn extcnsiYcly plundered throughout anLiquity. Beneath lhe ground, Saqqara is honeycombed with imernfe Sh'p l~)'falffid o/Djoser at Sa(j'ltlrtf is .wrmu//{!etl !~V (f m/lfp!ex oIritua! buildings a//{! murts. i"cluding Iltest! tlllmll~)1 rlwpe!(' ill JIll! sed

Ji:stirlll court. r((onslrueted

(/~ 1: X/CliO/SO \)

"y J-P.

Lafla.

SAQQARA

SAQQARA

""",:::::::

100

200

300

400

SOOm

"" 'Pl1 Illl\\\\\\

T Serapeum

New Kingdom necropolis - - - monastery of ApaJeremias

----l1lI..
,,<:,'::/ "//

j ~ 2

1
Abusir village

" , ~,.:f:~: :
'''''.. '11,''111111'''''''',11.''',''
'1111\"""""""'"1111\\\'''

Unas valley temple

-f-i
"\\\\\',,j)f'

-+N
mastaba tombs of the 1st Dynasty mastaba tombs at the 6th Dynasty 3 New Kingdom necropolis 4 Antiquities Inspectorate

cut" tombs, galleries and robber shafts) not always visible on the desert surface.

The 1st-Dynasty ruler

Nt\RI"ll~R

is the earli-

est king whose name is known from Saqqaraj his actual burial was almost certainly in 'Tomb n17-18 of the Umm el-QI'ab cemetery at ABYDOS} but a stone bowl bearing his name was

discovered in one of the extensive storerooms beneath the Step Pyramid of DJOSER (2667-2648 BC). It is not impossible thaI there
was originally also a monument of rile reign of Narmcr at Saqqara, since slightly later I st~ Dynasty 1\1-\5"[,'\13:\ t"Ombs ilrc well attested at the site, forming a distinct group along the

northeastern edge or the plateau. It is thought likely that the original sire of
the White Walls (one of the names for ancient .Memphis) was probably ncar the modern village of Abusir, which is situated en the north-

eastern edge of the plateau, close to the lstand 2nd-Dynasty tombs. The development of Un extensive cemetery of mastaba tombs along the plateau edge during the first two dynasties might have gradually produced a situation when the population at l\!lcmphis would have found it difficult to distinguish any particular tomb among the great mass on t.he edge of the

plateau; it has therefore been suggested that this may be partly why the architect 11\11-10TEI' devised such an innov<ltivc structure as Djoser's funer<lry monument in the early -'I'd Dynasty (see PYR/\l\I1DS). This was thc first time that stone architecture had been used on such a large scale in Egypt. It therefore still followed closely the c<lrlier building styles connectcd with mud-brick and organic materials: thus the 'palacc-LH;ade' style of dccoration continucd to be uscd, and wooden columns were transformed into stonc. lVlastaha tombs were constructed at Saqqara for the i\iremphite elite during the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 Be), many of them focusing closely on the pyramids of the kings, which date from the ~rJ-Dynasty complex of Djoser to the lJl"h-Dynasty monument of Khendjcr (r.1748 BC). The 5th-Dynasty pyramid of Unas (2375-2345 BC) was the first to be inscribed with the prRM"ID TE;\TS, while the pyramid complex of the 6th-Dynasty ruler Pep, B (2278-2184 BC) was effectively the last major funerary monument of the Old Kingdom at Saqqara. The remains of the small mud-brick pyramid of the 8th-Dynasty ruler Ibi lIptly symbolizc the decline in the

PIau u.(lforth Safjfjam.

political and economic system from the Old Kingdom to the roirst Intermediate Period (2181-2055 Be). In the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC) and Second Intermediate Period (1650] 550 BC) the area around IJAI-ISI-lljR and ELI.lSII'!', ::1S well ::15 the siles of EL-Lt\IIL"N, 11!\WARt\ and THEBES, became the main centres of royal funerary activity. Although Thebes was probably the religious capital of the Ncw Kingdom, i\ilcmphis rcwined a great deal of its administ"ral"ive importance and, as for most of Egyptian history, it was the real seal of government. Many important officials of the New Kingdom resided in the city, and although their rulers chose to be buried in the \"ALl.EY OF TilE KINGS at Thebcs, nuny noblcs constructed elaborate temple-style tomb chapels f<lI" themselves at S;'lqqara, LlSLlally surrounded by the smaller tombs of their servants and family. Somc of these New Kingdom tombs were recorded by Karl Richard L!-:I'SIUS during his expcdition of 1842-5, but" their precise locations were subsequcntly difficult to aseert"ain 251

SAQQARA

SARA~

monastery of Apa Jeremias

RIGHT Carl:er! reliefji'o/ll the !/laslaba-chape! 0/ Plahlwtep (/1 ~)'(/.qqartl, SllOl1Jillg a herdsmall leading/or/Vard a group ofprize cattle. Sih Dyutlsly, c.2380 lJG. (CRAf/AM IIARR/SON)

modern settlement

LEFT

PIau o/soll!h Saqqara.

pyramid of Neferkara (pepy II)

tomb of Shepseskaf ,,_, (the Mastabat el-Faraunj" '

",

pyramid o!the late /~ Middle Kingdom ~ l

lZlt2J .
,,/
/

from maps. Since 1975, the joint expedition of the Egypt Exploration Society and Leidcn "Museum has rediscovered some of these tombs, in a part the necropolis to the south of the causeway of the pyramid of Un as, where the finest surviving tombs date to the period bct\yccn the time of 1UTANK1IAMU~ (1336-1327 BC) in the late 18th Dynasty and Rameses II (1279-1213 BC) in the carly 19th. The rediscoveries have i.l1cluded the tomb of rVlaya, the treasury official of Tutankhamul1, and that of his colleague, the generalissimo 1-I0REMHEB (13231295 BC\ who later became king and was buried in a royal tomb (KV 57) in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes. In the cliffs towards the Early Dyn'lstic remains at the northern end of the Saqqara plateau, a French expedition Jed by Alain Zivie has also discovered the tomb of Apcria (or Apcr-el), who waS north~ ern vizier during the reigns of AKI-IENATEN (] 352-1336 Be) and Tutankhamull, thus

or

probably indicating that Nlemphite officials continued to govern from l\1emphis even when a new capital had briefly been established at EL-Ai"Ir\Ri'\t\. There was also New Kingdom activity in northwestern Saqqara, in the form of the hypogea (tomb chamber) of the sacred AI'IS bull, which began to be buried in the underground galleries of the sr':JtAI'EUM from at

least the time of Amcnhotep III (1390-1352 He) until the Roman period. By the Late Period (747-332 BC) onwards, large numbers of SACRED !\.'\JL\'IALS were being buried in huge quantities in the vast underground catacombs at the north end of the site; these mummified animals and birds included cows identified as the 'i\!Iothcrs of Apis', as well as CYNOCEPHALUS baboons, hawks and IBrSES. The area was probably chosen for a sacred animal necropolis because of its tradition,ll connection with Tmhotep, who had become identified with THOTH, a god particularly associated with baboons and ibises. The texts sug"gest that rams sacred to the god Banebdjedet (see MENDI':S), as well as the calves of the Apis bull, may also have been buried in this area, although the actual galleries have not yet been located. Further to the east, there were burials of dogs or jackals connected with the Anubeion (see ANUBIS), and of cats connected with the Bubasteion (sec BASTET). SO many cats were buried in this part of Saqqara that their mummified remains were deposited in many of the earlier private funerary monuments, including the nearby tomb of A.per-el. Private tombs of post-New Kingdom date 26th and 27th Dynasties arc also located ncar the pyramid of Unas. lv[any of the artists decorating tombs of the 26th Dynasty (or SAlTE PERIOD) deliber.uely copied a great deal of the earlier funerary art at Saqqara. 1()mbs of the 30th Dynasty (380~343 BC) and Greco-Roman period (332 BC-AD J95) arc clustered mainly on the northern side of the Step Pyramid, and towards the SerapeuI1l. Since many of the tombs at Saqqara were constructed from unusually small stone blocks (particularly during the New Kingdom), they could easily be dismantled to provide a ready source of building stone for later building operations. Nluch of rhe monastery of Apa Jeremias, to the south of the Unas causeway, for instance, was constructed from such re~ used blocks. During the time of the monastery, a small Coptic settlement was established to the southeast, close to the valley temple of Unas.

\\T. B. Ei\lERY, Creal lOlllbs o/thejin/ r()llIl1J/J'. 3 vols (Cairo and London, 1949~58). ]. D. RAY, 'The world of North Saqqara', W-I, 10 (2) (1978) 149~57. G. T l\tlARTIN, 'The New Kingdom necropoli~ at Saqqara', AdS oI/he Firsl T"Iemf/tional COllgress oIEgypto!ogy, cd. vt/. F Reinecke (Berlin, 197Y),
457~63.

- , The sa.cred allimall/eaopo!is (1/ I/Oi'll! Satjljara (London, 1981). ].l\JIALEK, 'Saqqara, Nekropolen NR', Lexilum del AgYPlo!ugie v, cd. W. Heick, E. Ono and W Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1984), 41 0~12. G. T iVlARTtN, The hiddclI tOJ!lb.\ oIMI~I/lJlhis (London, 1991). ]. VAN DIJK, Thc New Kingdolllllc("J"opo/is 0/ /vlemphis: hh'Iorical alld ico/logmphica!.'illldil!s (Groningcn, 1993).

Sarapis see SI';RAl'tS sarcophagus see COI'TINS A,'\I[) SAR.COPII.l,(;1

Satet (Satis)
Goddes~ associated with the island of Elephantine at I\SWAi'\- and guardian of the southern frontiers of Egypt. She was usually depicted as a woman wearing the white CROWl\' of Upper Egypt, with M,;TELOPE horns on either side of it. From the New Kingdom onwards, she was regarded as the wife of the creator god KHi"\Ui\'l. She was also considered to be the mother of AN LiKE'f' the huntress. I'he principal cult centre of Sater at Elephantine (on the site of an earlier Predynastic shrine) was excavated by a German expedition during the 1980s and 1990s. Although she was most common]} worshipped in the region of Aswan, her name has also been found inscribed on jars exca\'atcd from the subterranean galleries the Step Pyramid of Djoser at SAQQi\RA, and she is mentioned in the PYRA1\-IlD TEXTS as a goddess

or

252

SATIS

SCORPION

specifically concerned with purifying the deceased. Her temple at Elephantine is situated at the point at which rhe first waters of rhe annual Nile l~lj:'\'D!\TIO.\.'would be heard before the flood itself became Yisible. This geographical situation would perhaps have emphasized the aspects of her role relating (Q fertility. Tn her function as protectress of the sOllthern border she was considered to repel Egypt's enemies with her arrO\vs. G. ROWER, 'Sothis und Satis', zAs 45 (1908), 22-30. D. VALBELLE, Salis el Auulll.,.is (l\lainz, 1981). G. DREYER, Del' Tempel tier Salet: die FundI! tier Friilz:::.eillllffl ties Al,en Reiches CVlainz, J986).

Salis see SATET scarab

Common type of amulet, seal or ring-bezel found in Egypt, Nubia and Syria-Palestine from the 6th Dynasty until the Ptolemaic period ((.2345-30 BC). The earliest were purely am uletic and uninscribed; it waS only during the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC) that they were used as seals. 1"he scarab seal is so called because it was made in the shape of the sacred scarab bectlc (Scarahaem safer), which was personified by KJlEPRI, a sun-god associated with resurrection. The flat underside of the scarab, can'cd in stone or moulded in faience or glass, W'1S usually decorated with designs or inscriptions, sometimes incorporating a royal name. Scarabs, however, have proved to be an unreliable means of dating archaeological contexts, since the royal name is often that of a long-dead ruler; lVlenkhepcrra, the prenomen ofThutmose Jll (1479-1425 BC), being a particularly common example. During the reign of t\,\l[NI-IOTEP 111 (1390-1352 BC), a series of unusually large

scarabs were produced to celebriHe certain events or aspects of Amcnhotep's reign, from the hunting of bulls and lions to the listing of the titles of Queen TIY. There were also a number of funerary types of scarab, such as the large (winged scarab' (virtually always made of blue faience and incorporated into the bead nets covering mummies), and the (IIEAHT scarab' (usually inscribed. with Chapter 30b of the BOOK OF '1'1-11': DEAD), which was included in burials from ::It least the 13th Dynast)' (1795-1650 Be) onwards. The term s({{raboid is used to describe a seal or amulet which has the same m-oid shape as a scarab bUL may have its back carved in the form of some creaturc other than the scarab beetle. This appears to h,ne de\'eloped out of Lhe practice of carving two-dimensional animal forms on the nat underside of the scarab, which is known as early as the First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 Be). P. E. NEWBERIn', Anriell'1::gYP'iallst"arabs: till hllmdllctioll to Egyptian seals ({nd signel rings (London, 1906; repro Chicago, 1979). C. BI._-\NKU\'IJERG-Vt\N DEI.DEN, The large commemorative sc(/rtlhs ofAlIlI:lIhotep III (Leiden, 1969) E. HORNUNG and E. ST\EI-IEI.I1'\, Skllrtlbtiell lind audere Siegelalllulelle (IllS BllJ/a Sall/lIlluflge" (Mainz,1976). i\ 1. j\LU.A1SE, us scartlbees de coeur dansl'Egypte ll11rieuuc (Brussels, 1978). B. ]At-:GER, Essai de r/assificlltioll des sCtlrtlbees A1ellkhepeni (Goningen, 1982). G. T. j\lARTIN, Scarabs, cyliutlersllud olher lIlIcient Eg},ptillu sell!s (~';'lfIninster, 1985). C. ANDREWS, AII/ulets olallcient Egypt (London, 1994),50-9.

~e\'erthcless, the Egyptians were clearly capable of keeping accurate scientific records, when necessary, and such surviving documents as the Edwin Smith 1\ Iedical Papyrus (New York Historical Society) even suggest that the)' sometimes conducted what amount to scientific experiments. Similarly, the attention lO astronomy in the development of the CALEi'\D,\R shows careful observation, although the)' do not seem to have sought reasons for the discrepancy between the seasons and thcir calendar, a phenomenon which was due to the need for an additional quartcrday each year. There are undoubtedly still aspects of ancient Egyptian technology that remain poorly understood (such as the precise methods by which man~' of the monuments \,"ere constructed), but there is no reason to bclieve that the Egyptians had any special hidden knowledge rhat has since been lost. See also ASTRONOMY 1\1'\1) I\STROLOG)'; ~IAGIC; !\lATIIEi\IATICS and .\IEI)I[;H\E. 0. NEUGEBAul:n, The exaci sciences il/ allliquily, 2nd cd. (Providence, 195i). R. J. GIl.LlNGS, IltlaJl/{:l1llltics ill the lilll(' oflhe pIll/moils (New York, 1982). '\T. 'VI::$TENOORF, 'Wissenschaft', Lexil'oJl tier .;JgYPtologie VI, cd. \V. Heick, E. Otto and W. Westendorf(Wiesbaden, 1986), 1278--9. .\1. Cih-\GE-IT, Ancient Egyfltiall scie11ce, 2 \'015 (Philadelphia, 1989).

scorpion
Arachnid which, like the SERPEJ'T, bec.1me the object of cults and spells from the earliest times in Egypr, doubtless principally because of the fcar of its sting. Two main species of scorpion are found in Egypt': the paler, marc poisonous BUII/rir/tlc and the darker, relatively harmless Scorpiollidae. The scorpion ideogram, one of the earliest known hieroglyphic signs, was depicted on wooden and ivory labels found in the laLe Predynastic/ Early Dynastic royal cemetery at ABYDOS <1nd <1lso among the cache of cult equipment in the Early Dynastic lemple at IIlER.\KO'I'OLlS. A Protodynastic ruler called SCORPIOX was portrayed on the 'Scorpion macehe~ld' from Hierakonpolis. The goddess SERKEr was the principal divine personification of the scorpion (although Isis was also said to have been protected frol11 her enemies by seven scorpions), and was usually depicted with <1 scorpion perched on her head. Another, less wellknown deity, the god Shed (also described as 'the saviour'), was linked with the scorpion and considered to afford protection against it') sting; two stelae dedicated to Shed were found

science
The need to solve particular problems, such as the moving of large weights of stonc, or the calculation of the height or angles of PYRi\I\1I0S , was usually the inspiration for particular developments in Egyptian (science" which docs not seem to have existed as a word or concept in its own right. Rese.lrch appears not to haye been undertaken for its own sake, and no attempt \,"as made to derive general laws, such as mathematical theorems, from practical solutions. In a society in which religion played a major role it is unsurprising to find that pure research was not: conducted. Any phenomenon could be explained by refercnce to the actions of the gods, and such science as there W.IS may be seen as practical measures, such as the prediction of the Nile I1'\U;'\lD1\TIO~ (see ?\ILO:\II~ TERS) and the construction of temples .md funer-try complexes.

Glazed steatite (:OJll111e111oratiu Jwrab of Amenhotep III dest:ribing a lion hunt undertaken by the king. 18th Dynasty, c.1360 Be, H. 8.5 C111. (A29J38j

SCORPION

SC~

Lilf('-dramilIg (~r(hc rdie/-w;c!l{, 011 till: S(Orpiol1 J}[{f{I.dICadFolll I-ficrakollpolis. shoming Killg

Scorpio// mearing thf IPhilt: trom1/ and wndllcJillg

{/ rill/aI, c.3100
11e. (DR.-II Vi\' 11\'I?ICII,/R[)

',"IRKINSOi\' ,/lTER M-IRIAN

cox)

in a chapel associated with lhe workmen's yillage at 1:I.-AMt\RNA. Images of scorpions are also depicted on cippi1 a type of stele used (Q ward ofl" scorpion stings and snake bites from the Late Period onwards (see HORUS). See also
"1'.'\-Bl"IJE'r

H. KANTER) 'Giftschhmgen und Skorpione Nordafrikas\ Dil' Sahara lIlId 11m: R{//1{~~ebiel !, ed. I-I. S(llJFFERS (lVlunich, 1971). E. HORJ\U"\lG and E. STAEI-IEU:---"l Skarabiiell 111/(1
andere Siege/all/u/elle ailS Basla Stllllll/ll/lIj!,CII (Mainz, 1976), l31-3. J-c. GOYo;,\, 'Hcdcdyt: Isis-scorpion et Isis au scorpion: en marge du papyrus de Brooklyn 4721850', B11'AO 78 (1978), 439-58. P. BEl rrn:NS, 'Skorpion', Lexikoll da Agyptulogie v, cd. VI/. Heick, E. Otto and Vl \Vesrendorf (Wicsbadcn, 1984),987-9. F K\NEL, 'La lIepe et Ie scorpioll': tllIlI/onographie .'illr la die.'ise Serltet (Paris, 1984).

engaged in ritualistic activities. On the Scorpion macehead this royal figure, identified by scorpion and rosette ideograms, wears the white crown of Upper Egypt and is apparently excavating a ceremonial irrig'ation canal with the help of attendants. Tomb L"-j at Abydos was excavated by a team of German archaeolog'ists in 1988, revealing' a twelve-chambered subterranean tomb, originally roofed with wood, matting and mud-brick. Although it had becn plundered in antiquity, one chamber still contained over four hundred vessels imported from southern Palestine, and the excavation of the burial chamber revealed fl-agments of a wooden shrine and an ivory model !leMa-sceptre (sec CROW'IS), suggesting that the tomb's owner was a ruler. Throughout the site there were large qu;.mtities of fragments of pottery dating to the late Predynastic ('\.\It\J):\) period, many of which bore ink inscriptions consisting of the scorpion hierog'lyph; it is considered unlikely, however, that rhis Scorpion was the same ruler as the figure represented on the Scorpion macehead. J. E. Qunu:LL and F 'vv. GREEN, Hierakrmpolis, 2 vols (London, 1900-2). A. J. ARKF.LL, '\;Vas King Scorpion l'vlenes?', Allliquily 46 (1963), 221-2. E. J. B:\Ur.1Gt\RTI::r., 'Scorpion and rosette and the fragment of the large Hierakonpolis macehead', ZAS92 (1966), 9-14. .!Vl. A. 1-101-"1-"111.\1\, Egypt bejore Ihe pharaohs (London, 1980),312-17. G. DREYER, 'Umm cl~Qlab: Nachuntcrsllchungcn im frlihzeitlichen Konigsfriedhof 5.16. Vorbericht',lltIDAlK..J.9 (1993),23-62

in typical cross-legged scribal pose, c\"en if they had never served as professional scribes. Nlany of the I1IERATIC texts used in the EDUCATIOi'\ of scribes, in preference to the slower and more ceremonial I-IIEROGU.'PI [S consisted of descriptions of the comfort anci prestige enjoyed by scribes, in contrast to the rigours of manual labour (sec \\"ISDO\1 L1TEH.,.\TURE and LITERATURE). 1\1uch of the ,,"ork and training of scribes is thought to haw taken place in an institution known as the
1-IOl/SE OF I.IFE.

The hieroglyphic signs used for the terms 'scribe' and 'writing' wcre both essclltiallv depictions of the scribal equipment, consist~ ing of a stone or wooden PALE'ITE containing two cakes of ink (usually red and black), a leather bag or pot holding water, and n ~et of reed brushes. During the Pharaonic period, rhe brushes were made from the stem of .tUllctllS IIwritilllllS, but from the Ptolemaic period (332-30 lie) onwards reed pens cur from the stems of P!lraglllitcs acgYf!li{/((/ \rerc more frequently used. The surfaces on which scribes wrote varied frolll simple OSTR\C:\ (chips of stone and potsherds) to mOre expensive manuElcturcd materials such as )1\1'\ RlJS, leather sheets and thinly plastered wooden boards. R. J. \\!n..UAi\IS, 'Scribal training in ancit:nt Egypt', JA OS 92 (1972), 21 +-21. J. R. BAINES, 'Literacy and ancient Egyptian society" l\!1rlll 18 (1983), 572-99.

scribe
Term Llsed to translate the Egyptian word sC5h, which was applied not only to clerks or copyists but to the class of bureaucratic official around whom the entire Egyptian political, economic and religious system revolved (sec ,\DJ\IINlsIRAnOl'\). Throughout the Pharaonic period it is likely that only a small percentage of tile population was literate, and the scribal elite tended to pass on their profession fiom father to son, thus enabling power to be retained by rhe same family groups ovcr long periods. The prestige attributed to the scribal profession is indicated by the popularity of the 'scribe statue" portraying members of the elite
IUGI IT Q}ltIrlzite stmlle ofthe chflll/ber/ai" Pessl/llpCJ; /p!lo is holding (/ papyrus roll ill his 1(/1 fraud ill the atti/utle uIa stribl!. 25th or 26tfr Dynasty. provel/aJlce lIJlkuown, /I .i3 Oil. (,,dSN)

Scorpion (d 150 Be)

Name held by rwo Prorodynastic rulers, one of whom was perhaps buried in 'lomb L-j of the Umm cl-Ql'ab cemetery at ABYDUS. A fragmentary pC:1r-shaped limestone macchead (Ashmolean i\!{uscum, Oxford), bearing a depiction of a man wearing the white c'RO\\,1'\ of Upper Egypt and identified as King Scorpion, was excavated from the 'main deposit' in the temple precinct ,\l 11lERr\"O~PO LIS in 1896-8. The stratigraphic context of the 'Scorpion macehead' was poorly recorded by the excavators, James Q!.libell and Frederick Green, but the style of its decoration almost certainly dates it to the late Predynastic period when the early Egyptian state was first appearing (c.3150 DC). Like the 1'\r\RMER palette and macehead, it is decorated with a raised relief depiction of an early pharaoh

254

SEA PEOPLES

SEDEINGA

Sea Peoples
Loose confcdennion uf peoples of the c;.lstcrn J\!lcditcrrancan, who attempted to settle in Syria-Palestine and Egypt bel ween the thirteenth and twelfth centuries BC The names and charat:[cristics of the indivitlual peoples, some of whom probably originated from the Aegean anti Asia Minol\ arc known from reliefs at MEDI'\fT Ilt\BU and KAR'\AK as well as from the text of the Great Harris Papyrus (now in the British IVluscum)1 a historical text at the end of a list of temple endowments from

such as Alalakh in northern Syria. This time the list included the Denen, Peleset, Shekclesh, Sherden, Tjekel, Teresh and Weshwesh, and the atlack Glme bv both land and sea. Rameses lII'S troops in Palestine defealed lhe land-based anack, while lhe Egyptian navy destroyed the cnemy Ocet on the Delta coast, Like Mcrenptah, Ramescs Jl[ recorded his vieLOry in. stone, on the outer walls of his mort'uary temple on iVlcdinet l-labu, while the compiler of the Great. Harris Papyrus included them in a broader accounl of (he campaigns of his reibrn. S(udy of the 'tribal' names recorded by the Egyptians and Hittitcs has shown that some groups) no(ably the Dellell, Lukka and the Shcrdcn, were already actiyc by the reign of Akhenalcn (1352-1336 "c), while lhe Llikka and Sherden were also recorded, along with the Peleset, serving as mercenaries in the army of Rameses L1 (1279-1213 Be) at the IJ.I"ITI.E OF
Q!\I)J:SII.

Dewi! of/he head (~r(/ Shaden sQldier/rom/llt: reliefi depif/illg ,he IlI/lIle {JfQfldnh 011 the QuIa mllll oft/Ie temple ofRtl11U!SeS /I {If Abytlos.
(I. SI/.111)

lhe reign of ILI.\IL"'~ III (118+--1 J53 "e). 1l is clear from these sources that the Sea Peoples were not bands of plunderers but part of a great migration of displaced peoples. \Vhen they moved overland, thc warriors were generally accompanied hy their wives and families carrying their possessions in ox-drawn carts; there waS a clear intcntion to settle in the areas through which they passed. 'J'heir first attack on Egypt took place in the fifth regnal \'""r of Ihe 19lh-DmaslY ruler "ERE:\'I'TAII (1213-1203 lie). The Lilli I.'S, allied with these migrant peoples, named as lhe Ekwesh, Lukka, ~leshwesh, Shekelesh, Shcrden and Teresh, launched an attack on the Della. ~'lcrenptah gained a victory, killing mOre than six thousand of them and routing the rest. He then recorded his victo!"\" on one of the walls of the temple of Amun a;: Karnak and on the so-called ISlb\EI. Stele in his funerary temple. In the eighth regnal year 01" Ramcscs Jill the Sea Peoples returned. They had perhaps already brought about the destruction of the IlrnTl'E empire, and arc probably to be held responsible for the sacking of the cliem city of Ugarit on the Syrian COast as well as cities

Attempts have been made to link the various groups of Sea Peoples with particular homelands} or at least with the phtces in which they eventually settled. The Ekwesh have been identified with the Homeric Achaean Greeks, the Peleset wilh lhe Biblical Philistines (who gave their name to Palestine), and, more contentiously, the Shcrdcn with Sardinia. G. A. W.\L'.;WRIGIIT} 'Some Sea-Peoples and olhers in the Hittite archives',]EA 25 (2) (1939), H8-53. G. A. W",WRIGIIT, 'Some S"" Peoplcs',]E~1 D (1961),71-90. R. ST,\I)I~L\I.\S:'\, 'Die Abwehr der See"Olker lIIlLer Ramses Ill', Sacm!ul11 19 (1968), 15f>-71. W. HELCK, Die Bczil'hllllgell AgyjJtem /II1f! l/rll"dcrasiclls ZUI' /Jg(;'is IJis im 7..7!J. r, ChI'. (Darmsladt, 1979). N, K. S-\'\IHHS, Sm Pl'op!eJ (London, ItJ85).

acting as the 'native' Egyptian government, as opposed to the foreign northern rulers. Having esmblished their capital at Avaris, lhe political inn lienee of lhe Hyksos appears to have gradually spread, wilh lhe development of centres such as TELL EL-Y,\/-IUDIYA and TELL EL-.\L\SKIIUTA) and the probable seizure of the important Egyprian city of t\IEi\lPIIlS. The discovery of a small number of objects inscribed with the names of Hyksos kings al sites such as Knossos, Baghdad and Boghazkoy (as well as the remains of 1\'linoan frescos at 15rh-Dynasty Avaris) suggests that the new rulers maintained trading links with the Ne..u East and (he Aegean. Seals . H the Nubian site of .... EK,\I-\ be..l r the name Sheshi, apparently a corrupted form of Salitis, the earliest known Hyksos king. The presence of these seals probably indicates that there was an alliance between the Hyksos and the kingdom of Kerma, which would have helped them to countcr the opposition of the 17th Dynasty in Upper Egypt. The last rulers of the 17th Dynasty, SHtENENRA T/\/\ [I and K.\MOSE, campaigned openly against the Hyksos, and l\Ill\10SE I, the first ruler of the 18th Dynasty, was eventually ablc to drive them from power, thus establishing the NEW t.;:ISGDO,\I. J. \"UN BEC"-EH.\TII, UutersudwlI!!ef/ :::'lIr pnlitischell Ceschirhu tier :::.meitell ZUJI:{Chell:.:eit il1 AgJlpte" (Gluckstadt and lew York, 1965). J. V:\~ SI~TERS} The / r)/hos, a "em im:estiglllirm (New Haven, 19(6). B. J. KE..\II'" 'Old Kingdom,l\liddlc Kingdom and Second lmcrmedialc Period',Allcieut Egypt: (f socia! hisfO~)/, cd, 11 G. 'Trigger et al. (Cambridge, 1983), 71-1~2. D. B. REIWOIHl l !:.:ttyj}f, Canaun (fud /s/'(/t!! ill fl1u:ieUllimc.l' (PrinccLOIl, 1992), 9~-129,

Sedeinga Sebek see SOBEK Second Intermediate Period

(1650-1550 Be) As the \lII)I)I.E .... 1'\GI)()\l (2055-1650 Be) "ent into decline, groups of Asiatics appear to have migrated into the Delta and established setlIemenls (sec 11\ KSOS). The Second Tnl"crmediat"e Period hegan ,yith {he eSI'ablishment of the 151"11 Dynasty ..I t Avaris (TI':I.I. I':L-[),\B' ,\) in the Delta. The 1St h-Dynasry rulers were largely contemporary "'ith the line of minor J-lyksos rulers who comprise the 16th Dynasty. The precise dates of these two dynasties, and more particularly (heir rulers, arc uncertain, as are those of the 17th Dvnasty, the lasl of lhe period. The 17lh Dynasly ruled from Thebes, effeCli\c1y Religious sitc in Uppcr Nubia, consisting of the ruins of il temple of Amenhotep III (1390-1352 BC), 10caLCd onl\- a few kilometres to Ihe north of lhc lemple of SOI.EIJ. The Sedeinga temple was probably dedicated to the cult uf Amcnhotep Ill'S wife, O!-Icen TIY, and the modern toponym appears to be a considcrably distortcd yersion of the ancient name of the temple (hmt- Tl)/) , Certain signifiC<lnt pnrts of the temple have survived, such as columns with 11/\Tll0R-hcaded capitals ~ll1d a fragment of relief bearing a represcnt:Hion of Tiy in the form of a SPlllNX, which was perhaps also intended w suggest a leonine f(n'm of the 'eye of 1I0RUS}. The temple was restored and c1abornted during the reibrtl of the 25thDynasl\ pharaoh 1.\l1.IRQO (690-664 BC). M. Su IIFF GIOHGI;\.I, 'Premiere Gll11pagnc des

255

SED FESTIVAL

SEDQE:

fauilles aSedeinga 1963-4', Kusll 13 (1965), 112-30. J. LECLANT, 'Taharqa i Scdcinga', FesIschrifi W r1leSlellt!or/(Gorringen, 1984), 1113-20.

LEFT Block u/reliefFolII tlte Red Cltapel 0/ Hatshepsllt a.1 Ka.rnak, showing the queell faking part in one oIthe rituals oIher sed.feslival, IPil1I the boundalJI-markcrs visible behind hn 181h Dynasty, c./473-/458I1c. (I. SIWV)
BELOW Oil--)(/.r label hearing (/ scene depicling lIh' sed .festival (~rKing Dell. Ill/he upper n~!:Jht-l!llnd (omer tIle king I~\' SIIOI1J11 mUlling hclmt:elllmQ 1!l(l1'A-r'n probab~)I represelllillg /he borders o/Egypt. lsI DYIlI1S!:JI, c.2900 IJG, ehony, fl. S.S 011. (J;./32650)

sed festival (Egyptian Ileb-set!: 'royal jubilee') Ritual of renewal and regeneration, which was intended to be celebrated by the king only after a reign of thirty years had elapsed. Tn practice the surviving inscriptions and monuments associated with this festival seem to show that many kings whose entire reigns 'vere much shorter than thirty years have left evidence of the celebration of their sed festivals. There arc two possible interpretations of this situation: first, that many kings actually celebrated the sed festivals well before Lhe requisite thirty years had elapsed, or, second, that they ordered the depiction of the ritual in anticipation of the actual event happen.ing later in the reign. The sed festival (which derives its name from a jackal-god called Sed, closely related to WEI'Wt\\VET of Asyut), is inextricably linked with the Egyptian perception of KINGSIlIP, being documented from a very early stage in Egyptian history. The two essential elements of the ceremony (the paying of homag'e to the enthroned king and the ritual of territorial claim) are depicted on an ebony label from the tomb of King DEN at Abydos (now in the British l\l1useum, see illustration above). The right-hand corner of the label shows the king, at first, seated inside one of the special festival pavilions, wearing the double CROWN, and, later, running between two sets of three cairns or boundary markers (probably symbolizing the BORDERS of Egypt). The two scenes are framed by the king's name in a SEREKl-I frame on the left and the hieroglyphic sig'n for a regnal year on the right. The first royal mortuary complexes were concerned with the king's enactment of the sed festival. The eastern side of the Step-Pyramid complex of Djoser at SAQQARA incorporates the earliest surviving architectural setting for the fesrival, in the form of a courtyard surrounded by 'dummy' chapels, each representing the shrines of the local gods in different. provinces. At the southern end of the court is the basc of a double pavilion which would have held two thrones likc the one shown on the ebony label of Den. Tt is presumed that the king would have sat on each throne dressed in the Upper and Lower Egyptian regalia respectively, thus symbolizing his dominion over the 'twO lands' of Egypt. In the adjoining court to the south of the pyramid traces were found of boundary markers Ijke those between which the king was
256

required to run. A relief from the subterranean chambers of the pyramid shows Djoser himself running benvecn two sets of cairns; this dynamic image of the running pharaoh (orten holding strange implements) continued to be depicted in sed-festival reliefs throughout the Pharaonic period, as in the case of one of the blocks from the red chapel of Hatshepsut (1473-1458 Be) at KARNAK temple. From the 4th Dynasty onwards the importance of the sed festival in the royal mortuary complex was to some extent eclipsed by reliefs associated with the cult of the dead king, hut there were still large numbers of buildings constructed and decorated in connection with the royal jubilee, not least the mortuary temple of Amenhotep III (1390-1352 BC) at Thebes, the Aten temple of t\KlrENATEN in cast Karnak and the sed-festival court of OSORKON II (87+-850 "c) at Bubastis (TELL ",ISH). Although there is enormous continuity in the depictions of sed festivals from Den to Osorkon, it seems fr0111 the descriptions of the three sed festivals celebrated by Amenhorep III that the liturgy and symbolism of the ceremony could sometimes be adapted to suit the occasion or the place. The huge lake excavated to the east of the palace of Amenhotep III at MAl.KATA appears to have functioned as the setting for a reinvented sed festival, in which the king and the divine statuary were carried along On barges, in imitation of the voyage of the solar BARK through the netherworld. H. KEES, 'Die weisse Kapelle Sesosrris' I. in Karnak lind das Sedfesr', iHDA/K 16 (1958), 19+-213.

E.

UPHILL,

'The Egyptian sed-festival rites',

]NES 24 (1965),365-83. E. HORNUNG and E. STAEHLlN, Swdien ZUlli Set!jCSI (Geneva, 1974). YV.]. NfuRNANE, 'The sed festival: a problcm in historical method', iYIDAJK 37 (1981), 36<J~76.
sedge 'Term used to refer to the plant, the hieroglyph for which formed part of the ROYAl. 'Ill LLt\RY as early as the Ist Dynasty (3100-2890 Ile), when one of the titles of the king of Upper Egypt was 'he who belongs to the sedge' (apparently referring to the eternal, divine aspect of the kingship). Prom the unification of Egypt (c.3100 BC) onwards, the sedge and the bee became part of the titulary of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: llcST1J-lJil ('he of the sedge and the bee'). S. QUlRKE, I'VIIO mere the pharaohs? (London, 1990), 11, 23

Sekhemib sec

I'ERIBSEN

Sekhemkhet (2648-2640 HC) One of the principal rulers of the 3rd D}naSI)', whose reign probably lasted for only abollt eight years. It has been suggested that he nu)' be the same ruler as Djoserti (or Djoscrtcti) whom the TURIN ROYAL CANON, ;t king list preserved on a papyrus dating (Q the reign of Rameses II (1279-121.1 Ilc), lists as the successor of "Jo",,,{ Netjerikhet (2667-264R He). It was Sckhcmkhet who sent one of the ei.lrlics t expeditions to the TURQ..UOISE mines ;11 \Vadi l\Ilagham in the Sinai, where three rock-car vcd

SEKHEM SCEPTRE

SELKIS

depictions of the king (still ill si/II) show him in the act of smiting an Asiatic prisoner. His unfinished step-pyramid complex lies

close to the southwest corner of the Step Pyramid of his predecessor, Djoser, at SA~\RA; it waS excavated by Zakaria Goneim
during the period 1951-9 and by JeanPhilippe Lauer in 1963-76. Sekhemkhet's name was found inscribed on the clay stoppers of jars from the pyramid. The burial chamber contained a closed travertine sarcophagus with a wreath placed on top, which was nevertheless found to be completely empty, suggesting that either the burial chamber or the sarcophagus may have been duplicates, perhaps serving some ritual purpose or designed to fool tomb-robbers. In the socalled Isollth mastaba' at the south end of Lhc enclosure (similar to that in Djoser's complex), the excavations revealed a wooden coffin of 3rd Dynasty type, which waS found to contain the skeleton of an eighteen-monthold child of unknown identity. . . Z. GONEIM, The buried pyramid (London, M 1956). - , Horus Sekhem-khet: the unfinished step pyramid (/,t Saqqara I (Cliro, 1957). J.-P. LAUER, 'Recherchc ct decouvcrte du tombeau sud de PI Torus Sekhem-khet a Saqqarah', /11 E 48-9 (1969), l21~31. 1. E. S. EDWARDS, The pyramids ofEgypt, 5th cd. (Harmondsworlh, 1993),58-65.

the Theban triad (A,\IUN, l\lIUT and KHONS) became correspondingly more important and began to 'absorb' the attributes of other deities. This meant that Sekhmet was increasingly represented as an aggressive manifestation of the goddess Mut, and large numbers of statues of the lioness-goddess were therefore erected by A,\lE.'IHOTEP 1lI (1390-1352 BC) both in the temple of ivlut at K.AR~i\K and in his mortuary temple in western llIEBF-<i. j. YorulTE, tUne monumentalc litanie de granit: Ics Sekhmcr d'Amcnophis UI et la conjuration permenanrc de la dcesse dangereuse', BSFE 87-8 (1980), 46-75. P. GER\10;-":O, Sekhmct et Ill. pro/eetion du 11Iomle (Gene"",1981).

grtllWfY,

Stele o/Sarenenlltet, steward of/Ire dOl/ble showing him sea.ted and holding a sekhem saplre. 12tlr Dyllasl)', c. 1950 IJC, limestone,from AkJldos, II. 52 em. (...1,)85)

sekhem sceptre
Symbol of power which was sometimes shown in the hand of the king from the Early Dynastic period (3100-2686 BC) onwards, but which also served as il badge of office for the highest officials, who are commonly shown holding it in funerary reliefs. Whcn the king held :1 sekhe11l sceptre in his right hand he would usually hold a MACE or Censer in the left, whereas officials generally held only a staff in the left hand if the seklre11l was in the right. The term sekhem meant 'power' or 'might' and was associated with a number of deities (as well as being incorporat"ed into such royal names as SEKIIEMKIIET). Thus the name of the (joness-goddess SEKJ-IMET means 'she who is powerful', while the god OSIRIS was sometimes described as 'great sekhem who dwells in the THINITE nome'. 'T'he term was also associated with ANUBIS, another god of Abydos, who, as god of the underworld and Khcntimentiu C'chief of the westerners'), had a particular association with the royal cemetery and the supposed burial place of Osiris at Abydos. The seklz em sceptre was sometimes depicted behind the reclining figure of Anubis.

Occasionally the sceptre was shown with two eyes or a face carved into it. The sceptre also playcd a role in the mortuary cult, in that it was often held by individuals making offerings. It appears that the sceptre was waved over the items being offered to the 1(;\ of the deceased. A gilded sekhem sceptre was found in the tomb of Tutankhamun (1336-1327 BC; KV 62), and on its back were carved five registers showing a slaughtered bull, which may possibly have signified the number of times that the sceptre was waved during the offering ritual. R. H. \>VILKINSO:"l", Reading Egyptiall art (London, 1992), 182-3.

Sekhmet (Sakhmet) Lioness-goddess whose name simply meant 'she who is powerful'. She personified the aggressive aspects of fcmale dcities and acted as the consort of PTAH and probably the mother of NEFERTEM in the IV[emphite TRIAD. She WilS usually portrayed as a woman with II lioness's head but, as the daughter of the sungod RA, she was also closely linked wil-h the royal IIraeus in her role as the firc-breathing 'EYE OF RA' (sec also WAnjYT). The PYRAI\IID TEXTS twice mention that the king was conceived by Sekhmet. Because of the rise to power of the Thcban rulers of the New Kingdom (1550-1069 BC),

7")0 sllltuesofthe goddess Sekhmelfro11l Thebes.

/8th DYllast)', c./-IOO Be,
11.

2./8 Ill, 2.28 Ill.

(r,,62,80)

Selkis see SElue"T

Semainean see PREllYNAST1C

PERIOD

Semerkhet .2900 BC) Penultimate ruler of the 1st Dynilsty, who succeeded ANEDJm on the throne and waS probably buried in Tomb u at Abydos. His name is not listed on the Saqqara Tablet (a Ramesside KING LIST) and, in contrast to the other IstDynasty rulers, no MAS'lj\BA tombs of his reign
257

SEMNA

SENUS~

have yet been <.liscovcrcd at Saqqara; it has

therefore been suggested that he usurped

Ancdjib's jubi1cc vessels in order to bolster somewhat shaky claims to the thronc_ On the other hand, his lIes11J-/li, name ("he of the sedge

and bee" sec

ROY.\!. TITUL\RV),

Scmcnptah, is
,\I,\;\IETIIO

probably that

rendered by

as

Semempses, and he is also mentioned on the P-\LER.\IO ~TO~E (35th-Dynasty king list). It is
;dso perhaps significant, in terms of his legitimacy, that his tomb 301 Abydos is larger and more chlhoralc than that of Ancdjib. \V. ~l. F. PETRIE, The rOJftlltombs oItltejirst 1!>lI1llSly I (London, J 900). W. B. E.\IERY,Ardwic J:.gypt (London, 1961),

8+-6.
A.]. SIF.....n:R, Etir(}t J:.:ttJlPI (London, 19(3),

83--'1. Semna
Fortified to\\ n established in the reign of Sen usret I (1965-1920 BC) on the west hank of the Nile at the southern end of a series of FORTRESSES (ounded during the] 2th Dynasty (1985-1795 Be) in the second-cataract area of Lower Nubia. The Scmna gorge, at the southern edge of ancient Egypt, was the narrowest part of the Nile valley. It was here, at this strategic location, that the 12th-Dynasty pharaohs built a cluster of four mud-brick fortresses: Semna, Kumma, Scmna South and Uronarti (all covered by the waters of Lake Nasser since the completion of the ASWA:\ IlIGII IHM in 1971). The rectangular Kumma fortress, the L-shapcd Scoma fortress (on the opposite bank) and the much smaller square fortress of Semna South were each im'cstig;lted by the American archaeologist George "''''''''" in 1924 and 1928. Semna and Kumma also included the remains of temples, houses and cemeteries dating to the ::"Jew Kingdom (1550-1069 BC), which would have been roughly contemporary with such Lower Nubian towns as \ \IAR \ West and SESEBISUIJI.J\, when the second cataract region had become pari of an Egyptian 'empire', rather than simply a frontier zone. G. A. RE1S,\IER, 'Exe;muions in Egypt and Ethiopia', BMI'A 22 (1925), I X-28. D. DU,lli\\' and./. M. A. J:\NSSEI\'", Saolld (alilrlltl.!'ms I: ,)'(,II/I1a. K/lI1IIIUI (Boston, 1960),

Sl'tlled slaille oISl'IW/11/IIl nursiug Priurcn Ne.ferura. 10 mlwm he mas lit/or, mi/hin his rloaK. IS/h DYl1asO" c. 1470 lie. Mad: gmnilt',Iro11/ Karl/ak (I). /1.7/ CIa. (F..J!7-1)
vice in the reign nfThutmose II (1492-1479 lie), and under Hatshepsut he became the most influential member of the court. His numcrous titles included the role of steward of Amun and tutor to Harshepsut's only daughter, 'cfcrura. There is no eyidcncc that Senenmut ever married, and he is usually depictcd only with his parents or with Neferura. This has led some scholars to speculate that he was the lover of Hatshepsut, although evidence for this theory is distinctly flimsy. His responsibilit.ies included the overseeing of royal building \\"Orks at Thebes, a duty mentioned on one of his many surviving sLatues. IL was probably as a result of his influence in construction projects that he had himself portrayed in the temple at DEIR EL-BAI UtI, although his figures stand behind shrine doors, where they were not readily visible. He is also credited with organizing the transport and erection of ule rwo great" OIIELISKS of Hatshepsut in the temple of Amun at Ki\lC\i\K. He built two tombs for himsclf~ the first (rr71) is high on the hillside at Sheikh Abd el-

Qurna :lnd still preserves a rock-cm Bl.OCI\ porrraying him in his role as roral tutor, with Neferura scated on his lap. Thi~ is onc of six surviving block statues of Senenmut and Neferura, :llthough the rest are freestand_ ing. About 150 OSTR.'\C-\ were found in his tomb, including sketch-plans of the tomb itself and v~lrious literary texts. He later began a second grander romb (rr353) to the east of the first court of the temple of Hatshepsul at DEIR EL-BAJlRI, which is sometimes described as the lsccrct tomb'. Its walls arC decorated with scenes from the BOOK OF TIn-: OE-\D and its roof is the earliest known 'astronomical ceiling' (see ASTRO'\:O.\IY .\KO _\STROI.CXn). The tornb was never completed, and, Ijle the images of Senenmut at DeiI' e1-B..lhri and elsewhere, it was defaced in antiquity. This defacement was probably caused by some kind of fall fi'om grace, since there is no further record of Senenmul from late in the reign of llatshcpsul. Neferura is not at"tested afr'cr Hatshepsut's eleventh regnal year, and it has been suggested that Senenmut then sought to ally himsclf with Thutmose III (1479~1425 Be) with whom J-Iatshepsut was supposedly (0regent. Peter Dorman has suggested that Sencnmut may well have outlived Halshepsut ,mel conrinued ,IS an unrecorded official during the sale reign ofThutmose [II. \V. C. H:\y1:5, OSlral'(I (Iud n(lme Siones/rom II", l(Jfu!J o/Sell-A/lul (IUJ. 71) ill nlehes (New 'ork.
STATUE

1942). B. PORTER and R. L. B. .1\1105S, 'Iopogmphiatl bibliogmph)I III (Oxford, 1960), 139--42,417-18. P. DOR.\I p~, '/11(. momw/enls o/Sem:mllu/: probit'lrlS ill hislorit',,1 melhodology (Lomlon, 1988). - , Till' lombsofSeuelll11l1l ( TcwYork, 1991).

5-112.
G"li:ili::,{ffioll (I

B.j. KE,\IP,AIlCicl/f I:.:~JlPI: (1//(fIOllO' (!I'a ,ondon, 1989), 174-6.

BC)

Senenmut (fl. c. 1470

eh_ief steward in the reign of IIATSIIEPSCT (1473-1458 Be), who appears to have been born al \RI\\ \.NT of rclatiyely humble parents (Ramose and I-Iarncfcr). I-Ie entered royal ser-

Senusret (Senwosret, Senuserl, Sesostris) 'Birth name' taken by three kings of the 12th Dynasty (1985-1795 nc). SellllS/el I Kiteperkl/rtl (1965-1920 Be) lras the second ruler of the 12th Dynasty, who succeeded to the throne after the assassination of his father '\\IE:'JE\IIIAT I (1985-195j lie), with whom he had ruled as coregent for up to a dccade. The unusual circumstances of his accession form the background to the 7ftii' of Sillll!le anel the 111slnu;/ioll (~r A111wc1II!la//. He continued the policy of expansion in Lower Nubia and established a garrison at the fortress or UUIIE:'\.. As far as relations with Syria-P;llesrine were concerned, the policy was very different, concentrating on 11l.linraining commercial and diplomatic linkS r,lther than <lchicving territorial gains. He protected the Delta region and the oaseS of the \Vestcrn Desert from Libyan in\'<lsio n

258

gNUS RET

SENUSRET

by means of a series of military expeditions. He had already begun a programme of temple construction during his corcgency with his father, extending and embellishing most of the major temples, including those at
KJ\RNAK .mel IIEJ.IOPOLIS. His pyramid complex at EL-L1SIIT J ncar lhe new 12th-Dynasty capiml, Itj[,:l\vy, was loc:ltcd ro the south of that of Amenemhat I; the burial chambers of both these monuments arc currently inaccessible. Two painted wooden figures, one wcaring the white crown and rhe other the red crown, were excavated from the neighbouring ~I.\ST:\IH tomb of lhe priest Tmhut"cp; these may possibly be portraits of Senus ret 1 but have also been interpreted as daring to the lJth D~ nasty (1795-1650 lie).

Sel/lISrel

II

Khakheperm (1880-187-11l<:), lhe

fourdl ruler of the 12th Dynasty, sw.:cccdcd Amenemhat Il (1922-1878 Be) after a eoregency. He constructed his funerary complex at EL-LAlllJi'-, placing the entrance to the p~ famid not on the nonh side, as in most other pyramids, but a short distance to the south, perhaps because the pr,lt.:ticc of aligning the monument \yith the circumpolar stars was considered less important than the security of

ern '\!UBI.\. These three ministries (warel) were each headed by an official and an assistant. In the preceding two reigns, there had been littlc military activity, and Nubian tribes had perhaps gradu'llly moved northwards, toward the second cataract. Senusrct III took military action against these tribes in his eighth, tenth and sixteenth regnal years, thus enabling the fronticr to be established at SE.vINA, south of the second c.1taracl. This border W;15 further sccured by a series of eight FORTRESSES between Scmna and BUIE', further to the north, although it is not clear how many of rhese were built, and how many extended, by Senusret III, Communication between Elephanrine and the fortresses was f.lcilit.HCd by the cnlargement of a canal built by Pep~ I (2321-2287 BC) ncar the island of Sehel, south of Aswall, 50 great was his hold on Nubia that
LEVI'

IJlack graniie sl(llile oISellusreJ III. from Deir el-flahri. 121h DyIllHlJl, c.1860 lie, /I. 1.12 III. (Ii /(86)

IJEI.()\\ "lin: reamslrufled IVhiJr! Chapel of SellllsreJ I, mhich nmsjowul il1Img111C11/J imide Ihe

the tomb. Stronger connections with the cult of Osiris may be indicated by the presence of a row of trees around the base of the pyrilI11id as well as the first instances of balls of mud cOntaining grain (sec OSiRIS uEn). The burial chamber, exc3,arcd by Plinders PETRIE in 1887-8, contained an empty red granite sarcophagus. In the vicinity of the.:: yalley te.::mple Petrie also cxcantted the senlement of Kahun, which was originally built in order to house the community associated with the pyramid and the royal funerary culL During his reign, the tomb or Khnumhotep at IlEi\'l IIJ\SA~ (11113) records the arriml of a BEOOUl~ trading pany apparently bringing supplies of galena for usc in cosmetics, This incident is indicative of the fact that 5enusrct's foreign policy was <.:hanlcLcrized by an cxpansion in commerce with western Asia and I ubia. He 'llso inaugur<lted an ambitious irrigation systcm in the l"IWL,\l In:f.iIO'\i, which enabled large areas of new agri<.:ulturalland to be brought undcr cultivation. Sellllsrel III KlllllullJrll (1874-1855 Be) succeeded Senusret II, and was to be instrumental in re-shaping Egypt's internal and foreign affairs. His domcstic policy cenl:n:d 011 the reorganization of the administrative system. Since the Old Kingdom (2686--2181 BC), the nlajor threat to royal power had probably come from the nomarchs, the provincial governors (sec NOMES); a shift in the.:: funerary patterns of the C1ite (.1 decline in provincial tombs) may

3rt! pylrm oIAmcuholep

e.rlel'i!)!' is dean'flled
Iwmes

III

al Karnak. '/III:

milll h~/s oIlhe l::!{),plian (prm.:im:es). (R 'I: .\lCIlOISO,\)

indi<.:atc that Scnusret III reduced their authority drastically by removing m~II1Y of their established privileges. The means by which this was achie\'ed is uncle<lr, hut henccforrh it waS the king's \'lZIERS who o\'ersaw all branches of administration. There were three viziers: one ror the north, another f(>r the south and a third for Elephantine (sec 1\5\\1\:'1) and north-

by the New Kingdom the deified Senusret was worshipped in northern Nubia. The king seems to havc personally led a campaign into Palestine, .md to have taken the town of Sekmem, probably to be equated with Shechcm in the Mount Ephraim region. This is the only recorded campaign in western Asia during his rcign, although useful insights

259

SENWOSRET

SERAP~

concerning attitudes tow<lrds foreign enemies arc provided by the ":XI':CRATION TEXTS, many of which have been excavated at the Nubian fortress of !\Jlirgissa. The names of Sckmcm, Ashkelon, Byblos and Jerusalem are mentioned in these texts, as well as many of the Nubian peoples, including the Kushitcs and the MEDJAr. Senusret constructed a temple to J\llontu, god of war, at the Upper Egyptian site of l\II'.DAl\\UI), and chose DAIIS'I R, al the southern end of the Mcmphite necropolis, as the site of his pyramid complex. The pyramid itself, however, has suffered from the O\'crze.llous investigations of Richard Vyse and John PeTTing, causing damage to its already weathered profile. In 1894-5 Jacques de l\!lorgan undertook a more careful investigation, discovering a wealth of JEWEI.J.ERY in Ihe tombs of women of the royal family in the vicinity. The site has recently been re-examined by Dieter Arnold on behalf of the MetTopolitan Nluscum of Art, New York. Although the superstructure of the pyramid is in poor condition the subterranean chambers of thc king arc spectacular; the corridors are lined in fine white limestone, with a granite burial chamber and sarcophagus. 110wcvcr, [here is no evidence that Senusret 111 was ever buried here. In 1994 the jewellery and sarcophagus of Nefrct, the queen of Senusret III, were discovered. After his de:lth his feats were conflated wilh those of Scnusret I and II, and by Classical times he was probably also confused wilh Rameses n (1279-1213 Be). He thus eventually beGlITIe regarded as 'high SenusreL" Ihe archetypal Egyptian ruler. K. LA~GE, Sesostris (Munich, 1954). P. L.\Ct\U and H. CiIE\R1ER, Vile dlllpd/e de Sesoslris ler aKarnak, 2 \"015 (Paris, 1956-69). G. POSENER, LiUera/ure el polililJue dans I'Egyplt' de ta .\11 dynaMie (paris, 1956). H. GUEDICKE, 'Remarks on Lhe hymns to Sesostris III',JA RCE 7 (1968), 23-6. 'vV. K. SIi\II'SON, 'Scsoslris II and Sesostris III', LexilulI1 tier Aiypt%gie v, cd. \.\1. l-Iclck, E. Ono and W. Westendorf(Wiesb"den, 1984),899-906. D. 'VU~DUNG, Sesosln~~ /(/U! A1I1ellemhet: ~IgYPlel1 i/1 A/lill/erell Reid! (Freiburg, 1984).

(Papyrus Sallier I) consists of part of an eccentric account of Seqenenra's struggles with lhc l-lyksos ruler Aauserra AI)t~PI. Although his tomb has not been located, it probably lies somewhere in the Ora Abu c1Naga region of wcstcrn Thcbes, and fortunately his body was onc of those preserved (along with Ahmosc I'S) in the DEIR EL-BAHKI mummy c;'1che discovered in 1881. His head and neck had clearly been badly wounded, suggesting that he died in battle. A forensic examination of the body in the early 1970s succeeded in obtaining a good match between the gashes :lnd the typic:ll dimensions of a Paleslinian axe-head of the correct date, confirming the suspicion thal he died in a battle against the Hyksos, although more recent analysis of the skeleton has suggested that some of the wounds had been inflicted at :I later dalc and that he may therefore have survived the first. onslaught. B. GLiNN and A. I L GARDINER, 'New renderings of Egyptian texIS II: The expulsion of the T-lyksos',JEA 5 (1918), 36-56 1T. WINI.OCK, 'The tombs of the kings of the seventeenth dynasty atThebes',JEA 10 (1924), 217-77. Nt BIETAK and E. STROUIII\I., 'Die ]bdesllmsliinde des Pharaohs Seqllencnre (17. Dynastic)', A//Im/ell des Nt/turhislorischm Jl1.usel/11/. "Vif!1I78 (I 97-l), 29-52. C. Vt\:,\,DERSLEYF.J\i, 4Un seul roi T<t<t SOLIS b lie dvnastie', eM 63 (1983), 67-70.

1 entrance 2 burial made under cambyses (27th Dynasty) 3 bUrial made Under Ahmose II (26th Dynasty)
~

4 last Apis burial of the 30th Dynasty

~
~

50

100m

Serabit el-Khadim see TURQUOISE Serapeum

Term usually applied to buildings associated with the cull of the ,\PIS bull Or that of the later syncretic god SER!\I'15. The Memphite SerapeuJ1l al SAQQARA, !.he burial-place of the Apis bull, consists of a seric.c;; of catacombs to the northwesl of the Step Pyramid of Djoser. From the 30th Dynasty onwards, funerary processions would have approached the Serapcum via a rlr011l0:i (sacred way) running from the cit)' of Memphis t.o the Saqqara plateau. The Saqqara Serapeul11 was excavated in 185J by Auguste Mariette, who was led to the site through his discovery of traces of some of the sphinxes lining the drrJlllOs, which arc faithfully described by the Greek writer STRA130 (e.63 HC-AD 21). The eat"eombs date baek at least as carll' as the 18th Oyn"sty (15501295 Be) and continued in use until the Ptolemaic period (332-30 HC); they contain many massive granite sarcophagi weighing up to 80 tons, although all but one had been robbed of their burials. Marietre also found the

PllllI

of the SUlipelll1/ {II S(lqqam.

Senwosret see SENUSRET Seqenenra Taa II (c.1560 Be) Theban ruler of the 17th Dynasty, who began the series of c:ll1lp:'ligns against the 11YKSQS rulers in the Delta, which were eventually to culminate in the liberation of Egypt by his son AHi\IOSE I (1550-1525 Be), the first ruler of the 18th Dynasty. The Ramesside talc of the QJlllrrel oj Apophis lIud Seqwwra

burial of Prince Khaemwaset, a SOil ofR\\lESES (1279-1213 Be), who h"d been respunsible for constructing some of these \"aults. The Serapeum serving as the cult centre of Scrapis W:lS located at AI.EXA~DRL-\, close to Pompey's pillar, bUI it was sacked by Christians when Theodosius (.11) 379-95) issued an edict in AD 391, ordering il to be razed to the ground, and only Ihe subterranean seclion has survived. Some of the underground chambers served for jadal burials associated with lhe temple of Ai\"uUIS, while other parts were shelved to hold the temple 1.IBlV\RY. Viilh the spread of the cult of Serapis, other such cult-centres were conslructcd, including one at the Greek holy site of Delos, which was founded by ill1 Egyptian priest in the lhird century HC A. MAR1ETrE, Le ScmpclIl/I tie /vle1lfplu\ cd. G. Maspero (Paris, 1882). E. nITO, Beilrtige ZlIr Geschicllte tleJ SliaJ.:lIlte ill Agyptell (Berlin, 1938). j. VERCOUTrER, 'Tex/es biogmphiqueJ tin Simpiul/I de Memphis (Paris, 1962).
It

260

gRAPIS

SEREKH

M.

MALININI::,

G.

POSENER

and]. VERCOUTJ'E\{,

Cala/ogue ties stiles till St1rapiu11l de jlrlemphis', 2 vols (Paris, 1968).

P. M.
FRASER, PtQlemaic Ale.l"lIlld,.;a I (Oxford, 1972),246-76.

Tlfe underground catacomb knuwn lIS the Serapeum mas lite burial plate of/Itt' Apis bill/s. Near the en/nmre. niches mhich ollce rOlllainetl rOIi've stelae C{lU be S('('11, along l1Jilh the lid of(jilt: o/Ilre 11/assiv(' bull sarcophagi. (p. T. NIC]IOI..'.;oN)

human-headed serpents, the bearded one representing Serapis. His cult was adopted by the Romans, and spread very widely through the empire. One text mentions a temple of Serapis in Britain, and indeed a sculpted head of the god was found at the Walbrook IVlithraeum in London. 'The Romans thus appear to have kept ~'di"e the very Egyptian animal deities that they. are initially said to han" despised. L. VID.\IAN, Js/~~ Ulltl SlIrtlpis be; dell Crirchell Ulltl R()'mem (Berlin, 1(70). P. Nt. FRASI':R, P,(}lell/air Alexandria I (Oxford, 1972),24&-76. J. E. S'I:-\t\UHUGII, Sarapis /Imler Ihe ear(J' PlOlemu:s (Leiden, 1972). \V. I IOI{J'\BOSTEI., Surt/pis (Lciden, 1(73). G. J. F. KI\TER-SIIIIIES, Prelimilltfl]! wlalogue (~r Sart/pis /lIn/wlllents (Leidcn, 1(73).

Serapis (Sara pis)

Composite god resulting from the fusion of

ti,e Egyptian god Osorapis (himself combinOSIRIS and AlliS) with attribules of a number of Hellenistic gods, notably Zeus, Helios, Hades, Asklepios and Dionysus. From the laner, Osorapis took solar, funerary, healing and fertility <lSpcctS, although in fact he already encompassed some of these. The fertility aspect of the god is emphasized by his protection of Ihe corn supply, denoted by a COrn measure (see I\IQOILS) on his head. Serapis is first attested in the reign of PTOLEMY I Sotcr (305-285 Be) and was considered to be representative of the essence of Egyptian religion, while at the same time blending it with Greek theology. Unlike the Apis bull, the main cull-centre of Scrapis was nOt at Memphis or Saqqara but at the Alexandrian SERAI'EUi\t, which runctioncd as an important centre of learning. His consort Was ISIS, whose cult W~lS also popular among the Romans, and the pair came to embody the natural forces of male and fem~lle fenilirv. In ~lexandrian iconography they were s~mc tllYles represented on c100r jambs as a pair of
ing the gods

serdab (Arabic: 'cellar'; Eg\'ptian per-Iml: 'statue-house') Room in .\lASTABA rombs of the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC), where statlles of lhe KA orthe deceased were usually pl<lccd. There were oftcn eye-holes (known as the 'eyes of the I.!ahouse') or a narrow slit in the wall of the chamber, both enabling the ita to leave the chamber and allowing offerings to pass through to the st'atues from the tomb chapel. 'The earliest sl'1'dabs in private masraba tombs date to the {th Dynasty (2613-2494 BC). A. ~ I. BL.\CK,\l.o\l'\, \The b-house and rhe serdab',]EA 3 (1916), 250-1. G. A. REISNEI{, The derelopl/lI.:II1 (~tlhe Egypliall lomb dOl1JlIlO Ihe aac.I'sioll o/Chcop.l' (Cambridgc, MA, 1936),267-9. A. J. SPE"ICER, Delllh iI/ ancie11l EgYPI (Harmondsworth, 1982), 60- I. serekh
Hieroglyphic symbol comprising the recessed panelling described in modern timcs ~lS 'palace-fac;ade' decoration, which is belicved to ha\'c been modelled on the design of Lhe earliest royal residcnces. The palace-fal,;ade design is imitated in mud-brick on the mastaba tombs of Ihe Early Dynastic period (31002686 BC) and Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC), on E-\LSE I)OOR stelae, COFFI'JS, s~1rcophagi and numerous other funerary and ceremonial contexts throughout Egyptian history. The term is usually employcd to refcr to a rectanguhtr frame surmountcd by the I I(lRUS falcon, within which the king's 'Horus nallle' was written (sce ROYAl. TITUL\RY). This frame seems to have effectively symbolized the domain of Horus, the royal residence. Occasionally the royal name in its serekh surmounted by Horus was combined with;] sculpture as in the statue

Granite slele bearing Ihe serekh ~lRalleb.rrom ,Hi/rahinll (A/Jemphis). 2nd DY1lfIS~}I, c.2850 lie, 1/99 em. (IIETROPOU1:J.\" iIlUS/;,L-.Il, .vEil' )'URK, JOSf:I'lI p["UnE EQUEST /960.60.114) of the 6th-Dynasty ruler Pepy I (2.121-2287 Be; Brooklyn iVluseulll, New York), wherc it forms I he back of his throne. Such iconography is typical of the close relationship between Egyptian ART and writing. J\10re spectacular examples are the monumcnral falcon panels which formcd part of a palacc-fas:ade wall for the enclosure of the pyramid complex of Senusrel 1(1965-1920 BC) at EL-USHT. For a bricf period, in the 2nd Dynasty (2890-2686 BC), SETtt replaced Horus as the god surmounting the serekh (see PEI{IBSEN and KliASEKHEM\vY), thus transforming it into a 'Sc..h name', but the changc was short lived. The Horus name continued to be written in a serekh even after the introducrion of the CARTOUCHE for the 'birth' and 'throne' namc.'i. \\'. Kt\ISEK, 'Einige BClllcrkungcn zur agyptischcll Fr(ihzcit Ill. die Rcicheinigung', Z.,{~91 (196-1),86-125. R. II. \VILKINSO<,\, 'The IIorus name and the form and sibrnificance of the serckh in the royal Egyptian rirulary',]SSEA 15 (1985), 98-104. \V BJ\Rll-IA, 'Del' Pabsthorustitcl und seinc Vorl:iufer in der Fruhzeit', GM 117-18 (1990), 55-8. S. QUIRK..t:, IV/If) mere the pharaohs? (London, 1990),19-23. A. O'BRlEN, 'The Serekh as an aspect of the iconography of early kingship' ,lARCE 33 (1996),123-38. 261

SERKET

SERPENT,S~

serpent. snake
As in most cultures, the snake W.IS regarded b" the Egyptians as.1 source of evil and danger; i't was the prim:ipal ttlI'm of thc god \1'01'111.\ Who thrcarened the sun-god during his \'oyagc through the netherworld (sec Fl"'I-.R \IW TEXTS). In the same \\"ay thar thl: Scorpion_ deities SI:RK.ET and Shed were worshipped and propitiated in order fo aycrt the danger pOsed by their ph~ sical manifest<1lions, So prJ\'crs and offerings were made to Ihe serpem-~od_ dcsscs RE...'\E'\LTET and \IERETSElit:R, su "'that snake-biles could be avoided or (lIrel!. There was also J snake-god called :"Jehebkaw, firs! attested in the I'YRA1\lID TJ':XTS of thl' hlte 5th and 6th Ornasl)' (c.2375~2181 ilL). It not until the Third Intermediate Period (1069-747 Ile) thaL Ihe first amulcts of Nehcbkaw wcre m'ldc, usually rcpreseming him as a man wilh a snake's head and "lil. The most highly regarded serpcnt-dcirr was the cobra-goddess \\"'\I)J' T, who was th~ patroness of Lower Egypt and, along \\ ith the vulwrc-goddess i\'EKIIHET, a symbul of the king's rule over the two lands or Egypt. The IIra('l/.~ (cobra), traditionally poised at thl' ron:head of the pharaoh as a potent s~ mbol of his ""GSIIIP, W.IS gi\'en the epithcT 11'('n'l 1/('/:(1111, 'gre.ll of magic', and there wcre strong associations between serpents and the pracL.icc or magic. A I3rh-Dynast:y bronze serpent (no\\" in the Fitz\yilli:llll lvlusCUIll, Cambridge), round entangled in a mass or hair in ('lomb 5' under the Ri\i\!ESSELM at Thcbes, has bccn interpreted ~lS a magician '5 'wancP like those held by a statuette representing a lionesshC;lded (or lioness-masked) female magician, which waS found in the same conlc:\t and is now in lhe l\lanchester ~luscum (sec \1 \GIC). A rype of stele callcd a fippus, used cluring the Latc Periocl (747-332 Be) as a means of warding ofl' such dangers as sl1;lkes, scorpions :md clil-ie,lSC, usually depicts Harpoa;Hcs (sec IIORUS) holding snakcs and other desert creatures in eithcr hancl. Serpenls were also regarded ;IS primc\";ll, chthonic crcatures intimatclv linked \\ ilh Ihe proccss of creat ion, thcrefo-rc the four goddesses of thc J lcrmopolitan (XiDO\!J WCfe somctimes describcd as having snakes' hL'ilds, and Kcmatcf~ thc cosmogonj~ aspect of Ihe god \.\'\U;\:, took the form Of.l serpent. There was also dlC uuroboros, the serpCTlI \\"hos c

'''IS

Serket (Selket, ScIkis) Scorpion-goddess usually depicted as a woman wit"h a rearing SUlltPIO.">l 011 her head, aILhaugh, like many Egyptian goddesses, she could also be represented as a lioness or serpent. Her name ~lppcars to be an abbrc\'i~ltion of the phrase serltel hely' ('the one who t"auscs the throat to breathc1)J presumably in an attempt to neutralize the thrc.It posed by scorpions. The cult of Scrkct is ;ll'lcsted as carl~ as the 151 Dynasty (3100-2S90 Ile), on the inscribed funerary stele of Nlcrka from Tomb 3505 at Saqqara, and she also appears in the I'YRAj\IIDTEXTS as the 'mistress of the beautiful house'. This hItter epithet rc!;ltcs to her role in the embalming process, and she was rq,rardcd the protccror of the hawk-headed C,\-'OPIC15 J IR deity Qebehsenuef (see SO'\S OF 1I0RL:S). Along with three other goddesses, Isis,
262

Ci/(kd aud paillln! flmodcn.figul"l'J r~rlhrcf' yItllt' j;wr guddcJsl'J mho prYlall'd Ihe goldcn shrille (~( TII/anNul//Ilm, il/eludil/g (li"/J/Il /t}i II} righl) Ncilh. hi"I' ({/1(1 Sal'cl, m/um: hear! is sUI"II/(J/ilfled kJ' (J sforpirllf. /81h Dynasly, c./336-/327 He,
II.

YO 011.

(CIIROJ1:"60686, R/:PRUIJlCf./J

COL RTE.'j) 0,.. 1"111: GRJFF17U J\'STJ71TI:..)

Nephlhys and ~cith, she was charged with gu'lrding the royal collin and canopic chest. Although she oftcn rC:llUres in spclJs LO cure or avoid venomous bites (and was prohably the patroness of magicians dealing with such bires)) she is rarely invoked in spells relating to scorpion stings. E KihEI., 'La 1/cpe ('lie .wnpioll': 1Il1l1lf1j/fJgmphie sur Ifl dc('sse Sakel (Paris, 1984). - , /,('S prhres-olltlb de Sl'I.:lw/('1 files cmljllrcllellrs de Seri'" (Paris, 1984).

body coiled around the universc, cventually allowing it to bite its own tail, which sen cd as <1 mctaphor for thc relationship bel ween neing and non-being. This serpent, the carlie~t surviving depiction of which is on the small golden shrinc of TVT"\'JI'HA.\IL:"l' (l336-Ll27 Ile). represented lhc powers of resurrcction ;Inc!

SSEBJ-SUDLA

SSEBI-SUDLA

..._ _
-----J
magazines residential areas

.
=-----

........... ....---. J I: :Il ~

temple

. . . .

ditch

original settlement (?)

Stele ofPtmeb. lljOrt'I1UIII ofthe !olllb-lJ'orkers til Deir e!-AIl!d;/1(/, shaming Pauch l1'orshippillg Ihe goddess flIal'lSeger il1lhej(Jrm (Jfa serpl'/II. 19th D),,/(/.<ty. Co//9.; IiC. II. /9.30". (Ii ,272)

renewal, ;.mcl it was thought that the regeneration of the sun-gou ""as rc-enactcd cycry night within its body. \Vhilc the ouroboros cOIlYcyed

50

100

150

200 m

a SCIl..'iC of endless spatial length encompassing the universe, another snake called the melmi ('double cord') ~ervcd as;l manifestation nfrhe infinity of time, and a depiction from t.he BOOk' of Cates in the tomb of Sety I (129+-1279 IIC) shows the undulating coils of .1 \';lst snake accompanied by the hieroglyphs signif~ring 'lifespan'. J BoURRI,\U, P/wrt/ohs a"d morlals: Egyptitlll al'l ill ,Ire Middle Kingdo/l/ (Cambridge, 1988), 111-13, S, JOHNSON, The cubm goddess (!!aJJcieut Egypt (London, 1990). E. HORJ'\1Li\'G. Idetl i1ll0 illlage. trans. E. Bredeck (New York, 1992),49-51,63-4.

.\BO\'E

Plan o/Sesebi.

RIGIIT Faiel1rt' i.'CJse! d{,{ol"flll'll milh blue /olll,,,e." }olll1d al St'scbi. Nem Killgdo11l, 111-/..1011. (E ,6-1UJI)

The principal areas exc3\'iuecl by Aylward Blackman and l-l. 'W. Fairman in 1936-8 \\'ere the northwestern and southwcstern corners of thc site. The remains in the northwestern corner of the town \\ ere dominated by a hlrge tri-

Sesebi-Sudla
Walled settlement situated in the Upper
Nubian Abri-Dclgo reach) betwcen the second and third cataracts \\"hich was founded bv the

18th-Dynasty ph:,raoh Akhenaten (1352-

1336 He). The roughly contemporaneous

Nubian towns at Bl;IIE): and \I1RGlSS~', dating to the Ncw Kingdom (1550-1069 Be), were
essentially extensions of garrisons established

in the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 nc), but

Sesebi-Sudla was a newly established town and very much ;l product of the New Kingdom Egyptian policy of colonization of Nubia. It covered .In area of more than fiyc hectares and the population has been estimat-

partite temple dedicated to the Theban triad must theref()rc ha\'e bcen founded in the early years of Akhelliltcn's reign, before his full-scale adoption of the cult of the t\TEN, The southwestern area comprised a dense block of houses arranged along a reguhtr grid of streets. The examination of the central e:'lstern area of the town has also rC\'caled traces of a small enclosure surrounded by it ditch. which may be the remains of an earlier sertlement established in advance of the main town, Since the date of the town's foundation was within ~l few years of the esmblishment of <l new Egyptian capital city at EL-:\:\IAR,"', com('.\IL:;'-:", .\IL:T illld I..:.JIO.\S), which

ed at about 1000-1500.

parisons between (he twO sitcs are potentially re\"ealing. The fe\\' elite houses at SesebiSudla, unlike the villas in the main city at el-

263

o:S.:::Eo:S:.:H.:.:A"-T

.~SB.!:!

Amarna, wcre not set in extensive private gardens, and many of the smaller houses, like

Sesostris sec SEI'USttET Seth (SCI, Setekh, Sut,, Sutekh)

God of chaos and confusion, \\"ho was general-

those in the Thcban workmen's village at DEBt were regularly furnished with cellars. The colony as a whole showed signs of 'careful, regular and cconomlc planning', making it rnore similnr to the peripheral workmen's \'ilhlge at c1-Amarna Lhan the main city.
EL-,\IEDINI\,

I)' depicled with" human borly but wilh the hcad of a mysterious animal, often described
as 'l~'phonian' (because of his later idenrific:ltinn with the Greek god T\phon). With ils long nose and squared ears, the 'Seth animal' has sometimes been comp:lred with an anteater, but was probably a completely mythical beast. Thc full animal form of the god \\"as depiclcd with an crect forked tail and a canine

These fUI1chlmcnral differences suggest that Ihe town of Sesebi-Sudla was probably a spe-

cialized, stare-run community rather than simply a cross-section of Egyptian society

fmnsplanrcd into Upper iubia. A. T.. BI.;\cI'.\I.\:'\, 'Preliminary fCP0rl on the CXC3\"alions al Scscsbi, :\orthern ProYince, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1936-7',]EA 23 (1937), 145-51. H. \V. Fi\I~\l \'-, 'Prdiminar) report on the excavations al Sescbi (Sudla) and "Amarah 'Vest, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1937-8',]EA Z+ (1938), 1.;1-6. R. iVloRJ..:OT, 'The excavations al Sesebi (Sud I,,) 1936-38" l3eill'iige ::;111' Sw!al(f{I/'sdlllllg 3 (1988), I 59-H

Seshat
Goddess of writing and measurement, usually represented as a woman clad in a long panther-skin dress and wearing :1 headdress consisting of a band surmoumed by a se\"cnpointed star and a bow, From at least thc 2nd Ovnast)' (2890-2686 BC) on warcls she was recorded as assisting the pharaoh in the f(mndation ritual of 'stretching the cord' (see .\STRO'\O,\IY \:'\'1) .\STROLOGr), although the goddess Sefkhet-!\bw)' ('she ,yho has laid aside the [two] horns') sometimes replaced her in Ihis role. Temple reliefs of the Old and ;vliddle Kingdoms (2686-1650 He) show her in the act of recording the quantities of foreign captives and booty in the aftermath of military campaigns, bUI in the New Kingdom (1550-1069 Be) she became mueh more 'lssoci,ltcd with the SED FESTfY:\1, (thc royal jubilee ritual); she is thercf()re often depicted with thc notched palm rib that traditionally represented the passing of time, ,md, like her male equiyalenl TI lOTI I, she \\",1S somctimes shown writing the names of thc king on the leaves of the persea tree (sec TllEI':S), R. E;,\,liEWi\Cl1, 'A foundation scene of the second dymlsly',JEA 20 (1934),183-4. G. A. W..\ INWl{IGlIT, 'Seshal and the pharaoh', lEA 26 (19+0). 30--40. H. BONNET, Real/e.rikoll der /(!!,yp/iSL'hen Religio//sgeschicllle (Berlin, 1952),699-70] W. HI~LCK, 'Seschat', Lexikon der AgJlp/o!ogii' ,; ed. W. I leick, E. Ono and W. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1984),88+-8. 264

Limes/Oflt! .cleft' oI.-IaprhtJ', fI roy,,! CmfiSmll11, s!wlJ1ing him adoring lltt' god Snit. Tlte (Tafimum$ IUllI/i' is (I pll'.)' on Ihe phrase aa-pehty II/eaniug ~r:re(ll ofslrwgtlt', oue oftltt' epithelS ofSeih mhQ, ill Rall/e.uidt., linu's, became a patroll ofEg)lpl "long millt Anllm, Ra lIlId Pltlk 19,h DJ'nfls~J" c./200 /lC,]i'OIll Thebes. /I. 21.2 fill. (.43.,360)
body, bur he was also occ<.lsionally representcd in the guise or other abhorred animals, such as t.he hippopotamus} pig and donkey. The earliest known representation of Seth takes the rorm of a carved iyory artefact (perhaps a comh) from Tomb 1l2Y at cl-Nlahasna} dating to rhe ""(!!"),, I period ('.4000-3500 BC), while the distinctive figure of the Scth-animal is also porrrayed on the macehead or the Protodynastic ruler SCORPION ('.".3150 JK:). According to surviving religious texts, Seth was the son of the sky-goddess J'\UT, the brother of OSIRIS, ISIS and i'\EPHTHYS (the latter being also his wire), and was said to havc been

born in the region of i'\AQ!\DA. Since the deserts and foreign lands werc equated with enmit\" in the Egyptian world ,"iew, Seth hecamc pa;ron of such countrics, and was aJso sometimes associated with the foreign goduesses ''\AT and -\Sli\J{TE. According to legend, Seth was supPo...ed to h:we murdered his brother Osiris and [htn to havc eng;.lged in a long and \'ioleot contest with his nephew HORes, who sought to ~n'cnge the death of his father. In this contest, Seth pur out the eye of Horus, while thc laner castrated Seth, part or whose ,"iolent nature probably dCl'i,-cd frolll his sexual poten('~, It has bccn suggested, in this contcxt, thal thc struggle bel ween the two gods may ha\"c scn cd as a melaphor for the rolc of male SEXL'-\I.IT, in thc cult of the Egyplian king, Tn the ,arious contests, Seth look on many forms, including those of a black boar <md 1-111'1)01'0'1'..\ \tLS, and it is common to sec Horus spearing him in onc of these animal guises, as in thc ambuh11UI'\' of the temple of J-Torus at rlWL, Evenltl<lll~ 'the g'ods were called upon to judge "'hieh uf the t \Yo should be the earthly ruler. Despite his great: c"il, Seth was favoured by I~\ on ,H;Count of his scniority, However, it \yas eventuJlly decreed that Horus should be the ruler of rhe living (hence his idemificarion "'jth lile king) while Osiris would gO"ern the underworld (hence his identification with the dead king). As god of chaos and confusion, Serh lay outside the ordered uni\"ersc, thus sen ing as a necessary cmnplcmcnt to the diyinL' order, since cycryLhing within the Egyptian system needed an opposing force in order to maint:1in rhe necessary balance (see DL"o\un ). Despite his failure to gain the lIuune Seth was said to hare remained a 'comp;mion of Ra', dwelling with him and causing storms and bad wcather. He is also supposcd to hare journeyed with the sun-god in his Ao\R!\ through the twdyc hours of the night. In this context his \"iolent nature ,,"as put 10 good usc, defending Ra from the coils of the :-.crpcnt ;\POPIIlS, whom he speared from the bow of rhe boat. Since the dececlsed king '1lso journeyed with Ra, he too enjoyed the protection ofSerh, Similarly Seth might be called upon to proviele good wcarher by withholding [he Ch<.lotic aspect of his character that would usually h.l\'C instigared storms. Despite his unsavoury reputalion, Seth waS nevertheless the object of veneration; his cult had been centred at Naqada since rhe PredYTlastic period, as well as in the northeastern Delta. The 2nd-D\'nast\ ruler Peribsen chose to write his pri~cipal'nall1c in a SEKEKII surmounted bv an image of Seth rather than Horus, in a ~'adical change front

SEXUALITY

traditional iconography, while his successor, placed images of both gods above his name. Thereafter, however, the serekh remained uniquely associated with Horus. In the Second lnrcrmcdiate Period (165(1-]550 lie) Seth was worshipped by the HYKSOS at A\"aris (TELl. EI.-Dr\H'A), perhaps because he was a thunder-god, like the Levamine deity, Baal. He was also ,"cIlerated by the rolers of the 19th and 20th Dynasties (1295-1069 BC), some of whom took his name, as in the case of Se,,' t (129+-1279 BC) and Sethnakhte (1186-1184 BC), The rulers of this period occasionally made reference lo the strength of Seth when describing their own deeds in battle, FrOiTI the late T'hird Intermediate Period (c.800 Be) onwards, there appears to have been a change in the way mat Seth wus viewed. Whereas pre,'iousl)' he had been regarded simply as an ambi\-alent force, avoided for most purposes but im"oked for others, he began instead to be seen as c\-il and undesirable, to the extent fhar some of his statues were rccarved Wilh the attributes of the god Amun, and his defeat by Horus was widely celebrated. H. TE VELDE, Seth, god ofro/lfmioll (Leidcl1, 1967), C. ON:\SO I, 'Ocr iigyprische und der biblische Seth', Archij; jiir PapyrusfiJrsdlll11g 27 (1980), 99-119, S. QUIRKE, AI/elml Egyptj{f/l religioll (London, 1992),61-70,
KHASEKHE\I\\ Y,

IValerr%llr /~}I Hem)1 SaIl oia srwe in 1he lomb

(?fSety f al Thebes, pail/ted c./8/8.

Sety
'Birth name' forming part of lhe RorAI. TITULARY of two phan.lOhs of the 19th Dynasty (1295-1186 BC), Sel)' I Mellllllll/im (129+-1279 BC) "as the second ruler of the 19th Dynasty, the son of RAMESES I and the father of Ramcscs II. His COREGE.I'\'cr with his father appears 10 havc lasted virtually from the beginning of the dynasty, perhaps in <l conscious effort to avoid the problems of succession I hat had COIltrihuted to the decline of the 18th-O,'nast)' royal family. The concern wilh historil:al continuity is e\ident in his temple at. :\BYDOS, where the (;ult of the royal ancestors was celebrated with a relief sho~Ying his son reading a papyrus inscribed with the IKlllles of sixtyseven predecessors stretching back to the sem.i-mythical t-.ll:i\I:S (sec J'1i\'U L1~TS). His reign seems to h3ye been successful on virtually all levels, with miliwry campaigns in the Levant and wars ,,-ith the L1BY,U';S and IIrnTrF.5 effccliveh- securin cr the countn"s sphere of innucnc~ in nortl; Africa and ~he Near East. In terms of architecture, the reliefs

in his temple at Abydos and the paintings in his tomb in the VALU:V OF TilE KISGS (KvI7) were among the most elegant of the ;\Ie\y Kingdom. His mummy was among the group which survived the tomb-robbery of the Third Intermediate Period (l069-7{7 HC) through reburial in the 'DEIR EL-B:\IIRI cache'. Sel)' /I Userkliepel'llrn Selepwra (12001194 BC) 'YOS the designated heir of ,\IERI':NPC\1I (1213-1203 He), but it seems likely that he was initially prevented from reigning by the emergence of a rival claimant called Amenmessu, son of a relatively unknown daughter of Rameses II. AboUI li\e years after the death of \1erenptah, Sety finally became king, .md there is suni\-ing cyidence of work which he commissioned at Karnak and the Ramesseul11_ His tomb in lhe Valley of Ihe Kings (KrI5) was never C0111pleted but the standard of the reliefs all the walls was high. His mummy waS among those re-interred in the tomb of :\.\IE'\J-10TEP II in the 21st Oynast\- (1069-9{5 BC), H. CJIT:TRIER, Le temple repo.wir tit' Siti tt (Gliro, 19{0), A. R. D:\nD, A guitle to religiollJ ritual tit A/~)ldoJ ("-arminstcr, 1981). E_ IJoR::'\L'G, The tomb oISeti I (Zurich and ;\lunieh,1991), K. A. KrrOll':N, Ralllesside illsaiptiolls, 7 "Dis (Oxford, 1993),

sexuality
Until comparati\'cly recently it was often implied that the ancient Egyptian 3ttimdes to sexuality were somewhat nai\e or coy. It is

now recognized, however, thar the Egyptians' vicw of sexual behaviour was relatively uninhibited and straightforward; like most societies, they applied their code of [TIIICS to certain aspects of sexuality, in thai" adultery was not condoned and sexual intercourse in sacred places W;,1S prohibited, bur their general attitude was distinctly pragmatic and unprudish. Sexuality and fertility were clearly of great significance in many of their religious beliefs. The ithyphallic god l-lI:'oJ was a popular symbol of fertility, to whom cos lettuces were offered, allegcdly because the white sap of the lettuce was identified with semen. 'The Egyptians were a\yare that semen (I11W) was lhe male contribution to conception, althuugh they also believed that the semen emerged from a man's bones and thus pro\'ided the child with its skelcton, while women were thought to supply the baby's soft r.issues. As far as contraception was (;()Ilcerned, some of the surviving 'medical papyri' prescribe recipes for porions to avoid pregnancy. From at least the Badarian period onwards, figurines of womcn, made from clay, wood, ivory or stone, were included among funerary equipment. These were often highly stylized and generally emphasized one or more of the sexual characteristics. The interpretJrion of the various different types of 'fertility figurines' has prmcd exrremely difficult. 1\vo areas of confusion have persisted until recent times: on the one hand, some figures were described by their excavators as 'dolls' and therefore incorrectly viewed as TOYS; on the other hand, e\-en when their sexual significance was re(;ognized by schohus, they were often automatically assumed to have been 265

SHABA(~O

SH\~

intended for the posthumous sexual gratification of the deceased (despite the fact that the\' h,we been found in the tombs of women as well as men). fr is now bclic,-ed by most Egyptologists that the flulCtion of stich female figurines within the tomb was to reinforce or symbolize the sexual aspects of regeneration and rebirth. There arc a number of specialized types such as rhe wooden 'paddle dolls', so called because of their shape, which have been found mainly in 11 rh-Dynasry Theball romhs. Another very common 1\liddle Kingdom type, often misleadingly described as 'concubines of the dead', consisLed of cby or faience female fjgures, often trum.:atcu at the knees, which were found in both tombs and houses. i\ lcdical papyri make it clear that physicians were famili.u- with the male sexual organs but less so with the femillc genimlia. The hieroglyphic sign shmying fcmale genitalia was often used for the word Iwoman', \\-hilc the erect penis was somel"imcs lIsed to denote 'milk' or 'husband'. The two hkrog'lyphs \\'ere occasioll'111y even supcrimposcd to express sexual intercourse. The an in tcmples ilnd Tombs frequently depicts or alludes to the sexual act. Til the temple of Harhor at DE'\!DI':IU, for example, ISIS, in the form of a kite, is shown poised 011 the phallus of thc mummificd OSIRIS as pan of the Osiris myth. Similarly, the coffin of Ihe deceased might be identified \yith the sky-goddcss XLT, ilS though the deccilsed h'1d returned to her hody to await rebirth. Homosexuality was not unknown, .lOd tendcd to be described somewhat disapprm'ingly, as in the .utcmpred rape of the god J IORl;S by his enemy SETlI. The Greek historian Herodotus made reference to the practice of bestiality in Egypt, hut his reliability in this matter is uncertain, and hc may cvcn ha\'c been conf"using mythologic;ll references and ritual acts with actual sexual preferences. P. J. UCKO, Alllhropoll/nrphic./igurim'J oJ Prer(J"/11J1ic Egyp/ {Iml .\'l'(it;fhit Grelt' (London, 1968). H. BRl "ER, 'Fruchrbarkcit', l,cxiI'OI/ tier .lgYPfolfigic II, cd. \\'. I leick, E. Otto and \\'. \\'eslCndorf (\\-icsbaden, 1977), 336--I-L L. .\ l\, 'lOll:, Scxualliji' il1 til/cit.", Egypl (London, 1987).

rival , the 24th-Dynasty Saire king Bakenrcnef (Boeehoris; 720-71 5 Be) and replacing him with a Kushite gO\-crnor. Throughout his reign he made many additions to Egyptian temples, such as those at _\IE\IPIIIS, _-\BYDOS and Esn.1, while at J'ARi'\ \1( he erected a 'treasury'. The 'archaism' that characterized the art and architecture of the 25th and 26th Dynastics was already .1pparent in the reign of Shabaqo, particularly in the case of the 'ShabaClo Stone' (now in the British lVluscum), an account of the creation of the universe by the god Prnh which was inscribed on a slab of basalt and claimed to be copied from an old worm-eaten document. Shabaqo appointed his son, Horemakhct, ro thc post of High Priest of Amun at Thebes, although the rloa} power in the Theban region still lay in the hands of Shabaqo's sister, Amenirdis I, the Gon's \\ WE or .\\IL-~, who constructed a monu;try chapel and tomb Ii)!' herself within the precinct's of .\II])I'ET J I \IlL. \Vhen Shahaqo died, he was buried in a pyramidal rumb at the Napamn royalnccropolis of 1':L-h:CRnli and \\'"s succeeded by Piy's SOil Shabitqo. K. A. KrrCl-II~~, The Third IIIIallft'd;lIlt' Period ill Egypt (1101J-650 lie), 2nd cd. (Warminster, 1986),378-1G.

Shabtis (~rlhl' prillfl!ss J-lellllIJl1e1~)11 tlmllllt'lm.\';1I mIJirh they l1'UC (oll/ff;ffed. rIJt' bnx -"IJml's Ita adoring Ihl'jackal-headed Dutlllllllelalld Ihe Illf1}f{f1l-helldetl 11IIS"~l" IlllO (~tllll'.I;mr SIi1'-~ ,~r Horus. 19111 /J.J'11t1SO', c.1290 IIC, !pf)od,ji'om

shabt; (Eg\'ptian IIsl/{{bti. ,hIlUlt/btl)

Funerary figurine, usually mummiform in appearance, which dc\-c1opcd during the j\.liddlc Kingdom out of the funerary statue[{es and models pro\jded in the tombs of the Old Kingdom. The etymology of the \\'ord slUlhli is unknown, as is the \'ariant :iIUllJ)a!Jti, but by the Late Period (747-332 Be) the term IIshal)/;, meaning 'answerer', \ras in general usc. The purpose of" the stalueUcS "-as to spare their owner from menial con'ce labour in the afterlife, ,,-hich would be required t()I- the dece'lscd to produce his or her food. The figures stood in felr both the deceased (in whose 1l.1111C they "'ould answer the caLi to work) and t'he seryants of the deceased. Some shalnis ;Ire uninscribcd but most arc decorated with Chapter 6 of the BOOK OF TilE I1t\I1, which is therefore known as lhe 'shalJ/; chapter'. Se\'eral forms of this text have been identified by I-L1l1s Schneider, bur its basic purpose was to enable the slwIJlis to accomplish their tasks: '0 .~//{{bti, if Inam~ or dCl.:eased] be summoned to do any \york which hns 10 be done in rhe realm of the dead - to make arabic the fields, to irrigatc the land or to COI1\ ey sand from cast to west~ "1:"lere am I", you shall sa~, "I shall do it".' Early Nc\\ Kingdom sl/{{hti.~ \\-ere sometimes

Thebes.

1/

oIbox H

fll/.

(""11.>-/9)

Shabaqo (Shahab) (7 I(}-702 BC) Second ruler of the Egyptian 25th Dynasl~ (747-6.56 lIe). He rose 10 power O\-cr the kingdom of '\PH\ afler the deilth of his brother PlY (747-716 BC:), who had ah'ead~ conquered Egypt but apparently failed to consolidate his milimry success. Shabaqo soon re-c.'itablished control over Lower Egypt, defeating his main

accompanicd b~ model hoes and baskets and from thc Third Intermediatc Period (1069-747 Be:) onwards some "oYcr~ccr figures' \\'ere pro\'ided with a \yhip, \\hile hucr examples hayc such dctails moulded or can-cd as parr of the statuette. .'\.e" h.ingdom sllalJlis were also occasionally 5hO\\ n in ordinary dress rather than ill the guise of :I 111 U;'lIl1Y. Tnil:ially rh~ deceased w,;s pro\'ided \\-ith only one shab/;, but by the.' ~iCW Kingdom the numbers had increased signifiC~111tly so that there might be 365 figures, one for C\'ery day of the year, accomp.micd by thirty-six loyerseers', giying a tl)1.11 401, 'llthough <IS many as seyen hundred aTe S<1id to ha\-c been found in the tomb SCI)' I (129+-1279 Be). The increasing number of sl/llbtis led to the manufacture of special containers now known ~1S sl/llhli~boxes. The quality of .I'!talJlis and dlcir material yarics wiclcl~, although wood, clay, \\a\, SLOlle, bronze, F,\W'CF and L'\'CIl GI. \SS arL' kI1O\r1~ Faience is the 1llaterial most cOIl1ll1onl~ aSSOCIated \yith SIW/Jlis, pnnicularly "ith rl'gard 10 the fine e>.amplcs of thc 261"h 10 :lOth Dynasties (66+-343 He). The poorest qualit~ s!lalJlis were bareh- reco!!nizablc a~ such, all somc - espcciail y of~ the 17th Dynasty

or

or

266

SHADOW, SHADE

SHEN

(1650-] 550 lIe) - were little more than ,,"ooden pegs. The Lise of shah/is dicd Ollt during the ptolemaic period (.132-30 lit:). \~!. Nl. E PETRIE, Shah/is (vV,lrminst:er, 1974). H. D. SCII,\EIDl':l\, Shahlis,.1 \'ols (Lcidcn, 1977). H. M. STEWART, Egyptiall shabu:, (Princes
Risborough, 1995).

Shay
God who sen'ed as <1 symbol of allotted lifespan or destiny, and was therefore occasionally portrayed in vignclles of the weighing of the heart or the deceased (lhe Egyptian last judgement). Tn the Ptolemaic period he became closely identified with lhe Greek serpent-god of fortune-telling, Agathodaimon. J. QL'\I':GI':m:LR, Le dil:1I {~!.{..Jlp'ielf Shui' dalls la religion ell'ol/o/}ul.I,iqlfe (Luuyain, 1(75).

shadow, shade (Egyptian sliml) The shadow was regarded by the Egyptians as
an essential clement of every human being; as with the ,\1\:1 I, HA, 1'.1\ and 1'\.\1\11-:, it was consid-

sheep Sl'C

:\1\I,\J \1. IIUSB \1\I}RY

and

R'\ \1

ered necessary to protect it from harm. Funerary texts describe the shadow as an entity imbued with power and C<lpablc of moving at great speed, but the Egyptian word for shadow (shm!) also had the connotations of 'shade' and 'protection', consequently the pharaoh is generally portrayed under the shade of a feathcr- Or palm-fan (the same hieroglyphic sign bcing used for both fan and sunshade). The painted scenes decorating the royal tombs in the Valley of the ~ings rake account of the sLin's shadow as it passes through the nctherworld, and il was fell that power was transferred to those o\"Cr who111 the solar shadow fell. In thc city at I-:J.-_\\I.\RNA there was a special rype or shrine dedicll"cd to the god ATEN, known as a shllN-Ro ('sunshade'). 13. GI':OI~GI':' Z/I dt'li al!l(fJ.l'Plisdlt/l VO!'.I'lclllll/gl'1I l.!Om SdwlfclI als Seele (Bonn, 1970). E. )-IoRNuNu, Idetl i"lr} ill/tlge, trans. E. Bredeck (New York, 19n). 178-9.

Sheikh el-Beled (Arabic: 'headman of the

village') Popular name for lhe woodcn statue of a chief lector-priest called Ka-aper, whose tomb, mastaba eE, was excl\'atcd by lhe French archaeologist Auguste lvlarictte at north Saqqara, nelr the pyramid complex of the

5th-D"nasty pharaoh Userkaf (24942487 Be). 'I'he liCe-size. standing figure (Egyptian Nlllseum, Cairo), carved from sycamore wood, is widely regarded as one of the masterpieces of Old Kingdom private sculpture. Kit-aper is portrayed as a thick-set) middle-aged figure clad in a straight skirr and holding a staff in his left hand and <l sr"III:.\\ Sr:I':I'TRE in his right (bOlh lradition,ll symbols of authority). His eyes arc made of rock~crystal rimml:d \yith copper and furnished with pupils in the f()rm of drilled holes filled with black pigment. The dates of mastaba c8 and thc statue havc been a matter of some debate, but most scholars place Ka-apcr and his tomb in the late 4th D\Ilast\ ((.2.\00 HC). The Sheikh e1-Be1cd is comparable with other 4th-Dynasty realistic sculptures, such <IS the bust of" Ankhhaf in Boston; it waS found in association with a hlrge granite stele and part of ~l wooden figure or a woman thought to represent Ka-aper's \\"ife (Cairo). Another wooden stiltLle of ;l man (Cairo), although of inferior qualify, is considered to he a representation of Ka-aper at ,1 younger age and probably derives from the same mastaba. j. V.\,\DmR, Allallllt,1 d'archefJlogie egvpliclllle III (Paris, 1958),90-1,10+-5,125-8. C. VAi\IJERSI.E\ EN, 'T,a date elu Chcikh ('I-Beled (Caire CG 3+)'.]/1 69 (1983), (d-5. .V!.. Sc\l.1::11 and H. SOLROUZI!\N, The Egypliall JIIIWl'IIIJ1, Caim.' official Ctllalogllc (Mainz, ] 987), 110.-1-0.

shadu'
Irrigation tool consisting of a long wooden pole with <1 receptacle at" one end and it counterbalancing weight at the other, b~' means of which water could be transferred out of a river 01' canal. It is first depicted on an .\"" \I)IAN cylinder seal of" the hlte third millennium Be but it \yas probably not introduced into Egypl until lhe 18th Dynast: (1550-1295 lie) and the earliest suryiying depictions are on the walls or the tomb chapels of" Nefe-rhotcp and J\'lerira II ;Il the time of Akhenatcn (1352-LH6 BC). It was by the eventually superscded, first Archimedcs screw (Arabic ((/lIIJlII") in the fifth century IIC and, second, by I he wat.erwheel (Arabic S(/(jI)ltI) in the early Ptolemaic period, although small .l'llfIdldi ~11't' still OCC1sionall y used, eycn in modern Egypl, to water garden plots. K. \V. BUTZER, 'Sch,lduf', Lexil'oll der li"gYPlulogie v, cd. \-V. r-kld, E. Onu ;lIld \\1. Westendorf (Wicsbadcn, IY8..J.), 520-1. E. Smoulll\J., Life i/l alleii'1I1 Egyp! (Cambridge, 19 92),97.

she"
Hieroglyphic symbol depicting a circlc or ring of" rope f"olded and knotted at the bottom; since the circle effect ive1y had no end, it came 10 denote infinity. \Vhen the :ihCII sign was depicted encircling the sun, it appears to have symbulized the eternity of the uni\erse. This property or encirclement was extended to denote protection as well as eternity, making the sign doubly pOlent. Conscquentl~ it is rrcqlJenrly f'ound as a ckcorati\'e clement in designs, and is panicularly associated wilh IIOI~LS the falcon or NE"I IHI':T the nllrurc \\"ho hold the sign in their ChlWS above the king, offering him eternal protection. Similarly il appears as an ilmulcLic elemCI1\ in jewellery from the JVlidclie Kingdom (205;")-] 650 HC) onwards. The shapc is well suited to finger rings, but also occurs in pendants, earrings and pectorals. Richard \Vilkinson suggests that thc upcurycd \yings of somc jewellery in the for111 01" birds deliberately im.itate the shape of the shcII that they hold in their chl\\"S. On sarcophagi lhe sig'n commonly appears in the hands of the goddesses who kneel on the

The I{fi.'-!ilc sIal lie ,{,ht' (hieFla/o!' priesl

Ka-apcr

is hella l'IlIlfJ)/1 tiS Ihe 'Sha"!.:h cl-Beletf', applIrCllI(J' bc((/use ht' relllilldcd JlI{{fl"iel/l' \- /lHll'klllCII (~Flltei}'

i'llla!!,/! !u.'lIdlllall. 'lilt' origi/lill (tlllL' (/1/(1 s((.'pll"l! held ill his IUlI/ds /I't'}'l' lIIissing alld ,ht' ((JIlL' hl' /10m holds is /IIodcm: /he Il'gs hm.:c alslI hecn pan()/ rcslored. -/,h Dy1!lIsly, c.2FJO /Je, .~)I({/IIIOI(' mood /I1ilh (oppe!' lIlId ro(/..' u:Jlslal C)'cs,jimll Stlqqara. IIU1Slul){{ oS,
fI/./2/11. (c/lRocc.N)

267

....

SHESHO NQ SHIPS AND BO~

Duuble-sidtd a111ulel ill pale greenjilieuce in 'he }orll/ of/Ire shen SlKl1.~)I11/boli::,jllg il1/inizv, etemily lIud prOlection. Saile period, 1/3.7 011. (,68025)
l1e!Jm sign ('gold '), at the ends of roYilI sarcophagi of lhe Kew Kingdom such as that of Amenhotep n (I~27-1400 BC). The shape of the sign is imitated by the ouroboros, the snake which bites its own tail, and thell the two <tre related is shown by the S;'lfcophagus lid of i\Jlcrenprah (1213~ 1203 Be), which is carved in the shape of a C:\RTOUCITE (the CIOllgntcd form of the shelf sign in which royal names were written) surrounde d by an elongated ouroboros.
R. H. \VILKlNSO:,\ ,

Reading f:fJ..l1ptiaJ/ aI'/

(London, 1992).

Sheshonq (Shoshenq , Sheshonk, Shishak) Libyan name held by five kings of the 22nd .md 23rd Dynasties (9~5-715 BC. and 818-715 Be respccti\cly ) as their 'birth name' or nomen (see RorAL T1TuuRr). SIIe5111111q I Hedjkhepel'rn SCICpenl'1I (945-924 IK:), a nephc\\ of OSORKO~ the elder, was a descendant of the L1BYt\(\ 'great chiefs of the Nleshwesh '. He rose to power through his role as general and adyiser to I)SlJSE~NES II (959-945 Be), whom he eventually succeeded, thus inauguratin g the period of Libyan domination. He succeeded in restoring Egyptian political innuence over Palestine, an act commemorated on the 'Bubastite porral', which was the gateway leading into the first court of the temple of Amun at K\R.~,,\K. His reliefs on an exterior wall of Ihis courl at Karnak depict his victory o\'er the two Jewish kingdoms of ISR.\!':!. and Judah (sec nIBI.IC,J\L CO:"':'\ECI'IOl'\S). The prescl1lation of a statue of himself to King Abibaal of llYBLOS probably also indiGI.[ed the full resumption of economic links with the Lev:lIlt. SIIc5110llq !I Heqakhepel'l'{/ 5cleprlll'{/ (c.890 Be) was the designated heir of OSORKO~ I (924-889 BC), but died before him, having ruled only in a COREGE'\CY with his father
268

rather than as a pharaoh in his own right. In 1939 Picrre .Montet discovered his silver coffin in the vestibule of the tomb of Psusennes I (1039-991 BC) at UNIS, and the age of the mummified body which it contained is estimated to have been about fifty ycars at death. J-Ie is probabl\' the same person as Sheshonq Ivleryamull , who is recorded as chief priest of Amun at Thebes at roughly the same time; a quartzite statue of Hapy the god of the inundation, now in the collection of the British l\luscum, was dcdic~lted by Sheshonq i\lcryanUlIl, whose figure is carved in relief at Hapy's side (see 1tApl' for illustration ). Sheslwnq 111 Usemultllra Selepellra/ anum (825-773 BC) was the successor to 111kclot II (850-825 BC), ha\'ing appareml\' usurped the throne from the heir, prince Osorkon. It was around the eighth year of his reign that he was somewhat eclipsed by Pedubastis t (818-793 Be), ruler of Lcolltopoli s (TEI.L EL-_\\UQDAM), who also dedared himself king, thus creating the 23rd Dynasty, whose rulers were coni emporancous with the last four rulers of the'Ihnitc 22nd Dynasty. This left Sheshonq lit with his territories restricted to parts of the eastern and central Delta, while it was Pedubastis whose reign was apparently endorsed by the influential priests of AnuJn at Thebes. Sheshonq I/' UsemUfllJra i\l[eJya11l1l1l (c. 780 Be) had a brief reign (six years al most) as the 23rd-Dyna sty successor to the throne of Pedubastis I at Leontopoli s. 511esiIOI/q 1 /!akhepl'l'l'fI (767-730 nc.), the penultimat e 22nd-DYl1asty ruler, reigned for nc.uly forty years and is relali\'e1y well attested, particularly at 'nmis, where he constructed a small tcmple dedicated to the triad of AnuIn and, in thc thirtieth year of his reign, a chapel relating to his SED FESTI\t\1.. K. A. KrrcIIE'\, The Third fnterwl'llime Paind in EgYPI (1100-6.,0 fiC), 2nd cd. (Warminster, 1986), 287-.15~, 575-6. J. YmOTn: et aI., lImis, I'Qrdt'sp/U/I"{101IS(Paris. 19R7). D. A. ASTON, '1:'1kcloth 11- a king of the "Theban 23rd Dmas"'''?' ,]t:A 75 (1989),

(3J00-2686 BC) onwards, who personified the girdle. By at least the 5th Dynasty Shesmetet was represented with the head of a lioness and considered as a form of the goddess u \~-I'F:r, It is possible that the s!resmet itself cyen_ walk developed into other forms of belt, Such as those found in male burials from the Old Kingdom onw:lrds, which were later extended to women by rhc iVliddle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC). The tomb of Seneblis), a woman of the 12th-Dyna slY royal famil\' buried at I~L-I.ISIJT, contained numerous item~ of jcwellery, including :l shesl11l't girdle. The cultic significanc e of the girdle is perhaps also indicated by the fact that the epithets or the god SOPI':O included the phrase 'lord of the shesmet'. P. E. NEWHERR', 'SSmit', Stut/irs prescllw/l0 Frallcis Llemel(JIIi Grijfith (London, 1932). 316-23 E. S'lt\EIIELlN, 'Sdlcsemct-Gi.inc1', Le,riJ"u/I rler AgYPt%gie ", ed. "YV. Heick, E. Ono and W. Westendorf (\Viesbaden, 198{), 586-7.

ships and boats

'1'he importance of water transport, both as :l pracrical me:lns of communica tion and as a recurring religious metaphor, arose inc\imbly from the existence of the river Nile and its tributaries as the princip:l1 artery of communication in ancient Egypt. The prc\ailing wind in the Nile valley C:lme from the north, so that saiJs could be used to propel boats na\clling south, while those heading north, ag:linSI the wind, relied on oars :lnd the current. ror this reason, the hicroglyph for 'tr.l\clling north" evcn in the case of overland travel, consisted of a boat with its sails down, while that for 'tra\"elling sOlllh ' shows a bom with billowing s:lils. Boats were already being lIsed as early :lS the Gerzean period (c.3500-31 00 BC). A great deal of information has sur\'iHd concerning Egyptian ships and boats, principally in the form of depictions on the "ails of tombs, funcrary models and textmtl references. There have also been a number of finds of actual boats, ranging frum the reconstructed SOL\1t lHItK of Khufu (2589-2566 ilL) to the fragments of bual timber prcsen'cd through Iheir reuse for such purposcs as the consrruction of slipwa)'s. Tra\cl by boat was so ingr~lined in the Egyp! ian psyche that it was considcred natural to depict' the sun-god I{,\ tf:lYclling through the sh or rhe nctherworl d in his botrk. Howcv~r, when sailing outside the Nile \'~lIeYl on the 1\ lediternmc an or Rcd Sea, the shipS seem to ha\e stayed close to the shore. Unlike the Greeks, the Egyptians were evidently not enthusiasti c seafarcrs.

139-53, N. GRl,\IAL, A histfHJI o/all,iellt Egypt (Oxford, 1992), 319-30.

shesmet girdle
Belt or girdle from which an apron of beads W<lS sllspended , forming part of the symbolic attire of Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom rulers such as Djosel' (2667-2648 Be), which perhaps evolved from Predynasti c beaded girdles. The belt waS also worn by certain deities, and there was <l goddess Shesmcret, attested from the Early Dynastic period

gIlPS AND BOATS

SHRINE

Probably the earliest and simplest boats skiff.:;, made of bundles of reeds lashed together. These would have been used for fishing and IlUNTING g,lIne in the marshes, for crossing the river and tor travelling shan distances, and this type probably remained in use throughollt Pharaonic history. Even from Predynastic rimes there is evidence for larger vessels, though perhaps still of reed construction. Painted pottery of the I aqada period shows elaborate, many-oared, ships with numerous sailors. The prows and sterns of such vessels are usually upturned; they would normally have been provided with at least one large steering oar, and sometimes also a sail and cabin. The boats and ships of the Old Kingdom (2686--2181 BC) were usually made of 11'001)
WCfe PAPYRUS

the bOius carrying the gre-Jt granite p:'lpyrus columns for his valley temple. The rypical craft of rhe Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC) were similar in design, although, from rhe lare Old Kingdom onwards, the steering oar was operated as a rudder by means of ropes. The mast was collapsible and rested on :l stand when not in use, while the cabin was usually located at the stern..Many models of these boats have survived in tombs) where they played an important role in the funerary cult) symbolizing the journey of the deceased to !\BYDOS. There are also surviving fragments of timber from actual vessels reused for slipw<lYs and ramps in the pyramid complexes at EI.-I.lSJ-IT. In the New Kingdom (1550-1069 Be) vessels seem to have become more specializcd;

Boats of the L1te Period (747-332

BC)

seem

to have remained roughly similar, but the stern

was generally higher. \>\lith increasing Greek innuence from the SAITE PERIOD onwards, however, sea-going vessels began to be modelled on those used by the Greeks and Phoenicians, and by the time of the sea battle of Actium) between CLEOPATRA VII (51-30 Be) and the Roman consul Octavian (later Emperor Augustus), the Egyptian ships appear to have been similar in design to those of the Romans. G. A. RnSi\'"ER, A10dels o.r~hips (/ml boa Is (Cairo, 1913). P. LIPKJ-~, The f()j!lt/ ships o/CI/(:o/J.I' (Oxford, 1984). tVl. BIET\K) 'Zur iVlarine des Alten Rciches', PJ'rtlll1id studies 111111 o/Iu:r essaJis presented to r. E. S. Edwards, ed. J. Baines et al. (London, 1988),35--10. D. A. )Ol't.:s:, "glossalJ1 ofal1cielll I:.gyptial1 IUIU/iellllitles a11l1,erms (London) 1988). R. H.WILKINSON, Relldiug Egypti(fl/ (frt (London, 1992), 152-7. S. VINSON. Egyptiall boals tl11d ships (Princes Risborough, 1994). D. A. Jo,"S, BOIlIS (London, 1995).

shrine
Term which is to some extenl synonymous with N.-\05, in that it is often used to refer either to the innermost element of a temple (where the cult image or B!\H.K of the deity was placed) or to the elaborate boxes containing funerary statuary (such as those in the tomb of TUTt\NKIIAl\IUN (Kv62. The Egyptian term per is used to refer to thc pm'ilion-style shrines of pper and Lower Egypt". The traditional Upper Egyptian shrine (per-mer or Ita 1') has a shape identical to that of the golden shrine ofTutankhamun, consisting of a square box topped by a \..t\\!ETro CORJ~'CE and a roof or lid sloping down from the front. Allhough the hieroglyphic imag'e was initially llsed simply I'D designate the chapel of the goddess .'lEKllUET at ELKAI3) it came to symbolize the whole gcographical region of Upper Egypt itself The Lower Egyptian shrine (perII1l or perneser) was a dome-roofed box with high posts on either side) which became thc model for various other objects such as sarcophagi (sec COFFINS Ai'\D SARCOPHAGI) and SIIi\BTI-boxes. 'J'he original shrine was located at BUla (TELL EL-Fi\RR1\ 'lK), the city of the cobra-goddess WAOJYT, but it too came to represent the region as ;l whole. 'The English tcrm 'shrine', howevcr, is often used to describe various small freestanding buildings which in themselves were miniature temples or chapels) such as the 'HARK-shrines"

Mode! bOlitsfreqllent~)lliCCOmplll1ied hurilils oftire Middle Kingdom f/ud _~)lmbolized tire pilgrimagr to A~)ldos. 12th Dynasty, c. 1900 IIC., prOVl'1lllllCe llllk1101PIl, /I. (~(I/lIJlI().2 em, I.. 66.7 ew.
(u,9524)

Obtained cithcr locally or from Syria-Palestine. They had a characleristically curving hull and were usually prm-ided with se\'cral steering oars) a m;.lst and;'l long narrow sail. Oars would also have been used for propulsion when there was insufficient breeze to fill the sails. The best-known surviving Old Kingdom hoat is that found beside the pyramid of Khufu at GIZA, which Was made of large planks of wood 'scwn' together with ropes. Rather less elaborate vessels would hm'e been used to transport" stone from the quarries to the construction sites of pyramid complexes. The reliefs decorating the causew.1Y of the pyramid complex of Unas (2375-2345 BC) included depictiuns of

therc werc usually c'lbins on both the stern and the prow in addition to a main cabin in the centre of the boat. The helmsman operated double steering oars by a system of ropes and levers as before, and the width of thc sail was greater than its height. The Egyptian navy of this period was put to the test when it repulsed the invasiun of the SEJ\ PEOPLES) according to the reliefs of Ramcses III (1184-1153 BC) at MEIlI'lET Il,m . As in the Old Kingdom, huge masses of stone were also moved by bargc) including OBELISKS for the temple of Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BC) at DEI. 1:L-BA!1R1. The same queen also sent a seaborne expedition to PUNT. A late 20thDynas!:y literary (or possibly quasi-historical) text) The Report uf ItVenamUI1, outlines .1 seajourney by an official to obtain timber from RYBLOS; this cxpedition was initially unsuccessful due to Egypt's poor political fortunes at the time (see HERIIIOR).

269

SHU

SIOELOCK OF YO.!:!.:!:!:!

which were placed along processional ways as

temporary resting places for the divine bark as it was carried bel ween one temple complex and another. The gardens of the larger houses

(;1"1.111111: slirifli'/rom Phi/ae, t:arved during the reign ofPIOIt'I1~)1 1"111 Euergetes /I (170--1/6 lie) tl11(1 bearing lexls iududiug tl dedicaliQn 10 Iht goddess Isi~. Ihe principal dci~)1 (If Phi/m'. 11.2..1/11I. (10" 134)
at EL-.\~I"It;'A often contained unusual shrines in the form of small decorated I'YI.Ol\S or stelae, which were dedicated to the royal family of
AKIIE"J!\TF.:\l

wife, TH''UT, was goddess of moisture or corrosive air; they were the first two gods crcated by ATUf\'1 according to the CJtEAI'lO'\l myth of Hcliopolis, in which they were said to have come into being from the semen of Atum or from the mucus of his sneezc. Their children wcre GEI3 the earth-god and NUT the skygoddess, and it was Shu's role to support the outstretched figure of NUL, thus efrectj\,cl~' separating the sky from the earth. He was not a soIar deity (indeed he was often linked with the lunar deities K:IIONS and TIIOTII), but his role in pnwiding sunlight led to an obvious connection with the sun-god IU, and it was believed that he brought the sun to life each morning. Similarly, in thc underworld, it was thoughl Lhat he protectcd the sun from the snake-god WOPI liS, although at the same time he was ponrayed at the head of ,I group of the torturers threatcning the deceased. During the reign of Akhenaten (1352-1336 Be) the cult of Shu escaped proscription because of his solar associations, and he was considered to dwell in the sLin-disc (see :\TE:"1). 'Vith a typical Egyptian sense of l1lJ.\LITY, his wife, TefnUl, was linked with the moon. His conncctions with the sun, with resurrection and with scparaLing heavcn and earth are cxemplificd in a headrest Tutankhamun (1336--1327 Be) in which Shu, nankcd by two lions, supports the head of the sleepcr, so that thc composition as a whole forms the 1I0RIZON hieroglyph, rhus perhaps allowing the head of the king to bc identified with the sun poised on the horizon. P. DERClI'\IN, 'Lc nom de Chou et .'1;1 mcLion', IIdE27 (1975), 110-16. 1-1. \A;\, DE \V AI.I.E, 'SUf\,jvamcs mythologiqucs dans Ics coiffures royal de I'cpoque at'Oniennc', edt: 55/109 (1980), 23-6.

11. TE \'1:1.1)[, 'Schu" Lexikoll da J':JIPIQ//Jgir r cd. W. Heick, E. Otto and W. WesLendorf ' (Wiesbaden, 1984),735-7. S. QUIRKE, .---II/tielll Egyplian relt~!!iol/ (London, 1992),25-31.

sidelock of youth
Egyptian children, p~lrticularly boys, are usu-

ally portrayed with thcir heads shaved, apart

from <1 single plaited 'sidclock', which fcatures in the hicroglyph for 'child' (l.:hel'L'd) and \Vas considered to be the archetypal symbol of youth. Four actual examples of sidclocks were found in 6th-Dynasty graves at .i\lostagedda by Guy Brunton. The childlike \'ersions of

or

Fragmenl jl-OJI/ Ihe lomb ofAnlll'l"NwlI, .I!lowing {/

{lIiM ,pilh Ihe sidt'/od.' 0/)/011111. 20111 DytllHl)'o e.1160 flc,.frolll Dei, r1-Medil/fl. (/133'1)

(1352-1336

Be).

l\1. Exro,-KR<\uss and E. GR"":FE,

'nlf: 5/1/1.11/

goltlen s!Jril1l'!rmlllhl' I(lmb O['nltllllIdUlJIIl/11 (Oxford, 1985).

such gods as IIORUS and KIIO'\lS were regularly pOri rayed with a sidclock, as were royal orrspring, including the 'Amarna princcsses" the daughters of ,"""'C.ITEN (1352-1336 II(). The scm pricst, who usually performed the fin.l] rites of resurrecLion on the Illllmm~ of the deceased, often wore a sidclocl., pr('sun1ahly in imilariun of Horus, who would h;l\c pcrformed the sa111l: filial rites on the hody his father OSIRIS.

or

Shu God of the air and sunlight, whose name

probably means 'he who rises up', He W.1S usually depicted as a man wearing a headdress in the form of a plumc (which was the hicroglyph dcnoting his name). Apart from refcrcnces in the PYIU:\IIJ) TEXTS ,mel COFFI1\ TEXTS, his cult is not attested until the New Kingdom, when his comparativc prominence is probably a reneetion of his association with the force of life, which was an increasingly important clement of Egyptian religion in the New Kingdom. While Shu symbolized dry ,lir, his sister-

silver
Although the Egyptians could obtain GOI.D and elcctrum (the natural alloy of sihcr and gold) from the mountains of the Easle rn Desert and Nubia, silver was compar;lti\'e1y rare, and 111<1)1 cven havc becn unknown in carly til11cs, sincc the Egyptian language lackS a word for it. Thc\' described it onl~ ;IS (hc 'white melal" and ~ccm to hU"c regarded it as a variety of gold. \~lhcn silver was first introduccd inLO the Egyptian cconomy, its value scem", to ~l;lrc been higher than that of gold, judging from

Crey-greeu ]fl.lellte (/Jl/Ulel of SlIu, god ol(/ir alld

sun/iglllo suppQrling (f SIOl-diJ(. Saifl' period, c.66-1--S2.' lie, If. 3 CIII. (,,-,60n9)

270

~VER

SINUHE, TALE OF

Cult image o/Iht' god A"IlIl1ji-fJ/Il his Icmple til Ka.rnak. Nem Kingdom, c./300 1)(.', silver all(l gold, I/. 23 CIII. (Ji,,60006)
the fact that silver items were listed before those of gold in descriptions of valuables during the Old J<jngdom (268(}'-2181 BC). The value of the earliest silver imports is indicated by the thinness of the bracelets of the -+thDynasty queen IWTEI'IIICRES I (c. 2600 BC), in marked contrast to the extr.wagancc of her goldwork. A silver treasure excavated at the site of TOD comprised vessels probably made in Crete, or perhaps somewhere in Asia but under Cretan influence. This cache dates to the reign of Amenemhat" (1922-1878 RC), in the 12th Dynasty, and is roughly contemporaneous with finds of fine silver JEWELLeRY at clLahun and Dahshur. By the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC), however, silver may have been regarded as less valuable, presumably as a result of increased availability; according to thc Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (written in the Second Intermediate Period bot perhaps originally Composed in the 12th Dynasty), silver had acquired a value approximately half that of gold. It was imported into Egypt from western

Asia and the iVlediterrancan, and became readily a"ailable only from the New Kingdom (1550--1069 BC) onwards. A study by Jaroslav Cerny, based on New Kingdom ostraca recording sales and othcr transactions, suggests that metal prices remained relatively constant hetween the 12th and the 19th Dynasties (c.198S-1186 Be), with silver maintaining half the \.llue of gold, and copper about one-hundredth the yaluc of silver. Despite (or perhaps even because of) the increased quantity of silver ,1yailablc in the New Kingdom, the tomb of Tutankhamun (1336-1327 BC; KV62) contained relatively little silverwork. The rulers of the 21st and 22nd Dynasties, who were buried at TANIS, made greater usc of silver in their burials. Sheshonq II (c. 890 BC) had a solid sill'er coffin with gilded details in the form of the hawkgod SOK1\!{. Sih'er was reg-Jrded as the material from which the bones of the gods were fashioned, while their nesh was considered to be made from gold. E BISSON DE LA ROQ.UE, 'Le lresor dcl'od', CdE 12 (1937),20-6. J. CERNY, 'Prices and wages in Egypt in the Ramesside period" CaMers tI'Histoire A1()1u!iale I (195-+),903-21. A. Luc.-\s, Ancient Egyptiall materials a11f1 illllustrieJ, 4th cd. (London, 1962),245-9. N. H. G/\LEand Z. A. STOS-G.-\.LE, 'Ancient Egyptian silver',]EA 67 (1981),103-15. Z. A. STOS-GAI.E and N. H. GAl.E, 'Sources of galena, lead and silver in Prcdynastic Egypt\ Aetes du XXe Symposium internatiollal t/'ardll!omt?lrie, Paris 26-29 mars 1980 III [ReVIle d'Arclu!ometrie, Supplemenl 1981] (Paris, 1981), 285-96.

tionally been settled by llEDOUIN, The people of the Nile valley and southern Palestine periodically exploited its mineral resources (primarily consisting of TURQUOISE and COPPI':R), and created settlements, shrines and rockcarvings <It siles such as Sembit el-Khadim, Wadi Maghara, Wadi Arabah and Timna, A major archaeological survey of the Sinai was undertaken by Flinders PETRIE in 1904-5, and in lhe 1990s many sites were im'cstig-ated in northwestern Sinai in advance of the construction of a new canal. Texts written in an unusual script known as Proto-Sinaitic have been found at a number of places in the Sinai, including Serabit clKhadim 1 as well as at sites in Palestine. The script consists of at least twenty-three signs, about half of which appear to derive from Egyptian hierogl~l)hs, and the texts probably date mainly to the late i\liddle Kingdom (.1800--1650 BC) or Second Intermediate Period (1650--1550 Be), but it has still not been properly deciphered, It is possible that ProtoSinaitic represents a crucial carly stage in the development of the alphahet. ,.y. M. F: PETRIE and C. T CURREJ.U', Researches ill Siu(I; (London, 1906). \v. F. AWRlGf-rr, The proto-S;llitic imcriptions (11111 their deciphermellt (C1mbridge, !VlA, and London, 1966). B. ROTIIEKBERG et al., Sillai: pharaohs, miners. pilgrims (llId Jo/diers (New York, 1979). \V. V. DAVIES, EgYPli11l/ hier()g~J'phs (London, 1987),57-60.

Sinuhe, Tale ofsee Sirius see SOPDET

I.ITER.HURE

Sinai
Peninsula situated between Egypt and the Levant at the northern end of the Red Sea and to the cast of the Suez canal, which has tradi-

sistrum (Egyptian sesheslll; Greek srislroll)

Musical rattling instrument played primarily by women, except when the pharaoh was making offerings to the goddess HATIIOR. Although most surviving Greco~Roman examples arc made of bronze, many ritual or funerary examples, which would often have been nonfunctional, were made from other materials such as wood, stone or faience. Priestesses, princesses and royal wives werc often represented shaking the instrument while participating in rituals or ceremonial activities. There were two basic types of sistrum, hooped and NAos-shaped, both of which were closely associated with the cult of Hathor, whose head was often depicted on the handle. An early travertine sistrum inscribed with the names of the 6th-Dynasty ruler TEl'l (2345-2323 BC) takes the form of a papyrus topped by a II(lOS, which is itself surmounted by a falcon and cobra, thus forming a rebus of

Relief[ragmelll of King SllllllkJl1 from the lllrquoiJc mines at I'Vadi Maglwra, cell/ral Sinai. 3,d Dyl1t1SJy, c.2680 BC, stlndstone, If. 33 e111. (1-:..-169/)

271

SIWA OASIS

SMENKHK~

and therefore the legitimate pharaoh. In the Middle Ages, the caravan route from northwest Africa passed through the Siwa Oasis. A. FAKIlRY, The oases of Egypt I: Sima Oasis (Cairo, 1973). K. P. KUI-IL\lANN, Dos Ammol1eiol1: Archiiologie, Geschichte lIml Kultpraxis des Orakels VOl1 Silva (Maim., 1988).

slaves
Attempts to analyse the use of slaves in ancient Egyptian societl' have often been thwartcd hy problems of definition and translation, as well as by the emotive connotations of a term thaL invariably conjures up anachronist.ic visions either of ancient Rome or of the nineteenthccntury plantations or the New World. Most or tho. population or Pharaonic Egypt were tied to the land or followed strictly heredimry professions; these men or women were often included among the possessions of kings, high-ranking officials or TEMPI.E estates. They might, however, be better described as 'serfs' (semedet or meret), although even this translation is perhaps too closely connected with images of feudal society in medieval Europe, especially in view of the fact that Egyptian farmers were 'tied to the land' not legally but by tradition and economic circumstances. Semedel and metet were allowed to own property but appear to have enjoyed very limited freedom by modern western standards. True slavery, in the Classical sense of the word, seems to havc been rare in Egypt before the Ptolcmaic period (332-30 BC). Most Egyptian slaves (hemw or !Ja.kw) would have been Asiatic prisoners of war (khe1lt!IW, or, more commonly, sekerw auk/uv), although it is elear rrom rccords or tho. Late Period (747-332 BC) that Egyptians too could be slavcs, and indeed that they werc sometimes obliged to sell themselves into slavery, presumably in order to gain rood and shelter or to pay debts. The Jewish mercenaries at Elephantine (ASWAN), for instancc, arc said to have had Egyptian slaves during the Late Period. It appears that slaves were generally well treated, and some at least secm to have owned property. Both male and female owners of slaves had the right to frec them, and it was possible for shIves to marry frce-born women and even to own land. The popular assertion that the PYRAMIDS were built by slave labour finds little support" in the surviving textual records of the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC), since tho. work on royal funerary monuments was mostly conducted through corvee labour. Quarrying and mining, however, were sometimes carried out by convicts or foreign prisoners of war. It was

not until tho. Middle Kingdom and tho. Ncw Kingdom that prisoners of war became numerous enough to play any perceptible role in Egyptian society. The records of the work_ men's village at DEIR EL-]\'LD1~A show that slaves were employed on a communal basis, particularly to help with the grinding of grain for bread-making, and some workmen in the community eyen owned personal slaves. One 19th-Dynasty worker, Ken, buried in tomb rr4 at Deir el-Medina, appears to haye had about Lwelve slaves, thus illustrating that the ownership of slaves was by no means the exclusive preserve of the Clitc. A. EI.-M. B.-\KIR, Slavery ill pharaonic Egypt (C.,iro, 1952). S. P. VLEE]\IING, 'The sale of a slave in the time of pharaoh Py', OMR061 (1980), 1-17. E. S. BOGOSI.OVSKIY, 'On the system of rhe ancient Egyptian society of the epoch of Lhe New Kingdom', Allorielll PorsclwlIgel1 8 (l981), 5-21. E. CRUZ-URIBE, 'Slavery in Egypt during Lhe Saire and Persian periods', Revue ]lIfenwtif1llul des Dmits de l'AlIliquilt! 29 (1982), 47~7J.

Smenkhkara see AKHENATEN snake see SERPI~NT Sneferu (Snorru) (2613-2589

BC)

De/ailola Book ofthe Dead papyrus bearing fhe figure ofthe priestess An/wi shaking a sistrum ami holdillg a /euglh alville. 20,h DYllasly, 0.//00 Be. (EAI0472, SilICIC,. 7)
the name or Hathor (i.c. hWI Hor). The 1It10Sstyle sistrum thus dates back at least as early as the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC), but it was the hooped style which became most common by the Greco-Roman period (332 BC-AD 395). N. DE G. DAVIES, 'An alabaster sistrum dedicated to King Teta',]EA 6 (1920), 69-72. F Dl\UMAS, 'Les objects sacrcs de la dcesse Hathor ii Dcndara', RdE 22 (1970), 63-78. C. ZIEGI.ER) Call1/ogue des i11Slrumellls tie l/lusique egyptiells (Paris, 1979), 31-40.

Siwa Oasis (anc. Sckhet-imit; Ammonium)

Natural depression in the Libyan Desert about 560 km west of Cairo, where the earlicst remains date to tho. 26th Dynasty (664525 BC). Tho. sitc includes the cemetery or Gebcl el-Mawra, dating rrom tho. 26th Dynasty to the Roman period, and two temples dedicated to the god AMUN, dating to the reigns of Ahmosc " (570-526 BC) and Nectanebo " (360-343 BC) rcspcctivcly. In 332 BC the famous oracle of Amun at Siwa is said to have been visited by AI.EX/\NDER TIlE GREAT, where he was officially recognized as the god's son
272

First pharaoh or the 4th Dynasty, who was dcified by tho. Middlc Kingdom and celebratcd in later literature as a benevolent and goodhumoured ruler. He was the son of his predeccssor I-luni by Meresankh I (probably a concubine rather than one of the principal wivcs) and rather or KJIUFU, the builder or the Great Pyramid at Giza. According to the PALERMO STONE, he sent military expediLions against the iubians and Libyans as well as quarrying expeditions to the TURQUOISI' mines in the Sinai. His 'Horus name' was l':ebmaal, but his ROYAL TITULARY was the first to han his other name (i.e. Sneferu) enclosed within an oval ring or CARTOUCJ IE. It was by this 'cartouche name' that he and subsequenl kings were known. I'he time of Sneferu is also crucial in terlllS of the development of the royal pyramid complex, since the three funerary monumentS constructed eluring his reign (one aL \IEJl)L1~1 and two at DAI-ISI-IUR) represented the first attempts at true pyramids, moving a\\';l~' from the step-pyramid complexes of the 3rd Dynasty. Tho. North Pyramid (or 'Red Pyramid') at Dahshur is thought to hayc been the actual burial-place of Sneferu. A. FAKlIRY, The 11I01l1l/IWltS of SI/efiru lit D"iI,hlll',2 I'ols (Cairo, 1959-61). R. S"Ii\I)ELMANN, 'Snofru und die pyTamiden \'on

OFRU

SOBEKNEFERU

Meidum und D.hschur', MDAIK 36 (1980), 437-9. E. GRAEFE, 'Die gme Reputation des Konigs "Snofru lll , Studies ill Egyplo!ogy pre.wiled 10 Miriam Lid/the;,u, cd. S. lsarclit-Groll aerus.lem, 1990), 257-63. 1. E. S. EOW.\RDS, Tire pyramids o/Egypt, 5th cd. (Hormondsworth, 1993),70-96.

Snofru see SNEFERU Sobek (Sebek, Suchos)

Crocodile-god who was portrayed either as a
CROCODll.E

the Middle Kingdom onwards, like many other deities, he gradually became assimilated into the cult of the pre-eminent tstate' god t\1\lUN, and in the form Sobek-Ra was worshipped as another omnipotent manifestation of the sun-god. By the Ptolemaic period his association with the sun-god was sufficiently close that he was identified with the Greek god Helios. C. DOI.ZANI, II dio SoH (Rome, 1961). L. KAKOS,", tKrokodilskulte" Lexikrm der Agllptologi! Ill, ed. \V. Heick, E. Otto and W. Wesrendorf(Wiesb.den, 1980),801-11.

fragments from temples embellished during his reign. J. \o=" BECKERATH, Ul1tersuclumgen zur politischel1 Gesdzidl1e der zmeiteu ZlJ)ischellzeit (Gltickstadt and New York, 1964). D. FRANKE, '2ur Cluonologie in des M itderen Reiches II', Orielltalia 57 (1988), 245-74. S. QCIRKE, 'Royal power in the 13th Dynasty', AtIiddle Kingdom Studies, cd. S. Quirke (New M.ldell, 1991), 123-39.

(often perched on a shrine or altar)

or as a man with a crocodile's head, often

wearing a headdress consisting of the horned

Sobekhotep
'Birth name' held by eight rulers uf the 13th Dynasty (1795--<.1650 BC), most of whom h.d very short reigns. The few surviving monuments from the reign of SobekllOlep II AlIICtlelllha/ (d 750 BC) include relief blocks from MED1\MUD and nEIR EL-BAIIRI. SobeldlOlep Ifl SekhemrasemadjlamJ' (c.lt-tS He), the son of a Thcban prince called l\1entuhotep, is credited with the construction of <l colonnade and a number of gateways in the temple of Montu at !Vledamud. A pair of important papyri relating to Af)~U~lsrRATION during the Pharaonic period (one of which lists a month's income and expenditure incurred by the royal court during a period of residence at Thebes) h.ve .Iso survived from his reign. Thc period encompassed by the reigns of Sobekhotep IV Kill/lle/erra (c. 1730-1 BC) and his two brothers, Neferhotep I and Sihathor, was the most stable phase in the 13th Dynasty. There are a number of surviving colossal statues of Sobekhotep IV) as weIl as several relief

sun-disc and upright fcathers. l-us two main cult-centres were at the Upper Egyptian site
of
KOM o~mo,

where he shared a temple with

HORUS,

and

.it lvlEDINET EL-F.AYUM in

the

centre

of the Fayum region, where the [Own of Shcdyet, later known as Crocodilopolis, once stood. There were., however, numerous other shrines and temples dedicated to Sobek throughout the Nile v.lley, such as GEBEL ELsn.sn.A and GEIJELEN. 'rhe temples of crocodile-gods were usu.lly provided with. pool containing sacred crocodiles. During the 12th .nd 13th Dynasties the cult of Sobek was given particular prominence, as the names of such rulers as SOHEKIIOTEP and SOBEKr.'lEFERU indicate. From

no

Sobekneferu (1799-1795 BC) Last ruler of the 12th Dynasty, whose name means tbeauty of Sobek'. The sister (and perhaps also the wife) of AMENI:i\HlAT I\" (1808-1799 BC), she become the first definitely attested female pharaoh, although Queen Nitiqret (c.2180 Be) may have come to power in similar circumstances at the end of the 6th Dynasty. The reign of Sobekneferu .ppears to have lastcu only about three years) but she is credited with completing the construction of the mortuary temple of Amenemhat III (1855-1808 BC) at I1AWARA, the so-c.lled (labyrinth'. The location of her own ton1b has not yet been definitely ascertained; it has been suggested that she m.y h.ve been buried in the uninscribed northern pyramid complex at Mazghuna, immediately to the north of the complex ascribed to Amencmhat IV, but both identifications have been questioned on architectural grounds. \v. M. E PETRIE, G. A. 'VAI:"WRIGHT and
E. MACKAY, The La~)I,.illth, Gerzeh aud Mazglllleh (London, 1912). T. E. S. EDWARDS, The pyromidso[EgYPI, 5th cd.
(I-lormondsworrh, 1993), 227.

Sectio11 ofl'eliefiuthe mammisi ttl Kom Ombo, showing PJoleJl~)' IX ma.killg offerings 10 tt sealed figllre ofthe crocodile-god Sobek, c.II&-107 HC.
(I. SHAW)

Sokar
God of the Memphite necropolis) who was usually shown as a human figure, often mummiform in appearance, with the head of a hawk. He was also sometimes portrayed as a low mound of earth surmounted by a boat containing the hawk's head-an image that was connected with the title the who is upon his sand) in the Amdual (sec FUKEIV\RY TEXTS). The most spectacular surviving image of the hawk-headed Sokar is the silver coffin or SHESIIONQII (c.890 BC) from TANIS. The origins of the god) and indeed the very etymology of his name, are obscure; he seems originally to have been a god of the Iv[emphite region, possibly a patron of craftsmen, although he was also venerated as an earth or fertility god. By the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC) he wos identified with the god of the dead, osm.IS, who, according to legend, was slain by the evil god SETH at All\'DOS, thus extending the domain of Sakar into

273

SOKAR

SOLARB~

.--1 //1UfI{!eJJ

P/ali-Srd'ar-Osiris.h!.IIFl' S!{/Wlillg till (J

solar bark (solar boat)

slIl'rop!Jaglls {)JJ mil/eli arc SL't/lcdjiw/' !tamks /pith slil/-disrs. The bmfs (!(sl/r!J .figures. or IIu:jigllrt,.'i IlwlIse!iys, /pure (diL'JI/wIIOlPt'd oilllO (o/ltaill .lil/I/'/my papyri. 20th DYI/asty. ()6-!-.'1., /JC, 11.90011. (L/9737)

J LISt'

Upper Egypt. This association is doubtless the origin of his rLJl1crar~ role, and it" is in this contc:xt rhilt he is described in the I'YR-\.\\I1) TF.\TS as the creator of 'royal bones' and in the BOO". OF '1"1 IE 1)1':,\lJ as the maker of footbasins from sikrr, which was the material of which di\'inc bones \yen: bclicH,d to haH~ been composed. Sokar was also linked wit'h the god 1''1'\11 (at an earlier date than the cOl1necrions with Osiris), no doubt because both deities shared associal-ions with !\II,:,\IPIIIS anti craftsmen, and consequcntl~ SEI':IL\IFT, lhe lioness ,,-itc or Prah, came to he regarded as Sobr's consort". In the Old Kingdom, the combined cult of IJtah-Sokar became more elaborate, and by the Middle Kingdom (2055-1651J Be) it had expanded further into Ptah-Sokar-Osiris. From the 1\ew I-.:.ingdom (1:'50-1069 11e) onwards, rhe FESTIY:\1. of Sokar was lavishly celebrated, p,lrtlcularly in the necropolis of western Thebes, where it is portrayed in SOIl1t: of the reliefs decorating rhe walls of rhe second court of the mortuary temple of Rameses
[II al" ,\lEnIN!:".T II.\Bl,.

as the images of gods were carril'd betwcen lemples Or shrines in ceremonial B,\nKS, so the sun-god and the dCccasl..:d pharaoh ""CIT considcred to ITa\ cl 1hrough the netherworld in a 'sobr bark'. Thcrl' wen' rwo dif1lTem types of solar bark, lh~lt of the d;l\ (mll/U/ct), and that of the night ('IIlt'sd.'ft,t). II i~ possible that the well-known solar barks discanTed in the pyramid complex of Khufu al GIZ.\ (one or whit:h has been reconstructed and displayed ill .,illl) were intended to serve ils a means or comeying the pharaoh through the netherworld. G. FOLC \RT, 'Un rcmple flortanr: Ie vaisseau d'or d'Amon-Ib', 6im/alilllf Eughlc Pilll: JlJO/llflllL'11fS clll/(,;lllllirl'S publil:., pllr /~Ja/(/t:lIlie des /IlStTljll//J/i) el IJf//es /A:fll"t'-, 25 (1921-2), I43-6Sl. 0. FIIU:! I()\\, 'Konigsschiff lind Sonnen bark" IIZA"II 54 (1~57), .1-1--12. K. A. f..:.1TClIEX, 'Barke', Lexikllll tier. -igYPl%gie I, ed. W. Hdck, E. Otto and W. Westendorf (\\'iesbadell, 1975), 61 ~-25. P. LIPKE, nil' n~l'(d ships (~(Cheops (O'\ford,
1~84).

R. r-1. \VIL.KINSO,\, !?cadillg f:~J'Pli(f/ll/rl (London, 19(2), 152-:).

Soleb
Site in the third cataract region of Upper Nubia, which was excavared by a team from the University of Pisa between 1957 and 1977. It consists primarily of a sandstone temple built by Amenhotep III (1390-1352 Ilc), the remains of a town which became the c,lpital or 1:.ush in the late 18th Dynas!")', and cemeteries datill!! mainly to the New Kingdom (1551J'-1IJ69 Be) and the Meroiric periuti (30n IlL-.II) 350). The temple ofAmenholep rll was (kdicHted both to Ai\ILi.'!-RA of Karnak and to Nehma:nra, lord of Nubia (a deified vcrsion of AmenholCp III himself). Nebmaatra was portrayed as an anthropomorphic moon-god wearing the ram's horns of Amlin, in effect a local ,crsion of KIIOIl\S, the son of Amun-Ra and 1\ltT. The temple f()rmed the setting both for the edebration of a SED FESTIV/\L and for the ritual of 'illuminating the dais', whereby Ncbmaatnl was invoked to ensure the regul;lr appearance of the full moon by healing the eye of 1I0[{US. Several mVl"hs describe the 'eye' as harin~ ned to Nubia, 'where it was frequ~ntl\' said [0 h,we uken on the appearance of a 'lioness. it is therefore possible that a pair of red granite lions inscribed with the name of Amcnho[cp III and originally installed at the temple (and later moved to Gebel Barkal) may have represented the lioness-1Toddess of rhe full moon, Tefnut-Nfehil. The~e st;l~~es - the 'Prudhoe

Tt was in the syncretic form of Pt"ah-SobrOrisis that Sokar was most often represented, particularlv from the LaiC Period (7-17-.1.12 Be) onwards, wht:n many tombs were equipped with wooden slat'ucltes depicting' Ptah-Sokar-Orisis as an anthropomorphic mummiform figure, \\"ith Or "'ithout a ha\\"k's head, combined with curled ram horns) sundisc, plumes Jnd (l/(:f C1~O\\'N. The PtahSokar-Orisis tigure was usually shown standing on a miniature sarcophagus base, sometimes surmounted by figures of Sokar-hawks. It was sometimes hollow, in which Case it would often have originally contained a copy of a Book of the Dead papyrus or a COR.\! l\-IU!'vIMY; alternatively, a small piece of the Book of the Dead was occasionally placed in the sarcophagus base. The distinctive amuIctic figure of Pt\TAIJ..:OS almost certainly derived from the Ptah-Sokar-Osiris figure. G. A. G:\llt\LL.'\ and K. KrrCl-II~N, "rhe lesti\al 01" Sobr', Orit/Ifll!ia38 (1969), 1~76. M. J. R:\YEN, 'Papyrus-sheaths and Prah-SobrOsiris statues', OMRO 59-60 (1978-9), 251-96 E. BRESnAN[, 'Sobr', Le.rikoll dcr Agypt%gil' v, ed. \v. Held, E. Otto and W. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1984), 1055-7-1.

274

.....

SOMTUTEFNAKHT

SO POET

When portrayed on coffins, from the Middle Kingdom onwards, the depictions of H;:lPY and Qebehscnuef were placed on thc west side at the head ~1I1d foot respectiycly, while those of Tmsety and Duamutef were located in the corresponding positions on the cast side. The north (head) end of the coffin was usually protected by '\!El'l rTI IYS, while the south (foot) was associated with ISIS. \v. C. 1-I.I\YEs, 'the seepla ~rf:!!YPf (New York,

1953),320-1.
A.]. SPE:\CER, Death in fll1tielll EgYPI (Harmoncls\\'onh, 1982), 157-9. A. DOlJso" The cfI1wpic e'flliplllt'1l/ o/tht' kings of Egypi (London, 1994).

The ru;,/s oflhl' {tmp/e til S"lcb. l)ffilll~)1 !lmell/w!ep III. From (/ /9/h-u//llIIY t/rtllJlillg I~)I George Akx({/l(lcr Hos!.:illS. .
(RI:PROf){'Cf!J
COlRTfS \' OF Tf-IH G/U FFn'lI f \snn TE)

Lions' - are now lTI the British lVluseum (see illustration under 1.10,). 1\1. SCIIIIW GIORGI:'-JI, So/eb, 2 'ols (Florence,

1965-71).

and a l11an). Drawings and painlings of lhe four sons consisted of human figures (sometimes l11ummiform) cal..:h with their charactcristic head. Their forms ,mel functions are summarized belo\\": N(/lIIt'(~l{hil.J' Head Cardilla! .7ar tolllt'lIls poilll Imscty liyer human sourh I-bpy' lungs apc north jackal Duamutef east stomach inrt'Srincs falcon Q!:bchsenoef west
Faieuceligllres oftht'.four SOl1S ofHorus. They are aiom !eli 10 right) lmseo'. DUfl11IUtr.f,

Somtutefnakht see Sons of Horus

I'ER51.\, PERSIA 'IS

Four deities (Duamutef, Qcbchscnucf, Imsety and Hapy) who were responsible for protecting the internal organs of the deceased (see CANOPle JARS). Each of the four gods was associated with a particular canopic vessel ;.mel its

Qsbehselllll:( find Hapy. Such rll1wpirJigures mighl be placed within 11I11111/1~)1 mrappiugs. Late Nt'm Kingdolll. ff. (~rJII1.w:~)' f.I.6 011. (E.-I26230)

Sopdet (50th is) The goddess Sopdct, known as Sothis in the Greco-Roman period (332 uC-.\1> 395), was the personification of the 'dog smr', which the Greeks called Seirios (Sirius). She was usually represented as a woman with a star poised on her head, alrhough the earliest dcpiction, on an ivory tablet of the 1st-Dynasty king DJER (<'.3000 BC) from Abydos, appears to show her as a scated cow with a plant between her horns. It has been pointed out that, sincc the plant is symbolic of the year, the Egyptians may have already been correlating the rising of the dog star with the beginning of the solar year, even in the early third millennium Be. Along with her husband SAil (Orion) and her son SOI'ED, Sopdet was part of a triad which paralleled thal of OSJRJS, ISIS and I JORUS. She was therefore described in the PYRAMID TEXTS as having united with Osiris to give birth to the morning star.

contents, while the gods themselves were said to be protected by particular goddesses. The
fouf arc first mentioned in the Old Kingdom

(2686-2181 Be), when the prR \.\111)

TE\TS

describe them as the 'friends of the king', assisting him in hjs ascension to the heavens. Their connection with the god IIORtJS also dates to this period. In the "liddle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC) their associmion with particular goddesses and specific internal organs was not well defined, but their roles had become clearer by the New Kingdom (1550-1069 IIC), by which time thev had also become members of the group kn~wn as the 'seven blessed ones', who were considered 1"0 guard the coffin of the god OSIRIS (father of Horus) in the northern skv. From rh~ hne 18th Dynasty onwards the Stoppers of the canopic jars were f<.1shioned in the forms of the heads of eaeh of the four gods (i.c. a jackal, a cynocephalus baboon, a hawk

275

SOPED

SP~

J. VANDlER, Manuel d'arcluiologie eg)/p/ielllle I

(Paris, 1952),842-3. L. KAKOSY, 'Die Mannwcibliche Natur des Sirius in Agypten', Siudia Aegyptiacll 2 (Budapesr, 1976),41-6. G. CLERC, 'Isi-Sothis dans Ie monclc romain" lJommllges ti A'11111rtellJ Vermaserel1 (Leiden, 1978),247-81. C. DESROCi IE-NoBLECOURT, 'Isis Sothis - Ie chien, Ia vignc - ct 101 tradition millenairc\ Livredu Celileuuire,lF/JO 1880-1980 (Cairo, 1980),15-24.

Soped (Sopdu)
Hawk-god and personification of the eastern frontier of Egypt, whose primary cult-centre was in the twentieth Lower Egyptian nome at thc city of Pcr-Soped (modern San el-Hinna), although there arc also inscriptions attesting his worship at Serabit el-Khadim in the Sinai peninsula (see TURQUOISE). He was represented either as a crouching falcon or as a bearded man wearing a SHESM.ET GIRDLE and a headdress of two falcon feathers, often carrying a WAS SCEPTRE, a battle-axe and an ANKH sign. 'rhe PYRAMID TEXTS associate him with the teeth of the dcccased pharaoh, but they also describe him as a star who was born from the union of the king (as OSIRIS) and the dog star SOPDET (as Isis). He therefore became associated with the more important hawk-god HORUS (producing the syncretic form Har-Soped), and the triad of Sopdet, SAIl and Soped thus paralleled the divine family of ISIS, Osiris and Horus. I. ""V. SClIU~IADlER, Der Colt Soptlu, tier Herr tier Fremtlliimler (Freiburg, 1988). Bronze statuette oflhe goddess Sopdel. Lale Period, Ilfie,. c.600 HC, 11.19<111. (./1/1-13)

Sothic cycle
In terms of the Egyptian CALENDAR, the dog star Sirius, whose Egyptian name was Sothis (SOPDET) was the most important of the stars or constellations known as decans (see ASTRO~ O;\IY AND ASTROLOGY), and the 'Sothic rising' coincided with the beginning of the solar year only once every 1460 years. This astronomical event (known as a heliacal rising) took place in AD 139, during the reign of the Roman emperor Antoninus Pius, and was commemorated by the issue of a special coin at Alexandria. There would have been earlier heliacal risings in 1321-1317 BC and 2781-2777 IlC, and the period that elapsed between each such rising is known as a Sothic cycle. The Egyptian textual records of Sothic risings (surviving from the reigns of Senusret III, Amenhotep I and Thutmose Ill) form the basis of the conventional CI-IRONOLOGY of Egypt, which, in nlrn, influenced that of the whole .i\llediterranean region.

R. A. PARKER, 'Sothic dates and calendar "adjllstmcnI"', RdE9 (1952),101-8. ]. CER."IY, 'Notc on the supposed beginning of a Sothic period under Sethos I',JEA 47 (1961), 150-2. i\1. F. L\:GJ-L-\!\'1, 'The length of the Sothic cycle', JEA 55 (1969), 36--40. R. KRi\USS, Sothis-ulld MOI/r1daten: Studien ZlIr astrol/oWiSc/te1lllflrl tec/mise/ten Chronologie (I-lildeshcim, 1985).

Sothis see SOI'IJET soul house see OFFERI"'G 1;lBI.E

The temple, locally known as [stabl 'Antar (the 'stable' of Antar, a pre-Islamic hero) was built by Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BC) and Thlltmose III (1479-1425 BC). Pakhet ('she who scratches') is known from the COFFI~ TEXTS as a night_ huntress, which was presumably the reason why the Grech later identified her with their own Artemis. There is no evidence for any cult of Pakhet in the area of Beni Hasan befo~e the Ncw Kingdom (1550-1069 Be). The temple consists of a vestibule, supported by eight !lATHOR-headed columns, connected by a short corridor with an inner chamber where the cult image would once have stood, although only the niche nO\\ SUrvives. An inscription on the architrave above the vestibule describes the ravages of the IIYKSQS rulers, and the work of HatshepsUl in restoring the damage they caused. It is usually assumed that this text simpl) uses the Hyksos as convenient personifications of disorder, since their expulsion had taken place morc than scventy-five years earlier, under the reign of her great-grandfather, AIIMOSE I (1550-1525 IIC). Ironicallv, the queen's own name was latcr hacked our when Sety I (1294-1279 BC) inserted his own eartouches instead. The temple is surrounded by the much-plundered burials of sacred C.ATS, most of which date to the Late Period (747-332 BC). A. F:\Kf-lRY, 'A new speos from the reign of Hatshepsut .lOd Tuthmosis III at Bcni-l Jasan', ASAE 39 (1939), 709-23. A. H. GAKDI1\'ER, 'Davies's copy of the great SpcosArtemidos inscriprion',JEA 32 (19-+6), 43-56. S. BICKEL and J.-L. C!-IAPI'AZ, 'l\I[issiol1s cpigraphiqucs elu fonds de I'Egyptologie de Gcncve au Speos Artemidos', BSEC 12 (1988), 9-24. J. MALEK, Tire in uude"t g)/pt (London. 1993), 97, 126-8.

(tI'

sphinx
.Mythical beast usually portrayed with the body of a lion and the head or a l11al1, often wearing the royal lIcmcs headcloth, as in the case of the Great Sphinx at Giza. Statues of sphinxes were also sometimes given the heads of rams (eriosphinxes) or hawks (hierakosphinxes). ]n one unusual case from the mortuary temple of Amenhotcp III (1390-1352 lie) a sphinx was given the tail of a crocodile, evidently in imitation or a beast associated with one of the Egyptian constellations. "'omen afC rarely represented in the guise of a sphin.\. and evcn Queen HHSIIEI'SUT (1473-1458 BC) assumed the form in her masculine role as king rather than as a woman.

speas (Greek: 'cave') Term used in Egyptian archaeology to refer to a small rock-cut temple. Egyptologists in the nineteenth century tended to apply the term to comparatiycly large temples, such as the rock-cut shrines of Rameses II (1279-1213 BC) at ABU SIMBEL, but its use has since become much more restricted.
Speos Artemidos
Rock-cut temple dedicated ro the honessgoddess Pakhet (or Pasht), located about three kilometres east of the Middle Kingdom rockcut tombs of BEN I HASAN, in Middle Egypt.

276

SPHINX

SPHINX

The Creat Sphinx (if Gizll proIJII/J()I represel115 lite 4th-DYllllSO' ruler, Khajra. AI/hough lIluch of/he body;s cllrvedfrom fl low" ofrock, subs/lintial sloue cladding has been added at imervals since Pharaonic times bOlh ;11 reSpOl1Si! 10 eros/oullntl as a 111C(I11S a/improving areas ofpoor qualiZJI mck. Fur/her comen;atiOl111JOrk IUlS reccllt()f been tl/u!erlakw. (p. T. .!I/ICHOI..'WN)

Although the ancient Greek term sphinx meant 'strangler', it has been suggested that the origin of the word may have been the Egyptian phrase shesep ankh ('living image'), which was an epithet occ<lsionally applied to sphinxes. The Egyptian sphinx, associated with both the king and the sun-god, was clearly very different from the malevolent female sphinx that features in Greek myths such as the tales of Oedipus and Perseus. Even when Egyptian sphinxes are depicted in the act of trampling on foreign enemies, as in a depiction on a shield from the tomb of TUTANKIIA;\IUt\ (1'-,,62), the slaughter was clearly regarded simply as one of the archetypal aspects of the kingship. This theme was popular in jewellery, as in the case of the 12thDynasty pectoral of ~1ercret fi'OITI DAI-ISIIUR, which bears a scene of two falcon-headed sphinxes crushing the enemies of the pharaoh. The head of a statue of Djedefra (25662558 Be), discovered in his pyramid complex at ABU ROASIl, is thought to be the earliest

surviying fragment of a sphinx (now in the Louvre). The same site also yielded a small limestone sphinx statuette. However, the Great Sphinx at GIZA, located beside the causeway of the pyramid of KJIAFRA (2558-2532 BC), remains the best-known example. Nlcasuring 73 m long and a maximum of 20 III in height, it was carved from a knoll of rock lcft hehind after quarrying. The face probably represents Khafra himself, although it has been ,1rgued that it may represent his predecessor Djcdcfra. On many occasions it has been all but buried by sand and recleared, the most famous instance being recorded on the 'Dream Stele' erected directly in front of the Sphinx b\ Thutmose 1\ (1400-1390 BC), describing the promisc made to him in a dream that ifhc cleared the sand he would become king. A detailed study of the Great Sphinx was undertaken by the American archaeologist Mark Lehner during the 19805, leading to the suggestion that a standing figure of a king was added between the paws of the Sphinx in the New Kingdom. As early as the 18th Dynasty (l550-1295BC) the Sphinx was already subject to reconstruction work in the form of limestone cladding, and there has been growing concern with regard to the gradual deterioration of the monument, which has lost its nose, Ilraeus and divine beard (fragments of the two latter features being in the collections of the

British l\lluseum and the Egyptian iVI useUITI, Cairo). More recently erosion and rising ground water have become a problem, and the site is currently the subject of environmental monitoring. An incomplete 4th-Dynasty temple, apparently made from the same stone as the sphinx itself, was built immediately in front of the monument. It was probably intended for the worship of the three forms of the sun: KHEPIU in the morning, R!\ at midday, and KJ'Ul'vl in the evening. In the New Kingdom, the Sphinx was identified with Horemakhet ('Horus in the horizon'), and a new temple dedicated to Horemakhct was constructed to the north of the earlier building, which would by then have been completely immersed in sand. This :\lew Kingdom temple was also dedicated to the cult of Hauron, a Canaanite desert-god who may have become identified with the Great Sphinx partly because it was buried in the desert. From at least ns carly as the New Kingdom, avenues of sphinxes lined the processional ways (drolJ100 leading to many temples, including those of KARNAK and LUXOR. The main entrance to the temple of AmLin at Karnak is flanked by rows of criosphinxes, while the pylon of the Luxor temple was approached through avenues of humanheaded sphinxes bearing the cartouche of the 30th~Dvnastl' ruler l'\ectanebo 1 (380-362 BC).

277

STANDARDS

ST~

E. Clll\SSINI\T, '1\ propos d\lI1c tefC en grcs rouge elu roi Didoufri', Poudal;OIl EugclIl' Piot: Alolillmeuts (/ memoires pub/iis par {,flau/emir deJ II/scriptions e1 Belles Leflres 25 (1921-2), 53-75. S. I-L\ss.\~, The Sphinx: its hisJoly ill/ighl 0/
reall{exca'l.'G/;OllS

(Cairo, 1949). C. DI:: \~'rrl Le nUl' el Ie SI!US till IiO/l dal/s I'Egyple

flllcinwe (Leidcn, 1951).

A. DESSL~~t:, Le sphillx: euult' j(ollogmphiqul! (Paris, 1957). H. DE\lISUI, Die Sphinx (Stuttgart, 1977). ;'vl. LEIlNER, 'Reconstructing rhe Sphinx', GEl.7

2! I (1992), .1-26. L E. S. Emv;\RDs, The pyramids o/Egypt, 5th eel. (Harmonds\\"orth, 1993), 121--.J.

standards
\Vooclcn standards, comprising poles SlIrmounted by cult images, were used rrom the Predynastic period onwards as i1 means of displaying fetishes or representations of deities symbolizing the differclll towns and !'\O\IES (provinces) of Egypt. There are depictions of standards on many of the ceremonial PALETI'ES, mace heads and labels of the late Predynastic and Early Dynastic periods (c.3200-2890 BC). The Bull Palelle (now in the

The term 'standard-be.ncr' was a military rank designating the commander of a unit of about two hundred men, and the title was held by numerous individuals throughout the Pharaonic period. \\fhcrcas the :\"O.\lE stand,wds usually appcar to have been threedimensional images at the rop of the poles, military srandartls are often represented as rectangular wooden stehle bearing paintcd figures of gods or occasionally aggressh'e scenes such as the pair of wrestlers on a Nubian soldiers' standard depicted in the Theban tomb of Tjanlln)' (rr7-1, 1'.1-100 Be). Priests are regularly portrayed in the act of carrying standards bearing either stelae or figlII'ines of deitics, as in the Cilse of the wooden srallie of .1 priest called Pen buy holding two standards) each surmounted by divine statuettes (now in the lVlusco Egizio, Turin). A pair of ebony statuettes of 1..\IE:'\1I0TEP III and Tn (Riimer-Pclizaeus i\lllseum, Hildesheim) and a faience figurine of Ptah (University of Pennsylyania, Philadelphia) are thought to have derived fi'om temple standards of this type. See also illustration under .\RT. C. C. SELlGI"'" and 7\l.l\luRR1.', 'Note upon an early Egyptian standard', AIJ((l1 II (1911),165-71. R.o. F_1.LLK'ER, <Egyptian military stand:lfds', JEA 27 (i9{l), 12-18. C. CJ J.\lHTAUD, Les sUIIlICS pO/'Ie-t'lisciglll's de l'Egypte til/tiel/lit: (Paris, 1982). S. CLRTO, 'Standarten" u'xil:rl1l tier AgYPlologie v, ed. IV. I-Ielck, E. Otto "ml IV. Westeodorf (Wiesbaden, 198{), 1255-6.

Crallile slell' I~r Perib.w:n ji'Oll1 lomb PIII _/~}Itlos. 2nd P)'II11S/1'. c.27008c,I1.I.13m. (lu35.'i97)
LEVI"

IlELO\r Plait,

lit" patrol/
/"ac;"t'.(

l~l(l"(~/isml'lI. l~fJerillgs

alld ut!oralul11

jrrl111 lite roylll allji.HlIllJI

Pm/my. Paimed
limewme stde ofPCllbIlJ' FOI/1 DeiI' el-JIIrcdil1t1, 19th Dynasty. c./2S0 Be. 11. 38 CIII. (/1f6h)

stars see f\STRO]\"O,\lr AND l\STKOLOGYj

C:\I.END..... H; S:\II; $UPDET

and

SOTIIIC CYC.LE

stele
Sl:1b of stone or wood bearing inscriptions, relief'i or paintings, lIsually of a funerary, votive, commemorative or liminal nature, although these four categories often overlap. The earliest funerary stelae were cxcavated from the cemetery of lst- and 2nd-Dynasty kings at ABYDOS The royal stelae at Abydos consisted of pairs of large stone-can-cd slabs be:lring the name of the king written in a SEREKI-I framc, while the private stelae from the tombs of their courricrs at Abydos and S'\QQAR.1. were smaller and less carefully carved. By the 3rd Dynasty a new type of funerary stele, the FALSE DOOH, had emerged out of a combination of c;trly slab stelae and the inscribed niches into which they were set. This was to be the focal point of the pri\"ate offering cult for much of the Pharaonic period, providing a symbolic door between the world of the living and the afterlife, through

lIr61 Dyuastic iV01Y Ilibel shomiug King Den smilil1g (Ill AS/lltic; 011 the right-hlll1d sitle is 1I sllI11dllrtlsurmoul1tetlID'thejigllre Qla jackal. ht DYl1(lS~)I, c.29.10 /lC,/;"0111 A/~),tlos, II. -1.5 (m. (>:A55586)
Louvre) shows a rope clutched by hands on the end of several smndards each of which evidently personified regions controlled by an carl)' Egyptian ruler. The SCORPIO" maeehead (Ashmolean .Museum, Oxford) inventively used a row of standards as gibbers from which to hang the subject-peoples in the form of REKIIYT BIRDS. More convention'llly, the ).I,,\K\IER palette (Egyptian Nluseum, Cairo) shows the king wearing the 'red crown' and preccded by a group of fouf standard-bcarers as he inspects enemy dead.

which the K/\ of the deceased could pass hack and forth to partake of the offerings in Ihe chapel. 1n the early lVliddlc Kingdom a new round-topped type of funerary stele began to be used, particularly in \otiyc contexts such as the offering chapels at Ab,dos. Voti\'e stelac, usually placed in temples, were principally rectangular, round-topped slabs decorated with either painted relief decoration or painting O\'cr a dlin layer of plaster. Large numbers of \"otive stelae were erected at particularly sacred sites such as Abydos and the Saqqara SERAPEU.\I, although they arc less prominent in the archaeological record than funerary stelae. Nlost stelae were decorated

278

STELE

STONE AND QUARRYING

with scenes of an indiyidual hearing offerings deity or simply in (he acT of worshipping the god or goddess whose assistance \V.1S sOllght~ but ;l special form. known as an 'C.lf stele', was also decorated \Yith selS of cars, apparently in order to ensure rh,lt the prayer recorded on the stele "-as heard by a particular aspect of the dcil-y in question: 'he/she who listens to prayers'. These stelae constitute part of the l~\idcnce for the g,TOWlh in 'personal piety' in the ~cw Kingdom, \\ hereby individuals .1ttcmptcd to make their OWI1 approaches to deities. rather than relying on I'K[I:srs to intercede on their behalf. C0111mcmor:uivc sLebe were a fOfm of vorive stelae erected in temples by the ph'lraohs or their courtiers in order ro describe royal exploits on behalf of the gods. This (;Itegory includes thc "'d_\\OSE Stchle' describing the conqucst of the I n ~SOS, dlC 'lSR_\EI. Stele'
to ~l

orativc stelae were the rock-cut and freestanding inscriptions carved at sites sllch as GEDI~1. 1:I.-SIl..SII. \ and IL\T."L,II in ordcr to mark the achie\'cments of quarrying and mining expeditions (see SH1'E \'\1) <LL \RRn:--..G .\ '\J)
TL"l.LOISE).

Liminal stelae were set up to mark the edges of territory, lhe simplest version being the stones Ihat marked the edges of fields. On ;\ more sophisticated Ic\-c! were the unique 'boundary stelae' at lhc edges of the city of t\khctaten at EI.-\\IW'\.\, and such far-fiung monuments as the SE\I'\.\ and "LRGLS stelae, marking the southernmost BORDERS of Egypl in the 12th and 18th Dynasties rcspcctiycly. Stelophorous sratues, consisting of human figures holding or offering stelae, were produced fi'om lhe 18th D~ nasty onwards. Such stelae 'vere usually inscribed with hymns 10 the sun-god. \V. 1\ I. Po PETRII'" The ro)'(/llowbs oIthe (ttrlitsl f6",(/stie.\11 (London, 1901), pis XX'I-XXXI. P. L \c:\L:, ,-\/{~/c.l dll NOI/i.c/ {;mpire (Cairo, 1909). J. V '''I.)IER, .lluIlN/!/ r/'ardft;,,/ogie (~)Iplit!/i//e II/I (Paris, 1954). L. H.\B:\C1II, The Sl'I'(IIu/ KflwoJt' Jfe/e (Gllickst;'ldt, 1972). S. \VIEH.KII, Dit' iigypJische Sduiutfi'r (Hamburg, 1981). \V. .J. l\lL:RN.\:'\E and C. VA' SIU.I':, Ill, The boundory Sielo/! r!FAklfClwll'II (London, 1993).

and rhe construction of his Step I>yramid at had ushered in a new era of monumental stone masonry on an unprecedented scale. The amount of quarrying (hat rook place in each reign of the Pharaonic period (3] 00-332 Be) Gill be employed as a kind of measure of political centralizalion and sLabili~. There arc
S:\Q.Q'\RA

UI!lillis/wlstalllt'lle IIJfIl//{1!f or goddi'ss, milltl!u.'Jfllj(,uslill .~ltolPil1g Jhl' marks uI fltt J(II/ptor~~ rhis(I. Lllle Pl'fiud. c.6()() nco busa!l. If. 32 C111. (E/5.;2.;,)
vllf

stelophorous statue see STEI.I: stone and quarrying \Vhcreas many ancient peoples were obljged to trade with other cultures in order to obmin rhe mineral resources me)' needed, the Egyptians were well provided with a diyerse range of types of stone in the dcserts on eirhcr side of the Nile yalley. Their exploitatiun of stone is first attested in the form of small chert quarries of the Palaeolithic period, dating to c.35000 Be. In the Predynastic period (c.5500-3100 Be), relativelv small pieces of slich ElVourcd stones as siltstone, basalt, breccia, limestone, sandstone and granodiorite were being quarried for the production of cosmetic PALETn:s, .\L\CE:S and vessels. The carving of stone "cssels, often from vcry hard stones, for funerary usc yirtually reached the level of mass production in the Early Dynastic period (3100-2686 Be). By the mid-third millenniulll Be rhere were hundreds of quarries scattered across the ,,,estern and eastern deserts and the SIi'\\1 peninsula and southern Palestine, often in extremely remote areas, since the use of stone was an essential component of the Pharaonic economy, parricularly once rhe reign of DJOSER

Qplln:::.;Il' Jtt~/ophor()1IS (~telt'-beur;"g) .~/({llIl' (!(

Amellwu!l.l'II. The stele is il/saitxd milh a prayer 10 the sUII-god alld ajigflre I~rlhe gnd Ru-l1nrakho' ill his /Jurk. /8Jh DynasJy, c./-I50 IJC. 11.56 cm.
(f:'~80)

enumerating ,\lEREXI'TAII'S c;,lmpaigns <.lgainst Libyans, Sea Peoples and Asiatics, the 'Victory Stele' of the Kushite ruler PlY, recounting his glorious crusade through Egypt, supposedly re-conquering it on behalf of the god Anlllll, and the 'Restoration Stele' of TLiT\N~II,\\lv.'\, describing the religious reforms introduced in the immediatc aftermath of the _'\marna period. A m(lre specialized group of commem-

even some Egyptian rulers who would barely be known if i( were not for the remote rock-cut inscriptions commemorating their quarrying expeditions, as in the C;.lSC of the 1l th-Dynasty pharaoh !\Ientuholcp ". (1992-1985 Be), who sent expeditions LO \adi el-Hudi for amerhysts and to the \>Vadi H,lmmamat for siltstone (grcywacke). Egyptian kings would often supply their loyal courtiers with the stonc they needed for their funerary equipment, and this arrangement seems to ha,e oeen an import~mt element in the political and personal links between the pharaoh and his offici~lls. 'T'he lomb of an official called Wcni at Abydos describes the quarrying expeditions thai he organized for the king and mentions the royal gift of a fine limestone sarcophagus from the Tura quarries. Although me scalc of many expeditions would have effectively made I'hem royal monopolies, archaeological evidence from the II;\Tl\"vll travenine ('Egyptian alabaster') quarries, rhc Umm el-Sawwan gypsum quarries and the Gebel e1-Zeit galena (lead sulphide) mines suggests that there was intermittent private exploitation of certain raw materials throughout the Pharaonic period, perhaps following in ..he footsteps of the major expeditions.

279

STRABO

SYNCRET~

K.--J. SEYFRIED, Beitrage zu dell E.. .pedit/ouen des Nlittleren Rcie/zes in die Osl-Wli"sle (Hildesheim, 1981). J. A. HARRELL, 'An inventory of ancient Egyptian quarries', NARCE 146 (1989),1-7. D. ARNOLD, Building in Egypt: pharaonic s(olle
lIIa.W1II)' (New York and Oxford, 1991). D. and R. KLEM:-"'1, Steine lind Stdnlmlche /m allen Agyptell (Berlin, 1993). L SHAW, 'Pharaonic quarrying and mining; settlement and procurement in Egypt's marginal rcgions',Alltiquily 68 (1994),108-19. B. G. ASTON,]. HARRELL and L SHAW, 'Stone', AlIdellt Egyptian maler/als (l1ltIted11lo/Qgy, ed. P. T. Nicholson and 1. Shaw (Camhridge 2000).

the country in the Third Intermediate Period (1069-747 ne). W. EDGERTON, 'The strikes in Ramcsscs m's twenty-ninth year',JNES 10 (1951),137-45. C. J. EYRE, 'A "strike" text from the Theban necropolis', Orbis AegJlptiol'll1l1 Speculum,

Glimpses ofallcie1ll Egypt: SlI/dies ill hOI/our of H. W Fairma/l, cd.]. Ruffle, G. A. Gaballa and K. Kitchen (Warminster, 1979),80--;91.
Suchos see SOIll-X Sumer, Sumerian Early Mesopotamian ethnic and linguistic group comprising a series of autonomous cit1'states, which emerged in about 3400 Be. It \vas probably the first 'civilization' in the world, perhaps appearing as a result of the stimulation of the organizational demands of irrigation agriculwre. Among the principal Sumerian cities were Ur, Eridu, Lagash and Uruk, some of whose rulers arC known from king lists compiled in the second millennium Be. Sumerian, the spoken language of the people of Sumer, is unrelated to any other known linguistic group; it was recorded in the CUNEIFOR~'l script, archaic versions of which already appear to be in the Sumerian language in the later fourth millennium Be (i.e. the Uruk and Jemdet Nasr periods). The presence of Sumerian cylinder scals at late Predynastic sites in Egypt has raised the possibility that early cuneiform may have inspired the development of IIlEROGLYPHS in Egypt, but there is still considerable debate concerning the connections, if any, between these two ancient scripts. Around 2300 Be Sumer was incorporated into the AKKADIAN empire. S. N. KRAMER, The SU1IIeriam (Chicago, 1963). H. CRAWFORD, Smile/" aud the Sllweriam (Cambridge, 1991).

scenes were probably associated with the procreative powers of the god osmls, while the bound oryx perhaps symbolized the contain_ ment of evil. R. S. BIANCl II ct al., Cleopatra Egypt: age Olthe Pto/emies (Mainz, 1988), no. 130. - , 'Symplcgma', Ancient Egyptiall art ill the Brook(}111 iV[/lseum, cd. R. A. Fazzini et a1. (New York and London, 1989), no. 82.

Strabo (.63 BC-LAD 21) Greek historian and geographer, who was born

in Pontus but spent several years at Alexandria, which he describes in some detail in the eighth book of his Geography. As in IIERODOTUS' Histories, much of Strabo's information concerns Lower Egypt, but he also discusses the Theban monuments, including the tourist attractions of his day such as the COLOSSI OF 1vlEMNON and the New Kingdom rock-tombs. He also travelled as far south as the first cataract near Aswan in c.25 BC, recording the presence of the NltOMETER at Elephantine. Although not generally as informative as the work of Herodotus, Strabo's Geography is nevertheless a valuable record of Egypt in the first century Be. STRABO, The geography, trans. I-I. L. Jones (London, 1932).
strikes 'The only evidence for the very modern concept of the 'strike' or withdrawal of labour occurs in some of the surviving documents from the DElR EL-MEDINA community of royal tomb-workers. The records of the scribe Amennakhtc show that the government supplies for the village were repeatedly delayed over a period of six months in the twentyninth year of the reign of RAME$t,:S lit (1184-1153 BC). The workers therefore eventually went on strike and staged protests in fi'ont of the mortuary temples ofThutmose III, Sety rand Rameses TT, on the Theban west bank. Despite attempts by the central administration to remedy the situation, further strikes took place later in the year and later documents seem to show that the rest of the Ramesside period was dogged by poor relations between the village and the government. It is possible that the Deir el-lYledinJ strikes are part of the evidence for a steady decline in the poljtical and economic stability of Egypt as it slid gradually towards the fragmentation of 280

sun see

ATEN;

ATUiVI; IV\ and SHADOW

symplegma (Greek: 'intertwined')

Greek term used to describe a type of sculptural group depicting a group of intertwined figures engaged in sexual intercourse, usually executed in painted terracotta. Votive sculptures of this type were sometimes deposited in shrines and temples, especially in the Ptolemaic period (332-30 BC). The largest surviving ~Yl1lpleg1Jl(f, now in the collection of the Brooklyn wluseul1l, New York, is a terracotta Ptolemaic sculpture portraying a nude woman receiving the sexual attentions of four male figures (each wcaring the distinctive SIDELOCK of a se1ll-priest), while two attendants hold a representation of a bound oryx. In this instance it has been suggested that orgiastic

syncretism The process of syncretism, by which two Or more deities were fused into the object of a single cult, was a fundamental aspect of the development of Egyptian RELIGIOi\. Erik Hornung has made an eloquent study of the ways in which the attributes and associations 0['10c<11' and 'national' deities were rearranged and combined by the Egyptians in a form of visual and iconographic theology. Thus the recurring concept of a single underlying \miversal' deity was considered to be manifest in a huge variety of Egyptian gods and g'oddcsses. The syncretizing of onc goel with another, such as the transformation of 4r.MUN and RA into Amun-Ra, and the fusion of PTAH, SOKAR and OSIRIS into the consummate funerary image of Ptah-Sokar-Osiris, was a nanlral conseq uence of this flcxibility in Egyptian theology. The same process could also be used to assimilate Asiatic, Nubian, Greek or Roman deities into the Egyptian pantheon, as in the case of the Mcroitic god ShU~AREl\SNUPlllS, the Asiatic goddess ANAT-Hathor, and the Greco-Roman god SERAPIS (Zeus, Helios and Osorapis). I-I. BONNET, 'Zum Verstiindnis des Synkrctislllus', zAs 75 (1939), 40-52. - , 'Synkretisl11us', Real/exikoll der iigYPfischell Religiollsgeschichte, cd. H. Bonnet (Berlin, 1952), 237-47. J. G. GRTFFITIIS, 'lVlotivation in early Egyptian syncretism', Studies in Egyptiall religivlI dedir({fed 10 Professor Jan Zalldee, cd. M. H. van Voss et <11. (Lciden, 1982),43-55. E. HORNUNG, COllaptiolls o/God ill ({uciellt Egypl: the Olle and the ma,,~J' (London, 1983), 91-9. Syria-Palestine Geographical area in western Asia, comprislng the southern and northern sections of the Levant, bordered by the SINAI peninsula to the southwest, the j\I[editerranean to the west, Anatolia to the north, and the Arabian desert and Mesopotamia to the south and cast. See BYBI.OS; CANAAN; ISRl\EL; i'vIEGIDDO and Q!\DESIL

TA-BlTJET

TALATAT BLOCKS

T
Ta-bitjet
Scorpion-goddess closely associated with the bleeding caused by loss of virginity. She is described as the consort of the hawk-god 1I0RUS in certain magical spells intended to avert the consequences of poisonolls bites.

taboo (Polynesian taha) Originally a term applied to the various mechanisms by which Polynesian social divisions were created and maintained. In Egyptology, as in the study of many other ancient civilizations, the term is commonly lIsed in a slightly different sense, LO describe the various phenomena that posed a threat to the st.ructure of the universe. 11tboos were in effect the means by which the social and metaphysical framework was preserved and reinforced. The Egyptians believed that taboos were instilled by the creator in particular objects, people and actions, and it was fclt that only the creator-god himself, or sometimes the king (functioning as a demiurge), could alter this situation. The word used by the Egyptians to refer to the coocept of taboo seems to have been bml, according to Pierre Montet's analysis of cult-topographical lists of the Late Period (747-332 BC). Unless some parts of the universe were declared bml it was considered to be impossible to recreate the primordial statc of the universe at the moment of creation, since the act of cosmogony was effectively concerned with the creation and maintenance of the very boundaries from which taboos were derived. One type of taboo affected access to such ceremonial and ritualistic structurcs as temples, tombs and palaces, in the sense that individuals were prohibited unless they adhered to certain rules of purity, such as abstinence from sexual activity. Other forms of taboo were concerned with the avoidance of such activities as the consumption of certain foodstuffs, including pigs, FISI-I and honey, or walking upside down (an action somehow connected with faeces). Since the epagomenal days at the end of each year (see CALENDAR) were taboo, it was considered essential for the names of each of the days to be memorized. Taboos could affect physical entities ranging from bodily orifices to national borders, but they could also apply to events such as copulation or birth. It is important to note,

however, that the most important factor was often the geographical or cultural context rather than the event or act itself. Taboos could often be purely local, affecting only the inhabitants of a region dominated by a particular deity. In the Victory Stele of the Kushite ruler pry (747-716 HC) the description of the surrender of the Delta princes involves reference to two taboos regarding CIRCUMCISIOK and the consumption of fish: CThey were forbidden to enter the palace because they had not been circumcised and they were eaters of fish, which is an abomination to the palace, but King Nimlot was able to entcr the palace because he was clean and did not eat fish.' P. MOi\:TET, 'Le fruit dCfendu', Kblli II (1950), 85-116. J. ZANOEE, Death as all menD' (Leiden, 1960). P. J. FRANDSEN, (Tabu', uxikoll der A'gyptologie VI, cd. 'lvV. I leick, E. Ouo and W. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1986), 135-42. - , 'Bwt - divine kingship and grammar', Aklen A1iillcheu 1985 llI, cd. S. Schoske (Hamburg, 1989),151-8.

Taharqo (Taharka, Taharqa) (690-664 BC)

Third pharaoh of the NAPATAN 25th Dynasty, who inherited the throne of Egypt and Nubia at the age of about thirty-two, on the death of his nephew (or possibly cousin), Shabitqo (702--D90 BC). During the first half of his twenty-six-year reign he was able to undertake a considerable amount of construction, particularly in the temple complexes of KARNAK, KAWA, MEDINET I-IA13U and Sanam. He also had his daughter, Amenirdis II, adopted as GOD'S WIFE OF AM UN at Thebes, partly no doubt in order to ensure that MENTUEMIIAT, the power-

ful (fourth prophet of Amun" did not exert too much independent control over the Thcban region. He recorded the early years of his reign on a series of stelae in his temple at KAWA, the first of which dated to the sixth year of his reign. In the seventeenth year (c.674 BC) he defeated the invading armies of the ASSYRIAN king Esarhaddon, hut three years later Esarhaddon returned and succeeded in driving him Out of l\1cmphis, apparently capturing his son and brother in the process. Although Esarhaddon died in 669 BC, his successor Ashurbaoipal wasted no time in reconqucring Egypt, this time pushing down much further south to 'T'hebes, forcing Taharqo to retrcat in exile to the Kushite heartland around Napata. Once the Assyrian armies had withdrawn, the rulers of the princedoms of Lower Egypt plotted with 'laharqo to restore him to power. 'rhc Assyrians, howcver, were alerted to the potential rebellion and promptly killed most of the Delta princes, leaving only the favoured Saite prince NEKAU I (672~664 IIC) and his son PSAMTEK I (664-610 BC) as the Assyrian-backed joint rulers of Lower Egypt. Shortly afterwards, Taharqo died in Napata, leaving the throne to his nephew TANUTAMANI (664-656 lJc); he was buried in a pyramidal tomb at the royal cemetery of NURI. M. F. LA..'lING MJ\CADA;\'I, The temples ofKama., 2 vols (Oxford, 1949-55). K. /\1YSLIEWIEC, cDa.s Konigsportriit des Taharka ill Napata', MDAIK39 (1983), 151-7. 'lvV. Y. ADAMS, Nubia: corrie/or 10 Africa (London and Prioccton, 1984),246-93. J. LECLANT, 'Taharqa', Lexikol1 der Agyptologie VI, cd. W. Heick, E. Otto and W. Westcndorf (Wiesbaden, 1985), 156--84. K. A. KITCHEN, The Third il1lermediate Period il1 Egypt (I1{)()-650 BC), 2nd cd. (Warminster, 1986),387-93.

talatat blocks
Small sandstone relief blocks dating to the Amaroa period (<".1352-1336 IIC), the name for which probably derives from the Arabic word meaning (tluee hand-breadths" describing their dimensions (although it has also

Gral1ite sphi11x of Tallllrqo from Temple T at Kama, Nubia. 25,11 DYllaSlj', 690-664 BC, L. 74.7clII. (EAI770)

281

TALMIS

TAN!.

been suggested that the word may have stemmeu from I"he Italian for ~cut masonry" laglill/fI). '['heir distinctive ShilPC derives from the rapid construction techniques employed by \kllJ'::'\_\TE~ (1352-J336 He) in commissioning the temples of the Atcn at I]~-.\\IAR'.\ and" \R'.\"', which necessitated the provision of large quantities of smaller, more roughly c.ln"cd blocks compared with the temples constructed during the rest of the 1 ew Kingdom. \Vhcn the 'heretical' Amarnaperiod temples were comprehensively dismantled in the reign uf 1I0RE:\IIIEB and the early Ramessidc period, the llilallll blocks wcrc prcsen"cd through their fe-use as rubble in the construction of new temples; Horcmhcb, for instance, used thcm [Q fill rhc Ninrh and Tenth PYI.Oi'S in rhe temple of Amun at Karnak. 'T'he largest numbers of la/alat blocks hayc been found in the temples of Karnak, I.LX(lH. and fIEI{MOPOI.IS t\I1\G.)IA, alrhough smaller numbers have also been found at several other iiites, including Medamud, As)'ut

ouler enclosure wall

east temple of Osorkon II

('

" \

QQ
r;.-_-_-..c..c..c..c..c==..c..c::..c::=
1

,: sacred lake
:~ ..

..
-------:::: :-:-:---:l
I

,, ,

: L
, , , ,
, I

: , :
~

, ', ,
:

" ,j "

"

monumental"

gale

~-~-.:-::::..-:.-~-~-:::---------..:-.:-.:--------------41 L
"

" " "

'.

greal temple of Amun

----------------1 i ______ .J

: : ,

, ,

3~. royal

611"

necropolis

- - inner enclosure wall

temple of Horus . . - .

and Abvdos. The tens of thousands of blocks

now form vast and complex jigsaw puzzles, the partial solurion of which has alrcady assistcd archaeologists in their attempts to reconstruct the plan and appearance of the various Amarna-period temples at e1-Amarna

's
N

00
1 tomb of Osorkon II 2 tomb of Psusennes Iand Sheshonq II 3 tomb of Amenemope 4 tomb of Sheshonq III 5 and 6 lambs with unknown oceupants

and Karnak.
D. B. REDFORJ), AHle1wtell, the heretic killg

(Princcton, I98{), 65-71.

C. ALDRED, Akhelwtell. king oIEgypt (London,

1988),69-87.

Talmis set' KAJ.:\BSIIJ\

Tanis (anc. Djanet; San c1-Hagar)

10st important archaeological site in the northe.lstem Delta, and capital of the nineteenth Lower Egyptian nome in the Late

temple 01 Mut, Khans and Astarte

I.
I

!
50

100m

Period (7{7-332

Be).

The principal exca-

Plan of Timis.
I'SUS~"l'~S

yations at Tanis were carried alit in 1860-80 by Auguste l\ll\RIETn:, in 1883--86 by Flinders PETRII': and in 1921-51 by Pierre Muntet, and the site is still heing studied by French archaeologists.

(1039-991

Be)

of the 21st

Dynasty, who was responsible for constructing the huge mud-brick enclosure wall (430 III X 370 (1) surrounding the temple of Amon.

Ahhough many blocks and frab'ments of relief, and statuary from the Old and Middle
Kingdoms as well as the reign of Rameses
II

Later rulers of thc 21st and early 22nd

Dynasty added to the temple complex, while
NECIlINEBO'

(380-362

Be)

of the 30th Dynasty

Be)

(1279-121J

Be)

have been discovered at the

also built there, removing stone from the

site, all of this carlier material appears to have been re-used. Montet believed that the Ramesside sculpture identified the site as Piralllesse, the new capital established by Setl'

temple buildings of SliESIIONQ v (767-730

.111d PSAMTEK I

,(1294-1279

Be)

and Rameses

II,

but this the-

ory has been invalidated by work at TELL EL])(\13'" and Q!\NTJR (the laner being the actual site of Piramcsse). The earliest recorded building at Tanis dates to the reign of

(664-610 He) for lise in the construction of the SACRED LAKE. On the southwestern side of the site, beyond the temple enclosure, is a smaJler temple dedicated to MUT and KIIONS, where the Asiatic goddess AS'li\RTE was also worshipped. This building was reconstructed during the reign of Ptolemy

l'vl.ontet's discovery, in 1939, of the roY'll tombs of the 21st and 22nd Dvnastics was overshadowed bv the outbreak of the Second \-Yodd \iVar; the;efore the fmds are less widcl~' known than would otherwise have bcen Lhe casco Six tombs were discovcred: all were subterranean and constructed of a combin.ltion of mud-bricks and re-used stone blocks, mnny of them inscribed. The occupants of (Wo of the tombs arc unknown, hut the remaining four belonged to Psusennes I, Amencmope (993984 Be), Osorkon " (874-850 Be) and

Sheshonq "' (825-773

BC).

However, twO fur-

ther royal burials had been placcd in these tombs: the tomb of Psusennes I contained the

hawk-headed silver coffin of Sheshonq " (c.890 Be) as well as the coffin and sarcophagus
of Amenemopc, while that of Osorkon
II

held
BC).

'v (221-205

Be).

the sarcophagus of Takelot " (850-825

282

TAWERET

The gold work and other c()uipmcnt from the Tanis necropolis are the most important source knowledge concerning royal funerary goods of the 'Third Intermediate Period (1069-7f7 Be). \Y.1VL. F. PETRIE, 7,wis, 2 ,'ols (London, 1885-7). P. Nlo""('ET. Les lIouL'cltcsJhuilles de 7l1nl~ (Paris, 1933). - , La mfrmpole 1"(~)I(tle de 1illlis, 3 \'ols (Paris, 19f7-60). -, Le Ill( sacredI.' 'fi/1/i.dParis, 1966). K. A. KITClIL'l Tht' Third Intermediate Period i1/ Egypi (1100-650 lie), 2nd ed. (Worminsrer, 1986). G. GUYON, La lNc()/Ivcrle dl'~lnf.wrs de 1;l1IJ~~ (Poris, 1987). J. YmunE ct al. , 1ill/is. I'or des plutrilOlIS (Paris, 1987). - , Gold of/he pharaohs (Edinburgh, ]988).

Tatjenen CEltenen: 'risen land')

Primeval god who is mentioned on the SII \1I:\Q0 Smile (see OGDOi\D and 1''1'\11) in connection wil:h the emergence 01" the PRL\'IE\'l\1. MOU"D at the moment of creation, as his name suggests. His cult was initially ;lttested at Memphis and became closely associated with the ,-arious myths of CRI'::\'!'IO,"; he was effectively the IVlemphite equivalent of the BE;\IBEi\" STO:'\'E at I-Icliopolis, although he was also sYIll~ bolic both nf Egypt itself and of the fertile land rising annually from the waters of U1C inundation_ Often portrayed as a hearded man wearing a crown consisting of ram'$ horns, a sun-disc and two plullles, he W<lS an 'earth god' or chthonic deity, like AKER and GEIl, guarding [he passage of the SOLAR II-\Rk. through the netherworld. In the Li/(Jf~J' (~rR(f) however, he is listed as the personification of" the phallus of the dead king. E. A. E. RU:\IOI'D, 'The childrcn ofTanen', 92 (1966),116-28 [I. A _SCI [I.OGL, Der Goll unel/ell (Freiburg, 19RO).

or

Tanutamani CElIltamani, Tanwelamani) (664--656 BC)

Last of lhc 25th-Dynasty ph~traohs, who defeated and killed rhe ASSYRIM,;-baeked Saite ruler "C>...IL I (672-664 BC) in 664 Be, and was then recognized :IS king by the Delta princes_ He left a stele in Lhe temple ar Gebel Barkal which described how, in a dream, the throne of Egypt had been offered to him by goddesses_ This method of legitimizing ;.lI1d strengthening his claim to the throne drew not only on the text of the Victory Stele of the ~"'P_\T\" ruler I'll' (7f7-716 BC) hut also harked baek LO dlC 18th-Dynasty Drcam Stele of TlIUTi\IOSI': IV (1400-1390 Be). "TImut.lmani's reign m-er dle whole kingdom of Egypt and I'\ ubia hlstec! for liule more tlmn a year. In 663 Be he was overthrown in the same way as his uncle (or cousin) 'I:'\II'\I{(~), by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, whose armies plundercd thc temple treasures of Thebes. Despite maintaining control oyer the Napatan territories in r\ubia, 1:lIlutam;mi ,,-as unable to regain e0111"ro] of Egypt itsclf~ where the Assyrians established Nckau's son, I's\ \1TEk. I (66+-610 lie), as a ,assal ruler. 1n the Theban region, howcYcr, thc dates continued to be written in terms of the years of ~nlllllt<lmani's reign until at least 657 Be, although a local priest, i\'Fh~TL-E.\lIl \'1", appe'lrs to have wielded the genuine political power. In 656 Be llmutamani died ~lIld was imerred in a typical Napatan pyramidal tomb (accompanied by horse burials) in the royal cemetery at 1-:1.KURRL.

"As

Thweret that g;lined panicular importance O\-er time. Like the dwarf-god BES, she appears to h::1Ve had no cult temples of her own, although a few statues have survived, and she was sometimes portrayed in temple relief..;. The Egyptian system of constclhuions connected the hippopotamus with the northern sky, and it was in this role as Neberakhet ('mistress of the horizon') that 'lll\veret waS depicted on the ceiling of the tomb of Sety I (129+-1279 BC) in rhe Valle\ of the Kings (KI 15). Esscntially a hcncyolcnt figure, rl:lwcret was widely represented on amulers frolll the Old Kingdom (2686-2IRI BC) onwards, including large numbers excilyated from houses at I':L-HL\R",\ (c.13-H) Be). Be<....1Usc of her protective powers during childbirth, the image of the hipP(lpotilllllls-goddess was considered a suit.lble motif for the decoration of beds and h ,ldrcsts. Faiencc ,rases in dle shape of the goddess, prO\'ided with <1 small pouring hole at the nipple, were sometimes used to

tattoos see (I)S:\IE.TICS

Taweret ('EtlIrt, Thueris)
Household deity in the form of a female hippopotamus, who was panicularly associatcd with the protection of "'omen in childbirth. She was usually pon-rayed with the arms and leb"S of a lion and the back and tail of a crocodile (or even a complete crocodile perched Oil her hack), while her pendulous breasts and full belly clearly conveyed the idea of pregnancy_ Her headdress comprised a low \loniLS surmounted by two plumes, somctimes with horns and ;1 disc, and she often held a large S,\ amulet ('protection') and sometimes an '\:'\KII symbol ('life'). As <1 result of l\lcditerrane;lll trade, her image was absorbed into the iconograph~ of the Nlinoan ciyiliz.llion on the island of Crete, where she was eventually trans(lrilled into [he somewhat different 'Genius' figure. The hippopotamus-goddess is at tested as early as the Old Kingdom, when she took three principal namcs: OPCl or Ipy ('hari",' or 'f~lvoured place'), ~n1\\'Crel- ('the great goddess') and Reret ('the sow'). Although there is a temple of Opet at I(,\R"\K, dating to the Late Period and Ptolemaic period, it was the cult of

K. A. KITell":', Tlte Third IlIIermeditJlt! Period ill I:.gYPI (//00-650/1(:), 2nd cd. (\Varminstcr, 1986),393-100. A. A. GASr-.IEI.-SEEIl, 'Lol wmbe de '"Emoutamon aEI Kurru (Ku.16)', Rtfli 36 (1985), 67-72.

Oil tI

Figure of/he home/ruld dl!i~J' '/iI/pi're/ res/iug sa Jigl/. She I1JtlS especial(y a.uQcia/ed mj/It Ihe prolee/ioll o./1}JOmC1l ill dtildbir/h aud i~' (Jn/! oIlhe /lfOS/ ((Jm/1/fJ/l(JI represt!1lled {//1/ulcljc deilie.I. NClJJ Kingdolll, rod: 0)/.1"/(11, II. 9.5 mt. (K/2.J39.i)

283

TAXATJO:-;

TEFNUT

serve milk, presumably in an attempt to instil extra potency into the liquid. The male hippopotamus was essentially regarded as a destructive animal and therefore closely associated with the evil god 5E111. It was presumably with this connection in mind that the Roman historian P)march described Tawcrcr as the 'concubine' of Seth, who had changed her ways to become one of the (followers' of IIORUS. S. QUIHKE, /blt:ielll EgyptiaN religion (London, 1992),107. G. ROBINS, Women ill (lucien/ E~!{J'PI (London, 1993),85-7. C. ANDREWS,Al1lulels oftl1lcienJ Egypt (London, 1994)40-1.

taxation
From al least the Old Kingdom (2686--2181 BC) onwards) the government of Egypt revolved mainly around the collection of taxes by the cenfral ,md provincial administrators. It is important, however) to try to distinguish between tax and rent and between regular and ad hoc taxes. The PAJ.I]{!\'IO STO~E and other surviving documents suggest' that there were biennial censuses of agricultural produce so that the 'treasury~ could assess the amount of tax to be paid by individuals (although even these censuses may have actually taken place at irregular inlen'lls). Because of the nonmonetary economy that operated for almost

Delllil ofl/fragmenl ofl1){1l1-pailllillgfro111 lire tomb-chapel oINeba111ulI. showing cllllle being paraded inlroul ola scribe (1IIlhe exlreme left oI Ihe upper regsler) so IhM (l lax ({ssessme11l can be made. 181h D.)IIl(/S~)'. c.1400 11C, painted plasler FOIII Thebes, 11. 58.S CIII. (",,37976)

the whole of the Pharaonic period, taxes were paid in kind. The surviving scenes of daiJy life in private tombs show that scribes were sent out to measure the precise areas of land under cultivation and to calculate meticulously the numbers of livestock from geese to cattle. The seriousness with which this system was enforced is indicated by such evidence as the scene depicted in the 6th-Dynasty MASTi\Ui\ tomb the vizier Khentika at Saqqara (c.2300 Be), showing five men in the process of being punished for corruption in the collection of taxes. A painting in the tomb chapel of !vlenna~ dating to the reign of Thutmose TV (14001390 Be), shows a stock scene o[ lhe assessment of produce and collection of taxes by SCRIBES, and the subsequent beating of a farmer who has not paid his tax, while Papyrus Lansing, a well-known 20th~Dynasty text (now in the British Museum), describes the severe penalties suffered by a defaulting farmer and his family, despite their failed harvest. The tomb of an 18th-Dynasty vizicr called REKJ lMIRA (c.l425 Ile) is decorated with a portrayal of the reception of taxes on behalf of the king, including detailed descriptions of specific amounts of such products as cakes, barley, honey, reed mats, gold ingot'i and linen. It is interesting to note that the scribes themselvcs usually seem to have been exempt from taxation, although it has been pointed out that the tax was generally levied on agricultural produce~ which the non-farming scribes would rarely have owned in the first place. 'Exemption decrees' could be issued to individuals and institutions; these are our chief source of knowledge of taxation. A. H. GARDINER, 'A protest against unjustified ,axdclllands',RdE6(195l),115-24.

B.J.

KL\lP,A"cie"t Egypt: 1l1lalomy ofll

civilizali(JIl (London, 1989), 234--8.

Tefnut
Goddess associated with moisture or damp, corrosive air. She and her brother-hush.md SIIU were the first gods created bv A!'U\I according to the doctrine of Heliopolis (se~ CREATION). Because she was considered to have been created by a process of ejaculation or spitting, a pair of lips could be uscd La dCnlne her name. The children of Shu and Tefnm were GEB and NUT. In the same way [hat the myths and atlribUles of Atum gradually merged with those of RA, so Tefnut and Shu became 'EYES OF' I{ \ '; in these roles, Tefnur rook the head of a lioness, and Shu that of a lion. Both were worshipped in these forms at Leontopolis (TELL 1:1."uQrHM) in the Delta. Tefnut was also identified with the lIrr/ellS (see WALJJYT), thus establishing an association with the Kli'GSIIlP, anll it was in this connection that she appeared in the I'YRM,ll[J 'rEXTS in rhe form of a scrpent rearing from a sceptre. vv. SPlJ~GEI.IWJ{G, Del' iig)lplische /Hyllllls rOil Somte"auge (Leiden, 1917). S. \VEST, ''I'he Gn.-.'Ck version ofthe legcnd of Tefnut',]EA 55 (1969), 161-83. S. QUIRKE, Au(iel/I t:gyplian religion (LondtlO. 1992), 25-31.

or

rekenu
Enigmatic figure which played an uncertain role in private funerary rites. Scenes on the w'llls of tombs of the early New .Kingdom, such as that of Reneni at ELKAU (EK7), dal ing to the reign o[ Amenhotep I (l525-1504Ilc), portray the lekenll as a man wrapped in a skin or bag, usually taking the form of a hl1manheaded sack-like bundle placed on a sledge and drawn along by cattJe as part of the funeral ceremonies. Since it was carried alongside [he corTin and canopic equipment, it ha~ been suggestcd that the sack may ha\'e simply contained the parts of the body that could neither be mummified nor placed in C!\~OPIC:)\RS but were nevertheless essential to the full resurrection of the deceased. It would perhaps also have served as an im'lge of the body itscl[ The lekeu/{ has also been inrerpretcJ as a symbolic survival of the practice of funerary HUMi\!\ SACRIFICE or even as a symbol of the contracted form of corpses of d1C Predynasric period, although there is little evidence to substantiate either of these views. J. GWYN GRIFFITIIS, 'The rckenu, the Nubians and the 13utie burial', Klish 6 (1958), 106-2U. E. I-IOR"l.;"G, itlea il1to image, trans. E. Bredeck (New York, 1992), 169-70.

284

TELL

TEMPLE

Sceneji'olllihe lomb o/Renelli (II Elkab (EK7) shoTPingfimertlJ]' rius, iududiug the opening of/he
mouth (middle register), (Imt processiol1. In/he

upper regis/a the tekcnu call lIe seen /Jeiug pulled along Oil (J sledge infrol/I oImell carryil1g (f chest. /8/11 Dyl/asl)'. e./S20 Be. (I' T. "'Iel/OLSO.\)

Tell
All site names beginning with 'Tell' are alphabetized under the second parr of the name, e.g. Yahudiya, Tell c1-. (Arabic: 'mound') Term usuaUy employed to describe.1n arrifichll mound consisting of superimposed settlement remains. Although many Egyptian toponyms incorporate the word it is more accurately applied to sites elsewhere in the Ncar East - the siLe of 'TELL ,:r.-A.\tARt'A\ for instance, dcriycs from local tribal n;:lmcs rather thiln topography.

tell

the Egyptian temple was the innermost cultchamber or SIIRJ]\'1-:, where the image of the deity W;lS kept. The activities of the temple revolved around the worship and celebration of the deity's cult via the image in the shrine, and the building itself was not a meeting-place for worshippers but an architectural setting for the celebration of the culL The modern conception of rhe Egyptian temple is biased by two principal factors of archaeological preservation. First, yery few pre-New-Kingdom t.emples have survived, primarily because Egyptian temples were repeatedly rebuilt in the same sacred area, thercfore the earliest structural phases were uften obliterated, buried and recycled in constructing the later versions of the tcmple.

Second, most Lower Egyptian religious complc.xcs, such as the temple of Ptah at .l'.'IEr..WIIIS and the sun temple at IIEUOPOI.lS (lwnw), have been heavily pillaged over the centuries, therefore comparatively little of their plan and decoration has been preserved. The result of these two archaeological distortions is that thc modern view of the Egyptian temple is based almost entirely on Upper Egypti<m temples dating from the New Kingdom (1550--1069 Be) onwards. The most claborate surviving example of the Upper Egyptian temple is the precinct of Amun at KAR.-'MK, while the bestpreserved sueh building is the temple of Horus at EDFU, dating to the Ptolemaic period (3J2-30 Be). The rypical post-Middle Kingdom Upper Egyptian temple appears to have consistcd of a series of processional ways through which the king and his priests could gradually approach the cult image in its KAOS_ The same conduits also provided the backdrop for religious FFSrtVM.S, which usually consisted of the transpOI'ration of the deity's statue, carried in a BARK, hom one temple to another. vVithin the confines of thc tcmple, these processional ways passed through open courtyards, HYPOSTYI.E IlA1.LS and massive ceremonial gateways known as PYLO:\lS. The decoration of the external walls of the temple tendcd to concentrate on the motif of the king's conquest over enemies and wild beasts, symbolizing the protection of the god's cult. The painted reliefs on the internal walls usually depicted aspects of the performance of rituals, showing the king engaged in the presentation of offerings to the various deities ;lssociated with the temple, and thus performing his role of intermediary between the human ;tnd the divine. The temple was also considered to be an architectural metaphor both for the universe
Raollstructioll dramil1g oIthe temple olKhom at Karnak, built during the 20th DYI1(ls~)I. c.//OO BC.
(DRAWN 10 G/I/US""N" IJ IRRA7..,j

temenos
Ancient Greek term used to describe the sacred precinct surrounding the cult place of a deity. Tn Egyptian religious architecture it is usually loosely applied to the area within the enclosure wall of a temple. The religious complex at KAR,'\Ji\K consisted of three distinct leU/enoi: the precincts relating to lhe temples of J\l\IU~, ,\IUT and MO:,\TU respectively.

temple
Building or complex of buildings regarded by the ancient Egyptians as the 'house' of <l deity (or deities). The most essential component of 285

TET!

THEB~

and for the process of C1U':t\TI(l'\ itself The floor gradually rose, passing through forests plant-form columns and roofed by images of the constellations or the body of the skygoddess XLT, allowing the priests to aSl:cnd gradually from the outermost etlgc of the universe towards the sanctuary, which was a symbol of the inner core of creation, the I'Kl\IEr,\L \!OL '\IJ on which the crcaLOr-god first broughl the world into being. Apart from sClying as uni,-crsal mcti:lphors and eternal baddrops for the celebration of cult and ritual , the lcmplcs also served as important parts of the Egyptian economic infrastrllcture. Each W.IS founded nOl merely as a hollow building but as an important institution employing large work forces ;tnd endowed with such reliable sources of income as agricultural land and gold mines. The main tcmple was therefore innlriably surrounded by ancillary buildings such as granaries and slaughter-houses, in which the daily offerings were stored and processed, usually e\-cl1lu.llIy being re-distributed to teed thc tcmple staff themselves. The administraLion of the temple, which in modern terms might be di,'ided into ritualistic and cconomic actiyiries, is documented both in the temple relief... and in cermin surviying archin:s of" papyri, particularly those that have been eXC<1Valcd from lhe Old Kingdolll mortuary temples of Neferirkara (2475-2+55 He) and Ranefercf (2H8-2H5 Be) at ,m... SIlC II. \V. f\IIC\L\.:\", 'Wurship:md lesti,als in an Egyptian temple', BII//elill (~rl"eJnl11/ 1~)'ltflld( !,ibrtny, A'(tll/chesler.37 (195-f), 1(l5-203. A. R. 0\\ 111 1 .1 guide 10 rt'!;g;olls r;llItll (/1 A/~}rdos (\Varminsrer, }(81). P. SPE'U.R, nle '''':~J'Pli{f'' It'll/pIt': II Ic-rimgmpltiwlsllIt6r (I.ondon, 1984). B. J. 1(1':\11\, I111'ic11l I:.~!(J"}I: 1I'!lI/(iIJ~l' o/a t;ivili~(/Ii/l" (London, 1(89), 91-1U~. D. O'Co;'\ ,OR, 'The status of early Egyplian templcs: an altcrnariyc theory', TIJcjiJ//t1l1'ers of f!fJrlH, cd. R. Friedman and B. Adams (Oxford, 1992),83-98.

or

Dyn:lsty, as a result of thc increasing powcr or nom:lrchs (provincial gmcrnors). The evidence of his more concrete :lttempLs to adjusl the balance of powcr includes firsLly a stele at .l\bydos exempling tcmples frum T\ '\ rno.'\ and secondly the marriage of his cldcst daughter to the vizier .\lI:RERUK'\, who was later to be chief prieST of his funerary cult. The historian \I.\.'\E"I"IIO claims. that '1cti was e,cntually assassinatcd by his bodyguards, Jnd allhough Lhere is no other c,'idence for this, it seems likely that PEP' I, his true heir <Ind e"cnlual succcssor, was initially usurped by Userbra. Little is knowll about the 1:ltter who reigned for onl~ a year alld may h'1\c been a descendanl of a 5th-Dynasty pharaoh. Teti's pyramid complex, exc:n'ated b) James Quibcll in 1907-8, is situated in north Saqqara, accompanicd by th~ Ml\Sli\B,\ tombs of se\eral of his officials, ineluding thaL of .\lereruka. In a re"iYal of a 4th-Dynasty lradilion, the complex included pyramids for two quecns (Tput and K:l\\'it). The intcrnal passage of the pyramid was onl)" the second 10 be inscribed with 1" R:\ \IID TEXTS, and the burial chamber containcd :1 grey basalt sarcophagus, the bod~ .111d funerary equipmcnt hm-ing been plundered in ancient tim<.--:;. A plaster dcathmask (now in thc Egyptian i\(useum, Cairo) was found in his morluary temple, bm it is uncertain whether it was taken li'om the body ol"Teti himself C. .\1. furl'll and B. GL"'\', The "eli pJ1ramitl ({'1IIt!laies, 2 "ols (Cairo, 1926). J-P. L.\LEI~ :lnd J LH:U'T. Le WI/pIt' !talll till culllpftoxcjimimirctlll roi Til; (eliru, 1972). N. GRL\I\I., .'I//I~~/01:JJ u/tll/til'1I1 f:r:.JlPI (Oxli)rd, 1992),80-1. I. E. S. 1>\\ 'KDS, Tltt' pyramitls flfl:.:fil'pl, 5th cd. (I brmonds\\"orth, 1993), 179-80.

!vi. H. GO\UTIIIEH, LiiJl't'dc.\' mi.l' d'Fg.l'Pll' II, 159-flO. - , '!vlonumcnrs ct fragmcnts appartell<11H:i l'Instirut FranC;:lis d'Archcologie Orientale du C,ire', 811'-10 12 (1916), 125-H(128--9). \V. V. D" IES, "I rt~J'tf' .~/tfllll' l"t'tfllribuletl (Lnnl!cln. 1981).

Thebes (ane. WaseL)

Principal ciry of Upper Egypt and capital (If the fourth pper Egyptian nomc, The archaeological remains of the city and tempks Thebes surround the modern city of J .1I:\or un the casr bank or the Nile, while rhe ',"cst hank is thc site of the mortuary temples :lnd tombs of kings and high officials from the )\lidtl!e Kingdom to the end of the Pharaonic period (c,2053-332 lie). Because of its long .111d important history, Thebes has been a centre uf archaeological research sincc at IC.lst lhe time of the Napoleonic expedition (1798-1802; see

or

EGYI'TOL.oGl').

The anciellt Egyptians kne\\" the town as \>Vasel, symbolized by the 'us SCEPTRE, but the Greeks called it Thebes, :tfler their own t.:i(~ of the same name in Boeotia. Unlike other l11ajor cities of the Pharaonic period, such as \II\I~ PillS, IlELlOT'{)I.IS or \B\ DOS, its origins WlTC compar;'ltiyely recent; it probahly emerged :IS a small pro\'inci:ll town during thl' Old

Tetisheri (<.1590-1540

BC)

Teti (2345-2323 Be)

first ruler of the 6th Dynasty (23~5-2181 Be) whose reign probably does not represent any sharp brcak with the preceding reign of L' \s, in that he married Jput, one of Unas' daughters, although it scems likely that his falhcr camc li'om outside thc 5th-Dynasty royal family. Teti "'as the first 01" many rulers to take lhe Horus nalllc Schetep-taw~ ('pacifier of the two lands') in his Ror\l. TITL""J. \In, possibly suggesting a desire on his part to remed~ problcms in rhc administration, which had becomc less srable by the end of" the 5th

Wife of the 17.h-Dynastl" Thehan ruler Senakhtenra Taa I and mother of SI:(l.E'I:'R \ T\ \ II, who appears to ha\ e bcell of nOIl-roy.11 origin. She suni,cd until Lhe car1~ ]8th Dynasty alld, like her descendants \IIIIOTEI' 1 and 'III\\OSE i'EFI':K'I',\RI, appcars lO have been an unusually influential wom<1l1. Her grandson, \1 L\IOSE I, established cenotaphs and runer~lry estates for both himself and Tctishcri .It \BYDOS, where she was granted a posthumous cult :IS the mosr important (emale aJl(:estor or the 18th-Dynasly rulers. Despite her importance, only one smtue has sun'i\'cd, thc lowcr portion of:l limestone statuellC, the present location of which is now unknown. The coUcction of the British ,\Iuseum includes a se;lted swruettc purponlng to represcnt Tctisheri, bur this has becn jtknlificd as a I()rgery.

Giltlcd/1l/JtJdt'lIri..hi
{:(dJiJl(dj.,if/.~

N"bkhc/It'I'I'1I

II/III

ji'om his Inm/llli IJm .Ibu d-Saga. -nIl' l1umpoliscs (~r J7'tbl's tire (/ lIIajor .~I1{fr(t' 4 f.'"Ol/1ledgt' 01/

fUIU'flIl:,' pre/lIIn'S.
17IhDYI1l/SI.l'. c. 16.iO /le, II. 1,93 m. (/' /61>51)

286

THEBES

THEBES

""'"

""""""'''''!II\\\''''''

.,''''''\

\,.
.'\ """"'\ .~~\
.....

"l\l\\\\~

t
emple of Thutmose III Ramesseum: temple of Rameses II temple of Thutmose IV temple of Merenptah site of the temple of Amenhotep III precinct of Mantu

temple of " colossi of Memnon Ay and Horemheb

Medinet Habu: temple of Rameses III

new town of Duma

ot Khons

tem~pe /~u~~~rn
Q.

o
sacred lake Karnak precinct of Amun

Malkata: palace of Amenhotep III Birkel Habu

!!fjz
Asasil

preeirn:t of Mut

Valley of the Queens Deir el-Medina: workmen's village Ptolemaic temple of Hathor Qurnet Mural modern houses Sheikh Abd el-Qurna el-Khokha temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri 10 Valley of the Kings 11 Western Valley 12 elQurn

2km

PllI/1 UfTllCbt'I.

Kingdom (2686-2 J8 J Be), bUI e,-enlualJ,assumcd a more prominent role in the First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 BC), as the principal ri\"al to the 'Hcraklcopoliwn' dynasty of" r.owcr Egypt" (sec lll]~ \KI.EOPOLlS i\\!\Gl"i\ and .\IE.'\TL'IIOTEP II). The 9th and lOth Dmasties of Lower Egypt ruled from the traditional administrativc centre, 1\ lemphis, but the roughly contemporary ] Ith-Dynasty rulers of Upper Egypt came from .\K"\I.\!\"T and therefore established Thebes as their scat of power. At the end of the First Intermediate Period ,"he Theban rulers cmerged victorious, ousting the Herakleopolilans and g<lining control of the whole of Eg\pL The ,\Jiddle Kingdom pharaohs then ruled from lhe newly founded city of ltjtawy ('taking possession of the two

lands'), situated ncar the new necropolis or El.USIIT, although they c1cilrly still rcgilrded Thebes as their sacred cit~. The rulers of the 12th Dynasty (1985-1795 He; see '\"IE'E\IH'\T and SE2'.lSRI~T) established Thebe... as the cnpital of Upper Egypt, and he nee forth .I'IU', the locnl god or Thebes, became increasingly prominent. In [he 11th Dynasty roynl burials wcre already being made on the west bank, notably at c1-"rarif in the north but also at DEIR EL-U.\IIKI, whcre ~Ientuhotcp II (2055-200'+ Be) built his funcrary complex. By the i\ew Kingdom (1550-1069 BC) the Thehan west banI.: was dc\c!oping into a great necropolis that would eventually rival the jVlemphitc nccropolis of S \QQ\R\ in importance. At the end of the Second Intermediate Period (1650-1550 Be) it was once again a local Theban dyn~lsty that rose to power, expelling the lIYt.:SOS from Egypt and rcunifying the

country. Burials of the 17th Dynasty arc concentrated around Ora Abu el-Nab"'3 betwcen eI-'!,uif and Deir eI-Bahri. The J J{ known rock-lambs at Ora Abu c1-Naga include those of officials from the early New Kingdom to the Late Period (c. I 550-500 BC), as ,,ell as Ihe pyramidal royal burials of the 17l'h-Dynasty rulers and their families (r.1650-1550 BC). 'rhe area has bccn cxtcnsi\"ely plundered and many of the tombs h~l\c now been badly damaged or lost. The Nc,, Kingdom \\"as the most imporlant period in Thchan history, and it was during this period that slIcccssive rulers began to enlarge and elaborate the temple complex of K:\R'\-\K (the ipel-islIl, 'most fa\"oured of places'), founded in the 12th Dynasty and dedicaled to the di\'inc triad of Amun, \1L.~r and KJIO"":S, as well as _\\O:--:TU (another local god). Tn the reign of A\IEi'\IIOTEP 111

287

THINIS, THINITE PERIOD

THOE~

(1390--1352 BC) the LCAOR templc (the ipelresJI/, 'private chambers to the south') \Y<lS founded, a shorr distance to the south of Karnak. On the west bank the VAI.IXY OF TIlE Kli\'GS became the burial place of the 2\'cw J(jngdom rulers from at least as early as the reign of THtJT~IOSE I (150-l-1{92 BC), while mam' ofthc highest officials of each of the reigns were buried nearby on the hill slopes of Ora Abu elNaga, Deir e1-Bahri, el-Khoka, Asasif, Sheikh Ahd el-Qurna and Qurnet Murai. A long row of mortuary temples also stood on the wcst

bank, usually with communities of officials,

priests and servants housed in the vicinity (sec anu RA..\IESSEufo.l). At DElI{ EL:-'IEIJI~:\ was the walled settlement and cemetery of the workmen responsible for constructing the royal tombs. t\ number of royal palaces were also conslTucrcd on the ',"cst bank, ranging from the comparatively small buildings attachcd to the mortuary temples to the sprawling complex of buildings from the reign of Amenhotcp III at MALKATA. Evcn in the Ramesside period (1295-1069 BC), when the royal palace and the central administrarion werc transferred to the Delta (sec QANTIR and Ttl.l. EL-DAR' -\), Thcbes retained a great deal of its religious and political significance, .md the bodies of rulers werc still brought to western Thebes for burial in lhe Valley of lhe Kings. The kings of the 21st and 22nd Dynasties (1069-747 BC) governed from various cities in the Delta, bur they lacked the strength to control the whole country, and at this time Libyan generals, from HERIIIOl{ onwards, controlled Upper Egypt from their power-base at Thebes. It was only in thc Late Pcriod (7H-332 oc) that the importance of the city finally secms to have dwindlcd in fa,"our of iVlemphis, TA'\IS, SAIS and HGBA$'I'L'i. B. PORTER and R. L. B. .Moss, T{Jpogmphical bib!iograpli)' I-II (Oxford, 1%-1-72). E. RJI~rsT!\Il[., Thebes in/he lime oIAlI/lIl1hOlcp III (Norman, OK, 196{). ]. BAINES and]. J\l.\LEK, Allns o/ll1lriell/ Egyp/ (Oxford, 1980), 8-1-105. L. ~l.\N1'\'CIIE, Ci~)' of till' dt'lul: Thebes ill Egypt (London, 1987).
I\lEDINET IIABU

the most important of the small states that were competing for control of Upper and Lower Egypt, at the end of the Predynast ic period. The first two Egyptian dynasties, covering a period of over four hundred years (c.3100-2686 BC), were descrihed by the Egyptian historian lvlanerho as thc 'Thinirc period', in recognition of the fact thaL Early Dynastic Thinis enjoyed a shoJ:"t period of pre-eminence, when it \\,..1S the seat of power of the first rulers of a united Egypt. It is unclear, however, precisely when the ccnrre of power trnnsfelTed northwards to i\IMIPIIIS, thus diminishing the political role of Thin is ilnd leaving Abydos as a sire of purely ceremonial and ritualistic importance (sec }\BYDOS and SAQQ!\R:\ for discussion of the possible roles of the Thinite ilnd Memphite necropoliscs).

however, the 25th Dynasty was still thwarted for a while bv the 2{th Dmasty (727-715 BC) ruling from the town of SAIS in the Della. The Napamn ruler PlY (747-716 BC) campaigned as far north as IVlcmphis until he was satisfied that he had secured control of the Nile \"alle\then he withdrew to 'HIWU. His campaign~: howe"er, werc inconclusiye, necessitating further military acri,"ity by his successor, SII \ll-\Q9 (716-702 BC) at the beginning of tbe L,n: ]'ERIOD (7{7-332 BC). J\1. BIERllRI"~R, Thl' l(I(e Nl'J1J Kingdom ill Egypt (1'.1.100-66-1 He): a gcnt!tllogiwl lIlld rhrollollJ/!,/{ol iuve.l'//:!ttllioll (\Narminstcr, 1975). D. O'CO,\l;":OR, 'New Kingdom and Third intermediate Period, 1552-664 BC', A//I';t'lIl Egypt: 1I sMilll histolJI, ed. B. G. Trigger ct al. (Cambridge, 1983), 183-278. K. K!TClIEN, The Third Interwedillh' Perulllw t.gypt, 2nd ed. (Warminster, 1986).

Third Intermediate Period (1069-747 BC)

Chronological phase following the i'\EW Kl~G 0'''''- Smendes (1069-1043 BC) succeeded R'I.\lESES XI (1099-1069 BC) as first king of the 21st Dynasty (1069-945 BC), but his was only one line of succession in this period of divided gm'ernmcnt. Smcndcs ruled from TA~IS, while the High Priests of Amun at Thebes, unuer Pinudjem I, continued to rule an area stretching from as far north as EJ.-IIIUA (sollth of the Elyum) to \SWt\i'\ in the south. The two lines interm.uried, and the Thcbans recognized the official T~mite dating system, but maintained Upper Egypt as a separate state. The Delta-hased 22ml Dynastv (945-715 DC) beg"l11 with the reign of the Libyan ruler SHESllO:<Q I (9{5-924 IlC). His accession coincided with the decline in power of the Theban 1-1 igh Priests, so that he was able [Q install his son at Thebes, lending some degree of unity to the two lands. Later in the Dynasty, however, the Thebans appc~lI' to have objected to the establishment of Osorkon, son of 'bkelot II (850-825 1](:), as High Priest of Amun, and embarked 011 :I ciyil war with the nonhern rulers. The establishment of rival dynasties followed, with the result that the 22nd to 24th Dynasties were all ruling simultaneously in different parts of the coul1rfY. Osorkon III (777-7{9 HC) established his daughtcr Shepemycper as GOD'S \\'lFE OF (\ \IU;,\ in Thebes. The importance or this post as, at the ycry least, a symbol of the polit-ical control of Thebes, meant that it was subscqucnliy filled by a series of adoptions imposed b~' the dominant ruler of the time. It was perhaps by this mcans that the Kushitc 25th Dynasty demonstrated that it had secured religious as well as political authority in the region. Despitc having gained the Theban region,

R.

F-\ZZI~I,l:.gypt: DJ'I/lIS~)I.YX'I-\.\1

(Lcidt:n,

1988). K. Jt\NSI~,-\VINKEtX, tOas Ende des l'euen Reiches', zAs 119 (1992), 22-37. - , 'Ocr Bcginn der Libyschen I-Ierrschaft in Agypten', BN71 (1994), 78-97.

Thoeris see TAII'ERET

(Djehun-) God of "Titing and knowledge, "ho was depicted in the form of two animab: the baboon (Papio cYllocephalm; see (:)NOCEPllt\I.US) and the sacred IBIS (TliJ't'skioni (/ethiopiclIs), both of which arc elegamly portrayed on the exrcrior of the unusual l:arly Ptolemaic lomb-chapel of a priest of Thoth called ]'ETOSIRIS. In his baboon fi,rm Thoth WilS elosch- associatcd with the baboon-god, Hcdj-wer ('the great white one') of lhe Early Dynastic period (3100--2686 1lC.). By the end Hf thc Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC) he lI'as most frequently portraycd as an ibis-headed man I usually holding a scribal palctle and pen or a notched palm-leaf, engaged in some .let of recording or calculation. Utterance 359 of the PYRA \IIL> TEXTS describes ho,," the god:, gained the access to the netherworld b,- tf<l\Tlling wing of 'Thoth' across to th"e other side of the 'winding- waterway'. He "~1S worshi"pped, along with his linlcknown consort, Nchmeta,Yay, at the ancient city of Khmun (HERI\\OPOLIS \IAG'.\) in \ liddle Egypt, although there was also a temple Thoth at DAKI-lLt\ OASIS and at Tell Baqli"a JJ1 the Dclta. There arc few sun-j,"ing remains of the tcmplc at Khmun, but two colossal bab~~~ statues erectcd by Amenophis III (1390- 10 'HC) still dominate one arca of the site (seC illustration under 1IER.1\10POI.IS .\I.-\Gi'\A).

Thoth

';m

Thinis. Thinite period

The rem.tins of the ancient town ofThin is, capital of the 'rhinite region, have never been located, although it has been suggested that lhcy may have been situated in the ,"icinity of the modern ,"illage of Girga, sevcral kilometres to the north of the Predynasric and Early Dynastic ccmeteries of Ainoos. The Thinite region appears to ha,"e been

?f

288

THOTH

THUTMOSE

C. BorL.\..'\, l1wih. ihe Hermes ofEgYPi (Oxford,

1922). C. J. BI.n:KER, Haihor tllul Thot (Leiden, 1973). A. P. ZI\ IE, Hamopolis eile l10me de l'iMs: recherches sur Itl pr01:;II((' dll dial Thoi ('II Basse Egyp/c(Giro, 1975). M.. T DERCII<\IN-URTEL, 7,wi: ri/('s cgyptil'lIs 3 (Brussels, 1981). - , IThor:i Akhmim" HOII/lllages d F Dal/lIU1s. cd. A. GuillaOlont (Montpe11ier, 1986), 173-80. J. QUAEGEBEUR, 'Thor-I-lerll1cs, Ie dieu Ie plus grand!\ HOl1llllllge.\ rI F. D(/lIl1f{/~' (iVlonrpdlicr, 1986), 525-H V. \VESSETSK-Y, 'Tier, Bild, Gott: iiber die Affcn des Thot', .-Jkil'lI Jl'liillfhcl/ 1985111, ed. S. Sehoske (Hamburg, 1989), {2S-30.

tomh in the Valley of the Kings (K\ {2) containing an uninscribed sarcophagus, was once thought to be his burial place but this is now considered unlikely. His mortuary temple in western Thebes was eXGl\,ated by French 'lrchaeologists in 1926. Thlllllfose II! MeIlN/epr,.,.a (1479-142; BC) was the son ofThutmose II and a minor wife called AseL \;Yhen Thutmosc II died, his wife and half-sister l-iatshepsur acted as regent for the first few years of the reign ofThutmose [II. By year seven of his reign she herself h'ld assumed the full timlary of a pharaoh, thus

throne name (prenomen) SI'e "01'.11.

TITUL.<\ln

Thutmose (Tuthmosis)
Birth name, meaning 'Thoth is burn', held by tour 18th-Dynasty pharaohs.
Thllllllo."e I AI/k/lcperkl/rtl (I ;O+-H92 BC)

SqulIttillg/igure oI'he god 71/0/11 illlhejorm ofa 1",!Joon, inscribed mit" the mrlouthl'S ofA1llmholep III. 18/h Dynasty_ c./390 He. quarl::.ile, fl. 67011. (,,38)
Thorh \\"as closely associated with the 'EYE OF IU I) and \\"as regularly shown with it headdress consisting of a disc and crescent symbolizing the lunar phases. It is possible that the long curved beak of the ibis was idcnt"ificd both with the crescent 1110011 and "'ith the reed pen. An associ.lrion with the passing of" time is rcncctcd in those depictions that show him recording the

moon (the second

king's names on the leaves of the pcrsca trec. In vignettes of the 'judgement of the dead',
regularly included in Book of the Dead papyri in the NO\\" Kingdom (1;;0-1069 BC), Thoth was often shown both in his anthropomorphic, ibis-hc~dcd manifestation, recording the results of the weighing of the heart of the deceased, and, less frequenTly, as a baboon. Sometimes, in addition, he is shown as a baboon perched on top of the scales. It was probably beCi.wse of his role as guardian of the deceased in the netherworld, and as an intermedian' between the various deities, that he becam~ associated with the Greek god Hermes in the Ptolemaic period (332-30 Be), hence the renaming of the city of Khmun as Hermopolis lVIagna.

was the successor of ,\J\lENIlOTEP I and the third ruler of the 18[h Dynasty. Although his reign was comparati,'cly shorr, his achievements in rerms of foreign policy were significant. The inscriptions at Tombos, in the area of the third f'\ile cataract, and Kurgus, somh of the fourth camract, indic.le th'1t he had consolidated and expanded Egyptian control oYcr l'\ubia. Another stele (known only from later records) erected on the far side of the ri"cr Euphrares and commemorating a successful military incursion inro the rerritory of 1\11'1':\:'\1'\11, suggests thaL he was rhe first of the New Kingdom pharaohs to gain control of a substantial area of the Levant. The main motivation for Egyptian expansion il1[Q Nubia and \restern Asia lay in the desire to secure trade routes tor such raw marerials as OII.S, timber, COPPER, SILVER and SLA\ ES, ;,111 of which were more difficult to obmin within Egypr itself. Thurmose 1 is considered ro have been buried 1n Ky3S, the earliest romb in rhe \ \LI.EY OF TilE J...:.l"iGS ar Thebes, but his body was probably among those reinrerred in the cache of rOY;'ll mummies at UI':II{ I:I.-R<\HRI. Although a sarcophagus bearing his name was disco\'ered in I-:v38, a second one was also found in the tomb of his daughter I IKrSI rEPSl'T (1-.:\ 20). Thll/lIlIise I! Allk/lepemtr/I (1492-1479 I1C) was the son of Thull110se I by a lesser wife called IVlutnofret. In the tirsr ye.lr of his reign he erected a "ictory stele at Aswan, describing the crushing Of.l re"olt in Nubia, rhus signaling rhar he was cominuing his farher's aggressive foreign policy. A Yirtually undecorated

f!t'{U!./i'OIll (l gref!ll schist siatue pro!Jabh' representi1lg 1Imilllosl' III or Hatsheps1Ii. 18th DYIf({s~)I. c./-I.:)O He. II. -1.1.7 elll. (E/986)
delaying the full accession of her nephew for more rhan twenty years. He finally came to the throne in his own right in about 1-1-58 Be, presumably on the death of H~ltshepsur. It was probably not umil relatively laLc in his reign thar he began systematically to remove J-btshepsut's name from her monuments, replacing it with his own. In his foreign policy he emuhned rhe exploirs of Thutmose " re-establishing

289

_f-'H-'U-'I"'M-'-"O"'S-'E

---~1Jl:

Egyptian suzerainty over Syria- Palestine wiLh the B:\Tru: or: MEGlDDO in the first year after Hatshepsut's death, thus neutmlizing the military threat pnsed hy the Prince of Qadesh and his l\,litannian allies. This battle and his subsequent Lcyantine campaigns were recorded in the Holl of the Annols in the tempic of Amlin at K..\R:'\AK. As well <1S expanding the cull-centre of AnuJn, he also built temples at DeiI' c1-Bahri and j\IEDINET I-!,\BU as well as numerous sites in Nubia and the Delm. AI .\RMt\1\T and SPEOS \RTEI\IJDOS he completed his stepmother's constructions. His tomb in the VoileI' of the Kings ("dol) is decorated with scenes from the Amdllfl/ ('th~lr which is in the underworld') and his monuary templc on the Thehan \\'est bank has sunived, although in poor condition. His mummy was one of those discO\"ered in the Deir el-Bahri cache. TllI/llIIOSe /I J11ellkhepel'llrll (1400-1390 uc) was the son of Amenhotcp II, the father of Amenhotcp III ;Inc! the grandfather of M;:I-IE'IATEl\. The so-called Dream Stele at Giz;I describes how he was ofTered the throne of Egypt in return for removing the sand from the Great Sphinx. Since he does not seem to have been the actual heir 1O the throne, it is possible that this inscription formed part of the legilimizing of his accession. In tcrms of foreign policy his reign marked a period of reconciliation with I\litanni, including a 'diplomatic marriage' to the daughlCr of Artatama I, the !\limnnion ruler. He also icCt 0 stele at the ishll1d of KO!1osso, ncar Asw~lI1, commcmonlting :m expedition to quell rebellion in Nubia. Both his Theban funerary temple and his tomb (1-:.\43 in the Valley of the Kings) have survived, and his mummy was among those recovered from the tomb of Amenhotep 11 in 1898. I-I. E. \VI'-UX:K, 'Notes on the reburial of 11Ilhmosis I',JEA 15 (1929), 56-68. \r F. EDGERTOX, Thc TII/llmnsitl s/t(tl'ssiOIl (Chicogo, 1933).
D. B.
REDroRD, lIis/Qry lim! dm11lfJ!flgy f}f/h~'

ond workshop, buildings P.47.1-3 in lhe south suburb of EL--\i\I \R1'\,\, were discoyered by Ludwig Borchordt in December 1912. Most of the identifications of occupants of houses at Amaroa hilve been made on the basis of inscribed door lintels or jambs, but Thutmose's house was ascribed to him through the excavation of a fr;lgmcnt of an ivory horse-blinker from it domes.tic rubbish pit. A storeroom or Thutmosc's atelier (1'.47.2: room ]9) was found to cont.lin numerous artist's 'triill pieccs', as well as m~1I1Y unfinished statucs and heads, including those of the king, queen and princesses. 'rhere were also a number of plaster heads probably representing various members of the Amarna-period royal family, which were initially interpreted as dcath-m.lsks but are nO\\' usually assumed to h~l\'e been the 'm~lster images' from which sculptures in stone may have been copied. The most spectacular find was thc brightly painted limestone bust of 1\EFERTITI, the principal wife or Akhenaten (now in the collection or rhe Agyptischcs lViuscu11l, Berlin). L BORCHARDT, PormiIS ria K()'l1igiu Noji-t'/-ele (Leipzig, 1923).

L. BORCHARDT :lnd H. RfCKE, Die 11!()!lIlhiiust!T m Tell e1-AlIIlInU/ (Berlin, 1980), 9fr-7. R. KRAUSS, 'Der BildhaucrThutmose in Amarna',.7llhrbm:h da PreJlssisrher KJI!Jllr"~SltZ 20 (1983),119-32. C. .ALDRED, AI.'!wllItcn King ofEgyp/ (London, 1988),59.

time
and

see

Ci\I.END"R; CIIKONOLOG); CLEl'SYIllt \

1-115'1'010' AND I IISTORJOGRAPIIY

titulary sec ROY,IL TITULARY

Tiy (Ti)'e) (c.1410-1340 BC)
Principol wife of the bte 18th-Dynasty ruler UIE,,1I0TU' III (1390-1352 Be). Her fother lI'as " chariot officer (scc YUYf\ '\'10 TL.'"YU) and her brother, Anen, rose to the position of Second Prophet of A\IL:'. She seems to have e\cncd considerable influence both on her husbond and on her son AKIIENATEN (1352-1336 Be).

The lips vIQ//1.'e1/ TZ)l. 18/1t DYllm~)I. c. 1380 /1(',

ydlom jaSjJl!l;
11.

12.60/1.

(,IJHTRO/,OU7: IS
nIRK."E.";swn~

tIlUSlhlI, .vEil }Ol?"', /:/)/U1WS.

/926. 26.7./396)

High/t'cu/h PJ"UlJ/Y ofEx,J'p/: J~T('1I J/Ilt1i~".~ (Toronto, 1967). A. TCUfOI'F, T!IlI/1IlfJsiJ III (.\ lunich. 198-1-). B..\1. 13R) \:\, Tht' r/'l~~1f ofT!flIlmost! w(Baltimore and London, 1(1) 1). :'-J. GRI\I.\J.,.'J his/ol]1 off/llcit'll/ L~!.!..}'p/ (Oxford, 1992),207-21.

Thutmose (Djehutymosc, Tuthmosis)

(r.I.HOBC) One of the principal sculptors of the reign of .\I..:IIE'\TE' (1352-1336 Be), whose titles describe him as 'king's f;wourire and master of works, the sculptor Thutmose'. His house

290

TlY

TOMBS

After the dcmh of Amenhotcp IU, for instance, the correspondence from Tushratta, the ruler of Ml'li\~l\I, was addressed directly [Q Tiy. She waS regularly being ponrayed alongside her husband in sculptures, and her titles were listed on onc of il series of commcrnoratiyc SCAR.>\BS isslled by the king. On the accession to the throne of her SOil. Akhcnarcn, the centre of power transferred from Thebes to a new capital city at EL'\,\IARK\. A relief in the rock-cut tomb of Huya at el-Amaroa shows that Tiy ,-isited

C. AI.DRI:D, _H'lwwfell, King o/.EgYPI (London,

1988),146-52,219-21. G. ROlll'\S, rVOIIIClf ill aI/dent Eg.l'jJl (London, 1993),21-.1.;.

The Tori Irc(I.'\/lre. dis((n;t!I"cd k)' Frall(.ois Bi.\".Iol7 de

/(/ Roque illlhl! leJl/p/e oI!l1ollllf i11 /936, is Olll' 0/ the I(/rgesl fi/fds (~rsilverji'ol1l a/fcienl 1.:.'gYPI. Illl! DYl/flSI)', c./900 ue. L. ofbo.\" -1-5 OIl. (LOU/'R'" djI28-1.l318, Pf-/OTOGR.II'Il: .7ti 1\-I,Ve lJOln7)
concerning contacts with Greece and the Ncar East during the lVliddle Kingdom is a valuable indication of trade contacts at the time. From the I\ew Kingdom haye survived the remains of <l R-\R!..: shrine erccted byThutmose 1lI (1+79-142.1 BC) for Montu, the decoration of \\'hich includes rcstoration work undertaken by other kings of lhe 18th, 19th and 20th D,nasties. Many of the blocks of Thutmose m's temple were later re-used in the construction of the DeiI' Anba Ibshay church to the elst of the site. In front of the site of the temple of Senusret I, Ptolemy, Itl (170-116 BC) built a new tcmple and sacred lake, and a !..:JOSh. was added in the Roman period. ).: BISSO, DE 1,.-\ ROQLE, 'Lc [rcsor dc'Lbd', G/E 12 (1937), 20-6. J. r.\:'\DIER, 'A propos d'un depot de prO\'cnancc asiatiquc trou\'c;l Tod', Syria 18 (1937), 17.f--82. E Blsso;o.J UE 1.,\ ROQLE, G. COXTE:XEAC and F 0 I \I'OL:TIIII~R, Lelrisor de Tod (C1iro, 195J). C. DESRC)CIIE..,;-l\"OBI.ECOCRT and J. VERCnUYI'EI{, U" siedl! dl'joJlilll'sj1-a,,(aises ('11 Egypt 1880-1980 (Paris, 1981), 1.17-63.

tjet see TYET

Tod (:mc. Djerry, Tuphium)

Site on rhe east bank of the ~ile, south of .\R.\I.\:'\T, which dates from at least the Old Kingdom until the Islamic period. A muclbrick chapel \ras constructed there as early as the Sth Dynasty (2494-2345 BC), but the site gained in importance in the ~liddle Kingdom (20.1.1-16.10 BC), when temple construction for the local god \!O;-'TL was undertaken hI .\lE1'TLIIOTI'I' 1I (20.1.1-2004 BC), 1\!emuhotep tll (2004-1992 BC) and SFSCSRET t (196.1-1920 BC). Allhough these structures arc now almost entirely destroyed, a number of imprcssiye fragments of relicf h'1\'c sun ivcd, including part of a wall decorated on hoth sides \\-ith depicl"ions of the goddess Tjancncl1l and the god .!\lontu, dating to the reign of J\ lcntuhorep III (now in the Louvre). In February 1936 the French 'lrchaeologist Fran<;ois Bisson cle 101 Roque discoyered the socalled "lod treasure' underneath the !\Iliddle f..:.ingdom temple. The treasure comprised SIlXER vcssels (which may have been made in Crete, or perhaps somewhere in Cremninfluenced western Asia), a silver lion, bpis lazuli cylinder seals from LVlesopotamia, and gold ingots" These were found in four bronze chests bearing the cartouchc of Amenemhat JI (1922-1878 BC) of the 12th Dmasty. ?'Jot only W.1S this discovery one of the richest finds of silrer in Egypt, but the c\-idcnce it provides

Creell S/t.'tltill' head Qf1i)lJi"o1llIhe le11lple of Hal/lOr aJ the lurquoi.w:-lIlillillg sile ofSerabit elK/ull/im. Siulli. /81h !J.l"lllJO'. c.lllO BC, 1-1.7.2011. (CI/ROJf382.'7)
Akhenarcn at the new city in the t\yelfth year of his reign, and shc may c,-cn hayc had her own rcsidence thcre. She was perhaps buricd with her son in the royal tomb at Amarna, but this is by no mc.lI1s certain. It is likely, at any rate, that her body was c"cntually taken ro Thebes. Some of her funcrary equipment was found in 1OI11b KrSS in the ULLEY OF TilE KL'\iGS, although the body associated with thesc objects is bclic\'cu to bc that of Smcnkhbra, the shorr-lived coregcnt of Akhenaren. A body of a royal woman discm-ered among the cache of royal mummies in the tomb of Amcnhorcp II (Kr35) is thought to be that of Tiy, although this identification has not been universally accepted. A lock of her hair waS also f(Hmd in a miniature coffin in the tomb of Tl;T\'\iJ.\:IIJ\hlU.\I ("-\'62). A. ROWE, 'Lnscriptions on the model coffin cont3ining the lock of hair ofQ!.lecn Tiy', ASAE 40(1941),627.

tombs
[n the strictest sense of the word the ancient Egyptian tomb underwent very little development over the course of the six millennia from lhe beginning of the Predynastic period to the end of the Roman period (c.5S00 ItC-'11) 395). In essence thc tomb itself was almost always subterranean, usually comprising a simple pit, 291

TOMBS

TO~

court hall passage offering chamber lomb chapel underground chamber

PIau (Iml cross-set/ion ofll prirnll' lomb of/ht' 18,h Dynast)' lI/ Thebes. The lomb belonged /0 Sobekhotcp mlwst' lije til rour' '~f raortlcd ill SCl'JIeJ ;1/ his l(Jmb~dlllpel. mlll"t:!J lPas 10m/cd abore gruund. In/he 19th !J.l"Il1SZl'. tomb chapels mere
decorated with /II11CfalY lexts. 7l1l'subterrauea/l

quality buiJding stone (as at GIZA and S,\~.t\R\) or the suitability of the desert cliff, for Ihe exca,-ation and decoration of ruck-cut cham_ bers (as ,tt ASYUT, BEN I IIASAN .md \IEIR). Elctors such as these would have dctt:rmincd whether private funerary chapels were rockcut or built. In addition, the chronological changes in architectural sl'yle within particular necropolises, such as S",QQ;\R.-\ or '1lIEBE.~. "ere generally the result of dynastic or religious change, as welJ as an increasing rc,lction to the threat of tomb-robbety. Indeed, the prohlem of security seems to have been one of the main factors that led to the move away from the highly visible pyramid complexes of tht Old and .Middle Kingdom to the hidden corridors of the VALLEY OF THE "I~GS at Thebes in the New Kingdom. See also FAL~E DOOR; FL''\I~R''RY BEI.lLFS;
:\1L'\I\IIFICYrlOS; \'t\LLEY OF TilE QCEl:',\S.

pal'/s oIthe lomb mul' !arge(J' III/decorated (lilt! mere h1od~ed c.rn:plfor burials. (DR,IIII' /J)
CIIRIST/.\/;, a.IIlR-/TT)

a rock-cut room or a chamber of mud-brick or stone, within which the body was placed, usually accompanied by funerary equipment of ,-ariolls kinds. The pit style of burial was particularly persistent, being used not only by most of the Predynastic population but als() by poorer people throughout Egyptian history. The full study of the develoJlment of the Egyptian tomb is therefore principally concerned with the evolution of the superstructure, which was im'ariably the nrchitccrural form of the 'offering chapel' rather than the burial chamber itself Since the purpose of Ihe funerary monument \\"as to ensure the continued sun-ivai of the deceased, the attention of the funerary architects and artists naturally focllsed nof so much on the body itself but on the chapel, which was the interface between the dead and the living, and the means by which the K..:\ Cspiritual essence') and the 13.\ ('potency') of the individual could communicmc with the world olltside. Although there were obvious diflercnces in scale and elaboralion between the I'YRA \lID complexes of the Old Kingdom and the simplest .\I:\ST\Bi\ tombs of some of the more lowly officials of the time, all of these buildings were essent;ally performing thc same function, proyiding a ychicle for the making of offcrings to rJle deceased_ From the SERD.\BS containing statuary of the deceased to the STEI..J\E bearing inscriptions n'lllling and describing the individual, and listing the required offerings for

the culr, the basic components of the funerary chapel and mortuary temple were very similar. There were certain subtle architectural and artistic means by which royal {(Jmbs could be distinguished from those of their courtiers, and equally there were ways in which the design and iconography of the LOmb could be used to indicate rJle prerogaci,cs and pri,"ileges held by certain members of the non-royal Clite and not by others. However, some of the major differences in the outward appearance of tombs were the result of simple geological and geographical yariations, such as the availability of good

G. A. REISNER, The dei'e1opmeul ofthe EgYPll1l11 t01/1b t!OI1JU to IIIC accession ofCheops (C1mbrit.Igc, MA, 1936). A.]. SI'E~C:ER, Deolh ill (f/l(;ielll1.:!{},pl (Harmondsworth) 19HZ). \\T. KAISER, 'Zu Entwicklung und Vorformcn Jcr friih7.cirlichen Griiber mit reich geglicdcrt Oberbaufassade', A1.tflullges Camul Eddill ,vIl/killllr' (Cairo, 1985),25-38. K. 0 IERPIOr\, JltltlSlabas et I{)/pogees d~-/Ilciell Empire: Ie problcuu! de la da/(I/ioll (Brussels.. 1(89). E. HOR"ul'G, The Valley oflhe Kings: hnri::'IJIIIJI etemily (New York, 1990). 1. E. S. EDWARDS, nil! pyramids oI1.:ltYP1, 5lh cd. (Harmondsworth, 1993).

lli" __

u..~:_-~_-_-_-~J~.~~'ITuIIl""IIu>-!C-=--=--=--=--=---J

~
~
0

~I~O~
DO 0 0 00

Plal/ alld (fOss-setlion ~rJlIl: royal lomb o!SelY J, ill Ihe T1t1ley of/hl' Kil/gs (I( Thebes. The lomb o.rSe~l/1 includes S0111l' oIlhejil1cst detOmli()1/ iu Ihe M,lIq' of Ihe Kiugs, uud mas Ihejinllo be melllmo1Pl1 il1 Brilain, through Ihe efforts o/its discorerer, CiOi;m/11i Be/::.oni. (DR.illX In CIIRIST1\F. JlARR ,n~

292

TOWNS

TOYS

towns
Although Egypt was once described as ;l 'civilization without cities', the archaeological c\-idcncc ro the contrary has been steadily growing over the last hundred years, as more

settlement sites ha\'c been surveyed and excavated. By the 19705, with the inauguration of

new programmes of research at such sites as

EL-A!\IJ\R'\I"t, EU:I'II . \NTL~E and TEI.L EI..-I),\II'1\, 'settlement archaeology' can be said to have arrived as a subdiscipline within Egyptology. These long-term cxc.w.ltiolls ha,"c played a crucial role in demonstrating the ways in which the dc,'elopmcnt of Egyptian towns was innucnccd both by gcographic~.11 loc~ltion and by the particular politic.11 and social conditions in which they were founded. It has been suggested, for insmncc, that the orthogonal grid-plan of most surviving Old and i\liddle Kingdom scttlements indicates a high degree of state control and bureaucn.tc~~ as in the case of IGhun (sec EI.-I.'''L'-). The phenomcnon of urban life in EgypL is currenLly best sLudied in terms of its New Kingdom phase, whcn the expansion of the Egyptian empire was reflected in the cosmo-

models oftnJO Egyptian hOllses. Third l111erllletlia/e Period, limes/om:, I-1. 2/ elll Il//{l 1-1 ClII. 0' /2-162,27526)
B. J. KE:-'ll', 'The early development of towns in Egypl',AlllifJllilJ' 51 (1977), 185-200. nL I3l1~T:\~, 'Urban archaeology and the "rown problem" in ancient Egypt', Egyp/ology tllltl/he social scieuces, ed.I-.:.. \Vceks (C1iro, 1979),95-1+4.

'\UOH~ Sduma/ic

E.
/.l'picalltollSe ill/he /1}orJ.'meu'.~ viI/age a/ Deir el-lVledil/tf. Similar !Jouses (fre Imo/1}nfro1l1/lu' TPorkmen's ril/age a/ Amari/{{. 20/1I DYllas/y, ell50 IIC
politan nature of its major cities. The site of c1-Amarna, on the cast h;mk of the Nile in M:iddle Egypt, midway between the modern towns of J\ilinya and Asyut, is the location of the only virtually complcte city to have survived ti-olll an<.:ienl Egypt. Small patches of settlement have survi\-ed from the contemporary cities of Nlemphis and Thebes, which, in their time, would have been considerably larger, but cI-Amarna is the only Egyptian site at which a relatively completc and representative range of official :md residcntial buildings have been excavated. There arc at least tcn other substantial excayated townsites dating principally to the ?'Jew Kingdom (c. 1550-1069 Br.): DEU' EL-IHLLlS, BUIir-/>., SESEBI, SOLf':B, A.\I>\R1\ \\lest, DEIK EL-,\IEDI1\A, ~'ALK.t\.TA, GLJROB, MEl\'1PI liS (Kom c1-Rabia)
Cross-.~ec/iOl1 ofa

UI'IIILI., /:.:(~.J'Ptiall/ollmstllld (ilies

(prillces

and Pir<lmessc (Q1\1\TIR and TELL EL-IJ.\B';\). A few smaller areas of New Kingdom scttlement have also becn excavated at other sites, such as ,\In'DOS! .\IEIJI'\'ET [IABU, "': ..\ K:-.\" and IIER,\10POI.IS _\lAG'\"\ (ci-Ashmullcin). Substantial Late Period settlements have been excayared at T\'\IS, _'\JAUI'K'\T1S and Hcrmopolis J\!lagna. "1"'he textual and archaeological evidence suggest that, although there wcre c"iclently cities in the Ncw Kingdom with a strong agricultural economic raisO/l d'e/re (such as the nome capimls, Ninsu and Hardai, which .ue known from textual refcrences rather th~m cxc;wation), many New Kingdom towns "-ere focused on religious or administrative buildings. As David O'Connor has pointed out, 'the definition of Egypt as '(ci"iliz<uion without citics" c;m only be acccpted if "city" is understood in a most narrow and specialized sense; a more broadly defined type (or lypes) of urbanism was certainly characteristic of h.istoric Egypt'.

Risborough, 1988).

B.J. KEMI',AllciclI/ 1:':1)1/1/: tllla/ollq' vIa

civili::,atiol/ (London, 1989).

toys
T'he identification ofttoys' or playthings in the archaeological rccord is fraught with probIcms. The Egyptians' frequent lise of models, statuettes and figurines, both in religious cults and in the practice of MAGIC, means that many ritual artefacts can appear disconcert-ingly similar to dolls or puppets to the modern eye. A number of unfired (or lightl\' fired) cia\' figures of humans and animals h3"c sun-iYcd in urban contexts, particularly from the town of Kahun (sec EL-LAIlL/>.), dating to the Middle Kingdom (2055~1650 Ilc), and may therefore be toys. The balls of string or rag and the wooden tops c.'xcavatcd at settlement sites, and sometimes also in priy~1te tombs, are almost certainly ph:tythings. A few relatively elaborate toys have survived, includi.ng human figures, 293

TRADE

TRAQ.I;:

rattles and models of animals (one example, in the collection of the British i\1useum, being a crocodile with a moving jaw). As widl some of the clay figures from Kahun, it" is possible that some of these dolls had ritual functions. It is also possible that the two purposes may sometimes ha\'c been combined, in that Some 'dolls' may have been intended both as girls' toys and as the amulctic means {Q fertility in later life. T KE'\o:\L1 .. 'Games', Egypl'sgQldclI age, cd. E. BrO\-arski, S. K. Doll and R_ E. Freed (Bosron, 1982),263-72. ~ l. STEAD, E~".J'Plillll !ije (London, 1986).63.

Selecli(}III~//(nIS: lJ/odeljeIi11l'.f(!!,urc /pi/II artimlnted jam. ill/aid eye.~ lIud bronze Icellt, prn!JtlN)' dntil1g /0 ,he Nem Kingdom: plliu/cd liucn fllld fad ball,

ROil/flU period:jilil'1w! spinning lop/hull/hI.' Fayum.

ROlI/tItI period_

rf 1/567/. J6709. H920)

trade
Ancient Egypt did not ha,"c a monetary economy until the end or the Late Period (747-332 Hr.), and indeed the Egyptians of the Pharaonic period had no word or concept corresponding to the modern category of 'economy'. The economic aspects of their liycs were embedded in the social system as a \yhole, and trading primarily lOok a form akin to bartering. The system, howc,"er, W.15 ,cry sophisticated, and, at least as early as the New Kingdom (1550-1069 HC), it was relilted to a definite scale of ,"aluc hased on weights of metal (see ,\IEASURL\IENT). Copper was lhc main standard for small transacrions, and silver and gold wcre used for those of higher ,"alue. Fragments of the melals rhcmsclycs were sometimes used in transactions, but not in such a precise way as to consri[Ute coinageo 1\ lost of the evidence for trade among ordi-

nary Egyptians of the New Kingdom comes from rhe workmen's community at DEIR 1".1.,\IEDI'H. It seems that each given commodity had a value thilt could be expressed in terms of numbers of copper rlehm. Many transactions therefore seem to have taken the form of a calculation of the yalue of lhe n\'O sets of goods that were being exchanged, in order to ascertain that e.lch was wort~ the same amollnt of deben, Some Egyptologists consider that these prices were fairly stable and resulted from tradiLional usage, whereas others have ilrgued that the prices were fixed much more fluidly through the supply and demand of the market. \Vhether ilncient economics should be subject to 'fi:>rmalist' (markct-OJ'icntcd) or 'subsmnti,'ist' (nonmarket) an'.llysis is a matter of some COl'Hroversy in anthropology, particularly where ancient states are concerned, and in Egypt a case can be made for either. Barry Kemp has been able to show th:.tr the process of exchange was .111 accepted pan of social relations, :lI1d so helps to bring the two schools of thought closer together. Records of baTtering transactions necessarily shm\" the exchange of a number of itcms of rchni"ely low ,oalue in order lO buy something of a higher ,alue. Clearly this system would work only in a community in which people werc prepared to be Ocxible about what they took in exchange, otherwise an enormous chain of smaller exchanges would have been necessary in order lO obtain goods purely fe)1' the purpose of a transaction, and the whole system would have become impractical. The vendor usually seems to hiwc tried to ensure that some of the goods obtained in exchange could, if neccssary, be bartered again in the future. 1\ lany of the sun'iving records of transactions at DeiI' el-.\ledina list a bed (,'alued at 20-25 deben) .uuong the iLems traded; it is unlikcly that households would actually ha,'c wished to receive ilnd store numerous beds, therefore it is usually assumed that the hed was included in the record of the transaction simply as surcty, to facilitate the exchange. In this way, Egyptian economic acti,'ity can be secn to he the material expression of social relations. The economist Karl Polanyi and the anthropologist !\ larshall Sahlins have shO\,n thaL in many societies commodities may hiwe one price for those within the community and another for outsiders; il is possible that slich a system operated in Pharaonic Egypt. }-<oreign trade probably also operated mainly through barrer. The cxpedition to the African country of PLi.:'\T, which is recorded in the l11ort"'11\- temple of ]-hllshepsut (1473-1458 BC) at DeiI' cl-Bahri, seems to depict the oper-

ation of'silent trade" whereby each of the parties gradually laid out more or fewer items until both felt satisfied with their return On the deal. This system is particularly likely to hil\"e been used when dealing with rehnivcly unsophisticated foreigners, who would havc had no knowledge of the priees of objects or goods within Egypt. Trade with dereloped states in the ..\lcditernmean and rhe Near East seems to h~l\'c taken a different form. Here goods of high value were regularly exchanged by Wil~ of diplomatic gifts. "fhe A;\IAR.i'" lEITERS contain lists of goods sent by foreign rulers to Egypt, <lnd requests by them for gifts such as gold st.ltucs. The luxury goods acquired in this Wil, could often be given to loyal couniers a~ rewards, sen'ing as marks of St.1tus conferred by the king. ~ lany tomb-paintings in the New Kingdum depict rhe arri,'al of trade goods, but thc~ often ponray them ilS if they were gifts given as tribute. In practice traders from Cretc, and elsewhere in the Greek world, visited Egypt to exchange goods, ilnd were no doubt Ihemselves visited by Egyptian traders (or ilt least traders bearing Eg~1)ti<ln goods such ilS those found on the Bronze Age shipwrecks at C1pe Gelidonya and Ulu 8U1un). Egyptian trauers themsclycs are not well ~lttested, although the term SI111'O' apears to be used to refer to mt=rchants. There arc also references to Lhe sending of royal trading missions throughout (he Pharaonic period; these were usually organized by officials serving as 'expedition leaders', from Harkhuf, who travelled to Africa in the time of Pep' " (2278-2184 BC), to the semi-fictional character \renamun, \\ho '\as supposed to ha\'e been sent to the Syrian port of "\"BLOS in the time of IIERIHOR (c.1070 BC). \Vhen the ,,orel shmJy was used to identi~ traders in the New Kingdom, they were always state employees. Ne\'errhelcss, there seems to have been a level of trade that was intermediate between the international commerce of the highest courtly officials and tbe local bartering of Lhe workmen. This is demonstrated hy numerous finds of ~ lycenac.m pottery ill sites such as EI.-\ \1 \R'\.\, where its occurrence olllside purely royaln)lltexts perhaps indicates that it arrived through .\'lyccnaean merchants or Egyptian middlemen. At ilny rate l t.here may well ha\'(' been unofficial exchanges between Egyptians and members of the retinues of visiting foreign pOtentiltcs, just as the anthropolog-ist Bronislaw l\lalinowski recorded among the peoples of the Pacific_ In the Late Period (747-332 Be) forei~n trade was dominated by GREEKS, and Egypthtn

294

TRADE

TRIAD

rulers controlled them by confining tJ'CI11 to tfading cities such as :"JAUKRATIS. During the 29th Dynasty the first coinage was introduced into Egypt, which was to lead [0 a full moncrary economy in the Ptolemaic period, rhus effectively beginning the process of integrating the Kile ,alley into the early monetary economy of the ;'vlediterrancan world.
E. i\,L-\I.INo\YSK1, Argol/(flllS (~rll/(! fVl'~/t:ru P{/cdic (London, 1922). K. POI. \,,\ I, 'The Cl:onomy as instituted process" Trade lind marh'l illlhe early empires, ed. K. Polanyi, C. Arensberg and 11. Pe-J.rson (Glencoe, IT., 1957). D. .\1. DI:\o,. 'The tn1l1splanr:nion of Punt incense trees in Egypr',.7E.155 (1969), 55-65. !VI. S,\IILlNS, Slolle age afJI/OIll;CS (London, 197~). J. J.}\ 'SSI~:-':, COlllmodiZJI prin:sFolIJ the RUI1Il!s.I'id period (Lcidcl1, 1975). 1\1. G. It\SCIIKE, 'Pap~ rologi<.:al c\"idcnce for Ptolemaic and Roman trade with India" Proceedillgs oltlll' .\11 lutenUltiol1/1/ COllgreH f~r Papyr%gists (London, 1975),2+ 1-6. S. AU.. \~\l, "Vic del' Altiigypter in del' Zeit des Neucn Rciches bufte und vcrbufrc" Dm' ,.j/ler11l1ll27 (1981), 233--40. ]. P.illRO, 'Lc role de I'Egyptc dans les relations commcrciales d'Oricnr ct d'Occidcnt au premier miUenaire',AS_JE 71 (1987), 2lJ-22. B. J. KF..\lI',_.Jflciefll (l;yPl: (I'f(llOlI~J' ala civili::;alioll (London, 1989),231--60.

trees
Among the more common species of tree in Egypt were the acacia, tamarisk, chite palm, clom palm and SYC~lmore. Perhaps because of the companuivc rarity of trees, many of them de\-elopcd associations both with specific deiries and ,,irh rhe afterlife. The goddess II.\THOR, for instancc, was sometimes described as 'lady or the sycamore" ;1Ild this tree was also linked with other goddesses. including ISIS and l'L:T. Chapter 109 of the Book of the Dead describes two 'syco1mores of turquoise' growing at the point on the eastern horizon wherc the sun-god rises each morning, It W~lS the sycamore tree that was often depicted in funerary decoration as a scmianthropomorphic figure, often with arms and hands offering rood or sacred watcr to the deceased. Perhaps the most unusual version of the sacred sycamore is in the burial chamber of Thurmose III (1479-1425 BC), ,,here the rreegoddess - probably in this instJJ1cc Isis - is shown suckling rhe king with .1 breast emerging from the branches, The ished lree was connected with rhe sungod :md, like the sycamore, had connections with the horizon, Relief~ sometimes depict TIIOTII and SESILrr, the two deities associated wirh \\Titing, inscribing the lel\-eS of either the isht'd or persea tree (lHilllllsnps /aflr~I(Jlill) with the RO\':\l. TITUlhA.RY and the number of years in

Shabti-box bt'l/ring paimed decoratiou depicting lhe priesless J rCl1/1tJllel~l'/I'(!(('iviJlg

mtfterji'olll tf trtf/!g()dde.~s.

/9th 1~)'II11st.J'. c. /290 Be. J1 Jond. from Thebes, H. of/J()x II cm.

(l'I~/_'.f9)

the pharaoh's reign. The link between trees and the duration of kings' reigns was rciter::Ited in the use of::I date~palm branch as the hieroglyph signif~'ing year (n:llpet), which is often shown in association with the god of eternity, HEI J. \Vhen co\-ered in notches indicotting the passing of time, the palm branch formed an important clement of scenes depicting the SED FESTlr!\!.. There are only a few suniving depictions of the felling of trees, the e~Irlicst of which is probably rhe relief in rhe 4th-Dynasty tomb of Personet at GiZ.l, showing one man in the act of chopping at ;1 tfunk, while others hack off the branches, According to the '.\LEIL\10 STO~E (:1 5th-Dynasty king list) the .tthDyn~sty ruler Sneferu (2611-2589 Be) was already importing large quantities of coniferous timber from nYBLOS. Li\'e species were sometimes also brought back from tnlding missions, according to the painted scenes of the expedition to the African kingdom of I'L:"T, 111 the temple of J-Iatshepsul (147]-1458 BC) ar Deir el-Bahri, which show Egyptians carrying off small lrees in cerollnic pots, as well as trimming branches from ebollY logs in preparation for their transport~1 (ion b.lck to Egypl. ~L L. l3ullL <The goddesses of th~ Egyptian tree eult',JNES 6 (1947), 80-97. I. \V I\LLERT, Die Polmell ill a/fell Agypll!//: ei/le Vl/lenllclwllg ilirer praktist!If:II, '~)'lIIbo/isdlCll IIllrl re/igiiiseJl Bedeutllllg (Berlin, 1962), R. ~IOl,~nll, 'Die uraltc Sykomore und andere Erscheinungcn der Hathor', z.-ls 92 (1965), 40-7. f, G.L\IER-'V\LLERT, 'Baum, heiliger', Lexil'oll tier >igYPl%gie I, ed, \;V. Heick, E, Otto and W. Westendorf (Wicsbaden, 1975), (,55-60. E. r-IER\ISE.'-, LdJj.'l/s!J(/1I111.~J'l1/b()/ik ill/ a/leu Agyptell: ciue Ulltt'rSUdffwg(Cologne, 1981). I\. R\L \I, ./rlm's et lIr!lIIS!i'J de I'gypte (/1/Cit'llIIt.' (Lou\ain.1988). R. H. \\'ILI(IXSO:\, RelUlillg Egyptiall art (London, 1992), 116-19.
J

triad
Term used to describe a group of three gods, usuaUy consisting of a di\-ine family of rather, mother and child worshipped ~1t particular cult centres. The triad was often a com'enient mcans or linking together three rormcrly independent gods of an area. and scems to have been primarily ~ rheological development of the Ncw Kingdom. The process of torming a triad prm-ided 01 frame of referencc lor each of the deities, placing them into a detailed mythological context. Among the most important triads were _\.\IL ", \IUT and "-110:"5 at Thebes. PTAll, SEKH~IET and i'\EFERTE~1 ::It

295

TUNA EL-GEI3EL

TURI

ROYAL CA:-JON

funerary houses and nine limestone tomb chapels, many of Ptolemaic and Roman date. The names of some of the owners of these 'funerarY houses' and tomb chapels are known indudin-g Isadora (c.. \1) 150), a ,yoman "'ho i~ said to have drowned in the Nile and subsequently became the object of a popular cult. The tomb chapel of a chief priest of 1'hOlh called I'ETOSIRI$ (-JOO lie) is the most important private tomb at the site, principally bCCIUSl' its dccoration consists of an unusual combination of Egyptian and Hellenistic styles. S. G'\UIL\, E. DRIOTOi\, P. PEIWRIZET and \,,~ G. \V".UDELL, Rapporl sur h'sjouilles d'HerJl/opo!i5 Olll'.'t (C.iro, I ~{I). S. G.\BR.\, Che::.les demiers (I(lort!fcurs dlf Trimigiste: III necropoli' d'//ermopQlis-701I1Jt1 rJCl'be/(C1iro, 1~71). J. BOEss:--:Ech:.A. \0"1 DER DRIL'iU! and D. KE.o.;SLER, TUlia I: Die Tierga/erien (Hildeshcim, 1~87). D. ~ESSLER, Die heiligen Tiere lIlu/ der Kiim:!! (Wieshadell, 198~).

Memphis, the Bchdctitc J [onus (sec

DISC), 11:\'1'1 [Ol{

WINGED

and Hafsomr.us (Horus the

child) at Edfll, imd KI-I::'\lUI\l, S.\TET and ANUKET (daughter or second consort) aL Elephantine. The best-known triad is thai of OSIRIS, isis and ]-Torus, but this grouping was not associated with any specific cult-centre, Osiris being worshipped at Abydos, ISIS at Philae and Horus at Edfll. 'fhe term is also occasionally used to refer to it 'group statue' consisting of three figures, as in the case of the statues from the -I-thDynasty v.1l1c~r temple of j\IF.~" -\URA (2532-2503 Be) at Giza. These fiyc 'triads' (now in the.; collections of the Egyptian 4i\1uscum, Cairo and the lVluSCUJ11 of Fine Arts, 130sl'on) each show the king in the company of the goddess I-fathor and a female personificalion of one of the nomes (provinces) of Egypt in which IlaLhor was particularly venerated. In private smruary, such a sculpwral triad would usualJy consist of a man and two of his dependants, as in the case of the painted limestone statue of the 5th-Dynasty official !\lcrL'Sankh and two of his daughters (now in the Egyptian iVluseum, Cairo). Triads, howe,'er, arc far less common than OY/\DS (pair-statues). E. HOR:"iUNG, COllapliol/S ofgod il/ audent EgYPI: IIIC QII,' and the II/I/Iq', trans. J Baines (London, 1983).

nU' IOlllb d/(/pel ~rp{()le1/lais al TUlia d-Cebel is (Jlle ~/a 1Il/lIIba oICmt'Co-Rowalllolll!J dwpels al 111l'sile. !fwrlt'd dO.Ie 10 ,ht' .wacd auimal Ctlla((J1I1bs. (p. '/: :\ICIIOLS'O\)
~liddle Egypt. The temple, now much dam,1ged, is connected with the subtcrrancan galleries, which date from at lcast ,1S early as Lhc 19th Dynasty until Prolemaic times (f.1295100 Be). Close to the animal catacombs is a boundary stele of .n,] IEX'\TE~, labelled Stele t\ by rlindcrs Petrie, marking the incorporation of this agricultural territory within the bounds of his ncw capital on the C..1st bank, at 1-:1./1l\lf\R1'\!\ (sec also STELE). One catacomb at Tuna el-Gebel is devoted primarily to the ritual storage of mummified votive IB[SES, although many of the scaled pottery jars also contain falcons and olher birds. i\1ummified baboons, lhe other creatures sacred to Thorh, were also buried in the galleries, in some cases accompanied by the bodies of the priests who had tended them in life. A nuicty of other animals, including crocodiles, arc also represented in smallcr numbers. The galleries, and other parts of the site, were partly CXC;l\,..Hcd by Egyptian Egyptologist Sami Gabra in the inter-war perioel, and h~l\'e been excavated during Ihe 1980s and 19905 by a team of German archaeologists under the direction of Dieter Kessler. Therc arc also surviving remains of the buildings constructed to accommodate the numerous ancient pilgrims visiting lhe site. A site or such imporrance also attracted pri",1fe burials, including 3bout sixty brick-built

Turin Royal Canon

(1279-]213
Papyrus dating to the reign of Ramcscs [I Be), inscribed in lIH-:IUTIC wilh a list of the names of Egyptian rulers (originally numbering about three hundred), e\'idcnrl) copied from a morc complete original. \\Then it was first acquired by the trayeller Bernardino Drm'cni in the C".lrly nineteenth ccntur), it
boundary stele A IJ

",,,,i

/~

,
i

t
l
Lale Period painled

/<.., """'' ,.
f animal catacombs

the 'Oedipus' tomb (decorated with scenes from the Oedipus legend) Roman water-wheel

-.....

.-............

'"'"

tomb 01
Pelosiris

,
j
",/i-'/'
t/

renclosure
~wall

tomb
necropolis

J"

lomb a!
Isadora

Tuna el-Gebel
Site of the necropolis of IIER.\IOPOLIS :\"IAG:\t\, including ,1 complex of camcombs for the burial of S.\CRED A1'\I\IALS and an associated temple of TIIOTII, located on the west bank of I he Nile, ncar the modern town of l\!lallawi in

/o

50 100 1;0 200 250 300 350 400 m

PIa" oITwltl d-Gl'bel.

296

TURQUOISE

TUTANKHAMUN

seems to have been largely jntact, but by the time it had become part of the collc<.:tion of the Musco Egizio, Turin, its condition had detcrior .ltcd. The diligent work of such Egyptologists as Je.m-Fran'r0is CII!\\IPOI.I.JON and Gustavus Seyft~lrth ensured that the many fragments were placed in the correct order, but many hlcun.lc still remain. The list included the IIYh::SOS rulers (often left out of other UNG LISTS), although they welT not given CI\HTOUCHES, and a hieroglyphic sign was added to indicate that they were foreigners. Apart from the names of each the rulers, the list also cited the precise duration of each reign, and occasionally provided a summary the numbers of years that had elapsed since the time of lhe sLmim)'thical ruler MI:NI':$. There was also an altempt" to go back beyond the reigns of known kings and to assign regnal lengths to the series of unn,lmed spirits ;md gods who had ruled bdi:Jre the appearance of the human pharaohs, It waS presumably this type of document that: provided ;VIANETIlO ",ith the basis for the history that he compiled in rhe early third century lIe, which has supplied the sequence of DY:"JAST1ES still used by Egyptologists. E. j\!ll~YER, Aegyptische ChrollfJ/ugic (Berlin, 1904),105-14. G. FAIUNA, Ilpllflim del 1"1: rest(/{(J"{Ilo (Rome, 1938). A. H. G,\R.DI:,\II:H, The R(~y(// Ca1!o1! o/Til1'ill (Oxford, 1959). J. MM.EK, 'The original \'ersion of the Royal Canon orTurin',.JEA M~ (19X2), 93-106.

or

or

Nliddle Kingdoms (2686-1650 lie), and there are impressive rock-carvings (usually depicting the king in the net of smiting foreign captives), dating bad to the reign of the 3r<.1Dynasty ruler SE""'''IKJIE'I' (26+8-2MO Be). Petrie examined the site in 1904-5 and found an Old Kingdom hill-top miners' settlement consisting of about 125 stone-built structures. His eXC<lVations also revealed numerous artefacts, including cvidcnce or copper-smelting ill silli. Another set of mines, at Serabit el-Khadim, about 18 km to the north of vVadi i\lfaghara, were also accompanied by rock-carved stelae, as weU as an unusual associated temple complex dating to the i\!fiddle and New Kingdoms (r.20.l5-1069 BC). Tn the temple precincts and the surrounding area, numerous rock-cul- and fr~estallding stelae were dedicated by mining expeditions to the goddess I [ATI lOR in her aspect of uebeL lIle.fl't/f ('lady of lurquoise') and the god SOI'I':1) 'guardian of the desert ways' R, \VULL, Raeui/ tics il/saipfiollS /gyptieJ/lles till Sillili(Paris, 190-1-). \V J\JL F PJ::Tlm: and C. T CURRI::I.I.Y, Rescarches ill Sillai (London, 1906). A, H. GARDINER,'l~ E. PEETandJ. CER.~Y, Illscriplio1/s o/Sil/ai, 2 vols, 2nd cd. (London, 1952-5). R, GIVI:DN) 'Le temple c!'Hathor a Serahit elKhadem', Arrlth'/ogia 44 (1972),64--9, .rvi. C!-IARTIER-RAY,\!ONIJ, 'l\otes sur J\llaghara (Sinai)', Gil/PEL 10 (1988),13-22.

-< ~:;.,

"
<.

Tutankhamun (1336--1327 Be)

Ruler of the late 18th Dynasty who was, ironically, one of the most poorly known of the pharaohs until Howard CI\RTER'.'j discovery of his tomb in the \',\LLEY OF TJlE KINGS (Kv62) in 1922. Although the tomb had been partially robbed and resealed in ancient tjmes, most of the funerary equipment, including the coffins and sarcophagi, were found in excellent condition, and it was certainly the best~preserved of any of the royal tombs (although the contents of the 215t- and 22nd-Dynasty royal burials at" T/\NIS, excavared by Pierre lVlontet in 1Y39, were jn similarly good condition), The tomb is also architecturally different from other phaJ"aohs' tombs in the Valley of the Kings, in thaL it consists of only four very small rooms rather than the long corridor-style tomb lhal is typical or the 18th to 20th Dynastics. It is possible that a more conventional tomb ncar that of AI\1f:".NIIOTEI' Ir1 (1(\'23) may have originally been intcnded for him but this was usurped by his successor, the ageing courtier :\Y, who probably acted as regent and wielded the real power during his reign. Tut41nkh~U1111n was born during the Amarn41

.
,::,.

~~
.~.....;

turquoise
j\Jlined by the Egyptians from the late Predynastic period onwards, turquoise is an opaque blue-green or pale sky-bluc mineral (hydrated phosphate of copper and aluminimum)) which forms as ycjns and nodules in the fissures of sandstone and trachyl'c, The greener variety was highly prized b~' thL ancient Egypti,ms, who preferred it to the more porous blue variety, which tends to fade when exposed to the air. Turquoise (probably corresponding' to the Egyptian tcrlll lIleftal) was used in jewellery as early as the Gerze.m period, and onc or the moSt cXl]uisirc early examples of its use is a bracelet consisting of thirteen gold and fourteen turquoise SEREKlIplaques, each crowned by a falcon, excavated fi'om thc I st-Dynasty lOmb or DJER ((,.1000 BC) at Abydos. The Sinai peninsula was the major Egyptian source of turquoise and copper throughout the Pharaonic period, The mines at Wadi IVlaghara, 225 km southeast of Cairo, were particularly exploited during the Old and

I
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~

i I

~
.... -;

;; ::>;;

~
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v

.=:
;>
~-

:::'

~~
~..;

The bo{(l' O/Tulflllkha/JlII/I, mhich disil/tegrated mhcl/ Ilmus IIIlm}"apped ill Novelllba /923 (Jilt! fwd 10 be re-fHscJllbled 011 (/ lray, 181h DYI/t/sly, c./336-1327I1e, 11.1.63 !II, (R/:'!'RO/JUCED
Cm'RTrSI' OF 'l'/IE CRIF,..,TlI INSTITUTE.)

297

TUTANKHAMUN

TYET

period, probably at el-Amarna itself, where he was at first known as Tutankhatcn Cli\'ing image of the Aten'), but bter changed his name, presumably in order to distance himself from the Arcnisr heresies of the reigns of .-\I'IIE"\:\1'E' ~md Smcnkhkara. His wife, Ankhesenpaarcl1, who was one of the daughters of Akhenarcn, simi1arly changed her name to Ankhesenamun, although a throne found in his tomb porrrilYS them together underneath the rays of the Atcn, since {his item was presumably created in the late Amarna period. Tn his decoration of the colonn'lde in the temple at LL'XOR constructed by Amenhotcp Ill, he describes the lauef as his 'father'. This raises the question of whether he may in fact have been Akhenarcn's brother, although it is usually assumed that the term is ro be tr,mshtted more generally as 'ancesror" and that the supposed link with Amenhotep III was simply a COm"cnient way of dissociating himself from his twO heretical predecessors. \~1hcn he reached the throne, at the age of perhaps only eight yenrs old, hc movcd thc royal court back up to lVlemphis. It \vas therefore at SAQQ\RA that the tombs of a number of his high officials were located (rather than at Thebes, as in the earlier 18th Dvnasty), including those of the general J-10RI':i\IHJ~B, the chancellor Maya and the vizier Aper-el, all three of which were excavated during the 19705 and 19805. Although his (restoration stele' (enumerating a number of reforms designed to undo the excesses of the Amarna period) was erected at Karnak, it was actually

issued from Memphis. The Theban tomb of his nCERm OF KuSll, Buy, is decorated with painted scenes showingTutankhamun's reception of tribute from the Nubian prince of i\Iiam (A~UlA). H. C \RTER, The IOl1lb oITulflllHllIl1IlllI,.3 \'ols (London, 1923-33). C. DI::5ROClII::5-NoOl.ECOURT, TUlflllkhflmen. life fllld tlt'flth ofa pharaoh (London, 1963). TilE GRIFFITII hSTITLIE, Tu/ 'fllIkluimulIs tomb series, 10 \ols (Oxford, 1963-90). R. KRACSS, Das Elide dl'r Amanw::,eit: Bfitrti~!{t> ::.ur GC'schidJle liIltl Chronologie des Neufll Reidu's, 2nd ed. (I-Jildesheim, 1981). )1. E.\TO:'\-KR.\LSS, 'Turankh:.l.mun:.l.[ l\..:.l.rI1ak', JIIDArK ++(1988), I-II. N. REE\ ES, The compteit' nlltmJdlllmlill (London, 1990). G. T l\!:\RTIN. The hiddell /ombs oIA'lcmphis: lIe/1l discouriesji'of1/ the lim/! oj'Ttt!a1/khalJ/l/1/ {/1/(1 Ra/1/t'sst'S Iht' Crt!({/ (London, 1991).

e.

'Two Ladies' see KEKH8ET and

\\,WjYT

2500 1Jc.) Important 5th-Dynasty official who was overseer of the pyramid complexes and sun temples of the 5th-Dynasty rulers Neferirkara (2475-2455 BC) and Ivuserra (2445-2441 IJc) .'It /\BlJSIR, as well as the sun temples of Sahura (2487-2475 BC) and Raneferef (2448-2445 BC). His career, which roughly coincided with the reign of Nyuserra, is documented in the painted reliefs decorating the interior of one of the finest \IAS''''IJ.\ tombs at S.\Q!l"tA (no. 60).

Ty (Ti) (c

Hend ofa black gmuile statue oj'Hap)' with the jil(iatjclItures of 711ItmJdltf1lJlI1J. II is i1JSrribed milh the IlllJlJes of Horemheb who llSufped
11I(IJ~)' JIlOnt/111e1ItS of
fl.

His wife, Neferhetpcs, was a prophetess of the goddesses Ncith and Hathor, and is frequentl\' portrayed at his side. . The funerary chapel, which would ori~i nally have formed the superstructure of the tomb, was discovered and cleared by Auguste :'\t!\RIE1TE in the latc nineteenth century, but its exterior W:lI1S are now parrly buried in the desert. Its porricoed doonyay ~ probably sill1ihu ro the entrances of the houses of the C1ite during the Old I'.ingdom (2686--2181 BC)-Ied ro a columned hall bene~lth which a passa~c way led down to the actual burial. The wall; of this hall were decorated with agricultural scenes emphasizing the wealth and official duties ofTy. A corridor in the southwest corner led past rhe 1:'...\.1..5E-000K stele of )Jeferhctpes (and the ~lccomp'1I1ying offering scenes) into a chamber on the west side which is decorated with scenes showing the bringing and preparing of offerings, including an interesting depiction uf a potters' workshop (sec PO'ITERY). Further southwards along the corridor was a larger hall, the roof of \\"hich was supported by two pillars, while the walls wcre decorated with further agricult-ural scenes, as well as dancers, temple craftsmen and boatbuilders, somc of these workers apparently being 'inspected' by Ty in his official capacilY. There were also typical scenes of the deceased engaged in hippopotamus IIUl\-n~G and fowling in the marshes. The SERJ)AB (statue chamber) was placed on the south side of the large hall, and a plaster cast of the statue of Ty is currently yisible through three spy-holes in the ,,all (the original having been transferred to the Cairo !\Iuseum). A.\II.\KItTn:, Les IIwstubas dl' 1>J.llcit:n Empm' (Paris, 1882-9). G. STt-:I.:\"DOKFF, Dus Grab {It~s Ti (Lcipzi~, 1913). L. EPRON and E DAui\l.\s, Le tombellll dt' Ti (C,iro,1939).

Tutllllkl1lJlIIlI1l. 1.6811I. (1:.475)

lyel (Egyptian Ije/: 'knnt of Isis') The so-called '.)'el 'knot' or 'girdle' was alrcady <1 sacrcd symbol during the Old Kingdom (2686--2181 BC), and was commonly depictcd alongside the Al\KJ I and the DJED PILLAII. By the :-Je\\' Kingdom (1550-1069 BC) it was described as the 'knot of lsis" perh,lps partly in order to parallel thc association between the djed pillar and the god OS11l15, consort of the goddess ISIS. It was during this pcriod that Iyet amulets became comparatively common; the loop of the knot was sometimes replaced by a head of the co\\'goddess IIl\T! lOR, thus emphasizing rhe links between Isis and Bathor. The ly('1 resembles an al1kh sign wirh irs

298

TYET

VALLEY OF THE KINGS

u
Udimu see DE:" Udjahorresnet Sl'e .IRT and PERSI.I
udjal see "ORLS

Valley of the Kings (Biban e1-Muluk)

~e\\' Kingdom royal necropolis located on the west bank of the Nile, about 5 km to the wCSt of modern Luxor, which actuall~ consists of two separate ,alleys. The eastern ralley is the main royal cemetery of the 18th ro 20th Ol'llasties, ,,hile the so-called Western Valley (or Cemetc,, of the i\lonkeysl Apes) cont:lins only four tombs: those of ~\_\IE;"' ItOTEP III (1390-1352 Be; KI22) and ". (1327-1323 OC; K\23), and two others which are uninscribed (K\'2+-S). There are sixtytwo tornbs in the cemetery as a whole: the earliest is pcrlups 1-:,"38, at the far end of the main railey, which has been identified as that Of"'''UT,\10SE I (1504-1492 BC) and the lalest is K14, belonging to Rameses XI (1099-1069 BC). It hns been suggested that 1>::\"39 may be rhe l'omb of Thutmose I'S predecessor, Amenhotep " bur most scholars still believe that his tomb was at Dra Abu el-Naga (sec THEBES). One of the m:ljor features of the royal tombs at the Valley of the Kings was their separation from the mortuary temples, whit:h, for the first time since the E'lr1y Dynastic period, were built some distance away, in a long line at the edge of the desert. Each of the tombs was therefore a long series of rock-cur corridors and chambers, sloping downwards into the cliffs. The earlier tombs (from Thutmose Ito Amenophis III) consisted of a bent-axis corridor leading down to a burial chamber ,,-hich was at first o,al (or CAKTOCcIiE-shaped) and later square. The ""0111decoration in these 18th-Dynasty tombs consisted of scenes from the Amdufll (see Ft.:KER1'.K\ TEXTS) executed in a simplified linear style, apparently imitating painted papyrus, with the background colour changing from onc tomb to another. The most famous tomb in the valley, that of n:nNKIiAMuN (1336-1327 BC; Kv62), is also ironically probably the most unusual. It is a small tomb, almost certainly intended for it pririlte individual, leaving Tutankhamun's origill<ll tomb (Kv23) to be lIsurped by his successor, ,w. ,More importantly, however, rhe discovery of much of Tutankhamun's funerary equipment still intact and unplundered has given n good indication of the riches that were robbed from the other tombs over the centuries. \Vhen discovered, most tombs contained only remnants of funerary

Unas (Wenis) (2375-2345 BC)

Final ruler of the 5th Omasty (249+-2345 Be), whose reign is poorly documented in many respects, despire the comparati,-c1y good prcscr\";ltion of his funerary complex at the sOllthwest corner of the Srep Pyramid l:omplex of Ojoser (2667-2648 BC) in north S-"<,tQ-\RA, His funerary causeway (linking the mortuary temple and the yalley temple) includes a number of reliefs apparently depicting events during his reign, such as the transportation by barge of granite COI.U?-,lNS fro111 dlC quarries at Aswan to the mortuary temple, and a scene of emaciated figures that has been inrerprclcd as a portrayal of a FAMIi\E, perhaps heralding the econom-ie a~ld political decline of the late Old Kingdom. Another scene shows Asiatic traders apparently arri,-ing in Egypt by boat, which probably indicates continued economic contacts with IIYBI.OS. Although Unas' pyramid is the smallest of those built during the Old Kingdom (2686--2181 BC), it is particularly significant because it was the earliest to ha\-c ilS internal walls inscribed with the rarious spells making up the I'YR,\:\IID TEXTS. E. DRIOTO:S, 'Une representation de la famine sur un bas-relief egyptien de Ia Ve Dynastic" DIE 25 (1942-3), 45-54. S. 1-I.\ss.\;..., 'The causeway of\Vnis at Sakkara" zAS 80 (1955),136--14.
A.
LABKOLSSE,

Pro/allVC ryet" (lilli/lei ;/1 red jasper, New Kingdom, II. 6.6"111. (E/20639)
horizontal bar turned clown at either side, and Spell 156 of the Book of the Dc"d states that it should be made of red jasper, which would have been symbolic of the 'blood of Isis'. Some lyet amulets were carved from cameli.In, while others were manufactured in red faience or glass. ,;y. \OVESTENOORF, 'Beitragc aus und zu den Medizinischen Texten', zAs 92 (1966),128-54 (14'1--54). - , 'Isisknotcn" Lexikoll rlrr Agyptologie II, cd. W. Heick, E. Otto and W. Westendorf (Wicsbaden. 1980),204.

J-P. LACER ;md J

LECL>\i':T,

1('f1/plc haw till (owplexfimeraire dll roi DUllos (C1iro, 1977). L E. S. ED\V.>\RDS, Tlu: pyramitIJ ofEgypl, 5th cd. (I-Iarmondswonh, 1993), 173-6.

uraeus see COUK:\ and Uta see W/\DJYT

\rADJYT

299

VALLEY OF THE KINGS

VALLEY OF THE QUE~

[numbers here refer to actual lomb numbers (KV numbers]

1 RamesesVIl

2 3 4 5

Rameses rv Rameses nl Rameses XI uninscribed and undecorated lomb Rameses IX Rameses II Merenptah

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 34 35 3B

42
43 4B 47 55

9 Rameses\~ 10 Amenmessu 11 Rameses II 12 uninscribed tomb 13 Bay

57 62

TausreVSethnakhte Sety II Rameses J Sety I Rameses X Montuherkhepeshet = Hatshepsul . Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose I Thutmose II Thutmose IV Yuya and Tuyu ,,,_saptah ; TiylSmenkhkara 1''1 Horemheb Tutankhamun

,1"'"

t(/l
N
-0,__,
-.'''''' ,. 1 11

".

-'I"" ..

100

200 m

Phm oflhe I ("ley of/lte Kings.

equipment. including sarcophagi, CA;\"OI'IC equipment <lnd pieces of wooden furniture and statuary. The tomb of IIORE\IIIEB (1'\:\"57) was lhe first to consist simply of one straight corridor, like that of 't.::IIE'.\TE' at EL-.\MAR", and also the first to be decorated with SCenes from the Book (~( Gales. The tomb of SET\' I (h:\ 17), which is argu<lbly the finest in the \'alley, was discO\'cred by Gioyanni BELZO"\I in October 1817. It was the first to be decorated with the Li/a101 ofRa, in which the cult of the sun-god Rt\ was combined with that of the dead king as OSIRIS. As far as the ceilings of the tornbs were concerned, those from Thutmose I to Rameses 111 (1184--1153) were decorated with astronomical scenes depicting constellations and listing their names (see ASTRONO,\\Y .\Nt) l\STROLOG'). From the reign

of Rameses 1\' onwards, scenes from the Books oI//II: IJcavem were painted on the ceiling of the burial chamber. As far as the bodies of the New Kingdom ph'lrilohs were concerned, sume were moved in the 21s1 Dymlsty, forming a cache in the tomb of Inhapy at nEIR El.-D.\J lI{1. where they were discO\'ered in 1871 b,' the Abd c1-Rassul family. The majority of the others were discovered in .. he tomb of AmenhOlep II (10:\"35), which was exc,l\",lIed by\"ictor Loret in I\brch 1898, Sec Appendi.x 2 for a list of owners of royal tombs. .J. Ro,\I!':I{, Va/":l'o/Ihc Killgs(London, 1981). E. 1-loll"Ll'\G, Valli:J1 n/the Killgs (New York, 1990), C. r\. REt:\ ES, '/til/e.)' oft/'" Kings: Ilu: tlet/inc ofll rUJ'"/uecropolis (London, 1990). C. N. REE\ 1':5 (cd.). fNia 7;i/allJ:!JflWUlI (London, 1991).

Valley of the Queens (Biban c1-llarim) Cemetery of the royal wivcs clnd sons of some of the ~ew Kingdom pharaohs, located on the west bank .1t Thebcs, about a kilometre to the northwest of ~ledinet Habu. Although tht: \ite includes the rombs of somc members of the late 17th and early 18th Dynasty royal family most the 18th~Dyn<lsty-rulers' \; iyes \\C~~ buried in the same tombs as their hushands in the \.\I.I.EY Of TilE t-:..1.:'\CiS. 1-:10\\"c\'cr, mal1\ of the 19th- and 20th-Dynasty royal wires ',md their offspring wcre buried in thcir 0\\ n rodcut tombs in the Valley of the Q!.lcens. There arc about serellty-fivc tombs ilt the site, usually consistlng of a small antcchamber fullowcd by a narrow corridor leading 10 the burial chamber, ilnd viflually all of them \\erc exc,wated by Ernesto Schiaparel1i in 1903-i The carliest inscribed t'Olllb is Q.r38, belonging to Satra, Ihe wife of ".'''ESES I (1295-1294 HC), blll thc best-known and undoubtedly the finest is Q\ 66, the tomb Ofi'EI'ERT\RI. the principal wife of Ramcses H (1279-1213 ilL), although ..he dcterioration of much of its painted decoration hilS necessitated a !:!I"eat deal of expensive (and, to some extcnl, successful) restoTilrion work since the 1970s. Some of the tombs of the princes indlldc beautifully prcserYed painted deeOl'alion, <I~ in the case of Q\ 55 and {~-,,4-+, belonging ro Amcnhcrkhepeshef and Khacl11wasct II, lwO sons of Rameses III. See Appendix 2 for a list of owners of royal tombs. E. So lIi\I'-\R~:L1.I. Esp/ora::,.iollc della "(tI/e dc'lIl' Regille' Crurin, 192~). G. 'l'IlALSING ,md II. GOEIJlCKE, N"ji-clari: L'illl' DokuJllcultilioll tier IValldgcwiilde iltrL'.~ Grah (Grolz, 1971), ~I. A. CoRZO (cd.), Hilll paill/iugs fJ./"the lomb 11./ Nelcr/(fri: scielllifir siudit'sjil/,heir ({JIW'/Ta/llm (Cairo and Malibu, 1987).

or

Viceroy of Kush (King's son of Kush)

Administraliyc pOSl established in the cw Kingdom, undcr either h:.\\I0Sl ((.1555-1550 BC) or .\/I\lOSE I (1550-1525 Be) and emJing with the close of 'he 20th Dynolsty (I J86-1069 BC). 'This high official governed the wholt: of .:\!ubia, then known as \Vawat and Kush, each of which was ,Hlministcred b\ a 'dcput~' (ideum). This seems to have b~en somc\\hat difTerent to the situation in Svria-Pall-stine, where Egyptian governors wOI~kcd alongside local potentates during the New KingtlOln . Under Amenhotep 111 (1390--1352 IIC) Ihe pOlrers of the Vicer()\' were extended so that he controlled the goid mining areas in the Jeep sOlllh of Nubiol, The'Thcban tomb of .Amenhotep (known

300

VICEROY OF KUSH

VIZIER

GaSI OfSte1ll',I'ji'ulI/ ,he 1Pfllls DIllie temple of Beil elI/fit/ii. Nubia, showing IIIl' Viceroy, .rimel/ope, lu'ing rcmllrdt'd mil" gold rol/(/!"S 1~}1 Rameses II, /1J/111e e.rol;~ (/1I;1/Ia/s alld prodll(l.~ of/Hi';ea (/1"(' brought in/o the l'il1g:~ PI'f:SCU{('. 19/11 D.l'l1flSly, c./2,'O IJG. as Buy; TT-f.O), who was Viceroy, or 'King's son of Kush" in the reigns of Akhcnarcn (1352-J:l36 Be) and Tutankhamun (13361327 Be), depicts his investiture, and his close relationship with Lhe king. The collection ;]nd distribution of trihute and taxes appears to have been his main role, along with the organization of the gold mining regions. The title was a civil one, the army being under lhe control of the 'b~ll[;tlion-commandcr of Kush', although, in case of emergency, \-iceregal authority took precedence_ !\lany of the \-iceroys were drawn from the ranks of the royal stables or chariotry, presumably because they were felt to h;1\-e the necessary experience of desert campaigns through their military sen-icc, ilnd were loyal to the king who promoted them so highly. Late in the 20th Dynasty Ramcses XI (1099-1069 BC) requested the Viceroy or Kush, Panehsy, to command troops in Upper Egypt in order to strengthen his reign. jViany of the troops brought by P:mehsy were Nubians, and lhere was well-founded fear of usurpation ilnd f(JI'eign invasion, on top of which he seems Lo have destroyed the town of Hardai in Upper EgYPT, and appears as an cnemy in Papyrus l\tlayer A. Panehsy was eventually buried at Aniba in Nubia. G. A.lh:1SNI:R) 'The viceroys of Kush',.7EA 6 (1920),28-55,73-88. N. DE G. l)AVIl':S and A. H. GARDIXER, The lomb oIHII)', viceroy o/Nubi(/ (London, 1926). T Si\VF.-SOm:RBERGll, ;igYPIeIl I/ud Nubieu (Lund, 1941), 177-84. D. Q'CO,,\NOR, 'New Kingdom and Thjrd

Intermediate Period, 1552-664 Be', Aun"elll

Egypl: a sorial l1iSIOIJ', B. G. Trigger et 301.

(Cambridge, 1983),262-3. 'Vv. Y. AIH.\IS, Nubia: (Orridar 10 Eiji'il'tl, 2nd cd. (London and Princeton, 1984),229-32,242-3.

vizier (Egyptian Ij(/O') Term usually employed to refer to the holders of the Egyptian ritle IjMy, whose position in the ancient Egyptian AIl 1\1It\ISTR..t\TIO.'J is generally considered to hayc been roughly comparable with that of the vizier (or chief minister) in the Ottoman empire. The office of ~itlly is first attested in the 2nd D,nast' (2890--2686 Be), later than the title of 'chancellor of Lower Egypt' held by such men as Hcmaka al Saqqara. It is possible, howeYer, that the role of the Ij{l~}' may eventually he traced back to the beginning of the Pharaonic period and the emergence of thc king's own titles_ It ,,"as in the 4th Dynasty (2613-2494 Be) thal lhe vizier attained his full range of po\\'ers, sen'ing as The king's reprcsentati\-c in most arcas of goycrnment (apart from the royal military and religious duties) and usually bCJring a string of further titles such as 'chief of all of the king's works' and 'royal chancellor or Lo,,"er Egypt'. All of the 4th-Dynast' yiziers were illso kings' sons, but from the 5th Dynasty (249+-234-5 Be) onwards this practice scems to have stopped. In the JVliddlc Kingdom there is cyidence for a 'burcilu of the vizier' (kha " ~ia~J!) at various plilccs (including Thebes) but the post was not split into northern and southern ofrices until the 18th Dynasty. During the Second rntermediate Period (1650-1550 Be), which was characterized by a long and rapid succession of short-lived rulers, it appears to have been the viziers who provided the essential swbility I-hat prevented the administfiltive system from breaking up com-

pletcly. Ankhu, for inst~mcc, served under two different kings and is attested, unlike other vlziers of the time, on papyri and thc stele of another orfieial. This probably had the effect or bolstering the innuence of the vizier in the long term, so that even when the smbiliry of the kingship was restored in the New Kingdom (1550-1069 IlC) viziers such as K!\,\IOSE and REKtll\IlRA continued to play <1 significilnt role in the government. In addition, it appears that the position had once more become hereditilry, as in the 4th Dynasty, when the title was passed on from one king's son to another. Rckhmira's tomb chapel in western Thebes presents a particularly re,-caling snapshot of the state of the \'izierial office in the reign of Thutmose "' (1479-1425 IIC), since the texts inscribed on its walls (which are duplicated in three other 18th-Dynasty viziers' tombs) disclose details of the installation and responsibilities of the ,-izier, while the paintings of the reception of foreign tribute and the armies of craftsmen working at his command indicate his key position in the adminjstration. from the 18th Dynast' (1550-1295 BC) onwards the title was di"ided into two viziers, one dealing with Upper Egypt and the olher with Lower Egypt. This had hilppened twice berore, in the reigns of Pepy II (2278-2184 BC) and Senusret , (1965-1920 BC), but rrom the 18th Dynasty onwards the diyision became a permanent fixture, perhaps partly as il result of the polariz~lIion of the two Theban and Deltabased sets of dynasties during the Second Intermediatc Period. 1Vlore is known about the sOllthern vizier during the 18th Dynasty, primarily because most of the archaeologic;ll and prosopographical evidence for this period derives from the Thcban region rather than rrom the north. E"en in the 19th and 20th Dynasties (1295-1069 BC), when the rounding of the new capital of Piramesse (see O!\ ~TIR 301

VIZIER

WADI HAMMAI\.~

w
Wadi Hammamat see \IAI'S 1'''0 I'LI"S and
STOi\E .\1'\D QU:\RRrl.'\G

Wadi Maghara see TURQUOISE Wadi Tumilat see TELL EJ.-\IASKJICT\ Wadj Wer see GR[..\T GREE"
Uro, Wadjer) Cobra-goddess whose name means 'the g-rccn one' or (she of the papyrus'. Her cult was particularly associated with the Lower Egyptian town of Buro (TE.LI. EL-F\K-\',,), which dates back lO the Predynastic period. Usually portrilycd as a rearing cobra, she was thus ine:xrric4lbly linked with the ural'lIS, the archctyp4l1 serpent-image of kingship, \\hich protruded just above the forehead in must royal crowns .1I1d headdresses. It has been suggested that the original meaning of the Greek word llraeus m,l)" ha\-c been 'she who rears up'. Wadj'T and the vulture goddess '" ~ItIJET

Wadjyt (Edjo,

Flt.ri/J!c {ollar illllu!jhrm

~r(f l'ullure.!;",,"

the

vulture
1\!lanifestation of the goddesses l'EKIIBET and .\ILT, depicted in a variety of forms, from rhe typically outstretched wings of rhe \ultures painted on the ceilings of many temples to the crouched attitude of the l'\ekhbet-vulture, which was regularly depicted in the motifs associated with KI'\"USIIJP. or the several different species of vulture found in ancient Egypt it was the 'griffon \ulturc' (Gyps jid-I;US) that was most frequently represented, whereas the hieroglyph with the phonetic value 'a' was lhe so-called Egypti;lI1 nllture (IVel1pltrOIf permoplerus). One of the earliest represent.nions of Nekhbet as the griffon vulture, on a 2nd-Dynasty stone Vilse of h:IIASEKJ1E,\I\\'Y (c.2686 BC) fro111 Hierakonpolis, incorporates .1 sIIE,-sign (representing encirclcmcnl and therefore also infinit~ and protection) underne~lth her left mlon. ~1any later representations show both yulturcs and falcons grasping shl:'1f~signs in their talons, often whcn they arc poised protectively behind or above the king. See also CKQW,S Ai\U KOY:\!. REG.\LL\. P. E HOl':1.I1l \", Tile birds afanciem Egypt (C1iro, 1988),39--13. R. H. \VII.h:r,so:\" Retitling Egyptiau art (London, 1992),8+-,,192-3.

tomb ~rI;'t(lnJ.:h{/1Il1l1l. Both Ihe I'lIltlln: flud the ((WlllerpOl~~e art! in/aid milll dark blue, red lIlfd green glass. 18/ft DYJl{(s~)I, c./336-/327 lie.
(c/IRO J6/876. RI:'l'RODCCED COCRTE.S') OF .,.,/

CRIFFITJlI\STI71TE)

and TEI.1. EL-D,\U'.\) moved the centre of go\'emInent northw:lrds, the sOlilhern vizier continued to wield power at least equal to that of his northern coumcrp<lrt. By the L.1tc Period (747-.332 He) the yizier had become i.1 far less influential figure, and it has been pointed out that Papyrus Rylands which documents the forrunes of:l family of prir..:sts between the reigns of Psamlck I and Darius I (1".66-1---486 ec), does not mention the yizicr, despite numerous references to Lhe centnl1 'ldmi..nistntrion. On the other hand, some of the finest monuments of the Late Period belonged to viziers. \v. C. 11,,-, ES, A PdPYruS oft/n/atr. 'lidd/e Kingdom ill th" IJroold'ylI A'I,m'1I111 (l':ew York, ]955). T. G. I-I. J \1\1I":S, Pharaoh '..I people: scl!//csFollllij(ill imperial t:gypt (Oxford, 198-1-),51-72. N. STRUD\\ Ie", 11,,: administration ofEg)/pt in the Old Kingdom (London, 1985),300-35. G. P. E \-A~ l>E~ BOOR.', The tluties of the "rizier: ch.iltu/miuistrtltiOlf il1 ,he early Nem Kingdom (London, 1988).

I"

origil1(1/~J'

Ural'US mearillg Ihe red croml1. mhich 11't(S prllblJ/1~)' pari ofa sttlllle or item offllmilurf. Lale Period OJ. afla 600 BC, gold sheel. If. J.i {JU. (.,/6518)

302

WARFARE

WARFARE

RIGI IT 8r0I1::.e sCliledfigure of' Vat/jv! (IS fl liollt!ssheaded goddess, whirh origifla/~)1 cOl1lail1ed a 111l1mmifietillUi11lal. possibly lin ichneumon. Lale Period, pr01:e1lfJ1lCe JlUk110mll, fl. 32.5 em. (A2.f 78.')

were described as the "ebO' ('nyo ladies'), who served as tutelary deities of Lower and Upper Egypt respectively, symbolizing the essential DUAI,[TY of the Egyptian world. Together they presided over one of the elements of the ROYAl. TITULARY, the 'two Iladies' name, which is attested as early as the Isr Dynasty. \Vadjyt was <1150 sometimes portrayed in leonine form, since she and the uraeus were often identified \\"ith the lioness-goddess known as the 'EYE or RA'. In the Late Period (7-4-7-332 Be) bronze statuettes of the lioness form of the goddess were used as coffins for
10 11'EU~IOXS.

B. V. BOTII\lER) 'Starucs of\V'd.1 as ichneumon coflins',]NES 8 (19~9), 121-3. J VANDlER, 'Ouadjet er Horus Iconrocephale de Bolito', PO/ulal/oll EI/ghlc PIo/: lv/vl/lIl11ellls t:1 milllolrcs pu/JIiis p(/r I'Academie des II/scrip/ions c/ Belles LellrCS 55 (1967), 7-75. T G. H. J:\~IES, 'A woodcn figure ofWadjcl with two painred representations of Amasis"JEA 68 (1982), 15fH>5. H.-W. FISCI-IER-ELFERT, 'Uto" [,t'xikol1 der ./igyplologie \'1) cd. W. Heick) E. Ouo and W. Westendorf(Wiesbaden, 1986),906--11. S. ]OIl'lSO:'\) The cobra goddess oltl11cielll Egypl (London, 1990).

atmosphere of Egyptian army life has been wcll prcsen'ed in the suni\'ing art and texts, from paintings of new recruits being giYcn military-style haircUls to the enthusiastically pedantic military despatches from the Nubian front. The \'cry fact that the Egyptians rctained their national aUlOnomy for almost three millcnnia is evidcnce enough of thcir military abilities. The lVliddle TGngdom FOHTHESSES in Nubia) and the numerous indications of polilical interycntion in thc Lcyant) indicatc that a \igorous policy of expansionism and imperialism was pursued by Egypt for many hundreds of years. This policy was a fundamenml part of the Egyptian world-yicw whereby rhe ph'lraoh's domains were considcred to haye originally comprised rhe whole of cre.nion. Any act of warrare perpetrated by Egypt whether a punitive f<lid on a I\ubian villagc or <1 major expedition into Syria-Palesline was therefore considered to be a legitimate rcstoration of the natural order of things (scc
BORDERS 1 FRONTIERS AND LL\lITS).

See also

BEDOUIi'; l.!\I\t\t\N; C:\PTI\'ES; cllt\RlCrr;

J IrnTn:s;

L1BYt\"iS; NINE BO\\'S; SHIPS '\1'.... 0 BOATS;

STANDARDS.
Y. Y'\OI'\) Thc arl OIIJJti1jilre;1/ Biblicallal/ds ill the lig/a o/archat'ological disCfr..'ny (London) 1963). L 511 \\\, EgYPlion Illt/rfim' {lmlmet/pons (Aylesbury, 1991).

warfare
From the primordial conflict or the gods 1IORUS and SETH to the well-documented battles of the Ne,Y Kingdom (1550-1069 uc) at MI,:GIDDO and (lADESII, warfarc was <l recurrent' clement in Egyptian mythology and history. All'hough the Egyptians may bc customarily regarded as a comparatively peaceful n:lIion) particularly in comparison with the peoples of western Asia, such as the l\SSYRI;\ 'is and the j>ERSIA:'\S, thcre was a large military and hureaucratic infrastructurc devoted to the expansion and maintenance of their imperial ambitions in "\L"BL'\ and
SYRI.\-P:\LESTf.'E.

The range of sources for the study of Egyprian warfare is far frol11 complete and cert:lin historical periods are poorly known, For instance) little has survivcd concerning the organization of the Egyptian army until the beginning of the second millennium Be, while the primary sources for international diplomacy (the \.\L"R~\ LETTERS) are restrictcd to only a few decades in the fourteenth century Be. Overall) howe,-cr) thc

711JOjflining/i'agllll'II/S oIa ceremonial pa/Nlt' (lht' so-railed 'Ball/efield Pa/elll") mllh relic/ decoratioll showing, 011 /he side here ill"slm/ed. a seem) o/wP/it,ct. alld slai1l1:irl;ms oflJIIlllc, Ihe latler inlhe proust. o/beil/g dCi:Ollrcd I~}I "L'ffllflJ"l'S nnd (I li01l. nil' olher side Sh01PS Imo IOllg-uerkl'd ga::;el/es bromsiug 011 a dale palm. Lale Prct()'lIaslic 10 lsI Dy1lflSly, c.3/00 tJe, grey sill5lont?, H. 32.8(111. ("'120791)

303

WAS SCEPTRE

WEPWA\HT

STROUl-L\I., Life in {lucienl Egypt (Cambridge, 1992),201-H. I. 511:\\\" 'Battle in ancient Egypr: r.he triumph of I Torus or the clItring edge of the temple economy?', BailIe i/l Allliquily, cd. A. B. Lloyd (London, 1996).

E.

See also
R. A.

-\GRICL1...TURE~ 1:'\ L:\.Dxno:\; CI.EPSrGIU~E ..

DR.\; GRE.\T

'I;

XfLE;

:'\ILO~IETER.

was sceptre
Sceptre consisting of a straight shaft with its handle in the form of the head of'l c.mine animal, and its b::lsC ending in two prongs. This unusual appearance may deri,"c from an early totemic or fetish animal, which would probably have been associated with prosperity and well-being, given that the sccptTC acquired these connotations in the Pharaonic period. lts primary function in funerary contexts was [() ensure the continued welf'lre of the deceased. Until the ~liddle Kingdom (2055-1650 Be) the sceptre was somctimes represented in wood alongside thc mummified body. In huc!" times} rows of mas sceptres wcre incorporated into the decorative fi'iczes on the coffin or the wnlls of the tomb. It has also been suggested that the sceptre may have been used as a gnomon (the upright section of a sundial), perhaps representing lhe divine mcasurement of time. \Vhcn adorned with a strcamer and feather} it became the cmblem of the Theban nome (prO\oince) of \Vaset. K. i\ I-\RTlN, 'Was-Zeptcr', Lexil'oll der .-(~.l'Ptologie \"I, cd. \~'. I leick, E. Ono and W. Wesrendorf(Wiesbaden, 1986), 1152--4. R. II. WII.KINSON, Reading EgyjJtian art (London, 1992), 180-1. C. Ai'UREWS. /Jlllllleis o/lIIuicnl EgYPI (London, 199{),80.

'~iJLD, flltller il1 Ihe ClIllh mursltip o/Isis lIml Sumpis(Leiden, 1981). C. VANDEKSLEYE:,\, 'L'Egyptc pharaoniquc et ses symboles: Peau, les colonncs loti formes et" papyrilol"mcs', Lc ~Y/flbolisll1e "ails Ie mIle Iks grandes rdigiollS (Loll\'ain, 1985), 117-23. R. H. \\'II.""SO'\, Retlding Egyptillll.lIrl (London, 1992), 136-7.

his cult" was celebrated in connection wilh that of OSIRIS. He was usu;lIly depicted cirhcr as a figure of a jackal or other wild canid (often standing on a nome STAi\DAKIJ) or as a jackal_ headed man.

water clock see cl.I'l'smJ<c'

wedjat see
IIDI((;S

Weighing of the Heart -'CC I BCART

Wenamun. Report of see I IERII lOR and
L1T1:Krl'URE

Wenis see '""

IS

Wepwawet ('opener of rhe ways') Jackal-god who was already portrayed on the ;-.i:\R!\lER palcne at the end of the fourth millennium 13C. His cult waS particularly connected with :\SYUT in the Pharaonic <md Greco---Roman periods, with the result that the city was renamed Lykopolis ('wolf city') in the Ptolemaic period (332-30 BC). At Ahydos

,\lIO\'E

Limeslone siele ji'()m A/~J"los, {{In:cd i11 Junk rdicImilh a (!t'pil'lion vIKing IVepl1l(fI1Jl'll'm.\(~riJ1 Ihe presence oIthejackal-headed god "ep/J/al1't'f. who is holding 11 waS-steplre {f1U1 1111 ankh sl~~n. /31h Dyuasty. c.1650 flC. II. 27.-1 e111. (t.:/969)

water
In Egyptian CRE..\TIO' myths, the prime"al walers of ~t;" were a formless mass of fecundity from which the uni\'erse was horn. This fundamental role in the process of cosmogony itself must have contributed to the Egyptian sense that pure \v.lter was a sacred substaIlce (see SACRED w\KE), and the role of the lilc I,\,U"Dxno:\. (personified as I L\i'r) in the <lIlnual agricultur'll cycle must h'l\'e automatically imbued water with an aura of fertility and power. There was also a belief in the ability of waleI' to 'acquire magical and healing powers when it was poured moer statues or other sacred objects, such as cippi (see' [ORCS).
RIGIIT Fmgmml o/a /1}all-painlillgji'o1ll Ihf! lombdf{fpl'! ofNeballJl/1/, showing a gardm pont surrounded k)/Imit Irees: Ihe /VlIler is i!ulimled by repelltetlmal..],!illes. as ill Ihe Itieroglypltsftr mliler. 181h Dynllsty. c./-IOO BC. painled plaslel~ If. 6-1 CIII. (.,37983)

30+

WHITE CROWN

WISDOM LITERATURE

l-lis iconographic and mythical connections related mainly to the v:'lrious interpretations of his name. In ;l political context he could be the god who opened up the way for the king's foreign conquests, while in the PHtAMlD TEXTS
CERE.\IO~Y

he performed the OPE'\I:\"G OF TilE .\10UTII on the king and led the deceased

through rhe netherworld, a task with ,,-hieh he was also latcr credited in the funerary papyri of pri\-arc individuals. \Vepwawct was closely linked with another L"aninc deity, Sed, who was also depicted as a (:anid perched on a standard; Sed's name has been prcscn"ed primarily in the ancient term for the royal jubilee

or SED

FESTl\o.\L.

J. SI'IEGEI., Die Ciiller t.'OIl Akrdos (\icsbaden,

1973), 179-80.

E. GRAEFE, 'UpuaUl', Lexikoll der Agyplo!ogie \"l, cd. W. Heick, E. OliO and W. Westendorf
(Wiesbaden, 1986),862--1.

white crown see CROWNS A'\ID ROY,'\I, REGALI\

Wilkinson. (Sir) John Gardner
(1797-1875) Early nineteenth-century Egyptologist who was the first British scholar to make a serious study of Egyptian antiquities. The son of the Rcvcrcnd John \,Vilkinson and Nlary Anne Gardner) he was born in Hardcndale, \Vestmorhmd. \:Vhile he W;.lS still a young boy, both of his parents died and the Reverend Dr Yates was appointed as his guardian. He was educated at Harrow School and Exeter

College, Oxford, but in 1820, as a result of poor health, he traveUed to Italy. There he met Sir William Gell, a Classic,,1 archaeologist, who persuaded him to undertake a career in Egyprological research. Ln 1821 the menry-four-,ear-<:>Id Gardner \Vilkinson arrh-ed in Egypt. Based in C1iro) he was to spend the next twelve years tr:l\-c1ling through Egypt and Nubia. Along with other intrepid scholars of the same period, such as James Burtnn, Robert Hay and the Fourth Duke of Northumberland, he red iscm'ered numerous ancient sites and undertook some of the earliest sun-eys and scientific eXC<lVations at such sites ;.lS K..-\R2\lAK) the \.>oLLEY OF TilE "I~GS nnd the ancient Nubian capital or Gebel Barbl (sec ""'AT'). He was the first archneologist to produce a detailed plan of the ancient capil'al city of Akhennten at elAmarna, and his map of l'he Theban temples and tombs was undoubtedly the first comprehensive survey of the region. The records of his excavations and epigraphy at '1'1 wm:$ arc still an invaluable source of information fiw modern Egyptologists. He also conducted the first" excav.ltions at the Greco-Roman settlement of Berenice, on the Red Sea coast, which had been discovered by GIO\',\l'NI BEI.ZU:\'1. V./hen he returned to Britain in 1833, his copious notes ilnd drawings <lnd his diverse collection of antiquities pro\-ided the basis for his most famous book, Jile IJUl1/ners alld {/IJloms oIthe (llu:it'11I Egyplial/s, which was to earn him a knighthood in 1839. He undcrtook two further sensons of study in Egypt, in 1842 ;.md 1848-9, and in 1849-50 he studied the TLR'" ROY_\!. C\1\"OK, publishing a detailed facsimile of ,"his important KJ~G 1.15T. J G. \VII.KI'SO,\/, Topogmp/u' of Thebes lI11f! gruem! tiem of1:.gypt (London, 1835). - , The.fragmell/J of/he hiem/ir papJ1rus al Turi". {fl/llai"iug Ihe names olEgypliflll kings. milh Ihe hiemlie if/scriplioll til 1111: ba(k, 2 "ols (London, 1851). - , The I1l1l1f11t:rS ({11f! fIIsloms oflhe tll/rie", I:.KJlPlitlllS,.1 vols (London, 1837; rev. 1878). J. TJ IO,\II'SON, Sir Carr/ner IViU'imollll11f! his (irde (Austin, 1992).

reign of the 1st-Dynasty ruler lJJET .2980 Ilc) already shows a pair of wings ilttachcd to the SOL.\R Il\RK as it passes through the sky, and an inscribed block from the mortunry temple of the 5th-D,nasty ruler Sahura (2487-2475 Ilc) includes a winged disc aboye his names and titles, with the phrase "Horus of Behdet' written beside it. Since Horus was associated with the king, the winged disc also came to hm-c both royal and protective significance) as well as representing the he<lyens through which the sun movcd. Alan Gardiner argued th;'lt the disc represented the 'actual person' of the king, syncretized with the sun-god. It was presulllably bccause of these royal associnLiolls, as well as the t:onnecrions between the Behdetitc Horus and the Lower Egyptian cobra-goddess WADjYT:1t" Buto, that urae; (sacred cobras) were added on eirher side of the disc during the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC). By the New Kingdom (1550-1069 IlC) it was a symbol of proreci iOIl La be found on temple ceilings ~l1ld ahove I'YI.O.'JS and other ceremonial portals. R. EGELBAClI, 'An alleg'ed winged sun-disk of the Pirst Dynasty', z/is 65 (1930), 115-16. ~IL \~lERIlROUCt(, 'A propos dl! disque aile', CdE 16/32 (1941),165-71 A. I-f. G'\RI>J'\:ER, 'Horus the Behdetite',JE.~l 30 (19H), 23-61 W>-521 D. \VIl.IJL":"u, <Fli.igelsonne', Le.rikol1 der Agyplo!ogie II, cd. \Y. Heick, E. Otto and W. Westendorf (Wiesbaden, 1977),277-9.

wisdom literature
Genre of didaclic texts that is arguably the most characteristic form of Egyptian literature. There .lre two basic types of wisdom literature: the St!J"J't or 'instruction' (see EOCC.\TI01\" ;.lnd ETIIICS) and the rcnccti,-c or pessimistic 'discourse.' The earliest sun'i"ing scb"yl (3 series of maxims on the ~way of living truly') is the text said 10 h:"'e been composed by the 4thDynnsty sage Hardjedef ('.2550 Be)) while another such document was attributed to Ptahhotep, a yizier of the 5th-Dynasty ruler Djedkara-Tsesi. It is Iikcl, that few of these instructions were written by their purported authors, :Ind many, including that of Hardjedef) were almost certainly composed much later than they claim. The instructions retained their popularity throughout the Pharaonic period, two of them being attributed to kings. The first of these was the fllSlrIf'lion Iur King Jl1erik"ra, set in the Pirst Intermediate Period (2181-2055 Ile), and the second W<IS the }/lslr/l(:I;o// nf Ammem/wl I) set at the beginning of the J 2th Dynasty (.1950 BC). The instructions of Any 305

window of appearance sec l''''.>lCES and

\IEDI'\"ET II'\BL"

wine see !\I.COHOLIC BE\'EHAGES

Porlrail (!(S;r]o/m C{/rdller IVi/kil/soll ill Oriclfw! dress. !~)' lIe/llY JIIjllJdha1ll Phillips. (REPRODUCED
COURTES1' OF 7111:. GRIFFITflINSTITl'TF)

'm' ,per: 'the great nyer') The image of the solar disc with the wings of a hawk was originally the symbol of the god 1I0RUS ofBehdet (or the 'Rehdetite Horus') in the eastern Delta. An jyory comb dating to the
winged disc (Egyptian

WOMEN

WOMEN

and Amcnemipet son of Kanakht", composed during the New Kingdom (1550-1069 fiC), arc similar in some respects to such Biblical wis-

dom texts as Proverbs (see BlBUC.'\L CON!\Ef:TIO:--lS). The (Wo most important surviving instructions from the Greco-Roman period are the Sayings o/A"kh:jlles!lOl/{D' (nmv in the
British j\!Iuseum) and the maxims recorded on

Papyrus Insinger (RijksJ11uscul11, Leiden),

which wcre both written in the
DEl\IOTIC

script, consisting of much shorter aphorisms compared with the sebayt of the Pharaonic
period. As well as the narrative form of instruction, there is also some evidence for the existence of less elaborately structured collections of maxims, as in the case of Papyrus Ramcsseul1l 11. The second type of wisdom tcxt, the pcssimistic discourse, tended to focus on the description of order and disorder, ,IS opposed to the prescription of a set of ethics. These include such works of thc iVliddle Kingdom (2055-1650 Be) as the At/mullitiflll.l (~r IpuJ1)cr, the Di::mmrsc ()./lVl:jerly, the Dialoglfe o./a j\iJa}/ mill, his Ra, the Dialogue 0./ Ihe Heat! aut! Ihe Bel6! (now in the Nluseo Egizio, Turin), the DisuJllrse (~r Klwkheperraseneb and the Di.l((}lIrse o/Sasobek, the two latter (now in the British lVluseum) being preserved only on an 18th-Dynasty writing board and a 13thDynasty papyrus rcspectivel~'. Nt LICIITHEL\I, AII(:iellt Egyplia}/ litem/lire I (Berkeley, ]975), 58-80. w. R\RT'\, 'Die Erste Zwischenzeit im Spiegel del' pessimistischen Literatur',JEOL 24 (]975-6),50--,,] L. POT1, 'The history in the Prophecies of Noferti: relationship hetween the Egyptian wisdom and prophecy literatures" Studia Aegyfllia((l 2 (1976), 3~18. M. V. Fox, "nyO decades of research in Egyptian wisdom literature', ZiY(1l)80), 12{)-35. 13. OCKI'GA, 'The burden ofKha 'kheperre 'sonhu',]EJ169 (1983),88-95. R. B. P \RKI'\'SOi'\, Voires/rom IIlIt/elll Egypl: (III (/Ilthology (~r/vJidd/e Killgr!ollllllritillgs (London, ]991),48-5-1,60-76. - , 'Teachings, discourses ~md t:tles from the !\liddle Kingdom', A1iddle Kingdoll/ Sludies, ed. S. Quirke (New Malden, 1991),91-]22.

women
The role of women in ancient Egyptian society and economy has been seriously studied only in recent ye.us. The previous neglect of the subject was partly::t qucstion of acadcmjc bias, in that Egyptologists - consisting mostly of male schobrs until modern times - were apparently unintcrested in examining the evidence for female activitics and roles, On the 306

other hand, there are also problems in terms of the bias of the surviving evidence itself, which largely consists of elite male funerary asscmblages, male-dominated religious monuments and ancient texts which were written primarily by men. 'T'hc true roles played by women, therefore) invariably have to be carefully extracted [rom the records left by their husban.ds, fathers, brothers and sons. Although a small number of surviving documents, including a few ostraC<1 from the Ramesside village at D!:W. fL-~{EDI'JA, are said ro have been written by women, thcre is no suryiving ancient Egyptian text that can ~'et be definitely ascribed to a woman. Even when women (such as SOIlEKNEFI':RU and HATSIIEPSLT) attained the highest office in ancient Egypt, the KJl\"GSI IfP, they were effectiycly portrayed as men, since the pharaoh waS regarded as intrinsically male. There arc) hmyevlT, many other ways in which the study of ancient Egyptian women has been fruitfully pursued. The exca\'ations of cemeteries ha\"C provided a vast amount of data concerning the bioanthropology of both male and female illiterate members of society (perhaps 99 per cent or the population). In addition, the recent excavations at settlement sites such as EL-'\'\'IARKA, .\IE.\<lPI lIS and TELL EL-LJAB'A have begun to provide insights into such subjects as diet, work practices, patterns of residence and levels of education and hygiene, all of which can be used to shed light on the act"ivities of women, The study of RELJGIO~ and MYTI-I01.QGY often provides evidence concerning ancient Egyptian attiUides to women and femininity. The goddess [SIS, I'or instance, was regarded as the ideal wife :md mother, while II:\TJ10R was the epitome of female SEXL-ALITY and fertility. J\1any of the goddesses, however, could also present the more negative, destructive aspects of womanhood, in the form of the 1':Y!': OF IV\, the daughter of the sun-god sent to persecute the human race. Although women are frequently depicted in Egyptian art, there seems little doubt that their status waS generally lowcr than that of men at alllevcls of society. The political stTUCture of ancient Egypt was clearly dominated by the male scribal dite, and women were given very few overt opportunities to participate in the Al)MIN1STR.'\TIO;\ or public ceremonies. On the oLher hand, \yomen such as \1EFI:RTITI and TIY, who were the \rives and mothers of pharaohs (see QUEENS), must hayc becn both rich and powerful by virtue of their social rank, regardless of their rights as women; in othcr words, the differences bcnveen peasant women and royal women

must have been far grcater than the differcnces between Egyptian men and women as <l \\lhol e. Although women were not usually parr of the political or administrative hierarchy, thc, were able to participatc in certain sphercs life outside the homc: at various periods the\" were able to bc bakers, weavers, musician~, dancers, pricstesses (until the 18th DynJsry), gardeners and farmers. They were also able t() engage in business deals, inherit property, 0\\ n and rent land and participate in legal cases; in othcr words, their legal and economic rights and freedoms wcre often similar to those of men, On thc other hand, there is no evidence for girls of (scribal' class being educated .ts their male equivalents were; and there Wcrt clearly various ethical distinctions made between the activities of men and women. lVlarried men, for instance, were allowed to sleep with unmarried womcn, whercas women's jnlidcliry was considered morally wrong (perhaps as a practical means of being sure of the paternity of children), On a more visible level. as in most cultures, Egyptian women were distinguished from their male counterparts by such aspects of their appearance as CLOTI-/I1\G and 1l.\IlL Egyptian artistic conventions not only ide:ll~ izcd the bodily proportions of men and women but also usually dictated skin colour; thus men were shown with reddish-brown tanned skin while women were giycn a paler, yellowish-brown complexion. This difference is thought to have originated tiom the gre;ltcr proportion of time that women spent indoors, protected from the sun (a theory perhaps corroborated by the paler skin of some important officials of the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 uC). whose high status nO doubt excmpted them I'jom outdoor work). The status and perceptions of ,vomen were by no means static aspects of Egyptian society; clearly there was a reasonable amOllnt of change during the period of almost three millennia from the Early Dynastic period to the end of the Pharaonic period. There is cvidence, for instance, to indicate that there were more women involved in temple rituals in the Old Kingdom than in later periods; that thc~ hcld more administrative titles in the Old Kingdom than in later periods; and that thcy were more able to participate in busincss transactions in the late New Kingdom. There is no obvious sense of progress or (emancipation' in these changes, or at least nO sense that the ovcraU lot of women was being improved o,er the centuries; the impression is much more that ancient Egyptian women's roles and appearances in the world outside the domestic. cycle were simply adapted in

(;r

WOOD, TIMBER

X GROUP

response to overall changes in society. The

Instruction of Plahhotep, probably originally

composed in the early .Middle Kingdom, thus

appears

{Q

summarize a view of women that

remained relatively intact throughout the

Dynastic period: 'If you are excellent, you shall establish your household, and love your wife according to her standard: fill her belly, clothe her back; perfume is a prescription for her limbs. !\lakc her happy as long as you liyc! She is a field, good for her lord. You shall not pass judgement on her. Remove her from power, suppress her; her eye ,,,hen she sees
(anything) is her srormwind. This is how to make her endure in your house: you shall

restrain her.' Sec also n III.DRI:1\.;

/\IEOICINE.

UI\ I'\'E I\I)ORATRICE; EROT-

Egyptians was imported cedar wood from the Lebanon (Cedrus libam), which was much prized for sea-going boats as well as for thc best COFFI"S. The Aleppo pine (Pilllls !w!epmsis) was also imported for similar purposes, while juniper (Juniperus sp.) ,yas also used in architccturc and as a \"cncer. Finally, ebony (Diospyms sp.) was imported from the lands of tropical Africa, including PL~T, and used prinCip,llly for furniture and '"cncering. The ancient Egyptian methods of stoneworking were probably partly derived from skills that were first perfected by woodworkers, and many of the rools used by stonemasons arc deri,cd from those of carpentcrs and joiners. As well as c1cyc1oping yeneering techniques, the Egyptians also produccd ~1

form of plywood, fragments of which, perhaps deriving from a coffin, were found in the Step Pyramid of the 3rd-Dynasty ruJer Djoser (2667-2648 Be) at 5'QQIR.'. The Egyptians' im'cntive usc (,md re-use) of timber emphasizcs its high Yaluc, a point which is further illustratcd by Egyptian carpenters' skilful usc of joints, producing well-crafted rectangular comos from small, irregular fragments of tim-

bet planking. Wooden objects could be deeor;ued by painting, gilding or veneering, as well ..IS with inlays of iYory, GL\SS or gem-stones. A. LL.c.\s, flneii'llt Egyptil/11111aterials fllld illdllStfies, 4-th cd. (London, 1964),429-56. V. TA\."':1I0I.\I, Students' j/Offl of Egypt (Cairo,

1974). 1-1. VEDEL, 1ieeJ (l11f1 shrubs oftile ,"lediterrallellll

(llarmondsworrh, 1978). G. Kn.I.E", Eg)lptiall moot/1Porking autlJimlilure (Princes Risborough, }994).

ICJ\; GOD'S WIFE OF .\.\ILN; I-IARI,\!; ,\I:\RRIAGE;

A. TIII::OI)ORIDI~S, IFrau\ Lexil'oll del' .lgyptologic 11, ed. 'V. Heick, E. Otto and W. 'Westendorf

(Wiesbaden, 1977),280-95. C. j. EYRE, 'Crime ilnd adultery in ancient Egypt', ]Ii/I 70 (1984), 92-1 os.
Pa!t('l'IIs nj'fj/ll'ewhip il/ fllleiclIl 1:'..~!!;.J'Plifill and hisf(J/Y (Uppsala, 1986). B. LESKO (cd.), IVo/lll:n'sellrliesl rcwnls/rol/l lIncienl Egypt lind IVcstel'll Asia (Atlanta, 1989). G. ROBlXS, IVnmell in al/riclfl t:gYPI (London,
L. TROY,
lJ~llth

1993). J. T, 1.01-.51.1':', Daughters oflsis: momen offllfc/clIl l:g)lpl (London, 1994).

wood. timber
Despite the fertility of Ihe Nile \alley, timber
was c1C~Ir1y always a precious commodity in ancient Egypt. Allhough many TREE-I;) (such as the date palm, dom palm and fig) were grown principally for their fruit, they were also good sources of wood, which was principally used for building or the construction of furniturc. Its use ~lS a fuel mUSl h,we been very limited, dried dung usually being burnt in domestic fires. 'fhe datc palm (Phoenix d(f{t)'lijera) and dom palm (/~)Ipllllelle IlIelJl/iol) were both can'cd into planks, whilc (he date palm was also regularly employed, \\ith rclati\'ely little prcp"lration, for lhe production of COLL.\I"S or roof joists. The tamarisk (ulwarix aplq1lla) and the sycamore fig (Ficus .~)ltlJlI1{Jm.\) were both \yidely lIsed for rhe making of C.OI;FI1\S as well as for carving imo staluary. Ash (Fraxillfls exa'lsior) was sometimes used for weapons, particularly those requiring nexibility, such as the how found in the tomb of Turankhamun (1336-1327 lie; KI'62). Acacia wood (.1u/(ill .\'p.) was often used for boat building (sec SIIIPS A~n no\'Is) ancl other large-scale constructions. Howcver, the finest timber lIsed by the

II oodell/illfl!rm:JI stalue of Ramcses 1I./rOJII his lomb ill the Valley of/he Kings (KI2). 191h
DYlIlIsly,

e./2.'O 1Je. (I: ,882)

307

YAHUDIYA,TELL EL-

YUYA AND TU!J:i

y
Naytahut, Leontopolis) Town-site in the eastern Delta, dating fi-om at least as early as the J\!liddlc Kingdom until the Roman period (c.2000 DC-AD 200), which was first CXC;l'",HCd by Edouard Naville and Flinders PETRIE. The main feature of the site is a rectangular enclosure (about 515 111 X 490 111) surrounded by huge earthworks, the function of which is not clear; it is Llsually dated to the late l\1iddle Kingdom, and may perhaps relate to the 11\ 1-.:505 occupation of the Delta. Among the other remains at Tell cl- Yahudiya are a

Yahudiya, Tell el- (anc.

temple of Rameses III

\
100

Olle a/several pazwhrollu:j(fielll'e tiles. here depirfing a capt in: Li/~J'all. olle o/tlll! traditional elll:mies o/EgyjJt. ./i"olll a Ramesside palace at Tellcl- )~tllIIdZJ!a. He mears ({ sidclock (llld a PCJll~~ shcath, both d{{{/'{/cterislit o/his homelaud. 20,h D)'lIas'y, c./170 /lC, H. 30.S 011. ("/2331)
\:~;;-;~:::-::.:::::;.---

,mel Italian). Although he qualified as a ph\Csi_ t.:ian and made important discoveries in -the field of physics (including the formulation of the undulatory theory of light), he ret.lined a strong interest in linguistics. While practising as a physit.:ian in London in the early nineteenth century, he began to take an interest in the decipherment of Egyptian IllEROGLYPIiS and he published a study of the ROSE"ITA STO\;; in 1815. Three other scholars, Johann D<l\id Akerblad, Antoine Silvestre de Sa~v and JoanFri1n~ois (:1-I1\:\'11'01.1.I0:'\', were also examining copies of the trilingual Rosetta inscription ar roughly the same time, although it was the latter who was to achieve the first great breakthrough. Young, on the other hand, "as the first modern scholar to translate rhe lJE\10TJC script, in a posthumous paper which was published as an appendix to Henry Tatt:am's Coptic grammar in 1831. T YOUNG, I?ewart:s 011 EgYPliall papyri alld Oil/lie i/{scriptioll o/RoSelf{l (London, 1815). - , Egypt, supplement to [he 4th and 5th editions of the EllIydopaedi{{ Brif{{lI/fi({/ (London, 1819). H. T.\TT\J\\ and T YOUNG, A (olllpmdiolls gmlllll!(fr of the l.~!{)ljlti{I1' lallguage as (()III{{illt:d il{ the COjJfit: alld Saltidi~ dialects ... mi,Ii (lI! appouli.l (ollsistillg oIlhe mdimcllts (~rall E'gYPliaJl die/iolla/]I ill Ihe (/lft'ien/ cnclUJrial df{{I"{{{li'r: (olltailliJlg all/lte mords oImhi(h fhe sellse hf/.l bccll {{seer/aillcd (London, 1831). J. D. RAY, 'Thomas Young et Ie monde de Champollion', BSFE 119 (October 1990), IS-3+.

200

300 m

Plan

0/ Tell cl- Ya!IlUI,:}Itf.

temple built by Rameses III (1184--1153 Be) and a small settlement established by Onias, an exiled Jewish priest". which nourished between the early sc(:ond century IK: and the late first century \D. The pottery dating to thc Hyksos pcriod and the Middle Kingdom at Tell el-Yahudiva is particularly characterized by a typc of juglct named after the site, which has been found as far afield as Cyprus, Syria-Palestine and the Nubian town-sites of Buhen and Aniba. These juglets were made in a distinctive blackfired material described as 'Tell el-Yahudiya wan", \vhich was oftcn decorated with incised zigzag designs filled with white pigment. 'rhe wiele geographical elistriburion the ware has been the subject of considerable research, including' the identilication of

centres of production in Egypt and the Levant. H. E. NAYILLE, The Iltlo{{ut! oIthe Jew {//ul 'he tily o(Ollias (London, 1890). Vl. Nt E PETRLE, Hyksos alld /sraelite cifies (London, 1906). S. ADM\, 'Recent dist.:overies in the eastern Delta', AS,JE 55 (1958), 3(11-24. R. S. MERRILLEES, 'EI-Lisht and Tell el-Yahudiya ,,"<Ire in the Arch;leologicallvluseum of the American Uni\crsity of Beirut', Lnx(/{! 10 (1978), 75-98. Nt. K. KJ\I'LA'\, The origill alld distribflli()// (~rTcll el- Ya!llulijah-l7Jarc (Gothenburg, 1980). M. BIET:\h: and C. MJ.I'\\R, 7/:/1 el-Dab'a ,. (Cairn, 1987).

Yam see KER:\IA

Young, Thomas (1773-1829)

Egyptologist <Ind polymath, who purslied a brilliant career as both a scientist and a linguisr. By the age of fourteen he was already able to read twelve languages (including Hebrew, L<Hin, Greek, Arabic, Persian, French

or

Yuya and Tuyu (Yuia and Thuiu) (c.1400 uc) The parents of Queen TTY, the wife of Al\IE:'\HOTEl' [[I (1390-l352 Be), whose wellpreserved tomb (I-;:v46) was excavated in the VAU.!':Y (W THE KlJ\GS in 1905. Yuya held the unusual title of 'god's father', and 'master of the horse' and Tuvu, who was also mentioned on some of the ~oJ11memorati\'e SC\R \BS of Amcnhotep [[I, was the 'chieflady of the [URL\1 of Amun'. The inscriptions indicate that Yuya came from i\I'll,\H.\1 in Upper Egypt, but mrious aspet.:ts of the evident.:c, induding his unusual name and tall stature, have suggested to some scholars that he was not a native Egyptian. Thencxt holder of the title 'divine E.nher' ",lS ;\Y (1327-l323 BC), who also came from Akhmim and waS eventuallv to succeed TUrAi'\"]I \,\IL '\ (1336-1327 IK:) as l;haraoh. It has theref"ore been argued that Ay was the son ofYuy<I .md 'UIYu and hence the brother ()fTi}~ but until genetic ,,'ork is carried on the mummies of t.he lSt.h-Dynasty f"amily this theory C1l1not be proved. The political rise ofVuya and Tuyu, including the granting of the rare privilege ~l tomb

or

308

YUYA AND T 'YU

ZOSER

in the royal necropolis, was no doubt a direct consequence of the marriage of their daughter to the king. Their tomb was discm"crcd by James Edward Quibcll while carrying Ollt cxca\'<\rions on behalf of Theodore Davis. Until the discovery of the tomb of Turankhamull (I"':Y62) the CQlHents of their tomb (now in rhe Egyptian lv(useum, Cairo) comprised the most complete set of funcrar~ equipment fi}und in the royal ,"alley, including a canopic box, .1 sllllbJi-hox. a model collin, a sta{UcUe from a \1\G1C 1.lJ{[(.X, a chair inscribed with the name ofQ!.lccn Tiy, a kohl tube, jewel box and Vilse of Amenhotep III, and seven.ll beds and chairs. The mummies of the couple are among the finesr to h~l\e suni,"cd. Although the lomb had been enrered in antiquity, few objects had bccn removed, indeed a golden C1lARIOT yoke was one of thc first objects to be found. Tragically, Da\is' decision to ha\e the 10mb el<.."ared in a matter of days, in the absencc of Quibell, mcant thm \Til'll/ally no record was made of lhc positions of the contents, which has greatly diminished the value of the find to archaeology. T j\ I. D \ns, G. j\ I \SI'ERO, P. E. ~E\\ HERin ;1I1d H. C-\RTI~R, 'lift! lomb of IUlIl)'fI find 1'(HII)'IJIl (London, 1907). J. E. QUlBELI., The lomh n.f}'i({fa al/(I TlllIiu (Cairo, 1908). n. PORTER and R. L. B. 1\ loss, 1';Jpographifal bibliography 1/2 (Oxford, 1964),562-4.

z
Zawiyet el-Aryan
Sitc of l wo unfinished 1') R.'HIIDS, a number of \I.\ST\B \ tombs of the Old ~ingdom (2686....2 J81 Be) and a cemetery of the New Kingdom (1550.... 1069 Be), situated on the west bank of the Nile, between GIZA and .\BUS)]{. The earlier of the twO pyramids is known as thc 'Layer Pyramid' or 'e1-Nlcdo\\"\nlra'" <md was possibly constructed for the 3rd-DYl1asty ruler Khaba (2640--2637 Be). The 8+-metresquare superstructure is almost identical w that of the unfinished step pyramid of Sekhemkher (2648....2640 Be) at SAQ5t'R'I, both consisting of slanting layers of masonry, and both being originally planned as six- or sc,-cnstepped pyramids. The subterranc.m section \Y:lS entered \'ia a vertical burial shnft descending from the north face of the pyramid. At the base of the shaft werc three corridors, one leading south,,-ards to the burial chamber (beneath the centre of the pyramid) and two others leading to east and west, each with sixteen side-chambers that \ycrc presumably intended fix the deposition of funerary goods. 'rhe pyramid was cXC<l\'atcd first by .<\lc:xandrc B.lrsanti and later by George REIS~ER, who ;l!SO c1cared some of the associated \1 \ST\U.\ tombs. It was Reisner who locatcd fragments bearing thc name of Khaba , ~tS \yell as a pottcry fragment with lhe name OfNt\RI\lER, leading him to suggest that the monument should be dated to lhc 2nd Oyn.tsty. Howc\'cr, the subscqucl1l exca\'ation of the pyramid of Sckhemkhct indicated (hat a 3rd-Dynasty date was the most likely. The second pyramid at Zawiycl' cl-A.. ryal1 probably dates to the 4th DY11asty (2613-2494 lie) and \\as also CXC;lY;1tcd by Barsanti. lts main feature is a long sloping trench, at the bottom of which an ullusu;tl oyal granite sarcophagus ,,as discoyered. Fragments of a similar type 01" sarcophagus ,,,cre found by Flinders I'I~TRIE in the pyramid complex of Djederra (2566-2558 He) al IHe ROISII, leading to lhc suggestion that the Zawiyet elAryan monument was constructed by the same ruler, although more recently it has been suggested that it may havc helonged to an unknown ruler betwcen the reigns of Djedefra and Khafra. B. PORTER and R. L. B. ~loss" 'lopographiCllI bibliograp/~)IIII/1 (Oxford, 197-l), 312-H. D. DLi'\11 \ \1, Z{{/m:l'et el-AlJl{l1l: the ({'II/clerics atlja(t:I!//o Ihe I,ayer I~}'ralllid (Boston, 1978).

I. E. S. EIJ\\"\RDS, Th(~ pyramids ({g)'PI, 5th cd. (llarlllondsworth, 1993),6-1-6,146-7. - , 'Chephren's place among Lhe kings of the 4-th Dynasty', The flllbro/.!f!II rad: studies i1/ honour of .-1. F Shore,!. C. Eyre el a!. (London, 199-1), 97.... 105.

Zoser see DJOSER

of 'l ily II. II/nlha ofQjll'l'If T~)I, j\'latleJimll giltlttl mrtmwagt! mjth tll'tails illiaid ill gemslollt!s alld glass. Pari oflhe liuC11 gtlll:;l' still (ltlheres to tIll' maSk'. 181h Dynasty, c.139()'13.,2 tJC,Fu/1/ the 10m" (~r) i~)la IInti 'n~)'11 (".,.';'6).
H. !Utl/l.

l"ll1l/lff~)1 was/.!

(c./Il/oJI,'9525-1/u;51009)

309

CHRONOLOGY
All dates before 690
BC

arc approximate.

Predynastic
Badarian period Amratian (Kaqatla I) period Gerzean ('-'aqada
II)

5500-3100llc 5500-4000 4000-3500 3500-3100

5'1'1 I DYI\A~,nT

249+-2345 2494-2487 2487-H75 2475-H55 2455-2H8 2H8-2445 2445-H21 H21-2414 HI+-2375 2375-2345 2345-2181 2345-2323
2J23~2321

12'1'1-1 DYNASl'''

1985-1795 1985-1955 1965-1920 1922-1878 1880-1874 187+-1855

1855-180~

Userkaf Sahura :\ererirkara Soepseskara

Amenemoat 1 (SeoeLepibra) Senusret L(Kheperkara) Amenemhat Senllsrel

LI II

period

(i\ubkallra)

(Khakoeperra)

Early Dynastic Period

1ST D\;....\STy

3100-2686 3100-2890 (.3100

Raneferef
I\yuscrra

Senus ret III (Khakaura)

~\menelllha[ III

(Nimaarra)

Narmer

nlenkauhor Djedkara Unas

6TIIDY,\\STY

Amenemhall\ (nlaakherura) Queen Sobekneferll (Sobekkara)

1808-179'1 1799-1795

Aha
Djer Djet Den

dlOO
c.3000 [.2980 [.2950 (.29501 [.2925

Ill'll

DYNAST\

1795- after 1650

TCli
Uscrkara

Some SC\-cl1ty rulers, of which the five more frequently

attested arc listed below

IQueen ~ lemeith
Anedjih
SClllcrkhcl

Hor (A\\'ibra) Khendjer (Userkara) Sobekhotel'

LLL

Pcp)' 1 (Mer)'ra)

2321-2287 2287-2278 2278-2184 218+-2181

t:.2900
(.2890 2890-2686 <".2890

1\ lcrcnra
PC\)\' LL (Neferbra)
NiLiqrct

(Sekhemrasewadjtalw)

QI'a

Neferhotep L(Khasekhemra) SobekhOlep 1\ (Khaneferra)

14'1'1 r DYNASTY

2"o m"" \STY

Hctcpsckhcmwy

r,l72.i 1750-1650

Raneb
~ync[jcr

".2865 First Intermediate Period

7'1'11 \:\"D 8'1'11 DY',,\\STIES

2181-2055 2181-2125

.Minor rulers probably contemporary with

the 13th Dynasty

\Vcncg Sened

Numerous ephemcrill kings

Pe-ribscn

(.2700 ".2686

9TH \ 'd)

1OTt I m I'\-\STII':S

2160-2025

(rIEI~ \U.EOI'OI.IT'\,,\)

Second Intermediate Period

15TIL Dn;,sn Salili. Khyan (SclIscrcnra) Apepi (Aauserra)
(ILY~sos)

1650-1550 1650-1550

Khasckhcm,,-y
Old Kingdom
:l1~.lJ IJY'J \STY

Khct\ (nleITibra) Khet\' (Wahkara)

2686-2181 2686-2613 2686-2667 2667-2648 2648-2640 2640-2637 2637-2613 2613-H94 2613-2589 2589-2566 2566-2558

J\lcrykara

(.11>00 (.1555

It,'
I ITIL nY"'ST' (TILEIlES 0"1.1)
[~lenLuhOlep 1 ('Tepy-aa')]

SanakhL (=i\eoka?) Djoser ('-'etjerikhet) Sekoemkhel Khaoa I-Iuni

4-'1'11

2125-2055

Khamudi
16T111J\,-,"-\sn

1650-1550

Imefl (SehenawI') Inter 11 (Waoankh) Intef LLI (Nakotneblepnefer)

2125-2112 2112-2063 2063-2055

1\ linar 1-1 yksos rulers contemporary wilh

the 15th Dynasty

17'1'11 m"'\ST\

1650-1550

m .... \STY

SncfCfU

Scycral rulers based in 'Thebes} of which the four 1110st prominent

Khllfll (Cheops) Djedefra (Radjedel) Khafra (Chephren) Menkaura (~Iycerinus) Shepseskaf

Middle Kingdom lIT" D\', ISTI

(.\1.1.

2055-1650 EGYPT) 2055-1985 2055-2004 200+-1992 1992-1985

examples arc listed below [ntef (Nubkoeperra) Taa I (Scnakhtcnra) Taa LL (Seqencnra) Kamose (Wadjkhcperra) r.1560 1555-1550

2558---2532
2532~2503

j\ lelHuootep LL (Neboepetra)

\!emLLhotep

LLL

(Sankhkara)

2503-2498

i\lcnrllhorcp lr (Ncbtawyra)

310

CHRONOLOGY

New Kingdom
18TI J DY"I \~~n

1550-1069 1550-1295 1550-1525 1525-1504

Ramcscs

1\

Sheshonq 1126--1108 1108-1099 1099-1069

1\

1".780 777-749 727-715 727-715

C'ieferkara Setepenra)

Alunose ( 'ebpeht'Ta) Amenhotep I (Djeserkara) Thutmose I (Aakbeperkara) Thutmose II (Aakheperenra) Thullnose III (!\lenkheperra) Hatshepsut (!\ laalkara) Amenbotep II (Aakheperura) Thutmose
1\

Ramcscs x
(I;:hepermaatra Setepema)
R:.II11CSCS \1

Osorkon II] ( scrmaalra Sctcpcnamun)

24111 DY~.\Sn

150+-H92 H92-1.f79 1479-IH5 H73-H58 H27-1400 HOO-I390 1390-1352 1352-1336 m8-1336 1336-1327 1327-1323 1323-1295 1295-1186 1295-1294 129+-1279

(~lenmaalra Setepenptah)

Bakenrenef (Bocehoris)

Third Intermediate Period

21sT Dr, ISTY (TI"rn:)

1069-7.f7 1069-945 1069-IOf3 1043-1039 1039-991 993-984 98+-978 978-959 959-945 945-715 945-924 92+-889 ,.,890" 889-87-1 87+-850 850-825

late Period
25TII Dn',ISTr (>;:LSlllTE) Pi,' (Piankln) Shabaqo (Neferkara) Shabitqo (Djedkaura) 'Elbarqo (Khuneferremra)
1l1Tluramani (Babra)

7.f7-332 7.f7-656 7.f7-716 716-702 702-690 690-664 66+-656 66+-525 672-6641 66+-610 610-595 595-589 589-570 570-526 526--525 525-404

(Menkbeperura)

Smcndcs (Hedjkheperra Selepenra)

Amcncmnisll (Ncfcrkara)

ilmenholep III (Nebmaatra)

Amcnhotcp
1\ /

Akhcnalen

Psuscnncs J rPasebakhacnniutJ
(ilakbeperra Setepenamun)
Amcncmopc

(Nefcrkhcpcru rawacllra)
Nefernefruaten (Smenkhkara) Tutankhamun (Nebkbeperura) ill' (Kheperkheperura) Horemheb (Djeserkheperura)
19T11 IlYN,\STY

(Uscrlllaatra Scrcpcl1al11un)
Osorkon the elder (Aakbeperra Setepenra)

26'\"] [ DYl'\ASTY
[Nekau I

(sArl'I-:)

Psamtek I (Wahibra) Nekau II (Webemibra) Psamtek II (Neferibra) Apries (Haaibra)

Siamun
(Nctjcrkhcpcrra Setepenamun)
PSlIscnncs II

Rameses I (!\'Ienpebt)'ra) Setl' I (Menmaatra)

[Pasebakhacnniu(1

(Titkheperura Setepenra)
22'1'11 m''''\5T''

Ahmosc 11 (KJmemibra)
Psamtek III (Ankhkaenra)

Ramcscs II (Uscrmaatra Scrcpcnra)

!\Ierenptah (Baem'a)

(IlLll.ISTITEI LIBYI~) 1279-121.1 1213-1203 1203-1200 Sheshonq I (1ledjkbeperra Setepenra) Osorkon I (Sekhemkheperra) Sheshonq II (Hekakheperra Setepenra) Takelo[ I

27'1'11

IJ\":'\.\.

n 525-522
522-486 486-465 465-424 42+-405 -105-.159 40+-399 40+-399 .199-380 399-393 .193-380 (.380 380-343 380-362 362-360 360-343

(FIRST PERSIV, PERIOD)

Amenmcssu (!\lcnmira) Sety

II

Cambyscs Darius 1 Xerxes 1 Artaxcrxes I Darius

II

(Uscrkhcpcrura Sctcpenra) 1200-1194

119+-1188 1188-1186 I 18(}-1069 1186--1184
j

Saptah (ilkhenra Setepenra)

]ausrcr (Sitramcrimmun)
20TlI

m ,,\STY

Osorkon II (Uscrmaatra Sctcpnamun)

''E1kclot " (l-Iedjkheperra

Setbnakhtc (Userkhaura 1\ len'amun)

Artaxcrxcs II 28'1'11 m :\,\STY Amyrtaios

29TI I

Scrcpcnra/alllun) Shcshonq
III

Ralllcscs lit (Uscrmaatra JVlcryamun) Ral11cscs 1\ (Hckamaarra Screpenamun) R.ullescs \'

(Usermaalra Sekheperenra)

18+-1153

(Uscrmaatra)

825-773
773-767 767-7.10 730-7 IS 818-715

Pimay (Uscrmaatra)
1153-1147 1147-1143 IH3--1136 1136-1129 1129-1126 Sheshonq \ (flakhcperra)

m '-:/\ST'
I

Nepherircs

Osorkol1

IV

Haknr (Khncmmaatra) Ncpheri res

II

(Aakheperra Se[cpenamun)
23RD DYl\,\STY (T:\~ITE/l.Irn'Al\)

Ramcscs \'I (Ncbmaatra .McI'Yill11un) R<lmcses \ II (Uscrl1laatra Sctcpcnra j\!lcryamun) Ramcscs \'T11 (Uscf111ilatra Akhcnamun)

30TI I D"~t\STY

Several contcmp()rary lines of rulers at Hcraklcopolis iVl.agna, I:-Icnnopolis M.ag:n3, Leonropolis and 'l~ll1is, only three of whom arc listed below
Pedubaslis I (Usermaatra) RI8-793

Ncctanebo I (J(heperkara)

Teos (lrmaatcnra) Nccmncbo

II

(Senedjemibra Sctepcnanhur)

311

CHRONOLOGY

SEeo.,n PEKSL\;\.

1>I~RJOI)

343-332
343-338
338~336

Roman Period
Augustus

30 IlC-.\D 395
30 Be-,ll) 14
.\1)

Gallienus

Artaxcrxcs 111 Ochus Arscs

Darius
III

25:>-268
Q!.liClllS

IVlacrianus and Aurclial1

Probus

260-261 27{)-275 27&--282 284-305 286--305

2<)3-311

Tibcrius
Gaius (Caligula)

1+--37 37-41 41-54 54-68 68-69 69 69-79 79-81 81-96

Codoman

336-332

Clnudius
.'\leTa
Galba

Dioc1crial1

i\.laximi..m
Galcrius

Ptolemaic Period
.\lACEI)()~I.\~

332-30 332-305 332-323

323-3]7

atho

D\ ,\sn

Constantine I
lVlaxcntius lVlaximinus Daia

30&--337 30&--312 307-324 308-324

Vespasian

Alexander the Great

Philip Arrhidaeus

Titus
Domitian
NCfV<l

.L\lexander l\ !/l'IU;
PTOI.E\iAIC DYi\.\ST'

317-310

Lidnius
Constantin e
Consrans COl1sranrius II
~Iagnctius
II

9&--98 98-117 117-138 138-161 161-180 161-169 180-192 193-211 198-217 209-212 217-218 218 217-222
222-235

337-341l 337-350 337-361

350-353 361-363

Trajan

Ptolemy I Sotcr I Prulemy " Philadelph us Ptolemy Ptolemy

III 1\

305-285 285-246 246-221 221-205 205-180 180-145 145 170-116 11&--107

I

Hadrian Antoninus Pius l\llarcus Aurelius Lucius Vcrus

Eucrgercs Philoparor

Julinn the Apostalc

JO\'jall

Ptolemy \ Epiphancs Ptolemy rI Philomctor Ptolemy rll Neos PhilopaLOr Ptolemy

rill

363-364
I

Commodu s
Seprimius Scvcru5 C'faealla Gem

Valcntinian

364-375 364--378
375--3N3

Valens
Gratian

Eucrgetcs

II

Ptolemy IX Soter II Pwlemy '\ Alexander

l'hcodosiu s the Great

ralcntinian
Eugcnius Di,"ision of lhe Roman Empire
II

379-395 383-392
.W2-39~

J\llacrinu5 Didumcnia nus

107-88 88-80 80 80-51 51-30 51-47

Ptolemy 1\ Soter
Ptolemy Ptolemy
\1 .\11

II

(restored)
II

Elagabalus
Sc\'Crlls Alexander Gordian Philip Decills G,tJllIS and '-olusianus Valerian
III

Alexander

395

Ncos Dionysos (Aulctcs)

Cleopatra \ II Philop.ltor
Prolefny XIII

238-242 244-249 249-251

251-253

Iherc are some 0\ crlaps between 'he rcign~ of 12th-Dynast y kings, when there appl.:'u' to h,l\e heen 'corcgcm:ics ' during which Euhcr and son \\oull! han:: ruled silllultum,'ously
died
tll":l

Ptolemy XI\ Ptolemy xr Caesarion

47-14
44-30

**

;ll"tcr h:wing scrn:d onl~ une ~C;lr corcgcncy "ilh his father, Osurkon I

253-260

.~* onl~ titular ruler .110-30.5 Be

lI2

APPENDIX

APPENDIX I

List oIEg)/ptologists mentionet! in the /e.rt

J.

D. Akcrhhld

Emile Amclim.:au Alcx:lntlrc Barsanti Gio\anni Belzoni G(,:orgcs A.lron Bcncdilc f'rcdcrid WIl Hissing Fcrnand lJisson de h1 Roque Aylward .\ bnlc~ Rladman
Ludwit! Bon.:hanh

1763-1819 1850-1915 185!\-1917

1778-1823

1857-1926 1871--1956 1885-1958 1883-1956 1863-1938

1865-1935

James I knry Breasted

j-Icinrich I~crdin;jnd Karl Brub-"Sch Gu\' BrUllwn BeT'nard Bnm:~rc E. A. W;ll1is Buduc jC:lI1-I..Awis Burcih;mh James Burton I-IowaI'd C1r1cr Gertrude Catotl-'I'hompson Jaros!:1\' c':crny Jcan-FralllYois C:hampollillll
Jacques-Joseph Ch,IIllPllllilln-Figcac

Emile Brug'sch

1842-1930 1827-1894 1878-1948

1~79-f1nl

1857-193+

George Reisner GunLher Roeder (Kiccolo Francesco) Ippoli1o Rosdlini Olivier Charles de Rouge I lenn' Salt A,I-I,'S;ln:c Ilcinrid~ Schiilcr Erncsru SehiaJl;lrdli Siegfried SChUlL Vemlliea SCion-Williams Gusr;,,'us Scdlarrh Claude SiL";1;d Gmfton Elliot Smilh Ilcmy Windsor\'illicrs Swan Ilcnn'Tur:llll Rich;rd 1100\,lrd \\sc John Gardner Willinson I.cunard Woolle~ Thomas Young

1867-1'142 1881-1966 18011-1843 1811-1872 1780-1827 1845-1933

1868-1957

\.\I.I.Er OF TII~. IlL'EE.-'\'S

YUlIlt'

Dynasty

QI ,\//mber
47
55 71 4(,

185(>-1928 1897-1971 19111-1992 1791>-1885 1677-1726 1871-1937 1827-1895 1789-1868

178+-1853 1797-1875

1880-1960 1773-1829

178+-1817 1788-1862
187+-1939

APPE'iD1X 2

188!\-1985 1898-1970 17911-1832 1778-1867

1927-1981 ISM)-llJ+S 1905-ltJ82

AlphabeticallislOlo)}}lIen ~rtolllbs ill Wes/em Thebes

\,\J.I.I':\ OFTIJI-_ "INUS

Dunlth\' Charleswurth
Emile Chassin:ll

NII/II/'

Dl'lItHt}1

J. D.

Cooney

C. 'I: CUl'l'l:lh'
Bon Joseph IJacicl'
Theodore D;\\'is

James Dixon Bcrnartlil1(J Dnl\cni Amelia Edwards WalLer Br\',lll Emen'

Reginald

Engclh'lcl~

1-1. \V. Fairman

Ahmed Fakhn

1876-1957 1742-1833 18:17-1915 1891-llJ15 177(..-IS52 1831-1892 1903-1971 1888-1946 1907-1982

1905-1973

Amcnclllopel (vizier in reign ofAmenhtlLCp II) AmenhoreJll1 Amenhort'p III AmenmcsslI

1'8

K/' N/llI/ber 'f8

Ahmose (daug-hler of SeqencllT;l'El;1l1) AI1111nhcrl..hepcshcf (son of R;lmescs JIl) Bcnmnla (dallghler of R:lnlescs Il) Imhotep (vizier) Isis II (mother of Ramt'Sl'S H) KhacmwaSCL 11 (son of RamcsL'S Ill) .\ Icrilamun (daughter of Ramcses II) Nchiri NchL,l\\\ (daugl~ler of Rames<.'S II) NeferLari (wife of Ramescs II) Paraherwencnlcr (son of R;lI11CS<.'S Ill) R'llnc.'ics (sun of ILlllles<.:s JJ) 'sarra (wifi: Rameses I) Scthherkhepeshef (son or Ibmeses Ill) 'E11lcdjc1l1

17

2U
19

10

51
+l

lU
II)

68 3(1

1tl
II) II)

611
66
H

20
2U
II)

53
,l8
+3
,l.l

or

20
20? 20?

TCIlIOPCI

74

18 IS
19 18 IlJ

,lJ

22 10
23

rh

n;\V

(~hancellor in reign

13
56

Chm:ncc Sla.;Ic\ Fisher Smlli Gabra . A.lan I-I. Gardiner Erncsl.J\rthur G;trdner John Garslallg Robert Grenville Gaver-Anderson Zakaria Goneim ' Frederick \\'illi,lJl1 Green E I,lewellvn Griffirh William I iaves
D,). Ilog-Jr~h
GUStavc JCljuicr ALhan;lsius Kirchcr Gustavc I.clcbnc Kid Rich;lfll I,cpsius W, L. S,I.mll VicLor Lorel Albert 1.\ Ih~tll' AlH!Ustc ~~ hl;icltc Ga~lOn j\ laspcro Robert ~ lond Pierre i\lonlet J:lClJlICS dt: Morgall Oliver Ilumphrys Myers Eclou;lnIN;]villc Pt:rcy E, Newbcrrr Fredt:rick I ,lJdwig Nordell T Eric PCCI Lord Algernon Perc) (follrth Duke Northumherhmd) John Sh,w Perring \Yo M, Flinders Pctrie Richard Pucockc JUllCS Edward Q..uibell

1871>-1941
1892-1973

OfS;lJltah) 'Golden rumb' IlarsheJlsur Iloremheh

~laihcrjlri

19:

(\\ifCorRan1esesJ\?) Titi, wife or a Ramcses unknown quecn unknown quccn unknown quecn unknown princess unl..nO\\ II princess unknown

20

52 :11 411
75 36

73
1-29,32,3+-5, 37,39,41,+5, 48-50,5+,56-9, 61-5,67,69-70, 72,76-79

18
IS

20
57 36

18

1879-1963
1862-1939

1876-1956 1881-1945 1911-1959 1869-1949 1862-1934

1903-19(,3

(sland;lfCl-oC:1Ter in reign of I bl'shepsur) 1\ lcrcnlJlah .\ tonLuhcrl..hejltoshcf (son of Ramcscs IX) Ramcs<.'S 1 Ramcses II Ralllc.l:ics II (sons)
Ramc.~cs III

19 20

8 19
16 7 5

I'lm

rr~:'(1)\IBS I'

\H:STER' THEBES

.\t//flt'

DylllfS(J'

Ab;IU

1861-11J27 I86!\-1946 1602-1680 1879-1957 1810-1884 1871-1932 1859-1946

1868--19,1+

Ramesesl\ Ramcs<.'S \1
Ral1lc.~cs \'11

19 19 19 211 211 211 20

2U

Ralllcsc..'S '\
Ramcses Sapmh
1\

Ralllescs :-"1

1821-1881 1841>-1916 lS67-llJ3H 18S5---llJ6C, 1857-1924

IIJO,l-19()()

Sen I Sel~ II 'r,l~sret

TIHllmosc I Thuunose II Thutmoscill 'rhunl1ose 1\ 'I'iv/Smenkhkara 'l'u'lankhamun Userhat (official) YU\';I and 'nlYll (l~arcntS o(Qucen Tiy) unknO\n1

184+-1926
I8(}l)-1lJ+lJ

1708-1742 1882-193+ 1792-1865 1813-1869 1853-1942 170+-1765 1867-1935

20 20 19 19 19 20 18 18 18 IS 18 18 IS 18

3, II 2 9 I 18 6 4 47 17 15
14

38
42 ,H

n
55
(l2

45 46
11, 21. 2+-,13, 37,39--1-1,++, 49-54, 58-61

or

Ahmose (Ilumay) Ahmosc Ahmosc .o\hlllosc (\lcriramun (daughter ofThutmose III and \\ifcofAmcnhntcJlIl) Akhamcncr;lu I\menarncfru AmencmhaL (Surer) Amenemh;lI Amencmhal Alllcncmhal Amencmhal Alllellemhat f\menemhat :\mencmhal Amencmhal Amencmhat I\menemhat Amcncmhcb Amenemheh Amenemhch (Mahu) Amcncll1heb Amcnemhcb Amcncmheb Amcnemib Amenel110nct

19120 18 18 18 18

rrtvllmlu:r 351

12+ 121
241 358

25

18 18 18 18 18 18 18 19 18 IS 18 18 19120 191211 18 191211 19

IX/If)

53

82 97 122
113 1(,3 182 3+0,354 \1
<:1

25
+l 85 278 .164 \8 \15 58

19120 211

313

APPENDIX

i\mcm:monet Amcnemonet Amcnemopcr (Ipy) Amcncmopcr Amcncmopcl Amcncmopcl

19/20 19/20 19 20 19 19 Amcncmopcl 18 18 Amcncmopcl (Djchuryncfcr) 19 Amcncmopcl Amcncmopcr 19/20 18 Amcnclllwaskhtt f\ rncncmwia 19 Amcncmwia 19 Amcnholcp 18
(Buy; Viceroy ofKllSh, reigns 01" Akhcn;lfCll & Tumnkhat1l1111)

277 381 -fl 148 177

Bckcnkhons
Bcnia (P3hckmcn)
Bcntcnduanctjer
BCSCIl1l1Ul

19/20 18 26 26 11 18 11 21/22 18 18

288 J43 -f07 160

215, 265
276

297
37-f 118 62

no

Dagi(vizicr) Dedi Djal' Djclllulcfankh Djcscrbrascnch Duauncheh

103
2110

366
117

:is
125 1911

356
-fO

Esb;l1H::bded

26

Eskhons 21/22 Espancfcrhor 21 Espekashuli (sec Ncspcbshuti, 1'1'312) Ibrua Ilatia) Ibuf

3J7
68

Amenhotep 211 Amcnhorcp 18 Amenholcp 18 Amcnhorcp 18 AmenholCp 18 Anll:nhorcp 211 Amenhotcp 18 (Huy; 'overseer uf sculptors ofAlllun') Alllenhorcp 18 18 Alllellhotcp AIllCllhutcp 18 )\mellhotcp 19 Amcnhcltep-si-se 18 Amenkluawmw;\set 'NK' Amenkhall 211 AmcnmeSSll 19/211 Alllcnmosc 19120 1Y AlllelllllOSC 18 Amcnmosl' Amenmosc 21 Amenml)SC 18 Amenmose 18 19120 Amenmose 18 Amcnmusl' 18 Amcnmosc 18 Amenmose 19/20 Amcnnakhtc Alllcnnakhtr.:: 19 Amcnncfru 18 211 Amcnpahapy Alllenusl:r (Usl:r; vizier) 18 Alllcnuscrhet 18 AmenW;lhsu 18 Amcnwahsll 19120 Amethu (Ahlllosc; \"izier) 18 Allluncdjch 18 Amy (Ramose) 18 Allen 18 I\nherkhall 211 Anhotcj) (Viceroy of Kush) 19/211 Ankhcfcndjchllty 26 (i'\cfcribrasench) Ankhcfcnrahor;lkhlY l'wL 26 Ankhhor AnrcliJkcr (sec Jlltefiqer 1''1'60) An\' 19 Asilakhcl 19 Ashe(vlemwaset 19120 Baki Baki Basa Bekcnamun Bckcnamull Bekenalllllil Bckcnkhons Bekcnkhons
18 19120 26 19 19 19120 19 19/20

58

73 122
294 3-f5 .H6 368

26
19120 26' 20 21l 20 18 II 18 18 18 18 19120 11 19121l 19/21l 19/21l 19/21l 191211 26? 19 19/211 18 18

1\7

cl
cJ -f15 75 III 372

373
9 19 -f2 711 89 118 1-f9 228 251
.lIt;

218 26() 132

355
61, 131 176 111 274 fG 84 9-f 120 299, J5~ 3110

Ha~ IIekamaatran;\khtc (Turo) Hekernehch I-Iencnu I-Icpu (\'izicr) I-IcpLlscllcb Hcr)" Horemhch I-Ioremheb J-1orhotep [Iori Ilori I-Iori Hori Horimill Hormosc rlormosc I-Iornakht I-lory Hra\' J-JlI~l<1Y (see Ahmosc '1"1'224) Illlllcfcr 19121l Huy 191211 18 HllY 19 Huv I lu~ 19 I-Iu;' (sl:cAmenhotcp TToO, TT36t')}
Ibi Ihy (nolllarcb) Imhotep Imischa Incni Inlupy (incl, ROY~ll Cache) InplIemheb
Ill\"

lla"

37 32+ n3 267 32S 222 6-f 3D 66 67 151 78 2117 314 28 259 3{)] 347 221 12(1 r:7 23(, 245 12
]85 H 54 .139 361

19 Kamosc (Ncnt:lwarcf) 18 Karabasakcll 25? Karakhamull 26 Karo 19 Kasa 19 Kcfia (scc Ncfcrronpcr rrn 40) Kcmsit II Ken 19 Ken 18 Kcnamull 18 Kcnamull 18 Kcnamull 18 Kcnro 19 Kcnro (sec Ncfcrronpct TT17S) Klu 18 KhabckhnCl 19 Kluemhct (Mahu) 18 KJuemopct 19 Klucmopct IYI2Il KJuemopet 19121l Kluemrcl'i 19120 Khacmwasct 18 KJl;\Cmwaset 19 K1urllef(Sl:naa) 18 Khawi 191211 Khav 19 FIP KJ1C~lti (llumarch) Khety 11 Khnumcmhch 19 Khnummosc 18 Khons(To) lY Khonsmose 19121l Kiki (see Salllllt l"l'4(9) Kynebu 20
r

Kaha

360

:\98 391
22.1 3]0 10
]IIS

-f,m

Sy 93
1(12

-f12 5-f

8 2 57 1115 272 321 WI 261 369 192 2H 173 -f1l5 311 26 25:; 31 30
113

2(,

cH
380 -fl-f 168 17-f 112 18 298 3R9 135 195 -f08 35 HI

In'tc:f Intcf Inrcf(son of Mcketra) Intd Intdiqcr (vizier) lpi (vizier) Jpiy
Ipuk~

Ipuy Ipy (scc Alllenelllopct TT-l-l) Ipy (see Mose, Mosc and Ipy'I"1'329) Ipy 18 191211 lrillllfer Jrtcrau 26 Irdjanen 19-21 Kaclllhcribsen
18

F1P 18 20 18 ZI 191211 19120 18 18 II 11 12 11 19 18 19

36 186 1IJ2 65 81 320 20() 285 155 16-f 280 386 60 315 26-f 181 217

c6 290 390 306 98

J\ibhu 19 ?\llahu Ivlahu 18? j\tlahll (sec Alllenelllheb '1"1'85) i\'lahu (sec Khaemhcl'rT57) j\tbhuh~ 20 J'\'lay 18 18 May 1V1eketra 11 Ml:n 18 Mcnkhcpcr (McnkJll:perrasencb) 18 18 Mcnkhcpcr Mcnkhl:pcrrasench 18 Mcnna 18 Mcntiywi 18 25!2(l Mcntucmhet (Mayor of"'-'hebcs) Mcru 11 jvlcn 18 lVIl:r)'amun 18 lVlerymaal 18 l'vlcrymaal 18 1\1er\"1ll0se 18 (Vic~roy or Kush ;lIld son of Amcnhotcp 1Il) 19 Meryprah 18 i'vlin Minn~lkl1tc 18 Monnlhcrkhcpcshef 18 19 Mosc lvlose 18 Mose, Mose and Ipy 191211 Mutirdais 26 Naamutllakhte Nakht Nakht Nahkt 22 18 18 19/211

157 el2

1,3
III Ull .:13K Z811 230 79

25R
86,112

69
172

H
2-f1l

8+,95
Z2 -f1l3 (-f

3S3
.lS7
lOY

1\7 211 l.ri

ZS+
]29 410

3+8 52
161 282

314

APPENDIX

Nahkt
Nahkt (Panakhl)

Nahkl
Nakhl:.llllun Nakluamun

N.lkhl<lmun
NakllldjchlllY

Nakhrmin Nay Nch,nlllln Nchalllull

Nch<llllllll

Nch,llllUIl Ncb,llllUIl Ncbal1lull Ncb:mlUll

Ncb:lInun

Ncballlull
Ncbancnsll Ncbenkcmcr Ncbcllmaar Ncbmehyt Ncbll1chyt Ncbnal..htc Nclmc!er NcbscmNebsen\-

IS 18 18 19? 19 19 19 IX IX IX 18 18 18 18 18 18 IX 18 18 18 19120
I~

397 ,\20 c8 202 335 341 189 291 271 17 24 65 90 145 146 179 181
231

Panchs\" PaT:lcn;hcb

P:lT3cmhcb Parcnncfcr Paroy (sec Thurmosc T'T295)

Paser (\"izicr)

19 19120 19 18

16 302 363 188 1116 303 305 367 J, .lUI 292

Paser Paser Paser

Pashcdu Pashcdu

Pashcdu Pashcdu Pathcnl\

Pchsukl;er (ThcIlCIlU)

Pcmu
Pcnamun
Penaashefi Pcnhuy Pcmlua PCllhcl Penne (SlIncro) Pcnllcsurtawy Penra Pcnrcnkhnum Pcnrennu (?) Pcnrcnnu Pcnrcnutct Penshcnabu
Pctcr~lIcll1hcbscd

204
256 219

Ncbscn~"

Ncbsur;lcnu Ncbwcncnef Ncbwcncncf Ncujcmgcr Ncfcrahcl 1~120 Ncfcrhabcf (sec Userhcl ~lT51) 18 Ncfcrhabcf 18-19 Nefcrhotcp Ncfcrholcp IS' Nefcrholcp 18 Ncfcrholcp 19 18 I cfcrholep II Ncfcrhotep Nefcrholcp 18 Ncfcrmcnu 18 18 Nefcrmenll 18 Nclerronpet Ncferronpet 19 Ncfcrronpet (Kef!a) 18 Nderronpd (Kcllro) 1~ 18 Ncfcrronpet Nd'crronpl;l 19 Ncfcrsekheru 18 Nefcrsckheru 19120 Ncferwcbcll 18 Nchcm;twa\" IX Nehi (\'iec;oy of b.:ush) 18 2(, Ncspebshuti (vizier) Ni;n 1'11211 II t oirll (\\ ife of i\lenruholcp 11)

19 19 18-19 IS IS 18 19 19 19120' 19

170 384 268 6 108 401 ell

un
157 AI2

13R
\22

Pia\' Pia)' Pial

19 19120 19-21 18 19/20 19 19 19 26 18 26 20 19/20 19 19/20 18 19120 19 19 20 19120 18 19/20 19120 NK 19 19120
1~I2U

Scniokcr Seniu (see Thutm:fcr \6) Senna Scnncdjcm Scnncfcr Senncfcr Scshu (sec Th~l{ndcr \6)
5Ct;lLl

HI'

185 169 1

IS 19 18 18

96
99
21~)

Scrcmharrcl..ll\ t

26
19 26 19120 18 18 IX 19/20 IX

(Yiccroy of Kush)

Shcshonq
Shuro\"
Siuser"

289 27
U

.m

339 12X S8
243

Smen Sobt:khorcp Sobckmosc

Sucmnlll

,\4 325 63 275 92

213
_\23

Surer (sec f\mcncmh:u TI'-J.8) 'I:tU 18 "'ctiky 18 "banuro 18 Th;.trwas 1~/20 Thaucnany (Any) 1~ Thenuna IS 20, Thoncfcr Thonder 20121 Thonder (~cc All1encmopct TT297) Thllt 18 IX Thlll Thul 18 "]'hULCll1hcb 19 'rhUlCll1hcb 19 Thuthorep 19/20 19 Thutihcrmakluf 19 Thutmosc 18 Thutmosc Thutmosc 18 Thulmose (Paroy) 18 IS Thutmosc Thutncfcr IS Thutncfcr 18 Thulncfcr (Scshu ur Scniu) 20 Thurncfer 18 Tj;lnllny IX

10 287
23~

.131

1S6 346 68

1S4 15 101 232 134

7f, 158 307

\399
elO
:U2 322 02 26:1

II

45 110

+5
194 1\16
357

3tH

Pia~'

.1++
406 411 19.1

19 19 18 18 IS IS 19 20 19 18 18 18
25

6 49 50 216
257

Psa-mtck Pmhemhch Ptahcmhcl Puimr;l

32
205

77 39
72

248
295

316 A5 184
365

Ra Ra
Rai;t Ramcsscnakhtc Ramose Ramose Ramosl; (vizier) Ibmosc (Amy) R.amosc Ramose Rawchcn
Ra~

201
159 293 7,212,250

43
133

4(,
55

TjayClo)
Tjay
Tlirobay Ullasankh User User (AmellllSerj vizier) User Uscrhet Userher ('\lcfCrhahcl) Userhel Uscrhcl Userhcr Userhcr Uscrmolltu

140 178 249

336

94
132

19 18 19120 F1P 18 IS IX 18 19 IX 18 211 20 19120 IS 26

26

.H2 80,104 317 ,6 \10 74 2.1

349 327
~1.1

20
I~

1117

296

165 III
312

Nu
Nu

18 18

2R6 319 144

291 362

Rekhrnira (\"izier) Renna Riya Roma Roma (Ro~) Rom;1

Ro~

Roy

RO"
I{o; (scc Rom;t Tr283)
Ruru

18 18 18' 19120 19120 19 19 18 18/19 18

NK

16(, 210 124 100

cJ
198 208
283 294

21 C>!,Ul 2611 47
51

56 150
235 \17

77
234 255

3S2
22 242

\\'ah \.1 142

2~7

19 P;tallcm\\;tsct 20 Pabasa P;tuiamcnopcl 16 I'adihurrcsnct 26 Padincith 26 P,lhcmncrjcr 1'1120 Paimosc IX Pairi 19 Pairi (sec Amencmopel TT29) Pakharu 19120 19 Pakhihct P'Ulal..hl (sec Nakhl .\20) Pancb 19

279

:n
196 197 284

A13
29

244 187 211

S:lmUI S:lmut Samllt (sec Kiki 'lT409) Samul S,\rny Saycmiotf Sencmiah Scncnmur Senenra Sellet St:nimcn

18 18 IX 19120 19120 18 18 18 12 18

Wahibra \Vahibranehpl'hti \Vclll1cfer \Vennefer Wcnncfer ... y

I'll
203 137

19 19120 19/20 18

298

,124
2:n 273

350

127
71,353

Numhers.\ 1-1)3 arc tOmbs which were cxplorcd in the past bur hn\'c now heell lost. Names in brackets arc ahcrn~t(i\'c names of tIle romb owner.

246 (,0
252

31S

INDEX
AapehlY 26-1 :\.3USCrr:l Apepi 35,1+6,152,260 Ahadi)a 131 Abel cl-Qurn:l-ll Abel c1-Rassul ramik .100 ..-\bdjw 1.1, 21-1 ' Ahibaal 2(),~
Abbn 17

agriculnlre IS, 16-17, 59,93,103, 129,132, HI, 1M, IS8, 194,203, 20-1,229,235,2-13,259, 2S-+, 286,
304

270,279,281, 283, 290, 291, 293, 29-1,296,300,305,307 stune "illage 26 workmen's "illage 17,26, .H, +5, 5-1-,
11I2, 107-8,254.264

Amra, d- 38. 187 anllllel17,30-I,JI,34,3-1,38,-15,5-1-, 55,62, S6, 95, 10 I, 10+, 106, liS, In, 123, 12+, 132. /32, 1.1" 137,
14-1--5,1511,1(,8, 175,192.193. Il)S,

A Group 17, 17,37, -IS, 54, 20-1-5 Agyrium 86

Aha II, 17-IS, S9, 181./8/. 196,200

Aha (dcmon) 5-1-,

286

8.\

171

abnormal hieratic 12S Ahri-Ddgo reach 263

Absbck 12

Ahhotcp liS, 19, 101, lUI. IH, 2011,

Abu Ghuroh, St:t :\.bu Gur'lb Abu Gur3b 10-11, 10, 25, 2,1. 39, 5 J. 12-1. 20~, 2Hl.132, 23-1. 239 Ahu R.l\\;ISh, st:eAbu R03Sh
Abu Roasb 11.111. 1+9.180,lIO,

Ahir;lm 58 A Horizon. st:c A Group AhlllOSC

11-I--15,18-19,18,19,2S,80,SI, 113.137, HI, 146, lSI. 218,2.14.

mmbs 1;.\6 (tomb of Panehsy) 26 1':.\8 (tumb ufTutll)-I-I Ei\9 (Iomh or L\lahu) 26 1'.!\25 (IOmh of A\") -1-5, 46 ruynl2L 26, 20ll, 291 t\m:lrna Letters 21, 27,27,29, -II, 58,
76,112.114,131,141,160.189.294,

200, 20S, 248, 2-1Y. 253, 202. 27~, 2H.l,29S Amun IX, 19, 20-1,23,25,30..1I-2, 31,35, 3S, -H-5, -18--9, -18, 79, XU,
86. 87,W, IIH, 113.120.122.122.

124,127,13-1,143,1-1-7,151,152,
160,164,169,170, 173, 177~~, 182, 185,187,190,194.195,198,211I,

233, 277. J09 Ahu Sara. 'Iell 56 Ahu S313hikh 22 Abu SimhclIJ-12, II, 12, +-I, -IS, 52, 61,62,76,79,131,199,229, no, 2+0-1,276 Ahusir 12-13, (iO, 71,118, 16U, 172-3, ISO, I~n, 210,220, 2:i2, 2.14, 251, Ahydos 12, l.1-15, 17, 18, It), .n, .H,
37,42,49,6-1. 70, 71, 76. 84, 86, 89, lOll, IIH, 109, 124, 128, 134, 137, 286, 298, 309

1-1-1,1+1)-50,152, /.)2, 153, 170, 172,

175,181,186,195,196,200,2IH, 209,211,214,1211,226,129.23.1-1,

2-1U,2-17, 2-19, 251, 253, 255, 2.15,

256,257,265,266,269.169.275,

278,282,286,288,193,295,297,
3114,31H

ccmelcn L 1+,25-1 E3rh' D~'nastic lombs:

BI7il8

i96

u19/1517 I' 220, 278 <t23() \ 150,257-8 x 33

255, 260. 276. 286, .lOU U 19, IV, 37, -In, -1-5, -17, 73,116, ISS, 197, 20U, 229, 250, 272 Ahmose '\It'!crt.lri 14, 19, 2S, 79, 82, 113. 120, 286 AhlllOSC Pcnnckhbet 18, 101 Ahmosesonuflhana 18,92 AiguplOs 130 AinDallaf97 i\in el-Wadi 97 Akcr 19.20,132,162.283 Akcrbhld,J. D. 247,308 "I:!J 20.20, 47,1110, ItH, 139, 146, 194 "Hef (horizon) 31, 1]2, 162,232 akhet (season) 58-9, 99, HI ,ddt iJ:er ell Ru 32 :\.khenitlCn 20, 26, 27, 29, 3+, +0, +\--15,46,54.57,79.104,112. liS, 124.125,131-2, HI, 152. 166,189. 194,198,19')-200,202.217,228238,239, 2+3, 252, 255, 256, 263, 267,270,281,290,290-1,296,21)7, 300,301,305 :\khelitlen 20, 21, 26, 26, +1-,13+,189,

30.l Amasis, sec .'\hmnsc I\m:luncr 31. 193,210 Amtlut/f 29, 62, 79, 106,273,290,299 Amclinc.tu, E. 14, S4, 86--7, 150,236 mencmhat 190,2-1-7,287
>

I 27-8, 51. 56. 102, 11I.1, I (>3, 180,

18.l, ltio, 23-1, 25S-9

1128,77,130,144, IS6, 259, 271, 291 11128,50,51, 57. 77, i8, S1'1, 121, 121. 1-/6,154,178,180, IS6, 21(" 273

IV 2S. 57, N-I, 178, 2i3 Amcllcmhnr (BlI2) 70 Amellemhatitjtawy, sec Iljt;t\\ y Amcncmnpc 215, 282, ]01 }\mcncmopct (rr276) 145 Amcncmopet (royal nurse) 1-1-8 Amenhcrkhcpcshcf 300 Amenhotep 28--9, 202
I IS, 19, 28. 39, 79. SO, 82, 159, 212, 21,1,276,28+,289,299 1115.28-9,42.+1,51,65.73,111,

212,215,22-1,228,232,236-7,239, 2-1tl, 2-11, 2-19, 255, 257, 258, 262, 26.\,265,266,267,27/,272,273, 277,279,280,281. 282, 2X7, 21:)8, 290,21)5 Amlincl, sec f\mauncr AmllnhcrLhcpeshcf 2-11 Annm f.\.'llllulef12, 165 Amun Kemaref 32,262 Allllll1-Min-Kallllll:cf 146 Arnun-Ib 11, IS, 23, 25, 32, 52, 120, 127, 1-I7-X, 177, 2:l9, 27~. 2S0 AnHllTll 236--7 '\!llHtaios 116, 158 An:;1 32..12. 42, 137, 23S, 2-15, 26....
280

119,13-1,1-1-6,1-1-8. I(IS, UB, 24." 265, 268, 290, 300

III 20,27,28,29,29,30, .H, -1-+, +5, 50,5-1-, 67, 6~, 70,79,82, X(I, 93, 99, 113,117,118,125,135,141,148, 1(>1,162,165,168-9, 1S4, 189,200,

z 86
acacia lOS, 295, 306 Adlaean 255 Achaemcnitl, see Persia AdlOris, sec I bkor Actillnl 66, 246, 169 Adams, \\.Y. 17,55,98,147, 2fH Adjih, see :\nedjih itdminislration 15--\6. IS. 28,129, 153,161,IXO,H6,25-1,259,273,
284,286, 3f10-2, 307
/dl1l1l11ifillll., I{ I puma 306 adzt: 71 Aegean 76-7, l/.i, 137, 162, IS6, 22-1, 255 aegis 16, IfJ,-I-8 AegYPliacI16 fegYPliu((/ (15, 89. 1m

279 Akhmim2L21.46 , I.H,187,19-1.30S Akkad/.I\.kkadian 22, 27, -17, 57, 75, 112, HO-I, 156, IS6,267,280 J\lalakh 76. 255 :\bmein, d- 56 Aleppo 237 Alexander, J. 204 '/kxu/ltler ROl/ulI/(t' 23 Alexander J (the Great) 23, 23, -1-0, -1-8, 89,116, 1.;;8,165,198,221,231,272 1\' Z-l-.231 .-\.leximdriil.23-5, 24, -IU, 59, 66, 1)1, 113, lib, 161, 180, 186, 19S, 231,
246, 260, 261, 276. 280

202,217, 2J2, 238, 2-13, 252, 253, 2.13,255,256,257,27-1-,27.1,276, 278, 2X7, 2SS, 2lJO. 290-1, 297-8. 299,300,308-lJ I\", see Akhen~1Lcn Amenhotcp (chief ste\\ard or Amcnhotep III) 3-1 '\menhutep HllY -1-7,300-1 Amcnhotcp son uf Ilapu 29, 29, -1-5,
7l),140

Amenirdis
I 113, 11.1. 178,224,266 11229,281

"11'1111

Afian 94 African Jung"1c Fowl 33 Afro-Asiatic 239 Al\eh 17 Agathodailllon 267 Agcsibus 116 Agilqiyya 222, 223

altar 10--11. 11,25, -15,12-1 horned 25 fire 221 f\lllad~1 29 Amanishakhcto It'{i Amanislo 162 t\manitcrc35 Amara 25, 25. 57, 205, 2-10.258,293 Amarn3, c1- 20--11, 22, 25, 26, 27,29,
H-5, 57. bl, 81-2, 96, 1lI4, 106,

113,116,117,118.125,132,133,
1.14,137.145,160.161,172,IS9, 199-200, 2f12, 216, 21(>-7, 222, 225,

232,243,2+8,2-1-9,252,263----4.267.

t\menmessu 152, 18-1-,265 Amenn3l..luc 1.19, 2S0 t\mentet 122, 122 Amen\\"ilhsu 279 Amen" 2S Amen;'ilamu, see Amenyqem.lll j\mt:nyqcIll311 77 amctlwsl 1-1--1-, IR3, 279 i\mha~hl7l) Amir,c1-,~1. 154 i\mmcnemes, see Amenemh;ll Ammul 30, 30, 55, S3 Amorite 2-1-5 Amosis, see AhmuSl' :lmphorat:' 22, 5<)

Anitr-her 32 .-\.n:llolia+I,13tJ...-.1.2S0 am:cstor husts .n, 31 :\ndjel-Y 213----4 Andjych, see '\neJjib Ancdjib 33, 89, 201, 2-17. 257-8 .-\.nen 290 Anherkh3u 2iO Anhur, see Onuris Anioa .13, ,U, 298, 301, 3U8 animal husbandry 33----4, 73,184 3nirnals, sec individual animals I/IIH 21. 31, 3+, 3-1, 50, 86,123, 201, 230, U8, 276, 2S3, 298 Ankhal" 267 Ankhef 50 Anl..henesmerira 220 Ankhcsenamun 131,298 Ankhesenp:wen 46, 29X Ankhin 161 Anl..11In'3hor 65, 65 Ankhncsnefcrihra 37 Anl..hoc..' S 2-15 Ankhtifi 97, IS9 Ankhu 301 Ank~'mnpolis 127 ~111I/(/lsfl.rn/flfl/l(ls(111112, I.1U, 178 Anqet, sec :\nukcl :mlclupe .H, IU7, 122, 135,252 Anrinoopolis -10, SO, 2-1-6 Al1I.inOlis XO Alll'ollinus Pius 276 Allllbicioll X7, 252 Anubis 30, .H, 3-1, "';6, 61, 70, XU. 87.
100, HO, /.fa, 16~. 171. 191. 201, 209,212,252,257,260

I\nukel .1-1. 35, 122, 122. 151, 202, 252,296 Anukis, see Anuker anus 176, 190

316

INDEX

Apedcmak 15, ISS Apcpi 35

Apcr-c140, 252, 2YS

Aphrodite 19S

astrology 42-3,228 astronomy 42-3, ()+-5, 1:H, !.lX, Z07, 23+-5,249,253,258,26-1-.276,283,

hasenji S7 basketry 17, +9, -19, (iX, 122. 1R5. 226,

Z60
Basta, lcIl28, 35, 49-50, -/9. .)0, 62, 126. 152, 162. 19H, 21 5, 21 (,,220,

300
Aswan .14. 35, 43-4.';], 70. 96-7. Ql.

Aphroditopulis lOY
Apis buI135-6, 3.), 47, 56, 57, 73,1-1-2,

118,120, WI, HI. H2, H9, 151,

183, 18(" lY6, 203.203, 2tl4. 20S, 220,222,22-+,252,259,272,280, 288. 28Y. 299 Aswan High Dam 12,33, +4, 57, 91,

237, 2-18, 256,

2~~

1-15, 180, 18~, 191. 1Y2, 1~8, 2+6, 248, ],19, 252, 260, 261, 2M
.Api.\" /:'mballlliJlg Hill/II/S:; Apollo 19, 198,207 ApolloniusoCRhodcs 16\ Apollonopolis i\rbgna H9 Apophis (I-lysksos Kin~), see Aallserra Apcpi and f\qcniL:llra i\pcpi Apophis (sl:rpcnt) 35, 36, 62, 100, I3lJ, 262,270
Appcr~on, P.

1+1, I-I(). IS~, 203, 211-1, 25~ .c\.syur 28, 40, +4, 62, 97,100,180,186, .
til

Baslct U, 23. +9-50, 62, tJ2, 7+, ]()3, 199,215,219,26S 13at50 batter 50, 218 Bawit47 . beans 17, 102

blue crown 7+-5 HIm: Nile 203 boat 38,39, ++, +8-9, 99, 109, 133, 177, /96,219,220,225,248,264, 268-9,269, 2lJ8, 2lJ9. 30() hoal pir/gnnc 11,12,1+,41),111,173 Hocchoris, sec Bakenrencf Bueotiil 28(, Bo~llilZkoy 130-1,137,152,199,241, 2S5 Bolzoni, G. P. V. 131

243

April'S 19,36-7, +S, 00,103, 1S0, 217,

22~

Apuleius, Lucius 37,143 Aqcnicnra Apcpi 35

Arabs HI, 1SO, 192, 235, 2S0 Arabi;141.51,5lJ,131)

Arabic 22, 63, 91, 109,lSL 30R Arab d-'[~lWil J2-J., 1St) }\rchac()lo~ic~ll Survey of Egypt (i I archaizing 13, (,8, 224, 266 An:himl:t!cs screw 267 Arcnsnuphii> 35, 37, 223, 280 Arcs 211 Aristophancs uf Byz<lntill111 161 Arkamani 37, 224 ArmillH .n, Sf), S7, 124, 17S, 189, 1tJ8, 222, 24~, 24tJ, 258, 287, 2Y(), 291 armour 1:)7 army 15, 28, 37-8, 38, ++, 1Y2, 2.l(}-7, 255,301,303 Arnakamani .n Arnold, D. 77, 260 (/I"/J/I/"{/175 Arsaphcs, scc I-Icryshef Arsinoe II II Arsinoc (province) 177 Arslluphis, see An:nsnuphis art3R--41 Anat.1ma 1 2Y() f\rtaxerxes III IS<J, 19f1 Artcmidorlls 121 Artemis 27() Asasir2Hi-l Asellct 54 Asel289 ash 306 Ashkeloll 143,2(,1) Ashmllllcin. cl- 125.210 Ashllrh:mipaI41, -/2, 14X, 1.18, nu, 20H. 22~, 2S I. 2S2 Asia 28, -1-1, 71, 107. 126, 132, 1-1-1, 156,167,189,192,202,203,204, 210,227,211,237,238, 23Y, 23V, 245-6,255,256, 2S9, 271, 272, 2iS, 28Y, 291,2<J9, 303 Ask1cpios 36,79.140,176,2(,1 Askm 103, 205 ass 33, 130, 191 assassination 28 Assur41 Assurhanipal, sceAshurbanipal Assyria/Assyrian 21, 27, 41-1, -12, 54, 5~, 711, 12~, Uli-I, H3, 1-18, 15S, 183.11\6,189,200,208,221,229. 237,250,281.282,303 Astarte 32. -1-2, 58,137,189, 2JH, 2i-S, 26-1-,282 :lsrragit1s 107

256,281, 2Y2, 30-158 AdMra 1-1-1,20.1 till/crown 42, 53, 72, 75, 122, 121, 1H), 150, 2U, 274 Aten 2U-I, 26, 29, 29, .)-1-, 40,-1--1---5. -1-1,54,79,132.137. ]()5, 16(l, llJ4, 199, /99,217, 23l:J, 2+3, 25(l, 263, 167,270, 2SI, 2lJt' Arer 171) Athena 200 AIhens 37.116,22+ Athrihis, sceArrib, Tell

l>e,,,,,150-1,68, 118, 120.161,230,

232,245.261,283 Ht' (J Saibl' 135 bed IOfl, 106, 127.12i, 162, 2X3. 294 Bedouin 41, 51,,1/. 59,1+3, IS3, 224, 237,259.271 bce51, I02,247-X heer 15, 16,17,22,S7, 101-2, 103, 2(1) Ikg:lra\\"iya ISS Bchbcit el-I'-bgar 51, 191'1 Bchdcr 134 Beheira pro\inee 197 Ikhislun 76 Beitel-Wali 51,52,2+0,30] Beja 55 beJ.:!lcllc/ 232 bellows 71 Belzoni, G. 11,52,70,91,300,30.1 /le//hclI stone 10,44, .12, S3, 74, 208, 229,235,28.1 /lCI!/Ielli'l 52, 20X Bcncdire. G. 109 Bcnh:l45 13eni Hasan 40. 52-3, .i2, 70, 186, ](J3. 2+8,259,276,292 lleniSucfl24.126 Benin 52 HCl1l Pyramid 17Y, 233 Bentresh Stele 152 bellu-hird 52, 53, .13 J3erber 156 Berenit:t..: 52, 305 Berlin Nblthematical Papyrus 173 Berlin Medical Papyrus 17f) Bernal, J\il. 240 IlLs 30,53-4. :;3, 72, R3, S8, 9.1,124,

JJool' oI./pl/phi., 36 llOI/A'I!{JJrc{/t!lillg 106

/JlloJ,'uFCIIi.'l'I"IIS 100 IlimA' I!rCUI/:S 13, 67. 71.J, 106. 132. 167,240,263,300

Buol.. ~f the Deild 13,30, 30.. . . \,47, 53,

6~, (,Y, 7-1, S3, ')9, 101, 111+, 106, 122-3, /23, 128. 134, 137,1-1-1,150, 162,16+,16-1---5,161':;,174, In. 202, 211, 21 +, 2:)1l, 253, 258, 2()6, 274, 284,21)5,2YB or Anhai 206, 272 of Ani 1U, /(J.).228 of Ilcrihor 12.1 of Huncrcr 30. 36, -17. 112, 21.1 of Kerqun)" 16 ur )\'laiherpri 168 ofNakht.13. ]08 of Ncsitancbtashru 93 of'bmcnill 108 Hord' I{Spl.'lIdillJ[ H/t'l"IIily lO() BOllk o(t!lalmhir!l I~~ illihe Net!ll'l"JI!orfd lOll . IJlJlIl'I{'!i/JI) lf1/ys 10-1,106,170

/Jullk oFKellljl(

90

55,

Ati2}1
Arlanris 321 i\trih, 1l:l11lJ, 37. +5,200,224 Arum 45, -16, 5U, 53, 74, 93,113,122.

/22. IN, 150, 163, 1'15,2110,2116,

215,129.2.19, 2+S, 270, 277. 21H AUgllSruS M). 130, 231, 246 A\'aris 40. 76-7. 132, 136-7,255,265 !\\,idillSClssillS2+(, Awihral-Ior 77, 146, I-I() axe 32, 71, 2/9, 260,276 A.\ +5, -I-(). 132, 135, 137, 199,202, 211, lCJ7, 299, 308

HI/Ilks oFlh!" Hm"iJellS

300

Iii! 12, 20, 35, 47, 53, 56, 68, 85, 96, 10-1,1+6,151, lSI, IS9, 19+.21-1,
23+,2+0,24+, 24R, 292 B.ml 32, 265 Ba';IJat Gcbal 58 IlilboOll 52, 76,116, IIi, 137, 151, 202, 20R, 231, 24S, 252, 275, 2RS-9, 28lJ,2% Bilbylun 37, +7,130 Rlbylonia 27, 47,158,186 Babylonian 22, 4.,. SH, 76,121),157.

1711,219. 2H, 2-1S, 283

Bes Chambers .)3, S4

2011,221
IbCl.:hiaslJ8 Badakhshan 15S l3ad,lri, el- 47,22.1.226 Baghdad 137, 152. 255 Bahariya Oasis 37. 47 Bahr Yusscr98 btl;: ('servant') 272 Bakcnrcnef" (IJocchoris) 266 Bnketatell 29 Balamull, Tell 103 B'llat 78 l3allana 25, 4X, -18, .15, 206, 237 B'l11as, el- It,J5 R1Ilcbdjcdctl19, 181 , 240,244,252 HaqariYYilh 56 Baqliya, Tell 288 Bard, K. 131 h,lrk 16, 1~,43,+S-f),-I8, 7lJ,I)f).195, 212,214,2+1,249,256,2(l-l-,2(,S, 26Y-70, 274, 279, 283. 285. 21)1 barley 16, 17,22,72,8-1,99, 102, 176, 215,284 Barsanti, A. 309 Basa 35

B Group 54
Biahmu 28 Bihan d-J-.brim 30U Biban d-Moluk 299 Bihlc/biblic1154,97. 143, 171,215,

255
lliMilll!le((( llisillri({/ 86
Bietak, j\1. 76,13(, Biga223 /la\)6 hirds20, -Ii, -I-S, 53, 61.96.122,129, 135,13.1,13(I,171.187,217,2IS, 2+4, 2+H. 252, 267 Birkel Ilahu 169 'hinll name' 27, (}-I, 198,200,215, 220,229,240,247,258, 2(l5, 268 Bir Umm rawakhir 170 Hissing, F W. von II Bisson de Ia Roque,.E 291, 2VI hitumen 192 bil)1/1 1 51 HI~ekll1;lIl, i\. 180. 2()3 Blemmvcs 55 block statlle 55

IJorch,{rdt, L 11, 12, 117, 200, 2(JO bonlcr/rrunticr 55-6. 60, NS, 102-3, 155, 187,200,220.2+9,252-3,256, 256,258,279 Bosni'1237 boundary 16, 55,105,175,189,205. 25(,.278, 2% brain 176, 190-2 nranding; 33 bread 16,22, i)9, 101-2, J()2. 103. 105. 129,209,226,272 bronze 50, 71,133,162,175,188.199, 200, 21JH, 238, 2-16, ]./~, HIll, 271, 291,303 Brooklyn Medical Pap~ rus 17(, Drug-sell, E. and 1-1. 220 Brunton, G. 47,270 I3ruycrc, 11 S2 Buhasleion 252 13uhilstis, sec IJasra, Tell Bucheulll 37. 3 i, 5(" 175, 189 Buchis hull 37, J7, 56, 57, HN, IlJS.
2-1~

Budge. E. A. W. 27 Buhen IR, %-7. .)(j 7,1113.132,205, 2+0,2-1.,,258-9,263,293, ]OR Buhlq 170, 172 hu1132, 35-6, 3.i, 42, -1-5, 57, 76, 77. 93, 115, 11,1, 135, I3tJ, H-+, 1+6, 175, IR4, llJ2 , 240, 248, 2-19, 253, 257,

260,26\,261,278
Burd.hardt, J-L. 11 13urlun,J. 305 Busiris 213-4 Hufana 185 Burehamun 17S HllW 19,67.97, lSI, 199,227,269, J02,305

317

INDEX

/'/11{

('taboo') 2S1

B\'blos 57, 59,119,120,142, IH, 214, 215,22+,259.267.26<),294.2<)5, 299

l.-ahhagc 1/ C:.lcs:.u.julius 66, 86, 2+6 C.lcsariun, Ptolcnl\ 66,66,84,2-16 l.:alcndar 16,42, S(i, 58-9. .i8. 6-1-5,

Chacronea 22-1ChaldaC-Jn 63 chamberlain 15 Champollion,].-E 62. 6J, 90,1)1,128,

cows 17,33,39,50,57,63,73,119,

23-1,241,259,260,265,269.27:\.

1/9,122,123,126,142,153,174, 189,200,201, 21H, 207, 218, 248, 2-19,252,252,275,28-1,298

co\\roid 73,73,103 crane 33 crcarion 73--+. 88, 93, 94,10-1-,126,

287,289-90,294,295,300
Dcir c1-Bal1as 81-2, 81, 117,243, 25X

291
Deir c1-llcrsha 40, 69, 82, 82, /{N.

'

160,169.170.247. 29i, 308

Champollion-Figeac, J-J. 63 chancelJor 13, 15, -1-6, 8-1-.180, 29S, 301 chamress of Amun 228 chariot 42, 63--+. 6.1,132.135,136, 137,216,237.289.301 Charlesworth. D. 97 Chassinal. E. II cheese 102 Chcops, see KJlUfu Chephren, see I\:.hafr:l Chicago Epigraphic Sllr\"C~ 177 chief steward 15

128,186
Deir c1-llagar 78 Deir c1-i\lcdina 19,28.30, :n. 3J .19, m, 51, 54, 67, 79, 82-3, 82, 87, 90,

138,150,151,164,166,167,187,
193,200,206-7,210.229.230,232.

HI. 107, 228, 253, 276, 281 Cambys(.'s 13. 19.36, -II, 51. 158.221, 229,248 camel 33. 51, 59 Campus .\ I.. nius J-l.3 canaI16,56.8~,97, 107.131, HI, 171. 177. ZUO. n5, 25-1, 259, 267, 271 C:.ma;m 57, 59,59. H3, lOS, 22+,
236--7.277

239, 2-H, 262, 270, 281, 283, 286, 3o-J

Crele/Cretan 40, 76,115-6, II.,. l-H, 243.271,283,291.294 criosphim 276-7 crocodile 30. 45, 126. 129-30, 133, 135, I.i-l, 176, 191,200,22-1-,248, 2-+9,273,276.283,294,296 Crocodilopolis 176.248,273 crown 34, J5, -1-2, -15,53,72,7-1--5, N. 75,79,80.88, 122, 122, 125, 1-l-8,

99,1110,102,1/7,140,159-(10,1.,", 160,16-1,171,174,178,184,202. 212, 2l3, 216, 219, 234. 241. 2+( 262,264.270,272,278,280,288, 29.1,293,294,306
DeiI' "las;} 47, 216

/)/' Isidl't'l Osiride 22-1-

children 64, 119, 166 C Horizon, sec C Group

Christ 6-1chronology 13,6-1--5,6-1,72,89,276 cippu.\"SS, 133.133. 168.254,262,30-4 circumcision 65. 65. 281 Clement A.Jcxandria 161 Cleoparra VII 66, 66, 8-1, 231, 2-16,

Delos 260 Delphi 19

demons 53, 55, 62, 83, lB. 171 (kmutic 55, 63, 71, 83--4,8-1,101),127.

C.1nniball-h 11m 1.1-1.236 Cmopic SJ,- 197 canopir.:s 59-60. 60. 6S. 77,127,191, 200, ZOZ, 220, 262, 275, 2hi, 28+. JOD,309
Clnuplls 59
ClIlOpUS I)t.:crt.:t'

152,167,187,193,19.,,197,197.
198, 199, 200,201,2-/0,245,2-/.;,

128,129,153.157,1(.2. 16.1. 17.1.

192,213,216,147,2-17,250, J06,

or

252,254,2.,-1. 256, 259, 274,27S.

283,302

308
Dl'lIIlJlir Chnlllirlt' 83
Den II, 18,33,84,89.247,2-17. 2S(I. 2.,6. 278 Dcnder:l 36, 43, 49, 66, 71,72, H-I-S, 8-/.8.;,119, HI, 142,153, 169,171,

160

247,269
Cleop~Hra's Nccdk~

{l'IIxaf/sala.H nypt R4
Crysral Pabcc, London 41 cubit 17-1-5,175,219 cllcumbers 17, 102 cuneiform 22, 27, 27, 41. 47. 75-6,

Cape Gclidonya 29+ caprin's 13,35,60-1,60,62,87,9-1.

25,91

9-1,112, LH, 135. 162, 167, 197,203, 217, 220,232, 232. 239,24+. 2M, 297, ]fU. 30S Carac;llhJ 2+6
Carchcmish ..j.7

clepsydra 66, 187 clothing 66-7, 67, 1)3. IS4, 194, 22S, 307 cobnl 16,67,95, 1M';, In, PH, 199,

176, 20.1, 207, 2U7, 214, 218,2211, 221,231,2-16,248,249,2-11),266

DCllliur 37, SO
tlm/'f!,

131,160,199,241,280
Currcl1y. C. T 14,97 cursiyc hieroglyphs 128 Cusae 28, ISO Cyril' (~r I /UI ros 164 Cyrle (jIPt'(lilbllsll~\' 162, 164 cynocephalus 76, 151, 231, 2-1S, 252, 275,288 Cyprus 19,37,116,186. .lOS Cnene 185 C;Tus1l221 Dab'a, Tell c1-.H, -W, 76-7. 76, U2,

201,245,262,269,271,102,105
coffin 18,20,21,24,36,40, +2, -12, 4S, 47,52,5",61,67-9,68,69,87, 105,

88
[(11I1

Denen 255
/)enhlJae!er {/u.\" Aegyf!11!1I

Carian 158, 229

Clrlsbcrg Papyrus \'111 176 Carnan on, Lord 61 Carnarmn 'Elhlet 35, I-!-()
Clrp

111,11+-15.128,113,146,153,168, 170, 181~2, 181,184,190,200,20/, 201-2,207,208,209.2119.212,214,

222,222,240,257,261,266,268, 269,271,273,275,282, 2!H, 297,

"Jethiopim9l,160
dcnrisr 116

Dep9i
Dcpury of Kush 25, 300 I)err 240 Descriplioll de J'Egyple 91, 160 dt'shrel (crown) 74 dl'Jhrel (desert) 85, 88, HS

100,119,214

Caner, H. 26, 2<,1, -!-O, 61, 67, 91,91,

121,168,230,297
Caner, W. 91 Carthage 37 cartonn:lgc 21,28,61,61-2, W, 101),

303, 306, 309

Coffin Texrs 55, (19, 69, 72, 106, 128,

16-1,270,276
coins 23, 59, 116, 198, 276, 295 Colossi of i\lemnon 29. 69-70,70,

Di'slrllrlilJll oj. \"IllIlkiml23

Dewen, see Den Dia{ogut' 0[11 "'(flllPith ltiJ Btl ]0(, Ditl/ugur o[Ihe J!rtlt! tlml Ilu BcI()' 306 Diodcti~m 25, .,7, 56, 223, 246 Diodorus Siculus 22. 86, 126, 161.

138. 171-2,201,219,309
c.mouche 22, 39, 62, 62, lH, 100, 125,

187, 241, 255, 265, 282, 288, 291,

302,307 Dabenarti 103, 188 d:lchshund 87 Dahshur 28, -10,77-8.77,78,127,

24<,,280
columns 70--1. 108, 138. 184, 199.

152. In, 169, 194. 19-/,215,219,

N8, 2fl1, 268. 272, 297.21)9 Caspian SC<l 189 ell 13,23, 36, SO, 50, 62, 62, 93, 135, 189, In, 199,219,252,276 c.ll.tracl 55,62,203. 20-!first 33, 34, 35,43.55-6,96,118, 1N6, 203, 220 second 28,33,56--7,6\ 101, 187, 188.203.205,258,259,263 third 63, 148, 188,205,263,289 fourth 55. 57,195,205,207,289 fifth 55. 155 sixth J5, 203 cathedral 98, 237 Ctton-'rhumpson, G. -1-7, 93, 226 cattle, see cows C:IUSCW;IY 11, 12-13, 28, 51, 110, 120, 149, 179, 2:n, 235. 252, 269, 277,

219.223,2-/-/,286,299,306
l.'ampaniform 71 composite 70 Harhor-headcd/sisuum 71, 8-1, 255, 276 lotus 70--1 palm 12-13.70,71.124,12-1 papyrus 70--1, 115. 138, 138, liS,

IH, 146./-/6. 179, 180, 182, 186,

210,23-1,251,260,271,272,277 O.lkhl:l Oasis 22. 78, 78, 288 Damictta 83 &lllce 64,72,75,78-9.78, 79,88,93. 1H, 192,298,307 Darius 113,40,76,158,221,302

241
Dionysus 36, 261 Dio of PruS3 24 Diospolis Paml 131 diplolllaC)" 12,21,22,27,4-1,75-6. 112, 160, 171,238, 258. 290, 29-4.

181,269
proter-Doric 70 'lelll-pole' 71 'concubine of the dead' 266 Constantinople 150 Contendings of Horus and Seth 21+ contraception 176 Cooney,]. D. 113

303
Discourse o[KlwHli'perms/'IU:/J 16-1, 306 Dis(llurJl' I~r Neftr~J' 28, 135, 186. 30b Discourse o[S{/so/Jd' 306
Dishna 94 divine adoratricc 86. 113 divorce 171 Dixon,). 91 Dj, 178,245 Diadjaem:lIlkh 167 DjamclI77 Djau220 Dj:lwry4-1Djeb 89 Djcdcfr:l 11,88, III, 149,210,231). 247,277,309 Djedet 181,240

I1 116 IIJ 221

dates/date-palm 17,22-3,102,108,

295,303,306
Da\js, T 21, J09 Davis, W.197 debell 175,294 dr.:can -1-2, 276

copper 17, 41, 50, 66, 71, 86,10.1,116, 166,17+-5,188,205,220,271.289,

294,297 Copric34,63, 71-2, 83, 91, 92,104. 125,129,131,149,157,163,170,

299
cavctro cornice 63, 269 cedar tree 214 wood 306 cenotaph 13-I-!-, 17, 18. II), iH. 86, IS3, 229, 233--4, 286 census 6-!Ccnrral Park obelisk 25 Cerny,]. 271

Dedi 160 '!<:UiljiI148

dcific:uion 79-80, 199 Deinoknnes 24 Deir Anba Bishuy 82 Deir t\nba fbshay 291 Dcir cI-Bahri 18: 25, 28, 30, 36, 38,

182,216,246-7,252,108
coregcncy 18,20, 28, 29, 66, 72 , 120, 200,220,246,258-9, 2l'i5, 267 cordage 17.-1-9 Corinthians 197 corn mllmlll)' 72, 274 cosmetics 72,106,107, 112,192,208, 259

C Group 17, 54,63,63,205,218

Chabrias 11(1

40,61,68,70,73,79,80-1,80.81, 99,101,103,108,117.119,120-1, 135,140,145,169,172,183,183, 186,19-/,197,208,213,23/,232,

Djedi 134, 167

Djedkara-lsesi, see Isesi Iljetlpillar 31, 3-1, 68, 71,86,86,168. 2H, 230, 248, 298

318

INDEX

DjcdthuLcfankh 221 Djcdu 213 Djcbhapy ++

Elephantine 28, 34, 35, n, +-1-, 55--6,

Djcrty 17S Djchutymose, sec ThulnloSC djef 55, S6 Djer 14, 18,89,144,161,186,214, 275,297
Djcscrkarascncb 23

dje/123 Djel 18,57,67,86--7,89,11I9, .105

Djustr79,S7,97,97,121, 126, U9, H9, 179,210,233, 2-H, 25'0, 251,

252,256,260. Zi9, 299, 306

Djoscrri 256 Djurmosc, sec ThuUllOSC dog 34,37, fl.7, 168, 2z.t

doll 64 dolphin 119 Dongula RC:lch 155, 195, 205 donkey 33.116,132,135.166.232, 264 DOfl,rinarti 103 Dorian 19 Dorm'ln, P. 258 douhle crown 11 Ora Abu cl-Naga 18, 19, 28. H6, 260, 286, 287, 299
drama 90. Hil, 164, 169, 193 c1rc:nHs 54, 85, 87,134,176,213,277,

283
Dream Stde 277, 283, 290 On:\'(:.., G. 86, 236 dro,,~(JS 260, 277 Dro\'clti, B. 91, 296 duality 88,123, !-l8, 201, Ln. 2M. 270,303 Duamurcf 59,200,266.275 duck 27, 33, 93, 102, 107 tlwtl2-H dwarf 53,88,88,219,231,283
dll'fl/2H
d/J}(/I-III:tjer 85,

97, HI, 151, 170,203,203,204,220, 224,248,252-3,259,272,280,293, 296 E1ibaal215 Elkab 18,23,92-3,92,97, 102, 14 I, 197,201,202,218,269,284,28.; embalming, sec mummifiGlrion embalming plate 191 Emery, W. B. 36, 56, 57, 84, 140,239 em mer 16,22, 9<J, 101-2. 176 encaustic 40, 43,121,121,172 enchorial, sec demotic Enezih, sec Anedjih Engclbaeh. R. 208 en~ead 45, 73-4, 93, 93,108,201,207, 214 Eos69 epagomcna! days 58 Erani, '11:11,.'1- 166 Eridu280 erorica 93, 93 Esarhaddon 41, 59.158,18.1,200,281 Esc 241 Esna 93-4, 9-1,134,138,151,200, 202,20.1, 2.11, 248, 266 Ethinpi;\ 231 EUl!ubian'lhblclS 160 EujJhrates 18, -+ I, 55, 186, 189, 289 EuscbiliS 169 execration [cxLS 36, 60, 94--5, 9-1, 168, 203,260 Exodus 54 eye of Ilorus, sec /lJl'fljal-eyc cycofRa67,95, 163, 193.257,289. 303.307 Ezbct l3ashindi 78 Ezbet Hclmi 76-7
faience 3-1, 38, 73, 95-6,95, 112-3,
119,1/9./23./29,130,1+1....5,157,

Fields ofOfTcrinb'S, sec Ficld of Rccds figs 23, 52, 102, 108. 306 fish 93,100-1, /00, 102, 108,1/2, 119,136,185,214,218,248,281 Fisher, C. 184 fishing 17,40,101,135 flabellum, sec nail nag 232 nail 3+, 75, 187,213,2-10 nax 17 Fletcher, J. 140 ninr39,47,65, 109.166, 168, 195,211 OJ' 18, 101, /0/. 115 followers of Horus 133, 284 fuod 47, ()S, 86, 97, JUO. 101-2, 102. i03, 146, 161, 183,204,209,228, 272,281,295 fortrcss 28, 33, 37, -13, 56, 56-7, 56-57,63,98,102-.1,160,161,177, ISO, 18.1, 186, 188. /88,205,217, 258,259,303 foundation deposit 77. 103, 103 frog 103----4,123,12-1.210 funcran' cone 105, 105 'fllnera~y enclosurcs' 14, 128, 150,233 furniture 106-7, 106. 107. 126, 127, 127,203.221,300,306 Fustat 180 Gahra) S" 296 Galen 176 h,ra!ena 72, 218, 259, 279 games 64.107,107 Ganfenbrink, R. 11 () brarden 107-8, 108, 267, 30-1 Gardiner, A. 1-1.305 Gardner, Elinor 98 Gardner, Ernesl 198 garlic 17, 102 Garstang, J 52, 185 Gash Delta 218

gla5527,41,95,1 12-3, 1/2, 123, /23, 1+4-5,148,157,18/,197,253,266, 299,302, 306, 309 goat 16, 17,33,181. 20-+, 240 god's wife of Amun 19,37,86, 11.3-4,

113 dyad 88, 146,296 dymlsLics 65, 89,169,297 E;lsternDescrt28,41,SI,71,114,

158,168,180,198,217,225,233, 2-19,253,263,266.271,275,283,
29-/,299,308

119,170,187,195,218,270
Ebers Medical Papyrus 176 ebony 57, 84, 86, 205, 231, 2S6, 278,

295,306
economy 15,24,41,42.82, 128, 175, 22(1,229,234,248,250, 2S4, 270, 286. 29......5, 299 Edfu 36, 38---1-0, 42, 48-9, 88, 89-90,

Fairman, I-I. \V. 263 Fakhariyeh, Tell c1~ 189 F;lkhry, A. 77 r:llcon-13, 39, 45,59,87, SlJ, 90, %, 119,127, l.13--l, 149, 150, 151, 153,171, Iii, 188.1~9, 197,211, 214,219,220,230,239,2+7,248, 252,261,262,267,271.273-4, 2N, 276, 277, 281, 282, 296. 297, 305 false beard 50, 73, 75,277

89.90,119,130,1.14,136,161,169, 169,173,193,203,204,221,231, 264,285,296 Edomite 215 education 90, LH, 254 Edwards, A. 222, 2+3 Edwin SmiLh Medical Papyrus 176, 253 egg 102,109,139,210 Egypt Exploration Socict-y/Fund 26, 171,180,222,237,248.252 Egyptian Anriquities Service 91, 170 Egypti:1.11 I Iall, London 52 ehlipllH'1f 112 Eilcitlwia 201 einkor;116 Ekwesh 162,255 Elamite 76, 109 Eldorado 231 elephant 135

false dnor 84, 96,96, 146, 173,209, 210,261,278,298 famine 96--7, 141,299 Famine Stele 87, 97,97,151 Para'in, Tell cI- 67, 97, 227, 302 Farafra Oasis 97 Farama, Tell c1- 56 Faras 63, 98, 98, 1+7 Fayum 22, 28, 40, 93, 98,98,100,116, 121,137,156,161,172,177,179, 184,186,227,245,246,259,273 feather :W fenililY figurine 93,168,265-6 festi\'als 43, 48--9, 50, 59, 98-9, 102, 188,210, 212-3, 218, 228, 245, 274. 285 Festival of Osiris 21-+ Fcsti\'al of Sokar 27+ fetish, 3......5, 86, 140,278,303 Field of Reeds 99-J00, 99, 104 Fields of I.aru, sec Field of Reeds

Gaol 86 Ga\er-Anderson. R. 62 ga;clle3-+, 102, 184,218,245,303 Geb 45, 68, 74, 93,93, 108-9, 108, 122,13.1,142.207-8,270,283,284 Gebel Adda 147 Gebel el-Ar", 109 Gebel Barbl 32, 87, 148, 155, /62, 195,224,24.1,274,28.1, .105 Gebelein 39-40,100,109,152,273 Gebel c1-Mawla 272 Gebel c1-Silsi1a 109, /09, 118, 1.12. 273,279 Gcbel Sheikh SlIleiman 86 Gebel c1-Zeit 279 geese I.l, 33,109.122.115,179,208. 249,284 Gell, \1'.305 GL"'Orgecallcd Synccllus 169 Gerf Husein 230, 241 gesso61,109} 16-1 GeLrv Consen"ation InsLitutc 199 Gcz~r 143 Gczirct el- Rhoda 203 Giza 1.1,39,42,49,59,77,87,88,
109-12.110-1/,1.11,141,144,149,

173,178, /78, 193,224,228,229, 250,266,281,288 gold 27, 41, 50. 57, 86, 97.101, /0/. //2,11+-5, / N, 144, /-11, 155, /58, 166, /66. /72,175, /85, 195, /99, 205,208,231,268,269.270, 27lJ--l, 27/.282,284, 2SI>, 291, 294, 297. .100-1 Golde1l Ass, Thl' 37,143 'Golden Hours' name 11+.2+7 Goncim, Z. 257 grain IS, 16--17.129, 166, 174.215, 259,272 granaril.'S 15, 16, 185. 18S, 235, 2+ 1, 245,286 grapL'S 17, 102, 108 Gre;n Bear ..fl, 57 Great Green 115 Grc:lI J larris Papyrus 128, 130,230. 2+1,255 'gre:lt royal wifc' 238 Grcece/Greeks 19,23,24,38,47.63. 69,71, 7()-7, 79, H3, 109, 115-16, 1Ij, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 153, 155, 157, 159-60, 162, 11>.1, 17.1, 192, 194.197-8,198.216,221,221-2. 22/, 229, 230, 231,245, 247, 2n, 250,269,280,291,294-5 . .108 Green, f. W. 128,120, 254 greyhound 87 griffin 220 Griffith, F Ll. 153, 154, 195, 198 GrOlcrend, G. F. 76 Gua 69. JO~ Gublj 57 Gurob 81,116--7, //6, 118,293 gynat=cology 176 H" 122, /22 H:wibra, sec Apries Hadad 215 H:lcles 36, 261 Hadri"n 80, IZS, 241> hair 50-I, 72,117-18,1/7,189,202, 228, 262, 303, 307 Ilakor 198 )-Ialicarnassus 126 Hall of the Two Truths 30 Hamada, A. Ei4 I JamiLO-Semitic 239 I-lammamia -+7, 226 Ilammurabi -H 1-1::lOigalbat 189 Ilap~~(inundation god) 115, lIS, 118, 141, 268, 304 Ilapy (son of Horus) 59, 202, 275, 275 1-larageh 166 I Jardai 293, 301 I-Iardcnda!e 305 Ilardjedef 305 hare 102 I-Iarensllllphis, sec Arensnllphis harim28, 117, 118-19, 1/8, 165, 177, 189,217,220,224,238.241.283, 308 1-lar,huf 88, 160, 220, 231,294 I-Iaroeris 133, 154 I-Iarpocmtes 64,133,175,181,262 I-Iarrow School 305 I-Iarsicse 133, 215

J./9, 152, 170, 172, 173, 179, 180, 181-2,181,187,210,222,233-5, 23~, 243, 245, H;, 250, 269, 274, 276-7,277,290,292,295,296,309 Mastaba \' 109 GI-a 127 G6020114 G7000x 127

319

INDEX

llarsumrus 1.1+.296 I bncy, S. 14

(I:lthor 12, ]0, 32. 35, 4.l, 49, 50, SR, H 68, 71, 13, 80, 8+-5, 8-1, 85, 85, 93,95,109,111,11+,119, IN, 122, /22,133--4,1+0,142,151,153,169, 171, /82, 188, 189, 193, 199,200, 2117,207, 21-l, 218, 219, 23/, 238, 248,2-19,255, 2(IS, 271, 295. 296. 2<)7,298.307 lI.r-,\lchil J()O, 119, 181
I blmdcr 258 Iialnuh 22, S2, 119-20, 119, 152,279 H:ltshcpslIt 19,25,28, 3U, ]8, -1-0. 70, 811,80. 81, 86, JIG, /0./, 108, 112,

113,120-1,120,130.135.153,168. 169,177-8,178,183, IV-I, 21111, 2118, 2U8, 213. 23/. 23S, 1.:;0, 25S, 269, 276,289,29+. :lU7
Hatli 241 j-I;mlls;ls 152 Iialtlisilis LI112, 199,237,14-1
flllly 122

Hcnutmehn 2M, 295 Hcnunaw\: 192 I-lephaisl~s 230 Ileqaib 1+1 I h:qanefer 33 lleqat, see Hekel llera ISIS Heraklcopolis J\bgna ++. IOO, 12+, 12-1,126,127,1.11, HI, 183.215, 221, 240, 248, 287 Hcraklcs 124 Ilcrihor 12 5, 125.202.288,21)+ Ilermcs 207, 2SI) Ilermunthis 56 HcrmulXIlis l\bgna 32, 55, 73, 76, 123,125, l2.l, 127, 183, 192, 19R, 200, 210. 221, 262. 282, 288, 293,

296
Ilcrodurus I(l, It), 23, 34, 36, 37. 4t), 50,6.i,~0, 101-2, 11(" 118, 121, 126, 139,158, 1M, 17f" 181, 1911-2, 1~7, 21+,219,228, 2..J.O, 25U. 266. 280 heron 53 I-Icr-wcr 123 IIayll/'b 191.228
IIaj'seslllil190

han-' 16. 156 Ila~lhct 210

Il:turon 277 H:l\\ara28,-JO, Ti, 121, /2/,234,251,

llcmhcf 124,12-1,126,221,240
IIl'r}I/J>-,\'II51

272
hawk, sec Ellcon I-by, It 52, 305 Hayes, W. C. 100, 130, 187
d-Ilavz. -HI hcadn:'st 31.106.113,138.162,270,

Ilcsat 189
III:S!Ji:f6..J.

283 I h::trsr Papyrus 176

heir! :W, 30. 83,104,10.1.122-:1, 166, 174,182,191,198, 231l, 267 hean scarab 55, 25J Hebrew 22, 63, 156, 30M 11th-sed 256

he/lslI'/170 II/:djt'/ (crown) i+ Hcdj-wcr ('the grC::l1 whilc one') 2S8

I <n Heh 104, 121, 122, 12J,123, 210, 295 Ileir, 'n~1I d- 56, Hl3 beiress Iht.'()f\- 19,238 luk" (crooL.) 75, 213, 2-1fJ, 25+ lid. 74, 94.162, 167 /uk" NUism/136, 187 Ilekanakhte 160 IU'I'II/175 Hekel 104, 123--+, /2-1 heliacal rising +2,65,276 Ileliopulis 25, 3(1, 39, +4, 45, 52, 53, 55,57, (12, 7.1, 93, IOH, 124, 1+2, 1+3, I('~, 189, 20B, 210, 214, 230, 235, 236, 2.W, 248, 25lJ, 270, 2S+, 285 Hclios 311, 207, 261, 273. 2S0 l-Idlenion 197 l-Ic1wan 9-1. 211 helll ('sen'ant') 272 Ilcmaka 84, 301 Ilcmnumiyeh, sec I bmmamiil
heJil~kr

hl'.\'-vasc 201) Ilesna 126, 126 ht,ft';1/1I' I/I''.ia 191 ht'/l'p 99, 101,201) 1rt'/i'p-di-nwI' 209, 209 I-Iclephercs 59,107, III, 127.12i, 144, 152,243,271 Ilcrepi 97, HI I-Iclepsel..helllwy 50, 89, 236 hi 170 cl-Hiba 127, 2~8 Hierakonpolis 92, 96, 102, 109, 12i-8, 127, I.H. 150, 1<J5. 220, 226-7, 25-1, 302 tVhtin Deposit 128, 167, 1<.16-7, 19(j, 218,254 'nmlb JOO 39, tiO, 128, 167,253 hicfilkosphinx 276 hieratic 55, 55, 83, 9-1, 128. 128, 129. 152,156,157,160.162,163, 17U, 216,254,2% hieroglyphs 55, 62, 63, 75, 90,114, 118,128-9,128,131,157, Fi, 163. 170.1<.17,236,2+7,2-17.253,254, 2~7. 308
Ilit:mg~J,phi(((

131

hill 175 hippopOl:lmLls 30, 35, 109, 116, 129-30, /29, 135-6, 16i, 176.211. 218, 26+. 283, 298 IIisn,Tcll124
IliS/flril'S 126

IU'lIIl'/170-1 he1lli'/lIcswmeref

19, 171,238 113

hCIII/'/III'tji'r 228
1/(;}1/{~/l1ctja II//lllt'/!

h/'m I//'/ja

228 hell//I" /It'S/I) 238 hens 33, 102 l-Icnen-nes\\ 12..J.

henothcism 44 Henllawy 239

IU:IIA'l/22

Ilittites 12,27,29,..J.I, 51,5<.1, 130-131.152,183,189.199,202, 236-7, H2, 255, 265 I-liw-Scmaina 131./31, 195 el-Ilobagi 1R5 Hogarth, D. G. I\)8 Ilolllcr 255 honey 22, 51, 102, 176, 28+ Ilophra 36 I-Lor, sec f\wibr:J. Ilor 11m (prit.'St) 139 1I0",poIl091l, 13 I Iloremakhct III, 132, 133--+,266,277

Horemheb 38, 40, +5, 46, 109, liS, 131-2, /32, 165, 173,202, 2..J.(), 252, 2B2, 29B, .100 Ilorelllsaf 156 horizon 19,20,31,132,132,13+,162, 232.239,270,277, 283.295 l-lornal..hl 2\ 5 IlufI1ung, E. ++, 280 huroscopc -IJ horse 33, +5, 63, 6J, 132-133, JJJ, 137.155,22+.232,283 I-Ionon .\ 1. 204 Ilorus 13, 34, 35, 38-HI, +2-3, 48, +8-9,57,58,6+,79,87, RR, 88,89, 89. ')0,96, 108, III, 114, 118, 119, 122,127,130.132,133--+, U3, 13(1, 1+2,1-12,1+9,150,153,154.1.,-1, Hd, 165, 167, 16H, 169, li5, 181, 187.193.200,201,2117,211,214, 21S, 220, 224, 2-1-4, 2+5, 24i-H, 2-1i, 248,261. 262, 264-5, 266. 26i, DO, 173,275,281.284, 2M3, 2lJ6, 303, .103 Ilonls uf Behrlel I_H. 296, 305 Horus Iun-muter 13J Ilorus Khent\--Irty LH Ilonls Khenl ~-l..h~1 \" 45 Horus name 28. 15i,l.i2. I.l.i, 183, 247,272, 286 11ose:154 hour priesr 22X I-Iousc of BeaulY II) 1 Iluusc tlfBooks-134 Houseur Life 90. 134, 161,228,254 human s<lcrific(' 48, 13..J., 148,236,28+ humour9U, IOi, 13 5,216 Huni 127, 179, 196,248 hunting J9--..J.O, +6. 57, 61, 62, S7, 93, 102, 129-30, 132, 135-6, /1.i. /16, 162,211,219,269,298 hunting and gathering 17 Ilurrian 27, 112,189 hllsbandn'. sec animal husbandnHuy (Al1l~nhotcp sun tlf Hapu) 29 Iluy ('n40) 33, 331 2tJS Hu~a (c1-!\marna) 291 I hn-llen-ih +5 l-h\t-h\" i5+ IlwT-k;-Ptah 230 11II'1-7i"JI255 hyena 33, 97,184 J-1~ l..sus 15, IS..n, 33, 35, ..J.O, 56. 59, 63, 76, 81, 92, 97,130,136-1:'7,/36, 14(,,152,171,11-1,187,202,205, 255.260.265,276, 27tJ, 297, JO,~ hymns 45, +6, 75,137,1(11. \(14, ISl3, litJ I-h'llllllll "it! 4//'11 +5, 46,54, 137, 23tJ I~)'IIII/ (t/ JIll' Nile 11I111fl/1l1illll 137. HI h~ IlOccphalus 137--8, l3i hypostyle h'II171, 8-1. X5.94, In. UH, 1./8.146,148,177,217,219. HI, 283,28,i Iabet 122, 122
iare/67

Iken 205 lIlahun, sec cl-Lahun Imholep /63, 230 ImhOlep (deified) 30. 79, X7, 13Y-1+0, 13<J, 176, 2.B, 251,252, 25t) imilll f~tish 34-5, 1+0, 1-10 Imollthcs, sec Jrnhotcp iJlo,-r-!.:II/III'Sm IS imports Ii, 112, 188, In, 271 lmsety 59. 266. 275, 2i5 Imu 15+ incense 72, HO-I, 1-10 incesr 171. 238 IndJ-hedj 180 incbm hd.!iI 56, IU2 Incni 108 Inhapy 3no Inhert, sec Onuris Inpw 3..J.
Ills/rl/f/i(JIlj;Jf King ,1IerdlIm..J.l, 305 Ins/me/inn III IWl'1/cmllll//28, 25S, 305 /IlS/ructifJJ/ oI.llJ/t'IIl'Iuipd Sill/III KfUllIklll 54, 3U6

Ins/ruction /If IIIJ' 305 0fP/lIhholl'p t)4, 307 Imef I 11K). HI. 183,249 1197.141,149 III 141,149 Nubkhcpl:rra 1-1-1. 18() I ntcfiqer 102 inundation 16,42,57.58,85, W..... i. 118. HI, 148, 151, 175,203.2111, 213, 218,219,229, 235,153,2()8,
IUSlnleliUIl

283,304 Iper, sec OPCI

ipt'/118

Iper-isUl H7
ipel-im/2S7
ipf'/-,.e.~J'/

165, 28X

I phikraercs 198

JPl! 21 Iput 220, 2R() rpl!y lOS Iran i(l, 221 Iraq IS6 Irc11120+ in'p22 Irehorcru 190 I iron 27, 131, 1+1-2, 185.IQO,211 irrig:uion 16-7,28,97,107--8,122, 141,203,235,254, 2.1lJ, 267
I~adora 2% Iscsi U, W, 160,210,305 ISClllOflTt 2+1 Iscum 36 Isellln (I3chbeit c1-II:ut.lr) 51 islll'l/lrcc 295 ~ ishaw-water 249 Ishtar 189 Isis 35, 311, 37, +0, 45, -/6, 51, 58, 64. (18.7:1, 7..J., 85, 93, lfH. 108--9. Ill, I H. 118, 111), 13.1, 1+2-3,1-11, 155, 169, 185,18,l,187. 193, 198.201, 201-1,207,2/3,21+,222--+,123. 231,232, 24..J., 2+5, 2+6, 253, 2(,1. 262,262,26+, 2(J6, 275. lY5. lY6, 298-9,307 Isis (daughtcr or Itmleses, I) I U. Ill, /12 Ismailiya 171 lsmam' c1~Kharab 78 Israel +5, 5+, 5<.1, 1+3. 1-13, HH,200, 268
irJl-lil'lIIl'.Hle!;",.37

('hcarr') 122 Ihi 251 ibis 20, 20,139, /39, 1411, In, 248. 2-19,252, lHH-I), 21)(1 ibtl 191 ichncumon ..J.5, 139,303, .U}] idelll" ('dcplIlY') 300 Ihnas,:J. c1-l\ledina 124 Ihy I i9, 169
ib

320

INDEX

Israel Side j~. 1~3. J./3. HH. 255. 279 Istabl 'Antar 276 irerlll118 Iri (Gchclcin) 109 lri (l\..ing) So [tjtawy2N,-W,98, 163, 186-7,259,

287
iUII, SCI..' i/l/l'I'/I Junet 8+

lunu 12+.23<), 21Hlunu~.\lonIl137

Junn 93 illm~'1/ I-U imTy15,17.39,47,57,S+.86,R9. 107, IO~, 12+, 152. 1.12. 1M, J()i. 168./8/, ISH, 192, 193-6,205,227,
231,247,1-17,253,25+,264,265. 275,278,290. :lOS, 30(,

imim87
Iy-Mcry 114

215,221,22+,230,232,2+1,2++, 2+9,255,256, 2.i6, 257, 258, 259, 2.i9, 265,266, 2ML 271, 27+, 277, 281, 2H2, 28.1, 285, 285, 287-8, 290, 293, 298, 305 Karuma .ilj I\:asht:t Ill, 22+ K.:lukct210 K.:1\\'a JI, 1+8, NS, 162, 195,281 Kawit 117, Ill, 286 Kebct 155 Kcftiw 11.1 Kek 104.211I Imlld 85, 88, 148 Kemp, H../. 14.117, 137, 168.294 Ken ('T4) 272 Kcn:ltllUil (rr93) 108, 1+8 "Cn~lInlln (rrI62) 1+1'1 i'i.'lIbl'l 16, 159,212
i'l'rt:!"

KhnumholCp 52, 70. 259 KhllUlII he/iii, SCl' Khufu Khnuml1losc UN cJ-Khukha 288 Khons32, 7(),99,122,122, 125, 1+7, 151-2, lSI, 193, 193,215, 25i, 263. 2iO, 27+, 282, 28." lS7, 295 l\:..hol1su, see Khons KJlOT Bahan 226 Khufu 13. +9, 59, 77. 88, W7. IOY-12, 119,127, I.H, 1+1, 1+9, 152, 1.,2.

167,179,181,210,2.>3.245,268-9.
272,27+ KJllIi Khyan 1%, 152 kiln 225-6 Kiman Farcs 28,176 king lisl I J, 61, 6+-5, 86, 89, I

no

L~lhun. c1-+O, 102, 137, 1-14, 156, 1.16, 160,171,186,23+,251,259,271.293 Llkl' Nasser 12, 33, +3, ++, 48, 52, 57, 98,1+6,203,20+,222,223,237 Lake Urmia 221 bncc 32 lapis bzuli 51,95.14+, 1-1-1, ISi~, 158, 172.227, 2YI lapwing 2+-1-, 2-1-1 Lateran Obelisk 209 l.:uin 308 L11Opolis 93 Liller, J-P. 60, 257

law 44,83, 1.14, 159-60, 164, 166, 170-1,224

no, 120.

1c:l~121~

I.;IYcr PH:lIllid 309

UO. HI, 152-3, 164, 186, 187. 194,

218, LiN, 297, 305 King's Son or Kush, sec YiL-croy of Kush kiosk 37.137.153,169. 17S.10i, 291 Kircher,A. 91, 131 kilt' 175 K.i,a200 KI~omcllcs of Naukratis 23--t Knossos 76, 152, 255 knot of Isis, sec 1)ld knuckle bones Il17, 107 kohl 72, 188, 309 KOIll cl-Abd 216 KomAhu Billo 153,231 Kom e1-Ahlll<lT 102, 127 f-:.om c1-Atl 9S Kom i\.ushim 98 Kom Ausim 13+ Kom c1-Dikka 2+ Kom FakhTV ISO KOIll Gi'ci{ 197 K0Il1c1-I-leit'\Il79 KOIll c1-llisn 15+ KOlll.Mer 202 Kom d-Nan01 26 KOIll Ombo liS, 151, 15+, 15-1,203,

103

j;lcbl.H.44,-/6.87, 171, /85, 191, 203,214.1-/9,252,256,260.266,

Kerllla63, 13+, 137, 148, 148-9. 1-19, 195,205---6,218, 2+3, 255 Kessler, D. 296

175,30+-5, .UN
J;.l.kh;tal 136 J311scn-Willl..dn. K.. 12+.201 J&re,s, D. 180 Jemuel Nasr 280 Jcmc 177 ./cquicr, G. 220 Jerusalem 54. 260 jewellery 11'1, 73, 77, 86, 95, 115,

K]",67,107
I\:h:l1>:1 309 Khabab:1sh 198 Khaemhct 29 lo\Jl:1cmw:lscL I (son of Ramcscs II) -10,

!c'lthcr39, 71, 7.1,87,106,168,172, 173, 218, 22S, 25+ Ll:h:lIlon 57, 59, 22+ lector priest 191. 22H, 267 I.c(. and Rollin Papyrus 2+ I LefcbHc, G. 222 l.dlller,_\1.127,235,2n lentils 17 Lcolllopolis 162. 192.215,268,284,

.108
Leopuld n - Amherst Papyrus 159 LcpidOl"lIs tish 100 I.epsills, K. R. I I, lJl, 121, 132, 160, 2+7,251 Lctopolis I.H

83,H5,241,2611
Khactllwasct II (son of Ramcses Ill)

300
Khac!llwasel (Tr26 1) 23

1++-5,156,157,198, H3, H8, 260, 267,268,271,277,297,30t) Jews 2+. I.n. 169. .lOS
Joam 136 Joppa 64

Khafra 13,39,96.109-12,1+9,1-19, IMI, 210. 233, 2+5, 277, 2il, J09

H/(/ 1/ tjll~)' ('officc of the vizier') 301 HUlr 175
Khaq;,ra Oasis 22, 1+9, 1-/9 Kh.1TtoUI11 20+ Khasekhcll1, sec Khasekhel11wy KhascJ..hemwy H, 1-1,+2, 71,S9, 128, 1+9-50,187,19+,220,233,261,265,
~02

Leifer rif I-Iori 160

lettcrs 13,35,37-8.90,160----1,160,

KhamcrcrncbL' II 182

163,194,199,216,241
IcltliCC 17, 102, 108, 1+7. 187.2115 Le w is,:-J.83 LC";lIll, sec Svri.l-Pak-stine 1..' 1-16t<; N. 170 library 2-1-,1.14,152,161,163,169,

Joseph 5+.97,235
Josephus 169 Jubcil57 Judah 143,200,2(,8 JulillsAfricanus 169 juniper 1()CJ Jupitcr +J Jusrini:m 22-1-

176,218,260
l.ibu 161. 1r,2

ktl20, 38, -H, 50, 68, 77, 88, 96, 99, 104.146, 1.f6, 190, 194.20'),211I, 111.144,257,261,278,292
Kala. sec Ql':} Ka-aper 267, 267 K:1hckhnel IOU Kabri 7f, Kahub rapids 188 Kagcmni :H Kahull 5+, 102, 15(1, /56.160,171, 159,293,29+ K:lhun t\lathemalital Papyrus 173 Kahun 1\ ledicll Papyrus 176 Kaiser, W. 86. 236 Kalabsha 29, -14, 52, 1+6 Kama(ma) 192 Kamosc 18, SI, 130, 137, HI, 1+6, 255,279, JOO

kiwI ('altar') 25 NUll Chcaduress') 7+ e1-Khalan'l 183,237,241 Idwy 175 Khcui,c Ism'lil 203 klllIu frieze 150 Khclllcnu 125, 192 Khcmmis 1+2 lo\hcndjcr 251

LibY'lIls ~2, 38,56, fJ5, 9-1, 1)/, 12+, 161-2, /62, 177, 18.1, /86. 197, 202,
210, 220, 22 I, 230, 2+ 1,255,258, 265, 268, 272, 279, 288, 308 LibY:lI1 Dcscrt/\\'L-stern Deserl 23, +7,55, 7S, 85, Y7, 98,122,258, 272 linen 17,33,39,61,66-67.67,69, /06,118,137. HI, 172, 184, 192,

224,2.1 1,246.248 hom c1-Qtla 180

KOIll Rabi:l ISO I\:om c1-S:Ull:lk 169 Kom c1-Shll!!':1f:124, 1-1 KOIll c1-Sult;n 13-14 KoplOs 1.14, 141, 155, I.'.i, 187,

n.

228,2-15,284,309
lioll 19, 2(), 30,35, +5, 53,106, IU7,

HIt'l/er75 I'hmer /(111'),199

Khcnlclk:ll I K hent ika 28+

195
Kor 103 t.wllms 116 Krauss, R. 5:; Kronos 109 c1~Kub 2U+ I\:umma 103, 258 Kurgus 55,155,279,289 c1-Kurru 133, ISS, 195,107.22+,2+3, 266,283 Kush 16. 195,20+-6,207,274, 30U-1 KUSS,1f:1 130 K,-nebu 3<j K;'nopolis 22

101),132,1.13,135,152,162-3,/62,
16S, 171-2, 185, IIJ2. 199,248,253, 2.i3, 270, 27+-5, 2lH, 241, 3m lioness 13,23,50, 111),151,193, 199, 21 J. 230, 257, 2.i7, 262, 26S, 27+.

klwJlill/t'lIlill35
Khentimcntiu 35, I ~2, 21+, 257 Khen I kawcs 13 Khcnt-.\lim 21

276,284,303,303
Lishl,
c1~

28, 40, 62, 98,103,1++,163,

1d",tI'y-st:!t-It/:lja 35
I\:hcnw lOt) KJlell\" 109 kh('p('~1t 137

163,183,186,2.'4,251. 251), 261,

268, 269, 287 Li/(/1~J' "fRa 62, 68,137,239,283,300 l.i/('JlI~)' Lelia of lint' 16-1 lizaru -15 I.oat, W. L S. 117 LOlldon-Leidcl1 lVbgicnl Payrus S+ I.ondoll Medical p.lpyrus 176 1 17(, Lorel, V. 29,168,300 lutus 5.1, 70-1, 7+, lOS, 118, 122, 148. 16+-5, /65, 191).21.1,230,237.263 Lukka 255 Luxor 23,29,36, +0, +8-9, 60, 99,

1m lIIl/hfS7
K:lmlltef 1+6-7 K:1naw:tli, N. 22 K:lranis91:' Karanog 1+7 Karnak 18,19,20,21,25,29,30,31, 40, .fO, 44, 48, 71, 78,99, 120, /20,

Nrepreslt 7+
Khcpri -I(j, 150-1,150, 25:l, 277

Ht'slJ(:d15
Khcsllwcr 15+ KhcL:t lJO Khct.v Hl 183 KJlll1~1l 210, 288 Khncmcll-14 Khoum 35. 7+, 87. 9-1, 9-1, 97, 10+,

labcll5, 17-18,84,89,105,196,200,
210,216, 2+7,2-17. 25~, 256, 2.i6, 278.278 I.abni 237 Labyrint.h 28, 121, 273 I.achish 59 LacO\':lra, P. S I

125,132,134,138,1.18,140,146, 1+7-8, Ni, lSI, 152, 153, 158, 16+,

165,166,175,178,182,183, IS],

186,189,193,198,207,208,213,

IH, 138, 146. 151, /.",200,224, 240,252,296

132,147-8,165, /(,5,
277, 282, 288, 298

16~.

208, 2411,

1."g;Ish 280

321

INDEX

Lykopolis -H, 30-1Lythgoe, A. 19+

lVLlabda, c1- 2+8 l\llaadi 71 1 166,188,227

Nkdinct c1-Fayulll 28, 176-7, 248, 273

Mcdinct c1-Ghurob 1 J(j

Mnar 30,55,9+, ltH, JO.}, 122, /22, 159,166,166.238,2+1 lvlaatkara 230 mace 16, 39, 60, 6+, 7-1-, 109, 166--7, 167,185,187,196-7,232,2+1,246, 253,2':;-1,257,26+,277,279
J\ilaccdonian 21,159,187,231 lvtlcrobius 56 i\ibclaura 37 !\'!adu 175

rvbfdcl U9 74, 9-1-,101, 12+,13+,1+2, 146, 16lf-1, 161, 164, 167-8, 167. 168,171-2,175-6,209,218,242, 244,248,262,293,304 magic brick 16R, 168,309
lll~lgic 64,

c1-l\tlahasna 167, 264-

Mal1ll26 Maihcrpri 67, 168,239

nu!achirc 72

Malinowski, B. 19-+ Malka'a 29, +I, 54, 81,118,168-9, 217, 25(j, 288, 293 Mallawi125
lIla/IIJIIIS!

5+, 8-+-5, 169. /69,221,223

mandrake 108 Mandlilis J-l.6

tVlanetho 35, 36, 65, 89, 100, 139, 152, 169,181.198,215,218,258,286, 288,297 iVlangles, J. 52
A'IIIIIIII:n {llld CllstOIllS

o(the AI/cielll

Egypti(//ls91,305 m;lp /l-l, 169-70

Marcus Aurelius 9+

J'vlaricttc,A. 14, 18.91,9+, 126} 1+1, 149,170,172,179,260,267,282,298 jV!ark Antony 66, 246
m;lrriagc27,88, 131, 169, 170-1, 189,

220, 228, 238, 290, J07

Mars-l-3

Maru-Atcn 27, 249

11I(11TtlI/II1I64

rnask28,50-1 , 6/,69, 72,11-1-,168, 171-2, /72. J90, 212, 262, 2R6, 290,
]09

Maskhllt;l, Tell d- 56, 171, 17/,201, 255 Maspcro, G. 61, 80, 172
MastabatPara'ull lS2
IllfIs/{{ba

10Illh 12-13, 33, 50, 65, 77, 78,84,87,88,96,109-1 \, 126, 129, 131,140,161,172-3,173,179,181, 183,18+,195.210, n3, 236, 251, 2.:;2,258,259, lfil, 2S+, 286, 292, 298,309 maslifTS7
mathematics 1)0, 134, 163, 171-l-. 17-1, 253 matting 49, 106, 126, 150,209,251-,

Mcdinet Hahu 30, 40, 65, 82, 99, 1U, 1/8, 132, 135, 136, 158, 1(j1, 173, 177-S, 177, 178, 188, 202, 213,216, 217,221,2J2,241, 249, 255,266,269,274, 2S1, 288, 290, 293 Mcdinet !Vlaadi 28,178,186,245 Mcdjay 38, 178,219,224,260 c1-Mcdowwara 309 ?v1cgiddo 59,178-9,189,290,303 .Mchit 211, 274 .Mehitcnwesekhct 178 me!l-t(/175 JV'ChlCnwcsckhet 215 J\lcidum77, 172, 179, 179, 186, 210, 23J,272 Moil' 40, 179-80, 186, 292 /I/{:l'et 30 iVkkClaten 21, 200 MekClra 67, 811 III/:Hu1l2 .lVkmnon41,52,69-70,70 rv1cmnonium 70 Memphis 17, 19,20-1,2.1,24,28, .)4, 35,36, 37,40,41,50,7.1,83,86,IUO, 103, III, III>, 118, 119, 124, 110, 134, n7, 148, 149,158,161,163, 180-1, 18U, 181, 186, 191, 196,210, 214,217,221,224,229,283,285, 230, 2J 1,233,241,246, H7, 250--1, 255,260,261,261,266,27+--5,281, 285,286,288,293,298,307 McmphitcTheology 74,194,230 IIICII 181 mel/(il 50, 119 .Mendes 100, 119, 159, 1(1), 181, 181, 198,240,244,248 Menelaus 59 l'vlenes 17-8,89,152,180,181,181, 19(,,218,265,297 Menhcr 144 Mcnhyr 151 IIIl:IIiw Ije.l'ellllJ 224 Mcnkallhor210 lVlcnbura 50,109,111-2,181-2,181, 182,210, HI, 243, 296 Menkhepcrra 127 Menkheperrasencb 115, 11,1 Menna 16, .14, 1.19, 175, 182,250,284 lVlen-nefer HIO Mentllemh:n 182-1, 183,250,281, 283 Melltllhmep 189 1141,183 II 31, 80, SO, 100, lOB, 117, 1/7, 120, 14\, 183, 183, 186, 2.H, 287, 291 UI 183, 291 IV28, 183, 186,279 .Vlellwi IH
Iller

Mcrira II 267 Mcritatcn 200 Mcritamull 19,22 :vleri-Tcti 184 Meritra-I-IaL"hepsut 2H Merka 2.16, 262 IIIl'I'h'/Jet63 lIlat/w, 42 lVlerneith 18,84,89,200 ~liIcroc 35, 48,185-6,18,1,195,206, 207 :vlcroitic25,35,37,5:i, 147, 185, 195, 206,223,235,274 Merpabia 247 MCl"sa Gaw;\sis 231 J\ih:rsa Matruh 186, J86 Meni 144 .Mcru 194 ]\llcr-wer 1St)
lIII'sdCIIICl72

Mcsen 1.H Meskhcnt IS6 Mcshwesh 161-2,255,268 Mesopotamia 15,22,4 1,47,59,75, 1119, 174, 18(,,224,291 metallurgy 51,71 1 141-2 Metalllorp/uJSl'S 37,142 !\'li:un,.13, 33, 298
lII/gdo/l77

mortuary temple 11, 12-13, 1+, 15, 28,29,30, 7ll, 79, HO, 80, %, 99, 103, 1111-11,1\8,120,121,132,135,130, 153,161,163, 177--1i, 179, 1~3, 184, 188,213,216-7,217,220,221,232, 233, 236, 241, 241-2, 242, 255, 256, 257,272,274, 2S0, 286, 288, 292, 294,299,305 fvloscow l\lathcmaticll Papyrus 173 Moses 54, 119 Musque of Abu [Iat;g;lg 165 Mosque of Nebi Daniel 24 Moslagedda47, 62,167, 21S, 219, 27ft Mount Ephraim 259 mourning 118 IIII//llIJl~)11/ 192 mummy hnummificalion 18, 2 L 2S-9, 31,34-5,37, J8, 40, 42,46,47,50, 55,59-60,61,62, 67-l), 6~, 72, 73, 80,86,93,96,100,104,115,121, /21,122,126,127,132,138,139, 139, 140, 142, 146, 172, 176, 179,

184,189,190-2,190,191,195,197,
200,201,202, 207, 211~12, 112, 21]-1+,2.10,240,241,243,24-1-,2+5, 248) 252, 2.13, 260,265,260, 2US, 270,284, 2S9, 291, 296,303, .1()4,

30R,3D9
mummy label 105, 192 Muqdam,'lell cl- 163, 192,215, 2(,1'L 284 Murnane, W. 86 music 72, 75, 78-9, 78, 79, 93, 119, 192,193,228,271-2 Musawwarat c1~Sllfra 35, 37 MUl32, 78, 99,122, /22, 132, 147-8,
151,163,188,193,193,249,257, 263,274,282,287,295,3112 Mutllcdjmcr46,131 Mutnofret 289 MLltcmwiya 29, -/8 lIlulI-dancers 79 Muw:l1:1llis no, 23(,
IIIl1Jt

233

284 Maya 40, 115, 252, 298

mayor l()

M:;zghun;l 28,23+,273 meat 33, 73, 100, 102 iVlcdamud 29,175,189,260,273,282

~Ilcdcs 221

medicine 51, 6+, 79, 8-1. 134, 139--40. 142,161,163,167,175---6,2++, 265-6

mcrccll;uy 19, J8, 47,116,159,200, 219,224,229,231,250,255,272 Mercury 43 Merenl;tah 13,29,54,62, 1+3, 113, 161-2,180, 1R.1--4, 21+, 241, 255, 165, 268, 27t) Merenra 56, 71, 220 Mererct 277 Mercruka 17,3.1, 8H, 184,186 Meresankh 296 11/1'1"/'/ chest 18-1tvleretscger 184, /8i-, 244, 262, 262 Mcribra Khety I 100 Mcrimda Beni Salama :)3,18+-5,227

Migdul56 Mihos 50,162,192 Milcsian 197-8 Miletus 116 milk 33--+, 64, 73,102,176,28.1 Millet, N. 197 Min 22, 32, 32, 74, 75, 85, 93, 108, 122,122,143, l..n, 155, 15S, 177, 187-8,187,218,238,265 mining 25, 37, 41,57,71,85, 114, / U, 152,155,166,170,183,205,210, 224,272,279, 2X6, 297, 300-1 Nlino<ln 40, 76,1 I5, //.1, 186, 255, 283 Minshat" Abu Omar 188, 227 el~i\I[jnya 52) 82, 11 l) Mirgissa 94,103, IS8, /88,260,263 mirror 72,123,188,188 Mi.\"tdlallic.l' 90 !'vlitanni27,27, 112, 114, no, 178, 189,289-90 Mit Rahina 1XO, 26/ mim62 Mi-wcr 116-17, liS MncYisbll1l44,57, 124, 189,248 lVlo'alb, cl- 39, 97, lOO, 189 modcls 52, 73, 80,103,134,140,167, 190,266,268-9, 20Y, 293, 309 /IIodills 189,283 Mocris98 Momemphis 19 monasteries 72, 82, 92, 247, 252 Mond, R. 37, 56 lllonothcism21, H, 54,137, 23CJ Montet, P. 145,215,229,268,281, 282,297 Month, sce Montu lVlonthu, sec j\llontu lVlontu 18,37,56,96,147-8,166,175, 183,189-90,239,246,200,27.1,2S7,
189, 190,239 moon 57, 76, 134, Ii,:), 151,270,274, 289 morals/ethics 9+,166,229,243,265, 305-6,307 Morgan,j. dc28, 77,154,195-6

208

/IIm/llem} 19,238 l'vlycenaeaJl 7f" 116, 186, 294 Mycerinus, sec Mcnkaura M}'crs, 0. 37 mYlTh 232 Mysis 162

Nlon~L~-Ra

291 '91

Na 'am 236-7 Nabopolassal" 47 Nag cl-Deir 194,200,243 Naga d-l)cr, sec Na~ el-Deir Nahrin 189 Nakht 22, 194 Nakhthorhcb, sec Ncctancbo II N;lkhtllcbcf, sec Nectalll.:bo I name 20, 104, 167, 192,194, IY-I,111. 253 name-stone IY-I naophol"ous 19,1 1/(flls48,85, 110, 181, 19+--5,19S,26 fJ , 271,285 N~11);lla48, 13-1-, 155, 195,206,235, 266, 281, 283, 288, JUS Napoleon 62, CJ 1, Y4-, 100, 2X6 Naq<l35 Naq:ub 17,94, 114,153, 155, 172, 175,181,181,195,19';,200,204, 222,226-7,264 Narmer 17-8, 39, 50, 60, 74, 86, S9, 96,127,133,167, 181, 196~7, 1%, 218,251,254,278, 3(H, :H)9

322

I 'DEX

NarmOUlhis 178

m'lja 232

oil 17, 72,1/2, IYO,21O,289

Olympias23 eI-Omari 211, 227 Ombos (Knill Ombo) 154 Ombos (N"q"c!:l) 195

Natabm:mi 35 llalron 59, 95,153,176,190-1,197.

fleljeri-b1ade 212
Ncrjerikhel, sec Djoser neutrun activation analvsis 226 Newbcrry, P. 22 . New Kalabsha 52 New YColr 16, 50, 58, S5, <.19 Niankhpepykcn 180 Niger 52

Palermo Stone 6+-,71,126, 152, 187, 21S, 258, 272, 28+, 295 P:llcsrinc37,8+.137,152,158,160,

/97
Naukratis !lJ, 116, 141, 154, 197-8,

166,188,198,255,259,260,268,
271,279 palcrrc 39, +7, 50, 60, 72, 74,109,127, 133,167,171. 187, 187. 192, 196-7, 196,218,2/8,254,278,279,288, 303,304

/97,229,250,293,295
NauIlct20i

On 124
Oni:ls 308 onion 17, 102
ollimrrill'$

Naville, E. 4Y, 61,171,308

n:IYY

N'l~lcl c1-Simm:m 111 neb 2+4 Ncb:lmun I.), 6J. 7Y, l3.l, 140, /-10.
28f,30f

15, 200, HI, 255, 269 Na\'tahut 308

87

Nile 16.48, %-7,118,130.141, 202-3,203,268,30+ ~ilomcrcr +4, 58, 203, 203, 280
Nimaalhep 150 Nima;uscd 88 Nimlot 215, 281 Nine Bows 12,9+,203-4,217,2++ Nim:vch 189 Ninsli 293 cl-Niqrash 197 Nitctis36 Nitiqrct (qlleen) 100, 210, 273 Nitiqn:1 (god's wife of Amun) 37, 229 Nitocris, see Nitiqrct Nobarae 55 :"1odjmer 23 Nodjmct (wife of Herihor) 125, 125 Nofrel (molher of Amenemhal I) 27 Nofrer (wife of Raholcp) 179 nOlllarch 15,37,180,186,20+,259,

onomasticon 161. 194,211,2+2 Dnuris 37, 211, 211 Onruis-Shu 211 opening of the mouth ceremony 38,

palm 17. 4Y. 70, 7/, 108, 117, 122,

123,232,26+,288,295,306 Pamiu62

Pan 187
pan bedding SO, Sol, 207, 218 Paneb 159,262 P"nchsy 26 Panchs)' (Viceroy of t.:.ush) 202, 301 pan-gl'a\'c 178,218-9,219 Panopolis IS7 I),mralacci, L. 155 palllhcr 264papyri 13, 16,20.24,30,31,36,36, fl. ;5, 61, 68, 8f, 87,93. 93. Y4, 9f, 97. 104.105. 106, 107, 108, 109, 116,118,125,127,128,128,134. 135,137,138,139, ISO, 152, 156.

1115,133,201,2111,211-2,212,230,
236, 2+3, 285, 305

Nc.:ber-akhcL 2SJ
Ncbmaat 272 Ncbmaatra 2/9. 27+

Opel 147. 2+1, 283 Opct Festi"aI49, 59, 99,165

oraclc36,H7,99, 159,181, 189,

Ncbra, St.:\.:

Ralll~b

lIt:b-I'HIj,.~t'I'

35

211-3,213,272
oracular amulclic decree 213 Orion +2, 23+, 249, 275 Oronles 170, 237 oryx 52, 280 Osireion 13, +2, 70, 21+, 229, 2+9 Osirid pilJar 213, 2-12 Osiris 13, 1+,30,3+,36,37. +3, 45,-16, 47,53,55,56,58,59,68,69,72,73, 7+,75,79,83, 85, 86, 93, 96, 99,104, 108,118, IIY, 122.122, 124, 126, 130,133,137,142-3,150,153,166, 168,184,186, IYO-I, 200, 201, 20/. 207,209,213,213-15,223, 236, 239, 240,2+5,248,2+9,257,259,261, 264,266,270, 273,275,280, 29fi,

lIeb 11IIIJyNS lIt'bl)' Ctwo ladies') lumcltitk 33, ZOl,

303
chuchadnczz:lf II 37, +7

5.,.

1It:bm 114,268 echo, sec 'ckau

NCC1::mchu

I S+, 15<J, 169, 198,223,277

1123,56,116,159,198,211,221,272

15Y. 160, 161, 162, 161--1, 168, 170, 17.1, IN. IYI-2, 202, 210, 211.213, 216,21 H, 219, 219, 228, 230, 236, 239,242,25+,2.,';,256, 2fi5-6, 272, 273,274, IN, 286, 2\)7, 299, 301, .105,306
pap~

NcdjcLcmpct 184
1I~/i!r 74,

Ncf:l:lrud, sec Nephcritcs 129, 19S-9, /98

286
nome 15,21,3+,38 1 50.52,8+,92,

Ncferc IY4
Icfcrhclpcs 29R
l cfcrhotcp

111,119,171,175,180,181,182, 186,192,204,235,2+1,248,250,
257,259,278,282,293,30+ Norden, E J.. 91 Norris, E. 76 :"1oflhumbcrland, Fourth Duke of 305 I\ubi;t 16, 17, 18, 19, 25, 28-9, :W, 35, 37-8,39,41,4+, +8, 52, 54, 55, 56-7,59,60,62,63,71,79,80,86, 9-1,95,98,102-3,1/-1, 12+, 132, ]35,

rus plan( 27,31, 35, +9, 70--1,

82,267

Ncfcrholcp I 273

298,300.3().l
Osiris-Apis 36, 23 I Osiris bed 72,215,215,259 Osiris-Khemimcnriu 13 Osorapis 36, 261, 280 Osorkon 130, 162 Ihe elder 215, 268 150, 118, 215, no, 26R n 50,212.21\ 256, 282 IIlSO, 192,215, 224. 28S IV 215 son of'Elkclot n 2SS osteopathy 176 OSlrJ.C;1 17, 82, 83, 102. 128, 135, 15Y, 160, 16.1, 167, 170, 18f, 216,

108,118.138,148.16-1,188,188, 193,217,219,228,248, 26Y, 271

Papyrus Abbol II + Papyrus Anastasi] 53. 63 Pap~ rus Brcmncr-Rhind 36 Papyrus Brooklyn (35.1-146) 159 Pap~ rus Chester Bcarry 161 I 133

Ncfcrirkar;\ 12-13,210,286.298
NClcrkara IUO
Ncfcrm:l:ll 179 'efcrtari 12, 199,238,241,300 Ncfcrlem 7+,122,122,165,165,180, It)l), IY9, 230, 2-19, 257, 2% Nefcrtiti21,34,+5,+6,131,198, IYY-200, 199,238,2'10,307 NcfcrurJ 120, 25~, 15R Nefrel260 negative confession 9+ negro/negroid 239 Nchebkau 262

137,142,142-3, HI" 147. 148, 14Y. 158,168,178,186-7, IY5, 202, 203, 20+-6, 20f, 205, 206, 207, 218,226,
229,236,237,239,2+3,253,255, 258-60,263,263-4,270,272,27+,

HI 87 V U7 \'1176 IX 1.17
Pap~

278.281,283, 28Y-90, 298, 3()(1-1.

.101,303,305,308
l"\ubt 195 ~un +5, 57, 74, 88, 93,10+,150,16+, 21l0. 21l1>-7, 206, 218, 3114 Nuri 1J3, 155, 195,207,207,243,281

n,

"elte130 Nchmctawa, 2SS cith 51. .;-4, 59, 9+,116,112,122,

216,2+1,2++,254,258,271,306
osrrich 122, 166, 18+ Otlom;m 237, 301 uuroboros 262-3, 268 (1\ ersecr of the mysteries 190 un:rseer of Ihe si~ great lll;msions 159 overseer of prophets 15 on:rscer of royal works 15 oxen 17. 33, 102. 103,212, 255 OXHhmchus 116 Ox~n-~chus fish 100 Ol:;'~andias 2+ 1 Paarcncmheh 131 Pabasa 51 paddle doll 266 P.lheri 23 p;Tir~statllc, see dyad Pakhct 276 palace 19, 2(l, 4+, 60-1, 76, 81-2, 88.

151,1'17.200.200,202.221,250, 262,262, 298

Ncilhhotcp 17, 181, 19(1, 200

1II:N!aH/{/75
Ncbu

NU142, fl, 45, 68,73,74,84,85,91, Y3, 108,108,122,122,150, /91,200, 207-tol, 207, 264, 266, 270, 2R4, 286,
295
11111

rus ( brris, sec GrCtlt Ilarri!> Papyrus Papyrus Insinger 306 Papyrus Lmsing: 28+ Papyrus .\ IacGregor 30 Papyrus Mayer \ 301 Papyrus Ralllcsscum 1(30Ci IV 176 V 176

] 41, 158, 183. 200, 229, 28 I. 28.1, 1147,171,2011-201,229

I

/1122+

1'1115 XII18
Papyrus Rylands LX 302 Papyrus S;lllicr 1 136,260 Papyrus Salt, sec Salt Pap~Tus Papyrus \rcslcar 134-, 16+, 167, 186 Paraelonium 186 Parchu2.;1 Parsua 221 Pasargadac 221 PascbakhacnniuL see PSllscnncs {w!aih,s 219,230 Palh,rris 109 p/I!ri:1' 226 Pc 97 peas 17 pecloral/6, 1++,201,267,277 Pediamenncbncsuu'l\n" -16 pl'l!j sltt'$ ('stretching the cord') 42 Pedubastis 1162,16+,268

ckhbcI67.<J2,122, 150,201,262,

Nyncrjcl' 8Y, 110 N~userr;llO, 12-13,25,25,51.60,

267, 26Y, 302 Nekheh 92,201 Tckhcn 92, 96,12/.13+

lIe1l1CS IIC1I1Sei

124. 208. 210.232, 2Y8

oaSt.-.... 17,22.23,37, +7, 78, 78, 97. . obelisk

ht.wJ.dclOlh II, 18,7+,7.), 122 R'SScl 201 Ncpcr72, 215, 2+5 Nepherites

I 116,159
II 1'18 Nephth)s 45,-16, 58, 5<.1, 74, 9\ lOR, 114,122,122. 2IXI, 201-2. 20/, 207.

258,272 10, 10, +1, 52, 53, 58.76,91, 114, 120.124,141. H8,165,20H-Y. 208, 258, 26Y O'Connor, D. 1+, 168,293 OCI:l\'ian 66, 231, 246, 269
Oedipus 277 olTering formula 96,101,1+6,173, 20Y, 20'1, 210

213,214,232,262,264,275
lI(s1IlIIel b:lrk 214

98,117,118.134,147, 16H-Y. 178, 180, 18{, 185,211>-7,2/7,218,222,

224,237,241, 2-H, 256, 281, 288, 308 palace fac;ade 57,96, 126, 173, 181-2,

onering table 14.45,92,96,99. 146. 62, 84, 88,153,

209,209-10 ogdoad 32, 73,10+,123,207,210,262, 283

Neshorpakhercd 137
lIesw-/Jil name 33, 51,

247,256.258

195,23.1,251,261

323

INDEX

Pcct,'f. E. J-l. Pcftjawcll:twyhor 35

Pchor 80 peN/rei 167

PclCSCl255
Pc1usiac 83. ZOU

Pc1usium 56, 221 Pcnbu, 278, liB penis ~hC:llh J+. 308
Pepy

139,50,60. 71, ~H, 180,220,236,

259,261. 286 II 13,60,62,88.100,103,136,161,

210.220.231.236.151.29+,301

per 129
pa-all ('grc:.ll house', p:i1:u.;c) LiJ, 216,

122
Pl'TliIlHJ ('hou:;coflifc') 13+. 161
Pcr-b::mcbdjcdcI 181
Pcr~B;lSICI

49

pa-bi/51

peTch 93
pm:/ (spring)

58. 64. HI

perfumes 72
Pcr~l-blhor

109

Pcr-hcbrr 51 Pl"fibscl~ 8Y, 150,220-1,261,26+,278 per-Heuer (harim) 118 pa 111(((;11/ (house of pap) 1'1iS rolls) 13+,161

pcrl/e.kr 191
per-lilt (Lower Egyptian shrine) 269

Perring', J. 11, 77, 260

pcrsca trcc lOS, 26-1-, 289, 295

I>crscpulis 76, 221

Perseus 277 Persia/Persian 13, 19,21, :l6, 40, -1-1, +7,31,3+,76.112,116,125.126,

physician 13, 126, 128. .lOS Pianlhi 12+,202 Pianlbr see Piv pig 16,-33--+, 1C12,ZI5,26-1,281 pigeon 33 pilgrims 1+,85,93,1+0,186,21-4,269, 296 Pimav62 pine 222, 306 Pinudjem 29 180, 127, 192,202.230,288 1180 PirJ.mlossc 76,12+,202,237.2-11,282, 293,302 Pirnom 56, 171 Piy 32. 101, 130, 155,206, 21.5,22+. 266,279,281,283,288 Pin... see Pi, PI;lCCOrpu~ifiL"lliun 191 planets 43, 53 Pliny 197, 235 Plutarch 118, 126, 130, 11" 189,207. 21+,22-1,28-1 Pocockc, R. 91 Polanyi, f..:.. 29-1 pol;cc 16, 26, 87, 219. 22-1 polygamy 171 pomegranates 23, 102, lOS Pompcy 66. 2-16 Pompey's Pilbr 25, 260 pork.H portico 12 Portland Vase 113 Potiphar 5-1 pottery 3+. 38, 39, n, -18, 59, 63,6.1, 6-1,72.74,77,78,89,93, 9i--lJ5, 106,

116,127,/-19,153.160,166,175,
18-1-3,186,187,188,198,209,211, 216,218,22-1-6,225,247,25-1,269, 280, 296, 298, 308 pregnancy 6+,124.1.10.176,192,196, 197,265,283 priest 28, 32, 38, -12. -IS, 65, 67, 75, 79, 80,87,90,92,100,10+,113,117-18, 124,126,127.133,134,139,159, 161,163,163,167,169,171,175. 180,191-2,209,210,212,2/2,21+, 215,221,228-9,228,230,2+1.260, 267.268,279,283,286.288,296,302 priestcss-l5,68, 78,113,119,206, 228, 239, 271. 307 primc,-al mound 45, 52, 71, 74,138, 150,151,166,175,183,210,218. 219,229.235,283,286 prisoners, Sl'C captives Pmpltt'Cy nfXeftr/J', see Dis{{/UHt'lIf "'eftrly prosopography 15 Proto-Canaanite script 59 Proto~Sinailic SUipl 59, 271 provincial gon-rnor. SI,:l: numan.:h Prussia 160 psalm 45, 54. 72 Psalm 1O+: -15, 54, 137 Psammctichus, sec Psamtt;:k Psamtck 1-11,90,116.138,183, 2011. 229. 2311, 2S I, 282, 283, 302 1I 19,36,229 III 19,Hl, 158,221, 229 Psamlek of Sa is 116

I+J. 15S-9. 17+-5. 198,221,226,

229,2+8,303,308 Pcrsoncl 295 Per-Sopcd 276 Per-'Icmu 171 Per-TemuTjclu 171,201 per~I11J1 ('statue house') 261 Peru-nercr HR pam 107, 153.22 per-mt"r(Uppcr Egyptian shrine) 269 Pcr-Wadjyt 97 pemljel93
peJ(Jh~~'l:f211-2

Ptah 11.35,38. -to, -t2, 56, 73--+. 7-1, 79,86,122,139, H7, 163, 180, 18-1, 189,19+,199,21+,219.230-1. 230. 236-7,2-11,257,266,27-1.278,278. 280. 283, 285, 296 Ptahhorep 252 Plahshcpscs (Abusir) 12 Ptahshcpscs (Saqqara) 96 Prah-Sobr 230. 27+ Pmh-Sokar~Osiris 72, 230, 27-1. 280 Prolemais 116 (ciry),296 Ptolemy 159, 208, 231 I (son of Lagos) 23. 153, 161, 169, 231,231,261 II 11,2-1, 169,223,269 IIJ 90 I\' 37, 82, 1.1-1, 223, 2-17. 282 VI 88 VI1/69,291 XII 66. 90,90,231,2./2,2-16 XIII 1>6, /69. 231 XII' 66 Pudukhcpa 199 Punr80. SS. 120, US, 1+0,231-2. 2.1/, 26Y,294, 295, 306 Pwcnci 231 pygmies 88, 220 pylon 29, 35, 45, lH, YO, 125, U2, 135, J3fJ, 138, 1-16, 148, 165, 177, 178. 213,223,2:)2-3,232,240,2+ 1,277, 282, 2S5, 305 pyramid 11, 12-13, 1-1,28,39, -12, 45, -19,52,60,77,87,101,103,103. 109-12,1/0-1/,121, /2/, 127, 133, 137, HI, H6. 1+9, 152, 153. 136. /56,163,163-+,173,17+,176,179, /79,181-2,18-1,183, /85. 198,2117. 20i, 210, 211, 220, 224, 229, 232, 233-5,23-1, 215-f1, 2.1CJ, 2-13, 250, 251-2,253,256,257,259-60,261, 266,269,272,273,283,286,292, 299,309 pyramidion 2S. 20S, 233, 235 Pyramid Texts 31, 42. 53. 55. 57, 62. 68,69,73,105,106.109, 11+,123, 129,1.1+,150,163.172,187,199, 200,201,207,210,211,21+,220, 229,235-6,257,262,270,274,275, 28+,286,288,299,305

quarrying 18, 22, 29. 37, -13, 70. 82, 85,109,109,111,119-20,1+9,152. 155, 170. 183.208,224. 235,2()9, 271, 277, 279. 279-80 Q!Jbani~"l 173 Qubhcr cI~Haw;l-l3. ++. SR, 220 queens 11.13,17-18.19.21.34.-15, 77,113,127,182. 183,199. 199-2IMI, 2U7. 233, 236, 238, 300, 307 Q~lihcl1,J. E. 92,126,128,195,220. 242.25-1,286.309 Qurncr Murai 30. 288 Q!.IS 123 QlIseir231 (~ustuI17. 48 Ra 10,32,35,36.42, ++, -t5, 51, 53. 56,57,61.68,69.73,79,84,88,95. 100, 11+,119,126,133-+,1.19.1+2. 130,151,162-3,165,166,189.199. 207,211,21-1,230,239,239,2+7, 268. 277,280,28-1,3IM! Ra-Atum 25. f5, 52.189 Ib'tuwy 175, 1S9 radiocarbon daring 6-1-5. S9,lJ2, IN-I. 226 radish 17 Radictlcf~ see Djedefra Ib-J Ifll'akhty 11,25, -16, 1Z4. 133, 134,239,239,279 Rahotcp 50, 17l), 194 R;lkll;\cf~ sec Khafra r;lI11 In,.1/, 32, 47, -t8, 9-1, 97, 111), 124,126,151,181,181,213,2.l<), 240, 248, 2-19, 27+, 183 Ralllcses 2-1()-1, 2+7 I 13, 38, 240. 265. 300 1I 11-12,13,15,22,25, -10, -Iii. +.i, 51,51,52,54,60,02,6-1.70,79.80, 102,117,12-1,12-1,125,130-1,145, 1+8,132,15+,161,165,168,171. 17I',180.183,186.199,202.209,

217,236-7,237,238,2-10.2-10-1, 2-11-2, ]-12, 2-1,), 152, 155,156. 260.

265,276, 2S0, 282, 297, 300, .U)f, 11136,65,80.92,99,118,119,1.15, /36,161,162,177-8, /77. 178,188, 202, 2 I 7, 221, 230. 2f1. 255. 269, 27-1,280, 3IX), 308 11'29,-12,103,170,2+1,.100 \. 29,116 \'129,43,79,83,106,113 III +.1,1+8 IX 28, +3, 80. 83,1+6,170 XJ 58, 12-1-5,202,241. 288, 29<). 3111 R;llllcsseum 15,5+,70,79.82,161, 16S, 172,178,213,216-7,232,

pyramis 233

Pcsshllpcr 2.;-1 Pcticsis SO l l eLOsiris 25,116,123,125,150. 221-2.221,122, 28S, 296 Petrie. \\1. 1\1. E H, 17,20,01,64,84, 86,91,97,113,117,121,131,1+1, 152,155,156,170,171.173,179, 180,18+,187.193,209,217,222, 222,220, LB, 243, 259, 271.182, 3US petrology 226 phallus 10D, 21-1, 26r1.1SJ Pharnabazl:s 19S Pharos 2+ Plurs;llia 06, 246 PhiJ;ll: 30, 37, 40, H, 56, R3, 128, 137, 1-10,142,153,161, 16Y, IlJH, 203, 222-+. 232. 2+6. 271i, 296 Philip 11 23 Philip Arrhichtcus 2+, 66, 187,231 Philistints 59, 255 Phoenicia 37, 38, 59, 219, 22+, 229, 236,269 phoenix 52, 53 phyle 228-9

Q;! 'a 89, 236

Qadan 9+ Q;tdesh 51, 130, 170, 178, 183, 202, nfl-7, 236, 2-11, 255, 2_1_), 290. 303 QlilIJey24 Qtbr;l lhy 100 c1-Q;tl';) 155 (bntir 76,7(,,96, 12f, 202, 216, 237, 237, 2+ 1. 246. 282. 288, 293, 302 Q1rct c1-1\ luz.1Wwaq;1 78 d-Qlsr78 Qasr Ihrim -18, 59, l-n. 20ti, 237, 1-16 Q1Sl' d-Sagha 28 Q.11U 173 (~lll 137 ~bchscnucr 59,262.275,275 Qcdcshct 32, 237-8, 137, 245 Qch32 Qcna 8-1, 225 (~namun, see Kc:n;lIlulIl Qift 155 Qjs 180

241-3,2-12,262.265,288
Ralllesscum Dra.matic P;lpyrus ItJ3 Ralllo!;c- (father of Senellmllt) 25N Ramose (rr55) 29,166,243,301 Ranch 89, 239, 261 lbndcrcf 12-3. 60, 210. 286. 291') Raqolc 24 cl-R;IShid 2-1-7 rarions 22 lbwlinsol1, H. 76 Re, sce Ra Rcdfi-n-d. D. un. 136, 1+3 RcdSea28,-I1,52,84,100,155,171. 200-201,218,231,268.271,305 Reisner, G. 17.54,81,91,127,170, lSI, 185, 194,207,2-13,258,309 RcI..hmira 15,51, 1-15,208,211,243, 2++,28+,301

psdle1Jt74
PSLlscnncs 1 172. 18+. 229-30, 268, 282 II 230, 268

Qf/arrel of.-lpopltis alld St'qellellrrl 35.

260

324

INDEX

reHo'f bird 61. 2+l, 2-1-1, 278

re/lleu 175

285 RcnCllLllC( 28, 15J. 17S, 2+5, 215, 262 I'Cllpet 218, 295
Report oIlVel/fllIIlI1I

Rcncni

28~,

513,125.16+, 2tJ-j.

Refer 2S3
rcscn-c head 172.2+5,2-15

Res Ges!a,' 130 Rcshcf 32.32. 238. 2+5-6. ].1.) Rcshcp. sec: Rtoshcf
Reshpu, sec Rcshcf

Rcstoration Side 132

RClCIlU

59

rc\'crsion of offerings 99,228

Rhea 207 Rhind J\l>1thclllariGll Papyrus 137. 173-+, / i-l, 271 r1wton 115 Riixlddi 58 Rifeh 209, 2+0
Righa, Pyramid of 10 rishi-conin 18,68,286 Roeder, G. 52

Rome 37, 51, (ifI, H3,2-1-6 'room of Lht: l:>casom; 11

ropc-l-9.62, 175,219,244,278 Rosdlini , N. E I. 63. 91,247 RosettJ 83, Hi Rosena SlU!lL' 63. 83.\)1, 128-9, 16U,

no,

2+7,2-17,3U8 Rouge, 0. de 172

'rov;ll 11l00hcr'

238

'ro;-al wi,cs' 238

TW

Rub'., 'Idl eI- 181 167

S'SIUl
S(I

224

('protection ') 30, 53, 248, 2-18, 283

sa ('son') 129
sub 34 Saber 236 sacred animals 30, 57, 02, 7~, 75, g7, 96, IOU. 139, 1.19-40. 159, 162,189, 198. 21.1, 229, 240, 24S-9, 2-/9, 250, 296 Sal,:Y, S. de 63, 247, .lOS eI-S.ff 166 Sa c1-Ha b 250 rar s(~tomb HI. 249 Saft c1-llinn;1 198,276 Sah 42, 2:H, 249, 275, 276 Sahaba-Oarau 9+ Sahlins, 1\,.1. 294 Sahur;t 12-3, 11~, 136, 161,210, 2YS, 305 Sa128 Said Pasha 170 Sa is 19,37.41, 51. 54, 116, 158, 197, 200,221,224,229,1-/7,250,288 sflUia 17 e1-Salaam canal 92 Salt, 1-1. 52 Salt Papyrus Hl) saluki 87 Samannud 169 Samaria 5+ S;lnam 155, 195, 2Rl sandal .14, 84, 106,203 Samorini 7fr-7 sa-per 224 Saptah 29 5t1tfi)'{1267 Saqqar:l IS, 17,33.H,+9, 50, 51, 53. 54,57,59,60,61,65,70,71.73,77,

79,87,88,89,94,96,96,97,100, 105.121. 131-2. 1.1+, 1.19, 139-4Q, /-12.1+1--5.150,153.162,163,170, 172-3.179,180.18+,196,198,210, 213,219,230,233-+,236,2+4,2+8, 250, 25U-2, 2S0, 2,5/,2,;2,256,258, 260,261,267,278.279. 2S(" 287, 292,298,299,301,306,309 tomhs c8 267, 267 60129,139,298 2+05 (,,3) 126, /26 303584,219 303833 .135717 3S00 236 35114 57, S7 3505 236, 262 351S I+U Saqqara "Elblet 152,257 sa Rtl 62, 1-1-9, 210, 219, 2-1-7 Sararis, see Scrapis sarcophagus 29. 58, 62, 67, 72, 77, 111,11+-5,117,1/7.121,127,132, 152,156,168.170,181,183,18+, 201, 2U7, 220, 222, 235, 2+8, 257, 259-6U, 260, 261, 26/, 267-8. 269, 274, 2N, 279, 182, 286, 289, 297, 299-300, 309 Sarclllltt:t2.,7 Sargon the Grear 22 Satet .14, 35,122, /22, 151,252-3,296 StI!ifi: ollih/' Tmdt's 15. 135 Satirical Papyrus lUI, 135 Sarra 240, 300 S;llr:'lp 198, 221 Saturn-B Sauncron, S. 228 S,1\'al:l 17 Sa;'(:c,A. 1-1. 27 Saying.. ,!/AIIN1slu:slt/llul.J' 83, 306 scarab 16,36,45, -/6, 73, 7+, 122, 123, 13(j, 150-1, ISO, 152, IS8, 229, 253, 2.i3,308 S((lrtiboid 253 Schiifcr, H. II Schiap;lrclli, E. 82, 300 Schneider, H. 266 school 24 Schott, S. 23.:; scorpion 122, 133, 139, 168, 253--l, 262.2SI Scorpion 16,39.128,167, Jln, 2+~, 25~, 2.)-/, 264, 278 scribe 15,29,38,90, 118, 1J2, 13~, 135,1411,156,160,161,17.1,175, 17S, 19+, 211, 218, 2~ 1,25+,25-/, 284,307 scrihe rccruiL<; 29 Sc:.l liS seal be:lfer of lhe !rod 191 sc:.lls 13, 15, 17.22,35,61,86,89,109, 152, IflJ. 183. 191, 1lJ6, 203. 220. 236,248,25.1,267 Sea Peoples 131, 162, 177,202,141. 255,2.5.,,269,279 .\"i:lmkhlsdmkltill 27, 45,154,250 sdm,JI/94, 139,305-6 Schegu43 SCbCI1lWlic 83 Schelln~'tos 169, 198.211

or

seiJi65 -

Scbilian lJ4 Scbiumekcr 35 Sed 256, 305

Scdcinga 255 set! fcsliv:ll 11,33, 50, 84, 86, 153, 155, 169,187,199,215.233,2.,0,256, 256,264,268,27-+,295, JUS Sedmcllt c1-Gcbcl 12-+ Sefkhet-Abw\' 264 ulll:dustar II' Schcl35, 87, 97, 151,259 seltm:1 stone 123 Sei1. 196, 20+ . seter (litH ('prisoner of w:.J.r') 272 Sckhemib 220 Sekhcmka 87 sddll'lII s(:cptrc 3ol, 257, 257, 267 Sckhcmkher 1+4, 179,210,233, 256--7.297,309 Sckher~il1lit 272 Sckhmet 13, 23, 50. 83, 95,119,162, 163,175,180,193,199,211,230. 230,256--7,257,257, 27ol, 296 Sekhmct-I-]alhor 15+ uHt slutl83 seHe! 99 Sekmem 259-60 Stkonopis 245 Sc1kct, sec Serkcr SI'IIUt 118 SI'lIttlel ('scrr') 272 Scmempscs 258 semen 176, 187, 265, 270 Scmcnpt,lh 258 Semcrkhct 33, 89 Scmna 28.103,205,258,259,279 Scnma Dispatclll.:s 37-8, .)5, 160, 161 Scmn;l South 103,258 sem-priest6i, 211, 2/2, 228. 228, 270, 280 Scn:.J.khlcnra 'I:la I 18,286 Senbi 180 Scnch 8S, 88 Senebtisy I-H, 268 Scncd 89 Senenmllt 42, 80, 11.:;' 120, 1.U, 19-/, 258, LiS sl:lle1107,107 SCllclites 88, 88 Scni 20, /28, 209,209 Scnncdjem 99 SCllnedjemib 160 Senusrer 27 128,31,55, 102, 124.153, 15-l, 1.)5, 163,163,183,186,187,234,258-9, 2.19,261,291 , 301 11156,156, lS6, 259 11128,37,1.1,77,103,137, 186, I~~, 259-60,2,;l) SCllusrct-ankh 163 SCllwosrcr, sec SClllisrel Septimius Snerus 70, 246 Scqcncnra l'a,l IJ 18. 35, 80, 146,255, 260.286 scquenet.: daring 6+,226 Scr:lbit c1-Khadirn 51, 59,119,271, 276,291,297 Serapcum 2-4-5, 36, 56, 145, 161, 170, 189, 198,246,248.252,260,260, 261.26/,278 Scrap is 24, 3/l, 169, 231, 260, 261 srrtltlb87,126, 173, 18+,245,261,292, 298 S!'rt'N/39, 87, 96,126,150,173,220, 2+7,247,256,261,26/.265,278, 297 Scrkct30, 59, 121. 122,200, 253, 262. 262

Sl'fttl
l

"l'!y! ('the one who causes the throat to breathe') 262 Serpent" sec Djet Scscbi-Sudb 57, 205, 258, 263--l, 263, 293

.~,-,slt 254 Seshar 122, 122,220,264,295 seslttlJl/ 167 sesltesltl ('sistrum') 271

Scshou 221 Seshscshe( 184 Sesosnis, see Scnusrcl Scrau92, 92, 2-/5 Selh 32, 33, 34, 36, H, -l3. 45.58,74, 85,88,90,93,101,10+,108.119, 130, 133, 136, 142, ISO, 193. 200, 201,2117,211,21+,215,220,22+, 216-7,261, 26-4-S, 26-/, 266, 273, 284 Scthnakhrc HI, 265 Serhos, sce Set~

se/jtll 175
SCIOn-Williams, \: 97 Set" 113,+2,51,52,80,112,12+,152, 16I,liO,2H,216,237,2-HJ,263, 265,26.1, 276, 2S0, 282, 283, 292. 300 lJ 29, 265 Seuscrcnra, sec. KJw:ln sevcn sacred oils 210 sl'mesl'kh ftlJltm 55 Seyrf;lrLh, G. 297 Shabaqo32, 113, 14S, 155, 158,206, 22ol, 266, 288 Shabaqo Srone 74, N, 131, 19+,266, 283 Sh.birqo 1+8, 155,206, 266 sl/lllJ!i 18,19,20,55, N, 95, 13ol, 148, 168, /68,208,266-7,266,269,309 shadow 20, 47, ]04,194,267 sl/(/rll((l7, 108, 141, 235, 267 shafl rumb 12-13, 52,5+, 80,127,1+4, 156,161,168,172, 18U, 2+2, 2++ Shahr i-Sokht;l 59 ShakchlkhclC 185 Sh.lf.k 103 Shalm;lncser

12.n
111221 Shasu-l1,51,H3 Shay 186, 267 Shed 253, 262 ShcdYCl 176,273 sheep 16, 17, 181, 20+, 240 SheikhAbd c1-Qurn;l 182, 19+,243, 2-I.i, 258, 288 Sheikh cl-Bded 267, 267 c1-Shcikh Fadl72 Shckc1csh 162. 255 Sheik,', P, B. 241 shell/aw! 75 slt(/1I1;58, H1 sltcII62,103.20I,267-8 .I02

sltelll'!jeriH9 shcp i'li .(d/'llle! 170-1

Shepenwcpct 122+,288 II 178,229 fII 178 Shepscsbf 21 0 Shepscskara 13. 210 Shcpscsra 160 Shcrden 162, 241, 255, 255 She-resr 98

325

INDEX

Shc"Shonq 162,268 I ;~, 1/8,127,180,21;, 26S, 288 n 21;, 230, 268, 271, 273, 282 IIJ 268, 282 IY 21;, 268 V /62,21;,268,282 Shcshonq .\ lCf)"-lI11UIl 268 ShcsmclcL 2M~ sheslltcl b';rdlc 268, 276 shidd .12,121,188,200,118, US Shinnic. P. 185 Shishak 5-1Shoshcnq, sec Shcshonq Shu3?, -1-5, 7+. 93, 1)3. 108, 113, 122. 130,162,207,211, 27U, 270, 28~ Shu-Arcl1sl1uphis 37

Shunct c1-Zcbib 14, 128. 150,233

shmi-Rtl ('sun-shade') 267

Solomon 5-+, H3 Somalia 231 Somrutefnakht 221 Sonsofl-lorus30,-+7,59.19I,200, 266,275,275 Sopdct -+2, 65, 2-+9, 275--6, 276, 276 Sopduhotcp 33 Soped 187, NY, 268, 275. 276, 297 Sossianus I-Iierodt.:s 2-+6 Sotcr -12 Sothic cyck 192, 276 Sothis. sec SOpdCl soul house 209-1U spelt 16 ,'pt'OS 109, lJ2,276 Speos Artemidos 52, 62, 130,276, 290 sphinx 11, 19,99,165,220,255,260,

200,202,206, 22-t, 236-7, 24-1, 253, 255,259,265,269,27\,280,289-90,

3UO, 303, 30S /(1175

'Iian:lch 178 'ra-hitjcr 281
lab/a

Teran:! 19 Tcrcnulhis 153 Tcrcsh 162,255 'Ieri 50, 60,172,18-+,220,236,271 'l'clishcri 18, 19,286 Ti::udjoi 127

192

T:lble of Karnak 14-1 'EH:itus 130

'n,h"rqo 3/., 32, ~I, I+H, /-18, I;H, 162,

182-3,206,207,223,229,255,2SI,

Tcv46 rc.~ri1cs 17, 22, :13, 66--7 Thebes IH-19, 20, 29, .10, .11, ~O, ~1. +-+, -10, -II, -+9, 52, 59, 69, lU, 81, H6, 9-+,105, ION, 122, 124, 126, 132, HI,
140,1-+7-8,159,160,168,170,175,

281,283
'El-iht97 T:lkclot 1215
'l~kc1ot(sonofOsorkon 111)215 'Iiklu-i Shamshid 221 rlikhul-+5 laill/tfl block -+5,165,200,232,281-2 'lit/IJfz;rk, sec funer:lrr cndosurc

IHII, IH2,

18~,

191, 19.1, 1'1.1, 1'1-1,

2UI, 202, 215, 230, 231, 2-+1, 112, 2-+Y, 251, 257, 25R, 260, 2(1), 268,

273, 2HO, 281, 2H2, 28-1, 286--8, 281>, 287,291,292, 298, 30~
lombs

276-8,28/
Sphinx, Gre;.u -i2, 87, 111~2, lJ2. H9, 276-7,19U spil..'L'S 22, -iO, 190

slll1'O' ('mcrcham') 294Sin 74 Siamun 80. 230 Sicard, C. 91 sickle 17 sid clod or muLh 6-1-. 65. 117. 133, 151,270,270,280 Sidon 58,22+
Sihathor 273

rr21110
rr-t272

spons 64, Ifll, 1Il2

Stilddnlilllll, R. 110 standard -10,168,197,20-+, 2+t, 278, 278,30+-5 star 42, -+5, J(H, 122, 156, 192, 2U7, 23+-5, 2-i9, 26-1-, 27S-f) Srelae of Kamosc 35, 137, H6,279 stele 14-, 18, IY, 2I,2Y,J2,:n, ,17,-13, 1V, 54, 55, 62, 65, 68, 82, H3, 87, 96,

"lit/l' (If HI/filS lIlId Srlh 193 7illt' of Is;s tI/Ill /1,,: Seu1/ Smrp;olls Ill3 Ttt/t' olS;lIl1h( 28,164, \86,216,22-1-,

rr867, 107
Tr34 183,250 rr3823 rr-l-O 33, .13, 300 'n-5222,194 rr55 29, 166,2-+3

2;8
'/illc flllht'ClIplllrl'ofJllpp(/16-t nt/t' (1/he Eloquel/I Pm,illlll159, 1641ft/I'O//hl' Predesl;,ml Pr;l1fl' 16-+ '1iilt' o/Ihe Shipml't'CA'l'd S(/ilor 1()-+, 231 Taft- 1{lht' 1h,o 8mlhers 5-+
'/(J!e /lIStllle! Khth'lIl!IJ(f.I'l'l 16-+

rr565U
-rr572Y

Silc 56
sih'cr2J.-l-l,50, 11+,175, 199.2/1,

268.270-1, 2n, 27-1-, 282, 28<), 24)1, 29/ Sin;li 2S, 41,51, 5S, 59, 71, 88, 92, 119, 120,166,25(1,271,276.279,297 SillUhc, sec Tide uISimtlu' .~illm 175
Siplah, sec S:tpl;th Sirius -fl, 58. 65, 192,275 sistrum 12,50,50,75,8+-5. 119, J/CJ,

'n6U IU2 rr6.1-1I, /1-1, H;, /-15

'1T(19:H,131J, 175, 182,250 rr71 115,132,258 Tr7-+ 278

109,118,125, /2u, UO, 131, 132, 133,1.13,137, HS, 150, 152, 153,
155, IW, 162, 163, 170, 179, 18-1-,

'Iides ({ Illrmt!cr, see I)apyrus Westear

'E\[mis 1-+6 mmarisk 108,295,306 '!:lmin21 lillis 32, 50,68, 88, 1-+5, 16U, 162, 173, 18-t, 215, 22Y-30, 231, 2.n, H9, 271,273,282-3,282,288,293,297 'r;mt;lnllct 168 'Iantcrc 8-+ Tallutall1;1ni -+1, 87, 155, 158, 183,200,

189,192,193,200,20;,209,210,
212,212,218,221,22-+,232,236, 2+t,2-15, 247, 25-1-,2.,7, 261, 26/. 278,278-9,278,279,286,289,292,

296, 297, 3UI, 30-1

StcleofDonations 19 step pyramjd 33,179,196,210,233, 257,272,309 Step Pyramid 15,70,79,87,121,139, 210,230,233, H-I-, 250, 250, 251-2, 252,256,257,260,279,306 Stonehenge 222 stork -+7,151 Strabo 65, 69, 126, 197,260,2:30 Strouhal, E. 65 stlll':CO 21,121 5tuan, II. W, V. 2-+3 5tuiln'sTomb, sec 'I'hebes IT55 Suez Canal \60, 171, 271 SumerlSulllcrian 22, 47, 75---6,186,

".,.86 115, /15 rr93 108, H8 rrIOO;I, H;,2U8,211,2~3 nl62 H8 rr217 108
Tr26113 rr276 1-t5 -n-27951 rr28067 rr353 42, 258 rr373 152 Theodosius 2-+6, 260 Thera 76-7 Ihcrlllolltlllinesl:cncc 6+, 226 Thinis 2X8 'I'hoeris, see Tawerct Thorh 25, 48, 7ll, 78, 92, 116. 12~,

192, /99, 271-2, 272

Sirlurhoriuncl 144, 156

Siwa Oasis 23, 272 sb\'cs 38, 159,205,231.241.272.289

slipper-coffin 153 Smcndcs 121-,229,288

2U6, 229, 283

''1iremu IY2 'J~rif, c1- l-t I, 2-t9, 287 'l:trkh:ln 66, 67, 106 Tarsus 66, 2-t6 'I:I-scnet 93 Ta-scIY 20-+

Smcnkhkara 20-1, 29, +1-, -1-6, ZOO, 291

Smith. G. E. 194 sllakdscrpcnl 32, 36, ]6, 39, -J.5, 54.

67,1110, IJJ, 139, 1+2, 16H, IH~, /8-1, 210,237,2.17,245,2-/5,25+,262, 267, 28~, 3U2
Sncfcr1l77, 110, 127, 152, 161. J(ll, 179, I ilJ, 210, 233, 272-3, 295 Sobek 28, 7+, 118. 151. 15+, I.j.j, 161,

Ta-sh~ 9~

176-7, IH6, 2UO, 22~, 2~;, 273, 273 SobckhOlCJl (c1-1\lo'alla) 189 Sohc,hOlep (Thebes) -11,114,1/-1,
I~;,

2HU
sun-disc lv, 20--21, 29, .1-1-, +t, 67, 85,

111.1"11 55 'J:ltjencn 229, 2:33 'l';1Ualll, J I. 308 [;11 ton 72 Taucrt, see 'Iiwcret 'Iaweret30,5-+, 115-6, 12-+, 130, 189,
2~,

/25,139,1;1,201,2117,2111,221,
2-+8, J.I(j, 26-t, 270, 28H-IJ, 289, 21)5.

296
Ihrnnc3lJ, 106, 112, 122, H2, 152,

2+8, 283--l, 283

28~,

203, 217, 256

Ihronc Il;Ulle 6-1, 152, 155 rhrow-slid 107 Thucnlidcs 130 Thull;OICp82,82 Thutmose 202
119,~,80,

10;,119,122,126,134, 139,

1~2,

/-1",20-1,292

Sobckhutcp (13th-Dyn;lsry rulers) 273 Sobd,l1cfcfll 2/, 273 Sobck-Ra 272 Sohkcmsal"(tlucen) 1';'-1

Sobkcllls"r 11
Sohag 13,21

II~,/-I-I

Sobr 86,96,99, 177,21+,230,2;11, 271,273,2S0

Sokarhcr 1~6 Sokar-Osiris 55 sular bark 11, 211, 36, 49, 68,100.123,

206, 207, 239, 2++. 256, 26-1-, 26R. 274,283,305 soldiers 38,80.109,117,132,135,

136,198,22.... 229,237,2100,278
Soleb 25, 30, -is, 135, 162. 255,27+-5, 27",293

188,189,239,270,270,272,27-+, 2:33,305 sun temple 10-11, n, 12-1-,208,210, 239,285,298 Suppilulium;ls 131 Suprcme Councillc)r Antiquities 91 SUS;\ 221 Swcnet -1-3,55 sycamore 109, 119,167,295,306 5n:nc -+3 ,~};lIIpft-gllll/ 93, 2RU S~-ri;l -1-2, 47, 52, 71, R6, 125, nO-I, 13-1-,143,152,178,189,236,237, 2-+1,243,255,294 S\Ti;te 63 S)Tia-Palcstine/Lcr:lIlt 16, 18,21,22, 23,25,27,28,29, .n, 38. -+1, -n, 54, 59,71,102, I H, 130, 136-7, l-n,

rax:ltinn 15, 16, 33, 73, 97, II R, 153, 164,198,203,210,221,222,224-,

2+6,

28-1, 2H6

/dlm:j"lH '1i'lullillgs "j"P/llhllo/ep

9-1

Tebtllnis 98, 161 Tefnakht 5-t, 22-t Tefnin, R, 24-5 'llJnut-t5, 7-t, Y3, 108, 113, 162, 1/)3,

1111, JOH, 120-1, I;;,

211, 270,

28~

28H, 289, 2lJ9 II ; 1,80, 2;8, 2H9 11115,22,25,28,39,51,55,62,6-1-, 71,7,1, HO, 86, 9~, 99,101,112,1/1,

H3, 1;2, I;S, 178, 186, lH8, 198,

Teflltll-Mchit 27+ Id:clI/I 28-+, 285 Iddw/20S tcmpera 121, 172 'Icnroy 152 Tentlllutcngcbtiu lOI 'lentyrisfH Tcos 116,198 Tep.\ -:m 183 fepy...dju-cf35

113,117,118, 120,

12~,

13U,

I~-;,

152,155. I (IS, 17S, 189, 189, 198. 238,231),2-+3,253,258,276,280, 289-90,289, 291. 295

IV 29, -1/, 67, H7, U5, 16H, 182, IH'J, 19~, 201, 277, 2H2, 28~, 290
'fhutll1ose (sl.:ulptor) 172, 19lJ. 2lJll ThlltlllOSC (son ofAlllenhotcp 111) 29,
~6

Ti, sccTy

326

INDEX

Tibcrius /93
Tigris41, 186, 189 Tihml c1-Gcbcl 72 Timna 166,271
lin 7J, 95 Tivoli 246

Ti\' (wife of AmcnhOlcp IJI) 20-1, 29, 29,45,46,69,199, ZOO, 2:;8, 253, 255,278, 291J-!, 290, 29/, J07, J08-9,309 Tiy (wife ofRamcsscs llJ) 11 ~

Tiycll1cn.:ncsc 2+1 Tjamcr liS Tjancncnr 21)1

Tjancni 178 Tjanuny 278
Ij(~)I~)1

sub ,jao' 15 IjuO'301

tjrhwt'/95 Tjchcnu 16\

Tjckcl255
Tjcmchu 161 Tjcncnycr 1N9

Tjuiu lOS Tod 28, 29, 115, 181),271,291,]91 toilet items, ."iCC cosmetics ~Ihmh()s +4. 2H9 Toshka 94 toys 64, 265, 293-4, 2W trade 17, !lJ, 25,27,28,37,.18. +0. 41, 52, 55-6, 57, 102, 120, 152, 155, 158,

Udjahorn..:sne( 13, -W, 221,247 lItljllt-CYC, sec "'ttfja/-cyc I/(/ju 72 Ug"Jrit 59,255 lu Burun 294 Umm d-Breigal, Tdl98 Umm d-Qtah 13, 17-18,33, 150, 186,196,220,251,254 Umm c1-Sawwan 22, 279 Unas 42,51,60,70,7/,97, 105,210, 234-5,235,251-2,269,286,299 undcrworld 19,36,45,47, 6S, Rl, 85, UN, 139, 146.162,107,256,267. 2X3 UNESCO 11, 12,44 Upi 2J6-7 Ur280 llrai'l/S 18,34, 67. 74. 7S, 87, 95, 96, 139,167.199,201.245.262,277. 284,302-3,305 rart:1l221 urine 176 Uronani 103, 258 Ursa .\ lajor. sec Great Bear Uruk 280 "Gscrhct

ValiCln ohc1isk 41 Venus 43,53

Verncr,:\1. U Vermis, P. 45 Viceroy of Kush 16, 18,28-9.124, 202, 20S-6, 2f5, 298, 300-1, 30/ Victory Stclcof I)iy 101, 103, 130,

mad hekllW 67,167,262

J1'eshrlJ

224,279, 2S1, 283 ViClOf\' Stele ofThulnluSC 11289 Vicnn;~ S,slem 22S yizier 12,15,28, 29, 40, +6, 65, 67, 79, 90,159,166,183,184, Hl(l--7, 21 I, 220,240,243,2";3,252,259,184, 286, 2~8, 3111-2 vulture 36, 61, 67, 74, 122, 193. 201, 267,302,302 Vyse, R. 11,77, lSI. 260 Wadi Abu Ilinnis Y7 Wadi Allaqi 135 lI'adiArabah 166,271 Wadi Digla 166 Wadi Gah!..raba 133
Wadi Gha~zch 166

mer kht!Tep IW11IP/ 230 129 \Vcshwcsh 255 Western Descn, Sl.'e Libyan Desert me/JIm 191 wheat 16, 17,8-1,188 Whilc Nile 203 While W'llls 251 wig 69, 117, II i, 140-1 Wilkinson,]. G. 91, 131,247, .lOS, JOS Wilkinson, R. 267 willow 108 window of appearances 36, 178, 217 winc 15,17,22-3,23, 1U2, 103, 108,
190,209,216 \\omcn64, 72,90,118-9,170,193, 238,265---6,272,306-7 wool 33. 117,228 Woollc~; L. 26 writing 15, 59, 90,128-9,163-+,16-1, 216,219,261. Uri, J06 Wri/iu-,( oj"/he /litltlm Chamba 106
Xerxes 116 X Group 48, 55

50

USCJ"kaf 10,12.210.252,267 Uscrbra 220, 286 usluhti, sec s"ab/i Utn, sec Wadjy!
vagina 176
\'allc)' Festival 49, 99 "alley ofrhc Kings 35. 36, 40, +3, 61.

205,22+, n 1-2, 24J, 250. 259, 281), 291,29+'-'-5.295 Trajan 137, 153 Tr;llI11cdcr, C. 155
t.fC'ASUn"

164,166,175,186,188,197,2011,

16 rriad 32, 35,+8,99, 111, 151,180, IX2, /82,187.193,230, 249. 2(13,

no,

268, 287, 295-6 Tuareg 156 Tukh 195-(l Tuna d-Gcbcl25, 72,116,123.139. 150, 221, 222, 148, 296, 296 Tuphillm 291 TUfa 18. 111,235
Turi lS.1H Turin Erutic Papyrus lJ3, ISH

Turin JlIdici;11 Papyrus II (), 241 Turin t\lining Papyrus 1/-1, 170 Turin RO~;ll C\Ilon 6~, 89, IJJ, 152, 218,256, 2W)-7. 305
Turin Saliric.lI P;IP~ rus 192

80,82,83,137,170,172,18+,202, 203,207, llo, 219, 2++, 251. 252, 267, 288,292. 292,299-300,3oo. 305 K\ 143 ...,442,299 K\6 43. 83 J...,7 2+0,306 184 1>.,943.79,83,106 n11241 h.\ 15 265. 2~U ).;,"16240 f.. \ 17 2()5. 292. 300 '12111211-1, 28~ 1(\ 2229,299 .;T23 46, 135, 2lJ7. 299 /..,24299

",S

Turke\' I89, 211 tUrlI1lt-,ise51,95.119,1-H.153,156, 271,272.295.21)7 tunic 218 TushrallOl 114. 2lJI Tutanl..hamun 21,12.27.21),33,40. 45, +6. 51, 60, 61. 63, 67. 67, 74, N. 92,99,11I6--7, /07, 112-3, 11-1-5, /23, no, nL HO, I-IU, HI, 145, 162,1(,1.165. Ih,. 167, 168, 172, lil. 199,202,103. 20R, 211, 215, 230,239,252,257,262,lo2,2fi9,
2i(J, 271. 277.179. 2Vl, 297-8, 297.

K\2529lJ ... \.14 39, 62, M, 239, 290 ..:\3529,184.300 ",\36 (17,168 K\38 289. 299 1\.'-'928,199 ",-42289 1>.,4-3290
",-4()30~9

Wadi Iialfil 25 Wadi Hammamat 2X, 65. S4, 114, I H, 119-20, 155, 170, 1S3. 195, 279 Wadi I Jill:!l 92 Wadi Har211 Wadi c1-Hudi 183,279 \,Vadi iVbghara 71, 152, 256, 271, 297 Wadi cl-Nakhhl 82 Wadi Natrull 56, 153, 197 Wadi Qlrun I I Wadi Qubbanci c1-Qjrud 72, 1+5, 198 \Vadi Silke,'laqa c1-Zcid 121 \\"adiTumilat iii, 201 Wadi,see Djel n'tufj mer 115 WadjYL 67, 95,139,199,201,245.257. 262,269,302-3. J()3. 305 \Vahihra, stc f\ pries \\albrook l\lithracum26I \VaJlsofthe Prince 56. 102 wand 16i, 16~, 24S, 262 'Wolr crown', sec hlue crown 1/!1Iref('minisrries') 2S9 warfare 32, 35. 40, 42, 63-+, 132, 134, U7, 161-2,177,189-90,203, 211, 245.272. ::\03-+. 303 I1JtfSsccplre21,31,.N.S6,122,20l, 230, 276. 2X6. 304 Wascl/\Vosrcr 122, 122. 148,286.30+ \\'ashshubnni IS9 \\;ller clod, scc dcpsydra
\\"atctkhclhor IlH \\'aw:1I 16, 33, lOb, 3UO

Yahudi';l, Tell c1- 13()-7. 215, 255, J08, j08 Yam 148, 20+-5 Y:lrcs, Rc\', Dr 305 Ycno;lm 143 Young, T. 90, 247, 30S uya 46, 290, J08-9, 309 Zawi\e( c1-An'an 180.210.309 Zawi~"Cf el-!\l;yitin 204 Zawi~e( Umm-c1-Rakham 56. 103. 186 Zeus31, 36, 261, 280 Zi\'ic, A. 252 zodiac 42-3.85 Zoser, sec Djoser

...,5521.20U.291 1..:,"57 132, 252, 300 f..\(1267. 106. 141, 165. 16.1,211.215, 257, 2W,171. 277, 297---8, ZY9. 306,
30Y

\\"a\ of Horus 5f) \\a;, T mn der97 wa'.51, 71. 72.93,191.261) wcaving" 49. 118,200.307 "'t'{,l'Il 52, 53. 20S wet/ill 30 "'i(ljlIl-C~C (cye of Iloru!i) 3 I, 02,

133-+.176.139,255,264.274
\Vcnamun, sec Ihporl flj"fll'IWIllIfIl Wcncg89 Wcni 37, 220, 27lJ Wcnis, sec Un;ls Wcnkc, R, 127 Wcnncrer 214 \\'epwawcl -H, 214, :U(j, 256, 304-5,
3114 \VcpW;I\\ctcmsaf 30-1 1Vl'rael63

21)8,299.302, JO(l, JOS-9 'rulankhalCll, scc 'l'llfankh;11l1tlll

'I'ulhmosis, sec Thlilmnse

Tuyu 290, 308-lJ, 309 1\ 12l). 139.298 (l;e/ 31. 31, 248. 298-9. 199
Tyre 58, 2z.t Udimu, scc Dcn

'"alley of (hl.: Q.l1ccns 300 Q\J~ 300 (/144300 <t\ 55300

,,;(lIc~

ur66 11)9, 3nO temple II, 12, 28. 39, 70, 71,

111, H~, 150, 156, 179,211,233, 235.243.259,269,299 Yapheio 115

327

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1

List ofbibft:ogra.phical abbreviatio11S

ASAE BACE BAR BES BiO,. BIE BIfAO BMF/! BMNUI BN BSEC BSFE
C,,]
Annales elu Service des Antiquitcs de l'Egyptc Bulletin of the Australian

Note
JEOL
Jaarbericht van het
Vooraziatisch-Egyptisch

(/1/

tile illuslmli(l1ls

V 51 5
sli sh

Genootschap 'Ex Grieme Lux'

Centre for Egyptology

Biblical Archaeology Review

J1\11A JNES JSSEA

Journal of lVlediterranean Archaeology

Bulletin of the Egyptological

Seminar Bibliothcca Oricntalia Bulletin de I'Institut de

Journal ofl"ear Eastern Studies

51 51 51 51 51 51 51!
sl! Si

l'Egypte Bulletin de ]'Tnstirur Fran<;ais

d'Archeologie Orientale Bulletin of the iVluseum of Fine Arts, Boston Bulletin of the Metropolitan IVluseulll of Art, New York Biblische Notizen Bulletin de la Societe d'Egyptologie de Gencve Bulletin de la Societe Fran~aise d'Egyptologie Cambridge Archaeological Journal Chronique d'Egypte Cahiers de Recherche de l'lnstitut de Papyrologie et Egyptologie de Lille Discussions in Egyptology Etudes et Travaux Gbttinger .Nliszellcn Journal of the American Oriental Society Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt Journal of Egyptian Archaeology

Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities Liverpool Annals of LAAA Archaeology ,mel Anthropology MIDAIK 1\1ittcilungen des Deutschen Archiiologischen Insriwts,

Abteilung Kairu
l'vlitteilungen des Instituts fur Orientforschung NARCE Newsletter of theAmerican Research Center in Egypt Orientalistische OLZ Literaturzeitung Oil/IRO Oudheidkundige rvlededelingen uit het Rijksl11useul11 "all Oudheden tc Lciden Grim/alia Orientalia Lovaniensa Periodica PSBA Proceedings of the Societ~ of Biblical Archaeology RdE Revue d' Egyprologie Studien zur Alt~lgyptischen SAK Kultur fijI Varia Aeg'yptiaca /ifc4 \-Varld Archaeology WZK1\!1 \Viener Zeitschrift flir die Kunde des wlorgenlandes zAS Zcitschrift fUr Agyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde

MfO

5i Si
si si
Si
Si Si

sil

1
5i] 5i
SII

CdE CRfPEL

Si

5i
si, Si

5i

DE ET CM JAOS JARCE ]EA

st
sl"

5, 5, 5,
SI

Each illustr.nion is credited in its accompanying caption. \Vherever possible object numbers are included. 'I'he follO\\inl:?: abbreviations have been used to refer to [h~se institutions which kindly supplied photographs: Cairo The Egyptian .Museulll, Cairo eM The Dcpanmenr of Coins and 1\ lcd,lls at the British J\lllscum Deutsches IMI, Cairo Archiiologischt.:s Jnstiwt in Cairo EA The Department of Ancient Egypt and Sudan at the British lVluseum Griffith Institute The Griffith Institute at the Ashmolean ?vlUSC1l111,0'\ford rVletropolitan !VlUSClIl11 'I'he l'vletropolililn lVluse1ll11 of An, NcwYark Petric !vlllseul11 The PctTie 1\ lll!'JClllll of Egyptian Archaeology, University College London The Department \VA of the ~!\ncicnt ~ear East" at the British ?vluseu111

5 5

s
5 5 5 5 S 5 5 5

328