Pro Chap2

Danh sch Danh sch v xut nhp
Nguyn B Dip B mn KHMT Khoa CNTT&TT i hc Cn Th Tp hp d liu c th t. C th khng c phn t hoc c nhiu phn t, cc phn t c khai bo bn trong ngoc vung v ngn cch bi du phy. [a] danh sch mt phn t [] danh sch rng
1 2 1 3 2
[34,tom,[2,3]] danh sch 3 phn t v phn t th 3 l mt danh sch c 2 phn t. Danh sch c th hp nht vi bin
|?- [Any, list, of elements] = X. X = [Any, list, of elements]? yes
nbdiep@cit.ctu.edu.vn 1 nbdiep@cit.ctu.edu.vn C2.1: Danh sch 2
nh ngha danh sch

Danh sch l mt cu trc quy. danh sch rng, [], l mt danh sch. Cu trc c dng [X, ] l mt danh sch nu X l mt term v phn [] l mt danh sch (c th rng). Thng thng k hiu
[Head|Tail] (| = k t x dc trn bn phm)
Phn u (head) v phn ui (tail)

|?-[a,b,c,d]=[Head|Tail]. Head = a, Tail = [b,c,d]? yes |?-[a,b,c,d]=[X|[Y|Z]]. X = a, Y = b, Z = [c,d]; yes |?-[a,b,c]=[W|[X|[Y|Z]]]. W = a, X = b, Y = c, Z = []? yes |?-[a|[b|[c|[]]]]= List. List = [a,b,c]? yes
C2.1: Danh sch 4
Head phi hp nht c vi mt term. Tail hp nht vi mt danh sch c s phn t bt k, k c danh sch rng, [].
|?-[a] = [H|T]. H = a, T = []; yes
|?-[] = [H|T]. no
nbdiep@cit.ctu.edu.vn
C2.1: Danh sch
Hp nht danh sch

2 danh sch c th hp nht khi c s phn t bng nhau v cc phn t c th hp nht.
|?-[a,B,c,D]=[A,b,C,d]. A = a, B = b, C = c, D = d ? yes |?- [[X,a]]=[b,Y]. no Length 1 Length 2 |?-[(a+X),(Y+b)]=[(W+c),(d+b)]. W = a, X = c, Y = d? yes
S dng quy
quy gip chng trnh r rng v d hiu hn.
Ti sao ta phi vit li on code m ta vit?
D liu c trnh by quy v x l tun t d dng hn.

Trong cu trc ng php c cha chnh n VD: NP (Det) N (PP), PP P (NP) D liu c cu trc: mi i tng c cng cch x l
|?-[[a],[B,c],[]]=[X,[b,c],Y]. B = b, X = [a], Y = [] ? yes

C2.1: Danh sch 5
Cho php Prolog thc hin tm kim phc tp trong khng gian cc li gii nhng khng cn thit k gii thut ring.
C2.2: quy v x l kt qu
Trng hp dng v quy

Mt chng trnh c s dng quy cn t nht 2 phn: nh ngha trng hp dng.
Nu khng c phn ny chng trnh quy s khng bao gi dng! c gi l trng hp dng base case: is_a_list([]). Lun xut hin trc mnh quy
Hi t khi quy
chc chn v t s dng trng hp quy phi chuyn vn gn ti li gii hn. Khi x l danh sch ta c th b qua Head v quy phn Tail ca danh sch.
is_a_list([_|T]):is_a_list(T). Phn u c thay th bi bin v danh v khng cn s dng na
nh ngha cch gii quyt hoc chia nh vn c gi l trng hp quy recursive case:
is_a_list([_|T]):is_a_list(T).
Qua mi bc quy cn phi hi t n trng hp dng (tm n s kin fact).

Khng hi t is_older(Ancestor,Person):is_older(Someone,Person), is_older(Ancestor,Someone).
C th c hn 1 trng hp dng hoc 1 trng hp quy!

nbdiep@cit.ctu.edu.vn C2.2: quy v x l kt qu 7 nbdiep@cit.ctu.edu.vn C2.2: quy v x l kt qu 8
Hi t khi quy (2)

Chng trnh mu:
parent(tom,jim). parent(mary,tom). is_older(Old,Young):parent(Old,Young). is_older(Ancestor,Young):is_older(Someone,Young), is_older(Ancestor,Someone).
Hi t khi quy (3)

Chnh sa li:
parent(tom,jim). parent(mary,tom). is_older(Old,Young):parent(Old,Young). is_older(Ancestor,Young):parent(Someone,Young), is_older(Ancestor,Someone).
Cu truy vn tm tt c cc li gii s lp v hn:

|?-is_older(X,Y).
X = tom, Y = jim ? ; X = mary, Y = tom ? ; X = mary, Y = jim ? ; *loop*
Chng trnh c th sinh cc li gii v khng lp v tn.

|?-is_older(X,Y).
X = tom, Y = jim ? ; X = mary, Y = tom ? ; X = mary, Y = jim ? ; no
N lp v tn v mnh quy khng hi t ( do n chia hng tm kim). Nu v t is_older/2 khng thy t tin, n s quy chnh n.
nbdiep@cit.ctu.edu.vn C2.2: quy v x l kt qu 9
thu nh khng gian li gii chng ta nn kim tra Young c ph huynh trc khi quy. Theo hng ny chng trnh s khng tm li gii khng hin hu.
V t x l danh sch: Member/2

Member/2 l v t nhiu ngi dng nh ngha nht Member/2 kim tra mt term c phi l phn t ca danh sch hay khng.
Tr v yes nu tn ti Tr v fails nu khng tn ti. | ?- member(c,[a,b,c,d]). u tin kim tra v t u xem Head hp nht c vi i s yes khng. Nu c th tr li thnh cng. Nu khng thnh cng tr li tht member(H,[H|_ ]). bi.
V t x l danh sch : Member/2

|?- member(ringo,[john,paul,ringo,george]).
Fail(1): member(ringo,[john|_]). (2): member(ringo,[_|paul,ringo,george]):Call: member(ringo,[paul,ringo,george]). Fail(1): member(ringo,[paul|_]). (2): member(ringo,[_|ringo,george]):Call: member(ringo,[ringo,george]). Succeed(1): member(ringo,[ringo|_]]).
member(H,[ _|T]):member(H,T).
1) member(H,[H|_]). 2) member(H,[_|T]):member(H,T).
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12
B lu vt trong Prolog
S dng v t trace trong c ch dng lnh Prolog hin th lu vt qu trnh thc thi ca Prolog. Prolog s hin th:
Li gii no c tm n v vi i s no, Tm li gii thnh cng khng (Exit), C phi thc hin li khng hay tht bi.
Lu vt Member/2
| ?- trace. | ?- member(ringo,[john,paul,ringo,george]). 1 1 Call: member(ringo,[john,paul,ringo,george]) ? 2 2 Call: member(ringo,[paul,ringo,george]) ? 3 3 Call: member(ringo,[ringo,george]) ? 3 3 Exit: member(ringo,[ringo,george]) ? 2 2 Exit: member(ringo,[paul,ringo,george]) ? 1 1 Exit: member(ringo,[john,paul,ringo,george]) ? yes | ?- member(stuart,[john,paul,ringo,george]). 1 1 Call: member(ringo,[john,paul,ringo,george]) ? 2 2 Call: member(ringo,[paul,ringo,george]) ? 3 3 Call: member(ringo,[ringo,george]) ? 4 4 Call: member(stuart,[george]) ? 5 Call: member(stuart,[]) ? [ ] khng so khp [H|T] 5 5 5 Fail: member(stuart,[]) ? 4 4 Fail: member(stuart,[george]) ? 3 3 Fail: member(ringo,[ringo,george]) ? 2 2 Fail: member(ringo,[paul,ringo,george]) ? 1 1 Fail: member(ringo,[john,paul,ringo,george]) ? no
B lu vt hin th su tm thy li gii ca cy tm kim li gii.

K s cnh li gii l mc su ca cy.(Mc 0 cao nht).
tt b lu vt cn g notrace.
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Thu nhp kt qu x l
C 3 cch ly li gii khi x l d liu trong Prolog:
1. X l kt qu trng hp dng v truyn kt qu quay lui. 2. Lu kt qu tch ly khi quy v xut kt qu ra trng hp dng. 3. quy trn bin cha gn v tch ly khi quay lui.
X l t di ln
nh ngha v t length/2,i s u tin l danh sch cn kim tra, i s th 2 nhn kt qu tr v s phn t ca danh sch . Ta c th s dng quy lp qua cc phn t ca danh sch. S dng v t is/2 m s phn t.
listlength([_|T],N1):listlength(T,N), N1 is N+1.
to b tch ly u tin phi khi to n vi 1 gi tr ban u (vd =0).

listlength([],0).
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Lu vt x l t di ln
listlength([],0). listlength([_|T],N1):listlength(T,N), N1 is N+1. | ?- listlength([a,b,c],N). 1 1 Call: listlength([a,b,c],_489) ? 2 2 Call: listlength([b,c],_1079) ? 3 3 Call: listlength([c],_1668) ? 4 4 Call: listlength([],_2257) ? 4 4 Exit: listlength([],0) ? 5 4 Call: _1668 is 0+1 ? 5 4 Exit: 1 is 0+1 ? 3 3 Exit: listlength([c],1) ? 6 3 Call: _1079 is 1+1 ? 6 3 Exit: 2 is 1+1 ? 2 2 Exit: listlength([b,c],2) ? 7 2 Call: _489 is 2+1 ? 7 2 Exit: 3 is 2+1 ? 1 1 Exit: listlength([a,b,c],3) ? N = 3 ? yes
listlength([],0). listlength([_|T],N1):listlength(T,N), N1 is N+1.
_= A, T=[b,c], N1=N0
| ?- listlength([a,b,c],N0).
listlength([b,c],Na) . listlength([c],Nb). Na is Nb+1.
N0 is Na+1. N0 is 2+1.
Na is 1+1. listlength([],Nc). Nb is Nc+1. Nb is 0+1. listlength([],0). Nc = 0

12/12/2012 Tng quan v Prolog 18
X l t di ln
listlength([],0). listlength([_|T],N1):N1 is N+1, listlength(T,N). |?-listlength([a,b,c],X). Instantiation error in is/2 fail listlength([],_). listlength([_|T],N):N1 is N+1, listlength(T,N1). |?-listlength([a,b,c],0). 1 Call: listlength([a,b,c],0) ? 2 2 Call: _1055 is 0+1 ? 2 2 Exit: 1 is 0+1 ? 3 2 Call: listlength([b,c],1) ? 4 3 Call: _2759 is 1+1 ? 4 3 Exit: 2 is 1+1 ? 5 3 Call: listlength([c],2) ? 6 4 Call: _4463 is 2+1 ? 6 4 Exit: 3 is 2+1 ? 7 4 Call: listlength([],3) ? 7 4 Exit: listlength([],3) ? 5 3 Exit: listlength([c],2) ? 3 2 Exit: listlength([b,c],1) ? 1 1 Exit: listlength([a,b,c],0)? yes
C2.2: quy v x l kt qu 19
Tch ly gi tr
Tch ly kt qu trong khi quy, thu kt qu cui cng trng hp dng.
listlength([],Acc,Acc).
Kt qu cui cng.
listlength([_|T],Acc,Out):Acc1 is Acc+1, Tng b m trong lc quy listlength(T,Acc1,Out).
ng nht kt qu ra bin xut v truyn ngc n ra
20
Tch ly gi tr (2)
listlength([a,b,c],0,N). 1 1 Call: listlength([a,b,c],0,_501) ? 2 2 Call: _1096 is 0+1 ? 2 2 Exit: 1 is 0+1 ? 3 2 Call: listlength([b,c],1,_501) ? 4 3 Call: _2817 is 1+1 ? listlength([],A,A). 4 3 Exit: 2 is 1+1 ? listlength([_|T],A,O):5 3 Call: listlength([c],2,_501)? A1 is A+1, listlength(T,A1,O). 6 4 Call: _4538 is 2+1 ? 6 7 7 5 3 1 N = 3 ? yes 4 4 4 3 2 1 Exit: Call: Exit: Exit: Exit: Exit: 3 is 2+1 ? listlength([],3,_501) ? listlength([],3,3) ? listlength([c],2,3) ? listlength([b,c],1,3) ? listlength([a,b,c],0,3) ?
S dng v t ph tr
Thm v t ph tr xut gi tr b m.
listlength(List,Length):listlength2(List,0,Length). listlength2([],A,A). listlength2([_|T],A,O):A1 is A+1, listlength2(T,A1,O). Khi ng b m
V t ph tr
m bo b m hot ng chnh xc v ngi s dng khng cn quan tm n bn trong code
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Kt hp danh sch
Thng thng b tch ly c s dng nht xy dng danh sch. Nu ta mun to mt danh sch mi kt hp t 2 danh sch c ta khng th gn danh sch 1 cho phn u danh sch mi v danh sch 2 cho phn ui danh sch mi c:
| ?- L1=[a,b], L2=[c,d], Z=[L1|L2]. L1 = [a,b], L2 = [c,d], Z = [[a,b],c,d] ?
Xy dng danh sch khi quy

|?- pred([a,b],[c,d],Out). Out = [a,b,c,d].
Kt qu mong mun
thm danh sch 1 vo 2 bng quy ta c th s dng du x dc phn tch tng phn t trong L1 v thm vo L2.
pred([H|T],L2,Out):pred(T,[H|L2],Out).
B tch ly
Ta cn ly tng phn t trong danh sch mt v thm vo danh sch hai. C 2 phng n thc hin: quy Quay lui tr kt qu.
Chng ta cn thm bin (Out) truyn kt qu khi danh sch L1 ht phn t.

pred([],L2,L2). Trng hp dng: khi danh sch L1 ht phn t th to mt danh sch c cng s phn t v gn vo bin Out. Trng hp dng phi c t trc trng hp quy.
Xy dng danh sch khi quy (2)

Cng mt bin
reverse/3
| ?- pred([a,b],[c,d],Out). 1 1 Call: pred([a,b],[c,d],_515) ? 2 2 Call: pred([b],[a,c,d],_515) ? 3 3 Call: pred([],[b,a,c,d],_515) ? 3 3 Exit: pred([],[b,a,c,d],[b,a,c,d]) ? 2 2 Exit: pred([b],[a,c,d],[b,a,c,d]) ? 1 1 Exit: pred([a,b],[c,d],[b,a,c,d]) ? Out = [b,a,c,d] ? yes Nu bn to danh sch theo reverse([],L2,L2). reverse([H|T],L2,Out):reverse(T,[H|L2],Out).
| ?- pred([a,b],[c,d],Out). 1 1 Call: pred([a,b],[c,d],_515) ? 2 2 Call: pred([b],[a,c,d],_515) ? 3 3 Call: pred([],[b,a,c,d],_515) ? 3 3 Exit: pred([],[b,a,c,d],[b,a,c,d]) ? 2 2 Exit: pred([b],[a,c,d],[b,a,c,d]) ? 1 1 Exit: pred([a,b],[c,d],[b,a,c,d]) ? Out = [b,a,c,d] ? yes pred([],L2,L2). pred([H|T],L2,Out):pred(T,[H|L2],Out). Nu bn to danh sch theo qu trnh quy theo code bn th danh sch mi s c cc phn t mi th t ngc
qu trnh quy theo code bn th danh sch mi s c cc phn t c th t ngc
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Xy dng danh sch khi quay lui

xy dng danh sch theo ng th t cn iu chnh chng trnh, ch giai on quay lui . Thm phn t u ca L1 vo bin Out trong phn mc ca mnh . Head s c pred([H|T],L2,[H|Out]):- pred(T,L2,Out). thm vo khi
quay lui
append/3
Thit k trng hp dng: truyn L2 ra bin danh sch Out. Danh sch ny s thm Cc phn t L1 vo trong qu trnh quay lui. pred([],L2,L2).
Trng hp dng: Khi L1 ht phn t th to danh sch mi tng ng v truyn ra danh sch Out.
| ?- pred2([a,b],[c,d],Out). 1 1 Call: pred2([a,b],[c,d],_515) ? 2 2 Call: pred2([b],[c,d],_1131) ? 3 3 Call: pred2([],[c,d],_1702) ? 3 3 Exit: pred2([],[c,d],[c,d]) ? 2 2 Exit: pred2([b],[c,d],[b,c,d]) ? 1 1 Exit: pred2([a,b],[c,d],[a,b,c,d]) ? Out = [a,b,c,d] ? yes append([],L2,L2). append([H|T],L2,[H|Rest]):append(T,L2,Rest). * append/3 l v t ngi dng thng nh ngha khi x
Bin thay i mi ln c gi
l danh sch.
nbdiep@cit.ctu.ed u.vn C2.2: quy v x l kt qu 27 nbdiep@cit.ctu.edu.vn C2.2: quy v x l kt qu 28
append([],L2,L2). append([H|T],L2,[H|Rest]): append(T,L2,Rest).
( [H=a,T=b],L2=[c,d],Out=[a|Rest0] )
| ?- pred2([a,b],[c,d],Out). Out =[a| [b, c,d] ]
append vs reverse
C 2 v t reverse/3 and append/3 c th s dng ngc to danh sch t hiu ca 2 danh sch. y cng l mt cch hay loi b phn t trong danh sch.
| ?- append(X,Y,[a,b,c,d]). X = [], Y = [a,b,c,d] ? ; append([],L2,L2). X = [a], Y = [b,c,d] ? ; append([H|T],L2,[H|Rest]):X = [a,b], Y = [c,d] ? ; append(T,L2,Rest). X = [a,b,c], Y = [d] ? ; X = [a,b,c,d], Y = [] ? ; no |?-append(X,[c,d],[a,b,c,d]). X = [a,b] ? ; no
(H=b,T=[],L2=[c,d],Rest0=[b|Rest1]
append([b],[c,d],Rest0). Rest0 =[b| [c,d] ] append([],[c,d],Rest1). Rest1 = [c,d] append([],[c,d],Rest1). Rest1 = [c,d]
12/12/2012
Tng quan v Prolog
29
30
append vs reverse
. C 2 v t reverse/3 and append/3 c th s dng ngc
to danh sch t hiu ca 2 danh sch. y cng l mt cch hay loi b phn t trong danh sch
Built-in Predicates
var/1 nonvar/1 atom/1 atomic/1 number/1 integer/1 float/1 compound/1 ground/1 =../2 functor/3 arg/3 findall/3 setof/3 bagof/3
Cc v t nhn dng terms
| ?- reverse(X,Y,[a,b,c,d]). X = [], Y = [a,b,c,d] ? ; X = [a], Y = [b,c,d] ? ; X = [b,a], Y = [c,d] ? ; X = [c,b,a], Y = [d] ? ; X = [d,c,b,a], Y = [] ? ; *loop* |?-reverse([d,c,b,a],Y,[a,b,c,d]). Y = [] ? yes
reverse([],L2,L2). reverse([H|T],L2,Out):reverse(T,[H|L2],Out).
V t phn tch cu trc
Thu tt c cc li gii
31
C2.3: V t dng sn
32
Identifying Terms
var(X) thnh cng nu X hin l bin cha hp nht vi gi tr bt k.
var/1, nonvar/1, atom/1

var(X)
thnh cng nu X hin l bin cha hp nht vi gi tr bt k. | ?- X = 5, var(X). no | ?- var([X]). no | ?- var(X). true ? yes
Cc v t kim tra loi ca Terms
nonvar(X) atom(X) number(X) integer(X)
Thnh cng nu X khng phi bin hoc l bin hp nht True nu X l mt atom True nu X l kiu s ( s nguyn hoc s thc)
nonvar(X)
Ngc li, nonvar/1 thnh cng nu X khng phi bin hoc l bin hp nht. | ?-nonvar([X]). true ? yes
)
float(X) atomic(X) compound(X) ground(X)
11/10/04
True nu X l kiu s nguyn True nu X l kiu s thc True nu X l kiu s hoc l atom True nu X l kiu cu trc Thnh cng nu X khng cha bin cha hp nht no
AIPP Lecture 6: Built-in Predicates 33
| ?- nonvar(X). | ?- X = 5,nonvar(X). no X = 5 ? yes
atom(X) True nu X l mt atom: term khng phi bin vi 0 i s, v khng phi kiu s
| ?- atom(paul). | ?- X = paul,atom(X). | ?- atom([]). yes X = paul ? yes | ?-atom([a,b]). no
nbdiep@cit.ctu.edu.vn C2.3: V t dng sn 34
number/1, integer/1, float/1

number(X) True nu X l kiu s ( s nguyn hoc s thc)
| ?- number(X). | ?- X=5,number(X). | ?- number(5.46). no X=5? yes yes
atomic/1, compound/1, ground/1

Nu atom/1 qu chi tit th c th s dng atomic/1 kim tra l kiu s v kiu atom.
| ?- atom(5). no | ?- atomic(5). yes
xc nh s l kiu g th s dng:
integer(X) True nu X l kiu s nguyn (thuc s nguyn dng hoc nguyn m, k c s 0). float(X) True nu X l kiu s thc.
| ?- integer(5). yes | ?- float(5). no | ?- integer(5.46). no | ?- float(5.46). yes
Nu atomic/1 fails th term kim tra c th l bin cha hp nht (kim tra vi v t var/1) hoc term phc hp :
|?-compound([]). |?-compound([a]). |?-compound(b(a)). no yes yes
ground(X) Thnh cng nu X khng cha bin cha hp nht no ( Kim tra c bn trong term phc hp).
|?-ground(X). no |?-ground(a). yes |?-ground(a(b,X)). no |?-ground([a,b,c]). yes
C2.3: V t dng sn 36
C2.3: V t dng sn
35
Phn tch cu trc

Khi s dng cu trc phc hp bn khng th s dng bin kim tra hoc s dng lm tn hm t.
|?- X=tree, Y = X(maple). Syntax error Y=X<<here>>(maple) functor(T,F,N) ca F. arg(N,Term,A) true nu F l hm t ca T v N l s ngi true nu A l i s th N.
Phn tch cu trc (2)

S dng v t =../2 phn tch cu trc thnh danh sch
cc thnh phn Term =.. L true nu L l mt danh sch cha hm t ca Term, theo sau l cc i s.
| ?- f(a,b) =.. L. L = [f,a,b] ? yes |?- T =.. [is_blue,sam,today]. T = is_blue(sam,today) ? yes
|?-functor(t(f(X),a,T),Func,N). |?-arg(2,t(t(X),[]),A). N = 3, Func = t ? A = [] ? yes yes | ?- functor(D,date,3), arg(1,D,11), arg(2,D,oct), arg(3,D,2004). D = date(11,oct,2004) ? yes
nbdiep@cit.ctu.edu.vn C2.3: V t dng sn 37 nbdiep@cit.ctu.edu.vn C2.3: V t dng sn 38
Thu ht cc li gii
Thu ht li gii bng cch g du ; ti du ngt trong terminal:
| ?- member(X, [1,2,3,4]). X = 1 ? ; X = 2 ? ; X = 3 ? ; X = 4 ? ; no
Siu v t (Meta-predicates)
findall/3, setof/3, v bagof/3 u l Siu v t (meta-predicates) Chng iu khin chin thut chng minh ca Prolog.
findall(X,P,L) setof(X,P,L) Tt c danh sch dn xut L ca tt c bin bagof(X,P,L) X m tha mn mc tiu P
Liu c cch sinh ra tt c li gii bn trong chng trnh khng? <= chuyn nghip hn! C 3 v t dng sn:
findall/3 setof/3 bagof/3
(v d: age(X,Age)). Chng s lin tc gi n mc tiu P, hp nht bin X vi P v thm n vo danh sch L. C 3 s thnh cng khi khng cn li gii. M phng chnh xc nh ta lin tc lp li du ; ti du ngc trong terminal tm tt c cc li gii.
findall/3
findall/3 c bnh chn l v t d s dng nht trong c 3:
| ?- findall(X, member(X, [1,2,3,4]), Results). Results = [1,2,3,4] yes
findall/3 (2)
C th s dng findall/3 theo nhiu cch. i s th 2 l mc tiu (c th l mc tiu phc hp):
| ?- findall(X, (member(X, [1,2,3,4]), X > 2), Results). Results = [3,4]? yes
C th c l: tm tt c X vi X l mt phn t ca danh sch [1,2,3,4]v t n vo danh sch kt qu Results'. Cc li gii s c lu trong danh sch kt qu theo th t m Prolog tm ra. Lu c li gii b trng, nu c v hn li gii v t findall/3 s khng dng li!
i s u tin c th l bt c dng term phc tp n u:

|?- findall(X/Y, (member(X,[1,2,3,4]), Y is X * X), Results). Results = [1/1, 2/4, 3/9, 4/16]? yes
C2.3: V t dng sn
42
setof/3
setof/3 hot ng rt ging findall/3, tr 2 iu:
N sinh ra tp cc kt qu, khng c kt qu trng v cc kt qu c sp xp. Bt c bin no s dng trong mc tiu s khng xut hin trong i s th nht, setof/3 tr v tng kt qu mi khi hp nht c vi bin :
|?-setof(Child, age(Child,Age),Results). Age = 5, Results = [ann,tom] ? ; Age = 7, Results = [peter] ? ; Age = 8, Results = [pat] ? ; no
setof/3 (2)
Chng ta c th lng li gi vo setof/3 thu tt c cc kt qu c lp:
| ?- setof(Age/Children, setof(Child,age(Child,Age), Children), AllResults). AllResults = [5/[ann,tom],7/[peter],8/[pat]] ? yes
age(peter, 7). age(ann, 5). age(pat, 8). age(tom, 5). age(ann, 5). C s tri thc
C2.3: V t dng sn
43
C2.3: V t dng sn
44
bagof/3
bagof/3 kh ging setof/3 ngoi tr: Danh sch kt qu tr v c th b trng, Kt qu khng c sp xp.
| ?- bagof(Child, age(Child,Age),Results). Age = 5, Results = [tom,ann,ann] ? ; Age = 7, Results = [peter] ? ; Age = 8, Results = [pat] ? ; no
Tng hp li
V t s dng trn danh sch:
S dng b tch ly dng li kt qu trong qu trnh quy: reverse/3 Xy dng kt qu trong qu trnh quay lui: append/3
V t dng sn V t nhn dng

var/1, nonvar/1, atom/1, atomic/1, number/1, integer/1, float/1, compound/1, ground/1
bagof/3 khc findall/3 ch n sinh ra cc kt qu c lp cho tt c cc bin trong mc tiu m khng xut hin i s u tin.
| ?- findall(Child, age(Child,Age),Results). Results = [peter,pat,tom,ann,ann] ? ; no
Phn tch cu trc

=../2, functor/3, arg/3
Thu cc li gii
findall/3, setof/3, bagof/3
C2.3: V t dng sn
46
Xut nhp trong Prolog

Prolog l ngn ng khai bo nn xut nhp c th gy hiu ng ph v th tc ph. Chc nng xut nhp rt kh biu din bng logic.
Xut nhp hot ng trong Prolog

Trong thi gian chy chng trnh Prolog, c 2 file c s dng: Input stream hin hnh output stream hin hnh. Mc nh 2 lung trn thit lp n ngi dng: Mi d liu nhp s thu nhn t terminal ngi dng Mi d liu xut s chuyn n terminal ngi dng C th khi ng a lung I/O nhng ch c 1 lung xut v mt lung nhp c th s dng ti mt thi im nht nh.
C2.4 Xut nhp trong Prolog
47
48
Xut d liu vi v t write/1

V t xut mc nh write/1. In term ra lung xut.
?- write(c), write(u_l), write(8), write(r). cu_l8r mc nh vit ra terminal. yes ?- write([a,b,c,d]). [a,b,c,d] yes
nh dng d liu xut

Ta c th s dng v t thit lp sn nh dng d liu xut: nl/0 = vit ra lung xut mt dng mi. tab/1 = vit ra lung xut mt s khong trng.
V t ny in ra s khong trng, khng phi in ra \tab!
|?- write(a), tab(3), write(b), nl, tab(1), write(c), tab(1), write(d), nl, tab(2), write(e). a b c d e yes
Ch chp nhn term ca Prolog nn d liu chui phi c bao ng trong du nhy n.
?- write(Hello World). syntax error ?- write(Hello World). Hello World yes
C th t to c php bng cch vit chui ngn cch.

|?- Day=04, Mth=11, Year=04, write(Day), write('/'), write(Mth), write('/'), write(Year). 4/11/4 Day=4, Mth=11, Year=4, yes
49
50
Xut k t ASCII
Ngoi cch vit c php bng chui c th s dng m ASCII (xem http://www.asciitable.com/). M ASCII l mt s t 1 n 127 thay th cho k t nh my.
A-Z = 65-90 a-z = 97-122 put/1 nhn i s l m ASCII v vit ra k t tng ng ln lung xut.
| ?- put(65),put(44),put(66),put(46). A,B. yes
M ASCII
=> C th s dng cng thc ton trn m ASCII:

| ?- X=32, put(65+X), put(44), put(66+X), put(46). a,b. Khi tng 32 n v tng ng vi chuyn ch hoa thnh ch thng. X = 32 ? yes
51
52
Xut danh sch chui

C th vit ra ni dung ca danh sch thay v vit tng phn t. Ta nh ngha v t quy writelist/1 nh sau:
writelist([]). writelist([H|T]):write(H), writelist(T). |?- X=Bob, writelist([The, ,man, was called ,X,.]). The man was called Bob. yes
Xut danh sch chui (2)

C 2 u c th iu chnh nh dng xut theo ta.
writelist2([H]):write(H), put(46), !. writelist2([H|T]):write(H), tab(1), writelist2(T). writefacts([]). writefacts([[X,Y]|T]):write(X), write('('), write(Y), write(')'), write('.'), nl, writefacts(T).
Ta c th nh ngha v t vit ni dung danh sch theo m ASCII :

putlist([]). putlist([H|T]):put(H), putlist(T).
| ?- X='Bob', writelist2(['The',man,was,called,X]). The man was called Bob. X = 'Bob' ? ; no | ?- writefacts([[big,blue],[tickled,pink]]). big(blue). tickled(pink). yes
| ?- putlist([65,44,66,46]). A,B. yes
53
54
Thay i lung xut

iu khin lung xut ra file bng v t tell/1.
Vd:
tell(Filename). tell(path/from/current/dir/to/Filename). V t s ni vi Prolog gi tt c d liu xut ra file. Nu file cha tn ti th n s c to ra, nu file c th s b ghi . Xc nh lung xut ang s dng bng v t telling/1. Prolog s chuyn lung xut n file cho ti khi : S dng tell/1 m lung mi ng lung ang s dng (file) bng v t told/0 . Sau khi ng lung xut s tr v lung xut chun (ngi dng).
| ?- write('Write to terminal'). Write to terminal yes | ?- telling(X). X = user ? yes | ?- tell('demo/test'). yes file to hoc b ghi thnh cng | ?- telling(X). X = 'demo/test' ? yes | ?- write('Now where does it go?'). yes d liu s cha xut hin trong file cho ti khi | ?- told. yes file c ng li. | ?- write('Oh, here it is!'). Oh, here it is! yes
55
56
V t nhp: read/1
Lung nhp chun l lung nhp t terminal ngi dng. Ta c th nhp term t dng lnh bng v t read/1. Ti dng lnh s hin th du |: v i ngi dng nhp 1 term vo (km theo du chm full-stop).
| ?- write('What is your name?'), nl, read(X), write('Greetings '), write(X). What is your name? |: tim. Greetings tim X = tim ? yes
V t nhp: read/1 (2)

read/1 ch hiu term kt thc vi du chm full-stop..
|?- read(X). |: hello . X = hello? yes |?- read(X). |: Hi there!. syntax error i du chm full-stop kt thc qu trnh nhp term. Nhp full-stop v thnh cng.
Tt nhin chui d liu phi c bao ng trong du nhy n

|?- read(X). |: Hi there!. X = Hi there!? yes
Bin c lu vo b lu bin t ng ca Prolog.

|?- read(X). |: blue(Moon). X = blue(_A)? yes
nbdiep@cit.ctu.edu.vn C2.4 Xut nhp trong Prolog 57 nbdiep@cit.ctu.edu.vn C2.4 Xut nhp trong Prolog 58
S khc nhau khi gia 2 du nhy

nhp kiu string c 2 cch: Nu c bao ng trong du nhy n th Prolog nhn ng tng ch mt.
| ?- read(X). |: 'Hi bob!'. X = 'Hi bob!' ? yes
V t name/2
S dng v t name/2 cng c th c bin theo m ASCII. V t name/2 s chuyn bt k term ca Prolog ( ngoi tr bin) ra m ASCII.
|?- name(aAbB,L). L = [97,65,98,66] ? yes |?- X=Make me ASCII, name(X,L). L = [77,97,107,101,32,109,101,32,65,83,67,73,73], yes
Nu c bao ng trong du nhy i th Prolog nhn l mt danh sch m ASCII.

| ?- read(X). |: "Hi bob!". X = [72,105,32,98,111,98,33] ? Yes
Hoc chuyn danh sch m ASCII thnh term ca Prolog.

|?- name(C, [72,101,108,108,111,32,87,111,114,108,100]). C = Hello World, yes
Hu dng khi phn on cu hoc to d liu nhp cho b chuyn DCG (chng 4).
nbdiep@cit.ctu.edu.vn C2.4 Xut nhp trong Prolog 59 nbdiep@cit.ctu.edu.vn C2.4 Xut nhp trong Prolog 60
V t get
Ta c th c tng k t thay cho vic c ton b term get0/1 (= get-zero) c mt k t t lung nhp hin hnh v tr v m ASCII ca k t.
| ?- get0(X). |: A X = 65? yes | ?- get0(X). |: h X = 32? Khong trng M ASCII ca khong trng
V t see/1
get/1 v get0/1 thng c s dng khi x l file vn bn. read/1 ch c th c term v th khng th c file cha vn bn. get/1 v get0/1 c tng k t v tr v m ASCII bt lun. see/1 chuyn lung nhp t file thay v nhp t ngi dng see(Filename). see(path/from/current/dir/to/Filename). seeing/1 hin th lung nhp ang s dng. File s c xem l ngun nhp cho n khi: M mt ngun nhp khc (s dng see/1) ng ngun nhp hin hnh bng seen/0 v tr v lung nhp t ngi dng.
nbdiep@cit.ctu.edu.vn AIPP Lecture 12: I/O 62
get/1 cng nng get0/1 nhng get/1 t ng loi b khong trng.

get(X). |: A X = 65? yes get(X). |: h X = 104 ? yes
C 2 u dng c k t, khng s dc c cho c term. C 2 u ko cn kt thc vi du chm full-stop.

nbdiep@cit.ctu.edu.vn AIPP Lecture 12: I/O 61
V t read
Khi ch nhp t file vn cn kch hot ta c th s dng x l ni dung ca n. Nu file nhp c cha term th ta ch c th c tun t 1 term.
Xut nhp a lung

Vic qun l nhiu lung xut nhp bng v t xy dng sn rt phc tp. write/1 v read/1 ch hot ng trn file hin hnh. Khng th bt c hoc ghi ln file ch nh . D liu ch c ghi ra file khi lung ng (s dng told/0) nhng told ch c th ng lung hin hnh. V th file xut phi c kch hot (s dng tell/1) trc khi ng file Nu mun s dng a lung xut nhp file bn phi s dng lung dnh cho xut nhp (stream-based I/O). Mt lung l b bin dch sinh ra con tr n file v cho php ta truy cp n file.
vd: file nhp tn l colours cha:
big(blue). tickled(pink). red_mist.
|?X = Y = Z = yes
see(demo/colours),read(X),read(Y),read(Z). big(blue), tickled(pink), red_mist ?
File c x l theo th t v b din dch nh term mi nn mi li gi read/1 s c term tip theo. c tip tc cho n khi end_of_file hoc nhp seen/0.
AIPP Lecture 12: I/O
63
64
V t xut nhp lung

C nhiu v t phc tp qun l lung ( xem thm manual). Mt vi v t: open/3 m mt file c hoc ghi. i s s dng: Tn file; C ch m file (read/write/append); Tn lung (b bin dch sinh ra). N s c dng '$stream
V t xut nhp lung (2)

current_input/1 thnh cng nu i s l lung nhp hin ti. current_output/1 thnh cng nu i s l lung xut hin ti. set_input/1 s dng lung trong i s lm lung nhp hin ti (tng ng vi see/1). set_output/1 s dng lung trong i s lm lung xut hin ti (tng ng vi tell/1). Khi c thit lp l lung xut/nhp hin ti lung c th ghi (write/1) hoc c (read/1).
(2146079208).
Vd: open(demo/test,append,Stream). Lung s c khi to khi file c m, sau file s tham chiu s dng con tr lung (th m Lung hp nht), khng phi l tn lung.
65
66
V t xut nhp lung (3)

read/2 c mt term t lung, s dng i s: Lung s c; Term s c (hoc bin hp nht term vo). Vd: |?- open(file1,read,File1), read(File1,X). write/2 ghi mt term ra lung, s dng i s: Lung s ghi; Term ghi ra. e.g. |?- open(file2,write,File2), write(File2,X). C mt s v t xut nhp 2 i s cho php ch nh lung s dng. (vd: nl/1, tab/2, get/2, get0/2, put/2).
ng lung vi v t close/1
Khi s dng file lm lung xut, file ch thay i khi ng lung (s dng close/1).
| ?- open('demo/test1',write,Test), write(Test,'Hello'), close(Test). Test = '$stream'(2146079648) ? yes
S dng file lm lung xut nhp l phng thc truyn thng (nhng ph bin) xut-nhp d liu trong Prolog mc d phng thc ny c mt gii hn.
67
68
Cc v t xut nhp xy dng sn

write/[1,2] ghi term ra lung xut hin ti. nl/[0,1] ghi mt hng mi ra lung xut hin ti. tab/[1,2] ghi mt s khong trng ra lung xut hin ti. put/[1,2] ghi mt k t ASCII. read/[1,2] c mt term t lung nhp hin ti. get/[1,2] c mt k t ASCII in c t lung nhp (b khong trng). get0/[1,2] c mt k t ASCII t lung nhp see/1 t file lm lung nhp hin ti. seeing/1 Kim tra lung nhp hin ti. seen/0 ng lung nhp hin ti v tr v lung ngi dng. tell/1 t file lm lung xut hin ti. telling/1 Kim tra lung xut hin ti. told/0 ng lung xut hin ti v tr v lung ngi dng. name/2 i s 1 (atom) c m ASCII trong i s 2 (danh sch k t ASCII) khng
69

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Danh sch Danh sch v xut nhp

nh ngha danh sch

Phn u (head) v phn ui (tail)

|?-[a] = [H|T]. H = a, T = []; yes

C2.1: Danh sch

Hp nht danh sch

D liu c trnh by quy v x l tun t d dng hn.

|?-[[a],[B,c],[]]=[X,[b,c],Y]. B = b, X = [a], Y = [] ? yes

Trng hp dng v quy

Qua mi bc quy cn phi hi t n trng hp dng (tm n s kin fact).

C th c hn 1 trng hp dng hoc 1 trng hp quy!

Hi t khi quy (2)

Hi t khi quy (3)

Cu truy vn tm tt c cc li gii s lp v hn:

Chng trnh c th sinh cc li gii v khng lp v tn.

V t x l danh sch: Member/2

V t x l danh sch : Member/2

B lu vt hin th su tm thy li gii ca cy tm kim li gii.

to b tch ly u tin phi khi to n vi 1 gi tr ban u (vd =0).

listlength([],0). listlength([_|T],N1):listlength(T,N), N1 is N+1.

listlength([b,c],Na) . listlength([c],Nb). Na is Nb+1.

Na is 1+1. listlength([],Nc). Nb is Nc+1. Nb is 0+1. listlength([],0). Nc = 0

listlength([_|T],Acc,Out):Acc1 is Acc+1, Tng b m trong lc quy listlength(T,Acc1,Out).

ng nht kt qu ra bin xut v truyn ngc n ra

m bo b m hot ng chnh xc v ngi s dng khng cn quan tm n bn trong code

Xy dng danh sch khi quy

Chng ta cn thm bin (Out) truyn kt qu khi danh sch L1 ht phn t.

Xy dng danh sch khi quy (2)

qu trnh quy theo code bn th danh sch mi s c cc phn t c th t ngc

Xy dng danh sch khi quay lui

append([],L2,L2). append([H|T],L2,[H|Rest]): append(T,L2,Rest).

| ?- pred2([a,b],[c,d],Out). Out =[a| [b, c,d] ]

Tng quan v Prolog

Cc v t nhn dng terms

V t phn tch cu trc

var/1, nonvar/1, atom/1

Cc v t kim tra loi ca Terms

nonvar(X) atom(X) number(X) integer(X)

| ?- nonvar(X). | ?- X = 5,nonvar(X). no X = 5 ? yes

number/1, integer/1, float/1

atomic/1, compound/1, ground/1

Phn tch cu trc

Phn tch cu trc (2)

i s u tin c th l bt c dng term phc tp n u:

V t dng sn V t nhn dng

Phn tch cu trc

Xut nhp trong Prolog

Xut nhp hot ng trong Prolog

C2.4 Xut nhp trong Prolog

C2.4 Xut nhp trong Prolog

Xut d liu vi v t write/1

nh dng d liu xut

C th t to c php bng cch vit chui ngn cch.

C2.4 Xut nhp trong Prolog

C2.4 Xut nhp trong Prolog

=> C th s dng cng thc ton trn m ASCII:

C2.4 Xut nhp trong Prolog

C2.4 Xut nhp trong Prolog

Xut danh sch chui

Xut danh sch chui (2)

Ta c th nh ngha v t vit ni dung danh sch theo m ASCII :

| ?- putlist([65,44,66,46]). A,B. yes

C2.4 Xut nhp trong Prolog