Temperature Sensors (LM35)

Introduction: The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors, whose output voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 thus has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a large constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient centigrade scaling. The LM35 does not require any external calibration or trimming to provide typical accuracies of 1/4C at room temperature and 3/4C over a full -55 to +150C temperature range. Low cost is assured by trimming and calibration at the wafer level. The LM35s low output impedance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration make interfacing to readout or control circuitry especially easy. It can be used with single power supplies, or with plus and minus supplies. As it draws only 60 A from its supply, it has very low self-heating, less than 0.1C in still air. The LM35 is rated to operate over a -55 to +150C temperature range, while the LM35C is rated for a -40 to +110C range (-10 with improved accuracy). The LM35 series is available packaged plastic TO92 transistor package. The LM35D is also available in an 8-lead surface mount small outline package and a plastic TO-220 package. Features: 1. Calibrated directly in Celsius (Centigrade) 2. Linear + 10.0 mV/C scale factor 3. 0.5C accuracy guaranteeable (at +25C) 4. Rated for full -55 to +150C range 5. Suitable for remote applications 6. Low cost due to wafer-level trimming 7. Operates from 4 to 30 volts 8. Less than 60 A current drain 9. Low self-heating, 0.08C in still air 10. Nonlinearity only 1/4C typical

11. Low impedance output, 0.1 for 1 mA load Pin diagram:

Applications: The LM35 can be applied easily in the same way as other integrated-circuit temperature sensors. It can be glued or cemented to a surface and its temperature will be within about 0.01C of the surface temperature. This presumes that the ambient air temperature is almost the same as the surface temperature; if the air temperature were much higher or lower than the surface temperature, the actual temperature of the LM35 die would be at an intermediate temperature between the surface temperature and the air temperature. This is expecially true for the TO-92 plastic package, where the copper leads are the principal thermal path to carry heat into the device, so its temperature might be closer to the air temperature than to the surface temperature. To minimize this problem, be sure that the wiring to the LM35, as it leaves the device, is held at the same temperature as the surface of interest. The easiest way to do this is to cover up these wires with a bead of epoxy which will insure that the leads and wires are all at the same temperature as the surface, and that the LM35 dies temperature will not be affected by the air temperature. The TO-46 metal package can also be soldered to a metal surface or pipe without damage. Of course, in that case the V- terminal of the circuit will be grounded to that metal. Alternatively, the LM35 can be mounted inside a sealed-end metal tube, and can then be dipped into a bath or screwed into a threaded hole in a tank. As with any IC, the LM35 and accompanying wiring and circuits must be kept insulated

and dry, to avoid leakage and corrosion. This is especially true if the circuit may operate at cold temperatures where condensation can occur. Printed-circuit coatings and varnishes such as Humiseal and epoxy paints or dips are often used to insure that moisture cannot corrode the LM35 or its connections. These devices are sometimes soldered to a small light-weight heat fin, to decrease the thermal time constant and speed up the response in slowly-moving air. On the other hand, a small thermal mass may be added to the sensor, to give the steadiest reading despite small deviations in the air temperature.

A MAIN PROJECT REPORT ON AUTOMATIC MEASUREMENT AND REPORTING SYSTEM OF WATER QUALITY BASED ON GSM Submitted to JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR For the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Award of Degree for BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY In ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING By M.NAJMA G.KAMAL CHOWDHARY B.BHUVAN CHANDH B.RAJA RAO (09L41A0492) (09L41A04A0) (09L41A04A5) (09L41A0499)

Under the Esteemed Guidance of Mr.G.NARENDRANATH REDDY, M.TECH. (Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE)

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering MEKAPATI RAJAMOHAN REDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SCIENCE (Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technology University, Anantapur-515001) UDAYAGIRI-524226, S.P.S.R.NELLORE (D.T),A.P.

MEKAPATI RAJAMOHAN REDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technology University, Anantapur-515001) UDAYAGIRI-524226, S.P.S.R.NELLORE (D.T), A.P BONAFIED CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the project work entitled AUTOMATIC MEASUREMENT AND REPORTING SYSTEM OF WATER QUALITY BASED ON GSM Is the bonafide work done by M.NAJMA G.KAMAL CHOWDARY B.BHUVAN CHANDH B.RAJA RAO (09L41A0492) (09L41A04A0) (09L41A04A5) (09L41A0499)

In the department of ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING in MEKAPATI RAJA MOHAN REDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE, Udayagiri. is submitted to JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, Ananthapur in the partial fulfillment of the requirements of the requirements for the award of B.Tech degree in ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING Internal Guide Head of the Department Mr.

Mr.G.NARENDRANATH REDDY, M.Tech. K.VENKATESHWARLU,M.Tech,(Ph.D). (Assistant professor,Dept.of ECE )

(Assistant professor, Dept. of ECE)

______________________________________________________________________ Submitted for Viva Voce Examination held on________________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXAMINER

EXTERNAL

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Our first and foremost thanks to the almighty for his blessings in the successful completion of project. We are extremely thankful to our beloved Chairman SRI

M.RAJAMOHANREDDY Sir who took interest and encouraged us in every effort though the course. We are extremely thankful to our beloved Secretary, SRI M.CHANDRA SEKHAR REDDY Sir who took interest and encouraged us in every effort throughout the course. We are extremely thankful to our correspondent commodre

SRI.A.MASTHANAIAH throughout the course.

Sir who took interest and encouraged us in every effort

We owe our gratitude to our Principal SRI.Dr.V.K.R.JEYA SINGH, B.E, M.Sc(Engg.), Ph.D ., F.I.E, M.I.S.T.E for his kind attention in the valuable guidance to us throughout the course. We profound respect, we express our deep sense of gratitude to our head of the department SRI K.VENKATESWARULU, M.Tech, (Ph.D),Assistant professor. for being the source of inspiration throughout our study in this college We sincerely thank our guide SRI.G.NARENDRANATH REDDY, M.Tech., for his guidance, valuable suggestions and support in the completion of the mini project. Above all we gratefully acknowledge and express our thanks to all teaching and non teaching staff of ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING department. Finally, we thank all our friends who helped in getting this project report ready.

PROJECT MEMBERS

M.NAJMA G.KAMAL CHOWDARY B.BHUVAN CHANDH (09L41A04A5) B.RAJARAO

(09L41A0492) (09L41A04A0)

(09L41A0499)

CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO 1
2 1.1 INTRODUCTION 2

TITLE

PAGE

INTRODUCTION

2 4

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
2.1 INTRODUCTION To EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

4 2.1.1 HISTORY 5 2.1.2 TOOLS 6 2.1.3 RESOURCES 7 2.1.4 REAL TIME ISSUES 2.2.1 DEBUGGING 7 2.2.2 RELLABILITY 8 2.3 EXPLANATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS 9 2.3.1 SOFTWARE ARCHITECTUE 9 2.3.2 STAND ALONE EMBEDDED SYSTEMS 10

2.3.3 REAL TIME EMBEDDED SYSTEMS 10 2.3.4 NETWORK COMMUNICATION EMBEDDED SYSTEMS 11 2.4 OVERVIEW OF EMBEDDEE SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE 2.5 CONCLUSION

3. EXPLANATION OF EACH BLOCK AND COMPONENTS

3.1 POWER SUPPLY 3.1.1 TRANSFORMER 3.1.2 RECTIFIER 3.1.3 FILTER 3.1.4 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 3.2 AT89S52 MICROCONTROLLER 3.2.1 FEATURES 3.2.2 DESCRIPTION 3.2.3 PIN CONFIGURATION 3.2.4 PIN DESCRIPTION 3.2.5 MEMORIES 3.3 TEMPARATURE SENSOR 3.3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.3.2 FEATURES 3.3.3 PIN DIAGRAM 3.3.4 APPLICATIONS 3.4 pH METER 3.4.1 PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION 3.4.2 pH SENSOR 3.5 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER 3.5.1 INTRODUCTION 3.5.2 FEATURES 3.5.3 KEY SPECIFICATIONS 3.5.4PINDIAGRAM 3.5.5 I/O PINS 3.8 LCD 3.8.1introduction 3.8.2 features 3.8.3 shapes&sizes 3.7 SERIAL COMMUNICATION 3.7.1 RS232 STANDADS 3.7.2 DB25 3.7.3DB9 3.7.4 MAX232 3.8 GSM 3.8.1 GSM ARCHITECTURE 18 15

3.8.2 THE GSM NETWORKS PARTS 3.9 BUZZER 4.ADVANTAGES 5.APPLICATIONS 6.FUTURE SCOPE 7.CONCLUSION 8.BIBILOGRAPH

ABSTRACT
With the rapid development of the economy, more and more serious problems of environment arise. Water pollution is one of these problems.This method waste too much manpower and material resource, has the limitations of the samples collecting. Various parameters of water quality are automatically detected under the control of single chip MICROOCONTROLLER.The system uses SENSORS which converts non-power information into electrical signals. Microcontroller analyses the water samples and water quality.If it is abnormal then the data will be sent to monitoring center and managements mobile in the same way at the same time using GSM In this project implements automation, intelligence and network of water quality monitoring, and uses manpower, material and financial resources sparingly. To develop an embedded system, which is used to measure and report the water quality parameters such as pH and temperature, therefore it will be automatically detected under the control of single chip microcontroller all day using GSM technology .

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Power supply:

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
With the rapid development of the economy, more and more serious problems of environment arise. Water pollution is one of these problems.This method waste too much manpower and material resource, has the limitations of the samples collecting.The system uses SENSORS which converts non-power information into electrical signals. Microcontroller analyses the water samples and water quality.If it is abnormal then the data will be sent to monitoring center and managements mobile in the same way at the same time using GSM In this project

implements automation, intelligence and network of water quality monitoring, and uses manpower, material and financial resources sparingly

CHAPTER-2

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS 2.1 Introduction To Embedded system:

An embedded system is a computer system designed to perform one or a few dedicated functions often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a generalpurpose computer, such as a personal computer (PC), is designed to be flexible and to meet a wide range of end-user needs. Embedded systems control many devices in common use today. Embedded systems are controlled by one or more main processing cores that are typically either microcontrollers or digital signal processors (DSP). The key characteristic, however, is being dedicated to handle a particular task, which may require very powerful processors. For example, air traffic control systems may usefully be viewed as embedded, even though they involve mainframe computers and dedicated regional and national networks between airports and radar sites. (Each radar probably includes one or more embedded systems of its own.) Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the reliability and performance. Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale. Physically embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the systems controlling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low, with a single microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure. In general, "embedded system" is not a strictly definable term, as most systems have some element of extensibility or programmability. For example, handheld computers share some elements with embedded systems such as the operating systems and microprocessors which power them, but they allow different applications to be loaded and peripherals to be connected. Moreover, even systems which don't expose programmability as a primary feature generally need to support software updates. On a

continuum from "general purpose" to "embedded", large application systems will have subcomponents at most points even if the system as a whole is "designed to perform one or a few dedicated functions", and is thus appropriate to call "embedded". A modern example of embedded system is shown in fig: 2.1.

Fig 2.1:A modern example of embedded system Labeled parts include microprocessor (4), RAM (6), flash memory (7).Embedded systems programming is not like normal PC programming. In many ways, programming for an embedded system is like programming PC 15 years ago. The hardware for the system is usually chosen to make the device as cheap as possible. Spending an extra dollar a unit in order to make things easier to program can cost millions. Hiring a programmer for an extra month is cheap in comparison. This means the programmer must make do with slow processors and low memory, while at the same time battling a need for efficiency not seen in most PC applications. Below is a list of issues specific to the embedded field. 2.1.1 HISTORY: In the earliest years of computers in the 193040s, computers were sometimes dedicated to a single task, but were far too large and expensive for most kinds of tasks performed by embedded computers of today. Over time however, the concept

of programmable controllers evolved from traditional electromechanical sequencers, via solid state devices, to the use of computer technology. One of the first recognizably modern embedded systems was the Apollo Guidance Computer, developed by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory. At the project's inception, the Apollo guidance computer was considered the riskiest item in the Apollo project as it employed the then newly developed monolithic integrated circuits to reduce the size and weight. An early mass-produced embedded system was the autonetics D-17 guidance computer for the Minuteman missile, released in 1961. It was built from transistor logic and had a hard disk for main memory. When the Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D-17 was replaced with a new computer that was the first high-volume use of integrated circuits. 2.1.2 TOOLS Embedded development makes up a small fraction of total programming. There's also a large number of embedded architectures, unlike the PC world where 1 instruction set rules, and the Unix world where there's only 3 or 4 major ones. This means that the tools are more expensive. It also means that they're lowering featured, and less developed. On a major embedded project, at some point you will almost always find a compiler bug of some sort. Debugging tools are another issue. Since you can't always run general programs on your embedded processor, you can't always run a debugger on it. This makes fixing your program difficult. Special hardware such as JTAG ports can overcome this issue in part. However, if you stop on a breakpoint when your system is controlling real world hardware (such as a motor), permanent equipment damage can occur. As a result, people doing embedded programming quickly become masters at using serial IO channels and error message style debugging. 2.1.3 RESOURCES: To save costs, embedded systems frequently have the cheapest processors that can do the job. This means your programs need to be written as efficiently as possible. When dealing with large data sets, issues like memory cache misses that never matter in PC programming can hurt you. Luckily, this won't happen too often- use reasonably efficient

algorithms to start, and optimize only when necessary. Of course, normal profilers won't work well, due to the same reason debuggers don't work well. Memory is also an issue. For the same cost savings reasons, embedded systems usually have the least memory they can get away with. That means their algorithms must be memory efficient (unlike in PC programs, you will frequently sacrifice processor time for memory, rather than the reverse). It also means you can't afford to leak memory. Embedded applications generally use deterministic memory techniques and avoid the default "new" and "malloc" functions. 2.1.4 REAL TIME ISSUES: Embedded systems frequently control hardware, and must be able to respond to them in real time. Failure to do so could cause inaccuracy in measurements, or even damage hardware such as motors. This is made even more difficult by the lack of resources available. Almost all embedded systems need to be able to prioritize some tasks over others, and to be able to put off/skip low priority tasks such as UI in favor of high priority tasks like hardware control.

2.2 NEED FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

The uses of embedded systems are virtually limitless, because every day new products are introduced to the market that utilizes embedded computers in novel ways. In recent years, hardware such as microprocessors, microcontrollers, and FPGA chips have become much cheaper. So when implementing a new form of control, it's wiser to just buy the generic chip and write your own custom software for it. Producing a custommade chip to handle a particular task or set of tasks costs far more time and money. 2.2.1 DEBUGGING: Embedded debugging may be performed at different levels, depending on the facilities available. From simplest to most sophisticate they can be roughly grouped into the following areas: 1. Interactive resident debugging, using the simple shell provided by the embedded operating system (e.g. Forth and Basic)

2. External debugging using logging or serial port output to trace operation

using either a monitor in flash or using a debug server like the Remedy Debugger which even works for heterogeneous multi core systems. 3. An in-circuit debugger (ICD), a hardware device that connects to the microprocessor via a JTAG or Nexus interface. This allows the operation of the microprocessor to be controlled externally, but is typically restricted to specific debugging capabilities in the processor. 4. An in-circuit emulator replaces the microprocessor with a simulated equivalent, providing full control over all aspects of the microprocessor. 5. A complete emulator provides a simulation of all aspects of the hardware, allowing all of it to be controlled and modified and allowing debugging on a normal PC. 6. Unless restricted to external debugging, the programmer can typically load and run software through the tools, view the code running in the processor, and start or stop its operation. The view of the code may be as assembly code or source-code. 2.2.2 RELIABILITY: Embedded systems often reside in machines that are expected to run continuously for years without errors and in some cases recover by them if an error occurs. Therefore the software is usually developed and tested more carefully than that for personal computers, and unreliable mechanical moving parts such as disk drives, switches or buttons are avoided. Specific reliability issues may include: 1. The system cannot safely be shut down for repair, or it is too inaccessible to repair. Examples include space systems, undersea cables, navigational beacons, bore-hole systems, and automobiles.
2. The system must be kept running for safety reasons. "Limp modes" are less

tolerable. Often backups are selected by an operator. Examples include aircraft navigation, reactor control systems, safety-critical chemical factory controls, train signals, engines on single-engine aircraft.

3. The system will lose large amounts of money when shut down: Telephone switches, factory controls, bridge and elevator controls, funds transfer and market making, automated sales and service.

2.3 EXPLANATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

2.3.1 SOFTWARE ARCHITECTURE: There are several different types of software architecture in common use.
1. Simple Control Loop:

In this design, the software simply has a loop. The loop calls subroutines, each of which manages a part of the hardware or software.

2. Interrupt Controlled System: Some embedded systems are predominantly interrupt controlled. This means that tasks performed by the system are triggered by different kinds of events. An interrupt could be generated for example by a timer in a predefined frequency, or by a serial port controller receiving a byte. These kinds of systems are used if event handlers need low latency and the event handlers are short and simple. Usually these kinds of systems run a simple task in a main loop also, but this task is not very sensitive to unexpected delays. Sometimes the interrupt handler will add longer tasks to a queue structure. Later, after the interrupt handler has finished, these tasks are executed by the main loop. This method brings the system close to a multitasking kernel with discrete processes. 3. Cooperative Multitasking: A non-preemptive multitasking system is very similar to the simple control loop scheme, except that the loop is hidden in an API. The programmer defines a series of tasks, and each task gets its own environment to run in. When a task is etc. idle, it calls an idle routine, usually called pause, wait, yield, nop (stands for no operation),

4. Primitive Multitasking: In this type of system, a low-level piece of code switches between tasks or threads based on a timer (connected to an interrupt). This is the level at which the system is generally considered to have an "operating system" kernel. Depending on how much functionality is required, it introduces more or less of the complexities of managing multiple tasks running conceptually in parallel. 2.3.2 STAND ALONE EMBEDDED SYSTEM: These systems takes the input in the form of electrical signals from transducers or commands from human beings such as pressing of a button etc.., process them and produces desired output. This entire process of taking input, processing it and giving output is done in standalone mode. Such embedded systems comes under stand alone embedded system. 2.3.3 REAL-TIME EMBEDDED SYSTEMS: Embedded systems which are used to perform a specific task or operation in a specific time period those systems are called as real-time embedded systems. There are two types of real-time embedded systems. 1. Hard Real-time embedded systems: These embedded systems follow an absolute dead line time period i.e.., if the tasking is not done in a particular time period then there is a cause of damage to the entire equipment. Eg: consider a system in which we have to open a valve within 30 milliseconds. If this valve is not opened in 30 ms this may cause damage to the entire equipment. So in such cases we use embedded systems for doing automatic operations. 2. Soft Real Time embedded systems: These embedded systems follow a relative dead line time period i.e.., if the task is not done in a particular time that will not cause damage to the equipment. Eg: Consider a TV remote control system, if the remote control takes a few milliseconds delay it will not cause damage either to the TV or to the remote control. These systems which will not cause damage when they are not operated at considerable time period those systems comes under soft real-time embedded system.

2.3.4 NETWORK COMMUNICATION EMBEDDED SYSTEMS: A wide range network interfacing communication is provided by using embedded. 1. Consider a web camera that is connected to the computer with internet can be used to spread communication like sending pictures, images, videos etc.., to another computer with internet connection throughout anywhere in the world. 2. Consider a web camera that is connected at the door lock.Whenever a person comes near the door, it captures the image of a person and sends to the desktop of your computer which is connected to internet. This gives an alerting message with image on to the desktop of your computer, and then you can open the door lock just by clicking the mouse. Fig: 2.2 show the network communications in embedded systems. Fig 2.3.4: Network communication embedded systems

2.2 OVERVIEW OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

Every embedded system consists of custom-built hardware built around a Central Processing Unit (CPU). This hardware also contains memory chips onto which the

software is dded system for security applications is one of the most lucrative businesses nowadays. loaded. The software residing on the memory chip is also called the firmware. The embedded system architecture can be represented as a layered architecture as shown in Fig The operating system runs above the hardware, and the application software runs above the operating system. The same architecture is applicable to any computer including a desktop computer. However, there are significant differences. It is not compulsory to have an operating system in every embedded system. For small appliances such as remote control units, air conditioners, toys etc., there is no need for an operating system and you can write only the software specific to that application. For applications involving complex processing, it is advisable to have an operating system. In such a case, you need to integrate the application software with the operating system and then transfer the entire software on to the memory chip. Once the software is transferred to the memory chip, the software will continue to run for a long time you dont need to reload new software. Now, let us see the details of the various building blocks of the hardware of an embedded system. As shown in Fig. the building blocks are; a. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

b. Memory (Read-only Memory and Random Access Memory) c. Input Devises d. Output devises e. Communication interfaces f. Application-specific circuitry Fig.1.3: blocks of the hardware of an embedded system 2.2.1 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) The Central Processing Unit (processor in short) can be any of the following: microcontroller, microprocessor or Digital Signal Processor (DSP). A micro-controller is a low-cost processor. Its main attraction is that on the chip itself, there will be many other components such as memory, serial communication interface, analog-to digital converter etc. So, for small applications, a micro-controller is the best choice as the number of external components required will be very less. On the other hand, microprocessors are more powerful, but you need to use many external components with them. D5P is used mainly for applications in which signal processing is involved such as audio and video processing. 2.2.2 MEMORY The memory is categorized as Random Access 11emory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM). The contents of the RAM will be erased if power is switched off to the chip, whereas ROM retains the contents even if the power is switched off. So, the firmware is stored in the ROM. When power is switched on, the processor reads the ROM; the program is program is execute.

INPUT DEVICES:

Unlike the desktops, the input devices to an embedded system have very limited

capability. There will be no keyboard or a mouse, and hence interacting with the embedded system is no easy task. Many embedded systems will have a small keypad-you press one key to give a specific command. A keypad may be used to input only the digits. Many embedded systems used in process control do not have any input device for user interaction; they take inputs from sensors or transducers 1fnd produce electrical signals that are in turn fed to other systems. 2.2.4 OUTPUT DEVICES The output devices of the embedded systems also have very limited capability. Some embedded systems will have a few Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to indicate the health status of the system modules, or for visual indication of alarms. A small Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) may also be used to display some important parameters.

COMMUNICATION INTERFACES: The embedded systems may need to, interact with other embedded systems at they may have to transmit data to a desktop. To facilitate this, the embedded systems are provided

with one or a few communication interfaces such as RS232, RS422, RS485, Universal Serial Bus (USB), IEEE 1394, Ethernet etc. 2.2.6 APPLICATION-SPECIFIC CIRCUITRY Sensors, transducers, special processing and control circuitry may be required fat an embedded system, depending on its application. This circuitry interacts with the processor to carry out the necessary work. The entire hardware has to be given power supply either through the 230 volts main supply or through a battery. The hardware has to design in such a way that the power consumption is minimized. 2.3 CONCLUSION: Embedded systems plays a vital role in our day to day life. They are used for household appliances like microwave oven to the satellite applications. They provide good man to machine interface. Automation is the further step in the world of embedded systems, which includes the elimination of the human being in the mundane applications. They are cost effective, accurate and can work in any conditions and round the clock

CHAPTER-3

EXPLANATION OF EACH BLOCK AND COMPONENTS 3.1 Power supply:

All digital circuits require regulated power supply. In this article, we are going to learn how to get a regulated positive supply from the mains supply.

Figure 1 shows the basic block diagram of a fixed regulated power supply. Let us go through each block. 3.1.1 TRANSFORMER:

A transformer consists of two coils also called as WINDINGS namely PRIMARY & SECONDARY. They linked together through inductively coupled electrical conductors also called as CORE. A changing current in the primary causes a change in the Magnetic Field in the core & this in turn induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil. If load applied to the secondary then an alternating current will flow through the load. If we consider an ideal condition then all the energy from the primary circuit will transferred to the secondary circuit through the magnetic field.

So

The secondary voltage of the transformer depends on the number of turns in the Primary as well as in the secondary.

3.1.2 RECTIFIER:
A rectifier is a device that converts an AC signal into DC signal. For rectification purpose we use a diode, a diode is a device that allows current to pass only in one direction i.e. when the anode of the diode is positive with respect to the cathode also called as forward biased condition & blocks current in the reversed biased condition. Rectifier classified as follows: 3.1.2.1 Half Wave rectifier

This is the simplest type of rectifier as you can see in the diagram a half wave rectifier consists of only one diode. When an AC signal applied to it during the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased & current flows through it. However, during the negative half cycle diode is reverse biased & no current flows through it. Since only one-half of the input reaches the output, it is very inefficient to use in power supplies.

3.1.2.2 Full wave rectifier

Half wave rectifier is quite simple but it is very inefficient, for greater efficiency we would like to use both the half cycles of the AC signal. This can achieve by using a center-tapped transformer i.e. we would have to double the size of secondary winding & provide connection to the center. Therefore, during the positive half cycle diode, D1 conducts & D2 is in reverse biased condition. During the negative half cycle diode, D2 conducts & D1 is reverse biased. Thus, we get both the half cycles across the load. One of the disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier design is the necessity of using a center tapped transformer, thus increasing the size & cost of the circuit. This can avoid by using the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier.

3.1.2.3 Bridge Rectifier

As the name suggests it converts the full wave i.e. both the positive & the negative half cycle into DC thus it is much more efficient than Half Wave Rectifier & that too without using a center tapped transformer thus much more cost effective than Full Wave Rectifier. Full Bridge Wave Rectifier consists of four diodes namely D1, D2, D3 and D4. During the positive half cycle diodes D1 & D4 conduct whereas in the negative half cycle diodes D2 & D3 conduct thus the diodes keep switching the transformer connections so we get positive half cycles in the output.

If we use a center-tapped transformer for a bridge rectifier, we can get both positive & negative half cycles, which can thus used for generating fixed positive & fixed negative voltages. 3.1.3 FILTER CAPACITOR Even though half wave & full wave rectifier give DC output, none of them provides a constant output voltage. For this we require to smoothen the waveform received from the rectifier. This can be done by using a capacitor at the output of the rectifier this capacitor is also called as FILTER CAPACITOR or SMOOTHING CAPACITOR or RESERVOIR CAPACITOR. Even after using this capacitor a small amount of ripple will remain. We place the Filter Capacitor at the output of the rectifier the capacitor will charge to the peak voltage during each half cycle then will discharge its stored energy slowly through the load whilethe rectified voltage drops to zero, thus trying to keep the voltage as constant as possible.

If we go on increasing the value of the filter capacitor then the Ripple will decrease. Then the costing will increase. The value of the Filter capacitor depends on the current consumed by the circuit, the frequency of the waveform & the accepted ripple.

Where, Vr= accepted ripple voltage.( should not be more than 10% of the voltage) I= current consumed by the circuit in Amperes. F= frequency of the waveform. A half wave rectifier has only one peak in one cycle so F=25 Hz Whereas a full wave rectifier has Two peaks in one cycle so F=100 Hz. 3.1.4 VOLTAGE REGULATOR A Voltage regulator is a device which converts varying input voltage into a constant regulated output voltage. Voltage regulator can be of two types 1). Linear Voltage Regulator: Also called as Resistive Voltage regulator because they dis sipate the excessive voltage resistively as heat. 2) Switching RegulatorsThey regulate the output voltage by switching the Current ON/OFF very rapidly. Since either their output is ON or OFF it dissipates very low power thus achieving higher efficiency as compared to linear voltage regulators. However, they are more complex & generate high noise due to their switching action. For low level of output power, switching regulators tend to be costly but for higher output wattage, they are much cheaper than linear regulators. The most commonly available Linear Positive Voltage Regulators are the 78XX series where the XX indicates the output voltage. In addition, 79XX series is for Negative Voltage Regulators.

After filtering the rectifier output, the signal is given to a voltage regulator. The maximum input voltage that can be applied at the input is 35V.Normally there is a 2-3 Volts drop across the regulator so the input voltage should be at least 2-3 Volts higher than the output voltage. If the input voltage gets below the Vmin of the regulator due to the ripple voltage or due to any other reason the voltage regulator will not be able To pro produce the correct regulated voltage. 3.Circuitdiagram:

Fig2.3circuitdiagramofpowersupply

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
3.2 INTRODUCTION:
In this chapter the block diagram of the project and design aspect of independent modules are considered. In this diagram the main modules are micro controller, zigbee transmitter LCD,crystal oscillator,reset and LED indicators.

3.2.1 AT89S52

3.2.1.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF 8051 In 1981, Intel Corporation introduced an 8 bit microcontroller called 8051. This microcontroller had 128 bytes of RAM, 4K bytes of chip ROM, two timers, one serial port, and four ports all on a single chip. At the time it was also referred as A SYSTEM ON A CHIP AT89S52: The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful micro-controller, which provides a highly flexible and cost-effective solution to many, embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, onchip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM con-tents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt

8031 has 128 bytes of RAM, two timers and 6 interrupts.

8051 has 4K ROM, 128 bytes of RAM, two timers and 6

interrupts. 8052 has 8K ROM, 256 bytes of RAM, three timers and 8

interrupts. Of the three microcontrollers, 8051 is the most preferable. Microcontroller supports both serial and parallel communication. In the concerned project 8052 microcontroller is used. Here microcontroller used is AT89S52, which is manufactured by ATMEL laboratories. The 8051 is the name of a big family of microcontrollers. The device which we are going to use along this tutorial is the 'AT89S52' which is a typical 8051 microcontroller manufactured by Atmel. Note that this part doesn't aim to explain the functioning of the different components of a 89S52 microcontroller, but rather to give you a general idea of the organization of the chip and the available features, which shall be explained in detail along this tutorial.

The block diagram provided by Atmel in their datasheet showing the architecture the 89S52 device can seem very complicated, and since we are going to use the C high level language to program it, a simpler architecture can be represented as the figure 1.2.A. This figure shows the main features and components that the designer can interact with. You can notice that the 89S52 has 4 different ports, each one having 8 Input/output lines providing a total of 32 I/O lines. Those ports can be used to output DATA and orders do other devices, or to read the state of a sensor, or a switch. Most of the ports of the 89S52 have 'dual function' meaning that they can be used for two different functions: the fist one is to perform input/output operations and the second one is used to implement special features of the microcontroller like counting external pulses, interrupting the execution of the program according to external events, performing serial data transfer or connecting the chip to a computer to update the software. 3.2.2 NECESSITY OF MICROCONTROLLERS: Microprocessors brought the concept of programmable devices and made many applications of intelligent equipment. Most applications, which do not need large amount of data and program memory, tended to be costly. The microprocessor system had to satisfy the data and program requirements so, sufficient RAM and ROM are used to satisfy most applications .The peripheral control equipment also had to be satisfied. Therefore, almost all-peripheral chips were used in the design. Because of these additional peripherals cost will be comparatively high. An example: 8085 chip needs: An Address latch for separating address from multiplex address and data.32-KB RAM and 32-KB ROM to be able to satisfy most applications. As also Timer / Counter, Parallel programmable port, Serial port, and Interrupt controller are needed for its efficient applications.

In comparison a typical Micro controller 8051 chip has all that the 8051 board has except a reduced memory as follows. 4K bytes of ROM as compared to 32-KB, 128 Bytes of RAM as compared to 32-KB. Bulky: On comparing a board full of chips (Microprocessors) with one chip with all components in it (Microcontroller). Debugging: Lots of Microprocessor circuitry and program to debug. In Micro controller there is no Microprocessor circuitry to debug. Slower Development time: As we have observed Microprocessors need a lot of debugging at board level and at program level, where as, Micro controller do not have the excessive circuitry and the built-in peripheral chips are easier to program for operation. So peripheral devices like Timer/Counter, Parallel programmable port, Serial Co mmunication Port, Interrupt controller and so on, which were most often used were integrated with the Microprocessor to present the Micro controller .RAM and ROM also were integrated in the same chip. The ROM size was anything from 256 bytes to 32Kb or more. RAM was optimized to minimum of 64 bytes to 256 bytes or more. Microprocessor has following instructions to perform: 1. Reading instructions or data from program memory ROM. 2. Interpreting the instruction and executing it. 3. Microprocessor Program is a collection of instructions stored in a Nonvolatile memory. 4. Read Data from I/O device 5. Process the input read, as per the instructions read in program memory. 6. Read or write data to Data memory. 7. Write data to I/O device and output the result of processing to O/P device.

3.2.3 INTRODUCTION TO AT89S52

The system requirements and control specifications clearly rule out the use of 16, 32 or 64 bit micro controllers or microprocessors. Systems using these may be earlier to implement due to large number of internal features. They are also faster and more reliable but, the above application is satisfactorily served by 8-bit micro controller. Using an inexpensive 8-bit Microcontroller will doom the 32-bit product failure in any competitive

market place. Coming to the question of why to use 89S52 of all the 8-bit Microcontroller available in the market the main answer would be because it has 8kB Flash and 256 bytes of data RAM32 I/O lines, three 16-bit timer/counters, a Eight-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset. The Flash program memory supports both parallel programming and in Serial In-System Programming (ISP). The 89S52 is also In-Application Programmable (IAP), allowing the Flash program memory to be reconfigured even while the application is running. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcomputer which provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded control applications.

3.2.4 FEATURES
1.Compatible with MCS-51 Products 2.8K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory 3.Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz 4.Three-level Program Memory Lock 5.256 x 8-bit Internal RAM 6.32 Programmable I/O Lines 7.Three 16-bit Timer/Counters 8.Eight Interrupt Sources 9.Programmable Serial Channel 10.Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes 11.Operating Range.4.0V to 5.5V 12.Full Duplex UART Serial Channel 13.Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode 14.Watchdog Timer 15.Dual Data Pointer

16.Power-off Flag 17.Fast Programming Time 18.Flexible ISP Programming (Byte and Page Mode) 3.2.5 DESCRIPTION The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry-standard 80C51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful micro-controller, which provides a highly flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM con-tents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt

3.2.6 PIN CONFIGURATIONS Block diagram:

3.2.6.1 Pin diagram of AT9S52 Microcontroller

3.2.7 PIN DIAGRAM:

FIG-3.2.7.1 Pin diagram of 89S52 IC

3.2.8 PIN DESCRIPTION

VCC: Supply voltage. GND: Ground Port 0 Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high impedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program verification.External pull-ups are required during program verification.

Port 1 Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively, as shown in the following table. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.

Table:3.2.8.1: Alternative Functions Of Port1 Pins Port 2 Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that uses 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that uses 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification.

Port3

Port3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89S52, as shown in the following table. Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programming and verification.

Table:3.2.8.2:Alternative functions of port3 pin

RST

Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. This pin drives High for 96 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled.
ALE/PROG

Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode. PSEN

Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory. EA/VPP External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming. XTAL1 Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. XTAL2: Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

FIG-3.2.8.3Functional block diagram of microcontroller

3.2.9 THE 8052 OSCILLATOR AND CLOCK:

The heart of the 8051 circuitry that generates the clock pulses by which all the internal all internal operations are synchronized. Pins XTAL1 And XTAL2 is provided for connecting a resonant network to form an oscillator. Typically a quartz crystal and capacitors are employed. The crystal frequency is the basic internal clock frequency of the microcontroller. The manufacturers make 8051 designs that run at specific minimum and maximum frequencies typically 1 to 16 MHz

Fig-3.2.9.1Oscillator and timing circuit

3.2.10 MEMORIES Types of memory:

The 8052 have three general types of memory. They are on-chip memory, external Code memory and external Ram. On-Chip memory refers to physically existing memory on the micro controller itself. External code memory is the code memory that resides off chip. This is often in the form of an external EPROM. External RAM is the Ram that resides off chip. This often is in the form of standard static RAM or flash RAM. a) Code memory Code memory is the memory that holds the actual 8052 programs that is to be run. This memory is limited to 64K. Code memory may be found on-chip or off-chip. It is possible to have 8K of code memory on-chip and 60K off chip memory simultaneously. If only off-chip memory is available then there can be 64K of off chip ROM. This is controlled by pin provided as EA b) Internal RAM The 8052 have a bank of 256 bytes of internal RAM. The internal RAM is found on-chip. So it is the fastest Ram available. And also it is most flexible in terms of reading and writing. Internal Ram is volatile, so when 8051 is reset, this memory is cleared. 256 bytes of internal memory are subdivided. The first 32 bytes are divided into 4 register banks. Each bank contains 8 registers. Internal RAM also contains 256 bits, which are addressed from 20h to 2Fh. These bits are bit addressed i.e. each individual bit of a byte can be addressed by the user. They are numbered 00h to FFh. The user may make use of these variables with commands such as SETB and CLR. Special Function registered memory: Special function registers are the areas of memory that control specific functionality of the 8052 micro controller. a) Accumulator (0E0h) As its name suggests, it is used to accumulate the results of large no of instructions. It can hold 8 bit values. b) B registers (0F0h)

The B register is very similar to accumulator. It may hold 8-bit value. The b register is only used by MUL AB and DIV AB instructions. In MUL AB the higher byte of the product gets stored in B register. In div AB the quotient gets stored in B with the remainder in A. c) Stack pointer (81h) The stack pointer holds 8-bit value. This is used to indicate where the next value to be removed from the stack should be taken from. When a value is to be pushed on to the stack, the 8052 first store the value of SP and then stores the value at the resulting memory location. When a value is to be popped from the stack, the 8052 returns the value from the memory location indicated by SP and then decrements the value of SP. d) Data pointer The SFRs DPL and DPH work together work together to represent a 16-bit value called the data pointer. The data pointer is used in operations regarding external RAM and some instructions code memory. It is a 16-bit SFR and also an addressable SFR. e) Program counter The program counter is a 16 bit register, which contains the 2 byte address, which tells the 8052 where the next instruction to execute to be found in memory. When the 8052 is initialized PC starts at 0000h. And is incremented each time an instruction is executes. It is not addressable SFR. f) PCON (power control, 87h) The power control SFR is used to control the 8051s power control modes. Certain operation modes of the 8051 allow the 8051 to go into a type of sleep mode which consumes much lee power.

g) TCON (timer control, 88h) The timer control SFR is used to configure and modify the way in which the 8051s two timers operate. This SFR controls whether each of the two timers is running or stopped and contains a flag to indicate that each timer has overflowed. Additionally, some non-timer related bits are located in TCON SFR. These bits are used to configure

the way in which the external interrupt flags are activated, which are set when an external interrupt occurs.

h) TMOD (Timer Mode, 89h) The timer mode SFR is used to configure the mode of operation of each of the two timers. Using this SFR your program may configure each timer to be a 16-bit timer, or 13 bit timer, 8-bit auto reload timer, or two separate timers. Additionally you may configure the timers to only count when an external pin is activated or to count events that are indicated on an external pin.

i) TO (Timer 0 low/high, address 8A/8C h) These two SFRs taken together represent timer 0. Their exact behavior depends on how the timer is configured in the TMOD SFR; however, these timers always count up. What is configurable is how and when they increment in value. j) T1 (Timer 1 Low/High, address 8B/ 8D h) These two SFRs, taken together, represent timer 1. Their exact behavior depends on how the timer is configured in the TMOD SFR; however, these timers always count up. k)P0 (Port 0, address 90h, bit addressable) This is port 0 latch. Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on a micro controller. Any data to be outputted to port 0 is first written on P0 register. For e.g., bit 0 of port 0 is pin P0.0, bit 7 is pin p0.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on the corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to low level. l) P1 (port 1, address 90h, bit addressable) This is port latch1. Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on a micro controller. Any data to be outputted to port 0 is first written on P0 register. For e.g., bit 0

of port 0 is pin P1.0, bit 7 is pin P1.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on the corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to low level. m) P2 (port 2, address 0A0h, bit addressable): This is a port latch2. Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on a micro controller. Any data to be outputted to port 0 is first written on P0 register. For e.g., bit 0 of port 0 is pin P2.0, bit 7 is pin P2.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on the corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to low level. n) P3 (port 3, address B0h, bit addressable) : This is a port latch3. Each bit of this SFR corresponds to one of the pins on a micro controller. Any data to be outputted to port 0 is first written on P0 register. For e.g., bit 0 of port 0 is pin P3.0, bit 7 is pin P3.7. Writing a value of 1 to a bit of this SFR will send a high level on the corresponding I/O pin whereas a value of 0 will bring it to low level. o) IE (interrupt enable, 0A8h) The Interrupt Enable SFR is used to enable and disable specific interrupts. The low 7 bits of the SFR are used to enable/disable the specific interrupts, where the MSB bit is used to enable or disable all the interrupts. Thus, if the high bit of IE is 0 all interrupts are disabled regardless of whether an individual interrupt is enabled by setting a lower bit

p) IP (Interrupt Priority, 0B8h) The interrupt priority SFR is used to specify the relative priority of each interrupt. On 8051, an interrupt may be either low or high priority. An interrupt may interrupt interrupts. For e.g., if we configure all interrupts as low priority other than serial interrupt. The serial interrupt always interrupts the system, even if another interrupt is currently executing. However, if a serial interrupt is executing no other interrupt will be able to interrupt the serial interrupt routine since the serial interrupt routine has the highest priority.

q) PSW (Program Status Word, 0D0h) The program Status Word is used to store a number of important bits that are set and cleared by 8052 instructions. The PSW SFR contains the carry flag, the auxiliary carry flag, the parity flag and the overflow flag. Additionally, it also contains the register bank select flags, which are used to select, which of the R register banks currently in use.

r) SBUF (Serial Buffer, 99h) SBUF is used to hold data in serial communication. It is physically two registers. One is writing only and is used to hold data to be transmitted out of 8052 via TXD. The other is read only and holds received data from external sources via RXD. Both mutually exclusive registers use address 99h.

3.3 Temperature Sensor (LM35)

3.3.1 INTRODUCTION: The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors, whose output voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade) temperature. The LM35 thus has an advantage over linear temperature sensors calibrated in Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a large constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient centigrade scaling. The LM35 does not require any external calibration or trimming to provide typical accuracies of 1/4C at room temperature and 3/4C over a full -55 to +150C temperature range. Low cost is assured by trimming and calibration at the wafer level. The LM35s low output impedance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration make interfacing to readout or control circuitry especially easy. It can be used with single power supplies, or with plus and minus supplies. As it draws only 60 A from its supply, it has very low self-heating, less than 0.1C in still air. The LM35 is rated to operate over a -55 to +150C temperature range, while the LM35C is rated for a -40 to +110C range (-10 with improved accuracy). The LM35 series is available packaged plastic TO-

92 transistor package. The LM35D is also available in an 8-lead surface mount small outline package and a plastic TO-220 package. 3.3.2 FEATURES: 12. Calibrated directly in Celsius (Centigrade) 13. Linear + 10.0 mV/C scale factor 14. 0.5C accuracy guaranteeable (at +25C) 15. Rated for full -55 to +150C range 16. Suitable for remote applications 17. Low cost due to wafer-level trimming 18. Operates from 4 to 30 volts 19. Less than 60 A current drain 20. Low self-heating, 0.08C in still air 21. Nonlinearity only 1/4C typical 22. Low impedance 3.3.3 PIN DIAGRAM:

Fig 3.3.3.1 Lm35 Temparature sensor

3.3.4 APPLICATIONS: The LM35 can be applied easily in the same way as other integrated-circuit temperature sensors. It can be glued or cemented to a surface and its temperature will be within about 0.01C of the surface temperature. This presumes that the ambient air temperature is almost the same as the surface temperature; if the air temperature were much higher or lower than the surface temperature, the actual temperature of the LM35

die would be at an intermediate temperature between the surface temperature and the air temperature. This is expecially true for the TO-92 plastic package, where the copper leads are the principal thermal path to carry heat into the device, so its temperature might be closer to the air temperature than to the surface temperature. To minimize this problem, be sure that the wiring to the LM35, as it leaves the device, is held at the same temperature as the surface of interest. The easiest way to do this is to cover up these wires with a bead of epoxy which will insure that the leads and wires are all at the same temperature as the surface, and that the LM35 dies temperature will not be affected by the air temperature. The TO-46 metal package can also be soldered to a metal surface or pipe without damage. Of course, in that case the V- terminal of the circuit will be grounded to that metal. Alternatively, the LM35 can be mounted inside a sealed-end metal tube, and can then be dipped into a bath or screwed into a threaded hole in a tank. As with any IC, the LM35 and accompanying wiring and circuits must be kept insulated and dry, to avoid leakage and corrosion. This is especially true if the circuit may operate at cold temperatures where condensation can occur. Printed-circuit coatings and varnishes such as Humiseal and epoxy paints or dips are often used to insure that moisture cannot corrode the LM35 or its connections. These devices are sometimes soldered to a small light-weight heat fin, to decrease the thermal time constant and speed up the response in slowly-moving air. On the other hand, a small thermal mass may be added to the sensor, to give the steadiest reading despite small deviations in the air temperature.

3.4 pH METER
3.4.1Principles of operation of a pH meter A pH meter is essentially a voltmeter with a high input impedance which measures the voltage of an electrode sensitive to the hydrogen ion concentration, relative to another electrode which exhibits a constant voltage. The key feature of the pHsensitive electrode is a thin glass membrane whose outside surface contacts the solution to be tested. The inside surface of the glass membrane is exposed to a constant concentration of hydrogen ions (0.1 M HCl). Inside the glass electrode assembly, a silver wire, coated with silver chloride and immersed in the HCl solution, is called an Ag/AgCl electrode. This electrode carries current through the half-cell reaction. The potential between the electrode and the

solution depends on the chloride ion concentration, but, since this is constant (0.1 M), the electrode potential is also constant. A reference electrode is needed to complete the electrical circuit. A common choice is to use another Ag/AgCl electrode as the reference. The Ag/AgCl electrode is immersed in an 0.1 M KCl solution which makes contact with the test solution through a porous fiber which allows a small flow of ions back and forth to conduct the current. The potential created at this junction between the KCl solution and the test solution is nearly zero and nearly unaffected by anything in the solution, including hydrogen ions. Using the pH Meter: Allow the meter a few minutes to stabilize after you plug it in. When you are not using the meter, keep the electrode immersed in pH 7.0 buffer to a depth of about one inch. The meter must be calibrated by using standards of known pH before an unknown is measured. Since the unknowns are acidic, the pH 4.00 and pH 7.00 standards should be used. An accurate pH reading depends on standardization, the degree of static charge, and the temperature of the solution. Glass electrode Reference electrode Combined electrode

1. The pH meter should be standardized each time it is used with a buffer of known pH, preferably one closest to the desired final pH. To calibrate the pH meter, expose the hole in the electrode, rinse the electrode with deionized water, and place the electrode in a standard solution, e.g., pH 7. Turn the selector to "pH". Adjust the pH meter to the appropriate pH. Rinse electrode with deionized water and place in a second standard buffer solution. The choice of the second standard depends on the final he standard pH buffers used should be 7 and 10. If the final pH desired, for example, if the final pH desired is 8.5, t pH desired is 5.5, the standard pH buffers used should be 4 and 7. Turn the selector to "pH". Adjust the temperature knob to the second standard pH. Rinse the electrode with deionized water, and return the electrode to the soaking solution. 2. When rinsing the electrode, never wipe the end, but blot gently since wiping can create a static electric charge, which can cause erroneous readings, 3. Make sure the solution you are measuring is at room temperature since the pH can change with a change in temperature. 4. The pH-sensitive glass membrane is very thin and very easily broken. Do not touch the membrane with anything harder than a Kim-Wipe and do that very gently. Do not drop the electrode or bump it on the bottom of the beaker when immersing it in a solution. 5. The glass membrane must be thoroughly hydrated to work properly. Do not allow the electrode to remain out of water any longer than necessary. When the electrode is not in use, keep it immersed in the pH 7.00 buffer. Do not put the electrode down on the desk.

3.4.2 pH SENSOR:It is converted non electrical information into electrical form . The lower-case letter pH stands for the negative common(base ten)log.while the uppercase letterH stands for the eiement hydrogen. Thus pH is a logarithmic measurement of the number of moles of hydrogen(H+)per liter of solution. pH = 0 for neutrals >7 for bases <7for acids Measuring range=0to 14.00pH Sensitivity=0.002Ph Weight=1lb(0.45kgs)

3.4.3pH SENSOR ( pH100):3.4.3.1 Diagram:

3.5 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER 0808

3.5.1 INTRODUCTION The ADC0808 data acquisition component is a monolithic CMOS device with an 8-bit analog-to-digital converter, 8-channel multiplexer and microprocessor compatible control logic. The 8-bit A/D converter uses successive approximation as the

conversion technique. The converter features a high impedance chopper stabilized comparator, a 256R voltage divider with analog switch tree and a successive approximation register. The 8-channel multiplexer can directly access any of 8-singleended analog signals. The device eliminates the need for external zero and full-scale adjustments. Easy interfacing to microprocessors is provided by the latched and decoded multiplexer address inputs and latched TTL tri-state outputs. The design of the ADC0808 has been optimized by incorporating the most desirable aspects of several A/D conversion techniques. The ADC0808 offers high speed, high accuracy, minimal temperature dependence, excellent long-term accuracy and repeatability, and consumes minimal power. These features make this device ideally suited to applications from process and machine control to consumer and automotive applications. 3.5.2 FEATURES: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Easy interface to all microprocessors Operates ratio metrically or with 5 VDC or analog span adjusted voltage reference No zero or full-scale adjust required 8-channel multiplexer with address logic 0V to 5V input range with single 5V power supply Outputs meet TTL voltage level specifications Standard hermetic or molded 28-pin DIP package 28-pin molded chip carrier package ADC0808 equivalent to MM74C949

3.5.3 KEY SPECIFICATIONS: 1. Resolution 8 Bits 2. Total Unadjusted Error 1/2 LSB and 1 LSB 3. Single Supply 5 VDC 4. Low Power 15 mW 5. Conversion Time 100 s

3.5.4 PIN DIAGRAM OF ADC0808

Fig: 3.5.4.1 pin diagram of ADC0808

3.5.5 I/O PINS

3.5.5.1 ADDRESS LINES A, B, C

The device contains 8-channels. A particular channel is selected by using the address decoder line. The table shown below the input states for address lines to select any channel.

Fig 3.5.5.1 Address linesAB,C 3.5.5.2 ADDRESS LATCH ENABLE ALE The address is latched on the Low High transition of ALE.

3.5.5.2a START The ADCs Successive Approximation Register (SAR) is reset on the positive edge i.e. Low- High of the Start Conversion pulse. Whereas the conversion is begun on the falling edge i.e. High Low of the pulse. 3.5.5.2b OUTPUT ENABLE Whenever data has to be read from the ADC, Output Enable pin has to be pulled high thus enabling the TRI-STATE outputs, allowing data to be read from the data pins D0D7. The device contains 8-channels. A particular channel is selected by using the addres s decoder line. The table shown below t he input states for address lines to select any channel 3.5.5..2c END OF CONVERSION (EOC) This Pin becomes High when the conversion has ended, so the controller comes to know that the data can now be read from the data pins. 3.5.5.3 Clock External clock pulses are to be given to the ADC; this can be given either from LM 555 in Astable mode or the controller can also be used to give the pulses.

3.6 LCD (LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY)

3.6.1 INTRODUCTION: A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of any number of color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. Each pixel consists of a column of liquid crystal molecules suspended between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of polarity of which are perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystals between them, light passing through one would be blocked by the other. The liquid crystal twists the polarization of light entering one filter to allow it to pass through the other. A program must interact with the outside world using input and output devices that communicate directly with a human being. One of the most common devices attached to an controller is an LCD display. Some of the most common LCDs connected to the contollers are 16X1, 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16 characters per line by 1 line 16 characters per line by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines, respectively.

Many microcontroller devices use 'smart LCD' displays to output visual information. LCD displays designed around LCD NT-C1611 module, are inexpensive, easy to use, and it is even possible to produce a readout using the 5X7 dots plus cursor of the display. They have a standard ASCII set of characters and mathematical symbols. For an 8-bit data bus, the display requires a +5V supply plus 10 I/O lines (RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0). For a 4-bit data bus it only requires the supply lines plus 6 extra lines(RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4). When the LCD display is not enabled, data lines are tri-state and they do not interfere with the operation of the microcontroller. 3.6.2FEATURES: (1) Interface with either 4-bit or 8-bit microprocessor. (2) Display data RAM (3) 80x8 bits (80 characters). (4) Character generator ROM (5). 160 different 5 7 dot-matrix character patterns. (6). Character generator RAM (7) 8 different user programmed 5 7 dot-matrix patterns. (8).Display data RAM and character generator RAM may be Accessed by the (9) Numerous instructions (10) .Clear Display, Cursor Home, Display ON/OFF, CursorON/OFF, Blink Character, Cursor Shift, Display Shift. (11). Built-in reset circuit is (12). Built-in oscillator. triggered at power ON. microprocessor.

Data can be placed at any location on the LCD. For 161 LCD, the address locations are:

available. Line lengths of 8, 16, 20, 24, 32 and 40 charact ers are all standar d, in one, two

Fig : 3.6.2 .1Address locations for a 1x16 line LCD 3.6.3SHAPES AND SIZES:

Fig 3.6.3.1 different shapes and size Even limited to character based modules,there is still a wide variety of shapes and sizes available. Line lenghs of 8,16,20,24,32 and 40 charecters are all standard, in one, two and four line versions. Several different LC technoCDlogies exists. supertwist types, for example, offer Improved contrast and viewing angle over the older twisted nematic types. Some modules are available with back lighting, so so that they can be viewed in dimly-lit conditions. The back lighting may be either electro-luminescent, requiring a high voltage inverter circuit, or simple LED illumination. 3.6.4ELECTRICAL BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig 3.6.4.1 LCD electrical block diagram

3.6.5POWER SUPPLY FOR LCD DRIVING: Fig 3.6.5.1 LCD power supply and driving circuit 3.6.6 PIN DESCRIPTION: Most LCDs with 1 controller has 14 Pins and LCDs with 2 controller has 16 Pins (two pins are extra in both for back-light LED connections).

Fig:3.6.6.1 pin diagram of 1x16 lines lcd

3.6.7 CONTROL LINES: EN: Line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that you are sending it data. To send data to the LCD, your program should make sure this line is low (0) and then set the other two control lines and/or put data on the data bus. When the other lines are completely ready, bring EN high (1) and wait for the minimum amount of time required by the LCD datasheet (this varies from LCD to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.

RS: Line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be treated as a command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.). When RS is high (1), the data being sent is text data which sould be displayed on the screen. For example, to display the letter "T" on the screen you would set RS high. RW: Line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information on the data bus is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is effectively querying (or reading) the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a read command. All others are write commands, so RW will almost always be low. Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines (depending on the mode of operation selected by the user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the lines are referred to as DB0, DB1, DB2, DB3, DB4, DB5, DB6, and DB7. 3.6.8 LOGIC STATUS ON CONTROL LINES: E - 0 Access to LCD disabled - 1 Access to LCD enabled R/W - 0 Writing data to LCD - 1 Reading data from LCD RS - 0 Instructions 1 Character 3.6.9 WRITING DATA TO LCD: 1) Set R/W bit to low 2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character) 3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing) 4) Set E line to high 5) Set E line to low

3.6.10 READ DATA FROM DATA LINES (if it is reading)ON LCD: 1) Set R/W bit to high 2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character) 3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing) 4) Set E line to high 5) Set E line to low 3.6.11 ENTERING TEXT: First, a little tip: it is manually a lot easier to enter characters and commands in hexadecimal rather than binary (although, of course, you will need to translate commands from binary couple of sub-miniature hexadecimal rotary switches is a simple matter, although a little bit into hex so that you know which bits you are setting). Replacing the d.i.l. switch pack with a of re-wiring is necessary. The switches must be the type where On = 0, so that when they are turned to the zero position, all four outputs are shorted to the common pin, and in position F, all four outputs are open circuit. All the available characters that are built into the module are shown in Table 3. Studying the table, you will see that codes associated with the characters are quoted in binary and hexadecimal, most significant bits (left-hand four bits) across the top, and least significant bits (right-hand four bits) down the left. Most of the characters conform to the ASCII standard, although the Japanese and Greek characters (and a few other things) are obvious exceptions. Since these intelligent modules were designed in the Land of the Rising Sun, it seems only fair that their Katakana phonetic symbols should also be incorporated. The more extensive Kanji character set, which the Japanese share with the Chinese, consisting of several thousand different characters, is not included! Using the switches, of whatever type, and referring to Table 3, enter a few characters onto the display, both letters and numbers. The RS switch (S10) must be up (logic 1) when sending the characters, and switch E (S9) must be pressed for each of them. Thus the operational order is: set RS high, enter character, trigger E, leave RS high, enter another character, trigger E, and so on. The first 16 codes in Table 3, 00000000 to 00001111, ($00 to $0F) refer to the

CGRAM. This is the Character Generator RAM (random access memory), which can be used to hold user-defined graphics characters. This is where these modules really start to show their potential, offering such capabilities as bar graphs, flashing symbols, even animated characters. Before the user-defined characters are set up, these codes will just bring up strange looking symbols. Codes 00010000 to 00011111 ($10 to $1F) are not used and just display blank characters. ASCII codes proper start at 00100000 ($20) and end with 01111111 ($7F). Codes 10000000 to 10011111 ($80 to $9F) are not used, and 10100000 to 11011111 ($A0 to $DF) are the Japanese characters.

3.6.12 INTIALIZATION BY INSTRUCTIONS:

If the power conditions for the normal operation of the internal reset circuit are not satisfied, then executing a series of instructions must initialize LCD unit. The procedure for this initialization process is as above show.

3.7 SERIAL DATA COMMUNICATION:

For serial data communication to work the byte of data must be converted to serial bits using a parallel-in-serial-out shift register; then it can be transmitted over a single data line. This also means that at the receiving end there must be a serial-inparallel-out shift register to receive the serial data and pack them into a byte. Of course, if data is to be transferred on the telephone line, it must be converted from 0s and 1s to audio tones, which are sinusoidal-shaped signals. This conversion is performed by a peripheral device called a modem, which stands for modulator/demodulator.

3.7.1: RS232 STANDARDS:

To allow compatibility among data communication equipment made by various manufacturers, an interfacing standard called RS232 was set by the Electronics Industries Association (EIA) in 1960. Today, RS232 is the most widely used serial I/O interfacing standard. However, since the standard was set long before the advent of TTL logic family, its input and output voltage levels are not TTL compatible. In RS232, a 1 is represented by -3 to -25V, while a 0 bit is +3 to +25V, making -3 to +3 undefined. For this reason, to connect any RS232 to a microcontroller system we must use voltage converters such as MAX232 to convert the TTL logic levels to the RS232 voltage levels, and vice versa. MAX232 IC chips are commonly referred to as line drivers.

3.7.2: DB-25 Connector:

The following table provides the pins and their labels for the RS232 cable, commonly referred to as the DB-25 connector. In labeling, DB-25P refers to the plug connector (male) and DB-25S is for the socket connector (female). PIN 1 2 3 4 5 DESCRIPTION Protective ground Transmitted data (TxD) Received data (RxD) Request to send (RTS) Clear to send (CTS)

6 7 8 9/10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Data set ready (DSR) Signal ground (GND) Data carrier detect (DCD) Reserved for data testing Unassigned Secondary data carrier detect Secondary clear to send Secondary transmitted data Transmit signal element timing Secondary received data Receive signal element timing Unassigned Secondary request to send Data terminal ready (DTR) Signal quality detector Ring indicator Data signal rate select Transmit signal element timing

Unassigned Table 3.7.2.1: Pin Description of DB-25 Connector.

3.7.3: DB-9 Connector:

Since not all the pins are used in PC cables, IBM introduced the DB-9 version of the serial I/O standard, which uses 9 pins only, as shown in the following table: PIN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 DESCRIPTION Data carrier detect (DCD) Received data (RxD) Transmitted data (TxD) Data terminal ready (DTR) Signal ground (GND) Data set ready (DSR) Request to send (RTS) Clear to send (CTS) Ring indicator (RI)

Table 3.7.3.1: Pin Description of DB-9 Connector.

Fig 3.7.3.2: D-Subminiature. The D-subminiature or D-sub is a common type of electrical connector used particularly in computers. At the time of introduction they were some of the smaller connectors used on computer systems. A D-sub contains two or more parallel rows of pins or sockets usually surrounded by a D-shaped metal shield that provides mechanical support, some screening against electromagnetic interference, and ensures correctorientation.

3.7.4 MAX 232

3.7.4.1INTRODUCTION: A standard serial interface for PC, RS232C, requires negative logic, i.e., logic 1 is -3V to -12V and logic 0 is +3V to +12V. To convert TTL logic, say, TxD and RxD pins of the microcontroller thus need a converter chip. A MAX232 chip has long been using in many microcontrollers boards. It is a dual RS232 receiver / transmitter that meets all RS232 specifications while using only +5V power supply. It has two onboard charge pump voltage converters which generate +10V to -10V power supplies from a single 5V supply. It has four level translators, two of which are RS232 transmitters that convert TTL/CMOS input levels into +9V RS232 outputs. The other two level translators are RS232 receivers that convert RS232 input to 5V. Typical MAX232 circuit is shown below. 3.7.5 Pin diagram of MAX232:

3.7.5.1 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF MAX 232

3.7.6 FEATURES: 1. Operates With Single 5-V Power Supply 2.LinBiCMOSE Process Technology 3.Two Drivers and Two Receivers 4.30-V Input Levels 5.Low Supply Current . 8 mA Typical 6.Meets or Exceeds TIA/EIA-232-F and ITURecommendation V.28 7.Designed to be Interch Maxim MAX232 3.7.7APPLICATIONS: TIA/EIA-232-F Battery-Powered Systems Terminals Modems Computers 9.ESD Protection ExceedMIL-STD-883, Method 3015 10.Package Options Include small-Outline (D, DW) Packages and Standard Plastic (N) DIPs 3.7.8CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS:

A standard serial interfacing for PC, RS232C, requires negative logic, i.e., logic '1' is -3V to -12V and logic '0' is +3V to +12V. To convert a TTL logic, say, TxD and RxD pins of the uC chips, thus need a converter chip. A MAX232 chip has long been using in many uC boards. It provides 2-channel RS232C port and requires external 10uF pacitors. Carefully check the polarity of capacitor when soldering the board. A DS275 however, no need external capacitor and smaller. Either circuit can be used without any problems.

Fig 3.7.8.2 circuit connection of MAX232

3. 8 GSM (Global System for Mobile communications)

3.8.1 1INTRODUCTION GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. GSM networks operate in four different frequency ranges. Most GSM networks operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Some countries in the Americas use the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands because the 900 and 1800 MHz frequency bands were already allocated. The rarer 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries, where these frequencies were previously used for first-generation systems.

GSM-900 uses 890915 MHz to send information from the mobile station to the base station (uplink) and 935960 MHz for the other direction (downlink), providing 124 RF channels (channel numbers 1 to 124) spaced at 200 kHz. Duplex spacing of 45 MHz is used. In some countries the GSM-900 band has been extended to cover a larger frequency range. This 'extended GSM', E-GSM, uses 880915 MHz (uplink) and 925960 MHz (downlink), adding 50 channels (channel numbers 975 to 1023 and 0) to the original GSM-900 band. Time division multiplexing is used to allow eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech channels per radio frequency channel. There are eight radio timeslots (giving eight burst periods) grouped into what is called a TDMA frame. Half rate channels use alternate frames in the same timeslot. The channel data rate is 270.833 kbit/s, and the frame duration is 4.615 ms.

3.8.2 GSM ADVANTAGES: GSM also pioneered a low-cost, to the network carrier, alternative to voice calls, the Short t message service (SMS, also called "text messaging"), which is now supported on other mobile standards as well. Another advantage is that the standard includes one worldwide Emergency telephone number, 112. This makes it easier for international travelers to connect to emergency services without knowing the local emergency number. 3.8.3 THE GSM NETWORK: GSM provides recommendations, not requirements. The GSM specifications define the functions and interface requirements in detail but do not address the hardware. The GSM network is divided into three major systems: the switching system (SS), the base station system (BSS), and the operation and support system (OSS).

Fig 3.8.3.1 The architecture of GSM 3.6.3.1The Switching System: The switching system (SS) is responsible for performing call processing and subscriberrelated functions. The switching system includes the following functional units.

Home location register (HLR): The HLR is a database used for storage and management of subscriptions. The HLR is considered the most important database, as it stores permanent data about subscribers, including a subscriber's service profile, location information, and activity status. When an individual buys a subscription from one of the PCS operators, he or she is registered in the HLR of that operator.

Mobile services switching center (MSC): The MSC performs the telephony switching functions of the system. It controls calls to and from other telephone and data systems. It also performs such functions as toll ticketing, network interfacing, common channel signaling, and others.

Visitor location register (VLR): The VLR is a database that contains temporary information about subscribers that is needed by the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. The VLR is always integrated with the MSC. When a mobile station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC will request data about the mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR will have the information needed for call setup without having to interrogate the HLR each time.

Authentication center (AUC): A unit called the AUC provides authentication and encryption parameters that verify the user's identity and ensure the confidentiality of each call. The AUC protects network operators from different types of fraud found in today's cellular world.

Equipment identity register (EIR): The EIR is a database that contains information about the identity of mobile equipment that prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized, or defective mobile stations. The AUC and EIR are implemented as stand-alone nodes or as a combined AUC/EIR node.

3.8.3.2The Base Station System (BSS): All radio-related functions are performed in the BSS, which consists of base station controllers (BSCs) and the base transceiver stations (BTSs).

BSC: The BSC provides all the control functions and physical links between the MSC and BTS. It is a high-capacity switch that provides functions such as handover, cell configuration data, and control of radio frequency (RF) power levels in base transceiver stations. A number of BSCs are served by an MSC.

BTS: The BTS handles the radio interface to the mobile station. The BTS is the radio equipment (transceivers and antennas) needed to service each cell in the network. A group of BTSs are controlled by a BSC.

3.8.3.3The Operation and Support System The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the switching system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation and support system (OSS). The OSS is the functional entity from which the network operator monitors and controls the system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the customer cost-effective support for centralized, regional and local operational and maintenance activities that are required for a GSM network. An important function of OSS is to provide a network overview and support the maintenance activities of different operation and maintenance organizations. 3.8.4 ADDITIONAL FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS

Message center (MXE): The MXE is a node that provides integrated voice, fax, and data messaging. Specifically, the MXE handles short message service, cell broadcast, voice mail, fax mail, e-mail, and notification.

Mobile service node (MSN): The MSN is the node that handles the mobile intelligent network (IN) services.

Gateway mobile services switching center (GMSC): A gateway is a node used to interconnect two networks. The gateway is often implemented in an MSC. The MSC is then referred to as the GMSC.

GSM inter-working unit (GIWU): The GIWU consists of both hardware and software that provides an interface to various networks for data communications. Through the GIWU, users can alternate between speech and data during the same call. The GIWU hardware equipment is physically located at the MSC/VLR.

3.8.5 GSM NETWORK AREAS:

The GSM network is made up of geographic areas. As shown in bellow figure, these areas include cells, location areas (LAs), MSC/VLR service areas, and public land mobile network (PLMN) areas.

Fig 3.8.5.1 GSM network area Location Areas:

The cell is the area given radio coverage by one base transceiver station. The GSM network identifies each cell via the cell global identity (CGI) number assigned to each cell. The location area is a group of cells. It is the area in which the subscriber is paged. Each LA is served by one or more base station controllers, yet only by a single MSC Each LA is assigned a location area identity (LAI) number. MSC/VLR service areas:

An MSC/VLR service area represents the part of the GSM network that is covered by one MSC and which is reachable, as it is registered in the VLR of the MSC. PLMN service areas:

The PLMN service area is an area served by one network operator. 3.8.6 GSM SPECIFICATIONS:

Specifications for different personal communication services (PCS) systems vary among the different PCS networks. Listed below is a description of the specifications and characteristics for GSM.

Frequency band: The frequency range specified for GSM is 1,850 to 1,990 MHz (mobile station to base station).

Duplex distance: The duplex distance is 80 MHz. Duplex distance is the distance between the uplink and downlink frequencies. A channel has two frequencies, 80 MHz apart.

Channel separation: The separation between adjacent carrier frequencies. In GSM, this is 200 kHz.

Modulation: Modulation is the process of sending a signal by changing the characteristics of a carrier frequency. This is done in GSM via Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK).

Transmission rate: GSM is a digital system with an over-the-air bit rate of 270 kbps.

Access method: GSM utilizes the time division multiple access (TDMA) concept. TDMA is a technique in which several different calls may share the same carrier. Each call is assigned a particular time slot.

Speech coder: GSM uses linear predictive coding (LPC). The purpose of LPC is to reduce the bit rate. The LPC provides parameters for a filter that mimics the vocal tract. The signal passes through this filter, leaving behind a residual signal. Speech is encoded at 13 kbps.

3.8.7 GSM SUBSCRIBER SERVICE: Dual-tone multifrequency (DTMF): DTMF is a tone signaling scheme often used for various control purposes via the telephone network, such as remote control of an answering machine. GSM supports full-originating DTMF. Facsimile group IIIGSM supports CCITT Group 3 facsimile. As standard fax machines are designed to be connected to a telephone using analog signals, a special fax

converter connected to the exchange is used in the GSM system. This enables a GSM connected fax to communicate with any analog fax in the network. Short message services: A convenient facility of the GSM network is the short message service. A message consisting of a maximum of 160 alphanumeric characters can be sent to or from a mobile station. This service can be viewed as an advanced form of alphanumeric paging with a number of advantages. If the subscriber's mobile unit is powered off or has left the coverage area, the message is stored and offered back to the subscriber when the mobile is powered on or has reentered the coverage area of the network. This function ensures that the message will be received. Cell broadcast: A variation of the short message service is the cell broadcast facility. A message of a maximum of 93 characters can be broadcast to all mobile subscribers in a certain geographic area. Typical applications include traffic congestion warnings and reports on accidents. Voice mail: This service is actually an answering machine within the network, which is controlled by the subscriber. Calls can be forwarded to the subscriber's voice-mail box and the subscriber checks for messages via a personal security code. Fax mail: With this service, the subscriber can receive fax messages at any fax machine. The messages are stored in a service center from which they can be retrieved by the subscriber via a personal security code to the desired fax number 3.8.8 SUPPLEMENTARY SERVICES: GSM supports a comprehensive set of supplementary services that can complement and support both telephony and data services. Call forwarding: This service gives the subscriber the ability to forward incoming calls to another number if the called mobile unit is not reachable, if it is busy, if there is no reply, or if call forwarding is allowed unconditionally.

Barring of outgoing calls: This service makes it possible for a mobile subscriber to prevent all outgoing calls. Barring of incoming calls: This function allows the subscriber to prevent incoming calls. The following two conditions for incoming call barring exist: baring of all incoming calls and barring of incoming calls when roaming outside the home PLMN. Advice of charge (AoC): The AoC service provides the mobile subscriber with an estimate of the call charges. There are two types of AoC information: one that provides the subscriber with an estimate of the bill and one that can be used for immediate charging purposes. AoC for data calls is provided on the basis of time measurements. Call hold: This service enables the subscriber to interrupt an ongoing call and then subsequently reestablish the call. The call hold service is only applicable to normal telephony. Call waiting: This service enables the mobile subscriber to be notified of an incoming call during a conversation. The subscriber can answer, reject, or ignore the incoming call. Call waiting is applicable to all GSM telecommunications services using a circuitswitched connection. Multiparty service: The multiparty service enables a mobile subscriber to establish a multiparty conversationthat is, a simultaneous conversation between three and six subscribers. This service is only applicable to normal telephony. Calling line identification presentation/restriction: These services supply the called party with the integrated services digital network (ISDN) number of the calling party. The restriction service enables the calling party to restrict the presentation. The restriction overrides the presentation. Closed user groups (CUGs): CUGs are generally comparable to a PBX. They are a group of subscribers who are capable of only calling themselves and certain numbers 3.8.9 MAIN AT COMMANDS:

"AT command set for GSM Mobile Equipment describes the Main AT commands to communicate via a serial interface with the GSM subsystem of the phone. AT commands are instructions used to control a modem. AT is the abbreviation of Attention. Every command line starts with "AT" or "at". That's why modem commands are called AT commands. Many of the commands that are used to control wired dial-up modems, such as ATD (Dial), ATA (Answer), ATH (Hook control) and ATO (Return to online data state), are also supported by GSM/GPRS modems and mobile phones. Besides this common AT command set, GSM/GPRS modems and mobile phones support an AT command set that is specific to the GSM technology, which includes SMS-related commands like AT+CMGS (Send SMS message), AT+CMSS (Send SMS message from storage), AT+CMGL (List SMS messages) and AT+CMGR (Read SMS messages). Note that the starting "AT" is the prefix that informs the modem about the start of a command line. It is not part of the AT command name. For example, D is the actual AT command name in ATD and +CMGS is the actual AT command name in AT+CMGS. However, some books and web sites use them interchangeably as the name of an AT command. Here are some of the tasks that can be done using AT commands with a GSM/GPRS modem or mobile phone:

Get basic information about the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For example, name of manufacturer (AT+CGMI), model number (AT+CGMM), IMEI number (International Mobile Equipment Identity) (AT+CGSN) and software version (AT+CGMR).

Get basic information about the subscriber. For example, MSISDN (AT+CNUM) and IMSI number (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) (AT+CIMI). Get the current status of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For example, mobile phone activity status (AT+CPAS), mobile network registration status (AT+CREG), radio signal strength (AT+CSQ), battery charge level and battery charging status (AT+CBC).

Establish a data connection or voice connection to a remote modem (ATD, ATA, etc). Send and receive fax (ATD, ATA, AT+F*). Send (AT+CMGS, AT+CMSS), read (AT+CMGR, AT+CMGL), write (AT+CMGW) or delete (AT+CMGD) SMS messages and obtain notifications of newly received SMS messages (AT+CNMI).

Read (AT+CPBR), write (AT+CPBW) or search (AT+CPBF) phonebook entries. Perform security-related tasks, such as opening or closing facility locks (AT+CLCK), checking whether a facility is locked (AT+CLCK) and changing passwords (AT+CPWD). (Facility lock examples: SIM lock [a password must be given to the SIM card every time the mobile phone is switched on] and PH-SIM lock [a certain SIM card is associated with the mobile phone. To use other SIM cards with the mobile phone, a password must be entered.])

Control the presentation of result codes / error messages of AT commands. For example, you can control whether to enable certain error messages (AT+CMEE) and whether error messages should be displayed in numeric format or verbose format (AT+CMEE=1 or AT+CMEE=2).

Get or change the configurations of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For example, change the GSM network (AT+COPS), bearer service type (AT+CBST), radio link protocol parameters (AT+CRLP), SMS center address (AT+CSCA) and storage of SMS messages (AT+CPMS).

Save and restore configurations of the mobile phone or GSM/GPRS modem. For example, save (AT+CSAS) and restore (AT+CRES) settings related to SMS messaging such as the SMS center address.

3.9 BUZZER
A buzzer or beeper is a signaling device, usually electronic, typically used in automobiles, household appliances such as a microwave oven, or game shows.

Fig 3.9.1 buzzer diagram It most commonly consists of a number of switches or sensors connected to a control unit that determines if and which button was pushed or a preset time has lapsed, and usually illuminates a light on the appropriate button or control panel, and sounds a warning in the form of a continuous or intermittent buzzing or beeping sound. Initially this device was based on an electromechanical system which was identical to an electric bell without the metal gong . Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling and used the ceiling or wall as a sounding board. Another implementation with some AC-connected devices was to implement a circuit to make the AC current into a noise loud enough to drive a loudspeaker and hook this circuit up to a cheap 8-ohm speaker. Nowadays, it is more popular to use a ceramic-based piezoelectric sounder like a Son alert which makes a high-pitched tone. Usually these were hooked up to "driver" circuits which varied the pitch of the sound or pulsed the sound on and off.In game shows it is also known as a "lockout system," because when one person signals ("buzzes in"), all others are locked out from signaling. Several game shows have large buzzer buttons which are identified as "plungers". The word "buzzer" comes from th e rasping noise that buzzers made when they were electromechanica l devices, operated from stepped- down AC lin e voltage at 50 or 60 cycles. Other sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed are a ring or a beep. Features:
Rated Frequency: 2 KHz Continuous Tone Operating Voltage: 5 - 7Vdc

Sound Pressure Level (10cm): 80dB @ 5Vdc

These high reliability electromagnetic buzzers are applicable to general electronics equipment. Compact, pin terminal type electromagnetic buzzer with 2048 Hz output. Pin type terminal construction enables direct mounting onto printed circuit boards APPLICATIONS: Security Alerts, Clocks, Travel watches, Keyboards, Toys, Various all.

CHAPTER-4

ADVANTAGES:

APPLICATIONS& FUTURE SCOPE

CONCLUSION:-