KISS Notes Evolution of Australian Biota

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Preliminary Biology Topic 4
EVOLUTION OF AUSTRALIAN BIOTA
What is this topic about?

To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of: 1. PLATE TECTONICS & THE FORMATION OF AUSTRALIA 2. EVOLUTION IN AUSTRALIA 3. ADAPTATIONS FOR REPRODUCTION 4. MAINTAINING BIODIVERSITY
but first, an introduction...

Plate Tectonics & Moving Continents
You may already be aware that a map of the world would not always have looked as it does today. The science of Plate Tectonics has revealed that the Earths crust is made up of a number of separate plates which slowly move the continents about, splitting up and colliding over millions of years.
More on Evolution...
In the previous topic you learned some of the Facts of Evolution... the evidence that life on Earth has changed over millions of years. In this topic you will learn about the process of Natural Selection which is believed to be the driving force that causes evolution to happen
Nature chooses the survivors
... and the losers!
In this topic you will consider some of the evidence for the moving continents, and learn how Australia came to be the island continent.
Australias Unique Biota

Biota means all the plants (Flora) and animals (Fauna) of a particular region. You already know that Australias native plants and animals are sometimes cute, sometimes deadly dangerous and always interesting for their unique appearance and habits. In this topic you will find out a little about some of the earlier inhabitants of Australia, and what happened to them. You will also study some of the ways that our biota is superbly adapted to Australias harsh and unpredictable climate.
Preliminary Biology Topic 4 Evolution Aust.Biota copyright 2005-2 2008 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorising the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts. As you proceed through the topic, come back to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the whole. At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this Mind Map to practise on. Evidence for Plate Tectonics
Changing Ideas about Australian Animals
The Evidence for Climate Change
Structure of the Earth
Plate Tectonics & the Formation of Australia
Natural Selection, Variation and Evolution
Evolution of Aust. Plants
Evolution in Australia
EVOLUTION of AUSTRALIAN BIOTA
Megafauna & Extinction
Asexual v Sexual Mitosis v Meiosis External v Internal Fertilization
Maintaining Biodiversity
Adaptations for Reproduction
Reproductive Adaptations of Australian Plants
Case Study: Extinction of the Thylacine How Palaeontology Can Help
Value of Biodiversity
When Asexual Reproduction is Useful
Reproductive Adaptations of Australian Animals
1. PLATE TECTONICS & THE FORMATION OF AUSTRALIA The Structure of the Earth
Seismology is the study of earthquakes and the behaviour of the shock waves they produce. During the 20th century, seismology revealed that the Earth is not a solid ball of rock, but made up of a number of layers.
CROSS-S SECTION of the EARTH
of lower density rocks
CRUST
of higher density rock
MANTLE
Furthermore, we have come to realize that the crust is not a single solid skin on the outside of the Earth. Rather, it has fractured into about a dozen plates which slide around as the mantle currents push from below. Since they are all touching on the surface of a sphere, as the plates move they must: move apart from each other or, slide sideways past each other or, collide with each other. SEA-F FLOOR SPREADING As plates move apart, new
Ocean rock fills the gap, creating a mid-o ocean ridge
Liquid iron & nickel
OUTER CORE
Solid iron & nickel
INNER CORE
ent Contin
Con tine nt
We now know that the outer layer, the crust is not tightly attached to the mantle below it. Also, the mantle is not rigid and solid, but plastic, and can slowly flow in huge convection currents that are bringing heat energy outward from the Earths core. These convection currents push against the crust.
Convection Currents in Mantle

push crust plates apart
As the plates move, they carry the continents, and the crust under the oceans, with them.
Australia wasnt always the island continent of today.
The Evidence for Plate Tectonics

The Shape of the Continents
The continents of the Earth are like jigsaw puzzle pieces... they fit together quite well, especially along the lines of the continental shelf rather than the actual coastline. The continental shelf is the true edge of each continent. In most cases it is under water today. The evidence suggests that about 130 million years ago all the southern continents (plus India, New Zealand and New Guinea) were joined together in a single super-continent called Gondwana. Forces under the crust, however, caused Gondwana to begin to break apart.
South America
THE ANCIENT SOUTHERN CONTINENT GONDWANA

Edge of continental shelf
Africa
India
Modern coastlines
Moving at a rate of a few cm per year, Gondwana broke apart and the fragments moved gradually to their modern-day positions.
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Au st ra lia
Antarctica
The Mid-Ocean Ridges

Its not just the shapes of the continents that convince scientists of Continental Drift. On the ocean floors, under several kilometers of water, the mid-ocean ridges show strong evidence of sea-floor spreading where plates are moving apart. The rocks of the parallel ridges are youngest in the middle and get progressively older as you move outward.
Parallel undersea ridges Central Rift Symmetrical patterns of magnetism on either side of central rift
In a few places on Earth, spreading zones are visible on dry land too. The Great African Rift Valley is a spreading zone which will one day make most of east Africa into an island. The Rift Valley contains many deep lakes between parallel escarpments. There are several active volcanoes, and the area is an active earthquake zone.
Older rocks
Youngest rocks
Older rocks
New molten rock fills the rift
Mantle Convection Currents push plates apart
Great Rift Valley
The residual magnetism in the rocks (which was aligned as the rock hardened from molten lava) shows a symmetry on either side of the central ridge. Each matching band of magnetism represents a line of new rock formed as the crust plates moved apart. Later, these bands were separated by even newer rock injected from below as the crust plates continued to move.
East Africa is splitting away from the rest of the continent
Fossil Evidence for Moving Continents

The distribution of certain fossils gives us more evidence of the moving continents.
One particular fossil is a plant called Glossopteris. It has been discovered in rocks in many parts of the southern hemisphere, including Antarctica. A number of animal fossils, dating from 100-200 million years ago, have been found only in S.America & Africa, or in Africa, India & Australia. The crocodile-like Mesosaurus is known from fossils in Africa & South America. These places are now widely separated, and it is very unlikely that these plants or animals could cross an ocean. The explanation is that these organisms lived in a united Gondwana, and their fossils have been separated by later continental movement.
Preliminary Biology Topic 4 Evolution Aust.Biota copyright 2005-2 2008 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au GONDWANA
Africa India
Glossopteris
Oz
South America
Mesosaurus
Evidence from Distribution of Modern Species

There are some living species which show the same pattern of distribution as the fossils such as Glossopteris. Marsupial mammals which are found only in Australia, New Guinea & America. (Fossils are found in Africa) Antarctic Beech trees found only in Australia & South America (& fossils in Antarctica).
Lungfish Marsupials Flightless birds Antarctic beech
The explanation is that these groups evolved in Gondwana, and then were carried to their current locations by the drifting continents.
Large flightless birds; emu, ostrich, rhea & the recently extinct moa (New Zealand) & elephant bird (Madagascar). Freshwater lungfish in Australia, Africa & S.America.
The Break-up of Gondwana

India split off early, and bulldozed its way towards Asia. That collision produced the Himalayas, with some seafloor sediments now 9km above sea level! Africa also moved north and is still colliding with Europe.
Is Australia Still Moving?

Apparently so! The ocean floors have now been well mapped so we know where the mid-ocean ridges are. The positions of frequent earthquakes and active volcanoes identify the plate boundaries. The volcanic islands to our north indicate that this is a collision zone between the IndoAustralian plate and the Asian plate.
India Africa
How fast is the movement?

South America Australia
GONDWANA Fragments
Antarctica
It averages between 2-5 cm per year. This means about 50km per million years. As volcanoes add to the islands, and the plate slides north, it is likely you will be able to walk to China in 5-10 million years... but youll have to climb over some serious mountains!
Japan joined to Asian mainland
South America separated about 50mya. It went west, and north, and rotated. About 20 mya, it made contact with North America. Australia and Antarctica (still joined) initially moved east. Then Antarctica separated and went seriously south. By 40mya, Australia was isolated from other land masses, but connected to India by the oceanic crust of the Indian Ocean. Since then, Australia has been moving north. Our plate is colliding with Asia, and the Pacific Plate. Preliminary Biology Topic 4 Evolution Aust.Biota copyright 2005-2 2008 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
Indonesian islands become mountainous land bridge connecting Australia to Asia
Future Map of East Asia?
NZ islands further apart and larger
Changing Ideas About Australian Animals

When the first specimen of a platypus was sent back to England after the European settlement of Australia, it was thought to be a hoax. The platypus seemed an impossible animal, with a duck-like bill, fur like an otter, webbed feet and a sharp, poisonous spur on its leg. It was eventually accepted as real, but when it became known that it reproduced by laying eggs, it and the echidna were classified into a separate sub-class of mammals... the Monotremes. That perception is changing. Fossil discoveries in South America of platypus-like animals prove that monotremes did not just evolve in Australia, but in wider Gondwana.
For more than Poisonous spur a century, the monotremes were considered as living fossils and thought to be extremely primitive and therefore, Lays eggs, yet somehow produces milk to inferior to feed its babies mainstream placental mammals.
Webbed feet with claws
Duckbill
They had already faced competition from advanced placental mammals before Australia became isolated... and they won!
The marsupials were thought to be only slightly more advanced, and the consensus was that Australian fauna, like the nation itself, was a bit backward.
Furthermore, the more research is done on the platypus and other native Australians animals, the more scientists realize that these are not primitive creatures. Yes, they have an ancient lineage, but they are highly adapted to the unpredictable Australian climate, and have thrived through millions of years of ecological changes in one of the harshest environments on Earth.
It was thought that the only reason such primitives had survived into the modern era, was because Australia had been isolated so that they faced no competition from superior, more advanced mammals.
Australian native plants and animals are now being seen as ancient, but highly sophisticated life forms.
Worksheet 1
Fill in the blank spaces
Plate Tectonics & Australias Formation
The study of earthquakes is called a).................................. This science has revealed that the Earth has a number of layers. On the outside is a thin b)....................... and under it is the thick c)........................ The crust is fractured into a number of d)...................... which can slide around, driven by e).................... currents in the mantle. This whole concept is referred to as Plate f)............................... The continents fit together like jig-saw pieces, especially if you fit them along their g)........................... shelf rather than coastline. The continents of Australia, Africa, h)....................., .......................... and .................................... were once connected forming the super-continent i)............................... From about 75 MYA i)............................. began to break up forming the separate continents of today. Australia separated from j).......................... about 40 MYA and spent k)................ million years totally isolated. It was in this time that many of Australias plants and animals evolved from Gondwanan ancestors. Evidence for Continental Drift includes the l).................................. ridges, found along the ocean floors all around the Earth. These are zones where crustal plates are m).................................. The ocean-floor crust shows a series of ridges which are youngest n)........................... and get older as you go further in each direction. The rocks show matching patterns of o).......................... on either side of the central rift. As the plates move apart, new crust is formed from p)............................... coming up from the q).............................
More evidence for plate movement comes from fossils such as the plant r).............................. Its fossils are found on all southern continents and India. The explanation is that it lived in areas right across s)....................................., and the fossils have been separated by plate movement. The distribution of some modern species can also be explained by continental drift. Marsupials are found in Australia and t)................................. Lungfish are in Australia, u)........................ and ................................ Other examples are the v)................................ (e.g. emu, ostrich) and the w)..................... ................... tree. The ancestors of each of these groups are thought to have lived throughout Gondwana, and the various populations were separated when the plates moved. Australia is currently being carried x)........................ (direction) on the y)................................................. plate at a speed of about z)................ cm per year. Australian native animals are mainly aa).................................. (pouched) plus the platypus and ab)............................... which are egg-laying ac).......................... They were considered ad)........................ and inferior to placentals, but are now being seen as ancient, but highly ae)..................................
WHEN COMPLETED, WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
Worksheet 2 Practice Questions section 1 Multiple Choice Longer Response Questions

1. The movement of the Tectonic Plates is driven by: A. the plates pushing on each other. B. movements of the liquid core. C. thrusting of earthquakes at plate boundaries. D. convection currents in the mantle. Mark values given are suggestions only, and are to give you an idea of how detailed an answer is appropriate. Answer in the spaces provided. 5. (4 marks) Indentify and describe TWO pieces of evidence that support the assertion that Australia was once part of a larger landmass called Gondwana.
2. Which present-day landmass was NOT part of Gondwana? A. India B. Europe C. New Zealand D. Africa
3. Of the following, the youngest rocks would be found: A. near the centre of a mid-ocean ridge. B. at the continental shelf. C. on the ocean floor, well away from the mid-ocean ridge. D. under folded continental mountains.
6. (3 marks) Outline how the ideas of scientists about Australian species, such as the platypus, have changed over the past 200 years.
4. The distribution of fossils of the plant Glossopteris provide evidence that: A. plant seeds can drift across an ocean and survive. B. the southern continents were once all joined together. C. dinosaurs were widespread in Gondwana. D. modern Australian plants evolved from Glossopteris.
7. (3 marks) The ratites are a family of flightless birds such as the emu, ostrich and kiwi. None of this group are native to the northern hemisphere, but are found throughout the south. Being flightless, and poor swimmers, it is impossible that they spread by crossing the oceans. Account for their presence on all the major landmasses of the southern hemisphere.
2. EVOLUTION IN AUSTRALIA
Natural Selection & Evolution
The fact that life on Earth has undergone a sequence of changes was dealt with in the previous topic. The scientific theory to explain how and why evolution occurs all hinges on the concept of Natural Selection, and the key to this is the variation within each species... the simple fact that individuals are not the same as each other. Natural Selection refers to the way that the conditions of nature constantly select who survives and who dies. If survival depends on speed to run from a predator, then the faster individuals survive and the slower ones get eaten. In a drought those plants with slightly thicker cuticle on their leaves conserve water and survive, while others die.
How Natural Selection Works

A population of a species with a lot of variations
hairy
long neck
long legs
light colour
big ears
squat body
Then, the climate changes...
winters get colder
Many die in the harsh winters
hairy survives
Squat survives Survivors breed over many generations
The Importance of Variation

It is vital for the on-going survival of a species that it has variation among the individuals of the population. When changes occur in the environment, a species with a lot of variation has more chance to survive, because out of all the different types there is a good chance that at least some will survive to breed and continue the species. A species with little variation within it, might have no survivors from an environmental change, and become extinct. What constitutes an environmental change? It could be... a change of climate. a new disease, predator or competitor in the ecosystem. a change in availability of a food resource, or any other factor.
The survivors pass on their characteristics. Soon most of the population are squat and hairy. No single animal changed, but the population has changed because of which animals survived and reproduced.
It may seem as if Evolution is an intelligent force which directs organisms in an appropriate direction. In our fictitious population of animals, the climate became colder and it would seem that some evolutionary force caused an appropriate change in the population... they became squat & hairy to conserve body heat better. But of course squat and hairy were already in the population. They simply became more common, and finally predominant, because these types survived in greater numbers and reproduced to pass on their characteristics to their offspring. Evolution is not intelligent. Nature selects the survivors from the different types available. Survivors breed... if youre dead, you cant reproduce!
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Evolution of Australian Biota

Over the past 100 million years Australia has gone from being part of Gondwana to a separate island continent...
India Africa
The Sclerophyll Plants

Scleropylls are those plants which are adapted to dry climates. They are characterized by thin, small leaves with a very thick waxy cuticle and are very resistant to drying out. In drought, when other leaves would wilt and wither, scleropyll leaves maintain their shape, and when water is available again they quickly regain their normal functioning. Australian flora today is dominated by three main sclerophyll types: Eucalypt (Gum trees) Banksia (Bottle brush and Grevillia) Acacia (Wattle & mulga)
South America
Australia
GONDWANA Fragments
Antarctica
... so there has been a lot of environmental change, ... and a lot of evolution!
The Evidence for Climate Change

Fossils dated between 50-100 million years old show that most of central Australia was once covered by lush forests. Some of the common plants included the seed-fern Glossopteris and the rainforest species Antarctic Beech. This proves that at that time much of Australia (and much of Gondwana) had a much wetter climate than today. When sea-levels rose about 40 million years ago, parts of central Australia were covered by an inland sea. Animal fossils include those of crocodiles, flamingos and tortoises which indicate extensive water environments. As Gondwana split up, and Australia moved north, the climate gradually became drier. The evidence is the appearance in the fossil record, at about 25 million years ago, of sclerophyll plants beoming very common.
Typical Gum Forest Fossils of leaves and pollen in New Zealand and South America show that the Eucalypts and Banksias were already Gondwana inhabitants before 50 million years ago, but must have been relatively rare and unimportant during the time of the great rainforests in Australia. However, as the climate dried the rainforest plants (like Antarctic Beech) struggled and the sclerophylls thrived. About 25 million years ago sclerophyll pollens suddenly become very common in the fossil record.
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From 2 MYA to Today

By about 2 million years ago, the rainforests had lost the battle west of the Great Dividing Range. Central Australia was partly desert environment, with open grasslands and sclerophyll forests surrounding the deserts. The rainforests still dominated the mountains and many valleys along the east coast. The sclerophyll forests contained eucalypts, banksia and acacia and a number of other types such as Casuarinas. Then about 100,000 years ago another environmental factor changed... fire became more common. We find layers of charcoal and ash in the sediments from these times. Presumably, the fires were initially caused by lightning strikes in the dry bushland, but after about 40,000 years ago the evidence for fire becomes even more noticeable. We think the Aboriginal people had arrived by then, and part of their culture was to deliberately set fires. They knew that fire encouraged the growth of more open grassland, which attracted more grazing animals (e.g. large kangaroos) and this meant better hunting for the people. Fire also altered the composition of the sclerophyll woodlands. Some of the sclerophyll plants (especially Banksia) can survive and regenerate quickly after fire. They became more common. Others, such as Casuarina do not survive fire as well, and became less common. Today, the Casuarinas (sheoaks) are common in swampy areas, and along creek margins where fires have less impact, but they are no longer a dominant type in the bush as they once were.
Adaptations of Banksias to Fire

The Banksia plants of Western Australia are more primitive and resemble the fossils and their modern day Gondwana relatives in South Africa and New Zealand. In Eastern Australia the Banksias are more distantly related and there are many different species, with many different ways of dealing with fire in their environment. This seems to be the result of natural selection acting on the variations that were present in ancestral Banksia populations. Some adaptations to cope with fire are: Thick, corky bark with epicormic buds underneath. The buds are stimulated by fire, and so the blackened trunk soon sprouts new shoots after a fire. Lignotubers - thickened roots, from which new shoots sprout after fire destroys everything above ground. Hard, woody seed pods (Banksia men) which split open after being scorched by fire, dropping seeds into the fertile ashes and germinate rapidly after any slight rain.
Banksia showing a seed pod

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Meanwhile, the Animals...

When Australia became isolated from other Gondwana fragments about 40 million years ago its fauna was dominated by the marsupials (pouched mammals) and reptiles. As happened in many parts of the world in the past 20-30 million years, some animals evolved to be very, very large... the megafauna. In the Northern Hemisphere it was species like mammoth, sabre-tooth cats and huge rhinoceros species. In Australia, the megafauna included: Diprotodon - a 2 tonne wombat relative. Procoptodon - a 3 metre tall kangaroo. Megalania - a 7 metre, 1,000 kg goanna. There were also many other species of huge kangaroos, wombats, snakes and crocodiles, but it seems that Australias megafauna were not as big as in other parts of the world, possibly because the developing sclerophyll flora, and the ancient, poor soils could not support as much biomass as (say) Europe. It is also notable that the top predators seemed to be reptiles rather than mammals. One plausible theory is that reptiles, which do not need to constantly burn food to maintain body temperature, need less food and can eat less often. Reptiles can survive as top predators in food pyramids that contain less total biomass. A mammal predator needs to eat more often and needs a food pyramid containing more biomass.
PROCOPTODON
EXAMPLES OF AUSTRALIAS EXTINCT MEGAFAUNA
DIPROTODON
Human figure gives scale
What Happened to the Megafauna?

In Europe, Asia and North & South America there is convincing evidence that humans contributed to the extinction of the large mammals. Climate change at the end of the last Ice-Age probably helped too, but there is no doubt that early humans hunted large mammals, like the mammoth, in large numbers.
Human-Caused Extinction?
In Australia, most of the megafauna species disappeared between 35,000 and 10,000 years ago. Aborigines were well established by those times and undoubtably lived at the same time as these mega-species. However, there is no evidence of them hunting these species... no animal bones in human camp sites, no tool cuts on the animal bones.
Climate Change Extinction?

Perhaps the megafauna just could not cope with the climate changes, including the severe cooling and drying during the last ice-age? But then, these animals, and their forebears had survived many previous ice-ages over 25 million years. The most recent ice-age was not as severe as some previous. We await more evidence to settle this debate! 12
A Timeline of Australian Evolutionary History

Mega fauna extinct 35,000 - 10,000 years ago
Aboriginal people arrive from S.E. Asia, approx 40,000 years ago. Introduce the dingo, and use fire to promote grasslands. Fire alters the balance of sclerophyll plant types. Sclerophyll pollens become very common in fossil record.
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Sclerophyll dominance complete 2 MYA
20
Australian climate begins to get drier... rainforests come under pressure... sclerophylls become more common. Marsupial & Reptile Megafauna dominate the continent.
30
40
Australia makes contact with Asia. Bats & various birds come in by island hopping. Acacia plants arrive, and being sclerophylls, they thrive.
South America separates.
50
Australia separates from Antarctica and begins 25 million years of complete isolation.
Dinosaurs extinct. Mammals begin evolving to fill ecological niches left vacant.
Major Extinction Event.
60
70
Australian Flora dominated by rainforest species

e.g. Antarctic Beech. Fauna dominated by mammals and birds.
Ag o Mi llio ns of Ye ar s
80
90
Gondwana begins breaking up. Africa & India separate. Australia still joined to Antarctica & S.America
10 0
Australia part of Gondwana super-c continent. Glossopteris plants common. Dinosaurs are the dominant animals. Mammals exist, but are minor players. 13
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Charles Darwin and Evolutionary Theory

In the 1830s a young English naturalist, Charles Darwin, sailed around the world on board the navy survey ship HMS Beagle. He studied the plants and animals, and rocks and fossils in many places, especially in South America. He became convinced that life on Earth had changed, and was capable of evolving by Natural Selection. He devoted his life to developing his theory, and collecting more evidence to support his ideas. He knew that his theory would not be readily accepted by the conservative society of the time.
Darwin in Australia
On its journey around the world, the Beagle called into Sydney, and Darwin spent time ashore, travelling overland to Bathurst and collecting and studying Australias flora and fauna. He noted how well suited the plants were to the dry Australian climate. He was later to link this to his idea of Natural Selection, explaining the sclerophyll characteristics as adaptations to the climate. He also noticed similarities between some Australian plants and species he had seen in S.America and in Africa. He could not explain this except by seeds drifting across oceans, and he carried out many experiments immersing plant seeds in sea-water to test if it was possible.
(He had no knowledge of Continental Drift.)
The Huxley - Wilberforce Debate of 1860

Darwin published his evidence and ideas on evolution in 1859, but it took some time for people to become aware of them. On first reading, Darwins ideas are not easy to absorb and fully understand, so it took time for the theory to sink-in. To this day, it remains one of the least understood of all the major theories of Science. One of the events that focused attention on this new theory was a famous debate at Oxford University in 1860. The main speakers were Thomas Huxley, who argued the case for Darwins theory, and Archbishop Samuel Willberforce who was vehemently opposed to it, on both scientific and religious grounds. It has generally been considered that Huxley got the better of the debate and this event helped establish the Theory of Evolution as a credible scientific idea. Probably what was more important was that the debate sparked interest in evolution among scientists and led to much more study, experiment and debate over the following years. 150 years later we are still researching and learning about the evolution of life on Earth.
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He was fascinated by the marsupial fauna, but considered them as inferior to the placental mammals of other continents, and believed they had only survived because of lack of competition from real mammals. In terms of evolution he believed the marsupials were bound to lose the Survival of the Fittest competition and would eventually become extinct. The city of Darwin, Northern Territory, was named in his his honour.
Worksheet 3 Evolution in Australia

Fill in the blanks spaces. When the natural environment chooses which organisms survive to reproduce, and which do not, we say that a)................................................ is at work. The more b)................................... among the members of a species, the better chance the species has to survive when c)......................................... ............. We know that Australia was largely covered by rainforest between 50-100 MYA, because of fossils of d)....................................... (seed fern) and e)...................................... Beech. At one time central Australia was covered by an inland f)...................... Animal fossils, including g)........................................ indicate many water environments. Australia separated from h)................................... about i)................ MYA, and became totally isolated. As it drifted north the climate gradually became j).................................... By about k).................. MYA the fossil pollen from l)....................................... plants becomes common. Sclerophylls are characterized by m)............................ leaves with a thick n)............................ which resists water loss. The main three types are o)............................, ............................ and .................................. Two of these types evolved in Gondwana, but the p)........................ probably came from Asia. By 2 MYA, most of Australia was dominated by q)........................................ forest with rainforest only remaining along the mountains and the r)........................ coast. About 100,000 years ago a new environmental factor became important... s).................... At first it was probably started by t)........................... but later the Aboriginal people set it deliberately in order to u).................................................... which improved hunting. Regular fires altered the balance of the different plant types: the v)................................. became less common, while fire resistant types became predominant. Some of the adaptations shown by Banksias to cope with fire include w).............................. which are thickened roots which sprout new shoots after fire, and x)............................. seed pods which release seeds only after fire. The animal life, or y)......................, was dominated by reptiles and z).................................. (type of mammal). Some very large animals, collectively known as aa)................................ evolved. The largest was a 2-tonne relative of the wombat called ab)...................................... All the megafauna became extinct between 35,000-10,000 years ago. It may be their extinction was caused by ac)........................ .............................. or simply that they could not cope with ad).............................................................. Charles Darwin studied the Australian biota during his voyage on HMS ae)........................... in the 1830s. He noted how well adapted to the climate the af)................................. were and linked that to his theory of evolution by ag)........................... ............................ However, he thought the animals were ah).................................... and believed they would soon become ai)....................................... in competition with aj)....................................... mammals.
WHEN COMPLETED, WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES Preliminary Biology Topic 4 Evolution Aust.Biota copyright 2005-2 2008 keep it simple science www.keepitsimplescience.com.au
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Worksheet 4 Practice Questions section 2

Multiple Choice
1. Natural Selection is the process when: A. living things change to suit their environment. B. the organisms with better characteristics live longer. C. the conditions of the environment determine which variations survive. D. the surviving individuals are the ones which breeed. 2. For long-term survival of a species, it is an advantage to have: A. a lot of genetic variations in the population. B. a lot of individuals who are very similar. C. a lot of very large and strong individuals D. a fast-changing environment. 3. The fossil evidence shows that 50-100 MYA most of Australia was covered by: A. desert B. ocean C. rainforest D. sclerophyll forests 4.Which of the following would NOT be considered a sclerophyll plant? A. Red gum B. Golden wattle C. Bottle-brush D. Morton Bay fig 5. According to the fossil evidence, the sclerophyll plants became significant members of Australian flora about: A. 2 MYA B. 25 MYA C. 40 MYA D. 100 MYA 6. A significant factor in the Australian environment for the past 100,000 years has been: A. widespread rainforest. B. fire. C. an inland sea. D. heavy rain and flooding. 7. A lignotuber is an adaptation of the Banksia plants to help them: A. reproduce asexually B. attract pollinating animals C. survive a bushfire D. achieve internal fertilization. 8. Australias megafauna were not as large as the megafauna that evolved in other parts of the world. One possible explanation for this is: A. humans hunted and killed the largest ones. B. the larger animals could not outrun fires. C. being marsupials, they grew more slowly. D. the soils and plant life could not support so much biomass.
Longer Response Questions

Answer on back, if insufficient space. 9. (2 marks) Identify the relationship between variations within a species and the chances of survival of the species, when the environment changes.
10. (5 marks) Discuss the changes that occurred to the Australian climate, and to the flora over the past 50 million years. In your answer, describe the evidence for the changes you describe.
11. (5 marks) a) How would you identify a plant as a sclerophyll?
b) Identify two common types of sclerophylls in the modern Australian flora. 12. (4 marks) a) Identify a member of Australias extinct megafauna known from its fossils. b) List similarities and differences between the named example in (a) and any related living species.
13. (4 marks) Discuss Charles Darwins observations of Australian biota and relate these to his theory of evolution.
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3. ADAPTATIONS FOR REPRODUCTION Asexual Reproduction

Unicellular Reproduction
Single-celled organisms such as bacteria reproduce by simply dividing in two by mitosis. The offspring cells are genetically identical to each other, and to the parent cell. Regardless of the details, asexual reproduction always: requires only one parent. involves mitosis cell division. produces offspring which are genetically identical to the parent and to each other.
Asexual Reproduction in Multicellular Life

Many multi-cellular organisms are able to reproduce asexually.
Fungi, such as
mushrooms, reproduce by releasing spores. Each spore is a single cell which can grow into a new fungus. The spore cells are produced by mitosis, and released from a single parent. Many Plants can reproduce asexually by sending out runners.
offspring plant
Advantage
Asexual reproduction can produce large numbers of offspring quickly, to take advantage of a sudden or temporary increase in some environmental resource such as food.
The runner is an outgrowth stem which grows into a new plant.
Parent Plant
Disadvantage
By producing genetically identical offspring, there is less variation in the population. If an environmental change occurs, a low-variation species is at risk of extinction. These same plants can also reproduce sexually with their flowers.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction always involves 2 parents who combine part of their genetic information to produce offspring which are different to both parents.
Egg cell
Male Parent
meiosis
Sperm cell
meiosis
Female Parent
The key to sexual reproduction is the production of the reproductiv ve cells (egg and sperm). This inv volv ves a special cell div vision called
Fertilisation
meiosis.
Zygote
(first cell of the offspring)
Grows by mitosis
Embryo
(developing offspring)
Advantage
Sexual reproduction produces more variation in a population, by mixing genes in new combinations. This helps a species survive when environments change.
Disadvantage
Sexual reproduction is more complex, and often takes more time and energy to achieve. 17
External and Internal Fertilisation

Sexual reproduction always involves the process of fertilisation... when egg and sperm fuse together forming one new cell (the zygote) which contains genetic information from both parents. For fertilisation to occur, the sperm cells must swim to the egg.
External Fertilisation
For organisms that live in water, fertilisation is generally achieved by both parents simply releasing eggs and sperm into the water environment. Since fertilisation occurs outside the organisms bodies, this is external fertilisation. Each species may have some strategy to ensure that male and female parents release their gametes at the same time and in the same place: Most fish species have mating rituals and visual signals which stimulate a mating pair to release gametes together.
Organisms such as corals and sponges release gametes when a certain environmental trigger occurs, such as a full Moon, or an especially high tide. Either way, external fertilisation is to some extent a hit-and-miss strategy, often involving millions of gametes, many of which are wasted.
Internal Fertilisation
For organisms which live on land, an unprotected egg or sperm cell would rapidly dry out and die. Also, the sperm cells cannot swim through the air, or across the ground surface... they need water to swim through. To solve these problems, terrestrial organisms use internal fertilisation.
Terrestrial Plants
produce their male gametes wrapped in a protective capsule to prevent drying... a pollen grain. use either the wind, or animal pollinators (e.g. bees) to carry the pollen to a flower. the pollen grain then releases its sperm cell into a fluid-filled tube (the pollen tube). The sperm can swim down to reach the egg, inside the ovary of the flower.
Terrestrial Animals
The male uses his penis (or similar structure) to deposit sperm inside the females reproductive tract. The sperm cells are never exposed to the drying outside environment. The female system is lined with tissue with a film of moisture always present, so the sperm cells can swim to find and fertilise the egg(s) inside the females body. There are a number of strategies for development of the zygote after fertilisation:
Birds & Most Reptiles

The female lays eggs and the embryos develop outside her body and hatch from the eggs.
Internal Fertilization in a Flowering Plant
Pollen grain on stigma of flower Pollen releases sperm cell which swims through pollen tube to fertilize an egg
Some Reptiles
The female keeps the fertilized eggs within her body. When they hatch, the babies emerge from her body vent as if being born.
Marsupial Mammals
Many species use brightly coloured petals to attract animal pollinators
Eggs, inside ovary
After a very short gestation, the foetus is born and crawls into a pouch. It feeds on milk, while developing fully in the pouch.
Placental Mammals
The foetus develops for a relatively long time inside the females body, nourished via the placenta. When fully developed, the baby is born. 18
As part of your studies in this section, the syllabus requires you to compare the 2 cell divisions, Mitosis & Meiosis.
Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis

MITOSIS MEIOSIS Single cell-division, Double division, produces produces 2 daughter 4 egg or sperm cells cells Chromosomes line up Chromosomes line up in singly during division pairs during division Daughter cells identical Gamete cells are all to parent cell, and to different to each other each other Number of chromosomes is maintained Number of chromosomes halved (so that chromos. number is restored at fertilisation) Occurs only to make gametes for sexual reproduction
The syllabus also requires you to compare & contrast internal and external fertilisation. This means to find similarities and differences.
Internal & External Fertilisation Similarities

Both involve sperm fertilising the egg in sexual reproduction. The sperm must swim to the egg in both cases.
Differences
External
Sperm & eggs both released into outside environment. Sperm swim in the water of the environment. Usually many eggs produced to improve chance of fertilisation.
Internal
Sperm released inside female body.
Sperm swim in fluid in female reproductive tract. Usually fewer eggs because fertilisation is more likely.
Occurs in asexual reproduction and in growth and repair
How Fertilisation Method Relates to Habitat

The great success of sexual reproduction is that it greatly increases the amount of variation in a species. This gives Natural Selection more opportunity when the environment changes, and more chance for species survival and evolution. The big problem with sexual reproduction is achieving fertilisation.
The Evolution of Sex

In the previous topic it was shown that sexual reproduction was invented by living things about 1 billion years ago, in the aquatic environment. The process evolved in a watery environment where the cells could not dry out, and where one gamete cell, if equipped with a flagellum tail, could actively swim to seek out the other gamete. The result is that external fertilisation is totally suited to the aquatic environment where it first evolved. The first land plants to evolve were mosses and later ferns. To this day, both these types rely on very moist conditions for the sexual stage of their complicated reproductive cycles. Both types are confined to relatively wet habitats, or to places where there is a wet season during which their male gametes can swim to find the eggs. The first land vertebrates were the amphibians. They never really mastered the terrestrial environment and 300 million years later, their descendants still return to water to breed so that their external fertilisation will work. The true colonisation of the terrestrial environment came only when internal fertilisation was first invented: in plants by the cone-bearing conifers in animals by the reptiles, and later birds and mammals.
Internal fertilisation is an adaptation to the terrestrial environment

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Reproductive Adaptations of Australian Flora

For a terrestrial plant the first step toward achieving fertilisation is to successfully transfer pollen from one plant to the flowers of another. After fertilisation, the big problem is to disperse the seeds so they can germinate and grow.
Adaptations for Pollination

Some Australian plants, such as the Acacia (wattles) rely on the wind to achieve pollination. They produce large amounts of fine, light pollen which blows easily on the breeze. Their flowers have protruding stigmas, which catch any incoming, wind-blown pollen. Many other plants rely on animals to carry pollen from plant to plant. Unlike the northern hemisphere, where the honey bee is the major pollinator, many Australian plants rely on vertebrate animals such as birds, bats and possums. The Callistemons (Bottle brushes) and Grevillias mainly depend on the many honeyeaters and parrots which feed on nectar. They produce flowers which lack petals, but have masses of stamens to produce pollen, and stigmas to receive pollen from another flower. They have brightly coloured flowers, producing huge quantities of sugary nectar, to attract birds. Their pollen grains are sticky, or covered with tiny hooks, so they cling to bird feathers. As the birds move from plant to plant feeding, they accidentally pick up masses of pollen grains and later deposit some on receptive flowers of the same species. Many of the Melaleucas (paperbarks) rely on flying-foxes for pollination. Since these fruit bats are nocturnal, and relatively heavy animals, the paperbark flowers: are carried on strong branches, to support feeding bats. grow in large clusters, so at least some will survive being eaten by the bats. are white or pale yellow to be seen better in moonlight.
Adaptations for Seed Dispersal

Once again, some Australian plants have adapted to use the wind, while others enlist the help of animals to disperse their seeds. Some of the desert grasses, such as feather spear grass, produce tiny seeds which have fine hairs attached. Being so light and fluffy they can be picked up on the slightest breeze. In stronger winds they can be transported hundreds of kilometres. The familiar bindii plant relies on animals. Its seeds have a sharp point which penetrates any foot that steps on them, (or shoe or bicycle tyre) so they are carried some distance away before falling out or being picked out. The dispersed seed lies dormant in the soil until it germinates in the following season. In the burr plants, such as sheeps burr, the seed is covered in small spikes and hooks. These will stick to the fur of any passing animal and be carried off to a new location. Eventually the animal will groom itself or shed its fur, thus depositing the seed possibly many kilometres from the parent plant. Many of Australias rainforest plants, such as native rasberry, produce their seeds inside a fleshy fruit which is highly attractive as food for the fruit bats and various birds. The seeds are eaten too, but are not digested and pass through the digestive system intact. Eventually the seeds are deposited in a new location, and with the added bonus of a rich manure fertilizer.
Flying Fox bats are important pollinators and seed dispersers in Australian rainforests
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Some plants have a tough seed coat which only allows germination after being softened by an animals digestive system.
Reproductive Adaptations of Australian Fauna

Australia is the only continent where the mammal fauna is almost exclusively marsupials... the pouched mammals. For over a century the opinion of most biologists was that marsupials were primitive. However, we now realize that the marsupials dominate the Australian scene because they are superbly adapted to survive in the harsh and unpredictable climate. One of the major aspects of their adaptation to the environment is their method of reproduction.
Adaptations to Ensure Fertilisation

Like mammals in many other parts of the world, in many Australian species the males compete with each other for the right to mate with the females. All the larger kangaroo and wallaby species compete with boxing matches among the males. This competition ensures that only the strongest and healthiest males get to father the babies. This behaviour helps to ensure successful fertilisation and healthy, robust offspring. Among native rodents, such as the spinifex hopping mouse, a male secretes a plug of mucous into the females vagina after his sperm has been deposited. This helps ensure fertilisation of the eggs, and prevents other males mating with the female. In many parts of the world, where the seasons are highly predictable, many species have a breeding season so that the young will be born in spring when food is plentiful. In Australia this technique is used (e.g. the many Christmas beetles) but many amphibians, reptiles and mammals breed not by the seasons, but by the rains. They might not breed for several years during drought, but when rain falls in the desert there is a sudden burst of plant growth and animal matings. Females ovulate and become receptive and the males become sexually active and seek out their mates. This instinctive behaviour helps to ensure successful fertilisation, and that the offspring will be born while there is ample food. An example is the water-holding desert frog, which lies dormant for years, buried deep in sandy soil, surounded by a waterproof layer of mucous. Within hours of heavy rain, thousands of frogs emerge to mate and lay eggs in the short-lived desert pools.
Short Gestation
Marsupials have a very short gestation period and the baby is born in a very undeveloped state. This can be an advantage under conditions of drought and severe food shortage. If the baby dies, then at least the mother has not wasted a lot of her own body resources as a placental mammal would in a much longer gestation. This gives the adult a greater chance to survive until conditions improve, and breeding can recommence.
High Birth Rate

Under good conditions, when there is plenty of food, a marsupial can breed rapidly and increase the population more quickly. For example, the red kangaroo can have an older joey at foot, but still feeding from the milk glands in the pouch, while having a younger one in the pouch, and another embryo in the womb awaiting its turn.
Suspended Development
The development of a marsupial embryo can also be suspended (embryonic diapause) if times are tough. When conditions improve, the embryo continues its development and is born when conditions are better for its survival. Under extreme conditions, it has been known for the lone female survivor from a kangaroo mob to raise her male joey, who was in suspended animation for 2 years, then mate with him and re-establish the population. No placental mammal could ever do that.
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Adaptations to Ensure Offspring Survival

Many of the examples already given not only help ensure successful fertilisation, but also that the offspring will have a better chance of survival. For example: males competing to mate ensures that offspring get genes from strong and healthy fathers. timing reproduction to the conditions ensures that babies are born at times of good food supply. Another adaptation that helps ensure survival of offspring is the territorial and family behaviours in many Australian species such as kookaburras and magpies. By living in family groups which hold and defend a territory against others of the same species, they ensure that the offspring can be well fed from the resources within the territory, as well as being protected and nurtured by a supportive family group.
When Asexual Reproduction is Useful

Sexual reproduction has the advantage of producing genetic variation in the population. The disadvantage is that it costs more, in energy and time, to make all that pollen, or the nectar to attract pollinators, or for animals to find their mates, compete with others or defend a territory. Sometimes it is an advantage to be able to reproduce asexually. Many Australian plants are able to reproduce by both methods.
Asexual Animals
A few simple animals can do something similar. Among the insects, the aphids can reproduce asexually to produce enormous numbers of offspring in a short time, to take advantage of a shortterm abundance of food. The female aphids are able to produce hundreds of unfertilised eggs which develop into a clone of identical female offspring.
Sturts Desert Pea

This plant grows in arid areas of central Australia. It reproduces sexually, producing seeds which can lie dormant in the soil for many years waiting for suitable conditions to germinate. It can also reproduce asexually by sending out runners. In the occasional periods of good rain in the desert, a single plant can send out many runners and rapidly produce dozens of offspring, which cover large areas of ground. By using both methods, the desert pea gains the advantages of both... the ability to reproduce cheaply and rapidly to take advantage of good conditions, and achieve the genetic variations which help a species survive when the environment changes.
Magnified view of of aphids on a plant leaf. The smaller ones are asexual offspring of the larger ones.
At other times, the females mate sexually with males to produce offspring with greater genetic variety.
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Worksheet 5
Fill in the blank spaces.
General Adaptations for Reproduction

In n).......................... environments, fertilisation often occurs outside the organisms body. This is called o).................................. fertilisation. In terrestrial environments, most organisms have evolved to use p)................................ fertilisation. Land plants have adapted to have the male gamete, called q)............................., enclosed in a capsule. This can be transported by the r)........................... or carried by various animals. Once it reaches a receptive flower, the sperm cell is released to swim along the s)........................ tube to the t)............................. of the flower where the eggs are. In animals, the female reproductive system is kept u)......................... so that sperm can swim to the eggs. In most cases of internal fertilisation, v)...................... (more/less) eggs are produced compared to external fertilisation.
WHEN COMPLETED, WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
Asexual reproduction involves a)................ parent(s). The offspring are genetically b)....................... to their c).......................... and to each other. They are a d)........................... The advantage of asexual reproduction is that it allows e).................................................................. to take advantage of good conditions. The disadvantage is lack of f)................................., which helps a species survive when g)........................................................................... All forms of asexual reproduction involve the cell division called h)....................................... Sexual reproduction involves the cell division i)............................. to produce the reproductive cells or j)........................ Each gamete is genetically k)........................... and the number of l)..................................... has been halved, so that the correct number is restored when m)..................................................... occurs.
Worksheet 6 Australian Adaptations for Reproduction

Plants
Among Australian flora there are a variety of adaptations to achieve pollination and seed dispersal.. Wind pollination is used by the a)............................ plant group. The pollen grains are b)................................. and the flowers have stigmas which c)..................................... so as to catch pollen better. The bottle-brushes and Grevillias rely on d)................... to carry pollen. They produce large amounts of e)................. to attract birds, and the pollen is f).................. so that it g)...................... to the feathers. Many of the Melaleuca plants rely on h)...................... for pollination. Their flowers are light coloured so that i)................................. They grow in large masses so that j)...................................... and they grow on strong branches so k)...................... .................... For seed-dispersal, the feather spear grass relies on l).......................... Its seeds have many m)............................ attached which means it can be n)........................ even on a light breeze. Other plants such as o)................. and p)...................... have seeds covered in spikes or hooks so they will be q).......................... by animals. Many rainforest plants produce fruit which are eaten by r)................ and ................ The seeds survive digestion and are deposited elsewhere. Some seeds will only germinate after s)....................... ..................................................
Animals
The marsupials all give birth to babies that are very t)............................ This is an advantage in time of drought because u).......................... .................................................................................. Many marsupials are able to suspend the development of the embryo in the uterus, and delay the birth until v)................................... ...................................... In many species the males w)......................... for the right to x)..................... with the females. This helps ensure that the healthiest, strongest males pass on y)........................ to the next generation. Rather than having a regular breeding season, many Australian animals are stimulated to breed when z)............................... .................................. Many species such as aa).................................. live in family groups and hold a territory. This helps ensure that offspring ab)............................. Many plants, such as ac)......................................... can reproduce both ad)................................. and sexually. When conditions are good, the plants send out ae)............................... to rapidly build up the population. When conditions are tough, the sexually produced seeds survive until af)............................ By using both reproductive strategies, the plant gains the advantages of both. It can ag)........................... when conditions are good, and has genetic ah)........................ which helps a species survive when ai)............................................................................ 23
4. MAINTAINING BIODIVERSITY
The Value of Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the variety of different species of plants and animals. In all ecosystems, the greater the biodiversity, the more stable and resilient the system is... the better able it is to survive and adjust when changes occur or disasters happen. The greatest threat to biodiversity is human activities. Humans: destroy habitats to create space for agriculture, roads, etc. introduce exotic species to habitats where they have no natural predators or diseases. They over-populate and out-compete the natives. pollute environments with industrial chemicals or pesticides which kill species and upset the balance of the ecosystem. We need to maintain biodiversity in order to help the natural ecosystems survive in a sustainable form.
How Palaeontology Can Help

Palaeontology, the study of fossils, provides information about plants and animals of the past, how they evolved and in some cases how they became extinct. This can give us pointers about modern plants and animals, and allow us to make predictions about how they may evolve in the future, and what factors might threaten them with extinction. For example, recent research on the fossil teeth of kangaroos gives some evidence that some of the modern, living species seem to have become smaller over the past 30,000 years or so. One explanation is that the aborigines have tended to take the larger individuals when hunting, thereby leaving more smaller individuals to breed the next generation. Over thousands of years this selective hunting has acted just like Natural Selection, causing changes in the populations... in this case a shrinking of the average size of the animals. This helps us to predict the effects of human activities on species. For example, when we catch fish we tend to keep the largest, and release the smaller ones. Will this cause the fish populations to evolve to be smaller? Fisheries scientists are already finding evidence for this occurring in some fish species. Palaeontology has revealed how the flora and fauna of Australia changed in its relative abundance and in its distribution as the continent underwent climate change over the past 50 million years. For example, we understand reasonably well how, as the climate dried, the rainforests contracted to the mountains and east coast and rainforest species, such as the antarctic beech declined from being a dominant species to near extinction. Meanwhile, the sclerophyll plants expanded their distribution to become the dominant flora. We now face a major climate change in the form of Global Warming. The knowledge gained from palaeontology allows scientists to make predictions about the future changes to distribution of our modern plants and animals as climate changes occurs. 24
Current Efforts to Monitor Biodiversity

To have any chance of maintaining biodiversity we first need information about things like: how many species live in each ecosystem. the abundance of species, especially those thought to be rare or endangered. how the abundance changes over time. This sort of information can only be gathered by people setting out to observe, measure and count organisms in their natural habitats. At any given moment there are dozens of projects running all over NSW. These projects are organized and run by government agencies, NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service, Universities and wildlife organizations. Many projects are not just done by professional scientists, but rely on amateur volunteers. A couple of interesting projects running at the time of writing are: NSW Fisheries Dept. are tagging grey nurse sharks, and asking for any sightings to be reported. They hope to build up information about shark movements and population size. The NSW Wader Study Group are seeking volunteers to adopt an estuary and carry out regular counts of shorebirds.
Check out www.earthwatch.org to see current volunteer projects.
Case Study: the Thylacine

Evolution, Survival & Extinction of a Species
The Thylacine or Tasmanian Tiger was once one of the major marsupial carnivores in Australia. It became extinct on the mainland about 3,000 years ago, but survived in Tasmania until about 70 years ago. The last known individual died in Hobart Zoo in 1936. There have been a number of unconfirmed reported sightings since then, but it is generally believed to be extinct.
Reasons for Thylacine Survival

The Thylacine possessed a number of adaptations which may have allowed it to thrive as top predator for tens of millions of years. It had an enormously wide and powerful bite. The Thylacine jaw could open to almost 180o, and it possessed powerful jaw muscles. This allowed it to deliver skull-crushing bites to its prey, so this relatively small animal could take relatively large prey. It could also eat every part of its prey, including large bones. This was a major advantage in the tough Australian conditions. It was also a solitary animal. The Thylacine could not afford to hunt in packs because the low productivity of the sclerophyll forests and poor soils could not support herds of grazing prey animals which a hunter group need. Thylacines kept a solitary existence, coming together only to mate. This helped this small but deadly predator to thrive in the low-productivity Australian bush.
Reasons for Thylacine Extinction

The Thylacine died out on the Australian mainland about 3,000 years ago. This was probably due to the introduction of the dingo from Asia, possibly by Malay fishermen who visited the northern coasts by boat.
Reasons for Thylacine Evolution

According to the fossil record (admittedly rather sparse) ancestral Thylacines evolved about 50 million years ago. Related to the quolls, the successful evolution of the species can probably be attributed to:
The dingos abundance rose as that of the Thylacine declined... a classic example of what happens when 2 species compete.
Population Size (ABUNDANCE)
DINGO OUT-C COMPETES THYLACINE

Dingo Thylacine Original population reasonably stable
The extinction of the dinosaurs left an ecological vacuum which allowed mammals and birds to undergo a huge diversification and radiation of different types The general success of marsupials on
the Australian continent, especially after it became isolated from other parts of Gondwana. Aspects of this success have already been discussed, but certainly the marsupial reproductive method seems especially well suited to the uncertainties of an irregular climate like Australias.
Dingo introduced TIME
Thylacine Extinct
The dingo never got to Tasmania, and there the Thylacline survived. However, when the European settlers arrived, the Thylacines quickly learned to hunt sheep. This prompted the government to place a bounty on them in 1888. Thousands were shot, and an epidemic of an introduced disease killed even more. Ironically, in the year that the last Thylacine died, the species was given protected status.
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Worksheet 7 Practice Questions

Multiple Choice
1. Which statement about mitosis is INCORRECT? A. the chromosome number is halved. B. the daughter cells are genetically identical C. is the basis for all asexual reproduction. D. produces 2 daughter cells from a single division. 2. A pollen grain can be thought of as: A. an egg in a shell. B. a plant seed. C. a sperm cell in a waterproof capsule. D. an asexual spore 3. Internal fertilization, when compared to external fertilization, usually: A. involves fewer eggs being produced. B. is less likely to be successful. C. wastes a lot of gametes. D. occurs in the aquatic environment. 4. A plant which relies on the wind for pollination is likely to produce: A. large sticky pollen grains. B. small flowers with protruding stigmas. C. large, colourful flowers. D. large amounts of nectar. 5. A plant which produces masses of white flowers supported on strong branches may be relying on which pollinator? A. an insect B. a bird C. the wind D. a fruit bat 6. The sharp prickles of the bindii plant is an adaptation for A. pollination B. seed dispersal C. internal fertilization D. fire resistance 7. Many Australian animals improve the chances of survival of their offspring by: A. reproducing rapidly by asexual means when conditions are tough. B. holding them in a pouch during development. C. timing reproduction to rain and good food suppy D. competing with each other for the right to mate. 8. Which of the following is NOT an adaptation possessed by the extinct Thylacine? A. Camouflage stripes and colouration. B. Extremely powerful bite. C. Solitary habits. D. Gave birth to highly developed offspring.
sections 3 & 4 Longer Response Questions

Answer on back if insufficient space. 9. (4 marks) Distinguish between the processes of Mitosis and Meiosis in terms of the daughter cells produced.
10. (6 marks) a) Compare and contrast internal and external fertilization.
b) Discuss the relative success of these forms of fertilization in relation to the colonization of the terrestrial and aquatic environments.
11. (4 marks) Describe the conditions under which asexual reproduction is advantageous, with reference to a specific Australian example.
12. (5 marks) For many years Australian marsupials were considered primitive and inferior to placental mammals. Explain how the marsupial method of reproduction is actually an advantage under Australian conditions.
13. (6 marks) Describe, with named examples, TWO different mechanisms found in Australian flora for pollination.
14. (3 marks) Outline the reasons for the extinction of a named Australian animal.
15. (4 marks) a) Explain the need to maintain Biodiversity. b) Discuss a current effort to monitor biodiversity.
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CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorising the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts. Practise on this blank version.
EVOLUTION of AUSTRALIAN BIOTA
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Answer Section
Worksheet 1
a) seismology b) crust c) mantle d) plates e) convection f) Tectonics g) continental h) South America, Antarctica & India i) Gondwana j) Antarctica k) 25 l) mid-ocean m) moving apart/spreading /growing n) in the middle o) (residual) magnetism p) molten rock / lava / magma q) mantle r) Glossopteris s) Gondwana t) America u) Africa & S.America v)flightless birds (ratites) w) antarctic beech x) northwards y) Indo-Australian z) 2-5 cm aa) marsupials ab) echidna ac) Monotremes ad) primitive ae) adapted / sophisticated
Worksheet 3
a) Natural Selection b) variation c) the environment changes d) Glossopteris e) Antarctic f) sea g) crocodiles/flamingos h) Antarctica i) 40 j) drier k) 25 l) sclerophyll m) thin, small n) cuticle (waxy covering) o) Eucalypts, Banksia, Acacia p) Acacia q) sclerophyll forest r) east s) fire t) lightning u) encouraged growth of grasslands v) Casuarina w) lignotubers x) hard, woody y) fauna z) marsupials aa) megafauna ab) Diprotodon ac) hunting by humans ad) climate change ae) Beagle af) plants ag) natural selection ah) primitive ai) extinct aj) placental
Worksheet 2
1. D 2. B 3. A 4. B 5. (1) The shapes of the continents are like jig-saw pieces. They fit together almost perfectly if the continental shelf is used as the actual edge of each continent. Such fitting together suggests strongly that Australia was once joined to Antarctica & India. (2) Fossils & rock layers match up perfectly on different continents. For example, fossils of the extinct seed fern Glossopteris are found across S.America, Africa, India, Antarctica and Australia. The explanation is that this plant once lived right across Gondwana, and its fossils have been carried to their current locations by the drifting of the continents. 6. Initially specimens of the platypus were thought to be fakes. Later it came to be considered as primitive and inferior to real (placental) mammals. As more evidence and knowledge accumulates, it is now realized that the platypus, and other Australian animals, are ancient, but highly adapted to the unpredictable Aust. environment. 7. It is thought that the ancestors of the ratites evolved in Gondwana when it was still one continent. As Gondwana split up, populations of flightless birds were carried away on each fragment. Each population, now isolated from others, evolved into the modern species on the separate continents... ostrich in Africa, emu in Australia etc.
Worksheet 4
1. C 5. B 2. A 6. B 3. C 7. C 4. D 8. D 9. The greater the amount of variation in a species, the better the chance of the species surviving when the environment changes. If all the members of a species are very similar (little variation) then there is a good chance there would be no survivors of an environmental change, and the species would become extinct. 10. Between 50-100 MYA much of Australia was covered with rainforest, wetland environments, and partly by an inland sea at one time. The evidence is the fossil record, which shows that rainforest species, such as Antarctic Beech were widespread, and the animal life included many crocodiles, flamingos and turtles... all evidence of a wet climate. About 25 MYA the fossils show a marked increase in pollens from sclerophyll plants. These are adapted to survive drought, and show that the climate must have become drier. A decrease in pollens from rainforest species shows that these habitats were shrinking. By 2 MYA, the rainforests had disappeared from most of Australia. After about 100,000 years ago, a lot of ash and charcoal in the sediments indicates the increasing occurrence of fire in the environment, indicating that the modern, dry & drought-prone climate was in place. 28
Worksheet 4 (cont)
11. a) Sclerophylls are characterized by small, thin leaves with a thick, waxy cuticle. Unlike nonsclerophylls, their leaves do not wither under dry conditions. They retain their shape, and simply resume normal operations when water becomes available again. b) Eucalypts (gum trees) & Acacias (wattles) 12. a) Diprotodon was a giant wombat, weighing about 3 tonnes. Several fossil part-skeletons have been discovered, allowing accurate reconstruction. b) Diprotodon was similar to living wombats. both were/are marsupials, with same body plan. both were herbivorous... plant eaters. D. was different to living wombats in body size being approx 50 times bigger. modern wombats burrow and spend a lot of time underground. Ds size may have made this impossible. D was probably a browser of leaves and vegetation, while modern wombats eat a lot of plant roots and tubers. 13. Darwin noted that many Australian plants seemed well-suited to the dry climate. He later linked this to his Theory of Evolution by arguing that the ancestors of modern sclerophylls were selected by nature because they had characteristics that helped survival in the dry climate. By this natural selection the plants had evolved to thrive in the harsh climate. He noted that the animals too, were well suited to the environment, but never fully understood just how well. He thought the marsupials and monotremes were primitive and would not survive if faced with competition from more advanced mammals. In line with his theory, Darwin assumed that the marsupials would eventually become extinct, just as the dinosaurs had, as more advanced types took over.
Worksheet 6
a) Acacia (wattle) b) fine or light c) protrude from the flower d) animals / birds e) nectar f) sticky / have hooks g) sticks / clings h) bats/flying foxes i) they can be seen at night / in moonlight j) some survive being eaten k) the weight of the bat can be supported l) wind m) fine hairs n) picked up / carried o) bindii p) burrs q) carried away r) birds & bats s) passing through an animal gut t) undeveloped/immature u) if the baby dies, little has been wasted, and the adult can survive until conditions improve. v) conditions get better / more food & water is available w) fight / compete x) mate y) their characteristics / their genes z) rains occur / food is available aa) kookaburra/magpie ab) well fed ac) Sturts desert pea ad) asexually ae) runners af) conditions improve ag) increase numbers quickly ah) variations ai) the environment changes
Worksheet 7
1. A 5. D 2. C 6. B 3. A 7. C 4. B 8. D 9. Mitosis involves a single cell division which produces 2 daughter cells which: are identical to each other. are identical to the parent cell. have the same number of chromosomes. Meiosis is a double division which produces 4 cells which: are all different genetically to each other. are different to the parent cell. have only half the number of chromosomes. 10. a) External fertilization is when the egg & sperm unite in the outside environment. Internal fertilization occurs inside the body of the female parent. b) External fertilization evolved in the aquatic environment and still works well there. Since the environment is water, the gamete cells cannot dry out, and the sperm cells can swim to find the eggs. Internal fertilization evolved to suit the terrestrial environment where gametes could rapidly dry out, and sperm would not be able to swim to the egg. The inside of the female reproductive system is kept moist (simulating the aquatic environment) to keep sperm alive and swimming towards the eggs. 29
Worksheet 5
a) one b) identical c) parent d) clone e) rapid increase in the population/ rapid reproduction f) genetic variation g) the environment changes h) mitosis i) meiosis j) gametes k) different / unique l) chromosomes m) fertilisation n) aquatic o) external p) internal q) pollen r) wind s) pollen tube t) ovary u) moist v) less (fewer)
Worksheet 7 (cont)
11. Asexual reproduction is an advantage when conditions suit a rapid increase in numbers, to take advantage of a temporary increase in food supply or other resources. It allows rapid reproduction of many offspring without the expenditure of energy and resources that sexual reproduction requires. An example is Sturts desert pea which can rapidly send out runners to populate an area after the occasional desert rain. This allows the plants to take advantage of temporary good conditions. Under normal dry conditions it reproduces sexually, producing seeds which lie dormant for years awaiting suitable conditions for germination. 14. The Thylacine, or Tasmanian Tiger, was once the top predator across much of the continent. It became extinct on the mainland approximately 3,000 years ago probably due to the arrival of a new competitor, the dingo. Dingos were probably introduced by humans, became feral and spread over most of the continent. Dingos never reached Tasmania, so there the Thylacine survived. When the European settlers arrived, the Thylacines began taking sheep, so the government put a bounty on them, and many were shot. Many others died from a disease epidemic in the 1890s. The last nown specimen died in the Hobart Zoo in 1936.
12. Marsupials have a very brief gestation and give birth to a partly developed embryo which matures inside the pouch. This can be an advantage under extreme drought. If the baby dies, which may well happen, then at least the mother has not wasted much of her body resources. This gives her more chance to survive, and she can rapidly begin breeding again when conditions improve. Some marsupials, such as the red kangaroo, can even suspend the development of an embryo in the uterus and hold it there for many months until conditions improve. 13. (1) The Acacias (wattles) rely on the wind for pollination. The plants produce large quantities of fine, light-weight pollen which can be carried long distances by any breeze. The flowers have a number of stigmas which protrude from the flowers to catch any incoming pollen. (2) The bottle brushes and Grevillias rely on honey-eater birds and lorikeet parrots for pollination. The flowers lack petals, but produce large amounts of nectar for the birds to feed on. They have many stamens producing large pollen grains which are sticky, or covered with small hooks, so the grains adhere to the feathers of the feeding birds and are carried on to other receptive flowers for pollination.
15. a) It has been found that the greater the variety of different species in any ecosystem, the more stable the system is, and the more able it is to cope with changes. Maintaining biodiversity is important in order to help natural ecosystems to survive in a sustainable form. b) The NSW Wader Study Group is enlisting the support of interested amateurs to adopt an estuary and carry out regular counts of shore bird populations. The data will help monitor the biodiversity of these ecosystems, and keep track of changes to various species populations.
30
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KISS Notes Evolution of Australian Biota

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Preliminary Biology Topic 4

EVOLUTION OF AUSTRALIAN BIOTA

What is this topic about?

but first, an introduction...

Nature chooses the survivors

... and the losers!

Australias Unique Biota

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CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Changing Ideas about Australian Animals

The Evidence for Climate Change

Structure of the Earth

Plate Tectonics & the Formation of Australia

Natural Selection, Variation and Evolution

Evolution of Aust. Plants

EVOLUTION of AUSTRALIAN BIOTA

Megafauna & Extinction

Asexual v Sexual Mitosis v Meiosis External v Internal Fertilization

Adaptations for Reproduction

Reproductive Adaptations of Australian Plants

Case Study: Extinction of the Thylacine How Palaeontology Can Help

When Asexual Reproduction is Useful

Reproductive Adaptations of Australian Animals

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of higher density rock

Liquid iron & nickel

Solid iron & nickel

Convection Currents in Mantle

Australia wasnt always the island continent of today.

The Evidence for Plate Tectonics

THE ANCIENT SOUTHERN CONTINENT GONDWANA

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The Mid-Ocean Ridges

New molten rock fills the rift

Mantle Convection Currents push plates apart

Great Rift Valley

East Africa is splitting away from the rest of the continent

Fossil Evidence for Moving Continents

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Evidence from Distribution of Modern Species

The Break-up of Gondwana

Is Australia Still Moving?

How fast is the movement?

Indonesian islands become mountainous land bridge connecting Australia to Asia

Future Map of East Asia?

NZ islands further apart and larger

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Changing Ideas About Australian Animals

Webbed feet with claws

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Plate Tectonics & Australias Formation

WHEN COMPLETED, WORKSHEETS BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES

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Worksheet 2 Practice Questions section 1 Multiple Choice Longer Response Questions

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