TRNG I HC BCH KHOA NNG

KHOA IN T - VIN THNG

D QUANG BNH

O LNG IN T

NNG - 2003

CHNG 1: PHP O V K THUT O IN T

o lng in t l phng php xc nh tr s ca mt thng s no mt cu kin in t trong mch in t hay thng s ca h thng thit b in t. Thit b in t dng xc nh gi tr c gi l "thit b o in t", chng hn, ng h o nhiu chc nng [multimeter] dng o tr s ca in tr, in p, v dng in v.v. . . trong mch in. Kt qu o tu thuc vo gii hn ca thit b o. Cc hn ch s lm cho gi tr o c (hay gi tr biu kin) hi khc vi gi tr ng (tc l gi tr tnh ton theo thit k). Do vy, quy nh hiu sut ca cc thit b o, cn phi c cc nh ngha v chnh xc [accuracy], r [precision], phn gii [resolution], nhy [sensitivity] v sai s [error] . 1.1 CHNH XC [accuracy] chnh xc s ch mc gn ng m gi tr o c s t so vi gi tr ng ca i lng cn o. V d, khi mt tr s no c c trn ng h o in p [voltmeter] trong khong t 96V n 104V ca gi tr ng l 100V, th ta c th ni rng gi tr o c gn bng vi gi tr ng trong khong 4%. Vy chnh xc ca thit b o s l 4%. Trong thc t, gi tr 4% ca v d trn l ' khng chnh xc php o' ng hn l chnh xc, nhng dng biu din trn ca chnh xc tr thnh chun thng dng, v cng c cc nh sn xut thit b o dng quy nh kh nng chnh xc ca thit b o lng. Trong cc thit b o in t s, chnh xc bng nhp hay ca b gc thi gian. 1 s m cng thm chnh xc ca khi pht xung

1.1.1

chnh xc ca lch y thang.

Thng thng, thit b o in t tng t thng c chnh xc cho di dng phn trm ca lch ton thang o [fsd - full scale deflection]. Nu o in p bng ng h o in p [voltmeter], t thang o 100V (fsd), vi chnh xc l s o s c chnh xc trong khong 25V 4%, ch th s o in p l 25V,

4% ca fsd, hay (25 - 4)V n (25 + 4)V, tc l 16% ca 25V. iu ny c gi l sai s

trong khong 21V n 29V. y l chnh xc gii hn.

V d trn cho thy rng, iu quan trng trong khi o l nn thc hin cc php o gn vi gi tr ton thang o nu c th c, bng cch thay i chuyn mch thang o. Nu kt qu o cn phi tnh ton theo nhiu thnh phn, th sai s gii hn ca mi thnh phn s c cng vi nhau xc nh sai s thc t trong kt qu o. V d, vi in tr R c sai s 10% v

2 dng in I c sai s 5%, th cng sut I2R s c sai s bng 5 + 5 + 10 = 20%. Trong cc 1 ch s. V d, nu mt (0,1%

ng h s, chnh xc c quy nh l sai s gi tr o c + 1 ch s).

ng h c kh nng o theo 3 ch s hoc 3 ch s, th sai s s l 1/103 = 0,001 =

1.1.2

chnh xc ng v thi gian p ng.

Mt s thit b o, nht l thit b o cng nghip dng o cc i lng bin thin theo thi gian. Hot ng ca thit b o cc iu kin nh vy c gi l iu kin lm vic ng. Do vy, chnh xc ng l gn ng m gi tr o c s bng gi tr ng m n s dao ng theo thi gian, khi khng tnh sai s tnh. Khi thit b o dng o i lng thay i, mt thut ng khc gi l p ng thi gian c dng ch khong thi gian m thit b o p ng cc thay i ca i lng o. tr hon p ng ca thit b o c gi l tr [lag].

1.2 R [precision].
r ca thit b o l php o mc ging nhau trong phm vi mt nhm cc s liu o. V d, nu 5 php o thc hin bng mt voltmeter l 97V, 95V, 96V, 94V, 93V, th gi tr trung bnh tnh c l 95V. Thit b o c r trong khong 2V, m chnh xc l 100V - 93V = 7V hay 7%. r c tnh bng gi tr cn trung bnh bnh phng ca cc lch. v d trn, cc lch l: + 2, 0, + 1, - 1, - 2. Nn gi tr lch hiu dng l:
4 0 1 1 4 5 2

Do mc trung bnh sai lch l 2. Nh vy, r s phn nh tnh khng i (hay kh nng lp li - repeatability) ca mt s kt qu o, trong khi chnh xc cho bit lch ca gi tr o c so vi gi tr ng. r ph thuc vo chnh xc. chnh xc cao hn s c r tt hn. Nhng ngc li s khng ng. chnh xc khng ph thuc vo r. r c th rt cao nhng chnh xc c th khng nht thit l cao. Khi chnh xc gn lin vi lch thc t ca ng h o (hoc s hin th thc t ng h s), th r gn lin vi sai s s c ca gi tr o. Sai s nh vy c th tng ln do th sai cc ng h o tng t hoc khng n nh cc b ch th s.

1.2 PHN GII [resolution].

phn gii l s thay i nh nht cc gi tr o c (khng phi l gi tr 0) m mt thit b o c th p ng cho mt s o xc nh. phn gii thng l gi tr vch chia nh

3 nht trn thang o lch. Nu mt ammeter c 100 vch chia, th i vi thang o t 0 n 1mA, phn gii s l 1mA/100 = 10 A. cc ng h o s, phn gii l 1 ch s. phn gii cn phi c cng thm vi sai s do s o nm trong khong gia hai vch chia ln cn khng th c mt cch chnh xc. phn gii cng c phn nh theo sai s ca r ngoi cc yu t khc nh th sai. 1.4 NHY [sensitivity]. nhy l t s ca thay i nh nht p ng ra ca thit b o theo thay i nh nht i lng u vo. V d, nu lch y thang ca mt ammeter A cho bng 50 A, v bng 100 A ammeter B, th ammeter A nhy hn so vi ammeter B. nhy c th hin cho voltmeter di dng ohm / volt. Mt ng h o c lch y thang (fsd) l 50 A s c in tr l 20 000 mc ni tip cho fsd mc 1V, trong khi mt ng h c fsd l 100 A cho fsd mc 1V. Vy voltmeter 20 000 /V c nhy cao hn

s c in tr l 10 000

so vi voltmeter 10 000 /V. a) Ngng nhy. Ngng nhy l mc tn hiu nh nht c th c pht hin di dng c nhiu v tp m. Cc tn hiu rt nh c th ln trong tp m, do vy khng th tng nhy ca mt h thng o v cng. Thng thng s dng php o i vi ngng nhy l bin ca tn hiu vo m t s tn hiu trn nhiu bng n v hoc 0dB. b) Yu cu rng bng tn. rng bng tn chn lc c dng ci thin mc ngng. Khi tn s nhiu cao hn ph tn ca tn hiu cn o, th phi s dng mch lc thng thp tn hiu truyn qua vi mc nhiu khng ng k. Nu nhiu c tn s thp hn ph tn ca tn hiu o, th s dng b lc thng cao. T hp b lc thng thp v b lc thng cao s suy ra rng bng tn chn nhiu. Nu nhiu chim rng trong phm vi ph tn ca tn hiu cn o, th b lc chn c th nn nhiu cng vi mt phn nh tn hiu o. 1.5 CC LOI SAI S [errors]. Mi thit b o c th cho chnh xc cao, nhng u c cc sai s do cc hn ch ca thit b o, do cc nh hng ca mi trng, v cc sai s do ngi o khi thu nhn cc s liu o. Cc loi sai s c ba dng: Sai s th, sai s h thng, sai s ngu nhin. a) Sai s th. Cc sai s th c th quy cho gii hn ca cc thit b o hoc l cc sai s do ngi o.

4 Gii hn ca thit b o. V d nh nh hng qu ti gy ra bi mt voltmeter c nhy km. Voltmeter nh vy s r dng ng k t mch cn o v v vy s t lm gim mc in p chnh xc. nh hng do qu ti s c gii thch chi tit mc 1.7. Sai s do c. L cc sai lch do quan st khi c gi tr o. Cc nhm ln nh vy c th do th sai, hay do nh gi sai khi kim nm gia hai vch chia. Cc thit b o s khng c cc sai s do c. b) Sai s h thng. Sai lch c cng dng, khng thay i c gi l sai s h thng. Cc sai s h thng c hai loi: Sai s do thit b o v sai s do mi trng o. Sai s ca thit b o. Cc sai s do thit b o l do ma st cc b phn chuyn ng ca h thng o hay do ng sut ca l xo gn trong c cu o l khng ng u. V d, kim ch th c th khng dng mc 0 khi khng c dng chy qua ng h. Cc sai s khc l do chun sai, hoc do dao ng ca ngun cung cp, do ni t khng ng, v ngoi ra cn do s gi ho ca linh kin. Sai s do mi trng o l sai s do cc iu kin bn ngoi nh hng n thit b o trong khi thc hin php o. S bin thin v nhit , m, p sut, t trng, c th gy ra cc thay i v dn in, r, cch in, in cm v in dung. Bin thin v t tnh c th do thay i m men quay (tc lch). Cc thit b o tt s cho cc php o chnh xc khi vic che chn cc dng c n mc ti a, s dng cc mn chn t trng, v. v. . . Cc nh hng ca mi trng o cng c th gy ra dch chuyn nh kt qu , do thay i nh v dng in. c) Sai s ngu nhin. Cc sai s ngu nhin do cc nguyn nhn cha bit, xut hin mi khi tt c cc sai s th v sai s h thng c tnh n. Khi mt voltmeter, c hiu chun chnh xc v thc hin php o in p cc iu kin mi trng l tng, m ngi o thy rng cc s o c thay i nh trong khong thi gian o. bin thin ny khng th hiu chnh c bng cch nh chun, hay hiu chnh thit b o, m ch bng phng php suy lun cc sai s ngu nhin bng cch tng s lng cc php o, v sau xc nh gi tr gn ng nht ca i lng cn o. 1.6 GII HN CA THIT B O Mt thit b o c th c cc gii hn v thang o, cng sut (hay kh nng ti dng), tn s, tr khng v nhy (nh hng qu ti). Cc vn c gii thch nh sau.

5 - Gii hn v thang o. Mi thit b o c khong o ln nht v mt thng s cn o. Khong o s c chia thnh cc thang o nh thch hp. V d, mt voltmeter c th o cao nht l 300V chia thnh 5 thang o ph: 3V, 10V, 30V, 100V v 300V. Chuyn mch thang o s thit lp ti cc v tr chnh xc tu thuc vo gi tr o yu cu. Gi s php o in p l 9V th chng ta s s dng thang o 10V. Cc thang o cn phi c cho tt c cc thng s cn o. Cn phi chn thang o ng cho mi thng s o thch hp. Nu o in p trn thang o dng in, th ng h o s h hng. - m rng thang o. L thut ng c s dng ch s chnh lch gia gi tr ln nht v gi tr nh nht ca mt thang o. i vi gi tr o ca ng h mc nh nht l 10mA v 100mA mc cao nht, th m rng ca thang o l 100mA - 10mA = 90mA. Mt ng h o in p c mc 0V gia, vi + 10V mt bn v - 10V pha khc, s c m rng thang o l 20V. - Gii hn v cng sut. Mi thit b o u c kh nng x l cng sut ln nht, nn cng sut ca tn hiu vo khng c vt qu gii hn cng sut o. Cng sut vt qu c th lm hng ng h o hay mch khuych i bn trong ng h o. - Gii hn v tn s. Phn ln c cu ng ng h o tng t c vai tr nh mt in cm mc ni tip v do vy s suy gim di tn s cao. Trong cc thit b o s dng cc mch chnh lu v cc mch khuych i, cc in dung ca tip gip c cho l mt hn ch i vi tn hiu o di tn s cao. C cu o in ng c th ch c s dng o tn hiu c tn s ln n 1000Hz (do in cm ni tip), cc c cu o t in (c b chnh lu) c th s dng o tn hiu c tn s ln n 10 000Hz, millivoltmeter xoay chiu c th o cc tn hiu c tn s ln n mt vi MHz. Cc hn ch tn s khc c th gy ra do cc in dung song song. My hin sng c th s dng o cc tn hiu c tn s di megahertz, nhng gi thnh s tng khi cn rng bng tn cao hn. My hin sng khng s dng cun dy v h thng ch th kim, do vy nh hng bt li phn ln cc c cu o s c hn ch v loi b. - Gii hn v tr khng. Cc thit b o c dng o cc tn hiu ac, c tr khng ra ph thuc vo mch ra ca transistor c s dng. Mt my pht tn hiu tn s cao c th c tr khng l 75 hay 50 ph hp vi tr khng vo ca h thng cn o. Cc thit b o in / V, trong khi mt my hin sng v ng h o s hay ng h p nh voltmeter v my hin sng c tr khng vo cao. Mt voltmeter tt va phi c th c tr khng vo khong 20000

6 o in t c th c tr khng vi megohm. Thit b o in p c tr khng cao hn s cho chnh xc ca php o cao hn, hay c nh hng qu ti t hn. Tr khng ca cc c cu o cun dy ng tu thuc vo nhy ca ng h, cn tr khng ca my hin sng kiu ng tia ph thuc vo tr khng vo ca b khuych i dc s dng trong my hin sng. 1.7 NH HNG DO QU TI nh hng do qu ti c ngha l s suy gim v tr s ca thng s mch cn o khi mc thit b o vo mch. Thit b o s tiu th cng sut t mch cn o v s lm ti ca mch cn o. in tr ca ng h o dng s lm gim dng in trong mch cn o. Tng t, mt voltmeter khi mc song song vi mch c in tr cao, thc hin vai tr nh mt in tr song song [shunt], nn s lm gim in tr ca mch. iu ny to ra mc in p thp trn ti c c trn ng h o. Do , ng h s ch th mc in p thp hn so vi in p thc, ngha l cn phi ly mc in p cao hn c lch ng. Nh vy, nh hng do qu ti s hn ch nhy v do cng c gi l gii hn nhy. nh hng qu ti s c biu hin ng h o in p [voltmeter] nh sau.

Cho in tr ti l RL v ni tr ca ng h l RM. Cng vi mt in tr mc ni tip vi ti RL l RS (hnh 1.1). in p thc t trn RL l VL khi khng mc ng h o vo mch, v VM l in p trn ti khi c ng h o c tnh theo phng trnh (1.1) v (1.2) tng ng.
VL E RL RS RL

(1.1)

VM

E ( RL //RM ) RS ( RL //RM )

(1.2)

nh hng qu ti tnh theo phn trm c th tnh bng (VL - VM) x 100 / VL, nh v d 1.1 v 1.2. V d 1.1: Vi hai ng h o in p, mt ng h c nhy l 20 000 /V, v ng h cn li c nhy l 1000 /V, o in p trn RL trong mch hnh 1.2, trn thang o 10V ca

7 ng h. Tnh sai s do qu ti cho c hai ng h.

Trng hp th nht:

RL //RM

100 200 300

200 k 3

in p thc t khi cha c ng h =

200 3 in p o c = 200 10 3 10

10 100 100 9,1V 110 11

200 8,7V , Vy, sai s theo phn trm l 4,4% 23

Trng hp th 2: in p thc t l 9,1V (nh tnh trn) RL //RM

100 11 in p o c = 100 10 11 10

100 10 100 k 110 11

100 4,8V , Vy, sai s theo phn trm l 47,3% 21

V d 1.1, l i vi ngun in p hng. V d 1.2, cho thy nh hng khi ngun cung cp cho ti l c cung cp t mt ngun dng hng. V d 1.2: Mt ngun dng in khng i s cung cp dng in l 1,5mA cho ti in tr l 100k . Tnh in p ng v in p gn ng trn ti khi s dng ng h o c in tr l 1000 / V o in p trn thang o 100V. Tnh sai s do qu ti theo phn trm. in p ng in tr ca ng h o in tr tng ng in p trn in tr 50k = 1,5mA x 100k = 150V

= 100V x 1000 /V = 100k = 100k // 100k = 50k = 75V

= 1,5mA x 50k

8 Vy in p o c Sai s % do qu ti 1.8 CAN NHIU PHP O. So vi tp nhiu bn trong c to ra bi cc gn sng ca ngun cung cp, hay bng s di chuyn ln mt cch ngu nhin v c s lng v vn tc ca cc in t trong cc cu kin ch ng v th ng (gi l nhiu Johnson hay nhiu trng, nhiu vch), hoc do cc qu trnh qu gy ra bi s gim t ngt thng lng qua mt in cm, cc thit b o c th b can nhiu t bn ngoi c gii thch nh sau. 1. Can nhiu tn s thp. Khi cc dy dn in ngun cung cp chnh ac chy song song gn vi cc u dy tn hiu o, th nhiu mnh ac (tn s 50Hz) s can nhiu vo u tn hiu o do hiu ng in dung gia cc dy dn. 2. Can nhiu tn s cao. Cc tn hiu tn s cao c to ra bt c khi no c s pht ra tia la in vng xung quanh thit b o. Tia la in c th to ra khi chuyn mch ngun cung cp, do cc h thng nh la, do cc ng c in mt chiu, do cc my hn, do s phng in ho quang (tc s ion ho khng kh gn cc mch in p cao), v do h quang in trong cc n hunh quang. Tia chp l cc ngun tn s cao trong t nhin. Pht thanh qung b t cc i thu pht v tuyn v cc i pht thanh di ng cng sut cao, c lp t gn cc thit b o cng to ra cc tn hiu tn s cao. Cc tn hiu cao tn u c th can nhiu vo thit b o, cc tn hiu cao tn c th c chnh lu bng cc cu kin bn dn c trong cc thit b o, v nh vy s tc ng n cc kt qu o do in p khng mong mun th hin di cc dng khc nhau trong php o, lm cho kt qu o sai hon ton. Mt s php o dc tin hnh cc im o trong mch c c in p dc v in p ca cc tn hiu tn s cao. Cc php o in p dc s khng chnh xc nu khng lc b in p cao tn trc khi tn hiu o c chnh lu trong thit b o. Cc cch phng nga v khc phc cc php o loi b can nhiu cao tn. 1. Trc tin l bao bc c hiu qu thit b o khng b can nhiu ngoi trc tip vo thit b o. 2. Thit b o phi c ni t. 3. Cn phi lc cc tn hiu khng mong mun ti mch vo, dy o v dy ngun cung cp cc tn hiu cao tn s c lc b trc khi chnh lu, phi c mch chn bng tn tn hiu o loi b nhiu v can nhiu tn s cao. Mch ni vi b my cn phi m bo. Mi hn b = 75V = (150V - 75V) x 100 / 150V = 50%

9 nt hay thiu kt ni, s to ra mt in tr gia u vo v t i vi cc tn hiu tn s cao, nn in p cao tn s xm nhp ti u vo nh minh ho hnh 1.3. T in trong hnh 1.3, dng lc b cc tn hiu cao tn, c vai tr nh mt ngn mch i vi tn s cao. Nu t h mch, hay im G khng kt ni vi t (do p lc no hay mi hn b nt), th tn hiu tn s cao s c ti im A s c a n u vo ca mch khuych i bng transistor, nn s c khuych i v chnh lu (phn phi tuyn ca c tuyn) v s c ti u ra di dng in p dc. Cc i pht thanh qung b a phng thnh thong nghe c trong ng nghe in thoi do can nhiu . 4. Khi thc hin php o dc ti im c c in p dc cng nh in p cao tn, in p cao tn c th gy ra mc dng in ln chy qua u que o bi v u que o gn nh c ngn mch vi b my i vi tn hiu cao tn thng qua nh hng in dung, c th lm nng u que o (thc t ny xy ra khi o cc in p dc trong my pht). Mc ni tip cun cm RF vi u que o loi b tnh trng trn. 5. S dng mch khuych i thut ton ch vi sai s lm gim cc tn hiu nhiu ng knh rt c bn, c th loi b nhiu ng knh ln n mc 100dB. (Nu mc d c cc d phng nhiu cao tn trn, h hng h thng c th t tng ny n tng khc, th nguyn nhn c th l v bo v, ni t, mch lc v cun cm cao tn, cn phi kim tra k cc vn ). 1.9 V BO V. V bo v l lp chn bng vt liu dn in c lp phn c tn hiu nhiu. Hiu qu ca lp bo v tu thuc vo: (i) kiu lp bo v, (ii) cc c tnh ca vt liu lm lp bo v v (iii) h ca lp bo v. Trng nhiu c th l in trng hoc t trng. Cc lp bo v bng t tnh s dng vt liu st t nh st. Cc lp bo v tnh in s dng vt liu dn in khng nhim t nh nhm. Cc vt liu dn in c c tnh in mi km nn s hp th cc nhiu do in trng tnh. Ngoi vic hp th, nhiu cng s gim do s phn x ca in trng khi lp bo v. hp th nhiu t l vi dy ca vt liu. S phn x s xy ra khi c gin on tr khng c trng gia lp bo v v mi trng xung quanh lp bo v. 1.10 NI T

10 C ng dn tr li mc t trn bng mch in, thng l ng mch rng v c in tr rt thp. Dy tn hiu cn phi c t gn vi ng ni t gim nh hng in cm. ng mc t trn mch bng mch s c ni vi ng t hiu dng.

Mc t, nh mch hnh 1.4, l khng ng, bi v in p c bc l trn chiu di Zp do phn t II s c ni tr li phn t I. nh hng s xu nu phn t I c nhy cao, hoc nu phn t II l thit b cng sut ln. Cc cch ni t nh mch hnh 1.5a, v 1.5b, l thch hp, nht l i vi tn hiu c tn s trn 10MHz, nu ch chn trnh vic hnh thnh cc vng t.

1.11 SO SNH THIT B O TNG T V THIT B O S. Cc thit b o tng t s dng lch ca kim ch th do tng tc gia dng in v t trng, hoc gia hai t trng. a s cc b phn c cu ng u c ma st, nn c nhiu hn ch (nh gii hn tn s cao, nhy, sai s do qu ti) v cc sai s. Trong cc ng h o s, khng lin quan n s lm lch, s ch th c c b hin th (hin th bng tinh th l ng hay bng LED), nn cc ng h o s khng c cc sai s nh ca cc ng h o tng t. Cc u im ca thit b o s so vi cc loi ng h o tng t nh sau. a) u im ca ng h o s so vi ng h o tng t. 1. chnh xc cao (thng dng l 0,0005% hay 5ppm) 2. r cao (khi s lng o c th hin bng ch s, nn s khng thay i gi tr ca n) (in hnh l 1ppm). 3. phn gii tt hn (tnh trng khng r rng ch b gii hn nhiu nht l mt ch s).

11 4. Khng c sai s do th sai. 5. Khng c sai s do c. Khng c sai s trong vic chuyn i s liu o. 6. Tr khng vo rt cao (in hnh l 10M qu ti khng ng k. 7. Tr khng vo hu nh khng thay i trn tt c cc thang o. 8. S nh chun t cc ngun mu bn trong ng h l hon ton n nh. 9. Khng c sai s do dng sng tn hiu. 10. Hin th cc tnh t ng, c kh nng t ng chnh 0 v t ng chuyn thang o. Cc thang o thay i theo cc nc thp phn thay v thang o hn, kh nng m rng thang o ln hn. 11. C kh nng x l s o bng my tnh. Cc s liu o c th c lu tr v truy sut bt k lc no. 12. C kh nng x l cc tn hiu o di tn s rng hn. 13. Thao tc o n gin, ch cn n nt n thit lp li t ng chnh xc thit b o cho cc s liu o mi. 14. C kh nng kt hp nhiu thit b o vo mt thit b bng k thut s. C th lp trnh php o d dng. 15. Thit b o gn v kt cu chc chn hn. b) Cc nhc im ca ng h o s. 1. Cn phi c ngun cung cp do s dng cc vi mch (IC). 2. Cc i lng thay i chm, nh khi np t khng th quan st c. Cc ng h tng t c th quan st cc bin thin nh khi o th t in phn. 3. Khi o th diode khng th thc hin nh cch thng thng, nn c b sung mch chuyn dng dnh ring cho mc ch o th diode mt s ng h o s (tc chc nng o mc st p trn tip gip pn). 4. Gi thnh cao, nhng gi thnh s gim xung theo s pht trin ca cng ngh ch to cc IC mi. Vn cn nhiu tranh lun gia cc li th ca thit b o tng t so vi cc hin th s. Tuy nhin, cc u im ca thit b o s c phn c ch trng hn cc loi thit b o tng t, nn thit b o s ngy cng tr nn thng dng hn, nht l khi gi thnh ca thit b o s gim xung. Trong cc h thng o rt phc tp, c cu o tng t ch th kim c th th hin
10 , nn c s lng thang o t

v in dung vo thp l 40pF) v v vy sai s do

12 bng hnh v trn my tnh ngoi hin th s. 1.12 CHN KHONG O T NG V O T NG Khong o t ng s nh v du chm thp phn mt cch t ng nhn c phn gii ti u. Nu s ch th di 200, thit b o s 3 - ch s s t ng c chuyn mch n thang o c nhy cao hn, cn nu gi tr hin th cao hn 1999, th thang o c nhy t hn tip theo s c chn. B m v b gii m s thay i v tr du chm thp phn khi yu cu khong o t ng. Mt ng h o t ng hon ton ch cn tn hiu cn o c ti hai u vo ca ng h o v iu chnh o thng s no, cn sau ton b cc tin trnh o (chnh 0, ch th cc tnh, thang o, hin th) s c tin hnh t ng. i vi cc thit b o tinh vi, khuynh hng l kt hp nhiu thit b o vo mt thit b. V d, b gim st thng tin c cc thit b o nh sau: .My to tn hiu RF 3 ng h o cng sut RF ng h o cng sut AF ng h o h s mo dng My phn tch ph My 2 to tn hiu AF Voltmeter 4 s ng 6 h o nhy B 8 m tn s My hin sng nh s

Bt k thit b o no trong s cc thit b o trn c th hnh thnh hot ng theo lp trnh. Ch lm vic c chn, thit b o s c chn, loi php o yu cu c lp trnh theo lnh, nn tn hiu ra s c hin th hay c in, ton b c iu khin bng bn phm. Php o theo chng trnh trn my tnh cng gi l o t ng. 1.13 O TRONG MCH (ICT) Vic o th trong mch c th o th IC mc nh hay trung bnh m khng cn tho IC ra khi mch. im mu cht ca ICT l giao din BON. Cc u kp l cc u que o b giao tip s c bt gn c ti, ni chc chn n im cn o th. Chng trnh o th t ng s cung cp d liu vo o th linh kin. V d, o th mt IC, b o th t rong mch s truy xut bng trng thi cho IC t RAM ca thit b o th t ng (ATE), v s so snh vi d liu ra ca IC cn o th vi bng trng thi chnh xc. 1.14 K THUT O IN T Php o cn phi c thc hin mt cch cn thn v s th hin cc s liu o phi ph hp sau khi c tnh ton n cc gii hn v nhy, chnh xc v kh nng ca thit b o.

13 i khi s o c th ng nhng nu th hin kt qu sai, ngi ta c th hiu mch ang tt l c sai hng v ngc li. Hn na, vic s dng thit b o sai c th to ra cc nguy him cho s an ton ca ngi o v thit b o. Cc k thut o sau y cn phi tun theo khi o th hay thc hin cc php o trong vic chn on h hng, sa cha v bo dng cc thit b in t. 1. Ni thit b n ngun in li, tt hn ht l thng qua u ni ba chn, v thc hin bt ngun cho h thng theo trnh t sau: Cc im quan trng c chuyn mch ON u tin, tip theo l ng [ON] ngun cung cp, sau ng [ON] thit b o, v cui cng ng ngun cung cp cho mch cn o th. Khi tt (chuyn mch sang OFF), th trnh t l ngc li, th trnh t phi c thc hin ngc li: trc tin tt ngun cung cp cho mch cn o, tip theo l tt thit b o, sau tt ngun cung cp v cui cng l ngt in li. iu ny s bo v thit b o v thit b cn o khi cc xung qu . Khng hn hay tho mi hn linh kin khi ngun cung cp ang bt. 2. Bt k lc no cng phi tt thit b o cn nu thit b o c chuyn mch sang ng [on] ngay sau th cn phi c khong thi gian ng k cho php cc t trong thit x. 3. Cc thit b o th cn phi c ni t mt cch hiu qu gim thiu cc bin thin ca nhiu. 4. Chn thang o ph hp theo tham s cn o, tu theo gi tr o yu cu. Nu khng bit gi tr o yu cu, th hy chn thang o cao nht v sau o gim dn thang o cho ph hp, trnh cho thit b o b qu ti v b h hng. Thang o c chn cui cng s cho kt qu o gn vi lch ln nht c th c i vi php o in p v dng in, v gn mc trung bnh i vi php o in tr, c chnh xc ti u i vi h thng o. 5. Khi gi tr o bng 0, th ng h o cn phi ch th bng 0, nu khng th cn phi c chnh 0 ph hp. 6. Khng s dng cc u o c kch thc ln v chng c th gy ngn mch. Cc u que o cn phi nhn nht nu c th c. 7. im quan trng l kt ni php o ti cc im o th: cc hng ch to thit b thng quy nh cc im o th ti cc v tr thun tin trn bng mch in. in tr, mc in p dc, mc in p tn hiu v cc dng sng ca tn hiu s c quy nh cho mi im o th. (im o th thng l cht lp ng trn bng mch in). Cc im o th c cc mch m tt nht trnh nguy him qu ti cho mch cn o. Cc im o th c thit k bi cc nh chuyn

14 mn c kinh nghim, khi cn kho st thit b, khng c b qua cc im o th trong qu trnh sa cha. 8. Thng thng cc u que o mang du dng v m i vi cc php o in p v dng in trong mch. Ngun pin bn trong ng h o s c cc tnh ngc li, tc l u que o m ca ngun pin trong ng h o s c ni u que c nh du dng (que o mu en) v ngc li, nh th hin hnh 1.6. Thc t ny cn phi nh khi o th cc diode, cc t in phn, cc transistor v cc vi mch.

9. Nu cc im o th l khng cho trc, hoc nu cc php o l c thc hin ti cc im khc nhau, th cn phi ch cc im nh sau: a) Khi o cc in p dc, php o cn phi c thc hin ngay ti cc linh kin thc t, v i vi vi mch o trc tip trn cc chn. b) S dng u kp o th IC thc hin cc php o trn cc chn ca IC. c) Khi cn o tn hiu trn mch in trong bng mch, nn kp u o trn chn ca cu kin in t c ni vi ng mch in. d) Khi thc hin cc php o trn bng mch, cn phi m bo rng cc IC khng b in tch tnh do thit b o. e) Khi kim tra h mch, hy tho mt u ca cu kin in t ri thc hin php o. Nu cu kin khng c tho mt u, th cc cu kin khc mc song song vi cu kin nghi ng s ch th khng ng tin cy. C th kim tra cu kin nghi ng bng cu o. . . Khi tho mi hn ra khi bng mch in l kh khn th c th ct ng mch in lin quan, do d dng hn li vt ct hn so vi vic tho mi hn cu kin o ri hn li, nhng khi hn li vt ct, cn phng mi hn b nt khng xy ra. f) Vic tho v hn IC l mt qu trnh kh phc tp cn phi ht sc cn thn. Cn phi tho mi hn cho IC o th ch khi xc minh chc chn cc php o trn bng mch cho thy IC thc s hng.

15 10. Cn phi tun theo cc lu v an ton m bo an ton cho ngi o v thit b o. 11. Cn phi tun theo cc ch dn t hng dn s dng thit b o th, cng nh trnh t o th. 12. Cn phi nghin cu k cch vn hnh thit b o thc hin php o v cn phi tun theo tt c cc im lu c cp. TM TT NI DUNG CHNG 1. Cc thit b o dng xc nh gi tr thng s ca mt thit b hay h thng in t. Cc thut ng chnh xc, r, phn gii v nhy dng quy nh mt thit b o. C th c cc kiu sai s khc nhau km theo trong cc kt qu o l cc sai s th, cc sai s h thng v cc sai s ngu nhin. Thit b o c th c gii hn v thang o, nhy, tn s, tr khng, nh hng do qu ti v gi ho. Thit b o c th b can nhiu t bn ngoi do khng ni t thit b o, hay do khng lc tn hiu tn s cao. cc ng h o kiu tng t, do trng lng, s cn bng v ma st ca c cu o kiu lch nn c hn ch v tn s, hn ch v nhy v cc sai s khc. i vi cc thit b o kiu s, do khng s dng c cu o kiu lch, nn s c chnh xc cao, r cao, phn gii tt hn, khng c sai s do c, khng c sai s do dng sng v nh hng do qu ti khng ng k. Ngoi ra cn c cc u im khc v thang o v x l tnh ton kt qu o t ng ng h o s. o cc thng s mt cch chnh xc, cn phi tun theo cc lu nh trnh t ng - m ng, hiu chnh 0, ni t thit b o, chn thang o v cc tnh ng, v cc lu v an ton in thng thng.

16

CHNG 2: THIT B O V QUAN ST TN HIU

Thit b o v quan st tn hiu hay my hin sng, gi tt l CRO [Cathode - Ray Oscilloscope], l thit b o in t a nng, dng o th trong cc h thng in t. My hin sng s hin th cc dng sng ca tn hiu trn mn hnh, nn c th o bin cng nh tn s ca tn hiu. V c bn, my hin sng dng o in p, nhng cng c th o dng in, nu dng in c bin i thnh in p khi cho dng in chy qua mt in tr c nh. Tng t, my hin sng c th o in tr nu dng in t mt ngun dng hng c chy qua in tr cn o nh i vi DMM (chng 3). My hin sng hai vt c th dng so snh hai dng sng khc nhau, cn my hin sng hai chm tia c th dng so snh cc thay i v pha lin quan hai dng sng. My hin sng c th c s dng hiu qu quan st dng sng thc t trn mn hnh v nh lng dng sng. My hin sng c th dng hin th i lng bt k nu c th bin i c thnh in p. Do my hin sng l thit b o a dng nn cng c s dng trong cc lnh vc o v quan st kh tng, sinh hc, y t v cng nghip. 2.1 NGUYN L HOT NG CA MY HIN SNG TNG T My hin sng bao gm ng tia cathode (CRT), v cc mch lm lch hin th dng sng. Nguyn l hot ng ca ng tia cathode v cc mch lm lch c gii thch nh sau: a) ng tia cathode. B phn chnh ca my hin sng l ng tia cathode, l mt n pht x in t do nhit cao bao gm mt sng in t, cc bn lm lch v mn hnh hunh quang. Tt c c bc trong v bng thu tinh, rt chn khng nh hnh 2.1. Sng in t gm cathode c lm bng Vonfram s c t nng pht x cc in t. S di chuyn ca cc in t c iu khin bi li iu khin c in p m hn so vi cathode. Cc in t di chuyn qua cc in trng to ra bi cc li hi t v li gia tc, to thnh tia hi t sc nt. Chm tia in t nng lng cao s p vo mn hnh hunh quang, nn s lm cho cc phn t phosphor lo sng. phn loe ca ng thu tinh, c ph lp than ch c hai bn lp v thu tinh. Lp than ch bn trong s ngn cc in t khi pht x th cp, cn lp than ph bn ngoi lm nhim v bo v, trnh s bc x nhiu tn hiu qut. Mt lp nhm mng cng c t gn st mn hnh chn cc ion dch chuyn khi s va chm mn hunh quang v cng dng phn x nh sng tr li pha mn hnh nhm ci thin

17 pht sng ca tia sng. ng tia cn phi c in p vi kV (gi l i cao p hay in th EHT) t vo lp ph than ch bn trong. Cc li khc s ly cc mc in p dc thch hp t in p cao thng qua mch phn p.

S lm lch tia theo chiu ngang c c bng cch s dng tn hiu rng ca. S lm lch tia theo chiu dc nh tn hiu cn quan st. Cc mch iu khin lch tia my hin sng (ngoi ng tia), s dng cc transistor nn yu cu cc mc in p dc thp hot ng. b) Lm lch chm tia. Nguyn l hot ng ca b gc thi gian (lm lch ngang). Chm tia s c lm lch theo chiu ngang bng cch p t mt in p rng ca (nh hnh 2.2a), ln cp bn lch (gi l cp bn lch ngang) theo kiu lm lch tnh in. Khi khng c in p tn hiu ln hai bn lch (im A' ca tn hiu rng ca hnh v), im sng do tia to ra ti im bt u A trn mn hnh. Khi mc in p ca bn lch bn phi tng dn so vi bn lch bn tri, th im sng s di chuyn v bn phi nn ln lt qua n cc im B, C, D v E trn mn hnh, tng ng vi mc in p rng ca B', C', D' v E'. Sau in p rng ca s tr v li mc 0 nn im sng s tr li im A ban u. S lm lch dc. Cp bn lch th hai gi l cp bn lm lch dc. Tn hiu vo cn o s c t vo cp bn lch dc sau khi c khuych i. Do nh hng ca mc in p lch dc m chm tia in t s b lch theo chiu dc trong khong P v Q, nh hnh 2.2b. Nh vy, chm tia s chu hai s lm lch ngang v dc ng thi, nn nh hng hp thnh l ti to li tn hiu c bin thay i theo thi gian, nh th hin hnh 2.2c. Khi s lm lch theo chiu ngang iu khin im sng t A n B, th lm lch dc s ko im sng n P,

18 nn sau khong thi gian AB, im sng khng phi ti B m l ti P. Tng t, sau khong thi gian AC im sng l ti C; sau khong thi gian AD, im sng l ti Q, v sau khong thi gian AE, im pht sng l ti E, v. v. . . . Do vy, cc phn t pht quang APCQE s ln lt pht sng v hin th dng sng vo. li khc trn mt my hin sng s cho php o khong thi gian trn trc ngang (X), v bin trn trc dc (Y). Xo tia qut ngc hay tia quay v.

Tn hiu rng ca gim rt nhanh t gi tr ln nht v 0, gi l tia quay v, hay tia qut ngc. Tn hiu qut ngc s khng c nhn thy trn mn hnh, nu khng th dng sng c hin th s tr nn mo dng ln. Do trong sut khong thi gian qut ngc, ng tia s c gi trng thi ngng pht sng, gi l xo tia, bng cch cung cp mc in p m cho li iu khin so vi cathode. c) ng b. ng b c s dng th hin qu trnh lm cho dng sng n nh. Dng sng s n nh nu tn hiu qut bt u ti gi tr 0 ca tn hiu vo. Gi s thi gian qut th hin 5 chu k ca tn hiu vo, tip theo sau khi qut ngc, vt sng s phi bt u vi im u l chu k th 6 ca tn hiu vo. iu ny c th thc hin hoc bng s kch khi b to dao ng qut mt trng thi bn lin tc vi mt xung t tn hiu vo, hoc bng mt tn hiu ngoi bt k,

19 hay nu tn hiu qut tun hon th bng cch iu chnh mch qut da trn vic tinh chnh nh thi. Tinh chnh bin thin thi gian, c th thc hin bng cch cung cp mt phn nh tn hiu vo cho mch dao ng to tn hiu qut tun hon. S lng chu k dng sng c hin th trn mn hnh s tu thuc vo khong thi gian cn thit im sng di chuyn t im bt u (im tn cng bn tri ca mn hnh) n im tn cng bn phi, v chu k (hay tn s) ca tn hiu vo. Nu khong thi gian ca tn hiu rng ca bng mt na chu k (T/2) ca dng sng vo, th mt na chu k dng sng vo s c hin th. Nu thi gian qut ca tn hiu rng cc bng mt chu k ca tn hiu vo th ton b chu k s c hin th. Nu thi gian qut ca tn hiu rng ca bng 2 chu k tn hiu vo th hai chu k s c hin th, v. v. . . Do vy, khi bit khong thi gian to vt theo chiu ngang v s lng chu k c hin th trn mn hnh, th c th xc nh chu k hay tn s ca tn hiu vo. Khong thi gian to vt ngang s c ch th trn chc nng iu khin thi gian/vch chia [Time/Div], tnh theo n v ms/div hay s/div. d) nhy ca s lm lch. Bin ca dng sng vo s c xc nh bng cch m s vch chia theo chiu dc trn mn hnh t nh n nh ca dng sng. Suy ra mt na s vch chia s l bin nh ca dng sng cn o. Gi tr ca mi vch chia theo chiu dc s c ch trn chuyn mch iu khin h s khuych i dc theo mV/div hay V/div. Chuyn mch iu khin dc c gi l nhy ca s lm lch. nhy lch tu thuc vo cc in tr phn p v h s khuych i in p ca mch khuych i dc. V d 2.1: Vi tn hiu vo dc l 100mV (nh - nh) t vo u vo. Mch phn p s lm gim tn hiu vo mc mt phn 10 ti u vo ca mch khuych i dc c h s khuych i l 40dB. Tnh mc in p thc t theo vch chia trn mn hnh v v tr nhy dc nu tn hiu o chim 5 vch chia trn mn hnh. Tn hiu ti u vo ca mch khuych i dc = 100 x 1/10 = 10mV H s khuych i 40dB c ngha l s khuych i in p ln 100 ln. Do vy, tn hiu ti u ra ca mch khuych i dc = 10mV x 100 = 1000mV. Mc tn hiu ny chim 5 vch chia, nn mc in p thc t trn mt vch chia l 200mV, nhng thang nhy s c t mc 20mV / div, c gi tr ch th ng l 100mV (nh nh). e) My hin sng vt n.

20

S khi ca my hin sng vt n (theo kiu qut kch khi) nh hnh 2.3. Tn hiu vo thng qua mch suy gim (nh trong voltmeter in t) theo cc thang o khc nhau i vi php o bin . Tn hiu sau s c khuych i bi mch khuych i dc (khuych i Y ), v s c cung cp n cp bn lch dc lm lch theo chiu dc. Mch dao ng qut s to ra tn hiu rng ca v c khuych i cung cp n cp bn lch ngang. Khong thi gian ca tn hiu qut c iu khin bi mch iu khin gc thi gian nn gi tr ca khong thi gian theo vch chia s c ch trn chuyn mch iu khin nh thi trn mt my hin sng. i vi mt s ng dng o (chng hn nh cc mu hnh Lissajous hay cc php o iu ch), cn phi t theo v tr qut ngoi v do vy chuyn mch S2 s cung cp tn hiu qut trong hay qut ngoi n mch khuych i tn hiu qut theo yu cu. gi n nh dng sng hin th, cn phi c cc thi im khi u qut ti cng mt v tr ca chu k tn hiu vo, tc l m bo s ng b, tn hiu vt ngang c to ra bi xung kch khi ly t mch khuych i dc (khuych i - Y) s kch khi mch dao ng qut bng b a hi n n. Khi cn kch khi ngoi, hay kch khi bng tn hiu in ac 50Hz (gn bn trong my hin sng) cng c th s dng bng chuyn mch S1. Dy tr dng b tr gy ra do s khi ng mch qut sau khi kch khi. V vy, dy tr s lm cho tn hiu o v tn hiu qut n cc cp bn lch trong ng tia mt cch ng thi. f) Qut lp li. My hin sng s dng mch a hi chy t do nn khng cn tn hiu kch khi. Mch qut s nhn c tn hiu lp li theo mi chu k ca mch dao ng a hi. dng sng n nh, cn phi c s ng b gia tn s qut v tn s ca tn hiu cn o. iu ny c th thc hin

21 bng cch thay i tn s qut nh vic iu khin nh thi. S khc nhau gia qut lp li v qut kch khi. Tn s v pha ca tn hiu qut lp li cn phi c ng b vi tn hiu vo to ra dng sng hin th n nh. Nu tn s sai lch, th s hin th dng sng s khng n nh. Qut kch khi s hin th vt theo chu k thi gian quy nh v v vy s n nh m khng lin quan n tn s tn hiu vo. g) My hin sng qut tr. Do xung kch khi, s khi u qut s b tr, nn s khng th quan st vt sng trn mn hnh trong mt khong thi gian no . Tn hiu bn lch dc l lin tc, nn mt phn ca tn hiu cn o s b mt. Do vy, cng cn phi lm tr tn hiu. V tn hiu khng c t trc tip vo cp bn lch dc m phi truyn qua mch dy tr, to ra khong thi gian cn thit cho mch qut khi u ti cp bn lch ngang trc khi tn hiu cn o n cp bn lch dc. Nu tr tn hiu l 200ns, v sng qut b tr khong 80ns, th tn hiu cn quan st s c hin th theo tn hiu qut ng khi bt u qut, nh th hin hnh v 2.4.

h) My hin sng vt kp. my hin sng vt kp hay hai vt, mt mch qut n s c hin th ti hai v tr dc khc nhau trn mn hnh theo tng chu k rng ca lun phin. S khi my hin sng hai vt nh hnh 2.5. Chuyn mch in t S3 s chn tn hiu vo dc (Y1), c a n mch khuych i dc (Y) trong mt khong thi gian no , cn tn hiu Y2 s c cung cp n mch khuych i dc trong khong thi gian tip theo. Chuyn mch S1 s cho php kch khi hoc bng tn hiu Y1 hoc bng tn hiu Y2, hay bng tn hiu ngoi, hay kch khi bng tn hiu mng in 50Hz. Cu trc mch nh i vi my hin sng vt n. Chuyn mch t ng c tc nhanh c hai tn hiu c th quan st mt cch r rng trn mn hnh (do lu sng ca cht hunh quang v lu sng vng mc mt).

22

my hin sng hai vt, ch c mt mch qut, nn i vi mt chu k tn hiu qut s iu khin s lm lch dc ca mt dng sng vo, v i vi chu k qut tip theo ca cng mt mch qut, tn hiu qut s iu khin s lm lch dc ca tn hiu vo th hai. Vy hai dng sng ca hai tn hiu vo ring s c hin th, nhng khng c hin th ng thi. Do khng th so snh lch pha gia hai dng sng. so snh quan h v pha, cn phi c hai dng sng c hin th ng thi ti cng thi im, tc l c th thc hin bng my hin sng hai chm tia. i) My hin sng hai tia.

my hin sng tia kp hay hai tia c hai sng in t, hai cp bn lch dc v hai cp bn lch ngang. Hai cp bn lch ngang c t song song v c iu khin bi cng mt mt qut ngang (mch gc thi gian), tc l cng mt tn hiu qut s xut hin ng thi ti hai cp bn

23 lch ngang. S khi ca my hin sng hai tia nh hnh 2.6, trong c mt mch dao ng qut c trong hnh v, nhng cc my hin sng t tin c hai mch to sng qut. k) Dy que o ca my hin sng. Dy que o l cc u ni my hin sng n thit b hay mch in t cn o th. Ngoi chc nng dy que o n gin bng cp ng trc thng thng, cn phi c cc dy que o dng ring cho my hin sng m bo tn hiu o trung thc nht. Dy que o DC 10:1. Mch khuych i dc (Y) c tr khng vo khong 1M mc song song vi mt t khong 50pF. Cp ng trc c th c in dung k sinh khong 50pF. iu ny s gy ra qu ti rt ln i vi mch in t cn o c tr khng cao. Gii php hn ch s qu ti l mc mt in tr 9M hin sng l 10M ni tip nh hnh 2.7. Mch cn o s xem in tr vo ca my

thay cho 1M , nhng tn hiu ti cc u vo ca my hin sng bng mt

phn mi tn hiu t vo. suy gim c th c b bng mch khuych i dc.

Dy que o 10:1 tn s cao. Vn v dung khng thp ca t 100pF i vi tn hiu o di tn s cao c gii quyt bng cch s dng mt t in nh c tr s C = 1/10 so vi t in song song nh mch hnh 2.8. Trimmer (t xoay) 10pF mc ni tip vi in dung 100pF c in dung thc t vo khong 9pF l tng i thp nn s khng gy qu ti cho mch ca h thng c tn s cao, nhng s lm gim mc tn hiu ac vo khong mt phn mi. Cc nh hng ca que o s c kim tra bng cch cung cp xung vung vo que o quan st dng xung vung trn my hin sng, s cho tn hiu tn s thp (phn bng phng) cng nh tn hiu tn s cao (cc cnh). Dy que o tch cc u o tch cc gm mt mch FET lp li cc ngun theo kiu mch lp li emitter BJT, c in tr vo cao v in tr ra thp nn s loi b s qu ti cho mch cn o khi ni que o ca my hin sng vo mch. u o cng cho mc in dung rt nh, do vy s ci thin p ng tn s cao (khi cn o cc xung tng nhanh). Ngoi ra, u o tch cc c suy gim thp hn nhiu so vi u o 10:1. Do u o tch cc s dng hiu qu o cc tn hiu nh. Tuy nhin, u o tch cc c gi thnh cao nn t c s dng. u o

24 10:1 c s dng ph bin hn.

Dy que o kiu tch sng u o s dng mch tch sng bng diode tch tn hiu iu ch ra khi tn hiu cao tn (RF) c iu ch, v cng s chnh lu tn hiu sng mang cao tn (RF) thnh mt chiu (dc). Bin nh ca sng mang s c hin th theo dng sng c chng chp trn tn hiu dc. Nh vy, u o s lm vic nh mch pht hin tn hiu cc my thu thanh v my thu thng tin, trong tn hiu c th trong di vi megahertz. Khi dng u o kiu tch sng bin i cc tn hiu tn s cao thnh di m tn, nn c th s dng my hin sng c rng bng tn thp. Dy que o cm ng dng. u o cm ng dng gm mt vng li t c th kp c dy dn o c dng in nh mch hnh 2.9. Dy dn c dng in chy qua cn o ng vai tr nh mt cun dy s cp ca tn hiu xoay chiu. Cun dy qun trn li t lm cun th cp. Khi c dng dc chy qua, dng in t trong cu kin hiu ng Hall gim xung, tc l lm tng mc chnh lch in th s c khuych

i cung cp n my hin sng. 2.2 MY HIN SNG S. My hin sng s c chc nng nh - DSO [Digital Storage Oscilloscope], l thit b o c gi thnh cao v phc tp, nht l my hin sng c chc nng x l tn hiu, cho kh nng tnh

25 ton cc gi tr trung bnh, hiu dng [r.m.s], bin i Fourier v phn tch ph. Kiu my hin sng s dng vi x l khng cn thit trong cc dch v sa cha, m thng dng hn l kiu my hin sng khng c vi x l, xc nh cc h hng v cc xung chp chn. My hin sng nh - s s dng ng tia cathode thng thng (khng phi kiu ng tia c chc nng nh). Cc mu dng sng s c lu tr trong b nh, v c th hin th trn mn hnh ca my hin sng thng thng. S khi ca my hin sng nh - s kiu khng x l tn hiu cho hnh 2.10.

Tn hiu cn o t vo my hin sng s c ly mu theo tng khong thi gian u n. Mi mc mu s c chuyn n b bin i tng t sang s (ADC) to ra cc tn hiu logic nh phn tng ng vi mc bin ca tn hiu c ly mu. Tn hiu nh phn s c lu tr trong b nh nn c th s dng khi cn thit. Khi cn quan st, tn hiu nh phn s c a n b bin i s - tng t, bin i tn hiu nh phn thnh dng tn hiu tng t ban u cung cp cho ng tia cathode. Cc tn hiu iu khin v nh thi s kch hot b nh bt c lc no khi yu cu ghi v c d liu. Ngoi ra, mch iu khin v nh thi s cung cp tn hiu nh phn cho b gc thi gian bin i thnh tn hiu gc thi gian tng t a n cp bn lm lch ngang (H), to ra vt sng trn mn hnh. 2.3 NG DNG O BNG MY HIN SNG a) S dng my hin sng pht hin sai hng My hin sng l thit b o c nhy rt cao, chnh xc v khng gy qu ti cho h thng cn o, do khng c c cu o kiu quay. My hin sng s hin th dng sng thc t ca tn hiu vo, nn c th bit mch c khuych i v mo dng hay khng mt cch d dng. My hin sng c th dng o mc in p dc, kho st cc tn hiu xung, cc tn hiu rng ca, tam gic, sng sin v cc tn hiu c dng phc tp khc. My hin sng c th o tn s ca

26 cc b dao ng v cc b to xung nhp. My hin sng vt kp c th kim tra hai tn hiu vo (trong trng hp cc mch op - amp v cc cng), cng nh kim tra tn hiu u vo v u ra trong mch in t. Do vy, my hin sng c s dng ph bin trong vic o th, sa cha cc mch khuych i, cc mch dao ng, cc my pht, my thu v trong cc h thng mch s. b) Cc chc nng iu khin trn mt my hin sng. Cc chc nng iu khin trn mt my hin sng thng thng gm: iu khin cng tia [Intensity control] dng iu chnh sng ca vt. iu khin hi t [Focus control] dng iu khin sc nt ca vt sng. iu khin nh thi. iu chnh khong thi gian / vch chia ca mch dao ng qut (gc thi gian). iu khin h s khuych i dc (Y) dng iu chnh bin ca dng sng hin th theo chiu dc, trong khong t 5mV/div n 20V/div. iu khin h s khuych i ngang (H) dng iu chnh di ca vt theo chiu ngang. iu khin qut dng chn mch qut trong hay qut ngoi. iu khin kch khi [Trigger control] dng chn xung kch khi t b khuych i dc (Y), hoc t tn hiu in li hay tn hiu ngoi (i vi cc loi my hin sng hin nay c thm chc nng iu khin ng b). iu khin mc kch khi, dng iu chnh mc ca xung kch khi. iu khin v tr ngang, dng iu chnh v tr ca dng sng hin th theo chiu ngang. iu khin v tr dc dng iu chnh v tr ca dng sng hin th theo chiu dc. nh chun trong s cung cp tn hiu tn s 1kHz, bin khng i (thng l 2Vpp), kim tra vic nh chun que o. c) S dng my hin sng. 1. Khi cha bt chuyn mch ngun cung cp, t cc nm chc nng iu khin hi t [focus], cng chm tia [intensity] v iu khin h s khuych i [V/div] v tr thp nht (tn cng bn tri), v cc chc nng iu khin v tr dc v ngang v tr gn im gia. 2. Tip theo l bt chuyn mch ngun cung cp chnh ca my hin sng. 3. Sau khong thi gian khi ng ca my hin sng cho cathode cn phi c t nng hon ton, to ra cng chm tia yu cu.

27 4. iu chnh chc nng iu khin cng chm tia c vt sng r rng xut hin trn mn hnh. iu chnh chc nng iu khin v tr dc v ngang nu cn. (i khi h s khuych i ngang c th biu hin thnh vt sng nu im sng bt u ngoi khung mn hnh). Khi im sng c th nhn thy, di chuyn im sng vo trung tm v iu chnh hi t, nho lm cho im sng gn. Chc nng iu khin cng tia cn phi c iu chnh im sng khng qu chi, hoc khng qu m. 5. t ch qut theo v tr qut trong [Int.], v iu chnh h s khuych i ngang m rng im sng thnh ng sng y ngang trn mn hnh. 6. Kim tra s di chuyn theo chiu dc ca ng sng ngang. Mch khuych i dc nh chun c sn trong thit b o. 7. t u que o vo h thng cn o. Chuyn mch ngun ca h thng cn o bt [ON]. 8. iu chnh chc nng iu khin h s khuych i dc c cao ca dng sng yu cu trn mn hnh. 9. iu chnh dao ng qut (gc thi gian) c s chu k cn thit trn mn hnh. i vi my hin sng c kch khi, chu k cn phi n nh. 10. Kho st dng sng, o bin v kim tra c tnh ca tn hiu. 11. c cc mu hnh Lissajous, a tn hiu ngoi c cung cp t my to sng n u vo qut ngoi, dng cho php o tn s v pha. d) Cc php o vi my hin sng. o in p ca tn hiu vo Gi tr nh - nh ca in p c o bng cch m s vch chia theo chiu dc gia hai nh. Chng hn, nu bin nh - nh ca dng sng chim 4 vch chia trn thang nhy 500mV/div, th tr s nh - nh l 500mV/div x 4div = 2V, vy bin nh l 1V. o khong thi gian ca chu k Chu k ca tn hiu o c bng cch tnh s chu k trn b gc thi gian. Gi tr gc thi gian c trong mt chu k s l chu k ca tn hiu. V d, trn thang o 50 s/div, c 2 chu k tn hiu chim 4 vch chia, th s vch chia chim bi mt chu k l 2 vch chia, nn chu k tn hiu l 100 s. Tnh nghch o ca chu k s cho tn s ca tn hiu, trong v d s tnh c l 1/100 s = 10kHz. o tn s theo mu hnh Lissajous o tn s tn hiu theo mu hnh Lissajous thc hin bng cch a tn hiu c tn s cn o vo u vo dc, v ni tn hiu c tn s bit vo u vo qut ngoi, s thu c cc mu hnh khc nhau trn mn hnh tu thuc vo t s ca hai tn

28 s v lch pha ca hai tn hiu. Cc mu hnh Lissajous nh hnh 2.11.

Khi hai tn s bng nhau, lch pha bng 0o s to ra mt ng thng nghing 45o so vi ng ngang; vi lch pha 180o, ng thng s to mt gc bng 135o so vi ng ngang. Khi lch pha l 90o, s to ra mt ng trn. i vi cc lch pha bt k khc s to ra cc hnh ellipse. Khi hai tn s tn hiu khng bng nhau, th t s ca tn s cha bit (fv) i vi tn s bit (c tn s trn my to sng) (fh) s c xc nh bng t s ca s lng cc vng theo ng ngang i vi s lng cc vng theo ng dc. o ch s iu ch ca tn hiu AM Khi tn hiu iu ch c p t lm tn hiu qut ngoi, v tn hiu c iu ch lm tn hiu dc (Y) nh th hin hnh 2.12a. Mu hnh s c hin th nh hnh 2.12b. Ch s iu ch s c tnh bng (p q)/(p + q). o mo ca xung Xung vo v xung ra c th c hin th trn my hin sng hai vt. vng hoc vt qu ca phn nm ngang, v tng hay gim ca cc cnh xung c th quan st trn mn hnh. Thi gian tng (ng vi mc thay i t 10% n 90% bin xung) v

29 khong thi gian gim (ng vi mc thay i t 90% n 10% bin xung) c th o c trn mu xung. rng ca xung s c o trong khong t t mc 50% ca cnh tng n mc 50% ca cnh gim. e) Cc im lu khi s dng my hin sng. 1. Ni v my hin sng vi t. 2. Cng chm tia in t cn phi gi mc thp c th quan st thun li. im sng khng c lu ti mt v tr trn mn hnh. Trong trng hp cn phi gi do mt l do no , th hy mc cng thp. 3. Nn bt u php o vi mc nhy nh nht mch khuych i dc v tng dn cho n khi t c mc thit lp thch hp. 4. nh chun lch dc trc khi thc hin cc php o. C sn ngun in p trong my hin sng cho vic nh chun. 5. S dng que o ph hp khi thc hin php o trn cc tn hiu tn s cao, hay khi tn hiu vo qu ln. 6. Khi tho my hin sng sa cha, hy cn thn c in p rt cao khong vi kilovolt. Ngay c trong trng thi ngt chuyn mch ngun in li, cc t lc c in p cao c th gy nguy him cho ngi s dng, do vy t cn phi c x khi tin hnh cng vic trn my hin sng trng thi ct ngun. 7. Phi cn thn khi s dng ng tia, h hng ngu nhin bt k s dn n hng mn hnh. 8. Mn hnh pht quang c th pht x tia - x nh, khi cn thay th nn mua CRT tiu chun t nh sn xut c uy tn.

30

CHNG 3: THIT B O IN T NHIU CHC NNG & CHUYN DNG

Thit b o in t c gii thiu trong chng ny l thit b c bn, rt cn thit trong vic ch to, sa cha, o th cc cu kin, mch in t v h thng in t. S rt bt li nu khng c cc thit b o o th mch, o gi tr ca cc thng s. Cc mc sau m t nguyn l c bn v ng dng ca mt s thit b o thng dng. Cc thit b o th BJT v thit b v c tuyn BJT s c gii thch mc 4.1, thit b o th IC tuyn tnh v IC s s c m t chng 4.4 v 4.5 tng ng. Cc ch tiu k thut ca mt s thit b o gii thiu phn ph lc I. 3.1 NG H O KIU T - IN a) Nguyn l hot ng ca c cu o kiu t - in ng h o tng t thng dng trong o lng in in t trc y, s dng c cu cun dy di chuyn trong t trng ca nam chm vnh cu (PMMC), cn gi l c cu DArsonval, tc l c cu o kiu t - in. V c bn, ng h o kiu t - in l ng h o dng mt chiu (dc), to nn bi cc thnh phn khc nhau nh hnh 3.1, vi ba b phn chnh l: (i) b phn to ra lc lm lch, (ii) b phn iu khin, v (iii) b phn lm nht.

B phn to lc lm lch trong cc ng h t - in l tng tc gia t trng v dng in nh trong ng c in mt chiu. Khi cun dy mang dng c t trong t trng, s to ra m men xon bng B x A x N x I (Newton-mt), trong B l mt t thng tnh theo Wb/m2, A l tit din ca cun dy tnh theo m2, N l s vng dy trong cun dy, v I l dng in tnh theo ampere. M men s lm cho cun dy xoay. Dng in cao hn, s cho m men quay ln hn. Kim c gn trn cun dy, s di chuyn trn thang o. Cun dy qun trn mt khung nhm nh v c lp trn trc thng, khung dy c th xoay t do trong t trng u do

31 m men quay. T trng u v mnh s c to ra bi nam chm hnh mng nga lm bng vt liu t tnh. B phn iu khin bao gm l xo c gn vo cun dy ng, cn li lc lm lch, nn s bng k x q, trong k l h s l xo (ty thuc vo cc kch thc v mm do ca l xo), cn q l gc lm lch tnh theo . Khi lc iu khin bng vi m men xon, kim ch th s dng ti gi tr cn o. Khi dng in dng chy trong cun dy, lc xon bng 0, l xo s bt u phc hi li v s a kim ch th v v tr mc dng bng 0. B phn lm nht gm cc b to dng xoy khng kh, c vai tr n nh kim ch th ti v tr ch th. b) ng h o dng in bng c cu t - in ng h o kiu t - in v c bn l ng h o dng mt chiu (dc), c ch to cho lch ton thang ti cc gi tr dng thp, 1mA hoc thp hn (50 A). Tuy nhin, c cu o c th dng o cc mc dng cao bng cch s dng cc in tr c tr s thp mc song song vi cun dy ng gi l cc in tr shunt. Gi s ta mun o dng 100mA bng ng h o c lch ton thang l 1mA, th in tr shunt phi c tr s sao cho mc dng 99mA chy qua shunt v ch 1mA chy qua cun dy ng, nh th hin mch hnh 3.2. Tr s in tr ca shunt c th tnh t phng trnh (3.1).
IM I T RSh hay RSh RM RSh IM IT RM IM

(3.1)

Trong , IT l dng ton b, IM l dng c php chy qua c cu o, RM l in tr ca c cu o, v RSh l gi tr in tr ca shunt. V d 3.1, cho cch tnh in tr shunt. V d 3.1: in tr ca c cu o l 1000 v dng c th chy qua c cu o ln nht l 1mA. Gi tr ca RSh l bao nhiu cho php ng h o ch th 100mA ? Nu s dng cng c cu o o dng 1A, th shunt ca ng h cn phi c l bao nhiu ?
RSh I M RM IT I M 1 1000 100 1 1000 10,1 99

C cu o c th nh chun ch th mc dng 100mA thay cho 1mA khi mc shunt 10,1 vo mch o.

32 Tng t, o mc dng 1A, cn phi c shunt vo khong 1

RSh I M RM IT I M 1 1000 1000 1 1000 1 999

bng cch tnh nh sau:

ng h o c th c cc thang o dng khc bng chuyn mch n cc in tr shunt khc nhau nh hnh 3.3. V tr trng bn tri ca chuyn mch l thang o nh nht (t 0 n 1mA) khi khng mc shunt vo php o. Cc v tr chuyn mch 2, 3, v 4 s t in tr R1, R2, v R3 mc song song vi c cu o cho cc thang cao hn tng ng. Theo phng php trn, c cu o vn gi nguyn khng c shunt v tr thang o thp nht. Phng php o dng khc l phng php shunt vn nng hay shunt Aryton. Shunt vn nng [shunt Aryton] Shunt vn nng gm hng lot in tr c mc song song vi c cu o thng qua cc v tr ca chuyn mch thang o, nh hnh 3.4. v tr S-1 ca chuyn mch, shunt ca ng h l R1 + R2 + R3. v tr S-2, shunt R2 + R3 v R1 s tr thnh mc ni tip vi c cu o. v tr S-3, R3 s song song cn R1 + R2 tr nn mc ni tip vi c cu o. Vy shunt Aryton s hot ng theo hai cch. Th nht, dng r mch dng; th hai s lm gim nhy ca c cu o bng in tr mc ni tip vi c cu o.

c) ng h o in p bng c cu o t - in ng h o dng bng c cu o t - in cng c th s dng lm ng h o p [Voltmeter] bng cch mc ni tip mt in tr ln cng vi in tr ca c cu o. Gi tr ca in tr ni tip c gi tr ln m bo ch mc dng chp nhn c chy qua c cu o. Nu mc dng

33 ca c cu o l IM v in p cn o l Vme Volt, gi tr ca in tr ton b R (bng in tr mc ni tip + in tr ca c cu o) s c tnh bng phng trnh (3.2).
Vme R IM

(3.2)

V d 3.2: C cu o t - in dng o 100V trn mt mch in, nu mc dng chy qua c cu o l 1mA, xc nh tr s in tr mc ni tip. in tr ca c cu o l 1000 .
Vme R IM 100V 1mA , vy R = 100k , nn in tr ni tip = 100k R

- 1k

= 99k .

Khi nhiu in tr mc ni tip, c th chn bng mt chuyn mch c kt ni thit b o tr thnh mt voltmeter nhiu thang o, nh hnh 3.5.

d) ng h o in tr bng c cu o t - in S dng ngun pin trong (pin kh), c cu o t - in c th dng lm ng h o in tr [ohmmeter] o cc in tr cha bit tr s nh mch hnh 3.6. Dng chy qua c cu o s chy qua in tr cn o (RX). Gi tr ca dng in l lch ca kim ch th ca c cu o s ty thuc vo tr s ca in tr cha bit. Thang o ca ohmmeter

34 c th nh chun v khc theo ohm ( ). Nu in tr qu ln, ngun pin c th khng cung cp do dng s qu nh, nn cn phi c ngun d phng bng pin ln hn (E2 > E1) thc hin thng qua chuyn mch. Bin tr R phi c hiu chnh m bo rng khi in tr cha bit bng 0 (tc l hai u que o c ngn mch vi nhau), c cu o phi ch th mc in tr bng 0 ( lch ton b). Thang in tr s th hin in tr bng 0 ti lch y thang do in tr bng 0 ngha l mc dng ln nht chy qua c cu o. in tr v cng ngha l khng c dng in, v l tn cng bn tri ca thang o (vch mc dng bng 0) phi c nh du bng thang 10k , thang 10M trn thang o in tr. Cc thang o in tr khc nh thang 100 , s c c bng cch s dng cc in tr khc nhau nh chuyn

mch nhiu thang o nh hnh 3.7. o thang o in tr thp nht, in tr shunt phi l in tr thp nht. i vi cc thang cao hn, phi tng tr s ca cc in tr shunt. Theo hnh 3.7, R1 nh hn so vi R2, v R2 nh

hn so vi R3, v. v. . . RZ l bin tr chnh 0. Nu c cu o c lch y thang l 1mA, RZ cn phi c iu chnh mch c dng 1mA khi ngn mch hai u que o vi nhau (tc l khi RX = 0). e) Voltmet xoay chiu bng c cu o t - in C cu o t - in v c bn l ng h o dc. Nu a tn hiu xoay chiu (ac) n ng h th kim ch th s dao ng xung quanh im 0 do qun tnh. Nn o in p ac phi s dng mch chnh lu bng diode. Diode s chnh lu in p ac, bin i in p ac thnh xung p mch dc. ng h o s ch th gi tr trung bnh nh in p dc. i vi b chnh lu bn k, mc in p dc trung bnh s bng vi Vm/ (trong Vm l mc in p nh ca xung p

35 mch), cn i vi b chnh lu ton k, mc in p dc trung bnh l 2Vm/ . Mc d kim ch th ca ng h o s lch ty theo tr s trung bnh, nhng thang o s c nh chun ch th gi tr hiu dng (rms) ca tn hiu ac. (vic nh chun theo cc mc tn hiu vo sng sin v do s ch th s khng ng gi tr hiu dng i vi cc dng sng khc). Thng s dng mch chnh lu cu cho gi tr trung bnh cao hn, gn thp hn, v khng cn bin p im gia t tin, nh mch hnh 3.8.

Cc in tr R1, R2, v R3 c vai tr nh mch phn p. Cc diode ca mch chnh lu cu s chnh lu in p ac thnh dc. Mc in p dc trung bnh c to ra bng 90% ca tr s hiu dng (i vi b chnh lu bn k mc in p dc trung bnh bng 45% ca gi tr hiu dng). mch chnh lu cu s dng cc diode silicon, st p trn hai diode l 1,4V. Mc in p thc s c t ngang qua c cu o v in tr nhn (RS). Chng hn, nu R1, R2 v R3 mch hnh 3.8, l 9M ; 0,9M ; v 0,1M tng ng, in p a n mch chnh lu s l 10Vrms, nu in p t vo (nh c ghi ti cc v tr u cc ca chuyn mch) l 10V,; 100V; hay 1000V ngang qua mch phn p AB, th tr s trung bnh dc ca in p chnh lu s l 2x10Vx1,4/ bng 9V. Sau khi tr st p 1,4V trn cc diode, in p dc thc ngang qua mch c cu o s l 7,6V nn cn phi c in tr 7,6k k c in tr ca c cu o (i vi c cu

o 1mA). Vy nhy ca voltmeter ac khi dng mch cu l ch bng 76% ca nhy ca c cu o dc. (i vi mch chnh lu bn k, nhy s gim xung hn na n mc 38%) f) ng h o dng xoay chiu Chc nng o dng ac ch c mt s ng h o. Dng in cn o chy qua mt in tr c nh v o st p trn in tr bng voltmeter ac. in p ac s t l vi dng khi in tr c tr s khng i. o dng ac, thng s dng mch bin i dng thnh p bng IC op - amp. Trong mt s ng h o gi thnh cao s dng cc b nhit ngu. St p dc ngang qua tip

36 gip ca nhit ngu s t l vi hiu ng nhit ty thuc vo cng hiu dng ca dng in. Do vy, s o c gi tr rms ca dng in bt k dng sng ca tn hiu. g) ng h o a nng Khi c cu o t - in hp thnh cc mch thng ammeter nhiu thang o, voltmeter nhiu thang o, v ohmmeter nhiu thang o, ton b trong mt thit b o, th thit b o c gi l ng h o a nng. ng h o a nng cng c gi l ng h o AVO ( Ampere Volt Ohm). Khi s dng ng h o a nng thc hin cc php o cn phi tun theo cc lu sau: 1. Chn chuyn mch thng s o ng. Nu mun o in p, ng bao gi ng h o thang o dng in. 2. Chn ng thang o ca mt thng s o. Nu mun o gi tr c cho l 80V, khng ng h thang o 0 10V, m ng h o thang o 0 100V. 3. Nu khng bit gi tr cn o, th hy ng h o thang o cao nht theo thng s o, v sau gim dn thang o theo cc nc gim dn cho n khi xc nh c thang o thch hp. 4. Thang o c chn cn phi c s ch th gn vi lch y thang (fsd) mc c th c i vi php o in p v dng in, v gn mt na thang o i vi php o in tr, bi v ng h o s cho sai s php o nh nht. 5. Nu kim ch th ca ng h o khng ti v tr 0 ngay khi khng c tn hiu vo, th phi hiu chnh bng b phn c kh ( cng ca l xo cn bng gn trn khung dy), c iu chnh 0 chnh xc. 6. Khi o in tr, iu chnh bin tr chnh 0 c lch y thang (fsd) khi ngn mch hai u que o vi nhau. h) S dng ng h o a nng d tm h hng. ng h o a nng thng c s dng o in tr, in p v dng in dc. D nhin, i khi ng h o a nng cng c th o in p ac. Phn ln cc mch h hng c th xc nh c bng php o in p dc. Chng hn, trong mch hnh 3.9, nu in tr R h mch, th

37 in p VC ti C s bng 0. Nu cu kin (transistor) h mch, in p ti C s bng in p ngun cung cp. Nu cu kin b ngn mch, th in p ti C s bng 0. Khi o in p s th hin mt gi tr in tr h mch no , in tr c th c kim tra bng chc nng o in tr ca ng h o a nng bng cch ngt kt ni mt u in tr ra khi mch. Chc nng o in tr c th xc nh t in b r hay b ngn mch, hoc cun dy c b h mch hay khng. Cu kin bn dn c th o th bng cch o in tr cc trng thi phn cc ngc hay phn cc thun ca tip gip bn dn. S thng mch khi thc hin d mch c th kim tra bng ng h o in tr thang o thp nht ca ohmmeter. ng h o a nng l dng c o thng thng, dng trong cc dch v o th, sa cha do cch s dng n gin, cu trc chc chn, tng i chnh xc v khng yu cu ngun cung cp ngoi, cng nh khng nh hng bi t trng k sinh. 3.2 VOLTMETER S (DVM) Voltmeter s s dng nguyn l ca mch s o in p tng t. Voltmeter s c tt c cc u im ca mch in t s khi so vi mch in t tng t. a) Nguyn l Sau khi mch suy gim cho vic chn thang o; tn hiu vo s c chuyn i thnh tn hiu s bi b bin i tng t - s (ADC). Khi ADC c th s dng k thut tch phn n sn hay hai sn dc. dng c bn nht, ADC s so snh tn hiu vo vi in p mu (cc phng php nhn in p mu c th khc nhau). Ch cn in p vo ln hn so vi in p mu, th tn hiu ra ca b so snh s cho mc logic 1, s gi cho cng AND m v cc xung nhp s truyn qua cng AND. B m s m cc xung nhp . Ngay khi in p vo tr nn bng vi in p mu, th tn hiu ra ca b so snh s bng 0. Cng AND s ng v dng vic m. Mc ra ca b m s c cht v cc LED hay tinh th lng s hin th gi tr o. Hnh 3.10, l mch nguyn l c bn cng vi chuyn mch thang o. Chuyn mch thang o hnh 3.10, s chn tn hiu ra t mch phn p. Cc tr s ca cc in tr phn p c th l 9M , 0,9M v 0,1M chn ra 1V ti u vo ca ADC cho cc u vo 1, 10 v 100V ca tn hiu cn o. Nu tn hiu cn o l 100V, th tn hiu vo a n b so snh s l (100/10) x (1/10) s l 1V do mch phn p. Nu tn hiu cn o l 10V, th tn hiu vo a n b so snh s vn l 1V. Nh vy, b so snh s ly Vin trong khong t 0 n 1V bt k in p thc t cn o. Mc in p vo (t 0 n 1V) s c bin i thnh tn hiu s m s c m v hin th.

38

b) ng h o s a nng (DMM). V c bn, DMM l mt voltmeter s. Tt c cc thng s khc in p, nh in tr, dng in, in p ac u c bin i thnh in p dc nh chuyn mch chn chc nng o nh hnh 3.11. Sau php o in p dc s cho gi tr ca thng s cn o.

o in tr, th in tr phi c chuyn i thnh in p dc bng mc dng chy qua in tr cn o t mt ngun dng hng. Nu mc dng hng l 1mA, th suy ra mc in p dc c to ra trn in tr cha bit s t l trc tip theo mV. Nu in tr chn l 1k , th mc in p c to ra s l 1V. i vi php o dng in, dng in s c bin i thnh in p dc bng cch cho dng in chy qua mt in tr khng i, chn l 1 . Do vy mc in p dc st trn in tr s bng mc dng in (in p = dng in x 1 ). i vi php o in p ac, in p ac trc ht phi c chnh lu v sau s c xem nh in p dc c th o c.

39 Vic nh chun DMM s c kim tra bng php o in tr 0 in p khi bit mc in p dc trn thang o in p. c) ngha ca ch s bn phn v ba phn t. B ch th 3 - ch s DVM cho thang o t 0 n 1V s ch cc gi tr t 0 n 999mV. Bc mc tng nh nht l 1mV. Vic b sung thm mt ch s (0 n 9 thnh nhm 4 bit) v thc cht s lm tng gi thnh, nn bin php tit kim nht l c th s dng ch mt bit (0 hoc 1). Bit b sung s cho php DVM ch th cc tr s ln n 1999 thay cho 999, tc m rng thang o ln gp i. Khi ch s th 4 c th ch c gi tr 0 hoc 1, th thang o c gi l ch s bn phn (1/2), nn gi l ng h o 3 ch s. ng h o c 4 ch s s ch th gi tr o ln n 19999mV. Tng t, bng cch b sung hai bit 11, th ch s tn cng bn tri c th to ra l 3. ng h o 3 - ch s s cho php c 999 tip theo l 1999 hoc 2999 hoc 3999 (bng cch s dng 01, 10, v 11 tng ng), tc l tng thang o ln nht vo khong 4 ln. Vic b sung thang o nh vy c gi l ng h o 3 - ch s. ng h o 4 - ch s s cho s ch th ln n 39999. Vi vic b sung - ch s hoc - ch s s lm cho chnh xc tng ln nh c minh ho v d 6.3. V d 3.3: Cc s ch th 12,375V v 32,375V s c hin th nh th no cc ng h o (a) c 3 - ch s, (b) c 3 - ch s, (c) c 4 - ch s, v (d) c 4 - ch s ? (a) ng h o c 3 - ch s s ch th trn thang o 99,9V, do kt qu o l 12,375V v 32,375V s c c l 12,3V v 32,3V tng ng. (b) ng h o 3 - ch s s ch th s 12,375V l 12,37V trn thang o 19,99V v s o 32,375V l 32,3V trn thang o 099,9V. (c) ng h o 4 - ch s s ch th s 12,375V l 12,375V trn thang o 19,999V, nhng i vi s c 32,375V, th ng h o 4 - ch s s ch th l 32,37V trn thang o 99,99V. (d) ng h o 4 - ch s s ch th s 12,375V l 12,375V trn thang o 19,999V, v i vi s o 32,375V s ch th l 32,375V trn thang o 39,999V. 3.3 VOLTMETER IN T Voltmeter in t s dng mch khuych i mt chiu, h s khuych i ca mch khuych i s cho php s dng thit b o o cc in p di millivolt v microvolt. Trc y, cc voltmeter in t c gi l VTVM (vacuum tube voltmeter). Hin ny thut ng VTVM bng cch ngn mch hai

u que o, khi t chc nng ca ng h o v tr chuyn mch o in tr, hoc c th o

40 vn c s dng mc d n chn khng c thay th bng cc transistor. Tn gi mi ca thit b o l voltmeter in t (EVM) hay voltmeter bng transistor (TVM). Voltmeter in t c th lp theo cc kiu mch khuych i khc nhau, chng hn nh mch khuych i bng transistor n hay mch khuych i cn bng, hoc bng op - amp. Mc ch c bn ca vic s dng mch khuych i dc l c h s khuych i v in tr vo cao (tc l c th o c cc tn hiu yu), v cch ly ng h o vi mch vo ca thit b o (tc l c th s dng ng h chc chn hn v nhy km hn). Voltmeter in t in hnh nh mch hnh 3.12.

EVM s dng mch khuych i bng FET lm tng u. Cu kin bng FET c tr khng vo rt cao, nn s khng gy ra qu ti cho mch cn o, cho chnh xc cao. Mch phn p c mc lm chuyn mch thang o, cho php iu khin cc thang o in p khc nhau. Cc in tr mch hnh 3.12, s bin i mc vo l 1V, 10V, 100V v 1000V thnh 1V ti cng ca FET. Cc transistor Q1 v Q2 to thnh mch cu. Cu s c cn bng sao cho mt ch th ca ng h s ch th s o bng 0 khi tn hiu vo bng 0. Khi s dng mch khuych i thut ton, ngun in p hng, khong 1V, s cung cp tn hiu a n u vo khng o thng qua mt bin tr c nh chun. Mc vo dc s c gim xung n 0 i vi 1V nh cc mch suy gim thang o, s cung cp tn hiu n u vo o. ng h o mc u ra quan st mc 0. in th k ca in p mu s c hiu chnh c mc 0 trn ng h. Sau in p vo l cn bng vi in p chun c chia thang,

41 ch th trn mt s ca in th k. Mc d, phng php cn bng mc 0 c chnh xc cao hn, nhng cc thit b o gi thp, in p vo dc phi c chuyn i thnh millivolt, khong 10mV, h s khuych i ca op - amp c iu chnh n mc 100 v sau mc ng h o vo u ra nh chun, cho php ch th trc tip mc in p vo. Mch khuych i dc hay b tri dng ra (do nhit ca tip gip), do mt s thit b o s dng mch ngt qung ngt in p dc thnh cc xung, c th s dng mch khuych i ac nh mch hnh 3.13. Sau khi khuych i cc xung s c bin i thnh mt chiu v c o bng cch s dng mch vi sai.

a) Cc u im ca EVM 1. Tr khng vo ca EVM rt cao, nn nh hng do qu ti khng ng k trn mch cn o th. Do vy, chnh xc ca php o cao. 2. C th o in p ngay cc mc microvolt nh s khuych i tn hiu o. kiu c cu o t - in, o mc in p di 100mV rt kh khn. 3. in dung vo ca voltmeter in t l rt nh, vo khong vi picofarad. Do c th o c cc mc in p tn hiu tn s cao sau khi chnh lu. 4. ng h c nhy thp, 1000 /V, v v vy r tin, th, c th s dng cho cc php o. 5. Ngun cung cp cho mch khuych i khng ly t mch cn o, m ly t VCC. 6. kiu mch cu cn bng (nh th hin hnh 3.12), nh hng ca cc thay i cc thng s ca FET v BJT l thp nht. 7. dch mc 0 trong qu trnh hot ng khng xy ra. b) Nhc im ca EVM 1. Nhc im chnh l cn phi c khi ngun cung cp cho mch khuych i, nn EVM c gi thnh cao v kch thc ln. 2. Mch khuych i dc b tri mc tn hiu ra. c) ng h o in t a nng ng h o in t a nng (EMM) v c bn l voltmeter mt chiu, nhng s lm vic nh

42 nhiu ng h o nh chuyn mch chc nng kt ni cc thit b o bin i cc thng s o khc thnh in p dc, nh gii thch DMM. 3.4 NG H O H S MO DNG TN HIU a) Nguyn l ng h o h s mo dng dng o mo hi tng c trong tn hiu ra. Tn s c bn s c trit nh mch lc thng cao, m tn s ct ca mch lc hi cao hn so vi tn s c bn. Tn hiu tn s c bn s thot xung t v cc tn s cao hn so vi tn s c bn (hi bc 2, hi bc 3, v. v. . .) s a n voltmeter to ra mc in p do ton b cc hi c trong tn hiu. ng h o mo c th l kiu nhit ngu hoc voltmeter in t. S khi ca ng h o mo in hnh cho hnh 3.14. b) Thc hin php o mo Tn hiu vo s c cung cp t my to sng a n b khuych i cn o th mo. Tn

hiu ra ca b khuych i l tn hiu vo ca thit b o. Khi chuyn mch S t ti v tr B, s thu c ton b tn hiu ng h o u ra. Tn hiu ton b hoc s c iu chnh n mc lch y thang (fsd), hoc mc c nh no c ghi du trn mt ch th ca ng h nh mch suy gim. Tip theo, chuyn mch t ti v tr A, nn b lc thng cao s loi b tn hiu tn s c bn cho n khi nhn c mc bin gim mt ch th ca ng h. Mc ch th l mc tng tr i tn s c bn, tc l lng cc sng hi. ng h o s c nh chun theo phn trm ca mo dng m c th c trc tip trn vch chia thp nht. c) S dng ng h o mo trong vic d tm h hng C th o c mo xut hin trong thit b cn o th. Nguyn nhn gy mo dng c th c xc nh bng ngn mch ln lt cc tng ca thit b, nh hnh 3.15. Chng hn, nu tng III c lm ngn mch theo hnh v, v mo vn cn, tng no trong s cc tng III, hay IV, hoc V l tng gy mo dng. Nu mo dng c loi b, th tng I hoc tng II c th b hng. Ton b cc tng c th c o th theo phng php ny nhn din tng hng. Khi xc nh c tng hng theo phng php trn, ta c th o th thm

43 bit nguyn nhn gy mo dng v sa cha h hng.

3.5 B M TN S B m tn l mt thit b o s c th dng o tn s, khong thi gian gia hai tn hiu, chu k xung, t s ca hai tn s v c th m s xung. a) Nguyn l hot ng. kiu o c bn nht l tn hiu cn o c t vo cng AND, cng ch m trong khong thi gian c nh bng mt xung m cng. Xung ra ca cng AND s c a n b m 10 v cht s liu sau a n khi hin th nh th hin theo s khi hnh 3.16.

Mch x l tn hiu gm mt khi khuych i v khi trigger Schmitt. Tn hiu dng sng sin vo c khuych i v chuyn i thnh cc xung vung c a n mt u vo ca cng AND, u vo cn li ly xung nh thi t mch to xung nhp (khi gc thi gian). b) Cc php o bng b m tn. Php o tn s: Cng AND s duy tr vic m cng theo chu k ca xung nh thi, nn s cho cc xung tn hiu cn o tn s ti u ra ca cng AND trong khong thi gian m cng. B m s m cc xung v s m s c lu tr vo b nh cng nh c hin th. Xung nh thi kch khi b m ti thi im xut hin cnh trc v dng b m ti thi im xut hin cnh sau ca xung nh flip flop. Tng t, xung nh thi cng s iu khin b nh. Nu khong thi gian ca xung nh thi l 1 giy, b m m cng trong khong thi gian l 1 giy, b m cho s chu k tn hiu truyn qua cng trong mt giy, tc l o trc tip tn s ca tn hiu. i vi cc tn s cao, s dng mch chia 10 to ra cc xung nh thi t 1s n 1ms tu theo cc v tr t ca chuyn mch nhiu v tr. Nu c 1000 xung ca tn hiu cn o truyn

44 qua cng AND trong khong thi gian 1ms, th tn s ca tn hiu l 1000MHz. Cc b m khng th m cc tn s qu cao ( di gigahertz), nn cc tn s cao s c o bng k thut chia thang trc, tc l tn s tn hiu s c chia 2, 4, 8, v. v. . . sao cho tn s sau khi chia thang trc ph hp vi thang o ca b m tn. S khi b m tn c mch chia tn s xung nhp (mch chia gc thi gian) nh hnh 3.17.

o chu k: o chu k, xung tn hiu vo c tc dng nh mt xung nh thi dng m cng truyn cc xung nhp qua cng AND. Tn hiu vo s m v ng cng AND, nn s m l s lng xung nhp c truyn qua cng s cho bit chu k thi gian ca xung tn hiu cn o. S khi ca mch o chu k nh hnh 3.18a v b.

o khong thi gian gia hai xung: C th o khong thi gian gia hai xung bng cch s dng mt tn hiu m cng v tn hiu cn li ng cng AND. Tn hiu xung nhp dng

45 o khong thi gian khi m v ng cng. Php o c th hin hnh 3.19. Xung 1 lm cho u vo S = 1 v R = 0, nn Q = 1, khi xung 2 xut hin lm cho S = 0 v R = 1, nn Q = 0.

o t s tn s ca hai tn hiu: Nu c hai tn hiu, th tn hiu tn s thp c s dng lm xung nh thi, cn tn hiu tn s cao s c m trong khong thi gian ca xung nh thi. Php o cho bit t s ca hai tn s trn khi hin th nh s khi hnh 3.20.

m xung: Mch n gin nh hnh 3.21, s cho bit l b m s m tng s xung truyn qua cng trong sut khong thi gian chuyn mch gi trng thi kn mch.

c) B m tn s a nng. B m tn s a nng kt hp tt c cc php o trong thit b o n nh cc v tr t ca mch chuyn mch. Mch o c bn theo cc v tr chuyn mch nh hnh 3.22. d) Cc u im ca b m tn s kiu s. Cc u im ca b m tn kiu s gm: 1. r cao (6 n 8 digit) 2. chnh xc cao (do s n nh ca mch dao ng bng tinh th)

46 3. Tc o cao. 4. ng h o s khng p ng i vi nhiu v tp m mc thp khi t mc kch khi cao. 5. D c s ch th.

e) S dng my m tn s d tm trng thi hng ca thit b. Tn s ca cc b to xung nhp (trong my tnh), cc b dao ng ni (trong cc my thu) v cc b dao ng cao tn (RF) (trong cc my pht tn hiu v trong cc my thu - pht), c th c o kim tra nu cc tng c h hng. My to xung v my to hm c th c kim tra tm sai hng bng cch o tn s, rng xung v khong thi gian ca cc xung c to ra. Cc im o th thng c sn trn bng mch ca thit b in t c th ly tn hiu cn o bng ng h o tn s. 3.6 MY PHT TN HIU CAO TN (RF) My pht tn hiu cao tn s to ra tn hiu tn s radio dng iu ch tn hiu cao tn vi tn hiu m tn theo kiu iu bin hay iu tn. Vic iu ch tn hiu m tn s c to ra bi thit b o. Cng c th cung cp tn hiu iu ch ngoi. S khi ca my to tn hiu RF nh hnh 3.23. B suy gim s c nh chun cho mc suy gim mi nc l 20dB tng ng vi 1V. Tn hiu m tn cng c th ly ra thng qua mch suy gim khc kim tra cc tng m tn. a) S dng my pht tn hiu RF My pht tn hiu RF phi c ni vi my thu cn o thng qua cp c bo v chng nhiu.

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Chn bng tn v tn s dao ng. Chn kiu iu ch v su iu ch. B suy gim t ti v tr mc ra ca php o yu cu. u ra ca my to sng phi c ni vi u vo ca thit b cn o th. Ni ngun cung cp v tip theo bt cng tc ngun ca my pht tn hiu [ON]. My thu c iu chnh thu tn hiu. C th mc voltmeter in t (EVM), hay ng h o mc cng sut m tn ti u ra ca my thu. Nu khng c tn hiu ra my thu, th mc ra ca my pht tn hiu cn phi c tng thm, sao cho my thu c th nhn c tn hiu ra khng mo. Tt c cc php o thc hin vi mc ra mc khng i v mc ra thay i ca my pht tn hiu. b) S dng my to tn hiu trong vic chn on hng. My to tn hiu cao tn c s dng ph bin chn on tnh trng hng trong cc my thu. Tn hiu phi c cung cp n my thu v s dng my hin sng quan st dng sng tn hiu c u vo v u ra ca cc tng khc nhau. Nu mt tng th hin tn hiu ra bnh thng, th tt c cc tng trc tng l bnh thng v sai hng c th tng sau k tip. Theo cch ny c th xc nh tng hng. My to tn hiu cng cn cho vic cn chnh my thu tn s dao ng ni v tn s tn hiu RF l bng nhau (cng tn s) ti tt c mc thit lp trn nm tinh chnh trong bng tn. Th tc v trnh t cn chnh o cc thng s ca my thu s c gii thch mc 5.4, chng5. 3.7 MY TO TN HIU M TN. My to tn hiu m tn bao gm b dao ng m tn (thng s dng b dao ng kiu cu Wien), b khuych i m v b khuych i cng sut kt ni vi b suy gim nh chun nh s khi hnh 3.24.

48 S dng my to sng m tn chn on tnh trng hng trong cc mch khuych i. My to tn hiu m tn dng cung cp tn hiu chun, khng nhiu o th hiu sut v o cc thng s ca mch khuych i m tn (nh h s khuych i, rng bng tn cng nh mo dng). Cch thit lp php o nh hnh 3.24. Trnh t cc bc thc hin php o nh sau:

1. Ni my to tn hiu m tn vi b khuych i. Mc ng h o mc cng sut m tn ti u ra ca b khuych i. 2. iu chnh tn s ca my to tn hiu mc 1000Hz, v iu chnh suy gim ca tn hiu ra ca my to sng mc m b khuych i c th cho tn hiu ra khng mo. Ghi nhn mc ch th suy gim l x1, v mc ch th ca ng h o cng sut pht ra l w1. 3. Tip theo, mc my pht tn hiu trc tip vi ng h o cng sut song song vi b khuych i cn o th. Mc ch th trn ng h c th gim. Tng dn mc cng sut pht ra ca my to tn hiu cho n khi s ch th ca ng h o bng tr li tr s w1. Ghi nhn s ch th mi ca my pht tn hiu l x2. Tnh t s ca hai s ch th ca my pht tn hiu x2/x1, biu din theo dB, s cho h s khuych i ca mch khuych i. 4. o rng bng tn, h s khuych i ca mch khuych i phi c o ti cc tn s khc nhau, t 20Hz n 20kHz, v v c tuyn gia tn s (trn trc - x theo thang logarithmic) theo h s khuych i theo dB (trn trc - y tuyn tnh), t c tuyn ta c th xc nh rng bng tn mc 3dB. 5. o mo, cn phi s dng ng h o mo dng, nh c gii thch mc 3.4. ng h o mo dng s o mo hi tng to ra do mch khuych i i vi tn hiu cung cp t my to tn hiu. (phi m bo rng tn hiu pht ra ca my to tn hiu khng b mo). Php o ny cng s cho bit mc tn hiu ra m tn ln nht c th nhn c t mch khuych i trong gii hn mo cho php. 3.8 MY PHT XUNG.

49 My pht xung phc tp hn so vi my to sng sin. Mt sng sin ch c hai thng s l bin v tn s, trong khi sng xung c hng lot cc thng s nh bin xung, rng xung, tn s lp li ca xung, chu k, cng sut xung, chu k chuyn trng thi (qu ) v.v. . S khi ca my pht xung nh hnh 3.25.

B to xung B to xung gm mch dao ng cu Wien c ghp vi mch kch khi Schmitt. Tn s xung to ra ca mch kch khi Schmitt c th c iu khin hoc bn trong (iu khin trong - Int. control), hoc iu khin bn ngoi (iu khin ngoi - Ext. control). Xung n [Single] s iu khin cc thng s ca xung bng tay. Cng ngoi [Ext. gate] s to ra cc cm xung. Khi nh thi Khi nh thi thc hin cc chc nng nh sau: 1. Lm tr hay lm sm pha ca xung so vi xung kch khi. 2. Mi xung s c to ra hai xung. Xung th nht s trng vi xung kch khi, xung th hai s thay i theo thi gian. B pht t s My pht xung c s dng ph bin trong cc php o th v chn on hng trong cc mch s. My pht t s thay th khi nh thi to ra d liu. B iu khin dng xung B iu khin dng xung s iu khin rng xung, chu k chuyn trng thi (thi gian tng v thi gian gim ca cc cnh xung), cc tnh ca xung, bin xung v dch xung (t 0Vdc). My pht xung c tr khng ra c trng l 50 . My pht xung s ngn chn s hnh thnh sng dng trn ng truyn. My pht xung loi tt s to ra xung mn vi nh xung ngang v cc cnh ng. Tuy nhin, nu kho st h hng, cc xung c th b suy bin th hin preshoot, qu mc trn

50 [overshoot], dao ng tt dn [ringing], khng tuyn tnh [non linearity] v suy gim [droop] hay nghing [sag]. Cc du hiu trn th hin hnh 3.26. Cc sai hng xung c th quan st bng my hin sng. Cc cng dng ca my to xung. 1. o th cc mch s bng cch cung cp cc xung th nghim cc cng logic. 2. o nhy v t l bit li trong h thng thng tin s liu. 3. My to xung dng pht hin li trn cc ng dy in thoi. Xung s truyn qua ng dy in thoi tc nh sng (3 x 105km/s). Khi gp ng dy h mch, xung s c phn x v my pht. o khong thi gian trng nh trong radar, th c th tnh c chiu di ca cp khi b t. 4. Cc xung t my to xung c th c s dng o th h s khuych i v p ng tn s ca cc b khych i. Cc xung vung ngn s lm gim s tiu tn cng sut cho mch. 5. My to xung cng c th c dng lm tn hiu iu ch n cc b dao ng vi ba, radar. 6. Thng s thi gian hi phc ngc ca cc diode c th xc nh bng cch s dng cc xung t my to xung. 3.9 MY TO HM FUNCTION GENERATOR. Trong khi cc my to tn hiu ch to ra cc sng sin, v cc my to xung to ra cc xung vung hoc ch nht, th my to hm s to ra cc loi dng sng khc nhau. Cc dng sng m my to hm c th to ra l sng sin, cc xung vung hoc ch nht, cc sng tam gic v cc tn hiu rng ca. Cc dng sng khc nhau c to ra bng my to hm c th c ly ra ng thi. My to hm cng c th c kha pha vi tn hiu ngoi. Mch dao ng c bn ca thit b c th l mch dao ng a hi hay mch dao ng to sng sin nh kiu cu Wien. Cc dng dao ng, nu khng phi l sng sin c th c bin i t sng sin bng mch sa dng kiu in tr - diode. Cc dao ng c dng bt k c th bin i thnh cc xung bng mch kch khi Schmitt. Hnh 3.27, l s khi ca my to hm c bn. Mch dao ng cu Wien c th to ra tn hiu sng sin c bng tn rng, t vi hertz n di megahertz. B khuych i m s m bo tn hiu dao ng khng b suy gim. Mch khuych i cng sut v mch suy gim mc tn hiu (cc hp suy gim dB) s to ra sng sin ti u ra A. (mt s my to hm s dng cc mch a hi, tn hiu ra s c sa dng bang

51 mch sa dng diode v in tr c sng sin). B to xung s dng mch kch khi Schmitt bin i sng sin thnh xung. B iu chnh dng xung to ra cc xung c rng , p.r.f, v cng sut xung theo yu cu ti u ra B. Tn hiu ra ca mch kch khi Schmitt s c cung cp n mch tch phn bng op amp v tip theo n mch iu ha tn hiu c sng tam gic ti u ra C.

Chuyn mch bng UJT c th bin i sng tam gic thnh tn hiu rng ca, sau khi iu ha tn hiu s c ti u ra D. Cc cng dng ca my to hm. 1. Tn hiu sng sin c th dng o th h s khuych i ca mch khuych i. 2. Sng vung c th o th p ng tn s thp v tn s cao ca mch khuych i nh my hin sng. nghing no ca phn nh ngang ca xung s cho bit p ng tn s thp ca mch khuych i km. S thay i thi gian tng v thi gian gim (tc sn xung) ca cc cnh xung s cho bit p ng tn s cao ca mch khuych i km. Cc xung cng c th s dng o th cc cng s. 3. Cc sng tam gic c th dng o th tuyn tnh ca cc mch m sng tam gic truyn qua. Bt k s mo dng ca cc cnh tam gic, khi quan st trn mn hnh ca my hin sng, s cho bit khng tuyn tnh c to ra bi mch khuych i. 4. Tn hiu rng ca c th c dng o th cc b to sng qut v cc mch khuych i qut trong cc my thu hnh, cc my hin sng v cc monitor.

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CHNG 4: O TH CU KIN IN T
4.1 O TH BJT BJT c s dng nhiu trong cc mch khuych i, cc mch dao ng, mch trn, mch iu ch v cc mch chuyn mch. Quy trnh o th BJT l o cc c tnh quy nh kh nng hot ng ca BJT. o th BJT bao gm cc php o mt s thng s quan trng ca transistor v mch BJT, bng cc thit b o thng dng c bn v thc t nht. 4.1.1 CC PHP O TH THNG S C BN CA BJT Trong qu trnh ch to, BJT qua nhiu php o th nghim khc nhau. Trong thc t cn phi c 4 php o th c bn: o th h s khuych i, dng r, th in p nh thng, v o thng s thi gian chuyn mch. c tnh chuyn mch khng quan trng nu khng s dng transistor trong cc ng dng xung-s. Php o th thc t duy nht trong phn tch mch, cui cng l o th ngay trn mch in s dng transistor. Ngoi tr trng hp c bit, cc transistor s hot ng vi cc thng s hp l trong mch khi c cc c tnh: (1) BJT th hin c khuych i thch hp, (2) khng b nh thng (hng ) khi lm vic vi mc in p ln nht, (3) mc dng r, nu c phi thp tc l c tr s trong khong cho php, v (4) cc c tnh chuyn mch (thi gian tr, thi gian gi, v. v. . .) ca BJT trong cc mch xung-s, cn phi c gi tr trong di cho php. C hai ngoi l i vi quy tc trn. c tnh ca transistor thay i theo s thay i v tn s v nhit lm vic. V d, transistor c o th 1MHz c khuych i ln p ng vi i hi ca mch, nhng 10MHz, khuych i ca cng transistor ny c th bng 0. C nhiu yu t gy nn sai lch , chng hn nh tt c transistor u c in dung u vo, u ra. Khi tn s tng ln, lm thay i dung khng gim xung. Do vy tn s cao hn, transistor c th tr nn khng thch hp vi mch (khng khuych i, dao ng khng n nh, v. v. . . ). i vi nhit , dng trong cc tip gip phn cc ngc ca transistor tng theo s tng nhit . Transistor c th r nhit mi trng danh nh v cho r ton b trong mc sai lch cho php. Cng mt transistor khi dng trong mch c nhit tng, r tng n mc khng ph hp vi hot ng chnh ca mch. S khng thc t khi o th transistor trn ton b di tn v khong nhit lm vic m transistor c s dng, do vy cc transistor thng c o th ti cc iu kin ghi trang s liu. Nn s dng cc c tuyn c trang s liu nh gi cc c tnh ca transistor cc tn s v nhit khc. Trong mt s mch ng dng tn s cao (RF) transistor phi c o th tn s lm vic nh trong mch th ring, tng t nh mch lm vic. 4.1.2 O TH DNG R CA BJT i vi mc ch o th, c transistor pnp v npn, u c xem nh hai diode mc i nghch nhau, nn quy trnh o th transistor tng t nh quy trnh thc hin vi diode. Theo nguyn l, khng c dng chy qua tip gip diode khi diode c phn cc ngc, do vy nu o c mc dng chy no iu kin diode phn cc ngc th l dng r. Trong trng hp BJT, tip gi p C-B c phn cc ngc, nn s khng c dng ln chy qua. Tuy nhin, trong phn ln cc ng dng thc t, c mt mc dng r nht nh chy qua tip gip C-B, nht l khi in p collector gn mc gii hn cho php v khi nhit lm vic tng ln. a) Dng r collector Dng r collector c k hiu l ICBO hoc IBO hu ht cc trang s liu ca BJT. Dng r collector c th c gi l dng tn s ct collector cc trang s liu khc, y ghi r mc dng danh nh v / hoc ln nht i vi in p collector-base v nhit mi trng xc nh trc. Dng r collector-base thng thng c o khi emitter h mch, nhng cng c th o vi emitter ngn mch vi base hoc lin mch vi base qua in tr. Hnh 4.1, l mch c bn o th dng rng collector-base, nhng mch (a) v (b) l thng dng nht. Quy trnh thc hin o th theo cc mch hnh 4.1, l nh nhau. Ngun in p c iu chnh n tr s cho (phn cc ngc), nn dng r (nu c s c ch th trn ng h). Dng r phi thp

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di mc ln nht xc nh i vi in p phn cc ngc cho trc.

Nhit l yu t quan trng khi o dng r. V d, mc dng r collector ln nht ca BJT lm vic di video in hnh 25C l 2A vi in p gia collecter-base l 30V. Khi gim thp mc in p n 5V (i vi cc mch s thng dng) v nhit tng ln n 150C, th mc dng r collector ln nht l 50A. b) Dng r emitter Mt vi trang s liu cng c ghi mc dng r emitter, nhng mc dng r emitter khng phi l thng s ph bin, v tip gip emitter-base c phn cc thun vi phn ln cc mch BJT. Nu cn thit c th dng mch hnh 4.1, o th mc dng r emitter-base ( Ieo hoc Iebo ) ch cn thay i v tr cc collector cho emitter. Tip gip emitter-base c phn cc ngc, in cc collector h mch nn ng h c mc mch emitter-base, tng t khi o dng r collector-base. c) o th dng r ca BJT bng ng h o in tr C th kim tra nhanh mc r bng ohmmeter, v BJT c xem nh hai diode u ngc nhau. Mi diode s biu hin in tr thun nh v in tr ngc ln. Cc in tr thun, nghch c th o bng ohmmeter nh v hnh 4.2.

Trn cng mt thang o ca ohmmeter, o in tr mi cp chn (base-emitter, base-collector, v collector-emitter). i vi BJT cng sut, gia collector-emitter c th ch th ohm thp. Ch l khng nn s dng thang o R 1 ca ohmmeter v in p ngun trong ohmmeter cao, c th lm hng transistor cng sut thp. Nu php o c c s ch th in tr thun v nghch u rt ln, th BJT b h mch. Ngc li, ch th s o bt k biu hin s ngn mch hoc in tr rt nh th BJT b ngn mch hoc qu r. Nu s ch th in tr thun v nghch bng nhau (hoc gn bng nhau) th BJT hng. in tr thun in hnh trong khong vi trm ohm (t 300 700), in tr nghch in hnh vo khong vi chc k (tc l t 10k 60k). Tr s in tr thc ph thuc thang o ca ohmmeter v in p ngun pin m khng ph thuc c tnh BJT thun-nghch. Do , t s ca in tr thun v nghch l ch bo tt nht nh gi BJT. Phn ln BJT c t s in tr thun-nghch vo khong 1:30 v mt s transistor l 1:100 hoc nh hn. Lu : Khng c o th bt k c tnh no khc ca transistor ngoi cc c tnh nu. Transistor c th b hng nu khng tun theo ng quy tc di y. Ngay c khi khng b hng th kt qu o

54
th cng khng chnh xc. Khng bao gi o th transistor vi in p hoc dng ln hn cc tr s danh nh. Dng danh nh ln nht thng b b qua. V d, transistor c thit k lm vic vi in p collector ln nht l 45V, BJT c th c coi l an ton i vi ngun 9V khi o th. Tuy nhin, gi s transistor c in tr trong (emitter-collector) l 90, v dng collector danh nh ln nht l 25mA. Khi ni trc tip 9V gia collector v emitter, th dng chy qua collector-emitter l 100mA, nh vy l gp 4 ln dng danh nh ln nht, s gy qu nhit cho tip gip v lm hng transistor. 4.1.3 O TH IN P NH THNG TRANSISTOR Mch v quy trnh o th nh thng transistor nh o th dng r. o th nh thng quan trng nht l xc nh mc in p nh thng collector-base, trong tip gip collector-base c phn cc ngc vi emitter h mch v iu chnh ngun in p t n tr s cho ca dng r, ri so snh vi mc in p nh thng collector nh nht xc nh i vi transistor. V d, in p nh thng collector nh nht l 45V (vi dng r 50A ti nhit mi trng o l 25). Nu c mc dng r 50A chy qua khi in p nh hn 45V th tip gip collector-base b nh thng. Mt th nghim nh thng khc ghi mt s trang s liu l mc in p nh thng collector emitter. php o th ny collector v emitter c phn cc ngc, h mch base. iu chnh ngun in p c tr s cho ca dng r chy qua c hai tip gip collector -base v emitter-base. o th in p nh thng collector-emitter cng ng thi xc nh tnh trng c hai tip gip. hu ht cc trang s liu, in p nh thng c k hiu l BVCBO (collector-base vi emitter h mch), BVCES (emitter ngn mch vi base) hoc BVCEO (collector-emitter, vi base h mch). Mc in p nh thng thng o vi emitter (hoc base) h, nhng cng c th o vi emitter ngn mch vi base hoc ni vi base qua in tr hoc vi phn cc ngc tip gip emitter-base. Hnh 4.3, l cc mch c bn o th in p nh thng i vi transistor pnp. C th dng cc mch hnh 4.3, o transistor npn vi cc ngun in p c o cc tnh. Trong tt c cc trng hp, ngun in p c iu chnh theo dng r cho, ri sau so snh mc in p o c vi mc in p nh nht xc nh trang s liu.

4.1.4 O TH H S KHUYCH I CA BJT H s khuych i ng ca transistor c xc nh bng thay i tn hiu ra i vi s thay i tn hiu vo. Thc t l o s thay i dng ra i vi s thay i cho dng vo, khi gi mc in p ra khng i. Khi transistor mc trong mch base-chung, collector to thnh mch ra v emitter to thnh mch vo. H s khuych i dng mch base-chung c gi l alpha, . H s khuych i ghi hu ht cc trang s liu l transistor mc theo mch emitter -chung m khng phi l mch base-chung. mch emitter-chung, base l u vo, collector l u ra. H s khuych i dng mch emitter-chung c gi l beta, . Ngoi cc h s khuych i alpha v beta, cc trang s liu cn c thm mt s thut ng khc ch khuych i nh h s truyn t dng thun v hfe l thng dng nht ch khuych i dng ca BJT. Khi dng cc ch thng hfe ghi c tnh ca BJT l cho bit khuych i dng c o bng cch ghi s thay i ca dng xoay chiu collector i vi s thay i cho c a dng xoay chiu base, tc l h s xoay chiu hoc ng. Khi th hin bng ch in hFE hoa hFE trong cc thng s k thut ca BJT tc l h s khuych i dng c o bng cch ghi s thay i dng dc collector vi dng dc cho base hay gi l dc.

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o h s khuych i xoay chiu - mt chiu. o khuych i dng mt chiu tin hnh vi cc iu kin o khong rng hn v d thc hin hn. o khuych i ac cn mch o th phc tp hn v kt qu o th thay i theo tn s ca tn hiu ac dng o th. Tuy nhin, php o khuych i ac l thc t hn v cc transistor thng lm vic vi cc tn hiu ac. a) o th h s khuych i dc ca BJT o h s khuych i alpha. Hnh 4.4, l mch o c bn ca BJT pnp v npn. C dng emitter IE v dng collector IC c o iu kin tnh. Sau thay i dng IE bng R1 hoc bng cch thay i in p ngun emitter-base v gi c nh in p collector. Ghi nhn chnh lch dng IC v tnh tr s theo cng thc ghi trn hnh. V d, gi s thay i ca dng emitter IE l 4mA dn n thay i ca dng collector IC l 3mA, th h s khuych i dng l 0,75 (3mA4mA). o h s khuych i . Hnh 4.5, l mch o th c bn ca BJT pnp v npn. C dng base IB v dng collector IC u c o iu kin tnh. Sau gi in p collector khng i, thay i dng base IB theo lng cho v ghi nhn chnh lch dng collector IC, xc nh beta. V d, gi s o ln u dng base IB l 7mA v dng collector IC l 43mA. Khi dng IB tng ln mc 10mA (tng 3mA), dng IC tng ln n 70mA (tng 27mA), tc l IC tng 27mA i vi dng IB tng 3mA, nn h s khuych i dng l 9 (27mA3mA). Cc im lu khi o th h s khuych i ca BJT. Khi dng mch hnh 4.4, v 4.5, thay cho thit b o th transistor, cn phi lu cc im sau: 1. in tr ti collector v emitter (hoc base) (th hin bng R1 v R2 trn hnh 4.4, v 4.5) phi c tr s thch hp hn dng, m bo khng vt qu mc dng ln nht ca BJT. Trong trng hp BJT cng sut, tr s cng sut danh nh ca in tr ti phi ln tiu tn nhit. 2. php o c dng r collector ln, dng r phi c tnh n theo cc iu kin o th. o dng r bng cch dng cng cch o dng v in p nh i vi php o th h s khuych i. Sau tr mc dng r khi mc dng IC khi o th h s khuych i. 3. Tc ng ca ng h o trong mch o th cng phi a vo tnh ton. Nu IB, IC v IE c tr s nh (thng khong o microampe) th bt k mc dng no ch th ca ng h o cng nh hng n php o th. b) o th h s khuych i ac ca BJT C mt s mch dng o th ac hoc th ng ca BJT. Mt s b o th transistor dng mch ging mch c bn hnh 4.4, v 4.5, ngoi tr l tn hiu ac c a n u vo v h s khuych i c o u ra. Mun o th transistor cc tn s cao, mt s mch o th ly tn hiu tn s cao t my to tn hiu tn s cao ngoi. c) o th h s khuych i ca BJT bng Ohmmeter C th kim tra nhanh khuych i ca BJT bng Ohmmeter. Mch o c bn nh hnh 4.6. trng thi bnh thng ch c mc dng nh hoc khng c dng chy gia emitter v collector cho n

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khi tip gip base-emitter c phn cc thun. c tnh ny dng lm c s o th khuych i ca BJT. Trong s dng Ohmmeter thang o R 1 vi ngun p trong ng h o khng vt qu mc in p nh thng collector-emitter ln nht. Khi S1 v tr A, khng c in p a n base nn tip gip base-emitter khng c phn cc thun. Do ohmmeter ch th mc in tr ln. Khi S1 t v tr B, tip gip base-emitter c phn cc thun (bng mc phn p trn R1 v R2) nn c dng chy trong mch emitter-collector, ch th mc in tr nh trn ohmmeter. T s in tr l 10:1 (hoc c th ln hn) l thng thng vi phn ln BJT. d) o th h s khuych i RF ca BJT Cc php o th cp phn trn dng xc nh h s khuych i ca BJT lm vic tn s thp, m khng xc nh c h s khuych i ca BJT tn s cao (RF). Cch o th duy nht l o h s khuych i ca mch khuych i (hoc khuych i in p hoc khuych i cng sut) l mc cu kin trong mch ang lm vic v o h s khuych i thc. Phng php thc t nht l o h s khuych i cho cu kin ang lm vic trong mch s dng cu

kin. Tuy nhin, thun tin hn l s dng cc mch o a nng hoc mch chun o th khuych i BJT khc, vi cc tn s khc bng cch thay i tr s ca mch. S dng mch hnh 4.7, cng ch n gin l a tn hiu RF ( tn s cn quan tm) n u vo v o c in p u vo v in p u ra bng Voltmeter RF (hoc ng h c u o RF). Nu cn o h s khuych i cng sut th dng in tr ti u vo v u ra (in tr thun). o in p RF u vo v u ra, ri tnh khuych i cng sut theo P = E2R. T s ca mc cng sut ra mc cng sut vo chnh l h s khuych i cng sut. 4.1.5 O TH C TNH CHUYN MCH CA BJT Khi s dng BJT trong cc mch ng dng xung-s, cn phi o th cc c tnh chuyn mch ca BJT, chng hn nh o tr thi gian trc lc xung xut hin u ra khi a tn hiu xung n u vo ca transistor. Tng t, khi xung kt thc u vo, c mt tr b sung trc khi xung ra ca transistor tr v mc bnh thng. Khong thi gian chuyn mch hoc thi gian ng v ngt thng l s hoc ns i vi cc transistor xung v s. c tnh chuyn mch ca BJT dng cho mch s thng c ghi trang s liu. Mi hng sn xut BJT ghi theo kiu ring. Tuy nhin, c 4 thng s (thi gian tng, thi gian gim, thi gian tr v thi

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gian tn ti xung) l thng dng phn ln cc trang s liu ca transistor dng lm vic vi tn hiu xung-s. c tnh chuyn mch ca BJT c bit quan trng khi khong thi gian tn ti xung ngn. V d, gi s thi gian chuyn sang dn (turn-on) ca transistor l 10ns v thi gian tn ti xung l 5ns c a n u vo ca transistor th s khng c xung u ra hoc c xung b mo dng. a) Cc thng s ca xung vung Cc thng s ca xung v sng vung cng c dng cho transistor. Cc thut ng minh ha hnh 4.8a, thng c dng khi m t cc c tnh ca xung cng nh sng vung. Xung vo biu din bng dng sng vung l tng so snh vi dng sng ra in hnh ( bit quan h gia u vo v u ra). Cc c tnh ca xung c nh ngha nh sau: Thi gian ln (tr) l khong thi gian bin in p ra thay i t mc 10% n 90% ca bin ln nht sn ln ca xung.

Thi gian xung (tf) l khong thi gian bin in p ra thay i t mc 90% n 10% ca bin ln nht sn xung ca xung. rng xung (tW) l khong thi gian o c gia cc mc bin l 50% ca bin ln nht sn ln v sn xung ca xung. Thi gian tr (td) l khong thi gian gia lc khi u ca xung vo (t = 0) v thi im khi phn ln ca xung ra t n mc bin l 10% mc bin ln nht sn ln ca xung. Cc thut ng khc ghi trn hnh 4.8a. b) o th thi gian chuyn mch ca BJT Hnh 4.8b, l mch dng o th c tnh chuyn mch ca BJT bng my hin sng vt kp. My hin sng cn phi c p tuyn tn s rng v c tnh qu tt (thi gian tng nhanh hn thi gian tng ca xung cn o). Knh dc ca my hin sng c nh chun theo in p thng thng v knh ngang phi nh chun theo thi gian (m khng chun theo tn s qut). BJT cn o th s nhn xung vo base vi phn cc ring t vo base, ng thi xung vo cng a n mt trong cc u vo dc ca my hin sng. u ra collector ca BJT (o pha 180 v mch emitter-chung) c a n u vo dc cn li ca my hin sng. Hai xung (vo v ra) s c so snh v thi gian tng, thi gian gim, thi gian tr, thi gian tn ti xung v. v. . . c tnh xung ra ca BJT cn phi c so snh vi cc c im k thut ca BJT ghi trang s liu ca nh sn xut. 4.1.6 O TH BJT BNG B V C TUYN i vi transistor c xem l cn tt khi dng b o th BJT (trong mch hoc ngoi mch, hoc c hai) v thng qua php o th c tnh chuyn mch RF ghi trang s liu (mc 4.1.4 v 4.1.5). Tuy vy, php o th ch hon chnh khi s dng b v h c tuyn c bn ca BJT. Cng dng ca b v h c tuyn cn dng kim tra c tuyn ca cu kin khc nhau (FET, UJT, SCR v. v . . .).

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a) o th BJT bng b v c tuyn Hnh 4.9, l s khi c bn ca b v h c tuyn in hnh khi o th BJT, b v h c tuyn to ra cc mc thay i dng base theo cc tr s bng nhau (c th chn nc tr s bit). Cc mc dng xut hin cng tc khi in p cung cp cho collector c qut gia 0V v tr s nh no v tr v 0, tc l to nn c tuyn ring ng vi mi tr s khc nhau ca dng base.

Khi cc c tuyn th hin quan h dng collector i vi in p collector (theo cc tr s khc nhau ca dng base), s thay i dng collector c tng theo tng bc ca dng base t l vi khong cch ng gia cc c tuyn k nhau. S thay i dng collector c th c trc tip trn thang o mn hnh ca my hin sng. Mi mc dng collector tng ng vi in p collector ring. BJT mc trong mch o th hnh 4.9, theo kiu mch emitter ni t. Cc bc dng chnh xc 1mA c a n base. in p qut t 0 n khong 5V c a n collector. lch ng ca my hin sng nhn c theo kt qu dng collector. Ton b thao tc o c thc hin bng cch iu chnh cc chuyn mch trn b v h c tuyn. mt s b v h c tuyn, mi sng qut phi bt u ring bit, trong khi thit b v khc t ng to ra mt lot 10 c tuyn (hoc hn) lin tip. Khi c h c tuyn, th c th xt nh sau: Chn ng thng ng tng ng vi in p collector xc nh, chng hn chn ng thng ng mc 3V nh hnh 4.9. nh du (trn ng thng ng chn) khong cch gia hai c tuyn xut hin pha trn v di mc dng base xc nh (hoc mc dng collector xc nh). V d, gi s BJT mch o th hnh 4.9, c cho hot ng vi mc dng collector t 30mA n 40mA tng ng vi mc 3V collector. Hai c tuyn hp l nht l c tuyn c mc dng base 1mA v 2mA. Khong cch gia cc c tuyn biu din chnh lch dng collector l 12mA. c tuyn c mc dng base 1mA ct ng ng dc 3V mc 30mA v c tuyn ng vi dng base 2mA ct ng thng dc 3V mc dng collector 42mA. Ly t s gia chnh lch dng collector v chnh lch dng base to ra. V mi bc ca dng base l 1mA v chnh lch dng collector l 12mA, nn h s khuych i () l 12. Nu mi bc ca dng base l 0,1mA (nh mt s b v c tuyn) v cc iu kin khc l nh nhau th beta = 120 (120,1 = 120). b) o th xoay chiu bng b v c tuyn Hnh 4.10, cho thy k thut s dng b v c tuyn o th ac (cng dng chnh ca b v c tuyn). Theo nh ngha, h s khuych i dng ng hay ac ca BJT c th xc nh bng t s ca thay i dng collector i vi thay i dng base (ti mc in p collector xc nh). o chnh lch dng collector (IC) gia hai c tuyn trn hnh hin mn hnh ca my hin sng (chnh cc chc nng iu khin ca b v c tuyn v / hoc my hin sng xc nh lng dng collector c th hin theo mi vch chia ng ca thang o hnh hin. hnh 4.10, mi vch ng th hin mc dng collector l 2mA). Phi m bo c hai s o dc c tuyn c chn cng mc

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in p collector, hnh 4.10, c hai s o dc c ly mc 5V. Ghi nhn thay i dng base (IB) to ra theo mi c tuyn. Trong hnh 4.10, mi c tuyn c to nn bi thay i 10A. Do vy, IB l 10A i vi c tuyn bt k. Xc nh bng cch chia IC cho IB. V d, nu IC = 2mA v IB = 10A (hnh 4.10a) th ac = 200. d dng hn nn s dng hai c tuyn chnh gia hnh hin o ac. Tuy nhin, nu kh khn trong vic xc nh IC ca hai c tuyn k nhau th c th o IC gia hai c tuyn khng k nhau. V d, chnh lch gia mc dng collector ca c tuyn th 2 v c tuyn th 4 c chn o IC nh v hnh 4.10b, th phi s dng 2 bc ca dng base xc nh IB khi tnh . Dng cc tr hnh 4.10b, th ac l 3,5mA20A = 175 (ti mc VC = 5V).

Nu c sn trang s liu ca BJT th o ac mc dng collector xp x v mc in p xc nh. Nu khng c tr s xc nh, th iu chnh b v c tuyn hin hnh c tuyn c khong cch rng v u n. 4.1.7 O TH BJT TRONG MCH Hai phng php o th transistor trong mch gm: phng php ngt in p phn cc thun v phng php cn phi b sung in p phn cc thun t ngoi vo mch phn cc. a) o th BJT trong mch bng cch ngt in p phn cc thun Hnh 4.11a, l cch mc mch o th BJT trong mch bng cch ngt in p phn cc thun. Trc tin, o in p emitter-collector trng thi mch hot ng bnh thng, sau ngn mch tip gip emitter-base v ghi nhn mc thay i in p emitter-collector. Nu transistor ang hot ng th khi ngt phn cc thun s lm ngng dng collector nn in p o c gia emitter -collector phi tng ln (hoc gn bng) 12V. Nu in p VCE khng thay i khi ngn mch emitter-base th transistor hng hoc c th b r mnh.

b) o th BJT trong mch khi b sung mc in p phn cc thun ngoi vo mch Hnh 4.11b, l cch mc mch o th BJT bng cch a in p phn cc thun vo mch. u tin o chnh lch in p emitter-collector trng thi mch bnh thng (hoc o in p trn R4 nh hnh v). Tip theo mc in tr 10k gia collector v base, v ch s thay i bt k in p

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emitter-collector (hoc s thay i in p trn R4). Nu BJT ang hot ng th vic a thm in p phn cc thun vo base s gy ra dng collector (hoc tng ln), nn in p emitter-collector gim (hoc in p trn R4 tng ln). Nu VCE khng thay i khi b sung mc in p phn cc thun th BJT hng. c) o th trng thi BJT lm vic / khng lm vic Cch o th mch o hnh 4.11, cho bit transistor ang hot ng trn c s lm vic / khng lm vic, v thng l i vi cc ng dng pht hin BJT hng. Tuy php o th khng cho bit khuych i hoc r ca transistor v khng xc nh c trng thi ca BJT hot ng tn s cao. Do , cch o th transistor duy nht p ng l o th hot ng trong mch. Nu transistor khng hot ng ng chc nng nh trong mch th phi thay transistor. 4.1.8 HOT NG KHUYCH I CA BJT Hot ng chuyn tip dng in t t emitter n collector ca BJT c th xem l dng mt dng in nh a vo mch base ( gi tip gip emitter c phn cc thun), s dn n dng emitter ln ph hp trong mch collector v in tr ti. V d, dng base 20 A c th to ra dng collector 2mA, suy ra h s khuych i dng l 100, th hin bi h c tuyn hnh 4.12a, v b.

Hnh 4.12a, l c tuyn gia dng base v dng collector (c tuyn truyn t). Mc dng IC nh ngay c khi IB bng 0, s cho bit mc dng r qua BJT. Hnh 4.12b, cc c tuyn ca dng ra theo in p collector emitter (VCE) i vi cc mc dng base khc nhau. BJT l cu kin nhy dng. Dng collector bng hiu ca dng emitter v dng base. Do mc dng base nh khng ng k, nn dng emitter xp x bng dng collector trong cc tnh ton thc t. a) Cc thng s ca transistor trong mch. Transistor c c trng bi (h s khuych i dng in, hay t s ca thay i dng ra theo thay i dng vo), in tr vo, in tr ra, h s khuych i in p v rng bng tn. Tn s ln nht, ft l tn s m ti h s khuych i tr nn bng n v, cng l mt trong cc thng s ca transistor, v tng ng vi tch h s khuych i v rng bng tn i vi mch khuych i dc v tn s thp. b) Phn cc cho mch khuych i bng transistor. Thay cho vic s dng hai ngun cung cp ring bit (mt ngun phn cc tip gip collector-base, v ngun cn li phn cc cho tip gip emitter-base). s dng ch mt b ngun n, cn phi cung cp in p dc c nh n base nh mch phn p nh mch hnh 4.13, cho transistor npn. i vi transistor pnp, s dng ngun pin c cc tnh ngc li. Ngun in p dc n gi l VCC (in p ngun cung cp trn mch collector). Hai in tr R1 v R2 to thnh mch phn p, lm cho mc in p ti base bng VCC x R2/(R1 + R2). in p base i vi in p emitter do dng emitter gy ra trn in tr emitter s cho mc in p phn cc yu cu. V d, cho in p base l 2Vdc do mch phn p to

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ra, v nu in p base so vi in p emitter yu cu mc 0,7Vdc (i vi transistor silicon) phn cc thun tip gip emitter, th in p emitter s phi bng 1,3Vdc, c to ra bng cch s dng in tr RE trong mch emitter, RE cn phi c tr s dng chy qua s to ra in p emitter bng 1,3V. Cu hnh mch phn p s cho in p phn cc n nh. Nu do nhit tng ln, dng r qua tip gip collector - base v c chy qua R2 s tng ln, in p base s tng (to ra dng collector ln hn v do nhit cao hn). Tc ng tch ly ny c gi l s gia nhit, rt d lm hng transis tor. Nhng khi dng r tng cng s lm tng dng emitter, in p emitter tng, lm gim in p phn cc base - emitter nn cn bng tng ln dng collector, to ra s n nh do nhit . Do tnh n nh nhit, m mch phn cc phn p (cng gi l mch t phn cc) c s dng ph bin nht trong cc mch khuych i bng BJT. c) Cu hnh mch transistor. C ba cu hnh mch BJT c th l, (a) mch emitter-chung, (b) mch base-chung, v (c) mch collector-chung, nh hnh 4.14a, b, v c, tng ng.

- Mch emitter chung cu hnh mch emitter-chung, tn hiu vo s c a vo gia base v emitter, v tn hiu ra c ly trn collector v emitter. y emitter c ni t thc t i vi tn hiu vo thng qua t r mch CE. H s khuych i in p v h s khuych i dng in ca mch emitter-chung l cao. Cc in tr vo v ra mc trung bnh. y l cu hnh thng dng nht cho php ghp cc tng ca mch khuych i. - Mch base-chung Mch base-chung l mch c tn hiu vo c cung cp gia emitter v base, v tn hiu ra nhn c gia collector v base. Cc base thc s c ni t i vi tn s tn hiu thng qua t in CB. H s khuych i dng ca mch base chung nh hn 1, nhng h s khuych i p cao. in tr vo ca mch thp (vo khong 50 ) (thch hp phi hp tr khng vi ng ten), cn in tr ra ca mch base-chung cao. Mc tp m ni ca mch l thp nht, nn mch base-chung c s dng lm mch khuych i tng u trong cc my thu tn s rt cao (VHF) v siu cao (UHF). - Mch collector-chung hay mch lp li emitter Mch collector-chung c tn hiu vo c a vo gia base v collector, v tn hiu ra s ly gia emitter v collector. Cc collector c ni t thc s i vi tn hiu thng qua VCC hoc t lc C ca ngun cung cp. H s khuych i in p ca mch nh hn 1 nhng h s khuych i dng cao. Do in tr vo ca mch collector chung rt cao, nn mch c dng trong cc mch cn in tr vo cao ( trnh cho mch dao ng khng b qu ti). Tr khng ra ca mch thp (vi chc ), do mch cng c dng phi hp tr khng. H s khuych i dng ca mch collector chung theo kiu cp Darlington l 2. 4.1.9 HOT NG CHUYN MCH CA BJT i vi hot ng chuyn mch, transistor khng cn mch phn cc base. Tn hiu xung vo (logic 1) s lm cho base dng (cao hn nhiu so vi in p ngng), nn transistor s tr nn dn bo ho cho in tr rt thp. Khi xung vo khng c (mc logic 0), transistor s ngng dn, nn in tr gia collector v emitter rt cao. Mch chuyn mch in

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hnh nh hnh 4.15. Thng s phn cc thun chun ca transistor c th c dng o th mch transistor m khng cn phi tho transistor v khng cn dng thit b o th. BJT Germanium thng c in p phn cc thun gia emitter-base t 0,2V n 0,4V, v BJT Silicon c in p phn cc thun gia emitter -base t 0,4V n 0,8V. Cc cc tnh que o t emitter v base ty thuc loi transistor (pnp hoc npn). in p phn cc thun gia emitter-base chuyn BJT sang dn, tc l dn n mt mc dng tng ng chy qua emitter-collector. Ngt in p phn cc thun hoc in p phn cc thun khng s to ra kt qu ngc li, tc l transistor ngng dn (khng c dng emitter -collector hoc mc dng rt nh). 4.1.10 CC SAI HNG CC BJT Mt s trng thi sai hng thng thng c th xy ra trong cc transistor l: 1. Base, collector hay emitter c th b h mch. 2. Ngn mch c th xut hin gia collector v emitter, hay gia collector v base, hay gia emitter v base. 3. Tip gip collector-base c th b r. Cc nh hng ca h hng do h mch c th xem xt nh mch hnh 4.16a, th hin h mch bng du (x). Nu base hay emitter b h mch, th cc ht ti in a s s khng chy ra khi vng emitter, khng c dng in, do s khng c st p no trn RC. Do vy, in p ti collector (C) s bng ECC (ng l vo khong 50% ca ECC).

Nu collector b h mch, th base v emitter s hot ng nh diode thng thng (m khng phi l hot ng ca transistor) v dng emitter ca transistor s chy qua base, nn dng chy qua R1 s tng ln, dn n lm gim in p base, dng emitter cng s gim xung n gi VBE = 0,7V. Tuy nhin, cc base c thit k chu mc dng ch vo khong 2% mc dng emitter, nn cc base c th b t khi ton b dng emitter chy qua, hoc R1 c th chy. Khi collector v emitter b ngn mch, nh th hin bng ng t nt xy mch hnh 4.16b, transistor c biu hin nh mt ng dn tt. in tr collector c th chy hay in tr emitter c th chy, hoc t r emitter c th b nh thng do in p collector (VC) l t trc tip ngang qua t. Nu collector v base b ngn mch, nh th hin bng ng t nt xz, base s ly in p dng cao t + ECC v do transistor s biu hin nh mt diode c phn cc thun mnh, c th lm chy RE do mc dng ln chy qua RE, v mc in p cao s xut hin ngang qua CE c th nh thng t. Nu emitter v base b ngn mch nh biu hin bng ng t nt yz, in p base s tr nn bng 0 so vi emitter, v do transistor khng hot ng, nhng dng mt chiu chy qua R1 v RE s tng ln, c th lm chy in tr. Vy ngn mch bt k gia cc chn ca BJT, u tin s to ra mc dng mnh, sau s lm chy hoc l in tr R1, hoc l transistor, hay in tr RE. Nhiu khi transistor vn tt, nn c th c h hng in tr hoc t ngoi hoc mi hn. V d, nu R1 b h mch, in p ti base s tr nn bng 0 v tnh trng hng ging nh transistor b h mch bn trong. Do , trc khi thay transistor b nghi ng hng th hy chc chn rng khng c sai hng mch lin quan. Cc sai hng trong mt vi mch ng dng s c gii thch cc v d t 4.1 n 4.4.

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V d 4.1: Mch hnh 4.17, l mch khuych i bng rng trong cc my thu hnh khuych i tn hiu nh [video]. Hy xc nh nh hng do h hng ca tng cu kin n hot ng ca mch khuych i. Khi mch khuych i m tn [audio] ch x l tn hiu c rng bng tn trong khong 20kHz, th cc tn hiu video c tn s cao hn, trong khong 5MHz hin th cc chi tit ca nh mn nht. in dung tip gip ca transistor s gy ra s suy gim mc tn hiu di tn s cao. Do , khuych i tn hiu nh, phi chn cc transistor c in dung tip gip kh nh. Ngoi ra, phi s dng cun cm cao tn mc ni tip vi ti tng di tn s cao.

T lc u ra ca mch tch sng s loi b nh hng ca in dung vo ca Q1. Vic b tn s cao c thc hin bng cun cm cao tn LP. Mt cun cm khc, LS mc ni tip vi base ca transistor tng tip theo s lm vic nh mt b trit xung. Nh vy, cc tn s thp v cao ca tn hiu nh b loi b cho s khuych i bng rng. nh hng do sai hng ca mi cu kin cho bng 4.1. Bng 4.1 nh hng do cc cu kin sai hng mch khuych i bng rng. Sai hng cu kin nh hng 1. C1 hay C2 b ngn mch Tn hiu nh u vo s bng 0. 2. C1 b h mch Tn hiu nh u ra yu. 3. C2 h mch Tc dng lc s mt gn trung tn (IF) khng c lc. 4. RS b h mch Tn hiu nh u vo bng 0 ti base ca Q1 5. Q1 hay RE hoc R1 b h Q1 s ngng nn ti collector c VCC. Khng c tn hiu nh u ra. 6. R2 h mch in p cao ti base ca Q1 s lm cho Q1 dn bo ho, nn mch khng khuych i. 7. Q1 b ngn mch Tn hiu nh ti u ra ca Q1 s bng 0. 8. RL hay LP hoc R b h in p trn collector bng 0. Mt tn hiu nh u ra. mch 9. CE h mch Hi tip m s lm gim h s khuych i ca Q1 10. C3 h mch Tn hiu s thng qua ngun cung cp, nn c th to ra hi tip dng n mt s tng trc gy mo dng. 11. C3 b ngn mch Mt in p ngun cung cp trn collector. 12. LS hoc C4 h mch Khng c tn hiu nh ti base ca Q2 nn mt tn hiu nh u ra. 13. LS b ngn mch Cc xung qu hay xung vt qu mc trn s khng c lc. 14. C4 b ngn mch Q2 dn mnh do c phn cc thun cao. Khng c h s khuych i. V d 4.2: Mch khuych i RF ca mt my thu thng tin nh hnh 4.18, ( r rng ch th hin 2 bng trong mch). Hy gii thch cc h hng c th xy ra trong cc trng hp sau: (a) Thu chng trnh trn knh 1 bnh thng, nhng khng thu c trn knh 2. (b) Khng thu c chng trnh trn knh no c. (c) T s tn hiu / nhiu ca my thu thp. (d) H s khuych i thp.

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im c trng phn bit mch khuych i RF l c cc mch iu hng [tuned] u vo v u ra ca mch chn ng bng tn v i pht thanh cn thu trong bng tn . Phn tch cc sai hng trn gm: (a) Thu chng trnh bnh thng trn mt knh, transistor hot ng tt. T iu hng chnh v cc im ni t u ng. H hng c th t xoay [trimmer] CT2 ca knh 2, hoc chuyn mch chn bng tn c th khng tip xc ti im ni 2 trong cc mch u vo hoc cc mch u ra. (b) Khng thu c trn knh no c chng t rng hoc ng ten khng tip xc vi chuyn mch chn bng tn, hoc tip xc mi hn ni t ti G1, hay G2 hoc G3 b nt hay t. Nu cc mch ngoi u tt, c th hng transistor. H hng cng c th c nu t iu hng chnh hoc t gii ghp b ngn mch (mt t gii ghp b ngn mch, lm ngn mch im ngun cung cp, to ra in p base bng 0). (c) T s tn hiu trn tp m thp s cho bit transistor ca tng khuych i RF b r. Nu tip gip collector base c mc dng r cao hn mc bnh thng, th mc tp m s tng v h s khuych i ca mch khuych i RF s b gim, nn mch trn tn hiu gn nh tr thnh tng khuych i u tin. Trong trng hp ny, tp m s tng hn na, bi v mt transistor khi c s dng va lm khuych i v trn s to ra tp m ln hn so vi cng mt transistor khi c dng lm nhim v khuych i thun ty. nh hng thc t s lm cho t s tn hiu trn tp m km. H hng khc c th l mt kt ni hi tip s lm gim mc tn hiu v lm tng mc tp m. (d) H s khuych i ca mch thp c th do h mch t CE (t r mch emitter), gy ra hi tip m, H hng cng c th do mch t ng iu chnh khuych i - AGC (khng th hin trong hnh v) lm cho mc in p qu m trn cc base so vi emitter. H s khuych i thp dn n vic cn chnh ca cc mch iu hng khng ng. V d 4.3: Mch dao ng Hartley nh hnh 4.19. Hy xc nh sai hng c th c nu mch dao ng khng dao ng. Cc mc in p DC bnh thng. Mt mch dao ng phi tha mn ba iu kin to ra dao ng: 1. Mch phi c kh nng dao ng, tc l phi s dng mch cng hng (mch LC hnh 4.19). 2. Mch phi c mch khuych i khuych i tn hiu ra ca mch cng hng (transistor lm vic nh mt mch khuych i). 3. Cc dao ng c to ra bi mch cng hng s b gim dn do suy hao cc phn t ca mch cng hng, tc l suy hao trong cun dy v t in. Do phi c hi tip ng thi im v ng chiu (hi tip dng) v c bin ln b suy gim. [cun dy L s cung cp hi tip dng khi mt u ca cun dy c ni vi collector (im lch pha 180 o so vi tn hiu u vo ca transistor) v u cn li (lch pha 180o so vi im collector) ni n cc base qua t chn CB. R mch trn cun dy s iu khin bin ca tn hiu hi tip]. Khi khng tha mn mt iu kin bt k trn, mch dao ng s khng to ra dao ng. Do , cc sai hng c th c khi mch khng dao ng s l: 1. T CC hoc CB c th b h mch. T b h mch s khng cho tn hiu hi tip dng iu kin thit

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yu duy tr dao ng. 2. T iu chnh C c th xy ra h mch hoc ngn mch. 3. Ni t vi cun dy L c th b h mch. 4. C th t trong cun dy L. V d 4.4: Transistor lm chuyn mch nh cng ph nh [NOT] mch hnh 4.20. Hy gii thch cc li: (a) u ra b ghim mc 1, (b) u ra b ghim mc 0. ch hot ng bnh thng, khi a tn hiu c mc logic 1 (xung mc cao) n u vo ca mch, th transistor s chuyn sang dn [ON] bo ho, to ra mc logic 0 (xung mc thp) ti u ra. Khi mc vo c mc 0, transistor s tr li ngng dn [OFF], v do mc l l mc logic 1. (a) u ra s b ghim ti mc 1 nu RB, hay mi ni t hoc transistor b h mch. Nu RC b ngn mch, th collector cng s c mc 1. (b) u ra s b ghim ti mc logic 0, nu RC h mch hay collector v emitter ca transisto b ngn mch, hoc ng ngun cung cp b h. 4.1.11 MCH KCH KHI SCHMITT. Mch kch khi Schmitt l mch thng dng, dng cung cp cc xung vung nh mch hnh 4.21a. Mch s dng kiu ghp trc tip gia Q1 v Q2. Nu tn hiu vo l xung b mo dng. Khi bin ca dng sng tn hiu vo vt qu mc in p ngng, Q1 s chuyn mch sang dn [ON], cung cp mc in p thp ti base ca Q2, lm cho Q2 ngng dn [OFF], nn ti u ra ca mch kch khi c bin in p bng mc VCC. Khi bin tn hiu vo thp hn 0,7V so vi emitter, Q1 s khng dn, cho mc in p cao ti base ca Q2, lm cho Q2 dn bo ho nn cho mc in p gn bng 0 ti u ra. Nh vy, xung mo dng c bin i thnh xung vung hon ton. 4.1.12 CC MCH A HI MULTIVIBRATORS. Transistor c th dng to ra dy xung lin tc, xung kch khi, hoc xung iu khin tu thuc vo cu hnh mch. Cc mch c chc nng to xung nh vy gi l cc mch a hi theo ba kiu mch: 1. Mch a hi t dao ng [astable] hay phi n, 2. Mch a hi mt trng thi n nh [monostable] hay n n, v 3. Mch a hi hai trng thi n nh [bistable] hay hai trng thi bn hay song n. - Mch a hi t dao ng. Mch hnh 4.22a, s to ra dy xung lin tc nn c s dng lm b dao ng to tn s nhp trong cc h thng s c vi x l. - Mch dao ng mt trng thi bn. Mch nh hnh 4.22b, s thay i trng thi ra (t mc 0 ln mc 1, hoc t mc 1 v mc 0) khi c xung kch khi v s tr li trng thi ban u ca n sau mt

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khong thi gian no khi ht xung kch khi, do mch cng c gi l mch a hi mt xung, nn mch c s dng trong cc mch bo hiu, v cng c s dng lm mch dao ng to sng qut kch khi trong cc my hin sng. - Mch a hi song n. Mch nh hnh 4.22c, s thay i trng thi khi c xung kch khi v s tn ti trng thi sau khi ht xung kch khi, mch s thay i tr li trng thi ban u khi c xung kch khi khc a ti. Nh vy mch dao ng khi c mt trng thi n nh s thay i trng thi c a mch khi c xung kch khi t vo v s duy tr trng thi c thay i (trng thi n nh th hai), nn mch c gi l mch song n (hai trng thi n nh) hay mch flip flop v c dng trong cc cng logic dy. 4.1.13 SAI HNG TRONG CC MCH A HI. Cc sai hng thng thng trong cc mch a hi cng ging nh cc mch BJT khc, chng hn transistor c th b h mch hay r, hoc b ngn mch, hoc c th do h hng cc linh kin ngoi (in tr hay t), hoc do mi hn b nt, hoc t kt ni mch. Cc du hiu s xut hin di dng nh s thay i rng xung, thi gian tng v gim, tn s xung, dng xung. Dao ng tt dn c th xy ra. Tt c cc du hiu c th quan st trn mn hnh ca my hin sng v c th p dng suy lun ng xc nh linh kin b hng hay t kt ni . Mt s h hng in hnh lit k bng 4.2. Bng 4.2: Cc du hiu hng Nguyn nhn sai hng c th do 1. Mch dao ng a hi khng dao ng T hi tip (h mch t C1 hay C2 mch hnh 4.22a. Mt transistor no b h mch hay ngn mch. 2. Tn s xung nhp ca mch dao ng a Tn s ph thuc vo s np v x ca cc t thng hi b thay i qua cc in tr tng ng. S thay i tn s c ngha l thay i v tr s ca in tr hay r r t (hnh 4.22a). 3. Mch khng thay i trng thi trc Xung kch khi b ngt. Mch vo ca transistor b h sau khi t xung kch khi mch (hnh 4.22b, c). 4. Mch a hi n n khng tr li trng T hi tip (C1) hng (hnh 4.22b) thi ban u sau khi loi b xung kch khi 5. Chc nng hai trng thi khng xy ra Mt trong hai in tr hi tip (RB1 hoc RB2) h mch (hnh 4.22c). Tip gip base emitter ca mt transistor b h mch hoc b ngn mch. 4.2 O TH FET 4.2.1 CC KIU HOT NG CA FET Cng nh trng hp transistor lng cc, FET c o th thng s c bn c ng v tnh. o th tnh cho thy s p ng ca FET i vi cc bin i dc. o th ng cho thy p ng vi ac hoc cc tn hiu. FET hot ng theo ba kiu. Mc d c JFET v MOSFET u lm vic theo nguyn l dng knh c iu khin bng in trng nhng c ch iu khin ca hai loi l khc nhau, dn n cc c tnh khc nhau. S khc nhau ch yu gia JFET v MOSFET l c tnh cng. u vo ca JFET ng vai tr (tc dng) nh diode c phn cc ngc, trong khi u vo ca MOSFET ging nh t in. a) FET kiu ngho [Depletion mode] FET ch ngho (c tuyn truyn t nh hnh 4.23a) c dng mng (ID) ln i vi in p cng bng 0. Khng dng in p cng thun (tc in p phn cc thun cng-ngun dng i vi FET knh n). Dng mng ln nht khi in p cng-ngun (VGS) bng 0. Dng mng gim theo in p phn cc ngc vo cng, tc l ID gim khi VGS ngc tng. b) FET kiu ngho tng cng [Depletion Enhancement mode] FET ngho tng cng (hnh 4.23b) cng c dng mng ng k khi VGS = 0 (nhng khng ln nh loi ch ngho). Tng dng mng bng cch a in p phn cc thun cng-ngun v gim bng cch t in p phn cc ngc cng-ngun. i vi JFET c dng nh loi ngho tng cng, dng

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mng c th tng bng in p cng ch n khi tip gip pn cng-ngun tr nn phn cc thun, v ti thi im ny s tng thm ca in p cng thun khng to ra s tng trong dng mng.

c) FET kiu tng cng [Enhancement mode] FET ch tng cng (hnh 4.23c) c dng mng nh hoc bng 0 khi in p cng bng 0. Dng mng khng xut hin cho n khi c in p cng thun ln hn 0 ty loi, gi l in p ngng VGS(TH). Khi t n ngng, c tnh dng mng tng mnh. d) CMOS. Khi MOSFET knh-p v MOSFET knh-n c ni vi nhau, to thnh MOS h b [Complementary MOS] hay CMOS. Cu kin kiu CMOS c s dng ph bin trong cc cng logic do cc CMOS tiu tn cng sut cc k thp (vo khong vi picowatt). Cc mch bng CMOS c dng trong cc v tinh, cc my tnh b ti, cc ng h s, v. v. . . m thng ch trng ngun cung cp rt nhiu. Mt loi cng ph nh [NOT] in hnh da trn cu trc CMOS nh mch hnh 4.24. Khi Vin c mc logic 1 (mc in p dng trn mc ngng), Q2 s dn in, nn Vout c mc logic 0. Khi Vin c mc logic 0, (in p m hay mc in p dng thp hn mc ngng), Q2 s gi trng thi ngng dn [OFF], Q1 s dn, do vy Vout c mc logic 1, tc l c chc nng ph nh mc tn hiu vo hay chc nng ca cng NOT. 4.2.2 X L MOSFET Hy thn trng khi s dng cc FET. Cc MOSFET l cu kin nhy cm vi in tch tnh ca c th ngi, do lp dioxide silicon rt mng, nn in p do in tch tnh c th lm hng MOSFET. V vy, cc hng sn xut bao gi cc MOSFET sau khi ni cc chn vi nhau bng mt vng dy. Khng c tho hay lp cc FET khi ngun cung cp ang bt [ON], do cc xung qu c to ra c th lm hng FET. Vic kt ni in p mng n cng l rt nguy him do mc VD cao c th nh thng lp dioxide silicon cch in. ngn nga kh nng gy h hng do tch tnh in khi di chuyn v lm vic vi MOSFET, trc ht phi ngt ngun cung cp. Nu MOSFET cn phi tho ra th tay ngi thao tc s phi cng mc in th vi khi cha m t cu kin c tho ra. Thc hin bng cch t mt tay ln b my trc khi tho MOSFET. Nu MOSFET c ni vi b o th bn ngoi, th t tay cm MOSFET ln panel ca b o th v ni dy t t b o th vo chn MOSFET (hoc cm MOSFET). Khi x l MOSFET cc chn ca MOSFET phi ni vi nhau. Thng thc hin bng vng hoc l xo ngn mch. Khi o th MOSFET th ni dy ca b o th vo MOSFET (hp l l ni dy cc ngun trc), ri mi tho vng ngn mch ra khi cc in cc. Khi hn hoc tho MOSFET, u m hn phi in th t (tc khng np tnh in). Ni mt dy c u kp t thn ca dng c hn vo b my. Khng nn dng m hn kiu sng hn MOSFET. Ngt ngun vo mch trc khi a MOSFET vo hoc ly ra (hoc cc module chn cm cha ng MOSFET). S pht sinh nht thi ca in p khi cc u cc ring r c th lm hng MOSFET. 4.2.3 MCH BO V MOSFET Do vn x tnh in, nn thng c mt s dng mch bo v cho cc MOSFET. Thng thng,

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mch bo v di dng diode hoc cc diode gn lin nh mt phn vt liu gc ca MOSFET. C th b qua cc mch bo v, ngoi tr khi o th in p nh thng. Khi o th in p nh thng MOSFET, c im quan trng cn lu l in p nh thng l mc in p ca cu kin bo v (diode) m khng phi ca MOSFET. Ngoi ra, cc trang s liu i khi ghi l in p ghim ca diode bo v (thng c bit nh mc in p khuu - VKNEE). Vi cc php o th bt k th in p cng hoc in p vo khng c vt qu tr s khuu, mc d in p cc ngun, cc mng c th cao hn. 4.2.4 O TH IN P IU KHIN FET in p cng-ngun (VGS) c xem l in p (hoc tn hiu) iu khin ca FET, tc l VGS iu khin dng mng-ngun (ID). VGS(OFF) l in p cng cn c gim dng mng-ngun (ID) v 0 hoc n tr s xc nh no gn bng 0. VGS(TH) l in p cng bt u xut hin dng ID ch vi kiu tng cng. Mt s trang s liu ghi VGS(off) nh mc in p cng to ra dng ID l 1pA hoc 1nA. a) o th VGS(off) Hnh 4.25c, l mch c bn dng o th VGS(off), ch p dng cho FET kiu ngho v kiu ngho / tng cng, trong VDS c iu chnh n tr s c nh, v in p phn cc ngc VGS c iu chnh cho n khi ID c tr s khng ng k c xc nh. Thc cht y l php o th tr s ngt dng (cut-off). V d, trang s liu ca FET 3N128 knh-n ghi l VDS l 15V v ID l 50A, VGS trong khong t - 0,5V n - 8V i vi ID l 50A. Theo ch dn, VDS phi t nht bng 1,5 ln mc VGS(off) c ch hot ng ca mch ph hp. b) o th VGS(TH) hoc VGS(on) VGS(TH) hoc VGS(on) thc cht ging nh thng s VGS(off), ngoi tr l VGS(TH) v VGS(on) thng ch p dng cho cu kin tng cng. Dng mch o th c bn hnh 4.25a, nhng VGS c ni c phn cc thun (cc cng dng i vi knh N). Cn phi c in p cng-ngun phn cc thun c dng ID chy trong cu kin kiu tng cng. iu chnh VGS tng dn t 0V cho n khi ID t n tr s xc nh. V d, FET MRF137 c VGS(TH) in hnh l 3V vi ID l 25mA.

4.2.5 O TH IN P LM VIC CA FET in p mng-ngun (VDS) c xem l in p lm vic ca FET. Thng thng, iu quan tm duy nht l VDS khng c vt qu tr s ln nht ghi trang s liu. Tuy nhin, trong phn ln cc ng dng VDS t nht cn phi c tr s 1,5 ln VGS. Khi s dng FET lm chuyn mch hoc b ngt qung (b rung), cc thng s VDS(on) v VDS(off) i

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khi xut hin trang s liu. VDS(on) tng t in p bo ha trong BJT. VDS(off) l mc in p mngngun ti ID tng rt t i vi s tng in p mng-ngun, vi VGS c gi 0V. i khi cn gi l n p tht VP. Tuy nhin, VP thng dng cho JFET hn l cho MOSFET. Cc tr s khc nhau ca VDS ph thuc in tr ngun RS, in tr cc mng RD hoc in tr mng-ngun RDS. Tt c cc tr s trn l tr s dc tnh v t khi c trang s liu, m cc tr s ng thng quan trng hn nhiu. a) o th VDS(off) v VDS(on) bo ha Mch o th in p bo ha c bn nh hnh 4.25b. o th bo ha thng ch quan tm khi FET c s dng trong cc ng dng chuyn mch hoc rung, khi o gi c nh tr s ca VGS, v tng VDS cho n khi ID t ln nht hoc tng rt t khi tng thm VDS. Ch khng c tng vt qu mc VDS ln nht trong khi o th. Thng thng, VDS(on) c thc hin o th vi vi tr s c bit ca VGS, ngc li VDS(off) thc hin o th vi VGS = 0 (cng ngn mch vi ngun). 4.2.6 O TH DNG LM VIC CA FET Dng mng-ngun (ID) c xem nh dng lm vic ca FET. ID tng ng vi dng collector BJT. Thng thng, ch cn ch l khng c vt qu mc dng ID ln nht cho trang s liu. mt s trang s liu c cc thng s ID(on) v ID(off). ID(on) l tr s dng ty (thng l gn bng mc dng danh nh ln nht) xc nh ti mc dng trong kiu hot ng tng cng (hnh 4.24). IDS(off) l mc dng tng ng vi in p VGS(off). Khi FET hot ng kiu ch tng cng, tr s ID(off) cho trang s liu l mc dng tng ng vi VGS(TH). a) o th IDSS Mch o th c bn IDSS cho hnh 4.25. Cch o th ny dng cho cu kin kiu ch ngho v ngho tng cng. Nh hnh v, VDS c iu chnh tr s c nh no v VGS = 0 (cng ni vi ngun). IDSS l mc dng chy ng vi mc in p phn cc 0V. V d, i vi FET 3N128 ghi iu kin VDS = 15V v VGS = 0V, c ID trong khong t 5mA n 25mA. b) o th IDS(on) IDS(on) thc cht ging nh thng s IDSS, ngoi tr l IDS(on) thng dng cho cu kin tng cng (loi ngho / tng cng, v loi tng cng). Dng mch o th c bn hnh 4.25. kiu tng cng, VGS cn phi c phn cc thun (cng dng i vi knh N) c dng ID, cn i vi kiu ngho / tng cng khng cn phn cc thun cng-ngun vn c dng ID. Tuy vy, ID(on) l mc dng gn ln nht (hoc mc dng bo ha). Khi o th, VGS v VDS c iu chnh n cc tr s c nh, v o tr s dng ID(on) sau cng. c) o th ID(off) Mch o th ID(off) ging nh mch o th VGS(off) hnh 4.25. V ID(off) l dng xut hin tng ng vi VGS(off). iu chnh VDS v VGS cc tr s c nh v cui cng o tr s ID(off). Chng hn, FET 3N128 iu kin ghi l VDS = 20V, VGS = - 8V th dng ID ln nht l 50A. cc cu kin tng cng, tr s ca ID(off) l ID xut hin tng ng vi VGS(TH). Cho nn tr s c nh ca VGS lun lun l in p phn cc thun. 4.2.7 O TH IN P NH THNG FET in p nh thng l c tnh k thut c bit quan trng ca FET. C mt s c im k thut ch r in p ln nht c th p dng cho cc yu t khc nhau gm: in p nh thng cng-ngun V(BR)GSS l in p nh thng vi ngn mch cc mng-ngun, cng l iu kin c tnh nh thng tip gip cng-knh (diode PN JFET v lp oxide MOSFET), v cc ngun v cc cng lin quan n knh dn. Ch rng, i vi MOSFET V(BR)GSS s nh thng vt l lp oxide. V(BR)DGO l in p nh thng cc mng - cc ngun v thc cht c c im k thut nh V(BR)GSS, ngoi tr l V(BR)DGO biu th s nh thng t cng n mng. V(BR)DGO dng cho JFET l ng hn, nhng cng xut hin trang s liu ca MOSFET. a) o th in p nh thng JFET i vi JFET, V(BR)GSS l mc in p ln nht c th t vo cng-knh dn n s nh thng tip gip cng-knh. Nh mch o hnh 4.25e, mc in p ngc cao tng dn t vo gia cc cng v cc ngun. S nh thng tip gip c th xc nh bng dng cng (khc vi mc dng tiu chun IGSS) vn cho thy s bt u iu kin hiu ng thc l (VA).

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b) o th in p nh thng MOSFET i vi MOSFET, V(BR)GSS l in p nh thng cng-ngun v l in p ln nht m khng phi l in p th. Cc php th thng ch tin hnh trong qu trnh ch to (nh mt phn ca th ph hy xc lp s nh thng i vi loi cu kin c th). Thay vo , mt s trang s liu ghi V(BR)DSS (i vi MOSFET tng cng). Nh mch o hnh 4.25d, cho thy V(BR)DSS c thc hin vi ngn mch cc cng v cc ngun, v khng cn phn cc ngc ngt (cut-off) i vi cu kin tng cng (cng l mch o IDSS). Vi VGS = 0, iu chnh tng dn VDS cho n khi c dng ID xut hin kh ln (khng phi nh thng ph hng). V d, MFR137 ghi r V(BR)DSS = 65V nh nht vi VGS = 0 v ID = 10mA. 4.2.8 O TH DNG R CC CNG CA FET R cc cng l c tnh quan trng ca FET, v r lin quan trc tip n in tr vo. Khi dng r cc cng cao, in tr vo thp v ngc li. Dng r cc cng thng c xc nh theo IGSS (dng phn p ngc cng-ngun vi ngn mch mng-ngun) v l s o ca tr khng u vo ngn mch trng thi tnh. a) o th IGSS Mch o th nh hnh 4.25f, VDS = 0 (ngn mch cc mng vi cc ngun), iu chnh VGS n tr s nh, v o dng r IGSS cui cng. V d, FET MRF137 vi cc iu kin o ghi l VDS = 0 v VGS = 20V, th IGSS khng c vt qu 1A ti 25. 4.2.9 O TH FET CNG KP Cng vi cc c tnh trn, FET cng kp c cc c tnh k thut khc cn phi tin hnh o th. V d, vi MOSFET cng kp, c hai cng u iu khin dng ID. Kt qu l c nhiu trang s liu k thut th hin in p ca mt cng tc ng n ID nh th no khi cc cng cn li c gi in p xc nh hoc 0V. Tng t, c trang s liu cho bit r cc cng hoc dng cc cng b tc ng bi in p cc cng cn li. i vi cc ng dng thc t, c tnh cng kp quan trng nht gm c in p ngt, in p nh thng v dng cng. a) o th VG1S(off) v VG2S(off) Php o th in p ngng dng cho cu kin cng kp, hot ng theo kiu ngho v ngho / tng cng. Cu kin cng kp cng c th o th VGS(off) nh mc 4.2.4a, khi ni c hai cng vi nhau. Mch o th c bn hnh 4.26, dng o VG1S(off) v VG2S(off). C hai trng hp u phi iu chnh VDS n tr s xc nh, mt cng c phn cc thun tr s xc nh, cng cn li c phn cc ngc. iu chnh in p phn cc ngc VG1S hoc VG2S cho n khi ID c tr s nh khng ng k, biu hin trng thi ngt. b) o th in p nh thng cng kp MOSFET cng kp thng cn phi o th in p nh thng thun v nghch gia cng-ngun. Mch o th c bn hnh 4.26. VDS v mt cng 0V (c hai ngn mch vi cc ngun). in p thay i c a n cng cn li v o dng cng. V d, o V(BR)G1SSF, ca MOSFET 40841 ghi VDS v VG2S l 0mV v IG1SSF l 100A vi VG1 in hnh l 9V c t vo cng G1. o V(BR)G1SSR theo cng cch o in p nh thng thun, ngoi tr l cc cng c phn cc ngc. Kt qu l nh nhau (IG1SSR l 100A i vi 40841). V(BR)G2SSR cng o bng cch nh trn, ngoi tr l cng 1 c ni vi cc ngun v in p c t vo cng 2. c) o th dng cng kp o th dng cng kp cng dng mch c bn o th in p nh thng cng nh hnh 4.26. S khc nhau trong quy trnh l in p cc cng c iu chnh n tr s xc nh v o dng kt qu. V d, o IG1SSF, MOSFET vi iu kin o ghi l VDS v VGRS l 0V v VG1 l 6V s xut hin dng IG1SSF ln nht l 60nA. o IG1SSR theo cng cch, nhng VG1S l - 6V. Dng IG2SSF v IG2SSR o theo cng cch o dng trn cng 1, nhng cng 1 c ni vi cc ngun v in p c t vo cng 2. d) o th IDS Php o ny dng cho cc FET cng kp hot ng kiu ngho v ngho / tng cng. Cu kin cng kp cng c th o th nh i vi php o IDSS mc 4.2.6 khi c hai cng c ni vi nhau.

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Mch o th IDS nh hnh 4.26, iu chnh in p VDS n tr s xc nh, cng 1 ngn mch vi cc ngun, v iu chnh in p t trn cng 2 n tr s xc nh; IDS c coi nh cch o th dng xut hin vi phn p 0, mc d mt cng c phn p thun. V d, 4084 vi iu kin o ghi l VDS l 15V, VG1S l 0V v VG2S l + 4V, th dng ID in hnh o c l 10mA. 4.2.10 O TH CC C TNH NG CA FET Khc vi cc c tnh tnh trn, cc c tnh ng (ac hoc tn hiu) ca FET p dng nh nhau cho cc loi FET. Tuy nhin cc iu kin v s th hin ca c tnh ng ph thuc phn ln vo ng dng xc nh. Mc ny khng xt cc ng dng ca FET m cp vo quy trnh o th c tnh ng ca FET. a) Tham s y o th tham s y c xem nh l php th nghim ng quan trng nht ph hp vi bt k ng dng no ca FET. o th tham s y xc nh 4 dn np c bn ( dn np thun, dn np ngc, dn np vo v dn np ra) cn cho thit k mch FET. dn np thun (cng c hiu nh h dn) c ghi tt c cc bn s liu ca FET, mc d c th gi bng tn khc. V d, MFR137 ghi dn np thun l gfs (tr s in hnh l 750mmhos). Theo nh ngha n gin th dn np l nghch o ca tr khng. Tr khng (Z) l t hp ca in tr (R, phn thc) v h khng (X, phn o). Dn np (y) gm in dn (g, phn thc) v in np (jb, phn o). Vy, g l nghch o ca R v jb l nghch o ca X. xc nh g, ly nghch o ca R; hoc tnh R, ly nghch o ca g. Z biu th theo Ohm. Dn np y l nghch o ca tr khng tnh theo mho hoc millimho (mmho). Chng hn nh tr khng Z l 50, th dn np l 20mmho (1/50 = 0,02mho = 20mmho). Tham s y l biu din ca dn np di dng: yi = gi + jbi trong : gi l phn thc (in dn) ca dn np u vo; jbi l phn o (in np) ca dn np u vo; v yi l dn np u vo (nghch o ca Z). Biu thc yi = gi + jbi biu din tham s y dng ta vung gc. Mt s trang s liu ca nh ch to cho tham s y di dng ta cc. b) Bn tham s y c bn Hnh 4.27, l mch tng ng tham s y ca FET. Ch l tham s y c th biu din bng s hoc bng ch di dng. Biu din theo dng ch s di dng bng ch l ph bin. Cc lu di y dng chun ha tn gi tham s y. Ch s ch s di dng ch hot ng kiu ngun-chung ca FET.

y11 l dn np u vo v tng ng vi yis y12 l h dn ngc v tng ng vi yrs y21 l h dn thun v tng ng vi yfs y22 l dn np u ra v tng ng vi yos Dn np u vo vi YL = v cng (ngn mch ti) c biu din nh sau: y11 = g11 + jb11 = di1 / de1 (vi e2 = 0) (4.1) ngha l y11 bng chnh lch in p e1 chia cho chnh lch vi phn ca dng i1 vi in p e2 mc 0V. Cc dng v in p lin quan nh mch hnh 4.27.

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Mt s trang s liu khng cho y11 bt k tn s no, m thay vo cho in dung vo Ciss. V d, MRF137 ghi Ciss l 48pF tn s 1MHz (in dung vo s c xem xt mc 4.2.12). Nu gi s rng in dn vo l hon ton (hoc phn ln) dung tnh, th c th tnh tr khng vo bng cch nhn in dung vo Ciss vi 6.28f (f l tn s tnh theo Hz) ri tnh nghch o. V dn np l nghch o ca tr khng, dn np c xc nh bng cch nhn in dung vo vi 6,28 f ( y dn np l dung tnh). V d, nu tn s l 100MHz, in dung vo Ciss l 9pF, th dn np vo l: 6,28 x (100 x 106) x (9 x 10-12) 5 hoc 6mmho. Dn np thun (hoc h dn) vi YL = (ngn mch ti) c vit nh sau: y21 (hoc gfs) = g21 + jb21 = di2 / de1 (vi e2 = 0) (4.2) ngha l y21 bng chnh lch dng ra i2 chia cho chnh lch in p vo e1 vi in p e2 = 0V. Ni cch khc y21 biu din chnh lch dng ra i vi chnh lch in p vo. Dn np ra vi YS = (ngn mch cng-ngun hoc u vo) c biu din theo: y22 = g22 + jb22 = di2 / de2 (vi e1 = 0) (4.3) Dn np ngc, vi YS = (ngn mch cng-ngun hoc u vo) c biu din theo: y12 = g12 + jb12 = di1 / de2 (vi e1 = 0) (4.4) y12 thng khng c xem l tham s quan trng ca FET, nhng y12 c th c trong cc phng trnh lin quan thit k mch RF. c) o tham s dn np (tham s y) Tham s dn np thng khng cho sn hoc cho dng thun tin. Trong thc t thit k, phi o tham s y bng thit b o th. Quan trng l khi o tham s y l php o c thc hin vi iu kin m phng iu kin mch c thi k hon chnh. V d nu in p ngun, in p phn cc v tn s lm vic khng ng nht vi mch hon chnh th cc php o th nghim c th b sai lch. Phng php c bn o tham s y ca FET l o trc tip thng s (nh s thay i u ra tng ng vi thay i u vo). d) o trc tip dn np thun (yfs, gfs, y21) Hnh 4.28a, l mch o c bn o trc tip dn np thun ( h dn thun). Mc d trn hnh v mt kiu FET, nhng cng mch o c th dng o cho cu kin n bt k.

Tr s ca RL cn phi thch hp st p to ra bi dng mng ca FET l khng ng k v mc in p lm vic (VDS i vi FET) l ng vi mc in p ngun cung cp cho (VDS) v dng lm vic (ID). V d, nu ID l 10mA, VDD l 20V v VDS l 15V, st p trn RL cn phi l 5V mc dng 10mA. Vy tr s ca RL l 5V/0,01A = 500). Trong qu trnh o th, iu chnh ngun tn hiu n tn s cn o. Bin ngun tn hiu Vin iu chnh n mc thch hp, bng 1V hoc 100mV. Tr s ca yfs (gfs hoc y21) c tnh theo biu thc:

y fs

v out vin RL

(4.5)

Tnh theo mho (mmho, hoc mho). V d, gi s RL l 1000, vin l 1V v vout l 8V, th tr s ca y l

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8/(1 x 1000) = 0,008mho = 8mmho = 8000mho. e) o trc tip dn np ra (yos, y22) Hnh 4.28b, l mch o trc tip dn np ra in hnh. Tr s ca R1 cn phi m bo to nn st p khng ng k (v VDC phi gi mc nh i vi VDD v ID cho). Trong khi o th, ngun tn hiu c iu chnh n tn s cn thit. o vout v vDS. Tnh tr s yos hoc y22 theo biu thc:

y os

vout v DS RS

( 4.6)

Mt s trang s liu khng cho bit yos hoc y22, m cho in dung ra Coss (xem mc 4.2.13), chng hn nh MRF137 c Coss l 54pF. Dn np ra c tnh bng in dung ra nhn vi 6,28f. f) o trc tip dn np vo (yis, y11) Mc d yis hoc y11 khng phi l thng s quan trng i vi FET, nhng cn phi bit tr s ca yis tnh mch phi hp tr khng ca b khuych i RF dng FET. Nu cn xc nh phn o ( jbis) th dng ng h o dn np hoc ng h o RX. Hu ht cc trang s liu FET cho in dung vo Ciss (xem mc 4.2.12), chng hn nh MRF137 ghi Ciss l 48pF. Dn np vo c tnh bng cch nhn in dung vo vi 6,28f. g) o trc tip h s truyn dn ngc (yrs, y12) Mc d yrs cng khng phi l thng s quan trng i vi FET, nhng cn bit tr s yrs tnh mch phi hp tr khng ( mt s quy trnh thit k). Phn thc (grs) c gi bng 0 i vi mi iu kin v ti tt c cc tn s, phn o ( jbrs) khng thay i theo in p, dng v tn s. in np ngc thay i v vi cc iu kin xc nh c th to ra hi tip khng mong mun t u ra n u vo, nn phi tnh ton i vi thit k b khuych i RF ngn nga hi tip gy nn dao ng. Nu cn xc nh phn o (jbrs) th dng ng h o dn np hoc ng h o Rx. Phn ln cc trang s liu ca FET u cho in dung truyn ngc Crss (mc 4.2.14). Chng hn nh MRF137 ghi Crss l 11pF. Tnh dn np ngc bng cch nhn in dung truyn ngc vi 6,28f. 4.2.11 H S KHUYCH I CA FET H s khuych i ca FET thng khng c hu ht cc trang s liu do s khuych i thng khng c gi tr ln trong phn ln cc p dng tn hiu nh ca FET (thng dng h s khuych i

cng sut kiu ngun-chung gps nhiu hn). H s khuych i xc nh mi quan h gia in p tn hiu ra v in p tn hiu vo khi mc dng ra gi khng i, hoc h s khuych i bng VDS / VGS khi ID gi khng i. Cng c th tnh h s khuych i bng yfs / yos.

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4.2.12 O TH IN DUNG VO CA FET in dung vo (Ciss) l in dung vo kiu ngun-chung khi ngn mch u ra v c dng thay th cho yis tn s thp, do yis c dung tnh hon ton tn s thp. xc nh tr s gn ng ca yis tn s thp (di 1MHz) cn phi nhn Ciss vi 6,28f, kt qu l jbis hoc phn o ca yis. tn s thp, gis c th c xem nh bng 0. Ciss l c tnh quan trng i vi FET trong ng dng lm chuyn mch hoc mch rung, do in p chuyn mch ln cc cng phi xut hin trn in dung Ciss. a) o th Ciss Mch hnh 4.29a, b, c, d, l mch c bn o th Ciss. Hnh 4.29a, b, dng cho JFET, cn hnh 4.29c, d, cho MOSFET. i vi MOSFET cng kp, php o in dung l php o gia cng 1 v tt c cc in cc khc. Vi MOSFET cng n, php o in dung l php o gia cc cng v tt c cc in cc khc. Mch hnh 4.29c, l mch o cho MOSFET, cn phi t vo in p VGS xc nh, m khng cn VDS. Mch hnh 4.29d, s dng cu o in dung ba u (cao, thp, v u bo v hoc t). S dng hai mch o l do mt s trang s liu v MOSFET cho VDS, ID, v VGS mc xc nh khi o Ciss. Cc trang s liu khc nh r VDS = 0 v i khi VGS = 0V. 4.2.13 O TH IN DUNG RA CA FET in dung ra Coss l in dung ra ca mch ngun-chung vi mt u vo ngn mch. Mch hnh 4.30, l mch c bn o th Coss Mc d v FET cng kp, mch cng dng cho FET cng n. Tuy nhin, vi FET cng n, t VGS = 0V (cng ngn mch vi cc ngun). 4.2.14 O TH IN DUNG TRUYN NGC in dung truyn ngc Crss c xc nh nh in dung truyn ngc ngun-chung vi u vo ngn mch. Crss thng dng thay cho yrs, dn np truyn ngc ngn mch, v yrs gn nh l hon ton dung tnh di tn s hu dng ca a s FET. Crss cng l yu t quan trng chnh vi FET dng lm chuyn mch. Crss np v phng trong khong thi gian chuyn mch. a) o th Crss Hnh 4.31a, b, l mch o th c bn ca Crss. Hnh 4.31a,b, dng cho JFET, cn hnh 4.31c, dng cho MOSFET. Cch o ba u dng cho mi trng hp. i vi MOSFET cng kp, cng 2 v cc ngun c a tr v u bo v v thc hin php o in dung gia cng 1 v cc mng.

4.2.15 O TH IN DUNG THNH PHN CA FET Gia cc b phn ca FET u c mt in dung no . Mt s in dung c nh hng n c tnh ng ca FET. in dung tip gip gia -mng Cd(sub) l in dung thnh phn quan trng nht ca FET. Cd(sub) thng c trang s liu ca FET dng lm chuyn mch, do Cd(sub) xut hin song song vi ti trong mch chuyn mch v c np v phng gia hai mc logic trong thi gian chuyn mch. in dung mng-ngun Cds l c tnh k thut khc c mt s trang s liu ca FET chuyn mch. Cds cng xut hin song song vi ti trong cc ng dng chuyn mch v logic. in dung gia cc thnh phn ca FET c th o bng ng h o in dung. Khng cn cch mc mch c bit khi o th. Mt s trang s liu ghi r cch mc mch v iu kin xc nh nh tt c cc thnh phn cn li

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c ni vi cc ngun, hoc cc cng ni vi cc ngun. 4.2.16 O TH IN TR KNH DN CA FET in tr knh dn l c tnh quan trng ca FET dng lm chuyn mch. in tr knh biu th in tr khi ca knh kt ni gia cc mng v cc ngun v gi l rd(on), rDS, RDS, Rds, rd(off), v. v. . . ty trang s liu ca cc hng ch to FET. Trong thc t, c 2 c tnh k thut ca in tr knh lin quan n cc ng dng chuyn mch l c tnh ng on v ngt off. c tnh on l in tr knh khi FET c phn cc dn. FET kiu ngho, trng thi dn c th c to ra bng in p phn cc 0 (VGS = 0). kiu tng cng, trng thi dn yu cu phn cc thun. Ngc li, trng thi ngng dn ca FET kiu ngho cn phi c in p phn cc ngc (< VGS(off)), cn vi kiu FET tng cng, trng thi ngng dn cn in p phn cc bng 0 (< VGS(TH)). a) o th rds(on) v rds(off) Hnh 4.32, l mch c bn o th c hai in tr knh. i vi FET ngho / tng cng, rds(on) c o bng cch iu chnh VGS n 0V (hoc n gin l ngn mch cc cng v cc ngun). iu chnh ngun in p ac n tr s thch hp (1V, 10V, v. v. . .), o dng knh. Tr s rds = VI. Nu FET l loi ch tng cng th cn phi c in p iu khin phn cc thun t cng v iu chnh VGS n tr s xc nh. Mch hnh 4.32, cng c th dng o in tr knh off rds(off), nhng iu kin phn cc cng l ngc li vi php o rds(on). i vi FET kiu ngho v kiu ngho / tng cng, cc cng cn phi c in p phn cc ngc bng cch iu chnh VGS n tr s xc nh. i vi FET kiu ch tng cng, cc cng phi c ngn mch vi cc ngun. Mch hnh 4.32, cng dng o in tr knh dn ca FET cng kp. Thng thng, cch n gin nht l ni c hai cng vi nhau, nhng cng c mt s trang s liu ghi r phn p c nh 1 hoc c 2 cng. S liu tham kho in tr on ca mt MOSFET in hnh l khong 200, v in tr off l ln hn 1010. 4.2.17 O TH C TNH CHUYN MCH CA FET Cch o th c tnh chuyn mch ca BJT cng p dng cho FET nh thc hin vic xc nh cc thng s ca xung vo v ra. Mch hnh 4.21, l mch o th c tnh chuyn mch ca FET (thi gian tng, thi gian gim, thi gian tr v thi gian tn ti xung). My hin sng phi c p tuyn tn s rng v c tnh truyn t tt (thi gian tng nhanh hn xung s dng). Cc knh dc ca my hin sng c nh chun in p, knh ngang chun theo thi gian. FET c o th bng cch a xung vo cng ng thi vi mt u vo dc ca my hin sng. Trong mt s trng hp cn a in p phn cc vo cc cng ca FET. Tn hiu u ra ca FET a vo u vo dc cn li ca my hin sng. So snh hai xung (u vo v u ra ca FET) v thi gian tng, thi gian gim, thi gian tr, thi gian tn ti xung, dng v.v. . . c tnh xung ra ca FET c so vi c tnh k thut ca FET. 4.2.18 O TH KHUYCH I CA FET Trang s liu ca FET dng khuych i thng ghi c tnh khuych i nh khuych i cng sut mt tn s xc nh vi iu kin o th xc nh (nh VGS, VDD, v ID). khuych i c biu th theo dB, i khi l tr s ln nht hoc nh nht. V d, MRF137 c khuych i cng sut ngun-chung (Gps) in hnh l 16dB 150MHz vi VDD l 28V v ID l 25mA v

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cng sut ra (Pout) l 30W. Gps nh nht l 13dB vi cng iu kin o th. 400MHz, Gps in hnh gim xung gn 7,7dB. Cch o th Yfs mc 4.2.10, c th dng xc nh khuych i ca FET. Tuy nhin, php o th khng cho bit khuych i mch ang lm vic. Cch o th ng duy nht ca khuych i l FET hot ng trong mch ang lm vic v o khuych i thc t. Phng php thc t nht l cho FET lm vic mch s dng. Tuy nhin, nu c mch o th khuych i chun hoc a nng o th FET c thun tin. 4.2.19 CC SAI HNG TRONG TRANSISTOR HIU NG TRNG. Mt s sai hng thng thng cc FET gm: 1. Cng c th b h mch. 2. Cc ngun c th b h mch. 3. Cc mng c th b h mch. 4. Gia cc ngun v cc mng c th tr nn b ngn mch. 5. Lp cch in bng dioxide Silicon c th b nh thng trong cc MOSFET. 6. Cc c th tr nn b h mch. 7. Cng - Ngun trong JFET c th b ngn mch. 8. Cng Mng trong JFET c th tr thnh b ngn mch. Khi mt transistor hiu ng trng hng, th cn phi thay th. Thng thng FET l cu kin bn dn rt tin cy. Trc khi nghi ng cc FET b hng, hy th thc hin cc php o m bo rng khng c h hng cu kin no hay kt ni khc trong mch lin quan ti FET. a) Phn tch h hng trong mt mch khuyn i bng FET in hnh. Hnh 4.34, l mt mch khuych i bng FET knh-n in hnh, theo kiu mch cc ngun-chung. Do c dng ID, RS s c mc in p dng so vi t (0V). Cng (G) ang c mc 0Vdc, c mc in p m so vi cc ngun (S), tc l cng c phn cc ngc. Tn hiu t vo cng thng qua t ghp C1. Khi tn hiu lm thay i mc phn cc, dng mng s thay i qua RD nn in p ra ti cc mng (D) s thay i. Tn hiu ra ly trn in tr ti RL thng qua mt t ghp tng C2. T r mch cc ngun CS s to ng ni t i vi dng tn hiu v do trnh hi tip m. mch bnh thng, khng c h hng, in p dc ti cc cng bng 0, ti cc ngun c mc in p dng (khong mt phn mi VDD), in p ti cc mng dng (khong 50% mc VDD) v in p trn ti bng 0. in p tn hiu vo (vin) ti cng c bin nh (trong di millivolt) v Vout ln (di Volt). Cc h hng in hnh trong mch FET hnh 4.34, c lit k trong bng 4.3, bo dng sa cha mch. Lu rng, in p tn hiu ac s c chng chp trn mc in p dc, do nu khng c dng dc, th tn hiu ac cng khng c. Bng 4.3: Cc sai hng in hnh trong cc mch FET. Trng thi Cc sai hng 1. FET h mch Khng c dng mng, nn VD s bng VDD v vout s bng 0, VS s bng 0. 2. FET b ngn mch VDS bng 0, v VS s cao. Khng c nh hng ca tn hiu ln ID, nn vout = 0. 3. RG b t Khng c mch dc i vi cc ht ti in thiu s nn s c tch t ti cc cng v s lm thay i mc in p phn cc. 4. C1 t Tn hiu s khng a n cng, nn khng c tn hiu ra, nhng cc thng s dc vn khng thay i. 5. C1 ngn mch in p dc nu c trong ngun tn hiu, s c cung cp n

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cng cng vi tn hiu vo (vin) s lm thay i mc in p phn cc. vout = 0. Khng c thay i cc thng s dc. C mc in p dc no s c t n RL, nn s lm thay i mc phn cc ca tng tip theo. VD = 0, VS = 0, ID = 0, vout = 0. VD = VDD. Ton b VDD s c ti cc ngun thng qua knh dn, c th nh thng CS. Tn hiu ra (vout) s bng 0. Mt in p phn cc m. Nn ID s tng ln, dn n trng thi bo ha. Xut hin hi tip m, lm gim h s khuych i. Khng nh hng ln cc thng s dc.

6. C2 h mch 7. C2 b ngn mch 8. RD h mch 9. RD b ngn mch 10. RS h mch 11. RS hoc CS b ngn mch 12. CS h mch

4.3 O TH THYRISTOR V SCR Tn gi chnh lu c iu khin v thyristor ch cc cu kin bn dn c cu trc bn lp hoc lin quan, thng dng trong cc ng dng iu khin in t. Cc cu kin quen thuc nht l SCR, SCS, chuyn mch 4 lp, triac, diac, SUS, SBS v GTO. 4.3.1 NGUYN L C BN CA SCR V THYRISTOR Chnh lu c iu khin tng t nh diode nhng c im khc bit chnh l SCR phi c khi ng hoc turn-on bng ngun in p ngoi. SCR c in tr thun v ngc ln (tc khng c dng chy qua khi cha kch khi). Khi c kch dn, in tr thun gim xung gn bng 0 (hoc nh 1 n 2V) nn c dng thun ln, ging nh diode c bn. in tr ngc gi mc cao, nn khng c dng ngc chy qua SCR, do SCR thng dng chnh lu ngun ac. Dng thun chy lin tc khi cn in p thun t vo. Nu ngt b in p thun th dng thun ngng v chnh lu c iu khin ngt turn off. Trong cc ng dng, phn ln cc loi chnh lu c iu khin thc cht l cng mt kiu (hoc c ci bin i cht) nhng c sn xut di cc tn thng mi hoc cc thit k khc nhau. Tn gi Thyristor dng cho nhiu kiu chnh lu c iu khin. Thyristor c xc nh nh mt chuyn mch bn dn, c s hi tip xut hin trong hot ng bnh thng. Thyristor c th l cu kin c hai, ba hoc bn in cc, v c kh nng hot ng theo c mt v hai chiu. 4.3.2 O TH CC THNG S CA SCR Cc thng s quan trng nht ca SCR thng c xem xt gm: in p thun, in p chn thun, dng ngt thun, in p anode ngc, in p chn ngc v.v. . . Cc thng s o thc t c th c so snh vi cc thng s trang s liu ca chnh lu c iu khin v cu kin thyristor thng thng.

in p thun l st p gia anode v cathode khi SCR trng thi dn. Dng anode thun l tr s dng t anode qua cathode ca SCR trng thi lm vic. in p chn thun l mc in p phn cc thun trn anode-cathode ln nht ca SCR cha chuyn sang trng thi dn khi dng cng bng 0. in p vt qu mc ngt thun l tr s ca in p anode thun m ti SCR chuyn sang trng thi dn. Cch mc mch o th iu kin lm vic thun nh hnh 4.35a. Dng ngt thun l mc dng anode chy qua SCR khi trng thi chn thun (phn cc thun anode-

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cathode), i khi cn gi l dng r thun. Hnh 4.35b, l mch o th c bn o dng ngt thun. in p anode ngc l tr s in p phn cc ngc anode-cathode. in p ngc nh mc ca SCR l mc in p ngc nh (PIV). in p chn ngc l mc in p anode-cathode ngc ln nht (khi dng cng bng 0) m SCR c th chu c trc khi nh thng do in p nh in p ngc nh ca diode thng thng. Dng ngc l dng chy qua SCR t cathode sang anode iu kin xc nh ca in p ngc v nhit . Cch mc mch o th c bn trng thi ngc nh mch hnh 4.36.

Dng gi (holding current) l mc dng nh nht chy qua anode ca thyristor ang dn m cu kin khng chuyn sang trng thi ngt (off). Nhit tip gip trong chnh lu c iu khin hoc thyristor thng l nhit ca c ba tip gip. V tt c cc thng s ca thyristor u ph thuc nhit , nn cn phi xem xt nhit lm vic ca cu kin khi thc hin php o th nghim bt k, nht l rt quan trng khi o dng gi v thi gian tr. Thi gian tr l khong thi gian gia lc bt u c xung cng v thi im ti mc in p chn thun gim xung 10% ca bin ln nht. Hnh 4.37, l mch o th c bn o tr v hnh hin th trn my hin sng, trong thi gian tr l khong thi gian tip theo (ngay sau khi c xung cng) cn in p anode gim n mc 90% ca tr s ban u. Thi gian tr s gim khi tng dng cng. Thi gian tng l khong thi gian trong xung ra thay i t 10% n 90% ca bin ln nht. hnh 4.37, thi gian tng l khong thi gian cn in p anode-cathode gim t 90% n 10% ca gi tr ban u. Thi gian m (turn on) thng c th hin nh t hp ca thi gian tr cng vi thi gian tng. Thi gian ngt (turn off) l khong thi gian gia lc bt u ngng dn ca SCR v thi im in p anode tng tr li m SCR khng dn. Khi SCR c kch dn v in p anode l dng th SCR s dn in. Khi in p anode chuyn sang bn k m (xoay chiu) th SCR ngng dn. Tuy nhin, nu anode chuyn sang bn k dng ngay lp tc (tn hiu cao tn) th SCR c th dn tr li mc d khng c xung kch dn t vo cng, tc l cn phi c mt tr no gia thi im SCR bt u ngng v thi im in p anode dng tr li. tr nh vy c gi l thi gian ngt. Cc yu t nh hng n thi gian ngt: Nhit tip gip Thi gian ngt tng khi nhit tip gip tng. Dng thun v tc gim ca in p anode Thi gian ngt tng theo dng thun v tc gim in p anode tng. Dng hi phc Nu SCR phi chu phn cc ngc (anode m) ngay lp tc sau iu kin dn thun (nh xut hin vi dng xoay chiu v in p anode gim t dng n m mi bn k), th dng ngc (hoc dng hi phc) chy t anode n cathode. Bn cht ca dng hi phc ging nh dng hi phc ca diode thng thng. Thi gian ngt s gim khi dng ngc (hay dng hi phc) tng.

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Tc tng ca in p thun Khi tc tng bin ca in p thun tng th thi gian ngt tng. Tc tng (dV/dt). Khi in p anode-cathode tng nhanh th thyristor c th bt u dn m khng cn xung kch khi v cha t n in p nh thng, nn gi l hiu ng tc hoc hiu ng dV/dT (V/s) hoc i khi gi l hiu ng dI/dT (A/s). Tc tng ln nht. Mi thyristor c tr s tc tng ti hn, ngha l nu in p (hoc dng) tng nhanh hn tr s tng ca tc ln nht th cu kin dn (c hoc khng c kch khi) mc d in p anode thc s cha vt mc in p nh thng danh nh. c tnh tng ca tc ln nht c bit quan trng khi tn hiu l dng xung m khng phi l tn hiu sin c t vo anode. 4.3.3 O TH SCR v THYRISTOR C BN Cng nh i vi transistor v diode, SCR cn phi c nhiu th nghim trong qu trnh sn xut. Cch o th n gin v ton din nht i vi SCR l SCR lm vic trong mch tng t iu kin mch thc t (thng vi ngun ac v ti thch hp anode, tn hiu ac hoc xung cng) ri o gc dn trn my hin sng vt kp. Vi cch o th ny in p kch dn v in p anode cng nh dng ti c iu chnh n cc iu kin lm vic ng bnh thng (hoc bt thng) v ghi kt qu. V d, in p kch dn c th iu chnh trn mc kch dn nh nht v ln nht gi nh, hoc c th ngt kch dn v gim in p anode n mc in p ngt thc. Phng php gc dn s th tt c cc c tnh quan trng ca SCR, ngoi tr ng, ngt v tc tng. a) o th gc dn C th s dng my hin sng vt kp o gc dn ca SCR hoc thyristor nh mch o hnh 4.38, trong mt knh ca my hin sng s hin hnh mc dng anode, trong khi knh cn li hin hnh in p kch dn. C hai vt phi c chun theo in p. o dng ti anode thng qua in tr thun 1, nn st p trn in tr l bng vi mc dng. V d, nu ch th 3V thu c trn vt ca my hin sng s l mc dng 3A ang chy trong mch anode.

in p kch dn c ch th trc tip trn knh cn li ca my hin sng. Ch l diode mch kch dn cung cp tn hiu kch dn dc trong mch ac. Do tn hiu kch dn ng b vi dng anode (cung cp t mt ngun), nn phn chu k kch dn trong c dng anode chy qua l gc dn. Quy trnh o th gc dn ca SCR nh sau: 1. Mc mch nh hnh 4.38. Bt ngun cho my hin sng. t qut v ng b mc Internal (qut trong). 2. a ngun vo SCR. iu chnh in p kch dn, in p anode v dng anode n mc theo yu cu. in p anode c th o bng cch tm thi di chuyn u o ca my hin sng (u o ang c mc o in p cc cng) n anode. 3. iu chnh iu khin qut ca my hin sng v ng b c hai hoc ba chu k n nh ca mi dng sng trn mn hnh. 4. Trn c s ca xung kch dn bng 180, xc nh gc ca dng anode bng cch i chiu vi vt ca in p kch dn. V d trn hnh hin hnh 4.38, dng anode bt u chy 90 v dng 180, s cho gc dn l 90. Ch rng, nu cu kin o th l triac (hoc tng t nh SBS) th hnh hin qu trnh dn c hai

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bn k. 5. xc nh mc in p kch dn cn thit nh nht v ln nht th phi thay i in p kch dn t 0 n khong hot ng d kin, v ch mc ca in p kch dn khi anode bt u dn. 6. xc nh mc in p nh thng, th ngt in p kch dn v chuyn u que o ca my hin sng n anode. Tng in p anode cho n khi bt u dn v ghi mc in p anode tng ng. 4.3.4 CC SAI HNG IN HNH CC MCH S DNG THYRISTOR. Mc d thyristor l cc cu kin tin cy nhng cng c mt s sai hng lin quan ti cc thyristor gm: 1. in p nh thng thp. 2. Mt chc nng iu khin ca cng. 3. H mch gia anode vi cathode (do di/dt cao, trong di l bin thin dng anode trong khong thi gian dt). 4. Ngn mch gia anod v cathode (do dv/dt cao, trong dv l bin thin in p anode trong khong thi gian dt). 5. H mch gia cng v cathode. 6. Ngn mch gia cng v cathode. 7. Hng mch kch dn cho SCR. 4.3.5 MCH O TH N GIN SCR Cc SCR c cng c tnh nh cc diode v c th o th bng cch o o in tr gia cng v cathode. trng thi phn cc thun, tip gip pn ca SCR vo khong t 100 n 500 , cn iu kin phn cc ngc vo khong 100k . Mch dng cho vic o th SCR bng multimeter nh hnh 4.39. Cc bc o nh sau: 1. ng S1, t bin tr 5k v tr = 0, ch th trn milliammeter s rt thp, in hnh l 50 A, do SCR ngng dn. S ch th ca ng h o in p [Voltmeter] vo khong 12V. 2. ng S2, kch xung vo cng, SCR s dn, milliammeter s ch th mc dng cao, khong 100mA, voltmeter ch th khong 1V, tc l mc st p thun gia anode v cathode ca SCR. 3. Tng dn in tr ca bin tr 5k cho n khi SCR chuyn sang ngng dn do in p anode thp. Gi tr c c trn milliammeter ngay trc khi SCR chuyn sang ngng s cho mc dng gi, IH. 4.4 O TH VI MCH TNG T IC TUYN TNH OP AMP o th vi mch tng t in hnh l vi mch thut ton a nng [operation amplifier]. Thut ng 'khuych i thut ton' [op amp], cho bit rng b khuych i c th thc hin cc php tnh ton nh php cng, php tr, php vi phn, php tch phn, v. v. . . vi cc tn hiu tng t. Cc ng dng ca op - amp khng ch gii hn cc php ton, m OA cn c s dng rng ri nh mt b khuych i l tng i vi cc thit b o, nh b so snh trong cc mch bin i tng t sang s v lm b iu ho (hay n nh in p) cc h thng ngun cung cp. Op - amp cng c dng

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trong cc h thng audio v video cung cp h s khuych i cao, rng bng tn ln v mo dng thp. Cc b khuych i c s dng nh mch khuych i tng t hay cc vi mch tuyn tnh, c hai chn dng cho hai tn hiu vo, mt chn tn hiu ra, hai chn ngun cung cp + VCC v VCC. S chn ca IC thng dng nht l op - amp 741 cho hnh 4.40a, v ca IC n nh in p (IC723) nh hnh 4.40b. [NC - No connection trong s ni chn, c ngha l 'khng ni']. Cc c nh du (-) l chn o, cn in cc c nh du (+) l chn khng o. 4.4.1 NGUYN L HOT NG CA OP AMP. Tng vo ca op - amp nh hnh 4.40c, l mt mch khuych i vi sai vi hai u vo n (V1 v V2) v mt u ra n (Vo). Hot ng ca mch c gii thch nh sau. Khi V1 tng ln, dng chy qua Q1 tng, in p trn RE tng, s lm gim in p phn cc thun ca Q2. Nn dng chy qua Q2 s gim xung v v vy, in p ti collector tc l Vo s tng. Do khi tng tn hiu vo V1 s dn n lm tng mc tn hiu ra. Vy u vo V1 c gi l in cc khng o. Ngc li, khi V2 tng, in p phn cc thun ca Q2 s tng, lm tng dng emitter v do lm tng dng collector ca Q2, nn c mc st p ln hn trn RC v do lm gim Vo. Vy, V2 tng s dn n vic lm gim mc in p ra, nn u vo V2 c gi l u vo o. a) S khi ca op - amp. Ngoi tng khuych i vi sai u vo, mt vi mch op - amp cn c cc tng khc tng h s khuych i v cui cng l mt tng lp li emitter kiu y ko u ra. S khi ca mt op - amp in hnh nh hnh 4.41a.

K hiu op - amp theo chc nng nh hnh 4.41b, v k hiu mch theo hnh 4.41c. b) Cc thng s ca op - amp. - H s khuych i vng h. H s khuych i vng h l h s khuych i in p (Av) ca mch khuych i khi khng c mch hi tip m. - H s khuych i vng kn. (Avcl) l h s khuych i in p khi c mch hi tip m. - in tr vo. L in tr gia hai u vo, khi nhn t ngun tn hiu vo, nn gi l in tr vo (Zin). - in tr ra. Gi tr in tr o c ti u ra trng thi h mch ti gi l in tr ra (Zout). - in p dch u ra v dch u vo. Khi hai cc base ca mch khuych i vi sai u vo c ni t, in p vi sai bng 0, in p ra cng phi bng 0. Tuy nhin, do khng c s ng nht l tng hai transistor, nn mc in p ra khng th bng 0. Mc in p ra khc 0 khi hai u vo ni t gi l mc in p dch u ra, ngha l c mt mc in p vo no c a vo mch mc d c hai u vo c ni t, mc in p vo s bng Vo / h s khuych i in p, nn c gi l in p dch u vo. in p dch u ra cng c th c xc nh bng in p chnh lch cn phi c t vo hai u vo lm trit tiu in p dch u ra. - tri mc in p dch u vo. c xc nh bng s thay i mc in p dch u vo theo thay i v nhit tuyt i.

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- Dng dch u vo. c xc nh bng chnh lch gia hai dng base ca tng vo. Nu cc transistor ng nht v tt c cc thng s, th dng dch u vo s bng 0. - tri mc dng dch u vo. tri mc dng dch u vo c xc nh bng thay i mc dng dch u vo theo thay i v nhit tuyt i. - Dng phn cc vo Dng phn cc vo l trung bnh cng ca hai dng base. - T s loi b nhiu ng pha [Common mode rejection ratio - CMRR]. Khi in p dch u ra c loi b, th hai tn hiu vo bng nhau c cng cc tnh (tc l c hai u dng hoc c hai u m) ti hai u vo s khng to ra mc tn hiu u ra. Hai tn hiu c cng cc tnh c gi l tn hiu ng pha. Cc tn hiu nhiu c cng cc tnh c trch dn vo cc u vo. H s khuych i ca op - amp i vi cc tn hiu ng pha l rt nh khi so vi h s khuych i ca hai tn hiu vi sai (tc l hai tn hiu c cc tnh ngc nhau). T s ca h s khuych i vi sai (AD) i vi h s khuych i ng pha ACM c gi l t s loi b nhiu ng pha l: AD (4.7a) CMRR ACM i vi mch khuych i vi sai, ta c: RC RC r RE RE v ACM do vy, CMRR e (khi RE >> re) (4.7b) AD 2re 2 RE 2re re re trong , RE l in tr emitter v re l in tr ca diode (tip gip base emitter) khi c mc dng chy qua diode bng vi IE. Thng thng, re rt b (vi ohm, in hnh bng 25mV/IE, trong IE vo khong vi milliampere), v RE rt ln (vo khong vi megaohm) v vy, CMRR l rt cao. - Tc thay i hay tc p ng (Slew rate). i vi cc op amp, thng s dng mt t in nh (vi picofarad) mch collector ca tng vo c th n nh h s khuych i tn s cao (hoc dng kh nh hng ca in dung k sinh). Khi tn hiu vo tng ln t 0, transistor th nht (Q1) mch hnh 4.42a, s tr nn bo ho v transistor th hai (Q2) s tr nn ngng dn, cho php t C np n gi tr in p bng vi in p collector (VC). Hnh 4.42b, th hin tc np ca t C. Tc np ln nht (ti im bt u ca chu trnh np) c gi l tc p ng [slew rate - SR]. Cn phi c tc thay i cao. Nu tc thay i ca op - amp thp hn tc thay i ca tn hiu vo, th tn hiu ra s b mo dng. Biu thc m t tc thay i theo phng trnh (4.8), I (max) 1 dQ (max) Tc p ng = dv/dt (max) = (4.8) C dt C Tc np tu thuc vo Vout tc l tu thuc vo RC, tc thay i s gim xung khi RC tng v c th gy mo dng tn hiu nh th hin hnh 4.42c.

- rng bng tn cng sut. Tn s ln nht, fmax ca tn hiu v = Esin 2 ft khng lm mo dng tn hiu ra c cho bng phng trnh (4.9), SR (4.9) f max 2E trong , E l bin nh ca dng sng tn hiu vo.

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Tn s trn c gi l rng bng tn ln nht hay rng bng tn cng sut. Bin tn hiu vo thp hn s cho rng bng tn cng sut cao hn. Gii hn tn s cao nht ca IC741 l vo khong 1MHz. - dao ng in p ra. Mc in p ra ln nht c th l + VCC hay - VEE. Thng VEE = VCC. Vy mc in p ra c th dao ng l tng t - VEE n + VCC. Thc t, dao ng ln nht ca in p ra thp hn khong 10% so vi mc l tng. trng thi hng, mc ra ca op - amp c th ghim mc + VCC hay ti mc - VEE. - T s trit mc in p ngun cung cp [gi tt l PSRR - Power supply voltage rejection ratio]. PSRR l t s ca thay i mc in p dch u vo ( Vioff) theo thay i mc in p ngun cung cp ( VCC). L tng nht, PSRR phi bng 0. Trong thc t, PSRR kh nh (vo khong vi microvolt/volt). - rng bng tn h s khuych i bng 1. L tn s tn hiu ti mc h s khuych i in p b gim xung bng 1 (hay 0dB). i vi IC741, rng bng tn tng ng vi h s khuych i bng 1 l 1MHz (mc d rng bng tn mc 3dB ch l 10Hz). C ngha l, khi IC741 c h s khuych i cao dc v di tn s thp, th vi mch khng th s dng mc tn s tn hiu cao hn 1MHz. Vi mch LM318 c rng bng tn ng vi h s khuych i bng 1 l 15MHz (tc thay i cao l 70V/ s). - Tch rng bng tn-h s khuych i. Tch rng bng tn - h s khuych i ca mt op amp l hng s. Khi h s khuych i b gim xung do hi tip m, th rng bng tn s tng ln. V d, khi h s khuych i bng 100000 th rng bng tn l 10Hz (tch = 1000000). Khi h s khuych i b gim xung cn 1000 do hi tip m, th rng bng tn s bng 1kHz (tch bng 1000000), cn khi h s khuych i gim xung bng 1, th rng bng tn bng 1MHz (tch bng 1000000). Ngoi vic s dng cc op - amp cho vic tnh ton s hc, th cc IC tuyn tnh cng c s dng rng ri trong cc h thng audio v video. Vi mch IM2002, thch hp cho cc mch khuych i audio, c h s khuych i in p l 40dB, rng bng tn l 100kHz v cng sut ra l 8W. Vi mch LM733, thch hp cho vic khuych i cao tn (RF) c h s khuych i l 20dB v rng bng tn l 120MHz. Vi mch LM340 l vi mch iu ho (n nh) in p ngun cung cp rt tt khi ti bin thin. Cc thng s thc t v l tng ca IC741C, c lit k bng 4.3. Bng 4.3: Cc thng s ca IC741C. Thng s Gi tr in hnh Gi tr l tng 1. in p dch u vo 1mV (ln nht l 5mV) 0 2. Dng dch u vo 20nA (ln nht l 200nA) 0 3. Dng phn cc u vo 80nA (ln nht l 500nA) 0 4. Tr khng vo 1M (ln nht l 2M ) 5. Tr khng ra 0 75 6. in dung vo 1.4pF 0 160 000 (thp nht l 20 000) 7. H s khuych i vng h 90dB 8. CMRR 9. PSRR 0 30 V/V (ln nht l 150 V/V) 10 . dao ng in p ln nht l 13.5V 15V 11. Tc p ng 0.65V/ s 12. rng bng tn 1MHz (khi h s khuych i bng 1) 200kHz 13. rng bng tn cng sut 14. Mc tiu tn cng sut 500mW (ln nht) 0 (ti nhit mi trng l 25oC) 4.4.2 O TH CC THNG S CA OP AMP. a) o h s khuych i vng h. Mch dng o h s khuych i vng h nh hnh 4.43a, theo trnh t o nh sau.

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1. iu chnh in p dch u ra bng 0, bng in th k P1. 2. iu chnh dn b suy gim P2 c tn hiu vo nh. 3. o mc tn hiu vo vin bng millivoltmeter ac v tn hiu ra vo bng mt ng h o in p. 4. Tnh h s khuych i vng h theo cng thc vo / vin. 5. Biu th h s khuych i vng h theo dB (= 20log vo/vin). b) o in tr vo Rin. Mch o nh hnh 4.43b.

Tn hiu vo Vin t vo gia hai u vo thng qua hai in tr R bng nhau. o mc in p ra Vo. Suy ra, Vo c tnh theo phng trnh (4.10), Vin Rin Av (4.10) Vo 2 R Rin Khi bit Vin, Vo, h s khuych i in p (vng h) Av v R, c th suy ra tr s in tr vo Rin. c) o in p dch u vo. o in p dch u vo bng mch nh hnh 4.43c. y l mch vng kn nn h s khuych i bng Rf/R1. o Vo v o cc in tr Rf v R1, suy ra Vin bng Vo x Rf / R1. Khi khng c in p vo, m c mc in p no u ra th l mc in p dch u ra do s bt i xng cc transistor trong tng vi sai ca OA, tc l gn nh c mt mc in p nh ti u vo. Suy lun ngc php tnh trn l mc in p dch u vo. d) o dng phn cc u vo. Mch o dng phn cc u vo nh hnh 4.44a. C hai in tr RB-1 v RB-2 l c tr s bng nhau (> 10M ). Khi ni cc A vi A' v ngn mch CD. Dng in IB-2 s chy qua RB-2, v mch s lm vic nh mch lp in p (mch khuych i c h s khuych i bng 1), nn in p ra, Vo s bng mc in p ngang qua RB-2. o Vo v suy ra: Vo (4.11) I B 2 RB 2 Vo hay I B- 2
RB- 2

Tho ngn mch gia C v D. Thc hin ngn mch gia A v B, v ni C vi C'. Mc in p ngang qua RB-1 s bng vi Vo. Do vy,
I B 1 RB 1 Vo hay I B-1 Vo RB-1

(4.12)

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IB1 v IB2 nhn c t hai phng trnh (4.11) v (4.12) tng ng. Dng phn cc u vo c th tnh bng gi tr trung bnh hai mc dng trn. Hai in tr ln RB1 v RB2 s c mc song song hai t in lm gim nhiu tn s cao. e) o thng s CMRR. Mch o thng s CMRR cho hnh 4.44b. Khi chuyn mch chuyn sang v tr C, th u vo + v - ca op - amp s c mc n cng mc in p qua v tr C ca chuyn mch, tc l cch mc ng pha. in p ra Vo s c ch th, gi l VC. Chuyn mch c t ti v tr D, u vo o s c ni t thng qua R1 v u vo khng o vn c mc vi in p vo. Vy trng thi ny, hai u vo (+ v -) s cho tn hiu vi sai. Vo s c ch th, gi l VD. Sau tnh t s VD/VC s c CMRR. f) o tc thay i hay tc p ng [vit tt l SR - Slew Rate]. Tc thay i l tc thay i ca in p ra ln nht (V/micro giy). i vi IC741, gi tr in hnh l 1V/ s. SR c th o bng cch cung cp mt xung vung tn s thp t mt ngun pht xung n u vo ca op - amp o theo mch hnh 4.45a.

Sng vung u vo s to ra cnh sn ln u ra do s dng t b. Cnh nghing quan st trn my hin sng th hin nh hnh 4.45b. nghing l ng u, tc bin thin ln nht ca in p ra s nh nhau ti mi thi im trong khong thi gian tch phn sn nghing. Bng cch chn cc im thun tin trn sn nghing, s o c v v t, ri ly t s v / t s tnh c tc bin thin. Mt phng php o SR khc l cung cp tn hiu sng sin t mt my to sng sin n op - amp v quan st dng sng ra trn mn hnh ca my hin sng. Tn s ca tn hiu vo s c tng dn cho n khi va c s mo dng xut hin trn mn hnh ca my hin sng. Khi tn s ngay trc khi xut hin s mo dng l tn s ln nht (fmax) tnh SR, theo cng thc (4.9) l: fmax = SR / (2 E). 4.4.3 PHN TCH MCH OP AMP. a) Khi nim mc t o. Do h s khuych i v cng, in p vo bng 0, nn nu mt trong hai u vo c ni t, th u vo cn li cng c th c xem nh c ni t. Nu mt u vo khng c ni t, nhng c mc in p V, th u vo cn li cng c th xem l t ti mc in p V. Hn na, do tr khng vo v cng, dng vo bng 0, v vy khng c dng chy t mt u vo n u vo cn li. Tc dng nh vy ti mt in cc c gi bng thut ng mc t o [virtual earth]. Nh vy, trng thi mc t o, mc d khng c im c ni t nhng ng vai tr nh c ni t nn khng c dng in chy t im t ny n im c ni t khc. S dng khi nim mc t o phn tch cc mch op - amp. - Mch khuych i o Hnh 4.46a, l mch khuych i o, vi tn hiu vo Vin c t vo u vo o v Rf v Rin l in tr hi tip v in tr ni tip, tng ng trn hnh v. Khng c dng in chy gia A v B do tr khng vo v cng, nn dng in chy qua Rin bng dng chy qua Rf. Khi xt theo khi nim mc t o, dng chy qua in tr Rin l Vin / Rin, bng dng chy qua Rf l Vo / Rf , nn Vo V ta c: in hay h s khuych i in p: R in R f

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Av

Vo Vin

Rf Rin

(4.13)

- Mch khuych i tng. Mch khuych i o c th lm vic nh mch khuych i tng, nu cc in p vo V1, V2, v V3 cn c cng vi nhau, tt c c t vo u vo o thng qua cc in tr c cc tr s R1, R2 v R3, suy ra: Rf Rf Rf V1 V2 V3 Vo R1 R2 R3 Nu R1 = R2 = R3, th suy ra V1 + V2 + V3 = Vo. - Mch khuych i khng o. Hnh 4.46b, l mch khuych i khng o. Phn tch mch s cho kt qu phng trnh (4.14). t in p Vin vo u vo khng o v in p hi tip vo u vo o. Do h s khuych i v cng, nn in p gia hai im A v B bng 0, hay, VA = VB, c ngha l, Rin nn h s khuych i in p ca mch s l: Vin Vo Rin Rf Vo Rin Rf Rf (4.14) Av 1 Vin Rin Rin - Mch lp in p hay mch khuych i c h s khuych i in p bng 1. Mch lp nh hnh 4.46c. Khi chnh lch in p gia B v A bng 0 (h s khuych i v cng) th Vo = Vin. Mch khuych i ng vai tr nh mt tng m vi tr khng vo rt cao. Cc tng m nh vy l cn thit gia mt tng dao ng v mt tng khuych i cng sut gi cho cc tn hiu dao ng khng b suy gim. Mch khuych i o vi Rf = Rin (hnh 4.46a), cng l mch khuych i c h s khuych i bng 1 vi mc tn hiu ra b o (tc l Vo = - Vin). - Mch khuych i hiu hay vi sai. Khi hai mc in p khc nhau V1 v V2 c t vo hai u vo o v khng o, nh hnh 4.47a, th in p ra Vo s tnh theo phng trnh (4.15). V2 Rf R V1 Rf V2 Rf V1 Rf R Vo 1 f (V2 V1 ) f R1 Rf R1 R1 R1 R1 R1 Nu Rf = R1, th: V2 - V1 = Vo (4.15) Vy, mch khuych i chnh lch ng vai tr nh mt mch tr. - Mch tch phn. Hnh 4.47b, l mt mch tch phn. Phn tch mch s cho kt qu bng phng trnh (4.16). in p ti u vo + bng 0, nn in p trn t C bng Vo (so vi mc t o). Vy, ta c: dVo 1 dQ i Q , hay: Vo C dt C dt C 0 Vin Vin Mt khc, do mc t o ti u vo o, nn ta c: i R R

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dV Vin dt C o , hay: dVo Vin R dt RC Tch phn hai v, ta c: 1 1 (4.16) dVo Vin dt , hay: Vo Vin dt RC RC Phng trnh (4.16), cho thy rng, bin ca in p ra bng tch phn hm s in p vo. - Mch vi phn. Hnh 4.47c, l mch vi phn. Phn tch mch s cho in p ra bng vi phn in p vo bi phng trnh (4.17). Bng khi nim mc t o, im A c ni t v do vy, Vin s np in cho t, nn: V Vo dV dV dQ Q = CVin hoc ta c: , nn: o C in , i C in , mt khc: i Rf dt Rf dt dt hoc: dVin (4.17) Vo CRf dt Vy, in p ra l vi phn ca in p vo Vin.

Do vy, ta c:

- Mch n nh (iu ho ) in p. Hnh 4.48, l ng dng op - amp lm mch n nh in p. VZ khng i do tc dng ca diode zener. Do in p ti u vo A = VZ. Mt phn in p ra s c a tr li u vo B thng qua mch phn p bng hai in tr R1 v R2. Nu in p ti B tng ln, th in p ti u ra C ca op - amp s gim xung, v v vy in tr ca transistor iu chnh, Q s tng ln, tc l s lm gim mc in p ra, VO trn in tr ti, bng cch s lm v hiu ho mc in p tng ln ban u. Qu trnh ngc li s xy ra nu in p ti u vo B gim. Nh vy, in p ra, VO s duy tr hu nh khng i. - Mch so snh. L mch c s dng ph bin trong cc b m, cc b bin i tng t sang s (ADC), v cc b bin i s sang tng t (DAC). VIN s c so snh vi in p mu VR, nh mch hnh 4.49a. Khi VIN hi ln hn so vi VR, th in p ra VO s dng (hay mc logic 1) do h s khuych i ca op - amp rt cao. Khi VIN hi thp hn so vi VR, th VO s m (hay mc logic 0) v khi VIN = VR, th VO bng 0 (mc logic 0). Nh vy, mch hnh 4.49a, so snh in p vo vi in p mu, cho bit in p vo hoc l ln hn, hoc nh hn hay bng so vi in p mu. - Mch chuyn i dng in thnh in p. Mt mch op - amp c th s dng chuyn i dng in thnh in p. Vic chuyn i dng in thnh in p l cn phi c trong cc voltmeter s v cc voltmeter in t o dng in. Mch bin i dng thnh p nh hnh 4.49b. Da theo mc t o, ta c Vo = i x Rf. Vy, Vo t l thun vi dng in i, trong dng i l dng in

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cn o. Nu Rf bng 1k , gi tr ca Vo s cho mc dng c trc tip theo milliamper.

- Mch chuyn i in p thnh dng in. Nu in p vo Vin c a n u vo khng o nh mch hnh 4.46b, th s cho dng in I chy qua in tr hi tip Rf s l: Vin (do mc t o), hoc: Vin Rin I I Rin Nu cho Rin trong khong k, th gi tr ca Vin s th hin trc tip mc dng trong khong milliamper. Nh vy, in p c chuyn i thnh dng in. - o cc in tr c tr s in tr rt nh. Mt op - amp c th s dng o cc gi tr in tr rt nh do s mt cn bng trong mch cu cn bng khc nhau. Nu bn nhnh ca mch cu Wheatstone c cc in tr ca mi nhnh bng nhau, th cu s cn bng v v vy chnh lch in th ngang qua nhnh ca ng h bng 0. Khi mt in tr cha bit c mc ni tip vi mt nhnh cu, th s cn bng s b ph v v s xut hin mt mc in p nh V. Op - amp s o mc in p di dng in tr. - Cc mch lc. Op - amp c th c s dng lm mch lc thng thp, mch lc thng cao, mch lc di, hay mch lc loi b di thng. Cc mch lc nh vy c gi l cc mch lc ch ng. So vi tc dng chc nng lc ca mch RC, th h s khuych i ca mch khuych i ng vai tr quan trng trong vic lm tng thm cc c tnh ca b lc. Mch hnh 4.49c, v 4.49d, l mch lc thng thp v mch lc thng cao thng dng tng ng. Ngoi ra di tn s thp, cc mch lc thng thng cn phi c cc cun in cm ln, nhng cc mch lc ch ng khng cn cc cun in cm, nn kch thc mch lc nh gn. Cc mch lc ch ng tr nn thng dng hn nhiu so vi cc kiu mch lc thng thng. Tn s ct trong c hai mch lc bng 1/(2 RC). Mch hi tip m s lm tng rng bng tn. Khi mch lc thng thp v mch lc thng cao c mc ni tip, th s c mch lc thng di. Khi mch lc thng thp v thng cao c mc song song, th s nhn c mch lc thng chn. 4.4.4 CC SAI HNG THNG THNG XY RA TRONG OP-AMP. Cc sai hng thng xy ra trong cc mch op-amp nh sau: 1. Mc in p ra ca mch khuych i vi sai gi mc + VCC. Nguyn nhn c th xy ra: (i) nu VCC b ngn mch vi chn ra bn trong hay bn ngoi, hoc (ii) in tr collector b ngn mch, hoc (iii) transistor u ra tr nn h mch, hoc (iv) in tr emitter h mch, hoc (v) in p ti cc khng o l cao hn nhiu so vi in p ti cc o. 2. Tn hiu ra ca mch khuych i vi sai gi ti mc - VCC, do: (i) - VCC b ni tt vi chn ra bn trong hay bn ngoi, hoc (ii) in p ti chn o ln hn nhiu so vi in p ti chn khng o. 3. Mc ra c th mc 0V do: (i) chn ra t, hay (ii) chn ra b ngn mch vi t. 4. Mc in p dch u ra c th cao do s mt cn bng cc transistor. 5. Mc tn hiu ra c th b mo do tc thay i (SR) tr nn thp hn so vi tc bin thin ca tn hiu. 6. CMRR thp l do: (i) cc transistor khng cn bng, cho h s khuych i ng pha cao, hoc do (ii) h s khuych i vi sai tr nn thp. 7. H s khuych i vng kn c th thp hay cao biu th in tr hi tip li hoc in tr ni tip li. V d 4.5: Vi cc thng s mch hnh 4.50, hy xc nh cc mc in p ti A, B, v C. Xc nh cc mc in p nh hng khi h mch ca tng in tr.

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Cc mc in p trng thi mch bnh thng. in p ti A s gn bng 0V do mc t o. in p ti B s bng: - (2mV + 3mV) = - 5mV (do mch tnh tng) in p ti C s bng: - 5mV (mch lp li in p). Cc mc in p trng thi li. Khi R1 h mch, th VA = 0, VB = - 3mV v VC = - 3mV. Khi R2 h mch, th VA = 0V, VB = - 2mV v VC = -2mV. Khi Rf h mch, th VA = 1mV, VB = - 13,5V v VC = - 13,5V. V d 4.6: Nu tng in tr mch hnh 4.50 b ngn mch th mc in p c th ti cc im A, B, v C s nh th no ? Khi R1 b ngn mch, VA = 2mV, VB = - 13,5V v VC = - 13,5V. Khi R2 b ngn mch, VA = 3mV, VB = - 13,5V v VC = - 13,5V. Khi Rf b ngn mch, VA = 0V, VB = 0V v VC = 0V. V d 4.7: Tnh cc mc in p bnh thng ti cc im A, B, C, v D trong mch hnh 4.51. Cc mc in p bnh thng. VA = 0V (bng mc t o) VB = - 1V (do h s khuych i = - Rf/R1 = - 1) VC = - 3V (do h s khuych i in p bng 1 + (200/100) = 3) VD = - 1V (mch phn p). V d 4.8: Hy xc nh sai hng trong cc trng hp sau cho mch hnh 4.51. (a) VA = 1V, VB = VC = - 13,5V v VD = - 4,5V. (b) Tt c cc in p l bnh thng, tr in p ti im C bng - 1V m l ra bng -3V. (c) VA = VB = VC = VD = 0V. (d) VC = - 13,5V, VD = 0V, tt c cc in p khc u bnh thng.

(a) Khi VB bng gi tr nh, th in tr hi tip, Rf b h mch. (b) Op - amp th hai lm vic nh mt mch lp in p do R3 b h mch. (c) Mc in p ti B bng 0V s cho thy rng, Rf b ngn mch hoc R1 b h mch. Khi in p ti B bng 0V th in p ti C v D cng s bng 0V. (d) in tr 200k b h mch, nn h s khuych i vng h s to ra mc in p ti C, VC = 13,5V, v VD s bng 0V.

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4.5 O TH VI MCH S 4.5.1 CC H LOGIC. Bn cht ca cc mch logic l cc chuyn mch in t. C th s dng cc diode, cc BJT, v cc FET di dng cc mch tch hp (cc IC) c cc tc ng chuyn mch. Cc vi mch c cng cc mc in p v cc c tnh ging nhau to thnh mt h logic. Trong phm vi mt h logic, u ra ca mt IC c th kt ni vi u vo ca IC khc v do c th nhn c cc kiu mch logic rt a dng. Trong thc t, phn loi h vi mch theo cu trc gm su h logic l: 1. H vi mch logic transistor-in tr (RTL) 2. H vi mch logic transistor-diode (DTL) 3. H vi mch logic phng thch tch hp (I2L) 4. H vi mch logic transistor transistor (TTL) 5. H vi mch cu trc bng cc cu kin MOS v CMOS 6. H vi mch logic ghp emitter (ECL) Ba h vi mch u trn hin nay khng cn s dng. Cc h vi mch TTL, CMOS, v ECL u c cc thng s ring, thch hp vi cc ng dng c th. 4.5.2 CC C TNH CA H LOGIC Mi h logic l t hp cc cu kin in t c trng, to nn cc c tnh ring ca h vi mch logic nh sau. - Mc tiu tn cng sut Cng sut tiu tn trong cu kin khi c dng in chy qua cu kin. Cng sut tnh bng tch ca dng chy qua v st p trn cu kin in t. Cu kin in t tt hn nu mc tiu tn cng sut thp hn. Mc cng sut tiu tn h vi mch CMOS l thp nht, cn mc cng sut tiu tn ln nht l h vi mch ECL. - Tr truyn lan Khi vi mch hot ng s chuyn mch t trng thi dn [ON] sang trng thi ngng dn [OFF] hoc ngc li, vi mch cn mt khong thi gian gi l tr truyn lan (tnh bng nanosecond) t n trng thi n nh l OFF hay ON. Tr truyn lan nh nht h vi mch ECL (vo khong 2ns) v ln nht h CMOS (khong 100ns). H vi mch TTL c tr truyn lan mc trung bnh (khong 10ns). Nu s dng diode Schottky, th tr h TTL gim xung vo khong 3ns. - Tc chuyn mch Tc chuyn mch thay th cho tr truyn. tr truyn ca h vi mch cao hn, vi mch s c tc chuyn mch thp hn. - H s phm cht ca cng logic H s phm cht tnh theo n v picojoule ca cng logic l tch ca mc cng sut tiu tn tnh theo milliwatt v tr truyn tnh theo nano giy. Tr s ca pJ thp hn cho vi mch c cht lng tt hn. - d tr nhiu [Noise Margin] Cc tn hiu v cc xung qu khng mong mun s cm ng vo vi mch theo dng nhiu. Nhiu khi cm ng ln mc logic 1 hay 0 c th tc ng ln cc mc logic v gy ra s khng r rng trong vic xc nh chnh xc mc logic. d tr nhiu hay khng nhiu l mc in p nhiu ln nht c th cho php ti u vo m khng gy ra s khng r rng mc ra cho. d tr nhiu (NM Noise Margin) s c xc nh theo cc phng trnh (4.18) v (4.19). Gii hn nhiu ca mc logic 1 = VOH VIH (4.18) Gii hn nhiu ca mc logic 0 = VIL VOL (4.19) trong , VOH l mc in p cao nh nht ti u ra; VIH l mc in p cao nh nht ti u vo; VIL l mc in p thp ln nht ti u vo; VOL l mc in p thp ln nht ti u ra. d tr nhiu ca h TTL l 0,4V, s c biu th nh sau, i vi mc logic 1, NM = 2,4V - 2V = 0,4V, v i vi mc logic 0, NM = 0,8V - 0,4V = 0,4V d tr nhiu ca h ECL cng l 0,4V d tr nhiu ca h CMOS l 20% ca VDD, s c biu th nh sau, i vi mc logic 1, NM = 0,9 VDD - 0,7 VDD = 0,2 VDD = 20% ca VDD, v i vi mc logic 0, NM = 0,3 VDD - 0,1 VDD = 0,2 VDD = 20% ca VDD Cc gi tr d tr nhiu ti u ra l nghim ngt hn so vi cc gi tr d tr nhiu ti u vo

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cho php nhiu c th thm vo cc xung logic trong sut qu trnh truyn t u ra ca vi mch trc n u vo ca vi mch sau. Yu cu cc mc in p ngun cung cp thng thng l: VCC i vi h TTL l 5V VCC i vi h ECL l - 5,2V cho lot vi mch kiu 10K v - 4,2V cho lot vi mch kiu 100K VDD i vi h CMOS l 3V n 15V cho lot vi mch kiu 4000 v 5V cho lot vi mch 74C00 - Fan-in Fan-in c ngha l s lng ln nht ca cc u vo c th mc vi cng m khng nh hng chc nng ca cng. nh hng ca cc mc vo fan-in do thi gian truyn lan, bi v mi u vo u ng gp mc in dung no . Mc fan-in ln hn s c thi gian truyn ln hn v do vi mch s c tc lm vic thp hn. Fan-in ca cng TTL tc trung bnh l 10. Nu mun tc lm vic cao hn, cn phi gim mc fan-in. - Fan-out Fan-out l s lng cng ln nht c th kt ni ti u ra m khng nh hng n hiu sut ca vi mch. Mi u ra s l ti ca cng logic nn mc dng ra s tng. Vy gii hn s lng ta ra s c quyt nh bi mc dng ln nht c th chy qua cng ngun. Mc fan-out ca TTL l 10. 4.5.3 CHN LA H LOGIC S lng cc h logic c tng ln nhm ci thin hiu sut cho mc ra c th tt nht. Tuy nhin, khng c h logic no cho cc thng s tt nht. C mt s tha hip no nn vic chn la ty thuc vo ng dng c th chp nhn dung sai. Trong cc h logic, tr truyn thp nhng tiu th cng sut ln (h ECL). Cc h logic nh vy thch hp cho cc my tnh cp cao cn tc rt nhanh nhng c th chu mc tiu tn cng sut cao, lm vic bng ngun in li. Trong cc h logic khc, mc tiu tn cng sut l rt thp, nhng tr truyn cao (h CMOS). Cc mch CMOS thch hp ng dng khi cn tit kim ngun cung cp v c th chu tc lm vic thp, nh cc my tnh s [calculator], cc ng h s v cc thit b s khc dng ngun pin. i vi cc sn phm VLSI cng nh vy. Cc h vi mch TTL c mc tiu tn cng sut trung bnh v tc mc kh tt l c cc nh thit k s dng nhiu nht. Tuy ang c cc nghin cu ci thin, nn cc kiu vi mch ang c s dng ph bin hin nay l kiu TTL kiu Schottky tc cao, TTL cao cp cng sut thp v cc vi mch CMOS tc cao. Cc thng s ca cc h logic thng dng s c so snh vi nhau bng 4.4. Bng 4.4: So snh cc c tnh ca cc h logic TTL TTL TTL cao cp tc CMOS ECL Thng s Schottky cao cng sut thp Tiu chun Seri 10K Seri 100K
tc cao

1. Mc cng sut 10mW 19mW 1mW 28mW 40mW 10W tiu tn / cng 2. tr truyn 10ns 3ns 4ns 100ns 2ns 1ns 3. H s phm cht 100pJ 57pJ 4pJ 1pJ 56pJ 40pJ 4. Fan-out 10 10 40 50 30 20 5. Bin nhiu 0,4V 0,4V 0,4V 20% ca VDD 0,4V 0,4V 6. Cc mc logic 0,8V 0,8V 0,8V 30% ca VDD -1,6V 1,6V (i) Mc 0 ti u vo (max) (ii) Mc 0 ti 0,4V 0,4V 0,4V 20% ca VDD -2V 2V u ra (max) (iii) Mc 1 ti 2V 2V 2V 70% ca VDD 0,8V 0,8V u vo (min) (iv) Mc 1 ti 2,4V 2,4V 2,4V 90% ca VDD 0,4V 2,4V u ra (min) 4.4.4 CNG BA TRNG THI. Cng ba trng thi l cng c tr khng cao bt chp cc mc vo. Khi nhiu dng c c ni n ng dn chung (bus), ch mt dng c cn phi c kh nng truyn cc xung n bus ti thi im no trnh xung t v do trnh sai lch s liu, th tt c cc dng c s c kt ni n mch

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c tr khng cao (gn nh h mch) bng cch dng dng c iu khin gi l iu khin trng thi th ba, duy tr cc dng c c hy kt ni khi bus bng cch cung cp tr khng cao v ch cho php mt dng c c yu cu lm vic trn bus. Mch ba trng thi nh hnh 4.52. Khi u iu khin cho php c mc 0, collector ca Q2 s c mc 0, nn base ca Q3 c mc 0 do diode dn. Do Q2 ngng dn nn base ca Q4 cng c mc 0. Vy c Q3 v Q4 u ngng dn nn s cho tr khng cao i vi ti ti u ra Y (u ni vo bus). Khi u vo iu khin cho php c mc 1, th diode trng thi th ba s ngng dn, nn mch s lm vic bnh thng i vi ti ti u ra Y (tc l tn hiu ra s c truyn n u bus). Trng thi th ba cho php c th kch hot mc cao hoc mc thp. Cc k hiu ca cng ba trng thi nh hnh 4.52b. 4.5.5 CC U VO IU KHIN T TRC [PRESET] V XO [CLEAR]. Preset t trc s lm cho mc ra bng 1, bt chp trng thi ca cc u vo, do vy tn hiu t trc s ghi ln cc tn hiu vo, nh th hin hnh 4.53a. Nu mc logic 1 c t vo cng OR nh hnh 4.53a, th u ra s c mc 1 bt k trng thi cc u vo c th c. Mch c gi l t trc mc cao tc ng. Nu mc 0 t vo cng NAND nh hnh 4.53a, th u ra s vn c mc 1 bt chp trng thi cc u vo. Kiu t trc nh vy gi l t trc thp tc ng. Clear iu khin xo s lm cho u ra bng mc 0 bt chp cc trng thi vo. iu khin xo cng c hai kiu nh hnh 4.53b. Mc logic 1 (cao tc ng) t vo cng NOR (hnh 4.53b), s lm cho u ra c mc 0 bt chp cc mc vo. Mc logic 0 (thp tc ng), t vo cng AND (hnh 4.53b) cng s lm cho u ra mc 0, bt k trng thi c th c cc u vo. 4.5.6 CC SAI HNG TRONG MCH S. Phn ln cc mch s l da trn cc transistor hoc cc FET, lm vic nh cc chuyn mch. Mt cng logic c bn s dng rt t cc linh kin v lp thnh dng vi mch (IC) nn cng rt tin cy. Nhng vn c mt s sai hng xy ra nh sau. - Cng logic b ghim mc 1: Khi mt transistor khng dn do b h mch, VCC hay VDD s xut hin thng trc ti u ra. Ngoi ra, nu cc base ca BJT hay cc cng ca EnMOSFET b ngn mch vi im t (0V i vi cc emitter hoc cc ngun [source]) mch ngoi hay bn trong, cu kin s khng dn, cho mc logic 1 ti u ra. Cng nh vy, nu tn hiu t trc khng c, th cng s gi mc 1. - Cng logic ghim mc 0: Khi transistor l ang dn mnh, th transistor s tr nn dn bo ho, cho mc 0,2V hay mc logic 0 ti u ra. S dn in mnh c th xut hin nu b ngn mch collector v emitter hoc knh dn FET tr nn b ngn mch. Cng vy, nu cc base ca BJT hay cc cng ca FET b ghim mc 1, th u ra ca cng s b ghim mc 0. Nu ngun cung cp mt kt ni vi cu kin, th cng s gi ti mc 0V. Ngoi ra, nu u iu khin xo [clear] khng cho php, cng logic s v tr xo (tc kt ti mc 0).

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- u ra ghim mc tr khng cao: Nu u iu khin ca cng ba trng thi vn ti trng thi cho php, th cng s trng thi tr khng cao, ngay c khi cng c yu cu gi cc tn hiu n ng bus. Ngoi ra, do s gi ho, nh hng ca s pha tp gim xung, nn s lng ht ti in c th gim xung, dn n in tr cao hn khi cng m [ON]. Cng s thay i mc logic 0 v ng l l mc 0,4V, cng s c mc 1V u ra. iu ny s lt hon ton chc nng ca cng. - Trch nhiu cng: Cc u vo hay cc u gia u ra ca mt cng v u vo ca cng tip theo, c th b can nhiu hay cc tn hiu nhiu khc, n mc in p ti u vo khng phi mc 0 m cng khng phi mc 1 tc tr nn khng r rng, m c th nhn c mt gi tr trung gian no gia mc 0 v mc 1. Gi s mt cng TTL chu c bin nhiu l 0,4V, nu u vo mc 0,2V v trch nhiu ln n 0,8V, th in p ti u vo s l 0,2V + 0,8V = 1V, tc l vt qu gi tr ln nht cho php l 0,8V i vi mc logic 0 ti u vo. Do vy, cng s khng nhn ra tn hiu nh mc logic 0. Mc ra ca cng s tr nn khng tin cy. Nu u ra l 2,4V mt cng v xung ny s chuyn xung nhiu m l 0,8V, th in p ti u vo ca cng tip theo s l: 2,4V - 0,8V = 1,6V. Mc in p ny s khng c chp nhn lm mc logic 1 cho cng v do , qu trnh tip theo s b li. - Base ca transistor b h. Khi cc base b h mch bn trong hay mch ngoi, th c th xem l transistor trng thi h. transistor npn, cc in t t do s di chuyn ra khi vng emitter bng vt liu tp dng-n n vng base, phn ln cc in t di chuyn n vng collector, mt s in t c chim gi vng base to thnh dng base chy trong mch ngoi. Khi cc base trng thi l lng (h mch), khng c dng base nn cc in t b chim gi s lm cho cc base c tch in m, s tng cng mc in p ro th hay cc in tch m s y cc in t t do ra xa kh i emitter, nn s lm gim dng in v c th lm ngng dn ton b, dn n mc ra s bt thng, hay mc ra c th kt ti mc logic 1. Cc vn trn s khng nh hng v dng ca xung vo. JFET (knh n), khi h mch cng s tr nn c tch in m v do vy s lm gim dng in, nhng knh dn s tn ti v mc dng b gim vn s lin tc chy, khng c tc ng ca mc logic ngoi t vo cng v cc mng s kt ti mc logic 0 hay mt tr s khng chc chn no . En MOSFET, knh dn s khng c to thnh nn khng c dng in chy qua FET khi cng trng thi l lng. Do mc ra s kt ti mc logic 1. - Mt ng b vi xung nhp: Chui mc logic s lm cho hng lot cc flip - flop theo tng bc hot ng. Mi flip - flop c nhiu transistor, nn mi h thng dy c s lng kh ln cc transistor. Tt c cc transistor, mc d cng loi, khng th c cc thng s ng nht. S bin thin nh v cc thng s ca cc transistor khc nhau trong h thng s dn n lm ri lon s dch chuyn lin tip ca cc xung qua cc flip - flop khc nhau. S lu tr trong b nh v phn ln cc php tnh s hc nh php nhn v php m tu thuc vo s dch chuyn chnh xc. V vy, cc kt qu s tht thng nu tt c cc cng trong h thng d y khng lm vic ng b vi tng xung khc nhau. Do , cn phi s dng xung nhp. h thng hot ng mt cch chnh xc, b pht xung nhp cn phi to ra cc xung c rng xung, khong thi gian, bin v tn s chnh xc, tc l tn hiu xung nhp cn phi c n nh rt cao trong mi kha cnh lm xut hin sai s. Mch xung nhp thng s dng b a hi phi n (chy t do) v do li bt k trong b a hi s gy ra li tn hiu xung nhp. S dng ph bin l IC nh thi 555 to ra cc tn hiu xung nhp. Cc li trong b a hi phi n c th l: ng ngun cung cp b t, hng mch hng s thi gian s dng cc linh kin RC v cc transistor b h mch hay b ngn mch. B dao ng bng tinh th cng c th hng do s gi ho. Phn ln cc h hng cc mch dy c th quy cho cc mch xung nhp. - Dy xung sai Mi khi c sai hng no trong mch dy, th dy xung s thay i. Nu b bin i xung nhp b ngn mch trong flip-flop JK ch - t, phn t c th mt chc nng ca n nn cc xung s rng, mc ra s dao ng gia 1 v 0, lm nhiu lon chui xung. Nu ng hi tip no flip flop JK b t, th xung s b nhiu. Tt c cc flip flop l cc mch a hi song n, nn nu mt transistor no trong hai transistor b h mch hay ngn mch, hoc nu mt in tr bt k b t, th chc nng song n s ngng. cc mch hai trng thi bng cc cng NAND, cc xung kch khi S v

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R t vo cc b o, nn nu mt b o no b h mch hay ngn mch, th flip -flop s khi ng sai, xo trn hot ng ca mch dy. Cc h hng bus bt k hay ng iu khin trng thi th ba cng s nhiu lon dy xung. Li khi iu khin ca CPU hay RAM hoc ROM, hoc thanh ghi no ca vi x l s lm thay i dy xung bnh thng c trong cc bus. - Cc thng s ca h logic khc nhau nhiu Mt h logic c c trng bi tr truyn lan, cng sut tiu tn, d tr nhiu, ngun cung cp v kh nng cung cp tn hiu t u ra n nhiu u vo [fan out]. Khi IC trong s h vi mch c th khng ng chc nng, mt thng s bt k trong s cc thng s c th b suy bin. Tr truyn lan tng s lm cho tc chuyn mch thp hn. Nu cc xung vo xut hin nhanh hn so vi thi gian cn cho vic ang x l ca xung trc, th xung t s tng, c th mt mt s xung. Cng sut tiu tn cao hn c ngha l c mc dng chy qua cu kin cao hn, cho thy l cu kin in t c th b r hoc linh kin ngoi no tr nn b ngn mch do mi hn ni gia cc ng mch in hoc do cc nguyn nhn khc. Nhiu c th xm nhp do chn cu kin khi kt ni u ra ca tng trc vi u vo ca tng sau. Mc nhiu c th vt qu d tr nhiu tc ng n u ra ca tng tip theo. Cng vy, nhit tip xc cao c th lm gim d tr nhiu t 0,4V h TTL xung cn 0,2V lm o ln s cn bng xm nhp nhiu thng thng u ra. Nu tng ti, dng ln hn s chy qua t ngun dn n qu nhit. V d, nu cc u ra ca hai nhnh ca mch ton b ni song song v nu hai nhnh khng ng b, th c th xy ra s dn in ng thi t transistor pha trn ca nhnh ny sang transistor pha di ca nhnh khc (hnh 4.54), vt qu mc dng chy qua transistor pha di. mch c mc dng vt qu s gy h hng cho mt cu kin d hng trong mch (hoc l chnh transistor hoc l in tr collector). h thng collector h (hnh 4.55) nu c hai transistor u dn th in tr ko ln mc ngoi c th b hng nhng c th d dng thay th khi so vi vic thay th ton b vi mch. - Hng cu kin chn chip [CS-Chip Selection] Cu kin chn chip s chn ng chip ti ng thi im. Nu CS b li, chip ng s khng c chn, tc l o ln chc nng v lm cho mc ra sai lch. Cu kin chn chip l cu kin iu khin cho php mt thit b hot ng v cm thit b cn li nh th hin hnh 4.56. Khi u vo iu khin mc 1, chip A s c php cn chip B s khng c php. Khi u vo iu khin mc 0, chip A s b cm v chip B s c chn. - Mch sa li khng lm vic. Trong cc h thng truyn s liu, sai s c th tng ln theo bit, pha thu s nhn c cc k t v cc lnh sai lch. Cc h thng pht hin v sa li nh kim tra chn l, ma trn m hamming, v. v. . . c s dng pht hin v sa li. Li bt k trong mch truyn s liu hoc khng pht hin li hoc khng sa li hoc pht hin v sa li sai. Li mch sa li s gy sai lch ton b d liu, bn tin c th ln ln v v dng. - Li ROM H thng s s dng b nh ch c (ROM) trong tt c cc h thng iu khin bng vi x

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l (nh my tnh), nu diode (hay transistor) chuyn mch no trong mch ma trn ni cho b ngn mch hay h mch bn trong, th s lm thay i ni dung cha trong ROM v do s lm sai lch chc nng ca ROM. - Li RAM Cc mch np d liu c th hng. Trong trng hp b nh hng, cc nh ch c th cha cc bit 0. Cc flip-flop lu tr cc bit c th b hng (h mch hoc ngn mch hoc cu kin b r). Khi tt c vic s l u c thc hin thng qua RAM, nu RAM b li s dn n vic x l sai lch hon ton. - Cc card bng mch in (PCB card) b mt kt ni Trong cc h thng s, c hng lot card c c nh trn bng mch ch [motherboard]. Khi mt kt ni cc chn s gy cc sai hng chp chn s gy cc sai hng chp chn. Nhiu khi ch cn tho, lm sch v kt ni cht ch s gii quyt c vn . - Xuyn m Xuyn m s dng trong cc mch m tn, nhng theo quy c xuyn m tr nn thng dng i vi tng tc khng mong mun bt k gia hai ng mch tn hiu. Hai ng mch gn nhau c th tr nn ngn mch do mi hn, lm cho tn hiu trn mt ng mch c th xut hin trn ng mch khc. - Cc modem giao tip v cc khi ADC v DAC Cc modem giao tip v cc khi ADC, DAC ng vai tr quan trng trong ng truyn ca cc h thng s vi cc h thng tng t. Khi giao tip l mt bng mch gm c cc chn cm v t hp logic cc b gii m, cc b m ha. DAC v ADC cn phi s dng cc cng logic bin i tn hiu vo thnh tn hiu ra thch hp. Cc li trong khi giao tip, ADC v DAC l cc li thng dng nh ghim mc 1 hai mc 0, hoc mc tr khng cao. - Cc mch sa dng sng Cc h thng s cn phi c cc xung r rng vi cnh tng v gim sc nt, duy tr nh bng phng mc bin v rng yu cu v xut hin ti tn s quy nh. Cc xung c th b sai lch do nhiu, trch nhiu RF, cc thnh phn qu , do bin thin cc thng s xung c to ra bi transistor, hay cc xung cc mch x l tn hiu. Chc nng ca mch s ph thuc chnh vo xung (1 hoc 0), mch s cn phi c cc xung c dng v ln thch hp. Dng xung s c sa bng mch kch khi Schmitt. Sai hng bt k trong mch sa dng u dn n vn to xung x l trong h thng s. Hu ht cc sai hng trn cui cng u c th hin di dng li ghim mc 1 hoc ghim mc 0. Cc li khng c xp vo loi ghim ti mc li l li im giao cho do cc diode b h mch hoc ngn mch hay t cu ch mch ma trn ROM; cc li xuyn m do tn hiu ca mt ng truyn n ng ln cn (cu mi hn) v mt s li khng phi mc logic nh tr hay tc truyn, nhiu hay cm ng RF, u khng thuc loi ghim ti cc mc li. Cc li trn c th o th theo cch kim tra dy xung nh phn bng thit b phn tch mc logic. Cc thng s ca cc h logic c th o th bng thit b o th IC s. 4.5.7 M HNH H HNG TRONG CC MCH S. Trong cc h thng tng t, h hng s thy r t tn hiu ra v c th lin quan trc tip ti mt vi khi, nn c th xc nh bng cch p dng mt tn hiu vo n (sng sin hoc dng sng c iu ch hay mt xung). Mi quan h gia cc du hiu v sai hng c th c th hin theo lu . Nhng cc h thng s, sai hng khng thy r tn hiu ra. Mc tn hiu ra mch khng b hng cng nh mch hng c th nh nhau (ghim mc 1 hay ghim mc 0) theo cc chui tn hiu vo. V d, i vi cng AND, nu li l 'u ra ghim mc 0', th ngay c mch khng c li, th u ra c th l mc 0, nu cc tn hiu u vo c mc 00, 01, hay 10. Nh vy, vi cc u vo mch AND s khng th phn bit gia mch khng b li v mch b li. phn bit r rng, mt vi mc tn hiu vo ring phi c quy nh, c y' (mc ra trng thi hng) l ngc li mc ra y hay bng mc y (y l mc ra trng thi khng b hng). Cc mc tn hiu vo nh vy c th phn bit gia vi mch hng v vi mch khng b hng c gi l cc vector th [test vectors] hay thit b th pht hin li [Fault Detecting Test Set - FDTS]. Cc li thng thng nht trong cc mch s l li ghim mc 1 (vit tt l s -a-1 [stuck-at-one]) hoc ghim mc 0 (vit tt l s-a-0 [stuck-at-zero]), nn m hnh hng thng dng nht l lin quan n vic xc nh v tr ca cc li trn nh vo cc vector o th c lin quan (cc xung vo).

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Cc k hiu thng c s dng cho mch khng b li v mch li cho cc phng trnh (4.20) v (4.21), tng ng. y = f (x1, x2, x3, . . . , xn) (4.20) y = f p/d (x1, x2, x3, . . . , xn) (4.21) trong : x1, x2, x3, . . . , xn l cc bin vo, f l hm s, p s tng ng vi v tr hay s lng hay tn ca ng mch, hoc u hoc ng mch gm cc ng mch vo, cc ng mch trung gian v cc ng mch ra trong mch s v d s tng ng sai lch hay bn cht li (tc l s-a-0 hay s-a-1). V d, nu li c ng mch th ba v li l s-a-0, th phng trnh li s l: y' = f 3/0 (x1, x2, x3, . . . , xn) 3/0 trng thi li l f cng c vit l 3/0 (tc l y' = 3/0). Mch s b li s c nhn bit nh hiu r v mch ng dng cha hng, khi c cc mc vo ring ng, v sau bng cch so snh cc u ra nh cng XOR. Li s c xc minh trong mch nu tho phng trnh (4.22). (4.22) y' y Phng trnh (4.22), c ngha l u ra li y' cn phi l o ca u ra khng li y, tc l nu y = 0, th y' phi bng 1 v nu y = 1, y' phi bng 0. 4.5.8 S CN THIT CA VIC TO RA CC TN HIU TH RING (CC VECTOR O TH). Khi li khng c xc minh trong mch cn o th, th mch c th vn c li, do mch c u vo no , cc t hp to ra cng mc ra i vi y v y'. iu ny s thy r v d 4.9. V d 4.9: Trong mch hnh 4.57, (cng AND ba u vo), c li l 1/0 (tc l ng 1 kt ti mc logic 0). Hy xc nh cc vector o th. Ba bin vo c th l 000, 001, 010, 011, 101, 110, v 111. Mc ra khng li y v mc ra li y' vi u vo ti ng 1 ghim ti mc logic 0 s c cng gi tr ra (= 0) i vi tt c cc mc vo, tr mc vo 111. Khi cc mc tn hiu vo 111 c t vo, th mc ra ca cng AND s l 1 trng thi khng li. Nhng do li ca 1/0, nn mc ra s l 0 trng thi li, bi v mc logic 0 mt ng vo bt k ca cng AND s cho mc ra 0. Qua v d 4.9, chng t rng mt t hp ring to ra t tm t hp s thit lp li l 1/0 mch cn o. i vi cc li khc, cc vector o th c th s khc. Do vy, cn phi xc nh cc t hp u vo (vector o th) c th nhn bit mch li. M hnh li i vi cc mch s c th c biu din di dng lu cho hnh 4.58. Lu da trn cc vector o th c th c p dng ln lt cho n khi tt c cc vector o th c s dng ht. 4.5.9 CCH TO RA CC VECTOR O TH. Phng php so snh mch li vi mch cn tt l p dng tt c cc t hp c th c ti u vo v sau b qua cc t hp c y' = y. Nu t hp cc u vo no , to ra y' y th li c xc nh, nu khng th mch l khng b li hay c li cha pht hin c. D ti u nhng phng php ny s mt nhiu thi gian v nht l nng n i vi cc h thng logic phc tp, c nhiu u vo, nhiu ng trung gian, v ng ra. C ba phng php to ra cc vector o th, nhn bit cc li trong cc mch s. (i) phng php bng trng thi; (ii) phng php i s; v (iii) phng php d ng. Ba phng php c gii thch cc mc sau.

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4.5.10 PHNG PHP BNG TRNG THI CA VIC TO RA CC VECTOR O TH. Bng trng thi c lp cho y v y' i vi ton b cc t hp u vo c th c. Khi xc nh y', u vo thng thng s c thay th bng u vo li. Khi mi ng c th c li s -a-0 hay s-a-1, nn s lng li c th c l 2n (trong n l s lng ng), nh v d 4.10, i vi 3 ng vo l cc u vo x1, x2 v x3 v mt ng ra (ng th 4). V d 4.10: Bng 4.5, s cho trng thi ca tt c tm trng thi li ca cng AND ba u vo (ng th 1, th 2 v th 3) v mt ng ra (ng th 4) hnh 4.57. Bng 4.5: Bng trng thi i vi cc li khc nhau cng AND. Mc ra Cc mc vo khng Mc ra y' vi cc li c li x1 x2 x3 y (1/0) (1/1) (2/0) (2/1) (3/0) (3/1) (4/0) (4/1) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 (Cc ch s in m i vi y' l sai lch vi cc ch s ca y) Bng trng thi trn s to ra cc vector o th cho bng 4.6. Bng 4.6: Cc vector o th ring ca cng AND. Cc vector o th cho y' y Li 1/0 111 1/1 011 2/0 111 2/1 101 3/0 111 3/1 110 4/0 111 4/1 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110 Mt trong cc vector 000, 001, 010, hay 100 s nhn bit li 4/1. (Cc vector o th 011, 101, v 110 s khng c s dng c li 4/1, do cc vector p ng vi cc li ghim ti mc 1 khc). Sau khi tch c li 4/1, cc vector li 011, 101, v 110 s cho bit cc li 1/1, 2/1, v 3/1 tng ng. Sau vector o th 111 c th c s dng nhn bit cc li 1/0, 2/0, 3/0, hay 4/0. Li ring bit c th c nhn dng bng cch s dng thit b o th vt dng v cc my o th xung. 4.5.11 PHNG PHP I S. Khi s lng cc bin ln, phng php i s thun li hn do bng trng thi tr nn cng knh (kh s dng). Theo phng php i s, ta bit biu thc Booolean y y , s c n gin bng cch p dng cc nh l ca i s Boolean v sau xc nh cc vector o th bng phng trnh biu thc c n gin ho bng 1, nh v d di y. V d 4.11: Hy xc nh cc vector o th cho li 6/0 trong mch logic ca hnh 4.59. Mc ra y khng li s l: ( x1 x2 x3 x4 )( x5 x6 ) , v mc ra li y' s l ( x1x2 x3 x4 )( x5
0) x1x2 x3 x4

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t x1x2x3x4 bng A v x5
x6 B

Suy ra cng XOR s cho: y

y'

AB A ABA , p dng nh l De-Morgan cho AB v c lng

AA AB AAB AB

AA 0 Ta c: y

y' ( A B ) A ABA

xc minh li, y y' s phi bng 1, do : A B 1 hay A =1 v B = 0, hoc: x1 x2 x3 x4 1 v x5 x6 0 . c nh vy, ch khi x1 x2 x3 x4 1 , x5 0 , x6 1 . Vy, bng cch p dng phng php i s, vector o th i vi li 6/0 trong mch logic hnh 4.59, s to ra 111101. 4.5.12 PHNG PHP D NG. Phng php bng trng thi di dng, cn phng php i s khng thc s c a chung, v mi phng php u phi nh nhiu nh lut rt gn cc biu thc Boolean. Mt phng php khc dng to ra cc tn hiu o th l 'phng php d ng' s khc phc c kh khn c a ra bi cc phng php bng trng thi v phng php i s. Theo phng php d ng mt ng s c chn t ng b li n u ra, th hin bng ng t nt. Vector o th s c xc nh bng cch tun theo cc bc cho di y. (. Gi tr logic (vector o th) i vi ng b li l c chn sao cho o ngc vi gi tr li. Nu li ghim mc 0, th mc vo ng c chn l mc 1. Nu li b ghim mc 1 th mc vo s c chn l mc 0. II. Tm mc ra vi vector li ca bc 1 trn ng li v o ngc ca mc ra trn ng t nt, b qua cc ng khc. III. Ghi nhn nghch o ca mc ra bc II. IV. ng mch khc hay cc ng (khng k ng b li) cn phi c mc vo mc ra bng vi gi tr bc III. Ba v d sau y minh ho vic s dng cc bc trn. V d 4.12: Hy xt cng AND vi li 2/1 mch hnh 4.60. (i). Vector o th ca ng 2 l 0. (ii). Mc ra 0,1 s bng 0. (iii). o mc ra = 1. (iv). thc hin mc ra = 1, cc ng khc cn phi c cc mc vo 1, 1. Do vy, cc vector th l 101. c cc vector th , th y = 0, m y' i vi li 2/1 = 1. Vy cc vector th l hp l. V d 4.13: Hy xt cng OR vi li 1/0 mch hnh 4.61. (i). Vector th cho ng b li = 1. (ii). Mc ra i vi hai mc vo 1, 0 trn hai ng bt k = 1. (iii). Mc ra o = 0. (iv). c mc ra = 0, th cc ng vo khc u phi l 0, 0. Cc vector th l 100. i vi cc vector th , th y = 1, nn y' i vi 000 = 0. Vy cc vector o th l hp l. V d 4.14: Hy tm cc vector o th cho li 1/0 mch hnh 4.62. Mch gm mt cng AND v mt cng OR. C ba ng vo, mt ng trung gian v mt ng ra (5 ng tt c). Cc bc c s dng nh sau. (i). Vector o th cho ng 1 = 1. (ii). Vi cc mc vo 1, 0 cng AND, th mc ra ng 4 s bng 0. (iii). o mc ra s bng 1. (iv). c mc ra 1 t cng AND, th ng cn li trn cng AND s phi c vector o th l 1. Vy cc vector o th i vi cc ng ca cng AND l 1, 1. (v). u vo li i vi cng OR by gi l 4/0, vy vector o th i vi ng 4 l 1.

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(vi). Mc ra i vi 1, 0 = 1 (vii). o mc ra l 0. (viii). c mc ra o l 0, th cng OR s phi c mc vo 0 ng th 3. Vy cc vector o th l 110 (cc vector o th s cho y = 1 v y' = 0). Do cc vector l hp l. 4.5.13 PHT HIN NHIU LI. Khi nhiu hn mt ng b kt mc 0 hay mc 1, th h thng c gi l c nhiu li. Trong s cc li ng n, c th c 2n li (1 hoc 0 i vi mt ng trong s n ng), nhng ch c mt ng (ng bt k) c li. i vi h thng nhiu li, c th c 3n - 1 li theo ba trng thi (ghim mc 0, ghim mc 1 hay khng li) cho mi ng. N s khng bao gm tt c cc ng l khng li, m s gm cc li n. Vector o th i vi nhiu li khng th xc nh bng cng cc phng php nh s dng i vi cc li ng n bi v s lng cc li s rt ln (728 vi 6 ng). Phng php tt nht xc nh nhiu li l xt vic chuyn i mch cho do mt s li thay cho vic xt cc li ca chnh n. Nhiu t hp cc li c th cho kt qu di dng cc chuyn i ng nht. Cc chuyn i nh vy s l t hn nhiu so vi 3n. Khi xc minh mch logic b li, li thc t c th c xc nh bng my phn tch logic hay my phn tch k hiu. 4.5.14 CC LI KHNG R RNG. Mt li c th l khng r rng, nu khng tn ti ngay c khi th mu c cc li . Li s xut hin ngu nhin nu mc ra y khng li v mc ra y' c li l nh nhau (tc l y = y') vi tt c cc t hp mc vo c th. Cc li nh vy c th pht hin bng k thut cch ly, vic cch ly cc cng ln lt v o th bng thit b vt dng - xung hay thit b u do logic - xung. V d ca li nhp nhng s cho di y. V d 4.15: Hy chng minh rng li 2/1 mch hnh 4.63, l li nhp nhng. Bng trng thi cho mch hnh 4.63, cho theo bng 4.7. Bng 4.7: Bng trng thi ca y v y' cho mch hnh 4.63. Cc u vo u ra y u ra y' ng 1 ng 2 (khng li) c li 2/1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 Bng 4.7, chng t rng y = y' i vi tt c cc t hp mc vo v do c th c li khng r rng. 4.5.15 O TH CC MCH DY. Cc mch dy cng s dng cc cng logic (NOT, AND, OR, NAND v NOR) nh s dng cc mch logic t hp, ch khc im l cc mch dy, trng thi ra trc c vai tr quan trng trong vic xc nh trng thi ra cui cng. kiu mch cht D, cho hai mc vo ti u vo S ca flip - flop D (1 hoc 0), th cc mc vo ca u vo R l c nh, tc l mc 0 khi D = 1 v mc 1 khi D = 0. V vy, cc mc ra l khng i. Khi D = 1, th mc ra l 1 cn khi D = 0, th mc ra s bng 0 v khng c nh hng ca trng thi trc . Vy, flip - flop D hot ng nh mt cng m. Mu th s nh i vi logic t hp. Nu flip - flop D ghim mc 1, th o th flip-flop D bng mc vo 0. Nu D ghim mc 0, th o th D bng mc vo 1. (i vi cc cng khc khng thc hin c theo cch ny). V d cho FF JK. u vo J ghim mc 1, bng trng thi nh bng 4.8.

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BNG 4.8: Bng trng thi ca flip-flop JK i vi li J ghim ti mc 1 (s-a-1) Cc mc vo Trng thi trc Mc ra (Y) khng li Mc ra Y c li J K Qn Qn+1 vi J ghim mc 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 Vy c hai mu th: (i) J = 0, K = 0 v trng thi trc = 0 v (ii) J = 0, K = 1, trng thi trc = 0. Vy i vi php th flip - flop JK cho li J ghim mc 1, c s duy tr trng thi trc o ti 0 v sau khi p t cc tn hiu 00 hay 01 ti J v K. Nu mc ra vn duy tr ti mc 1 m l ra l tr thnh mc 0, th li J kt ti mc 1 c xc minh. Trng thi yu cu trc nhn c bi trng thi ca my c th hin theo gin trng thi hoc bng chuyn i. 4.5.16 THIT LP PHP O TH. Hnh 4.64, cho cch thit lp php o th i vi vic o th cc cng logic. Vic thit lp php o l trc tip. Cc vector o th s c p dng n mch cn o th thng qua vi x l. Mu th t b nh s c p dng.

Mc ra ca mch s c cht v truyn n b so snh. B so snh cng s thu kt qu khng li bnh thng. Nu mc ra ca mch cht ph hp vi mc tham chiu, th mch logic s thng qua bng tn hiu OK, nu khng th li s c biu th. Thit b phn tch k hiu cng c th s dng so snh mc ra vi k hiu c chun to thnh t cc vector o th. S liu p ng i vi ton b chui cc php th s c nn thnh s liu n c gi l k hiu. Nu k hiu ca mch cn o khng tng thch vi k hiu bnh thng, th mch c li. 4.5.17 CC THIT B O TH MCH S. cc h thng tng t, cc ch th ca voltmeter v dng sng my hin sng c o ti cc im o quy nh, gp phn cho vic chn on li. Nhng cc mch s, mc in p thp hoc cao v cc xung khng theo chu k, di v phc tp. Ngoi ra, tt c cc dng s liu c v nh nhau. Do , cc phng php thng thng khng s dng c cho cc mch s. Thit b phn tch logic c th s dng ghi nhn dy xung phc tp, khng chu k, nhng l thit b o rt t tin. Loi thit b o n gin v gi thnh thp l thit b phn tch k hiu. Ngoi ra, c mt s my o rt n gin nh u d logic, b to xung logic, b to vt dng, u kp logic v b so snh c s dng rng ri sa cha trong cc bng mch s. Mt s thit b o th mch s c m t nh sau. a) My phn tch logic. Cc my phn tch logic c hai loi: (1) my phn tch logic trng thi v (2) my phn tch logic nh

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thi. loi my phn tch logic trng thi, cc tn hiu xung nhp nhn c t h thng cn o. loi my phn tch logic nh thi, mt b to xung nhp ring tc cao hn lp trong my phn tch. C hai loi c th ch to di dng thit b o, nhng 'my phn tch trng thi' s dng ph bin hn. S khi ca my phn tch logic trng thi thng dng nh hnh 4.65. Chc nng ca mi khi nh sau:

Cp a knh. Cp a knh l cp dy phng, 16 u o ni vi cc chn ca bus my tnh, mt u cp s ni vi chn MREQ c cc tn hiu xung nhp. Khi iu ho tn hiu. Khi iu ho tn hiu s ti thiu ho s qu ti, s b s mo dng bt k cc c tnh ca tn hiu do in dung ca cc u o, chuyn i mc ca cc xung nu h thng cn o th c h logic khc, tnh nng ca my phn tch khng b nh hng. Khi nhn mu. Khi nhn mu s nhn cc t s t khi iu ho tn hiu v so snh tng t s vi t kch khi quy nh. Khi so snh hon thnh, n s kch hot khi iu khin logic dng vic ghi nhn trong b nh. Khi iu khin logic. Tn hiu nhn c t khi ghi nhn mu s ch th cho b nh dng vic ghi sau khi mt s lng cc t quy nh (64 t). Khi vic ghi nhn hon thnh, khi iu khin s bo iu khin hin th tip qun vic iu khin. iu khin hin th. iu khin hin th sau khi nhn tc ng iu khin s lnh cho b nh hin th s liu c ghi nhn. Hin th. Khi hin th l ng tia cathode s hin th s liu thu c do lnh t iu khin hin th. S liu thu c c th c phn tch trc tip hay vo thi im thch hp nh khi c thu nhn. B nh. B nh l RAM tc cao c kh nng lu tr s lng cc t s quy nh, khong 128 t s. B nh l b phn chnh ca my phn tch. b) u d logic u d logic l thit b o th d s dng, o s hin din ca cc xung nh phn ti mt im o. u d logic c bn th hin mch hnh 4.66a.

Nu c xung dng (mc logic 1) ti im cn o, th transistor s dn v LED s sng. i vi xung m hay xung mc 0, th transistor s ngng dn v LED s tt. Vy v c bn thit b o s pht hin s hin din ca mt xung. u d logic tinh vi c cc c tnh sau:

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1. B nh lu cc chuyn i cc xung qu v hin th ng thi 2. C kh nng m rng cc xung ngn (c th yu cu m rng xung 10ns thnh xung 100ns). 3. Lp cc LED ch th: mt LED s sng ch mc xung cao v mt LED khc s sng ch mc xung thp. S khi ca u d logic tinh vi hn nh hnh 4.66b. Chc nng ca cc khi s c gii thch nh sau: - Khi iu ho tn hiu. Khi iu ho tn hiu s iu ho li mc logic TTL hoc CMOS n cc gi tr chun cao v thp. trnh qu ti cho h thng logic cn o, th khi iu ho tn hiu c th c tng m. - Khi pht hin xung. Khi pht hin xung s pht hin nh xung hay xung nhn. - Khi nh xung. Xung nhn c pht hin s c lu tr vo b nh v s c hin th cho n khi nhn nt t li. - Cc khi o. Tng o gm hai mch o c cc LED. Khi c LED sng s ch th c xung. Khi LED xanh sng s ch khng c xung. u d logic c th hin th xung logic n cng nh chui xung. c) B ghim logic B ghim logic dng quan st nhiu im o, s ghim trn cc chn ca vi mch cn o. Cc chn IC s c ni n b ch th gm nhiu LED, nn s cho bit gin xung theo trng thi cc chn bng cc LED. B ghim logic thng c ch to cho 14/16 chn, do khng thch hp cho vic o th vi x l. u kp logic rt hu dng cho vic o th cc b m v cc thanh ghi dch hay vi mch c bng trng thi no . Mc dng ln nht thng nh hn 50mA. B ghim logic s nhn mc dng thp hn 15 A t cc chn ca IC cn o th nn khng gy qu ti cho IC. S khi c bn ca u kp logic nh hnh 4.67. Cc mch LED l cc mch o nh c s dng trong u d logic. Do vy trong thc t b ghim logic l u d logic m rng. S hin th trn cc LED s cho bit cc trng thi tip theo ca cc chn IC hoc l mc cao (LED sng) hoc mc logic thp (LED khng sng) hoc dy xung (LED sng m). So vi ng h o tng t b ghim logic o th nhanh hn v tin li hn trong vic o th cc IC, cho php o trong mch v do rt thng dng trong k thut s. d) B to xung logic B to xung logic i khi cn to ra cc xung ti mt im m khng ct mch hay khng tho IC. B to xung c kh nng pht ra chui xung vo im bt k trong h thng, bt k trng thi hin c ti im (hay nt) l c mc 0 hay mc 1. Ngha l b pht xung s lm cho nt c mc cao thnh mc 1 v nt mc thp thnh cao trong mt khong thi gian ngn, nh th hin hnh 4.68, tr nt c li ghim no . Khi khng c li, LED u d logic s nhp nhy khi s dng b pht xung. trng thi c li, LED u d logic s pht sng lin tc nu li ghim mc 1 [s-a-1] hoc s vn off nu li l ghim mc 0 [s-a-0]. Do vy, thit b n gin ny c th xc nh cc li ghim trong cc mch s n gin m khng cn phi s dng vector o th. Tuy nhin, vector o th l cn cho mch phc tp gm c hng trm ng.

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B to xung logic khc vi my pht xung thng thng. My pht xung c tr khng ra thp nn s gy qu ti nt cn o th. Ngc li, b to xung logic iu chnh dng sng to ra trng thi tnh cho im cn o th. Khi khng lm vic, tr khng ca b to xung logic c mc cao. Khi lm vic, cng sut xung l rt nh (1 hoc 2%) nn s qu ti cho mch cn o l khng ng k. B to xung c cp ngun t mch cn o th. cao ca xung c quy nh t ngun cung cp ca mch. B to xung c t trc cung cp xung 100Hz, 10Hz, v 1Hz u ra. Chn tn s yu cu bng chuyn mch dng nt n [Push button switches]. C th s dng b to xung pht hin xung in p cng nh cc xung dng (cc ngn mch) khi tip xc bng u d in p (u d logic) v u d dng in (b to vt dng) tng ng. e) B d dng logic (hay u d dng in) Nu im o th hin trng thi ngn mch, th c th pht hin cu kin gy ra trng thi ngn mch m cc u d logic tt nht cng khng th pht hin c. Nu mt IC c pht hin b ngn mch, khng phi tt yu ngn mch t bn trong IC, m c th l do cu mi hn gia cc ng mch trn bng mch in. D ngn mch c th d tm ng mch t hay bng cch tho IC, nhng s mt nhiu thi gian v nguy him, cng nh c th to ra cc h hng khc trong mch. u d dng hay b d dng l cng c hiu qu pht hin ngn mch. B d dng s nhy cm t trng c to ra bi cc xung tng nhanh. Cc xung tng nhanh c th c to ra t ngoi bng b pht xung logic. Ch th l mt LED hin th c th ch th mt xung n hay mt chui xung ty thuc xung vo. Khi t trng yu, b d dng s dng b khuych i c h s khuych i cao. Tn hiu d c che chn loi b thay i ca tn hiu trch dn do cc t trng khc. B d dng khng nhy cm in p m nhy cm dng in nn c th lm vic tt c cc h logic. nhy ca b d dng l 1mA n 1A. B d dng c th ch r mc dng m b d dng lm vic bng dng xoay chiu hay dng xung, nn yu cu chnh l phi c b to xung logic. S dng b d dng cng vi b to xung logic nh hnh 4.69, trong tn ti im ngn mch ti E ( ti l cng IV). B to xung logic s to ra chui xung ngn t ti A. Di chuyn b d dng trn ti (khng cn chm vo mch) t im A n B. LED s pht sng theo xung t b to xung. LED khng pht sng gia im B v im G m s sng lin tc gia im B v im C, tc l cho bit rng khng c ngn mch mch pha trn im B (gia B v G hoc pha trn) m c ngn mch on mch pha di im B, LED s pht sng ti C, D, v E, nhng khng sng ti im F, chng t rng c ngn mch gia im E v F. f) B so snh logic B so snh logic s so snh cc mc ra ca IC b nghi ngh c sai hng v IC cn tt bit gi l IC tham chiu. thc hin php so snh, s dng cng hoc-loi tr (XOR). Cc u vo ca c hai IC c ni song song nh hnh 4.70. Cc u ra c ni n b so snh. Bng cch mc nh vy, nu c hai IC u tt v cc mc vo nh nhau, th cc mc ra (tc cc u vo i vi cng XOR) cng phi ng nht v do mc ra ca cng XOR s phi bng 0. S khng ng nht bt k hai IC s th hin mc in p cao (mc logic 1). rng xung nh vo khong t 300ns n 1ms s cho ch th LED n nh. Cc xung nh thp hn 50ns l c b qua.

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B so snh logic thch hp cho vic o th cc vi mch logic t hp, logic dy, cc thanh ghi dch, v cc b nh. Tuy nhin, b so snh khng thch hp i vi logic kiu ba trng thi v logic kiu collector h. Ngoi ra, b so snh khng th s dng cho cu kiu MOS khi mc in p cao hn ca cc cu kin MOS s gy nguy him cho b so snh. B so snh khng dng o th cc IC tuyn tnh (khuych i thut ton) khi mc ra c ca cc IC tuyn tnh l tn hiu tng t. B so snh logic c bng mch chn cm [socket board] c th t trc bng cc chuyn mch. IC tham chiu c t vo chn cm. Bng mch chn cm s nhn cc chn ngun cung cp v chn t v s hin th cc sai lch mc ra. g) B o th IC s V c bn, b th IC s l mt thit b o n gin dng o mc logic thp nht ca mc l v mc logic cao nht ca mc 0, nh th hin hnh 4.71. Bin tr P1 u vo ca cng NAND c iu chnh c Vin = 0V, iu kin ny cng NAND s cho dng chy qua P2. P2 s c iu chnh c dng nh mc ln nht (khong 400A i vi IC cc ton b). c mc in p ra ng h o mc ra. Nu ng h ch thp hn 2,8V, th tng in p vo (Vin) bng cch iu chnh P1. in p vo ly ti mc m in p ra c trn ng h l 2,8V, y l mc VIL. i vi vi mch TTL tt, mc in p vo s khng ln hn 0,8V. Nu cao hn th vi mch TTL b li. o VIH, c th s dng cng AND. in p vo c th gi nh trn c in p ra l 2,8V. Nu khng mc in p ra, th tng in p vo cho n khi c mc ra l 2,8V. Gi tr in p vo theo gi tr in p ra l 2,8V s l mc VIH. Gi tr VIH nh nht l 2V i vi vi mch logic TTL tt. B o th IC s (hnh 4.72) c sn in p ngun, cc in tr v cc ng h o. B o th IC s tinh vi hn c lp sn u d logic o th bng trng thi ca IC. Mt s b o th IC s c sn b pht xung v my hin sng hai vt, cho php o tr truyn Pd, hoc t mc cao xung mc thp (PdHL), hoc t mc thp ln mc cao (PdLH), bng cch kho st cc sn xung c to ra trn mn hnh ca my hin sng. B o th cng c sn cc chn cm cho cc IC khc nhau v lp chuyn mch kt ni cc chn ng vi cc mc in p ngun cung cp v cc ng h o.

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CHNG 5: O TH CC THIT B IN T
5.1 O TH THIT B NGUN CUNG CP Tt c cc thit b in t cn phi c ngun cung cp dc. Cc thit b in t hin nay u yu cu cc mc in p dc thp, thng l t 5V n 15V ly t ngun in p ac nh bin p gim p, chnh lu lc v n nh. Cc b ngun cung cp s cung cp nng lng cho cc tng ca thit b, ni r mch vo u ra ca b ngun cung cp. B ngun s cung cp tng cc mc dng chy qua cc tng ring ca thit b, chng hn nu c 5 tng c ni vi ngun cung cp c cc mc dng l 5mA, 10mA, 15mA, 30mA v 100mA, th dng chy qua ngun cung cp s l 160mA. Do c mc dng ln chy qua b ngun, nn b ngun s pht nhit nhiu, lm cho b ngun d b hng nht. c tnh s b t nht c n 25% trong tng s cc sai hng h thng in t xy ra ring b ngun cung cp. 5.1.1 TRNH T O TH I VI CC B NGUN CUNG CP. B ngun cung cp trc tin phi c kim tra trng thi ngt ngun (o ngui) v sau o trng thi bt ngun (o nng). a) o ngui. Trong trng hp c dng in ln chy qua b ngun cung cp, h hng u tin phi l t dy ch. Nu do sai lm hoc khng bit, s dng dy ch chu dng cao hn nh mc th linh kin khc trong mch c dng chy qua s chy, chng hn nh cun cm ca b lc (hay in tr), cc diode chnh lu v bin p, tt c u c gi tr t hn nhiu so vi dy ch. Do , cu ch phi lun lun gi ng nh mc khi c dng chy qua vt qu 25% gi tr nh mc, cu ch s chy, nn bo v c cc cu kin trong mch khng b hng. Cu ch hp l l cng c bo v d phng ca thit b in t. Khi thit b hng, bc xem xt kim tra trc tin bng chc nng o in tr ca ng h [Ohmmeter] c b ngn mch gia dy ngun cung cp v v my hay khng ! Cn phi ngt ngun in chnh, nn gi l o ngui. Nu o ngui cho thy ngn mch, cn phi xc nh v tr ngn mch, tm nguyn nhn v sa cha h hng. Khi h hng c sa cha ph hp, th ohmmeter s khng th hin ngn mch. Sau kim tra cu ch. Thng thng, cu ch c th chy. Nhng nu xc nh cu ch cha b thay th, th c th cho rng cu ch cn dng nh mc cao hn, nn cn phi thay th cu ch c dng nh mc thch hp. Ngn mch c th trong mch ngun cung cp, hoc trong ng ngun bt k cp ngun n tng khc no trong thit b. trng hp sau, tng c lin quan s mt in p, do khng c dng chy qua tng . Ch c b ngun cung cp b nh hng bi mc dng ln do ngn mch. Dng ngun ln bi v ng l chy qua cc cu kin bn dn c in tr, th lc ny dng chy trc tip xung t. nh v im ngn mch c th xc nh bng k thut o cch in. Xt mt b ngun cung cp c th nh mch hnh 5.1, th hin ngn mch khi o in tr im u ra P. Khi ct mch gia P v Q, v o ti P vn th hin ngn mch, c th do t lc C1 hoc C2 b ngn mch, diode D1 hoc D2. Tr s in tr o c ti P c th khng ng ngn mch do cun cm v cun dy bin p, nhng s thp hn so vi bnh thng.

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Nu sau khi ct gia P v Q, im o P th hin tr s o in tr bnh thng, th ngun cung cp khng b ngn mch vi v, nn sai hng c th do mch ngoi, mt trong s cc tng ni vi u ra ca b ngun cung cp. Khi phc mi ni P v Q, v ngt mch ti A, nu ngn mch o c ti P vn cn, tng 1 l tt v ngn mch c th tng 2 hoc tng 3. Tip theo, thc hin ngt mch ti B. Khng c ngn mch ti P s chng t rng ngn mch c tng 2, nu khng th ngn mch l tng th 3. Gi s ngn mch tng 2, th c th ngn mch nhiu nht l t lc CD2. Trong cc thit b in t mi s dng bng mch in mt cao, vic tho mi hn v hn li ti cc im khc nhau o th s rt kh khn. xc nh ngn mch, s dng u o vt dng ca my hin sng. Cng vi my to xung (s dng xung tn s thp), c th pht hin dng ngn mch. Hoc c th kim tra ln lt cc t lc trc tip bng ohmmeter. b) o nng. Sau khi ngn mch c xc nh v sa cha, th c th bt [ON] ngun cung cp chnh (in li), thc hin cc php o th khc khi c ngun in li. Cc php o nh vy gi l o nng do c ngun cung cp trong thit b. Cc hin tng h hng c th c nh sau: * in p ra bng 0. * in p ra thp hn so vi mc bnh thng. * in p ra cao hn so vi mc bnh thng. * in p khng n nh. * in p gn cao hn so vi mc bnh thng. Trong cc thit b in t mi phn ln u s dng ngun cung cp n nh, vi hai loi l n p ni tip v n p song song. Cc b n nh in p mi s dng cc IC n p ba chn. c hiu sut cao hn, s dng cc h thng ngun cung cp kiu chuyn mch. 5.1.2 B NGUN N P NI TIP. Mch n p ni tip c bn s dng cu kin ri nh hnh 11.3. S n nh ca in p ra nhn c nh diode Zener (Z), transistor pht hin sai lch (Q2) v transistor iu chnh (Q1) mc ni tip vi ti. Diode Zener s gi mc in p emitter ca transistor Q2 khng i thng qua hot ng ca zener. Mt phn ca in p ra s c cung cp n base ca Q2. Mc in p VBQ2 s tr cho mc in p zener to thnh in p phn cc thun cho Q2. Nu in p ra dc tng ln, in p ti base ca Q2 s tng v dng collector ca Q2 tng, dn n mc st p ln hn trn R2, v do in p ti collector ca Q2 v in p ti base ca Q1 gim xung, lm cho dng chy qua Q1 gim xung, ngha l lm gim dng chy qua ti, do vy in p ti s c gim xung. Tng t, khi in p ti gim xung, in p phn cc thun ca Q2 s gim, in p phn cc thun ca Q1 s tng ln, s lm tng dng chy qua transistor ni tip Q1 v ti. Do in p ngang qua ti s c tng ln. nh hng thc trong hot ng ca transistor pht hin sai lch, Q2 v transistor ni tip, Q1 c khuynh hng b lng thay i bt k in p ra dc, gi cho in p ra khng i thng trong khong 0,5%. a) Cc sai hng trong mch ngun cung cp. nh hng do sai hng cc linh kin ca mch ngun cung cp (hnh 5.3), s dng mch chnh lu ton k v mch n p ni tip gm: - Mt kt ni ng in li, chuyn mch v cu ch S khng c in p ngun in li a n bin p, do in p dc u ra s bng 0. - t vng dy ca bin p Khng c in p a n cc diode chnh lu, nn in p dc ra s bng 0. - Cc vng dy ca bin p b ngn mch vi nhau Mc dng ln s chy qua bin p, to ra nhit

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lng ln. Cu ch bo v c th t.

- Mt kt ni im gia cun th cp vi t C th xy ra do nt hay bong mi hn, khng c ng dn dng ca diode v do mt in p ra. - Mt diode bt k b ngn mch S khng c s chnh lu. T lc s ngn mch in p ac vi t, cu ch s t. - Mt diode b h mch Nu mt diode b t, mch chnh lu ton k s hot ng nh mch chnh lu bn k, to ra in p dc thp hn v in p gn cao hn bnh thng. - T lc u vo b ngn mch in p ra s bng 0. - T lc u vo b h mch Mch lc s hot ng nh mch lc bng cun cm u vo m ng l l mch lc bng t u vo, do lm cho in p ra thp hn - in tr (hoc cun cm) ca mch lc h mch Ngt dng nn in p ra bng 0. i vi cc mc in p ra thp cn cho cc mch bng IC v cc transistor ri, th s dng in tr mc ni tip thay cho cun cm do cc l do sau: (i) Cun cm in khng cao cn gim mc in p gn, s c s lng vng dy ln, nn in tr dy qun cao i vi in p dc, do s lm gim mc in p ra mt chiu. (ii) Cun cm kch thc ln nn khng ph hp cho vic gim nh kch thc b ngun. (iii) Cun cm gi thnh cao, nn thng khng c s dng trong cc h thng in p thp, m cun cm c dng lm ngun in p dc cn mc p trn 100V. - T lc u ra t Mc in p gn tng. - T lc u ra ngn mch in p ra dc s bng 0. - R1 t hoc diode zener b ngn mch Emitter ca Q2 s c mc 0V, dn n in p phn cc thun cao i vi Q2 v in p vo khong 0,2V (trng thi dn bo ha ca Q2) ti base ca Q1, lm cho Q1 ngng dn, nn khng c in p ra. Khi in p ra bng 0, Q2 tr nn ngng dn, cho mc in p cao ti base ca Q1, v do mc dng cao chy qua ti. Nh vy, in p ra s dao ng gia 0 v gi tr cao. Tuy nhin, kh nng phn cc thun qu cao trn transistor c th lm chy transistor, v dn n in p ra s bng 0. - Diode Zener t in p cha n nh s c cung cp vo emitter ca Q2 v do s khng pht hin ra mc in p sai lch v cng s khng c s n nh in p. - Transistor Q1 h mch hoc R2 h mch Khng c in p ra. - Transistor Q1 b ngn mch in p ra khng c n nh v c gi tr cao hn so vi mc in p c n nh do khng c st p ngang qua Q1. - Transistor Q2 t Ti base ca Q1 s c mc in p cha n nh cao, nn c in p ra cha n nh cao. H mch R3 cng s lm cho Q2 ngng dn. - Transistor Q2 b ngn mch S gy ra mc in p thp ti base ca Q1, nn Q1 nh h mch v do khng c in p ra hoc in p ra thp do in p phn cc thun thp. H mch R4 s lm tng mc dng chy qua Q2 m kt cc l in p ra s thp hn. - Ti b ngn mch Mc dng ln s chy qua transistor iu chnh (nu khng s dng bo v in p cao), th cu ch c th t hay transistor iu chnh c th chy. - Ti h mch Transistor Q2 s nhn mc in p phn cc thun cao nn c th chy.

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Cc nh hng trn cho thy rng, do linh kin (hay kt ni) hng, in p ra c th bng 0, hoc thp hay cao, hoc khng n nh, lm nh hng n hiu sut ca thit b in t ni vi cc b ngun cung cp nh vy. Nu in p ra bng 0, th thit b s khng c tn hiu (ngng hot ng). Nu in p ngun thp, th h s khuych i ca cc mch khuych i s b gim, mch dao ng c th khng to ra dao ng ng tn s, cc cng logic c th cho cc ch th khng ng. Nu in p ngun cung cp cao, c th dn n s chu in p qu mc trn cc linh kin nn cc tr s logic c th thay i. in p ngun khng n nh c th nh hng n mch dao ng v cc mch logic. Khi linh kin mc song song bt k (chng hn t lc hay t gii ghp hay in tr ti) tr nn b ngn mch, th cn phi ngt chuyn mch ngun cung cp, tin hnh o ngui, xc nh ngn mch v sa cha. Nu bin p bc khi, th c th do bay hi lp cch in ca dy qun, cn phi phng. Nu thit b in t khng ngt chuyn mch ngay, bin p c th chy, nn cn phi thay bin p. Cc b n nh mi s dng cc IC tuyn tnh to ra in p n nh. Cc linh kin ri ch to ra in p c nh. Khi cn c mc in p c th thay i lin tc, th s lng linh kin ri s tr nn qu ln. Cc IC tuyn tnh (cc mch op amp) c th s dng cho n nh cao. Do vy, b n nh bn dn dng IC ch gm mt vi lin kt nn c th thay th cho ton b hoc phn ln cc cu kin ri, ty theo nhu cu. Hnh 5.4, l lu biu hin trnh t cc bc chn on hng trong mt h thng ngun cung cp. Cc b n p di dng chip c ch to vo nhng nm 1960, u tin l l IC 723 v LM 300 u c mt diode zener, mt mch khuych i c h s khuych i cao v mch hn dng. Cc b n p bng IC trc y, cn nhiu linh kin ngoi v c nhiu chn (8 hoc nhiu hn) kt ni mch.

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5.1.3 CC B N P BA IN CC. Cc b n p dng IC mi l cc cu kin ba chn, chn th nht ni vi in p dc cha n nh, chn th hai ly in p dc n nh v chn th ba ni vi mc in p 0V hay mc t. Cc b n p dng IC r v d s dng nn rt thng dng. LM340 l cu kin ba chn in hnh ca kiu n p mi. Lot vi mch LM340 c kh nng iu chnh trc in p ra l 15V, 5V, v 12V s dng vi cc IC h CMOS, cc IC h TTL v cc ng dng thng thng khc, tng ng. IC 340 gm mch khuych i ni tip (hay iu chnh), transistor hn dng, transistor pht hin sai lch v cc in tr phn p nh mch hnh 5.5.

Ngun phn tch (hay ngun i) + 15V v - 15V, dng cp ngun cho cc mch khuych i thut ton cng c th cu to nh mch hnh 5.6. B n p c th gm hai IC ba chn, mt IC c ni vi u vo + V v IC cn li c ni vi u vo -V t mch lc.

Cc li im khi s dng b n p dng IC. 1. Cc IC n p c sn ton b cc mc dng v p, ngay c in p ra thay i cng c th nhn c. 2. Cc IC c lp bo v ngn chn qu ti v ngn mch. 3. D dng lp t. 4. C tin cy cao. Cc h hng trong cc kiu n p ba chn tng t nh cc h hng kiu n p ni tip gii thch trn. Ch khc ch khi xy ra h hng transistor Q1 hoc Q2 hay diode Zener hoc R1 hoc R2, th do c tch hp trong IC nn khng th thay th ring, m phi thay IC. Trong trng hp cc h hng cc b ngun cung cp s dng cc IC thay cho cc cu kin ri, th khng phi thay ngay IC nghi ng hng, m trc tin cn phi m bo rng h hng khng phi do mch ngoi. 5.1.4 MCH N P SONG SONG (HAY SHUNT). Thay cho vic mc ni tip transistor iu khin (nh mch n p ni tip trn), transistor c mc song song vi ti nh mch hnh 5.7. Khi in p trn ti tng ln, in p phn cc thun ca Q2 s gim, v do lm tng in p phn cc cho Q1, tc lm gim in tr ca transistor iu chnh Q1, cho mc dng chy ln hn, nn dng

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chy qua ti s gim xung, lm gim in p trn ti. Qu trnh ngc li s xy ra khi in p ngang qua ti gim xung. Vy in p trn ti c n nh. Khi transistor mc song song xy ra h mch, th in p cha c n nh s c trn ti, cn khi transistor mc song song tr nn b ngn mch, th in p ti s bng 0. Mc d mch n p song song cho php bo v khi trng thi qu ti, nhng mt nhc im chnh ca mch l transistor iu chnh s dn dng ngay c khi ti khng kt ni. y l l do ti sao mch n p song song khng thng dng.

5.1.5 NGUN CUNG CP KIU CHUYN MCH. Cc b n p ni tip c hiu sut thp do transistor ni tip tiu th cng sut. Cc b n p ni tip c xu hng nng khi lm vic do pht nhit trong transistor iu chnh v transistor d sai lch, nn cn phi s dng cnh tn nhit ln gii nhit. Kh nng h hng cao v n nh in p ngun in li b gii hn trong khong t 180V n 280V. Cc b n p song song cng c nhng nhc im . Cc nhc im trn c gii quyt hon ton bng h thng ngun cung cp kiu chuyn mch, vi cc u im sau: * Kch thc nh. * Tiu tn nhit thp, nn c hiu sut cao. * Khng cn bin p 50Hz, nng v s dng bin p tn s cao c trng lng b. * n nh tt hn vi mc dao ng in p in li ln. Mc in p mng in 220V gim xung thp n 140V c th c mc in p ra dc khng i yu cu t cc b ngun chuyn mch. Mch c bn ca ngun n p kiu chuyn mch nh hnh 5.8.

in p in li (50Hz) trc tin s c chnh lu trc tip (khng s dng bin p 50Hz), c lc bng t C1 c in p dc cha n nh. in p dc c a n transistor npn Q s dn [ON] v ngng dn [OFF] bi cc xung ly t b to xung t base ca transistor. rng xung s thay i thch hp theo mc Vout. B khuych i thut ton (op - amp) s cn bng v s cho mc in p 0V n b to xung i vi mc in p ra c th Vout. Nu c s bin thin Vout, th mc in p a vo b to xung s c mc

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dng hoc mc m ty thuc vo mc Vout tng ln hay gim xung. B to xung l b dao ng nght [blocking oscillator] c tn s (s xung trong mt giy) ph thuc vo in p. Khi Vout tng ln, mc in p dng t op - amp s lm tng tn s v do lm gim rng xung. rng xung nh hn s lm cho t np C2 c khong thi gian np nh hn, nn s cho in p thp hn. Tng t, khi Vout gim xung, mc in p m t op amp s lm tng rng xung, v do s lm tng thi gian np ca t C2, nn s lm tng Vout. Bng cch nh vy Vout s c n nh. Chc nng ca D2 l ngn t C2 khng x qua cun dy th cp ca bin p trong sut thi gian khng c xung. Cc xung to cho dng in chy qua cun s cp ca bin p. Do vy, dng in chy qua bin p v Q l khng lin tc, m gii hn tn s vo khong 20kHz, nn gi cho Q khng ta nhit. Tn s cao s cho php cun cm s dng trong mch lc c kch thc nh. Mch n p kiu chuyn mch ch to di dng IC (nh TDA 4600). Mt s dng sai hng trong b ngun n p chuyn mch c lit k bng 5.1. Bng 5.1 Cc h hng b ngun n p kiu chuyn mch. Du hiu Cc sai hng c th c. Mt in p ra Nu cm ngun in li, chuyn mch ngun, v dy dn u ni ng, th h hng c th do: (i) t cu ch; (ii) C1 ngn mch; (iii) D1, hoc D2 hay cun cm t; (iv) C2 ngn mch; (v) transistor Q h mch. in p ra thp (i) C1 h; (ii) C2 h; (iii) D2 hay Q b ngn mch; (iv) B so snh b ghim mc in p cao. in p ra cao Op - amp b ghim mc in p thp. Mc in p gn cao C1 hoc C2 h mch. Mi hn nt cng c th gy h hng cc b ngun n p chuyn mch, nht l trn cc mi ni chn ra cc cu kin hng, do cc rung ng tn s lm vic m gy ra cc ng nt trn cc mi hn xung quanh cc chn. Do vy, c bit cn phi thc hin chng rung cho cc mi hn. 5.1.6 O TH N NH CA B NGUN CUNG CP. Mt b ngun cung cp cn phi c o cc thng s: (i) n nh theo ti, v (ii) n nh theo ngun in li. Mch o c mc nh mch hnh 5.9, v trnh t cc bc thc hin nh sau:

a) o n nh theo ti. 1. Gi ti RL trng thi khng kt ni, bng cch t chuyn mch S h. 2. Cung cp in p vo ac nh mc t bin p t ngu. 3. c tr s trn voltmeter, l tr s Vo. 4. Ni RL bng chuyn mch S kn mch. 5. Thay i in tr RS mc dng o c bng ng h o dng [ammeter] c tr s nh mc ln nht theo ngun cung cp (khng lm thay i in p vo ac). 6. c tr s trn voltmeter, l tr s VL. 7. Suy ra n nh do ti theo phn trm =

VO V L 100 VO

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cc b n nh tt, n nh cao nht l 0.01%. b) o n nh do in li. 1. S dng bin p t ngu cung cp in p vo ac nh mc m ngun cung cp c cho lm vic. Ghi mc in p l VI. 2. Gim in p vo ac bng 10%. Ghi thay i 10% bng VI. 3. c thay i in p ra. Ghi nhn thay i in p ra l VL VL 4. n nh theo ngun in li tnh theo % cho bi 100 . VI 5. Xc nh n nh theo ngun in li bng cch tng in p vo bng mt lng 10%. 6. Mc cao hn ca hai gi tr s c xem nh n nh ngun in li tnh theo phn trm. 5.1.7 B NGUN CUNG CP LIN TC - UPS [UNINTERRUPTED POWER SUPPLY UNIT] UPS cn cho cc my tnh do ngun in li mt t ngt s xa d liu c x l lu tr trong RAM. UPS gm b np, c quy v b nghch lu, c s khi nh mch hnh 5.10.

B np in s bin i in p li ac thnh in p dc thp, bng cch dng mch chnh lu v lc. in p in li c th thay i t 180V n 280V, nn c s cung cp in p n nh hn duy tr in p ac mc 230V 1% tr s in p ac. B iu khin np s d mc in p ra dc iu chnh mc in p np cho c quy ti mc dng np khng i. Khi c in p in li, b nghch lu s nhn in ngun vo t b np thng qua diode D1, diode D2 s phn cc ngc do mc in p dng hn ti cathode so vi anode ca D2. Khi mt in li, cathode ca D1 tr nn 0V, v do D2 s dn. B nghch lu s c ni vi ngun c quy. Trong mch D1 v D2 ch l tng trng, m thc t l cc chuyn mch tc cao, c kh nng x l cng sut, nn c th l cc transistor hoc cc thyristor. UPS nh mch hnh 5.10, l UPS ni ngun [on - line], trong khng c chuyn mch ni vi chuyn mch trn b nghch lu khi in li mt, nn ngun cung cp lun lun thng qua b nghch lu. C kiu UPS khc, gi l UPS ngt ngun [off line], nh mch hnh 5.11, trong b pht hin mch s cm nhn mt ngun in li v s kch hot chuyn mch in t ni u ra ca b nghch lu n h thng in t. B nghch lu trong c hai loi UPS s dng cc mch cu bng FET, bin i in p dc thnh in p ac nh mch iu khin b nghch lu. B iu khin b nghch lu s to ra sng mang c iu ch bng tn hiu 50Hz. Nh cc mch logic v mch RC iu khin chc nng ca b nghch lu c in p mt pha ac 230V, 50Hz. Mt s h hng thng thng UPS cn c lu nh sau: Dng hng th nht l khng c in p ra khi c ngun in li. (i) C th c ngn mch ti u ra. (ii) Chuyn mch in t loi UPS off line lm vic sai chc nng (hoc b nghch lu hng loi UPS on line).

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Dng hng th hai: Mt ngun in li, b nghch lu khng cho in p ac. (i) Cp c quy c th khng c ni vi c quy. (ii) Cu ch u vo c quy b t. (iii) c quy c th b hng. (iv) Mch nghch lu c th b hng. (v) Chuyn mch in t loi UPS off line c th b hng (hoc diode chuyn mch D2 h loi UPS on line). Tm li, ngun cung cp l d b hng nht do ngun cung cp tiu tn mc cng sut ln nht. trng thi hng, mc in p ra ca ng ngun cung cp c th thp hn hoc cao hn, hoc mc in p gn c th ln hn so vi mc in p nh mc. Cc nguyn nhn gy h hng c th do cc linh kin b h mch hay b d hoc b ngn mch, hay lung lay hoc h cc kt ni. Cc thit b in t s dng cc ngun n nh in p theo ba kiu: b n nh in p ni tip, b n nh in p song song, v ngun cung cp kiu chuyn mch. Trong ngun cung cp kiu chuyn mch c hiu sut cao hn so vi cc loi khc. cc loi n nh in p ni tip, b n nh bng IC kiu ba chn l thng dng nht. UPS s dng mch nghch lu, l c dng cho cc my tnh cung ng ngun cung cp lin tc cho vic lu tr d liu trn RAM ngay khi xy ra mt in li ac. 5.2 O TH TRONG CC THIT B O IN T Cc thit b o in t cho thng tin chnh bo dng v sa cha, nn cn phi duy tr trng thi lm vic bnh thng. Trnh t xc nh hng my hin sng, my to tn hiu v ng h o s c gii thch theo cc mc di y. Cc chuyn mch chc nng cho cc kt qu quan trng xc nh cc tng hng. Cc lu s minh ha cc bc trnh t cn thit d tm sai hng cc thit b o thng dng. 5.2.1 O TH MY HIN SNG My hin sng tia cathode to ra chm tia hi t sc nt c th c lm lch theo chiu ngang (trcx), cng nh chiu dc (trc-y) hin th mu hnh ng ca tn hiu vo trn mn hnh hunh quang. S khi ca my hin sng qut kch khi thng dng nh hnh 5.12. a) Cc sai hng in hnh my hin sng v cch sa cha. - Khng c vt sng Nhn xt chung l phn ln li khng vt sng c th do cc chc nng iu khin v tr dc v ngang b xo trn, nu khng th c th hng phn ngun cung cp cho ng tia [CRT]. Nu vt sng khng xut hin ngay c sau khi th iu chnh cc chc nng iu khin v tr, th cn phi kim tra b ngun cung cp v in p trn bin tr iu khin cng tia. Nu ng nh vy, th c th phi tip tc kim tra si t, v sa cha sai hng. Nu khng c sai hng mch ngoi ng tia, th phi thay CRT. - C vt sng nhng khng th iu khin trn chc nng iu khin cng tia ( sng) Li iu khin v cathode c th b ngn mch. Ngn mch c th mch ngoi ng tia hoc trong ng tia. Nu khng pht hin sai hng mch ngoi, th phi thay CRT do sai hng bn trong ng tia khng th sa cha c.

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- Vt sng b nhe Hy iu chnh in p t trn li hi t bng bin tr hi t [focus]. Nu khng khc phc c nhe, th c th h hng bn trong ng tia, cn phi thay CRT. - Thiu lch ngang Vt sng theo chiu ngang khng ph ton b mn hnh t im tn cng bn tri n im tn cng bn phi li mn hnh. Hy kim tra mc in p phn cc trn cp bn lch ngang v kim tra bin tr iu khin h s khuych i ngang. Nu tt c bnh thng, th hy kim tra bin sng rng ca bng mt my hin sng khc, v sa cha sai hng. - nh thi gc khng ng nh thi gc khng ng c th do sng rng ca khng tuyn tnh. tuyn tnh ca sng rng ca c th c kim tra bng my hin sng khc. Nu xc nh do khng tuyn tnh, hy kim tra cc tng dng to ra v khuych i tn hiu rng ca. - Mt lch dc (trong khi ch xut hin vt ngang) in p phn cc trn cp bn dc c th mt. Hy kim tra mc in p phn cc trn cp bn lch dc v sa cha nu c sai hng. im ni dy vi cp phin lch dc c th b h mch bn trong ng tia, cn phi thay ng tia. - Thiu lch dc Kim tra tng khuych i lch dc, nht l bin tr iu chnh h s khuych i dc v sa cha sai hng. - Dng sng khng c to ra trn mn hnh B khuych i dc (Y) b h mch hoc b ngn mch, hoc chuyn mch suy gim thang o b h mch, hoc linh kin hay kt ni no b h ng tn hiu thng qua phn khuych i dc. Hy kim tra phn h lch dc bng cch d mc tn hiu t u vo n u ra v sa cha sai hng. - nhy dc km Kim tra h s khuych i ca mch khuych i dc (Y) v nu cn, hy thay th transistor trong mch khuych i dc. - on khi u ca dng sng tn hiu vo khng quan st c Phi kim tra mch tr. Nguyn nhn khc, c th c tr vt qu thi im bt u sng qut do xung kch khi, hoc hng mch to dao ng qut. Cn phi kim tra cc b phn . - Dng sng khng n nh Cn phi kim tra chc nng iu khin du xch [vernier] ca mch gc thi gian (ng b) trong my hin sng. Kim tra mch kch khi, chuyn mch chn kch khi [trigger] c tip xc tt hay khng, v mch chn mc [Level] kch khi. - Mo dng sng hin th, mc d c sng vo chun Nguyn nhn c th do khng tuyn tnh cc mch lm lch, nn phi kim tra v sa cha. (Cc my hin sng thng dng kim tra cht lng ca tn hiu cn o, tc l mo c tn hiu a vo my hin sng. iu ny c th c kim tra chnh xc nu t my hin sng khng c phi tuyn no trong phn khuych i dc hoc mch qut). - Mt nh chun dc Mt khuych i dc c th kim tra bng tn hiu bit c bn trong my. iu chnh h s khuych i dc c th gii quyt c vn . b) Trnh t cc bc sa cha my hin sng. Hnh 5.13, l lu minh ha cc bc c bn khi sa cha my hin sng. Cc bc o th s dn

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n tng hng, m tip theo c th c kim tra k lng tm cc cu kin hng bng cch o in tr hoc o cc mc in p dc ti cc im chn linh kin, hoc cc im o th quy nh.

5.2.2 MY TO TN HIU CAO TN RF. My to sng cao tn dng cung cp tn hiu n my thu d tm h hng, cn chnh my thu v o nhy, chn lc, kh nhiu, v. v. . . My to sng gm mch dao ng RF c th iu chnh c tn s, mch dao ng AF, mch khuych i m, mch iu ch v cc hp suy gim ( thit lp mc bin ra theo yu cu). S khi ca my to sng AF nh hnh 5.14.

Mc d my to sng RF l thit b in t c tin cy cao, nhng vn c th xy ra cc h hng bt k thi im no. Bn cht cc h hng cng tng t nh cc h thng in t khc, chng hn nh cu kin in t h mch hoc b r hoc ngn mch, hoc do cc kt ni b h mch hoc lng lo. C 4 b phn ring bit, l phn RF, phn m tn, chuyn mch chn ch hot ng v phn ngun cung cp. a) Phn vng chc nng pht hin sai hng my to tn hiu. B phn hng c th d dng pht hin bng chuyn mch chn ch v o tn hiu ra. xc nh hng nhanh v chnh xc, tn hiu ra c th quan st trn mn hnh ca my hin sng.

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Nu khng c pht sng ti cc u ra, khng c tn hiu v nhiu, h hng c th ngun cung cp, nn trc ht phi sa cha ngun trc khi chuyn sang xc nh hng cc phn khc. Tip theo, bt chuyn mch chn ch sang v tr CW, my hin sng s hin th sng mang cao tn cha iu ch, cho bit rng b dao ng RF, khuych i m, tng iu ch v b suy gim ang lm vic bnh thng. Tn hiu to ra t b dao ng RF truyn qua cc tng n u ra. Nu my hin sng khng th hin dng sng, th hoc l b dao ng RF mt dao ng hoc c h mch hay ngn mch vi b my ti mt im no cc tng trn. Kim tra thm c th thc hin bng cch d tn hiu dao ng RF bng u d ca my hin sng. V d, c tn hiu ti im B v khng c tn hiu ti im C th xc nh c l c hng tng iu ch. Vi chuyn mch chn ch v tr iu ch MOD, nu nhn c dng sng iu ch trn my hin sng, th phn RF cng nh phn audio u bnh thng. Nu ch thu c sng mang cao tn RF, th hng phn audio. Nu c tn hiu ti RF im D, tn hiu audio ti im H, nhng khng nhn c tn hiu iu ch, th chng t rng, chuyn mch chn ch mt tip xc vi u cc ghi l MOD. Nhng nu khng c tn hiu iu ch ti im o D, cng khng c tn hiu audio ti H, c th hng ti im no ca tng audio (mch to dao ng m tn, tng khuych i m hoc cng sut). H hng thc t c th xc nh bng cch d tn hiu. Kim tra thm trong tng c th tin hnh bng cch o in tr v in p ti cc im o th nhn dng cu kin in t hng. Khi t chuyn mch chn ch v tr MOD, c tn hiu iu ch ti D, nhng khng c tn hiu m tn ti H, th hng mch suy gim ca phn m tn. Vic nh chun [Calibration] mch dao ng RF c th kim tra vi my to tn hiu chun v mt my thu tt. Nu pht hin sai hng, th kim tra n nh in p ngun hoc c th kim tra b dao ng tinh th, s th hin nh hng gi ha. i vi cc mch tng hp tn s, cn phi kim tra cc cu kin ca mch vng kha pha [PPL]. (Phn m tn ca my pht tn hiu RF ch to ra hai tn s l 1000Hz v 400Hz, cho nn khng th dng o p ng tn s ca cc mch khuych i m tn. My to tn hiu m tn s dng o p ng tn s ca cc mch khuych i m tn l thit b ring, bao gm mch dao ng m tn c nh chun (thng l kiu mch dao ng cu Wien), ph ton b di tn s m tn (v ngay c siu m), mch khuych i m, khuych i cng sut v hp suy gim c nh chun. Khi tt c cc tng lin kt vi nhau, bng cch d tn hiu m tn s c lp tng hng). Lu hnh 5.15, cho cc bc th t chn on hng trong cc my to sng RF, khi ngun cung cp m bo bnh thng.

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5.2.3 O TH SA CHA CC NG H O A NNG S - DMM. ng h o a nng s (DMM) ang c s dng nhiu, pht trin lin tc v s lng v chng loi do chnh xc, r v phn gii ca ng h o a nng s cao hn nhiu so vi ng h o tng t. Nguyn l hot ng ca DMM c gii thch chng 3, v s khi nh hnh 5.16.

Cc sai hng in hnh ng h o s a nng gm: - ng h o khng c chnh xc thng s no o (mc d cc mch s u hot ng bnh thng) DMM v c bn l voltmeter dc, nn nu DMM khng ch th mc in p dc, th s khng ch th thng s bt k khc (in tr, dng in, in p ac). H hng c th h mch u cc trung tm ca chuyn mch chn chc nng o, hoc u cc trung tm ca chuyn mch chn thang o. Mch so snh tuyn tnh trong ADC c th b ghim mc + VCC hoc - VCC, hoc ghim ti mc 0V (t).

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- ng h o c tn hiu a n b so snh tuyn tnh nhng khng hin th cc s o B m v cht c th b ghim ti mc 1 hoc mc 0, cc xung nhp trong phn mch m c th mt hoc u ra xung nhp c th b ghim ti mc 1. Cc u iu khin Preset hoc Clear trong mch m / cht c th b ghim, nn gi h thng thng xuyn mc 1 v 0 tng ng. C th h mch im chung ca mch iu khin LED. Bt c h hng no trong s cc h hng trn u mt hin th cc s o. Phn h hng thc t c th xc nh bng u d mc logic. - Mt thang o in p khng hot ng, cc thang o khc hot ng bnh thng Kt ni u cc chuyn mch thang o c th b h khi thang o hng. - ng h o c chnh xc tt c cc thng s tr in tr Ngun dng hng c ni n chuyn mch chc nng c th hng, hoc u cc lin quan ca chuyn mch chc nng o c th h mch. - ng h o khng ch th mc dng cn o B bin i dng thnh p c ni n chuyn mch chc nng o c th b hng, hoc u ni ca chuyn mch chc nng c th b h mch. - ng h o khng c mc in p ac C th h mch hoc ngn mch diode chuyn i ac thnh dc, hoc u ni ca chuyn mch chc nng b h. - ng h o khng chnh xc Mt in tr no trong chuyn mch thang o c th c in tr cao hoc in tr tip xc ca chuyn mch thang o c th tr nn cao do s mi mn, hoc s phc hi ca cc xung nh phn bng mch kch khi Schmitt trong mch ADC c th khng c. S thay i tn s ca xung nhp cng c th gy ra cc s o sai. Trnh t cc bc sa cha. Trnh t cc bc xc nh hng DMM c th theo lu hnh 5.17. 5.3 O TH TRONG CC THIT B M TN [AUDIO] m thanh c th c bin i thnh tn hiu in thng qua microphone. Cc tn hiu in c cng tn s vi tn s m thanh gi l tn hiu m tn[audio], v c bin t l theo m thanh gc. Cc tn hiu audio c th c khuych i, ghi m, truyn dn v ti to thnh dng ban u. Cc phn t c bn ca tt c cc h thng audio l: * Microphone * Mch khuych i * Mch x l tn hiu * Loa. Microphone s bin i m thanh thnh cc tn hiu m tn, mch khuych i s khuych i cc tn hiu m tn. Mch x l s sa i cc tn hiu m tn theo mc ch ghi nhn, truyn dn, v ti to. Cui cng loa s bin i cc tn hiu m tn tr li thnh m thanh ban u. Quy trnh o th v sa cha s c gii thiu sau y l cc thit b audio thng dng gm: * H thng khuych m * H thng khuych i m thanh ni [stereo] c trung thc cao * My quay a nn [compact disc player] 5.3.1 O TH TRONG H THNG TRANG M . H thng trang m - PA [Public Address] bao gm microphone, tng trn, cc mch khuych i in p, mch khuych i cng sut, loa v khi ngun cung cp. S khi ca h thng nh hnh 5.18.

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Microphone s chuyn i cc bin thin ca p sut m thanh thnh cc thay i tn hiu in (gi l cc tn hiu m tn hay tn hiu audio). Micro thng c kt ni t bn ngoi vo b khuych m nh cc u phch cm. Cc h hng microphone c th l mng micro b thng, t cun dy hoc di bng loi micro kiu in ng, nhy thp do mng n hi chng, gi ha, r in tch loi microphone in dung, xm thc m loi microphone tinh th hay carbon. Bin p phi hp tr khng c th hng, hay t, hoc ngn mch u ni vi v bo v. Mch trn gm b iu chnh m lng v cc in tr cch ly, s cho php s dng nhiu microphone. Trong trng hp sai hng, s cch ly khng trit dn n xuyn m. Tn hiu ra t tng trn s c cung cp n tng tin khuych i c h s khuych i cao, mc nhiu thp khuych i. C c thnh phn ca b x l tn hiu gm cc bin tr iu khin m lng v iu khin m sc [tone]. B khuych i in p v khuych i o pha dng khuych i bin tn hiu ln mc ln li mch khuych i cng sut, to ra cng sut m tn ra theo yu cu. Cc sai hng thng thng cc b khuych i bao gm cc in tr b t, cc t in v cc transistor b h mch, r hay ngn mch. Cc u tip xc u trt ca bin tr iu chnh m lng, m sc c th b bn, hay chp chn, hoc h mch. Tng cui cng ca h thng khuych i l loa dng bin i cc tn hiu audio thnh m thanh. Cc h hng thng thng cc loa l rch mng loa, h mch cun dy m thanh, mng c n hi km, mng loa b thng v u dy ni b hng (h mch hay ngn mch). Sau khi phn tch cc thng tin c ngi s dng cung cp, v xem xt tnh trng vt l ca thit b, o th khi ngun cung cp m bo. Nu cha nhn thy du hiu h hng, cc bc o th gm: Kim tra tn hiu ra loa pht hin ra h hng nu thit b mt tn hiu hay tn hiu yu hay b tp m, hoc tn hiu b mo dng. Nhn bit tng hng: (i) bng tn hiu kch thch t my to tn hiu m tn mc vo u vo, v o th tn hiu ra ti cc tng khc nhau (theo phng php phn i) i vi cc tng lin tip nhau, v (ii) bng k thut cch ly i vi cc mch r, mch ghp ni v mch hi tip. Nu c tp m, s dng k thut ngn mch u vo (base c lm ngn mch vi emitter) xc nh tng hng. Nhn bit sai hng cu kin hay kt ni bng cch o in tr v o in p dc ti cc im chn cu kin hoc cc im o th quy nh. Php o in p c th nhn bit hng cc t in, cc cun cm v cc mch khuych i c h s khuych i thp. Mt s sai hng c th xy ra nhiu nht thit b trang m v cc bin php sa cha cho bng 5.2. Bng 5.2 Bng bo dng sa cha cho h thng trang m. Du hiu Sai hng v cch sa cha 1. Khng c m thanh Thit b khng nhn ngun cung cp. Cu ch c th b t, hay mt ngun pht ra loa, khng c in li, hay hng khi ngun cung cp. Kim tra ngun in li v ting lp bp, khng c khi ngun cung cp xc nh im hng v sa cha . ting , khng c ting si. Thit b mt m thanh hon ton. 2. o in tr v in Cc u dy loa c th b ngn mch. o th ngn mch bng php o p dc bn trong thit b in tr (dy feeder loi 16/02 c 6 /100m) v o th dy feeder bng bnh thng, nhng php o in dung (in dung thng thng ca dy feeder l 30pF trn mt khng tp m si hay mt). tn hiu pht ra. 3. C tp m si nhng C tp m si cho bit tin khuych i v cc tng khc bnh thng. Do khng c tn hiu pht u dy microphone h mch hay ngn mch vi v. o th bng ng h ra. Cc in tr v cc o in tr v sa cha h hng. in p dc u bnh thng. 4. Bin p ngun cung Ngn mch khi ngun cung cp, hoc mt tng no lm ngn mch cp qu nng ng ngun cung cp. o th cc mch r bng phng php cch ly nh v v sa cha h hng.

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5. Khng c m thanh mt loa, m thanh bnh thng cc loa khc. 6. m thanh pht ra yu, in tr v in p dc u ng. 7. Ting (hum) qu ln Hng loa ring bit, hay hng u dy hoc u ni ca loa. o th loa v u dy ca loa bng php o in tr loi b h hng.

H mch t r emitter. o h s khuych i ca cc tng bng phng php phn i v do vy c lp tng hng. Sau nhn bit cu kin hng trong tng hng. Thiu lc ngun cung cp do t lc b h hay r. Gn xm nhp vo mch base hay cng ca mt tng khuych i. Dy ngun in li c th b ghp vi cc dy microphone hoc bin p phi hp c th gn cc ti ac hay gn bin p ac. t mt t tt song song vi t lc. Nu ht ting , t lc t, thay t. Nu ngun cung cp bnh thng, cung cp tn hiu t my to sng m tn (AF). Nu c gn, th gn c trch vo bi ng base hay cng. Nu khng c gn, th gn c trch vo bi ng microphone t ngun in li. Xc nh ngun gn v sa cha h hng. 8. mo vt qu. Hi tip dng gy ra ting r rt ln. i khi, tn hiu ra c th l tn hiu siu m. Cc tn hiu dao ng siu m nh vy s khng nghe c nhng s lm qu ti mch khuych i v gy mo dng. Ngoi ra, c th do hng mch hi tip m. Kim tra nguyn nhn gy mo dng bng cch ngn mch u vo ca cc tng ln lt v do nhn bit tng hng, hoc do ghp nhiu khng mong mun, sa cha h hng. o th cc linh kin hi tip m v thay th linh kin hng. Quy trnh cc bc o th xc nh h hng. Quy trnh cc bc xc nh h hng trong h thng trang m th hin theo lu cho hnh 5.19.

5.3.2 O TH TRONG B KHUYCH I M THANH NI [STEREO]. B khuych i stereo gm c hai knh khuych i c lp t microphone n loa. Cc loa phi c t c khong cch bng nhau hai gc ca tam gic u trn mt nghing. Cc sai hng h thng

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stereo c th l khng c tn hiu ra, tn hiu ra yu, mo, tp m, xuyn m, tn hiu ra mt cn bng,v.v. . . o th trong h thng stereo s c gii thch di y lin quan n s khi cho hnh 5.20.

Mch khuych i in p th hin trong hnh 5.20, tng trng cho mch tin khuych i, mch x l tn hiu (cc mch iu khin m lng v m sc) v cc mch khuych i in p khc. Sau khi chc chn l ngun cung cp khng b hng, cn phi xc nh sai hng trong mch: hoc l knh tri hoc l knh phi; v tip theo l xc nh cu kin hng trong knh li: hoc l tng microphone, hoc loa, hoc tng khuych i. Cc thit b u vo nh microphone, my ghi m, my ghi a, v. v. . . l c ni vi cc mch tin khuych i thng qua chuyn mch chn chc nng (khng v trong hnh), c th nhn dng hoc l thit b u vo hng, hoc l b khuych i hng. Nu khng c tn hiu ra ti v tr bt k ca chuyn mch chn chc nng, th b khuych i hng. Nu khng c tn hiu ra ca ch mt thit b u vo th hng thit b u vo . Nu c tn hiu ra c hai knh nhng khng nhn c cn bng, th h hng bin tr iu chnh cn bng. Nu tn hiu ra khng c mt trong hai knh, th hoc do ngun cung cp hng hay ni t ca bin tr iu chnh cn bng b h mch. Trong trng hp ch hng mt knh, ta c th pht hin ra knh hng bng cch tt mt knh v nghe knh cn li. - Nhn dng tng hng trong cc tng khuych i. Tng hng ca b khuych i hng c th c nhn bit bng tn hiu kch th v phng php d mch, hay d dng hn bng cch s dng mt trong cc tng ca knh cn tt thay th cc tng ca knh b hng bng cc u dy o th ngoi nh th hin hnh 5.21.

Gi s knh phi b hng v knh tri bnh thng. Cung cp tn hiu vo knh phi. Nu tn hiu ra ca knh tri bnh thng khi u dy o th ni t im A sang B, u vo ca knh tri khng b hng. u dy o th lc ny s c ni t im C n D. Nu tn hiu ra ca knh tri l tt, th mch tin

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khuych i ca knh phi l tt. Tng khc c th c kim tra tng t bng cch ni u dy o th t im E n F, G n H v I n J cho n khi tng hng c nhn din. Nu tn hiu t n im J c xc nh l bnh thng, th h hng c th loa hay cc u ni ca loa. - Nhn din cu kin hng. Cc php o in tr v in p ti cc im chn ca cu kin ch ng hay ti cc im o quy nh s nhn bit cu kin hoc kt ni hng. in tr c th t, t in hay cun cm hay cu kin bn dn c th t hoc ngn mch. Mi hn c th nt, khng kt ni, hay c th chp gia cc ng mch in ca bng mch c khong cch st nhau. Phn ln cc sai hng l c nhn bit bng php o in tr v o in p dc. Mt vi dng h hng c th cn n php o vi tn hiu ac, v d i vi t in b nghi l t, hay cun dy b ngn mch. Mt s kiu h hng, nguyn nhn gy sai hng v cch sa cha s c gii thch di y. - Mt tn hiu ra v tr no ca chuyn mch chc nng trn mt knh. Chuyn mch chc nng cho php cc thit b vo (microphone, my ghi m, my quay a, b iu hng FM) c ni n b khuych i stereo. Tt c cc thit b u vo khng th h hng. Do h hng c trong mch khuych i ca knh lin quan. Vic sa cha ty vo s o th mch khuych i, ln lt trn cc tng, bng tn hiu thay th hoc bng tn hiu kch thch, hay bng cch d, hoc bng phng php g. Vic nhn din tng hng v tip theo tin n xc nh cu kin hng trong tng hng bng cc php o in p v in tr, thay th cu kin hng. - Mt tn hiu ra ch mt v tr ca chuyn mch chc nng. Khi tn hiu ra tt c cc v tr ca chuyn mch chc nng, tr mt v tr l bnh thng, th cc tng khuych i u bnh thng. Thit b u vo gn vi v tr c th ca chuyn mch chc nng b hng. o th thit b u vo b hng. Microphone c th hng, thay th microphone khc. Nu thit b hng l my quay a, kim tra kim b mn. Nu hng thit b ghi m, hy kim tra u t b bn. Nu thit b hng l b chn knh FM, th phi kim tra b gii m bng my to sng stereo. Sa cha h hng. - Tn hiu ra yu c hai knh ti tt c cc v tr ca chuyn mch chc nng. Sai hng c th xy ra l in p ngun cung cp thp. o th khi ngun cung cp v sa cha h hng. - Mt tn hiu ra mt knh. H hng c th xy ra l mt ngun cung cp, hoc hng mch iu khin cn bng. o th ngun cung cp, cu ch, u phch cm in li, hoc ngn mch ng ngun cung cp, khc phc h hng. Ni t ca bin tr iu chnh cn bng c th t. Kim tra bin tr v sa cha h hng. - Nhiu t cc ngun tn hiu khc. Nguyn nhn c th h ni t ca t r RF, hoc h mch trong t. Tn hiu mnh ca cc i pht thanh a phng, ca cc dch v khc (nh ca qun i, cnh st, hng khng v. v. . . ) c th trch dn bi b khuych i m tn. Cc tn hiu rt mnh c th gy qu ti mch khuych i v do c th pht hin do cc c tnh phi tuyn i vi cc trng thi qu ti. Kim tra t r mch RF v ni t ca t. - Mo tn hiu ra. H hng c th xy ra l do hng mch hi tip m, hay c th c t dao ng tng khuych i no do t gii ghp b h mch. Kim tra mch hi tip m, t c th v sa cha h hng. Pht hin tng gy dao ng bng cch ngn mch ln lt cc tng loi b h hng. - Ting (hum) tn hiu ra ca c hai knh. R rng l do gn cao. Tn hiu ac ghp in dung ca cc u dy ngun in li n cc u dy ca h thng ti mt im no . Kim tra t lc h mch ng ngun cung cp in p, sa cha h hng. Ting cng c th to ra do khong cch gn gia dy in li v cc u vo ca h thng. Nu vy, loi b khong cch. - Tp m si (lo xo) qu cao tn hiu ra . Do khng ng u cc rnh, hoc bng t, v cng c th do mc tp m vt qu c to ra trong mch tin khuych i. Cn phi s dng cc phng php ci thin t s tn hiu trn tp m v do lm gim tp m si. Kim tra cc mch lin quan loi b h hng. - Khng to ra c hiu ng stereo. Kim tra v tr cc loa v m bo tun theo cc quy nh ca nh sn xut ghi trong hng dn s dng. Kim tra tn hiu ra mono i vi c hai knh ring r v iu chnh tt c cc chc nng iu khin lin quan c tn hiu ra ng nht.

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- Cc chc nng iu khin trm (bass) v bng (treble) c th khng tc ng. iu chnh cc chc nng iu khin trm, bng gim xung v tng ln l phi nghe c, nu khng hy o th cc bin tr tng ng v sa cha h hng. - m nn khi mc volume thp khng ti to c chnh xc. Kim tra bin tr iu chnh m lng, lm sch tip xc, hoc thay th bin tr nu cn. - Khng th iu chnh cn bng. C th hng mch cn bng. Kim tra bin tr cn bng, lm sch nu cn. Thay th bin tr nu lm sch khng khc phc c. - Xuyn m. Khi tn hiu ca mt knh c knh khc th gi l xuyn m. Mch ngun cung cp chung cho c hai knh, h t gii ghp c th gy xuyn m. o th t gii ghp, nu t th cn phi thay th. Quy trnh o th xc nh sai hng h thng stereo. Quy trnh cc bc xc nh h hng trong h thng khuych m stereo c th hin theo lu cho hnh 5.22.

5.3.3 O TH TRONG MY QUAY A NN - CD [COMPACT DISC]. a compact l a quang hc lm bng polycarbonate, b sung mt lp nhm mng a phn x nh sng, v c bo v nh lp keo trong sut. Ghi cc chng trnh m thanh trn a s xy ra t tm tin dn ra bin. a c ng trong hp nha. Nguyn l Tia laser c to ra t b pht laser bn dn lm bng aluminium-gallium-arsenide (bc sng 780mm), gn trn a compact truyn qua mt gng c trng bc bn phn. Gng cho php tia truyn qua gng nhng khng cho php tia hi truyn qua. Tia hi c phn x t b mt phng bng nhm v s tng ng vi bit s 1. Ch c tia phn x khng ng k t vt lm tng ng vi bit s 0. Nh vy, tia laser phn hi l bn sao ca tia laser ban u c iu ch bi cc ch s nh phn ca cc tn hiu audio. (Qu trnh phn x c bn th hin hnh 5.23). Cc ch s nh phn s c ti to khi c nh sng b phn x chiu vo diode nhy quang. Tn hiu ra s ca diode s c x l v bin i thnh tn hiu tng t ban u. S khi ca mch tch tn hiu nh hnh 5.24. Cc tn hiu iu khin cho php t hp bt k ca cc rnh c quay theo

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trnh t no nh bn phm. Cng nh vy, vic hin th ni dung s c cung cp n mn hnh khi bn nhc ang c th hin.

Tn hiu tc cao nhn c t a, s c so snh vi tn hiu ca b to dao ng bng tinh th. S khc nhau bt k s to ra tn hiu iu chnh a n h thng ty ng [servo system]. H thng ty ng c chnh xc rt cao s kt hp m thanh stereo. Cc tn hiu stereo c ghp knh trc khi iu ch vi tia laser. Sau khi tch tn hiu, cc tn hiu ghp knh phi c gii ghp cung cp cho hai knh ring r ca h thng stereo.

Vic qut cc khe bng tia laser tin hnh t tm tin dn ra ra ca a, nn a phi c quay do tia laser s c di chuyn t tm ra mp a. Khi vng trn ca cc ng xon c ngoi cng ln hn so vi cc vng xon c trong cng, tc trn rnh to ra khng i (vn tc ng khng i) bng cch thay i tc quay ca a t 500 vng / pht ti tm n 200 vng / pht ti mp ngoi cng. Tc qut vo khong 1,2m/s. Tng chiu di ca rnh ghi l 6km, nn thi gian quay a l 60 pht cng vi khong 20 pht cho hiu chnh sai lch. p ng tn s ca a compact t 20Hz n 20kHz v t s tn hiu trn tp m l 90dB. Cc h hng thng thng my quay a CD c th l: 1. B pht laser ghim mc 1 hoc 0. 2. Bn cc thu knh.

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3. Hng mch hi t. 4. Photodiode b t hoc ngn mch. 5. Hng mch bin i s sang tng t. 6. Hng mch khuych i audio tng t. 7. H thng ty ng khng hot ng lm cho tc ca ng c quay a v h thng thu knh sai. Cc bc o th sa cha my quay a compact cho theo lu hnh 5.25.

Tm li, khi m thanh c bin i thnh cc tn hiu in, th tn hiu in c gi l tn hiu m tn hay audio. Cc b phn chnh ca mt h thng audio l: microphone, mch khuych i, mch x l (mch ghi m / mch pht, mch iu ch / gii iu ch). Cc h hng thng thng trong thit b audio l: mt tn hiu ra, m lng thp, mc tp m v nhiu vt qu, xuyn m, mt cn bng ( cc h thng stereo) v mo tn hiu ra. Tng hng c th c lp bng cch cung cp tn hiu m tn t mt my to tn hiu audio v d tm h hng bng my hin sng hoc bng ng h o. Cu kin hng c th nhn bit t cc tr s o c ca in tr, in p v dng tn hiu ti cc im o th quy nh. Cc h hng in hnh trong h thng trang m, b khuych m stereo, my quay a CD c gii thch trn. 5.4 O TH CC THIT B THNG TIN V TUYN Trong cc h thng thng tin v tuyn, cc chng trnh ngun c bin i thnh cc tn hiu in (gi l cc tn hiu bng gc), v c my pht truyn n cc my thu ti cc khong cch xa nh cc sng in t tn s cao iu ch v bc x t antenna. Sng in t truyn trong khng gian vi vn tc nh sng s thu c bng cch cm ng vo ng ten my thu. Cc tn hiu bng gc s c tch sng trong my thu v cui cng c bin i thnh cc chng trnh ngun nh loa. T hp ca thit b thu pht audio nh hnh 5.26. Chiu di ca khung ng ten ty thuc vo tn s s dng, thng bng /4 hoc /2, trong l bc sng ca sng in t s dng. Quan h gia tnh theo mt v tn s f tnh theo MHz cho bi phng trnh, 300 f 5.4.1 S CN THIT CA VIC IU CH. Thng tin hay cc tn hiu bng gc l cc tn hiu tn s thp. V d, di tn s ca cc chng trnh audio ch trong khong t 16Hz n 20kHz. Cc chng trnh nh vy khng th bc x trc tip vo

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khng gian bi cc l do sau: 1. Do tt c cc chng trnh u nm trong cng di tn s, nn s gy nhiu ln nhau vi chng trnh khc pha thu. 2. di ca antenna yu cu s qu ln c th thu c tn hiu. Chng hn, i vi tn hiu 1000Hz, tnh mt phn t bc sng s cho di antenna phi l 75km.

Cc tr ngi trn s c gii quyt bng cch t cc tn hiu bng gc tn s thp ln trn sng tn s cao nh mt qu trnh gi l iu ch. Sng tn s cao s c vai tr nh sng mang i vi cc tn hiu bng gc. Tn hiu bng gc khi c t trn tn hiu tn s cao s tr thnh mt phn ca sng mang tn s cao theo cng kiu nh mt gi bu kin c gi trong my bay s tr thnh mt phn ca my bay. Ti im ch bu kin s c ly ra khi my bay. Tng t, ti trm thu tn hiu bng gc s c khi phc t sng mang tn s cao. Qu trnh khi phc tn hiu t sng mang c gi l gii iu ch hay tch sng. i vi thng tin v tuyn, cc tn s sng mang c k hiu theo tn s trung bnh hay bng sng trung (di tn s t 300kHz n 3MHz), bng sng cao hay HF (t 3MHz n 30MHz), bng tn rt cao hay VHF (30MHz n 300MHz), bng tn siu cao hay UHF (300MHz n 3000MHz) v bng tn siu siu cao hay SHF (3GHz n 30GHz). Di tn s cao UHF v SHF (2GHz n 30GHz) cng c gi l vi ba. Cc sng cao tn nh vy cn ng-ten c cc di thch hp c th thc hin truyn sng. V d, tn hiu 1MHz cn ng-ten /4 c chiu di 75m; 10MHz, cn ng-ten c di 7,5m; 100MHz, cn ng-ten c di 75cm; 1000MHz, cn ng-ten c di 7,5cm. Ngoi ra, cc tn hiu bng gc ch chim mt phn nh ca tn s sng mang. Hng lot cc tn hiu bng gc c th c cung cp trong mt bng tn. V d, 300 chng trnh c rng bng tn 9kHz (cc chng trnh pht thanh qung b thng thng) c th c cung cp trong mt bng tn t 0,3MHz n 3MHz (= 2700kHz), hoc 27000 tn hiu c rng bng tn 1kHz (cc tn hiu in bo morse) trong bng tn HF (3MHz n 30MHz) m khng gy nhiu ln nhau. Do , qu trnh iu ch s gii quyt c c hai vn cp trn. 5.4.2 S TRUYN LAN CA SNG IN T. Tri t c bao bc bng cc lp ion trong bu kh quyn gi l tng in ly, ng vai tr quan trng trong vic phn x cc tn hiu tn s cao v trung bnh. Cc lp ion c k hiu l cc lp D, E, F v phn b pha trn b mt tri t ti v tr cao khong 50km, 110km v 220km, tng ng. Ban ngy, lp D s hp th cc tn hiu sng trung (nhng khng hp th cc sng tn s cao), do vy ban ngy cc tn hiu sng trung c th truyn n my thu theo ng truyn cng vi t nhng c s suy gim v cng tn hiu, nn s hn ch khong cch truyn sng. Nhng vo ban m, lp D s bin mt v tn hiu sng trung cng nh tn hiu sng cao tn truyn khong cch xa hn sau khi c phn x t lp E hoc lp F cao hn, cho nn cc tn hiu pht thanh qung b sng trung s c ci thin vo ban m. Khong cch ngn nht t my pht m sng phn x truyn n t gi l khong cch phn x. Khong cch phn x ty thuc vo tn s. Tn s cao hn s cho khong cch phn x cao hn. Nu khong cch gia my pht v my thu ngn, sng phn x c th nhy qu khong cch, khi b phn x t cc cao trn mc nc bin. trnh cc tnh trng , di tn s thp s c s dng vo ban m truyn thng tin. Tng in ly l trong sut vi VHF v cc tn hiu tn s cao hn, nn khng b phn x t tng in ly. Do cc tn hiu VHF v tn hiu tn s cao hn s truyn trong khng gian theo ng thng ging nh nh sng, v khong cch trn mt t gia my pht v my thu s b gii hn theo phng ngang

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tc l b hn ch tm nhn thng, do cong ca b mt tri t. cao ng-ten pht cao hn, khong cch tm nhn thng s ln hn. Cc thp ng-ten cao trn mt t gii hn tm nhn thng vi chc km, nu t ng-ten trn cc i cao s lm tng khong cch truyn ln n vi trm km, nhng c th lm tng khong cch truyn ln n vi ngn km nh cc v tinh thng tin. 5.4.3 CC KIU IU CH Trong thc t, iu ch l phng php x l tn hiu bng gc lm thay i thng s ca sng mang cao tn; hoc l bin , hoc l tn s hay pha. Cc kiu iu ch thng s dng trong cc h thng pht thanh qung b gm: iu ch bin (AM), iu ch tn s (FM), iu ch pha (PM). - iu ch bin Khi bin ca sng mang RF b thay i tun theo bin ca tn hiu bng gc, th qu trnh c gi l iu ch bin (AM). - iu ch tn s Khi tn s ca sng mang cao tn (RF) thay i (trong phm vi vi kilohertz) ph hp vi bin ca tn hiu bng gc, th qu trnh c gi l iu ch tn s (FM). Dng sng ca tn hiu bng gc, tn hiu sng mang cao tn v sng mang RF iu ch ca AM th hin hnh 5.27a, cn i vi cc dng sng FM cc hnh 5.27b. - iu ch pha Khi pha ca sng mang cao tn (RF) thay i ph hp vi bin ca tn hiu bng gc, qu trnh c gi l iu ch pha (PM). Khi pha ca tn hiu thay i, trong thc t thc cht l thay i v tn s. Nu xem xt k hnh 5.27b, ta s thy rng pha ca mi chu k RF l s thay i dn dn khi bin ca tn hiu bng gc thay i. Vy my thu s xem dng sng iu pha nh dng sng iu tn. u im ca iu pha so vi iu tn l ch c th dng b dao ng tinh th to ra sng mang RF b iu ch pha, nn cho n nh cao hn. Dao ng tinh th khng th s dng trc tip trong iu ch tn s. 5.4.4 MY PHT AM Hnh 5.28, l s khi ca my pht AM in hnh. Phn cao tn s to ra sng mang RF c tn s cao khng i v bin khng i, tn hiu cao tn to

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ra s c khuych i bi b khuych i m. Phn AF s khuych i tn hiu m tn (thu c t microphone) v s cung cp tn hiu m tn n b iu ch. B iu ch s nhn hai tn hiu, mt tn hiu l sng mang RF v tn hiu cn li l tn hiu m tn. Chc nng ca b iu ch l lm thay i bin ca tn hiu RF ph hp vi tn hiu m tn. Tr khng ln nht ca mch RF c iu hng u ra s lm gim dng cn bng khi mch c iu hng. Tn hiu iu ch s c a n antenna thng qua mch phi hp tr khng. Antenna s bc x tn hiu iu ch RF vo khng gian di dng sng in t. a) Cc sai hng thng thng my pht AM Cc sai hng b dao ng v cc b khuych i RF c gii thch chng 4 (mc 4.1.10). Do vy, y ch xem xt cc h hng in hnh tng ra cui ca b iu ch RF (thng c gi l tng khuych i cng sut - PA). Tng iu ch AM in hnh ca my pht tn s cao nh hnh 5.29. in p collector a n cc transistor ca tng PA khng ch l VCC m l VCC cng vi in p m tn xut hin ti cun th cp ca bin p iu ch T3. in p s lm thay i VCC c ti collector ca cc transistor tng PA (c mc theo kiu y ko), gy ra dng collector thay i tun theo tn hiu m tn, v do s c tn hiu tn s cao iu ch bin trn cun th cp ca bin p RF, T2 (cn gi l mch cng hng). Tn hiu iu ch s c a n ng-ten my pht thng qua b phi hp tr khng ca ng-ten v dy dn sng [feeder] hay ng truyn. Khi mch cng hng (mch cng hng song song) u ra ca tng khuych i cui c iu chnh c tn hiu A M ln nht theo tn s yu cu, th ng h o dng s ch th s st gim dng collector bi v tr khng ca mch cng hng ln nht. Bng 5.3: Lit k mt s sai hng thng c mch iu ch v nh hng ca cc sai hng trn tn hiu ra.

Bng 5.3: Cc sai hng in hnh tng iu ch Cu kin/b phn sai hng nh hng 1. Bin p iu ch T3 b Tn hiu m tn s khng lm VCC bin thin v do khng c iu ngn mch ch 2. Cun th cp ca bin p VCC s khng a n cc collector ca tng khuych i cng sut iu ch hay cun in cm (PA), nn khng c tn hiu ra tn s cao cao tn (RFC) h mch 3. T CD b h mch Chc nng gii ghp mt tc dng c th to nn hi tip dng n mch khuych i khc no thng qua ng ngun cung cp v do s lm mo dng tn hiu RF 4. T CD b ngn mch Ngn mch t CD s gy ra ngn mch ng ngun cung cp. Cu ch b n 5. T ca mch cng hng Bin p s khng c iu hng. Khng c suy gim ng h o CT2 b ngn mch dng collector khi iu hng t c. Khng c tn hiu ra RF 6. H mch t ca khung Bin p s khng c iu hng. Khng st gim dng collector.

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cng hng 7. Ni t emitter b h mch 8. H mch mt trong hai transistor no 9. Mt trong hai transistor no b ngn mch 10. in tr base R1 hay R2 t 11. T ghp tng C1 hoc C2 t 12. Mt t ghp no b ngn mch Tuy nhin c th c nhiu sng hi tn hiu RF. Transistor nh b h mch v do khng c RF u ra. Ngoi ra cng khng c dng collector Hot ng y ko s khng c dn n tng mo dng VCC s b ngn mch. Cu ch s n. Base s h mch nn transistor lin quan s ngng dn

RF s khng c cung cp n mt transistor. Do khng c hot ng y ko Phn cc (c to ra do hot ng ca mch) s khng c a n mt transistor lm mt cn bng mch khuych i y ko gy ra mo dng tn hiu. 13. Mch iu hng u Khng c tn hiu vo RF v do khng c tn hiu ra RF vo b ngn mch hay bin p T1 b t 14. T CT1 hoc CT2 b t Tn hiu vo tn s cao s khng b suy gim mt cch thc cht nn tn hiu ra RF khng ng k. 15. Cc mch ca my pht Tn hiu ra RF thp. khng iu hng ng cc tng trc b) iu chnh v o th my pht AM Mt my pht tn hiu gm hng lot cc mch cng hng, c iu chnh c tn s quy nh. Cc mch cng hng c iu chnh ln lt cho in p RF ti u vo ca mch khuych i cng sut ra cui l ln nht, v cui cng l iu chnh mch cng hng u ra cho s suy gim ng h o dng collector. Tip theo l iu chnh mch ng-ten (hay mch phi hp) tng mc dng collector c th t n gi tr ln nht. My pht s c o th vi tn s cao ng, cng sut RF ln nht, t s sng dng nh nht, khng c cc sng hi, ch s iu ch yu cu tn hiu ra v tn hiu iu ch c mo dng v tp m thp nht. 5.4.5 MY PHT SNG N BIN - SSB

iu ch bin s to ra hai di bin, gi l di bin trn (USB) v di bin di (LSB), cng vi tn hiu sng mang. Kiu iu ch nh vy c gi l iu ch song bin AM - (AMDSB), v c k hiu l A3E. H thng iu ch bin song bin n gin, d dng tch sng v s dng trong cc h thng pht thanh qung b cng cng, nhng h thng iu ch bin song bin chim khong ph tn s cao v mc ngun cung cp ln hn nn hiu sut thp. Mc cng sut m tn u c trong c hai di bin, v vy khi truyn mt di bin l khi phc chng trnh my thu. Vic nn sng mang

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v di bin cn li s cho php tit kim ngun cung cp. Hn na, vic pht ch mt di bin s tit kim ph tn s cao khi rng knh yu cu s c gim xung mt na. My thu n bin c gi thnh cao bi v cn phi c dao ng ni ca sng mang RF v yu cu rt nhiu mch lc. H thng my thu n bin khng s dng c h thng pht thanh qung b cng cng. L do n gin l my thu ch to cho ngi dng phi c gi thnh thp. Tuy nhin, trong cc trng hp my thu cng cng khng phc tp v mt thng tin, nhng cn phi tit kim ngun v ph tn th s dng h thng SSB. Cc t chc s dng h thng SSB l cc dch v thng tin ca qun i, cnh st, hng hi v ngi chi v tuyn nghip d. H thng SSB c gi l h thng J3E. Hnh 5.30, l s khi ca my pht SSB c bn. Khi c bn khc vi my pht AM l mch iu ch cn bng nh hnh 5.31.

Tn hiu RF v1 s c cung cp vo cc JFET F1 v F2 cng pha, nhng tn hiu m tn v2 c bn k dng trn mt JFET v c bn k m trn JFET cn li ti hai u ngc nhau ca cun th cp ca bin p vo. Tc dng ca iu l lm cho sng mang v1 s c trit tiu khi chy theo chiu ngc li thng qua cun s cp. Cc tn hiu lin quan vi v2, tc l di bng cao hn v di bng thp hn c u ra. Mt di bin c suy gim thp nht l 45dB bi sng m thanh b mt (b lc SAW Surface Acoustic Wave, s dng hiu ng p in). Do vy, ta c tn hiu ra ca h thng SSB. B iu ch cn bng s khng cung cp tn hiu ra nu ng ngun cung cp tr nn b h mch hoc ngn mch, nu mt FET bt k b ngn mch (tc s lm ngn mch ngun cung cp), nu bin p audio b h mch hay ngn mch, hoc nu t iu hng ca mch u ra b ngn mch. Nu bt k mt FET no h mch, s khng c s trit tiu sng mang. 5.4.6 MY PHT IU TN - FM Phng php iu ch khc c s dng ph bin l iu ch tn s (FM). kiu iu tn, ta c th thay i tn s hoc pha ca sng mang. iu ch tn s c dng rng ri pht thanh qung b c trung thc cao v dng cho hai ng thng tin c khong cch ngn ca qun i v cnh st hay cp cu y t.

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Ngoi ra, FM cng c s dng trong thng tin v tinh v cc h thng pht hnh (dng iu ch sng mang audio) do c mc nhiu thp. S khi ca mt my pht FM in hnh cho hnh 5.32. in khng song song vi mch cng hng ca b to dao ng sng mang s bin thin theo tn hiu audio v do s bin thin theo tn s, to nn s iu ch tn s. Cc sai hng my pht sng FM l t hn nhiu so vi h hng my pht AM. Cc dng sai hng c th l do cc cu kin (th ng cng nh tch cc) b h mch hay ngn mch, hoc ng ngun cung cp b h mch hay ngn mch, hoc cc kt ni b lng lo hay b h mch. H mch hay ngn mch phn audio s khng to ra s iu ch, mc d vn c tn hiu RF. Sai hng bt k mch dao ng, iu ch, cc mch nhn tn hay h thng khuych i cng sut cui s khng cho cc tn hiu RF. Nu c tn hiu RF iu ch ti u ra ca tng khuych i cng sut (FA), m tn hiu FM vn khng c pht x khi thy ch th cng trng, th h hng c th trong ng dy ni (feeder). H thng pht thanh qung b FM c trung thc cao, ngy cng tr nn ph bin do mc nhiu thp, p ng tn s bng phng v mo thp. m thanh ni (stereo) dng to ra hiu ng thc t c trung thc cao. 5.4.7 MY THU QUNG B IU BIN a) Nguyn l hat ng S khi ca my thu thanh qung b iu bin (AM) nh hnh 5.33. Chc nng ca mi khi s c gii thch nh di y.

b) Antenna thu. Antenna thu trch dn nng lng t sng in t truyn trong khng gian. Sng in t s c bin i thnh tn hiu in p (tn hiu cao tn - RF) v a n tng u tin trong my thu. c) Mch khuych i cao tn [RF amp] Cc mch b khuych i cao tn c cp chng 4 (hnh 4.18). Cc tng khuych i cao tn l cc tng c bn c trong cc cc my thu thng tin, tuy nhin khng bt buc phi c trong cc my thu qung b. Mch khuych i cao tn s thc hin cc chc nng sau: (i) Tp m ni ca transistor khi dng lm mch khuych i l nh hn nhiu so vi khi cng transistor dng lm mch trn khng tuyn tnh, nn mch s ci thin t s tn hiu trn tp m. (ii) Cc mch khuych i cao tn s gip loi b nhiu tn s nh. Cc mch iu hng trong b khuych i s c iu hng n tn hiu tn s cao yu cu, nn s suy gim cc tn hiu tn s nh. (iii) Mch khuych i cao tn s khuych i tn hiu a vo mch, v do s ci thin nhy. (iv) Bng cch iu hng i vi RF, rng bng tn ca mch khuych i cao tn ln ( rng bng tn = fr / Q, trong fr l tn s cng hng, cn Q l h s phm cht ca mch cng hng) v do vy, mch khuych i cao tn s khng nh hng n vic ci thin nhy, mc d mch loi b cc tn hiu nhiu nhng ch mt lng nh. (v) Mch khuych i cao tn s to ra vic kh ghp tn hiu dao ng ni t ng-ten v do s ngn chn s pht x tn hiu tn s dao ng ni vo khng gian.

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d) B dao ng ni Chc nng ca b dao ng ni (LO), l to ra tn hiu RF c bin khng i v tn s khng i i vi cc knh c chn. Tn s ca LO thng c gi cao hn so vi tn s ca knh c chn bng tr s gi l tn s trung gian hay trung tn - IF. i vi cc my thu qung b, gi tr IF l 455kHz, v do vy, fo = fs + 455kHz, trong fo l tn s ca LO v fs l tn s ca cc tn hiu s c thu. i vi cc my thu thng tin tn s cao, s dng hai mch khuych i trung tn. B IF th nht c tn s cao hn 1MHz, cn b IF th hai c tn s 455kHz hay thp hn. i vi cc my thu qung b FM VHF, khi IF l 10,7MHz (cc sai hng mch khuych i cao tn v mch dao ng ni c gii thch chng 4). e) B trn B trn [mixer] l mch khuych i phi tuyn, dng thu hai tn hiu, mt tn hiu t b dao ng ni v mt tn hiu khc t mch khuych i cao tn (RF) (nu khng s dng mch khuych i RF, th tn hiu th hai ca b trn nhn t antenna). Do chc nng phi tuyn ca b khuych i trn, tn hiu iu bin s c to ra. Nu fo l tn s ca LO, v fs l tn s ca knh cn thu, th tn hiu ra ca b trn s gm cc tn hiu c tn s tn hiu (fs), tn s dao ng ni (fo), tng ca hai tn s (fo + fs), hiu ca hai tn s (fo fs) [tn s trung gian hay trung tn IF], cc tn s hi (2fo v 2fs) v hng lot cc t hp tn s khc. Nu mch iu hng u ra ca tng trn c iu chnh c tn s fo fs (= IF), th ngoi tn hiu c tn s fo fs, tt c cc tn s khc s hu nh b loi b bi mch iu hng IF, khi cc tn s c sai lch so vi tn s cng hng ca mch iu hng IF. Mc d mch trn c tn s thp hn tn s ca tn hiu RF, nhng tn hiu iu ch vn khng thay i tn hiu trung tn (IF). K thut to ra tn hiu trung tn c gi l to phch m hay n gin l i tn, nn my thu s dng k thut i tn gi l my thu i tn. Tn hiu khng mong mun bng tn s ca LO + tn s IF (hay tn s tn hiu + 2IF) c gi l tn hiu nh, bi v b dao ng ni (LO) cung cp tn hiu yu cu, cng s to ra tn hiu nh nh tn hiu IF. V vy, ta khng th phn bit c tn hiu yu cu v tn hiu gy nhiu. Do , tn hiu ny cn phi trnh trc khi a n tng trn. Bt chp nhc im duy nht l tn s nh, tt c cc my thu thng tin hin i u l cc my thu i tn cho cc u im m IF s cung cp nh sau. Cc u im ca IF 1. rng bng tn ca mch thp v do chn lc rt tt. Nhiu knh ln cn s c kh n mc rt r rt (60dB hoc cao hn). 2. Tt c cc knh s c bin i thnh mt tn s n, nn khng cn c s hiu chnh cc tng trung tn (IF). 3. H s khuych i cao tn hiu c tn s thp khng i. 4. Mch khuych i tn hiu tn s thp khng i t c khuynh hng dao ng nn tn hiu rt n nh. Cc u im c gi tr nhiu hn so vi ch mt nhc im l nhiu tn s nh. Nhc im cng s khc phc c khi s dng cc mch iu hng cao tn trc khi trn, ch cho php tn s knh thu a n tng trn. Mt tng trn in hnh nh mch hnh 5.34. y, tn hiu LO c a n cc cng v tn hiu RF a n cc ngun. cc FET cng i, cc tn hiu LO v RF s c a vo hai cng ca FET. nh hng do cc h hng ca cu kin trong mch 5.34, s c gii thch di y. - FET b h mch hoc b ngn mch S khng c tn hiu ra. - t mch ca mt ng tn hiu no (tn hiu LO hay tn hiu RF) S khng c tn hiu ra, bi v tn hiu IF s khng c cung cp nn mch iu hng IF s khng truyn bt k tn hiu no. - CE b h mch C hai tn hiu s truyn qua RE, nn s suy gim c hai tn hiu. Tn hiu LO s gy hi tip m, cn tn hiu RF s b suy gim do a n RE mc ni tip. - CE b ngn mch, RE cng s c r mch i vi dc, lm cho cng gn bng 0V so vi ngun, v do c mc dng ln chy qua FET. Mc tn hiu ra s b gim v FET s tr nn b qu nhit, dn n nh thng FET.

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- C1 hoc C2 (t trimmer) hng Khi cc trimmer b ngn mch, tn hiu ra s bng 0. Cc trimmer h mch s to ra tn hiu ra thp, mc d in p dc vn bnh thng.

- Li cun dy iu chnh sai Mch s mt iu hng, kt qu l tn hiu ra yu v chn lc thp hn bnh thng. - T gii ghp CD b ngn mch Ngun cung cp s r mch FET, gy qu dng ngun cung cp v do c th t cu ch. - CD b t RD s tr nn mc ni tip vi mch cng hng IF v do h s phm cht Q ca mch cng hng s b gim xung, lm gim chn lc. - RD b t in p ngun cung cp (VDD) cung cp n FET s mt v do mt tn hiu ra. f) Tng khuych i trung tn (IF) Mch khuych i trung tn s khuych i tn hiu IF, nn mch khuych i trung tn cn phi c h s khuych i v n nh cao. Khi tn s trung gian nm trong khong tn s radio, th mch khuych i IF cng l mch khuych i tn s cao vi cc mch cng hng song song IFT 1 v IFT2 u vo v u ra ca mch khuych i (hnh 5.35). in p phn cc c cung cp bng R1, R2 v RE, cn mch gii ghp l RD v CD. Ch khc nhau im cc mch cng hng b khuych i IF l c iu chnh theo IF c nh, trong khi b khuych i RF, cc mch iu hng l c th iu hng n cc tn s khc ty thuc vo vic chn knh cn thu. Cc h hng b khuych i IF do tng t nh cc h hng b khuych i RF, ngoi tr h hng do t iu hng chnh v chuyn mch thay i bng tn. Hn na, nu chn lc ca knh ln cn l km v nhy thp, th cn phi iu chnh cc mch iu hng cho p ng nh i vi tn hiu IF. Vic cn chnh cc tng

RF v IF s c gii thch mc 5.4.12. g) Mch tch sng Chc nng ca mch tch sng l khi phc cc tn hiu bng gc t tn hiu iu ch.

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Tn hiu AM s c tch sng bng mt diode v mch lc p ng vi cc bin nh ca tn hiu IF trong mi chu k ca IF ging nh cc p ng kt hp chnh lu - lc i vi tn hiu ac nh. Hnh 5.36, l mch tch sng bng diode in hnh cng vi vic to ra in p cho mch AGC (t ng iu chnh khuych i).

Diode s chnh lu dng sng iu ch. Cc gi tr ca cc t phi chn sao cho C1 v C2 r mch tn hiu IF cha c iu ch xung t, nhng khng lc b tn hiu m tn (audio). Do vy, ti im B, ta s c tn hiu dc + audio. Mc dc s c chn bi C3, nn ch c tn hiu m tn a n iu chnh m lng cung cp n mch khuych i m tn tip theo. R2 v C4 lc b tt c cc mc tn hiu audio nh hay tn hiu IF a n im P, cho in p dc. Mc gn ca tn hiu IF bt k cn tn ti s c gim thm na bng mch lc khc bao gm R3 v C5. Do vy, ti im Q, ta s c in p dc dng. Mc in p dc ny c gi l in p t ng iu chnh khuych i (AGC). Chc nng ca in p AGC l iu khin h s khuych i ca mch khuych i RF, mch khuych i trn tn v mch khuych i IF bng cch cung cp mc in p dc dng a n cc emitter ca cc transistor npn cc mch khuych i, b sung mc in p dc thng thng do dng emitter ca transistor. in p dng thm vo trn emitter ca transistor npn s lm gim in p phn cc thun v do lm gim h s khuych i ca cc mch khuych i tng ng. Mc in p AGC ty thuc vo tn hiu sng mang IF, tc l ty thuc vo sng mang RF c trong sng tn hiu c tip nhn bi antenna thu. Nh vy, vic gim h s khuych i ty thuc vo cng ca sng mang. Sng mang mnh hn, s cho mc in p AGC ln hn v do s lm gim h s khuych i nhiu hn. Vic iu khin t ng h s khuych i ph thuc vo cng ca sng mang RF ca tn hiu vo s lm cho tn hiu ra gn nh khng i. - Cc sai hng mch tch sng bng diode v mch AGC Nu diode b ngn mch hoc b h mch, s khng c s chnh lu v khng c in p AGC. Nu t lc C1 b h mch, tn hiu ra s b gim. C1 hoc C2 b ngn mch hay R1 b h mch s lm cho tn hiu ra bng 0. H mch C3 s khng a tn hiu audio n mch khuych i audio v do mt tn hiu ra audio. T C3 b ngn mch s to cho in p dc a n mch khuych i audio thm vo mc in p audio, gy qu ti mch khuych i audio v do mo dng s tng ln. H mch R2 hay R3, hoc C4 hay C5 b ngn mch s lm cho mc in p AGC bng 0 v do h s khuych i ca cc tng RF v IF s cao, dn n mc tn hiu ra mo dng v khng ng u (m thanh lc to lc nh). Tn hiu vo qu mnh c th ct b bi transistor ca mch khuych i bng cch to ra mc in p AGC qu cao. Nu hng s thi gian ca mch AGC l cao, th mc in p ny s mt khong thi gian gim xung nn cc tn hiu yu s c chn khng thay i trc khi in p AGC cha tr nn bnh thng. Thng thng AGC s lm gim h s khuych i ca cc tng khuych i RF v IF i vi tt c cc

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tn hiu. Nh vy ngay c cc tn hiu yu s tr nn yu hn. gii quyt kh khn ny, s dng AGC c lm tr, ch lm vic i vi cc tn hiu mnh. AGC tr nhn c bng cch gi cho cathode ca diode mch AGC dng, sao cho diode s khng dn cho n khi anode l dng hn so vi cathode. Mc tn hiu ra khi khng c AGC v nh hng bng phng ca tn hiu ra bi AGC thng thng, AGC tr v AGC l tng c th hin hnh 5.37.

h) Cc mch khuych i m tn Mch khuych i in p m tn l mch khuych i ghp RC v mch khuych i cng sut m tn thng l mch khuych i y-ko. Mch m tn s bao gm mch iu khin m lng v cng c th gm mch iu khin m thp [bass] v mch iu khin m cao [treble]. Cc h hng ca cc mch khuych i m tn c gii thch chi tit mc 5.3.1. 5.4.8 MY THU N BIN - SSB S khi ca mt my thu SSB in hnh nh th hin hnh 5.38. Mt s tng l ging vi my thu song bin ( c gii thch mc 5.4.8), nh mch khuych i RF, LO, mch khuych i trn tn v khuych i IF th nht. Hin c cc my thu i tn hai ln c thm tng IF th hai. Tng IF th nht c tn s cao 1,8MHz v tng th hai c tn s thp 200kHz. Hai tng IF c u im l tng IF cao hn s cho trit tn hiu nh cao hn v tng IF tn s thp hn s cho chn lc tt hn. Nu mch dao ng tinh th, mch lc sng mang v mch khuych i b hng, th cc tn hiu SSB s mt.

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5.4.9 MY THU FM S khi ca my thu FM nh hnh 5.39.

Trong mch c hng loi cc tng IF dng to ra rng bng tn yu cu (200kHz) m bo h s khuych i thch hp. Cc tng IF u c b tr iu hng. Mch hn ch cn phi c loi b cc bin thin in p. B tch sng iu tn s cho tn hiu ra m tn. Mch chn s gi li tn hiu m tn m khng c tn hiu cao tn. Mch hu chnh s thc hin b ci thin t s tn hiu trn nhiu. 5.4.10 CC SAI HNG THNG THNG TRONG CC MY THU Mt s sai hng thng thng cc my thu qung b (thng gi l cc my thu transistor) cho bng 5.4, nh sau: Bng 5.4: Mt s sai hng cc my thu thanh qung b. Cc du hiu Cc sai hng c th xy ra v cch khc phc Thit b khng hot ng. Mt (i) Thit b mt in p ngun cung cp. Kim tra cu ch. Thc hin tn hiu (khng tp m v cc php o ngui, o nng, v sa cha h hng. (ii) Cun th cp khng c tn hiu ra ca ca loa c th t. Thay loa. chng trnh). C tp m nhng khng thu Tng LO b hng. Hy sa cha tng LO. Kim tra ghp ni gia c chng trnh pht ra. tng LO v tng trn. Antenna tt. Khng thu c chng trnh Kt ni t ca t iu hng chnh b t, hoc t iu hng b trn bng tn c chn. ngn mch, hoc u ni trung tm ca chuyn mch chn bng tn khng thc hin tip xc. Xc nh im hng bng php o in tr. Chng trnh khng thu c Hng mch iu hng lin quan trimmer c th b ngn mch. u ch mt bng tn c th. cc lin quan ca chuyn mch chuyn i bng tn khng tip xc. Xc nh h hng bng php o thng mch v sa cha h hng. Khi tn hiu vo c t my t dy dn sng antenna. Trong trng hp ny s khng c tp pht tn hiu tn hiu ra l m. o - kim tra kt ni dy dn sng [feeder]. bnh thng, nhng khng thu c i pht qung b. Ting [hum] vt qu cc Gn c th c a n cc base ca mch khuych i m tn to thu hot ng bng ngun ra ting . Kim tra cc t lc. in li. Ting cc my thu hot Mch m tn c th b trch dn ting t ng dy in li hay ng bng ngun pin. bin p v tr gn no . Khc phc li bng cch thay i v tr my thu loi b trch dn ting . Ting do tn hiu iu ch. Nu tn hiu vo ca tng trn trch dn ting th ting s iu ch tn hiu RF. Sa cha bng cch cch ly ngun gy .

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Mo dng tn ti do hi tip dng. Hy kim tra c h mch cc t gii ghp. Sa cha h hng. (i) gy ra bi vic gii ghp thiu do cc tn hiu tn s thp gy hi tip dng mch khuych i. (ii) T dao ng trong cc tng RF c th to ra AGC cao. Lm ngng RF hoc IF. Chu k ca cc tn hiu lp li t dao ng. Kim tra ngun gy lp bp bng k thut cch ly, v sa cha h hng. Mo phi tuyn hay mo hi. Mt in p AGC hay t mch hi tip m. Cc mch lm vic trong tnh trng qu ti. Kim tra cc mch vng kn bng k thut cch ly xc nh im hng v sa cha. Tn hiu ra c nhng yu. (i) Cn chnh sai. Cn chnh cc mch iu hng v sa cha vic hiu chnh sai. (ii) T r mch emitter b h mch. Kim tra t bng cch thay th. Quy trnh cc bc chn on h hng c h thng trong my thu radio c minh ha theo lu nh hnh 5.40. Tn hiu ra yu (t dao ng mch khuych i no ). m thanh lp bp (m thanh tn s thp trong khong t 16Hz n 25Hz).

Trong cc my thu thng tin, lu mt s sai hng c th c b sung di y cng vi cc phng php sa cha. 1. Khng thu c cc tn hiu in bo, mc d thu c chng trnh audio bnh thng. C th hng BFO. Kim tra BFO v cch ghp tn hiu BFO n tng IF. 2. Mch chn b kho, khng ct ngay c khi d chng trnh, lm mt tn hiu ra. Kim tra mch chn hoc mch AGC. Xc nh sai hng v sa cha sai hng. 3. Mt tn hiu tch sng SSB mc d tch sng i vi DSB l bnh thng. Kim tra mch ti to sng mang v mch gii iu ch cn bng, v kim tra mch so snh. Xc nh sai hng v sa cha. 4. nhy km ( cc my thu i tn kp). H s phm cht Q ca mch iu hng tng IF th hai suy gim, c th do qu ti bt thng c tng tch sng. 5. H s nhiu ca my thu km. Mc tp m ln. C th do h s khuych i ca tng khuych i RF b suy gim. Kim tra mch iu chnh h s khuych i. Transistor c th b hng. o th transistor v thay th nu cn.

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Trong cc my thu FM c th c mt s sai hng b sung sau. 1. trung thc cao b suy gim. Vic iu hng b sai lch cn phi iu chnh cho rng bng tn ln theo yu cu. 2. Mo nghim trng do cc m cao c khuych i qu nhiu. Hng mch chnh gim. 3. Mt tch sng. Mt trong s cc t u ra ca b tch pha c th b h mch hay ngn mch. T ni vi cun s cp v th cp ca bin p u vo b h mch. 4. Thu c tp m iu ch bin . Tng hn ch hng. Cc cu kin phn cc b h mch hay b ngn mch. 5. Mch chn [squelch] b kha. Tn hiu ra ca chng trnh pht thanh ngng. Kim tra mch squelch hoc mc in p AGC. 6. H s tp m thp. Kim tra h s khuych i ca mch khuych i cao tn. Thay th transistor nu cn. 5.4.11 CN CHNH V NG CHNH MY THU I TN Trong cc tng RF v IF cng nh dao ng ni, c hng lot cc mch iu hng cn phi c cn chnh thit lp vic d tm i pht i vi tn s c chn no gi theo s iu chnh cc t xoay ng vi tn s cn tm. Cc mch IF c iu chnh theo tn s trung gian c nh (455kHz i vi cc my thu qung b), cc mch RF iu chnh theo tn s tn hiu v mch LO iu chnh theo tn s bng tn s tn hiu + tn s IF. Vic duy tr chnh lch gia tn s LO v tn s tn hiu bng vi IF i vi tt c cc thit lp d i c gi l ng chnh [tracking]. Khi nim ng chnh nh th hin hnh 5.41. Trnh t cc bc cn chnh v ng chnh my thu thng tin v my thu qung b nh sau. 1. Ni my pht tn hiu n u vo ca my thu v mc ng h o cng sut m tn vo u ra ca my thu. Gi AGC trng thi ngt [off] v iu chnh m lng mc thun li nht. 2. Cung cp tn hiu IF (30% iu ch bi tn hiu m tn 400Hz) ti u vo ca tng trn. 3. iu chnh t xoay [trimmer] IF cui cng cho tn hiu ra ln nht. Nu c hai pha th cp v s cp u l cc mch iu hng, th iu chnh pha th cp trc v sau iu chnh pha s cp. Tip tc v pha sau, iu chnh cc trimmer trung tn (IFTs) ln lt cho mc tn hiu ra ln nht. Nu cn, gim tn hiu vo gi mc tn hiu mc 50mW i vi cc my thu thng tin v 500mW i vi cc my thu qung b. Khi tt c cc trimmer trung tn (IFT) c iu chnh, th hy kim tra li bt u t trimmer trung tn cui cng. 4. By gi cung cp tn hiu 1MHz ( c iu ch mc 400Hz) gia u antenna v im t. iu chnh my thu bng sng trung tn s 1MHz bng cch iu chnh d i c mc tn hiu ra ln nht nhn c ng h o cng sut m tn. iu chnh mc tn hiu ra n tr s chun (50mW hoc 500mW) bng cch iu chnh mc tn hiu ra ca my pht tn hiu). 5. iu chnh cc trimmer ca cc mch iu hng ca cc b khuych i RF dn dn, bt u t u vo ca tng trn v tip tc v pha sau n tng antenna, cho mc tn hiu ra ln nht theo mc tn hiu vo nh nht t my pht tn hiu. Trong sut qu trnh iu chnh ny, trimmer ca mch LO v t ng chnh l gi v tr chnh gia. (t ng chnh [padder] l mt t ln mc ni tip gia trimmer ca mch LO nh mch hnh 5.42). 6. Thit lp tn s 1500kHz my pht tn hiu v iu chnh my thu n tn s . Khng lm thay i vic iu chnh cc mch iu

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hng ca b khuych i RF, iu chnh mch dao ng ni. Ti pha tn s cao ca bng sng trung, t iu hng ca b dao ng ni s gn vi gi tr nh nht. Do vy t ng chnh s khng c tc dng. iu chnh trimmer cho mc tn hiu ra ln nht. 7. iu chnh my pht tn hiu cho 600kHz (pha tn s thp ca bng sng trung my thu). iu chnh my thu. mc tn s ny, t iu hng ca mch LO s c tr s ln nht. Lc ny t ng chnh [padder] s c tc dng v trimmer s khng nh hng. iu chnh t ng chnh cho tn hiu ra ln nht. 8. Lp li cc bc 6 v 7 iu chnh tinh hn. Lc ny thit b c ng chnh ng theo ba tn s v v vy sai lch ng chnh l nh nht. 5.4.12 O CC THNG S CA MY THU Cc my thu i tn s c nh gi bng cch o nhy, chn lc, t l trit nh v t s trit trung tn. Trnh t o cc thng s trn nh sau. a) Php o nhy [sensitivity] - nhy thun (i vi cc my thu AM) Thit lp php o nhy my thu nh hnh 5.43. ngten gi lp c s dng ti to ng-ten thc, tnh mc suy hao trong ng-ten khi s dng my thu.

My pht tn hiu thit lp mc tn s thch hp, v c iu ch ti tn s 400Hz ( iu ch 30%). iu chnh my thu thu tn hiu. iu khin m lng gi mc ln nht v ngt mch AGC. iu chnh mc tn hiu ra ca my pht tn hiu c mc ra tiu chun (50mW khng mo). Mc in p ra ca my pht tn hiu s cho gi tr o nhy thun ca my thu. i vi cc my thu qung b nhy vo khong 30 V, v 2 V i vi cc my thu thng tin cp cao. - nhy i vi t s tn hiu trn tp m l 20dB (cho cc my thu AM) Thay cho php o nhy thun, l php o nhy theo t s tn hiu trn tp m mc 20dB. Mc tp m c trn ng h mc u ra khi khng iu ch, v tip theo t tn hiu c iu ch v cc mc ca n ti u ra ca my to tn hiu s c iu chnh c 20dB tng ln trn mc ra tp m ca my thu. y l mc ra mi ca my pht tn hiu s cho nhy i vi t s tn hiu trn tp m. nhy ny l hu ch hn so vi nhy thun trong cc php o tn hiu RF nh nht yu cu bi my thu thc hin ch mt chng trnh tai ngi c th nghe r m khng c nhiu. - nhy tnh (cho cc my thu FM) Khi a tn hiu cha c iu ch n my thu FM thng qua mt ng-ten gi lp, th tp m tn hiu ra ca my thu s c gim xung trong khi mc tn hi u vo RF tng ln. nhy tnh l c xc nh theo mc tn hiu vo RF s suy gim 20dB mc ra tp m ca my thu. nhy tnh c o bng cch gi mc ra tp m ti mc 1V hay 0,1V nh iu chnh volume khi khng c tn hiu RF v tip theo o nhy tnh sau khi p t tn hiu RF cha c iu ch, iu chnh mc RF cho n khi mc ra tp m thp hn 20dB. - nhy SINAD (i vi cc my thu FM) Thut ng SINAD c ngha l tn hiu cng tp m cng mo. Trong cc my thu FM, vic thu hiu qu s trit tp m khi tn hiu mnh hn tp m 3dB. Tuy nhin, mo dng c trong tn hiu khng c kh. Do nhy SINAD l hu ch hn, v s c o nh sau. Tn hiu ra ca my pht tn hiu RF gi mc 1mV. Cng sut ra khi c o bi my phn tch mo s c duy tr ti gi tr nh mc vo khong 5W bng cch iu chnh m lng. Gim cng sut n mc m lng 50% (tc vo khong 2,5W) bng cch gim tn hiu ra ca my pht tn hiu (khng thay i iu chnh m lng). Tip theo, tn s m tn c bn s c lc my phn tch mo dng v tp m cn li cng vi mo dng l c ghi nhn. Sau gim tn hiu ra ca my pht tn hiu n mc gim 12dB gi tr tp m cng vi mo dng. Mc ra ca my pht tn hiu iu kin o s cho nhy SINAD 12dB.

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b) chn lc [Selectivity] l mc tn hiu nh nht cn thit c mc tn hiu ra chun th hin ti tn s m thit b c iu hng. Sau thay i tn s ca tn hiu t tn s cng hng trung tm v tn s ca tn hiu ra ca my to tn hiu s c tng dn gi tn hiu ra ca my thu nh khi my thu c t tn s trung tm. c tuyn th hin hnh 5.44, nhn c t c tuyn rng bng tn. c) loi tr tn s nh nhy c th hin i vi tn s yu cu v i vi tn s nh, khi gi my thu iu hng n ch vi tn s yu cu. Tn hiu ra ln hn ca my to tn hiu cn phi c i vi tn s nh. T s gia hai tn hiu ra ca my to tn hiu i vi cng tn hiu ra my thu s cho loi tr tn s nh, c th tnh theo dB. d) T s kh trung tn (IF) My thu s c iu hng knh yu cu t my to tn hiu v ghi nhn mc ch th ca chn lc tuyt i. Tip theo iu chnh my to tn hiu n tn s trung tn quy nh m khng nhiu lon tn s my thu. Tng dn tn hiu t u ra ca my to tn hiu c tn hiu ra chun my thu. T s ca hai s ch th ca my to tn hiu pht ra s cho t s kh IF thng c biu hin theo dB. Tm li, tn hiu bng gc c th c truyn vi khong cch xa nh sng mang tn s cao (RF) v ng-ten bc x. Sng mang c iu ch bi tn hiu bng gc. S iu ch c th l iu ch bin (DSB hay SSB) hoc iu ch tn s. pha thu, ng-ten cm ng sng in-t truyn trong khng gian truyn tn hiu n my thu radio s dng nguyn l i tn ci thin nhy. Tn hiu iu ch RF s c bin i thnh tn hiu tn s trung tn (IF) bng qu trnh i tn s dng tng trn tn v mch iu hng IF. Tn hiu trung tn s c khuych i v cung cp n mch tch sng khi phc tn hiu bng gc trc khi iu ch. Cc kiu tch sng khc nhau s c s dng cho cc kiu iu ch khc nhau (DSB, SSB, FM). Tn hiu sau tch sng s c khuych i hoc bin i thnh thng tin ban u. Bn cnh cc cu kin in t b h mch, ngn mch hoc r, cc sai hng thng thng khc c cc h thng thng tin radio l cc trimmer hay li b sai lch dn n iu hng sai hay cn chnh sai. Thc hin cn chnh my thu nh my to tn hiu. o cc thng s my thu nh nhy, chn lc, t s loi b tn s nh v t s loi b tn hiu trung tn (IF) cn phi c my to tn hiu s dng iu ch 30% tn s m tn 400Hz i vi AM v tn s 22,5kHz i vi FM.

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TI LIU THAM KHO

[1] R G Gupta. Electronic Instruments and Systems, Tata McGraw-Hill Company Limited, 2001. [2] V Qu im. o lng in t, KHKT, 2002. [3] Phm Thng Hn (ch bin). K thut o lng cc i lng vt l. NXB Gio dc,1997. [4] S K Singh. Industrial Instrumentation and Control. Tata McGraw-Hill Company Limited, 2003. [5] Clyde F. Coombs. Jr. Electronic Instrument Handbook. McGraw-Hill, Inc. 1995.
[6] Joseph J. Carr. Elements of Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement, Prentice Hall Inc, 1996.