TRNG AI HOC A LAT

F7G

GIAO TRNH

AI SO AI CNG

O NGUYEN SN

2000

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MUC LUC
muc luc ..........................................................................................................................2
CHNG 1: AI CNG VE CAU TRUC AI SO ................................................7
1. Tap hp - Anh xa - Quan he..................................................................................7
1.1 Tap hp. ...........................................................................................................7
1.2 Anh xa ..............................................................................................................8
f ( A B) = f ( A) f ( B)
....................................................................8
A, B X
f ( A B) f ( A) f ( B)

f 1 (U V ) = f 1 (U ) f 1 (V )
U, V Y 1
.........................................................9
f (U V ) = f 1 (U ) f 1 (V )
1.3 Tap hu han - vo han - em c....................................................................9
1.4 Quan he hai ngoi. ...........................................................................................9
1.5 Quan he tng ng. ...................................................................................10
1.6 Menh e.........................................................................................................11
1.7 Quan he th t ...............................................................................................12
2. Cau truc ai so .....................................................................................................13
2.1 Phep toan ai so .............................................................................................13
2.2 Cac tnh chat cua phep toan ai so...............................................................14
2.3 Cac phan t ac biet......................................................................................15
2.4 Cau truc ai so...............................................................................................15
2.5 Cac cau truc ai so c ban .............................................................................16
BAI TAP ......................................................................................................................18
CHNG 2: SO HOC TREN 9..............................................................................21
1. So t nhien ...........................................................................................................21
1.1 Xay dng so t nhien .....................................................................................21
1.2 Phep cong tren ...........................................................................................21
1.3 nh l.............................................................................................................22
1.4 Phep nhan tren ...........................................................................................23
1.5 nh l..............................................................................................................23
1.6 Quan he th t tren tap hp so t nhien .......................................................23
1.7 nh l: ............................................................................................................23
2. Vanh so nguyen ...................................................................................................24
2.1 Xay dng tap so nguyen ................................................................................24
2.2 Phep cong ......................................................................................................25
2.3 Phep nhan .....................................................................................................25
2.4 nh l.............................................................................................................26
2.5 Quan he th t tren 9....................................................................................27
3. S chia het tren tap so nguyen ...........................................................................27
3.1 nh ngha.......................................................................................................27
3.2 Tnh chat ( a, b, c, d la cac so nguyen) ........................................................27
3.3 nh l ( phep chia Euclide) ..........................................................................28
3.4 c chung ln nhat (CLN) .........................................................................28
3.5 nh l ............................................................................................................28
3.6 He qua...........................................................................................................29

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3.7 nh l ............................................................................................................29
3.8 nh l..............................................................................................................30
3.9 Thuat toan tm CLN cua hai so.................................................................30
4. So nguyen to cung nhau. ....................................................................................30
4.1 nh ngha.......................................................................................................30
4.2 nh l (Bezout) ..............................................................................................31
4.3 nh l (Gauss)...............................................................................................31
4.4 nh l.............................................................................................................31
5 Boi chung nho nhat (BCNN) ...............................................................................32
5.1 nh ngha :.....................................................................................................32
5.2 Menh e.........................................................................................................32
5.3 Menh e..........................................................................................................33
6. So nguyen to .......................................................................................................33
6.1 nh ngha......................................................................................................33
6.2 nh l..............................................................................................................33
6.3 nh l..............................................................................................................33
6.4 nh l.............................................................................................................34
6.5 nh l .............................................................................................................34
6.6 nh l.............................................................................................................34
6.7 Sang Eratosthene...........................................................................................34
6.8 nh l ( c ban cua so hoc) ..........................................................................35
6.9 Dang phan tch chnh tac...............................................................................36
6.10 nh l...........................................................................................................36
6.11 Cach tm CLN va BCNN........................................................................36
7 ong d .................................................................................................................37
7.1 nh ngha......................................................................................................37
7.2 Lp ong d ..................................................................................................37
7.3 Tnh chat ........................................................................................................38
BAI TAP ......................................................................................................................39
CHNG 3: NHOM ...................................................................................................42
1 Na nhom - V nhom ............................................................................................42
1.1 nh ngha.......................................................................................................42
1.2 Tch cua n phan t trong na nhom ..............................................................42
1.3 nh l..............................................................................................................42
1.4 nh l..............................................................................................................43
2 Nhom .....................................................................................................................44
2.1 nh ngha.......................................................................................................44
2.2 Cac tnh chat c ban cua nhom .....................................................................45
3. Nhom con ............................................................................................................47
3.1 nh ngha......................................................................................................47
3.2 nh l (tieu chuan e nhan biet mot nhom con) ..........................................47
3.3 Nhom con sinh bi mot tap con cua nhom ...................................................48
4. Nhom con chuan tac - Nhom thng..................................................................49
4.1 Lp ke - Quan he tng ng xac nh bi mot nhom con .......................49
4.2 Menh e.........................................................................................................50

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4.3 nh l (Lagrange) .........................................................................................51

4.4 Nhom con chuan tac ......................................................................................51
4.5 Nhom thng .................................................................................................52
5. ong cau nhom ....................................................................................................54
5.1 nh ngha.......................................................................................................54
5.2 Anh va nhan cua ong cau ...........................................................................55
5.3 Cac tnh chat cua ong cau nhom .................................................................55
5.4 nh l ( c ban cua ong cau nhom).............................................................57
5.5 He qua.............................................................................................................58
6. Nhom cyclic .........................................................................................................58
6.1 nh ngha.......................................................................................................58
6.2 Cap cua mot phan t trong nhom .................................................................58
6.3 nh l ( phan loai nhom tuan hoan)..............................................................59
7. Tac ong cua mot nhom len mot tap hp ...........................................................59
7.1 nh ngha:......................................................................................................59
7.2 Nhom con on nh cua mot phan t ..............................................................60
7.3 Quy ao cua mot phan t ..............................................................................60
8. Nhom oi xng ....................................................................................................60
8.1 nh ngha.......................................................................................................60
8.2 nh l (Ceyley) ..............................................................................................61
8.3 Nhom oi xng Sn..........................................................................................61
8.4 r - chu trnh....................................................................................................61
8.5 Tnh chat .........................................................................................................62
8.6 nh l.............................................................................................................62
8.7 nh li .............................................................................................................62
8.8 He qua.............................................................................................................63
BAI TAP ......................................................................................................................65
CHNG 4: VANH VA TRNG..........................................................................70
1. Vanh va trng ....................................................................................................70
1.1 nh ngha......................................................................................................70
1.2 Cac tnh chat .................................................................................................71
2. Vanh con Trng con........................................................................................72
2.1 nh ngha.......................................................................................................72
2.2 nh l (tieu chuan nhan biet mot vanh con).................................................73
2.3 nh l (tieu chuan nhan biet mot trng con) ............................................73
3. Ideal - Vanh thng .............................................................................................74
3.1 nh ngha.......................................................................................................74
3. 2 Ideal chnh.....................................................................................................75
3. 3 Vanh thng..................................................................................................75
4. ong cau vanh .....................................................................................................76
4.1 nh ngha.......................................................................................................76
4.2 Cac tnh chat cua ong cau vanh...................................................................77
4.3 nh l ( c ban cua ong cau vanh).............................................................78
4.4 He qua............................................................................................................78
4.5 ac so cua vanh .............................................................................................78

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5. Cac nh l nhung ang cau .................................................................................78

5.1 nh l (nhung ang cau mot v nhom)..........................................................78
5.2 nh l ( nhung ang cau mot vanh nguyen).................................................80
6. So hoc tren vanh nguyen - Vanh chnh - Vanh Euclide - Vanh Gauss ............82
6.1 Cac nh ngha ................................................................................................82
6.2 Cac tnh chat .................................................................................................83
6.3 Vanh chnh .....................................................................................................84
6.4 nh l .............................................................................................................84
6.5 nh l..............................................................................................................85
6.6 Vanh Euclide ................................................................................................86
6.7 nh l..............................................................................................................86
6.8 Thuat toan tm CLN....................................................................................86
6.9 Vanh Gauss (Vanh nhan t hoa)...................................................................87
6.10 nh l............................................................................................................88
6.11 nh l............................................................................................................89
BAI TAP ......................................................................................................................91
CHNG 5: VANH A THC .............................................................................96
1 Vanh a thc mot bien .........................................................................................96
1.1 nh ngha......................................................................................................96
1.2 nh l.............................................................................................................97
1.3 nh l..............................................................................................................97
1.4 nh l..............................................................................................................98
1.5 Khong iem cua a thc ...............................................................................99
1.6 nh l............................................................................................................100
1.7 Cap cua khong iem ..................................................................................100
1.8 nh l............................................................................................................100
1.9 nh l............................................................................................................100
1.10 nh l..........................................................................................................101
1.11 Ham a thc ................................................................................................101
1.12 nh l..........................................................................................................102
1.13 nh l.........................................................................................................103
2. Vanh a thc nhieu bien ...................................................................................104
2.1 nh ngha.....................................................................................................104
2.2 Cach sap xep a thc theo loi t ien .......................................................105
2.3 nh l...........................................................................................................105
2.4 a thc oi xng ........................................................................................106
2.5 nh l...........................................................................................................106
2.6 nh l...........................................................................................................107
3. Cac a thc tren trng so ................................................................................108
3.1 nh l (d' Alermbert) ...................................................................................108
3.2 nh l............................................................................................................108
3.3 nh l ( tieu chuan Eisenstein) ..................................................................109
BAI TAP ....................................................................................................................110
PHU LUC ..................................................................................................................112
1. Trng so thc ..................................................................................................112

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1.1 Lat cat hu t................................................................................................112

1.2 Cac quan he tren 3 .......................................................................................112
1.3 Phep cong .....................................................................................................113
1.4 Phep nhan .....................................................................................................113
2. Trng so phc ..................................................................................................113
2.1 Xay dng so phc .........................................................................................113
2.2 nh l (d' Alermbert) ...................................................................................115

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CHNG 1:
AI CNG VE CAU TRUC AI SO
1. Tap hp - Anh xa - Quan he.
1.1 Tap hp.
Tap hp la mot khai niem ban au. Tap hp c mo ta nh mot toan the nao
o bao gom nhng oi tng nao o co cung mot dau hieu hay mot tnh chat nhat
nh. Cac oi tng lap nen tap hp goi la phan t. Ta thng k hieu cac tap hp
bang cac ch cai A, B, X, Y.... con cac phan t cua chung bang cac ch cai nho a,
b, x, y Co hai cach e xac nh mot tap hp, mot la liet ke ra tat ca cac phan t
cua no, A = {a1 ,a2 ,an }; hai la mieu ta ac tnh cac phan t tao nen tap hp,
X = {x : x co tnh chat E }. Neu a la phan t cua tap hp A th ta viet a A. Neu
a khong la phan t cua tap hp A th ta viet a A. Tap hp khong cha mot phan t
nao c goi la tap hp rong va k hieu la .
V du, cac tap hp so ma ta a quen biet : tap cac so t nhien (khong co so 0)
= {1, 2, 3, , n,}; tap so t nhien (vi so 0), 0 = {0,1, 2, , n,}; tap cac so
: m 9, n }; tap
nguyen 9 = {0, 1, 2,, n,}; tap cac so hu t = { m
n

cac so thc 3; tap cac so phc = {a + bi : a,b 3}.

Neu moi phan t cua tap hp A eu la cac phan t cua tap hp B th ta noi A nam
trong B, hay B cha A, hay A la tap con cua B , va k hieu la A B hoac B A.
Hp cua hai tap hp A va B la mot tap hp gom tat ca cac phan t thuoc t nhat
mot trong cac tap hp a cho. Hp cua hai tap hp c k hieu la A B. Hp cua
ho cac tap hp {A } la mot tap hp B gom tat ca cac phan t thuoc t nhat mot
trong cac tap hp A va c k hieu la B = A

[0, 1

V DU:

n =1

1
n

] = [0, 1)

Giao cua hai tap hp A va B la mot tap hp gom tat ca cac phan t ong thi
thuoc tap hp A va tap hp B. Giao cua hai tap hp c k hieu la A B.
Giao cua ho cac tap hp {A } la mot tap hp B gom tat ca cac phan t ong
thi thuoc vao moi tap hp A va c k hieu la B = A .

V DU:

n =1

1
n

, n1 ] = {0}

Hp va giao cac tap hp co cac tnh chat

1) A B = B A
2) A (B C) = (A B) C

o Nguyen Sn

A B = B A
(Giao hoan)
A (B C) = (A B) C (Ket hp)

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3) A ( A ) = (A A )

A ( A ) = (A A )

(Phan phoi)

Hieu cua hai tap hp A va B la mot tap hp gom tat ca cac phan t cua tap hp
A ma khong phai la phan t cua tap hp B. Hieu cua hai tap hp c k hieu la A
\ B hay A B
Hieu oi xng cua hai tap hp A va B la tap hp (A B) (B A). Hieu oi
xng cua hai tap hp c k hieu la A B. Ro rang rang A B = B A.
Tch trc tiep hay tch Descartes cua hai tap hp A va B la mot tap hp gom
moi cap (x,y) ay x A va y B, va c k hieu la A B.
Tch Descartes cua ho cac tap hp {A } .I la mot tap hp gom cac ho
(a ) .I , vi a A vi moi I, va c k hieu la A .
I

Neu B la tap con cua tap hp A th A B c goi la phan bu cua tap hp B oi

vi tap hp A va c k hieu la C A B. oi vi phan bu ta co luat oi ngau
C( A ) = ( CA ) C( A ) = ( CA ).

1.2 Anh xa
Cho hai tap hp X va Y. Mot anh xa t X vao Y la mot qui luat f nao o cho
tng ng mot phan t x X vi duy nhat mot phan t y Y . X c goi la tap
nguon hay mien xac nh con Y la tap ch hay mien gia tr. Phan t y c goi la
anh cua x, con x c goi la tao anh cua y qua anh xa f, khi o ta viet y = f(x). e
ch mot anh xa t X vao Y thng dung k hieu
f : X Y, x a y = f(x)
Cho anh xa f : X Y va U, V lan lt la cac tap con cua X va Y. Tap hp f
(U) = {f(x) : x U} c goi la anh cua tap hp U qua anh xa f, con tap hp f
1
(V) = {x X : f(x) V } c goi la nghch anh cua tap hp V.
Anh xa f U :U Y, xac nh bi f U (x) = f(x) vi moi x U, c goi la han
che cua anh xa f tren U. Anh xa idX : X X, idX(x) = x, c goi la anh xa
ong nhat tren X.
Ta co cac tnh chat sau

f (A B) = f (A) f (B)
f (A B) f (A) f (B)

A, B X

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f 1 (U V) = f 1 (U) f 1 ( V)
U, V Y 1
1
1
f (U V) = f (U) f ( V)
CHU Y : ang thc f(A B) = f(A) f(B) noi chung khong ung. Chang han,
], B = [ 2 , 3
].
xet anh xa f : 3 3 , f(x) = sinx; va A = [0, 3
4
2
Hai anh xa f1 : X1 Y1 va f2 : X2 Y2 c goi la bang nhau neu X1 = X2 va
f1(x) = f2(x) vi moi x X1, khi o ta viet f1 = f2.
Cho hai anh xa f : X Y va g : Y Z . Hp cua f vi g, ky hieu la gof, la anh
xa t X vao Z, c xac nh bi (gof)(x) = g(f(x)). Neu h : Z T la mot anh xa
khac th ta co ho(gof) = (hog)o f.
Anh xa f : X Y c goi la n anh neu anh cua hai phan t khac nhau trong
X la hai phan t khac nhau trong Y. Anh xa f c goi la toan anh neu f(X) = Y,
tc la oi vi moi phan t y Y ton tai mot phan t x X sao cho y = f(x). Mot
anh xa va n anh va toan anh c goi la song anh.
Neu f : X Y la mot song anh th oi vi moi y thuoc Y co duy nhat mot x
thuoc X sao cho y = f(x). ieu nay cho phep xac nh mot anh xa f 1 t Y vao
X vi f 1(y) := x neu f(x) = y. Anh xa f 1 c goi la anh xa ngc cua anh
xa f. Hien nhien rang f1o f = idX va f o f1 = idY. Ta cung co the de kiem
tra rang, neu f : X Y, g : Y Z la cac song anh th f 1 : Y X, (g o f) : X
Z cung la cac song anh va (g o f)1 = f 1 o g1.

1.3 Tap hu han - vo han - em c

Neu co mot song anh f : X Y t tap hp X vao tap hp Y th ta noi X va Y co
cung lc lng. Tap hp X goi la em c neu no cung lc lng vi tap hp cac
so t nhien . Noi cach khac, tap hp em c la tap hp ma cac phan t cua no
co the anh so thanh day vo han x1, x2, , xn,. Mot tap hp X goi la hu han
neu no cung lc lng vi tap hp {n :1 n ko } (vi ko la mot so t nhien nao
o). Tap hp khong hu han goi la vo han.
V DU:Tap hp cac so nguyen co cung lc lng vi tap so t nhien v ta co song
anh f : 9 , c xac nh bi f(n) = 2n +1 neu n 0, va f(n) = 2 n

neu n <

0.

1.4 Quan he hai ngoi.

Quan he (hai ngoi) tren tap X la mot tap con R cua X X. Neu cap phan t (x,
y) R th ta noi x co quan he R vi y, va viet x R y.
Mot quan he R tren tap X c goi la co tnh chat

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1) phan xa
neu
2) oi xng
neu
3) phan xng neu

x R x, x X
x R y y R x.
x R y va y R x x = y.

4) bac cau

x R y va y R z x R z.

neu

V DU:
a) Quan he be hn '' '' thong thng tren tap la phan xa, khong oi xng,
phan xng, bac cau.
b) Quan he vuong goc trong tap hp cac ng thang cua mat phang la oi
xng, khong phan xa, khong phan xng, khong bac cau.

1.5 Quan he tng ng.

Quan he R tren tap X c goi la quan he tng ng neu no co cac tnh chat:
phan xa, oi xng va bac cau. Ngi ta thng k hieu quan he tng ng R
bang dau '' ~ '' va oc '' a ~ b'' la a tng ng vi b.

Cho R la mot quan he tng ng tren X. oi vi moi x thuoc X, tap hp con

{ y X : x R y } cua X c goi la mot lp tng ng cua x (modulo R)

va c k hieu la [x] R , hoac [x], hoac x , hoac x . Moi phan t cua [x] R c goi
la mot ai dien cua [x] R .
Tap hp X R := { [x] : x X } c goi la tap thng cua X oi vi quan he
tng ng R . Anh xa : X X R , (x) = [x], la mot toan anh va c goi
la toan cau chnh tac.
V DU:
a) Quan he bang nhau trong mot tap hp bat k X la mot quan he tng
ng. Vi moi x thuoc X, ta co [x] = {x} va X R = {{x}, x X}.
b) Vi moi n , quan he ong d modulo n tren 9, k hieu x y(mod n)
va oc la '' x la ong d vi y modulo n '', c xac nh bi:
x y(mod n) x y chia het cho n
la mot quan he tng ng. Lp tng ng cua x c goi la lp ong d
modulo n cua x , va thng c k hieu la x = {x + kn, k 9 }.
Mot ho P = {X } I cac tap con cua X goi la mot phan lp (hay phan hoach)

cua X neu

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1)

X , I.

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= X
I

2)

3)

X X

X = X .

1.6 Menh e
a) Neu R la mot quan he tng ng trong X th tap thng X R la mot
phan lp cua X.
b) Neu P = {X } I la mot phan lp cua X th R(P) = {(x,y) X X : ton

tai X P e x, y X } la mot quan he tng ng tren X, va P = X R ( P ) .

Chng minh:
a) Gia s R la mot quan he tng ng trong X.
V neu x thuoc X th x thuoc [x] nen [x] va X = [x].
xX

Neu [x] [y] , tc la ton tai z [x] [y]. Khi o zRx va zRy. V vay xRy (do
tnh oi xng va bac cau cua R). T o, [x]= [y].
b) Gia s P = {X } I la mot phan lp cua X va R(P) la quan he tren X
xac nh bi : x R(P) y X P, x, y X .

Tnh phan xa va tnh oi xng cua R(P) la ro rang. Gia s x, y, z X sao cho x
R(P) y va y R(P) z. Khi o ton tai X va X sao cho x, y X va y, z X .
Nh vay, X X va do P la phan lp cua X nen X = X . T o, x, z
thuoc X = X , tc la x R(P) z. ieu nay suy ra tnh bac cau cua R(P).

Ta co nhan xet rang, neu x X th [x] R ( P ) = X . That vay, neu lay bat k y
thuoc [x] R ( P ) th y R(P) x nen ton tai X P sao cho y, x X . Nhng khi o, v
X va X co chung phan t x nen trung nhau; tc la y cung la phan t cua X ,

ieu nay suy ra [x] R ( P ) X . Ngc lai, neu lay bat k y thuoc X th do x cung
thuoc X nen x R(P) y, tc la y [x] R ( P ) . T o, X [x] R ( P ) .
Nhan xet tren suy ra phan con lai cua menh e.

NHAN XET :
a) Neu R la mot quan he tng ng trong X, th vi moi x, y thuoc X ta co
x R y [x] = [y] x [y] y [x]
b) Menh e 1.6 cho thay mot s tng ng 1 1 gia tap cac quan he tng ng
tren X va tap cac phan hoach cua X.

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1.7 Quan he th t
Quan he 2 ngoi R tren tap X c goi la quan he th t khong chat neu no co
cac tnh chat phan xa, phan xng va bac cau, va c goi la quan he th t
chat neu no ch co cac tnh phan xng va bac cau .
Cho R la quan he th t tren X. Hai phan t a, b X c goi la so sanh c
oi vi R neu luon luon co a R b hoac b R a. Mot quan he th t R tren X goi la
quan he th t toan phan neu moi cap phan t khac nhau cua X eu so sanh
c, con trai lai th c goi la quan he th t bo phan.
V DU:
a) Quan he be hn
toan phan.

thong thng trong 3 la mot quan he th t khong chat,

b) Quan he chia het trong , c k hieu la a b va oc la a chia het b, la

mot quan he th t khong chat, bo phan.
c) Quan he bao ham trong tap cac tap con cua X la mot quan he th t bo phan.
Neu R la mot quan he th t trong X th ta thng k hieu R bang dau va oc
'' a b '' la '' a be hn b''. Ta xem k hieu b a la ong ngha vi a b va oc la
'' b ln hn a ''.
Tap hp X c goi la c sap th t ( hay c sap) (chat, khong chat, bo
phan, toan phan) neu trong no co xac nh mot quan he th t (chat, khong chat, bo
phan, toan phan) , va viet (X, ).
Gia s (X, ) la mot tap c sap. Phan t a X goi la phan t cc tieu
(tng ng: cc ai ) cua X khi va ch khi neu co quan he x a (tng ng: x
a ) th keo theo x = a . Phan t a X goi la phan t be nhat ( tng ng: phan
t ln nhat ) cua X khi va ch khi a x ( a x) vi moi x X.
NHAN XET:
a) Neu tap c sap (X, ) co phan t be nhat ( phan t ln nhat ) a th a la phan
t be nhat (tng ng: ln nhat ) duy nhat. That vay, gia s con co b la phan t be
nhat th ta suy ra a b va b a, t o, do tnh phan xa, a = b.
b) Mot bo phan A cua tap c sap (X, ) co the co hoac khong co phan t
ln nhat hoac be nhat. Chang han trong (3 , ), tap 0 co phan t be nhat la 0,
nhng khong co phan t ln nhat.
c) Mot bo phan A cua tap c sap (X, ) co the khong co phan t cc ai,
cc tieu hoac co mot, hoac co nhieu. Chang han: Trong (3 , ) bo phan 0 khong
co phan t cc ai, oan [0, 1] co mot phan t cc ai va ch mot, o la 1 o cung

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la phan t ln nhat cua [0,1]; trong ( {1}, ) co vo so phan t cc tieu, o la

cac so nguyen to.
d) Neu (X, ) c sap th t toan phan th X co nhieu nhat mot phan t cc ai,
o cung la phan t ln nhat cua X. That vay, neu a la phan t cc ai cua X. Lay
bat k x thuoc X , v la quan he th t toan phan nen ta co x a hoac a x.
Trong trng hp a x, v a la cc ai nen suy ra a = x. Vay, ta luon co x a vi
moi x X, tc la a la phan t ln nhat.
Ta noi mot tap hp X la sap th t tot neu no la sap th t va moi bo phan khac
rong cua X co mot phan t be nhat. Chang han, (, ) la tap c sap tot.

2. Cau truc ai so
2.1 Phep toan ai so
Cho X va Y la hai tap khac . Phep toan trong ( hay luat hp thanh trong)
tren X la mot anh xa F : X x X X. Phep toan ngoai(hay luat hp thanh
ngoai) tren X vi tap toan t Y la anh xa G : Y x X X. Phan t F(x,y),
G(x,y) c goi la cai hp thanh cua x va y.
Ngi ta thng viet cai hp thanh cua x va y bang cach viet x va y theo mot th
t nhat nh vi mot dau ac trng cho phep toan at gia x va y. Chang han,
F(x,y) = x + y, F(x,y) = x.y, F(x,y) = x* y, F(x,y) = x y, . Phep toan trong k hieu
bang dau + c goi la phep cong, cai hp thanh x + y luc nay c goi la tong
cua x va y. Phep toan trong k hieu bang dau c goi la phep nhan, cai hp
thanh x y (oi khi cung c viet xy) luc nay c goi la tch cua x va y.
V DU:
a) Tren 9 cac anh xa (x,y) a xy; (x,y) a x + y ( phep nhan va cong thong
thng) la cac phep toan trong. Anh xa (x,y) a x * y = 2x + 6xy + 5y cung la phep
toan trong tren 9. Tuy nhien anh xa (x,y) a xy khong phai la phep toan tren 9, v
noi chung xy khong thuoc 9.
b) Tren P(X) = {A : A X }, cac anh xa (A, B) a A B, (A, B) a A B
la cac phep toan trong.
c) Tren tap M(X) = {f : X X}, cac anh xa t X vao X, anh xa (f, g) a f o g
la phep toan trong
d) oi vi moi so thc x va so t nhien n, cac anh xa (n, x) a nx, (n,x) a xn la cac
phep toan ngoai tren 3 vi tap toan t .

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Mot phep toan * tren mot tap hu han X = {x1, x2, , xn} thng c cho bang
cach trnh bay di dang mot bang. Trong bang , ngi ta viet cac phan t cua X
ben tren va ben trai cua bang, dau * cua phep toan c at goc trai pha tren.
Trong phan giao cua hang th i va cot th j, ngi ta viet cai hp thanh xi * xj.

x1
:
xi
:

x1
x 1* x 1
:
x i* x 1
:

xn

x n* x 1 ... x n* x j ... x n* x n

...
xj
... x 1* x j
:
:
... x i* x j
:
:

...
xn
... x 1* x n
:
:
... x i* x n
:
:

2.2 Cac tnh chat cua phep toan ai so

Mot phep toan * tren tap X co the thoa man mot so trong cac tnh chat sau ay:
Tnh ket hp :
Tnh giao hoan :

(a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
a*b = b*a

vi moi a, b, c X
vi moi a, b X

Tnh phan phoi : Gia s la mot phep toan khac tren X. Khi o phep
toan * c goi la
a) phan phoi trai oi vi neu a * (b c) = a * b a * c, a, b, c X
b) phan phoi phai oi vi neu (b c) * a = b * a c * a, a, b, c X
c) phan phoi oi vi phep toan neu no phan phoi trai lan phan phoi phai.
Thoa luat gian c : Phep toan

c goi la thoa man

a) luat gian c trai neu vi moi a, b, c X, t a * b = a * c keo theo b = c

b) luat gian c phai neu vi moi a, b, c X, t b * a = c * a keo theo b = c
c) luat gian c neu no thoa luat gian c trai lan luat gian c phai.
V DU:
1) Trong tap cac so t nhien , phep cong va phep nhan thong thng co tinh
ket hp, giao hoan, phep nhan phan phoi oi vi phep cong; phep toan mu hoa (m,
2
n) a mn khong giao hoan ( 21 12), khong ket hp ( (21)2 2 (1 ) ).

2) Trong tap hp cac anh xa t X vao X, phep toan hp g o f co tnh ket hp,
khong giao hoan ( neu X co nhieu hn mot phan t )

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2.3 Cac phan t ac biet

Cho tap hp X va tren o co mot phep toan * .
Phan t e X c goi la
phan t n v trai oi vi phep toan * neu e * a = a, vi moi a X.
phan t n v phai oi vi phep toan * neu a * e = a, vi moi a X.
phan t n v oi vi phep toan * neu e * a = a * e = a, vi moi a X.
Gia s e la phan t n v oi vi phep toan * tren X. Phan t a' X c goi
la
nghch ao trai cua x X neu a' * a = e
nghch ao phai cua x X neu a * a' = e
neu a' * a = a * a' = e
nghch ao cua x X
CHU Y:
1) Neu oi vi phep toan * tren X co phan t n v trai e' va phan t n v phai
e'' th e' = e''. ieu nay suy ra t e' = e'* e'' = e'' ( ang thc th nhat do e'' la n
v phai, ang thc th hai do e' la n v trai).
T ieu tren suy ra ngay lap tc rang, oi vi mot phep toan trong co nhieu nhat la
mot phan t n v.
3) Phan t n v oi vi phep cong thng c k hieu bang 0, va phan t
nghch ao cua x c k hieu la x.
Phan t n v oi vi phep nhan thng c k hieu bang 1, va phan t nghch
ao cua x c k hieu la x1.
V DU:
1) Trong tap P(X) cac tap con cua X, phan t n v cua phep toan la e = ,
phan t n v cua phep toan la e = X.
2) Trong 9, phan t n v cua phep toan cong thong thng la so 0, phan t
n v cua phep toan nhan thong thng la so 1.
3) oi vi phep toan hp tren tap cac anh xa t X vao X, phan t n v la
anh xa ong nhat idX.

2.4 Cau truc ai so

Mot bo (X, T1, T2, ...,Tn ; Y1, 1, Y2, 2, ..., Ym, m ) bao gom tap hp X khac
, cac phep toan trong Ti tren X ( 1 i n), cac phep toan ngoai j tren X vi
tap toan t Yj ( 1 j m ) c goi la mot cau truc ai so.

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Gia s (X, T1, T2, ...,Tn ; Y1, 1, Y2, 2, ..., Ym, m )

va (X ', T'1, T'2, ...,T'n ; Y1, '1, Y2, '2, ..., Ym, 'm ) la hai cau truc ai so co
cung so lng cac phep toan trong, co cung so lng cac phep toan ngoai vi cung
cac tap toan t. Khi o anh xa f : X X' c goi la mot ong cau gia hai cau
truc ai so nay neu :
a) f(a Ti b) = f(a) T'i f(b), vi moi a, b X, vi moi i = 1, 2, , n.
b) f( j b) = 'j f(b),
vi moi Yj, b X, vi moi j = 1, 2, , m.
ong cau f c goi la n cau, toan cau, ang cau neu anh xa f tng ng la
n anh, toan anh, song anh.

2.5 Cac cau truc ai so c ban

Cau truc ai so (X, *), trong o * la phep toan trong tren X, c goi la
a) na nhom neu phep toan * co tnh chat ket hp.
b) v nhom neu phep toan * co tnh ket hp, co phan t n v
c) nhom neu phep toan * co tnh ket hp, co phan t n v, va moi phan t cua X
eu co nghch ao.
Neu phep toan * co tnh giao hoan th (X, *) c goi la nhom ( v nhom, na
nhom) giao hoan.
Cau truc ai so (X, +, ), trong o + va la hai phep toan trong tren X, c goi
la mot vanh neu:
a) (X, +) la mot nhom giao hoan.
b) (X, ) la mot v nhom.
c) Phep toan phan phoi oi vi phep +.
Phan t n v ( k hieu la 1) cua v nhom (X, ) cung c goi la phan t n v
cua vanh. Neu phep toan co tnh giao hoan th vanh (X, +. ) c goi la vanh
giao hoan.
Cho (X, +, ) la mot vanh, no co the xay ra trng hp rang, ton tai cac phan t a,
b X sao cho a 0, b 0 ( 0 la phan t n v cua nhom (X,+)) nhng xy = 0.
Nhng phan t nh the c goi la c cua khong. Mot vanh giao hoan, khong co
c cua khong va 1 0 c goi la vanh nguyen hoac mien nguyen.
Vanh (X, +, ) c goi la mot trng neu no la giao hoan, phan t n v 1
khac 0, va moi phan t khac 0 deu co nghch ao oi vi phep toan .

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ai So ai Cng

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Cho (A, +, ) la mot vanh vi phan t n v la 1. Cau truc ai so (M, +, ), trong

o + la phep toan trong tren M va la phep toan ngoai tren M vi tap toan t A,
c goi la mot modul tren vanh A neu :
a) (M, +) la mot nhom giao hoan.
b) Phep toan ngoai thoa cac ieu kien sau
i) (x + y)
ii) ( + )x
( )x
iii)
1x

=
=
=
=

x + y
x + x
( x)
x

vi moi A, vi moi x,y M.

vi moi , A, vi moi x M.
vi moi x X.

Mot modul tren mot trng c goi la la mot khong gian vector hay khong
gian tuyen tnh.

o Nguyen Sn

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ai So ai Cng

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BAI TAP
1. Chng minh rang :
1) A B A B = A va A B = B
2) A B = A A B
3) A B = B A B
2. Cho X, Y la hai tap con cua Z, hay chng to
1) Z X Z Y Y X
2) (Z Y) Y = X Y X
3. Chng minh rang :

k =1

k =1

k =1

( Ak) ( Bk) ( (Ak Bk).

Cho v du chng to noi chung dau ' = ' khong xay ra.
4. Chng minh rang vi cac tap hp bat k A, B, C th
1)
2)
3)
4)

A (B C)
(A B)C
A (B C)
(A B) C

=
=
=
=

(A B) (A C)
(A C) (B C)
(A B ) (A C)
(A C) (B C)

5. Xet tap hp {A1,A2 ,.,An } ma cac phan t A1,A2 ,.,An la nhng tap hp.
Chng minh rang co t nhat mot tap hp Ai khong cha mot tap hp nao trong cac
tap hp con lai.
6. Cho n0 la mot so t nhien. Xet tnh n anh, toan anh, song anh cua anh xa

n 0 n
n 0 + n

f : , f(n) :=

khi n < n 0
khi n n 0

7. Cho f : X Y, g : Y Z la cac anh xa va h = go f la hp cua f

va g, chng minh:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Neu h n anh th f n anh

Neu h n anh va f toan anh th g n anh.
Neu h la toan anh
th g la toan anh.
Neu h toan anh va g n anh th f toan anh.

8. Cho ba anh xa f : X Y va g1, g2 : A X, hay chng minh

1) Neu f n anh va f o g1 = f o g2 th g1 = g2.

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2) Neu vi moi g1, g2 ma t fo g1 = fo g2 keo theo g1 = g2, th f la n anh.

9.

Cho ba anh xa f : X Y va g1, g2 : Y A, hay chng minh

1) Neu f toan anh va g1 o f = g2 o f th g = g.

2) Neu vi moi g1, g2 ma g1 o f = g2 o f keo theo g1 = g2, th f la toan anh.
10. Hay thiet lap cac song anh gia cac tap hp sau
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Tap hp cac so t nhien va tap hp cac so t nhien chan.

Tap hp cac so t nhien va tap hp cac so nguyen chan.
Tap hp cac so hu t trong oan [0, 1 ] va tap hp cac so t nhien .
oan [0, 1 ] va oan [a, b ]
oan [0, 1 ] va na truc [a, + ], a > 0.
oan [0, 1 ] va khoang (0, 1 )

11. Ch ra rang cac tap hp va , trong o la tap hp cac so t nhien, co

cung lc lung.
12. Cho E la mot tap hp, R la mot quan he phan xa trong E sao cho vi
moi x, y, z E, t xRy va yRz keo theo zRx. Chng to R la mot quan he tng
ng.
14. Cho E la mot tap hp, R la mot quan he phan xa va bac cau trong E.
S la mot quan he trong E xac nh bi x S y (xRy va yRx). Chng to R la mot
quan he tng ng.
14. Cho anh xa f : 3 3 , f(x) = x2 x. Tren 3 xac nh mot quan he S nh sau x
Sy f(x) = f(y). Chng to R la mot quan he tng ng, va xac nh lp tng
ng cha phan t x: [x]S .
15. Cho mot n anh f : X . Tren X xac nh mot quan he R nh
sau xRy f(x) f(y). Chng to R la quan he th t toan phan.
16. Xet tnh ket hp, giao hoan, ton tai phan t n v trai - phai cua
phep toan * tren tap hp X.
1) a* b = 2a + b a2, X = 9

a + b khi b 0
, X=9
khi b < 0
a

2) a* b =
3) a* b =

a 2 + b 2 , X = (0, + ).

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4) a* b = a + b ab, X = 3
5) a* b = ex + y, X = 3
6) a* b = ab, X =
17. Cho X la mot tap hp ma tren o co hai phep toan trong * va vi phan t
n v tng ng la e0 va e. Ngoai ra phep toan * phan phoi trai oi vi phep va
phep toan phan phoi trai oi vi phep * . Chng minh rang a * a = a va a a =
a vi moi a X.
18. Phep nhan cac so vo t co phai la phep toan trong tren tap cac so vo t khong?

o Nguyen Sn

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CHNG 2:
SO HOC TREN 9
1. So t nhien
1.1 Xay dng so t nhien
Ta xay dng tap so t nhien bang phng phap tien e, o la tap hp cung vi
anh xa : thoa man cac tien e (goi la tien e Peano) sau ay :
1) Co mot phan t k hieu la 1 .
2) : + := {n : n 1} la mot song anh.

. S IN

3) Neu . 1 S
. (n ) S khi n S

th S = .

Tap vi anh xa thoa man cac tien e tren c goi la tap so t nhien, moi
phan t cua no c goi la mot so t nhien.
Ngi ta k hieu (1) = 2, (2) = 3, (3) = 4, (4) = 5,
NHAN XET:
a) Neu ta k hieu (n) bang n+ va hnh dung n+ nh la '' phan t ng lien sau
phan t n '' th tien e 2) noi rang:
- (n) 1, n, tc la, so 1 khong ng lien sau bat k so t nhien nao.
- n +, ! m : (m) = m+ = n, tc la moi so t nhien khac 1 eu ng lien
sau khong qua mot so t nhien.
b) Tien e 3) cho mot phng phap chng minh goi la phep chng minh qui nap.
Neu muon chng minh mot tnh chat E nao o ung vi moi so t nhien, th trc
het ta chng minh tnh chat o ung cho so t nhien 1, sau o chng minh no ung
cho so n+ ( so ng lien sau so n ), vi '' gia thiet qui nap'' rang tnh chat E ung
cho so n.
c) m = n m+ = n+

1.2 Phep cong tren

Phep cong tren la anh xa (n, m) a n + m thoa man cac tnh chat sau
vi moi
n
a) n + 1 = n+
+
+
b) n + m = (n + m) vi moi n, m .

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e nh ngha phep cong c ung an, can phai ch ra rang tong cua hai so t
nhien ton tai va c xac nh duy nhat.
S ton tai. at S = {n : m , anh xa (n,m) a n + m thoa a) va b)}
- Vi n = 1, at 1 + m = m+ th ro rang rang 1 S.
- Gia s n S, tc la xac nh c n + m vi moi m thoa a) va b). Vi n+
neu ta at n+ + m = (n + m)+ th
n+ + 1 = (n + 1)+ = (n+)+ va

n+ + m+ = (n + m+)+ = ((n + m)+)+ = (n+ + m)+

- T o, n+ S, va theo tien e 3) th S = .
S duy nhat. Gia s con co phep toan (m,n) a n * m thoa man cac tnh chat
n * 1 = n+ va n * m+ = (n * m)+. at S = {m : n + m = n * m, n }. V n
+1 = n+ = n * 1 nen 1 S . Gia s m S, tc la n + m = n * m, khi o n * m+ =
(n * m)+ = (n + m)+ = n + m+, suy ra m+ S. T o, theo tien e 3) ta co S = .
NHAN XET Trong chng minh s ton tai cua phep toan +, ngi ta a nh
ngha 1 + m := m+.

1.3 nh l
(, +) la na nhom giao hoan, thoa luat gian c.
Chng minh:
Tnh ket hp: at S = {k : m + (n + k) = (m + n) + k n, m }.
Ta co 1 S, v m + (n + 1) = m + n+ = (m + n)+ = (m + n) + 1.
Gia s k S,
khi o
m + (n + k+) = m + (n + k+) = m + (n + k)+
= (m + (n + k))+ = ((m + n) + k)+ = (m + n) + k+.
Suy ra k+ S. T o S = .
Tnh giao hoan : Neu at S = {m : m + n = n + m, n }
Ta co 1 S, v 1 + n = n+ = n + 1
Gia s m S,
khi o
n + m+ = (n + m)+ = (m + n)+ = m + n+ = m + (1 + n)
= (m + 1) + n = m+ + n.
Suy ra m+ S. T o S = .
Thoa luat gian c : S = {k : neu n + k = m + k th n = m }.
Ta co 1 S, v neu n + 1 = m + 1 th n+ = m+, t o n = m.
Gia s k S va n + k+ = m + k+

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khi o
(n + k)+ = (m + k)+ n + k = m + k n = m
Suy ra k+ S. T o S = .

1.4 Phep nhan tren

Phep nhan tren la anh xa (n, m) a n m thoa man cac tnh chat sau :
a) n 1 = n
vi moi
n
+
b) n m = n m + m vi moi n, m
e nh ngha phep nhan c ung an, can phai ch ra rang tch cua hai so t
nhien ton tai va c xac nh duy nhat. ieu nay c lam bang cach tng t
nh a lam oi vi phep cong.

1.5 nh l

a) (, ) la v nhom giao hoan, thoa luat gian c.

b) Phep nhan phan phoi oi vi phep cong

Chng minh: Chng minh bang phng phap qui nap tng t nh oi vi phep
cong. Phan t n v la so 1.

1.6 Quan he th t tren tap hp so t nhien

Neu vi hai so m va n cho trc , co mot so k N sao cho m = n + k th ta noi
rang m ln hn n va viet m > n, khi o ta cung noi rang n be hn m va viet n <
m. Neu m ln hn hoac bang n th viet m n, neu n be hn hoac bang m th
viet n m.
Cac quan he

, < la cac quan he th t tren tap so t nhien .

Ta noi mot na nhom (v nhom, nhom) (X, * ) la nhom (v nhom, nhom) sap
th t (bo phan, toan phan, tot, chat, khong chat) neu tren tap X a xac nh mot
quan he th t (bo phan, toan phan, tot, chat, khong chat), < , sao cho
t x < y keo theo x * a < y * a va a * x < a * y vi moi a X.
va X c goi la nhom (v nhom, nhom) sap th t manh neu them tnh chat
t x * a < y * a hoac a * x < a * y keo theo x < y, vi moi a X.

1.7 nh l:

Vi cac quan he th t , < na nhom cong ( ,+) va v nhom nhan ( , ) la

c sap th t toan phan, tot va manh.

o Nguyen Sn

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Chng minh:
(ch chng minh cho quan he , oi vi quan he < cung tng t )
Sap th t toan phan: Vi moi m , at S = {n : n m hoac m n}.
Trc het ta co 1 S, that vay, neu m =1 th ieu o la ro rang, neu m 1 th m =
k+ = k +1 vi k nao o, tc la 1 < m, t o 1 S.
Gia s n S. Co ba kha nang xay ra :
- Neu n = m th n+ = m + 1, t o m n+, tc la n+ S.
- Neu n < m th m = n + k vi k nao o, the th m = n + 1 = n+ hoac
m = n + h+ = (n + h)+ = n+ + h (vi h+ = k), t o n+ m, tc la n+ S.
- Neu m < n th n = m + k vi k nao o, suy ra n+ = (m + k)+ = m + k+,
t o m < n+, tc la n+ S.
Tom lai, trong moi trng hp eu co n+ S. Vay theo tien e 3) th S = .
Sap th t tot: Vi moi A , at S = {a : a x vi moi x A }
Trc het ta co 1 S va S ( v neu x A th do x+ > x nen x+ S).
Ta luon tm c mot so b S sao cho b+ S, v neu khong, tc la vi moi b S
suy ra b+ S, th do tien e 3) ta co S = . So b nay phai thuoc A. That vay, neu b
A th do b S nen ta co b < x vi moi x A. T o b+ x vi moi x thuoc A,
tc la b+ S. Nhng ieu nay mau thuan vi b+ S. Nh vay, ta a ch ra rang,
ton tai so b A sao cho b x vi moi x A, ngha la b la phan t be nhat cua A.
Sap th t manh: Ta se chng minh cac khang nh sau
a b a + c b + c , vi moi c
a b ac bc ,
vi moi c
- Gia s a b. Neu a = b th ro rang a + c = b + c, ac = bc. Neu a < b th ta co b = a
+ k vi k nao o. Khi o
b + c = (a + k) + c = (a + c) + k a + c < b + c
bc = (a + k )c = ac + kc
ac < bc.
- Gia s a + c b + c (tng ng ac bc). Neu b < a th theo chng minh chieu
thuan, b + c < a + c (tng ng bc < ac). ieu nay dan en mau thuan.

2. Vanh so nguyen
2.1 Xay dng tap so nguyen
Xet tap = {(m, n) : m, n } gom moi cap so t nhien. Tren tap
a vao mot quan he tng ng nh sau:
(m, n) ~ (p, q) m + q = n + p.

o Nguyen Sn

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ai So ai Cng

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Ta k hieu [m, n] la lp tng ng cua (m,n) va 9 la tap thng cua x oi

vi quan he ~ . 9 c goi la la tap cac so nguyen, moi phan t cua no goi la mot
so nguyen.

2.2 Phep cong

Phep cong gia hai so nguyen [m, n] va [p, q] c xac nh bi
[m, n ] + [p, q] = [m + p, n + q]
e nh ngha c hp l, can phai ch ra rang nh ngha tren khong phu thuoc
vao viec chon ai dien cua [m, n]va [p, q], tc la phai chng minh rang, neu (m, n)
~ (m', n') va (p, q) ~ (p', q') th (m + p, n + q) ~ (m' + p', n' + q'). That vay, theo nh
ngha: m + n' = n + m' va p + q' = q + p',
t o, (m + p) + (n' + q') = (n + q) + (m' + p'). Lai t nh ngha suy ra ieu phai
chng minh.

2.3 Phep nhan

Phep nhan gia hai so nguyen [m, n] va [p, q] c xac nh bi
[m, n ][p, q] = [ m p + n q, m q + n p]

e nh ngha c hp l, cung can phai ch ra rang nh ngha tren khong phu

thuoc vao viec chon ai dien cua [m, n]va [p, q] . Gia s (m, n) ~ (m', n') va (p, q)
~ (p', q'). Khi o
m + n' = n + m' (1) va p + q' = q + p' (2)
Nhan (1) va (2) ve theo ve:
Nhan (1) vi q
Nhan (2) vi n
Nhan (1) vi q'
Nhan (2) vi n'

mp + mq' + n'p + n'q'

nq + m'q
nq + np'
m'q' + nq'
n'p' + n'q

= nq + np' + m'q + m'p'

= mq + n'q
= np + nq'
= mq' + n'q'
= n'p + n'q'

Cong cac ang thc va tm c ve theo ve ta co:

mp + nq + m'q' + n'p' = mq + np + m'p' + n'q',
Tc la

(mp + nq, mq + np) ~ (m'p' + n'q', m'q' + n'p').

o Nguyen Sn

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ai So ai Cng

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2.4 nh l
( 9 , +, ) la mot vanh, hn na la mot mien nguyen .
Chng minh:
oi vi phep cong phan t n v la lp co dang [a, a], phan t nghch ao cua
[m, n] la [n, m]. oi vi phep nhan phan t n v co dang [1 + a, a]. Cac tnh
chat khac cua phep toan cong va nhan e lam cho ( 9 , +, ) la mot vanh ch la
mot s kiem tra n gian nh nh ngha cua cac phep toan va cac tnh chat a biet
oi vi tap so t nhien.
Gia s [m, n] [p, q] = 0 = [a, a], tc la (mp + nq, mq + np) ~ (a, a). Khi o ta co
mp + nq + a = mq + np + a, hay mp + nq = mq + np (1). Neu [m, n] 0, tc la m
n, th ta se ch ra [p, q] = 0. Gia s m < n (oi vi m > n cung tng t), khi o n =
m + k vi k nao o va ang thc (1) tr thanh
mp + (m + k)q = mq + (m + k)p
hay
mp + mq + kq = mq + mp + kp,
t o, do luat gian c oi vi phep cong va phep nhan cac so t nhien ta co q = p,
tc la [p, q] = 0. ieu nay suy ra tren 9 khong co c cua khong.
NHAN XET:
a) Neu at 9> 0 = { [n + a, a] : a, n } 9 th ( 9> 0 , +) la mot na nhom
cong va t ang cau : 9> 0 , n a [n + a, a], co the ong nhat vi 9> 0, tc
la mot so t nhien n c ong nhat vi lp tat ca cac cap dang (n + a, a) vi
a chay qua tap hp .
b) Mot so nguyen bat k [m, n] eu co the viet di dang :

[n + k , n ] khi m < n

[m, n] = [m, m + l] khi m > n

[m, m ]
khi m = n

Nh vay, cac so nguyen co the chia lam ba loai : so khong ( la lp tng ng

cua cac cap dang (a, a) , khi o ta viet [a, a] = 0 ), so nguyen dng (la lp co
dang [m, n] vi m > n, khi o ta viet [m, n] > 0 ), so nguyen am (la lp co dang
[m, n] vi m < n, khi o ta viet [m, n] < 0).
Neu at n = [a, n + a] th vanh so nguyen co the viet di dang
9

o Nguyen Sn

= {.... 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,.....} .

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2.5 Quan he th t tren 9

Tren 9 co the xac nh phep toan tr nh sau :
[a, b] [c, d] = [a, b] + ( [c, d])
= [a, b] + [d, c])
= [a + d, b + c]
Bay gi tren vanh so nguyen ta xac nh mot quan he th t ln hn '' > '' nh sau
[a, b] > [c, d] [a, b] [c, d] > 0.
[a + d, b + c] > 0
a+d > b+c
Ta co the kiem tra de dang o la mot quan he th t tren 9.
tren ta a trnh bay cach xay dng tap so nguyen t tap so t nhien. T nh
ngha cac phep toan va quan he th t co the thay lai cac qui tac cung nh cac tnh
chat thong thng cua so nguyen ma ta a quen biet.

3. S chia het tren tap so nguyen

3.1 nh ngha
Cho a, b la hai so nguyen . Ta noi rang a chia het b (hoac a la c cua b, hoac
b chia het cho a, hoac b la boi cua a), ky hieu a | b neu ton tai mot so nguyen c
sao cho b = ac.
Ro rang la a | 0 vi moi so nguyen a, va 0 | a khi va ch khi a = 0

3.2 Tnh chat ( a, b, c, d la cac so nguyen)

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)

a | a va 1 | a.

Neu
Neu
Neu
Neu
Neu
Neu
Neu

a | 1 th
a | b va
a | b va
a | b th
a | b va
a | b va
a | b th

a=1
b | a th a = b.
b | c th a | c
a | bc
a | c th a | b + c
c | d th ac | bd
an | bn ( n la so t nhien)
n

9) Neu a | bi , i = 1, 2, , n th a | m i b i (bi, mi la cac so nguyen)

i =1

o Nguyen Sn

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ai So ai Cng

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Chng minh: Viec chng minh ch la s kiem tra n gian t nh ngha.

3.3 nh l ( phep chia Euclide)

Cho a, b la hai so nguyen vi b 0. Khi o ton tai duy nhat mot cap so nguyen q, r
sao cho a = b q + r vi 0 r < |b| .
(q goi la thng va r goi la d cua phep chia a cho b)
Chng minh:
S ton tai. at S = {n 9 : n|b| a} 9, khi o S khac v |a| S .
S b chan tren nen co phan t ln nhat k. Do k |b | a nen a = k | b | + r ; vi
r 0. Mat khac, v k = max S nen k+ 1 S, tc la, (k+1) | b | > a. T o suy ra k
| b | + | b | > k | b | + r hay r < | b |.

k khi b > 0
th k | b | = qb, va t nhng ieu a trnh bay

k
khi
b
<
0

Neu at q =

tren ta co a = bq + r vi 0 r < | b |.

S duy nhat. Gia s a = bq + r ; a = bq+ r vi 0 r, r' < | b | . Khi o ta co r

r = b(q q). V | r r| < | b | nen | b || q q | < | b | hay | q - q | < 1. T o q = q
va r = r' .

3.4 c chung ln nhat (CLN)

So nguyen c c goi la c chung cua n so nguyen a1, a2, ..., an neu c la c
cua ai vi moi i = 1, 2, , n.
So nguyen c c goi la c chung ln nhat cua n so nguyen a1, a2, ..., an khi
va ch khi d la c chung cua a1,...,an va neu c la c chung bat ky cua a1,...,an
th c la c d.
NHAN XET:
a) Neu d1 va d2 la cac c chung ln nhat cua a1, a2, ..., an th d1 = d2 .
Ngi ta thng viet (a1, a2, ..., an ) e ch c chung ln nhat khong am cua n so
nguyen a1, a2, ..., an .
b) Ro rang rang CLN cua 0 va b la b.

3.5 nh l
c chung ln nhat cua n so nguyen bat k a1, a2, ..., an luon luon ton tai.

o Nguyen Sn

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ai So ai Cng

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Chng minh :
Neu a1 = a2 = ... = an = 0 th ro rang (a1, a2, ..., an ) = 0. Gia s a1, a2, ..., an khong
ong thi bang khong.
n

at I = {y 9 : y = x i a i , xi 9 , i =1,2,,n} va J = {| y | : y I} {0}.
i =1

V a1, a2, ..., an khong ong thi bang 0 nen I {0} va t o J . Do J b

n

chan di, nen J co so nho nhat. Gia s | d | = min J vi d = x i a i I. Ta se

i =1

chng minh d la c chung ln nhat cua a1,..., an . That vay, vi moi i ta co ai =

dqi + ri ; 0 ri < | d |. Suy ra
ri = ai dqi = (x1qi )a1 +...+ ( xi1qi )ai 1 + (1 xi qi )ai +...+( xnqi )an.
T o ri I vi moi i = 1, 2, , n. Ta phai co ri = 0 v neu khong th ri J va
ieu nay mau thuan vi | d | la so nho nhat cua J. T o suy ra d la c chung cua
n

a1,...,an. Mat khac neu c la c chung bat ky cua a1,...,an th c la c cua x i a i

i =1

tc la c la c cua d. Vay d la CLN cua a1,..., an .

3.6 He qua
a) Neu e la c chung ln nhat cua a1, a2,..., an th ton tai x1, x2, ...,xn 9 sao cho
e = x1a1 + x2a2 +...+ xnan.
b) Neu e la c chung cua a1, a2,..., an va ton tai x1, x2, ...,xn 9 sao cho e =
x1a1 + x2a2 +...+ xnan th e la c chung ln nhat cua a1, a2,..., an.
Chng minh:
a) Xet c chung ln nhat d cua a1, a2,..., an trong chng minh nh l 1.5. V
e = d nen ta co ieu phai chng minh.
n

b) Gia s c la c chung bat ky cua a1,...,an th c la c cua x i a i tc la c

la c cua e. Vay e la CLN cua a1,..., an .

i =1

3.7 nh l
d la c chung ln nhat cua a1, a2, ..., an khi va ch khi d la c chung ln nhat
cua (a1,...,an-1) va an .
Chng minh :
Gia s d = (a1 ,. . ., an), d1 = ((a1 ,. . ., an-1), an) va m = (a1 ,. . ., an-1). V d la c
cua ai vi moi i = 1, 2, , n nen d la C cua m va an ; nhng d1 la CLN cua m
va an nen d la c cua d1. Mat khac d1 la C cua m va an nen d1 la C cua cua
ai vi moi i = 1, 2, , n va do d la la CLN cua ai vi moi i = 1, 2, , n nen d1
la c d. T o d1 = d.

o Nguyen Sn

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ai So ai Cng

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3.8 nh l
Gia s a, b, q, r la nhng so nguyen thoa man he thc a = bq + r. Khi o CLN
cua a va b cung la CLN cua b va r.
Chng minh: Neu at d = (a, b) th d | a va d | b, nhng v r = a bq nen ta cung
co d | r va d | b. Gia s c la mot C bat k cua b va r, khi o v a = bq + r nen c
cung la C cua
b va a, vay c phai la c cua d. T o d = (b, r).

3.9 Thuat toan tm CLN cua hai so

Gia s muon tm CLN cua hai so nguyen a va b. Neu a = 0 th ro rang CLN cua
a va b la b, v vay ta ch xet cho trng hp ca a lan b eu khac 0. Thuat toan la
mot qua trnh thc hien lien tiep cac phep chia:
Bc 1: Chia a cho b
a = bq0 + r0
vi 0 r0 < | b |.
Neu r0 = 0 th dng. Neu r0 0 th i en bc 2
Bc 2: Chia b cho r0
b = r0q1 + r1
vi 0 r1 < r0 .
Neu r1 = 0 th dng. Neu r2 0 , th i en bc 3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bc n : Chia rn 1 cho rn

rn1 = rn qn+1 + rn+1 vi 0 rn+1 < rn .

Qua trnh chia nh vay phai cham dt sau mot so hu han bc v day cac so t
nhien | b | > r0 > > ri > 0 khong the giam vo han. Gia s en bc n
nao o ta co rn+1 = 0 va rn 0, th theo nh l 3.8 suy ra CLN cua a va b la rn.
V DU: Tm CLN cua 9100 va 1848
Giai: Ta sap xep cac phep chia lien tiep nh sau:
4
1
12
5
9100 : 1848 : 1708 : 140 : 28
1708
140
28
0
T o (9100, 1848) = 28.

4. So nguyen to cung nhau.

4.1 nh ngha
Cac so nguyen a1, a2, ..., an c goi la nguyen to cung nhau neu chung nhan
so 1 lam CLN.

o Nguyen Sn

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ai So ai Cng

- 31 -

Ta noi rang cac so nguyen a1, a2, ..., an nguyen to cung nhau tng oi neu va
ch neu (ai, aj) = 1 vi moi i j.
NHAN XET:
1) Neu cac so nguyen a1, a2, ..., an nguyen
to cung nhau tng oi th chung la
nguyen to cung nhau, v khi o
(a1, a2, a3, ..., an) = ((a1, a2), a3, ..., an) = (1, a3, ..., an) = 1
ieu ngc lai noi chung khong ung, chang han a1 = 3, a2 = 10, a3 = 15.
2) Neu (a, b) = 1 va c | b th (a, c) = 1. That vay, neu d va (d | a, d | c)
th (d | a, d | b), vay d = 1. T o suy ra (a, c) = 1.

4.2 nh l (Bezout)
ieu kien can va u e cac so nguyen a1, a2, ..., an nguyen to cung nhau la ton tai
n

cac so nguyen x1, x2, ..., xn sao cho x i a i = 1.

i =1

Chng minh: Suy ra trc tiep t he qua 1.6

4.3 nh l (Gauss)
Neu cac so nguyen a, b, c thoa man a | bc va (a, b) = 1 th a | c.
Chng minh: Gia s (a, b) = 1 va a | bc. Theo nh l Bezout, ton tai hai so nguyen x
va y sao cho ax + by = 1. Suy ra c = axc + byc. V a | axc va a | byc nen a | c.

4.4 nh l
Cho x, a1, a2, , an la cac so nguyen khac 0. Khi o
n

((x, ai) = 1, vi moi i {1, 2, , n}) ( x, a i ) = 1

i =1

Chng minh:
() Ta chng minh bang cach qui nap theo n. Vi n = 1 th khang nh la hien
nhien. oi vi n = 2, gia s (x, a1) = (x, a2). Theo nh l Bezout, ton tai u1, v1, u2,
v2 9 sao cho xu1 + a1v1 = 1 va xu2 + a2v2 = 1. Khi o (x, a1 a2) = 1 v
1 = (xu1 + a1v1)(xu2 + a2v2) = x(x u1 u2 + a1 v1 u2 + u1 a2 v2) + (a1 a2)(v1 v2)

o Nguyen Sn

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ai So ai Cng

- 32 -

Vay, khang nh ung vi n = 2. Bay gi, gia thiet khang nh ung vi n va gia s
a1, a2, , an+1 9 sao cho (x, ai) = 1, vi moi i {1, 2, , n, n +1}. The th (x, ai)
n

= 1, vi moi i {1, 2, , n} va theo gia thiet qui nap, ( x, a i ) = 1, roi theo ket
i =1

qua khao sat cho trng hp n = 2 ta co

n +1

i =1

i =1

( x, a i ) = ( x, a i .an+1) = 1
n

( ) Neu ( x, a i ) = 1 th theo nhan xet 2) trong muc 4.1 suy ra (x, ai) = 1.
i =1

5 Boi chung nho nhat (BCNN)

5.1 nh ngha :
So nguyen c c goi la mot boi chung cua n so nguyen a1,...,an neu ai | c vi
moi i = 1, 2, , n.
So nguyen d c goi la boi chung nho nhat (BCNN) cua n so nguyen a1,...,an
khi va ch khi d la boi chung cua a1,...,an va neu c la mot boi chung bat k cua
a1,...,an th d | c.
NHAN XET:
1) Neu d1, d2 la cac boi chung nho nhat cua a1,...,an th d1 = d2. Vay boi chung
nho nhat cua a1,...,an la duy nhat theo ngha sai khac dau. Ta dung ki hieu
[a1,...,an] e ch boi chung nho nhat khong am cua a1,...,an .
2) BCNN cua 0 va b la 0.

5.2 Menh e
(a, b)[a, b] = | ab | vi moi a, b 9
Chng minh:
Neu a = 0 hoac b = 0 th hien nhien. Vay ta ch chng minh cho trng hp a va b
eu khac 0, khi o (a,b) 0. Neu at m =

ab
(a , b )

th m la mot boi chung cua a

va b. Goi t la mot boi chung bat k cua a va b. V a | t nen ton tai c 9 sao cho

t
ac
b
t
=
. V b | t nen
cung la c cua
, va do
(a , b )
(a , b )
(a , b )
(a , b )
b
ac
a
b
la c cua
. Nhng
va
la nguyen to cung nhau nen
o
(a , b )
(a , b )
(a , b )
(a , b )
t = ac, t o

o Nguyen Sn

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ai So ai Cng

- 33 -

theo nh l Gauss(4.3) suy ra

b
ab
la c cua c. Vay
la c cua ac = t, t
(a , b )
(a , b )

o m | t, tc la m = [a, b]
NHAN XET: T menh e 5.2 suy ra neu a va b la nguyen to cung nhau th ab la
BCNN cua a va b.

5.3 Menh e
BCNN cua n so nguyen a1,...,an luon luon ton tai va
[a1,...,an] = [[a1,...,an-1], an] .
Chng minh (Ta chng minh bang quy nap.)
n = 2 (do 5.2)
Gia s ton tai mn1 = [a1,...,an1] . at m = [mn1, an]. V m la boi chung cua
mn1 va an nen m la boi chung cua a1,...,an. Gia s t la boi chung cua a1,...,an .
Hien nhien t la boi chung cua a1,...,an-1 , do o t la boi cua mn-1 va an . V m la
BCNN cua mn-1 va an nen t la boi cua m. Vay m = [a1,...,an]

6. So nguyen to
e n gian, cac khai niem va ket qua trong phan nay ta ch trnh bay tren tap cac
so nguyen dng . Cac khai niem va ket qua o cung co the chuyen len tap cac
so nguyen 9.

6.1 nh ngha
Mot so t nhien khac 1 goi la so nguyen to neu no ch chia het cho 1 va cho
chnh no . Mot so t nhien khac 1 va khong phai la so nguyen to c goi la hp
so. Ta co the noi so nguyen n la so nguyen to neu | n | la so nguyen to.
CHU Y : So 1 khong phai la so nguyen to cung khong phai la hp so.

6.2 nh l
c so dng nho nhat khac 1 cua mot so t nhien ln hn 1 la mot so nguyen to.
Chng minh: Xet a va a >1. Goi p la c so dng nho nhat khac 1 cua a.
Neu p khong phai la nguyen to th p la hp so, nen p co mot c so la p1 vi :1 <
p1 < p. Nhng khi o p1 cung la c so cua a, va ieu nay mau thuan vi tnh nho
nhat cua p.

6.3 nh l
Tap cac so nguyen to trong la vo han .

o Nguyen Sn

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ai So ai Cng

- 34 -

Chng minh: Gia s ngc lai, ch co mot so hu han cac so nguyen to la p1

,..., pn . T 6.3 suy ra so t nhien M = p1 ...pn + 1 co c so dng nho nhat khac 1
la mot so nguyen to p. Nh the ton tai j {1, 2, , n} sao cho p = pj, do o p | p1
...pn. T o p | (M p1 ...pn) hay p | 1 (mau thuan)

6.4 nh l
Cho a va p la so nguyen to. Khi o hoac (a, p) = 1 hoac p | a.
Chng minh: V (a, p) la mot c cua p, nen no ch co the la p hoac la 1. Neu
(a, p) 1 th (a, p) = p , nhng khi o p | a.

6.5 nh l
Gia s a1,...,an va p la so nguyen to. Khi o hai ieu sau ay la tng ng
n

1) p la c cua a i
i =1

2) Ton tai i {1, 2, , n} sao cho p | ai .

Chng minh:
n

(1 2) Gia s p | a i . Neu p khong la c cua cac ai, vi moi i, th theo 6.4

i =1

suy ra (p, ai) =1, vi moi i. T o, theo nh l 4.4, (p, a i ) =1, vay p =1, va ieu
o dan en mau thuan.

i =1

(2 1) la hien nhien

6.6 nh l
c so dng nho nhat khac 1 cua mot hp so a >1 la mot so nguyen to nho hn
hoac bang a .
Chng minh: Gia s c so o la p, khi o p la nguyen to va a = pa1.V a1 la mot
c dng khac cua a nen a1 p, the th a = pa1 p2.Vay p a

6.7 Sang Eratosthene

e lap bang so nguyen to khong vt qua mot so nguyen dng n, ta co the ap
dung mot phng phap goi la sang Eratosthen. Noi dung cua phng phap nay nh
sau :

o Nguyen Sn

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ai So ai Cng

- 35 -

Lap day so 1, 2, 3, 4, , n
(So th nhat ln hn 1 cua day so tren la 2, hien nhien 2 la so nguyen to)
Trong day so tren, ta xoa tat ca cac boi cua 2.
(So th nhat ng sau 2 khong b xoa la 3. Hien nhien 3 la so nguyen to)
Tiep tuc ta xoa tat ca cac boi cua 3.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C tiep tuc theo cach o, ta xoa tat ca cac boi so cua cac so nguyen to nho hn
mot so nguyen to p, th tat ca cac so khong b xoa nho hn p2 eu nguyen to. That
vay, moi hp so a nho hn p2 eu a b xoa v la boi cua c so dng nho nhat
cua no, uc so nay, theo 6.6, nho hn a < p.
Suy ra rang :
1) Khi xoa cac boi cua mot so nguyen to p, th so au tien b xoa la p2.
2) Khi a xoa cac boi cua cac so nguyen to n th hoan thanh viec lap bang.
V DU: Neu n = 50 th ta ch xoa cac boi cua cac so nguyen to 2,3,5,7.

6.8 nh l ( c ban cua so hoc)

Moi so t nhien ln hn 1 eu phan tch c thanh tch nhng tha so nguyen to,
va s phan tch nay la duy nhat neu khong ke en th t cac nhan t.
Chng minh
1) S ton tai. Xet a va a > 1.
Goi p1 la c so nguyen to nho nhat cua a. Ta co
a =
Neu a1 = 1 th a = p1 ( chng minh xong).
Neu a1 > 1, goi p2 la c so nguyen to nho nhat cua
a1 =
Neu a2 = 1 th a = p1p2 ( chng minh xong).
Neu a2 > 1, lap lai ly luan tren cho cac bc sau . .

p1a1 vi 1 a1 < a.
a1 . Ta co
p2a2 vi 1 a2 < a1 .
. . . . . . . .

Qua trnh nay phai ket thuc sau mot so hu han bc v ta co :

a > a1 > a2 > . . . > 1.
Gia s qua trnh ket thuc bc th n, vi an = 1. Khi o a = p1p2...pn.
2) S duy nhat. Gia s p1p2...pn = a = q1q2...qm , trong o, cac pi , qj la cac so
nguyen to. Khi o p1 | q1...qm va ton tai j {1, 2, , m} sao cho p1 = qj (xem 6.5).
Bang cach anh so lai, ta co the gia s p1 = q1 . Gian c ta co p2...pn = q2...qm.
Neu m > n th bang cach thc hien tiep tuc qua trnh tren . ta c 1 =
qn+1...pm, nhng ieu nay khong the xay ra c v cac qj la cac so nguyen to. Vay

o Nguyen Sn

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phai co m n . V vai tro cua m va n la nh nhau, nen ta cung co n m .T o

m = n va pi = qi vi moi i. Vay phan tch la duy nhat theo ngha sai khac nhau ve
th t cac nhan t.

6.9 Dang phan tch chnh tac.

Khi phan tch mot so t nhien a > 1 thanh tch cac nhan t nguyen to, mot vai
hoac tat ca cac nhan t nguyen to o co the giong nhau. Ket hp cac nhan t giong
nhau lai va bieu dien tch cua chung di dang luy tha th se dan en dang sau goi
k

la dang phan tch chnh tac a = p 1 1 p 2 2 .p kmm .

9100 = 22.52.7.13 ; 128 = 27.

V DU:

6.10 nh l
k

Cho mot so t nhien a v dang phan tch chnh tac

a = p 1 1 p 2 2 .p kmm .

Khi o, mot so t nhien d la c cua a khi va ch khi d co dang :

r

d = p 11 p 22 . p rmm

vi

ri ki , i = 1, 2, , m.

Chng minh:
Gia s d | a, tc la a = dq. ang thc nay chng to moi c so nguyen to cua d
eu co mat trong a vi so mu cua no trong d khong vt qua so mu cua no trong a.
Gia s a va d co dang nh tren, ta co
k

k r1 k 2 r2
p2
. p kmm rm )

a = p 1 1 p 2 2 .p kmm = p 11 p 22 . p rmm ( p 1 1
ang thc nay chng to d | a.

V DU: Cho a = 60 = 22. 3. 5. Cac c cua a co dang d = 2x. 3y. 5z . Cho x lan
lt cac gia tr 0, 1, 2; cho y lan lt cac gia tr 0,1 va z lan lt la 0, 1 th ta se
c tat ca cac c cua a, chang han vi x = 2, y = 1, z = 0 ta co mot
c cua a = 60 la d = 4.

6.11 Cach tm CLN va BCNN

Cho hai so t nhien a va b co khai trien tha so nguyen to dang chnh tac :
k

tm
, trong o ki va ti co the bang 0, khi o
a = p 1 1 p 2 2 .p kmm va b = p 11 p 22 .p m

min(k1 , t1 )

(a, b) = p 1

o Nguyen Sn

min( k 2 , t 2 )

p2

k m ,t m )
.. . p min(
m

Khoa Toan Tin

ai So ai Cng

max(k 1 , t 1 )

[a, b] = p 1
V DU:

- 37 -

max(k 2 , t 2 )

p2

ax ( k m , t m )
.. . p m
m

9100 = 22. 52 . 7 .13 = 22. 30 . 52 . 71 . 110 . 131

1848 = 22. 3. 7 .11
= 22. 31 . 50 . 71 . 111 . 130
(9100, 1848) = 22 30 50 71 . 110 . 130 = 28
[9100, 1848] = 22 31 52 71 111 131

7 ong d
7.1 nh ngha
Cho m la mot so t nhien ln hn 1, va a, b la hai so nguyen. Noi rang a la ong
d modulo m vi b (hoac a ong d vi b theo modulo m) neu trong phep chia a
va b cho m ta c cung mot so d. Neu a ong d vi b theo modulo m th ta viet
a b (mod m) va goi he thc nay la ong d thc modulo m.
Ta co cac dang tng ng khac cua nh ngha ong d:
1) a b (mod m) m | (a b)
2) a b (mod m) a = b + mk vi k 9
That vay, ta chng minh chang han 1). Neu a b (mod m) th theo nh ngha ta co
a = m q1 + r va b = m q2 + r. T o, a b = m(q1 q2), tc la m |(a b). Ngc lai,
neu m | (a b), tc la a b = m q. Gia s b = mq1 + r vi 0 r < m khi o ta co a =
mq + b = mq + mq1 + r = m(q + q1) + r. ieu nay chng to khi chia a va b cho m th
co cung so d r.

7.2 Lp ong d
Quan he ong d modulo m la mot quan he tng ng tren 9. That vay, tnh
phan xa va i xng la hien nhien. Gia s a b(mod m) va b c(mod m), khi o m
| (a b) va m | (b c), suy ra m | (a b) + (b c), tc la m | (a c), vay a c (mod
m) va do o co tnh bac cau.
Ta k hieu 9/m9 la tap thng cua 9 theo quan he (tng ng) ong d modulo
m. Vi moi x 9, ta k hieu lp tng ng cha cua x trong 9/m9 la x hay [x].
Nh phep chia Euclide cho m : x = mq + r, 0 r m 1, ta thay rang moi so
nguyen x eu ong d modul m vi r {0, 1, 2, , m 1}. Hn na cac so thuoc
{0, 1, 2, , m 1} khong ong d vi nhau theo modulo m, do o co ung m lp

o Nguyen Sn

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ong d theo modulo m, ma ta co the chon cac so tren lam ai dien cho moi lp,
9

/m9 = { 0 , 1 , 2 , , m 1 }.

7.3 Tnh chat

Tnh chat 1: Co the cong, tr, nhan ve theo ve cac ong d thc cua cung modulo:
Neu ai bi (mod m), i = 1, 2,, k th
Neu ai bi (mod m), i = 1, 2,, k th

i =1
k

i =1
k

i =1

i =1

ai bi (mod m)

ai bi (mod m)

Chng minh: Theo nh ngha ai = bi + mti, va khang nh c suy ra t

k

i =1

i =1

i =1

i =1

i =1

ai = bi + m ti va ai = bi + m Q.

Tnh chat 2: Cac khang nh di ay la he qua trc tiep cua tnh chat 1
a) Neu a b (mod m) th a c b c (mod m)
b) Neu a b (mod m) th a + km b (mod m)
c) Neu a b (mod m) th an bn (mod m)
V DU: Tm tat ca cac so nguyen p 2 sao cho p va 2p + p2 la nhng so nguyen
to.
Giai: Ro rang p = 2 khong thch hp va p = 3 la thoa man yeu cau e ra. Neu p la
so nguyen to 5 th ta co 2p (1)p (mod 3) va p2 1(mod 3). T o suy ra 2p +
p2 0 (mod 3). V 2p + p2 la nguyen to nen ta co V 2p + p2 = 3, nhng ieu nay la
khong the. Nh vay so p can tm la p = 3.

o Nguyen Sn

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BAI TAP
1. Chng minh rang neu k la mot so nguyen dng va a1, a2, ,an la n so
nguyen th
(ka1, ka2, ,kan) = k(a1, a2, ,an)
2. Chng minh rang neu so nguyen dng c la c chung cua n so nguyen a1, a2,
, an th

a a
a
1
( 1 , 2 , ., n ) = (a1, a2, ,an)
c

3. Cho a, b, c la ba so nguyen, chng minh rang

a) Neu (a, c) = 1 va (b, c) = 1 th (ab, c) = 1
b) (a, b) = 1 (an, bn) = 1 vi n
c) (an, bn) = (a, b)n vi n
4. Chng minh rang
n2 0 (mod 8) hoac n2 4 (mod 8) neu n la so nguyen chan
n2 1 (mod 8) neu n so nguyen le
5. Chng minh rang neu n

1 th 2 2 1(mod 3)

6. Cho a la mot so nguyen le va n

a2

n 1

3 la mot so t nhien. Chng minh rang

1 (mod 2n)

7. Chng minh rang vi moi so t nhien n th

cho 2n + 1.

2 n ( 2 n )!

k =1

la mot so nguyen chia het

8. Tm tat ca cac so nguyen n sao cho

a) 21 | (22n + 2n + 1)
n

b) 7 | (2 2 + 2n + 1)
d) 10 | n2 +(n2 + 1)2 + (n2 + 3)2
e) 8 | 3n + 4n + 1
9. a) Cho a, x1, x2, , xn 9. Chng minh rang, neu x1, x2, , xn la nguyen to cung
n

nhau tng oi va xi | a vi moi i = 1, 2, , n th x i | a.

i =1

b) Neu x1, x2, , xn la nguyen to cung nhau tng oi th

o Nguyen Sn

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[x1, x2, , xn] = | x i |

i =1

10. nh l Trung hoa ve phan d

a) Cho a1, a2, , an la nguyen to cung nhau tng oi va a = a i . Chng

i =1

minh rang vi moi so nguyen b1, b2, , bn ton tai mot so nguyen sao cho

x b i (mod a i )
x (mod a)

x Z, i = 1,2,..., n
b) Giai trong 9 phng trnh sau

x 4(mod 5)

x 3(mod 6)
x 2(mod 7)

11. Chng minh rang cac so nguyen sau la hp so.

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

n4 n2 + 16 vi n 9
4n3 + 6n2 + 4n + 1 vi n
24n +2 + 1 vi n
5n 3n vi n va n 2.
an + bn + cn + dn vi a, b, c, d va ab = cd

12. Tm tat ca cac so nguyen n

nguyen to.

2 sao cho n va n3 + n2 + 11n + 2 la nhng so

13. Cho p 3 la so nguyen to, n . Chng minh rang

(1 + p) p

1 + pn+1 (mod pn+2)

14. Cho a, b sao cho 12 (a3+ b3) la mot so nguyen to. Chng to a = b = 1.
15. Cho n sao cho n 11. Chng minh rang neu n 10, n + 10, n + 60
la nhng so nguyen to th th n + 90 cung la so nguyen to.
n

16. Tm tat ca cac so nguyen to co dang 2 2 + 5, n .

17. nh l nho Fermat :Cho p la so nguyen to
a) Chng minh : Vi moi n 9, np n(mod p)
b) Suy ra: Vi moi n 9, ( p | n np1 1(mod p)

o Nguyen Sn

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18. Chng minh rang vi moi so nguyen n, so

nguyen.

n7
n 5 23n
+
+
la mot so
7
5
35

19. Chng minh, vi moi n 9

a) 42 | n7 n
b) 2730 | n13 n
c) 21523 | n15 n3
20. Chng minh rang
a) Vi moi so nguyen le n
b) Vi moi so nguyen to p

o Nguyen Sn

15, 21840 | n121

19, 16320 | p161.

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CHNG 3: NHOM
1 Na nhom - V nhom
1.1 nh ngha
Cau truc ai so (X, *) vi * la phep toan trong tren X co tnh chat ket hp c
goi la na nhom. Mot na nhom co phan t n v c goi la v nhom. Mot na
nhom la giao hoan neu phep toan tren no co tnh giao hoan.
V DU:
1) Tap so t nhien vi phep toan cong thong thng la mot na nhom giao
hoan. Tap so t nhien(vi so 0) 0 vi phep toan cong thong thng la mot v
nhom giao hoan.
2) Tap so t nhien vi phep toan a* b = (a, b) (CLN cua a va b) la mot
na nhom giao hoan.
3) Tap P(X) cac tap con cua X cung vi phep toan ( hoac ) la v nhom
giao hoan.
4) Tap M(X) cac anh xa t X vao X vi phep toan hp cac anh xa la mot v
nhom khong giao hoan.

1.2 Tch cua n phan t trong na nhom

Trong na nhom (X. ) tch cua n phan t a1, a2, , an cua X c xac nh
bang qui nap nh sau:
a1 a2 a3 = (a1 a2) a3
a1 a2 a3 a4 = (a1 a2 a3) a4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a1 a2 an1 an = (a1 a2 an1) an.
n

Tch cua n phan t a1, a2, , an con c k hieu la a i . Neu na nhom (X,+)
i =1

c viet theo loi cong th ta viet dau tong thay v dau tch:
n

a i = a1 + a2 + + an1 + an = (a1 + a2 + + an1) + an

i =1

1.3 nh l
Gia s a1, a2, , an la n phan t bat k cua na nhom (X, ). Khi o

o Nguyen Sn

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a1 a2 an1 an = (a1 ai) (a i+1 aj) (am+1 an)

Chng minh: Ta se chng minh nh l tren bang phng phap qui nap theo n. V
(X, ) la na nhom nen khang nh ung vi n = 3. Gia s khang nh ung cho k
phan t ,vi 3 k n 1, ta phai chng minh khang nh ung vi n phan t
phan t . Xet tch x = (a1 ai) (a i+1 aj) (am+1 an) ta co
x =
=
=
=
=

(a1 am)(am+1 an)

(gia thiet qui nap)
(a1 am) [(am+1 an1) an] (nh ngha cua tch nhieu phan t )
[(a1 am)(am+1 an1)] an (tnh ket hp)
(a1 am am+1 an1) an
(gia thiet qui nap)
a1 a2 an1 an
(nh ngha cua tch nhieu phan t )

T o khang nh ung vi n phan t .

Trong na nhom (X. ) ta goi tch cua n phan t eu bang a la luy tha n cua
phan t a va k hieu la an. T nh l 1.2 suy ra ngay cac qui tac:
am an = am + n va (am)n = am n

1.4 nh l
Trong mot na nhom giao hoan (X, ) tch a1 a2 an1 an khong phu thuoc
vao th t cac nhan t.
Chng minh: Ta se chng minh nh l tren bang phng phap qui nap theo n. V
(X, ) la na nhom giao hoan nen khang nh ung vi n = 2. Gia s khang nh
ung cho k phan t ,vi 2 k n 1, ta phai chng minh khang nh ung vi n
phan t. Ta se ch ra (vi la hoan v bat k cua 1, 2, , n )
a1 a2 an1 an = a (1) a ( 2) a ( n )
Neu an = a ( k ) th ta co the viet ve phai cua ang thc tren nh sau nh nh l 1.3
va tnh giao hoan cua phep toan :
a (1) a ( k 1) a ( k ) a ( k +1) a ( n )
a ( n ) )]

= (a (1) a ( k 1) ) [a ( k ) (a ( k +1)

(do an = a ( k ) va tnh giao hoan) = (a (1) a ( k 1) ) [(a ( k +1) a ( n ) )an]

( do tnh ket hp)
( do nh l 1.3)

= [(a (1) a ( k 1) )(a ( k +1) a ( n ) )]an.

= (a (1) a ( k 1) a ( k +1) a ( n ) )an.

( theo gia thiet qui nap)

= (a1.a2 . . an1).an = a1.a2 . . an1.an

o Nguyen Sn

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ai So ai Cng

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2 Nhom
2.1 nh ngha
V nhom (X, *) c goi la mot nhom neu moi phan t cua X eu ton tai phan t
nghch ao. Hay noi cach khac, cau truc ai so (X, *) c goi la mot nhom neu :
a) (x * y) * z = x * (y * z)
vi moi x, y, z X
b) Ton tai phan t e X sao cho e * x = x * e = x vi moi x X
c) Vi moi x X ton tai y X sao cho x * y = y * x = e.
V DU:
1) Tap cac so hu t vi phep cong thong thng la mot nhom. Tap cac so
hu t khac 0, k hieu *, vi phep nhan thong thng la mot nhom. Tap cac so
thc va so phc 3 , vi phep cong thong thng la cac nhom. Tap cac so thc va
so phc khac 0, k hieu 3*, *, vi phep nhan thong thng la cac nhom.
2) Tap hp cac so phc co modul bang 1 vi phep nhan thong thng la mot
nhom.
3) Tap hp gom hai so 1 , 1 vi phep nhan la mot nhom. Tap hp gom bon
so 1, 1, i, i vi phep nhan la mot nhom.
4) Vi X , tap S(X) cac song anh t X vao X la mot nhom di phep toan
hp cac anh xa. Nhom nay c goi la nhom cac hoan v cua tap X.
5) Cho {(XI, )} iI la mot ho cac nhom. at X = X i = {(xi) iI : xi Xi } la
iI

tch Descartes cua ho {Xi} iI .Vi (xi) iI va (yi) iI la hai phan t cua X, ta xac
nh tch cua chung bi : (xi) iI (yi) iI = (xI yi) iI . Khi o (X, ) la mot nhom,
trong o phan t n v la 1 = (1 Xi ) iI va phan t nghch ao cua (xi) iI la
(x i1 ) iI . Ta goi X la tch Descartes hay tch trc tiep cua ho cac nhom {(Xi,
)} iI .

Mot nhom gom ch mot phan t c goi la nhom tam thng. Mot nhom noi
chung co the co vo han hoac hu han phan t . Neu X co hu han phan t th ta noi
X la nhom hu han, va so phan t cua X c goi la cap cua nhom X. Cac nhom
trong v du 3) la cac nhom hu han cap hai va cap 4. Neu phep toan tren X co tnh
giao hoan th ta noi X la nhom giao hoan hay nhom abel. Nhom trong v du 4) la
nhom khong giao hoan.
Trong mot nhom nhan (X, ) ngi ta co the noi en luy tha cua mot phan t
vi so mu la mot so nguyen bat k bang cach at:

o Nguyen Sn

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an
khi n > 0

1
an =
khi n = 0
(a 1 ) n khi n < 0

2.2 Cac tnh chat c ban cua nhom

Tnh chat 1: Phan t n v cua mot nhom la duy nhat.
Chng minh:
Gia s nhom (X, ) co hai phan t n v la 1 va 1* th 1 = 11* = 1*.
Tnh chat 2: Moi phan t cua nhom ch co duy nhat mot phan t nghch ao.
Chng minh: Gia s phan t a cua nhom (X, ) co hai phan t nghch ao la b
va b* th b = 1 b = (b* a) b = b* (a b) = b* 1 = b*.
Tnh chat 3: Trong mot nhom luat gian c thc hien c vi moi phan t, tc la
t ang thc a b = a c hoac b a = c a keo theo b = c.
Chng minh: Gia s a, b, c la cac phan t cua nhom (X, ) thoa man ang thc a b
= a c. Nhan ben trai hai ve cua ang thc nay vi a1, ta co
a1(a b) = a1(a c), hay (a1a) b = (a1a) c, hay 1b = 1c, tc la b = c.
Tnh chat 4: Trong nhom (X, ) ta co

1) (a b)1 = b1 a1, hoac tong quat hn, (a1 a2 an1 an)1 = a n 1 a n 11 a 2 1 a 11 ,

va ac biet, (an)1 = (a1)n, trong o n .
2) an am = an+m va (an)m = an m
Chng minh:
1) V

vi moi n, m 9 .

(ab)(b1a1) = a(bb1)a1 = aa1 = 1

(b1a1)(ab) = b1(a1a)b1 = b1b = 1

2) Neu n = 0 hoac m = 0 la hien nhien. Neu n, m > 0 , cac cong thc c suy ra
r nh l 1.2. Neu m , n < 0 th
an am = (a1)n(a1) m = (a1)(n) + (m) = (a1) (n + m)

o Nguyen Sn

= an+m

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(an)m

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= [(a1) n] m = [(an)1]m = (an) m = an m .

Neu m < 0 < n th

(an)m
n

a a

= ((an)1 ) m = ((a1)n) m = (a1)n ( m) = (a1) n m = an m

a n + m a m (a m ) 1
= n 1 n 1 mn
a (a ) (a )

khi n + m 0
khi n + m < 0

= an + m.

Tnh chat 5:
Cho (X, ) la mot na nhom. Khi o ba ieu sau ay la tng ng:
1) (X, ) la mot nhom.
2) Vi moi phan t a, b cua X, phng trnh ax = b cung nh phng trnh
ya = b co nghiem duy nhat.
3) Trong X ton tai phan t n v trai ( tng ng: n v phai) va moi phan t
cua X eu co nghch ao trai(tng ng: nghch ao phai).
Chng minh:
(1 2) Ta thay ngay gia tr x = a1b la nghiem cua phng trnh. o la nghiem
duy nhat v neu c cung la nghiem cua phng trnh, tc la ac = ax = b th c = x.
(2 3) Goi e la nghiem cua phng trnh ya = a. Ta se ch ra e la phan t
n v trai. That vay, vi moi phan t b bat k cua X , neu goi c la nghiem cua
phng trnh ax = b, th ta co eb = e(ac) = (ea)c = ac =b.
Gia s a la mot phan t bat k cua X, khi o phan t nghch ao trai cua a la
nghiem cua phng trnh ya = e.
(3 1) Gia s trong X ton tai phan t n v trai e va moi phan t cua X eu co
nghch ao trai. Lay mot phan t bat k a cua X. goi a1 la nghch ao trai cua a va
(a1)1 la nghch ao trai cua a1. Khi o ta co
aa1 = e(aa1) = ((a1)1 a1) (aa1) = (a1)1(a1 a)a1 = (a1)1(ea1)
= (a1)1a1 = e.
Mat khac, vi moi phan t b cua X, goi b1 la nghch ao trai (va cung la nghch
ao phai) cua b th ta co : be = b(b1b) = (bb1)b = eb = b.
Vay, e la phan t n v cua X va a1 la phan t nghch ao cua a va do o X la
mot nhom.

o Nguyen Sn

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- 47 -

3. Nhom con
3.1 nh ngha
Cho (X, ) la mot nhom , va H la mot tap con cua X. H c goi la on nh (oi
vi phep toan trong X) neu va ch neu a b H vi moi a, b H. Khi o ngi ta
cung noi rang, phep toan tren X cam sinh mot phep toan tren H.
Ta noi mot bo phan on nh H cua nhom X la mot nhom con cua X neu H cung
vi phep toan cam sinh la mot nhom.
CHU Y: Neu H la nhom con cua nhom (X, ) th phan t n v cua X la 1X nam
trong H. That vay, goi 1H la phan t n v cua nhom (H, ). Khi o ta co 1H 1H
= 1H va 1H 1X = 1H , t o suy ra 1H 1H = 1H 1X , va do luat gian c trong
nhom ta co 1X = 1H H.

3.2 nh l (tieu chuan e nhan biet mot nhom con)

Gia s H la mot tap con khac cua mot nhom (X, ). Khi o ba ieu sau ay la
tng ng:
1) H la mot nhom con cua X.
2) ab H va a1 H vi moi a, b H .
3) ab1 H vi moi a, b H.
Chng minh:
(1 2) V H la bo phan on nh cua nhom X nen ab H vi moi a, b H. Xet a la

mot phan t bat k cua H , gia s a H1 la phan t nghch ao cua a trong H va a X1

la nghch ao cua a trong X. Khi o a H1 .a = 1H = 1X = a X1 a, va do luat gian c

trong nhom ta co a X1 = a H1 H.
(2 3) ieu nay la ro rang.
(3 1) V H nen ton tai phan t a H, t o theo gia thiet 1X = aa1 H. Vi

moi b H, goi b X1 la phan t nghch ao cua b trong X, t 1X H va t gia thiet

suy ra b X1 =1X .b X1 H. Bay gi vi moi a, b H, khi o b1 H va do gia thiet
ab = a (b1)1 H. ieu nay chng to cung la phep toan tren H, va do phep toan
a cho trong X co tnh ket hp nen (H. ) la na nhom. Ngoai ra H co phan t n

v la 1H :=1X va phan t a H co phan t nghch ao la a H1 := a X1 . T o (H,

) la mot nhom.
V DU:
1) Cho nhom (X, ). Bo phan {1X} va X la hai nhom con cua nhom X, chung
c goi la cac nhom con tam thng cua nhom X

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2) ( ,+) la nhom con cua (3 , +). Nhom cac so phc co modul bang 1 la
nhom con cua nhom nhan (*, ). Nhom ({1, 1}, ) la nhom con cua nhom ({1,
1, i, i}, ).
3) Cho (G, ) la mot nhom. Khi o Z(G) = {x G : xg = gx, vi moi g G}
la mot nhom con giao hoan cua nhom G. That vay, vi moi a, b Z(G) va vi moi
g G ta co
(ab)g = a(bg) = a(gb) = (ag)b = (ga)b = g(ab),
tc la ab Z(G).
Mat khac, t ag = ga suy ra

a1 (ag)a1 = a1 (ga)a1
(a1a)(ga1) = (a1g)(aa1)
ga1 = a1g,

tc la a1 Z(G). Tnh giao hoan cua (ZG) la ro rang. Nhom con Z(G) c goi la
tam cua nhom G.
4) Cho (9, +) la nhom nhan cac so nguyen. at n9 = {nk : k 9}. Khi o
n9 la mot nhom con cua (9, +). Hn na, moi nhom con cua (9, +) eu co
dang m9 vi m la mot so nguyen nao o.
That vay, n9 la nhom con v nx ny = n(x y) n9. Bay gi, goi H la mot nhom
con bat k cua nhom (9, +). Neu H ={0} th H = 09. Neu H {0} th ton tai so
nguyen k H vi k 0. Khi o k cung thuoc H do H la nhom con. Nh vay,
trong H co t nhat mot so dng. Goi m la so dng nho nhat trong H. Ta se ch ra
H = m9 . Trc het H m9, that vay, lay x la mot phan t bat k cua H. T phep
chia trong 9 ta c x = mq + r, vi 0 r < m. Neu 0 < r < m th t r = x mq
H dan en mau thuan vi viec m la so dng nho nhat cua H, vay ta phai co r = 0.
T o x = mq m9. Bao ham thc ngc lai m9 H la ro rang.
4) Giao cua mot ho bat k cac nhom con cua mot nhom G cung la mot nhom
con cua nhom G.
That vay, xet mot ho bat k {Xi} iI cac nhom con cua (G, ) va X la giao cua
chung. Lay hai phan t bat k x, y cua X, khi o x,y Xi vi moi i I. V Xi la cac
nhom con nen xy1 Xi vi moi i I, do o xy1 X. T nh l 3.2 suy ra X la mot
nhom con cua G.
NHAN XET: Neu A la mot tap con cua nhom G, th A se cha trong t nhat mot
nhom con cua G, chang han G. Theo v du 4) giao cua tat ca cac nhom con cua G
cha A cung la mot nhom con cha A. Co the kiem tra de dang rang o la nhom
con be nhat cha A, tc la no cha trong moi nhom con cha A cua G.

3.3 Nhom con sinh bi mot tap con cua nhom

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Co mot con ng tong quat e thu c cac nhom con t mot nhom. Xet S la
mot tap con khac cua nhom (G, ). at:

< S > = {a 11 a 22 a nn : ai S, i = 1, n }
Khi o, < S > la nhom con cua G va la nhom con be nhat cha S.
That vay, neu x, y < S > th ro rang xy1 < S >, tc la < S > la mot nhom con
cua G. Goi H la giao cua tat ca cac nhom con cua G cha S. V nhom con H cha
moi phan t a S nen < S > H. V < S > hien nhien cha S nen < S > = H.
Vay, < S > la nhom con be nhat cua G cha S.
< S > c goi la nhom con sinh bi S. Ta cung noi rang S tap cac phan t sinh
cua < S >.
Neu S = {a} th < S > gom tat ca cac phan t co dang an vi n 9 . Trong trng
hp nay ta thng viet (a) thay cho < {a}> va goi no la nhom con cyclic cua G
sinh bi a.
V DU:
1) Xet nhom cong cac so nguyen (9 , +). Khi o (1) = 9.
2) Xet nhom nhan cac so phc ( , ). Khi o ( i ) = {1, 1, i, i }.

4. Nhom con chuan tac - Nhom thng

4.1 Lp ke - Quan he tng ng xac nh bi mot nhom con
Cho (G, ) la mot nhom, H la mot nhom con cua no va a la phan t cua G. Tap
hp tat ca cac phan t ax vi x H c goi la lp ke trai ( hay lp ghep trai)
cua H trong G. Ta k hieu no bi aH.
Cho (G, ) la mot nhom, H la mot nhom con cua no. Tren G ta xac nh mot
quan he ~ nh sau
x ~ y x1y H
Quan he ~ xac nh tren la mot quan he tng ng. That vay, v H la nhom con
nen x1x = 1 H , tc la x ~ x (tnh phan xa). Gia s x va y la hai phan t bat k cua
G sao cho x ~ y, tc la x1y H. V H la nhom con nen ta co (x1y)1 = y1x H,
tc la y ~ x. Vay ~ co tnh oi xng. Cuoi cung, gia s x, y, z la ba phan t bat k
cua G sao cho x ~ y va y ~ z, tc la x1y, y1z H. T H la nhom con suy ra (x
1
y)( y1z) = x1(y y1)z = x 1z H. Vay ~ la bac cau.
NHAN XET:

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1) Quan he tng ng ~ noi en tren chia G thanh cac lp tng ng. K

hieu a se c dung e ch lp tng ng cha phan t a, khi o

a = aH = {ax : x H}
That vay, gia s b la mot phan t bat k thuoc lp tng ng a , khi o a~b, tc
la a1b H, t o b = a (a1b) aH. Vay a aH. Ngc lai, gia s b la mot
phan t bat k thuoc aH, khi o ton tai mot phan t x thuoc H sao cho b = ax hay x
= a1b, tc la a1b H. Vay a ~ b va t o aH a .
T nhan xet 1) suy ra rang, oi vi hai lp ke bat k aH va bH cua H trong G th
hoac la chung trung nhau hoac la chung ri nhau.
2) Lp ke aH trung vi H khi va ch khi a H. That vay, gia s co aH = H. Goi e la
phan t n v cua G, do H la nhom con nen e H, t o a = ae aH = H. Ngc
lai, gia s a H, ta se ch ra aH = H. V H la nhom con nen t a H suy ra ax H
vi moi x H va ieu nay co ngha la aH H. Bay gi gia s b la mot phan t bat
k cua H. V H la nhom con nen a1 H va a1b H, t o b = (a a1)b = a(a1b)
aH. Vay H aH.
Hoan toan tng t, ta k hieu Ha la lp ke phai cua H trong G, no gom tat ca
cac phan t xa vi x H, va trung vi lp tng ng a cha phan t a trong
quan he tng ng c xac nh bi
x ~ y xy1 H
Trong cac phan sau, neu khong ch ro, ta noi lp ke co ngha la lp ke trai.
Neu dung dau + e k hieu phep toan trong nhom G, th lp ke trai va phai cua H
trong G se c viet la
a + H = {a + x : x H}; H + a = {x + a : x H}
Con cac quan he tng ng se c viet la
x ~ y ( x )+ y H ;

x ~ y y + ( x) H )

4.2 Menh e
Cho G la mot nhom, va H la mot nhom con. Khi o so cac phan t cua mot lp ke
aH bang so cac phan t trong H.

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Chng minh: Xet anh xa H aH, x a ax. Anh xa nay la mot song anh, that vay
ro rang no la toan anh, hn na no la n anh v t ax = ax' suy ra x = x' (luat gian
c trong nhom). V G hu han nen H cung hu han, t o so phan t cua H phai
bang so phan t cua aH.
Cho G la mot nhom, va H la mot nhom con. So cac lp ke ri nhau cua H trong
G c goi la ch so cua H trong G. Ch so nay tat nhien co the la vo han. Neu G
la nhom hu han, th ch so cua mot nhom con bat k la hu han. Ch so cua mot
nhom con H trong G se c k hieu la (G : H).

4.3 nh l (Lagrange)
Cho G la mot nhom hu han va H la mot nhom con. Khi o
(cap cua G) = (G : H) (cap cua H)
Chng minh:
V G hu han nen so cac lp ke (G : H) la hu han, khi o G c phan hoach
thanh (G : H) lp, so phan t cua moi lp, theo menh e 5.3, bang cap cua H.
T o suy ra ang thc can chng minh.
NHAN XET:
1) nh l Lagrange cung ch ra rang cap cua mot nhom con cua mot nhom
hu han la c cua cap cua nhom o.
2) Sau ay la mot ng dung cua nh l Lagrange. Gia s G la mot nhom hu
han cap n. Khi o, vi moi x G ta co xn = e.
That vay, xet nhom con cyclic cua G sinh bi x : H =(x) = {xk, k 9}.V H hu han
nen ton tai nhng luy tha cua x bang nhau, chang han xk = xm (vi k > m). Khi
o, xk m = xm m = a0 = e. Vay ton tai nhng so mu nguyen dng l sao cho xl = e.
Goi s la so nguyen dng nho nhat co tnh chat ay. Ta ch ra rang cac phan t x0 =
e, x, x2, , xs 1 la khac nhau, va moi phan t cua H eu bang mot trong cac phan
t ay. Trc het cac phan t noi tren la khac nhau, v neu xk = xm vi 0 m < k
s 1, th ta co xk m = e vi 0 < k m < s, nhng ieu nay mau thuan vi gia
thiet ve s. Bay gi, gia s a la mot phan t bat k cua H, tc la a = xk vi k la mot
so nguyen nao o. Chia k cho s ta c k = sq + r vi 0 r < s. Khi o a = xk =
xsq + r = (xs)qxr = exr = xr. T o suy ra cap cua H bang s. Theo nh l Lagrange th s
la c cua n, tc la n = sp.T o xn = xsp = (xs)p = ep = e.

4.4 Nhom con chuan tac

Mot nhom con H cua mot nhom G c goi la nhom con chuan tac neu va ch
neu xH = Hx vi moi x G

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Co the phat bieu nh ngha nhom con chuan tac di dang tng ng:
Mot nhom con H cua nhom G la chuan tac khi va ch khi x1a x H vi moi a
H va moi x G.
Ta se ch ra rang hai nh ngha neu tren la tng ng. That vay, gia s co xH
= Hx vi moi x G. Goi a la phan t bat k cua H, khi o ton tai a' H sao cho xa
= a'x, suy ra a = x1a' x H. Ngc lai, gia s co x1a x H vi moi a H va
moi x G. Vi phan t a bat k thuoc H, va x G ta ch can ch ra ton tai hai
phan t a' va a'' H sao cho xa = a''x va ax = xa', v khi o suy ra ngay xH = Hx.
Co the thay hai phan t a, a'' can tm la a' = x1a x H va a'' = (x1)1ax1 = x ax1
H.
CHU Y: ieu kien vi moi x X : xH = Hx khong co ngha la vi bat k a
thuoc H th phai co xa = ax ma ieu kien nay ch co ngha la vi moi a H se ton
tai a' H sao cho xa = a'x.
V DU:
1) Moi nhom con cua mot nhom giao hoan eu chuan tac. Chang han n9 la
nhom con chuan tac cua nhom ( 9 , +).
2) Tam cua nhom G, Z(G) = {x G : gx = xg, vi moi g G}, la nhom con
chuan tac cua G. That vay, vi moi x G, vi moi h Z(G) ta co
x1h x = x1 (h x) = x1 (x h) = (x1 x) h = h Z(G).
3) Neu S va T la cac nhom con chuan tac cua nhom G th S T cung la nhom
con chuan tac cua G. That vay, vi moi x G, vi moi h S T, v h S va h
T nen x1h x S va x1h x T, t o x1h x S T.
4) Xet nhom cac phep the S3 = {song anh : {1, 2, 3} {1, 2, 3}} vi phep
toan hp cac anh xa ma cac phan t la ( ay, k hieu = ( (1) (2) (3))):

1 = (123), 2 = (132), 3 = (213), 4 = (231), 5 = (312), 6 = (321)

Khi o nhom con H = { 1, 4, 5} la chuan tac v

1H = H 1 = H, 2H = H 2 = { 2, 3, 6}; 3H = H 3 = { 3, 2, 6};
4H = H 4 = H, 5H = H 5 = H, 6H = H 6 = { 6, 3, 2}.

4.5 Nhom thng

Cho (G, ) la nhom va H la mot nhom con chuan tac cua G. Xet tap G/H gom cac

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lp ke trai aH (cung la ke phai do H la chuan tac), chu y rang no cung la tap

thng oi vi quan he tng ng a noi trong 5.1
Ta se xay dng mot cau truc nhom tren tap G/H bang cach xac nh phep toan
nhan tren G/H nh sau
aH bH = abH
Vi moi a, a', b, b' G, neu (aH, bH) = (a'H, b'H) th abH = a'b'H ( do (ab)1
a' b' = b1 (a1 a') b' = (b1 (a1 a') b)(b1 b') H ). Vay thc s la mot phep toan
trong tren G/H. No co tnh ket hp , phan t n v la 1GH, phan t nghch ao cua
aH la a1H. Khi o (G/H, ) la mot nhom va c goi la nhom thng cua G tren
H.
Neu G la nhom cong th phep toan tren tap thng G/H se c viet
(a + H) + (b + H) = (a + b) + H
va nhom thng (G/H, + ) co phan t n v la 0 + H, phan t nghch ao cua a + H
la (a) + H
V DU: Xet (9 , +) la nhom cong cac so nguyen, (m 9 ,+) la nhom con va la
chuan tac do (9 ,+) giao hoan.
Tap thng

/m 9 = { a = a + m 9 : 0

a m 1}

cung vi phep toan (a + m9) + (b + m9) = (a + b) + m9

tao thanh nhom thng (9 /m 9 , +), con c k hieu 9m , va c goi la nhom cac
so nguyen modulo m . Phan t n v la 0 = 0 + m9, phan t nghch ao cua a
la a .
CHU Y: Tren 9m , xet phep toan nhan a b = ab . Neu m la so nguyen to th
9m { 0 } la nhom giao hoan vi phan t n v la 1 phan t nghch ao cua a la b
vi ab 1( mod m)
Minh hoa trong 95

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0
1
2
3
4

0
1
2
3
4

5. ong cau nhom

5.1 nh ngha
Cho (G, *) va (H, ) la hai nhom. Anh xa f : G H c goi la mot ong cau
(nhom) neu no bao toan cac phep toan cua nhom, tc la
f(a * b) = f(a) f(b) vi moi a, b G.
Mot ong cau f c goi la n cau, toan cau, ang cau neu anh xa f tng
ng la n anh, toan anh, song anh. Neu G = H th ong cau f c goi la mot t
ong cau cua G. Mot t ong cau song anh c goi la mot t ang cau. Trong
trng hp f : G H la mot ang cau th ta cung noi nhom G ang cau vi nhom
H, va viet G H.
K HIEU:

Hom(G, H) = {ong cau f: G H}

End(G)
= {t ong cau f : G G}
Aut(G)
= {t ang cau f : G G}

V DU:
1) (3 *+ , ) (3 , +) v co mot ang cau f : (3 *+ , ) (3 , +), f(x) = lnx, ay
3 *+ la tap cac so thc dng va va + la cac phep toan nhan va cong thong thng.
2) Hai nhom (, +) va ( *+ , ) vi cac phep toan nhan va cong thong thng

tren tap so hu t khong the ang cau vi nhau. That vay, gia s co mot ang cau f
: (, +) ( *+ , ). Xet so 2 *+ , v f song anh nen ton tai a sao cho 2 =

f(a) = f( a2 + a2 ) = f( a2 )f( a2 ) = [f( a2 )]2, nhng ieu nay dan en mau thuan v khong
co so hu t nao ma bnh phng cua no bang 2.
3) Cho (G, ) la mot nhom va S(G) la nhom cac hoan v cua tap G. Vi moi a
thuoc G, xet anh xa
Ta : G G, Ta (x) = ax.

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Ta thay rang, Ta la mot song anh, that vay, no la n anh v neu ax = ay th x = y

(luat gian c trong mot nhom); no la toan anh v vi moi x G ta co x = Ta(a
1
x). T o Ta S(G). Ngi ta goi Ta la phep tnh tien trai bi a.
Bay gi xet anh xa a a Ta t nhom (G, ) en nhom (S(G), o) cac hoan v cua
tap hp G. Co the ch ra no la mot n cau. That vay, no la ong cau v vi moi
a, b G ta co Tab(x) = abx = Ta(Tb(x)), no la n anh v neu Ta(x) = Tb(x), tc
la ax = bx, th do luat gian c ta co a = b.
Ten goi cua anh xa Ta c lay t hnh hoc Euclide. at G = 32 = 3 3 , ta hnh
dung G nh mot mat phang va moi phan t cua G la mot vector. Khi o vi A 3
3 , anh xa TA : G G, TA(X) = X + A chnh la phep tnh tien theo vector A thong
thng.
4) Cho (G, +) va (H,+) la hai nhom giao hoan. Ta co the lam Hom(G, H) tr
thanh mot nhom nh sau. Neu f, g Hom(G, H) ta xac nh f + g : G H la anh
xa c cho bi (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) vi moi x G. Viec kiem tra no la mot
nhom la khong kho, phan t n v la ong cau x a 0, phan t nghch ao cua f la
ong cau x a f(x).
5) Cho H la mot nhom con cua nhom G. Khi o anh xa i : H G, i(x) = x
la mot n cau, goi la n cau chnh tac.
6) Cho H la mot nhom con chuan tac cua nhom G. Khi o anh xa

: G G/H, (x) = xH,

la mot ong cau nhom t nhom G en nhom thng G/H. That vay, v ta co (xy)
= xyH = xH yH = (x) (y). Hn na, ong cau nay la mot toan cau, goi la toan
cau chnh tac.

5.2 Anh va nhan cua ong cau

Cho f : G H la mot ong cau t nhom (G, ) en nhom (H, ), cac phan t
n v cua G va H c k hieu lan lt la 1G va 1H. Ta se goi cac tap hp Imf =
f(G) = {f(x), x G} va Kerf = f 1(1H) = {x G : f(x) = 1H} lan lt la anh va
nhan cua ong cau f.

5.3 Cac tnh chat cua ong cau nhom

Tnh chat 1 Hp cua hai ong cau nhom la mot ong cau nhom. Hn na, hp
cua hai ang cau la mot ang cau.

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Chng minh: Gia s f : (X. ) (Y, ) va g : (Y, ) (Z, ) la hai ong cau
nhom. Goi a, b la hai phan t bat k cua X. Khi o go f la mot ong cau v
(go f)(ab) = g(f(ab)) = g [f(a)f(b)] = g(f(a))g(f(b)) = (go f)(a) (go f)(b)
Tnh chat 2: Cho f : (G, ) (H, ) la mot ong cau nhom; 1G ,1H lan lt la
phan t n v cua G va H. Khi o
a) f(1G) = 1H.
b) f(a 1) = [f(a)]1 vi moi a G.
Chng minh:
a) Ta co f(1G)1H = f(1G) = f(1G1G) = f(1G)f(1G), t o f(1G) = 1H (luat gian c)
b) Suy ra t f(a)f(a 1) = f(aa 1) = f(1G) = 1H.
Tnh chat 3: Gia s f : (G, ) (H, ) la mot ong cau nhom. Khi o
a) Neu A la mot nhom con cua G th f(A) la mot nhom con cua H. Hn na neu A
chuan tac th f (A) cung chuan tac.
b) Neu B la mot nhom con cua H th f 1(B) la mot nhom con cua G. Hn na neu
B chuan tac th f 1(B) cung chuan tac.
Chng minh:
a) V A la nhom con nen 1G A, do o f(1G) = 1H f(A), tc la f(A) .
Gia s y1, y2 la hai phan t bat k cua f(A). Khi o, ton tai x1, x2 A sao cho

y1 = f(x1), y2 = f(x2). Ta co y1y 2 1 = f(x1) [f(x2)]1 = f(x1) f(x 2 1 ) = f(x1x 2 1 ). Mat

khac, v A la nhom con cua G nen x1x 2 1 A, do o y1y 2 1 = f(x1x 2 1 ) f(A). Vay
f(A) la nhom con.
b) V B la nhom con nen 1H B, do o f(1G) = 1H B, suy ra 1G f 1(B), tc
la f 1(B) . Gia s x1, x2 la hai phan t bat k cua f 1(B). Khi o f(x1), f(x2)

B. Ta co f(x1x 2 1 ) = f(x1) f(x 2 1 ) = f(x1) [f(x2)]1. Mat khac, v B la nhom con cua H
nen f(x1) [f(x2)]1 = f(x1x 2 1 ) B. T o x1x 2 1 f 1(B).

Gia s B la chuan tac. Vi moi a f 1(B) va x G, do f la ong cau nen ta co f(x

1
ax) = f(x1)f(a)f(x) = [f(x)]1f(a)f(x). V f(a) B va B chuan tac nen [f(x)]1f(a)f(x)
thuoc B. T o suy ra
x1ax thuoc f 1(B), tc la f 1(B) la chuan tac.
NHAN XET: T tnh chat 3 suy ra ngay rang, Ker f = f 1(1H) va Im f = f(G) lan
lt la cac nhom con cua G va H, hn na Ker f la nhom con chuan tac.
Tnh chat 4: Gia s f : (G, ) (H, ) la mot ong cau nhom. Khi o
a) f la n cau khi va ch khi Kerf = {1G}.
b) f la toan cau khi va ch khi Imf = H
Chng minh:
a) Gia s f la n cau. Trc het ta co {1G} Kerf v f(1G) = 1H. Vi x bat

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k thuoc Kerf, ta co f(x) = 1H = f(1G), do f n anh nen suy ra x =1G, t o Kerf

{1G}.
Bay gi gia thiet Kerf = {1G} va gia s f(x1) = f(x2) vi moi x1, x2 G.

Khi o ta co f(x1)[f(x2)]1 =1H, suy ra f(x1x 2 1 ) =1H, t o x1x 2 1 Kerf = {1G}, tc

la x1x 2 1 = 1G hay x1 = x2. Vay f la n anh.
b) Suy ra trc tiep t nh ngha cua toan anh.
Tnh chat 5: Gia s f : (G, ) (H, ) la mot ong cau nhom. Khi o
f(an) = [f(a)]n vi moi n 9
Chng minh: Qui nap cho n , con lai s dung nh ngha luy tha am.

5.4 nh l ( c ban cua ong cau nhom)

Cho f la mot ong cau t nhom G en nhom H va : G G/Kerf la toan cau
chnh tac t nhom G en nhom thng G/kerf . Khi o ton tai duy nhat mot ong
cau f* : G/kerf H sao cho f = f*o , tc la bieu o sau giao hoan:
G

H
f*

G/Kerf
Hn na, f* la mot n cau va Im f* = f(G) = Imf
Chng minh: at K = Kerf va se ch ra ong cau can tm la
f* : G/K H, f*(xK) = f(x)
Trc het f la c xac nh ung an, that vay gia s xA = yA th ta co x
1
y A = Kerf, t o f(x1y) = f(x1)f(y) = [f(x)]1f(y) = 1H, hay f(x) = f(y).
*

f* la mot ong cau v f*(xA.yA) = f*(xyA) = f(xy) = f(x)f(y) = f*(xA)f*(yA)

f* la duy nhat, that vay gia s co mot ong cau khac g* : G/A H sao cho f =
g*o . Khi o vi moi xA G/A ta co
g*(xA) = g*( (x)) = (g*o )(x) = f(x) = (f*o )(x) = f*( (x)) = f*(xA)
tc la g* = f*.
f* la n anh, that vay gia s co f*(xA) = f*(yA), suy ra f(x) = f(y), t o f(x1y) =
f(x1)f(y) = [f(x)]1f(y) = 1H, tc la x1y Kerf = A, vay xA = yA.

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V la toan cau nen f(G) = (f*o )(G) = f*( (G)) = f*(G/K) = Im f*

5.5 He qua
1) Vi moi ong cau nhom f : G H ta co f(G) G/Kerf
2) Vi moi toan cau nhom f : G H ta co H G/Kerf
V DU:
Vi m , xet ong cau f : (9, +) (*, ), f(k) = cos
co

2k
2k
+ isin
, khi o ta
m
m

2k
2k
+ isin
, k = 0, 1, 2,, m 1} = m 1
m
m
2k
2k
Kerf = {k 9 : cos
+ isin
= 1} = {km, m 9 } = m9
m
m

Imf = f(9 ) = { cos

Theo he qua 5.5 th f(9 ) 9m =

/m 9

6. Nhom cyclic
6.1 nh ngha
Mot nhom G c goi la cyclic, neu va ch neu ton tai mot phan t a G sao cho
G = (a) = {an, n 9}, khi o a goi la phan t sinh cua G.
Neu nhom cyclic G c viet theo loi cong th moi phan t x G eu co dang x =
na, n 9.
V DU:
1) Nhom (9, +) la nhom cyclic vi phan t sinh la 1 hay 1. o cung la phan
t sinh duy nhat cua 9, v gia s co a 1 la mot phan t sinh th do na 1 voi
moi n 9 nen 1 9.
2) Nhom (9m , +) la nhom cyclic vi phan t sinh la 1 . Chu y rang nhom
nay la hu han cap m.

6.2 Cap cua mot phan t trong nhom

Cho (G, ) la mot nhom. Mot phan t a G c goi la co cap hu han neu ton
tai mot so nguyen k > 0 sao cho ak = 1G. Trong trng hp nay ta goi so nguyen
dng nho nhat m sao cho am = 1G la cap cua phan t a, va k hieu m = ord(a)

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Phan t a G c goi la co cap vo han neu va ch neu vi moi so nguyen k

0 ta co ak 1G.

6.3 nh l ( phan loai nhom tuan hoan)

Gia s G = (a) la nhom cyclic vi phan t sinh la a. Khi o
a) Neu a co cap n th G (9n , +)
b) Neu a co cap vo han th G (9, +)
Chng minh: Xet toan cau f : (9, +) G, f(k) = ak.

a) Neu a co cap n th Kerf = n9, va theo he qua 5.5 cua nh l ong cau ta
co G 9n =

/n 9.

b) Neu a co cap vo han th ro rang Kerf = {0}, va cung theo he qua 5.5 cua
nh l ong cau ta co G

/{0} (9, +).

NHAN XET: T nh l 6.3 suy ra moi nhom cyclic G ma phan t sinh cua no co
cap n th G la nhom hu han cap n, cu the G = {a0 = e, a, a2, , an1}; con neu
phan t sinh co cap vo han th G la nhom vo han.

7. Tac ong cua mot nhom len mot tap hp

7.1 nh ngha:
Cho mot tap hp X va mot nhom G. Noi rang nhom G tac ong len tap hp X
neu va ch neu ton tai mot anh xa G X X, (g, x) a g.x sao cho
a) e.x = x vi moi x X, va e la phan t n v cua G
b) (g.h).x = g.(h.x), vi moi g, h G, vi moi x X.
V DU:
1) Co the cho nhom G tac ong len chnh no theo cac cach sau
a) Phep tnh tien trai G G G, (g, x) a g.x
b) Phep tnh tien phai G G G, (g, x) a xg1
c) Phep lien hp
G G G, (g, x) a gxg1
Ta ch ra, chang han phep lien hp la mot tac ong nhom, that vay ro rang ta co
e.x = exe1 = x va (g.h).x = (gh)x(gh)1 = g(hxh1)g1 = g(h.x)g1 = g.(h.x).
2) Nhom G co the tac ong lien hp len tap cac tap con P(G) cua no theo cach
sau: G P(G) P(G), (g, A) a gAg1 = { gag1, a A}.

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7.2 Nhom con on nh cua mot phan t

Cho nhom G tac ong tren tap X va x X. Khi o, tap hp
Gx = {g G : g.x = x}
la mot nhom con cua G, that vay v e Gx nen Gx . Mat khac, vi moi g, h
Gx ta co x = g.x = g.(h1.h.x) = (g.h1)(h.x) = (g.h1)x, tc la h.g1 Gx.
Ta se goi Gx la nhom con on nh cua phan t x G
V DU:
1) Neu nhom G tac ong len chnh no bang lien hp th
Gx = {g G : g.xg1 = x} = {g G : g.x = x.g}.
Tap hp nay c goi la cai tam hoa cua x.
2) Neu nhom G tac ong len tap P(G) cac tap con cua no no bang lien hp
th
GA = {g G : g.Ag1 = A} = {g G : g.A = A.g}.
Tap hp nay c goi la cai chuan hoa cua A.

7.3 Quy ao cua mot phan t

Cho nhom G tac ong tren tap X va x X, khi o tap G.x = {g.x, g G} c
goi la qui ao cua phan t x oi vi nhom G.
NHAN XET: Hai qui ao cua hai phan t x, y cua X hoac ri nhau hoac trung
nhau. That vay, neu s Gx Gy th s = gx = g'y vi g, g' la hai phan t nao o
cua G. Do o G.s = G.g.x = G.g'.y. Vay, Gx = Gy = Gs.
Nh vay tap X la hp cua cac qui ao ri nhau X = U G.x i , trong o xi la cac
iI

phan t cua cac qui ao khac nhau, va I la mot tap ch so.

8. Nhom oi xng
8.1 nh ngha
Neu X la tap khac rong, S(X) la tap cac song anh t X len X th oi vi phep hp
cac anh xa, S(X) la mot nhom ma ta thng goi la nhom oi xng (hoac con goi la
nhom hoan v) tren X. Mot tnh chat ly thu cua nhom oi xng la ket qua sau ay

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8.2 nh l (Ceyley)
Moi nhom (G, ) eu la nhom con cua nhom oi xng S(G).
Chng minh:
Xet n cau f : G S(G), f(a) = fa vi fa(x) = ax x G

8.3 Nhom oi xng Sn

Neu X = {1,2,...,n}, n 2, th nhom S(X) c goi la nhom oi xng bac n va k
hieu la Sn . Moi phan t Sn c goi la mot phep the, hay hoan v cua
{1,2,...,n}, thng c viet di dang :
1

...

=
(1) (2) ... (n )

hay n gian hn = ( (1) ( 2) . . . ( n ) ).

8.4 r - chu trnh

Mot hoan v Sn goi la r-chu trnh neu co mot tap con {j1,..., jr} gom
r phan t cua {1,2,...,n} sao cho

( ji ) = ji+1 , j = 1,2,..., r 1, ( jr ) = j1

, m j1 , j2 ,..., jr
( m ) = m
Tap hp {j1,..., jr} c goi la gia cua r - chu trnh , va thng k hieu la
= (j1,..., jr) hay j1 j2 ... jr j1.
V DU:

1 2 3 4 5

la 3 - chu trnh (2,5,3)

1
5
2
4
3

Mot 2-chu trnh c goi la chuyen v.

Hai chu trnh (j1,..., jr) va (h1,..., hs) c goi la ri nhau neu va ch neu
{j1,..., jr} {h1,..., hs } =
NHAN XET:
1) Ta xem = id la 1-chu trnh, id = (i), va thng viet id = (1).
2) Neu la mot chuyen v th = 1.
3) Tch cac chu trnh ri nhau co tnh chat giao hoan.
4) Trong r-chu trnh = (j1,..., jr) ta co jk+1 = k (j1 ), k = 1, 2, ..., r 1.

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8.5 Tnh chat

1) (j1, j2, .., jr)

= (j2, j3, .., jr, j1) = = (jr, j1, .., jr2, jr1)

j1

2) (j1, j2, .., jr)m =

jm+1

j2
jm+ 2

....
jr
,
.... jm+ r

hang di jr + h = jk neu h k( mod r)

3) ord (j1, j2, .., jr) = r.
Chng minh: 1) suy ra t nh ngha, 2) chng minh bang qui nap va 3) suy ra trc
tiep t 2)

8.6 nh l
Moi Sn luon co the phan thanh tch mot so hu han cac chuyen v.
Chng minh : Ta chng minh bang quy nap theo n
Vi n = 2 la hien nhien, gia s nh l ung vi n 1. Xet Sn va gia s (n) =
k. Goi la chuyen v (k, n). Suy ra : ( )(n) = n, tc la xem nh la phan t
cua Sn1. Theo gia thiet quy nap la tch cua nhng chuyen v = 1 . . . k .
V = 1 nen : = 1 ... k.

8.7 nh li
Moi phan t cua Sn eu co the phan tch thanh tch cac chu trnh oi mot ri nhau,
s phan tch tren la duy nhat (sai khac ve th t cac chu trnh).
Chng minh :
1) S ton tai Ta bat au vi day 1, (1), 2(1), ., k(1),
(1)
2
n
V n + 1 so t nhien 1, (1), (1), ., (1) eu thuoc {1, 2, , n} nen ton tai s, t
{0,1, 2, , n} sao cho s < t va s(1) = t(1). Neu at m = t s {1, 2, , n}
th ta co m(1) = 1. Vay tap hp {q {1, 2, , n} : q(1) = 1} la khac rong va do
o co so be nhat p. Khi o p so t nhien 1, (1), ., p1(1) la khac nhau tng oi
mot, v neu ton tai s, t {0,1, 2, , p 1} sao cho s < t va s(1) = t(1) th se co
m(1) = 1 vi m = t s {1, 2, , p 1}, trai vi tnh chat cua p. Nh vay t day
(1) ta tm c mot p - chu trnh
1 (1) 2(1) p1(1) 1
. Neu 2 (1, (1), 2(1), ., p1(1)) th xet day 2, (2), 2(2), , k(2), va

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lap luan tng t nh tren, t day nay tm c mot q - chu trnh

2 (2) 2(2) . q1(2) 1
. Bang cach nay, sau mot so hu han bc, ta tm c cac chu trnh ri nhau ma
hp cua chung la .
2)S duy nhat. Gia s = c1 o c2 o o cr = d1 o d2 o o ds la hai dang phan
tch cua thanh cac chu trnh tng oi mot ri nhau. Neu = id th khang nh
la ro rang. Gia s id, khi o ton tai i {1, 2, , n} sao cho (i) i va m {1,
2, , r}, k {1, 2, , s} sao cho i thuoc gia cua chu trnh cm va gia cua chu
trnh dk. Do ta co the hoan v vong quanh cac phan t trong mot chu trnh ma khong
lam no thay oi va cung nh trong 1) ton tai so t nhien p sao cho cm = dk = ( i, (i),
., p1(i)). Lap lai l luan tng t cho cac chu trnh con lai, ta suy ra r = s va { c1,
c2, ,cr } = {d1, d2, ,ds}
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
= (1,2,3,7)o(5,8,6)
.V DU: Xet =
2 3 7 4 8 5 1 6
Ta bat au 1 va tm c chu trnh au tien 1 2 3 7 1, sau o bat au
vi so nho nhat con lai , trong trng hp nay la 5, v 4 khong thay oi, 5 8
6 5.
Cho Sn. Ta noi rang cap ( (i), (j)) la mot nghch the trong hoan v (hoac
la mot nghch the cua ) neu co i < j va (i) > (j). Ta k hieu so cac nghch the
I ( )

cua la I( ), va goi ( ) = (1)

la k so cua . Ta noi rang hoan v la
chan(tng ng: le) neu ( ) = 1(tng ng: ( ) = 1).

8.8 He qua
Gia s Sn va t1, t2, , tN la nhng chuyen v cua {1, 2, ,n}
sao cho = t1 o t2 o o tN . Khi o, ( ) = (1)N. Nh the mot hoan v chan
(tng ng: le) ch co the phan tch thanh mot so chan (tng ng: le) nhng
chuyen v.

Chng minh: Do 8.7, gia s c rang phan tch mot cach duy nhat thanh tch
nhng chu trnh oi mot khong giao nhau nh sau

= (i1 i2 . . . ir)(j1 j2 . . . js). . .(m1 m2 . . .mk). (1)

Xet anh xa

: Sn 9 , ( ) = (r 1) + (s 1) + + (k 1).

Hien nhien la (1) = (id) = 0. Ta chng minh rang tnh chat chan, le cua ( )

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cung la tnh chat chan, le cua so nhng chuyen v trong moi cach phan tch
thanh tch nhng chuyen v.
Ta co nhan xet rang, neu {a, c1, c2 . . .ch } {b,d1,. . . dk} =

th

(a c1 c2 ch b d1 dk )(ab) = (a d1 dk)(b c1 c2 ch)

va

(a c1c2 ch)(b d1 dk)(ab) = (ad1 dkb c1c2 ch) ,

T o suy ra

( o(ab)) = ( ) 1

(2)

trong o dau + hay phu thuoc vao viec a, b trong hai chu trnh khac nhau, hay
trong cung mot chu trnh cua (1).
Bay gi, gia s la tch cua m chuyen v sau ay : = (ab)(cd). . .(pq) (khi o
( ) la so cac chuyen v trong phan tch).V (ab)1 = (ab) nen

o(pq) . . . (cd)(ab) = 1.
T (2) va (3) suy ra :

(3)

()
4
12
4
...
1. = 0
114
4
3
m

Nh vay, tnh chan, le cua ( ) la tnh chan, le cua m

V DU: at An = { Sn : ( ) = 1}, khi o An la mot nhom con chuan tac cua

Sn va cap cua An bang na cap cua Sn.
That vay, xet anh xa : (Sn, o) ({1, 1}. ), a ( ). Khi o la mot toan
cau nhom va Ker = An. Vay An la mot nhom con chuan tac cua Sn va do Sn/An
{1, 1} nen (Sn : An) = 2. T o theo nh l Lagrange, cap cua An bang na cap
cua Sn. Nhom An con c goi la nhom luan phien.

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BAI TAP
1. Cho G = { a,b} va cac phep toan trong tren G c xac nh bi

a
b

a
b

b
a

a
b

b
a

a
b

a) Chng minh rang (G,+),(G,.) la cac nhom giao hoan.

b) Anh xa ong nhat id : (G,+) (G, .) co phai la ang cau nhom?
2. Cho G = { 1,2,3,4 } va phep toan trong * tren G c xac nh bi

*
1
2
3
4

1
1
2
3
4

2
2
1
4
3

3
3
4
1
2

4
4
3
2
1

Chng minh rang (G,*) la nhom giao hoan.

3. Cho G = {1, 2, 3} va * la mot phep toan trong tren G. Biet rang cau truc ai so
(G, *) la mot nhom. Hay xac nh phep toan * .
4. Cho 9 la tap cac so nguyen va tren no xac nh phep toan trong
m * n = m + n 1 vi m, n 9 .

nh sau :

a) Chng minh rang ( 9 ,+) la nhom giao hoan.

b) Anh xa ong nhat id : (9,+) (9,*) co phai la ang cau nhom ?
5. Cho G = 3* 3 va * phep toan trong tren G xac nh bi
(x, y) * (x', y') = (xx', xy' + y)
a) Chng minh rang ( G ,*) la nhom khong giao hoan.
b) Chng minh rang 3 *+ 3 la mot nhom con cua G. ( 3 *+ la tap cac so thc
dng)
6. Cho G = 3* 3 va * phep toan trong tren G xac nh bi

o Nguyen Sn

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ai So ai Cng
(x, y) * (x', y') = (xx', xy' +
a)
b)
c)
d)

- 66 -

y
)
x'

Chng minh rang ( G ,*) la nhom.

Hay xac nh tam Z(G) = {a G : ag = ga vi moi g G} cua G.
Chng minh rang 3*{0}, {1} 3, * la cac nhom con cua G.
Chng minh rang vi k 3, tap hp Hk = {(x, k(x x1)), x 3*} la mot nhom
con giao hoan cua G.

7. Cho (G,.) la nhom sao cho moi x G eu co x2 = 1. Chng minh rang G la

nhom giao hoan.
8. Gia s (G,.) la nhom co tnh chat la ton tai ba so nguyen dng lien tiep i sao
cho (ab)i = ai bi . Chng minh rang G la nhom giao hoan.
9. Cho E = {a + b 3 : a,b Q }. Chng minh rang
a) (E,+) la nhom con cua (R,+).
b) (E*, ) la nhom con cua (R*, ), ay E* = E {0}
10. Cho (G, ) la mot nhom, x G va C(x) = {g G : gx = xg }. Chng minh rang
C(x) la nhom con cua G.
11. Cho (G, ) la mot nhom, x G. Chng to tap xGx1 = {xgx-1, g G}
la nhom con cua G.
12. Cho G la mot nhom con cua nhom (, +) thoa man : x + ix2 G vi
moi x [0,1]. Chng minh rang G = .
13. Cho mot nhom G hu han cap 4 sinh bi S ={x, y} sao cho x2 = y2 = e
va xy = yx. Hay xac nh tat ca cac nhom con cua G. Ch ra rang
G = {e, x, y, xy}
14. Cho mot nhom G cap 8 sinh bi cac phan t x, y sao cho x4 = y2 = e
va xy = yx3. Ch ra rang cac phan t xiyj ,vi i = 0, 1, 2, 3 va j = 0,1 la cac phan t
phan biet cua G va t o chung la tat ca cac phan t cua G. Xac nh tat ca cac
nhom con cua G.
15. Cho mot nhom G cap 8 sinh bi cac phan t i, j, k sao cho
ij = k, jk = i, ki = j, i2 = j2 = k2.
K hieu i2 bi m. Ch ra rang e, i, j, k, m, mi, mj, mk la cac phan t phan biet cua G.
Xac nh tat ca cac nhom con cua G. (Nhom G nh the c goi la nhom
quaternion, ngi ta viet 1, i, j, k thay cho m, mi, mj, mk )

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16. Cho mot nhom G cap 12 sinh bi cac phan t x, y sao cho x6 = y2 = e va xy =
yx5. Ch ra rang cac phan t xiyj , vi i = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 va j = 0,1, la cac phan t
phan biet cua G. Xac nh tat ca cac nhom con cua G.
17. Cho (G, ) la mot nhom.
a) Chng minh rang (Aut(G), o) la nhom.( o la phep toan hp cac anh xa)
b)Vi a G , xet anh xa fa : G G, fa (g) = aga1, g G . Chng minh rang fa
Aut(G).
c) Chng minh rang Int(G) = {fa : a G} la nhom con cua Aut(G).
d) Chng minh rang mot nhom con H cua G la chuan tac neu va ch neu fa(H) = H
vi moi fa Int(G).
e) Chng minh rang anh xa : G Int(G), a a fa la mot ong cau va Ker =
Z(G) = tam cua G (xem bai 6.b)
f) Chng minh rang anh G/Z(G) Int(G).
18. Cho f : ( 9 ,+) ({1, 1}, ) , f(n) = (1)n. Chng minh rang f la toan cau
nhom. Hay xac nh Kerf va 9/Kerf .
a b

: a,b,d 3 va ad 0 }
0 d
a) Chng minh rang (V, .) la nhom con cua (GL3(2), )

19.

V=

a b
a a, la toan cau nhom.
b) Chng minh rang f : (V,) (3*, ),
0 d
20. Cho (G, ) la mot nhom va a la mot phan t cua G. Chng to rang:
a) f : (9, +) (G, ), f(n) = an, la mot ong cau nhom.
b) Moi ong cau f: (9, +) (G, ) thoa f(1) = a eu co dang f(n ) = an.
c) Hay xac nh tap End(9,+) = {t ong cau f : (9, +) (9 ,+ )}
21. Cho (G, ) la mot nhom sao cho f : G G, f(x) = x3, la mot toan cau nhom.
Chng to rang G la nhom giao hoan.
22. Cho (G, ) la mot nhom sao cho ton tai so t nhien n thoa man tnh chat fn : G
G, fn(x) = xn, la mot toan cau nhom. Chng to rang
xn1y = yxn1, vi moi x, y G
23. Cho (G,+) la nhom giao hoan. Goi End(G) tap cac t ong cau cua G. Tren
End(G) xac nh phep toan cong nh sau : (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)
a) Chng minh rang (End(G),+) la nhom giao hoan.
b) Chng minh rang End(9,+) ang cau vi (9,+).
24.

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a) Chng minh rang tap con A = {2n3m , m, n 9} la nhom con cua

nhom (, ).
b) Chng minh rang A ang cau vi nhom con B = {a + bi, a, b 9}
cua nhom (, +).
25. Chng minh rang moi nhom con cua mot nhom cyclic la nhom cyclic.
26. Chng to rang anh ong cau cua mot nhom cyclic la mot nhom cyclic
27. Cho (G,) la nhom cyclic cap n va m la mot c cua n. Chng minh rang
G co ung mot nhom con cap m.
28. Chng minh rang moi nhom cyclic vo han co ung 2 phan t sinh. Tm tat ca
cac phan t sinh cua nhom tuan hoan cap n.
29. Tm tat ca cac t ong cau nhom cua nhom cyclic cap n .
30. Cho (G, ) la nhom; a, b la hai phan t cua G va f End(G). Chng minh
rang
a) ord(ab) = ord(ba)
b) ord(a) = ord(a-1 ).
c) ord(a) la boi cua ord(f(a)).
31. Tm tat ca cac nhom con cua
a) Nhom cyclic cap 6.
b) Nhom cyclic cap 24.
32. Chng minh rang moi nhom co cap 5 eu giao hoan .
33. Chng minh rang moi nhom giao hoan cap 6 co cha mot phan t cap 3 eu la
nhom cyclic.
34. Chng minh rang nhom thng cua mot nhom cyclic la mot nhom cyclic.
35. Gia s (G, ) la nhom cyclic vo han co phan t sinh la x. Vi m at Hm
= { xkm : k 9 }. Chng minh rang
a) Hm la nhom con cua G.
b) Neu m n th Hm Hn .
c) Moi nhom con cua G eu co dang Hm vi m la mot so t nhien nao o.
36. Chng minh rang Int(G) (xem bai 13.) la chuan tac trong Aut(G) .
37. Cho (G, ) la mot nhom; A va B la cac nhom con chuan tac sao cho A B =
{1}. Chng minh rang ab = ba , vi moi a A , b B.

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38
a) Cho (G, ) la mot nhom giao hoan, va H la nhom con cua G. Chng
minh rang G/H la nhom giao hoan.
b) Cho (G, ) la mot nhom, va H la nhom con chuan tac cua G. Chng
to rang G/H la nhom giao neu va ch neu xyx1y1 H, vi moi x, y G.
c)Ta goi C(G) = { xyx1y1, x, y G} la nhom con cac hoan t cua G, cac phan
t cua no c goi la cac hoan t. Chng to rang C(G) la mot nhom con chuan tac
cua G.
d) Chng minh rang G/C(G) la giao hoan.
39. Cho (G,) la nhom; A, B la cac nhom con chuan tac trong G. at AB = { ab :
a A ; b B }. Chng minh rang
a) AB la nhom con cua G.
b) A la nhom con chuan tac cua AB, A B la nhom con chuan tac cua B.
c) AB/A B/A B .
40. Cho (,+) la nhom cong cac so phc, (3,+) la nhom cong cac so thc va anh
xa f : ( ,+) (3, +), f(a + bi) = b ; a,b 3.
a) Chng minh rang f la toan cau nhom.
b) Xac nh Kerf, /Ker(f)
c) Chng minh rang /3
41. Mot phep oi xng cua mot hnh hnh hoc la mot phep the cua tap hp X cac
iem cua hnh o va bao toan khoang cach. Chng minh rang tap hp cac phep oi
xng cua cac hnh hnh hoc la mot nhom oi vi phep hp cac anh xa.
42. K hieu 3 la nhom oi xng cua mot tam giac eu va goi la nhom tam giac
eu.
a) Chng minh rang : 3 = {1, R, R2, D1, D2, D3 }.
Trong o :
- R la phep quay tam O, goc quay 1200.
- Di la phep oi xng qua ng cao i qua nh th i.
b) Hay lap bang toan cho 3 . Suy ra rang : 3 S3 .

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CHNG 4:
VANH VA TRNG
1. Vanh va trng
1.1 nh ngha
Cau truc ai so (X, +, ), trong o + va la hai phep toan trong tren X, c goi
la mot vanh neu:
d) (X, +) la mot nhom giao hoan.
e) (X, ) la mot v nhom.
f) Phep toan phan phoi oi vi phep +.
Phan t n v cua nhom (X,+) thng c k hieu 0X. Phan t n v ( k hieu la
1X) cua v nhom (X, ) cung c goi la phan t n v cua vanh. Mot vanh ma
0X = 1X c goi la vanh tam thng. Neu phep toan co tnh giao hoan th
vanh (X, +. ) c goi la vanh giao hoan.
Cho (X, +, ) la mot vanh, no co the xay ra trng hp rang, ton tai cac phan t
a, b X sao cho a 0, b 0 ( 0 la phan t n v cua nhom (X,+)) nhng ab = 0.
Nhng phan t nh the c goi la c cua khong. Mot vanh khong tam thng,
giao hoan, khong co c cua khong c goi la vanh nguyen hoac mien nguyen.
Vanh (X, +, ) c goi la mot trng neu no la khong tam thng, giao hoan
va moi phan t khac 0 deu co nghch ao oi vi phep toan . Nh vay neu (X, +,
) la mot trng th (X {0}, ) la mot nhom.
V DU:
1) (9 ,+, ) la vanh giao hoan, ( ,+,),(3,+,),( ,+,) la cac trng, va tat ca
eu la vanh nguyen.
2) Cho (G,+) la nhom giao hoan. Tren End(G) xac nh hai phep toan + va o nh
sau, vi x G
(g + f)(x) = g(x) + f(x)

va

(f o g )(x) = f(g(x)).

Khi o (End(G),+, o) la mot vanh. That vay, de kiem tra rang (End(G),+) la nhom
giao hoan vi phan t n v la ong cau x a 0; (End(G), o) la v nhom vi phan
t n v la anh xa ong nhat x a x. Tnh phan phoi cua phep o oi vi phep +
c suy ra t :
(fo(g + h))(x) = f((g + h)(x))
= f(g(x) + h(x)) = f(g(x)) + f(h(x))

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= (f o g)(x)) + (f o h)(x).
3) Cho (X,+, ) la mot vanh va A la tap hp khac rong. Goi M(A,X) la tap
tat ca cac anh xa t A en X. Tren M(A,X), xac nh hai phep toan cong va nhan
nh sau, vi moi x A
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x)

va

( f.g )(x) = f(x).g(x).

Khi o (M(A, X), +, ) la mot vanh vi phan t n v la anh xa x a 1X, hn na

no la giao hoan neu X giao hoan.
4) MatK(n) la mot vanh oi vi cac phep toan cong va nhan ma tran.
5) (9n ,+, ) la mot vanh giao hoan, vi cac phep toan

m + k = m+k

va

m . k = m.k

Vanh nay c goi la vanh cac so nguyen modulo n. Vanh 96 khong phai la vanh
nguyen v 2 . 3 = 0 . Vanh 93 la mot vanh nguyen.

1.2 Cac tnh chat

Tnh chat 1
Cho (X,+, ) la mot vanh. Khi o, vi moi x, y X va n 9 ta co
a) x0 = 0 = 0x.
b) ( x).y = x.y = x.( y).
c) ( x).( y) = xy
d) n(x.y) = (nx).y = x.(ny).
Chng minh :
a) V x0 = x(0 + 0) = x0 + x0 nen x0 = 0. Tng t 0x = 0
b) V 0 = 0.y = ( x + x).y = ( x).y + xy nen ( x).y = xy
V 0 = x.0 = x.( y + y) = x.( y) + xy nen x(y) = xy
c) T b) suy ra ( x).( y) = x.[ ( y)] = xy
d) . Vi n = 0 la ro rang.

.(b + + b) = a.(nb).
a1
4
4244
3

n
. Vi n : n(a.b) = a.b +...+ a.b =
a + + a ).b = ( na ).b.
(1
4
4244
3

. Vi n = k , k

[(ka )b] = [(ka )b] = [(k )a ]b = (na )b.

[a (kb)] = a[(kb)] = a[(k )b] = a (nb).

n(a.b) = ( k)(a.b) = [k(a.b)] =

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NHAN XET: Neu (X, +, ) la vanh tam thng th X = {0}. That vay v vi moi x
X ta co x = 1.x = 0.x = 0.
Tnh chat 2: Trong mot mien nguyen (X, +, ) phep toan thoa man luat gian c
( tc la, t a 0 va ab = ac keo theo b = c)
Chng minh: Gia s co a 0 va ab = ac, khi o a (b c) = 0. Do a 0 va trong X
khong co c cua 0 nen b c = 0 hay b = c ( ay phep tr b c co ngha la b + (
c)).
Tnh chat 3:

Moi trng eu la vanh nguyen.

Chng minh: Gia s co hai phan t a, b cua trng X sao cho ab = 0. Neu a khac 0
th do X la trng nen a co nghch ao a1. T a1 .a.b = a1.0 = 0 ta suy ra b = 0 do
luat gian c trong nhom nhan (X {0}, ).
NHAN XET: Mot vanh nguyen co the khong phai la mot trng, chang han vanh
nguyen (9, +, ).
Tnh chat 4:

Moi vanh nguyen hu han eu la trng.

Chng minh: Gia s vanh nguyen X co n phan t a1, a2, , a3. Xet phan t a 0
bat k cua X, va anh xa fa : X X, fa(x) = ax. Ta co fa la n anh v neu co fa
(x) = fa (x') tc la ax = ax' th x = x' do luat gian c trong X. V X la hu han nen fa
cung la song anh. nh vay vi 1x X ton tai b X sao cho fa(b) = ab = 1x, tc la b
la nghch ao cua a.

2. Vanh con Trng con

2.1 nh ngha
Cho (X,+, ) la mot vanh. Tap con S khac rong cua X c goi la mot vanh con
cua X neu
a) S la tap con on nh cua X, tc la, 1X S va neu x, y S th x + y va x.y
cung thuoc S.
b) (S, +, ) la mot vanh.
Cho (X,+, ) la mot trng. Tap con S khac rong cua X c goi la mot trng
con cua X neu
a) S la tap con on nh cua X, tc la, neu x, y S th x + y va x.y
cung thuoc S.

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b) (S, +, ) la mot trng.

NHAN XET:
1) Neu S la trng con cua trng X th 1X S v khi o (S,+) la nhom con
cua (X,+) va (S {0}, ) la mot nhom con cua nhom (X {0}, ).
2) Bat k mot vanh X nao cung co hai vanh con tam thng la ban than no va
vanh khong( ch gom phan t 0 cua X)

2.2 nh l (tieu chuan nhan biet mot vanh con)

Tap con S cua vanh X la vanh con neu va ch neu
a) 1X S
b) Neu a, b S th a b S.
c) Neu a, b S th a.b S.
Chng minh :
( ) : Hien nhien
( ) : T b) suy ra (S, +) la nhom con cua (X,+) va do o S la tap con on nh cua
X. Mat khac, v phep trong X co tnh ket hp nen no cung ket hp trong S; phan
t n v cua X nam trong S nen no cung la n v cua A. Vay (A {0} , ) la v
nhom. Cuoi cung luat phan phoi co hieu lc trong X tat nhien cung co hieu lc
trong A.
Hoan toan tng t ta cung co

2.3 nh l (tieu chuan nhan biet mot trng con)

Tap con S cha nhieu hn mot t cua trng X la trng con neu va ch neu
a) Neu a, b S th a b S.
b) Neu a, b S th a.b S.
c) Neu a S va a 0 th a1 S.
CHU Y: ieu kien a), b) va c) trong nh l 2.3 co the thay bi ieu kien tng
ng:
a') Neu a, b S th a b S.
b') Neu a, b S va b 0 th a.b1 S.
V DU:
1) 9 la vanh con cua , 3, ; va 3 trng con cua .

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2) 9[ 2 ] = {a + b 2 : a, b 9} la mot vanh con cua (3 , +, ).

3) [ 2 ] = {a + b 2 : a, b } la mot trng con cua (3 , +, ).
4) Cac ham kha vi f : 3 3 tao thanh mot vanh con cua vanh cac ham lien
tuc ( vi phep cong va phep nhan cac ham so thong thng).
5) Neu {Ai , i I} la ho cac vanh con cua X th Ai cung la vanh con cua X.
iI

That vay, ro rang 1X Ai . Gia s x, y Ai , khi o x, y Ai , vi moi i

iI

iI

I. Do Ai la vanh con nen x y va xy Ai, vi moi i I. T o suy ra x y va xy

Ai. Vay, theo 2.2, Ai cung la vanh con cua X.
iI

iI

3. Ideal - Vanh thng

3.1 nh ngha
Cho (X,+, ) la mot vanh va A la mot tap con khac rong cua X. Khi o A c
goi la ideal cua X neu ba ieu kien sau c thoa man:
1) (A,+) la nhom con cua (X,+).
2) ax A va xa A vi moi a A, vi moi x X.
V DU:
1) Cho (X,+, ) la vanh, khi o {0} va X la cac ideal cua X, chung c
goi la cac ideal tam thng cua X.
2) Cho (X,+, ) la mot vanh giao hoan va b la mot phan t cua X. Khi o tap hp
Xb = { xb : x X } la ideal cua X.
3) Xet C [0,1] la vanh cac ham lien tuc tren oan [0,1]. at J la tap tat ca cac ham
f C [0,1] sao cho f( 12 ) = 0. Khi o J la mot ideal cua C [0,1].
4) Xet vanh so nguyen (9, +, ) va J la tap cac so nguyen chan. Khi o J la mot
ideal cua 9. Tap cac so nguyen le co phai la ideal cua 9 khong? Tap hp m 9 gom
cac boi so cua m la mot ideal cua 9.
5) Neu A va B la cac ideal cua vanh X, th tap A + B = {a + b : a A, b B}
la mot ideal cua X.
n

6) Neu A, B la cac ideal cua vanh X, th AB = { a i b i : ai A, bi B, n } la

mot ideal cua X

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7) Neu {Ai , i I} la ho cac ideal cua X th A = Ai cung la ideal cua X.

iI

That vay, trc het A v co t nhat phan t 0 cua vanh X thuoc tat ca cac
ideal Ai, va do o no thuoc A. Gia s x, y A, khi o x, y Ai , i I. Do Ai la
nhom con nen x y Ai, vi moi i I, t o x y A. Vay (A,+) la mot nhom
con. Bay gi gia s a la mot phan t bat k cua A va x la mot phan t cua X, ta co
a A nen a Ai , i I, ma Ai la ideal nen xa va ax thuoc Ai, vi moi i, t o
xa va ax thuoc A. Nh vay A la mot ideal.
CHU Y:
1) Neu ideal A cua vanh X cha phan t n v 1X th A = X. That vay, v vi moi
x X ta co x = x.1 A, tc la X A.
2) Gia s X la mot vanh giao hoan khong tam thng. Khi o X la mot trng
khi va ch khi X khong co ideal nao ngoai tr cac ideal tam thng. That vay, gia
s X la mot trng. Neu
I la ideal khac {0} th I cha mot phan t a 0, do X la
trng nen ton tai phan t nghich ao a1 X. V 1 = a.a1 I nen theo chu y 1)
tren I = X. Ngc lai, gia s X khong co ideal nao ngoai tr cac ideal tam thng.
Goi a la mot phan t khac 0 bat k cua X. De kiem tra rang tap hp X.a = {xa, x
X} la mot ideal cua X. V X.a {0} nen X.a = X, t o vi 1 X, ton tai a' X sao
cho a' a = a a' = 1, tc la a' = a1.

3. 2 Ideal chnh
Cho X la mot vanh giao hoan , S la mot tap con cua X. Khi o, giao cua cac
ideal cua X cha S la mot ideal cha S, va no la ideal nho nhat cua vanh X cha
tap S. Ideal nay se c goi la ideal sinh ra bi tap S va ky hieu < S >.
Neu S = {a1, a2,...., an } th < S > c goi la ideal sinh ra bi cac phan t a1,
a2,...., an. Co the ch ra rang
< a1, a2,...., an > = {x1a1 + x2 a2 +....+xnan : x1, x2, ...,xn X }
Neu S ch gom mot phan t a th ideal sinh bi mot phan t a c goi la ideal
chnh.

3. 3 Vanh thng
Gia s (X,+, ) la mot vanh va I la mot ideal cua X. Khi o, (I,+) la nhom
con giao hoan cua (X,+). Nhom thng X / I = {x + I | x X } cung la nhom giao
hoan (xem muc nhom thng), vi phep toan cong xac nh nh sau
(x + I) + ( y + I) = (x + y) + I.

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Bay gi ta muon trang b tren X / I mot phep toan nhan e no tr thanh mot vanh.
Gia s x + I va y + I la hai phan t bat k cua X / I, ta nh ngha phep nhan gia
chung nh sau
(x + I).( y + I) = x.y + I.
De thay rang qui tac nay khong phu thuoc ai dien cua cac lp x + I, y + I, no co
tnh ket hp, phan phoi oi vi phep cong va co phan t n v la 1 + I. Vay (X /
I,+, ) la mot vanh, no c goi la vanh thng cua X tren I.
V DU:
1) Neu I = {0} th X /{0} = {x + {0}} = X.
2) Neu I = X th X / X = {x + X : x X} = {X}, vanh thng trong trng
hp nay la vanh tam thng, no ch cha co mot phan t n v la X.
3) Xet vanh cac so nguyen 9 va m 9 la ideal cua 9. Vanh thng cua 9
tren m 9 la
9m =

vi cac phep toan

/m 9 = { 0 , 1 , , m 1 }

p + q = p+q

va

p . q = p.q

4. ong cau vanh

4.1 nh ngha
Cho (X,+, ),(Y,+, ) la cac vanh. Anh xa f : X Y c goi la mot ong cau
vanh neu vi moi a, b X, cac ieu sau c thoa man
1) f(a + b) = f(a) + f(b)
2) f(a.b)
= f(a). f(b)
3) f(1X)
= 1Y
ong cau vanh f c goi la n cau, toan cau, ang cau neu f lan lt la n
anh, toan anh, song anh. Neu gia (X,+,) va (Y,+,) ton tai mot ang cau vanh,
th ta noi chung ang cau vi nhau, va viet X Y.
NHAN XET: Neu f : (X,+,) (Y,+,) la mot ong cau vanh th f : (X,+)
(Y,+) la ong cau nhom.
V DU:
1) Cho (X, +, ) khi o anh xa ong nhat id :X X la mot ang cau vanh.

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2) Anh xa f : (9 ,+, ) (9n,+, ) , f(m) = m , la toan cau vanh.

3) Cho (X, +, ) la mot vanh va End(X) la vanh cac ong cau cua nho
(X,+). Khi o anh xa f : (X, +, ) (End(X), +, ), a a fa vi fa(x) = a.x la mot
ong cau vanh.
4) Gia s I la mot ideal cua vanh X. Xet anh xa

: X X / I, (x) = x + I
la mot toan cau vanh, goi la toan cau chnh tac.

4.2 Cac tnh chat cua ong cau vanh

Cac tnh chat sau ay la tng t nh trong nhom ma viec chng minh no la tng
t hoac c trc tiep suy ra t ket qua ve ong cau nhom.
Tnh chat 1 Hp cua hai ong cau vanh la mot ong cau vanh. Hn na hp cua
hai ang cau la mot ang cau.
Tnh chat 2
vanh. Khi o

Cho (X,+, ) va (Y,+, ) la cac vanh va f : X Y la mot ong cau

a) Neu A la vanh con (tng ng : ideal ) cua X th f(A) la vanh con (tng ng
: ideal ) cua Y.
b) Neu B la vanh con (tng ng : ideal ) cua Y th f 1 (B) la vanh con
(tng ng : ideal ) cua X.
ac biet ta co Ker f = {x X : f(x) = 0Y} la mot ideal cua X .
Tnh chat 3 Cho (X,+, ) va (Y,+, ) la cac vanh va f : X Y la mot ong cau
vanh. Khi o
c) f la n cau khi va ch khi Kerf = {0X}.
d) f la toan cau khi va ch khi Imf = Y.
Tng t nh trng hp ong cau nhom, ay cung co nh l c ban cua ong
cau vanh nh sau:

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4.3 nh l ( c ban cua ong cau vanh)

Cho f la mot ong cau t vanh X en vanh Y va : X X/Kerf la toan cau chnh

tac t vanh X en vanh thng X / kerf . Khi o ton tai duy nhat mot ong cau f* :
X / kerf Y sao cho f = f*o , tc la bieu o sau giao hoan:
X

Y
f*

X/Kerf
Hn na, f* la mot n cau va Im f* = f(X) = Imf

4.4 He qua
3) Vi moi ong cau vanh f : X Y ta co f(X) X/Kerf
4) Vi moi toan cau nhom f : X Y ta co Y X/Kerf.

4.5 ac so cua vanh

Mot vanh khong tam thng X c goi la co ac so m neu va ch neu m la so
nguyen khong am nho nhat sao cho m.1 = 0.
V DU: Vanh so nguyen 9 co ac so 0, vanh 9 /m 9 co ac so m.
NHAN XET: Neu vanh khong tam thng X co ac so m th cap cua moi phan t
cua nhom (X, +) la mot c cua m. That vay, vi moi a X va n la cap cua no,
khi o ta co m.a = m(1.a) = (m.1)a = 0.a = 0. Chia m cho n ta c m = nq + r, 0
r < n. Neu r > 0 th t ma = (nq + r)a = (nq)a + ra = 0 suy ra ra = 0, nhng ieu nay
mau thuan vi tnh chat be nhat cua n. Vay phai co r = 0, tc la n | m.
CHU Y: Ta hieu mot ong cau f (n cau, toan cau, ang cau) t trng X en
trng Y nh la mot ong cau (n cau, toan cau, ang cau) vanh. V trong trng
khong co ideal nao khac ngoai cac ideal tam thng nen ta co hoac kerf = {0} hoac
kerf = X. Trng hp kerf = {0} th f la mot n cau. Con trng hp kerf = X th f
la ong cau khong. Vay moi ong cau trng hoac la n cau hoac la ong cau
khong.

5. Cac nh l nhung ang cau

5.1 nh l (nhung ang cau mot v nhom)
Gia s X la mot v nhom giao hoan vi phan t n v la e. S la tap hp tat ca cac
phan t chnh qui cua X ( mot phan t a X goi la phan t chnh qui neu vi moi

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b, c X sao cho ab = ac hoac ba = ca th b = c). Khi o co mot v nhom giao hoan

X va mot n cau f t X en X thoa cac tnh chat sau

a) Moi phan t cua f(S) eu co nghch ao trong X .

b) Cac phan t cua X co dang f(x).[f(a)]1 vi x X va a S.

Chng minh:
1) Xay dng v nhom X . Tren tap tch X S, ta xac nh mot quan he tng ng
R nh sau
(x, a) R (y, b) xb = ay

Tnh phan xa, oi xng la ro rang. Gia s co (x, a)R(y, b) va (y, b)R(z, c), tc la xb
= ay va yc = bz, t o xbc = abz. V b chnh qui nen suy ra xc = az, tc la (x,
a)R(z, c). Vay R la bac cau.
at X la tap thng (X S)/R ma cac phan t cua no c k hieu la ( x , a ) . Tren

X ta xac nh phep toan trong nh sau

( x , a ) . ( y, b) = ( xy, ab)
nh ngha khong phu thuoc vao ai dien cua cac lp tng ng. That vay, gia s
(x,a) R (x',a') va (y,b) R (y',b'), tc la xa' = ax' va yb' = by' th suy ra xya'b' = x'y'
ab, tc la ( xy, ab) = ( x ' y' , a ' b' ) .
Khi o co the kiem tra rang X la v nhom giao hoan, vi phan t n v la (e, e) .

2) n cau f : X X c xac nh bi f(x) = ( x , e) .

f la ong cau v f(xy) = ( xy, e) = ( x , e) ( y, e) = f(x)f(y), f la n anh v t f(x) =
f(y) suy ra ( x , e) = ( y, e) , t o (x, e)R(y, e) hay xe = ye, suy ra x = y.
3) Cap ( X , f) thoa man cac tnh chat neu trong nh l. That vay, vi x S phan t
nghch ao cua f(x) = ( x , e) la (e, x ) v ( x , e) . (e, x ) = ( x , x ) = (e, e) . Ngoai ra

moi phan t ( x , a ) cua X co the viet

( x , a ) = ( x , e) . (e, a ) = ( x , e) ( (a , e) )1 = f(x).[f(a)]1.
NHAN XET:

1) Neu moi phan t cua v nhom X eu la chnh qui th tat ca cac phan t cua X
eu co phan t nghch ao nen X la mot nhom. Mat khac , v f : X X la mot
n cau nen X f(X) = { ( x , e) , x X} X , trong trng hp nay ta cung noi

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rang v nhom X c nhung ang cau vao nhom X , va co the ong nhat phan t
x X vi phan t f(x) = ( x , e) X . Moi phan t cua X do o viet c di
dang x. y 1 vi x, y X.
2) Ta co the chng minh c rang cap ( X , f) la duy nhat theo ngha sai khac nhau
mot ang cau, ngha la neu co mot cap (Y, g) khac thoa man a) va b) trong nh l
th co mot ang cau : X Y va g = o f. That vay ta xet tng ng t =
f(x).[f(a)]1 a g(x).[g(a)]1. Tng ng nay la mot anh xa v neu co f(x).[f(a)]1 =
f(x').[f(a')]1, tc la f(x)f(a') = f(x')f(a), hay, do f la ong cau, f(xa') = f(x'a), t o
xa' = x'a (v f n anh) va do g la ong cau ta suy ra g(xa') = g(x'a), g(x)g(a') =
g(x')g(a), g(x).[g(a)]1 = g(x').[g(a')]1. De dang ch ra la mot ang cau va g =
o f.

AP DUNG:
1) So nguyen. Ap dung nh l tren cho X = (0, +). V moi phan t cua 0
eu chnh qui nen X la mot nhom ma ta k hieu no 9. Cac phan t cua 9 co dang
(n , m) , vi m, n 0, c goi la cac so nguyen va phep cong tren 9 c xac
nh bi

(n , m) + (p, q) = (n + p, m + q)
Moi so nguyen co the viet di dang m n := m + (n), vi m, n 0.
2) So hu t dng. Ap dung nh l tren cho X = (, ). V moi phan t cua
eu chnh qui nen X la mot nhom ma ta k hieu no + . Cac phan t cua + co
dang (n , m) , vi m, n , c goi la cac so hu t dng va phep nhan tren +
c xac nh bi

(n , m) . (p, q ) = (np, mq)

Moi so hu t dng co the viet di dang

p
:= p.q 1 , vi p, q .
q

5.2 nh l ( nhung ang cau mot vanh nguyen)

Gia s X la mot vanh nguyen vi phan t n v la 1. X* la tap hp tat ca cac phan
t khac 0 cua X. Khi o co mot trng X va mot n cau (vanh) f t X en X
thoa cac tnh chat sau

a) Moi phan t cua f(X*) eu co nghch ao trong X .

b) Cac phan t cua X co dang f(x).[f(a)]1 vi x X va a X*.

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Chng minh:
. V (X, +, ) la vanh nguyen nen (X, ) la mot v nhom giao hoan, va X* la tap cac
phan t chnh qui. Goi X la v nhom nhan giao hoan c xay dng nh trong nh
l 5.1, vi phep toan nh sau

( x , a ) . ( y, b) = ( xy, ab)
. Bay gi trong X xac nh them mot phep toan cong nh sau:

( x , a ) + ( y, b) = ( xb + ay, ab)
Phep toan nay c xac nh khong phu thuoc vao viec chon cac ai dien cua lp
tng ng. That vay, gia s (x, a) R (x', a') va (y, b) R (y', b'), tc la
xa' = ax'
th suy ra

xa'bb' = ax'bb' va

Cong hai ang thc nay ve theo ve

tc la

va

yb' = by'
yb'aa' = by'aa'

(xb + ay)a'b' = (x'b' + a'y')ab

( xb + ay, ab) = ( x ' b'+ a ' y' , a ' b' )

. Khi o co the kiem tra rang ( X , +) la mot nhom giao hoan, phan t n v la 0 =
(0,1) , phan t nghch ao cua ( x , a ) la ( x , a ) , ( X {0} , ) nh a biet la mot
v nhom giao hoan, hn na moi phan t ( x , a ) 0 eu co nghch ao la (a , x ) .
Ngoai ra phep nhan co tnh chat phan phoi oi vi phep cong. Nh vay ( X , +, )
la mot trng.

. Xet anh xa f : X X c xac nh bi f(x) = ( x ,1) . Nh a biet f la mot n

anh thoa f(xy) = f(x).f(y), hn na f(x + y) = ( x + y,1) = ( x ,1) + ( y,1) = f(x) + f(y).
Nh vay f la mot n cau vanh.
3) Cap ( X , f) thoa man cac tnh chat neu trong nh l. That vay, vi x X* phan t
nghch ao cua f(x) = ( x ,1) la (1, x ) . Ngoai ra moi phan t ( x , a ) cua X co the
viet ( x , a ) = ( x ,1) . (1, a ) = ( x ,1) ( (a ,1) )1 = f(x).[f(a)]1.
CHU Y: 1) Ta cung co the chng minh c rang cap ( X , f) la duy nhat theo
ngha sai khac nhau mot ang cau.

2) V f :X X la mot n cau nen X f(X) ={ ( x ,1) , x X} X , trong trng

hp nay ta cung noi rang vanh nguyen X c nhung ang cau vao trng X ,

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va co the ong nhat phan t x X vi phan t f(x) = ( x ,1) X . Moi phan t cua

X do o viet c di dang

x
:= x. y 1 vi x X va y X*.
y

Moi phan t cua X con c goi la mot phan thc. Trng X do o con c goi
la trng cac phan thc hay trng cac thng cua vanh nguyen X. Thnh
thoang ta cung viet X = (X*)1X ( trong o X* = X {0}) e ch trng cac
thng cua vanh nguyen X.
V DU: Ap dung nh l cho vanh nguyen 9. Trng cac phan thc cua 9 c k
hieu la . Cac phan t cua c goi la cac so hu t. Nh vay moi so hu t co
the viet di dang m n1 hoac

m
vi m 9 va n 9*.
n

6. So hoc tren vanh nguyen - Vanh chnh - Vanh Euclide - Vanh

Gauss
Trong suot muc nay ta gia thiet D la mot mien nguyen vi phan t n v la 1 va
dung k hieu D* e ch tap hp D {0}.

6.1 Cac nh ngha

Cho a, b la hai phan t cua D. Ta noi rang a la c cua b (hoac a chia het b,
hoac b la boi cua a, hoac b chia het cho a), k hieu a | b neu ton tai mot phan t c
D sao cho b = ac.
Neu a D* la c cua n v (tc la a | 1) th a c goi la phan t kha
nghch cua D.
Hai phan t a, b D* goi la lien ket vi nhau, k hieu a b, neu a | b va b |
a.
Cho a la c cua b, khi o a c goi la c thc s cua b, k hieu a || b neu a
khong kha nghch va khong lien ket vi b. Nh vay cac phan t kha nghch va cac
phan t lien ket vi b khong la c thc s cua b, con cac c khac cua b la c
thc s cua b.
V DU: Trong vanh nguyen 9, cac phan t kha nghch la 1. Phan t a lien ket
vi phan t b khi va ch khi a = b. So nguyen 8 co cac c thc s la 2, 4
con 1, 8 khong phai la c thc s cua 8.

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Phan t p D* c goi la phan t nguyen to neu p khong kha nghch va

thoa man tnh chat : p | ab keo theo p | a hoac p | b.
Phan t p D* c goi la phan t bat kha qui neu p khong kha nghch va
khong co c thc s . Noi khac i, p D* la bat kha qui neu p khong kha nghch
va thoa man tnh chat : p = ab keo theo a | 1 hoac b | 1.
Neu d | ai vi moi i = 1, 2, , n th d c goi la c chung cua cac phan t a1
, a2, , an. Phan t d c goi la c chung ln nhat cua a1 , a2, , an neu d la
c chung cua a1 , a2, , an va moi c chung khac cua a1 , a2, , an eu la c
cua d. Ta cung s dung k hieu ( a1, a2, , an) e ch c chung ln nhat cua a1 ,
a2, , an.
NHAN XET : Hai c chung ln nhat cua a1, a2, , an la lien ket.
Cac phan t a1 , a 2, , an c goi la nguyen to cung nhau neu chung nhan 1
lam c chung ln nhat.

6.2 Cac tnh chat

1) a | a va a | 0 vi moi a D.
2) 1 | a vi moi a D
3) Neu a | b va b | c th a | c.
4) Neu a | b th a | bc.
5) Neu a | b va c | d th ac | bd.
n

6) Neu a | bi vi moi i = 1, 2, , n th a | m i b i , mi D.
i =1

7) Neu a kha nghch th a | b vi moi b D*.

8) Neu tch a1a2 an kha nghch th tng nhan t cua no cung kha nghch.
9) Quan he lien ket la mot quan he tng ng.
10) Hai phan t lien ket vi nhau khi va ch khi chung sai khac nhau mot nhan t
kha nghch.
11) Hai phan t kha nghch th lien ket.
12) Neu p la bat kha qui th cac c cua p hoac la kha nghch hoac la lien ket vi p.
13) Moi phan t nguyen to eu bat kha qui.
14) < b > < a > a | b (< b > la ideal sinh bi b)
15) < b > = < a > a b
16) < b > = D b | 1
Chng minh:

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T tnh chat 1) en 9) la de dang suy ra t nh ngha. Ta chng minh t 10) en

16).
10) Gia s a ~ b, tc la a | b va b | a, suy ra b = am va a = bn, t o b = bmn, suy
ra mn = 1, vay m va n la kha nghch. Ngc lai, gia s b = am vi m la kha
nghch, khi o ta cung co a = bm1, tc la a | b va b | a, hay a ~ b.
11) Gia s a, b la kha nghch va goi a1, b1 lan lt la cac nghch ao cua chung.
Khi o, aa1 = 1 = bb1, suy ra a = b b1a va b = aa1b, tc la a | b va b | a, hay a ~
b.
12) Gia s a la c cua p, tc la ta co p = ab. V p la bat kha qui nen a | 1 hoac b |
1. Do o, neu a khong kha nghch th b phai kha nghch, goi b1 la nghch ao cua b,
khi o ta co a = pb1, tc la a | p va p | a, hay a ~ p.
13) Gia s p = ab, suy ra p | ab. V p la nguyen to nen p | a hoac p | b. Neu p | a
, tc la a = pu = abu, th bu = 1, suy ra b |1. Tng t neu p | b th a | 1.
14) Gia s < b > < a >, khi o b < a > nen b = xa vi x D nao o, suy ra
a | b. Ngc lai gia s a | b. Goi t la phan t bat k cua < b >, khi o ta co t = bx =
arx, tc la t < a >. Vay < b > < a >.
15) va 16) suy ra trc tiep t 14) vi chu y rang < 1 > = D.

6.3 Vanh chnh

Mien nguyen D c goi la vanh chnh neu moi ideal cua D eu la ideal chnh.
V DU: ( 9, +, ) la vanh chnh. That vay gia s I la mot ideal cua 9 . Neu I =
{0} th I = < 0 >. Neu I {0} th no cha t nhat mot so nguyen dng (v co a,
a I vi a 0). Goi n la so nguyen dng be nhat trong I. Khi o ta co I = n9 .
That vay, gia s y la so nguyen bat k trong I. Chia y cho n ta c y = nq + r, 0
r < n. V (I ,+) la nhom con nen r = y nq I. Do tnh be nhat cua n suy ra r = 0.
Vay y = nq , tc la I n9 . Bao ham thc ngc lai n9 I la hien nhien.

6.4 nh l
Trong mot vanh chnh D, CLN d cua n phan t a1, a2, ..., an bat k luon luon ton
tai.
Chng minh: at J = < a1 ,..., an > = { x1a1 +...+ xnan ; vi xi D}.V D la vanh
chnh nen ton tai d D sao cho J = < d >, the th ton tai nhng si D sao cho
d = s1 a1 +...+ sn an

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Ta co d la c chung cua a1 ,...,an, that vay, v ai = 0a1 ++ 1ai +...+ 0an J nen
ai < d >, va do o d | ai .
Gia s c la mot c chung cua a1 ,...,an, tc la ai = cui vi ui D. T o
d = s1 a1 +...+ sn an = (s1 u1 + s2 u2 ++sn un)c .
Suy ra c | d, va do o d la CLN cua a1, a2, ..., an

6.5 nh l
Trong mot vanh chnh D ta co
1) Neu e la CLN cua a1, a2, ..., an th ton tai cac xi D sao cho
e = x1 a1 +...+ xn an
2) Cac phan t a1, a2, ..., an la nguyen to cung nhau khi va ch khi ton tai cac
xi D sao cho
x1 a1 +...+ xn an = 1.
3) Neu c | ab ma c va a la nguyen to cung nhau th c | b .
4) Neu p la bat kha qui th vi bat k a D* ta co hoac p | a hoac p va a la
nguyen to cung nhau.
5) Khai niem phan t bat kha qui va khai niem nguyen to la trung nhau.
Chng minh :
1) Xet CLN d cua cua a1, a2, ..., an cua nh l 6.4, d = s1 a1 +...+ sn an (1)
Khi o d lien ket vi e, t o co mot phan t kha nghch v sao cho e = dv. Nhan hai
ve cua (1) vi v ta c:
e = dv = vs1 a1 +...+ vsn an = x1 a1 +...+ xn an, vi xi = vsi.
2) Suy ra trc tiep t 1)
3) Theo 2) ton tai r, s D sao cho 1 = as + cr, suy ra b = bas +bcr. Mat khac
v c | ab nen ton tai t e ab = ct. Do o b = cts + bcr = (ts + br)c, tc la c | b.
4) V p la bat kha qui nen cac c cua p hoac la phan t kha nghch hoac la
lien ket vi p. Do o (p, a) ch co the kha nghch hoac lien ket vi p. Trong trng
hp au p va a la nguyen to cung nhau. Trong trng hp sau p | a.
5) Ta a co neu p nguyen to th p bat kha qui. Bay gi gia s p la bat kha qui va p |
ab. Theo 4) ta co hoac p | a hoac (p, a) =1. Nhng neu (p, a) = 1 th ta co do 3) p |
b . Vay p la nguyen to.

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6.6 Vanh Euclide

Mot vanh nguyen D c goi la vanh Euclide neu ton tai mot anh xa g :
D* thoa cac ieu kien
1) g(ab) g(a) vi moi a, b D* ;
2) Vi moi a, b D va b 0 ton tai q, r D sao cho
a = bq + r

vi r = 0 hoac g(r) < g(b).

ieu kien 2) la ieu kien xac nh phep chia co d cua phan t a cho phan t b 0,
r c goi la phan d cua phep chia. Phep chia goi la chia het neu r = 0.
V DU: (9 ,+, ) la vanh Euclide, anh xa g trong trng hp nay c xac nh
bi g(n) = |n| .

6.7 nh l
Moi vanh Euclide eu la vanh chnh
Chng minh: Ta chng minh moi ideal I cua vanh Euclide D la chnh. That vay,
neu I = {0 } th I la Ideal sinh bi 0. Gia s I {0} . Goi a la phan t khac 0 cua I
sao cho g(a) be nhat trong tap g( I* ) ( ay g la anh xa trong nh ngha 6.6, va I* =
I {0}). Ta se ch ra I = < a >. That vay, goi x la mot phan t bat k cua I. V D la
vanh Euclide nen ton tai q, r D sao cho x = aq + r vi r = 0 hoac g(r) < g(a). Do
a, x I nen r = x aq I. Neu r 0 th ta co r I* va g(r) < g(a). Nhng ieu
nay trai vi tnh chat cua phan t a . Vay phai co r = 0, suy ra x = aq < a >, t
o
I
<
a >. Bao ham ngc lai la hien nhien.
NHAN XET: T 6.4 va 6.7 ta thay trong vanh Euclide hai phan t bat k eu co
UCLN. Nhng trong vanh Euclide ta con co the ch ra thuat toan e tm UCLN o.
e lam ieu nay trc het ta chu y rang trong mot vanh chnh D neu co a = bq + r
th (a, b) = (b, r). That vay, at
I = <a, b> = {xa + yb, x, y D} va J = < b, r > = {xb + yr, x, y D}.
T a = bq + r suy ra a J, do o I J. T r = a bq suy ra r I, do o J I.
Vay I = J. Nh chng minh trong nh l 6.4 ta co d = (a, b) = (b, r). Bay gi ta se
trnh bay thuat toan tm CLN cho hai phan t bat k trong mot vanh Euclide .

6.8 Thuat toan tm CLN

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D la vanh Euclide, nen ton tai anh xa g : D* thoa hai ieu kien trong 6.6.
Gia s a, b D. Neu a, b = 0 th (a,b) = 0, neu a = 0, b 0 th (a, b) = b . Ta ch
con xet cho trng hp a, b 0. Thuat toan la mot qua trnh thc hien lien tiep cac
phep chia:
. Bc 1: Chia a cho b
a = bq0 + r0,
r0 = 0 hoac g(r0) < g(b)
Neu r0 = 0 th dng. Neu r0 0 th i en bc 2
. Bc 2: Chia b cho r0
b = r0q1 + r1,
r1 = 0 hoac g(r1) < g(r0)
Neu r1 = 0 th dng. Neu r1 0 , th i en bc 3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Bc n : Chia rn1 cho rn rn1 = rn qn+1 + rn+1, rn+1 = 0 hoac g(rn+1) < g(rn)
Qua trnh chia nh vay phai cham dt sau mot so hu han bc v day cac so
t nhien g(b) > g(r0) > > g(ri) > 0 khong the giam vo han. Gia s en
bc n nao o ta co rn+1 = 0 va rn 0, th theo nhan xet tren suy ra CLN cua
a va b la rn.

6.9 Vanh Gauss (Vanh nhan t hoa)

Mot vanh nguyen D c goi la vanh Gauss hay vanh nhan t hoa neu va ch
neu moi phan t p khac 0 va khong kha nghch cua no eu phan tch c thanh
tch nhng phan t bat kha qui
p = p1 p2 pn
va s phan tch nay la duy nhat khong ke en th t cac nhan t va cac nhan t sai
khac nhau mot phan t kha nghch.
CHU Y: Khi phan tch mot phan t p thanh tch cac nhan t bat kha qui, mot vai
hoac tat ca cac nhan t bat kha qui o co the giong nhau. Ket hp cac nhan t
giong nhau lai va bieu dien tch cua chung di dang luy tha th se dan en dang
k

sau goi la dang phan tch chnh tac p= p 1 1 p 2 2 .p kmm .

V DU: Vanh so nguyen 9 la vanh Gauss.
Mot vanh nguyen c goi la thoa ieu kien CLN neu hai phan t bat k cua
no eu ton tai CLN.
Mot vanh nguyen D c goi la thoa man ieu kien day dng nhng c thc
s neu moi day a1,..., an ...cac phan t cua D sao cho a2 || a1, a3 || a2 ,... , an || an-1...
eu dng lai, tc la ton tai mot ch so m sao cho am = am+1 =. . .

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6.10 nh l
Mot mien nguyen la vanh Gauss neu va ch neu no thoa man ieu kien CLN va
ieu kien day dng cac c thc s .
Chng minh:
() Gia s D la vanh Gauss.
. ieu kien CLN: Vi moi a, b D*, goi {p1,...,pk} la tap hp tat ca cac phan t
bat kha quy khac nhau trong s phan tch cua a va cua b. Ta co

vi i 0.

vi i 0.

a p1 1 p k k
b p1 1 p k k

V moi c cua a eu co dang u. p11 p kk ; vi 0 i i ,va moi c cua b

eu co dang tng t vi 0 j j . Nen

(a, b) = p1 1 p k k

vi

i = Min(i ,i)

. ieu kien day dng cac c thc s : Gia s a D, a khac 0 va khong kha nghch.
at l(a) la so cac nhan t trong s phan tch a thanh tch cac phan t bat kha qui.
Neu a = bc, vi b va c la nhng c thc s th ta se c s phan tch cua a
thanh mot tch nhng phan t bat kha qui bang cach nhan cac phan tch tng ng
cua b va c vi nhau. Suy ra rang l(a) = l(b) + l(c).V vay neu b || a th l(b) < l(a).
Neu day a1,a2, ..., an,... cac phan t cua D sao cho a2 || a1, a3 || a2 ,... , an || an-1...
khong dng lai th ta se co mot day giam vo han cac so nguyen dng l(a1) > l(a2)
> ...> l(an) > ... 0, va ieu nay dan en mau thuan.
() Cho D la mien nguyen thoa cac ieu kien CLN va day dng cac c thc
s.
Gia s a la mot phan t cua D khac 0 va khong kha nghch. Khi o a co t nhat
mot c la phan t bat kha qui, that vay
. Neu a la bat kha qui (a chng minh xong).
. Neu a la kha qui, tc la a co mot c thc s la a1.
. Neu a1 la bat kha qui (a chng minh xong).
. Neu a1 la kha qui, tc la a1 co mot c thc s la a2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bang cach lap luan nh vay, sau mot so hu han bc, ta se tm c mot c bat
kha qui cua a, v neu khong, th day cac c thc s a1,...,an ... se khong dng, va
ieu nay mau thuan vi gia thiet.
Theo l luan tren th a co t nhat mot c bat kha qui, gia s

o Nguyen Sn

Khoa Toan Tin

ai So ai Cng
a = p1a1

- 89 -

vi p1 bat kha qui

. Neu a1 la kha nghch (s phan tch a xong). Neu a1 khong kha nghch th cung
theo tren
a1 = p2 a2 vi p2 bat kha qui
. Neu a2 la kha nghch (s phan tch a xong). Neu a2 khong kha nghch th cung
vi p3 bat kha qui
theo tren
a 2 = p3 a 3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Qua trnh nay phai cham dt sau so hu han bc, v trong day a1, a2,.., an, .. cac
phan t ng sau la c thc s cua phan t ng lien trc no. Neu qua trnh dng
sau bc th n th ta co
a = p1 p2...pn vi pi la bat kha qui.
Gia s : p1p2...pn = a = q1q2...qm , trong o cac pi, qj la bat kha qui.
V p1 | q1...qm nen ton tai j {1, 2, , m} sao cho p1| qj. Bang cach anh so lai,
ta co the gia s j =1, tc la p1| q1. V p1, q1 eu bat kha qui nen p1 q1, suy ra q1
= u1 p1 vi u1 kha nghch. Luc nay ta co
p1 p2...pn = u1 p1 q2 ...qm hay

p2 ...pn = u1 q2 ...qm ;

Bang lap luan nh tren, neu n < m th sau n lan gian c, ta c :

1 = u1...un qn+1...qm
nhng ieu nay khong the xay ra v qn+1, ...,qm, khong kha nghch. Vay phai co n
m. Vai tro m, n la nh nhau, nen tng t co m n, t o m = n. Ngoai ra Bang
mot cach anh so thch hp, ta cung co pi = ui qi vi ui kha nghch.

6.11 nh l
Moi vanh chnh eu la vanh Gauss
Chng minh: Ta a biet rang ieu kien CLN c thoa man tren vanh chnh (nh
l 6.4). Do o, t nh l 6.10, ta ch can chng minh ieu kien day dng nhng c
thc s cung c thoa man tren vanh chnh. That vay, xet day cac c thc s
trong vanh chnh D
a1,a2, ..., an,...

vi

a2 || a1, a3 || a2 ,... , an || an-1...

Neu ai aj vi moi i j th ta co mot day cac ideal

< a1> < a2 > . < an>

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ai So ai Cng

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Neu at I = < ai > th I la mot ideal cua D. That vay, gia s x, y la hai phan t
i =1

bat k cua cua I, khi o ton tai i, j sao cho x < ai > va y < aj >, t o x, y < ak
> vi k = max {i, j}. V < ak > la nhom con nen x y < ak > va do o x y I.
Vay I la nhom con cua nhom cong (D, +). Mat khac, gia s x va a la hai phan t
bat k lan lt thuoc I va D, khi o x < ak > vi mot k nao o. V < ak > la mot
ideal nen x a, a x < ak > I. Vay I la mot ideal cua D, ma D la vanh chnh nen I
la mot ideal chnh, tc la I = < a > vi a D. V a I nen ton tai n sao cho a <
an >, tc la I < an > < an+1 > I, va ieu nay dan en mau thuan.

o Nguyen Sn

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ai So ai Cng

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BAI TAP
1. Gia s + va la hai phep toan trong tren tap X thoa cac tnh chat
a) (X,+) la nhom.
b) (X, ) la v nhom.
c) Phep toan phan phoi vi phep toan +.
Chng minh rang (X,+, ) la mot vanh.
2. Cho 3 la tap cac so thc. Tren 32 co xac nh cac phep toan + va nh sau :
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d).
(a, b) (c, d) = (ac, ad + bc).
Chng minh rang (32 ,+, ) la mot vanh giao hoan.
3. Cho mot ho cac vanh {(Xi ,+, ), i I} va X = X i . Tren X xac nh cac
iI

phep toan + va nh sau :

(xi )i I + (yi )iI = (xi + yi )iI .
(xi)iI .(yi ) iI
= (xi .yi ) iI

Chng minh rang (X,+, ) la mot vanh, va X giao hoan neu cac Xi la giao hoan.
Vanh X c goi la tch trc tiep cua cac vanh Xi.
4. at 33 = {ham so f : 3 3 }. Chng minh rang oi vi cac phep toan cong va
nhan cac ham thong thng th (33,+, ) la mot vanh giao hoan. 33 co phai la mot
mien nguyen hay khong?
5. Ta goi cau truc ai so (X,+, ) la mot gia vanh neu cac phep toan trong + va
tren X thoa man ba ieu kien sau ay :
a) (X,+) la nhom giao hoan .
b) (X, ) la na nhom.
c) Phep toan phan phoi vi phep toan +.
Chng minh rang cac tap hp tng ng vi cac phep toan sau la cac gia vanh
+

f ( x ) dx <

1) Tap hp cac ham so thc lien tuc f tren 3 sao cho :

vi cac phep toan cong va nhan thong thng cac ham.

2) Tap hp 29 vi phep toan cong va nhan cac so.
3) X = { 0, a, b, c } vi cac phep toan tren X c cho bi

o Nguyen Sn

Khoa Toan Tin

ai So ai Cng
0
a
b
c

0
a
b
c

a
0
c
b

- 92 -

b
c
0
a

c
b
a
0

0
a
b
c

0
0
0
0

0
a
0
a

0
b
0
b

0
c
0
c

4) Tap X = {(a, b, b, a) : a, b 9}, vi cac phep toan + va nh sau :

(a, b, b, a) + (c, d, d, c) = (a + c, b + d, b d, a + c)
(a, b, b, a) (c, d, d, c) = (ac bd, ad + bc, ad bc, ac bd).
6. Cho (X,+, ) la mot gia vanh va Z(X) = {x X : ax =xa, vi moi a X}
la tam cua X. Gia s vi moi x X, x2 x Z(X).
a) Chng minh rang vi moi x, y X, xy + yx Z(X).
b) Suy ra xy = yx vi moi x, y X.
7. Trong mot vanh giao hoan X, hay chng minh cong thc nh thc Newton
n

(a + b) n = C kn a k b n k
k =0

8. oi vi cac phep toan cong va nhan cac ham so thong thng chng to tap
3[0,1] = {ham so f :[0, 1] 3 } la mot vanh giao hoan. Cac tap hp sau co phai la
vanh con cua 3[0,1]
a) Tap hp cac ham so lien tuc tren [0,1].
b) Tap hp cac ham so kha tch tren [0,1].
9. Chng minh rang
a) 9[i] = { a + bi : a, b 9}
la vanh con cua (,+, ).
b) 9[ 2 ] = { a + b 2 : a, b 9} la vanh con cua (3,+, ).
c) [ 2 ] = { a + b 2 : a,b } la trng con cua (R,+, )
10. Cho mot ho cac vanh con {Ai, i I} cua X. Gia s rang, vi moi i, j I ton tai
k I sao cho Ai va Aj eu cha trong Ak . Chng minh rang Ai la vanh con
cua X.

iI

11. Cho (X,+, ) la mot vanh va goi Z(X) = {a X : ax = xa, vi moi x X} la tam
cua X. Chng minh rang Z(X) la vanh con cua X.
12. Cho (X,+, ) la mot vanh va A = {a X : ton tai n : an = 0}. A co phai la
vanh con cua X khong?
13. Cho (X,+, ) la mot vanh va f : X X la mot ong cau vanh. Chng minh
rang A = { a X : f(x) = x } la vanh con cua X.

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ai So ai Cng

- 93 -

14. Tm tat ca cac t ong cau vanh cua cac vanh 9, 9 [ 2 ], 9 [i].
15. Cho la tap cac so hu t. Tren 2 xac nh cac phep toan + va nh sau :
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d) .
(a, b) (c, d) = (ac + 2bd, ad + bc) .
Chng minh rang ( 2 ,+, ) la mot vanh va no ang cau vi ( [ 2 ],+, ) .
16. Cho (X,+,) la mot vanh va End(X) la vanh cac t ong cau cua nhom cong
(X,+). Vi moi a X, nh ngha anh xa : fa : X X , fa (x) = ax.
a) Chng minh rang fa End(X).
b) .Chng minh rang anh xa h : X End(X) , a a fa , la n cau vanh.
Suy ra rang moi vanh co the xem nh la vanh con cua vanh cac t ong cau cua
nhom cong cua no.
17. Cho mot vanh X. .Chng minh rang ton tai duy nhat mot ong cau vanh f :9
X. Hn na, neu X co ac so 0 th f la n cau.
18. Chng minh rang cac vanh sau ay co ac so 0 : 9, , 3, , Mat3 (n), End(9).
19. Chng minh rang moi vanh hu han co ac so m > 0.
20. Cho (X,+, ) la mot mot vanh va n9. Chng to A = { x X : nx = 0} la ideal
cua X.
21. Cho (X,+, ) la mot vanh giao hoan. . Chng minh rang tap con
A = { x X : rx = 0 ; vi moi r X } la ideal cua X.
22. Cho (X,+, ) la mot vanh giao hoan va A, B la cac ideal cua X. Chng minh
rang C = {x X : x b A , vi moi b B} la mot ideal cua X.
23. Cho A la tap con khac rong cua vanh X. . Chng minh rang tap con
n

(A) = { x i a i y i : x i , y i X; a i A; i 1, n; n N
i =1

}.

la mot ideal cua X

24. Cho A la ideal va B la vanh con cua vanh X. Chng minh rang
a) A + B la mot vanh con cua X.
b) A B la ideal cua B.
c) A la mot ideal cua A + B.

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ai So ai Cng

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d) B/(A B) ang cau vi (A + B)/A.

25. Cho X1, X2 la hai vanh va A1 = X1 {0}, A2 = {0} X2 .
a) Chng minh rang A1, A2 la cac ideal cua vanh tch X = X1 X2 thoa :
A1 A2 = {0} va A1 + A2 = X.
b) Chng to phep chieu pi : X Xi , (x1, x2) a xi la mot toan cau. Xac nh Kerpi
. Chng minh rang X/Aj Xi vi i,j {1, 2} va i j.
c) Chng to A1, A2 la cac vanh oi vi cac phep toan + va xac nh tren X,
nhng khong phai la vanh con cua X.
26. Vanh nao trong cac vanh sau la mien nguyen, trng : 93, 94, 95, 96, 948 , XA =
{anh xa f : A X}
27. Chng minh rang [ 2 ] la trng. 9[ 2 ]co phai la trng khong ?
28. Trong , cho cac phep toan :
a*b = a+b1

va

a b = a + b ab.

( ,*, ) co phai la mot trng khong?

a b
trong o a, b . Chng minh
2b a

29. Cho T la tap cac ma tran dang

rang oi vi phep cong va nhan ma tran, T la mot trng va T ang cau vi trng
[ 2 ].
30. Chng minh rang vanh con cua mien nguyen la mien nguyen.
31. Chng minh rang moi trng hu han eu co ac so khac 0. Moi trng eu co
ac so 0 hay la so nguyen to.
32. Neu (X,+, ) la mot trng co ac so p. Chng minh rang
a) (x + y)p = xp + yp .
b) (x y)p = xp yp .
33. Trong vanh giao hoan X, mot phan t x c goi la luy linh neu ton tai n
sao cho xn = 0 . Chng minh rang
a) Neu x, y la luy linh th x + y cung luy linh.
b) Neu x luy linh th (1 + x) | 1.

o Nguyen Sn

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c) Neu x luy linh va u | 1 th (u + x) | 1.

34.
a) Ch ra rang A = {a + b 3 , a, b 9} la mot vanh nguyen.
b) Chng minh rang phan t 2, 1 + 3 , 1 3 , la nhng phan t bat kha
qui. Chng to phan t 4 co hai dang phan tch thanh nhan t bat kha qui khac nhau.
T o suy ra A khong phai la mot vanh chnh.
35. Chng minh rang moi trng eu la vanh chnh.
36.
a) Vanh con cua mot vanh chnh co phai la vanh chnh khong?
b) Vanh thng cua mot vanh chnh co phai la mot vanh chnh hay khong?
37. Cho A la mot vanh chnh va p la mot phan t bat kha qui cua A. Chng minh
rang vanh thng A/ < p > la mot trng.
38. Mot vanh A c goi la vanh Boole neu va ch neu x2 = x vi moi x A.
Cho mot tap E. Chng minh rang
a) ((92)E , +, ) la mot vanh Boole, trong o 92 la vanh cac so nguyen
modulo 2 va (92)E la tap cac anh xa t E en 92 .
b) (P(E), , ) la mot vanh Boole, trong o P(E) la tap cac tap con cua E
va la hieu oi xng
c) Cho A la mot tap con cua E, ta k hieu A(x) : E 92, c xac nh
bi

1 khi x A
A(x) =
0 khi x A

goi la ham ac trng cua A. Khi o anh xa P(E) (92)E, A a A, la mot ang
cau vanh.

o Nguyen Sn

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ai So ai Cng

- 96 -

CHNG 5:
VANH A THC
1 Vanh a thc mot bien
1.1 nh ngha
Gia s A la mot vanh giao hoan vi phan t n v la 1 0. Goi M la tap hp
cac day (a1. a2, .,an,.) trong o cac ai A va ch co mot so hu han trong
chung la khac 0. Tren M xac nh mot phep toan cong va mot phep toan nhan nh
sau :
(a0, a1, .,an.) + (b0, b1, .,bn.) = (a0 + b0, a1 +b1, .,an +bn,.)
(a0. a1, .,an.).(b0. b1, .,bn.)
trong o

ck =

= (c0, c1 , .,cn,.),

a i b j , k = 0, 1, 2,.

i + j= k

Khi o (M, +) la mot nhom giao hoan vi phan t n v 0 = ( 0, 0, .,0,),

phan t nghch ao cua phan t (a0, a1, .,an.) la ( a0, a1, ., an.) va (M,
) la mot v nhom giao hoan vi phan t n v la (1, 0, .,0,). Ngoai ra phep
toan cung phan phoi oi vi phep toan + nh ang thc :

a i (b j + c j ) = a i b j + a i c j .

i + j= k

i + j= k

i + j= k

T o (M, +, ) la mot vanh giao hoan.

Neu at M = {(a, 0,,0,..), a A } M, th (M,+, ) la mot vanh con cua M

va t ang cau vanh f : A

M, a a (a,0,,0,..), ta co the ong nhat mot
phan t a A vi day (a, 0, .,0,) M. V vay A cung c xem nh mot vanh
con cua M.
Neu ta ky hieu
c :

Ta qui c viet

x = (0, 1, 0,,0,) th t nh ngha phep toan va + ta

x2 = (0, 0, 1, 0, 0,,0,)
x3 = (0, 0, 0, 1, 0,,0,)
.....................................
xn = (0,0,,0, 1, 0,,0)
x0 = (1, 0,0,,0,) = 1

V ch co mot so hu han cac phan t ai trong day (a0, a1, .,an.) la khac 0
nen ta co the qui c viet moi phan t khac 0 cua M di dang

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ai So ai Cng

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(a0, a1, .,an, 0,), trong o an 0 va am = 0 vi moi m > n

Theo qui c cach viet o, va t nh ngha phep toan va + tren M, moi phan t
(a0, a1, .,an, 0,) M co the bieu dien di dang :
(a0, a1, , an, 0,..) =
,0,1,0,..)

(a0, 0,.) + (a1,0,.).(0,1,0, ) + + (an, 0,).(0,

= a0 + a1 x + .+ an xn =

i
a i x = f(x)

i =0

Vanh (M,+, ) c goi la vanh a thc cua bien x tren A, k hieu la A[x].
n
a i x i A [x] c goi la mot a thc cua bien x. Cac ai
Cac phan t f(x) =
i=0
goi la cac he t cua a thc. Cac aixi goi la cac hang t cua a thc, ac biet
a0x0 = a0 goi la hang t t do. Neu an 0 th so n c goi la bac cua a thc
f, va k hieu deg(f) = n, con an c goi la he t cao nhat cua a thc f(x). a
thc vi cac he t eu bang 0 goi la a thc khong. a thc bac 0 la mot phan t
cua vanh A va no con c goi la a thc hang. Chu y rang ta khong nh ngha
bac cua a thc 0.

1.2 nh l
Cho f(x) va g(x) la hai a thc . Khi o :
1) Neu f(x) + g(x) 0 th deg(f + g) max {deg(f), deg (g)}. Hn na neu gia
thiet them deg(f) = deg(g) th deg(f + g) = deg(f) = deg (g)
2) Neu f(x)g(x) 0 th
deg(f.g) deg(f) + deg(g). Hn na neu gia thiet
them A la vanh nguyen th deg(f.g) = deg(f) + deg(g).
Chng minh: Gia s f =
Khi o

f+g =

a i x i , g = b i x i , vi an, bm 0, m = n + k, k 0.
i =0
i=0

i =0

i = n +1

i
i
(a i + b i ) x + b i x

va
f.g = a0b0 + + (a0bk + a1bk1 + akb0 )xk + + anbm xn+m
Chu y rang, neu A la vanh nguyen th anbm 0. T o, suy ra cac khang nh a
neu trong nh l.

1.3 nh l
Neu A la mot vanh nguyen th A[x] cung la mot vanh nguyen.

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Chng minh : Gia s f =

khong bat k. Khi o

ai xi ,

g=

i= 0

bixi

(vi an ,bm 0) la hai a thc khac

i= 0

f.g = a0b0 +.+ (a0bk ++ akb0) xk + .+ an bm xn+m.

V trong A khong co c cua 0 nen t an ,bm 0 suy ra anbm 0, do o f.g 0

1.4 nh l
Neu K la mot trng th vanh K[x] la vanh Euclide, va do o no cung la vanh
chnh, vanh Gauss.
Chng minh :
T 1.3 suy ra K[x] la mot vanh nguyen. Xet anh xa
deg : K[x] {0} , f a deg(f).
T 1.2 suy ra deg(fg) = deg(f) + deg (g) deg(f).
Bay gi, vi moi f, g K[x] va g 0, ta se ch ra ton tai duy nhat q, r K[x] sao
cho f = qg + r vi r = 0 hoac deg(r ) < deg(g).
. Ton tai.
Neu f = 0 th ta lay q = 0, r = 0. Neu vi f 0 va deg(f) < deg(g) th ta lay q = 0,
r = f. Vay ch can xet trng hp f 0 va deg(f) deg(g)). Ta chng minh bang
cach qui nap theo deg(f).
- Vi deg(f) = 0, khi o deg(g) = 0, tc la f, g K, g 0, t o ch can chon q =
f.g1 va r = 0.

Gia s khang nh ung cho cac a thc vi bac < deg(f), ta ch ra khang

nh ung cho deg(f). Neu f =

aix , g = bixi th at f1 = f b m1 an xnm g. Khi

i

i= 0

i= 0

o f1 = 0 hoac deg(f1) < deg(f). Neu f1 = 0 th khang nh a c chng minh.

Neu deg(f1) < deg(f) th theo gia thiet qui nap ton tai q1, r1 K[x] sao cho f1 = q1.
g + r1 , vi r1 = 0 hoac deg(r1 ) < deg(g). T o
1
1
1
an xnm g = q1g + r1 + b m
an xnmg = (q1 + b m
an xnm )g + r1.
f = f1 + b m

. Duy nhat . Gia s co f = qg + r = qg + r. Khi o (q q)g = r r. Neu r r

th (q q)g 0, suy ra deg(r r) = deg( q q) + deg(g) (mau thuan v khi o
deg(g) deg (r r') max {deg(r), deg(r')} < deg(g) ).Vay r = r va t o q = q'.

V DU:

o Nguyen Sn

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ai So ai Cng

- 99 -

1) Thc hien phep chia Euclide a thc f = x5 + x2 + 1 cho g = x3 + 3x2 4

tren vanh 3[x].
x5 + 0x4 + 0x3
x5 + 3x4 +
3x4 +
3x4 9x3
9x3
9x3

+ x2 + 0x + 1
4x2
.
2
+ 5x
+1
+12x + 1
2
+ 5x 12x + 1
+ 27x2
36
2
22x 12x + 37

x3 + 3x2 4
x2 3x + 9

T o x5 + x2 + 1 = (x3 + 3x2 4)( x2 3x + 9) 22x2 12x + 37

2) Thc hien phep chia a thc f = 1 x5 + 1 x2 + 1 cho g = 1 x3 + 3 x2 4
tren vanh 95[x].

1 x5 + 0 x4 + 0 x3 + 1 x2 + 0 x + 1
1 x5 + 3 x4
4 x2

1 x3 + 3 x2 4

1 x2 3 x + 4

3 x4
4

+1
3

3x 4 x

+ 2x

4 x3
2x + 1
3
2
4x + 2x
1

2 x2
T o,

2x + 2

1 x5 + 1 x2 + 1 = ( 1 x3 + 3 x2 4 ) ( 1 x2 3 x + 4 ) 2 x2 2 x + 2

1.5 Khong iem cua a thc

n

Cho vanh A , c la mot phan t cua A va f(x) = a i x i la mot a thc cua A[x]
i =0

. Phan t f(c) := a i c i se c goi la gia tr cua a thc f(x) tai c. Neu f( c)

i =0

= 0 th ta noi c la mot khong iem hay la nghiem cua f(x). Viec tm tat ca cac
nghiem cua f(x) trong A c goi la giai phng trnh ai so bac n
trong A.

o Nguyen Sn

i
aix = 0

i =0

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1.6 nh l
n

Gia s K la mot trng, c la mot phan t cua A va f(x) = a i x i la mot a thc

i =0

cua K[x]. Khi o c la mot nghiem cua f(x) khi va ch khi (x - c) | f(x)
Chng minh : Thc hien phep chia Euclide f(x) = (x c)g(x) + r. T o suy ra r = f(
c). Vay co the viet f(x) = (x c)g(x) + f(c). Khi o khang nh la ro rang.

1.7 Cap cua khong iem

Cho K la mot trng, c K, f(x) K[x] va m 1 la mot so t nhien. Ta noi c la
nghiem boi cap m cua f(x) neu chia het cho (x c )m va khong chia het cho (x c
)m+1. Neu m = 1 ta con noi c la nghiem n, neu m = 2 th c c goi la nghiem
kep. Ta cung co the xem mot a thc co mot nghiem boi cap m nh mot a thc
co m nghiem trung nhau.

1.8 nh l
Gia s K la mot trng sao cho moi a thc khac hang trong
K[x] eu co nghiem trong K. Khi o vi moi a thc f K[x ] ton tai cac phan t
a1, a2, , an K va c K sao cho f(x) = c (x a1)(x a2) (x an).
Chng minh : Gia s a1 la mot nghiem cua a thc f(x). Theo nh l 1.6 ta co f(x)
= (x a1)q(x) vi deg(q) = deg(f) 1. Neu q la khac hang th theo gia thiet tm c
mot nghiem cua q(x) la a2 va nh the ta co
f(x) = q1(x) (x a1)(x a2)
Tiep tuc l luan nh tren cho en khi qn la hang th ta se co ieu can chng minh.

Mot trng K co tnh chat nh nh l 1.8, o la moi a thc khac hang tren K
eu co mot nghiem tren K, c goi la trng ong ai so. Cho du K khong ong
ai so ta cung co:

1.9 nh l
Moi a thc bac n

1 tren mot trng K co nhieu nhat la n nghiem ke ca boi.

Chng minh : Gia s a thc f(x) co k nghiem phan biet a1, a2, , ak vi boi tng
ng la m1, m2, , mk th bi phep chia Euclide ta co phan tch
f(x) = (x a1)

o Nguyen Sn

m1

(x a2)

m2

(x an)

mk

q(x)

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T o suy ra m1 + m2 ++ mk

deg (f) = n.

1.10 nh l
n

i =0

i =0

Cho K la mot trng vo han, va f(x) = a i x i , g(x) = b i x i la hai a thc trong

K[x]. Khi o neu f(c) = g(c) vi moi c K th f = g, tc la ak = bk vi moi k = 0,
1, , n.
n

Chng minh : Xet a thc f(x) g(x) = (a i b i ) x i , khi o theo gia thiet moi
i =0

phan t cua K la mot nghiem cua a thc nay. T o, bi nh l 1.9, phai co ak =

bk vi moi k = 0, 1, , n.

1.11 Ham a thc

n

Vi moi a thc f(x) = a i x i K[x] ta xac nh mot anh xa nh sau

i =0

f : K K, f (c) = a i c i
va goi la ham a thc tng ng vi f.

i =0

CHU Y: Xet anh xa : K[x] KK = {anh xa: K K}, f a f , va co the

kiem tra de dang rang o la mot ong cau vanh. Ta se khao sat tnh n anh cua
.
N

a) Gia s K = {t1, t2, ,tN} hu han va xet f = ( x t k ) K[x] . Khi o ta co

k =1

f 0 v deg(f) = N 1 nhng ro rang f = 0 v f (c) = 0 vi moi c K. Nh vay ta

co f 0 ma (f) = (0) = 0. T o la khong n anh.

b) Gia s K vo han. Khi o la n anh v t (f) = (g) suy ra f (c) = g (c)

vi moi c K, hay f(c) = g(c) vi moi c K, va theo nh l 1.10, f = g.
Nh vay la mot n cau vanh khi va ch khi trng K la vo han. T o, neu K la

vo han (Chang han 3 va ) th ta co the ong nhat f vi f , tc la xem a thc f

nh la mot ham xac nh tren K.

Bay gi ta s dung cac ket qua a thu c ve vanh chnh va vanh Euclide e
nghien cu vanh a thc K[x] vi K la mot trng. Trc het chu y rang :

o Nguyen Sn

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*
1) Phan t kha nghch trong K[x] la cac phan t a K = K {0} .

2) a thc lien ket vi a thc f(x) la cac a thc co dang af(x) vi a K * .

3) Phan t bat kha qui trong K[x] la cac a thc p(x) co bac

1, ma c cua

no ch co the la cac a thc hang ( cac phan t thuoc K ) va cac a thc co dang c
p(x) vi c K*. Ro rang cac a thc bac 1 : ax + b la bat kha qui . Chung co
nghiem la a1b trong K. Cac a thc bat kha qui khac tc la cac a thc bat kha
qui co bac > 1 la vo nghiem trong K. That vay, neu p(x) la mot a thc bat kha qui
co bac > 1 va co nghiem c K th
p(x) = (x c ).q(x) vi deg(q) 1.
Do o ( x c) la c thc s cua p(x), ieu nay trai vi p(x) la bat kha qui.

1.12 nh l
n

Cho K la mot trng va p(x) = a i x i ( n >1) la mot a thc bat

i =0

kha qui tren vanh K [x]. Khi o ton tai mot trng T duy nhat (theo ngha sai khac
nhau mot ang cau) sao cho :
1) K la mot trng con cua T.
2) p(x) co mot nghiem u trong T
n 1

3) Moi phan t z T eu viet c duy nhat di dang z = b i u i , bi K.

i =0

Chng minh :

. at I = < p(x) > la ideal sinh bi p(x) , va xet vanh thng T = K[x]/ I . Khi o T
cung la mot trng. That vay, xet f(x) + I 0 + I, khi o v f(x) khong phai la boi
cua p(x) nen ( f(x), p(x)) = 1. T o ton tai r(x), s(x) K[x ] sao cho f.r + p.s = 1,
suy ra f.r 1 + I. Vay ta co
(f(x) + I).(r(x) + I) = f(x).r(x) + I = 1 + I.
tc la f(x) + I kha nghch.
. Bay gi xet toan cau chnh tac : K[x] K[x] / I, f a f + I, va thu hep cua no
tren K |K : K K [x] / I , va ta co the de kiem tra |K la mot n cau. T o co
the ong nhat cac phan t a K vi |K (a) K [x] / I = T va xem K la mot
trng con cua T. Neu at u = (x), th ta co the viet

o Nguyen Sn

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i =0

i =0

(p(x)) = (a i ) ( x ) i = a i u i .
n

V (p(x)) = p(x) + I = 0 + I nen ta co a i u i = 0 + I (phan t khong trong T),

i =0

ieu nay co ngha la u la nghiem trong T cua a thc p(x).

. Cuoi cung lay z bat k thuoc T, khi o ton tai f K[x] sao cho z = (f). Chia f
cho p(x) ta c
n 1

f(x) = p(x) g(x) + r(x), vi r(x) = b i x i (bi K va khong nhat thiet 0). T
i =0

n 1

z = (f) = (p.g) + (r) = 0 + (r) = b i u i .

Bieu dien cua z la duy nhat . That vay

n 1

n 1

i =0

i =0

i =0

n 1

n 1

i =0

i =0

Gia s z = b i u i = c i u i . Khi o : ( b i c i ) u i = ( ( b i c i ) x i ) = 0 ,
tc la

n 1

n 1

i
i
(b i c i ) x I , suy ra (b i c i ) x la boi cua p(x), ieu nay ch

i =0

i =0

xay ra khi bi = ci (do bac cua p(x) ln hn ).

. Bay gi ta ch ra T la duy nhat sai khac mot ang cau. Gia s co mot trng T'
cung co cac tnh chat nh T. Goi u' la nghiem cua p(x) trong T'. Xet ong cau : K
[x] T', f(x) a f(u'). Co the ch ra la toan cau va Ker = I. T o theo nh l
ong cau vanh : T' = Im K[x ]/ Ker = K [x] / I = T .

AP DUNG : Ap dung nh l 1.12 cho trng hp K = 3 la tap cac so thc va p(x)

= x2 + 1 th trng T luc nay se la
/ < x 2 +1> = {a +b.i; a,b 3 va i la nghiem cua x2 + 1 = 0} = .

3[x]

Nh vay ta tm lai c trng so phc quen thuoc.

1.13 nh l
Cho K la mot trng, f(x) K[x] la a thc co bac n > 1. Khi o ton tai mot trng
T m rong cua K sao cho f( x) co ung n nghiem.
Chng minh : Neu cac nhan t bat kha qui trong phan tch cua f eu la bac 1 th a
chng minh xong. Gia s co p(x) la mot nhan t bat kha qui vi bac > 1. Ta xay
dng trng T e p(x) co nghiem trong T. Neu f(x) cha co n nghiem th no phai co
dang :

o Nguyen Sn

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f(x) = (x a)r..(x b)s.f1(x),

trong o

a,,b T va f1(x) T[x ], 1 < deg(f1) < deg(f)

Tiep tuc m rong trng T thanh T1 e f1(x) co nghiem trong T1. V bac cua a thc
la hu han nen sau mot so hu han bc ta se tm c trng m rong Tk thoa
yeu cau .

2. Vanh a thc nhieu bien

2.1 nh ngha
Gia s A la mot vanh giao hoan vi n v 1. Ta at :
A1 = A[x1 ] , A2 = A1[x2 ], , A n = An-1 [xn ].
Khi o vanh A n = An-1 [xn] , c k hieu la A[x1, x2, .,xn], se c goi la vanh
a thc cua n bien tren A. Moi phan t cua A[x1, x2, .,xn] c goi la mot a
thc cua n bien x1, x2, .,xn , va viet f(x1, x2, .,xn ) A[x1, x2, .,xn].
Bay gi ta tm cach bieu dien cac phan t cua vanh A[x1, x2, .,xn] .
Trc het xet cac a thc hai bien f(x,y) A[x,y] = A[x][y]. No co the viet di
dang :
f(x,y) = a0(x) + a1(x)y + ....+ an (x)yn
vi

mi

ai(x) = b ik x k A[x]
k =0

V A [x, y] la vanh nen phep nhan phan phoi oi vi phep cong , do o f(x,y) co
the viet
f(x,y) = c mi mj x

mi

mj

vi c m i m j A.

Bang qui nap ta thay a thc bien co the viet di dang :

f(x1, x2, .,xn ) =

m
m
c mi .....m n x 1 i ......x n n , vi c m i ...m n A,

(1)

Moi hang t g = ax1 1 .xn n vi a A goi la mot n thc, neu a 0 th

tong m1 + m2 ++ mn c goi la bac cua n thc g, va k hieu la deg(g). Ta
nh ngha bac cua mot a thc f bat k viet di dang (1) la
m

deg(f) = max { m1 + m2 ++ mn : c m i ...m n 0}

o Nguyen Sn

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2.2 Cach sap xep a thc theo loi t ien

Xet v nhom cong giao hoan 0n = 0 0 0 vi phep cong c xac
nh bi (a1, a2, ,an) + (b1, b2, ,bn) = (a1 + b1, a2 + b2, , an + bn). Tren 0n xac
nh mot quan he > nh sau : (a1, a2, ,an) > (b1, b2, ,bn) neu va ch neu ton tai
i {1, 2, , n} sao cho
a1 = b1, a2 = b2, , ai1 = bi1 va ai > bi .
V DU:

Tren 30 , (2, 1, 1) > (1, 2, 3) > (0, 4, 1) > (0, 3, 9)

Co the kiem tra de dang rang ( 0n , >) la mot v nhom c sap th t toan phan.

Sap xep a thc

f(x1, x2, .,xn) = c m1.....m n x 1

m1

......x n mn theo loi t ien

la cach sap xep cac hang t cua a thc nay theo th t giam dan hoac tang dan
cua so mu (m1, m2, , mn) ( theo quan he th t tren va neu trong hang t thieu
bien xi th ta xem mi = 0 ). Hang t vi so mu ln nhat c goi la hang t cao
nhat cua a thc.
V DU : Trong a thc f(x1, x2, x3) = 4x 12 x 42 + 2x 1 x 53 3x 13 x 2 x 3 + x 52 x 3
ta co (3,1,1) > (2,4,0) > (1,0,5) > (0,5,1) nen co dang sap xep loi t ien la
f(x1, x2, x3) = 3x 13 x 2 x 3 + 4x 12 x 42 + 2x 1 x 53 + x 52 x 3 .
K HIEU: Neu x = (x1, x2, .,xn), m = (m1, m2, .,mn) th ta viet
n
xm = x 1 1 x 2 2 x m
n

2.3 nh l
Neu A la vanh nguyen th A[x1, x2, .,xn] cung la vanh nguyen
n

k =0

k =0

Chng minh: Gia s f = a k x k va g = b k x k la hai a thc khac 0 va c

sap xep theo loi t ien, tc la n > n 1 > > 0 , m > m 1 > > 0, va cac hang
t cao nhat cua chung co cac he t lan lt la an 0, bm 0.

Khi o f.g = a i b j x i + j , i = 1, 2, , n va j = 1, 2, , m. T o he t cua hang

i, j

t cao nhat trong f.g la anbm . V A la vanh nguyen nen anbm 0, va do vay f.g
0.

o Nguyen Sn

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CHU Y: Vanh a thc K[x1, x2, .,xn] tren trng K khong phai la vanh chnh vi
n 2. Chang han ideal < x1, x2, .,xn > khong phai la mot ideal chnh.

2.4 a thc oi xng

Cho A la mot vanh giao hoan vi n v 1 0, A[x1, x2, .,xn ] la vanh a thc n
bien . Mot a thc f A[x1, x2, .,xn ] goi la oi xng neu
f(x1, x2, .,xn ) = f(x (1) , x ( 2) , .,x ( n ) )

vi moi hoan v Sn.

V DU: Cac a thc sau ay :

1 = x1 + x2 + . +xn

2 = x1x2 + x1x3 . + xn-1 xn

. . . . . . . . . . . .
k =
x i1 x i 2 ....x i k
1i1 ,..,i k n

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
n = x1x2 .xn
la oi xng va goi la cac a thc oi xng c ban.

2.5 nh l
Cac a thc oi xng c ban la oc lap ai so tren A, tc la, neu f( 1, 2, , n)
= 0 vi f A[x1, x2, .,xn ] th f = 0.
Chng minh: Ta chng minh bang qui nap theo n. Trng hp n = 1 la tam thng.
Gia s nh l ung vi n 1, ta se ch ra no cung ung vi n. That vay, gia s f
A[x1, x2, .,xn] la a thc khac 0 va co cap be nhat sao cho f( 1, 2, , n) = 0.
Ta viet a thc f(x1, x2, ., xn) nh mot a thc mot bien xn :
f = f0(x1, x2, ., xn1) + f1(x1, x2, ., xn1)xn + + fs(x1, x2, ., xn1)x sn
trong o fi(x1, x2, ., xn1) A[x1, x2, .,xn1]. Hang t f0(x1, x2, ., xn1) 0
v neu khong th f = xn g, t o 0 = f( 1, 2, , n) = ng( 1, 2, , n) = 0, va
do o g( 1, 2, , n) = 0, nhng ieu nay mau thuan vi f la co cap nho nhat
thoa f( 1, 2, , n) = 0. Bay gi ta co
0 = f0( 1, 2, , n1) + f1( 1, 2, , n1) n + + fs( 1, 2, , n1) sn
Ve phai tat nhien la mot a thc n bien x1, x2, .,xn va neu thay xn = 0 vao th

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do n(x1, x2, ,xn1, xn) = x1 x2 .xn10 = 0 nen ta co f0( 1, 2, , n1) = 0 trong

o i = i(x1, x2, , xn1, 0) la a thc oi xng c ban n 1 bien. Ket hp vi
f0(x1, x2, ., xn1) 0 se dan en mau thuan vi gia thiet qui nap.

2.6 nh l
oi vi moi a thc oi xng f A[x1, x2, .,xn] ton tai duy nhat mot a thc g
A[x1, x2, .,xn] sao cho f(x1, x2, ., xn) = g( 1, 2, ., n).
Chng minh:
S ton tai.
a

. Ta sap xep f(x1, x2, ., xn) theo loi t ien va gia s ax 11 x 22 x ann la hang t
cao nhat cua no. Khi o ta phai co a1 a2 an. That vay, gia s ton tai i sao
a

cho ai > ai1. V f oi xng nen f phai cha hang t ax 11 x i i 1 x i i 1 x ann

a a
co c t ax 11 x 22 x ann bang cach thay xi bi xi1 va xi1 bi xi . Do ai > ai1
a

nen (a1, , ai2, ai, ai-1,, an) > (a1, , ai2, ai1, ai ,, an), vay ax 11 x 22 x ann
khong la hang t cao nhat, va ieu nay dan en mau thuan.
. Xet a thc

a a 2

a 11

a a 3

22

ann va de kiem tra rang o cung la a thc

a

oi xng va co hang t cao nhat la ax 11 x 22 x ann .

a a

a a

f1 = f a 11 2 22 3 ann
( ro rang no la a thc oi xng)
- Neu f1 = 0 ( a chng minh xong)
- Neu f1 0, th ta lai sap xep no theo loi t ien va gia s hang t cao

. at

b b
nhat cua no la bx 1 1 x 2 2 x bn n , e y rang luc nay (a1, a2,, an) > (b1, b2,, bn),
va do o a1 b1.
b b

b b

. at f2 = f1 a 1 1 2 22 3 bn n
- Neu f2 = 0 ( a chng minh xong)
- Neu f2 0, th ta lai sap xep no theo loi t ien va gia s hang t cao nhat cua
c

no la cx 11 x 22 x cnn , e y rang luc nay (b1, b2,, bn) > (c1, c2,, cn), va do o b1
c1.
. . . . . . . . . .
Qua trnh tren se cham dt sau mot so hu han bc v tng ng vi no ta co day
cac so t nhien giam dan a1 b1 c1 0.

S duy nhat. Gia s co g va g1 A[x1, x2, .,xn] sao cho

o Nguyen Sn

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f(x1, x2, ., xn) = g( 1, 2, ., n) = g1( 1, 2, ., n).

Khi o (g g1) ( 1, 2, , n) = 0, t o g = g1 do nh l 2.5.
CHU Y: Phep chng minh s ton tai trong nh l cung cap mot phng phap e tm
g sao cho f(x1, x2, ., xn) = g( 1, 2, ., n), tc la phng phap bieu th mot a
thc oi xng qua cac a thc oi xng c ban.
V DU: Bieu th a thc oi xng sau qua cac a thc oi xng c ban
f(x1, x2, x3) = x 12 x 2 + x 1 x 22 + x 12 x 3 + x 1 x 32 + x 22 x 3 + x 2 x 32
Giai:
Hang t cao nhat cua f la x 12 x 2 .
Lap ham

f1 = f 12 1 12 0 30 = f 1 2
= x 12 x 2 + x 1 x 22 +x 12 x 3 + x 1 x 32 + x 22 x 3 + x 2 x 32
(x1 + x2 + x3)( x1 x2 + x1x3 + x2x3) = 3 x1 x2 x3

Lap ham

f2 = f1 + 3 111 121 13 = f1 + 3 3 = 0

T o

= f1 + 1 2 = 3 3 + 1 2.

3. Cac a thc tren trng so

3.1 nh l (d' Alermbert)
Trng so phc la ong ai so, tc la moi a thc f [x] co bac
nghiem trong .

1 eu co

Chng minh: (xem phan phu luc)

3.2 nh l
a) Cac a thc bat kha qui tren [x] la cac a thc bac 1 : p(x) = ax + b.
b) Cac a thc bat kha qui trong 3 [x] bao gom :
Cac a thc bac 1 : p(x) = ax + b
Cac a thc bac 2 : p(x) = ax2 + bx + c vi = b2 4ac < 0.

o Nguyen Sn

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Chng minh: a) suy ra trc tiep t nh l 3.1. Ta chng minh b). Gia s p(x) thuoc
3[x] la bat kha qui va deg(p) 2. V p(x) cung thuoc [x] nen theo nh l 3.1 p(x)
co t nhat mot nghiem z va do p bat kha qui trong 3 [x] nen z 3 . V z cung
la nghiem cua p(x) nen T = (x z)(x z ) la mot c cua p(x) trong [x], nhng T
= x2 2Re(z)x + z 3 [x] nen T cung la c cua p(x) trong 3[x]. Do p bat kha
qui nen T phai lien ket vi p, tc la p = a.T, vi a 3*. Vay p(x) la mot tam thc
bac 2 khong
co nghiem thc. Ngc lai ro rang cac a thc bac 1 la bat kha qui,
cac a thc bac 2 khong co nghiem thc cung vay, v neu khong th no phai co mot
c la a thc bac 1 va ieu nay mau thuan vi gia thiet vo nghiem cua a thc o.

3.3 nh l ( tieu chuan Eisenstein)

Neu f(x) = anxn + an1xn1 + + a0 9[x] va p la mot so nguyen to thoa man
an 0( mod p), ai 0(mod p) vi moi i < n, va a0 0 (mod p2)
th f(x) la a thc bat kha qui trong [x].
r

k =0

k =0

Chng minh: Gia s f =g.h, vi g = b k x k , h c k x k ; r, s > 0 va r + s = n. V

a0 = b0 c0 va do p nguyen to thoa p | a0 nen suy ra b0 0(mod p) hoac c0
0(mod p). Chu y rang neu b0 0(mod p) th c0 0(mod p) v neu khong th a0 =b0
co 0(mod p2). Gia s b0 0(mod p). Ta cung e y rang khong phai moi he so
cua g(x) eu la boi cua p v neu khong th an = br cs 0(mod p), va ieu nay trai
vi gia thiet. Goi bi la he so au tien cua g khong chia het cho p (0 < i r < n). Khi
o t ai = bic0 + bi1c1 + + b0ci suy ra bic0 0(mod p) nhng do p nguyen to
nen p |bi hoac p | c0, va ieu nay dan en mau thuan.
V DU: Neu p la nguyen to th f(x) = xm p la a thc bat kha qui.

o Nguyen Sn

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BAI TAP

1. Tren vanh 9p[x] xet a thc f(x) = xp. Hay xac nh ham a thc f
tng ng vi f.

2. Cho p la so nguyen to va a thc f(x) = xp 1 9p[x]. Chng minh

rang f(x) = (x 1)p.
3. Trong vanh a thc 95[x] hay thc hien cac phep toan :
a) ( 2 x2 + 4 x2 + 1 ) ( 3 x2 + 1 x + 2 )

b) ( 2 x2 + 4 x + 3 )2
c) Phep chia ( 1 x3 + 2 x2 + 2 x + 1 ) cho ( 2 x2 + 2 x 1 )

4. Trong vanh 96[x] hay thc hien phep nhan

( 2 x3 + 4 x2 + 1 x) ( 3 x2+ 3 x + 2 )
5. Trong vanh 97[x] hay xac nh p e d cua phep chia
( 1 x3 + p x + 5 ) cho ( 1 x2 + 5 x + 6 ) la bang 0.

6. Trong vanh [x] chng minh rang a thc (x+1)2n x2n 2x 1 chia het cho
cac a thc 2x + 1, x + 1 va x.
7. Chng to a thc 1 x2 + 14 915[x] co 4 nghiem trong 915.
8. Cho cac a thc

f(x) = x3 7x2 + 2x 4
g(x) = 2x2 + 2x 1.

a) Tm CLN cua f(x) va g(x) trong [x]

b) Tm CLN cua f(x) va g(x) trong 911[x]
9. Xet tap ( 2 ) = {a + b 2 : a, b }. Chng minh rang
a) ( 2 ) la mot trng vi phep cong va nhan thong thng cac so.
b) ( 2 ) [x] / 2
< x 2>

10. Xet tap 3( 3 ) = {a + b

o Nguyen Sn

3 : a, b 3}. Chng minh rang :

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a) 3 ( 3 ) la mot trng vi phep cong va nhan thong thng cac so

b) 3 ( 3 ) 3[x] /

< x 2 +3>

11. Hay bieu dien cac a thc sau qua cac a thc oi xng c ban
1)
2)
3)
4)

x3 + y3 + z3 3xyz
x2 y + x y2 + x2 z + x z 2+ y2 z + y z2 .
x4 + y4 + z4 2x2 y2 2 x2 z2 2 y2 z2 .
x5 y2 + x2 y5 + x5 z2 + x2 z 5+ y5 z2 + y2 z5 .

12. Xac nh tnh bat kha qui cua cac a thc sau tren trng so hu t
1) x4 8x3 + 12x2 6x 2
2) x5 12x3 + 36x 12
3) x4 x3 + 2x +1
13. Chng minh rang a thc thuoc 3[x] co bac 3 eu khong bat kha qui.
14. Cho f(x) = xn + + a0 9[x] vi n 1. Ch ra rang neu f co nghiem hu t th
nghiem o la nghiem nguyen va la c cua a0.
15. Tm tat ca cac nghiem hu t cua cac a thc sau:
a) x7 1
b) 2x4 4x + 3
c) x5 + x4 6x3 14x2 11x 3
16. Cho p la so nguyen to. at f(x) = xp + xp1 + + 1. Chng to rang f(x) la bat
kha qui trea [x]

o Nguyen Sn

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PHU LUC
1. Trng so thc
1.1 Lat cat hu t
Gia s K la mot trng tren o a xac nh quan he th t toan phan '' be hn ''
< . Ta goi mot lat cat tren trng K la mot cap (A1, A2) gom hai tap con cua K
thoa man cac tnh chat :
1) A1 , A2 .
2) A1 A2 = , A1 A2 = K.
2) x < y vi moi x A1, vi moi y A2 .

Ta thay moi lat cat (A1, A2) ch co the thuoc mot trong bon loai sau ay:
1)
2)
3)
4)

A1 co phan t ln nhat, A2 co phan t be nhat.

A1 co phan t ln nhat, A2 khong co phan t be nhat.
A1 khong co phan t ln nhat, A2 co phan t be nhat.
A1 khong co phan t ln nhat, A2 khong co phan t be nhat.

Lat cat loai 1 goi la lat cat co bc nhay, loai 2 va 3 goi la lat cat co bien, loai 4
goi la lat cat khong bien.

Mot trng sap th t toan phan K goi la lien tuc neu moi lat cat tren K eu co
bien. Trng so hu t la mot trng khong lien tuc.
Goi 3 la tap hp tat ca cac lat cat tren trng so hu t . Chu y rang lat cat tren
trng hu t khong the co bc nhay.

1.2 Cac quan he tren 3 .

Cho hai lat cat =(A1, A2), =(B1, B2) 3
Hai lat cat va goi la bang nhau, va viet = , neu va ch neu
A1 {phan t ln nhat} = B1 {phan t ln nhat}
hoac A2 {phan t be nhat} = B2 {phan t be nhat}
Ta qui c viet lat cat co bien =(A1, A2) vi A2 khong co phan t be nhat.

Ta noi rang be hn , va viet < , neu A 1 B1 va A 1 B1.

Vi quan he <, 3 la mot tap c sap th t toan phan.

o Nguyen Sn

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1.3 Phep cong

(A1, A2) + (B1, B2) = (C1, C2)
trong o, C2 = {(a2 + b2) , a2 A2, b2 B2} va C1 = C2.
oi vi phep cong phan t n v la 0 = (O1, O2), trong o O1 la tap cac so hu t
khong dng va O2 la tap cac so hu t dng, phan t nghch ao cua = (A1,
A2) la = (A'1, A'2), trong o A'2 ={ r : r A1} va A'1 = A'2.

1.4 Phep nhan

a) Neu = (A1, A2), = (B1, B2) > 0, th phep nhan c xac nh bi

. = (A1, A2).(B1, B2) = (C1, C2),

ay C2 := {a2.b2 : a2 A2, b2 B2 } va C1 = C2.
b) Neu > 0, < 0 hoac < 0, > 0 th phep nhan c xac nh bi

. = ( ) = ( ) .
c ) Neu > 0, < 0 th phep nhan c xac nh bi

. = ( ).( )
d) Neu = 0 hoac = 0 th phep nhan c xac nh bi

. = 0. = .0 = 0
oi vi phep nhan phan t n v co dang E = (E1, E2), trong o E1 la tap cac so
hu t khong ln hn 1 va E2 la tap cac so hu t ln hn 1, phan t nghch ao cua
= (A1, A2) > 0 la 1 = (A'1, A'2), trong o tap A'2 = {r 1 : r A 1, r > 0 } va A'1
= A'2, con phan t nghch ao cua < 0 la 1 = ( )1.

2. Trng so phc
2.1 Xay dng so phc
Ta xet tap hp = 3 3 la tap tat ca cac cap so thc (a, b) ma tren o quan he
bang nhau, phep toan cong, phep toan nhan c xac nh nh sau :
(a, b) = (c, d ) a = b va c = d.
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d)
(a, b) . (c, d) = (a c b d, a d + b c).

o Nguyen Sn

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oi vi phep cong phan t n v la 0 = (0, 0), phan t nghch ao cua z = (a,

b) la z = ( a, b). oi vi phep nhan phan t n v la 1 =(1, 0), phan t
nghch ao cua z =(a, b) 0 la z1 = (

a
a +b
2

a + b2
2

).

Vi phep cong va phep nhan a c nh ngha th (,+,) la mot trng, goi la

trng so phc, moi phan t goi la mot so phc.

Neu at 0 = {(a, 0): a 3 } th ( , +, ) la mot trng va t ang cau

: 3 0, a a (a, 0), ta co the ong nhat 3 vi 0, tc la moi so thc x 3 ong
nhat vi so phc (x, 0) , ac biet 1 (1, 0), va 0 (0, 0).
Vi moi so phc z = (a, b) , ta co the viet :
(a, b) = (a, 0) + (b, 0).(0, 1)
va neu at i = (0, 1) th so phc z co dang z = a + bi, goi la dang ai so cua so
phc. So a c goi la phan thc cua so phc z, k hieu a = Rez, va so b c goi
la phan ao cua so phc z, k hieu b = Im z. Ta goi so phc z = a bi la so phc
lien hp cua so phc z = a + bi. Viec tnh toan cac so phc viet di dang ai so
nh tnh toan tren so thc vi chu y rang
i2 = i. i = (0, 1).(0, 1) = ( 1, 0) 1

Neu tren mat phang toa o Oxy ta at tng ng moi so phc z = a + bi vi

iem M(a,b) Oxy hoac vi vect OM = (a, b) mpOxy th ta c mot song anh

t len mpOxy. iem M(a,b) hoac vect OM = (a,b) c goi la bieu dien hnh
hoc cua so phc z. Mat phang toa o Oxy con c goi la mat phang phc, truc
Ox goi la truc thc, Oy la truc ao.

Bay gi gia s z = a + bi la mot so phc bat k c bieu dien bi vect OM tren

mp Oxy. Ta goi r = | OM | =

a 2 + b2

la modul cua so phc z, va k hieu | z |.

Goc nh hng (Ox, OM ) goi la argument cua cua so phc z, k hieu arg z. Ta
thay rang so 0 co modul la 0 va argument tuy y, con moi so phc khac 0 co modul
la mot so thc dng va argument c xac nh sai khac nhau mot boi nguyen cua
2 .

Neu so phc z = (a,b) 0 co z = r va arg z = (hoac tong quat arg z =

+k2 ) th ta co mot bieu dien khac cua so phc nh sau (goi la bieu dien lng
giac )
z = (a,b) = a + bi = r (cos + isin )

o Nguyen Sn

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Vi z = r (cos + isin ), ta co cac cong thc

zn = [r(cos + isin )]n = rn (cosn + isinn )
n

z =

r (cos

+ 2k
+ 2k
+ isin
), k = 0, 1, 2, , n 1.
n
n

2.2 nh l (d' Alermbert)

Trng so phc la ong ai so, tc la moi a thc f [z] co bac 1 eu co

nghiem trong .
Chng minh: Co nhieu phep chng minh nh l d'Alermbert va thng
phai s dung en ket qua cua giai tch. Sau ay la mot. Ta se chng minh bang
n

phng phap phan chng: Gia s ton tai mot a thc f(z) = a i z i [x] khac
i =0

hang va khong co nghiem nao trong . Xet ham

| f | : , x a | f(z)|
V | f | khi | z | nen ton tai R > 0 sao cho | f(z) | > | f(0) | vi moi z {| z
| > R}. V | f | lien tuc tren compact {| z | R } nen ton tai z0 sao cho | f(z0) | =
min | f(z) |. Nhng v | f (z)| >| f(0) | | f(z0) | vi moi z {| z | > R} nen ta co |
B

z R

f(z0) | = min | f(z) |.

B

zC

Ta co cong thc Taylor oi vi f

f(z0 + h) = f(z0) + h f '(z0) + +
B

h n (n)
f (z0)
n!
B

Ta chng minh rang, co the chon h sao cho | f(z0 +h) | < | f(z0) | va t o suy ra mau
thuan. Trc het e y rang, co t nhat mot ao ham cap cao cua f tai z0 la khac 0,
cu the la f (n)(z0) = n!an 0. Goi k 1 la so nguyen be nhat sao cho f (k)(z0) 0.
Nh vay ta co
B

f (k ) (z o )
f ( n ) (z o )
f (z o + h )
= 1 + hk
+ + hn
k!f ( z 0 )
n!f (z 0 )
f (z 0 )
= 1 + hk

o Nguyen Sn

f (k ) (z o )
+ hk+1 g(h), vi g(h) [h] nao o.
k!f ( z 0 )

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f (k ) (z o )
Goi w la so phc sao cho w =
, khi o ta co
k!f ( z 0 )
k

f (z o +

t)
w

f (z 0 )

= 1 tk + tk+1w k1 g(tw1).

V ham mot bien f1(t) = | w k1 g(tw1)| lien tuc tren [0, 1]) nen ton tai C > 1 sao
cho vi moi t [0, 1] ta co | w k1 g(tw1)| < C , va t o
B

f (z o +

t)
w

f (z 0 )

1 tk + C tk+1 .
1
< 1 th ta co
C

Bay gi ch can chon t sao cho 0 < t <

0 < 1 tk + C tk+1 < 1.

hay

o Nguyen Sn

| f(z0 + wt ) | < | f(z0) |

B

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