Reading 1 Plate Tectonics Plate tectonics is an encompassing term that characterizes the movement of the continents (continental drift),

, and other movement of the surface of the earth. Earth is made up of constantly shifting and moving plates that move in different velocities ranging from 1-20 cm per year. Scientists believe plate tectonics are responsible for such land forms as earthquakes, volcanos and mountains. Evidence has been found that land masses have similar features across continents suggesting that all the continents were once unified and drifted apart. This theory is further supported by the findings of largely distributed fossils and the polar magnetism of the continents. Scientists also believe the seafloor is spreading which results in rift valleys and formation of new rock. This spreading is said to result in the seafloor moving and the continents as well since they are all part of the same plates within the lithosphere. The plates are said to be moving due to convection cells created under the surface. Ridge push and slab pull have also been attributed to the movement of plates and spreading of the sea. I agree that the inner workings of the earth and the expansion/contraction caused by heating and cooling could be the reason why the plates of the earth shift and move. Take the roads in Michigan for example. In the winter when the ground freezes, it contracts, but when it expands again in warmer weather, what happens? Bumpety, bump, bump, pothole! The road cracks and falls apart. The same could be said for the ground all over the earth. Reading 2 Volcanoes Plate boundaries are where volcanoes are most likely to occur and happen when they converge or diverge. Volcanoes release many things into the air and onto the surface of the earth during eruption. Gases which are mostly water vapor with some carbon dioxide are emitted as well as some hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, fluorine, and boron. Liquids in the form of lava are released and vary in chemical makeup which determines their viscosity. Solids, known as pyroclastics are fragments of magma that are blown out in the form of ash and can be as large as what are known as blocks or bombs (larger than 64 mm). Low water/low silica results in quiet, nonviolent eruptions while high water/high silica results in highly explosive eruptions. Volcanoes form from molten rock that emerges from a vent in the earths crust. Lava seeps from these cracks and hardens into a cone shape with a crater at the top. Volcanoes typically form within three distinct zones on the earth and can sometimes move or shift away from its hotspot where another will form, creating a chain. Volcanic eruptions are hard to predict and can have devastating effects on humans and the earth. Eruptions have been known to wipe out entire communities, creates problems with air quality and blockage of the sun which can affect crops. Tsunamis have been known to appear due to undersea volcanic eruptions. Air travel can be disrupted, and cleanup costs a fortune. Volcanoes can contribute positively to the earth, however, why else would God have allowed for them to happen? Volcanoes emit nitrogen and phosphorous to soil which increases fertility, allows for the creation of new landscapes and ecosystems, gives us important industrial material, and creates thermal energy. Volcanoes are also great for recreation and enjoyment. One thing I dont agree with is that primeval volcanic episodes may have provided initial sources of Earths air and water (Fullager & West, 207). I believe that God created our atmosphere perfectly from the beginning, just right for us during the week of creation. Even scientists cannot be sure that volcanoes contributed to the atmosphere as noted in their own statement and marked by the words may have. Reading 3 Earthquakes

As the earths crust bends and moves, energy is released which is what scientists believe cause earthquakes. The energy emitted during shifting transmits seismic waves through the surrounding rock and usually occurs where the earths plates converge and diverge. Earthquakes generally create a fault as the result of the rocks being displaced during earthquake moving, or rocks will move along existing faults which are breaks or factures in rock. Faults result from compression or extension of forces on the earths crust but can sometimes move laterally as in the case of the San Andreas Fault. The strongest waves of an earthquake are felt at the epicenter and will be felt the strongest right above this point. Surprisingly, scientists estimate that about 1 million earthquakes happen every year around the world, most of which cannot be felt but are recorded by seismograph. Seismograph is a special instrument scientists use to measure the magnitude of earthquakes. Magnitude is designated using the Richter or Mercalli Intensity scales. Seismic waves occur in three types: Primary (rapidly moving through Earths interior through solids and liquids), Secondary (second fastest moving deep within earths interior through solids only), and Long (slowest moving just under earths crust). These occur simultaneously but are recorded separately. Earthquakes can cause shifting of the sea floor resulting in huge tsunamis which are difficult to see and predict until they are right up on the shore. Earthquakes can produce extensive damage when they occur in strong magnitude but precautions can be taken, especially with buildings where structures can be designed to make them stronger. I agree that earthquakes are naturally occurring phenomena that happens because of shifting in the crust of the earth. I also believe that there are certain areas of earth more prone to earthquakes than others and maybe they can occur anywhere on earth but I dont think that is likely. I think certain conditions need to be present in the earths crust that make earthquakes more prone to occur and scientists have identified many of these areas. To minimize damage and loss of life, people should just stay away from these areas! Reading 4 Rocks and Minerals The earths crust is made up of rocks which are made up of minerals and then covered in soil. Scientist, through the study of plate tectonics, have attempted to prove how the Earths surface was formed and how it continues to change. Scientists have identified over 3000 different minerals which are naturally occurring from inorganic crystalline material of differing and complex chemical makeup, but the earths crust is made up of only about 10 -15 different minerals. Rocks are formed from mineral grains and sometimes include material from fossils or other rocks. There are three types of rocks including igneous (formed by hardening of molten rock at or below earths surface from differing sizes of mineral grain), sedimentary (formed by compression, chemical precipitation of minerals that have been dissolved, and are formed at low temperatures close to earths surface), and metamorphic (original composition, grain size or shape changed due to high temperature, high pressure, or both below the earths surface). The rock cycle was defined to help us understand better how each of these rocks are formed or changed. When rocks are identified, we can better understand the environments in which they were formed as well as location of plate boundaries. Have scientists ever seen a rock grow or form? Probably not because their predictions would mean that it would take a very long time for rocks to form (aka the formation of earths structures). I think God made the earth the way it currently is, it was not grown, but I do agree that the earth is in a constant state of change as seen by the results of shifts in earths crust, weathering and erosion.