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Give me matter, and I will construct a world out of it. Immanuel Kant Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
Centroid of Area
(a)
(b)
Figure 3.1 Ductile material Figure 3.2 Failure of a from a standard tensile test brittle material from a apparatus. (a) Necking; (b) standard tensile test failure. apparatus. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
Lead Epoxy Pure aluminum Material Wood Steel Nylon Graphite 0 100 200 300 400 500 Ratio of strength to density, N-m/kg 600 10 4
2 1
12
Fiber
Su P _ Stress, = _ A
U
E
R
P
Sy P
P _ Stress, = _ A
0 0.002 _ Strain, = _ l
Figure 3.6 Typical stress-strain behavior for ductile metal showing elastic and plastic deformations and yield strength Sy. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
Sf
Compression
Sf
Tension _ Strain, = _ l
_ Strain, = _ l
Figure 3.7 Typical tensile stressstrain diagrams for brittle and ductile metals loaded to fracture. Hamrock Fundamentals of
Figure 3.8 Stress-strain diagram for ceramic in tension and in compression. machine Elements
Example 3.6
Magnesia Steel
Behavior of Polymers
Brittle (T << Tg) Limited plasticity (T 0.8 Tg)
P _ Stress, = _ A
Sy
_ Strain, = _ l
Figure 3.10 Stress-strain diagram for polymer below, at, and above its glass transition behavior. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
10 4
Metals Lead Copper Steels Cast iron Zinc alloys Sintered iron
Polymers
Ceramics
Density of Materials
Density, , kg/m3
Magnesium Silicone rubber Acetal Phenol formaldehyde Nylon 10 3 8 10 2 Natural rubber Polyethylene
Graphite
Figure 3.11 Density for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).
Material Metals Aluminum and its alloysa Aluminum tin Babbitt, lead-based white metal Babbitt, tin-based white metal Brasses Bronze, aluminum Bronze, leaded Bronze, phosphor (cast)b Bronze, porous Copper Copper lead Iron, cast Iron, porous Iron, wrought Magnesium alloys Steelsc Zinc alloys Polymers Acetal (polyformaldehyde) Nylons (polyamides) Polyethylene, high density Phenol formaldehyde Rubber, naturald Rubber, silicone Ceramics Alumina (Al2 O3 ) Graphite, high strength Silicon carbide (SiC) Silicon nitride (Si2 N4 ) a Structural alloys b Bar stock, typically 8.8 103 kg/m3 c Excluding refractory steels. d Mechanical rubber.
Density, kg/m3 lbm/in.3 2.7 103 3.1 103 10.1 103 7.4 103 8.6 103 7.5 103 8.9 103 8.7 103 6.4 103 8.9 103 9.5 103 7.4 103 6.1 103 7.8 103 1.8 103 7.8 103 6.7 103 1.4 103 1.14 103 .95 103 1.3 103 1.0 103 1.8 103 3.9 1.7 2.9 3.2 103 103 103 103 0.097 0.11 0.36 0.27 0.31 0.27 0.32 0.31 0.23 0.32 0.34 0.27 0.22 0.28 0.065 0.28 0.24 .051 .041 .034 .047 .036 .065 0.14 0.061 0.10 0.12
Density of Materials
(0.03 lbm/in.3 ).
Table 3.1 Density for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).
10 12
Metals
Polymers
Ceramics
10 11
Steels Cast iron Brass, bronze Aluminum Zinc alloys Magnesium alloys Babbitts
Carbides Alumina
Modulus of Elasticity
Graphite
10 8
10 7
10 6
Figure 3.12 Modulus of elasticity for various metals, Natural rubber polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F). Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
Modulus of Elasticity, E Material GPa Mpsi Metals Aluminum 62 9.0 Aluminum alloysa 70 10.2 Aluminum tin 63 9.1 Babbitt, lead-based white metal 29 4.2 Babbitt, tin-based white metal 52 7.5 Brasses 100 14.5 Bronze, aluminum 117 17.0 Bronze, leaded 97 14.1 Bronze, phosphor (cast)b 110 16.0 Bronze, porous 60 8.7 Copper 124 18.0 Iron, gray cast 109 15.8 Iron, malleable cast 170 24.7 b Iron, spheroidal graphite 159 23.1 Iron, porous 80 11.6 Iron, wrought 170 24.7 Magnesium alloys 41 5.9 Steel, low alloys 196 28.4 Steel, medium and high alloys 200 29.0 Steel, stainlessc 193 28.0 Steel, high speed 212 30.7 Zinc alloys d 50 7.3 Polymers Acetal (polyformaldehyde) 2.7 0.39 Nylons (polyamides) 1.9 0.28 Polyethylene, high density .9 0.13 Phenol formaldehyde e 7.0 1.02 Rubber, naturalf .004 0.0006 Ceramics Alumina (Al2 O3 ) 390 56.6 Graphite 27 3.9 Cemented carbides 450 65.3 Silicon carbide (SiC) 450 65.3 Silicon nitride (Si2 N4 ) 314 45.5 a Structural alloys. b For bearings. c Precipitation-hardened alloys up to 211 GPa (30 Mpsi). d Some alloys up to 96 GPa (14 Mpsi). e Filled. f 25%-carbon-black mechanical rubber.
Modulus of Elasticity
Table 3.2 Modulus of elasticity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).
Material Metals Aluminum and its alloysa Aluminum tin Babbitt, lead-based white metal Babbitt, tin-based white metal Brasses Bronze Bronze, porous Copper Copper lead Iron, cast Iron, porous Iron, wrought Magnesium alloys Steels, Zinc alloys d Polymers Acetal (polyformaldehyde) Nylons (polyamides) Polyethylene, high density Phenol formaldehyde Rubber Ceramics Alumina (Al2 O3 ) Graphite, high strength Cemented carbides Silicon carbide (SiC) Silicon nitride (Si2 N4 ) a Structural alloys.
Poissons ratio, 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.22 0.33 0.26 0.20 0.30 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.40 0.35 0.50 0.28 0.19 0.19 0.26
Poissons Ratio
Table 3.3 Poissons ratio for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).
3 10 2 2
Polymers
Ceramics
10 2
Thermal Conductivity
Graphite
Cast iron Bronze Steel Alumina Thermal conductivity, Kt, W/m-C Stainless steel
10
Silicon carbide
Natural rubber 1
10 1
Figure 3.13 Thermal conductivity for various Acetal, nylon metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F). Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
Polyethylene
Thermal conductivity, Kt Material W/m C Btu/fthr F Metals Aluminum 209 120 Aluminum alloys, casta 146 84 Aluminum alloys, siliconb 170 98 c Aluminum alloys, wrought 151 87 Aluminum tin 180 100 Babbitt, lead-based white metal 24 14 Babbitt, tin-based white metal 56 32 Brassesa 120 69 Bronze, aluminuma 50 29 Bronze, leaded 47 27 Bronze, phosphor (cast)d 50 29 Bronze, porous 30 17 Coppera 170 98 Copper lead 30 17 Iron, gray cast 50 29 Iron, spheroidal graphite 30 17 Iron, porous 28 16 Iron, wrought 70 40 Magnesium alloys 110 64 Steel, low alloyse 35 20 Steel, medium alloys 30 17 Steel, stainlessf 15 8.7 Zinc alloys 110 64 Polymers Acetal (polyformaldehyde) 0.24 0.14 Nylons (polyamides) 0.25 0.14 Polyethylene, high density 0.5 0.29 Rubber, natural 1.6 0.92 Ceramics Alumina (Al2 O3 )g 25 14 Graphite, high strength 125 72 Silicon carbide (SiC) 15 8.6 a At 100 C. b At 100 C ( 150 W/m C at 25 C). c 20 to 100 C. d Bar stock, typically 69 W/m C. e 20 to 200 C. f Typically 22 W/m C at 200 C. g Typically 12 W/m C at 400 C.
Thermal Conductivity
Table 3.4 Thermal conductivity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).
2 10 4
Metals
Polymers
Ceramics
10
Zinc Magnesium Aluminum Brass, copper Most bronzes Babbitts Steel 10 5 Leaded bronze Cast irons Sintered iron
Phenol formaldehyde
10 6
Figure 3.14 Linear thermal expansion coefficient for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).
Linear thermal expansion coecient, a Material ( C)1 ( F)1 Metals Aluminum 23 106 12.8106 a 6 Aluminum alloys 24 10 13.3106 6 Aluminum tin 24 10 13.3106 6 Babbitt, lead-based white metal 20 10 11106 Babbitt, tin-based white metal 23 106 13106 6 Brasses 1910 10.6106 6 Bronzes 18 10 10.0106 6 Copper 1810 10.0106 6 Copper lead 1810 10.0106 6 Iron, cast 11 10 6.1106 6 Iron, porous 1210 6.7106 6 Iron, wrought 12 10 6.7106 6 Magnesium alloys 2710 15106 Steel, alloysb 11 106 6.1106 6 Steel, stainless 17 10 9.5106 6 Steel, high speed 11 10 6.1106 6 Zinc alloys 27 10 15106 Polymers Thermoplasticsc (60-100)106 (33-56)106 d 6 Thermosets (10-80)10 (6-44)106 6 Acetal (polyformaldehyde) 9010 50106 Nylons (polyamides) 100106 56106 6 Polyethylene, high density 12610 70106 e 6 Phenol formaldehyde (25-40)10 (14-22) 106 f 6 Rubber, natural (80-120)10 (44-67)106 g 6 Rubber, nitrile 3410 62106 6 Rubber, silicone 5710 103106 Ceramics Alumina (Al2 O3 )h 5.0106 2.8106 Graphite, high strength 1.4-4.0106 0.8-2.2106 6 Silicon carbide (SiC) 4.310 2.4106 6 Silicon nitride (Si3 N4 ) 3.210 1.8106 a Structural alloys. b Cast alloys can be up to 15 106 ( C)1 . c Typical bearing materials. d 25 106 ( C)1 to 80 106 ( C)1 when reinforced. e Mineral lled. f Fillers can reduce coecients. g Varies with composition. h 0 to 200 C.
Table 3.5 Linear thermal expansion coefficient for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F). Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
2.0
Metals
Ceramics
1.8
1.6
1.4
Thermoplastics
1.2
1.0 Magnesium Aluminum 0.8 Graphite Carbides, alumina 0.6 Steel Cast iron Copper
0.4
Figure 3.15 Specific heat capacity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).
0.2
Material Metals Aluminum and its alloys 0.9 0.22 Aluminum tin 0.96 0.23 Babbitt, lead-based white metal 0.15 0.036 Babbitt, tin-based white metal 0.21 0.05 Brasses 0.39 0.093 Bronzes 0.38 0.091 a Copper 0.38 0.091 Copper lead 0.32 0.076 Iron, cast 0.42 0.10 Iron, porous 0.46 0.11 Iron, wrought 0.46 0.11 Magnesium alloys 1.0 0.24 b Steels 0.45 0.11 Zinc alloys 0.4 0.096 Polymers Thermoplastics 1.4 0.33 Rubber, natural 2.0 0.48 Ceramics Graphite 0.8 0.2 Cemented Carbides 0.7 0.17 a Aluminum bronze up to 0.48 kJ/kg C (0.12 Btu/lbm F. b Rising up to 0.55 kJ/kg C (0.13 Btu/lbm F) at 200 C (392 F).
Table 3.6 Specific heat capacity for various metals, polymers, and ceramics at room temperature (20C, 68F).
Example 3.12
l1 = 1 m l 2 = 0.3 m
l3 = 0.5 m d = 0.1 m
P1 = 3 kN
1000 Diamond SiC Si3N4 Be B Aluminas Sialons BeO ZrO2 Si Glasses Pottery Ti alloys Al alloys Rock, stone Cement, concrete Mo W alloys alloys Ni alloys Cu alloys Zn alloys Tin alloys Lead alloys Engineering alloys Engineering ceramics WC-Co
100
()
E __ Modulus of elasticity, E, GPa 10
1/2
(m/s)
Engineering composites
CFRP Laminates GFRP KFRP Mg alloys MEL PC Epoxies PS PMMA PVC Nylon
Porous ceramics
1.0
Ash Lower E limit for true solids Oak Pine Fir Perpendicular to grain Spruce Balsa 103
3 103
PP HDPE
Polyesters
Engineering polymers
0.1
Elastomers
3 10 2 Cork
1/2 E __ =C
Silicone
1/ 3 E __ =C
0.01 100
Cermets
Glasses
Engineering alloys
1000
CFRP GFRP Uniply KFRP Pottery Engineering CFRP composites Be Laminates GFRP KFRP Nylons PMMA Mg alloys
Specic Strength
Steels Ti alloys Cast irons Al alloys Zn Stone, alloys rock Engineering alloys
Ash PP Oak Pine Wood products MEL PVC Epoxies PS Polyesters HDPE PTFE PU
Lead alloys
Silicone
Balsa
Engineering polymers
Elastomers
Cork
Polymers foams
f __ =C
0.1 100
300
3000
10 000
30 000
1000 Diamond Minimum energy storage per unit volume Yield before buckling Engineering alloys Mo alloys Beryllium Cermets W WC SiC Boron Si3N4 MgO Al2O3
100
10
Steels ZrO2 Ni alloys CFRP BeO Uniply Silicon Cu alloys Zn alloys Ti alloys Ge Common rocks GFRP Engineering Al alloys Brick, etc. Glasses ceramics Mg alloys Cement Sn + Engineering Laminates Concrete composites CFRP GFRP Lead Ash Oak Pine Porous Mel ceramics ll to grain Epoxies PMMA Cast irons
4 S __ = 10 E
Balsa Woods Wood products Polyester Ash Oak Pine to grain Balsa LDPE HDPE PTFE
1.0
3 S __ = 10 E
2 S __ = 10 E
Engineering polymers S __ =C E
3/ 2 S __ =C E
PU
Elastomers
S __ =C E
1000
10 10
Wear Constant
Copper W __ = 10 3 A
10 12
PTFE
Mild steel
Engineering polymers 10 14 LDPE Unfilled thermoplastics HDPE 10 15 Filled PTFE Nylons Filled thermosets
10 4 Cast irons Nitrided steels Cemented carbides Al2O3 Si3N4 SiC Sailons
10 5 Engineering ceramics
Bronzes
10 6
10 7 10 17 Range of K A for p << pmax Rising K A as p nears pmax 10 100 Limiting pressure, pl , MPa 10 8 W __ = 10 9 A 1000 10 000
10 18
1000 Engineering ceramics Si C AL7 O3 Mild steel Porous ceramics 100 Stone, brick, and pottery Zn Cast irons Cu alloys AL alloys alloys Mg alloys GFRP Pb alloys Ash, oak Pines Parallel to grain Balsa wood products Ash, oak Perpendicular to grain Pines LDPE Balsa PVC (plasticised) E =C CR PF KFRP Engineering composites Engineering alloys Ni alloys Ti alloys Si3 N4 W alloys Cermets
S alloys Zr O3
CFRP
Glasses
PS
PC
PMMA
Polymides
Woods
Engineering polymers
1.0
Design guidelines
0.1 Polymer foams Hard butyl Elastomers E = C CR Soft butyl 0.01 0.1 1 Silicones
1/2
E = C CR 1000 10 000
1/3
Sand Casting
Extrusion
Dummy block
Figure 3.24 The extrusion process. (a) Schematic illustration of the forward or direct extrusion process; (b) Examples of cross-sections commonly extruded. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
(a)
(b)
Polymer Extruder
Barrel heater/cooler Thrust bearing Hopper Barrel liner Throat Screw Barrel Thermocouples Melt Filter Breaker screen plate thermocouple
Die
Motor
Figure 3.25 Schematic illustration of a typical extruder. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements
Material Available Aluminum B, F, I, P, S, T, W Ceramics B, p, s, T Copper and brass B, f, I, P, s, T, W Elastomers b, P, T Glass B, P, s, T, W Graphite B, P, s, T, W Magnesium B, I, P, S, T, w Plastics B, f, P, T, w Precious metals B, F, I P, t, W Steels and stainless steels B, I, P, S, T, W Zinc F, I, P, W a B=bar and rod; F = foil; I = ingot; P = plate and sheet; S = structural shapes; T = tubing; W=wire. Lowercase letters indicate limited availability. Most of the metals are also available in powder form, including prealloyed powders.
formsa
Figure 3.26 A plot of achievable tolerance versus surface roughness for assorted manufacturing operations. Hamrock Fundamentals of machine Elements