Professional Documents
Culture Documents
XU LY
ANH SO
.
PHA
. M Tien So n
- `a La.t, 2007
D
Mu.c lu.c
. D
U
-`
A
1 MO
13
1.1
Mu.c dch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.2
14
1.3
15
1.4
17
1.4.1
17
1.4.2
u. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lu.u tr
18
1.4.3
Xu. l
y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
1.4.4
`en thong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Truy
19
1.4.5
Hien thi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
N CU
A A
NH SO
.NG NGUYEN
LY
CO. BA
2 NHU
21
2.1
21
2.2
22
2.2.1
22
2.2.2
`eu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lay mau v`a lu.o..ng tu. hoa khong d
24
25
2.3
2.4
2.3.1
25
2.3.2
Lien thong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
2.3.3
27
2.3.4
Metric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
2.3.5
29
31
2.4.1
31
2.4.2
34
2.4.3
Mo h`nh camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
2.4.4
38
2.4.5
Anh noi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
I
PHEP
BIE
N D
-O
3 CAC
43
43
3.1.1
`eu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bien doi Fourier mo.t chi
43
3.1.2
`eu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bien doi Fourier hai chi
45
3.2
46
3.3
47
3.3.1
48
3.3.2
Ti.nh tien . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.3.3
Chu k`
y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.3.4
Phep quay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.3.5
50
3.1
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.3.6
50
3.3.7
50
3.3.8
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
3.3.9
53
55
3.4.1
55
3.4.2
59
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
3.5.1
61
3.5.2
62
3.5.3
63
3.5.4
63
3.5.5
65
66
T LU.O
4 NANG
CAO CHA
. NG ANH
4.1
4.2
69
69
4.1.1
70
4.1.2
`en t
`an so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phu.o.ng phap mi
72
74
4.2.1
75
4.2.2
`o co.t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phu.o.ng phap bieu d
78
4.2.3
Tr`
u. anh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
4.2.4
4.3
4.4
4.5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
4.3.1
Co. so. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
4.3.2
Lo.c tro.n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
4.3.3
98
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
`en t
`an so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Phu.o.ng phap mi
4.4.1
4.4.2
4.4.3
`en t
`an so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Ta.o ma.t na. khong gian t`
u. mi
NH
PHUC A
5 KHOI
.
5.1
5.2
5.3
92
111
5.1.2
5.1.3
Cheo hoa ma tra.n chu tr`nh v`a ma tra.n khoi chu tr`nh . . . . . . . . . 118
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
Hie.u qua cua cheo hoa ma tra.n trong mo h`nh suy giam chat lu.o..ng120
5.3.2
5.4
5.4.2
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
NH
DU
. LIE
U A
6 NEN
.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
141
6.1.2
Du. th`
u.a trong quan he. gi
u.a cac pixel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.1.3
Du. th`
u.a trong tam sinh l
y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.1.4
`on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Ma hoa v`a giai ma ngu
6.2.2
- o thong tin
D
6.3.2
6.3.3
Cac di.nh l
y ma hoa co. ban . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.3.4
Su. du.ng l
y thuyet thong tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.5
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.4.4
6.5.2
D
- OA
7 PHAN
. N ANH
7.1
7.2
7.3
195
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.1.4
7.1.5
Xu. l
y di.a phu.o.ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.2.2
Xu. l
y to`an cu.c qua bien doi Hough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.2.3
`o thi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Phu.o.ng phap d
Ngu.o.ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.4
7.5
7.3.4
7.3.5
7.3.6
7.4.2
Tang v`
ung ba` ng cach nhom cac pixel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
7.4.3
Tach v`
ung v`a tro.n v`
ung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
K
y thua.t anh do.ng trong phan doa.n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
7.5.1
7.5.2
`en t
`an so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
K
y thua.t mi
U DIE
N VA
` MIEU
TA
8 BIE
8.1
8.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
231
Ma xch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
8.1.2
8.1.3
K
y so . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
8.1.4
`oi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Bao l
8.1.5
8.2.2
So mau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
8.2.3
Mieu ta Fourier
8.2.4
Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
8.3
8.4
8.5
Mieu ta v`
ung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
8.3.1
8.3.2
8.3.3
8.3.4
Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
8.4.2
8.4.3
8.4.4
8.4.5
Mo. ro.ng doi vo.i cac anh gia tri. xam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
N DANG VA
` NO
I SUY
9 NHA
.
.
.
285
9.1
9.2
9.3
Phu.o.ng phap l
y thuyet quyet d.inh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
9.4
9.3.1
- oi sanh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
D
9.3.2
9.3.3
9.4.2
9.4.3
9.5
Phan tch c
u phap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
9.5.2
9.5.3
9.5.4
Ma.ng ng
u. ngha
9.5.5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
T`
ai li
e.u tham khao
353
11
12
Chu.o.ng 1
. - `
MO DAU
1.1
Mu.c d
ch
`on t`
Cac phu.o.ng phap xu. l
u. hai lnh vu..c chnh:
y anh so du.o..c quan tam bat ngu
(1) nang cao chat lu.o..ng h`nh anh phu.c vu. con ngu.`o.i; v`a
(2) xu. l
u. do du.a ra nh
u.ng
y d
u. lie.u da.ng h`nh anh de may tnh co the hieu du.o..c t`
quyet d.inh.
Mo.t trong nh
u.ng u
.ng du.ng d`au tien cua cac k
y thua.t xu. l
y anh trong lnh vu..c
th
u. nhat l`a cai thie.n cac h`nh anh so tren cac bao du.o..c gu.i qua day cap xuyen da.i
- `au nam 1920, he. thong truy
`en cac h`nh anh qua
u.a London v`a New York. D
du.o.ng gi
`an xuong c`on
day cap cua Bartlane da giam th`o.i gian chuyen mo.t anh t`
u. ho.n mo.t tu
.
.
.
`oi truy
`en qua
t ho n ba gi`o . Nh
u ng thiet bi. in chuyen du.ng da ma hoa cac h`nh anh r
`oi la.i ta.i no.i nha.n.
day cap v`a sau do phu.c h
Van d`e nang cao chat lu.o..ng h`nh anh so l
uc d`au lien quan den vie.c lu..a cho.n cac
phu.o.ng phap in v`a sap xep la.i m
u.c sang.
`en qua day cap tiep tu.c du.o..c cai tien 35 nam
Cac phu.o.ng phap xu. l
y anh so truy
ke tiep. Tuy nhien, do.ng lu..c phat trien chnh cua xu. l
y anh l`a do gia th`anh may tnh
.
.
.
.
u u khong gian. Nam 1964, cac h`nh anh chu.p
giam v`a nh
u ng chu o ng tr`nh nghien c
`en v
`e trai dat da du.o..c may tnh cai thie.n v`a
ma.t trang du.o..c ve. tinh Ranger 7 truy
`oi (su.a meo).
phu.c h
13
T`
u. nam 1964 den nay, pha.m vi u
.ng du.ng cua xu. l
y anh khong ng`
u.ng phat trien.
Ngo`ai cac u
.ng du.ng trong tham d`o v
u tru., cac k
y thua.t xu. l
y anh so gi`o. day da cho
`eu van d
`e khac nhau. H
`au het cac b`ai toan n`ay thu.`o.ng su. du.ng
phep giai quyet nhi
cac phu.o.ng phap nh`a m nang cao chat lu.o..ng h`nh anh phu.c vu. con ngu.`o.i v`a phan
tch. Co the ke den mo.t v`ai ng`anh co u
.ng du.ng xu. l
y anh: di.a chat tham d`o, sinh
ho.c, y ho.c, va.t l
y, hoa ho.c...
u. hai cua xu. l
Pha.m vi u
.ng du.ng chnh th
y anh l`a giai quyet b`ai toan may ho.c.
.
.
.
`e quan tam l`a cac phu.o.ng phap tach thong tin t`
u. anh o.
Trong tru `o ng ho. p n`ay, van d
y. Thong thu.`o.ng, thong tin n`ay t giong vo.i
da.ng thch ho..p de may tnh co the xu. l
cac da.c tru.ng m`a con ngu.`o.i su. du.ng de dien giai ng
u. canh cua anh. V du. cac thong
tin m`a may ho.c l`a cac moment thong ke, cac he. so bien doi Fourier, v`a cac do. do hay
`eu chi
`eu.
khoang cach nhi
`e tieu bieu trong may ho.c thu.`o.ng su. du.ng k
Nh
u.ng van d
y thua.t xu. l
y anh l`a:
`eu khien v`a kiem tra san pham, nha.n
nha.n da.ng ch
u. viet, may nh`n cong nghie.p de di
da.ng mu.c tieu quan su.., tu.. do.ng hoa xu. l
y van tay, hien thi. cac tia x v`a cac mau mau,
may xu. l
y anh khong gian v`a anh ve. tinh de du.. bao th`o.i tiet...
1.2
Bi
eu di
en anh s
o
`eu
Thua.t ng
u. anh do.n sac hay do.n gian anh am ch den h`am cu.`o.ng do. sang hai chi
f (x, y), trong do x v`a y k
y hie.u cac to.a do. khong gian v`a gia tri. cua f ta.i diem (x, y)
t le. vo.i do. sang (hay m
u.c xam) cua anh ta.i diem n`ay.
`e cac to.a do. khong gian v`a do. sang. Anh so
Mo.t anh so l`a anh f du.o..c so hoa v
`ong nhat vo.i mo.t diem
co the xem nhu. mo.t ma tra.n m`a cac ch so h`ang v`a ch so co.t d
`an tu. trong ma tra.n tu.o.ng u
`an
trong anh v`a ph
.ng vo.i m
u.c xam ta.i diem n`ay. Cac ph
.
.
.
tu cua mang thu `o ng go.i l`a diem anh hay pixel.
Ma.c d`
u kch thu.o.c cua anh so thay doi tu`
y theo t`
u.ng u
.ng du.ng, trong giao tr`nh
u.c
minh ho.a nh
u.ng thua.n lo..i khi cho.n cac mang vuong vo.i cac kch thu.o.c v`a so cac m
xam l`a lu
y th`
u.a cua 2. Chang ha.n cac ma tra.n anh kch thu.o.c 512 512 vo.i 128 m
u.c
xam.
14
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`en
Ti
.
xu l
y
.......................................
toan
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.
B`ai
Phan doa.n
anh
Co. so.
tri th
u.c
Thu nha.n
anh
...........................................................
Nha.n da.ng
v`a
no.i suy
...........................................................
1.3
y anh
C
ac bu.
o.c co. ban trong xu. l
`om nhi
`eu lnh vu..c khac nhau: ph
`an c
`an m
`em v`a cac co. so.
Xu. l
y anh so bao g
u.ng, ph
y anh cho phep tiep nha.n khung canh hoa.c anh o. d`au v`ao,
l
y thuyet. He. thong xu. l
thu..c hie.n mo.t day cac xu. l
y da da.ng de ta.o ra mo.t anh o. d`au ra mang nh
u.ng thong
`an thiet; t`
tin c
u. do r
ut ra du.o..c cac da.c tru.ng cho phep hieu du.o..c khung canh, anh.
Cac phu.o.ng phap v`a k
y thua.t xu. l
y anh nh`a m thiet ke cac may tnh co kha
.
.
.
.
up cho con ngu.`o.i co the quan sat du.o..c
nang nh`n v`a hieu du o. c anh nhu con ngu `o.i, gi
nh
u.ng doi tu.o..ng m`a ho. khong the to.i du.o..c.
Co the noi, xu. l
y anh l`a mo.t qua tr`nh ph
u.c ta.p v`a da da.ng co lien quan den
`eu lnh vu..c khac nhau. Mu.c n`ay d`e ca.p den nh
nhi
u.ng bu.o.c co. ban de thu..c hie.n mo.t
tien tr`nh xu. l
y anh.
- e minh ho.a, ch
ung ta xet b`ai toan tu.. do.ng
y anh. D
H`nh 1.1 tr`nh b`ay so. d`o xu. l
hoa vie.c do.c di.a ch tren cac b
u.c thu. m`a trong do d`au ra l`a chuoi cac k
y tu...
Bu.o.c d`au tien trong xu. l
y anh l`a thu nha.n anh (image acquisition), t
u.c l`a thu
nha.n mo.t anh so. Vie.c do.c thu. du..a tren cac camera quet d`ong.
`en xu. l
Bu.o.c ke tiep nha` m ti
y anh (preprocessing): nang cao chat lu.o..ng anh de
`en xu. l
cac qua tr`nh tiep theo da.t hie.u qua tot. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p cua v du. tren, ti
y
15
Ket
qua
........................................
nha` m nang cao do. tu.o.ng phan, khu. nhieu v`a tach nh
ung co la.p m`a ket cau cua
u.ng v`
.
y tu. .
no co kha nang mang thong tin cua k
Giai doa.n th
u. ba nha` m phan doa.n anh (segmentation) t
u.c l`a phan anh th`anh
- ay l`a mo.t trong nh
`an co y
t`
u.ng doi tu.o..ng hoa.c nh
u.ng ph
ngha. D
u.ng tien tr`nh kho
nhat trong qua tr`nh xu. l
y anh so. Vie.c phan doa.n tot se dan den nh
u.ng l`o.i giai
th`anh cong trong xu. l
y. Ma.t khac, nh
u.ng thua.t toan phan doa.n yeu hay khong on
`au nhu. se dan den nh
di.nh h
u.ng ket lua.n sai. Trong nha.n da.ng k
y tu.., vai tr`o chnh
`en.
cua tien tr`nh phan doa.n l`a tach cac k
y tu.. v`a cac t`
u. ra khoi n
- `au ra cua giai doa.n phan doa.n l`a day cac pixel tu.o.ng u
D
.ng cac du.`o.ng bien cua
u.
v`
ung hoa.c tat ca cac diem trong v`
ung. Trong ca hai tru.`o.ng ho..p, vie.c chuyen doi d
`an thiet. Quyet d.inh d
`au tien c
`an
lie.u th`anh da.ng thch ho..p de may tnh xu. l
y l`a c
ung. Bieu dien bien thch
l`am l`a bieu dien (representation) d
u. lie.u da.ng bien hay v`
ho..p khi ch
ung ta muon ta.p trung v`ao cac da.c tru.ng h`nh dang ben ngo`ai nhu. cac goc
u.ng tnh chat ben trong nhu. ket cau
hay diem uon. Bieu dien v`
ung thch ho..p vo.i nh
.ng du.ng, cac bieu dien n`ay
hay dang die.u cua bo. khung. Tuy nhien, trong mo.t v`ai u
`on ta.i. V du. trong nha.n da.ng k
c`
ung t
y tu.., cac thua.t toan thu.`o.ng du..a tren h`nh dang
ben ngo`ai c
ung nhu. nh
u.ng tnh chat ben trong.
`an cua vie.c bien doi so lie.u
Vie.c lu..a cho.n phu.o.ng phap bieu dien ch l`a mo.t ph
`e sau. Tiep theo c
`an mieu ta d
th`anh da.ng thch ho..p cho tien tr`nh xu. l
y v
u. lie.u sao
cho nh
u.ng da.c tru.ng quan tam du.o..c l`am noi ba.t. Mieu ta (description) hay trch
cho.n da.c tru.ng (feature selection) nh`a m trch cac da.c tru.ng du.o.i da.ng thong tin di.nh
lu.o..ng hoa.c nh
u.ng da.c tru.ng l`a co. so. de phan loa.i mo.t lo.p cac doi tu.o..ng vo.i cac lo.p
u.ng da.c
khac. Trong nha.n da.ng k
y tu.., cac mieu ta nhu. lo hong hay moment l`a nh
tru.ng rat tot cho phep phan bie.t cac k
y tu...
Giai doa.n cuoi trong H`nh 1.1 l`a nha.n da.ng v`a no.i suy. Nha.n da.ng (recognition)
l`a qua tr`nh gan mo.t nhan cho mo.t doi tu.o..ng du..a tren thong tin du.o..c cung cap bo.i
ngha
cac da.c tru.ng cua doi tu.o..ng. No.i suy (interpretation) lien quan den vie.c gan y
y tu.. c ch
ung ta
cho ta.p cac doi tu.o..ng du.o..c nha.n da.ng. Chang ha.n, de nha.n da.ng k
.
.
.
`an ket ho. p cac mieu ta cua k
c
y tu. n`ay vo i nhan c. No.i suy nh`a m gan y
ngha cho ta.p
cac thu..c the da du.o..c gan nhan. Chang ha.n, mo.t chuoi sau so hoa.c ba so tiep theo
sau so co the phien di.ch l`a mo.t ma so die.n thoa.i.
`en tri th
`an thiet cua ti
u.c v`a moi tu.o.ng tac gi
H`nh 1.1 c
ung cho thay su.. c
u.a co.
`e cac doi tu.o..ng trong he.
u.c (knowledge base) v`a cac module xu. l
so. tri th
y. Tri th
u.c v
16
thong xu. l
u.c. Tri th
u.c co the do.n
y anh du.o..c ma hoa th`anh mo.t co. so. d
u. lie.u tri th
gian nhu. nh
u.ng v`
ung chi tiet cua mo.t anh m`a thong tin quan tam da biet du.o..c xac
di.nh. Tri th
u.c c
ung co the ho`an to`an ph
u.c ta.p nhu. danh sach co quan he. vo.i nhau
u.a
tat ca cac khuyet ta.t chnh co the trong kiem tra va.t lie.u hoa.c co. so. d
u. lie.u anh ch
cac anh chu.p ve. tinh cua mo.t v`
ung vo.i do. net cao du.o..c noi vo.i nh
u.ng u
.ng du.ng phat
hie.n su.. thay doi. Ngo`ai vie.c ch da.o su.. hoa.t do.ng cua t`
u.ng module, co. so. tri th
u.c
`an di
`eu khien tu.o.ng tac gi
c
ung gop ph
u.a cac module. Trong H`nh 1.1, cac m
ui ten
`eu the hie.n su.. tu.o.ng tac gi
u.a cac module v`a co. so. tri th
ui ten mo.t
hai chi
u.c v`a cac m
.
- i
`eu lien ket gi
`eu n`ay noi chung the hie.n vie.c truy
`en thong gi
chi
u a cac module. D
u.a
`en tri th
cac module xu. l
y du..a tren co. so. ti
u.c. V du., de may ket lua.n mo.t chuoi cac
`an du.o..c cung cap tri th
k
y tu.. l`a ma so v`
ung die.n thoa.i, he. thong c
u.c nha.n da.ng vi. tr
`an khac trong v`
cua chuoi tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i cac th`anh ph
ung di.a ch. Tri th
u.c n`ay khong
`an cho hoa.t do.ng cua moi module m`a c`on c
`an cho thao tac phan h
`oi gi
u.a cac
nh
u.ng c
module thong qua co. so. tri th
u.c. Chang ha.n, mo.t chuoi cac so o. vi. tr d
ung nhu.ng
`om nam k
y tu.. (mo.t co the khong du.o..c nha.n da.ng) du.a den module no.i suy nghi
ch g
`au phan h
`oi thong qua co. so. tri th
ng`o. hai k
y tu.. bi. ket noi la.i. Mo.t yeu c
u.c doi vo.i
giai doa.n phan doa.n de cho mo.t cach nh`n khac l`a mo.t v du. cua vie.c su. du.ng tri
y anh.
th
u.c khi thu..c hie.n cac tien tr`nh xu. l
Ch
uy
r`a ng, cac ket qua cua xu. l
y anh co the quan sat ta.i bat c
u. bu.o.c n`ao trong
tien tr`nh. Ngo`ai ra, khong phai tat ca cac u
.ng du.ng xu. l
y anh d`oi hoi tat ca cac
.
.
.
.
.
u a ch
ung nhu trong H`nh 1.1. Noi chung, cac ch
u.c nang xu.
module v`a su. tu o ng tac gi
`om nha.n da.ng v`a no.i suy du.o..c ket ho..p vo.i cac u
.ng du.ng phan tch anh (nhu.
l
y bao g
nha.n da.ng ch
u. viet) vo.i mu.c tieu l`a tu.. do.ng hoa vie.c tach thong tin cua mo.t anh.
1.4
`an cua h
y anh
C
ac th`
anh ph
e. th
ong xu. l
`an cua mo.t he. thong co kha nang thu..c hie.n cac thao tac xu. l
Cac th`anh ph
y anh du.o..c
`om: Thu nha.n anh (image accquisition), lu.u tr
d`e ca.p trong Mu.c 1.3 bao g
u. (storage),
`en thong (communication) v`a hien thi. (display).
xu. l
y (processing), truy
1.4.1
Thu nh
a.n a nh
Thu nha.n anh d`oi hoi phai quet anh v`a dan den vie.c lay mau cac to.a do. vi. tr v`a
lu.o..ng tu. hoa cac m
u.c xam. Khi tien h`anh ma hoa anh, anh du.o..c chuyen th`anh ma
17
1.4.2
u.
Lu.u tr
1.4.3
Xu. l
y
Xu. l
y anh so lien quan den nh
u.ng thu tu.c du.o..c bieu dien o. da.ng thua.t toan. V` va.y,
`au het cac ch
u.c nang xu. l
y anh du.o..c thu..c hie.n
ngoa.i tr`
u. thu nha.n anh v`a hien thi., h
`an c
`an m
`em. Su. du.ng nh
u.ng) chuyen du.ng trong xu. l
bo.i ph
u.ng thiet bi. (ph
y anh ch
.
.
nha` m tang toc do. trong mo.t v`ai u
ng du.ng hoa.c khac phu.c mo.t so gio i ha.n co. ban cua
may tnh.
1.4.4
`en th
Truy
ong
1.4.5
Hi
en thi.
`om he.
anh chu.p hoa.c phim) cua anh tren m`an h`nh. Cac thiet bi. hien thi. khac bao g
thong cac d`en chan khong truy ca.p ngau nhien (random-access cathode ray tubes) v`a
cac thiet bi. in.
20
Chu.o.ng 2
.
.
CU
2.1
M
o h`nh chi
eu s
ang-phan xa. anh
- i
`eu kie.n sau ch ra r`a ng th`anh ph
`an phan xa. bi. cha.n bo.i 0 (hap thu. ho`an to`an) v`a 1
D
`an i(x, y) du.o..c xac d.inh bo.i ngu
`on sang,
uy
r`a ng, th`anh ph
(phan xa. ho`an to`an). Ch
trong khi r(x, y) du.o..c xac di.nh bo.i cac da.c tru.ng cua doi tu.o..ng trong canh.
`an chieu sang v`a phan xa. v
`e l
Cac th`anh ph
y thuyet l`a bi. cha.n. Sau day l`a mo.t
v`ai gia tri. minh ho.a pha.m vi cua i(x, y). V`ao ng`ay nang khong may, i(x, y) 9000. Gia
`eu may. Nh
tri. n`ay nho ho.n 1000 v`ao ng`ay co nhi
u.ng dem trang ra` m, i(x, y) ' 0.01.
Ta.i cac van ph`ong th` i(x, y) ' 100. Tu.o.ng tu.. sau day l`a mo.t v`ai gia tri. da.c bie.t cua
r(x, y) : 0.01 doi vo.i nhung den, 0.65 doi vo.i inoc, 0.80 vo.i cac b
u.c tu.`o.ng phang so.n
trang, 0.90 vo.i cac du.ng cu. kim loa.i trang ba.c v`a 0.93 doi vo.i tuyet.
Trong giao tr`nh n`ay, cu.`o.ng do. cua anh do.n sac f ta.i (x, y) go.i l`a m
u.c xam (gray
level), k
y hie.u l, cua anh ta.i diem n`ay. Ta co
Lmin l Lmax .
`e l
`an Lmin > 0 v`a Lmax h
V
y thuyet, ta ch c
u.u ha.n. Trong thu..c te, Lmin = iminrmin v`a
`an chieu sang v`a phan xa., ta
Lmax = imax rmax . Su. du.ng cac gia tri. tren cua th`anh ph
co the xap x Lmin ' 0.005 v`a Lmax ' 100 trong nh
u.ng u
.ng du.ng xu. l
y anh.
- oa.n [Lmin, Lmax ] go.i l`a thang do. xam (gray scale). Trong thu..c te ta thu.`o.ng ti.nh
D
`e doa.n [0, L] trong do l = 0 tu.o.ng u
tien khoang n`ay v
.ng m`au den v`a l = L l`a m`au
.ng cac sac thai cua m
u.c xam (thay doi
trang. Tat ca cac gia tri. trung gian tu.o.ng u
lien tu.c t`
u. den sang trang).
2.2
2.2.1
u v`
a
L
ay m
a
a lu.o..ng tu. ho
u v`
`eu
L
ay m
a
a lu.o..ng tu. ho
ad
- e co the xu. l
`an phai so hoa h`am anh f (x, y) ca v
`e khong gian lan
D
y tren may tnh, c
bien do.. So hoa cac to.a do. khong gian (x, y) go.i l`a lay mau (image sampling) c`on so
hoa bien do. go.i l`a lu.o..ng tu. hoa (gray-level quantization).
Gia su. h`am anh f (x, y) du.o..c xap x bo.i vie.c lay mau vo.i khoang cach b`a ng nhau
`eu) v`a du.o..c sap xep o. da.ng ma tra.n kch thu.o.c
(go.i l`a lay mau v`a lu.o..ng tu. hoa d
22
f (x, y) '
f (0, 0)
f (0, 1)
f (0, M 1)
f (1, 0)
f (1, 1)
f (1, M 1)
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
f (N 1, 0) f (N 1, 1)
f (N 1, M 1)
`an tu. cua mang, go.i l`a diem anh hay pixel, l`a mo.t da.i lu.o..ng r`o.i ra.c.
trong do moi ph
Tien tr`nh lay mau co the xem nhu. phan hoa.ch ma.t phang xy th`anh mo.t lu.o.i
`an tu. (x, y) Z2 v`a xap x h`am b`a ng phu.o.ng
vo.i cac to.a do. tam cua lu.o.i l`a ca.p cac ph
phap no.i suy t`
u. cac h`am co. so. thong qua cac gia tri. n`ay. Trong lu.o..ng tu. hoa ta cho
u.c lu.o..ng tu. hoa), thay
phep cac h`am ch lay cac gia tri. trong ta.p h
u.u ha.n (cac m
`an vo.i no nhat. Cac diem lay mau
u.c lu.o..ng tu. hoa g
cho gia tri. thu..c te ba` ng cac m
v`a/hoa.c cac m
u.c lu.o..ng tu. co the cho tru.o.c, hoa.c ch
ung co the phu. thuo.c v`ao thuo.c
tnh cua h`am. Do do f (x, y) l`a h`am anh so neu (x, y) Z2 v`a f l`a h`am gan mo.t gia
tri. xam (thu.`o.ng l`a so nguyen) doi vo.i moi ca.p (x, y).
`an xac di.nh cac gia tri. M, N v`a so cac m
Tien tr`nh so hoa c
u.c xam. Trong thu..c
te cac da.i lu.o..ng n`ay thu.`o.ng l`a lu
y th`
u.a nguyen cua hai; t
u.c l`a
N = 2n ,
M = 2k ,
G = 2m ,
Co.t
H`ang
f (10, 3)
H`nh 2.1: So hoa anh lien tu.c. Gia tri. xam ta.i pixel co to.a do. x = 10, y = 3 l`a 110.
`an vo.i anh thu..c te ho.n
cac tham so n`ay. Khi cac tham so n`ay tang th` anh so hoa se g
`eu ho.n v`a xu. l
nhu.ng do do c
ung d`oi hoi khong gian lu.u tr
u. nhi
y ph
u.c ta.p ho.n. Mo.t
u.ng phu. thuo.c v`ao danh gia
anh tot rat kho d.inh ngha v` chat lu.o..ng anh khong nh
`eu v`ao cac u
chu quan m`a c`on phu. thuo.c rat nhi
.ng du.ng.
2.2.2
u v`
a lu.o..ng tu. ho
L
ay m
a
a kh
ong d
`
eu
`eu
Vo.i do. phan giai khong gian co di.nh, chat lu.o..ng anh se du.o..c cai thie.n trong nhi
.
.
.
.
.
.
tru `o ng ho. p ba` ng cach su du.ng phu o ng phap thch nghi trong do qua tr`nh lay mau
phu. thuo.c v`ao cac da.c tru.ng cua anh. Noi chung, ta thu.`o.ng lay mau mi.n trong nh
u.ng
`eu, trai la.i lay mau tho vo.i nh
v`
ung m
u.c xam thay doi nhi
u.ng v`
ung tu.o.ng doi tro.n.
`en ch
u.ng minh thu., hien nhien n
u.a rat t thong tin chi tiet v`a
Chang ha.n, xet anh ch
`eu chi tiet
co the du.o..c bieu dien ba` ng vie.c lay mau tho. Trai la.i, khuon ma.t ch
u.a nhi
ung
nen vie.c lay mau mi.n se nang cao chat lu.o..ng anh so hoa. Ngo`ai ra, vie.c lay mau c
.
.
`an tang o v`
`en.
c
ung bien gi
u a khuon ma.t v`a n
`eu co the gay ra nh
Phu.o.ng phap lay mau khong d
u.ng tro. nga.i trong vie.c nha.n
`eu c
ung t du.o..c su. du.ng doi vo.i nh
u.ng anh
da.ng cac du.`o.ng bien. Lay mau khong d
`eu v`
ung nho d`ong da.ng.
ch
u.a nhi
`an gi
Khi so cac m
u.c xam c
u. la.i t, tu.o.ng tu.. nhu. tren, ch
ung ta co the lu.o..ng tu.
24
hoa khong d`eu. Tuy nhien, mat ngu.`o.i tu.o.ng doi kem nha.y cam vo.i vie.c xac di.nh sac
`an v`
u.c xam do.t ngo.t; trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay su. du.ng t m
thai g
ung thay doi m
u.c xam
trong lan ca.n cua du.`o.ng bien. Cac m
u.c c`on la.i du.o..c su. du.ng trong nh
ung m
u.c
u.ng v`
- i
`en sai.
`eu n`ay se tranh hoa.c giam vie.c ta.o ra nh
xam thay doi t. D
u.ng du.`o.ng vi
`an so xuat hie.n cua tat ca cac m
Mo.t k
y thua.t khac l`a tnh t
u.c xam. Sau do ta
`an so lo.n v`a ngu.o..c la.i.
se lu.o..ng tu. hoa mi.n vo.i nh
u.ng khoang tu.o.ng u
.ng t
2.3
u.a c
ac pixel
Quan h
e. co. ban gi
`an n`ay k
Ph
y hie.u f (x, y) l`a anh, cac ch
u. cai viet thu.`o.ng nhu. p, q l`a cac pixel. Ta.p
con cua anh f (x, y) k
y hie.u l`a S.
2.3.1
C
ac l
an c
a.n cu a m
o.t pixel
.ng l`a
Pixel p = (x, y) co bon pixel lan ca.n ngang v`a du
.ng vo.i cac to.a do. tu.o.ng u
(x + 1, y), (x 1, y), (x, y + 1), (x, y 1).
`om bon pixel n`ay go.i l`a 4-lan ca.n v`a k
Ta.p g
y hie.u l`a N4 (p). Bon lan ca.n du.`o.ng cheo
cua p co cac to.a do.
(x + 1, y + 1), (x + 1, y 1), (x 1, y + 1), (x 1, y 1).
`om bon pixel lan ca.n du.`o.ng cheo k
Ta.p g
y hie.u l`a ND (p). Ta.p N8 (p) := N4 (p) ND (p)
go.i l`a 8-lan ca.n cua p.
Ch
uy
r`a ng co the co mo.t so pixel lan ca.n cua p na` m ngo`ai anh so f neu p na` m
tren bien cua anh.
2.3.2
Li
en th
ong
Lien thong gi
u.a cac pixel l`a khai nie.m quan tro.ng du.o..c su. du.ng de xac di.nh bien cua
- e xac di.nh hai pixel l`a
`an cua cac v`
cac doi tu.o..ng v`a cac th`anh ph
ung trong anh. D
`an kiem tra:
lien thong ch
ung ta c
25
0
0
1
1(p)
1
0
0
0
1
|
............
1
|
.
....
....
....
1
....
....
....
..
0
(a)
............
1
0
....
....
....
.
(b)
(c)
H`nh 2.2: (a) Sap xep cua cac pixel; (b) cac pixel 8-lien thong vo.i pixel o. gi
u.a; (c) cac
pixel m-lien thong vo.i pixel o. gi
u.a.
`e vo.i (xi1 , yi1 ), i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
trong do (x0, y0 ) = (x, y), (xn, yn ) = (s, t) v`a (xi , yi) k
`on ta.i
Neu p v`a q l`a cac pixel cua ta.p con S th` p go.i l`a lien thong vo.i q neu t
.
day cac pixel trong S noi hai pixel n`ay. Vo i moi p S, ta.p Sp cac pixel lien thong vo.i
`an lien thong cua S. T`
u. di.nh ngha ta thay r`a ng
p go.i l`a th`anh ph
(1) pS = S; v`a
(2) p v`a q lien thong neu v`a ch neu Sp Sq 6= .
`an lien thong cua mo.t anh l`a van d
`e
Gan cac nhan khac nhau cho cac th`anh ph
quan tro.ng trong phan tch anh tu.. do.ng. Du.o.i day l`a thu tu.c gan nhan cac th`anh
`an lien thong cua anh nhi. phan. Cach tiep ca.n khac tren co. so. cua khai nie.m h`nh
ph
thai ho.c se du.o..c tr`nh b`ay trong Mu.c 8.4.
2.3.3
`an li
G
an nh
an c
ac th`
anh ph
en th
ong
2.3.4
Metric
Gia su. p, q v`a z l`a cac pixel vo.i cac to.a do. (x, y), (s, t) v`a (u, v) tu.o.ng u
.ng. H`am d go.i
l`a metric hay h`am khoang cach neu
(1) d(p, q) 0, dau ba` ng xay ra khi v`a ch khi p = q;
(2) d(p, q) = d(q, p); v`a
(3) d(p, z) d(p, q) + d(q, z).
K
y hie.u
B(p, r) := {q | d(p, q) r}
l`a h`nh tr`on tam p ban knh r.
28
2.3.5
C
ac ph
ep to
an s
o ho.c/logic
p + q.
Phep nhan:
p q (c`on k
y hie.u l`a pq hay p q.)
p q.
Phep chia:
p q.
29
Cac phep toan so ho.c tren to`an anh du.o..c thu..c hie.n tren t`
u.ng pixel. Phep co.ng
u.ng
u. anh d`
ung trong y ho.c de loa.i bo nh
anh du.o..c su. du.ng nh`a m giam nhieu. Phep tr`
`en). Phep nhan (hay chia) de su.a du
thong tin tnh (chang ha.n, n
ng cac m
u.c xam do
`ong d`eu.
chieu sang khong d
Cac phep toan logic thu.`o.ng du.o..c d`
ung trong xu. l
y anh l`a:
Phep ho.i:
Phep tuyen:
`an b`
Phep lay ph
u:
p AND q.
p OR q.
NOT q.
z1
z2
z3
w1 w2 w3
z4
z5
z6
w4 w5 w6
z7
z8
..
.
z9
w7 w8 w9
(b)
(a)
H`nh 2.3: (a) Ta.p con cua anh vo.i cac gia tri. xam; (b) Ma.t na. kch thu.o.c 3 3 vo.i
cac he. so.
Tong quat ho.n, ba` ng cach ap du.ng ma.t na. co tro.ng lu.o..ng trong H`nh 2.3(b) ta
30
co gia tri.
1X
1
wi zi
z := (w1z1 + w2z2 + + w9z9 ) =
9
9 i=1
9
(2.1)
2.4
2.4.1
C
ac ph
ep bi
en d
oi h`nh ho.c
Ph
ep bi
en d
oi affine
Y = 0 1 0 Y0
Z .
Z
0 0 1 Z0
1
31
`an nhat
da.ng thu
0 X0
X
0 Y0
Y .
1 Z0
Z
1
0 1
v=
Z ,
1
X
Y
v =
Z .
1
0
T =
0
u
.ng ma tra.n
0 0 X0
1 0 Y0
.
0 1 Z0
0 0 1
Sx
0
S=
0
Sy
Sz
0
.
0
Phep quay thu.`o.ng du.o..c thu..c hie.n ba` ng cach tong ho..p cac phep quay quanh cac
- e quay mo.t diem xung quanh diem khac, ch
tru.c to.a do.. D
ung ta thu..c hie.n ba phep
`e goc; ke den thu..c hie.n phep quay v`a sau do
bien doi: d`au tien ti.nh tien diem t`
uy y
v
`au.
ti.nh tien tro. la.i vi. tr ban d
Phep quay mo.t diem xung quanh tru.c Z mo.t goc du.o..c thu..c hie.n ba` ng ma tra.n
32
bien doi
cos sin 0 0
sin cos 0 0
.
R =
0
0
1
0
0
0 0 1
`eu kim d
`ong h
`o neu nh`n t`
Goc quay du.o..c do c`
ung chi
u. goc theo hu.o.ng du.o.ng cua
tru.c Z. Phep bien doi n`ay khong thay doi gia tri. Z.
Phep quay mo.t diem xung quanh tru.c X mo.t
tra.n bien doi
1
0
0
0
cos sin
R =
0 sin cos
0
0
0
0
.
0
Tu.o.ng tu.., phep quay mo.t diem quanh tru.c Y mo.t goc tu.o.ng u
.ng ma tra.n
cos 0 sin 0
0
1
0
0
.
R =
sin 0
cos 0
0 0
0 1
`eu phep bien doi co the bieu dien du.o.i da.ng phep bien doi affine. Chang ha.n,
Nhi
diem v qua cac phep ti.nh tien, co v`a quay quanh tru.c Z xac di.nh bo.i
v = R (S(T v))
= Av,
trong do A = R ST l`a ma tra.n cua phep bien doi affine. V` tch hai ma tra.n noi chung
khong giao hoan nen th
u. tu.. cua ch
ung l`a quan tro.ng.
`an xac d.inh ma tra.n nghi.ch dao tu.o.ng u
ung ta c
.ng
Trong mo.t so tru.`o.ng ho..p, ch
phep bien doi ngu.o..c. V du., nghi.ch dao cua ma tra.n ti.nh tien l`a
1 0 0 X0
0 1 0 Y0
=
0 0 1 Z .
0
0 0 0
1
33
cos() sin()
sin() cos()
=
R1
0
0
0
0
2.4.2
0 0
0 0
.
1 0
0 1
Ph
ep chi
eu ph
oi ca nh
`eu, k
y hie.u 3D, len ma.t
Phep chieu phoi canh chieu mo.t diem trong khong gian ba chi
`eu). H`nh 2.4 minh ho.a mo.t mo h`nh ta.o anh. He. to.a do. camera (x, y, z)
phang (hai chi
ung vo.i ma.t phang xy v`a tru.c quang ho.c (xac di.nh bo.i tam cua
co ma.t phang anh tr`
thau knh) do.c theo tru.c z. Tam cua ma.t phang anh ta.i goc v`a tam cua thau knh ta.i
(0, 0, ). Neu camera lay net theo khoang cach doi vo.i cac va.t the th` go.i l`a tieu cu...
Tru.o.c het de do.n gian ta gia thiet he. to.a do. camera du.o..c lay theo he. to.a do. thu..c
(X, Y, Z).
y, Y
......
....
....... ..
.......
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..
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.
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x, X
(X, Y, Z)
z, Z
(x, y)
H`nh 2.4: Qua tr`nh thu nha.n anh. He. to.a do. (x, y, z) du.o..c dong theo he. to.a do.
(X, Y, Z).
Nhu. tru.o.c, k
y hie.u (X, Y, Z) l`a cac to.a do. cua mo.t diem trong 3D. Gia thiet
ra` ng Z > ; t
u.c l`a tat ca cac diem quan tam phai na` m tru.o.c thau knh. T`
u. H`nh
2.4, de d`ang suy ra
x
X
=
Z
34
X
Z
=
v`a
y
Y
=
Z
Y
=
Z
trong do dau am tru.o.c X v`a Y ch ra cac diem anh du.o..c dao ngu.o..c. Suy ra to.a do.
cua diem anh:
X
,
Z
Y
.
y =
Z
x =
Ch
ung ta anh xa. mo.t diem (X, Y, Z) R3 v`ao mo.t diem trong khong gian xa.
`an nhat hoa diem
anh thu..c RP3 ba` ng cach thu
X
w = Y
Z
th`anh
kX
kY
wh =
kZ
k
trong do k l`a so thu..c khac khong.
Neu ch
ung ta d.inh ngha ma tra.n cua phep
1 0 0
0 1 0
P =
0 0 1
0 0 1
kX
kY
kZ
kZ
35
+k
Suy ra to.a do. de Cartes cua diem trong he. to.a do. camera co da.ng vector
X
x
Z
Y
c = y = Z .
Z
Z
`an d`au tien (x, y) cua c l`a cac to.a do. trong ma.t phang anh cua diem
Hai th`anh ph
`an th
(X, Y, Z) qua phep chieu phoi canh. Th`anh ph
u. ba, go.i l`a gia do. sau, trong
tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay khong su. du.ng.
Ch
u y
ra` ng anh cua nh
u.ng diem na` m tren du.`o.ng thang l di qua (x0 , y0, 0) v`a
`om d
(0, 0, ) qua phep chieu phoi canh g
ung mo.t diem (x0, y0 ). Phu.o.ng tr`nh du.`o.ng
thang l trong he. to.a do. thu..c co da.ng
x0
( Z),
y0
=
( Z).
X =
Y
2.4.3
M
o h`nh camera
`an n`ay gia thiet he. to.a do. cua camera v`a cua the gio.i thu..c l`a phan bie.t. H`nh 2.5
Ph
y hie.u
su. du.ng he. to.a do. thu..c (X, Y, Z) de di.nh vi. camera v`a cac diem trong 3D (k
.
.
v). He. to.a do. camera l`a (x, y, z) v`a cac diem anh l`a c. Gia thiet camera du o. c da.t tren
mo.t gimbal cho phep quay xung quanh mo.t goc v`a nghieng mo.t goc , trong do
l`a goc gi
u.a cac tru.c x v`a X; v`a l`a goc gi
u.a cac tru.c z v`a Z. K
y hie.u w0 l`a khoang
cach t`
u. tam cua gimbal den goc to.a do.; v`a r = (r1, r2 , r3 ) l`a vector t`
u. tam cua gimbal
den tam cua ma.t phang.
- e co the ap du.ng cac tnh toan trong ph
`an tru.o.c, ch
`an bien doi sao
D
ung ta c
`au camera
cho he. to.a do. cua camera v`a cua the gio.i thu..c tr`
ung nhau. Gia thiet l
uc d
o. vi. tr chuan, ngha l`a tam cua gimbal v`a tam cua ma.t phang anh da.t ta.i goc cua he.
to.a do. thu..c v`a tat ca cac tru.c l`a tr`
ung nhau. Khi do, mo h`nh h`nh ho.c cua H`nh 2.5
co the du.o..c thu..c hie.n qua cac bu.o.c sau:
Bu.o.c 1. di chuyen tam cua gimbal;
Bu.o.c 2. quay goc ;
Bu.o.c 3. ta.o nghieng mo.t goc ;
36
H`nh 2.5: H`nh ho.c cua anh vo.i hai he. to.a do..
Bu.o.c 4. di chuyen ma.t phang anh tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i tam cua gimbal.
Mo.t camera o. vi. tr chuan thoa man mo h`nh cua H`nh 2.4 v`a co the ap du.ng
`e du.a v
`e ap du.ng day cac Bu.o.c
phep chieu phoi canh trong Mu.c 2.4.2. Do do van d
1-4 doi vo.i mo.i diem thu..c.
Ti.nh tien goc cua he. to.a thu..c den vi. tr tam cua gimbal tu.o.ng u
.ng ma tra.n bien
doi
1 0 0 X0
0 1 0 Y0
.
G=
0 0 1 Z0
0 0 0
1
u.a cac tru.c x v`a X. Ta.i vi. tr chuan, hai tru.c n`ay tr`
ung
Theo tren, goc quay du.o..c do gi
.
nhau. De quay tru.c x mo.t goc ta su du.ng phep quay xung quanh tru.c z goc . Noi
cach khac ta su. du.ng ma tra.n quay R . Ch
uy
ra` ng goc quay l`a du.o.ng khi cac diem
37
`eu kim d
`ong h
`o (do do quay camera quanh tru.c z ngu.o..c chi
`eu kim
du.o..c quay c`
ung chi
`o).
d`ong h
`an nghieng
Ta.i th`o.i diem n`ay, cac tru.c z v`a Z van tr`
ung nhau. V` va.y ch
ung ta c
.
- i
`eu n`ay co the thu. c hie.n ba` ng cach quay xung quanh tru.c x goc
camera mo.t goc . D
- e y
`eu
r`a ng phep quay cua camera ngu.o..c chi
; t
u.c l`a ap du.ng ma tra.n bien doi R . D
.
.
.
.
.
`ong h
`o tu o ng u
kim d
ng goc du o ng.
De d`ang kiem tra ho..p cua hai phep quay R v`a R l`a phep quay tu.o.ng u
.ng ma
tra.n
R=
cos
Cuoi c`
ung, di chuyen goc cua ma.t
tien
0
C =
0
sin
0 0 r1
1 0 r2
.
0 1 r3
0 0 1
V` va.y anh xa. bien diem wh th`anh diem CRGwh se du.a den cac he. to.a do. cua camera
du.ng phep bien doi trong ph
`an tru.o.c ta co diem wh
v`a the gio.i thu..c tr`
ung nhau. Ap
trong khong gian xa. anh RP3 du.o..c quan sat bo.i camera thoa man mo h`nh h`nh ho.c
`an nhat trong he. to.a do. camera nhu. sau:
cua H`nh 2.5 co bieu dien thu
ch = P CRGwh .
2.4.4
(2.2)
C
ac tham s
o cu a camera
- e xac d.inh to.a do. anh (x, y) cua mo.t diem trong he. to.a do. thu..c w theo (2.2) ch
D
ung
`an biet tru.o.c cac tham so cua camera: tieu cu.., do. di.ch chuyen, cac goc quay v`a
ta c
goc nghieng. Ma.c d`
u cac tham so n`ay co the do tru..c tiep, tuy nhien se thua.n tie.n ho.n
- e thu..c hie.n du.o..c di
`eu n`ay,
neu ch
ung ta xac di.nh ch
ung du..a tren chnh camera. D
.
`an mo.t ta.p cac diem anh m`a to.a do. thu. c cua no da biet.
ch
ung ta c
- a.t A := P CRG. Khi do cac ph
`an tu. cua ma tra.n A ch
D
u.a thong tin cua tat ca
- a.t k = 1 trong bieu dien
u. (2.2) ta co the viet ch = Awh . D
cac tham so cua camera. T`
38
ch1
X
a24
Y .
a34
Z
1
a44
ch2 a21 a22 a23
=
c a
h3 31 a32 a33
ch4
a41 a42 a43
(2.3)
2.4.5
nh n
A
oi
Anh 1
(x1, y1)
Anh 2
(x , y )
w
- iem trong khong gian
D
x2
( Z2 ),
=
X1 =
X2
trong do (Xi , Yi , Zi ), i = 1, 2, l`a to.a do. cua diem w trong cac he. to.a do. cua hai camera.
- i
`eu n`ay co the thu..c hie.n ba` ng cach di chuyen mo.t camera den vi. tr tr`
(D
ung vo.i he.
to.a do. thu..c, trong khi camera kia v`a diem w di chuyen theo vo.i vi. tr tu.o.ng doi cua
no nhu. H`nh 2.7).
X
...
.......
....
...
....
.
Anh 1
..
.
..
....
....
...
..
..
...
.
...
.........
.
... .......
........
..
.......
...
...
........
..
.......
....
........
..
.
...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
........ .............
.....
........
..
....
...
........
...
...
.......
........
...
..
....
.......
..
..
...
........
.......
...
...
........
...
...
....
........
..
.......
..
...
........
..
...
...
.......
..
........
...
...
.......
...
........
..
...
........
..
.......
...
........
...
...
.......
........
..
...
.......
...
........
...
........
...
..
.......
...
........
.
.......
........ ....
.......
......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..... ...
.......
........
...
..
.......
.
.
.
........
.
.
.
.
........
...
.......
.
.
.
....
.
.
...
.
.....
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.......
...
...
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.......
...
........
.
.
.
....
.
.
...
...
.
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
...
.
........
...
...
...
........
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
...
.
........
...
...
.......
.
.
....
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.
.
...
...
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...
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.
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.
.
...
.
...
..
.......
...
...
...
.......
.
.
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.
.
...
...
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...
.. .........
...
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
...
...
...
........
.......
..
...
.......
.... ..............
....
...
..........
...
...
..
.....
..
....
...
.
(x1, y1)
Goc cua he. to.a do. thu..c
Anh 2
(x2, y2)
Z2 = Z1 = Z.
Va.y
x1
( Z),
x2
=
( Z) B.
X1 =
X2
Suy ra
B
.
x2 x1
Noi cach khac, neu ch
ung ta biet cac thong so: cac gia tri. ho`anh do. x2 v`a x1 ; va.ch
ranh gio.i, tieu cu.., th` co the suy ra to.a do. diem Z v`a do do X, Y.
Z =
Tien tr`nh kho khan nhat l`a t`m hai diem tu.o.ng u
.ng trong hai anh khac nhau
cua c`
ung mo.t canh. V` cac diem n`ay thu.`o.ng o. trong c`
ung mo.t lan ca.n, nen cach giai
.
.
.
.
.
.
y thua.t tu o ng quan (xem Chu.o.ng 9), cho.n
quyet trong tru `o ng ho. p n`ay l`a, su du.ng k
mo.t diem trong mo.t v`
ung nho S1 cua anh th
u. nhat v`a co gang t`m mo.t v`
ung S2 trong
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
u a nh
u ng da.c tru.ng
anh th
u hai doi sanh tot nhat vo i S1. Trong tru `o ng ho. p canh ch
de thay, chang ha.n cac goc noi ba.t, th` phu.o.ng phap doi sanh da.c tru.ng se cho l`o.i
`an 2.4.4 se cho nh
giai nhanh ho.n. Vie.c xac di.nh cac thong so cua camera trong Ph
u.ng
`an thiet de giai quyet ho`an chnh b`ai toan anh noi.
thong tin c
42
Chu.o.ng 3
I
PHEP
BIE
N D
-O
CAC
Bi
en d
oi Fourier li
en tu.c
3.1
3.1.1
`eu
Bi
en d
oi Fourier m
o.t chi
Gia su. f (x) l`a h`am lien tu.c theo bien thu..c x. Bien doi Fourier cua f (x), k
y hie.u F (f )
.
hoa.c F, xac d.inh bo i
F (f )(u) = F (u) :=
f (x)e2iux dx,
trong do i :=
1.
Cho tru.o.c F (u) ta co the nha.n du.o..c f (x) b`a ng cach su. du.ng bien doi Fourier
43
ngu.o..c
F
(F )(x) = f (x) =
F (u)e2iuxdu.
`on ta.i cua ca.p bien doi Fourier, neu f (x) lien tu.c, kha
Co the ch
u.ng minh su.. t
`eu kie.n n`ay thu.`o.ng thoa man trong thu..c te.
tch v`a F (u) kha tch. Cac di
Trong giao tr`nh n`ay, ta luon gia su. f l`a h`am thu..c. Noi chung bien doi Fourier
cua h`am thu..c f l`a mo.t h`am ph
u.c; t
u.c l`a
F (u) = R(u) + iI(u),
`an thu..c (tu.o.ng u
`an ao) cua F (u) :
trong do R(u) (tu.o.ng u
.ng, I(u)) l`a ph
.ng, ph
Z +
f (x) cos[2ux]dx,
R(u) =
Z +
f (x) sin[2ux]dx.
I(u) =
Cac h`am n`ay doi khi c`on go.i l`a bien doi Fourier cosin v`a bien doi Fourier sin cua f.
Ta thu.`o.ng bieu dien h`am F (u) du.o.i da.ng
F (u) = kF (u)kei(u),
trong do
p
R2 (u) + I 2(u),
I(u)
.
tan[(u)] :=
R(u)
kF (u)k :=
H`am kF (u)k du.o..c go.i l`a pho Fourier cua f, v`a (u) l`a goc pha. B`nh phu.o.ng cua pho
`an so.
Fourier go.i l`a pho cong suat. Bien u thu.`o.ng du.o..c go.i l`a bien t
V du. 3.1.1 Bien doi Fourier cua h`am
A neu 0 x ,
f (x) :=
0 neu ngu.o.c lai,
. .
l`a
F (u) =
f (x)e2ixu dx
Ae2ixu dx
=
0
44
=
Suy ra pho Fourier
3.1.2
A
sin(u)eiu .
u
A
kF (u)k = | sin(u)||eiu |
u
sin(u)
.
= |A|
(u)
`eu
Bi
en d
(F )(x, y) = f (x, y) =
F (u, v)e2i(ux+vy)dudv,
`an so.
trong do u, v l`a cac bien t
`eu, pho Fourier, goc pha v`a pho cong suat
Tu.o.ng tu.. trong tru.`o.ng ho..p mo.t chi
xac d.inh tu.o.ng u
.ng bo.i
p
kF (u, v)k := R2 (u, v) + I 2 (u, v),
1 I(u, v)
(u, v) := tan
R(u, v)
v`a
P (u, v) := kF (u, v)k2 = R2 (u, v) + I 2(u, v).
V du. 3.1.2 Bien doi Fourier cua h`am
A
neu 0 x , 0 y ,
f (x, y) :=
0
neu ngu.o..c la.i,
l`a
F (u, v) =
sin(u) sin(u)
.
kF (u, v)k = |A|
(u) (u)
45
3.2
Bi
en d
oi Fourier r`
o.i ra.c
`eu xac
Xet day f (x), x = 0, 1, . . . , N 1. Bien doi Fourier r`o.i ra.c thua.n ngu.o..c mo.t chi
di.nh bo.i
F (f )(u) = F (u) :=
N 1
ux
1 X
f (x)e2i N ,
N x=0
(3.1)
vo.i u = 0, 1, . . . , N 1, v`a
(F )(x) = f (x) :=
N
1
X
ux
F (u)e2i N ,
(3.2)
u=0
trong do x = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
V du. 3.2.1 Gia su. f (0) = 2, f(1) = 3, f(2) = f (3) = 4. Ta co bien doi Fourier cua
f l`a
F (0) =
1X
f (x)e0 = 3.25;
4 x=0
F (1) =
1X
1
f (x)e2ix/4 = (2 + i);
4 x=0
4
F (2) =
1
1X
f (x)e2i2x/4 = ;
4 x=0
4
F (3) =
1X
1
f (x)e2i3x/4 = (2 + i).
4 x=0
4
Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p hai bien, ca.p bien doi Fourier r`o.i ra.c cho bo.i
M 1 N 1
vy
ux
1 XX
f (x, y)e2i( M + N ) ,
F (f )(u, v) :=
MN x=0 y=0
M
1 N
1
X
X
u=0 v=0
trong do x = 0, 1, . . . , M 1, v`a y = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
46
vy
F (u, v)e2i( M + N ) ,
ux
N 1 N 1
vy
ux
1 XX
f (x, y)e2i( N + N ) ,
F (u, v) =
N x=0 y=0
N 1 N 1
1 XX
2i( ux
+ vy
N
N ),
f
(x,
y)
=
F
(u,
v)e
N u=0 v=0
trong do u, x = 0, 1, . . . , N 1, v`a y, v = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
Ho`an to`an tu.o.ng tu.. ta c
ung co cac khai nie.m pho Fourier, goc pha, pho cong
suat cua h`am r`o.i ra.c f.
`on ta.i cua bien doi Fourier
Khac vo.i tru.`o.ng ho..p lien tu.c, de d`ang ch
u.ng minh t
`eu, ta co the ch
u.ng minh ba` ng cach thay
r`o.i ra.c. Chang ha.n trong tru.`o.ng ho..p mo.t chi
tru..c tiep (3.2) v`ao (3.1):
"
#
N 1 N 1
1 X X
F (r)e2irx/N e2iux/N
F (u) =
N x=0 r=0
#
"N 1
N 1
X
1 X
F (r)
e2irx/N e2iux/N
=
N r=0
x=0
= F (u).
- `ong nhat th
`eu kie.n tru..c giao
u. di
D
u.c tren suy t`
N
1
N
X
e2irx/N e2iux/N =
0
x=0
neu r = u,
neu ngu.o..c la.i.
V du. 3.2.2 H`nh 3.1 l`a anh goc, anh cua ln(1+kF [u, v]k) v`a anh cua goc pha (u, v).
3.3
C
ac tnh ch
at
Tru.o.c het ta co
- i.nh l
D
y 3.3.1 [Raleigh] Gia su. F l`
o
a bien do
i Fourier cu a f. Khi d
Z + Z +
Z + Z +
2
f (x, y)dxdy =
kF (u, v)k2dudv.
47
H`nh 3.1: Anh goc, anh cua ln(1 + kF [u, v]k) v`a anh cua goc pha (u, v).
3.3.1
Tnh t
ach d
u.o..c
Xet ca.p bien doi Fourier r`o.i ra.c cua h`am anh f (x, y) co kch thu.o.c M N :
M 1 N 1
ux vy
1 XX
f (x, y)e2i( M + N ) ,
F (u, v) =
MN x=0 y=0
v`a
f (x, y) =
1
M
1 N
X
X
vy
F (u, v)e2i( M + N ) ,
ux
(3.3)
(3.4)
u=0 v=0
trong do x, u = 0, 1, . . . , M 1 v`a y, v = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
.
U u diem l`a F (u, v) hoa.c f (x, y) co the nha.n du.o..c theo hai bu.o.c bien doi Fourier
- i
`eu n`ay l`a hien nhien, v` t`
1D thua.n hoa.c ngu.o..c. D
u. (3.3) ta co
F (u, v) =
M 1
ux
1 X
G(x, v)e2i M ,
M x=0
trong do
G(x, v) :=
N 1
vy
1 X
f (x, y)e2i N .
N y=0
(3.5)
Co the nha.n du.o..c ket qua giong nhu. tren khi bien doi theo cac co.t cua f (x, y)
v`a sau do do.c theo cac h`ang.
3.3.2
en
Ti.nh ti
F [f (x x0 , y y0 )] = F (u, v)e2i( M
T`
u. do suy ra
vy0
N
).
F (1)x+y f (x, y) = F (u M/2, v N/2).
u.a, ti.nh tien khong l`am thay doi pho Fourier cua F.
Ho.n n
3.3.3
Chu k`
y
(3.6)
F (u, v) = F (u + M, v) = F (u, v + N ) = F (u + M, v + N ).
(3.7)
Khi do
Ngu.o..c la.i, neu bien doi Fourier cua f thoa (3.7) th` h`am anh f thoa man (3.6). Ho.n
n
u.a, neu h`am f thu..c, th` F (u, v) = F (u, v), trong do F (u, v) l`a so ph
u.c lien ho..p
cua F (u, v). Suy ra kF (u, v)k = kF (u, v)k.
3.3.4
Ph
ep quay
y(r, ) = r sin ,
u(, ) = cos ,
v(, ) = sin .
- a.t
D
g(r, ) := f (x(r, ), y(r, )),
G(, ) := F (u(, ), v(, )).
49
3.3.5
Tuy
en tnh v`
a co gi
an
3.3.6
Gi
a tri. trung b`nh
`eu f l`a
Gia tri. trung b`nh cua h`am r`o.i ra.c hai chi
M 1 N 1
1 XX
f (x, y) = F (0, 0).
MN x=0 y=0
3.3.7
Bi
en d
oi Laplace
2f
2f
+
.
x2 y 2
De d`ang ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
F (f ) = (2)2 (u2 + v 2)F (u, v).
Phep bien doi Laplace thu.o`.ng du.o..c d`
ung trong k
y thua.t tach bien cua anh.
50
3.3.8
a tu.o.ng quan
Tch ch
a.p v`
1/2
g(x) :=
0
neu 0 x 1,
neu ngu.o..c la.i,
neu 0 x 1,
neu ngu.o..c la.i.
x/2
(f g)(x) = 1 x/2
neu 0 x 1,
neu 1 x 2,
neu ngu.o..c la.i.
- e di.nh ngha tch cha.p r`o.i ra.c cua hai h`am anh f v`a g tu.o.ng u
D
.ng cac mang hai
- e
`eu vo.i kch thu.o.c A B v`a C D ta c
`an mo. ro.ng kch thu.o.c anh len M N. D
chi
tranh hie.n tu.o..ng loi bo.c, ta cho.n M, N sao cho
M A + C 1,
N B + D 1.
(3.8)
f (x, y) neu 0 x A 1, 0 y B 1,
fr (x, y) :=
0
neu A x M 1 hoa.c B y N 1,
v`a mo. ro.ng cua g(x, y) l`a
g(x, y)
gr (x, y) :=
0
neu 0 x C 1, 0 y D 1,
neu C x M 1
hoa.c D y N 1.
M
1 N
1
X
X
gr (x , y )fr (, ),
=0 =0
51
(3.9)
vo.i x = 0, 1, . . . , M 1, y = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
`en t
`an so hie.u qua ho.n
Trong thu..c te, vie.c tnh toan tch cha.p r`o.i ra.c trong mi
khi ap du.ng cong th
u.c (3.9).
- i.nh l
D
y 3.3.3 Gia su. F v`
a G l`
a c
ac bien do
i Fourier cu a f v`
a g. Khi d
o bien do
i
a f g.
Fourier ngu.o..c cu a F G chnh l`
`an ch
Ch
u.ng minh. Gia su. H l`a bien doi Fourier cua f g. Ta c
u.ng minh ra` ng H = F G.
Tha.t va.y
H(u, v) =
=
+
2i(ux+vy)
Z +
Z +
Z +
Z +
f (, )
Z
+ Z +
2i(ux+vy)
Z
Z + Z +
f (, )e2i(u+v)dd
= G(u, v)
1
M
1 N
X
X
gr (x + , y + )fr (, ),
(3.10)
=0 =0
- a.c bie.t, bien doi Fourier cua f f l`a pho cong suat cua f.
D
(ii) Cac phep toan tch cha.p v`a tu.o.ng quan ch khac nhau bo.i mo.t phep quay 1800
(hay phan xa.) cua g(, ). Neu h`am g(, ) doi x
u.ng tu.o.ng u
.ng qua cac tru.c v`a
th` cac phep toan n`ay l`a nhu. nhau. Cac phep toan tch cha.p v`a tu.o.ng quan thu.`o.ng
`oi anh hay doi sanh anh. Chang
du.o..c su. du.ng de nang cao chat lu.o..ng anh v`a phu.c h
.
.
.
.
ha.n, u
ng du.ng cua tu o ng quan trong xu l
y anh l`a doi sanh mau (template/prototype
`e chnh l`a t`m mo.t so sanh cha.t che nhat gi
matching), o. do van d
u.a mo.t anh chu.a
biet f v`a mo.t ta.p cac anh da biet f0 , f1, . . . , fn1 : Tru.o.c het tnh tu.o.ng quan f fi
cua anh f chu.a biet v`a cac anh fi da biet. Anh du.o..c doi sanh tot nhat l`a anh fi vo.i
gia tri. kf fi k lo.n nhat. Nhu. trong tru.`o.ng ho..p cua tch cha.p r`o.i ra.c, su. du.ng bien
doi Fourier nhanh cho phep tnh tu.o.ng quan hie.u qua ho.n.
3.3.9
o
Tnh ch
at cu a ph
`eu tru.`o.ng ho..p pho Fourier cua anh l`a h`am so giam rat nhanh khi cac bien
Trong nhi
`an so tang. V` va.y, ta thu.`o.ng hien thi. h`am
t
D(u, v) := log(1 + kF (u, v)k)
thay cho h`am kF (u, v)k.
Hai thu. nghie.m sau cho ta moi lien he. gi
u.a pho v`a goc pha doi vo.i thong tin
cuanh.
Thu. nghi
e.m 1
Bu.o.c 1. Bien doi Fourier 2D cua anh f (x, y).
Bu.o.c 2. Tnh cac goc pha
(u, v) = tan
I(u, v)
,
R(u, v)
trong do I(u, v), R(u, v) l`a cac gia tri. ao v`a thu..c cua bien doi Fourier cua f.
Bu.o.c 3. Bien doi Fourier ngu.o..c 2D cua d
u. lie.u
cos[(u, v)] + i sin[(u, v)].
53
e.m 2
Thu. nghi
Bu.o.c 1. Bien doi Fourier 2D cua anh f.
Bu.o.c 2. Tnh pho Fourier
kF (u, v)k =
p
I 2(u, v) + R2 (u, v).
u. lie.u
Bu.o.c 3. Bien doi Fourier ngu.o..c 2D cua d
kF (u, v)k + i0.0.
`au het cac tru.`o.ng ho..p, thong tin cua
Hai thu. nghie.m tren ch ra ra` ng, trong h
anh du.o..c ch
u.a trong goc pha; v`a do do vo.i cac b`ai toan nang cao chat lu.o..ng anh,
`an tranh pha huy da.c tru.ng pha.
ch
ung ta c
F (u
M
,v
2
N
)
2
neu
M
2
u<M+
neu ngu.o..c la.i,
M
, N2
2
v<N+
N
,
2
trong do u = 0, 1, . . . , 2M 1, v`a v = 0, 1, . . . , 2N 1.
Bu.o.c 3. Bien doi Fourier ngu.o..c cua G(u, v) ta co anh g du.o..c tang kch thu.o.c gap
doi.
H`nh 3.4-3.5 minh ho.a cac ket qua.
3.4
Bi
en d
oi Fourier nhanh
3.4.1
Thu
a.t to
an FFT
`eu
Tru.o.c het xet phep bien doi Fourier r`o.i ra.c mo.t chi
N 1
1 X
F (u) =
f (x)WNux ,
N x=0
55
(3.11)
1
u
],
= [Feven(u) + Fold(u)W2M
2
trong do
Feven(u) :=
Fold(u)
:=
1
M
1
M
PM 1
Px=0
M 1
x=0
ux
f (2x)WM
,
ux
f (2x + 1)WM
,
(3.12)
u+M
u+M
u
u
= WM
v`a W2M
= W2M
nen
vo.i u = 0, 1, . . . , M 1. Ma.t khac, do WM
F (u + M) =
1
u
[Feven(u) Fold(u)W2M
].
2
Cac dang th
u.c (3.11)-(3.13) ch ra r`a ng phep bien doi N diem
{f (0), f(1), . . . , f (N )}
56
(3.13)
th`anh N diem
{F (0), F (1), . . . , F (N )}
`an nhu. trong (3.11) v`a
co the du.o..c tnh b`a ng cach tach bieu th
u.c goc th`anh hai ph
- e tnh nu.a d`au tien, F (u), u = 0, . . . , N/2 1, ta c
`an hai phep bien doi tren
(3.12). D
N/2 diem nhu. trong (3.12). Sau do cac gia tri. Feven(u) v`a Fold(u) thay v`ao de nha.n
du.o..c F (u) vo.i u = 0, 1, . . . , (N/2 1). Nu.a th
u. hai, F (u), u = N/2, . . . , N, suy tru..c
tiep t`
u. (3.13).
`eu. Nhac la.i l`a
Ke tiep ta xet tru.`o.ng ho..p hai chi
"
#
M 1 N 1
ux
1 X X
2i vy
N
e2i M
f (x, y)e
F (u, v) =
MN x=0 y=0
M 1
ux
1 X
=
G(x, v)e2i M ,
M x=0
(3.14)
trong do
N 1
vy
1 X
f (x, y)e2i N ,
G(x, v) :=
N y=0
(3.15)
vo.i x = 0, 1, . . . , M 1, v`a v = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
Phu.o.ng tr`nh (3.15) co the khai trien nhu. sau
G(0, v) =
N
1
X
vy
f (0, y)e2i N ,
y=0
G(1, v) =
N
1
X
vy
f (1, y)e2i N ,
y=0
..
.
G(M 1, v) =
N
1
X
vy
f (M 1, y)e2i N .
y=0
M
1
X
F (u, 1) =
M
1
X
ux
G(x, 0)e2i M ,
x=0
ux
G(x, 1)e2i M ,
x=0
..
.
F (u, N 1) =
M
1
X
ux
G(x, N 1)e2i M .
x=0
`eu:
Cac phu.o.ng tr`nh tren du.a den thu tu.c FFT hai chi
Bu.o.c 1. Bien doi FFT 1D moi h`ang v`a lu.u tr
u. v`ao mang trung gian.
Bu.o.c 2. Chuyen vi. mang trung gian.
ung l`a
Bu.o.c 3. Bien doi FFT 1D moi h`ang cua mang trung gian. Ket qua cuoi c`
chuyen vi. cua mang FFT 2D.
Ch
ung ta c
ung co the viet la.i (3.14) nhu. sau
"
#
N 1 M 1
vy
ux
1 X X
f (x, y)e2i M e2i N .
F (u, v) =
MN y=0 x=0
- a.t
D
Th`
(3.16)
M 1
1 X
ux
G(u, y) :=
f (x, y)e2i M .
M x=0
N 1
vy
1 X
G(u, y)e2i N .
F (u, v) =
N y=0
- i
`eu:
`eu n`ay du.a den thu tu.c FFT hai chi
D
Bu.o.c 1. Chuyen vi. ta.p tin anh.
Bu.o.c 2. Bien doi FFT 1D moi h`ang cua anh du.o..c chuyen vi. v`a lu.u tr
u. v`ao mang
trung gian.
Bu.o.c 3. Chuyen vi. mang trung gian.
Bu.o.c 4. Bien doi FFT 1D moi h`ang cua mang trung gian. Ket qua l`a FFT 2D.
58
3.4.2
Bi
en d
oi FFT ngu.o..c
Thua.t toan bien doi thua.n co the cai bien de nha.n du.o..c bien doi ngu.o..c. Tha.t va.y,
lay lien ho..p ph
u.c hai ve v`a chia cho N cua
f (x) =
N
1
X
ux
F (u)e2i N
u=0
ta du.o..c
N 1
1
1 X
ux
F (u)e2i N .
f (x) =
N
N u=0
(3.17)
So sanh vo.i
N 1
1 X
ux
F (u) =
f (x)e2i N
N x=0
ta thay ve phai cua (3.17) co da.ng cua phep bien doi Fourier thua.n. Do do su. du.ng
u. lie.u nha.p l`a F (u) de tnh f(x)/N. T`
u. do de d`ang suy ra f (x).
thua.t toan n`ay vo.i d
Tu.o.ng tu.. cho 2D, t`
u. (3.4) de d`ang suy ra
M 1 N 1
vy
ux
1 XX
1
F (u, v)e2i( M + N ) .
f (x, y) =
MN
MN u=0 v=0
Bieu th
u.c ben ve phai co da.ng bien doi Fourier 2D thua.n. Do do nha.p F (u, v) v`a
d`
ung thua.t toan bien doi thua.n ta co M1N f(x, y). T`
u. do suy ra f (x, y). Ch
uy
ra` ng,
`an thiet.
u.c l`a khong c
neu f thu..c th` phep toan lien ho..p ph
Nh
a.n x
et 3.4.1 Thua.t toan FFT 2D du.o..c tr`nh b`ay tren lien quan den b`ai toan
- e giam bo.t th`o.i gian thu..c hie.n trong tien tr`nh n`ay, ch
chuyen vi. ma tra.n. D
ung ta co
.
.
.
the su du.ng phu o ng phap chuyen vi. ma tra.n cua Eklundh (xem [19]).
3.5
C
ac ph
ep bi
en d
oi kh
ac
N
1
X
f (x)g(x, u),
x=0
59
trong do T (u) l`a phep bien doi, g(x, u) l`a ha.t nhan bien doi thua.n v`a gia tri. u thay
doi trong pha.m vi {0, 1, . . . , N 1}. Tu.o.ng tu.., phep bien doi ngu.o..c
f (x) =
N
1
X
T (u)h(x, u),
u=0
trong do h(x, u) l`a ha.t nhan bien doi ngu.o..c v`a gia tri. x thay doi trong pha.m vi
{0, 1, . . . , N 1}. Cac tnh chat cua ha.t nhan bien doi xac di.nh tnh chat cua phep
bien doi.
`eu r`o.i ra.c thua.n v`a ngu.o..c tong quat co da.ng
Ca.p bien doi hai chi
1
N
1 N
X
X
x=0 y=0
N
1 N
1
X
X
f
(x,
y)
:=
T (u, v)h(x, y, u, v),
(3.18)
u=0 v=0
trong do g, h du.o..c go.i l`a cac ha.t nhan bien doi thua.n v`a ngu.o..c. Cac ha.t nhan n`ay
ch phu. thuo.c v`ao x, y, u, v, m`a khong phu. thuo.c v`ao f v`a T.
Ha.t nhan bien doi thua.n l`a tach du.o..c neu ta co the viet
g(x, y, u, v) = g1 (x, u)g2(y, v).
Ha.t nhan bien doi thua.n tach du.o..c go.i l`a doi x
u.ng neu g1 g2 . Tu.o.ng tu.. ta c
ung co
.
.
.
.
.
cac khai nie.m tach du o. c, doi x
u ng cho ha.t nhan bien doi ngu o. c.
Bien doi Fourier 2D l`a tru.`o.ng ho..p da.c bie.t co ha.t nhan bien doi
1 2i( ux + vy )
N
N
g(x, y, u, v) :=
e
NN
u.ng. (Ha.t nhan bien doi Fourier 2D ngu.o..c c
ung tach du.o..c v`a doi
tach du.o..c v`a doi x
x
u.ng).
Phep bien doi vo.i nhan tach du.o..c co the du.o..c tnh thong qua hai bu.o.c, moi
bu.o.c su. du.ng phep bien doi 1D nhu. du.o..c ch ra du.o.i day.
Thu
a.t to
an
- `au tien bien doi 1D do.c theo moi h`ang cua anh f :
Bu.o.c 1. D
N
1
X
f (x, y)g2 (y, v),
T (x, v) :=
y=0
vo.i x = 0, 1, . . . , N 1, v = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
60
Bu.o.c 2. Ke tiep, lay bien doi 1D do.c theo moi co.t cua T (x, v) (da du.o..c tnh theo
Bu.o.c 1):
T (u, v) :=
N
1
X
x=0
vo.i u = 0, 1, . . . , N 1, v = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
Ta c
ung co the xac d.inh T (u, v) b`a ng cach: (1) bien doi moi co.t cua f de nha.n
du.o..c T (y, u); (2) sau do bien doi do.c theo moi h`ang. Tu.o.ng tu.. cho bien doi ngu.o..c
neu h tach du.o..c.
Neu ha.t nhan g tach du.o..c v`a doi x
u.ng, th` (3.18) co the viet la.i du.o.i da.ng ma
tra.n
T = AfA,
(3.19)
trong do f l`a ma tra.n anh N N ; A := (aij ) l`a ma tra.n bien doi doi x
u.ng cap N N,
vo.i aij := g1 (i, j); v`a T l`a ma tra.n ket qua.
- e co bien doi ngu.o..c, nhan tru.o.c v`a sau (3.19) vo.i ma tra.n bien doi ngu.o..c B,
D
ta du.o..c
BT B = BAF AB.
(3.20)
Neu B = A1 , th`
f = BT B
(3.21)
3.5.1
Bi
en d
oi Walsh
Gia su. N = 2n , n N. Bien doi Walsh cua h`am r`o.i ra.c f (x, y) co ha.t nhan bien doi
thua.n ngu.o..c cho bo.i
61
n1
1 Y
N i=0
n1
1 Y
u. k trong bieu dien nhi. phan cua z. Chang ha.n, neu n = 3 v`a
trong do bk (z) l`a bit th
z = 6 = (110)2 th` b0 (z) = 0, b1 (z) = 1, b2 (z) = 1.
Bien doi Walsh thua.n ngu.o..c
N 1 N 1
n1
Y
1 XX
f
(x,
y)
(1)[bi (x)bn1i (u)+bi (y)bn1i (v)] ,
W
(u,
v)
:=
N
x=0 y=0
f (x, y) := N
1
N
1 N
X
X
i=0
W (u, v)
u=0 v=0
n1
Y
i=0
Nha.n xet ra` ng, ha.t nhan bien doi Walsh l`a tach du.o..c v`a doi x
u.ng. Do do
W (u, v) v`a bien doi ngu.o..c cua no co the du.o..c tnh b`a ng thua.t toan tr`nh b`ay tren.
Ho.n n
u.a, bien doi Walsh co the du.o..c tnh ba` ng thua.t toan nhanh nhu. FFT. Cho khac
bie.t duy nhat l`a tat ca cac l
uy th`
u.a WN du.o..c da.t b`a ng 1 trong tru.`o.ng ho..p FWT.
3.5.2
Bi
en d
oi Hadamard
Ha.t nhan bien doi thua.n ngu.o..c cua bien doi Hadamard cho bo.i
Pn1
1
h(x, y, u, v) := 1 (1) n1
i=0 [bi (x)bi (u)+bi (y)bi (v)] % 2 .
N
Ta co ca.p bien doi Hadamard 2D
N 1 N 1
Pn1
1 XX
N x=0 y=0
N 1 N 1
Pn1
1 XX
N u=0 v=0
u.ng.
T`
u. di.nh ngha de d`ang suy ra ha.t nhan bien doi Hadamard tach du.o..c v`a doi x
Nh
a.n x
et 3.5.1 Neu N = 2n th` sau mo.t so hoan vi. h`ang v`a co.t, ta co the chuyen ma
`e ma tra.n bien doi Hadamard. Neu N 6= 2n th` co su.. khac nhau
tra.n bien doi Walsh v
62
gi
u.a hai bien doi n`ay: co the thu..c hie.n bien doi Walsh doi vo.i N N t`
uy y
trong khi
.
.
`au het cac u
do ch co the thu. c hie.n bien doi Hadamard doi vo i N 200. H
.ng du.ng
bien doi trong xu. l
y anh vo.i N = 2n , nen cac bien doi Walsh v`a Hadamard thu.`o.ng
du.o..c ket ho..p vo.i nhau trong xu. l
y, nen go.i chung l`a bien doi Walsh-Hadamard.
3.5.3
o.i ra.c
Bi
en d
oi cosin r`
N
1
X
u=0
u(2x + 1)
,
u c(u) cos
2N
trong do
u :=
x = 0, 1, . . . , N 1,
neu u = 0,
neu ngu.o..c la.i.
Thua.t toan hie.u qua nhat de thu..c hie.n bien doi cosin nhanh (FCT) cua Chan v`a Ho
(xem [17]).
`eu thua.n ngu.o..c xac di.nh bo.i
Ca.p bien doi cosin r`o.i ra.c hai chi
N 1 N 1
4u v X X
v(2y + 1)
u(2x + 1)
cos
,
f (x, y) cos
C(u, v) =
N 2 x=0 y=0
2N
2N
vo.i u = 0, 1, . . . , N 1, v = 0, 1, . . . , N 1, v`a
1
N
1 N
X
X
v(2y + 1)
u(2x + 1)
cos
,
u v C(u, v) cos
f (x, y) =
2N
2N
u=0 v=0
vo.i x = 0, 1, . . . , N 1, y = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
`eu trong
Trong Chu.o.ng 6 ch
ung ta se su. du.ng phep bien doi cosin r`o.i ra.c hai chi
nen anh khong bao to`an thong tin.
3.5.4
Bi
en d
oi Haar
Bien doi Haar t du.o..c su. du.ng trong thu..c te. No du..a tren co. so. cac h`am Haar
- `au tien, vo.i
hk (z), k = 0, 1, . . . , N 1 (N = 2n ), xac d.inh v`a lien tu.c tren doa.n [0, 1]. D
63
Cac h`am Haar d.inh ngha theo quy na.p nhu. sau (vo.i z [0, 1]) :
1
h0(z) = h00(z) := ,
N
v`a vo.i k > 0,
2p/2
1
hk (z) = hpq (z) :=
2p/2
N
neu
neu
q1
z
2p
q1/2
2p
<
q1/2
,
2p
z<
q
,
2p
u. i, i = 0, 1, . . . , N 1, xac
Ma tra.n vuong AN cap N cua bien doi Haar co h`ang th
`an tu. hi (z), z = 0/N, 1/N, . . . , (N 1)/N.
di.nh bo.i cac ph
V du. 3.5.3
1
A2 =
2
!
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
1
.
A4 =
4 2 2
0
0
2 2
0
0
3.5.5
Bi
en d
oi Slant
Ma tra.n bien doi Slant l`a ma tra.n vuong SN cap N (N > 1), du.o..c d.inh ngha de. qui
nhu. sau
!
1
1 1
S2 =
,
2 1 1
S N
0
0
aN
bN
aN
bN
0
I N 2
0
I N 2
2
2
1
SN =
0
1
0
1
0
0
bN
aN
bN
aN
0
I N 2
0
I N 2
2
SN
2
Chang ha.n
1
5
S4 =
4
1
1
5
1
1
5
1
35
15 35
.
1
1
1
3
5
5
3.6
Bi
en d
oi Hotelling
Khac vo.i nh
u.ng phep bien doi tru.o.c, bien doi Hoteling (c`on go.i l`a bien doi Karhunenung trong
Lo`eve) du..a tren cac tnh chat thong ke cua anh. Phep bien doi n`ay thu.`o.ng d`
xu. l
y anh.
Xet vector ngau nhien
x1
x2
x :=
.. .
.
xn
Vector trung b`nh (hay k`
y vo.ng) v`a ma tra.n hie.p bien cua x xac d.inh tu.o.ng u
.ng bo.i
mx := E{x},
Cx := E{(x mx )(x mx )t },
trong do E{.} l`a k`
y vo.ng. Nhac la.i r`a ng, k`
y vo.ng cua mo.t vector hay ma tra.n nha.n
`an tu..
du.o..c b`a ng cach lay k`
y vo.ng cua moi ph
`an tu. cii l`a phu.o.ng
V` x Rn nen ma tra.n Cx := (cij ) co kch thu.o.c n n. Ph
`an tu. xi v`a xj . De d`ang ch
sai cua xi ; v`a cij l`a hie.p bien cua cac ph
u.ng minh r`a ng ma
`an tu. xi v`a xj khong tu.o.ng quan th` hie.p
tra.n Cx l`a thu..c v`a doi x
u.ng. Neu cac ph
bien cua ch
ung ba` ng 0 v`a do do cij = cji = 0.
Vo.i M vector mau x1, x2, . . . , xM , vector trung b`nh v`a ma tra.n hie.p bien du.o..c
xap x bo.i
mx :=
Cx :=
M
1 X
xk ,
M
1
M2
k=1
M
X
xk xtk mx mtx .
k=1
1
x2 = 0 ,
0
66
1
x3 = 1 ,
0
1
x4 = 0 .
1
Ta co
3
1
mx = 1 ,
4
1
3 1
1
1
Cx =
1 3 1 .
16
1 1 3
1 0 . . . 0
0 2 . . . 0
.
Cy =
..
0 0 . . . n
`an tu. ngo`ai du.`o.ng cheo cua ma tra.n Cy ba` ng 0, nen cac ph
`an tu. cua vector
V` cac ph
y khong tu.o.ng quan.
Nh
a.n x
et 3.6.2 (i) Phep bien doi Hotelling dong vai tr`o quan tro.ng trong phan tch
y thua.t de nha.n da.ng doi tu.o..ng
anh. Sau khi doi tu.o..ng du.o..c tach ra khoi anh, cac k
thu.`o.ng co lien quan ma.t thiet den phep quay doi tu.o..ng. V` da.c tnh cua doi tu.o..ng
`an sap doi tu.o..ng theo cac tru.c
thu.`o.ng khong biet tru.o.c khi nha.n da.ng, ch
ung ta c
67
(3.22)
Tuy nhien, neu thay cho vie.c su. du.ng tat ca cac vector rieng cua Cx , ch
ung ta ta.o ma
.
.
.
.
.
tra.n AK cap K n t`
u K vector rieng tu o ng u
ng K gia tri. rieng lo n nhat. Khi do
K
.
.
y R v`a khong the ap du.ng bien doi ngu o. c (3.22). Vector xay du..ng la.i ba` ng cach
su. du.ng AK l`a
= AtK y + mx .
x
l`a
Co the ch
u.ng minh r`a ng sai so b`nh phu.o.ng trung b`nh gi
u.a x v`a x
erms =
=
n
X
j=1
n
X
K
X
j=1
j .
j=K+1
. Ho.n n
Nhu. va.y neu K = n th` x = x
u.a do day cac gia tri. rieng do.n die.u giam nen sai
so erms toi thieu khi cho.n K vector rieng tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i K gia tri. rieng lo.n nhat. Noi
cach khac, bien doi Hotelling l`a toi u.u theo ngha no cu..c tieu hoa sai so b`nh phu.o.ng
.
trung b`nh gi
u.a vector x v`a xap x cua no x
(iii) Phep bien doi Hotelling c`on du.o..c su. du.ng trong nen anh khong bao to`an thong
tin se du.o..c tr`nh b`ay trong Chu.o.ng 6.
68
Chu.o.ng 4
. .
NH
`au ra thch
Nang cao chat lu.o..ng anh (image enhancement) l`a xu. l
y anh de cho anh d
.ng du.ng da.c bie.t. Co hai cach tiep ca.n de
ho..p ho.n so vo.i anh goc nha` m mo.t so u
nang cao chat lu.o..ng anh l`a
`en khong gian, nguyen tac chung l`a su. du.ng cac gia tri. xam cua pixel
Trong mi
`en t
`an so du..a tren phu.o.ng phap bien doi Fourier cua mo.t
trong anh. Xu. l
y trong mi
`eu phu.o.ng phap
anh. K
y thua.t nang cao chat lu.o..ng anh du..a tren co. so. ket ho..p nhi
`en khong gian v`a t
`an so.
cua hai mi
4.1
ang cao ch
at lu.o..ng anh
Co. so. cua n
Cac phu.o.ng phap nang cao chat lu.o..ng anh trong chu.o.ng n`ay du..a tren cac k
y thua.t
.
`en khong gian hoa.c mi
`en t
`an so. Mu.c dch cua ph
`an n`ay cung cap nh
mi
u ng y
tu.o.ng
u.a hai cach tiep ca.n n`ay.
co. ban v`a moi lien he. gi
69
4.1.1
`en kh
ap mi
ong gian
Phu.o.ng ph
`en khong gian tac do.ng tru..c tiep len ta.p cac pixel trong anh. Cac
Cac phu.o.ng phap mi
`en khong gian du.o..c bieu dien bo.i
h`am xu. l
y anh trong mi
g(x, y) := T [f (x, y)],
trong do f (x, y) l`a anh v`ao, g(x, y) l`a anh ra v`a T l`a toan tu. tac do.ng len h`am anh f.
`eu anh v`ao, chang ha.n nhu. co.ng cac gia tri. xam
Toan tu. T co the tac do.ng tren nhi
ung co the tnh hie.u cua hai h`am
cua cac pixel trong ta.p anh v`ao de giam nhieu. Ta c
anh f (x, y) v`a h(x, y)
g(x, y) := f (x, y) h(x, y)
nha.n du.o..c b`a ng cach tnh hie.u gi
u.a tat ca cac ca.p pixel tu.o.ng u
.ng cua f v`a h. Tr`
u.
.ng du.ng quan tro.ng trong phan doa.n anh v`a nang cao chat lu.o..ng anh.
anh co mo.t so u
Cach tiep ca.n chnh du.o..c d`
ung trong lan ca.n (xac d.inh tru.o.c) cua (x, y) l`a su.
du.ng mo.t v`
ung anh con h`nh ch
u. nha.t tam da.t ta.i (x, y). Tam cua anh con n`ay du.o..c
`au t`
di chuyen theo cac pixel (x, y) (kho.i d
u. goc tren ben trai) v`a ap du.ng toan tu. T
len diem (x, y).
Da.ng do.n gian nhat cua T khi lan ca.n co kch thu.o.c 1 1. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p
n`ay, g ch phu. thuo.c v`ao gia tri. cua f ta.i (x, y) v`a T tro. th`anh phep bien doi m
u.c
xam
s = T (r),
trong do k
y hie.u r, s l`a cac gia tri. xam cua f v`a g ta.i vi. tr (x, y). V` nang cao chat
.
.
lu o. ng anh ta.i mo.t diem n`ao do trong anh ch phu. thuo.c v`ao m
u.c xam ta.i diem do,
nen cach tiep ca.n n`ay du.o..c go.i l`a xu. l
y diem.
V du. 4.1.1 (i) T (r) trong H`nh 4.1(a) co tac du.ng ta.o mo.t anh co do. tu.o.ng phan
cao ho.n anh goc b`a ng cach l`am den cac m
u.c < m, v`a l`am sang len cac m
u.c > m trong
anh goc. K
y thua.t n`ay du.o..c go.i l`a dan do. tu.o.ng phan.
(ii) T (r) trong H`nh 4.1(b) co tac du.ng ta.o mo.t anh nhi. phan.
Cac lan ca.n lo.n ho.n c
ung thu.`o.ng du.o..c su. du.ng nang cao chat lu.o..ng anh. Gia
tri. cua g ta.i (x, y) du.o..c xac di.nh thong qua cac gia tri. cua f trong lan ca.n cua (x, y).
Mo.t trong nh
u.ng nguyen tac do du..a tren co. so. cua ma.t na. (mask) (c`on go.i l`a cu.a
70
s = T (r)
L1
s = T (r)
...
.......
...
...
....
..
..
........... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....................................
........
..
...
........
...
..
......
....
.....
....
.
..
...
.
..
.
..
...
.
..
.
.
....
.
...
..
...
..
...
...
...
...
....
..
..
...
...
....
...
..
...
..
...
....
...
..
....
..
..
...
...
....
..
..
....
..
.
..
.
...
...
.....
..
..
....
.
..
.
..
..............
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
.
..
.....
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
..
...
......
...
.....
..
.
.
....
.
.. .........
...
... ......
.
.........................................................................................................................................................................................
(0, 0)
L1
...
.......
...
...
....
..
...
......... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ............................................................................
...
..
...
...
...
..
...
....
..
...
...
..
...
...
...
....
...
.
..
.
..
...
....
...
...
....
..
..
...
...
....
...
.
..
.
..
...
....
...
...
....
.
..
..
.
...
....
..
...
....
..
..
..
.
...
...
...
..
...
....
..
...
..
...
....
..
.
..
.
...
...
....
..
...
....
.
..
.
...
...
....
.
.........................................................................................................................................................................................
(0, 0)
L1
(b)
L1
(b)
1 1 1
W := 1
8 1 .
1 1 1
Thua.t toan nhu. sau: Tam cua ma.t na. (gan nhan 8) du.o..c di chuyen xung quanh anh.
Ta.i moi vi. tr (x, y) trong anh, ta nhan moi gia tri. xam cua pixel du.o..c ch
u.a trong
u.c l`a pixel tam cua ma.t na. du.o..c nhan vo.i 8,
v`
ung ma.t na. vo.i cac he. so cua ma.t na.; t
- ap u
.ng cua ma.t na. ta.i (x, y) b`a ng tong
trong khi 8 pixel lan ca.n du.o..c nhan vo.i 1. D
cac tch n`ay. Neu tat ca cac pixel trong v`
ung co c`
ung gia tri., dap u
.ng ba` ng khong.
.ng se khac khong. Neu diem
Ma.t khac, neu tam cua ma.t na. da.t ta.i diem co la.p, dap u
`an (nhu.ng khac) tam, dap u
co la.p da.t g
.ng c
ung khac khong, nhu.ng gia tri. tuye.t doi
cua dap u
.ng se yeu ho.n. Cac dap u
.ng yeu ho.n n`ay se bi. khu. ba` ng cach so sanh vo.i
ngu.o.ng n`ao do.
Nhu. trong H`nh 4.2, neu w1 , w2, . . . , w9 l`a cac he. so cua ma.t na. v`a khao sat 8lan
ca.n cua (x, y), ta co the tong quat hoa thua.t toan tren nhu. vie.c thu..c hie.n phep toan
71
..
.
z1
z2
z3
w1 w2 w3
z4
z5
z6
w4 w5 w6
z7
z8
..
.
z9
w7 w8 w9
(b)
(a)
H`nh 4.2:
sau:
(4.1)
w7 f (x + 1, y 1) + w8f (x + 1, y) + w9 f (x + 1, y + 1)
tren lan ca.n 3 3 cua (x, y). Cac ma.t na. kch thu.o.c lo.n ho.n du.o..c ap du.ng tu.o.ng tu...
Ch
uy
r`a ng, trong bieu th
u.c (4.1) vie.c thay doi cac he. so cua ma.t na. se thay doi
ch
u.c nang cua ma.t na.. Cac phu.o.ng phap nang cao chat lu.o..ng anh du..a v`ao ma.t na.
`an sau ta se xet cac ma.t na. nha` m
thu.`o.ng go.i l`a xu. l
y ma.t na. hoa.c lo.c. Trong cac ph
`oi anh, phan doa.n anh...
phu.c h
4.1.2
`en t
`an s
ap mi
o
Phu.o.ng ph
`en t
`an so du..a tren di.nh l
Co. so. cua cac phu.o.ng phap xu. l
y tch cha.p.
y anh trong mi
.
.
.
.
.
Xet toan tu bat bien vi. tr, tuyen tnh tu o ng u
ng vo i h`am phan tan diem h (x, y)
`au ra
tac do.ng tren anh f. Khi do anh d
g(x, y) := [(f )](x, y) = h (x, y) f (x, y).
Do do, theo di.nh l
y tch cha.p:
G(u, v) = H(u, v)F (u, v),
trong do G, H, F l`a cac bien doi Fourier cua g, h , f tu.o.ng u
.ng.
`e l`a vo.i h`am anh f da cho, mu.c tieu l`a cho.n H de du.o..c anh mong muon
Van d
g(x, y) = F 1 [H(u, v)F (u, v)].
72
(4.2)
f (x, y)
..............................................................................................................
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
.............................
.
.
.
.
.
............................
...
....
..
...
...
...
...
....
...
...............................................................................................................
F (u, v)
...........................................................................................................
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
.
...
.
.............................
...............................
...
....
...
...
...
.....
.
...
............................................................................................................
h(x, y)
g(x, y)
(a)
H(u, v)
G(u, v)
(b)
H`nh 4.3: Thao tac cua he. thong tuyen tnh. Trong (a) tn hie.u ra l`a tch cha.p cua
h(x, y) vo.i tn hie.u v`ao. Trong (b) tnh hie.u ra l`a tch cua H(u, v) vo.i tn hie.u v`ao.
V du. cac du.`o.ng bien trong anh f (x, y) du.o..c l`am noi ba` ng cach d`
ung h`am H(u, v)
`an co t
`an so cao cua F (u, v).
l`am noi cac th`anh ph
Trong H`nh 4.3(a), h`am h(x, y) da.c tru.ng cho he. thong m`a ch
u.c nang cua no l`a
ta.o ra tn hie.u g(x, y) t`
u. tn hie.u v`ao f (x, y). He. thong thu..c hie.n tch cha.p cua h(x, y)
vo.i anh v`ao f (x, y) v`a xuat ra ket qua. Theo di.nh l
y tch cha.p, co the thu..c hie.n tien
tr`nh n`ay theo cach khac: nhan F (u, v) vo.i H(u, v) de co G(u, v) v`a sau do bien doi
Fourier ngu.o..c.
Gia su. ra` ng h`am h(x, y) chu.a biet v`a ch
ung ta ap du.ng mo.t h`am xung do.n vi.
(t
u.c l`a mo.t diem sang) len he. thong. Bien doi Fourier cua xung do.n vi. ba` ng 1 nen
- ay l`a mo.t ket qua
G(u, v) = H(u, v). Do do bien doi ngu.o..c cua G(u, v) l`a h(x, y). D
da biet trong l
y thuyet he. thong tuyen tnh: Mo.t he. thong tuyen tnh bat bien vi. tr
ho`an to`an du.o..c xac d.inh bo.i dap u
u.c l`a,
.ng xung cua he. thong doi vo.i mo.t xung. T
bien doi Fourier cua h`am xung do.n vi. ap du.ng doi vo.i he. thong tuyen tnh bat bien
vi. tr chnh l`a h`am H(u, v). Ta c
ung co the tac do.ng xung tru..c tiep de co tn hie.u
ra h(x, y). V` l
y do n`ay trong l
y thuyet he. thong tuyen tnh, bien doi ngu.o..c h(x, y)
cua h`am chuyen doi he. thong go.i l`a dap u
.ng xung. Trong quang ho.c, bien doi ngu.o..c
h(x, y) cua h`am bien doi quang ho.c go.i l`a h`am phan tan diem. Vie.c da.t ten du..a tren
anh hu.o.ng quang ho.c o. do xung tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i diem sang v`a he. thong quang ho.c
`an quang
phan u
.ng l`am nho`e (phan tan) diem; m
u.c do. nho`e xac di.nh bo.i cac th`anh ph
ho.c. Do va.y h`am bien doi quang ho.c v`a h`am phan tan diem l`a cac bien doi Fourier
`an 4.3.
cua nhau. Moi quan he. n`ay se du.o..c khao sat trong Ph
`en khong gian tu.o.ng tu.. vie.c su.
Ch
u y
ra` ng, bieu th
u.c (4.2) chnh l`a xu. l
y mi
`an tru.o.c. V` l
du.ng cac ma.t na. xet trong ph
y do n`ay, cac ma.t na. khong gian thu.`o.ng
73
`an ch
go.i l`a ma.t na. tch cha.p. Tuy nhien c
uy
r`a ng, di.nh l
y tch cha.p d`oi hoi H(u, v)
.
.
v`a h(x, y) co c`
ung kch thu o c. Do do, neu, chang ha.n, H(u, v) co kch thu.o.c 512 512
th` phu.o.ng tr`nh (4.2) cho ket qua tu.o.ng du.o.ng ch neu h(x, y) c
ung co kch thu.o.c
`an 3.3, 3.4, tch cha.p r`o.i ra.c vo.i cac mang lo.n
512 512. Nhu. du.o..c ch ra trong cac Ph
`en t
`an so thong qua bien doi phep
du.o..c xu. l
ung phu.o.ng phap mi
y hie.u qua ho.n neu d`
`an 4.5 ch
Fourier nhanh (FFT). Trong Ph
ung ta se ta.o cac ma.t na. tch cha.p khong gian
.
.
.
kch thu o c nho m`a xap x vo i H(u, v) cho tru.o.c theo ngha sai so b`nh phu.o.ng nho
`en khong gian. C
nhat v`a co the du.o..c su. du.ng trong xu. l
y mi
ung ch
uy
r`a ng, loi bo.c
`an ho`an co cac chu
y tch cha.p r`o.i ra.c doi vo.i cac h`am khong tu
se xuat hie.n khi xu. l
k`
y du.o..c cho.n theo (3.8). Trong mo.t anh, loi bo.c l`am bien da.ng cac bien. Tuy nhien,
trong thu..c te cac loi loa.i n`ay co the bo qua tha.m ch khi cac anh khong du.o..c mo. ro.ng
`an 4.5. Chang ha.n, cac ket qua cho trong chu.o.ng n`ay nha.n
kch thu.o.c nhu. trong Ph
`an mo. ro.ng kch thu.o.c.
du.o..c b`a ng cach tnh toan tru..c tiep FFT tren cac anh khong c
`an nhan ma.nh r`a ng khong co l
`e nang cao chat
Cuoi c`
ung c
y thuyet tong quat v
lu.o..ng anh. Khi mo.t anh du.o..c xu. l
y de giai thch ba` ng thi. giac th` ngu.`o.i quan sat l`a
- anh gia chat lu.o..ng cua anh
ngu.`o.i xac di.nh phu.o.ng phap xu. l
y co tot hay khong. D
ba` ng thi. giac l`a rat chu quan, do do rat kho di.nh ngha mo.t anh tot. Qua tr`nh
danh gia se de d`ang ho.n khi b`ai toan xu. l
y anh de may tnh co the hieu du.o..c. Chang
ha.n, trong b`ai toan nha.n da.ng ch
u. viet, phu.o.ng phap xu. l
y anh tot nhat l`a phu.o.ng
phap de cho may cho ket qua nha.n da.ng tot nhat. Tuy nhien, ngay ca khi da co mo.t
tieu chuan ro r`ang du.o..c ap du.ng tren b`ai toan, ngu.`o.i phan tch van phai doi die.n vo.i
ung sai tru.o.c khi co the su. du.ng mo.t cach tiep ca.n xu. l
y anh
mo.t so thu. nghie.m d
n`ao do.
4.2
ap xu. l
yd
i
em
Phu.o.ng ph
4.2.1
o.ng d
o. s
ang
M
o.t s
o ph
ep bi
en d
oi cu.`
nh
A
am ban
Cac anh am ban h
u.u ch trong mo.t so u
.ng du.ng, chang ha.n nhu. y ho.c. Anh am ban
du.o..c thu..c hie.n ba` ng phep bien doi (xem H`nh 4.4)
s := T (r) = (L 1) r,
`au ra giam, trong khi cu.`o.ng do.
trong do L l`a so m
u.c xam. Cu.`o.ng do. sang cua anh d
`au v`ao tang.
sang cua anh d
s = T (r)
L1
...
........
....
...
...
....
......... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... .....
.
.......
... .....
...
..
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..
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...
....
..
....
.
.... .
...
... ..
....
.... ...
...
......................................................................................................................................................................................
(0, 0)
L1
D
an d
o. tu.o.ng phan
Anh co do. tu.o.ng phan thap do chieu sang yeu, thieu pha.m vi do.ng trong bo. cam
bien (imaging sensor), hoa.c de do. mo. ong knh may chu.p anh sai. Mu.c dch cua dan
do. tu.o.ng phan l`a tang pha.m vi do.ng cua cac m
u.c xam trong anh du.o..c xu. l
y. H`nh
4.5 minh ho.a mo.t phep bien doi du.o..c su. du.ng nha` m dan do. tu.o.ng phan, trong do
`eu khien cua phep bien doi tuyen tnh t`
u.ng kh
uc T.
(r1 , s1) v`a (r2 , s2) l`a hai diem di
Vo.i r1 = r2, s1 = 0, s2 = L 1, ta co h`am ngu.o.ng ta.o ra mo.t anh nhi. phan. Cac gia
tri. trung gian cua (r1 , s1) v`a (r2, s2 ) ta.o ra cac m
u.c do. phan tan trong gia tri. xam
khac nhau cua anh ra, do do anh hu.o.ng den do. tu.o.ng phan cua anh. Noi chung, ta
- i
`eu
thu.`o.ng gia thiet r1 r2 v`a s1 s2 de h`am bien doi do.n tri. v`a do.n die.u tang. D
kie.n n`ay bao to`an th
u. tu.. cua cac m
u.c xam v`a do do ngan ng`
u.a nh
u.ng gia tri. sai ta.o
ra trong xu. l
y anh.
75
s = T (r)
L1
...
.......
....
..
....
..
...
.......... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ..........
....
..
........ ...
...
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..
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.....
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.
2 2 .....
..
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.
.
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..
..
.
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.
..
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.....
.
.
.
.
1
1
.
.
....
..
...
.. ..............
.
.............................................................................................................................................................................................
(r , s )
(r , s )
(0, 0)
L1
N
en dai d
o.ng
- oi khi dai do.ng cua anh vu.o..t qua kha nang cua thiet bi. hien thi., trong do ch co
D
- i
`an sang nhat cua anh l`a kha kien tren m`an h`nh. D
`eu n`ay c
ph
ung thu.`o.ng xay ra khi
ta lay anh tren film. Mo.t phu.o.ng phap hie.u qua de nen dai do.ng cua cac gia tri. pixel
l`a thu..c hie.n phep bien doi
s := c ln(1 + |r|),
trong do c l`a ha` ng so n`ao do. Neu r [0, R], s [0, L 1] ta cho.n c :=
4.6 minh ho.a h`nh da.ng cua phep bien doi n`ay.
L1
.
ln(1+R)
H`nh
H`nh 4.7 l`a anh goc v`a anh sau khi dan do. tu.o.ng phan su. du.ng h`am logarithm
L`
am mong m
u.c x
am
`an quan tam cac m
Tang do. sang cho mo.t dai c
u.c xam trong anh l`a vie.c thu.`o.ng xay
`om nhom cac nu.o.c trong mo.t anh cua ve. tinh hoa.c l`am noi
ra. Cac u
.ng du.ng bao g
76
s = T (r)
L1
1
0
...
......
....
..
....
..
...
.......... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... .........................................................
.............
...
..
.....................
.
...
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...
...
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
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.
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
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.
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.
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......
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
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..
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.
.
.
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..
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.....
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.
..
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.
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.
.
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..
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.
..
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.
.
... ....
...
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.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
R
H`nh 4.6: H`am bien doi logarithm.
`eu cach de thu..c hie.n l`am mong m
u.c xam, tuy
du.`o.ng bien trong anh x-quang. Co nhi
`au het l`a cai bien cua hai phu.o.ng phap sau.
nhien h
u.c xam trong pha.m vi quan tam v`a mo.t
(i) Hien thi. mo.t gia tri. cao cho tat ca cac m
u.c xam khac. Phep bien doi n`ay ta.o mo.t anh nhi. phan
gia tri. thap cho tat ca cac m
(xem H`nh 4.8(a)). V du.
T (r) :=
neu
neu
r [A, B]
(A < B).
r
neu r [0, A) (B, L 1],
T (r) :=
neu r [A, B]
(A < B).
a.c tru.ng
Thay v` l`am mong cac m
u.c xam ta l`am sang len cho to`an anh ba` ng cac bit da.c tru.ng.
Gia su. moi pixel trong anh chiem B (chang ha.n, ba` ng 8) bit. Moi pixel tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i
B bit tren B ma.t phang 1 bit du.o..c danh so t`
u. 0 (ma.t phang t y
ngha nhat, k
y hie.u
LSB) den ma.t phang B 1 (ma.t phang co y
ngha nhat, k
y hie.u MSB). Cac bit ba.c
.
.
.
`eu thong tin (nh`n thay du o. c). Cac ma.t phang bit khac tham gia nhi
`eu
cao ch
u a nhi
.
.
.
.
u ng chi tiet anh. Gia su ta muon lay ra bit quan tam th
o nh
u n v`a hien thi. no. Xet
77
H`nh 4.7: Anh goc v`a anh sau khi dan do. tu.o.ng phan su. du.ng h`am logarithm.
bieu dien nhi. phan
r = k1 2B1 + k2 2B2 + + kn 2Bn + + kB12 + kB ,
vo.i k1 = 0 hoa.c 1. Ta muon xuat ra
L
s=
0
neu kn = 1,
neu ngu.o..c la.i.
De d`ang ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
kn = in 2in1 ,
`an nguyen cua
trong do in l`a ph
4.2.2
r
.
2Bn
`o c
ap bi
eu d
o.t
Phu.o.ng ph
s = T (r)
L1
(0, 0)
s = T (r)
...
.......
...
...
...
..
......... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ...
..
...
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.
...............................................................
..................................................
.
..
...
...
..
..
...........................................................................................................................................................................................
L1
...
.......
...
...
....
...
......... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... .......
...
... .
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... ....
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..
.............................................................................................................................................................................................
(0, 0)
L1
L1
(a)
(b)
`
C
an b
a ng bi
eu d
`
o c
o.t
Gia su. gia tri. xam r l`a da.i lu.o..ng lien tu.c du.o..c chuan hoa trong doa.n [0, 1], vo.i r = 0
bieu dien m`au den v`a r = 1 bieu dien m`au trang.
Xet phep bien doi s := T (r), trong do T thoa man:
(1) T l`a h`am do.n tri., do.n die.u tang trong doa.n [0, 1]; v`a
(2) T ([0, 1]) [0, 1].
- i
`eu kie.n (1) ch ra th
u. tu.. t`
D
u. den den trang trong thang do. xam du.o..c bao to`an; c`on
`eu kie.n (2) bao dam anh xa. T na` m trong pha.m vi cho phep cua cac gia tri. pixel.
di
`eu kie.n n`ay.
u.ng di
H`nh 4.14 minh ho.a mo.t h`am bien doi thoa man nh
79
H`nh 4.9:
Ch
ung ta c
ung gia thiet phep bien doi ngu.o..c
r = T 1(s)
`eu kie.n (1) v`a (2).
vo.i s [0, 1] thoa man cac di
Cac m
u.c xam trong anh f co the xem nhu. cac da.i lu.o..ng ngau nhien trong doa.n
[0, 1]. Neu ch
ung l`a cac bien ngau nhien lien tu.c, th` cac m
u.c xam cua anh goc v`a
anh du.o..c bien doi co the du.o..c da.c tru.ng bo.i cac h`am ma.t do. xac suat pr (r) v`a ps (s)
.ng. (Cac ch so du.o.i r v`a s ch ra r`a ng day l`a cac h`am khac nhau).
tu.o.ng u
Theo l
y thuyet xac suat, neu pr (r) v`a T (r) l`a cac h`am da biet sao cho h`am ngu.o..c
`eu kie.n (1), th` h`am ma.t do. xac suat cua cac m
T 1 (s) thoa di
u.c xam du.o..c bien doi
l`a
dr
ps (s) = pr (r)
.
ds
80
pr (w)dw,
r [0, 1].
(4.3)
1
ps (s) = pr (r)
pr (r)
r=T 1 (s)
= [1]r=T 1 (s)
=1
vo.i mo.i s [0, 1]. Noi cach khac h`am ma.t do. xac suat cua cac gia tri. xam cua anh
bien doi co ma.t do. d`eu trong doa.n [0, 1]. Ch
uy
ra` ng, ket qua n`ay khong phu. thuo.c
- i
`eu n`ay l`a quan tro.ng v` vie.c t`m T 1 (s) khong phai de
v`ao h`am bien doi ngu.o..c. D
d`ang. Ket qua n`ay ch ra cach tang dai do.ng cua cac pixel.
81
(2w + 2)dw
= r2 + 2r.
`an T (r) de can b`a ng bieu d
`o co.t, nhu.ng du.o.i day ta se ch
u.ng
Ma.c d`
u ch
ung ta ch c
to ra` ng h`am ma.t do. xac suat ps (s) l`a d`eu. Tha.t va.y, giai r theo s ta co
r = T 1(s) = 1 1 s.
Do r [0, 1], nen ta ch nha.n nghie.m
r = T 1(s) = 1
Khi do
1 s.
dr
ps (s) = pr (r)
ds r=T 1 (s)
dr
= (2r + 2)
ds r=11s
d
= (2 1 s) (1 1 s)
ds
= 1,
82
- e co the l`am vie.c tren cac anh so, ta chuyen cac khai nie.m tren o. da.ng r`o.i ra.c.
D
u.c xam), da.t
Vo.i moi gia tri. xam r`o.i ra.c, k = 0, 1, . . . , L 1, (L l`a so cac m
pr (rk ) :=
nk
,
n
0 rk 1,
k
X
pr (rj )
j=0
k
X
nj
j=0
0 rj 1,
j = 0, . . . , L 1.
0 sk 1,
83
sk = T (rk )
(0, 0)
..
........
...
....
..
....
..
.......... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ......
.
..
..
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..
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.
.
..
.
..
..
...
.
.
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..
..
.. ....
...
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.
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..
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.........................................................................................................................................................................................
rk
Thu
a.t to
an
1. Xet anh f (x, y) kch thu.o.c M N co L m
u.c xam. Kho.i ta.o mo.t mang H do.
d`ai L co cac gia tri. ba` ng 0;
`o co.t: Vo.i mo.i pixel (x, y) trong anh co gia tri. r, thu..c hie.n
2. Ta.o bieu d
H[r] = H[r] + 1.
84
s = T (r)
pr (r)
...
........
..
...
...
....
..
...
....
..
....
..
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......
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... ..
... ....
..
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..
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..
..
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..
..
..
..
...
...
....
..
..
.
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................
1.0
...
......
....
...
...
...
....
..
.........
...
...........
....
.........
..
.......
......
.
.
...
.
.
.
.....
...
....
...
....
...
....
....
.
....
.
..
..
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.
..
.
.
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..
....
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.
.
....
..
..
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.
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.
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.. ...
... ...
.
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................
(a)
(b)
ps (s)
1.0
0.5
.
........
...
...
....
..
...
....
...................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
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.............................................................................................................................................................................................................
0.0
0.5
1.0
(c)
H`nh 4.15: Minh ho.a phu.o.ng phap bien doi h`am ma.t do. d`eu: (a) H`am ma.t do. xac
suat ban d`au; (b) H`am bien doi; (c) ket qua cua phep bien doi l`a h`am co ma.t do. d`eu.
85
r = 1, 2, . . . , L 1.
L1
Hc [r] .
MN
u.c
5. Duye.t to`an bo. anh f (x, y) v`a xay du..ng anh ra g(x, y) theo cong th
g(x, y) = T [f (x, y)].
V du. 4.2.2 Hnh 4.16 l`a anh goc f v`a bieu d`o co.t cua no. Hnh 4.17 l`a anh (v`a bieu
d`o co.t cua no) sau khi can b`a ng.
nh c
A
o bi
eu d
`
o c
o.t cho tru.
o.c
`o co.t l`a h
.ng du.ng du.o..c trong k
y
Ma.c d`
u can b`a ng bieu d
u.u ch nhu.ng no khong u
`o
thua.t nang cao chat lu.o..ng anh. L
y do v` phu.o.ng phap n`ay ch cho anh co bieu d
- oi l
`eu. D
`an l`am sang len (hay toi di) mo.t pha.m vi gia tri. xam trong anh.
co.t d
uc ta c
`an bien doi anh v`ao f (x, y) sao cho anh ra g(x, y) co bieu d
`o co.t cho
Noi cach khac, c
.
.
tru o c.
86
`o co.t cua no sau khi nang cao chat lu.o..ng ang ba` ng phu.o.ng
H`nh 4.17: Anh v`a bieu d
`o co.t.
phap can b`a ng bieu d
Gia su. pr (r) v`a pz (z) l`a cac h`am ma.t do. xac suat cac gia tri. xam cua anh goc v`a
- `au tien ta can b`a ng bieu d
`o co.t cua anh goc theo (4.3):
anh sau khi bien doi. D
s := T (r) =
pr (w)dw.
0
pz (w)dw.
0
pz (w)dw =
0
pr (w)dw,
(4.4)
r
X
ni
,
T (r) :=
G(z) :=
i=0
z
X
i=0
r = 0, . . . , L 1;
(4.5)
mi
,
n
z = 0, . . . , L 1.
(4.6)
Thu
a.t to
an.
Bu.o.c 1. T`m h`am phan bo tch l
uy T (r) theo (4.5).
u.c xam trong anh
u. h`am ma.t do. pz (z) cua cac m
Bu.o.c 2. T`m h`am phan bo G(z) t`
sau khi bien doi.
Bu.o.c 3. Vo.i moi gia tri. xam r = 0, 1, . . . , L 1, t`m z := z(r) {0, 1, . . . , L 1}
thoa man (4.6).
u.c
Bu.o.c 4. Bien doi anh goc theo cong th
g(x, y) := z[f (x, y)].
u. s sang z thu.`o.ng khong do.n tri.. Cach do.n
Nh
a.n x
et 4.2.3 (i) Bien doi ngu.o..c t`
`o co.t da cho g
`an nhat
gian nhat l`a gan cac m
u.c sao cho ket qua doi sanh vo.i bieu d
co the.
(ii) Kho khan chnh khi ap du.ng phu.o.ng phap bien doi anh tren co. so. bieu d`o co.t cho
tru.o.c l`a xay du..ng mo.t bieu d`o co.t co y
ngha. Hai cach tiep ca.n cho b`ai toan n`ay nhu.
`o ho.a de thiet ke bieu d
`o co.t. Phu.o.ng phap th
sau. Th
u. nhat, su. du.ng tu.o.ng tac d
u.
hai du..a tren h`am ma.t do. xac suat nhu. du.o.i day, sau do ta.o bieu d`o co.t b`a ng cach so
hoa h`am ma.t do..
H`am phan bo Gauss xac d.inh bo.i
h(z) := e
88
(z)2
2 2
trong do l`a gia tri. trung b`nh (hay tam) cua phan bo v`a l`a phu.o.ng sai chuan. Ch
u
.
uc
y
r`a ng h(z) giam khoang 90% cac dnh cua no ta.i cac m
|z | = /1.073.
Do do, bieu dien do. phan tan cua h`am phan bo.
Tuyen tnh t`
u.ng kh
uc. Mo.t cach khac l`a cho.n cac doa.n thang de bieu dien h`am phan
bo. Cac tham so K , H , m v`a h co the thay doi den khi nha.n du.o..c ket qua theo yeu
`au. H`am n`ay co the xay du..ng nhu. sau:
c
Bu.o.c 1. Tnh
yj :=
1+
1
m
1
,
tan(K )
xj := yj tan(K ).
Bu.o.c 2. Vo.i 0 z < xj
pz (z) :=
z
;
tan(K )
h yj
(z xj ) + yj .
m xj
Bu.o.c 3. Tnh
yk :=
1+
tan(H )
L1m
xk := L 1 yk tan(H ).
Bu.o.c 4. Vo.i m z xk
pz (z) :=
yk h
(z xk ) + yk ,
xk m
yk
(L 1 z).
L 1 xk
Mo.t phu.o.ng phap khac su. du.ng hai doa.n thang. Vo.i 0 z < m,
pz (z) :=
h R
z + R ,
m
v`a vo.i m z L 1
pz (z) :=
R h
(z L + 1) + R .
L1m
89
z zmin.
0
Rayleigh,
pz (z) :=
)2
z zmin (zzmin
22
e
,
2
z zmin.
1
Rr
1 0 pr (w)dw
1
2
1 z 2/3
.
1/3
1/3
3 zmax
zmin
Hyperborlic (logarithmic)
pz (z) =
1
.
z[ln(zmax) ln(zmin)]
rmax
rmin
R0r pr (w)dw
yd
i.a phu.o.ng
Xu. l
Cac phu.o.ng phap tren l`a nh
u.ng thao tac to`an cu.c tren anh. Trong thu..c te, ta thu.`o.ng
u.ng v`
ung nho.
l`am ro cac chi tiet anh tren nh
K
y thua.t xu. l
y bieu d`o co.t tren de d`ang ap du.ng doi vo.i xu. l
y d.ia phu.o.ng.
Thua.t toan xac di.nh lan ca.n kch thu.o.c n m v`a di chuyen tam cua v`
ung t`
u. pixel
90
M
,
(x, y)
0 < k < 1.
Gia tri. trung b`nh m(x, y) v`a phu.o.ng sai (x, y) du.o..c xac di.nh trong lan ca.n (x, y);
M l`a gia tri. trung b`nh to`an cu.c cua f, v`a k l`a ha` ng so cho tru.o.c.
- a.i
Ch
u y
ra` ng, cac da.i lu.o..ng A, m, thay doi phu. thuo.c v`ao lan ca.n (x, y). D
lu.o..ng A(x, y) co tac du.ng khuech da.i su.. khac nhau gi
u.a f v`a gia tri. trung b`nh m.
u.ng v`
ung co do. tu.o.ng phan thap se du.o..c
V` A(x, y) t le. nghi.ch vo.i phu.o.ng sai, nh
`oi m
cai thie.n. Gia tri. trung b`nh du.o..c co.ng tro. la.i de phu.c h
u.c sang trung b`nh cua
`an cua trung
ung du.o..c xet). Trong thu..c te ta thu.`o.ng co.ng tro. la.i mo.t ph
anh (trong v`
b`nh di.a phu.o.ng v`a ha.n che su.. thay doi cua A(x, y) trong khoang (Amin , Amax) de can
u.ng v`
ung co la.p.
ba` ng do. le.ch lo.n cua cu.`o.ng do. sang trong nh
4.2.3
Tr`
u. a nh
Hie.u gi
u.a hai anh f (x, y) v`a h(x, y) d.inh ngha bo.i
g(x, y) = f (x, y) h(x, y)
91
4.2.4
Trung b`nh a nh
M
1 X
gi (x, y)
M i=1
th` k`
y vo.ng
E{
g (x, y)} = f (x, y)
v`a
1 2
,
M (x,y)
2
l`a cac phu.o.ng sai cua g v`a ta.i
trong do E{
g (x, y)} l`a k`
y vo.ng cua g; g2(x,y) , (x,y)
mo.i diem (x, y). Phu.o.ng sai chuan ta.i mo.t diem bat k`
y trong anh l`a
g2(x,y) =
1
g2(x,y) = (x,y).
M
92
Phu.o.ng tr`nh tren ch ra r`a ng, khi M tang, tnh bien thien cua cac gia tri. pixel
g (x, y)} = f (x, y), nen g(x, y) ho.i tu. den f (x, y) khi
ta.i moi vi. tr (x, y) giam. V` E{
so cac anh bi. nhieu (cua anh f ) d`
ung trong qua tr`nh trung b`nh co.ng tang.
4.3
4.3.1
`en kh
ap mi
ong gian
Phu.o.ng ph
Co. so.
H`nh 4.18:
K
y hie.u cac m
u.c xam cua cac pixel du.o.i ma.t na. ta.i vi. tr z1, z2, . . . , z9. Khi do dap
u
.ng cua ma.t na. tuyen tnh l`a
R := w1 z1 + w2 z2 + + w9 z9.
Neu tam cua ma.t na. da.t ta.i vi. tr (x, y) cua anh th` gia tri. xam cua pixel ta.i
(x, y) du.o..c thay b`a ng R. Sau do ma.t na. di chuyen den pixel ke tiep v`a tien tr`nh
u.ng
du.o..c la.p la.i. Thu tu.c tiep tu.c cho den khi tat ca cac pixel da du.o..c duye.t. Vo.i nh
`an co nh
`an ta.o anh mo.i
pixel n`a m tren bien cua anh, c
u.ng xu. l
y da.c bie.t. Ch
uy
l`a c
lu.u tr
u. cac gia tri. R thay cho vie.c thay doi cac gia tri. pixel (ta.i sao?).
Cac lo.c khong gian phi tuyen c
ung thao tac tren cac lan ca.n. Tuy nhien, cac
phu.o.ng phap n`ay du..a tru..c tiep v`ao cac pixel lan ca.n m`a khong su. du.ng cac he. so ma.t
`an ke tiep, ch
na.. Trong ph
ung ta co the giam nhieu ba` ng cach su. du.ng cac lo.c phi
`om lo.c max (vo.i dap
tuyen tnh gia tri. trung gian trong lan ca.n. Cac v du. khac bao g
u
.ng R := max{zk |k = 1, 2, . . . , 9}) du.o..c su. du.ng de t`m cac diem sang nhat trong
94
anh, v`a lo.c min du.o..c su. du.ng vo.i mu.c dch ngu.o..c la.i.
4.3.2
Lo.c tro.n
Cac phu.o.ng phap l`am tro.n anh (smoothing operations) du.o..c su. du.ng nh`a m giam bo.t
`en
ung trong cac bu.o.c ti
cac anh hu.o.ng sai co the co trong cac anh so. L`am tro.n anh d`
xu. l
y nhu. l`a loa.i bo cac chi tiet nho. Qua tr`nh giam nhieu co the thu..c hie.n vo.i mo.t
lo.c tuyen tnh hay phi tuyen.
Lo.c th
ong th
ap
Anh du.o..c l`am tro.n g(x, y) nha.n du.o..c ta.i moi vi. tr (x, y) b`a ng cach lay trung b`nh
cua tong cac gia tri. xam cua f trong lan ca.n cho tru.o.c cua (x, y). Noi cach khac,
X
1
g(x, y) :=
f (n, m),
S
(n,m)N (x,y)
1 1 1
1
1 1 1 .
9
1 1 1
.
Ngo`ai ra, ta co the tnh dap u
ng cua anh vo.i cac ma.t na. sau de l`am tro.n anh
1 1 1
1 2 1
1
1
1 2 1 ,
2 4 2 .
10
16
1 1 1
1 2 1
Cac ma.t na. n`ay, go.i l`a cac ma.t na. l`am sa.ch nhieu, co tat ca cac he. so du.o.ng v`a du.o..c
`au ra co gia tri. xam na` m trong doa.n
chuan hoa (tong cac he. so ba` ng 1) do do anh d
[0, L 1].
Vo.i lan ca.n cho tru.o.c, de giam nho`e do ap du.ng cac ma.t na. tren, ta co the su.
u.c l`a
du.ng ngu.o.ng; t
g(x, y) :=
1 P
S
f (x, y)
95
=: T
V du. 4.3.1 H`nh 4.19 l`a anh goc v`a anh khi them nhieu. H`nh 4.20 l`a cac ket qua
khi su. du.ng lo.c trung vi. kch thu.o.c 3 3 v`a 5 5.
96
`an tram.
H`nh 4.19: Anh goc v`a anh khi them nhieu 10 ph
H`nh 4.20: Cac ket qua khi su. du.ng lo.c trung vi. kch thu.o.c 3 3 v`a 5 5.
97
4.3.3
L`
am n
et a nh
Mu.c dch chnh cua lo.c net l`a l`am sac net cac chi tiet noi ba.t trong anh hoa.c l`am noi
chi tiet bi. nho`e. L`am net anh du.o..c d`
ung trong nh
u.ng u
.ng du.ng nhu. in an die.n tu., y
ho.c, may kiem tra san pham trong cong nghie.p, phat hie.n mu.c tieu quan su...
ong cao kh
ong gian
Co. so. cua lo.c th
H`nh da.ng cua dap u
.ng xung du.o..c su. du.ng trong lo.c thong cao (l`am net anh) khong
`an co cac he. so g
`an tam du.o.ng v`a cac he. so ngoa.i vi am
gian ch ra ra` ng lo.c n`ay c
(H`nh 4.18(b)). Vo.i ma.t na. 3 3 ta co the su. du.ng he. so du.o.ng o. tam, c`on cac he. so
khac am.
Chang ha.n xet ma.t na. Laplace l`am net anh:
1 1 1
1
1 8 1 .
9
1 1 1
Ch
uy
r`a ng tong cac he. so ba` ng 0. Do do khi ma.t na. di chuyen tren v`
ung co m
u.c xam
ha` ng hay thay doi cha.m, th` gia tri. xuat ra se ba` ng khong hoa.c rat nho. Ket qua n`ay
`en t
`an so trong H`nh 4.18. Ho.n n
ph`
u ho..p vo.i lo.c tu.o.ng u
.ng mi
u.a lo.c n`ay loa.i bo cac
`an co t
`an so thap, do do du.a den gia tri. trung b`nh cua cac m
`e
u.c xam tien v
th`anh ph
khong v`a v` va.y giam do. tu.o.ng phan tong the trong anh.
`e khong khien cho anh co mo.t v`ai gia tri. xam am.
Vie.c gia tri. trung b`nh giam v
`an du.o..c co
V` ch
ung ta ch xet cac m
u.c xam du.o.ng, nen ket qua cua lo.c thong cao c
gian hoa.c cat bo de ket qua cuoi c`
ung thuo.c khoang [0, L 1]. Ch
u y
ra` ng vie.c lay
gia tri. tuye.t doi cua anh du.o..c lo.c thong cao khong phai l`a giai phap tot v` cac gia tri.
co m
u.c xam am lo.n se xuat hie.n sang len trong anh.
V du. 4.3.2 H`nh 4.21 l`a anh goc v`a anh khi ap du.ng ma.t na. Laplace. H`nh 4.22 l`a
`an so cua anh Laplace.
anh goc co.ng them anh Laplace v`a t
`an s
Lo.c c
o khu
ech d
a.i t
o cao
Mo.t anh lo.c thong cao khong gian co the xem nhu. l`a hie.u gi
u.a anh goc v`a anh qua
lo.c thong thap, t
u.c l`a
g(x, y) := f (x, y) fsm (x, y),
98
H`nh 4.21: Anh goc v`a anh khi ap du.ng ma.t na. Laplace.
99
trong do fsm (x, y) l`a anh du.o..c l`am tro.n cua f (x, y) qua lo.c thong thap.
De d`ang kiem tra anh ra g(x, y) nha.n du.o..c ba` ng cach tnh dap u
.ng cua anh
f (x, y) vo.i ma.t na. Laplace tren. Ba` ng cach nhan anh goc vo.i he. so khuech da.i A, ta
`an so cao:
co cai bien l`a lo.c co khuech da.i t
g(x, y) := Af(x, y) lo.c thong thap
= (A 1)f (x, y) + lo.c thong cao.
Noi cach khac, anh g(x, y) nha.n du.o..c t`
u. f (x, y) b`a ng cach tnh dap u
.ng ta.i mo.i diem
vo.i ma.t na.
1 1 1
1
1 w 1 ,
9
1 1 1
trong do w = 9A 1. Vo.i A = 1 ta co ket qua lo.c thong cao tieu chuan. Vo.i A > 1
`oi cac
`an cua anh goc du.o..c co.ng them ket qua cua lo.c thong cao m`a phu.c h
ta co ph
`an lo.c thong thap bi. mat trong phep toan lo.c thong cao. Ket qua cuoi c`
th`anh ph
ung
`an vo.i anh goc, vo.i cap do. l`am noi du.`o.ng bien tu.o.ng doi t`
ta co mo.t anh g
uy theo he.
.
.
u anh goc go.i l`a ma.t na. khong
so khuech da.i A. Noi chung vie.c tr`
u mo.t anh bi. nho`e t`
- ay l`a mo.t trong nh
u.ng phu.o.ng phap co. ban du.o..c su. du.ng trong cong nghe. in
net. D
an v`a xuat ban.
Tu.o.ng tu.. nhu. lo.c thong thap, trong lo.c thong cao ta co the su. du.ng cac ma.t na.
vo.i kch thu.o.c lo.n ho.n. Chang ha.n, ma.t na. 7 7 co gia tri. ta.i tam b`a ng 48, c`on cac
gia tri. khac b`a ng 1 v`a cac he. so du.o..c chuan hoa vo.i he. so ba` ng 1/49. Tuy nhien,
trong thu..c te cac ma.t na. kch thu.o.c lo.n ho.n 3 3 hiem khi su. du.ng.
Lo.c vi ph
an
ung l`am nho`e cac chi tiet anh. Neu xem
Trung b`nh co.ng cac m
u.c xam tren mo.t v`
trung b`nh co.ng nhu. lay tch phan, th` ta co the xem lay vi phan nh`a m co hie.u u
.ng
ngu.o..c la.i v`a do do l`am sac net anh.
Thong thu.`o.ng ta l`am vie.c do du..a tren cac toan tu. gradient. Gia su. f kha vi,
khi do toan tu. gradient cua h`am anh f l`a
f (x, y) := (fx (x, y), fy (x, y))t ,
trong do fx , fy l`a cac da.o h`am rieng cua f theo cac bien x v`a y tu.o.ng u
.ng.
100
Hai tnh chat quan tro.ng cua toan tu. gradient l`a (1) di theo hu.o.ng vector f (x, y)
gia tri. h`am mu.c tieu f (x, y) tang nhanh nhat; v`a (2) bien do. cua vector f (x, y) xac
di.nh bo.i
q
kf k := [fx(x, y)]2 + [fy (x, y)]2
l`a toc do. tang cu..c da.i cua f (x, y) tren do.n vi. khoang cach theo hu.o.ng f (x, y).
Trong thu..c te, ta thu.`o.ng su. du.ng cong th
u.c xap x sau de tnh toan hie.u qua
ho.n:
kf k ' |fx(x, y)| + |fy (x, y)|.
- oi vo.i cac anh so, bieu th
D
u.c tren du.o..c xap x bo.i cac hie.u. Xet mo.t v`
ung cua
anh
z1 z2 z3
z4 z5 z6 ,
z7 z8 z9
trong do zi , i = 1, . . . , 9, l`a cac gia tri. xam. Ta co the xap x bien do. gradient cua anh
ta.i z5 nhu. sau:
p
kf k
= (z5 z8)2 + (z5 z6)2
1 0 1
1 0 1 ,
1 0 1
1 1 1
0
0 ,
0
1
1
1
1 2 1
0
0 ,
0
1
2
1
1 0 1
2 0 2 .
1 0 1
Nha.n xet ra` ng, trong cac xap x tren, gia tri. bien do. cua gradient t le. vo.i hie.u
`e nhau. Do do, gia tri. kf k tu.o.ng doi lo.n ta.i cac lan
u.a cac pixel k
cac m
u.c xam gi
`an nhat, b`a ng khong tren v`
ca.n du.`o.ng bien anh, v`a nho tren v`
ung thu
ung co m
u.c xam
ha` ng.
Co mo.t so thua.t toan ta.o anh gradient g(x, y) nhu. sau. Cach do.n gian nhat l`a
u.c l`a
da. t gia tri. cua g ta.i (x, y) b`a ng gia tri. kf k cua f ta.i diem n`ay, t
g(x, y) := kf (x, y)k.
g(x, y) :=
kf (x, y)k
f (x, y)
g(x, y) :=
f (x, y)
- oi khi ch
- i
`an quan tam su.. thay doi cac ph
`an tu. bien. D
`eu n`ay co
D
ung ta ch c
.
.
the thu. c hie.n bo i
kf (x, y)k
neu kf (x, y)k T,
g(x, y) :=
L
neu ngu.o..c la.i,
B
`en n`ao do.
u.c n
trong do LB l`a m
Cuoi c`
ung, neu ch quan tam den vi. tr bien, quan he.
L
neu kf (x, y)k T,
G
g(x, y) :=
L
neu ngu.o..c la.i,
B
cho ta anh gradient nhi. phan.
4.4
`en t
`an s
Phu.o.ng ph
ap mi
o
`en t
`an so su. du.ng
`e ca.p trong Ph
`an 4.1.2, nang cao chat lu.o..ng anh trong mi
Nhu. da d
`an du.o..c nang cao chat lu.o..ng, nhan
phep bien doi Fourier: bien doi Fourier cua anh c
ket qua vo.i h`am lo.c, sau do lay bien doi Fourier ngu.o..c ta du.o..c anh nang cao chat
lu.o..ng.
`an t
`an so cao hoa.c l`am net anh
Vie.c l`am nho`e anh ba` ng cach suy giam th`anh ph
`an t
`an so cao so vo.i th`anh ph
`an t
`an so thap xuat
ba` ng cach tang do. lo.n cac th`anh ph
.
.
phat t`
u cac khai nie.m co lien quan tru. c tiep den phep bien doi Fourier. Tha.t va.y, lo.c
`en t
`an so. Trong thu..c te, cac ma.t na.
tuyen tnh du.o..c ap du.ng ro.ng rai ho.n trong mi
`eu ho.n phep bien doi Fourier v` tnh do.n
khong gian kch thu.o.c nho du.o..c su. du.ng nhi
`en t
`an so da.c
gian trong giao tiep v`a toc do. thu..c hie.n. Tuy nhien, phu.o.ng phap mi
.
`eu b`ai toan m`a cac k
`en khong gian
bie.t h
u u ch trong vie.c giai quyet nhi
y thua.t mi
`an n`ay v`a mo.t v`ai phu.o.ng
kho co the l`am du.o..c. Chang ha.n, lo.c d`ong cau trong ph
`oi anh trong Chu.o.ng 5 l`a nh
u.ng v du. minh ho.a.
phap phu.c h
4.4.1
Lo.c th
ong th
ap
Lo.c l
y tu.o.ng
Lo.c thong thap 2D l
y tu.o.ng, viet tat ILHF, co h`am lo.c
1 neu D(u, v) D ,
0
H(u, v) :=
0 neu D(u, v) > D ,
0
p
(u2 + v 2)
1
N
1 N
X
X
P (u, v),
u=0 v=0
`an tram gi
trong do P (u, v) l`a pho cong suat. So ph
u. la.i v`a gia tri. D0 lien he. vo.i
nhau bo.i:
X
P (u, v)/PT .
= 100
u2 +v 2 D0
104
Lo.c Butterworth
Lo.c thong thap Butterworth ba.c n co h`am lo.c
H(u, v) :=
1
.
1 + [D(u, v)/D0 ]2n
4.4.2
1
.
1 + ( 2 1)[D(u, v)/D0 ]2n
Lo.c th
ong cao
`an 4.4.1, anh co the bi. nho`e do l`am suy giam cac th`anh
Nhu. da tr`nh b`ay trong Ph
`an t
`an so cao trong bien doi Fourier cua no. V` cac ph
`an tu. bien v`a nh
ph
u.ng cho thay
`an t
`an so cao, vie.c l`am net
doi do.t ngo.t khac trong m
u.c xam tu.o.ng u
.ng cac th`anh ph
.
.
.
`en t
`an so ba` ng phu o ng phap lo.c thong cao (highpass
anh co the thu. c hie.n trong mi
`an t
`an so thap nhu.ng khong pha huy thong tin
filtering): l`am suy giam cac th`anh ph
`an so cao trong bien doi Fourier.
t
Lo.c l
y tu.o.ng
Lo.c thong cao 2D l
y tu.o.ng, viet tat ILHF, co h`am lo.c
0 neu D(u, v) D ,
0
H(u, v) :=
1 neu D(u, v) > D ,
0
trong do D0 > 0.
Lo.c Butterworth
Lo.c thong cao Butterworth ba.c n co h`am lo.c
H(u, v) :=
1
.
1 + [D0 /D(u, v)]2n
1
.
1 + ( 2 1)[D0 /D(u, v)]2n
105
`an t
`an so thap, ch
Trong u
.ng du.ng, de bao to`an cac th`anh ph
ung ta thu.`o.ng them
- i
`eu n`ay keo theo cac th`anh ph
`an t
`an so cao lo.n
mo.t h`a ng so v`ao h`am lo.c thong cao. D
`an tu.o.ng u
ho.n cac th`anh ph
.ng trong anh goc. Phu.o.ng phap n`ay go.i l`a nhan ma.nh
`an so cao.
t
`an so cao bao to`an cac th`anh ph
`an t
`an so thap, trong
Ma.c d`
u lo.c nhan ma.nh t
.
.
.
.
.
- e tranh hie.n tu o. ng n`ay, ch
mo.t so tru `o ng ho. p anh ra bi. toi. D
ung ta co the phan phoi
`o co.t ph`
la.i cac m
u.c xam. Can ba` ng bieu d
u ho..p vo.i mu.c dch n`ay do kha nang nang
cao do. tu.o.ng phan tong the cua anh.
4.4.3
`
ong c
au
Lo.c d
Fourier mo.t cach khac nhau. Chang ha.n h`am Butterworth, trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay co
da.ng
H L )
L + D(u,v) (
neu D(u, v) D0 ,
(1 + )
D(u,v)2 +D02 ( H L)
H
L
H(u, v) :=
H
neu ngu.o..c la.i.
Neu cac tham so L v`a H du.o..c cho.n sao cho L < 1 < H , th` h`am lo.c tren se
`ong th`o.i du.o..c nen
`an so thap v`a khuech da.i t
`an so cao. Ket qua l`a anh d
giam cac t
dai do.ng v`a nang cao do. tu.o.ng phan.
4.5
`en t
`an s
o
Ta.o m
a.t na. kh
ong gian t`
u. mi
Toc do. thu..c hie.n v`a tnh toan do.n gian l`a cac thong so quan tro.ng cua phu.o.ng phap
ma.t na. khong gian trong xu. l
y anh. Ma.t khac, mo.t so h`am lo.c (nhu. lo.c thong thap)
`en t
`an so. Mu.c n`ay tr`nh b`ay phu.o.ng phap ta.o ma.t na. khong
thua.n tie.n ho.n trong mi
gian (theo ngha sai so b`nh phu.o.ng toi thieu) xap x vo.i h`am lo.c cho tru.o.c trong
`en t
`an so.
mi
`en t
`an so du..a tren phu.o.ng tr`nh
Nhac la.i l`a phu.o.ng phap mi
G(u, v) = H(u, v)G(u, v),
(4.7)
trong do F (u, v) v`a G(u, v) l`a cac bien doi Fourier cua anh goc v`a anh sau khi bien
`en t
`an so v`a H(u, v) l`a h`am lo.c.
doi tu.o.ng u
.ng trong mi
`en
Theo d.inh l
y tch cha.p, Phu.o.ng tr`nh (4.7) co the du.o..c thu..c hie.n trong mi
u.c
khong gian qua bieu th
g(x, y) =
N
1 N
1
X
X
h(x , y )f (, ),
(4.8)
=0 =0
h(x, y) neu 0 x n, 0 y n,
y) :=
h(x,
0
neu ngu.o..c la.i.
Bien doi Fourier cua h ta du.o..c
N 1 N 1
2i(ux+vy)
1 XX
N
h(x, y) exp
H(u,
v) =
,
N x=0 y=0
vo.i u, v = 0, 1, . . . , N 1. Ch
ung ta se t`m cac he. so h(x, y), x, y = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, sao
cho cu..c tieu hoa bieu th
u.c
2
e :=
1
N
1 N
X
X
kH(u,
v) H(u, v)k2,
u=0 v=0
trong do k k k
y hie.u do. d`ai ph
u.c.
- a.t C := (cjk )N 2 n2 l`a ma tra.n vo.i cac ph
`an tu.
D
cjk :=
2i(ux+vy)
1
N
exp
,
N
H
:= (a0 , a1, . . . , aN 2 1 )t l`a vector nha.n du.o..c b`a ng cach sap xep theo th
trong do H
u. tu..
`an cac h`ang cua ma tra.n H(u, v), t
tang d
u.c l`a
v),
aj := H(u,
j = uN + v, u, v = 0, 1, . . . , N 1,
:= (b0 , b1, . . . , bn2 1 )t nha.n du.o..c b`a ng cach sap xep theo th
`an
u. tu.. tang d
v`a vector h
y) :
cua cac h`ang cua ma tra.n h(x,
y),
bj := h(x,
j = xn + y, x, y = 0, 1, . . . , n 1.
109
Khi do
H, H
H
e = H
2
Hk2
= kH
Hk2 .
= kCh
thoa man phu.o.ng tr`nh
`eu kie.n c
`an cua cu..c tri., de thay r`a ng h
Su. du.ng di
e2
H) = 0.
= 2Ct (Ch
h
Suy ra
= (Ct C)1 Ct H
h
= C# H,
(4.9)
trong do C# := (Ct C)1 )Ct go.i l`a phep bien doi Moore-Penrose ngu.o..c.
Phu.o.ng tr`nh (4.9) ch ra cach xac di.nh cac he. so cua ma.t na. tch cha.p h(x, y)
`en t
`an so. Noi chung,
kch thu.o.c n n t`
u. h`am lo.c H(u, v) kch thu.o.c N N trong mi
.
.
.
110
Chu.o.ng 5
NH
PHUC A
KHOI
.
M
o h`nh suy giam ch
at lu.o..ng
5.1
5.1.1
C
ac d
i.nh ngha
Quan he. gi
u.a qua tr`nh nha.p xuat anh qua he. thong H co the bieu dien bo.i
g(x, y) := H[f (x, y)] + (x, y).
(5.1)
Tru.o.c het gia thiet r`a ng nhieu = 0. Khi do g(x, y) = H[f (x, y)]. Nhac la.i H l`a
tuyen tnh neu
H[k1 f1 (x, y) + k2 f2 (x, y)] = k1 H[f1 (x, y)] + k2 H[f2(x, y)]
- a. c bie.t khi k1 = k2 = 1
trong do k1 , k2 l`a cac ha` ng so v`a f1 (x, y), f2(x, y) l`a cac anh. D
ta co tnh chat co.ng tnh
H[f1(x, y) + f2 (x, y)] = H[f1 (x, y)] + H[f2(x, y)];
noi cach khac neu H l`a toan tu. tuyen tnh th` dap u
.ng cua tong hai anh ba` ng tong
cua hai dap u
.ng.
`an nhat
Ho.n n
u.a toan tu. tuyen tnh H co tnh thu
H[kf (x, y)] = kH[f (x, y)].
Xet moi quan he. nha.p-xuat g(x, y) = H[f (x, y)]. Ta noi H l`a bat bien vi. tr hay
bat bien khong gian neu
H[f (x , y )] = g(x , y )
.ng ta.i diem bat k`
vo.i mo.i anh f (x, y) v`a , R. Noi cach khac, dap u
y trong anh
ch phu. thuo.c v`ao anh m`a khong phu. thuo.c vi. tr cua diem trong anh.
112
5.1.2
o.ng ho..p li
en tu.c
Tru.`
Neu H l`a toan tu. tuyen tnh tren khong gian cac h`am anh, v`a ta mo. ro.ng da.c tru.ng
co.ng th`anh tch phan th`
g(x, y) =
=
H [f (, )(x , y )] dd
2
ZR
f (, )H [(x , y )] dd.
R2
H`am
h(x, y, , ) = H [(x , y )] .
go.i l`a dap u
.ng xung cua H. Noi cach khac, neu nhieu = 0 th` h(x, y, , ) l`a dap
u
.ng cua H doi vo.i xung co cu.`o.ng do. 1 ta.i (, ). Trong quang ho.c, xung tro. th`anh
mo.t diem sang v`a h(x, y, , ) du.o..c go.i l`a h`am phan tan diem (point spread function).
Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay ta co
Z
f (, )h(x, y, , )dd.
g(x, y) =
R2
Bieu th
u.c pha ben phai go.i l`a tch phan
tr`o quan tro.ng trong l
y thuyet he. tuyen
.
cua H doi vo i mo.t xung th` co the xac
- ang th
Fredholm loa.i mo.t. D
u.c tren dong vai
tnh. No khang di.nh r`a ng neu biet dap u
.ng
di.nh dap u
.ng cua h`am f (, ) bat k`
y. Noi
cach khac, he. tuyen tnh H ho`an to`an xac di.nh bo.i dap u
.ng xung cua no.
Neu H bat bien khong gian, th`
H[(x , y )] = h(x , y ).
f (, )h(x , y )dd
R2
Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p co nhieu, mo h`nh suy giam chat lu.o..ng anh tuyen tnh co
da.ng
g(x, y) =
D nhien gia thiet nhieu trong ca hai tru.`o.ng ho..p khong phu. thuo.c vi. tr cua anh.
`eu loa.i mo h`nh suy giam chat lu.o..ng co the xap x bo.i tien tr`nh tuyen tnh
Nhi
`eu cong cu. cua
v`a bat bien vi. tr. Phu.o.ng phap n`ay thua.n tie.n v` co the su. du.ng nhi
`oi anh. Cac toan tu. phi tuyen v`a
l
y thuyet he. tuyen tnh de giai cac b`ai toan phu.c h
khong bat bien vi. tr ma.c d`
u l`a tong quat ho.n (v`a chnh xac ho.n) thu.`o.ng kho t`m l`o.i
giai hoa.c rat kho giai ba` ng may tnh die.n tu.. Chu.o.ng n`ay d`e ca.p den cac phu.o.ng
`oi anh tuyen tnh v`a bat bien vi. tr. Tuy nhien, vo.i nh
phap phu.c h
u.ng gia thiet n`ay,
vie.c giai mo.t cach tru..c tiep co the vu.o..t qua kha nang cua may tnh hie.n nay.
5.1.3
o.ng ho..p r`
o.i ra.c
Tru.`
`eu v`a khong co nhieu. Gia su. hai h`am f (x) v`a
Tru.o.c het xet tru.`o.ng ho..p mo.t chi
`eu tu.o.ng u
h(x) du.o..c lay mau d
.ng hai mang co kch thu.o.c tu.o.ng u
.ng A v`a B. Trong
tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay x l`a bien r`o.i ra.c thay doi trong pha.m vi 0, 1, . . . , A 1, doi vo.i f (x)
v`a trong pha.m vi 0, 1, . . . , B 1 doi vo.i h(x).
- e co the lay tch cha.p cua f (x) v`a h(x) ta c
`an mo. ro.ng kch thu.o.c l`a M
D
`an 3.3.8). Gia su. fe (x) v`a he (x) l`a cac mo. ro.ng tu.o.ng u
A + B 1 (xem Ph
.ng. Tch
cha.p cua ch
ung l`a
ge (x) :=
M
1
X
fe (m)he (x m)
(5.2)
m=0
(5.3)
`eu
trong do f v`a g l`a cac vector co.t M chi
fe (0)
fe (1)
,
f =
..
fe (M 1)
ge (0)
ge (1)
,
g =
..
ge (M 1)
he (1)
he (0)
he (1)
he (0)
he (1)
H = he (2)
..
he (M + 1)
he (1)
he (M + 2)
he (0)
he (M + 3) .
he (M 1) he (M 2) he (M 3) he (0)
he (2)
he (0)
he (1)
H = he (2)
..
he (M 1)
he (M 1) he (M 2) he (1)
he (M 1) he (2)
he (1)
he (0)
he (3) .
he (M 2) he (M 3) he (0)
he (0)
`an tu.
V du. 5.1.1 Gia su. A = 4 v`a B = 3. Ta co the cho.n M = 6 v`a them hai ph
`an tu. ba` ng khong trong mang h(x). Khi do f
ba` ng khong trong mang f (x) v`a ba ph
115
v`a g l`a cac vector co.t trong R6 v`a H l`a ma tra.n vuong cap 6:
..
h(0)
h(2) h(1)
h(1) h(0)
h(2)
H=
h(2)
h(1)
h(0)
h(2)
h(1)
h(0)
N C + D 1.
h(x, y)
neu 0 x C 1, v`a 0 y D 1,
neu C x M 1, hoa.c D y N 1,
`an ho`an vo.i chu k`
Ch
ung ta c
ung gia thiet cac h`am fe (x, y) v`a he (x, y) tu
y M v`a N
theo hai hu.o.ng x v`a y tu.o.ng u
.ng. Nhac la.i
ge (x, y) =
1
M
1 N
X
X
m=0 n=0
ge (x, y) =
M
1 N
1
X
X
m=0 n=0
116
(5.4)
vo.i x = 0, 1, . . . , M 1, v`a y = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
K
y hie.u f, g v`a n l`a cac vector co.t kch thu.o.c MN nha.n du.o..c b`a ng cach sap xep
la.i cac h`ang cua cac mang tu.o.ng u
.ng fe , ge v`a e vo.i kch thu.o.c M N. Chang ha.n,
`an tu. d`au tien cua f tu.o.ng u
`an tu. trong h`ang d
`au tien cua fe (x, y); N
N ph
.ng cac ph
`an tu. ke tiep tu.o.ng u
.ng h`ang th
u. hai, v`a van van. Khi do bieu th
u.c (5.4) co the
ph
viet du.o.i da.ng ma tra.n
g = Hf + n,
(5.5)
trong do H l`a ma tra.n vuong kch thu.o.c MN. Ma tra.n n`ay co the phan hoa.ch th`anh
M 2 ma tra.n con vo.i moi ma tra.n con kch thu.o.c N N v`a du.o..c sap theo th
u. tu..
H0
HM 1 HM 2 . . . H1
H1
H
H
.
.
.
H
0
M
1
2
.
.
.
... .
H=
,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
... .
HM 1 HM 2 HM 3 . . . H0
`an tu. Hj cua h`ang th
vo.i moi ph
u. j xac d.inh bo.i h`am mo. ro.ng he (x, y) :
he (j, 0)
he (j, N 1) . . . he (j, 2)
he (j, 1)
he (j, 2)
h
(j,
1)
h
(j,
N
2)
.
.
.
h
(j,
3)
e
e
e
Hj = .
.
.
... .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
... .
.
he (j, N 1) he (j, N 2) he (j, N 3) . . . he (j, 0)
Nha.n xet ra` ng, Hj l`a ma tra.n chu tr`nh v`a cac khoi cua H du.o..c danh ch so theo y
ngha chu tr`nh. Do do ma tra.n H go.i l`a ma tra.n chu tr`nh khoi.
`an sau ta.p trung v`ao mo h`nh suy giam chat lu.o..ng
`au het cac ket qua trong ph
H
da.ng (5.5). Ch
uy
r`a ng bieu th
u.c n`ay du..a tren gia thiet tuyen tnh v`a bat bien vi. tr
cua mo h`nh xu. l
y. Mu.c tieu l`a t`m u.o.c lu.o..ng f (x, y) du..a tren h`am g(x, y) vo.i su..
`e h(x, y) v`a (x, y). Noi cach khac c
`an t`m u.o.c lu.o..ng f du..a tren g, n v`a H.
hieu biet v
Ma.c d`
u do.n gian, nhu.ng vie.c xac di.nh f t`
u. Phu.o.ng tr`nh (5.5) l`a rat ph
u.c ta.p
trong tru.`o.ng ho..p kch thu.o.c lo.n. Chang ha.n, neu M = N = 512 th` H co kch thu.o.c
`an giai he. 262144 phu.o.ng tr`nh tuyen tnh. Tuy
262144. Do do de xac di.nh f ta c
nhien, su. du.ng tnh chat chu tr`nh cua ma tra.n H co the giam dang ke khoi lu.o..ng
tnh toan.
117
5.2
Ch
eo ho
a ma tr
a.n chu tr`nh v`
a ma tr
a.n kh
oi
chu tr`nh
`an n`ay tr`nh b`ay phu.o.ng phap hie.u qua giai Phu.o.ng tr`nh (5.5) b`a ng cach cheo
Ph
- e do.n gian, ch
hoa ma tra.n H. D
ung ta bat d`au vo.i ma tra.n chu tr`nh v`a sau do se xet
ma tra.n khoi chu tr`nh.
5.2.1
Ma tr
a.n chu tr`nh
he (0)
he (M 1)
he (0)
he (1)
he (2)
he (1)
H = .
.
.
.
.
.
he (M 2) he (1)
he (M 1) he (2)
he (0)
he (3)
.
... .
.
.
... .
.
... .
he (M 1) he (M 2) he (M 3) he (0)
- a.t
D
M
X
2i
(k) :=
jk
he (M j) exp
M
j=1
v`a
1
2i
exp
k
M
2i
exp
2k
w(k) :=
..
2i
exp M (M 1)k
k = 0, 1, . . . , M 1.
Noi cach khac, ma tra.n chu tr`nh H co M gia tri. rieng (k) tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i cac vector
u.a, cac vector rieng n`ay l`a tru..c giao, t
u.c l`a
rieng w(k), k = 0, 1, . . . , M 1. Ho.n n
hw(k), w(k 0 )i = 0,
vo.i mo.i
k 6= k 0, k, k 0 = 0, 1, . . . , M 1.
118
Gia su. W := (W (k, j)) l`a ma tra.n vuong cap M vo.i cac co.t l`a cac vector rieng
u.c l`a
cua ma tra.n chu tr`nh H; t
2i
W(k, j) := exp
kj ,
M
`on ta.i ma
vo.i k, j = 0, 1, . . . , M 1. De thay r`a ng W l`a ma tra.n tru..c giao v`a do do t
tra.n nghi.ch dao W1 := (W 1 (k, j)) vo.i
2i
1
W 1 (k, j) =
exp
kj .
M
M
Suy ra
H = WDW1 ,
(5.6)
5.2.2
Ma tr
a.n chu tr`nh kh
oi
- a. t
Ma tra.n bien doi de cheo hoa cac khoi chu tr`nh du.o..c xay du..ng nhu. sau. D
2i
wM (k, j) := exp
kj
M
v`a
2i
kj .
wN (k, j) := exp
N
trong do
1
(m, n)
wM
v`a
WN1 :=
2i
mn ,
= exp
M
1
1
(k, j) k,j=0,1,...,N 1
wN
N
2i
kj .
= exp
N
`an 5.2.1 v`a neu H l`a ma tra.n khoi chu tr`nh th` co the ch ra
T`
u. cac ket qua cua Ph
ra` ng
D = W1 HW
`an tu. tren du.`o.ng cheo D(k, k) co lien quan
l`a ma tra.n cheo hoa cua H trong do cac ph
`an 5.1.3. Suy ra
den bien doi Fourier r`o.i ra.c cua h`am thac trien he (x, y) trong Ph
H = WDW1 .
(5.7)
Ho.n n
u.a, ma tra.n chuyen vi. cua H l`a
1
Ht = WDW
l`a ma tra.n lien ho..p ph
trong do D
u.c cua D.
5.2.3
Hi
e.u qua cu a ch
eo ho
a ma tr
a.n trong m
o h`nh suy gia m
ch
at lu.o..ng
Ma tra.n H trong mo h`nh 1D r`o.i ra.c (5.3) l`a ma tra.n chu tr`nh. V` va.y no co the bieu
dien da.ng (5.6). Khi do (5.3) tro. th`anh
g = WDW1 f.
Suy ra
W1 g = DW1 f.
(5.8)
k = 0, 1, . . . , M 1,
l`a bien doi Fourier r`o.i ra.c cua fe (x). Tu.o.ng tu.., W1 g l`a bien doi Fourier cua cac
`an tu. cua g v`a k
y hie.u l`a G(k), k = 0, 1, . . . , M 1.
ph
`an 5.2.1), cac
Bay gi`o. xet ma tra.n bien doi D trong (5.8). Ta biet r`a ng (xem Ph
.
.
.
`an tu tren du `o ng cheo chnh cua D chnh l`a cac gia tri. rieng cua ma tra.n chu tr`nh
ph
H. Nhu.ng
2i
2i
(M j)k = exp
jk .
exp
M
M
Do do ta co the viet
(k) =
M
1
X
j=0
2i
jk .
he (j) exp
M
Va.y
D(k, k) = (k)
vo.i k = 0, 1, . . . , M 1. Ve phai cua phu.o.ng tr`nh n`ay chnh l`a MH(k), trong do H(k)
l`a bien doi Fourier r`o.i ra.c cua h`am thac trien he (x) :
H(k) :=
M
1
X
j=0
2i
kj ,
he (j) exp
M
k = 0, 1, . . . , M 1.
Do do
D(k, k) = MH(k).
Va.y Phu.o.ng tr`nh (5.8) co the viet la.i
G(k) = MH(k)F (k),
`an tu. cua vector W1 g v`a MH(k)F (k)
vo.i k = 0, 1, . . . , M 1, trong do G(k) l`a cac ph
`an tu. cua vector co.t DW1 f. Ve phai cua phu.o.ng tr`nh tren l`a tch cha.p cua
l`a cac ph
`en t
`an so. Ket qua n`ay ch ra ra` ng co the giam khoi lu.o..ng
fe (x) vo.i he (x) trong mi
tnh toan do G(k), H(k) v`a F (k) l`a cac bien doi Fourier r`o.i ra.c du.o..c xac di.nh ba` ng
thua.t toan FFT.
Ta co thua.t toan tu.o.ng tu.. cho mo h`nh suy giam chat lu.o..ng 2D nhu. sau. T`
u.
(5.5), ta co
W1 g = DW1 f + W1 n,
trong do W1 l`a ma tra.n cap MN MN ; D l`a ma tra.n du.`o.ng
M N ; H l`a ma tra.n khoi chu tr`nh cap MN MN ; f v`a g l`a
RM N xac di.nh ba` ng cach xep cac h`ang cua fe (x, y) v`a ge (x, y)
`an 5.2.2). Ve trai cua (5.9) l`a vector co.t kch thu.o.c MN. K
Ph
y
121
(5.9)
cheo cap MN
cac vector trong
tu.o.ng u
.ng (xem
`an tu.
hie.u cac ph
cua no l`a G(0, 0), G(0, 1), . . . , G(0, N 1); G(1, 0), G(1, 1), . . . , G(1, N 1); . . . ; G(M
u.ng minh r`a ng
1, 0), G(M 1, 1), . . . , G(M 1, N 1). Co the ch
G(u, v) =
M 1 N 1
h
ux vy i
1 XX
ge (x, y) exp 2i
+
,
MN x=0 y=0
M
N
v`a
N (u, v) =
M 1 N 1
ux vy i
h
1 XX
+
,
e (x, y) exp 2i
MN x=0 y=0
M
N
vo.i u = 0, 1, . . . , M 1, v = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
Cuoi c`
ung,
H(u, v) =
M 1 N 1
h
ux vy i
1 XX
+
he (x, y) exp 2i
MN x=0 y=0
M
N
MNH k , k mod N
neu
N
D(k, j) =
0
neu
k = j,
k 6= j.
(5.10)
trong do u = 0, 1, . . . , M 1, v`a v = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
So ha.ng MN trong phu.o.ng tr`nh (5.10) l`a he. so vo hu.o.ng, do do de do.n gian
co the chuyen v`ao H(u, v). Khi do
H k , k mod N neu k = j,
N
D(k, j) =
0
neu k 6= j
vo.i k, j = 0, 1, . . . , MN 1, v`a
G(u, v) = H(u, v)F (u, v) + N (u, v)
122
(5.11)
ap d
a.i s
o
Phu.o.ng ph
5.3
5.3.1
`eu ki
Kh
oi phu.c kh
ong d
i
e.n
f
Suy ra
f = (Ht H)1 Ht g.
123
5.3.2
(5.12)
`eu ki
od
i
e.n
Kh
oi phu.c c
`an n`ay xet b`ai toan cu..c tieu hoa phiem h`am
Ph
kQfk2
vo.i r`ang buo.c
n = g - Hf,
trong do Q l`a toan tu. tuyen tnh n`ao do.
Xet h`am Lagrange
J (f) := kQfk2 + (kg Hfk2 knk2)
trong do l`a nhan tu. Lagrange.
Theo phu.o.ng phap nhan tu. Lagrange, nghie.m f thoa man phu.o.ng tr`nh
J (f)
= 0 = 2Qt Qf 2Ht (g Hf).
f
Suy ra
f = HtH + Qt Q 1 Ht g.
(5.13)
`eu chnh sao cho thoa di
`eu kie.n se du.o..c xet sau. Cac phu.o.ng
Gia tri. = 1 du.o..c di
`oi trong cac ph
`an sau. Chang
tr`nh (5.12) v`a (5.13) l`a co. so. cho nh
u.ng b`ai toan phu.c h
`an 5.4 se ch ra Phu.o.ng tr`nh (5.12) chnh l`a phu.o.ng phap phu.c h
`oi ba` ng lo.c
ha.n, Ph
ngu.o..c. Tu.o.ng tu.., Phu.o.ng tr`nh (5.13) co the suy ra cac ket qua nhu. lo.c Wiener co
`e l`a cho.n ma tra.n bien doi Q thch ho..p.
dien c
ung nhu. cac ket qua khac. Van d
5.4
5.4.1
Lo.c ngu.o..c
-
D
a.t b`
ai to
an
`oi anh t`
`eu kie.n trong
Tru.o.c het xet cac phu.o.ng phap phu.c h
u. khoi phu.c khong di
.
.
.
.
.
Phu o ng tr`nh (5.12). Neu gia thiet M = N v`a su du.ng (5.7) th` Phu o ng tr`nh (5.12)
124
suy ra
f = H1 g
= (WDW1 )1 g
= WD1 W1 g.
Do do
W1f = D1 W1 g.
`an 5.2.3)
Hay co the viet la.i (ap du.ng Ph
G(u, v)
,
(5.14)
F (u, v) =
H(u, v)
`an tu. H(u, v) du.o..c chia cho N 2 v`a v` D
vo.i u, v = 0, 1, . . . , N 1. Theo (5.11), cac ph
1
l`a ma tra.n du.`o.ng cheo nen nghi.ch dao H(u,v)
de d`ang xac di.nh.
`oi anh ba` ng cach su. du.ng Phu.o.ng tr`nh (5.14) thu.`o.ng go.i
Phu.o.ng phap phu.c h
u. cho coi H(u, v) l`a h`am lo.c du.o..c nhan
l`a lo.c ngu.o..c. Khai nie.m lo.c ngu.o..c xuat phat t`
G(u,v)
vo.i F (u, v) de bien doi anh suy giam chat lu.o..ng. Bieu th
ch
u.a toan tu. lo.c
u.c H(u,v)
u.
ngu.o..c. Anh khoi phu.c nha.n du.o..c t`
f = F 1 (F (u, v))
1 G(u, v)
=F
H(u, v)
vo.i x, y = 0, 1, . . . , N 1.
Ch
u y
ra` ng neu H(u, v) = 0 hoa.c rat nho ta.i mo.t so diem cua ma.t phang uv,
ta co the bo qua trong qua tr`nh tnh toan F (u, v) m`a khong anh hu.o.ng dang ke den
`oi.
ket qua phu.c h
Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p co nhieu, th`
N (u, v)
F (u, v) = F (u, v) +
.
H(u, v)
(u,v)
Suy ra neu H(u, v) b`a ng 0 hoa.c rat nho, th` N
co the vu.o..t qua ket qua khoi phu.c
H(u,v)
h
i
anh F 1 F (u, v) . Trong thu..c te, H(u, v) thu.`o.ng nho di rat nhanh so vo.i khoang
cach t`
u. (u, v) den goc to.a do., c`on nhieu giam vo.i toc do. cha.m. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p
nhu. va.y, vie.c khoi phu.c anh du.o..c thu..c hie.n ngo`ai lan ca.n cua goc de tranh chia cho
khong.
Neu biet tru.o.c H(u, v), G(u, v) v`a N (u, v) th` co the xac di.nh lo.c ngu.o..c theo
phu.o.ng tr`nh sau:
G(u, v) N (u, v)
F (u, v) =
.
H(u, v) H(u, v)
125
Ngo`ai kho khan, nhu. v du. tren, trong vie.c xac di.nh H(u, v) ch
ung ta hiem khi biet
`e nhieu de t`m N (u, v).
d`ay du thong tin v
5.4.2
Khu. nho`
e do chuy
en d
o.ng d
`
eu tuy
en tnh
Co mo.t so u
.ng du.ng thu..c te trong do co the xac d.inh l`o.i giai H(u, v) mo.t cach giai
`an so quan tam.
tch. Tuy nhien nghie.m n`ay co cac gia tri. ba` ng khong trong v`
ung t
`an 5.4.1. Du.o.i day xet b`ai toan
Ch
ung ta da ga.p kho khan khi H(u, v) = 0 trong Ph
`oi anh bi. nho`e do chuyen do.ng d
`eu tuyen tnh. Ch
phu.c h
ung ta d`e ca.p b`ai toan n`ay
do no co lien quan den thu..c te v`a co the xac d.inh mo.t nghie.m giai tch t`
u. do.
`an chuyen do.ng theo th`o.i gian
Gia thiet anh f (x, y) di chuyen vo.i cac th`anh ph
x = x0 (t) v`a y = y0(t), v`a T l`a khoang th`o.i gian xay ra chuyen do.ng. Khi do anh bi.
nho`e
g(x, y) =
f [x x0 (t), y y0(t)]dt.
(5.15)
du.ng cong th
Ap
u.c Fubini
Z T Z
f [x x0(t), y y0(t)] exp[2i(ux + vy)]dxdy dt
G(u, v) =
R2
0
Z T
F (u, v) exp[2i(ux0(t) + vy0(t))dt
=
0
Z T
exp[2i(ux0(t) + vy0(t))]dt.
= F (u, v)
0
- a.t
D
H(u, v) :=
exp[2i(ux0(t) + vy0(t))]dt.
0
Ta co
G(u, v) = H(u, v)F (u, v).
Nhu. va.y, neu biet cac bien chuyen do.ng x0 (t) v`a y0(t) th` de d`ang suy ra h`am di.ch
H(u, v). Chang ha.n, gia thiet anh chuyen do.ng d`eu, tuyen tnh theo hu.o.ng tru.c x vo.i
126
at
.
T
exp[2iux0(t)]dt
Z T
2iuat
exp
=
dt
T
0
T
sin(ua) exp[iua].
=
ua
Hien nhien H trie.t tieu ta.i cac gia tri. u = n/a vo.i n Z.
0
at
T
0 x L.
g
(x) + f (x a),
x
0 x L.
Hay
f (x) =
(5.16)
(z) = f (z a),
127
0 z a.
(5.17)
Phu.o.ng tr`nh (5.17) co the giai de. qui theo (z). Do do vo.i m = 0 th`
g
(z) + f (z a)
x
g
=
(z) + (z).
x
f (z) =
g
(z + a) + f (z).
x
Suy ra
f (z + a) =
g
g
(z + a) +
(z) + (z).
x
x
g
(z + 2a) + f (z + a)
x
g
g
g
(z + 2a) +
(z + a) +
(z) + (z).
x
x
x
m
X
g
k=0
(x ka) + (x ma)
(5.18)
`e c
`an xac di.nh .
vo.i mo.i x [0, L]. V` g(x) da biet, van d
Phu.o.ng phap xac di.nh h`am t`
u. anh bi. nho`e nhu. sau. Tru.o.c het nha.n xet
ra` ng, khi x thay doi trong doa.n [0, L] th` m thay doi trong doa.n [0, K 1]. Do do
`an khi x thay doi trong doa.n
x ma [0, a) v`a v` va.y (x ma) du.o..c la.p la.i K l
- a.t
[0, L]. D
m
X
g
f (x) :=
(x ja).
(5.19)
x
j=0
Khi do (5.18) co the viet la.i
(x ma) = f (x) f(x).
128
(5.20)
.
U o.c lu.o..ng ben trai v`a ben phai cua phu.o.ng tr`nh n`ay vo.i ka x < (k + 1)a v`a sau
do co.ng cac ket qua vo.i k = 0, 1, . . . , K 1, ta du.o..c
K(x ma) =
K1
X
f (x + ka)
K1
X
k=0
f(x + ka),
x [0, a),
k=0
k=0
Tong th
u. nhat ben ve phai cua bieu th
u.c n`ay chu.a biet. Tuy nhien, vo.i K du lo.n gia
tri. n`ay tien den f. Do do ta co the xap x gia tri. n`ay b`a ng ha` ng so A; v`a v` va.y
K1
1 X
(x) ' A
f (x + ka)
K
k=0
K1
1 X
f (x + ka ma)
K
k=0
' A
K1 k
1 X X g
[x ma + (k j)a] .
K k=0 j=0 x
K1 k
m
X
1 X X g
g
[x ma + (k j)a] +
(x ja)
K k=0 j=0 x
x
j=0
K1 k
m
X
1 X X g
g
[x ma + (k j)a, y] +
(x ja, y)
K
x
x
j=0
j=0
k=0
trong do x [0, L]. Nhu. tren, f (x, y) du.o..c gia thiet l`a anh kch thu.o.c vuong. Thay
ung co ket qua tu.o.ng tu.. cho vie.c khoi phu.c anh chuyen do.ng
doi vai tr`o cua x v`a y ta c
theo tru.c y. Phu.o.ng phap n`ay co the d`
ung bieu dien anh da khoi phu.c cho chuyen
`eu x v`a y.
`eu theo ca hai chi
do.ng lien tu.c d
129
5.5
Gia su. Rf v`a Rn l`a cac ma tra.n tu.o.ng quan cua f v`a n du.o..c xac di.nh tu.o.ng u
.ng bo.i
Rf = E{fft }
v`a
Rn = E{nnt},
`an 5.1.3. Ph
`an tu. h`ang i co.t j
trong do E{.} l`a k`
y vo.ng v`a f v`a n xac d.inh trong Ph
`an tu. th
u.a cac ph
cua ma tra.n Rf ba` ng E{fi fj } l`a tu.o.ng quan gi
u. i v`a j cua f. Tu.o.ng
`an tu. (i, j) cua ma tra.n Rn chnh l`a tu.o.ng quan gi
`an tu. tu.o.ng u
tu.., ph
u.a cac ph
.ng cua
`an tu. cua f v`a n l`a thu..c nen E{fi fj } = E{fj fj } v`a E{ni nj } = E{nj nj }.
n. V` cac ph
`au het cac h`am anh tu.o.ng quan
Do do Rf v`a Rn l`a cac ma tra.n doi x
u.ng thu..c. Vo.i h
`an tu. cua f hoa.c n) ch tu.o.ng quan neu khoang cach gi
gi
u.a cac pixel (t
u.c l`a cac ph
u.a
`an tu.
ung co cac ph
ch
ung khong vu.o..t qua 30 pixel nen ma tra.n tu.o.ng quan cua ch
`an c`on la.i. Du..a tren
khac khong tren dai do.c theo du.`o.ng cheo v`a ba` ng khong trong ph
u.a ch
gia thiet tu.o.ng quan gi
u.a hai pixel l`a h`am so theo khoang cach gi
ung m`a khong
phu. thuo.c v`ao vi. tr, cac ma tra.n Rf v`a Rn co the xap x th`anh cac ma tra.n khoi chu
`an
tr`nh v`a do do co the cheo hoa b`a ng ma tra.n W theo thua.t toan mieu ta trong Ph
5.2.2. K
y hie.u A v`a B l`a cac ma tra.n sao cho
(
Rf = WAW1 ,
(5.21)
Rn = WBW1 .
`an tu. cua ma tra.n du.`o.ng cheo D = W1 H W tu.o.ng u
.ng
Ch
u y
ra` ng cac ph
`an cac ph
`an tu. cua H. V` va.y, cac ph
`an tu. cua A v`a B
bien doi Fourier cua khoi ph
`an tu. tu.o.ng quan trong Rf v`a Rn tu.o.ng u
.ng. Bien doi
l`a bien doi Fourier cua cac ph
y hie.u Sf (u, v) v`a S (u, v), go.i l`a pho cong suat (hay
Fourier cua cac tu.o.ng quan n`ay, k
ma.t do. pho) cua fe (x, y) v`a e (x, y) tu.o.ng u
.ng.
Gia su. Q l`a ma tra.n sao cho
Qt Q = R1
f Rn .
Khi do (5.13) cho ta
f = (HtH + R1 Rn )1 Htg.
f
T`
u. (5.7) v`a (5.21), suy ra
1
f = (WDDW
1 g.
+ WA1 BW1 )1 WDW
130
H(u,
v)
F (u, v) =
G(u, v)
|H(u, v)|2 + [S (u, v)/Sf (u, v)]
(5.22)
|H(u, v)|2
1
G(u, v)
=
H(u, v) |H(u, v)|2 + [S (u, v)/Sf (u, v)]
5.6
`eu ki
oi thi
eu c
od
i
e.n
Kh
oi phu.c b`nh phu.o.ng t
2
1
1 2
1
1 2 1
C=
..
1
2
1
1 2
1
`an tu. cua no l`a cac gia tri. f (x).
l`a ma tra.n tro.n v`a f l`a vector m`a cac ph
`an cu..c tieu hoa phiem h`am
Tu.o.ng tu.., trong tru.`o.ng ho..p 2D, ta c
2
2
f (x, y) 2f (x, y)
+
min
x2
y 2
trong do toan tu. Laplace du.o..c xap x bo.i
2f
2f
+
' [2f (x, y) f (x + 1, y) f (x 1, y)] +
x2 y 2
[2f (x, y) f (x, y + 1) f (x, y 1)]
' 4f (x, y) [f (x + 1, y) + f (x 1, y)+
f (x, y + 1) + f (x, y 1)] .
132
(5.23)
0 1
0
p(x, y) := 1
4 1 .
0 1
`an 5.1.3, loi phu trong tch cha.p r`o.i ra.c co the khac phu.c ba` ng
Nhu. ch ra trong Ph
cach thac trien cac h`am f (x, y) v`a p(x, y). Tu.o.ng tu.. nhu. cach xac di.nh fe ta co thac
trien sau
y [3, N 1].
M
1 N
1
X
X
fe (m, n)pe (x m, y n)
m=0 n=0
tr`
ung vo.i (5.4).
`an 5.1.3, ta co the bieu dien tieu chuan do. tro.n o.
Tu.o.ng tu.. vo.i l
y lua.n trong Ph
- `au tien, xet ma tra.n khoi chu tr`nh
da.ng ma tra.n. D
CM 1 CM 2 . . . C1
C0
C1
C0
CM 1 . . . C2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
C=
,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
CM 1 CM 2 CM 3 . . . C0
trong do Cj l`a ma tra.n chu tr`nh cap N N xac di.nh bo.i
pe (j, 0)
pe (j, N 1) pe (j, N 2) . . .
pe (j, 0)
pe (j, N 1) . . .
pe (j, 1)
pe (j, 2)
pe (j, 1)
pe (j, 0)
...
Cj := .
.
.
...
.
.
.
...
.
.
...
.
pe (j, 1)
pe (j, 2)
pe (j, 3)
.
.
`an 5.2.2.
V` C l`a ma tra.n khoi chu tr`nh nen co the cheo hoa ba` ng ma tra.n W trong Ph
Noi cach khac
E = W1 CW
(5.24)
`an tu.
trong do E l`a ma tra.n du.`o.ng cheo co cac ph
P k , k mod N neu k = j,
N
E(k, j) =
0
neu k =
6 j.
`an
Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay P (u, v) l`a bien doi Fourier cua pe (x, y). Ch
uy
ra` ng, cac ph
`an 5.2.3).
tu. P (u, v) da du.o..c chia cho MN (xem doa.n cuoi cua Ph
Do do tieu chuan l`am tro.n anh cua (5.23) co da.ng
ftCt Cf min,
- a.t Q = C v`a ch
uy
r`a ng
trong do vector f RM N , C l`a ma tra.n vuong cap MN. D
kQfk2 = hQf, Qfi = ft QQf
`an 5.3.2:
ta du.a den cu..c tieu hoa phiem h`am co da.ng trong Ph
kQfk2 min .
Tha.t va.y, neu d`oi hoi
kg Hfk2 = knk2
th` nghie.m toi u.u cho trong (5.13) vo.i Q = C l`a
f = (Ht H + CtC)1 Ht g.
Hay tu.o.ng du.o.ng (do (5.7) v`a (5.24))
1
1 1
f = (WDDW
1 g.
+ WEEW
) WDW
Suy ra
1 g.
+ EE)
1 DW
W1f = (DD
(5.25)
`an tu. ben trong dau ngoa. c co da.ng du.`o.ng cheo v`a su. du.ng khai
Ch
u y
ra` ng cac ph
`an 5.2.3 ta co the viet
nie.m trong Ph
F (u, v) =
H(u,
v)
G(u, v),
|H(u, v)|2 + |P (u, v)|2
134
(5.26)
vo.i u, v = 0, 1, . . . , N 1. Nha.n xet ra` ng (5.26) tu.o.ng tu.. vo.i lo.c tham so Wiener trong
`au hieu biet tu.`o.ng minh
`an 5.5. Khac nhau chu yeu l`a ket qua sau n`ay khong yeu c
Ph
cac tham so thong ke ngoa.i tr`
u. mo.t u.o.c lu.o..ng nhieu trung b`nh v`a phu.o.ng sai.
`au tham so thoa man r`ang
Tru.`o.ng ho..p tong quat, Phu.o.ng tr`nh (5.13) yeu c
buo.c kg Hfk2 = knk2. V` va.y nghie.m cua phu.o.ng tr`nh (5.26) ch toi u.u neu thoa
man r`ang buo.c n`ay. Thua.t toan la.p du.o.i day d`
ung xac di.nh tham so n`ay. Xet vector
tha.ng du.
r := g Hf.
(5.27)
Thay f ta du.o..c
r = g H(HtH + Ct C)1 Ht g.
u.ng minh r`a ng
Nhu. va.y co the coi r l`a h`am cua . Tha.t va.y, co the ch
() = hr, ri
`an di
`eu chnh sao cho
l`a h`am so do.n die.u tang theo . Ta c
krk2 = knk2 a,
`eu kie.n
trong do a l`a he. so do do. chnh xac. Hien nhien, neu krk2 = knk2 th` di
kg Hfk2 = knk2 se thoa man.
V` () do.n die.u, nen ta co the de d`ang xac di.nh thoa Phu.o.ng tr`nh (5.25)
theo cac bu.o.c sau:
`au ;
Bu.o.c 1. Cho tru.o.c gia tri. ban d
Bu.o.c 2. Tnh f v`a krk2; v`a
Bu.o.c 3. D`
u.ng neu (??) thoa man; ngu.o..c la.i tang neu krk2 < knk2 a hoa.c giam
neu krk2 > knk2 a.
Ta co the ap du.ng nh
u.ng phu.o.ng phap khac t`m , chang ha.n thua.t toan NewtonRaphson, de cai thie.n toc do. ho.i tu..
- e thu..c hie.n cac tnh toan, ta c
`an mo.t v`ai thong tin v
`e knk2 . Phu.o.ng sai cua
D
e (x, y) l`a
e2 = E{[e (x, y) e ]2}
= E[e2(x, y)] e2,
135
trong do
e =
XX
1
e (x, y)
(M 1)(N 1) x y
l`a gia tri. trung b`nh cua e (x, y). Neu coi trung b`nh mau xap x k`
y vo.ng cua e2 (x, y)
th`
XX
1
e2 =
e2 (x, y) e2
(M 1)(N 1) x y
=
knk2
e2 .
(M 1)(N 1)
Suy ra
knk2 = (M 1)(N 1)[e2 + e2].
(5.28)
- ang th
D
u.c tren cho phep xac di.nh knk2 theo gia tri. trung b`nh cua nhieu v`a phu.o.ng
sai; cac da.i lu.o..ng n`ay neu khong biet thu.`o.ng du.o..c xap x hoa.c do trong thu..c te.
`eu kie.n g
`om cac bu.o.c
Nhu. va.y thua.t toan khoi phu.c b`nh phu.o.ng toi thieu co di
sau:
Bu.o.c 1. Cho.n gia tri. d`au cho v`a xac d.inh knk2 theo (5.28).
Bu.o.c 2. Tnh F (u, v) theo (5.26) v`a bien doi Fourier ngu.o..c cua no de co f.
Bu.o.c 3. Xac di.nh h`am () = krk2 trong do r xac d.inh bo.i (5.27).
u.ng.
Bu.o.c 4. Neu krk2 = knk2 a thua.t toan d`
Bu.o.c 5. Tang hoa.c giam :
(a) neu krk2 < knk2 a tang
(b) neu krk2 > knk2 a giam
Bu.o.c 6. Chuyen sang Bu.o.c 2.
5.7
Kh
oi phu.c tu.o.ng t
ac
Mo.t trong nh
u.ng tru.`o.ng ho..p do.n gian nhat l`a anh sai do su.. xuat hie.n cac mau
y hie.u (x, y) l`a mau giao
giao thoa h`nh sin 2D (go.i l`a nhieu co ket) trong anh. K
`an so (u0, v0); t
thoa h`nh sin co bien do. A v`a cac t
u.c l`a
(x, y) = A sin(u0x + v0y).
Thay tru..c tiep v`ao bien doi Fourier cua (x, y) ta du.o..c
iA h
u0
v0
u0
v0 i
N (u, v) =
u ,v
u+
,v +
.
2
2
2
2
2
Noi cach khac, bien doi Fourier cua h`am sin 2D l`a xung co bien do. cu..c da.i ta.i A/2
.ng ta.i cac to.a do. (u0/2, v0 /2) v`a (u0/2, v0/2) cua ma.t phang
v`a A/2 tu.o.ng u
`an so. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay phep bien doi ch co cac th`anh ph
`an ao.
t
Neu mo h`nh suy giam chat lu.o..ng ch co nhieu th`
G(u, v) = F (u, v) + N (u, v).
Nhu. va.y bien do. cua G(u, v) ch
u.a bien do. tong cua F (u, v) v`a N (u, v). Neu A du lo.n,
u.ng diem sang tren m`an h`nh hien thi.,
hai xung cua N (u, v) thu.`o.ng xuat hie.n nhu. nh
da.c bie.t neu ch
ung du.o..c da.t tu.o.ng doi xa vo.i goc to.a do. (do dong gop cac th`anh
`an F (u, v) nho).
ph
`oi ba` ng cach tr`
`an giao thoa trong
Neu biet (x, y) th` anh goc du.o..c phu.c h
u. di ph
- i
`eu n`ay hiem khi xay ra. Phu.o.ng phap khoi phu.c anh o. day l`a xac di.nh
anh g(x, y). D
`an xung trong mi
`en t
`an so v`a su. du.ng lo.c dai
qua quan sat vi. tr cua cac th`anh ph
bang de loa.i ta.i cac vi. tr n`ay.
Trong thu..c te, su.. hie.n die.n ro r`ang cua mo.t mau giao thoa hiem khi xay ra. V
du. cac anh nha.n du.o..c t`
u. cac may quet die.n tu.-quang ho.c (cac anh n`ay thu.`o.ng su.
`en thong khong gian). Van d`e thu.`o.ng ga.p vo.i nh
u.ng bo. cam bien cua
du.ng trong truy
may quet l`a su.. giao thoa gay ra ta.i cac cho noi v`a do vie.c khuyech da.i cac tn hie.u
m
u.c thap trong ma.ch die.n tu.. Ket qua l`a anh du.o..c quet t`
u. scanner ch
u.a mo.t cau
`an ho`an 2D rat de thay.
tr
uc tu
`eu th`anh ph
`an giao thoa xuat hie.n trong anh, phu.o.ng phap thao lua.n
Khi co nhi
`an tren kho ap du.ng do co the khu. bo nhi
`eu thong tin cua anh trong tien tr`nh lo.c.
ph
.
.
`an n`ay noi chung khong phai l`a nh
`an so bien doi do.t ngo.t.
u a, cac th`anh ph
u.ng t
Ho n n
`e mau giao thoa. Cac
Thay v`ao do ch
ung thu.`o.ng bao v`ong quanh v`a mang thong tin v
v`
ung n`ay khong de d`ang xac d.inh t`
u. phep bien doi chuan.
137
V` anh nhieu g(x, y) b`a ng anh goc f (x, y) co.ng them giao thoa, nen de d`ang suy
`e c`on la.i o. cho phu.o.ng phap tren ch xay du..ng lo.c
ra f (x, y) neu biet p(x, y). Van d
`an khong xuat hie.n trong u.o.c lu.o..ng
mo.t cach xap x. Anh hu.o.ng cua cac th`anh ph
u.c
p(x, y) co the giam toi thieu ba` ng cach cho.n u.o.c lu.o..ng cua f (x, y) theo cong th
f(x, y) = g(x, y) w(x, y)p(x, y)
(5.29)
`eu bien,
trong do w(x, y) cho tru.o.c. H`am w(x, y) go.i l`a h`am tro.ng lu.o..ng hay h`am di
v`a mu.c tieu cho.n h`am n`ay sao cho da.t mu.c tieu cho tru.o.c. Chang ha.n ta co the cho.n
w(x, y) sao cho phu.o.ng sai cua f(x, y) nho nhat tren lan ca.n xac di.nh tru.o.c cua mo.i
diem (x, y).
Xet lan ca.n kch thu.o.c (2X + 1) (2Y + 1) ta.i diem (x, y). Phu.o.ng sai di.a
phu.o.ng cua f(x, y) ta.i (x, y) l`a
X
Y
X
X
1
(x, y) =
[f(x + m, y + n) [f(x, y)]a]2
(2X + 1)(2Y + 1) m=X n=Y
2
138
(5.30)
trong do [f(x, y)]a l`a gia tri. trung b`nh cua f(x, y) trong lan ca.n n`ay; t
u.c l`a
[f(x, y)]a =
X
Y
X
X
1
f(x + m, y + n).
(2X + 1)(2Y + 1) m=X n=Y
X
Y
X
X
1
{(g(x + m, y + n)
(2X + 1)(2Y + 1) m=X n=Y
(5.31)
5.8
`en kh
Kh
oi phu.c mi
ong gian
140
Chu.o.ng 6
.
NH
NEN DU LIE
U
A
.
Ta biet ra` ng, bieu dien da.ng so cua cac anh d`oi hoi mo.t so lu.o..ng lo.n cac bit. Trong
`eu u
nhi
.ng du.ng, ta muon bieu dien anh hay thong tin trong anh vo.i so bit t nhat co
- i
`eu n`ay dan den b`ai toan, nen d
the du.o..c. D
u. lie.u.
`om:
Cac u
.ng du.ng nen d
u. lie.u trong lnh vu..c xu. l
y anh g
1. nen d
u. lie.u anh;
`en d
2. truy
u. lie.u anh; v`a
3. trch cho.n da.c tru.ng.
Co hai k
y thua.t nen d
u. lie.u anh do l`a nen bao to`an thong tin v`a nen khong bao
to`an thong tin. Nen bao to`an thong tin (lossless compression) l`a phu.o.ng phap giam
- i
`eu n`ay co ngha khi ta nen
kch thu.o.c cac ta.p tin nhu.ng khong l`am mat thong tin. D
.
.
.
mo.t ta.p tin th` khong gian lu u tr
u no t ho n khi ta khong nen, nhu.ng khi giai nen ta
`an mo. ro.ng
van thu du.o..c thong tin chnh xac nhu. c
u. V du. cac ta.p tin anh co ph
GIF, PCX, TIFF d`
ung thua.t toan nen d
u. lie.u nhu. Run Length, Huffman, LZW (xem
[2], [17]).
Nen khong bao to`an thong tin (loss compression) l`a giam toi da so lu.o..ng lu.u tr
u.
d
u. lie.u nhu.ng so lie.u anh thu..c ho..p l
y phai du.o..c bao to`an, co the loa.i bo bo.t mo.t so
`an thiet; sau khi giai nen, anh co the chap nha.n du.o..c chang ha.n
thong tin khong c
`an mo. ro.ng JPEG, MPG su. du.ng thua.t toan bien doi
nhu. mo.t so ta.p tin anh co ph
cosin ([2], [17]).
141
6.1
en anh
Co. so. cua n
Thua.t ng
u. nen d
u. lie.u am ch den tien tr`nh giam so lu.o..ng d
u. lie.u d`oi hoi de bieu
`an phan bie.t gi
u.a hai khai nie.m d
u. lie.u v`a
dien mo.t lu.o..ng thong tin cho tru.o.c. C
`ong ngha. Tha.t va.y, d
thong tin. Ch
ung khong d
u. lie.u l`a phu.o.ng tie.n de bieu dien
`en thong tin. C`
`eu cach bieu dien d
v`a truy
ung mo.t lu.o..ng thong tin co the co nhi
u. lie.u
`eu cach ke cua c`
ung mo.t cau chuye.n. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p
khac nhau. Chang ha.n co nhi
u. lie.u du.o..c su. du.ng de dien
n`ay, thong tin quan tam l`a cau chuye.n; cac t`
u. l`a cac d
`e c`
ung mo.t cau chuye.n
da.t thong tin. Neu hai ngu.`o.i su. du.ng so t`
u. khac nhau de ke v
.
.
ta se du o. c hai ban sao khac nhau cua cau chuye.n, v`a t nhat mo.t trong hai ban n`ay
ch
u.a d
u. lie.u du. th`
u.a. T
u.c l`a, no ch
u.a d
u. lie.u (hay cac t`
u.) m`a hoa.c khong lien quan
den cau chuye.n hoa.c nhac la.i nh
u.ng thong tin da biet. Do do co su.. du. th`
u.a trong d
u.
lie.u.
- o khong phai l`a
Du. th`
u.a d
u. lie.u l`a mo.t chu d`e trung tam trong nen anh so. D
khai nie.m tr`
u.u tu.o..ng m`a l`a mo.t thu..c the do du.o..c b`a ng toan ho.c. Neu k
y hie.u n1 , n2
.
.
.
ung mo.t thong tin, th` do. du.
l`a so lu o. ng thong tin trong hai ta.p d
u lie.u bieu dien c`
th`
u.a d
u. lie.u d`au tien (da.c tru.ng bo.i n1 ) co the xac
u. lie.u tu.o.ng doi RD cua ta.p d
di.nh bo.i
1
,
RD = 1
CR
trong do CR , thu.`o.ng go.i l`a t le. nen, l`a
CR =
n1
.
n2
Chang ha.n, vo.i n2 = n1 th` CR = 1 v`a RD = 0; ngha l`a (doi vo.i ta.p d
u. lie.u th
u. hai)
u.a d
u. lie.u du. th`
u.a. Khi n2 n1 th`
bieu dien thong tin theo cach th
u. nhat khong ch
`eu trong d
CR v`a RD 1 : ngha l`a nen co y
ngha v`a co su.. du. th`
u.a nhi
u. lie.u.
`eu n`ay ch ra ta.p d
Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n2 n1 th` CR 0 v`a RD ; di
u. lie.u
`eu d
`au. D nhien, tru.`o.ng ho..p sau n`ay xuat
th
u. hai ch
u.a nhi
u. lie.u ho.n d
u. lie.u ban d
hie.n khi ta xet qua tr`nh giai nen d
u. lie.u. Noi chung, CR v`a RD thuo.c cac khoang mo.
.ng. Mo.t t le. nen, chang ha.n 10 (hay 10:1) ngha l`a ta.p d
u.
(0, ) v`a (, 1) tu.o.ng u
lie.u th
u. nhat mang 10 do.n vi. thong tin doi vo.i moi do.n vi. thong tin trong ta.p d
u.
- o. du. th`
`an tram d
`au tien
lie.u th
u. hai. D
u.a 0.9 ngha l`a 90 ph
u. lie.u trong ta.p d
u. lie.u d
l`a du. th`
u.a.
u.a d
u. lie.u l`a: du. th`
u.a trong ma hoa, du. th`
u.a
Trong nen anh so, co ba loa.i du. th`
trong quan he. gi
u.a cac pixel v`a du. th`
u.a trong tam sinh l
y. Nen d
u. lie.u th`anh cong
khi cac loa.i du. th`
u.a n`ay du.o..c giam bo.t hoa.c du.o..c loa.i bo.
142
6.1.1
u.a trong m
a ho
a
Du. th`
`e ca.p den k
Trong Chu.o.ng 4 ch
ung ta da d
y thua.t nang cao chat lu.o..ng anh ba` ng cach
`o co.t du..a tren gia thiet cac m
u.c xam cua mo.t anh l`a cac da.i lu.o..ng
thay doi bieu d
`e su.. xuat hie.n cua
ngau nhien. Ch
ung ta da ch ra ra` ng mo.t lu.o..ng lo.n thong tin v
`o co.t cua no. Trong ph
`an n`ay ch
anh co the nha.n du.o..c t`
u. bieu d
ung ta se su. du.ng
`o co.t de xay du..ng cac bo. ma nha` m giam so lu.o..ng du.o..c su. du.ng de bieu dien
bieu d
cac gia tri. xam trong anh.
u.c xam cua anh v`a xac
Gia su. bien ngau nhien r`o.i ra.c rk [0, 1] bieu dien cac m
u. k l`a pr (rk ). Nhu. trong Chu.o.ng 4 ta co
suat xuat hie.n m
u.c xam th
nk
pr (rk ) = , k = 0, 1, . . . , L 1,
n
.
`an xuat hie.n m
u.c xam th
u. k v`a n l`a tong so
trong do L l`a so cac m
u c xam, nk l`a so l
cac pixel trong anh. K
y hie.u l(rk ) l`a so bit bieu dien gia tri. xam th
u. k. Khi do so bit
trung b`nh de bieu dien moi pixel l`a
Lavg =
L1
X
k=0
u. ma du.o..c gan cho cac gia tri. xam khac nhau ba` ng
T
u.c l`a, do. d`ai trung b`nh cua cac t`
u.c xam tu.o.ng
tong cac tch cua so bit bieu dien m
u.c xam vo.i xac suat xuat hie.n m
`an thiet de ma hoa anh kch thu.o.c M N l`a MNL .
u
.ng. Do do tong so bit c
avg
7
X
k=0
bo i chu
oi bit d
o. d`
ai m.
1
143
rk
pr (rk )
Ma 1
l1(rk )
Ma 2
l2(rk )
r0 = 0
0.19
000
11
r1 = 1/7
0.25
001
01
r2 = 2/7
0.21
010
10
r3 = 3/7
0.16
011
001
r4 = 4/7
0.08
100
0001
r5 = 5/7
0.06
101
00001
r6 = 6/7
0.03
110
000000
r7 = 1
0.02
111
000001
6.1.2
Qua tr`nh ma hoa vo.i do. d`ai thay doi cac gia tri. xam khong pha vo. tnh tu.o.ng quan
u.c
gi
u.a cac pixel trong anh. Noi cach khac, cac ma du.o..c su. du.ng de bieu dien cac m
xam cua moi anh khong xet den moi lien he. gi
u.a cac pixel. Cac lien he. n`ay xuat hie.n
do quan he. cau tr
uc hoa.c quan he. h`nh ho.c gi
u.a cac doi tu.o..ng trong anh. Cac he.
u.c (3.10) (da du.o..c
so tu.o.ng quan du.o..c tnh do.c theo moi d`ong cua anh theo cong th
chuan hoa):
A(n)
(n) =
,
A(0)
144
pr (rk )
l2(rk )
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
k
2
...
...
...
...
...
...
.
.
.
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........ ....... ....... ....... .....
.
.
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.
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.
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.
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...
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....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..
..
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..
..
..
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.
...
.
...
...
...
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.......... ....
...
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.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
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...
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pr (r )
0.25
l (rk )
6
0.125
4
3
2
0.0
1/7
2/7
3/7
4/7
5/7
6/7
1
A(n) =
N n
N 1n
X
y=0
6.1.3
u.a trong t
am sinh l
y
Du. th`
6.1.4
Ti
eu chu
an d
anh gi
a
Nhu. da ch
uy
tren, loa.i bo d
u. lie.u du. th`
u.a trong tam sinh l
y se l`am mat mat thong
`an den cac tieu chuan danh gia chat
tin. Do thong tin quan tam co the bi. mat, nen ta c
lu.o..ng h`nh anh. Hai tieu chuan thu.`o.ng d`
ung de danh gia l`a: (1) tieu chuan khach
quan; v`a (2) tieu chuan chu quan.
Ti
eu chu
an kh
ach quan
`en d
u. lie.u anh mo.t v`ai loi xuat hie.n trong anh xay du..ng la.i
Vo.i mo.t so he. thong truy
co the chap nha.n du.o..c. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay ch
ung ta su. du.ng tieu chuan do. tin
ca.y de do chat lu.o..ng cua he. thong. Chang ha.n, cac tieu chuan khach quan l`a
146
1. sai so gi
u.a anh v`ao v`a anh ra; v`a
u.a anh ra v`a nhieu.
2. u.o.c lu.o..ng sai so gi
- e lu.u anh f ta c
`an
Xet anh f (x, y), x = 0, 1, . . . , M 1, y = 0, 1, . . . , N 1. D
.
.
M N m bit vo i m l`a so bit bieu dien gia tri. xam hay mo.t t`
u ma. Vie.c nen l`am
giam so bit lu.u tr
u. (nho ho.n M N m bit). Ngu.`o.i giai ma xu. l
y nh
u.ng bit n`ay v`a
.ng t`
u. ma
xay du..ng la.i anh ra g(x, y) co kch thu.o.c M N trong do moi pixel tu.o.ng u
co do. d`ai m bit.
u.a cac pixel cua anh v`ao v`a anh ra l`a
Khi do loi xay ra gi
e(x, y) := g(x, y) f (x, y)
v`a sai so to`an bo.
erms
#1/2
M 1 N 1
1 XX 2
:=
e (x, y)
MN x=0 y=0
#1/2
"
M 1 N 1
1 XX
=
[g(x, y) f (x, y)]2
.
MN x=0 y=0
"
.
U o.c lu.o..ng sai so cua anh ra v`a nhieu xac di.nh bo.i
" PM 1 PN 1
#1/2
2
g
(x,
y)
x=0
y=0
.
(SN R)rms := PM 1 PN 1
2 (x, y)
e
x=0
y=0
Ti
eu chu
an chu quan
Tieu chuan danh gia khach quan cung cap mo.t co. che thua.n tie.n v`a do.n gian de xac
`au het cac anh giai nen d
`eu du.o..c quan sat bo.i con
di.nh thong tin mat. Tuy nhien, h
ngu.`o.i. Do do, se thua.n tie.n ho.n neu danh gia chat lu.o..ng h`nh anh du..a v`ao ngu.`o.i
quan sat.
ung loi phat sinh
T`
uy thuo.c v`ao cach nh`n cua con ngu.`o.i, co the hai anh co c`
nhu.ng quan sat ta thay chat lu.o..ng hai anh ho`an to`an khac nhau: do l`a do tnh chu
quan cua con ngu.`o.i. Anh co loi xuat hie.n o. bien th` co chat lu.o..ng tot ho.n loi xuat
hie.n o. v`
ung trung tam anh. Chat lu.o..ng cua mo.t anh co the du.o..c danh gia chu quan
`eu ngu.`o.i. Cac danh gia du..a tren bang phan loa.i hoa.c b`a ng cach
qua quan sat cua nhi
doi sanh hai anh f (x, y) v`a f(x, y). Sau day l`a cach phan loa.i cua to ch
u.c TASO (viet
u. Television Allocation Study Organization):
tat t`
147
6.2
C
ac m
o h`nh n
en anh
`an 6.1 ch
Trong Ph
ung ta da d`e ca.p rieng re ba phu.o.ng phap de giam do. du. th`
u.a d
u.
lie.u hay nen d
u. lie.u anh. Tuy nhien, cac phu.o.ng phap n`ay thu.`o.ng du.o..c to ho..p la.i
`an n`ay ch
de ta.o th`anh mo.t he. thong nen d
u. lie.u anh. Trong ph
ung ta nghien c
u.u cac
da.c tru.ng chung cua nh
u.ng he. thong n`ay v`a tr`nh b`ay mo.t mo h`nh tong quat de bieu
dien ch
ung.
`om hai khoi cau tr
Nhu. trong H`nh 6.2, mo.t he. thong nen anh bao g
uc: khoi ma
hoa v`a khoi giai ma.2 Anh f (x, y) du.o..c du.a v`ao bo. ma hoa. Bo. n`ay se ta.o ra mo.t
`en
ta.p cac k
y hie.u t`
u. d
u. lie.u nha.p. Sau do ta.p n`ay du.o..c chuyen qua mo.t kenh truy
dan den bo. giai ma. Bo. giai ma thu..c hie.n tien tr`nh giai ma v`a ta du.o..c anh f(x, y).
ung hoa.c khong vo.i anh f (x, y) ban d`au. Neu hai anh
Noi chung, anh f(x, y) co the tr`
`en khong co loi hoa.c thong tin du.o..c bao to`an; ngu.o..c la.i,
tr`
ung nhau, he. thong truy
anh du.o..c xay du..ng la.i bi. suy bien.
`om hai bo. pha.n tu.o.ng doi do.c
Ca hai khoi ma hoa v`a giai ma trong H`nh 6.2 g
`om ma hoa ngu
`on nha` m loa.i bo du. th`
la.p. Bo. ma hoa g
u.a trong d
u. lie.u v`ao, v`a ma
oi m
a ho
a v`
a kh
oi giai m
a phan
C
ac kh
oi n`
ay c`
on go.i l`
a kh
oi nen v`
a kh
oi giai nen. Thu
a.t ng
u. kh
.
.
.
.
o
ng
cu
a
l
y
thuy
e
t
th
o
ng
tin
d
i
v
o
i
l
a
nh
vu
c
n
e
n
a
nh.
anh anh hu
.
2
148
`en d
hoa kenh thu..c hie.n giam sai (neu co) khi truy
u. lie.u qua kenh. Tu.o.ng tu.., bo. giai
`on. Neu kenh truy
`en gi
`om giai ma kenh v`a sau do l`a bo. giai ma ngu
u.a cac bo. ma
ma g
hoa v`a giai ma khong co nhieu th` ma hoa kenh v`a giai ma kenh du.o..c bo qua.
f (x, y)
..........................................................
..........................................................
..........................................................
..........................................................
............................................................
...
..
...
..
...
..
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..
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...
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...
...
..
...
..
...
..
...
....
.
.
.
...
....
...
...
...
...
..
...
...
...
...
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.................................
..................................
...........................................................
...........................................................
...............................
...............................
.
...
...
...
...
.
.
.
....
...
.
...
....
..
.
...
..
...
..
.
.
..
..
...
..
..
...
...
....
...
...
....
.
...
...
...
.
...
...
...
.
.
....
....
....
.
.
.
...
..
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.
.
.
...
.........................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
.......................................................
Ma hoa
Ma hoa
Kenh
`on
ngu
kenh
Giai ma
Giai ma
kenh
`on
ngu
f(x, y)
Giai ma
Ma hoa
6.2.1
`on
M
a ho
a v`
a gia i m
a ngu
`on co ch
Ma hoa ngu
u.c nang giam hoa.c khu. bo du. th`
u.a trong ma hoa, trong quan he.
`au v`ao. Nhi
`eu u
gi
u.a cac pixel hay du. th`
u.a trong tam sinh l
y t`
u. anh d
.ng du.ng da.c
`an co nh
u.ng cach ma hoa tot nhat. Thong
bie.t v`a cac lanh vu..c lien quan d`oi hoi c
thu.`o.ng, cach tiep ca.n n`ay co the mo h`nh hoa bo.i ba thao tac do.c la.p lien tiep nhau.
Nhu. trong H`nh 6.3(a), moi thao tac du.o..c thiet ke de thu..c hie.n giam do. du. th`
u.a d
u.
`an 6.1. H`nh 6.3(b) l`a so. d`o tu.o.ng u
`on.
lie.u du.o..c mo ta trong Ph
.ng khoi giai ma ngu
f (x, y)
...........................................................................
..............................................................................................................
...........................................................................
...
...
...
....
....
....
...
...
...
...
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...
...
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...
.
.
.
.
...
...
...
.
..
.
....
.
.
..
.
.
.............................................
.................................................................
................................................................
.............................................
..
..
..
...
...
...
...
.
...
.
...
.
.
...
...
...
...
....
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
...........................................................................
..............................................................................................................
............................................................................
Bien doi
Ma hoa
k
y hie.u
Kenh
`on
Ma hoa ngu
(a)
Kenh
...........................................................................
..............................................................................................................
...
...
....
....
...
...
...
...
...
...
.
.
...
...
..
....
.
..
.
..........................................
..................................................................
.............................................
...
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...
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....
...
....
..
...........................................................................
...............................................................................................................
Giai ma
k
y hie.u
f(x, y)
`on
Giai ma ngu
(b)
`on (b).
`on (a) v`a giai ma ngu
H`nh 6.3: Mo h`nh ma hoa ngu
Xet anh f du.o..c bieu dien bo.i day cac gia tri. xam z0, z1 , . . . , zn1 . Ma hoa anh f
du.o..c thu..c hie.n thong qua ba bu.o.c:
149
`an tu. anh z0, z1, . . . , zn1 th`anh cac he. so y0 , y1, . . . , yn1 ;
1. Bien doi cac ph
2. Lu.o..ng tu. hoa cac he. so y0 , y1, . . . , yn1 v`a l`am tr`on th`anh 0 , 1, . . . , n1 ;
3. Gan m
u.c lu.o..ng tu. hoa i , i = 0, 1, . . . , n 1, vo.i mo.t t`
u. ma ci .
Bi
en d
oi
`au tien cua qua tr`nh ma hoa ngu
`on, bo. pha.n bien doi co the xem nhu.
Giai doa.n d
mo.t anh xa. t`
u. ta.p cac so (cac pixel) th`anh ta.p cac so khac nh`a m giam su.. du. th`
u.a
`au. Phep toan n`ay noi chung l`a kha nghi.ch
trong quan he. gi
u.a cac pixel cua anh ban d
v`a co the hoa.c khong giam tru..c tiep so lu.o..ng d
u. lie.u d`oi hoi bieu dien anh.
`an tu. anh do.c theo mo.t d`ong quet z0, z1 , . . . , zm1
Trong ma hoa run length, day cac ph
du.o..c bien doi th`anh day cac ca.p
S := {(l0 , g0), (l1 , g1), . . . , (lk1 , gk1 )},
`an la.p cua gia tri. xam gi . Phep bien doi n`ay kha nghi.ch v` day cac
trong do li l`a so l
`an tu. anh co the xay du..ng la.i t`
ph
u. day S.
Mo.t phep bien doi khac l`a
y = Az,
(6.1)
trong do A l`a ma tra.n vuong cap n. Phep bien doi n`ay co the kha nghi.ch hoa.c khong
t`
uy theo ma tra.n A. Vo.i ta.p cac vector z v`a ma tra.n A n`ao do, ta co the lu.u tr
u.
vector y vo.i so bit t ho.n lu.u tr
u. z.
Chang ha.n, phep bien doi sai phan xac d.inh bo.i ma tra.n
1 0
0
0
0
0
1 1 0
0
0
0
0 1 1 0
0
0
A :=
.
0 0
1
1
0
0
0 0
0
1
1
0
0 0
0
0
1 1
Ta co
= z0,
(6.2)
= zi1 zi ,
i = 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
150
`e nhau co m
`e trung b`nh,
Neu cac pixel k
u.c xam tu.o.ng tu.. th` hie.u yi = zi1 zi , v
.
.
.
.
.
nho ho n cac m
u c xam v`a do do d`oi hoi t bit ho n de lu u tr
u . Phep bien doi n`ay l`a
kha nghi.ch.
Lu.o..ng tu. ho
a
`an tu. zi co the lay 2m gia tri. khac nhau th` yj
Xet phep bien doi (6.1), neu moi ph
`an cac t`
co the lay (2m )n = 2mn gia tri. khac nhau. Noi cach khac, c
u. ma co do. d`ai
mnbit de gan mo.t t`
u. ma cho mo.t gia tri. yj . Nhu.ng moi gia tri. zi du.o..c gan t`
u. ma
ung ta l`a su. du.ng t bit ho.n de ma hoa yi v` va.y ta
co do. d`ai m v`a mu.c tieu cua ch
`an lu.o..ng tu. hoa cac gia tri. n`ay.
c
`om nhi
`eu ph
`an tu. (co the vo ha.n)
Lu.o..ng tu. hoa l`a anh xa. bien mo.t ta.p Y g
`an tu. ho.n: ta phan hoa.ch dai do.ng cua ta.p Y bo.i cac m
th`anh ta.p V co t ph
u.c
l0, l1, . . . , lt1. Neu gia tri. na` m trong khoang (li , li+1] th` ta se gan no co gia tri. i (co
the cho.n l`a tam cua khoang n`ay). Lu.o..ng tu. hoa d`eu l`a phep phan hoa.ch d`eu; ngu.o..c
la.i l`a khong d`eu. Qua tr`nh lu.o..ng tu. hoa nha` m giam su.. du. th`
u.a trong tam sinh l
y.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Nhu da noi tru o c, thao tac n`ay khong kha nghi.ch. Do do, lu o. ng tu hoa khong du o..c
su. du.ng trong nh
.ng du.ng d`oi hoi nen bao toan thong tin.
u.ng u
Gia su. p(y) l`a h`am ma.t do. xac suat cua y v`a l`a m
u.c lu.o..ng tu. hoa cua y. Khi
do sai so cua phep lu.o..ng tu. hoa l`a
Z +
2
( y)2 p(y)dy,
eq :=
M
a ho
a
Xet vector v := (0 , 1 , . . . , n1 ) trong do moi gia tri. i co the lay mo.t trong L gia
tri. ai, i = 0, 1, . . . , L 1. Tien tr`nh ma hoa nha` m xay du..ng cac t`
u. ma nhi. phan
ci , i = 0, 1, . . . , L 1, tu.o.ng u
.ng mo.t-mo.t vo.i moi gia tri. ai. Mu.c dch cua ma hoa l`a
thiet ke bo. ma sao cho su. du.ng so bit t nhat co the. Vo.i ma co do. d`ai khong doi, ta
d`
ung b = log2 L bit de bieu dien tat ca L kha nang. Ma n`ay toi u.u trong tru.`o.ng ho..p
u.c a0, a1, . . . , aL1 ba` ng nhau.
xac suat xuat hie.n cua cac m
151
6.2.2
M
a ho
a v`
a gia i m
a k
enh
Ma hoa kenh v`a giai ma kenh dong vai tr`o quan tro.ng trong to`an bo. qua tr`nh ma
`en co nhieu hoa.c co loi. Ch
hoa-giai ma khi kenh truy
ung du.o..c thiet ke de giam thieu
`en ba` ng cach ch`en mo.t bo. di
`eu khien. Phu.o.ng phap ma hoa
nhieu cua du.`o.ng truy
`en hie.u qua nhat du.a ra bo.i Hamming [11] nam 1950. Phu.o.ng phap n`ay du..a
kenh truy
tren vie.c them cac bit v`ao d
u. lie.u du.o..c ma hoa de bao dam neu so loi trong du.`o.ng
`en xuat hie.n du t th` co the phu.c h
`oi du.o..c d
`au.
truy
u. lie.u ban d
- e giai ma d
u. lie.u du.o..c ma hoa b`a ng phu.o.ng phap Hamming, bo. giai ma kenh
D
kiem tra tnh ho..p le. (v`a su.a sai neu co) cua d
u. lie.u du.o..c gu.i. Sau do, loa.i bo nh
u.ng
`au.
bit them v`ao trong d
u. lie.u ban d
152
6.3
`an 6.1 ch
Trong Ph
ung ta da gio.i thie.u mo.t so cach de giam so lu.o..ng d
u. lie.u bieu dien
`e du.o..c da.t ra l`a: c
`an bao nhieu d
mo.t anh. Mo.t van d
u. lie.u thu..c su.. de bieu dien mo.t
anh? T
u.c l`a, so lu.o..ng d
u. lie.u t nhat l`a bao nhieu du mo ta d`ay du anh m`a khong
mat thong tin? L
y thuyet thong tin cung cap co. so. toan ho.c tra l`o.i cau hoi n`ay v`a
`e lien quan.
nh
u.ng van d
6.3.1
- o th
D
ong tin
`en d
`e co. ban cua l
y thuyet thong tin l`a co the mo h`nh hoa thong tin bo.i mo.t qua
Ti
tr`nh xac suat v`a co the do thong tin theo mo.t ngha tr`
ung vo.i cam nha.n tru..c quan
cua con ngu.`o.i. Vo.i gia thiet n`ay, mo.t su.. kie.n ngau nhien E vo.i xac suat xuat hie.n
P (E) go.i l`a ch
u.a
I(E) = log
1
= log P (E)
P (E)
do.n vi. thong tin. Gia tri. I(E) thu.`o.ng go.i l`a thong tin rieng (self-information) hay
lu.o..ng thong tin du.o..c ch
u.a trong E. Noi chung, so lu.o..ng thong tin dong gop v`ao su..
kie.n E t le. nghi.ch vo.i xac suat xuat hie.n E. Neu P (E) = 1 (t
u.c l`a, su.. kie.n luon luon
xay ra) th` I(E) = 0 v`a khong co thong tin g` dong gop khi xay ra su.. kie.n n`ay. T
u.c
l`a, do khong co t`nh tra.ng khong ro r`ang gan vo.i su.. kie.n nen khong co thong tin g`
`en
du.o..c trao doi khi su.. kie.n n`ay xuat hie.n. Tuy nhien, neu P (E) = 0.99 th` vie.c truy
ut thong tin. Thong bao E khong xuat
di thong bao su.. kie.n E xuat hie.n se co mo.t ch
`eu ho.n v` ket qua n`ay gay bat ng`o..
hie.n mang thong tin nhi
Co. so trong phep lay logarithm xac di.nh do.n vi. du.o..c su. du.ng de do thong tin.3
Neu su. du.ng co. so e th` do.n vi. do l`a nat v`a neu cho.n co. so 2, do.n vi. do go.i l`a bit.
Ch
uy
ra` ng neu P (E) = 1/2 th` I(E) = log2 1/2 hay 1 bit. T
u.c l`a lu.o..ng thong tin
`en da.t khi su.. kie.n E co xac suat xuat hie.n ba` ng xac suat khong xuat hie.n
du.o..c truy
ba` ng 1 bit. V du. do.n gian l`a tung xap ngu.a mo.t d`ong xu v`a thong bao ket qua.
o.ng minh gi
a tri. co. s
o cua log trong m
o.t bieu th
u.c th` ket qua c
o the hieu o.
Khi kh
ong viet tu.`
ong tin tu.o.ng u
.ng v
o.i co. s
o d
o.
o b
at k`
y v`
a do.n vi. do th
co. s
3
153
6.3.2
`en tin
K
enh truy
`en t`
`on thong tin den
Khi lu.o..ng thong tin ch
u.a trong mo.t su.. kie.n du.o..c truy
u. mo.t ngu
`on thong tin du.o..c noi vo.i ngu.`o.i su. du.ng thong
mo.t ngu.`o.i su. du.ng thong tin ta noi ngu
y co ch
u.c nang lien ket
tin bo.i mo.t kenh thong tin. Kenh thong tin l`a thiet bi. va.t l
`on vo.i ngu.`o.i su. du.ng. No co the l`a mo.t du.`o.ng day die.n thoa.i, du.`o.ng truy
`en nang
ngu
.
.
.
.
.
lu o. ng die.n t`
u tru `o ng, hoa.c mo.t day dan trong may tnh. H`nh 6.4 l`a mo h`nh toan
ho.c do.n gian doi vo.i he. thong thong tin r`o.i ra.c. Trong mo h`nh n`ay, tham so quan
`en thong tin.
tro.ng nhat l`a thong lu.o..ng cua he. thong xac di.nh bo.i kha nang truy
`on thong tin trong H`nh 6.4 ta.o ra mo.t day ngau nhien cac k
Gia su. ra` ng ngu
y
.
.
.
.
.
`on l`a mo.t
u u ha.n hay dem du o. c cac k
y hie.u. T
u c l`a d`au ra cua ngu
hie.u t`
u mo.t ta.p h
`on A = {a1, a2, . . . , aJ } go.i l`a bang k
y hie.u ngu
bien ngau nhien r`o.i ra.c. Ta.p cac k
y
`on v`a cac ph
`an tu. aj A go.i l`a k
`on
hie.u ngu
y hie.u, hay k
y tu... Gia su. xac suat de ngu
sinh ra k
y hie.u aj l`a P (aj ) v`a
J
X
P (aj ) = 1.
j=1
- a.t z = [P (a1), P (a2), . . . , P (aJ )]t. Khi do ca.p (A, z), go.i l`a khong gian xac suat h
D
u.u
`on thong tin.
`on, mo ta d`ay du ngu
ha.n cua ngu
Do xac suat xuat hie.n k
y hie.u aj l`a P (aj ) nen lu.o..ng thong tin ch
u.a trong su..
`on du.o..c ta.o ra th` theo lua.t so lo.n,
kie.n n`ay l`a I(aj ) = log P (aj ). Neu k k
y hie.u ngu
`e trung b`nh) se xuat hie.n kP (aj ) l
`an. Suy ra lu.o..ng thong
vo.i k du lo.n k
y hie.u aj (v
`on sinh ra l`a
tin trung b`nh nha.n du.o..c khi k tn hie.u du.o..c ngu
k
J
X
j=1
J
X
(6.3)
j=1
`on
Ngu
............................................................................
Kenh
thong tin
...........................................................................
Ca.p (B, v)
Ca.p (A, z)
Q = [qkj ]
A = {aj }
B = {bk }
J
X
j=1
P (b1 |a1)
P (b2 |a1)
Q=
..
P (b1|a2)
P (b2|a2)
..
.
P (b1 |aJ )
P (b2 |aJ )
.
..
P (bK |aJ )
Khi do
v = Qz.
(6.4)
`an tu. qkj = P (bk |aj ) go.i l`a ma tra.n bien doi kenh thua.n.
Ma tra.n Q vo.i cac ph
- e xac d.inh kha nang cua mo.t kenh vo.i ma tra.n bien doi kenh thua.n Q tru.o.c
D
`an tnh entropy cua ngu
`on thong tin vo.i gia thiet ngu.`o.i su. du.ng thong
het ch
ung ta c
tin quan sat mo.t tn hie.u ra bk . Phu.o.ng tr`nh (6.4) xac di.nh h`am phan bo cua cac
`on khi bk du.o..c quan sat, nen moi bk cho mo.t h`am entropy co di
`eu kie.n.
k
y hie.u ngu
.
.
.
.
.
`eu kie.n, k
y hie.u
Du. a tren cac bu o c dan den Phu o ng tr`nh (6.3), h`am entropy co di
H(z, bk ), co da.ng
H(z, bk ) =
J
X
j=1
`en k
`eu kie.n ngu.`o.i su. du.ng nha.n
y hie.u aj vo.i di
trong do P (aj |bk ) l`a xac suat truy
du.o..c k
y vo.ng hay gia tri. trung b`nh cua bieu th
u.c n`ay theo tat ca cac bk
y hie.u bk . K`
l`a
K
X
H(z, v) =
H(z, bk )P (bk ).
k=1
J X
K
X
(6.5)
j=1 k=1
u.c l`a
Trong bieu th
u.c tren, P (aj , bk ) l`a xac suat lien ket cac su.. kie.n aj v`a bk . T
`on truy
`en aj v`a ngu.`o.i su. du.ng nha.n du.o..c bk .
P (aj , bk ) l`a xac suat khi ngu
So ha.ng H(z, v) go.i l`a m
u.c do. ma.p m`o. cua z tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i v. No bieu thi. thong
`on khi da biet cac ket qua qua quan sat. V` H(z) l`a
y hie.u ngu
tin trung b`nh cua k
`on, gia thiet khong biet tru.o.c v
`e ket qua cua
thong tin trung b`nh cua mo.t k
y hie.u ngu
u.a H(z) v`a H(z, v) l`a thong tin trung b`nh nha.n du.o..c
tn hie.u nha.n du.o..c, hie.u so gi
trong l
uc quan sat mo.t k
y hie.u o. d`au ra. Hie.u so n`ay, k
y hie.u I(z, v), go.i l`a thong tin
tu.o.ng ho cua z v`a v, l`a
I(z, v) = H(z) H(z, v).
Ch
u y
ra` ng P (aj ) = P (aj , b1 ) + P (aj , b2 ) + + P (aj , bK ). T`
u. do thay H(z) trong
Phu.o.ng tr`nh (6.3) v`a H(z, v) trong (6.5) ta du.o..c
I(z, v) =
K
J X
X
j=1 k=1
P (aj , bk )
.
P (aj , bk ) log
P (aj )P (bk )
156
T`
u. do
I(z, v) =
J X
K
X
j=1 k=1
"
i=1
qkj
P (ai )qki
(6.6)
`en
u. kenh truy
Do do thong tin trung b`nh nha.n du.o..c khi quan sat mo.t tn hie.u ra t`
`on z v`a ma tra.n bien doi kenh
phu. thuo.c v`ao phan bo xac suat cua cac k
y hie.u ngu
thua.n Q.
Tnh ch
at 6.3.1 Ta c
o
I(z, v) 0;
`
d
au b
a ng xa y ra neu v`
a ch neu c
ac tn hie.u v`
ao v`
a tn hie.u ra d
o.c l
a.p th
ong ke.
du.ng bat dang th
Ch
u.ng minh. Ap
u.c Jensen ta co
J X
K
X
P (aj )P (bk )
I(z, v) =
P (aj , bk ) log
P (aj , bk )
j=1 k=1
#
" J K
XX
P (aj )P (bk )
log
j=1 k=1
= log 1 = 0.
`oi thu..c su.. cua h`am log x ta co dau dang th
u.a, do tnh l
u.c neu v`a ch neu
Ho.n n
P (aj , bk ) = P (aj )P (bk ) vo.i mo.i j, k; t
u.c l`a cac tn hie.u v`ao v`a tn hie.u ra do.c la.p
thong ke. 2
Gia tri. cu..c da.i
C := max I(z, v),
z
`on, go.i
trong do maximum lay tren tat ca cac xac suat co the co cua cac k
y hie.u ngu
l`a thong lu.o..ng cua kenh. Theo di.nh ngha, thong lu.o..ng cua kenh l`a lu.o..ng thong tin
toi da khi kenh cho di qua trong mo.t do.n vi. th`o.i gian. Ho.n n
u.a, thong lu.o..ng cua
`on m`a ch phu. thuo.c v`ao
kenh khong phu. thuo.c v`ao cac xac suat cua cac k
y hie.u ngu
`eu kie.n xac di.nh kenh.
cac xac suat co di
`on thong tin nhi. phan vo.i bang ch
V du. 6.3.2 Xet ngu
u. A = {a1, a2 } = {0, 1}
`on ta.o ra cac k
v`a cac xac suat ngu
y hie.u a1 v`a a2 tu.o.ng u
.ng l`a P (a1 ) = pbs v`a
`on l`a
P (a2 ) = 1 pbs = pbs . Khi do entropy cua ngu
H(z) = pbs log2 pbs pbs log2 pbs .
157
V` z = (P (a1 ), P (a2))t = (pbs , 1 pbs )t nen H(z) ch phu. thuo.c v`ao tham so pbs v`a ve
ben phai cua phu.o.ng tr`nh tren go.i l`a h`am entropy nhi. phan, k
y hie.u l`a Hbs (). Do do,
Entropy H (bits/k
y hie.u)
...
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....................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6 0.8
Xac suat pbs
1.0
(a)
Thong lu.o..ng C (bits/k
y hie.u)
...
........
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bs e
....
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..
.
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..
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....................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
1 H (p )
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6 0.8
Xac suat pbs
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1.0
.
........
....
..
....
..
..
.....
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.
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..
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............................................................................................................................................................................................................................
0.0
(b)
0.2
0.4
0.6 0.8
Xac suat pe
1.0
(c)
H`nh 6.5: Ba h`am thong tin nhi. phan: (a) h`am entropy; (b) thong tin tu.o.ng ho cua
kenh doi x
u.ng nhi. phan (BSC); (c) thong lu.o..ng cua BSC.
159
`on
Ngu
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...
.
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.................
................
..............
...............
Kenh
thong tin
He. thong
`en tin
truy
thong tin
Giai ma
Ma hoa
`en tin.
H`nh 6.6: Mo h`nh he. thong truy
6.3.3
C
ac d
i.nh l
y m
a ho
a co. ba n
`an 6.3.2 ch
`e ca.p den mo h`nh trong H`nh 6.4 g
`om ngu
`on thong
Trong Ph
ung ta da d
`an n`ay ta se them v`ao mo.t he. thong truy
`en tin v`a d`e
tin, kenh v`a ngu.`o.i su. du.ng. Ph
`e ma hoa v`a bieu dien thong tin. Nhu. H`nh 6.6 ch ra, he. thong
ca.p den ba di.nh l
y v
`on thong tin v`a ngu.`o.i su. du.ng; he. thong n`ay bao g
`en tin du.o..c ch`en gi
`om
u.a ngu
truy
mo.t bo. ma hoa v`a mo.t bo. gia ma.
- i.nh l
u
D
y m
a ho
a kh
ong nhi
e
`en tin khong co nhieu th` ch
Khi kenh thong tin v`a he. thong truy
u.c nang chnh cua he.
`en tin l`a bieu dien ngu
`on sao cho s
thong truy
uc tch nhat. Vo.i nh
u.ng gia thiet n`ay,
d.inh l
y ma hoa khong nhieu hay c`on go.i l`a d.inh l
y th
u. nhat cua Shannon cho biet do.
d`ai trung b`nh cua t`
u. ma nho nhat.
`on khong nho. l`a ngu
`on thong tin vo.i khong gian xac suat h
Ta go.i ngu
u.u ha.n
`on do.c la.p thong ke vo.i nhau. Neu khao sat tn hie.u ra t`
u.
(A, z) v`a cac k
y hie.u ngu
`on khong nho. l`a bo. g
`om n k
`on th` tn hie.u ngu
`on l`a mo.t
ngu
y hie.u trong bang ch
u. ngu
`om J k
`an tu. cua An
vector ngau nhien thuo.c An . Do bang ch
u. A g
y hie.u, nen so ph
`om n k
ba` ng J n . Gia su. An = {1 , 2, . . . , J n }, trong do moi i l`a chuoi g
y hie.u thuo.c
.
bang ch
u A. K
y hie.u P (i ) l`a xac suat xuat hie.n vector i = (ai1 , ai2 , . . . , ain ). Khi do
P (i ) = P (ai1 )P (ai2 ) P (ain ).
- a.t z0 = (P (i1 ), P (i2 ), . . . , P (J n ))t . Ta co entropy cua ngu
`on ba` ng
D
n
H(z ) =
J
X
P (i ) log P (i ).
i=1
160
Suy ra
H(z0 ) = nH(z).
`on thong tin khong nho. (ta.o ra cac vector ngau nhien)
Noi cach khac, entropy cua ngu
`on ta.o ra t`
`an entropy cua ngu
`on nhu. va.y thu.`o.ng go.i
u.ng k
gap n l
y hie.u mo.t. Ma ngu
`on k
y hie.u do.n.
l`a mo. ro.ng th
u. n cua ngu
V` thong tin rieng cua tn hie.u ra i l`a log[1/P (i )] nen se l`a ho..p l
y neu ch
ung
.
.
ta ma hoa i su du.ng t`
u ma co do. d`ai nguyen l(i ) sao cho
log
1
1
l(i ) < log
+ 1.
P (i )
P (i )
J
X
i=1
Jn
Jn
X
X
1
1
+ 1;
P (i ) log
P (i )l(i ) <
P (i ) log
P (i )
P (i )
i=1
i=1
Ch
uy
r`a ng H(z0 )/n = H(z). Suy ra
L0avg
1
H(z)
< H(z) + .
n
n
Va.y
L0avg
lim
= H(z).
n n
`on
Phu.o.ng tr`nh n`ay chnh l`a no.i dung cua di.nh l
y th
u. nhat cua Shannon doi vo.i ngu
0
L
thong tin khong nho.. Ket qua n`ay ch ra ra` ng co the lay n du lo.n de avg
xap x
n
`on do.c la.p thong ke,
H(z). Ma.c d`
u khang di.nh du.o..c suy t`
u. gia thiet cac k
y hie.u ngu
`on tong quat ho.n, chang ha.n vo.i ngu
`on
u.ng ngu
nhu.ng ta de d`ang mo. ro.ng doi vo.i nh
.
Markov ba.c m trong do su. xuat hie.n cua k
y hie.u aj co the phu. thuo.c v`ao m k
y hie.u
`on Markov thu.`o.ng du.o..c su. du.ng doi vo.i cac mo h`nh co moi tu.o.ng
tru.o.c. Cac ngu
4
`eu kie.n n`
a c
o the giai m
a t
u.c th`
o.i thoa di
ay.
C
o the x
ay du..ng m
161
K
y hie.u
`on
ngu
P (i ) I(i )
l(i)
T`
u. ma
- o. d`ai
D
Mo. ro.ng th
u. nhat
1
a1
2/3
0.59
a2
1/3
1.58
a1 a1
4/9
1.17
a1 a2
2/9
2.17
10
a2 a1
2/9
2.17
110
a2 a2
1/9
3.17
111
Mo. ro.ng th
u. hai
L0avg
n
H(z)
.
L0avg
- .inh l
D
y m
a ho
a c
o nhi
eu
`en th` van
Neu kenh trong H`nh 6.6 bi. nhieu hoa.c co the xay ra loi trong du.`o.ng truy
.
uc tch sang vie.c ma hoa sao
d`e quan tam thay doi t`
u bieu dien thong tin mo.t cach s
.
.
.
.
`en. Mo.t van d
`e tu. nhien da.t ra l`a: l`am sao de t
cho co the tin ca.y du o. c d
u lie.u truy
`en thong tin?
loi nhat khi truy
162
.
r
- i.nh l
D
y th
u. hai cua Shannon, c`on go.i l`a d.inh l
y ma hoa co nhieu, ch ra r`a ng, vo.i bat
`on ta.i so
k`
y R < C, trong do C l`a thong lu.o..ng cua kenh khong nho. vo.i ma tra.n Q,5 t
.
.
`om cac t`
nguyen r v`a bo. ma g
u ma do. d`ai r n`ao do vo i toc do. R sao cho xac suat khi
a kenh m`
a phan u
.ng cua n
o d
oi v
o.i k
y hie.u v`
ao hie.n th`
o.i kh
ong phu. thu
o.c v`
ao
Kenh kh
ong nh
o. l`
.
.
.
.
ng
cu
a
k
e
nh
d
i
v
o
i
c
a
c
k
y
hi
e
u
v`
a
o
tru
o
c
d
.
phan u
.
5
163
- .inh l
`on
D
y m
a ho
a ngu
`en thong khong xay ra loi doi
Cac di.nh l
y du.o..c mo ta tren thiet la.p gio.i ha.n de truy
`an n`ay, ch
ung nhu. cac kenh khong tin ca.y. Trong ph
ung ta xet
vo.i cac kenh tin ca.y c
.
.
`en thong l`am mat thong tin. Trong nh
kenh khong loi nhu ng qua tr`nh truy
u ng tru.`o.ng
`en thong l`a nen thong tin. Vo.i h
`au het
ho..p n`ay, ch
u.c nang chnh cua he. thong truy
cac tru.`o.ng ho..p, loi trung b`nh trong qua tr`nh nen khong vu.o..t qua m
u.c cho phep cu..c
`eu kie.n cho tru.o.c tieu chuan
da.i D. Ch
ung ta muon xac di.nh toc do. nho nhat vo.i di
`e ngu
`on co the truy
`en da.t den ngu.`o.i su. du.ng. B`ai
trung thu..c, nh
u.ng thong tin n`ao v
y thuyet rate distortion trong l
y thuyet thong tin.
toan n`ay thuo.c lnh vu..c cua l
`on thong tin v`a bo. pha.n giai ma trong H`nh 6.6 du.o..c xac di.nh tu.o.ng
Gia su. ngu
u
.ng bo.i cac khong gian xac suat h
u.u ha.n (A, z) v`a (B, v). Gia thiet kenh cua H`nh
6.6 khong bi. nhieu. Khi do ma tra.n bien doi kenh thua.n Q chuyen doi t`
u. z sang v
co the xem chnh l`a qua tr`nh ma hoa-giai ma. Do qua tr`nh ma hoa-giai ma l`a xac
di.nh, ma tra.n Q mo ta mo.t kenh khong nho. nhan ta.o mo h`nh cho tac do.ng cua nen
`on sinh ra k
v`a giai nen thong tin. Moi khi ngu
y hie.u aj , no du.o..c bieu dien bo.i mo.t
`an 6.3.2).
y hie.u ra bk vo.i xac suat qkj (xem Ph
t`
u. ma v`a sau do du.o..c giai ma th`anh k
`on sao cho distorsion trung b`nh nho ho.n D d`oi hoi phai co
B`ai toan ma hoa ngu
`au ra cua
cac nguyen tac xay du..ng gia tri. distortion doi vo.i mo.i xap x co the ta.i d
`on. Vo.i tru.`o.ng ho..p do.n gian cua ngu
`on ban d
`au (ngu
`on mo. ro.ng th
ngu
u. nhat) ta co
the su. du.ng h`am chi ph khong am (aj , bk ), go.i l`a do. do distorsion, l`a ph ton phai
`on aj khi giai ma ra bk . Tn hie.u ra cua ngu
`on l`a ngau
tra de tai ta.o la.i tn hie.u ngu
nhien nen distortion c
ung l`a mo.t bien ngau nhien m`a gia tri. trung b`nh, k
y hie.u d(Q),
ba` ng
d(Q) =
J X
K
X
(aj , bk )P (aj , bk )
j=1 k=1
J X
K
X
j=1 k=1
K
y hie.u d(Q) nh`a m nhan ma.nh distortion l`a mo.t h`am trung b`nh cua qua tr`nh ma
hoa-giai ma du.o..c mo h`nh bo.i ma tra.n Q. Thu tu.c ma hoa-giai ma go.i l`a Dchap
164
(6.7)
trong do min lay tren ta.p tat ca cac bo. ma Dchap nha.n du.o..c. Ch
uy
ra` ng, gia tri.
nho nhat co the lay tren Q do I(z, v) l`a h`am theo cac xac suat cua vector z v`a cac
`an tu. cua ma tra.n Q. Neu D = 0 th` R(D) nho ho.n hoa.c b`a ng entropy cua ngu
`on,
ph
.
t
u c l`a R(0) H(z).
`e ngu
`on co the
Phu.o.ng tr`nh (6.7) xac di.nh toc do. nho nhat m`a thong tin v
chuyen den ngu.`o.i su. du.ng vo.i r`ang buo.c distorsion trung b`nh nho ho.n hoa.c b`a ng D.
- e tnh toc do. n`ay (t
D
u.c l`a R(D)) ch
ung ta t`m gia tri. nho nhat I(z, v) theo Phu.o.ng
tr`nh (6.6) b`a ng cach cho.n ma tra.n Q thch ho..p vo.i r`ang buo.c
K
X
qkj = 1,
qkj 0,
(6.8)
k=1
v`a
d(Q) = D.
(6.9)
1 neu a 6= b ,
j
k
(aj , bk ) =
.
0 neu ngu.o.c lai.
. .
165
- e tnh R(D) ta
Khi do moi loi ma hoa-giai ma du.o..c dem l`a mo.t do.n vi. suy bien. D
- a.t 1 , 2 , . . . , J+1 l`a cac nhan tu. Lagrange v`a xet h`am
d`
ung phep tnh bien phan. D
tieu chuan
J
K
X
X
J (Q) = I(z, v)
j
qkj J+1 d(Q).
j=1
k=1
`eu kie.n c
`an cua cu..c tri., ta co dqdJ = 0. Ket ho..p vo.i J + 1 phu.o.ng tr`nh (6.8)
Theo di
kj
.
.
.
v`a (6.9) ta co he. cac phu o ng tr`nh vo i cac an l`a qkj v`a 1 , 2 , . . . , J+1 . Neu nghie.m
`on v`a distortion d.inh ngha tren, ta co he.
co qkj 0 ta du.o..c mo.t l`o.i giai. Vo.i ca.p ngu
.
.
.
7 phu o ng tr`nh vo i 7 an so:
2q11
2q22
2q12
2q21
q11 + q21 = 1,
q12 + q22 = 1,
D
= log 1D
.
Suy ra
Q=
1D
1D
`on co xac suat xuat hie.n ba` ng nhau nen distortion da.t gia tri. lo.n
Do cac k
y hie.u ngu
nhat l`a 1/2. V` va.y 0 D 1/2 v`a ma tra.n Q thoa man r`ang buo.c (6.8) vo.i mo.i D.
`on nhi. phan du.o..c di.nh ngha
Thong tin tu.o.ng ho tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i ma tra.n Q v`a ngu
tren xac di.nh theo cong th
u.c (6.6). Ch
uy
tnh tu.o.ng tu.. gi
u.a ma tra.n Q v`a ma tra.n
bien doi kenh doi x
u.ng nhi. phan. Tuy nhien ta co the tnh tru..c tiep
I(z, v) = 1 Hbs (D).
`an 6.3.2 b`a ng phep the pbs = 1/2 v`a pe = D v`ao
u. v du. cua Ph
Ket qua n`ay suy t`
I(z, v) = Hbs (pbs pe + pbs pe ) Hbs (pe ). Theo Phu.o.ng tr`nh (6.7) v`a do vo.i D cho tru.o.c
1 Hbs (D) gia su. nha.n mo.t gia tri. m`a ma.c nhien l`a nho nhat nen
R(D) = min [1 Hbs (D)] = 1 Hbs (D).
QQD
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
...
.......
....
...
...
...
........
.... ...
.. ...
... ...
.... ...
.. ...
..
...
..
..
...
...
...
..
...
..
...
...
..
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
....
...
...
....
....
....
..
....
...
....
....
....
.....
max
..
.....
...
...
.....
.....
...
....
.....
..
..
......
...
.......
...
...
........
....
...
.........
..
..........
........
...........
...
..
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Distortion D
0.5
Cac h`am rate distortion co the xac di.nh ba` ng phu.o.ng phap giai tch trong nh
u.ng
tru.`o.ng ho..p do.n gian. Vo.i nh
u.ng tru.`o.ng ho..p ph
u.c ta.p, ch
ung ta co the su. du.ng nh
u.ng
thua.t toan la.p thch ho..p de xac di.nh ch
ung. Sau khi R(D) da du.o..c xac di.nh (vo.i
`on khong nho. v`a distortion measure single-letter 6), d.inh l
`on ch ra
ngu
y ma hoa ngu
.
`on ta.i r v`a bo. ma co do. d`ai r v`a toc do. R < R(D) + dsitotion
ra` ng vo i mo.i > 0 t
trung b`nh tren t`
u.ng k
y tu.. d(Q) D + . Mo.t he. qua quan tro.ng cua di.nh l
y n`ay v`a
.
.
.
.
di.nh l
y ma hoa co nhieu l`a neu thong lu o. ng cua kenh C > R(D) + th` ngu `o i giai ma
`oi t`
co the phu.c h
u. ma du.o..c gu.i vo.i xac suat sai nho tu`
yy
. Ket qua cuoi n`ay go.i l`a
`en thong tin.
d.inh l
y truy
6.3.4
Su. du.ng l
y thuy
et th
ong tin
` ng
distortion measure single-letter l`
a distortion measure trong do
distortion cua m
oi vector b
a
y hie.u trong vector d
o.
t
ong distortion cua t`
u.ng k
167
V du. 6.3.6 Xet b`ai toan u.o.c lu.o..ng thong tin (hay entropy) cua anh 8 bit:
21 21 21 95 169 243 243 243
21 21 21 95 169 243 243 243
21 21 21 95 169 243 243 243
21 21 21 95 169 243 243 243
`on da.c bie.t v`a tnh entropy cua
Cach tu.o.ng doi do.n gian l`a gia thiet mo.t mo h`nh ngu
anh du..a tren mo h`nh n`ay. Chang ha.n, ch
ung ta co the gia su. anh du.o..c ta.o bo.i mo.t
`on gia tri. xam 8 bit; ngu
`on n`ay phat tu
`an tu.. cac pixel do.c la.p thong ke theo
ngu
`on l`a cac
lua.t xac suat du.o..c xac d.inh tru.o.c. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay, cac k
y hie.u ngu
`on g
`om 256 k
`on co xac suat
m
u.c xam, v`a bang ch
u. ngu
y hie.u. Neu cac k
y hie.u ngu
xuat hie.n da.ng chuan (chang ha.n Gauss) th` thong tin trung b`nh hay entropy cua
moi pixel trong anh co the xac d.inh theo Phu.o.ng tr`nh (6.3). V du. trong tru.`o.ng ho..p
`on co xac suat b`a ng nhau v`a ngu
`on du.o..c da.c tru.ng
phan phoi d`eu th` cac k
y hie.u ngu
`on phat ra mo.t pixel
bo.i entropy l`a 8 bit/pixel. T
u.c l`a, thong tin trung b`nh khi ngu
.
.
l`a 8 bit. Do do entropy cua to`an bo. anh kch thu o c 4 8 ba` ng 256 bit. Anh n`ay l`a
`on vo.i
mo.t trong so 2848 = 2256 (' 1077 ) anh kch thu.o.c 4 8 du.o..c ta.o ra t`
u. ngu
xac suat b`a ng nhau.
`on
Mo.t cach khac de xac d.inh no.i dung thong tin l`a xay du..ng mo.t mo h`nh ngu
.
.
.
.
.
.
`an so xuat hie.n cua cac m
u c xam trong anh du o. c xet. Trong tru `o ng ho..p
du. a v`ao t
`on su. du.ng bieu d
`o co.t cua anh:
n`ay, mo h`nh xac suat cua cac k
y hie.u ngu
M
u.c xam
21
12
3/8
95
1/8
169
1/8
243
12
3/8
.
`on co the tnh theo Phu.o.ng
U o.c lu.o..ng, go.i l`a u.o.c lu.o..ng ba.c nhat, entropy cua ngu
tr`nh (6.3). Trong v du. n`ay, u.o.c lu.o..ng ba.c nhat l`a 1.81 bit/pixel. Do do entropy cua
`on v`a/hoa. c anh xap x 1.81 bit/pixel hay tong co.ng 58 bit.
ngu
.
`on m
U o.c lu.o..ng tot ho.n entropy cua ngu
u.c xam m`a ta.o ra anh co the tnh b`a ng
`an so tu.o.ng doi cua khoi cac pixel trong anh, trong do mo.t khoi l`a
cach kiem tra t
`e nhau. Khi kch thu.o.c khoi d
`an ra vo ha.n, u.o.c lu.o..ng tien den
mo.t nhom cac pixel k
`on. (Ket qua n`ay co the ch
u.ng minh su. du.ng nh
u.ng l
y lua.n
entropy du
ng cua ngu
.
`an 6.3.3). Do do b`a ng cach
trong ch
u ng minh d.inh l
y ma hoa khong nhieu trong Ph
.
.
.
`au tien,
gia su anh du o. c lien ket hai h`ang lien tiep v`a h`ang cuoi ket noi vo.i h`ang d
168
1/8
(95, 169)
1/8
(169, 243)
1/8
(243, 243)
1/4
(243, 21)
4
1/8
Ket qua u.o.c lu.o..ng entropy theo Phu.o.ng tr`nh (6.3) l`a 2.5/2 hay 1.25 bit/pixel, trong
do phep chia cho 2 l`a he. qua cua vie.c xet hai pixel c`
ung l
uc. Gia tri. n`ay go.i l`a u.o.c
`on do no du.o..c xac di.nh t`
`an so cua khoi 2 pixel.
u. cac t
lu.o..ng ba.c hai cua entropy ngu
.
.
.
.
Ma.c d`
u cac u o c lu o. ng entropy ba.c hai, ba.c ba hay ba.c cao ho.n cho xap x tot ho.n
`on, nhu.ng thu..c te t su. du.ng do toc do. ho.i tu. cua cac u.o.c lu.o..ng n`ay
entropy cua ngu
`eu. Chang ha.n, anh 8 bit co (28 )2 hay 65,536 bo. hai k
cha.m v`a do tnh toan nhi
y hie.u
`an xac di.nh t
`an so tu.o.ng doi. Neu su. du.ng khoi g
`om 5 pixel, so bo. co the co l`a
c
(28 )5 1012 .
Ma.c d`
u kho xac d.inh chnh xac entropy cua anh, tuy nhien cac u.o.c lu.o..ng trong
`e kha nang nen anh. Chang ha.n, u.o.c lu.o..ng ba.c
v du. tru.o.c cho ta hieu sau sac ho.n v
nhat cua entropy cho ta ca.n du.o.i cua t le. nen anh; gia tri. n`ay co the da.t du.o..c su.
du.ng ma hoa vo.i do. d`ai thay doi. (Nhac la.i l`a ma hoa vo.i do. d`ai thay doi thu.`o.ng
du.o..c su. du.ng de giam do. du. th`
u.a trong ma hoa). Ngo`ai ra, hie.u gi
u.a cac u.o.c lu.o..ng
entropy ba.c cao v`a u.o.c lu.o..ng entropy ba.c nhat ch ra su.. hie.n die.n hay vang ma.t cua
du. th`
u.a gi
u.a cac pixel. T
u.c l`a, ch
ung cho biet cac pixel trong anh l`a do.c la.p thong ke
hay khong. Neu cac pixel trong anh do.c la.p thong ke (t
u.c khong co du. th`
u.a gi
u.a cac
pixel) th` cac u.o.c lu.o..ng ba.c cao tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i u.o.c lu.o..ng ba.c nhat, v`a su. du.ng ma
hoa vo.i do. d`ai thay doi cho phep nen vo.i t le. nen toi u.u. Vo.i anh du.o..c xet trong v du.
tru.o.c, hie.u so gi
u.a u.o.c lu.o..ng ba.c hai v`a u.o.c lu.o..ng ba.c nhat b`a ng 1.81 1.25 = 0.56.
Do do co the bien doi anh sao cho co the giam 0.56 bit/pixel trong bieu dien anh.
V du. 6.3.7 Xet anh cho trong v du. tru.o.c. B`a ng cach gi
u. nguyen co.t d`au tien, moi
.ng v`a co.t tru.o.c do ta du.o..c bieu dien
co.t tiep theo l`a hie.u cua co.t tu.o.ng u
21 0 0 74 74 74 0 0
21 0 0 74 74 74 0 0
21 0 0 74 74 74 0 0
21 0 0 74 74 74 0 0
169
12
1/2
21
1/8
74
12
3/8
`on hie.u ch
Neu xet anh mo.i du.o..c ta.o ra t`
u. ngu
ung ta la.i co the su. du.ng Phu.o.ng
tr`nh (6.3) de tnh u.o.c lu.o..ng ba.c nhat cua entropy cua mang n`ay, trong tru.`o.ng ho..p
n`ay b`a ng 1.41 bit/pixel. Do do su. du.ng ma hoa vo.i do. d`ai thay doi doi vo.i anh hie.u
`an d`
ta ch c
ung 1.41 bit/pixel de bieu dien anh goc. Gia tri. n`ay lo.n ho.n 1.25 bit/pixel
u.o.c lu.o..ng ba.c hai cua entropy du.o..c tnh trong v du. tru.o.c nen ta co the t`m mo.t cach
bien doi tot ho.n n
u.a.
Cac v du. tren ch ra u.o.c lu.o..ng ba.c nhat entropy cua anh khong nhat thiet l`a
toc do. ma nho nhat cua anh. L
y do l`a v` cac pixel trong anh thu.`o.ng khong do.c la.p
`an
thong ke. Qua tr`nh cu..c tieu hoa entropy thu..c su.. cua anh, nhu. da d`e ca.p trong Ph
`on. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p bao to`an thong tin, no thu..c hie.n hai thao
6.2, go.i l`a ma hoa ngu
tac: anh xa. v`a ma hoa k
y hie.u. Neu cho phep mat thong tin, no them bu.o.c th
u. ba l`a
lu.o..ng tu. hoa.
`e tu.o.ng doi ph
ung co the du.o..c
u.c ta.p ho.n cua nen anh mat thong tin c
Van d
thu..c hie.n su. du.ng cac cong cu. cua l
y thuyet thong tin. Tuy nhien trong tru.`o.ng ho..p
`on. Nhu. da d
`e ca.p trong Ph
`an 6.3.3, di.nh
n`ay, ket qua chnh l`a d.inh l
y ma hoa ngu
`on khong nho. su. du.ng bo. ma co toc do. la.p
l
y n`ay ch ra r`a ng co the ma hoa mo.i ngu
- e co the
tin R < R(D) sao cho distortion trung b`nh tren mo.t k
y hie.u nho ho.n D. D
`an xay du..ng mo.t mo h`nh
ap du.ng ket qua n`ay v`ao nen anh mat thong tin ch
ung ta c
`on thch ho..p, mo.t do. do distorsion co y
ngu
ngha, v`a tnh toan h`am distortion rate
.
.
`au tien cua qua tr`nh n`ay da du.o..c khao sat. Bu.o.c th
R(D). Bu o c d
u. hai co the thu..c
`e ca.p trong Ph
`an 6.1.4. Bu.o.c cuoi
hie.n su. du.ng tieu chuan danh gia khach quan d
c`
ung l`a xac di.nh ma tra.n Q = (qkj ) l`a nghie.m cua b`ai toan toi u.u
I(z, v) min
`eu kie.n
vo.i di
PK
k=1 qkj = 1,
d(Q)
= D,
qkj
0.
Tuy nhien day l`a b`ai toan rat kho, v`a ch co l`o.i giai trong mo.t so tru.`o.ng ho..p cu. the.
Mo.t trong so do l`a anh co tru.`o.ng ngau nhien Gauss v`a do. do distorsion co da.ng to`an
170
`an
phu.o.ng xt Sx, vo.i S l`a ma tra.n du.`o.ng cheo. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay ma hoa toi u.u c
`an
`an Karhunen-Lo`eve v`a bieu dien moi th`anh ph
khai trien anh th`anh cac th`anh ph
vo.i sai so b`nh phu.o.ng trung b`nh ba` ng nhau.
6.4
N
en bao to`
an th
ong tin
`an lu.u tr
`e khong gian nhu.ng phai
Trong mo.t so u
.ng du.ng ta c
u. d
u. lie.u t ton kem v
`o so. v
`e y du.o..c hay d
bao to`an thong tin. Chang ha.n, h
u. lie.u kinh doanh khong the
de sai la.c.
`an n`ay ta.p trung v`ao nh
Ph
u.ng phu.o.ng phap chnh nen bao to`an thong tin. T
le. nen cua nh
u.ng phu.o.ng phap n`ay thu.`o.ng trong khoang t`
u. 2 den 10. Ho.n n
u.a co
`an 6.2,
the ap du.ng doi vo.i anh nhi. phan v`a anh gia tri. xam. Nhu. da ch ra trong Ph
.
.
.
.
`om hai thao tac tu o ng doi do.c la.p: (1)
cac k
y thua.t nen bao to`an thong tin thu `o ng g
u.a trong quan he. gi
u.a cac pixel v`a (2)
t`m mo.t bieu dien khac cua anh de giam du. th`
ma hoa tren bieu dien mo.i de khu. du. th`
u.a trong bo. ma. Hai bu.o.c n`ay tu.o.ng u
.ng
`on (H`nh 6.3).
vo.i cac phep toan bien doi v`a ma hoa k
y hie.u cua mo h`nh ma hoa ngu
6.4.1
M
a ho
ad
o. d`
ai thay d
oi
u.a trong ma
Phu.o.ng phap do.n gian nhat nen bao to`an thong tin anh l`a ch giam du th`
hoa. Du. th`
u.a trong ma hoa thu.`o.ng xuat hie.n o. nh
u.ng anh du.o..c ma hoa theo ma tu..
`an 6.1.1, ta co the khu. du. th`
nhien (do. d`ai khong doi). Nhu. da ch
uy
trong Ph
u.a trong
- e thu..c hie.n du.o..c di
`eu
u. ma l`a nho nhat. D
ma hoa sao cho do. d`ai trung b`nh cua cac t`
`an gan cac t`
n`ay ta c
u. ma co do. d`ai ngan cho cac m
u.c xam thu.`o.ng xuyen xuat hie.n.
`an toi u.u de xay du..ng nh
Du.o.i day ta se tr`nh b`ay mo.t so k
y thua.t toi u.u v`a g
u.ng
bo. ma co tnh chat n`ay. Cac k
y thua.t n`ay da du.o..c phat bieu trong ngon ng
u. cua l
y
.
.
`on co the hoa.c l`a cac m
y hie.u ngu
u c xam cua anh
thuyet thong tin. Thu. c va.y, cac k
hoa.c l`a tn hie.u ra cua mo.t thao tac bien doi m
u.c xam (hie.u cac pixel, do. d`ai cha.y,
van van).
171
M
a Huffman
`au het cac ta.p tin anh, mo.t v`ai gia tri. xam xuat hie.n thu.`o.ng xuyen ho.n cac
Trong h
gia tri. khac. Bo.i va.y co mo.t phu.o.ng phap n`ao de gan t`
u. ma co do. d`ai ngan ho.n cho
- ay chnh
u.ng gia tri. t xuat hie.n? D
nh
u.ng gia tri. thu.`o.ng xuat hie.n v`a d`ai ho.n cho nh
`eu m`a Shannon v`a Fano da ngh khi ho. du.a ra thua.t toan nen d
`au tien v`ao nam
l`a di
1950. Tuy nhien thua.t toan la.i mang ten cua Huffman khi ong cong bo mo.t thua.t toan
`on
chi tiet v`a tot ho.n tren mo.t b`ai bao nam 1952. Khi ma hoa cac k
y hie.u cua ngu
y hie.u ma hoa tren
thong tin, ma hoa Huffman cho biet so nho nhat co the cua cac k
`on. Theo di.nh l
k
y hie.u ngu
y ma hoa khong nhieu bo. ma l`a toi u.u doi vo.i gia tri. n cho
`on du.o..c ma hoa t`
tru.o.c v`a r`ang buo.c cac k
y hie.u ngu
u.ng cai mo.t.
Thua.t toan Huffman l`a mo.t thua.t toan nen d
u. lie.u su. du.ng xac suat nh`a m giam
`on thong
u.a do. d`ai cac t`
u. ma du.o..c su. du.ng de bieu dien cac k
y hie.u cua ngu
do. du. th`
- ay l`a mo.t bo. ma toi u.u trong tru.`o.ng ho..p tat ca cac k
tin. D
y hie.u co xac suat l`a l
uy
1
th`
u.a nguyen cua 2 . Ma Huffman du.o..c xay du..ng qua hai giai doa.n nhu. sau.
`on.
Giai doa.n 1: Thu go.n ngu
1. sap xep cac k
y hie.u theo th
u. tu.. giam xac suat xuat hie.n;
2. to ho..p lien tiep hai k
y hie.u co xac suat nho nhat de ta.o th`anh mo.t k
y hie.u
`on.
ho..p co xac suat b`a ng tong hai xac suat n`ay. Noi cach khac ta thu go.n ngu
3. la.p la.i cac bu.o.c thu go.n tren cho den khi c`on hai k
y hie.u.
u. ma nhi. phan (co the ap
H`nh 6.8 minh ho.a qua tr`nh ma hoa xay du..ng cac t`
du.ng tu.o.ng tu.. vo.i cac ma Huffman K-ray). Co.t th
u. nhat v`a th
u. hai tu.o.ng u
.ng cac
`an). Phep r
k
y hie.u v`a cac xac suat xuat hie.n (du.o..c sap theo th
u. tu.. giam d
ut go.n
.
.
.
d`au tien: hai xac suat nho nhat (0.06 v`a 0.04) du o. c to ho. p th`anh mo.t k
y hie.u ho..p
y hie.u ho..p v`a xac suat tu.o.ng u
.ng c`
ung vo.i nh
u.ng k
y
vo.i xac suat 0.06 + 0.04 = 0.1. K
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
hie.u c`on la.i (trong tru `o ng ho. p n`ay l`a a1, a2, a4, a6) se du o. c sap xep theo th
u tu. xac
`an. Sau do qua tr`nh tren du.o..c la.p la.i cho den khi c`on d
suat giam d
ung hai k
y hie.u
.
.
.
.
ho. p (tong xac suat tu o ng u
ng cua ch
ung l`a 1.0).
`on: bat d`au vo.i ngu
`on cuoi
Giai doa.n 2: Xay du..ng t`
u. ma. Ma hoa cac k
y hie.u ngu
.
.
.
.
`e goc. D nhien cac t`
`an ngu o. c tro v
u ma nhi. phan co do. d`ai nho nhat (trong
c`
ung v`a l
`on g
`om hai k
ngu
y hie.u) l`a 0 v`a 1. Nhu. H`nh 6.9 ch ra, cac t`
u. ma n`ay du.o..c gan cho
u. tu.. ngu.o..c la.i). V`
hai k
y hie.u tren co.t ben phai-co.t 4 (d nhien co the gan theo th
172
............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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...
...
...
...
....
....
................
...
..
.
2
...
...
....
.
...
....
.
.
...
.
..
.
..............
...
.
6
...
.
.....
....
....
..
...
..
.
..............................
..............
................
...
...
.
1
....
...
....
.....
...
..
...
...
.
.
...
.
...
.
...............
.............
4
..
....
...
...
...
...
.
...
...
.
................................
...............
..
...
3
..
...
.
...
....
....
...
.
...
...
.
.............
5
...
...
...
...
.
..
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
`on ban d
`au
Ngu
K
y hie.u
Xac suat
a
a
a
a
a
a
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.06
0.04
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.6
0.4
`on.
H`nh 6.8: Qua tr`nh thu go.n ngu
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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...
..
..
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..
.
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..
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...
...
..
.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
...
...
..
...
...
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
2
....
...
.....
..
...
...
.
...
...
.
......................
...
...
.
6
...
....
...
...
...
....
......................................
.....................
....
...........
....
1
...
...
..
..
...
...
...
...
.
.
.
....
.
....
...................
.....................
..
..
4
...
..
.
...
.....
.....
....
...
..
......................................
....................
...
3
...
...
....
....
....
...
..
.
....................
...
...
5
....
...
...
..
..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
`on ban d
`au
Ngu
K
y hie.u Xac suat
a
a
a
a
a
a
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.06
0.04
T`
u. ma
1
00
011
0100
01010
01011
0.4
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
1
00
011
0100
0101
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
1
00
010
011
0.4 1
0.3 00
0.3 01
0.6 0
0.4 1
- o l`a ma t
moi k
y hie.u tu.o.ng u
.ng mo.t day cac bit. D
u.c th`o.i v` nh`n v`ao day cac bit
`an phai xet bit ke
u. ma m`a khong c
lien tiep n`ao do, ta co the giai ma khi den cuoi t`
- o l`a ma co the giai ma duy nhat theo ngha mo.t day cac bit ch co mo.t cach
tiep. D
giai ma. (Ma c0 = 0, c1 = 1, c2 = 01, c3 = 10 l`a ma khong duy nhat v` day cac bit 0011
co the giai ma l`a c0c0 c1 c1 hoa.c l`a c0 c2c1 ). Do do mo.t day cac bit tu.o.ng u
.ng thong bao
du.o..c ma hoa theo Huffman co the giai ma b`a ng cach xet t`
u.ng bit trong day t`
u. trai
sang phai. Vo.i ma nhi. phan trong H`nh 6.9, duye.t day 010100111100 cho t`
u. ma ho..p
.ng k
y hie.u a3. T`
.ng a1. Tiep
le. l`a 01010-tu.o.ng u
u. ma ho..p le. tiep theo l`a 011-tu.o.ng u
tu.c ta du.o..c thong bao a3 a1a2a6 .
`an t
C
ac m
a c
od
o. d`
ai thay d
oi g
oi u.u
`on g
`om nhi
`eu k
Xay du..ng ma Huffman trong tru.`o.ng ho..p ngu
y hie.u l`a tien tr`nh rat
.
.
.
.
`on g
`om J k
`an J 2 bu o c to ho. p de xay du..ng cay nhi.
ph
u c ta.p. Xet ngu
y hie.u, ta c
u. ma. Theo kha ca.nh do. ph
phan Huffman v`a J 2 bu.o.c duye.t de gan cac t`
u.c ta.p
`an hy sinh tnh hie.u qua trong ma
tnh toan th` trong mo.t so tru.`o.ng ho..p ch
ung ta c
hoa de xay du..ng mo.t cach do.n gian bo. ma.
Bang 6.3 minh ho.a bon bo. ma co do. d`ai thay doi nha` m mu.c dch n`ay. Ch
u y
ra` ng do. d`ai trung b`nh cua ma Huffmanh`ang cuoi cua bangnho ho.n do. d`ai trung
- o. d`ai trung b`nh cua ma tu.. nhien l`a lo.n nhat. Ho.n n
b`nh cua cac bo. ma khac. D
u.a
`on ba` ng 4.0 bit/k
entropy cua ngu
y hie.u trong khi rate cua ma Huffman l`a 4.05 bit/k
y
.
hie.u. Ma.c d`
u khong co bo. ma n`ao trong Bang 6.3 hie.u qua ba` ng ma Huffman nhu ng
ch
ung du.o..c xay du..ng de ho.n. Tu.o.ng tu.. phu.o.ng phap Huffman, ch
ung gan cac t`
u. ma
ngan cho nh
u.ng k
y hie.u thu.`o.ng xuat hie.n.
Ma Huffman cha.t cu.t
Co.t th
u. nam trong Bang 6.3 minh ho.a mo.t cai bien cua phu.o.ng phap Huffman: ma
Huffman cha.t cu.t. Ma n`ay du.o..c xay du..ng tu.o.ng tu.. phu.o.ng phap Huffman nhu.ng
y hie.u c`on la.i du.o..c ma
cho k
y hie.u thu.`o.ng xuat hie.n nhat, vo.i < J. Tat ca cac k
`en to v`a sau do l`a ma do. d`ai co di.nh.
hoa theo c`
ung mo.t cach: co chung mo.t ma ti
`en to xem nhu. t`
Trong Bang 6.3 so nguyen = 12 v`a ma ti
u. ma th
u. 13 trong bo. ma
`en to vo.i xac suat b`a ng tong xac suat cua cac k
Huffman. T
u.c l`a co mo.t k
y hie.u ti
y
.
.
.
`en to n`ay c`
y hie.u ti
ung vo i 12 k
y hie.u thu `o ng xuat hie.n nhat
hie.u a13, a14, . . . , a21; k
`en to
du.o..c ma hoa theo Huffman. 9 k
u. ma ti
y hie.u c`on la.i du.o..c ma hoa su. du.ng t`
.
.
.
(trong tru `o ng ho. p n`ay l`a 10) v`a sau do l`a mo.t chuoi 4-bit. Cu. the, k
y hie.u ai , i 13,
174
co t`
u. ma vo.i hai bt d`au 10 v`a bon bit sau tu.o.ng u
.ng bon bit bieu dien nhi. phan cua
so nguyen (i 13).
Ma B
`an toi u.u. Ma B g
`an toi
Ma B (co.t th
u. sau) cua Bang 6.3 l`a ma co do. d`ai thay doi g
`on co da.ng
u.u khi cac xac suat k
y hie.u ngu
p(aj ) = cj ,
i = 1, 2, . . . , J,
(6.10)
P
trong do l`a ha` ng so du.o.ng n`ao do v`a c = 1/ Jj=1 j . Chang ha.n phan bo do. d`ai
cha.y cua mo.t bieu dien nhi. phan tren cac van ban danh may co da.ng h`am m
u. Nhu.
`om hai ph
`an: ph
`an d
`au l`a cac bit mo. ro.ng du.o..c
ch ra trong Bang 6.3, moi t`
u. ma g
`om cac bit thong tin. Cac bit thong tin su. du.ng ma
`an th
gan nhan C v`a ph
u. hai g
u.a 0
tu.. nhien. Cac bit mo. ro.ng d`
ung de tach cac t`
u. ma v`a do do du.o..c da.t xen ke gi
v`a 1 doi vo.i moi t`
u. ma trong chuoi. Ma B trong Bang 6.3 l`a ma B2 v` su. du.ng hai
bit thong tin. Theo cach n`ay, thong bao a11a2 a7 du.o..c ma hoa l`a 001 010 101 000 010
hoa.c 101 110 001 100 110 phu. thuo.c v`ao bit mo. ro.ng du.o..c gan l`a 0 hoa.c 1. Nha.n xet
ra` ng, day khong phai l`a ma t
u.c th`o.i.
Ma Shift
Hai ma co do. d`ai thay doi c`on la.i trong Bang 6.3 go.i l`a ma shift. Ma n`ay du.o..c ta.o ra
`on sao cho xac suat theo th
`an;
theo nguyen tac (1) sap xep cac k
y hie.u ngu
u. tu.. giam d
`on th`anh cac khoi co kch thu.o.c ba` ng nhau; (3) ma hoa
(2) chia ta.p cac k
y hie.u ngu
cac k
y hie.u trong tat ca cac khoi giong nhau; v`a (4) them cac k
y hie.u da.c bie.t shift-up
v`a/hoa.c shift-down de danh dau moi khoi. Khi nha.n du.o..c mo.t k
y hie.u shift-up hoa.c
.
.
shift-down ngu `o i giai ma se di chuyen len hoa.c xuong mo.t khoi tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i khoi
tham chieu du.o..c d.inh ngha tru.o.c.
- e xay du..ng ma shift 3-bit trong co.t th
`om 21 k
`on
y hie.u ngu
D
u. bay cua Bang 6.3 g
`om bay
da du.o..c sap xep theo th
u. tu.. xac suat giam ta chia th`anh ba khoi, moi khoi g
.
.
.
k
y hie.u. Cac k
y hie.u cua khoi tren c`
ung du o. c xem nhu khoi tham chieu v`a du.o..c ma
hoa th`anh 000 den 110. T`
u. ma th
u. tam (111) khong thuo.c khoi tham chieu m`a du.o..c
`eu khien di.ch xuong de xac di.nh cac khoi c`on la.i (k
d`
ung nhu. k
y hie.u shift-up di
y
hie.u shift-down khong d`
ung trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay). Cac k
y hie.u trong hai khoi c`on
.
.
.
y hie.u shift-up vo.i cac t`
u. ma trong
la.i du o. c ma hoa b`a ng cach to ho. p mo.t hoa.c hai k
`on a19 du.o..c ma hoa l`a 111 111 100.
khoi tham chieu. V du. k
y hie.u ngu
Tu.o.ng tu.. vo.i ma shift Huffman (co.t th
u. tam cua Bang 6.3). Khac nhau chu
175
K
y hie.u
`on
ngu
Xac
suat
Ma
Huffman
nhi. phan
Huffman
cha.t cu.t
a1
0.2
00000
10
11
a2
0.1
00001
110
a3
0.1
00010
a4
0.06
a5
B2 -ma
Ma Shift
Ma Shift
nhi. phan
Huffman
C00
000
10
011
C01
001
11
111
0000
C10
010
110
00011
0101
0101
C11
011
100
0.05
00100
00000
00010
C00C00
100
101
a6
0.05
00101
00001
00011
C00C01
101
1110
a7
0.05
00110
00010
00100
C00C10
110
1111
a8
0.04
00111
00011
00101
C00C11
111 000
00 10
a9
0.04
01000
00110
00110
C01C00
111 001
00 11
a10
0.04
01001
00111
00111
C01C01
111 010
00 110
a11
0.04
01010
00100
01000
C01C10
111 011
00 100
a12
0.03
01011
01001
01001
C01C11
111 100
00 101
a13
0.03
01100
01110
10 0000
C10C00
111 101
00 1110
a14
0.03
01101
01111
10 0001
C10C01
111 110
00 1111
a15
0.03
01110
01100
10 0010
C10C10
00 00 10
a16
0.02
01111
010000
10 0011
C10C11
00 00 11
a17
0.02
10000
010001
10 0100
C11C00
00 00 110
a18
0.02
10001
001010
10 0101
C11C01
00 00 100
a19
0.02
10010
001011
10 0110
C11C10
00 00 101
a20
0.02
10011
011010
10 0111
C11C11
00 00 1110
a21
0.01
10100
011011
10 1000
C00C00C00
00 00 1111
Entropy
- o. d`ai
D
4.0
4.05
4.24
4.65
4.59
4.13
Khoi 1
Khoi 2
Khoi 3
M
a ho
a s
o ho.c
Khac vo.i cac ma co do. d`ai thay doi du.o..c d`e ca.p tren, ma hoa so ho.c sinh ra cac t`
u.
`on
ma khong phai l`a chuoi cac bit. Khong co tu.o.ng u
.ng mo.t mo.t gi
u.a cac k
y hie.u ngu
`on (hay thong bao) du.o..c gan
v`a cac t`
u. ma. Thay v`ao do, mo.t day cac k
y hie.u ngu
ba` ng mo.t t`
u. ma. T`
u. ma n`ay l`a mo.t so thu..c thuo.c khoang [0, 1). Khi so cac k
y hie.u
`on trong thong bao tang th` khoang bieu dien no se nho di v`a so cac do.n vi. thong
ngu
`eu ho.n. Moi k
tin (chang ha.n, bit) bieu dien khoang n`ay se nhi
y hie.u cua thong bao
se thu go.n kch thu.o.c cua khoang tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i xac suat xuat hie.n cua no. Khac vo.i
`on tu.o.ng
y thua.t n`ay khong d`oi hoi moi k
y hie.u ngu
phu.o.ng phap ma hoa Huffman, k
`e
u
.ng mo.t so nguyen ma hoa k
y hie.u (t
u.c l`a cac k
y hie.u du.o..c ma hoa rieng bie.t) nen v
ma.t l
y thuyet no da.t ca.n du.o.i du.o..c thiet la.p bo.i di.nh l
y ma hoa khong nhieu (xem
`an 6.3.3).
Ph
Day ma hoa
..........................................................
a1
a2
a3
a4
a5
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
1........
..
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a4
a3
.
......
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.
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.
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.
..
..
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.
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a2
a1
0 ...................................................................
0.2 ........
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a4
a3
.
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.
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.
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.
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.
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0.08 ........
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a4 ..................
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a3
0.072 ........
.
..............................
.......... 0.0688 ....
..
...
...
a4 ...............
... a4
...
.
....
0.06752 .......... ...............................
..
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a3
...
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a3
........
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a2
a2 .........
a2 .......
a2
..
...
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.
................
...
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...
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a1
a1
a1
a1
...
..
.....
....
.....
.......
.....
.........
..
0
0.04
0.056
0.0624
`on
K
y hie.u ngu
Xac suat
a1
0.2
[0.0, 0.2)
a2
0.2
[0.2, 0.4)
a3
0.4
[0.4, 0.8)
a4
0.2
[0.8, 1.0)
6.4.2
a ng bit
M
a ho
a m
a.t ph
Ch
ung ta da tr`nh b`ay nh
u.ng phu.o.ng phap chnh de giam du. th`
u.a trong ma hoa.
`an ke tiep se d`e ca.p den mo.t so phu.o.ng phap nen bao to`an thong tin giam du. th`
Ph
u.a
trong quan he. gi
u.a cac pixel. Tru.o.c het, k
y thua.t ma hoa ma.t phang bit du..a tren
`eu m
khai nie.m phan ra mo.t anh nhi
u.c xam (do.n sac hay m`au) th`anh mo.t day cac
anh nhi. phan v`a nen cac anh nhi. phan thong qua mo.t so phu.o.ng phap nen anh nhi.
`an n`ay mo ta cac cach phan ra quen thuo.c nhat v`a nh`n la.i mo.t
phan quen thuo.c. Ph
.
.
v`ai phu o ng phap nen thu.`o.ng d`
ung.
Ph
an r
a m
a.t ph
a ng bit
Ta bieu dien cac m
u.c r cua anh xam m-bit theo he. nhi. phan
r = am1 2m1 + am2 2m2 + + a121 + a020 .
T`
u. do ta co the phan ra anh th`anh cac anh nhi. phan ba` ng cach tach m he. so ai th`anh
`e ca.p trong Chu.o.ng 4,
m ma.t phang bit; moi ma.t phang bieu dien mo.t bit. Nhu. da d
`om cac bit a0; ma.t phang bit ba.c (m 1) ch
ma.t phang bit d`au tien (ba.c khong) g
u.a
u. tu.. t`
u. 0 den m 1 v`a
cac bit am1 . Noi chung, moi ma.t phang bit du.o..c danh so th
du.o..c xay du..ng ba` ng cach da.t cac pixel cua no ba` ng cac gia tri. bit (hay he. so) thch
ho..p t`
u. moi pixel trong anh goc. Nhu.o..c diem cua cach tiep ca.n n`ay l`a mo.t thay doi
`e gia tri. xam dan den anh hu.o.ng rat lo.n v
`e do. ph
nho v
u.c ta.p cua cac ma.t phang bit.
`e vo.i pixel co cu.`o.ng do. 128 (1000000)
Chang ha.n, neu pixel co gia tri. 127 (0111111) k
th` moi ma.t phang bit se ch
u.a lien tiep 0 1 (hoa.c 1 0). V du., v` cac bit quan tro.ng
nhat cua hai t`
u. ma nhi. phan 127 v`a 128 khac nhau nen ma.t phang bit 7 se ch
u.a mo.t
pixel gia tri. 0 ke tiep mo.t pixel gia tri. 1 v`a se l`am chuyen tra.ng thai 1 sang 0 (hoa.c 0
sang 1) ta.i pixel n`ay.
- e giam anh hu.o.ng thay doi nho gi
u.a cac gia tri. xam ta co the bieu dien anh
D
da.ng ma Gray m-bit. Ma n`ay se bieu dien gia tri. r th`anh day nhi. phan gm1 gm2 . . . g0
vo.i
gi = ai ai+1 ,
i = 0, 1, . . . , m 2,
gm1 = am1 ,
trong do k
y hie.u phep toan OR. Ma Gray co tnh chat giai ma duy nhat v`a hai t`
u.
ng mo.t vi. tr bit. Do do khi co thay doi nho trong cac
ma lien tiep ch khac nhau du
179
m
u.c xam no t anh hu.o.ng den tat ca m ma.t phang bit. Chang ha.n khi cac pixel co
`e nhau th` ch co ma.t phang bit th
u.
u. 7 xay ra tra.ng thai chuyen t`
gia tri. 127 v`a 128 k
0 sang 1 do cac t`
u. ma Gray cua 127 v`a 128 tu.o.ng u
.ng l`a 11000000 v`a 01000000.
`an nh
M
a ho
a v`
ung thu
at
- e nen cac anh nhi. phan ta co the su. du.ng cac t`
D
ung
u. ma da.c bie.t de xac di.nh cac v`
lien thong co gia tri. xam 1 hoa.c 0. Ch
ung ta chia anh th`anh cac khoi co kch thu.o.c
m n pixel v`a phan loa.i khoi tu`
y theo tat ca cac gia tri. trong v`
ung l`a trang, den hay
hon ho..p. Vo.i nh
u.ng khoi thu.`o.ng xuyen xuat hie.n ta gan t`
u. ma l`a 0 v`a hai khoi c`on
`an nhat (gia tri. xam khong
la.i gan cac t`
u. ma 10 v`a 11. Khi do vo.i nh
u.ng v`
ung thu
doi) se du.o..c thay ba` ng mo.t t`
u. ma 1-bit hoa.c t`
u. ma 2-bit. D nhien t`
u. ma u
.ng vo.i
`en to m`a sau do l`a mo.t mau mn-bit bieu dien
cac khoi hon ho..p du.o..c xem nhu. l`a ti
cho khoi.
`en trang), ta
u.a t`ai lie.u l`a van ban (k
y tu.. den tren n
Tru.`o.ng ho..p nh
u.ng anh ch
co the cai bien ba` ng cach ma hoa cac khoi da.c trang l`a 0 v`a tat ca cac khoi khac (ke
ca cac khoi da.c m`au den) l`a 1 theo sau do l`a mau bit cua khoi. Phu.o.ng phap n`ay (co
ten go.i l`a bo qua khoi trang v`a k
y hie.u WBS-White Block Skipping) cho t le. nen tot
`e cau tr
vo.i nh
u.ng anh biet tru.o.c v
uc Mo.t cai bien da.c bie.t hie.u qua cua thu tu.c n`ay
.
.
.
(vo i cac khoi kch thu o c 1 n) l`a ma hoa cac d`ong trang da.c l`a 0 v`a tat ca cac d`ong
khac l`a 1 theo sau day t`
u. ma WBS. Ch
ung ta c
ung co the su. du.ng phu.o.ng phap la.p:
`au. Vo.i cac
phan chia anh nhi. phan th`anh nh
u.ng v`
ung con cho den khi thoa yeu c
khoi 2-D ta ma hoa anh trang da.c l`a 0 v`a tat ca cac anh khac du.o..c chia th`anh cac
`en to l`a 1 v`a sau do du.o..c ma hoa tu.o.ng tu...
khoi con, moi khoi con n`ay du.o..c gan ti
`en to 1
T
u.c l`a neu mo.t khoi con co tat ca cac pixel trang th` no du.o..c ma hoa l`a 10: ti
`au tien v`a so 0 ch ra do l`a khoi da.c trang. Neu
ch ra do l`a khoi con trong phep la.p d
khoi con khong phai da.c trang th` ta tiep tu.c phan chia cho den khi kch thu.o.c cua
khoi con da.t den ngu.o.ng n`ao do v`a du.o..c ma hoa th`anh 0 (neu tat ca l`a trang) hoa.c
l`a 1 theo sau do l`a mau bit cua khoi.
`eu
M
a ho
a run length m
o.t chi
`o
Thua.t toan run length rat do.n gian v`a hie.u qua khi su. du.ng ma hoa cac ta.p tin d
co. ban l`a phat hie.n su.. la.p la.i cac pixel tren moi h`ang cua anh v`a xuat
ho.a bitmap. Y
`an la.p v`a mo.t cho gia tri. pixel la.p thay v` xuat t`
ra hai gia tri.: mo.t cho so l
u.ng gia
180
tri. pixel mo.t. Ma hoa run length khong hie.u qua doi vo.i cac mau cham diem hoa.c
cac anh du.o..c quet bo.i scan (thu.`o.ng khong co su.. la.p la.i). Ngu.o..c la.i, run length l`am
vie.c rat tot doi vo.i cac kieu d
u. lie.u khac v`a du.o..c d`
ung de nen cac ta.p tin da.ng BMP,
PCX, TIFF, Apple MacPaint...
`eu (RLC)
M
a ho
a run length m
o.t chi
Khi qua tr`nh ma hoa dien ra, tat ca cac d
u. lie.u du.o..c quet theo t`
u.ng h`ang v`a du.o..c
`e nhau co c`
ung m
u.c xam gk .
doi th`anh day cac ca.p (lk , gk ) trong do lk l`a so cac pixel k
`eu d`ai N th` 1 lk N, do do (neu d`
Neu moi d`ong quet co chi
ung ma hoa tu.. nhien)
`an log2 N bit de ma hoa cac gia tri. la.p lk . Neu h
`au het cac gia tri. la.p nho ho.n nhi
`eu
c
`e tiep theo l`a cho.n
so vo.i N th` cach ma hoa tu.. nhien khong hie.u qua. V` va.y van d
.
.
.
- i
`eu n`ay ho`an to`an
phu o ng phap ma hoa cac gia tri. la.p v`a gia tri. xam sao cho toi u u. D
`au.
phu. thuo.c v`ao d
u. lie.u ban d
`eu (PDQ v`
M
a ho
a run length hai chi
a DDC) cho anh nhi. ph
an
Phu.o.ng phap lu.o..ng tu. hoa sai phan du.. bao, k
y hie.u PDQ, bien doi mang cac gia
tri. xam hai m
u.c th`anh day cac ca.p so nguyen (0, 00), trong do 0 := xs2 xs1 l`a
`au cua cac d`ong quet tren hai d`ong lien tiep, v`a
hie.u gi
u.a cac ho`anh do. diem kho.i d
u.a cac gia tri. la.p tren hai d`ong lien tiep. Ngo`ai ra ch
ung ta
00 := l2 l1 l`a hie.u gi
.
su du.ng them cac dau hie.u new start v`a merge de k
y hie.u d`ong bat d`au v`a d`ong
ung doi tu.o..ng. Ke tiep ta co the d`
ung ma B1 de ma hoa cac da.i
ket th
uc cua moi v`
lu.o..ng 0, 00, new start v`a merge.
Ch
ung ta c
ung co the ma hoa delta kep (DDC) b`a ng cach su. du.ng 0 v`a 000
thay cho 0 v`a 00, trong do 000 := xe2 xe1 l`a hie.u gi
u.a cac ho`anh do. diem ket th
uc
cua cac d`ong quet tren hai d`ong lien tiep.
`eu
Nha.n xet r`a ng, vo.i nh
u.ng doi tu.o..ng den lo.n, cach ma hoa run length hai chi
`eu v`
`eu
hie.u qua ho.n; ngu.o..c la.i, neu co nhi
ung den nho th` ma hoa run length mo.t chi
.
hie.u qua ho n.
181
6.4.3
M
a ho
a sai ph
an
Phu.o.ng phap n`ay thu.`o.ng su. du.ng trong tru.`o.ng ho..p anh so co cac gia tri. xam tu.o.ng
`o co.t cua anh ta.p trung v`ao mo.t v`
ung.
tu..; noi cach khac, bieu d
- `au tien ta bien doi ta.p cac gia tri. xam z0 , z1, . . . , zN 1 th`anh day d0 , d1 , . . . , dN 1
D
xac d.inh bo.i
(
d0 = z0,
di = zi zi1 , i 1.
Bu.o.c ke tiep su. du.ng mo.t trong cac bo. ma Huffman, ma Shift... de ma hoa day
di , i = 0, 1, . . . , N 1. Chang ha.n, neu day di thay doi trong pha.m vi [127, 127] v`a
`om 16 t`
thu.`o.ng ta.p trung v`ao khoang (8, 8) ta co the xay du..ng bo. ma tu.. nhien g
u. ma
c0 , c1, . . . , c15 : trong do 14 t`
u. ma c1 , c2 , . . . , c14 tu.o.ng u
.ng 14 gia tri. 7, 6, . . . , 1, 0, 1, . . . , 6;
hai t`
u. ma c`on la.i, c0 su. du.ng de danh dau gia tri. di < 7 v`a c15 danh dau di 7.
Nguyen tac ma hoa (nhu. ma Shift) nhu. sau:
1. neu di [7, 6] ta su. du.ng t`
u. ma tu.o.ng u
.ng gia tri. n`ay. Chang ha.n, 7 du.o..c
ma hoa l`a c1, 6 l`a c2 v`a van van.
2. neu di > 6, ta chuyen di.ch theo hu.o.ng len. Chang ha.n, 10 du.o..c ma hoa l`a c15 c4,
25 l`a c15 c15c5 .
3. tu.o.ng tu.. doi vo.i cac gia tri. nho ho.n 7 ta chuyen di.ch theo hu.o.ng xuong.
Chang ha.n, 8 du.o..c ma hoa l`a c0 c1 , 9 l`a c0 c2 , 23 l`a c0 c0 c13.
6.4.4
M
a ho
a chu tuy
en
`an n`ay giam kch thu.o.c anh ba` ng cach lu.u mo.t
Thua.t toan ma hoa chu tuyen trong ph
danh sach cac chu tuyen. Moi chu tuyen du.o..c xac di.nh duy nhat bo.i:
1. m
u.c xam cua chu tuyen;
2. vi. tr (h`ang v`a co.t) cua mo.t pixel tren bien cua no, go.i l`a diem kho.i ta.o (IP-initial
point); v`a
3. mo.t day cac hu.o.ng cho phep ch
ung ta xay du..ng la.i chu tuyen.
`om hai thu tu.c con:
Thua.t toan g
182
1. thua.t toan IP xac d.inh vi. tr diem kho.i ta.o mo.i (tu.o.ng u
.ng tren chu tuyen mo.i);
v`a
2. thua.t toan T (tracing) t`m chu tuyen xuat phat t`
u. diem kho.i ta.o mo.i.
`an tu... Thua.t toan IP du.o..c su. du.ng de
Hai thu tu.c du.o..c thu..c hie.n mo.t cach tu
u. nhat v`a sau do thua.t toan T
xac di.nh diem kho.i ta.o th
u. nhat tren chu tuyen th
du.o..c su. du.ng de phat hie.n no; tiep theo, thua.t toan IP du.o..c su. du.ng de xac di.nh
u. hai v`a sau do thua.t toan T du.o..c su. du.ng
diem kho.i ta.o th
u. hai tren chu tuyen th
de phat hie.n no; v`a tiep tu.c. Thua.t toan IP xac di.nh tat ca cac chu tuyen; khong chu
`an. Thua.t toan T phat hie.n bien cua ta.p lien thong lo.n
tuyen n`ao du.o..c xac di.nh hai l
`om cac ph
`an tu. co c`
nhat g
ung gia tri. xam nhu. diem kho.i ta.o; no luon luon ket th
uc
.
.
ta.i diem kho i ta.o. Vo i moi chu tuyen, thua.t toan cho ta gia tri. xam, vi. tr cua diem
`an tu. du.o..c bao bo.i chu
kho.i ta.o v`a hu.o.ng di chuyen xung quanh bien. Tat ca cac ph
tuyen co c`
ung gia tri. nhu. chu tuyen du.o..c bo qua.
Thu
a.t to
an T
Thua.t toan T ap du.ng nguyen tac t`m du.`o.ng di trong me da.o (mazealways). Nhu.
minh ho.a trong H`nh 6.11, vie.c phat hie.n chu tuyen cho ta hu.o.ng di chuyen gi
u.a hai
`e nhau sao cho khong co hai ph
`an tu. ngo`ai chu tuyen v`a k
`e vo.i no co c`
pixel k
ung gia
`an tu. tren chu tuyen. Vie.c quyet d.inh hu.o.ng ra cua moi ph
`an tu. l`a
tri. nhu. cac ph
`an tu. n`ay bo.i nguyen tac t`m ben trai nhat (LML-left
tu.o.ng doi vo.i hu.o.ng v`ao cua ph
most looking).
c LML. T`m ph
`an tu.); neu ph
`an tu. ben trai (doi vo.i hu.o.ng v`ao cua ph
`an
Nguy
en t
a
`an tu. pha tren; neu ph
`an
tu. n`ay co c`
ung gia tri., di chuyen den no; neu khong, t`m ph
.
.
`an tu pha ben phai; neu
ung gia tri., di chuyen den no; neu khong, t`m ph
tu n`ay co c`
`an tu. n`ay co c`
ph
ung gia tri., di chuyen den no; neu khong, quay tro. la.i; neu khong,
`an tu. k
`e co c`
`om mo.t ph
`an tu..
khong co ph
ung gia tri., do do chu tuyen ch g
`an tu. cua mang hai
Thua.t toan T gan mo.t trong bon dau hie.u doi vo.i moi ph
`eu. Cac dau hie.u n`ay du.o..c su. du.ng trong thua.t toan IP. Ch
chi
ung ta k
y hie.u bon dau
`an tu. du.o..c gan dau hie.u I. Khi thua.t toan
hie.u bo.i R, D, A v`a I. Kho.i ta.o, moi ph
`an tu. tren chu tuyen theo nguyen tac
ung ca.p nha.t dau hie.u moi ph
T thu..c hie.n, no c
gan dau hie.u (IA-indicator assignment).
c IA. Dau hie.u du.o..c gan doi vo.i moi ph
`an tu. tren chu tuyen phu. thuo.c
Nguy
en t
a
183
IP 1
&
+
+
+
+
u.c xam.
H`nh 6.11: Chu tuyen th
u. nhat cua anh co bon m
IP 1
IP 2
IP 3
++
++
IP 4
H`nh 6.12: Bon IP v`a cac chu tuyen tu.o.ng u
.ng.
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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`an tu.
Hu.o.ng ra cua ph
hoa.c
hoa.c
Hu.o.ng v`ao
hoa.c
`an tu.
cua ph
hoa.c
H`nh 6.13: Cac dau hie.u doi vo.i tat ca cac kha nang co the co cua cac hu.o.ng di chuyen
den v`a ra cua mo.t pixel.
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
ung
Dau hie.u du.o..c gan cuoi c`
(D, A)
(D, D)
(A, A)
(A, D)
(R, D)
(R, A)
(R, R)
(D, R)
(A, R)
`an
H`nh 6.14: Cac phep gan cuoi c`
ung doi vo.i moi ca.p dau hie.u du.o..c xac di.nh tren l
duye.t th
u. nhat v`a th
u. hai.
Thu
a.t to
an IP
Thua.t toan IP ap du.ng thu tu.c t`m kiem co he. thong de xac di.nh cac diem kho.i ta.o.
`an tu. ta.i (0, 0) v`a tiep tu.c sang ben phai do.c theo
Vie.c t`m kiem n`ay xuat phat t`
u. ph
v`a cho den het h`ang th
u. nhat. Sau do h`ang th
u. hai, th
u. ba... du.o..c duye.t t`
u. trai
sang phai. Ket th
uc ta co tat ca cac diem IP du.o..c xac di.nh v`a thua.t toan d`
u.ng. Do
`eu du.o..c kiem tra de xac di.nh no co phai l`a ph
`an
`an tu. trong mang hai chi
do, moi ph
.
.
`an tu do.c theo moi h`ang de t`m cac IP,
tu IP hay khong. Khi di chuyen theo cac ph
`an d`ong th`o.i bien di.ch mo.t danh sach diem so sanh (CPL-comparision point
ch
ung ta c
list).
c x
`au di chuyen theo moi h`ang, danh sach l`a rong.
Nguy
en t
a
ay du..ng CPL. Kho.i d
`an tu. bat ga.p.
Khi di chuyen do.c theo h`ang ch
ung ta kiem tra dau hie.u cua moi ph
185
R
R
R
R
R
R
I
D
D
+
+
A
D
+
+
A
D
A
R
R
R
D
A
D
R
R
R
R
A
`e gan dau hie.u.
H`nh 6.15: V du. v
`an tu. n`ay (m
Neu dau hie.u l`a A (add) ch
ung ta ch`en gia tri. cua ph
u.c xam cua no) v`ao
`an tu. cuoi c`
cuoi danh sach; neu dau hie.u l`a D (drop) ch
ung ta xoa ph
ung trong danh
sach; neu dau hie.u l`a I hoa.c R (retain) danh sach khong thay doi.
Cuoi cua moi h`ang danh sach diem so sanh CPL l`a rong v` doi vo.i moi h`ang so
`an tu. ch`en.
`an tu. bi. xoa b`a ng so cac ph
cac ph
c IP. Ph
`an tu. du.o..c kiem tra l`a mo.t IP neu hai di
`eu kie.n sau du.o..c thoa
Nguy
en t
a
man:
1. dau hie.u cua no l`a I; v`a
`an tu. cuoi trong danh sach CPL.
2. gia tri. xam cua no khac gia tri. cua ph
M
a ho
a
`an tu. tren h`ang v`a co.t d`au tien. Ph
`an tu. n`ay luon luon l`a
Thua.t toan bat d`au t`
u. ph
du.ng thua.t toan T de t`m chu tuyen d
`au tien v`a d
`ong th`o.i
IP, ta noi IP l`a # 1. Ap
`e IP # 1 ch
ca.p nha.t cac dau hie.u. Sau khi tro. v
ung ta go.i thu tu.c IP de t`m IP mo.i.
Khi t`m thay IP mo.i, gan #2, ta la.i go.i thua.t toan T de t`m chu tuyen th
u. hai v`a
d`ong th`o.i ca.p nha.t cac dau hie.u. Tiep tu.c su. du.ng thua.t toan IP de t`m IP #3, v`a
van van. Ket qua cua vie.c thu..c hie.n t`m cac chu tuyen ta du.o..c
1. m
u.c xam cua no;
186
Giai m
a
u. ma chu tuyen cua no l`a de d`ang. Thua.t toan giai ma xay
Vie.c xay du..ng la.i anh t`
`an tu. tren h`ang v`a co.t d`au
`an tu. trong mang d
du..ng la.i moi ph
u. lie.u bat d`au t`
u. ph
187
`an tu. n`ay l`a IP # 1 nen gia tri. xam cua no l`a xac di.nh. Ho.n n
`an
tien. V` ph
u.a, cac ph
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
u lie.u tu o ng u
tu trong mang d
ng vo i chu tuyen #1 co the xay du. ng la.i c`
ung vo i cac
.
dau hie.u cua no su du.ng he. thong xuat v`a nguyen tac IA. Sau khi xay du..ng la.i chu
`au
`e diem IP # 1, ch
tuyen n`ay v`a tro. v
ung ta di chuyen t`
u.ng pixel do.c theo h`ang d
`oi h`ang th
tien, r
u. hai...
Khi di chuyen do.c theo moi h`ang, ch
ung ta c
ung bien di.ch danh sach CPL theo
.
`an tu bat ga.p hoa.c l`a IP tu.o.ng u
`an tu. tren mo.t chu
nguyen tac CPL. Moi ph
.ng ph
`an tu. khong thuo.c chu
tuyen da thu..c su.. du.o..c xay du..ng tru.o.c do, hoa.c l`a mo.t ph
tuyen.
Nguyen tac xay du..ng la.i l`a:
`an tu. l`a IP, xay du..ng chu tuyen v`a da.t cac dau hie.u.
1. Neu ph
2. Neu dau hie.u khong l`a I, no da thu..c su.. du.o..c xay du..ng la.i. Do do chuyen den
`an tu. ke tiep.
ph
`an tu. khong l`a IP v`a dau hie.u cua no l`a I, gia tri. cua no l`a ph
`an tu. cuoi
3. Neu ph
trong danh sach CPL.
6.5
N
en kh
ong bao to`
an th
ong tin
6.5.1
`eu bi
ap d
i
en m
a xung sai ph
an
Phu.o.ng ph
6.5.2
M
a ho
a qua ph
ep bi
en d
oi
doi anh du.o..c thao lua.n trong Chu.o.ng 3. Mu.c dch cua vie.c su. du.ng cac phep bien
u.a cac pixel.
doi l`a l`am giam moi tu.o.ng quan gi
`au tien ta chia anh kch thu.o.c N N th`anh
Trong ma hoa qua phep bien doi, d
cac anh con kch thu.o.c n n, n < N. Sau do tien h`anh ma hoa cac anh con mo.t
cach do.c la.p. Vo.i ma hoa qua phep bien doi khong thch nghi ta su. du.ng c`
ung mo.t
.
.
.
cach ma hoa vo i cac anh con; ngu o. c la.i, trong ma hoa qua phep bien doi thch nghi
ta cho.n cach ma hoa tot nhat theo ngha n`ao do vo.i t`
u.ng anh con.
- ang
`eu chuan lien quan den ma hoa anh chap nha.n mat mat thong tin. D
Co nhi
ch
uy
l`a chuan du.o..c du.a ra bo.i JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group). Vo.i cac
`an m`au du.o..c ma hoa tach bie.t. Theo chuan n`ay, anh gia tri.
anh m`au, moi th`anh ph
xam du.o..c ma hoa theo cac bu.o.c sau:
Bu.o.c 1. Chuyen di.ch cac m
u.c xam:
g(x, y) := f (x, y) (L 1),
trong do L l`a so cac m
u.c xam (thu.`o.ng L = 256).
Bu.o.c 2. Bien doi DCT cua cac khoi gs (x, y) kch thu.o.c 8 8 cua anh g(x, y) ta du.o..c
Gs (x, y). Neu kch thu.o.c cua anh khong phai l`a bo.i cua tam, ta la.p la.i cac h`ang (hoa.c
co.t) cuoi cho den khi kch thu.o.c cuoi c`
ung l`a bo.i cua tam. Nh
u.ng h`ang (hoa.c co.t)
them se loa.i bo khi giai ma.
Bu.o.c 3. Cac he. so cua phep bien doi du.o..c chuan hoa ba` ng cach ap du.ng mo.t bang
lu.o..ng tu. hoa. Chnh xac ho.n, cac gia tri. DCT Gs (x, y) du.o..c lu.o..ng tu. hoa v`a l`am
tr`on theo cong th
u.c
Gs (x, y)
+ 0.5 ,
ls (x, y) :=
Q(x, y)
`an nguyen cua x v`a Q(x, y) l`a cac he. so cua bang lu.o..ng tu. hoa. Co
trong do [x] l`a ph
mo.t so phu.o.ng phap thiet ke bang lu.o..ng tu. hoa (xem [17]). Du.o.i day l`a bang thu.`o.ng
du.o..c su. du.ng:
.ng cac he. so DC) du.o..c ma hoa theo
Bu.o.c 4. Cac gia tri. lu.o..ng tu. hoa ls (0, 0) (tu.o.ng u
phu.o.ng phap DPCM.
Bu.o.c 5. Moi khoi ls (x, y), (x, y) 6= (0, 0), (tu.o.ng u
.ng cac he. so AC) du.o..c sap xep la.i
theo th
u. tu.. zigzag v`a du.o..c ma hoa su. du.ng ket ho..p cua hai phu.o.ng phap run length
v`a Huffman.
190
16
11
10
16
24
40
51
61
12
12
14
19
26
58
60
55
14
13
16
24
40
57
69
56
14
17
22
29
51
87
80
62
18
22
37
56
68
109
103
77
24
35
55
64
81
104
113
92
49
64
78
87
103
121
120
101
72
92
95
98
112
100
103
99
M
a ho
a
`an n`ay tr`nh b`ay phu.o.ng phap JPEG ma hoa d
Ph
u. lie.u tren cac khoi anh da qua cac
bu.o.c xu. l
y tru.o.c l`a bien doi DCT v`a lu.o..ng tu. hoa. Thua.t toan du..a tren y
tu.o.ng cua
Chen v`a Pratt. Theo JPEG, cac he. so DC v`a AC du.o..c ma hoa khac nhau.
124
125
122
120
122
119
117
118
121
121
120
119
119
120
120
118
126
124
123
122
121
121
120
120
124
124
125
125
126
125
124
124
127
127
128
129
130
128
127
125
143
142
143
142
140
139
139
139
150
148
152
152
152
152
150
151
156
159
158
155
158
158
157
156
Nha.n xet ra` ng, he. so DC (direct current) t le. vo.i gia tri. trung b`nh trong khoi
8 8. Gia tri. trung b`nh n`ay trong lan ca.n cua khoi khong thay doi may; do do cac
- i
`an nhau. Suy ra cac gia tri. lu.o..ng tu. hoa DC c
`eu n`ay
gia tri. DC se g
ung xap x. D
dan den vie.c ma hoa sai phan day ls (0, 0).
Chuan JPEG phan hoa.ch cac gia tri. co the th`anh cac nhom Ni , i 0. Kch thu.o.c
`om mo.t ph
`an tu., nhom N1 g
`om hai
cua cac nhom tang theo l
uy th`
u.a hai: nhom N0 g
191
39.88
6.56 2.24
1.22
102.43
4.56
2.26
1.12
37.77
1.31
1.77
0.25
5.67
0.77
0.37 1.08
5.52
343
1.13
0.23
0.22 0.13
0.17
0.76
0.79
1.99 0.26
1.46
0.00
0.51 1.07
0.87
0.96
0.09
0.33
0.01
N1 := {1, 1},
N2 := {3, 2, 2, 3},
v`a
N16 := {32768}
(Z, C)
T`
u. ma
(Z, C)
T`
u. ma
(0, 0) (EOB)
1010
(F, 0) (ZRL)
11111111001
(0, 1)
00
(1,1)
1100
(F,1)
1111111111110101
(0, 2)
01
(1,2)
11011
(F,2)
1111111111110110
(0, 3)
100
(1,3)
111101
(F,3)
1111111111110111
(0, 4)
1011
(1,4)
111110110
(F,4)
1111111111111000
(0, 5)
..
.
11010
..
.
(1,5)
..
.
11111110110
..
.
(F,5)
..
.
1111111111111001
..
.
(Z, C)
T`
u. ma
Bang 6.9: Bang cac gia tri. anh Sena du.o..c lu.o..ng tu. hoa bo.i Bang 6.5.
Ma nhi. phan doi vo.i cac he. so AC (alternating current) du.o..c ta.o du..a tren ca.p
.ng vo.i t`
u. ma Huffman cho trong Bang 6.8. Do do, neu gia tri. du.o..c ma
(Z, C) tu.o.ng u
thuo.c nhom N3 v`a co 15 gia tri. tru.o.c do trong day zigzag b`a ng 0, th` ch
ung ta ta.o ra
con tro (F, 3), tro den t`
u. ma 1111111111110111. V` gia tri. thuo.c N3 nen ta gan them
3 bit danh dau vi. tr no trong nhom n`ay.
Co hai t`
u. ma da.c bie.t trong Bang 6.8. Th
u. nhat l`a ma ket th
uc khoi EOB. Neu
mo.t gia tri. n`ao do l`a gia tri. khac khong cuoi c`
ung trong day zigzag, th` sau t`
u. ma n`ay
se l`a ma EOB. T`
u. ma th
u. hai l`a ZRL du.o..c su. du.ng khi so cac gia tri. lien tiep trong
day zigzag ba` ng khong vu.o..t qua 15.
V du. 6.5.1 Xet cac gia tri. cho trong Bang 6.9 v`a gia su. he. so DC cua khoi tru.o.c l`a
1. Hie.u cua cac he. so DC l`a 2 (1) = 3 N2 . Do do ta gu.i ma Huffman cua nhom
`an tu. th
N2 theo sau l`a day 2 bit 11 (= 3) tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i ph
u. ba trong nhom N2 (l`a
- e ma hoa cac he. so AC, d`au tien ta xap xep la.i th
3). D
u. tu.. theo du.`o.ng zigzag. Ta
nha.n du.o..c day
1 9 3 0 0 0 0.
`an tu. khac khong d
Gia tri. d`au tien, 1 N1 . V` khong co ph
u.ng tru.o.c no, ta gu.i
ma Huffman tu.o.ng u
.ng l`a (0, 1) v`a do do (theo Bang ??) l`a 00. Tiep theo them bit
193
`en l`a 1 ch
`an tu.
1 de danh dau gia tri. du.o..c truy
u. khong phai 1. Tu.o.ng tu.. 9 l`a ph
th
u. bay trong nhom N4 . Do do, ta gu.i chuoi nhi. phan 1011, l`a ma Huffman cua (0, 4),
`an tu. th
sau do l`a 0110 de danh dau 9 l`a ph
u. bay trong nhom N4 . Nhan ke tiep l`a
.ng vo.i (0, 2), theo sau l`a 11. Tat ca
3 N2 , bo.i va.y ta gu.i ma Huffman 01, tu.o.ng u
cac nhan sau do b`a ng 0, v` va.y ta gu.i ma Huffman EOB, tu.o.ng u
.ng 1010. Neu gia
`an tong co.ng 18 bit de bieu
thiet ma Huffman doi vo.i he. so DC co do. d`ai 2 bit, th` c
9
dien khoi kch thu.o.c 8 8. Noi cach khac, ta d`
bit bieu dien mo.t pixel.
ung 32
- `au tien lu.o..ng tu. hoa ngu.o..c cac he. so
Tien tr`nh giai ma ho`an to`an do.n gian. D
trong Bang 6.9 ta du.o..c
32
11
108
42
Bang 6.10: Bang cac gia tri. lu.o..ng tu. hoa ngu.o..c.
Ke tiep bien doi DCT ngu.o..c ta co ket qua cho trong bang sau.
123
122
122
121
120
120
119
119
121
121
121
120
119
118
118
118
121
121
120
119
119
118
117
117
124
124
123
122
122
121
120
120
130
130
129
129
128
128
128
127
141
141
140
140
139
138
138
137
152
152
151
151
150
149
149
148
159
158
158
157
157
156
155
155
194
Chu.o.ng 7
NH
D
- OA
PHAN
N
A
.
`e xu. l
Trong cac Chu.o.ng 1-3 ch
ung ta da cung cap nh
u.ng kien th
u.c co. ban v
y anh v`a
`en xu. l
y anh.
sau do trong cac Chu.o.ng 4-6 da giai thch chi tiet cac phu.o.ng phap ti
`an c`on la.i cua giao tr`nh t`m hieu cac k
Ph
y thua.t tach thong tin t`
u. mo.t anh. Ta go.i
lnh vu..c n`ay l`a phan tch anh (image analysis).
`au tien trong phan tch anh l`a phan doa.n anh (image segmentation).
Bu.o.c d
`eu th`anh ph
`an theo mo.t quy lua.t n`ao
Phan doa.n anh l`a chia nho mo.t anh th`anh nhi
.
`e c
`an giai quyet. Vie.c phan doa.n se
do. M
u c do. chia nho n`ay phu. thuo.c v`ao van d
`an tach da du.o..c cach ly. Chang ha.n, trong cac u
d`
u.ng la.i neu cac va.t the c
.ng du.ng
`e quan
u. may bay do tham, ngo`ai nh
u.ng th
u. khac, van d
xac d.inh mu.c tieu du.o.i dat t`
tam l`a xac d.inh cac loa.i xe tren mo.t du.`o.ng pho. Bu.o.c d`au tien l`a tach con du.`o.ng
`an vo.i
n`ay ra khoi anh v`a sau do phan doa.n no th`anh cac doi tu.o..ng co kch thu.o.c g
kch thu.o.c s cua chiec xe. Ch
ung ta se khong phan doa.n nh
u.ng doi tu.o..ng co kch
`eu so vo.i s c
`an na` m ngo`ai
thu.o.c sai khac nhi
ung nhu. khong phan doa.n cac th`anh ph
da.i lo..
Phan doa.n anh l`a mo.t trong nh
u.ng b`ai toan quan tro.ng v`a kho nhat trong phan
tch anh tu.. do.ng v` no cho phep trch ra t`
u. anh cac doi tu.o..ng quan tam cho cac giai
`e sau, chang ha.n mieu ta v`a nha.n da.ng. Tien tr`nh phan tch anh th`anh
doa.n xu. l
y v
cong hay that ba.i phu. thuo.c v`ao qua tr`nh phan doa.n. V` l
y do n`ay, ta thu.`o.ng khao
sat can tha.n de co du.o..c mo.t anh du.o..c phan doa.n tot.
Thua.t toan phan doa.n anh do.n sac noi chung du..a tren mo.t trong hai da.c tru.ng
co. ban cua gia tri. xam: gian doa.n v`a tu.o.ng tu... Trong pha.m tr`
u th
u. nhat, ch
ung ta
195
phan doa.n du..a tren su.. thay doi khong lien tu.c cua m
u.c xam, v du. nhu. tach cac diem
co la.p, tach cac du.`o.ng v`a bien (edges) trong mo.t anh. Cach tiep ca.n chnh trong pha.m
tr`
u th
u. hai du..a tren co. so. ta.o ngu.o.ng, tang v`
ung lo.n len, chia ra v`a ho..p la.i. Cac da.c
tru.ng n`ay co the ap du.ng cho ca anh tnh v`a anh do.ng (dynamic image/time varying).
Tuy nhien, trong tru.`o.ng ho..p sau chuyen do.ng du.o..c d`
ung nha` m du.a ra nh
u.ng go..i y
7.1
Ph
at hi
e.n gi
an d
oa.n
w1
w2
w3
w4
w5
w6
w7
w8
w9
- a.t
D
w := (w1 , w2, . . . , w9)t ,
7.1.1
T
ach d
i
em
`e phat hie.n v`a phan doa.n cac diem co la.p trong anh nha` m khu. nhieu v`a phan
Van d
`an nho cua anh. Ma.t na. du.o..c su. du.ng de phat hie.n cac diem co la.p co
tch cac ph
da.ng trong H`nh 7.2.
1
`an nhat.
H`nh 7.2: Ma.t na. phat hie.n cac diem co la.p trong v`
ung thu
7.1.2
T
ach d`
ong
M
u.c tiep theo l`a tach cac d`ong trong anh. Xet cac ma.t na. trong H`nh 7.3.
Khi ma.t na. th
u. nhat chuyen do.ng chung quanh mo.t anh, th` no se tac do.ng
`en co di.nh, tac do.ng se cu..c da.i tren cac d`ong di qua
ma.nh len cac d`ong ngang. Vo.i n
h`ang gi
u.a cua ma.t na.. Tu.o.ng tu.., ma.t na. th
u. hai dap u
.ng ma.nh vo.i cac d`ong ho..p
vo.i tru.c x goc 450 ; ma.t na. th
u. ba u
.ng vo.i cac d`ong thang d
u.ng; v`a ma.t na. th
u. tu.
vo.i cac d`ong ho..p vo.i tru.c x goc 450 .
- iem (x, y) cua
K
y hie.u Ri , i = 1, . . . , 4, l`a dap u
.ng tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i ma.t na. th
u. i. D
anh du.o..c go.i l`a thch ho..p ho.n vo.i d`ong theo hu.o.ng i neu |Ri | > |Rj |, i 6= j.
197
+450
D`ong ngang
D`ong du
.ng
450
7.1.3
T
ach bi
en
To
an tu. Gradient
Nhac la.i l`a f :=
fx
fy
fx := f (x, y) f (x + 1, y + 1) = z5 z9,
fy := f (x + 1, y) f (x, y + 1) = z6 z8.
Nh
a.n x
et 7.1.1 (i) Su. du.ng cac ma.t na. kch thu.o.c 3 3 trong tnh toan co lo..i (tang
do. mi.n cua anh) ho.n cac toan tu. kch thu.o.c 2 2.
(ii) De d`ang thay ra` ng, cac da.o h`am rieng fx v`a fy trong phu.o.ng phap Sobel xac di.nh
uy
r`a ng, cac ma.t na.
tu.o.ng u
.ng bo.i anh f v`a cac ma.t na. gradient trong H`nh 7.4 Ch
.
.
`an nhat f = const qua bien doi n`ay co gia
n`ay co tong tro.ng lu o. ng 0, do do v`
ung thu
tri. xam 0.
Nhu. nha.n xet tren, vie.c l`am noi du.`o.ng bien du.o..c thu..c hie.n ba` ng cach tnh dap
- e khao sat tat ca cac hu.o.ng co the
u
.ng cua anh vo.i cac ma.t na. gradient n`ao do. D
trong vie.c xac di.nh bien, tam ma.t na. gradient v`ong du.o..c su. du.ng, moi ma.t na. xac
di.nh tu.o.ng u
.ng cu.`o.ng do. bien do.c theo mo.t trong tam hu.o.ng. Bon kieu cua cac ma.t
na. loa.i n`ay du.o..c lie.t ke trong cac H`nh 7.5, 7.6, 7.7 v`a 7.8.
199
(a)
(b)
7
X
Ri (x, y),
i=0
Ri (x, y)
(x, y) := max{tan
, i = 0, 1, . . . , 7},
R0 (x, y)
.ng cua ma.t na. th
u. i vo.i anh.
trong do Ri (x, y), i = 0, 1, . . . , 7, l`a dap u
1
To
an tu. Laplace
Toan tu. Laplace cua f (x, y) xac di.nh bo.i
f := fxx + fyy .
200
201
Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p r`o.i ra.c, co the tnh f ba` ng cach tnh dap u
.ng cua anh vo.i mo.t
ma.t na. Laplace, chang ha.n cac ma.t na. trong H`nh 7.9.
(a)
(b)
H`nh 7.9: Cac ma.t na. du.o..c su. du.ng de tnh Laplace.
Ma.c d`
u toan tu. Laplace xac di.nh su.. thay doi cu.`o.ng do. sang, no van t du.o..c
`eu l
y do: da.o h`am ba.c hai nha.y vo.i
su. du.ng trong thu..c te de tach du.`o.ng bien v` nhi
nhieu; ho.n n
u.a toan tu. Laplace ta.o cac du.`o.ng bien kep gay kho khan trong vie.c xac
di.nh hu.o.ng cua bien. V` cac l
y do n`ay m`a toan tu. Laplace thu.`o.ng dong vai tr`o th
u.
yeu trong vie.c tach bien, v`a ch de xac d.inh pixel o. pha toi hay sang phan cach bo.i
`an 7.3.5).
du.`o.ng bien (xem Ph
Du.o.i day ta nghien c
u.u toan tu. LOG (Laplacian of the Gaussian) nh`a m phat
hie.n bien v`a giam nhieu toi thieu ba` ng cach l`am tro.n anh tru.o.c khi l`am noi bien.
Toan tu. LOG thu..c hie.n l`am tro.n anh thong qua tch cha.p anh vo.i ma.t na. Gauss, sau
do ap du.ng toan tu. Laplace tren anh d`au ra. Chnh xac ho.n anh f (x, y) du.o..c l`am
noi bien xac d.inh bo.i
g(x, y) := [f (x, y) h(x, y)],
trong do h(x, y) l`a h`am Gauss hai bien vo.i phu.o.ng sai chuan :
2
x + y2
1
exp
.
h(x, y) :=
2 2
2 2
De d`ang ch
u.ng minh r`a ng,
g(x, y) = [h(x, y)] f (x, y).
Ch
uy
1 r2 2 2
r2
[h(x, y)] =
exp 2 ,
4 2 2
2
p
trong do r := x2 + y 2. H`nh 7.10 l`a nhat cat ngang cua d`o thi. h`am [h(x, y)]. Ch
u
.
.
.
.
.
.
y
tnh tro n cua h`am, cheo khong cua no ta.i r = , v`a du o ng (tu o ng u
ng, am) trong
202
h
....
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0.5
55
99
17 17
26 26
34 34
43 43
Bang 7.1: Bang cac gia tri. v`a kch thu.o.c ma.t na. tu.o.ng u
.ng.
`eu ho.n.
[h(x, y)] l`am giam nhieu. Phu.o.ng phap n`ay d`oi hoi tnh toan nhi
7.1.4
T
ach t
o ho..p
v
u 4
uX
pe := t hv i , zi2 ,
i=1
v
u 8
uX
pl := t hv i , zi2,
pa := khv 9 , zik.
i=5
W1
W2
W3
W4
W5
W6
W7
W8
1
W9
H`nh 7.12: Cac ma.t na. tru..c giao (vector w du.o..c ch ra tren chu.a du.o..c chan hoa). Bon
ma.t na. d`au tien ta.o th`anh co. so. khong gian con ca.nh; bon ma.t na. tiep theo tu.o.ng
u
.ng khong gian con d`ong; ma.t na. cuoi tu.o.ng u
.ng khong gian con trung b`nh.
205
7.1.5
Lo.c d
`
ong c
au
Wallis [] du.a ra phu.o.ng phap phat hie.n bien du..a tren vie.c xu. l
y anh d`ong cau f (x, y) =
`on ta.i bien ta.i pixel (x, y) neu
r(x, y)i(x, y). T
ln z5
1
[ln z2 + ln z4 + ln z6 + ln z8] > T,
4
7.2
(z5)4
> T 0 := exp[4T ].
z2 + z4 + z6 + z8
Li
en k
et ca.nh v`
a ph
at hi
e.n bi
en
`an tru.o.c phat hie.n su.. gian doa.n cu.`o.ng do. sang cua anh. V
`e
Cac k
y thua.t trong ph
`om cac pixel n`a m tren bien gi
l
y thuyet, cac k
y thua.t n`ay cho anh g
u.a cac doi tu.o..ng
`en. Trong thu..c te, ta.p cac pixel n`ay hiem khi da.c tru.ng bien d
`ay du do nhieu,
v`a n
do bien d
u.t doa.n v`a nh
u.ng anh hu.o.ng khac. V` va.y, sau tien tr`nh phat hie.n bien,
`an xu. l
ch
ung ta c
y them de lien ket cac pixel la.i th`anh mo.t du.`o.ng bien co d`ay du y
`an n`ay nghien c
ngha. Ph
u.u mo.t so phu.o.ng phap lien ket bien.
7.2.1
Xu. l
yd
.ia phu.o.ng
Cach tiep ca.n do.n gian nhat de lien ket cac diem bien l`a phan tch cac da.c tru.ng cua
cac pixel trong lan ca.n du nho cua no (chang ha.n, 3 3 hoa.c 5 5) trong anh da qua
vie.c phat hie.n bien (edge-detection). Tat ca cac diem tu.o.ng tu.. du.o..c lien ket la.i ta.o
th`anh bien. Hai tnh chat chnh du.o..c su. du.ng de thiet la.p tnh tu.o.ng tu.. cua cac pixel
bien l`a
206
Tnh chat (i) co ngha l`a pixel bien (x0 , y 0) N (x, y) (lan ca.n n`ao do cua (x, y))
co do. lo.n tu.o.ng tu.. vo.i pixel (x, y) neu
kf (x, y) f (x0 , y 0)k T,
(7.1)
(7.2)
uy
ra` ng, hu.o.ng goc cua bien ta.i (x, y) vuong goc
trong do A > 0 l`a goc ngu.o.ng. Ch
vo.i hu.o.ng cua vector gradient ta.i do. Tuy nhien, o. day v` ta so sanh hu.o.ng, nen (7.2)
cho ket qua tu.o.ng du.o.ng (ta.i sao?).
Ch
ung ta lien ket pixel (x0 , y 0) N (x, y) vo.i (x, y) neu hai tieu chuan do. lo.n
(7.1) v`a hu.o.ng (7.2) thoa man. Tien tr`nh n`ay du.o..c la.p la.i ta.i mo.i vi. tr trong anh
v`a ta thu du.o..c ta.p cac bien.
7.2.2
Xu. l
y to`
an cu.c qua bi
en d
oi Hough
Tru.o.c het khao sat vie.c lien ket cac pixel b`a ng cach xac di.nh ch
ung co n`a m tren mo.t
.
.
du `o ng cong co da.ng da.c bie.t khong.
`om n diem trong anh) n`a m tren
Gia su. ch
ung ta muon t`m cac ta.p con (cua ta.p g
cac du.`o.ng thang. Phu.o.ng phap l`a: d`au tien t`m tat ca cac du.`o.ng thang du.o..c xac
`an vo.i cac du.`o.ng
di.nh bo.i moi ca.p diem v`a sau do t`m tat ca cac ta.p con cac diem g
`an xac d.inh n(n 1)/2 du.`o.ng thang v`a thu..c
thang xac d.inh o. tren. Thua.t toan n`ay c
hie.n n2 (n 1)/2 phep so sanh moi diem vo.i tat ca cac du.`o.ng thang. Do do d`oi hoi
`eu th`o.i gian thu..c hie.n.
nhi
Phep bien doi Hough tr`nh b`ay du.o.i day nha` m giai quyet b`ai toan n`ay. Xet
diem (xi, yi ) R2 v`a phu.o.ng tr`nh du.`o.ng thang qua no da.ng yi = axi + b. Co vo so
207
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j
..
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b0
(x , y )
.............................................................................................................................................
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..
.
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i
..
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..
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.
.
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.
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j
.......
...
b = x a + yi
a0
(x , yj )
b = x a + yj
x
(a)
(b)
H`nh 7.13: (a) Ma.t phang xy; (b) khong gian tham so.
bmin
bmax
0
amin .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... b
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amax
a
H`nh 7.14: Lu.o..ng tu. hoa ma.t phang tham so de su. du.ng trong phep bien doi Hough.
.ng vo.i cac tham so (a, b)) di qua (xi , yi ), nhu.ng c`
ung thoa man
du.`o.ng thang (tu.o.ng u
.
.
.
phu o ng tr`nh yi = axi + b vo i cac gia tri. a, b thay doi. Ta co the viet b = yi axi v`a
xet trong ma.t phang tham so (a, b), phu.o.ng tr`nh n`ay xac d.inh mo.t du.`o.ng thang doi
vo.i moi (xi , yi) co di.nh. Ho.n n
ung co mo.t du.`o.ng
u.a, vo.i mo.t diem th
u. hai (xj , yj ) ta c
thang trong khong gian tham so tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i no v`a du.`o.ng thang n`ay cat du.`o.ng
.ng vo.i diem (xi , yi ) ta.i (a0, b0). Do do neu (x1 , y1), (x2, y2 ), . . . , (xn , yn )
thang tu.o.ng u
c`
ung na` m tren mo.t du.`o.ng thang th` ho. cac du.`o.ng thang trong khong gian tham so
b = yi axi,
i = 1, 2, . . . , n,
c`
ung di qua mo.t diem. H`nh 7.13 minh ho.a cac khai nie.m n`ay.
K
y hie.u [amin, amax] v`a [bmin , bmax] l`a pha.m vi thay doi cua he. so goc a v`a tham
208
so b. Ch
ung ta phan hoa.ch h`nh vuong [amin, amax ] [bmin, bmax] trong khong gian tham
so th`anh cac o tch l
uy nhu. H`nh 7.14. K
y hie.u o ta.i to.a do. (i, j) tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i h`nh
- a.t A(i, j) l`a gia tri. tch l
vuong trong khong gian tham so co cac to.a do. (ai, bj ). D
uy
.
.
cua o (i, j). Kho i ta.o cac gia tri. tch l
uy cua cac o ba` ng 0. Ke tiep, vo i moi diem anh
`an xet (xk , yk ) trong ma.t phang anh, ta cho tham so a ba` ng cac gia tri. phan hoa.ch
c
tren tru.c a v`a t`m b tu.o.ng u
.ng su. du.ng phu.o.ng tr`nh b = xk a + yk . L`am tr`on b vo.i
`an nhat tren tru.c b. Neu vo.i ap ta co bp th` da.t A(p, q) = A(p, q) + 1.
gia tri. co the g
Ket th
uc thua.t toan, ta co so diem trong ma.t phang anh xy na` m tren du.`o.ng thang
y = ai x + bj l`a A(i, j).
De thay r`a ng so phep toan thu..c hie.n thua.t toan l`a nK, trong do K l`a so diem
`an
chia tren tru.c a. Do do phu.o.ng phap n`ay hie.u qua ho.n cach du.o..c tr`nh b`ay o. ph
u.ng gia tri. K < n.
d`au doi vo.i nh
Khi su. du.ng phu.o.ng tr`nh y = ax + b bieu dien du.`o.ng thang, mo.t kho khan nay
- e
.ng du.`o.ng thang d
u.ng). D
sinh l`a he. so goc a v`a gia tri. b tien ra vo ha.n (tu.o.ng u
vu.o..t qua kho khan n`ay, ta su. du.ng bieu dien dang chuan du.`o.ng thang (L) du.o.i da.ng:
x cos + y sin = ,
trong do l`a goc ho..p bo.i tru.c ho`anh v`a du.`o.ng thang vuong vo.i goc (L) v`a l`a khoang
ngha cac tham so n`ay. Tu.o.ng
cach t`
u. goc to.a do. den (L). H`nh 7.15(a) minh ho.a y
tu.. nhu. tren, su. du.ng bieu dien n`ay ta co the xay du..ng cac o tch lu
y. Tuy nhien, thay
.
.
cho cac doa.n thang trong ma.t phang ab l`a cac du `o ng cong h`nh sin trong ma.t phang
. Nhu. tru.o.c, M diem n`a m tren c`
ung du.`o.ng thang x cos j + y sin j = i neu M
du.`o.ng cong h`nh sin cat nhau ta.i (i , j ) trong khong gian tham so. Tang v`a t`m
`an tu. du.a v`ao gia tri. tch lu
gia tri. tu.o.ng u
.ng ta du.o..c M ph
y A(i, j) cua o xac di.nh
bo.i (i , j ). H`nh 7.15(b) minh ho.a cach phan hoa.ch khong gian tham so.
Goc thay doi trong doa.n [900 , 900 ]. Do do du.`o.ng thang n`a m ngang co = 00
v`a ba` ng ho`anh do. giao diem cua du.`o.ng thang vo.i tru.c ho`anh. Tu.o.ng tu.., du.`o.ng
thang du
.ng co = 900 v`a ba` ng tung do. giao diem cua du.`o.ng thang vo.i tru.c tung.
Nh
a.n x
et 7.2.1 Phep bien doi Hough co the ap du.ng doi vo.i lo.p du.`o.ng cong da.ng
g(v, c) trong do v l`a vector to.a do. v`a c l`a vector he. so. Chang ha.n, co the phat hie.n
cac diem na` m tren du.`o.ng tr`on:
(x c1 )2 + (y c2 )2 = c23
b`a ng phu.o.ng phap tren. Khac nhau co. ban l`a bieu dien cac tham so (c1 , c2 v`a c3 ) trong
`eu vo.i cac h`nh ho.p ch
khong gian ba chi
u. nha.t v`a cac gia tri. tch l
uy da.ng A(i, j, k).
209
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max
(b)
(a)
H`nh 7.15: (a) Bieu dien to.a do. cu..c cua du.`o.ng thang; (b) lu.o..ng tu. hoa ma.t phang
th`anh cac o.
.ng; sau do ca.p nha.t gia tri. tch lu
y mo.t cach
Thua.t toan tang c1, c2 v`a t`m c3 tu.o.ng u
u.c ta.p cua bien doi Hough phu. thuo.c
thch ho..p vo.i bo. (c1 , c2, c3 ). Hien nhien, do. ph
`eu v`ao so cac to.a do. v`a cac he. so trong bieu dien h`am du.o..c cho.
nhi
`om:
Tro. la.i b`ai toan lien ket bien. Phu.o.ng phap du..a tren bien doi Hough bao g
(1) tnh gradient cua anh; (2) phan hoa.ch ma.t phang tham so ; (3) kiem tra cac o
`eu pixel; v`a (4) kiem tra moi lien he. (da.c bie.t, tnh lien
tch lu
y co su.. ta.p trung nhi
tu.c) gi
u.a cac pixel trong o du.o..c cho.n. Khai nie.m tnh lien tu.c trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay
thu.`o.ng du..a tren khoang cach gi
u.a cac pixel khong lien thong du.o..c xac di.nh suot qua
.ng mo.t o tch lu
y. Mo.t khe ho. ta.i diem bat
tr`nh duye.t trong ta.p cac pixel tu.o.ng u
`an nhat cua no vu.o..t qua
uy
neu khoang cach gi
u.a diem n`ay v`a lan ca.n g
k`
y du.o..c ch
`an 2.3 v
`e cac khai nie.m lien thong, lan ca.n v`a khoang
mo.t ngu.o.ng cho tru.o.c (xem Ph
cach).
7.2.3
ap d
`o
thi.
Phu.o.ng ph
`an tru.o.c du..a tren mo.t ta.p cac diem bien nha.n du.o..c thong qua
Phu.o.ng phap trong ph
`en xu. l
toan tu. gradient. V` va.y no t khi du.o..c su. du.ng trong bu.o.c ti
y doi vo.i cac
`an n`ay tr`nh b`ay thua.t toan to`an cu.c de xac di.nh cac du.`o.ng bien
anh co nhieu. Ph
210
7.3
Ngu.
o.ng
7.3.1
Co. so.
`au ra g(x, y), gia tri. L 1 (hoa.c mo.t gia tri. bat k`
Trong anh d
y n`ao do) tu.o.ng u
.ng
`en.
doi tu.o..ng; gia tri. 0 tu.o.ng u
.ng n
Khi T ch phu. thuo.c f (x, y) ta noi ngu.o.ng to`an cu.c. Neu T phu. thuo.c ca v`ao
p(x, y) v`a f (x, y), th` ngu.o.ng l`a d.ia phu.o.ng. Ho.n n
u.a, neu T phu. thuo.c ca v`ao to.a
do. cac pixel (x, y) th` ngu.o.ng l`a do.ng.
7.3.2
eu s
ang
Vai tr`
o cu a su.. chi
`an 2.1 ch
Trong Ph
ung ta da ch ra ra` ng co the xem h`am anh f (x, y) nhu. tch cua
`an phan xa. r(x, y) v`a th`anh ph
`an chieu sang i(x, y) :
th`anh ph
f (x, y) = r(x, y)i(x, y).
`an chieu sang trong
`an n`ay nh`a m tr`nh b`ay tac do.ng cua th`anh ph
Mu.c dch cua ph
qua tr`nh phan doa.n anh.
Lay logarithm co. so e cua f ta du.o..c
z(x, y) := ln f (x, y) = ln r(x, y) + ln i(x, y) = r0 (x, y) + i0(x, y).
T`
u. l
u.ng bien ngau nhien do.c la.p th`
y thuyet xac suat, neu r0 (x, y) v`a i0 (x, y) l`a nh
bieu d`o co.t cua z(x, y) b`a ng tch cha.p cua bieu d`o co.t cua r0 (x, y) v`a i0 (x, y). Neu
`o co.t co da.ng mo.t doa.n thang
i(x, y) l`a h`a ng so th` i0(x, y) c
ung l`a ha` ng so v`a bieu d
(giong mo.t xung). Do do tch cha.p cua i0(x, y) = const vo.i r0 (x, y) cho ta h`am vo.i bieu
`o co.t ro.ng ho.n
d`o co.t co h`nh da.ng giong cua r0 (x, y). Ma.t khac, neu i0 (x, y) co bieu d
`eu), th` tch cha.p cua i0 (x, y) v`a r0 (x, y) se l`am thay
(tu.o.ng u
.ng su.. chieu sang khong d
`o co.t cua r0 (x, y), v`a do do bieu d
`o co.t cua z(x, y) co h`nh dang
doi dang die.u bieu d
.
0
.
`eu cua th`anh
khac vo i cua r (x, y). M
u c do. khac nhau phu. thuo.c v`ao tnh khong d
`an chieu sang.
ph
Tren day ch
ung ta xet h`am ln f (x, y) thay cho f (x, y), nhu.ng ban chat cua van
`an phan xa. v`a chieu sang.
d`e l`a o. cho su. du.ng h`am logarithm de tach cac th`anh ph
.
.
- i
`eu n`ay cho phep ch
`o co.t nhu mo.t xu l
D
ung ta xem bieu d
y tch cha.p, do do giai thch
`o co.t cua th`anh ph
`an phan xa. thu..c su.. bi. pha huy
l
y do mo.t thung l
ung trong bieu d
`eu.
bo.i su.. chieu sang khong d
Neu gia thiet da biet h`am chieu sang i(x, y), trong thu..c te ta thu.`o.ng ap du.ng len
`e ma.t); ket qua co h`am anh
mo.t ma.t m`au trang vo.i he. so phan xa. k (phu. thuo.c v`ao b
212
g(x, y) = ki(x, y). Khi do vo.i mo.i h`am anh f (x, y) = i(x, y)r(x, y) ta co h`am chuan
hoa h(x, y) = f (x, y)/g(x, y) = r(x, y)/k. Do do, neu r(x, y) du.o..c tach bo.i ngu.o.ng
do.n T th` h(x, y) du.o..c tach bo.i T /k. Ch
uy
r`a ng phu.o.ng phap n`ay ch thu..c hie.n tot
- a.c bie.t, chuan hoa cua
`an chieu sang ta.o bo.i i(x, y) khong thay doi. D
neu th`anh ph
h`am f (x, y) bo.i g(x, y) du.o..c thu..c hie.n ba` ng cach su. du.ng do.n vi. xu. l
y so ho.c-logic
.
`an 2.3.5
(ALU) nhu da ch ra trong Ph
7.3.3
o.ng to`
an cu.c
Ngu.
Phu.o.ng phap do.n gian v`a hie.u qua de phan doa.n anh ba` ng ngu.o.ng l`a chia thang do.
xam th`anh cac dai v`a su. du.ng mo.t ngu.o.ng T de xac d.inh cac v`
ung hoa.c de nha.n cac
diem bien. Vie.c phan doa.n sau do du.o..c thu..c hie.n ba` ng cach duye.t cac pixel trong
`en tu`
y theo m
u.c xam cua no lo.n ho.n
anh v`a gan nhan moi pixel l`a doi tu.o..ng hoa.c n
hay nho ho.n gia tri. T. Nhu. da d`e ca.p tren, su.. th`anh cong cua phu.o.ng phap n`ay ho`an
`o co.t.
to`an phu. thuo.c v`ao vie.c phan hoa.ch bieu d
- e phat hie.n bien theo ca hai hu.o.ng (ngang v`a d
D
u.ng) ta thu..c hie.n thu tu.c sau:
u.c l`a, x = 0, 1, . . . , M 1) ta.o mo.t co.t
Bu.o.c 1. Vo.i moi co.t trong anh f (x, y) (t
tu.o.ng u
.ng trong anh trung gian g1 (x, y), y = 1, 2, . . . , N 1,
neu cac m
u.c f (x, y) v`a f (x, y 1)
L
E
g1 (x, y) :=
na` m trong cac dai khac nhau cua thang do. xam,
L
neu ngu.o..c la.i,
B
`en tu.o.ng u
trong do LE v`a LB l`a cac m
u.c bien v`a n
.ng.
u.c l`a, y = 0, 1, . . . , N 1) ta.o mo.t h`ang
Bu.o.c 2. Vo.i moi h`ang trong anh f (x, y) (t
tu.o.ng u
.ng trong anh trung gian g2 (x, y), x = 1, 2, . . . , M 1,
L E
neu cac m
u.c f (x, y) v`a f (x 1, y)
g2 (x, y) :=
na` m trong cac dai khac nhau cua thang do. xam,
L
neu ngu.o..c la.i.
B
`om cac pixel tren bien cua doi tu.o..ng khac vo.i n
`en xac di.nh bo.i
Bu.o.c 3. Anh g
L
neu hoa.c g1 (x, y) = LE hoa.c g2 (x, y) = LE ,
E
g(x, y) :=
L
neu ngu.o..c la.i.
B
213
`au nhu.
Nh
a.n x
et 7.3.1 (i) Trong thu..c te, vie.c phan lo.p du..a tren ngu.o.ng to`an cu.c h
`eu khien m
u.c do. cao. Chang ha.n trong cac u
th`anh cong trong moi tru.`o.ng du.o..c di
.ng
`eu khien du.o..c th`anh ph
`an
du.ng kiem tra san pham cong nghie.p ch
ung ta co the di
`an 7.3.2) th`anh ph
`an chieu sang dong vai tr`o quyet
chieu sang. Nhac la.i l`a (xem Ph
`o co.t cua anh.
di.nh trong vie.c ta.o dang bieu d
`eu dai bang.
(ii) Phu.o.ng phap tren de d`ang tong quat hoa trong tru.`o.ng ho..p co nhi
`e co. ban l`a xac di.nh ngu.o.ng T. Ta co the da.t cac ngu.o.ng thong qua phep thu.
Van d
`eu n`ay ch thu..c hie.n du.o..c neu so cac anh khac nhau nho. Vo.i
du
ng sai. Tuy nhien di
`e da.c tru.ng bieu d`o co.t theo
cac he. thong d`oi hoi da.t ngu.o.ng tu.. do.ng, b`ai toan du.a v
ngha bat bien n`ao do.
7.3.4
o.ng t
oi u.u
Ngu.
`en, cac v`
Gia su. cac v`
.ng n
ung sang tu.o.ng u
.ng doi tu.o..ng. Khi
ung toi tu.o.ng u
do, 1 < 2 v`a ta co the di.nh ngha ngu.o.ng T sao cho cac m
u.c xam nho ho.n T du.o..c
`en v`a cac m
`am)
xem l`a n
u.c xam lo.n ho.n T xem l`a doi tu.o..ng. Xac suat phan loa.i (nh
.
.
`en:
mo.t doi tu o. ng l`a n
Z T
p2 (x)dx.
E1 (T ) =
`am) n
`en l`a doi tu.o..ng:
Tu.o.ng tu.. xac suat phan loa.i (nh
Z
p1 (x)dx.
E2(T ) =
T
dE
= P2 p2 (T ) P1 p1 (T ).
dt
Suy ra
P1 p1 (T ) = P2 p2 (T ).
du.ng ket qua n`ay doi vo.i h`am ma.t do. Gauss, sau do lay logarithm v`a do.n
Ap
gian hoa ta co
AT 2 + BT + C = 0,
trong do,
A = 12 22,
B = 2(1 22 2 12),
C = 22 12 21 22 + 212 22 ln(2P1 /1 P2 ).
Neu cac phu.o.ng sai b`a ng nhau, = 1 = 2 , ta co mo.t ngu.o.ng do.n
2
1 + 2
P2
+
ln
.
T =
2
1 2
P1
2
. Vie.c
u.a, neu cac xac suat tien nghie.m ba` ng nhau hoa.c = 0, ta co T = 1 +
Ho.n n
2
xac d.inh ngu.o.ng toi u.u co the tnh de d`ang doi vo.i cac h`am ma.t do. xac suat khac
nhu. Raleigh hay log chuan.
ems
Noi chung vie.c xac di.nh cac tham so sao cho cu..c tieu hoa sai so b`nh phu.o.ng
`e khong do.n gian. Tha.m ch trong tru.`o.ng ho..p Gauss, vie.c giai
trung b`nh l`a van d
tru..c tiep cac phu.o.ng tr`nh da.o h`am rieng ba` ng khong du.a den giai he. cac phu.o.ng
tr`nh sieu vie.t. V` de d`ang tnh toan tu. gradient, nen co the su. du.ng phu.o.ng phap
gradient lien ho..p hay phu.o.ng phap Newton giai he. cac phu.o.ng tr`nh phi tuyen n`ay.
`an biet tru.o.c cac gia tri. kho.i ta.o.
Trong moi bu.o.c la.p cua cac phu.o.ng phap tren, ta c
Neu gia thiet cac xac suat tien nghie.m b`a ng nhau th` co the xac di.nh du.o..c nh
u.ng
`au cua k`
gia tri. kho.i ta.o. Cac gia tri. ban d
y vo.ng v`a phu.o.ng sai du.o..c xac di.nh ba` ng
`o co.t hay do.n gian ho.n l`a phan hoa.ch bieu d
`o
cach phat hie.n cac nhom trong bieu d
`an trong khoang gia tri. trung b`nh cua no; gia tri. k`
y vo.ng v`a phu.o.ng
co.t th`anh hai ph
`an du.o..c coi l`a cac gia tri. ban d`au.
sai cua hai ph
7.3.5
o.ng du..a tr
en d
a.c tru.ng bi
en
Ngu.
Mo.t trong nh
u.ng da.c tru.ng quan tro.ng nhat de cho.n ngu.o.ng l`a kha nang xac di.nh
`o co.t. Kha nang n`ay da.c bie.t quan tro.ng de cho.n ngu.o.ng tu..
cac che do. trong bieu d
do.ng trong t`nh huong cac da.c tru.ng cua anh co the thay doi tren mo.t pha.m vi ro.ng
`an 7.3.2-7.3.4, hien nhien l`a co. ho.i
theo cac phan bo cu.`o.ng do. sang. Du..a tren cac Ph
cho.n du.o..c mo.t ngu.o.ng tot se tang neu cac n
ui trong bieu do. co.t cao, he.p, doi x
u.ng
v`a du.o..c tach bo.i cac thung l
ung.
`o co.t l`a ch
Mo.t cach de cai thie.n h`nh da.ng bieu d
ung ta ch khao sat cac pixel
- i
`en. D
`eu n`ay khien bieu d
`o co.t t
`an cac bien gi
na` m tren hoa.c g
u.a cac doi tu.o..ng v`a n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
`en. Chang ha.n, xet anh
phu. thuo.c v`ao kch thu o c tu o ng doi gi
u a cac doi tu o. ng v`a n
`en ro.ng vo.i m
`om mo.t n
`an ha` ng so v`a doi tu.o..ng nho. Ta co bieu d`o co.t vo.i
g
u.c xam g
`en. Ma.t khac, neu ch xet cac pixel
n
ui (peak) ro.ng do su.. ta.p trung cua cac pixel n
`an bien gi
`en, ket qua l`a bieu d
`o co.t co cac n
na` m tren hoa.c g
u.a cac doi tu.o..ng v`a n
ui
.
.
.
.
.
.
xap x c`
ung do. cao. Ho n n
u a, xac suat mo.t pixel n`a m tren doi tu o. ng thu `o ng ba` ng
`en, do do cai thie.n tnh doi x
`o
xac suat pixel n`a m tren n
u.ng cua cac n
ui cua bieu d
.
.
co.t. Ngo`ai ra vie.c su du.ng cac pixel thoa man mo.t tieu chuan do n gian n`ao do tren
co. so. cua cac phep toan gradient v`a Laplace co xu hu.o.ng tang them thung l
ung gi
u.a
`o co.t.
cac n
ui cua bieu d
216
`e chnh trong cach tiep ca.n n`ay l`a phai biet tru.o.c bien gi
Van d
u.a cac doi tu.o..ng
`en. Thong tin n`ay hien nhien khong the biet trong qua tr`nh phan doa.n v` vie.c
v`a n
`en chnh l`a tien tr`nh phan doa.n anh! Tuy nhien, nhu. da ch
tach cac doi tu.o..ng ra n
`an 7.1.3, dau hie.u cho biet pixel na` m tren bien co the nha.n biet ba` ng phep
ra trong Ph
`an
toan gradient. Ho.n n
u.a, su. du.ng Laplace, co the ch ra thong tin pixel n`a m pha ph
.
.
`en) hoa.c ph
`an sang (doi tu o. ng) cua bien. Gia tri. trung b`nh cua Laplace ba` ng 0
toi (n
ta.i cho di chuyen qua bien (xem H`nh 7.10). Do do trong thu..c te cac thung l
ung cua
`o co.t du.o..c ta.o ra t`
bieu d
u. cac pixel m`a tieu chuan gradient/Laplace ta.i do cho biet
ch
ung thuo.c v`
ung khong ta.p trung.
du.ng cac toan tu. gradient v`a Laplace tren anh f (x, y) ta co anh ba m
Ap
u.c:
s(x, y) := +
7.3.6
`eu bi
o.ng du..a tr
en nhi
en
Ngu.
7.4
en v`
ung
Ph
an d
oa.n du..a tr
`eu v`
Mu.c dch cua phan doa.n l`a phan hoa.ch anh th`anh nhi
ung (region). Trong cac
`an 7.1 v`a 7.2 ch
Ph
ung ta tiep ca.n b`ai toan n`ay ba` ng cach t`m cac du.`o.ng bien gi
u.a
`an 7.3, vie.c phan doa.n anh
cac v`
ung du..a tren su.. gian doa.n cua gia tri. xam. Trong Ph
.
.
.
.
.
du o. c thu. c hie.n du. a tren su. phan bo cua cac tnh chat pixel nhu. cu.`o.ng do. sang hay
`an n`ay xet cac k
m`au. Ph
y thua.t xac di.nh v`
ung mo.t cach tru..c tiep.
7.4.1
Kh
ai ni
e.m
7.4.2
`
ach nh
om c
ac pixel
T
ang v`
ung b
a ng c
Tang v`
ung l`a thu tu.c nh`a m nhom cac pixel hay cac v`
ung con th`anh nh
u.ng v`
ung lo.n
ho.n:
`om cac pixel ha.t giong (seed) v`a
`au vo.i mo.t ta.p S := {s1 , s2, . . . , sn } g
Bu.o.c 1. Kho.i d
cac v`
ung Rj := {sj }, j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Bu.o.c 2. Tang v`
ung Rj ba` ng cach them cac pixel p NS(s), s Rj , sao cho p co tnh
chat tu.o.ng tu.. (th du., m
u.c xam, ket cau hoa.c m`au) vo.i s.
.ng cac
V du. 7.4.1 Khao sat H`nh 7.16(a), trong do cac so ben trong cac o tu.o.ng u
m
u.c xam. Gia su. cac diem xuat phat co to.a do. (3, 2) v`a (3, 4). Vo.i hai pixel ha.t giong
`eu nhat hai v`
ung: R1 tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i (3, 2) v`a R2 tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i (3, 4).
n`ay ta du.o..c nhi
Tnh chat P trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay co ngha pixel thuo.c mo.t v`
ung neu gia tri. tuye.t
.
.
.
.
u a m
doi cua hie.u gi
u c xam cua no vo i m
u c xam cua pixel ha.t giong nho ho.n ngu.o.ng
219
T cho tru.o.c. Cac pixel thoa man tnh chat n`ay vo.i ca hai ha.t giong du.o..c gan (tu`
yy
)
.
.
.
.
.
.
thuo.c v`
ung R1. H`nh 7.16(b) l`a ket qua nha.n du o. c vo i T = 3. Trong tru `o ng ho. p n`ay
anh du.o..c phan doa.n th`anh hai v`
u.ng diem
ung: nh
u.ng diem thuo.c R1 co nhan a v`a nh
uy
ra` ng phan hoa.ch n`ay khong phu. thuo.c v`ao vie.c cho.n ha.t
thuo.c R2 co nhan b. Ch
`au. Tuy nhien, cho.n T = 8 ta ch du.o..c mo.t v`
giong ban d
ung nhu. trong H`nh 7.16(c).
Trong v du. tren, ma.c d`
u do.n gian nhu.ng dan den mo.t so kho khan trong thua.t
`e nay sinh tru..c tiep t`
u. thua.t toan tang v`
ung l`a: (1) cho.n
toan tang v`
ung. Hai van d
cac ha.t giong kho.i ta.o tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i nh
u.ng v`
ung quan tam; v`a (2) cho.n cac tnh chat
thch ho..p de nhom cac pixel trong cac v`
ung khac nhau.
Cho.n cac ha.t giong kho.i ta.o phu. thuo.c v`ao ban chat cua b`ai toan. Chang ha.n
`ong ngoa.i cac mu.c tieu tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i nh
u.ng
trong quan su.., vo.i anh chu.p ba` ng tia h
`en. Do do co the cho.n cac pixel sang nhat l`am cac diem
v`
ung xuat hie.n sang ho.n n
xuat phat. Khi cac thong tin de cho.n cac pixel ha.t giong chu.a biet, ch
ung ta co the
xu. l
y ba` ng cach tnh ta.i mo.i pixel (nhu. nhau) ta.p cac thuo.c tnh m`a sau do se du.o..c
su. du.ng de gan cac pixel len v`
ung trong tien tr`nh xu. l
y tang v`
ung. Neu ket qua cua
`an tam cua cac lan ca.n
tnh toan ta.p trung v`ao mo.t so lan ca.n, th` cac pixel na` m g
`o co.t trong v du. tru.o.c ch
n`ay co the xem l`a cac pixel ha.t giong. Chang ha.n, bieu d
`eu kha nang nhat.
ra r`a ng cac diem vo.i cu.`o.ng do. 1 v`a 7 co nhi
Cho.n thuo.c tnh tu.o.ng tu.. khong ch phu. thuo.c v`ao b`ai toan khao sat m`a c`on
u. lie.u anh. Chang ha.n, vie.c phan tch cac anh chu.p t`
v`ao kieu d
u. ve. tinh phu. thuo.c
`eu so vo.i xu. l
`eu v`ao m`au sac cua anh. B`ai toan tro. nen kho ho.n nhi
nhi
y anh do.n
- ang tiec, day l`a mo.t b`ai toan ngoa. i le. trong xu. l
- a.c bie.t, phan doa.n
sac. D
y anh. D
`an du.o..c thu..c hie.n su. du.ng mo.t ta.p cac mo ta du..a tren cu.`o.ng do. v`a cac tnh
v`
ung c
chat khong gian (nhu. moment, ket cau). Ch
ung ta se xet cac mieu ta h
u.u ch de da.c
`an 8.3.
tru.ng v`
ung trong Ph
`e nhau neu khong
Ch
uy
ra` ng, tnh lien thong hay cac thong tin cua cac pixel k
.
.
.
du o. c su du.ng trong k
y thua.t tang v`
ung co the dan den sai le.ch. Chang ha.n, xet
u.c sang phan bie.t.
anh du.o..c ta.o ba` ng cach sap xep ngau nhien cac pixel vo.i ch ba m
Nhom cac pixel co c`
ung cu.`o.ng do. ta.o th`anh v`
ung m`a khong ch
u y
den tnh lien
thong se ta.o ra anh du.o..c phan doa.n khong co y
ngha.
`e co. ban, ch
`e quan tro.ng n
ung ta ng`
u.ng tang
uc thua.t toan. V
Van d
u.a l`a ket th
- e tang s
`e ra. D
v`
ung khi khong co pixel n`ao thoa man tieu chuan d
u.c ma.ch cua thua.t
toan tang v`
ung, ngo`ai cac tieu chuan da d`e ca.p den: cu.`o.ng do., ket cau v`a m`au sac,
220
(a)
(b)
(c)
ung: (a) anh goc; (b) ket qua phan doa.n su.
H`nh 7.16: V du. cua thua.t toan tang v`
du.ng ngu.o.ng ba` ng 3; (c) ket qua phan doa.n su. du.ng ngu.o.ng ba` ng 8.
221
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43.......
44.......
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.... 42.....
.
...... ....
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43 ... 44 ......
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.................................................................................................................................
(a)
(b)
7.4.3
T
ach v`
ung v`
a tr
o.n v`
ung
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
7.5
K
y thu
a.t anh d
o.ng trong ph
an d
oa.n
Chuyen do.ng l`a mo.t tn hie.u ma.nh du.o..c su. du.ng bo.i con ngu.`o.i v`a do.ng va.t de tach
`en. Trong cac u
cac doi tu.o..ng quan tam t`
u. n
.ng du.ng xu. l
y anh, chang ha.n u
.ng du.ng
ngu.`o.i may, nha.n da.ng t`au b`e qua la.i, v`a phan tch canh do.ng, chuyen do.ng nay sinh
`an
u.a he. thong cam giac v`a canh du.o..c quan sat. Ph
t`
u. su.. di.ch chuyen tu.o.ng doi gi
.
`en khong gian v`a t
`an so du. a v`ao chuyen
n`ay xet tien tr`nh phan doa.n anh trong mi
do.ng.
7.5.1
`en kh
K
y thu
a.t mi
ong gian
Co. so.
u.a hai frame
Mo.t trong nh
u.ng phu.o.ng phap do.n gian nhat de phat hie.n su.. thay doi gi
anh f (x, y, ti) v`a f (x, y, tj ) ta.i hai th`o.i diem ti v`a tj tu.o.ng u
.ng, l`a so sanh hai anh
tren co. so. cac pixel. Phu.o.ng phap l`a ta.o ra mo.t anh hie.u (difference image). Gia su.
`an tnh. Neu so sanh anh n`ay
u.a cac th`anh ph
ch
ung ta co mo.t anh tham khao ch ch
.
.
.
.
vo i mo.t day anh co c`
ung moi tru `o ng nhu ng them cac doi tu.o..ng chuyen do.ng. Khi do
`an co di.nh v`a ch gi
`an tu. khac
u.ng th`anh ph
hie.u cua hai anh se huy nh
u. la.i nh
u.ng ph
`an anh chuyen do.ng.
.ng vo.i th`anh ph
khong tu.o.ng u
1
`an 8.3.3 v
`e thu
ay.
Xem Ph
a.t ng
u. n`
224
Hie.u gi
u.a hai anh ta.i cac th`o.i diem ti v`a tj du.o..c xac di.nh nhu. sau:
(7.3)
Trong phan tch anh do.ng, tat ca cac pixel trong anh hie.u dij (x, y) co gia tri. 1
xem nhu. ket qua cua doi tu.o..ng chuyen do.ng. Phu.o.ng phap n`ay ch du.o..c ap du.ng
ung mo.t canh v`a cu.`o.ng do. sang thay doi tu.o.ng doi nho. Trong thu..c
khi hai anh cua c`
te, cac pixel (x, y) trong anh hie.u m`a dij (x, y) = 1 co the tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i nhieu. Ch
u
y
r`a ng cac pixel n`ay thu.`o.ng l`a cac diem co la.p v`a phu.o.ng phap de khu. ch
ung l`a ta.o
.
`an tu ba` ng 1 trong dij (x, y) v`a sau do bo
cac v`
ung 4 hoa.c 8lien thong cua cac ph
- i
`an tu. nho ho.n mo.t gia tri. cho tru.o.c n`ao do. D
`eu n`ay
qua tat ca cac v`
ung co so ph
co the loa.i bo cac doi tu.o..ng nho v`a/hoa.c chuyen do.ng cha.m, tuy nhien no se l`am noi
`an chuyen do.ng.
ba.t cac th`anh ph
nh hi
A
e.u tch l
uy
`an
Nhu. da ch ra, do nhieu nen anh hie.u thu.`o.ng ch
u.a cac diem co la.p. Ma.c d`
u cac ph
`an hay ho`an to`an b`a ng vie.c phan tch tnh lien thong
tu. n`ay co the loa.i bo mo.t ph
ung co the loa.i bo cac doi tu.o..ng nho hay chuyen do.ng
cua ch
ung, phu.o.ng phap n`ay c
.
`e n`ay ba` ng cach xet su.. thay doi ta.i moi pixel
ung ta giai quyet van d
cha.m. O day ch
tu.o.ng co.
trong mo.t v`ai frame anh, do do ta.o ra bo. nho. trong qua tr`nh xu. l
y. Y
ban cua phu.o.ng phap n`ay l`a bo qua su.. thay doi m`a ch xuat hie.n lac dac trong mo.t
day cac frame anh.
Xet day cac anh f (x, y, ti), i = 1, 2, . . . , n, v`a gia su. f (x, y, t1) l`a anh tham khao.
Anh hie.u tch l
uy (accumulative difference image) du.o..c ta.o ra ba` ng cach so sanh anh
tham khao f (x, y, t1) vo.i moi anh trong day f (x, y, ti), i = 2, 3, . . . , n nhu. sau. Ta da.t
uy. Bien dem c(p)
.ng vo.i moi pixel p trong anh hie.u tch l
mo.t bien dem c(p) tu.o.ng u
.
.
n`ay se tang len mo.t do n vi. moi khi xuat hie.n su. khac nhau ta.i vi. tr pixel p gi
u.a anh
tham khao v`a anh trong day. Do do, khi frame th
u. k du.o..c so sanh vo.i anh tham
`an tu. ta.i pixel p trong anh tch l
`an m
khao, ph
uy l`a so l
u.c xam ta.i vi. tr n`ay khac vo.i
.ng pixel p trong anh tham khao. Cac hie.u du.o..c thiet la.p, chang ha.n
gia tri. tu.o.ng u
uy ta.i pixel (x, y) xac di.nh bo.i
theo (7.3). Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay, anh hie.u tch l
n
X
di1 (x, y).
ADI(x, y) :=
i=2
225
Nh
a.n x
et 7.5.1 Ch
u y
ra` ng do. tang cua PADI ng`
u.ng la.i khi doi tu.o..ng di chuyen
`en r`o.i
khoi vi. tr goc cua no. Noi cach khac, khi doi tu.o..ng co gia tri. xam lo.n ho.n n
`an tu. mo.i du.o..c ta.o ra trong
khoi vi. tr cua no trong anh tham khao th` se khong co ph
anh hie.u tch l
uy. Do do, khi no ng`
u.ng tang, anh hie.u tch l
uy du.o.ng PADI cho ta vi.
`au cua doi tu.o..ng trong anh tham khao. Tnh chat n`ay se du.o..c su. du.ng de
tr ban d
u.a cac v`
ung cua ca PADI v`a
ta.o anh tham khao t`
u. day cac anh. Ngo`ai ra, AADI ch
.
`an tu trong cac anh n`ay cho ta biet toc do. v`a hu.o.ng di chuyen cua
NADI, v`a cac ph
doi tu.o..ng.
7.5.2
`en t
`an s
o
K
y thu
a.t mi
`an n`ay ch
Trong ph
ung ta xet b`ai toan chuyen do.ng thong qua bien doi Fourier. Xet
day T anh so f (x, y, t), t = 0, 1, . . . , T 1, kch thu.o.c M N du.o..c ta.o ra t`
u. mo.t
`en thu
`an nhat vo.i
camera co di.nh. Tru.o.c het gia thiet ra` ng tat ca cac frame co n
cu.`o.ng do. khong ngoa.i tr`
u. ch co mo.t pixel doi tu.o..ng co cu.`o.ng do. do.n vi. di chuyen
vo.i va.n toc ha` ng. Gia su. vo.i frame th
u. nhat (t = 0) ma.t phang anh du.o..c chieu len
tru.c x; t
u.c l`a cac cu.`o.ng do. pixel du.o..c lay tong do.c theo cac co.t. Phep toan n`ay cho
`eu vo.i M ph
`an tu. ba` ng 0 ngoa. i tr`
ta mang mo.t chi
u. ta.i vi. tr m`a doi tu.o..ng du.o..c
`an cua mang n`ay vo.i exp[2ik1xt], x = 0, 1, . . . , M 1, ta
chieu. Nhan cac th`anh ph
du.o..c exp[2ik1x0t] trong do (x0, y 0) l`a to.a do. pixel doi tu.o..ng trong anh dang xet,
k N, v`a t l`a khoang th`o.i gian gi
u. hai frame anh.
1
moi frame, th` ta.i th`o.i diem t N n`ao do ta co ket qua l`a exp[2ik1(x0 + t)t]. Ap
du.ng cong th
u.c Euler ta co
exp[2ik1(x0 + t)t] = cos[2k1(x0 + t)t] + i sin[2k1 (x0 + t)t]
`an
vo.i t = 0, 1, . . . , T 1. Noi cach khac ta du.o..c mo.t dao do.ng ph
u.c h`nh sin vo.i t
.
.
.
.
.
so k1 . Neu doi tu o. ng di chuyen 1 pixel (theo hu o ng tru.c x) gi
u a cac frame th` dao
`an so tu.o.ng u
do.ng co t
.ng 1k1 . V` t thay doi trong khoang [0, T 1] v`a nguyen nen
neu ha.n che k1 nha.n gia tri. nguyen th` ta du.o..c bien doi Fourier r`o.i ra.c cua dao do.ng
`an so 1 k1 v`a mo.t ta.i T 1 k1 . N
ph
u.c h`nh sin co hai n
ui sau do tnh doi
ui-mo.t ta.i t
.
`an 3.3.3) v`a co the bo qua. V` va.y n
x
u ng cua bien doi Fourier (xem Ph
ui trong pho
`an va.n toc theo hu.o.ng
Fourier cho ta 1 k1 . Chia gia tri. n`ay cho k1 ta du.o..c th`anh ph
x. Tu.o.ng tu.., phep chieu len tru.c y cho ta va.n toc 2 theo hu.o.ng y.
`an chuyen do.ng se ta.o ra cac so ha.ng expoNeu day frame khong ch
u.a th`anh ph
`an so 0 (ph
`an tu.
nent ba` ng nhau, v`a do do bien doi Fourier cua no cho mo.t n
ui ta.i t
DC). Do do vo.i gia thiet cac phep toan l`a tuyen tnh th` trong tru.`o.ng ho..p tong quat
`eu doi tu.o..ng chuyen do.ng tren n
`en tnh th` phep bien doi Fourier co
co mo.t hay nhi
`an anh tnh v`a cac n
mo.t n
ui ta.i DC tu.o.ng u
.ng cac th`anh ph
ui ta.i cac vi. tr t le. vo.i
va.n toc cua cac doi tu.o..ng chuyen do.ng.
Cac khai nie.m tren du.o..c tong ket nhu. sau. Vo.i mo.t day T anh so kch thu.o.c
M N, tong cua cac phep chieu co tro.ng so len tru.c x v`a y tu.o.ng u
.ng ta.i mo.t th`o.i
227
1
M
1 N
X
X
2 1k1 xt
(t,
k
)
:=
f
(x,
y,
t)e
,
g
x
1
x=0 y=0
gy (t, k2 ) :=
1
N
1 M
X
X
2 1k2 yt
f (x, y, t)e
(7.4)
t = 0, 1, . . . , T 1,
y=0 x=0
T 1
1X
(u
,
k
)
=
gx (t, k1)e2 1u1 t/T ,
G
x
1 1
T
t=0
T 1
1X
2 1u2 t/T
G
(u
,
k
)
=
g
(t,
k
)e
,
y
2
2
y
2
T t=0
(7.5)
vo.i u1 = 0, 1, . . . , T 1, v`a u2 = 0, 1, . . . , T 1.
`an so v`a va.n toc xac di.nh bo.i
Moi quan he. gi
u.a t
(
u1 = k1 1 ,
(7.6)
u2 = k2 2 .
Trong cong th
u.c (7.6), do.n vi. cua va.n toc l`a so pixel tren tong so cac frame.
Chang ha.n, 1 = 10 ngha l`a mo.t chuyen do.ng cua 10 pixel trong T frame. Gia su. cac
`eu da.n th` toc do. va.t l
y phu. thuo.c v`ao toc do. frame v`a
frame du.o..c lay mo.t cach d
khoang cach gi
u.a cac pixel. Do do, neu 1 = 10, T = 30, toc do. frame l`a hai anh mo.t
u.a cac pixel l`a 0.5 m, th` va.n toc va.t l
giay, v`a khoang cach gi
y theo hu.o.ng x l`a
1 = (10 pixels)(0.5 m/pixel)(2 frames/sec)(30 frames)
1
= m/sec.
3
`an va.n toc theo tru.c x du.o..c tnh theo
Dau cua th`anh ph
d2 Re[gx (t, k1)]
S1x =
,
dt2
t=n
d2 Im[gx (t, k1)]
S2x =
.
dt2
t=n
u.ng minh r`a ng S1x v`a S2x co c`
ung
V` gx (t, k1) l`a dao do.ng h`nh sin, nen co the ch
.
.
.
.
.
`an va.n toc 1 du o ng. Ngu o. c la.i
dau ta.i th`o i diem n t`
uy y
neu v`a ch neu th`anh ph
228
`an va.n toc am. Neu S1x hoa.c S2x ba` ng khong,
S1x v`a S2x trai dau ch ra mo.t th`anh ph
.
`an nhat, t = n t. Tu.o.ng tu.. cho vie.c xac d.inh dau
ta khao sat th`o i diem ke tiep g
cua 2.
`o co.t
`an 3.3.9, qua tr`nh lay mau anh tho khien bieu d
Nhu. tr`nh b`ay trong Ph
.
cua pho Fourier co da.ng rang cu.a. O day, co qua t mau khi pha.m vi thay doi cua u
xac di.nh bo.i T nen pho Fourier c
ung co da.ng rang cu.a. Do u = k nen ta co the cho.n
`an nguyen cua umax /max , trong do umax l`a t
`an so dao do.ng rang
cac tham so k l`a ph
.
.
cu a cu. c da.i v`a max l`a va.n toc chuyen do.ng toi da cho phep.
229
230
Chu.o.ng 8
U DIE
N VA
` MIEU
TA
BIE
8.1
ap bi
eu di
en
C
ac phu.o.ng ph
Cac k
y thua.t phan doa.n trong Chu.o.ng 7 cho ta d
u. lie.u tho o. da.ng cac pixel do.c theo
bien hoa.c cac pixel du.o..c ch
u.a trong mo.t v`
ung. Ma.c d`
u nh
u.ng d
u. lie.u n`ay doi khi
231
.....................................................................
..
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...
...
...
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..
...
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..
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.
...
...
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...
...
...
..
...
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...
...
...
..
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..
3...
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...
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.
.
.
....
....
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.
.
.
....
....
....
......
........
(a)
..
.......
.........
....
...
.....
....
...
....
.
...
.
..
....
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..
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...
...
....
.
.
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.
...
..
...
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. ..
.....................................................................
.. ....
.... ......
....
..
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...
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...
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...
....
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...
........
...
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..
.......
..
(b)
H`nh 8.1: Cac hu.o.ng su. du.ng trong ma xch 4-hu.o.ng (a) v`a 8-hu.o.ng (b).
du.o..c su. du.ng tru..c tiep de nha.n du.o..c cac mieu ta (chang ha.n khi xac d.inh ket cau
ung), trong thu..c te su. du.ng phu.o.ng phap bieu dien d
cua v`
u. lie.u da.ng thch ho..p cho
`an n`ay tr`nh b`ay mo.t so
phep giam khoi lu.o..ng tnh toan khi mieu ta doi tu.o..ng. Ph
phu.o.ng phap bieu dien v`
ung.
8.1.1
M
a xch
Ma xch du.o..c su. du.ng de bieu dien bien ba` ng mo.t day lien tiep cac doa.n thang (xac
- a.c bie.t, bieu dien n`ay du..a tren tnh 4- hay 8-lien thong
di.nh bo.i do. d`ai v`a hu.o.ng). D
cua cac doa.n thang. Hu.o.ng cua moi doa.n thang du.o..c ma hoa b`a ng cach su. du.ng so.
u. v`a xu. l
d`o danh so nhu. trong H`nh 8.1. Cac anh so thu.`o.ng du.o..c lu.u tr
y o. da.ng lu.o.i
vo.i khoang cach b`a ng nhau theo cac hu.o.ng x v`a y. Ma xch du.o..c ta.o ra b`a ng cach
`an theo bien, chang ha.n theo chi
`eu kim d
`ong h
`o v`a gan mo.t hu.o.ng cho doa.n noi ca.p
l
cac pixel. Phu.o.ng phap n`ay co hai nhu.o..c diem: (1) ma xch du.o..c xay du..ng thu.`o.ng
rat d`ai; v`a (2) bat k`
y mo.t thay doi nho do.c theo bien do nhieu hoa.c do phan doa.n
khong tot se l`am thay doi ma m`a khong nhat thiet co lien quan den h`nh dang cua
du.`o.ng bien.
- e vu.o..t qua kho khan n`ay, tru.o.c het ngu.`o.i ta thu.`o.ng lay mau la.i du.`o.ng bien
D
ba` ng cach cho.n mo.t lu.o.i vo.i khoang cach lo.n ho.n nhu. trong H`nh 8.2(a). Sau khi
ut cua lu.o.i lo.n neu n
ut
du.`o.ng bien du.o..c duye.t, mo.t diem bien du.o..c gan vo.i moi n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
`an vo i du `o ng bien c
n`ay g
u nhu H`nh 8.2(b). Du `o ng bien du o. c lay mau la.i theo cach
.
.
n`ay co the du o. c bieu dien ba` ng 4 hay 8ma xch nhu. trong cac H`nh 8.2(c) v`a (d)
232
(a)
(b)
- u.`o.ng bien v`a lay mau la.i; (b) ket qua cua lay mau la.i; (c) ma xch
H`nh 8.2: (a) D
4-hu.o.ng; (d) ma xch 8-hu.o.ng.
- iem bat d`au trong H`nh 8.2(c) tu.o.ng u
.ng. D
.ng dau cham v`a du.`o.ng bien l`a
tu.o.ng u
4-du.`o.ng di ben ngo`ai ngan nhat trong lu.o.i cua H`nh 8.2(b). Bieu dien bien trong
H`nh 8.2(c) l`a ma xch 0033 . . . 01 v`a trong H`nh 8.2(d) l`a ma xch 076 . . . 12. Hien
nhien ra` ng do. d`ai cua ma xch phu. thuo.c v`ao khoang cach cua lu.o.i lay mau la.i.
C
ac ph
ep to
an tr
en m
a xch
Du.o.i day l`a mo.t so phep toan tren ma xch d.inh ngha theo 8 lien thong. De d`ang mo.
ro.ng cho 4 lien thong (b`ai ta.p).
1
1
1. [Nghi.ch dao] Nghi.ch dao cua xch a = a1a2 . . . an l`a xch a1 = a1
1 a2 . . . an
xac d.inh bo.i
a1
i = (ani + 4) mod 8,
i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
`eu kim
`eu kim d
`ong h
`o th` xch nghi.ch dao a1 ngu.o..c chi
Neu xch a thua.n chi
`o v`a ngu.o..c la.i.
d`ong h
- o. d`ai cua xch a = a1a2 . . . an xac d.inh bo.i
- o. d`ai cua xch] D
2. [D
l(a) := ne +
2no ,
tu.o.ng u
.ng mat xch ai trong xch a l`a
xi =
i
X
yi =
i
X
ajx + x0,
j=1
ajy + y0,
j=1
`en
4. [Khoang cach gi
u.a hai diem] Xet hai pixel p v`a q du.o..c noi bo.i mo.t day chuy
.ng ma xch a. Khi do khoang cach (Euclid) gi
u.a hai pixel n`ay l`a
tu.o.ng u
d(p, q) =
n
X
ajx
j=1
!2
n
X
j=1
ajy
!22
Neu biet tat ca cac to.a do. cua cac pixel tren chu tuyen ta co the tnh du.o..c
moment cua chu tuyen. Tuy nhien ma xch cua chu tuyen dong khong cho thong
`e v`
tin h`nh ho.c v
ung du.o..c gio.i ha.n bo.i du.`o.ng bien l`a chu tuyen n`ay. Ngo`ai ra
c
ung kho co the thu..c hie.n doi vo.i cac phep toan co gian.
ung ta co
Ma xch cua du.`o.ng bien phu. thuo.c v`ao diem xuat phat. Tuy nhien ch
the chuan hoa ba` ng thu tu.c sau: Vo.i mo.t ma xch co diem xuat phat tu`
yy
, ta xem
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
`om cac so tu o ng u
ma n`ay nhu mo.t day khep kn g
ng vo i hu o ng di chuyen v`a di.nh
.ng mo.t so nguyen co gia tri.
ngha la.i diem xuat phat sao cho day thu du.o..c tu.o.ng u
nho nhat.
Ch
ung ta c
ung co the chuan hoa doi vo.i phep quay b`a ng cach su. du.ng hie.u th
u.
nhat cua ma xch thay cho ma ban d`au. Hie.u n`ay nha.n du.o..c b`a ng cach dem (ngu.o..c
`eu kim d
`ong h
`o) so cac hu.o.ng tach hai ph
`an tu. k
`e nhau cua ma. Chang ha.n, hie.u
chi
.
.
ung ta xem ma nhu. day
d`au tien cua ma xch 4-hu o ng 10103322 l`a 3133030. Neu ch
`an tu. d`au tien cua hie.u chnh l`a so l
`an chuyen di.ch cua cac th`anh
khep kn, th` ph
`an d
`au tien v`a cuoi c`
ph
ung cua xch. Do do ket qua l`a 33133030. Kch thu.o.c cua
234
xch chuan hoa phu. thuo.c v`ao kch thu.o.c trong qua tr`nh lay mau. Tong quat, gia su.
a = a1a2 . . . an l`a ma xch theo dlien thong (d = 4 hoa.c 8) v`a b = b1 b2 . . . bn l`a hie.u
d`au tien cua ma xch a. Khi do
b1 = an a1
(mod d),
8.1.2
X
ap x d
a gi
ac
Mo.t du.`o.ng bien so co the xap x bo.i mo.t da giac vo.i do. chnh xac t`
uy y
. Vo.i mo.t
du.`o.ng cong dong, xap x l`a chnh xac khi so cac ca.nh trong da giac b`a ng so cac diem
`e nhau xac di.nh mo.t ca.nh trong da giac. Trong thu..c te,
bien trong do moi ca.p pixel k
mu.c dch cua xap x da giac l`a gi
u. la.i dang die.u cua du.`o.ng bien vo.i so ca.nh da giac t
`eu th`o.i gian thu..c
`am thu.`o.ng v`a co the ton nhi
nhat. B`ai toan n`ay, noi chung, khong t
hie.n vie.c t`m kiem. Tuy nhien, phu.o.ng phap bieu dien bien ba` ng cach xap x da giac
ph`
u ho..p vo.i mo.t so u
.ng du.ng trong xu. l
y anh.
u.ng tieu chuan khac
Cac phu.o.ng phap ho..p du..a tren tieu chuan sai so hay nh
du.o..c ap du.ng vo.i b`ai toan xap x da giac. Ch
ung ta co the ho..p cac diem do.c theo
bien cho den khi du.`o.ng thang kho.p cac diem du.o..c ho..p vo.i sai so b`nh phu.o.ng nho
`eu kie.n n`ay thoa man, cac tham so cua
nhat vu.o..t qua mo.t ngu.o.ng cho tru.o.c. Khi di
`e 0, v`a thua.t toan du.o..c la.p la.i, ho..p cac diem
du.`o.ng thang du.o..c lu.u tr
u., sai so da.t v
mo.i do.c theo bien cho den khi loi la.i vu.o..t qua ngu.o.ng cho phep. Ket th
uc thua.t
toan, giao cua cac du.`o.ng thang sinh ra cac dnh cua da giac. Kho khan chnh cua
thua.t toan n`ay l`a cac dnh noi chung khong tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i nh
u.ng cho uon (chang ha.n
cac goc) cua bien do mo.t du.`o.ng thang mo.i ch du.o..c kho.i ta.o khi sai so vu.o..t gia tri.
ngu.o.ng. Neu chang ha.n, mo.t doa.n thang d`ai di ngang qua goc, mo.t so (phu. thuo.c
v`ao ngu.o.ng) diem qua goc se du.o..c ch
uy
tru.o.c khi sai so vu.o..t ngu.o.ng. Tuy nhien,
vie.c tach c`
ung vo.i ho..p co the giai quyet kho khan n`ay.
`an cho den
Phu.o.ng phap tach doa.n bien l`a chia mo.t doa.n lien tiep th`anh hai ph
.
.
khi thoa tieu chuan cho tru o c. V du., ta co the d`oi hoi khoang cach t`
u. mo.i diem
235
..............................................................................................................
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.
.
...................
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... ..
.
..
r()
r()
...
.......
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....
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....
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3
2
...
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.
..
..
.
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..
.. ....
.. ....
.. ...
.. ....
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
....
. .....
. ....
. .....
...
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.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................
2A
A
(a)
3
2
(b)
H`nh 8.3: Hai du.`o.ng bien v`a cac h`am khoang cach t`
u. tam den bien cua ch
ung phu.
thuo.c v`ao goc. K
y so r() l`a h`a ng so trong h`nh (a) v`a ba` ng A sec trong h`nh (b).
8.1.3
K
y s
o
8.1.4
`oi
Bao l
8.1.5
B
o. khung
ung l`a r
ut go.n
Mo.t phu.o.ng phap quan tro.ng de bieu dien cau tr
uc h`nh da.ng cua v`
v`
ung th`anh mo.t d`o thi.. Phep r
ut go.n du.o..c thu..c hie.n thong qua thua.t toan l`am manh
v`
ung de nha.n du.o..c bo. khung. Phu.o.ng phap l`am manh dong vai tr`o trung tam trong
237
.............................................................................
... .
.. ..
... ...
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..
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.
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.. .
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(a)
...........................................................................
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.. ...
.......................................................................................................................................................
(b)
(c)
`an nhat phu. thuo.c v`ao di.nh ngha khoang cach (xem Ph
`an 2.3.4)
ra` ng khai nie.m g
.
v`a do do phep bien doi tru.c gi
u a MAT phu. thuo.c v`ao h`am khoang cach du.o..c cho.n.
H`nh 8.4 minh ho.a v du. su. du.ng khoang cach Euclid.
ung mo.t cach
Ma.c d`
u phep bien doi tru.c chnh MAT xac di.nh bo. khung cua v`
`eu do lien quan den khoang
tru..c quan, phu.o.ng phap n`ay d`oi hoi phai tnh toan nhi
.
cach t`
u moi diem trong cua v`
ung den mo.i diem tren bien. Co mo.t so thua.t toan nh`a m
- a.c bie.t do l`a nh
u.ng thua.t toan nh`a m xoa cac diem bien cua
giam cac phep tnh. D
v`
ung vo.i r`ang buo.c: (1) khong xoa cac diem ket th
uc; (2) khong l`am mat tnh lien
thong; v`a (3) khong l`am xoi m`on v`
ung.
`an n`ay tr`nh b`ay thua.t toan l`am manh cac v`
ung cua anh nhi. phan. Gia thiet
Ph
`en co gia tri. 0. Phu.o.ng phap g
`om hai
cac pixel trong v`
ung co gia tri. 1 v`a cac pixel n
.
.
.
.
.
bu o c lien tiep du o. c thu. c hie.n tren cac pixel chu tuyen cua v`
ung, trong do mo.t pixel
238
thuo.c chu tuyen neu no co gia tri. 1 v`a co t nhat mo.t pixel trong lan ca.n 8 cua no co
gia tri. 0. Xet 8-lan ca.n trong H`nh 8.5. K
y hie.u N (p1 ) l`a so cac pixel co gia tri. khac
p9
p2
p3
p8
p1
p4
p7
p6
p5
H`nh 8.5: Sap xep cac pixel trong lan ca.n de ap du.ng thua.t toan l`am manh.
u.c l`a
khong trong lan ca.n cua p1 ; t
N (p1 ) = p2 + p3 + + p9
`an chuyen tra.ng thai t`
v`a S(p1 ) l`a so l
u. 0 sang 1 trong day du.o..c sap th
u. tu.. p2 , p3 , . . . , p9 , p2 .
Chang ha.n vo.i 8-lan ca.n cua p1 trong H`nh 8.6 ta co N (p1 ) = 4 v`a S(p1 ) = 3.
Thu
a.t to
an l`
am manh
- anh dau diem p tren chu tuyen de xoa neu cac di
`eu kie.n sau thoa man:
Bu.o.c 1. D
(a) 2 N (p1 ) 6;
(b) S(p1 ) = 1;
(c) p2 p4 p6 = 0;
(d) p4 p6 p8 = 0;
`eu kie.n (a) v`a (b) van nhu. tren, nhu.ng (c) v`a (d) du.o..c thay bo.i
Bu.o.c 2. Cac di
(c) p2 p4 p8 = 0;
(d) p2 p6 p8 = 0.
Bu.o.c 1 du.o..c ap du.ng vo.i mo.i pixel p tren bien trong v`
ung R. Neu mo.t trong
`eu kie.n (a)-(d) khong thoa man, gia tri. cua pixel p khong thay doi. Ngu.o..c la.i,
cac di
`eu kie.n du.o..c thoa man th` danh dau pixel p de xoa. Tuy nhien p ch
neu tat ca cac di
- i
`eu n`ay ngan can su.. thay doi d
du.o..c xoa khi tat ca cac pixel bien da du.o..c xu. l
u.
y. D
lie.u trong khi thu..c hie.n thua.t toan. Sau khi Bu.o.c 1 da du.o..c xu. l
y doi vo.i tat ca cac
pixel bien, nh
u.ng pixel du.o..c danh dau se bi. xoa (da.t gia tri. ba` ng 0). Sau do ap du.ng
Bu.o.c 2 tu.o.ng tu.. nhu. tren vo.i d
u. lie.u mo.i.
239
p1
`eu kie.n (a) v`a (b). Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay, N (p1 ) = 4 v`a
H`nh 8.6: Minh ho.a cac di
S(p1 ) = 3.
`om: (1) ap du.ng Bu.o.c 1
Do do qua tr`nh la.p cua thua.t toan l`am manh bao g
de danh dau cac diem bien; (2) xoa cac diem du.o..c danh dau; (3) ap du.ng Bu.o.c 2
de danh dau cac diem bien c`on la.i; v`a (4) xoa cac diem du.o..c danh dau. Thua.t toan
du.o..c la.p la.i cho den khi khong c`on pixel n`ao du.o..c xoa; khi do ta du.o..c bo. khung cua
v`
ung.
- i
`eu kie.n (a) sai khi pixel thuo.c chu tuyen co mo.t hoa.c bay pixel trong 8-lan ca.n
D
co gia tri. 1. Neu ch co mo.t pixel nhu. the th` p1 l`a diem cuoi cua net n`ao do trong
bo. khung v`a do do no khong the bi. xoa. Ngu.o..c la.i, neu co bay pixel trong 8-lan ca.n
- i
`eu kie.n (b) sai khi ap du.ng
cua p1 co gia tri. 1 th` xoa p1 se gay ra xoi m`on v`
ung. D
`eu kie.n n`ay bao dam tnh
tren nh
u.ng diem thuo.c cac net co do. ro.ng 1 pixel. Do do di
- i
`eu kie.n (c) v`a (d) thoa
lien thong cua bo. khung trong suot qua tr`nh l`am manh. D
`ong th`o.i khi (p4 = 0 hoa.c p6 = 0) hoa.c (p2 = 0 v`a p8 = 0). V` va.y tham khao
man d
`eu
den cach sap xep cac pixel trong lan ca.n cua H`nh 8.5, mo.t diem thoa man cac di
kie.n (a)-(d) l`a mo.t diem bien pha dong hoa.c pha nam hoa.c diem pha goc tay bac
cua du.`o.ng bien. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p do, p1 khong thuo.c bo. khung v`a do do co the loa.i
`eu kie.n (c) v`a (d) d
`ong th`o.i thoa man neu (p4 = 0 hoa.c p8 = 0)
bo. Tu.o.ng tu.., hai di
ung l`a cac diem bien pha
hoa.c (p4 = 0 v`a p6 = 0). Do do nh
u.ng diem thoa man ch
uy
r`a ng diem goc pha dong bac
bac hoa.c pha tay, hoa.c diem goc pha dong nam. Ch
`eu kie.n (c), (c), (d) v`a (d). Tu.o.ng tu..,
co p2 = 0 v`a p4 = 0 v`a v` va.y thoa man cac di
nh
u.ng diem goc o. pha tay nam thoa p6 = 0 v`a p8 = 0.
8.2
8.2.1
en
Mi
eu ta bi
C
ac mi
eu ta d
o.n gia n
chu tuyen l`a mo.t xap x tho cua do. d`ai. Vo.i du.`o.ng cong du.o..c ma xch co khoang
`an ngang, d
u.ng v`a 2
cach ba` ng do.n vi. theo ca hai hu.o.ng th` tong so cac th`anh ph
`an so cac th`anh ph
`an cheo cho do. d`ai chnh xac.
l
- u.`o.ng knh cua du.`o.ng bien B xac d.inh bo.i
D
diam(B) := max{d(p, q) | p, q B},
y hie.u a, b l`a hai diem m`a gia
trong do d(p, q) l`a khoang cach gi
u.a hai pixel p v`a q. K
.
.
.
tri. n`ay da.t du o. c; t
u c l`a
d(a, b) = diam(B).
- u.`o.ng knh v`a tru.c chnh
Ta go.i du.`o.ng thang noi hai diem a, b l`a tru.c chnh cua bien. D
l`a nh
u.ng mieu ta h
u.u ch cua bien.
- o. cong l`a h`am phu. thuo.c v`ao he. so goc. Noi chung vie.c do do. cong ta.i moi diem
D
`e ma.t d.ia phu.o.ng thu.`o.ng g
`o
cua du.`o.ng bien chnh xac l`a rat kho v` cac du.`o.ng bien v
`e nhau (khi cac
`e. Tuy nhien su. du.ng hie.u so gi
u.a cac he. so goc cua hai doa.n bien k
gh
doa.n n`ay du.o..c bieu dien ba` ng cac doa.n thang) l`a mo.t mieu ta cua do. cong ta.i giao
u.u ch. Chang ha.n cac dnh cua cac du.`o.ng bien trong H`nh
diem cua hai doa.n co the h
`eu kim d
`ong
??(b) v`a (d) xac di.nh do. cong ta.i do. V` du.`o.ng bien du.o..c duye.t theo chi
`o, ta noi diem p thuo.c mo.t doa.n l
`oi neu hie.u so thay doi cua he. so goc l`a khong am;
h
ngu.o..c la.i p go.i l`a thuo.c doa.n lom. Mieu ta do. cong ta.i mo.t diem co the l`am tot ho.n
`an doa.n thang neu
ba` ng cach su. du.ng pha.m vi thay doi cua he. so goc. Chang ha.n, p g
thay doi nho ho.n 100 hoa.c l`a goc neu thay doi vu.o..t qua 900 . Tuy nhien nh
u.ng mieu
`an du.o..c su. du.ng mo.t cach can tha.n do y
ta n`ay c
ngha cua ch
ung phu. thuo.c v`ao do.
.
.
.
.
d`ai cua t`
u ng doa.n so vo i do. d`ai to`an the cua du `o ng bien.
8.2.2
u
S
o m
a
Ba.c 4
.......................................
...
.....
...
..
...
...
...
....
...
..
...
.
.......................................
Ba.c 6
.
............................................................................
...
..
.....
...
..
...
...
...
....
...
..
...
.
.
.............................................................................
.
..
Ma xch:
0321
003221
Hie.u:
3333
303303
So mau:
3333
033033
.........................................................................................
...
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...
...
...
...
...
...
...
.
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.
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..
Ba.c 8
................................................
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.
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...
...
Ma xch:
00332211
03032211
00032221
Hie.u:
30303030
33133030
30033003
So mau:
03030303
03033133
00330033
ch
u. nha.t 2 4 doi sanh tot nhat vo.i tam cua h`nh ch
u. nha.t co. so. cua du.`o.ng bien da
cho, ch
ung ta ta.o mo.t lu.o.i 2 4 du..a tren h`nh ch
u. nha.t co. so. v`a su. du.ng phu.o.ng
`an 8.1.1 de t`m ma xch. Nhu. tren, so mau suy tru..c tiep t`
phap trong Ph
u. hie.u th
u.
nhat cua ma n`ay. Ma.c d`
u ba.c cua so mau thu.`o.ng ba` ng n do cach ta.o lu.o.i, du.`o.ng
bien sau khi lay mau doi khi co ba.c cua so mau lo.n ho.n n. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay,
ch
ung ta xet h`nh vuong ba.c thap ho.n n v`a la.p la.i thua.t toan cho den khi thu du.o..c
ba.c cua so mau l`a n.
- e t`m so mau
V du. 8.2.1 Xet du.`o.ng bien trong H`nh 8.8(a) v`a gia thiet n = 18. D
vo.i ba.c tu.o.ng u
.ng, ta ap du.ng cac bu.o.c neu tren. Bu.o.c d`au tien l`a t`m h`nh ch
u.
`an nhat co ba.c 18 l`a 3 6 v`a do do ta co
nha.t co. so. (H`nh 8.8(b)). H`nh ch
u. nha.t g
.
phep phan hoa.ch nhu trong H`nh 8.8(c). Cac hu.o.ng cua ma xch du.o..c gan do.c theo
`au tien de tnh so mau nhu.
lu.o.i. Cuoi c`
ung, nha.n du.o..c ma xch v`a su. du.ng hie.u d
trong H`nh 8.8(d).
8.2.3
Mi
eu ta Fourier
N 1
1 X
s(k) exp[2iuk/N ]
N
k=0
vo.i u = 0, 1, . . . , N 1. Cac he. so a(u) go.i l`a mieu ta Fourier cua bien. Bien doi
`oi s(k) :
Fourier ngu.o..c cua a(u) phu.c h
s(k) =
N
1
X
a(u) exp[2iuk/N ]
u=0
243
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
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..
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.
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..
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..
...
...
...
.
....
..
......... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ........ ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... .....
...
.
...
...
....
...
...
..
...
.
...
.....
...
....
...
.
..
...
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..
..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
(a)
(b)
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(c)
(d)
Ma xch:
000030032232221211
Hie.u:
300031033013003130
So mau:
000310330130031303
M
1
X
a(u) exp[2iuk/N ],
(8.1)
u=0
uy th`
u.a
vo.i k = 0, 1, . . . , N 1. Neu so cac diem tren bien lo.n, ta thu.`o.ng cho.n M l`a l
`an t
`an
cua 2 de tie.n vie.c tnh toan trong bien doi Fourier. Nhac la.i r`a ng, cac th`anh ph
`an t
`an so thap xac di.nh dang
so cao tu.o.ng u
.ng chi tiet noi, trong khi nh
u.ng th`anh ph
.
die.u to`an cu.c. Do do khi M nho th` nh
u ng chi tiet tren bien se bien mat.
Co the su. du.ng mo.t so mieu ta Fourier de gi
u. la.i h`nh da.ng chu yeu cua bien.
ung
Tnh chat n`ay l`a ho..p le. do cac he. so n`ay mang thong tin cua h`nh dang. Do do ch
co the su. du.ng nhu. co. so. de phan bie.t su.. khac nhau gi
u.a cac h`nh dang bien (xem
Chu.o.ng 9).
244
1y
Tru.c
ao
y0 = y1
...
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...
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....
x0
x1
Tru.c thu..c
- u.`o.ng bien so v`a bieu dien da.ng day so ph
u.c. Cac diem (x0, y0 ) v`a (x1 , y1)
H`nh 8.9: D
l`a hai diem (tu`
yy
) d`au tien trong day.
`an d
`e ca.p den van d
`e t`m mieu ta t nha.y cam nhat co
Ch
ung ta da mo.t v`ai l
.
the doi vo i cac phep quay, ti.nh tien v`a co gian. Trong nh
u.ng tru.`o.ng ho..p m`a cac ket
`an them r`ang buo.c de cac mieu ta t nha.y
qua phu. thuo.c nh
u.ng diem du.o..c xu. l
y, ta c
cam vo.i diem xuat phat. Cac mieu ta Fourier nha.y cam gian tiep vo.i cac phep bien
u.ng thay doi do co the lien quan den cac phep bien doi
doi h`nh ho.c n`ay, nhu.ng nh
do.n gian. Chang ha.n, doi vo.i phep quay ta biet ra` ng quay mo.t diem quanh goc to.a
do. trong ma.t phang ph
u.c mo.t goc du.o..c thu..c hie.n b`a ng cach nhan diem n`ay vo.i
ei . Do do phep quay quanh goc se anh xa. day s(k) th`anh day s(k)ei tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i
mieu ta Fourier
ar (u) =
N 1
1 X
s(k)ei exp[2iuk/N ]
N
k=0
= a(u)ei
vo.i u = 0, 1, . . . , N 1. Noi cach khac, phep quay anh hu.o.ng den tat ca cac he. so
ung mo.t ha` ng so ei .
ba` ng cach nhan vo.i c`
Bang 8.1 tong ket cac mieu ta Fourier cua day s(k) qua phep quay, ti.nh tien,
co gian v`a thay doi diem xuat phat. K
y hie.u xy = x + iy; do do khai nie.m
245
Bien
Mieu ta Fourier
- `ong nhat
D
s(k)
a(u)
Quay
sr (k) = s(k)ei
ar (u) = a(u)ei
Ti.nh tien
st (k) = s(k) + xy
Co gian
ss (k) = s(k)
as (u) = a(u)
sp (k) = s(k k0 )
ap(u) = a(u)e2iuk0 /N
Bang 8.1: Cac tnh chat co. ban cua mieu ta Fourier.
st (k) = s(k) + xy co ngha
st (k) = [x(k) + x] + i[y(k) + y ].
Noi cach khac, phep ti.nh tien them v`ao mo.t h`a ng so di.ch chuyen vo.i tat ca cac
u. khi
to.a do. trong bien. Ch
uy
r`a ng ti.nh tien khong anh hu.o.ng den mieu ta ngoa.i tr`
k = 0 m`a co h`am xung (k)1. Cuoi c`
ung, bieu th
u.c sp (k) = s(k k0 ) ngha l`a day
sp (k) = x(k k0 ) + iy(k k0 )
`an thay doi diem kho.i d
`au cua day t`
u. k = 0 den k = k0 . So ha.ng cuoi
m`a do.n thu
c`
ung trong Bang 8.2.1 ch ra vie.c thay doi diem xuat phat anh hu.o.ng den tat ca cac
mieu ta theo mo.t cach khac (nhu.ng biet tru.o.c), theo ngha so ha.ng nhan vo.i a(u) phu.
thuo.c v`ao u.
8.2.4
Moment
Dang die.u cua cac doa.n bien (khong phai dau hie.u) co the du.o..c mieu ta mo.t cach
- e minh ho.a, xet mo.t doa.n trong du.`o.ng bien
di.nh lu.o..ng b`a ng cach su. du.ng moment. D
(H`nh 8.10(a)) v`a H`nh 8.10(b) l`a bieu dien cua doa.n n`ay nhu. h`am mo.t bien g(r).
`o co.t
Ch
ung ta hay xem do. lo.n cua g(r) nhu. mo.t bien ngau nhien v`a xet bieu d
p(i ), i = 1, 2, . . . , K, trong do K l`a so cac bien do. r`o.i ra.c hoa. Khi do moment trung
b`nh ba.c n cua l`a
K
X
n =
(i m)n p(i )
i=1
1
` ng s
` ng
Bien d
oi Fourier cua h`
am h
a
o l`
a m
o.t h`
am xung d
a.t ta.i g
oc. Nh
ac la.i l`
a h`
am xung b
a
`au kh
kh
ong h
ap no.i.
246
trong do
K
X
m=
i p(i )
i=1
l`a gia tri. trung b`nh cua (v`a 2 l`a phu.o.ng sai). Noi chung ch co mo.t v`ai moment
u.ng doi tu.o..ng rat khac nhau.
du.o..c su. du.ng de phan bie.t dau hie.u cua nh
`o co.t
Mo.t cach khac l`a chuan hoa g(r) nhu. die.n tch v`
ung v`a nghien c
u.u bieu d
.
.
.
cua no. Trong tru `o ng ho. p n`ay r l`a bien ngau nhien v`a cac moment l`a
n =
L
X
i=1
trong do
m=
L
X
ri g(ri ).
i=1
.
O day L l`a so cac pixel tren bien v`a n (r) lien quan tru..c tiep den h`nh da.ng cua g(r).
Chang ha.n, moment ba.c hai 2 (r) do do. phan tan cua du.`o.ng cong xung quanh gia tri.
trung b`nh r v`a moment ba.c ba 3 (r) do tnh doi x
u.ng cua no co tham khao den gia
`ong th`o.i de
tri. trung b`nh. Ca hai bieu dien moment co the du.o..c su. du.ng mo.t cach d
mieu ta mo.t doa.n bien hoa.c dau hie.u.
`e co. ban, nh
`eu ch
`e ca.p l`a du.a b`ai toan mieu ta v
`e vie.c nghien
V
u.ng di
ung ta d
c
u.u cac h`am mo.t bien. Ma.c d`
u cac moment c`on xa vo.i phu.o.ng phap quen thuo.c nhat,
ch
ung khong ch l`a nh
u.ng mieu ta nha` m mu.c dch n`ay. Chang ha.n, phu.o.ng phap
khac lien quan den tnh bien doi Fourier r`o.i ra.c 1D, xac di.nh pho cua no v`a su. du.ng
`an d`au tien cua pho de mieu ta g(r). Su.. tie.n lo..i cua cac moment trong
k th`anh ph
`om: bo sung cac mieu ta h`nh th
cac k
y thua.t khac bao g
u.c ho.n mo.t cach de d`ang v`a
ch
ung c
ung mang thong tin giai thch va.t l
y cua h`nh da.ng bien. T`
u. H`nh 8.10, hien
nhien cac mieu ta moment t nha.y cam vo.i phep quay. Chuan hoa kch thu.o.c co the
thu..c hie.n ba` ng cach co pha.m vi thay doi cua r.
8.3
8.3.1
Mi
eu ta v`
ung
C
ac mi
eu ta d
o.n gia n
g(r)
..
.......
....
..
....
..
...
....
..
...
....
..
...
... ...
....
..
.... .... .... .
...
.. ... ... ... ..
....
.. .... ... ... ... .... ..
..
.. .. ... ... ... ... ..
...
... .... .... ... ... ... ... ....
....
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
... ... ... ... .... .... .... .... ...
..
.
...
... ... ... ... .. .. .. .. ...
....
.... ... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... ....
..
... ... ... ... ... .... .... .... ... ...
....
... ... ... ... ... .. .. .. ... ...
.. .. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
.... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
........................................................................................................................................................................
..
(a)
(b)
- oa.n bien; (b) bieu dien bien theo h`am mo.t bien.
H`nh 8.10: (a) D
du.o..c su. du.ng nhu. mieu ta, ch
ung ch ap du.ng trong nh
u.ng tru.`o.ng ho..p khi kch thu.o.c
cua cac doi tu.o..ng bat bien qua phep bien doi. Hai mieu ta n`ay thu.`o.ng du.o..c su. du.ng
ung (da.i lu.o..ng n`ay xac di.nh bo.i t so gi
u.a b`nh phu.o.ng cua
de do tnh compact cua v`
chu vi v`a die.n tch). Tnh compact l`a da.i lu.o..ng vo hu.o.ng (do do khong nha.y cam vo.i
thay doi co gian) v`a nho nhat khi v`
ung co da.ng h`nh tr`on. Ngoa.i tr`
u. cac loi xuat hie.n
do phep quay, tnh compact c
ung khong nha.y cam vo.i hu.o.ng.
Tru.c chnh cua v`
ung l`a cac vector rieng cua ma tra.n hie.p bien nha.n du.o..c b`a ng
`an 3.6).
cach su. du.ng cac pixel ben trong v`
ung nhu. nh
u.ng bien ngau nhien (xem Ph
.
.
.
.
Hai vector rieng cua ma tra.n hie.p bien di.nh hu o ng theo hu o ng phan tan v`
ung cu..c da.i
u.c do. phan tan do bo.i cac gia tri. rieng tu.o.ng
vo.i r`ang buo.c vuong goc vo.i nhau. M
u
.ng. Do do do. phan tan v`a hu.o.ng chnh cua v`
ung co the mo ta bo.i gia tri. rieng lo.n
nhat v`a vector rieng tu.o.ng u
.ng cua no. Mieu ta n`ay khong nha.y cam v`ao phep quay
nhu.ng phu. thuo.c v`ao co gian neu cac gia tri. rieng du.o..c su. du.ng de do do. phan tan.
u.a
u la.i ha.n che n`ay l`a su. du.ng da.c tru.ng t so gi
Mo.t cach thu.`o.ng xuyen su. du.ng de b`
gia tri. rieng lo.n nhat v`a nho nhat.
`om m
ung bao g
u.c xam trung b`nh, gia
Cac thong so do.n gian khac de mieu ta v`
tri. xam cu..c da.i v`a cu..c tieu, so cac pixel na` m tren v`a du.o.i m
u.c xam trung b`nh.
8.3.2
C
ac mi
eu ta t
o p
o
`eu kie.n khong xe rach hay noi h`nh (doi khi c`on go.i l`a
nh
u.ng phep bien da.ng vo.i di
ung
co gian giay cao su). Do do neu ta coi mieu ta to po l`a so cac lo thung trong v`
th` tnh chat n`ay hien nhien khong thay doi qua phep co gian hay quay. Tuy nhien,
noi chung, so cac lo thung se thay doi neu ta xe ra hay gap la.i. Nha.n xet r`a ng, do
phep gian h`nh l`am thay doi khoang cach, nen cac tnh chat to po khong phu. thuo.c
v`ao khai nie.m khoang cach hay bat c
u. khai nie.m n`ao du..a tren do. do khoang cach.
`an lien thong.
Mo.t tnh chat to po khac de mieu ta v`
ung l`a so cac th`anh ph
.
`an lien thong cua ta.p R l`a ta.p con lo n nhat sao cho hai diem bat k`
Th`anh ph
y trong
.
.
no co the noi ba` ng mo.t du `o ng lien thong na` m ho`an to`an trong do.
So Euler cua mo.t h`nh xac di.nh bo.i
E := C H
`an lien thong. So Euler c
trong do H l`a so cac lo thung v`a C l`a so cac th`anh ph
ung l`a
mo.t bat bien to po.
ung cung cap them cac
Ma.c d`
u cac khai nie.m to po l`a tr`
u.u tu.o..ng, nhu.ng ch
thong tin h
u.u ch trong vie.c da.c tru.ng cac v`
ung trong anh.
8.3.3
K
et c
au
Phu.o.ng ph
ap th
ong k
e
Mo.t trong nh
u.ng phu.o.ng phap do.n gian nhat de mieu ta ket cau l`a su. du.ng cac
`o m
moment cua bieu d
u.c xam cua mo.t anh hoa.c v`
ung. K
y hie.u z l`a bien ngau nhien
.
.
`o co.t tu.o.ng u
bieu dien cu `o ng do. sang v`a p(zj ), j = 1, 2, . . . , L, l`a bieu d
.ng, trong do
249
L l`a so cac m
u.c xam khac nhau. Nhac la.i moment trung b`nh ba.c n cua z l`a
L
X
(zj m)n p(zj ),
n (z) =
j=1
L
X
zj p(zj ).
j=1
De d`ang thay ra` ng 0 = 1 v`a 1 = 0. Moment ba.c hai (c`on go.i l`a phu.o.ng sai v`a
k
y hie.u 2(z)) l`a da.c tru.ng quan tro.ng trong vie.c mieu ta ket cau. Moment ba.c hai
`e do. tu.o.ng phan cua doi tu.o..ng. Chang ha.n, da.i lu.o..ng
cho ta thong tin v
1
R=1
1 + 2 (z)
ba` ng 0 ta.i nh
u.ng v`
ung gia
ung co m
u.c xam ha` ng ( 2(z) = 0 neu tat ca cac zi co c`
2
.
tri.) v`a tien den 1 khi (z) du lo n. Moment ba.c ba do do. nghieng cua bieu d`o co.t v`a
moment ba.c tu. do do. phang tu.o.ng doi cua no. Cac moment ba.c cao ho.n khong de
`o co.t nhu.ng ch
d`ang giai thch moi quan he. cua ch
ung vo.i bieu d
ung cung cap them
`e ket cau.
cac thong tin v
Cac do. do ket cau du.o..c tnh ch su. du.ng bieu d`o co.t co ha.n che l`a ch
ung khong
.
.
`e vi. tr tu o ng doi cua cac pixel trong v`
ung. Trong qua tr`nh phan
mang thong tin v
tch anh, de du.a cac thong tin n`ay v`ao ket cau, ch
ung ta khong ch xet su.. phan bo
cua cac cu.`o.ng do. sang m`a c`on vi. tr cua cac pixel vo.i cac gia tri. cu.`o.ng do. sang ba` ng
hoa.c xap x.
`an tu. aij l`a so
K
y hie.u P l`a toan tu. vi. tr v`a A l`a ma tra.n vuong cap k vo.i ph
`an cac diem vo.i gia tri. xam zi xuat hie.n (trong vi. tr xac di.nh bo.i P ) doi vo.i cac
l
u.c xam zj , trong do 1 i, j k. Chang ha.n, xet anh vo.i ba m
u.c xam:
diem vo.i m
z = 0, z = 1 v`a z = 2 nhu. sau:
1
0 0 0 1 2
1 1 0 1 1
2 2 1 0 0
1 1 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 1
Gia su. toan tu. vi. tr P l`a mo.t pixel o. vi. tr ben phai v`a pha du.o.i. Khi do
4 2 0
A = 2 3 2 ,
1 2 0
250
XX
i
(i j)k cij ;
(4) entropy
XX
i
(i 6= j);
XX
i
c2ij .
tu.o.ng l`a da.c tru.ng hoa no.i dung cua C qua cac mieu ta n`ay. Chang ha.n, tnh
Y
`e dap u
chat d`au tien cho mo.t dau hie.u v
.ng ma.nh nhat doi vo.i P (nhu. trong v du.
251
`an
tren). Mieu ta th
u. hai co gia tri. thap tu.o.ng doi khi cac gia tri. cao cua C na` m g
.
.
.
.
u ba co hie.u qua ngu o..c
du `o ng cheo chnh do cac hie.u so (i j) nho ta.i do. Mieu ta th
`an
la.i. Mieu ta th
u. tu. l`a mo.t do. do ngau nhien, da.t gia tri. cao nhat khi tat ca cac ph
.
.
.
.
.
`an tu cij ba` ng
u nam nho nhat khi cac ph
tu cua C ba` ng nhau. Ngu o. c la.i, mieu ta th
nhau.
Phu.o.ng phap su. du.ng cac mieu ta n`ay l`a da.y cho mo.t he. thong bieu dien cac
ung chu.a biet
gia tri. mieu ta doi vo.i ta.p cac ket cau khac nhau. Ket cau cua mo.t v`
se du.o..c xac d.inh ba` ng cach doi sanh cac mieu ta cua no vo.i cac mieu ta lu.u tr
u. san
`an nhat. Chi tiet cua b`ai toan doi sanh du.o..c tr`nh
trong he. thong v`a t`m ra ket cau g
b`ay trong Chu.o.ng 9.
ap c
au tr
uc
Phu.o.ng ph
`an d
`au, phu.o.ng phap th
Nhu. tr`nh b`ay ph
u. hai de mieu ta ket cau du..a tren cac khai
nie.m cau tr
uc. Gia su. ta co mo.t nguyen tac da.ng S aS tu.o.ng u
.ng k
y hie.u S co the
`an ta co aaaS). Neu a bieu dien
viet la.i l`a aS (chang ha.n, ap du.ng nguyen tac n`ay ba l
du.`o.ng tr`on (H`nh ??(a)) v`a chuoi da.ng aaa . . . ngha l`a cac du.`o.ng tr`on ben phai
`om ba du.`o.ng tr`on.
th` nguyen tac S aS ta.o ra mo.t mau ket cau g
Gia su. ta them mo.t so nguyen tac v`ao so. d`o n`ay: S bA, A cA, A c, A
bS, S a, trong do b co ngha du.`o.ng tr`on pha du.o.i, c co ngha du.`o.ng tr`on ben
trai. Khi do ta co the ta.o ra chuoi aaabccbaa tu.o.ng u
.ng ma tra.n vuong cap 3 vo.i
`an tu. l`a cac du.`o.ng tr`on. Cac mau lo.n ho.n nhu. trong H`nh ??(c) du.o..c ta.o ra
cac ph
tu.o.ng tu... Ch
uy
r`a ng, cac nguyen tac n`ay c
ung sinh ra cac cau tr
uc khong chnh qui.
tu.o.ng co. ban cua phu.o.ng phap tren l`a cac cau tr
Y
uc ph
u.c ta.p co the du.o..c ta.o
ra t`
u. cac cau tr
uc do.n gian ba` ng cach su. du.ng mo.t so cac nguyen tac bi. gio.i ha.n bo.i
so kha nang sap xep cac nguyen so.. Cac khai nie.m n`ay l`a co. so. cua cac mieu ta quan
`an 8.5.
`e se du.o..c tr`nh b`ay chi tiet trong Ph
he.-mo.t van d
Phu.o.ng ph
ap ph
o
`an 5.7 v`a 5.8, pho Foureir thch ho..p vo.i mieu ta mo.t cach
Nhu. ch ra trong cac Ph
`an ho`an hay g
`an tu
`an ho`an cua cac mau trong anh. Cac mau to`an
tru..c tiep tnh tu
cu.c n`ay ma.c d`
u de d`ang phan bie.t do su.. ta.p trung do.t ngo.t cua nang lu.o..ng cao trong
252
S (r)
=0
v`a
S() :=
R
X
Sr (),
r=1
trong do R l`a ban knh h`nh tr`on tam ta.i goc. Vo.i pho kch thu.o.c N N, R du.o..c
cho.n l`a N/2.
8.3.4
Moment
vo.i p, q = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
Theo di.nh l
y duy nhat cua Papoulis, neu f lien tu.c t`
u.ng kh
uc v`a co gia compact
.
.
`on ta.i v`a day moment {mpq } du o. c xac di.nh duy nhat bo.i
th` moment tat ca cac ba.c t
253
f. Ngu.o..c la.i c
ung du
ng: day {mpq } xac d.inh f. Cac moment trung tam xac d.inh bo.i
Z Z
(x x
)p (y y)q f (x, y)dxdy,
pq :=
x
=
m10
m00
trong do
v`a
y =
m01
.
m00
Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p r`o.i ra.c cua anh so f cac moment trung tam xac di.nh bo.i
XX
(x x
)p(y y)q f (x, y).
pq :=
x
=m
10 =
XX
x
(x x
)1(y y)0 f (x, y)
= m10
m10
(m00)
m00
=0
11 =
XX
x
= m11
20 =
XX
x
(x x
)2 (y y)0f (x, y)
2m210 m210
m2
+
= m20 10
m00
m00
m00
XX
x
m201
m00
XX
x
(x x
)0(y y)2 f (x, y)
= m02
30 =
m10m01
m00
= m20
02 =
(x x
)1(y y)1 f (x, y)
(x x
)3(y y)0 f (x, y)
xm20 + 2
x2 m30
= m30 3
254
12 =
XX
(x x
)1(y y)2 f (x, y)
x
y m11 x
m02 2
y 2m10
= m12 2
21 =
XX
x
(x x
)2(y y)1 f (x, y)
xm11 ym20 2
x2m01
= m21 2
03 =
XX
x
(x x
)0(y y)3 f (x, y)
y m02 + 2
y 2 m03
= m03 3
Cac moment trung tam chuan hoa xac d.inh bo.i
pq :=
pq
,
00
trong do
:=
p+q
+ 1,
2
vo.i pq = 2, 3, . . . .
`om bay moment bat bien du.o..c suy t`
Ta.p g
u. cac moment ba.c hai v`a ba:
1 =20 + 02
2
2 =(20 02)2 + 411
8.4
H`nh th
ai ho.c
Thua.t ng
u. h`nh thai ho.c (morphology) du.o..c su. du.ng trong sinh ho.c d`e ca.p den qua
uc cua do.ng va.t v`a thu..c va.t. Ch
ung ta su. du.ng
tr`nh nghien c
u.u h`nh da.ng v`a cau tr
u. n`ay o. day trong khung canh h`nh thai ho.c toan ho.c (mathematical
tu.o.ng tu.. thua.t ng
`an cua anh cho phep bieu dien
morphology) nhu. mo.t cong cu. de tach ra cac th`anh ph
`oi. Ch
v`a mieu ta h`nh da.ng cua v`
ung, nhu. bien, bo. khung v`a bao l
ung ta c
ung quan
.
.
.
`en xu l
tam den cac phu o ng phap h`nh thai ho.c trong tien tr`nh ti
y anh nhu. lo.c h`nh
thai ho.c, l`am g`ay (thinning) v`a phep ta (pruning).
Ngon ng
u. cua h`nh thai (toan) ho.c l`a l
y thuyet ta.p ho..p. Theo ngha thong
thu.`o.ng, h`nh thai ho.c cung cap mo.t cach tiep ca.n thong nhat v`a co anh hu.o.ng lo.n
den mo.t so cac b`ai toan xu. l
y anh. Cac ta.p ho..p trong h`nh thai ho.c bieu dien h`nh
da.ng cua cac doi tu.o..ng trong anh. Chang ha.n, ta.p tat ca cac pixel den trong anh
nhi. phan l`a mo.t mieu ta d`ay du cua anh. Trong cac anh nhi. phan, cac ta.p du.o..c xet
`an 2.2.1), trong do moi ph
`an tu. cua ta.p l`a ca.p to.a
thu.`o.ng l`a ta.p con cua Z2 (xem Ph
do. (x, y) cua pixel (chang ha.n) den trong anh. Cac anh so gia tri. xam co the bieu
`an d
`au tu.o.ng u
dien l`a cac ta.p con cua Z3 . Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay, hai th`anh ph
.ng to.a
`an th
u. ba tu.o.ng u
do. trong anh v`a th`anh ph
.ng cu.`o.ng do. sang cua no ta.i do. Cac ta.p
`eu cao ho.n co the ch
trong khong gian co so chi
u.a nh
u.ng thuo.c tnh khac cua anh nhu.
`an thay doi theo th`o.i gian.
m`au sac hay cac th`anh ph
`an tiep theo ch
Trong ph
ung ta tr`nh b`ay cac khai nie.m quan tro.ng trong h`nh
thai ho.c v`a tren co. so. do t`m cac da.c tru.ng cua anh, chang ha.n bo. khung v`a bien
`eu phep toan
cua v`
ung se du.o..c xac d.inh thong qua cac phep toan h`nh thai ho.c. Nhi
`eu, tuy nhien ch
ung ta van ta.p
co the du.o..c phat bieu trong khong gian Euclid n chi
`an cua no l`a cac ph
`an tu. cua Z2.
trung chu yeu v`ao cac anh nhi. phan m`a cac th`anh ph
`an 8.4.5.
Vie.c mo. ro.ng doi vo.i cac anh gia tri. xam se du.o..c d`e ca.p den trong Ph
8.4.1
Ph
ep d
an v`
a ph
ep co
ung ta xet hai phep toan co. ban nhat trong cac phep toan h`nh thai ho.c:
Tru.o.c het ch
phep dan (dilation) v`a phep co (erosion).
256
C
ac d
i.nh ngha
Gia su. A v`a B l`a cac ta.p con cua Z2 . Ti.nh tien cua A theo vector x, k
y hie.u (A)x, xac
di.nh bo.i
(A)x := {a + x | x A}.
xac d.inh bo.i
- oi x
D
u.ng cua B (qua goc), k
y hie.u B,
:= {x | x B}.
B
`an b`
Ph
u cua ta.p A l`a
/ A}.
Ac := {x | x
Hie.u cua hai ta.p A v`a B, k
y hie.u A \ B, xac di.nh bo.i
A \ B := {x | x A, x
/ B}.
Ph
ep d
an
y hie.u A B, xac
Gia su. A v`a B l`a hai ta.p con cua Z2 . Phep dan cua A bo.i ta.p B, k
.
di.nh nhu sau
x 6= }.
A B := {x | A (B)
De d`ang ch
u.ng minh r`a ng
x ] A}.
A B = {x | [A (B)
`an tu. cau tr
Ta.p B thu.`o.ng go.i l`a ph
uc.
Ngo`ai di.nh ngha tren cua phep dan, ch
ung ta c`on hai di.nh ngha tu.o.ng du.o.ng
`an tu. cau
khac.. Tuy nhien, d.inh ngha n`ay tie.n du.ng ho.n v` no tru..c quan ho.n khi ph
u phep dan du..a tren cac phep toan
tr
uc du.o..c xem nhu. mo.t ma.t na. tch cha.p. Ma.c d`
ta.p ho..p trong khi do tch cha.p du..a v`ao cac phep toan so ho.c nhu.ng co su.. tu.o.ng tu..
lien tiep tren
gi
u.a hai phep toan n`ay: la.t B qua goc to.a do. v`a sau do di chuyen B
ta.p (anh) A tu.o.ng tu.. vo.i qua tr`nh xu. l
y tch cha.p.
`an tu. cau tr
V du. 8.4.1 H`nh 8.11(a) l`a ta.p A v`a H`nh 8.11(b) l`a ph
uc co tnh chat
= B). Cac du.`o.ng net d
doi x
u.ng qua goc (t
u.c l`a B
u.t trong H`nh 8.11(c) l`a anh goc
`en net l`a anh sau khi dan. H`nh 8.11(d)-(e) l`a mo.t
(de tie.n tham khao), v`a du.`o.ng li
`e phep dan.
v du. khac v
257
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...... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... .. . .... ....
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d/4
AB
(c)
| |
d/8
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| |
d/8
(d)
d/2
d/2
| |
d/8
(e)
`au A; (b) ph
`an tu. cau tr
H`nh 8.11: (a) Anh ban d
uc co tnh doi x
u.ng qua goc to.a do.;
`an xam); (d) ph
`an tu. cau tr
uc du.o..c keo d`ai; (e) dan A su. du.ng
(c) dan A bo.i B (ph
`an tu. cau tr
ph
uc n`ay.
258
Ph
ep co
Gia su. A v`a B l`a hai ta.p con cua Z2 . Phep co cua A bo.i ta.p B, k
y hie.u A B, di.nh
ngha nhu. sau:
A B := {x | (B)x A}.
Tu.o.ng tu.. phep dan, c`on co hai di.nh ngha tu.o.ng du.o.ng khac cua phep co (xem B`ai
ta.p ??), tuy nhien di.nh ngha tren cho phep de tnh toan ho.n.
`an tu. cau tr
V du. 8.4.2 Ta.p A trong H`nh 8.12(a) du.o..c co bo.i ph
uc (H`nh 8.12(b)):
.
.
.
`an xam, du `o ng d
u t net de tham khao). H`nh 8.12(e)
ket qua trong H`nh 8.12(c) (ph
.
.
.
.
`an tu cau tr
l`a ket qua khi co A bo i ph
uc du o. c keo d`ai (H`nh 8.12(d)).
`an b`
Tnh ch
at 8.4.3 Phep d
an v`
a phep co l`
a do
i ng
au nhau qua phep l
ay ph
u v`
a d
oi
x
u.ng; t
u.c l`
a
(A B)c = Ac B.
Ch
u.ng minh. Tha.t va.y ta co
(A B)c = {x | (B)x A}c .
Nhu.ng (B)x A tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i (B)x Ac = . Do do
(A B)c = {x | (B)x Ac = }c .
Va.y
{x | (B)x Ac = }c = {x | (B)x Ac 6= }
= Ac B.
2
8.4.2
Ph
ep mo. v`
a ph
ep d
ong
`an n`ay
Nhu. da biet, phep dan mo. ro.ng anh, trong khi phep co r
ut go.n la.i. Trong ph
.
ch
ung ta xet hai phep toan h`nh thai ho.c khac: phep mo v`a phep dong. Phep mo.
`an nho ra co kch
u.ng ph
thu.`o.ng l`am tro.n chu tuyen cua anh, loa.i bo cac eo v`a nh
.
.
.
ung l`am tro n cac doa.n bien cua chu tuyen nhu.ng ngu.o..c vo.i
thu o c nho. Phep dong c
phep mo., phep toan n`ay thu.`o.ng ho..p nhat cac cho gay he.p v`a cac ho sau he.p, loa.i bo
`ay cac ke ho. trong chu tuyen.
cac lo hong nho v`a l`am d
259
A
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| |
d/8
(b)
3d/8
(c)
| |
d/8
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| |
d/8
(d)
3d/8
d/2
| |
d/8
(e)
`au A; (b) ph
`an tu. cau tr
`an xam);
H`nh 8.12: (a) Anh ban d
uc B; (c) co A bo.i B (ph
.
.
.
.
.
`an tu cau tr
`an tu cau tr
(d) ph
uc du o. c keo d`ai; (e) co A su du.ng ph
uc n`ay.
260
H`nh 8.13: Minh ho.a cua cac phep toan mo. v`a dong.
- iem z du.o..c ch
H`nh 8.15: Minh ho.a h`nh ho.c cua phep dong. D
u.a trong (B)x thuo.c
A B neu v`a ch neu (B)x A 6= .
262
(ii) Neu C l`
a t
a.p con cu a D th` C B l`
a t
a.p con cu a D B.
(iii) (A B) B = A B.
Tnh ch
at 8.4.5 Ta c
o
(i) A l`
a t
a.p con cu a A B.
(ii) Neu C l`
a t
a.p con cu a D th` C B l`
a t
a.p con cu a D B.
(iii) (A B) B = A B.
Cac tnh chat tren giai thch cac ket qua nha.n du.o..c khi cac phep toan mo. v`a
uc cua
dong du.o..c su. du.ng de xay du..ng cac lo.c h`nh thai ho.c. Chang ha.n, xet cau tr
lo.c du..a tren cac phep toan mo.. Khi do tnh chat (i) ch ra ket qua l`a ta.p con cua
`au; tnh chat (ii) ngha l`a tnh do.n die.u du.o..c bao to`an; v`a (iii) cho thay ap
anh ban d
`an khong thay doi ket qua, ngha l`a khong thay doi gia
du.ng phep toan mo. ho.n mo.t l
tri. sau khi tu.. no nhan len. Nha.n xet tu.o.ng tu.. doi vo.i cac phep toan dong.
8.4.3
Ph
ep bi
en d
oi Hit-or-Miss
Phep bien doi Hit-or-Miss l`a mo.t cong cu. co. ban de phat hie.n h`nh da.ng cua cac doi
- a.t B := (B1, B2 ), trong do B1 l`a ta.p du.o..c ta.o t`
`an tu. cua B du.o..c
tu.o..ng: D
u. cac ph
`an tu. cua B du.o..c ket ho..p tu.o.ng u
lien ket vo.i mo.t doi tu.o..ng, v`a B2 l`a ta.p cac ph
.ng
`en. Phep bien doi Hit-or-Miss di.nh ngha nhu. sau:
vo.i n
A
B = (A B1) (Ac B2 ).
Ngo`ai ra, su. du.ng tnh doi ngau cua cac phep toan co v`a dan, de d`ang suy ra
2 )
A
B = (A B1 ) \ (A B
= {x | B1 A v`a B2 Ac }.
`ong th`o.i B1 co mo.t doi sanh
Va.y ta.p A
B ch
u.a tat ca cac diem m`a ta.i do xay ra d
(hit) trong A v`a B2 co mo.t doi sanh trong Ac .
263
Ta... m
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..
B .................................................
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(b)
(a)
(A)
A B
.........................................
.. ... .
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(c)
(d)
8.4.4
C
ac thu
a.t to
an h`nh th
ai ho.c co. ba n
.ng du.ng chnh cua h`nh thai ho.c l`a trch ra cac
Khi nghien c
u.u cac anh nhi. phan, u
- a.c
`an anh co the su. du.ng trong qua tr`nh bieu dien v`a mieu ta h`nh da.ng. D
th`anh ph
`an lien
bie.t, ch
ung ta xet cac thua.t toan de trch ra cac du.`o.ng bien, cac th`anh ph
.
.
`oi, v`a bo. khung cua v`
thong, bao l
ung. Ch
ung ta c
ung tr`nh b`ay mo.t v`ai phu o ng phap
(de l`am d`ay, l`am manh, l`am da.m v`a ta v`
ung) thu.`o.ng du.o..c su. du.ng ket ho..p vo.i cac
`en xu. l
thua.t toan n`ay trong giai doa.n ti
.ng o
y. Xet cac anh nhi. phan vo.i 1 tu.o.ng u
xam v`a 0 tu.o.ng u
.ng o trang.
Trch bi
en
Bien cua ta.p A, k
y hie.u A, nha.n du.o..c b`a ng cach d`au tien co A bo.i ta.p B sau do lay
u.c l`a
hie.u gi
u.a ta.p A v`a ta.p du.o..c co; t
A = A \ (A B)
(8.2)
8.16(b) thu.`o.ng du.o..c su. du.ng nhu.ng khong co ngha l`a duy nhat. Ch
uy
r`a ng, khi goc
.
.
.
`an tu cau tr
`an cua ph
cua B na` m tren du `o ng bien cua ta.p A th` co mo.t ph
uc na` m
ngo`ai ta.p A. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay ch
ung ta thu.`o.ng gia thiet cac gia tri. ngo`ai bien
ba` ng 0.
Tr
am v`
ung
`an b`
Thua.t to`an tram v`
ung du..a tren cac phep dan, lay ph
u v`a phep giao. Trong H`nh
.
.
`an tu cua ta.p con n`ay l`a diem bien (di.nh ngha
??, ta.p A ch
u a mo.t ta.p con m`a cac ph
8-lien thong) cua v`
ung (R) n`ao do. Xuat phat t`
u. pixel ha.t giong s ben trong (R)
v`
ung, ch
ung ta se tram to`an bo. v`
ung ba` ng cac gia tri. 1.
Theo gia thiet tat ca cac diem khong thuo.c bien du.o..c gan nhan 0 nen kho.i ta.o
`ay v`
ta gan gia tri. 1 cho p. Thua.t toan sau se l`am d
ung ba` ng cac gia tri. 1:
Xk = (Xk1 B) Ac ,
k = 1, 2, . . . ,
(8.3)
`an li
T
ach c
ac th`
anh ph
en th
ong
`an 2.3.2 ch
Trong Ph
ung ta da tr`nh b`ay khai nie.m lien thong. Trong thu..c te, b`ai toan
`an lien thong trong anh nhi. phan dong vai tr`o quan tro.ng trong cac
tach cac th`anh ph
.
`an lien thong trong ta.p
u
ng du.ng phan tch anh tu.. do.ng. Gia su. Y l`a mo.t th`anh ph
A v`a biet tru.o.c diem p Y. Khi do phep la.p sau se xac d.inh ta.p Y :
Xk = (Xk1 B) A,
k = 1, 2, . . .
(8.4)
`oi
Bao l
`an 8.1.4 ta biet ra` ng bao l
`oi l`a mo.t trong nh
Trong Ph
u.ng da.c tru.ng h
u.u ch cua doi
`an n`ay tr`nh b`ay thua.t toan h`nh thai ho.c de xac di.nh bao l
`oi C(A) cua ta.p
tu.o..ng. Ph
i
.
- a.t B , i = 1, 2, 3, 4, l`a bon ph
`an tu cau tr
A. D
uc. Ta di.nh ngha
B i ) A,
Xki = (X
i = 1, 2, 3, 4, v`a k = 1, 2, . . .
(8.5)
i
`oi
th` d`
u.ng v`a da.t Di = Xki . Khi do bao l
trong do X0i = A. Neu xay ra Xki = Xk1
cua A l`a
C(A) = 4i=1 Di .
(8.6)
Noi cach khac, thua.t toan thu..c hie.n phep bien doi hit-or-miss ta.p A vo.i B 1 cho den
khi du.o..c anh khong thay doi; sau do ho..p A vo.i ket qua Di . Tiep tu.c vo.i B 2 cho den
`oi cua A.
khi khong thay doi anh v`a van van. Ho..p cua bon ta.p Di cho ta bao l
L`
am g`
ay
`an tu. cau tr
L`am g`ay ta.p A bo.i ph
uc B, k
y hie.u bo.i A B, co the di.nh ngha theo
phep bien doi hit-or-miss:
A B = A \ (A
B)
= A (A
B)c.
(8.7)
(8.8)
(8.9)
Noi cach khac, qua tr`nh l`am g`ay A bo.i B 1 , ket qua du.o..c l`am g`ay bo.i B 2 v`a van van,
cho den khi anh khong thay doi.
L`
am b
eo
Phep toan l`am beo l`a doi ngau (h`nh thai ho.c) cua phep l`am g`ay v`a di.nh ngha bo.i
A B = A (A
B),
266
(8.10)
(8.11)
T`m b
o. khung
`an 8.1.5 ch
Trong Ph
ung ta da d`e ca.p den khai nie.m bo. khung v`a cach tach no ra khoi
`an n`ay tiep ca.n theo cach h`nh thai ho.c de tach bo. khung t`
mo.t doi tu.o..ng. Ph
u. doi
tu.o..ng.
Lantuejoul (xem [18]) da ch
u.ng minh ra` ng bo. khung cua mo.t ta.p (v`
ung) A co
the bieu dien theo thua.t ng
u. cac phep toan co v`a mo.. T
u.c l`a, neu k
y hie.u S(A) l`a bo.
khung cua ta.p A th`
K
[
S(A) =
Sk (A),
(8.12)
k=0
trong do
Sk (A) =
K
[
(8.13)
k=0
A=
K
[
(8.14)
k=0
`an v`a gio.i ha.n K cua tong du.o..c lay nhu. tru.o.c.
k l
Ph
ep ta
Phep toan
Phu.o.ng tr`nh
Ch
u thch
Ti.nh tien
(A)x = {a + x | x A}
Lay doi x
u.ng
= {x | x B}
B
Lay doi x
u.ng B qua goc to.a
do..
`an b`
Ph
u
/ A}
Ac = {x | x
Hie.u
A \ B = {x | x A, x
/ B}
Phep dan
x A 6=
A B = {x | (B)
Phep co
A B = {x | (B)x A}
Phep mo.
A B = (A B) B
Phep dong
A B = (A B) B
A
B = (A B1) (Ac B2 )
2)
= (A B1) \ (A B
T`m bien
Tram v`
ung
A = A \ (A B)
Phep toan
`an
T`m th`anh ph
lien thong
`oi
Bao l
Phu.o.ng tr`nh
Ch
u thch
X0i = A, i = 1, 2, 3, 4,
v`a da.t
i
Xki = (Xk1
B i) A, k 1
Di
L`am manh
i
= Xconv
, C(A) = 4i=1 Di
A B = A \ (A
B)
= A (A
B)c
L`am beo
AB
= A (A
? B)
A {B} = (( ((A B 1 ) B 2)
) B n)
Bo. khung
S(A)
= K
k=0 Sk (A)
Sk (A) = K
k=0 {(A kB)
\[(A kB) B]}
A
K
k=0 (Sk (A)
kB)
270
Phep toan
Phep ta
Phu.o.ng tr`nh
Ch
u thch
X1 = A {B}
X2 = 8k=1 (X1
? Bk)
X3 = (X2 H) A
X4 = X1 X3
Bang 8.2: Bang tong ket cac ket qua, tnh chat cua cac phep toan h`nh thai ho.c.
8.4.5
ac a nh gi
a tri. x
am
Mo. r
o.ng d
oi v
o.i c
`an n`ay ch
Trong ph
ung ta mo. ro.ng cac phep toan dan, phep co, phep mo. v`a phep dong
cho cac anh gia tri. xam. Du..a tren co. so. do, ch
ung ta tr`nh b`ay cac thua.t toan h`nh
`an 8.4.4, du..a v`ao h`nh thai ho.c anh
thai ho.c cho cac anh gia tri. xam. Nhu. trong Ph
`an
xam ch
ung ta se ta.p trung v`ao vie.c bieu dien v`a trch da.c tru.ng cua cac th`anh ph
- a.c bie.t ch
quan tam trong anh. D
ung ta se tr`nh b`ay cac thua.t toan tach bien thong
.
qua toan tu h`nh thai ho.c gradient, v`a phan hoa.ch v`
ung du..a v`ao ket cau (texture)
`e ca.p den cac thua.t toan de l`am tro.n v`a nang cao
cua doi tu.o..ng. Ch
ung ta c
ung d
chat lu.o..ng anh.
`an tu. cau tr
Gia su. f (x, y) l`a anh v`ao v`a b(x, y) l`a ph
uc (xem nhu. mo.t anh con).
`an 2.2.1. T
u.c l`a neu k
y
Gia su. cac h`am n`ay r`o.i ra.c theo ngha du.o..c d`e ca.p trong Ph
.
.
hie.u Z l`a ta.p cac so nguyen th` vo i moi to.a do. (x, y) Z Z ta gan cac m
u c xam
.
f (x, y) v`a b(x, y) l`a cac gia tri. thu. c trong R.
271
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II
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........................................................................
B i, i = 1, 2, 3, 4
(quay 900 )
III
IV
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..................................................................................
B i, i = 1, 2, 3, 4
(quay 900 )
B i , i = 1, 2, . . . , 8
(quay 450 )
B i, i = 5, 6, 7, 8
(quay 900 )
V
`an n`ay. Tam cua cac
H`nh 8.17: Nam cau tr
uc co. ban thu.`o.ng du.o..c su. du.ng trong ph
`an tu. cau tr
uc du.o..c da.t ta.i vi. tr trung tam v`a dau ch ra cac gia tri. khong
ph
quan tam.
Ph
ep d
an
`an tu. cau tr
Phep dan anh gia tri. xam f bo.i ph
uc b xac d.inh bo.i
(f b)(s, t) := max{f (s x, t y) + b(x, y) | (s x, t y) Df , (x, y) Db }, (8.15)
`en xac di.nh cua f v`a b tu.o.ng u
`an tu.
trong do Df , Db l`a cac mi
.ng. Nhu. tren, b l`a ph
uy
ra` ng trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay b l`a mo.t
cau tr
uc trong xu. l
y h`nh thai ho.c nhu.ng ch
h`am anh thay v` mo.t ta.p ho..p.
- i
`eu kie.n (s x, t y) ch
`en xac di.nh cua f tu.o.ng tu.. vo.i di
`eu kie.n
D
u.a trong mi
`an ch
trong di.nh ngha cua phep dan doi vo.i anh nhi. phan, trong do hai ta.p c
u.a t
`an tu. chung. Ch
u y
ra` ng Phu.o.ng tr`nh (8.15) co da.ng cong th
u.c tch
nhat mo.t ph
cha.p: toan tu. max thay cho phep toan co.ng v`a phep co.ng thay cho phep nhan trong
cong th
u.c tch cha.p.
272
- e do.n gian ch
D
ung ta se minh ho.a khai nie.m v`a co. che thu..c hie.n cua phep toan
`eu. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay, Phu.o.ng tr`nh (8.15) co da.ng
trong tru.`o.ng ho..p mo.t chi
(f b)(s) := max{f (s x) + b(x) | s x Df , x Db }.
`o thi. h`am f (x) doi x
Ch
uy
ra` ng d
u.ng vo.i f (x) qua tru.c y. Tu.o.ng tu.. trong tru.`o.ng
ho..p tch cha.p, h`am f (s x) di chuyen sang phai khi s du.o.ng v`a sang trai khi s am.
`eu kie.n (s x) v`a x thuo.c mi
`en xac d.inh cua f v`a cua b tu.o.ng u
Cac di
.ng ch ra r`a ng
`au trong d.inh
`an len nhau. Cac di
`eu kie.n n`ay tu.o.ng tu.. nh
u.ng yeu c
f v`a b phu mo.t ph
.
`an ch
`an tu. chung. Cuoi
ngha phep dan cua anh nhi. phan: hai ta.p c
u a t nhat mo.t ph
c`
ung, khac vo.i tru.`o.ng ho..p anh nhi. phan, f du.o..c di.ch chuyen thay v` b. B`a ng cach
doi bien, Phu.o.ng tr`nh (8.15) co the viet la.i trong do b di.ch chuyen thay v` f. Tuy
`eu kie.n thu.`o.ng xay ra trong thu..c te) th` da.ng da
nhien, neu Db nho ho.n Df (mo.t di
`e quan nie.m
cho trong Phu.o.ng tr`nh (8.15) se do.n gian ho.n trong vie.c danh ch so. V
th` vie.c b tru.o..t qua f khong khac vo.i vie.c f tru.o..t qua b.
Phep dan co tnh giao hoan. Do do thay v` tnh b f ta co the tnh f b. Tuy
`an ch
`e phep
nhien c
uy
ra` ng phep co khong co tnh giao hoan. H`nh 8.18 cho v du. v
dan.
Do phep dan cho.n gia tri. lo.n nhat cua f + b trong lan ca.n xac di.nh bo.i h`nh
`an tu. cau tr
da.ng cua ph
uc nen anh hu.o.ng chung cua phep toan n`ay tren anh gia tri.
`an tu. cau tr
xam l`a: (1) neu tat ca cac gia tri. cua ph
uc du.o.ng th` anh ra se sang ho.n
anh v`ao; v`a (2) cac chi tiet toi se giam hoa.c bi. khu. bo phu. thuo.c v`ao cac gia tri. v`a
`an tu. cau tr
uc du.o..c su. du.ng trong phep dan.
h`nh da.ng cua ch
ung doi vo.i ph
Ph
ep co
`an tu. cau tr
Phep co anh gia tri. xam f bo.i ph
uc b xac d.inh bo.i
(f b)(s, t) := min{f (s + x, t + y) b(x, y) | (s + x, t + y) Df , (x, y) Db }, (8.16)
- i
`en xac di.nh cua f v`a b tu.o.ng u
`eu kie.n (s + x, t + y)
trong do Df , Db l`a cac mi
.ng. D
.
.
.
.
.
`en xac di.nh cua f tu o ng tu. vo i di
`eu kie.n trong di.nh ngha cua phep
ch
u a trong mi
`an tu. cau tr
`an du.o..c co.
`an ch
co doi vo.i anh nhi. phan, trong do ph
uc c
u.a trong ta.p c
u.c tu.o.ng quan: toan tu. min thay cho
Ch
uy
r`a ng Phu.o.ng tr`nh (8.16) co da.ng cong th
phep toan co.ng v`a phep tr`
u. thay cho phep nhan trong cong th
u.c tu.o.ng quan.
Ch
ung ta minh ho.a co. che hoa.t do.ng cua phep co (Phu.o.ng tr`nh (8.16)) trong
273
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(b)
(a)
f (s ) + b(s x)
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2
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................................................................................................................................................................................................................
f (s ) + b(s x)
f (s2 )
f (s1 )
s2
s1
(c)
(d)
H`nh 8.18: Phep dan nha.n du.o..c b`a ng cach tru.o..t b qua f.
274
f b
s
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.
f b
`an b`
ph
u v`a doi x
u.ng. T
u.c l`a
(f b)c (x, y) = (f c b)(x, y)
trong do f c = f (x, y) v`a b = b(x, y).
Ph
ep mo. v`
a ph
ep d
ong
Cac phep toan mo. v`a dong doi vo.i cac anh nhi. phan co the mo. ro.ng trong tru.`o.ng
`an tu. cau tr
ho..p anh gia tri. xam. Phep mo. cua anh f bo.i anh (ph
uc) b xac di.nh bo.i
(f b) = (f b) b.
(8.17)
Tu.o.ng tu.. phep mo. trong tru.`o.ng ho..p anh nhi. phan, phep mo. tru.o.c het co f bo.i
`an tu. cau tr
uc) b xac d.inh bo.i
b sau do dan bo.i b. Phep dong cua anh f bo.i anh (ph
(f b) = (f b) b.
(8.18)
Phep mo. v`a phep dong doi vo.i anh gia tri. xam doi ngau nhau tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i
`an b`
phep lay ph
u v`a phep doi x
u.ng. T
u.c l`a
(f b)c = f c b.
Do f c = f (x, y), nen (f b) = (f b).
Phep mo. v`a phep dong co mo.t y
ngha h`nh ho.c nhu. sau. Gia su. ta quan sat
u. ba tu.o.ng u
.ng do.
anh f trong khong gian 3D vo.i x, y l`a cac to.a do. anh v`a tru.c th
`e ma.t r`o.i ra.c
sang (t
u.c gia tri. cua f ). Trong bieu dien n`ay anh xuat hie.n nhu. mo.t b
m`a cac gia tri. cua no ta.i (x, y) b`a ng f (x, y). Bay gi`o. gia su. ta muon mo. f bo.i mo.t
`an tu. cau tr
`au b v`a xem ph
`an tu. n`ay nhu. mo.t qua bong lan. Khi do
ph
uc da.ng c
co. che mo. f bo.i b co the dien giai mo.t cach h`nh ho.c nhu. sau: de qua bong ben du.o.i
`e ma.t trong khi c`
`e ma.t di.ch chuyen. Khi do tat
b
ung l
uc lan bong ta cho to`an bo. b
`e bien do.
ca cac chom tu.o.ng doi he.p so vo.i du.`o.ng knh cua qua bong se bi. thu nho v
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
v`a do. nho.n. Trong cac u
ng du.ng thu. c te, phep mo thu `o ng du o. c su du.ng de khu. cac
`an tu. cau tr
ung co m
u.c
chi tiet nho (doi vo.i kch thu.o.c cua ph
uc), trong khi nh
u.ng v`
uc d`au loa.i bo cac chi tiet nho
xam sang tu.o.ng doi lo.n khong bi. xao tro.n. Phep co l
nhu.ng l`am toi anh, trong khi phep dan thu..c hie.n sau do tang do. sang cua anh nhu.ng
`oi la.i nh
khong phu.c h
u.ng chi tiet da khu. tru.o.c do.
276
H`nh th
ai ho.c gradient. Phep toan dan v`a mo. thu.`o.ng du.o..c su. du.ng de tnh h`nh
u.c sau:
thai ho.c gradient cua anh. Cu. the anh ra g du.o..c tnh theo cong th
g = (f b) (f b).
Ket qua ch
ung ta se du.o..c anh vo.i du.`o.ng bien sac net. Khac vo.i phu.o.ng phap l`am
`an tu.
noi bien ba` ng ma.t na. Sobel, h`nh thai ho.c gradient nha.n du.o..c su. du.ng cac ph
cau tr
uc t phu. thuo.c v`ao hu.o.ng cua du.`o.ng bien. Tuy nhien phu.o.ng phap sau n`ay
`an tnh toan nhi
`eu.
c
Ph
ep bi
en d
oi top-hat. Phep bien doi top-hat h`nh thai ho.c xac di.nh bo.i
h = f (f b).
`an tu. cau tr
uc h`nh tru. hoa.c
Phep bien doi n`ay-nhu. ten go.i cua no, su. du.ng mo.t ph
.
.
.
ung de l`am noi cac chi tiet na` m trong bong cua doi
h`nh ho.p vo i dnh phang-thu `o ng d`
tu.o..ng.
- e phan doa.n cac va.t the du..a tren ket cau cua ch
ung ta co
Ph
an d
oa.n k
et c
au. D
the su. du.ng cac phep toan mo. v`a dong.
-od
- o do. ha.t l`a mo.t lnh vu..c gan li
`en vo.i vie.c xac di.nh ma.t do. cua cac ha.t
D
o. ha.t. D
trong mo.t anh. Cac doi tu.o..ng trong anh khong nh
u.ng phu lap len nhau m`a c`on ta.p
`en toi.
trung d`ay nen rat kho phat hie.n t`
u.ng ha.t rieng re. Gia su. cac ha.t sang tren n
`an tu. cau tr
uc co kch thu.o.c tang du.o..c thu..c hie.n tren
Cac phep toan mo. vo.i cac ph
- a.t fi l`a hie.u gi
anh goc. D
u.a anh goc v`a anh sau khi thu..c hie.n cac phep mo. du.o..c xac
`an tu. cau tr
di.nh vo.i moi ph
uc khac nhau. Ba` ng cach chuan hoa cac anh hie.u fi v`a
`o co.t cua ma.t do. cac ha.t trong anh. Phu.o.ng
su. du.ng ch
ung de xay du..ng mo.t bieu d
tu.o.ng cac phep toan mo. vo.i kch thu.o.c da.c bie.t co anh hu.o.ng
phap n`ay du..a tren y
u.a cac ha.t co c`
ma.nh tren nh
u.ng v`
ung cua anh ch
ung kch thu.o.c. Do do de do ma.t
do. xuat hie.n cua cac ha.t ta co the su du.ng hie.u gi
u.a anh v`ao v`a anh ra.
8.5
C
ac mi
eu ta quan h
e.
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ba
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(b)
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(1, 3)
(1, 2, 1, 3)
(1, 2, 1, 2, 1, 3)
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..........................................
Bien
V`
ung
- iem
D
xuat phat
trong do tnh lien thong cua cac nguyen so. co the du.o..c bieu dien theo da.ng d`au-duoi
uc r`o.i nhau,
hoa.c da.ng lien tu.c khac. Chu.o.ng 9 se d`e ca.p den kha nang cua cac cau tr
v`a mo.t trong nh
u.ng cach tiep ca.n tot nhat l`a su. du.ng cay de mieu ta doi tu.o..ng.
Cay T l`a ta.p h
u.u ha.n cac n
ut thoa
`on ta.i duy nhat mo.t n
1. t
ut r go.i l`a n
ut goc, v`a
2. cac n
ut c`on la.i du.o..c phan hoa.ch th`anh m ta.p r`o.i nhau T1, T2, . . . , Tm, trong do
Ti l`a cac cay (go.i l`a cay con cua T ).
Cac n
ut khong co cay con go.i l`a n
ut la. Chang ha.n cay trong H`nh 8.24 co goc l`a r,
`an
u. tren cay c
hai n
ut la x, y v`a mo.t n
ut trong z. Noi chung co hai thong tin lu.u tr
`e mo.t n
quan tam l`a: (1) thong tin v
ut du.o..c lu.u tr
u. da.ng ta.p cac t`
u. mieu ta n
ut, v`a
.
.
.
.
.
`e quan he. cua mo.t n
(2) thong tin v
ut vo i cac lan ca.n cua no du o. c lu u tr
u nhu. mo.t
ta.p cac con tro tro den cac lan ca.n n`ay. Khi su. du.ng cay de mieu ta anh, thong tin
loa.i mo.t xac di.nh mau cua nguyen so., trong khi thong tin loa.i hai xac di.nh quan he.
va.t l
y cua nguyen so. doi vo.i cac cau tr
uc con khac. Chang ha.n, H`nh 8.25(a) co the
bieu dien bo.i mo.t cay trong H`nh 8.25(b) su. du.ng quan he. bao h`am. Do do neu k
y
.
.
hie.u r l`a goc cua cay th` H`nh 8.25(a) ch ra r`a ng m
u c d`au tien cua do. ph
u c ta.p d`oi
ut trong tu.o.ng u
.ng a
hoi a v`a c ch
u.a trong r; bo.i va.y co hai nhanh t`
u. goc den cac n
v`a c nhu. trong H`nh 8.25(b). M
u.c ke tiep d`oi hoi b ch
u.a trong a v`a d v`a e ch
u.a trong
c. Cuoi c`
ung f ch
u.a trong e.
281
Ngo.n
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Ngo.n
a+b
a
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a b ..................................................
b
ab
Goc
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Goc
ab
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(b)
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c + ( d)
d + [c + ( d)]
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a+b
(a + b) c
{d + [c + ( d)]} [(a + b) c]
(d)
H`nh 8.23: (a) Cac nguyen so. (m
ui ten); (b) cac phep toan tren cac nguyen so.; (c) ta.p
cac nguyen so.; (d) cac cau tr
uc xay du..ng t`
u. cac nguyen so..
282
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`e cay.
H`nh 8.24: Mo.t v du. v
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(b)
(a)
`om cac doi tu.o..ng do.n gian. (b) cay bieu dien v`
ung nha.n du.o..c
H`nh 8.25: (a) V`
ung g
ba` ng cach su. du.ng quan he. bao h`am.
283
284
Chu.o.ng 9
N DANG VA
` NO
I SUY
NHA
.
.
.
`e da.t ra
Chu.o.ng n`ay tr`nh b`ay mo.t so k
y thua.t nha.n da.ng v`a no.i suy anh. Cac van d
u.ng u
o. day lien quan chu yeu den nh
.ng du.ng trong phan tch anh tu.. do.ng.
Phan tch anh tu.. do.ng l`a qua tr`nh phat hie.n, nha.n da.ng v`a hieu cac mau tren
u.ng mu.c dch chnh cua phan tch anh tu.. do.ng l`a
co. so. cua mo.t anh. Mo.t trong nh
thiet ke cac may co kha nang nha.n biet du.o..c nhu. con ngu.`o.i theo ngha n`ao do. Chang
ha.n, trong he. thong nha.n da.ng ch
u. viet t`
u. cac trang t`ai lie.u (anh), cac mau quan tam
u. cai mo.t cach chnh xac.
l`a cac k
y tu.. v`a mu.c tieu l`am sao nha.n da.ng du.o..c cac ch
`an co kha nang thong minh vo.i
Do do, mo.t he. thong phan tch anh tu.. do.ng c
m
u.c do. n`ao do. Thong minh l`a khai nie.m ma.p m`o., da.c bie.t doi vo.i cac may. Tuy
nhien, ta co the de d`ang ket ho..p cac quan nie.m khac nhau vo.i khai nie.m thong minh.
`an quan tam l`a:
Mo.t v`ai da.c tru.ng c
.ng cac chi tiet trong anh;
1. kha nang tach thong tin thch ho..p tu.o.ng u
u.c co du.o..c de ap du.ng v`ao cac
2. kha nang ho.c cac v du. v`a tong quat hoa tri th
t`nh huong mo.i khac nhau; v`a
`ay du.
3. kha nang suy lua.n t`
u. nh
u.ng thong tin khong d
`an giai quyet) ch
Trong ch`
u.ng mu..c n`ao do (phu. thuo.c v`ao van d`e c
ung ta co the
.
.
.
thiet ke cac he. thong phan tch anh vo i cac da.c tru ng tren. Xay du. ng cac he. thong co
`e c`on
kha nang thu..c hie.n nh
u.ng ch
u.c nang phan tch anh nhu. con ngu.`o.i van l`a van d
.
.
.
.
chu a giai quyet du o. c. Nghien c
u u cac he. thong sinh ho.c v`a tnh toan de giai thch
285
`au het
he. thong nha.n da.ng cua thi. giac ngu.`o.i c`on dang tiep dien. Tuy nhien, trong h
.
.
.
.
u ng b`ai toan chuyen
cac tru `o ng ho. p, phan tch anh ba` ng may tnh de giai quyet nh
du.ng du..a v`ao nh
u.ng phat bieu heuristic. Chang ha.n, mo.t so may co kha nang do.c cac
`eu toc do. cua con ngu.`o.i. Nhu.ng
trang t`ai lie.u chnh xac vo.i toc do. nhanh ho.n rat nhi
cac he. thong nhu. va.y qua chuyen du.ng v`a do do kho co kha nang mo. ro.ng trong cac
u.c l`a, l
y thuyet v`a thu..c te hie.n nay cua phan tch anh phu. thuo.c v`ao
lnh vu..c khac. T
b`ai toan da.t ra.
Cac Chu.o.ng 1-3 tr`nh b`ay nh
u.ng kien th
u.c co. ban cua xu. l
y anh; cac Chu.o.ng
`e ca.p den ti
`en xu. l
y anh; v`a cac Chu.o.ng 7-9 lien quan chnh den nh
u.ng u
.ng
4-6 d
du.ng trong phan tch anh. Phan loa.i theo cach n`ay, ma.c d`
u co to ch
u.c, khong co ngha
ra` ng nh
u.ng van d`e trong cac Chu.o.ng 1-6 khong h
u.u ch trong b`ai toan phan tch anh.
`oi v`a nen anh thu.`o.ng l`a nh
Thu nha.n anh, nang cao chat lu.o..ng anh, phu.c h
u.ng u
.ng
du.ng co lien quan den con ngu.`o.i v`a may xu. l
y d
u. lie.u h`nh anh so. Trong chu.o.ng
n`ay, ch
ung ta se thay r`a ng thiet ke cac he. thong phan tch anh tu.. do.ng d`oi hoi co
`au het cac kien th
nh
u.ng hieu biet h
u.c trong giao tr`nh.
9.1
an tch anh
Co. so. cua ph
Cac phu.o.ng phap phan tch anh co the chia th`anh ba nhom:
1. xu. l
y m
u.c thap;
2. xu. l
y m
u.c trung gian; v`a
3. xu. l
y m
u.c cao.
Ma.c d`
u khong co bien gio.i chung gi
u.a cac nhom, nhu.ng cach phan chia n`ay gi
up ch
ung
`e giai t`
u.ng b`ai
ta de d`ang giai quyet b`ai toan phan tch anh tu.. do.ng ba` ng cach du.a v
toan con. H`nh 9.1 minh ho.a khai nie.m n`ay, trong do v`
ung giao cua cac h`nh ch
u. nha.t
`on ta.i ranh gio.i chung gi
net d
u.t ch ra khong t
u.a cac tien tr`nh xu. l
y. V du., ngu.o.ng
`en xu. l
co the xem l`a cong cu. de nang cao chat lu.o..ng anh (bu.o.c ti
y) hoa.c cong cu.
trong phan doa.n anh tu`
y theo u
.ng du.ng cu. the.
`om cac ch
y m
u.c thap g
u.c nang co the xem nhu. cac hoa.t do.ng khong d`oi hoi
Xu. l
`en xu. l
thong minh trong he. thong phan tch anh. Ch
ung ta coi thu nha.n anh v`a ti
y
.
.
.
.
.
(Chu o ng 2-6) l`a cac ch
u c nang m
u c thap. Phan loa.i n`ay co tac du.ng tch cu. c do cac
286
Xu. l
y m
u.c trung gian
......................................................................................................
....
..
...
....
..
...
....
..
...
....
..
..
`en
Ti
xu. l
y
.....................................
toan
.....................................
.
........
...
..
..
...
.
......
...
Co. so.
tri th
u.c
Thu nha.n
anh
...
...
...
...
...
...
..
.
........
..
..
........
...
...
..
...
.......
.
.........................................................
...
........
...
....
..
...
....
..
...
....
..
B`ai
Phan doa.n
anh
............................................................
Nha.n da.ng
v`a
no.i suy
............................................................
Xu. l
y m
u.c thap
Xu. l
y m
u.c cao
Ket
........................................
qua
9.2
u v`
M
a
a c
ac l
o.p
`e ca.p trong Ph
`an 9.1, kha nang thu..c hie.n nha.n da.ng mau o. m
Nhu. da d
u.c n`ao do
.
l`a mo.t tien tr`nh can ban trong phan tch anh. O day, mau l`a mo.t da.c tru.ng di.nh
`an quan tam
lu.o..ng hoa.c l`a da.c tru.ng cau tr
uc cua mo.t doi tu.o..ng hoa.c thu..c the c
`e ca.p trong Chu.o.ng 8, noi chung mau du.o..c ta.o ra t`
n`ao do trong anh. Nhu. da d
u.
`eu da.c tru.ng. Noi cach khac, mau l`a mo.t vector nhi
`eu chi
`eu, trong do
mo.t hoa.c nhi
`an cua vector tu.o.ng u
.ng mo.t da.c tru.ng cua doi tu.o..ng. (Thua.t ng
u. da.c
moi th`anh ph
tru.ng thu.`o.ng du.o..c su. du.ng trong cac t`ai lie.u nha.n da.ng mau nh`a m am ch cac k
y
u., ng
u.). Lo.p cac mau l`a mo.t ta.p cac mau co chung nh
u.ng tnh chat n`ao
hie.u nhu. t`
do. K
y hie.u cac lo.p mau l`a 1 , 2 , . . . , M , trong do M l`a so cac lo.p. Nha.n da.ng mau
ba` ng may lien quan den cac k
y thua.t gan cac mau v`ao cac lo.p tu.o.ng u
.ng cua ch
ung
.
.
.
.
mo.t cach tu. do.ng v`a tranh su. can thie.p cua con ngu `o i.
Ba cach sap xep mau chnh thu.`o.ng su. du.ng trong thu..c te l`a cac vector (doi vo.i
cac da.c tru.ng di.nh lu.o..ng), cac chuoi v`a cac cay (doi vo.i cac mieu ta cau tr
uc). Cac
288
x=
.. ,
.
xn
u. i v`a n l`a so cac da.c tru.ng. Cac vector mau du.o..c viet
trong do xi l`a da.c tru.ng th
da.ng vector co.t. Do do ta co the viet x = (x1, x2 , . . . , xn )t .
`an cua mo.t vector mau phu. thuo.c v`ao k
Tnh chat cua cac th`anh ph
y thua.t do
lu.`o.ng du.o..c su. du.ng de mieu ta ban chat cua mau. Chang ha.n, gia su. ta muon mieu
ta ba loa.i hoa ng
u sac (setosa, virginica v`a versicolor) ba` ng cach do do. ro.ng v`a do. d`ai
cac canh hoa cua ch
ung. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay, ta su. du.ng vector 2D
!
x1
,
x=
x2
trong do x1 , x2 tu.o.ng u
.ng do. ro.ng v`a do. d`ai cua canh hoa. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay, ba
lo.p mau l`a setosa, virginica v`a versicolor.
`an 8.1.3) th` ta nha.n
Neu ch
ung ta mieu ta doi tu.o..ng b`a ng k
y so cua no (xem Ph
.
.
du o. c mo.t h`am 1D. Lay mau h`am n`ay ta.i cac diem 1, 2, . . . , n , v`a xet vector mau
x = (x1 = r(1 ), x2 = r(2), . . . , xn = r(n ))t .
`eu v`a cac lo.p mau tro. th`anh cac
Cac vector n`ay l`a cac diem trong khong gian n chi
dam may trong khong gian n`ay.
y so, ch
ung ta co the tnh chang ha.n n
Thay v` su. du.ng tru..c tiep bien do. cua k
`an 8.2.4) v`a xem ch
`an
moment ba.c nhat cua mo.t k
y so da cho (Ph
ung l`a cac th`anh ph
.
.
.
cua vector mau tu o ng u
ng. Tha.t ra co mo.t so cach khac nhau de ta.o ra cac vector
`an ch
`e ca.p den cac phu.o.ng phap trong chu.o.ng n`ay. C
uy
ra` ng,
mau. Ch
ung ta se d
.
.
`eu he. thong do lu `o ng de ta.o ra cac th`anh ph
`an cua vector mau co
cho.n mo.t hoa.c nhi
mo.t anh hu.o.ng rat lo.n den ket qua thu..c hie.n sau c`
ung cua he. thong phan tch anh
.
du. a v`ao cach tiep ca.n phan loa.i theo vector mau.
Cac k
y thua.t du.o..c mo ta tren de ta.o ra cac vector mau v`a do do cac lo.p mau
.ng du.ng, cach tot nhat de lay cac da.c
du..a v`ao thong tin di.nh lu.o..ng. Trong mo.t so u
tru.ng cua mau du..a tren cac quan he. cau tr
uc. Chang ha.n, nha.n da.ng van tay du..a
tren moi quan he. gi
u.a cac da.c tru.ng dau vet go.i l`a cac tieu tiet. Cac da.c tru.ng n`ay
289
.................................
...
...
...
...
...
.................................
...
...
...
...
...
...
................................
...
...
...
...
...
...
................................
..................................... ...
...
...
...
..
.........
..
.......................................
...
...
...
..
.........
....................................
. ..
...
...
...
.
........
..................................
.. ...
...
...
...
.
.......
....................................
...
ba
ba
ba
..
................................
...
...
...
..
...
...
................................
..
..............a....................
.. ...
...
...
...
.
.......
...................................
...
ba
(a)
(b)
`an nguyen so. mo ta cac tnh chat du.`o.ng van tay nhu. cac diem cu.t,
l`a cac th`anh ph
diem re nhanh, cac doa.n d
u.t quang c`
ung vo.i cac kch thu.o.c v`a vi. tr tu.o.ng doi cua
- e giai quyet cac b`ai toan da.ng n`ay (ngo`ai cac thong so di.nh lu.o..ng c`on co cac
ch
ung. D
moi quan he. khong gian gi
u.a cac da.c tru.ng), cach tot nhat du..a theo phu.o.ng phap
cau tr
uc.
H`nh 9.2(a) minh ho.a doi tu.o..ng co da.ng ba.c thang. Ta co the lay mau v`a bieu
dien doi tu.o..ng n`ay theo da.ng vector mau tu.o.ng tu.. nhu. cach tiep ca.n du.o..c su. du.ng
`om cac phep la.p cua hai nguyen so. do.n
trong H`nh ??. Tuy nhien cau tr
uc co. so. g
gian se bi. mat khi ap du.ng phu.o.ng phap mieu ta n`ay. Ch
ung ta co the mieu ta ba` ng
`an tu. a v`a b v`a xem mau l`a chuoi cac k
cach di.nh ngha hai ph
y hie.u w = ababab
.
.
.
.
u tu. cua chuoi v`a xen ke cua hai nguyen
nhu trong H`nh 9.2(b). Du. a v`ao lien ket co th
so., cau tr
uc cua lo.p cac mau da.ng da.c bie.t n`ay du.o..c gi
u. la.i theo cach bieu dien n`ay.
Cach xay du..ng cau tr
uc nhu. va.y co the ap du.ng khong nh
u.ng cho cac ba.c thang co
do. d`ai tu`
yy
m`a c`on cho cac cau tr
uc khac du.o..c sinh ra b`a ng cach to ho..p cac nguyen
so. a v`a b. (Nhac la.i l`a cac phu.o.ng phap ph
u.c ta.p ho.n de ta.o ra cac chuoi mau du.o..c
`an 8.5).
tr`nh b`ay trong Ph
Cac bieu dien chuoi mo.t cach thch ho..p sinh ra cac mau cua cac doi tu.o..ng v`a
cac thu..c the khac m`a cau tr
uc cua ch
ung du..a tren lien ket do.n gian cua cac nguyen
`eu u
.ng du.ng, de hie.u qua
so. thu.`o.ng du.o..c ket ho..p vo.i h`nh da.ng cua bien. Trong nhi
`an 8.5. V
`e co. ban,
ho.n khi mieu ta cac doi tu.o..ng ta co the d`
ung cay nhu. trong Ph
`au het cac so. d`o th`
`e cau tr
h
u.a ke co th
u. tu.. co the du.a v
uc da.ng cay.
290
Phu.o.ng ph
ap l
y thuy
et quy
et d
i.nh
9.3
Phu.o.ng phap quyet d.inh su. du.ng h`am quyet d.inh (decision function) hay h`am bie.t
ta.p (discriminant function). Gia su. 1 , 2 , . . . , M l`a cac lo.p mau. Xet vector mau n
`eu x = (x1, x2, . . . , xn )t . Van d
`e co. ban trong phu.o.ng phap nha.n da.ng theo phu.o.ng
chi
phap quyet di.nh l`a t`m M h`am bie.t ta.p d1 (x), d2 (x), . . . , dM (x) sao cho neu mau x
thuo.c lo.p i th`
di (x) > dj (x),
(9.1)
vo.i mo.i j = 1, 2, . . . , M, j 6= i.
Bien tach hai lo.p i v`a j l`a ta.p
{x | di (x) dj (x) = 0}.
u.a hai lo.p ta su. du.ng h`am dij (x) = di (x) dj (x).
Trong thu..c te de xac d.inh bien gi
Do do dij (x) > 0 doi vo.i cac mau thuo.c lo.p i v`a dij (x) < 0 doi vo.i cac mau thuo.c
lo.p .
j
`an n`ay l`a tr`nh b`ay cac cach de t`m cac h`am bie.t ta.p thoa
Mu.c dch chnh cua ph
man Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.1).
9.3.1
-
D
oi s
anh
Ph
an l
o.p theo khoang c
ach nho nh
at
Gia su. moi lo.p mau du.o..c bieu dien bo.i vector trung b`nh (hay vector mau):
1 X
x, j = 1, 2, . . . , M,
mi =
Nj x
j
j = 1, 2, . . . , M,
p
trong do kak = ha, ai l`a chuan Euclid. Khi do ta gan x thuo.c lo.p i neu Di (x) nho
nhat. T
u.c l`a theo cong th
u.c n`ay, khoang cach nho nhat suy ra doi sanh tot nhat. De
d`ang ch
u.ng minh r`a ng, x thuo.c lo.p i neu di (x) lo.n nhat, trong do
1
dj (x) = hx, mj i hmj , mj i,
2
291
j = 1, 2, . . . , M.
(9.2)
Cong th
u.c n`ay tr`
ung vo.i di.nh ngha (9.1) cua h`am bie.t ta.p.
`om cac vector mau x thoa
Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay, bien gi
u.a hai lo.p i v`a j g
man phu.o.ng tr`nh
dij (x) = di (x) dj (x)
1
= hx, mi mj i hmi mj , mi mj i = 0.
2
(9.3)
Phu.o.ng tr`nh n`ay xac d.inh mo.t sieu phang (vo.i phap vector mi mj ) trong khong
`eu.
gian Euclid n chi
Trong thu..c te, phan loa.i theo khoang cach nho nhat cho ket qua tot khi khoang
u.c do. phan tan hoa.c tnh
cach gi
u.a cac vector trung b`nh cua cac lo.p lo.n ho.n so vo.i m
`an 9.3.2 ch
ngau nhien cua moi lo.p doi vo.i vector trung b`nh cua no. Trong Ph
ung ta
.
.
se ch ra phan loa.i theo khoang cach nho nhat se toi u u (m
u c do. phan loa.i sai t nhat)
`au
khi phan bo cua moi lo.p xung quanh vector trung b`nh cua no tch l
uy da.ng c
`eu.
trong khong gian n chi
`ong th`o.i tnh chat tach gi
Su.. xuat hie.n d
u.a cac vector trung b`nh v`a phan tan
tu.o.ng doi t cua cac lo.p hiem khi xay ra trong thu..c te tr`
u. khi ngu.`o.i thiet ke he. thong
`eu khien cac tn hie.u v`ao. V du. xet he. thong du.o..c thiet ke de do.c cac font k
y tu..
di
y. Nhu. trong H`nh 9.3
da.c bie.t nhu. ta.p k
y tu.. E-13B cua Hie.p ho.i cac Ngan h`ang M
`om 14 k
y tu.. du.o..c thiet ke vo.i ma.t do. k
y tu.. l`a 9 7 de de
ch ra, font k
y tu.. n`ay g
do.c. Cac k
y tu.. thu.`o.ng du.o..c in su. du.ng mu..c in co pha chat lie.u t`
u.. Khi quet trang
t`ai lie.u, cac k
y tu.. n`ay se du.o..c l`am noi ba.t. Noi cach khac, b`ai toan phan doa.n anh
du.o..c giai quyet nhan ta.o ba` ng cach l`am noi cac k
y tu...
Cac k
y tu.. du.o..c quet theo hu.o.ng ngang vo.i mo.t d`au do.c he.p nhu.ng d`ai ho.n do.
`au do.c di chuyen do.c qua mo.t k
cao cua cac k
y tu... Khi d
y tu.., no se ta.o ra mo.t tn hie.u
`eu hoa.c t cua
die.n tu. 1D, t
u.c l`a h`am mo.t bien f (t). Tn hie.u n`ay t le. vo.i m
u.c do. nhi
.
.
.
`au do.c. Chang ha.n, xet d
`o thi. da.ng song cua h`am f (t) tu.o.ng
die.n tch k
y tu. du o i d
`au do.c di chuyen t`
u. trai sang phai, die.n tch k
u
.ng vo.i so 0 trong H`nh 9.3. Khi d
y tu..
`au do.c bat d`au tang (h`am f co da.o h`am du.o.ng trong v`
`au do.c
du.o.i d
ung n`ay). Khi d
`au do.c bat d`au giam
di chuyen khoi net d
u.ng ben trai cua k
y tu.. 0 th` die.n tch du.o.i d
.
(h`am f co da.o h`am am trong v`
ung n`ay). Trong v`
ung gi
u a cua k
y tu.., die.n tch du.o.i
d`au do.c khong doi (h`am f co da.o h`am ba` ng khong trong v`
ung n`ay). Qua tr`nh n`ay
.
`au do.c di chuyen qua khoi k
y tu. . Vie.c thiet ke font ch
tiep tu.c la.p la.i khi d
u. bao dam
`o thi. da.ng song cua cac k
ra` ng d
y tu.. l`a ho`an to`an khac nhau. Ngo`ai ra vie.c thiet ke
c
ung dam bao cac diem cu..c tri. c
ung nhu. khong diem cua h`am f na` m tren cac du.`o.ng
292
293
thang du
.ng cua lu.o.i khi hien thi. d`o thi. h`am f nhu. trong H`nh 9.3. Ta.p k
y tu.. E-13B
u.ng diem n`ay c
ung
du.o..c thiet ke co tnh chat khi lay mau cac da.ng song ch ta.i nh
du thong tin de phan loa.i ch
ung. Su. du.ng mu..c in co t`
u. tnh l`am cho da.ng song du.o..c
ro r`ang do do giam thieu kha nang bi. nhieu.
Vo.i u
.ng du.ng n`ay ch
ung ta de d`ang thiet ke bo. phan loa.i theo khoang cach nho
.
`an lu u tr
nhat. Ch
ung ta ch c
u. ta.p cac gia tri. mau cua moi da.ng song v`a vo.i moi ta.p
mau ta thiet la.p tu.o.ng u
y tu..,
.ng mo.t vector mi , i = 1, 2, . . . , 14. Khi nha.n da.ng mo.t k
ta quet no nhu. da mo ta tren, t`
u. da.ng song cua k
y tu.. n`ay ta du.o..c vector mau x. Du..a
.ng vo.i vector x. Su. du.ng cac
v`ao Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.2) de d`ang xac di.nh lo.p tu.o.ng u
ma.ch die.n tu. du.o..c thiet ke chuyen du.ng ch
ung ta co the phan loa.i vo.i toc do. cao.
-
D
oi s
anh theo tu.o.ng quan
`an 3.3.8) de t`m cac doi sanh cua
`an n`ay ap du.ng khai nie.m tu.o.ng quan (xem Ph
Ph
mau (anh con) w(x, y) (kch thu.o.c J K vo.i anh f (x, y) (kch thu.o.c M N trong
do J M v`a K N ).
Nhac la.i r`a ng, tu.o.ng quan gi
u.a f (x, y) v`a w(x, y) xac di.nh bo.i
XX
f (x, y)w(x s, y t)
c(s, t) =
x
(9.4)
ung
trong do s = 0, 1, . . . , M 1, t = 0, 1, . . . , N 1, v`a gia su. tong du.o..c lay tren v`
anh f v`a w phu nhau. H`nh 9.4 minh ho.a cach tnh, trong do gia thiet goc cua f (x, y)
ta.i vi. tr pha tren ben trai cua anh v`a goc cua w(x, y) ta.i tam cua no. Vo.i (s, t) bat
k`
y trong anh f (x, y), ap du.ng Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.4) ta du.o..c gia tri. c(s, t) tu.o.ng u
.ng.
uy
r`a ng
Gia tri. c(s, t) cho biet vi. tr m`a mau w(x, y) doi sanh tot nhat vo.i f (x, y). Ch
.
.
`an den cac du `o ng bien cua anh f (x, y).
do. chnh xac giam di khi s v`a t tien g
H`am tu.o.ng quan xac di.nh theo Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.4) co nhu.o..c diem l`a nha.y vo.i
su.. thay doi bien do. cua f (x, y) v`a w(x, y). Chang ha.n, nhan hai tat ca cac gia tri. cua
- e tranh tro. nga.i n`ay, ngu.`o.i ta thu.`o.ng doi sanh
f (x, y) se tang doi cac gia tri. c(x, y). D
thong qua he. so tu.o.ng quan:
P P
x
y [f (x, y) f (x, y)][w(x s, y t) w]
(9.5)
(s, t) = n
o1/2 ,
P P
P P
2
(x, y)]2
[f
(x,
y)
f
[w(x
s,
y
t)
w]
x
y
x
y
trong do s = 0, 1, . . . , M 1, t = 0, 1, . . . , N 1, w l`a gia tri. trung b`nh cua cac pixel
`an tnh mo.t l
`an), f(x, y) l`a gia tri. trung b`nh cua f (x, y) trong v`
ung anh
trong w (ch c
294
y
.................................................................
N
t
..
...
...
...
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...
..
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...
|
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.
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.
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...
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.
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.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
goc
(s, t)
|
|
J
|
|
K
w(x s, y t)
f (x, y)
H`nh 9.4: Sap xep mau v`a anh de tnh tu.o.ng quan cua f (x, y) v`a w(x, y) ta.i diem
(s, t).
tr`
ung vo.i vi. tr hie.n h`anh cua w v`a tong lay tren cac to.a do. chung cua f v`a w. He.
so tu.o.ng quan (s, t) du.o..c chuan hoa trong doa.n [1, 1] v`a khong phu. thuo.c khi bien
ung mo.t he. so.
do. cua f (hoa.c w) thay doi theo c`
- e ket qua doi sanh khong phu. thuo.c v`ao anh du.o..c l`am sang hoa.c l`am toi ta
D
chuan hoa h`am tu.o.ng quan. Tuy nhien cach n`ay kho thu..c hie.n khi thay doi kch thu.o.c
hoa.c quay anh. Chuan hoa kch thu.o.c lien quan den co gian khong gian v`a do do d`oi
hoi them dang ke khoi lu.o..ng tnh toan. Chuan hoa doi vo.i phep quay tha.m ch c`on
`an ap du.ng
kho ho.n. Neu ta biet cac thong so cua phep quay t`
u. anh f (x, y) th` ch c
.
.
.
phep quay n`ay cho mau w(x, y). Tuy nhien thu. c te thu `o ng khong biet phep quay da
`an phai thu. tat ca cac kha nang cua
thu..c hie.n tren anh f (x, y) nen de xac d.inh no c
- i
`eu n`ay khong thu..c te v`a do do phep doi
w(x, y) de t`m du.o..c doi sanh tot nhat. D
sanh tu.o.ng quan t khi du.o..c su. du.ng trong tru.`o.ng ho..p anh du.o..c quay tu`
yy
.
`an 3.3.8 ch
`e ca.p den bien doi FFT de tnh tu.o.ng quan
Trong Ph
ung ta da d
trong tru.`o.ng ho..p f (x, y) v`a w(x, y) co c`
ung kch thu.o.c. Neu su. du.ng Phu.o.ng tr`nh
`eu so vo.i kch thu.o.c cua f. Campbell
(9.4) th` w thu.`o.ng co kch thu.o.c nho ho.n nhi
`an tu. cua w nho ho.n 132 (anh con co kch thu.o.c xap x
da ch ra r`a ng, neu so cac ph
13 13 pixel) th` tnh toan tru..c tiep theo Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.4) se hie.u qua ho.n phu.o.ng
295
phap FFT. D nhien kch thu.o.c cua mau w phu. thuo.c v`ao may v`a cac thua.t toan su.
`en khong gian hoa.c mi
`en t
`an so se du.o..c ap du.ng tu`
y
du.ng; do va.y thao tac tren mi
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
t`
u ng tru `o ng ho. p cu. the. Cac he. so tu o ng quan tnh theo Phu o ng tr`nh (9.5) se de
`en t
`an so.
d`ang ho.n phu.o.ng phap mi
9.3.2
ap th
ong k
e
Phu.o.ng ph
Co. so.
`an n`ay tr`nh b`ay phu.o.ng phap thong ke de nha.n da.ng. Thong ke dong mo.t vai tr`o
Ph
quan tro.ng trong b`ai toan nha.n da.ng do cac lo.p mau thu.`o.ng du.o..c ta.o ra ngau nhien.
`am mau
K
y hie.u p(i |x) l`a xac suat mau x thuo.c lo.p i v`a loi khi phan loa.i nh
x i v`ao lo.p j l`a Lij . V` mau x co the thuo.c v`ao mo.t trong M lo.p nen loi trung
b`nh khi gan x v`ao lo.p j l`a
rj (x) =
M
X
(9.6)
k=1
Trong l
y thuyet quyet di.nh, Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.6) thu.`o.ng go.i l`a do. rui ro (ton that hay
`eu kie.n.
mat mat) trung b`nh co di
Theo l
y thuyet xac suat th` p(a|b) = [p(a)p(b|a)]/p(b). Do do Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.6)
co the viet la.i da.ng
M
1 X
rj (x) =
Lkj p(x|k )P (k ),
(9.7)
p(x)
k=1
trong do p(x|k ) l`a h`am ma.t do. xac suat cua cac mau thuo.c lo.p k v`a P (k ) l`a xac
suat xuat hie.n lo.p k . Do mau so p(x) du.o.ng v`a chung cho tat ca cac h`am ton that
rj (x), j = 1, 2, . . . , M, nen ta co the bo di trong Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.7) m`a khong anh
hu.o.ng khi so sanh th
u. tu.. cua cac h`am n`ay. Khi do ta co the viet
rj (x) =
M
X
Lkj p(x|k )P (k ).
(9.8)
k=1
`an ta c
`an t`m lo.p i trong M lo.p de xep x i . Tru.o.c
Vo.i mau x chu.a biet, ta c
het xac di.nh rj (x), j = 1, 2, . . . , M, v`a gia su.
ri (x) = min{rj (x), j = 1, 2, . . . , M }.
296
Khi do ta phan loa.i mau x thuo.c lo.p i . Noi cach khac ta cho.n sao cho m
u.c do. ton
that trung b`nh theo tat ca cac quyet d.inh l`a nho nhat. Phu.o.ng phap phan loa.i sao
cho cu..c tieu hoa m
u.c do. ton that trung b`nh go.i l`a phan loa.i Bayes.
`eu b`ai toan nha.n da.ng, m
ng b`a ng
Trong nhi
u.c do. ton that khi quyet di.nh du
khong v`a co gia tri. ha` ng so khac khong (chang ha.n 1) khi quyet di.nh sai. Vo.i gia
thiet n`ay ta co
Lij = 1 ij ,
trong do
ij =
1
0
(9.9)
neu i = j,
neu ngu.o..c la.i.
M
X
(1 kj )p(x|k )P (k )
k=1
= p(x) p(x|j )P (j ).
(9.10)
j = 1, 2, . . . , M.
(9.11)
H`am bie.t ta.p cho trong Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.11) l`a toi u.u theo ngha cu..c tieu hoa
- e xac d.inh cac h`am n`ay ch
`an biet cac
ung ta c
ton that trung b`nh khi phan loa.i sai. D
.
h`am ma.t do. xac suat cua cac mau trong moi lo p v`a xac suat xuat hie.n cua moi lo.p.
`au sau de d`ang thoa man. Chang ha.n, neu tat ca cac lo.p xuat hie.n vo.i xac suat
Yeu c
ba` ng nhau th` P (j ) = 1/M. Tha.m ch neu gia thiet n`ay khong du
ng, cac xac suat
n`ay thu.`o.ng co the suy t`
u. cac gia thiet (tri th
u.c) cua b`ai toan da.t ra. Kho khan chnh
l`a xac di.nh cac h`am ma.t do. xac suat p(x|j ). Neu cac vector mau x thuo.c khong gian
`eu v`a p(x|j ) l`a h`am n bien chu.a biet th` c
`an phai su. du.ng phu.o.ng phap trong
n chi
l
y thuyet xac suat de xap x no. Cac phu.o.ng phap n`ay kho ap du.ng trong thu..c te,
297
`eu hoa.c
da.c bie.t trong tru.`o.ng ho..p neu so cac mau bieu dien trong moi lo.p khong nhi
.
khi h`nh da.ng cua cac h`am ma.t do. xac suat chu a biet. V` l
y do n`ay, phan loa.i Bayes
.
.
.
.
.
.
thu `o ng du. a tren gia thiet cho tru o c mo.t bieu th
u c giai tch doi vo.i cac h`am ma.t do.
u. cac vector mau cua moi
xac suat v`a sau do xac di.nh cac tham so cua bieu th
u.c t`
lo.p. Da.ng pho bien nhat doi vo.i p(x|j ) l`a h`am ma.t do. xac suat Gauss. Khi gia thiet
`an vo.i thu..c te th` phu.o.ng phap nha.n da.ng theo Bayes se c`ang th`anh cong
n`ay c`ang g
`am trung b`nh trong phan loa.i t nhat).
ho.n (m
u.c do. sai l
o.ng ho..p h`
am m
a.t d
o. x
ac su
at Gauss
Ph
an loa.i Bayes trong tru.`
`eu (n = 1) v`a hai lo.p mau (M = 2) chi.u anh hu.o.ng
Tru.o.c het xet tru.`o.ng ho..p mo.t chi
cua cac h`am ma.t do. Gauss vo.i cac gia tri. trung b`nh m1 v`a m2 v`a cac phu.o.ng sai
1, 2 tu.o.ng u
.ng. T`
u. Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.11) cac h`am bie.t ta.p Bayes co da.ng
dj (x) = p(x|j )P (j),
1
(x mj )2
=
exp
(9.12)
P (j ), j = 1, 2,
2j2
2j
y hie.u bo.i x. H`nh 9.5 l`a
vo.i mau trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay l`a da.i lu.o..ng vo hu.o.ng v`a k
`om mo.t diem
d`o thi. cua cac h`am ma.t do. xac suat cua hai lo.p. Bien gi
u.a hai lo.p g
x0 xac d.inh bo.i d1 (x0) = d2 (x0). Neu xac suat xuat hie.n cua hai lo.p ba` ng nhau th`
- iem
P (1 ) = P (2 ) = 12 v`a bien gi
u.a hai lo.p l`a gia tri. x0 thoa p(x0 |1 ) = p(x0 |2 ). D
n`ay l`a giao diem d`o thi. cua hai h`am ma.t do. xac suat (xem H`nh 9.5). Cac mau (diem)
ben phai x0 du.o..c gan thuo.c lo.p 1 v`a ben trai diem x0 du.o..c gan thuo.c lo.p 2 . Khi cac
lo.p xuat hie.n vo.i xac suat khac nhau th` x0 di chuyen sang ben trai neu P (1 ) > P (2 )
v`a x0 di chuyen sang ben phai neu P (1 ) < P (2 ). Ket qua n`ay ph`
u ho..p vo.i thu..c te
`an cu..c tieu m
`an loa.i sai. Chang ha.n, trong tru.`o.ng ho..p da.c
v` vie.c phan loa.i c
u.c do. ph
`an gan cac lo.p mau cho
ung c
bie.t, neu lo.p 2 khong bao gi`o. xuat hie.n th` phan loa.i d
lo.p 1 (t
u.c l`a x0 di chuyen ra ).
`eu, h`am ma.t do. Gauss cua vector thuo.c lo.p mau th
Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n chi
u. j
co da.ng
1
1
t 1
p
p(x|j ) =
exp (x mj ) Cj (x mj ) ,
(9.13)
2
(2)n/2 det Cj
trong do vector trung b`nh mj v`a ma tra.n hie.p phu.o.ng sai Cj xac d.inh bo.i
mj = Ej {x},
(9.14)
(9.15)
v`a
298
y
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...
...
....
..
2
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...
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1
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..
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.
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.
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.
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.
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...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
p(x| )
p(x| )
Ma.t do.
xac suat
m2
x0
m1
v`a
Cj =
1 X t
xx mj mtj ,
Nj x
j
`an sau ch
ung ta se du.a v du.
trong do Nj l`a so cac vector mau thuo.c lo.p j . Trong ph
cach su. du.ng cac bieu th
u.ng v`a nu.a xac di.nh
u.c n`ay. Ma tra.n hie.p phu.o.ng sai l`a doi x
`an tu. th
`an tu. tren du.`o.ng cheo ckk l`a variance cua ph
du.o.ng. Ph
u. k trong mau. Cac
`an tu. ngo`ai du.`o.ng cheo cjk l`a covariance cua xj v`a xk . Khi cac ph
`an tu. xj v`a xk
ph
`an tu. ngo`ai du.`o.ng cheo cua ma tra.n hie.p
do.c la.p (thong ke) th` cjk = 0. Neu cac ph
`eu co the du.a v
`e da.ng tch cua
phu.o.ng sai b`a ng khong th` h`am ma.t do. Gauss n chi
`eu.
cac h`am ma.t do. Gauss mo.t chi
Theo Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.11), h`am bie.t ta.p Bayes cua lo.p j l`a p(x|j )P (j ). Tuy
nhien, h`am ma.t do. Gauss ch
u.a da.ng l
uy th`
u.a nen lay logarithm tu.. nhien ta co the
`e da.ng thch ho..p ho.n. Noi cach khac,
chuyen h`am bie.t ta.p Bayes v
dj (x) = ln[p(x|j )P (j )]
= ln p(x|j ) + ln P (j ).
(9.16)
Phan loa.i du..a v`ao cac h`am bie.t ta.p n`ay tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i su. du.ng cac h`am bie.t ta.p
299
trong Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.11) do h`am ln do.n die.u tang. Thay Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.13) v`ao
Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.16) ta du.o..c
1
n
1
dj (x) = ln P (j ) ln 2 ln det Cj [(x mj )t C1
j (x mj )].
2
2
2
ung ch
u.a so ha.ng n2 ln 2 nen b`a ng cach khu. no, ta du.o..c
Cac h`am dj c`
1
1
ln det Cj [(x mj )tC1
(9.17)
j (x mj )],
2
2
`eu
vo.i j = 1, 2, . . . , M. Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.17) xac di.nh cac h`am bie.t ta.p Bayes vo.i di
.
kie.n cac lo p mau co h`am ma.t do. xac suat Gauss v`a h`am ton that nha.n gia tri. 0 hoa.c
1.
dj (x) = ln P (j )
du.ng Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.14) doi vo.i cac mau trong H`nh 9.6 ta du.o..c
Ap
3
1
1
1
m1 = 1 , m2 = 3 .
4
4
1
3
Tu.o.ng tu.., ap du.ng Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.15) doi vo.i hai lo.p mau ta co
3
1
1
1
C1 = C2 =
3 1 .
1
16
1 1
3
Do cac ma tra.n hie.p phu.o.ng sai ba` ng nhau nen cac h`am Bayes xac di.nh theo Phu.o.ng
tr`nh (9.18). Neu gia su. P (1 ) = P (1 ) = 1/2 th` so ha.ng ln P (j ) co the bo qua; v`a
do do
1
dj (x) = xtC1 mj mtj C1 mj ,
2
trong do
8 4 4
= 4
8
4 .
4
4
8
C1
Thay v`ao ta du.o..c
1
(8x1 8x2 8x3 + 4).
32
.ng du.ng th`anh cong nhat cua phu.o.ng phap Bayes trong nha.n
Mo.t trong nh
u.ng u
da.ng cac anh da pho du.o..c chu.p t`
u. may bay, ve. tinh, v`a tra.m khong gian. Cac anh
`eu u
n`ay du.o..c xep lo.p tu.. do.ng v`a du.o..c phan tch t`
u. xa. Co nhi
.ng du.ng khac nhau
lien quan den nha.n da.ng v`a phan tch anh t`
u. xa nhu.: tham d`o t`ai nguyen, tach v`
ung
ui, kiem tra chat lu.o..ng khong kh v`a nu.o.c, nghien c
u.u d.ia chat ho.c, du.. bao
r`
u.ng n
th`o.i tiet v`a nh
u.ng u
.ng du.ng lien quan den moi tru.`o.ng. V du. sau l`a mo.t minh ho.a
dien h`nh.
V du. 9.3.2 Mo.t may quet da pho co the nha.n biet anh sang trong dai cac bu.o.c
song du.o..c cho.n; chang ha.n: 0.40 0.44, 0.58 0.62, 0.66 0.72, v`a 0.80 1.00 micro
301
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(0, 0, 1)
x2
(0, 1, 0)
(1, 0, 0)
x1
H`nh 9.6: Hai lo.p mau v`a sieu phang (bien) tach hai lo.p.
ung n`ay tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i dai m`au tm (violet), xanh la cay (green), do
(106 m). Cac v`
`ong ngoa.i. H`nh anh du.o..c quet se ta.o ra bon anh so, moi anh u
.ng vo.i
(red) v`a tia h
`ong len nhau nhu. trong H`nh 9.7. Khi
mo.t dai. Sap xep bon anh n`ay b`a ng cach ch
.ng vo.i vector mau x = (x1, x2, x3 , x4)t , trong do x1 l`a sac
do moi diem anh se tu.o.ng u
thai cua m`au tm, x2 l`a sac thai cua m`au xanh la cay, van van. Neu cac anh co do.
`ong bon anh da pho co the bieu dien ba` ng 262, 144 vector
phan giai 512 512 th` ch
mau.
`an xac di.nh vector trung b`nh v`a
Phan loa.i mau Bayes vo.i h`am ma.t do. Gauss c
ung ta co the tnh cac gia tri. n`ay ba` ng cach
ma tra.n phu.o.ng sai doi vo.i moi lo.p. Ch
to ho..p cac d
u. lie.u anh da pho doi vo.i nh
u.ng v`
ung quan tam v`a sau do su. du.ng cac
mau n`ay nhu. trong v du. tru.o.c.
9.3.3
Ma.ng neuron
Co. so.
`an tru.o.c su. du.ng cac vector mau cho tru.o.c
Cac phu.o.ng phap tr`nh b`ay trong hai ph
de xay du..ng cac tham so cua moi lo.p mau. Phu.o.ng phap khoang cach nho nhat ho`an
to`an du.o..c xac di.nh bo.i vector trung b`nh cua moi lo.p. Tu.o.ng tu.., phu.o.ng phap Bayes
su. du.ng phan phoi Gauss de xac d.inh vector trung b`nh v`a ma tra.n hie.p phu.o.ng sai
cua moi lo.p. Cac mau (biet tru.o.c) cua cac lo.p du.o..c su. du.ng de xac d.inh cac tham
302
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...
x=
x
3
x4
Pho th
u. nhat
Pho th
u. nhat
Pho th
u. nhat
Pho th
u. nhat
u. cac pixel tu.o.ng u
.ng bon anh so tu.o.ng u
.ng anh da
H`nh 9.7: Xay du..ng vector mau t`
pho.
so thu.`o.ng go.i l`a cac mau huan luye.n (training pattern) v`a ta.p cac mau n`ay go.i l`a ta.p
huan luye.n. Qua tr`nh su. du.ng mo.t ta.p huan luye.n de t`m cac h`am quyet di.nh go.i l`a
huan luye.n hoa.c ho.c.
Trong hai cach tiep ca.n d`au, huan luye.n l`a mo.t van d`e do.n gian. Cac mau huan
luye.n cua moi lo.p du.o..c su. du.ng tru..c tiep de tnh cac tham so cua h`am bie.t ta.p tu.o.ng
u
.ng vo.i lo.p do. Sau khi cac tham so d`oi hoi du.o..c xac di.nh, cau tr
uc cua bo. phan loa.i
.
.
se co di.nh v`a ch
u c nang thu. c hie.n cua no phu. thuo.c v`ao cac mau du.a v`ao co thoa
man cac gia thiet da. t ra khong.
Cac tnh chat thong ke cua cac lo.p mau trong mo.t b`ai toan thu.`o.ng khong biet
`e l
y
hoa.c kho co the xac d.inh. Trong thu..c te, cach tot nhat de giai quyet cac van d
.
.
.
thuyet-quyet di.nh nhu the l`a xay du. ng cac h`am bie.t ta.p tru. c tiep thong qua huan
`an phai da.t ra cac gia thiet v
`e cac h`am ma.t do. xac
luye.n. Sau do ch
ung ta khong c
.
.
.
`e lo p mau. Du o i day tr`nh b`ay cac cach tiep ca.n theo
suat hoa.c thong tin xac suat v
tieu chuan n`ay.
`e ca.p du.o.i day du..a tren cac do.n vi. co ch
Co. so. cua kien th
u.c d
u.c nang thu..c
303
`oi u
hie.n cac phep toan so. cap (go.i l`a cac neuron) du.o..c to ch
u.c nhu. cac ma.ng h
.c theo
`an kinh noi vo.i nhau trong nao ngu.`o.i. Cac mo h`nh
cach tu.o.ng tu.. nhu. cac neuron th
`eu ten khac nhau: ma.ng neuron, may tnh neuron, mo
n`ay thu.`o.ng du.o..c go.i du.o.i nhi
.
h`nh xu l
y phan tan song song (PDL-parallel distributed processing model), he. thong
- e gian tie.n, ch
ung ta d`
ung khai
neuron, ma.ng tu.. thch nghi v`a mo h`nh lien ket. D
.
.
.
.
nie.m ma.ng neuron v`a su du.ng cac ma.ng n`ay nhu cac phu o ng tie.n de thay doi lien tu.c
cac he. so cua h`am bie.t ta.p thong qua ta.p huan luye.n cho tru.o.c.
Ma.ng neuron du.o..c quan tam bat d`au v`ao nam 1943 khi McCulloch v`a Pitts
minh ho.a cac ket qua cua ho. ba` ng khai nie.m n`ay. Ho. da xem cac mo h`nh neuron
nhu. cac thiet bi. ngu.o.ng nhi. phan v`a xay du..ng cac thua.t toan ngau nhien do.t bien 0-1
`an kinh de l`am co. so. cho cac he. thong th
`an kinh.
v`a 1-0 cua cac tra.ng thai te b`ao th
Tiep theo do, Hebb du..a tren cac mo h`nh toan ho.c da thu. nghie.m kha nang ho.c cua
ma.ng neuron.
`au nam 1960, Reosenblatt da du.a ra mo.t lo.p cac
u.ng nam 1950 den d
Gi
u.a nh
`eu nh`a nghien c
u.u trong lnh vu..c nha.n da.ng mau. L
may ho.c thu h
ut su.. ch
uy
cua nhi
y
do thu h
ut quan tam l`a du..a tren co. so. toan ho.c, cac may n`ay, go.i l`a may perceptron,
u.c khi du.o..c huan luye.n vo.i cac ta.p huan luye.n khac
da ch
u.ng minh kha nang nha.n th
`e mo.t l`o.i giai sau h
u.u ha.n bu.o.c la.p. L`o.i giai se cho cac he. so cua cac
nhau se ho.i tu. v
sieu phang co kha nang tach cac lo.p bieu dien cac mau cua ta.p huan luye.n.
Tuy nhien, trien vo.ng phat trien cua cac may perceptron da ga.p phai mo.t can
tro. ngay sau do. May perceptron v`a mo.t v`ai tong quat hoa cua no khong giai quyet
`au het cac tien tr`nh nha.n da.ng mau quan tro.ng. Nh
u.ng co gang sau do
thoa dang h
nha` m mo. ro.ng kha nang cua may perceptron b`a ng cach ghep cac may n`ay la.i nhu.ng
van c`on mo.t tro. nga.i l`a thieu nh
u.a nam 1960,
u.ng thua.t toan huan luye.n hie.u qua. Gi
`e v
`e may ho.c trong cong tr`nh. Mo.t v`ai nam sau do,
Nilsson da tong ket cac van d
Minsky v`a Papert da l`am nan l`ong cac nh`a nghien c
u.u khi phan tch cac ha.n che cua
`e van d
`e n`ay ta.i Phap vo.i tieu d`e
may ho.c. Nam 1984, Simon da cong bo b`ai bao v
`en thoa.i.
uc cua mo.t huy
Su.. xuat hie.n v`a ket th
Nam 1986, Rumelhart, Hilton v`a Williams da du.a ra cac thua.t toan mo.i huan
- i
`eu t
`ang. D
`eu n`ay l`am thay doi dang ke quan nie.m
luye.n cho cac may perceptron nhi
`e may perceptron. Phu.o.ng phap co. ban cua ho., thu.`o.ng go.i l`a nguyen tac delta de
v
`en ngu.o..c, cung cap mo.t phu.o.ng phap huan luye.n hie.u qua cho
ho.c b`a ng cach lan truy
cac may da lo.p. Ma.c d`
u thua.t toan huan luye.n n`ay khong ch ra su.. ho.i tu. cua l`o.i giai
`eu b`ai toan quan tro.ng
nhu.ng di.nh lua.t delta da du.o..c su. du.ng th`anh cong trong nhi
304
u
M
ay perceptron d
oi v
o.i hai l
o.p m
a
Tru.`o.ng ho..p do.n gian nhat cua may ho.c l`a xac di.nh cac tham so cua h`am bie.t ta.p
da.ng tuyen tnh tach hai ta.p huan luye.n. H`nh 9.8 l`a so. d`o mo h`nh perceptron doi
- ap u
vo.i hai lo.p mau. D
.ng cua thiet bi. co. so. n`ay du..a v`ao tong co tro.ng lu.o..ng cua cac
tn hie.u du.a v`ao (input); t
u.c l`a
d(x) =
n
X
wi xi + wn+1
i=1
`eu tiet
Trong do cac he. so wi , i = 1, 2, . . . , n + 1, go.i l`a cac tro.ng lu.o..ng, tu.o.ng tu.. su.. di
`an kinh trong nao ngu.`o.i. Bo. pha.n du..a v`ao gia tri. d(x) de xac di.nh tn
he. thong th
hie.u ra go.i l`a do.n vi. kch hoa.t (activation function).
305
x1
x2
w1
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d(x) =
w x + wn+1
..
.
Vector
mau
xi
x
xn
+1
..
.
w
Tro.ng lu.o..ng
H`nh 9.8: Bieu dien cua mo h`nh perceptron doi vo.i hai lo.p.
Khi d(x) > 0 tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i tn hie.u xuat ra (output) cua perceptron ba` ng +1;
`eu n`ay ch ra mau x du.o..c phan loa.i thuo.c lo.p w1. Ngu.o..c la.i khi d(x) < 0 th` mau
di
x du.o..c phan loa.i thuo.c lo.p w2 . Khi d(x) = 0 th` x thuo.c bien cua hai lo.p v`a do do
chu.a du.o..c xac di.nh.
Tn hie.u ra O trong H`nh 9.8 phu. thuo.c v`ao dau cua d(x); hay tu.o.ng du.o.ng
O =
+1
+1 neu Pn w x > w ,
n+1
i=1 i i
=
P
n
1 neu
i=1 wi xi < wn+1 .
`an nhat hoa vector mau x th`anh y = (x1 , x2, . . . , xn , 1)t v`a da.t
Neu ta thu
w = (w1 , w2, . . . , wn , wn+1 )t
th` h`am quyet d.inh co the viet la.i
d(y) = hw, yi.
`an ch
`e chnh l`a t`m vector w su. du.ng ta.p huan luye.n.
C
uy
r`a ng, van d
306
C
ac thu
a.t to
an hu
an luy
e.n
u.ng thua.t toan da du.o..c d`e nghi. de huan luye.n cac may
Du.o.i day ta se tr`nh b`ay nh
perceptron.
C
ac l
o.p c
o th
e t
ach tuy
en tnh. Thua.t toan la.p do.n gian de t`m mo.t vector tro.ng
lu.o..ng doi vo.i hai ta.p huan luye.n co the tach du.o..c tuyen tnh nhu. sau.
`au w(1).
Bu.o.c 1. Kho.i ta.o tu`
yy
vector tro.ng lu.o..ng ban d
u. k.
Bu.o.c 2. Xet bu.o.c la.p th
Neu y(k) 1 v`a hw(k), y(k)i 0 th` thay w(k) bo.i
w(k + 1) = w(k) + cy(k),
trong do c l`a ha` ng so (du.o.ng) hie.u chnh.
Ngu.o..c la.i neu y(k) 2 v`a hw(k), y(k)i 0 th` thay w(k) bo.i
w(k + 1) = w(k) cy(k).
Ngu.o..c la.i, w(k) khong thay doi; t
u.c l`a
w(k + 1) = w(k).
Thua.t toan d`
u.ng khi vector tro.ng lu.o..ng khong thay doi doi vo.i tat ca cac mau.
u. k trong qua tr`nh huan
Nhu. va.y, thua.t toan ca.p nha.t la.i w(k) khi mau o. bu.o.c la.p th
luye.n bi. phan loa.i sai khi su. du.ng vector tro.ng lu.o..ng o. bu.o.c n`ay. Thua.t toan n`ay
c`on go.i l`a thua.t toan hie.u chnh ha` ng.
Phu.o.ng phap hie.u chnh ha` ng du..a tren khai nie.m thu.o.ng-pha.t. Thu.o.ng khi
may phan loa.i d
ung mo.t mau v`a pha.t trong tru.`o.ng ho..p ngu.o..c la.i. Noi cach khac,
neu phan loa.i mo.t mau d
ung, may se du.o..c thu.o.ng ba` ng cach khong thay doi gia tri.
w. Tuy nhien neu phan loa.i sai, no se bi. pha.t b`a ng cach thay doi vector tro.ng lu.o..ng.
Thua.t toan ket th
uc khi tat ca cac vector huan luye.n da du.o..c kiem tra m`a khong xay
ra loi. Neu hai ta.p huan luye.n co the tach tuyen tnh th` thua.t toan hie.u chnh ha` ng
se ho.i tu. sau mo.t so h
u.u ha.n bu.o.c. Ch
u.ng minh ket qua n`ay, c`on go.i l`a d.inh l
y huan
luye.n perceptron.
307
0
w(3) = w(2) = 0 .
1
1
3. Ta co wt (3)y(3) = 0 0 1 0 = 0. Do do
1
1
w(4) = w(3) y(3) = 0 .
0
1
t
4. Ta co w (4)y(4) = 1 0 0 1 = 1. Do do
1
1
w(5) = w(4) = 0 .
0
308
x2
x2
...
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i
...................................
d(x) = 2x1 + 1 = 0
..
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x1
i
.................................
(a)
x1
(b)
y
i
1
2
H`nh 9.9: Minh ho.a thua.t toan huan luye.n perceptron: (a) cac mau thuo.c hai lo.p; (b)
bien quyet d.inh du.o..c xac di.nh thong qua huan luye.n.
`eu chnh la.i trong cac bu.o.c 1 v`a 3 do phan loa.i nh
`am.
Cac vector tro.ng lu.o..ng du.o..c di
Qua tr`nh ho.c tiep tu.c b`a ng cach da.t
y(5) = y(1),
y(6) = y(2),
y(7) = y(3),
y(8) = y(4).
t
Thua.t toan ho.i tu. khi k = 14 v`a ta co vector tro.ng lu.o..ng w(14) = 2 0 1 . H`am
`au ba` ng cach
bie.t ta.p tu.o.ng u
.ng ba` ng d(y) = 2y1 + 1. Tro. la.i khong gian mau ban d
.
.
.
.
da.t x = (y1, y2 ) ta du o. c d(x) = 2x1 + 1 v`a du `o ng thang tach hai lo.p co phu.o.ng
tr`nh 2x1 + 1 = 0.
en tnh. Thu..c te hiem co cac lo.p mau co the tach
C
ac l
o.p kh
ong t
ach d
u.o..c tuy
`an lo.n cac nh`a nghien c
du.o..c tuyen tnh. V` va.y, ph
u.u trong nh
u.ng nam 1960-1970
`an
da co gang di t`m cach xu. l
y cac lo.p khong tach du.o..c tuyen tnh. Do su.. tien bo. g
.
.
day trong qua tr`nh huan luye.n ma.ng neuron, cac phu o ng phap giai quyet doi vo.i
`an v` l
cac lo.p khong tach du.o..c tuyen tnh du.o..c quan tam do.n thu
y do li.ch su.. Tuy
nhien, mo.t trong nh
u.ng phu.o.ng phap tru.o.c do, co lien quan tru..c tiep den b`an lua.n
309
o. day: nguyen tac delta goc. Nguyen tac delta, c`on go.i l`a phu.o.ng phap b`nh phu.o.ng
toi thieu (LMS) hay Widrow-Hoff, huan luye.n cac may perceptron sao cho cu..c tieu
hoa sai so gi
u.a thu..c te v`a ket qua nha.n du.o..c trong moi bu.o.c la.p.
Xet h`am nang lu.o..ng
1
J (w) = [r hw, yi]2,
2
.
.
.
.
trong do r l`a dap u
ng nha.n du o. c (t
u c l`a, r = +1 neu y 1 v`a r = 1 neu y 2 ).
Tien tr`nh thay doi w lien tu.c theo hu.o.ng J (x) de t`m cu..c tieu cua h`am J (x). De
u.c l`a cu..c tieu da.t du.o..c khi phan loa.i du
thay cu..c tieu xay ra khi r = hw, yi; t
ng. Neu
w(k) l`a vector tro.ng lu.o..ng o. bu.o.c la.p th
u. k th` ap du.ng thua.t toan gradient ta co
J (w)
w(k + 1) = w(k)
(w w=w(k)
trong do w(k + 1) l`a gia tri. mo.i cua w v`a > 0 l`a do. lo.n cua gia tri. hie.u chnh. Do
J (w)
= (r hw, yi)y
(w
nen
w(k + 1) = w(k) + [r(k) hw(k), y(k)i]y(k)
`au w(1) du.o..c kho.i ta.o tu`
yy
.
vo.i vector tro.ng lu.o..ng ban d
- a.t
D
w = w(k + 1) w(k).
Khi do ta co thua.t toan hie.u chnh delta
w = e(k)y(k),
(9.20)
(9.21)
trong do
l`a loi nha.n du.o..c u
.ng vo.i vector tro.ng lu.o..ng w(k) khi xet mau y(k).
Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.21) xac di.nh loi u
.ng vo.i vector tro.ng lu.o..ng w(k). Neu ch
ung
.
.
.
u nguyen mau y(k) th` loi tro th`anh
ta thay doi no th`anh w(k + 1) nhu ng gi
e(k + 1) = r(k) hw(k + 1), y(k)i.
Suy ra
e(k) = [r(k) hw(k + 1), y(k)i] [r(k) hw(k), y(k)i]
310
(9.22)
`eu t
`ang lan truy
`en thu
Ma.ng neuron nhi
a.n
`eu
Bay gi`o. ch
ung ta se xay du..ng cac h`am bie.t ta.p cua b`ai toan nha.n da.ng mau nhi
.
.
.
.
lo p khong phu. thuo.c v`ao cac lo p co tach du o. c tuyen tnh hay khong. Cach tiep ca.n
`ang du..a tren co. so. cua cac may perceptron.
o. day nha` m kien thiet cac t
uc cua he. thong ma.ng neuron. He. thong
C
au tr
uc co. ban. H`nh 9.10 minh ho.a cau tr
`om cac t
`ang ch
n`ay g
u.a cac n
ut thu..c hie.n ch
u.c nang tnh toan (go.i l`a cac neuron) v`a
`e ma.t cau tr
`au ra cua moi neuron
giong nhau v
uc. Cac neuron du.o..c sap xep sao cho d
`ang se l`a d`au v`ao cua mo.i neuron trong t
`ang ke tiep. K
trong mo.t t
y hie.u so cac
.
.
`ang v`ao A l`a NA . Thong thu `o ng NA ba` ng so chi
`eu n cua cac vector
neuron trong t
`ang cuoi, go.i l`a t
`ang ra Q k
mau du.a v`ao. So cac neuron trong t
y hie.u l`a NQ. So NQ
.
.
.
b`a ng M-chnh l`a so cac lo p mau m`a ma.ng neuron da du o. c huan luye.n de nha.n da.ng.
311
x1
x2
x3
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`ang A
T
NA n
ut
..
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T
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ut
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`ang K
T
NK n
ut
..
.
..
.
..
.
`ang J
T
NJ n
ut
`ang P
T
NP n
ut
Lo.p 1
Lo.p 2
..
.
Lo.p M
`ang Q
T
NQ = M n
ut
`eu t
`ang lan truy
`en thua.n.
H`nh 9.10: Mo h`nh ma.ng neuron nhi
Ma.ng neuron se phan loa.i vector mau x thuo.c lo.p m neu m d`au ra cua ma.ng co tn
hie.u cao trong khi tat ca d`au ra khac co cac tn hie.u thap.
Nhu. trong H`nh 9.11 ch ra, moi neuron co h`nh da.ng giong nhu. mo h`nh perceptron (xem H`nh 9.8) vo.i mo.t khac bie.t l`a h`am kch hoa.t c
u.ng du.o..c thay bo.i h`am
`em ho.n. Mo. ro.ng nguyen tac huan luye.n ba` ng cach lan truy
`en ngu.o..c
co d`o thi. m
d`oi hoi tat ca cac du.`o.ng di trong ma.ng neuron phai khac nhau. Trong thu..c te, co the
d`
ung h`am
hj (Ij ) =
1
,
1 + exp[(Ij + j )/0 ]
(9.23)
.........................................................
........................................................
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j .....
j
..
.
..
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.
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........................................................
..
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
+1
trong do Ij , j = 1, 2, . . . , NJ , l`a tn hie.u du.a v`ao do.n vi. kch hoa.t cua moi n
ut trong
.
.
`ang J, j l`a da.i lu o. ng di.ch chuyen, v`a 0 di
`eu khien h`nh da.ng cua h`am kch hoa.t.
t
He. thong se xuat tn hie.u cao khi tn hie.u v`ao Ij > j v`a ngu.o..c la.i, xuat ra tnh
hie.u thap khi tn hie.u v`ao Ij < j . H`am kch hoa.t hj do.n die.u tang, co gia tri. trong
khoang (0, 1), v`a
lim hj (Ij ) = 0,
Ij
lim hj (Ij ) = 1.
Ij +
Ij =
NK
X
wjk Ok ,
j = 1, 2, . . . , NJ ,
(9.24)
k=1
(9.25)
vo.i k = 1, 2, . . . , NK .
Ch
uy
r`a ng Ij , j = 1, 2, . . . , NJ , l`a cac tn hie.u v`ao do.n vi. kch hoa.t cua n
ut th
u.
`ang J. Co NK tn hie.u v`ao vo.i tro.ng so khac nhau doi vo.i moi n
`ang
j trong t
ut trong t
`ang J co cac tro.ng so tu.o.ng u
J. Chang ha.n, NK tn hie.u v`ao n
ut th
u. nhat cua t
.ng
.ng cac tro.ng
ba` ng w1k , k = 1, 2, . . . , NK . V` va.y co tong co.ng NJ NK he. so tu.o.ng u
`ang K v`ao cac n
`ang J. Ngo`ai ra c`on co NJ he. so
lu.o..ng t`
ut trong t
ut trong t
u. cac n
.
`ang J.
di.ch chuyen j doi vo i moi n
ut trong t
313
Thay phu.o.ng tr`nh xac di.nh Ij v`ao h`am hj trong Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.23) ta du.o..c
hj (Ij ) =
1
i.
h P
NK
/
1 + exp
0
k=1 wjk Ok + j
(9.26)
ung ta se su. du.ng h`am kch hoa.t theo Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.26).
Du.o.i day ch
`ang ra Q do
Trong qua tr`nh huan luye.n, ta de d`ang thay doi cac neuron trong t
tn hie.u ra d`oi hoi ta.i moi n
ut da biet. Van d`e chnh trong huan luye.n mo.t ma.ng
`eu t
`ang l`a thay doi cac tro.ng so nhu. the n`ao trong cac t
`ang an-l`a cac t
`ang
neuron nhi
`ang ra.
khac t
`
`en ngu.o..c. Tru.o.c het ch
`ang
Hu
an luy
e.n b
a ng c
ach lan truy
ung ta d`e ca.p den t
.
.
.
.
.
.
ng thu. c su..
u a cac dap u
ng d`oi hoi rq v`a cac dap u
ra. Tong cac sai so b`nh phu o ng gi
`ang Q l`a
O tu.o.ng u
.ng cua cac n
ut trong t
q
NQ
1X
EQ =
(rq Oq )2
2 q=1
(9.27)
1
2
`eu chnh
Mu.c dch cua qua tr`nh huan luye.n, tu.o.ng tu.. nguyen tac delta, l`a di
`eu kie.n
`ang sao cho cu..c tieu hoa sai so EQ . Theo di
cac tro.ng lu.o..ng cung trong moi t
.
`an cua cu. c tri., cac he. so wpq phai thoa man
c
wqp =
EQ
,
wqp
`ang P tru.o.c t
`ang Q, wqp xac di.nh theo Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.20) v`a l`a ha` ng
trong do t
so (du.o.ng) hie.u chnh.
Theo cong th
u.c da.o h`am h`am ho..p ta co
EQ
EQ Iq
=
.
wqp
Iq wqp
Nhu.ng, t`
u. Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.24),
N
P
X
Iq
=
wqpOp = Op .
wqp
wqp p=1
Suy ra
wqp =
314
EQ
Op
Iq
= q Op ,
trong do
q =
- e tnh
D
EQ
Iq
EQ
.
Iq
EQ
EQ Oq
=
.
Iq
Oq Iq
Ma.t khac, t`
u. Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.27), ta co
EQ
= (rq Oq ),
Oq
v`a t`
u. Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.25) suy ra
OQ
=
hq (Iq ) = h0q (Iq ).
Iq
Iq
Va.y
q = (rq Oq )h0q (Iq );
v`a cuoi c`
ung
wqp = (rq Oq )h0q (Iq )Op
= q Op .
(9.28)
Neu biet hq (Iq ) th` tat ca cac so ha.ng trong Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.28) se du.o..c xac
di.nh hoa.c co the quan sat trong ma.ng neuron. Noi cach khac, du..a v`ao mau huan
ut. Gia tri. Oq cua moi n
ut
luye.n du.a v`ao ma.ng ta co the suy ra dap u
.ng rq cua moi n
`au v`ao cac ph
`an tu. kch hoa.t cua lo.p Q; v`a Iq co the
ra co the quan sat t`
u. gia tri. Iq -d
`ang P. Do do ch
`eu
nha.n du.o..c t`
u. cac tn hie.u ra t`
u. cac n
ut trong t
ung ta co the di
`ang cuoi c`
chnh cac tro.ng lu.o..ng ba` ng cach thay doi cac he. so lien ket gi
u.a cac t
ung
`e cuoi trong ma.ng.
v`a k
B`a ng cach xu. l
ung co
y tu.o.ng tu.. doi vo.i lo.p P ta c
wpj = (rp Op )h0p (Ip )Oj
= p Oj ,
trong do
p = (rp Op )h0p (Ip).
315
(9.29)
Ngoa.i tr`
u. rp chu.a biet, tat ca cac da.i lu.o..ng khac trong Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.29) hoa.c l`a
`ang trong chu.a du.o..c xac
u. ma.ng. Gia tri. rp trong cac t
da biet hoa.c l`a co the suy ra t`
`ang trong theo cac mau.
di.nh do ch
ung ta khong biet bieu dien dap u
.ng cac n
ut cua t
.
`ang cuoi c`
ut cua t
ung trong ma.ng. Hien
Ch
ung ta ch co the biet dap u
ng ta.i moi n
`an cac t
`ang ch
nhien neu ta da biet thong tin cua cac n
ut trong th` khong c
u.a ch
ung.
.
.
.
`an t`m bieu dien p theo nh
Do do ta c
u ng da.i lu o. ng da biet hoa.c co the quan sat t`
u.
ma.ng.
`ang P l`a
Ta co sai so doi vo.i t
p =
EP
EP Op
=
.
Ip
Op Ip
Ma.t khac,
Op
hp (Ip)
=
= h0p (Ip)
Ip
Ip
du.ng cong th
u. ma.ng. Ap
u.c da.o
du.o..c xac di.nh neu biet hp do Ip co the quan sat t`
h`am h`am ho..p ta co
EP
Op
NQ
NQ
NP
X
X
EP
EP Iq
X
=
=
wqp Op
I
O
I
O
q
p
q
p
q=1
q=1
p=1
NQ
X
EP
=
wqp
Iq
q=1
=
NQ
X
q wqp.
q=1
Suy ra
p =
h0p (Ip)
NQ
X
q wqp .
(9.30)
q=1
Do tat ca cac da.i lu.o..ng trong ve phai da du.o..c xac di.nh nen co the tnh p . Va.y
nguyen tac huan luye.n doi vo.i lo.p P ho`an to`an du.o..c xac d.inh du..a v`ao cac Phu.o.ng
tr`nh (9.29) v`a (9.30). Phu.o.ng tr`nh 9.30) ch ra r`a ng gia tri. p suy t`
u. q v`a wqp, trong
`ang k
`e sau t
`ang P. Sau khi loi v`a
do cac da.i lu.o..ng sau n`ay du.o..c suy tru..c tiep t`
u. t
.
.
.
.
.
cac tro.ng lu o. ng cua lo p P da du o. c xac di.nh, ap du.ng tien tr`nh tren ta co the suy ra
`e tru.o.c P. Noi cach khac ch
`en
ung ta co the lan truy
loi v`a cac tro.ng lu.o..ng cua lo.p k
.
.
.
.
`ang ra.
ngu o. c tro la.i ma.ng xuat phat t`
u loi trong t
Ch
ung ta tong ket thua.t toan huan luye.n nhu. sau:
`ang ra J = Q.
Bu.o.c 1. Xuat phat t`
u. t
316
`ang J. K
`ang li
`en k
`e tru.o.c t
`ang
Bu.o.c 2. Gia su. o. bu.o.c n`ao do ta xet t
y hie.u K l`a t
.
.
.
.
J. T`m cac tro.ng lu o. ng wjk theo quan he. gi
u a hai lo p n`ay:
wjk = j Ok .
`ang ra, da.t
Neu J l`a t
j = (rj Oj )h0j (Ij ).
`ang trong v`a P l`a t
`ang ke tiep ben phai cua J th` da.t
Neu J l`a t
j = h0j (Ij )
NP
X
p wjp,
p=1
vo.i j = 1, 2, . . . , Nj .
`ang li
`en k
`e ben trai J v`a la.p la.i thu tu.c tren.
Bu.o.c 3. Thay P = J, J = K v`a K l`a t
Su. du.ng h`am kch hoa.t trong Phu.o.ng tr`nh (9.26) vo.i 0 = 1 ta co
h0j (Ij ) = Oj (1 Oj ).
`ang ra:
Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay, doi vo.i t
j = (rj Oj )Oj (1 Oj )
`ang trong
v`a doi vo.i t
j = Oj (1 Oj )
NP
X
p wjp .
p=1
Thua.t toan tren l`a mo.t tong quat hoa nguyen tac delta de huan luye.n ma.ng
`en thua.n nhi
`eu t
`ang trong H`nh 9.10. Tien t`nh kho.i ta.o vo.i mo.t ta.p
neuron lan truy
tu`
yy
(nhu.ng tat ca khong tr`
ung nhau) cac tro.ng lu.o..ng trong ma.ng. Sau do ap du.ng
u. nhat,
nguyen tac delta ta.i moi bu.o.c la.p lien quan den hai pha co. ban. Trong pha th
`en qua cac t
`ang de tnh tn
mo.t vector huan luye.n du.o..c du.a v`ao ma.ng v`a lan truy
`ang ra du.o..c so sanh vo.i cac
hie.u ra Oj cua moi n
ut. Tn hie.u ra Oq cua cac n
ut trong t
`en ngu.o..c tro.
dap u
.ng biet tru.o.c rq de ta.o ra loi q . Pha th
u. hai l`a tien tr`nh lan truy
ut v`a tro.ng lu.o..ng tu.o.ng u
.ng
la.i ma.ng trong khi do tn hie.u loi du.o..c du.a v`ao moi n
`eu chnh. Thu tu.c n`ay c
du.o..c di
ung ap du.ng doi vo.i cac tro.ng lu.o..ng di.ch chuyen j .
ut cua ma.ng.
Tro.ng lu.o..ng du.o..c them v`ao nha` m thay doi tn hie.u (do.n vi.) v`ao moi n
Thu..c tien thu.`o.ng t`m loi trong ma.ng c
ung nhu. cac loi xuat hie.n vo.i cac mau.
Mo.t giai doa.n huan luye.n th`anh cong, loi cua ma.ng se giam khi so bu.o.c la.p tang v`a
317
thua.t toan ho.i tu. den mo.t ta.p cac tro.ng lu.o..ng v`a ta.p n`ay on di.nh (theo ngha m
u.c
dao do.ng nho). Cach thong thu.`o.ng de xac di.nh mo.t mau co du.o..c phan loa.i du
ng hay
.
.
`ang ra. Neu dap u
khong l`a kiem tra dap u
ng cua cac n
ut trong t
ng cao ta.i n
ut tu.o.ng
u.a mau v`a thap doi vo.i cac n
ut khac th` ta noi mau da du.o..c phan
u
.ng lo.p mau ch
loa.i d
ung.
Sau khi he. thong da du.o..c huan luye.n, ma.ng neuron se phan loa.i su. du.ng cac
`oi se
tham so da du.o..c xac di.nh trong pha huan luye.n. Tat ca cac thao tac phan h
.
.
.
.
.
`en qua cac t
`ang v`a du o. c phan
khong du o. c ap du.ng. Mau bat k`
y du a v`ao se lan truy
`ang ra cao trong khi cac n
.ng n
ut co tn hie.u ra o. t
ut ra
loa.i thuo.c lo.p mau tu.o.ng u
`eu ho.n mo.t n
khac co tn hie.u thap. Neu co nhi
ut co tn hie.u cao, hoa.c neu khong co
`am hoa.c gan mau cho lo.p cua n
tn hie.u cao n`ao th` ta se thong bao phan loa.i nh
ut ra
co gia tri. cao nhat.
-
`ang
D
o. ph
u.c ta.p cua h`
am quy
et d
i.nh. Ta biet ra` ng, mo h`nh perceptron mo.t t
`e tu.. nhien da.t ra l`a vo.i mo h`nh
xac di.nh h`am bie.t ta.p co da.ng tuyen tnh. Van d
`eu t
`ang, th` da.ng cua h`am bie.t ta.p nhu. the n`ao? Ch
ma.ng neuron nhi
u.ng minh du.o.i
`ang th` d
`o thi. h`am bie.t ta.p l`a ho..p cua cac sieu phang
day se ch ra doi vo.i ma.ng ba t
giao nhau.
- u.`o.ng thang l = {(x, y) | ax + by + c = 0} chia ma.t phang R2 th`anh hai
D
nu.a: nu.a ma.t phang du.o.ng l+ = {(x, y) | ax + by + c > 0} v`a nu.a ma.t phang am
l = {(x, y) | ax + by + c < 0}.
`ang vo.i hai tn hie.u v`ao nhu. trong H`nh 9.12. Do
Tru.o.c het khao sat ma.ng hai t
`eu. K
co hai tn hie.u v`ao nen cac mau tu.o.ng u
.ng cac vector hai chi
y hie.u cac tn hie.u
.
.
`ang d
`au tien l`a 1 v`a 0 tu.o.ng u
ra m
u c cao v`a m
u c thap cua hai n
ut trong t
.ng. Gia
`ang th
su. tn hie.u ra 1 co ngha vector tu.o.ng u
.ng v`ao mo.t n
ut trong t
u. nhat thuo.c
nu.a ma.t phang du.o.ng cua du.`o.ng thang l1. Khi do to ho..p cac kha nang cua cac tn
`ang th
hie.u den n
ut trong t
u. hai l`a (1, 1), (1, 0), (0, 1) v`a (0, 0). Ch
ung ta di.nh ngha
.
.
.
.
`e nu a ma.t phang du.o.ng cua ca hai
hai v`
ung, v`
ung th
u nhat doi vo i lo p 1 thuo.c v
ung th
u. hai doi vo.i lo.p 2 thuo.c mo.t trong hai nu.a ma.t
du.`o.ng thang l1 v`a l2, v`a v`
`ang
phang am l1 hoa.c l2. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay, du..a v`ao tn hie.u ra t`
u. n
ut trong t
th
u. hai ta co the phan loa.i vector mau du.a v`ao thuo.c v`
ung 1 hay 2 ba` ng cach thu..c
hie.n phep toan logic AND. Noi cach khac, dap u
.ng cua tn hie.u ra b`a ng 1 xay ra khi
`ang th
ca hai n
ut trong t
u. nhat co dap u
.ng ra ba` ng 1. Neu ta da.t gia tri. j thuo.c
ut cua ma.ng neuron.
khoang (1, 2] th` co the thu..c hie.n phep toan AND trong moi n
`ang th
ut trong t
u. nhat l`a 0 v`a 1 th` dap u
Do do neu cac tn hie.u ra cua hai n
.ng cua
318
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(b)
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(c)
`ang ra se da.t m
u
.ng cua t
u.c cao; v`a mau du.o..c xu. l
.ng n
ut n`ay.
y thuo.c lo.p tu.o.ng u
H`nh 9.13 tong ket cac thao lua.n da du.o..c tr`nh b`ay. Ch
uy
trong h`ang th
u. ba,
- a.c bie.t, kho khan chnh thu.`o.ng xay
`e ranh gio.i gi
do. ph
u.c ta.p v
u.a cac v`
ung l`a tu`
yy
. D
`ang th
ra trong cau tr
uc cua t
u. hai khi cho dap u
.ng chnh xac doi vo.i cac to ho..p khac
y do l`a cac du.`o.ng thang khong ket th
uc ta.i cac giao
nhau cua cac lo.p cho tru.o.c. L
.
.
.
.
cua ch
ung vo i cac du `o ng thang khac; v`a bo i va.y cac mau cua c`
ung mo.t lo.p co the
- i
`eu n`ay dan den
xuat hie.n tren hai pha cua du.`o.ng thang trong khong gian mau. D
.
.
.
.
kho co the (hoa.c khong the) ve cac du `o ng thang du o. c ta.o ra trong thao tac AND doi
u. ba cua H`nh 9.13 du.o..c su. du.ng
vo.i mo.t mau da cho. Phep toan XOR trong co.t th
de nghien c
u.u tru.`o.ng ho..p co hai lo.p mau v`a moi lo.p co hai mau. Neu cac mau du.o..c
sap xep sao cho 1 = {(0, 1), (1, 0)} v`a 2 = {(0, 0), (1, 1)} th` co the phan loa.i d`
ung
h`am XOR: mo.t mau thuo.c lo.p 1 neu ket qua XOR ba` ng 1 v`a thuo.c lo.p 2 neu XOR
co gia tri. 0.
`eu: thay cho cac du.`o.ng thang
Ket qua tren co the mo. ro.ng cho tru.`o.ng ho..p n chi
du.ng ma.ng neuron mo.t t
`ang, hai t
`ang v`a ba t
`ang tu.o.ng
ta d`
ung cac sieu phang. Ap
`oi da die.n (giao
u
.ng cho cac nu.a khong gian (xac di.nh bo.i mo.t sieu phang), cac ta.p l
ung co bien vo.i do. ph
u.c ta.p tu`
yy
. Trong hai
cua cac nu.a khong gian), v`a vo.i cac v`
`ang xac di.nh do. ph
tru.`o.ng ho..p sau, so cac n
ut trong moi t
u.c ta.p cua bien. So cac lo.p
`au tien gio.i ha.n l`a hai. Trong hai tru.`o.ng ho..p c`on la.i, so cac lo.p
trong tru.`o.ng ho..p d
`ang ra co the cho.n de ph`
`au.
l`a tu`
yy
do so cac n
ut trong t
u ho..p vo.i yeu c
`eu ho.n
Mo.t cau hoi tu.. nhien l`a: ta.i sao khong nghien c
u.u cac ma.ng neuron nhi
`ang? Xet cho c`
`ang co the phan lo.p cac v`
ba t
ung th` mo.t ma.ng neuron ba t
ung vo.i
u.c ta.p tu`
yy
. Cau tra l`o.i l`a o. cho phu.o.ng phap du.o..c su. du.ng de
du.`o.ng bien co do. ph
`ang. Nguyen tac huan luye.n ma.ng trong
huan luye.n mo.t ma.ng neuron ch doi vo.i ba t
H`nh 9.10 ch cu..c tieu loi m`a khong d`e ca.p den phai lien ket nhom cac sieu phang vo.i
`ang th
`ang co da.ng du.o..c d`e ca.p tren
nh
u.ng n
ut da.c ta trong t
u. hai cua mo.t ma.ng ba t
`ang v`a so cac n
`ang an van l`a
day. Tha.t ra b`ai toan can doi gi
u.a so cac t
ut trong moi t
ng-sai
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.
...
...
.... ... ... .... ... ..
. .. .. .
.. . . . . . . . . . . ..
..... ... ... ......
... . . . . . . . ...
....
....
....
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
.. . . . . . . . . . . . ..
.. ... ... .... ... ..
.... . . . . ...
..
...
..
........ .... ..... ... .. .... ..... ...... ... ...
.. . . . . . . ..
.. ... ... ... .......
.
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..
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.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Cau tr
uc
Cac loa.i
L`o.i giai
Cac lo.p
ma.ng neuron
v`
ung
ung lu.o.i
vo.i v`
tong quat
`ang
Mo.t t
Mo.t
sieu phang
`ang
Hai t
`en
Cac mi
`oi
l
`ang
Ba t
Tu`
yy
(do. ph
u.c ta.p
phu. thuo.c
so n
ut)
321
9.4
C
ac phu.o.ng ph
ap c
au tr
uc
9.4.1
-
u
D
oi s
anh s
o m
a
Tnh ch
at 9.4.1 H`
am khoa ng c
ach thoa quan he.
`
1. d(A, B) 0 v
o.i mo.i A, B; d
au b
a ng xa y ra neu v`
a ch neu A = B.
2. d(A, B) = d(B, A).
3. d(A, C) max[d(A, B), d(B, C)].
Ch
ung ta co the su. du.ng do. tu.o.ng tu.. k hoa.c khoang cach d de xac di.nh m
u.c do. tu.o.ng
u.c do. tu.o.ng tu.. k th` hai h`nh da.ng nhu. nhau
tu.. cua hai du.`o.ng bien. Neu su. du.ng m
neu k lo.n (ch
uy
, k = doi vo.i hai da.ng tr`
ung nhau). Ngu.o..c la.i c
ung d
ung khi su.
du.ng do. do khoang cach d.
322
9.4.2
-
i
oi s
anh chu
o
D
`an 8.5) a1 a2 . . . an
Gia su. hai du.`o.ng bien A, B du.o..c ma hoa th`anh cac chuoi (xem Ph
.
.
.
- a.t
v`a b1 b2 . . . bm tu o ng u
ng. D
M = #{k N | ak = bk }
l`a so cac vi. tr du.o..c doi sanh gi
u.a hai chuoi. So cac k
y hie.u khong du.o..c doi sanh l`a
Q = max(|A|, |B|) M
trong do |X| l`a do. d`ai (so cac k
y hie.u) chuoi bieu dien X. De thay r`a ng, Q = 0 neu
v`a ch neu A v`a B tr`
ung nhau.
Khi do ta co the di.nh ngha m
u.c do. tu.o.ng tu.. gi
u.a A v`a B l`a so
R=
M
M
=
.
Q
max(|A|, |B|) M
9.4.3
Ph
an tch c
u ph
ap
Phu.o.ng phap c
u phap l`a mo.t trong nh
u.ng cach tiep ca.n pho bien du.o..c su. du.ng de
`e co. ban, y
tu.o.ng cua nha.n da.ng mau c
u phap l`a da.c ta mo.t
nha.n da.ng cau tr
uc. V
`an 8.5), mo.t ta.p cac quy tac (o. da.ng van pha.m) chi phoi
ta.p cac nguyen so. (xem Ph
moi quan he. gi
u.a cac nguyen so., v`a mo.t bo. nha.n da.ng (c`on go.i l`a automat) m`a o. do
ung
cac cau tr
uc du.o..c xac d.inh ba` ng ta.p cac quy tac trong van pha.m. Tru.o.c het ch
.
ta khao sat cac van pha.m v`a automat da.ng chuoi, sau do se mo ro.ng cho van pha.m
cay v`a automat tu.o.ng u
.ng. Nhac la.i r`a ng cac chuoi v`a cay l`a nh
u.ng mieu ta mau cau
tr
uc chnh du.o..c su. du.ng trong giao tr`nh n`ay.
323
i
Nh
a.n da.ng c
u ph
ap chu
o
Ch
ung ta gia thiet r`a ng cac v`
ung anh hay cac doi tu.o..ng quan tam da du.o..c bieu dien
`an 8.5.
o. da.ng chuoi su. du.ng nh
u.ng nguyen so. thch ho..p nhu. da tr`nh b`ay trong Ph
i. Gia su. co hai lo.p 1 , 2 , trong do cac mau l`a cac chuoi nguyen
V
an pha.m chu
o
ung ta co the hieu moi nguyen so. l`a mo.t k
y hie.u chap nha.n trong bang ch
u.
so.. Ch
(hay bang t`
u. vu..ng) theo van pha.m n`ao do, trong do van pha.m l`a ta.p cac quy tac c
u
phap anh hu.o.ng den vie.c ta.o ra cac cau du.o..c xay du..ng t`
u. cac k
y hie.u trong bang
.
.
.
.
.
ch
u . Ta.p cac cau du o. c sinh bo i van pha.m G go.i l`a ngon ng
y hie.u l`a L(G). Do
u v`a k
.ng
do cac cau l`a cac chuoi k
y hie.u (bieu dien mau hie.n h`anh) v`a cac ngon ng
u. tu.o.ng u
vo.i cac lo.p mau.
Khao sat hai van pha.m G1 , G2 sao cho cac quy tac c
u phap cua G1 ch sinh ra
.
.
.
.
cac cau tu o ng u
u phap cua G2 ch sinh ra
ng cac mau thuo.c lo p 1 v`a cac quy tac c
cac cau tu.o.ng u
.ng cac mau thuo.c lo.p 2 . Khi cac van pha.m n`ay da du.o..c thiet la.p th`
qua tr`nh nha.n da.ng mau theo c
u phap ho`an to`an do.n gian: Vo.i mo.t cau s bieu dien
mau p chu.a xac di.nh, ch
ung ta kiem tra xem ngon ng
u. n`ao ch
u.a s. Neu s L(G1 ) ta
noi mau p thuo.c lo.p 1 ; neu s L(G2 ) ta noi mau p thuo.c lo.p 2 . Neu cau thuo.c ca
hai ngon ng
u. th` ch
ung ta khong the phan loa.i mau p v`a do do s (cau khong ho..p le.)
du.o..c loa.i bo khoi hai ngon ng
u..
`eu lo.p mau, ch
Ho`an to`an tu.o.ng tu.., khi co nhi
ung ta se su. du.ng them cac van
.ng cac lo.p mau. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay, ta noi
pha.m de sinh ra cac ngon ng
u. tu.o.ng u
`eu
mau thuo.c lo.p i neu no bieu dien cau ho..p le. thuo.c ngon ng
u. L(Gi ). Cau thuo.c nhi
ho.n mo.t ngon ng
u. se du.o..c go.i l`a khong ho..p le. v`a bi. loa.i bo.
- i.nh ngha 9.4.2 Van pha.m l`a bo. bon
D
G = (N, , P, S),
trong do
`an tu. khong ket th
1. N l`a ta.p h
u.u ha.n cac bien go.i l`a cac ph
uc,
`an tu. ket th
2. l`a ta.p h
u.u ha.n cac h`a ng go.i l`a cac ph
uc,
3. P l`a ta.p cac quy tac sinh,
`au.
4. S N l`a k
y hie.u bat d
324
Ngo`ai ra N = . Ch
ung ta se k
y hie.u cac ch
u. cai viet hoa A, B, . . . , S, . . . , l`a cac
`au tien cua bang ch
u. a, b, c, . . . ,
k
y hie.u khong ket th
uc. Cac ch
u. cac viet thu.`o.ng d
l`a cac k
y hie.u ket th
uc. Cac ch
u. cai viet thu.`o.ng o. cuoi bang ch
u. v, w, x, y, z l`a cac
`om cac
`om cac k
chuoi g
y hie.u ket th
uc. Cac k
y tu.. Hy La.p , , , . . . , l`a cac chuoi g
k
y hie.u ket th
uc v`a khong ket th
uc. Cau rong (cau khong ch
u.a k
y hie.u n`ao) k
y hie.u
.
.
.
.
.
l`a . Cuoi c`
ung, vo i bang ch
u V, k
y hie.u V l`a ta.p tat ca cac cau du o. c ta.o t`
u nh
u.ng
`an tu. cua V.
ph
u. cac lua.t sinh cua ch
ung. Van pha.m chnh quy
Van pha.m (chuoi) du.o..c ta.o ra t`
.
.
.
`eu nhat trong nha.n da.ng
v`a van pha.m phi ng
u canh l`a hai van pha.m du o. c ch
uy
nhi
mau ba` ng cach phan tch c
u phap. Van pha.m chnh quy ch sinh ra cac da.ng A aB
hoa.c A a, vo.i A, B N v`a a . Van pha.m phi ng
u. canh ch sinh ra cac da.ng
u.c l`a l`a chuoi khac chuoi rong v`a du.o..c
A , vo.i A N v`a (N ) \ {}; t
ta.o tu`
yy
t`
u. cac k
y hie.u ket th
uc v`a khong ket th
uc.
V du. 9.4.3 Gia su. doi tu.o..ng trong H`nh 9.14(a) du.o..c bieu dien bo.i bo. khung cua
no v`a ch
ung ta di.nh ngha hai nguyen so. trong H`nh 9.14(b) de mieu ta cau tr
uc
cua bo. khung. Xet van pha.m G = (N, , P, S) vo.i N = {A, B, S}, = {a, b, c} v`a
P = {S aA, A bA, A bB, B c}, trong do cac k
y hie.u ket th
uc a, b, c tu.o.ng
`au cua cac chuoi
u
.ng cac nguyen so. trong H`nh 9.14(b). Nhu. tren, S l`a k
y hie.u kho.i d
`an quy tac th
trong ngon ng
u. L(G). Chang ha.n, ap du.ng mo.t l
u. nhat v`a sau do hai
`an quy tac th
l
u. hai ta du.o..c
S aA abA abbA,
trong do () co ngha chuoi xuat phat t`
u. S v`a su. du.ng cac quy tac trong P. Quy tac
u. hai cho phep viet la.i A l`a bA.
th
u. nhat cho phep viet la.i S bo.i aA, v`a quy tac th
Do co mo.t k
y hie.u khong ket th
uc trong chuoi abbA nen ta la.i co the tiep tu.c ap du.ng
`an quy tac th
`an quy
cac quy tac tren do. Chang ha.n, ap du.ng them hai l
u. hai, mo.t l
`an theo quy tac th
tac th
u. ba v`a mo.t l
u. tu. ta du.o..c chuoi abbbbbc (tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i cau
`an tu. trong chuoi n`ay l`a k
tr
uc trong H`nh 9.14(c)). V` tat ca cac ph
y hie.u ket th
uc
nen khong the ap du.ng them quy tac n`ao trong P. Ngon ng
u. sinh bo.i cac quy tac cua
y hie.u b du.o..c la.p la.i
van pha.m n`ay l`a L(G) = {abn c | n 1}, trong do bn co ngha k
`an. Noi cach khac, G ch co the sinh ra cac bo. khung co da.ng trong H`nh 9.14(c)
n l
nhu.ng vo.i do. d`ai tu`
yy
.
u. ngha. Trong v du. tru.o.c ch
ung ta da gia thiet moi lien ket gi
u.a cac
Su. du.ng ng
`eu t`nh
nguyen so. ch co the du.o..c noi ta.i cac cham da.m trong H`nh 9.14(b). Trong nhi
325
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..................................
(a)
....
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(b)
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(c)
- oi tu.o..ng du.o..c bieu dien qua bo. khung; (b) cac nguyen so.; (c) cau
H`nh 9.14: (a) D
tr
uc ta.o ra su. du.ng van pha.m chnh quy.
`an phai mieu ta khong nh
ung ta c
u.ng moi lien ket gi
u.a cac
huong ph
u.c ta.p ho.n, ch
nguyen tac, m`a c`on doi vo.i cac nhan to khac (chang ha.n do. d`ai v`a hu.o.ng cua nguyen
- i
`an ap du.ng mo.t quy tac. D
`eu n`ay co the thu..c hie.n ba` ng cach su. du.ng cac
so.) v`a so l
`e co. ban,
u. trong co. so. tri th
nguyen tac ng
u. ngha du.o..c lu.u tr
u.c cua Bang 9.1. V
`en cau tr
c
u phap gan li
uc cua mo.t doi tu.o..ng v`a sinh bo.i cac quy tac, trong khi ng
u.
ngha d`e ca.p den tnh du
ng dan cua cau tr
uc. Chang ha.n, cau le.nh trong FORTRAN:
`e ma.t c
`e ma.t ng
A = B/C du
ng v
u phap, nhu.ng ch du
ng v
u. ngha khi C 6= 0. Hoa.c
`e ma.t ng
`e ma.t ng
cau: nh`a toan ho.c v da.i n`ay viet rat de.p du
ng ca v
u. phap, ca v
u.
`e ma.t ng
ngha; nhu.ng cau nh`a toan ho.c v da.i n`ay an co ngon mie.ng d
ung v
u. phap
`e ma.t ng
nhu.ng sai v
u. ngha.
Gia su. ch
ung ta muon gan thong tin v`ao van pha.m trong v du. tru.o.c. Thong
tin co the du.o..c dnh k`em theo cac quy tac sinh trong Bang 9.1. Su. du.ng thong tin
ung ta co the ap du.ng mo.t v`ai nguyen tac de mieu ta mo.t lo.p vo.i rat
ng
u. ngha, ch
`eu mau (nhu.ng h
nhi
u.u ha.n). Chang ha.n, ba` ng cach thay doi hu.o.ng trong Bang 9.1
`eu kie.n cac
ch
ung ta co the di.nh ngha cac nguyen so. vo.i hu.o.ng bat k`
y. Tu.o.ng tu.., di
.
.
.
.
uc khac bie.t vo i mau co. ban trong
ung hu o ng cho phep loa.i bo cac cau tr
nguyen so c`
H`nh 9.14(a).
i. Ch
Automat nh
a.n da.ng chu
o
ung ta da minh ho.a van pha.m sinh ra cac mau.
326
Quy tac
Thong tin ng
u. ngha
S aA
Ch du.o..c noi den a ta.i cham da.m (cho danh dau). Hu.o.ng cua a,
k
y hie.u , l`a hu.o.ng (so vo.i tru.c ho`anh) cua du.`o.ng trung tru..c cua
u. diem danh
doa.n thang noi hai diem khong danh dau. Moi doa.n t`
dau den diem khong danh dau co do. d`ai 0.3cm.
A bA
Ch du.o..c noi den b ta.i cham da.m. Khong co hai nguyen so. c`
ung
- o.
noi ta.i mo.t cham da.m. Hu.o.ng cua b tr`
ung vo.i hu.o.ng cua a. D
`an.
d`ai cua b l`a 0.25cm. Quy tac n`ay khong the ap du.ng tren 10 l
A bB
Bc
`e thong tin ng
u. ngha du.o..c gan vo.i cac quy tac sinh.
Bang 9.1: V du. v
327
`an sau ch
Trong ph
ung ta khao sat b`ai toan nha.n da.ng mau co thuo.c ngon ng
u. L(G)
u phap co
sinh bo.i van pha.m G hay khong. Cac khai nie.m co. ban trong nha.n da.ng c
the minh ho.a ba` ng cach su. du.ng mo h`nh toan ho.c cua cac may tnh go.i l`a automat.
- u.a v`ao mau da.ng chuoi, mo.t automat co kha nang nha.n da.ng mau n`ay co thuo.c
D
.
ung ta ch ta.p trung v`ao cac
ngon ng
u. du.o..c gan vo.i automat do khong. O day, ch
.
.
automat h
u u ha.n l`a cac bo. nha.n da.ng ngon ng
u sinh bo.i van pha.m chnh quy.
- i.nh ngha 9.4.4 Automat h
`an
D
u.u ha.n l`a mo.t bo. nam th`anh ph
Af = (Q, , , q0, F ),
trong do
1. Q l`a ta.p h
u.u ha.n khac trong go.i l`a ta.p tra.ng thai,
2. l`a bang ch
u. (h
u.u ha.n k
y hie.u),
3. l`a anh xa. t`
u. Q v`ao ho. cac ta.p con cua Q go.i l`a h`am chuyen tra.ng thai,
`au, v`a
4. q0 l`a tra.ng thai kho.i d
5. F Q l`a ta.p cac tra.ng thai cuoi hay tra.ng thai chap nha.n.
V du. 9.4.5 Xet automat Af = (Q, , , q0, F ), vo.i
Q = {q0, q1, q2 },
= {a, b},
F = {q0},
(q0, a) = {q2},
(q0, b) = {q1},
(q1, a) = {q2},
(q1, b) = {q0},
(q2, a) = {q0},
(q2, b) = {q1}.
Neu automat o. tra.ng thai q0 v`a tn hie.u v`ao l`a a th` automat chuyen tra.ng thai l`a q2.
Tu.o.ng tu.., neu tn hie.u v`ao ke tiep l`a b th` automat se chuyen sang tra.ng thai q1, v`a
van van. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay, tra.ng thai d`au tr`
ung vo.i tra.ng thai ket th
uc.
- `o thi.
H`nh 9.15 l`a d`o thi. tra.ng thai bieu dien cho automat trong v du. tren. D
`om cac dnh tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i cac tra.ng thai v`a cung lien thuo.c hai dnh
tra.ng thai g
.ng co the chuyen t`
tu.o.ng u
u. tra.ng thai n`ay sang tra.ng thai khac. Tra.ng thai cuoi
328
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..
2 .........
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.
.
...................
`e automat h
H`nh 9.15: V du. v
u.u ha.n.
.ng dnh du.o..c bao hai v`ong tr`on v`a moi cung du.o..c gan mo.t k
y hie.u gay ra
tu.o.ng u
.
.
.
.
.
.
chuyen doi gi
u a cac tra.ng thai du o. c noi bo i cung n`ay. Trong tru `o ng ho..p n`ay, tra.ng
uc. Chuoi w cac k
y hie.u ket th
uc go.i l`a
thai kho.i d`au tr`
ung vo.i tra.ng thai ket th
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
chap nha.n du o. c hay du o. c nha.n da.ng bo i mo.t automat neu kho i d`au t`
u tra.ng thai q0,
day cac k
y hie.u (bat ga.p khi duye.t w t`
u. trai sang phai) se khien automat hoa.t do.ng
v`a chuyen den tra.ng thai cuoi sau khi k
y hie.u cuoi c`
ung trong chuoi w du.o..c duye.t.
Chang ha.n, automat trong H`nh 9.15 nha.n da.ng du.o..c chuoi w = abbaabb nhu.ng loa.i
bo chuoi w = aabab.
Ta co tu.o.ng u
.ng mo.t mo.t gi
u.a cac van pha.m chnh quy v`a cac automat h
u.u ha.n.
T
u.c l`a, ngon ng
u. du.o..c nha.n da.ng bo.i automat h
u. du.o..c
u.u ha.n neu v`a ch neu ngon ng
sinh ra bo.i van pha.m chnh quy. Du..a v`ao nh
u.ng thao lua.n tren co the de d`ang thiet
`an xay du..ng automat h
u.u
ke he. thong nha.n da.ng chuoi theo c
u phap: Ch
ung ta ch c
ha.n t`
u. mo.t van pha.m chnh qui. Tha.t va.y, xet van pha.m G = (N, , P, X0 ), trong do
X0 S, v`a gia su. N l`a ho..p cua X0 v`a n k
y hie.u khong ket th
uc X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn . Ta
`om n + 2 tra.ng thai sao cho qi tu.o.ng
da.t ta.p cac tra.ng thai Q = {q0, q1, . . . , qn, qn+1 } g
ung vo.i
u
.ng vo.i Xi , i = 0, 1, . . . , n, v`a qn+1 l`a tra.ng thai cuoi. Ta.p cac tn hie.u v`ao tr`
d`au X0 tu.o.ng u
.ng q0 v`a cac quy tac P nhu. sau:
`on ta.i mo.t quy tac Xi aXj thuo.c P.
1. Neu qj thuo.c (qi, a) th` t
`on ta.i quy tac Xi a trong P.
2. Neu mo.t tra.ng thai trong F thuo.c (qi, a) th` t
Trong ca hai tru.`o.ng ho..p, ta.p cac k
y hie.u ket th
uc l`a tr`
ung nhau .
V du. 9.4.6 Automat h
u.u ha.n doi vo.i van pha.m chnh quy cho trong H`nh 9.14 nha.n
du.o..c ba` ng cach xet cac quy tac sinh X0 aX1 , X1 bX1 , X1 bX2, v`a X2 c.
Khi do Af = (Q, , , q0, F ), vo.i Q = {q0 , q1, q2, q3}, = {a, b, c}, F = {q3 } v`a anh
- e d`ay du, ta viet (q0, b) =
xa. (q0, a) = {q1}, (q1, b) = {q1, q2}, (q2, c) = {q3}. D
(q0, c) = (q1, a) = (q1, c) = (q2, a) = (q2, b) = de ch ra cac chuyen doi tra.ng
thai n`ay khong du.o..c di.nh ngha trong automat.
Nh
a.n da.ng c
u ph
ap du..a v`
ao v
an pha.m c
ay
ung ta d`e ca.p den nha.n da.ng
Tu.o.ng tu.. nhu. qua tr`nh nha.n da.ng chuoi, du.o.i day ch
.
.
.
.
cac mau du o. c da.c tru ng bo i cay. Gia thiet ra` ng doi tu.o..ng trong anh da du.o..c bieu
`e ca.p trong Ph
`an 8.5.
dien da.ng cay su. du.ng cac nguyen so. thch ho..p nhu. da d
V
an pha.m c
ay.
- .inh ngha 9.4.7 Van pha.m cay l`a bo. nam
D
G = (N, , P, r, S),
trong do
1. N l`a ta.p cac k
y hie.u khong ket th
uc,
2. l`a ta.p cac k
y hie.u ket th
uc,
`au, m`a noi chung co the l`a mo.t cay,
3. S N l`a k
y hie.u kho.i d
4. P l`a ta.p cac quy tac sinh da.ng Ti Tj , trong do Ti v`a Tj l`a cac cay, v`a
.ng mo.t ta.p con
5. h`am ha.ng r : N l`a anh xa. thiet la.p vo.i moi k tu.o.ng u
`on ta.i cay T (xac di.nh trong quy
r(k) cua N di.nh ngha nhu. sau: n r(k) neu t
.
ut k trong cay T.
tac sinh) sao cho co n n
ut con tru. c tiep cua n
330
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X1
X2
Xn
X1 b
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X1
X1
(1)
X2 d
X1 c
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(2)
X2 e
(3)
X3 e
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X2
X3
(4)
X3
X2
(5)
(6)
X3 a
(7)
r(c) = {2}.
`an thu..c hie.n cac qui tac sinh 2, 4 v`a 6 l`a nhu. nhau, ta se co cau
Vo.i r`ang buo.c so l
tr
uc vo.i cac nhanh co do. d`ai ba` ng nhau. Tu.o.ng tu.., neu ap du.ng cac qui tac sinh 4
- ay l`a nh
`an ba` ng nhau se ta.o cau tr
v`a 6 vo.i so l
uc doi x
u.ng qua tru.c du
.ng. D
u.ng tri
`e ma.t ng
th
u.c bo sung nh`a m dam bao tnh du
ng v
u. ngha cua cau tr
uc du.o..c ta.o ra.
Automat c
ay. Trong khi automat h
u.u ha.n duye.t mo.t chuoi t`
u.ng k
y hie.u mo.t, t`
u.
`ong th`o.i ta.i moi n
trai sang phai, automat cay bat d`au d
ut bien (cac n
ut la du.o..c sap
theo th
u. tu.. t`
u. trai sang phai) cua cay (du.o..c ta.o bo.i van pha.m cay) v`a xu. l
y do.c theo
.
.
.
- a.c bie.t:
`e goc. D
cac du `o ng di tro v
331
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(a)
a ................................ b ..........
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(b)
- oi tu.o..ng v`a (b) cac nguyen so. du.o..c su. du.ng de bieu dien bo. khung
H`nh 9.16: (a) D
theo van pha.m cay.
- i.nh ngha 9.4.9 Automat cay t`
`e goc l`a bo. ba
D
u. bien v
At = (Q, F, {fk | k }),
trong do
1. Q l`a ta.p h
u.u ha.n cac tra.ng thai,
2. F Q l`a ta.p cac tra.ng thai ket th
uc, v`a
3. fk l`a quan he. hai ngoi tren Qm Q, trong do m l`a ha.ng cua k.
- oi vo.i van pha.m cay G = (N, , P, r, S) ch
D
ung ta xay du..ng automat cay tu.o.ng
y hie.u k ta di.nh ngha quan he.
u
.ng ba` ng cach da.t Q = N, F = {S} v`a vo.i moi k
`on ta.i quy tac sinh (trong G)
fk sao cho (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xm , X) fk neu v`a ch neu t
X
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X1
X2
Xm
Chang ha.n, xet van pha.m cay G = (N, , P, r, S) vo.i N = {S, X}, = {a, b, c, d} v`a
332
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X c
S d
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v`a h`am ha.ng cho bo.i r(a) = {0}, r(b) = {0}, r(c) = {1} v`a r(d) = {2}. Automat cay
.ng A = (Q, F, {f | k }) vo.i Q = {S, X}, F = {S} v`a {f | k } =
tu.o.ng u
f
X
u. lua.t sinh S d
fd = {(X, X, S)}, suy t`
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(a)
[X] a
b [X]
(b)
[S] d
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[X] c
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[X] c
b [X]
b [X]
(c)
(d)
+
.
.
trong . Gia su z sao cho zw R vo i w n`ao do thuo.c . Vo i moi k nguyen
du.o.ng da.t
h(z, R+ , k) = {w | zw R+ , |w| k}
l`a ta.p cac chuoi w co tnh chat (1) zw R+ v`a (2) do. d`ai chuoi w nho ho.n hoa.c b`a ng
k. Ta.p h(z, R+ , k) go.i l`a k-duoi cua z tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i R+ .
Vo.i ta.p mau R+ v`a k N cho tru.o.c, thu tu.c huan luye.n automat Af (R+ , k) =
- a.t
(Q, , , q0, F ) nhu. sau: D
Q = {q | q = h(z, R+ , k) vo.i z n`ao do thuo.c }
v`a vo.i moi a , xet
(q, a) = {q 0 Q | q 0 = h(za, R+ , k) vo.i q = h(z, R+ , k)}.
Ngo`ai ra, da.t
q0 = h(, R+ , k)
v`a
F = {q | q Q, q},
trong do l`a chuoi rong (chuoi khong co k
y hie.u n`ao). Ch
uy
ra` ng Af (R+ , k) l`a ta.p
u. R+ .
con cac tra.ng thai cua ta.p tat ca cac k-duoi co the xay du..ng t`
V du. 9.4.10 Gia su. R+ = {a, ab, abb} v`a k = 1. Theo tren,
z = ,
h(, R+ , 1)
= {w | w R+ , |w| 1},
= {a}
= q0;
z = a,
= {w | aw R+ , |w| 1},
h(a, R , 1)
= {, b}
= q1;
z = ab,
h(ab, R+ , 1)
= {, b}
= q1;
z = abb,
h(abb, R+ , 1) = {}
= q2.
u.
Vo.i cac chuoi khac z th` zw khong thuo.c R+ du.a den tra.ng thai th
`eu kie.n h l`a ta.p trong. Do do cac tra.ng thai l`a
y hie.u q , tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i di
tu., k
q0 = {a}, q1 = {, b}, q2 = {} v`a q; bo.i va.y Q = {q0, q1, q2, q}.
335
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a, b
a, b
H`nh 9.18: So. d`o tra.ng thai cua automat h
u. ta.p mau
u.u ha.n Af (R+ , 1) suy dan t`
R+ = {a, ab, abb}.
Bu.o.c ke tiep l`a xac di.nh cac h`am chuyen tra.ng thai. Do q0 = h(, R+ , 1) nen
(q0, a) = h(a, R+ , 1) = h(a, R+ , 1) = q1
v`a
(q0, b) = h(b, R+ , 1) = h(b, R+ , 1) = q.
Tu.o.ng tu.., v` q1 = h(a, R+ , 1) = h(ab, R+ , 1) nen
(q1, a) = h(aa, R+ , 1) = h(aba, R+ , 1) = q.
Ta co (q1, b) h(ab, R+ , 1) = q1 v`a (q1, b) h(abb, R+ , 1) = q2. Va.y
(q1, b) = {q1, q2}.
Cuoi c`
ung
(q2, a) = (q2, b) = (q, a) = (q, b) = q .
De kiem tra (theo d.inh ngha) ta.p cac tra.ng thai cuoi F ba` ng {q1, q2}.
Du..a tren cac ket qua n`ay, automat suy dan Af = (R+ , 1) = (Q, , , q0, F ) trong
do Q = {q0, q1, q2, q }, = {a, b}, F = {q1, q2} v`a cac h`am chuyen tra.ng thai xac di.nh
o. tren. H`nh 9.18 minh ho.a lu.o..c d`o cua automat n`ay. De thay automat chap nha.n
cac chuoi a, ab, abb, . . ., abn .
V du. tren cho thay su.. phu. thuo.c cua automat v`ao gia tri. k. Cac tnh chat sau
minh ho.a su.. phu. thuo.c cua Af (R+ , k) v`ao tham so n`ay.
336
Tnh ch
at 9.4.11 (i) R+ L[Af (R+ , k)] v
o.i mo.i k 0, trong d
a
o L[Af (R+ , k)] l`
.
.
.
.
+
ng
on ng
u du o. c ch
ap nh
a.n bo i Af (R , k).
`
(ii) L[Af (R+ , k)] = R+ neu k l
o.n ho.n ho
a.c b
a ng d
o. d`
ai cu a chu
oi d`
ai nh
at trong R+ ;
v`
a L[Af (R+ , k)] = neu k = 0.
(iii) L[Af (R+ , k + 1)] L[Af (R+ , k)].
Ch
u.ng minh. B`ai ta.p. 2
Tnh chat (i) bao dam Af (R+ , k) l`a automat nho nhat th`
u.a nha.n cac chuoi trong
ta.p mau R+ . Neu k lo.n ho.n hoa.c b`a ng do. d`ai cua chuoi d`ai nhat trong R+ th` tnh
chat (ii) ch ra automat ch chap nha.n cac chuoi trong R+ . Neu k = 0 th` Af (R+ , 0)
`au c
`om mo.t tra.ng thai q0 = {} v`a day l`a tra.ng thai kho.i d
ung nhu. tra.ng thai ket
g
th
uc. Khi do cac h`am chuyen tra.ng thai co da.ng (q0, a) = a vo.i mo.i a . Do va.y
L[Af (R+ , k)] = v`a automat se chap nha.n chuoi rong v`a tat ca cac chuoi khac
du.o..c xay du..ng t`
u. cac k
y hie.u trong . Cuoi c`
ung, tnh chat (iii) ch ra khi k tang
pha.m vi cua ngon ng
u. sinh bo.i Af (R+ , k) giam.
`eu khien automat Af (R+ , k) theo tham so
Ba tnh chat n`ay cho phep de d`ang di
k. Gia su. L0 l`a ngon ng
u. ch
ung ta muon xay du..ng du..a tren cau tr
uc du.o.ng tnh R+
v`a L[Af (R+ , k)] l`a phong doan. Neu k rat nho th` phong doan l`a tho theo ngha co
`au het hay tat ca cac chuoi trong . Tuy nhien, neu k ba` ng do. d`ai cua
the ch
u.a h
chuoi d`ai nhat trong R+ th` suy lua.n l`a cha.t theo ngha automat Af (R+ , k) se ch
chap nha.n cac chuoi ch
u.a trong R+ . Ta co day (d`
u.ng) cac bao h`am th
u.c:
L[Af (R+ , 0)] L[Af (R+ , 1)] L[Af (R+ , 2)] L[Af (R+ , k)] R+ .
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1
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a, c
a, b, c
b, c
a, b, c
H`nh 9.19: So. d`o tra.ng thai cua automat Af (R+ , 1) suy dan t`
u. ta.p mau du.o.ng tnh
R+ = {caaab, bbaab, caab, bbab, cab, bbb, cb}.
Vo.i k = 1 ap du.ng thua.t toan tren ta du.o..c
1.
z = ,
h(, R+ , 1) = {} = q ;
2.
z = c,
h(z, R+ , 1) = {b} = q1 ;
3.
z = ca,
h(z, R+ , 1) = {b} = q1 ;
4.
z = cb,
h(z, R+ , 1) = {} = q0;
5.
z = caa,
h(z, R+ , 1) = {b} = q1 ;
6.
z = cab,
h(z, R+ , 1) = {} = q0;
7.
z = caaa,
h(z, R+ , 1) = {b} = q1 ;
8.
z = caab,
h(z, R+ , 1) = {} = q0;
9.
z = caaab,
h(z, R+ , 1) = {} = q0;
10.
z = b,
h(z, R+ , 1) = {} = q ;
11.
z = bb,
h(z, R+ , 1) = {b} = q1 ;
12.
z = bba,
h(z, R+ , 1) = {b} = q1 ;
13.
z = bbb,
h(z, R+ , 1) = {} = q0;
14.
z = bbaa,
h(z, R+ , 1) = {b} = q1 ;
15.
z = bbab,
h(z, R+ , 1) = {} = q0;
16.
z = bbaab,
h(z, R+ , 1) = {} = q0.
Automat l`a Af (R+ , 1) = (Q, , , q0, F ) vo.i Q = {q0, q1, q}, = {a, b, c}, F =
{q0} v`a cac h`am chuyen tra.ng thai cho trong H`nh 9.19. Mo.t chuoi du.o..c chap nha.n
`an bat d`au chuoi ba` ng k
y hie.u a, b hoa.c c v`a ket th
uc b`a ng ab. Ho.n
bo.i automat n`ay c
ung du.o..c chap nha.n bo.i Af (R+ , 1).
n
u.a, cac chuoi di.nh ngha de. quy theo a, b hoa.c c c
338
Ich lo..i chnh cua phu.o.ng phap tr`nh b`ay tren l`a c`ai da.t do.n gian. Thu tu.c tong
ho..p co the mo phong tren cac may tnh hie.n da.i. Nhu.o..c diem chnh cua phu.o.ng phap
`an xac di.nh gia tri. k thch ho..p.
l`a c
9.5
N
o.i suy
`an tru.o.c ch
Trong nh
u.ng ph
ung ta da ta.p trung chnh v`ao t`
u.ng qua tr`nh xu. l
y rieng
`en xu. l
bie.t, t`
u. thu nha.n anh v`a ti
y den phan doa.n anh, mieu ta v`a nha.n da.ng doi
.
.
.
`an n`ay, ch
ung ta se su du.ng tat ca cac thong tin du.o..c ta.o ra t`
u. cac qua
tu o. ng. Ph
tr`nh n`ay nha` m giai thch no.i dung cua anh. Noi cach khac, ch
ung ta quan tam den
y
ngha cua anh, mo.t qua tr`nh go.i l`a no.i suy (image interpretation), hieu anh (image
understanding), hay phan tch khung canh (scene analysis).
9.5.1
Co. so.
Giai thch no.i dung cua anh so hoa l`a mo.t b`ai toan cu..c k`
y ph
u.c ta.p. Kho khan nay
`an xu. l
sinh t`
u.: (1) c
y mo.t so lu.o..ng lo.n d
u. lie.u; v`a (2) thieu cac cong cu. xu. l
y co.
u.ng
ban tren cac d
u. lie.u n`ay de co ket qua d`oi hoi (chi tiet cua anh). Do khong co nh
cong cu. tong quat de thu..c hie.n qua tr`nh giai thch cac anh khong cau tr
uc, ch
ung ta
ch ta.p trung khao sat cac phu.o.ng phap thu.`o.ng dan den kha nang th`anh cong. R`ang
buo.c n`ay dan den hai thoa hie.p: (1) gio.i ha.n tnh tong quat cua b`ai toan; v`a (2) ket
u.c co du.o..c cua con ngu.`o.i trong qua tr`nh giai thch. Khi co the, ch
ung
ho..p vo.i tri th
.
.
.
.
`eu kie.n chu a biet nh`a m do n gian
ta su du.ng tat ca cac kha nang de gio i ha.n cac di
hoa b`ai toan. Trong tru.`o.ng ho..p khong the du.a ra cac gia thiet, ch
ung ta se gio.i ha.n
pha.m vi (v`a tnh d
ung dan) cua cac ket qua mong muon.
Phoi ho..p tri th
u.c con ngu.`o.i v`ao tien tr`nh no.i suy anh d`oi hoi cho.n mo.t h`nh
u.c n`ay. Co ba cach tiep ca.n chnh du.o..c su. du.ng l`a: (1)
th
u.c de bieu dien cac tri th
`au het cac he. thong logic
logic h`nh th
u.c; (2) ma.ng ng
u. ngha; v`a (3) he. chuyen gia. H
.
.
du. a tren phep tnh vi. t`
u ba.c nhat. He. thong logic l`a mo.t ngon ng
u. cac k
y hie.u m`a
`e mieu ta cac su.. kie.n t`
trong do cac me.nh d
u. do.n gian den ph
u.c ta.p co the du.o..c bien
y hie.u. Cac cong cu. tnh toan tren vi. t`
u. cho phep tri th
u.c co the bieu
dien bo.i cac k
dien theo cac quy tac logic m`a t`
u. do co the su. du.ng de ch
u.ng minh (hoa.c bac bo)
tnh ho..p le. cua cac bieu th
u.c logic.
339
9.5.2
C
ac loa.i tri th
u.c
`an c
`an du..a tren cac
hoa.c trong ph
u.ng. Bo.i va.y, cac thua.t toan xu. l
y anh co. ban c
`e cac u
tri th
u.c khong phu. thuo.c v`ao pha.m vi u
.ng du.ng, v`a tri th
u.c v
.ng du.ng chuyen
`an du.o..c du.a v`ao he. co. so. tri th
bie.t c
u.c v`a t phu. thuo.c v`ao cac thua.t toan n`ay nhat.
9.5.3
H
e. th
ong logic
Logic vi. t`
u. (xuat hie.n ho.n mo.t the ky nay) gi
up ch
ung ta de d`ang bien dien cac me.nh
.
.
.
.
.
.
d`e v`a suy doan cac su. kie.n mo i t`
u co so tri th
u.ng ch
u.c nang
u c da co. Mo.t trong nh
- ay l`a mo.t he. thong logic
h
u.u ch nhat cua tri th
u.c l`a cac phep toan vi. t`
u. ba.c nhat. D
`e trong mo.t
`eu cac bieu th
co kha nang xu. l
ung nhu. cac me.nh d
y rat nhi
u.c toan ho.c c
ngon ng
u. tu.. nhien, chang ha.n tieng Anh.
C
ac d
i.nh ngha
`an co. ban cua cac phep toan vi. t`
Nh
u.ng th`anh ph
u. l`a k
y hie.u vi. t`
u., k
y hie.u h`am,
.
`en xac
k
y hie.u bien, v`a k
y hie.u ha` ng. K
y hie.u vi. t`
u bieu dien moi quan he. trong mi
`e nam nho ho.n mu.`o.i co the bieu dien da.ng
di.nh cua b`ai toan. Chang ha.n, me.nh d
LESSTHAN(nam, mu.`o.i), trong do LESSTHAN l`a mo.t k
y hie.u vi. t`
u. v`a nam, mu.`o.i l`a
cac k
y hie.u ha` ng.
Bang 9.2 minh ho.a v du. khac. Trong v du. n`ay, mo.t k
y hie.u vi. t`
u., chang ha.n
`eu doi so. Cac doi
MOTHER, nha.n da.ng mo.t vi. t`
u.; v`a vi. t`
u. n`ay ch
u.a mo.t hoa.c nhi
.
.
.
so co the l`a cac ha` ng so, nhu Mai, da.i du o ng, v`a Nam Cao. Cac doi so c
ung co the
l`a cac h`am theo cac doi so khac. Chang ha.n, MARRIED[father(John), mother(John)]
.
`e cha cua John da cu.o.i me. cua John. O day, John l`a mo.t k
bieu dien me.nh d
y hie.u
ha` ng, mother v`a father l`a cac k
y hie.u h`am, v`a MARRIED l`a mo.t k
y hie.u vi. t`
u.. Trong
y hie.u vi. t`
u., v`a x, y l`a k
v du. cuoi cua Bang 9.2, BEHIND l`a k
y hie.u bien.
Cac vi. t`
u. nhu. ch ra trong Bang 9.2 c`on go.i l`a cac nguyen tu.. Cac nguyen tu. co
`e nhu. trong Bang
the du.o..c to ho..p la.i bo.i cac phep noi logic de ta.o th`anh cac me.nh d
??. Cac phep noi logic trong Bang 9.3 co y
ngha tu.o.ng tu.. nhu. sau: (AND),
(OR), (NOT), v`a (SUY RA); x, go.i l`a lu.o..ng t`
u. pho du.ng, tu.o.ng tu.. me.nh
`on ta.i, co ngha t
`on ta.i x. Bon v du.
d`e vo.i mo.i x. Tu.o.ng tu.. x, go.i l`a lu.o..ng t`
u. t
`om cac ha` ng, v`a hai v du. cuoi l`a
`e ca.p cac me.nh d
`e ch g
d`au tien trong Bang 9.3 d
`e co gan vo.i cac k
cac me.nh d
y hie.u bien. Cac bieu th
u.c logic du.o..c xay du..ng ba` ng
cach noi cac bieu th
u.c khac da.ng s(s) go.i l`a da.ng noi r`o.i. Bieu th
u.c ho..p le. cua
341
Phat bieu
Vi. t`
u.
FEMALE(Mai)
MOTHER(Mai)
`o)
BIGGERTHAN(da.i du.o.ng, h
WRITE(Nam Cao, Ch Ph`eo)
BEHIND (x, y)
`e vi. t`
Bang 9.2: V du. v
u..
cac phep toan vi. t`
u. go.i l`a da.ng du.o..c d.inh ngha d
ung, v`a k
y hie.u l`a (wffs).
`e neu no ch ch
Bieu th
u.c logic go.i l`a c
u phap da.ng khong me.nh d
u.a cac nguyen
`on ta.i v`a lu.o..ng t`
u.c logic go.i
tu., cac phep noi logic, cac lu.o..ng t`
u. t
u. pho du.ng. Bieu th
`e neu no co da.ng
l`a c
u phap da.ng me.nh d
(x1, x2, . . . , xk )[A1 A2 . . . An B1 B2 . . . Bm ],
`an ben trai v`a ben phai cua me.nh d
`e
trong do Ai , Bj l`a cac nguyen tu.. Cac th`anh ph
.
.
.
`e khong co
`eu kie.n v`a cac ket lua.n cua me.nh d
`e c tu o ng u
ng. Me.nh d
c go.i l`a cac di
`eu kie.n co da.ng P du.o..c hieu l`a P. Ngu.o..c la.i, bieu th
di
u.c P co ngha P.
Xet phat bieu vo.i mo.i x, neu x l`a mo.t ngu.`o.i v`a l`a cha me., th` x hoa.c l`a cha,
`e c
`e n`ay du.o..c viet nhu. sau
hoa.c l`a me.. Trong me.nh d
u phap, me.nh d
(x)[PERSON(x) PARENT(x) MOTHER(x) FATHER(x)].
`e, bieu
De d`ang kiem tra r`a ng (xem Bang 9.4), neu viet da.ng c
u phap khong me.nh d
th
u.c n`ay tro. th`anh
(x)[ PERSON(x) PARENT(x) MOTHER(x) FATHER(x)].
Tha.t va.y ch
ung ta luon luon co the chuyen doi t`
u. da.ng khong me.nh d`e sang da.ng
`e v`a ngu.o..c la.i.
me.nh d
Bang 9.4 ch ra moi quan he. gi
u.a cac phep toan logic. No.i dung cua nam co.t
d`au tien tu.o.ng tu.. logic thong thu.`o.ng. Phep toan keo theo co ngha nhu. sau: Ve ben
342
Phat bieu
`e
Me.nh d
FEMALE(Mai) MOTHER(Mai)
MALE(Mai) FEMALE(Mai)
MALE(Mai)
MOTHER(Mai) FERMALE(Mai)
(x)[MALE(x)FEMALE(x)]
(x)WRITE(x, So do)
`e cac me.nh d
`e.
Bang 9.3: V du. v
AB
AB
AB
B A.
4. Cong th
u.c de Morgan
(A B) tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i A B.
(A B) tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i A B.
5. Phan bo
A (B C) tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i (A B) (A C).
A (B C) tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i (A B) (A C).
344
6. Giao hoan
A B tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i B A.
A B tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i B A.
7. Ket ho..p
(A B) C tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i A (B C).
(A B) C tu.o.ng du.o.ng vo.i A (B C).
`
Suy lu
a.n b
a ng c
ach ch
u.ng minh-d
i.nh l
y
u.ng bieu th
u.c du.o..c
Trong logic vi. t`
u., cac nguyen tac suy lua.n co the ap du.ng tren nh
di.nh ngha du
ng v`a tren co. so. ta.p cac bieu th
ng ch
ung ta suy ra cac
u.c di.nh ngha du
.
di.nh ngha d
ung mo i. Sau day l`a mo.t v`ai v du. suy lua.n (W co ngha bieu th
u.c di.nh
ngha du
ng):
Modus Ponens
T`
u. W1 (W1 W2 ) suy ra W2 .
Modus Tollens
T`
u. W2 ( W1 W2 ) suy ra W1 .
Phep chieu
T`
u. W1 W2 suy ra W1.
- a.c bie.t hoa pho du.ng
D
T`
u. (x)W (x) suy ra W (c),
`e T`
trong do c l`a k
y hie.u ha` ng v`a me.nh d
u. F suy ra G co ngha F G luon
`eu n`ay cho phep ch
luon d
ung (t
u.c l`a, F luon luon suy ra G); di
ung ta thay F
.
.
bo i G trong bieu th
u c logic.
345
Cac nguyen tac suy lua.n ta.o ra cac wffs dan xuat t`
u. cac bieu th
u.c logic du.o..c
di.nh ngha d
ung. Trong phep tnh vi. tu.., cac wffs dan xuat go.i l`a d.inh l
y, v`a day cac
.
.
.
.
l
y lua.n du o. c su du.ng go.i l`a ch
y. Khai nie.m n`ay rat co. ban v`
u ng minh cua di.nh l
y su. du.ng cac
mo.t so tien tr`nh no.i suy anh co the phat bieu da.ng ch
u.ng minh di.nh l
phep toan vi. t`
u.. Theo cach do, su. du.ng cac nguyen tac suy lua.n v`a ta.p cac su.. kie.n
da biet ch
ung ta co the suy ra nh
u.ng su.. kie.n mo.i hoa.c ch
u.ng minh tnh ho..p le. cua
gia thiet n`ao do.
Co hai phep toan co. ban thu.`o.ng du.o..c su. du.ng trong phep tnh vi. t`
u.ng
u. de ch
u.c logic. Th
u. nhat, thao tac tru..c tiep tren cac da.ng
minh tnh d
ung cua cac bieu th
`e tu.o.ng tu.. nhu. phu.o.ng phap ch
khong me.nh d
u.ng minh cac bieu th
u.c toan ho.c. Th
u.
`e. Hai
hai, do l`a du..a tren doi sanh cac so ha.ng trong nh
u.ng bieu th
u.c o. da.ng me.nh d
phu.o.ng phap n`ay se du.o..c minh ho.a trong v du. du.o.i day.
`oi
V du. 9.5.2 Gia su. ta biet: (1) so.t giay o. da` ng sau b`an l`am vie.c, v`a (2) ghe ng
ngay sau b`an l`am vie.c. Ch
ung ta c
ung gia thiet tnh chat va.t l
y (3) neu x sau y th`
.
.
u ng su. kie.n xuat phat t`
u. b`ai toan,
x khong kha kien. Cac gia thiet (1) v`a (2) l`a nh
`eu kie.n
trong khi (3) l`a tri th
u.c v`a khong phu. thuo.c v`ao b`ai toan. T
u.c l`a vo.i nh
u.ng di
.
.
.
.
n`ao do chang ha.n x nho ho n y th` x khong thay du o. c do bi. che khuat bo i y v`a y l`a
`an suy ra (ch
ung ta c
u.ng minh), ch
khoi da.c (t
u.c khong the nh`n xuyen qua y.) Ch
su. du.ng hai su.. kie.n v`a mo.t gia thiet, ra` ng so.t rac khong kha kien.
Hai su.. kie.n co da.ng
BEHIND(so.t rac, b`an l`am vie.c)
v`a
`oi, b`an l`am vie.c).
NEXT-TO(ghe ng
Hai phat bieu n`ay co quan he. theo phep toan logic AND:
`oi, b`an l`am vie.c).
BEHIND(so.t rac, b`an l`am vie.c) NEXT-TO(ghe ng
`e co da.ng
Tnh chat va.t l
y o. da.ng me.nh d
(x, y)[BEHIND(x, y) INVISIBLE(x)].
`e
Hay tu.o.ng du.o.ng da.ng khong me.nh d
(x, y)[ BEHIND(x, y) INVISIBLE(x)].
`e b`ai toan n`ay ta du.o..c
u.c v
Bieu dien da.ng ho.i tat ca cac tri th
346
(c)
v`a
(d)
INVISIBLE(so.t rac) .
`e INVISIBLE(so.t rac)
Nhac la.i ra` ng ch
ung ta muon suy ra mau thuan cua phu di.nh me.nh d
.
.
.
.
m`a theo di.nh ngha tru o c, no du o. c bieu dien da.ng INVISIBLE(so.t rac) .
`an tu. cua b`ai toan da du.o..c bieu dien o. da.ng me.nh d
`e, ch
Sau khi cac ph
ung ta
suy ra mau thuan b`a ng cach doi sanh hai ve cua cac phep keo theo khac nhau vo.i
347
9.5.4
Ma.ng ng
u. ngha
Ma.ng ng
u. ngha l`a d`o thi. co hu.o.ng du.o..c gan nhan trong do moi n
ut bieu dien cac doi
tu.o..ng hay cac bien v`a cac cung bieu dien moi quan he. gi
u.a cac n
ut. Cac ma.ng du.o..c
thiet ke theo kieu n`ay co mo.t so u.u diem, chang ha.n bieu dien tri th
u.c co tnh tru..c
`o thi. nen co the su. du.ng cac k
y thua.t doi sanh v`a
quan. Ngo`ai ra, do bieu dien tren d
`o thi. de thao tac cac ph
`an tu. cua b`ai toan no.i suy. H`nh 9.20 l`a d`o
gan nhan tren d
thi. bieu dien cac su.. kie.n trong b`ai toan so.t rac.
348
INVISIBLE
.....................................................................
............
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.......
....
....
..
..
....
...
...
......
....
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.
..........
.....
.
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.
..................
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.
.
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.
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.
..............................................
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...
...
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...............................
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...........
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.......
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.........
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..............
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.
.........................................................
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.........
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....................
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G1
G2
G3
so.t rac
BEHIND
ghe
NEXT-TO
BEHIND
INVISIBLE
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G4
so.t rac
Ma.ng ng
u. ngha cung cap mo.t cach tiep ca.n khac de thu..c hie.n tien tr`nh no.i
`an n`ay ch
suy. Ma.c d`
u co mo.t so cach su. du.ng ma.ng de no.i suy, tuy nhien trong ph
ung
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
ta ch ta.p trung v`ao cac ma.ng du o. c su du.ng de bieu dien v`a xu l
y tri th
u c du o. c bieu
dien o. da.ng me.nh d`e. Cach tiep ca.n n`ay minh ho.a cac khai nie.m co. ban su. du.ng
ung tiep tu.c vo.i nh
u.ng thao lua.n tren.
ma.ng ng
u. ngha v`a c
`e rat de d`ang. Y
Vie.c xay du..ng cac ma.ng ng
u. ngha t`
u. cac bieu th
u.c me.nh d
`an cua ma.ng ng
tu.o.ng l`a bieu dien moi me.nh d`e nhu. mo.t ph
u. ngha (t
u.c l`a, moi me.nh
d`e du.o..c bieu dien nhu. mo.t d`o thi. con). Cac n
ut cua ma.ng ch
u.a cac bien v`a cac ha` ng
(cac doi tu.o..ng), v`a cac cung du.o..c gan nhan bieu thi. moi quan he. gi
u.a hai n
ut. Mo.t
`an ket lua.n
ui ten neu no bieu dien mo.t quan he. trong ph
cung du.o..c ve b`a ng mo.t m
`e v`a m
`an di
`eu kie.n
(ve phai) cua me.nh d
ui ten doi neu no bieu dien quan he. trong ph
`e. H`nh 9.20 minh ho.a d
`o thi. tu.o.ng u
(ve trai) cua me.nh d
.ng cac bieu th
u.c (a)-(d)
trong v du. so.t rac. Ch
ung ta chuyen quan he. mo.t ngoi, chang ha.n INVISIBLE(x),
th`anh quan he. hai ngoi INVISIBLE(x, x) (tu.o.ng u
.ng khuyen cua d`o thi.).
Qua tr`nh suy lua.n du..a v`ao ma.ng ng
u. ngha co da.ng trong H`nh 9.20 rat do.n
gian. Cac d`o thi. con du.o..c tro.n lan ba` ng cach doi sanh cac bien v`a cac ha` ng, cac m
ui
.
.
.
.
ten doi khu cac m
ung vo i cac n
ut ngo.n neu ch
ung ba` ng nhau. Nhu trong
ui ten do n c`
`an tru.o.c, mu.c dch l`a t`m phan hoa.ch trong lien quan den me.nh d
`e phu di.nh du.o..c
ph
y hie.u G13 ) khi tro.n hai
thiet la.p l
uc bat d`au suy lua.n. H`nh 9.21 minh ho.a ket qua (k
d`o thi. con G1 v`a G2 trong H`nh 9.20. Tro.n G13 v`a G4 ta du.o..c d`o thi. trong. T`
u. do
suy ra so.t rac khong kha kien.
349
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INVISIBLE
INVISIBLE
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G2
G13
G4
ghe
NEXT-TO
so.t rac
so.t rac
`o thi. con.
H`nh 9.21: Suy lua.n ba` ng cach tro.n cac d
9.5.5
H
e. chuy
en gia
He. chuyen gia l`a mo.t cach tiep ca.n khac de suy lua.n. Tu.o.ng tu.. trong phep tnh vi. t`
u.
v`a ma.ng ng
u. ngha, he. chuyen gia su. du.ng doi sanh de suy lua.n. Tuy nhien, cac h`anh
`eu.
u.c ta.p ho.n nhi
do.ng cua mo.t he. chuyen gia sau khi doi sanh da du.o..c t`m thay ph
.
Tha.t ra, cac h`anh do.ng co do. ph
u c ta.p tu`
yy
.
- a.c bie.t, cac
`eu do tnh m
`em deo cua ch
He. chuyen gia du.o..c quan tam nhi
ung. D
`eu lnh vu..c t`
u. xu. l
he. chuyen gia da du.o..c su. du.ng th`anh cong trong nhi
y anh v`a kiem
`eu khien.
tra cac san pham cong nghie.p den chan doan trong y ho.c v`a cac qua tr`nh di
Cac he. chuyen gia l`a cac he. thong human-machine vo.i chuyen mon hoa cao nha` m giai
quyet nh
u.ng b`ai toan da.c bie.t. Do do thua.t ng
u. he. chuyen gia am ch den cac he.
`e lnh vu..c da.c bie.t.
u.c nha.n du.o..c t`
u. nh
u.ng chuyen gia v
thong may du..a tren tri th
- o.n vi. xu. l
`an co. ban cua mo.t he. chuyen gia. D
H`nh 9.22 cho thay cac th`anh ph
y
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
u a ngu `o i su du.ng v`a he. thong. Ngu `o i su du.ng tu o ng
ngon ng
u l`a bo. pha.n giao tiep gi
tac vo.i he. chuyen gia thong qua ngon ng
u. di.nh hu.o.ng b`ai toan m`a thu.`o.ng o. da.ng
u. vu..ng ha.n che. Co the su. du.ng ngon ng
u. d`o ho.a de bo sung cho
tieng Anh vo.i so t`
- o.n vi. xu. l
u. ngu.`o.i su. du.ng v`a
vie.c giao tiep. D
y ngon ng
u. giai thch cac tn hie.u v`ao t`
- o.n vi. di
`eu chnh giai thch cac h`anh
di.nh da.ng thong tin du.o..c ta.o ra bo.i he. thong. D
do.ng cua he. thong cho ngu.`o.i su. du.ng. Chang ha.n, no tra l`o.i cac cau hoi ta.i sao mo.t
`eu chnh dong
tien tr`nh du.o..c ho`an th`anh hoa.c tien tr`nh khac bi. loa.i bo. Bo. pha.n di
vai tr`o chu yeu trong vie.c thiet ke ban d`au v`a go. roi cua mo.t he. chuyen gia.
u. cac mau tin chang ha.n d
u. lie.u hie.n
Bo. pha.n blackboard co ch
u.c nang lu.u tr
`e b`ai toan da.c ta, cac gia thiet, v`a cac quyet di.nh trung gian. Cac thua.t ng
h`anh v
u. bo.
y hie.u
nho. ta.m th`o.i v`a bo. nho. th`o.i gian ngan thu.`o.ng du.o..c su. du.ng luan phien de k
350
y
Xu. l
ngon ng
u.
...
.......
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.
........
.
Blackboard
Co. so.
tri th
u.c
.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
...
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..
- i
`eu chnh
D
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..
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...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
- i
`eu khien
D
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R(107)
`e nhau, v`a
n
eu kch thu.o.c cac v`
ung nho, v`a cac v`
ung k
u.c xam trung b`nh cua hai anh nho,
hie.u gi
u.a hai m
th` tro.n hai v`
ung.
`e nhau c
`an di.nh ngha tru.o.c v`a du.o..c lu.u tr
Cac khai nie.m nho v`a k
u. o. no.i m`a
`an. Thong tin loa.i n`ay du.o..c lu.u tr
u. trong co. so.
cac quy tac co the lay thong tin khi c
ung da du.o..c xac di.nh v`a cac da.c tru.ng cua ch
ung da du.o..c
tri th
u.c. Gia thiet cac v`
tnh. T
u.c l`a, qua tr`nh phan doa.n v`a t`m da.c tru.ng da du.o..c thu..c hie.n. Cuoi c`
ung,
.
`om ba di
`eu kie.n v`a mo.t h`anh do.ng. Trong thu. c te, cac quy tac
quy tac da.c bie.t n`ay g
`eu di
`eu kie.n du.a den mo.t h`anh do.ng thu.`o.ng xay ra trong cac he. thong xu. l
vo.i nhi
y
anh.
`eu kie.n trong mo.t quy tac da thoa ta.i c`
Khi tat ca cac di
ung mo.t th`o.i diem, th`
quy tac du.o..c kch hoa.t. Khi cac h`anh do.ng da du.o..c thu..c hie.n, quy tac go.i l`a fired.
Ch
uy
r`a ng, quy tac du.o..c kho.i do.ng khong co ngha quy tac n`ay tu.. do.ng fired. Neu
`an du.a v`ao giai doa.n giai
`eu ho.n mo.t quy tac du.o..c kho.i do.ng th` he. thong c
co nhi
- i
`eu n`ay co ngha ch co mo.t quy
quyet xung do.t de xac d.inh quy tac n`ao du.o..c fired. D
.
.
.
tac du o. c phep fired ta.i mo.t th`o i diem.
Hien nhien co su.. tu.o.ng tu.. gi
u.a cac quy tac cua he. chuyen gia o. da.ng du.o..c mo
`e du.o..c d`e ca.p tru.o.c. Tha.t ra, cac nguyen tac cua he.
u.c da.ng me.nh d
ta v`a cac bieu th
chuyen gia thu.`o.ng de d`ang da.c ta v`a do.c no. Chang ha.n, cac di.nh lua.t va.t l
y trong
.
.
b`ai toan so.t rac du o. c noi tren co the bieu dien da.ng
n
eu doi tu.o..ng x du
.ng sau doi tu.o..ng y,
th` doi tu.o..ng x khong kha kien.
Khi cac su.. kie.n da du.o..c cho, mo.t he. chuyen gia co gang doi sanh nh
u.ng su.. kie.n n`ay
`eu kie.n trong mo.t nguyen
`eu kie.n trong co. so. quy tac. Kiem tra tat ca cac di
vo.i cac di
tac v`a kho.i do.ng no. Neu khong xay ra xung do.t, h`anh do.ng tu.o.ng u
.ng vo.i quy tac
`an l`a me.nh d
`e thong bao
du.o..c kch hoa.t, do do firing quy tac. H`anh do.ng ch do.n thu
nhu. trong quy tac tren. Trong su.. kie.n so.t rac o. da` ng sau b`an l`am vie.c he. chuyen
gia se doi sanh so.t rac vo.i x v`a b`an l`am vie.c vo.i y, kho.i do.ng quy tac. H`anh do.ng
u.c do. m`a cac me.nh
trong tru.`o.ng ho..p n`ay l`a me.nh d`e so.t rac khong kha kien. M
d`e du.o..c chap nha.n o. da.ng tieng Anh (hoa.c ngon ng
u. khac) phu. thuo.c v`ao su.. h`nh
th`anh he. chuyen gia. V` cac he. chuyen gia hu.o.ng den ngu.`o.i su. du.ng, nen giao tiep
ung se de d`ang ho.n cac he. thong du..a tren logic vi. t`
u. hay cac ma.ng ng
u. ngha.
vo.i ch
352
T`
ai li
e.u tham khao
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[15] J. C. Russ, The image processing handbook, CRC Press, Inc., 1995.
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354