SNG SNG SNG SNG

Cc nguyn l c Cc nguyn l c Cc nguyn l c Cc nguyn l c~ ~~ ~a nh sng, i a nh sng, i a nh sng, i a nh sng, i n v T n v T n v T n v T h hh hr rr rc cc c

Paul Fleisher
Trn Nghim dch
______________

Pht hnh tdi http://thuvienvatly.com
thng 8/2011





N NN N i dung i dung i dung i dung

Gii thiu: Th no l mt nh lut t nhin? 1
1. Quang hrc
Cc nh lut v nh sng 4
2. Cc nh lut in t hrc 17
3. Dng in
nh lut Ohm v nh lut Joule 24
nh lut nghch o bnh phng 30
Theo dng lch s 33
Tiu s cc nh khoa hrc 35
Ti liu tham kho 41
Thut ng 43
V tc gi 44

1

Cl Cl Cl Clo oo ol thl l thl l thl l thle ee eu uu u
Th Th Th The ee e nao la n nao la n nao la n nao la no oo ot d t d t d t dl ll lnh lu nh lu nh lu nh lua aa at t t t t t t tu uu u nhlen nhlen nhlen nhlen

Mi ngi u bit mt iu lut l g. N l mt quy tc yu cu mi
ngi phi hoc khng phi lm mt ci g . Cc iu lut cho chng ta bit
rng chng ta khng nn li xe nhanh hn tc gii hn c php, rng
chng ta khng c php ly ti sn ca ngi khc, rng chng ta phi
ng thu thu nhp hng nm.
Nhng iu lut ny t u m c? nc M v nhng nc dn ch
khc, cc iu lut c son ra bi nhng i biu c bu. Nhng ngi
ny a ra tho lun nhng tng m h ngh l hp l v c ch. Sau , h
b phiu quyt nh nhng tng no s tht s tr thnh lut.
Nhng cn c mt loi lut khc na, l nh lut khoa hc. Th d,
bn s c v nh lut Coulomb cui quyn sch ny. nh lut Coulomb
cho chng ta bit rng lc in gia hai vt bt k ph thuc vo hai yu t:
lng in tch ca mi vt, v khong cch gia hai vt. Vy nh lut
Coulomb t u m c, v chng ta c th lm g nu chng ta mun thay i
n?
nh lut Coulomb rt khc vi gii hn tc hay iu lut quy nh
bn phi ng thu. Gii hn tc nhng ni khc nhau th khc nhau.
Trn nhiu tuyn cao tc xuyn tnh, li xe c th chy n 105 km/h. Trn
nhng tuyn ph ng c, h phi li xe chm li. Nhng lc in th lun
tc dng ging nh nhau cho d bn ang u ng qu hay thnh th,
Php, Brazil hay M.
Thnh thong, ngi ta vi phm lut. Khi gii hn tc l 89 km/h,
ngi ta thng li 97 km/h hoc thm ch cn nhanh hn. Nhng chuyn g
s xy ra nu bn th vi phm nh lut Coulomb? Bn khng th. Nu bn
kim tra mt nghn vt tch in, bn s nhn thy mi v mi vt u tun
theo quy tc m t trong nh lut Coulomb. Mi vt u tun theo nh lut
ny. V chng ta bit rng nh lut Coulomb vn pht huy tc dng cho d
ngi ta c ang theo di vt hay khng.
nh lut Coulomb l mt nh lut t nhin, hay mt quy tc ca t
nhin. Cc nh khoa hc v nh trit hc nghin cu nhng s kin xy ra
trong th gii ca chng ta trong mt thi gian di. H tin hnh nhng
quan st t m v lm nhiu th nghim. V h nhn thy nhng s kin
nht nh xy ra mi mi theo mt kiu c quy lut, c th d on trc. C
l bn cng tng ch ti mt s dng thc ny trong th gii quanh ta.
2
Mt nh lut khoa hc l mt pht biu gii thch vn vt hot ng
nh th no trong v tr. N m t cch thc vn vt hot ng, ch khng
phi cch thc chng ta mun chng nh th. iu c ngha l mt nh
lut khoa hc khng phi l ci g c th thay i h khi no chng ta la
chn. Chng ta c th thay i tc gii hn hay t sut thu nu chng ta
ngh chng qu cao hoc qu thp. Nhng cho d chng ta c mun lc in
tc dng khc i nh th no chng na, th nh lut Coulomb vn pht huy
tc dng. Chng ta khng th thay i n; chng ta ch c th m t ci xy ra
m thi. Cng vic ca mt nh khoa hc l m t cc nh lut ca t nhin
cng ng v cng chnh xc cng tt.
Nhng nh lut m bn c trong tp sch ny l nhng nh lut vn
vt. iu c ngha l chng khng nhng ng ti y, trn Tri t ny,
m cn ng trong ton ci v tr. V tr bao gm tt c nhng th m chng
ta bit l tn ti: hnh tinh ca chng ta, h mt tri ca chng ta, thin h ca
chng ta, ton b hng t ngi sao v thin h khc, v ton b khong khng
gian trng rng v tn gia chng. Ton b nhng bng chng m cc nh
khoa hc thu thp c v nhng hnh tinh v nhng ngi sao khc trong v
tr ca chng ta cho chng ta bit rng nhng nh lut khoa hc p dng
c cho Tri t ny cng p dng c cho mi ni khc.
Trong lch s khoa hc, mt s nh lut c tm thy qua nhng
khm ph xut sc ca mt c nhn no . Nhng thng thng, cc nh
lut khoa hc c khm ph qua s n lc ca nhiu nh khoa hc, mi
ngi xy dng trn nn tng ca nhng ngi khc i trc. Khi mt nh
khoa hc nh Charles Augustin de Coulomb nhn c vinh d khm ph
ra mt nh lut, th iu quan trng nn nh l nhng ngi khc cng c
ng gp cho s khm ph . Hu nh mi khm ph khoa hc u da trn
nhng vn v nhng cu hi m nhiu nh khoa hc trc nghin
cu.
Cc nh lut khoa hc him khi thay i. Chng bt bin v chng ta
ni v tr hnh x khc i. Cc nh lut khoa hc ch thay i khi chng ta
c thm nhng thng tin mi hay nhng quan st chnh xc hn. nh lut
thay i khi cc nh khoa hc c nhng khm ph mi cho thy nh lut c
khng cn m t v tr tt nh th na. H khi no cc nh khoa hc thng
nht mt s thay i trong cc nh lut t nhin, th nh lut mi m t cc
s kin mt cch hon chnh hn, hoc n gin v r rng hn.
Mt th d hay kiu ny l cc nh lut m t in hc v t hc. Cc
nh khoa hc tng ngh rng in v t l hai hin tng khc nhau v tch
ri nhau. Nhng nhng khm ph mi v nhng php o ci tin gip cho
mt nh khoa hc ln, James Clerk Maxwell, vit li cc nh lut m t in
v t hot ng nh th no. Maxwell nhn ra rng lc in v lc t l hai
dng khc nhau ca cng mt lc. Bn c th c v nhng khm ph ca
Maxwell phn sau tp sch ny.
3
Cc nh lut t nhin thng c vit theo ngn ng ton hc. Ngn
ng ny cho php cc nh khoa hc chnh xc hn trong nhng m t ca h
rng vn vt hot ng nh th no. Th d, nh lut Coulomb tht ra c
vit nh th ny:
( ) ( )
2
1 2 q q
F k
d

=
ng ton hc lm bn hoa mt. N chnh l nh lut m t cc
in tch tng tc nh th no. Vit nh lut ra nh th ny cho php cc
nh khoa hc tnh ton chnh xc lc in tng tc trong nhiu tnh hung
khc nhau trn Tri t ny v mi ni trong v tr.
Ngnh khoa hc nghin cu vt cht v nng lng v cch thc chng
hnh x c gi l vt l hc. Trong hng trm nm qua, cc nh vt l v
ang nghin cu v tr ca chng ta, h khm ph ra nhiu nh lut t
nhin. Trong tp sch ny, bn s bt gp mt vi trong s nhng khm ph v
i ny. S c mt s th nghim n gin bn c th thc hin nghim
xem cc nh lut tc dng nh th no. Hy cng c v cng chia s nhng
cu chuyn th v v nhng nh lut tit l nhng b n ca v tr ca chng
ta.

4



Chuong 1 Chuong 1 Chuong 1 Chuong 1
Quang h Quang h Quang h Quang ho oo oc c c c Cac d Cac d Cac d Cac dl ll lnh lu nh lu nh lu nh lua aa at v t v t v t v anh san anh san anh san anh sang gg g


Khi chng ta ngm nhn bu tri m, chng ta thy nh sng pht ra t
hng nghn ngi sao khc nhau. Chng ta thy Mt trng v cc hnh tinh
lung linh vi nh sng mt tri phn x. Ton b v tr ngp trong nh sng.
Nhng nh sng l g, v nhng nh lut t nhin no m t hnh trng ca
n?
Ngnh vt l hc nghin cu nh sng c gi l quang hc. Mt s
nh khoa hc v i nht th gii, trong c Newton, Huygens, Maxwell v
Einstein, nghin cu quang hc, n lc tm hiu cc nh lut v nh sng.
Mt nh lut m t hnh trng ca nh sng c ngi ta bit ti
hn hai nghn nm ri. Cc nh trit hc Hi Lp khng bit nh sng l ci g,
nhng h tht s bit n truyn i theo ng thng. nh lut phn x nh
sng ph thuc vo thc t ny. Khi nh sng bt ra khi mt ci gng hay
mt b mt khc, y c gi l s phn x. Khi bn nhn thy mnh trong
gng l bn ang nhn nh sng phn x t mt ca bn n gng ri sau
phn hi vo mt ca bn. nh lut phn x pht biu rng: Gc ti bng
vi gc phn x.
Gc ti l gc ca nh sng chiu ln trn mt b mt phn chiu. Gc
phn x l gc ca tia sng bt ra khi b mt . nh lut phn x pht biu
rng hai gc lun lun bng nhau. Nu nh sng chiu ln mt ci gng
gc 45 , th n s phn x khi gng gc 45 . iu tng t lun
ng cho d nh sng chiu ln vi mt gc bng bao nhiu cng vy.
Bn c th d dng trng thy tc dng ca nh lut ny bng cch s
dng mt ci gng nh, mt n pin dng flash, vi ming ba cng v bng
dnh, thm mt t bi phn hoc bt m. V mt ng thng ln chnh gia
ming ba vung. Sau gp ming ba lm i theo ng v ny. Trn
ming ba th hai, t u thu knh ca n flash ln, v theo ng ra ca
n. Ct dc theo ng ra mi v, sau khot mt ci l nh ngay chnh
gia hnh mi ct. Dng n bc thu knh ca n flash li, dng keo dnh
dn c nh lun. L nh s cho bn mt chm nh sng hp khi bn bt
n flash ln.
5

Bn c th nhn thy ng i ca nh sng phn x bng cch ri bt mn vo trong
khng kh.
t ci gng ln trn bn. Dng ng ming ba gp np ln trn
bn pha sau gng, ng gp np canh ngay khong gia ca gng.
Ming ba ny s cho bn mt ng thng ng dng so snh gc ca cc
chm tia sng. Ri mt lng rt nh bi phn hoc bt m vo trong khng
kh lm cho chm sng n flash c th nhn thy r. ng ca phng v
ca s li, ri chiu nh sng ln chnh gia ca gng.
Lu chm nh sng phn x khi gng gc bng vi gc n i ti
gng. Cho d gc bn chiu chm sng flash l bao nhiu cng vy. Gc ca
nh sng phn x khi gng s lun lun khp vi gc nh sng chiu ti.
nh sng truyn i theo ng thng. Nhng nh sng cng b cong
khi n truyn t mi trng trong sut ny sang mi trng trong sut khc.
Nu bn dng mt ci bt ch vo trong cc nc, th ci bt ch trng nh b
b cong khi n i vo trong nc.
Tt nhin, ci bt ch tht ra khng h b cong. N trng cong i v nh
sng truyn vo nc b b cong. S b cong nh sng nh th ny c gi
l s khc x. Lu rng ci bt ch ch trng nh b cong ti b mt ca
nc, cn trong nc v trong khng kh vn bnh thng. S khc x ch
xy ra ti ranh gii gia hai mi trng trong sut.
6
Mi cht trong sut lm b cong nh sng nhng gc nht nh c th
d on trc. S khc x xy ra v nh sng truyn i nhng tc khc
nhau trong nhng cht khc nhau. Lng khc x ph thuc vo chnh
lch tc nh sng trong hai mi trng trong sut . chnh lch tc
nh sng trong hai cht cng ln th nh sng s b b cong cng nhiu khi i
qua gia chng.
nh sng truyn trong khng kh nhanh hn truyn trong nc. Khi
nh sng i t khng kh vo nc, n chuyn ng chm li. V v n
chuyn ng chm li, nn n cn b khc x, hay b b cong. nh sng
truyn trong thy tinh cn chm hn na. Khi nh sng i t khng kh vo
thy tinh, n b cong nhiu hn na. Mt ci bt ch t mt phn pha sau
mt ming thy tinh dy s trng b cong nhiu hn so vi mt ci bt ch t
mt phn trong nc.
Mt nh khoa hc tng nghin cu quang hc l Isaac Newton. Newton
bit rng khi nh sng mt tri b khc x trong mt lng knh thy tinh, th
nh sng trng b phn tch thnh mt cu vng nh sng, gi l quang ph.
Newton chng minh rng nh sng mt tri tht ra gm ton b cc mu
sc ca cu vng.
Nhiu nm sau ny, nh thin vn hc William Herschel pht hin ra
s tn ti ca mt loi nh sng khc nh sng khng nhn thy. Vo nm
1800, Herschel ang tin hnh o nhit ca nhng mu sc khc nhau
trong quang ph. ng mun tm hiu xem nh sng mu , cam, vng, lc
hay lam to ra nhiu nhit lng nht. ng s dng mt lng knh thy tinh
phn tch nh sng mt tri thnh mt quang ph. Sau , ng dng mt
nhit k o tng mu sc mt.

Mt s tng nhit bt ng dn Herschel n ch pht hin ra nh sng hng ngoi
khng nhn thy.
7

Ph in t bao gm nhng vng cc rng ca sng nh sng.
8
Herschel nhn thy phn nng nht ca quang ph nm pha ngoi u
, mt ni m ng khng th nhn thy cht nh sng no c! Nhng nhit
k chng t rng c nhng tia sng khng nhn thy y. Herschel khm
ph ra s tn ti ca nh sng hng ngoi.
Mt nm sau, nh sng u bn kia ca quang ph c tm thy.
nh sng ny cng khng th nhn thy, nhng n tht s to ra nh trn cc
tm knh nh. nh sng ny c gi l nh sng t ngoi. Vo gia th k 19,
James Clerk Maxwell chng t rng quang ph nh sng cha nhiu hn ci
nh sng m chng ta c th nhn thy. Ngy nay, chng ta bit rng ton b
quang ph khng ch c nh sng nhn thy, m cn c sng v tuyn, nh
sng hng ngoi, nh sng t ngoi, tia X v tia gamma.
Nhng nghin cu ca Newton v nh sng vo cui th k 17 v u
th k 18 lm pht sinh mt trong nhng cuc tranh ci dai dng nht trong
lch s khoa hc. Cuc tranh ci , khng phn thng bi trong hn hai trm
nm tri, l v bn cht nh sng l mt cn ma gm nhng ht nh xu hay
nh sng l nhng lot sng.
tm hiu cu hi trn, bn cn phi bit mt cht v hnh trng ca
sng. Sng c th d thy nht l trong mt b sng. to ra mt b sng
ti nh, bn cn c mt ci a to bng thy tinh trong, mt tm giy trng, v
mt ci n bn. Bn cng cn c hai ci bt ch v vi ming g nh
lm vt chn sng.
nc vo ngp hai phn ba ci a to. t n ln bn, pha trn mt
ming giy. t ci n bn sao cho nh sng ca n ri thng gc xung
mt nc. Gi th dng ci u ty ca bt ch khu nh nc trong a
to sng. Bn s thy sng to ra nhng ci bng trn t giy pha di, khin
chng d thy hn. Hy nh rng sng m bn ang nhn thy l sng nc,
nhng nhng sng khc, trong c nh sng, c nhng tnh cht tng t.
t mt ming g nh vo trong a lm vt chn sng. mt bn ca ming
g, hy dng bt ch to ra sng. Hy quan st ci xy ra khi sng i qua vt
cn.
Lu rng sng cong i xung quanh vt cn v truyn vo phn b b
chn sng. S cong i nh th ny ca sng xung quanh mt vt cn c gi
l s nhiu x. Nhiu x l mt c trng ca mi loi sng.
i vi cc nh khoa hc hi th k 17, nh sng dng nh chng
nhiu x ging nh nhng sng khc. nh sng c v truyn i theo ng
thng, thay v cong vng quanh vt cn. Nu bn t mt vt vo trong nh
sng mt tri, n to ra mt ci bng. Nu nh sng mt tri nhiu x ging
nh sng nc, th bn ngh nh sng s i vng quanh qua vt v to ra mt
ci bng l m. Nhng nh sng mt tri to ra ci bng c ng bao sc nt.

9

Trong b sng, sng nhiu x, hay cong i, xung quanh mt vt t trn ng i ca n.

V l do ny, Newton tin rng nh sng phi gm nhng ht nh xu,
chuyn ng nhanh theo ng thng. Khi mt vt chn dng ht li, th kt
qu l nhng ci bng sc nt.
Sau khi Newton xut rng nh sng gm nhng ht nh xu, hai nh
khoa hc ting tm khc khng tn thnh. Robert Hooke v Christiaan
Huygens cho rng nh sng cng hnh x ging nh sng. Chng ta hy tr
li b sng chng t lp lun ny ca h.
Chn mt phn trong ci b sng ca bn, ch cha mt l nh thng
qua phn b bn kia. Vi ci bt ch ca mnh, bn hy to ra sng trong phn
b chn kn ca b. Lu ci xy ra khi chng i qua l nh.
Sng i qua ci l nh phn tn ra y ht nh cch chng lan ta ra t
chnh ngun pht sng. Huygens lu rng bt k mi im trn phng
truyn sng c th tc dng nh mt ngun pht sng mi. Sng pht ra t
ngun mi ny s c nhng c trng ging vi sng ban u. Quy tc ny
c gi l nguyn l Huygens.

10

Nu nh sng gm nhng ht nh, bn s mun thy nhng ci bng sc nt (nh trn).
Nu nh sng l sng, bn s mun thy ci bng km sc nt hn (nh di).
chnh l ci xy ra khi bn cho php nh sng chiu qua mt ci l
nh. N lan ta ra t ci l, c nh l ci l l mt ngun pht sng.
Huygens cn trnh by rng nu nh sng l sng, th iu s gii
thch tnh cht khc x ca n. Sng nh sng truyn trong nhng cht liu
khc nhau s c tc khc nhau. S thay i tc s lm cho sng b b
cong i. Vic l gii ti sao cc ht nh sng b b cong khi chng i vo
nc hoc thy tinh th kh khn hn.
11

Trong mt b sng, sng truyn qua mt ci l nh phn tn ra nh th ci l nh l mt
ngun pht sng tht s.

nh sng i qua mt ci l nh hnh x nh th bn thn ci l l mt ngun sng.
12
Sng cn c mt hnh trng th v khc gi l s giao thoa. nhn
thy s giao thoa trong b sng ca mnh, bn s cn to sng vi hai ci bt
ch. Gi hai ci bt ch cch nhau vi cm. Sau , khu mt nc vi c hai
bt ch cng lc, theo kiu u n, to ra hai tp hp sng.
khi hai tp hp sng chng ln ln nhau v i qua nhau, chng
tng tc vi nhau. mt s ch, chng trit tiu ln nhau, cn mt s ch
khc th chng cng gp tc dng ca chng vi nhau. Hin tng ny gi l
giao thoa sng. Nu bn gi kiu sng u vi chuyn ng u ca hai ci
bt ch, th bn s c h vn giao thoa u n.
Mt c trng ca sng l chng to ra h vn giao thoa khi chng
chng ln nhau. Khi nhng dng ht giao nhau, ci ngi ta mun thy l
chng va chm nhau. Khng ai tng quan st thy s va chm khi hai chm
nh sng chiu xuyn qua nhau. Nhng nh sng c to ra giao thoa hay
khng?

Hai ngun sng to ra mt h vn giao thoa.
Nm 1801, nh vt l ngi Anh Thomas Young chng minh rng
nh sng tht s nhiu x v tht s to ra h vn giao thoa, ging ht nh
nhng sng khc. C v nh cu hi nh sng l ht hay l sng cui cng
c cu tr li.
13
Bn c th d dng thy h vn giao thoa ca nh sng vi hai ci bt
ch v n bn. Gi hai ci bt ch pha trc mt bn khi bn nhn v
pha ngn n. Di chuyn hai ci bt ch n gn nhau hn, cho n khi
chng gn nh chm vo nhau. Bn s nhn thy mt h gm nhng vch
sng v ti rt mn. l h vn giao thoa to ra khi nh sng pht ra t ngn
n i qua khe hp chia tch gia hai ci bt ch. Nhng vch ti l nhng ni
ti sng nh sng trit tiu nhau. V nh sng to ra h vn giao thoa ging
nh nhng sng khc, nn n cng phi l sng.
Young cn tnh c kch c tht s ca sng nh sng. Bc sng ca
sng nh sng l rt nh, nhng Young o c chng. Nhng mu sc
nh sng khc nhau ha ra l c bc sng khc nhau. Young tm thy bc
sng ca nh sng mu vo khong 76 phn triu ca mt cm. Bc sng
ca nh sng mu lam cn nh hn na, khong 38 phn triu ca mt cm.
Nhng php o ca Young l gii ti sao s nhiu x nh sng li kh
nhn thy nh th. S nhiu x xy ra khi sng b cong vng quanh mt vt
cn. Nhng sng nh sng qu nh nn chng ch c th b cong quanh
nhng vt cn rt nh - nhng vt cn khng ln hn kch c nguyn t bao
nhiu.
Vo gia th k 19, ngi ta dng nh chc chn rng nh sng c bn
cht sng. Nhng ngay c khi vn vn cha c gii quyt xong.
Khong nm 1900, nhng khm ph mi ca Max Planck v Albert Einstein
lm hi sinh l thuyt ht. Kt qu cui cng ha ra l c hai phe tranh ci
u ng! nh sng thng hnh x ging nh sng, nhng n cng tc dng
ging nh ht.

Sng c th c o bng bc sng hoc tn s ca chng.
C mt nh lut m t sng ca nh sng hay khng? C ch.
Nhng ngi sao m nht m chng ta thy trn bu tri m tht ra l nhng
mt tri ang bng chy. nh sng ca chng m i nhiu sau hnh trnh
ng di ca chng n hnh tinh ca chng ta. Bn cng xa mt ngun
14
pht sng, th rc r ca nh sng cng km i. Tht vy, cng ca
nh sng pht ra t mi ngun sng gim rt nhanh khi khong cch n
ngun tng ln. gim t l vi bnh phng ca khong cch. Bnh
phng ca khong cch c ngha nhn khong cch vi chnh n.
Mi lin h c bit ny gia sng v khong cch n ngun sng
c gi l quan h t l nghch bnh phng. Nhiu lc khc trong t nhin
gim i theo khong cch vi quy lut tng t. Mt li gii thch cn k hn
nguyn do v sao xy ra nh vy, mi bn tham kho phn sau tp sch ny.
Trong khi ch i, hy th ngh xem Mt tri ca chng ta cn to ra bao
nhiu nh sng. N cc k rc r, mc d chng ta cch xa n n 150 triu
kilomet!
Chng ta cn xt n mt thc t na v nh sng tc ca n.
Galileo Galilei l nh khoa hc u tin n lc o tc ca nh sng. ng
ng trn mt ngn i, tay cm mt ci n lng y kn, v mt ngi
tr l ng mt ngn i ng xa, tay cm mt ci n lng ging nh vy.
ng m n ca mnh ln. Ngay khi ngi tr l ca ng nhn thy nh sng,
anh ta lp tc m n ca mnh ln. Galileo mun o thi gian cn thit
ng nhn li tn hiu sng.
Tht khng may, th nghim khng thnh cng. nh sng c v truyn
i gia hai ngn i gn nh tc thi. nh sng chuyn ng nhanh n mc
vic o tc ca n l v cng kh khn.
N lc u tin thnh cng trong vic o tc nh sng l s dng
qu o ca Tri t lm thc o. Nh thin vn hc ngi an Mch Olaus
Rmer bit s che khut ca cc v tinh ca Mc tinh xy ra theo lch nh
hi cui th k 17. ng thy thi gian che khut bin thin, ty thuc vo
Mc tinh v Tri t ni no trong qu o ca chng. Nu hai hnh tinh
v hai pha ca Mt tri, th s che khut s mun vi ba pht. Nu hai hnh
tinh cng mt pha ca Mt tri, th s che khut s sm vi ba pht.
Rmer nhn thy chnh lch thi gian c nguyn nhn l s chnh
lch khong cch m nh sng t v tinh ca Mc tinh phi truyn i trc
khi n c nhn thy trn Tri t. Rmer bit ng knh gn ng ca
qu o Tri t. ng bit nh sng phi i thm bao xa bng qua qu o
. Cho nn, ng c th c tnh nh sng truyn i bao nhanh bng qua
khong cch . Rmer tnh c nh sng truyn i tc khong 226.000
km mi giy.
Nm 1849, nh vt l ngi Php Armand Fizeau l khoa hc u tin
ch to ra mt dng c o tc nh sng trong mt th nghim trong
phng lab. K t , nhiu nh nghin cu khc tin hnh nhng php o
ngy mt chnh xc hn ca tc nh sng. Ni ting nht trong s hc l
nh vt l ngi M Albert Michelson. ng dnh phn ln cuc i ca
mnh xc nh chnh xc tc ca nh sng, Michelson ginh gii thng
15
Nobel nm 1907, gii thng tn vinh nhiu th nghim ti tnh m ng
dng o tc nh sng cng chnh xc cng tt.

Rmer s dng nhng v tr khc nhau ca qu o Tri t o tc ca nh sng
mt tri phn x khi Mc tinh.
Ngy nay, cc nh khoa hc t tc nh sng l 299.792,5 km/s, hay
186.281,7 dm/s. Tc thng c lm trn l 300.000 km/s hay
186.000 dm/s. y l mt s o rt quan trng. Tc ca nh sng c th
xem l gii hn tc ca v tr. Nh chng ta bit, khng c ci g c th
truyn i nhanh hn tc nh sng.
Tc ca nh sng l 300.000 km/s trong chn khng (khng gian
hon ton trng rng). nh sng truyn i trong khng kh nhanh gn nh th.
Trong nhng cht liu khc, nh nc hoc thy tinh, tc nh sng chm
hn nhiu. Th d, nh sng truyn i khong 225.000 km/s (140.000 dm/s)
trong nc v khong 200.000 km/s (124.000 dm/s) trong thy tinh.
Chnh s khc bit tc ny l nguyn nhn khin nh sng b khc x, hay
b b cong, khi n i t cht ny sang cht khc.
nh sng l mt b phn quen thuc trong th gii hng ngy ca
chng ta nn ngi ta thng d qun n c bit v quan trng nh th no.
Chng ta c th nhn thy th gii ca mnh ch v n chm ngp trong mt
16
dng nh sng lin tc, chng phn x khi nhng vt xung quanh chng ta
v i vo mt ca chng ta. V tr ngp trn nh sng truyn i tc ht
sc ln t nhng ngi sao v thin h xa xi. Chnh nh sng ny cho chng
ta bit ci g ngoi kia, bn ngoi th gii ca ring chng ta. nh sng l
kt ni quan trng nht ca chng ta vi mi th trong v tr nm bn ngoi
hnh tinh ca chng ta. Khng c kin thc v nh sng, th c l khoa hc
khng th hiu c phn cn li ca v tr.
17


Chuong 2 Chuong 2 Chuong 2 Chuong 2
Cac d Cac d Cac d Cac dl ll lnh nh nh nh lu lu lu lua aa at dl t dl t dl t dle ee en t n t n t n tu uu u h hh ho oo oc cc c

Vo cui th k 18, in hc l mt th tiu khin ph bin. Khch
kha s thu gom in tch bng thanh thy tinh v mnh la. Sau , h s
lm sc ngi khc vi nhng tia la in, lm cho tc ca h dng ng ln,
v lm nhng tr o thut in khc na. in l mt mn chi hp dn.
Nhng n cng l mt cu i vi nhng nh khoa hc c gng nghin
cu n.
L thuyt ph bin nht ca in hc lc y ni rng in gm hai loi
cht lng. Mt cht lng c in tch dng, v mt cht lng c in tch m.
C nhiu cch thu gom nhng cht lng ny. Th d, c xt mt thanh thy
tinh vi lng th lm truyn ra mt phn cht lng , to ra mt vt tch in.
Cht lng kia s ht ly cht lng ny. Nhng khng ai tng nhn thy cht
lng in hay tm thy bt k bng chng no khc rng chng tht s tn ti.
Khng c c nhn nh khoa hc no chu trch nhim kh ph ra mi
nguyn l m t lc in. James Clerk Maxwell l nh khoa hc cui cng
vit ra h pht trin y cho s hot ng ca in v t. Nhng cc quy
lut ton hc m Maxwell cng b vo nm 1864 l kt qu ca nhiu nm
nghin cu ca nhiu nh khoa hc khc.
Hy bt u cu chuyn vi Benjamin Franklin. C l bn bit
Franklin l mt chnh khch, nh vn v nh pht minh v i ngi M.
Nhng ng cn l mt ngi nghin cu in hc t rt sm. Franklin nhn
ra rng hin tng in c th gii thch d dng mt loi cht lng, thay v
hai loi. in tch dng c th xem l s d tha lng cht lng . in
tch m khi s l s thiu ht cng cht lng . L thuyt cht lng khng
tn ti, nhng quan im ca Franklin v in tch dng v in tch m l
hai mt ca mt lc th tn ti.
Franklin cn nhn ra mt nh lut rt quan trng ca in hc: nh
lut bo ton in tch. nh lut bo ton in tch pht biu rng vi mi
in tch m c to ra, phi c mt lng in tch dng bng nh vy.
iu c ngha l tng in tch dng v in tch m trong v tr phi cn
bng hon ton vi nhau.
nh lut bo ton in tch khng c ngha l chng ta khng th c
bt k dng in no. Nhng h khi no chng ta lm mt cn bng lc in,
chng ta phi to ra cc in tch dng v in tch m vi lng ngang
bng nhau. Th d, bn c th to ra in tch bng cch c xt mt qu bng
18
bm cng ln trn o len. Qu bng s nhn mt t in tch m t o len.
Nhng ci o len cng s nhn mt lng in tch dng ngang bng nh
vy. Sau , qu bng s dnh vo tng do s chnh lch in tch gia
tng v qu bng.
iu tng t xy ra khi chng ta l chn trn thm tri nh vo mt
ngy kh hanh. Khi chng ta i trn thm, c th chng ta nhn mt lng
in tch nh. Mt lng in tch bng nh vy nhng tri du to nn bn
trong tm thm. Khi bn chm tay vo nm ca hay vt kim loi no khc,
cc in tch trit tiu vi mt tia la in nh. Nu bn lm nh th trong
phng ti, bn s c th thy tia la in mt cch r rng.
iu quan trng nn nh l h khi no chng ta cp cho mt vt mt
in tch m, th ng thi chng ta cng cho mt vt khc mt in tch
dng. Ci o len nhn in tch dng ngang bng vi qu bng nhn in
tch m. Mi vt nhn mt in tch, v cc in tch cn bng vi nhau. l
nh lut bo ton in tch.
Khm ph in hc tip theo do nh khoa hc ngi Php Charles-
Augustin de Coulomb thc hin vo nm 1789. Coulomb bit rng cc in
tch tri du th ht nhau v cc in tch cng du th y nhau. ng mun o
ln ca lc ht .
o lc in, Coulom treo mt thanh ngang bn di mt si dy
mng (Xem hnh bn di). Ti mi u thanh l mt qu cu tch in lm
bng kim loi. Sau , ng tch in tri du cho hai qu cu khc t gn .
ng bit chnh xc mi qu cu c bao nhiu in tch. Bng cch o lng
xon trn si dy, ng c th tnh ra lc ht gia nhng qu cu.
Cc kt qu ca Coulom tht bt ng v th v. ng khm ph ra lc
in t l thun vi lng in tch hai vt v t l nghch vi bnh phng
khong cch ca chng.
Trc khi chng ta tip tc, iu quan trng l nn hiu t l thun v t
l nghch ngha l g. Chng khng kh hiu nh tn gi ca chng gi ln.
Nu hai s o l t l thun, th khi mt s tng ln, s kia cng tng
theo. Th d, nu bn li xe vi tc 80 km/h, qung ng bn i t l
thun vi thi gian bn li xe. Khi thi gian tng ln, qung ng cng
tng ln. Bn li xe cng lu th qung ng bn i cng xa.
Nu hai s o l t l nghch, th khi mt s tng ln, s kia gim i. Th
d, nu bn i mt hnh trnh di 160km, th thi gian ca chuyn i s t l
nghch vi tc bn li xe. Bn li xe cng nhanh, th thi gian ca chuyn
i cng ngn. Khi tc tng ln, thi gian gim i.
19

o lc in, Coulomb s dng nhng qu cu tch in treo bn di mt si dy mnh.
nh lut Coulomb cho chng ta bit rng lc in gia hai in tch
ph thuc vo ln ca hai in tch . chnh lch in tch gia hai
vt cng ln, th lc ht gia chng cng mnh. N cng c ngha l khi hai
vt cch xa nhau ra, th lc ht gim i nhanh. Nu hai vt chuyn ra xa
gp i, th lc ht ch bng mt phn t lc u. Nu chng chuyn ra xa gp
ba ln, th lc ht gim i chn ln.
V mt ton hc, nh lut Coulomb c vit nh sau:

Trong phng trnh ny, F k hiu cho lc ht, q(1) v q(2) l in tch ca
hai vt, v d l khong cch gia hai vt. K l mt hng s, mt con s nh
cho php tnh ra chnh xc lc ht in.
Coulomb cn lm th nghim vi lc t theo kiu tng t. Ha ra nh
lut ht t cng l mt nh lut nghch o bnh phng. Tht l ho hng
khi khm ph nhng lc khc nhau ny tun theo nhng nh lut ging nhau.
20
N cho thy cc nh lut ca v tr phi khp vo mt khun mu n gin
v c trt t.
Khm ph quan trng tip theo v in hc do Hans Christian rsted
thc hin vo nm 1820. rsted thc hin khm ph ca ng mt cch tnh c.
ng ni mt si dy vi ngun cp in to ra mt dng in. Mt ci la
bn t trn bn th nghim gn . rsted thy khi dng in chy qua
dy th kim la bn b ht v pha n.
Sau nhiu th nghim, rsted chc chn v khm ph ca ng: Mt
in tch ang chuyn ng to ra mt t trng. H khi no c dng in
chy trong dy th n to ra t trng xung quanh dy.
Bn c th t mnh lm th nghim rsted. Tt c nhng g bn cn l
mt si dy di bc cch in, mt ci la bn nh v mt ngun cp in. S
dng pin kh 1,5V hoc pin n flash 6V.

Dng in chy qua dy dn to ra t trng, nh th nghim n gin ny cho thy.
Bc mt phn nh cht cch in ra khi mi u dy. Gn mt u
dy vi mt cc ca cc pin. B tr dy dn thnh vng v t ci la bn
gn vng dy. Sp xp dy sao cho kim la bn khng hng thng v pha
dy. Gi th chm u dy cn li vi cc kia ca pin. Quan st xem kim la
bn phn ng nh th no. Th lm th nghim vi kim la bn v vng dy
vi v tr khc nhau. Mi ln khng nn dy ni vi c hai cc ca pin lu
21
hn vi ba giy. Nu bn lm th, dng in s nhanh chng ly ht nng
lng ra khi pin v si dy c th tr nn nng n mc nguy him.
Sau nm 1820, nghin cu in hc v t hc din ra vi tc rt
nhanh. rsted nhn thy dng in c th tc dng lc lm cho kim la bn
quay. Nhng dng in mnh hn v nhng nam chm mnh hn c th kt
hp lm quay mt ng c. Khai thc khm ph ca rsted, nam chm
in u tin v ng c in u tin c ch to ra vo nm 1823.
Nh khoa hc ngi Anh Michael Faraday thc hin ng gp quan
trng tip theo cho s tm hiu dng in v nam chm. Faraday l mt nh
thc nghim c khi. ng bit t th nghim ca rsted rng mt dng
in ang chy c th to ra t trng. ng t hi liu ci ngc li c ng
khng? Mt nam chm c th gy ra mt dng in chy trong dy dn hay
khng?
Cu tr li ca Faraday ha ra l mt trong nhng khm ph c ch nht
trong lch s khoa hc. Nm 1831, Faraday ch to ra mt mch in vi
mt cun dy. Trong mch in l mt in k, thit b dng o nhng
dng in nh. Sau , Faraday t mt ci nam chm bn trong cun dy.
ng pht hin thy mt dng in sinh ra h khi no ci nam chm di chuyn
vo hoc ra khi cun dy. Khi ci nam chm nm yn, khng c dng in
no sinh ra ht. T th nghim ny dn n ci gi l nh lut Faraday: Mt
t trng ang chuyn ng to ra mt dng in chy trong dy.
Ti sao khm ph ca Faraday li c ch nh th? Faraday nhanh chng
nhn ra rng vic di chuyn mt si dy trong mt t trng mnh c th to
ra mt dng in. Cng nm , ng ch to ra my pht in t u tin.
My pht ca Faraday c th sn sinh ra mt dng in u n khi cn n
n. Pht minh ca Faraday khng ph thuc vo nhng ngun cung ha cht
t tin, ln xn nh trng hp dng pin. V n khng bao gi cn kit nng
lng. Nhng hu du khng l ngy nay ca my pht in u tin ca
Faraday sn xut in nng dng cho ti vi, t lnh, bng n in, v nhiu
thit b in khc ca chng ta.
Nm 1864, James Clerk Maxwell ghp nhng mnh hnh in hc v t
hc li vi nhau. Cc nh lut in t hc ca ng c gi l h phng
trnh Maxwell. Pht biu ton hc ca nhng nh lut qu phc tp
trnh by y, nhng nhng nh lut ca ng cho chng ta bit nhng iu
sau y:
Lc in v lc t l hai mt khc nhau ca cng mt lc.
Mi in tch c mt in trng xung quanh n. in trng ny ht
in tch tri du v y in tch cng du.
Mt in tch ang chuyn ng hay mt in trng ang bin thin
sinh ra mt t trng.
22
Mt t trng bin thin sinh ra mt in trng.
K t nm 1864, ht ln ny ti ln khc, cc th nghim chng t
cc nh lut Maxwell l ng. Do in v t ch l hai mt khc nhau ca
cng mt lc, nn cc nh khoa hc thng gi lc l lc in t. Cng
vi lc hp dn v lc ht nhn trong nguyn t, n l mt trong nhng lc c
bn ca v tr.
Khi Maxwell xem xt khm ph ca ng, ng nhn ra mt ci g
khc rt th v. Mt s bin thin in trng to ra mt s bin thin t
trng. Nhng s bin thin t trng sau li to ra s bin thin in
trng. Qu trnh ny c th tip din mi mi. Nn mt s bin thin ca t
trng hoc in trng phn tn ra rt nhanh, to ra mt hiu ng sng in
t.
Maxwell tnh ra sng in t ny s chuyn ng trong khng gian
nhanh bao nhiu. Kt qu ca ng cho bit n truyn i tc chng
300.000 km/s. Nhng l mt tc bit. l tc ca nh sng.
Vy nh sng c th l mt dng nng lng in t hay khng?
Vng. Maxwell pht hin thy nh sng l mt sng in t. Nhng khm ph
trong thi gian gn cho bit bc x nh sng tht s c pht ra bi s
dao ng nhanh ca cc electron trong nguyn t.
Maxwell cn d on rng cc nh nghin cu s tm thy nhng loi
bc x in t khc nm ngoi vng nh sng nhn thy. Cc phng trnh
Maxwell cho bit phi c nhng sng in t c nng lng thp hn nh
sng nhn thy, v nhng sng c nng lng cao hn.
Hai trong s nhng loi sng nh sng ny c bit n. nh sng
hng ngoi v nh sng t ngoi u c pht hin vo khong nm 1800.
Nhng tnh ton ca Maxwell cho thy nhng sng nh sng ny l nhng
dng bc x in t ging nh sng nh sng vy. V khng bao lu sau khi
cc phng trnh Maxwell c thit lp, nhng dng bc x in t mi
c khm ph ra.
Nm 1889, Heinrich Hertz pht hin ra s tn ti ca sng v tuyn.
y l nhng sng in t c bc sng di hn nhiu so vi nh sng nhn
thy. Nm 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen pht hin ra tia X. y l nhng sng
in t c bc sng rt ngn. Ngng rng bc x trn t sng v tuyn,
qua sng hng ngoi, nh sng nhn thy, nh sng t ngoi, v tia X v tia
gamma c gi l ph in t. Tt c nhng tia khc nhau ny truyn i
tc 300.000 km/s. Chng u hnh x ging nh sng nh sng. Cc tin
on ca Maxwell v nng lng in t c chng minh l ng!
Nm 1897, J. J. Thomson pht hin ra s tn ti ca mt ht tch in
m nh hn nguyn t. Ht ny c gi l electron. Cc nh khoa hc nhn
thy chuyn ng ca cc electron l ci mang nng lng in.
23
Khi c xt mt qu bng trn vi len, mt s electron truyn t nhng
si len sang qu bng cao su. S truyn electron to ra in tch. Khi
chng ta ni mt si dy vi hai cc ca pin, chnh dng chy ca cc
electron mang dng in. V khi chng ta bt cng tc bng n, chnh
chuyn ng ca cc electron trong dy tc ca bng n to ra sng in t
m chng ta gi l nh sng.
Tht kh tng tng cuc sng hin i s trng ra sao nu khng c
in nng. Vic tm hiu lc in t mang n nhiu dng c hp dn.
Chng ta s dng nng lng ny chy cc thit b trong nh, un si v
thp sng nh ca, v tnh ton cc khon ngn qu gia nh. My vi tnh, ti vi,
my ht a, radar, v c nghn dng c tuyt diu khc u ph thuc vo
kin thc ca chng ta v in t hc.
24


Chuong 3 Chuong 3 Chuong 3 Chuong 3
Dong Dong Dong Dong dl dl dl dle ee en n n n l ll lnh lu nh lu nh lu nh lua aa at Ohn va t Ohn va t Ohn va t Ohn va l ll lnh lu nh lu nh lu nh lua aa at Joule t Joule t Joule t Joule

in nng tr thnh dng nng lng c s dng rng ri nht
trong th gii hin i ca chng ta. Nhng khai thc in nng, chng ta
phi bit n hot ng nh th no trong mt mch in. Vi kin thc ,
cc thit b v dng bng in c th c thit k lm vic an ton v
hiu qu.
Vo th k 19, ngi ta ngh dng in l mt dng chy ca nhng
in tch qua bt k cht dn no, th d nh mt si dy. Ngy nay, chng ta
bit nhng in tch l nhng ht nh xu gi l electron. Nng lng in
tht ra l s chuyn ng ca cc electron trong mch in.
Mch in l ng dn qua dng in c th chy. N thng l
mt lot dy dn v cc dng c in ni vi mt ngun cp in.
Nng lng in trong mch in do ngun in cung cp. Ngun ny
c th l pin, thit b to ra nng lng in bng phn ng ha hc. Hoc n
c th l my pht in to ra dng in bng cch cho cc dy dn chuyn
ng trong t trng. Cc cng ti in thng mi sn xut in bng nhng
my pht khng l hot ng bng sc nc, l than hoc du, hoc l phn
ng ht nhn.
Ngun in, hoc l my pht hoc l pin, to ra mt sut in ng.
Bn c th ngh sut in ng l lng p sut in gi dng in i trong
mch. Sut in ng trong mch c o bng n v volt (t theo tn
Alessandrdo Volta, ngi pht minh ra pin).
Sut in ng thng c gi l hiu in th, hay n gin l th.
N ch to ra dng in khi no mch in ni vi cc dng v cc m ca
ngun in l khp kn. Nu khng, n ch c th, hoc kh nng, to ra dng
in. Mt cc pin 6 volt c 6 volt in th cho d n c ni hay khng ni vi
mt mch in.
Lng in tch chy qua mch in c gi l dng in. N c
o bng ampere (theo tn Andr-Marie Ampre, mt nh khoa hc khc
nghin cu dng in). Ampere o s electron chy qua mch in trong mi
giy.
Hy nh rng dng in v in p l hai th khc nhau. C th c mt
dng in ln chy trong mch mc in p thp, hoc mt dng in nh
25
chy in p rt cao. in p th o lc in, cn ampere th o tng in
lng chy trong mch in.
Khi dng in chy trong mch in, n gp phi s cn tr. in tr l
bt k ci g ngn cm hoc cn tr dng chy ca in trong mch. in
tr trong mch bin mt phn nng lng in thnh nhit lng. in tr
c o theo ohm (theo tn George Ohm, ngi chng ta s ni ti ngay
phn sau).
Mi th trong mch in, k c dy dn, u pht sinh in tr. Lng
in tr trong mt mch in ph thuc vo bn yu t: chiu di ca mch,
b dy ca dy dn v nhng cht dn khc trong mch, loi cht liu cu to
nn dy, v nhit ca mch.
Mt s dy dn, nh dy ng hoc dy bc, c in tr rt nh. Chng
dn in kh tt. Rt t nng lng in i qua dy ng b chuyn ha thnh
nhit do in tr. l nguyn do ng thng c dng trong mch in.
Nhng cht khc c in tr ln hn. Th d, dy Nichrome, cu to t hp
cht ca nickel v chromium, c in tr rt ln. N tr nn rt nng khi dng
in i qua n. V l do ny, Nichrome thng c dng lm b phn nung
nng trong l nng hoc my sy tc.
Mt s cht liu, nh thy tinh v cao su, c in tr qu ln nn dng
in chng th chy qua chng. Nhng cht liu nh th ny c gi l cht
cch in.
Si dy cng di th in tr ca n cng ln. V dy cng dy th in
tr ca n cng nh. Ging nh nc chy qua mt ci ng ln, dng in
chy qua vt dn dy thun li hn.
Nhit ca mt cht cng nh hng n in tr ca n. Trong a s
trng hp, in tr tng khi nhit tng. Nhng quy lut ny c ngoi l.
hiu r chuyn ng ca dng in trong mt mch in, hy hnh
dung s tng ng gia mt mch in v h thng ng dn nc. Trong h
thng nc, nc b buc chy qua cc ng do my bm. My bm tng
ng vi my pht in hoc pin trong mch in. My bm to ra p lc buc
nc chuyn ng trong h. p lc ny tng ng vi sut in ng, hay
in p. Lng nc chy trong cc ng tng ng vi lng in chy trong
mch in.
in tr tng ng vi ma st (s c xt) trong cc ng dn nc.
My bm phi khng ma st ny cho nc chuyn ng. Khi hai cht c
xt ln nhau, s ma st sinh ra nhit. Ging nh ma st, in tr trong mch
in to ra nhit. ng dn cng ln cho php nc chy cng d, trong khi
ng nh c ma st cn tr dng nc ln hn. Dy dy c in tr nh hn
dy mng.
26

Mt mch in c nhiu ci ging vi mt h thng dn nc khp kn.
27
Vo u th k 19, nh vt l ngi c Georg Ohm nghin cu s
hot ng ca mch in. ng mun bit in tr v in p nh hng nh
th no n dng in chy trong dy. Ohm nhn thy khi ng tng in p
trong mch ln, th dng in cng tng theo, min l nhng th khc trong
mch gi nguyn khng i. Gi s chng ta c mt mch in 10 volt vi
dng in 1 ampere chy qua n. Nu chng ta tng gp i in p ca mch
ln 20 volt, th chng ta s c dng in tng gp i ln 2 ampere.
Ohm cn pht hin thy dng in trong mch gim i khi ng tng
in tr trong mch. Kt qu l ch c mt na ampere dng in chy qua
mch.
Nm 1827, Ohm cho cng b nhng kt qu ca ng. Nhng khm ph
ny ngy nay gi l nh lut Ohm. nh lut Ohm c pht biu nh sau:
Dng in trong mt mch in t l thun vi sut in ng (in p) v t
l nghch vi in tr.
Hy ngh ti s so snh ca chng ta gia dng in v dng nc
chy mt ln na. Lng nc chy qua mt ci ng ph thuc vo p sut
ca nc v kch c ca ng. Nu my bm tng p sut (p sut cao ging
vi in p cao), th nc s chy qua ng nhiu hn. Nu ci ng c tit din
mng hn (ng mng hn tng ng vi in tr ln hn), th nc chy
qua n t hn. nh lut Ohm cho chng ta bit ci rt ging nh vy xy ra
vi dng in. Lng in chy trong mt mch ph thuc vo in p (p
sut in) v in tr ca mch.
V mt ton hc, nh lut Ohm c vit nh sau:
dng in = in p / in tr hay I = E / R
Trong phng trnh ny, I k hiu cho cng dng in, o theo
ampere. E k hiu cho sut in ng, hay in p, ca mch. R k hiu cho
in tr.
Ch rng cng dng in (I) c biu din theo phn s. Nu
chng ta tng in p (E) th t s ca phn s ln hn. Cho nn gi tr ca c
phn s ln hn. in p ln hn trong mch mang li dng in ln hn.
Nhng khi chng ta tng in tr (R), th mu s ca phn s tr nn
ln hn. iu lm cho gi tr ca phn s nh i. in tr ln hn trong
mch mang li dng in nh hn.
nh lut Ohm cho chng ta bit rng khi c rt nhiu in tr th dng
in s chy rt t. Nu c in tr nh, th dng in s chy nhiu hn. iu
gii thch ti sao ngi ta cm nhn nhng c sc in nguy him nht khi
da ca h b t.
Da kh l vt dn in khng tt. N c in tr ln. Cho nn khi mt
ngi c da kh bt ng chm tay vo dy dn v khp kn mch in, th
dng in chy qua c th khng ln lm. Lng in c t nguy him.
28
Nhng nu mt ngi ang b t, c bit khi ngi ang tip xc vi
mt vt dn tt nh nc hoc kim loi, th in tr nh hn nhiu ln. Ngi
tr thnh mt vt dn tt hn nhiu, cho nn dng in chy qua c th ln
hn, gy ra mt c sc nguy him.
Mt vi nm sau khi Georg Ohm thc hin khm ph ca ng, nh vt
l ngi Anh James Joule t tin hnh nghin cu xem in nng hot
ng nh th no. Joule quan tm n vic lm th no mt dng nng lng
ny c th chuyn ha thnh mt dng nng lng khc. Mt trong nhng s
bin i m ng nghin cu l s chuyn ha in nng thnh nhit.
Cng sut l lng nng lng phn phi trong mi n v thi gian.
Cng sut in o bng watt (theo tn James Watt, nh pht minh ra ng c
hi nc). Joule o cng sut do mch in phn phi bng cch kho st
lng nhit m chng sinh ra trong mt lng thi gian nht nh. Phn ln
cng sut in trong nh ca chng ta c s dng theo kiu tng t - sinh
nhit si m hoc nu chn thc n.
Joule nhn thy cng sut trong mt mch in ph thuc vo hai yu
t: in p ca mch v dng in chy trong n. Dng in chy trong mch
cng ln th cng sut m n phn phi cng nhiu. V mch c in p cng
ln th cng sut m n phn phi cng ln. Cng sut do mt mch in sinh
ra c th tnh bng cch nhn in p vi cng dng in:
cng sut = in p cng dng in hay H = E I
Quy tc ny c gi l nh lut Joule. nh lut Joule cho chng ta
bit rng nu tng in p hoc cng dng in trong mch, th cng sut
do mch phn phi s tng ln.
Ton b nhng thit b in chng ta cm vo mch in gia dng u
s dng in nng thc hin cng. Chng bin i nng lng in thnh
nhit, nh sng hoc chuyn ng. Cc thit b u a thm in tr vo
trong mch. Chnh in tr ca dy qun ca l in sinh ra in nng
bnh m ca chng ta hoc rn tht g cho bui ti. in tr c ch tm ny
trong mch c gi l ti.
Cc ng c in trong my co ru, my git qun o, v my ht bi
u c in tr. Chng t mt ti tng dn ln mch in khi chng ang
hot ng. Nu bn t tay bn gn ng c in ca bt k thit b no, bn
s c th cm nhn nhit do in tr ca n sinh ra.
Trong mch in gia dng thng thng, in p lun lun gi n
nh 110 hoc 220 volt. Nhng cng ti in s cung cp cho h tiu th
lng dng in cho h s dng. Cho nn khi chng ta cn cng sut ln
hn chy cc thit b ca mnh, th dng in trong mch tng ln. Trong
nh ca chng ta, khi chng ta s dng in cng sut ln hn, th chng ta
c nhiu ampere dng in hn chy trong mch in ca mnh.
29
nh lut Joule gii thch ti sao mt l si in li tn km hn mt
l nng bnh. L si in cn to ra nhit lng ln hn so vi l nng
bnh. Cho nn l si s dng dng in ln hn l nng bnh. Dng in
ln hn chy qua thit b cho cng sut ln hn, hay nhit sinh ra nhiu hn.
Nhng chng ta phi tr tin nng lng cho cng ti in. Cng sut chng ta
dng cng ln th chng ta phi tr tin cng nhiu.
nh lut Joule cng gii thch ti sao chng ta lp cu ch hoc cu
dao t ng vo mch in trong nh mnh. Khi chng ta lm mch in qu
ti vi qu nhiu thit b, th cc dy dn phi mang dng in rt ln. Dy
dn c mt phn in tr i vi dng in, v in tr th sinh ra nhit. Dng
in ln chy trong dy th nhit sinh ra cng nhiu. Nu cc dy dn qu
nng, chng c th d dng bt la.
S ngn mch xy ra khi hai dy dn trong mch chm nhau m
khng c thit b tiu th no trong mch. Hin tng c th xy ra nu
nh lp cch in bn ngoi dy b nng chy hoc trc v. Khng c in
tr ca thit b tiu th trong mch, mt dng in ln s d dng chy qua
dy. Ton b dng in cn c th sinh nhit trong cc dy bt u
chy.
May thay, mi mch in gia dng cn c lp cu ch hoc cu dao t
ng. Cu ch hot ng ging nh bt k mu dy dn no khc trong mch
in. Chng dn in l mt phn ca mch in, v chng c mt phn in
tr. Chng cng nng ln khi dng in chy qua chng cng ln. Nhng cu
ch c thit k tan chy khi c dng in qu ln chy qua chng. Khi
cu ch tan chy, n ngt mch in. Khng cn dng in no chy na. S
ngt mch nh th lm kt thc tnh trng qu ti in, nu khng th nhit
sinh ra nng gy chy n. Cu dao t ng c vai tr bo v mch
tng t nh vy, nhng khng cn phi thay chng sau mi ln bt.
Mi khi bn bt bng n ln, hoc nng bnh m, hoc l ci o s
mi, th nhng khm ph ca Georg Ohm, James Joule v nhng ng nghip
ca h li ang pht huy tc dng trc bn. Vic hiu r nh lut Ohm, nh
lut Joule v nhng nh lut khc ca mch in cho php cc k thut vin
v k s in xy dng th gii in kh ha ca chng ta an ton v hiu qu.
Ngy nay, cc nh khoa hc hiu rt r s hot ng ca dng in.
Nhng vn c nhiu th cn tm hiu thm v v tr. Chng ta vn phi hc
hi nhiu v cc ngi sao v hnh tinh, v nguyn t, v s k diu ca s
sng. Vn cn nhng nh lut cn khm ph v nhng b n cn gii thch.
C l mt ngy no bn s c th ghi thm tn ca mnh vo danh sch
nhng nh khoa hc gip khm ph ra nhng b n ca v tr.
30
l ll lnh lu nh lu nh lu nh lua aa at ngh t ngh t ngh t nghl ll lch d ch d ch d ch da aa ao binh h o binh h o binh h o binh huong uong uong uong
Mt s nh lut t nhin quan trng u tun theo mt khun mu
chung. Khun mu ny c gi l nh lut nghch o bnh phng. Lc
hp dn hnh x theo kiu ny. Lc in v lc t cng th. Cng nh
sng cng vy. Chng phi ngu nhin m nhng nh lut ny li ging nhau.
Sau y l li gii thch ti sao nh lut nghch o bnh phng li p dng
c cho qu nhiu loi lc khc nhau nh th.
Trong tt c nhng nh lut nghch o bnh phng, ln ca lc
m nh lut m t t l nghch vi khong cch n ngun sinh ra lc. Khi
hai i lng l t l nghch, nu s o ny gim th s o kia s tng. ln
ca lc gim khi khong cch tng ln. Tuy nhin, trong tt c cc nh lut
nghch o bnh phng, ln ca lc gim t l vi bnh phng khong
cch n tm ca lc.
Cng nh sng tun theo mt nh lut nghch o bnh phng.
Cng ca nh sng t l nghch vi bnh phng khong cch n ngun
sng. Khi bn i ra mt ngun sng, sng ca nh sng pht ra t ngun
gim i. Hy s dng nh sng lm th d xem ti sao c qu nhiu lc
khc nhau li tun theo mt khun mu ny.
Hy tng tng mt ngun sng nh mt bng n in nh xu
gia mt khng gian ln, ti en. nh sng t ngun ta ra mi hng, ging
nh mt ci bong bng ang dn n. Cng nh sng c o theo n v
lumen. Gi s ngun sng ca chng ta ang sn sinh ra tng cng 1.000
lumen nh sng.
Hy hnh dung mt mt cu vi bn knh 1 mt bao xung quanh ngun
sng trn. nh sng t ngun pht ra ri sng phn bn trong ca mt cu.
Hi nh sng phi ri sng din tch bng bao nhiu? Din tch b mt ca
mt khi cu c tnh bng cch nhn 4 vi (pi, hay 3,14) nhn vi bnh
phng bn knh ca khi cu.
A = 4 r
2

V th, khi cu ca chng ta c din tch b mt l 12,6 mt vung.
1.000 lumen nh sng do bng n to ra s phn b u trn 12,6 mt vung
b mt .
Php chia tng lng nh sng cho s lng mt vung trn khi cu s
cho chng ta bit c bao nhiu nh sng ri ln mi mt vung. Khi chng ta
chia 1.000 lumen cho 12,6 mt vung, ta tm c mi mt vung c ri
khong 80 lumen nh sng.
Gi s chng ta tng gp i bn knh ca mt cu bao xung quanh
ngun sng ca chng ta. Bn s thy rng 1.000 lumen nh sng s phn b
trn mt din tch ln hn nhiu. Mt cu mi c bn knh 2 mt. tnh
tng din tch b mt, mt ln na chng ta nhn 4 r
2
. Mt cu mi ca
31
chng ta c din tch 50,2 mt vung. Bn knh ca mt cu mi ch gp i
bn knh ca mt cu th nht. Nhng din tch ca mt cu th hai gp bn
ln din tch ca mt cu th nht. l v din tch ca mt cu c tnh
trn bnh phng ca bn knh.
Ngun sng ca chng ta vn ang to ra lng nh sng nh c: 1.000
lumen. Nhng khong cch ny, lng nh sng nh c ang ri ln mt
mt cu din tch 50,2 mt vung. Cho nn mi mt vung ch nhn khong
20 lumen nh sng. Gi tr ny ch bng mt phn t lng nh sng m mi
mt vung nhn c mt cu th nht. Khong cch t ngun sng n
mt cu tng ln hai ln, nhng cng nh sng ch cn bng mt phn
t. y l mi lin h nghch o bnh phng.
iu tng t vn ng nu bn knh tng ln 3 mt. Mt ln na
chng ta nhn 4 r
2
. Mt cu th ba ca chng ta c din tch b mt 113
mt vung. Bn knh ca mt cu ny bng ba ln bn knh ca mt cu ban
u, nhng din tch ca mt cu th ba ln gp chn ln. 1.000 lumen nh
sng ca chng ta phn tn trn 113 mt vung b mt. Mi mt vung thuc
mt cu th ba ca chng ta nhn khong 9 lumen nh sng. Gi tr ny bng
mt phn chn lng nh sng m mi mt vung nhn c mt cu th
nht. Khong cch t tm n mt cu gi tng ln ba ln, nhng cng
nh sng ch bng mt phn chn.

Lng nh sng nh nhau, khi n ta ra t mt ngun, ri ln mt din tch mi lc mt
tng dn.
Tt nhin, nhng mt cu khng tht s tn ti. Nhng mt cu
tng tng cho chng ta mt cch hnh dung ti sao cng nh sng
gim nhanh hn nhiu khi khong cch tng ln. l v tng nng lng
phi phn tn trn mt din tch tng ln nhanh chng.
32
Thm ch, bn c th thy nh lut nghch o bnh phng ny xy ra
vi i mt ca bn. Hy nh du nhng khong cch 10, 20 v 30 mt t
mt im 0 trong sn nh bn hoc trn va h gn nh bn. Khi tri ti, hy
ng trn im 0 ca bn. Nh mt ai ng vi mt n flash ti vch 10
mt. Hy nhn cng nh sng. Yu cu ngi di chuyn n vch 20
mt, ri vch 30 mt, v so snh ci bn nhn thy. Mc d bn khng c kh
nng o cng nh sng nu nh trong tay bn khng c mt my o nh
sng rt nhy, nhng bn s c th ni cng nh sng gim i nhanh khi
ngi h tr bn di chuyn ra xa.
Bn c th hnh dung lc hp dn phn tn t tm ca Tri t (hay bt
k khi lng no khc) theo kiu ging nh nh sng ta ra t mt ngun
sng. Bn c th hnh dung trng in t ta ra t mt ngun theo kiu
ging nh vy. Hy hnh dung mi lc ta ra t ngun ca n ging nh mt
ci bt dn n mi mi. Mi lin h nghch o bnh phng ng i vi tt
c nhng lc ny bi v chng u phn tn u theo mi hng t tm im
ni chng sinh ra. Khi bn cng tin xa tm im , th tc dng ca nhng
lc ny phn tn trn mt din tch ln hn nhiu.
33
Theo dong l Theo dong l Theo dong l Theo dong ll ll lch s ch s ch s ch su uu u

1620 Tu Mayflower cp cng Massachusetts
1633 Galileo b Ta d gio kt n v buc qun thc ti nh
1668 Issac Newton ch to knh thin vn phn x u tin
1678 Christiaan Huygens xut l thuyt sng nh sng
1687 Isaac Newton cho xut bn tc phm Principia
1692 Nhng th nghim ma thut din ra Salem, Massachusetts
1704 Isaac Newton xut bn cun Opticks, trong ng nu ra l
thuyt ht nh sng
1732 Benjamin Franklin bt u xut bn cun Poor Richards
Almanack
1752 Benjamin Franklin khm ph bn cht in ca tia st qua th
nghim ci diu bay
1775-
1783
Chin tranh ginh c lp ca nc M
1776 Tuyn ngn c lp ca nc M ra i
1789 George Washington tr thnh v tng thng u tin ca Hoa K
1800 William Herschel khm ph ra bc x hng ngoi; Alessandro
Volta nu ra t bo in (pin)
1801 Johann Ritter khm ph ra bc x t ngoi
1801-
1804
Thomas Young nghin cu nh sng v pht hin thy n to
ra h vn giao thoa
1820 Hans Christian rsted pht hin thy dng in sinh ra t
trng
1827 Georg Ohm cng b nh lut v mi lin h gia cng
dng in, in p v in tr
1829 H thng ch ni ca Louis Braille dnh cho ngi m ln u
tin c cng b (hiu chnh vo nm 1837)
1831 Michael Faraday pht hin thy mt t trng ang bin
thin sinh ra mt dng in
1834 Charles Wheatstone o tc ca dng in trong dy dn
1849 Armand Fizeau o tc ca nh sng
1859 Charles Darwin cng b cun V ngun gc ca cc loi qua
phng tin chn lc t nhin
34
1861-
1865
Cuc ni chin M
1864 H phng trnh Maxwell v in v t hc c cng b
1865 Tng thng Abraham Lincoln b m st
1876 Alexander Graham Bell ng k bng sng ch in thoi
1882 Trm pht in ca Thomas Edison New York bt u cung cp
in nng cho khch hng cng nghip
1886-
1889
Heinrich Hertz khm ph ra sng v tuyn
1895 Wilhelm Roentgen khm ph ra tia X
1897 J. J. Thomson pht hin ra electron
1905 Albert Einstein cng b l thuyt tng i c bit, trong c
cng thc E = mc
2

1914-
1918
Th chin th nht
1922 Cng ti pht thanh Anh quc (BBC) thc hin bui pht thanh v
tuyn cng cng u tin
1939-
1945
Th chin th hai

35
Tl Tl Tl Tle ee eu s u s u s u su uu u cac nha khoa h cac nha khoa h cac nha khoa h cac nha khoa ho oo oc cc c

Andr-Marie Ampre (17751836) l nh vt l ngi Php c
nng khiu ton hc biu hin t hi cn rt tr. Tr nh tt, kt hp nim
am m c sch, cho php ng t nghin cu nhiu ti. Ampre
sng lp lnh vc in t hc v l nh khoa hc u tin pht trin mt
phng php o dng in. Mc d s nghip khoa hc thnh cng xut
chng, nhng cuc sng ring t ca ng c nhiu phin mun. Cha ca ng
b x chm khi ng mi 18 tui, ngi v th nht ca ng cht lc cn rt
tr, l cuc hn nhn ln th hai ca ng khng thnh cng.
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (17361806) l nh khoa hc
ngi Php lm vic vi t cch k s qun s trong phn ln cuc i ca
ng. Trong khi ti ng, ng c chn nm trn o Martinique thuc Ty n
nhit i gip xy dng li nhng pho i b ph hy. Khi tr v Php,
ng tip tc nghin cu trong ngnh vt l nhng ng thi cng bt u
nghin cu vt l. ng c bit ti nhiu nht vi nhng ng gp cho s
nghin cu lc in v lc t.
Albert Einstein (18791955) sinh ra c. ng l cu sinh vin
thch c sch nhng khng thch nghe ging v lm bi kim tra, v th ng
cha bao gi c thy dy ca mnh yu thch. Mnh bng tt nghip i
hc khng c g xut sc a ng n cng vic th k ca S cp bng
sng ch Thy S. T nhng s khi u khim tn ny, ng i ti sng lp ra
thuyt tng i, ci lm thay i th gii vt l hc mi mi. Einstein b ng
Quc x c xem l k th. ng l c vn khng chnh thc cho tng thng
M Franklin D. Roosevelt v mi e da ca bom nguyn t. ng cn c
mi lm tng thng Israel. Tuy nhin, trong cuc sng ring t ca mnh, ng
kh trm tnh v gin d. Trong s nhng s thch ca ng l m nhc v i
thuyn.
Michael Faraday (17911867) l nh ha hc v nh vt l ngi
Anh khm ph ra tnh yu khoa hc ca ng mt cch tnh c. Lm mt
ngi th ng sch n ngi cha th rn ngho kh ca mnh,
Faraday thng c nhng quyn sch m ng ng tp. ng dn dn say m
sch vt l v ha hc. Nhng tip xc ny a n s khi u ca mt s
nghip v i, trong ng khm ph ra nh lut in phn, pht minh ra
ng c in v my pht in, v thit lp nh lut mang tn ng v trng
in t.
Armand Fizeau (18191896) l nh vt l ngi Php c nim
am m c bit i vi lnh vc quang hc. ng nghin cu ngnh khoa hc
nhip nh mi ra i v vo nm 1845 tham gia tch cc vo vic chp
nhng bc nh chi tit u tin ca Mt tri. ng cn nghin cu cch nh
36
sng truyn qua nc, c nc tnh ln nc ang chy. Mt trong nhng
thnh tu ni bt nht ca ng l vic o tc nh sng.
Benjamin Franklin (17061790) l mt chnh khch v tc gia
ngi M. ng khng bt u nghin cu khoa hc cho n nm ng 40 tui,
nhng ng thc hin mt s tin b to ln nht vo thi i ca ng trong
nghin cu in hc. Hin tng in ang rt thnh hnh vo gia th k th
18, nhng Franklin lm cho vn nghim tc hn v tin hnh nhiu
th nghim. L thuyt ca ng v in tch dng v in tch m v nh lut
bo ton in tch ca ng l nhng ng gp quan trng.
Galileo Galilei (15641642) cho i Pisa, Italy. ng l mt
trong nhng nh khoa hc u tin xem thc nghim v ton hc l bn ng
hnh thit yu i vi quan st. S dng nhng cng c ny, ng thc hin
mt s khm ph v i, thng mu thun vi nhng c tin c chp nhn
lu nay v a ng n ch mu thun vi nhng nh khoa hc khc v vi
Gio hi Thin cha gio. ng c nhng bc tin b quan trng nhng
gy tranh ci vi nhng th nghim mt phng nghing, bc b l thuyt ca
Aristotle rng vt nng ri nhanh hn vt nh. Mt mu thun gay gt hn
xy ra khi ng ng h m hnh nht tm ca Copernicus v h mt tri. V l
do ny, Galileo b Ta d gio kt n vo nm 1633 v b Gio hi qun thc
ti nh.
William Herschel (17381822) sinh ra c nhng nh c
Anh khi ng ln 9 tui. Mc d ng ni danh l mt nh thin vn hc, nhng
ngh nghip u tin ca ng l mt nhc s. Trong khi lm ngi nh n
ng Bath, nc Anh, s thch ca ng l ch to v s dng knh thin vn.
ng pht hin ra hnh tinh Thin Vng tinh vo nm 1781, sau ng
c b nhim lm nh thin vn hc cung nh cho nh vua George III.
Herschel phn loi hng trm ngi sao, nhn ra Di Ngn h l mt thin
h, v khm ph ra nh sng hng ngoi.
Heinrich Hertz (18571894) l nh vt l ngi c. ng l mt
sinh vin xut sc c nhiu s trng nh kh nng ni lu lot mt s ngn
ng. trng i hc, lc u ng hc k thut, nhng nim am m ch
thc ca ng l vt l hc. ng tr thnh hc tr ca Hermann von Helmholtz
Berlin. Di s thi thc ca Helmholtz, ng tp trung s ch vo bc x
in t. Mt trong nhng kt qu quan trng nht ca nghin cu ca ng l
s khm ph ra sng v tuyn.
Robert Hooke (16351703) l nh khoa hc ngi Anh lc u d
nh vo nh th lm gio s nhng sc khe ca ng b nh gi l qu km
i vi cng vic . Mc d thng c nh ti l nh vt l vi nhng
nghin cu nh nh lut n hi v nhng nghin cu ca ng v s hp dn
v nh sng, nhng Hooke cn tri nghim thnh cng trong nhiu lnh vc
khoa hc khc. L mt th ch to ti nng, ng pht trin hoc ci tin
37
knh hin vi ghp, phong v biu v mt h thng in bo. ng cn nghin
cu ha hc, c bit l s chy, v cn ln sn sang sinh hc Hooke l
ngi u tin s dng thut ng t bo trong mt vn bn sinh vt hc.
Christiaan Huygens (16291695) ra i trong mt gia nh H
Lan giu c Hague. c o to khoa hc v ton hc, ng l mt trong
nhiu nh vt l b thch v truyn cm hng bi bn cht ca nh sng.
Vo nm 1678, Huygens xut l thuyt sng nh sng ca ng, tri vi l
thuyt ht c Newton ng h; mi n sau khi c hai ngi h qua i th
bn cht lng tnh ca nh sng mi c ngi ta khm ph ra. Mt trong
nhng ng gp to ln khc ca ng cho vt l hc l nghin cu ca ng v
con lc v ng dng ca n xc nh thi gian v lm ng h. Huygens
cn am m thin vn hc; ng pht hin ra cc vnh v v tinh ln nht
ca sao Th, v ng c nhiu l thuyt v s sng ngoi a cu.
James Prescott Joule (18181889) l nh vt l ngi Anh. ng
l con trai ca mt nh sn xut ru bia Manchester, nc Anh. Lc cn
nh, ng hay mc c v kh m yu nn ng c gia s dy km ti nh.
Thy dy khoa hc v ton hc ca ng l nh vt l li lc John Dalton. Joule
c bit yu thch nghin cu in hc v nhit, v ng tin hnh nhiu th
nghim tng tng v th nghim t m. Nghin cu ca ng a n s thit
lp nh lut Joule v dng in v in tr. ng cn ngi c cng i vi
nh lut bo ton nng lng.
James Clerk Maxwell (18311879) l nh vt l ngi Scotland,
c o to Edinburgh, Scotland, v Cambridge, nc Anh. Mc d lc
nh hay b tru chc v kh bn ln v lp d khi trng thnh, nhng ng
tr thnh mt trong nhng tn tui li lc nht trong khoa hc. ng c
ng o bit ti vi nhng kt qu ca ng v trng in t (h phng
trnh Maxwell) v s ng gp ca ng cho thuyt ng hc cht kh.
Maxwell cn nghin cu nhiu lnh vc a dng nh s m mu, nhip nh,
v cc vnh sao Th.
Albert Michelson (18521931) cho i nc Ph (min bc
nc c v min bc Ba Lan ngy nay) nhng gia nh ca ng di c
sang M lc Michelson ln 4 tui. ng vo Vin hn lm Hi qun
Annapolis, Maryland. L mt s quan, ng ging dy vt l v ha hc. Khi
nhim v ca ng i hi ng phi dy sinh vin cch o tc nh sng, ng
t mnh i tm nhng phng php chnh xc hn tin hnh. Sau khi ri
hi qun, ng tr thnh mt gio s vt l. Nhiu th nghim quang hc ca
ng, mt s tin hnh chung vi Edward Morley, gip a ti s pht trin
thuyt tng i ca Einstein. Nm 1907, Michelson tr thnh ngi M u
tin nhn Gii Nobel vt l.
Isaac Newton (16421727) cho i Lincolnshire, nc Anh. L
mt sinh vin khc ngi khng quan tm n din mo bn ngoi, Newton l
38
nh ton hc v nh khoa hc li lc. Ch mt vi trong s nhiu ng gp
quan trng ca Newton cho khoa hc k ra gm nh lut vn vt hp dn, ba
nh lut ca chuyn ng, nhng thnh phn c bn ca gii tch, v l thuyt
ht nh sng. Newton cn l thanh tra v sau ny l gim c S c tin.
Nm 1705, ng c tn phong hip s, mt phn v s ci cch ca ng i
vi nn tin t ca nc Anh. V cui i mnh, Newton t quan tm n cc
vn khoa hc v ton hc, m chuyn sang nghin cu thut gi kim, thn
hc v lch s.
Georg Ohm (17891854) ra i Erlangen, Bavaria (nc c
ngy nay) v hc khoa hc v ton hc ti trng i hc Erlangen. Ohm
m tr thnh mt gio s li lc ti mt trng i hc c danh gi,
nhng ng c nhiu nm lm tr ging b nh gi tng i thp nhiu
trng. Khm ph ni ting nht ca ng, nh lut Ohm, pht biu rng
cng dng in t l thun vi in p v t l nghch vi in tr. V thu
nhp ca Ohm khng nhiu, nn khm ph quan trng ny c thc hin
vi nhng thit b kh n gin v nhng dy dn kim loi t to! Ohm cn
nghin cu cch tai ngi x l sng m. Nm 1849, cui cng ng tr
thnh gio s vt l Munich.
Hans Christian rsted (17771851) l nh vt l ngi an
Mch. Sau khi hc dc hc v khoa hc vt cht ti trng i hc
Copenhagen, ng khng i vo s nghip nghin cu ngay. Trc tin, ng
b ra vi nm i du lch, ng thi vit lch v thuyt ging. Khm ph ni
ting nht ca rsted, rng dng in to ra t trng, t nn tng cho
nghin cu in t hc.
Max Planck (18581947) l nh vt l ngi c. L mt sinh vin
xut sc trong nhiu lnh vc, k c m nhc, Planck tr nn c bit hng th
vi nghin cu nh sng. Nhng nghin cu ca ng v sng nh sng dn
ti khm ph ca ng v lng t nh sng, nhng gi nng lng ri rc to
nn nh sng. Khm ph ny l mt cuc cch mng, mang li cho ng gii
thng Nobel v vch ra ranh gii gia vt l c in v vt l lng t.
Tri vi s nghip khoa hc thnh cng to ln ca ng, cuc i Planck c
nhiu bi kch. V ca ng mt sau 22 nm chung sng, mt con trai b git
trong Th chin th nht, hai a con gi song sinh cht lc mi sinh, v mt
ngi con trai khc b hnh hnh trong Th chin th hai.
Wilhelm Roentgen (18451923) l nh vt l ngi c ban u
d nh tr thnh mt k s. Trong khi hc tp Zurich, Thy S, ng tr nn
am m hn i vi vt l hc v chuyn sang tt nghip lnh vc . Nm
1895, Roentgen tin hnh nhng th nghim vi dng in cui cng a
ng n khm ph ra nhng tia b n khng nhn thy m ng t tn l tia X.
Roentgen nhn thy nhng tia X ny d dng i qua mt s cht nh g v
giy. Nhng cht khc, nh xng v kim loi, th chn tia X li. Nm 1901,
ng c trao Gii Nobel vt l u tin cho khm ph ny.
39
Olaus Rmer (16441710) l nh thin vn hc ngi an Mch.
ng khng nh tn tui ca mnh vi vic xc nh rng nh sng c mt
tc hu hn. Nhiu nh khoa hc ng thi bt u tin rng nh sng
khng th c mt tc v hn, nh trc ngi ta ngh. Trong lc lm
vic ti i thin vn Paris Php, Rmer tr thnh ngi u tin chng
minh l thuyt trn qua nhng quan st ca ng v s che khut ca nhng v
tinh ca Mc tinh. ng o tc nh sng l khong 150.000 dm trn giy,
chnh xc ng k so vi thi k y. Sau ny, ng tr v an Mch v vo
nm 1705 tr thnh th trng Copenhagen.
Joseph John (J. J.) Thomson (18561940) l nh vt l ngi
Anh ban u d tnh tr thnh mt k s. Khi cha ca ng qua i vo nm
1872, Thomson khng kh nng ng hc ph tr thnh thc tp vin v
ng chuyn sang hc ton v vt l. Sau khi tt nghip trng Trinity College
Cambridge, ng tr thnh gio s . ng tin hnh nghin cu rng
v in t hc, a ti khm ph mang tnh cch mng ca ng v nhng ht
electron. Nghin cu ca Thomson ha ra dn ti khm ph ca
Rutherford v ht proton v s ra i ca ngnh vt l ht nhn. Thomson c
nhiu th tiu khin. ng l mt fan trung thnh ca mn cricket v bng bu
dc, v ng c bit thch cy xanh v lm vn.
Alessandro Volta (17451827) l nh vt l ngi Italy, lc cn
tr ng yu thch ngh thut hn l khoa hc. ng vit nhng bi th
sonnet bng ting Italy v ting Php, v vit th ca ngi bng ting Latin.
Nm 19 tui, Volta tr nn yu thch khoa hc, c bit l in hc. ng
tin hnh nhiu th nghim s dng in v pht minh ra mt s dng c
sn xut v o in tch tnh in. Tuy nhin, pht minh ni ting nht ca
ng l pin, dng c sn xut dng in lin tc u tin ca th gii. Ngay c
Napoleon cng thy n tng. Nm 1801, ng ly tn Volta t cho mt b
tc x Lombardy (Italy ngy nay).
James Watt (17361819) l mt k s ngi Scotland. ng l mt
a tr m yu c vic hc nhiu ln b gin on do bnh tt. Tuy nhin, ng
vt qua tr thnh mt nh ch to thit b. Lc lm vic Glasgow,
ng c yu cu sa cha mt ng c hi nc Newcomen, m hnh tin
tin nht vo thi y. Sau khi nghin cu c my, Watt b thuyt phc rng
ng c th tm ra mt thit k hiu qu hn. ng lm i tc vi mt nh sn
xut, v vi nm sau h tung ra mt ng c hi nc ci tin gi mt
phn vai tr quan trng trong cuc cch mng cng nghip. S s dng rng
ri ca n trong nh xng sn xut cho php ng ngh hu lm mt ngi
giu c vo nm 1800.
Thomas Young (17731829) l nh khoa hc ngi Anh c ti
nng ht sc a dng. ng th hin s xut sc t rt sm, lc hai tui bit
c. Ln 14 tui, ng hc 13 th ting v vit mt quyn t truyn bng
ting Latin. Gia nh ca Young khuyn khch ng tr thnh bc s. L mt
40
sinh vin y khoa, ng nghin cu mt v c ch ca s nhn. Nhng am m
ny a ng n nghin cu quang hc. ng chng minh rng nh sng
va nhiu x va to ra h vn giao thoa. Nhng kt qu ny gp phn vo
cuc tranh ci sng/ht xung quanh bn cht ca nh sng. Nm 1814, khi
tng Rosetta c mang t Ai Cp v London, Young nghin cu tng
y cng vi nhng hc gi khc. ng gi mt vai tr quan trng trong vic
gii m ch tng hnh c.
41
Tal ll Tal ll Tal ll Tal lle ee eu than kh u than kh u than kh u than kha aa ao oo o
Asimov, Isaac. Asimovs Chronology of Science and Discovery. New
York: HarperCollins, 1994.
Cobb, Vicki, v Josh Cobb. Light Action! Amazing Experiments with
Optics. New York: HarperCollins, 1993.
Friedhoffer, Robert. Physics Lab in the Home. New York: Franklin
Watts, 1997.
Gardner, Robert. Optics. New York: Twenty-First Century Books,
1994.
. Science Projects about Electricity and Magnets. Springfield,
NJ: Enslow Publishers, 1994.
Henderson, Harry, v Lisa Yount. The Scientific Revolution. San Diego:
Lucent Books, 1996.
Lloyd, Gill, v David Jefferis. The History of Optics. New York:
Thomson Learning, 1995.
Meadows, Jack. The Great Scientists. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1997.
Parker, Steve. Electricity. New York: Dorling Kindersley, 1992.
Skurzynski, Gloria. Waves: The Electromagnetic Universe. Washington,
D.C.: The National Geographic Society, 1996.
Spangenburg, Ray. The History of Science from the Ancient Greeks to
the Scientific Revolution. New York: Facts on File, 1993.
Wilkinson, Philip, v Michael Pollard. Scientists Who Changed the
World. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1994.
Wood, Robert W. Who?: Famous Experiments for the Young Scientist.
Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 1999.

vebsltes vebsltes vebsltes vebsltes
BBC Online
<http://www.bbc.co.uk/science>
Boston Museum of Science online exhibits
<http://www.mos.org/exhibits/online_exhibits.html>
Center for History of Physics, American Institute of Physics
<http://www.aip.org/history/index.html>
Cool Science, U.S. Department of Energy
42
<http://www.fetc.doe.gov/coolscience/index.html>
Kids Castle, Smithsonian Institution
<http://www.kidscastle.si.edu/>
NPRs Sounds Like Science
<http://www.npr.org/programs/science>
PBSs A Science Odyssey
<http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso>
San Franciscos Exploratorium
<http://www.exploratorium.edu/>
Science Museum of Minnesota
<http://www.smm.org>
43
Thu Thu Thu Thua aa at ng t ng t ng t ngu uu u

cng sut: tc phn phi nng lng, o theo watt
cng dng in: tc chy ca dng in, o theo ampere
in tr: ci cn tr hay khng li dng in trong mt mch in, o theo
ohm
nh lut bo ton in tch: vi mi in tch m c to ra, phi c mt
lng in tch dng bng nh vy
nh lut Coulomb: lc in gia hai vt t l thun vi lng in tch hai
vt v t l nghch vi bnh phng khong cch ca chng
nh lut Faraday: mt t trng ang bin thin to ra mt dng in trong
dy dn
nh lut Joule: tng dng in hoc in p trong mt mch in lm tng
cng sut m mch to ra
nh lut Ohm: cng dng in trong mt mch in t l thun vi sut
in ng v t l nghch vi in tr
nh lut phn x: gc hp bi mt sng vi mt b mt bng vi gc n
phn x khi b mt
h phng trnh Maxwell: tp hp nhng nh lut ton hc m t lc in
v lc t
nguyn l Huygens: mi im trn phng truyn sng tc dng nh mt
ngun pht sng mi c c im ging nh sng ban u
nhiu x: s cong ca mt sng xung quanh mt vt cn
ph in t: ton b ngng bc x in t, bao gm sng v tuyn, sng
hng ngoi, nh sng nhn thy, nh sng t ngoi, tia X v tia gamma
sut in ng: lc in gi mt dng in i vng quanh mch in, o
theo volt. Cn gi l hiu in th
s khc x: s b cong ca mt sng ti ranh gii gia hai cht liu
44


\ \\ \ tac gl tac gl tac gl tac gla aa a

Paul Fleisher vit hn 20 tp sch cho gii tr v nh gio dc, nh
Chu k sng ca sinh vt bin ha, b sch Mng li ca s sng, v
Thc phm b no. Nhng tp sch xut bn gn y nht ca ng gm
Gorilla v Nhng iu th v v kem: Ci bn trong tha xc. Paul l
cng tc vin thng xuyn ca tp ch Cng ngh v Hc tp. ng
cn vit mt s phn mm gio dc, trong c phn mm tng t
gii thng Perplexing Puzzles (Nhng cu hc ba).
Paul dy hc trong Chng trnh Nng khiu Richmond, Virginia, t
nm 1978. ng cn tham gia nhng t chc cng dn hot ng v ha
bnh v cng bng x hi. Nm 1988, ng nhn Gii thng v Ha
bnh v Quan h quc t ca Hip hi Gio dc Virginia, v nm 1999
ng c trao Huy chng Thomas Jefferson v nhng ng gp xut
sc cho Gio dc Khoa hc T nhin. Lc rnh ri, mi ngi c th
bt gp Paul ang th b trong vn cy, ang lm vn, hoc cu c
Vnh Chesapeake. Paul v v ca ng, b Debra Sims Fleisher, sng
Richmond, Virginia.

























SNG SNG SNG SNG
Cc nguyn l c Cc nguyn l c Cc nguyn l c Cc nguyn l c~ ~~ ~a nh sng, i a nh sng, i a nh sng, i a nh sng, i n v T n v T n v T n v T h hh hr rr rc cc c
Paul Fleisher
Trn Nghim dch
______________

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