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MAPUA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF EECE

Lecture Notes in Transmission Media and Antenna Systems

Prepared and Compiled by: Engr. Jennifer C.Dela Cruz Engr. Flordeliza L. Valiente

ECE123- Transmission Media and Antenna Systems


TRANSMISSION LINES

A system of conductors having a precise geometry and arrangement that is used to transfer power from source to load with minimum loss. Means of conveying information from one point to another. The conductive connections between system elements which carry signal power.

Types of Transmission Lines A. DIFFERENTIAL OR BALANCED LINE where neither conductor is grounded 1. Two-Wire Open Lines are parallel lines and have uses such as power lines, rural telephone lines, and telegraph lines. This type of line has high radiation losses and is subject to noise pickup.

2. Twin Lead has parallel lines and is most often used to connect televisions to their antennas.

3. A TWISTED PAIR consists of two insulated wires twisted together. This line has high insulation loss.

4. A SHIELDED PAIR has parallel conductors separated by a solid dielectric and surrounded by copper braided tubing. The conductors are balanced to ground.

Equation of the Characteristic Impedance for Parallel wire lines

Z o = 276 log

2S d

d
B. SINGLE-ENDED OR UNBALANCED LINE where one conductor is grounded 1. RIGID COAXIAL LINE contains two concentric conductors insulated from each other by spacers. Some rigid coaxial lines are pressurized with an inert gas to prevent moisture from entering. High frequency losses are less than with other lines.

2. FLEXIBLE COAXIAL LINES consist of a flexible inner conductor and a concentric outer conductor of metal braid. The two are separated by a continuous insulating material.

Equation of the Characteristic Impedance for Concentric lines

D d

Zo =

138

log

D d

COMMMON LOSSES IN A TRANSMISSION LINE COPPER LOSSES can result from power (I2R) loss, in the form of heat, or skin effect. These losses decrease the conductivity of a line. DIELECTRIC LOSSES are caused by the heating of the dielectric material between conductors, taking power from the source. RADIATION AND INDUCTION LOSSES are caused by part of the electromagnetic fields of a conductor being dissipated into space or nearby objects. A transmission line is electrically LONG if its physical length is greater than /16, otherwise, the line is SHORT. Ex. A 10m line is electrically short at 1000Hz and electrically long at 600MHz

LUMPED CONSTANTS are theoretical properties (inductance, resistance, and capacitance) of a transmission line that are lumped into a single component.

DISTRIBUTED CONSTANTS are constants of inductance, capacitance and resistance that are distributed along the transmission line.

LEAKAGE CURRENT flows between the wires of a transmission line through the dielectric. The dielectric acts as a resistor.

A ELECTRO An OMAGNETIC C FIELD ex xists along transmissio t on line whe en current flows f th hrough it.

T Transverse e Electrom magnetic Wave W

T E and H-fields The H and the direction of motio on of TEM waves w are mutually m perpendicula ar to each other o T velocity of the radi The io waves in free space e is c=3 x 1 108 m/sec, but b in a m medium with h dielectric constant r:

v=

; =

v f

Table of Velocity Factor and Dielectric Constant of different Materials Material Vacuum Air Teflon Foam Teflon Polyethylene Paper. praffined Polysterene Polyvinyl chloride Rubber Mica Glass Velocity Factor (k) 1.0000 0.9997 0.8200 0.6901 0.6637 0.6325 0.6325 0.5505 0.5774 0.4472 0.3651 Relative Dielectric Constant (r) 1.0000 1.0006 1.4872 2.1000 2.2700 2.5000 2.5000 3.3000 3.0000 5.0000 7.5000

ITERATIVE CIRCUIT

Sending End

Receiving End

TRANSMISSION LINE GENERAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

R, L, G & C are all per unit length

Note: At RF R and G are ignored or line is considered lossless


Where: R = / unit l L = H / unit l CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE (Zo) Reference input impedance Impedance measured at the input when its length is infinite Also known as the surge impedance G = S / unit l C = F / unit l

dE E Y

E - dE

Where:

Z = R + jL , Y = G + jC ,

series impedance / section shunt admittance / section By KVL: E - dE = E IZ

By KCL: I + dI = I + EY dI = EY (dS) dE = IZ (dS) dI dS dE dS = IZ --------- (4)

--------- (1) ---------- (2)

= EY --------- (3)

Differentiate I and E with respect to S:

d 2I = IZY dS 2
General Solution :

d 2E = EYZ 2 dS

I = I1e E = E1e

ZY

+ I 2e

ZY

--------- (5)

ZY

E2 e

ZY

--------- (6)

But = ZY = complex propagation constant

Propagation constant, , determines the variation of V or I with distance along the line: V = Vse-S ; I = Ise-S , where VS, and IS are the voltage and current at the source end, and S = distance from source.

(R + jL )(G + jC ) = + j

where = attenuation constant ( neper/m or dB/m) = phase delay constant (rad/m) substitute (6) to (4)

d E1e

ZY

E2 e dS
ZY

ZY

) = IZ
ZY

I=

E1 ZY e

E2 ZY e Z

Compare this to (5)

I1 =

E1 ZY E = 1 Z Z Y
I2
=

where therefore

I1

E1/ Zo

and

-E2/ Zo

Zo =

Z Y

Zo =

R + jL G + jC

--------- (7)

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At Radio Frequency

Zo =

L C

--------- (8)

WAVELENGTH - distance travelled by a point in the time required to complete one cycle.

v=

= kc ; =

v f

--------- (9)

Where:

v = velocity of propagation along the line f = frequency of operation


C = velocity of light , 3 x 10 8 m/s k = velocity factor, 0<k<1

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Determine the wavelengths of the electromagnetic waves in free space with the following frequencies: __ kHz, ____kHz, ____ MHz and ___GHz.

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2. For a given length of a coaxial cable with distributed capacitance C = ___ pF/m and distributed inductance L = ______ nH/m, determine the velocity factor and velocity of propagation.

3. A very low loss cable has ___pF/ft of distributed capacitance and _____nH/ft of distributed inductance. Calculate the following: a. the capacitance of 4-ft length of this line b. the characteristic impedance c. the velocity of propagation. d. The ratio of the shield diameter to center diameter of the coax.

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4. Calculate the actual length in feet of a half-wavelength coax with velocity factor of _____ at ______MHz.

5. What is the separation of two towers in feet, if the operating frequency is _______Hz and the phase separation is _____o.

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STANDING WAVE
From (6) an interference pattern made by two sets of traveling waves going on opposite direction.

E = E1e
Incident

ZY S

E2 e

ZY S

Reflected

at the load; S = 0 , E = EL EL = E1 + E2 --------- (10) IL = I1 + I2 --------- (11)

LOSSLESS LINE TERMINATED WITH SHORT CIRCUIT


Antinode

Distancealongtheline

Node

REFLECTION COEFFICIENT,
A measure of the degree of mismatch between the load and the line

E2 E1

I 2ZO = I1Z O

I2 I1

--------- (12)

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From (10) EL = E1 + E2 IL ZL = I1 Zo I2 Zo I1 ZL + I2 ZL = I1 ZLo I2 Zo I1 (ZL Zo) = - I2 (ZL + Zo)

I 2 Z L Zo = = I1 Z L + Zo

If

= 0 , ZL = Zo ( perfect match ) = 1 , ZL = ( open circuit ) = -1 , ZL = 0 ( short circuit )

STANDING WAVE RATIO (SWR)


ratio of maximum to minimum I or V

SWR =

V MAX 1 + = V MIN 1

--------- (13)

SWR 1 SWR + 1

--------- (14)

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If ZL is purely resistive

SWR =

RL ZO

SWR =

ZO RL

If ZL > ZO

If ZO > ZL

Position of the Voltage Maxima and voltage Minima

Vmax

Vmin
Smax - position of the voltage maxima with respect to the load Smin - position of the voltage minima with respect to the load

S max

+ (m )180o = 2

S min

+ (n )180 o = 2

Where:

m any positive even integer n any positive odd integer

for the postion of the first Vmax m = 0 for the postion of the first Vmin n = 1 therefore;

S max =

S min

+ 180o = 2

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S max S min

180o + 180o = = 2 2 360o 2

S max S min =

SAMPLE PROBEMS
1. A transmitter delivers 100W into a ____ lossless line that is terminated with an antenna that has an impedance of ____, resistive. Calculate the reflection coefficient and voltage standing wave ratio on the line.

2. A _____ line is terminated by a load of __________ operating at 10MHz. Find: a. the reflection coefficient and SWR b. the input impedance of line 6850 long c. the position of the first voltage minimum in meters. d. the position of the first voltage maximum in meters

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3. A transmission line has a characteristic impedance of _____ and a reflection coefficient equal to 0.44448o. Find the load and SWR of the line.

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4. Determine the reflection coefficient and SWR of a transmission line with incident voltage Ei =_____V and a reflected voltage ER =____V.

5. Using a TDR, a transmission-line impairment is located 100m from the source. If the elapsed time from the beginning of the pulse to the reception of the echo is ____s, determine the velocity factor

VOLTAGE AND CURRENT AT ANY POINT ALONG THE LINE From (10 )

[EL = E1 + E2 ] / E1

EL =1+ E1

E1 =

EL 1+
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E1 =

EL (Z Z O ) 1+ L (Z L + Z O )

E1 =

E L (Z L + Z O ) 2Z L

--------- (15)

E 2 = E1 =
Substitute to (6)

E L (Z L + Z O ) 2Z L

--------- (16)

E=

E L (Z L + Z O ) e 2Z L

ZY S

+ e

ZY S

--------- (17)

Equation of voltage at any point along the line

For current,

I=

I L (Z L + Z O ) e 2Z O

ZY S

ZY S

--------- (18)

Equation of current at any point along the line

INPUT IMPEDANCE, ZIN

E E = I I

(Z

+ Z

2Z L (Z L + Z 2ZO

) (e ) (e

ZY S

+ e e

ZY S

ZY S

ZY S

) )

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If

ZL ZO ZL + ZO

and

= ZY

(substitute)

Z IN

ZL e S + Z L = ZO ZL e S Z L

S e Z O S e + ZO ZO + ZO

Z IN

e S (Z L + Z O ) + (Z L Z O )e S = Z O S e (Z L + Z O ) (Z L Z O )e S

Z IN = Z O
Recall:

[Z (e [Z (e
L O

S S

+ e S + Z O e S e S x1 / 2 + e S + Z L e S e S x1 / 2

) )

( (

)] )]

e A e A sinh A = 2

e A + e A cosh A = 2

e A e A tanh A = A e + eA

Z IN = Z O

[Z L cosh S + Z O sinh S ](1 / cosh S ) [Z O cosh S + Z L sinh S ](1 / cosh S )

Z IN = Z O

[Z L + Z O tanh S ] [Z O + Z L tanh S ]

--------- (19)

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Manipulating tanh S: CASE I: 0; say = 0.1; =0 S = 2m; = = 0.2

tanh(0.2) = 0.1974 CASE II: 0; say = 0.1; 0 = 0.2; S = S + jS S = 10m; S = 1 + j2

tanh A = e(1 +j2) = e1ej2 Recall Eulers Identity

e(1+j2) e(1+j2) e(1+j2) +e(1+j2)

ejA = 1A = cosA jsinA CASE III: = 0; 0 S = jS

tanhS = tanh jS let S = A

tanh jA =

ejAejA ejA+ejA

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tanh jA =

cosA+jsinA (cosA jsinA) cosA+jsinA+(cosA jsinA)

2jsinA 2cosA

tanh jA = j tan A therefore: tanh jS =j tan S ---- substitute in (19)

Z IN = Z O

[Z L + jZ O tan S ] [Z O + jZ L tan S ]

--------- (20)

- for lossless line Note: cosh jx = cosx sinhjx = jsinx

LOSSLESS TRANSMISSION LINE


1. No attenuation 2. No power loss ( R=0, G=0 )

Wavelength : distance that provides a phase shift 2 radian

v 360 o 2 = = = f

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v=

2f

--------- (21)

Complex Propagation Constant = ( R + jL )(G +jC ) = + j ; j = j LC

1 = LC 1 LC

v=

--------- (22)

INPUT IMPEDANCE, ZIN, for special termination cases.

Z IN = Z O

[Z L + jZ O tan S ] [Z O + jZ L tan S ]

CASE I: ZL = ZO (matched line)

ZIN = Zo

[ZO+jZLtanS] [ZL+jZOtanS]

Z IN = Z O

CASE II: ZL = 0 (short circuited line)

ZIN = Zo

jZOtanS ZO
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Z IN = jZ O tan S
CASE III: ZL = (open circuited line) ZIN = Zo

--------- (23)

[+jZOtanS] [ZO+jtanS]

By LHospitals Rule

[(ZL/ZL)+j(ZO/ZL)tanS]
ZIN = Zo

[(ZO/ZL)+j(ZL/ZL)tanS] 1 jtanS

ZIN = Zo

then

Z IN = jZ O cot S

--------- (24)

ZOCZSC = j ZO tan S ( ZO/ j tan S) = ZO2

Z O = Z OC Z SC

--------- (25)

ZIN for special lengths


CASE I: S = /4 (quarter wavelength)

{ZL+jZOtan[(2/)(/4)]}
ZIN = Zo

{ZO+jZLtan[(2/)(/4)]}

since tan(/2) =

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By LHospitals Rule

[ZL/tanS+jZO]
ZIN = Zo

[ZO/tanS+jZL]

=j

ZO2

/ jZL

Z IN

Z = O ZL

CASE II: S = /2 (half wavelength)

{ZL+jZOtan[(2/)(/2)]}
ZIN = Zo

{ZO+jZLtan[(2/)(/2)]}

Since tan 180o = 0

ZL
ZIN = ZO

Z IN = Z L

ZO

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A transmission line has a characteristics impedance ZO = _____, the input impedance 0.23 from the load is _____________. Find the load, SWR and reflection coefficient of the line.

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2. Calculate the length of a short-circuited line necessary to simulate an inductance of ____H at _____Hz.

3. For a 50 lossless line operating at _______Hz, determine the input impedance at a distance of ______ from the open circuited termination.

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4. Determine the characteristic impedance of a ______ section of a line that simulates an inductance of ____H when short-circuited and a capacitance of ______F when open-circuited at _____Hz.

5. A 150 air-filled lossless line is used to propagate a ______Hz signal. Calculate the input impedance for a 5m length of this line when the load is _________.

COURSEWORK 2 See appendix A

End of topic discussion for Quiz 1


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MATCHING NETWORKS

General rule: to tune out unwanted load reactance (if any) and the transformation of the resulting impedance to the value required. I. QUARTER-WAVE TRANFORMER 1. ZL = RL; RL ZO

Z IN / 4
ZL

Z = OT ZL

Z OT =
ZOT ZO ZIN

Z O RL

2. ZL = RL jXL (complex)

; RL ZO

S ZO ZOT ZO
ZL

=RLjXL

RIN

S MIN

+ m180 O = 2 + n180 O = 2

R MIN =

ZO SWR

Z OT = Z O RL

S MAX

RMAX = Z O SWR
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II.

MATCHING STUBS

Condition: ZL = RL jXL ; RL = ZO 1. Series Short Circuit Stubs

Zins Zos ZO ZL =RL +jXL

Zins = j tan S (Zos) = -jXL S = tan-1 (-XL /Zos)

Double stub

Zins Zos ZO ZL =RL +jXL

Zos
S = tan-1 (-XL / 2Zos) Zins = -jXL / 2 = j tan S (Zos)

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2. Series open Circuit Stubs

Zos ZO Zins ZL =RL +jXL

Zins = -jXL = -j cot S (Zos)

S = tan-1 (Zos / XL)

3. Shunt Short Circuit Stubs

Zos

ZL =RL +jXL

Yins = 1 / Zins = -jB = 1 / (j ZOS tan S) S = tan-1 (YOS / B)


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4. Shunt Open Circuit Stubs

ZL =RL +jXL YL =G+jB

Yins = 1 / Zins = ( j tan S) / ZOS = -jB

S = tan-1 (-BZOS) or S = tan-1 (-B / YOS)

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REACTANCE PROPERTIES OF SHORTED AND OPEN TRANSMISSION LINES

/4

Impedanceseenby thegenerator

HighR

X C

XL

LowR

XL

X C

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS 1. It is required to match a _____ load to a ______ transmission line to reduce the SWR along the line to unity. What must be the characteristic impedance of the /4 transformer to be used for this purpose?

2. A load ZL = 100 j80 is connected to a line whose characteristic impedance is _____ . Calculate the nearest point to the load at which a /4 transformer maybe inserted to provide correct matching and the characteristic impedance of the transformer.

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3. A ____________ load

is to be matched to a 300 line to give a

SWR equal to 1. Calculate the reactance of stub (shunt) and characteristic impedance of /4 transformer both connected directly to the load.

4. A transmission line has a characteristic impedance of _____ and a reflection coefficient equal to 0.44448o. Find a) the load and SWR of the line. b) The nearest point to the load where a quarter wave transformer must be inserted to reduce SWR to 1. c) The characteristic impedance of the transformer. d) The nearest point to the load where a series short circuit must be placed to reduce SWR to 1. e) The length of the stub.

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5. A transmission line has a characteristics impedance ZO = _____, the input impedance ______ from the load is 44.72163.435o. a) the load, reflection coefficient and SWR of the line, the nearest point to the load where a quarter wave transformer must be inserted to reduce SWR to 1. b) the characteristic impedance of the transformer. c) the nearest point to the load where a shunt open circuit stub must be placed to reduce SWR to 1. d) the length of the stub.

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COURSE WORK 3 See appendix A

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The Smith T h Chart ( Polar Im mpedanc ce Diagra am)


The Smith S chart is a graphi ical device in solving transmission t n-line imped dance prob blems. on the cha The coordinates c art are base ed on the in ntersection of two sets s of ortho ogonal circle es. One set s represents the nor rmalized res sistive comp ponent, r (= = R/Zo), an nd the other the no ormalized re eactive com mponent, jx (= jX/ /Zo).

h Chart App plications: Smith Determining Load im mpedance ZL, load adm mittance YL , SWR, || Finding Zi of a shorte ed or open line and te erminated li ines Finding st tub location n for match hing purposes Solution for f quarter-wave trans sformer ma atching

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SAMPLE PROBLEMS
See Appendix B for copies of the Smith Chart to be used in these Exercise.

1. A transmission line has a characteristic impedance of _____ and a reflection coefficient equal to 0.44448o. Find a. the load and SWR of the line. b. The input impedance 120o from the load c. The nearest point to the load where a quarter wave transformer must be inserted to reduce SWR to 1. d. The characteristic impedance of the transformer. e. The nearest point to the load where a series short circuit must be placed to reduce SWR to 1. f. The length of the stub. 2. A transmission line has a characteristics impedance ZO = _____, the input impedance ______ from the load is 44.72163.435o. a. the load impedance, reflection coefficient and SWR of the line b. the nearest point to the load where a quarter wave transformer must be inserted to reduce SWR to 1. c. the characteristic impedance of the transformer. d. The load admittance e. the nearest point to the load where a shunt open circuit stub must be placed to reduce SWR to 1. f. the length of the stub.

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COURSEWORK 4 See appendix A

End of topic discussion for Quiz 2

COURSEWORK 5 Answer Questions 14-1 to 14-25 of the Textbook using 3 different book titles from the Library

RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION
Radio Frequency Bands and Major Services ELF Extremely Low Frequency (30-300Hz) Submarine Applications VLF Very Low Frequency (3kHz-30kHz) Radio waves at these frequencies are very reliable for long-range communications. Attenuation of the ground waves is very small, and the sky wave reflection is good. Radio Navigation, Aeronautical Communications and Maritime Mobile Communications LF Low Frequency (30kHz - 300kHz) Attenuation of ground waves is higher than VLF. Sky absorption begins to be a factor , especially at the higher end of this band. Radio Navigation, Aeronautical Communications and Maritime Mobile Communications
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MF Medium Frequency (300kHz 3MHz) This region includes the standard AM broadcast band in which it is possible to obtain reliable ground wave coverage up to 100 miles from the transmitting antenna. Amateur Communications and Maritime and Aeronautical Communications Sky wave propagation is the only reliable means of communicating over long distances especially at the upper end of this band Short Wave Broadcasting Point-to-Point Communications and Land, Maritime and Aeronautical Communications VHF Very High Frequency (30MHz 300MHz) This region includes the commercial FM and VHF TV bands. Line of sight is the principal means of communication. Short Wave Broadcasting Point-to-Point Communications and Land, Maritime and Aeronautical Communications UHF Ultra High Frequency (300MHz 3GHz) Line of sight propagation is possible beyond the optical horizon due to the increasing refraction effects on earths atmosphere TV Broadcasting, Radioastronomy, Aeronautical and land mobile Communications and Satellite Communications. SHF - Super High Frequency (3GHz 30GHz) Represents the upper limit of frequencies that have any practical use in radio-wave communication using standard method of generating and transmitting signals. Microwave Relays, Satellite and Exploratory Communications HF High Frequency (3MHz 30MHz)

Free Space is an idealised wave environment where there are no other


transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave, no gravity, no obstructions, no atmosphere, no celestial events, no terrestrial events, no electrical noise, and no
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observers. In short, the wave environment is free from everything except the wave itself. space that does not interfere with the normal radiation and propagation of waves (epitome of nothingness).

A radiated TEM wave in free space is often referred to as being in time

phase and space quadrature. This means that the E and H fields rise and fall
together in time, but are 900 apart in space.

The Isotropic model: In free space, the TEM wave is thought as emanating from a dimensionless source. Mathematically, such a zero-dimensional source is obviously a point source. Moreover, the waves regarded as radiating

uniformly in all direction from this point as illustrated in Figure3. Consequently,


we call such a radiation point as isotropic source. The radiated energy of equal intensity is required by a sphere whose surface area is given by: 4r2

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r anyfixeddistancefromthe sourcetowheretheintensity ismeasured

Direction of travel

POLARIZATION: The orientation of the E-field component of the TEM wave is called its polarization. If the direction remains constant with time at a fixed point in space, the field is said to be linearly polarized. For wave propagation near the earths surface, the term vertical, horizontal and slant polarization are frequently used to denote linear polarizations with appropriate orientations.

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POWER DENSITY, FIELD STRENGTH ATTENUATION


POWER DENSITY is the total power radiated per unit area. Isotropic Source PD power density at any

Pt PD = 4R 2
Note:PT=PtGt

pt. on the surface of a

spherical wavefront

Field Strength or intensity of the signal at a distance R; E is in V/m. from,

Zs = o

4 x10 1 36

7 = 120 = 377 9

x10

P =

E2 Z S

E2 120

;
30 Pt R

P t 4 R 2

E2 120

E=

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ATTENUATION
The reduction of power density with distance is equivalent to a power loss and is commonly called wave attenuation.

PD1 a = 10 log PD 2

SAMPLE PROBLEMS 1. Determine the power density for a radiated power of _____W at a distance of ____km from an isotropic antenna.

2. Determine the electric field intensity for a radiated power of ____W and a distance of ____km from a dipole antenna.

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3. The power density at a point from a source is _____W, and the power density at another point is ______W; determine the attenuation in decibels.

OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF RADIO WAVES


a. REFLECTION the return or change in direction of light, sound radiowaves striking a surface or traveling from one medium to another. Electromagnetic reflection occurs when an incident wave strikes a boundary of two media and some or all of the incident power does not enter the second material.

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b. REFRACTION the bending of a radio wave when it passes obliquely from one medium to another in which the velocity of propagation is different. from rare to denser medium it will be refracted towards the normal by Snells law:

sin 1 nB v A = = sin 2 n A vB

Where: 1 = angle of incidence 2 = angle of refraction nA = refractive index of medium 1 nB = refractive index of medium 2 vA = velocity of the wave in medium 1 vB = velocity of the wave in medium 2

c. DIFRACTION the scattering of waves as it passes the edges of an object or


opening. Diffraction is defined as the modulation or redistribution of energy

within a wavefront when it passes near the edge of an opaque object. Diffraction is the phenomena that allows light or radio waves to propagate (peek) around corners.

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d. ABSORPTION the dissipation of energy by radiation passing through a medium.

e. INTERFERENCE - Radio wave interference occurs when two or more electromagnetic waves combine in such a way that system performance is degraded. It is subject to the principle of linear superposition of waves and occurs whenever two or more waves electromagnetic

simultaneously occupy the same point in space.

Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves

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GROUND or SURFACE WAVES Provide reliable 24 hour/day communication capability for frequencies of up to about 3MHz. Primary mode of communication is the LF and MF bands.

Wavefront

Direction of wave travel Increasing Tilt Earth

Notes:
Ground waves must be vertically polarized. This is because the electric field in a horizontally polarized wave would be parallel to the earths surface, and such waves would be short-circuited by the conductive ground. Common uses: Ship-to-Ship Communications Ship-to-Shore Communications Radio Navigation Maritime Mobile Communications Disadvantages of Ground Wave Propagation requires a relatively high transmission power limited to VF,LF and MF bands ground losses vary considerably with surface material given enough power, ground waves can be used to communicate between any two locations in the world. Ground waves are relatively unaffected by changing atmospheric conditions
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Advantages of Ground Wave Propagation -

SKY WAVES Takes advantage of the ionosphere (30-250 miles above the earths surface) that surrounds the earth to provide worldwide communications with reasonably good quality, reliability and moderate power.

Notes:
Almost all HF propagation, and night time long distance MF propagation is by sky wave. Above 30MHZ, waves are more likely to penetrate the ionosphere and continue moving out into space. Ionosphere is most dense during time of maximum sunlight In general, the lower the frequency, the more easily the signal is refracted. In the UHF and SHF bands, a very small percentage of the waves energy is refracted back to earth Under the best conditions, the maximum distance of a single hop is about 2000 miles

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IONOSPHERIC LAYER The ionosphere is composed of three distinct layers, designated from lowest level to highest level (D, E, and F) as shown in figure

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A Amount of io onization de epends on the followin ng factors: 1. amou unt of sunlig ght 2. seaso on of the ye ear 3. sunsp pots 4. weath her conditio ons 5. local terrain

V Virtual Heigh ht is the height h abov ve Earths surface s from m which a refracted r wa wave

ap appears to have h been reflected. r

S Skip Zone is the zone e of silence between th he point wh here the gro ound wave
becomes too o weak for reception and a the poin nt where th he sky wave e is first re eturned to earth

S Skip distanc ce - is the distance d fro om the transmitter to o the point where the first
sk ky wave wa as received

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Relationship between skip zone, skip distance and ground wave


The amount of refraction depends on three (3) factors: 1. density of the ionized layer 2. frequency of the radio wave (3 30 MHz) 3. angle at which the wave enters the ionosphere Critical Angle - above which the signal will not be refracted enough to return to

earth
-

maximum vertical angle at which the signal can be propagated and still be refracted back by the ionosphere.

Critical Frequency (fc) the highest frequency returned to earth when radiated upward in a vertical direction

effects of ionospheric density on radio wave

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Frequency versus refraction and distance


Incidence angle of radio wave

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Formulas For Sky Waves

F-Layer i hv
Earth

From geometry (assuming flat earth): d = 2hv tan i where hv = virtual height of F-layer From theory (secant law): MUF = fc sec I

MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY


The higher the frequency of a radio wave, the lower the rate of refraction by the ionosphere. Therefore, for a given angle of incidence and time of day, there is a maximum frequency that can be used for communications

56

between two given locations. This frequency is known as the MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY (MUF). Varies between 8MHz to 30MHz with Time of day Distance Direction Season Solar Activity

OPTIMUM WORKING FREQUENCY The most practical operating frequency is one that you can rely onto have the least number of problems. FOT = 0.85 MUF

FREE SPACE LOSS


Defined as the loss incurred by a radio wave as it travels in a straight line through a vacuum with no absorption or reflection of energy from nearby objects. Lp (dB) = 92.4 + 20log f + 20log D where : f = frequency of radio wave in GHz D = distance in km If f is in MHz, replace 92.4 above by 32.4

57

Fade Margin
To account for changes in atmospheric conditions, multipath loss, and terrain sensitivity, a fade margin, Fm, must be added to total system loss: Fm (dB) = 30log d + 10log(6ABf) - 10log(1-R) -70 where d = distance (km) f = frequency (GHz) R = reliability (decimal value) A = terrain roughness factor (0.25 to 4), B = factor to convert worst-month probability to annual probability (0.125 to 1 depending on humidity or dryness). A roughness factor = 4 over water or very smooth terrain = 1 over average terrain = 0.25 over very rough, mountainous terrain B- factor to convert worst-month probability to annual probability = 1 to convert an annual availability to a worst month basis = 0.5 for hot humid areas = 0.25 for average inland areas = 0.125 for very dry mountainous areas

TROPOSPHERIC SCATTER (TROPOSCATTER) Is a special case of skywave propagation used for frequencies higher than those in standard skywave propagation technique. Troposphere (6-10mi above the earths surface) is used as a reflector of UHF signals.

58

Is used when reliable long distance communication link is needed across the deserts, mountain regions, off shore drilling platform and between distant islands.

59

SPACE WAVES

Travel in a straight line from the transmitting antenna to receiving antenna.

Space-wave propagation (also called line-of-sight LOS), requires a path where both antennas are visible to one another and there are no obstructions. VHF and UHF communications typically use this path (frequencies above 30MHz).

LOS radio horizon for a single antenna is given as:

dt = 4 h t
Therefore, for transmit and receive antennas, the distance between two antenna is

d = d t + d r = 4 hT + hR
d total distance in km. dt radio horizon for transmit antenna in km dr radio horizon for receive antenna in km ht antenna height in m hr antenna height in m

Where:

60

SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS System composed of a communications satellite in stationary orbit approximately 22,000 miles above the earths surface, an earth-bound transmitting antenna, and an earth bound receiving antenna. Required escape velocity: 17,500 mi/hr Lowest practical orbit: 100 miles above sea level

30mins

Perige

Earth

Apogee

30mins

Satellite positions: LEO (Low Earth Orbit) MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) HEO (High Earth Orbit)

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Determine the MUF for a critical frequency of ____Hz and an angle of incidence of ____degrees.

61

2. Determine the radio horizon distance for a transmit antenna that is ___ft and a receiving antenna that is ____ft.

3. Determine the fade margin for a ___km microwave hop. The RF frequency is ___GHz, the terrain is ____ and the reliability objective is 99.9995%.

4. Determine the path loss for the following frequencies and distances: Frequency(MHz) Distance (D)

62

TELEVISION BROADCAST BAND Frequency (MHz) 54-60 60-66 66-72 76-82 82-88 174-180 180-186 186-192 192-198 198-204 204-210 210-216 470-890 UHF Band Govn.t & Non-Govnt Operations/ Mobile NAVI (ILS/Mbeacon) 88-108 108-136 136-174 FM Band Aero Comm Mobile/Marine/Air/Land High Band VHF Low Band VHF

Channel 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 to 83 73,74 75

COURSEWORK 6 See Appendix A

End of topic discussion for Quiz 3


63

ANTENNA SYSTEMS
Antenna
consist of a wire or other conductor, or a collection of wires or conductors, that converts electrical energy into electromagnetic waves for transmission, and electromagnetic waves into electrical energy for reception An antenna is a passive reciprocal device. It acts as a transducer to convert electrical oscillations in a transmission line or waveguide to a propagating wave in free space and vice versa. It functions as an impedance matcher between a transmission line or waveguide and free space. All antennas have a radiation pattern which is a plot of the field strength or power density at various angular positions relative to the antenna. Basic Antenna Operation:

Antenna Parameters

Radiation Pattern
A polar diagram or graph representing field strengths or power densities at various angular positions relative to an antenna.

Near and Far Fields


The term near field refers to the field pattern that is close to the antenna, and the term far field refers to the field pattern that is at great distance.

64

Antenna Impedance and Efficiency

Za = Ra + jXa Ra = Re + Rr

where:

Ra= antenna resistance Xa=antenna reactance

Rr =

P i2

Rr = radiation resistance (ohms)

P = power radiated by the antenna (watts) i = antenna current at the feedpoint (ampere)

Radiation resistance is the resistance that, if it replaced the antenna, would dissipate exactly the same amount of power that the antenna radiates.

Feed-point impedance Ra = 73 (of which between 68 to 70 is the radiation resistance). This is true for a simple dipole antenna.

65

Antenna efficiency is the ratio of the power radiated by an antenna to the sum of
the power radiated and the power dissipated or the ratio of the power radiated by the antenna to the total input power.

Prad Prad x100% = x100% Pin Prad + PD Rr X 100% R r + Re

where: = antenna efficiency

Prad = radiated power

Pin = input power

Directive gain and Power gain Directive gain is the ratio of the power density radiated in a particular direction to the power density radiated to the same point by a reference antenna, assuming both antennas are radiating the same amount of power. Directivity is the maximum directive gain; gain in the direction of one of the major lobes of radiation pattern. where: D = directive gain PD = power density at some point with a given antenna PDr = power density at the same point with a reference antenna Transmitting gain (At) If an antenna radiates A watts and a standard antenna radiates B watts at transmitting gain is A/B. Receiving gain (Ar) If an antenna receives A watts and a standard antenna receives B watts under the same condition, then the receiving gain is A/B. Power gain(Ap) is given by: Ap = D the same locations, directions and conditions, the

PD D= PDr

66

If an antenna is lossless, it radiates 100% of the input power and the power gain is equal to the directive gain. The power gain for an antenna is also given in decibels relative to some reference antenna. Therefore, power gain is

Ap( dB ) = 10 log Ap

Effective Isotropic Radiated Power Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)


or simply ERP (effective radiated power) is defined as an equivalent transmit power and is expressed as: EIRP = Pt Gt or: EIRP (dBW) = 10 log (Pt Gt) = 10 log (PinAp) where: Pt = total radiated power Gt = transmit antenna directive gain Ap = transmit antenna power gain Pin = input power To determine the power density at a given point distance R from a transmit antenna, (watts) = PinAp

Pt Gt EIRP = PD = 2 4 R 4 R 2

Received Power

where:

Pr = PD Ae

Pr= received power PD = power density Ae = effective capture area


67

The effective capture area of an antenna can be defined as:

Ae =

Gr 4

where:

Ae= effective capture area(meters2) Gr = receive antenna power gain


(unitless) =wavelength of receive signal (meters)

The received power is therefore given by the equation.

Pt Gt Gr 2 Pr = (4R ) 2

Antenna Input Impedance Antenna input impedance is simply the ratio of the antennas input voltage to input current. Zin = Ei / Ii Antenna input impedance is generally complex; however, if the feedpoint is at a current maximum and there is no reactive component, the input impedance is equal to the sum of the radiation resistance and the effective resistance.

Antenna Polarization
The polarization of the antenna refers simply to the orientation of the electric field with respect to the ground. An antenna may be linearly, elliptically, or circularly polarized.

68

Antenna beamwidth is simply the angular separation between the two half-power points on the major lobe of an antennas plane radiation pattern.

Antenna Bandwidth This refers to the frequency range over which operation is satisfactory and is generally taken between the half-power points.

3dB

6dB 9dB 0.9GHz

BW=2.1GHz

3GHz

69

SAMPLE PROBLEMS 1. For an antenna with input power Pin=___W, rms current I=__A, and effective resistance Re=2, determine: a. Antennas radiation resistance b. Antennas efficiency c. Power radiated from the antenna, Prad.

2. Determine the power density at a point __km, from an antenna that has input power Pin= 40W, efficiency =____%, and directivity D = 16dB.

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3. What is the dB gain of an antenna that delivers a 100 V signal over that of an antenna that delivers 75 V?

4. What is the ERP if the output of a transmitter is ____ kW, the coax line loss is _____ W, and antenna power gain is 3 dB?

BASIC ANTENNAS
Elementary Doublet
A dipole which is infinitely thin and has length l which is very short compared to the wavelength An elementary doublet has uniform current throughout its length. However, the current is assumed to vary sinusoidally in time and at any instant :

i(t) = I sin(2ft +)
With the aid of Maxwells equations, it can be shown that the far (radiation)field is:

E=

60lI sin R

71

Half-Wave Dipole
If the elements are each cut to one-quarter wavelength, the resultant antenna is called half-wave dipole or Hertz antenna.

/ 2
Symbol

Balanced Feedline

Grounded Dipole
A monopole (single pole) antenna one-quarter wavelength long, mounted vertically with the lower end either connected directly to ground or grounded through the antenna coupling network, is called a Marconi antenna.

72

Resonant Antenna: Corresponds to a resonant line, and the dipole antenna is a good example whose length is a multiple of quarter wavelength.

Non-Resonant Antenna: No standing waves and its radiation pattern is unidirectional. Usually terminated with a load resistor 1. Long Wire Antenna 2. Rhombic Antenna 3. Vee Antenna

SAMPLE PROBLEMS 1. What is the length in feet of a half-wave dipole antenna operating at _______Hz?

73

2. What is the frequency of operation of a dipole antenna cut to length of _____ m?

3. Determine the radiator of a Marconi antenna cut for the frequency of channel ___ of the TV broadcast channel.

4. A dipole is 10cm long. If the 10MHz current flowing through it is 2A, what is the Field Strength 20km away from it in the direction of maximum radiation?

74

Antenna Impedance Matching Antenna should be matched to their feedline for maximum power transfer efficiency by using an LC matching network. A simple but effective technique for matching a short vertical antenna to a feedline is to increase its electrical length by adding an inductance at its base. This inductance, called a loading coil, cancels the capacitive effect of the

antenna. Another method is to use capacitive loading. Antenna Loading

Inductive Loading

Capacitive Loading

75

Antenna Arrays An assembly of two ore more antenna elements (often / 2)


situated in close proximity to each other so that their induction fields interact to produce a radiation pattern that is a vector sum of the individual ones. In a phased array, all elements are fed or driven; i.e. they are connected to the feedline. Some arrays have only one driven element with several parasitic elements which act to absorb and reradiate power radiated from the driven element.

Broadside Array one of the simplest form of antenna array consisting of a number of dipoles having equal size, equally spaced along straight line and are individually fed in the same phase from the same source. with axis placed vertically, radiation would have a narrow bidirectional horizontal pattern
0 + 180 360 540

Y
f


+ + + + /2

+ + -

+ -

X
+ ant. boom

Z
Solid Radiation Pattern (Bi-directional)

76

End-Fire ArrayAn array where the magnitude of the current in each element is the same but there is a phase difference (90 degrees) between these currents progressively from left to right.
/4

180 0 90 270360

+ + -

+ + -

Turnstile ArrayIt consists of two half wave dipoles mounted at right angles to other in the same horizontal plane. When the two antennas are excited by equal currents 90 degrees out of phase, a figure 8 radiation patterns merge to form omnidirectional pattern.
270 0 180 90

Radiation Pattern (Omnidirectional) Vector sum of the two patterns

+ ant. boom
Radiation Pattern (Unidirectional)
EACH ELEMENT IS /4 COAXIAL FEED LINE

+ -

+ -

+ -

77

Yagi-Uda Array An array consisting of a driven element and two ore more parasitic elements. Driven elements elements directly connected to the transmitter output. Parasitic Element elements not directly connected to the transmitter output a. reflector b. director

REFLECTOR 0.1 + 5% /2 0.1 DRIVEN POLE DIRECTOR - 5% /2 Direction of max radiatio

Radiation Pattern (Unidirectional)

Characteristics of Yagi Array relatively narrow bandwidth since it is resonant 3-element array has a gain of about 7 dBi more directors will increase gain and reduce the beamwidth and feedpoint impedance a folded dipole is generally used for the driven element to widen the bandwidth and increase the feedpoint impedance.

78

WIDEBAND AND SPECIAL PURPOSE ANTENNAS


Folded Dipole Often used alone or with other elements - for TV and FM broadcast receiving antennas because it has a wider bandwidth and four times the feedpoint resistance of a single dipole.

Rr= 4 x 73 = 292
/4

I/2 I/2

/2

BW = 10% fc

a.) LC Circuit

b.) Transmission Line

Log-Periodic Dipole Array (LPDA)


type of antenna whose array elements increase logarithmically corresponding to a design ratio no less than 1 and the opposite ends of the array form an angle of used in television reception including UHF range Beam direction
R R5
6

l5

l6

DIPOLES

R1 R2 R3 = = = R2 R3 R4

l2 l3 = ll1 = = 2 l3 l 4
79

= design ratio < 1

Typical values:

= 0.7

= 30

Characteristics of LPDA
feedpoint impedance is a periodic function of log f unidirectional radiation and wide bandwidth shortest element is less than or equal to /2 of highest frequency, while longest element is at least /2 of lowest frequency reasonable gain, but lower than that of Yagi for the same number of elements used mainly as HF, VHF, and TV antennas

Loop Antenna
Single turn coil carrying RF current; used particularly for DF(Direction Finding) applications Main characteristics: very small dimensions bidirectional greatest sensitivity in the plane of the loop very wide bandwidth efficient as RX antenna with single or multi-turn loop

CIRCULAR LOOP

SQUARE LOOP

feeder

feeder

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Helical Antenna
a broadband VHF and UHF antenna which is used when it is desired to provide circular polarization characteristics. Used for satellite and probe communication (radio telemetry) broadband (+ 20% of fc) circularly polarized

Ground Plane 0.8 /3

/8

coaxial feed

Helix /4

axial radiation

Ap= 15 dB; -3dB= 20o are typical

52 = D

NS

G=

15 NS (D )

Where: G = gain with respect to isotropic antenna N = number of turns in the helix(any positive integer) S = turn spacing 4 D = diameter of the helix = wavelength = Beamwidth

81

Discone Antenna A combination of a disk and a cone in close proximity. It is a ground plane antenna evolved from the vertical dipole and having a very similar radiation pattern. It is characterized by an enormous bandwidth for both input impedance and radiation pattern and behaves as though the disk were a reflector. A wideband antenna which has usable characteristics over a frequency range of nearly 10:1, used to radiate a vertically polarized wave in all the horizontal directions (omnidirectional)

2/3D Feed

Disc D/25

Cone

Coaxial

82

UHF & MICROWAVE ANTENNAS highly directive and beamwidth of about 1o or less antenna dimensions >> wavelength of signal front-to-back ratio of 20 dB or more utilize parabolic reflector as secondary antenna for high gain primary feed is either a dipole or horn antenna use for point-to-point and satellite communications
D R Q P A FOCUS R' Q' P' B Plane waveform DIRECTRIX Plane waves leaving a parabolic surface:

R'

Antenna with Parabolic Reflector


FP + PP = FQ + QQ = FR + RR = K Plane waves emanating from its surface travel in a narrow beam which not only increases gain, but also reduces susceptibility to noise.

a.

b.

c.

Various feed situation for a parabolic, (a) insufficient illumination (b) ideal illumination (c) spillover
83

Paraboloid

spherical reflector

primary feed dipole at focus


Remedy: spherical reflector used to reduce back lobe radiation

primary paraboloid reflector

seconary reflector at focus vertex primary feedhorn

Cassegrain Antenna (eliminates spill over) Power gain and -3 dB beamwidth are:

70 = D

0=2

2D2 Ap = 2

84

Where:

= antenna efficiency(0.55 is typical); D = dish diameter (m); and = wavelength (m) = beamwidth between half-power points, in degrees 0 = beamwidth between two nulls, in degrees

for lossless,

Ap = 6

D2

Horn Antenna
To overcome the difficulties in radiating energy using a waveguide, the mouth of the waveguide maybe opened out, as was done to the transmission line, but this time an electromagnetic horn results instead of the dipole. There are several possible horn configurations, the most common are (a) Sectoral horn flares out in one direction only. (b) Pyramidal Horn flares out in both direction and has the shape of a truncated pyramid (c) Conical Horn flares out in both directions and is a logical termination for a circular waveguide. Special horn antennas are the Cass-horn and the Hoghorn antenna, which are rather difficult to classify since each is a cross between a horn and a parabolic reflector.

85

Lens Antenna
The lens antenna is yet another example of how optical principles may be applied to microwave antennas. It is used as a collimator at frequencies well in excess of 3 GHz and works in the same way as a glass lens used in optics.

Cross section of zoned lenses

curved wavefronts

plane wavefront

used to reduce attenuation

Principle of Wave Collimation The function of the lens is to straighten out the wavefront ensuring that signals are in phase after passing thru it. Advantages: Greater design tolerances, no primary antenna to be mounted and obstruct radiation. Disadvantages: Greater bulk, expense and design difficulties.

86

SAMPLE PROBLEMS 1. A helical antenna with ___ turns is to be constructed for a frequency of _____MHz, if the helix diameter is ___m and turn spacing of ____m find: a) The power gain b) The beamwidth

2. Dimension the elements of a Yagi antenna for ____MHz operation using 0.2 inter element spacing.

87

3. Determine the gain of a 6-ft parabolic dish operating at ______MHz.

4. Design a log periodic antenna for the ____ broadcast band using design ratio factor () of 0.95 and = 0.08.

88

5.

Design a five-element Yagi-Uda antenna for ___MHz operation with three

directors using 0.2 inter-element spacing.

COURSE WORK 7 See Appendix A

89

WAVEGUIDE
A specially constructed hollow metallic pipes or system of conductors and insulators for carrying electromagnetic waves. They are used for microwave frequencies for the same purposes as transmission lines were used for lower frequencies.

Reasons for using waveguide rather than coaxial cable at microwave frequency: easier to fabricate no solid dielectric and I2R losses

At microwave signal frequencies (between 100 MHz and 300 GHz), twoconductor transmission lines of any substantial length operating in standard TEM mode become impractical. Lines small enough in cross-sectional dimension to maintain TEM mode signal propagation for microwave signals tend to have low voltage ratings, and suffer from large, parasitic power losses due to conductor "skin" and dielectric effects Waveguides do not support TEM waves inside because of boundary conditions. Waves travel zig-zag down the waveguide by bouncing from one side wall to the other.

90

RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE
Mode of Operation

Mode Type
Transverse Electric (TE)

Propagation Properties
Electric field is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation

Transverse Magnetic (TM)

Magnetic field is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation

DOMINANT MODE OF OPERATION The most natural mode of operation for a waveguide, this mode is the lowest possible frequency that can be propagated For a waveguides mode of operation, the two submodes are: 1. TEmn for the transverse electric mode. 2. TMmn for the transverse magnetic mode. Where: m number of half-wavelength across waveguide width (the a dimension) n number of half-wavelength along waveguide height (the b dimension) TEmn means there are m number of half-wave variations of the transverse Efield along the a side and n number of half-wave variations along the b side. The magnetic field forms closed loops horizontally around the E-field

91

E-Field Pattern of TE1 0 Mode

b a

g/2

Wavelength for TE & TM Modes

Cutoff wavelength
Smallest free-space wavelength that is just unable to propagate in the waveguide under given conditions. The wavelength of the lowest frequency that can be accommodated in a given waveguide.

c=

(m / a )2 + (n / b)2

92

Any signal with > c will not propagate down the waveguide. For air-filled waveguide, cutoff freq., fc = c/c

TE10 is called the dominant mode since c = 2a any mode.

is the longest wavelength of

Guide wavelength

g =

1 ( / c )

or

1 ( fc / f

Group Velocity
The speed of transmission of a signal along a waveguide

vg = c

or

c 1 ( / c )

Phase Velocity
The apparent speed of propagation along a waveguide based on the distance between wavefronts along the walls of the waveguide.

g vp = c

or

c 1 ( / c )
2

93

Waveguide Impedance

ZTE =

1 ( / c )

Zo

2 2

ZTM = Z o 1 ( / c )

Where: ZO = 120 or 377 for air-filled waveguide

Circular/Cylindrical Waveguides
A waveguide having a circular cross-section, used whenever a rotating element (radar antenna) must be attached to the transmitter/receiver.

Differences versus rectangular waveguides :

c = 2r/Bmn

where:

r = waveguide radius Bmn= Bessel function solution for a particular m,n mode being propagated

=1.84 for the dominant mode of operation. All TEmn and TMmn modes are supported since m and n subscripts are defined differently. Dominant mode is TE11.

94

Advantages: higher power-handling capacity, lower attenuation for a given cutoff wavelength. Disadvantages: polarization may rotate. FIELD PATTERN FOR CIRCULAR WAVEGUIDE

Optical Fiber Communications

95

Core - Thin glass center of the fiber where the light travels Cladding - Outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the light back into the core Buffer coating - Plastic coating that protects the fiber from damage and moisture

Compared to conventional metal wire (copper wire), optical fibers are:

Less expensive - Several miles of optical cable can be made cheaper than equivalent lengths of copper wire. This saves your provider (cable TV, Internet) and you money. Thinner - Optical fibers can be drawn to smaller diameters than copper wire. Higher carrying capacity - Because optical fibers are thinner than copper wires, more fibers can be bundled into a given-diameter cable than copper wires. This allows more phone lines to go over the same cable or more channels to come through the cable into your cable TV box. Less signal degradation - The loss of signal in optical fiber is less than in copper wire. Light signals - Unlike electrical signals in copper wires, light signals from one fiber do not interfere with those of other fibers in the same cable. This means clearer phone conversations or TV reception. Low power - Because signals in optical fibers degrade less, lower-power transmitters can be used instead of the high-voltage electrical transmitters needed for copper wires. Again, this saves your provider and you money. Digital signals - Optical fibers are ideally suited for carrying digital information, which is especially useful in computer networks. Non-flammable - Because no electricity is passed through optical fibers, there is no fire hazard.

96

Lightweight - An optical cable weighs less than a comparable copper wire cable. Fiber-optic cables take up less space in the ground. Flexible - Because fiber optics are so flexible and can transmit and receive light, they are used in many flexible digital cameras for the following purposes:

Medical imaging - in bronchoscopes, endoscopes, laparoscopes Mechanical imaging - inspecting mechanical welds in pipes and engines (in airplanes, rockets, space shuttles, cars) Plumbing - to inspect sewer lines

Disadvantages: higher initial cost in installation & more expensive to repair/maintain Optical Fiber Link

Input Signal

Transmitter Coder or Light Converter Source Fibre-optic Cable Light Detector Receiver

Source-to-fibre Interface

Fibre-to-light Interface

Amplifier/Shaper Output Decoder

Transmitter - Produces and encodes the light signals Optical fiber - Conducts the light signals over a distance Optical regenerator - May be necessary to boost the light signal (for long distances) Optical receiver - Receives and decodes the light signals

97

Optical fibers come in two types:


Single-mode fibers Multi-mode fibers

Light ray Single-mode step-index fibre

n1 core n2 cladding no air n1 core n2 cladding no air Variable n

Multimode step-index fibre

Multimode graded-index fibre

Index porfile

Single-mode step-index fiber: minimum signal dispersion; higher TX rate possible difficult to couple light into fiber; highly directive light source (e.g. laser) required; expensive to manufacture Multimode step-index fibers: inexpensive; easy to couple light into fiber result in higher signal distortion; lower TX rate

Multimode graded-index fiber: intermediate between the other two types of fibers

98

Acceptance Cone & Numerical Aperture

Acceptance Cone

n2 cladding n1 core n2 cladding

Acceptance angle, c, is the maximum angle in which external light rays may strike the air/fiber interface and still propagate down the fiber with <10 dB loss.

C = sin 1 n12 n2 2

Numerical aperture:

NA = sin C = n1 n2
2
Losses In Optical Fiber Cables

The predominant losses in optic fibers are: absorption losses due to impurities in the fiber material material or Rayleigh scattering losses due to microscopic irregularities in the fiber chromatic or wavelength dispersion because of the use of a nonmonochromatic source radiation losses caused by bends and kinks in the fiber

99

modal dispersion or pulse spreading due to rays taking different paths down the fiber coupling losses caused by misalignment & imperfect surface finishes

Absorption Losses In Optic Fiber

6 Loss (dB/km) 5 4 3 2 1 0

Rayleigh scattering & ultraviolet absorption Peaks caused by OH- ions Infrared absorption

0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Wavelength (m)

Fiber Alignment Impairments

Axial displacement

Gap displacement

Angular displacement

Imperfect surface finish


100

Light Sources

Light-Emitting Diodes (LED)made from material such as AlGaAs or GaAsP light is emitted when electrons and holes recombine either surface emitting or edge emitting Injection Laser Diodes (ILD)similar in construction as LED except ends are highly polished to reflect photons back & forth

ILD versus LED Advantages:


more focussed radiation pattern; smaller fiber much higher radiant power; longer span faster ON, OFF time; higher bit rates possible monochromatic light; reduces dispersion

Disadvantages:
much more expensive higher temperature; shorter lifespan

Light Detectors
PIN Diodes photons are absorbed in the intrinsic layer sufficient energy is added to generate carriers in the depletion layer for current to flow through the device Avalanche Photodiodes (APD) photogenerated electrons are accelerated by relatively large reverse voltage and collide with other atoms to produce more free electrons
101

avalanche multiplication effect makes APD more sensitive but also more noisy than PIN diodes.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A wave is propagated in a parallel-plane waveguide. The frequency is ___GHz, and the plane separator is ___cm. Calculate: a) The cutoff wavelength for the dominant mode. b) The wavelength in a waveguide.

2. A rectangular waveguide is ___cm by ___cm. Calculate the cut-off frequency of the dominant mode.

102

3. A rectangular waveguide measures ___x___cm and has a 9GHz signal propagated in it. Calculate the cut-off wavelength, the guide wavelength, the group and phase velocities and the characteristics impedance for the TE1,0 mode.

4. A waveguide has an internal width a of ___ cm, and carries the dominant mode of a signal of unknown frequency. If the characteristic impedance is _____, what is the frequency?

103

5. Calculate the numerical aperture and the maximum angle of acceptance for a fiber with core and cladding refraction indices of ____ and ____ respectively.

6. Determine the critical angle for a glass (n=___)/quartz (n=____) interface. If the angle of incidence is 38o determine the angle of refraction.

End of topic discussion for Quiz 4

COURSEWORK 8 See Appendix A

104

105

ECE123 COURSE WORK 2

Name: ___________________________ Date: _____________ Signature: _______________________ Section: ___________ GRADE

Shade the letter of the corresponding answer. Strictly No Erasures.

A
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

A
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O
106

ECE123 COURSE WORK 3

Name: ___________________________ Date: _____________ Signature: ________________________Section: ___________ GRADE

Show complete solution.

107

108

109

ECE123 COURSE WORK 4

Name: ___________________________ Date: _____________ Signature: _______________________ Section: ___________ GRADE

Use the Smith Chart provided in Appendix B. Show complete solution.

110

111

ECE123 COURSE WORK 6

Name: ___________________________ Date: _____________ Signature: _______________________ Section: ___________ GRADE

Shade the letter of the corresponding answer. Strictly No Erasures.

A
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

A
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

112

ECE123 COURSE WORK 7

Name: ___________________________ Date: _____________ Signature: ________________________Section: ___________ GRADE

Shade the letter of the corresponding answer. Strictly No Erasures.

A
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

A
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

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ECE123 COURSE WORK 8

Name: ___________________________ Date: _____________ Signature: ________________________Section: ___________ GRADE

Shade the letter of the corresponding answer. Strictly No Erasures.

A
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

A
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O

O O O O O O O O O O
114

References Electronic Communications Systems Fundamentals Through Advanced 5th Edition by Wayne Tomasi (textbook) Electronic Communication Systems by George Kennedy and Bernard Davis EE555 powerpoint presentation of Heng Chan of Mohawk College Naval Electrical Engineering Training Series Module 10, Integrated Publishing

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