Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Arabic & Translation Studies Division
CONTRASTIVE GRAMMAR AND STYLISTICS

Student Handbook
This is a first draft of STTI102 Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Student Handbook (Fall 13)
All rights reserved. No part of this handbook may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means, including photocopying
and recording, or in any information or retrieving system without permission in writing from the Arabic and Translation Studies Division, School of Continuing Education, The
American University in Cairo.
2007
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Forward
Changes in how professional translators practice their profession have been
recently frequent. They are not only derived by the growth of the young
discipline of translation, which is the success story of the 1980s, but also by
changes in the world around us such globalized societies and economies, the
spread of internet, and the need for intercultural communication, not to mention
the changes in the geography of translation with the move of the multi-million
industry towards the Middle East and the Arabic language. Translation in the
era of globalization requires interdisciplinary approach to translation that
stresses the need for a translator with background knowledge in various fields.
This necessitates training the learners in more than one field of specialization,
and hence a career certificate which focuses on the specializations of legal, UN
and economic translation on the one hand, and a career certificate which
includes journalistic, literary and audio-visual translation on the other hand.
Taking a quick path unto automation and digitalization, the translation
profession nowadays looks into practical techniques to help translators produce
more and waste less. The new course Technology for Translators and
Interpreters in the Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting with a
focus on CAT tools and translation software programs does not only train
learners on computer-assisted translation, but takes them directly into the online translation environment. To satisfy a need for the translator as intercultural
communicator, also derived from globalization and the spread of new
technologies, new courses such as literary translation and audiovisual
translation were offered in a Career Certificate in Media and Literary
Translation.
The changes in the translation market have been given due focus in the
advanced courses such as Advanced Translation Problem-Solving Strategies
and Translation Portfolio and Project, which focus on topics such as translation
market and environment, project management in translation, code of ethics etc.
Learners in the Professional Diploma in Translation and the Professional
Diploma in Translation and Interpreting are nourished from day one on the
highest standards of professionalism of translation as an activity in the market
of service, of translation as a translator/client relationship and translation as a
mental process.
Furthermore, the translation diploma at ATS can be viewed as comprising three
stages. The first stage (The Foundation Certificate in Translation and
Interpreting) develops all basic translation skills required to produce an
acceptable translation including command of the language, familiarity with
iii
culture, computer skills and e-tools for translators, background knowledge, and
contrastive and transfer skills between the source and the target languages.
Finishing this stage, a trainee can produce a good translation of a general text
but not necessarily of a specialized text such as legal, UN and journalistic texts.
The second stage (The Career Certificate in Legal and UN Translation and The
Career Certificate in Literary and Audiovisual Translation) focus on the textspecific features in translation so that a trainee can be able to produce a
translation in a specialized field. After the career certificate, the trainee can
produce a sound translation in a certain specialization, but he may not be aware
of many factors related to the environment of translation such as certain code of
ethics, rates, project management etc. The diploma is the level of
professionalism which makes the trainee ready to go to the market after being
enlightened on many issues related to translation theory and the translation
market.
Dr. Hussein Ali

Director, Arabic and Translation Studies Division
iv
The American University in Cairo

School of Continuing Education
Arabic and Translation Studies Division
CURRICULUM DESIGN FORM
Course Title: Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics
Course Code: STTI102
Course Type (Regular / Customized): Regular/Customized
Number of Continuing Education Units (CEUs): 3.0 1
Target Audience:
Learners who are seeking knowledge on and skills at rendering the functions of grammatical
structures and stylistic devices between English and Arabic; trainees/translators seeking help with
problem-solving techniques at the levels of grammar and stylistics
Course Pre-requisites (if any):
1. None
Course Description:
This course is an exploration of how the differences between English and Arabic grammar and
stylistics are dealt with in translation, an investigation of how professional translators handle the
differences between English and Arabic in translation, and practice of the different techniques of
translation between English and Arabic.
Learning Outcomes:
By the end of this course, learners will be able to
1. contrast different sentence structures in English and Arabic;
2. translate appropriately different sentence structures in English and Arabic;
3. contrast tense and aspect in English and Arabic;
4. translate appropriately tense and aspect between English and Arabic;
5. contrast passive voice in English and Arabic;
6. translate appropriately passive voice between English and Arabic;
7. contrast punctuation in English and Arabic;
8. render appropriately punctuation between English and Arabic;
9. contrast adverbs and adverbial phrases in English and Arabic;
10. translate appropriately adverbs and adverbial phrases between English and Arabic;
11. contrast adjectives and adjectival phrases in English and Arabic;
12. translate appropriately adjectives and adjectival phrases between Arabic and English;
13. contrast sentence connectors in English and Arabic;
14. translate appropriately sentence connectors between English and Arabic;
15. contrast affixation in English and Arabic; and
16. translate appropriately affixation between Arabic and English.
Offered as customized; the number of CEUs depends on client's request.
Instructional Materials:
1. Contrastive Grammar and stylistics. ATS Student Workbook. (Updated Every Term)
2. Baker, M. (1992). In other words. London: Routledge
3. Ghazala, Hasan. (2004). "Stylistic semantic and grammatical functions of punctuation in English
Arabic translation". Babel 50:3. 230-245.
4. Malmkjaer, K. (2005). Linguistics and the language of translation. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press.
Syllabus / Training Outline:
Serial*
Title/subtitle
1
Assignment
Orientation and theoretical introduction

Tenses and aspects;
Selected readings on
theories of contrastive
analysis and translation
sentence structures in
English and Arabic
English and Arabic tense
and aspect
Controlled practice on
translating tense and
aspect.
Tenses and aspects;

Conditional
translating conditionals in
English and Arabic
Voice
Quiz 1
translating active and
passive in English and
Arabic
Selected readings on voice
in English and Arabic
Affixations and collocations
translating affixation and
collocations in English
and Arabic
Adjectives
Quiz 2
translating adjectives in
English and Arabic
Session: In this course one session equals 2.5 contact hours.
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Adverbs and adverbial phrases
Sentence connectors
Punctuation
translating adverbs and
adverbial phrases in
English and Arabic
adverbs and adverbial
phrases in English and
Arabic
translating sentence
connectors in English
and Arabic
sentence connectors in
English and Arabic
translating punctuation
devices in English and
Arabic
8
Models and articles

Quiz 3
translating modals and
articles in English and
Arabic
Thematic organization of information
thematic organization of
information
10
Translation at paragraph level
Distribution of the final

Project
11
Translation at paragraph level
12
Discussion of project
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Instructional Methods:
Learners will experience interactive, practice and skill-based learning; methods of teaching in this
course also include group work and case studies of published translations.
Assessment of Learning Outcomes
Frequency** : Three assessments and a project.
Type: Written tests and/or projects.
Classroom assessments should not take more than 30 minutes.

The first two assessments should be recorded in the class folder by session 7.
Learners grades are based upon three assessments during the course (70%) and an end-of-term
exam (30%).
Instructors are required to provide learners with appropriate feedback on their performance
throughout the course.
For all written courses, three assessments at least should be conducted as follows:
Session 3
Session 5
Session 8
Project
Total
20 points
25 points
25 points
30 points
100 points
For further information or Inquiries: Please see the Assistant Division Director for Regular Programs
in Room 617 SCE, or call 2797-6873, or email m_shorbargy@aucegypt.edu
**
Exact dates will be announced in class two sessions before the quiz, exam, or project is due.
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Classroom Guidelines for SCE Learners

CLASSROOM GUIDELINES FOR SCE
LEARNERS
Attendance Policy:
You must attend at least 75% of the class
sessions. Failure to do so will result in failing
the course, although you will be allowed to
attend classes.
:
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Punctuality Policy:
You are expected to arrive on time for all
scheduled classes and laboratory sessions.
You will be considered late if you enter the
class any time after the start of instruction.
You are allowed to be late twice without
penalty. All successive instances of
tardiness will be counted as absences,
although you will be allowed to attend the
class.
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Grading System:
Learners are assessed throughout the term
by tests, quizzes, assignments, projects or
other means of evaluation. End-of-term
achievement tests measure learners overall
performance in the course.
The final grade in each course is based on
learners
performance
on
continual
assessment measures and the final test.
Final course grades are NOT based on
attendance, since in accordance with SCEs
attendance policy, learners must attend at
least 75% of the class sessions in order to
be allowed to take the final examination.
At the end of each term, final course grades
are posted on the divisional bulletin boards
along with learners ID numbers, NOT their
names.
Accordingly, the ID number is
necessary to know your course grade.
Incomplete Grade:
An incomplete grade (I) for any scheduled
course may be given at the discretion of the
course instructor only to learners who have
attended the course, but cannot sit for the
final examination or cannot complete course
requirements due to circumstances beyond
their control.
In order to record the final course grade, all
requirements should be completed before
the end of the second week of the following
term. Failure to change an incomplete grade
will result in the final grade being recorded
as "F".
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" "
%57

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:
) I, Incomplete(
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Learner Evaluation of Instruction:

Learner evaluation of instruction is very
important. Based upon your response and
comments, changes can be made.
Please take these evaluations seriously and
answer all the questions honestly.
Remember that instructors are not permitted
to see their evaluation results until after your
grades are posted.
SCE values your input.
Learner Petitions and Grievances:
You may appeal to a division administrator
in any aspect pertaining to class instruction,
learning environment, or administration
processes.
You may seek resolution at higher
administrative levels if the matter is not
resolved. The decision of the Associate
Dean for Instructional Affairs is final.
Anonymous complaints or petitions will be
completely disregarded. All petitions are
handled with discretion, protecting your best
interests.
Cheating:
Cheating is not acceptable in an institution
dedicated to learning. Cheating includes
giving or receiving information during an
examination, using unauthorized material
during an examination, and other acts of
academic dishonesty, including plagiarism.
If you are caught cheating on the final
examination, your final course grade will be
recorded as F.
The penalty for a second offense is
automatic suspension from studying at SCE
for one 12-week term and failing the course.
In instances of a third offense, you will be
permanently dismissed from SCE.
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Harassment:
SCE does not tolerate any form of
harassment, including sexual harassment.
Sexual harassment is any conduct of a
sexual nature that significantly impairs a
persons ability or opportunity to perform his
or her job or educational pursuits.
SCE is committed to providing a secure
educational and work environment for its
learners,
instructors,
staff,
and
administrators.
:

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Photocopying:
Photocopying textbooks and original content
including computer software is a violation of
AUC copyright and photocopying policies
and thus will not be allowed in SCE classes.
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"F"
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Smoking:
Smoking is not allowed in any SCE building,
including classes, lounges, workspaces,
single-occupancy
offices,
balconies,
stairwells, open-areas within buildings, and
outside the entrance of buildings.
:

.
Cellular / Mobile Phone:

SCE prohibits the use of cellular/mobile
phones in the classroom and during the
administration of entrance and end-of-term
testing sessions.
You should turn off your phone during any
class time and/or testing session.
:

.

.
Misconduct:
Acceptable adult behavior is expected of
SCE learners in the classroom and on
university campuses.
Breach of such behavior will be reported by
the instructor to the Division Director, and
learners involved will be referred to the
Learner Disciplinary Committee.
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xii
Table of Contents
Session Number: One ............................................................................................................... 2
Tenses .................................................................................................................................... 3
Tenses (PowerPoint) ............................................................................................................ 7
Tenses Exercises .............................................................................................................. 13
Session Number: Two ............................................................................................................ 16
Conditional in English and Arabic ................................................................................... 17
Session Number: Three .......................................................................................................... 22
Active & Passive ................................................................................................................. 23
Passive & Active (PowerPoint) ......................................................................................... 28
Session Number: Four ............................................................................................................ 30
Affixations........................................................................................................................... 31
................................................................................................................................... 42
............................................................................................................................. 46
Collocations ........................................................................................................................ 49
Exercises on Collocations .................................................................................................. 50
Idioms .................................................................................................................................. 51
What is a Fixed Expression? ............................................................................................. 52
Fixed Expressions Quiz ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Session Number: Five ............................................................................................................ 54
Adjectives ............................................................................................................................ 55
Modifiers ............................................................................................................................. 59
Adjectives PowerPoint ....................................................................................................... 62
Adjectives . Exercises ..................................................................................................... 65
Session Number: Six .............................................................................................................. 72
Adverbs Handout ......................................................................................................... 73
Adverbs Exercises ........................................................................................................ 81
Session Number: Seven.......................................................................................................... 82
PUNCTUATION ................................................................................................................ 83
........................................................................................................................... 87
Sentence Connectors .......................................................................................................... 91
Connectors .......................................................................................................................... 94
Session Number: Eight ......................................................................................................... 100
Models and Articles ......................................................................................................... 101
Session Number: Nine.......................................................................................................... 110
Session Number: Ten ........................................................................................................... 114
Session Number: Eleven ...................................................................................................... 116
Session Number: Tweleve.................................................................................................... 118
xiii
Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics
Page 1

Certificate Title: The Foundation Certificate in Translation and Interpreting
Session Number: One
Description of Session and Main Activities:
In this session, students will explore the differences between English and Arabic
verb tenses, and how professional translators handle the differences. They will also
practice different translation techniques from English into Arabic and vice versa.
The main question that should be asked is What is the function of the structure and
how should this function be carried out in the target languate? For example, the
function of the present perfect is to give news of recent events, where as the function
is performed by the use of the past tense in Arabic.
Learning Outcomes:
By the end of the class session, students will be able to
- contrast tense and aspect in English and Arabic; and
- translate appropriately tense and aspect from English into Arabic and vice versa.
Material:
Material developed at ATS
Assignments:
-
Selected readings on theories of contrastive analysis and translation.

Selected readings on sentence structures in English and Arabic.
Page 2
Tenses
What is a tense?
Tense in English means a system marked by verb inflection or auxiliaries whose
basic use is to locate the situation in time or to express certain time relations.
Present Simple:
When we talk about permanent situations, or about things that happen regularly,
repeatedly or all the time (not just around now), we use the simple present tense.
Simple present tense is used to indicate:
Facts: Ex. The sun rises in the East.
Habits: Ex. The British drink tea a lot.
Making declarations: By the authority vested in me, I now pronounce you
husband and wife.
Senses: did you hear that?
Mental & Emotional states: think, feel, believe, belong, doubt, know, matter,
mean, prefer, understand, suppose, suspect, want, wish, depend.
Communication of Reactions: agree, astonish, deny, disagree, impress,
please, promise, satisfy, surprise.
With Frequency Adverbs: Ex. He usually practices 90 minutes of yoga
every morning.
Timetabled future:
Ex. The president holds talks with his French counterpart on Wednesday.
The plane arrives at 10 AM.
Present Continuous (Progressive)

It indicates contemporary or continuing actions that are going around now. In other
words, it indicates:
Actions that are in progress at the moment:
I'm staying in a hotel until I find a suitable apartment.
Complaints and bad habits
You are always telling lies.
(Bad habit)
Page 3
Description of change & development

Things are getting worse.
.
Gradual Change
The status quo in the Arab world is deteriorating.
Note: Present Continuous is sometimes used to indicate future plans:
The prime minister is meeting the new ministers late this afternoon.
Present Perfect
This tense indicates:
Giving news of recent events: The government has announced the new
Cabinet.
No time reference: I have visited the Caribbean islands many times.
Up to the present
I have not seen Romeo and Juliet.
.
Shes never apologized for anything in her life.
The result at hand (connected with the present):
I've broken my leg.
Not distant in time and place (on part of the speaker)

I've left my wallet in the car. (Speaker about to return)
Something happened several times up to the present:
I have written six letters since morning.
.
Present Perfect Continuous

This tense is used mainly to talk about situations that started in the past and are
still going on.
Emphasis of a duration
I've been waiting for you all morning.
.
A habitual action in a period of time up to the present
I've been jogging every morning since I quit my job.
.
Incomplete action that continued over a period of time
I've been ironing this shirt. (I havent finished ironing yet.)
Page 4
Simple Past Tense

It refers to a completed action, state, and habits in the past (with definite time
reference).
Last year I changed my career from a stockbroker into a real estate agent.
Note: simple past is used to when distancing oneself.
I left my wallet in the car. (I'm not near my car.)
Past continuous
Actions in progress (often interrupted by other actions)
While we were trying to find a solution to the problem, the CEO suggested a
brilliant idea.
Changing states
Your behavior was getting worse.
Past Perfect
This tense refers to an event in the distant past before another in the past.
When I came back, someone had stolen my wallet. I guess I had forgotten to lock
the locker.
Note: When past events are reported in their order of occurrence, there will be no
need for the past perfect; the need would arise if the events were reported out of
their sequence.
Future with Will
We use will to refer to the future in the following situations:
Description of what we suppose to be true:
That will be Jim at the door.
Immediate (spur of the moment) decision:
I'll take this one.
Future with Be Going to

Intention or plan:
I'm going to do my best to be there on time.
An event whose cause is present:
Look at the tree! It is going to fall.
Page 5
Decisions referring to a more distant point in the future:

Next year, I'm going to work as a reporter.
Future Continuous:
An event that will be continuing at a future point
Come around in the morning, I'll be cooking in the kitchen.
An event that will happen anyway, rather than events we choose to make
happen
I won't fix a time to see you as I'll be calling into the office anyway.
Fixed arrangements:
The band will be performing next spring.
Future Perfect:
To express assumptions on the part of the speaker that a particular action will be
finished by a future point
The builders say theyll have finished the roof by Tuesday.
Page 6
Tenses (PowerPoint)
Page 7
Page 8
Page 9

I. Translate the following sentences into Arabic showing the function of the tense in
each sentence, and how to convey it into the target language:
1. There is often tension in balancing the happiness factor between individuals and
social wants, needs, and desires.
2. We celebrate Halloween every year on October 31.
3. The platform of the Democratic Party stressed the importance of the economic
reform.
4. The manifesto of Al Wafd party includes all their views and motives.
5. The Central Intelligence Agency has concluded that China has recently delivered
important components for missile systems to Iran and Pakistan.
6. EEAA has exerted enormous efforts to conserve environment in Egypt.
7. In 1979 the Conservative party has won the general election making Margaret
Thatecher Britains first ever woman prime minister.
8. Previous government attempts to find a consensus on terror laws have failed but
the London bombs appear to have changed that.
9. He observed that the economy had expanded steadily since 1981
10. NASA scientists had thought they'd solved the technical problems which have
dogged the Space Agency.
11. Chinas birth control policies have been criticized as draconian, especially the
one-child policy.
II. Translate the following into English, showing the function of the tenses included
and how to convey them into English:
.1
.2
" " .3
1691 21
.4

III. Translate the following taking into consideration the function of the tenses
included and the brief:
Page 10
Exercise one:
Target group: employees of health services and young managers
Text type : Self reporting questionnaire on teamwork and total quality management
The first part of the questionnaire asks non-identifying demographic data. The
second part is composed of statements that represent items of teamwork that
may influence TQM. You are requested to mark the best response which
reflects your own beliefs. The third part asks you to respond to open-ended
questions. In this part you can write what you would like to add and believe
was not addressed in the questionnaire items.
Management Support
Exercise two:
Target group: Same as previous
Text type : Same questionnaire- some items
Teams are active and their input is appreciated by management

Management encourages multidisciplinary, multilevel team decisions
Management gives incentives to promote teamwork.
Management consults appropriate employees to solve quality issues
Incentives are given to employee who participates in setting quality plans.
Management appreciates employee work based only on their performance.
Exercise three:
Brief: academic paper review
Context: workshop
Target group: young researchers
This section will explore the various ways in which resistance to change has
been unmasked in the literature and the areas that perhaps did not capture much
attention by the researchers in general.
Page 11
Exercise four:
Target: Children with special needs educators
Text type: Book: In Early Childhood Through Middle School: Laying the Foundation
Scenario: Jacob was born with Down syndrome, severe cognitive delays, and
additional health problems to parents who understood that Jacob would need
special attention. Even before Jacob was born, hospital officials had connected
the family with agencies and resource people who helped them understand how
the family could best help Jacob in his years as an infant. The connections to
agencies and resources continued into his toddler days and through his
transitions into public school.
Exercise five:
Target group: doctors
Text type : Medical report
Brief History:
-
Patient is a known case of mitral steno-sis presented in ER with left side

weakness. CT Brain shows right tempero parietal infarc.
Echo- rheumatic heart with infected endocraditis. As per patients condition
improves, trans out to the ward where he developed respiratory distress, heart
failure and aspiration pneumonia. Admitted again to the ICU, intubated and
ventilated.
Page 12
Tenses Exercises
.1
.
.2 3
.
.3
.
.4 .
.5 .
.6 .
.7
.
.8
.
.9 .
.11
.
.11
.
.12 .
Page 13
1. The blast Thursday that killed Stephen Everhart, who was working for the U.S.
Agency for International Development, was the second in a week in the Iraqi capital
that targeted embassy personnel.
2. Tunisia, the country where the Arab Spring uprisings began this year, has joined the
International Criminal Court, becoming the first North African country to do so.
3. I was sorry when Jacky moved to America; we had been good friends since university
days.
4. Obama said when I came into office, this economy was in a freefall, and the economy
has stabilized.
5. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights has said more than 2,000 people -- mostly
demonstrators -- have died since the uprising began in mid-March.
6. Movie producer Khoury had planned to make two series for this Ramadan, but the
other had to be postponed until next year because several members of his team were
too busy participating in the revolution to work on it.
7. Egyptian Gabriel Khoury's first foray into television drama "Dawaran Chobra" is
being watched by millions on four channels every night during the holy month of
Ramadan.
8. This year we have tried to break the mold with a good quality series without the big
names.
9. Despite violence and political uncertainty sweeping the country, Syria's production of
Ramadan drama continued largely undisturbed in the capital Damascus.
10. The United Nations' World Food Programme was sending 600 tons of food
commodities for the Red Cross to distribute in Tripoli.
11. A group of University of Kentucky students and staff has been patrolling campus
grounds -- scouting out any student, employee or visitor lighting a cigarette.
Page 14

12. This year, we've certainly become aware of how social media can coordinate the
activities of protesters and rebels acting against repressive regimes.
13. The Arab Spring was initiated on Facebook pages, orchestrated through Twitter
accounts, and video recorded on cell phones.
14. In a brave and noble move, the United Kingdom's Advertising Standards Agency this
week issued a ban on two makeup advertisements.
15. There has been a string of scientific studies in recent years showing a potential health
benefit from eating chocolate.
Page 15

Session Number: Two
In this session, students will explore the differences between the English and Arabic
conditional, and how professional translators handle the differences. They will also
Learning Outcomes:
- contrast the conditional in English and Arabic; and
- translate appropriately the conditional from English into Arabic and vice versa.
Material:
Assignments:
-
Controlled practice on translating tense and aspect from English into Arabic and vice
versa.
Controlled practice on translating conditionals from English into Arabic and vice
versa.
Page 16
Conditional in English and Arabic

Conditional in Arabic is understood at the lexical level, while in English it's
understood at the syntactic level.
Suggest Arabic Translations:
There are four main types of 'if' conditional in English:
CASE ZERO:
- Formation: present simple + present simple
- Usage:
1. It expresses universal fact:
If you heat ice, it melts.
(Universal fact)
2. It expresses personal fact:
If I drink coffee, I get a headache.
(Personal fact)
3. It is also used to give instructions, using the imperative in the main

clause:
If he phones, tell him I'll be back at 5:00.
CASE I:
- Formation: Present simple + "will + infinitive
- Usage: to express real possibility in the future.
If you study, you will succeed.
(Present in form, future in meaning)
CASE II:
- Formation: Past simple + "would + infinitive
- Usage:
1. to express untrue present, unlikely future, probable result
If you studied hard, you would succeed (Past in form but present in
meaning)
If you won the prize, what would you do?
2. Imaginary present
If I were you, I would say the truth.
I was not on that occasion and I'll never be
If I had been you, I would have said the truth.
I was not on that occasion, but I may be in future.
Page 17
CASE III:
Formation: Past perfect + "would + have + P.P.
Usage: Imaginary past impossible past
If you had studied hard, you would have succeeded.
If the test had been easier, I'd have had a full mark.
If I had been elected US president, I would have reduced taxes.
Exceptions:
Imaginary Present: were replaces was
If I were a queen, I would have lived in a palace.
III + II = Present result of a past condition
Past perfect / if clause + would + infinitive / main clause.
If I had accepted that job I would be a millionaire now.
If I had married him I would be happy now.
The time is past in the If-clause & present in the main clause.
Unreal past condition + its probable result in the present.
II + III = Past result of a present or continuing condition
Simple past / If clause + would have + P.P. / main clause.
If I didn't love him I wouldn't have married him.
=
I still love him and that is why I married him.
Unreal present situation + its probable (but unreal) past result.
If I were a good cook, I would have invited them to lunch.
=
I am not a good cook so I can't invite them to lunch.
If I spoke English, I would have got a better job.
If I knew him, I would have said Hello
Page 18
ADVICE:
Take 2 days off, if that will help you to recover.
INSISTENCE:
If she will (insists on) smoke so heavily,
it's not surprising she has a disease in the heart.
REQUEST:
If you will just fill in this form, you can hand it in the reception.
INVERSION:
Had he studied hard, he would have entered faculty of engineering.
Should you have any questions, do not hesitate to ask me.
UNLESS: is used instead of "if not"
Unless you got an ID, you wouldn't have access to the library.
Page 19
In Zero case "if" is mostly replaced by "when" (time clause).

If in front position is more emphatic and put a comma.
Request:
ex: It will be nice if you help me. (direct request - Type 1)
ex: It would be nice if you helped me. (more polite request - Type 2)
Type I: Future tense may be used in both clauses. This is particularly
common in polite requests.
ex: If you will marry me, I will love you forever.
(More polite than 'If you marry me')
ex: If you would marry me, I will love you forever.
(More polite than 'If you will marry me')
Type I: "be + going to" often replaces "will" to emphasize a certain
result.
ex: If you skip your classes, you are going to fail.
For example:
If she gets good grades, she will go to university.
We are talking about the future, but we use a present tense for the condition
and will for the result. In this case, the person is sure about going to
university.
IF
If
If
If
If
If
If
Other modal verbs in the result part of the sentence.

We can use other modal verbs in the result part of the sentence. For example:
Condition
Result
Possibility
she gets
she will go to
If the condition is met, then she
good grades, university.
definitely will go
he gets good he may go to
He is not sure about going to
grades,
university.
university.
she gets
she should go to
The speaker is expressing his or her
opinion, giving advice.
he gets good he can go to
This means that it is possible.
grades,
university.
she gets
she could go to
This means that it is possible, but not
that likely.
he gets good he might go to
This means that it is possible, but not
grades,
university.
that likely.
Page 20
:
: ) (
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- : ) (
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- : ) (
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- : ) (
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- : ) (
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- : ) (
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- : ) (
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- : ) (
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- : ) (
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- : -
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Page 21

Session Number: Three
active and passive, and how professional translators handle the differences. They
will also practice different translation techniques from English into Arabic and vice
versa. Assessment 1 will be given in this session.
Learning Outcomes:
- contrast the active and passive in English and Arabic; and
- translate appropriately the active and passive from English into Arabic and vice
versa.
Material:
Assignments:
-
Controlled practice on translating simple and continuous aspects.
Page 22
Active & Passive

Arabic tends to use the actuve more frequently, whereas passive voice is inherent in the
English language structure.
A professional translator should know that not every active vocie case in Arabic is
necessarily translated to active in English; it might be better rendered with the passive
voice.
Likewise, not every passive case in English is necessarily translated into passive voice in
Arabic; it might be better rendered with active vocie.
When is Passive voice is used in English?

1. When the doer of the verb is not known from the text or the situation as a whole.
When they got back from their holiday they found that their home had been
burgled.
2. When the doer is known but is not really important.
The streets are swept every day.
3. When the subject or the doer of the active verb is generic; "people" or the infinite
pronoun ONE; OR the doer can be easily understood from the context,(in this case it
is better to translate the sentence to in Arabic).
French is spoken in France, Switzerland and Belgium.
This sort of advertisement is seen everywhere.
4. When we are more interested in the action than the person who does it.
A large amount of the companys shares were sold last Wednesday.
Page 23

5. When the doer is known but is of little importance compared to the action. In this
case, the English mentions the doer after "by"
The notes were written by the committee.
(These kind of sentences must be translated in Arabic to the active.Thus it would be
inaccurate to translate the word "by" using ")"
6. The passive may be used to avoid an awkward or ungrammatical sentence. This is
usually done by avoiding a change of subject.
When their mother got sick, the children were looked after by neighbors.
7. Passive is used with some verbs that collocate or exist with a single known doer: Ex.
arrest, sentence, acquit. (In this case translation of the sentences would be better if
we use the active voice)
He was arrested on charges of spying.
.
8. Passive is also used when the speaker gets someone to do the act for him.
I got or (had) my car repaired last week
.
(Here the translator is dealing with a cultural aspect since it is very unusual in Arabic to
indicate that an (agent) carried out an act for the speaker. Hence the Arabic would tend
to use )
Page 24
Choice between get and be

The action is unexpected, involuntary or possibly unwelcome.
When he picked up the phone we got cut off.
An achievement based on something that has been built up beforehand.
She got elected.
An achievement in the face of difficulty.
I finally got accepted for the job.
GET or HAVE
To describe things we arranged to be done for us.
I got/had my nails polished.
BY and WITH
''By'' indicates an animate agent. Ex.: by the police.
''With'' indicate an inanimate instrument. Ex.: with a stick.
Compare:
I was hit with a branch.
I was hit by a branch.
Verbs not used in the passive

Note that:
Not all verbs can have passive forms. Passive forms are impossible with intransitive
verbs which cannot have objects like: die, arrive
Some transitive verbs, too, are seldom used in the passive form. Most of these are
stative verbs (verbs which refer to states, not actions) such as: fit, have, lack,
resemble, suit.
My summer clothes dont fit me any more.
Some prepositional verbs are mainly used in the active voice.
Everybody agreed with my opinion.
Page 25
Passive in modern standard Arabic:

are restricted to some cases: Usages of

: .
:
.

.
( )
( ).
The law was twice amended.

The meeting was held yesterday.
:

.
At the banquet held by the president in honor of the French president, our president went
on telling anecdotes about his last trip to France.
Page 26

:
.1
He is expected to travel to the USA next month.

The bank is to open the new branch next month.
It has been decided that

It's well established that

It's well known that

It's understood that

It has been agreed that

It is likely that
............
Is scheduled to take place ..
.....
It is recommended that
.2
.3
.4
.5
.6
.7
.8
.9
. .11
It is said that women live longer than men.
.... .... .11
... V. to be + not meant to .
.... ........... .12
... V. to be + not created to .
..... .13
President was reported
Page 27
Passive & Active (PowerPoint)
Page 28
Page 29

Session Number: Four
In this session, students will explore affixations and collocations. They will practice
different translation techniques from English into Arabic and vice versa.
Learning Outcomes:
- translate appropriately affixation between Arabic and English; and
- translate appropriately collocations between Arabic and English.
Material:
Assignments:
-
Controlled practice on translating affixation and collocations.
Page 30
Affixations
Affixation: formation of a word by means of an affix (Prefix, Suffix or Infix)
-
Prefix: a group of letters that is added to the beginning of a word to change

its meaning and form a new word.
Suffix: a letter or letters added to the end of a word to form a new word.
Infix: is a morpheme attached in the middle of the word to facilitate pronunciation.
.1
Pan-African Unity Organization
All- African Unity Organization (UN)
.2
Pan-America Airways
.3
The Islamic Nation (according to context Like the Sudan for example)
The Pan-Muslim Nation
.4
The Arab Nation (according to context)
The Pan-Arab Nation
.5
Inter-ministerial committee between the Ministers of Irrigation in Egypt, the Sudan
and Alexandria
.6
The seven-state inter-governmental committee has discussed the draft resolution.
7. Inter-state commerce laws

8. Intra-state commerce laws
/
9. Inter-governorate taxi

10. Intra-governorate taxi

.11
Disarmament and Decolonization Organs Servicing Branch (term)
.12
Inter-rater reliability
Page 31

I) Translate the following sentences into English using the suffix between brackets:
-1 (-able) .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -2 (-aholic).
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -3 (-oid) .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -4 (-cide) .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -5 (-ee) .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -9 (-fold) .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -1 (-est) .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -8 (free) .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -6 )(-ic/-ical
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -11 (-ic/-ical) .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -11 (-ic/-ical) .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -12 (-ish/-like) .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -13 (-ish/-like) .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -14 (-ic/-ical) .
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Page 32
-15 (-ic/-ical) .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -19 (-phone) .
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------II) Translate the following sentences from Arabic into English using prefixes , paying due
attention to the underlined words and phrases:
[co-, de-, il-, auto-, con-, cross-, im-, demi-, fore-, hypo-, extra-, mal-, anthropo-, by-, all-,
]foster-, down-
-1 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -2 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -3 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -4 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -5 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -9 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -1 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -8 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -6 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -11 .
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Page 33
-11 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -12 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -13 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -14 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -15 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -19 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -11 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -18 .
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Page 34
Translate the following sentences into Arabic heeding the use of affixation in the
underlined words:
1- The efforts of this poet are laudable.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2- Aerial imaging advanced the field of geography.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3- I have ambivalent feelings towards my cousin.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4- Anomalies that occur at child birth are usually incurable.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5- The anterior part of your body is beautiful.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6- The blind rely on their auditory sense.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7- Biophysics is a difficult field of knowledge.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8- Pesticides and herbicides are used by farmers.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9- The Palestinians and the Israelis have failed to coexist in peace.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10- One of the contraindications of this medicine is hypertension.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------11- I bought a golden bracelet to match my yellowish scarf.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------12- I was greatly saddened by the news.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13- All the shoes we make are of genuine leather not leatherette.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
14- The good deed is rewarded by tenfold.
Page 35

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15- Both ultraviolet and infrared radiations are used in treating certain diseases.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16- Before the rebellion against heaven, Satan was the most important of the archangels,
now he is the archfiend.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------17- Farouk was the monarch of Egypt.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------18- Archeology is the study of ancient civilizations.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19- Diabetes is a chronic disease.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------20- Please indicate your degrees in chronological order.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21- Demography is one of the areas studied in this department.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------22- Bigamy is not a crime in Islam.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------23- Many congenital diseases are curable.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------24- The child has hydrophobia.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------25- Beware of dehydration in this heat.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------26- This is not logical.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------27- I am specialized in astrology.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------28- Cairo is a megalopolis.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------29- Microprocessors are part of the computer technology.
Page 36

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------30- This physician is specialized in treating neonatals.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------31- Agronomy is the science of managing crops.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------32- This movement is pan-African.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------33- I was struck by apathy.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34- I specialized in pathology.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------35- He loves reading English novels, he is an Anglophile.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------36- Physical punishment is not a necessary component of pedagogy.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37- Many animals are quadrupeds.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------38- This child is polylingual.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------39- There are many microscopic organisms in the air.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------40- Atheism means the lack of belief in a god.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------41- Iran is ruled by a theocratic regime.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------42- Anemia is a grave disease.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------43- Anarchy can be caused due to the lack of leadership.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
44- The antidote of many poisons is a small dose of the poison itself.
Page 37

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------45- Antibiotics are prescribed to treat many diseases.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------46- When I was a child I had an appendectomy.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------47- Hypersensitive people are hard to deal with.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------48- Insulin injections are hypodermic.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------49- The word "sofa" and "couch" are synonyms.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Page 38

Translate the following into English using one word for the underlined word:
-1 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -2 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -3 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -4 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -5 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -9 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -1 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -8 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -6 "" .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -11 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -11 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -12 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -13 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Page 39

-14 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -15 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -19 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -11 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -18 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -16 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -21 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -21 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -22 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -23 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -24 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -25 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -29 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -21 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Page 40

-28 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -26 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -31 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -31 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -32 .
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -33 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Page 41
.
.
...
:
-1 ( )
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
:
: .
.
:
:
-1
( )
-2
-
Page 42
: :
)
) (
(

( )
)
(
( )
( )
-3
: (
) (
)

(
)
-4
:

( ---- )( ---- )
( ) ( ) - ( - - -)
-5
Page 43
:

.
" " " " "
"
-6
:

" " " " - " "
-7
:

( ) ( ) () ( ) - ( )
-8
:
-
-9
:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )( )
-11
:

-
-11
-
Page 44
:
( )
(
)
( )
(
)
-12
:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) - ( )
-11
:
()
( ) () - ( )
Page 45

:
:
-
---
---
---
---
---
.
.
.
-1
And after we made them understand the consequences of marriage.
And after I explained the consequences of marriage
-2 .
The students understood the lesson.
-1 .
The teacher made the students understand the lesson.
-4 .
The teacher made sure the students understood the lesson.
Page 46
Translate the following verb forms into English:

He understood .1
He made sure someone understand .2
He made someone understand .3
He showed understanding .4
He asked to understand/ He requested understanding .5
There was a mutual understanding between .6
----
The All-Forgiving The Ever-Forgiving

Forgiver
To forgive
----
The All-Hearing
The Ever-Hearing
Hearer
To hear
Page 47

I) Translate the following into English, paying due attention to the verb form in the word
underlined:
-1 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -2 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -3 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -4 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -5 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -9 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -1 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -8 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -6 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -11 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -11 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -12 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -13 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -14 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -15 2 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -19 2 .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -11 .
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------II) Translate the following verb forms into English:
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
Page 48
Collocations
What is a collocation?
A collocation is two or more words that often go together. These
combinations just sound "right" to native English speakers, who use them
all the time. On the other hand, other combinations may be unnatural and
just sound "wrong". Look at these examples:
Natural English... Unnatural English...
the fast train
fast food
the quick train

quick food
a quick shower a fast shower

a quick meal
a fast meal
http://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/collocations.htm
Page 49
Exercises on Collocations
Render the following sentences into English paying special attention to the
underlined collocations:
I.
.1 .
.2
.
.3 .
.4
.
.5
.
.9 " : ".
.1 .
.8
.
.6 .
.11
.
Page 50
Idioms
Idiom: A group of words in a fixed order that have a particular meaning, that is different
from the meanings of each word understood on its own: To have bitten off more
than you can chew is an idiom that means you have tried to do something which
is too difficult for you.
.1
.2
.3
.4
.5
.9
.1
.8
.6
.11
.11
.12
.13
.14
.15
.19
.11
.18
.16
.21
.21
.22
.23
.24
.25
.29
.21
Page 51

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

What is a Fixed Expression? 3

To children, non-native English speakers, and anyone who confronts a fixed expression for
the first time, they can be baffling. A fixed expression is a little like a secret code that allows
access to a club that not everyone can enter. Its a phrase that has a very specific meaning that
cant be expressed any other way and also cant be deduced just by considering the sum of its
parts. Some fixed expressions, like ready, aim, fire are used so often that the opportunity to
turn them into a joke creates another fixed expression. Others, such as before you know it
or to tell you the truth have been around for so long that they function almost as a single
word.
Unlike idioms, fixed expressions typically offer neither folk wisdom nor an image. Two
heads are better than one creates a bizarre, yet effective, visual idea of one body that
operates with two heads, while the idioms meaning is that two people working on a problem
have a better chance of solving it than just a single thinker. Fixed expressions are more often
a collection of words with individual meaning that really have nothing to do with one
another.
A fixed expression 4 in English is a standard form of expression that has taken on a more
specific meaning than the expression itself. It is different from a proverb in that it is used as a
part of a sentence, and is the standard way of expressing a concept or idea.
Examples include:
all of a sudden
come into mind
fall in line
I can assure you
so to speak
surf the web
trinomials (3-word fixed expressions); e.g. "lights, camera, action", "signed, sealed,
delivered".
English uses a number of fixed expressions in everyday conversations and writing.

For example:
I'm going to go come rain or shine. (Come rain or shine: "no matter whether it rains or
the sun shines; in any sort of weather")
To tell you the truth, I don't enjoy going to parties. (To tell you the truth/To tell the
truth: "really; actually")
3
4
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-fixed-expression.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_expression
Page 52

Time: 30 minutes
I.
The following are some sentences (15 to 50 words) extracted from news
items, websites, books etc. Although the sentences are decontexualized, their
meaning is still unambiguous. The sentences include tenses and aspects
which are problematic in translation into Arabic. Write down the function of
the aspect followed by the appropriate translation of the sentences.
(Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
II.
meaning is still unambiguous. The sentences include tenses and aspects
which are problematic in translation into English. Write down the function of
the aspect followed by the appropriate translation of the sentences.
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
III.
meaning is still unambiguous. State the function of the conditional, and
translate into Arabic so that the function(s) is conveyed in the target
language.
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
Page 53

Session Number: Five
adjectives, and how professional translators handle the differences. They will also
Assessment 2 will be given in this session.
Learning Outcomes:
render appropriately adjectives between Arabic and English.
Material:
Assignments:
-
Controlled practice on translating adjectives between English and Arabic.
Page 54
Adjectives
Handout
Most adjectives and adjectives derived from nouns can be either attributive or predicative.
(a) Attributive: It comes before a noun.
(b) Predicative: It comes as complement after the following:
-
Verb to be.
Linking verbs: seem/ appear/ become.
Verbs of senses: look/ smell/ taste/ feel.
Verbs of continuity: keep/ remain/ stay.
Verbs of opinion: think/ believe/ consider.
Verbs of change: grow/ turn.

When translating adjectives pay due attention to the following:
N.B. Some attributive adjectives appear after nouns.
N.B. Nouns of measurements occur after nouns.
N.B. Some adjectives can be used as both attributive and predicative, yet with a
difference in meaning.
N.B. Position of participial adjectives may change the meaning.
U.N. Secretary General Ban Ki-moon has called on the leaders of Bahrain not to use
violence against civilians and journalists.

.
Since Martelly became the President elect back in April, he has fought to put a properly
functioning government.
Page 55
.
The average depth of the lake is approximately 14.5 feet deep.
. 163
The Suez Canal is 163 kilometers long.
All the present members of the Egyptian parliament attended the session.

.
The members present at the board meeting are very few.

.
Try to translate the following examples
I was certain that she would be the perfect choice for the movie.
There are certain circumstances where deceit is permissible.
This smiling man over there is my boss.
This man smiling over there is my boss.
Page 56

The Royal Order of Adjectives
Opinion
An opinion adjective explains what you think about something (other people may
not agree with you). Examples:
silly, beautiful, horrible, difficult
Size
A size adjective, of course, tells you how big or small something is. Examples:
large, tiny, enormous, little
Age
An age adjective tells you how young or old something or someone is. Examples:
ancient, new, young, old
Shape
A shape adjective describes the shape of something. Examples:

square, round, flat, rectangular
Colour
A colour adjective, of course, describes the colour of something. Examples:

blue, pink, reddish, grey
Origin
An origin adjective describes where something comes from. Examples:

French, lunar, American, eastern, Greek
Material
A material adjective describes what something is made from. Examples:

wooden, metal, cotton, paper
Purpose
A purpose adjective describes what something is used for. These adjectives often
end with "-ing". Examples:
sleeping (as in "sleeping bag"), roasting (as in "roasting tin")
Try to translate the following examples:

.
Genitive with adjective construction:
Ex.: Helen's big car was stolen
( It is ambiguous in Arabic *
)
.
Page 57

Verbless adjective clause
An adjective can function as a verbless clause (a part of a sentence without a verb)
Ex.:
Long and untidy, his hair played in the breeze.
.
Anxious for a quick decision, the chairman called for a vote.
. ,
Numerous adjectives qualifying one noun may pose a difficulty in translation.

The broken lock of the steel safe door drew his attention at once.
The broken lock of the door )* (
( ambiguous) *
.* (
*********
Compound Adjectives
They are made up of two more words, normally with a hyphen between them. They have got
several patterns:
Adj/Adv + Past Participle
Ex. empty-handed, old-fashioned, open-minded, well mannered
You can travel to the ends of the earth but you will come back empty-handed.
Adj/Adv/Noun + Present Participle
Ex. good-looking, long-lasting, mouth-watering
The banquet we have been invited for was really mouth-watering.
Noun + Past Participle
Ex. sun-dried, tongue-tied
While he was addressing the European parliament for the first time, he became
somewhat tongue-tied.
Noun + Adjective
Ex. trouble-free, lead-free
If you want trouble-free motoring, make sure you use lead-free gas.
Cardinal Number+ Singular Noun
Ex. Three-hour, twenty-page
You should finish reading this twenty-page article by the weekend.
Page 58
Modifiers
Definition:
A word, phrase, or clause that limits or qualifies the sense of another word or word group. A
content word that qualifies the meaning of a noun or verb.
(American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language)
Definition of Compounding:
Any combination of two or more parts, aspects, etc
(Collins English Dictionary)
Section (1)
Compound noun:
A compound noun is a noun that is made up of two or more words. Most compound nouns in
English are formed by nouns modified by other nouns or adjectives.
Compound nouns can also be formed using the following combinations of words:Noun
Noun
toothpaste
Adjective
Noun
monthly ticket
Verb
Noun
swimming pool
Preposition
Noun
underground
Noun
Verb
haircut
Noun
Preposition
hanger on
Adjective
Verb
dry-cleaning
Preposition
Verb
output
www.learnenglish.de/grammar/nouncompound.htm
Examples:
1. Road Accident Research Center
2. Furniture Factory Pay Cut Riot
3. The Convention Refugee Definition
4. Cambridge University Press Conference
A compound noun is a noun + noun combination characterized by a primary-tertiary stress
pattern in which the second element is the head of the construction and the first element is a
kind of modifier. Hence, contrary to what we may feel the meaning relationship should be
from right to left.
English Teaching Forum, Volume X, May-June, 1972 #3
Page 59

Section (2)
The order of adjectives may change the meaning
His last great novel
His great last novel
Section (3)
If we have a Noun+Noun construction in English, and it is possible to have an adjective
derived from the same noun and both are acceptable, this means that the Noun+Noun has a
singular meaning and the Adj+Noun has a plural meaning.
Division Approval
Divisional Approval

Program Funding

Programmatic Funding
Program Planning
Programmatic Planning
) (
) (
Institution Development
Institutional Development

Section (4)
Participles with different meanings
If we have a gerund + noun preceded by the verb to be we have two possible ways for
interpretation:
a) Verb to be may be the main verb, and in this case what follows the verb to be constitutes a
compound noun. The pause will be after the verb to be.
b) The main verb is the gerund, that is used in the progressive form and in this case we can
only have a pause after the ing form.
1- They are moving vans.
2- They are washing machines.
3- They are visiting professors.
-
Page 60

Section (5)
Number of modifiers
If we have a noun+noun preceded by an adjective, this construction may be ambiguous.
1- French Language Conference
) (2- New Gas Station
3- Foreign Car Dealers
4- Economic Planning Council
-
Page 61
Adjectives PowerPoint
Page 62
Page 63
Page 64
Adjectives . Exercises
1. By this marriage, they are attempting to put some form of stability into the most
dysfunctional royal family in the world.
2. The former Egyptian governments failed to provide proper medical care for the seniors.
3. Purifiers have been affected by radiation in Tokyo city proper and 5 suburban districts.
4. They have also done little to change the perception that his family, the Grimaldi dynasty,
is one of the most troubled royal households in Europe.
5. His long-running bachelorhood has been a major cause for concern in Monaco.
6. Early attempts at flight are the subject of much debate.
. 5 .7
. .8
. 8848 .9
. .11
.11
. 191
. .12
. .13
Page 65

Study the following compound and adjective + noun constructions into Arabic:
1
Management Information System

(MIS)
Divisional Approval
Institution Development
Time Management
Progress Report
Core Programs
Experience Exchange Program
Change Management
Concept paper
10
Donor Countries
11
Institutional Development
12
Development agencies
13
Needs Assessment Survey
14
Mother and Child Care
15
Community Participation
16
Programmatic activities
17
Teaching hospital
18
Laser Printer User
19
Professional Traditions
20
Inter-Agency Coordination
/

/
/

) (

/
/
Page 66

1. MOE staff
2. Local Community Development
Association
3. Training program
4. Organizational Development
5. Small Local Voluntary Organizations
6. Individual and Organizational
Management
7. Practical Operation
8. Management Structure
9. Business or Government
Organizations
10. Religious Institution
11. Religion Education
12. Development Agencies
13. Participatory Planning
14. Strategic Management
15. Guidelines
16. Decision-making
17. Decision-taking
18. Financial Management

19. Trust Fund
20. Fund-raising
21. Conflict Resolution
22. Community Participation
Page 67

23. Staff Development
24. Loan Coordinator
25. Time Management
26. Personnel Management

27. Water Project
28. Problem Solving Exercise
29. Preschool Programs
30. Program Management Skills
31. Program Needs

32. Staff Development
33. Proposal and Report Writing
34. Programmatic Funding
35. Organizational Funding
36. Core Funding
37. Administration Costs
38. Telephone Calls
39. Governorate Level

40. Pre-program Systems
41. Monitoring System
42. Monthly Health Committee Meetings
43. Membership Fees Account
44. Funding Proposal
45. Communication System
Page 68

46. Performance Appraisal
Form/Guidelines
47. Key Accountabilities
48. Key Processes
49. Work Flow
50. Performance Development Plan
51. Overall Performance Rating
52. Inter-rater Reliability
53. Work Assignments
54. Team-building
55. Change Management
56. Management Change
57. Village Leadership

58. Committee Members
59. Professional Organization
60. Volunteer Staff
61. Wider Community Participation
62. Income Generation Programs
63. Income Supplementation Programs
64. Strategic management and Planning
65. Financial Management and Funding
66. Decision-making Structures and

Leadership
67. Membership Criteria
Page 69

68. Current Membership
69. Some Fund-raising Successes and
Failures
70. Job Description/ Analysis

) (

/
71. A Special Major Business Goal
72. Quality Management Systems

Requirements
73. Family of Standards

74. Transition Planning Guidance
75. Guidance on the Documentation
Requirements
76. General Information on Structure
and Work Program
77. Links to related password-protected
and public websites
78. A list of organizations
79. Summary of pages
80. Title Page
81. Forward Page
82. Water's Project

()

) (

Page 70

Time: 40 minutes
I.
meaning is still unambiguous. Translate the following sentences into Arabic
paying attention to affixation.
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
II.
Translate the following phrases into English using affixation. (Suggested

time 10 min. Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
III.
Translate the following phrases into English using the appropriate

collocations. (Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
IV.
Translate the following sentences into Arabic pay attention to the meaning of
the adjectival phrase(s). (Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
Page 71

Session Number: Six
adverbs and adverbial phrases, and how professional translators handle the
differences. They will also practice different translation techniques from English
into Arabic and vice versa.
Learning Outcomes:
- contrast adverbs and adverbial phrases in English and Arabic; and
- translate appropriately adverbs and adverbial phrases from English into Arabic and
vice versa.
Material:
Assignments:
-
Controlled practice on translating adverbs and adverbial phrases.
Page 72
Adverbs Handout
Adverbs can be translated into Arabic either syntactically or lexically
EX. The wind blew fiercely. /
How do we translate ''adverbs'' into Arabic?

Adverbs in English
- Manner: How something happens
- Degree: To what extent Ex.: She is totally insane.
- Frequency: How often something happens. Ex.: She occasionally visits her hometown.
- Time: When something happens Ex.: lately, recently.
- Place: Where something happens Ex.: here, there
- Intensifying: Make things stronger or weaker Ex.: I am really sick of indifferent people.
Form
A large number of adverbs are formed by adding -ly to their adjectives.
(Ex.: completely, haphazardly )
There are exceptions such as:
(good well)
Adverbs whose adjectives end in -ly
(Ex.: friendly, likely, lonely etc.)
In this case, adverbs can be formed by (in a + adj. + way / manner / fashion).
Some problematic issues when translating Adverbs

1- Some adverbs have different meanings from those of their adjectives:
- U.S. president's speech has been received coldly in Germany.
- The Turkish prime minister welcomed the Egyptian delegation so warmly.
2- Some adverbs have the same form as their adjectives:
- We have never received a straight answer from the Navy regarding his mysterious
disappearance.
- We'll go straight to the jewelry store where I have see a perfect ring for my
engagement.
- Turn right on County Road 130 and follow signs to Eldora.
- You were right when you accused him of treason.
Page 73

3- Some pairs of adverbs are closely related but have different meanings :
Compare:
- They really worked hard to finish the project on time.
- I hardly know him.
- He hardly ever attends the board meeting.
Position of adverbs
Adverbs of Manner
1. They usually come after the verb
He behaved foolishly.
OR after the object if there is one
She answered him reluctantly
(NEVER put an adverb between verb and object)
2. If we have verb + preposition + object the adverb can occur either before the preposition
or after the object
He looked at me suspiciously. OR He looked suspiciously at me.
Note: If the object is long, the adverb comes before the preposition.
He looked suspiciously at everyone who laughed.
3. With phrases or clauses, the position of the adverb changes the meaning. If it is placed
after the clause or phrase, it is normally considered to modify the verb in that clause or
phrase.
COMPARE:
*They secretly decided to leave the town. (the decision was secret)
*They decided to secretly leave the town. (the departure was secret)
Adverbs of Time
They are usually placed at the very beginning OR the very end of the clause
Eventually, he decided to put an end to his bachelorhood and get married.
OR
He decided to put an end to his bachelorhood and get married eventually.
Adverbs of Frequency
They are normally placed:
After the simple tense of (to be)
He is always in time for dinner.
Before the simple tenses of all other verbs
Page 74

They sometimes stay up all night.
With compound tenses, they are placed after the first auxiliary
He will never understand.
Adverbs of Degree
An adverb of degree modifies adjectives or another adverb.
You are absolutely right.
Only modifies verbs. It is placed next to the word to which it applies.
Sign here, only.
Only, sign here.
Just precedes the word it qualifies.
Ill buy just one .
Ill just buy one.
Order of adverbs when they occur in the same sentence
Expressions of Manner usually precede expressions of place.
He climbed awkwardly out of the wind.
Note that: (away, back, down, forward, home, in, off, on, out, around, and up) usually
precede adverbs of manner .
He walked away sadly.
Time expressions can follow adverbs of manner and place.
They worked hard in the garden today.
They can also be in the front.
Everyday he queued patiently at the bus stop.
Notice that:
Verbs (go, put, last) need adverbs of manner/ place/ time in this order.
Put it away now (correct)
Put it now away (incorrect)
Let's go to bed early (correct)
Let's go early to bed (incorrect)
Page 75

Notice that:
Some words can be used as either adjectives or adverbs. An exception to this is the adverb of
manner well which is also used as an adjective meaning healthy. Well here is unrelated
to the adjective good.
COMPARE:
*I hope you are well (adjective)
. /
* He did well on the exam (adverb)
.
In the first example, well is a predicate adjective modifying the pronoun "you". In the
second example, on the other hand it is an adverb of manner modifying the verb "did".
Notice that:
''Perhaps'' occurring initially means 'hope' and not possibility.
Perhaps he has found her.
/ /
''Perhaps'' occurring in mid position can be understood to mean 'possibly'.
He has perhaps found her.
/ /
Page 76
- An adverb

* ( )We did plough the earth
* ( ) The clock struck twice
* ( )Our soldiers fought heroically

* I stood up to honor my father
*" " Dont kill your children for fear of poverty

* We left at dawn
* I walked along the river

I'll meet you in the evening. *
I'll meet you under the tree. *

* The army returned victorious
* I saw your brother running
* Teach your children while they are still young
Page 77
Page 78
Page 79
Page 80
Adverbs Exercises
Adverbs:
1. Wives only go for physical violence when they reach a state of explosion
and can no longer control themselves.
2. The journalists saw a completely destroyed building with a crescent sign at
its entrance.
3. Perhaps the past is better left untold or unwritten.
4. He said the recordings could easily be accessed when the memory card is
inserted in a computer.
5. Doctors, emergency workers and the police are the only people who have a
right to examine the patients and determine if they are dead or not.
6. The only actor to win an Oscar posthumously was Peter Finch.
7. While some patients can be adequately cared for at home, others are best
served by care in a hospital.
8. It was only reluctantly, under pressure from its lower ranks, that the Muslim
Brotherhood participated in last Friday's massive demonstrations.
9. I looked wistfully into the street we had lately quitted, and after a time
directed my steps that way.
10. Applications sent by fax or email or any that arrive late will not be accepted
so always be aware of the deadline!
. .1
. .2
. .3
. .4
. : .5
Page 81

Session Number: Seven
sentence connectors, and how professional translators handle the differences. They
will also practice rendering punctuation between English and Arabic.
Learning Outcomes:
- contrast sentence connectors in English and Arabic; and
- translate appropriately sentence connectors from English into Arabic and vice versa.
- render punctuation appropriately between English and Arabic.
Material:
Assignments:
-
Controlled practice on translating sentence connectors.

Controlled practice on translation punctuation devices in English and Arabic.
Page 82
PUNCTUATION
Punctuation in Arabic is less systematic than punctuation in English. Ahmad Zaki Pasha was
the one to introduce punctuation marks to Arabic in 1913. Traditionally Arabic had no
punctuation whatsoever. Even where punctuation exists, the conventions for Arabic are less
standardized than those of English. The basic punctuation marks such as the comma, period,
question and exclamation marks are deleted or substituted by Arabic lexical insertions.
Hence, in such cases when translating Arabic texts into English one has to realign meaning
and supply the missing punctuation marks.
The Comma (,):

*
It is used to separate items in a series. In British English, it is not usually used with
'and' between the last two items unless these are long.
e.g. Lunch consisted of pasta, Greek salad, and steak.
It is used before and after a phrase in apposition or contrasting expressions.

e.g. Jean, Tom's sister, left for the UK.
e.g. He changed his style, not his ethics.
It is used to mark off non-restrictive modifiers, which are not absolutely necessary to
the main idea of the sentence. However, if the modifiers are internally punctuated or
cause an abrupt break in the rhythm of the sentence, they are usually set off by
dashes or parentheses. It can never be used before 'that' since 'that' always denotes
essential elements.
e.g. The girl, who has just come in, is my new neighbor.
e.g. Three boats-one with an outboard and two with inboard motors- were tied to the
dock.
It is used to separate coordinate adjectives when the conjunction is omitted. To
determine whether or not the adjectives are coordinate, a conjunction 'and'/'but' could
be inserted between the words in question. If the construction sounds right (e.g. calm
and clear water) a comma is needed. On the other hand, if the construction sounds
awkward (e.g. the hot midday sun) a comma is not required.
e.g. The boy was young, eager, and restless.
*It is used to set off long numbers, names, and items in dates.
e.g. On Sunday, June 23, 1940, he was wounded.
e.g. Number 10 Downing Street, London, is famous.
Page 83

*
e.g. Shreveport, Louisiana, is the site of a large air base.

It is used to separate two independent clauses joined by: 'for', 'and', 'nor', 'or', 'but',
'yet', and 'so'. However, a comma is not used if the subject is omitted in the second
independent clause.
e.g. She likes cheese cake, but her husband prefers Brownies.
e.g. I will call the plumber or fix it myself.
The Semicolon (;) :

*
It is used to link independent clause not joined by a coordinating conjunction.

However, it is not used if the relationship between the clauses may not be easily
inferred.
e.g. He went to Paris; it delighted me.
It is used to separate items in a series if they are unusually long, or internally

punctuated.
e.g. Members of the crew were Tom, a geologist; Hector, a draftsman; and Jan; a
student.
It is used to link independent clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs (thus, hence,

however, therefore, furthermore, moreover, consequently, nevertheless, etc.)
e.g. Speeding is illegal; furthermore, it is dangerous.
The Colon (:) :

*
It is used to introduce a clause or phrase that explains, amplifies, illustrates, or

restates what has gone before.
e.g. The sentence was poorly constructed: it lacked both cohesion and coherence.
It directs attention to an appositive.

e.g. He had only one pleasure: eating.
It is used to introduce a series.

e.g. Your essay will be judged according to three criteria: spelling, grammar, and
style.
Page 84

*
It used when the introductory clause ends in the expressions 'the following' or 'as
follows'. But it is not used when the clause ends in expressions such as 'including',
'like', 'such as', consists of', etc.
e.g. The contestants prepared the following kinds of dishes: pizza, pasta, and
goulash.
e.g. The contestants prepared various dishes such as pizza, pasta, and goulash.
It is used to emphasize a point that merits attention.

e.g. A poor homeless child was arrested: he was merely watching the demonstrators.
The Dash (_-_):

*
It is stronger than a comma, less formal than a colon, and more relaxed than
parentheses.
It is used to give extra emphasis.

e.g. The only thing can do _ if he can do anything at all _ is yell out.
It is used to mark an abrupt change or break in the continuity of a sentence or clause.

e.g. But_ But you did_ wait, what? Stammered Jane.
It is used to introduce a summary statement that follows a series of words or phrases.

e.g. Jane, Allen, and I _ were all taken by surprise.
Parentheses ():
*
They are used other than the dash or comma to enclose words or figures that clarify
showing that what is enclosed is of less importance or emphasis.
e.g. He finally answered (after taking a few minutes to think) that he did not hear the
question.
They are used at first mention of an organization when both its abbreviation and
spelled out form are enclosed.
e.g. Palo Alto Research Centre (better known as PARC) is doing a great job.
Page 85
Brackets []:
*
They are used to include explanatory words or phrases.

e.g. Messi, the soccer player [a team member of Barcelona] is a great front striker.
They are used to clarify a reference when quoting a sentence with a pronoun
referring to a word in another non-quoted sentence. The pronoun is to be deleted in
this case.
e.g. Elephants bark, snort, trumpet, and rumble. "According to Payne, many
[elephant rumbles] are below the human range of hearing".
The Hyphen (-):

It is used to join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun.
e.g. It is a well-built house.
It is used to avoid awkward or misleading combinations of letters or syllables with

prefixes and suffixes.
e.g. Semi-retired/ runner-up
It is used to suspend the first part of a hyphenated compound when used with another
hyphenated compound.
e.g. good-for-nothing/ know-it-all.
Page 86

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Page 87
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Page 88
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Page 89
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Page 90
Sentence Connectors
Sentence Connectors
Sentence connectors are words and phrases used to link ideas from one sentence to the next
and to give paragraphs coherence. They are also known as linking language.
Functions of Sentence connectors
They are used to indicate similarity, contrast, result, addition, and listing, time,
exemplification, particularization, explanation, emphasis, reformulation, transition, negative
condition, and summation/conclusion.
I. Similarity
Likewise similarly correspondingly by the same token in the same way
Examples:
1. Men must wear a jacket and a tie; similarly women must wear a skirt or a dress, not
trousers.
2. You cant teach navigation in the middle of a storm. Likewise, you cant build a
system of values in the current educational climate.
II. Contrast
On the other hand, in contrast, conversely, however, yet, still, nevertheless,
nonetheless, even so, in spite of this, despite of this/ that
Examples
A. Direct Opposition
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Ali worked hard. On the other hand, Okan hardly did any work at all.
Metin is lazy. However, his brother is quite diligent.
Extroverts love crowds. In contrast, introverts prefer solitude.
Six is more than five; conversely, five is less than six.
Denial of Expectation( Unexpected result)
She studied diligently for several months. Nevertheless, she failed.
George is very handsome. Yet, he is not popular with girls.
My uncle is 70 years old now. Nonetheless, he maintains his interest in legal
matters.
9. Its raining. Even so, we must go out.
III. Result
As a consequence, accordingly, for this/ that reason, therefore, as a result, consequently,
hence, thus, because of that/ this
Examples
1. He passed his exams. Therefore, he had some good news to tell his parents.
2. Professor Brown is an outstanding scientist. Hence, he is highly respected.
3. He has been studying hard for a long time. Thus, he has made considerable progress.
4. He lacks self-confidence. As a consequence, he is unlikely to be successful.
5. The demand has increased sharply. Accordingly, the prices are higher now.
Page 91

IV. Addition and listing
Also, beside, further, moreover, furthermore, in addition, first (firstly, first of all, to
begin with, in the first place, for another thing), thirdly (third, in the third place), finally
lastly, last of all.4
Examples:
1. To prepare his homework, Jack went through various history books. Furthermore, he
took notes from several encyclopedias.
2. During her spare time, jenny practices the piano; in addition, she plays the violin.
3. Owning a car has some advantages. First (first of all/ firstly/ to begin with), it gives
you comfort. Secondly, it saves you a lot of time. Thirdly, it gives you great freedom
of movement.
V. Time
At first, afterwards, later, then, in the meantime, meanwhile
Examples:
1. I read the morning papers for a while. Afterwards, I took a shower.
2. First pick up the receiver and then insert a coin into the coin-box.
3. At first, I had great difficulty with grammar later. However, I was able to overcome
these difficulties by studying hard.
4. The party is Tuesday, but in the meantime I have to shop and prepare the food.
5. They will be here soon. Meanwhile, lets have coffee.
VI. Exemplification
For instance, for example, to illustrate
Examples
1. Women generally live longer than men. For instance, in the United States life
expectancy for women is 75, while it is 73 for men.
2. Earthquakes can be highly destructive. To illustrate, the earthquake which occurred in
Erzinacn in 1939 devastated the whole town, killing more than 35,000 people.
VII. Particularization
In particular, particularly, specifically
Examples:
1. Shopping in small markets is quite advantageous. In particular, one can find
specially items that larger stores do not contain.
2. We still needed to arrange several details for the trip. Specifically, we had to
make plane and train reservations as well as decide on the final itinerary.
VIII. Explanation:
That is, namely, in other words, that is to say
Examples:
1. The brochure dealt with travelling in Morocco. Namely, it discussed
transportation, currency, and language.
2. Good readers should be able to read between the lines; in other word, they should
be able to make inferences about information that is conveyed indirectly or given
only partially.
Page 92

3. As a child grows up, he learns how to behave in ways which are appropriate to the
society into which he is born. That is to say, he acquires the patterns of behavior
which accepted as normal in his society.
IX. Emphasis
In fact, indeed, as a matter of fact, actually
Examples:
1. He is quite wealthy. In fact, he is one of the richest men in Turkey.
2. I like reading. As a matter of fact, it is my favorite pastime
3. Mural is a highly talented musician. Indeed, he has an extraordinary gift for
music.
X. Refutation:
On the contrary
Examples:
1. She is not ugly. On the contrary, she is a good-looking girl.
2. I dont hate classical music. On the contrary, Im very fond of it.
XI. Reformulation:
In other words, to put it in a different way, put differently
Examples:
1. He is a conservative. In other words, he favors the preservation of old institutions
in their original form
2. Is there a cheaper solution? In other words, can you make a cheaper device?
XII.
Transition:
As for, as to, with regard to, with respect to, regarding, as far as X is concerned
Examples:
1. Both Orkun and Ozkan are my friends. Orkun studies law at Ankara University.
As for Ozkan, he studies mechanical engineering at METU.
2. As far as comfort is concerned, a car is definitely much better than a bicycle.
3. METU and ITU are similar in several respects.
XIII. Negative condition:

Or else, otherwise
Examples:
1. I must leave now, or else Ill be late.
2. You must study hard. Otherwise, you may fail
XIV. Summation/ Conclusion
In summary, in brief, in short, in conclusion, to be brief, to sum up, all in all
Examples:
1. This is our most disastrous and embarrassing defeat ever; in short; it is a fiasco.
2. The system lacked originality, efficiency and ingenuity. In conclusion, it was a
complete failure.
Page 93
Connectors
In a text, propositions group together into larger and larger units. It is the idea of
GROUPIING that is important. Certain relations connect these propositions, such as
(Reason-Effect) , (Condition- Consequence), (Means-Result), (Purpose-Means), (ConcessionContra-expectation), (Grounds-Result), (Grounds-Exhortation) . Sometimes a proposition can
be a (Delimitation) or a (Description). It can also be a (Parentheses) or a (Comment).
Relations can be (Sequential) or (Simultaneous). In English, the Sequential relation is
indicated by such words such as First, After that, And then, Next, And, and other forms.
Simultaneous relation is indicated by such words as Meanwhile, At the same time, While,
And, etc.
Coordinating Conjunctions:
To Add:
and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, nor, too,
next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in addition, first (second, etc.),
To Compare:
whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the
contrary, by comparison, where, compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, but,
although, conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast, although this may be true
To Prove:
because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, furthermore, moreover,
besides, indeed, in fact, in addition, in any case, that is
To Show Exception:
yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes
To Show Time:
immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours, finally, then, later, previously, formerly,
first (second, etc.), next, hence, thence, henceforth and then
To Repeat:
in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been noted
To Emphasize:
definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in any case, absolutely, positively,
naturally, surprisingly, always, forever, perennially, eternally, never, emphatically,
unquestionably, without a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without reservation
To Show Sequence:
first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and so forth. next, then, following this, at this
time, now, at this point, after, afterward, subsequently, finally, consequently, previously,
before this, simultaneously, concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next, and then, soon
Page 94

To Give an Example:
for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation,
take the case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an illustration, to illustrate
To Summarize or Conclude:
in brief, on the whole, summing up, to conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown, as I have
said, hence, therefore, accordingly, thus, as a result, consequently, on the whole
Subordinating Conjunctions:
Cause:
as, because, in order that, since, so that
Concession and comparison:
although, as, as though ,even though, just as, though, whereas, while
Condition:
even if, if, in case, provided that, unless
Place:
where, wherever
Time:
after, as soon as, before, once, still, till, until, whenever, while
Correlative Conjunctions:
Both and, not only but also, not but, either or, neithernor, whether or, as
as
Conjunctive Adverbs:
however, moreover, nevertheless, consequently, as a result
Connectives and Conjunctions in Arabic:

-
Wa-
It is of the highest frequency of all Arabic connectives to signal additive relationships.
Sentences within expository texts are often initiated with (wa) as well. It can also
function as an additive term within sentences to link clauses, phrases, and words.
Fa-
It can have sequential meaning' and then'; a resultative meaning 'and so'; a contrastive
meaning 'yet', or 'but'; a slight shift in topic 'and also', or 'moreover'; or a conclusive
meaning 'and therefore', or 'in conclusion'. It may also start a sentence in a text, or knit
elements together within a sentence.
Page 95

-
Bal-
It introduces a clause whose content conveys the idea of something additional but also
different from the main clause.
Ith-
It introduces a clause providing a rationale or reason meaning 'since' or 'as much as'.
Ithan-
It initiates a clause or question that comes as a result or conclusion from a previous
statement meaning 'thus',' therefore', 'then', 'so', and 'in that case'.
Hatta + past tense: until

It introduces a clause that follows the consequence or result of the previous clause,
referring to an event or action in the past.
Adverbial Conjunction of place:

-
Haythu '': where

It denotes the concept of 'where' or 'in which'.
Adverbial Conjunction of time:

- Bayn-a- maa ' while', 'whereas'
It has both a temporal meaning 'during the time that', and also a contrastive meaning
of 'whereas'.
-
Ba'd-a-maa ' after'

It is usually followed directly by a past tense verb. It is necessary to use it before a
clause beginning with a verb.
Ba'd-a-'an ' after'

It means essentially the same as ba'd-a-ma when describing a situation that has taken
place in the past.
Page 96

-
Ba'd-a-idhin ' after that'; 'then'; 'subsequently'

It is equivalent in most situations to the adverbial conjunction .
Hin-a-maa and Hinn-a ' when'; 'at the time when'

'Ind-a-maa ' when'; 'at the time when'
Ind-a-idhin ' then'; 'at that point in time'; 'at that time'
Qabl-a'an + subjunctive 'before'

It refers to an action anterior to the action in the main clause even if the verb
occurring after it is past tense.
Thumm-a ' then';'and then'; 'subsequently'

It indicates a sequential action, coming later in time than the action in the preceding
sentence or clause.
Disjunctions:
- Aw ' or '
It indicates an option between two or more elements, but that option is inclusive, that
is, it may include one, both, or all elements.
-
'Am ' or'

It indicates an exclusive option; one or the other, but not both or all.
'Immaa'aw .' ;immaawa-'immaa 'eitheror'

It conveys the idea of an exclusive choice: one or the other, but not both.
Relative Clauses:
- Restrictive (Defining) Clauses:
They are clauses without which the sentence will make no sense.
They are used with: who, whose, whom, which, and that.
There are no commas in restrictive clauses.
The relative pronoun can be omitted
- Non-Restrictive (Non-defining) Clauses:
They are clauses that give extra information about something or someone already
mentioned.
(That) can not be used in such clauses
The relative pronoun can not be omitted
Page 97

e.g. Compare the following:
My son, who is a doctor, came to visit me yesterday
My son who is a doctor came to visit me yesterday
On translating relative clauses into Arabic, the main difficulty lies in differentiating between
restrictive and non-restrictive clauses in rendering. Restrictive clauses could be translated into
Arabic by a relative clause qualifying a defined noun (i.e. + +
). For instance:
*What is the name of the tall man who has just come in?

There is another method to provide a relative clause qualifying an unidentified noun in
Arabic. For instance:
*Have you got something that will get ink out of a carpet?
) (
Non-restrictive relative clauses could be rendered by ( + a clause with a defined
noun). For instance:
*My mother, who now lives alone, does the Times crosswords every day.
.
One technique that could be used to translate non-restrictive relative clauses is through
introducing the main piece of information in accordance with the logic of Arabic, then
providing extra information hereafter. Another technique could be used as well; it is
providing an idiomatic combination in Arabic with the relative clause introduced by ( )/
() . For instance:
*The Egyptian champion won, which was a surprise to everybody.
Page 98
Page 99

Session Number: Eight
In this session, students will explore the differences between modals and articles in
English and Arabic, and how professional translators handle the differences. They
will also practice different translation techniques from English into Arabic and vice
versa. Assessment 3 will be given in this session.
Learning Outcomes:
- contrast articles in English and Arabic; and
- translate appropriately modals from English into Arabic and vice versa.
Material:
Assignments:
-
Controlled practice on translating modals and articles.
Page 100
Models and Articles

Definite Article8 "The":
1. Particular Things
- Have you seen the spider in the living room?
2. Class
- The poor are modest.
3. National groups
- The Irish have their own language.
4. Titles/ places + of
- The President of the States is to be elected soon.
5. Geographical Places (with exceptions)
- My wife likes the sea but I prefer the mountains.
6. Unique things
- The earth revolves around axis.
7. Emphasis
- A Laundromat is the place where we have our clothes washed.
8. Musical Instruments and other devices
- She plays the piano.
- The cat is on the T.V.
9. Parts of the body
- He was shot in the leg.
10. Newspaper names
- The Times, the Washington Post etc.
11. Superlative
- This is the most expensive hotel in town.
12. All forms of entertainment (with exceptions)
- It is great to go to the cinema on weekends.
Adapted from Practical English Usage and the Contrastive Analysis Study Guide
Page 101

Indefinite Articles "a/ an":
1. General things with countable nouns
- A spider has eight legs.
2. Unknown people
- A Mr. Smith showed me the way.
3- Something belonging to someone
- A Michael Angelo hangs in their room (painting).
4. Expressing (a type) or (a portion of) a noun with uncountable nouns (an exception)
- Have you got a cream for oily skin?
5. Jobs
- She is a dentist.
6. Measuring (per)
- I go walking three hours a week.
7. Illnesses
- I have got a horrible cold
(Exception: appendicitis- toothache takes Zero article)
Zero Articles:
1. Generalization with uncountable and plural nouns
- Doctors work for long hours.
- I love cheese.
2- Names and Proper Nouns
- Michael Angelo is one of my favorite artists.
3. Unique Organizations
- UN, UNESCO. etc.
4. Days, months or seasons coming after or before the mentioned time
- See you on Thursday.
5. Means of transportation
- Let's go by train.
6. Forms of entertainment (as an exception)
- What's on T.V. tonight?
7- Some institutions as art forms or professions
- Cinema is different from theatre in many ways.
- He worked as an engineer in T.V.
Page 102

Definite and Zero Articles
THE DEFINITE ARTICLES:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Rivers
Seas
Oceans
Plural Countries (U.S.A The
Netherlands The British
Kingdom)
5. Series of Mountains (The Alps)
6. Deserts
7. Hotels
8. Museums
9. News
10. Acronyms AND Abbreviations
THE ZERO ARTICLES:

1. Countries (except group countries
and THE SUDAN)
2. Lakes
3. Continents
4. Single Mountains ( SUMMITS)
5. Universities
6. Airport
7. Meals
8. Sports
Page 103

:

:

:

:
** :

: .
:
/ /
:
:
-1 : ...
-2 :
-3 :
-4 :
-5 :
-9 :
Page 104

Translate the following Arabic sentences into English, paying due attention to the differences
between the defined and undefined nouns in the source language and the definite, indefinite and zero
articles in the target language:
-1 .
-2 .
-3 .
-4 .
-5 .
-6 .
-7 .
-8 .
-9 .
-11 .
-11 .
-12 .
-13 .
-14 .
-15 .
-16 .
-17 .
-18 .
-19 .
-21 .
-21 .
-22 .
-23 .
-24 .
-25 .
-26 .
-27 .
-28 .
-29 .
-31 .
Page 105

Exercise:
Compare the following sentences then translate them into Arabic paying due attention to
the use of defined and undefined nouns in Arabic:
1. I have been to the doctor.
A doctor must like people.
2. Could you pass me the salt?
Salt comes from the sea.
3. Have you fed the dogs?
Do you like dogs?
4. My brother is going out with a French girl.
My brother is going out with the French girl.
5. Jane is hospital.
Jane is in the hospital.
I left my coat in the hospital when I was visiting Jane.
6. I met her at college.
I will meet you at the college.
7. Who smokes in class?
Who smokes in the class?
8. Man and woman were created equally.
A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle.
The man who stole your car is in jail.
9. What is on T.V?
What is on the television?
10. Cinema is different from theatre.
It was a great treat to go to the cinema or the theatre when I was a child.
The following English Sentences have definite, indefinite and zero article cases. Translate
these sentences into Arabic, paying due attention to the use of defined and undefined
nouns in Arabic:
1- The English are very conservative.
2- You don't know the Andersons, do you?
3- My wife likes the seaside but I prefer the mountains.
4- Have you seen the Alps.
5- The history of Egypt is full of immortal figures.
6- I have stopped reading the newspapers because they are too depressing.
Page 106

7- A child needs love.
8- A doctor must be patient.
9- Is there a post office near here?
10- It is interesting to read a Charles Dickens.
11- A Mr. Jones called you while you were out.
12- Have you got a shampoo for dry hair?
13- I do aerobics three times a week.
14- She is a nice person.
15- I have a terrible cold.
16- We are having terrible weather these days.
17- She speaks very good English.
18- Oil has nearly doubled in price.
19- Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
20- She is afraid of rats.
21- I am interested in the 1960's novels.
22- How long does this trip take by bus?
23- Man and woman are created equal.
24- She is in hospital.
25- Mom went to the hospital to visit a friend.
26- I met her at college.
27- Let's meet in front of the college.
28- He has worked in radio all his life.
29- I usually listen to the radio while I am driving.
30- He is a stubborn boy.
31- He is playing the violin.
32- The white whale is endangered.
33- Life is simple.
34- We studied the life of Taha Hussein.
35- The boy kicked his colleague in the leg.
36- US-French relations are tense.
37- This town is on Lake Geneva.
38- The River Nile is the longest river in the world.
Page 107

39- The Thames River is in Britain.
40- Italy overlooks the Mediterranean.
41- The ship sank in the Pacific Ocean.
42- We spent the holiday at Lake Michigan.
43- Lake Michigan is in the United States of America.
44- Egypt is in Africa.
45- Brazil is known for coffee beans.
46- Violence prevails in the Middle East.
47- The United Kingdom comprises Britain and Ireland.
48- Holland is known for its windmills.
49- The Alps is in Europe.
50- Mount Everest is the highest summit on earth.
51- The Sahara separates Egypt from Libya.
52- Oxford University is one of the most famous universities in the world.
53- I will go to Cairo Airport.
54- I will stay in the Sheraton.
55- I went to the British Museum.
56- I read the times everyday.
57- Do you have a car?
58- I washed the car yesterday.
59- I watch T.V. everyday.
60- Please, put this clock on the T.V.
61- He decided to be an engineer.
62- My sister is a dentist.
63- Where is the cheese?
64- I love cheese.
65- The wife of the president of the USA is known as the first lady.
66- The largest ocean in the world is the Pacific Ocean.
67- Hong Kong used to be part of the British Empire.
68- Slovakia is part of the European Community.
69- The Amazon rain forest covers several countries in South America.
70- A friend of mine, who lives in Crete, has never left the island.
Page 108

71- A recent report predicted that all sea water will be polluted by 2040.
72- On the news today, there were reports of two plane crashes.
73- The weather tomorrow will be the same as today.
74- Fruits and vegetables contain vitamins.
75- Honesty is the best policy.
76- When I was at school, I used to love mathematics.
77- Power stations produce energy.
III) Translate the following text paying due attention to the use of definite, indefinite and
zero articles in English and the use of defined and undefined articles in Arabic:
Spanish is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. It is spoken all over South
America except for Brazil. Like Italian and Portuguese, the Spanish language is related to
Latin. A recent report stated that the number of Spanish speakers in the United States of
America will be higher than the number of English speakers by the year 2090. As a result of
this, nearly all North American schools teach Spanish. The language with the most speakers
in the world is Mandarin Chinese.
Page 109

Session Number: Nine
In this session, students will explore the different places where the components of a
sentence can be placed. They will also practice different translation techniques from
English into Arabic and vice versa.
Learning Outcomes:
- shift components of a sentence in different places appropriately.
Material:
Page 110

Thematic Organization of Information
The order of words in sentences indicates the order of meanings. Languages differ in this
respect. Some languages have relatively restricted word order. Such languages express
semantically what is expressed by inflection in languages of relatively free word order. Each
language has its own share of flexibility. Words take their characters when they are
sequenced in a sentence. For this reason it's not only important to know what to say, but it is
also important to know how to say it.
http://scholar.najah.edu/sites/default/files/all-thesis/5171602.pdf
Exercise
"The meaning or content of a sentence is conveyed by its deep structure, while the form of
a sentence is given by its surface structure." Bearing this in mind, provide a
methodological rendering of the following utterances into Arabic.
1. Never have I heard such a thing.
______________________________________________________________
2. Only when he is here, does he speak English.
______________________________________________________________
3. Little help will you get from him.
______________________________________________________________
4. No thought did you give to my distress.
______________________________________________________________
5. Up went the window and out popped a head.
______________________________________________________________
6. Into the room came the boy I wanted.
______________________________________________________________
8. Had I met you before, we might have been friends.
______________________________________________________________
9. There is no one less suited for the work than he.
______________________________________________________________
10. Here is the house I am going to buy.
______________________________________________________________
11. Thus should you act and not otherwise.
______________________________________________________________
12. He stupidly refused to speak.
______________________________________________________________
13. He refused to speak stupidly.
______________________________________________________________
14. I told her the story.
______________________________________________________________
15. I told the story to her.
______________________________________________________________
Page 111

16. They never do come in time.
______________________________________________________________
17. Rarely does he come to see me now.
______________________________________________________________
18. Out in the street ran the weeping girl.
______________________________________________________________
"The meaning or content of a sentence is conveyed by its deep structure, while the form of
a sentence is given by its surface structure." Bearing this in mind, provide a
methodological rendering of the following utterances into English.
.1
______________________________________________________________
.2
______________________________________________________________
" .3 "
______________________________________________________________
.4
______________________________________________________________
.5
______________________________________________________________
.6

.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
.7

( )
.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Page 112
Arabic and Translation Studies

Time: 40 minutes
I.
The following paragraph (100-120 words from ) depends heavily

on sentence connectors to achieve coherence. Translate the
paragraph into Arabic conveying the function of the connectors
appropriately. (Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)
II.
IV.
Translate the following sentences into Arabic pay attention to the

meaning of the adverbial phrase(s). (Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
III. State the function(s) of the punctuation marks in the following
sentences and translate them appropriately: (Suggested time 10 min.
Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
items, websites, books etc. Although the sentences are decontexualized,
their meaning is still unambiguous. Translate with focus on appropriate
rendering of the relative clauses. (Suggested time 10 min. Points 5)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
Page 113

Session Number: Ten
In this session, students will practice translation at the paragraph level from English
into Arabic, and vice versa. The final project will be distributed in this session.
Learning Outcomes:
- translate a paragraph from English into Arabic and vice versa.
Material:
Page 114
Page 115

Session Number: Eleven
In this session, students will practice translation at the paragraph level from English
into Arabic, and vice versa.
Learning Outcomes:
- translate a paragraph from English into Arabic and vice versa.
Material:
Page 116
Page 117

Session Number: Tweleve
Description of the session and main activities:
Discission of the projects.
Description of the final project:
In session 10, students will take a translation project.

Students send the projects by email by session 11.
The instructor returns the corrected projects by email 2 days before session 12.
On session 12, each student will be asked to comment on one of the project
items, explaining pitfalls and points of difficulty.
The grade is out of 30: 20 marks for the written part, and 10 marks for the
presentation.
Page 118
Arabic and Translation Studies

I.

Time: 120 minutes
The following are some sentences (15 to 50 words) extracted from news items,
websites, books etc. Although the sentences are decontexualized, their meaning is
still unambiguous. State the function of the underlined structures, and translate
into English so that the function(s) is conveyed in the target language.
The question should cover (tense&aspect, voice, connectors, relative clauses,
models, and articles)
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
6. .
7. .
8. .
9. .
10. .
II.
The following are some sentences (15 to 50 words) extracted from news items,
websites, books etc. Although the sentences are decontexualized, their meaning is
still unambiguous. State the function of the underlined structures, and translate
into Arabic so that the function(s) is conveyed in the target language.
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
6. .
7. .
8. .
9. .
10. .
Page 119

III.
The following paragraph (about 100-120 words, from Source) depends heavily
on sentence connectors and punctuation to achieve coherence. Translate the
paragraph into Arabic with focus on conveying the function(s) of the connectors
and punctuation appropriately, rendering the thematic organization of the
paragraph appropriately, and paying attention to stylistic features such as the
translation of collocation, affixation etc. (Suggested time 30 min. Points 10)
IV.
The following paragraph (about 100-120 words, from Source) is coherent

although it lacks sentence connectors and punctuation marks. Translate the
paragraph into English with focus on conveying coherence appropriately,
rendering the thematic organization of the paragraph appropriately, and paying
attention to stylistic features such as the translation of collocation, affixation etc.
. (Suggested time 30 min. Points 10)
Page 120

Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics - Student Handbook

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Arabic & Translation Studies Division

This is a first draft of STTI102 Contrastive Grammar and Stylistics

Dr. Hussein Ali

The American University in Cairo

Offered as customized; the number of CEUs depends on client's request.

Orientation and theoretical introduction

Tenses and aspects;

Affixations and collocations

Session: In this course one session equals 2.5 contact hours.

Adverbs and adverbial phrases

Models and articles

Thematic organization of information

Translation at paragraph level

Distribution of the final

Translation at paragraph level

Classroom assessments should not take more than 30 minutes.

Classroom Guidelines for SCE Learners

Learner Evaluation of Instruction:

Cellular / Mobile Phone:

Arabic and Translation Studies Division