Tri Tue Nhan Tao Dinh Manh Tuong 286 Pages

Phn II.
TRI THC V LP LUN 1

MC LC
Trang
LI NI U........................................................................................................6
NHP MN............................................................................................................8
PHN I
GII QUYT VN BNG TM KIM
Chng 1. CC CHIN THUT TM KIM M..................................16
1.1. Biu din vn trong khng gian trng thi.......................16
1.2. Cc chin lc tm kim.......................................................19
1.3. Cc chin lc tm kim m.................................................22
1.3.1. Tm kim theo b rng...............................................22
1.3.2. Tm kim theo su.................................................24
1.3.3. Cc trng thi lp........................................................25
1.3.4. Tm kim su lp........................................................26
1.4. Quy vn v cc vn con.
Tm kim trn th v/hoc..........................................................27
1.4.1. Quy vn v cc vn con....................................27
1.4.2. th v/hoc............................................................30
1.4.3. Tm kim trn th v/hoc.....................................34
Chng 2. CC CHIN LC TM KIM KINH NGHIM................36
2.1. Hm nh gi v tm kim thiu kinh nghim.....................36
2.2. Tm kim tt nht - u tin.................................................37
2.3. Tm kim leo i..................................................................40
2.4. Tm kim BEAM..................................................................41
Phn II. TRI THC V LP LUN 2
Chng 3. CC CHIN LC TM KIM TI U.............................42
3.1. Tm ng i ngn nht.......................................................42
3.1.1. Thut ton A* ..........................................44
3.1.2. Thut ton tm kim nhnh v cn.......................46
3.2. Tm i tng tt nht..........................................................48
3.2.1. Tm kim leo i........................................................49
3.2.2. Tm kim gradient......................................................50
3.2.3. Tm kim m phng luyn kim..................................50
3.3. Tm kim m phng s tin ho. Thut ton di truyn........52
Chng 4. TM KIM C I TH......................................................58
4.1. Cy tr chi v tm kim trn cy tr chi...........................58
4.2. Chin lc Minimax.............................................................60
4.3. Phng php ct ct alpha beta.........................................64
PHN II
TRI THC V LP LUN
Chng 5. LOGIC MNH .................................................................69
5.1. Biu din tri thc..................................................................69
5.2. C php v ng ngha ca logic mnh .............................71
5.2.1. C php......................................................................71
5.2.2. Ng ngha...................................................................72
5.3. Dng chun tc.....................................................................74
5.3.1. S tng ng ca cc cng thc............................74
5.3.2. Dng chun tc...........................................................75
5.3.3. Cc cu Horn..............................................................76
5.4. Lut suy din........................................................................77
5.5. Lut phn gii, chng minh bc b bng lut phn gii.......80
Chng 6. LOGIC V T CP MT......................................................84
6.1. C php v ng ngha ca logic v t cp mt.....................85
6.1.1. C php......................................................................85
6.1.2. Ng ngha...................................................................87
6.2. Chun ho cc cng thc......................................................90
6.3. Cc lut suy din..................................................................92
6.4. Thut ton hp nht..............................................................95
6.5. Chng minh bng lut phn gii...........................................98
6.6. Cc chin lc phn gii...................................................... 103
6.6.1. Chin lc phn gii theo b rng.............................105
6.6.2. Chin lc phn gii s dng tp h tr....................106
6.6.3. Chin lc tuyn tnh.................................................107
6.7. S dng logic v t cp mt biu din tri thc................107
6.7.1. V t bng...................................................................108
6.7.2. Danh sch v cc php ton trn danh sch...............108
6.8. Xy dng c s tri thc........................................................113
6.9. Ci t c s tri thc.............................................................115
6.9.1. Ci t cc hng thc v cc cu phn t...................116
6.9.2. Ci t c s tri thc..................................................119
Chng 7. BIU DIN TRI THC BI CC LUT 122
V LP LUN........................................................................................122
7.1. Biu din tri thc bi cc lut nu th................................122
7.2. Lp lun tin v lp lun li trong cc h da trn lut........124
7.2.1. Lp lun tin...............................................................125
7.2.2. Lp lun li.................................................................128
7.2.3. Lp lun li nh tm kim trn th v/hoc...........130
7.3. Th tc lp lun tin.............................................................132
7.3.1. Th tc For_chain......................................................133
7.3.2. Th tc rete.................................................................136
7.3.3. H hnh ng da trn lut........................................143
7.4. Th tc lp lun li............................................................... 147
7.5. Biu din tri thc khng chc chn......................................151
7.6. H lp trnh logic..................................................................153
7.7. H chuyn gia.......................................................................157
Chng 8. LOGIC KHNG N IU.................................................159
8.1. Lp lun c th xem xt li v logic khng n iu...........159
8.2. c im ca logic khng n iu.....................................161
8.3. Logic mc nh.....................................................................163
8.4. Gi thit th gii ng..........................................................167
8.5. B sung v t.........................................................................169
8.6. Hn ch phm vi...................................................................171
Chng 9. LI NG NGHA V H KHUNG...................................174
9.1. Ngn ng m t khi nim...................................................174
9.2. Li ng ngha.....................................................................176
9.3. Khung...................................................................................181
Chng 10. TRI THC KHNG CHC CHN....................................186
10.1. Khng chc chn v biu din..............................................187
10.2. Mt s khi nim c bn ca l thuyt xc sut...................189
10.3. Mng xc sut.......................................................................197
10.3.1. nh ngha mng xc sut..........................................198
10.3.2. Vn lp lun trong mng xc sut.........................200
10.3.3. Kh nng biu din ca mng xc sut......................201
10.3.4. S c lp ca cc bin trong mng xc sut.............204
10.4. Suy din trong mng c cu trc cy....................................205
10.5. Mng kt ni n..................................................................212
10.6. Suy din trong mng a kt ni............................................220
10.6.1. Suy din trong mng a kt ni..................................220
10.6.2. Bin i mng a kt ni thnh mng kt ni n.....221
10.6.3. Phng php m phng ngu nhin...........................223
10.7. L thuyt quyt nh.............................................................228
Chng 11. LOGIC M V LP LUN XP X.................................234
11.1. Tp m..................................................................................235
11.1.1. Khi nim tp m.......................................................235
11.1.2. Mt s khi nim c bn lin quan n tp m.........239
11.1.3. Tnh m v tnh ngu nhin.......................................242
11.1.4. Xc nh cc hm thuc.............................................243
11.2. Cc php ton trn tp m....................................................248
11.2.1. Cc php ton chun trn tp m...............................248
11.2.2. Cc php ton khc trn tp m.................................250
11.3. Quan h m v nguyn l m rng......................................255
11.3.1. Quan h m................................................................255
11.3.2. Hp thnh ca cc quan h m..................................256
11.3.3. Nguyn l m rng.....................................................258
11.4. Logic m...............................................................................259
11.4.1. Bin ngn ng v mnh m..................................259
11.4.2. Cc mnh hp thnh..............................................262
11.4.3. Ko theo m - Lut if-then m...................................264
11.4.4. Lut Modulus Ponens tng qut..............................267
11.5. H m...................................................................................270
11.5.1. Kin trc ca h m...................................................271
11.5.2. C s lut m.............................................................272
11.5.3. B suy din m...........................................................273
11.5.4. M ho.......................................................................275
11.5.5. Kh m.......................................................................277
11.5.6. H m l h tnh xp x vn nng...............................278
TI LIU THAM KHO..............................................................279
LI NI U
Tr tu nhn to (TTNT) l mt lnh vc ca khoa hc my tnh,
nghin cu s thit k ca cc tc nhn thng minh ( Computational
intelligence is the studi of the degn of intelligens). Cc p dng ca TTNT
rt a dng v phong ph, hin nay c nhiu h thng minh ra i: cc h
chuyn gia, cc h iu khin t ng, cc robot, cc h dch t ng cc
ngn ng t nhin , cc h nhn dng, cc chng trnh chi c, K thut
ca TTNT c s dng trong vic xy dng cc h mm, nhm to ra
cc h mm mang yu t thng minh, linh hot v tin dng. nc ta,
trong nhng nm gn y, TTNT c a vo chng trnh ging dy
cho sinh vin cc nm cui ngnh Tin hc v Cng ngh thng tin. Cun
sch ny c hnh thnh trn c s gio trnh TTNT m chng ti ging
dy cho sinh vin v cc lp cao hc ngnh Tin hc v ngnh Cng ngh
thng tin trong cc nm hc t 1997 ti nay, ti khoa Cng ngh thng tin,
i hc Khoa hc t nhin, nay l khoa Cng ngh, i hc Quc gia H
ni.
Cun sch ny c vit nh mt cun nhp mn v TTNT, i
tng phc v ch yu ca n l sinh vin cc ngnh Tin hc v Cng ngh
thng tin. Ni dung cun sch gm hai phn:
Phn 1: Gii quyt vn bng tm kim. Trong phn ny, chng
ti trnh by cc phng php biu din cc vn v cc k thut
tm kim. cc k thut tm kim, c bit l tm kim kinh nghim
( heuristic serch), c s dng thng xuyn trong nhiu lnh vc
nghin cu ca TTNT.
Phn 2: Biu din tri thc v lp lun. Phn ny cp n cc
ngn ng biu din tri thc, c bit l cc logic v cc phng
php lun trong mi ngn ng biu din tri thc. Cc k thut biu
din tri thc v lp lun ng vai tr quan trng trong vic thit k
cc h thng minh.
Tuy nhin vi mong mun cun sch ny c th dng lm ti liu
tham kho cho mt phm vi rng ri cc c gi, chng ti c gng trnh by
mt cch h thng cc khi nim v cc k thut c bn ca TTNT, nhm
gip cho c gi c c s i vonghin cu cc lnh vc chuyn su ca
TTNT, chng hn nh lp k hoch (planning),hc my(machine learning),
nhn my (computer viison), hiu ngn ng t nhin (natural language
understanding).
Hai ngn ng thao tc k hiu c s dng nhiu trong lp trnh
TTNT l Lisp v Prolog. Trong cc sch vit v TTNT cc nm gn y,
mt s tc gi, chng hn trong [5] v [7] , s dng common Lisp m
t thut ton. Trong 20, cc tc gi li s dng Prolog biu din thut
ton. nc ta, cc ngn ng Lisp v Prolog c t ngi bit n, v vy
chng ti biu din cc thut ton trong sch ny theo cch truyn thng.
Tc l chng ti s dng cc cu trc iu khin ( tun t, iu kin, lp) m
mi ngi quen bit. c bit, chng ti s dng cu trc loop do <dy cu>
biu din rng, <dy cu> c thc hin lp. Ton t exit thot khi
vng lp, cn ton t stop dng s thc hin thut ton, cc bn c th
la chn mt trong cc ngn ng sau s dng: Common Lisp, Scheme,
Prolog, Smalltalk, C** hoc ML (xem [28]).
Chng ti xin chn thnh cm n gio s Nguyn Vn Hiu, ch
nhim khoa Cng ngh, i hc Quc gia H ni to iu kin thun li
cho chng ti vit cun sch ny.
Cun sch chc chn khng trnh khi nhng thiu st. Chng ti
mong nhn c s gp ca c gi. Th gp xin gi v B mn Khoa
Hc My Tnh, Khoa Cng Ngh, i Hc Quc Gia H Ni.
Tc gi
NHP MN
TR TU NHN TO L G?
Thut ng tr tu nhn to (artificial intelligence) c Jonh
McCarthy a ra trong hi tho Dartmouth vo ma h 1956. Trong hi
tho ny c mt cc tn tui ni ting nh Marvin Minsky, Claude Shannon,
Nathaniel Rochester, Arthur Samuel, Allen Newell v Herbert Simon. Trc
hi tho ny, t nm 1952 Arthur Samuel vit chng trnh chi c.
Samuel bc b t tng cho rng my tnh ch c th lm c ci m
ngi ta bo n lm, v chng trnh ca Samuel c th hc chi tt hn
ngi vit ra n. n hi tho ny, Allen Newell v Herbert Simon cng
vit chng trnh lp lun vi tn gi the logic theorist. Chng trnh ca
cc ng c kh nng chng minh hu ht cc nh l trong chng 2 cun
Principia Mathematics ca Russell v Whitehead. Trong hi tho
Dartmouth, cc nh nghin cu tho lun v vch ra cc phng hng
nghin cu ca lnh vc Tr tu nhn to (TTNT). V vy, hi tho
Dartmouth, ma h nm 1956 c xem l thi im ra i thc s ca lnh
vc nghin cu TTNT.
Trong cc sch vit v TTNT cc nm gn y, cc tc gi a ra
nhiu nh ngha v TTNT. Chng ti dn ra y mt s nh ngha:
S nghin cu cc nng lc tr tu thng qua vic s dng cc m hnh tnh
ton ( The study mental faculties through the use computational
models Charniak and McDormott, 1985)
Ngh thut to ra cc my thc hin cc chc nng i hi s thng minh
khi c thc hin bi con ngi (The art of creating machies that
perform functions that require intelligence when performed by people
Kurzweil. 1990).
Lnh vc nghin cu tm cch gii quyt v m phng cc hnh vi thng
minh trong thut ng cc qu trnh tnh ton (A field of study that seeks to
explain and emulate intelligent behavior in terms of computational
processes Schalkoff, 1990).
S nghin cu cc tnh ton c th nhn thc, lp lun v hnh ng
(The study of computations that make it possible to perceive, reason, and
act Winston, 1992).
Mt nhnh ca khoa hc my tnh lin quan ti s t ng ho cc hnh vi
thng minh (The branch of computer science that is concerned with the
automation of intelligent behavior Luger and Stubblefield, 1993)
Sau y l mt s nh ngha gn y nht:
TTNT l s thit k v nghin cu cc chng trnh my tnh ng x
mt cch thng minh. Cc chng trnh ny c xy dng thc hin cc
hnh vi m khi ngi hoc ng vt chng ta xem l thng minh
(Artificial Intelligence is the design and study of computer programs that
behave intelligently.These programs are constructed to perform as would a
human or an animal whose behvior we consider intelligent Dean, Allen
and Aloimonos, 1995).
TTNT l s nghin cu cc tc nhn tn ti trong mi trng, nhn
thc v hnh ng (Artificial Intelligence is the design of agents that
exists in an environment and act Russell and Norvig, 1995).
TTNT l s nghin cu c thit k cc tc nhn thng minh
(Computational Intelligence is the study of the design of Intelligent
agents Pulle, Mackworth and Goebel, 1998).
Hin nay nhiu nh nghin cu quan nim rng, TTNT l lnh vc
nghin cu s nghin cu cc tc nhn thng minh ( intelligent agent ). Tc
nhn thng minh l bt c ci g tn ti trong mi trng v hnh ng mt
cch thng minh ( Mt cu hi c t ra: hnh ng nh th no th c
xem l thng minh?).
Mc tiu khoa hc ca TTNT l hiu c bn cht ca cc hnh vi
thng minh. mc tiu thc tin, cng ngh ca TTNT l xy dng nn cc h
thng minh. Phng php lun nghin cu y cng tng t nh khi
chng ta nghin cu hiu c cc nguyn l bay, ri thit k nn cc
my bit bay (my bay). My bay khng phi l s m phng con chim,
song n c kh nng baybay tt hn chim.
Mt s ngnh khoa hc khc, chng hn nh Trit hc, Tm l hc
cng quan tm nghin cu cc nng lc c xem ca con ngi. Song khc
vi Trit hc v Tm l hc, TTNT l mt ngnh ca khoa hc my tnh
nghin cu s l thng tin bng my tnh, do TTNT t ra mc tiu
nghin cu: lm th no th hin c cc hnh vi thng minh bng thut
ton, ri nghin cu cc phng php ci t cc chng trnh c th thc
hin c cc hnh vi thng minh. Nh vy chng ta cn xy dng cc m
hnh tnh ton (Computational modeles phc v cho vic gii thch, m t
cc hnh vi thng minh bng thut ton, tip theo chng ta cn ch ra tnh
hiu qu, tnh kh thi ca thut tonthc hin mt nhim v, v a ra cc
phng php ci t.
TC NHN THNG MINH
Tc nhn (agent) l bt c ci g hnh ng trong mi trng. cc tc
nhn c th l con ngi, con su, con con ch, robot infobot, Mc tiu
ca TTNT l nhin cu v thit k cc tc nhn thng minh: cc tc nhn tn
ti trong mi trng v hnh ng mt cch thng minh.
Tn ti trong mi trng, nn tc nhn thng minh cn c kh nng
nhn thc c mi trng. Chng hn, con ngi c th nhn thc c
mi trng nh tai, mt v cc gic quan khc. nhn thc c mi
trng cc robot s c trang b cc b cm nhn (sensors), l cc thit
b vt l, chng hn camera, cc my o c,Cc tc nhn thng minh cn
c cc b tc ng (effectors) a ra cc hnh ng p ng mi trng.
Vi con ngi, l chn, tay v cc b phn khc ca thn th. Vi c
robot, c th l cc cnh tay robot,
Mi trng
Cc thng tin n Tc nhn Cc hnh ng
t mi trng thng minh
Chng ta c th xem tc nhn nh mt hp en, u vo l cc thng
tin nhn thc t mi trng, u ra l cc hnh ng thch ng vi mi
trng, nh trong hnh trn. By gi chng ta xt xem cn phi ci t vo
bn trong hp en ci g hnh ng u ra l hp l, thch ng vi cc
thng tin u vo.
Tc nhn cn c b nh lu gi cc tri thc chung v lnh vc, v
mi trng m n c thit k hot ng trong lnh vc . Chng hn,
i vi robot li taxi, tri thc v mi trng m robot cn c l cc tri thc
v mng li giao thng trong thnh ph, v lut l giao thng, i vi
cc h chuyn gia tr gip chn on bnh, cc tri thc cn lu l cc tri
thc ca cc bc s v bnh l, v cc phng n iu tr,B nh ca tc
nhn cn ghi li cc tri thc mi m tc nhn mi rt ra c trong qu
trnh hot ng trong mi trng. Trong nhiu trng hp, n cng cn lu
li vt ca cc trng thi ca mi trng , bi v hnh ng thch hp m n
cn a ra khng ch ph thuc vo trng thi hin ti ca mi trng m
cn ph thuc vo trng thi ca mi trng trong qu kh.
Chng ta cn trang b cho tc nhn mt chng trnh: chng trnh tc
nhn (agent program). Chng trnh ny l s m t thut ton kt hp vi
cc thng tin v trng thi ca mi trng vi c tri thc c lu cho
ra hnh ng thch ng.
By gi, chng ta tr li cu hi: cc tc nhn nh th no th c
xem l thng minh? bng nh ngha v thng minh ca Turing: th nghim
Turing ( Turing test).
TH NGHIM TURING
Alan Turing (1950) xc nh cc hnh vi thng minh nh l cc
hnh vi trong cc nhim v nhn thc t ti mc c th nh la c
con ngi.
Sau y l dng tng qut ca th nghim Turing. Mt ngi hi l
con ngi ngi mt phng. i tc ca ngi hi l mt my tnh c
t mt phng khc, hai bn trao i thng tin vi nhau thng qua cc
phng tin truyn tin hin i. Nu my tnh c th lm cho ngi hi
tng lm l c ngi khc ang ni chuyn vi my mnh th my tnh
c xem l thng minh.
By gi chng ta xt xem, thc hin c c hnh vi c xem l
thng minh, cc tc nhn thng minh (TNTM) cn c kh nng g?
TNTM cn c kh nng ghi nh v lp lun. n s dng cc tri thc
lu tr, v bng lp lun rt ra nhng kt lun p ng nhng cu hi
m ngi t ra .
Biu din tri thc v lp lun l lnh vc nghin cu trung tm ca
TTNT.
Ngi hi c th hi bng ngn ng t nhin, chng hn ting Anh.
V vy, TNTM cn c kh nng biu din ngn ng t nhin.
Hiu ngn ng t nhin (natural language understanding) l mt lnh
vc nghin cu quan trng ca TTNT.
Ngi hi c th a ra mt s hon cnh v cc hnh ng cn tin
hnh tng ng vi mi hon cnh , ri a ra mt hon cnh mi v hi
tc nhn cn phi lm g trong hon cnh . tr li c cu hi ny,
TNTM cn c kh nng hc c th a ra hnh ng thch ng vi hon
cnh mi.
Hc my (machine learning) l mt lnh vc nghin cu ca TTNT
ang pht tin mnh m v c nhiu ng dng trong cc lnh vc khc nhau,
chng hn trong khm ph tri thc v khai thc d liu.
Ngi hi c th a ra mt s hnh nh v cc i tng v kim tra
kh nng nhn bit ca cc i tng ca TNTM.
Nhn my (computer vision) l lnh vc nghin cu my tnh c th
hiu c cu trc v cc tnh cht ca cc i tng trong khng gian ba
chiu t cc hnh nh hai chiu.
Khi c cho cc nhim v cn thc hin, TNTM cn c kh nng
a ra mt dy cc hnh ng m n cn thc hin t c mc ch
. Qu trnh ny c gi l lp k hoch.
Lp k hoch (planning) l mt lnh vc nghin cu quan trng ca TTNT.
BIU DIN V LP LUN
Khi gp mt vn cn gii quyt, mt nhim v cn thc hin, iu
u tin chng ta phi lm l cn phi biu din vn , cn phi xc nh
ci g to thnh li gii (nghim) ca vn , v sau mi i tm thut ton
tnh nghim. Cn lu rng, biu din vn ng vai tr quan trng trong
vic gii quyt mt vn . Trong nhiu trng hp, khi chng ta chn c
cch biu din thch hp cho mt vn th vn hu nh c gii
quyt. Chng ta c th biu din nhiu vn bng cch xc nh trng thi
ch cn t ti v cc hnh ng lm bin i cc trng thi ca th gii.
Khi vic tm nghim ca vn c quy v vic tm kim mt dy cc
hnh ng dn ti trng thi ch. Ch rng, tm kim ng vai tr quan
trng trong vic gii quyt vn v trong nhiu lnh vc nghin cu ca
TTNT, chng hn nh trong hc my v lp k hoch. V vy, phn I ca
sch ny dnh cho vic trnh by phng php biu din vn trong khng
gian trng thi v nghin cu cc chin lc tm kim.
Thc t cho thy rng, thc hin c cc nhim v kh khn v
phc tp, con ngi cn s dng mt khi lng ln tri thc v lnh vc lin
quan. Mt cu hi c t ra: tri thc l g? Mt cch khng hnh thc,
chng ta hiu tri thc l thng tinlin quan ti mt i tng, mt hon
cnh, mt lnh vc. my tnh c th lu tr c tri thc, s dng c
tri thc, chng ta cn tm cc phng php biu din tri thc.
Lp lun t ng c hiu l qu trnh tnh ton trn cc biu din tri
thc, m khi cho u vo l cc biu din tri thc, chng ta nhn c cc
u ra l cc biu din tri thc mi. Mc tiu trung tm ca TTNT l nghin
cu thit k cc h thng minh, n lu tr tri thc v lnh vc v c kh
nng a ra hnh ng thch ng bng lp lun da tren cc tri thc lu
tr v cc thng tin thu nhn t mi trng. Do , vn trung tm m
chng ta cp n trong sch ny l vn biu din tri thc v lp lun.
Chng ta s nghin cu cc m hnh biu din tri thc khc nhau v cc
phng php lp lun trong mi m hnh .
CC P DNG
Cc p dng ca TTNT l rt a dng: cc h iu khin t ng cc
qu trnh sn xut cng nghip; cc robot lm vic trong cc mi trng c
bit, chng hn cc robot thm him cc hnh tinh; cc robot lm vic trong
cc iu kin nguy him n tnh mng con ngi; cc h chuyn gia trong
cc lnh vc; cc h dch t ng; cc h nhn dng; cc infobot lm vic
trong mi trng thun tu thng tin; cc chng trnh chi c,
Sau y chng ta s trnh by vi cch p dng. Qua cc v d ny,
chng ta mun ch ra nhng vn cn gii quyt khi chng ta nh xy
dng mt h thng minh.
Robot a th
Gi s chng ta mun thit k mt robot phn pht th, cc gi nh
v phc v c ph trong to nh lm vic ca mt cng ty. ng nhin l
robot phi c trang bcc b cm nhn c th nhn v nghe, chng hn
video camera, cc thit b thu thanh,N cn c cc b phnthc hin hnh
ng, chng hn bnh xe chuyn ng, cnh tay nht ln, t xung cc
vt,
Cc thng tin n t mi trng y l cc hnh nh v m thanh,
m robot thu c nh cc b cm nhn. Khi nhn c mnh lnh, chng
hn mang c ph cho gim c, n phi a ra mt dy hnh ng p
ng mi trng nhm t c mc ch: c c ph cho gim c.
Cc tri thc m robot cn bit trc v c lu trong c s tri thc ca
robot l cu trc ca to nh: Gm c my tng, cc phng trong mi tng
v hnh lang c b tr ra sao, thang my u; cc i tng m robot c
th gp trong to nh, ai lm vic u, c ph phng no, C s tri
thc ca robot cn c th cha cc tri thc cho bit cc hon cnh m robot
thng gp v cc hnh ng m robot cn thc hin cch thch hp sao cho
thun tin cho vic lu tr, tm kim v suy din.
T cc thng tin hnh nh, robot cn c kh nng hiu c cc i tng
m n gp c th suy ra cc hnh ng thch hp cn thc hin.
Robot cn c kh nng hiu c cc mnh lnh bng ngn ng t nhin, t
suy ra cc mc ch m n cn t ti.
Khi c nhiu mc ch cn t ti, robot cn c kh nng lp k hoch t
c cc mc ch .
Robot cn c kh nng tm ng i ( ti u nht ) gia cc v tr trong to
nh, t cc thng tin v s b tr v chc nng ca cc phng v cc b phn
trong to nh.
Chng ta cng cn trang b cho robot c kh nng hc c th rt kinh
nghim, khi qut ho t thc tin trong qu trnh phc v, v do , khi gp
cc hon cnh mi n c th a ra cc hnh ng thch hp.
H chuyn gia trong y hc
Cc h chuyn gia y hc c mc ch tr gip cc bc s trong chn
on bnh v iu tr. Mi trng ca cc h chuyn gia ny l ngi bnh.
Cc thng tin n t mi trng l cc triu chng ca ngi bnh, cc kt
qu xt nghim t ngi bnh.
C s tri thc ca cc h chuyn gia ny l cc tri thc ca cc bc s
v bnh l, cc tri thc ny thng c biu din di dng cc lut if-
then. Chng hn, Feigenbaur v Shortiffe pht trin h MYCIN chn
on bnh nhim trng mu. C s lut ca h MYCIN cha khong 450
lut, mi lut gn vi mt mc chc chn ( iu ny ph hp vi tnh
cht ca cc kt lun y hc ). H MYCIN c kh nng lm vic tt nh cc
bc s gii trong lnh vc.
Cc h chuyn gia ny c kh nng suy din t cc triu chng, cc
kt qu xt nghim ngi bnh v s dng cc lut trong c s lut suy ra
cc kt lun v bnh. N cng c kh nng gi cn kim tra ci g, cn xt
nghim ci g ngi bnh. Cng nh cc bc s, cc h chuyn gia ny c
kh nng gii thch cc kt lun m n a ra, n c th cho chng ta bit
ti sao n i n kt lun nh th.
PHN I
GII QUYT VN BNG TM KIM
Vn tm kim, mt cch tng qut, c th hiu l tm mt i tng
tha mn mt s i hi no , trong mt tp hp rng ln cc i tng.
Chng ta c th k ra rt nhiu vn m vic gii quyt n c quy v
vn tm kim.
Cc tr chi, chng hn c vua, c car c th xem nh vn tm
kim. Trong s rt nhiu nc i c php thc hin, ta phi tm ra cc
nc i dn ti tnh th kt cuc m ta l ngi thng.
Chng minh nh l cng c th xem nh vn tm kim. Cho mt
tp cc tin v cc lut suy din, trong trng hp ny mc tiu ca ta l
tm ra mt chng minh (mt dy cc lut suy din c p dng) a n
cng thc m ta cn chng minh.
Trong cc lnh vc nghin cu ca Tr Tu Nhn To, chng ta
thng xuyn phi i u vi vn tm kim. c bit trong lp k hoch
v hc my, tm kim ng vai tr quan trng.
Trong phn ny chng ta s nghin cu cc k thut tm kim c bn
c p dng gii quyt cc vn v c p dng rng ri trong cc
lnh vc nghin cu khc ca Tr Tu Nhn To. Chng ta ln lt nghin
cu cc k thut sau:
Cc k thut tm kim m, trong chng ta khng c hiu bit g v
cc i tng hng dn tm kim m ch n thun l xem xt
theo mt h thng no tt c cc i tng pht hin ra i
tng cn tm.
Cc k thut tm kim kinh nghim (tm kim heuristic) trong
chng ta da vo kinh nghim v s hiu bit ca chng ta v vn
cn gii quyt xy dng nn hm nh gi hng dn s tm kim.
Cc k thut tm kim ti u.
Cc phng php tm kim c i th, tc l cc chin lc tm kim
nc i trong cc tr chi hai ngi, chng hn c vua, c tng, c
car.
CHNG 1
CC CHIN LC TM KIM M
Trong chng ny, chng ta s nghin cu cc chin lc tm kim
m (blind search): tm kim theo b rng (breadth-first search) v tm kim
theo su (depth-first search). Hiu qu ca cc phng php tm kim ny
cng s c nh gi.
1.1 . BIU DIN VN TRONG KHNG GIAN TRNG THI
Mt khi chng ta mun gii quyt mt vn no bng tm kim,
u tin ta phi xc nh khng gian tm kim. Khng gian tm kim bao
gm tt c cc i tng m ta cn quan tm tm kim. N c th l khng
gian lin tc, chng hn khng gian cc vct thc n chiu; n cng c th l
khng gian cc i tng ri rc.
Trong mc ny ta s xt vic biu din mt vn trong khng gian
trng thi sao cho vic gii quyt vn c quy v vic tm kim trong
khng gian trng thi.
Mt phm vi rng ln cc vn , c bit cc cu , cc tr chi, c
th m t bng cch s dng khi nim trng thi v ton t (php bin i
trng thi). Chng hn, mt khch du lch c trong tay bn mng li
giao thng ni cc thnh ph trong mt vng lnh th (hnh 1.1), du khch
ang thnh ph A v anh ta mun tm ng i ti thm thnh ph B.
Trong bi ton ny, cc thnh ph c trong bn l cc trng thi, thnh
ph A l trng thi ban u, B l trng thi kt thc. Khi ang mt thnh
ph, chng hn thnh ph D anh ta c th i theo cc con ng ti cc
thnh ph C, F v G. Cc con ng ni cc thnh ph s c biu din
bi cc ton t. Mt ton t bin i mt trng thi thnh mt trng thi
khc. Chng hn, trng thi D s c ba ton t dn trng thi D ti cc
trng thi C, F v G. Vn ca du khch by gi s l tm mt dy ton t
a trng thi ban u A ti trng thi kt thc B.
Mt v d khc, trong tr chi c vua, mi cch b tr cc qun trn
bn c l mt trng thi. Trng thi ban u l s sp xp cc qun lc bt
u cuc chi. Mi nc i hp l l mt ton t, n bin i mt cnh
hung trn bn c thnh mt cnh hung khc.
Nh vy mun biu din mt vn trong khng gian trng thi, ta
cn xc nh cc yu t sau:
Trng thi ban u.
Mt tp hp cc ton t. Trong mi ton t m t mt hnh ng
hoc mt php bin i c th a mt trng thi ti mt trng thi
khc.
Tp hp tt c cc trng thi c th t ti t trng thi ban u bng
cch p dng mt dy ton t, lp thnh khng gian trng thi ca vn
.
Ta s k hiu khng gian trng thi l U, trng thi ban u l u
0
(u
0
U). Mi ton t R c th xem nh mt nh x R: UU. Ni
chung R l mt nh x khng xc nh khp ni trn U.
Mt tp hp T cc trng thi kt thc (trng thi ch). T l tp con ca
khng gian U. Trong vn ca du khch trn, ch c mt trng thi
ch, l thnh ph B. Nhng trong nhiu vn (chng hn cc loi
c) c th c nhiu trng thi ch v ta khng th xc nh trc c
cc trng thi ch. Ni chung trong phn ln cc vn hay, ta ch c
th m t cc trng thi ch l cc trng thi tha mn mt s iu
kin no .
Khi chng ta biu din mt vn thng qua cc trng thi v cc ton
t, th vic tm nghim ca bi ton c quy v vic tm ng i t trng
thi ban u ti trng thi ch. (Mt ng i trong khng gian trng thi l
mt dy ton t dn mt trng thi ti mt trng thi khc).
Chng ta c th biu din khng gian trng thi bng th nh
hng, trong mi nh ca th tng ng vi mt trng thi. Nu c
ton t R bin i trng thi u thnh trng thi v, th c cung gn nhn R i
t nh u ti nh v. Khi mt ng i trong khng gian trng thi s l
mt ng i trong th ny.
Sau y chng ta s xt mt s v d v cc khng gian trng thi
c xy dng cho mt s vn .
V d 1: Bi ton 8 s. Chng ta c bng 3x3 v tm qun mang s
hiu t 1 n 8 c xp vo tm , cn li mt trng, chng hn nh
trong hnh 1.2 bn tri. Trong tr chi ny, bn c th chuyn dch cc qun
cch trng ti trng . Vn ca bn l tm ra mt dy cc chuyn
dch bin i cnh hung ban u (hnh 1.2 bn tri) thnh mt cnh
hung xc nh no , chng hn cnh hung trong hnh 1.2 bn phi.
Trong bi ton ny, trng thi ban u l cnh hung bn tri hnh
1.2, cn trng thi kt thc bn phi hnh 1.2. Tng ng vi cc quy tc
chuyn dch cc qun, ta c bn ton t: up (y qun ln trn), down (y
qun xung di), left (y qun sang tri), right (y qun sang phi). R
rng l, cc ton t ny ch l cc ton t b phn; chng hn, t trng thi
ban u (hnh 1.2 bn tri), ta ch c th p dng cc ton t down, left,
right.
Trong cc v d trn vic tm ra mt biu din thch hp m t cc
trng thi ca vn l kh d dng v t nhin. Song trong nhiu vn
vic tm c biu din thch hp cho cc trng thi ca vn l hon ton
khng n gin. Vic tm ra dng biu din tt cho cc trng thi ng vai
tr ht sc quan trng trong qu trnh gii quyt mt vn . C th ni rng,
nu ta tm c dng biu din tt cho cc trng thi ca vn , th vn
hu nh c gii quyt.
V d 2: Vn triu ph v k cp. C ba nh triu ph v ba tn
cp bn b t ngn mt con sng, cng mt chic thuyn ch c mt
hoc hai ngi. Hy tm cch a mi ngi qua sng sao cho khng li
bn b sng k cp nhiu hn triu ph. ng nhin trong bi ton ny,
cc ton t tng ng vi cc hnh ng ch 1 hoc 2 ngi qua sng.
Nhng y ta cn lu rng, khi hnh ng xy ra (lc thuyn ang bi
qua sng) th bn b sng thuyn va di ch, s k cp khng c
nhiu hn s triu ph. Tip theo ta cn quyt nh ci g l trng thi ca
vn . y ta khng cn phn bit cc nh triu ph v cc tn cp, m
ch s lng ca h bn b sng l quan trng. biu din cc trng thi,
ta s dng b ba (a, b, k), trong a l s triu ph, b l s k cp bn b
t ngn vo cc thi im m thuyn b ny hoc b kia, k = 1 nu thuyn
b t ngn v k = 0 nu thuyn b hu ngn. Nh vy, khng gian trng
thi cho bi ton triu ph v k cp c xc nh nh sau:
Trng thi ban u l (3, 3, 1).
Cc ton t. C nm ton t tng ng vi hnh ng thuyn ch qua
sng 1 triu ph, hoc 1 k cp, hoc 2 triu ph, hoc 2 k cp,
hoc 1 triu ph v 1 k cp.
Trng thi kt thc l (0, 0, 0).
1.2. CC CHIN LC TM KIM
Nh ta thy trong mc 1.1, gii quyt mt vn bng tm
kim trong khng gian trng thi, u tin ta cn tm dng thch hp m t
cc trng thi ca vn . Sau cn xc nh:
Trng thi ban u.
Tp cc ton t.
Tp T cc trng thi kt thc. (T c th khng c xc nh c th
gm cc trng thi no m ch c ch nh bi mt s iu kin no
).
Gi s u l mt trng thi no v R l mt ton t bin i u thnh v.
Ta s gi v l trng thi k u, hoc v c sinh ra t trng thi u bi ton t
R. Qu trnh p dng cc ton t sinh ra cc trng thi k u c gi l
pht trin trng thi u. Chng hn, trong bi ton tm s, pht trin trng thi
ban u (hnh 1.2 bn tri), ta nhn c ba trng thi k (hnh 1.3).
Khi chng ta biu din mt vn cn gii quyt thng qua cc trng
thi v cc ton t th vic tm li gii ca vn c quy v vic tm
ng i t trng thi ban u ti mt trng thi kt thc no .
C th phn cc chin lc tm kim thnh hai loi:
Cc chin lc tm kim m. Trong cc chin lc tm kim ny,
khng c mt s hng dn no cho s tm kim, m ta ch pht trin
cc trng thi ban u cho ti khi gp mt trng thi ch no . C
hai k thut tm kim m, l tm kim theo b rng v tm kim
theo su.
T tng ca tm kim theo b rng l cc trng thi c pht trin
theo th t m chng c sinh ra, tc l trng thi no c sinh ra trc
s c pht trin trc. Cn trong tm kim theo su, trng thI sinh ra
sau cng s c pht trin trc.
Trong nhiu vn , d chng ta pht trin cc trng thi theo h
thng no (theo b rng hoc theo su) th s lng cc trng thi c
sinh ra trc khi ta gp trng thi ch thng l cc k ln. Do cc thut
ton tm kim m km hiu qu, i hi rt nhiu khng gian v thi gian.
Trong thc t, nhiu vn khng th gii quyt c bng tm kim m.
Tm kim kinh nghim (tm kim heuristic). Trong rt nhiu vn ,
chng ta c th da vo s hiu bit ca chng ta v vn , da vo
kinh nghim, trc gic, nh gi cc trng thi. S dng s nh gi
cc trng thi hng dn s tm kim: trong qu trnh pht trin cc
trng thi, ta s chn trong s cc trng thi ch pht trin, trng thi
c nh gi l tt nht pht trin. Do tc tm kim s nhanh
hn. Cc phng php tm kim da vo s nh gi cc trng thi
hng dn s tm kim gi chung l cc phng php tm kim kinh
nghim.
Nh vy chin lc tm kim c xc nh bi chin lc chn trng
thi pht trin mi bc. Trong tm kim m, ta chn trng thi pht
trin theo th t m chng c sinh ra; cn trong tm kim kinh nghim ta
chn trng thi da vo s nh gi cc trng thi.
CY TM KIM
Chng ta c th ngh n qu trnh tm kim nh qu trnh xy dng
cy tm kim. Cy tm kim l cy m cc nh c gn bi cc trng thi
ca khng gian trng thi. Gc ca cy tm kim tng ng vi trng thi
ban u. Nu mt nh ng vi trng thi u, th cc nh con ca n ng vi
cc trng thi v k u. Hnh 1.4a l th biu din mt khng gian trng thi
vi trng thi ban u l A, hnh 1.4b l cy tm kim tng ng vi khng
gian trng thi .
Mi chin lc tm kim trong khng gian trng thi tng ng vi
mt phng php xy dng cy tm kim. Qu trnh xy dng cy bt u t
cy ch c mt nh l trng thi ban u. Gi s ti mt bc no trong
chin lc tm kim, ta xy dng c mt cy no , cc l ca cy
tng ng vi cc trng thi cha c pht trin. Bc tip theo ph thuc
vo chin lc tm kim m mt nh no trong cc l c chn pht
trin. Khi pht trin nh , cy tm kim c m rng bng cch thm
vo cc nh con ca nh . K thut tm kim theo b rng (theo su)
tng ng vi phng php xy dng cy tm kim theo b rng (theo
su).
1.3. CC CHIN LC TM KIM M
Trong mc ny chng ta s trnh by hai chin lc tm kim m: tm
kim theo b rng v tm kim theo su. Trong tm kim theo b rng, ti
mi bc ta s chn trng thi pht trin l trng thi c sinh ra trc
cc trng thi ch pht trin khc. Cn trong tm kim theo su, trng thi
c chn pht trin l trng thi c sinh ra sau cng trong s cc
trng thi ch pht trin.
Chng ta s dng danh sch L lu cc trng thi c sinh ra v
ch c pht trin. Mc tiu ca tm kim trong khng gian trng thi l
tm ng i t trng thi ban u ti trng thi ch, do ta cn lu li vt
ca ng i. Ta c th s dng hm father lu li cha ca mi nh trn
ng i, father(v) = u nu cha ca nh v l u.
1.3.1. Tm kim theo b rngTm kim theo b rng
Thut ton tm kim theo b rng c m t bi th tc sau:
PROCEDURE BREADTH_FIRST_SEARCH;
BEGIN
1. KHI TO DANH SCH L CH CHA TRNG THI BAN U;
2. LOOP DO
2.1 IF L RNG THEN
{THNG BO TM KIM THT BI; STOP};
2.2 LOI TRNG THI U U DANH SCH L;
2.3 IF U L TRNG THI KT THC THEN
{THNG BO TM KIM THNH CNG; STOP};
2.4 FOR MI TRNG THI V K U DO {
T V VO CUI DANH SCH L;
FATHER(V) U}
END;
Chng ta c mt s nhn xt sau y v thut ton tm kim theo b
rng:
Trong tm kim theo b rng, trng thi no c sinh ra trc s c
pht trin trc, do danh sch L c x l nh hng i. Trong
bc 2.3, ta cn kim tra xem u c l trng thi kt thc hay khng.
Ni chung cc trng thi kt thc c xc nh bi mt s iu kin
no , khi ta cn kim tra xem u c tha mn cc iu kin hay
khng.
Nu bi ton c nghim (tn ti ng i t trng thi ban u ti
trng thi ch), th thut ton tm kim theo b rng s tm ra nghim,
ng thi ng i tm c s l ngn nht. Trong trng hp bi
ton v nghim v khng gian trng thi hu hn, thut ton s dng
v cho thng bo v nghim.
NH GI TM KIM THEO B RNG
By gi ta nh gi thi gian v b nh m tm kim theo b rng i
hi. Gi s rng, mi trng thi khi c pht trin s sinh ra b trng thi k.
Ta s gi b l nhn t nhnh. Gi s rng, nghim ca bi ton l ng i
c di d. Bi v nghim c th c tm ra ti mt nh bt k mc d
ca cy tm kim, do s nh cn xem xt tm ra nghim l:
1 + b + b
2
+... + b
d-1
+ k
Trong k c th l 1, 2,..., b
d
. Do s ln nht cc nh cn xem
xt l:
1 + b + b
2
+... + b
d
Nh vy, phc tp thi gian ca thut ton tm kim theo b rng
l O(b
d
). phc tp khng gian cng l O(b
d
), bi v ta cn lu vo danh
sch L tt c cc nh ca cy tm kim mc d, s cc nh ny l b
d
.
thy r tm kim theo b rng i hi thi gian v khng gian ln
ti mc no, ta xt trng hp nhn t nhnh b = 10 v su d thay i.
Gi s pht hin v kim tra 1000 trng thi cn 1 giy, v lu gi 1 trng
thi cn 100 bytes. Khi thi gian v khng gian m thut ton i hi
c cho trong bng sau:
su d Thi gian Khng gian
4 11 giy 1 megabyte
6 18 giy 111 megabytes
8 31 gi 11 gigabytes
10 128 ngy 1 terabyte
12 35 nm 111 terabytes
14 3500 nm 11.111 terabytes
1.3.2. Tm kim theo su
Nh ta bit, t tng ca chin lc tm kim theo su l, ti
mi bc, trng thi c chn pht trin l trng thi c sinh ra sau
cng trong s cc trng thi ch pht trin. Do thut ton tm kim theo
su l hon ton tng t nh thut ton tm kim theo b rng, ch c
mt iu khc l, ta x l danh sch L cc trng thi ch pht trin khng
phi nh hng i m nh ngn xp. C th l trong bc 2.4 ca thut ton
tm kim theo b rng, ta cn sa li l t v vo u danh sch L.
Sau y chng ta s a ra cc nhn xt so snh hai chin lc tm
kim m:
Thut ton tm kim theo b rng lun lun tm ra nghim nu bi ton
c nghim. Song khng phi vi bt k bi ton c nghim no thut
ton tm kim theo su cng tm ra nghim! Nu bi ton c nghim
v khng gian trng thi hu hn, th thut ton tm kim theo su
s tm ra nghim. Tuy nhin, trong trng hp khng gian trng thi
v hn, th c th n khng tm ra nghim, l do l ta lun lun i
xung theo su, nu ta i theo mt nhnh v hn m nghim khng
nm trn nhnh th thut ton s khng dng. Do ngi ta
khuyn rng, khng nn p dng tm kim theo d su cho cc bi ton
c cy tm kim cha cc nhnh v hn.
phc tp ca thut ton tm kim theo su.
Gi s rng, nghim ca bi ton l ng i c di d, cy tm
kim c nhn t nhnh l b v c chiu cao l d. C th xy ra, nghim l
nh ngoi cng bn phi trn mc d ca cy tm kim, do phc tp
thi gian ca tm kim theo su trong trng hp xu nht l O(b
d
), tc l
cng nh tm kim theo b rng. Tuy nhin, trn thc t i vi nhiu bi
ton, tm kim theo su thc s nhanh hn tm kim theo b rng. L do
l tm kim theo b rng phi xem xt ton b cy tm kim ti mc d-1, ri
mi xem xt cc nh mc d. Cn trong tm kim theo su, c th ta ch
cn xem xt mt b phn nh ca cy tm kim th tm ra nghim.
nh gi phc tp khng gian ca tm kim theo su ta c
nhn xt rng, khi ta pht trin mt nh u trn cy tm kim theo su, ta
ch cn lu cc nh cha c pht trin m chng l cc nh con ca cc
nh nm trn ng i t gc ti nh u. Nh vy i vi cy tm kim c
nhn t nhnh b v su ln nht l d, ta ch cn lu t hn db nh. Do
phc tp khng gian ca tm kim theo su l O(db), trong khi tm
kim theo b rng i hi khng gian nh O(b
d
)!
1.3.3. Cc trng thi lp
Nh ta thy trong mc 1.2, cy tm kim c th cha nhiu nh ng
vi cng mt trng thi, cc trng thi ny c gi l trng thi lp. Chng
hn, trong cy tm kim hnh 4b, cc trng thi C, E, F l cc trng thi lp.
Trong th biu din khng gian trng thi, cc trng thi lp ng vi cc
nh c nhiu ng i dn ti n t trng thi ban u. Nu th c chu
trnh th cy tm kim s cha cc nhnh vi mt s nh lp li v hn ln.
Trong cc thut ton tm kim s lng ph rt nhiu thi gian pht trin li
cc trng thi m ta gp v pht trin. V vy trong qu trnh tm kim
ta cn trnh pht sinh ra cc trng thi m ta pht trin. Chng ta c th
p dng mt trong cc gii php sau y:
1. Khi pht trin nh u, khng sinh ra cc nh trng vi cha ca u.
2. Khi pht trin nh u, khng sinh ra cc nh trng vi mt nh no
nm trn ng i dn ti u.
3. Khng sinh ra cc nh m n c sinh ra, tc l ch sinh ra cc
nh mi.
Hai gii php u d ci t v khng tn nhiu khng gian nh, tuy
nhin cc gii php ny khng trnh c ht cc trng thi lp.
thc hin gii php th 3 ta cn lu cc trng thi pht trin vo
tp Q, lu cc trng thi ch pht trin vo danh sch L. ng nhin, trng
thi v ln u c sinh ra nu n khng c trong Q v L. Vic lu cc trng
thi pht trin v kim tra xem mt trng thi c phi ln u c sinh
ra khng i hi rt nhiu khng gian v thi gian. Chng ta c th ci t
tp Q bi bng bm (xem [8]).
1.3.4. Tm kim su lp
Nh chng ta nhn xt, nu cy tm kim cha nhnh v hn, khi
s dng tm kim theo su, ta c th mc kt nhnh v khng tm ra
nghim. khc phc hon cnh , ta tm kim theo su ch ti mc d
no ; nu khng tm ra nghim, ta tng su ln d+1 v li tm kim theo
su ti mc d+1. Qu trnh trn c lp li vi d ln lt l 1, 2,... dn
mt su max no . Nh vy, thut ton tm kim su lp (iterative
deepening search) s s dng th tc tm kim su hn ch (depth_limited
search) nh th tc con. l th tc tm kim theo su, nhng ch i ti
su d no ri quay ln.
Trong th tc tm kim su hn ch, d l tham s su, hm depth
ghi li su ca mi nh
procedure Depth_Limited_Search(d);
begin
1. Khi to danh sch L ch cha trng thi ban u u
0
;
depth(u
0
) 0;
2. loop do
2.1 if L rng then
{thng bo tht bi; stop};
2.2 Loi trng thi u u danh sch L;
2.3 if u l trng thi kt thc then
{thng bo thnh cng; stop};
2.4 if depth(u) <= d then
for mi trng thi v k u do
{t v vo u danh sch L;
depth(v) depth(u) + 1};
end;
procedure DEPTH_DEEPENING_SEARCH;
begin
for D 0 to MAX do
{Depth_Limited_Search(d);
if thnh cng then exit}
end;
K thut tm kim su lp kt hp c cc u im ca tm kim
theo b rng v tm kim theo su. Chng ta c mt s nhn xt sau:
Cng nh tm kim theo b rng, tm kim su lp lun lun tm ra
nghim (nu bi ton c nghim), min l ta chn su max ln.
Tm kim su lp ch cn khng gian nh nh tm kim theo su.
Trong tm kim su lp, ta phi pht trin lp li nhiu ln cng mt
trng thi. iu lm cho ta c cm gic rng, tm kim su lp lng
ph nhiu thi gian. Thc ra thi gian tiu tn cho pht trin lp li cc
trng thi l khng ng k so vi thi gian tm kim theo b rng.
Tht vy, mi ln gi th tc tm kim su hn ch ti mc d, nu cy
tm kim c nhn t nhnh l b, th s nh cn pht trin l:
1 + b + b
2
+... + b
d
Nu nghim su d, th trong tm kim su lp, ta phi gi th tc
tm kim su hn ch vi su ln lt l 0, 1, 2,..., d. Do cc nh
mc 1 phi pht trin lp d ln, cc nh mc 2 lp d-1 ln,..., cc nh
mc d lp 1 ln. Nh vy tng s nh cn pht trin trong tm kim su lp
l:
(d+1)1 + db + (d-1)b
2
+... + 2b
d-1
+ 1b
d
Do thi gian tm kim su lp l O(b
d
).
Tm li, tm kim su lp c phc tp thi gian l O(b
d
) (nh tm
kim theo b rng), v c phc tp khng gian l O(bd) (nh tm kim
theo su). Ni chung, chng ta nn p dng tm kim su lp cho cc vn
c khng gian trng thi ln v su ca nghim khng bit trc.
1.4. QUY VN V CC VN CON. TM KIM TRN
TH V/HOC.
1.4.1. Quy vn v cc vn con:
Trong mc 1.1, chng ta nghin cu vic biu din vn thng
qua cc trng thi v cc ton t. Khi vic tm nghim ca vn c
quy v vic tm ng trong khng gian trng thi. Trong mc ny chng ta
s nghin cu mt phng php lun khc gii quyt vn , da trn
vic quy vn v cc vn con. Quy vn v cc vn con (cn gi l
rt gn vn ) l mt phng php c s dng rng ri nht gii quyt
cc vn . Trong i sng hng ngy, cng nh trong khoa hc k thut,
mi khi gp mt vn cn gii quyt, ta vn thng c gng tm cch a
n v cc vn n gin hn. Qu trnh rt gn vn s c tip tc cho
ti khi ta dn ti cc vn con c th gii quyt c d dng. Sau y
chng ta xt mt s vn .
VN TNH TCH PHN BT NH
Gi s ta cn tnh mt tch phn bt nh, chng hn (xe
x
+ x
3
)dx.
Qu trnh chng ta vn thng lm tnh tch phn bt nh l nh sau. S
dng cc quy tc tnh tch phn (quy tc tnh tch phn ca mt tng, quy tc
tnh tch phn tng phn...), s dng cc php bin i bin s, cc php
bin i cc hm (chng hn, cc php bin i lng gic),... a tch
phn cn tnh v tch phn ca cc hm s s cp m chng ta bit cch
tnh. Chng hn, i vi tch phn (xe
x
+ x
3
)dx, p dng quy tc tch phn
ca tng ta a v hai tch phn xe
x
dx v x
3
dx. p dng quy tc tch
phn tng phn ta a tch phn xe
x
dx v tch phn e
x
dx. Qu trnh trn
c th biu din bi th trong hnh 1.5.
Cc tch phn e
x
dx v x
3
dx l cc tch phn c bn c trong
bng tch phn. Kt hp cc kt qu ca cc tch phn c bn, ta nhn c
kt qu ca tch phn cho.
Chng ta c th biu din vic quy mt vn v cc vn c bi
cc trng thi v cc ton t. y, bi ton cn gii l trng thi ban u.
Mi cch quy bi ton v cc bi ton con c biu din bi mt ton t,
ton t AB, C biu din vic quy bi ton A v hai bi ton B v C.
Chng hn, i vi bi ton tnh tch phn bt nh, ta c th xc nh cc
ton t dng:
(f
1
+ f
2
) dx f
1
dx, f
2
dx v u dv v du
Cc trng thi kt thc l cc bi ton s cp (cc bi ton bit cch
gii). Chng hn, trong bi ton tnh tch phn, cc tch phn c bn l cc
trng thi kt thc. Mt iu cn lu l, trong khng gian trng thi biu
din vic quy vn v cc vn con, cc ton t c th l a tr, n bin
i mt trng thi thnh nhiu trng thi khc.
VN TM NG I TRN
BN GIAO THNG
Bi ton ny c pht biu nh bi ton tm ng i trong khng
gian trng thi (xem 1.1), trong mi trng thi ng vi mt thnh ph,
mi ton t ng vi mt con ng, ni thnh ph ny vi thnh ph khc.
By gi ta a ra mt cch biu din khc da trn vic quy vn v cc
vn con. Gi s ta c bn giao thng trong mt vng lnh th (xem
hnh 1.6). Gi s ta cn tm ng i t thnh ph A ti thnh ph B. C
con sng chy qua hai thnh ph E v G v c cu qua sng mi thnh ph
. Mi ng i t A n B ch c th qua E hoc G. Nh vy bi ton tm
ng i t A n B c quy v:
1) Bi ton tm ng i t A n B qua E (hoc)
2) Bi ton tm ng i t A n b qua G.
Mi mt trong hai bi ton trn li c th phn nh nh sau:
1) Bi ton tm ng i t A n B qua E c quy v:
1.1 Tm ng i t A n E (v)
1.2 Tm ng i t E n B.
2) Bi ton tm ng i t A n B qua G c quy v:
2.1 Tm ng i t A n G (v)
2.2 Tm ng i t G n B.
Qu trnh rt gn vn nh trn c th biu din di dng th
( th v/hoc) trong hnh 1.7. y mi bi ton tm ng i t mt
thnh ph ti mt thnh ph khc ng vi mt trng thi. Cc trng thi kt
thc l cc trng thi ng vi cc bi ton tm ng i, chng hn t A n
C, hoc t D n E, bi v c ng ni A vi C, ni D vi E.
1.4.2. th v/hoc
Khng gian trng thi m t vic quy vn v cc vn con c th
biu din di dng th nh hng c bit c gi l th v/hoc.
th ny c xy dng nh sau:
Mi bi ton ng vi mt nh ca th. Nu c mt ton t quy mt
bi ton v mt bi ton khc, chng hn R: a b, th trong th s c
cung gn nhn i t nh a ti nh b. i vi mi ton t quy mt bi ton
v mt s bi ton con, chng hn R: a b, c, d ta a vo mt nh mi a
1
,
nh ny biu din tp cc bi ton con {b, c, d} v ton t R: a b, c, d
c biu din bi th hnh 1.8.
V d: Gi s chng ta c khng gian trng thi sau:
Trng thi ban u (bi ton cn gii) l a.
Tp cc ton t quy gm:
R
1
: a d, e, f
R
2
: a d, k
R
3
: a g, h
R
4
: d b, c
R
5
: f i
R
6
: f c, j
R
7
: k e, l
R
8
: k h
Tp cc trng thi kt thc (cc bi ton s cp) l T = {b, c, e, j, l}.
Khng gian trng thi trn c th biu din bi th v/hoc trong
hnh 1.9. Trong th , cc nh, chng hn a
1
, a
2
, a
3
c gi l nh v,
cc nh chng hn a, f, k c gi l nh hoc. L do l, nh a
1
biu din
tp cc bi ton {d, e, f} v a
1
c gii quyt nu d v e v f c gii
quyt. Cn ti nh a, ta c cc ton t R
1
, R
2
, R
3
quy bi ton a v cc bi
ton con khc nhau, do a c gii quyt nu hoc a
1
= {d, e, f}, hoc a
2
= {d, k}, hoc a
3
= {g, h} c gii quyt.
Ngi ta thng s dng th v/hoc dng rt gn. Chng hn,
th v/hoc trong hnh 1.9 c th rt gn thnh th trong hnh 1.10.
Trong th rt gn ny, ta s ni chng hn d, e, f l cc nh k nh a
theo ton t R
1
, cn d, k l cc nh k a theo ton t R
2
.
Khi c cc ton t rt gn vn , th bng cch p dng lin tip
cc ton t, ta c th a bi ton cn gii v mt tp cc bi ton con.
Chng hn, trong v d trn nu ta p dng cc ton t R
1
, R
4
, R
6
, ta s quy
bi ton a v tp cc bi ton con {b, c, e, f}, tt c cc bi ton con ny u
l s cp. T cc ton t R
1
, R
4
v R
6
ta xy dng c mt cy trong hnh
1.11a, cy ny c gi l cy nghim. Cy nghim c nh ngha nh
sau:
Cy nghim l mt cy, trong :
Gc ca cy ng vi bi ton cn gii.
Tt c cc l ca cy l cc nh kt thc (nh ng vi cc bi ton s
cp).
Nu u l nh trong ca cy, th cc nh con ca u l tt c cc nh k
u theo mt ton t no .
Cc nh ca th v/hoc s c gn nhn gii c hoc khng
gii c.
Cc nh gii c c xc nh quy nh sau:
Cc nh kt thc l cc nh gii c.
Nu u khng phi l nh kt thc, nhng c mt ton t R sao cho tt
c cc nh k u theo R u gii c th u gii c.
Cc nh khng gii c c xc nh quy nh sau:
Cc nh khng phi l nh kt thc v khng c nh k, l cc nh
khng gii c.
Nu u khng phi l nh kt thc v vi mi ton t R p dng c
ti u u c mt nh v k u theo R khng gii c, th u khng gii
c.
Ta c nhn xt rng, nu bi ton a gii c th s c mt cy
nghim gc a, v ngc li nu c mt cy nghim gc a th a gii c.
Hin nhin l, mt bi ton gii c c th c nhiu cy nghim, mi cy
nghim biu din mt cch gii bi ton . Chng hn trong v d nu,
bi ton a c hai cy nghim trong hnh 1.11.
Th t gii cc bi ton con trong mt cy nghim l nh sau. Bi
ton ng vi nh u ch c gii sau khi tt c cc bi ton ng vi cc nh
con ca u c gii. Chng hn, vi cy nghim trong hnh 1.11a, th t
gii cc bi ton c th l b, c, d, j, f, e, a. Ta c th s dng th tc sp xp
topo (xem [8]) sp xp th t cc bi ton trong mt cy nghim. ng
nhin ta cng c th gii quyt ng thi cc bi ton con cng mt mc
trong cy nghim.
Vn ca chng ta by gi l, tm kim trn th v/hoc xc
nh c nh ng vi bi ton ban u l gii c hay khng gii c,
v nu n gii c th xy dng mt cy nghim cho n.
1.4.3. Tm kim trn th v/hoc
Ta s s dng k thut tm kim theo su trn th v/hoc
nh du cc nh. Cc nh s c nh du gii c hoc khng gii
c theo nh ngha quy v nh gii c v khng gii c. Xut
pht t nh ng vi bi ton ban u, i xung theo su, nu gp nh u
l nh kt thc th n c nh du gii c. Nu gp nh u khng phi
l nh kt thc v t u khng i tip c, th u c nh du khng gii
c. Khi i ti nh u, th t u ta ln lt i xung cc nh v k u theo mt
ton t R no . Nu nh du c mt nh v khng gii c th khng
cn i tip xung cc nh v cn li. Tip tc i xung cc nh k u theo
mt ton t khc. Nu tt c cc nh k u theo mt ton t no c
nh du gii c th u s c nh du gii c v quay ln cha ca u.
Cn nu t u i xung cc nh k n theo mi ton t u gp cc nh k
c nh du khng gii c, th u c nh du khng gii c v
quay ln cha ca u.
Ta s biu din th tc tm kim theo su v nh du cc nh
trnh by trn bi hm quy Solvable(u). Hm ny nhn gi tr true nu u
gii c v nhn gi tr false nu u khng gii c. Trong hm
Solvable(u), ta s s dng:
Bin Ok. Vi mi ton t R p dng c ti u, bin Ok nhn gi tr
true nu tt c cc nh v k u theo R u gii c, v Ok nhn gi tr
false nu c mt nh v k u theo R khng gii c.
Hm Operator(u) ghi li ton t p dng thnh cng ti u, tc l
Operator(u) = R nu mi nh v k u theo R u gii c.
function Solvable(u);
begin
1. if u l nh kt thc then
{Solvable true; stop};
2. if u khng l nh kt thc v khng c nh k then
{Solvable(u) false; stop};
3. for mi ton t R p dng c ti u do
{Ok true;
for mi v k u theo R do
if Solvable(v) = false then
{Ok false; exit};
if Ok then
{Solvable(u) true;
Operator(u) R; stop}}
4. Solvable(u) false;
end;
Nhn xt
Hon ton tng t nh thut ton tm kim theo su trong khng
gian trng thi (mc 1.3.2), thut ton tm kim theo su trn th
v/hoc s xc nh c bi ton ban u l gii c hay khng gii
c, nu cy tm kim khng c nhnh v hn. Nu cy tm kim c
nhnh v hn th cha chc thut ton dng, v c th n b xa ly
khi i xung nhnh v hn. Trong trng hp ny ta nn s dng thut
ton tm kim su lp (mc 1.3.3).
Nu bi ton ban u gii c, th bng cch s dng hm Operator
ta s xy dng c cy nghim.
CHNG 2
CC CHIN LC TM KIM KINH NGHIM
Trong chng I, chng ta nghin cu vic biu din vn trong
khng gian trng thi v cc k thut tm kim m. Cc k thut tm kim
m rt km hiu qu v trong nhiu trng hp khng th p dng c.
Trong chng ny, chng ta s nghin cu cc phng php tm kim kinh
nghim (tm kim heuristic), l cc phng php s dng hm nh gi
hng dn s tm kim.
2.1. HM NH GI V TM KIM KINH NGHIM:
Trong nhiu vn , ta c th s dng kinh nghim, tri thc ca chng
ta v vn nh gi cc trng thi ca vn . Vi mi trng thi u,
chng ta s xc nh mt gi tr s h(u), s ny nh gi s gn chca
trng thi u. Hm h(u) c gi l hm nh gi. Chng ta s s dng hm
nh gi hng dn s tm kim. Trong qu trnh tm kim, ti mi bc
ta s chn trng thi pht trin l trng thi c gi tr hm nh gi nh
nht, trng thi ny c xem l trng thi c nhiu ha hn nht dn ti
ch.
Cc k thut tm kim s dng hm nh gi hng dn s tm
kim c gi chung l cc k thut tm kim kinh nghim (heuristic
search). Cc giai on c bn gii quyt vn bng tm kim kinh
nghim nh sau:
1. Tm biu din thch hp m t cc trng thi v cc ton t ca vn .
2. Xy dng hm nh gi.
3. Thit k chin lc chn trng thi pht trin mi bc.
HM NH GI
Trong tm kim kinh nghim, hm nh gi ng vai tr cc k quan
trng. Chng ta c xy dng c hm nh gi cho ta s nh gi ng cc
trng thi th tm kim mi hiu qu. Nu hm nh gi khng chnh xc, n
c th dn ta i chch hng v do tm kim km hiu qu.
Hm nh gi c xy dng ty thuc vo vn . Sau y l mt s
v d v hm nh gi:
Trong bi ton tm kim ng i trn bn giao thng, ta c th ly
di ca ng chim bay t mt thnh ph ti mt thnh ph ch
lm gi tr ca hm nh gi.
Bi ton 8 s. Chng ta c th a ra hai cch xy dng hm nh gi.
Hm h
1
: Vi mi trng thi u th h
1
(u) l s qun khng nm ng v
tr ca n trong trng thi ch. Chng hn trng thi ch bn phi hnh
2.1, v u l trng thi bn tri hnh 2.1, th h
1
(u) = 4, v cc qun khng
ng v tr l 3, 8, 6 v 1.
Hm h
2
: h
2
(u) l tng khong cch gia v tr ca cc qun trong trng
thi u v v tr ca n trong trng thi ch. y khong cch c hiu l
s t nht cc dch chuyn theo hng hoc ct a mt qun ti v tr ca
n trong trng thi ch. Chng hn vi trng thi u v trng thi ch nh
trong hnh 2.1, ta c:
h
2
(u) = 2 + 3 + 1 + 3 = 9
V qun 3 cn t nht 2 dch chuyn, qun 8 cn t nht 3 dch chuyn,
qun 6 cn t nht 1 dch chuyn v qun 1 cn t nht 3 dch chuyn.
Hai chin lc tm kim kinh nghim quan trng nht l tm kim tt
nht - u tin (best-first search) v tm kim leo i (hill-climbing search).
C th xc nh cc chin lc ny nh sau:
Tm kim tt nht u tin = Tm kim theo b rng + Hm nh
gi
Tm kim leo i = Tm kim theo su + Hm nh gi
Chng ta s ln lt nghin cu cc k thut tm kim ny trong cc
mc sau.
2.2. TM KIM TT NHT - U TIN:
Tm kim tt nht - u tin (best-first search) l tm kim theo b
rng c hng dn bi hm nh gi. Nhng n khc vi tm kim theo
b rng ch, trong tm kim theo b rng ta ln lt pht trin tt c cc
nh mc hin ti sinh ra cc nh mc tip theo, cn trong tm kim
tt nht - u tin ta chn nh pht trin l nh tt nht c xc nh
bi hm nh gi (tc l nh c gi tr hm nh gi l nh nht), nh ny
c th mc hin ti hoc cc mc trn.
V d: Xt khng gian trng thi c biu din bi th trong hnh
2.2, trong trng thi ban u l A, trng thi kt thc l B. Gi tr ca hm
nh gi l cc s ghi cnh mi nh. Qu trnh tm kim tt nht - u tin
din ra nh sau: u tin pht trin nh A sinh ra cc nh k l C, D v E.
Trong ba nh ny, nh D c gi tr hm nh gi nh nht, n c chn
pht trin v sinh ra F, I. Trong s cc nh cha c pht trin C, E, F,
I th nh E c gi tr nh gi nh nht, n c chn pht trin v sinh
ra cc nh G, K. Trong s cc nh cha c pht trin th G tt nht, pht
trin G sinh ra B, H. n y ta t ti trng thi kt thc. Cy tm kim
tt nht - u tin c biu din trong hnh 2.3.
Sau y l th tc tm kim tt nht - u tin. Trong th tc ny,
chng ta s dng danh sch L lu cc trng thi ch pht trin, danh sch
c sp theo th t tng dn ca hm nh gi sao cho trng thi c gi tr
hm nh gi nh nht u danh sch.
procedure Best_First_Search;
begin
1. Khi to danh sch L ch cha trng thi ban u;
2. loop do
2.1 if L rng then
{thng bo thnh cng; stop}
2.4 for mi trng thi v k u do
Xen v vo danh sch L sao cho L c sp theo th t tng dn
ca hm nh gi;
end;
2.3. TM KIM LEO I:
Tm kim leo i (hill-climbing search) l tm kim theo su c
hng dn bi hm nh gi. Song khc vi tm kim theo su, khi ta
pht trin mt nh u th bc tip theo, ta chn trong s cc nh con ca u,
nh c nhiu ha hn nht pht trin, nh ny c xc nh bi hm
nh gi.
V d: Ta li xt th khng gian trng thi trong hnh 2.2. Qu
trnh tm kim leo i c tin hnh nh sau. u tin pht trin nh A
sinh ra cc nh con C, D, E. Trong cc nh ny chn D pht trin (v
h(D)= 6 nh nht),sinh ra F, I. Trong hai nh ny, ta chn I ddeer pht trin,
v n sinh ra cc nh con B, G. Qu trnh tm kim kt thc. Cy tm kim
leo i c cho trong hnh 2.4.
Trong th tc tm kim leo i c trnh by di y, ngoi danh
sch L lu cc trng thi ch c pht trin, chng ta s dng danh sch L
1
lu gi tm thi cc trng thi k trng thi u, khi ta pht trin u. Danh
sch L
1
c sp xp theo th t tng dn ca hm nh gi, ri c
chuyn vo danh sch L sao trng thi tt nht k u ng danh sch L.
procedure Hill_Climbing_Search;
begin
2. loop do
2.1 if L rng then
{thng bo thnh cng; stop};
2.3 for mi trng thi v k u do t v vo L
1
;
2.5 Sp xp L
1
theo th t tng dn ca hm nh gi;
2.6 Chuyn danh sch L
1
vo u danh sch L;
end;
2.4. TM KIM BEAM
Tm kim beam (beam search) ging nh tm kim theo b rng, n
pht trin cc nh mt mc ri pht trin cc nh mc tip theo. Tuy
nhin, trong tm kim theo b rng, ta pht trin tt c cc nh mt mc,
cn trong tm kim beam, ta hn ch ch pht trin k nh tt nht (cc nh
ny c xc nh bi hm nh gi). Do trong tm kim beam, bt k
mc no cng ch c nhiu nht k nh c pht trin, trong khi tm kim
theo b rng, s nh cn pht trin mc d l b
d
(b l nhn t nhnh).
V d: Chng ta li xt th khng gian trng thi trong hnh 2.2.
Chn k = 2. Khi cy tm kim beam c cho nh hnh 2.5. Cc nh
c gch di l cc nh c chn pht trin mi mc.
CHNG 3
CC CHIN LC TM KIM TI U
Vn tm kim ti u, mt cch tng qut, c th pht biu nh sau.
Mi i tng x trong khng gian tm kim c gn vi mt s o gi tr
ca i tng f(x), mc tiu ca ta l tm i tng c gi tr f(x) ln
nht (hoc nh nht) trong khng gian tm kim. Hm f(x) c gi l hm
mc tiu. Trong chng ny chng ta s nghin cu cc thut ton tm kim
sau:
Cc k thut tm ng i ngn nht trong khng gian trng thi:
Thut ton A*, thut ton nhnh_v_cn.
Cc k thut tm kim i tng tt nht: Tm kim leo i, tm kim
gradient, tm kim m phng luyn kim.
Tm kim bt chc s tin ha: thut ton di truyn.
3.1. TM NG I NGN NHT.
Trong cc chng trc chng ta nghin cu vn tm kim
ng i t trng thi ban u ti trng thi kt thc trong khng gian trng
thi. Trong mc ny, ta gi s rng, gi phi tr a trng thi a ti trng
thi b (bi mt ton t no ) l mt s k(a,b) 0, ta s gi s ny l di
cung (a,b) hoc gi tr ca cung (a,b) trong th khng gian trng thi.
di ca cc cung c xc nh ty thuc vo vn . Chng hn, trong bi
ton tm ng i trong bn giao thng, gi ca cung (a,b) chnh l di
ca ng ni thnh ph a vi thnh ph b. di ng c xc nh
l tng di ca cc cung trn ng i. Vn ca chng ta trong mc
ny, tm ng i ngn nht t trng thi ban u ti trng thi ch. Khng
gian tm kim y bao gm tt c cc ng i t trng thi ban u ti
trng thi kt thc, hm mc tiu c xc nh y l di ca ng
i.
Chng ta c th gii quyt vn t ra bng cch tm tt c cc
ng i c th c t trng thi ban u ti trng thi ch (chng hn, s
sng cc k thut tm kim m), sau so snh di ca chng, ta s tm
ra ng i ngn nht. Th tc tm kim ny thng c gi l th tc bo
tng Anh Quc (British Museum Procedure). Trong thc t, k thut ny
khng th p dng c, v cy tm kim thng rt ln, vic tm ra tt c
cc ng i c th c i hi rt nhiu thi gian. Do ch c mt cch
tng hiu qu tm kim l s dng cc hm nh gi hng dn s tm
kim. Cc phng php tm kim ng i ngn nht m chng ta s trnh
by u l cc phng php tm kim heuristic.
Gi s u l mt trng thi t ti (c dng i t trng thi ban u
u
0
ti u). Ta xc nh hai hm nh gi sau:
g(u) l nh gi di ng i ngn nht t u
0
ti u (ng i t u
0
ti trng thi u khng phi l trng thi ch c gi l ng i
mt phn, phn bit vi ng i y , l ng i t u
0
ti
trng thi ch).
h(u) l nh gi di ng i ngn nht t u ti trng thi ch.
Hm h(u) c gi l chp nhn c (hoc nh gi thp) nu
vi mi trng thi u, h(u) di ng i ngn nht thc t t u ti trng
thi ch. Chng hn trong bi ton tm ng i ngn nht trn bn giao
thng, ta c th xc nh h(u) l di ng chim bay t u ti ch.
Ta c th s dng k thut tm kim leo i vi hm nh gi h(u).
Tt nhin phng php ny ch cho php ta tm c ng i tng i tt,
cha chc l ng i ti u.
Ta cng c th s dng k thut tm kim tt nht u tin vi hm
nh gi g(u). Phng php ny s tm ra ng i ngn nht, tuy nhin n
c th km hiu qu.
tng hiu qu tm kim, ta s dng hm nh gi mi:
f(u) = g(u) + h(u)
Tc l, f(u) l nh gi di ng i ngn nht qua u t trng thi
ban u ti trng thi kt thc.
3.1.1. Thut ton A*
Thut ton A* l thut ton s dng k thut tm kim tt nht u
tin vi hm nh gi f(u).
thy c thut ton A* lm vic nh th no, ta xt th khng
gian trng thi trong hnh 3.1. Trong , trng thi ban u l trng thi A,
trng thi ch l B, cc s ghi cnh cc cung l di cung , cc s cnh
cc nh l gi tr ca hm h.u tin, pht trin nh A sinh ra cc nh con
C, D, E v F. Tnh gi tr ca hm f ti cc nh ny ta c:
g(C) = 9, f(C) = 9 + 15 = 24, g(D) = 7, f(D) = 7 + 6
= 13,
g(E) = 13, f(E) = 13 + 8 = 21, g(F) = 20, f(F) = 20 +7 = 27
Nh vy nh tt nht l D (v f(D) = 13 l nh nht). Pht trin D, ta
nhn c cc nh con H v E. Ta nh gi H v E (mi):
g(H) = g(D) + di cung (D, H) = 7 + 8 = 15, f(H) = 15 + 10 = 25.
ng i ti E qua D c di:
g(E) = g(D) + di cung (D, E) = 7 + 4 = 11.
Vy nh E mi c nh gi l f(E) = g(E) + h(E) = 11 + 8 = 19. Trong
s cc nh ch pht trin, th nh E vi nh gi f(E) = 19 l nh tt nht.
Pht trin nh ny, ta nhn c cc nh con ca n l K v I. Chng ta
tip tc qu trnh trn cho ti khi nh c chn pht trin l nh kt
thc B, di ng i ngn nht ti B l g(B) = 19. Qu trnh tm kim
trn c m t bi cy tm kim trong hnh 3.2, trong cc s cnh cc
nh l cc gi tr ca hm nh gi f(u).

procedure A*;
begin
2. loop do
2.1 if L rng then
2.3 if u l trng thi ch then
{thng bo thnh cng; stop}
{g(v) g(u) + k(u,v);
f(v) g(v) + h(v);
t v vo danh sch L;}
2.5 Sp xp L theo th t tng dn ca hm f sao cho
trng thi c gi tr ca hm f nh nht
u danh sch;
end;
Chng ta a ra mt s nhn xt v thut ton A*.
Ngi ta chng minh c rng, nu hm nh gi h(u) l nh gi
thp nht (trng hp c bit, h(u) = 0 vi mi trng thi u) th thut
ton A* l thut ton ti u, tc l nghim m n tm ra l nghim ti
u. Ngoi ra, nu di ca cc cung khng nh hn mt s dng
no th thut ton A* l thut ton y theo ngha rng, n lun
dng v tm ra nghim.
Chng ta chng minh tnh ti u ca thut ton A*.
Gi s thut ton dng li nh kt thc G vi di ng i t
trng thi ban u u
0
ti G l g(G). V G l nh kt thc, ta c h(G) = 0 v
f(G) = g(G) + h(G) = g(G). Gi s nghim ti u l ng i t u
0
ti nh
kt thc G
1
vi di l. Gi s ng i ny thot rakhi cy tm kim ti
nh l n (Xem hnh 3.3). C th xy ra hai kh nng: n trng vi G
1
hoc
khng. Nu n l G
1
th v G c chn pht trin trc G
1
, nn f(G)
f(G
1
), do g(G) g(G
1
) = l. Nu n G
1
th do h(u) l hm nh gi thp,
nn f(n) = g(n) + h(n) l. Mt khc, cng do G c chn pht trin
trc n, nn f(G) f(n), do , g(G) l. Nh vy, ta chng minh c
rng di ca ng i m thut ton tm ra g(G) khng di hn di l
ca ng i ti u. Vy n l di ng i ti u.
Trong trng hp hm nh gi h(u) = 0 vi mi u, thut ton A*
chnh l thut ton tm kim tt nht u tin vi hm nh gi g(u) m
ta ni n.
Thut ton A* c chng t l thut ton hiu qu nht trong s
cc thut ton y v ti u cho vn tm kim ng i ngn
nht.
3.1.2. Thut ton tm kim nhnh-v-cn.
Thut ton nhnh_v_cn l thut ton s dng tm kim leo i vi
hm nh gi f(u).
Trong thut ton ny, ti mi bc khi pht trin trng thi u, th ta s
chn trng thi tt nht v (f(v) nh nht) trong s cc trng thi k u pht
trin bc sau. i xung cho ti khi gp trng thi v l ch, hoc gp
trng thi v khng c nh k, hoc gp trng thi v m f(v) ln hn di
ng i ti u tm thi, tc l ng i y ngn nht trong s cc
ng i y m ta tm ra. Trong cc trng hp ny, ta khng pht
trin nh v na, hay ni cch khc, ta ct i cc nhnh cy xut pht t v, v
quay ln cha ca v tip tc i xung trng thi tt nht trong cc trng
thi cn li cha c pht trin.
V d: Chng ta li xt khng gian trng thi trong hnh 3.1. Pht
trin nh A, ta nhn c cc nh con C, D, E v F, f(C) = 24, f(D) = 13,
f(E) = 21, f(F) = 27. Trong s ny D l tt nht, pht trin D, sinh ra cc
nh con H v E, f(H) = 25, f(E) = 19. i xung pht trin E, sinh ra cc
nh con l K v I, f(K) = 17, f(I) = 18. i xung pht trin K sinh ra nh B
vi f(B) = g(B) = 21. i xung B, v B l nh ch, vy ta tm c ng
i ti u tm thi vi di 21. T B quay ln K, ri t K quay ln cha n
l E. T E i xung J, f(J) = 18 nh hn di ng i tm thi (l 21).
Pht trin I sinh ra cc con K v B, f(K) = 25, f(B) = g(B) = 19. i xung
nh B, v nh B l ch ta tm c ng i y mi vi di l 19
nh hn di ng i ti u tm thi c (21). Vy di ng i ti u
tm thi by gi l 19. By gi t B ta li quay ln cc nh cn li cha
c pht trin. Song cc nh ny u c gi tr hm nh gi ln hn 19,
do khng c nh no c pht trin na. Nh vy, ta tm c ng i
ti u vi di 19. Cy tm kim c biu din trong hnh 3.4.
Thut ton nhnh_v_cn s c biu din bi th tc
Branch_and_Bound. Trong th tc ny, bin cost c dng lu di
ng i ngn nht. Gi tr ban u ca cost l s ln, hoc di ca
mt ng i y m ta bit.
procedure Branch_and_Bound;
begin
Gn gi tr ban u cho cost;
2. loop do
2.1 if L rng then stop;
if g(u) cost then {cost g(u); Quay li 2.1};
2.4 if f(u) > cost then Quay li 2.1;
{g(v) g(u) + k(u,v);
f(v) g(v) + h(v);
t v vo danh sch L
1
};
2.6 Sp xp L
1
theo th t tng ca hm f;
2.7 Chuyn L
1
vo

u danh sch L sao cho trng thi
u L
1
tr thnh u L;
end;
Ngi ta chng minh c rng, thut ton nhnh_v_cn cng l
thut ton y v ti u nu hm nh gi h(u) l nh gi thp v c
di cc cung khng nh hn mt s dng no .
3.2. TM I TNG TT NHT
Trong mc ny chng ta s xt vn tm kim sau. Trn khng gian
tm kim U c xc nh hm gi (hm mc tiu) cost, ng vi mi i
tng x U vi mt gi tr s cost(x), s ny c gi l gi tr ca x.
Chng ta cn tm mt i tng m ti hm gi t gi tr ln nht, ta gi
i tng l i tng tt nht. Gi s khng gian tm kim c cu trc
cho php ta xc nh c khi nim ln cn ca mi i tng. Chng hn,
U l khng gian trng thi th ln cn ca trng thi u gm tt c cc trng
thi v k u; nu U l khng gian cc vect thc n-chiu th ln cn ca vect
x = (x
1
, x
2
,... x
n
) gm tt c cc vect gn x theo khong cch clit thng
thng.
Trong mc ny, ta s xt k thut tm kim leo i tm i tng
tt nht. Sau ta s xt k thut tm kim gradient (gradient search). l
k thut leo i p dng cho khng gian tm kim l khng gian cc vect
thc n-chiu v hm gi l hm kh vi lin tc. Cui cng ta s nghin cu
k thut tm kim m phng luyn kim(simulated annealing).
3.2.1. Tm kim leo i
K thut tm kim leo i tm kim i tng tt nht hon ton
ging nh k thut tm kim leo i tm trng thi kt thc xt trong
mc 2.3. Ch khc l trong thut ton leo i mc 2.3, t mt trng thi ta
"leo lntrng thi k tt nht (c xc nh bi hm gi), tip tc cho ti
khi t ti trng thi ch; nu cha t ti trng thi ch m khng leo ln
c na, th ta tip tc "tt xungtrng thi trc n, ri li leo ln trng
thi tt nht cn li. Cn y, t mt nh u ta ch leo ln nh tt nht v
(c xc nh bi hm gi cost) trong ln cn u nu nh ny "cao
hnnh u, tc l cost(v) > cost(u). Qu trnh tm kim s dng li ngay khi
ta khng leo ln nh cao hn c na.
Trong th tc leo i di y, bin u lu nh hin thi, bin v lu
nh tt nht (cost(v) nh nht) trong cc nh ln cn u. Khi thut ton
dng, bin u s lu i tng tm c.
procedure Hill_Climbing;
begin
1. u mt i tng ban u no ;
2.loop do
2.1 v i tng tt nht (c xc nh bi hm gi)trong ln cn u;
2.2 if cost(u) < cost(v) then u v else stop;
end;
TI U A PHNG V TI U TON CC
R rng l, khi thut ton leo i dng li ti i tng u*, th gi ca
n cost(u*) ln hn gi ca tt c cc i tng nm trong ln cn ca tt c
cc i tng trn ng i t i tng ban u ti trng thi u*. Do
nghim u* m thut ton leo i tm c l ti u a phng. Cn nhn
mnh rng khng c g m bo nghim l ti u ton cc theo ngha l
cost(u*) l ln nht trn ton b khng gian tm kim.
nhn c nghim tt hn bng thut ton leo i, ta c th p
dng lp li nhiu ln th tc leo i xut pht t mt dy cc i tng ban
u c chn ngu nhin v lu li nghim tt nht qua mi ln lp. Nu
s ln lp ln th ta c th tm c nghim ti u.
Kt qu ca thut ton leo i ph thuc rt nhiu vo hnh dng ca
mt congca hm gi. Nu mt cong ch c mt s t cc i a phng,
th k thut leo i s tm ra rt nhanh cc i ton cc. Song c nhng vn
m mt cong ca hm gi ta nh lng nhm vy, khi s dng k thut
leo i i hi rt nhiu thi gian.
3.2.2. Tm kim gradient
Tm kim gradient l k thut tm kim leo i tm gi tr ln nht
(hoc nh nht) ca hm kh vi lin tc f(x) trong khng gian cc vect thc
n-chiu. Nh ta bit, trong ln cn nh ca im x = (x
1
,...,x
n
), th hm
f tng nhanh nht theo hng ca vect gradient:
Do t tng ca tm kim gradient l t mt im ta i ti im
ln cn n theo hng ca vect gradient.
procedure Gradient_Search;
begin
x im xut pht no ;
repeat
x x + f(x);
until |f| < ;
end;
Trong th tc trn, l hng s dng nh xc nh t l ca cc bc,
cn l hng s dng nh xc nh tiu chun dng. Bng cch ly cc
bc nh theo hng ca vect gradient chng ta s tm c im cc
i a phng, l im m ti f = 0, hoc tm c im rt gn vi
cc i a phng.
3.2.3. Tm kim m phng luyn kim:
Nh nhn mnh trn, tm kim leo i khng m bo cho ta tm
c nghim ti u ton cc. cho nghim tm c gn vi ti u ton
cc, ta p dng k thut leo i lp xut pht t cc im c la chn
ngu nhin. By gi thay cho vic lun lun leo ln ixut pht t cc
im khc nhau, ta thc hin mt s bc tt xungnhm thot ra khi cc
im cc i a phng. chnh l t tng ca k thut tm kim m
phng luyn kim.
Trong tm kim leo i, khi mt trng thi u ta lun lun i ti trng
thi tt nht trong ln cn n. Cn by gi, trong tm kim m phng luyn
kim, ta chn ngu nhin mt trng thi v trong ln cn u. Nu trng thi v
,
_

xn
,...,
2 x
,
x1
f f f
f
c chn tt hn u (cost(v) > cost(u)) th ta i ti v, cn nu khng ta ch i
ti v vi mt xc sut no . Xc sut ny gim theo hm m ca
xuca trng thi v. Xc sut ny cn ph thuc vo tham s nhit T.
Nhit T cng cao th bc i ti trng thi xu cng c kh nng c
thc hin. Trong qu trnh tm kim, tham s nhit T gim dn ti khng.
Khi T gn khng, thut ton hot ng gn ging nh leo i, hu nh n
khng thc hin bc tt xung. C th ta xc nh xc sut i ti trng thi
xu v t u l e
/T
, y = cost(v) - cost(u).
Sau y l th tc m phng luyn kim.
procedure Simulated_Anneaning;
begin
t 0;
u trng thi ban u no ;
T nhit ban u;
repeat
v trng thi c chn nhu nhin trong ln cn u;
if cost(v) > cost(u) then u v
else u v vi xc sut e
/T
;
T g(T, t);
t t + 1;
until T nh
end;
Trong th tc trn, hm g(T, t) tha mn iu kin g(T, t) < T vi mi t,
n xc nh tc gim ca nhit T. Ngi ta chng minh c rng,
nu nhit T gim chm, th thut ton s tm c nghim ti u ton
cc. Thut ton m phng luyn kim c p dng thnh cng cho cc
bi ton ti u c ln.
3.3. TM KIM M PHNG S TIN HA. THUT TON DI
TRUYN
Thut ton di truyn (TTDT) l thut ton bt chc s chn lc t
nhin v di truyn. Trong t nhin, cc c th khe, c kh nng thch nghi
tt vi mi trng s c ti sinh v nhn bn cc th h sau. Mi c th
c cu trc gien c trng cho phm cht ca c th . Trong qu trnh sinh
sn, cc c th con c th tha hng cc phm cht ca c cha v m, cu
trc gien ca n mang mt phn cu trc gien ca cha v m. Ngoi ra, trong
qu trnh tin ha, c th xy ra hin tng t bin, cu trc gien ca c th
con c th cha cc gien m c cha v m u khng c.
Trong TTDT, mi c th c m ha bi mt cu trc d liu m t
cu trc gien ca c th , ta s gi n l nhim sc th (chroniosome).
Mi nhim sc th c to thnh t cc n v c gi l gien. Chng
hn, trong cc TTDT c in, cc nhim sc th l cc chui nh phn, tc l
mi c th c biu din bi mt chui nh phn.
TTDT s lm vic trn cc qun th gm nhiu c th. Mt qun th
ng vi mt giai on pht trin s c gi l mt th h. T th h ban
u c to ra, TTDT bt chc chn lc t nhin v di truyn bin i
cc th h. TTDT s dng cc ton t c bn sau y bin i cc th h.
Ton t ti sinh (reproduction) (cn c gi l ton t chn lc
(selection)). Cc c th tt c chn lc a vo th h sau. S la
chn ny c thc hin da vo thch nghi vi mi trng ca
mi c th. Ta s gi hm ng mi c th vi thch nghi ca n l
hm thch nghi (fitness function).
Ton t lai ghp (crossover). Hai c th cha v m trao i cc gien
to ra hai c th con.
Ton t t bin (mutation). Mt c th thay i mt s gien to
thnh c th mi.
Tt c cc ton t trn khi thc hin u mang tnh ngu nhin. Cu
trc c bn ca TTDT l nh sau:
procedure Genetic_Algorithm;
begin
t 0;
Khi to th h ban u P(t);
nh gi P(t) (theo hm thch nghi);
repeat
t t + 1;
Sinh ra th h mi P(t) t P(t-1) bi
Chn lc
Lai ghp
t bin;
nh gi P(t);
until iu kin kt thc c tha mn;
end;
Trong th tc trn, iu kin kt thc vng lp c th l mt s th h
ln no , hoc thch nghi ca cc c th tt nht trong cc th h k
tip nhau khc nhau khng ng k. Khi thut ton dng, c th tt nht
trong th h cui cng c chn lm nghim cn tm.
By gi ta s xt chi tit hn ton t chn lc v cc ton t di truyn
(lai ghp, t bin) trong cc TTDT c in.
1. Chn lc: Vic chn lc cc c th t mt qun th da trn
thch nghi ca mi c th. Cc c th c thch nghi cao c nhiu kh nng
c chn. Cn nhn mnh rng, hm thch nghi ch cn l mt hm thc
dng, n c th khng tuyn tnh, khng lin tc, khng kh vi. Qu trnh
chn lc c thc hin theo k thut quay bnh xe.
Gi s th h hin thi P(t) gm c n c th {x
1
,..,x
n
}. S n c gi
l c ca qun th. Vi mi c th x
i
, ta tnh thch nghi ca n f(x
i
). Tnh
tng cc thch nghi ca tt c cc c th trong qun th:
Mi ln chn lc, ta thc hin hai bc sau:
1) Sinh ra mt s thc ngu nhin q trong khong (0, F);
2) x
k
l c th c chn, nu k l s nh nht sao cho
Vic chn lc theo hai bc trn c th minh ha nh sau: Ta c mt
bnh xe c chia thnh n phn, mi phn ng vi thch nghi ca mt c
th (hnh 3.5). Mt mi tn ch vo bnh xe. Quay bnh xe, khi bnh xe
dng, mi tn ch vo phn no, c th ng vi phn c chn.
n
1 i
i
) x f( F
k
i
i
x f
1
4 ) (
R rng l vi cch chn ny, cc c th c thch nghi cng cao
cng c kh nng c chn. Cc c th c thch nghi cao c th c mt
hay nhiu bn sao, cc c th c thch nghi thp c th khng c mt
th h sau (n b cht i).
2. Lai ghp: Trn cc c th c chn lc, ta tn hnh ton t lai
ghp. u tin ta cn a ra xc sut lai ghp p
c
. xc sut ny cho ta hy vng
c p
c
.n c th c lai ghp (n l c ca qun th).
Vi mi c th ta thc hin hai bc sau:
1) Sinh ra s thc ngu nhin r trong on [0, 1];
2) Nu r < p
c
th c th c chn lai ghp
T cc c th c chn lai ghp, ngi ta cp i chng mt cch
ngu nhin. Trong trng hp cc nhim sc th l cc chui nh phn c
di c nh m, ta c th thc hin lai ghp nh sau: Vi mi cp, sinh ra mt
s nguyn ngu nhin p trn on [0, m -1], p l v tr im ghp. Cp gm
hai nhim sc th
a = (a
1,
..., a
p,
a
p+1,
..., a
m
)
a = (b
1,
..., b
p,
b
p+1,
..., b
m
)
c thay bi hai con l:
a' = (a
1,
..., a
p,
b
p+1,
..., b
m
)
b' = (b
1,
..., b
p,
a
p+1,
..., a
m
)
3. t bin: Ta thc hin ton t t bin trn cc c th c c sau
qu trnh lai ghp. t bin l thay i trng thi mt s gien no trong
nhim sc th. Mi gien chu t bin vi xc sut p
m
. Xc sut t bin p
m
do ta xc nh v l xc sut thp. Sau y l ton t t bin trn cc nhim
sc th chui nh phn.
Vi mi v tr i trong nhim sc th:
a = (a
1,
..., a
i,
..., a
m
)
Ta sinh ra mt s thc ngu nhin p
i
trong [0,1]. Qua t bin a c
bin thnh a nh sau:
a' = (a'
1,
..., a'
i,
..., a'
m
)
Trong :
a
i
nu p
i
p
m
a'
i
=
1 - a
i
nu p
i
< p
m
Sau qu trnh chn lc, lai ghp, t bin, mt th h mi c sinh
ra. Cng vic cn li ca thut ton di truyn by gi ch l lp li cc bc
trn.
V d: Xt bi ton tm max ca hm f(x) = x
2
vi x l s nguyn trn
on [0,31]. s dng TTDT, ta m ho mi s nguyn x trong on
[0,31] bi mt s nh phn di 5, chng hn, chui 11000 l m ca s
nguyn 24. Hm thch nghi c xc nh l chnh hm f(x) = x
2
. Qun th
ban u gm 4 c th (c ca qun th l n = 4). Thc hin qu trnh chn
lc, ta nhn c kt qu trong bng sau. Trong bng ny, ta thy c th 2 c
thch nghi cao nht (576) nn n c chn 2 ln, c th 3 c thch
nghi thp nht (64) khng c chn ln no. Mi c th 1 v 4 c chn 1
ln.
Bng kt qu chn lc
S
liu c
th
Qun th
ban u
x thch nghi
f(x) = x
2
S ln
c chn
1 0 1 1 0 1 13 169 1
2 1 1 0 0 0 24 576 2
3 0 1 0 0 0 8 64 0
4 1 0 0 1 1 19 361 1
Thc hin qa trnh lai ghp vi xc sut lai ghp p
c
= 1, c 4 c th
sau chn lc u c lai ghp. Kt qu lai ghp c cho trong bng sau.
Trong bng ny, chui th nht c lai ghp vi chui th hai vi im
ghp l 4, hai chui cn li c lai ghp vi nhau vi im ghp l 2.
Bng kt qu lai ghp
Qun th sau
chn lc
im
ghp
Qun th sau
lai ghp
x thch nghi
f(x) = x
2
0 1 1 0 | 1 4 0 1 1 0 0 2 144
1 1 0 0 | 0 4 1 1 0 0 1 5 625
1 1 | 0 0 0 2 1 1 0 1 1 7 729
1 0 | 0 1 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 6 256
thc hin qu trnh t bin, ta chn xc sut t bin p
m
= 0,001,
tc l ta hy vng c 5.4.0,001 = 0,02 bit c t bin. Thc t s khng c
bit no c t bin. Nh vy th h mi l qun th sau lai ghp. Trong
th h ban u, thch nghi cao nht l 576, thch nghi trung bnh 292.
Trong th h sau, thch nghi cao nht l 729, trung bnh l 438. Ch qua
mt th h, cc c th tt lnrt nhiu.
Thut ton di truyn khc vi cc thut ton ti u khc cc im
sau:
TTDT ch s dng hm thch nghi hng dn s tm kim, hm
thch nghi ch cn l hm thc dng. Ngoi ra, n khng i hi
khng gian tm kim phi c cu trc no c.
TTDT lm vic trn cc nhim sc th l m ca cc c th cn tm.
TTDT tm kim t mt qun th gm nhiu c th.
Cc ton t trong TTDT u mang tnh ngu nhin.
gii quyt mt vn bng TTDT, chng ta cn thc hin cc bc
sau y:
Trc ht ta cn m ha cc i tng cn tm bi mt cu trc d liu
no . Chng hn, trong cc TTDT c in, nh trong v d trn, ta s
dng m nh phn.
Thit k hm thch nghi. Trong cc bi ton ti u, hm thch nghi
c xc nh da vo hm mc tiu.
Trn c s cu trc ca nhim sc th, thit k cc ton t di truyn
(lai ghp, t bin) cho ph hp vi cc vn cn gii quyt.
Xc nh c ca qun th v khi to qun th ban u.
Xc nh xc sut lai ghp p
c
v xc sut t bin p
m
. Xc sut t bin
cn l xc sut thp. Ngi ta (Goldberg, 1989) khuyn rng nn chn
xc sut lai ghp l 0,6 v xc sut t bin l 0,03. Tuy nhin cn qua
th nghim tm ra cc xc sut thch hp cho vn cn gii quyt.
Ni chung thut ng TTDT l ch TTDT c in, khi m cu trc
ca cc nhim sc th l cc chui nh phn vi cc ton t di truyn
c m t trn. Song trong nhiu vn thc t, thun tin hn, ta c th
biu din nhim sc th bi cc cu trc khc, chng hn vect thc, mng
hai chiu, cy,... Tng ng vi cu trc ca nhim sc th, c th c nhiu
cch xc nh cc ton t di truyn. Qu trnh sinh ra th h mi P(t) t th
h c P(t - 1) cng c nhiu cch chn la. Ngi ta gi chung cc thut
ton ny l thut ton tin ha (evolutionary algorithms) hoc chng trnh
tin ha (evolution program).
Thut ton tin ha c p dng trong cc vn ti u v hc
my. hiu bit su sc hn v thut ton tin ho, bn c c th tm c
[3], [9] v [16]. Nu nh [9] v 6] c xem l cc sch hay nht vit v
TTDT, [3] li cho ta ci nhn tng qut v s pht trin gn y ca TTDT.
CHNG 4
TM KIM C I TH
Nghin cu my tnh chi c xut hin rt sm. Khng lu sau khi
my tnh lp trnh c ra i, vo nm 1950, Claude Shannon vit
chng trnh chi c u tin. Cc nh nghin cu Tr Tu Nhn To
nghin cu vic chi c, v rng my tnh chi c l mt bng chng r rng
v kh nng my tnh c th lm c cc cng vic i hi tr thng minh
ca con ngi. Trong chng ny chng ta s xt cc vn sau y:
Chi c c th xem nh vn tm kim trong khng gian trng thi.
Chin lc tm kim nc i Minimax.
Phng php ct ct -, mt k thut tng hiu qu ca tm kim
Minimax.
4.1. CY TR CHI V TM KIM TRN CY TR CHI.
Trong chng ny chng ta ch quan tm nghin cu cc tr chi c
hai ngi tham gia, chng hn cc loi c (c vua, c tng, c ca r...).
Mt ngi chi c gi l Trng, i th ca anh ta c gi l en. Mc
tiu ca chng ta l nghin cu chin lc chn nc i cho Trng (My
tnh cm qun Trng).
Chng ta s xt cc tr chi hai ngi vi cc c im sau. Hai
ngi chi thay phin nhau a ra cc nc i tun theo cc lut i no ,
cc lut ny l nh nhau cho c hai ngi. in hnh l c vua, trong c vua
hai ngi chi c th p dng cc lut i con tt, con xe,... a ra nc
i. Lut i con tt Trng xe Trng,... cng nh lut i con tt en, xe en,...
Mt c im na l hai ngi chi u c bit thng tin y v cc
tnh th trong tr chi (khng nh trong chi bi, ngi chi khng th bit
cc ngi chi khc cn nhng con bi g). Vn chi c c th xem nh
vn tm kim nc i, ti mi ln n lt mnh, ngi chi phi tm
trong s rt nhiu nc i hp l (tun theo ng lut i), mt nc i tt
nht sao cho qua mt dy nc i thc hin, anh ta ginh phn thng. Tuy
nhin vn tm kim y s phc tp hn vn tm kim m chng ta
xt trong cc chng trc, bi v y c i th, ngi chi khng
bit c i th ca mnh s i nc no trong tng lai. Sau y chng ta
s pht biu chnh xc hn vn tm kim ny.
Vn chi c c th xem nh vn tm kim trong khng gian
trng thi. Mi trng thi l mt tnh th (s b tr cc qun ca hai bn trn
bn c).
Trng thi ban u l s sp xp cc qun c ca hai bn lc bt
u cuc chi.
Cc ton t l cc nc i hp l.
Cc trng thi kt thc l cc tnh th m cuc chi dng, thng
c xc nh bi mt s iu kin dng no .
Mt hm kt cuc (payoff function) ng mi trng thi kt thc vi
mt gi tr no . Chng hn nh c vua, mi trng thi kt thc
ch c th l thng, hoc thua (i vi Trng) hoc ha. Do , ta
c th xc nh hm kt cuc l hm nhn gi tr 1 ti cc trng thi
kt thc l thng (i vi Trng), -1 ti cc trng thi kt thc l
thua (i vi Trng) v 0 ti cc trng thi kt thc ha. Trong mt
s tr chi khc, chng hn tr chi tnh im, hm kt cuc c th
nhn gi tr nguyn trong khong [-k, k] vi k l mt s nguyn
dng no .
Nh vy vn ca Trng l, tm mt dy nc i sao cho xen k vi
cc nc i ca en to thnh mt ng i t trng thi ban u ti trng
thi kt thc l thng cho Trng.
thun li cho vic nghin cu cc chin lc chn nc i, ta biu
din khng gian trng thi trn di dng cy tr chi.
CY TR CHI
Cy tr chi c xy dng nh sau. Gc ca cy ng vi trng thi
ban u. Ta s gi nh ng vi trng thi m Trng (en) a ra nc i l
nh Trng (en). Nu mt nh l Trng (en) ng vi trng thi u, th cc
nh con ca n l tt c cc nh biu din trng thi v, v nhn c t u do
Trng (en) thc hin nc i hp l no . Do , trn cng mt mc ca
cy cc nh u l Trng hoc u l en, cc l ca cy ng vi cc trng
thi kt thc.
V d: Xt tr chi Dodgen (c to ra bi Colin Vout). C hai
qun Trng v hai qun en, ban u c xp vo bn c 3*3 (Hnh v).
Qun en c th i ti trng bn phi, trn hoc di. Qun Trng
c th i ti trng bn tri, bn phi, trn. Qun en nu ct ngoi
cng bn phi c th i ra khi bn c, qun Trng nu hng trn cng c
th i ra khi bn c. Ai a hai qun ca mnh ra khi bn c trc s
thng, hoc to ra tnh th m i phng khng i c cng s thng.
Gi s en i trc, ta c cy tr chi c biu din nh trong
hnh 4.2.
4.2. CHIN LC MINIMAX
Qu trnh chi c l qu trnh Trng v en thay phin nhau a ra
quyt nh, thc hin mt trong s cc nc i hp l. Trn cy tr chi, qu
trnh s to ra ng i t gc ti l. Gi s ti mt thi im no ,
ng i dn ti nh u. Nu u l nh Trng (en) th Trng (en) cn
chn i ti mt trong cc nh en (Trng) v l con ca u. Ti nh en
(Trng) v m Trng (en) va chn, en (Trng) s phi chn i ti mt
trong cc nh Trng (en) w l con ca v. Qu trnh trn s dng li khi t
ti mt nh l l ca cy.
Gi s Trng cn tm nc i ti nh u. Nc i ti u cho Trng l
nc i dn ti nh con ca v l nh tt nht (cho Trng) trong s cc nh
con ca u. Ta cn gi thit rng, n lt i th chn nc i t v, en
cng s chn nc i tt nht cho anh ta. Nh vy, chn nc i ti u
cho Trng ti nh u, ta cn phi xc nh gi tr cc nh ca cy tr chi
gc u. Gi tr ca cc nh l (ng vi cc trng thi kt thc) l gi tr ca
hm kt cuc. nh c gi tr cng ln cng tt cho Trng, nh c gi tr
cng nh cng tt cho en. xc nh gi tr cc nh ca cy tr chi gc
u, ta i t mc thp nht ln gc u. Gi s v l nh trong ca cy v gi tr
cc nh con ca n c xc nh. Khi nu v l nh Trng th gi tr
ca n c xc nh l gi tr ln nht trong cc gi tr ca cc nh con.
Cn nu v l nh en th gi tr ca n l gi tr nh nht trong cc gi tr
ca cc nh con.
V d: Xt cy tr chi trong hnh 4.3, gc a l nh Trng. Gi tr
ca cc nh l s ghi cnh mi nh. nh i l Trng, nn gi tr ca n l
max(3,-2) = 3, nh d l nh en, nn gi tr ca n l min(2, 3, 4) = 2.

Vic gn gi tr cho cc nh c thc hin bi cc hm qui
MaxVal v MinVal. Hm MaxVal xc nh gi tr cho cc nh Trng, hm
MinVal xc nh gi tr cho cc nh en.
function MaxVal(u);
begin
if u l nh kt thc then MaxVal(u) f(u)
else MaxVal(u) max{MinVal(v) | v l nh con ca u}
end;
function MinVal(u);
begin
if u l nh kt thc then MinVal(u) f(u)
else MinVal(u) min{MaxVal(v) | v l nh con ca u}
end;
Trong cc hm quy trn, f(u) l gi tr ca hm kt cuc ti nh
kt thc u. Sau y l th tc chn nc i cho trng ti nh u. Trong th
tc Minimax(u,v), v l bin lu li trng thi m Trng s chn i ti t u.
procedure Minimax(u, v);
begin
val -;
for mi w l nh con ca u do
if val <= MinVal(w) then
{val MinVal(w); v w}
end;
Th tc chn nc i nh trn c gi l chin lc Minimax, bi v
Trng ch c nc i dn ti nh con c gi tr l max ca cc gi tr
cc nh con, v en p li bng nc i ti nh c gi tr l min ca cc
gi tr cc nh con.
Thut ton Minimax l thut ton tm kim theo su, y ta
ci t thut ton Minimax bi cc hm quy. Bn c hy vit th tc
khng quy thc hin thut ton ny.
V mt l thuyt, chin lc Minimax cho php ta tm c nc i
ti u cho Trng. Song n khng thc t, chng ta s khng c thi gian
tnh c nc i ti u. Bi v thut ton Minimax i hi ta phi xem
xt ton b cc nh ca cy tr chi. Trong cc tr chi hay, cy tr chi l
cc k ln. Chng hn, i vi c vua, ch tnh n su 40, th cy tr
chi c khong 10
120
nh! Nu cy c cao m, v ti mi nh c b
nc i th phc tp v thi gian ca thut ton Minimax l O(b
m
).
c th tm ra nhanh nc i tt (khng phi l ti u) thay cho vic
s dng hm kt cuc v xem xt tt c cc kh nng dn ti cc trng thi
kt thc, chng ta s s dng hm nh gi v ch xem xt mt b phn ca
cy tr chi.
HM NH GI
Hm nh gi eval ng vi mi trng thi u ca tr chi vi mt gi
tr s eval(u), gi tr ny l s nh gi li thca trng thi u. Trng
thi u cng thun li cho Trng th eval(u) l s dng cng ln; u cng
thun li cho en th eval(u) l s m cng nh; eval(u) 0 i vi trng
thi khng li th cho ai c.
Cht lng ca chng trnh chi c ph thuc rt nhiu vo hm
nh gi. Nu hm nh gi cho ta s nh gi khng chnh xc v cc trng
thi, n c th hng dn ta i ti trng thi c xem l tt, nhng thc t
li rt bt li cho ta. Thit k mt hm nh gi tt l mt vic kh, i hi
ta phi quan tm n nhiu nhn t: cc qun cn li ca hai bn, s b tr
ca cc qun ,... y c s mu thun gia chnh xc ca hm nh
gi v thi gian tnh ca n. Hm nh gi chnh xc s i hi rt nhiu
thi gian tnh ton, m ngi chi li b gii hn bi thi gian phi a ra
nc i.
V d 1: Sau y ta a ra mt cch xy dng hm nh gi n gin
cho c vua. Mi loi qun c gn mt gi tr s ph hp vi sc
mnhca n. Chng hn, mi tt Trng (en) c cho 1 (-1), m hoc
tng Trng (en) c cho 3 (-3), xe Trng (en) c cho 5 (-5) v
hong hu Trng (en) c cho 9 (-9). Ly tng gi tr ca tt c cc qun
trong mt trng thi, ta s c gi tr nh gi ca trng thi . Hm nh
gi nh th c gi l hm tuyn tnh c trng s, v n c th biu din
di dng:
s
1
w
1
+s
2
w
2
+... +s
n
w
n
.
Trong , w
i
l gi tr mi loi qun, cn s
i
l s qun loi . Trong
cch nh gi ny, ta khng tnh n s b tr ca cc qun, cc mi
tng quan gia chng.
V d 2: By gi ta a ra mt cch nh gi cc trng thi trong tr
chi Dodgem. Mi qun Trng mt v tr trn bn c c cho mt gi tr
tng ng trong bng bn tri hnh 4.4. Cn mi qun en mt v tr s
c cho mt gi tr tng ng trong bng bn phi hnh 4.4:
Ngoi ra,
nu qun Trng cn
trc tip mt qun
en, n c thm 40 im, nu cn gin tip n c thm 30 im (Xem
hnh 4.5). Tng t, nu qun en cn trc tip qun Trng n c thm
-40 im, cn cn gin tip n c thm -30 im.
p dng cc qui tc trn, ta tnh c gi tr ca trng thi bn tri
hnh 4.6 l 75, gi tr ca trng thi bn phi hnh v l -5.
Trong cnh nh gi trn, ta xt n v tr ca cc qun v mi
tng quan gia cc qun.
Mt cch n gin hn ch khng gian tm kim l, khi cn xc
nh nc i cho Trng ti u, ta ch xem xt cy tr chi gc u ti cao h
no . p dng th tc Minimax cho cy tr chi gc u, cao h v s
dng gi tr ca hm nh gi cho cc l ca cy , chng ta s tm c
nc i tt cho Trng ti u.
4.3. PHNG PHP CT CT ALPHA - BETA
Trong chin lc tm kim Minimax, tm kim nc i tt cho
Trng ti trng thi u, cho d ta hn ch khng gian tm kim trong phm vi
cy tr chi gc u vi cao h, th s nh ca cy tr chi ny cng cn rt
ln vi h 3. Chng hn, trong c vua, nhn t nhnh trong cy tr chi
trung bnh khong 35, thi gian i hi phi a ra nc i l 150 giy, vi
thi gian ny trn my tnh thng thng chng trnh ca bn ch c th
xem xt cc nh trong su 3 hoc 4. Mt ngi chi c trnh trung
bnh cng c th tnh trc c 5, 6 nc hoc hn na, v do chng
trnh ca bn mi t trnh ngi mi tp chi!
Khi nh gi nh u ti su h, thut ton Minimax i hi ta phi
nh gi tt c cc nh ca cy gc u ti su h. Song ta c th gim bt
s nh cn phi dnh gi m vn khng nh hng g n s nh gi nh
u. Phng php ct ct alpha-beta cho php ta ct b cc nhnh khng cn
thit cho s nh gi nh u.
T tng ca k thut ct ct alpha-beta l nh sau: Nh li rng,
chin lc tm kim Minimax l chin lc tm kim theo su. Gi s
trong qu trnh tm kim ta i xung nh a l nh Trng, nh a c ngi
anh em v c nh gi. Gi s cha ca nh a l b v b c ngi anh em
u d c nh gi, v gi s cha ca b l c (Xem hnh 4.7). Khi ta c gi
tr nh c (nh Trng) t nht l gi tr ca u, gi tr ca nh b (nh en)
nhiu nht l gi tr v. Do , nu eval(u) > eval(v), ta khng cn i xung
nh gi nh a na m vn khng nh hng g dn nh gi nh c. Hay
ni cch khc ta c th ct b cy con gc a. Lp lun tng t cho trng
hp a l nh en, trong trng hp ny nu eval(u) < eval(v) ta cng c th
ct b cy con gc a.
ci t k thut ct ct alpha-beta, i vi cc nh nm trn
ng i t gc ti nh hin thi, ta s dng tham s ghi li gi tr ln
nht trong cc gi tr ca cc nh con nh gi ca mt nh Trng, cn
tham s ghi li gi tr nh nht trong cc nh con nh gi ca mt
nh en. Gi tr ca v s c cp nht trong qu trnh tm kim. v
c s dng nh cc bin a phng trong cc hm MaxVal(u, , )
(hm xc nh gi tr ca nh Trng u) v Minval(u, , ) (hm xc nh gi
tr ca nh en u).
function MaxVal(u, , );
begin
if u l l ca cy hn ch hoc u l nh kt thc
then MaxVal eval(u)
else
for mi nh v l con ca u do
{ max[, MinVal(v, , )];
// Ct b cc cy con t cc nh v cn li
if then exit};
MaxVal ;
end;
function MinVal(u, , );
begin
if u l l ca cy hn ch hoc u l nh kt thc
then MinVal eval(u)
else
for mi nh v l con ca u do
{ min[, MaxVal(v, , )];
// Ct b cc cy con t cc nh v cn li
if then exit};
MinVal ;
end;
Thut ton tm nc i cho Trng s dng k thut ct ct alpha-beta,
c ci t bi th tc Alpha_beta(u,v), trong v l tham bin ghi li nh
m Trng cn i ti t u.
procedure Alpha_beta(u,v);
begin
-;
;
for mi nh w l con ca u do
if MinVal(w, , ) then
{ MinVal(w, , );
v w;}
end;
V d. Xt cy tr chi gc u (nh Trng) gii hn bi cao h = 3
(hnh 4.8). S ghi cnh cc l l gi tr ca hm nh gi. p dng chin
lc Minimax v k thut ct ct, ta xc nh c nc i tt nht cho
Trng ti u, l nc i dn ti nh v c gi tr 10. Cnh mi nh ta cng
cho gi tr ca cp tham s (, ). Khi gi cc hm MaxVal v MinVal
xc nh gi tr ca nh . Cc nhnh b ct b c ch ra trong hnh:
PHN II
TRI THC V LP LUN
Hai thnh phn c bn ca mt h da trn tri thc (khnowledge
based system) l c s tri thc v b suy din. to ra cc phng php v
k thut xy dng c s tri thc v b suy din cho mt h da trn tri thc,
chng ta cn phi nghin cu cc m hnh biu din tri thc v lp lun.
Biu din tri thc v lp lun l lnh vc nghin cu trung tm ca tr tu
nhn to. Trong phn ny chng ta s xt cc ngn ng biu din tri thc v
cc phng php lp lun trong tng ngn ng . Ngn ng biu din tri
thc quan trng nht l logic v t cp mt (s c xt trong chng 6).
Logic v t cp mt l c s xy dng nhiu ngn ng biu din khc.
Cc ngn ng con ca logic v t cp mt (ngn ng cc lut, ngn ng m
t khi nim) s c xt trong cc chng 7 v 9. Chng 8 dnh cho vic
nghin cu cc lp lun khng n iu. Vn biu din tri thc khng
chc chn s c trnh by trong chng 10. Chng 11 trnh by logic m
v lp lun xp x
CHNG 5
LOGIC MNH
Trong chng ny chng ta s trnh by cc c trng ca ngn ng
biu din tri thc. Chng ta s nghin cu logic mnh , mt ngn ng biu
din tri thc rt n gin, c kh nng biu din hp, nhng thun li cho ta
lm quen vi nhiu khi nim quan trng trong logic, c bit trong logic v
t cp mt s c nghin cu trong cc chng sau.
5.1. BIU DIN TRI THC
Con ngi sng trong mi trng c th nhn thc c th gii nh
cc gic quan (tai, mt v cc gic quan khc), s dng cc tri thc tch lu
c v nh kh nng lp lun, suy din, con ngi c th a ra cc hnh
ng hp l cho cng vic m con ngi ang lm. Mt mc tiu ca Tr tu
nhn to ng dng l thit k cc tc nhn thng minh (intelligent agent)
cng c kh nng nh con ngi. Chng ta c th hiu tc nhn thng
minh l bt c ci g c th nhn thc c mi trng thng qua cc b
cm nhn (sensors) v a ra hnh ng hp l p ng li mi trng
thng qua b phn hnh ng (effectors). Cc robots, cc softbot (software
robot), cc h chuyn gia,... l cc v d v tc nhn thng minh. Cc tc
nhn thng minh cn phi c tri thc v th gii hin thc mi c th a ra
cc quyt nh ng n.
Thnh phn trung tm ca cc tc nhn da trn tri thc
(knowledge-based agent), cn c gi l h da trn tri thc (knowledge-
based system) hoc n gin l h tri thc, l c s tri thc. C s tri thc
(CSTT) l mt tp hp cc tri thc c biu din di dng no . Mi
khi nhn c cc thng tin a vo, tc nhn cn c kh nng suy din
a ra cc cu tr li, cc hnh ng hp l, ng n. Nhim v ny c
thc hin bi b suy din. B suy din l thnh phn c bn khc ca cc h
tri thc. Nh vy h tri thc bo tr mt CSTT v c trang b mt th tc
suy din. Mi khi tip nhn c cc s kin t mi trng, th tc suy din
thc hin qu trnh lin kt cc s kin vi cc tri thc trong CSTT rt ra
cc cu tr li, hoc cc hnh ng hp l m tc nhn cn thc hin. ng
nhin l, khi ta thit k mt tc nhn gii quyt mt vn no th CSTT
s cha cc tri thc v min i tng c th . my tnh c th s dng
c tri thc, c th x l tri thc, chng ta cn biu din tri thc di dng
thun tin cho my tnh. l mc tiu ca biu din tri thc.
Tri thc c m t di dng cc cu trong ngn ng biu din tri
thc. Mi cu c th xem nh s m ha ca mt s hiu bit ca chng ta
v th gii hin thc. Ngn ng biu din tri thc (cng nh mi ngn ng
hnh thc khc) gm hai thnh phn c bn l c php v ng ngha.
C php ca mt ngn ng bao gm cc k hiu v cc quy tc
lin kt cc k hiu (cc lut c php) to thnh cc cu (cng
thc) trong ngn ng. Cc cu y l biu din ngoi, cn phn
bit vi biu din bn trong my tnh. Cc cu s c chuyn
thnh cc cu trc d liu thch hp c ci t trong mt vng
nh no ca my tnh, l biu din bn trong. Bn thn cc
cu cha cha ng mt ni dung no c, cha mang mt
ngha no c.
Ng ngha ca ngn ng cho php ta xc nh ngha ca cc
cu trong mt min no ca th gii hin thc. Chng hn,
trong ngn ng cc biu thc s hc, dy k hiu (x+y)*z l mt
cu vit ng c php. Ng ngha ca ngn ng ny cho php ta
hiu rng, nu x, y, z, ng vi cc s nguyn, k hiu + ng vi
php ton cng, cn * ng vi php chia, th biu thc (x+y)*z
biu din qu trnh tnh ton: ly s nguyn x cng vi s nguyn
y, kt qu c nhn vi s nguyn z.
Ngoi hai thnh phn c php v ng ngha, ngn ng biu din
tri thc cn c cung cp c ch suy din. Mt lut suy din
(rule of inference) cho php ta suy ra mt cng thc t mt tp
no cc cng thc. Chng hn, trong logic mnh , lut
modus ponens cho php t hai cng thc A v AB suy ra cng
thc B. Chng ta s hiu lp lun hoc suy din l mt qu trnh
p dng cc lut suy din t cc tri thc trong c s tri thc v
cc s kin ta nhn c cc tri thc mi. Nh vy chng ta xc
nh:
Ngn ng biu din tri thc = C php + Ng ngha + C ch suy
din.
Mt ngn ng biu din tri thc tt cn phi c kh nng biu din
rng, tc l c th m t c mi iu m chng ta mun ni. N cn phi
hiu qu theo ngha l, i ti cc kt lun, th tc suy din i hi t thi
gian tnh ton v t khng gian nh. Ngi ta cng mong mun ngn ng
biu din tri thc gn vi ngn ng t nhin.
Trong sch ny, chng ta s tp trung nghin cu logic v t cp mt
(first-order predicate logic hoc first-order predicate calculus) - mt ngn
ng biu din tri thc, bi v logic v t cp mt c kh nng biu din
tng i tt, v hn na n l c s cho nhiu ngn ng biu din tri thc
khc, chng hn ton hon cnh (situation calculus) hoc logic thi gian
khong cp mt (first-order interval tempral logic). Nhng trc ht chng
ta s nghin cu logic mnh (propositional logic hoc propositional
calculus). N l ngn ng rt n gin, c kh nng biu din hn ch, song
thun tin cho ta a vo nhiu khi nim quan trng trong logic.
5.2. C PHP V NG NGHA CA LOGIC MNH
5.2.1. C Php
C php ca logic mnh rt n gin, n cho php xy dng nn
cc cng thc. C php ca logic mnh bao gm tp cc k hiu v tp
cc lut xy dng cng thc.
1. Cc k hiu
Hai hng logic True v False.
Cc k hiu mnh (cn c gi l cc bin mnh ): P, Q,...
Cc kt ni logic , , 1, , .
Cc du m ngoc (v ng ngoc).
2. Cc quy tc xy dng cc cng thc
Cc bin mnh l cng thc.
Nu A v B l cng thc th:
(AB) (c A hi Bhoc A v B)
(AB) (c A tuyn Bhoc A hoc B)
(1A) (c ph nh A)
(AB) (c A ko theo Bhoc nu A th B)
(AB) (c A v B ko theo nhau)
l cc cng thc.
Sau ny cho ngn gn, ta s b i cc cp du ngoc khng cn thit.
Chng hn, thay cho ((AB)C) ta s vit l (AB)C.
Cc cng thc l cc k hiu mnh s c gi l cc cu n hoc
cu phn t. Cc cng thc khng phi l cu n s c gi l cu phc
hp. Nu P l k hiu mnh th P v 1 P c gi l literal, P l literal
dng, cn 1 P l literal m. Cu phc hp c dng A
1
...A
m
trong A
i
l cc literal s c gi l cu tuyn (clause).
5.2.2. Ng ngha
Ng ngha ca logic mnh cho php ta xc nh ngha ca cc
cng thc trong th gii hin thc no . iu c thc hin bng cch
kt hp mi k hiu mnh vi s kin no trong th gii hin thc.
Chng hn, k hiu mnh P c th ng vi s kin Paris l th nc
Php hoc bt k mt s kin no khc. Bt k mt s kt hp cc k hiu
mnh vi cc s kin trong th gii thc c gi l mt minh ha
(interpretation). Chng hn minh ha ca k hiu mnh P c th l mt s
kin (mnh ) Paris l th nc Php . Mt s kin ch c th ng
hoc sai. Chng hn, s kin Paris l th nc Php l ng, cn s
kin S Pi l s hu t l sai.
Mt cch chnh xc hn, ta hiu mt minh ha l mt cch gn cho
mi k hiu mnh mt gi tr chn l True hoc False. Trong mt minh
ha, nu k hiu mnh P c gn gi tr chn l True/False (P True/
PFalse) th ta ni mnh P ng/sai trong minh ha . Trong mt minh
ha, ngha ca cc cu phc hp c xc nh bi ngha ca cc kt ni
logic. Chng ta xc nh ngha ca cc kt ni logic trong cc bng chn l
(xem hnh 5.1)
P Q lP
PQ P Q PQ PQ
False False True False False True True
False True True False True True False
True False False False True False False
True True False True True True True
Hnh 5.1 Bng chn l ca cc kt ni logic
ngha ca cc kt ni logic , v l c xc nh nh ngha ca
cc t v,hoc lv ph nhtrong ngn ng t nhin. Chng ta cn
phi gii thch thm v ngha ca php ko theo P Q (P ko theo Q), P
l gi thit, cn Q l kt lun. Trc quan cho php ta xem rng, khi P l ng
v Q l ng th cu P ko theo Q l ng, cn khi P l ng Q l sai th
cu P ko theo Ql sai. Nhng nu P sai v Q ng, hoc P sai Q sai th P
ko theo Ql ng hay sai ? Nu chng ta xut pht t gi thit sai, th
chng ta khng th khng nh g v kt lun. Khng c l do g ni rng,
nu P sai v Q ng hoc P sai v Q sai th P ko theo Ql sai. Do
trong trng hp P sai th P ko theo Q l ng d Q l ng hay Q l sai.
Bng chn l cho php ta xc nh ng ngha cc cu phc hp.
Chng hn ng ngha ca cc cu PQ trong minh ha {P True, Q
False} l False. Vic xc nh ng ngha ca mt cu (P Q) lS trong
mt minh ha c tin hnh nh sau: u tin ta xc nh gi tr chn l
ca P Q v 1 S, sau ta s dng bng chn l ca xc nh gi tr (P
Q) lS.
Mt cng thc c gi l tho c (satisfiable) nu n ng trong
mt minh ha no . Chng hn cng thc (P Q) lS l tho c, v n
c gi tr True trong minh ha {P True, QFalse, S True}.
Mt cng thc c gi l vng chc (valid hoc tautology) nu n
ng trong mi minh ha chng hn cu P lP l vng chc.
Mt cng thc c gi l khng tho c, nu n l sai trong mi
minh ha. Chng hn cng thc P lP.
Chng ta s gi mt m hnh (model) ca mt cng thc l mt minh
ha sao cho cng thc l ng trong minh ha ny. Nh vy mt cng thc
tho c l cng thc c mt m hnh. Chng hn, minh ha {P False, Q
False, STrue } l mt m hnh ca cng thc (P =>Q) S.
Bng cch lp bng chn l (phng php bng chn l) ta c th
xc nh c mt cng thc c tho c hay khng. Trong bng ny, mi
bin mnh ng u mt ct, cng thc cn kim tra ng u mt ct,
mi dng tng ng vi mt minh ha. Chng hn hnh 5.2 l bng chn l
cho cng thc (P=>Q) S. Trong bng chn l ny ta cn a vo cc ct
ph ng vi cc cng thc con ca cc cng thc cn kim tra vic tnh
gi tr ca cng thc ny c d dng. T bng chn l ta thy rng cng
thc (P=>Q) S l tho c nhng khng vng chc.
P Q S
PQ (PQ) S
False False False True False
False False True True True
False True False True False
False True True True True
True False False False False
True False True False False
True True False True False
True True True True True
Hnh 5.2 Bng chn l cho cng thc (PQ) S
Cn lu rng, mt cng thc cha n bin, th s cc minh ha ca
n l 2
n
, tc l bng chn l c 2
n
dng. Nh vy vic kim tra mt cng
thc c tho c hay khng bng phng php bng chn l, i hi thi
gian m. Cook (1971) chng minh rng, vn kim tra mt cng thc
trong logic mnh c tho c hay khng l vn NP-y .
Chng ta s ni rng mt tp cng thc G = {G
1
,..,G
m
} l vng chc
(tho c, khng tho c) nu hi ca chng G
1
.......G
m
l vng
chc (tho c, khng tho c). Mt m hnh ca tp cng thc G l
m hnh ca cng thc G
1
.......G
m.
.
5.3. DNG CHUN TC
Trong mc ny chng ta s xt vic chun ha cc cng thc, a cc
cng thc v dng thun li cho vic lp lun, suy din. Trc ht ta s xt
cc php bin i tng ng. S dng cc php bin i ny, ta c th
a mt cng thc bt k v dng chun tc.
5.3.1. S tng ng ca cc cng thc
Hai cng thc A v B c xem l tng ng nu chng c cng
mt gi tr chn l trong mi minh ha. ch A tng ng vi B ta vit
A B. Bng phng php bng chn l, d dng chng minh c s tng
ng ca cc cng thc sau y:
AB lA B
A B (AB) (BA)
l(lA) A
1. Lut De Morgan
l(A B) lA lB
l(A B) lA lB
2. Lut giao hon
A B B A
A B B A
3. Lut kt hp
(A B) C A (B C)
(A B) C A (B C)
4. Lut phn phi
A (B C) (A B) (A C)
A (B C) (A B) (A C)
5.3.2. Dng chun tc
Cc cng thc tng ng c th xem nh cc biu din khc nhau
ca cng mt s kin. d dng vit cc chng trnh my tnh thao tc
trn cc cng thc, chng ta s chun ha cc cng thc, a chng v dng
biu din chun c gi l dng chun hi. Mt cng thc dng chun
hi nu n l hi ca cc cu tuyn. Nh li rng, cu tuyn c dng A
1
.... A
m
trong cc A
i
l literal. Chng ta c th bin i mt cng thc
bt k v cng thc dng chun hi bng cch p dng th tc sau.
B cc du ko theo () bng cch thay (AB) bi (lAvB).
Chuyn cc du ph nh (l) vo st cc k hiu mnh bng
cch p dng lut De Morgan v thay l(lA) bi A.
p dng lut phn phi, thay cc cng thc c dng A(BC)
bi (A B) (A B).
V d: Ta chun ha cng thc (P Q) l(R lS):
(P Q) l(R lS) (lP Q) (lR S)
((lP Q)vlR) ((lP Q) S)
(l P Q lR) (lP Q S).
Nh vy cng thc (P Q) l(R lS) c a v dng chun hi
(lP Q lR) (lP Q S).
Khi biu din tri thc bi cc cng thc trong logic mnh , c s tri
thc l mt tp no cc cng thc. Bng cch chun ho cc cng thc,
c s tri thc l mt tp no cc cu tuyn.
5.3.3. Cc cu Horn
trn ta ch ra, mi cng thc u c th a v dng chun hi,
tc l hi ca cc tuyn, mi cu tuyn c dng:
lP
1
........ lP
m
Q
1
..... Q
n
trong P
i
, Q
i
l cc k hiu mnh (literal dng) cu ny tng
ng vi cu:
P
1
^.......^ lP
m
=> Q
1
..... Q
n
Dng cu ny c gi l cu Kowalski (do nh logic Kowalski a
ra nm 1971).
Khi n <=1, tc l cu tuyn ch cha nhiu nht mt literal dng, ta
c mt dng cu c bit quan trng c gi l cu Horn (mang tn nh
logic Alfred Horn, nm 1951).
Nu m>0, n=1, cu Horn c dng:
P
1
..... P
m
=> Q
Trong P
i
, Q l cc literal dng. Cc P
i
c gi l cc iu kin
(hoc gi thit), cn Q c gi l kt lun (hoc h qu). Cc cu Horn
dng ny cn c gi l cc lut if-then v c biu din nh sau:
If P
1
and....and P
m
then Q.
Khi m=0, n=1 cu Horn tr thnh cu n Q, hay s kin Q. Nu
m>0, n=0 cu Horn tr thnh dng lP
1
v......v lP
m
hay tng ng l(P
1
^...^
P
m)
.
Cn ch rng, khng phi mi cng thc u c th biu din di
dng hi ca cc cu Horn. Tuy nhin trong cc ng dng, c s tri thc
thng l mt tp no cc cu Horn (tc l mt tp no cc lut if-
then).
5.4. LUT SUY DIN
Mt cng thc H c xem l h qa logic (logical consequence) ca
mt tp cng thc G ={G
1
,.....,G
m
} nu trong bt k minh ha no m
{G
1
,.....,G
m
} ng th H cng ng, hay ni cch khc bt k m hnh no
ca G cng l m hnh ca H.
Khi c mt c s tri thc, ta mun s dng cc tri thc trong c s
ny suy ra tri thc mi m n l h qu logic ca cc cng thc trong c
s tri thc. iu c thc hin bng cch s dng cc lut suy din
(rule of inference). Lut suy din ging nh mt th tc m chng ta s
dng sinh ra mt cng thc mi t cc cng thc c. Mt lut suy din
gm hai phn: mt tp cc iu kin v mt kt lun. Chng ta s biu din
cc lut suy din di dng phn s , trong t s l danh sch cc iu
kin, cn mu s l kt lun ca lut, tc l mu s l cng thc mi c
suy ra t cc cng thc t s.
Sau y l mt s lut suy din quan trng trong logic mnh . Trong
cc lut ny ,
i,
, l cc cng thc:
Lut Modus Ponens
,

T mt ko theo v gi thit ca ko theo, ta suy ra kt lun ca n.
Lut Modus Tollens
,1
1
T mt ko theo v ph nh kt lun ca n, ta suy ra ph nh gi
thit ca ko theo.
Lut bc cu
,

T hai ko theo, m kt lun ca ko theo th nht trng vi gi thit
ca ko theo th hai, ta suy ra ko theo mi m gi thit ca n l gi thit
ca ko theo th nht, cn kt lun ca n l kt lun ca ko theo th hai.
Lut loi b hi

1
.......
i
........
m
i
T mt hi ta suy ra mt nhn t bt k ca hi.
Lut a vo hi
1
,.......,
i
,........
m
1
.......
i
.......
m
T mt danh sch cc cng thc, ta suy ra hi ca chng.
Lut a vo tuyn
1
.......
i
. .......
m
T mt cng thc, ta suy ra mt tuyn m mt trong cc hng t ca
tuyn l cng thc .
Lut phn gii
,1

T hai tuyn, mt tuyn cha mt hng t i lp vi mt hng t
trong tuyn kia, ta suy ra tuyn ca cc hng t cn li trong c hai tuyn.
Mt lut suy din c xem l tin cy (sound) nu bt k mt m
hnh no ca gi thit ca lut cng l m hnh ca kt lun ca lut. Chng
ta ch quan tm n cc lut suy din tin cy.
Bng phng php bng chn l, ta c th kim chng c cc lut
suy din nu trn u l tin cy. Bng chn l ca lut phn gii c cho
trong hnh 5.3. T bng ny ta thy rng, trong bt k mt minh ha no m
c hai gi thit , 1 ng th kt lun cng ng. Do lut
phn gii l lut suy in tin cy.
l
False False False False True False
False False True False True True
False True False True False False
False True True True True True
True False False True True True
True False True True True True
True True False True False True
True True True True True True
Hnh 5.3 Bng chn l chng minh tnh tin cy ca lut phn gii.
Ta c nhn xt rng, lut phn gii l mt lut suy din tng qut, n
bao gm lut Modus Ponens, lut Modus Tollens, lut bc cu nh cc
trng hp ring. (Bn c d dng chng minh c iu ).
Tin , nh l, chng minh.
Gi s chng ta c mt tp no cc cng thc. Cc lut suy din
cho php ta t cc cng thc c suy ra cng thc mi bng mt dy p
dng cc lut suy din. Cc cng thc cho c gi l cc tin . Cc
cng thc c suy ra c gi l cc nh l. Dy cc lut c p dng
dn ti nh l c gi l mt chng minh ca nh l. Nu cc lut suy
din l tin cy, th cc nh l l h qu logic ca cc tin .
V d: Gi s ta c cc cng thc sau:
Q S G H (1)
P Q (2)
R S (3)
P (4)
R (5)
Gi s ta cn chng minh cng thc GH. T cng thc (2) v (4), ta
suy ra Q (Lut Modus Ponens). Li p dng lut Modus Ponens, t (3) v (5)
ta suy ra S. T Q, S ta suy ra QS (lut a vo hi). T (1) v QS ta suy
ra GH. Cng thc GH c chng minh.
Trong cc h tri thc, chng hn cc h chuyn gia, h lp trnh
logic,..., s dng cc lut suy din ngi ta thit k ln cc th tc suy din
(cn c gi l th tc chng minh) t cc tri thc trong c s tri thc
ta suy ra cc tri thc mi p ng nhu cu ca ngi s dng.
Mt h hnh thc (formal system) bao gm mt tp cc tin v
mt tp cc lut suy din no (trong ngn ng biu din tri thc no ).
Mt tp lut suy din c xem l y , nu mi h qu logic ca
mt tp cc tin u chng minh c bng cch ch s dng cc lut ca
tp .
PHNG PHP CHNG MINH BC B
Phng php chng minh bc b (refutation proof hoc proof by
contradiction) l mt phng php thng xuyn c s dng trong cc
chng minh ton hc. T tng ca phng php ny l nh sau: chng
minh P ng, ta gi s P sai (thm 1 P vo cc gi thit) v dn ti mt mu
thun. Sau y ta s trnh by c s ca phng php chng minh ny.
Gi s chng ta c mt tp cc cng thc G ={G
1
,.....,G
m
} ta cn
chng minh cng thc H l h qu logic ca G. iu tng ng vi
chng minh cng thc G
1
^....^G
m
H l vng chc. Thay cho chng minh
G
1
^..... ^G
m
H l vng chc, ta chng minh G
1
^....^G
m
^1 H l khng tha
mn c. Tc l ta chng minh tp G= (G
1
,.......,G
m
,1 H) l khng tha
c. G s khng tho c nu t Gta suy ra hai mnh i lp nhau.
Vic chng minh cng thc H l h qu logic ca tp cc tiu G bng
cch chng minh tnh khng tha c ca tp cc tiu c thm vo
ph nh ca cng thc cn chng minh, c gi l chng minh bc b.
5.5. LUT PHN GII. CHNG MINH BC B BNG LUT
PHN GII
thun tin cho vic s dng lut phn gii, chng ta s c th ho
lut phn gii trn cc dng cu c bit quan trng.
Lut phn gii trn cc cu tuyn
A
1
............... A
m
C
1 C B
1
............... B
n

A
1
........... A
m
B
1
... B
n
trong A
i
, B
j
v C l cc literal.
Lut phn gii trn cc cu Horn:
Gi s P
i
, R
j
, Q v S l cc literal. Khi ta c cc lut sau:
P
1
............... P
m
S Q,
R
1
.............. R
n
S
P
1
........ P
m
R
1
...... R
n
Q
Mt trng hp ring hay c s dng ca lut trn l:
P
1
...... P
m
S Q,
S
P
1
.......P
m
Q
Khi ta c th p dng lut phn gii cho hai cu, th hai cu ny c
gi l hai cu phn gii c v kt qu nhn c khi p dng lut phn
gii cho hai cu c gi l phn gii thc ca chng. Phn gii thc ca
hai cu A v B c k hiu l res(A,B). Chng hn, hai cu tuyn phn gii
c nu mt cu cha mt literal i lp vi mt literal trong cu kia. Phn
gii thc ca hai literal i lp nhau (P v 1 P) l cu rng, chng ta s k
hiu cu rng l [], cu rng khng tho c.
Gi s G l mt tp cc cu tuyn (bng cch chun ho ta c th a
mt tp cc cng thc v mt tp cc cu tuyn). Ta s k hiu R(G) l tp
cu bao gm cc cu thuc G v tt c cc cu nhn c t G bng mt dy
p dng lut phn gii.
Lut phn gii l lut y chng minh mt tp cu l khng tha
c. iu ny c suy t nh l sau:
NH L PHN GII
Mt tp cu tuyn l khng tha c nu v ch nu cu rng []
R(G).
nh l phn gii c ngha rng, nu t cc cu thuc G, bng cch p
dng lut phn gii ta dn ti cu rng th G l khng tha c, cn nu
khng th sinh ra cu rng bng lut phn gii th G tha c. Lu rng,
vic dn ti cu rng c ngha l ta dn ti hai literal i lp nhau P v 1
P (tc l dn ti mu thun).
T nh l phn gii, ta a ra th tc sau y xc nh mt tp cu
tuyn G l tha c hay khng. Th tc ny c gi l th tc phn gii.
procedure Resolution;
Input: tp G cc cu tuyn ;
begin
1.Repeat
1.1 Chn hai cu A v B thuc G;
1.2 if A v B phn gii c then tnh Res(A,B);
1.3 if Res(A,B)l cu mi then thm Res(A,B)vo G;
until nhn c [] hoc khng c cu mi xut hin;
2. if nhn c cu rng then thng bo G khng tho c
else thng bo G tho c;
end
Chng ta c nhn xt rng, nu G l tp hu hn cc cu th cc literal
c mt trong cc cu ca G l hu hn. Do s cc cu tuyn thnh lp
c t cc literal l hu hn. V vy ch c mt s hu hn cu c
sinh ra bng lut phn gii. Th tc phn gii s dng li sau mt s hu hn
bc.
Ch s dng lut phn gii ta khng th suy ra mi cng thc l h
qu logic ca mt tp cng thc cho. Tuy nhin, s dng lut phn gii ta
c th chng minh c mt cng thc bt k c l h qu ca mt tp cng
thc cho hay khng bng phng php chng minh bc b. V vy lut
phn gii c xem l lut y cho bc b.
Sau y l th tc chng minh bc b bng lut phn gii
Procedure Refutation_Proof;
input: Tp G cc cng thc;
Cng thc cn chng minh H;
Begin
1.Thm 1 H vo G;
2.Chuyn cc cng thc trong G v dng chun hi;
3.T cc dng chun hi bc hai, thnh lp tp cc cu
tuyn G;
4. p dng th tc phn gii cho tp cu G;
5. if G khng tho c then thng bo H l h qu logic
else thng bo H khng l h qu logic ca G;
end;
V d: Gi gi G l tp hp cc cu tuyn sau
1 A 1 B P (1)
1 C 1 D P (2)
1 E C (3)
A (4)
E (5)
D (6)
Gi s ta cn chng minh P. Thm vo G cu sau:
1 P (7)
p dng lut phn gii cho cu (2) v (7) ta c cu:
1 C 1 D (8)
T cu (6) v (8) ta nhn c cu:
1 C (9)
T cu (3) v (9) ta nhn c cu:
1 E (10)
Ti y xut hin mu thun, v cu (5) v (10) i lp nhau. T
cu (5) v (10) ta nhn c cu rng [].
Vy P l h qu logic ca cc cu (1) --(6).
CHNG 6
LOGIC V T CP MT
Logic mnh cho php ta biu din cc s kin, mi k hiu trong
logic mnh c minh ha nh l mt s kin trong th gii hin thc, s
dng cc kt ni logic ta c th to ra cc cu phc hp biu din cc s
kin mang ngha phc tp hn. Nh vy kh nng biu din ca logic
mnh ch gii hn trong phm vi th gii cc s kin.
Th gii hin thc bao gm cc i tng, mi i tng c nhng
tnh cht ring phn bit n vi cc i tng khc. Cc i tng li c
quan h vi nhau. Cc mi quan h rt a dng v phong ph. Chng ta c
th lit k ra rt nhiu v d v i tng, tnh cht, quan h.
i tng: mt ci bn, mt ci nh, mt ci cy, mt con ngi, mt
con s....
Tnh cht: Ci bn c th c tnh cht: c bn chn, lm bng g,
khng c ngn ko. Con s c th c tnh cht l s nguyn, s hu t,
l s chnh phng...
Quan h: cha con, anh em, b bn (gia con ngi); ln hn, nh hn,
bng nhau (gia cc con s); bn trong, bn ngoi nm trn nm di
(gia cc vt)...
Hm: Mt trng hp ring ca quan h l quan h hm. Chng hn,
v mi ngi c mt m, do ta c quan h hm ng mi ngi vi
m ca n.
Logic v t cp mt l m rng ca logic mnh . N cho php ta m
t th gii vi cc i tng, cc thuc tnh ca i tng v cc mi quan
h gia cc i tng. N s dng cc bin (bin i tng) ch cc i
tng trong mt min i tng no . m t cc thuc tnh ca i
tng, cc quan h gia cc i tng, trong logic v t, ngi ta a vo
cc v t (predicate). Ngoi cc kt ni logic nh trong logic mnh , logic
v t cp mt cn s dng cc lng t. Chng hn, lng t (vi mi)
cho php ta to ra cc cu ni ti mi i tng trong mt min i tng
no .
Chng ny dnh cho nghin cu logic v t cp mt vi t cch l
mt ngn ng biu din tri thc. Logic v t cp mt ng vai tr cc k
quan trng trong biu din tri thc, v kh nng biu din ca n (n cho
php ta biu din tri thc v th gii vi cc i tng, cc thuc tnh ca
i tng v cc quan h ca i tng), v hn na, n l c s cho nhiu
ngn ng logic khc.
6.1. C PHP V NG NGHA CA LGIC V T CP MT
6.1.1. C php.
CC K HIU
Logic v t cp mt s dng cc loi k hiu sau y.
Cc k hiu hng: a, b, c, An, Ba, John,...
Cc k hiu bin: x, y, z, u, v, w,...
Cc k hiu v t: P, Q, R, S, Like, Havecolor, Prime,...
Mi v t l v t ca n bin (n0). Chng hn Like l v t ca hai
bin, Prime l v t mt bin. Cc k hiu v t khng bin l cc k hiu
mnh .
Cc k hiu hm: f, g, cos, sin, mother, husband, distance,...
Mi hm l hm ca n bin (n1). Chng hn, cos, sin l hm mt
bin, distance l hm ca ba bin.
Cc k hiu kt ni logic: (hi), (tuyn), 1 (ph nh), (ko
theo), (ko theo nhau).
Cc k hiu lng t: (vi mi), (tn ti).
Cc k hiu ngn cch: du phy, du m ngoc v du ng ngoc.
CC HNG THC
Cc hng thc (term) l cc biu thc m t cc i tng. Cc hng
thc c xc nh quy nh sau.
Cc k hiu hng v cc k hiu bin l hng thc.
Nu t
1
, t
2
, t
3
,..., t
n
l n hng thc v f l mt k hiu hm n bin th f(t
1
,
t
2
,..., t
n
) l hng thc. Mt hng thc khng cha bin c gi l mt
hng thc c th (ground term).
Chng hn, An l k hiu hng, mother l k hiu hm mt bin, th
mother(An) l mt hng thc c th.
CC CNG THC PHN T
Chng ta s biu din cc tnh cht ca i tng, hoc cc quan h
gia cc i tng bi cc cng thc phn t (cu n).
Cc cng thc phn t (cu n) c xc nh quy nh sau.
1. Cc k hiu v t khng bin (cc k hiu mnh ) l cng thc phn
t.
2. Nu t
1
, t
2
,...,t
n
l n hng thc v P l v t ca n bin th P(t
1
,t
2
,...,t
n
) l
cng thc phn t.
Chng hn, Hoa l mt k hiu hng, Love l mt v t ca hai bin,
husband l hm ca mt bin, th Love(Hoa, husband(Hoa)) l mt cng
thc phn t.
CC CNG THC
T cng thc phn t, s dng cc kt ni logic v cc lng t, ta
xy dng nn cc cng thc (cc cu).
Cc cng thc c xc nh quy nh sau:
Cc cng thc phn t l cng thc.
Nu G v H l cc cng thc, th cc biu thc (G H), (G H), (1
G), (GH), (GH) l cng thc.
Nu G l mt cng thc v x l bin th cc biu thc ( x G), ( x G)
l cng thc.
Cc cng thc khng phi l cng thc phn t s c gi l cc cu
phc hp. Cc cng thc khng cha bin s c gi l cng thc c th.
Khi vit cc cng thc ta s b i cc du ngoc khng cn thit, chng hn
cc du ngoc ngoi cng.
Lng t ph dng cho php m t tnh cht ca c mt lp cc i
tng, ch khng phi ca mt i tng, m khng cn phi lit k ra tt c
cc i tng trong lp. Chng hn s dng v t Elephant(x) (i tng x
l con voi) v v t Color(x, Gray) (i tng x c mu xm) th cu tt c
cc con voi u c mu xmc th biu din bi cng thc x (Elephant(x)
Color(x, Gray)).
Lng t tn ti cho php ta to ra cc cu ni n mt i tng no
trong mt lp i tng m n c mt tnh cht hoc tho mn mt quan
h no . Chng hn bng cch s dng cc cu n Student(x) (x l sinh
vin) v Inside(x, P301), (x trong phng 301), ta c th biu din cu C
mt sinh vin phng 301bi biu thc x (Student(x) Inside(x,P301).
Mt cng thc l cng thc phn t hoc ph nh ca cng thc phn
t c gi l literal. Chng hn, Play(x, Football), 1 Like(Lan, Rose) l cc
literal. Mt cng thc l tuyn ca cc literal s c gi l cu tuyn.
Chng hn, Male(x) 1 Like(x, Foodball) l cu tuyn.
Trong cng thc x G, hoc x G trong G l mt cng thc no
, th mi xut hin ca bin x trong cng thc G c gi l xut hin
buc. Mt cng thc m tt c cc bin u l xut hin buc th c gi l
cng thc ng.
V d: Cng thc x P(x, f(a, x)) y Q(y) l cng thc ng, cn
cng thc x P(x, f(y, x)) khng phi l cng thc ng, v s xut hin ca
bin y trong cng thc ny khng chu rng buc bi mt lng t no c
(S xut hin ca y gi l s xut hin t do).
Sau ny chng ta ch quan tm ti cc cng thc ng.
6.1.2. Ng ngha.
Cng nh trong logic mnh , ni n ng ngha l chng ta ni n
ngha ca cc cng thc trong mt th gii hin thc no m chng ta
s gi l mt minh ha.
xc nh mt minh ho, trc ht ta cn xc nh mt min i
tng (n bao gm tt c cc i tng trong th gii hin thc m ta quan
tm).
Trong mt minh ho, cc k hiu hng s c gn vi cc i tng
c th trong min i tng, cc k hiu hm s c gn vi mt hm c
th no . Khi , mi hng thc c th s ch nh mt i tng c th
trong min i tng. Chng hn, nu An l mt k hiu hng, Father l mt
k hiu hm, nu trong minh ho An ng vi mt ngi c th no , cn
Father(x) gn vi hm: ng vi mi x l cha ca n, th hng thc
Father(An) s ch ngi cha ca An
.
NG NGHA CA CC CU N
Trong mt minh ho, cc k hiu v t s c gn vi mt thuc
tnh, hoc mt quan h c th no . Khi mi cng thc phn t (khng
cha bin) s ch nh mt s kin c th. ng nhin s kin ny c th l
ng (True) hoc sai (False). Chng hn, nu trong minh ho, k hiu hng
Lan ng vi mt c gi c th no , cn Student(x) ng vi thuc tnh x
l sinh vinth cu Student (Lan) c gi tr chn l l True hoc False tu
thuc trong thc t Lan c phi l sinh vin hay khng.
NG NGHA CA CC CU PHC HP
Khi xc nh c ng ngha ca cc cu n, ta c th xc nh
c ng ngha ca cc cu phc hp (c to thnh t cc cu n bng
cc lin kt cc cu n bi cc kt ni logic) nh trong logic mnh .
V d: Cu Student(Lan) Student(An) nhn gi tr True nu c hai
cu Student(Lan) v Student(An) u c gi tr True, tc l c Lan v An
u l sinh vin.
Cu Like(Lan, Rose) Like(An, Tulip) l ng nu cu Like(Lan,
Rose) l ng hoc cu Like(An, Tulip) l ng.
NG NGHA CA CC CU CHA CC LNG T
Ng ngha ca cc cu x G, trong G l mt cng thc no ,
c xc nh nh l ng ngha ca cng thc l hi ca tt c cc cng
thc nhn c t cng thc G bng cch thay x bi mt i tng trong
min i tng. Chng hn, nu min i tng gm ba ngi {Lan, An,
Hoa} th ng ngha ca cu x Student(x) c xc nh l ng ngha ca
cu Student(Lan) Student(An) Student(Hoa). Cu ny ng khi v ch
khi c ba cu thnh phn u ng, tc l c Lan, An, Hoa u l sinh vin.
Nh vy, cng thc x G l ng nu v ch nu mi cng thc nhn
c t G bng cch thay x bi mt i tng trong min i tng u
ng, tc l G ng cho tt c cc i tng x trong min i tng.
Ng ngha ca cng thc x G c xc nh nh l ng ngha ca
cng thc l tuyn ca tt c cc cng thc nhn c t G bng cch thay x
bi mt i tng trong min i tng. Chng hn, nu ng ngha ca cu
Younger(x,20) l x tr hn 20 tui v min i tng gm ba ngi {Lan,
An, Hoa} th ng ngha ca cu x Yourger(x,20) l ng ngha ca cu
Yourger(Lan,20) Yourger(An,20) Yourger(Hoa,20). Cu ny nhn gi
tr True nu v ch nu t nht mt trong ba ngi Lan, An, Hoa tr hn 20
tui.
Nh vy cng thc x G l ng nu v ch nu mt trong cc cng
thc nhn c t G bng cch thay x bng mt i tng trong min i
tng l ng.
Bng cc phng php trnh by trn, ta c th xc nh c gi
tr chn l (True, False) ca mt cng thc bt k trong mt minh ho. (Lu
rng, ta ch quan tm ti cc cng thc ng).
Sau khi xc nh khi nim minh ho v gi tr chn l ca mt
cng thc trong mt minh ho, chng ta c th a ra cc khi nim cng
thc vng chc (tho c, khng tho c), m hnh ca cng thc
ging nh trong logic mnh .
CC CNG THC TNG NG
Cng nh trong logic mnh , ta ni hai cng thc G v H tng
ng (vit l G H) nu chng cng ng hoc cng sai trong mi minh
ho. Ngoi cc tng ng bit trong logic mnh , trong logic v t
cp mt cn c cc tng ng khc lin quan ti cc lng t. Gi s G l
mt cng thc, cch vit G(x) ni rng cng thc G c cha cc xut hin
ca bin x. Khi cng thc G(y) l cng thc nhn c t G(x) bng cch
thay tt c cc xut hin ca x bi y. Ta ni G(y) l cng thc nhn c t
G(x) bngcch t tn li (bin x c i tn li l y).
Chng ta c cc tng ng sau y:
1. x G(x) y G(y)
x G(x) y G(y)
t tn li bin i sau lng t ph dng (tn ti), ta nhn c cng
thc tng ng.
2. 1 (x G(x)) x (1 G(x))
1 (x G(x)) x (1 G(x))
3. x (G(x) H(x)) x G(x) x H(x)
x (G(x) H(x)) x G(x) x H(x)
V d: x Love(x, Husband(x)) y Love(y, Husband(y)).
6.2. CHUN HO CC CNG THC
T cc cu phn t, bng cch s dng cc kt ni logic v cc lng
t, ta c th to ra cc cu phc hp c cu trc rt phc tp. d dng cho
vic lu tr cc cu trong b nh, v thun li cho vic xy dng cc th tc
suy din, chng ta cn chun ho cc cu bng cch a chng v dng
chun tc hi (hi ca cc cu tuyn).
Trong mc ny chng ta s trnh by th tc chuyn mt cu phc
hp thnh mt cu dng chun tc hi tng ng.
Th tc chun ho cc cng thc gm cc bc sau:
1. Loi b cc ko theo
loi b cc ko theo, ta ch cn thay cng thc P Q bi cng
thc tng ng 1 P Q thay P Q bi (1 P Q) (1 P Q)
2. Chuyn cc ph nh ti cc phn t
iu ny c thc hin bng cch thay cng thc v tri bi cng
thc v phi trong cc tng ng sau
1 (1 P) P
1 (P Q) 1 P 1 Q
1 (P Q) 1 P 1 Q
1 (x P) x (1P)
1 (x P) x (1P)
3. Loi b cc lng t tn ti
Gi s P(x,y) l cc v t c ngha rng y ln hn x trong min cc
s. Khi cng thc x (y (P(x,y)) c ngha l vi mi s x, tn ti y sao
cho s y ln hn x. Ta c th xem y trong cng thc l hm ca i s
x, chng hn f(x) v loi b lng t y, cng thc ang xt tr thnh
x(P(x,f(x))).
Mt cch tng qut, gi s y (G) l mt cng thc con ca cng thc
ang xt v nm trong min tc dng ca cc lng t x
1
,....., x
n
. Khi
ta c th xem y l hm ca n bin x
1
,...........,x
n
, chng hn f(x
1
......x
n
). Sau
ta thay cc xut hin ca y trong cng thc G bi hng thc f(x
1
...x
n
) v loi
b cc lng t tn ti. Cc hm f c a vo loi b cc lng t tn
ti c gi l hm Skolem.
V d: xt cng thc sau:
x (y (P(x,y) u (v (Q(a, v) y 1 R(x,y)))
(1)
Cng thc con y P(x,y) nm trong min tc dng ca lng t x, ta
xem y l hm ca x: f(x). Cc cng thc con v (Q(a, v)) v y1 R(x,y) nm
trong min tc dng ca cc lng t x, u ta xem v l hm g(x,u) v y l
hm h(x,u) ca hai bin x,u. Thay cc xut hin ca y v bi cc hm
tng ng, sau loi b cc lng t tn ti, t cng thc (1) ta nhn c
cng thc:
x (P(x,f(x)) u (Q(a,g(x,u)) 1 R(x,h(x,u))))
(2)
4. Loi b cc lng t ph dng
Sau bc 3 trong cng thc ch cn li cc lng t ph dng v mi
xut hin ca cc bin u nm trong min tc dng ca cc lng t ph
dng. Ta c th loi b tt c cc lng t ph dng, cng thc (2) tr thnh
cng thc:
P(x,f(x)) (Q(a,g(x,u)) 1 R(x,h(x,u))) (3)
Cn ch rng, sau khi c thc hin bc ny tt c cc bin trong
cng thc c xem l chu tc dng ca cc lng t ph dng.
5. Chuyn cc tuyn ti cc literal
Bc ny c thc hin bng cch thay cc cng thc dng: P(QR)
bi (PQ)(PR) v thay (PQ)R bi (PQ) (PR). Sau bc ny cng
thc tr thnh hi ca cc cu tuyn ngha l ta nhn c cc cng thc
dng chun tc hi.
Chng hn, cu (3) c chuyn thnh cng thc sau
(P(x,f(x)) (Q(a,g(x,u))) (P(x,f(x)) 1 R(x,h(x,u))) (4)
6. Loi b cc hi
Mt cu hi l ng nu v ch nu tt c cc thnh phn ca n u
ng. Do cng thc dng chun tc hi tng ng vi tp cc thnh
phn.
Chng hn, cu (4) tng ng vi tp hai cu tuyn sau
P(f(x)) (Q(a,g(x,u))
P(f(x)) 1 R(x,h(x,u)) (5)
7. t tn li cc bin
t tn li cc bin sao cho cc bin trong cc cu khc nhau c tn
khc nhau, chng hn, hai cu (5) c hai bin cng tn l x, ta cn i tn
bin x trong cu hai thnh z, khi cc cu (5) tng ng vi cc cu sau
P(f(x)) (Q(a,g(x,u))
P(f(x)) 1 R(x,h(x,u)) (5)
Nh vy, khi tri thc l mt tp hp no cc cng thc trong logic
v t, bng cch p dng th tc trn ta nhn c c s tri thc ch gm cc
cu tuyn (tc l ta lun lun c th xem mi cu trong c s tri thc l
tuyn ca cc literal). Hon ton tng t nh trong logic mnh , mi cu
tuyn c th biu din di dng mt ko theo, v tri ca cc ko theo l
hi ca cc cu phn t, cn v phi l tuyn ca cc cu phn t. Dng cu
ny c gi l cu Kowlski, mt trng hp quan trng ca cu Kowlski l
cu Horn (lut if - then).
6.3. CC LUT SUY DIN
Trong chng 5 chng ta a ra cc lut suy din quan trng trong
logic mnh : lut Modus Ponens, lut Modus Tolens, lut bc cu,... lut
phn gii. Chng ta ch ra rng (mc 5.5), lut phn gii l lut y
cho bc b. iu c ngha l, bng phng php chng minh bc b, ch
s dng lut phn gii ta c th chng minh c mt cng thc c l h
qu logic ca mt tp cc cng thc cho trc hay khng. Kt qu quan
trng ny s c m rng sang lgic v t.
Tt c cc lut suy din c a ra trong logic mnh u ng
trong logic v t cp mt. By gi ta a ra mt lut suy din quan trng
trong logic v t lin quan ti lng t ph dng
Lut thay th ph dng:
Gi s G l mt cu, cu x G l ng trong mt minh ho no
nu v ch nu G ng i vi tt c cc i tng nm trong min i
tng ca minh ho . Mi hng thc t ng vi mt i tng v th nu
cu x G ng th khi thay tt c cc xut hin ca bin x bi hng thc t ta
nhn c cu ng. Cng thc nhn c t cng thc G bng cch thay
tt c cc xut hin ca x bi t c k hiu l G[x/t]. Lut thay th ph dng
(universal instatiation) pht biu rng, t cng thc xG suy ra cng thc
G[x/t].
xG
G[x/t]
Chng hn, t cu x Like(x, Football) (mi ngi u thch bng
), bng cch thay x bi An ta suy ra cu Like(An,Football) (An thch bng
)
Hp nht
Trong lut thay th ph dng, ta cn s dng php th cc bin bi
cc hng thc nhn c cc cng thc mi t cng thc cha cc lng
t ph dng. Ta c th s dng php th hp nht cc cu phn t (tc l
cc cu tr thnh ng nht). Chng hn xt hai cu phn t Like(An, y),
Like(x, Football). Cn lu rng hai cu ny l hai cu y Like(An,y) v
x Like(x,Football) m cho n gin ta b i cc lng t ph dng. S
dng php th [x/An, y/Football] hai cu trn tr thnh ng nht
Like(An,Football). Trong cc suy din, ta cn s dng php hp nht cc
cu bi cc php th. Chng hn, cho trc hai cu
Friend(x,Ba) Good(x) (Mi bn ca Ba u l ngi tt)
Friend(Lan,y) (Lan l bn ca tt c mi ngi)
Ta c th hp nht hai cu Friend(x,Ba) Good(x) v Friend(Lan,y)
bi php thay th [x/Lan,y/Ba]. p dng lut thay th ph dng vi php
thay th ny ta nhn c hai cu:
Friend(Lan,Ba) Good(Lan)
Friend(Lan,Ba)
T hai cu ny, theo lut Modus Ponens, ta suy ra cu Good(Lan)
(Lan l ngi tt).
Mt cch tng qut, mt php th l mt dy cc cp x
i
/t
i
, = [x
1
/t
1
x
2
/t
2
.... x
n
/t
n
] trong cc x
i
l cc bin khc nhau, cc t
i
l cc hng thc v
cc x
i
khng c mt trong t
i
(i=1,...,n). p dng php th vo cng thc G,
ta nhn c cng thc G
, l cng thc nhn c t cng thc G bng

cch thay mi s xut hin ca cc x
i
bi t
i
. Chng hn, nu G = P(x,y,f(a,x))
v =[x/b,y/g(z)] th G
=P(b,g(z),f(a,b)).
Vi hai cu phn t G v H m tn ti php th sao cho G
v H
tr
thnh ng nht (G
=H
) th G v H c gi l hp nht c, php th
c gi l hp nht t ca G v H. Chng hn, hai cu Like(An,y)v
Like(x,Football) l hp nht c bi hp nht t [x/An,y/Football]. Vn
t ra l, vi hai cu phn t bt k G v H, chng c hp nht c khng
v nu c th lm th no tm c hp nht t ? Vn ny s c nghin
cu trong mc sau. Cn by gi chng ta a ra cc lut suy din quan trng
nht, trong c s dng php hp nht.
Lut Modus Ponens tng qut.
Gi s P
i
,P
i
' (i= 1,..,n) v Q l cc cng thc phn t sao cho tt c cc
cp cu P
i
,P
i
' hp nht c bi php th , tc l P
i
=P
i
(i =1,..,n). Khi
ta c lut:
(P
i
P
n
Q),P
i
',..,P
n
'
Q'
Trong Q' =Q
.
V d: Gi s ta c cc cu (Student (x) Male (x) Like
(x,Football)) v Student(Anh), Male(Anh). Vi php th [xAnh], cc
cp cu Student(x),Student(Anh) v Male(x), Male(Anh) hp nht c.Do
ta suy ra cu Like(Anh,Football).
Lut phn gii tng qut
Lut phn gii trn cc cu tuyn
Gi s ta c hai cu tuyn A
1
A
m
C v B
1
B
n
1D, trong
A
i
(i =1,..,m) v B
j
(j=1,..,n) l cc literal, cn C v D l cc cu phn t
c th hp nht c bi php th , C
. Khi ta c lut:
A
1
A
m
C,B
1
B
n
1D

A
1
' A
m
' B
1
' B
n
'
Trong A
i
'=A
i
(i=1,..,m) v B
j
'=B
j
(j=1,..,n)
Trong lut phn gii ny (v trong cc lut phn gii s trnh by sau
ny), hai cu t s (gi thit) ca lut c gi l hai cu phn gii c,
cn cu mu s (kt lun) ca lut c gi l phn gii thc ca hai cu
t s. Ta s k hiu phn gii thc ca hai cu A v B l Res(A,B).
V d: Gi s ta c hai cu A=Hear(x,Music) Play(x,Tennis) v
B=1Play(An,y) Study (An). Hai cu Play(x,Tennis) v Play(An,y) hp
nht c bi php th [xAn,yTennis]. Do t hai cu cho, ta suy ra
cu Hear(An,Music) Study (An). Trong v d ny, hai cu
A=Hear(x,Music) Play(x,Tennis) v B=1Play(An,y) Study (An) l phn
gii c v phn gii thc ca chng l Hear(An,Music) Study(An).
Lut phn gii trn cc cu Horn:
Cu Horn (lut If-Then) l cc cu c dng
P
1
P
m
Q
trong P
i
(i =1,...,m; m 0) v Q l cc cu phn t.
Gi s ta c hai cu Horn P
1
P
m
S Q v R
1
R
n
T,
trong hai cu S v T hp nht c bi php th , S
=T
. Khi ta c
lut:
P
1
P
m
S Q,
R
1
R
n
T
P
1
' P
m
' R
1
' R
n
Q
trong P
i
'=P
i
(i=1,..,m), R
j
=R
j
(j=1,..,n), Q'=Q.
Trong thc t,chng ta thng s dng trng hp ring sau y. Gi
s S v T l hai cu phn t, hp nht c bi php th . Khi ta c lut:
P
1
P
m
S Q,
T
P
1
' P
m
' Q'
trong P
i
' = P
i
(i = 1,...,m) v Q' = Q.
V d: Xt hai cu Student(x) Male(x) Play(x,Football) v
Male(Ba). Hai cu Male(Ba) v Male(x) hp nht c vi php th [xBa],
do t hai cu trn ta suy ra Student (Ba) Play (Ba, Football).
6.4. THUT TON HP NHT
V mt c php, hng thc v cng thc phn t c cu trc ging
nhau, do ta gi chung cc hng thc v cc cng thc phn t l cc biu
thc n.
Trong mc ny chng ta s trnh by thut ton xc nh hai biu thc
n cho trc c hp nht c khng, v nu c thut ton s cho ra hp
nht t tng qut nht.
Nh li rng, mt php th l mt danh sch [x
1
t
1
, x
2
t
2
, x
n
t
n
],
trong cc x
i
l cc bin khc nhau, t
i
l cc hng thc khng cha x
i
(i=1,..,n). Kt qu p dng php th vo biu thc E l biu thc E nhn
c t E bng cch thay mi xut hin ca bin x
i
bi t
i
. Hai biu thc c
xem l hp nht c nu tn ti php th chng tr thnh ng nht,
v khi c gi l hp nht t ca chng. Chng hn, xt hai biu thc
sau:
Know(An, x)
Know(y, husband(z))
Vi php th [yAn, xhusband(z)], c biu thc trn tr thnh
Know(An, husband(z))
Tuy nhin, nu hai biu thc hp nht c th ni chung s c v s
hp nht t. Chng hn, ngoi hp nht t nu, hai cu Know(An, x) v
Know(y, husband(z)) cn c cc hp nht t sau
[yAn, xhusband(Hoa), zHoa]
[yAn, xhusband(Lan), zLan]
Chng ta s gi hp thnh ca hai php th v l php th sao

cho vi mi biu thc E ta c E() = (E). Ni c th hn, hp thnh ca
php th =[x
1
t
1
, , x
1
t] v = [y
1
s
1
, , y
n
s
n
] l php th [x
1
t
1
,
, x
m
t
m
, y
1
s
1
,, y
n
s
n
] trong ta cn loi b cc cp y
i
s
i
m y
i
trng vi
mt x
k
no .
V d: Xt hai php th:
[xa, vg(y,z)]
[xb, yc, zf(x), vh(a)]
khi hp thnh ca chng l php th
[xa, vg(c,f(x)), yc, zf(x)]
Quan st v d trn ta thy rng php th p t nhiu hn ch cho
cc bin hn l . Do ta s ni rng php th tng qut hn php th
.
Chng hn, php th a ra trn:
[yAn, xhusband(z)]
tng qut hn php th:
[yAn, xhusband(Hoa), zHoa]
Gi s E v F l hai biu thc n hp nht c. Ta gi hp nht t
tng qut nht ca E v F l hp nht t sao cho tng qut hn bt k
hp nht t no ca E v F. Ni mt cch khc, l hp nht t tng qut
nht ca E v F nu vi mi hp nht t ca E v F u tn ti php th
sao cho =. Chng hn, vi E v F l cc cu Know(An,x) v
Know(y,husband(z)) th hp nht t tng qut nht l:
[yAn, xhusband(z)]
Sau y chng ta s trnh by thut ton hp nht, l thut ton
quy, c 3 tham bin: hai biu thc n E v F,v hp nht t tng qut nht
l . Thut ton ny s dng v cho ra hp nht t tng qut nht nu E v
F hp nht c. Nu E v F khng hp nht c, thut ton cng s dng
v cho thng bo v iu .
Ta s gi s rng E v F cha cc bin c tn khc nhau, nu khng ta
ch cn t tn li cc bin.
Trong thut ton, ta cn tm s khc bit gia hai biu thc. S khc
bit c xc nh nh sau: c hai biu thc ng thi t tri sang phi
cho ti khi gp hai k hiu khc nhau trong biu thc. Trch ra hai biu thc
con bt u t cc k hiu khc nhau . Cp biu thc con to thnh s
khc bit gia hai biu thc cho.
V d: S khc bit gia hai cu Like(x,f(a,g(z))) v Like(x,y) l cp
(f(a,g(z)),y) cn s khc bit gia hai cu Know(x,f(a,u)) v
Know(x,f(a,g(b)) l cp (u,g(b)).
Thut ton hp nht c m t bi th tc quy sau:
Procedure Unify(E,F,);
Begin
1.Xc nh s khc bit gia E v F;
2.if khng c s khc bit then
{thng bo thnh cng;stop};
3.if s khc bit l cp (x,t),trong x l bin, t l hng thc khng
cha x then
{
3.1 EE[x|t]; FF[x|t];
// tc l p dng php th {x|t} vo cc biu thc E v F
3.2 [x/t]; // hp thnh ca php th q v php th [xt]
3.3 Unify(E,F, );
}
else
{thng bo tht bi; stop}
end;
Nhn xt: Thut ton hp nht trn lun lun dng sau mt s hu
hn bc v c mi ln bc 3 c thc hin th s bin cn li trong hai
biu thc s bt i mt, m s bin trong hai biu thc l hu hn. bit
hai biu thc P v Q c hp nht c hay khng ta ch cn gi th tc
Unify(P,Q,q) trong q l php th rng. Bn c d dng chuyn th tc
quy sang th tc khng quy (bi tp).
V d: Xt hai biu thc sau:
P(a, x, f(a,g(x,y)))
P(u.h(a), f(u,v)) (1)
S khc bit gia hai biu thc ny l (a,u). Th u bi a ta nhn c
hai biu thc sau:
P(a, x, f(a, g(x, y)))
P(a, h(a), f(a, v)) (2)
v php th:
q = [u|a].
S khc bit gia hai biu thc (2) l (x, h(a)).Thay x bi h(a), ta c
hai biu thc sau: P(a, h(a), f(a, g(h(a), y)))
P(a, h(a), f(a,v)) (3)
v php th: q = [u|a, x|h(a)]
S khc bit gia hai biu thc (3) l (g(h(a), y), v).Th v bi g(h(a),
y), hai biu thc (3) tr thnh ng nht:
P(a, h(a), f(a, g(h(a), y)))
Nh vy,hai cu (1) hp nht c vi hp nht t tng qut nht l:
q = [u|a, x|h(a), v|g(h(a), y)]
6.5. CHNG MINH BNG LUT PHN GII
Gi s chng ta c mt c s tri thc (CSTT) gm cc cu trong logic
v t cp mt.Chng ta lun lun xem CSTT l tho c, tc l c mt
minh ho m tt c cc cu trong CSTT u ng. Chng hn minh ha
l th gii hin thc ca vn m chng ta ang quan tm, v CSTT gm
cc cu m t s hiu bit ca chng ta v th gii hin thc .
Khng mt tnh tng qut, ta c th xem cc cu trong CSTT l cc
cu tuyn. Chng ta c th s dng lut phn gii suy ra cc cu mi l
h qu logic ca CSTT.
V d:
Gi s CSTT gm cc cu tuyn sau:
P(w) Q(w) (1)
P(x) R(x) (2)
Q(y) S(y) (3)
1 R(z) S(z) (4)
Sau y chng ta s a ra mt chng minh ca cu S(a) t CSTT
trn bng lut phn gii. p dng lut phn gii cho cu (2) v (4) vi php
th [xa, xa], ta suy ra cu sau:
1 P(a) S(a) (5)
p dng lut phn gii cho cu (1) v (3) vi php th [wa,ya] ta
nhn c cu:
1 P(a) S(a) (6)
p dng lut phn gii cho cu (5) v (6), ta suy ra cu S(a) S(a).
Cu ny tng ng vi cu S(a).
Chng minh bng cch p dng cc lut suy din dn ti iu cn
phi chng minh (nh chng minh trn) c gi l chng minh din dch
(deduction proof). Nhng cn bit rng, lut phn gii khng phi l lut y
cho din dch (deduction_complete), tc l t mt tp cc tin , ch s
dng lut phn gii chng ta khng th sinh ra tt c cc cu l h qu logic
ca cc tin cho.
Tuy nhin nh l phn gii (xem mc 5.5) vn cn ng trong logic
v t cp mt. iu c ngha l, ch s dng lut phn gii ta c th xc
nh c mt tp cu trong logic v t cp mt l tho c hay khng tho
c. Nu mt tp cu l khng tho c th qua mt s bc p dng lut
phn gii ta s sinh ra mt cu rng (tc l dn ti mu thun).
chng minh cu H l h qu logic ca tp cc cu {G
1
,G
2
,..,..G
n
}
(cc tin ), ta c th p dng phng php chng minh bc b, tc l
chng minh tp cu {G
1
,G
2
,..,..G
n
,1 H} khng tho c. Mt khc, trn ta
ch ra rng, lut phn gii cho php ta xc nh c mt tp cu l tho
c hay khng tho c. V vy lut phn gii c xem l lut y
cho bc b (refutation -complete).
V d:
T CSTT gm cc cu (1)_(4) trong v d trn, ta c th chng
minh c cu S(a) bng phng php bc b nh sau. Thm vo CSTT
cu:
1 S(a) (7)
(ly ph nh ca cu cn chng minh). p dng lut phn gii cho
cu (3) v (7) vi php th [ya], ta suy ra cu:
1 Q(a) (8)
T cu (1) v (8) vi php th [wa], ta nhn c cu:
1 P(a) (9)
T cu (4) v (7) vi php th [za], ta suy ra cu:
1 R(a) (10)
T cu (2) v (10) vi php th [xa] ta nhn c cu:
P(a) (11)
p dng lut phn gii cho cu (9) v (11) ta nhn c cu rng
(mu thun: 1 P(a) v P(a)).
By gi chng ta trnh by th tc tng qut s dng lut phn gii
chng minh mt cng thc H l hoc khng l h qu logic ca mt tp
cng thc G={G
1
,G
2
,..,..G
n
}: th tc chng minh bng lut phn gii.
Procedure Proof_by_Resolution
Input: tp G={G1,G2,..,..Gn} cc cng thc (cc tin );
H_Cng thc cn chng minh;
Begin
1. Bin i cc cng thc Gi (i=1,...,n) v 1 H v dng chun hi;
2. T cc dng chun hi nhn c bc 1, thnh lp tp cc cu
tuyn C;
3. Repeat
3.1 Chn ra hai cu A v B trong C;
3.2 If A v B phn gii c then tnh phn gii thc Res(A,B);
3.2 If ResA,B) l cu mi then thm Res(A,B) vo tp C;
Until Nhn c cu rng hoc khng c cu mi no c sinh ra;
4. If cu rng c sinh ra then thng bo H ng
else thng bo H sai;
End
Sau y chng ta lm sng t thm mt s bc trong th tc chng
minh bng lut phn gii:
1. thc hin bc 1, ta cn p dng th tc chun ho cc cu
c a ra trong mc 6.2.
2. thc hin bc 3.2, ta cn p dng th tc hp nht cho cc cp
cu phn t (A
i
,B
i
), trong A
i
v 1 B
j
(hoc 1 A
i
v B
j
) l cc thnh phn
ca cc cu tuyn A v B tng ng. Vi mi cp nh th hp nht c th
p dng lut phn gii trn cc cu tuyn tnh phn gii thc Res(A,B).
3. Bc 3.1 l bc cha c xc nh r rng. C rt nhiu phng
php chn ra hai cu A v B t tp cu C. Mc sau chng ta s trnh by cc
chin lc, n cho php ta ly ra hai cu mi bc 3 sao cho vng lp
bc 3 c thc hin hiu qu. Cc chin lc ny c gi l chin lc
phn gii.
Trong nhiu ng dng, CSTT (tp cu G) ch gm cc cu Horn (cc
lut If_then). Trong cc trng hp , chng ta s c cc th tc suy din
hiu qu hn. Vn ny s c nghin cu k trong chng sau.
Mt v d chng minh
Gi s chng ta bit cc thng tin sau y:
1) ng Ba nui mt con ch.
2) Hoc ng Ba hoc ng Am git con mo Bibi.
Chng ta cng bit rng:
3) Mi ngi nui ch u yu qu ng vt.
4) Ai yu qu ng vt cng khng git ng vt.
V ng nhin l:
5) Ch mo u l ng vt.
biu din cc tri thc trn trong logic v t cp mt, chng ta cn
s dng cc hng D, Ba, Am, Bibi, cc v t Dog(x) (x l ch), Cat(y), (y l
mo), Rear(u,v) (u nui v), AnimalLover(u) (u l ngi yu qu ng vt),
Kill(u,v) (u git v), Animal(x) (x l ng vt). S dng cc hng v cc v t
trn, chng ta c th chuyn cc cu 1_5 thnh cc cu trong logic v t cp
mt nh sau:
1. Dog(D) Rear(Ba,D)
2. Cat(Bibi) (Kill(Ba,Bibi) Kill(Am,Bibi))
3. x (y(Dog(y) Rear(x,y)) AnimalLover(x)))
4. u (AnimalLover(u) (v (Animal(v) 1 Kill(u,v)) )
5. z (Dog(z) Animal(z)) w(Cat(w) Animal(w)).
Chun ho cc cu 3_5, chng ta nhn c cc cu sau:
3.1 Dog(y) 1 Rear(x,y) AnimalLover(x)
4.1 AnimalLover(u) 1 Animal(v) 1 Kill(u,v)
5.(1 Dog(z) Animal(z)) (1 Cat(w) Animal(w))
T cc cu dng chun hi 1, 2, 3, 4 v 5 chng ta to ra c s tri
thc gm cc cu tuyn sau:
(1) Dog(D)
(2) Rear(Ba, D)
(3) Cat(Bibi)
(4) Kill(Ba,Bibi) Kill(Am, Bibi)
(5) 1 Dog(y) 1 Rear(x,y) AnimalLover(x)
(6) 1 AnimalLover(u) 1 Animal(v) 1 Kill(u,v)
(7) 1 Dog(z) Animal(z)
(8) 1 Cat(w) Animal(w)
By gi ta mun hi c s tri thc gm cc cu (1)_(8): Ai git
Bibi?
iu c ngha l ta cn tm cc i tng ng vi bin t m cu
Kill(t,Bibi) l h qu logic ca cc cu(1)_(8).
Thm vo cc cu (1)_(8) cu:
(9) 1 Kill (t,Ba)
T cu (4) v cu (9) vi php th [tAm], p dng lut phn gii ta
nhn c cu:
(10) Kill (Ba,Bibi)
T (6) v (10) vi php th [uBa,vBibi], ta nhn c cu:
(11) 1 AnimalLover (Ba) 1 Animal (Bibi)
T (3) v (8) vi php th [wBibi], ta nhn c cu
(12) Animal (Bibi)
T (11) v (12) ta nhn c cu:
(13) 1 AnimalLover (Ba)
T (1) v (5) vi php th [yD] ta nhn c cu:
(14) 1 Rear (x,D) AnimalLover(x)
T cu (2) v (14) vi php th [xBa] ta nhn c cu
(15) AnimalLover(Ba)
T cu (13) v (15) ta suy ra cu rng. Nh vy ng Am git con
mo Bibi. Cn mt kh nng na, cu (4) v (9) phn gii c vi php th
[tBa], song trng hp ny khng dn ti cu rng.
6.6. CC CHIN LC PHN GII
Th tc tng qut chng minh bng lut phn gii trong mc 6.5 cha
bc 3.1 (chn ra hai cu A v B xt xem chng c phn gii c hay
khng v nu A v B phn gii c th tnh phn gii thc ca chng). Vn
t ra l, ta cn c chin lc chn cc cu phn gii chng mi
bc sao cho th tc chng minh c thc hin hiu qu. Cc chin lc
ny c gi l cc chin lc phn gii.
Chng ta c th xem th tc chng minh bng lut phn gii nh th
tc tm kim trn th phn gii. nh ca th ny l cc cu, cc cung
i t cc cu cha ti cu l phn gii thc ca cc cu cha.
V d:
Hnh 6.1 th phn gii
Gi s chng ta c mt tp hp cc cu
C={ P(x) Q(f(x)), 1 P(b) R(a,y), 1 R (a,b), 1 Q(z) }.
1 R(a,b)
P(x)vQ(f(x))
P(x)
1 P(b)vR(a,y) 1 Q(z)
1 P(b) Q(f(b))vR(a,y)
R(a,y) Q(f(b))
th phn gii trn tp cu c biu din trong hnh 6.1 di y,
trong cc cung i t trn xung di.
Chng ta bit rng, t mt tp cu tuyn C nu ta tn c mt dy
cc phn gii thc dn ti cu rng [] th ta chng minh c tp khng
tho mn c. Dy cc phn gii thc kt thc bi cu rng to thnh mt
cy nh phn, gc l cu rng. Cy ny s c gi l cy chng minh.
Chng hn, hnh 6.2 biu din mt cy chng minh tp cu C trong v d
trn khng tho c. ng nhin l, trong mt th phn gii c th c
nhiu cy chng minh. Chng hn, th phn gii trong hnh 6.1 c 5 cy
chng minh, mt trong cc cy l cy trong hnh 6.2
P(x) Q(f(x)) 1 P(b) R(a, y) 1 R(a, b) 1 Q(z)
Q(f(b)) R(a, y)
Q(f(b))
Hnh6.2. Mt cy chng minh t th phn gii trong hnh 6.1
Cc chin lc phn gii hoc l chin lc sinh ra cc phn gii thc
theo mt h thng no , hoc l chin lc hn ch vic sinh ra cc phn
gii thc nhm nhanh chng t ti cu rng. Mt chin lc c xem l
y nu n m bo sinh ra cu rng, nu tp C cc cu cho trc l
khng tho c. Sau y chng ta s trnh by mt s chin lc phn gii
quan trng.
6.6.1. Chin lc phn gii theo b rng
Chng ta s phn chia cc nh ca th phn gii thnh cc mc.
Cc cu thuc tp cu C cho trc mc 0. Phn gii thc ca cc cu
mc 0 s mc mt. Cc cu mc i s l cc phn gii thc m mt trong
cc cu cha ca n mc i-1, cn cha kia mc i-1. Trong chin lc
phn gii theo b rng, cc phn gii thc c sinh ra theo b rng, cc
phn gii thc mc i+1 ch c sinh ra khi tt c cc cu mc i c
sinh ra. Chng hn, th trong hnh 6.1 gm c bn mc, trn cng l mc
0, ri n cc mc 1,2 v 3. Nu chng ta p dng chin lc phn gii theo
b rng, thi ta s t ti cu rng trn mc 2, cy chng minh c cho
trong hnh 6.3. Cy chng minh tm c bi chin thut phn gii theo b
rng s l cy ngn nht.
Chin lc phn gii theo b rng l chin lc y .
Hnh 6.3. Mt cy chng minh tm c theo chin lc b rng.
6.6.2. Chin lc phn gii s dng tp h tr
Th tc chng minh s hiu qu hn nhiu nu chng ta hn ch sinh
ra cc phn gii thc m vn khng nh hng g n vic sinh ra cu rng.
Chin lc phn gii s dng tp h tr nhm mc ch . u tin t tp
cc cu cho C, ta chn ra mt tp con cc cu S, tp ny c gi l tp
h tr. Chin lc phn gii s dng tp h tr S t ra hn ch sau: mt
phn gii thc ch c sinh ra nu mt cu cha ca n thuc S hoc l hu
th ca mt cu thuc S. Do nu tp S l nh so vi tp C th khng gian
P(x)vQ(f(x)) 1 P(b)R(a,y) 1 R(a,b)
Q(f(b))vR(a,y)
Q(f(b))
1 Q(z)
R(a,y)
tm kim s c thu hp nhiu. Trt t cc cu c sinh ra c th iu
khin bi chin lc b rng. Chng hn, nu C l tp cc cu trong v d
nu, v nu ta chn S ={1 R(a,b), 1 Q(z)} lm tp h tr th th phn gii
ca chin lc s dng tp h tr S c cho trong hnh 6.4.
Nu tp h tr S c chn sao cho tp cc cu cn li C - S tho
c th chin lc phn gii s dng tp h tr S l y . Sau y l mt
s phng php chn tp h tr m bo cho chin lc phn gii y .
S gm tt c cc cu thuc C khng cha literal m. Khi C-S s
gm cc cu cha literal m, v do C-S l tho c, v mt minh ho m
tt c cc literal m trong C-S nhn gi tr true l mt m hnh ca C-S.
S gm tt c cc cu thuc C khng cha cc literal dng. Tng
t nh trn, tp cc C-S l tho c.
Gi s ta cn chng minh cng thc H t tp tin G. Khi ta c
th ly tp h tr S gm tt c cc cu tuyn t dng chun ca 1 H. Tp cc
cu tuyn t tp tin G, ng nhin c gi thit l tho c.

Hnh 6.4. th phn gii theo chin lc s dng tp h tr
P(x)vQ(f(x)) 1 P(b)vR(a,y) 1 R(a,b) 1 Q(z)
P(x)
1 P(b)
Q(f(b))
6.6.3. Chin lc tuyn tnh
Gi s C l tp cu m ta cn chng minh l khng tho c. Chn
mt cu C
0
thuc C, C
0
c gi l cu trung tm xut pht. Cc phn gii
thc l hu th ca C
0
cng c gi l cu trung tm. Chin lc tuyn tnh
t ra hn ch sau: ch sinh ra cc phn gii thc m mt trong hai cu cha l
cu trung tm, ng thi hai cu trung tm ch c phn gii cng nhau khi
mt cu l hu th ca mt cu khc. Tnh cht tuyn tnhth hin ch,
hai cu trung tm khng c php phn gii cng nhau tr khi mt cu l
hu th ca cu kia.
Chin lc phn gii tuyn tnh s y , nu cu trung tm xut
pht C
0
c chn t tp C sao cho cc cu cn li tho c. Trong thc t,
nu cu cn chnh minh H l hi ca cc literal, th ngi ta ly C
0
= 1 H.
6.7. S DNG LOGIC V T CP MT BIU DIN TRI
THC
Logic v t cp mt cho php chng ta biu din cc i tng trong
th gii hin thc vi cc tnh cht ca chng v cc mi quan h gia
chng. biu din tri thc ca chng ta v mt min i tng no
trong logic v t cp mt, trc ht chng ta cn a ra cc k hiu: cc k
hiu hng (hng i tng) ch ra cc i tng c th; cc k hiu bin
ch cc i tng bt k trong min i tng; cc k hiu hm biu
din cc quan h hm; cc k hiu v t biu din cc mi quan h khc
nhau gia cc i tng. Cc k hiu c a ra to thnh h thng t
vng v min i tng m chng ta ang quan tm. S dng cc t vng
a ra, chng ta s to ra cc cu trong logic v t cp mt biu din tri
thc ca chng ta v min i tng . Tp hp tt c cc cu c to
thnh s lp nn c s tri thc trong h tri thc m chng ta mong mun xy
dng. Vn xy dng c s tri thc s c cp n trong mc sau.
S dng cc k hiu hng, cc k hiu bin v cc k hiu hm, chng
ta s to ra cc hng thc (term) biu din cc i tng (xem mc 6.1).
Tuy nhin trong rt nhiu vn , thun li cho biu din, chng ta cn
n mt dng hng thc c bit, l danh sch. Danh sch l mt cu trc
d liu c s dng thng xuyn nht trong cc ngn ng Prolog v Lisp.
Trong mc ny chng ta s trnh by s to thnh cc hng thc danh sch
v cc php ton trn danh sch. Song trc ht chng ta cn xc nh v t
bng, mt v t thng xuyn c s dng.
6.7.1. V t bng
V t bng, k hiu truyn thng l =, biu din mi quan h ng
nht. Gi s T
1
v T
2
l hai hng thc bt k, khi cng thc phn t T
1
=
T
2
l ng trong mt minh ho nu trong minh ho T
1
v T
2
ng vi cng
mt i tng. Chng hn, cu: Father (An) = Ba l ng trong mt minh
ho, nu ngi ng vi Father(An) v ngi ng vi Ba l mt.
Sau y l mt v d n gin v s dng v t bng nhau. Gi s v
t Sister(x,y) c ngha l x l ch gi ca y, khi cu Tam c t nht hai
ch gic th biu din bi cng thc:
x,y (Sister(x,Tam) ^ Sister(y,Tam) ^ 1 (x=y))
Sau ny chng ta thng vit T
1
T
2
thay cho 1 (T
1
=T
2
).
6.7.2 Danh sch v cc php ton trn danh sch
m t vn , trong rt nhiu trng hp chng ta cn s dng cc
danh sch. Danh sch l cu trc d liu c s dng rng ri nht trong
cc ngn ng x l cc thng tin khng phi l s.
Danh sch l mt dy gm n (n0) i tng bt k, y i tng
c th l i tng n hoc i tng c cu trc, v do danh sch cng
l mt dng i tng. Chng ta s biu din danh sch bi cp du ngoc
vung, bn trong lit k cc thnh phn ca danh sch, cc thnh phn ngn
cch nhau bi du phy.
Sau y l mt s v d v danh sch:
[ ] (danh sch rng)
[ spring, summer, autumn, winter ]
[ john, data(23, may, 1964), 8354268]
[ a, [a,c], b, [a,d,e] ]
Mt danh sch khng phi l danh sch rng c th phn tch lm hai
phn: thanh phn u tin ca danh sch c gi l u danh sch, phn
cn li ca danh sch c gi l ui danh sch. Chng hn trong danh
sch:
[ blue, red, white, yellow ]
u ca danh sch l blue, v ui ca danh sch l danh sch [red,
white, yellow].
Chng ta c th biu din danh sch bi cch vit:
[ u_danh_sch ui_danh_sch ]
Chng hn:
[ blue, red, white, yellow ]=[ blue[ red, white, yellow ] ]
Chng ta cng c th biu din danh sch bng cch lit k ra mt s
thnh phn u danh sch, theo sau l du gch ng , ri n danh
sch cc thnh phn cn li. Chng hn, sau y l mt s cch vit danh
sch trn:
[ blue, red, white, yellow ]
=[ blue[ red, white, yellow ] ]
=[ blue, red[ white, yellow ] ]
=[blue, red, white[ yellow ] ]
=[blue, red, white, yellow[ ] ]
Chng ta c th biu din danh sch bi cc hng thc trong logic v
t cp mt. Trong logic v t, mt danh sch c nh ngha nh sau:
Danh sch hoc l k hiu hng [ ], hoc l mt hng thc c dng
list(X,Y), trong list l k hiu hm ca hai bin, i s X l mt hng thc
bt k v c gi l u danh sch, i s Y l mt danh sch v c gi
l ui danh sch. (Trong ngn ng Prolog, ngi ta s dng k hiu . thay
cho k hiu list; tc l hng thc list(X,Y) trong Prolog c vit l.(X,Y).
Nh vy cc cp biu din sau l tng ng:
Biu din hng thc Biu din du ngoc vung
list(X,Y) [ XY ]
list(X,list(Y,Z)) [ X, YZ ]
list(X,list(Y,list(Z, [ ]))) [ X,Y,Z ]
Trong ngn ng Prolog, ta c th s dng c hai dng biu din danh
sch.
Cc php ton c bn trn danh sch:
1. Quan h thnh phn
Quan h i tng X l thnh phn ca danh sch Lc biu din
bi v t:
Member(X,L)
Quan h ny c xc nh nh sau:
X l thnh phn ca danh sch L nu:
(1) hoc X l u danh sch L
(2) hoc X l thnh phn ca ui danh sch L
Tc l, v t Member(X,L) c xc nh bi cng thc:
Member(X,L) (L = [X | L1]) (L = [Y | L2] Member (X,L2))
Chng hn,
Member(a,[a,b,c])
Member([b,c],[a,[b,c],d])
l cc quan h ng, cn
Member(b,[a,[b,c],d])
l sai.
2.Kt ni hai danh sch thnh mt danh sch
Php ton kt ni 2 danh sch L
1
v L
2
thnh mt danh sch L c
biu din bi v t
Conc(L
1
,L
2
,L)
Danh sch L l kt ni ca 2 danh sch L
1
v L
2
nu:
(1) hoc L
1
=[ ] v L= L
2
(2) hoc L
1
[ ] v u ca L l u ca L
1
v ui ca L l kt ni
ca ui L
1
v L
2
.
Tc l, quan h Conc(L
1
,L
2
,L) c xc nh bi cng thc:
Conc(L
1
,L
2
,L) (L
1
=[] L=L
2
) (L
1
=[XL
3
] L= [X|L
4
] Conc
(L
3
,L
2
,L
4
)
Chng hn,
Conc([a,b],[1,2,3], [a,b,1,2,3])
Conc([a,[b,c]],[a,[ ],d],[a,[b,c],a,[ ],d)
l cc quan h ng, nhng:
Conc([a,b],[c,d],[a,b,a,c,d])
l sai.
3.Loi b mt thnh phn khi danh sch
Vic loi b mt thnh phn X khi danh sch L c xc nh bi
quan h:
Delete(X,L,L1)
Danh sch L
1
l kt qu loi thnh phn X khi danh sch L, nu
(1) hoc X l u ca L v L
1
l ui ca L
(2) hoc u ca L
1
l u ca L v ui ca L
1
l kt qu vic loi
X khi ui ca L.
Tc l,
Delete (X,L,L
1
) (L =[X | L
1
]) (L = [Y| L
2
] Delete (X,L
2
,L
3
) L
3
=[Y,L
3
])
Chng hn, ta c quan h ng sau:
Delete(a,[a,b,a,c],[b,a,c])
Delete(a,[a,b,a,c],[a,b,c])
4.Quan h danh sch con
Quan h Sublist(L
1
,L) l ng nu danh sch L
1
l danh sch con ca
danh sch L, chng hn:
Sublist([c,d,e],[a,b,c,d,e,f])
l quan h ng cn
Sublist([b,d],[a,b,c,d,e,f])
l sai.
ng nhin, nu L
1
l danh sch con ca L, th danh sch L c th
phn tch thnh cc danh sch con nh trong hnh sau:
L

L
2
L
1
L
4

L
3
Do ta c th xc nh quan h ny nh sau:
L
1
l danh sch con ca danh sch L, nu
(1) L l kt ni ca L
2
v L
3
, v
(2) L
3
l kt ni ca L
1
v L
4
tc l, ta c: Sublist(L
1
,L) <= Conc(L
2
,L
3
,L) ^ Conc(L
1
,L
4
,L
3
)
Trn y l mt s php ton c bn trn danh sch, d dng cho
x l danh sch, ta cn xc nh mt s php ton khc.
Tp hp l mt khi nim c bn trong ton hc, ta c th m t rt
nhiu vn bng cch s dng tp hp v cc php ton trn tp hp.Tuy
nhin ta c th biu din tp hp bi danh sch,v cc php ton tp hp c
th c xc nh thng qua cc php ton trn danh sch.
6.8. XY DNG C S TRI THC
Nh chng ta bit mt h tri thc bao gm hai thnh phn chnh l
c s tri thc (CSTT)v th tc suy din. Nh vy thit k mt h tri
thc, chng ta cn phi xy dng nn CSTT. CSTT bao gm cc cu (trong
mt ngn ng biu din tri thc no , y l logic v t cp mt). Cc
cu ny biu din tri thc ca chng ta v mt lnh vc p dng m chng ta
ang quan tm. Logic v t cp mt l mt cng c mnh biu din tri
thc v lp lun. Song mt vn t ra l, ta phi la chn cc i tng
no, cc s kin no, cc quan h no, cc tri thc chung no a vo
CSTT, sao cho vi CSTT , th tc suy din c th a ra cc cu tr li
cho cc cu hi ca ngi s dng.
Qu trnh xy dng CSTT c gi l cng ngh tri thc (knowledge
engineering).Ngi k s tri thc (ngi k s lm vic trong lnh vc cng
ngh tri thc) c th nm c cc cng ngh lm ra CSTT, nhng ni
chung anh ta khng hiu bit v lnh vc p dng. Ngi k s tri thc cn
phi phng vn cc chuyn gia trong lnh vc khai thc cc tri thc
cn thit a vo CSTT,qu trnh ny c gi l qu trnh thu thp tri
thc (knowledge acquisition).Ch nm c c php v ng ngha ca ngn
ng biu din tri thc, chng ta khng th xy dng c CSTT. Ngi k
s cn phi hiu bit cc k thut ca cng ngh tri thc. Trong mc ny
chng ta s trnh by vn tt cc k thut c bn ca cng ngh tri thc.
Phng php lun xy dng mt CSTT bao gm cc bc chnh sau
y:
Trc ht cn phi xc nh CSTT m ta xy dng ni ti cc loi i
tng no, cc s kin no, cc thuc tnh no, cc quan h no.
Mun vy ngi k s tri thc cn phi tm hiu cc chuyn gia trong
lnh vc p dng c s hiu bit y v lnh vc . Cn nh
rng, ch khi no hiu bit tng tn v lnh vc p dng mi bt
u xy dng CSTT.
Xy dng h thng t vng.
H thng t vng bao gm cc hng, cc hm v cc v t. Bc ny
thc hin vic chuyn dch cc khi nim trong lnh vc p dng thnh cc
tn hng, tn hm, tn v t. Cc tn hng, tn hm, tn v t cn c la
chn sao cho ngi c CSTT c th hiu c d dng ngha ca n.
Chng hn, ta c th dng v t HasColor (x,y) biu din quan h "i
tng x c mu y", dng v t Small(x) biu din thuc tnh "i tng x
c c nh". Cng mt quan h, ta c th biu din bi hm hoc v t, chng
hn, ta c th s dng hm HusbandOf(x) biu din i tng l chng
ca x, hoc c th s dng v t IsHusband(y,x) biu din quan h y l
chng ca x. Mt v d khc, nu chng ta quan tm ti cc i tng vi
cc mu khc nhau, ta c th s dng vi t HasColor(x,y) a ra trn.
Song nu ch quan tm ti cc i tng vi mu hay khng, ta c th
dng v t Red(x) (x c mu ).
Nh vy, trong giai on xy dng h thng t vng, ta cn quyt
nh biu din mt quan h bi hm hay v t, cc hm (v t) l cc hm (v
t) ca cc i s no. Ta cn chn cc tn hng, tn hm, tn v t sao cho
n ni ln c ni dung m n cn m t.
Biu din tri thc chung v lnh vc:
H thng t vng ch l danh sch cc thut ng. Chng ta cn phi s
dng cc thut ng ny vit ra cc cng thc logic m t cc tri thc
chung ca chng ta v lnh vc p dng, v cng l chnh xc ho cc
thut ng m chng ta a ra trong h thng t vng. Chng hn, khi ni ti
cc quan h h hng, ta cn a vo cc v t Sibling(x,y) biu din quan h
"x v y l anh em", v t Parent (u,v) biu din "u l cha m ca v",... Sau
ta cn a vo tin sau y:
x,y(Sibling(x,y) (xy)p(Parent(p,y)Parent(p,x)))
Cu ny ni rng, nu x v y l anh em th h phi cng cha m v
ngc li.
Mt s lng ln cc tri thc ca con ngi c m t bi cc cu
trong ngn ng t nhin. Do xy dng CSTT chng ta cn bit chuyn
cc cu trong ngn ng t nhin thnh cc cu trong ngn ng v t. Sau y
l mt vi v d cho ta bit cch chuyn cc cu trong ngn ng t nhin
thnh cng thc logic (chng ti khuyn c gi hy t mnh vit ra cc
cng thc logic trc khi c tip). S dng cc v t Mushroom(x)(x l
nm), Purple(y) (y mu tm), Poisonnous(z) (z c c),chng ta hy chuyn
cc cu sau y thnh cc cng thc logic.
Mi cy nm tm u c c
x(Mushroom(x)Purple(x) Poisonnous(x))
Tt c cy nm hoc c mu tm hoc c c
x(Mushroom(x)Purple(x)Poisonnous(x))
Mi cy nm hoc mu tm hoc c c nhng khng l c hai
x(Mushroom(x)(Purple(x)1Poisonnous(x))(1Purple(x)
Poisonnous(x)))
Tt c cc cy nm tm u c c tr mt cy
x(Mushroom(x)Purple(x)1
Poisonnous(x))y(Mushroom(y)Purple(y)(yx)Poisonnous(y)))
Ch c hai cy nm tm
x,y(Mushroom(x)Purple(x)Mushroom(y)Purple(y)(xy)
z,x(Mushroom(z)Purple(z)(z=x)(z=y)))
Sau khi chng ta vit ra cc cng thc logic (cc tin ) m t cc
tri thc chung v lnh vc p dng, c th xem nh chng ta xy dng
nn mt CSTT. thun li cho vic lu tr CSTT trong my tnh, v thun
li cho th tc suy din hot ng, chng ta c th chun ho cc cu trong
CSTT.
Trong ton hc, ngi ta c gng tm c mt tp cc tin c
lp, tc l trong khng c tin no c th suy ra t cc tin cn li.
Tuy nhin, trong cc h tri thc, CSTT c th cha cc tin "tha", chng
khng lm tng thm cc tri thc mi c suy ra, song chng c th lm
cho qu trnh suy din hiu qu hn.
6.9. CI T C S TRI THC
Trong mc trc, chng ta xt mt s k thut quan trng nht
xy dng c s tri thc(CSTT), mt trong hai thnh phn chnh ca h tri
thc. CSTT l tp cc cu (cc tin ) m t tri thc ca chng ta v mt
lnh vc no m chng ta quan tm. Chng ta s gi thit rng, CSTT
c chun ho, tc l n gm cc cu tuyn (mi cu l tuyn ca cc
literal). Th tc suy din, ni chung, l th tc chng minh bc b m chng
ta trnh by trong mc 6.5. Trong trng hp CSTT l mt tp hp cc
cu Horn (cc lut if-then), chng ta c th s dng th tc suy din tin
(forward chaining) hoc th tc suy din li (forward chaining) s c trnh
by trong chng tip theo. Trong cc th tc suy din, chng ta u phi
thc hin lp li cng vic nh sau: tm ra cc literal c th hp nht c
vi mt literal ang xt no , nu tm c th p dng lut phn gii cho
hai cu cha hai literal hp nht c . Do cho th tc suy din thc
hin hiu qu, chng ta cn ci t CSTT sao cho cng vic thc hin lp li
trn c thc hin hiu qu. Trc ht ta cn biu din cc hng thc v
cc cu phn t bi cc cu trc d liu thch hp.
6.9.1. Ci t cc hng thc v cc cu phn t:
V mt c php, cc hng thc v cc cu phn t c cu trc hon
ton ging nhau (xem li mc 6.1.1). Do ta ch cn xt vic ci t cc
hng thc. Cc hng thc biu din cc i tng trong th gii hin thc.
T cc i tng n c biu din bi cc k hiu hng, v t cc k hiu
bin biu din mt i tng bt k trong mt lp cc i tng, ta c th
to ra cc i tng c cu trc. Cc i tng c cu trc l cc i tng
c mt s thnh phn, cc thnh phn ny n lt mnh li c th l cc i
tng c cu trc. kt hp cc thnh phn to thnh mt i tng mi,
chng ta s dng mt k hiu hm (functor). Chng hn, s dng k hiu
hm Date, ngy 1 thng 5 nm 2000 c biu din bi hng thc
date (1, May, 2000)
Mt ngy bt k trong thng 5 nm 2000 c biu din bi hng
thc:
date (Day, May, 2000)
trong Day l k hiu bin. Hng thc ny gm 3 thnh phn, mt l
k hiu bin, hai thnh phn khc l cc k hiu hng. Hng thc ny c
biu din bi cu trc cy trong hnh 6.5
Hnh 6.5. Cy biu din hng thc date (Day, May,2000)
Cc v d sau cho ta thy cch to ra cc hng thc biu din cc i
tng hnh hc trong mt phng. Mt im trong khng gian hai chiu c
xc nh bi hai to ; mt on thng c xc nh bi hai im; mt
tam gic c xc nh bi ba im. Do , nu ta s dng cc k hiu hm
point (im), seg (on thng), triangle (tam gic) th im c to (2,3)
c biu din bi hng thc point (2, 3)
on thng ni hai im (4, 7) v (9, 3) c biu din bi hng thc:
seg(point (4, 7), point (9, 3))
Tam gic c ba nh l ba im (3, 2), (6, 4), (8, 1) c biu din bi
hng thc:
Triangle (point(3, 2), point(6, 4), point(8, 1))
Cc hng thc trn c biu din bi cc cu trc cy trong hnh 6.6.
date
2000
May
Day
point
2 3
point
9 7 4
seg
3
point

Hnh 6.6. Cc cy biu din cc hng thc.
Mt cch tng qut, cc hng thc c biu din bi cc cy (chng
hn, cc cy trong hnh 6.6), trong gc ca cy l cc k hiu hm. Nu
cc i s ny khng phi l k hiu hng, hoc k hiu bin th chng l cc
cy con ca gc c to thnh theo quy tc trn.
By gi chng ta xem xt cc i tng danh sch (xem mc 6.7)
c biu din bi cu trc cy nh th no. Nh li rng, danh sch:
[spring, summer, autumn, winter]
c biu din bi hng thc:
list (spring, list(summer, list (autumn, list (winter,[ ]))))
Hng thc ny c biu din bi cy trong hnh 6.7
triangle
3 2
point point point
4 6 8 1
List
List
Spring
List Summer
Autumn
[ ]
Winter
List
Hnh 6.7. Cy biu din danh sch [spring, summer, autumn,
winter]
Mt cch tng t, bng cch chuyn sang dng hng thc, ta c th
biu din danh sch: [a,b], c, [ [a, e], d ] ] bi cy trong hnh 6.8. Trong cy
hnh 6.8, nu a, b, c, d, e khng phi l cc i tng n m l cc i
tng c cu trc c biu din bi cc hng thc, th v tr ca cc nh
gn nhn a, b, c, d, e s l cc cy con biu din cc hng thc .
Trn y chng ta ch ra rng, cc hng thc (v cc cu phn t)
c th biu din mt cch t nhin bi cc cu trc cy.
[]
List
a
[] b
List List
c
d
e
a
List
[]
List List
List List
Hnh 6.8. Cy biu din danh sch [ [a,b], c, [[a,e],d] ]
6.9.2. Ci t c s tri thc
Chng ta bit cch to ra cc cu trc d liu biu din cc hng
thc v cc cu phn t. By gi chng ta nghin cu cc k thut ci t c
s tri thc sao cho cc th tc suy din c th thc hin c hiu qu. Gi s
CSTT bao gm cc cu tuyn dng
C =P
1
P
m
1Q
1
1Q
n
trong , Pi (i = 1,....,m, m 0), Q
k
(k = 1,2,...,n, n 0) l cc cu phn
t. Mt cch t nhin, mi cu C c th c biu din bi bn ghi gm hai
trng:
Danh sch cc Literal dng [P
1
,....,P
m
]
Danh sch cc Literal m [Q
1
,..., Q
n
]
Mt cch n gin nht, ta c th ci t CSTT nh mt danh sch
cc cu tuyn. Tuy nhin vi cch ci t ny, th tc suy din km hiu
qu, bi mi ln cn xt xem mt cu phn t S c hp nht vi mt thnh
phn no ca mt cu trong CSTT, ta phi i qua danh sch, xem xt
tng thnh phn ca cc cu trong danh sch cho ti khi tm ra hoc i ti
ht danh sch.
Mt gii php khc tt hn, ta c th ci t CSTT bi bng bm. Cc
kho cho bng bm ny l cc k hiu v t, tc l bng bm c nh ch
s theo cc k hiu v t. Trong bng bm, ti ch s ng vi mi k hiu v
t ta s lu:
Danh sch cc literal dng ca k hiu v t .
Danh sch cc literal m.
Danh sch cc cu m k hiu v t xut hin trong cc literal
dng ca cu (Cu dng).
Danh sch cc cu m k hiu v t xut hin trong cc literal
m ca cu (Cu m).
V d: Gi s CSTT cha cc cu sau:
Brother (An, Ba)
Brother (Tam, Hoa)
1Brother (Lan, Cao)
1Brother (x,y) Male(x)
1Brother (x,y) 1Male(y) 1Brother (y,x)
Male(Cao)
Male(Ba)
1 Male(Lan)
Khi , ti cc ch s ng vi kho Brother v Male, bng bm s lu
gi cc thnh phn c cho trong bng sau
Kho Literal dng Literal m Cu dng Cu m
Brother Brother(An,Ba)
Brother(Tam,
Hoa)
1Brother (Lan,
Cao)
1Brother(x,y)
Male(y)Brother(
y,x)
1Brother (x,y) 1Male(y)
Brother(y,x)
1Brother (x,y) Male(x)
Male Male(Cao)
Male(Ba)
1 Male(Lan) 1Brother(x,y)
Male(x)
1Brother (x,y) 1Male(y)
Brother (y,x)
Ci t CSTT bi bng bm nh ch s theo cc k hiu v t l
phng php rt hiu qu cho vic tm kim trn CSTT, nu nh CSTT cha
nhiu k hiu v t v vi mi k hiu v t ch c mt s t cc cu cha k
hiu v t . Tuy nhin trong mt s p dng, c th c rt nhiu cu cha
cng mt k hiu v t no . Chng hn, C S Tri Thc c th cha hng
triu cu ni v ngi lao ng, mi ngi lao ng c biu din bi cc
thng tin v h tn, ngy thng nm sinh, s th bo him, cng vic (Cng
vic c xc nh bi ni lm vic v tin lng). Tc l mi ngi lao
ng c m t bng cu c dng:
Worker (Tom, date (3, may,1965), 012-34-567, job(UNIMEX,
300))
(cu ny ni rng, c ngi lao ng tn l Tom, sinh ngy 3 thng 5 nm
1965, s th bo him 012-34-567, lm vic ti cng ty UNIMEX vi mc
lng 300). Trong cc trng hp nh th, tm kim c hiu qu, ngoi
vic xy dng bng bm nh ch s theo cc i s ca cc k hiu v t, ta
cn xy dng cc bng bm nh ch s theo cc i s ca cc v t. Chng
hn, y cc literal dng ng vi kho Worker cn c t chc di
dng bng bm nh ch s theo kha l s bo him y t hoc h tn v
ngy thng nm sinh.
CHNG 7
BIU DIN TRI THC BI CC LUT
V LP LUN
Trong chng 6, chng ta bit rng, vi mt c s tri thc gm cc
cu trong logic v t cp mt, ta c th chng minh c mt cng thc c
l h qu logic ca c s tri thc hay khng, bng phng php chng minh
bc b v th tc gii. Tuy nhin, th tc chng minh tng qut ny c
phc tp ln v i hi chin lc gii thch hp. Chnh v l do ny m cc
nh nghin cu c gng tm cc tp con ca logic v t cp mt, sao cho
chng kh nng biu din c s tri thc trong nhiu lnh vc p dng, v
c th a ra cc th tc suy din hiu qu. Cc tp con ny ca logic v t
cp mt s xc nh cc ngn ng biu din tri thc c bit. Trong chng
ny chng ta s nghin cu ngn ng ch bao gm cc cu Horn (cc lut
nu - th). Ch s dng cc lut nu - th chng ta khng th biu din c
mi iu m chng ta c th biu din c trong logic v t cp mt. Tuy
nhin vi cc lut nu - th ta c th biu din c mt khi lng ln tri
thc trong nhiu lnh vc p dng khc nhau, v c th thc hin cc th tc
suy din hiu qu.
7.1. BIU DIN TRI THC BI CC LUT NU - TH
Ngn ng bao gm cc lut nu - th (if - then), (cn gi l cc lut
sn xut -production rule), l ngn ng ph bin nht biu din tri thc.
Nh li rng, cc cu Horn c dng
Q P P
n

1
trong cc P
i
(i = 1, ..., n) v Q l cc cu phn t.
Cc cu Horn cn c vit di dng
Nu
P
1
v P
2
... v P
n

th
Q
(if P
1
and ... and P
n
then Q)
cc P
i
(i = 1, ..., n) c gi l cc iu kin, Q c gi l kt lun
ca lut.
Cc lut nu - th c cc u im sau y
Mi lut nu - th m t mt phn nh tng i c lp ca tri thc.
C th thm v c s tri thc cc lut mi, hoc loi b mt s lut c
m khng nh hng nhiu ti cc lut khc.
Cc h tri thc vi c s tri thc gm cc lut nu - th c kh nng
a ra li gii thch cho cc quyt nh ca h.
Cc lut nu - th l dng biu din t nhin ca tri thc. Bng cch s
dng cc lut nu - th chng ta c th biu din c mt s lng ln tri
thc ca con ngi v t nhin, v x hi, kinh nghim ca con ngi trong
lao ng, sn xut, tri thc ca cc thy thuc, tri thc ca cc k s, tri thc
trong cc ngnh khoa hc: kinh t, sinh hc, ho hc, vt l, ton hc,...
Sau y l mt lut v chn on bnh:
Nu
1. bnh nhn ho lu ngy, v
2. bnh nhn thng st vo bui chiu
th
bnh nhn c kh nng bnh lao
Mt lut v kinh nghim d bo thi tit:
Nu
chun chun bay thp
th
tri s ma
Nhiu nh l trong ton hc c th biu din bi cc lut. Chng hn,
Nu
1. tam gic c mt gc bng 60
0
, v
2. tam gic c hai cnh bng nhau
th
tam gic l tam gic u.
Cc h tri thc m c s tri thc bao gm cc lut s c gi l cc
h da trn lut (rule - based system). Trong cc mc cn li ca chng
ny chng ta s nghin cu cc th tc suy din trong cc h da trn lut.
7.2. LP LUN TIN V LP LUN LI TRONG CC H DA
TRN LUT
Mt khi chng ta lu tr mt c s tri thc, chng ta cn c th tc
lp lun rt ra cc kt lun t c s tri thc. Trong cc h da trn lut,
c hai phng php lun lp lun c bn:
Lp lun tin, v
Lp lun li
Chng ta s phn chia c s tri thc thnh hai b phn: c s lut
(rule base) v c s s kin (fact base) (hoc b nh lm vic (working
memory)). C s lut bao gm cc lut c t nht mt iu kin, biu din
cc tri thc chung v lnh vc p dng. Cn c s s kin bao gm cc cu
phn t (cc lut khng iu kin) m t cc s kin m chng ta bit v cc
i tng trong lnh vc p dng.
7.2.1. Lp lun tin
T tng c bn ca lp lun tin l p dng lut suy din Modus
Ponens tng qut (xem mc 6.3). Trong mi bc ca th tc lp lun tin,
ngi ta xt mt lut trong c s lut. i snh mi iu kin ca lut vi
cc s kin trong c s s kin, nu tt c cc iu kin ca lut u c
tho mn th s kin trong phn kt lun ca lut c xem l s kin c
suy ra. Nu s kin ny l s kin mi (khng c trong b nh lm vic), th
n c t vo b nh lm vic. Qu trnh trn c lp li cho ti khi no
khng c lut no sinh ra cc s kin mi.
Nh vy qu trnh lp lun tin l qu trnh xem xt cc lut. Vi mi
lut, ta i t phn iu kin ti phn kt lun ca lut, khi m tt c cc iu
kin ca lut u c lm tho mn (bi cc s kin trong c s s kin),
th ta suy ra s kin trong phn kt lun ca lut. Chnh v l m c tn
lp lun tin (forward chaining hoc forward reasoning).
Qu trnh lp lun tin khng nh hng ti gii quyt mt vn
no c, khng nh hng ti tm ra cu tr li cho mt cu hi no c. Lp
lun tin ch l qu trnh suy ra cc s kin mi t cc s kin trong b nh
lm vic. V vy lp lun tin cn c gi l lp lun iu khin bi d
liu (data - driven reasioning), hoc lp lun nh hng d liu (data -
directed reasioning).
thy c qu trnh lp lun tin din ra nh th no, chng ta xt
v d sau y. (V d ny l ca P. H. Winston xem [ ]).
Gi s c s lut (c s lut v cc ng vt trong s th) gm cc
lut sau
Lut 1: nu ng vt c lng mao
th ng vt l loi c v
Lut 2: nu ng vt c lng v
th ng vt l chim
Lut 3: nu 1. ng vt bit bay, v
2. ng vt trng
th ng vt l chim
Lut 4: nu 1. ng vt l loi c v, v
2. ng vt n tht
th ng vt l th n tht
Lut 5: nu 1. ng vt l loi c v, v
2. ng vt c rng nhn, v
3. ng vt c mng vut
th ng vt l th n tht
Lut 6: nu 1. ng vt l th n tht, v
2. ng vt c mu lng vng hung, v
3. ng vt c m sm
th ng vt l bo Chu Phi
Lut 7: nu 1. ng vt l th n tht, v
2. ng vt c mu lng vng hung, v
3. ng vt c vn en
th ng vt l h
Lut 8: nu 1. ng vt l chim, v
2. ng vt khng bit bay, v
3. ng vt c chn di, v
4. ng vt c c di
th ng vt l iu
Lut 9: nu 1. ng vt l chim, v
2. ng vt khng bit bay, v
3. ng vt bit bi, v
4. ng vt c lng en v trng
th ng vt l chim cnh ct
Gi s mt em b quan st mt con vt c tn l Ki trong s th, em
thy n c cc c im sau
Ki c lng mao
Ki n tht
Ki c mu lng vng hung
Ki c m sm
Lc ny c s s kin s bao gm cc s kin trn.
Th tc lp lun tin xem xt lut 1. Khi bin ng vt trong lut
ny c thay bi Ki, iu kin ca lut tr thnh Ki c lng mao, y l
mt s kin c trong b nh lm vic, do ta suy ra Ki l loi c v. y
l s kin mi, do n c thm vo b nh lm vic. Xt lut 4, th bin
ng vt bi Ki, th hai iu kin ca lut tr thnh
Ki l loi c v, v
Ki n tht
C hai s kin ny u c trong b nh lm vic, do t lut 4 ta
suy ra Ki l th n tht. S kin mi ny li c thm vo b nh lm
vic. Ta xt tip lut 6, th bin ng vt bi Ki, cc iu kin ca lut tr
thnh
Ki l loi th n tht, v
Ki c mu lng vng hung, v
Ki c m sm
Tt c cc iu kin ny u ng, do t lut 6, ta suy ra Ki l bo
Chu Phi. Nh vy t cc s kin bit v Ki, lp lun tin suy ra cc
s kin mi sau
Ki l loi c v.
Ki l th n tht.
Ki l bo Chu Phi.
7.2.2. Lp lun li
Trong cc h da trn lut, chng ta cn c th s dng phng php
lp lun li (backward chaining hoc backward reasoning).
Trong lp lun li, ngi ta a ra cc gi thuyt cn c nh gi.
S dng lp lun li, gi thuyt a ra hoc l c chng minh, hoc l b
bc b (bi cc s kin trong b nh lm vic). Cn lu rng, chng ta ni
gi thuyt c chng minh, hoc b bc b l mun ni ti n c chng
minh, hoc bc b bi tnh trng hin thi ca b nh lm vic. Khi m b
nh lm vic thay i (chng ta thm vo hoc loi b mt s s kin) th
mt gi thuyt c chng minh c th tr thnh b bc b v ngc li.
Qu trnh lp lun li din ra nh sau: Ta i snh gi thuyt a ra
vi cc s kin trong b nh lm vic. Nu c mt s kin khp vi gi
thuyt, ( y khp c hiu l hai cu m t s kin v gi thuyt trng
nhau qua mt php th no ), th ta xem nh gi thuyt l ng. Nu
khng c s kin no khp vi gi thuyt, th ta i snh gi thuyt vi phn
kt lun ca cc lut. Vi mi lut m kt lun ca lut khp vi gi thuyt,
ta i li li phn iu kin ca lut. Cc iu kin ny ca lut c xem
nh cc gi thuyt mi. Vi gi thuyt mi, ta lp li qu trnh trn.
Nu tt c cc gi thuyt c sinh ra trong qu trnh pht trin cc
gi thuyt bi cc lut c chn thch hp u c tho mn (u c trong
b nh lm vic) th gi thuyt a ra c xem l ng. Ngc li, d ta
p dng lut no pht trin cc gi thuyt cng dn ti cc gi thuyt
khng c trong b nh lm vic v khng th quy gi thuyt ny v cc gi
thuyt mi khc, th gi thuyt a ra c xem l sai.
lm sng t t tng ca lp lun li, ta xt v d sau. Ta s dng
c s lut a ra trong mc 7.2.1. Gi s b nh lm vic cha cc s
kin sau.
Bibi c lng v
Bibi c chn di
Bibi c c di
Bibi khng bit bay
Ta a ra gi thuyt sau y
Bibi l iu
i snh gi thuyt ny vi phn kt lun ca cc lut, ta thy n
khp vi kt lun ca lut 8 nu th bin ng vt bi Bibi. T lut 8, ta
suy ra rng, gi thuyt Bibi l iu l ng, nu cc iu kin sau l
ng
1. Bibi l chim
2. Bibi khng bit bay
3. Bibi c chn di
4. Bibi c c di
y l 4 gi thuyt mi, v vic nh gi gi thuyt Bibi l iu
c quy v vic nh gi bn gi thuyt mi ny. Cc gi thuyt 2, 3 v 4
u c trong b nh lm vic, ta ch cn nh gi gi thuyt Bibi l chim.
Li i snh gi thuyt ny vi phn kt lun ca cc lut. Ta thy n khp
vi kt lun ca lut 2 v lut 3. Xt lut 3, i li li phn iu kin ca lut
ny, ta nhn c cc gi thuyt mi l
Bibi bit bay
Bibi trng
C hai gi thuyt ny u khng c trong b nh lm vic v cng
khng khp vi phn kt lun ca lut no c. Do , ta khng th pht trin
tip cc gi thuyt ny c na. Chuyn sang xt lut 2, Bibi l chim
lut ny i hi iu kin Bibi c lng v. iu kin ny c trong b nh
lm vic. Vy gi thuyt a ra Bibi l iu l ng.
Lp lun li nhm chng minh mt gi thuyt, chnh v th m lp
lun li cn c gi l lp lun nh hng mc ch (goal - ariented
reasoning). Sau ny chng ta s thy rng, chng ta c th s dng lp lun
li tm ra cc cu tr li cho cc cu hi ca ngi s dng.
7.2.3. Lp lun li nh tm kim trn th v/hoc
Mi lut nu - th dng
nu P
1
v P
2
... v P
m
th Q
c th biu din bi th v/hoc trong hnh 7.1.
Q
P
1
P
2
P
3
nh "v"
Kt lun ca lut
Cc u kin ca lut
Hnh 7.1 Biu din th ca lut
C th xy ra, nhiu lut khc nhau c cng phn kt lun. Chng hn,
c hai lut cho kt lun Q, mt lut gm ba iu kin P
1
, P
2
, P
3
, mt lut
gm hai iu kin S
1
, S
2
. Hon cnh ny c biu din bi th trong hnh
7.2.
nh "hoc" Q
P
1 P
2
P
3
S
1
S
2
Bng cch biu din cc lut bi th nh trn, t c s lut, ta xy
dng nn th v/hoc. Khi lp lun li c th xem nh qu trnh tm
kim trn th v/hoc c xy dng nn t c s lut. Qu trnh tm
kim xut pht t nh khp vi gi thuyt cn nh gi.
Vic tm kim xc nh mt gi thuyt l ng hay sai hon ton
tng t nh vic tm kim trn th v/hoc (xem mc 1.4.3) xc nh
mt nh ng vi bi ton cho l gii c hay khng gii c. Nu gi
thuyt c chng minh l ng th chng ta s tm c cy chng minh
ging nh tm cy nghim cho bi ton cn gii (xem mc 1.4.3).
Tr li vi v d nu, chng ta tm c cy chng minh cho gi
thuyt Bi bi l iu nh trong hnh 7.3
iu
Khng
bit bay
Chim Chn di C di
Lng v
Hnh 7.3 Cy chng minh "Bibi l iu"
T cy chng minh, h c th a ra cc cu tr li cho cc cu hi v
cc l do m h a ra cc kt lun. Chng hn, nu ngi s dng hi
ti sao h khng nh Bibi l iu, h c th tr li rng v Bibi l
chim, Bibi khng bit bay, Bibi c chn di, v Bibi c c di. Nu ngi
s dng hi tip ti sao Bibi l chim ?, h c th tr li rng v Bibi c
lng v.
Trong mc ny, chng ta mi ch nu ra cc tng chnh ca
phng php lp lun tin v lp lun li. Sau y chng ta s trnh by chi
tit hn v th tc lp lun tin v th tc lp lun li.
7.3. TH TC LP LUN TIN
Nh chng ta ni, trong cc h da trn lut, chng ta s tch c s
tri thc thnh hai phn
C s lut, k hiu l RB (Rule Base), v
C s s kin (b nh lm vic), k hiu l FB (Fact Base)
Vi mi lut R:
Nu P
1
v P
2
... P
m
th Q
ta k hiu Conds l danh sch cc iu kin ca lut, Conds = [P
1
,
P
2
, ..., P
m
], v k hiu Conc l kt lun ca lut, Conc = Q. Ta s xem mi
lut R nh l mt cp gm danh sch cc iu kin v mt kt lun:
R = (Conds(R), Conc(R))
Trong th tc lp lun tin, chng ta s s dng lut suy din sau
(xem mc 6.3).
' ' ' '
1
'
1
1
,
Q P P P P
S
Q P P P
m i i
m i

trong P
i
hp nht vi S bi php th , tc l P
i
= S, v
k k
P P
'

(k = 1, ..., m; k i), Q
= Q.
Lut suy din trn cho php ta t mt lut c m iu kin, mt trong
cc iu kin khp vi mt s kin suy ra mt lut mi c m - 1 iu
kin. Do nu lut c m iu kin, th bng cch p dng m ln lut suy
din trn (nu c th) ta suy ra c mt s kin. S kin ny l kt qu ca
vic ta p dng php th bin vo kt lun ca lut. (Php th ny l hp
thnh ca cc php th trong mi ln p dng lut suy din trn). Vic p
dng lut suy din Modus Ponens tng qut cho lut c m iu kin tng
ng vi vic p dng m ln lut suy din trn.
7.3.1. Th tc For_chain
Th tc sau y, th tc For_Chair, thc hin qu trnh p dng lut
suy din nu trn gim bt s iu kin ca mt lut trong c s lut. Khi
m ta dn ti mt lut c phn iu kin rng tc l ta suy ra mt s kin.
Trong th tc For_Chain, lut R = (Conds, Conc) l bin a phng ca th
tc, Conds = [P
1
, ..., P
i
, ..., P
m
]
procedure For_Chain (conds, conc);
begin
for mi S trong FB do
if S hp nht vi iu kin P
i
trong Conds bi php th
then {
Conds [P
1
, ..., P
i-1
, P
i+1
, ..., P
m
];
Conc Conc ;
if Conds rng then Add(Conc, FB)
else For_Chain(Conds, Conc);
}
end;
Ch : Trong th tc trn, th tc Add(Conc, FB) thc hin vic kim
tra xem kt lun conc c l s kin mi khng (tc l khng c s kin no
trong c s s kin FB trng vi Conc hoc nhn c t Conc bng cch
t tn li cc bin), nu Conc l s kin mi th n c t vo FB.
Qu trnh lp lun tin l qu trnh p dng th tc trn cho cc lut
trong c s lut cho ti khi no khng c s kin mi no xut hin. Ta c
th tc sau:
procedure Forward_Reasoning (RB, FB);
begin
repeat
for mi lut (conds, conc) trong FB do For_Chain(Conds,
Conc);
until khng c lut no sinh ra s kin mi;
end;
V d. Gi s c s lut cha lut sau (lut m)
nu
1. x l nga, v
2. x l m ca y, v
3. y chy nhanh
th x c gi
C s s kin gm cc s kin sau
Tom l nga
Ken l nga
Kit l nga
Bin l nga
Tom l m ca Bin
Tom l m ca Ken
Bin l m ca Kit.
Kit chy nhanh.
Bin chy nhanh.
Bng cch s dng cc v t House(x) (x l nga), Mother(x, y) (x l
m ca y), Fast(y) (y chy nhanh), Valuable(x) (x c gi), ta c th vit lut
trn thnh cu:
House(x) Mother(x, y) Fast(y) Valuable(x)
C s s kin gm cc cu phn t sau
House(Tom) (1)
House(Ken) (2)
House(Kit) (3)
House(Bin) (4)
Mother(Tom, Bin) (5)
Mother(Tom, Ken)(6)
Mother(Bin, Kit) (7)
Fast(Kit) (8)
Fast(Bin) (9)
Ta xt xem qu trnh s din ra nh th no khi ta p dng th tc
For_chain cho lut m v FB gm cc s kin (1) - (9).
S kin (1) khp vi iu kin th nht ca lut bi php th [x/Tom],
t lut m ta suy ra
Mother(Tom, y) Fast(y) Valuable(Tom)
S kin (5) hp nht vi iu kin Mother(Tom/y) bi php th [y/
Bin], ta suy ra
Fast(Bin) Valuable(Tom)
T s kin (9) v ko theo trn, ta suy ra Valuable(Tom).
S kin (2) cng hp nht vi iu kin th nht ca lut, do ta suy
ra
Mother(Ken, y) Fast(y) Valuable(Ken)
Ti y ta khng suy din tip c, v khng c s kin no hp nht
c vi iu kin Mother(Ken, y). iu tng t cng xy ra, khi m bin
x trong lut m c th bi Kit.
T s kin (4) v lut m, ta suy ra
Mother(Bin, y) Fast(y) Valuable(Bin)
S kin (7) hp nht vi iu kin Mother(Bin, y), t ta suy ra
Fast(Kit) Valuable(Bin)
T ko theo ny v s kin (8), ta suy ra Valuable(Bin). Nh vy p
dng th tc For_chain cho lut m, chng ta suy ra c hai s kin mi l
Tom c gi v Bin c gi.
Chng ta c nhn xt rng, nu ci t th tc lp lun tin mt cch
trc tip, th th tc ny s rt khng hiu qu. Bi v chng ta phi lp li
rt nhiu ln thao tc i snh mi s kin trong b nh lm vic vi cc
iu kin trong cc lut. Nu b nh lm vic cha f s kin, c s lut cha
r lut, mi lut gm c iu kin, th ch trong mt chu k xem xt cc lut ta
phi thc hin fcr php i snh.
Sau y chng ta s trnh by th tc rete, l mt phng php ci
t thut ton suy din tin. Th tc rete s loi b c cc thao tc i
snh lp li khng cn thit. (Rete l tn Latin, ng ngha vi t net trong
Ting Anh).
7.3.2. Th tc rete
T tng ca th tc rete l ngi ta to ra mt li cho mi lut
trong c s lut. Mi nh trong li biu din mt bng d liu m mi bn
ghi trong bng l mt php th bin sao cho mt hoc mt s iu kin ca
lut c tho mn. thy r li c to thnh nh th no, ta hy xt
mt lut c th sau (lut m nu trong mc 7.3.1)
House(x) Mother(x, y) Fast(y) Valuable(x)
Lut ny cha ba iu kin, ngi ta to ra ba nh A, mi nh ng
vi mt iu kin.
nh A
1
ng vi iu kin th nht House(x). Bng A
1
ch gm mt
ct x, v House(x) ch cha mt bin x. Khi m ta a cc s kin
trong b nh lm vic
House(Tom)
House(Ken)
House(Kit)
House(Bin)
vo li, bng A
1
s cha cc bn ghi sau
A
1
: x
Tom
Ken
Kit
Bin
nh A
2
ng vi iu kin th hai Mother(x, y). nh ny biu
din bng gm hai ct x v y. Mi bn ghi trong bng ny biu
din mt php th bin m cng thc phn t Mother(x, y) hp
nht vi mt s kin trong b nh lm vic. Nu ta cho cc s kin
Mother(Tom, Bin)
Mother(Tom, Ken)
Mother(Bin, Kit)
i vo li, th chng ta s c bng A
2
nh sau
A
2
:
x y
Tom Bin
Tom Ken
Bin Kit
nh A
3
ng vi iu kin th ba Fast(y). Bng A
3
ch cha mt
ct y. Khi a cc s kin
Fast(Kit)
Fast(Bin)
i vo li, chng ta s c bng A
3
nh sau
A
3
: y
Kit
Bin
T hai nh A
1
v A
2
, c cc cung i ti nh B
2
. Bng B
2
l kt ni
(theo ngha ca php ton kt ni quan h) ca hai bng A
1
v A
2
theo cc ct cng tn ( y l theo ct x). Nh vy mi bn ghi
trong bng B
2
l mt php th bin m c hai iu kin th nht v
th hai u tho mn. Chng hn, vi ni dung ca hai bng A
1
v
A
2
nh trn, ta nhn c bng B
2
nh sau
B
2
:
x y
Tom Bin
Tom Ke
n
Bin Kit
T hai nh B
2
v A
3
, c cc cung i ti nh B
3
. nh B
3
l bng
nhn c bng cch kt ni bng B
2
vi A
3
. Bng B
3
s cha cc
bn ghi l cc php th bin m c ba iu kin ca lut u tho
mn. Chng hn, t hai bng B
2
v A
3
nh trn, ta c bng B
3
nh
sau
B
3
:
x y
Tom Bin
Bin Kit
T bng B
3
, bng cch chiu ln cc ct ng vi cc bin trong phn
kt lun ca lut, ta nhn c bng C. Vi bng B
3
nh trn, ta nhn
c bng C nh sau
C:
x
Tom
Bin
Bng C ch ra rng, t lut m v cc s kin (1) - (9), ta suy ra cc s
kin Valuable(Tom) v Valuable(Bin).
Nh vy chng ta xy dng nn mt li cho lut m, li ny
c biu din trong hnh 7.4.
Sau khi to ra cc li cho cc lut trong c s lut, qu trnh lp
lun tin c thc hin bng cch ln lt cho cc s kin trong b nh
lm vic i qua li. D liu i ti nh no ta s thc hin php ton tng
ng vi nh . Php ton ng vi cc nh A l php hp nht, nu hp
nht thnh cng th mt bn ghi mi (ng vi php th bin l hp nht t
tm c) c ghi vo bng. Ti cc nh B ta s thc hin php ton kt
ni. Khi mt bn ghi c chuyn ti nh B t mt nh cha ca B, bn ghi
ny s c kt ni vi cc bn ghi trong bng nh cha khc ca B. Cc
bn ghi nhn c qua php kt ni ti nh B s c ghi vo bng B v
c chuyn ti nh con ca B. Lung d liu c th tip tc c chuyn
qua li. Khi d liu i ti nh C, ta thc hin php chiu, cc bn ghi mi
nhn c qua php chiu s c ghi vo bng C. T nh C s i ra cc s
kin mi c suy ra bi lut (mi s kin ng vi mt bn ghi trong bng
C). Cc s kin mi ny li c tip tc cho i qua li.
V d. Gi s cc bng trong li hnh 7.4. cha cc d liu c
cho trong hnh 7.5 (cc bn ghi khng t m). Gi s by gi ta cho s kin
Mother(Tom, Bin) i vo li. S kin ny theo cung gn nhn Mother i
ti nh A
2
i snh vi iu kin Mother(x, y). Php hp nht thnh
cng, mt bn ghi mi [x/Tom, y/Bin] (bn ghi t m) c thm vo bng
A
2
. D liu ny i xung nh B
2
, n kt ni vi cc bn ghi c trong
bng A
1
, to thnh mt bn ghi mi trong bng B
2
, [x/Tom, y/Bin], bn ghi
ny li c chuyn ti nh B
3
, n kt ni vi cc bn ghi c trong bn
A
3
, to ra mt bn ghi mi trong bng B
3
(bn ghi t m). Ta li chuyn
bn ghi ny ti nh C, ti y n c chiu ln cc ct ca bng C, to ra
bn ghi mi [x/Tom]. Mt s kin mi c suy ra l Valuable(Tom). (hnh
7.5)
x x y y
x y
x y
Bin Kit
F
a
s
t
M
o
t
h
e
r
H
o
rs
e
x
A1 A2 A3
B2
B3
C
Hnh 7.4. Li tng ng vi lut m.
x
Tom
Ken
Bin
x y
Tom Ken
Bin Kit
Tom Bin
y
Kit
Bin
x y
Tom Ken
Bin Kit
Tom Bin
x y
Bin Kit
Tom Bin
F
a
s
t
M
o
t
h
e
r
H
o
rs
e
x
Tom
Bin
A1 A2 A3
B2
B3
C
Hnh 7.5. Kt qu ca mt s kin i vo li.
Sau y chng ta a ra th tc xy dng li cho mi lut trong c
s lut.
Gi s lut c cha m iu kin. xy dng mt li cho lut ny ta
thc hin cc bc sau y:
1. Li cha mt nh xut pht, t nh ny c cc cung i
ti cc nh A
i
(i = 1, ..., m). Mi cung c gn nhn, vi nhn l
cng thc phn t, cng thc ny l mt iu kin trong lut .
2. Mi nh A
i
tng ng vi mt bng, cc ct trong bng
ng vi cc bin trong cng thc phn t l nhn ca cung i ti
nh A
i
. Mi dng trong bng ny l mt php th bin m mt s
kin trong b nh lm vic hp nht vi cng thc phn t .
3. Nu m 2 th t nh A
1
v A
2
c cc cung i ti nh
B
2
. nh B
2
tng ng vi mt bng, mi ct trong bng ny l
mt ct trong bng A
1
hoc trong A
2
. Bng B
2
l kt ni ca bng
A
1
v A
2
, mi dng trong bng ny l mt php th bin sao cho
hai iu kin u tin ca lut tr thnh ng.
4. T cc nh B
k
v A
k +1
(k = 2, ..., m -1) c cc cung i ti
nh B
k + 1
. nh B
k + 1
tng ng vi mt bng, bng ny l kt ni
ca bng B
k
vi bng A
k + 1
. Mi dng trong bng ny l mt
php th bin m cc iu kin 1, 2, ..., k+1 ca lut c tho
mn.
5. T nh B
m
c cung i ti nh C. nh C tng ng vi
mt bng, mi ct ca bng ny ng vi mt bin trong phn kt
lun ca lut. Bng C nhn c t bng B
m
bng cch chiu ln
cc ct ca bng C. Mi bn ghi trong bng C biu din mt kt
lun c suy ra t lut.
Sau khi xy dng c cc li cho cc lut trong c s lut, ta
lin kt cc li to ra mt li chung cho ton b c s lut. C th
c nhiu lut khc nhau c chung mt s iu kin no , khi cc nh
ng vi cc iu kin chung s c ng nht lm mt. Chng hn,
ngoi lut m, cn c cc lut khc cng cha iu kin House(x), khi
nh ng vi iu kin ny s l nh chung cho tt c cc lut cha iu
kin House(x). Tng t, c th c nhiu lut khc nhau cng chung phn
kt lun, trong trng hp ny nh C ng vi kt lun chung ny s c
ng nht lm mt trong li chung. S ca li chung c cho trong
hnh 7.6.
7.3.3. H hnh ng da trn lut
Trn y chng ta ch mi xt cc lut, trong mi phn kt lun
ca mt lut xc nh mt khng nh mi c suy ra khi m tt c cc iu
kin ca lut c tho mn. Trong nhiu p dng, c s lut ca h cn
c a vo cc lut m phn kt lun ca lut l mt hnh ng h cn
thc hin. Chng ta s gi cc lut dng ny l lut hnh ng. Mt lut
hnh ng c dng
nu
1. <iu kin 1>, v
2. <iu kin 2>, v
....
m. <iu kin m>
th <hnh ng>
Hnh ng trong cc lut hnh ng c th l thm vo mt s kin
mi, c th l loi b mt s kin c trong b nh lm vic; hnh ng
cng c th l thc hin mt th tc no . Trong cc robot c trang b
mt h da trn lut, th phn kt lun ca lut c th l mt hnh ng no
m robot cn thc hin.
B nh
lm vic
.....
Cc
nh A
.....
.....
Cc
nh B
Cc
nh C
Hnh 7.6. S mt li chung cho c s lut
Ngi ta phn bit hai dng h:
Cc h da trn lut s dng lp lun tin v phn kt lun ca cc
lut xc nh cc khng nh mi c gi l cc h din dch
(deduction systems).
Cc h da trn lut m phn kt lun ca cc lut xc nh cc hnh
ng cn thc hin c gi l h hnh ng da trn lut (rule-
based reaetion systems).
Trong cc h din dch, chng ta xem mi lut u sinh ra cc khng
nh mi c gi tr nh nhau; tc l, ta khng xem khng nh do lut ny
sinh ra l tt hn khng nh do lut khc sinh ra. Do trong cc h din
dch, khi m nhiu lut c th chy c (mt lut c gi l chy c
nu tt c cc iu kin ca lut c tho mn) ta c th cho tt c cc lut
chy (mt lut chy sinh ra khng nh mi).
Trong cc h hnh ng, khi c nhiu hn mt lut c th chy, ni
chung, chng ta ch mun thc hin mt trong cc hnh ng c th. Do ,
trong cc h hnh ng, chng ta cn c chin lc gii quyt va chm
quyt nh cho lut no chy trong s cc lut c th chy. Sau y l mt s
chin lc gii quyt va chm.
Sp xp cc lut theo th t u tin. Trong cc lut c th chy, lut
no c mc u tin cao nht s c thc hin.
Sp xp d liu. Cc s kin trong b nh lm vic c sp xp theo
th t u tin. Lut no m cc iu kin ca n c lm tho mn
bi cc iu kin c mc u tin cao s c thc hin trc.
Cc lut c phn thnh cc nhm. Trong mi nhm lut, c ch
ra cc iu kin p dng cc lut ca nhm. Cc iu kin ny lin
quan n ni dung ca b nh lm vic.
S dng cc siu lut (metarule). l cc lut m phn iu kin
ca n lin quan ti ni dung ca cc lut v ni dung ca b nh lm
vic, cn phn kt lun ca n ch ra cc lut c th c p dng
hoc c th bi cm p dng. Cc siu lut s iu khin s cho php
cc lut chy.
ng nhin l, vic s dng chin lc gii quyt va chm no ph
thuc vo tng p dng. Tu theo mc ch thit k ca h m ta la chn
chin lc gii quyt va chm cho thch hp.
7.4. TH TC LP LUN LI
Trong cc h da trn lut, chng ta cn c th s dng phng php
lp lun li. Lp lun li cho php ta tm ra cc php th bin m gi thuyt
a ra tr thnh ng (l h qu logic ca c s tri thc). Do trong h da
trn lut chng ta c th s dng lp lun li tm ra cc cu tr li cho cc
cu hi c t ra bi ngi s dng.
Mt cu hi t ra c th xem nh mt gi thuyt (k hiu l Hyp) cn
kim tra. Gi thuyt c th l mt cu phn t hoc l hi ca cc cu phn
t:
Hyp = H
1
H
m
trong H
i
(i = 1, ..., m) l cc cu phn t.
Mc ch ca chng ta l kim chng xem gi thuyt c th tr thnh
ng khng, v nu c th vi cc php th bin no n tr thnh ng.
Chng ta s x l Hyp nh mt danh sch cc gi thuyt H
i
:
Hyp = [H
1
, ..., H
m
]
Chng ta s xt mi lut
Q P P
m

1
nh mt cp (conds, conc); trong Conds l danh sch cc iu kin ca
lut.
Conds = [P
1
, ..., P
m
]
v Conc l kt lun ca lut, Conc = Q.
Mt s kin S (cu phn t) c xem nh mt lut khng c iu
kin, tc l Conds = [ ] v Conc = S.
T tng ca phng php lp lun li l nh sau. Vi mi gi thuyt
trong danh sch cc gi thuyt, ta tm nhng lut c phn kt lun hp nht
vi gi thuyt . Nu lut ny l mt s kin th ta loi b gi thuyt ang
xt khi danh sch cc gi thuyt. Nu khng th ta xem cc iu kin ca
lut l cc gi thuyt mi xut hin v gi thuyt ang xt c thay bi cc
gi thuyt mi . Khi ta nhn c mt danh sch cc gi thuyt mi.
Lp li qu trnh trn cho danh sch cc gi thuyt mi ny. Trong qu trnh
trn ta lu li hp thnh ca cc php th s dng . Nu ti mt bc
no , danh sch cc gi thuyt tr thnh rng, th ta kt lun gi thuyt ban
u l ng vi php th bin .
Sau y l th tc suy din li. Trong th tc ny, Hyp v l cc
bin a phng trong th tc. Gi tr ban u ca Hyp l danh sch cc gi
thuyt ban u (biu din cu hi c t ra), cn gi tr ban u ca l
php th rng.
procedure Backward_Chaining (Hyp, );
begin
H gi thuyt u tin trong danh sch Hyp;
for mi lut R = (Conds, Q) do
if H hp nht vi Q bi php th
1
then
1. Loi H khi danh sch Hyp;
2. Thm cc iu kin ca lut Conds vo danh sch
Hyp;
3. p dng php th
1
vo cc gi thuyt trong danh
sch Hyp;
4. Ly hp thnh ca cc php th v
1
nhn
c php th mi, tc l
1
;
if Hyp = [ ] then cho ra
else Backward_Chaining (Hyp, );
end;
Trong th tc lp lun li, mi c cho ra l mt php th bin lm
cho gi thuyt ban u tr thnh ng, tc l (Hyp) = H
1
... H
m
l
ng (l h qu logic ca c s tri thc). Do mi php th bin c
cho ra bi th tc l mt cu tr li cho cu hi t ra.
V d. Gi s c s tri thc cha cc s kin sau
House(Tom) (Tom l nga) (1)
House(Ken) (2)
House(Kit) (3)
House(Bin) (4)
Mother(Tom, Bin) (Tom l m Bin) (5)
Mother(Tom, Ken) (6)
Mother(Bin, Kit) (7)
Fast(Kit) (Kit chy nhanh) (8)
Winner(Bin) (Bin thng cuc) (9)
Gi s c s tri thc cha hai lut sau
House(x) Mother(x, y) Fast(y) Valuable(x) (10)
(nu 1. x l nga, v
2. x l m y, v
3. y chy nhanh
th x c gi )
Winner(z) Fast(z) (11)
(nu z thng cuc th x chy nhanh)
Cu hi t ra l: Con nga no c gi ?
Gi thuyt ban u Hyp = [Valuable(w)] v = [ ]. Gi thuyt
Valuable(w) hp nht c vi kt lun ca lut (10) bi php th
1
=
[w/x], do ta nhn c danh sch cc gi thuyt mi
Hyp = [House(x), Mother(x, y), Fast(y)]
v =
1
= [w/x]
Gi thuyt House(x) hp nht c vi s kin (1) bi php th
1
=
[x/Tom], ta nhn c danh sch cc gi thuyt mi
Hyp = [Mother(Tom, y), Fast(y)]
v = [w/x][x/Tom] = [w/Tom]
Gi thuyt Mother(Tom, y) hp nht c vi s kin (5) bi php
th
1
= [y/Bin], ta nhn c danh sch cc gi thuyt
Hyp = [Fast(Bin)]
v = [w/Tom][y/Bin] = [w/Tom, y/Bin]
Gi thuyt Fast(Bin) hp nht c vi kt lun ca lut (11) bi
php th [z/Bin], do ta c
Hyp = [Winner(Bin)]
v = [w/Tom, y/Bin, z/Bin]
Gi thuyt Winner(Bin) trng vi s kin (9) (hp nht c bi php
th
1
= []). Do danh sch cc gi thuyt tr thnh rng vi php th =
[w/Tom, y/Bin, z/Bin]. Nh vy vi php th ny th gi thuyt Valuable(w)
tr thnh ng, hay ni cch khc, Tom l con nga c gi.
T cc lut c s dng trong qu trnh lp lun trn, v t php th
thu c, ta c th xy dng nn cy chng minh cho Valuable(Tom)
(xem hnh 7.7).
Valuable(tom)
Horse(tom) Mother(tom, bin) Fast(Bin)
Winner(Bin)
Hnh 7.7. Cy chng minh cho Valuable(Tom)
Chng ta cn tm c mt php th bin khc = [w/Bin, y/Kit]
cho Valuable(w) tr thnh ng. Do , ta tm ra Tom v Bin l cc con
nga c gi.
7.5. BIU DIN TRI THC KHNG CHC CHN
Trong i sng thc t, c rt nhiu iu m ngay c cc chuyn gia
cng khng hon ton tin tng chng l ng hay sai. c bit l cc kt
lun trong chn on y hc, trong d bo thi tit, trong phng on s hng
hc ca my mc, chng ta khng th tin tng 100% cc kt lun a ra l
ng. Chng hn, nu xe my ang chy b cht my v kim tra xng hy
cn th c th tin rng 90% l do c vn bugi. Tuy nhin vn cn 10%
phng on l sai, xe b cht my do cc nguyn nhn khc. Do trong
cc h da trn lut, chng ta cn phi a vo mc chc chn ca cc
lut v cc s kin trong c s tri thc. Chng ta s gn cho mi lut hoc s
kin mt mc chc chn no , mc chc chn l mt s nm gia 0
v 1. Cch vit
C B A A
n
:
1

(1)
c ngha l lut
B A A
n

1
c chn chn l C (0 C 1).
Chng ta cn phi a ra phng php xc nh mc chc chn
ca cc kt lun c suy ra.
Trc ht chng ta nh gi kt lun suy ra t lut ch c mt iu
kin. Gi s ta c lut
C B A :
(2)
Theo l thuyt xc sut, ta c
Pr(B) = Pr(B|A)Pr(A) (3)
trong Pr(B), Pr(A) l xc sut ca s kin B, A tng ng (tc l
mc chc chn ca B, A tng ng), cn Pr(B|A) l xc sut c iu
kin ca B khi A xy ra, y Pr(B|A) l mc chc chn ca lut A
B, tc l bng C.
Trong trng hp lut c n (n > 1) iu kin, tc l cc lut dng (1),
ta xem A =
n
A A
1
. Trong trng hp ny, mc chc chn ca A,
Pr(A) c tnh bng cc phng php khc nhau, tu thuc vo cc s kin
A
i
(i = 1, ..., n) l c lp hay ph thuc.
Gi s cc s kin A
i
(i = 1, ..., n) l c lp, khi
Pr(A) = Pr(A
1
) ... Pr(A
n
) (4)
V d: Gi s c s tri thc ca h cha lut sau
nu 1. X c tin n, v
2. X c th on vi nn nhn Y, v
3. X a ra bng chng ngoi phm sai
th X l k git Y.
vi mc chc chn 90%.
Gi s ta c cc s kin
Hung c tin n, vi mc chc chn l 1.
Hung c th on vi nn nhn Meo, vi mc chc chn l 0,7.
Hung a ra bng chng ngoi phm sai, vi mc chc chn l 0,8.
T cc s kin v lut trn, ta c
Pr(A) = 1.0,7.0,8 = 0,56
Pr(B) = 0,9.0,56 = 0,504
Nh vy mc chc chn ca kt lun Hung l k git Meo
l 50,4%.
Cng thc (4) ch p dng cho cc s kin A
1
, ..., A
n
l c lp (tc s
xut hin ca s kin ny khng nh hng g n s xut hin ca cc s
kin khc). Nu cc s kin A
1
, ..., A
n
l ph thuc, ta c th tnh mc
chc chn ca iu kin ca lut, A =
n
A A
1
, theo cng thc sau:
Pr(A) = min (Pr(A
1
), ..., Pr(A
n
)) (5)
Chng hn, vi cc thng tin trong v d trn, t cng thc (5) ta c
Pr(A) = min(1, 0,7, 0,8) = 0,7
Do Pr(B) = 0,9. 0,7 = 0,63
Ngoi cng thc (5), ngi ta cn a ra cc phng php khc
tnh mc chc chn Pr(A), khi m A =
n
A A
1
v cc A
1
, ..., A
n
khng c lp.
7.6. H LP TRNH LOGIC
Hin nay c nhiu h lp trnh logic ra i m tiu biu l Prolog.
Prolog l vit tt ca cm t ting Php
Programmation en Logique
H Prolog u tin ra i vo nm 1973 bi Alain Colmerauer v
nhm tr tu nhn to thuc i hc tng hp Aix-Marseilie, Php. Mc
ch ban u ca h ny l dch cc ngn ng t nhin. Nm 1977, David
Warren thuc i hc tng hp Edinburgh ci t mt phin bn ca
Prolog, mang tn l Prolog-10. Nm 1981, ngi Nht thng bo s dng
Prolog nh ngn ng c bn cho my tnh th h th nm. Hin nay c
nhiu h Prolog khc nhau v tc , mi trng lm vic, ..., song phn ln
cc h ny tng thch vi Prolog-10, Prolog-10 c cng nhn nh Prolog
chun.
Prolog c s dng nh mt cng c phn mm pht trin cc
h thng minh. N c p dng trong nhiu lnh vc tr tu nhn to:
gii quyt vn , cc h chuyn gia, biu din tri thc, lp k hoch, x l
ngn ng t nhin, hc my, ...
Trong cc ngn ng lp trnh truyn thng (chng hn, Pascal, C, ...)
mt chng trnh l mt dy cc lnh m my cn thc hin. Ngi lp trnh
vit mt chng trnh trong cc ngn ng truyn thng, phi da vo
thut ton c v cch biu din d liu lp ra mt dy cc lnh ch dn
cho my cn phi thc hin cc hnh ng no.
iu khc nhau cn bn ca lp trnh Prolog so vi lp trnh truyn
thng l nh sau:
Trong Prolog ngi lp trnh m t vn bng cc cu trong logic.
H s s dng lp lun logic tm ra cc cu tr li cho vn .
Do mt chng trnh Prolog l s c t ca mt vn . V l do
ny Prolog l ngn ng lp trnh khai bo (declarative language).
Trong Prolog, ch c php s dng cc cu Horn, tc l mi cu
hoc l cu phn t, hoc l mt lut nu - th m cc iu kin ca lut v
kt lun ca lut u l cu phn t.
Mt chng trnh Prolog l mt dy cc lut c dng sau
A :- B
1
, ..., B
m
trong m 0, A v B
i
(i = 1, ..., m) l cc cu phn t. Lut trn c c
l A nu B
1
v ... v B
m
, n l cch vit trong Prolog cu sau
A B B
m

1
Trong lut trn, A c gi l u, danh sch cc cu (B
1
, ..., B
m
)
c gi l thn ca lut. Nu m = 0, k hiu :- s c b i, khi ta
c cu phn t A v n c gi l mt s kin.
V d: Gi s chng ta bit cc thng tin sau y v An v Ba.
An yu thch mi mn th thao m cu chi.
Bng l mn th thao.
Bng bn l mn th thao.
An chi bng .
Ba yu thch mi th m An yu thch.
Cc cu trn c chuyn thnh mt chng trnh Prolog nh sau
Likes(An, X) :- Sport(X), Plays(An, X)
Sport(Football).
Sport(Tennis).
Plays(An, Football).
Likes(Ba, Y) :- Likes(An, Y).
Vi chng trnh Prolog trn (n m t s thch th thao ca An v
Ba), ta c th t ra cc cu hi, chng hn An yu thch ci g ?. Cu hi
ny c vit trong Prolog nh sau.
? - Likes(An, X).
Khi a vo mt cu hi, h Prolog s thc hin qu trnh suy din
logic tm ra cc cu tr li cho cu hi. Chng hn, vi cu hi trn
Prolog s a ra cu tr li:
X = football
iu c ngha l An yu thch bng .
Mt cch tng qut, mt cu hi c dng
? - G
1
, ..., G
n
.
trong mi G
i
(i = 1, ..., n) l mt cng thc phn t, danh sch
(G
1
, ..., G
n
) c gi l ch, cc G
i
(i = 1, ..., n) c gi l ch con. Nu n
= 0, ta c ch rng, k hiu l .
n y chng ta mun bit, lm th no m Prolog tm ra cc cu tr
li cho cc cu hi ? Mt chng trnh Prolog c th xem nh mt c s tri
thc. Th tc tm cu tr li ca Prolog chng qua l mt cch ci t
phng php lp lun li m chng ta trnh by mc 7.4. Trong cch
ci t phng php lp lun li ny, ngi ta s dng k thut tm kim
theo su, cc cu trong chng trnh Prolog c xem xt theo th t t
trn xung di, cc ch con c xem xt lm tho mn theo th t t
tri sang phi. Ngoi ra, th tc lp lun ca Prolog cn cho php ngi lp
trnh c th s dng v t cut khi cn thit m bo cho chng trnh
ng n v hiu qu.
Mt c dim na ca Prolog l, thay cho vic s dng cc cu l ph
nh ca cc cu phn t. Prolog a vo v t not biu din ph nh nh
tht bi (negation as failure). iu c ngha l not(P) c xem l ng
nu ta tht bi trong vic tm ra mt chng minh P ng, tc l vi c s tri
thc hin c, ta khng tm c mt php th bin no cho P tr thnh h
qu logic ca c s tri thc. Sau y l mt v d s dng v t not.
Likes(An, X) : - Animal(X), not(Snaker(X)).
Bn c mun tm hiu su hn v cc k thut lp trnh Prolog v
cc ng dng trong Tr tu nhn to, c th tm c cc ti liu [4] v [14].
7.7. H CHUYN GIA
Trong mc ny chng ta s gii thiu v h chuyn gia (expert
system). H chuyn gia l mt chng trnh my tnh c kh nng gii quyt
vn trong mt lnh vc p dng no (thng l hp ), n c th lm
vic ging nh mt chuyn gia con ngi trong lnh vc . Mt bc s cha
bnh, t cc triu chng ca bnh nhn, t cc kt qu xt nghim, vi vn
tri thc ca mnh, bc s c th a ra cc kt lun bnh nhn b bnh g v
a ra phng n iu tr. Mt h chuyn gia chn on bnh cng c th
lm vic nh cc bc s. Mt h chuyn gia cn c trang b cc tri thc
ca cc chuyn gia trong mt lnh vc p dng. V vy h chuyn gia l mt
h tri thc (knowledge - based system). Cng ging nh mt chuyn gia
con ngi, h chuyn gia cn c kh nng gii thch c cc hnh vi ca
n, cc kt lun m n a ra cho ngi s dng. H chuyn gia cn c
kh nng cp nht tri thc t cc chuyn gia v t ngi s dng.
Hin nay, nhiu h chuyn gia c dng trong nhiu lnh vc.
Chng ta nu ra mt s h chuyn gia ni ting:
Trong chun on y hc c cc h MYCIN, CASNET vaf
CADUCEUS.
Phn tch cu trc phn t: h DENDRAL.
Vi phn v tch phn k hiu: cc h MACSYMA, SAINT v
MATHLAB.
Hiu ting ni: cc h HEARSAY I v II.
Chun on hng hc ca my tnh: h DART.
Cu trc c bn ca h chuyn gia c m t trong hnh 7.8.
Hnh 7.8. Kin trc ca mt h chuyn gia.
C s tri thc
B suy din B gii thch
Giao din ngi s dng
Ngi s dng
Mt h chuyn gia bao gm cc thnh phn c bn sau:
C s tri thc (Knowledge base) cha cc tri thc ca cc chuyn gia
trongmt lnh vc p dng no .
Tri thc ca cc chuyn gia c th biu hin trong mt ngn ng biu
din tri thc thch hp no . Hin nay tronga s cc h chuyn gia, tri
thc c biu hin di dang lut if then. C s tri thc ca cch chuyn
gia c th cha cc tri thc khng chc chn, hoc khng y .
B suy din (inference engine) c chc nng thc hin qu trnh suy
din da trn tri thc trongc s tri thc v cc thngtin m ngi s
dng a vo. tm ra cu tr li cho cc vn c t ra.
Trong cc h chuyn gia da trn lut (rule-based expert system), th
tc suy din c th l suy din tin hoc suy din li nh chng ta trnh
by trong cc mc 7.3 v 7.4. S dng c ch suy din no(tin hoc li) l
tu thuc vo mc ch xy dng h chuyn gia.
B gii thch (explanation generator) c chc nng cung cp cho
ngi s dng nhng li gii thch v cc kt lun m h a ra, ti
sao h dn n nhng kt lun nh th.
Giao din ngi s dng (user-interface) gip cho h giao tip vi
ngi s dng mt cch thun tin. N chuyn i cc thng tin m
ngi s dng a vo thnh dng m h c th x l c, v ngc
li, n chuyn i cc cu tr li ca h v cc li gii thch sang
ngn ng m ngi s dng c th hiu.
Ngi ta tch c s tri thc khi cc b phn cn li ca h chuyn
gia. Cc b phn cn lai gm b suy din, b gii thch v giao din ngi
s dng to thnh khung h chuyn gia (expert system shell). S d c th
tch h chuyn gia thnh hai phn: c s tri thc v khung, l v cc l do
sau. C s tri thc ph thuc hon ton vo lnh vc p dng. Mt khc,
khung l tng i c lp vi lnh vc p dng. Do pht trin cc h
chuyn gia, cho mt s lnh vc, ngi ta c th xy dng khung s dng
chung cho nhiu h. Sau ch cn np c s tri thc v mt lnh vc p
dng c th, ta s to ra mt h chuyn gia cho lnh vc . ng nhin l,
c s tri thc phi c xy dng theo ng khun mu m khung c th
hiu c.
Trn y chng ta mi ch gii thiu khi qut v h chuyn gia.
nm c cc k thut pht trin mt h chuyn gia, bn c c th tham
kho cc ti liu chuyn kho, chng hn [11].
CHNG 8
LOGIC KHNG N IU
Lp lun m chng ta xt trong logic v t cp mt l lp lun n
iu theo ngha rng, mt kt lun c suy ra t mt CSTT vn vn cn
ng khi ta b sung vo CSTT cc tin mi. Trong chng ny chng ta
s tip tc nghin cu cc k thut lp lun da cc trn gi thit m chng
ta a ra. Cc lp lun ny mang tnh khng n iu theo ngha rng, khi
chng ta b sung vo CSTT cc thng tin mi, th cc kt lun m chng ta
suy ra trc cn phi xem xt li, chng c th khng cn ph hp
na. Chng ta s ln lt xt cc k thut sau:
Lp lun mc nh.
Gi thit th gii ng.
K thut b sung v t.
K thut hn ch phm vi.
8. 1. LP LUN C TH XEM XT LI V LOGIC KHNG N
IU
Con ngi c kh nng tin hnh suy din mt cch sng sut, a ra
cc kt lun hp l ngay c trong trng hp thiu thng tin hoc c nhng
thng tin khng y . Cc suy din ny thng mang tnh cht c th chp
nhn c, n cn phi c xem xt li khi chng ta bit thm cc thng
tin mi. Chng ta khng th cho rng mt kt lun c suy ra trong hon
cnh thiu thng tin l khng c sai lm. Khi chng ta b sung nhng thng
tin mi vo c s tri thc th mt kt lun c suy ra t c s tri thc c c
th khng cn ph hp na.
Xt v d n gin sau. Gi s chng ta bit rng, phn ln chim bit
bay v Kiti l chim. Khi ta c th suy ra rng Kiti bit bay. Suy din
kiu ny xem ra c th chp nhn c. Song ta khng th coi kt lun Kiti
bit bay l tuyt i ng, bi v khi a ra kt lun ny ta khng tnh
n cc trng hp ngoi l. Do n cn phi c xem xt li khi ta bit
thm cc thng tin mi. Chng hn, sau ta bit thm rng, Kiti l
iu v iu l loi chim khng bit bay. R rng lc ny ta khng th
suy ra kt lun Kiti bit bay.
phc v cho vic xy dng cc h thng thng minh c kh nng
suy din trong mi trng thiu thng tin hoc c cc thng tin khng y
, cc thng tin c tnh tin trin, chng ta cn nghin cu cc k thut lp
lun da trn cc gi thit. Cc lp lun ny mang tnh khng n iu.
Trong chng ny chng ta s nghin cu cc h logic c cung cp cc k
thut lp lun khng n iu. Cc logic ny c gi chung l cc logic
khng n iu (nonmonotonic logic). S d c tn gi l logic khng n
iu l v, s cc kt lun m cc h ny cho php suy ra c th gim khi s
cc tin tng (c s tri thc c b sung thm cc tin mi).
Trong chng ny chng ta s cp n cc vn sau y:
Logic mc nh (default logic hoc logic for default resonning).
Trong logic ny, trn nn tng logic v t cp mt, ngi ta a
vo cc lut suy din mc nh (default rule of inference). Cc
lut suy din ny cho php ta biu din cc quy lut c ngoi l m
khng cn phi lit k ra cc trng hp ngoi l.
Gi thit th gii ng (closed-world assumption). Gi thit th
gii ng l quy c cho rng, vi c s tri thc cho tt c
khng nh s cp khng th chng minh oc bi cc thng tin
trong c s tri thc c xem l sai. Do cc kt lun c suy
ra di gi thit th gii dng cn phi c xem xt li khi c
nhng thng tin mi c b sung vo c s tri thc. Gi thit th
gii ng c a ra lm c s php l cho nhng kt lun
c suy ra trong mi trng thiu thng tin.
B sung v t (completion of predicat). K thut b sung v t cho
php ta xem cc iu kin cn v cho v t c tho mn nh
l cc iu kin cn v cho v t c tho mn. Chng ta
biu din cc iu kin cn v cho mt v t di dng mt tin
. ng nhin l tin cn phi c vit li khi c nhng iu
kin mi c b sung vo c s tri thc v do cc kt lun
c suy ra cng cn phi xem xt li.
Hn ch phm vi (circumscruption). Hn ch phm vi l k thut
a thm vo c s tri thc mt s tin c bit. Cc tin ny
cho phape ta hn ch phm vi kim tra s ng n ca mt s v
t trong phm vi cc thng tin cha trong c s tri thc. V cc
tin hn ch phm vi kim tra s ng n ca cc v t ph
thuc vo ni dung ca c s tri thc, do n cn nhng thay i
thch hp khi c nhng thng tin mi c b sung vo c s tri
thc.
Khi chng ta xy dng mt h thng minh trong mt lnh vc p
dng, vic thu thp y thng tin a vo c s tri thc l ht sc kh
khn v trong nhiu trng hp l khng th thc hin c. Ni cch khc,
cc h thng xuyn phi lm vic trong mi trng thiu thng tin. Nhng
thng tin m ta bit c nhiu khi ch l cc thng tin khng y . V
vy, vic nghin cu cc k thut lp lun trong mi trng thiu thng tin
hoc cha cc thng tin khng y l mt lnh vc nghin cu quan trng
trong tr tu nhn to.
8. 2. C IM CA LOGIC KHNG N IU
Trong mc ny chng ta s phn tch, so snh logic c in (logic v
t cp mt) v logic khng n iu a ra mt s c im ca logic
khng n iu. Trc ht chng ta hy xt mt s c im ca lp lun
trong logic c in.
LP LUN VNG CHC TRONG LOGIC C IN
Mt h hnh thc (mt l thuyt hnh thc) trong logic c in (logic
v t cp mt) gm mt tp tin v mt tp cc lut suy din. Mt h hnh
thc nh th cho php ta suy ra cc kt lun t cc tin (bng cch p
dng mt dy cc lut suy din). Chng ta s dng k hiu A |= q ni
rng kt lun q c suy ra t tp tin A. Trong lgic c in, quan h |=
c cc tnh cht sau y:
Tnh phn x:
{p
1,
, p
n
, q} |= q;
Tnh n iu:
Nu {p
1,
, p
n
} |= q th {p
1,
, p
n
, r} |= q;
Tnh bc cu:
Nu {p
1,
, p
n
} |= r v {p
1,
, p
n
, r} |= q th{p
1,
, p
n
} |= q;
Trong cc biu thc trn, p
1,
, p
n
, q, r l cc cng thc trong logic v
t.
Chng ta cn quan tm ti tnh cht n iu. tnh cht ny ni rng,
nu mt kt lun q c suy ra t mt tp tin , th khi ta b sung vo tp
tin cc tin mi, ta vn suy ra c kt lun q. Sau ny ta s thy
rng tnh cht ny ca logic c in khng cn ng trong logic n iu.
Chng ta nu ra mt c im quan trng khc ca logic c in. Mt
h hnh thc trong logic c in cho php ta suy ra cc kt lun l h qu
logic ca cc tin :
Nu A|= q th q l h qu logic ca tp tin A.
Nh li khi nim h qu logic a ra trong chng 7, khng trn
c ngha l, trong logic c in, nu A |= q th bt k m hnh no ca tp
tin A cng l m hnh ca kt lun q. Do lp lun trong logic c in
l lp lun vng chc, n cho php ta suy ra cc kt lun ng trong bt k
minh ha no m cc tin c tho mn.
C IM CA LOGIC KHNG N IU
Mc tiu ca logic khng n iu l xy dng cc h hnh thc m
hnh ho cc lp lun c th xem xt li, tc l cc lp lun khng vng chc
nh trong logic c in. Chng ta s nu ra mt s c im quan trng ca
logic khng n iu.
Logic khng n iu ch cho php ta suy ra cc kt lun chp
nhn c. V mt ng ngha, iu c ngha l, trong logic
khng n iu, nu ta suy ra kt lun p t tp tin A, th p l
ph hp vi tp tin A theo ngha rng, p ng trong t nht mt
m hnh ca tp tin A, ch khng phi p l h qu logic ca
tp tin A nh trong logic c in. Chng hn t hai tin
phn ln chim bit bay v Kiti l chim, trong logic khng n
iu, ta c th suy ra Kiti bit bay. Kt lun ny l ng trong
cc minh ho m Kiti l chim b cu, chim s,Song kt lun
Kiti bit bay khng ng trong mi m hnh ca hai tin
nu. Chng hn trong cc minh ho m Kiti l chim cnh ct hoc
Kiti l iu.
Mt cu hi ng nhin l, cc kt lun c suy ra phi ph hp
vi nhau. Khi ta suy ra mt kt lun th sau ta khng c
php suy ra mt kt lun khc khng ph hp vi kt lun c
suy ra. Chng hn, nu ta suy ra Kiti bit bay th sau ta b cm
suy ra kt lun Kiti khng bit bay. Do trnh t tin hnh suy
lun s xc nh mt tp cc kt lun no .
Logic khng n iu nhm xy dng cc h suy din trong mi
trng thiu thng tin hoc cha cc thng tin khng y , cc
thng tin c tnh tin trin. Cc kt lun c suy ra trong logic
khng n iu ch c tnh chp nhn c, ch ph hp vi cc
tin . V vy khi ta b sung vo tp tin cc thng tin mi,
mt kt lun c suy ra t tp tin c b sung, do n c
th khng c suy ra t tp tin c b sung. Ni cch khc,
khi ta tng tp tin th tp cc kt lun c suy ra c th gim.
Tnh cht n iu trong logic c in khng cn ng na. Chng
han, t hai tin phn ln chim bit bayv Kiti l chim ta c
th suy ra Kiti bit bay. Song nu ta b sung vo cc tin mi
Kiti l iuv iu khng bit bay, ta khng th kt lun
Kiti bit bay.
8.3.LOGIC MC NH
Trong hon cnh c s tri thc c cha nhng thng tin khng y ,
chng ta c th a ra cc kt lun chp nhn c, cc kt lun ny ph
hp vi nhng thng tin m chng ta bit. chng hn, nu bit Kiti l
chim v phn ln chim bit bay, ta c th suy ra Kiti bit bay, nu vi
s hiu bit hin ti ca chng ta , khng c g ngn cm ta suy ra kt lun
. Loi lp lun ny gi l lp lun mc nh (default reasoning).
Logic mc nh c a ra v pht trin bi Reiter (1980). Logic
mc nh cho php ta hnh thc ho lp lun mc nh nh a vo cc lut
suy din c bit: lut mc nh (default rule of inference). Dng tng qut
ca lut mc nh nh sau:
M :
Trong
l cc cng thc trong logic v t cp mt. Cng

thc
c gi l tin iu kin ca mc nh,
l minh chng ca mc
nh, cn
l kt lun cu mc nh. M l mt k hiu c bit. M
c
ngha l cng thc
ph hp vi cc tri thc khc bit. Ni mt cch

khc, ta xem M
l ng nu l cc tri thc bit khng th suy ra c 1
.
ngha trc quan ca lut mc nh nh sau: Nu
ng v
ph
hp vi tt c cc tri thc m chng ta bit, khi ta c th suy ra
.
Cc lut mc nh cho php ta biu din cc quy lut tng qut, n
ng trong phn ln cc trng hp, song c nhng trng hp ngoi l.
l cc quy lut m khi pht biu trong ngn ng t nhin ta vn hay dng
cm t ni chung, phn ln,Chng hn, pht biu ni chung chim
bit bay c biu din di dng lut mc nh sau:
Flies(x)
flies(x) M : bird(x)
Lut ny c ngha trc quan nh sau: Nu x l chim v nu x bit
bay khng mu thun vi nhng thng tin m chng ta bit, ta c th rt
ra kt lun x bit bay.
Mt lut mc nh m kt lun ca lut trng vi minh chng ca lut
c gi l lut mc nh chun tc. Nh vy mt lut mc nh chun tc
c dng:
M :
Sau y chng ta s biu din mt s thng tin khng dy di
dng cc lut mc nh chun tc. u tin chng ta s a ra cc pht biu
trong ngn ng t nhin, sau a lut mc nh biu din pht biu .
a s cc gio s l tin s
doctor(x)
doctor(x) M : x) professor(
Ni chung cc b v sng vi chng

z) livein(y,
z) (y, livein M : z) livein(y, A y) x, husbandof(
Cc bc s, k s trong vic chn on bnh hoc chn on hng hc
ca my mc thng s dng mt dng lut mc nh chun tc c bit:
lut chn on (abductive ru le of inference). l lut mc nh chn tc
c dng:
M A : ) (
Lut ny ni rng, nu
l ng v
l ng, ta c th suy ra

nu nh
ph hp vi cc tri thc bit. Xt v d sau: chng ta bit

rng, nu xe ht xng th xe khng khi ng c, tc l ta c:
1havegas(x) 1start(x)
By g xe my ca bn khng khi ng c, bn c th kt lun
rng xe my ht xng nu nh khng c l do g ngn cm bn rt ra kt
lun (chng hn, xe bn l xe mi mua ca hng sn xut c uy tn). Suy
lun ca bn c da trn lut nh chn on sau:
havegas(x)
havegas(x) start(x) start(x)) havegas(x) (
1
) (1 : 1 1 1
Gi s D l mt tp no cc lut mc nh v W l mt tp no
cc cng thc (cc tin )trong logic v t cp mt. Khi (D, W) c gi
l h hnh thc vi cc lut mc nh. Tp tt c cc cng thc c th suy
ra t tp tin W (bng cch p dng cc lut suy din c in v cclut
mc nh trong D) s c gi l mt m rng ca (D,W). v s c k
hiu l E (D,W). Mt iu c bit quan trng l m rng ca h vi cc lut
mc nh khng phi l duy nht. Mt h vi cc lut mc nh (D,W) c th
c nhiu m rng. Chng hn, xt h (D,W) trong tp tin W rng v
Dgm hai lut mc nh:
q
Mp :
1
v
p
Mq :
1
H ny c mt m rng cha 1 q nhng khng cha 1 p v mt m
rng khc cha p nhng khng cha 1 q.
Sau ny chng ta ch quan tm ti cc h vi cc lut mc nh chun
tc.
Mt vn quan trng l, c th xy dng c mt th tc chng
minh trong cc h mc nh chun tc? mt cch chnh xc hn, cho trc
mt h mc nh chun tc (D,W) v mt cng thc A, c tn ti khng mt
k thut minh chng cho php ta xc nh A thuc hay khng thuc mt m
rng ca (D,W).
Sau y chng ta s trnh by th tc chng minh c a ra bi
Reiter.
Chng ta k hiu Precond(D
i
) (i=0, 1, , k) l tp hp cng thc m
chng l tin iu kin ca cc lut mc nh trong D
i
; Conc (D
i
) l tp cc
cng thc m chng l cc kt lun ca cc lut mc nh trong D
i
.
Th tc chng minh c thc hin qua cc bc sau:
Trc ht ta chng minh (bng bc b) rng A c suy ra t
tp tin W v t cc kt lun ca cc lut mc nh trong mt
tp con Do no ca D. Tc l chng minh rng:
.1.1 W Conc (D
0
) |= A
Sau chng ta chng minh (bng bc b) rng tp cc tin iu
kin ca cc lut mc nh trong Do c suy ra t tp tin W
v t cc kt lun ca cc lut mc nh trong mt tp con D1 no
ca D.
.1.2 W Conc (D
1
) |= Precond(D
0
)
Tip tc qu trnh trn cho ti khi ta nhn c tp rng v lc ny ta
chng minh tp cc tin iu kin ca cc lut mc nh trong Dk-1 c
suy ra t tp tin W.
W |= Precond (D
k-1
)
Cui cng ta chng minh rng, tp cng thc bao gm cc tin
trong W v cc cng thc trong Conc (Di) (i= 0,1, k-1) l hto
mn c (khng cha mu thun).
thy r th tc c thc hin nh th no, chng ta xt v d sau:
Gi s (D,W) l mt h vi cc lut mc nh chun tc trong logic mnh ,
tp D gm cc lut mc nh sau:

B
MB : A
(d
1
)

C
C M : F
1
1
(d
2
)

G
MG : F B
(d
3
)
Tp tin W gm cc cng thc sau:
A (1)
G C (2)
F (3)
Chng ta cn chng minh rng, G thuc mt m rng ca h (D,W),
ni cch khc, G suy ra c t tp tin (1) (3) v cc lut mc nh
(d
1
) (d
3
).
Ly ph nh ca cng thc cn chng minh, ta c 1G. T 1G v tin
(2), p dng lut gii ta suy ra cng thc C. T C v 1C (kt lun ca lut
mc nh d
2
)) ta suy ra cng thc rng. Nh vy, D
0
ch gm mt lut mc
nh (d
2
). Tin iu kin ca lut mc nh (d
2
) l F (tin (3)). Do ,
tp D
1
= . Chng ta cn phi chng minh tp tin (1) (3) c b sung
thm kt lun ca mc nh (d
2
) l tho mn oc. Hin nhin l n tho
mn c.
Chng ta a ra mt chng minh khc. T 1G v G (kt lun ca mc
nh (d
3
)) ta suy ra cng thc rng. Nh vy D
0
ch gm mt mc nh (d3).
Tin iu kin ca mc nh (d
3
) l B F. Ly ph nh ca cng thc ny
ta c:
1 (B F) = 1 B 1 F.
T 1 B 1 F v tin (3), ta suy ra 1 B. T 1 B v kt lun ca mc
nh (d
1
), ta suy ra cng thc rng. Nh vy, D
1
ch gm mt mc nh (d
1
).
Tin iu kin ca (d
1
) l A (tin (1)). Do D
2
= .Cui cng chng ta
thy rng, nu b sung cc kt lun ca mc nh (d
3
) v (d
1
) vo tp tin
ta vn nhn c mt tp cng thc tho mn c.
8. 4. GI THIT TH GII NG
Vic m t y th gii ca mt vn l cc k kh khn v
trong nhiu trng hp l khng th thc hin c. Chng hn, chng ta c
th lit k tt c cc vt trong mt cn phng, song khng th lit k tt
c cc vt khng c trong cn phng v cc vt l v hn. Tng
t, ta c th lit k ra tt c cc tri thc ng (trong th gii ca mt vn
no ), song lit k ra tt c cc tri thc khng ng l khng th thc hin
c.
Xt mt c s d liu cha danh sch cc nhn vin lm vic trong
mt cng ty. Danh sch cha h tn, tui v cng vic ca mi ngi. Gi
s ta mun bit (L Kim Anh, 24 tui, th k) c lm vic trong cng ty
khng? Gi s c s d liu khng cha bn ghi (L Kim Anh, 24 tui,
th k). Cc thng tin trong c s d liu khng cho php ta xc nhn hoc
bc b cu L Kim Anh, 24 tui, th k l nhn vin ca cng ty. Song
thc t ta vn thng a ra cu tr li ph nh: L Kim Anh, 24 tui, th
k khng lm vic trong cng ty . Tc l ta bc b mi s vic khng
c ghi nh trong c s d liu.
Gi thit th gii ng (closed world assumption) l quy c cho rng
tt c cc tri thc cha xc nh c l ng hay sai (vi c s tri thc
cho) u c xem l sai. Gi thit th gii ng c s dng chng
minh chng cho cc kt lun c suy ra trong cc trng hp thiu thng
tin (cng cn nhn mnh rng, cc h thng xuyn phi lm vic trong mi
trng thiu thng tin). Khi chng ta s dng gi thit th gii ng th lp
lun l khng n iu, bi v khi ta b sung cc thng tin mi vo c s tri
thc th c th mt khng nh trc kia c xem l ng by gi li tr
thnh sai.
Sau y chng ta a ra nh ngha chnh xc hn v gi thit th
ng. Gi s l mt tp cc cng thc trong logic v t (tp tin ).
Chng ta gi tp tt c cc h qu logic ca l mt l thuyt vi tp tin
v c k hiu l T ().
Chng ta k hiu l tp tt c cc literal m c th 1 P (t
1,
,t
n
) m
P(t
1
,,t
n
) khng thuc T () (trong P l v t ca n bin v t
1
, , t
n
l cc
hng thc khng cha bin). Di gi thit th gii khng ng ta xy dng
l thuyt mi T( ). Ta k hiu l thuyt mi ny l CWT (). Nh vy
l thuyt m rng CWT() bao gm tt c cc h qu logic ca cc tin
trong v tin trong . Do mun bit cng thc A c suy ra c t
c s tri thc di gi thit th gii ng hay khng,chng ta cn kim tra
xem A c thuc CWT () hay khng.
Cn ch rng, vic p dng gi thit th gii ng cho mt c s tri
thc c th dn ti l thuyt CWT () khng ph hp (cha cc thng tin
mu thun).
V d. Gi s gm cc cu:
Male(x) Female(x)
Teachear(An)
T c s tri thc ny ta khng suy ra c Male (An) v Female (An).
Do gm cc literal m c th
1 Male(An)
1 Female(An)
Nhng khi l thuyt CWT () s khng ph hp v t cc cng
thc Male(x) Female(x) v 1 Male (An), ta suy ra Female (An). iu ny
mu thun vi 1 Female(An).
Ngi ta tm ra cc iu kin cho c s tri thc p dng gi
thit th gii ng ta nhn c l thuyt m rng CWT () ph hp. C th
l, nu c s tri thc ch gm cccau Horn (v tho c) th l thuyt m
rng di gi thit th gii ng CWT () s ph hp.
Gi th gii ng thng c s dng kt hp vi cc gi thit khc;
gi thit min ng (domain-closure assumption) v gi thit tn duy nht
(unique-names assumption).
GI THIT MIN NG
Gi thit min ngl s hn ch rng, min i tng ch bao gm
cc i tng c xc nh bi cc k hiu hng i tng v csc k hiu
hm c mt trong c s tri thc. Trong trng hp c bit, khi m - khng
cha cc k hiu hm th gi thit th gii ng c th vit di dng mt
tin sau:
x ((x = c
1
) (x = c
n
))
trong c
1
,, c
n
l tt c cc k hiu hng i tng c mt trong . Chng
hn, vi c s tri thc trong v d trn, p dng gi thit min ng, chng
ta hn ch min minh ho ca ch gm mt i tng duy nht {An}, bi
v trong cc cng thc ca ch c mt hng i tng An v khng c k
hiu hm no.
GI THIT TN DUY NHT
Gi thit tn duy nht l quy c cho rng, cc hng thc c th (hng
thc khng cha bin) khng th chng minh c chng bng nhau s
c xem l khc nhau. Tt c cc tn i tng khc nhau s ch nh cc
i tng khc nhau trong minh ho bt k.
P DNG GI THIT TH GII NG VO
H LP TRNH LOGIC PROLOG
Nh chng ta ni trong mc 7.6. tng kh nng biu din ca
Prolog, ngi ta a vo Prolog mt v t xc nh trc, v t not. V t not
trong Prolog l s ci t mt dng ph nh: ph nh nh tht bi
(negation-as-failure). V t ny c xc nh nh sau. Nu G l mt literal
dng c th, th not(G) l ng nu chng ta khng tm c mt chng
minh G ng. Cn nu G l mt literal dng cha bin th not(G) l ng
nu vi mi gi tr ca cc bin ta u khng chng minh c G l ng.
Nh vy, s ci t v t not trong Prolog l da trn gi thit th gii ng.
8.5. B SUNG V T
Trong mc 8.4. chng ta tho lun v gi thit th gii ng. Khi
p dng gi thit th gii ng cho c s tri thc , ta b sung vo c s tri
thc tt c cc ph nh ca mi cng thc phn t c th m n khng
phi l h qu logic ca . Trong mc ny chng ta s xt k thut b sung
v t.
Gi s chng ta ch bit i tng obj
1
c mu , Red(obj
1
). Trong
thc t, chng ta thng quan nim rng, tt c cc i tng khc vi i
tng obj
1
u khng c mu . Vn t ra l, lm th no biu din
c iu . iu kin x l obj
1
l iu kin d x mu .
(x = obj
1
) Red(x)
Chng ta s xem iu kin x l obj
1
l iu kin cn v x
mu . Vi quan nim ny, chng ta b sung v t Red bng cch a vo
cng thc b sung sau:
x (Red(x) (x = obj
1
))
Bng cch s dng cng thc b sung trn cho v t Red, ta c th
chng minh c i tng bt k khc, chng hn obj
2
, khng c mu .
Sau ny khi ta bit thm obj
3
cng c mu , ta cn xc nh li cng thc
b sung cho v t Red.
x (Red(x) (x = obj
1
) (x = obj
3
))
Chng ta xt trng hp phc tp hn. Gi s ta bit i tng obj
1
mu v tt c cc i tng nm trn bn u mu . C s tri thc ca
chng ta cha cc cu:
Red(obj
1
)
x (On(x, table) Red(x))
Nh vy, x l obj
1
hoc x nm trn bn l iu kin x mu
. Chng ta xem iu kin trn l iu kin cn v x mu v
do chng ta c cng thc b sung cho v t Red nh sau:
x (Red(x) (x = obj
1
) On(x, table))
Sau y chng ta s trnh by chnh xc hn v k thut b sung v t.
Gi s c s tri thc cha mt s cng thc l iu kin xc nh v
t P. Chng ta quy c cc cng thc l iu kin cn v xc nh
v t P. Chng ta biu din tho thun ny di dng mt tin . Tin
ny pht biu rng, v t P c tho mn khi v ch khi mt trong cc iu
kin cho P c tho mn. Chng ta s gi tin ny l cng thc b
sung cho v t P.
Khi chng ta b sung v t P trong c s tri thc , chng ta s nhn
c c s tri thc mi: c s tri thc b sung C(,P). C(,P) nhn c t
bng cch thay cc cng thc l iu kin cho P bi cng thc b sung
cho P.
V d. Xt c s tri thc gm cc cng thc
Bird(x) Flies(x)
Flies(Mic)
1 Bird(Bin)
Chng ta b sung v t Flies. Trong c s tri thc trn, iu kin
mt i tng bit bay l i tng l chim hoc i tng l Mic.Do
cng thc b sung cho v t Flies l:
x (Flies(x) Bird(x) (x = Mic))
Nh vy c s tri thc b sung C (,Flies) gm cc cng thc:
(Flies(x) Bird(x) (x = Mic)
1 Bird(Bin)
T c s tri thc b sung ny, ta c th suy ra rng1 Flies(Bin) (Bin)
khng bit bay). Kt lun ny cn phi c xem xt li khi ta b sung cc
thng tin mi vo c s tri thc . Chng hn, nu ta thm thng tin
Flies(Bin) vo cng thc b sung cho v t Flies l:
x (Flies(x) Bird(x) (x = Mic) (x = Bin))
By gi 1 Flies(Bin) khng th suy ra c t c s tri thc b sung
C(, Flies).
Cn lu rng, khi ta tin hnh b sung cc v t trong mt c c tri
thc c th dn ti c s tri thc b sung khng cn ph hp na (tc l
cha cc thng tin mu thun). Ta cn hn ch s p dng k thut b sung
v t, ch b sung cc v t sao cho c s tri thc b sung khng cha mu
thun. Chng hn, ta c th b sung cc v t P m P l n c trong c s
tri thc . (V t P c xem l n c trong c s tri thc nu mt cu
trong cha mt xut hin dng ca P th l s xut hin duy nht ca
P trong cu ).
8.6. HN CH PHM VI
Chng ta nghin cu k thut da trn gi thit th gii ng v k
thut b sung v t. S dng cc k thut ny chng ta s b sung vo c s
tri thc cho cc tin mi nhm b p cho s thiu thng tin. Trong
mc ny chng ta s trnh by mt k thut khc: k thut hn ch phm vi
(circumscription). K thut hn ch phm vi l s tng qut ho ca k thut
b sung v t v k thut da trn quy c v th gii ng.
Chng ta xt lut sau y:
Bird(x) 1 Anormal(x) Flies(x)
Lut ny ni rng, nu x l mt con chim bnh thng th x bit bay.
By gi, gi s Bird (Bin), khi ta c th chng minh c Flies (Bin)
nu chng ta chng minh c Bin l con chim bnh thng, tc l chng
minh c1Anormal(Bin).Chng ta xem mt con chim l bnh thng tr
khi ta chng minh c n l khng bnh thng. xc nh mt con chim
c l khng bnh thng (Anormal) hay khng, chng ta hn ch phm vi
kim tra v t Anormal trong gii hn cc thng tin m chng ta bit.
Chng hn, nu chng ta bit chim cnh ct v chim iu khng bit bay,
ta c th hn ch kim tra v t Anormal trong phm vi cc con chim cnh
ct v chim iu. Tc l ta xem rng, mt con chim l khng bnh thng
nu v ch nu n l chim cnh ct hoc chim iu.
x (Anormal(x) Pengium(x) Ostrich(x))
Hn ch mt phm vi mt v t trong mt c s tri thc l hn ch
phm vi kim tra s ng n ca v t . K thut hn ch phm vi cho
php ta ti thiu ho min kim tra mt s v t trong mt c s tri thc.
Gi s P l mt tp no cc v t c mt trong c s tri thc , cc
v t trong P l cc v t c hn ch phm vi. Khi chng ta hn ch phm
vi kim tra s ng n ca cc v t trong P, chng ta s ch quan tm ti
cc m hnh ti thiu (minimal model) i vi P. xc nh khi nim m
hnh ti thiu i vi P, chng ta da vo quan h hp hn gia cc m
hnh ca c s tri thc . Gi s M
1
v M
2
l hai m hnh ca c s tri thc
, ta ni rng m hnh M
1
hp hn m hnh M
2
nu:
M
1
v M
2
cho cng mt minh ho i vi tt c cc k hiu hm v
tt c cc k hiu v t khc vi k hiu v t trong p.
Vi mi v t P trong P v vi mi i tng x m P(x) ng trong
M
1
th P(x) cng ng trong M
2
.
Vi s hn ch phm vi cc v t trong P thuc c s tri thc , chng
ta ch xt n cc m hnh ti thiu i vi P ca c s tri thc . Chng ta
xem rng, mt cng thc suy ra c t c s tri thc nu n tho c
trong tt c cc m hnh ti thiu ca .
Trong thc t, khi pht trin mt c s tri thc da trn k thut hn
ch phm vi cc v t, chng ta cn gii quyt cc vn sau:
Chn cc v t cn c hn ch phm vi?
Biu din s hn ch thng qua cc v t no?
Chng ta c th gii quyt vn chn v t hn ch phm vi bng
gii php n gin sau. Chng ta biu din cc quy lut chung nhng c
ngoi l bi cc cng thc. cc trng hp ngoi l c biu din bi v t
mt bin Anormal(x). Cc v t Anormal s l cc v t cn c hn ch
phm vi.
V d. Gi s chng ta c cc tri thc sau:
Mt i tng bnh thng khng bit bay
Mt con chim l mt i tng khng bnh thng
mt con chim bnh thng bit bay
iu l chim khng bit bay
Chng ta biu din cc tri thc trn bi cc cng thc sau:
Object(x) 1 Anormal
1
(x) 1 Flies(x)
Bird(x) Object(x) anormal
2
(x)
Bird(x) 1 Anormal
1
(x) 1 Flies(x)
Ostrich(x) Bird(x) 1 Flies(x)
Trong cc cng thc trn, v t Anormal
1
(x) biu din tnh cht x l
i tng khng bnh thng, v t Anormal
2
(x) biu din x l con chim
khng bnh thng. cc cu trn to thnh c s tri thc . Chng ta cn
hn ch phm vi cho hai v t anormal
1
v Anormal
2
. Vi c s tri thc nh
trn, trc quan cho ta thy rng, cn hn ch phm vi cho hai v t nh sau:
Anormal
1
(x) Bird(x)
Anormal
2
(x) Ostrich(x)
CHNG 9
LI NG NGHA V H KHUNG
Li ng ngha (semantic network) l mt trong cc m hnh c bn
biu din tri thc, li ng ngha cho php ta m t cc i tng, cc khi
nim (mt lp i tng) v cc mi quan h gia chng. Trong chng ny
chng ta s xt khi nim li ng ngha, vn biu din tri thc bi li
ng ngha v vn suy din bng tha k trong li ng ngha.
Trong phng php biu din tri thc bi cc khung (frame), cc s
kin lin quan n mt i tng (hoc mt khi nim) c tp hp li
to thnh mt khung. Khung l mt n v c cu trc biu din tri thc.
Chng ta s nghin cu cc thnh phn cu thnh cc khung v vn suy
din trong cc h khung.
9.1. NGN NG M T KHI NIM
Th tc chng minh nh l tng qut (th tc chng minh bc b
bng lut phn gii) trong logic v t l th tc c phc tp tnh ton ln.
V vy cc nh nghin cu c gng tm kim cc ngn ng con c bit ca
logic v t, chng c kh nng biu din trong nhiu lnh vc p dng, v
c bit c th thc hin cc th tc suy din hiu qu. Trong chng 7
chng ta nghin cu ngn ng c bit ch bao gm cc lut. Sau y
chng ta s a ra mt ngn ng c bit khc: Ngn ng m t khi nim
(concept diseription language).
Trong cc ngnh khoa hc, khi nim l n v tri thc c s. Ngi
ta pht biu cc quy lut (quy lut v t nhin v quy lut v x hi) thng
qua cc khi nim c a ra. Chng ta a ra mt s v d v khi
nim: cc khi nim v s nguyn, s nguyn t,trong ton hc: cckhi
nim chim, b st, ng vt c v, trong ng vt hc.
Khi a ra mt khi nim mi, chng ta thng xc nh cc mi
quan h ca n vi cc khi nim bit v nu ra cc c tnh ca n.
chng hn ,ngi ta nh ngha s nguyt t l s dng ch chia ht cho 1
v chnh n.
Cc khi nim, chng hn nh xe p, tam gic, chim, c th
xem nh s m t cc lp i tng no . Chng ta c th xem khi nim
xe p nh mt lp i tng dng i li, cc i tng ny c c tnh
nh c hai bnh, chuyn ng c nh sc p ca ngi,Lp cc i
tng c xc nh bi mt khi nim l mt lp con ca lp cc i tng
c xc nh bi khi nim tng qut hn. Chng hn, lp cc i tng
hnh hc c xc nh bi khi nim tng qut hn l a gic.
Ngn ng m t khi nim l ngn ng c bit cho php m t cc
i tng, cc lp i tng, cc mi quan h gia chng, cc tnh cht ca
cc i tng v cc tnh cht ca cc lp.
Ngn ng m t khi nim ch s dng ba v t sau: isa(x,y) (isa l
vit tt ca cm t is a member of), ako (y,z) (ako l vit tt ca cm t a
kind of ) v feature (x,p,v). Ng ngha ca cc v t ny l nh sau:
isa (x,y) c ngha rng, i tng x l thnh vin ca lp y.
ako (y,z) c ngha rng, lp y l lp con ca lp m z.
feature (x,p,v) c ngha rng, i tng x (hoc lp x) c
thuc tnh p vi gi tr v.
Cc c th v cc lp tun theo mt s quy lut tng qut sau:
Nu mt i tng l thnh vin ca mt lp th n l thnh vin
ca tt c cc lp m ca lp ny.
isa(x,y) ako(y,z) isa(x,z)
Quan h l lp con c tnh cht bc cu
ako(x,y) ako(y,z) ako(x,z)
Nu mt lp c c tnh th cc thnh vin ca lp cng c c
tnh .
isa (x,y) feature(y,p,v) feature (x,p,v)
Cn lu rng quy lut ny c th c cc ngoi l.
V d. Gi s chng ta c cc cu sau y mmo t mmt s khi nim
v mt s c th .
ng vt c v ( mammal) l ng vt (animal) c lng mao, c 4
chn cho sa.
Chim l ng vt c lng v , c hai chn, bit bay, trng.
Ch l ng vt c v, c c tnh trung thnh.
Bin l ch ci, mu xm.
Mic l ch c, mu en.
Di (bt) l ng vt c v, c hai chn, bit bay
Chim cnh ct (penguin) l loi chim bit bi, khng bit bay.
Chng ta c th biu din cc m t v mt s loi vt v con vt trn
bi cc cu trn ngn ng m t khi nim nh sau:
Ako (mammal, animal)
Feature (mammal, cover, hair)
Feature (mammal, legs, 4)
Feature (mammal, give, milk)
Ako (bird, animal)
Feature (bird, cover, feathes)
Feature (bird, legs, 2)
Feature (bird, flys, T)
Feature( bird, lays, eggs)
Ako (dog, mammal)
Feature (dog, loyal, T)
Isa (Bin, color, green)
Feature ( Bin, sex, female)
Isa (Bin, dog)
Isa (Mic, dog)
Feature ( Mic, color, black)
Feature (Mic, sex, male)
Ako (bat, mammal)
Feature (bat,fly, T)
Feature (bat, legs, 2)
Ako ( penguin, swim,T)
Feature ( penguin, fly, F)
Khi d cho mt c s tri thc bao gm cc cu trong ngn ng m t
khi nim, chng ta cn c th tc suy din suy ra cc c tnh mi ca c
th (hoc ca khi nim) c hi. Chng hn, t cc tri thc trn, ta c th
suy ra rng, chim cnh ct l loi chim c lng v, c hai chn v trng.
thun tin cho qu trnh suy din, chng ta s chuyn cc tri thc
c m t trong ngn ng m t khi nim sang dng th c bit: li
ng ngha.
9.2. LI NG NGHA
Trong mc ny chng ta s xt li ng ngha nh mt m hnh biu
din tri thc. Sau chng ta s nghin cu phng php suy din bng
tha k trong li ng ngha.
Li ng ngha l mt th nh hng khng c chu trnh vi cc
nh v cc cung c gn nhn:
Cc nh biu din cc i tng hoc cc lp i tng (cc khi
nim), hoc cc gi tr ca cc thuc tnh. Chng ta quy c cc nh hnh
ch nht biu din cc i tng hoc cc lp, cn cc nh elip biu din
cc gi tr.
Cc cung biu din cc quan h. Cung gn nhn isa i t nh biu
din cc i tng ti nh biu din lp m i tng l thnh vin ca lp.
Cung gn nhn ako i t nh biu din mt lp ny ti nh biu din mt
lp khc nu lp ng vi nh ngun ca cung l lp con ca lp ng vi
nh ch ca cung. Cc cung khc c gn nhn bi tn ca cc thuc
tnh, cc cung ny i t cc nh biu din cc i tng (hoc cc lp), ti
cc nh biu din gi tr ca thuc tnh.
T nh ngha li ng ngha trn, chng ta d dng chuyn cc cu
trong ngn ng m t khi nim thnh mt li ng ngha. Hnh 9.1 l li
ng ngha biu din cc tri thc c m t bi cc cu trong ngn ng m
t khi nim c a ra trong v d mc trc.

animal T eggs
milk
lays
give ako ako
feathers
cover 2
hair mammal cover
legs bird
2 ako 4
legs ako ako T
swim
bat dog penguin
fly fly

isa isa
T F
sex
Bin Mic male

color sex color

green female black

Hinh 9.1. Mt li ng ngha.
Khi chng ta biu din tri thc bi li ng ngha, vn quan trng
c t ra by gi l lm th no xc nh c gi tr ca cc thuc
tnh ca cc i tng c hi.
C ch suy din trong li ng ngha da trn nguyn l tha k.
Chng hn, s kin ch c 4 chn c tha k t s kin ng vt c v
c 4 chn. Tng t, nh nguyn l tha k, ta c th suy ra rng chim
cnh ct trng v chim cnh ct c 2 chn. Mt cch tng qut, ta c
th pht biu nguyn l tha k nh sau : Nu mt c th l thnh vin ca
mt lp ( hoc mt lp l lp con ca lp khc ) th n c th tha k cc
gi tr ca cc thuc tnh ca lp .
Cc gi tr ca cc thuc tnh ca mt lp c gi l cc gi tr
ngm nh (default value). Khi nt i tng l thnh vin ca mt lp, n
c th nhn gi tr ngm nh trong lp cho cc thuc tnh cha c xc
nh. Chng hn, gi tr ngm nh trong lp chim ca thuc tnh s chn
l 2, chim cnh ct thuc lp chim, do chim cnh ct c 2 chn. Chng ta
c th xc nh cc c th c cc thuc tnh bit bay trong lp chim l T,
nhng chim cnh ct l lp con ca lp chim li c gi tr F cho thuc tnh
bit bay. Trong trng hp ny, gi tr ngm nh ca thuc tnh trong lp
m khng c lp con ( hoc i tng con ) tha k, gi tr ngm nh b
che lp bi gi tr thc t c xc nh trong lp con (hoc i tng
con ).
By gi chng ta s xt c ch tha k trong li ng ngha. Trong
li ng ngha, nu chng ta b i tt c cc cung biu din cc quan h
thuc tnh gi tr, ch gi li cc cc quan h isa v cc quan h ako, chng
ta s nhn c mt th nh hng biu din cu trc phn cp tha k.
Chng hn, t li ng ngha trong hnh 9.1, ta c cu trc phn cp tha k
trong hnh 9.2.
Mc ch ca suy din trong li ng ngha l: khi c hi v gi tr
ca mt thuc tnh ca mt i tng ( hoc mt lp ), ta cn xc nh c
gi tr ca thuc tnh . Trc ht ta xt trng hp n gin nht, khi m
trong cu trc phn cp tha k, t mt nh ch c nhiu nht mt cung i
ra, tc l mt i tng ch c th l thnh vin ca mt lp duy nht, mt
lp ch c th l lp con ca mt lp m duy nht.Chng hn, li ng ngha
trong hnh 9.1 c cc tnh cht . Trong trng hp ny, xc nh gi tr
ca mt thuc tnh cho mt i tng, ta i ln t nh ng vi i tng
theo cc cung c gn nhn isa hoc ako cho ti lp m t cung i ra
c gn nhn bi thuc tnh c hi. Chng hn, t li ng ngha trong
hnh 9.1, tm cu tr li cho cu hi Mic c my chn?, ta i t nh
Mic n nh dog ri ti nh mammal, t nh ny c cung i ra nhn legs
(thuc tnh s chn) ti nh biu din gi tr 4. Do o cu tr li l Mic c 4
chn.
animal
ako ako
mammal bird
ako
ako ako
bat dog penguin
isa isa

Bin Mic
Hnh 9.2. Cu trc phn cp tha k.
THA K NHIU LP
By gi chng ta xt s tha k trong trng hp tng qut: tha k
t nhiu lp (multiple inheritance).
Vic xc nh gi tr ca mt thuc tnh cho mt c th trong li ng
ngha s tr nn rt phc tp khi mt c th c th tha k cc gi tr ngm
nh khc nhau trong cc lp khc nhau. Trng hp ny xy ra khi trong
li ng ngha, mt c th c th l thnh vin ca cc lp khc nhau, mt
lp c th l lp con ca cc lp m khc nhau: tc l trong cu trc phn
cp t mt nh c nhiu cung i ra.
V d. Gi s chng ta c cc lp sau
Lp gio s (Professors)
Lp gio vin (Teachers)
Lp ngi lp d (Eccentrics)
Lp Hackers
Lp lp trnh vin (Programmers)
Lp tr thc (Intellectual-Persons)
Lp mi ngi (People)
ng An va l gio s, va l lp trnh vin.
Gi s chng ta c cu trc phn cp tha k cc lp lit k nh
trong hnh 9.3.
People
ako
Intectual Persons
ako ako ako
Eccentrics Teachers Hackers
ako ako ako ako
Professors Programmers

isa isa
An
Hnh 9.3. Cu trc phn cp tha k bi.
Gi s cho bit ngi lp d c c tnh ng tr, cn ngi Hacker c
c tnh khng ng tr. Gi s ngi ta cha bit ng An c ng tr hay
khng. Chng ta cn tm cu tr li. y chng ta c hai lp c th cung
cp gi tr ngm nh cho thuc tnh ng tr ca ng An. l lp ngi
lp d v lp ngi Hacker v ng An l thnh vin ca c hai lp ny.
Chng ta phi quyt nh lp no cung cp gi tr ngm nh cho thuc tnh
ng tr ca ng An. gii quyt vn ny chng ta cn phi c chin
lc cho php lp no c quyn u tin cho tha k.
Sau y chng ta trnh by mt chin lc quyt nh lp c quyn
cho tha k. T i tng c hi, chng ta thnh lp mt danh sch u
tin cc lp c th cung cp gi tr ngm nh cho cc thuc tnh ca i
tng . Chng hn, danh sch u tin cc lp cho i tng An tha k
cc gi tr ngm nh c th l danh sch sau:
An
Professors
Programers
Eccentrics
Hackers
Teachers
Intellectual-Persons
People
Trong danh sch ny, hai lp Eccentrics v Hackers u c th cung
cp gi tr ngm nh cho thuc tnh ng tr. Song lp Eccentrics ng
trc lp Hackers trong danh sch u tin. Eccentrics l lp c quyn cho
tha k. Do i tng An tha k gi tr ngm nh ca thuc tnh ng
tr t lp Ecccentrics, tc l ta suy ra ng An l ngi ng tr.
Ngi ta a ra mt s quy lut xc nh quyn u tin cho tha k
ca cc lp:
Mi lp cn ng trc bt k lp m no ca n trong danh sch
u tin.
Lut ny c ngha rng, trong bt k ng tha k no (ng tha
k l ng i t i tng c hi ti cc lp theo cc cung isa v ako),
lp gn i tng c quyn cho tha k hn l lp ng xa i tng.
Trong danh sch u tin mt lp m trc tip cn ng trc lp
m trc tip khc bn phi n.
Chng hn, Eccentrics v Teachers l hai lp m trc tip ca
Professors, nhng Teachers ng bn phi Eccentrics trong li, do
Eccentrics phi ng trc Teachers trong danh sch u tin a ra
trn u tho mn hai lut ny.
Chng ta c th s dng k thut tm kim theo su t tri sang
phi hoc s dng thut ton sp xp topo xc nh danh sch u tin cc
lp cho tha k.
9.3. KHUNG
Khi nim khung (frame) ln u tin c a ra v nghin cu bi
Marvin Minsky (1975). Cc khung c s dng biu din tri thc v
mt i tng c th, mt khi nim (mt lp i tng), hoc mt hon
cnh no . Trong mc ny chng ta s xt khi nim khung , vic biu
din tri thc trong mt lnh vc bi h khung v c ch suy din trong mt
h khung.
Khung l n v c cu trc biu din tri thc. C th hiu khung
nh l mt cu trc d liu. Mi khung u c tn, tn ca khung l tn ca
i tng hoc ca khi nim hoc ca hon cnh m khung biu din. Mi
khung gm mt s thnh phn, cc thnh phn ca khung c xem nh l
cc l (slot) cha cc thng tin v i tng (i tng y cn c hiu
l mt i tng c th, mt khi nim, mt hon cnh in hnh hoc mt
hon cnh c bit no ). Mi l c tn v gi tr. Cc l biu din cc quan
h vi cc i tng khc hoc biu din cc thuc tnh ca i tng.
Chng ta s quan tm ti hai l c bit. Mt l c bit c tn l isa (hoc
instance-of) biu din i tng c m t l thnh vin ca mt lp i
tng. Mt l c bit khc c tn l ako biu din mt lp l lp con ca
mt lp khc (lp m trc tip). Cc khung m t cc i tng c th s
c gi l cc c th (instance frame hoc instance), cc khung m t cc
khi nim (chng hn, khi nim chim, b st,), hoc cc hon cnh in
hnh (chng hn, mt phng hi tho in hnh) s c gi l cc lp
(class).
Thng tin cha ng trong cc l ca mt khung c th l mt ch dn
ti mt khung khc, chng hn thng tin cha trong cc l c tn l isa hoc
ako. Thong tin cha trong cc l biu din cc thuc tnh ca i tng c
th l gi tr ca thuc tnh , hoc l mt th tc cho php ta tnh gi tr
ca thuc tnh thng qua cc thng tin khc.
Trong m hnh biu din tri thc bi cc khung, cc thng tin v mt
i tng, c b li to thnh mt dn v khung biu din i tng
. T li ng ngha cho, mi nh (biu din i tng) v cc cung
xut pht t n c th c gom li thnh mt khung. V d, t li ng
ngha trong hnh 9.1, ta c th xy dng ln mt h khung. Chng hn, t
nh mammal v nh mic ta to ra hai khung sau (trang sau).
By gi chng ta nghin cu c ch suy din trong cc h khung.
Cng nh i vi li ng ngha, vn suy din trong cc h khung l, khi
c hi v gi tr ca mt thuc tnh . C ch suy din trong cc h
khung da trn nguyn l tha k.
Gi s chng ta c mt s tri thc v mt s loi chim nh sau:
Chim l ng vt, bit bay, c hai chn.
Frame: Mammal
Ako animal
Cover hair
Legs 4
Give milk
Frame: Mic
Isa dog
Color black
Sex male
Hi u l mt loi chim, c lng mu en - trng, c c trung bnh
l 115
Chim cnh ct l mt loi chim, khng bit bay, bit bi, c c
trung bnh l 150
Kiti l mt con hi u, c c 120
Miki l mt con hi u, c c 102
T cc tri thc trn, ta xy dng c mt h khung c cho trong
hnh 9.4.
Gi s chng ta c hi Kiti c bit bay khng?. Trong khung Kiti
khng c ch fly (iu c ngha l csc thng tin trong khung Kiti khng
cho php ta xc nh c gi tr ca thuc tnh c hi). Theo ch dn
trong l isa ca khung Kiti,ta tm n khung albatross. Trong khung ny
cng khng c l fly. Theo ch dn trong l ako ca khung ny, ta tm ti
khung bird. Trong khung ny, gi tr cha trong l fly l T. Khung Kiti tha
k gi tr ngm nh T ca l fly t khung m bird. Nh vy ta tm ra cu
tr li l Kiti bit bay.
Frame: bird
Ako animal
Fly T
Legs 2
Frame: albatross Frame: penguin
Ako Ako
Cover black white Fly F
Average- 115 Swim T
size
Averagesuze 150
Frame: Kiti Frame: Miki
Isa Isa
Size 120 Size 102
Hnh 9.4. Mt h khung.
Tng qut, xc nh gi tr ca mt thuc tnh ca mt i tng,
ta c th thc hin th tc sau. Xut pht t khung biu din i tng c
hi. Nu trong khung c l biu din thuc tnh c hi th gi tr cha
trong l l gi tr cn tm.. Nu khng, ta xc nh gi tr ca thuc tnh
c hi bng tha k. Ta i t khung hin thi ti khung tng qut hn
theo ch dn c cha trong cc l isa hoc ako cho ti khung m m ti
c l biu din thuc tnh c hi. Gi tr ngm nh trong l c ly
l gi tr ca thuc tnh c hi.
Nh chng ta ni, thng tin cha trong cc l biu din thuc tnh
c th l mt th tc tnh gi tr ca thuc tnh. Gi s chng ta cn xc nh
c tng i ca cc con vt c th: c tng i l t l gia c ca con vt
vi c trung bnh ca loi vt ca con vt . chng hn, Kiti c c 120
thuc loa chim hi u c c trung bnh 115, do c tng i ca Kiti l:
120/115 * 100% = 104%
Tng t, c tng i ca Miki l:
.1.1 102/115 * 100% = 88%
Nh vy chng ta cn th tc cho php ta xc nh c c tng i
(relative size) ca cc con vt, ta gi th tc ny l Rsize. V th tc ny
c dng chungcho tt c cc con vt nn ta a vo khung animal
(khung ny biu din lp tt c cc con vt) mt l c tn l relative size,
l ny cha th tc Rsize.
Frame: Mammal
Relative size Procedure RSize
tnh c tng i ca mt i tng, chng hn Kiti, ta i t

khung Kiti ti khung albatross ri ti khung bird, sau ti khung animal.
Trong khung animal, ta tm thy th tc Rsize tnh c tng i. Th tc ny
cn ti gi tr ca l size trong khung Kiti v gi tr ca l average size
trong khung albatross (size v average size l cc tham s ca th tc). Gi
th tc Rsize vi cc tham s c xc nh ta tnh c c tng i
ca Kiti.
Trn y chng ta mi ch cp n s tha k n, tc l mi
khung ch c th c mt khung m trc tip duy nht, hay ni cch khc mi
khung ch c mt ng tha k duy nht. trong trng hp tha k bi, khi
mi khung c nhiu hn mt khung m, gi tr mt thuc tnh ca khung c
th tha k t nhiu khung m khc nhau. Trong trng hp ny, cng nh
trong li ng ngha, chng ta cn c chin lc quyt nh khung m no
c quyn cho tha k.
Cc h khung c s dng trong nhiu h chuyn gia, trong cc
h nhn dng, trong cc h s l ngn ng t nhin,
L thuyt cc h khung l c s ca phng php lun lp trnh nh
hng i tng.
CHNG 10
TRI THC KHNG CHC CHN
Con ngi hu nh khng hiu bit mt cch y d v chnh xc v
mi trng, trong nhiu trng hp cc thng tin m chng ta bit c
hoc khng chnh xc, hoc khng chc chn. Trong hon cnh cc thng tin
bit c khng chc chn, cc tc nhn thng minh (intelligent agents) vn
cn phi a ra cc quyt nh, cc hnh ng. Mt vn t ra l, trn c
s no cc quyt nh, cc hnh ng m cc tc nhn a ra c xem l
hp l, ng n. V vy, vic nghin cu cc m hnh biu din tri thc
khng chc chn v cc phng thc suy lun lin quan ti tnh khng chc
chn (uncertainty) ng vai tr quan trngtrong cc h thng minh. Trong
chng ny chng ta s trnh by l thuyt xc sut nh l c s ton hc
cho s biu din tri thc khng chc chn. sau chng ta s nghin cu cc
mng xc sut, mt m hnh biu din tri thc khng chc chn v cc
phng php suy lun trong csc mng xc sut. Cui cng chng ta s xt
vic s dng cc phng php lp lun trong mng xc sut tr gip cho
vic a ra quyt nh.
10.1. KHNG CHC CHN V BIU DIN
Gi s ngy mai bn cn p chuyn bay 10 gi t sn bay Ni Bi i
thnh ph H Ch Minh. Bn cn lp k hoch i c chuyn bay ti
sao cho tn t thi gian v tin bc. cc thng tin chnh xc m bn bit c
l bn cn n trc gi bay mt gi lm th tc; nh bn cch sn bay
Ni Bi 50 km v xe c th chy ti sn bay Ni Bi vi vn tc 50km/h.
Bn c th ln k hoch: gi taxi n nh n bn lc 8h. Tuy nhin trn
ng i taxi ca bn c th b hng hc phi dng li sa cha, c th c
m tang lm tc nghn giao thng, c th c tai nn trn cu Thng Long
v cng an khng cho qua li cu gii quyt hu qu, nh vy, c th
c rt nhiu s kin khng chc chn, mang tnh ngu nhin xy ra m bn
cha tnh n khi a ra k hoch trn. K hoch xut pht lc 8h bng xe
taxi xem ra cha sc thuyt phc, n c th lm l chuyn bay ca bn.
Vi v d trn, chng ta mun ni rng, chng ta phi thng xuyn
a ra cc quyt nh, hnh ng, rt ra cc kt lun trong hon cnh thng
tin chng ta bit c l khng chc chn.
C cc s kin m chng ta khng bit trc c n xy ra hay khng,
s xut hin ca n mang tnh ngu nhin, nh cc s kin trong v d trn.
C cc mnh m tnh chn l ca n ta khng th bit trc c, chng
hn mnh ngy tt trung thu l ngy nng. chng ta s biu din kh
nng mt s kin c th xy ra, kh nng c mt mnh c th ng bi c
mt s p, 0 p 1. S ny s c gi l xc sut ca mt s kin hoc xc
sut ca mt mnh . Chng hn, chng ta c th ni rng, xc sut ngy
tt trung thu l nng l 0,63. L thuyt xc sut l c s ton hc biu
din tnh khng chc chn ca cc s kin. Trong cc mc sau chng ta s
trnh by k hn v l thuyt xc sut. Cn by gi chng ta s bn lun v
bn cht v ngun gc ca tnh khng chc chn.
Tnh khng chc chn c th xut hin t nhiu ngun. Trc ht, c
nhng qu trnh m bn cht ca n chng ta khng th m t chnh xc bi
cc m hnh n nh. Chng hn, chng ta xt qu trnh mt cu th st
pht 11m. trc khi cu th pht, chng ta khng th on bit c qu
o chuyn ng ca qu bng, tc chuyn ng ca n, qu bng c vo
gn, vt x ngang hay trng ct bn tri,
Tnh khng chc chn c th xut hin do s hiu bit khng y
ca chng ta v vn ang xt. C th thy r iu ny khi cc bc s chn
on bnh, khi cc k s phng on s hng hc ca my mc. Do s hiu
bit khng y nguyn nhn, c ch gy bnh, ngi thy thuc ch c
th ni, chng hn vi cc triu chng v cc kt qu xt nghim , h bit
th c 80% kh nng bnh nhn b st xut huyt.
Ngay c khi chng ta c th m t chnh xc, n nh mt qu trnh,
nhng nu m t y v chnh xc th s rt phc tp, phc tp ca tnh
ton, lp lun s rt cao. Trong cc trng hp , Trong cc trng hp ,
ngi ta c th m t xp x bng cch s dng tnh khng chc chn n
gin cho vic tnh ton, suy din.
lm sng t cc tho lun dn ra trn, chng ta xt v d sau.
Gi s bnh nhn ht thuc (smoking). ng nhin, khng phi bnh nhn
no ht thuc cng ung th (cancer). Trong y hc, ngi ta cha bit c
chnh xc nhng nguyn nhn no th mt ngi ht thuc s b ung th v
nhng nguyn nhn no th mt ngi ht thuc s khng ung th. By gi,
gi s rng ngi ta bit c y cc iu kin m mt bnh nhn ht
thuc s b ung th. V t smoking(p) c ngha l bnh nhn p ht thuc; v
t symtom(p, S
k
): bnh nhn p c triu chng S
k
v v t cancer(p): bnh
nhn p b ung th. S dng cc v t ny c:
Smoking(p) Symtom(p, S
1
) Symtom(p, S
n
) cancer(p)
Nu nh s cc iu kin Symtom(p, S
k
) rt ln th trong trng hp
ny, thay v s m t chnh xc bi lut trn ngi ta s dng tnh khng
chc chn m t xp x mi quan h nhn-qu. Chng hn, ngi ta ni:
Smoking(p) Cancer(p) vi tin cy l 8 %.
10.2. MT S KHI NIM C BN CA L THUYT XC SUT:
Trong mc ny chng ta s trnh by mt s khi nim c bn ca l
thuyt xc sut v cc cng thc tnh xc sut c s dng n trong cc
mc sau. Phng php trnh by v cc k hiu m chng ta s dng l
thun li cho vic biu din tri thc khng chc chn v cc tnh ton cn
thit sau ny.
Chng ta s gi cc mnh m gi tr chn l ca n (true/ false)
chng ta khng th bit trc c, n nhn gi tr true hoc false mt cch
ngu nhin, may ri l mnh khng chc chn. Chng hn, mnh
ngy 2 thng 9 sp ti. H Ni tri nhiu my khng ma l mnh
khng chc chn. Cn lu rng, cc s kin khng chc chn u c th
m t bi mnh khng chc chn.
XC SUT V CC MINH HA CA XC SUT
Gi s bn n nh An nhiu ln v c ti 90% s ln bn n gp An
nh. Hm nay bn cng Ba n nh An. Ba hi bn, liu An c nh khng.
Bn tr li Ba rng 90% kh nng An nh. Ni cch khc, mnh An
nh c xc sut l 0,9. Xc sut l mt s nm gia 0 v 1, biu din kh
nng mt mnh l ng.
C nhiu cch minh ho khi nim xc sut. Trong v d trn, qua
thng k cc ln bn n nh An, bn thy c 90% s ln bn n gp An
nh. Ngi ta xem xc sut An c nh l 0,9. Nh vy c th xem con s
0,9 nh s o s thng xuyn ca s kin An c nh.
Gi s chun b cho k thi sp ti, Cao hc tp rt chm ch, Cao
li l hc sinh gii ca lp. Cc thy dy Cao ni rng, xc sut Cao
trong k thi sp ti l 0,98. Trong trng hp ny ta c th hiu xc sut l
s o mc tin tng vo s ng n ca mt mnh hoc s xut hin
ca mt s kin. Xc sut trong trng hp ny c gi l xc sut ch
quan (subjective probability). Mt v d khc v xc sut ch quan l, khi so
snh nh gi v im mnh v yu ca hai i Real Madrid v Valencia,
cc chuyn gia bng ni rng, xc sut Real Madrid thng Valencia
trong trn ti l 0,58.
Chng ta s s dng cc ch s in hoa A, B, C, ch cc mnh
A v B khng chc chn. Xc sut ca mnh A s c k hiu l Pr(A).
Chng ta cng s quan tm n xc sut ca cc mnh hp thnh, l
cc mnh c to thnh t cc mnh khc bng cch s dng cc kt
ni logic: v (), hoc (), ph nh (1).
Pr(1A) l xc sut mnh A sai.
Pr(A B) l xc sut c hai mnh A v B u ng. Sau ny
chng ta s k hiu xc sut ny l Pr(A, B).
Pr(A B) l xc sut mnh A hoc mnh B l ng.
CC TNH CHT C BN CA XC SUT
Xc sut ca mt mnh tho mn cc tnh cht sau y:
1. Vi mnh Q bt k, xc sut l mt s nm gia 0 v 1.
0 Pr(Q) 1.
2. Mt mnh chc chn ( mt mnh ng trong mi minh ho)
c xc sut l 1.Mt mnh khng tho c (mnh sai trong mi minh
ho) c xc sut l 0.
3. Pr(A B) = Pr(A) + Pr(B) Pr(A B)
4. Pr (1 A) = 1 Pr(A)
Tnh cht 4 l h qu ca 3 tnh cht u. Tht vy, t tnh cht 3 thay
B bi 1 A ta c:
Pr(A 1 A) = Pr(A) + Pr(1 A) Pr(A 1 A)
Nhng theo tnh cht 2, v A 1 A l mnh chc chn, A 1 A l
mnh khng tho c nn Pr(A 1 A) = 1 v Pr(A 1 A) = 0. Do ta
c 1 = Pr(A) + Pr(1 A).
Ngi ta thng ly ba tnh cht 1,2,3 lm cc tin ca l thuyt
xc sut.
XC SUT C IU KIN
Chng ta thng quan tm n xc sut ca mt mnh khi chng ta
c bit trc mt s thng tin no ( thng tin m ta bit trc ny cn
c gi l mt bng chng ( evidence)). Chng hn, chng ta ni xc sut
mt bnh nhn ht thuc l b ung th l 0,28, chng ta k hiu xc sut
ny l Pr(cancer| smoke) = 0,28. Thng tin m chng ta bit trc l bnh
nhn ht thuc. Xc sut trn c ngha l, trong s cc bnh nhn ht thuc,
kh nng mt bnh nhn b ung th l 0,28.
Xc sut c iu kin (cnditinal probability hoc posterior
probability) ca mnh A khi cho trc mnh B c k hiu l Pr(A|
B) v c xc lp bi cng thc.
Pr(A|B) =
Pr(B)
B) Pr(A,

T cng thc ny ta c:
Pr(A,B) = Pr(A|B) Pr(B)
Ni chung, nu chng ta quan tm n xc sut ca mt mnh A
th khi bit thm thng tin mi l mnh B, chng ta cn tnh c xc
sut c iu kin Pr(A|B) bng suy din. Vn ny s c nghin cu
trong cc mc sau.
BIN NGU NHIN V PHN PHI XC SUT
Chng ta s quan tm ti cc bin m n c th nhn gi tr ny hoc
gi tr khc mt cch ngu nhin, khng th bit trc c. Chng hn, khi
ta gieo con xc xc (khi lp phng), kt qu ca cc ln gieo c th biu
din bi mt bin, bin ny c th nhn gi tr bt k t 1 n 6. Nhng n
nhn gi tr no chng ta khng th bit trc c khi gieo xc xc.
Bin ngu nhin (random variable) l mt bin nhn gi tr ny hay
gi tr khc mt cch ngu nhin t mt tp cc gi tr no . Tp gi tr
ny c gi l min gi tr (hay cn c gi l khng gian mu) ca bin
ngu nhin. Chng hn, bin Weather (thi tit khu vc H Ni lc 12h)
c th nhn cc gi tr sunny, rainy, cloudy. Chng ta s k hiu cc bin
ngu nhin b cc ch ci in X, Y, Z, hoc cc t, chng hn, Weather,
color, Sau ny chng ta ch quan tm n cc bin ngu nhin ri rc,
tc l min gi tr ca n l mt tp cc gi tr ri rc.
Gi s X l bin ngu nhin vi min gi tr v a . Mnh
X = a l vit tt ca mnh bin X nhn gi tr a. Chng ta s gi cc
mnh X = a l mnh phn t (hoc s kin phn t) cn lu rng,
cc s kin phn t khng th xy ra ng thi v trong mi ln th nghim,
mt trong cc s kin phn t s xy ra.
Chng ta c th xem mt mnh nh mt bin ngu nhin ch nhn
hai gi tr (true, false): bin ngu nhin boolean. Gi s A l mt mnh ,
khi ta xem A nh mt bin ngu nhin boolean th Pr(A) l vit tt ca
Pr(A = true), cn Pr(1 A) l vit tt ca Pr(A=false).
Hm Pr(X) xc nh trn min gi tr ca bin ngu nhin X, ng
vi mi x vi xc sut Pr(X = x), c gi l phn phi xc sut ca
bin ngu nhin X l tp hp tt c cc xc sut Pr(X = x) vi x . Cc
xc sut ny cn tho mn iu kin sau:
x
1 x) Pr(X
V d.Gi s bin ngu nhin Wather vi min gi tr l (sunny, Rain,
Cloudy). Phn phi xc sut ca bin ngu nhin ny c cho trong bng
sau:
Weather Pr(Weather)
Sunny
Rain
Cloudy
0,6
0,3
0,1
PHN PHI XC SUT C IU KIN
Gi s X v Y l hai bin ngu nhin vi min gi tr tng ng l
X
v
Y
.Chng ta k hiu Pr(X|Y) l hm ng mi cp gi tr x
X
v
y
Y
vi xc sut c iu kin Pr(X = x|Y =y). Hm Pr(X|Y) c gi l
phn phi xc sut c iu kin ca bin ngu nhin X khi cho gi tr ca
bin ngu nhin Y. cc xc sut Pr(X =x|Y = y) cn tho mn iu kin sau.
x
1 y) Y | x Pr(X
, vi mi y
y
.
V d.Gi s A v B l hai mnh . Phn phi xc sut Pr (A|B) c
cho trong bng hai chiu sau:
Pr(A|B)
A = true A = false
B = true 0,8 0,2
B = false 0,3 0,7
Cn lu rng, tng cc s trong mi dng ca bng trn bng 1.
PHN PHI XC SUT KT HP
Khi s dng m hnh xc sut biu din tri thc khng chc chn
trong mt lnh vc p dng, chng ta cn a vo mt tp bin ngu nhin
{X
1
, X
2
, , X
n
}. Mi X
i
l mt bin ngu nhin ri rc nhn gi tr trong
mt min gi tr
i
(i = 1, , n) tng ng. Gi s x
i
l mt gi tr no
ca X
i
(i = 1,, n). Mnh (X
1
= x
1
) (X
1
= x
1
) (X
1
= x
1
) biu din
mt trng thi ca th gii hin thc m chng ta ang quan tm. Xc sut
ca mnh trn c k hiu l
Pr(X
1
= x
1
, X
2
= x
2
, , X
n
= x
n
)
Hm ng mi trng thi (X
1
= x
1
) (X
2
= x
2
) (X
n
= x
n
) vi xc
sut Pr(X
1
= x
1
, X
2
= x
2
,, X
n
= x
n
) c k hiu l Pr(X
1
, X
2
, , X
n
). Hm
ny c gi l phn phi xc sut kt hp (joint probability distribution)
ca tp bin ngu nhin {X
1
, , X
n
}. Cc xc sut Pr(X
1
= x
1
,, X
n
= x
n
)
cn tho mn iu kin sau:

x x
n n 1 1
...
Pr(X
1
= x
1
,, X
n
= x
n
) = 1
V d. Gi s A v B l hai bin ngu nhin boolean. Phn phi xc
sut kt hp Pr(A,B) c cho trong bng hai chiu sau:
Pr(A,B)
B = true B = false
A = true 0,1 0,2
A = false 0,3 0,4
Cn lu rng, tng ca tt c cc s trong bng phn phi xc sut
kt hp cn bng 1.
Nu chng ta a vo bin ngu nhin X = (X
1
, , X
n
), mi gi tr
ca X l vect (x
1
, , x
n
), trong x
i

i
(i = 1, , n), tc l min gi tr
ca bin X l tch -cc ca cc min gi tr
i
ca X
i
, =
i

n
, th phn phi xc sut kt hp Pr(X
n
, , X
n
) chnh l phn phi xc sut
ca bin ngu nhin X.
CC CNG THC TNH XC SUT
Khi s dng m hnh xc sut biu din tri thc khng chc chn,
thng l bng thc nghim, bng s hiu bit v bng cc kinh nghim tch
lu c chng ta xc nh trc c mt s xc sut no . Sau ny
khi c bit cc thng tin mi (cc bng chng), chng ta cn tnh xc sut
ca cc mnh c hi. Sau y chng ta s trnh by mt s cng thc
quan trng. Cc cng thc ny cho php ta biu din mt xc sut qua cc
xc sut khc v c s dng thng xuyn trong cc mc sau.
Trc ht chng ta a ra mt s k hiu. Gi s A, B, C, D, E l
cc mnh .Trong cc biu thc sau, v tri l mt cch vit khc ca v
phi.
Pr(A, B, C) = Pr(A B C)
Pr(A, B| C) = Pr(A B |C)
Pr(A |B, C) = Pr(A |B C )
Pr(A, B, C |D, E) = Pr(A B C| D E)
Gi s chng ta nhn c phn phi xc sut kt hp Pr(X
1
..X
n
)
ca tp bin ngu nhin {X
1
, , X
n
}. Khi chng ta c th tnh c phn
phi xc sut kt hp ca mt t hp bt k ca cc bin {X
1
, , X
n
}.
n gin, ta xt trng hp ba bin. Gi s chng ta bit phn phi xc
sut Pr (X,Y,Z), trong X, Y, Z l cc bin ngu nhin vi cc min gi tr
l
X
,
Y
,
Z
tng ng. Khi ta c th tnh c phn phi xc sut ca
hai bin, chng hn Pr(X,Y) bng cng thc sau:
Pr (X,Y) =
z
Z
Pr(X,Y,Z = z)
Cn nh rng, cng thc ny l vit tt ca cng thc sau:
Pr(X = x.Y = y) = Pr(X = x,Y = y,Z = z)
trong x, y l cc gi tr bt k trong min
X
,
Y
tng ng.
Ta cng c th tnh c phn phi xc sut ca mt bin, chng hn
Pr(X) theo cng thc sau:
Pr (X) =

z y
Z Y
Pr(X,Y = y,Z = z)
LUT TNG
T cc cng thc
Pr (X) =
y
Y
Pr(X,Y = y)
Pr (X,Y = y) = Pr(X|Y = y) Pr(Y = y)
Chng ta suy ra mt cng thc quan trng sau:
Pr (X) =
y
Y
Pr(X,Y = y) Pr(Y = y)
Cng thc ny c gi l lut tng.
LUT TCH
Chng ta bit rng
Pr(X,Y) = Pr(X|Y) Pr(Y)
By gi chng ta xt phn phi xc sut ca ba bin X, Y, Z. Theo cng
thc trn ta c:
Pr(X,Y,Z) = Pr(X|Y,Z) Pr(Y,Z)
Pr(Y,Z) = Pr(Y|Z) Pr(Z)
T hai cng thc trn ta c cng thc sau:
Pr(X,Y,Z) = Pr(X|Y,Z) Pr(Y|Z) Pr(Z)
Tng qut ta c:
Pr(X
1
, X
2
, , X
n
) = Pr(X
1
|X
2
, , X
n
) Pr(X
2
|X
3
, , X
n
)
Pr(X
n-1
|X
n
) Pr(X
n
)
Cng thc ny gi l lut tch. Lut tch cho php ta phn tch mt
xc sut kt hp thnh tch ca cc xc sut c iu kin. Cn lu rng,
th t ca cc bin trong phn phi xc sut kt hp l khng quan trng.
Do , v chng ta c n! hon v ca n bin X
1
, , X
n
nn chng ta s c n!
cch phn tch mt xc sut kt hp thnh tch ca cc xc sut c iu kin.
CNG THC BAYES
Theo cng thc tnh xc sut c iu kin ta c:
Pr(X|Y) =
) Y Pr(
) Y X, Pr(
Mt khc, theo lut tch Pr(X,Y) = Pr(Y|X)Pr(X) ta c cng thc:
Pr(X|Y) =
) Y Pr(
) X Pr( ) X | Y Pr(
Cng thc ny c gi l cng thc Bayes, l cng thc c s
dng thng xuyn nht tnh xc sut c iu kin.
Mt nhn xt quan trng l, tnh phn phi xc sut Pr(X|Y) theo
cng thc Bayes, chng ta ch cn bit cc phn phi xc sut Pr(Y|X) v
Pr(X), bi v nu bit cc xc sut ny th theo lut tng chng ta s tnh
dc cc xc sut Pr(Y).
By gi chng ta a ra mt p dng n gin ca cng thc Bayes.
Trong y hc, ngi ta phi tnh cc xc sut c iu kin (iu kin y
thng l mt triu chng mt s cc triu chng) a ra cc kt lun
chn on. Gi s bc s bit xc sut mt bnh nhn su rng (cavity) b
au rng (toothache) l 0,65, tc l Pr(Toothache|Cavity) = 0,65. Bc s cng
bit rng, xc sut ca mt ngi su rng 0,05, Pr(Cavity) = 0,05 v xc
sut ca mt ngi au rng l 0,04, Pr(Toothache) = 0,04. Khi , theo
cng thc Bayes ta tnh c:
Pr(Cavity|Toothache) =
) Toothache Pr(
) Cavity Pr( ) Cavity | Toothache Pr(

81 , 0
04 , 0
05 , 0 * 65 , 0

Nh vy, xc sut mt ngi au rng b su rng l 0,81.
S C LP C IU KIN
CA CC BIN NGU NHIN
Sau y chng ta s bghin cu cc mi quan h c lp v ph thuc
gia cc bin ngu nhin.
Gi s X, Y v Z l cc bin ngu nhin vi cc min gi tr l
X
,
Y
, v
Z
tng ng. Chng ta ni rng, bin ngu nhin X c lp vi
bin ngu nhin Y nu:
Pr(X|Y) = Pr(X)
Cng thc ny c ngha l, vi mi x
X
v vi mi y
Y
Pr(X = x|Y = y) = Pr(X = y)
Nh vy, bin ngu nhin X c lp vi bin ngu nhin Y c ngha l Y
nhn gi tr no khng nh hng g n X.
Bin ngu nhin X c gi l c lp c iu kin vi bin ngu
nhin Y khi cho trc Z, nu:
Pr(X|Y,Z) = Pr(X|Z)
Nu X khng c lp c iu kin vi Y khi cho trc Z th ta ni X
ph thuc c iu kin vo Y khi cho trc Z. c gi c th d dng chng
minh c rng, nu X c lp (c iu kin) vi Y (khi cho trc Z) th Y
cng c lp (c iu kin) vi X (khi cho trc Z). Hay ni cch khc,
quan h c lp c tnh i xng.
Gi s X c lp c iu kin vi Y khi cho trc Z. Khi chng ta
c th tnh c phn phi xc Pr(X,Y|Z) theo cng thc sau:
Pr(X,Y|Z) = Pr(X|Z) Pr(Y|Z)
Cng thc ny d dng c suy ra t nh ngha tnh c lp v t lut tch.
10.3. MNG XC SUT
Nh chng ta ni, biu din chi thc khng chc chn trong mt
lnh vc p dng, chng ta c th s dng mt tp cc bin ngu nhin
{X
1
, , X
n
} v phn phi xc sut Pr(X
1
, , X
n
). Khi chng ta c th
tnh c xc sut kt hp ca mt t hp bt k cc bin ngu nhin v do
c th tnh c xc sut c iu kin bt k ca cc bin ngu nhin
X
1
,,X
n
.iu c ngha l nu bit c phn phi xc sut Pr(X
1
,,X
n
)
th ta c th tm c cu tr li cho cc cu hi v cc bin X
1
, , X
n
. Tuy
nhin phng php ny c nhiu nhc im. Trc ht chng ta rt kh
xc nh c cc xc sut Pr(X
1
, , X
n
). Mt khc, lu phn phi xc
sut Pr(X
1
, , X
n
) chng ta cn bng n chiu, ch vi X
i
(i =1, , n) l cc
bin ngu nhin boolean th bng cng cha 2
n
s! Do chng ta cn
xy dng mt m hnh thch hp biu din tri thc khng chc chn. M
hnh ny phi tho mn hai iu kin sau:
Gim bt s cc xc sut ban u cn bit trc
n gin s tnh ton tm ra cu tr li cho cc cu hi
M hnh m chng ta s nghin cu l mng xc sut (probabilistic
network). Ngi ta cn s dng cc thut ng khc; mng tin tng (belief
network), mng nguyn nhn (causal network).
10.3.1. nh ngha mng xc sut
mng xc sut l mt th nh hng khng c chu trnh v tho mn
cc iu kin sau:
Cc nh ca th l cc bin ngu nhin
Mi cung t nh X n nh Y biu din s nh hng trc tip
ca bin ngu nhin X n bin ngu nhin Y (hay Y ph thuc
trc tip vo X). nh X c gi l nh cha ca Y.
Ti mt nh c cho phn phi xc sut c iu kin ca nh
khi cho trc cc cha ca n. Cc xc sut ny biu din hiu qu
m cc cha tc dng vo n.
Chng hn, nu X
1
, , X
n
l tt c cc nh cha ca nh Y trong
mng th ti nh Y c cho phn phi xc sut c iu kin Pr(Y|
X
1
, , X
n
).
V d. lm v d v mng xc sut, chng ta xt v d sau, v d
ny l ca Judea Pearl. Xt hon cnh sau: nh bn c lp t h thng bo
ng trm. N s rung chung khi pht hin ra trm, n cng ku khi c
ng t nh. Bn c hai ngi hng xm l Lan v Mai. Khi bn c quan,
h ha s gi in cho bn nu nghe thy chung bo trm ku. Lan i khi
nhm ln chung in thoi vi chung bo trm v cng gi cho bn. mai
th hay nghe m nhc to nn i khi khng nghe thy chung bo trm.
Chng ta a ra cc k hiu sau:
B: s kin c trm
E: S kin c ng t nh
A: S kin chung bo trm ku
L: S kin Lan gi cho bn
M: S kin Mai gi cho bn
Mng xc sut cho php chng ta biu din cc mi quan h nhn qu
trc tip gia cc s kin. S kin c trm v s kin c ng t nh
nh hng trc tip ti s kin chung bo trm ku. Chng ta xem rng
c Lan v Mai u khng nhn bit c nh bn c trm, h cng khng
cm nhn c ng t nh. Ch c chung bo trm l tc ng n cc
cuc gi ca h cho bn. T cc mi quan h ph thuc trc tip gia cc s
kin nu, chng ta xy dng c mng xc sut trong hnh 10.1. chng
ta s gi mng xc sut ny l mng bo ng trm.
B E
A
M L
Hnh 10.1. Mt mng xc sut : Mng bo ng trm
Trong mng bo ng trm, chng ta mi ch a vo cc mi quan
h nhn qu trc tip, c bn gia cc s kin. cn cc thng tin lan i khi
nhm ln chung in thoi vi chung bo trm v Mai v nghe nhc to m
khng nghe thy chung bo trm, chng ta s s l nhng thng tin ny
nh th no? Thc ra cn v s nguyn nhn lm cho chung bo trm ku
hoc khng ku (chng hn, cc nguyn nhn v thi tit, v in ). Cng
nh vy, cn c rt nhiu nguyn nhn khc lm cho Lan v Mai gi hoc
khng gi cho bn (chng hn, Lan tnh c nghe thy ting ku g ging
nh ting chung bo trm v gi cho bn, hoc c lc chung bo trm th
mai va ra khi nh v khng gi cho bn c, ). Chng ta tch hp tt
c cc nguyn nhn ch yu v cc nguyn nhn khc ca mt kt qu v
biu din xp x bi csc bng xc sut c iu kin. nh vy, trong mng xc
sut, chng ta cn xc nh cc bng phn phi xc sut c iu kin ti cc
nh c cha. Trong v d ang xt, l cc phn phi xc sut Pr(A|B,E),
Pr(L|A) v Pr(M|A). Chng ta cng cn xc nh cc phn phi xc sut ca
cc nh khng c cha. Trong mng bo ng trm, chng ta cn c cc
phn phi xc sut Pr(B) v Pr(E). Do , vi mng bo ng trm c nm
nh, chng ta cn c cho nm bng phn phi xc sut, chng hn nm
bng sau:
B Pr(B)
True
False
0,01
0,99
E Pr(E)
True
False
0,02
0,98
B E Pr(A|B,E)
A = True A = False
True
True
False
False
True
False
True
False
0,95
0,93
0,21
0,01
0,05
0,07
0,71
0,99
A Pr(L|A)
L = True L = False
True
False
0,92
0,05
0,08
0,95
A Pr(M|A)
M = True M = False
True
False
0,8
0,01
0,2
0,99
Cn lu rng, trong cc bng phn phi xc sut khng iu kin tng
ca tt c cc s trong mt ct phi bng 1, cn trong cc bng phn phi
xc sut c iu kin, tng ca tt c cc s trong mi dng phi bng 1.
10.3.2. Vn lp lun trong mng xc sut
Khi chng ta biu din tri thc khng chc chn bi mng xc sut,
chng ta cn c cc phng php suy ra cc kt lun t cc thng tin m
chng ta bit trong mng v t cc bng chng m chng ta thu thp
c. Chng ta tr li mng bo ng trm. Gi s bn nhn c in thoi
do Lan gi, bn cn bit kh nng c trm, tc l bn cn tnh c xc sut
Pr(B|L). Hoc c th bn nhn c in thoi ca c Lan v Mai. bn cn
nh gi kh nng c trm khi c Lan v Mai u gi cho bn, tc l bn cn
tnh c xc sut c iu kin Pr(B|L,M).
Gi s chng ta bit gi tr ca mt bin ngu nhin trong mng.
cc bin ngu nhin m chng ta bit gi tr ca chng c gi l cc
bin bng chng (evidence variables). V s gn gi tr cho mt bin bng
chng c gi l mt bng chng. Vn suy din trong mng xc sut,
mt cch tng qut, c pht biu nh sau: Cho trc tp cc bng chng
E v mt bin m ta quan tm X (X c gi l bin hi), chng ta cn tnh
c phn phi xc sut c iu kin Pr(X|E). Chng hn, trong mng bo
ng trm, gi s chng ta bit Lan v Mai gi. Nh vy, tp cc bng
chng E l {L = true, M = true}. Gi s chng ta mun bit kh nng c
trm, khi bin hi y l B. Chng ta cn tnh Pr(B = true|, M = true).
Trong mng xc sut ngi ta thng phn bit hai dng lp lun sau.
Lp lun chn on (diagnostic reasoning). l lp lun i t cc
hu qu ti cc nguyn nhn. Trong trng hp ny, chng ta c
cho cc bin bng chng l cc hu th ca bin hi. chng hn,
trong mng bo ng trm, chng ta mun bit kh nng c trm
khi Lan gi. Bin chng l L, Bin hi l B. trong trng hp ny
chng ta c th suy ra Pr(B|L) = 0,016. trong chn on y hc, cc
bc s cn tnh xc sut ca mt bnh khi bit cc bng trng di
dng triu chng v cc kt qu xt nghim ca bnh nhn.
Lp lun tin on (predictive reasoning). l lp lun i t hu
qu ti cc nguyn nhn. Chng ta c cho cc bin bng chng
l tin thn ca bin hi. Chng hn, bit trc l c trm, bin bng
chng l B. Chng ta cn bit kh nng Lan v kh Mai gi in
cho bn, tc l cc bin hi l L v M. chng ta c th tnh c
Pr(L|B) = 0,86 v Pr(M|B) = 0,67.
Trong trng hp tng qut, cc bin bng chng c th khng phi l
tin thn hoc khng phi l hu th ca bin hi. Chng hn, chng ta bit
trc rng khng c ng t v Lan gi. Chng ta cn nh gi kh nng
c trm khi c bit cc thng tin . C th tnh c:
Pr(B = true|E = false, L = true) = 0,03.
Vn tnh chnh xc phn phi xc sut Pr(X|E) ca bin hi X khi
c cho tp bng chng E l vn NP kh. Tuy nhin, trong mt s
trng hp c bit ngi ta c th tnh c Pr(X|E) trong thi gian a
thc. Trong cc mc sau chng ta s trnh by cc thut ton cho php ta
tnh chnh xc Pr(X|E) vi thi gian t l vi s nh trong mng, trong
trng hp mng xc sut c kt ni n. Sau chng ta s trnh by cc
thut ton cho php ta tnh xp x Pr(X|E) trong trng hp tng qut.
10.3.3. Kh nng biu din ca mng xc sut
M hnh xc sut biu din tri thc khng chc chn trong mt lnh
vc bao gm mt tp cc bin ngu nhin X
1
, , X
n
. Nu chng ta bit c
phn phi xc sut kt hp Pr(X
1
, , X
n
), chng ta c th tnh c xc sut
ca mt t hp bin bt k. Do nu E l mt tp cc bng chng v X l
bin hi th ta c th tnh c xc sut Pr(X|E) theo cng thc nh ngha
xc sut c iu kin. Nh vy phn phi xc sut Pr(X
1
, , X
n
) m t y
tri thc khng chc chn v mt lnh vc p dng.
Sau y chng ta s chng t rng, mng xc sut cng cho php ta
m t y mt lnh vc. Mun vy, chng ta s chng minh rng, t cc
thng tin trong mng cha n bin X
1
, , X
n
, chng ta c th tnh c phn
phi xc sut Pr(X
1
, , X
n
).
Trc ht, chng ta gi thit rng, trong mng xc sut mi nh l
c lp c iu kin vi tt c cc nh khng phi l hu th ca n khi cho
trc cc nh cha ca n. Lu rng, nh Y l hu th (con chu) ca nh
X nu tn ti mt ng i trong mng t X n Y. Chng hn, vi mng
trong hnh 10.2 th cc nh H, G, S l cc hu th ca nh C, cn cc nh
B, D, R, S l hu th ca nh A. Nu Y l hu th ca X th ta ni X l tin
thn ca Y. Trong hnh 10.2, ta c nh S c lp vi cc nh A, B, C, G, R
khi cho trc D l H, tc l:
Pr(S|A, B, C, D, H, R, G) = Pr(S|D, H)
Gi thit v s c lp c iu kin ca mt nh vi cc nh khng
phi l hu th ca nh khi cho trc cc cha ca n l mt gi thit hp
l, bi v tin thn ca mt nh X ch nh hng ti X thng qua cc cha
ca X, cn cc nh khc khng phi l hu th ca X th khng nh hng
g ti X.
Chng ta c th s dng phng php sp xp topo (xem trong [8])
sp xp cc nh ca mng xc sut thnh mt danh sch sao cho nu X l
tin thn ca Y th X phi ng sau Y trong mt danh sch. Gi s X
1
X
2

X
n
l danh sch cc bin trong mng xc sut theo th t topo nh trn. Do
gi thit v s c lp ca cc bin trong mng xc sut, chng ta c:
Pr(X
i
|X
i+1
, , X
n
) = Pr(X
i
|parent(X
i
))
Trong , parent(X
i
) l tp cc nh cha ca X
i
.
S dng lut tch ta c:
Pr(X
1
X
2
X
n
) =
n
i 1
Pr(X
i
|parent(X
i
))
Cng thc ny cho php ta tnh c phn phi xc sut Pr(X
1
, ,X
n
)
t cc bng xc sut ti mi nh ca mng xc sut. Nh vy mng xc sut
c kh nng m t y tri thc khng chc chn trong mt lnh vc.
A
B C
D H G
R S
Hnh 10.2. Mt mng xc sut
S m t tri thc khng chc chn bi tp bin ngu nhin {X
1
,
,X
n
} v phn phi xc sut Pr(X
1
, , X
n
) l s m t c tnh ton cc. S
m t bi mng xc sut vi bng phn phi xc sut c iu kin ti mi
nh l s m t mang tnh a phng. Song s m t ton cc rt kh thc
hin bi v chng ta gp rt nhiu kh khn trong vic xc nh phn phi
xc sut Pr(X
1
,,X
n
). cn vi cch m t a phng bi mng xc sut th
bng cch tham kho cc chuyn gia trong lnh vc p dng, chng ta c th
xc nh c cc bng xc sut c iu kin ti mi nh. Mt khc, vic
lu tr cc bng xc sut tit kim c rt nhiu khng gian nh so vi
vic lu tr bng xc sut Pr(X
1,
...,X
n
). Chng hn, vi mng gm n bin
ngu nhin boolean v mi nh ch c nhiu nht hai cha, ti mi nh ta
ch cn lu ti a 2
3
=8 s v do trong ton b mng ta ch cn lu 8n s.
trong khi trong bng xc sut Pr(X
1
,,X
n
) ta phi lu 2
n
s.
10.3.4. S c lp ca cc bin trong mng xc sut
Chng ta gi thit rng, trong cc mng xc sut mi nh c lp
c iu kin vi cc nh khng phi l hu th ca n, khi cho trc cc
cha ca n. Mt vn m by gi chng ta quan tm l liu chng ta c th
bit c tp nh U l c lp c iu kin vi tp nh V khi cho trc tp
nh bng chng E? Cu tr li l c. Trong mng xc sut, da vo cc
ng i ni cc nh trong mng, chng ta c th xc nh c s c lp
ca cc tp nh.
Chng ta gi mt ng i v hng trong mng l ng i m
chng ta khng quan tm ti hng ca cc cung trn ng i . Chng
hn, RDSHCG l mt ng i v hng ni nh R vi nh G trong mng
hnh 10.2.
Chng ta ni tp nh E tch hai tp nh U v V trong mng nu mi
ng i v hng ni mt nh X trong U vi mt nh Y trong V u tn
ti mt nh Z trn ng i sao cho mt trong ba iu kin sau c tho
mn.
1. Z nm trong E v c mt cung trn ng i ti Z, mt cung trn
ng i xut pht t Z.
2. Z nm trong E v c hai ng trn cung trn ng i xut pht t z.
3. Z v cc hu th ca Z u khng thuc E v c hai cung trn ng i
ti Z.
Hnh 10.3 minh ho mt tp nh E tch hai tp nh U v V. Trong
hnh ny ch ra cc ng i trong mng ni mt nh trong U vi mt
nh trong V tho mn mt trong ba iu kin trn.
U
(1) X Z Y
(2) X Z Y
(3) X Z Y

Hnh 10.3. Tp nh E tch cc tp nh U v V.
Ngi ta chng minh c rng, trong mng xc sut, nu cc tp
nh U v V tch c bi tp nh E th U c lp c iu kin vi V khi
cho trc E. tc l pr(U|V,E) = Pr(U|E).
V d. Trong mng hnh 10.2, B c lp vi R khi cho trc D, H c
lp vi G, khi cho trc C v D c lp vi H khi cho trc a.
Nh vy tnh tch c ca cc tp nh c trng cho s c lp c
iu kin ca cc tp nh .
Khi xy dng cc th tc suy din trong mng xc sut, chng ta
thng s dng n c trng trn tnh cc xc sut c iu kin.
Trong mc sau, chng ta s nghin cu vn suy din trong mng
xc sut. vn suy din trong mng xc sut l vn NP- kh. u tin,
lm quen vi cc phng php tnh cc xc sut c iu kin trong mng,
chng ta xt mng n gin nht: mng c cu trc cy. Sau chng ta xt
vn suy din trong mng tng qut hn: mng kt ni n ( cn gi l a
cy). Thut ton suy din trong mng kt ni n c phc tp thi gian t
l vi s nh ca mng. cui cng chng ta xt vn suy din trong mng
tng qut: mng a kt ni, chng ta s trnh by cc phng php tnh
xp x, l cc phng php m phng ngu nhin, cc phng php ny
c ng dng rng ri trong cc ng dng.
10.4. SUY DIN TRONG MNG C CU TRC CY
Trong mc ny chng ta s xt mng c cu trc cy. l mng m
mi nh ca n ch c nhiu nht mt cha, tc l c dng cy.
i vi mng c cu trc cy, cho trc tp cc bng chng E, X l
mt bin ngu nhin trong mng, chng ta c th tnh c chnh xc phn
phi xc sut Pr(X|E) trong thi gian tuyn tnh vi s nh trong mng.
Chng ta gi thit rng, bin hi X khng nm trong tp cc bin bng
chng l X = x
0
(x
0
l gi tr no trong min X), vic tnh Pr(X|E) l
tm thng. C th, ta c
Pr(X = x
0
| E) = 1
Pr(X = x | E) = 0, vi mi x x
0
Khi loi nh X ra khi cy, chng ta s phn hoch cy cho thnh
n + 1 cy con: cy con ca X vi gc l Y
1
,,Y
n
v mt cy cn li (xem
hnh 10.4).
Gi E
i
(i = 1, , n) l cc tp bng chng nm trn cy con gc Y
i
, v
E
l tp cc bng chng nm di X. Ta c:
E
= E
1
E
n
Cc E
1
(i = 1, , n) ri nhau.
Gi E
+
l tp cc bng chng nm trong cy con trn X, tc l E
+
gm cc bng chng c ni vi X bi ng v hng i qua nh cha Z
ca X (xem hnh 10.4). Ta c:
E = E
+
E
Cc E
+
v E
ri nhau.
p dng cng thc Bayes v lut tch, ta c :
Pr(X|E) = Pr(X|E
+
, E
) =
) E Pr(
) E X, , E Pr(
- +
=
) E Pr(
) Pr(E ) E | Pr(X ) E X, | E Pr(
- + + +
Khi cho X th E
c lp vi E
+
, do Pr(E
|X, E
+
) = Pr(E
|X). t
t s Pr(E
+
)/Pr(E) l hng s (v n khng ph thuc vo X), chng ta c:
Pr(X|E) = Pr(E
|X) Pr(X|E
+
) (1)
Trong cng thc trn, chng ta s gi Pr(X|E
+
) l h tr nguyn nhn
cho X, cn Pr(E
|X) l h tr chn on cho X. Nh vy, tnh Pr(X|E) ta

cn tnh cc xc sut Pr(E
|X) v Pr(X|E
+
).
Tnh Pr(X|E
+
)
Theo lut tng, ta c :
Pr(X|E
+
) =
z
Pr(X|Z = z, E
+
) Pr(Z = z|E
+
)
Tng ny ly trn tt c cc gi tr z ca bin Z. Khi cho Z th X
c lp vi E
+
, Pr(X|Z = z, E
+
) = Pr(X|Z = z). Do ta c :
Pr(X|E
+
) =
z
Pr(X|Z = z) Pr(Z = z|E
+
) (2)
Trong cng thc ny, cc xc sut Pr(X|Z = z) c cho bit khi
cho mang xc sut. Do vic tnh cc xc sut Pr(X|E
+
) c quy v vic
tnh xc sut Pr(Z|E). Cc xc sut ny li c tnh bng cch p dng
quy cng thc (1). Cc xc sut Pr(Z|E
+
) c gi l cc h tr nhuyn nhn
t cha Z truyn xung con X.
Tnh Pr(E
|X)
Ta c : Pr(E
|X) = Pr(E
1
, , E
n
|X). Khi cho X th cc E

i
(i = 1,
, n) c lp vi nhau, do :
Pr(E
|X) = Pr(E
1
|X) Pr(E
n
|X) (3)
Cc xc sut Pr(E
i
|X) c gi l cc h tr chn on t con ca X

truyn ln X. Nh vy, tnh h tr chn on cho X : Pr(E
|X), theo cng

thc (3) chng ta cn tnh cc h tr chn on t cy con ca X truyn ln
X : Pr(E
i
|X).
Tnh h tr chn on t con truyn ln cha
trnh phi a vo cc k hiu mi, chng ta tnh h tr chn on
t con X truyn ln cha Z. chng ta k hiu E
X
l tp cc bng chng nm
trn cy con gc X. Khi h tr chn on t X gi ln cha Z l xc sut
Pr(E
X
| Z). R rng nu X khng phi l bin bng chng th E

X

= E

(xem
hnh v 10.4), cn nu X l bin bng chng v X = x
0
th E
X
= (E
, X = x
0
).
Nh vy, nu X khng phi l bin bng chng th
Pr(E
X
|Z) = Pr(E
| Z)
Ta c:
Pr(E
|X) =
z
Pr(E
, X = x|Z)
Pr(E
, X = x|Z) = Pr(E
|X = x, Z) Pr(X = x|Z)
Khi cho X th E
c lp vi Z, do :
Pr(E
, X = x|Z) = Pr(E
|X = x) = Pr(E
1
, , E
n
|X = x)
Nhng cc E
i
cng c lp vi nhau, khi cho trc X. Do :

Pr(E
1
, , E
n
|X = x) =
n
1 i
Pr(E
i
|X = x)
Nh vy ta c :
Pr(E
X
|Z) = Pr(E
| Z) =
z
Pr(X = x|Z)
n
1 i
Pr(E
i
|X = x) (4)
Nh vy, nu X khng phi l bin bng chng th h tr chn on
t X gi ln cha n Z l xc sut Pr(E
| Z), v c quy v vic tnh cc h

tr chn on t cc con ca X gi ln X, tc l cc xc sut Pr(E
i
|X)
(i = 1, , n).
Nu X l bin bng chng v X = x
0
th
Pr(E
X
|Z) = Pr(E
, X = x
0
|Z)
Do , nu X = x
0
l bng chng th
Pr(E
X
|Z) = Pr(E
| Z) = Pr(X = x
0
|Z)
n
1 i
Pr(E
i
|X = x
0
) (5)

E
Z

X

E
E
1
E
n
Y
1
Y
1
Hnh 10.4. Mng c cu trc cy.
S TRUYN BNG CHNG TRONG MNG CY
T cc lp lun trn, chng ta suy ra rng, cc bng chng c
truyn trong mng cy nh sau.
Cc h tr nguyn nhn c truyn t cc cha xung cc con, bt
u t gc cy v dng li ti bin hi.
Cn lu rng, nu A l gc cy th tp cc bng chng trn A l
tp rng. Do h tr nguyn nhn cho A l Pr(A| ) = Pr(A).
Phn phi xc sut Pr(A) c cho.
Cc h tr chn on c truyn t cc con ln cc cha, bt u t
cc l v truyn ln cho ti gc cy.
Nu L l l th tp cc bng chng nm di L l tp rng. Do h
tr chn on cho L l Pr( | L) = 1 vi mi gi tr ca bin ngu nhin L.
Sau y l hm quy tnh h tr chn on t con X gi ln cha Z
hm Pr( E
X
|Z).
Function Pr(E
X
|Z);
begin
1. Tnh h tr chn on t cc con ca X truyn ln X:
Tnh Pr (E
x
-
|X) vi I = 1, , n;
2. Nu X = x
0
l bng chng th
Pr(E
x

| Z) = Pr(X = x
0
| Z)
n
1 i
Pr(E
i

| X = x
0
)
3. Nu X khng phi l bin bng chng th
Pr(E
x

| Z) =
x
Pr(X = x | Z)
n
1 i
Pr(E
i

| X = x)
end;
V sau y l hm quy xc nh phn phi xc sut Pr(X|E)
Function Pr(X|E);
begin
1. Nu X = x
0
l bng chng th:
Pr(X = x
0
| E) = 1
Pr(X = x | E) = 0 vi x x
0
;
2.1. Tnh h tr nguyn nhn t cha Z truyn xung X:
Tnh Pr(Z|E
+
), xc sut ny c tnh bng cch gi quy hm
ny;
2.2. Tnh cc h tr chn on t cc con ca X truyn ln X:
Tnh Pr(E
i

| X) vi i = 1, , n;
2.3. Tnh h tr nguyn nhn cho X
Pr(X | E
+
) =
z
Pr(X | Z = z) Pr(Z = z | E
+
);
2.4. Tnh h tr chn on cho X
Pr(E

| X) =
n
1 i
Pr(E
i

| X);
2.5. Tnh Pr(X | E) = Pr(E

| X) Pr(X | E
+
);
end;
Ch rng, khi tnh phn phi xc sut Pr(X|E) bi hm quy trn,
chng ta kt hp tt c cc nhn t hng thnh nhn t , nhn t cn li l
p(X):
Pr(X|E) = p(X)
Lu rng:
x
Pr(X = x | E) = 1
Nn khi tnh c p(X), chng ta s xc nh c
=
x
p(x)
1
V d. Gi s phng lm vic ca An trong c quan trn tng 3. Khi
An trong phng lm vic ca mnh, An c th n sang hoc khng, An
c th nhp d liu vo my tnh hoc An ngi lm vic bn vit. Khi
khng trong phng ca mnh, i khi cn thit An vn c th nhp d liu
vo my tnh ca mnh thong qua ng truyn thng. Chng ta k hiu A l
s kin An trong phng lm vic ca mnh, B l s kin n trong
phng An sng v C l s kin An nhp d liu vo my tnh. Chng ta
c mng xc sut dng cy nh sau:
A
Pr(B = True|A) Pr(A|B = True)
B C
Gi s chng ta bit c cc bng xc sut ti cc nh nh sau:
Pr(A)
Pr(1 A)
0,4 0,6
Pr(B|A)
B = True B = False
A = True 0,6 0,4
A = False 0,1 0,9
Pr(C|A)
C = True C = False
A = True 0,8 0,2
A = False 0,3 0,7
Gi s chng ta nhn thy n trong phng An sng, chng ta mun
bit xc sut An nhp d liu vo my tnh. Tc l chng ta cn tnh
Pr(C=True|B=True). Trong trng hp ny tp bng chng l E= {B=True}.
V C l l, nn h tr chn on cho C l 1. Chng ta cn tnh h tr
nguyn nhn t cha A truyn xung C: Pr(A|B=True).
H tr nguyn nhn cho A l Pr(A) v A l gc. H tr chn on t B
truyn ln A l Pr(B=True|A). Do h tr nguyn nhn t A truyn xung
C l:
Pr(A|B=True) = Pr(A) Pr(B=True|A)
T cng thc ny, thay A = True v A = False, chng ta tnh c
Pr(A=True|B=True) = .0,4.0,6 = .0,24
Pr(A = False|B = True) = .0,6.0,1 = .0,06
Do chng ta c
Pr(C|B=True) = (Pr(C| A=True) Pr(A=True| B=True)
+Pr(C| A=False) Pr(A=False| B=True))
Thay C = True v C = False vo cng thc trn v t = , chng
ta c
Pr(C = True|B = True) = (0,8 . 0,24 + 0,3 . 0,06) = . 0,21
Pr(C = False|B =True) = (0,2 . 0,24 + 0,7 . 0,06) = . 0,09
Nhng . 0,21 + . 0,09 = 1, do = 10/3.
Vy Pr(C=True| B=True) = . 0,21 = 10/3 . 0,21 = 0,7
Mng cy l trng hp ring ca mng kt ni n c trnh by
mc sau. Chng ti trnh by suy din trong mng cy c gi lm quen
vi phng php suy din. Bn c c th b qua mc ny, c ngay vo
mc sau.
10.5. MNG KT NI N
Trong mc ny chng ta s xt vn suy din trong mng kt ni
n (simply connected network). l mng m gia hai nh bt k tn ti
nhiu nht mt ng v hng ni chng. Hnh 10.5 biu din cu trc
mng kt ni n.
E
+
E
1
+
E
i
+
E
m
+
Z
1
Z
i
Z
m
X
E
E
1
E
k
E
n
Y
1
Y
k
Y
n
Hnh 10.5. Mng kt ni n.
Gi s bng chng l E v bin hi l X. Mc ch ca chng ta l
tnh phn phi xc sut Pr(X|E).
Chng ta gi E
+
l tp cc bng chng nm trn X, tc l cc bng
chng c ni vi X qua cc cha Z
i
(i = 1, , m) ca X (xem hnh 10.5).
Trong E
+
, chng ta gi E
i
+
(i = 1, , m) l tp cc bng chng ni vi X qua
cha Z
i
. Do tnh kt ni n, chng ta c cc E
i
+
ri nhau v
E
+
= E
1
+
E
m
+
.
Tng t, chng ta gi tp cc bng chng nm di X l E
. K
hiu E
k
l tp cc bng chng c ni vi X qua con Y

k
(k = 1, .., n) ca
X. Cng do tnh kt ni n, cc E
k
ri nhau v E
= E
1
E
n
.
Tng t nh trong trng hp mng cy, chng ta c
Pr(X|E) = Pr(E
-
|X) Pr(X|E
+
)
Tnh h tr nguyn nhn cho X: Pr(X|E
+
)
K hiu Z l vect cc bin ngu nhin Z = (Z
1
, , Z
m
) v z l vect
cc gi tr z = (z
1
, , z
m
), trong z
i
(i = 1, , m) l mt gi tr bt k ca
Z
i
. Ta s vit Z = z thay cho (Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i
= z
i
, , Z
m
= z
m
).
Chng ta c
Pr(X|E
+
) = Pr(X|Z = z, E
+
) Pr(Z = z|E
+
) (1)
Cn nh rng, sau ny khi tnh cc xc sut c iu kin, chng ta s
da vo tnh tch c ca cc tp bin ngu nhin suy ra s c lp ca
chng. Chng hn, v cc bin Z
1
, , Z
m
tch X vi E
+
, nn khi cho
Z = (Z
1
, , Z
m
) th X c lp vi E
+
. Do
Pr(X|Z =z, E
+
) = Pr(X | Z =z) (2)
E
+
tch vi Z
i
vi

Z
j
(j i), nn cho trc E
+
th cc Z
i
(i=1,,m) c lp
vi nhau v do chng ta c
Pr(X|Z =z, E
+
) = Pr(Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i
= z
i
, , Z
m
= z
m
|E
+
)
=
m
1 i
Pr(Z
i
= z
i
|E
)
Chng ta tnh Pr (Z
i
= z
i
| E
+
). Ta c
Pr( Z
i
= z
i
| E
+
) = Pr ( Z
i
= z
i
| E
1
+
, ,E
i
+
,,E
m
+
)
E
i
+
tch Z
i
vi cc E
j
+
(i j), do Z
i
c lp vi E
j
+
(i j) khi cho trc
E
i
+
. T cng thc trn ta c
Pr(Z
i
= z
i
| E
+
) = Pr(Z
i
= z
i
| E
i
+
)
Nh vy ta nhn c
Pr(Z = z| E
+
) =
m
1 i
Pr(Z
i
= z
i
| E
i
+
) (3)
Thay cng thc (2) v (3) vo (1), ta c
Pr(Z = z| E
+
) =
z
Pr(X | Z = z)
m
1 i
Pr(Z
i
= z
i
| E
i
+
)(4)
Trong thc (4), cc xc sut Pr(X|Z = z) c cho, cc xc sut
Pr(Z
i
| E
i
+
) c gi h tr nguyn nhn t cha Z
i
truyn xung con X. Nh
vy tnh h tr nguyn nhn cho X : Pr(X|E
+
), chng ta cn tnh cc h
tr nguyn nhn t cc cha ca X truyn xung X : Pr(Z
1
| E
1
+
).
Tnh h tr chn on cho X: Pr(E
|X)
Hon ton ging nh trng hp mng cy, chng ta c:
Pr(E

| X ) =
n
1 k
Pr(E
k
| X)
Chng ta cng gi cc xc sut Pr(E
k
|X) l h tr chn on t nh Y
k
gi
ln cha X. Nh vy vic tnh h tr chn on cho X c quy v vic tnh
cc h tr chn on t cc con ca X gi ln X.
Tnh h tr chn on t mt nh gi ln mt nh cha n
khi phi a vo cc k hiu mi, thay v i tnh h tr chn
on t Y
k
gi ln cha X, chng ta tnh h tr chn on t X gi ln cha Z
1
,
tc l cc xc sut Pr(E
X
|Z
i
), trong E
X
nhn t tp bng chng E bng

cch loi b tt c cc bng chng c ni vi X bi ng v hng qua
Z
i
.
Nu X khng phi l bin bng chng th
E
X
= ( E
1
+
,, E
i-1
+
, E
i+1
+
,, E
m
+
, E
1
,, E
n
)
Nu X l mt bin bng chng v X = x
o
th
E
X
= ( E
1
+
, , E
i-1
+
, E
i+1
+
,E
m
+
, E
1
, ,E
n
, X = x
o
)
1. Tnh Pr(E
X
|Z
i
) Khi X khng phi l bin bng chng.
Chng ta c
Pr(E
X
|Z
i
) =

i) (j z x,
j
Pr(E
X
,X = x,Z
1
= z
1
,,Z
i-1
= z
i-1
,Z
i+1
= z
i+1
,...,Z
m
= z
m
,Z
j
)
Tng ny ly tren tt c cc gi tr x ca X v cc gi tr z
j
ca Z
j
(j i).
Theo lut tch, ta c
Pr(E
X
, X = x, Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i-1
= z
i-1
, Z
i+1
= z
i+1
, ..., Z
m
= z
m
|Z
j
)
= Pr(E
X
|X = x, Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i-1
= z
i-1
, Z
i+1
= z
i+1
, ..., Z
m
= z
m
)*
Pr(X=x , Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i-1
= z
i-1
, Z
i+1
= z
i+1
, ..., Z
m
= z
m
| Z
i
)(6)
Chng ta i tnh nhn t u tin ca tch v phi ca cng thc trn.
Khi cho X v Z
1
, , Z
m
th cc E
j
+
(j = 1, , m) c lp vi cc
E
k
(k = 1, , n). Do
Pr(E
X
|X = x, Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i
= z
i
, ..., Z
m
= z
m
)
= Pr(E
1
+
, , E
i-1
+
, E
i+1
+
, , E
m
+
|X = x, Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i
, , Z
m
= z
m
)*
Pr(E
1
, , E
n

|X = x, Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i
, , Z
m
= z
m
) (7)
Khi cho Z
1
, , Z
m
th X c lp vi cc E
j
+
(j = 1, , m) v cc E
j
+
c lp vi nhau. Do chng ta c
Pr(E
1
+
, , E
i-1
+
, E
i+1
+
, , E
m
+
|X = x, Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i
, , Z
m
=z
m
)
=
i j
Pr(E
j
+
|Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i
, , Z
m
= z
m
)
Mt khc, E
j
+
c lp vi Z
i
(i j) khi cho Z
j
, do
Pr(E
j
+
|Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i
, , Z
m
= z
m
)
p dng cng thc Bayes, ta c
Pr(E
j
+
|Z
j
= z
j
) =
) z Pr(Z
) Pr(E ) E | z Pr(Z
j j
j j j j
+ +
T cc cng thc trn, ta nhn c
Pr(E
1
+
, , E
i-1
+
, E
i+1
+
, , E
m
+
|X = x, Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i
, , Z
m
=z
m
)
=
i j
j j
i j
j j j
) z Pr(Z
) E | z Pr(Z
(8)
trong hng s thay cho
+
i j
j
) Pr(E
Chng ta tnh nhn t th hai ca tch v phi ca cng thc (7).
Chng ta c nhn xt rng, khii cho X th cc E
k
(k = 1, , n) c
lp vi nhau v c lp vi cc Z
j
(j = 1, , m). Do
Pr(E
1
, , E
n
|X = x, Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i
, , Z
m
= z
m
)
=
n
1 k
Pr(E
k
|X = x) (9)
Pr(E
X
|X = x, Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i
, , Z
m
= z
m
)
=

i j
j j
i j
n
1 k
-
k j j j
) z Pr(Z
x) X | Pr(E ) E | z Pr(Z
(10)
By gi chng ta tnh nhn t th hai ca tch v phi ca cng thc
(6). Theo lut tch, ta c
Pr(X=x , Z
1
= z
1
,, Z
i-1
= z
i-1
, Z
i+1
= z
i+1
, ..., Z
m
= z
m
| Z
i
)
= Pr(X=x|Z
1
= z
1
,, Z
i
, ..., Z
m
= z
m
)*
Pr(Z
1
= z
1
,, Z
i-1
= z
i-1
, Z
i+1
= z
i+1
, ..., Z
m
= z
m
| Z
i
)
Nhng cc Z
j
(j i) l c lp vi nhau, khi cho Z
i
. Do
Pr(X = x , Z
1
= z
1
,, Z
i-1
= z
i-1
, Z
i+1
= z
i+1
, ..., Z
m
= z
m
)
= Pr(X = x|Z
1
= z
1
,, Z
i
, ..., Z
m
= z
m
)
i j
Pr(Z
j
= z
j
) (11)
Pr(E
X
| X=x, Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i-1
= z
i-1
, Z
i+1
= z
i+1
, , Z
m
= z
m
|Z
i
)
= Pr(X = x|Z
1
= z
1
,, Z
i
, ..., Z
m
= z
m
)*

i j
Pr(Z
j
= z
j
|E
j
+
)
n
1 k
Pr(E
k
|X = x)
T cng thc ny chng ta nhn c cng thc tnh h tr chn on
t X gi ln cha Z
i
.
Pr(E
x
|Z
i
) =

i) (j z x,
j
Pr(X = x|Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i
, ..., Z
m
= z
m
)*
i j
Pr(Z
j
= z
j
)
n
1 k
Pr(E
k
|X = x) (12)
2. Tnh Pr(E
X
|Z
i
) khi X = x
0
l mt bng chng
Bng cc tnh ton nh trong trng hp X khng phi l bin bng
chng v lu rng trong trng hp ny E
X
ging nh trng hp cho

trc c b sung thm bng chng X = x
0
, chng ta suy ra
Pr(E
x
-
|Z
i
) =

i) (j z
j
Pr(X = x|Z
1
= z
1
, , Z
i
, ..., Z
m
= z
m
)
n
1 k
Pr(Z
j
= z
j
)
n
1 k
Pr(E
k
|X = x) (13)
Trong cc cng thc (12) v (13), cc xc sut Pr(X|Z) c cho. Nh
vy tnh h tr chn on t nh X gi ln cha Z
i
, chng ta cn tnh cc
h tr nguyn nhn t cc cha Z
j
(j i) gi xung X: Pr(Z
j
|E
j
+
), v cn phi
tnh cc h tr chn on t cc con Y
k
(k =1, , n) gi ln cha Z : Pr(E
k
|
X).
T cc cng thc tm ra, chng ta suy ra cc hm quy sau y.
Hm quy tnh h tr chn on t con X gi ln cha Z
i
.
Function Pr(E
X
|Z
i
):
begin
1. Tnh cc h tr nguyn nhn t cc cha Z
i
truyn xung con X:
Tnh Pr(Z
i
|E
j
+
) vi j = 1, , m v j i;
Cc xc sut ny c tnh bi hm quy Pr(X|E)
2. Tnh cc h tr chn on t cc con Y
k
truyn ln X:
Tnh Pr(E
k
|X) vi k = 1, , n;
Cc xc sut ny c tnh bng gi quy hm ny;
3. Nu X khng l bin bng chng th tnh Pr(E
X
|Z
i
) theo cng thc
(12).
4. Nu X = x
0
l mt bng chng th tnh Pr(E
X
|Z
i
) theo cng thc
(13).
end;
Z
i
X Pr(X|E)
ng truyn cc h tr
nguyn nhn
Y
k
ng truyn cc h tr
chn on
Hnh 10.6. S truyn cc h tr nguyn nhn v h tr chn on
V sau y l hm quy tnh phn phi xc sut ca bin hi X, khi
cho tp bng chng E, hm Pr(X|E).
Function Pr(X|E):
begin
1. Nu X = x
0
l mt bng chng th
Pr(X = x
0
|E) = 1;
Pr(X = x|E) = 0 vi mi x x
0
;
2.1. Tnh cc h tr nguyn nhn t cc cha Z
i
truyn xung X:
Tnh Pr(Z
i
|E
i
+
) vi i = 1, , m;
Cc xc sut ny c tnh bng gi quy hm ny;
2.2. Tnh h tr nguyn nhn cho X:
Pr(X|E
+
) =
z
Pr(X|Z = z)
m
1 i
Pr(Z
i
= z
i
|E
i
+
)
2.3. Tnh cc h tr chn on t cc con Y
k
truyn ln X:
Tnh Pr(E
k
|X) vi k = 1, , n;
Cc xc sut ny c tnh theo hm quy Pr(E
x
|Z
i
);
2.4. Tnh h tr chn on cho X:
Pr(E
|X) =
n
1 k
Pr(E
k
|x)
2.5. Tnh Pr(X|E) = Pr(E
|X) Pr(X|E
+
)
end;
PHC TP CA THUT TON SUY DIN
TRONG MNG KT NI N
Thut ton tnh phn phi xc sut ca bin hi X khi c cho tp
cc bng chng E, Pr(X|E), bao gm cc li gi quy tnh cc h tr
nguyn nhn v cc h tr chn on. Cc li quy ny lan rng ra t nh
X theo tt c cc ng trong mng. hnh 10.6 m t s truyn cc h tr
nguyn nhn v cc h tr chn on. Cc li gi cc tnh h tr nguyn
nhn s dng li ti cc nh gc (cc nh khng c cha). Cc li gi quy
tnh h tr chn on s dng li ti cc nh l ( cc nh khng c con).
Do tnh kt ni n, mi nh trong mng c mt trong mt li gi quy
ch mt ln. Do thut ton tnh Pr(X|E) l tuyn tnh vi nh s trong
mng.
10.6. SUY DIN TRONG MNG A KT NI
10.6.1. Suy din trong mng a kt ni
Trong mc ny chng ta s x vn suy din trong mng a kt ni.
Mng a kt ni l mng m gia hai nh c th c ni vi nhau bi
nhiu hn mt ng v hng. trng hp ny c th xy ra khi c hai
hoc nhiu nh nh hng n nhiu nh khc, v cc nh nguyn nhn
c chung mt nh nguyn nhn chung.
V d. chng ta c mng a kt ni c cho trong hnh 10.7.
Sau y chng ta s trnh by mt s suy din quan trng trong mng
a kt ni.
10.6.2. Bin i mng a kt ni thnh mng kt ni n
T tng ca phng php ny l kt ni mt s nh ca mng a
kt ni thnh mt nh mi (nh ny c gi l nh kt hp) sao cho
mng cho c chuyn thnh mng kt ni n. chng hn, trong mng
hnh 10.7, nu ta kt hp hai nh B v C thnh nh mi k hiu l (B,C) th
mng c chuyn thnh mng kt ni n trong hnh 10.8. Cn lu rng,
mi nh kt hp l mt vect cc bin ngu nhin. Da vo cc bng xc
sut trong mng a kt ni, chng ta c th d dng tnh c phn phi xc
sut ti cc nh kt hp. chng hn, trong mng hnh 10.8, ta c th tnh
c phn phi xc sut Pr(B,C|A) theo Pr(B|A) v Pr(C|A) c cho
trong mng hnh 10.7. tht vy,
Pr(B,C|A) = Pr(B|C,A) Pr(C|A)
Nhng B v C c lp khi cho A, do
Pr(B,C|A) = Pr(B|A) Pr(C|A)
A Pr(A)
B, C Pr(B,C|A)
D Pr(D|B,C)
Hnh 10.8. Mng kt ni n ng vi mng trong hnh 10.7.
Khi chuyn mt mng a kt ni thnh mng kt ni n bng
cch to ra cc nh kt hp, chng ta c th s dng thut ton suy din vi
thi gian tuyn tnh trong mng kt ni n c trnh by trong mc
10.5. Tuy nhin khi gp mt s nh thnh nh mi, chng ta phi tnh bng
phn phi xc sut ca nh kt hp. Nu nh kt hp cha n nh thnh
phn A
1
, , A
n
th bng xc sut c iu kin ca nh (A
1
, , A
n
) cn cha
2
n
s (gi s cc A
i
l cc bin ngu nhin boolean). iu c ngha l,
chuyn mng a kt ni thnh mng kt ni n chng ta cn khi lng
tnh ton tng theo hm m vi s nh trong mng. Do phng php ny
vn i hi thi gian m.
ng nhin l t mt mng a kt ni, chng ta c nhiu cch chn
cc nh gp li thnh nh kt hp. Chng hn, t mng a kt ni trong
hnh 10.9a, chng ta c th bin i thnh cc mng kt ni n trong hnh
10.9b v 10.9c. Trong mng 10.9b, bng xc sut Pr(B, C|A) c tnh theo
cng thc Pr(B, C|A) = Pr(C|B, A) Pr(B|A). Cn trong mng 10.9c, Pr(A, B)
= Pr(B|A) Pr(A).
Phng php kt hp cc nh chuyn mng a kt ni thnh mng
kt ni n, hin nay vn l mt phng php hiu qu nht tnh chnh
xc phn phi xc sut c iu kin trong mng a kt ni.
A Pr(A) A Pr(A) A, B Pr(A,B)
B C B, C Pr(B, C|A) C Pr(C|A,B)
Pr(B|A) Pr(C|A,B)
(a) (b) (c)
Hnh 10.9. Bin i mng a kt ni thnh cc mng kt ni n.
10.6.3. Phng php m phng ngu nhin
Vn tnh chnh xc xc sut ca mt bin khi cho trc cc bng
chng no l vn NP kh. Tuy nhin trong cc ng dng, trong nhiu
trng hp chng ta ch cn bit cc gi tr xp x l .
Trong mc ny chng ta s trnh by cc phng php cho php ta
tnh xp x xc sut ca mt bin khi cho trc cc bng chng trong mng
a kt ni. Cc phng php ny c gi l cc phng php m phng
ngu nhin (stochastic simulation methods). Cc phng php ny ng vai
tr quan trng trong cc ng dng.
T tng ca phng php m phng ngu nhin l nh l nh sau.
Chng ta s gn gi tr cho cc bin trong mng tng ng vi phn phi
xc sut gn vi mi nh trong mng. Mt nh s c gn gi tr. Chng
hn, gi s X c hai nh cha l A v B c gn gi tr.
A B
X
Gi s X, A,B u l cc bin ngu nhin Boolean v A c gn
True. B c gn False v Pr(X = true| A = true, B = false) = p. Vic gn
gi tr cho X c thc hin nh sau. Chng ta sinh ra mt s ngu nhin q,
0 q 1. nu q < p th X c gn true , cn nu q p th X c gn false.
Trong trng hp X, A v B khng phi l cc bin ngu nhin
Boolean, chng ta c th tin hnh nh sau. Gi s A c gn gi tr a,
B c gn gi tr b . Gi s X l bin ngu nhin c th nhn cc gi tr
x
1
, , x
n
. Gi s
Pr(X=x
i
|A = a, B = b) = p
i
(i = 1,,n)
Cn lu rng p
1
+ + p
n
= 1. Chng ta s dng phng php quay
bnh xe ( phng php ny c s dng trong cc gii thut di truyn)
gn gi tr cho bin X. Sinh ra s ngu nhin q, 0 q 1. gi s k l s
nh nht sao cho p
1
+ + p
k
q. Khi bin X c gn gi tr x
k
.
S dng th tc trnh by trn, chng ta s gn c gi tr cho tt
c cc nh trong mng. lp li th tc m phng n ln, v gi s trong n
ln , bin X c gn gi tr x
k
l n
k
ln. Khi chng ta c th nh gi
Pr(X = x
k
) = n
k
/ n.
Vn ca chng ta by gi l: tnh xp x phn phi xc sut Pr(X|
E), trong E l tp cc bng chng v X l mt bin ngu nhin bt k
trong mng.
Trc ht, chng ta xt cc trng hp bin bng chng l cc bin
khng c cha. Trong trng hp ny mi ln thc hin th tc m phng
ngu nhin, cc bin bng chng c gn gi tr l cc bng chng. sau n
ln lp li th tc m phng ngu nhin, nu bin X nhn ga tr x
k
vi s ln
l n
k
th chng ta nh gi xp x Pr(X = x
k
|E) l n
k
|n.
Trong cc thut ton di y, n gin cho trnh by chng ta gi
s rng cc bin trong mng l cc bin ngu nhin Boolean. Chng ta k
hiu p(X = x) l s ln m bin X c gn gi tr x trong cc ln lp li th
tc mo phng ngu nhin.
Procedure Stochastic Simulation:
begin
1. t L l danh sch cc nh trong mng sao cho nu nh A l cha
ca nh B th A phi ng trc B trong danh sch;
2. Lp li cc bc sau y cho ti khi danh sch L rng.
2.1. Loi bin X u danh sch L;
2.2. Nu X l bin bng chng th gn cho X gi tr l bng
chng ca X v quay li 2.1;
2.3. Nu X khng c cha v Pr(X = true) = p th
Sinh ra s ngu nhin q [0,1];
Nu q<p th X true v (X = true) (X = true) + 1;
Nu qp th X false v (X = false) (X = false) + 1;
Quay li 2.1;
2.4. Nu X c cc cha, chng hn l A v B, gi tr gn cho A
l a, gi tr gn cho B l b v Pr(X = true | A = a,B = b) = p,
th
Sinh ra s ngu nhin q [0,1];
Nu q<p th X true v (X = true) (X = true) + 1;
Nu qp th X false v (X = false) (X = false) + 1;
Quay li 2.1;
end;
Sau y l thut tnh ton xp x Pr(X|E).
Thut ton m phng cho trng hp cc bin bng chng l cc nh
khng c cha:
1. Vi mi bin ngu nhin X trong mng v mi gi tr x ca X :
(X = x) 0;
2. Thc hin th tc Stochastic Simulation n ln ln:
3. Vi mi bin X trong mng v X khng phi l bin bng chng
v vi mi gi tr x ca X, ly gi tr xp x ca Pr(X = x|E) l
(X =x) / n;
Nh vy trong thut ton m phng trn, xc sut Pr(X=x|E) c
tnh gn ng bng t s (X=x)|n : t s gia ln bin X c gn gi tr x
v s ln thc hin m phng. T s ny s hi t ti xc sut thc t
Pr(X=x|E) khi n .
Mi ln th tc m phng ngu nhin c thc hin, n s gn gi tr
cho tt c cc ngu nhin trong mng. Mt cch gn gi tr cho tt c cc
bin ngu nhin trong mng c gi l mt mu (sample). Trong trng
hp cc bin bng chng u khng c cha, cc mu c sinh ra bi th
tc m phng ngu nhin u ph hp vi cc bng chng.
By gi chng ta xt trng hp cc bin bng chng c th c cha,
tc l cc bin bng chng c th l nh bt k trong mng. trong trng
hp ny, mu sinh ra bi th tc m phng c th khng ph hp vi cc
bng chng, chng hn, bng chng l X = a nhng gi tr c gn cho X
trong mu li l X = b vi b a. C mt cch n gin khc phc tnh
trng ny l , chng ta s dng th tc m phng ngu nhin sinh ra mt
s ln cc mu, trong s cc mu c sinh ra ny, chng ta s loi b i
tt c cc mu khng ph hp vi cc bng chng. Cch ny c nhc im
c bn l rt nhiu mu b loi b trong trng hp cc bng chng t khi
xy ra. Do chng ta phi thc hin th tc m phng ngu nhin mt s
rt ln ln.
THUT TON TRNG S KH NNG
Trong thut ton m phng trn, v l tt c cc mu c sinh ra
bi th tc m phng ngu nhin u ph hp vi cc bng chng, do tt
c cc mu u c cng mt trng s l 1, v chng ta ly t s gia s
mu trong X = x v tng s mu lm gi tr xp x ca Pr(X = x|E).
Trong thut ton di y, mi mu c cho mt trng s. Gi tr
ca X trong mt mu c k hiu l Sample(X). Nu A l mt bin bng
chng, th chng ta k hiu e(A) l bng chng ca A (gi tr c gn cho
A trong tp bng chng E ).trng s ca mt mu c xc nh l
E X
Pr(X = e (X)| parents(X) = Sample(Parents(X)))
Mi khi bin X nhn gi tr x trong mt mu th X = x s c cho
mt s im l trng s ca mu . Chng ta s tch lu mt s im m
X = x nhn c trong cc ln lp li th tc m phng, s im c k
hiu l (X =x). Khc vi thut ton m phng trc y, trong thut ton
trng s kh nng (Likelihood Weighting Algorithm), thay cho vic m
s ln bin X nhn gi tr x, chng ta tnh s im tch lu (X = x).
Th tc c m phng c trnh by di y l hon ton tng
t th tc m phng trc y, ch khc mt iu l chng ta tnh s im
tch lu (X = x) thay cho m s ln bin X nhn gi tr x.
Procedure Stochastic Simulation;
begin
1. t L l danh sch cc nh trong mng sao cho nu nh A l cha
ca nh B th A phi ng trc B trong danh sch.
2. Lp li cc bc sau y cho ti khi danh sch L rng:
2.1. Loi bin X u danh sch L;
2.2. Nu X l bin bng chng v X khng c cha th X c gn
ga tr bng chng ca X v quay li bc 2. 1;
2.3. Gn gi tr cho X nh sau:
Gi s p l xc sut X = true khi cho cc gi tr gn
cho cha ca X:
Sinh ra mt s ngu nhin q [0,1]:
Nu q< p th X true :
Nu q p th false:
3. Tnh s im tch lu:
3.1. Tnh trng s ca mu
w =
E z
Pr(Z = e (Z)| parents(Z) = Sample(Parents(Z)))
3.2. Vi mi bin X trong mng
(X = Sample((X)) (X = Sample(X)) + w;
end;
Thut ton trng s kh nng s s dng lp li th tc m phng trn
sinh ra mt s ln cc mu v tnh s im cho X = x trong cc mu
c sinh ra. Sau y l mt s thut ton trng s kh nng.
1. Vi mi bin X trong mng v mi gi tr x ca X, (X = x) 0;
2. Thc hin th tc m phng trn mt s ln ln;
3. Vi mi bin X trong mng v X khng phi l bin bng chng,
v vi mi gi tr x ca X, ly gi tr gn ng ca Pr(X = x|E) l
t s (X = x) / (X = x), trong tng ly trn tt c cc gi tr
x
ca bin X;
Cc p dng thc t chng t rng thut ton trng s kh nng
hi t nhanh hn phng php ly mu n gin. Thut ton trng s kh
nng c th lm vic rt tt cho cc mng a kt ni ln v cc mng vi xc
sut ca cc bng chng gn 0 hoc 1.
10.7. L THUYT QUYT NH
Trong mc ny chng ta s xt vn a ra quyt nh trong mi
trng vi cc thong tin khng chc chn. Chng ta xt v d sau y.
V d. Gi s bn cn n c quan. C hai phng n.
Phng n 1: Bn i xe but mt 15 pht
Phng n 2: Bn dt xe my ra v khi ng. Nu xe my khi
ng c th i xe my v mt 10 pht. Nu xe my khng khi
ng c th i xe but. Gi s thi gian dt xe my ra v khi
ng mt 2 pht. X sut m xe my ca bn khi ng c l
0,8.
Bn nn chn phng n no trong hai phng n trn? Mun bit
cn chn phng n no, chng ta phi nh gi cc phng n (cc k
hoch). Trong phng n 2, kh khn cho vic nh gi l ch kt qu ca
hnh ng khi ng xe l khng chc chn, xe c th khi ng c hoc
khng.
VN QUYT NH
Chng ta s hiu trng thi (hoc hon cnh) l hnh nh ca th gii
m ta quan tm ti mt thi im no . Chng ta s m t trng thi bi
cc c trng no cn thit cho vn m ta cn gii quyt. Hnh ng
s bin i th gii t trng thi ny thnh trng thi khc. Trong cc vn
cn quyt nh chng ta cn quan tm ti cc hnh ng khng n nh.
l cc hnh ng m chng ta ch bit rng khi c thc hin, n s dn
n mt s trng thi khc nhau, song trng thi no trong s cc trng thi
c sinh ra, th trc khi thc hin hnh ng xhng ta khng th bit
c. Chng hn, hnh ng gi ti s phone 8370496. Cc trng thi c
th c m hnh ng ny sinh ra l ng dy bn, hoc khng c ai
u my kia, hoc anh Hai cm my, hoc c Ba cm my, Hnh
ng gieo con xc xc hoc hnh ng khi ng my vi tnh u l cc
hnh ng khng n nh.
Gi s chng ta ang trng thi no ca th gii (trng thi ban
u). Chng ta cn thc hin mt dy hnh ng t c trng thi
mong mun no (trng thi ch). Dy hnh ng nh th c gi l
mt k hoch. Ti mi trng thi ca th gii, gi s chng ta c th thc
hin nhiu hnh ng khc nhau. Chng ta phi quyt nh chn hnh ng
no trong s cc hnh ng sao cho dy hnh ng a ta ti trng
thi ch vi li ch mong i ln nht. l vn quyt nh m chng ta
xt trong mc ny.
HM LI CH
Gi s A l hnh ng (khng n nh), n c th sinh ra cc trng
thi S
1
,S
n
. Gi s chng ta bit c xc sut sinh ra trng thi S
1
(i = 1, n) khi chng ta thc hin hnh ng A trong cc iu kin E, xc
sut ny c k hiu l Pr(S
i
|A,E). Trong s cc trng thi S
1
,S
n
ng
nhin l c trng thi c gi tr hn, tt hn trng thi khc. Hay ni
cch khc, chng ta a thch trng thi ny hn trng thi khc. Chng ta s
gn cho mi trng thi mt s thc, s ny c gi l li ch ca trng thi
(s o li ch ca trng thi). Li ch ca trng thi S c k hiu l U(S).
Hm U c gi l hm li ch (utility function), n nh x tp cc trng
thi vo tp cc s thc.
By gi chng ta xc nh li ch mong i (expected utility) ca
hnh ng A khi c thc hin trong hon cnh E l s thc EU(A|E). S
ny c xc nh bi cng thc
EU(A|E) =
n
1 i
Pr(S
i
|A, E) U(S
i
)
Trong vn quyt nh, chng ta cn la chn mt dy hnh ng
thc hin sao cho dy hnh ng s dn ti mt tp cc trng thi kt cc
(outcomes) vi li ch mong i ln nht c th c. chnh l nguyn
l li ch mong i cc i (principle of maximum expected utility).
Nguyn l li ch mong i cc i ni rng, hnh ng hp l m tc
nhn cn phi la chn l hnh ng lm cc i li ch mong i ca tc
nhn.
Gi s mt trng thi no ca th gii, tc nhn cn a ra quyt
nh: chn mt trong cc hnh ng A thc hin sao cho n thu c li
ch mong i ln nht. Mun vy chng ta cn tnh c cc xc sut Pr(S
i
|
A, E). Cc xc sut ny c th tnh da trn m hnh biu din cc mi quan
h nhn-qu (mng xc sut) m chng ta nghin cu trong cc mc
trc. Theo cng thc tnh li ch mong i EU(A|E), chng ta cn phi tnh
cc li ch U(S
i
) ca cc trng thi S
i
c sinh ra bi hnh ng A. Ni
chung, chng ta ch c th bit c li ch ca cc trng thi kt cc, cn
li ch ca trng thi trung gian ta cha xc nh c, bi v khi cha bit
n dn ti cc trng thi kt cc no, ta cha th xc nh c n tt ra
sao.
Sau y chng ta s trnh by mt m hnh biu din cc vn quyt
nh. Trong m hnh ny, khi chng ta thc hin mt hnh ng A, chng ta
bit c cc xc sut PR(S
i
|A) (xc sut trng thi S
i
c sinh ra khi thc
hin hnh ng A). Chng ta cung bit li ch ca cc trng thi kt cc.
CY QUYT NH
Sau y chng ta s trnh by phng php biu din vn quyt
nh bi cy quyt nh. Chng ta s a ra thut ton tm ra k hoch (tc
l mt dy hnh ng) lm cc i li ch mong i.
Cy quyt nh l cy c hai loi nh: nh quyt nh (decision
node) v nh ngu nhin (chance node). nh quyt nh biu din s la
chn mt trong nhiu hnh ng. nh ngu nhin biu din s khng chc
chn ca hu qu ca mt hnh ng. Cc l ca cy l cc nh ng vi mt
kt cc no .
Trong cy quyt nh, chng ta s biu din cc nh quyt nh bi
cc hnh vung, cn cc nh ngu nhin c biu din bi cc hnh trn.
Mi nhnh i ra t cc nh quyt nh c gn nhn bi mt hnh ng.
Mi nhnh i ra t cc nh ngu nhin c gn nhn bi mt mnh (m
t trng thi) v xc sut mnh ng (xc sut trng thi tng
ng sinh ra). Cc kt cc cc l c hon ton xc nh bi cc hnh
ng v cc mnh nm trn ng i t gc ti l . Cc l c gn
nhn bi li ch ca kt cc tng ng.
Cy quyt nh cha ng tt c cc thong tin cn thit cho php ta
tnh c k hoch vi li ch mong i ln nht.
V d. Mt robot a th lm vic khoa cng ngh thng tin chim
mt to nh 5 tng. N ang trong phng An trn tng 5 v c lnh i
tm Lan trao cho c mt bc th. Robot bit rng, hoc Lan phng c
trn tng 5, hoc Lan trong phng hi tho trn tng 4. Robot c hai k
hoch tm Lan.
1. i ti phng Lan v nu Lan khng th i ti phng hi tho.
2. i ti phng hi tho v nu Lan khng th i ti phng Lan.
T phng An ti phng Lan, robot phi i theo hnh lang mt 5 pht.
T phng An ti phng hi tho robot phi qua cu thang v mt 10 pht.
T phng Lan ti phng hi tho v ngc li, robot cng phi qua cu
thang v mt 10 pht. Gi s robot bit kh nng Lan trong phng c l
0,4. Mi k hoch trn c hai kt cc. Chng hn, trong k hoch 1, nu Lan
phng c th robot mt 5 pht tm thy Lan, cn nu Lan phng hi
tho th robot phi mt 15 pht. Mc tiu ca robot l tm thy Lan nhanh
nht, do chng ta phi xem li ch ca kt cc l s i ca thi gian m
robot b ra tm thy Lan. V vy, mt kt cc li ch l -5. mt kt cc li
ch l -15. Tng t, trong k hoch 2, mt kt cc c li ch l -20, mt kt
cc c li ch l -10. Cy quyt nh cho vn ca robot c th hin
trong hnh 10.10. Trong , cc nh c gn nhn bi li ch mong i
ca n.
-11
i ti phng Lan i ti phng hi tho
-11 -14
Lan phng c Lan hi tho Lan hi tho
0,4 0,6 0,6
Lan phng c
0,4
-5 -15 -20 -10
Hnh 10.10. Cy quyt nh cho vn robot a th.
Khi chng ta biu din mt vn di dng cy quyt nh,
chng ta c th tnh c li ch ca cc nh trong cy. Sau y l thut
ton tnh li ch mong i ca cy quyt nh. T tng ca thut ton l i
t l ln gc, v mt nh s c gn gi tr khi m tt c cc nh con ca
n c gn gi tr.
Th tc tnh gi tr pong i trong cy quyt nh gm cc bc sau:
1. Nu u l l ca cy quyt nh th n c gn gi tr l li ch ca kt
cc tng ng vi l .
2. Nu u l nh trong ca cy v u l nh ngu nhin th u c gn gi
tr bng tng cc gi tr gn cho cc nh con v ca u vi h s l
xc sut trn nhnh t u ti v.
3. Nu u l nh trong v u l nh quyt nh th gi tr gn cho u l s
ln nht trong cc gi tr ca cc nh con ca u.
Trong cy quyt nh hnh 10.10, mt nh ngu nhin c li ch
mong i l 0,4*(-5)+0,6*(-15) = -11, nh ngu nhin kia c li ch mong
i l -14. Do nh quyt nh c li ch mong i l max(-11,-14) = -11.
Theo nguyn l li ch mong i cc i, ti mi nh quyt nh, tc
nhn cn chn hnh ng dn ti nh c gi tr ln nht trong cc nh con
ca n. Cy quyt nh trong hnh 10.10 cho ta thy rng, robot cn i ti
phng Lan trc.
M hnh tng qut hn biu din vn quyt nh l mng quyt
nh (decision network hay cn gi l influence diagram). Mng quyt nh
l m rng ca mng xc sut bng cch a thm vo cc nh quyt nh
v cc nh li ch.
GI TR CA THNG TIN
Trong vn a ra quyt nh m chng ta xt trn, chng ta
xem rng, cc thong tin lin quan c sn khi chng ta a ra quyt nh.
Trong thc t, vic bit c cc thng tin cho mt vn quyt nh nhiu
khi kh c th thc hin c hoc i hi nhiu thi gian v phng tin.
Mt vn c t ra l chng ta c cn thu thp mt thng tin no
khng? Mun vy chng ta cn a ra cch nh gi gi tr ca thng tin,
hiu qu m thng tin ny mang li cho vn quyt nh.
Gi s tri thc hin thi m tc nhn bit l E. Nh chng ta bit
gi tr ca hnh ng tt nht l (trong s cc hnh ng A m tc nhn c
th thc hin trong hon cnh E) l
EU(|E) =
i
A
max
Pr(S
i
|A, E) U(S
i
)
Gi s thng tin m chng ta mun bit thm l bin ngu nhin D c
th nhn cc gi tr d
1
, , d
k
. Gi tr ca hnh ng tt nht
j
khi ta bit
thm D = d
j
l
EU(
j
| E, D = d
j
)
V D l bin ngu nhin nn trc khi kim tra chng ta chng ta khng bit
c gi tr ca n. Gi s ta bit c xc sut D nhn gi tr d
j
l
Pr(D= d
j
). Do chng ta xc nh ga tr ca hnh ng tt nht trong hon
cnh khi E bit thm thng v D l
EU(|E, D) =
k
1 i
Pr(D = d
j
) EU(
j
| E, D = d
j
)
Gi tr ca thng tin D (trong hon cnh E) c xc nh l
VI (D) = EU(|E, D) EU(|E)
Nh vy, gi tr ca thng tin c xc nh l hiu s ca cc li ch
mong i ca hnh ng tt nht trc v sau khi nhn c thng tin.
V d. Tr li vi v d robot a th, gi s rng mng my tnh
c ni vi my tnh trong phng lm vic ca Lan v robot c th vo
mng xc nh Lan c lm vic vi my tnh khng. Nu Lan lm vic
vi my tnh th c ngha l Lan ang trong phng c. Nu khng th c
ang trong phng hi tho. nh vy nu vo mng th robot c bit Lan
trong phng c hay trong phng hi tho. Nu bit Lan trong phng c
th robot mt 5 pht, cn nu Lan trong phng hi tho th robot mt 10
pht tm thy Lan. Gi s robot bit rng, xc sut Lan lm vic vi my
tnh l 0,3.
Chng ta tnh gi tr ca thng tin Lan lm vic vi my tnh.
Chng ta bit gi tr ca hnh ng tt nht khi khng bit thng tin ny
l -11 (xem cy quyt nh trong hnh 10.10). By gi ta tnh gi tr ca
hnh ng tt nht khi bit thng tin Lan lm vic vi my tnh. Gi tr
l 0,3* (-5)+0,7* (-10)= -8,5. Nh vy, theo nh ngha, gi tr ca thng tin
Lan lm vic vi my tnh s l - 8,5- (-11) = 2,5. do nu thi gian
robot vo mng bit Lan c lm vic vi my tnh hay khngl 1 pht th
robot cn s dng mng kim tra iu .
Ngi ta chng minh c rng, gi tr ca thng tin l mt s khng
m, n bng khng khi hnh ng ti u l nh nhau d bit hay khng bit
thng tin .
CHNG 11
LOGIC M V LP LUN XP X
Con ngi truyn tin cho nhau bng phng tin truyn tin ring ca
mnh: ngn ng t nhin. Song bn cht ca ngn ng t nhin (ting Vit,
ting Anh, ting Php,) l khng chnh xc nhp nhng. Nhng ngn ng
t nhin vn l dng truyn thng mnh m nht, thng dng nht gia con
ngi vi nhau, v mc du mang yu t nhp nhng, khng r rang, khng
chnh xc, con ngi hu nh t khi hiu khi nhng iu m ngi khc
mun ni vi mnh. Tuy nhin, mt vn t ra l lm th no my tnh
hiu c cc mnh , chng hn, An l ngi cao, cu ny c ngha l
An cao 1,65m hay 1,72m?
Mt khc, thng tin c s dng trong cc h n t hai ngun quan
trng. Mt ngun l cc thit b cm nhn mi trng (cc thit b o c,
cc phng tin k thut hin i). Mt ngun l cc chuyn gia trong cc
lnh vc. Cc chuyn gia m t tri thc ca h bng ngn ng t nhin.
my tnh c th hiu c tri thc ca con ngi pht biu bng ngn ng t
nhin, chng ta cn c mt l thuyt ton hc cho php m t chnh xc
ngha cc khi nim, chng hn cao, thp, gi, tr, ca ngn ng t nhin.
L thuyt ton hc l l thuyt tp m.
L thyt tp m cho chng ta mt cng c ton hc chnh xc m
t cc thng tin khng chnh xc, mang tnh nhp nhng, m (vagueness,
ambiguity).
T bi bo khi u v l thuyt tp m ca Lofti A. Zadeh Fuzzy
sets, cng b nm 1965, l thuyt tp m v logic m pht trin mnh
m M, Ty u v Nht Bn. T gia 1970 ti nay, vi s nhy bn vi
cc k thut mi, cc nh nghin cu Nht Bn l nhng ngi i tin
phong trong vic ng dng cc k thut m. H cp hng nghn bng
sng ch v cc ng dng ca tp m v lgic m. H a ra nhiu sn
phm cng nghip c bn khp th gii.V d, my git m s dng
cc b cm nhn tinh xo d ra khi lng, mu sc v bn ca qun
o v s dng b vi s l m t ng iu khin qu trnh git.
Trong chng ny chng ta s trnh by mt s khi nim c bn ca
l thuyt tp m v logic m. Sau chng ta s trnh by cc nguyn l c
bn ca h m. Cc h m c p dng trong rt nhiu lnh vc: iu
khin, x l tn hiu,truyn thng, cc h chuyn gia trong y hc,
11.1. TP M
Trong mc ny chng ta trnh by khi nim tp m v mt s khi
nim c bn lin quan ti tp m.
11.1.1. Khi nim tp m
Gi s chng ta c mt v tr bao gm tt c cc i tng m chng
ta quan tm. Nh li rng, mt tp c in (tp r (crisp set)) A trong mt v
tr no c th c xc nh bng cch lit k ra tt c cc phn t ca
n, chng hn A = {3,5,6,9}. Trong trng hp khng lit k ra ht c cc
phn t ca tp A, chng ta c th ch ra nhng tnh cht chnh xc m cc
phn t ca tp A phi tho mn, chng hn A= {x|x l s nguyn t}.
Chng ta nhn mnh rng, mt tp r c hon ton xc nh bi hm c
trng, hay cn gi l hm thuc (membership function) ca n. Hm thuc
tp r A, c k hiu l
A
(x), l hm hai tr (1/0), n nhn gi tr 1 trn
cc i tng x thuc tp A v gi tr 0 trn cc i tng x khng thuc A.
Cc tp r c mt ranh gii r rng gia cc gia cc phn t thuc v cc
phn t khng thuc n.
By gi chng ta quan tm n nhng ngi tr tui. Ai l nhng
ngi c xem l tr? Chng ta c th xem nhng ngi di 30 tui l
tr, nhng ngi trn 60 tui l khng tr. th cn nhng ngi 35, 40, 45,
50, th sao? Trc cch mng thng 8, 50 tui c xem l gi, by
gi 50 tui khng phi l gi, nhng cng khng th xem l tr. Tnh cht
ngi tr khng phi l mt tnh cht chnh xc xc nh mt tp r,
cng nh tnh cht s gn 7, hoc tc nhanh, i vi tp r c
xc nh bi cc tnh cht chnh xc cho php ta bit mt i tng l thuc
hay khng thuc tp cho, cc tp m c xc nh bi cc tnh cht
khng chnh xc, khng r rang (m), chng hn cc tnh cht ngi tr,
ngi gi, ngi p, p sut cao, s gn 7, tc nhanh, Cc
tp m c xc nh bi hm thuc m cc gi tr ca n l cc s thc t 0
n 1. Chng hn, tp m nhng ngi tho mn tnh cht ngi tr
(chng ta s gi l tp m ngi tr) c xc nh bi hm thuc nhn
gi tr 1 trn tt c nhng ngi di 30 tui, nhn gi tr 0 trn tt c nhng
ngi trn 60 tui v nhn gi tr gim dn t 1 ti khng trn cc tui t 30
n 60.
Mt tp m A trong v tr U c xc nh l l mt hm
A
: U
[0,1].
Hm
A
c gi l hm thuc (hoc hm c trng) ca tp m A
cn
A
(x) c gi l mc thuc ca x vo tp m A.
Nh vy tp m l s tng qut ho tp r bng cch cho php hm
thuc ly gi tr bt k trong khong [0,1], trong khi hm thuc ca tp r
ch ly hai gi tr 0 hoc 1.
Ngi ta biu din tp m A trong v tr U bi tp tt c cc cp phn
t v mc thuc ca n:
A = {(x,
A
(x))| x U}
V d 1. Gi s cc im thi c cho t 0 n 10, U = {0,1,2,,10}.
Chng ta xc nh ba tp m: A = im kh, B = im trung bnh v
C=im km bng cch cho mc thuc ca cc im vo mi tp m
trong bng sau:
im A B C
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0
0
0
0
0
0,1
0,5
0.8
1
1
1
0
0
0
0,2
0,8
1
0,8
0,3
0
0
0
1
1
1
0,9
0,7
0,5
0,1
0
0
0
0
Sau y l cc k hiu truyn thng biu din tp m. Nu v tr U l
ri rc v hu hn th tp m A trong v tr U c biu din nh sau:
A =
U x
A
x
(x)

V d 2. Gi s U = {a, b, c, d, e}, ta c th xc nh mt tp m A
nh sau:
A =
e
5 , 0
d
1
c
3 , 0
b
0
a
7 , 0
+ + + +
V d 3. Gi s tui ca ngi t 0 n 100. Tp m A = Tui tr
c th c xc nh nh sau:
25
0 y
y
1
+
,
_
,
_
+
100
25 y
1
2
y
5
25 - y
1

l mt cch biu din ca tp m c hm thuc l:
A
(y) =
'
<

,
_
,
_
100 y 25
25 y 0
5
25 - y
1
1
1
2
Khi v tr U l lin tc, ngi ta s dng cch vit sau biu din
tp m A.
A =
U

A
(x) / x
trong , du tch phn (cng nh du tng trn) khng c ngha l tch
phn m ch tp hp tt c cc phn t x c gn vi mc thuc ca
n.
V d 4. Tp m A = s gn 2 c th c xc nh bi hm thuc
nh sau:
A
(x) = e
2
2) - (x -
Chng ta vit
A =
U
e
2
2) - (x -
/ x
Cn ch rng, hm thuc c trng cho tp m s gn 2 c th
c xc nh mt cch khc. chng hn:
3 x
3 x 2
2 x
2 x 1
1 x
0
3 x
1
1 x
0
A
>
<
<
<
'

th ca cc hm thuc trn c cho trong hnh 11.1

1 1
0 2 x 0 1 2 3 x
Hnh 11.1. Cc hm thuc khc nhau cho tp m s gn 2.
Cc tp m c s dng rt rng ri nht trong cc ng dng l cc
tp m trn ng thng thc R v cc tp m trong khng gian clit n
chiu R
n
(n 2).
V d 5. Gi s tc ca mt chuyn ng c th ly gi tr t 0 ti
v
max
= 150 (km/h). Chng ta c th xc nh ba tp m tc chm, tc
trung bnh v tc nhanh nh trong hnh 11.2. Cc tp m ny c
gi l cc tp m hnh thang, v hm thuc ca chng c dng hnh thang.
Chm Trung bnh Nhanh
1
150
Hnh 11.2. Cc tp m tc chm, tc trung bnh
vtc nhanh.
T nhng iu trnh by v cc v d a ra, chng ta c mt s
nhn xt quan trong sau y.
Cc tp m c a ra biu din cc tnh cht khng chnh
xc, khng r rang, m, chng hn cc tnh cht ngi gi, s
gn 2, nhit thp, p sut cao, tc nhanh,
Khi nim tp m l mt khi nim ton hc hon ton chnh xc:
mt tp m trong v tr U l mt hm xc nh trn U v nhn gi
tr trong on [0,1]. Cc tp r l tp m, hm thuc ca tp r ch
nhn gi tr 1 hoc 0. Khi nim tp m l s tng qut ho khi
nim tp r
Mt tnh cht m, chng hn tnh cht s gn 2 c th m t bi
cc tp m khc nhau nh trong v d 4. Trong cc ng dng
chng ta cn xc nh cc tp m biu din cc tnh cht m sao
cho ph hp vi thc t, vi cc s liu thc nghim. Trong mc
11.1.4 chng ta s gii thiu cc phng php xc nh tp m.
11.1.2. Mt s khi nim c bn lin quan n tp m
Sau y chng ta s xt mt s khi nim c bn lin quan ti tp m.
Gi s A l tp m trn v tr U. Gi ca tp m A, k hiu l
supp(A), l mt tp r bao gm tt c cc phn t x U c mc thuc
vo tp m A ln hn 0, tc l
Supp(A) = { x A |
A
(x) > 0}
Nhn ca tp m A l mt tp r bao gm tt c cc phn t x U
sao cho
A
(x) = 1. Cn bin ca tp m A s gm tt c cc x U sao cho
0< A(x) < 1. Hnh 11.3 minh ho gi , nhn v bin ca mt tp m.
cao ca mt tp m A, k hiu l height(A), c xc nh l cn
trn ng ca cc
A
(x) vi x chy trn v tr U, tc l
Height(A) =
U x
sup

A
(x)
Cc tp m c cao bng 1 c gi l cc tp m chun tc
(normal fuzzy set). Chng hn, cc tp m A, B, C trong v d 1 u l cc
tp m chun tc.
Lt ct (- cut) ca tp m A, k hiu l A
, l mt tp r bao gm
tt c cc phn t ca v tr U c mc thuc vo A ln hn hoc bng .
Tc l
A
= {x U |
A
(x) }
V d 7. Gi s U = {a, b, c, d, e, m, n} v A l tp m c xc nh
nh sau:
A =
n
0
m
8 , 0
e
1
d
0
c
5 , 0
b
7 , 0
a
1 , 0
+ + + + + +
Khi ta c:
A
0,1
= {a, b, c, e, m}
A
0,3
= {b, c, e, m}
A
0,8
= {e, m}
(x)
1
x
Nhn
Bin Bin
Gi
Hnh 11.3. Gi , nhn v bin ca tp m
Mt khi nim quan trng na l khi nim tp m li. Khi tp v tr
U l khng gian clit n chiu, U = R
n
, khi nim tp m li c th tng qut
ho cho cc tp m. Mt tp m A trong khng gian R
n
c gi l tp m
li nu mi lt ct A
u li , vi (0,1). S dng khi nim lt ct v tp

li trong khng gian R
n
, chng ta s d dng chng minh c khng nh
sau y:
A
[x (1 )y] [
A
(x),
A
(y)]
Vi mi x, y R
n
v vi mi [0;1]. Ngi ta thng s dng tnh
cht ny lm nh ngha tp m li. Cc tp m li ng vai tr quan trng
trong cc ng dng l cc tp m li trn ng thng thc.
Chng ta s biu din cc nh lng khng chnh xc, chng hn s
gn 5, bi cc s m.
Mt tp m li chun tc trn ng thng thc m mi lt ct l
mt khong ng, c gi l s m (fuzzy number). (Lu rng, diu kin
cc lt ct l cc khong ng tng ng vi iu kin hm thuc lin tc
tng khc). Vic nghin cu cc php ton s hc +, , *, / v cc php so
snh trn cc s m l ni dung lnh vc s hc m. S hc m l mt
nhnh nghin cu ca l thuyt m. Cc s m ng vai tr quan trng
trong cc ng dng, c bit trong cc h m.
1 1
a b c a b c d
a) b)
1 1
0,5
a
2
b a +
b
c) d)
Hnh 11.4. Cc dng s m c bit.
a) s m hnh tam gic; b) s m hnh thang;
c) s m hnh ch S; d) s m hnh chung.
Cc s m c bit, c s dng nhiu trong cc ng dng l cc s
m hnh tam gic, cc s m hnh thang, cc s m hnh ch S v cc s m
hnh chung. Cc dng s m ny c minh ho trong hnh 11.4. Chng ta
c th a ra biu thc gii tch ca cc hm thuc ca cc s m ny.
Chng hn, s m hnh tam gic A (hnh 11.4a) c hm thuc c
xc nh nh sau:
a or x c x
c x b
b x a
0
) b - c /( ) b - c (
) a - b /( a) - x (
(x)
A
< >

<
'

Hm thuc ca s m S hnh (11.4c) c xc nh nh sau:
b x
b x
2
b a
2
b a
x a
a x
1
a - b
b - x
2 - 1
a - b
a - x
2
0
(x)
2
2
S
<
+
+
<
<
'
,
_
,
_

11.1.3. Tnh m v tnh ngu nhin
Chng ta a ra khi nim tp m biu din cc tnh cht m.
Khi biu din mt tnh cht m bi mt tp m A, v x l mt i tng bt
k th mc thuc ca x vo tp m A l mt s
A
(x) [0,1]. Mt khc,
chng ta bit rng, xc sut ca mt s kin ngu nhin e, Pr(e) cng l mt
s nm gia 0 v 1. Mt cu hi c t ra: C g khc nhau gia tnh m
(fuzziness) v tnh ngu nhin (randomness)? Cu tr li l: C. Tnh m m
t s khng r rang ca mt s kin, cn tnh ngu nhin m t s khng
chc chn xut hin ca mt s kin. Mt s kin ngu nhin c th xut
hin hoc khng, xc sut biu din mc thng xuyn xut hin ca s
kin ngu nhin. thy c s khc nhau gia tp m v xc sut, chng
ta xt v d sau y ( v d ny l ca Bezdek, 1993).
V d 8. Bn ang trn sa mc v kht nc. Ngi ta mang n cho
bn hai chai nc gn nhn A v B. Trn nhn A ghi rng nc trong chai
ny c mc thuc vo tp m nc ung c l 0,95. Trn nhn B ghi
rng, xc sut chai nc ny ung c l 0,95. Bn s chn chai no
trong hai chai?
Mc thuc 0,95 c ngha l nc trong chai A kh gn vi nc
tinh khit, chng hn nc my ca ta, n c th ln tp cht nhng khng
nh hng ln ti sc kho. Mt khc, xc sut chai nc gn nhn B
ung c l 0,95 c ngha l trong 100 ln ly chai nc nhn B c khong
95 ln nc trong chai l ung c (nc tinh khit), song c 5 ln nc
trong chai khng phi l nc ung c, c th l nc c hi cho sc
kho, chng hn axit. R rng l bn nn chn chai nc nhn A.
By gi gi s bn c quyn m chai v ly mu xt nghim. sau
khi xt nghim bn s bit chnh xc nc trong chai B l nc ung c
hay khng. Xc sut 0,95 s l xc sut c iu kin v bng 1 trong trng
hp nc trong chai l ung c v 0 nu nc trong chai l nc khng
ung c. Nhng sau khi xt nghim th mc thuc 0,95 ca chai nc
nhn A vn l 0,95.
11.1.4. Xc nh cc hm thuc
Mt tp m trong v tr U c nh ngha l mt hm thuc
(membership function) xc nh trn v tr U v nhn gi tr trong on
[0,1]. Nh vy xc nh mt tp m c ngha l xc nh hm thuc ca n.
Mt cu hi t ra l: lm th no xc nh c cc hm thuc? cc nh
nghin cu a ra rt nhiu phng php tnh mc thuc ca i
tng x vo mt tp m A, tc l tnh
A
(x). Gi tr
A
(x) c th xc nh
c bng trc quan, hoc c th c tnh bng mt thut ton no ,
hoc nhn c thng qua lp lun logic. Sau y l mt s phng php
xc nh hm thuc.
Trc quan
Suy din da trn tri thc v lnh vc
S dng mng nron
S dng thut ton di truyn
Cn lu rng, danh sch cc phng php xc nh hm thuc cn
di. Lnh vc ny hin nay vn ang tip tc c nghin cu. Trong mc
ny chng ta ch gii thiu gin lc tng ca mt vi phng php.
PHNG PHP TRC QUAN
Phng php ny c p dng xc nh cc tp m trn ng
thng thc, chng hn cc tp m nhit cao, p sut thp, tc
nhanh, Trong cc trng hp ny, ngi ta da vo s hiu bit trc
quan, da vo ng ngha ca cc t a ra cc hm thuc. Chng hn,
chng ta mun xc nh cc tp m tri rt, tri mt, tri nng, tri
rt nng. Gi s nhit khng kh c o bi C. Vi thi tit H
Ni, chng ta c th xc nh cc hm thuc ca cc tp m trn nh trong
hnh v 11.5.
Cn lu rng, y chng ta ni ti thi tit H Ni. Vi ngi
x lnh, chng hn Henxinki, nhit 12
0
C cha phi l rt. Do nu
ni ti thi tit Henxinki th hm thuc ca cc tp m tri rt, tri
mt, cn phi xc nh khc i.
rt mt nng rt nng
1
12 25 32 38 nhit C
Hnh 11.5. Cc hm thuc ca mt s tp m.
PHNG PHP SUY DIN
DA TRN TRI THC V LNH VC
Trong phng php ny, ngi ta da trn cc tri thc v lnh vc
ang quan tm suy din ra cch xc nh cc hm thuc cn xy dng.
Chng ta minh ho phng php ny bng v d sau y. Chng ta xt cc
tam gic trong hnh hc phng. Chng ta mun xc nh cc tp m sau:
I = tam gic gn cn
R = tam gic gn vung
E = tam gic gn u
Gi s A,B,C l cc gc trong ca tam gic v A B C. V tr U
cc tam gic c xc nh l tp U = {(A,B,C) | A B C,
A + B + C = 180
0
}. S d chng ta biu din mi tam gic bi b ba gc
(A,B,C) v chng ta ch quan tm n hnh dng ca tam gic: n cn, u
hay vung.
Mt tam gic (A,B,C) vi A B C v A + B + C = 180
0
s cn nu
A = B hoc B = C. N cng khng cn nu A cng khc B v B cng khc
C. Do chng ta c th a ra cng thc sau cho hm thuc ca tp m
I = tam gic gn cn
I
(A,B,C) = 1- 1/60 min (A B, B C)
T tri thc v tam gic, chng ta c th xc nh hm thucca cc
tp m tam gic gn vung v tam gic gn u nh sau:
R
(A,B,C) = 1 1/90 | A 90|
E
(A,B,C) = 1 1/180 (A C)
V d 9. Chng ta xt tam gic x = (A, B, C) vi cc gc nh sau :
A = 85
0
B = 50
0
C = 45
0
, y A + B + C = 85
0
+ 50
0
+ 45
0
= 180
0
. Tnh
mc thuc ca x vo cc tp m I, R, E theo cc cng thc trn ta c:
I
(x) = 0,916
R
(x) = 0,94
E
(x) = 0,7
Nh vy tam gic x c mc thuc cao nht vo tp m tam gic
gn vung, nhng n cng c mc thuc kh cao vo tp m tam gic
gn cn. T hnh 11.6 chng ta thy rng, cc hm thuc m chng ta
xc nh rt ph hp vi thc t.
C
45
A 85 50 B
Hnh 11.6. Mt tam gic c bit.
S DNG MNG NRON
Sau y chng ta s gii thiu v mng nron v phong php s
dng mng nron xc nh hm thuc. c th p dng c phng
php ny, bn cn c hiu bit y hn v mng nron v phng php
hnh hc bng hun luyn mng nron.
Mt nron l mt n v x l, cu to v s hot ng ca n l s
m phng nron trong no ngi. Hnh 11.7 biu din mt nron. Mi
nron c n u vo x
1
, , x
i
, , x
n
v mt u ra y. Mi ng vo c
gn vi mt trng s w
i
(i = 1, , n). Trng s w
i
dng biu din tins hiu
x
i
c kch thch, trng s w
i
m biu din tn hiu x
i
b km ch. Cc tn
hiu vo c tch hp bi tng trng s
n
1 i
i i
x w
v c bin i thnh tn hiu ra y thng qua hm kch hot F nh sau:
y = F

,
_
- x w
n
1 i
i i
trong , l gi tr ngng v F(s) l mt hm khng tuyn tnh; chng hn
hm sigmoid:
F(s) =
s
e
+ 1
1
x
1
w
1

w
i
x
i
F y
w
n
x
n
Hnh 11.7. Mt nron.
Cc nron c kt ni vi nhau to thnh cc mng nron (neural
network). Hnh 11.8 biu din mt mng nron truyn thng (feedforward
network). Trong mng truyn thng, u ra ca cc nron mt tng (tr
tng ra) c ni vi cc u vo ca cc nron tng tip theo. Cc n v
tng vo khng phi l cc nron m ch l cc vng m lu cc gi tr
a vo mng. Ngoi tng vo v tng ra, trong mng truyn thng c th c
mt hoc nhiu tng n. Mng nron truyn thng l mt h tnh. Nu mng
c n u vo x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
v k u ra y
1
, y
2
, , y
k
tng ng vi cc gi tr
u vo. Ni mt cch khc, mng s xc nh cc hm y
i
= f
i
(x
1
, , x
n
)
(i = 1,, k).
By gi chng ta s gii thiu phng php s dng mng nron
truyn thng xc nh cc tp m t mt tp d liu. Phng php ny
c xut bi Takagi v Hyashi, 1991. Tp d liu c phn thnh tp
d liu hun luyn v tp d liu kim tra. Tp d liu hun luyn c s
dng hun luyn mng nron. Gi s mi d liu x l mt vect khng
gian n chiu, x = (x
1
, , x
n
). S dng cc k thut phn b (clustering)
chng ta phn tp d liu thnh k lp R
1
, , R
k
. Chng ta s xc nh k tp
m A
1
, , A
k
bng cch s dng mng truyn thng c n u vo v k u
ra nh trong hnh 11.8. u ra y
i
s c xem l mc thuc ca im d
liu x vo tp m A
i
, y
i
=
Ai
(x).
x
1
y
1
x
2

y
k
x
n
tng vo tng n tng ra
Hnh 11.8. Mng nron truyn thng.
Nu im d liu x = (x
1
, , x
n
) thuc lp R
i
th gi tr u ra tng
ng l y = (y
1
, , y
k
), trong y
i
= 1 v y
j
= 0 vi mi j i. Khi to ra mt
mng nron truyn thng vi n u vo v k u ra. Tp d liu hun luyn
mng bao gm cc cp (x, y), trong x c ly t tp d liu hun luyn.
Chng ta p dng thut ton truyn ngc (backpropagation algorithm)
hun luyn mng vi cc d liu hun luyn l cc cp (x, y) nu trn.
Mng nron thu c sau qu trnh hun luyn s c s dng xc nh
cc tp m A
1
,

, A
k
. Chng hn, nu cc d liu l cc im trong khng
gian 2 chiu v cc tp m cn xc nh l A
1
, A
2
, A
3
. Trong trng hp ny
mng nron c 2 u vo x
1
, x
2
v 3 u ra y
1
, y
2
, y
3
. Khi a vo mng (x,
y) = (0,5 , 0,8), gi s mng cho ra y
1
= 0,1; y
2
= 0,8; y
3
= 0,7 khi
A1
(0,5 , 0,8) = 0,1;
A2
(0,5 , 0,8) = 0,8;
A3
(0,5 , 0,8) = 0,7.
11.2. CC PHP TON TRN TP M
Trong mc ny chng ta s xc nh cc php ton trn tp m. Cc
php ton ny l s tng qut ho ca cc php ton trn tp r.
11.2.1. Cc php ton chun trn tp m
Gi s A v B l cc tp m trn v tr U. Ta ni tp m A bng tp
m B, nu vi mi x U
A
(x) =
B
(x)
Tp m A c gi l tp con ca tp m B, B A , nu vi mi
x U
A
(x)
B
(x)
1. Phn b
Phn b ca tp m A l tp m
A
vi hm thuc c xc nh nh
sau:
A
(x) = 1
A
(x) (1)
2. Hp
Hp ca tp m A v tp m B l tp m B A c xc nh nh
sau:
AB
(x) = max (
A
(x),
B
(x)) (2)
3. Giao
Giao ca Av B l tp m B A vi hm thuc
AB
(x) = min (
A
(x),
B
(x)) (3)
V d 1. Gi s
} , , , , { e d c b a U
v
B A,
l cc tp m nh sau
e d c b a
A
5 . 0 1 0 7 . 0 3 . 0
+ + + +
e d c b a
B
5 . 0 1 6 . 0 9 . 0 1 . 0
+ + + +
Khi chng ta c cc tp m sau
e
5 . 0
d
0
c
1
b
3 . 0
a
7 . 0
+ + + + A
e
5 . 0
d
1
c
6 . 0
b
9 . 0
a
3 . 0
+ + + + B A
e
5 . 0
d
1
c
0
b
7 . 0
a
1 . 0
+ + + + B A
Chng ta c th d dng chng minh c rng cc php ton ly
phn b, hp, giao c xc nh bi (1), (2), (3) tho mn tt c cc tnh
cht ca cc php ton trn tp r, k c lut De Morgan, tr lut loi tr
trung gian (law of excluded middle), tc l vi tp m Ata c
A A U v A A
4. Tch -cc
Gi s A
1
, A
2
, , A
n
l cc tp m trn cc v tr U
1
, U
2
, , U
n
tng ng. Tch -cc ca cc A
1
, A
2
, , A
n
l tp m A = A
1
A
2
A
n
trn khng gian tch U = U
1
U
2
U
n
vi hm thuc c xc nh nh
sau
A
(x
1
, x
2
, , x
n
) = min (
A
1
(x
1
),
A
2
(x
2
), ,
A
n
(x
n
))
x
1
U
1
, x
1
U
1
, , x
1
U
1
(4)
5. Php chiu
Gi s Al tp m trong khng gian tch U
1
U
2
.Hnh chiu ca trn
U
1
l tp m A
1
trn U
1
vi hm thuc
A
1
(x
1
) =
2 2
U x
max

A
(x
1
, x
2
) (5)
nh ngha ny c th m rng cho trng hp Al tp m trn
khng gian U
i
1
U
i
2
U
i
k
. Ta c th chiu A ln khng gian tch U
i
1
U
i
2
U
i
k
, trong (i
1
, i
2
, , i
k
) l dy con ca dy (1, 2, , n),
nhn c tp m trn khng gian U
i
1
U
i
2
U
i
k
.
6. M rng hnh tr
Gi s A
1
l tp m trn v tr U
1
. M rng hnh tr ca A
1
trn
khng gian tch U
1
U
2
l tp m A trn v tr U
1
U
2
vi hm thuc c
xc nh bi:
A
(x
1,
x
2
) =
A
1
(x
1
) (6)
ng nhin l ta c th m rng mt tp m trong khng gian U
i
1

U
i
2
U
i
k
thnh mt tp m hnh tr trong khng gian U
1
U
2
U
n
,
trong (i
1
, i
2
, , i
k
) l mt dy con ca dy (1, 2, , n).
V d 2. Gi s U
1
= {a, b, c} v U
2
= {d, e}. Gi s A
1
, A
2
l cc tp
m trn U
1
, U
2
tng ng:
A
1
=
c
5 , 0
b
0
a
1
+ +
A
2
=
e
7 , 0
d
3 , 0
+
Khi ta c
A
1
A
2
=
) e c, (
5 , 0
) d c, (
3 , 0
) e b, (
0
) d b, (
0
) e a, (
7 , 0
) d a, (
3 , 0
+ + + + +
Nu tp chiu ny m trn U
1
, ta nhn c tp m sau:
c
5 , 0
b
0
a
7 , 0
+ +
M rng hnh tr ca tp m A
1
trn khng gian U
1
U
2
l tp m sau
) e c, (
5 , 0
) d c, (
5 , 0
) e b, (
0
) d b, (
0
) e a, (
1
) d a, (
1
+ + + + +
11.2.2. Cc php ton khc trn tp m
Cc php ton chun: phn b, hp, giao c xc nh bi cc cng
thc (1), (2) v (3) khng phi l s tng qut ho duy nht ca php ton
phn b, hp, giao trn tp r. C th thy rng. tp m A B c xc
nh bi (2) l tp m nh nht cha c A v B, cn tp m A B c
xc nh bi (3) l tp m ln nht nm trong c A v B. Cn c nhng cch
khc xc nh cc php ton phn b, hp, giao trn cc tp m. Chng
hn, ta c th xc nh hp ca A v B l tp m bt k cha c A v B. Sau
y chng ta s a vo cc php ton m chng l tng qut ho ca cc
php ton chun c xc nh bi (1), (2) v (3).
1. Phn b m
Gi s chng ta xc nh hm C : [0,1] [0,1] bi cng thc
C(a) = 1 a, a [0,1]. Khi t cng thc (1) xc nh phn b chun, ta
c:
A
(x) = C [(
A
(x)] (7)
iu ny gi rng, nu chng ta c mt hm C tho mn mt s
iu kin no th chng ta c th xc nh phn b A ca tp m A bi
cng thc (7). Tng qut ho cc tnh cht ca hm C . C(a) = 1- a, chng ta
a ra nh ngha sau:
Phn b ca tp m A l tp m A vi hm thuc c xc nh bi
(7), trong C l hm tho mn cc iu kin sau:
Tin C
1
(iu kin bin). C(0) = 1, C(1) = 0
Tin C
2
(n iu khng tng). Nu a < b th C(a) C(b) vi
mi
a, b, [0,1]
Hm C tho mn cc iu kin C
1
, C
2
s c gi l hm phn b .
Chng hn, hm C(a) = 1 a tho mn c hai iu kin trn.
Sau y l mt s lp phn b m quan trng.
V d 3. Cc phn b m lp Sugeno c xc nh bi hm C nh
sau;
C(a) =
a) 1 (
a - 1
+
a [0,1]
trong l tham s, > -1, ng vi mi gi tr ca chng ta nhn c
mt phn b. Khi = 0 phn b Sugeno tr thnh phn b chun (1).
V d 4. Cc phn b m lp Yager c xc nh bi hm C.
C(a) = (1 a
w
)
w
1
Trong w l tham s, w > 0, ng vi mi gi tr ca tham s w
chng ta s c mt phn b v vi w = 1 phn b Yager tr thnhphafn b
chun (1).
2. Hp m - cc php ton S norm
Php ton c xc nh bi (2), tc l n c xc nh nh hm
max (a, b): [0,1] [0,1]. t cc tnh cht ca hm max ny, chng ta a ra
mt lp cc hm c gi S norm.
Mt hm S : [0,1] [0,1] [0,1] c gi l S norm nu n tho
mn cc tnh cht sau:
Tin S
1
(iu kin bin): S (1,1) = 1; S(0,a) = S(a,0) = a.
Tin S
2
(tnh giao hon): S(a, b) = S(b,a).
Tin S
3
(tnh kt hp) : S (S, (a, b), c) = S(a, S(b,c)).
Tin S
4
(n iu tng): Nu a a
, b b

th S(a, b)S(a
, b
).
ng vi mi S norm, chng ta xc nh mt php hp m nh sau.
Hp ca A v B l l tp m A B vi hm thuc c xc nh bi biu
thc:
A B
(x) = S(
A
(x),
B
(x)) (8)
Cc php hp c xc nh bi (8) c gi l cc php ton
S norm. Chng hn, hm max (a, b) tho mn cc iu kin (S) (S), do
hp chun (2) l php ton S norm. Ngi ta thng k hiu
max (a, b) = a b. Sau y l mt s php ton S norm quan trng khc.
V d 5. Tng Drastic:
a b =
'
> >
0 b , 0 a if 1
0 a if b
0 b if a
Tng chn: a + b = min (1, a + b)
Tng i s: a b = a + b ab
V d 6. Cc php hp Yager
S
w
(a, b) = min 1
]
1
+
w
1
w w
) b (a 1,
trong , w l tham s, w > 0, ng vi mi gi tr ca w, chng ta c mt
S norm c th. Khi w = 1, hp Yager tr thnh tng chn. C th thy
rng:
b) max(a, b) a, ( S lim
w
w

b a b) a, ( S lim
w
0 w

Nh vy, khi w th hp Yager tr thnh hp chun.

3. Giao m cc php ton T norm.
Chng ta xc nh giao chun bi hm min(a,b): [0,1] [0,1]
[0,1]. Tng qut ho t cc tnh cht ca hm min(a,b), chng ta xc nh
mt lp cc hm c gi l T norm.
Mt hm T: [0,1] [0,1] [0,1] c gi l T norm nu n tho
mn cc tnh cht sau:
Tin T
1
(iu kin bin): T(0,0) = 0; T(a, 1) = T(1, a) = a
Tin T
2
(tnh giao hon): T(a, b) = T(b, a)
Tin T
3
(tnh kt hp): T(T(a, b), c) = T(a, T(b, c))
Tin T
4
(n iu tng): Nu a a, b b th T(a, b) T(a, b)
Giao m ca cc tp A v B l tp m A B vi hm thuc c xc
nh bi:
A B
(x) = T(
A
(x),
B
(x)) (9)
trong , T l mt T norm. Cc php giao m c xc nh bi (9) c
gi l cc php ton T norm. Chng hn, hm min(a, b) l T norm.
Chng ta s k hiu min(a, b) = a b.
Chng ta a ra mt s T norm quan trng.
V d 7. Tch i s
a . b = ab
Tch Drastic
a . b =
'
<
1 b a, if 0
1 a if b
1 b if a
Tch chn
a . b = max(0, a + b 1)
V d 8. Cc php giao Yager
(T
n
a, b) = 1 min
1
1
]
1
+
w
1
w w
) b) - (1 a) - ((1 1,
trong w l tham s, w > 0. Khi w = 1, giao Yager tr thnh tch chn. C
th ch ra rng:
b) min(a, b) (a, T lim
w
w

b) (a, T lim
w
w
= a . b
Nh vy w , giao Yager tr thnh giao chun.
Cc mi quan h gia cc S norm v T norm c pht biu trong
nh l sau:
a . b T(a, b) min(a, b)
max (a, b) S(a, b) a b
T nh l trn chng ta thy rng cc php ton min v max l cn
trn v cn di ca cc php ton T norm v S norm tng ng. Nh
vy cc php ton hp v giao khng th nhn gi tr trong khong gia min
v max.
Ngi ta a vo cc php ton V(a,b): [0,1] [0,1] [0,1], m cc
gi tr ca n nm gia min v max: min(a,b) V(a,b) max(a,b). Cc php
toan ny c gi l cc php ton ly trung bnh (averaging operators). Sau
y l mt s php ton ly trung bnh.
Trung bnh tng qut
V
a
(a,b) =

1
2
b a
,
_
+
trong , l tham s v 0
Trung bnh max min
V
(a,b) = max(a,b) + (1 ) min(a,b)

trong , tham s [0,1].
4. Tch -cc m
Chng ta xc nh tch c cc tp n A
1
, A
2
, , A
n
bi biu
thc (4). Chng ta gi tch cc c xc nh bi (4) (s dng php ton
min) l tch cc chun. thay cho php ton min, chng ta c th s dng
php ton T norm bt k xc nh tch cc.
Tch cc ca cc tp m A
1
, A
2
, A
n
trn cc v tr U
1
, U
2
, , U
n
tng ng l tp m A = A
1
A
2
A
n
trn U
1
U
2
U
n
vi hm
thuc c xc nh nh sau:
A
(x
1,
x
2
, ,x
n
) =
A1
(x
1
)
A2
(x
2
)
An
(x)(10)
trong , php l php ton T norm.
11.3. QUAN H M V NGUYN L M RNG
11.3.1. Quan h m
Trong mc ny chng ta s trnh by khi nim quan h m. Quan h
m ng vai tr quan trng trong logic m v lp lun xp x. Khi nim
quan h m l s tng qut ho trc tip ca cc khi nim quan h (quan h
r). Trc ht chng ta nhc li khi nim quan h.
Gi s U v V l hai tp. Mt quan h R t U n V (s c gi l
quan h hai ngi, hoc quan h nh nguyn) l mt tp con ca tch cc U
x V. trong trng hp V = U, Ta ni R l quan h trn U. Chng hn, tp R
bao gm tt c cc cp ngi (a, b), trong a l chng ca b , xc nh
quan h v - chng trn mt tp ngi no .
Tng qut, chng ta xc nh mt quan h n ngi R trn cc tp U
1,
U
2
, , U
n
l mt tp con ca tch cc U
1
U
2
U
n
.
Khi U v V l cc tp hu hn, chng ta s biu din quan h R t U
n V bi ma trn, trong cc dng c nh du bi cc phn t x U
v cc ct c nh du bi cc phn t y V. Phn t ca ma trn nm
dng x , ct y l
R
(x,y).
B
(x,y) =
R y) (x,
R y) (x,
if
if
0
1
'
V d 1. Gi s U = {1, 2, 3} v V = {a, b, c, d}. Gi s R l quan h

t U n V nh sau:
R = {(1,a), (1,d), (2,a), (2,b), (3,c), (3,d)}
Chng ta c th biu din quan h R bi ma trn sau
3
2
1
1 1 0 0
0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
R
1
1
1
]
1
d c b a
By gi chng ta xt quan h anh em h gn trn mt tp ngi U
no . Quan h ny khng th c trng bi mt tp con r ca tch U U.
Mt ch hp l nht l xc nh quan h ny bi mt tp m R trn U U.
Chng hn,
R
(a,b) = 1 nu a l anh em rut ca b;
R
(a,b) = 0,9 nu a l anh
em con ch con bc ca b;
R
(a,b) = 0,75 nu a l anh em chu c chu cu
ca b;
Mt quan h m t U n V l mt tp m trn tch cc U V .
Tng qut, mt quan h m gia cc tp U
1
,

U
2
, , U
n
l mt tp m
trn tch cc U
1
U
2
U
n

Tng t nh trong trng hp quan h r, khi c U v V l cc tp
hu hn, chng ta s biu din quan h m R bi ma trn, trong phn t
nm dng x U ct y V l mc thuc ca (x,y) vo tp m R, tc l
R
(x,y).
V d 2. Chng ta gi s U = {1, 2, 3}, V = {a, b, c} v R l quan h
t m U n V nh sau:
R =
) c , 3 (
42 , 0
) b , 3 (
0
) a 3, (
9 , 0
) c 2, (
8 , 0
) b 2, (
75 , 0
) a , 2 (
3 , 0
) c , 1 (
0
) b , 1 (
1
) a 1, (
5 , 0
+ + + + + + + +
Quan h m trn c biu din bi ma trn:
3
2
1
42 , 0 0 9 , 0
8 , 0 75 , 0 3 , 0
0 1 5 , 0
R
1
1
1
]
1
c b a
11.3.2. Hp thnh ca cc quan h m
Nhc li rng, hp thnh ca quan h R t U n V vi quan h S t
V ti W l quan h R S t U n W bao gm tt c cc cp (u, w) U W
sao cho c t nht mt v V m (u, v) R v (v, w) S. T nh ngha
ny, chng ta suy ra rng, nu xc nh R, S v R S bi cc hm c trng
R
,
S
v
RS
tng ng th hm c trng
RS
c xc nh bi cng thc:
RS
(u, w) =
V v
max
min[
R
(u, v),
S
(v, w)] (1)
hoc
RS
(u, w) =
V v
max
[
R
(u, v) .
S
(v, w)] (2)
V d 3. Gi s U = {u
1
, u
2
}, V = {v
1
, v
2
, v
3
}, W = {w
1
, w
2
, w
3
}v
2
1
u
u
0 0 1
1 1 0
R
1
]
1
3
2
1
v
v
v
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 0 0
S
1
1
1
]
1

3 2 1
v v v

3 2 1
w w w
Khi ta c:
2
1
u
u
1 0 0
0 1 1
S R
1
]
1

3 2 1
w w w
By gi, gi s rng R l quan h m t U n V v S l quan h m
t V n W. Tng qut ho cc biu thc (1) v (2) cho cc quan h m,
chng ta c nh ngha sau:
Hp thnh ca cc quan h m R v quan h m S l quan h m RS
t U n W vi hm thuc c xc nh nh sau:
RS
(u, w) =
V v
max
min[
R
(u, v),
S
(v, w)] (3)
hoc
RS
(u, w) =
V v
max
[
R
(u, v) .
S
(v, w)] (4)
Hp thnh c xc nh bi (3) gi l hp thnh max min. Hp
thnh c bi xc nh (4) c gi l hp thnh max tch. Ngoi hai
dng hp thnh trn, chng ta cn c th s dng mt ton t T norm bt
k xc nh hp thnh ca hai quan h m. C th l:

RS
(u, w) =
V v
max
T [
R
(u, v),
S
(v, w)] (5)
Trong , T l ton t T norm. Trong (5) khi thay i T bi mt ton t
T norm, chng ta li nhn c mt dng hp thnh. Trong cc ng dng,
tu tng trng hp m chng ta la chn ton t T norm trong (5). Tuy
nhin hp thnh max min v hp thnh max tch l hai hp thnh c
s dng rng ri nht trong cc ng dng.
V d 4. Gi s R v S l hai quan h m nh sau:
3
2
1
u
u
u
3 , 0 1 6 , 0 0
0 1 1 , 0 7 , 0
5 , 0 0 1 3 , 0
R
1
1
1
]
1
4
3
2
1
v
v
v
v
2 , 0 7 , 0 1
0 3 , 0 4 , 0
5 , 0 1 0
1 0 6 , 0
S
1
1
1
1
]
1

4 3 2 1
v v v v

3 2 1
w w w
Khi hp thnh max tch ca chng l quan h m
3
2
1
u
u
u
3 , 0 6 , 0 4 , 0
7 , 0 3 , 0 42 , 0
5 , 0 1 5 , 0
S R
1
1
1
]
1

3 2 1
w w w

Hp thnh max min ca R v S l quan h m
3
2
1
u
u
u
5 , 0 6 , 0 4 , 0
7 , 0 3 , 0 6 , 0
5 , 0 1 5 , 0
S R
1
1
1
]
1

3 2 1
w w w

11.3.3. Nguyn l m rng
Nguyn l m rng (c a ra bi Zadeh, 1978) l mt trong cc
cng c quan trng nht ca l thuyt tp m. nguyn l m rng cho php
ta xxc nh nh ca mt tp m qua mt hm.
Gi s f : X Y l mt hm t khng gian X vo khng gian Y v A
l tp m trn X . Vn t ra l chng ta mun xc nh nh ca tp m A
qua hm f . Nguyn l m rng (extention princile) ni rng, nh ca tp m
A qua hm f l tp m B trn Y (k hiu B = f(A)) vi hm thuc nh sau:

B
(y) =
(y)
1
x
max
f

A
(y)
V d 5. Gi s U = {0, 1, , 10} v f : U U l hm
f(x) =
5 x
5 x
if
if
x
x 2
>
'
Gi s A l tp m trn U:
A =
10
0
9
0
8
0
7
0
6
1 , 0
5
5 , 0
4
7 , 0
3
9 , 0
2
1
1
1
0
1
+ + + + + + + + + +
Khi ta c nh ca A l tp m sau:
B = f(A) =
10
5 , 0
9
0
8
7 , 0
7
0
6
9 , 0
5
0
4
1
3
0
2
1
1
0
0
1
+ + + + + + + + + +
11.4. LOGIC M
11.4.1. Bin ngn ng v mnh m
BIN NGN NG
Chng ta xt mt bin, chng hn bin nhit , bin ny c th
nhn cc gi tr s: 13
0
C, 25
0
C, 37
0
C, Song trong i sng hng ngy,
chng ta vn thng ni nhit cao, nhit trung bnh, nhit
thp. Chng ta c th xem bin nhit , ly cc t cao, trung bnh,
thp lm gi tr ca n. Khi mt bin nhn cc t trong ngn ng t nhin
lm cc gi tr th cc bin c gi l bin ngn ng (linguistic
variable).
Khi nim bin ngn ng c Zadeh a ra nm 1973. chng ta
c th a ra nh ngha hnh thc v bin ngn ng nh sau:
Mt bin ngn ng c xc nh bi b bn (x, T, U, M), trong
x l tn bin. Chng hn x c th l nhit , tc , m,
p sut,
T l mt tp no cc t (cc gi tr ngn ng) m bin x c th
nhn. Chng han, nu x l tc , th T c th l T = {chm,
trung bnh, nhanh}.
U l min cc gi tr vt l m x , vi t cch l bin s, c th
nhn. Chng hn, nu x l tc ca mt xe my v tc ti
a l 120 (km\h) th U = [0..120].
M l lut ng ngha, ng vi mi t t T vi mt tp m A
t
trn
v tr U.
V d 1. x l tc , T = {chm, trung bnh, nhanh} v cc t
chm, trung bnh, nhanh c xc nh bi cc tp m trong hnh
11.9.
chm trung bnh nhanh
1
30 50 70 120
Hnh 11.9. Cc tp m biu din cc gi tr ngn ng
chm, nhanh, trung bnh.
T nh ngha trn, chng ta c th ni rng bin ngn ng l bin c
th nhn gi tr cc tp m trn mt min no .
MNH M
Trong logic c in (logic v t cp mt), mt mnh phn t p(x) l
mt pht biu c dng:
x l P (1)
trong x l k hiu mt i tng nm trong mt tp cc i tng U no
(hay ni cch khc,x l mt bin nhn gi tr trn min U), cn P l mt
tnh cht no ca cc i tng trong U. Chng hn, cc mnh
n l s nguyn t
x l ngi n
Trong cc mnh (1) ca logic c in, tnh cht P cho php ta xc
nh mt tp con r A ca U sao cho x A v nu ch x tho mn tnh cht
P. Chng hn, tnh cht l s nguyn t xc nh mt tp con r ca tp tt
c cc s nguyn t, l tp tt c cc s nguyn t.
Nu chng ta k hiu Truth(P(x)) l gi tr chn l ca mnh r (1)
th
Truth(P(x)) =
A
(x) (2)
Trong ,
A
(x) l hm c trng ca tp r A, tp r A c xc nh
bi tnh cht P.
Mt mnh m phn t cng c dng cng c dng tng t nh
(1), ch c iu y P khng phi l mt tnh cht chnh xc, m l mt
tnh cht khng r rng, m. Chng hn, cc mnh tc l nhanh, p
sut l cao, nhit l thp, l cc mnh m. Chng ta c nh
ngha sau:
Mt mnh m phn t c dng
x l t (3)
trong , x l bin ngn ng, cn t l gi tr ngn ng ca x.
Theo nh ngha bin ngn ng, t t trong (3) c xc nh bi mt
tp m A trn v tr U. Do chng ta cn c th nh ngha: mnh m
phn t l pht biu c dng
x l A (4)
trong , x l bin ngn ng, cn A l mt tp m trn min U cc gi tr vt
l ca x.
Logic c in l logic hai tr, mt mnh ch c th l ng (gi tr
chn l l 1) hoc sai (gi tr chn l l 0). Logic m l m rng ca logic c
in. Trong logic m, gi tr chn l ca mt mnh m l mt s nm
trong [0,1].
Chng ta k hiu P(x) l mnh m (3), hoc (4). Gi tr chn l
Truth(P(x)) ca n c xc nh nh sau:
Truth(P(x)) =
A
(x) (5)
iu c ngha l gi tr chn l ca mnh m P(x) = x l A l
mc thuc ca x vo tp m A.
V d 2. Gi s P(x) l mnh m tui l tr. Gi s tp m
A = tui tr c cho trong hnh 11.10. v
A
(45) = 0,73. Khi mnh
m tui 45 l tr c gi tr chn l l 0,73.
1
0,73
0 30 45 70 tui
Hnh 11.10. Tp m tui tr.
11.4.2. Cc mnh m hp thnh
Cng nh trong logic c in, t cc mnh phn t, bng cch s
dng cc kt ni logic: (and), (or), 1 (not) chng ta s to ra cc mnh
m hp thnh.
Gi s mnh r P(x) c minh ho nh tp con r A trong v tr
U, (cn lu rng, iu c ngha l Truth(P(x)) = 1 x A), v mnh
r Q(y) c minh ho nh tp con r B trong V. T bng chn l ca
cc php ton 1, , trong logic c in chng ta suy ra:
Mnh 1P(x) c minh ho nh tp rA.
Mnh P(x) Q(y) c minh ho nh quan h r A B trn
U V (xem hnh 11.11.a).
Mnh P(x) Q(y) c minh ho nh quan h r (A V) (U
B) (xem hnh 11.11.b).
V V
B B
A U A U
a) b)
Hnh 11.11.
a) Quan h r minh ho mnh P(x) Q(y)
b) Quan h r minh ho mnh P(x) Q(y)
Chuyn sang logic m, gi s rng P(x) l mnh m c minh
ho nh tp m A trn U v Q(y) l mnh m c minh ho nh tp m
B trn V. Tng qut ho t cc mnh r, chng ta xc nh nh sau:
Mnh m 1P(x) (not P(x)) c minh ho nh ph nh mA
ca tp m A:
A
(x) = C(
A
(x)) (6)
Trong C l hm phn b c nh ngha trong 11.2.2. Khi C
l hm phn b chun, ta c:
A
(x) = 1
A
(x)
Mnh m P(x) Q(y) (P(x) and Q(y)) c minh ho nh quan
h m A B, trong A B c xc nh l tch -cc m ca
A v B. T nh ngha tch -cc m, ta c:
A B
(x, y) = T(
A
(x),
B
(y)) (8)
trong , T l mt T norm no . Vi T l php ly min, ta c:
A B
(x, y) = min(
A
(x),
B
(y)) (9)
Mnh m P(x) Q(y) (P(x) or Q(y)) c minh ho nh quan
h m A B , trong A B c xc nh l:
A B = (A V) (U B)
T nh ngha tch -cc m v hp m, ta c:
A B
(x, y) = S(
A
(x),
B
(y)) (10)
Trong , S l php ton S norm no . Khi S l php ly max,
ta c:
A B
(x, y) = max(
A
(x),
B
(y)) (11)
11.4.3. Ko theo m - Lut if-then m
Trc ht, chng ta xt php ko theo trong logic c in. Gi P(x) v
Q(y) l cc mnh r c minh ho nh cc tpp r A v B trn U v V
tng ng. T bng chn l ca php ko theo trong logic c in, chng ta
suy ra rng, mnh P(x) Q(y) c minh ho nh quan h r R trn U x
V (xem hnh 11.12):
R = (A V) (U B) (12)
hoc R = ( A V) (A B) (13)
V
B
A U
Hnh 11.12. Quan h r minh ho mnh P(x)) Q(y) .
Trong logic m, mt ko theo m c dng :
< Mnh m> <mnh m> (14)
Hay mt cch vit khc:
If <mnh m> then <mnh m> (15)
Dng ny c gi l lut if - then m. Chng hn cc pht biu:
If nhit cao then p sut ln
If tc nhanh then ma st ln
l cc lut if then m. Mt vn t ra l, chng ta cn phi hiu ng
ngha ca (14) nh th no? Chng ta xt ko theo m sau y
P(x) Q(y) (16)
Trong P(x) l mnh m c minh ho nh tp m A trn U v
Q(y) l mnh m c minh ha nh tp m B trn V.
Tng qut ho t (12) v (13), chng ta c th hiu ko theo m (16)
nh mt quan h m R trn U V c xc nh bi (12) hoc (13) nhng
trong cc php ton l cc php ton trn tp m.
T (12) v (13) v nh ngha ca cc php ton ly phn b m, tch
v cc tp m, chng ta c:

R
(x,y) = S (C(
A
(x)),
B
(y)) (17)
hoc
R
(x,y) = S(C(
A
(x)), T(
A
(x),
B
(y))) (18)
trong , C l hm phn b, S l ton t S norrm, T l ton t T
norm.
Nh vy, ko theo m (16) c minh ho nh m Rvi hm thuc
c xc nh bi (17) hoc (18). Trong (17) v (18) ng vi mi cch la
chn cc hm C, S, T chng ta nhn c mt quan h m R minh ho cho
ko theo m (16). Nh vy ko theo m (16) c th c minh ho bi rt
nhiu quan h m khc nhau. Cu hi mi sut hin l da vo tiu chun
no la chn quan h m R cho ko theo m (16)? Chng ta s tr li cu
hi ny mc 11.5. Con by gi chng ta s a ra mt s ko theo m
quan trng.
Ko theo Dienes Rescher
Trong (17), nu thay S bi php ton ly max v C bi phn hm b
chun, chng ta s nhn c quan h m R vi hm thuc

R
(x,y) = max(1 -
A
(x),
B
(y)) (19)
Ko theo Lukasiewicz
Nu chng ta s dng php hp Yager vi w = 1 cho thay S v C l
phn b chun th t (17) chng ta nhn c quan h M R vi hm thuc:

R
(x,y) = min(1, 1 -
A
(x) +
B
(y)) (20)
Ko theo Zadeh
Trong (18), nu s dng s l max, T l min v C l hm phn b
chun, chng ta nhn c quan h m R vi hm thuc:

R
(x,y) = max(1 -
A
(x), min (
A
(x),
B
(x))) (21)
Trn y chng ta hiu ko theo m P(x) Q(y) nh quan h m
R c xc nh bi (17) hoc (18). Cch hiu nh th l s tng qut ho
trc tip ng ngha ca ko theo c in. Tuy nhin, chng ta cng c th
hiu: ko theo m P(x) Q(y) ch c gi tr chn l ln khi c P(x) v Q(y)
u c gi tr chn l ln, tc l chng ta c th minh ho ko theo m (16)
nh quan h m R c xcnh l tch cc m ca A v B.
R = A x B (22)
T (22) chng ta xc nh c hm thuc ca quan h m R:

R
(x,y) = T (
A
(x),
B
(y) (23)
vi T l ton t T norm.
Ko theo Mamdani
Trong (23) nu s dng T l php ton ly min hoc tch i s, chng
ta c:

R
(x,y) = min (
A
(x),
B
(y)) (24)
hoc
R
(x,y) = (
A
(x),
B
(y) (25)
Ko theo m (16) c hiu nh quan h m R vi hm thuc c
xc nh bi (24) v (25) c gi l ko theo mamdani. Ko theo mamdani
c s dng rng ri nht trong cc quan h m.
Ko theo m c xc nh bi (23), chng hn, ko theo Mamdani,
l ko theo c tnh a phng. Cn cc ko theo m c xc nh bi (17)
hoc (18) , chng hn cc ko theo Rienes Rescher, Lukasiewiez, zadeh, l
cc ko theo c tnh ton cc. Phn ln cc lut if then m c tnh a
phng. iu ny l gii cho cu hi: ti sao ko theo mamdani c s
dng rng ri trong cc ng dng.
V d 3. Xt lut if then m sau:
if x l A then y l B
trong , A v B l cc tp m sau:
A =
3
1 , 0
2
7 , 0
1
1
+ +
B =
d
1
c
1
b
3 , 0
a
0
+ + +
p dng cc cng thc (19), (20), (21) v (22) chng ta xc nh c
cc quan h m sau y:
Quan h Dienes Rescher
3
2
1
1 1 9 , 0 9 , 0
1 1 3 , 0 3 , 0
1 1 3 , 0 0
R
1
1
1
]
1
d c b a
Quan h Lukasiewicz
3
2
1
1 1 1 9 , 0
1 1 6 , 0 3 , 0
1 1 3 , 0 0
R
1
1
1
]
1
d c b a
Quan h Zadeh
3
2
1
9 , 0 9 , 0 9 , 0 9 , 0
7 , 0 7 , 0 3 , 0 3 , 0
1 1 3 , 0 0
R
1
1
1
]
1
d c b a
Quan h Mamdami
3
2
1
1 , 0 1 , 0 1 , 0 0
7 , 0 7 , 0 3 , 0 0
1 1 3 , 0 0
R
1
1
1
]
1
d c b a
11.4.4. Lut Modus Ponens tng qut
Trong logic c in, lut Modus Pones pht biu rng, t hai mnh
if P(x) then Q(y) v P(x), chng ta c th suy ra mnh mi Q(y). Lut
Modus Pones l mt trong cac lut suy din c s dng rng ri nht
trong cc lp lun. chng ta c th tng qut ho lut ny cho logic m.
Lut Modus Ponens tng qut trong logic m pht biu rng, t hai
mnh if x l A then y l B v x l A , chng ta c th suy ra mnh
m mi y l B sao cho nu A cng gn vi A th B cng gn vi B,
trong A v A l cc tp m trn U, cn B v B l cc tp m trn V.
Chng ta vit lut Modus Ponens tng qut di dng:
Gi thit 1 : if x l A then y l B
Gi thit 2 : x l A (26)
Kt lun : y l B
Cn lu rng, khc vi lut Modus pones c in, trong lut
Modus Ponens tng qut gi thit 1 l lut if then m vi iu kin l
mnh x l A, trong khi gi thit 2 l mnh x l A (d liu thu
c t quan st),mnh ny khng i hi chnh xc phi trng vi vi
iu kin ca lut if then.
Vn t ra l, lm th no nh gi c tp m B trong kt
lun c suy ra y l B ?
Nh chng ta bit (xem mc 14.4.3), lut if then m if x l A
then y l B c minh ho nh quan h m R trn khng gian tch U x V.
T tp m A chng ta xy dng m rng hnh tr ca n A x V trn U x V.
Gi giao ca Ax V vi quan h R l R. chiu quan h m R ln U, chng
ta nhn c tp m B (xem hnh 11.13).
V
B R R
A U
Hnh 11.13. Phng php xc nh tp m B
V R = R (A x V), chng ta c :

R
(x,y) = T (
R
(x,y),
A
(x))
Mt khc, v B l hnh chiu ca R trn U, do :
B
(y) =
) y x, ( sup
R'
U x

T hai h thc trn, chng ta nhn c:
B
(y) =
) x) ( , ) y x, ( T( sup
A' R'
U x

(27)
trong , T l php T norm.
Trong lut Modus Ponens tng qut
Nh vy, trong lut Modus Ponens tng qut (26), t cc gi thit
ca lut chng ta suy ra kt lun y l B, trong B l tp m c xc
nh bi (27). Trong (27), vi T l php ly min, chng ta c:

B
(y) =
(x)) y), (x, min( sup
A' R
U x

(28)
Ch rng, trong (27) R l quan h c sinh ra bi lut if then m
if x l A then y l B. Chng ta c th s dng R l mt trong cc quan
h m (19), (20),(21), (23) hoc bt k quan h m no khc c xc nh
bi (17) hoc (18).
V d 4. Xt lut if-then m trong v d 3. Gi s chng ta c x l A
vi A l tp m sau:
A =
3
3 , 0
2
1
1
5 , 0
+ +
Khi chng ta suy ra y l B vi B l tp m c xc nh nh
sau. Chng ta nh gi Btheo cng thc (28). Nu R l quan h lukasiwiez
th:
B =
d
1
c
1
b
6 , 0
a
3 , 0
+ + +
Nu R l quan h Zadeh th:
B =
d
7 , 0
c
7 , 0
b
6 , 0
a
3 , 0
+ + +
Nu s dng R l quan h Mamdani th:
B =
d
7 , 0
c
7 , 0
b
3 , 0
a
0
+ + +
V d 5. Gi s quan h gia nhit v p sut trong mt thit b
c biu din bi lut sau:
If nhit l cao then p sut l ln.
Gi s nhit (tnh bng C) nhn gi tr trong min U = [30,35,
40, 45] v p sut (tnh bng atmotphe) nhn gi tr trong min V = [50, 55,
60, 65]. Gi s
A = nhit cao =
45
1
40
9 , 0
35
3 , 0
30
0
+ + +
B = p sut ln =
65
1
60
1
55
5 , 0
50
0
+ + +
Xem lut if then nh ko theo Mamdani (25) chng ta nhn c
quan h m sau:
45
40
35
30
1 1 5 , 0 0
9 , 0 9 , 0 45 , 0 0
3 , 0 3 , 0 15 , 0 0
0 0 0 0
R
1
1
1
1
]
1
65 60 55 50
By gi, gi s chng ta bit nhit l trung bnh v
A = nhit trung bnh =
45
1 , 0
40
8 , 0
35
1
30
6 , 0
+ + +
p dng cng thc (28) chng ta suy ra B nh sau:
B =
65
8 , 0
60
8 , 0
55
45 , 0
50
0
+ + +
11.5. H M
Trong mc ny chng ta s trnh by cc nguyn l tng qut thit
k mt h m. H m l h da trn tri thc, tri thc trong h m c biu
din di dng cc lut if then m. h m c p dng thnh cng
trong rt nhiu lnh vc: iu khin t ng, s l tin hiu, truyn thng cc
h chuyn gia trong y hc, cc hot ng qun l kinh doanh,Tuy nhin,
nhng p dng thnh cng nht ca h m vn l cc p dng trong vn
iu khin: h iu khin m (fuzzy control systems)
11.5.1.Kin trc ca h m
Thnh phn trung tm ca h m l c s lut m (fuzzy rule base).
C s lut m bao gm cc lut if then m m t tri thc ca cc chuyn
gia v mt lnh vc p dng no .
Thnh phn th hai trong h m l b suy din m (fuzzy infernce
engine), nhim v ca n l kt hp cc lut if then m trong c s lut
m to thnh mt php bin i : chuyn mi tp m u vo trn khng
gian U thnh mt tp m u ra trn khng gian V.
Tuy nhin, trong thc t d liu m h thu nhn c t mi trng l
cc gi tr s v gi tr m h cho ra cng cn phi l gi tr s ch khng th
l cc tp m. V vy cn phi c cc giao din h tng tc vi mi
trng, mt giao din bin i cc gi tr s thnh mt tp m trn U. Giao
din ny c gi l m ho (fuzzifier). Mt giao din khc bin i mt
tp m trn V thnh mt gi tr s. Giao din ny c gi l kh m
(defuzzifier). Nh vy, chng ta c kin trc c bn ca mt h m nh
trong hnh 11.14.
C s
lut m
Gi tr s M Kh Gi tr s
x trong U ho m y trn V
B suy
Tp m trn U din m Tp m trn V

Hnh 11.14. Kin trc c bn ca h m.
Khi u vo x ca h m trong hnh 11. 14 l mt vect trong khng
gian tch U = U
1
x U
2
x x U
n
, tc l x = (x
1
, x
2
,,x
n
) vi x
i
U
i
R(I = 1,
,n), chng ta c h m nhiu u vo - mt u ra, xem hnh 11.15
Mt h m nhiu u vo - nhiu u ra, chng hn 3 u ra c th
phn tch thnh 3 h u vo - mt u ra. V vy sau ny chng ta ch xt
cc h nhiu u vo - mt u ra 9gi tt l h nhiu - mt).
x
1
trong U
1
H m
x
2
trong U
2
y trong V
nhiu mt
x
3
trong U
3
Hnh 11.15. H m n u vo - mt u ra.
Sau y chng ta s nghin cu k hn tng thnh phn ca h m
nhiu - mt.
11.5.2 C s lut m
C s lut m ca h m n u vo - mt u ra bao gm m lut if-
then m, lut m th k c dng;
If x
1
l A
k
1

v x
2
l A
k
2
v v x
n
l A
k
n
then y l B
k
.
(k = 1 , 2,m) (1)
Trong , x
i
l cc bin u vo. A
k
i
l tp m trn U
1
R (i = 1, 2,
, n); y l bin u ra v B
k
l tp m trn V R .
Cc lut m dng (1) c gi l cc lut if then m chun tc.
Cn lu rng, lut if then m khng chun tc c th c bin i
a v dng if then m chun tc.
Mt vn quan trng c t ra l, khi xy dng mt h m trong
mt lnh vc p dng, chng ta lm th no p dng c cc lut
if then m a vo c s lut m?
Cc lut if then m c xy dng nn t tri thc ca cc chuyn
gia trong lnh vc p dng, hoc c tm ra t mt tp cc cp d liu
(x,y), trong x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
n
) l cc gi tr u vo v y l gi tr u ra
tng ng vi x. T quan st, phng vn, hoc thc nghim chng ta thu
c tp cc cp d liu (x,y) ny. C rt nhiu phng php thit k c s
lut m t tp cc cp d liu vo ra (x,y). Bn c c th tham kho cc
phng php ny trong cc ti liu v h m, chng hn trong [24].
11.5.3. B suy din m
Chng ta s nghin cu phng php thit k b suy din m trong
trng hp c s lut m gm m lut if then m chun tc dng (1).
Nh chng ta ni, b suy din m thc hin nhim v kt hp cc
lut if then m trong c s lut m to thnh mt php bin i: chuyn
mt tp m A trn U thnh mt tp m B trn V. tp m B ph thuc vo
cch chng ta quan nim v cc lut trong c s lut . c hai cch nhn:
Cch nhn th nht: Ngi ta xem cc lut if then m trong c s
lut l cc lut c lp. iu ny c ngha l, vi mi lut khi iu
kin ca lut c tho mn th lut s cho ra h qu.
Cch nhn th hai: i lp vi cch nhn trn, chng ta xem rng,
ch khi no tt c cc iu kn ca cc lut trong c s lut c
tho mn th h lut mi cho ra h qu.
1. Phng php suy din kt hp
T tng ca phng php ny l: chng ta kt hp m lut trong c
s lut thnh mt lut if then m, sau chng ta p dng lut suy din
Modus Ponens tng qut.
Chng ta xem mi lut (1) nh lut
If x l A
k
then y l B
k
(2)
Trong , x = (x
1
, x
2
, ,x
n
) v A
k
l tp m trn khng gian tch U = U
1

U
2
U
n
, A
k
l tch cc m ca A
k
1
, A
k
2
, , A
k
n
.
A
k
= A
k
1
A
k
2
A
k
n
Do , chng ta c:
A
(x) =
A
1
k
(x
1
)
A
2
k
(x
2
)
A
n
k
(x
n
) (3)
trong , l mt php ton T norm.
Mi lut m (2) c minh ho nh quan h m R
k
. R
k
c xc nh
t A
k
v B
k
theo cc phng php trnh by trong mc 11.4. Chng hn,
chng ta c th s dng cc cng thc (19), (20), (21) hoc (24) trong mc
11.4.
Sau m lut dng (2) c kt hp thnh lut:
If x l A then y l B
Lut ny c minh ho nh quan h R, vi R c xc nh nh
sau:
Vi cch nhn th nht
R =
m
1 k
R
k
(4)
R
(x,y) =
R1
(x,y) + +
Rm
(x,y)
trong , + l php ton S norm.
Vi cch nhn th hai
R =
m
1 k
R
k
(5)
R
(x,y) =
R1
(x,y)
Rm
(x,y)
Trong , l php ton T norm.
Nh vy, ton b c s lut m c lp thnh mt lut if then m
c minh ha bi quan h R vi hm thuc c xc nh bi (4) hoc (5).
By gi, nu chng ta a vo tp m A trn U th p dng lut suy
din Modus Ponens tng qut chng ta suy ra tp m B trn V vi hm
thuc
B
(y) =
U x
sup
[
R
(x,y)
A
(x,y)] (6)
2. Phng php suy din c th
Trong phng php ny, mi lut dng (1) c xem nh lut dng
(2) trong A
k
c xc nh bi (3).
By gi chng ta p dng lut suy din Modus Ponens tng qut cho
mi dng lut (2), Khi a vo tp m A trn U, chng ta tnh tp m B
k
trn V.
B
k
(y) =
U x
sup
[
R
k
(x,y)
A
(x,y)] (7)
Sau chng ta kt hp cc tp m B
1
,,B
m
nhn c tp m
u ra B. Tu theo cch nhn cc lut trong c s lut m chng ta ly B l
hp m hoc giao m ca cc tp B
1
,,B
m
. Tc l

B
(y) =
B1
(y) + +
Bm
(y) (7)
hoc

B
(y) =
B1
(y)
Bm
(y) (8)
Nhn xt:
Chng ta c rt nhiu cch la chn tnh c tp m u ra B
tng ng vi tpp m u vo A:
Chn phng php suy din kt hp hay c th ?
Chn cc quan h R
k
l quan h no? Chng ta c th chn R
k
l
mt quan h ko theo Zadeh, lukasieview hoc mamdani
Trong cc cng thc (3), (4), (5), (8) v (9) chng ta cng c rt
nhiu cch la chn cc php ton S norm v T norm.
Cu hi c t ra l, da vo tiu chun no la chn? Tiu
chun chung l: s la chn sao cho b suy din cho ra kt qu ph hp vi
nhng mong mun m cc chuyn gia k vng vo h v m bo hiu qu
tnh ton, tc l vi tp m u vo A, b suy din tnh nhanh c tp m
u ra B.
11.5.4. M ho
M ho (fuzzifier) l qu trnh bin i vect x = (x
1
, x
2
,,x
n
) cc gi
tr s, x U R
n
, thnh mt tp m A trn U.(A s l tp m u vo cho
b suy din m). M ho phi tho mn cc tiu chun sau :
im d liu x phi c mc thuc cao vo cc tp m A.
Vect x = (x
1
,,x
n
) thu c t mi trng bng quan st c th
sai lch do nhiu. tp m A phi biu din c tnh gn ng ca
d liu x.
Hiu qu tnh ton n gin cho cc tnh tntng b suy din.
Sau y chng ta a ra mt s phng php m ho c s dng
rng ri.
1. M ho n th
Mi im d liu x c xem nh mt n th m tc l tp m A
c hm thuc
A
(u) =
x u and U u
x u
if
if
0
1

'
(10)
2. M ho Gauss
Mi gi tr s x
1
(i = 1,n) trong vect x = (x
1
, , x
n
) c biu din
thnh mt s m A
i
A
i
(u
i
) =
,
_
i
i i
a
x - u
-
e
(11)
trong , u
i
U
i
v a
i
l tham s dng. S m A
i
c cho trong hnh
11.16a. tp m A c xc nh l tch -cc ca cc tp m A
i
(k = 1,
,n)
A = A
1
A
n
3. M ho tam gic
Mi gi tr s x
1
(I =1,,n) c bin i thnh mt s m hnh tam
gic A
i
.
A
i
(u
i
) =
i i i
i i i
i
i i
b | x - u |
b | x - u |
if
if
0
b
| x - u |
- 1
>
'
(12)
trong , u
1
U
1
v b
1
l tham s dng. S A
1
c cho trong hnh 11.16b.
sau chng ta cng ly Al tch cc m ca cc tp m a
1
(I = 1,,n).
trong tch cc m, chng ta c th s dng T norm l php ly min hoc
tch i s.
11.5.5. Kh m
Kh m (defuzzifier) l qu trnh xc nh mt im y V t mt tp
m B trn V. (Tp m B l u ra ca b suy din m ng vi tp m u
vo A) Kh m phi tho mn cc tnh cht sau:
im y l i din tt nht cho tp m B. Trc quan, iu ny
c ngha l y phi l im c mc thuc cao nht vo tp m B
v y nm trung tm ca tp gi ca tp m B.
Hiu qu tnh ton. Tnh cht ny l rt quan trng i vi cc h
iu khin m, v hnh ng c a ra bi h iu khin cn
p ng kp thi cc thay i ca mi trng.
Tnh lin tc. Khi tp m B thay i t th y cng thay i t.
Sau y l mt s phng php kh m quan trng.
1. Kh m ly max
T tng ca phng php ny l, chng ta chn y l im c mc
thuc cao nht vo tp m B.
Chng ta xc nh tp r H
H =
'
(v) sup (y) | V y

' B
V v
' B

Sau chng ta c th ly y l :
Mt dim bt k trong H
im nh nht hoc ln nht trong H
Trung im ca H
2. Kh m ly trng tm
Trong phng php ny, chng ta ly y l trng tm ca tp m B,
tc l
y =
V
' B
V
' B
(v)dv
(v)dv v
(13)
trong ,
l tch phn thng thng.

11.5.6. H m l h tnh xp x vn nng
Nh chng ta ni, cc h m c ng dng thnh cng trong
rt nhiu lnh vc, c bit trong iu khin cc qu trnh cng nghip. Mt
vn t ra l, ti sao h m li c phm vi ng dng rng ln v hiu qu
nh th? mt cch trc quan, chng ta c th gii thch rng, l v cc h
m c th s dng tri thc ca cc chuyn gia c pht biu trong ngn
ng t nhin. th hai l v, cc s liu thu nhn c t mi trng bng
quan st mang tnh xp x, khng chnh xc; m cc h m cho php biu
din v s l mt cch hp l cc d liu .
By gi chng ta tr li cho vn t ra bng mt kt qu l thuyt
quan trng.
Chng ta xt kh nng ca h m di quan im xp x hm. mt h
m n u vo - mt u ra (hnh 11.15) xc nh cho chng ta mt hm thc
ca n bin y = F(x), ng vi mi vect u vo x = (x
1
, , x
n
) R
n
vi gi
tr u ra y R.
Kt qu quan trng sau y c chng minh.
Gi s f l hm, f : U V, U R
n
, V R. Nu f l hm lin tc trn
tp compact U ca khng gian R
n
th s tn ti mt h m sao cho hm F
c xc nh bi n l xp x ca hm f vi chnh xc tu , tc l
U x
sup
|F(x) f(x)| <

trong , l s dng nh tu cho trc.
Kt qu trn c chng minh da trn nh l Stone Weierstrass
ni ting trong gii tch. Bn c c th tham kho cch chng minh kt qu
trn trong [15] hoc trong [24].
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Wesley, 1990.
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Phn II.

TRI THC V LP LUN 1

, l cng thc nhn c t cng thc G bng

Chng ta s gi hp thnh ca hai php th v l php th sao

l cc cng thc trong logic v t cp mt. Cng

c gi l tin iu kin ca mc nh,

l kt lun cu mc nh. M l mt k hiu c bit. M

ph hp vi cc tri thc khc bit. Ni mt cch

l ng nu l cc tri thc bit khng th suy ra c 1

ph hp vi cc tri thc bit. Xt v d sau: chng ta bit

tnh c tng i ca mt i tng, chng hn Kiti, ta i t

|X) l h tr chn on cho X. Nh vy, tnh Pr(X|E) ta

|X). Khi cho X th cc E

|X) c gi l cc h tr chn on t con ca X

|X), theo cng

| Z). R rng nu X khng phi l bin bng chng th E

cng c lp vi nhau, khi cho trc X. Do :

| Z), v c quy v vic tnh cc h

l tp cc bng chng c ni vi X qua con Y

nhn t tp bng chng E bng

ging nh trng hp cho

u li , vi (0,1). S dng khi nim lt ct v tp

Nh vy, khi w th hp Yager tr thnh hp chun.

(a,b) = max(a,b) + (1 ) min(a,b)

V d 1. Gi s U = {1, 2, 3} v V = {a, b, c, d}. Gi s R l quan h

T hai h thc trn, chng ta nhn c:

(v) sup (y) | V y

l tch phn thng thng.

|F(x) f(x)| <

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