XuLyAmThanhVaHinhAnh

HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG
SCH HNG DN HC TP
X L M THANH V HNH NH
(DNG CHO SINH VIN H O TO I HC T XA)
Bin son: TS Nguyn Thanh Bnh ThS V Nguyn Quc Bo
LU HNH NI B
TP H CH MINH - 2007
LI NI U
Ti liu hng dn hc tp mn "X l m thanh v hnh nh" dnh cho khi o to t xa chuyn ngnh in t vin thng. Ti liu ny gii thiu nhng kin thc c bn v x l m thanh v hnh nh. c bit, tc gi ch trng ti vn x l tn hiu ng dng trong mng vin thng: l cc phng php nn tn hiu, lu tr, cc tiu chun nn tn hiu m thanh v hnh nh. Nhng kin thc c trnh by trong ti liu s gip hc vin tip cn nhanh vi cc vn thc tin thng gp trong mng vin thng. V khi lng kin thc trong lnh vc x l m thanh cng nh hnh nh rt ln, trong ti liu hng dn ch c th nu ln mt s vn chnh. tm hiu su v rng hn hc vin phi nghin cu thm trong cc sch tham kho c tc gi cp ti trong phn cui ca ti liu ny. y l ln bin son u tin, chc chn ti liu cn nhiu s st, rt mong cc bn c trong qu trnh hc tp v cc thy c ging dy mn hc ny ng gp cc kin xy dng.
Tp. H Ch Minh 10/11/2007 Nhm bin son
Bin son phn x l m thanh: ThS V Nguyn Quc Bo Bin son phn x l hnh nh: TS Nguyn Thanh Bnh
Chng 1 Gii thiu chung v x l tn hiu
CHNG 1 GII THIU CHUNG V X L TN HIU

1.1 CC KHI NIM V L THUYT C BN
X l tn hiu l lnh vc khoa hc c nghin cu v pht trin trong mt thi gian di. H thng x l tn hiu tng t cng nh x l tn hiu s c ng dng rt rng ri trong ngnh vin thng cng nh trong nhiu ngnh khoa hc khc. Trong nhng nm gn y, cc phng php x l tn hiu s ang dn chim u th, cho d, v mt bn cht, tn hiu nguyn thy c truyn i v tn hiu m ngi nhn tin c th tip thu c vn l tn hiu tng t. Xu hng pht trin trn hnh thnh do h thng s c nhiu tnh nng ni tri ca so vi cc h thng analog c in: 1. Cc h thng x l s c linh hot cao: c th nhanh chng thay i c ch hot ng ca phn cng thng qua phn mm iu khin. 2. n nh cao, t chu nh hng ca mi trng xung quanh, tnh cht ca h thng s hu nh khng thay i theo thi gian. 3. Kh nng x l tn hiu vi chnh xc cao. Tn hiu s cho php lu tr v sao chp nhiu ln vi mc tin cy cao. Kh nng chng nhiu ca tn hiu s cao hn so vi tn hiu tng t. 4. Thi gian thit k v thi cng cc h thng s nhanh, kch thc nh gn, mc tiu hao nng lng thp v.v. Trc y, do tc x l ca my tnh cn chm, vic x l cc tn hiu "phc tp" nh tn hiu m thanh cht lng cao hay tn hiu nh s khng th thc hin c trong thi gian thc. Tuy nhin, trong nhng nm gn y, vi s pht trin mnh m ca cng ngh vi in t, nhc im nu trn c khc phc. V d in hnh l DSP x l nh v m thanh cao cp ca hng Texac Instrument TMS320DM6446 Digital Media System-on-Chip lm vic vi tn s xung nhp 594 Mhz, cho php thc hin nn video theo chun MPEG-2 v MPEG-4 thi gian thc (http://focus.ti.com/docs/prod/folders/print/tms320dm6446.html). Tc x l ca DSP ny l 4752 MIPS (Million Instructions Per Second - MIPS). DSP TMS320DM6446 c tch hp 4 knh bin i DAC (54MHz) to cc tn hiu video tiu chun theo h NTSC/PAL, S-Video cng nh video thnh phn (Component video). Gi thnh ca DSP x l video chuyn dng ni trn khong <45$. Hin nay, k thut x l tn hiu s ang c s dng rt hiu qu trong cc lnh vc x l m thanh (nhn dng ting ni, tng hp m thanh v ting ni v.v.), x l nh (nng cao cht lng nh, phn vng, nhn dng .v.v), o lng v iu khin, thin vn hc v.v. Ti liu hng dn hc tp mn x l m thanh v hnh nh ny thc cht c th c gi l ti liu hng dn "nhp mn" x l m thanh v hnh nh. Thng thng cc ti liu nghin cu v x l nh v m thanh c tch ring v: 1- y l hai lnh vc x l tn hiu rt rng, lin quan ti rt nhiu ngnh khoa hc khc nhau; 2- Qu trnh x l tn hiu m thanh v hnh nh phi c thc hin da trn nhng hiu bit su sc v h thng thnh gic v th gic ca con ngi. cc phn sau, ta s thy rng a s cc k thut x l tn hiu m thanh v hnh nh s da trn c im tip thu thng tin ca cc gic quan ni trn; 3- Tn hiu m thanh v hnh nh khc nhau v bn cht: tn hiu m thanh l tn hiu mt chiu cn tn hiu hnh nh (tnh hay ng) l tn hiu hai hoc ba chiu. Chnh v th, cng c ton hc m t v phn tch qu trnh x l hai loi tn hiu trn cng khc nhau. Tuy m thanh v hnh nh l hai tn hiu tng i khc nhau, nhng qu trnh x l chng 3
vn c m t da trn nn tng l thuyt x l tn hiu tng qut. Sau y chng ta nhc li mt s nhng khi nim c bn v tn hiu v h thng x l tn hiu.
1.1.1 Tn hiu v phn loi tn hiu

Tn hiu do mt thit b u cui to ra, tn hiu l biu din vt l (dng in, in p...) ca tin tc, c truyn i t u pht n u thu. Tn hiu c th c biu din bng mt hm
ca nhiu bin s: m(t ) = f (t , v, f , ) , f - tn s, t - thi gian, v - bin , - trng thi pha.
Khi phn loi tn hiu ta c th da trn cc c s khc nhau nh phn loi theo nng lng, hnh thi, theo tnh cht ca ph ca tn hiu v.v. Trong l thuyt tn hiu c hai lp tn hiu quan trng l tn hiu xc nh v ngu nhin. Tn hiu xc nh l tn hiu c qu trnh bin i biu din bng mt hm thi gian, v c th xc nh chnh xc mi thi im. Cc tn hiu xc nh c vai tr rt quan trng trong l thuyt tn hiu c in. Tn hiu xc nh cn chia ra thnh tn hiu tun hon (theo chu k T) v khng tun hon (phi chu k).Tn hiu tun hon l nhng tn hiu c th biu din bng cng thc nh sau: x (t ) = x (t + kT ) k nguyen - tn hiu ny tun theo quy lut lp li u vi chu k T. Tn hiu ngu nhin l cc tn hiu m khng th d kin trc hnh vi ca chng theo thi gian v biu din chng phi da trn l thuyt thng k. Trn thc t, cc tn hiu thng tin u mang tnh cht ngu nhin. Tn hiu c th c bin v bin thi gian (khng gian) l ri rc hay lin tc, do chng ta cn phn bit bn loi tn hiu sau: Tn hiu tng t (analog) Bin Bin thi gian lin tc lin tc Tn hiu lng t ri rc lin tc Tn hiu ri rc lin tc ri rc Tn hiu s (digital) ri rc ri rc
hiu ri rc l xs ( nTs ) , nTs l bin c lp, ri rc, n l s nguyn, Ts l chu k ly mu.
Nh vy, tn hiu tng t l tn hiu c bin v bin thi gian l lin tc. Nu tn hiu c biu din bng hm ca bin ri rc th tn hiu l tn hiu ri rc. K hiu chung ca tn Tn hiu c bin v thi gian u ri rc c gi l tn hiu s, k hiu l xd ( n ) . Ngoi ra, da trn tnh cht ca tin tc truyn i, ngi ta cn phn loi cc tn hiu sau:
- Tn hiu thoi (ting ni con ngi). - Tn hiu hnh nh tnh hay nh ng (tn hiu video) - Tn hiu d liu (data) dng trong h thng my tnh, b vi x l.
Mt s tn hiu khc, phn bit theo b rng ph v tn s (tn hiu di rng, di hp, cao tn v.v.) cng s c nh ngha v s dng trong nhng phn tip theo.
1.1.2 Tn hiu ri rc
Tn hiu x(t) c bin thi gian t ri rc c gi l tn hiu ri rc, chng ta c th k hiu l {xn} vi n l s nguyn (n = 0, 1, 2, ).
1.1.2.1 Biu din tn hiu ri rc

a- Biu din ton hc Xt hm x(n) vi n l phn t nguyn. K hiu tn hiu ri rc :
x(n)
x = { x( n )}
bieu thc toan x ( n) = 0
b- Biu din bng th
< n < +
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hnh 1.1.1 Tn hiu ri rc
N1 n N 2 n con lai
minh ho theo kiu nhn trc quan, ta c th v th (hnh 1.1.1) ca dy x(n). Biu din bng dy s ri rc nh sau :
c-
Chng ta khng dng chung (mt tng hay tch) m khai trin cc gi tr ca tn hiu
x (n ) = {..., n (n 1), x (n ), x (n + 1),...}

3 1 1 x (n ) = {..., 0, 1, , , , 0, ,...} 4 2 4
: ch mu ti n = 0.
1.1.2.2 Cc php bin i tn hiu ri rc

a- Php nhn hai tn hiu ri rc :
x. y = {x(n). y(n)}
b- Php nhn tn hiu ri rc vi hng s :
(1.1.1)
. y = {. y(n)}
c- Php cng hai tn hiu ri rc :
(1.1.2)
x + y = {x(n) + y(n)}
d- Php dch (tr) : Dy x c dch sang phi n0 mu, thnh dy y :
(1.1.3)
y (n) = x(n n 0 )
vi n0 > 0
(1.1.4)
Dy x c dch sang tri n0 mu, thnh dy y :
y(n ) = x (n + n 0 )
vi n0 > 0
(1.1.5)
Nh vy mt tn hiu x(n) bt k c th biu din :
x ( n) =
k =
x(k ) (n k )
(1.1.6)
e- Tn hiu ri rc tun hon vi chu k l N nu tho mn :
x(n) = x(n + N )
, n.
(1.1.7)
Tn hiu tun hon c th c k hiu vi ch s p (period) : xp(n). Tn hiu ch c xc nh trong mt khong hu hn N mu c gi l tn hiu c di hu hn N. f- Tn hiu nng lng v tn hiu cng sut: * Nng lng ca tn hiu c nh ngha bng tng bnh phng cc modul :
E xN =
n=
x( n )
(1.1.8)
* Cng sut trung bnh ca tn hiu ri rc c nh ngha nh sau:
PxN = lim
N 1 2 x( n ) N 2 N + 1 n= N
(1.1.9)
g- Tn hiu tun hon v tn hiu khng tun hon * Tn hiu l tun hon vi chu k N (N > 0) , nu v ch nu x(n + N) = x(n) Gi tr nh nht ca N c gi l chu k. x(n + kN) = x(n) ; k nguyn dng * Nu khng c gi tr N tha (1.1.10), th tn hiu gi l khng tun hon. h- Tn hiu chn v tn hiu l Tn hiu x(n) c gi l chn khi x(-n) = x(n) Ngc li, tnh hiu x(n) c gi l khi x(-n) = -x(n) i- Php gp tn hiu: Thay bin n bng (-n), kt qu ta c x ( n ) thay v x ( n ) . Php bin i ny thc hin bng cch ly i xng tn hiu x ( n ) qua gc thi gian. (1.1.12) (1.1.11) (1.1.10)
1.1.3 Phn loi h thng 1.1.3.1 H thng tng t Qu trnh bin i tn hiu c thc hin trong h thng x l tn hiu. Cc h thng x l tn hiu c phn loi da vo c trng ca tn hiu m n x l. T cch phn loi tn hiu trn y, ta c cc h thng x l tn hiu tng ng nh sau:
H thng tng t: cc mch lc tng t, mch khuych i, nhn tn s, iu ch tn hiu v.v. H thng ri rc: mch to xung, iu ch xung v.v H thng s: mch lc s.. 6
Ngoi ra cng cn cc h thng hn hp khc nh h thng bin i tng t- s hay ngc li. Tn hiu vo v tn hiu ra ca mt h thng quan h vi nhau thng qua ton t bin i T:
T x ( t ) = y (t )
hay
T x ( t ) y (t )
(1.1.13)
1.1.3.1.1 Cc tnh cht ca h thng tng t

a) Tnh tuyn tnh: H thng l tuyn tnh khi n c tnh xp chng:
x 1 ( t ) y1 ( t )
nu
x 2 (t ) y 2 (t ) a 1 x 1 ( t ) + a 2 x 2 ( t ) a 1 y1 ( t ) + a 2 y 2 ( t )
(1.1.14)
b) Tnh bt bin theo thi gian: H thng c gi l bt bin nu
y (t ) = T x ( t t0 ) x ( t ) th y ( t t0 ) = T
c) Tnh nhn qu
(1.1.15)
H thng c gi l nhn qu nu p ng ca n ti thi im bt k ch ph thuc vo cc gi tr ca tn hiu vo thi im hin ti v qu kh. d) Tnh n nh: Mt h thng c gi l n nh nu tn hiu ra gii hn vi tt c cc tn hiu vo gii hn. Da trn cc tnh cht nu ca h thng, chng ta c th phn loi cc h thng nh sau: h thng tuyn tnh, h thng bt bin, h thng nhn qu, h thng tuyn tnh bt bin.
1.1.3.1.2 Cc h thng tuyn tnh bt bin (LTI)

Cc h thng tuyn tnh bt bin thng c biu din trong min thi gian di cc dng sau: Phng trnh vi phn Phng trnh trng thi p ng xung.
p ng xung ca h thng h ( t ) l p ng ra ca h thng khi tn hiu a vo l xung n v. Nu h thng l tuyn tnh v bt bin th tn hiu ra ca h thng c th tm c thng qua tch chp gia tn hiu vo v hm p ng xung:
y (t ) = x (t ) h (t ) =
x ( ) h ( t ) d
(1.1.16)
Cc tnh cht ca h thng LTI Tnh nhn qu H thng LTI l nhn qu nu h ( t ) = 0 vi nu h ( t ) = 0 vi
v ngc li
t th h thng l nhn qu.

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Tnh n nh ca h thng LTI Cho tn hiu vo h thng c gii hn bin :
x ( t ) M x < , M x l hng s.
Trong trng hp ny, h thng s l n nh nu p ng xung ca n tha mn iu kin:
h ( t ) dt < . iu kin ny l cn v h thng LTI l n nh.

t 0.
1.1.3.1.3 Phng trnh sai phn tuyn tnh h s hng
H thng LTI khng nh: h thng tuyn tnh bt bin l khng nh nu h ( t ) = 0 vi
Cho x ( t ) v y ( t ) l tn hiu vo ra ca h thng tuyn tnh bt bin. Phng trnh sai phn tuyn tnh h s hng tng qut ca h thng c th biu din di dng:
N M
ak y( k ) ( t ) = br x( r ) ( t )
k =0 r =0
(1.1.17)
N, M l s nguyn dng, N l bc ca phng trnh. Nghim y ca phng trnh bng tng nghim ring yr ( t ) v nghim thun nht
y0 ( t ) : y ( t ) = yr ( t ) + y0 ( t ) .
Trong nghim thun nht y0 ( t ) l nghim ca phng trnh thun nht:
ak y( k ) ( t ) = 0 .
k =0
(1.1.18)
H thng ri rc c c trng bi ton t T lm nhim v bin i dy vo x ( n ) (l tn hiu ri rc) thnh dy ra y ( n ) . Ton t T cho chng ta thy quan h vo ra ca h thng. Chng ta c hai cch biu din ton t T:
1.1.3.2 H thng ri rc
T x ( t ) = y (t )
hay
T x ( t ) y (t )
(1.1.19)
Dy vo cn c gi l kch thch, cn dy ra l p ng ca h thng i vi kch thch ang kho st.
1.1.3.2.1 H thng ri rc tuyn tnh bt bin (LTI)

a. H thng tuyn tnh H thng tuyn tnh l h thng m quan h vo ra ca h thng tho mn nguyn l xp chng. Vi x1 ( n ) v x2 ( n ) l cc chui vo bt k, y1 ( n ) v y2 ( n ) l cc chui ra tng ng. H
T T x1 ( n ) y1 ( n ); x2 ( n ) y2 ( n ) T a1 x1 ( n ) + a2 x2 ( n) a1 y1 ( n ) + a2 y2 ( n )
thng c gi l tuyn tnh khi: (1.1.20)
trong a1, a2 l cc hng s.

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b. H thng tuyn tnh bt bin Nu y ( n ) l p ng ca kch thch x ( n ) th h thng tuyn tnh gi l bt bin khi
y ( n k ) l p ng ca h thng i vi kch thch x ( n k ) . Nu bin s l thi gian th ta

c h thng bt bin theo thi gian. i vi h thng bt bin, khi kch thch ging nhau th p ng s ging nhau ti mi thi im. c. H thng nhn qu v khng nhn qu Mt h thng gi l nhn qu khi tn hiu ng ra ti mt thi im no ch ph thuc vo cc gi tr ca tn hiu vo t thi im tr li. Ta c th biu din quan h vo - ra ca h thng nhn qu bng mt phng trnh ton hc nh sau:
y ( n) = F x ( n ) , x ( n 1) , x ( n 2 ) .... , vi F l mt hm s no .
Nu h thng khng tha mn c iu kin trn th ta gi h thng l khng nhn qu. d. H thng n nh v khng n nh l vi mt tn hiu vo x ( n ) hu hn th tn hiu ra y ( n ) cng hu hn: nu Mt h thng gi l n nh nu n b chn (Bounded Input Bounded Output - BIBO), tc
x ( t ) M x < , M x l hng s th
y ( t ) M y < , M y l hng s.
1.1.3.2.2 p ng xung ca h thng tuyn tnh bt bin
Nu h thng l tuyn tnh v bt bin ta c: Khi h thng l tuyn tnh v bt bin, th ta c quan h sau :
y( n) =
k =
x(k )h(n k )
(1.1.21)
h ( n ) l p ng xung ca h thng tuyn tnh bt bin, khng ph thuc vo bin k.

p ng ca h thng c th tm c thng qua tch chp ca kch thch v p ng xung:
y( n) =
k =
x(k )h(n k ) = x(n) h(n)
(1.1.22)
Nh chng ta bit, cc h thng c tn hiu ra ch ph thuc vo tn hiu vo trong qu kh v hin ti c gi l h thng nhn qu.
nh l : H thng tuyn tnh bt bin l nhn qu nu v ch nu p ng xung h(n) = 0 vi mi n < 0.
1.1.3.2.3 H thng tuyn tnh bt bin v n nh

Tnh n nh l mt iu kin rng buc quan trng cn xt n trong thc t i vi cc h thng x l tn hiu. Theo nh ngha, mt h thng c gi l n nh hay l h BIBO (Bounded Input Bounded Output) nu p ng ca h thng lun b chn khi kch thch vo b chn. Thut ng b chn c th hiu l c gi tr hu hn.
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nh l: Mt h thng tuyn tnh bt bin c xem l n nh nu v ch nu p ng xung tho mn iu kin sau :
S=
n =
h(n) <
(1.1.23)
1.1.3.2.4 Phng trnh sai phn tuyn tnh h s hng

a. Phng trnh sai phn tuyn tnh V mt ton hc, kch thch vo x(n) v p ng ra y(n) ca hu ht cc h thng tuyn tnh tho mn mt phng trnh sai phn tuyn tnh sau y :
a k ( n) y ( n k ) = b r ( n) x ( n r )
k =0 r =0
(1.1.24)
y N v M l cc s nguyn dng, N gi l bc ca phng trnh sai phn. Trong phng trnh ny, tp hp cc h s ak(n) v br(n) s quyt nh ton b hnh vi ca h thng. Phng trnh ny chnh l nh ri rc ca phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh i vi cc h s lin tc, phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh c dng sau :
a (t )
k k =0
d k y (t ) M d r x (t ) b ( r ) = r dt k dt r r =0
(1.1.25)
Chng ta c th nhn c phng trnh sai phn tuyn tnh t mt phng trnh vi phn tuyn tnh bng cch thay gn ng ca cc o hm vo v tr ca cc o hm. V d vi o hm bc mt, ta c gn ng nh sau :
dy(t ) y(t ) y(t t ) dt t

b. Phng trnh sai phn tuyn tnh h s hng H tuyn tnh bt bin ng vai tr rt quan trng trong nhiu ng dng thc tin. Mt lp h con ca h tuyn tnh bt bin l cc h c tn hiu vo v tn hiu ra tho mn phng trnh sai phn tuyn tnh h s hng (PT-SP-TT-HSH) di dng:
ak y( n k ) = br x( n r )
k =0 r =0
(1.1.26)
trong tp cc h s ak v br c trng cho h tuyn tnh bt bin. H tuyn tnh bt bin m t bng PT-SP-TT-HSH ng vai tr c bit trong x l tn hiu s. Trong ti liu ny, chng ta ch s dng cc h thng x l tn hiu c m t bng phng trnh tuyn tnh bt bin h s hng ni trn.
1.1.3.2.5 Cc h thng quy v khng quy

a. H thng khng quy Mt h thng tuyn tnh bt bin c c trng bi PT-SP-HSH bc N nh sau :
ak . y( n k ) = br . x(n r )
k =0 r =0
(1.1.27)
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nu trng hp N = 0, ta c :
y( n) =
M
br . x( n r ) r =0 a0
a0 0
a0 = 1 (1.1.28)
y( n) = br . x( n r )
r =0
nh ngha :
H thng c c trng bi phng trnh sai phn tuyn tnh bc khng (N = 0) c gi l h thng khng qui. b. H thng quy Trong trng hp nu N > 0, ta c phng trnh SP-TT-HSH bc N nh sau :
y( n) =
N b br . x( n r ) k . y ( n k ) r =0 a0 k =1 a0
(1.1.29)
nh ngha :
H thng c c trng bi phng trnh sai phn bc N > 0 c gi l h thng qui.
1.2 NG DNG K THUT X L M THANH V HNH NH
VO MNG BNG THNG A DCH V

1.2.1 c im ca multimedia
Multimedia l ngun d liu c tng hp t cc dng thng tin khc nhau. Multimedia c th c dng rt n gin, n c nh mt vi hnh nh km vi d liu text hay c th c dng phc tp nh cc file trnh din multimedia s dng video clips, m thanh, nh ng v d liu text. File multimedia chim mt dung lng rt ln khi cha d liu l cc file video. V d nh tn hiu video theo chun PAL sau khi c s ha cho lung d liu c tc ln ti 170Mbps. D liu m thanh chim t dung lng hn, v d tc dng bits ca tn hiu Dolby Digital Plus ln ti 6.144 Mbps. i vi d liu dng nh th dung lng ca n t l thun vi kch thc ca nh. Mt vn quan trng khc ca multimedia l vn ng b. - D liu m thanh rt nhy cm vi tr hay t l mt gi trong qu trnh lu tr hay trong qua trnh truyn dn. - D liu video th t nhy cm hn vi tr (ph thuc vo ng dng) nhng vn nhy cm vi jitter. Jitter c th c loi b trong cc ng dng bng cc gii thut ti my thu. Trong bng di y m t mt s yu cu i vi tn hiu m thanh v hnh nh trn mng ATM (RFC 1193 - Cc yu cu cho cc dch v thi gian thc 11/1990).
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Nhn chung, d liu multimedia c dung lng rt ln v c c tnh nhy cm vi tr cng nh mt mt d liu. truyn cc dng d liu trn mng in thoi, Internet hay mng truyn hnh, cc c tnh k thut ca tng loi d liu phi c bin i cho ph hp vi ng truyn. Vic iu chnh ny bao gm vic nn d liu, nh thi trong truyn dn v lu tr multimedia.
1.2.2 Nn tn hiu trong mng a dch v

Cc k thut v gii thut nn quyt nh n s sng cn ca cc mng a dch v. V d nh mt knh truyn hnh s khng nn c th yu cu bng thng ln n 216 Mbps. Nu chng ta khng dng k thut nn, h thng ch c th phc v ng thi cho mt s t ngi. Nn l gii php cu cnh cho php vic truyn b rng ri video s v multimedia. K thut nn ph thuc vo gii thut c ci t trn phn cng hoc phn mm ca my pht v my thu. Khi ng dng yu cu tc nn v gii nn cao, gii thut phi c ci t trn phn cng (card m thanh hay card ha trn my tnh). Nn d liu l gii php gim bt p lc v bng thng trn mng v gim bt khng gian lu tr, tuy nhin n cng to ra mt s nhc im ng k. Mt s k thut nn hot ng da trn tng lc bt cc thng tin km quan trng trong tn hiu v th s to ra s mt mt phn gii trong tn hiu nn. Nhng bn cnh , vic nn d liu s lm tng tnh bo mt ca thng tin khi c truyn qua mng cng cng. Khi tin hnh nn d liu chng ta phi quan tm n cc yu t sau: phc tp ca phn cng v phn mm, thi gian tr gy nn bi qu trnh x l nn v gii nn v cng nh cc yu t quan trng khc. Trong cc ng dng khc nhau ngi ta s dng cc phng php m ha khc nhau tn dng ti a ti nguyn sn c, ng thi t cht lng dch v cao nht. V d nh hi ngh video phi c thc hin v x l trong thi gian thc, v th cc phng php m ha v gii m c phi tha mn cc tiu chun x l trong thi gian thc. y l l do quan trng m tiu chun H.261 c thit k. Mt v d khc l vic truyn file video qua mng c dy, khng dy ti h thng lu tr video khng i hi thi gian thc, qu trnh thc hin t nhy cm vi thi gian tr nn thi gian x l m ha v gii m khng l mt vn quan trng, ngc li hiu qu nn mi l tiu ch t ln hng u, v vy tiu chun nn MPEG c thit k (ban u) da trn quan im ny.
1.2.3 Lu tr
Nh ni trn, thng tin m thanh cht lng cao v video trong multimedia lm cho lung s tng hp c kch thc rt ln, v th lu tr d liu l mt trong nhng vn quan
12
trng trong h thng multimedia. Hin nay, h thng multimedia s dng hu ht cc cng ngh truyn thng ghi d liu l cc cng ngh lu tr t, quang v cng ngh flash. Gi thnh cc h thng lu tr dung lng ln ngy cng h, trong khi cc thng s k thut lin tc c ci thin. V d, cc a cng (HDD) hin i cho php ghi lung d liu c tc ln ti 300MBps qua giao thc SATA-II, tc ghi ny cho php lu trc tip video s ln cng khng qua giai on nn d liu (lm mt cht lng video gc). H thng RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) c th c thit lp t 8, 16 hoc nhiu hn na cc cng c dung lng ln ti 750 GB mi . Vi dung lng 12 TB, h thng RAID cho php ghi ti ~2700 gi video cht lng DVD (9.8Mbps) hoc ~125 gi video s (PAL) khng nn (216Mbps). Gi thnh cng hin nay ch khong ~0.3$/GB. so snh, vo nm 2005, gi thnh cng khong 1.2$/GB, tc ghi ch t ~6Mbps. Trong cc h thng truyn dn c bng thng hp, vic truyn ti d liu multimedia khng th thc hin trong thi gian thc, khi cc user u cui phi s dng thit b lu tr cc b. Ton b d liu sau khi ti v s c gii m trnh chiu offline. V d nh mng Internet ch c kh nng phn phi video v audio trc tuyn vi cht lng thp, tuy nhin lu tr cc b vn cho php ngi dng nghe nhc hoc xem video cht lng cao. H thng lu tr ngy cng c ci tin p ng nhu cu ny. Cc thit b lu tr nh CDROM v DVD cng c ci tin cung cp lung d liu tc cao. Cng ngh CDROM hin ti c th truyn ti d liu khong 64 Mbps hay cao hn, lu tr khong 700MB d liu v c thi gian truy cp khong 300 ms. a DVD mt mt c dung lng ~4.7 GB. Vi cc thng s nh vy, cng ngh CD ROM l tm chp nhn c cho mt s ng dng. Hin ti cng ngh a cng vn c ci tin lin tc phc v cho nhu cu lu tr a dng ca d liu multimedia ngy cng i hi nhng tiu chun kht khe v khng gian lu tr, thi gian tr
1.2.4 Bng thng

Cc ng dng multimedia, c bit cc ng dng lin quan n video v hnh nh yu cu bng thng rt ln. Tuy nhin bng thng l ngun ti nguyn gii hn. Tng bng thng ng ngha vi vic tng chi ph nng cp, ci t cc thit b truyn dn quang, cc thit b u cui phc tp, cc b chuyn mch tc cao. Mc d hin ny cng ngh chuyn mch pht trin mnh m cng vi mng cp quang cho php cung cp nhiu bng thng hn, nhng kinh nghim cho thy vic pht trin ca mng lun lun thp hn nhu cu thc t. Do , cn c c ch phn phi v qun l bng thng cho cc ng dng ti thit b u cui bng thng c s dng mt cch hp l v hiu qu.
1.2.5 Cht lng dch v (Quality of Service)

Hin ny nhu cu trao i d liu multimedia qua mng l rt ln. m bo cht lng dch v u cui, cc thng s quan trng sau phi c nh gi v iu khin: t l li bit (Bit Error Ratio), t l mt gi, thi gian tr v s bin thin ca thi gian tr mt s dch v ti nguyn ca mng s c dnh sn m bo cc thng s trn. V d nh trong mng ATM, ngi dng u cui s c phn nh cc mc bng thng v cht lng dch v khc nhau ph thuc vo ng dng c th. Vi cc ng dng lin quan n thoi, ti nguyn ca mng c phn phi sao cho mc tr nm trong phm vi cho php m bo cht lng thoi.
13
1.2.6 Tng tc
Ngy ny, cng vi s pht trin ca cng ngh, tn ti rt nhiu cc loi phn cng khc nhau, cc loi mng khc nhau, cc ng dng khc nhau v cc loi nh dng multimedia khc nhau. Vic tng tc chng cng hot ng c l vn ct li ca ngi dng u cui multimedia. gii quyt vn , t chc IMA (Interactive Multimedia Association) v MMCF (Multimedia Communications Forum) c thnh lp pht trin cc gii php gii quyt vn tng tc multimedia gia cc chun khc nhau. Mc ch ca MMCF l pht trin: - Gii php tng tc multimedia t ngi dng u cui n ngi dng u cui m khng ph thuc vo ng dng cng nh cng ngh truyn dn. - Pht trin Application Programming Interfaces (API) m rng h tr tng tc gia ngi dng u cui vi ngi dng u cui m khng ph thuc vo nh sn xut. Loi phn mm nh vy c gi di tn l middleware bi v n lin quan n ng dng ca ngi dng u cui cng nh nh dng file, k thut lu tr v mng truyn dn. IMA m nhn trch nhim kt hp cc tiu chun nh dng multimedia. y l mt cng vic kh khn v hin ny tn ti rt nhiu nh dng cho m thanh, hnh nh v video. Hin nay c khon 20 m hnh (scheme) m ha m thanh. Hu ht u da trn u-law, Alaw v ADPCM s dng 4, 8 hay 16 bit/mu. Cc nh dng tiu biu nh: Sound Blaster .VOC Windows .WAV Sounder/Soundtools .SND Apple/SGI AIFF files Vi d liu nh mu cng tn ti rt nhiu nh dng khc nhau. Cc nh dng nh mu cho php hin th t 16 n hng triu mu. Cc nh dng nh tnh tiu biu ang c s dng rng ri l: Windows Bitmap .BMP Graphic Interchange Format .GIF Joint Picture Experts Group .JPEG or JPG TIFF PCX PhotoCD .PCD Hin nay trn ton th gii c tng cng khong 15 loi nh dng video cho truyn hnh tng t v truyn hnh cht lng cao (High Definition TV) c thc hin v a ra th trng. Mt s nh dng tiu biu ca video: Motion JPEG Video conferencing H.261 Microsoft AVI Video for Windows Apple Quicktime Intel Indeo DVI
14
ISO MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4

TM TT CHNG 1
Trong chng mt chng ta nhc li mt s khi nim c bn v tn hiu v h thng x l tn hiu ni chung. Nhng kin thc ny s c s dng v m rng phc v cho qu trnh nghin cu x l tn hiu m thanh v hnh nh nhng chng sau. Phm vi ng dng k thut x l m thanh v hnh nh ni chung rt rng. Nhng, ni ring trong ngnh vin thng, mc ch chnh ca vic x l cc tn hiu ni trn nhm vo vic nng cao cht lng tn hiu v nn dung lng tn hiu truyn qua knh truyn. Trong chng mt chng ta cng nhc ti khi nim v h thng truyn thng a dch v. Mt s c im v cc thng s quan trng ca h thng truyn thng a dch v c c nu ra. C th thy rng, tn hiu audio v video l mt phn thng tin multimedia phi c x l p ng nhng yu cu kht khe t ra trong h thng truyn thng a dch v. l cc tiu chun v nn, thi gian tr, cc i hi v cu hnh b m ho v gii m v.v. Trong mng truyn thng a dch v, vai tr ca x l nh v m thanh tr nn v cng quan trng. Trong cc chng tip theo ca ti liu ny, chng ta s gii thiu c th hn v cc cng c ton hc c s dng phn tch tng loi tn hiu cng nh cc ng dng ring ca x l m thanh v hnh nh.
CU HI V BI TP CHNG 1
1. Cho bit u im v nhc im ca h thng x l tn hiu s 2. K thut x l m thanh c s dng trong cc lnh vc khoa hc no? 3. Lit k cc ng dng chnh ca h thng x l nh 4. Phn tch cc phng php phn loi tn hiu. Trong cc h thng x l tn hiu, cch phn loi tn hiu no c s dng rng ri nht. 8. Cc h thng x l tn hiu c phn loi theo cch no? Trong thc t chng ta thng gp nhng h thng x l tn hiu loi no? 9. Th no l h thng x l tn hiu tuyn tnh v bt bin? 10. Nu nh ngha hm p ng xung ca h thng x l tn hiu 12. Th no l h thng nhn qu v n nh? 13. Pht biu nh ngha h thng quy. Cho bit hm p ng xung ca h thng x l tn hiu no c chiu di hu hn? 14. Th no l Multimedia? Phn tch tm quan trng ca k thut nn tn hiu trong lnh vc truyn dn d liu Multimedia. 15. Nu ra cc phng tin thng c dng lu tr d liu s? Nhng thng s no c trng cho h thng lu tr d liu? 16. Cho bit cc nh dng nh tnh v nh ng thng dng c s dng trong h thng truyn pht multimedia hin nay?
15
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh
CHNG 2 K THUT X L M THANH

2.1 TNG QUAN V X L M THANH
2.1.1 Gii thiu slc v m thanh v h thng x l m thanh 2.1.1.1 c tnh ca m thanh tng t Mc ch ca li ni l dng truyn t thng tin. C rt nhiu cch m t c im ca vic truyn t thng tin. Da vo l thuyt thng tin, li ni c th c i din bi thut ng l ni dung thng ip, hoc l thng tin. Mt cch khc biu th li ni l tn hiu mang ni dung thng ip, nh l dng sng m thanh.
Hnh 2.1.1 Dng sng ca tn hiu ghi nhn c t m thanh ca ngi K thut u tin dng trong vic ghi m s dng cc thng s v c, in cng nh trng c th lm nn nhiu cch thc ghi m ng vi cc loi p sut khng kh khc nhau. in p n t mt microphone l tn hiu tng t ca p sut khng kh (hoc i khi l vn tc). D c phn tch bng cch thc no, th cc phng php khi so snh vi nhau phi dng mt t l thi gian. Trong khi cc thit b tng t hin i trng c v x l m thanh tt hn nhng thit b c in, cc tiu chun x l th hu nh khng c g thay i, mc d cng ngh c v x l tt hn. Trong h thng x l m thanh tng t, thng tin c truyn t bng thng s lin tc bin thin v hn. H thng x l m thanh s l tng c nhng tnh nng tng t nh h thng x l m thanh tng t l tng: c hai hot ng mt cch trong sut v to li dng sng ban u khng li. Tuy nhin, trong th gii thc, cc iu kin l tng rt him tn ti, cho nn hai loi h thng x l m thanh hot ng s khc nhau trong thc t. Tn hiu s s truyn trong khong cch ngn hn tn hiu tng t v vi chi ph thp hn. Trong gio trnh ny, tp trung cp n h thng s x l m thanh. Thng tin dng truyn t ca m thoi v bn cht c tnh ri rc, v n c th c biu din bi mt chui ghp gm nhiu phn t t mt tp hu hn cc k hiu (symbol). Cc k hiu t mi m thanh c th c phn loi thnh cc m v (phoneme). Mi ngn ng c cc tp m v khc nhau, c c trng bi cc con s c gi tr t 30 n 50. V d nh ting Anh c biu din bi mt tp khong 42 m v. Tn hiu thoi c truyn vi tc nh th no? i vi tn hiu m thoi nguyn thy cha qua hiu chnh th tc truyn c lng c th tnh c bng cch lu gii hn vt l ca vic ni lu lot ca ngi ni to ra m thanh thoi l khong 10 m v trong mt giy. Mi mt m v c biu din bi mt s nh phn, nh vy mt m gm 6 bit c 16
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh th biu din c tt c cc m v ca ting Anh. Vi tc truyn trung bnh 10 m v/giy, v khng quan tm n vn luyn m gia cc m v k nhau, ta c th c lng c tc truyn trung bnh ca m thoi khong 60bit/giy. Trong h thng truyn m thoi, tn hiu thoi c truyn lu tr v x l theo nhiu cch thc khc nhau. Tuy nhin i vi mi loi h thng x l m thanh th c hai iu cn quan tm chung l: 1. Vic duy tr ni dung ca thng ip trong tn hiu thoi 2. Vic biu din tn hiu thoi phi t c mc tiu tin li cho vic truyn tin hoc lu tr, hoc dng linh ng cho vic hiu chnh tn hiu thoi sao cho khng lm gim nghim trng ni dung ca thng ip thoi. Vic biu din tn hiu thoi phi m bo vic cc ni dung thng tin c th c d dng trch ra bi ngi nghe, hoc bi cc thit b phn tch mt cch t ng. 2.1.1.2 Khi nim tn hiu L i lng vt l bin thin theo thi gian, theo khng gian, theo mt hoc nhiu bin c lp khc, v d nh: m thanh, ting ni: dao ng sng theo thi gian (t) Hnh nh: cng sng theo khng gian (x, y, z) a chn: chn ng a l theo thi gian Biu din ton hc ca tn hiu: hm theo bin c lp V d: u (t ) = 2t 2 5
f ( x, y ) = x 2 2 xy 6 y 2
Thng thng cc tn hiu t nhin khng biu din c bi mt hm s cp, cho nn trong tnh ton, ngi ta thng dng hm xp x cho cc tn hiu t nhin. H thng: l thit b vt l, thit b sinh hc, hoc chng trnh thc hin cc php ton trn tn hiu nhm bin i tn hiu, rt trch thng tin, Vic thc hin php ton cn c gi l x l tn hiu. 2.1.1.3 Phn loi tn hiu Tn hiu a knh: gm nhiu tn hiu thnh phn, cng chung m t mt i tng no , thng c biu din di dng vector, v d nh tn hiu in tim (ECGElectroCardioGram), tn hiu in no (EEG ElectroEncephaloGram), tn hiu nh mu RGB. Tn hiu a chiu: bin thin theo nhiu hn mt bin c lp, v d nh tn hiu hnh nh, tn hiu tivi trng en. Tn hiu lin tc theo thi gian: l tn hiu c nh ngha ti mi im trong on thi gian [a, b], k hiu x(t ) .
17
Ch ng 2 K thu ut x l m thanh
Hn nh 2.1.1 Tn n hiu lin tc theo thi gian g Tn hiu ri rc thi gian: g l tn hi h u ch c nh ngha ti nhng th t i im ri rc khc nhau, n k hiu x( n) .
Hn nh 2.1.2 Tn n hiu ri rc theo thi gian g Tn hiu lin tc gi tr r: l tn hiu c th nhn tr bt k trong t on [Ymin , Ymax ] , v v d tn hiu tng t (analog). (
Hn nh 2.1.3 Tn n hiu lin tc gi tr Tn hiu ri rc gi tr r: tn hiu ch c nhn tr trong mt tp tr ri rc nh trc (tn hiu s).
Hnh 2.1.4 Tn hiu ri rc gi tr Tn hiu analog: l tn hiu lin tc v thi gian, lin tc v gi tr.
Hnh 2.1.5 Tn hiu analog Tn hiu s: l tn hiu ri rc v thi gian, ri rc v gi tr.
Hnh 2.1.6 Tn hiu s Tn hiu ngu nhin: gi tr ca tn hiu trong tng lai khng th bit trc c. Cc tn hiu trong t nhin thng thuc nhm ny Tn hiu tt nh: gi tr tn hiu qu kh, hin ti v tng li u c xc nh r, thng thng c cng thc xc nh r rng 2.1.1.4 Phn loi h thng x l Gm hai loi h thng l h thng tng t v h thng s. Trong h thng x l s: l h thng c th lp trnh c, d m phng, cu hnh, sn xut hng lot vi chnh xc cao, gi thnh h, tn hiu s d lu tr, vn chuyn v sao lu, nhc im l kh thc hin vi cc tn hiu c tn s cao 19
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh 2.1.1.5 H thng s x l m thanh nhy ca tai ngi rt cao, n c th phn bit c s lng nhiu rt nh cng nh chp nhn tm bin m thanh rt ln. Cc c tnh ca mt tn hiu tai ngi nghe c c th c o c bng cc cng c ph hp. Thng thng, tai ngi nhy nht tm tn s 2kHz v 5kHz, mc d cng c ngi c th nhn dng c tn hiu trn 20kHz. Tm ng nghe c ca tai ngi c phn tch v ngi ta nhn c kt qu l c dng p ng logarith. Tn hiu m thanh c truyn qua h thng s l chui cc bit. Bi v bit c tnh cht ri rc, d dng xc nh s lng bng cch m s lng trong mt giy, d dng quyt nh tc truyn bit cn thit truyn tn hiu m khng lm mt thng tin.
Hnh 2.1.7 nhn c tm mc tn hiu khc nhau mt cch phn bit, tn hiu nh-nh ca tn hiu nhiu phi nh hn hoc sai bit gia cc mc . T s tn hiu trn nhiu phi ti thiu l 8:1 hoc l 18dB, truyn bi 3 bit. 16 mc th t s tn hiu trn nhiu phi l 24dB, truyn bi 4 bit. 2.1.1.6 M hnh ha tn hiu m thanh C rt nhiu k thut x l tn hiu c m hnh ha v p dng cc gii thut trong vic khi phc m thanh. Cht lng ca m thoi ph thuc rt ln vo m hnh gi nh ph hp vi d liu. i vi tn hiu m thanh, bao gm m thoi, nhc v nhiu khng mong mun, m hnh phi tng qut v khng sai lnh so vi gi nh. Mt iu cn lu l hu ht cc tn hiu m thoi l cc tn hiu ng trong thc t, mc d m hnh thc tin th thng gi nh khi phn tch tn hiu l tn hiu c tnh cht tnh trong mt khong thi gian ang xt. M hnh ph hp vi hu ht rt nhiu lnh vc trong vic x l chui thi gian, bao gm vic phc hi m thanh l m hnh Autoregressive (vit tt AR), c dng lm m hnh 20
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh chun cho vic phn tch d on tuyn tnh. Tn hiu hin ti c biu din bi tng gi tr ca P tn hiu trc v tn hiu nhiu trng, P l bc ca m hnh AR:
s[u ] = s[n i ]ai + e[n]

i =1
(2.1.1)
M hnh AR i din cho cc qu trnh tuyn tnh tnh, chp nhn tn hiu tng t nhiu v tn hiu tng t iu ha. Mt m hnh khc ph hp hn i vi nhiu tnh hung phn tch l m hnh auto regressive moving-average (ARMA) cho php cc im cc cng nh im 0. Tuy nhin m hnh AR c tnh linh ng hn trong phn tch hn m hnh ARMA, v d mt tn hiu nhc phc tp cn m hnh c bc P > 100 biu din dng sng ca tn hiu, trong khi cc tn hiu n gin hn ch cn biu din bng bc 30. Trong nhiu ng dng, vic la chn bc ca m hnh ph hp m bo vic biu din tn hiu khng lm mt i thng tin ban u l tng i phc tp. C rt nhiu phng php dng c lng bc ca m hnh AR nh phng php trong cc phng php dng gim nhiu. Tn hiu c cho bi cng thc (2.1.2):
nT s[n] = ai [n]sin i (t )dt + i i =1 0

Pn
(2.1.2)
y l m hnh tng qut i vi cc tn hiu iu ch bin v iu ch tn s, tuy nhin li khng ph hp m t cc thnh phn nhiu tng t, mc d nhiu c th c biu din bi s lng hm sin rt ln. 2.1.1.7 Kin trc h thng s x l m thanh s dng my tnh trong x l m thanh, ngi ta thng dng phng php iu ch xung (Pulse Code Modulation - PCM). Dng sng m thanh c chuyn sang dy s PCM nh sau, xt tn hiu hnh sin lm v d: Tn hiu gc l tn hiu m thanh lan truyn trong khng kh nh hnh 2.1.8
Tn hiu m thanh dch Air Displacement lan truyn trong khng kh
Time
Hnh 2.1.8 Dng sng m thanh nguyn thy K n, s dng mt microphone thu tn hiu m thanh v chuyn i thnh tn hiu in, bin in p ng ra ca microphone (sau khi c khuch i) nm trong khong 1 volt nh hnh 2.1.9.
21
+1.0 Voltage +0.5 0 -0.5 -1.0 Time
Hnh 2.1.9 Dng sng ca tn hiu in V s lng im d liu l v hn nn khng th truyn i tt c cc im trn trc thi gian, vic ly mu s c thc hin trong mt khong thi gian u n. S lng mu trong mt giy c gi l tn s ly mu (sampling rate). Hnh 2.1.10 m t 43 mu c ly:
+32,767 Converter Output +16,383 0 -16,384 -32,768 1 43
Hnh 2.1.10 Thc hin vic ly mu Tn hiu in p dng tng t sau c lng t ha v s ha bng thit b chuyn i tng t-s (analog-to-digital converter). Khi s dng b lng t chuyn i 16bit/mu, tm s nguyn ng ra c gi tr t 32,768 n +32,767, c m t nh hnh 2.1.11.
+32,767 Converter Output +16,383 0 -16,384 -32,768 Time
Hnh 2.1.11 Ng ra ca b chuyn i tn hiu tng t sang tn hiu s Kt qu ca vic ly mu v lng t c bin i thnh mt chui gm 43 ch s biu din cc mu ca dng sng ng thi gian (hnh 2.1.12).
+32,767 Recorded Value +16,383 0 -16,384 -32,768 1 43
Hnh 2.1.12 Kt qu ca vic ly mu cc gi tr 22
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh Tn hiu s c th c chuyn i ngc thnh tn hiu tng t bng vic kt ni cc im d liu ri rc li vi nhau. Dng sng kt qu c m t hnh 2.1.13.
+32,767 Recorded V alue +16,383 0 -16,384 -32,768 1 43
Hnh 2.1.13 Dng sng c ti to li Lu rng c mt vi im khc bit gia dng sng nguyn thy v dng sng ti to gia hnh 2.1.9 v hnh 2.1.13, l do: A. Cc gi tr c to ra ti b chuyn i tn hiu tng t sang tn hiu s l cc s nguyn v c lm trn gi tr. B. Hnh dng ca tn hiu ti to ph thuc vo s lng mu c ghi nhn. Tng qut, mt dy s hu hn (i din cho tn hiu s) ch c th biu din cho mt dng sng tn hiu tng t vi chnh xc hu hn. 2.1.1.8 Tn s ly mu Khi chuyn i mt m thanh sang dng s, iu cn lu l tn s ly mu ca h thng x l phi m bo c th phc hi li dng sng tn hiu ban u mt cch chnh xc. Theo nh l ly mu Nyquist v Shannon, tn s ly mu xc nh bi tn s cao nht ca tn hiu phc hi. ti to li dng sng c tn s l F , cn phi ly 2 F mu trong mt giy. Tn s ny cn c gi l tn s Nyquist. 2.1.2 Nhc li mt s khi nim ton hc trong x l m thanh 2.1.2.1 Php bin i z Php bin i z ca mt chui c nh ngha bi cp biu thc
X (z ) =
n =
x ( n) z
(2.1.3a) (2.1.3b)
x ( n) =
1 X ( z ) z n1dz 2j C
Bin i Z ca x (n) c nh ngha bi biu thc (2.1.3a). X ( z ) cn c gi l dy cng sut v hn theo bin z 1 vi cc gi tr ca x (n) chnh l cc h s ca dy cng sut. Min hi t ROC l { z X ( z ) < }, l nhng gi tr ca z sao cho chui hi t, hay ni cch khc
n=
x(n) z
<
(2.1.4)
23
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh Thng thng, min hi t ca z c dng:
R1 < z < R2
V d: Cho x ( n ) = ( n n0 ) . Theo cng thc (2.1.3a), ta c X ( z ) = z n0 V d: Cho x ( n ) = u ( n ) u ( n N ) . Theo cng thc (2.1.3a), ta c
(2.1.5)
X ( z ) = (1).z
n =0
N 1
1 zN = 1 z 1
n n V d: Cho x ( n ) = a n .u ( n ) . Suy ra X ( z ) = a z = n =0 1
1 ,a < z 1 az 1
n
V d: Cho x ( n) = b n u ( n 1) . Then X ( z ) =
n=
b z
n
1 , z <b 1 bz 1
Bin i z
Bng 2.1.1 Chui tn hiu v bin i z tng ng Chui tn hiu 1. Tuyn tnh 2. Dch 3. Hm m 4. Hm tuyn tnh 5. o thi gian 6. Tng quan 7. Nhn chui
ax1 ( n) + bx2 ( n ) x ( n + n0 )
aX 1 ( z ) + bX 2 ( z )
z n X ( z)
0
a n x(n )
nx(n) x(-n) x(n)*h(n) x(n)w(n)
X ( a 1 z )
dX ( z ) dz
X ( z 1 )
X(z)H(z)
1 X ( )W ( z / ) 1d 2j C
2.1.2.2 Php bin i Fourier Bin i Fourier ca tn hiu ri rc thi gian c cho bi biu thc
X (e jw ) =
x ( n) = 1 2
n=
x(n)e
jw
jwn
(2.1.6a) (2.1.6b)
X (e
)e jwn dw
Bin i Fourier l trng hp c bit ca php bin i z bng cch thay th
z = e . Nh m t trong hnh 2.1.14, trong mt phng z, tn s w l gc quay. iu kin tn ti bin i Fourier l z = 1 , nh vy

iw
x ( n) <
(2.1.7)
24
Hnh 2.1.2 Vng trn n v thuc mt phng z Mt c tnh quan trng ca bin i Fourier ca mt chui l X (e iw ) l hm iu ha w, vi chu k l 2 . Bng cch thay z = e iw bng 2.1.1, c c c bng bin i Fourier tng ng. 2.1.2.3 Php bin i Fourier ri rc Trong trng hp tn hiu tng t, tun hon vi chu k N
~ x ( n) = ~ x (n + N )
< n<
(2.1.8)
Vi ~ x ( n) c th c dng l tng ri rc cc tn hiu sin thay v tch phn nh cng thc (2.1.9b). Php bin i Fourier cho chui tun hon nh sau
2 N 1 j kn ~ X (k ) = ~ x ( n )e N n=0
(2.1.9a) (2.1.9b)
1 ~ x (k ) = N
j kn ~ X ( k )e N k =0
N 1
Chui x(n) hu hn, c gi tr bng 0 vi 0 n N 1, c php bin i z l.
X ( z ) = x ( n) z n
n =0
N 1
(2.1.10)
Nu chia X ( z ) thnh N im trn vng trn n v, z k = e j 2k N , k = 0,1,..., N 1 , ta c:

j 2 k N
X (e
) = x ( n )e
n=0
N 1
2 kn N
, k = 0,1,..., N 1
(2.1.11)
Chui tun hon v hn ~ x (n) c cng thc t x(n) nh sau
~ x ( n) =
j 2 k
r =
x(n + rN )
(2.1.12)
Ta nhn thy rng cc mu X (e N ) t phng trnh (2.1.9a) v (2.1.11) chnh l cc h s Fourier ca chui tun hon ~ x (n) trong phng trnh (2.1.12). Nh vy, mt chui c chiu di N c th c biu din bi php bin i Fourier ri rc (DFT) nh sau:
N 1 n =0 j 2 kn N
X ( k ) = x ( n)e
, k = 0,1,..., N 1
(2.1.13a)
25
1 x (n) = N
X ( k )e
k =0
N 1
2 kn N
, n = 0,1,..., N 1
(2.1.13b)
iu khc bit duy nht gia biu thc (2.1.9a,b) v (2.1.13a,b) l k hiu ~ (loi b k hiu ~ khi ni n tn hiu khng tun hon) v gii hn hu hn 0 k N 1 v 0 n N 1. Lu mt iu l ch dng php bin i DFT cho tn hiu tun hon c tnh cht l module ca N .
x( n ) =
r =
x( n + rN ) =
(2.1.14)
= ( x( n )) N
Bng 2.1.2 Chui v bin i DFT Chui tn hiu 1. Tuyn tnh 2. Dch 3. o thi gian
N 1
Bin i N im DFT
ax1 ( n ) + bx 2 ( n) x (( n + n0 )) N x (( n )) N
aX 1 ( k ) + bX 2 ( k ) e
j
2 kn0 N
X (k )
X * (k )
N
4. Kt hp
x(m)h((n m))
m =0
X(k)H(k)
5. Nhn chui
x(n)w(n)
1 N 1 X (r )W ((k r )) N N r =0
2.2 M HNH X L M THANH

2.2.1 Cc m hnh ly mu v m ho thoi 2.2.1.1 Ly mu tn hiu min thi gian v ti to tn hiu lin tc x l mt tn hiu lin tc bng cc phng tin x l tn hiu s, ta phi i tn hiu lin tc ra dng mt chui s bng cc ly mu tn hiu lin tc mt cch tun hon c chu k l T giy. Gi x ( n) l tn hiu ri rc hnh thnh do qu trnh ly mu, tn hiu lin tc xa (t ) , ta c:
x ( n ) = x a ( nT ) , < n <
(2.2.1)
Cc mu x (n) phi c lng ha thnh mt tp cc mc bin ri rc ri mi c a vo b x l s. Hnh 2.2.1 minh ha mt cu hnh tiu biu cho h thng x l tn hiu tng t bng phng php s. Trong cc phn sau, ta b qua sai s lng ha pht sinh trong qu trnh bin i A/D
26

Mch l c
xa (t )
A/D
x( n)
Mch x l tn hiu s
y ( n)
D/A
ya (t )
x'a (t )
Mch l c
Tn hiu lin tc
Hnh 2.2.1 Cu hnh h thng x l tn hiu tng t bng phng php s xc nh quan h gia ph ca tn hiu lin tc v ph ca tn hiu ri rc to ra t qu trnh ly mu tn hiu, lin tc , ta ch n quan h gia bin c lp t v n ca tn hiu xa (t ) v x (n)
t = nT =
n Fs
(2.2.2)
nh l ly mu: mt tn hiu lin tc c bng tn hu hn, c tn s cao nht l B Hertz c th khi phc t cc mu ca n vi iu kin tn s ly mu Fs 2 B mu / giy 2.2.1.2 Ly mu tn hiu min tn s v ti to tn hiu lin tc Ta bit tn hiu lin tc c nng lng hu hn th c ph lin tc. Trong phn ny, ta s xt qu trnh ly mu ca cc tn hiu loi mt cch tun hon v s ti to tn hiu t cc mu ca ph ca chng Xt mt tn hiu lin tc xa (t ) vi mt ph lin tc X a ( F ) . Gi s ta ly mu
X a ( F ) ti cc thi im cch nhau F Hertz. Ta mun ti to X a ( F ) hoc xa (t ) t cc

mu X a ( F ) Nu tn hiu tng t xa (t ) c gii hn thi gian l giy v Ts c chn
Ts > 2 th aliasing khng xy ra v ph X a ( F ) c th c khi phc hon ton t cc

mu. 2.2.1.3 Ly mu tn hiu min tn s v ti to tn hiu ri rc Xt mt tn hiu ri rc khng tun hon x (n) c php bin i Fourier:
X ( ) =
n=
x(n)e
jn
(2.2.3)
Gi s ta ly mu X ( ) tun hon ti cc im cch nhau rad. V X ( ) tun hon vi chu k 2 , ch c cc mu trong phm vi tn s c bn l cn thit. thun tin, ta ly N mu cch u nhau trong khong 0 2 theo khong cch = 2 / N Xt = 2k / N , ta c X Xt tn hiu x p (n) =
2 k = x ( n)e j 2kn / N k = 0,1,..., N 1 (2.2.4) N n =
l =
x(n lN )
nhn c bng cch lp li tun hon x (n) ti
mi N mu, tn hiu ny tun hon vi chu k N , do c th c trin khai theo khai trin Fourier
x p ( n) =
1 N 1 2 X ( k )e j 2kn / N , n = 0,1,..., N 1 N k =0 N
(2.2.5)
T cng thc x p ( n) trn, ta nhn thy c th khi phc tn hiu x p ( n) t cc mu ca 27
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh ph X ( ) . Nh vy, ta phi tm ra mi tng quan gia x p ( n) v x (n) c th thc hin khi phc x (n) t X ( ) V x p ( n) l s m rng tun hon ca x (n) , nn x (n) c th c khi phc t
x p ( n) nu khng c aliasing ci thi gian, ngha l nu x (n) c thi gian gii hn nh hn

hoc bng chu k N ca x p ( n) . 2.2.1.4 Cc chun m ha m thoi trong cc h thng x l thoi Chun m ha m thoi thng thng c nghin cu v pht trin bi mt nhm cc chuyn gia ginh ht thi gian v tm huyt thc hin cc cng vic kim nghim, m phng sao cho m bo mt tp cc yu cu a ra p ng c. Ch c cc t chc vi ngun ti nguyn khng l mi c th thc hin c cc cng vic kh khn ny, thng thng, thi gian ti thiu cn thit hon thnh mt chun trong trng hp gp nhiu thun li trong qu trnh l khong bn nm ri. iu ny khng c ngha l mt chun c a ra th khng c li hoc khng cn phi ci tin. Do , cc chun mi lun lun xut hin sao cho tt hn chun c cng nh ph hp vi cc ng dng trong tng lai. Hi ng chun l cc t chc c trch nhim trong vic gim st vic pht trin cc chun cho mt ng dng c th no . Sau y l mt s hi ng chun ni ting c nhiu nh cung cp sn phm tun theo Lin minh vin thng quc t - International Telecommunications Union (ITU): Cc chun vin thng ca ITU ( chun ITU-T) c uy tn trong vic nh ra cc chun m ha m thoi cho h thng mng in thoi, bao gm cc mng v tuyn ln hu tuyn. Hip hi cng nghip vin thng - Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA): c trch nhim ban hnh cc chun m ha thoi cho cc ng dng c th, l mt thnh vin ca Vin tiu chun quc gia Hoa K - National Standards Institute (ANSI). TIA thnh cng trong vic pht trin cc chun s dng trong cc h thng tng i t bo s Bc M, bao gm cc h thng s dng chun a kt phn thi gian - Time division multiple access (TDMA) v a truy nhp phn chia theo m - Code division multiple access (CDMA). Vin tiu chun vin thng chu u - European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI): ETSI c cc hi vin t cc nc cng nh cc cng ty Chu u, l t chc a ra cc chun sn xut thit b ti Chu u. ETSI c thnh lp bi nhm c nh hng nht trong lnh vc m ha m thoi l nhm di ng c bit - Groupe Speciale Mobile (GSM), a ra rt nhiu chun hu dng v c trin khai rt nhiu trn th gii B quc phng Hoa K - United States Department of Defense (DoD). DoD c lin quan n vic sng lp cc chun m ha thoi, c bit n vi cc chun lin bang Hoa K (U.S. Federal) dng nhiu cho cc ng dng qun s Trung tm pht trin v nghin cu cc h thng v tuyn ca Nht Bn - Research and Development Center for Radio Systems of Japan (RCR). Cc chun t bo s c pht hnh bi RCR. 28
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh Bng 2.2.1 Cc chun m ha m thoi chnh N m hon thnh 1972a 1984 1987
b b
Tn chun
Tc bit truyn (kbps) 64 2.4 13 16, 24, 32, 40 7.95 5.6 6.7 4.8 16 8.5, 4, 2, 0.8 5.3, 6.3 8 12.2 7.4 2.4 12.2, 10.2, 7.95, 7.40, 6.70, 5.90, 5.15, 4.75
Cc ng dng
ITU-T G.711 PCM FS 1015 LPC ETSI GSM 6.10 RPE-LTP ITU-T G.726 ADPCM TIA IS54 VSELP ETSI GSM 6.20 VSELP RCR STD-27B VSELP FS1016 CELP ITU-T G.728 LD-CELP TIA IS96 VBR-CELP ITU-T G.723.1 MPMLQ/ACELP ITU-T G.729 CS-ACELP ETSI GSM EFR ACELP TIA IS641 ACELP FS MELP ETSI AMR-ACELP
S dng cng cng Lin lc bo mt V tuyn di ng s S dng cng cng H thng thoi t bo s TDMA Bc M H thng t bo GSM H thng t bo Nht Lin lc bo mt S dng cng cng H thng thoi t bo s CDMA Bc M Lin lc a phng tin, in thoi truyn hnh S dng cng cng S dng cng cng H thng thoi t bo s TDMA Bc M Lin lc bo mt S dng cng cng vin thng
1990c 1990b 1990c 1990 1991 1992

c b b
1993b 1995a 1995b 1996a 1996

a
1997b 1999
a
l c m t mt phn l c gii thch y c l c m t ngn gn m khng c m t k thut chi tit

b
2.2.1.5 Kin trc ca h thng m ha m thoi Hnh 2.2.2 m t s khi ca h thng m ha m thoi. Tn hiu m thoi tng t lin tc c t ngun cho trc s c s ha bi b mt b lc chun, b ly mu (b chuyn i thi gian ri rc), v b chuyn tn hiu tng t sang tn hiu s. Tn hiu ng ra l tn hiu m thoi thi gian ri rc vi cc gi tr ly mu cng ri rc ha. Tn hiu ny c xem l tn hiu m thoi s.
29
Hnh 2.2.2 S khi ca h thng x l tn hiu thoi Thng thng, hu ht cc h thng m ha m thoi c thit k h tr cc ng dng vin thng, vi tn s gii hn gia 300 v 3400Hz. Theo l thuyt Nyquist, tn s ly mu ti thiu phi ln hn hai ln bng thng ca tn hiu lin tc thi gian. Gi tr 8kHz thng c la chn l tn s ly mu chun cho tn hiu thoi. B m ha knh thc hin vic m ha hiu chnh li ca chui bit truyn trc khi tn hiu c truyn trn knh truyn, ni m tn hiu s b thay i do nhiu cng nh giao thoa tn hiu. B gii m thc hin vic hiu chnh li c c tn hiu m ha, sau tn hiu c a vo b gii m c c tn hiu m thoi s c cng tc vi tn hiu ban u. Lc ny, tn hiu s s c chuyn sang dng tng t thi gian lin tc. B phn thc hin vic x l tn hiu thoi ch yu ca m hnh h thng x l thoi l b m ha v gii m. Thng thng, khi x l cc bi ton v truyn thoi, m hnh c n gin ha nh hnh 2.2.3 V d tn hiu thoi ng vo l tn hiu ri rc thi gian c tc bit l 128kbps c a vo b m ha thc hin m ha chui bit hoc thc hin nn d liu thoi. Tc ca chui bit thng thng s c tc thp hn tc ca tn hiu ng vo b m ha. B gii m nhn chui bit m ha ny v to ra tn hiu thoi c dng l ri rc thi gian v c tc bng vi tc ca tn hiu ban u truyn vo h thng.
Hnh 2.2.3 S khi n gin ha ca b m ha m thoi
30
2.2.1.6 Kin trc tng qut ca b m ha gii m m thoi
Tn hiu m thoi ng vo PCM Trch v m ha thng s 1 Ch s 1
Phn tch v x l
Trch v m ha thng s 2 Ch s 2 ng gi
...
Trch v m ha thng s N Ch s N Chui bit
Chui bit Ch s 1 Gii m thng s 1
M gi Ch s 2 Gii m thng s 2 Ch s N
...
Gii m thng s N m thoi tng hp
Kt hp v x l
Hnh 2.2.4 M t s khi tng qut ca b m ha v gii m m thoi. i vi b m ha, tn hiu m thoi u vo c x l v phn tch nhm thu c cc thng s i din cho mt khung truyn. Cc thng s ngy c m ha v lng t vi m ch s nh phn v c gi i nh l mt chui bit c nn. Cc ch s ny c ng gi v biu din thnh chui bit, chng c sp xp th t truyn da vo cc thng s quyt nh trc v c truyn n b gii m.
31
Hnh 2.2.5 M hnh chung ca b m ha m thoi. Hnh trn: b m ha, hnh di: b gii m. B gii m thc hin vic phn tch chui bit nhn c, cc ch s nh phn c phc hi sau qu trnh phn tch v dng kt hp vi cc thng s tng ng ca b gii m c c cc thng s c lng t. Cc thng s gii m ny s kt hp vi nhau v c x l to li tn hiu m thoi tng hp. 2.2.1.7 Cc yu cu cn c ca mt b m ha m thoi Mc tiu chnh ca ca m ha thoi l ti a ha cht lng nghe ti mt tc bit no , hoc ti thiu ha tc bit ng vi mt cht lng c th. Tc bit tng ng vi m thoi no s c truyn hoc lu tr ph thuc vo chi ph ca vic truyn hay lu tr, chi ph ca m ha tn hiu thoi s, v cc yu cu v cht lng ca m thoi . Trong hu ht cc b m ha m thoi, tn hiu c xy dng li s khc vi tn hiu nguyn thy. Tc bit truyn b gim bi vic biu din tn hiu m thoi (hoc cc thng s trong m hnh to m thoi) vi chnh xc b gim, v bi qu trnh loi b cc thng tin d tha ca tn hiu. Cc yu cu l tng ca mt b m ha thoi bao gm: Tc bit thp: i vi chui bit m ha c tc bit t l thun vi bng thng cn cho truyn d liu. iu ny dn n nu tc bit thp s lm tng hiu sut ca h thng. Yu cu ny li xung t vi cc cc c tnh khc ca h thng, nh l cht 32
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh lng ca m thoi. Trong thc t, vic nh i gia cc la chn ph thuc vo p dng vo ng dng g. Cht lng thoi cao: tn hiu m thoi gii m phi c cht lng c th chp nhn c i vi ng dng cn t. C rt nhiu kha cnh v mt cht lng bao gm tnh d hiu, t nhin, d nghe v cng nh c th nhn dng ngi ni. Nhn dng ting ni / ngn ng khc nhau: k thut nhn dng ting ni c th phn bit c ging ni ca ngi ln nam gii, ngi ln n gii v tr con cng nh nhn dng c ngn ng ni ca ngi ni. Cng mnh trong knh truyn nhiu: y l yu t quan trng i vi cc h thng truyn thng s vi cc nhiu nh hng mnh n cht lng ca tnh hiu thoi. Hiu sut cao i vi cc tn hiu phi thoi (v d nh tn hiu tone in thoi): trong h thng truyn dn kinh in, cc tn hiu khc c th tn ti song song vi tn hiu m thoi. Cc tn hiu tone nh l a tn tone i Dual tone multifrequency (DTMF) ca tn hiu m bn phm v nhc thng thng b chn vo trong ng truyn tn hiu. Ngay c nhng b m ha thoi tc thp cng c th khng th to li tn hiu mt cch hon chnh. Kch thc b nh thp v phc tp tnh ton thp: nhm mc ch s dng c b m ha m thoi trong thc t, chi ph thc hin lin quan n vic trin khai h thng phi thp, bao gm c vic b nh cn thit h tr khi h thng hot ng cng nh cc yu cu tnh ton. Cc nh nghin cu m ha m thoi n lc trong vic tm kim hin thc bi ton trin khai trong thc tin sao cho c hiu qu nht. tr m ha thp: trong qu trnh x l m ha v gii m thoi, tr tn hiu lun lun tn ti, chnh l thi gian trt gia m thoi ng vo ca b m ha vi tn hiu ng ra ca b gii m. Vic tr qu mc s sinh ra nhiu vn trong vic thc hin trao i ting ni hai chiu trong thi gian thc. 2.2.2 Cc m hnh dng trong x l m thanh 2.2.2.1 M hnh quang ph 2.2.2.1.1 M hnh sin Tn hiu m thanh c th c trin khai t tp hp cc m hnh sin nu nh c c dng
y(t ) = Ai (t )e j ( t )
i
(2.2.6)
i =1
Vi i (t ) = i ( ) d , Ai (t ) v i (t ) l thnh phn bin v tn s tng ng ca
thnh phn sin th i . Trong thc t, tn hiu c xem xt l tn hiu ri rc thi gian thc, nh vy ta c th vit li
y (n) = Ai (n) cos(i (n ))

i =1
(2.2.7)
33
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh Vi i ( n ) = i ( ) d + 0 , i .

0 nT
(2.2.8)
V c bn, nu nh I c gi tr v cng ln, th bt c tn hiu m thanh no cng c th c trin khai t m hnh sin, php tnh gn ng c p dng tnh ton trong m hnh ny. Thc t, tnh hiu nhiu cng c trin khai thnh v s cc tn hiu sin, v ta tch vic x l ring tn hiu ny thnh phn x l Stochastic ( ) c k hiu l e ( n ) .
y ( n) = Ai ( n) cos(i (n )) + e( n)
i =0
(2.2.9)
Thnh phn c th c tnh bng php bin i Short-Time Fourier s dng lu hnh 2.2.6. Phng php ny c ng dng trong cc phn mm sms, vit tt ca tng hp m hnh ph - spectral modeling synthesis.
Hnh 2.2.6 Phn tch cc thnh phn hnh sin ca phn stochastic Pht hin nh v ghp (Peak detection and continuation): thc hin vic phn tch cc thnh phn hnh sin t tn hiu thng d, ta phi tm c v ghi ch li cc nh tn s ni tri, tc l cc thnh phn hnh sin nm vai tr chnh trong cng thc phn tch c. Mt chin thut c s dng thc hin iu ny l v bng ch dn trong cc khung STFT. thc hin vic phn chia phn no l tn hiu, phn no l nhiu, cc tn s v pha phi c xc nh mt cch chnh xc. Ngoi ra, qu trnh tng hp li hai tn hiu c n gin, bin ca cc thnh phn nn c ni suy gia cc khung tn hiu, v php ni suy tuyn tnh thng c s dng. Cc tn s cng nh pha ca tn hiu cng c th c ni suy, tuy nhin cn phi lu l php ni suy tn s c nh hng cht ch n php ni suy pha. Tng hp li cc thnh phn sin: Trong giai on tng hp li, cc thnh phn sin c 34
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh th c to bi bt k phng php no nh my to dao ng s, my to dao ng bng sng hoc tng hp ly mu bng sng, hoc k thut da trn c s FFT. K thut FFT c s dng nhiu do tnh tin li khi tn hiu c nhiu thnh phn hnh sin. Trch tn hiu thng d (Extraction of the residual): Vic trch ph ca tn hiu nhiu thng d c th c thc hin min tn hoc trc tip t min thi gian. S hiu chnh ph thng d (Residual spectral fitting): thnh phn stochastic c m hnh ha l tn hiu nhiu bng rng, c lc bi khi c trng tuyn tnh. Ph cng ca tn hiu thng d c th c xp x bng gi tr trung bnh ca hm piecewise-linear. Vic tng hp trong min thi gian c th c thc hin bng php o FFT, sau khi n nh c mt tp cng mong mun v mt tp pha ngu nhin. Hiu chnh m thanh: m hnh sin l mt m hnh hu dng v n cho php p dng vic truyn cc m thanh nhc ly t vic ghi bng thc t. Hnh 2.2.7 m t mt cc bc thc hn cho vic hiu chnh tn hiu m nhc
Hnh 2.2.7 C cu t chc cho vic biu din vic truyn tn hiu m nhc 2.2.2.1.2 Tn hiu sin + nhiu + nt m Trong m hnh sin + nhiu, iu c bn l cc tn hiu m thanh l tng hp ca nhiu tn hiu sin tn s thp v cc loi nhiu bng rng hu nh dng tnh. Khi , mt thnh phn ca m thanh khng c xem xt n, l nt m. Vic hiu chnh m thanh c th c thc hin d dng bng cch tch ring thnh phn nt m xt ring. Thc t, hu ht cc dng c m nhc m rng trng ca mt nt nhc khng lm nh hng n cht lng x l. Vi l do ny, mt m hnh mi l sin + nhiu + nt m (SNT) c pht ha dng trong vic phn tch m thanh. tng chnh ca vic trch m m trong thc t t vic quan st rng, cc tn hiu hnh sin trong min thi gian c nh x qua min tn thnh cc nh c v tr xc nh, trong khi cc xung ngn i ngu trong min thi gian khi c nh x qua min tn li c dng hnh sin. Nh vy, m hnh sin c th c ng dng trong min tn s biu din cc tn hiu hnh sin. S khi m t qu trnh phn tch SNT c biu din trn hnh 2.2.8.
35
Hnh 2.2.8 Phn tch tn hiu m thanh theo m hnh sin + nhiu + nt m Khi DCT trong hnh 2.2.8 m t hot ng ca php ri rc cosin. Php bin i, c nh ngha nh sau:
N 1 (2n + 1)k C (k ) = x(n) cos 2N n =0
(2.2.10)
Php bin i DCT thc hin vic mt xung c bin i thnh dng cosin v ngc li. 2.2.2.1.3 M hnh LPC M ha d on tuyn tnh c th c s dng m hnh ph tnh. Tng hp LPC c m t trong lu trong hnh 2.2.9. V bn cht, m hnh chnh l gii thut tr tng hp thc hin mt tn hiu c ph c c lc bi mt b lc cc. Tn hiu kch thch c th s dng chnh tn hiu thng d e c c qua qu trnh phn tch, hoc c th s dng cc thng tin ca tn hiu thoi/phi thoi.
a1 ,, a p
Hnh 2.2.9 Tng hp LPC 2.2.2.2 M hnh min thi gian Vic m t m thanh trong min tn rt c hiu qu, tuy nhin trong mt vi ng dng, tin vic nghin cu vic tng hp m thanh, vic phn tch trong min thi gian li c u th hn. 2.2.2.2.1 My to dao ng s Ta nhn thy mt m thanh phc tp uc tng hp t nhiu thnh phn hnh sin bng php tng hp FTT-1. Nu nh cc thnh phn hnh sin khng qu nhiu, vic tng hp tng thnh phn c thc hin bng cch ly gi tr trung bnh ca my to dao ng s.
36
e j
nh sau:
0 ( n +1)
= e j e j n
0 0
(2.2.11)
Vi e j0n = xR ( n) + jxI (n) dng s phc, mi bc nhy thi gian c nh ngha
x R ( n + 1) = cos 0 x R ( n) sin 0 x I ( n )
xI ( n + 1) = sin 0 xR ( n ) + cos 0 xI ( n )
(2.2.12) (2.2.13)
Thng s bin v pha ban u c th tnh da theo pha ban u e j0 0 v thc hin vic lch pha vo s m. Tn hiu xR ( n + 1) c th c tnh theo cng thc sau:
xR ( n + 1) = 2 cos 0 x R ( n ) x R ( n 1)
p ng xung ca b lc nh sau:
(2.2.14)
H R ( z) =
1 1 2 cos 0 z + z
1 2
(1 e
1
j0 z 1
)(1 e )
j0 z 1
(2.2.15)
Gi tr cc ca b lc biu thc 10 nm trn chu vi ng trn n v. Gi xR1 , xR 2 l hai bin trng thi ca hai mu troc ca tn hiu ng ra x R , pha ban u 0 c th c tnh theo h phng trnh sau:
x R1 = sin (0 0 ) x R 2 = sin (0 20 )
(2.2.16) (2.2.17)
My to dao ng s c bit hu ch trong vic biu din tng hp tn hiu i vi cc b vi x l a mc ch, khi cc php ton trn du chm ng c trin khai. Tuy nhin, phng php ny dng cho vic to tn hiu sin c hai bt li: Vic cp nht thng s yu cu tnh ton trn hm cosin. y l mt iu kh i vi iu ch tc m thanh, do phi thc hin php tnh cosin ng vi tng mu trong min thi gian Thay i tn s ca my dao ng s s lm thay i bin tn hiu sin. Khi b phn logic iu khin bin cn c s dng iu chnh hn ch ny. 2.2.2.2.2 My to dao ng bng sng Phng php thng dng nht dng tng hp cc dng sng c chu k (bao gm tn hiu dng sin) thc hin qu trnh c lp i lp li mt bng cha ni dung ca mt dng sng c lu tr trc. V d: nu dng sng cn c tng hp dng sin, i xng th ch cn lu tr lu tr chu k, sau s dng php tnh ton ni suy cho ton b chu k. t buf
[ ] l b m c ni dung cha l chu k ca dng sng, hoc bng dng
sng. My to dao ng dng sng hot ng lp li theo chu k qut bng dng sng l bi s ca gia s I v c ni dung ca bng dng sng ti v tr . Gi B l chiu di ca b m, f 0 l tn s m ta mun to tn s ly mu Fs , khi gi tr ca gia s I l:
I=
Bf 0 Fs
(2.2.18)
37
Ch ng 2 K thu ut x l m thanh S thay i tn s ly mu Bi ton th hit k my to dao n ng bng sng c th chu uyn thnh bi b ton thay y i tn s ly mu, v d nh bin i tn hiu c ly mu ti tn s ly mu Fs ,1 thnh tn n hiu c ly mu ti tn s Fs , 2 . Nu
Fs , 2 Fs ,1
L , vi L v M l cc s nguy yn ti gin, vic M
thc hi h n thay i tn s ly mu c th c nh hin bng cc bc: 1 Tng tn s ly mu bng h s L 1. 2 S dng b lc thng 2. g thp 3 Gim tn s ly mu bng h s M 3.
Hnh 2.2.1 10 S khi phn r ca qu trnh thay i tn s ly mu
nh 2.2.11 V V d v thay y i tn s ly mu vi L / M = 3 / 2 Hn 2 2.2.2.2.3 Tng n hp ly mu bng sng Tng hp ly mu bng n sng l ph hn m rng ca my da ao ng bng g sng i vi Dng sng g phn tch khng k phi dng sin Bng dng g sng c lu tr vi n nhiu chu k Cc tn hiu iu khin rt quan trng trong vic nhn c m thanh t nhin 2 2.2.2.2.4 Tng hp ht (vi Giovanni De Poli) Cc bng sng ngn c c th c c vi nhiu tc k khc nhau, v v kt qu l m
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh iu c th chng cho vo nhau trong min thi gian. Trong phng php min thi gian, vic tng hp m thanh ny c gi l tng hp ht. Tng hp ht bt u t tng vic phn tch m thanh trong min thi gian c thay th bng biu din chng thnh mt chui cc thnh phn ngn c gi l ht. Cc thng s ca k thut ny l cc dng sng ca ht th g k () , v tr trong min thi gian lk v bin a k
s g ( n ) = ak g k ( n lk )
k
(2.2.19)
Khi s lng ht ln, th vic tnh ton s tr nn phc tp. Tnh cht ca cc ht v cc v tr trong min thi gian quyt nh m sc ca m thanh. Vic la chn cc thng s ty thuc vo cc tiu chun a ra bi cc m hnh th hin. Vic la chn cc m hnh biu din lin quan n cc qu trnh hot ng m cc qu trnh ny c th nh hng n m thanh no theo nhiu cch khc nhau. Loi c bn v quan trng nht ca tng hp ht (tng hp ht bt ng b) l phn phi cc ht khng theo quy lut trong min tn s -thi gian. Dng sng ht c dng
g k (i ) = d (i ) cos (2f k Ts i )
tn ph f k . 2.2.2.3 Cc m hnh phi tuyn 2.2.2.3.1 iu pha v iu tn
(2.2.20)
Vi d (i ) l ca s c chiu di l d mu, dng iu khin nhp thi gian v bng
K thut tng hp phi tuyn thng dng nht l iu tn (FM). Trong lin lc thng tin, FM c dng trong cc thp k gn y, nhng ng dng ca n trong gii thut tng hp m thanh trong min thi gian ri rc c bit n vi ci tn John Chowning. V bn cht, Chowning thc hin cc nghin cu trn cc phm vi khc nhau ca vic to ting rung bng cc b to dao ng n gin, v thu c kt qu l cc tn s rung nhanh s to ra cc thay i y kch tnh. Nh vy, iu ch tn s ca mt my to dao ng cng to ra tn hiu m thanh c ph phc tp. M hnh FM ca Chowning nh sau:
x ( n) = A sin ( c n + I sin ( m n )) = A sin ( c n + (n ))
(2.2.21)
Vi c l tn s sng mang v m l tn s iu ch, I l ch s iu ch. Phng trnh (2.2.21) thc t cng l phng trnh iu pha. Tn s tc thi ca phng trnh (2.2.21)
( n) = c I m cos ( m n )
Hoc:
(2.2.22) (2.2.23)
f ( n ) = f c If m cos( 2f m n )
Hnh 2.2.12 m t vic trin khai pd ca gii thut FM n gin. Tn s iu ch c dng iu khin trc tip b to dao ng, trong khi tn s sng mang dng iu khin b to pha n v, to pha theo chu k. Vi tn s sng mang, tn s iu ch v ch s iu ch cho trc, ta c th d dng d on cc thnh phn ph tn s ca m thanh kt qu.
39
Hnh 2.2.12 Phn trin khai phn phi pd ca iu pha. Vic phn tch da trn c tnh lng gic
x(n) = A sin (c n + I sin (m n )) k = A J 0 ( I ) sin(c n) + J k ( I ) sin ((c + km )n ) + ( 1) sin ((c km )n ) k =1 carrier side frequencies
(2.2.24)
Vi J k ( I ) l bc th k ca hm Bessel. Cc hm Bessel c v trn hnh 2.2.13 ng vi nhiu gi tr k trn trc s lng side-frequencies v gi tr I trn trc ch s iu ch.
Hnh 2.2.13 Cc gi tr ca hm Bessel. Bng thng c gi tr xp x bng
BW = 2(I + 0.24 I 0.27 ) m 2 I m

2.2.2.3.2 Mo phi tuyn
(2.2.25)
Khi nim tng hp m thanh bng mo phi tuyn Nonlinear distortion (NLD) rt n gin: ng ra ca mch to dao ng c dng nh l thng s ca mt hm phi tuyn. Trong min thi gian ri rc s, hm phi tuyn c lu tr trong mt bng, v ng ra ca b dao ng c dng nh l ch s truy nhp vo bng. iu th v ca NLD l l thuyt 40
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh ny cho php thit k mt bng mo cho bi cc c im k thut ca mt ph mong mun. Nu b to dao ng c dng tn hiu sin, ta c th tnh ton NLD nh sau
x ( n) = A cos( 0 n)
y ( n ) = F ( x (n ))
(2.2.26) (2.2.27)
Vi hm s phi tuyn, dng a thc Chebyshev. a thc Chebyshev cp n c nh ngha quy nh sau:
T0 ( x ) = 1
(2.2.28) (2.2.29) (2.2.30) (2.2.31)
T1 ( x ) = x
Tn ( x ) = 2 xTn1 ( x ) Tn2 ( x ) ,
v c tnh cht:
Tn (cos ) = cos n
Nh vy, vi tnh cht (2.2.31), nu hm mo phi tuyn l a thc Chebyshev cp m , gi tr ng ra y c c bng cch s dng b dao ng sin x ( n) = cos 0 n , nh vy
y ( n ) = cos (m 0 n ) l hi bc m ca x .
Ph ca y(n) vi:
y ( n ) = hk cos( k 0 n )
k
(2.2.32)
l:
F ( x ) = hk Tk ( x )
k
(2.2.33)
Ngoi cc m hnh trn, cc m hnh vt l cng c p dng trong vic tng hp, x l m thanh nh mch dao ng vt l, mch dao ng i v mch phn phi cng hng mt chiu.
2.2.2.4 M hnh thi gian ri rc Trong hu ht cc trng hp lin quan n x l thng tin, vic biu din tn hiu sao cho m bo tnh tin li trong phn tch m vn khng lm mt i tnh cht ca tn hiu l iu m cc nh khoa hc quan tm. Sng m thanh xut pht t li ni ca ngi c tnh cht t nhin v ngu nhin nht. Phn tch ton hc thun tin nht l xem sng m thanh l mt hm s theo bin thi gian t . Ta k hiu xa (t ) l dng sng tng t theo thi gian t .
41
Hnh 2.2.14 Biu din tn hiu m thoi Trong gio trnh ny, ta dng k hiu x (n) m t cho chui s. Trong trng hp ly mu tn hiu m thoi, mt chui c th c xem nh l mt dy cc mu ca tn hiu tng t c ly mu mt cch u n vi thi gian ly mu l T, khi tn hiu sau khi ly mu c k hiu bi xa ( nT ) . Hnh 2.2.14 m t mt v d ca vic tn hiu m thoi c biu din c hai dng l tn hiu tng t v dng chui cc mu c ly mu tn s l 8kHz. Xung n v c nh ngha nh sau:
(n) = 1 n = 0
= 0 ngc li
Chui bc n v c k hiu
(2.2.34)
u (n) = 1 n 0
=0 n<0
Hm m
(2.2.35) (2.2.36)
x(n) = a n
Nu a dng s phc, a = re jw0 , th
x ( n) = r n e jw n = r n (cos 0 n + j sin 0 n)
0
(2.2.37)
42
Hnh 2.2.15 (a) Ly mu n v, (b) n v bc, (c) hm m thc v (d) hm sin suy gim
Hnh 2.2.16 S khi (a) h thng n ng vo/n ng ra; (b) h thng n ng vo/a ng ra Khi h thng gm nhiu ng ra, tn hiu chui ng ra s c biu din bng mt vector c m t nh hnh 2.2.16. H thng tuyn tnh dch bt bin l h thng c bit hu dng cho vic x l tn hiu m thoi. H thng c c trng bi p ng xung, h( n) , khi tn hiu ng ra c tnh bi cng thc
y ( n) =
k =
x ( k ) h( n k ) = x ( n) * h( n)
(2.2.38a)
43
y ( n) =
vi * l php chp hai tn hiu.
k =
h(k ) x(n k ) = h(n) * x(n)
(2.2.38b)
2.3 L THUYT V CC BI TON C BN

2.3.1 Phn tch d on tuyn tnh D on tuyn tnh (Linear prediction, vit tt l LP) l mt phn khng th thiu ca hu ht tt c gii thut m ha thoi hin i ngy nay. tng c bn l mt mu thoi c th c xp x bng mt kt hp tuyn tnh ca cc mu trong qu kh. Trong mt khung tn hiu, cc trng s dng tnh ton kt hp tuyn tnh c tm bng cch ti thiu ha bnh phng trung bnh li d on; cc trng s tng hp, hoc cc h s d on tuyn tnh (LPC) c dng i din cho mt khung c th. Trong thc t, phn tch d on l mt tin trnh c lng tm cc thng s ca AR, m cc thng s ny c cho bi cc mu ca tn hiu. Nh vy, LP l mt k thut nhn dng vi cc thng s ca mt h thng c tm t vic quan st. Vi gi nh l tn hiu thoi c m hnh nh l tn hiu AR, iu ny c chng minh tnh ng n ca n trong thc tin. Mt cch biu din LP khc l phng php c lng ph. Nh trnh by trn, phn tch LP cho php vic tnh ton cc thng s ca AR, c nh ngha trong mt ph cng sut (PSD) ca chnh bn thn tn hiu. Bng cch tnh ton LPC ca mt khung tn hiu, ta c th to ra mt tn hiu khc theo cch thc c ni dung ph gn nh tng ng vi tn hiu gc. LP cng c th c xem nh l mt qu trnh loi b cc d tha khi thng tin b lp li trong mt s trng hp cn kh. Sau cng, vic truyn d liu c th khng cn thit nu nh d liu cn truyn c th c d on trc. Bng cch thc chuyn ch cc d tha trong mt tn hiu, s lng bit cn thit mang thng tin s t hn v nh th s t c mc tiu nn d liu. Trong phn ny s cp n bi ton c bn ca phn tch LP c nh r, kt hp vi vic hiu chnh li cho ph hp theo hng cc tn hiu ng, cng nh v d v cc gii thut cn thit cho qu trnh d on tuyn tnh. 2.3.1.1 Bi ton d on tuyn tnh D on tuyn tnh c m t nh l mt bi ton nhn dng h thng, vi cc thng s ca mt m hnh AR c c lng t bn thn tn hiu. M hnh c trnh by hnh 2.3.1. Tn hiu nhiu trng x[n] c lc bi qu trnh tng hp AR c c tn hiu AR
i . D on tuyn tnh thc hin c on s[n] s[n] , vi cc thng s AR c k hiu l a da vo M mu trong qu kh:
[n] = ai s[n i] s
i =1
(2.3.1)
Vi ai l cc c lng ca cc thng s AR c xem l cc h s d on tuyn
44
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh tnh (LPC). Hng s M trong cng thc l bc d on. Nh vy, vic d on d trn t hp tuyn tnh ca M mu trong qu kh ca tn hiu, chnh v th vic d on mang tnh tuyn tnh. Li d on c tnh bng cng thc:
[ n ] e[ n ] = s[ n ] s
(2.3.2)
Hnh 2.3.1 H thng nhn dng di dng d on tuyn tnh
Hnh 2.3.2 B lc li d on Li d on chnh l sai bit gia mu tht s v mu c lng. Hnh 2.3.2 m t lu tn hiu thc hin b lc li d on. B lc c ng vo l tn hiu AR v ng ra chnh l tn hiu li d on. Ti thiu ho li
i t s[n] . Bi ton nhn dng h thng bao gm vic c lng cc thng s AR a
thc hin vic c lng, tiu chun phi c thit lp. Trong , bnh phng trung bnh li d on c tnh bi cng thc:
2 M J = E {e 2 [n]} = E s[n] + ai s[n i ] i =1
(2.3.3)
c ti thiu ha bng cch la chn LPC thch hp. Thng s LPC ti u c th c tm bng cch thit lp cc o hm ring phn ca J khi ai tin ti zero:
45

M J = 2 E s[ n] + ai s[ n i ] s[ n k ] = 0 ak i =1
(2.3.4)
i , lc ny LPC chnh bng cc thng s Vi k = 1, 2,..., M , khi (2.3.4) xy ra th a i = a
AR. li d on li d on ca b d on c cho bi cng thc
s2 E{s 2 [n]} = 10 log PG = 10 log10 10 E{e 2 [n]} 2 e
(2.3.5)
L t s gia bin tn hiu ng vo v bin ca li d on theo n v decibels (dB). li d on l thng s o lng cht lng ca b d on. Mt b d on tt hn c kh nng to ra li d on nh hn vi li cao hn. Ti thiu ha bnh phng trung bnh li d on
i , th e[n] = x[n] ; nh vy li d on T hnh 2.3.2, ta c th nhn xt khi a i = a tng t nh dng tn hiu nhiu trng to ra tn hiu AR s[n] . y l trng hp ti u khi li bnh phng trung bnh c ti thiu ha, vi
J min = E {e 2 [ n]} = E {x 2 [ n]} = x2

Khi , li d on t gi tr ln nht.
(2.3.6)
iu kin ti u c th t c khi bc ca b d on ln hn hoc bng bc ca qu trnh tng hp AR. Trong thc t, M thng l s cha bit trc. Mt phng php n gin c th c lng c gi tr M t tn hiu ngun l v biu li d on nh l mt hm ca bc d on. Vi phng php ny, ta c th quyt nh c bc ca d on ng vi li bo ha, khi khi tng bc d on th li khng tng. Gi tr ca bc d on ti im tha iu kin bo ha ny c xem l gi tr c lng tt nht cho bc ca tn hiu AR. i , dn Sau khi xc nh c gi tr M, hm chi ph J t gi tr ti thiu khi ai = a n e[n] = x[n] . V khi , li d on s bng vi gi tr tn hiu u vo ca b tng hp qu trnh AR.
2.3.1.2 Phn tch d on tuyn tnh cho tn hiu ng Tn hiu thoi trong thc t l tn hiu ng, nn LPC phi c tnh ng vi tng khung tn hiu. Trong mt khung tn hiu, mt tp LPC c tnh ton v dng i din cho cc thuc tnh ca tn hiu trong mt chu k c th, vi gi nh rng s liu thng k ca tn hiu vn khng thay i trong mt khung. Qu trnh tnh ton LPC t d liu tn hiu c gi l phn tch d on tuyn tnh.
Bi ton d on tuyn tnh cho tn hiu ng c pht biu li nh sau: y l bi ton thc hin vic tnh cc gi tr LPC ng vi N im d liu vi thi gian kt thc l m : s[m N + 1] , s[m N + 2] , , s[m] . Vector LPC c vit nh sau:
a[m ] = [a1 [m]
a2 [m]
...
a M [m ]]
(2.3.7)
46
Ch ng 2 K thu ut x l m thanh Vi M l bc d on li d on o li d on ca b d on c cho bi cng c thc
m 2 s [n ] N +1 PG[m] = 10 log10 n = mm 2 e [n ] n = m N +1
Vi
(2 2.3.8)
e[n] = s[n] s[n] = s[n] + ai [m]s[n i ] ; n = m N + 1 , , m

i =1
(2 2.3.9)
Cc LPC ai [m ] c tnh ton t cc mu tro ong chu k. li d on o nh ngh h a cng th t c (2.3.9) l l mt hm theo t bin thi gian m . V d: Nhi iu trng c to ra bi b to s ngu nhin phn phi u, sau c lc bi b tng hp AR vi
a1 = 1.534
a6 = 0.061 1
a2 = 1
a7 = 0.172
a3 = 0.58 87
a8 = 0.156
a 4 = 0.347
a9 = 0.157
a56 = 0.08
a10 = 0.14
Khung tng n hp ca tn t hiu AR c dng cho phn tc ch LP, vi tng cng l 240 c lng t ng tng n quan kh ng hi qui s dng ca s Hammin ng. Phn tch LP mu. c th t c hin vi bc t 2 n 20. Hnh 2.3.3 tm tt kt qu, vi li d on c tnh ton ti M = 2 v t gi tr cao c nht ti M = 10 . C c bc ln hn 10 khng g cho c li cao hn na, cho nn n ta c th ch cn xt t n M = 10 .
Hnh 2.3.3 3 li d on (PG) l l mt hm theo t bin bc d on M
2.3.1.3 Gii thut Levison-Durbin Thng thng, vic tnh ton ma trn nghch o khng n gin, tuy nhin i vi bi ton ny, cc h s gii thut c th c tnh thng qua tnh ton ma trn tng quan. Hai gii thut Levison-Durbin v Leroux-Gueguen l hai gii thut rt ph hp cho vic tnh ton LP ca cc h thng trin khai trong thc t.
Gii thut Levison-Durbin thc hin vic tm b d on bc th M t b d on bc th ( M 1) . y l qu trnh lp quy cho n khi tm c ln u tin b d on bc zero, sau s dng b bc zero s c dng tnh b d on bc 1 v qu trnh tip tc cho n khi tnh ton c b d on c bc cn tm. Gii thut: bin u vo l cc h s t tng quan R[l ] , gi tr tnh c l cc LPC v RC

nh tr ban u: l = 0 , tp J 0 = R[0] Thc hin quy, for
l = 1,2,..., M
l 1 1 (R[l ]) + ai (l 1) R[l i ] , J l 1 i =1
o Bc 1: Tnh ton RC th l , kl =
o Bc 2: Tnh ton cc LPC ng vi b d on bc l
ai( l ) = kl ;
l 1) ai( l ) = ai( l 1) kl al( i ;
i 1, 2,..., l 1
Dng nu l = M
o Bc 3: Tnh gi tr bnh phng trung bnh li d on tng ng
vi li gii ti bc l
J l = J j 1 (1 kl2 )
Gn l = l + 1 , quay li bc 1
2.3.1.4 Gii thut Leroux-Gueguen Bi ton s dng gii thut Levinson-Durbin da trn cc gi tr ca cc LPC, bi v chng c thuc mt tm vc rng v gi tr bin ca bin ca cc LPC khng th tnh c ng vi c s l thuyt. Vn xy ra khi gii thut c p dng cho tnh ton trn du chm tnh. Gii thut Leroux-Gueguen khc phc im yu ny ca gii thut LevisonDurbin.
Leroux v Gueguen [1979] xut mt phng php tnh ton cc RC t cc gi tr t tng quan m khng cn phi tnh thng qua cc LPC. Do , bi ton lin quan n tm ng vi iu kin du chm tnh c gii quyt. Xt thng s sau
(l ) [k ] = E{e(l ) [n]s[n k ]} = ai(l ) R[i k ] ,

l i =0
(2.3.10)
Vi
e ( l ) [n ]
= li d on s dng b lc d on li bc th 48
ai( l )
R[ k ]
= LPC ca b d on bc th l = gi tr t tng quan ca tn hiu s[n]
nh l:
( l ) [k ] R[0]
Sinh vin c th t chng minh
(2.3.11)
Bng 2.3.1 m t cc thng s cn thit ng vi mi bc l trong gii thut LerouxGueguen Bng 2.3.1
l
M
Cc thng s cn thit
M 1
( M 1) [0], ( M 1) [M ] ( M 2 ) [ 1], ( M 2 ) [0], ( M 2 ) [M 1], ( M 2 ) [M ] ( M 3) [ 2], , ( M 3) [0], ( M 3) [M 2], , ( M 3) [M ] ( M 4 ) [ 3], , ( M 4 ) [0], ( M 4 ) [M 3], , ( M 4 ) [M ] (1) [ M + 2], , (1) [0], (1) [2], , (1) [M ] ( 0 ) [ M + 1], , ( 0 ) [0], ( 0 ) [1], , ( 0 ) [M ]
M 2
M 3
M 4
0
Gii thut:

nh tr ban u: l = 0 , tp ( 0 ) [k ] = R[k ], k = M + 1,..., M Thc hin quy, for
l = 1,2,..., M
o Bc 1: Tnh ton RC th l , kl = o Bc 2: Tnh ton cc thng s
e ( l 1) [0]
( l 1) [l ]
, dng khi l = M
( l ) [k ] = ( l 1) [k ] kl ( l 1) [l k ];
k = M + l + 1,...,0, l + 1,...M .
o Gn l = l + 1 , quay li bc 1 2.3.1.5 So snh gii thut Levison-Durbin v Leroux-Gueguen Gii thut Leroux-Gueguen ph hp hn cho cc bi ton du chm tnh i vi cc bin trung gian c bin c bit trc. Nhc im ca gii thut ny l ch c cc gi tr RC l kt qu tr v, l kt qu khng cn thit i vi b lc li. i vic cc b lc c dng trc tip, cc gi tr LPC c th c c nu dng mt trong hai gii thut.
Vic s dng b lc mt cao thng trong vic tnh ton LP thng khng n gin
49
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh do s lng tnh ton. Ngoi ra, i vi trng hp thi gian bin i, cc h s c cp nht t khung thi gian ny n khung thi gian khc s lm cho vic tnh ton cng phc tp hn i vi cu trc li. Ngoi ra, phng php Leroux-Gueguen s dng bin i RC-sangLPC khng cung cp vic lu tr li cc bc tnh ton quan trng so vi gii thut LevinsonDurbin. Tt c cc iu trn lm cho gii thut Levinson-Durbin thng dng hn trong thc tin, c bit l i vi cc bi ton s. Trong cc bi ton ng dng thc t, gii thut Levison-Durbin dng trong iu kin du chm tnh phi c cn nhc k sao cho m bo cc bin phi nm trong tm vc cho php.
2.3.2 D on tuyn tnh trong x l thoi
i vi vic n gin ha m hnh x l thoi, gii thut d on tuyn tnh (LPC) l mt trong nhng gii thut p dng to cc b m ha chun cho vic x l m hot ng tn s thp. tc 2.4kbps, b m ha FS1015 LPC [Hng Tremain, 1982] l mt bc tin vt bt trong ngnh x l m thanh; mc d cht lng ca m thanh c gii m khng cao, nhng h thng gii m n gin v d hiu. Thut ng m ha d on tuyn tnh xut hin t khi vic to ra m thanh thoi s dng bt k gii thut ng dng m hnh LPC, trong chun FS1015 l chun in hnh. Ban u, trong vic pht trin cho vic truyn thng bo mt thuc cc ng dng qun s, b m ha FS1015 c c trng bi tn hiu thoi m tng hp ng ra thng cn n cc nhn vin vn hnh tng i c hun luyn s dng. Mc d hu ht cc b m ha thoi da vo cng ngh LP t c hiu sut cao hn ngy nay, nhng v c bn, hot ng ca chng l c ngun gc t LPC, vic ci tin nhm mc ch t c cht lng tt hn v hiu sut m ha ti u hn.
2.3.2.1 M hnh x l tn hiu thoi M hnh x l thoi da vo m hnh m ha d on tuyn tnh c m t trong hnh 2.3.4. M hnh c dng da vo vic quan st cc c tnh c bn ca tn hiu thoi v bt chc k thut to m thanh thoi ca ngi. B lc tng hp c m phng theo s pht m, khu m ca ming ngi. Tn hiu li ng vo ca b lc hoc tn hiu kch thch mch c m phng theo dng xung truyn ng (m thanh thoi) hoc l nhiu ngu nhin (m thanh phi thoi). Nh vy, ph thuc vo trng thi m thanh thoi hay phi thoi ca tn hiu, mch chuyn c thit lp v tr thch hp sao cho ng vo tng ng s c chn a vo mch. Mc nng lng ca tn hiu ng ra c iu khin bi thng s li.
Lm cch no m hnh ph hp vi ng cnh ca m ha m thoi? Xt cc mu thoi mt cch ring l ng vi tng khung tn hiu khng chng ln nhau. ng vi tng on khung ngn, thuc tnh ca tn hiu v c bn l hng s. Trong mi khung, cc thng s ca m hnh c c lng t cc mu thoi, cc thng s bao gm:

Dng: tn hiu thuc khung l thoi hay phi thoi li: lin quan ch yu n mc nng lng ca khung H s lc: nh r p ng ca b lc tng hp Chu k m thanh: trong trng hp i vi khung thoi, l chiu di thi gian gia cc xung kch thch lin tip nhau.
50
Ch ng 2 K thu ut x l m thanh Qu trnh c lng th hng s c thc hin ng vi tng g khung, cc c kt qu chnh l cc th ng tin ca khung. k Nh vy, thay v truyn cc xung PCM, cc thng s ca m hn nh s c gi i. gi g m thiu nhi n u v s m mo tn hiu, u cc bt tru uyn c cp pht theo o ch nh ng vi tng thng s, nh h vy, t s nn ti u c c th t c.
Kha tr ruyn m/ cch m B lc tng hp m thoi
Chu k cng
B to ng chui xun
B to nhiu trng n
T Truyn m
li
Cc h s C b lc
Hnh 2.3.4 M hn nh LPC tng g hp ting ni n hng s l nh him v ca b m ha a. B gii m s s dng g cc Vic c lng cc th n ny v dn ng m hnh to thoi tng hp m m thoi. thng s c lng
Hn nh 2.3.5 H nh v cc c c khung phi i thoi Hnh 2.3.5 5 m t mt khung tn n hiu phi th hoi c 180 0 mu (s dng b m ha 15). Cc mu nguyn thy c x phn tch LP qua qu tr rnh tng hp LPC dng g cho FS101 vic tng hp m thoi da tr rn m hnh hnh 2.3.4. Tn hiu ca tn hiu ng guyn thy v v tn hiu sau khi tng hp tng i ging nh hau do mt ph cng g sut c dng n tng ng, c m m t trong hnh h 2.3.6.
Hnh 2.3.6 S ca mt khung m thanh ph H hi thoi, Hn nh bn tri: tn hiu ng guyn thu; Hnh H bn ph hi: tn hiu tng hp. ng nt t l gi tr mt ph cng sut dng phng n php d on LPC.
Hnh 2.3.7 S khung H g tn hiu m m thanh thoi. Hnh trn n: tn hiu ng guyn thy; Hnh di: tn t hiu tng g hp.
Hnh 2.3.8 S ca mt khung H m thanh tho oi, Hnh b n tri: tn hi iu nguyn thu t ; Hnh bn b phi: tn n hiu tng hp. ng nt t l gi i tr mt ph cng su ut dng ph ng php d on LPC C.

2.3.2.2 Cu trc ca gii thut dng m hnh LPC 2.3.2.2.1 B m ha (Encoder)
Hnh 2.3.9 m t s khi ca b m ha. Tn hiu thoi ng vo u tin s c phn ct thnh cc khung tn hiu khng chng ln nhau. B lc u dng hiu chnh ph ca tn hiu ng vo, b nhn dng ting ni phn loi khung hin ti ang x l l tn hiu thoi hay phi thoi v cc ng ra mt bit biu th trng thi ca m thoi. Tn hiu ra ca b lc u c dng phn tch LP, mch bao gm mi LPC . Cc h s ny s c lng t ha vi cc ch s c truyn nh l thng tin ca khung. Cc LPC c lng t ho dng xy dng b lc d on li, dng lc cc tn hiu m thanh t b lc u c c tn hiu d on li ng ra.
Hnh 2.3.9 S khi ca b m ha LPC 2.3.2.2.2 Tnh ton cng sut Cng sut ca chui li d on ng vi hai trng hp khung thoi v khung phi thoi l khc nhau. K hiu chui li d on l e[n] , n [0, N 1] vi N l chiu di ca khung. Trng hp tn hiu l phi thoi:
p=
1 N
e [n]
2
n =0
N 1
(2.3.12)
Trng hp tn hiu l m thoi, T l chu k ln nht ca tn hiu thnh phn
p=
1 [N T ]T
[ N T ]T 1
n =0
e [n ]
2
(2.3.13)
dng [] lun m bo rng vic tnh ton lun nm trong vng bin ca khung.
Vi [] l hm tnh gi tr nh hn hoc bng vi ton hng. Gi s rng N > T th vic
53
2.3.2.2.3 B gii m
Khi unpack Ch s chu k cng B gii m chu k cng Ch s cng sut B gii m cng sut Ch s LPC B gii m LPC
Chui bit
Khi to xung hun luyn
Tnh ton l i
Khi to nhiu
Kha voiced/ unvoiced Ting ni tng hp
B lc tng h p
Khi De-emphasis
Hnh 2.3.10 S khi ca b gii m LPC Hnh 2.3.10 m t s khi ca b gii m theo m hnh to m LPC vi cc thng s c iu khin bi lung bit. Gi s rng ca b to chui xung to ra cc xung c bin n v, trong khi b to nhiu trng c tn hiu ng ra c bin khc i lng n v. Vic tnh ton li c thc hin nh sau: i vi tn hiu l phi thoi, cng sut ca tn hiu ca b lc tng hp phi bng vi li d on ca b m ha. K hiu li l g , ta c
g=
(2.3.14)
2.3.2.2.4 Gii hn ca m hnh LPC Gii hn 1: Trong mt s trng hp, mt khung m thanh c c phn loi l tn hiu dng thoi hay phi thoi. Gii hn 2: Vic s dng hon ton nhiu ngu nhin hoc hon ton chui xung c chu k to kch thch khng ph hp vi thc t l s dng tn hiu m thoi thc. Gii hn 3: Thng tin v pha ca tn hiu nguyn thy khng c xem xt. Gii hn 4: Phng php thc hin vic tng hp cc khung thoi, trong khi mt chui xung dng kch thch b lc tng hp vi cc h s c c t vic phn tch LP vi phm nn tng ca m hnh AR.
2.4 PHN TCH CHT LNG X L THOI

2.4.1 Cc phng php m ho
Dch v thoi l dch v c bn v quan trng nht trong cc dch v cung cp cho khch hng ca cc nh khai thc di ng Vit Nam cng nh trn th gii. m bo h tr tt khch hng nhm t c li th cnh tranh, cc nh khai thc di ng cn h tr tt 54
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh dch v c bn ny. Do , vic nh gi cc ch tiu cht lng cht lng thoi c vai tr rt quan trng. Cc phng thc nh gi cht lng thoi c nhiu t chc vin thng (nh ITU,ETSI...) nghin cu, xy dng. Trong phn ny trnh by mt s phng php nh gi cht lng thoi, c bit l cho mng vin thng (c nh, di ng). Vic nh gi cht lng thoi c vai tr rt quan trng i vi cc nh khai thc mng thng tin di ng v c nh. V thoi l dch v thng tin c bn cho nn vic m bo cung cp dch v ny vi cht lng n nh l mt yu t cnh tranh ca cc nh khai thc mng. Phng php nh gi cht lng thoi c nhiu t chc tiu chun nh ITU-T, ETSI, 3GPP thc hin chun ha. Gio trnh phn tch bn cht ca mt s phng php nh gi cht lng thoi c bn: phng php nh gi theo thang im MOS (Mean Opinion Score) da trn khuyn ngh ITU-T P.800, cc phng php nh gi da trn m hnh gic quan PSQM (Perceptual Speech Quality Measurement) theo khuyn ngh ITU-T P.861, PESQ (Perceptual Evaluation of Speech Quality) theo khuyn ngh ITU-T P.862 v phng php da trn m hnh nh gi truyn dn E-model theo tiu chun ETR 250 ca ETSI. Cc phng php ny c so snh v u nhc im v phm vi ng dng.
2.4.2 Cc tham s lin quan n cht lng thoi
Cc tham s truyn dn c bn lin quan n cht lng thoi l:
Tham s nh gi cng m lng/tn hao tng th (OLR-Overall Loudness Rating): OLR ca h thng phi khng c vt qu gii hn c nh ngha trong khuyn ngh G.111 ca ITU-T. Cc gi tr nh gi tn hao pha pht v thu (SLR v RLR) i vi h thng GSM c nh gi cho n giao din POI. Tuy nhin, tham s nh hng chnh l c tnh ca MS gm c b chuyn i tng t - s (ADC) v s tng t (DAC). Do vy, thng thng, ngi ta nh gi OLR ca giao din v tuyn. Tr: thi gian truyn dn tn hiu gia hai u cui gy ra nhng kh khn trong vic hi thoi. Tr bao gm: tr chuyn m thoi, tr m ha knh, tr mng v tr x l tn hiu thoi loi b ting vng v gim nhiu ch Handsfree. Ting vng (echo). Ct ngng (clipping): l hin tng mt phn u hoc phn cui ca cm tn hiu thoi. Cc tnh cht lin quan n nhy tn s. Xuyn m (sidetone loss). Nhiu nn...
2.4.3 Cc phng php nh gi cht lng thoi c bn
Vic nh gi cht lng thoi trong mng GSM cng nh cc h thng thng tin khc (c nh v v tuyn) c th c thc hin bng cch nh gi cc tham s truyn dn c nh hng n cht lng thoi v xc nh tc ng ca cc tham s ny i vi cht lng tng th. Tuy nhin, vic nh gi tng tham s rt phc tp v tn km. Hin nay, vic nh gi cht lng thoi c da trn mt tham s cht lng tng th l MOS (Mean Opinion Score). Nhng phng php s dng MOS u mang tnh cht ch quan do chng 55
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh ph thuc vo quan im ca ngi s dng dch v. Tuy vy, chng ta c th phn chia cc phng php nh gi cht lng thoi ra lm hai loi c bn:
Cc phng php nh gi ch quan: vic nh gi theo quan im ca ngi s dng v mc cht lng c thc hin trong thi gian thc. Phng php ny c quy nh trong khuyn ngh ITU-T P.800. Cc phng php nh gi khch quan: s dng mt s m hnh c lng mc cht lng theo thang im MOS. Phng php nh gi khch quan c th c phn thnh: a) Cc phng php so snh: da trn vic so snh tn hiu thoi truyn dn vi mt tn hiu chun bit. b) Cc phng php c lng tuyt i: da trn vic c lng tuyt i cht lng tn hiu thoi (phng php ny khng s dng cc tn hiu chun bit); vd: INMD (s dng trong khuyn ngh P.561 ca ITU-T). c) Cc m hnh nh gi truyn dn: phng php ny xc nh gi tr cht lng thoi mong mun da trn nhng hiu bit v mng; vd: m hnh ETSI Model.
Trn thc t, cc thit b o c th s dng kt hp nhiu phng php nh gi cht lng thoi. Tuy vy, trong cc phng php ny th phng php so snh (hay cn gi l intrusive methods) c kt qu nh gi chnh xc nht. Cc phng php nh gi cc cng c th c s dng cho mt s ng dng c th.
Hnh 2.4.1 Phn loi cc phng php nh gi cht lng thoi: a) Cc phng php so snh, b) Cc phng php c lng tuyt i, c) Cc m hnh nh gi truyn dn 56

2.4.3.1 Phng php nh gi ch quan (MOS) K thut ny nh gi cht lng thoi s dng i tng l mt s lng ln ngi nghe, s dng phng php thng k tnh im cht lng. im nh gi bnh qun ca nhiu ngi c tnh l im Mean Opinion Scoring (MOS). K thut thc hin tnh im MOS c m t trong khuyn ngh P.800 ca ITU. Khuyn ngh P.830 th hin cc phng php c th nh gi cht lng thoi cho cc b m ha. C hai khuyn ngh ITU ny m t: phng thc nh gi, cch tnh im theo phng thc nh gi ch quan, gi tr ca im, tnh cht ca cc mu thoi c s dng nh gi v cc iu kin khc m vic kim tra cht lng c thc hin.
Phng thc nh gi theo MOS c th c thc hin theo cc bi kim tra hi thoi hai chiu hoc bi nghe mt chiu. Cc bi kim tra nghe mt chiu s dng cc mu thoi chun. Ngi nghe nghe mu truyn qua mt h thng v nh gi cht lng tng th ca mu da trn thang im cho trc. P.800 nh ngha mt s hnh thc nh gi cht lng thoi theo phng php ch quan:

Bi kim tra hi thoi (Conversation Opinion Test). nh gi phn loi tuyt i (Absolute Category Rating (ACR) Test). Phng thc phn loi theo suy hao (Degradation Category Rating (DCR)). Phng thc phn loi so snh (Comparison Category Rating (CCR)).
Mi phng thc trn c mt thang im nh gi. V d: phng thc nh gi hi thoi v ACR u c thang im tng t gi l im hi thoi v im cht lng nghe. Trong phng thc hi thoi, ngi nghe c hi v quan im ca h i vi kt ni ang s dng. ACR hi ch th v cht lng thoi. Thang im cho c hai phng thc trn nh sau: im nh gi 5 4 3 2 1 Cht lng thoi Rt tt Tt Chp nhn c Ti Rt ti
y l thang im t 1-5 thng thng c s dng tnh MOS. V d th hai l im n lc nghe trong phng thc ACR (ACR Listening Effort Score). Trong phng thc ny, ch th c yu cu nh gi n lc ca h thc hin hiu ng ngha ca cc cu chun s dng lm mu. Thang im c cho nh sau: im nh gi 5 4 3 2 1 Mc c gng cn thc hin hiu cu Khng cn c gng Cn ch nhng khng cn c gng nhiu Cn tng i tp trung Cn tp trung Khng hiu cu mu 57
Hin nhin, cc phng thc cho im theo MOS c mt s nhc im nh sau:
Phng thc ny mang tnh cht ch quan v kt qu ph thuc vo nhiu yu t khng th kim sot ca ch th nh: trng thi tm l, thi i vi bi kim tra v trnh vn ha. Trn thc t, phng thc nh gi cht lng thoi theo thang im MOS khng phi l phng thc nht qun. Phng thc ny rt tn km, i hi nhiu ngi tham gia v thit lp phc tp. Khi cn thc hin o thng xuyn cc tham s cht lng th vic s dng phng php nh gi cht lng ny l khng thc t.
Nhng hn ch ca phng php nh gi cht lng thoi da trn MOS cho thy cn c mt phng thc nh gi khch quan, phng php ny c th thc hin mt cch t ng nh gi cht lng thoi.
2.4.3.2 Cc phng php so snh da trn m hnh gic quan 2.4.3.2.1 Phng php PSQM
PSQM l k thut nh gi cht lng thoi c pht trin bi John G. Beerends v J. A. Stemerdink thuc Trung tm nghin cu KPN H Lan. Trong khong t 1993-1996, nhiu k thut nh gi cht lng thoi c ITU so snh xc nh k thut c chnh cao nht (c lng gn nht vi phng php nh gi ch quan). Theo ITU, PSQM l k thut nh gi cht lng thoi c tng quan ln nht vi cc kt qu theo phng php nh gi ch quan. PSQM sau c ITU-T Study Group 12 thng qua v c cng b trong khuyn ngh P.861 nm 1996. K thut ny c s dng rng ri v th hin chnh xc tng i cao. PSQM l mt phng php tnh ton nhm c lng cht lng thoi theo kt qu ca phng php nh gi ch quan theo khuyn ngh P.830 (MOS). Tuy nhin, PSQM tnh theo thang im khc so vi MOS. im PSQM th hin lch gia tn hiu chun v tn hiu truyn dn. PSQM c thit k s dng cho tn hiu thoi (300-3400 Hz) qua cc b m ha thoi. Phng thc ny c s dng o tn hao ca cc b m ha thoi ny da trn cc thng s nhn thc ca con ngi. Phng thc ny s dng hiu qu i vi cc b m ha thoi tc thp. Vic x l trong phng thc PSQM c th hin trn hnh 2.4.2 thc hin php o PSQM, mt mu ting ni c a vo h thng v c x l bi mt b m ha thoi bt k. Nhng tnh cht ca tn hiu vo ging nh ca cc tn hiu s dng cho php nh gi MOS c nh ngha trong chun ITU P.830. Cc tn hiu vo c th l mu ting ni tht hoc ting ni nhn to theo khuyn ngh ITU P.50. ITU-T khuyn ngh tn hiu vo c lc theo modified IRS (Intermediate Reference System trong khuyn ngh ITU P.48) c nhng tnh cht c nh ngha trong ph lc ca D/P.830. N m phng c tnh tn s ca my in thoi u cui. Khi nhn c, tn hiu ra c ghi li. Sau , n c ng b v mt thi gian vi tn hiu vo. Hai tn hiu ny c thc hin so snh bi cc thut ton PSQM. So snh c 58
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh thc hin theo tng phn on thi gian (khung thi gian) trong min tn s (c bit n l cc phn t thi gian - tn s) hot ng da trn cc tham s ly t mt ph cng sut ca tn hiu vo v ra ca cc phn t thi gian - tn s. Vic so snh da trn cc tham s nhn thc ca con ngi nh: tn s v nhy m lng (khng ch ph thuc vo Mt ph cng sut - Spectral Power Densities (SPD)). im PSQM nm trong di t 0 n v cng. im s ny th hin lch v mt cm nhn gia tn hiu ra v tn hiu vo. VD: im 0 th hin tn hiu ra v tn hiu vo hon ton trng khp, nh gi l mc cht lng hon ho. im PSQM cng cao th th hin mc tn hao cng ln v nh gi l mc cht lng thp. Trn thc t, gii hn trn i vi thang im PSQM trong khong t 15-20.
Hnh 2.4.2 Phng thc nh gi cht lng thoi PSQM 2.4.3.2.2 Phng php PESQ PESQ l phng php nh gi cht lng thoi so snh; phng php ny c m t trong khuyn ngh ITU-T P.862 c s dng thay th cho khuyn ngh ITU-T P.861. PESQ so snh tn hiu gc X(t) vi tn hiu suy gim Y(t) l kt qu ca vic truyn tn hiu X(t) qua h thng thng tin. u ra ca PESQ l mt c lng v cht lng thoi nhn c ca tn hiu Y(t). Trong bc u tin ca PESQ, mt lot cc tr tn hiu gia tn hiu vo ban u v tn hiu ra c xc nh; mi gi tr tr c tnh cho mt khong thi gian m c s khc bit v tr so vi phn on thi gian trc . ng vi mi phn on thi gian, im bt u v kt thc c xc nh. Mt thut ton sp xp da trn nguyn tc so snh gia kh nng c hai tr trong mt on thi gian vi kh nng c mt tr trong on thi gian . Thut ton ny c th x l thay i v tr trong c khong lng v trong thi gian tch cc thoi. Da trn tp cc tr xc nh c, PESQ so snh tn hiu vo ban u vi tn hiu ra c sp xp bng cch s dng mt m hnh gic quan. im mu cht ca qu trnh ny l chuyn i c tn hiu gc v tn hiu b suy gim thnh dng biu din ca tn hiu m thanh trong h thng thnh gic ca con ngi c tnh n tn s thnh gic v cng m. Qu trnh ny c thc hin theo nhiu giai on: sp xp v mt thi gian, sp xp mc tn hiu v mc tn hiu nghe c cn chnh, nh x thi gian - tn s, frequency warping v cn chnh cng m. Trong PESQ, hai tham s li c tnh ton trong m hnh kinh nghim; chng c kt hp li c lng im MOS. Mt m hnh my tnh ca ch th bao gm m hnh gic quan v m hnh kinh nghim c s dng so snh tn hiu u ra vi tn hiu gc s dng cc thng tin sp xp 59
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh ly c t cc tn hiu nh thi trong mun sp xp nh thi.
Hnh 2.4.3 M t phng php nh gi cht lng thoi PESQ Phng php PESQ l c th s dng khng ch nh gi cc b m ha thoi m cn nh gi cht lng thoi u cui n u cui. Cc h thng thng tin trn thc t c th b nh hng ca nhiu khu lc, tr kh bin v cc tn hao do li knh truyn dn v vic s dng cc b codec tc thp. Phng php PSQM c m t trong khuyn ngh ITU-T P.861 ch c khuyn ngh s dng nh gi cc b codec thoi m khng tnh n cc yu t nh lc, tr kh bin ... PESQ tnh n cc yu t ny nh s dng cn bng hm truyn dn, sp xp nh thi, v mt thut ton mi thc hin xc nh tn hao trung bnh. PESQ c kim tra trong iu kin kt hp nhiu yu t nh: lc, tr kh bin, tn hao m ha v li knh truyn dn. Phng php ny c khuyn ngh s dng thay th cho PSQM nh gi cht lng thoi t u cui n u cui. 2.4.3.2.3 M hnh nh gi truyn dn E-Model E-model (tham kho ETR 250, EG 201 050 v khuyn ngh ITU-T G.107) c s dng lm mt cng c quy hoch truyn dn trong cc mng in thoi. N h tr vic c lng cht lng tn hiu thoi t mt kt hp ca nhiu yu t can nhiu. E-model khc so vi cc phng php nh gi cht lng phn tch trn:

y khng phi l mt cng c o m l mt cng c quy hoch mc d n c th s dng kt hp vi cc php o. model ny c lng cht lng thoi hai chiu v tnh n cc yu t nh: ting vng, tr ...
u vo ca E-model bao gm cc tham s c s dng ti thi im quy hoch. Lu rng vic quy hoch c th c thc hin trc v sau khi trin khai mng. E-model c tnh n cc tham s nh: nhiu, tr, ting vng v tnh cht ca thit b u cui m c chun ha hoc c xc nh, c th o c. Ngoi ra, E-model xc nh trng s 60
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh i vi nh hng ca thit b s hin i (cc b codec tc thp, cc b ghp knh ...) n cht lng truyn dn. Trong nhiu trng hp, s lng v chng loi cc thit b ny c xc nh ti thi im quy hoch. E-model da trn gi thit l cc tn hao truyn dn c th c chuyn i thnh "psychological factors" v cc h s ny c tnh cng dn trn mt "psychological scale". Ni cch khc, nhn thc ch quan v cht lng thoi c coi nh l tng hp ca cc tn hao truyn dn. E-model u tin thc hin tnh ton mt "gi tr gc" v cht lng (gi tr ny c xc nh t nhiu trn mng). Mi tn hao thm vo c biu din di dng mt gi tr tn hao. Kt qu ca php tr gi tr gc vi cc gi tr tn hao th hin c lng cht lng thoi cho mt mng c th. Cui cng, kt qu cht lng thoi thu c c s dng c tnh t l thu bao nh gi cht lng l tt hay ti. C th, E-model tnh mt h s nh gi truyn dn R nh sau: R = Ro - Is - Id - Ie + A H s ny bao gm: gi tr gc Ro, cc tn hao Is, Id v Ie v mt h s thun li (Advantage factor) nh sau:
(2.4.1)
Ro m t t s tn hiu trn nhiu (SNR) ca kt ni. N bao gm tp m trong mng, trong mi trng pha ngi ni v ngi nghe v nh hng ca tp m ti pha ngi nghe, SNR c coi l mt tham s biu din cht lng c bn. Is th hin cc tn hao nht thi bao gm: mc cng m, mc xuyn m vt qu phm vi cho php v tn hao lng t (m ha PCM). Id cha cc tn hao do tr v ting vng. Ie bao gm cc tn hao gy ra bi cc k thut nn thoi (codec tc thp). A cho php iu chnh cht lng trong nhng trng hp c bit nh thm vo cc yu t phi k thut nh gi cht lng.
Cui cng, E-model s dng mt nh x phi tuyn tnh chuyn gi tr R thnh gi tr MOS tng ng. Nh vy, E-model cho php xc nh cht lng thoi nh phn tch tc ng ca nhiu tham s truyn dn. Nh c th nh gi nh hng ca cc tham s ny i vi mc cht lng tng th. 2.4.3.2.4 Kt lun Phn 2.4.3.2 phn tch cc phng php nh gi cht lng c th s dng nh gi cht lng thoi trong mng GSM. Nh phn tch trn, im MOS l ch tiu cht lng tng th c s dng nh gi cht lng thoi. Phng php nh gi ch quan s dng s liu vo l nhn xt ca khch hng v mc cht lng t tnh ton ra im nh gi bnh qun MOS. Cc phng php nh gi khch quan s dng cc m hnh tnh ton c lng ra mc cht lng quy i v MOS. Da trn nhng u nhc im v phm vi ng dng ca cc phng php ny, s dng nh gi cht lng thoi cho mng GSM ca VNPT c th s dng cc phng php nh gi nh sau:
S dng PESQ nh gi cht lng thoi mt chiu t u cui n u cui. 61

M hnh nh gi E-Model c th c s dng phn tch h thng nhm xc nh cc yu t nh hng n cht lng thoi. Ngoi ra, nu c iu kin c th s dng kt hp phng php nh gi ch quan kim chng li vic nh gi theo PESQ.
2.5 M HNH NG DNG X L THOI

2.5.1 M hnh thi gian ng 2.5.1.1 Tng quan Nhn dng ting ni t ng (Automatic speech recognition-ASR) l mt lnh vc nghin cu quan trng v c nhiu ng dng trn thc t, da trn vic lu tr mt hay nhiu mu m thanh (template) ng vi tng t trong bng t vng nhn dng. Qu trnh nhn dng thc hin vic so trng ting ni nhn c vi cc mu lu tr. Cc mu c khong cch o lng thp nht so vi mu ting ni nhn c chnh l t c nhn dng. Gii thut dng tm c s tng thch tt nht l da trn lp trnh ng (Dynamic Programming - DP), v mt trong cc gii thut l gii thut m hnh thi gian ng (Dynamic Time WarpingDTW).
c th nm bt c kin thc v DTW mt cch nhanh chng, c hai khi nim cn lm r

im c trng: l thng tin ca tng tn hiu c biu din di dng no . Sai bit: dng o lng no c dng tnh ton c s tng thch, c hai dng:
1. Cc b: tnh ton sai bit gia im c trng ca mt tn hiu mt tn hiu khc. 2. Ton cc: tnh ton sai bit tng gia mt tn hiu tng vi mt tn hiu khc c th c sai bit. Vic phn tch im c trng bao gm vic tnh ton vector c trng vi khong thi gian thng thng. i vi vic phn tch d on tuyn tnh, vector c trung bao gm vic tnh ton cc h s d on (hoc cc php bin i gia chng). Mt loi vector c trng thngdng dng trong nhn dng ting ni l Mel Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCCs). V cc vector c trng c th c nhiu phn t phc tp, nn gi tr trung bnh ca vic tnh ton cn c thit lp. Php o sai bit gia hai vector c trng c tnh ton bng n v theo h Euclidean. Nh vy sai bit cc b gia vector c trng x ca tn hiu mt v vector c trng y ca tn hiu hai c cho bi
d ( x, y ) =
(x y )
i i i
(2.5.1)
Mc d s dng h n v Euclidean cho vic tnh ton s tng phc tp hn so vi cc h o lng khc, nhng n li cho tc dng nhiu hn vi sai bit ln i vi mt c trng n. Nu nh vic quay lui trong qu trnh tm kim s tng thch nht cn thit th mt dy c nhim v lu tr cc entry trc trong qu trnh x l tm kim, c gi l backtrace array. 62
2.5.1.2 Gii thut DTW i xng Ting ni l mt qu trnh ph thuc vo thi gian. Ting ni c nhiu m tit tng t nhau nhng vi khong thi gian pht m khc nhau, hoc c m tit ng m nhng khc ch nhn m, v.v phn tch c s sai bit ton c gia hai mu ting ni (i din bi mt chui cc vector), vn v thi gian phi c xem xt.
Bi ton c m t hnh 2.5.1, m t mt ma trn hai chiu theo thi gian s dng cho vic canh chnh theo thi gian. Ct l m t cho ting ni mu (template) v dng l ting ni thu c cn nhn dng. Trong hnh minh ha, tn hiu vo SsPEEhH c xem l mt dng nhiu ca ting ni mu. Tn hiu vo ny s c so snh trng vi tt c cc mu ting ni c lu tr trong h thng. Mu c tng thch tt nht s c sai bit nh nht so vi tn hiu vo cn so snh. Gi tr sai bit ton cc l tng cc sai bit cc b ca vic so snh.
Hnh 2.5.1 M t canh chnh thi gian gia mu ting ni SPEECH v tn hiu ting ni u vo SsPEEhH Lm cch no c th tnh c tng thch tt nht (c gi tr sai bit ton cc nh nht) gia tn hiu cn so snh v ting ni mu? Vic ny c thc hin bng cch c lng tt c khong cch c th c, nhng cch ny khng hiu qu khi s lng khong cch c dng hm m theo chiu di ca tn hiu ng vo. Thay vo , ta xem xt nhng rng buc tn ti trong qu trnh so trng (hoc c th p t cc rng buc ny) v dng nhng rng buc ny c c gii thut hiu qu hn. Cc rng buc c thit lp phi khng phc tp v cng khng hn ch nhiu, nh:
Cc khong cch so trng khng th thc hin vic i lui; Mi khung ca tn hiu cn so trng phi c dng trong qu trnh so trng; Cc gi tr sai bit cc b c kt hp bng phng php cng dn vo gi tr sai bit ton cc.
Mi khung trong tn hiu cn so trng vi mu ting ni c xem xt ng vi tng tnh ton sai bit. Nu thi im ang xt l (i, j ) , vi i l ch s ca khung tn hiu ng vo, j l ca khung ting ni mu, th cc v tr trc l (i 1, j 1), (i 1, j ) , (i, j 1) . tng chnh ca lp trnh ng l ti v tr (i, j ) , vic tnh ton d trn sai bit nh nht ca cc v tr (i 1, j 1), (i 1, j ) , (i, j 1) . 63
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh Gii thut lp trnh ng thc hin cn phi ng b thi gian: mi ct ca ma trn thi gian-thi gian c xem nh l mt s k v cc tnh ton trc , do , ng vi mt mu ting ni c chiu di N , s lng bc so trng ti a l N . Gi D (i, j ) , d (i , j ) tng ng l sai bit ton cc v sai bit cc b ti v tr
(i, j ) .
D (i , j ) = min [D (i 1, j 1), D (i 1, j ), D (i , j 1) ] + d (i , j )
(2.5.2) Vi D (1,1) = d (1,1) l gi tr khi to ban u, gii thut ng dng qui vo vic tnh ton cc sai bit ti D (i, j ) . Gi tr cui D ( n , N ) chnh l gi tr chnh lch gia template v tn hiu cn so snh, lu rng N s khc nhau ng vi mi template. i vi vic nhn dng ting ni, gii thut DP khng cn phi chy trn cc my tnh c b nh ln, vic lu tr c thc hin bi mt array, lu gia tng ct n trong ma trn thi gian-thi gian. Ma trn c v tr u tin c gi tr l 0, nh vy ch nhng hng di chuyn trong ma trn c m t hnh 2.5.2 mi c th xut pht t v tr (i, j ) .
Hnh 2.5.2 Ba hng c tng thch tt nht c th i n t (i, j ) trong gii thut DTW i xng. Phng trnh (2.5.2) c thc hin bng phng php quy. Tuy nhin, tr khi ngn ng c ti u cho vic quy, phng php ny c th tn nhiu thi gian ngay c i vi nhng tn hiu cn so snh c kch thc nh. Mt phng php khc c th ci tin c tc x l cng nh cn b nh thc thi nh hn l dng hai vng lp, s dng hai array lu tr cc ct k vi ma trn thi gian-thi gian.
Hnh 2.5.3 V tr (i, j ) v (i,0) c cc nh hng khc nhau. T (i,0) ch c th i t (i 1,0) . Tuy nhin ti (i, j ) th c th i n 3 nh mc nh.
64
Ch ng 2 K thu ut x l m thanh G i thut tm Gi m chi ph ton cc nh nh n t: 1. Tnh ti ct 0, bt u t y ca . Gi tr ch hi ph ton c ca bng n gi tr ch hi ph cc b. Sau u , tnh ton gi tr chi ph ton cc ca cc c kh nng g cho c gi g tr thp bng cch ly gi tr chi ph cc b ca cng thm m cho gi tr r ton cc ca c gi l pr redCol (pred decessor colu umn). ngay di , ny r chi ph to n cc ca u tin ca ct k tip l curCol. Gi G tr cc b ca 2. Tnh gi tr cng thm m cho gi tr ton cc ca pha d i cng ca ct trc n . r ton cc ca cc cn n li ca curC Col. 3. Tnh gi tr c nh l pr redCol v lp li bc 2 cho n khi i tt c cc ct c tnh h ton 4. curCol xong. 5. Gi tr chi ph ton cc ti v tr ct cui cng, dng trn cc l gi tr cn tm. M gii ca qu trnh nh M h sau:
2.5.1.3 Gii thut DTW 2 W bt i xng n Mc d gii thut c bn DP c u im l i xng ( tt c cc kh hung ca tn hiu cn so o trng v mu ting ni cn tham kh ho c xe em xt), tuy nhin gii th hut vn cn n yu im l l ti cc v tr t ct v hn ng l thuc vo v cc v tr ng cho o c th sinh h li. Mt cch trnh vic ny l thc hin vic dng d (i , j ) hai ln tro ong mi b c ti v tr ng cho, , iu ny dn n loi b li ti cc c v tr ct v v hng, gi gi tr li c lp g cho cc bc di chuyn theo hng v ct. Ph ng trnh (1) ) s tr thnh h d h , d v tng ng
D (i, j ) = min m [D (i 1, j 1) + 2d (i, j ), D (i 1, j ) + d (i + j ) + d h , D (i, j 1) + d (i, j ) + d v ]
(2.5.3) ) Vi gi tr d h , d v c c qua thc nghim Cc rng buc trong vic nhy n c C cc k tip: p g cho m rng ( c l 2) (i 1, j 2) n v tr (i, j ) - gi l ng (i 1, j 1) n v tr (i, j ) - gi l ong g cho chun ( dc l 1) (i 1, j ) n v tr (i, j ) - gi l ng ng gang ( dc l 0) Gi s rng n mi khun ng ca tn hiu ng vo ch c x t n mt ln duy nht, , nh vy ta a c th khn ng xt n vi v c chun ha h di ca mu ting n ni. Do vi v c tnh to n ti tng khc nhau nn n gii thut c gi l l gii thut lp trnh n ng bt i xng.
H Hnh 2.5.4 Ba hng c gi tr so o trng tt nh n t c th i n t (i, j ) trong g gii thut DTW D bt i xng.
H Hnh 2.5.5 Cc v tr ti (i, j ) , (i,0) v (i,1) c cc nh hng khc k nhau. Ti c c th i n (i 1,0) ; ti (i,1) c th i n (i 1,1) hoc (i 1,0) ; ti (i, j ) (i,0) ch c th i n cc v tr chun.
Hnh 2.5.6 Vng t m H u m t v ng m cc hng di ch huyn khng g bao gi i n. Cc h nh ch nht m t l c c trng hp c bit. Trong T gii thu t t DTW i xng, d ng 0 l tr ng hp c bit, cn tr rong gii thu ut DTW bt i xng, dng 1 c x l khc c v i cc tr ng hp cn li. Cc trng g hp c bi it thng xy ra ti v tr j = 2i 1 , v j = 2i , gi tr ch hi ph ton cc cho tng trng hp c tnh nh h sau: 2i 1 : chi i ph cc b + gi tr nh nht ti v tr pr redCol [ j 1] v predCol [ j 2]
[ j 2] 2i : chi ph cc b + gi tr nh nht ti v tr predCol p

M gii ca qu trnh nh n sau:
G tr chi ph Gi h nh nht l l ct cui c cng lu tron ng highestJ 2.5.2 M hnh chui mark kov n 2.5.2.1 Tng 2 g quan hng M hnh Markov M n (H Hidden Mark kov Model - HMM) c s dng trong vic th k m hnh to m m thoi. Tn nh hiu qu ca m hnh h c th hi h n trong vi ic c th m m t c im ca tn hi h u m thoi theo dng ton t hc d dng cho vic x l tn hi h u. Cc trng thi ca HM MM c c trc khi th t c hin vic x l cc c trng thi ( (trch ng s). Nh th, ng v o ca HMM M chnh l ch hui cc thn ng s vector r ri rc theo o thi cc th gian. 2.5.2.2 nh 2 h ngha m h hnh Marko ov n M hnh Markov M n l mt tp cc c trng thi hu hn, m mi trng thi c lin quan n h m phn phi xc sut. Vi V c chuyn tip gia c c trng thi c nh ngh n a bi mt tp xc su ut c gi l xc sut chuy c n tip (transition probability) p . Trong mt trng thi c th, kt qu u c th c to ra da trn hm phn phi xc x sut t ng ng. Kt qu ny khng k phi l mt trng thi c th nhn n thy c thng qua q vic quan n st cc trng thi, cho o nn c gi l m hn nh Markov n. T Trong m h nh Markov n, cc k h hiu sau y c s dn ng S lng tr rng thi ca m hnh, N . S lng k k hiu quan n st theo th h t, M . Nu vic quan n st l lin tc th c gi g tr M l v hn Tp cc trng thi xc sut chuyn tip = aij
{ }
i hin ti. aij = p{qt +1 = j qt = i}, 1 i, j N vi qt l trng th
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh Xc sut trng thi chuyn tip phi tha mn rng buc trc giao sau
aij 0,
-
1 i, j N v
a
j =1
ij
=1 ,
1 i N
Hm phn phi xc sut ca mi trng thi B = b j ( k )
b j ( k ) = p{at = vk qt = j},
1 j N,
M
1 k M vi v k nh ngha cho k
hiu quan st th k theo th t alphabet, v at l vector thng s hin ti. iu kin
b j ( k ) 0, 1 j N ,
-
1 k M v
b (k ) = 1,
k =1 j
1 j N
Nu vic quan st l lin tc th phi dng hm mt xc sut lin tc thay cho xc sut ri rc. Trong trng hp ny, cc thng s ca hm mt xc sut lin tc phi c nh r. Thng thng mt xc sut xp x vi trng s tng M ca phn b Gaussian
b j (at ) = c jm ( jm , jm , at ) vi
m =1
c jm
= h s trng s = vector trung bnh = ma trn ng bin

1 j N, 1 m M
v
jm
jm
M
c jm tha cc iu kin c jm 0,
c
m =1
jm
= 1,
1 j N
1 i N
Trng thi ban u ca hm phn phi = { i } vi i = p{qi = i},
K hiu = ( , B , ) dng cho HMM vi hm phn phi xc sut ri rc, v
= ( , c jm , jm , jm , ) dng cho HMM vi hm mt xc sut lin tc

ng dng HMM trong vic nhn dng m thoi c lp ng dng HMM trong vic nhn dng m thoi lin tc
Mt s ng dng m hnh Markov n trong thc tin l: -
ng dng HMM trong vic x l cu trc a cp cho vn phm ting Anh ng dng HMM trong hc bn tho vit tay
2.5.2.3 ng dng HMM trong vic nhn dng m thoi lin tc Trong ch c lp, ta s dng mt HMM cho tng n v m thoi, cn trong trng hp nhn dng lin tc, h thng cn nhn dng mt chui cc m n v kt ni li vi nhau, i khi cn nhn din c mt cu, hoc nhiu cu. Khi s lng cu c th rt ln. Phng php thc hin cng tng t nh trong nhn dng m thoi c lp, bao gm hai bc hun luyn v nhn dng. Bc hun luyn c th dng hoc l tiu chun MMI hoc l ML, v bc nhn dng c th s dng cc phng php nh nhn dng trn c s Veterbi, xy dng cp , tm kim N-tt nht v tnh ton hiu sut b nhn dng.
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2.5.3 Mng nron 2.5.3.1 Tng quan Mng neural nhn to (Artificial Neural Network - ANN) l mt m hnh x l thng tin da trn c ch hot ng ca h thng thn kinh sinh hc, nh no b. Thnh phn chnh yu ca m hnh ny l cu trc c bit ca h thng ny. N tp hp mt s lng ln cc phn t x l kt hp ni ti (c gi l cc neuron) hot ng hp nht gii quyt cc bi ton c th. Mt ANN s c cu hnh cho mt ng dng c th no , v d nh nhn dng m hnh hoc phn loi d liu thng qua qu trnh hc. Vic hc trong h thng nhm mc ch iu chnh cc kt ni thuc k tip hp c phn chia trong t bo m c sn gia cc neuron.
Neuron nhn to u tin c to ra vo nm 1943 bi nh nghin cu neuron hc Warren McCulloch v nh logic hc Walter Pits. Nhng k thut thi khng cho php neuron pht trin c cc th mnh ca n. Mng neuron ny nay c nhiu ci tin cng nh p ng c cc yu cu t ra ca cc bi ton, mt s u im ca mng neuron ngy nay so vi thi trc l: 1. Hc thch ng: c kh nng hc cch thc thc hin cng vic da trn cc d liu cho sn trong qu trnh hun luyn hoc nh cc thng s ban u 2. Kh nng t t chc: mt ANN c th t thn t chc hoc miu t cc thng tin m n nhn c trong sut thi gian hc 3. Hiu chnh li thng qua m ha thng tin d tha: c th hy mt phn mng lm cho hiu sut h thng gim. Tuy nhin, mt s mng c kh nng nh c phn mng hy.
2.5.3.2 Phng php hc ca no ngi Trong no ngi, mt neuron s thc hin nhim v thu thp cc tn hiu t cc neuron khc thng qua cc cu trc thn kinh phc tp c gi l dng cy. Neuron gi cc hot ng in thng qua s mng, di, gi l si trc thn kinh axon, c phn chia thnh hng ngn nhnh nh. Ti cui mi nhnh, mt cu trc c gi l khp thn kinh synapse s chuyn i cc hot ng t axon thnh cc hiu ng in thc hin vic c ch hoc kch thch hoc ng ny i vi cc neuron kt ni ti nhnh. Khi mt neuron nhn c tn hiu kch thch u vo c mc so snh tng i ln so vi tn hiu cm ng vo, neuron s gi mt gai in n axon ca n. Vic hc xy ra theo cch thc thay i hiu lc ca khp thn kinh dn n vic truyn thng tin t mt neuron n mt neuron khc v s thay i.
Hnh 2.5.7 Cc thnh phn ca mt neuron
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Hnh 2.5.8 Khp th hn kinh 2.5.3.3 T neuron 2 n ng i n neuro on nhn to Thc hin qun l cc mng neuro on bng cch h u tin tm m cch suy lu l n bn cht ca cc ne euron v cc kt ni ni ti bn tron ng. Sau th hc hin vic lp trnh gi lp cc c c tnh n y. Tuy nhi n, do nhn thc v cc c neuron kh ng y cng nh nng lc ca vic tnh to on l c gii hn, cho nn m hnh h mng neur ron nhn to so vi mng n neuron ng n i thuc dng l t ng v n gin hn.
Thn t bo Hnh h cy Ngng
Php tng
Trc t thn kinh (a axon)
Hnh 2.5.9 M hn nh neuron

H NG D N / S D NG
CC NG N VO O
NG RA
NG V O H NG D N
Hnh 2.5.10 M hn nh ha m hnh h neuron ron thn kinh h, mng neuron nhn to l h thng g bao M phng hot ng ca cc neur n u phn t x l n gin (neuron n) hot ng g song song. Tnh nng ca h thng g ny gm nhi ty th huc vo cu trc ca h, cc trng g s lin kt neuron v qu trnh tnh t ton ti cc neuron n n l. Mng neuron c c th t d liu mu v tng qut h ho da trn n cc d liu mu hc.
Hnh 2.5.11 M hn nh mng Ne euron theo c c lp m cc neuron c t chc theo mt cch c sao cho o tt c chn ng u nhn cng Mt nhm ector vo X x l ti cng mt th t i im. Vi V c sn sinh h ra tn hiu ra r ca mng xut mt ve hin cng mt lc c. V mi neu uron c mt tp trng s khc nhau u nn c bao o nhiu neuro on s sn sin nh ra by nh hiu tn hiu ra khc nh hau. Mt nh m cc neur ron nh vy c gi l mt lp mng. Chng ta c th kt hp nhiu lp mng to ra mt mng n c nhiu lp, lp nhn tn hiu u vo (vec ctor tn hiu vo x ) c gi l lp vo (inpu ut layer). Tr n thc t chng thc hi h n nh mt b m cha tn hiu u vo. Cc c tn hiu u ra ca mng n c sn sinh ra t lp ra ca mng (output layer). Bt k lp no nm gia 2 lp mng trn n c gi l lp n (hidden layer) v n l th hnh phn ni ti ca mng v kh ng c tip xc x no vi mi g bn ngoi. S lng lp n c th t 0 n vi i lp. M hn nh neuron nh hn to i hi 3 trng thnh phn c bn sau: - Tp trng s lin kt c trng cho o cc khp th hn kinh. - B cng (S Sum) thc hin php p tnh tng c c tch tn hi h u vo vi trng s lin n kt tng ng - Hm kch ho h t (squash hing function n) hay hm chuy c n (tran nsfer functio on) thc hin gii hn u vo ca neuron. n T Trong m h nh neuron nhn n to mi neuron c ni vi c c neuron kh hc v nhn c tn hiu xi t chn ng vi cc tr rng s wi . Tng thng tin vo c tr rng s l: Net N = wj x j . 2.5.3.4 ng dng mng 2 g neuron tro ong nhn dng ting ni i Mng neur ron (Neuron Network) l mt cng c c kh nng gii quyt c nhiu bi ton kh, k thc t nh n ng nghi n cu v mng neuron a ra mt cch c tip cn khc vi nh hng cch ti ip cn truyn thng tro ong l thuyt nhn dng. Trong thc t, mng neuron n c trin khai c c hiu qu trong nhn dng ting g ni thng g dng mng n neuron la an truyn ngc hng g (Back-prop pagation Neu ural Network k) hoc kt hp vi ph ng php m m d on tuy t n tnh LP PC (Linear Predictive P C Coding). 2 2.5.3.4.1 S lc v l th huyt nhn dng L thuyt nhn dng l l phng ph hp xy dng mt h thng tin hc c kh nng: cm nh n n-nhn th hc-nhn bit cc i t ng vt l gn ging kh h nng ca con ngi. N Nhn dng c c gn cht vi 3 kh nng trn l mt lnh vc ht sc rng g c lin qua an n vic x l tn hiu trong khng gian nhiu chiu, m hnh, th h, ngn ng, c s d liu, phng php ra quy yt nh... H thng nhn dng phi c kh nng g th hin c qu trn nh nhn thc ca con ng gi qua cc c mc:
Ch ng 2 K thu ut x l m thanh - Mc 1- mc cm nhn: cm nhn c s tn ti cc i tng quan q st, hay y i tng m h thng g cn nhn dng. Mc ny n cng a ra qu trnh h thu nhn s liu qua c c b cm bin trong h thng nhn dng, v d trong h thng nhn dn ng ting ni: : i tng y l ting n ni (speec ch) v thu nh hn u vo qua q Micro ho h c cc file m thanh .w wav. - Mc 2- mc nhn thc: c y biu din qu trnh t hc, m hnh ho i tng tin ti hn nh thnh s phn p lp (cla assification) cc i tng n cn nhn dng. - Mc 3- mc nhn bit: t t i tn ng quan st c th tr li nhn bit i tng l g ? Hay y l qu trn nh ra quyt nh.
i tng vt l Thu nhn quan st S liu (t tn hiu) Tin x l s liu i t ng biu di d n Trch chn c tnh h Biu din c tnh Hc hnh thn nh s phn lp
nh gi cht l ng nhn dng
Tr li nhn dng
Ra R quyt nh phn lp
Hc v ra quyt nh
Hn nh 2.5.12 S tng qu uan ca h th hng nhn dng 2 2.5.3.4.2 Nh hn dng ting n ni dng mng Neuro on H Hnh 2.5.13 m t chc nng c bn ca h thng n nhn dng g ting ni
Hn nh 2.5.13 S khi m m t h thng n nhn dng g ting ni Phng n n la chn s nt ca tng n lp trong mng: theo kinh nghim ca cc ch huyn on trong cc bi ton phn lp c s dng mng g lan truyn ng n c hng, n s gia v mng neuro n l lp mng Kohonen n lm lp n. Vic xc nh s neuro on cho tng lp. dng 1 lp tnh to + S neuron n lp vo = s chiu ca vector vo. + S neuron n lp Kohone en = s gi tr r cc tp tr li. + S neuron n lp ra = s lng kt qu q u ra, s dng ph ng php m ho bng s bit biu di d n s lng g kt qu Phng ph P p hc cnh tranh t ca lp n v qu trnh hc c ch o ti lp ra ca mng theo cc bc sau: + Khi to trng s: c c thnh phn ma trn tr t ng s c khi to bi gi tr ngu nhin + c tn hi iu vo cho mng: d liu trong file e mu cha t thng tin mu hc v cho kt qu gm 2 thnh ph p n: mng 1 chiu cha vector tn hiu vo v mng 2 chi iu cha ma a trn trng s lin kt ban u ca lp Kohonen n + Hiu chnh h ma trn trng s lp Kohonen: K hi iu chnh trng s lin kt neuron lp n Kohon nen sao cho mng c th hc mu tt nht. P ng php Ph p nhn dng g - u vo: file ch c a d liu tn hiu ting n ni cn n nhn dng v file cha thng t
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh tin trng s lin kt neuron lp n v lp ra. Ngoi ra u vo ngun m cng c th l t micro thng qua sound card, lc ny d liu ting ni c c trong buffer d liu ca Windows. - u ra: kt qu cn nhn dng Qu trnh nhn dng ting ni c thc hin qua cc bc: + c tn hiu vo: c d liu t file wav hoc t buffer d liu m thanh + X l tn hiu ging nh chc nng phn tch LPC trn + c ma trn trng s lin kt lp n v lp ra ca mng + Xc nh neuron trung tm + Tra cu kt qu: tra cu trn bn topo mng neuron a ra gi tr cn nhn dng.
TM TT CHNG 2
Chng 2 cung cp cc kin thc tng qut v x l m thanh. Trc ht ci khi nim v tn hiu, cch phn loi tn hiu cng nh tng qut v h thng x l m thanh c cp trong phn 2.1. Ngoi ra mc php bin i z, bin i Fourier lin tc v ri rc cng c nhc li. Trong x l m thanh, m hnh m thanh l khng th thiu, mc 2.2 gii thiu cho cc m hnh ly mu m thanh v m ha thoi cng nh cc m hnh dng trong x l m thanh. Ngoi ra tng quan v cc chun m ha m thoi thng thng cng c gii thiu trong mc 2.1.4. D on tuyn tnh l mt phn khng th thiu ca hu ht tt c gii thut m ha thoi hin i ngy nay ca trong x l m thanh. gip cc bn hiu v vn ny ton b mc 2.3 c dnh tho lun v bi ton d ton tuyn tnh cng nh cc gii thut chnh nh gii thut Levison-Durbin, Leroux-Gueguen. Ngoi ra m hnh x l thoi da vo m hnh m ha d on tuyn tnh c m t v tho lun chi tit. mc tip theo, mc 2.4, trnh by mt s phng php nh gi cht lng thoi, c bit l cho mng vin thng (c nh, di ng) v dch v thoi l dch v c bn v quan trng nht trong cc dch v cung cp cho khch hng ca cc nh khai thc di ng Vit Nam cng nh trn th gii hin nay. V th trong mc ny, cc phng php nh gi c tho lun bao gm: phng php nh gi ch quan v phng php da trn m hnh khch quan. V mc cui cng cp n mt s m hnh ng dng x l ng nh m hnh thi gian ng, m hnh chui markov n v mng ntron. c th ha, bi ton c th ng dng mng neuron lan truyn ngc hng (Back-propagation Neural Network) trong nhn dng ting ni hoc kt hp vi phng php m d on tuyn tnh LPC (Linear Predictive Coding) c gii thiu.
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CU HI V BI TP CHNG 2
1. iu kin tn ti bin i Fourier l A/
x ( n) <
B/ z = 1 C/ A, B u ng D/ A, B u sai 2. Nh th no c gi l yu cu Nhn dng ting ni / ngn ng khc nhau ca mt b m ha thoi? A/ K thut nhn dng ting ni c th phn bit c ging ni ca ngi ln nam gii, ngi ln n gii v tr con B/ K thut nhn dng ting ni c th nhn dng c ngn ng ni ca ngi ni. C/ A, B u ng D/ A, B u sai 3. s dng nh gi cht lng thoi cho mng GSM (Global System Mobile) ca VNPT (Vietnam Posts and Telecommunications Corporation), c th s dng cc phng php nh gi no sau y A/ S dng PESQ (Perceptual Evaluation of Speech Quality) nh gi cht lng thoi mt chiu t u cui n u cui B/ S dng PSQM (Perceptual Speech Quality Measurement) nh gi cht lng thoi mt chiu t u cui n u cui C/ S dng E-model nh gi cht lng thoi mt chiu t u cui n u cui D/ A, B u ng 4. ng dng mng neuron trong thc t, ngi ta thng dng A/ thng k m hnh to m thoi B/ nhn dng ting ni C/ A, B u ng D/ A, B u sai 5. Ngi ta s dng phng php no trong nhng phng php sau y nhn dng ting ni A/ mng neuron B/ m hnh thi gian ng C/ M hnh chui markov n D/ A, B ng 6. Ngi ta s dng phng php no trong nhng phng php sau y x l thoi A/ mng neuron
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Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh B/ m hnh thi gian ng C/ M hnh chui markov n D/ A, B, C ng 7. Trong thc t, vic tnh ton d on tuyn tnh LP (Linear Prediction) thng c thc hin bng gii thut no A/ Gii thut Levison-Durbin B/ Gii thut DTW (Dynamic Time Warping) bt i xng C/ Gii thut DTW (Dynamic Time Warping) i xng D/ B, C u ng 8. M hnh Markov n (Hidden Markov Model - HMM) c s dng trong thc t nh th no A/ s dng trong vic thng k m hnh to m thoi B/ nhn dng m thoi c lp C/ nhn dng m thoi lin tc D/ A, B, C u ng 9. Nhc im ca cc phng thc cho im theo MOS (Mean Opinion Score) l: A/ mang tnh cht khch quan B/ tn km, i hi nhiu ngi tham gia v thit lp phc tp C/ Khi cn thc hin o thng xuyn cc tham s cht lng th vic s dng phng php nh gi cht lng ny l khng thc t D/ B, C u ng 10. M hnh no c dng trong vic tng hp ting ni A/ M hnh AR (Autoregressive) B/ M hnh tt nh C/ M hnh analog ngu nhin D/ M hnh LP (Linear Prediction) 11. Trong m hnh x l m thanh, vic ly mu tn hiu min thi gian c th c thc hin vi loi tn hiu no A/ Tn hiu lin tc B/ Tn hiu ri rc C/ Tn hiu ngu nhin D/ A, B ng
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Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh 12. Bng sau l thang im nh gi im hi thoi v im cht lng nghe ca phng thc no ca phng php ch quan trong nh gi cht lng thoi? im nh gi 5 4 3 2 1 Mc c gng cn thc hin hiu cu Khng cn c gng Cn ch nhng khng cn c gng nhiu Cn tng i tp trung Cn tp trung Khng hiu cu mu
A/ Comparison Category Rating (CCR) B/ Conversation Opinion Test (COT) C/ Degradation Category Rating (DCR) D/ A, B, C u sai 13. Phng php no so snh da trn m hnh gic quan trong nh gi cht lng thoi A/ Phng php PSQM (Perceptual Speech Quality Measurement) B/ Phng php PESQ (Perceptual Evaluation of Speech Quality) C/ Phng php m hnh nh gi truyn dn E-Model D/ A, B, C u ng 14. Thng thng, tai ngi nhy nht tm tn s no A/ 2MHz v 5MHz B/ 2kHz v 5kHz C/ 2Hz v 5HZ D/ 2GHz v 2GHz 15. Chn pht biu ng A/ Tm ng nghe c ca tai ngi c phn tch v ngi ta nhn c kt qu l c dng p ng tuyn tnh B/ Tm ng nghe c ca tai ngi c phn tch v ngi ta nhn c kt qu l c dng p ng logarith C/ Tm ng nghe c ca tai ngi c phn tch v ngi ta nhn c kt qu l c dng p ng hnh sin D/ Tm ng nghe c ca tai ngi c phn tch v ngi ta nhn c kt qu l c dng p ng xung 16. Gii thut gii thut m hnh thi gian ng i xng - Dynamic Time Warping DTW c khuyt im so vi gii thut m hnh thi gian ng bt i xng l A/ gii thut sinh li ti nhng v tr khng c on trc B/ ti cc v tr ct v hng l thuc vo cc v tr ng cho c th sinh li C/ gii thut lun lun sinh li trong thc t 76
Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh D/ A, B, C u sai 17. Trong thc t, vic tng hp m thanh c th c thc hin bng A/ m hnh min thi gian B/ m hnh phi tuyn C/ A, B u sai D/ A, B u ng 18. Cho tn hiu c tn s cao nht l 256Hz, vy tn s ly mu c gi tr l A/ ti a l 512 Hz B/ ti thiu l 512Hz C/ ti thiu l 256Hz D/ A, B u ng 19. Hnh thc nh gi cht lng thoi theo phng php ch quan l hnh thc no A/ Bi kim tra hi thoi (Conversation Opinion Test). B/ nh gi phn loi tuyt i (Absolute Category Rating (ACR) Test). C/ Phng thc phn loi theo suy hao (Degradation Category Rating (DCR)). D/ Phng thc phn loi so snh (Comparison Category Rating (CCR)). E/ A, B, C, D u ng 20. M hnh iu pha v iu tn thuc m hnh A/ M hnh phi tuyn B/ M hnh min thi gian C/ M hnh quang ph D/ M hnh sin 21. Cc m hnh dng trong x l m thanh A/ M hnh phi tuyn B/ M hnh min thi gian C/ M hnh quang ph D/ A, B, C u ng 22. M hnh gic quan PSQM (Perceptual Speech Quality Measurement) c thit k s dng cho A/ tn hiu thoi B/ tn hiu hnh nh C/ tn hiu iu khin D/ B, C ng
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Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh 23. im PSQM thuc m hnh gic quan PSQM (Perceptual Speech Quality Measurement) c gi tr A/ t 5 n 10 B/ t 0 n C/ t - n D/ t -1 n 1 24. im PSQM thuc m hnh gic quan PSQM (Perceptual Speech Quality Measurement) c gi tr 0 ch tng quan gia tn hiu ra v tn hiu vo m hnh l A/ hon ton trng khp B/ hon ton khc bit C/ khng th nh gi c D/ A, B, C u sai 25. H s nh gi truyn dn trong E-model c tnh da vo thng s: A/ t s tn hiu trn nhiu (SNR) B/ cc tn hao do tr v ting vng. C/ Tn hao gy ra bi cc k thut nn thoi (codec tc thp). D/ A, B, C u ng 26. Qu trnh nhn dng ting ni bng phng php mng neuron c thc hin qua __________ bc A/ 10 B/ 5 C/ 20 D/ 15 27. Cho chui x(n) c php bin i z l X(z). Php bin i z ca chui hm tuyn tnh nx(n) l A/ z
dX (1 / z ) dz
dX (1 / z ) dz
B/ z C/ z D/ z
dX (1 / z ) dz
dX ( 1 / z ) dz
E/ A, B, C, D u sai
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Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh 28. Cho m hnh sau
Trong m hnh, khi b chuyn i A/D thc hin vic A/ chuyn i tn hiu dng tng t sang tn hiu s B/ chuyn i tn hiu dng s sang tn hiu tng t C/ chuyn i tn hiu lin tc sang tn hiu ri rc D/ A, B, C u sai 29. M hnh quang ph gm nhng m hnh g A/ M hnh AR (Autoregressive), m hnh sin B/ M hnh tt nh, m hnh sin C/ M hnh analog ngu nhin, m hnh sin D/ M hnh LP (Linear Prediction), m hnh sin 30. Phng php no thuc phng php nh gi khch quan A/ phng php so snh B/ phng php c lng tuyt i C/ m hnh nh gi truyn dn D/ A, B, C u ng
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Chng 3 K thut x l hnh nh

CHNG 3 K THUT X L HNH NH
3.1 TNG QUAN V X L NH V VIDEO S

X l nh s l lnh vc khoa hc tng i mi m v c quan tm nhiu hin nay. Hai ng dng c bn ca x l nh l nng cao cht lng hnh nh v x l nh cng nh video s vi mc ch lu tr hoc truyn qua cc h thng truyn dn hnh nh. Trong phn ny, chng ta s cp ti nhng vn sau: 1- Gii thiu khi nim c bn v nh s v x l video s, xc nh ranh gii ca lnh vc x l nh. 2- Gii thiu cc ng dng quan trng ca x l nh trong mt s lnh vc khoa hc 3- Xc nh cc giai on c bn trong qu trnh x l nh; 4- Gii thiu cc thnh phn ca h thng x l nh tng qut.
3.1.1 Khi nim cbn v x l nh

Hnh nh tnh c th c biu din bi hm hai chiu f(x,y), trong , x v y l ta khng gian phng (2 chiu). Khi xt nh "en-trng", gi tr hm f ti mt im c xc nh bi ta (x,y) c gi l chi (mc xm) ca nh ti im ny. Nu x,y v f l mt s hin hu cc gi tr ri rc, chng ta c nh s. X l nh s l qu trnh bin i nh s trn my tnh (PC). Nh vy, nh s c to ra bi mt s hu hn cc im nh, mi im nh nm ti mt v tr nht nh v c mt gi tr nht nh. Mt im nh trong mt nh cn c gi l mt pixel. H thng th gic l c quan cm nhn hnh nh quang hc tng i hon ho, cho php con ngi cm nhn c hnh nh quang hc trong thin nhin. ng dng quan trng nht ca x l nh l bin i tnh cht ca nh s nhm to ra cm nhn v s gia tng cht lng hnh nh quang hc trong h thng th gic. Tuy nhin, mt ngi ch cm nhn c sng in t c bc sng hn ch trong vng nhn thy c, do nh theo quan nim thng thng gn lin vi hnh nh quang hc m mt ngi c th cm nhn. Trong khi "nh" a vo x l c th c to ra bi cc ngun bc x c ph rng hn, t sng v tuyn ti tia gamma, v d: nh do sng siu m hoc tia X to ra. Nhiu h thng x l nh c th tng tc vi nhng "nh" nu trn, v vy trn thc t, lnh vc x l nh c phm vi tng i rng, v lin quan ti nhiu lnh vc khoa hc khc. C th tm phn bit cc h thng x l nh theo mc phc tp ca thut ton x l nh sau: 1- X l nh mc thp: l cc qu trnh bin i n gin nh thc hin cc b lc nhm kh nhiu trong nh, tng cng tng phn hay nt ca nh. Trong trng hp ny, tn hiu a vo h thng x l v tn hiu u ra l nh quang hc. 2- X l nh mc trung: qu trnh x l phc tp hn, thng c s dng phn lp, phn on nh, xc nh v d on bin nh, nn nh lu tr hoc truyn pht. c im ca cc h thng x l nh mc trung l tn hiu u vo l hnh nh, cn tn hiu u ra l cc thnh phn c tch ra t hnh nh gc, hoc lung d liu nhn c sau khi nn nh. 3- X l nh mc cao: l qu trnh phn tch v nhn dng hnh nh. y cng l qu trnh x l c thc hin trong h thng th gic ca con ngi.
3.1.2 Lnh vc ng dng k thut x l nh

Nh ni trn, cc k thut x l nh trc y ch yu c s dng nng cao cht lng hnh nh, chnh xc hn l to cm gic v s gia tng cht lng nh quang hc trong mt
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Chng n 3 K thu ut x l hnh h nh

ngi quan st. Th hi gian gn y, phm vi i ng dng x l nh m rng khng ngng, c th h ni hng c lnh vc khoa hc no khng g s dng cc c thnh tu ca cng ngh x l nh s . hin kh T Trong y hc, , cc thut to on x l nh h cho php bi in i hnh nh c to ra t ngun bc x X -r ray hay ngun bc x si u m thnh h hnh nh qua ang hc trn b mt film x-quang x hoc trc tip tr n b mt m n hnh hin th. Hnh n nh cc c qua an chc nng g ca con ng gi sau c c th c x l tip nng cao tng phn, , lc, tch c c thnh phn cn thit (c chp ct lp) hoc to ra hnh h nh tron ng khng gia an ba chiu (s siu m 3 chi iu). Trong lnh vc a cht, hnh nh nh T hn c t v tinh c th h c phn n tch xc nh cu tr c b mt tri i t. K thu ut lm ni ng bin (im mage enhanc cement) v kh hi phc hnh h nh (image e restoration) ) cho php nng n cao cht lng nh v tinh v to ra cc bn a hnh h 3-D vi chnh xc ca ao.
c t v tinh h dng trong g kh tng hc Hnh 3.1.1 nh nhn T Trong ngnh h kh tng hc, nh nhn c t h thng v tin nh theo di th hi tit cng c x l, nng cao cht lng v ghp g hnh to ra nh b mt tri t trn mt v ng rng ln, n qua o thi tit mt cch chnh h xc hn. Da trn cc kt qu phn n tch c th thc hin vic d bo ng dn c cn n c th d on qu trnh h tng trng g dn s, tc nh v tinh ti cc khu vc n nhim mi trng cng nh c c yu t nh h hng ti mi m trng s sinh thi. nh n chp t v tinh c th thu c thng qua cc thit b ghi hnh cm nhn c tia s ng quang hc ( n hnh 3.1.2a v 3.1.2b ln lt = 45 50 520 nm ), hoc tia hng ngoi ( = 760 900 nm ). Trn l nh b mt tri t nhn c t hai ng ghi hnh ni i trn, d dn ng nhn thy s khc bit gia hai nh h. c bit tr rn nh 3.1.2 2b, hnh con s sng c t ch bit rt r rng so vi vng nh ha ai bn b. Th hit b thu hn nh nhy cm vi vt th bc x cc ti ia trong min hng ngoi s cho ra nh n ng bc nh n trong vt th c nhi it thp s c phn bit r rng so vi vt th h c nhit cao hn. Nh N vy vic la chn c c thit b gh hi hnh khc nhau s to ra r nh c c tnh khc nhau, n ty thu uc vo mc ch s dng g trong cc lnh vc khoa a hc c th .
Hn nh 3.1.2 - nh n b mt tri i t thu c t hai came era khc nhau u

X l nh cn c s dng nhiu trong cc h thng qun l cht lng v s lng hng ha trong cc dy truyn t ng, v d nh h thng phn tch nh pht hin bt kh bn trong vt th c bng nha, pht hin cc linh kin khng t tiu chun (b bin dng) trong qu trnh sn xut hoc h thng m sn phm thng qua hnh nh nhn c t camera quan st. X l nh cn c s dng rng ri trong lnh vc hnh s v cc h thng bo mt hoc kim sot truy nhp: qu trnh x l nh vi mc ch nhn dng vn tay hay khun mt cho php pht hin nhanh cc i tng nghi vn cng nh nng cao hiu qu h thng bo mt c nhn cng nh kim sot ra vo. Ngoi ra, c th k n cc ng dng quan trng khc ca k thut x l nh tnh cng nh nh ng trong i sng nh t ng nhn dng, nhn dng mc tiu qun s, my nhn cng nghip trong cc h thng iu khin t ng, nn nh tnh, nh ng lu v truyn trong mng vin thng v.v.
3.1.3 Cc giai on chnh trong x l nh

1Thu nhn hnh nh: y l giai on u tin v quan trng nht trong ton b qu trnh x l nh. nh nhn c ti y chnh l nh gc a vo x l ti cc giai on sau, trng hp nh gc c cht lng km, hiu qu ca cc bc x l tip theo s b gim. Thit b thu nhn c th l cc ng ghi hnh chn khng (vidicon, plumbicon v.v.) hoc thit b cm bin quang in bn dn CCD (Charge-Coupled Device). 2Tin x l nh: giai on x l tng i n gin nhm nng cao cht lng nh tr gip cho cc qu trnh x l nng cao tip theo, v d: tng tng phn, lm ni ng bin, kh nhiu v.v. 3Phn on: l qu trnh tch hnh nh thnh cc phn hoc vt th ring bit. y l mt trong nhng vn kh gii quyt nht trong lnh vc x l nh. Nu thc hin tch qu su cc chi tit th bi ton nhn dng thnh phn c tch ra tr nn phc tp, cn ngc li nu qu trnh phn on c thc hin qu th hoc phn on sai th kt qu nhn c cui cng s khng chnh xc. 4Biu din v m t: l qu trnh x l sau khu phn on hnh nh. Cc vt th sau khi phn on c th c m t di dng chui cc im nh to nn ranh gii mt vng, hoc tp hp tt c cc im nh nm trong vng . Phng php m t thng qua ranh gii vng thng c s dng khi cn tp trung s ch vo hnh dng bn ngoi ca chi tit nh nh cong, cc gc cnh v.v. Mt vng nh c th c m t da trn c tnh bn trong ca n: min ng nht, c im ng vn (texture). 5Nn nh: l cc bin php gim thiu dung lng b nh cn thit lu tr hnh nh, hay gim bng thng knh truyn, cn thit truyn tn hiu hnh nh s. 6Nhn dng: l qu trnh phn loi vt th da trn c s cc chi tit m t vt th (v d cc phng tin giao thng c trong nh). Cc qu trnh x l lit k trn u c thc hin di s gim st v iu khin da trn c s cc kin thc v lnh vc x l nh. Cc kin thc c bn c th n gin nh v tr vng nh ni c nhng thng tin cn quan tm, nh vy c th thu nh vng tm kim. Trng hp phc tp hn, c s kin thc c th cha danh sch tt c nhng h hng c th gp trong qu trnh kim sot cht lng thnh phm hoc cc nh v tinh c chi tit cao trong cc h thng theo di s thay i mi trng trong mt vng. Ngoi vic iu khin hot ng ca tng
82

modul x l nh (hnh 3.1.3), c s kin thc cn s dng thc hin vic iu khin tng tc gia cc modules. Trong hnh 3.1.3, qu trnh iu khin tng tc c biu din bng mi tn hai chiu.
Hnh 3.1.3 Cc giai on x l nh s
3.1.4 Cc phn t ca h thng x l nh s

Cu trc mt h thng x l nh a dng dng thc hin cc giai on x l nh cp trn c m t trn hnh 3.1.4.
Hnh 3.1.4 Cc thnh phn chnh ca h thng x l nh Thit b thu nhn hnh nh: l thit b bin i quang-in, cho php bin i hnh nh quang hc thnh tn hiu in di dng analog hay trc tip di dng s. C nhiu dng cm bin cho php lm vic vi nh sng nhn thy hoc hng ngoi. Hai loi thit b bin i quang in ch yu thng c s dng l n ghi hnh in t v chip CCD (Charge Couple Device linh kin ghp in tch). ng vidicon l i din tiu biu cho h n ghi hnh in t c s dng tng i rng ri trong camera mu cng nh en trng. ng Vidicon c kch thc nh gn (ng knh 18-25 mm, chiu di 10-12 cm), nh, cu to n gin, d s dng. n hnh ny s dng nguyn l hiu ng quang in trong v nguyn l tch ly in tch. Chip CCD l linh kin bn dn c kh nng bin i nng lng quang ph thnh tn hiu in. Thnh phn chnh ca chip CCD l cc t in MOS (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor). T in MOS c hnh thnh bi ba lp: mt m t bng kim loi, cht in mi nm gia l lp
83

SiO2 v mt m t bng lp bn dn loi p hoc n (hnh 3.1.5).
ien cc kim loai
+U
Nen ban dan "p"
Hnh 3.1.5 Cu trc t in MOS Mt chui t in MOS phn b u trn b mt chip CCD c biu din trn hnh 3.1.6a, mi t in vi b mt cm quang l m bn dn s to ra mt im trn hnh nh thu c.Theo phng php dch chuyn in tch, cc chip CCD c th chia ra lm hai loi: CCD dng chui (mt chiu) v dng ma trn (hai chiu).
Hnh 3.1.6 Cu trc chip CCD a) dng chui b) dng ma trn Chip CCD s dng trong my quay video thng c cu trc ma trn (hnh 3.16b). Cc phn t cm quang trong CCD tp hp thnh ma trn hai chiu, qu trnh c tn hiu c thc hin theo chiu ngang v chiu dc. C nhiu cch t chc qu trnh ghi v c tn hiu trong CCD, nhng ph bin nht l phng php dch chuyn tng nh. Khi s dng phng php ny, trong chip CCD c thit k mt min nh, khng tip xc vi nh sng v c din tch bng min tch ly l ma trn cc phn t cm quang. in tch thu c ti min tch ly c chuyn v min nh. Sau , qu trnh ghi nh ti min tch ly v c nh t min nh vo thanh dch ngang s c tin hnh song song.Tng dng nh c dch chuyn xung thanh dch ngang, sau cc gi in tch ng vi cc im trong dng nh s c y ra ln lt khi thanh dch. Sau khi ton b nh trong min nh c c ra ht, mt nh mi t min tch ly s li c chuyn v y. Vi nhng tnh nng vt tri trc ng ghi hnh in t c in, linh kin bin i quang in CCD c s dng rt rng ri trong cng ngh truyn hnh v nh s. Hu ht cc camera quay video dn dng v bn chuyn nghip (semi-professional) c thit k trn c s chip CCD. B nh trong v ngoi trong cc h thng x l nh s thng c dung lng rt ln dng lu tr nh tnh v ng di dng s. V d, lu mt nh s en trng kch thc 1024x1024 im, mi im c m ha bng 8 bits cn b nh ~1MB. lu mt nh mu
84

khng nn, dung lng b nh phi tng ln gp 3. B nh s trong h thng x l nh c th chia lm 3 loi: 1- b nh m trong my tnh lu nh trong qu trnh x l. B nh ny phi c kh nng ghi/c rt nhanh (tc ti a c th ln ti 17GB/sec); 2- b nh ngoi c tc truy cp tng i nhanh, dng lu thng tin thng dng. Cc b nh ngoi c th l cng, th nh flash v.v.. 3- B nh dng lu tr d liu. Loi b nh ny thng c dung lng ln, tc truy cp khng cao. Thng dng nht l a quang ghi mt ln hoc nhiu ln nh a DVD-R, DVD-RW c dung lng 4.7GB (mt mt). Ngoi ra trong h thng x l nh cn s dng cc thit b cho php lu nh trn vt liu khc nh giy in, giy in nhit, giy trong, c th l my in phun, in laser, in trn giy nh c bit bng cng ngh nung nng v.v. B x l nh chuyn dng: L cc chip x l nh chuyn dng, c kh nng thc hin nhanh cc lnh chuyn dng trong x l nh. Cho php thc hin cc qu trnh x l nh nh lc, lm ni ng bin, nn v gii nn video s v.v.. Trong b x l nh thng tch hp b nh m c tc cao. Mn hnh hin th: H thng bin i in - quang hay n hnh (en trng cng nh mu) c nhim v bin i tn hiu in c cha thng tin ca nh (tn hiu video) thnh hnh nh trn mn hnh. C hai dng display c s dng rng ri l n hnh CRT (Cathode-Ray Tube) v mn hnh tinh th lng LCD (Liquid Crystal Display). n hnh CRT thng c kh nng hin th mu sc tt hn mn hnh LCD nn c dng ph bin trong cc h thng x l nh chuyn nghip. My tnh: c th l my tnh bn cng nh siu my tnh c chc nng iu khin tt c cc b phn chc nng trong h thng x l nh s.
3.1.5 Biu din nh s

Trong phn ny, chng ta s cp ti mt s nhng kin thc c bn v k hiu c s dng trong lnh vc x l nh. l cc vn v nh sng, mu sc, kh nng tip thu hnh nh quang hc ca h thng th gic. Tip theo l qu trnh bin i nh analog thnh tn hiu nh s, cch biu din hnh nh s, nh hng ca qu trnh ly mu v lng t ha ti cht lng nh s.
3.1.5.1 nh sng, mu sc v hnh nh Ph ca cc sng in t trong thin nhin tri di t tia gamma (10-12 m) n sng radio (10-4-104 m). Mt ngi ch cm nhn c nhng sng in t c bc sng t 380 nm (tia mu tm) n 780 nm (tia mu ).
Cc bc x in t c bit ni trn c gi l nh sng. Trong lnh vc x l nh, ngi ta ch quan tm n phn nng lng bc x m mt ngi cm nhn c. Cc i lng trc quang c s dng nh gi tnh cht ca ngun sng: quang thng, sng, ri v chi. nh gi c tc ng ca nh sng ln mt ngi, chng ta phi lu n hai yu t quan trng: 1 Mt c nhy cm khng ng u i vi cc tia bc x c bc sng khc nhau. Trn th nhy ca mt ngi (hnh 3.1.7) ta thy vng lc vng ( ~ 555 nm) l ni nhy cm nht ca mt. 2 Mt phn b ph cng sut ca cc ngun sng trong thin nhin khng ng u.
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tm 380 dng 460 luc 500 vang 590 cam 630 o 700
Hnh 3.1.7 p ng ph ( nhy) ca mt ngi sut trn trc tn s ( ) : Trng hp tng qut, mt ngun bc x c th c trng bi hm mt phn b cng
( ) =
o nhay
dP( ) d
(Watt/m)
(3.1.1)
- bc sng (m);
P( )
cng sut ngun bc x c bc sng (Watt);
Cng sut ton phn ca ngun nh sng c ph lin tc (nh sng mt tri, ng sng n t nng v.v.) s bng:
P =
780 370
( ) d
(3.1.2)
c trng cho phn nng lng bc x c ch (cm nhn c bng mt) ta a ra khi nim quang thng
F:
780 370
F = K V ( ) ( ) d
(lumen1)
(3.1.3)
V ( ) - hm nhy ph tng i ca mt ngi (khng c n v).
K l h s t l gia quang thng v cng sut bc x.

Nhn chung, quang thng ca mt ngun sng c th phn b khng ng u theo cc phng hng khc nhau. Ta nh ngha i lng sng I c trng cho kh nng pht sng ca ngun sng theo mt hng no (hnh 3.1.10):
I=
dF , (candela2) d dS r2
(sr steradian)
(3.1.4)
- gc khi; d =
1 2
Lumen (lat.) ngun sng
n v sng l candela (cd) l 1 trong su n v c bn h SI. 1 candela l sng o theo phng vung gc ca b mt platin, nhit ng c, (2046,5 K), c din tch 1/60=0.0053 cm2.
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dF quang thng truyn qua gc khi d.
A d
n
dS o dS dF
Hnh 3.1.10 Minh ha sng ca ngun im Gc khi ln nht l
4 r 2 r
2
= 4 , do sng trung bnh ca ngun im3 s
bng ton b quang thng chia cho gc 4:
I tb =
FA FA = 4
Quang thng v sng l hai i lng c trng cho ngun sng. ri E l i lng c trng cho b mt c chiu sng. ri l mt phn b quang thng trn b mt c chiu sng:
E =
dF (lux4) dS
(3.1.5)
1 lux l ri ln mt b mt khi 1 m2 b mt nhn c quang thng bng 1 lumen. Xt b mt c chiu sng dS bi ngun im A (hnh 3.1.10). Din tch b mt hnh cu gii hn trong gc khi d l dS0., l gc gia php tuyn ca dS v php tuyn dS0.
d ES ES
; r2 r2 dF Id I dS cos = = = dS dS dS r2 I cos = r2 =
dS 0
dS cos
(3.1.6)
Nh vy ri ca b mt c chiu sng bi ngun im t l nghch vi bnh phng khong cch gia ngun sng v b mt . chi L l i lng c trng cho b mt pht sng (trong khi ri c trng cho b mt c chiu sng).
Ngun im l ngun sng c kch thc (d) nh hn nhiu ln so vi khong cch (l) n b mt c chiu sng (l 10d).
4
lux (lat.) chiu sng
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chi l mt sng trn b mt pht sng. chi c trng cho mc sng ca ngun sng. Cho b mt pht sng S0. Theo hng trc giao vi S0, chi s bng:
L0 =
I0 S
(candel / m2 )
(3.1.7)
n v chi cn gi l Nt ( Nt l chi ca ngun sng c din tch 1 m2 v cng sng l 1 candela theo hng vung gc vi b mt ngun sng)
3.1.5.2 Mu sc v cc thng s c trng Cm nhn v mu sc l kt qu ca s nhn bit ch quan ca mt ngi di tc ng ca nh sng. gii thch c ch cm nhn mu ca mt ngi, cc nh khoa hc a ra nhiu gi thuyt khc nhau, trong , thuyt ba thnh phn cm th mu, do nh bc hc Nga Lmnxp a ra nm1756 c cng nhn rng ri hn c (T. Young nm 1801 cng a ra gi thit v ba nhm t bo cm nhn trong mt v m hnh mt ngi). Theo thuyt ny, cc t bo hnh nn trn vng mc c th chia ra ba loi. Mi loi t bo c bit nhy cm vi nhng vng ph nht nh trong di quang ph vng sng ngn (mu xanh lam - B), vng sng trung (mu lc - G) v vng sng di (mu - R). Sng in t c bc sng khc nhau tc ng ln cc t bo khng ng u, s khc bit v t l kch thch s to nn cm nhn v cc sc mu khc nhau. Thuyt ba thnh phn cm th mu c chng minh qua nhiu thc nghim v ph hp vi lut pha trn mu m chng ta s cp ti di y.
Trn phng din sinh hc (cm gic ch quan), nh sng c cm nhn thng qua ba i lng chnh l: sng, sc mu v bo ha mu. sng ph thuc vo cng sut ca ngun sng, v d: ngun sng trng 500 W s c sng ln hn ngun sng trng 15 W. Sc mu (sc iu) l tnh cht c trng ca mu m qua ta nhn bit c mu , xanh, vng v.v. bo ha mu l cng v sc mu qua ta c th phn bit c mu thm hay mu nht v.v. Khi nh gi v s lng ca cc i lng trn (bng cch o lng khch quan) chng ta s s dng ba khi nim tng ng l: chi, bc sng tri v sch ca mu. Sc iu
c nng lng ln nht trong ph ca ngun sng , i lng ny c gi l bc sng tri . bo ha ca mt mu c bc sng tri
ca ngun sng tng ng vi bc sng c tnh bng:
p = F / ( F + FE )
(3.1.8)
p l sch mu, i lng xc nh s lng nh sng trng trong ngun sng hay pha long ca ngun sng . Nh vy, mu quang ph s c sch l p = 100 % , i vi mu trng p = 0 . Da trn nhng tnh cht ca h th gic nh phn gii, tnh lu nh v thuyt ba thnh phn cm nhn mu, to ra cm gic v mt mu no , ngi ta c th thc hin pha trn cc mu c bn theo nhng phng php sau:
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1. Phng php cng mu quang hc
Phng php ny da trn kh nng tng hp mu khi cc ngun bc x c chiu ln mt mt phng. Cc ngun bc x c th c ri cng mt lc hay ni tip nhau vi mt tc tng i ln (cn gi l php trn mu theo thi gian), khi , nh sng th cp phn x t b mt ca mt phng trn s mang li cho ngi quan st cm nhn v mt mu sc tng hp. Sc mu mi ph thuc vo t l cng sut ca cc bc x thnh phn (hnh 3.1.11).
Hnh 3.1.11 Trn cc mu c bn 2. Phng php trn mu khng gian
Khi trn mu khng gian, cc phn t nh mang sc mu c bn nm c lp vi nhau trong khng gian, nu nhng phn t ny nm gn nhau v c knh thc nh th mt cm nhn chng nh mt im nh, mu sc ca im nh ny ph thuc vo t l cng sut ca cc mu c bn. Hnh dng ca cc phn t c th l cc im trn hay vch mu nh. T l cng sut ca cc mu c bn c th thay i bng cch thay i chi ca cc phn t nh tham gia trn mu hay thay i kch thc ca chng. Vic ti to hnh nh mu trn mn hnh v tuyn thng c thc hin bng phng php trn mu trong khng gian. 3. Phng php tr
to ra mt mu mi, ngoi phng php cng cc mu n sc, ngi ta cn c th s dng phng php loi b bt mt s mu t nh sng trng. Th d, nu cho nh sng trng qua mi trng hp th (knh lc) cc tia mu , ta s nhn c mu l. Phng php ny thng dng trong k thut nh mu, in n v trong hi ha. c im ca phng php tr l chi ca mu c to ra bao gi cng nh hn chi ca mu trng ban u.
3.1.5.3 Cc nh lut trn mu c bn Trn c s cc kt qu nhn c qua nhiu cng trnh thc nghim v cm nhn mu sc ca h thng th gic, nh bc hc ngi c H.Grassmann a ra bn nh lut v trn mu:
nh lut th nht: Bt k mt mu sc no cng c th to c bng cch trn 3 mu c bn c lp tuyn tnh vi nhau. Ba mu c gi l c lp tuyn tnh khi mt trong nhng mu khng th to ra bng cch pha trn hai mu cn li c. Nh vy, ta c th vit ra c phng trnh so mu nh sau:
f F = rR + g G + b B
(3.1.9)
f F - ngun nh sng bt k, c n v l F v s lng nh sng l f ; R,G,B n v mu c bn; r , g , b - s lng cc mu c bn R, G, B, cn gi l modul ca cc mu .

Nm 1931, theo quy nh ca t chc quc t CIE (Commission Internationale dEclairage International Commission on Ilumination y ban quc t v nh sng) ba ngun bc x n sc
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mu , lc v lam tng ng c bc sng:
R = 700 nm G = 546,1 nm B = 435,8 nm

Ba mu trn c gi l ba mu c bn. Mi mu c bn s c mt mu b xung tng ng, khi pha trn mu c bn v mu b xung ca n chng ta s nhn c mu trng. Cc cp mu c bn v mu b xung l: L (Cyan), Lc Mn chn (Magenta), Lam Vng (Yellow). nh lut th hai: S bin i lin tc ca cc h s cng sut ca cc mu c bn s dn dn s bin i lin tc ca mu sc tng hp, n chuyn t mu ny sang mu khc. Khi thay i cng sut ca cc ngun sng c bn nhng gi nguyn t l cng sut th mu tng hp s khng thay i sc , ch c s thay i v chi m thi. V vy, t l tng i gia ba mu c bn R:B:G s quyt nh mu sc ca mu tng hp. nh lut th ba: Mu sc tng hp ca nhiu ngun sng ch xc nh bi cc thnh phn mu sc ca tng ngun sng ch khng ph thuc vo thnh phn ph ca chng. nh lut th t: chi ca mu tng hp bng tng s chi ca cc thnh phn mu.
L = L R + LG + L B
3.1.5.4 Khng gian mu RGB xc nh mt mu F, theo nh lut trn mu th nht, ta ch cn bit s lng ca ba mu c bn trong phng trnh (3.1.9). V th mu F c th c biu din bng mt im trong khng gian mu ba chiu rgb hay nh mt vector ni t gc ta ti im , cc vector mu
n v s l
R, G, B
(hnh 3.1.12). chi ca mu F s bng chiu di (modul) ca vector F ,
sc tng ng vi phng hng ca F trong khng gian rgb. Tng ba vector n v s cho ta mu trng chun.
f'F F E
0 B R
b
Hnh 3.1.12 Khng gian mu rgb Xt mt mu bt k trong khng gian mu rgb, xc nh bi phng trnh:
90
f F = rR + g G + b B
Ta thy ba h s tuyt i
(3.1.11)
r , g , b cho ta bit c v s lng ln cht lng ca ngun sng. Nu
ch cn xt n cht lng hay thnh phn sc ca mu, chng ta khng cn bit n gi tr
r , g , b , m ch cn bit n s lng tng i gia cc thnh phn mu c bn R, G,

r r = ; r + g + b m g g g= = ; r + g + b m b b b= = r + g + b m
B, tm c qua cc phng trnh sau:
r=
(3.1.12)
m = r + g + b = f - chi ca mu.
Chia (3.1.11) cho m ta nhn c mu F:
F = rR + gG + bB
(3.1.13)
r, g, b - c gi l ta mu. Cc ta mu khng cho ta bit v chiu di ca vector

mu, nhng hon ton xc nh phng hng ca n trong khng gian mu ba chiu. ng thc (3.1.13) cho php chng ta biu din sc ca mt ngun sng bt k nh mt im trn hnh tam gic u RGB c chiu cao bng 1 (hnh 3.1.13). Mt phng RGB cn gi l mt phng n v. Nu v tr ca im mu F trong tam gic mu c bit trc, ta c th tm ta mu bng cch k cc on thng vung gc t F n cc cnh ca tam gic mu v o chiu di ca chng. Nu cho trc ta mu, ngi ta tm v tr ca im mu theo lut tm trng tm ca tam gic mu. Sc mu ca nhng im nm ngoi tam gic RGB (nh im N trn hnh 3.1.13) khng th nhn c khi ta cng ba mu c s, nhn c sc mu im N, mt trong cc ta mu (ta mu - r) s phi l m. K ng thng ni im N l mu quang ph c bc sng E, im mu thp hn ( pN 1
v im trng ng nng
N1 l im ct ca ng EN v BG s c sc iu tng ng im N, nhng sch
< pN ). Ni cch khc, bc sng tri ca tt c cc im mu nm trn
ng thng NE s bng
- tc bc sng ca mu quang ph N. Nh vy khi cng ba mu R,
G, B ta c th to ra tt c cc sc iu, nhng khng th to ra mi bo ha.
91
A 500
G 550 N2 N N1 r
F
C
450
b 600 R
Hnh 3.1.13 Biu mu RGB Mu quang ph l cc mu c sch mu tuyt i : ha
p = 100% , mu trng c bo
pE = 0 , sch mu ti im N1 c gi tr:
pN1 = N1E 100% NE
(3.1.14)
Cc mu quang ph nm trn ng cong hnh mng nga RGAB. Hai u cui ca ng cong l im R v B. Sc mu nm trn ng thng RB ( - mn chn) khng phi l mu quang ph, nhng mu ny thng gp trong thin nhin. Cc im nm ngoi ng mu quang ph l nhng mu khng c thc, v sch mu ca chng ln hn 100%. Nm 1931, CIE xut mt khng gian mu mi, k hiu l khng gian XYZ. Khi thit k biu mu mi ngi ta t ra nhng yu cu nh sau: 1. Tt c cc mu thc phi c xc nh bi cc modul mu c gi tr dng. Nh vy ta mu ca tt c cc mu thc (nm pha trong ng mu quang ph) phi nm trong tam gic mu XYZ. 2. 3. chi phi c biu din bng mt trc (Y) im trng ng nng phi nm trng tm tam gic mu XYZ.
Khng gian XYZ do CIE cng b vi ba mu c bn X,Y,Z p ng c cc yu cu trn. H ta khng gian XYZ c chn lm sao cho cc vector mu thc (nm bn trong ng mu quang ph) u i qua tam gic mu n v XYZ (hnh 3.1.15). Nh vy, trong phng trnh mu thc. Cc mu n v X,Y,Z u khng c thc v sch mu ca chng ln hn 100%. nh gi mu sc ca mt ngun sng (khng tnh n chi ca ngun sng ), ngi ta s dng tam gic mu n v vi cc ta mu x , y, z : x + y + z = 1 (hnh 3.1.16).
f F = xX + yY + zZ cc thnh phn x, y, z s c gi tr dng cho tt c cc mu
92
E 0
r
X
Hnh 3.1.15 Khng gian mu RGB v XYZ Quan st tam gic mu n v XZY ta thy rng: 1- Tt c cc mu thc u nm bn trong tam gic XYZ 2- Ta ca mu trng ng nng l:
xE = yE = zE = 1 / 3
3- Cc mu n v X.Y.Z nm ngoi ng cong cc mu quang ph nn c bo ha ln hn 100%. thun tin cho vic s dng, tam gic mu n v XYZ c bin i thnh biu mu trong h ta vung gc xy (hnh 3.1.17).
y 1.0
y
0.8
520 F1
550 500 E 0.6 0.4 0.2 z 0 600 700 x
0.6 y 1 0.4
yE
580
E
C
700
0.2 0
x1
0.2 xE 0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Hnh 3.1.16 Biu mu trn mt phng n v XYZ
Hnh 3.1.17 Biu mu XYZ theo CIE
3.1.5.5 H thng th gic Tuy l thuyt x l nh ch yu da trn nn tng l thuyt ton v xc sut thng k, nhng vic la chn cc phng php x l khc nhau cng nh vic nh gi cht lng hnh nh u ra ca h thng ch yu da trn cm nhn ch quan ca c quan th gic. V vy sau y chng ta s lm quen vi mt s vn c bn v cu to v kh nng phn tch hnh nh ca h thng th gic. 93

mong mat giac mac thau knh truc nhn thuy tinh dch mo mac iem mu
vong mac hoang iem than kinh th giac
Hnh 3.1.18 Cu to ca mt ngi Trong mt ngi (hnh 3.1.18) phn ln nh sng c hi t vng hong im (fovea) trn vng mc, ni mt cc t bo thn kinh th gic ln nht. C hai loi t bo cm nhn nh sng (receptors) l t bo hnh nn (cones) v t bo hnh que (rods). Trong thnh phn vng mc c khong 7 triu t bo hnh nn v 130 triu t bo hnh que. Mt phn b cc t bo thn kinh th gic trn vng mc khng ng u. Cc t bo hnh nn tp trung ti vng hong im, cn gi l vng nhn r nht. Vng ny c hnh bu dc rng 0.8 mm, di 2 mm). T bo hnh que phn b xung quanh hong im. Cc t bo hnh que nhy cm vi nh sng hn t bo hnh nn, nhng chng khng c cm th v mu sc. T bo hnh nn ngc li km nhy cm vi s kch thch ca nh sng, nhng c kh nng phn bit mu sc. Theo thuyt ba thnh phn cm th mu ca mt ngi, trong vng mc tn ti ba loi t bo hnh nn, cc t bo ny c phn ng khc nhau i vi cc mu khc nhau. C th, qua th nghim ta thy rng ba loi t bo hnh nn nhy cm vi ba mu khc nhau l , Lc v Lam. S cm th mu ca mt s ph thuc vo t l mc kch thch ca mi loi t bo ni trn. Cc t bo cm quang bin i nng lng nh sng thnh cc xung in truyn n b phn x l hnh nh trong no qua h thng dy thn kinh th gic (khong 800000 dy). Mt vng nh trn vng mc khng nhy cm vi nh sng l ni tp hp cc dy thn kinh th gic. Vng ny gi l im m ca mt. S d s dy thn kinh t hn s t bo cm quang v mi dy c ni vi hng trm t bo hnh que v hng chc t bo hnh nn. Ring cc t bo hnh nn trong vng hong im c ni trc tip vi t bo hch, do , phn gii ca mt ti vng ny l cao nht. Phm vi cc mc sng m mt c th cm nhn c rt rng. Cc t bo que bt u cm nhn c hnh nh c chi t 10-4-10-5 cd/m2, cc t bo nn t 1 cd/m2. Khi chi xp x 10 cd/m2 cc t bo que b lo dn v lc ny, tc phn hy rodopxin ln hn tc ti to, do lng rodopxin trong cc t bo hnh que gim i nhanh chng. chi t 10-104 cd/m2, ch cn cc t bo nn lm vic. Phn ng quang - ho hc ni trn v c ch t iu chnh lng nh sng i vo vng mc l nguyn nhn mt c phm vi cm nhn nh sng rng nh vy (~109). Tuy nhin mt khng th cm nhn c cng mt lc tt c mc sng trong phm vi rng nh ni trn. Trn thc t, mt ngi ch c th cm nhn mt khong nh gii hn t
Lmin Lmax xung quanh mc chi trung bnh ca nh, khong ny ta gi l phm vi ng ca
mt. i vi hnh nh c mc chi trung bnh no , tt c mc chi ln hn nh mc trng, tt c mc chi nh hn
Lmax s cm nhn
Lmin s c cm nhn nh mc en. Khi mc chi

94

trung bnh
Ln thay i, mt ngi s t ng iu tit di chuyn phm vi ng theo Ln . y
chnh l tnh cht thch nghi vi sng ca mt ngi. Th nghim cho thy, khi mc sng tng ln, thi gian mt iu tit thch nghi vi mc mi rt nhanh (khong vi giy). Ngc li, khi mc chiu sng gim th mt iu tit thch nghi tng i chm (khong vi pht). Kh nng mt ngi cm nhn s thay i chi l khng lin tc.
Hnh 3.1.22 Kho st kh nng cm nhn chi ca mt ngi Nu tng dn chi ca chi tit trong mt nh t mc chi nn
Ln (hnh 3.1.22), lc u
mc d c s khc bit v chi gia chi tit v nn, nhng ngi quan st khng pht hin ra chi tit ny. Khi mc chnh lch t ti ngng nht nh, ngi quan st bt u nhn dng c chi tit nh. Ngi ta nh ngha ngng cm nhn nh sng tuyt i ca mt l i lng ngc vi gi tr chi nh nht ca im sng trn nn en m mt pht hin c trong bng ti:
= 1 / Lmin . Trn thc t ta thng

chi ca nn l
gp hnh nh c khong chi ng l
Lmin Lmax v c
Ln . tng phn ca nh l t l k = Lmax / Lmin .

l mc khc bit nh nht m mt cn nhn bit c, th t l
L = ( L Ln ) , nu Lmin
Cc chi tit nh c chi khc vi chi nn, mc chnh lch chi l
Lmin / Ln = ( L / Ln )mi n = gi l ngng tng phn. Gi tr ph thuc vo kch

thc ca chi tit hnh nh v chi ca nn. Kt lun quan trng rt ra c y l gi tr ngng tng phn ca mt ngi > 0 , hay ni cch khc, kh nng cm nhn tng phn ca mt mang tnh ri rc (tng t nh phn gii ca mt). Chnh v vy, s lng cc mc xm cn c l hu hn trong di ng cc mc chi
Lmin Lmax ca nh s.
S lng mc xm m mt ngi cm nhn c cng mt lc ph thuc vo gi tr ngng tng phn v tng phn ca nh:
m=
ln k +1 ln (1 + )
(3.1.15)
hin th:
k = 100 , gi tr ngng tng phn = 0.03...0.04 , ta nhn c s sc xm cc i mt cm nhn c s l m = 100 150 .

Ngun nh sng bn ngoi
Thay vo cng thc (3.1.15) gi tr tng phn trung bnh ca hnh nh trn mn hnh
Lng
chiu vo mn hnh s lm gim tng phn ca nh
95

gc, tng phn trong trng hp ny l:
k =
Lmax + Lng
L < k = max , Lmin + Lng Lmin
(3.1.16)
do s mc xm tnh theo (3.1.15) cng s gim i.
3.1.5.6 Biu din tn hiu hnh nh trong khng gian v thi gian 3.1.5.6.1 Hnh nh tng t
Nh cp ti phn trn, hnh nh c th biu din bng hm 2 chiu f ( x , y ) . Gi tr hm f ti im c ta khng gian (x,y) l chi ca im nh (x,y). a s nh s dng trong ti liu ny ny l nh en trng, chi ca cc im nh nm trong phm vi nht nh t L min ti Lmax . Nu nh c to ra bi qu trnh vt l th gi tr cc im nh s t l thun vi nng lng ca ngun bc x, v d nng lng sng in t, khi hm f ( x , y ) l hu hn: 0 < f ( x , y ) < . Gi tr hm f ( x , y ) ph thuc vo lng nh sng ri ln cnh vt v lng nh sng phn x li t cnh vt :
f ( x, y ) = i ( x, y ) r ( x, y )
vi 0 < i ( x , y ) < , 0 < r ( x , y ) < 1
(3.1.17)
i ( x , y ) - Hm biu din ri sng ca ngun ln b mt cnh vt. r ( x, y ) - Hm m t tnh phn x (hay hp th) nh sng ca cc vt th trong cnh vt.
Gi tr ln ca im nh en-trng c ta ( x0 , y0 ) c gi l mc xm hay chi ca nh ti im ny: l = ( x0 , y0 ) ; chi nm trong khong L min < l < Lmax - c gi l thang xm. Thng mc xm nh nht c quy v mc 0 (mc en) , cn mc trng s tng ng vi gi tr chi ln nht l = L 1 . 3.1.5.6.2 Qu trnh ly mu v lng t ha tn hiu hnh nh
Tn hiu hnh nh nhn c t cm bin quang in thng c dng tng t, v d tn hiu in p c bin thay i lin tc theo chi ca nh ngun. c th a tn hiu hnh nh ny vo x l bng my tnh cn thc hin qu trnh s ha thng qua ba giai on: ly mu, lng t ha v m ha. Ly mu tn hiu: Qu trnh ly mu tn hiu c m t trn hnh 3.1.23. Tn hiu mang tin tc v chi ca mt dng nh AB l tn hiu mt chiu lin tc theo thi gian v c bin bin i lin tc (hnh 3.1.23). Khi ly mu, thi gian truyn dng AB c chia ra thnh nhiu on bng nhau. Gi tr tn hiu ti cc im ly mu c nh du vung trn th. Theo nh l ly mu Nyquist, nu tn s ly mu ln hn (hoc bng) hai ln tn s ln nht trong ph tn hiu tng t, th tp hp cc mu ri rc nhn c hon ton xc nh tn hiu .
96

bin i ti t p tn hiu thnh dng s, chng ta phi thc hin giai on lng t ha cc mu va nhn c. y l qu u trnh ri rc tn hiu th heo bin . Trn hnh 3. .1.23 thang g xm c chia c thnh 8 mc ri rc t mc trng g ti mc en. e Lng t ha c th hc hin n gin bng cch c tm gi tr t mc lng n t gn gin ng nht vi gi g tr thc ca mu v gn gi tr ny y cho mu nh. n Bin cc c mu nh sau khi lng n t s c m ha (bn ng m nh ph hn) nhn c tn hiu video s. Kt qu nhn c sau kh hi ly mu, lng t ha v m ha l l chui s ri rc h. Nu thc hin qu trn nh s ha ch ho tt c cc dng m t bin i chi trong mt dng nh nh t trn xung di, chng ta t s nhn c nh s tro ong khng gi ian hai chiu. u
Hnh 3.1.23 Qu trn nh s ha tn hiu video Khi s dng K g chip cm bin CCD, tn n hiu hnh nh c ri rc tron ng khng gia an hai chiu. Cu trc kh hung ly mu hai chiu ph thuc vo v phng php phn b cc im cm n v chi iu dc trn b mt CCD D. Cht lng g hnh nh s nhn c ph quang theo chiu ngang g im nh cng nh s mc lng t c s dng trong qu trnh m ha thuc vo s lng 3 (hnh 3.1.24).
a)
b)
nh 3.1.24 Qu trnh hnh t thnh nh ri rc trong ch hip CCD Hn a - nh tng t b - nh ri rc trn b mt CCD
3 3.1.5.7 Tn hi h u video
n hiu video hay tn :
ng p
L = f L ( x, y , z , t ) ; = f ( x, y , z, t ) ; p = f p ( x, y , z, t ) .
(3.1.18 )
x, y , z - ta trong khng gian 3 chiu, t - thi gian.

Nhng phng trnh trong (3.1.18) xc nh chi (L) v mu sc ( , p ) cho tng im thay i trong khng gian v thi gian. H thng truyn hnh hin nay l h thng truyn hnh phng, do hm m t nh truyn hnh en trng l hm ba chiu: khi phc nh bn pha thu, ngoi gi tr chi tc thi L cn phi xc nh chnh xc v tr ca im sng trong khng gian mn hnh (hai chiu). Khi bin i tn hiu hnh nh ba chiu thnh tn hiu in mt chiu ngi ta da trn hai nguyn tc chnh l ri rc hnh nh (trong khng gian v thi gian) v qut hnh. Ri rc hnh nh trong khng gian l phng php chia nh hnh nh ra thnh mt s hu hn cc thnh phn t ri rc. Mt phn t ca hnh nh l chi tit nh nht ca nh c chi v sc mu khng thay i trn din tch chi tit . V mt l thuyt, s lng phn t nh cng nhiu th nt ca nh cng cao. Nhng trn thc t, do s hn ch v phn gii ca mt ngi, hnh nh ch cn phn chia ra thnh cc phn t c kch thc nh va mt ngi khng nhn ra cu trc ri rc ca nh (hnh 3.1.25). Chia nh thm nhng phn t ny khng lm cho hnh nh r nt thm (theo cm nhn ca mt), trong khi , lng thng tin s tng ln nhiu ln.
L = f L ( x, y, t ) . Nh vy,
Hnh 3.1.25 Ma trn cc im nh ri rc nh v "phn t" nh Sau khi hnh nh c ri rc, cc phn t c th c m ho v truyn i ring r sang bn thu. Nhng chng ta khng th truyn song song tt c cc phn t v khi cn n rt nhiu knh truyn. gii quyt vn ny, trong h thng truyn hnh ngi ta s dng nguyn tc qut hnh: nguyn tc truyn ln lt theo thi gian tng phn t hnh nh. Nguyn tc ny da trn c im lu nh ca mt ngi. S lu nh l kh nng m ngi xem nh li n tng v nh trong mt thi gian no (~0.1- 0.3 giy) sau khi tc ng ca nh chm dt. Chnh v vy, truyn i mt hnh nh tnh, ta chiu ln lt tt c cc phn t ca mt nh tnh ln mn hnh, vo ng v tr tng ng ca cc phn t nh trong hnh nh c truyn i. Nu tc chiu mt hnh nhanh hn thi gian lu nh th mt ngi xem s thu nhn v lu li tt c cc phn t truyn i ti to ra mt nh tnh hai chiu. Qu trnh truyn ln lt cc phn t ca nh gi l qu trnh qut (scanning) nh. Tip theo, khi "chiu" nhiu nh tnh nhn c bng phng php trn vi tn s tng i ln (trn 10 hnh/giy), trong mi nh l mt pha ca hnh nh chuyn ng, th ngi xem s c cm gic nh ang quan st chuyn ng lin tc. Tn s nh c la chn p ng hai yu cu: 1- To cm gic v qu trnh chuyn ng lin tc ca nh; 2- nh ng ti to trn mn
98

hnh khng b chp. Trong cc h truyn hnh i chng, tn s c chn l 25 (hoc 30) nh/giy. Khi qut theo phng php xen k, ngi ta chia nh thnh 2 mnh, trong mnh u tin s c truyn i cc dng l 1, 3, 5 , trong mnh tip theo truyn i cc dng chn 2, 4, 6 (hnh 3.1.26). Nh vy ton b nh s c chia ra lm 2 mnh. Tn s nh s l 25 (30) Hz, tn s mnh l 50 (60) Hz.
Hnh 3.1.26 Qu trnh qut hnh xen k Tn hiu video c to ra ti ng ghi hnh bng phng php qut xen k, tuyn tnh t tri sang phi, trn xung di l hm ca thi gian, gi tr hm t l thun vi chi ca cc phn t nh truyn hnh. Tn hiu video y (hnh 3.1.28) bao gm cc thnh phn sau: tn hiu video, tn hiu ng b dng v mnh, tn hiu xo. Trong tn hiu video mu cn c thm thnh phn mang tin tc v mu sc ca cc dng nh.
Hnh 3.1.28 Hnh dng tn hiu video Tn hiu video c cc c im sau: - Tn hiu video l tn hiu mang tnh cht xung: ngoi cc xung ng b v xung xa, trong tn hiu video thng c s thay i bin t ngt, to ra bin trc v bin sau ca cc "xung hnh"; - Tn hiu video l tn hiu n cc, c thnh phn mt chiu; - Tn hiu video c th c coi l tn hiu tun hon vi tn s lp li l
f H = 1/ T H ; fV = 1/ TV ;
Tn hiu video tng t cng nh tn hiu nh tnh phi c s ha trc khi a vo h thng x l s. Cng nh trong cc h thng x l tn hiu mt chiu, qu trnh s ha tn hiu
99

hnh nh cng chia thnh ba giai on: 1- Ri rc tn hiu trong min khng gian 2 chiu, y l qu trnh ly mu 2- S lng v hn cc mc xm trong tn hiu hnh nh tng t c thay bng s lng hu hn cc mc lng t, y l qu trnh lng t ha tn hiu 3- Mi mc lng t c biu din bng mt s nh phn - m ha tn hiu Qu trnh s ha tn hiu hnh nh trong khng gian hai chiu c th c thc hin vi nhiu cu trc ly mu khc nhau v cc bc lng t khc nhau nhm gim dung lng tn hiu s nhn c. Tuy nhin, trn thc t cu trc ly mu trong a s trng hp c dng trc giao (hnh ch nht) vi gi tr bc lng t khng thay i, v khi qu trnh s ha s n gin nht. Khi s dng cu trc ly mu trc giao, nh s nhn c di dng ma trn cc im nh phn b theo dng v ct. Qu trnh ly mu tn hiu video phi tha mn nh l ly mu Nyquist. V d: Tn hiu video h PAL c b rng ph BPAL = 5.0 MHz , tn s ly mu theo Nyquits phi 10MHz . Trn thc t, tn s ly mu thng c la chn cao hn tng khong cch gia di ph chnh v ph ph ca tn hiu video ri rc, khi thnh phn ph chnh c th c tch ra (trong qu trnh khi phc nh gc) bng cc mch lc thng thp n gin. Ngoi ra, tn hiu video tng hp (bao gm thnh phn mu) c ly mu vi tn s l bi s ca tn s sng mang ph fs (sng mang mu). Vi h PAL, tn s ly mu s l 3 fs (13,3 MHz) hoc 4 fs (17,7 MHz). Trong h thng s ha tn hiu video theo thnh phn, ba tn hiu R, G, B hoc thnh phn chi Y v hai tn hiu hiu mu R-Y, B-Y s c ly mu vi tn s p ng nh l Nyquist v l bi s ca tn s dng theo c 2 tiu chun 525 v 625 dng/ nh. Tiu chun CCIR-601 cho php s dng tn s ly mu l 13,5 MHz. S bt dng m ha tn hiu video l 8 hoc 10 bits. Cc tiu chun ly mu video thnh phn: c nhiu tiu chun ly mu theo thnh phn, im khc nhau ch yu l t l gia tn s ly mu ca tn hiu chi v tn hiu mu (hoc tn hiu hiu mu CR v CB): l cc tiu chun 4:4:4, 4:2:2, 4:2:0, 4:1:1. - Tiu chun 4:4:4: Tn hiu chi v mu c ly mu ti tt c cc im ly mu trn dng tch cc ca tn hiu video. Cu trc ly mu trc giao (hnh 3.1.29)
Hnh 3.1.29 Cu trc ly mu theo chun 4:4:4 Tiu chun ly mu 4:4:4 cho cht lng hnh nh tt nht, thun tin cho vic x l tn hiu video s. Tuy nhin, vi phng php ly mu ny, tc dng d liu video s s tng i cao, v d khi s ha tn hiu video c phn gii 720x576 (h PAL), 8 bt lng t /im 3x720x576x8x25= 249Mbits/s. nh, 25 nh/s lung d liu s nhn c s c tc :
100
- Tiu chun 4:2:2: Tn hiu chi c ly mu ti tt c cc im ly mu trn dng tch cc ca tn hiu video. Hai tn hiu mu trn mi dng c ly mu vi tn s bng na tn s ly mu tn hiu chi (hnh 3.1.30)
Hnh 3.1.30 Cu trc ly mu theo chun 4:2:2 - Tiu chun 4:2:0: Tn hiu chi c ly mu ti tt c cc im ly mu trn dng tch cc ca tn hiu video. Cch mt im ly mu mt tn hiu mu. Ti cc dng l ch ly mu tn hiu mu CR, ti dng chn ly mu tn hiu CB. Nh vy, nu tn s ly mu tn hiu chi l fD, th tn s ly mu tn hiu mu s l fD/2.
Hnh 3.1.31 Cu trc ly mu theo chun 4:2:0 - Tiu chun 4:1:1: Tn hiu chi c ly mu ti tt c cc im ly mu trn dng tch cc ca tn hiu video. Tn hiu mu trn mi dng c ly mu vi tn s bng mt phn t tn s ly mu tn hiu chi (hnh 3.1.32). Nh vy, nu tn s ly mu tn hiu chi l fD, th tn s ly mu tn hiu mu CR v CB s l fD/4.
Hnh 3.1.32 Cu trc ly mu theo chun 4:1:1
3.1.5.8 Biu din tn hiu nh s Sau khi s ha tn hiu hnh nh theo cc phng php nu trn, chng ta nhn c ma trn gi tr mc xm ca cc im nh. Cc im nh ri rc c sp xp theo ct v hng 101

nh trn hnh 3.1.33. Ta ca cc im nh (x,y) l ri rc. Gc ta nm ti gc trn bn tri ca nh ( x, y ) = ( 0,0 ) .
Hnh 3.1.33 H ta biu din nh s Nh vy, chng ta c th biu din nh s ni trn nh ma trn kch thc MxN:
f ( 0,1) ... f ( 0, N 1) f ( 0, 0 ) f (1, 0 ) f (1,1) ... f (1, N 1) f ( x, y ) = f ( M 1, 0 ) f ( M 1,1) ... f ( M 1, N 1)
(3.1.19)
Mi phn t ca ma trn c gi l 1 im nh (image element hay pixel). M v N phi l s nguyn dng. S lng mc xm c th gn cho 1 im nh (L) thng c la chn sao cho L = 2 k , k l s nguyn dng. Nh vy, s lng bits c s dng biu din 1 nh s s c xc nh theo cng thc:
b = M Nk.
V d: nh s hin th trn mn hnh VGA vi phn gii 640x480 im, s lng cc mc xm l 256 (8 bits/mu) c th c lu li trong b nh c kch thc M bng:
M = 640 480 8 = 2 457 600 bits .

3.1.6 L thuyt ton ng dng trong x l nh v video s
Tn hiu hnh nh tnh sau khi c s ha c th c lu tr di dng ma trn 2 chiu cc bits. Cc dng v ct ca ma trn s tng ng vi dng v ct cc phn t nh (pixel). i vi nh ng (video), kt qu qu trnh s ha s l ma trn 3 chiu cho thy phn b cc im nh trong khng gian theo hng v ct cng nh qu trnh bin i hnh nh trong min thi gian. Qu trnh bin i tn hiu trong h thng x l nh s c th c m t bng cc thut ton trong min khng gian v thi gian hoc trong cc khng gian tn hiu khc da trn cc php bin i nh x khng gian, v d bin i Fourier, bin i Karhumen Loeve v.v. Trong phn ny chng ta s lm quen vi cng c ton hc thng dng m t qu trnh x l nh trong khng gian v cc php bin i khng gian mt v hai chiu (c s dng rng ri trong
102

cc h thng lc v nn nh). Song song vi vic trnh by l thuyt ton, trong phn ny s a ra cc v d minh ha mt s k thut bin i hnh nh c th. Nhiu v d s c thc hin da trn phn mm Matlab. y l mt cng c tnh ton c xy dng trn c s cc php x l ma trn rt thch hp cho vic m t cc gii thut x l nh s.
3.1.6.1 Cc ton t khng gian a) H thng tuyn tnh

H thng x l tn hiu s ni chung v x l nh ni ring u c th c m t thng qua phng trnh vo-ra sau:
y ( m, n ) = T x ( m, n )
(3.1.21)
x ( m, n ) - nh s a vo h thng (l tn hiu 2 chiu); y ( m, n ) - nh s ti u ra h thng;

T ton t c trng ca h thng. Trong gio trnh ny, chng ta s quan tm ch yu n cc h thng tuyn tnh. H thng biu din bi (3.1.21) c gi l tuyn tnh khi v ch khi:
T ax1 ( m, n ) + bx2 ( m, n ) = aT x1 ( m, n ) + bT x2 ( m, n ) = = ay1 ( m, n ) + by2 ( m, n )
(3.1.22)
a v b l cc hng s bt k. Cc ton t thc hin vi nh 2 chiu thng c tnh cht tuyn tnh, v d cc php dch chuyn trong khng gian, php chp, cc php bin i thc hin qu trnh lc tuyn tnh m chng ta s xt cc chng sau. b) Xung n v trong khng gian 2 chiu Xung n v c s dng rng ri m t cc tc ng trc tip ln im nh trong khng gian.
( m, n ) =
1 0
khi m = n khi m n
(3.1.23)
( m A, n B ) l im nh c mc chi ti a ti v tr (A,B) trong khng gian.

p ng xung ca h thng l tn hiu nhn c khi xung n v tc ng ln h thng:
h [ m, n ] = T ( m, n )
c) M t qu trnh bin i tn hiu trong khng gian 2 chiu
(3.1.24)
Cho nh s gc l ma trn cc im nh c kch thc NxN. Trong trng hp tng qut, p ng ca h thng tuyn tnh i vi tn hiu vo c th tm c thng qua p ng xung nh sau:
103
y ( m, n ) = x ( l , k ) h ( m, l ; n, k )
l =0 k =0
N 1 N 1
(3.1.25)
Khi h thng x l s l tuyn tnh v bt bin, ta c th tm c nh kt qu thng qua nh gc v p ng xung ca h thng nh sau:
y ( m, n ) = x ( l , k ) h ( m l ; n k )
l =0 k =0
N 1 N 1
(3.1.26) (3.1.27)
hay
y ( m, n ) = x ( m, n ) h ( m, n )
3.1.6.2 Cc php tnh vi vector v ma trn i vi tn hiu hnh nh, cc thut ton ni trn thng c thc hin trn ma trn cc im nh hai chiu, do phn ny s gii thiu s lc v ma trn v cc php ton thc hin trn ma trn.
a) Vector Vector ct (ma trn ct) f , kch thc Nx1 l tp hp cc phn t f ( n ) vi n=1, 2, ..., N sp xp theo ct dc:
f f f = f f
(1) (2)
( j) N ( )
(3.1.28)
Vector dng (ma trn dng) h, kch thc 1xN l tp hp cc phn t f ( n ) vi n=1, 2, ..., N sp xp theo dng ngang: f = f (1) , f ( 2 ) ... f b) Ma trn Ma trn F, kch thc MxN l tp hp cc phn t F(m,n) vi m=1,2,..,M, n=1,2,...,N c sp xp thnh M hng v N ct nh sau:
( j ) ... f ( N )
(3.1.29)
F (1, N ) F (1,1) F (1, 2 ) ..... F ( 2,1) F ( 2, 2 ) ..... F ( 2, N ) F= ............................................... F M ,1 F M , 2 ..... F M , N ( ) ( ) ( )
(3.1.30)
Lu rng, khi s dng phn mm Matlab, a ch ca mi im nh c xc nh khc so vi phng php biu din nh s c quy nh phn trn: im nh trn cng bn tri trong ma trn ca Matlab l im F(1,1). Ma trn NxN c gi l ma trn vung cp N. Trong ma trn vung, tp hp cc phn t F(1,1), F(2,2),..F(NN) c gi l ng cho chnh, ng cho cn li gi l ng cho ph.
104

Ma trn vung c cc phn t ngoi ng cho chnh bng 0 gi l ma trn cho. Ma trn cho vi cc phn t trn ng cho bng 1 gi l ma trn n v, k hiu l In. c) Cng ma trn Tng ma trn C=A+B ch xc c nh khi A v B c cng kch thc MxN. C cng c kch thc MxN, cc phn t ca C l: C(m,n)= A(m,n)+B(m,n). d) Nhn ma trn Tch hai ma trn C=AB ch xc nh khi s lng ct ca A bng s dng ca B. Khi nhn ma trn A c kch thc MxP vi B - PxN ta nhn c C c kch thc MxN:
C ( m, n ) = A ( m, p )B ( p, n )
p =1
(3.1.31)
Tch ca hai ma trn khng c tnh giao hon. Tch ca ma trn vung A v ma trn n v cng cp B chnh l ma trn A. e) Ma trn nghch o Ma trn nghch o ca ma trn vung A l ma trn A1 nu: AA1 = I v A1 A = I . Nu tn ti ma trn nghch o ca ma trn A cp n th A c gi l kh nghch. Ma trn n v I c nghch o l chnh n. f) Ma trn chuyn v Ma trn chuyn v ca A thu c bng cch i ch hng thnh ct v ct thnh hng v gi nguyn th t cc phn t trn hng. Ma trn chuyn v ca A k hiu l AT . Nu A = AT , ma trn A c gi l ma trn i xng. Ma trn nhn c khi cng A + AT v nhn AAT l ma trn i xng. g) Tch v hng (scalar product) hai vector f v g kch thc Nx1:
k = g Tf = f Tg , k = g(n)f (n)
n =1 N
(3.1.32)
h) Tch ma trn ca hai vector f kch thc Mx1 v g kch thc Nx1 l ma trn:
A=gf T , A(m, n) = g ( m ) f ( n )
i) Tch chp hai ma trn
(3.1.33)
Nh chng ta bit, i vi cc h thng x l tn hiu ri rc tuyn tnh v bt bin quan
105

h gia p ng (dy ra) v kch thch (dy vo) ca h thng c m t theo (3.1.23):
y ( m, n ) = x ( l , k ) h ( m l ; n k )
l =0 k =0
N 1 N 1
(3.1.34)
i vi h thng x l nh, tn hiu vo v p ng xung thng c biu din di dng ma trn hai chiu, do m t tc ng ca h thng ln tn hiu ta cn tm tch chp hai ma trn. Tch chp hai ma trn kch thc M1 N1 v M 2 N 2 s l ma trn c kch thc
( M1 + M 2 1) ( N1 + N 2 1) .
V d:
Hnh 3.1.34 Cch tm tch chp hai ma trn Khi tm gi tr tch chp cho cc im nm ti bin ca nh v d im y(1,1) (hnh 3.1.34), cc im nh khng tn ti trong x(m,n) phi c chn cc gi tr nht nh. C nhiu quy tc chn gi tr mc xm nh: mc nh bng 0, lp li cc gi tr mc xm trn ng bin ca nh v.v. k) Bin i ma trn thnh mt vector (stacking operator) Trong mt s trng hp, vic phn tch hnh nh 2 chiu s n gin hn khi ma trn F cc im nh hai chiu ( N1 N 2 ) c bin i thnh vector ct c kch thc ( N1 N 2 ,1), lm c nh vy, chng ta sp xp ln lt cc ct (hay hng) ca F thnh 1 vector di. Thao tc trn c th c m t thng qua vector vn ( N 2 1 ) v ma trn
Nn (
N1 N 2 N1 ):
0 1 0 n 1 vn = 1 n 0 n + 1 0 N 2
(3.1.35)
106
[0] ( n 1) zeros matrix (N1 N1 ) [0] 1 0 0 th 0 1 0 n unit matrix Nn = 0 0 1 0 [ ] ( N n ) zeros matrix (N1 N1 ) 2 [0]
(3.1.36)
Ma trn F s c bin i thnh vector f nh sau:
f = N n Fv n
n =1
N2
(3.1.37)
Bin i nghch t f thnh F l:

T F= NT n f vn n=1 N2
(3.1.38)
S dng cng thc (3.1.37) v (3.1.38) c th d dng xc nh quan h gia hai phng php biu din hnh nh thng qua ma trn v vector. Phng php biu din di dng vector gip thu gn ng k cc cng thc m t qu trnh x l nh v cho php chng ta p dng nhng phng php x l tn hiu mt chiu trong x l nh. V d: Bin i ma trn F (3x3) thnh vector f
1 4 7 1 0 0 F = 2 5 8 , v1 = 0 ; v 2 = 1 ; v 3 = 0 , 3 6 9 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 N1 = 0 0 0 0 0
N2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ; N 2 = 0 1 0 ; N 3 = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
f= N n Fv n = N1 Fv1 + N 2 Fv 2 + N 3 Fv 3
n=1
107
1 0 0 0 N1 Fv1 = 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 4 7 1 0 0 0 2 5 8 0 = 0 0 0 0 0 3 6 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 2 1 0 3 0 1 0 0 1 0 2 = 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 f = 5 6 7 8 9
0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 Tng t ta c: N 2 Fv 2 = 5 ; N 3Fv 3 = 0 6 0 0 7 0 8 0 9
3.1.6.3 Biu din h thng tuyn tnh bng ma trn Vic phn tch cc ton t tuyn tnh trong x l nh s thun tin hn khi chng ta s dng phng php biu din bng ma trn cp ti trn.
Khi tm p ng h thng, bit hm p ng xung, chng ta tm tng chp:
y ( m, n ) = x ( l , k ) h ( m l ; n k )
l =0 k =0
N 1 N 1
(3.1.39)
Cho tn hiu vo x ( m, n ) v p ng xung h ( m, n ) l cc ma trn vung 3x3, ta c:
y ( m, n ) = = x ( 0, 0 ) h ( m 0, n 0 ) + x (1, 0 ) h ( m 1, n 0 ) + x ( 2, 0 ) h ( m 2, n 0 ) + x ( 0,1) h ( m 0, n 1) + x (1,1) h ( m 1, n 1) + x ( 2,1) h ( m 2, n 1) + x ( 0, 2 ) h ( m 0, n 2 ) + x (1, 2 ) h ( m 1, n 2 ) + x ( 2, 2 ) h ( m 2, n 2 )

V phi ca (3.1.40) l tch v hng ca hai vector ct x v hm,n : (3.1.40)
108

x ( 0, 0 ) h ( m 0, n 0 ) x (1, 0 ) h ( m 1, n 0 ) x ( 2, 0 ) h ( m 2, n 0 ) x ( 0,1) h ( m 0, n 1) x = x (1,1) hm ,n = h ( m 1, n 1) x ( 2,1) h ( m 2, n 1) x ( 0, 2 ) h ( m 0, n 2 ) x (1, 2 ) h ( m 1, n 2 ) x ( 2, 2 ) h ( m 2, n 2 )
(3.1.41)
C th thy rng, ma trn hai chiu cc im nh X ng vi hm x ( m, n ) - c bin i theo (3.1.37) nhn c vector x. Nu ma trn hai chiu nh Y ng vi y ( m, n ) cng c biu din tng t, th vector hm,n s bin i thnh ma trn H:
h ( 0,0 ) h ( 1,0 ) h (1,0 ) h ( 0,0 ) h ( 2,0 ) h (1,0 ) h ( 0,1) h ( 1,1) H = h (1,1) h ( 0,1) h ( 2,1) h (1,1) h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 1, 2 ) h (1, 2 ) h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 2, 2 ) h (1, 2 ) h ( 2,0 ) h ( 0, 1) h ( 1, 1) h ( 2, 1) h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 1, 2 ) h ( 2, 2 ) h ( 1,0 ) h (1, 1) h ( 0, 1) h ( 1, 1) h (1, 2 ) h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 1, 2 ) h ( 0,0 ) h ( 2, 1) h (1, 1) h ( 0, 1) h ( 2, 2 ) h (1, 2 ) h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 2,1) h ( 0,0 ) h ( 1,0 ) h ( 2,0 ) h ( 0, 1) h ( 1, 1) h ( 2, 1) h ( 1,1) h (1,0 ) h ( 0,0 ) h ( 1,0 ) h (1, 1) h ( 0, 1) h ( 1, 1) h ( 0,1) h ( 2,0 ) h (1,0 ) h ( 0,0 ) h ( 2, 1) h (1, 1) h ( 0, 1) h ( 2, 2 ) h ( 0,1) h ( 1,1) h ( 2,1) h ( 0,0 ) h ( 1,0 ) h ( 2,0 ) h ( 1, 2 ) h (1,1) h ( 0,1) h ( 1,1) h (1,0 ) h ( 0,0 ) h ( 1,0 ) h ( 0, 2 ) h ( 2,1) h (1,1) h ( 0,1) h ( 2,0 ) h (1,0 ) h ( 0,0 )
(3.1.42) Khi , phng trnh (3.1.40) c rt ngn nh sau:
y = Hx
(3.1.43)
y l phng trnh c bn trong lnh vc x l nh tuyn tnh. Ma trn H c th c chia thnh 9 ma trn nh kch thc 3 3 c dng:
H 00 H= H10 H 20
H 01 H11 H 21
H 02 H12 H 22
(3.1.44)
Khi x ( m, n ) v y ( m, n ) c kch thc N N , Ma trn H c kch thc N 2 N 2 , cc ma trn nh H m,n s c kch thc N N . Trong trng hp tng qut, H l ma trn circulant khi, c to ra bi N N ma trn circulant theo cch sau:
109

l m k = 0 n = 0 l k = 0 H= m n = 1 l k = 0 m n = N 1 l m k = 1 n = 0 l m k = 1 n = 1 l m k = 1 n = N 1 l m k = N 1 n = 0 l m k = N 1 n =1 l m k = N 1 n = N 1
(3.1.45)
Theo (3.1.37) vector y tng ng ma trn nh Y c th tm c thng qua ma trn X nh sau:
y = HN n Xv n
n =1
(3.1.46)
Ngoi ra, s dng (3.1.38) chng ta cng c th biu din ma trn Y thng qua vector y ca nh:
T Y= M T m y um m=1 N
(3.1.47)
T (3.1.46) v (3.1.47) chng ta c th tm ra quan h gia ma trn nh vo v ra ca h thng tuyn tnh:

T Y= M T m HN n X v n u m m=1 n =1 N N
) (
)
T
(3.1.48)
C th chng minh c rng vic nhn H vi ma trn M m v N n s tch ra cc ma trn circulant H m,n , nh vy ta c:
Y= H m,n X v n u T m
m=1 n =1
(3.1.49)
i vi h thng tuyn tnh tch c (separable), qu trnh tm tng chp (3.1.39) c th c thc hin ln lt bng cch tnh tng theo m, sau theo n. Ta c th vit:
h ( m, l ; n, k ) = hc ( m, l ) hr ( n, k )
y ( m, n ) = hc ( m, l ) x ( l , k ) hr ( n, k )
l =0 k =0 N 1 N 1
(3.1.50) (3.1.51)
Theo (3.1.50) ta thy trong cc ma trn circulant (3.1.45) thnh phn hr ( n, k ) l constant v c th a ra ngoi ma trn. Do ma trn circulant khi H c th bin i nh sau ( rt gn, chng ta vit tt hn , k = h ( n, k ) ):
110

hc 0,0 ... hc N 1,0 hr 0,0 hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1 h ... h c 0,0 c N 1,0 h H = r 0,1 hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1 hc 0,0 ... hc N 1,0 hr 0, N 1 hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1 h ... h c 0,0 c N 1,0 hrN 1,1 = hT hT r c hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1 hc 0,0 ... hc N 1,0 hrN 1, N 1 hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1 hc 0,0 ... hc N 1,0 hrN 1,0 hc 0, N 1 ... hc N 1, N 1
(3.1.52)
T Ma trn H c gi l tch Kronecker ca hai ma trn hrT v hc .
3.1.6.4 Bin i khng gian tn hiu 3.1.6.4.1 Bin i Fourier lin tc

Cp bin i Fourie lin tc mt chiu c nh ngha nh sau:
F (u) = f (x) =
f (x)e
j 2 ux
dx
(3.1.53)
F (u) e
j 2 ux
du
(3.1.54)
f ( x ) l hm lin tc, c bin thc x, j = 1 .

Cng thc (3.1.53) c gi l khai trin Fourier thun cn (3.1.54) khai trin Fourier nghch. Trong trng hp tng qut, hm F(u) l hm phc, do n c th c biu din di dng:
F (u) = F (u) e
j ( u )
(3.1.55) c gi l ph bin , cn hm
2 2 Modul F ( u ) = R ( u ) + I ( u )
1/ 2
I (u) ( u ) = arctg gi l ph pha ca hm f(u). R(u) v I(u) l thnh phn thc v o R (u)
ca F(u). Mt i lng khc c th suy ra t ph Fourier l ph cng sut ca tn hiu P(u):
P ( u ) = F ( u ) = R2 ( u ) + I 2 ( u )
2
(3.1.56)
Ph cng sut cho chng ta thy phn b cng sut ca tn hiu trong min tn s. i vi tn hiu ri rc, mt bin, cp khai trin Fourier thun v nghch c dng nh sau:
111
F (u) =
1 M
M 1 u =0
M 1
x =0
f ( x)e
j 2
j 2
ux M
vi u = 0,1, 2...M 1 ,
(3.1.57)
f ( x ) = F (u)e
ux M
vi x = 0,1,2...M 1
(3.1.58)
nh tn hiu ri rc f ( x ) , khai trin Fourier ca n cho kt qu l M cc thnh phn ri rc. D
thc hin khai trin Fourier, chng ta phi s dng M2 php nhn v php cng. Cng
dng nhn thy rng, mi thnh phn ri rc trong F(u) l tng ca tch tt c cc gi tr ca hm
f ( x ) nhn vi cc hm cosin v sin c M tn s khc nhau. Nh vy c th ni F(u) l biu din
tn hiu f(x) trong min tn s v bin u xc nh cc tn s to nn tn hiu ri rc f(x). C th ni, khai trin Fourier cho php chng ta m t mt hm thng qua cc thnh phn tn s cha trong hm . Chnh v vy khai trin Fourie c th c s dng nh mt cng c quan trng m t v phn tch cc phng php lc tuyn tnh. Trong trng hp tng qut, ph ca tn hiu ri rc l hm phc, do n c th c biu din di dng:
F (u) = F (u) e
j ( u )
(3.1.59)
Ph cng sut ca tn hiu ri rc l:
P ( u ) = F ( u ) = R2 ( u ) + I 2 ( u )
2
(3.1.60)
Bin i Fourier c th c m rng cho hm f ( x , y ) c hai bin. Khi f ( x , y ) lin tc v ly tch phn c th cp bin i Fourier hai chiu thun v nghch s l:
F ( u, v ) = f ( x, y ) =
f ( x, y ) e
j 2 ( ux+vy )
dxdy
(3.1.61)
F ( u, v ) e
j 2 ( ux+vy )
dudv
(3.1.62)
u, v l bin tn s. Cng nh trng hp bin i Fourier mt chiu, ta c ph bin , ph pha v ph cng sut cho tn hiu hai chiu:
2 2 F ( u, v ) = R ( u, v ) + I ( u, v ) 1/ 2
(3.1.63)
I ( u,v ) ( u, v ) = arctg R ( u, v )
(3.1.64)
P ( u , v ) = F ( u , v ) = R 2 ( u, v ) + I 2 ( u, v )
2
(3.1.65)
V d: Bin i Fourier ca xung hnh ch nht trong khng gian 3 chiu (hnh 3.1.35a) c
112

dng nh trn (hnh 3.1.35b).
a)
b)
Hnh 3.1.35 Ph Fourier ca xung hnh ch nht trong khng gian 3 chiu.
3.1.6.4.2 Bin i Fourier ri rc 2 chiu

Bin i Fourier thun 2 chiu ca hm ri rc f(x,y) (m t nh s kch thc MxN) c biu din nh sau:
1 F ( u, v ) = MN
M 1 N 1 x =0 y =0
f ( x, y ) e
ux vy j 2 + M N
(3.1.66)
Nu c F(u,v) chng ta c th tm ra f(x,y) bng khai trin Fourier thun:
f ( x, y ) =
M 1 N 1 u =0 v =0
F ( u, v ) e
ux vy j 2 + M N
(3.1.67)
Ph bin , ph pha v ph cng sut cng c xc nh nh sau:

2 2 F ( u, v ) = R ( u, v ) + I ( u, v ) 1/ 2
(3.1.68)
I ( u, v ) ( u, v ) = arctg R ( u, v )
(3.1.69)
P ( u , v ) = F ( u , v ) = R 2 ( u, v ) + I 2 ( u, v )
2
(3.1.70)
Gi tr ca ph Fourier ti im u=v=0 bng:
F ( 0,0 ) =
1 MN
M 1 N 1 x =0 y =0
f ( x, y )
(3.1.71)
Nu f(x,y) l hm biu din chi ca nh s th F(0,0) chnh l gi tr trung bnh ca chi nh. V (0,0) l im gc ta ca khng gian tn s, ni tn s bng 0, nn thnh phn F(0,0) cn c gi l thnh phn mt chiu (DC) ca ph tn hiu. V d: Trn hnh 3.1.36a l nh chi tit hnh ch nht mu trng, kch thc 20x40 nm (3.1.66) trn nh phng mu en. Ph 2 chiu ca nh trn nhn c bng khai trin Fourie biu din trn hnh 3.1.36b. Cc thnh phn ph ca tn hiu s c nh s theo th t t u=1 ti u=M, v=1 ti v=N. thnh phn mt chiu ca ph nm ti trung tm ca nh, chng ta phi thc hin dch ph
113

trong khng gian hai chiu, bng cch nhn hm f(x,y) vi
( 1) , khi theo tnh cht ca khai trin Fourier, ph ca nh s dch chuyn n v tr u = ( M / 2 ) v v = ( N / 2 ) :

x +y
f ( x, y )( 1)
x+y
M N F u ;v 2 2
(3.1.72)
Ph ca nh sau khi dch chuyn c biu din trn hnh 3.1.36c. Phm vi di ng (khong bin thin) ca gi tr cc h s khai trin Fourier c th cao hn nhiu so vi gi tr ca thnh phn chi. V vy, nh ph hin th r hn trn mn hnh, i khi ngi ta bin i cc gi tr ph theo hm logarit nh sau:
D ( u,v ) = c log 1 + F ( u, v )
c- hng s. nh ph sau khi bin i bng (3.1.73) biu din trn hnh 3.1.36d.
(3.1.73)
Hnh 3.1.36 Ph Fourier ca hnh nh 2D
114
3.2 PH N TCH C C K THU UT X L NH V V VIDEO

3.2.1 Kh i nim v quan q h gia cc im nh n 3.2.1.1 Cc im nh l 3 n cn Mi im nh n p ti ta (x,y) s c 4 im nh h c gi l ln cn the eo chiu ngan ng v
dc, l cc im ( x + 1, y ) , ( x 1, y ) , ( x l cn trn c x, y + 1) ( x, y 1) . Tp hp 4 im ln k hiu l (x,y)
N4 ( p ) . Mi im ln l cn nm cch im (x x,y) 1 n v. 4 im nh h ln cn vi im
ng ch o k hiu l
theo
ND ( p ) ,
cc v
im:
( x + 1, y + 1) , ( x + 1, y 1) , ( x 1, y + 1) ( x 1, y 1) .
c gi l 8 im ln cn: ln cn c th nm bn ngoi nh. n
Tp hp 8 im
N4 ( p )
ND ( p )
N8 ( p ) . Trong g trng hp khi im p nm bin ca nh, cc im
3.2.1.2 Mi lin kt (con 3 nnectivity) Mi lin kt gia cc im nh l kh i nim quan n trng, cho p php xc nh h gii hn ca chi tit hay y cc vng tr rong mt nh h. Hai im nh c s li n kt vi nh hau nu chn ng l cc im ln cn v gi tr mc xm ca ch ng p ng g mt tiu ch no . V d: vi nh nh phn, 2 im nh c lin kt, khi i chng nm trong b 4 l n cn v c gi tr ging nhau.
Cho V l tp cc mc x C m dng nh ngha mi lin kt, v v d trong nh en-trng g, gi tr cc mc xm th hay i t 0-2 255, th V c th l 1 tp bt k trong g s 255 gi tr t ny. Chh ng ta oi lin kt: c 3 lo 1) Lin n kt 4: hai im nh p v q c cc gi tr t V c lin l kt 4 nu q nm tron ng tp 2) Lin n kt 8: hai im nh p v q c cc gi tr t V c lin l kt 8 nu q nm tron ng tp 3) Lin n kt m (hn hp): hai im nh p v q c cc gi tr t V c lin kt m nu: u - q nm tro ong tp N 4 ( p ) , hoc - q nm trong tp N D ( p ) v tp N 4 ( p ) N 4 ( q ) khng ch ha cc gi tr trong V. Lin kt m l bin th ca lin kt 8 dng loi tr cc mi lin kt a hng (khn L ng r rng) c c th gp khi k dng lin n kt 8. iu ny minh ha trn hnh h 3.2.1b. Li n kt 8 trn hnh 3.2.1 c biu din bng ng n t nt l lin kt a hng, trong khi nu s dng khi nim lin kt m, ta s xc x nh 1 ng lin kt duy nht gi g a cc im nh c gi tr bng 1 (hnh 3.2.1c) ). Hai vng nh S1 v S2 c gi l h hai vng lin n kt nu mt im nh no n trong S1 c lin kt vi mt im nh khc trong S2. Gia hai vng nh c th c lin kt 4, 8 hoc lin kt m.
N4 ( p ) . N8 ( p ) .
Hn nh 3.2.1
M Minh ha lin kt 8 v lin n kt m.

ng kt ni (ri rc) gia hai im nh p c ta (x,y) v q c ta l (s,t) l chui cc pixel khc nhau vi cc ta : ( x 0 , y 0 ) , ( x1 , y1 ) ,..., ( x n , y n ) , trong :
( x 0 , y0 ) = ( x, y ) ( x n , yn ) = ( s, t )
( x i , yi ) v ( x i1 , yi1 ) l cc im lin kt vi 1 i n . n c gi l chiu di ca ng kt ni. Khi ( x 0 , y 0 ) = ( x n , y n ) , ng ni c gi l khp kn.
Ty theo phng php xc nh lin kt,chng ta c ng kt ni 4, 8 hoc ng kt ni m. Trn hnh 3.2.1 m t hai loi ng kt ni vi lin kt m v 8. Cho S l mt tp cc im nh, hai pixel p v q c gi l lin kt trong S, nu tn ti ng kt ni gia hai im p v q c to ra ch bi cc im trong tp S. Vi bt c im p no t S, tt c cc pixel lin kt vi p trong S s c gi l thnh phn lin kt ca S. Nu S trong ch tn ti mt thnh phn lin kt, th tp S gi l tp lin kt. Cho R l tp con cc im nh, R c gi l vng nh nu R l tp lin kt. ng bin ca vng R c to ra t tp nh cc im nh. Cc im ny c mt hoc nhiu hn cc im ln cn khng nm trong tp R.
3.2.1.3 Ton t x l im nh Trong phn ny, chng ta s ni n mt s php tnh thc hin trc tip vi cc im nh trong nh, th d nhn hoc chia mt nh cho nh khc theo tng im. Nh gii thiu trn, ta c th biu din nh s nh ma trn cc im nh, tuy nhin trong trng hp tng qut, hai ma trn khng chia c cho nhau. Do , khi thc hin ton t chia hai nh cho nhau, ngi ta chia cc pixel tng ng ca nh ny cho nh khc (vi iu kin cc im nh ca nh chia khc 0). Tng t nh vy, cc ton t s hc v logic s c thc hin cho cc pixel tng ng gia hai nh.
3.2.1.3.1 Khong cch gia cc im nh
i vi cc pixels p, q, z vi cc ta (x,y), (s,t), (u,v), D l hm khong cch hoc metric, nu:

D ( p, q ) 0 , D ( p, q ) = 0 nu p=q
D ( p, q ) = D ( q, p )
D ( p, z ) D ( p, q ) + D ( q, z )
3.2.1.3.2
Khong cch Euclide gia p va q c nh ngha:

1/ 2
2 2 De ( p,q ) = ( x s ) + ( y t )
(3.2.1)
3.2.1.3.3
Khong cch D4 gia p va q c nh ngha: (3.2.2)
D 4 ( p,q ) = x s + y t
Cc pixels nm cch im (x,y) mt khong D4 nh hn hoc bng gi tr r s to ra hnh
116

thoi c tm im ti (x,y).V d: pixels nm cch (x,y) mt khong D 4 2 to ra r hnh thoi sau: s
3.2.1.3.4
Khong cch h D8 gia p va v q c nh n ngha nh sau: (3.2.3)
D8 ( p, q ) = max x(x s , y t )
P Pixels nm cch c (x,y) mt khong D 8 2 to ra hnh h vung c c tm im ti im (x,y) ):
P Pixels vi kh hong cch D 8 = 1 l 8 im ln cn ca pixel (x,y y).
3.2.2 Cc c phng ph hp nng cao o cht lng g nh

Cc phng php x l nng cao cht lng hnh C h nh thng g c chia thnh t hai lp ln, l phng ph p x l tron ng khng gia an nh v ph hng php x l nh tr rong min tn s. n php x l th nht da trn cc t thao tc tc ng trc tip ti cc im nh. x l Phng trong mi m n tn s, nh s phi c nh x v min tn s thng q qua bin i Fourier. Sau u y chng ta s cp ti mt s ph hng php x l nh tro ong min kh ng gian. N Nng cao ch ht lng nh h l bc tin x l quan n trng, nhm lm ni bt mt s c tnh ca nh n nh lm tng tng phn, lc nh hiu, ni bin n, tng kch th hc nh v.v v.
3.2.2.1 Nng 3 g cao cht l ng nh bng n ton t im Q trnh nn Qu ng cao cht lng nh tro ong khng gian c biu din nh sa au:
g ( x, y ) = T f ( x, y )
(3.2.4)
n s gc; g ( x, y ) - nh h c x l; T ton n t dng bin i nh h gc. f ( x, y ) - nh Ton t T c th c thc hin cho mt vng v nh xung quanh im ( x0 , y0 ) v cho nhiu nh lin tip. Thng th hng, vng ln cn vi im ( x0 , y0 ) thng c chn c dng hnh vung v hoc hnh h ch nht c im gia l ( x0 , y0 ) - vng ny cn c c gi l mt n. (h hnh 3.2.2).
Mt n
Hnh h 3.2.2 Vng g nh ln cn vi im ( x0 , y0 ) T Ton t T c thc hin cho cc im nh bn n trong mt n, tm mt n s c dch

chuyn ln lt qua tt c cc im nh, thng l t tri sang phi, t trn xung di. Sau y l mt s bin php x l nh dng ton t khng gian.
3.2.2.1.1 Tng tng phn

Khi vng ln cn c kch thc 1x1, hm g s ch ph thuc vo f ti im (x,y). Ton t T s l hm bin i mc xm:
s = T [r]
r v s l mc xm ca nh gc f ( x, y ) v nh g ( x, y ) ti im (x,y).
(3.2.5)
V d: Qu trnh bin i mc xm n gin c m t trn hnh 3.2.3. nh gc "Lena" (hnh 3.2.3a) c tng cng tng phn khi p dng hm bin i c c tuyn trn hnh 3.2.3b. Mc ch t c khi cc im nh c mc xm ln hn mc trung bnh m s c lm sng thm, ngc li cc im nh c chi di mc m s c lm ti i. Trn hnh 3.2.3c, nh c x l s bin thnh dng nh phn: ch c 2 mc c nh, en hoc trng.
Lena
Hnh 3.2.3 Bin i mc xm lm tng tng phn
a)
b)
c) Hm dng bin i mc xm trong Matlab c dng: J = imadjust(I,[low_in; high_in],[low_out; high_out],gamma). Hm ny bin i cc mc xm nm trong khong [low_in; high_in] thnh cc gi
tr trong khong [low_out; high_out] theo quy lut e .
118
Chng 3 K thut x l hnh nh 3.2.2.1.2 Bin i m bn

Hm bin i m bn nh c dng: s = Lr (3.2.6)
Gi tr cc im nh trong nh m bn (hnh 3.2.4) c mc xm thay i t mc 0 (en) ti mc L (trng).
Hnh 3.2.4 nh m bn
3.2.2.1.3 Nn di ng ca nh (bin i logarithm)

Khi di ng ca nh bin i trong phm vi qu rng so vi kh nng hin th ca mn hnh, v d khi cn hin th nh 2-D ca cc h s khai trin DCT, chng ta cn nn di ng theo hm logarithm nh sau:
s = c log 1 + r
(3.2.7)
Hnh 3.2.5 Nn di ng ca nh bng bin i logarithm V d: H s khai trin Fourie ca nh 3.2.5 (kch thc 512x512) c gi tr nm trong di
6 ng 0 35 10 , v vy khi trc tip hin th nh ph ni trn ln mn hnh my tnh (tn hiu
u vo c 256 mc xm) chng ta s c nh mu gn nh trng hon ton (hnh3.2.5b). Sau khi nn di ng theo hm logarithm, chng ta nhn c nh 3.2.5c. Do di ng ca tn hiu sau khi nn v di ng ca thit b hin th tng ng vi nhau, chng ta c th quan st c dng 2-D ca nh ph.
3.2.2.1.4 Tch nh theo mc chi

C hai phng php tch nh theo mc chi: l tch c nn v tch khng nn. Tch khng c nn c thc hin vi ton t sau:
Lmax T (r) = Lmin
A<r <B
(3.2.8)
vi cc r khc
Vi phng php ny, cc mc xm trong phm vi [A-B] c thay th bng ln mc Lmax , cn cc mc khc s c gn mc Lmin . Tch mc chi c nn dng php nh x sau:
A<r<B L T ( r ) = max r vi cc r khc
(3.2.9)
Ton t (3.2.9) thay i mc chi cho cc im nh trong di [A-B] v gi nguyn mc chi cc im khc.
119
a)
c)
Hnh 3.2.6 So snh hai phng php tch nh theo mc chi a) nh gc b) c tuyn tch mc chi khng nn v nh kt qu c) c tuyn tch mc chi c nn v nh kt qu
b)
Trn hnh 3.2.6 minh ha l kt qu tch di chi [A-B] trong nh bng hai phng php ni trn.
3.2.2.1.5 Tch nh theo mt phng bit

C ng dng i hi phi tch nh s vi 256 mc lng t (8 bits/im) thnh 8 nh nh phn theo mt phng bit nh m t trn hnh 3.2.7. V d, cc bit to nn mt phng th 7 l cc MSB (most significant bit), cc bit to nn mt phng s 0 l LSB (least significant bit) ca cc im nh.
Hnh 3.2.7 Tch nh (8 bits/im) theo cc mt phng bit.

Tm mt phng bit c tch ra t hnh gc "Lena" c biu din trn hnh 3.2.8. C th nhn thy rng cc bit bc cao (nht l MSB) cha phn ln tin tc v hnh dng nh. Cc bt bc thp hn tp trung cc chi tit nh. Cch chia nh theo phng php tch mt phng bit c s dng trong mt s phng php nn d tha trong nh.
Hnh 3.2.8 Tm mt phng bit c tch ra t nh gc "Lena"
3.2.2.1.6 X l lc xm (histogram)
Lc xm ca mt nh s (histogram) c cc mc xm bin thin trong khong
120
[0, L 1] l hm ri rc h ( rk ) = nk , vi
nh n, khi histogram chun s bng:
rk l mc xm th k, nk - l s lng im nh, c mc
xm rk . Thng thng, histogram c chun ha bng cch chia cc gi tr nk cho tng s im
p ( rk ) = nk / n
vi k=0,1,2...L-1.
(3.2.10)
Ni cch khc p ( rk ) l xc sut xut hin cc im nh c mc xm rk. Tng cc gi tr ri rc p ( rk ) bng 1. Ngoi cc thng tin thng k v mc xm, histogram cn cha nhiu tin tc quan trng c th s dng trong cc qu trnh x l khc nh nn hay phn vng nh. Hm c bn nht dng tm histogram ca nh trong Matlab l hm: imhist(I, n), trong ,ton b di ng cc mc xm c chia ra thnh n on. Trn hnh 3.2.9 th hin 4 nh c chi v tng phn khc nhau cng vi histogram ca chng. Lc xm c biu din trong h ta vung gc, trc honh biu din cc gi tr mc xm t [0,255], trc tung biu din s lng im nh c cng mc xm. D dng thy rng, khi nh c tng phn cao (hnh 3.2.9a), cc mc xm phn b u trn trc rk. Vi nh c chi thp (hnh 3.2.9b), cc mc xm tp trung ti min gi tr chi thp v ngc li vi nh c chi cao (hnh 3.2.9c). Vi nh c tng phn thp, nht mu trn lc xm cc vch xm tp trung ti trung tm di chi (hnh3.2.9d).
Hnh 3.2.9 Histogram ca bn loi nh thng gp: a. b. c. d. nh c tng phn cao nh c sng thp nh c sng cao nh c tng phn thp
K thut cn bng histogram Kho st lc xm ca nh c th phng on rng, nu phn b gi tr cc mc xm ca cc im nh ng u trn ton b di chi [ 0, L 1] th nh s c tng phn cao. Qu trnh bin i nh c lc xm khng ng u thnh ng u c gi l cn bng lc (histogram equalization). Xt ton t bin i mc xm:
s = T (r)
0 r 1
(3.2.11)
121

vi iu kin: a- T ( r ) l hm n nh v ng bin trong khong 0 r 1 b- 0 T ( r ) 1 khi
0 r 1 0 s 1 . Ngoi ra, nu
iu kin (a) cn thit tn ti bin i nghch: r = T 1 ( s )
hm T(r) khng ng bin, trong nh kt qu c th xut hin mt phn di chi l "m bn" so vi nh gc. iu kin (b) cho thy di ng ca nh vo v ra ging nhau.
Hnh 3.2.10 Hm bin i mc xm ng bin T(r) Mc xm xut hin trong nh l i lng ngu nhin trong khong [0,1]. Cho pr ( r ) v
ps ( s ) l cc hm mt phn b xc sut (PDF) ca bin ngu nhin r v s, hai hm ny c quan

h nh sau:
ps ( s ) = pr ( r )
dr ds
(3.2.12)
Nh vy, mt phn b xc sut mc xm ca nh ra ph thuc vo mt phn b xc sut mc xm ca nh vo v hm bin i s = T ( r ) . Trong lnh vc x l nh, hm bin i sau y c ngha rt quan trng:
s = T ( r ) = pr ( ) d
0
(3.2.13)
V phi ca (3.2.13) chnh l tch phn phn b xc sut (CDF) ca bin ngu nhin r. Hm ny l hm n nh v ng bin trong khong 0 r 1 , p ng yu cu (a) v (b) trong (3.2.11). Ly o hm ca s theo r ta c:
ds dT ( r ) = dr dr
r ds d = pr ( ) d = pr ( r ) dr dr 0
(3.2.14) (3.2.15)
Thay (3.2.15) vo (3.2.12) ta c:
ps ( s ) = pr ( r )
dr 1 = pr ( r ) =1 ds pr ( t )
0 s 1
(3.2.16)
Nh vy, PDF ca nh ra trong khong [0-1] l ng u. Ni cch khc, nu hm bin i mc xm c dng (3.2.13) th histogram nh kt qu s c dng phn b u v khng ph thuc vo hm PDF ca nh gc. Qu trnh cn bng lc xm cho nh s c thc hin vi cc bin ngu nhin ri rc
122

nk v rk (nk l s lng im nh c mc chi rk). Xc sut xut hin im nh c mc chi rk l:
pr ( rk ) =
nk n
k = 0,1,2,......, L 1
(3.2.17)
n l tng s pixel trong nh. Hm pr ( rk ) vi bin rk chnh l histogram ca nh gc. Hm bin i mc xm dng cn bng histogram cho tn hiu ri rc tng ng vi (3.2.13) trong trng hp ny s c dng:
sk = T ( rk ) = pr ( rj ) =
j =0 j =0
nj n
k = 0,1,2,......, L 1
(3.2.18)
Phng php bin i nh theo (3.2.18) cho php ni rng di ng mc xm ca nh s ch da trn cc thng tin c trong nh gc.
a)
b)
c) a) b) c) d) (a) nh c chi thp, trc v sau khi cn bng nh c chi cao, trc v sau khi cn bng nh c tng phn thp, trc v sau khi cn bng Hm bin i T(r) dng cn bng cc nh: - th 1, (b)- th 2, (c) - th 3
d)
Hnh 3.2.11 Minh ha qu trnh cn bng lc xm
Trn hnh 3.2.11 biu din ba nh c chi thp, cao v c tng phn thp. Ba nh trn c cn bng histogram theo (3.2.18), hm bin i ca tng nh khc nhau v c biu
123

din trn hnh 3.2.11d. C th thy rng, cc nh nhn c sau khi p dng phng php cn bng hisrogram c tng phn cao hn. c bit, kt qu nhn c sau khi cn bng lc cho c ba nh l tng i ging nhau. L do v trong v d trn, cc nh gc u c ni dung ging nhau, ch khc nhau v chi v tng phn. Sau khi c cn bng histogram, tng phn c tng ln lm cn bng c mc chi gia cc nh, do cc nh kt qu, di mt ngi quan st, tr nn gn ging nhau. K thut xp x histogram (Histogram matching) K thut cn bng mc xm l qu trnh bin i t thch nghi vi nh gc to ra nh mi c histogram ng u. Trong mt s trng hp, chng ta cn bin i nh gc sao cho nh bin i c dng histogram mong mun, k thut ny gi l xp x histogram. Nhc li cng thc m t k thut cn bng mc xm (3.2.18):
sk = T ( rk ) = pr ( rj ) =
j =0 j =0
nj n
k = 0,1,2,......, L 1
(3.2.19)
Mc xm rk trong nh gc c nh x thnh mc sk trong nh mi. Histogram nh mi s c dng ng u. Hm pr rj l histogram ca nh gc. Bi ton t ra l cn bin i nh gc thnh nh mi sao cho histogram ca n c dng mong mun: pz ( zi ) . Thc hin bin i (3.2.19) vi pz ( zi ) ta c:
( )
vk = G ( zk ) = pz ( zi )
i =0
k = 0,1,2,......, L 1
(3.2.20)
Bin i theo (3.2.20) c ngha l nh vi histogram pz ( zi ) , sau khi bin i s c histogram ng u. Bin i nghch ca (3.2.20):
zk = G 1 ( vk )
k = 0,1,2,......, L 1
(3.2.21)
Bin i theo (3.2.21) thc hin qu trnh nh x cc mc chi vk ca nh c histogram ng u thnh nh c histogram pz ( zi ) . Nu sk = vk , ta c:
zk = G 1 ( vk ) = G 1 ( sk ) = G 1 T ( rk )
k z k = G 1 p r ( rj ) j =0
k = 0,1,2,......, L 1
(3.2.22) (3.2.23)
C th thy rng qu trnh bin i theo (3.2.23) s nh x mc xm rk ca nh gc (c histogram pr rj ) thnh mc xm zk ca nh mi, histogram ca nh mi s c dng l pz ( zi ) . Nh vy php bin i mc xm theo (3.2.23) cho php chng ta to xp x histogram theo dng cho trc. Cc bc thc hin xp x histogram: Trn thc t, qu trnh thc hin bin i mc xm thun v nghch theo (3.2.20) v (3.2.21) c thc hin cho hnh nh s bng cch tra bng. V d, bng tra cu s cha tp gi tr cc mc chi rk vi k = 0,1,2,......, L 1 ca nh gc v cc mc xm sk ca nh kt qu. sk l
( )
124

mc xm trung gian c s dng tm ra zk trong bin i (3.2.23). Di bin thin ca sk tnh theo (3.2.14) s l [0,1]. Qu trnh xp x theo (3.2.23) c minh ha trn hnh 3.2.12.
Hnh 3.2.12 a) Minh ha qu trnh nh x

T rk sk
G b) Bin i thun zq vq v
G zk bin i nghch sk
Trn hnh 3.2.12a biu din hm bin i s = T ( r ) . c tuyn T(r) c th tm ra da trn histogram ca nh gc thng qua (3.2.19). Da trn c tuyn T(r), im nh gc c mc xm rk ca s c thay bng mc xm sk . Bin i ny chnh l qu trnh cn bng mc xm. Bin i thun G ( z ) l qu trnh cn bng xm cho nh gc c histogam dng pz ( zi ) ,
G bin i thun c th m t bng cng thc: zq vq . Khi thc hin bin i nghch
G sk zk , mi gi tr sk c nh x ngc thnh gi tr zk (hnh 3.2.12b). c tuyn G(z)
c tm ra da trn histogram cho trc v (3.2.20). Hm (3.2.23) m t qu trnh bin i kt hp T ( r ) v G 1 ( sk ) , vi gi tr trung gian sk . Bin i nghch G 1 ( sk ) c th c thc hin bng phng php d tm z sao cho:
*
G s* sk 0
( )
k = 0,1,2,......, L 1
(3.2.24)
khi , z k = z * . Qu trnh d tm vi gi tr sk (hnh 3.2.12b) c bt u thc hin khi
z* = 0 , ta tng dn z* n khi bt ng thc (3.2.24) c thc hin.

Tm li, qu trnh xp x histogram thc hin theo cc bc sau: 1. Tnh histogram ca nh gc 2. S dng (3.2.19) tm cc gi tr sk 3. S dng (3.2.20) v hm ri rc pz ( z ) tnh hm bin i G. 4. Da trn bt ng thc (3.2.24) d tm zk theo cc gi tr sk . 5. To ra bng tra (Look Up Table - LUT) thc hin qu trnh nh x rk zk theo (3.2.23).
125

Di dy l mt v d minh ha qu trnh xp x histogram theo dng cho trc. nh gc (hnh 3.2.13a) [15] chp t v tinh. Do iu kin nh sng, trn nh gc tn ti ch yu hai vng ti v sng. iu ny cng th hin trn lc xm ca nh. Cc mc xm tp trung ti vng c chi cao hoc rt thp.
Hnh 3.2.13 So snh hai phng php nng cao cht lng nh bng k thut cn bng mc xm v xp x histogram Qu trnh cn bng xm c thc hin bi hm bin i c th nh trn hnh 3.2.14a. Hm ny c tm ra da trn cng thc (3.2.19) v histogram ca nh gc. C th thy rng, cn bng histogram, cc im nh c mc xm nm gn mc en s c bin i thnh mc gn trng. Trong nh gc, cc im nh c mc xm thp chim a s, do , nh nhn c sau khi cn bng s c mc chi trung bnh rt cao (hnh 3.2.13b), tng phn ca nh s b gim.
Hnh 3.2.14
a) th hm bin i T ( r ) dng cn bng mc xm cho nh trn hnh 3.2.13. b) Histogram mong mun ca nh kt qu (c cho trc). c) Hm bin i thun G ( z k ) v nghch G 1 ( vk ) .
nh c cht lng tt hn, cn bin i lm sao cho histogram ca nh kt qu khng khc nhiu so vi histogram ca nh gc, nhng khng c s bin i qu nhanh trong khu vc mc xm thp. Vi nh c th, ta la chn histogram mong mun c dng:
126

1 p ( z ) = A1 e 1 2 ( z m1 )2 2 2 1
+ A2
2 2
( z m2 )2 2 2 2
(3.2.25)
Thay i cc thng s 1 , m1 , 2 , m2 , A1 , A2 c th nhn c histogram mong mun theo nhng tiu ch ni trn (hnh 3.2.14b). Trong v d trn s dng cc gi tr sau:
m1 =0.02; 1 =0.025; m 2 =0.75; 2 =0.05; A1=3; A2=0.08

th hm bin i G ( z k ) tnh theo (3.2.20) l ng cong 1 trn hnh 3.2.14c. ng cong 2 (hnh 3.2.14c) l th hm bin i nghch G 1 ( vk ) nhn c theo phng php d tm trnh by trn. nh kt qu nhn c khi thc hin bin i nghch G 1 ( sk ) vi cc gi tr sk v histogram ca n c hin th trn hnh 3.2.13c. So snh nh 3.2.13b v 3.2.13c, d dng nhn thy cht lng 3.2.13c tt hn. t c kt qu ti u nht, chng ta phi thc hin bin i nh vi cc dng histogram khc nhau, v d, bng cch thay i cc thng s trong (3.2.25).
3.2.2.1.7 K thut trit nhiu da trn cs trung bnh ha nh

Khi nh f ( x, y ) b tc ng bi nhiu cng ( x, y ) , nh kt qu s l:
g ( x, y ) = f ( x, y ) + ( x, y )
(3.2.26)
Nhiu ( x, y ) ti tng im (x,y) l cc qu trnh ngu nhin c lp tng h v c gi tr trung bnh thng k bng 0 (moment gc cp 1: mx , y = 0 ). Nu chng ta c tp M nh f ( x, y ) b tc ng bi ngun nhiu ngu nhin ni trn, th nh trung bnh cng s l:
g ( x, y ) =
1 M gi ( x, y ) M i 1
(3.2.27)
Gi tr trung bnh thng k ca g ti mi im (x,y) bng:
E {g ( x, y )} = f ( x, y )
1 2 M ( x, y)
(3.2.28)
2 Phng sai g ( x , y ) (chnh l cng sut nhiu trong tng im ca nh trung bnh cng)
bng:
2 g ( x, y ) =
(3.2.29)
cng thc (3.2.28) cng cho thy trong trng hp ny g ( x , y ) s tin dn ti f ( x, y ) . Nh vy, c th kt lun rng, khi s lng nh tham gia vo qu trnh trung bnh cng cng nhiu, nh kt qu g ( x, y ) s cng ging vi nh gc f ( x, y ) . Trn hnh 3.2.15 v 3.2.16 minh ha k thut trit nhiu phn tch trn.
Theo (3.2.29), khi M tng ln, cng sut trung bnh ca nhiu ti mi im nh gim i;
nh gc 3.2.15a c tng hp vi nhiu cng (nhiu Gaussian vi m=0, lch chun bng 0.01) to tp nh c nhiu dng thc hin trung bnh cng. Hai nh chu tc ng ca nhiu c hin th trn hnh 3.2.15b v 3.2.15c. nh trung bnh cng vi M= 4, 8 v 16 biu din trn hnh 3.2.15d,e,f. C th thy r rng nh 3.2.15f c cht lng gn vi nh gc nht. thy r hn tc dng ca qu trnh trung bnh nh, trn hnh 3.2.16 biu din cc nh sai s (tuyt i) gia nh 3.2.15d,e,f v nh gc cng histogram ca chng. D dng nhn thy lch chun ca
127

nh sai s gim khi M tng.
Hnh 3.2.15 a- nh gc. b,c) nh b tc ng bi ngun nhiu ( x, y ) (ti cc thi im khc nhau). d,e,f ) kt qu trung bnh ca 4, 8 v 16 nh c nhiu.
Hnh 3.2.16 T tri sang phi: nh sai s gia nh gc (3.2.15a) v nh 3.2.15d,e,f v histogram ca chng.
3.2.2.2 Nng cao cht lng nh bng ton t khng gian Mt cch tng qut, ton t khng gian trong x l nh c thc hin ti vng xung quanh im nh theo cc bc sau:
1- Xc nh im nh trung tm. 2- Thc hin tnh ton vi cc im nh nm trong vng ln cn im nh trung tm (kch thc v hnh dng vng nh ny c xc nh trc). 3- Kt qu tnh ton bc 2 (cn gi l p ng ca qu trnh x l) s c gn cho im nh trung tm. 4- Thc hin cc bc trn cho ton b cc pixels ca nh. Nu ton t bin i l tuyn tnh, th qu trnh trn c gi l qu trnh lc tuyn tnh.
128

Nu ngc li, ta c qu trnh lc phi tuyn. Ton t khng gian trong x l nh c s dng lc nhiu v lm ni cc chi tit nh hay ng bin.
3.2.2.2.1 Cc b lc tuyn tnh (trong khng gian )

Khi thc hin lc tuyn tnh, cc im nh s c nhn vi h s sau c tng hp (cng) li vi nhau to ra p ng ca b lc ti mi im (x,y). Vng nh kch thc mxn c x l vi ma trn mxn h s. Ma trn ny thng c gi l b lc, ma trn lc, ca s lc hay mt n. Thng ngi ta ly gi tr m v n l s l d xc nh tm im ca mt n. Qu trnh dch chuyn tm im ca mt n dc theo nh v thc hin ton t tuyn tnh ni trn cho tng im nh l qu trnh nhn chp nh v mt n cc h s. C ch lc tuyn tnh c m t trn hnh 3.2.17.
Hnh 3.2.17 Qu trnh lc trong khng gian 2-D
C hai cch thc hin qu trnh lc tuyn tnh, l thc hin php nhn chp nh ni trn hoc thc hin php tnh tng quan. Khi tnh tng quan chng ta di chuyn mt n lc qua cc im nh; khi tnh tch chp, mt n phi c xoay 1800 trc khi thc hin nhn vi ma trn im nh. nh f c kch thc MxN c lc bi mt n w ( x , y ) kch thc (mxn) theo biu thc tng qut sau:
g ( x, y ) =
s = a t = b
w ( s, t ) f ( x + s , y + t )
(3.2.30)
a = ( m 1) / 2, b = ( n 1) / 2 , x = 0,1, 2..., M 1 , y = 0,1, 2..., N 1 .

p ng ca mt n lc mxn ti im (x,y) l:
mn
R = w1 z1 + w 2 z2 + ... + w mn zmn = wi zi
i =1
(3.2.30a)
Php lc tuyn tnh trong Matlab c thc hin bng hm: B = imfilter(A, H, option1, option2,...); H- ma trn lc vi cc thng s ty chn option1, option2. B lc trung bnh khng gian thc hin theo (3.2.30) thng c s dng lc nhiu hoc lm m (blurring) nh. V d: qu trnh lm m nh c th c s dng lc b cc chi tit nh trc khi a vo nhn dng nhng chi tit c kch thc ln trong nh. Trn hnh 3.2.18 l hai mt n dng thc hin qu trnh trung bnh trong khng gian, v bn cht, l mt n lc thng thp. p ng mt n hnh 3.2.18a l gi tr trung bnh ca 9 im nh. D dng nhn
129

thy, thnh t phn nhiu, l nhng n im nh c chi bi b n i bt t thng so vi mc chi trung t bnh tr rong vng nh n rng, s b lm "trn" sau khi b tc ng bi mt n ni tr n. Tuy nhin n, tc ng ca mt n s lm cho cc c ng bin n hoc cc chi i tit nh tron ng nh b "l m m".
nh 3.2.18 Cc C mt n dng d thc hin trung bnh b khng gi ian H
a)
b)
H nh 3.2.19 nh kt qu k khi lc thng thp bng ma m trn 3x3 (a a) v 5x5 (b) Vi mt n hnh h 3.2.18b, , cc pixel kh hc nhau c nhn vi h s khc nhau, n lm nh vy ta c th h xc nh "tr " ng lng g" ring (mc quan trng) cho tng g pixel. Tron ng mt n 3.2 2.18b, im trung t tm c "trng lng" n ln nht, , cc im nh nm cng g xa tm, "tr rng lng" cng nh. Cch C phn b "trng lng" n ny lm m gim hiu ng nhe ng bin kh hi thc hin trung t bnh ha nh. K kch th Khi c ca s tng n ln, bng thng ca b lc thng t thp s gim, nn mc lm "trn" nh s tng ln, iu ny y thy r trn n hnh minh ha kt qu lc thng thp vi hai ma a trn 3x3 v 5x5 (hnh 3.2.19a v 3.2 2.19b). T dng lc nhiu ca b lc thng Tc g thp vi ma m trn 3x3 th h hin trn hnh 3.2.20. nh gc b tc ng ca nhiu Gaussian c lc tuyn tnh h bng ma trn 3x3, ng g nh phn tch t n kt qu c mc nhiu thp hn nhng nt su uy gim so vi nh gc. trn, nh N u Gausian c tng Nhi g hp vi nh h I bi hm Matlab: M J = imnoi ise(I,'ga aussian',m,v); m - trung bnh t thng k, v- lch chun ca hm Gausian. G
b) nh nhiu. nh 3.2.20 a) nh gc. b u c) Kt qu lc thng th hp nh nhiu H Lc tuyn tn nh bng ph ng php nh hn chp tron ng khng gia an cn s dng n lm ni cc chi tit nh, hay ni bin nh (l lc thng cao o). c im ca cc ma trn lc thn ng cao c phn

tch phn sau.
3.2.2.2.2 Lm trn nhiu bng lc phi tuyn (trong khng gian )

K thut lc phi tuyn da trn c s thng k bng cch sp xp gi tr cc im nh trong mt n lc thnh dy theo quy lut tng dn hay gim dn, qua chn ra gi tr nm ti v tr nht nh no trong dy - gi tr ny chnh l p ng ca b lc. Gi tr im nh l trung tm ca ma trn lc s c thay th bng p ng tm c. B lc trung v lm vic theo nguyn l trn thng c s dng lc nhiu xung. p ng ca b lc ny chnh l gi tr trung v ca cc im nh nm trong ma trn lc. Trung v ca dy s l gi tr x sao cho mt na dy s c gi tr nh hn hoc bng x, na cn li ln hn hoc bng x. Vi mt n 3x3, trung v s bng gi tr th 5 t trn xung. V d: trong mt n 3x3 im nh c gi tr {25,20,20,15,30,60,40,35,15} , sau khi sp xp li theo th t tng dn s c dng: {15,15,20,20,25,30,35,40,60} . Nh vy, trung v s l gi tr 25. u im ca b lc phi tuyn so vi cc b lc thng thp ta xt trn l kh nng lc nhiu xung (nhiu c dng im en trng trn nh) tt, ng thi t nh hng ti nt ca nh. u im nu trn c minh ha trn hnh 3.2.21. nh gc 3.2.21a b nh hng ca nhiu xung. nh c nhiu (hnh 3.2.21b) c a qua mch lc thng thp (ly trung bnh khng gian vi ma trn (3x3) v mch lc trung v vi ma trn c cng kch thc. Nhiu xung c to ra trong nh bi hm Matlab: J = imnoise(I,'salt & pepper',d); d - mt nhiu trong nh. Hm lc trung v: J = medfilt2(I,[m n]);[m n]- kch thc ma trn lc. Kt qu lc trung v (hnh 3.2.21c) cho thy nhiu xung b trit gn nh hon ton, cc ng bin hu nh khng b bin dng. B lc thng thp trong trng hp ny cho kt qu km hn rt nhiu (hnh 3.2.21d): bin nhiu gim i, nhng kch thc ca cc im nhiu ln ln, cc ng bin nhe i r rt.
Hnh 3.2.21
a) nh gc; c) nh lc median;
b) nh nhiu d) nh lc trung bnh khng gian
131
3.2.2.2.3 Lm tng nt ca nh
Ton t Laplace hay Laplacian ca hm hai bin f ( x, y ) c xc nh bi biu thc:
2 f =
2 f 2 f + dx 2 dy 2
(3.2.31)
2 f = f ( x + 1, y ) + f ( x 1, y ) 2 f ( x, y ) x 2 2 f = f ( x, y + 1) + f ( x, y 1) 2 f ( x, y ) y 2
Nh vy Laplacian ti im (x,y) tm c theo biu thc:
(3.2.32)
2 f = f ( x + 1, y ) + f ( x 1, y ) + f ( x, y + 1) + f ( x, y 1) 4 f ( x, y ) (3.2.33)
Ton t Laplace c s dng rng ri trong k thut xc nh ng bin v s c phn tch trong phn 3.2.4. Ti y, chng ta s ch xt k thut lm r nh s dng ton t Laplace. V mt bn cht, y l phng php ng dng o hm bc hai lm tng nt ca nh. Ton t Laplace hai chiu cho tn hiu ri rc thng c thc hin vi mt n kch thc 3x3. Hai mt n lc trn hnh 3.2.22a v b thc hin ton t Laplacian ri rc theo cng thc (3.2.33) u cho cc nh kt qu ging nhau.
a)
b)
Hnh 3.2.22 Mt n Laplacian nh gc (hnh 3.2.23a) c x l bng mt n Laplacian. V ton t Laplace l o hm bc hai nn nh kt qu s l tp hp cc ng bin nm ti vng bin i nhanh ca mc chi trong nh (hnh 3.2.23b). Thnh phn nn ca nh gc (nhng vng nh c chi gn nh khng i) s cho gi tr gn bng 0. Nh vy, nu tng hp nh gc 3.2.23a v nh cc ng bin 3.2.23b, ta s c nh mi, vi cc ng bin c tng cng (hnh 3.2.23c). Ni cch khc, nh kt qu s c nt cao hn.
a) a-
b) Hnh 3.2.23 Lm nt nh bng ton t Laplace
c)
nh gc; b- nh cc ng bin c lm ni c- nh tng hp
132

Tm li, cng thc tng qut lm nt nh vi ton t Laplace l:
f ( x , y ) 2 f ( x, y ) g ( x, y ) = 2 f ( x, y ) + f ( x, y )
(3.2.34)
Khi thc hin Laplacian vi mt n trn hnh 3.2.22a (mt n vi h s trung tm nh hn 0), nh kt qu s l hiu gia nh gc v nh Laplacian v ngc li, vi mt n 3.2.22b nh kt qu s l tng hai nh. Qu trnh lm nt theo (3.2.34) c thc hin theo hai bc: tm Laplacian ca nh gc v tng hp nh gc v nh kt qu vi nhau. Tuy nhin, chng ta c th thc hin qu trnh bin i ny nhanh hn. Da vo (3.2.33) v (3.2.34) ta c p ng ca b lc lm tng nt l:
g ( x, y ) = f ( x, y ) 2 f ( x, y ) = = 5 f ( x, y ) f ( x + 1, y ) + f ( x 1, y ) + f ( x, y + 1) + f ( x, y 1)
Mt n lc thc hin biu thc (3.2.35) c dng:
(3.2.35)
Hnh 3.2.24 Mt n lm nt nh bng ton t Laplace
3.2.3 Khi phc nh

Khi phc nh l qu trnh loi b hay ti thiu ha cc nh hng ca mi trng bn ngoi n nh thu nhn c. Cc nguyn nhn dn ti s bin dng (mo) nh c th l: nhiu ti b bin i quang-in, mo do h thng ng knh quang hc gy ra, nhiu khng gian nh hng ti tn hiu trong qu trnh truyn qua ng truyn, nhiu cng nghip tc ng trc tip ti tn hiu hnh nh v.v. Trong phn ny chng ta s cp ti mt s phng php khi phc nh nh: lc nh bng b lc khng gian, kh nhiu bng cc b lc tn s thch nghi vi ngun nhiu v.v.
3.2.3.1 M hnh ha qu trnh gy mo v khi phc nh

f ( x, y)
( x, y) f
Hnh 3.2.25 M hnh gy mo/khi phc nh Trong phn ny, chng ta s dng m hnh trn hnh 3.2.25 m t qu trnh lm mo v khi phc nh. Trong m hnh ny, nh gc f ( x, y ) chu tc ng ca ton t lm mo H, c c trng bi hm p ng xung h ( x, y ) v nhiu cng ( x, y ) . Da trn h ( x , y ) v ( x, y ) ,
( x, y ) ging vi nh vo nht. chng ta phi tm ra phng php khi phc nh, sao cho nh ra f
Nu H l ton t tuyn tnh v bt bin, th nh b nhiu g ( x, y ) c dng nh sau:
g ( x, y ) = H f ( x, y ) + ( x, y ) = h ( x, y ) f ( x , y ) + ( x, y )
h ( x, y ) - hm p ng c trng cho ton t H trong khng gian.
(3.2.36)
133

Trong min tn s, da trn tnh cht ca bin i Fourier ta c:
G ( u, v ) = H ( u, v ) F ( u, v ) + N ( u, v )
(3.2.37)
vi G ( u , v ) , H ( u, v ) , F ( u, v ) , N ( u, v ) l kt qu bin i Fourie ca cc hm tng ng.
3.2.3.2 M hnh nhiu Cng nhiu tc ng ln hnh nh l mt i lng ngu nhin, v vy khi phn tch cc k thut khi phc nh, vn quan trng l cn xc nh c mt phn b xc sut ca ngun nhiu. Di y l mt s loi nhiu thng gp trong lnh vc x l nh v hm mt phn b xc sut ca chng.
3.2.3.2.1 Nhiu Gaussian

M hnh Gaussian tin li cho vic phn tch trong min thi gian cng nh trong min tn s, do m hnh ny c s dng rt rng ri. Hm mt phn b xc sut ca bin ngu nhin z trong qu trnh ngu nhin Gaussian (qu trnh ngu nhin chun) c dng:
p( z) =
2 1 z m /2 2 e( ) 2
(3.2.38)
m - gi tr trung bnh thng k ca z; - lch chun.
2 l phng sai ca qu trnh ngu nhin.

th hm mt phn b xc sut chun c biu din trn hnh 3.2.26.
3.2.3.2.2 Nhiu Rayleigh

Hm mt phn b xc sut ca nhiu Rayleigh:
2 2 ( z a ) / b khi z a (z a)e p(z) = b 0 khi z < a
(3.2.39)
2 Gi tr trung bnh v phng sai c dng m = a + b / 4 v =
b(4 ) . 4
th hm phn b xc sut Rayleigh c dng khng i xng (hnh 3.2.26), do phn b ny thng c dng xp x histogram c dng tng ng.
3.2.3.2.3 Nhiu Erlang (Gamma)

Hm mt phn b xc sut ca nhiu Erlang c dng:
a b z b 1 az e p ( z ) = ( b 1) ! 0
vi a>0, b- s nguyn dng.
khi z 0 khi z < 0
(3.2.40)
Gi tr trung bnh v phng sai bng m =
b b v 2 = 2 . a a
3.2.3.2.4 Nhiu c phn b l hm m

Hm mt phn b xc sut ca nhiu ny l trng hp c bit ca phn b Erlang khi b=1:
134

ae az p(z) = 0
vi a>0 Gi tr trung bnh v phng sai bng m =
khi z 0 khi z < 0
(3.2.41)
1 1 v 2 = 2 a a
3.2.3.2.5 Nhiu c phn b u

Hm mt phn b xc sut ca nhiu c dng:
1 p (z) = b a 0
khi
a zb
(3.2.42)
2
vi cc z khc
( a b) . a+b Gi tr trung bnh ca bin ngu nhin z l m = , phng sai 2 = 2 12

3.2.3.2.6 Nhiu dng xung
Hm mt phn b xc sut ca nhiu xung c th m t nh sau:
Pa p ( z ) = Pb 0
khi khi
z=a z=b
(3.2.43)
vi cc z khc
Pa v Pb l xc sut xut hin z = a hoc z = b . Hm mt phn b c dng

p ( z ) = Pa ( z a ) + Pb ( z b ) .
Hnh 3.2.26 Mt s hm mt phn b xc sut quan trng.
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3.2.3.3 Trit nhiu bng phng php lc khng gian Trng hp khi nh ch chu tc ng ca nhiu cng, cc phng php lc nhiu trong khng gian thng cho kt qu khi phc nh tt nht. Mt s phng php lc trong khng gian c cp n trong phn 3.2.2.2 nh cc bin php nng cao cht lng nh. Di y s gii thiu mt s b lc khng gian khc c th dng khi phc nh. Cc thao tc thc hin nhng b lc ny cng da trn qu trnh nhn chp mt n lc vi nh nh trnh by phn 3.2.2.2.
3.2.3.3.1 Cc b lc s dng k thut ly trung bnh trong khng gian

Theo (3.2.36) v (3.2.37), ta c th m t nh g ( x, y ) ch b nh hng bi nhiu cng
( x, y ) trong min khng gian nh sau:

g ( x, y ) = f ( x, y ) + ( x, y )
trong min tn s ta c quan h: (3.2.44)
G ( u, v ) = F ( u, v ) + N ( u, v )
(3.2.45)
Trong cc b lc di y, ta s dng ma trn lc S xy c tm nm ti im (x,y) c kch
( x, y ) . thc mxn. nh khi phc c k hiu l f

B lc s dng trung bnh cng (Arithmetic mean filter) Nh cp trong phn 3.2.2.2.1, b lc ny thc hin qu trnh nhn chp nh vo vi mt n S xy c cc h s bng 1 / mn :
( x, y ) = 1 f g ( s, t ) mn ( s ,t )S xy
B lc trung bnh nhn (Geometric mean filter)
(3.2.46)
Quan h gia nh khi phc v nh nhiu c m t bng cng thc tnh trung bnh nhn nh sau:
mn ( x, y ) = , f g s t ( ) ( s ,t )S xy
(3.2.47)
B lc trung bnh nhn cng c tc dng lm trn nhiu, u im ca n so vi b lc trung bnh cng l mc lm m cc chi tit nh tng i thp. B lc trung bnh iu ha (Harmonic mean filter) Kt qu nhn c khi lc bng b lc trung bnh harmonic s l:
( x, y ) = f
mn
( s ,t )S xy
1 g ( s, t )
(3.2.48)
B lc ny c kh nng trit nhiu xung dng "m trng" v nhiu Gaussian kh tt. Nhng b lc ny khng c kh nng lc cc thnh phn nhiu xung dng "m en". B lc contraharmonic (Contraharmonic mean filter) Bin i trong b lc contraharmonic c m t bng biu thc:
136
( x, y ) = f
( s ,t )S xy
g ( s, t )
Q +1
( s ,t )S xy
g ( s, t )
(3.2.49)
Q - gi l bc ca b lc. B lc ny thch ng tt vi nh c nhiu xung. Vi Q l s dng, nhiu xung "m en" s b trit, ngc li, thnh phn nhiu xung "m trng" c lc bt khi Q l s m. C th thy rng khi Q=0, ta c b lc trung bnh cng; vi Q= -1 ta c b lc trung bnh hi. Nhn chung, cc b lc trung bnh cng v nhn thch ng tt vi cc loi loi nhiu c phn b Gaussian, Rayleigh hay nhiu c phn b u. B lc contraharmonic cho php trit nhiu xung kh tt, tuy nhin, nh phn tch trn, chng ta phi xc nh c dng nhiu xung l "m en" hay "m trng".
3.2.3.3.2 Cc b lc da trn thng k th t

B lc trung v Trong phn 3.2.2.2.2 cp ti k thut lc trung v, cho php loi nhiu xung trong nh. y l b lc phi tuyn c p ng l gi tr bng gi tr im trung v trong ma trn lc:
( x, y ) = med {g ( s, t )} f
( s ,t )S xy
(3.2.50)
B lc trung v c s dng rt rng ri v n mt mt cho php loi b hiu qu cc loi nhiu xung lng cc cng nh n cc, mt khc b lc ny t lm trn nh so vi cc b lc s dng ton t ly trung bnh nh xt phn trn. B lc da trn php la trn gi tr cc i v cc tiu Qu trnh bin i da trn thng k th t v chn gi tr cc i c gi l b lc cc i:
( x, y ) = max {g ( s, t )} f
( s ,t )S xy
(3.2.51)
B lc cc i cho php pht hin nhng im sng nht trong nh, ng thi c tc dng trit nhiu xung dng "m en". B lc cc tiu c m t bng biu thc:
( x, y ) = min {g ( s, t )} f
( s ,t )S xy
(3.2.52)
B lc ny cho php pht hin nhng vng ti ca nh v lm gim nhiu xung "trng". B lc gi trung v p ng ca b lc ny l gi tr trung bnh gia hai im cc i v cc tiu trong ma trn lc:
( x, y ) = 1 max {g ( s, t )} + min {g ( s, t )} f ( s ,t )S xy 2 ( s ,t )S xy
(3.2.53)
3.2.3.4 Trit nhiu trong min tn s Cc b lc trong min khng gian cp ti cc phn trn l cc b lc thng thp hoc thng cao. Lc khng gian c th c s dng khi phc nh c nhiu hoc lm tng cht lng nh. Trong phn ny chng ta s cp ti vn x l nh trong min tn s: l mt s 137

b lc di, b lc chn di v ng dng ca chng khi phc nh c nhiu tun hon. Lc chn di v lc thng di c tuyn tn s ca b lc chn di l tng c m t bng biu thc sau:
1 H ( u , v ) = 0 1
khi D ( u, v ) < D0 khi D0
W 2
(3.2.54)
W W D ( u, v ) D0 + 2 2 W khi D ( u, v ) > D0 + 2
D ( u, v ) - Khong cch tnh t tm im ca khng gian tn s (im 0) (hnh 3.2.27d);

W - b rng bng chn ca b lc; D0 - bn knh ng trn i qua tm ca bng chn (hnh 3.2.27d) Hm p ng tn s ca b lc chn di Butterworth bc n c dng:
H ( u, v ) =
1 D ( u, v ) W 1+ 2 2 D ( u, v ) D0
2n
(3.2.55)
Hnh 3.2.27 p ng tn s ca b lc a - l tng, b - Butterworth, c- Gaussian d- p ng tn s b lc Gaussian

2 2 1 D ( u ,v ) D0 2 D u , v W ( ) 2
(hnh chiu t trn xung)
Hm p ng tn s ca b lc chn di Gaussian c nh ngha nh sau:
H ( u, v ) = 1 e
(3.2.56)
Trn hnh 3.2.27 a,b,c minh ha p ng tn s ca ba b lc nu trn (trong khng gian 3 chiu). B lc thng di c p ng tn s H td ( u, v ) ngc li so vi b lc chn di H cd ( u, v ) :
138
H td ( u, v ) = 1 H cd ( u, v )
Notch filter
(3.2.57)
Cc b lc Notch cho php lc mt s thnh phn ph trong khng gian ph hai chiu ca nh. Khc vi cc b lc chn di c c tuyn tn s ng hng (hnh 3.2.27b,c), notch filter cho php lc b cc thnh phn nhiu theo hng nht nh trong khng gian tn s. c tuyn tn s ca notch filter (lc chn) l tng c dng i xng qua im gc ca khng gian tn s, vi nh nm ti cc im ( u0 , v0 ) v ( u0 , v0 ) c th c m t bng biu thc sau:
0 H ( u, v ) = 1
khi D1 ( u, v ) D0 hay D2 ( u, v ) D0
vi cc trng hp khc
(3.2.58)
D0- bn knh min chn di ca b lc.

2 2 D1 ( u, v ) = ( u M / 2 u0 ) + ( v N / 2 v0 ) 2 2 D2 ( u, v ) = ( u M / 2 + u0 ) + ( v N / 2 + v0 )
(3.2.59) (3.2.60)
c tuyn tn s ca Butterworth notch filter bc n c dng:
H ( u, v ) =
1
2 D0 1+ D1 ( u, v ) D2 ( u, v )
n
(3.2.61)
vi D1 ( u, v ) v D2 ( u , v ) tnh theo (3.2.59) v (3.2.60) C th thy rng, khi u0 = v0 = 0 notch filter tr thnh b lc thng cao. Notch pass filter (lc thng di) c p ng tn s H ntd ( u, v ) ngc li so vi b lc chn di H ncd ( u, v ) :
H ntd ( u, v ) = 1 H ncd ( u, v )
3.2.3.5 K thut lc ngc (inverse filter) Nhc li cng thc 3.2.36 m t qu trnh lm mo tn hiu hnh nh:
(3.2.62)
g ( x, y ) = H f ( x, y ) + ( x, y )
(3.2.63)
nhiu cng ( x, y ) . Da trn hm p ng xung ca h thng h ( x , y ) ta c:
y, chng ta xt trng hp tn hiu b lm mo bi ton t H tuyn tnh, bt bin v
g ( x, y ) = h ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) + ( x, y ) G ( u , v ) = H ( u, v ) F ( u , v ) + N ( u, v )
ng tn s (tng ng vi ton t H).
(3.2.64)
Trong min tn s, ng dng cc tnh cht ca bin i Fourier ta c quan h sau: (3.2.65)
F ( u, v ) , G ( u, v ) , N ( u, v ) l ph ca nh gc, nh kt qu v nhiu. H ( u, v ) - hm p
Trong trng hp khi hm H ( u, v ) c cho trc, k thut khi phc n gin v chnh
139

xc nht l lc ngc. Hm p ng tn s ca b lc ngc l 1 / H ( u, v ) , khi ph ca nh
( u, v ) s bng: kt qu F ( u, v ) = G ( u, v ) / H ( u, v ) F
Nu nh b tc ng bi nhiu cng, t (3.2.65) ta c: (3.2.66)
( u, v ) = F ( u, v ) + N ( u, v ) / H ( u, v ) F
(3.2.67)
C th thy rng, ngay c khi bit trc H ( u, v ) , chng ta vn khng th khi phc chnh xc c nh gc, v nhiu cng l tn hiu ngu nhin v hm mt ph N ( u, v ) khng xc nh chnh xc c. Mt nhc im na ca lc ngc l khi hm H ( u, v ) c gi tr bng hoc gn bng 0, b lc ny tr nn khng n nh. Trong trng hp ny, thnh phn th hai ca (3.2.67) s c gi tr ln hn nhiu so vi tn hiu nh gc. khng xy ra hin tng ni trn, gi tr ln hn 0.
trn thc t bng thng ca b lc ngc c hn ch trong di tn thp, ni hm H ( u, v ) c
nhiu. B lc Wiener cho php khi phc nh da trn hm bin i H ( u, v ) v c im ca ngun nhiu. Trong k thut lc Wiener, nh s f ( u, v ) v nhiu c m t nh cc cc tn
3.2.3.6 Lc Wiener Phng php lc ngc tuy n gin, nhng kt qu khng ti u khi nh chu tc ng ca
( u, v ) phi p ng c iu kin sao cho li hiu ngu nhin; Tn hiu u ra ca b lc l f

( u, v ) v f ( u, v ) phi l nh nht. Gi trung bnh bnh phng (MSE - mean square error) ca f
tr MSE tnh theo cng thc sau:
e2 = E
{( f f ) }
2
(3.2.68)
Xt trng hp tha mn cc iu kin sau: - Nhiu v nh gc l hai tn hiu ngu nhin c lp tng h (khng tng quan); - Hoc nh gc, hoc nhiu c gi tr trung bnh bng 0; - Hm bin i H ( u, v ) l tuyn tnh khi , c th chng minh c MSE s l nh nht khi p ng ca b lc c xc nh theo biu thc sau:
H * ( u, v ) S f ( u, v ) G ( u, v ) = F ( u, v ) = 2 S f ( u, v ) H ( u, v ) + S ( u, v )
2 H ( u, v ) 1 G ( u, v ) = H ( u, v ) H ( u, v ) 2 + S ( u, v ) / S f ( u, v )
(3.2.69)
S ( u, v ) = N ( u, v ) - Hm mt ph cng sut ca nhiu;

2
S f ( u, v ) = F ( u, v ) - Hm mt ph cng sut ca tn hiu nh gc;

2
140
S ( u, v ) / S f ( u, v ) - T l cng sut nhiu/tn hiu (NSPR- Noise-to-Signal-PowerRatio).
G ( u, v ) - Ph ca nh b bin i v chu tc ng ca nhiu.
( u, v ) . nh kt qu l bin i nghch Fourier ca F

Kt qu trn do N. Wiener thu c nm 1942. B lc c p ng tn s m t trong (3.2.69) c gi l b lc trung bnh bnh phng cc tiu. Nu nhiu khng tn ti trong h C th xc nh hai i lng quan trng l cng sut trung bnh ca nh gc v ca nhiu l:
thng, mt ph cng sut S ( u , v ) bng 0, b lc Wiener s bin thnh b lc ngc.
fA =
v
1 MN 1 MN
S ( u, v )
f u v
(3.2.70) (3.2.71)
A =
S ( u, v )
u v
MxN l kch thc ma trn nh v nhiu. T l R = A / f A (l hng s) i khi c s dng thay cho t l NSPR trong (3.2.69), khi khng th tm c hm m t mt ph cng sut ca nhiu cng nh ca tn hiu hnh nh. Tt nhin, cch xp x ny tng i th, nhng nh khi phc thng c cht lng cao hn so vi nh nhn c khi lc ngc. Ph nh kt qu c m t bng biu thc sau:
2 H ( u, v ) 1 G ( u, v ) F ( u, v ) = H ( u, v ) H ( u, v ) 2 + R
(3.2.72)
so snh kh nng khi phc nh ca cc b lc ngc v lc Wiener, ta quan st cc nh c biu din trn hnh 3.2.28. Hnh 3.2.28a l nh gc dng hnh bn c. Trong qu trnh chp nh, nu camera b dch chuyn so vi nh gc, hnh nh thu c s b nhe. Trn hnh 3.2.28b l nh b lm nhe theo cch trn, nh ny c m phng bng cc hm Matlab PSF=fspecial('motion',len,theta)v g=imfilter(f,PSF,'circular'); len - dch chuyn ca camera; theta - gc dch chuyn; Trn hnh 3.2.28c l nh b lm nhe c tng hp vi nhiu Gaussian vi gi tr trung bnh bng 0, lch chun 0.005. Hnh 3.2.28d l kt qu lc ngc t nh 3.2.28b. Qu trnh ny c thc hin bng hm: fr0=deconvwnr(g,PSF); y chnh l hm thc hin b lc Wiener vi NSPR bng 0. V nh 3.2.28b khng b nh hng ca nhiu, nn lc ngc cho php khi phc chnh xc nh gc. Trn hnh 3.2.28e l nh kt qu lc ngc nh c nhiu cng, hnh 3.2.28f l kt qu thc hin lc Wiener: fr2=deconvwnr(g,PSF,R), vi gi tr R = A / f A = 0,07 (c tnh theo (3.2.70) v (3.2.71).
141
Hnh 3.2.28 So snh hiu qu b lc ngc v lc Wiener Da trn cc nh kt qu trn hnh 3.2.28, c th thy rng b lc trung bnh bnh phng cc tiu Wiener vi NSPR khng i (3.2.72) cho kt qu tt hn rt nhiu so vi b lc ngc khi nh bin i b tc ng ca nhiu cng.
3.2.4 Cc phngphpxcnh v d on bin nh 3.2.4.1 C s pht hin ng bin nh Lm ni, pht hin v d on bin nh l vn quan trng trong phn tch nh. Nh c nh ngha phn trc, ng bin ca mt vng nh R c to ra bi cc im nh c mt hoc nhiu im ln cn khng nm trong tp lin kt R. Ni cch khc, mt im nh c coi l nm trn ng bin nu ti v tr im nh c s thay i t ngt ca mc xm. Nh vy, ng bin l ng ni cc im nh nm trong khu vc nh c thay i t ngt v chi, ng bin thng ngn cch hai vng nh, khi mi vng c cc mc xm gn nh khng i.
a)
b)
Hnh 3.2.29 Minh ha khi nim ng bin ca nh. a- ng bin gia hai vng nh trong khng gian 2 chiu b- S thay i chi trn ng bin. Trong trng hp l tng, chi gia hai vng nh thay i t ngt hoc tng dn u.
142

Tuy nhin, trn thc t, mc xm gia cc vng nh thay i tng i ngu nhin (hnh 3.2.29b). Chnh v vy qu trnh pht hin ng bin thng khng n gin v kt qu thng khng hon ton chnh xc. C nhiu phng php pht hin ng bin khc nhau: 1- Phng php pht hin ng bin trc tip da trn cc phn tch v s thay i chi ca nh. K thut ch yu dng pht hin bin l dng o hm. Khi ly o hm bc nht ca nh ta c phng php gradient, khi ly o hm bc hai ta c k thut Laplace. 2- Phng php pht hin ng bin trong nh mu: phn tch nh mu thnh cc nh n sc (R,G,B) v xc nh ng bin trn c s s thay i mu sc trong cc nh n sc ni trn. 3- Phn tch nh thnh vng theo cc c im c trng. V d theo kt cu b mt (texture). Ranh gii gia cc vng chnh l ng bin ca nh.
Hnh 3.2.30 S khi tng qut ca h thng pht hin ng bin S khi tng qut ca h thng pht hin ng bin biu din trn hnh 3.2.30. nh gc f(x,y) c a vo khi lm ni ng bin. y, bng phng php x l tuyn tnh hoc phi tuyn, nh f(x,y) c lm tng mc chnh lch chi gia cc vng nh. nh G(x,y) l nh c x l ng bin. Ti khi so snh, ngi ta so snh gi tr cc im nh G(x,y) vi mc ngng T xc nh v tr cc im nm vng c mc thay i chi ln tc cc im nh nm trn ng bin. V d: khi f(x,y) c x l bng o hm bc hai, nh kt qu G(x,y) s c so snh vi cc mc ngng TL (thp) v TH (cao). Nu im (x,y) l im bin, nm vng c chi thp. V ngc li nu nm vng c mc chi cao. Vic la chn gi tr ngng rt quan trng trong qu trnh xc nh ng bin. Khi gi tr T qu cao, cc ng bin c tng phn thp s b mt i, ngc li, khi T qu thp, d xy ra hin tng xc nh bin sai khi nh chu tc ng ca nhiu.
G ( x, y ) < TL th
G ( x, y ) > TH - im (x,y)
3.2.4.2 Phng php Gradient Phng php gradient l phng php d bin cc b da vo gi tr cc i ca o hm
bc mt. Gradient ca nh f ( x, y ) ti im A l vector f . Hng ca vector gradient trng vi hng c tc thay i ln nht ca hm f ( x, y ) .
f G Gx x f = = G y f y
Cc thnh phn ca gradient c tnh bi:
(3.2.73)
143
Gx =
Gy =
f ( x, y ) x
f ( x + dx, y ) f ( x, y ) dx
(3.2.74)
f ( x, y ) f ( x, y + dy ) f ( x, y ) = dy y
(3.2.75)
dx v dy l khong cch gia cc im theo hng ly o hm x v y. Trn thc t thng dng dx=1, dy=1.
Hnh 3.2.31 Vector Gradient ti im A Modul ca vector gradient f chnh l gi tr thay i ln nht ca hm f ti im A (hnh 3.2.31) theo hng ca vector f :
G 2 2 f = f = Gx + Gy
(3.2.76)
Vic xc nh modul gradient theo cng thc trn i hi thc hin php tnh bnh phng v ly cn bc hai. n gin ha qu trnh tnh ton, m vn c kt qu tng i chnh xc khi tm bin, ngi ta xp x gi tr gradient nh sau: G (3.2.77) f f = Gx + G y Hng ca vector gradient ti im A c ta (x,y) cng l mt thng s quan trng, n c xc nh thng qua gc ( x, y ) gia vector f v trc x:
( x, y ) = arctg
Gy Gx
(3.2.78)
Hng ca ng bin nh l ng vung gc vi vector gradient f , trn hnh c biu din nh vector n. Khi nh s c biu din nh ma trn cc im nh phn b theo dng v ct, gradient ri rc theo hng x s bng:
Gx ( x, y ) = f ( x + 1, y ) f ( x, y )
Gradient theo hng y s l:
(3.2.79)
Gy ( x, y ) = f ( x, y + 1) f ( x, y )
(3.2.80)
144
a a)
b) Hnh 3.2.32 L Lm ni ng n bin s dng ph ng php gra adient. a- nh n gc; b- Gr radient theo c chiu x (Gx); ; c- Gr radient theo c chiu y (Gy); ; c)
lm ni nh n ng ng g bin dc, ta a phi ly o hm ri rc theo chiu ngang v ng n c li. Kt qu qu trnh lm ni ng b bin theo ph hng php gradient th hin trn hnh 3.2.32. C nhiu cc C ch tm o h m bc mt ca nh, n gin nht l phng ph p s dng to on t Robert t. Hnh 3.2.33 Ma trn 9 im nh v cc c mt n dng tm gradient ti im z5
z1 z4 z7 -1 -1 -1 0 0 0
z2 z5 z8 z 13 z 13 z 13
z3 z6 3 z9 3 -1 0 1
a- Ma trn cc im nh h
-1
-1 0 z 0 3 z 1 3 0 1 z3 -1 z 0 3
-1 0 1
-1 z3 z 03 z 13
-2 0 2
-1 z3 z 03 z 13
-1 -2 -1
0 0 0
z 13 z 23 z 13
0 1
b Mt n Ro bobert
c - Mt n Prew witt
d- mt n Sobel
S dng ton n t Robert, ta t tm ra grad dient theo ng cho ca block 2x2 ti im z5 (hnh 3.2.33b b) nh sau:
G1 = z9 z5 G2 = z8 z6
(3.2.81)
Gradient ca nh c tm G m ra bng c ch nhn chp nh vi cc c mt n Rob bert nh trn n hnh (3.2.33 3b). Trn hn nh (3.2.34b) ) l hai nh kt qu c c sau khi th t c hin to n t Robert t theo (3.2.81 1). Trong tng n nh, cc ng bin dc theo hai ng cho o c lm ni, cn cc vng nh (tr rn nh gc) c chi kh hng i c t mu en trn nh kt qu.

Do mt n 2x2 D 2 khng c im trung tm, ngi ta thng d ng cc mt n c kch th t c 3x3 ho oc 5x5. To n t Prewitt t c thc h hin vi cc mt n nh trn hnh (3 3.2.34c). Gra adient tnh th heo chiu nga ang v chiu dc s bng:
G x = ( z7 + z8 + z9 ) ( z1 + z2 + z3 ) G y = ( z3 + z6 + z9 ) ( z1 + z4 + z7 )
(3.2.82) (3.2.83)
im khc k bit l cc c h s nm ti v tr l n cn theo ch hiu ngang v v dc vi z5 tc N 4 ( z5 ) c
T Ton t Sobel c biu din trn h nh 3.2.33d c c tc dng gn ging nh h mt n Pre ewitt,
gi tr 2 (hnh 3.2 2.33d). Mt n ni trn cng cho php p thc hin qu q trnh tm o hm the eo hai g: hng
G x = ( z7 + 2 z8 + z9 ) ( z1 + 2 z2 + z3 ) G y = ( z3 + 2 z6 + z9 ) ( z1 + 2 z4 + z7 )
(3.2.84) (3.2.85)
V c tng gi tr cc h s ni trn s lm gim tnh Vi t trung bn nh ha (lm m nh) ca qu trnh nhn n chp nh h gc vi cc c mt n ny. .
a)
b)
Hnh 3.2.34 nh gc (a) v kt qu lm ni ng bin n s dng cc c mt n Robert (b), mt n P Prewitt (c) ) v mt n Sobel (d).
c)
d)

C th thy rng tng cc h s trong cc mt n ni trn bng 0, nh vy ti nhng vng nh c chi khng i, p ng ca b lc s bng 0, iu ny hon ton ph hp vi tnh cht ca ton t tm o hm. Ton t Prewitt v Sobel c s dng rng ri hn so vi Robert v chng t nhy cm vi nhiu nh tho tc ly trung bnh cc b trong vng rng hn (9 im nh) Kt qu nhn c khi thc hin ton t Prewitt v Sobel c th hin trn hnh (3.2.34c,d). D dng nhn thy cc ng bin ngang v dc c lm ni bng ton t Sobel c bin ln hn so vi kt qu ca ton t Prewitt. Mt n Prewitt v Sobel c m t trn cho php lm ni ng bin cc b nm theo chiu ngang v chiu dc. C th thay i cu trc nhng mt n ni trn chng cho p ng mnh nht vi cc ng bin nm theo gc 450 v 1350 so vi trc x. Hai cp mt n b xung Prewitt v Sobel dng lm ni bin theo ng cho c dng nh trn hnh 3.2.35 v 2.3.36.
Hnh 3.2.35 Cp mt n Prewitt (b xung)
Hnh 3.2.36 Cp mt n Sobel (b xung)
3.2.4.3 Lm ni bin bng ton t la bn o hm ri rc hai chiu c th c thc hin bng cch ly tng chp gia nh gc v mt n gradient. Mt s mt n c s dng lm ni cc ng bin theo hng nht nh. Cc mt n cho php pht hin ng bin nm dc theo tm hng (a l) c s dng trong ton t la bn. Tn mt n c t theo hng thay i chi m mt n cho p ng ln nht. V d, mt n hng ng cho p ng mnh nht vi s thay i chi theo hng t tri sang phi. Lu rng tng cc h s trong tng mt n bng 0, nh vy p ng ca chng vi nh c mc chi khng i s bng 0.
Hnh 3.2.37 Mt n dng trong ton t la bn
147

Trong hnh di y l mt s nh c x l ni bin bng cc mt n trn: Mt n Bc Mt n Nam
Mt n ng Bc
Mt n ng
Hnh 3.2.38 Minh ha qu trnh lm ni bin bng ton t la bn. C th thy rng, cc mt n trn c tng gi tr cc h s bng 0, do p ng ca mt n ti vng nh c chi khng i s bng 0. Ton t la bn Kirsh cng cho php lm ni bin theo tm hng. 8 mt n Kirsh c dng nh sau:
Hnh 3.2.39 Mt n thc hin ton t Kirsh
3.2.4.4 K thut Laplace Phng php gradient cho kt qu kh tt khi mc sng gia cc vng nh thay i tng i r nt. Khi mc xm thay i chm, cc ng bin khng r nt, min chuyn tip tng i rng, phng php lm ni bin hiu qu hn l dng o hm bc hai. Phng php ny gi l phng php Laplace. Ton t Laplace c nh ngha nh sau:
148
2 f =
2 f 2 f + dx 2 dy 2
(3.2.86)
Vic xp x o hm bc hai cho tn hiu ri rc (tm thi xt tn hiu mt chiu) c thc hin nh sau:
2 f = f ( x + 1) + f ( x 1) 2 f ( x ) x 2
hiu:
(3.2.87)
thy s khc bit, chng ta quan st tc ng ca o hm bc mt v bc hai ti tn
Hnh 3.2.40 Minh ha ng dng o hm bc mt v bc hai trong qu trnh tch bin Nhn trn th kt qu o hm bc mt v hai (hnh 3.2.40 v 3.2.41) ta thy o hm bc mt trong vng mc xm gim dn c gi tr khc khng, trong khi o hm bc hai ch khc khng v tr u v cui vng ny. Vng bin trn nh thc thng c s thay i chi tng i chm, do c th thy o hm bc hai cho php xc nh v tr ng bin tt hn o hm bc mt. Ti v tr im nh ring r, o hm bc hai cho p ng mnh hn, do cc chi tit nh (v c nhiu) s c lm ni r nt hn. ng nt tng i mnh trn hnh nh cng c lm ni nhiu hn khi s dng o hm bc hai. Cui cng, i vi tn hiu dng "bc sng" (hnh 3.2.40) p ng ca c o hm bc mt v hai gn ging nhau. Tuy nhin o hm bc hai c th cho gi tr m v dng. Do kt qu xc nh bin da trn o hm bc hai c th cho hiu ng ng bin i.
Hnh 3.2.41 Dng tn hiu nhn c sau khi ly o hm bc 1 v bc 2
149

Cc h thng phn tch nh da trn o hm bc hai thng rt nhy cm vi nhiu, iu ny c minh ha trn hnh (3.2.42). Trn hnh (3.2.42a) l ba nh t tri sang phi c chi tng dn. nh th hai v th ba b tc ng bi ngun nhiu Gausian vi t l S/N tng ng l 25 v 15 dB. Hnh (3.2.42b) biu din phn b chi dc theo tng dng nh. Kt qu o hm bc mt v hai ca nh c biu din trn cc hnh 3.2.42c v 3.2.42d. D dng nhn thy hiu ng ng bin i, cng nh kh nng chng nhiu km ca phng php tm bin bng o hm bc hai so vi o hm bc mt.
Hnh 3.2.42 Minh ha qu trnh pht hin bin bng o hm bc mt v bc hai. i vi tn hiu 2 chiu, o hm ring theo trc x v y bng:
2 f = f ( x + 1, y ) + f ( x 1, y ) 2 f ( x, y ) x 2
(3.2.88)
2 f = f ( x, y + 1) + f ( x, y 1) 2 f ( x, y ) y 2
(3.2.89)
Thng thng, ton t Laplace hai chiu ri rc c thc hin vi mt n kch thc 3x3. C hai cch xp x o hm bc 2 ri rc cho vng nh 3x3: theo cng thc (3.2.90) v (3.2.91).
2 f = 4z5 [ z2 + z4 + z6 + z8 ] 2 f = 8z5 [ z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 + z6 + z7 + z8 + z9 ]
(3.2.90) (3.2.91)
thc hin cc cng thc trn, chng ta s dng hai mt m tng ng nh trn hnh 3.2.43.
a)
b)
c)
Hnh 3.2.43 Mt n thc hin ton t Laplace a- Th t cc im nh trong mt n b- Mt n thc hin ton t (3.2.90) c- Mt n thc hin ton t (3.2.91) Trn hnh 3.2.44a v b l kt qu thc hin ton t Laplace bng cc mt n 3.2.43b v
150

3.2.43c c. Bin c c ng bi n thu c da trn b lc bng mt n hnh 3.2. .43c c gi tr r ln hn.
a)
b) H nh 3.2.44 Minh M ha qu trnh lm ni ng bin n bng ton t Laplace
T Trong thc t ton t La aplace t c s dng tr rc tip do tnh nhy cm vi nhiu c trng cho o hm m bc hai. Ngoi N ra, nh phn tc ch trn, vi ic s dng o hm bc hai g dn n hin tng xut hin cc bi in kp, gy kh khn cho o vic phn on nh. V vy, thng lm m gim nh hng ca nh hiu, trc k khi thc hin ton t Lap place ngi ta t thng lm m m nh bng b lc Ga ausian. nh a vo x l l trong tr ng hp ny s c nhn n chp vi to on t Laplac ce ca hm Gausse G hai ch hiu c dng nh n sau:
h(r) = e
x2 + y2 2 2
=e
r2 2 2
(3.2.92)
Mc lm m nh s ph p thuc vo o gi tr dung g sai chun o hm bc hai ca hm m Gausse theo r s c dng: n
2.
r 2 2 2r h(r) = e 4
2
2 2
(3.2.93)
Trn hnh 3.2 T 2.45a, b, c l th 3 chiu, nh nhn t pha trn v hnh ct hm h p ng g ca h thng n thc hin ton t Lapl lacian-Gaussian (gi tt l Laplacian of o a Gaussian n LoG).
nh 3.2.45 Hm m p ng ca b lc Lap placian-Gaus ssian v nh kt qu Hn Mt n trn hnh h 3.2.45d c s dn ng xp x ton t t LoG ri rc. V o hm bc hai h l php t nh tuyn tn nh, do qu trnh nhn c chp nh v LoG L cng t ng ng vi vic nhn chp nh vi hm lm m Gausse 2 chiu (3.2.9 92), sau th hc hin ton n t Laplace e lm ni bin. Kt qu u nhn c minh ha trn hnh 3.2.4 45.
Chng 3 K thut x l nh 3.2.5 Phn vng nh 3.2.5.1 Tng quan v phn vng nh Vng nh (segment) l mt chi tit trong nh. N c hnh thnh bi tp hp cc im nh c cng hoc gn cng mt tnh cht no nh: mc xm, mu sc, kt cu (texture) v.v. ng bao xung quanh vng nh c gi l bin nh (boundary).
Phn vng nh l qu trnh pht hin v tch nh thnh cc vng hoc cc thnh phn c lp. Cc thnh phn c lp c th c xc nh da trn c s ng bin ca chng, hoc da trn cc tiu chun phn vng lin thng c cng chi, mu sc hoc c cng cc tham s khc ca nh. Ngoi ra cn c cc k thut phn vng khc nh phn vng da vo bin , phn vng theo kt cu (texture segmentation), phn vng da trn tc di chuyn ca cc chi tit trong nh v.v.
3.2.5.2 Phn vng nh da theo ng bin Qu trnh lm ni bin cc b c trnh by phn trc, trong trng hp ti u ch cho php pht hin tp hp cc im nh nm trn ng bin. Trn thc t, di tc ng ca nhiu, tp hp cc im thng khng m t ng bin mt cch chnh xc. V vy, ngi ta thng s dng cc thut ton lin kt tp hp cc im nh ni trn thnh ng bin. C nhiu k thut c dng cho mc ch ny. 3.2.5.2.1 M t ng bin bng gii php x l cc b
Mt trong nhng gii php n gin nht thc hin lin kt ng bin l phn tch cc c trng ca im nh trong vng ln cn nh (3x3 hoc 5x5) ca mi im (x,y) trong nh cn tch bin. Tt c cc im nh c chung mt c im la chn trc s c lin kt li thnh ng bin. Hai c im c la chn xc nh s ging nhau ca cc im nh bin l: 1- ln ca gradient ti im bin 2- Hng ca gradient ln gradient f c tnh theo (3.2.76) hoc (3.2.77) cho im nh (x,y). im nh bin (x0,y0), nm trong vng nh xung quanh im (x,y) s c coi l ging vi im (x,y) nu:
f ( x, y ) f ( x0 , y0 ) E
Trong E- l ngng bin cho trc.
(3.2.94)
Hng ca vector gradient ti im (x0,y0) c cho l trng vi hng vector gradient ti im (x,y) (tnh theo (3.2.78)), nu:
( x, y ) ( x0 , y0 ) A
A- Gc lch c cho trc.
(3.2.95)
im nh (x0,y0) s c ni vi im (x,y) nu tha mn hai iu kin (3.2.94) v (3.2.95). im nh (x0,y0) s c ghi li nh im bin thc. Qu trnh so snh ni trn c thc hin cho tt c cc im nh bin c pht hin.
3.2.5.2.2 M t ng bin bng phng php x l ton cc (global processing)

Trong phn ny, qu trnh m t ng bin s c thc hin da trn c s xc nh cc
152
Chng 3 K thut x l nh
im nh c nm trn cng ng cong (hoc ng thng) cho trc hay khng. Khc vi phng php lin kt trong phn (3.2.5.2.1), xp x ng bin, chng ta phi xt n quan h gia cc im nh nm trong ton nh. Xp x ng bin bng a thc Xt tp hp cc im nh c ta ( xi , yi ) vi i = 0,1,2,..... M nm trn ranh gii gia hai vng nh. Cc im nh c nh s theo th t sao cho im
( xi , yi )
nm cnh im
= g ( x) ( xi+1 , yi+1 ) . Qu trnh xp x ng cong trn tp im nh l qu trnh xc nh hm y sao cho sai s xp x, tc khc bit gia im ( xi , yi ) v xi , g ( xi ) , l nh nht. Sai s xp
x c th c nh gi thng qua: Sai s tuyt i: Sai s trung bnh bnh phng: Sai s ti a:
= yi g ( xi )
i =1 M
= yi g ( xi )
i =1
= max yi g ( xi )
i
Trong trng hp tng qut, ta c th dng a thc bc N xp x ng bin:
= a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + ... + aN x N y
ai - h s ca a thc.
(3.2.96)
Sau khi t ta ca cc im nh trn ng bin vo (3.2.96) ta c h phng trnh tuyn tnh:
1 x0 1 x1 1 x2 1 # 1 xM
2 x0 x12 2 x2
# 2 xM
N 0 a0 y ... x0 1 ... x1N a1 y N a2 = y 2 ... x2 # # # N 0 ... xM y aN
(3.2.97)
H phng trnh trn c th vit gn thnh:
Xa = y
Sai s trung bnh bnh phng l:
(3.2.98)
. Gii h phng trnh trn, ta c th tm ra c tp h s ai ca a thc y
) (y y ) =(y y
T
(3.2.99)
Xp x ng bin bng cc on thng
y l phng php xp x ng bin tng i n gin. Qu trnh thc hin c m t trn hnh 3.2.46. Ti bc u tin, ta ni hai im ngoi cng ca tp im ang xt l A v B bng mt ng thng. Sau tin hnh d tm im c lch ln nht theo hng trc giao vi ng AB (im C) (hnh 3.2.46a). Ni im A,B v C vi nhau. Thao tc trn c lp li cho hai on thng AC v CB vi cc im nh ln cn ca chng (hnh 3.2.46b). Qu trnh xp x bin s c kt thc khi ng thng gp khc s gn ging vi ng bin thc: cho n lc khong cch gia cc im bin v ng thng gp khc lun nh hn ngng quy nh l dmin
153
(im F trn hnh 3.2.46c).
Hnh 3.2.46 Minh ha xp x ng bin bng cc on thng Xp x ng bin bng bin i Hough (Hough transform) xp x ng bin bng cc on thng, chng ta phi xc nh c tp hp cc im nh nm trn hoc gn mt ng thng no . gii quyt bi ton ny chng ta c th s dng php bin i do Hough ngh nm 1962. Mt ng thng trong mt phng (x,y) c th c biu din bng h ta gc thng qua khong cch r t ng thng ti im 0 v gc nh trn hnh 3.2.46a:
r = x cos + y sin
(3.2.100)
Nh vy, mi ng thng c th biu din trong mt phng (r, ) bng 1 im duy nht (hnh 3.2.47b).
Hnh 3.2.47
Minh ha bin i Hough
a) ng thng trong khng gian (x,y). b) ng thng c biu din bng 1 im trong khng gian (r, ). c) Tp cc ng thng i qua mt im d) Bin i Hough ca tp ng thng e) Cc im A,B,C nm trn mt ng thng c ta gc (r, ) f) Bin i Hough cho tp cc ng thng chy qua A,B v C
Bin i Hught l qu trnh nh x cc im nm trn mt ng thng thnh mt im trn mt phng (r, ). Mt tp cc ng thng ct nhau ti mt im (hnh 3.2.47c) sau khi c bin
154
i s to ra 1 ng cong trn mt phng (r, ) (hnh 3.2.47d). Chng ta xt ba im A, B, C trong mt phng (x,y). Bin i Hough i vi cc ng thng i qua tng im A, B, C s to ra ba ng cong trn mt phng nh trn hnh 3.2.47f. C th thy rng im ct ca ba ng cong ti X ( r0 , 0 ) nh x sang mt phng (x,y) s cho ng thng i qua c ba im A, B v C. Khi ba im A,B,C khng nm cng trn mt ng thng, 3 ng cong ni trn s khng ct nhau cng mt im. Tuy nhin, c th thy rng i vi cc im nm gn ng thng AC trn mt phng (x,y), bin i Hough s cho kt qu l cc ng cong ct nhau trong khu vc ln cn vi im X ( r0 , 0 ) (hnh 3.2.47f). Tnh cht ny c s dng xp x ng bin trong nh s. Tt c cc im bin ri rc trong nh (trn mt phng (x,y)) s c bin i thnh ng cong trn b mt (r, ). Mt phng (r, ) c chia thnh cc nh (cells) nh trn hnh 3.2.48. Trng lng ca tng ni trn s t l thun vi s ng cong Hough i qua n. Chng ta s kho st tm ra cc c trng lng ln. Cc ng cong i qua nhng ny tng ng vi nhng im c th xp x gn ng bng mt ng thng vi ta gc (ri, i) l ta ca . Nhng c trng lng nh l nh x ca mt s t im nh nm c lp trong mt phng (x,y) nn c th loi b trong kt qu m t ng bin. vung nm ti
M ( r0 , 0 ) c "trng lng" tng i ln nht v c 3 ng cong chy qua (hnh 3.2.48).
Hnh 3.2.48 Chia nh mt phng (r, ) xp x ng bin Qu trnh xp x ng bin s dng bin i Hough c minh ha trn trn hnh 3.2.49. Cc bc thc hin qu trnh xp x ng bin vi bin i Hough c trnh t nh sau: 1- Tm gi tr gradient cho cc im trn nh gc; So snh gi tr modul gradient vi ngng (cho trc) to ra nh nh phn hin th v tr ca cc im bin. 2- Chia mt phng (r, ) thnh cc nh. 3- Tm nh x ca tt c cc im khc 0 trong nh nh phn sang mt phng (r, ) v tin hnh nh gi "trng lng" tng trong mt phng . 4- Chn ra cc c trng lng ln nht; tm ra cc im nh bin c th xp x bng ng thng c cng ta gc vi ta ca c trng lng ln, tng ng vi nhng ng cong i qua .
155
Hnh 3.2.49 Bin i Hough v kt qu xp x bin Hnh 3.2.49a l nh gc c a vo x l. Hnh 3.2.49b biu din kt qu nhn c sau khi x l nh gc bng mt n LoG. ng bin A l mt ng thng r0 = x cos 0 + y sin 0 . Kt qu bin i Hough cho cc im nh bin c biu din trn hnh 3.2.49c. C th thy r rng rng cc ng cong Hough ct nhau ti cc A v B, ni cch khc, trng lng cc A v B ln hn so vi cc cn li trong mt phng (r, ). Cc ng thng A v B (hnh 3.2.49d) chnh l cc ng thng c to ra bi cc im nh ng vi cc ng cong nh x i qua hai c trng lng ln ni trn.
3.2.5.3 Phn vng da trn x l ngng (bin ) (Thresholding) 3.2.5.3.1 Gii thiu chung v phng php phn vng theo ngng bin
K thut bin i nh v so snh bin cc im nh vi mc ngng c s dng kh rng ri trong cc phng php phn vng nh. Trong trng hp tng qut, qu trnh x l ngng l qu trnh so snh nh vi hm T:
T =T x, y , p ( x, y ) , f ( x, y )
(3.2.101)
f(x,y)- gi tr mc xm ti im (x,y), p(x,y) - hm biu din tnh cht ca vng nh xung quanh im (x,y), v d, gi tr mc xm trung bnh ca vng nh, c tm l im (x,y). Kt qu so snh c tng hp trn nh g(x,y) theo quy lut sau:
1 g ( x, y ) = 0
f ( x, y ) > T f ( x, y ) T
(3.2.102)
Chng ta gi cc im nh trong g(x,y) c gi tr bng 1 l cc im nh thuc vt th (hay vng nh chi tit), cc im c gi tr bng 0 s thuc vng nh nn. Nu T ch ph thuc vo f(x,y) v khng thay i trong ton b qu trnh x l nh th T c gi l ngng ton cc. Nu T ph thuc vo to khng gian (x,y) ta gi T l ngng cc b. Nu ngng cc b T ph thuc vo p(x, y) hay ni cch khc, T thay i theo tnh cht ca tng vng nh, ta gi mc T l ngng thch nghi.
156
Chng 3 K thut x l nh 3.2.5.3.2 Phn vng vi ngng ton cc (Global thresholding)

Phng php phn vng theo ngng ton cc l phng php kh n gin, khi vt th v nn c tch bng cch so snh vi mt mc ngng T. Mc chnh xc ca phng php ny ph thuc vo tnh cht ca nh, v d: nu nh c histogram c chia thnh cc vng r rt (cn gi l cc mode) th vic la chn ngng s tng i d dng. Trn hnh 3.2.50a l nh scan ca vn bn, y l loi hnh nh thng dng v tng i n gin. C th thy histogram ca nh c chia thnh cc vng r rt (hnh 3.2.50c). Nh vy tch vng nh (cc ch ci) khi nn mu xm, ta c th dng mc ngng T nm gia hai vng xm nh trn hnh 3.2.50c. Tt cc cc im nh c chi thp s c gn mc trng, cc im nh c chi cao (nn ca nh) c thay bng mc en. nh kt qu cho chng ta hng ch trng trn nn mu en trn hnh 3.2.50b.
Hnh 3.2.50 Phn vng bng ngng ton cc T Cch chn ngng nh trn da trn c s phn tch histogram ca nh bng mt ngi quan st. c th xc nh ngng T mt cch t ng, chng ta thc hin cc bc sau: 1- La chn mc ngng ban u T. 2- Dng T phn vng nh. Kt qu nhn c l hai nhm im nh: nhm G1 c gi tr chi ln hn T, G2 c chi nh hn T. 3- Xc nh gi tr chi trung bnh m1 v m2 ca hai nhm im nh trn. 4- Xc nh gi tr ngng T mi bng:
T =
1 ( m1 + m2 ) . 2
5- Thc hin cc bc 2-4 n khi sai s gia hai gi tr T k tip khng vt qu gi tr T0 cho trc. Mc ngng ban u thng c la chn bng gi tr trung bnh gia mc chi cao nht v mc chi thp nht trong nh.
Hnh 3.2.51 Minh ha k thut xc nh ngng t ng
157
Hnh 3.2.52 Histogram ca nh 3.2.53a Trn hnh 3.2.51 l kt qu qu trnh phn vng da trn k thut xc nh ngng so snh t ng theo gii thut ni trn. Hnh 3.2.51a l nh gc, nh phn vng vi mc ngng ban u T=65 v mc ngng k tip T=100 c biu din trn hnh 3.2.51 b,c. Sau ba vng lp, kt qu cui cng nhn c l T=125 vi T0=0. Histogram nh vn tay trong v d nu trn (hnh 3.2.52) c hai mode c phn bit kh r rng, nn qu trnh phn vng theo ngng ton cc cho kt qu kh tt.
3.2.5.3.3 Phn vng vi ngng thch nghi

Trong nhiu trng hp, khi nh c histogram phc tp, dng mt mc ngng ton cc T khng th c kt qu phn vng tt, chng ta phi s dng phng php phn vng theo ngng thch nghi. Nh nh ngha phn trn, ngng T c gi l thch nghi khi n thay i theo v tr ca vng nh c phn tch.
Hnh 3.2.53 a) nh gc. b) Phn vng vi ngng ton cc. c) nh c chia vng d) Phn vng vi ngng thch nghi. Hnh 3.2.53a l nh gc bao gm nn v chi tit c chi thay i trong phm vi nh. Histogram ca nh khng phn vng r rt, do , khi dng ngng ton cc, tc ngng duy nht phn vng s khng cho kt qu tt (hnh 3.2.53b). Mt phng php lm tng cht lng phn tch nh l chia nh gc ra thnh nhiu vng nh (segment) (hnh 3.2.53c), trong mi vng chng ta s tm gi tr ngng cc b theo phng php m t trn. Gi tr T ban u c chn bng gi tr trung bnh gia
158
mc chi cao nht v mc chi thp nht trong vng. Nh vy c th ni rng, nh gc c x l vi mc ngng thch nghi theo tng vng nh. Kt qu nhn dng vng theo ngng thch nghi biu din trn hnh 3.2.53d, d dng nhn thy vng nh chi tit c hin th chnh xc hn nhiu so vi trng hp dng ngng ton cc.
3.2.5.3.4 Phn vng vi ngng ton cc ti u

Trong phn ny chng ta s phn tch k thut tm ngng ton cc ti u theo tiu ch ti thiu ha sai s phn vng trung bnh. Gi thit nh ch c hai vng c chi khc nhau, gi l vng sng (nh chi tit) v vng ti (nh nn). Mc xm z ca cc im nh l bin ngu nhin, c c trng bi hm mt phn b xc sut p ( z ) . Nh chng ta bit p ( z ) chnh l histogram ca nh. Hm mt phn b xc sut mc xm trong vng sng v vng ti l p1 ( z ) v p2 ( z ) . Mt phn b xc sut ca ton nh s bng tng hai hm trn:
p( z) = P 1 p1 ( z ) + P 2 p2 ( z )
P 1, P 2 - xc sut im nh nm trong vng sng hoc vng ti.
V nh ch bao gm hai vng sng ti nn P 1 + P 2 = 1.
(3.2.103)
Bi ton t ra l cn tm gi tr ngng ton cc Topt (hnh 3.2.54) tch chi tit nh, sao cho sai s d on trung bnh l nh nht.
Hnh 3.2.54 Mt phn b xc sut mc xm ca hai vng nh Xc sut im nh nn b xc nh nhm thnh im nh chi tit l:
T
E1 ( T ) =
p2 ( z ) dz
(3.2.104)
Xc sut im nh chi tit b xc nh nhm thnh im nh nn l:
E2 (T ) = p1 ( z ) dz
T
(3.2.105)
Xc sut sai s chung s l:
E ( T ) = P2
p2 ( z ) dz + P1 p1 ( z ) dz
T
(3.2.106)
c c ngng ti u Topt khi sai s E(T) l nh nht, o hm ca (3.2.106) theo T phi bng 0, ta c:
P 1 p1 ( T ) = P 2 p2 ( T )
(3.2.107)
159
Trng hp khi P 1 = P 2 , ngng ti u s nm ti im ct th hm p1 ( z ) v p2 ( z ) . Trong trng hp tng qut, tm ra Topt , ta cn bit hai hm phn b xc sut p1 ( z ) v
p2 ( z ) . Thng thng mt phn b mc xm c qui v dng phn b Gausian:

p( z) = P 1 e 2 1
( z 1 )2
2 2 1
P2 e 2 2
( z 2 )2
2 2 2
(3.2.108)
1 v 1 l tr trung bnh v lch chun ca phn b xc sut mc xm cho nh chi tit, 2 v 2 l tr trung bnh v lch chun ca phn b xc sut mc xm cho nh nn.
S dng (3.2.107 ) v (3.2.108) ta suy ra phng trnh:
AT 2 + BT + C = 0
vi:
2 A = 12 2
2 B = 2 1 2 2 12
(3.2.109) (3.2.110)
)
2 12 = 2 = 2 th Topt l duy
2 2 C = 2 12 1 2 + 2 12 2 2 ln ( 2 P 1 / 1P 2)
Phng trnh bc hai c th c hai nghim, do , trong mt s trng hp c th c hai gi tr ngng ti u. Nu phng sai ca hai hm phn b nh nhau: nht:
Topt =
Nu P 1 = P2 , ta c:
1 + 2
2
P ln 2 1 2 P1
(3.2.111)
Topt =
1 + 2
2
(3.2.112)
3.2.6 X l nh mu
Trong phn 3.1.5 gii thiu s b v mu sc v cc thng s c trng ca mu sc. Da trn cc phn tch v c ch cm nhn mu sc ca h thng th gic ta thy mi mu sc trong thin nhin c th c to ra t cc mu c bn bng cc phng php pha trn mu khc nhau. Khng gian mu RGB hoc XYZ thng c s dng m t qu trnh pha trn mu sc. Ta c th xc nh c mi mu sc c to ra t t hp ba mu bt k bng cch xc nh v tr ba mu trong khng gian RGB (XYZ) sau ni chng li, to ra tam gic mu; Tam gic c nh l ba im ni trn s cha tt c cc mu sc c th c to ra bng cch pha trn ba mu trn (hnh 3.2.55).
3.2.6.1 Cc h mu c bn Hin nay c kh nhiu h mu (khng gian mu) c s dng vi cc mc ch khc nhau. Khng gian mu RGB thng c s dng m phng cc h thng to nh mu nh mn hnh TV mu, camera mu; h mu CMYK (Cyan-Magenta-Yellow-BlacK) thng c dng trong k thut in n. H mu HSI (Hue-Saturation-Intensity) hay cn gi l HSB (Hue-SaturationBright) c s dng rng ri trong lnh vc x l nh. H mu HSI cho php m t nh mu 160
thng qua cc thnh phn sc mu v thnh phn chi ca nh. Phng php m t ny tng i ph hp vi cch cm nhn mu sc ca h thng th gic, ng thi h HSI cng c th dng khi phn tch nh en-trng (ch c cc mc xm). Sau y chng ta nhc li mt s c im chnh ca ba h mu ni trn.
Hnh 3.2.55 Tam gic mu n v XYZ trong h ta vung gc
xy
3.2.6.1.1 H mu RGB
Nh bit, trong h RGB, ba mu c bn l R (), G (xanh lc), B (xanh lam). Khng gian RGB, trong lnh vc nh s, c th hin di dng hnh khi lp phng nh trn hnh 3.2.56a. Cc mu c bn nm trn ba nh ca hnh khi. Mu en K nm ti im gc ta , mu trng nm i din vi K qua ng cho. Khng gian mu RGB trn hnh 3.2.56a l khng gian mu chun, gi tr ca cc mu RGB nm trong khong [0,1]. Trong lnh vc nh s, mi im mu R, G hoc B thng c lng t ha vi 256 mc, tc mi mu c m ha bng 8 bit.
a) Hnh 3.2.56 Khng gian mu RGB
b)
S lng bt s dng m ha 1 im nh mu c gi l su ca mu. Trng hp ni trn, su mu s l 24 bits khi s sc mu ti a c th c hin th s l
(2 )
8 3
= 16777216 . Trn hnh 3.2.56b l khng gian mu RGB 24 bits.
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Chng 3 K thut x l nh 3.2.6.1.2 H mu CMYK

Nh chng ta bit, mu C (Cyan - xanh l), mu M (Magenta - mn chn) v mu Y (Yellow - vng) l cc mu b xung ca R, G v B. a s cc thit b in mu ln giy i hi d liu a vo tng ng vi cc knh mu CMY hoc bin i t RGB sang CMY. Qu trnh bin i c thc hin theo cng thc sau:
C 1 R M = 1 G Y 1 B
(3.2.113)
Khi C=M=Y chng ta s nhn c mu en. Tuy nhin, trn thc t mu nhn c khng hon ton en. Do trong cc h thng in n, ngi ta s dng thm mt loi mc na c mu en (BlacK) - k hiu l K. Nh vy h mu CMY c m rng thnh CMYK.
3.2.6.1.3 H mu HSI
Trong khng gian mu HSI, mi im mu c m t da trn cc thng s v: sc mu (bc sng tri), bo ha mu ( sch mu) v chi. Hai thng s u tin c trng cho "mu sc", cn thng s th ba cho ta thy sng ca im nh. Cch m t cc im nh nh vy tng i ging vi thi quen quan st v phn tch mu sc ca h thng th gic.
Hnh 3.2.57 Bin i khng gian RGB thnh HSI c c khng gian HSI, chng ta xoay h trc RGB nh trn hnh 3.2.57a. im en (0,0,0) s l im thp nht trong khng gian mu, im trng (1,1,1) nm pha trn cng. Tt c cc mc xm c cng [0,1] nm trn trc thng ng ni K v W. Nh vy cc im mu trn mt phng vung gc vi trc KW (trc xm) c cng chi. Cc im mu nm cng xa trc xm cng c bo ha cao. Ngay trn trc KW, bo ha mu s bng 0. Trn hnh 3.2.57b, xt mt phng i qua im C v trc KW, d nhn thy l tt c cc im mu nm trong tam gic CKW c to ra t mu C v hai thnh phn khng mu K v W, do chng c cng bc sng tri l C . Khi xoay tam gic CKW xung quanh trc xm, ta s c cc sc mu khc nhau. Tm li, khng gian HSI l tp hp cc mt phng mu c cng chi, vung gc vi trc chi thng ng. V tr im mu trn cc mt phng ni trn c xc nh bi vector bt u t trc xm. Trn hnh 3.2.58 l khng gian mu HSI vi cc mt phng mu l hnh trn ng tm. Chiu di vector S tng ng vi bo ha mu, gc H gia vector S v ng thng i qua im R tng ng vi bc sng tri ca im mu. bin i h mu RGB thnh HSI, ta thc hin cc bc sau: - Xc nh bc sng tri H:
H = 360
BG B>G
(3.2.114)
162
vi
1 ( R G ) + (R B 2 = arccos 1/2 2 ( R G ) + ( R B ) ( G B )
3 min ( R, G, B ) (R + G + B)
(3.2.115)
- Xc nh bo ha mu:
S =1
(3.2.116)
- Xc nh chi I:
I=
1 (R + G + B) 3
(3.2.117)
Hnh 3.2.58 Khng gian mu HSI bin i h mu HSI thnh RGB, ta thc hin ln lt cho ba sector cc bc sau: 1- Sector RG ( 0 H 120 ):
0 0
B = I (1 S )
S cos H R = I 1 + 0 cos ( 60 H )
(3.2.118) (3.2.119) (3.2.120)
G = 3I ( R + B )
2- Sector GB ( 1200 H 2400 ):
H = H 1200
R = I (1 S )
S cos H G = I 1 + 0 cos 60 H ( )
(3.2.121) (3.2.122) (3.2.123) (3.2.124)
B = 3I ( R + G )
3- Sector BR ( 2400 H 3600 ):
H = H 2400
(3.2.125)
163
G = I (1 S )
S cos H B = I 1 + 0 H cos 60 ( )
(3.2.126) (3.2.127) (3.2.128)
R = 3I ( G + B )
Cc cng thc (3.2.114) (3.2.128) nhn c thng qua php bin i hnh hc nh m t trn hnh 3.2.58. Trn hnh 3.2.59 l cc thnh phn nh H, S, I c tch ra t nh mu RGB theo cng thc 3.2.114, 3.2.116, 3.2.117. C th thy rng, mc sng ca nh I chnh l chi (Intensity) ca nh mu. Mc sng ca nh H ph thuc vo gc vector mu vi trc R, v d, i vi mu H=0 nn vng trn nh H s c mu en.
Hnh 3.2.59 nh mu RGB (24 bt) v cc thnh phn H,S,I tng ng.
3.2.6.2 Mt s k thut x l nh mu cn bn 3.2.6.2.1 K thut to mu gi

y l phng php thay th cc mc xm trong ca nh en -trng bng cc mu theo mt quy lut nht nh. "Mu gi" c s dng "t" nh trong trng hp ny khng phi l mu thc ca nh. Nh chng ta bit, h thng th gic c kh nng cm nhn s khc bit v mu sc tt hn s thay i chi ca nh, do trong nhiu trng hp, k thut to mu gi cho php hin th r rng hn nhng chi tit c tng phn thp trong nh en-trng. K thut lng t theo mc chi v m ha bng mu gi l mt trong nhng phng php x l nh mu da trn qu trnh to mu gi. Trn hnh 3.2.60 m t nh en trng vi cc im nh c chi thay i trong di ng
[0 L 1] phn b trn mt phng X0Y. Mt phng c
chi khng i l Li s chia di ng ni trn thnh 2 mc. thc hin m ha bng mu gi, chng ta gn cho tt c cc im nh c chi nm trn mt phng ct mt mu no , cc im nh nm di mt phng ct c gn mt mu khc.
164
Hnh 3.2.60 Minh ha qu trnh lng t theo mc chi v m ha bng mu gi Hm bin i mc xm-mu c c tuyn dng bc thang nh trn hnh 3.2.61.
Hnh 3.2.61 c tuyn bin i mc xm mu Trong trng hp tng qut, di ng mc xm c th chia thnh N mc, cc mc s c hin th bng cc mu khc nhau. c tuyn trn hnh 3.2.61 s bin i thnh dng bc thang vi N-1 bc. K thut lng t mc xm ni trn c s dng rng ri trong y khoa. V d: nh siu m tim trn hnh 3.2.62a thu c c dng en-trng, trn nh c vng mu ng cn c pht hin nm gn mi tn. Vng ny c tng phn khng cao, nn rt kh phn bit vi cc thnh phn khc trong nh. Bng k thut lng t theo mc chi, ta thay cc mc xm bng cc lp mu, khi , vng nh cn quan tm (ni mu ng) s hin th r nt hn rt nhiu (hnh 3.2.62b).
Hnh 3.2.62 X l nh siu m bng k thut lng t mc xm. Trong v d trn, di ng cc mc xm (t en ti trng) c chia u thnh 8 di con bng nhau, cc im nh c bin nm trong tng di con c gn mt mu nht nh. Nh vy, nh s c phn tch thnh tm vng c mu tng ng vi tm di chi khc nhau. K
165
thut lng t mc xm c th c s dng tch cc vt th hin th trong nh da trn tnh cht vt l ca chng. V d, trn hnh 3.263a, ta c nh X quang thu c trong h thng gim st cht lng cc mi hn [15].
Hnh 3.2.63 a- nh chp bng tia X quang mi hn ng thp b- nh kt qu sau khi m ha bng mu gi. Trong ng hn nm ngang (sm mu) c vt rn nt, cc vt rn hin th nh cc vt sng chi, nm theo chiu ngang gia mn hnh. Cc vt nt hin th trn nh c mc chi ti a l 255, v tia X i qua cc vt nt s lm thit b cm bin (dng ghi nhn nh X quang) b bo ha. ngi kim tra c th d dng pht hin ra cc vt nt, ngi ta c th bin i mc 255 thnh mt mu, cn tt c cc mc xm cn li thnh mt mu khc (hnh 3.2.63). D dng thy rng, vic pht hin li hn s c thc hin chnh xc hn khi s dng nh mu nhn c theo phng php ni trn.
3.2.6.2.2 Bin i thnh phn chi thnh mu

Cc phng php x l nh da trn bin i thnh phn chi thnh mu mang tnh tng qut hn k thut to mu gi. Mi im mu trong nh c phn tch thnh ba mu c bn ty theo h mu c x dng (v d R, G, B). Sau khi phn tch, chng ta nhn c ba nh n sc, ba nh ny c chi nm trong khong [0-255], cc nh n sc c th c hin th ln mn hnh di dng nh en trng. Nh vy, nh mu c th c x l da trn cc php bin i c lp vi 3 nh en trng ni trn. nh kt qu s c tp hp li t ba nh en trng khi a chng vo cc knh mu tng ng. Qu trnh x l c m t bng s khi hnh 3.2.64. Phng php x l ni trn c thc hin cho tng im nh m khng ph thuc vo v tr ca chng trong nh s. K thut to mu gi l trng hp c bit ca phng php bin i thnh phn chi thnh mu khi hm bin i mc xm-mu c dng bc thang nh trn hnh 3.2.61.
Hnh 3.2.64 Qu trnh x l nh c lp trn tng knh mu
3.2.6.2.3 Bin i mu
K thut x l nh mu c chia thnh hai nhm. Nhm th nht bao gm cc phng php phn tch nh mu thnh ba nh n sc (v d: nh R, G, B), sau x l tng nh n sc ring r; nh kt qu s c tng hp t cc nh va c x l. Chng ta gi y l cc phng
166
php x l nh theo thnh phn. Nhm th hai l cc k thut x l tc ng trc tip ln cc im nh mu. Trong khng gian mu RGB, mi im mu c th c biu din nh vector ni gc ta v im mu . Vector mu c c th c biu din thng qua cc vector c bn R,G,B nh sau:
R ( x, y ) c ( x, y ) = G ( x, y ) B ( x, y )
(3.2.129)
trong khng gian R, G, B. Cn lu rng R ( x, y ) , G ( x, y ) , B ( x, y ) cn ph thuc vo ta trong khng gian nh (x,y). Cc im mu trong nh kch thc MxN c biu din bng MxN vector mu
Cng thc (3.2.129) cho thy: cc thnh phn ca vector mu c l ta ca im mu
c ( x, y ) , x
v y l v tr ca im mu trong nh. Qu trnh x l nh da trn cc thnh phn n sc v da trn cc vector mu c th cho kt qu khc nhau.
Hnh 3.2.65 K thut lc bng mt n trong khng gian nh a- nh en - trng b- nh mu Trn hnh 3.2.65 m t qu trnh lc (trung bnh ha) nh trong min khng gian. Trn nh en trng, chng ta cng gi tr mc xm ca cc im nh bn trong mt n ri chia cho tng s im nh ca mt n, gi tr trung bnh ny s c gn cho im nh (x,y) (hnh 3.2.65a). Trong nh mu RGB, qu trnh trung bnh ha c thc hin vi cc vector mu ng vi cc im nh trong mt n. Vector mu trung bnh ti im (x,y) c cc thnh phn
R ( x, y ) , G ( x, y ) , B ( x, y ) bng vi gi tr trung bnh trong mt n xung quanh ta (x,y) trn
mt phng R, G v B (hnh 3.2.65b). Do , trong trng hp ny, c hai phng php x l: vi cc thnh phn mu hay vi cc vector mu u cho kt qu nh nhau. Qu trnh bin i nh mu c th c biu din ging nh trng hp nh en-trng:
g ( x, y ) = T f ( x, y )
(3.2.130)
f ( x, y ) - nh mu gc, g ( x, y ) - nh kt qu, T- ton t bin i.

Tuy nhin, ton t T s m t qu trnh bin i vector mu (gm nhiu thnh phn), ch khng phi mc xm nh trong trng hp nh en-trng. Qu trnh bin i nh mu theo thnh phn c m t nh sau:
si = Ti ( ri )
i = 1,2... n
(3.2.131)
167
Bin ri v si l gi tr cc thnh phn mu ca nh
f ( x, y ) v g ( x, y ) ti mt im
(x,y) bt k. n - s lng thnh phn mu. Ti - ton t bin i cho tng thnh phn mu. n c xc nh bi h mu ang s dng. V d: trong khng gian mu RGB n=3, trong khng gian CMYK n=4. Tp hp cc ton t Ti s xc nh ton t T trong (3.2.130). Trn hnh 3.2.66 l nh mu v nh cc thnh phn trong khng gian R,G,B. y, cc thnh phn c gi tr ln nht l 1 (mc trng) , nh nht l 0 (mc en). Trn nh en-trng biu din thnh phn R, ta thy cnh hoa mu (gn bo ha) s c chi ln nht. Thnh phn G v B trong vng cnh hoa c gi tr rt thp.
Hnh 3.2.66 nh mu v cc nh thnh phn RGB Trong khng gian mu HSI, cc thnh phn H, S, I khng c trng cho mu sc. Do , thnh phn I (hnh 3.2.67), s l nh "en-trng" ca nh gc, ni cch khc, nh mu c ti to trn mn hnh en-trng s c dng nh thnh phn I.
Hnh 3.2.67 nh mu v cc nh thnh phn H, S, I Thnh phn S, c trng cho bo ha mu s c gi tr ln cc chi tit c sch mu cao (trn cc cnh hoa).
168
Thnh phn H c trng cho sc mu ca nh tnh theo (3.2.114) c th c cc gi tr xung t cc im nh c gc H bng 00 v 3600; ngoi ra, gi tr H cng khng c xc nh ti cc im nh en, trng hoc xm. Cc im nh c gi tr H bng 00 v 3600 hin th trn nh H (hnh 3.2.67) nh cc im en hoc trng ngu nhin trong vng cnh hoa mu . Cc bin i mu sc nh c th c thc hin trong cc h mu khc nhau, tuy nhin, trn thc t ty theo ng dng, chng ta nn chn h mu ph hp nht. V d: thc hin qu trnh bin i sng ca nh:
g ( x , y ) = k f ( x , y ) vi 0 < k < 1
bi ton t sau si = Ti ( ri )
(3.2.132)
Trong h mu HSI, theo nguyn tc, bin i trn c thc hin cho ba thnh phn H, S, I
i = 1,2... n , vi n=3. Trn thc t thay i sng, trong h
HSI, chng ta ch cn p dng bin i i vi thnh phn I:
s3 = k r3
(3.2.133)
Cc thnh phn khc ca nh mu s c gi nguyn: s1 = r 1; s2 = r 2. Cng bi ton trn, nu thc hin trong h mu RGB, chng ta phi bin i c ba thnh phn mu R, G v B:
si = k ri
i = 1,2,3
3.2.6.2.4 Tch nh theo cc mc mu

Tng t nh k thut tch nh theo mc chi, khi x l nh mu, chng ta c th tch nhng chi tit c mu nht nh ra khi nh gc. Nhng thnh phn mu khc trong nh kt qu s c bin i thnh mu nn (lm ni nhng chi tit mu cn tch). Nu cc mu c quan tm nm trong hnh khi con c cnh l D0, tm hnh khi nm ti im ( a1, a2 , a3 ) trong khng gian mu R, G, B, khi k thut tch nh theo cc mc mu c m t theo biu thc:
0,5 si = r j
D0 2 D rj a j 0 2 rj a j >
(3.2.134)
vi cc i=1, 2, 3; j=1, 2, 3; Bin i (3.2.134) cho nh kt qu bao gm cc mu nm trong hnh khi c cnh D0, cc mu nm ngoi hnh khi s c thay th bng mc xm trung bnh. Nu vng mu quan tm nm trong hnh cu, biu thc (3.2.134) s bin i thnh:
0,5 si = r j
( rj a j )
j =1 n
2 > R0
( rj a j )
j =1
(3.2.135)
2
2 R0
i = 1, 2,....n , j = 1, 2,....n
Biu thc (3.2.135) c th ng dng cho khng gian mu n-chiu. Cc thnh phn mu c tch bit nm trong hnh cu (khi n=3) c bn knh R0, tm nm ti im ( a1, a2 , a3 ). Trn hnh 3.2.68 m t qu trnh tch thnh phn mu xung quanh mu c ta
169
Chng n 3 K thu ut x l nh
(0.686 63, 0.1608, 0.1922) trong khng gian RGB. R Thc hi h n bin i (3.2.134) vi D0 =0.2549 9, v bin i (3.2.135) vi R0 = 0.17 765, ta nhn c cc nh h kt qu 3.2.72c v 3.2.7 72d. Gi tr D0 v R0 c la chn sao s cho vng mu c tch mt c ch chnh x c nht. Quan n st nh gc v nh kt qu, c th nhn thy rng bin i (3.2.135) cho o kt qu tt hn v vng mu c tch ra a c din tch h ln hn so vi kt qu nh n n c t (3.2.134).
a)
b)
c)
d)
H Hnh 3.2.68 Minh ha k thut tch nh theo cc mc mu a- nh mu gc, b- Vng g mu c t ch trong kh ng gian mu u RGB c mu nm tr rong hnh lp th c- nh kt qu khi tch c - nh kt qu khi tch c c mu nm tr rong hnh cu d-
3 3.2.6.2.5 Hiu chnh nh h mu

Q trnh hiu chnh nh Qu h mu trn mn m hnh m y tnh trc khi a ti cc thit b in n thng g c thc hi h n tng bc theo hai g giai on: hiu chnh sng v hiu ch c nh mu. Hiu chnh sn ng Hiu chnh H sng l qu u trnh thay i sng v tng phn ca nh n lm tng n ti h. Cc thng a kh nng hin th h cc chi tit nh ca nh g s v mu sc ca nh ti giai on x l ny kh hng c th hay i. Tron ng h mu RG GB hay CMY YK qu trnh h bin i phi c thc hin ging nhau hon to on cho tng g knh mu. T Thng thng n c ba loi nh cn hiu chnh: thiu nh sng (h hnh 3.2.69a) ), tha nh sng s (hnh 3.2 2.69b) v thi iu tng g phn (hnh 3.2.69c). Cc c tuyn s dng hi h u chnh nh n trong tng g trng hp v kt qu hiu chnh c hin th trn hnh 3.2.69. 3 V d: c tuyn dng ng cong ch S c th c dng ci thin tng phn ca nh; vi c tuyn bin i nh tr rn hnh 3.2.6 69c, cc im nh gc sm mu hoc nht mu s tr nn sm hn hoc nh n t hn trong nh kt qu q , do tng phn ca nh s tng ln. Qu uan st cc nh v histog gram ca ch ng trn hnh h 3.2.69 c t th thy rng g, cht lng g hin th sng (nh ti, qu sng hay thiu t ng phn) c th nh gi g trc tip khi quan st t nh, hng qua l c xm (hi istogram) ca nh. hoc th
3.2.69 a) nh thiu nh sng, nh kt qu v c tuyn hiu chnh mc chi b) nh tha nh sng, nh kt qu v c tuyn hiu chnh mc chi c) nh tng phn thp, nh kt qu v c tuyn hiu chnh mc chi Hiu chnh mu
Sau khi nh c hiu chnh chi, bc x l tip theo l hiu chnh mu. y l qu trnh cn bng mu vi mc ch lm cho mu sc hin th trn nh tr nn trung thc. V d: tuyt phi c mu trng, c phi c mu xanh l cy v.v. Thng th qu trnh hiu chnh mu c thc hin trn cc mng hnh c mu trng, khi cc thnh phn mu R, G, B s phi ging nhau. Ngoi ra, mu da mt ngi cng c th dng hiu chnh, v h thng th gic rt nhy cm vi mu ny. Khi tin hnh hiu chnh theo tng knh mu, nht thit cn phi hiu r qu trnh hiu chnh tc ng th no ti mu sc tng hp ca nh. thy c nh hng ca s thay i mi thnh phn mu ti mu sc chung ca nh c th da trn vng trn mu (hnh 3.2.70). lm tng mt thnh phn mu trong nh c th: hoc lm gim mu b xung vi n, hoc tng cng lc hai mu nm cnh mu . V d, trong hnh mu h RGB c qu nhiu mu xanh lam (B), lm gim mu ny, chng ta c th: (1) tng mu b xung vi n l mu vng (Y) hoc (2) gim cc mu xanh l (C) v mu mn chn (M). Mt v d c th c biu din trn hnh 3.2.71. nh gc trn hnh 3.2.71a sau khi truyn qua knh b mt cn bng mu. Thnh phn mu xanh lam tr nn vt tri hn so vi cc mu khc (hnh 3.2.71b). lm gim mu xanh lam trn nh, chng ta chuyn i nh t h mu RGB sang h mu CMYK, tng mu Y bng cch p dng c tuyn hiu chnh knh Y nh trn hnh 3.2.71c. nh kt qu nhn c (hnh 3.2.71d) tng i ging vi nh gc (hnh 3.2.71a).
171
Hnh H 3.2.70 Vng trn mu m
a)
b)
Hnh H 3.2.71 Hiu chnh mu a- nh gc b- nh n nhiu mu Blue B c- c t tuyn hiu chnh knh Y d- nh kt qu
c)
d)
3 3.2.6.2.6 X l histogram m nh mu
N chng ta Nh t bit, k thut cn bng lc xm (histo ogram equalization) trong g nh en-trng lm cho phn b cc mc xm tr thnh ng g u. i vi nh mu, c tng hp t nhiu nh n sc, c vic thc hi h n cn bn ng lc "xm" cho tng nh n sc ri tng g hp m kt qu c th dn ti hin tng n mt cn bng mu. Tr rn hnh 3.2.72 l chng thnh nh mu d in hnh h. nh mu gc c t ng phn thp (xem lc xm) c tch ra th nh 3 mt v nh n sc R, G, B. B
Hnh 3.2.72 C Cn bng lc xm cho tng knh G, B mu R, G C ba nh tr n c cn bng mc x m. Tuy nhi n v lc xm ca 3 nh n sc c c di
ng khc k nhau, kt qu qu tr rnh cn bng g cng s kh c nhau. Khi tng hp nh n mu t cc c nh n sc nhn c sau khi cn bng, t l b ba thnh phn R, G, B ti mi im nh b thay i so vi nh h gc, chnh v vy, so s nh hai nh m mu gc v kt qu, ta thy c s khc c bit v mu u sc. Tuy nh hin, tng n phn ca nh kt qu tng ln r rt, cng l h qu ca bi b n i cn bng lc xm. trnh tnh h trng trn, qu trnh cn n bng lc xm c thc hin ch ho nh mu trong t h mu u HSI. Khi , cn bng mc xm ch c thc hi h n cho nh I (knh chi i), cc nh H v S c gi g nguyn. Chnh C v vy, y tng ph hn ca nh s c ci t thin trong khi k sc mu khng k b thay y i. Trn hnh h 3.2.73 m m t qu trnh cn bng g lc x m trong kh ng gian HSI. D dng nh n n thy nh n kt qu c tng ph p n cao v mu m sc "tht" hn so kt qu nhn c trn h nh 3.2.71.
H Hnh 3.2.73 Cn C bng l c xm tro ong h mu H HSI
3 3.2.6.2.7 K thut lm trn nh mu

Trong phn 3.2.2.2 chn T ng ta ni n qu trnh h lm trn nh en-trng g bng cc b lc khng gian. c tu uyn b lc ph p thuc vo o cc h s tr rong mt n lc (hnh 3.2 2.74a). Khi mt n di chu uyn trong nh, n gi tr im nh ti t tm mt n c thay bng gi tr tr rung bnh ca cc im nh bao trm m bi mt n. Lc tuyn t nh bng ph ng php nh hn chp tron ng khng gian n cn s dng n lm ni cc chi tit nh, hay ni bin nh (lc thng cao) (xem 3.2.4). Q trnh lc tuyn tnh ni Qu n trn c th h c p dng cho nh mu m (hnh 3. .2.74b). C S xy l tp hp ta Cho ca K im nh nm l n cn im nh mu trun ng tm (x,y) trong t khng gian RGB. Gi tr trung g bnh ca c c vector m u trong khn ng gian ba chi c u ng vi cc im nh c ta trong S xy l :
c ( x, y ) =
1 c ( x, y ) K ( x , y )S xy
(3.2.136)
Da vo tnh cht cng cc vector, ta c:
1 R ( x, y ) K ( x , y )S xy 1 c ( x, y ) = G x y , ( ) K ( x , y )S xy 1 K B ( x, y ) ( x , y )S xy
(3.2.137)
Nh vy, cc ta ca vector mu trung bnh trong khng gian R, G, B bng cc gi tr trung bnh tm c trong tng nh n sc ring bit. iu ny c ngha l qu trnh lm trn nh c th c thc hin cho tng thnh phn mu ring r, sau tng hp li thnh nh mu kt qu. nh ny s ging vi nh mu c thc hin lm trn da trn cc vector mu trong khng gian mu RGB.
a)
b)
Hnh 3.2.74 M t k thut lm trn nh mu theo tng thnh phn
Hnh 3.2.75 Lm trn nh mu : a- nh gc b- Lm trn nh trong h mu RGB c- Lm trn nh trong h mu HSI d- nh sai s gia (b) v (c) Qu trnh lm trn nh c th c thc hin trong cc khng gian mu khc nhau. Hnh 3.2.75b l nh kt qu, nhn c sau khi lm trn nh trong khng gian RGB theo phng php m t trn hnh 3.2.75b. Cc nh R. G v B c lm trn mt cch c lp, sau tng hp li thnh nh mu kt qu. Trong khng gian mu HSI, thnh phn c lm trn l nh mang tin tc v chi I. nh H v S c gia nguyn. Kt qu nhn c (hnh 3.2.75c) cng l nh gc b lm "m".
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Tuy nhin khi so snh vi nh c lm m trong h RGB, chng ta nhn thy rng chng c s khc nhau. nh sai s c hin th trn 3.2.75d. Vn ch, mu ca cc im nh c lm trn trong h RGB khng hon ton ging mu sc thc v thnh phn R, G v B bng gi tr trung bnh trong khng gian ma trn lc (gi tr trung bnh thng khc so vi gi tr gc ca im nh mu). Trong khi , thnh phn mu (H v S) ca cc im nh trong h HSI khi lm trn khng thay i. Cng chnh v l do va nu trn, c th a ra kt lun rng mc sai s gia cc nh c lm trn trong khng gian RGB v HSI s tng khi kch thc ma trn lc tng.
3.2.6.3 Nhiu trong nh mu M hnh nhiu c trnh by trong phn 3.2.3.2 c th c p dng cho trng hp nh mu. Tuy nhin, tc ng nhiu ti nh mu c c th ring. Trong mt s trng hp, nhiu tc ng ln cc knh mu mt cch khc nhau, v d trong b cm bin CCD, knh R (mu ) nhy cm vi nhiu nhiu hn so vi hai knh mu cn li. Tc ng ca nhiu s thay i mnh khi chng ta thc hin php bin i khng gian biu din nh mu. Trn hnh 3.2.76, nh mu b tc ng bi nhiu Gaussian vi lch chun 0.005 c phn tch thnh cc thnh phn trong khng gian RGB v HSI. C th thy rng thnh phn H (sc mu) v S ( bo ha mu) b bin dng rt nhiu di tc ng ca nhiu, l do chnh v trong cng thc (3.2.114, 3.2.115, 3.2.116) tnh H v S cha cc hm phi tuyn l arccos v hm tm minimum.
Hnh 3.2.76 Biu din nh nhiu (a) trong khng gian mu RGB (b, c, d) v HSI (e, f,g) Qu trnh trit nhiu cho nh mu c th c thc hin trn c s lc trong khng gian hay trong min tn s nh xt trong phn 3.2.3. Cc b lc ni trn c th p dng cho cc thnh phn mu ring r hay p dng trc tip ti cc vector mu. Mt s b lc, th d b lc trung bnh khng gian s cho kt qu ging nhau. Cc b lc da trn nguyn tc thng k th t in hnh l b lc median thng ch c thc hin cho tng thnh phn mu. Qu trnh thng k th t trong khng gian vector mu nhiu chiu tng i phc tp nn khng c gii thiu y.
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3.3 CC K THUT NN NH
3.3.1 Gii thiu chung v k thut nn nh Cc k thut nn nh hng ti gii quyt bi ton lm gim thiu khi lng thng tin cn thit m t nh s. Nn tng ca qu trnh nn l loi b d tha c trong tn hiu. Phng php nn hiu qu nht thng s dng cc bin i ton hc bin ma trn cc im nh trong khng gian hai chiu sang mt khng gian hai chiu khc, ni mc tng quan gia cc h s bin i mi nh hn. Nh chng ta bit, d tha trong tn hiu nh s ph thuc vo mc tng quan gia cc im nh, tng quan ln th d tha cng ln.
Nn nh l lnh vc nghin cu kh lu i. Thi gian u, cc nghin cu i theo hng x l tn hiu video tng t, nhm nn "b rng ph" ca tn hiu ny. Nn video trong nhng nm 1950 c thc hin bng cng ngh tng t c t s nn thp. Cc h truyn hnh tng t NTSC, PAL, SECAM s dng k thut nn tn hiu video bng cch gim rng bng tn thnh phn mu so vi thnh phn chi, v d trong h NTSC, thnh phn mu I v Q c b rng ph 1,3 MHz v 0.6 MHz, b rng ph thnh phn chi l 4.2 MHz. S pht trin ca k thut s v vic s dng cng ngh s vo k thut truyn hnh lm cho khi nim nn video tr thnh ti nng hi trong nhng nm gn y. Nh chng ta bit, tiu chun nh dng video thnh phn 4:2:2 ( CCIR-601) vi quy nh b rng bng tn tn hiu chi v mu l 5,75 MHz v 2,75 MHz ( 0,1 dB). Sau khi s ha vi tn s ly mu tiu chun 13.5 MHz (cho knh chi), tc bit tng cng ca tn hiu chi v mu l 270 Mbps. Dng d liu video s c tc cao nh trn khng th c truyn qua v tinh vi rng di tn mi knh 27 MHz hoc qua h thng truyn hnh qung b trn mt t vi quy nh 78 MHz cho mt knh truyn hnh tiu chun. Do vy, nn tn hiu video l cng on khng th thiu khc phc c nhng kh khn trn. T nhng nm 1980, cc nh khoa hc t c nhng thnh tu quan trng trong vic nn tn hiu video v audio. C rt nhiu hng sn xut thit b nn tn hiu video, ch yu cc thit b ny lm vic vi hai nh dng nn c coi l tiu chun l JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) p dng cho nh tnh v MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group) - p dng cho nh ng. Phn loi cc phng php nn nh: C th thc hin phn loi theo nguyn l nn: - Nn khng tn hao (lossless data reduction) - Nn c tn hao (loss data reduction) Phn loi theo cch thc hin nn: - Phng php khng gian (Spatial Data Compression): cc phng php nn bng cch tc ng trc tip ln im nh. - Phng php s dng bin i (Transform Coding): phng php nn s dng cc php bin i khng gian, qu trnh nn c thc hin bng cch tc ng ln nh bin i.
3.3.2 D tha trong tn hiu 3.3.2.1 dtha s liu Nn s liu l qu trnh gim lng s liu cn thit biu din cng mt lng thng tin cho trc. S liu v thng tin khng ng ngha vi nhau. S liu (to nn tn hiu) ch l phng tin dng truyn ti thng tin. Cng mt lng thng tin cho trc c th biu din 176

bng cc lng s liu khc nhau. d tha s liu l vn trung tm trong nn nh s. d tha c xc nh nh sau: nu N1 v N2 l lng s liu trong hai tp hp s liu cng c dng biu din lng thng tin cho trc th d tha s liu tng i RD ca tp s liu th nht so vi tp s liu th hai c th c nh ngha nh sau: RD = 1- 1/CN trong : CN = N1/N2
Trong trng hp N1 = N2 th RD = 0, iu ny c ngha l so vi tp s liu th hai th tp s liu th nht khng cha s liu d tha. Khi N2 << N1 th CN tin ti v cng v RD tin ti mt, c ngha l d tha s liu tng i ca tp s liu th nht l kh ln so vi tp s liu th hai. Cht lng nh nn c th thay i ty theo c im ca hnh nh ngun v ni dung nh. C th nh gi cht lng nh nn theo s bit cho mt im trong nh nn (Nb). Nb c xc nh bng tng s bit dng m t nh nn chia cho tng s im nh: Nb = S bit nn/S im Trong l thuyt nn nh s,c th phn bit ba loi d tha s liu khc nhau, l: D tha m (Coding Redundancy)
Nu cc mc ca tn hiu video c m ha bng cc symbol nhiu hn cn thit th tn hiu nhn c s c d tha m. gim d tha m, c th s dng cc m VLC (Variable-Length Coding) nh m Huffman, m LZW(Lempel-Ziv-Welch) v.v... D tha trong pixel (Interpixel Redundancy)
Mc tng quan gia hai im nh gn nhau l tng i ln, do trong nh s tn ti lng d tha pixel (cn gi l d tha khng gian) tng i ln. Mi im nh c th c d bo t gi tr cc im ln cn vi n. Nh nhc ti trn, gim d tha trong pixel ca mt nh c th c thc hin khi s dng php bin i nh s t min khng gian sang min tn s. D tha tm sinh l
Da trn cc nghin cu v h thng th gic, chng ta bit rng mt ngi ch cm nhn c mt phn thng tin cha trong nh quang hc. Ni cch khc, nh c th c tch ra thnh hai phn: mt phn cha cc tin tc quan trng cho ngi xem, phn khc l cc thng tin m ngi xem hu nh khng cm nhn c. Thnh phn th hai c th c loi b m khng nh hng ng k n cht lng thu nhn nh.
3.3.2.2 Tiu ch nh gi cht lng hnh nh Qu trnh nn nh thng i i vi vic nh nn b bin dng so vi nh gc. V vy, cn xc nh tiu ch v phng php nh gi mt cch khch quan lng thng tin v nh b mt i sau khi nn. C th nh gi mc sai s gia hai nh thng qua mc sai lch trung bnh bnh
( x, y ) l nh khi phc sau khi phng - RMS (Root Mean Square). Cho f ( x, y ) l nh gc, f
nn. Khc bit tuyt i gia hai nh l:
( x, y ) f ( x, y ) e ( x, y ) = f
(3.3.1)
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Sai s trung bnh bnh phng c tnh theo cng thc sau:
eRMS
1 = MN
M 1 N 1 x =0 y =0
( f ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) )
1/2 2
(3.3.2)
Thng thng, khi gi tr RMS thp, cht lng nh nn s tt. Tuy nhin, trong mt s trng hp cht lng hnh nh nn khng nht thit phi t l thun vi gi tr RMS. Mt phng php nh gi cht lng nh nn khc da trn t l tn hiu/nhiu c tnh theo cng thc sau:
M 1 N 1 2 f ( x, y ) x =0 y =0 SNR = M 1 N 1 f ( x, y ) f ( x, y ) x =0 y =0
1/2
(3.3.3)
SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio) - t l tn hiu/ nhiu. Cc thng s nu trn ch cho php nh gi cht lng nh nn mt cch gn chnh xc. Trn thc t cht lng hnh nh ph thuc rt nhiu vo cm nhn tm sinh l ca con ngi. Chnh v vy, trong mt s trng hp ngi ta s dng phng php nh gi cht lng nh mt cch ch quan: nh c trnh chiu cho mt s lng ln ngi quan st. Da trn kt qu thng k nh gi ca c nhm ngi quan st, c th a ra kt lun tng i chnh xc v cht lng nh nn.
3.3.3 M hnh h thng nn tn hiu
Hnh 3.3.1 S khi h thng nn tn hiu H thng truyn dn s dng cc phng php nn tn hiu khc nhau c th c m t bng s khi nh trn hnh 3.3.1. Cc thnh phn quan trng nht trong h thng l b m ha v gii m.
B m ha v gii m ngun
B m ha ngun thc hin qu trnh loi b cc thnh phn d tha trong nh gc. Thng thng, b m ha ngun c cu trc nh trn hnh 3.3.2.
Hnh 3.3.2 S khi b m ha ngun B chuyn i: thng dng cc php bin i khng gian chuyn nh trong khng gian thc sang mt khng gian khc, ni cc h s chuyn i c mc tng quan thp hn. Kt qu nhn c l ma trn cc h s bin i.
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B lng t ho: s dng phng php lng t khng ng u nhm trit tiu cc h s bin i c nng lng thp hoc ng vai tr khng quan trng khi khi phc nh. Qu trnh lng t khng c tnh thun nghch: nh khi phc s b bin dng so vi nh gc. B m ho: gn mt t m (mt dng bit nh phn) cho mt mc lng t.
Hnh 3.3.3 S khi gii m ngun B gii m ngun c cc b phn chc nng sau: - B gii m: thc hin gii m tn hiu nhn c cho ra ma trn cc h s ca nh bin i. - B chuyn i thc hin bin i nghch (so vi qu trnh bin i b m ha) khi phc li nh s ban u.
B m ha v gii m knh
Khi truyn tn hiu qua knh truyn c nhiu, lm gim nh hng ca nhiu ti tn hiu ngi ta thng s dng cc phng php m bng cch thm mt s thng tin d tha vo chui tn hiu cn truyn i. Ty thuc vo phng php m ha, ti pha thu, sau khi gii m knh, chng ta c th pht hin c li trong chui tn hiu va nhn c (do nhiu knh gy ra) hoc c th ng thi thc hin sa cc li .
3.3.4 Cc phng php nn khng tn hao (lossless data reduction) Trong nhiu ng dng tn hiu phi c nn khng lm mt mt thng tin: v d khi cn nn cc file chng trnh trong my tnh hay khi nn nhng hnh nh nhn c t cc thit b kho st v tr: nhng nh ny thng c gi tr s dng cao, cn c gi nguyn cht lng ban u. Sau y chng ta phn tch mt s phng php nn khng tn hao tiu biu. 3.3.4.1 Phng php m ha Huffman Phng php m ha Huffman l phng php gim d tha thng k, da vo m hnh thng k ca tn hiu. Phn tch d liu gc, ngi ta tnh tn sut xut hin ca cc k t. Cc k t c tn sut cao nht s c m ha bng t m ngn nht v ngc li. Tm li, vi cch m ha trn, chng ta lm gim chiu di trung bnh ca t m c dng m ha d liu. 3.3.4.2 Phng php m LZW (Lempel-Ziv-Welch) y l phng php m ha t in, qu trnh m ha c thc hin bng cch thay chui d liu gc c di khc nhau bng t m c di c nh. Khc vi m Huffman, k thut LZW khng cn bit tn sut ca cc k t trong tn hiu gc.
m ha theo phng php LZW, chui d liu phi c a vo tra cu trong "t in" tm ra m tng ng vi n. "T in" c hnh thnh ngay trong qu trnh m ha. V d: khi nn nh en-trng c m ha bng 8 bits/pixel, t in c khi to bao gm 256 t tng ng vi cc mc chi 0,1,2255. Sau , coder s phn tch ln lt chui k t (mc xm) lin tip trong d liu ngun, khi pht hin trong t in khng c chui k t tng ng, coder s ghi chui k t lin tip vo v tr cn trng ca t in. V d: nu hai im nh u tin c gi tr 255, th chui 255-255 s c ghi vo v tr th 256, sau t hp 255-255 c th c truyn i vi t m l 256. Nh vy thay v truyn hai k t c 16 bits, ta ch cn truyn i t m 9 bits. "T in" bao gm cc t m 9 bits c th lu c 512 t m. C th thy rng, khi "t
179

in" qu nh, s lng chui k t c m ha s t, ngc li khi "t in" qu ln t m s c di ln do hiu qu nn cng b gim. Cn lu rng, "t in" s dng khi m ha khng cn phi chuyn sang pha gii m, trong qu trnh gii m LZW, "t in" ny s c khi phc t ng. Gii thut nn LZW thng c s dng cho cc loi nh nh phn. Chun nn ny c s dng to ra cc dng nh GIF v TIFF.
3.3.4.3 Phng php m ha lot di (RLC - Run Length Coding) K thut m ha RLC c php trin ban u nn nh nh phn nh nh scan t vn bn, nh nhn c t my Fax. K thut nn ny da trn nguyn l tm trong tn hiu s nh phn chui bt "1" hoc "0" lin tip, sau m ha chui bng hai thng s: gi tr bit lp v s lng bt lp (chiu di chui). i khi, nng cao hiu qu nn, gi tr chiu di cc chui c th c m ha bng m c chiu di thay i (v d m Huffman). Chiu di chui bits trong nh nh phn i khi c th ln hn 255. V th, c th dng 1 byte m ha gi tr s bit lp li, ngi ta hn ch chiu di chui bng 255. Phng php nn RLC c s dng lu tr cc nh Bitmap theo dng PCX, BMP. 3.3.4.4 Phng php m ha theo vng ng tr y l phng php kh n gin v hiu qu khi m ha nh nh phn hoc nh mt phng bit (xem phn 3.2.2.1.5). nh gc c chia thnh nhiu khi nh c kch thc mxn pixel. Chng ta phn bit ba loi khi nh: khi ton mu trng, ton mu en v khi c sng hn hp. Sau , cc khi nh c tn sut cao c m ha vi t m ngn nht, v d t m "0". Hai khi cn li c m ha bng t m 2 bits: "01" v "10". Nh vy, thay v phi truyn i gi tr mxn im nh trong mi khi, vi khi ton trng v ton en ta ch cn truyn i cc t m c di 1 hoc 2 bits. 3.3.4.5 Phng php m d on khng tn tht Phng php m ha ny da trn tnh tng quan gia hai im nh nm k nhau v k thut tch v truyn thng tin "mi" cha trong mi pixel nh. Theo nhng nghin cu thng k v phn b bin tn hiu video, mc tng quan gia cc im nh nm gn nhau trong min khng gian l kh cao, iu ny c ngha l s khc bit gia hai im nh k bn rt nh hoc bng 0, v th khi m ha chnh lch ny cn s lng bit t hn so vi khi m ha ton b bin cc mu.
Thng tin "mi" trong im nh c xc nh bng hiu gia im nh thc v im nh d on. Phng php m d on cn gi l iu xung m vi sai (DPCM Differential Pulse Code Modulation). Trong b m ha DPCM cng s dng thm cc k thut lng t ha thch nghi v m ha entropy tng h s nn. Cc thnh phn chnh ca h thng DPCM c m t trn hnh 3.3.4. H thng DPCM bao gm b m ha (hnh 3.3.4a) v b gii m (hnh 3.3.4b).
e n = fn f n
fn
f n
a) m ha DPCM
180
en
fn
f n
b) gii m DPCM Hnh 3.3.4 S khi b m ha v gii m DPCM Trong thnh phn b m ha v gii m u c khi d on. Khi mt mu f n ca nh c a ti b m ha, khi d on s thc hin xp x gi tr mu nh da trn thng tin
v a ti mch tr tm ra sai c v cc im nh trc. Sau gi tr xp x c lm trn f n

s gia im nh thc v im nh d on:
en = f n f n
(3.3.4)
Gi tr sai s (thng l nh) c m ha bng m c di thay i (m Entropy) trc khi a vo ng truyn. ph thu, sau khi d liu nn c gii m Entropy, gi tr sai s en c a ti b d on khi phc gi tr im nh f n :
+e fn = f n n
(3.3.5)
da trn cc mu ti trc, c th s dng cc phng php xp x c c gi tr f n
c xc nh da trn gi tr cc b, ton cc hoc phng php thch nghi. Thng thng, f n

ca m mu n trc nh sau:
m = round f f n i n i i =1
(3.3.6)
i - h s d on vi i = 1,2,...m ;
round ( ) - ton t lm trn ti s nguyn gn nht.
3.3.5 Cc phng php nn tn hao (loss data reduction) Cc phng php nn c tn hao thng c hiu qu nn cao hn rt nhiu so vi nn khng tn hao. c im ca cc phng php nn ny l hiu qu nn cng cao th mc tn hao cng ln, ni cch khc cht lng nh nn s gim i khi h s nn tng ln. Mt s phng php nn nh c tn hao c th t h s nn ti 100 ln trong khi cht lng nh nn vn cn chp nhn c. Cn ch rng h s nn cng nh cht lng nh nn trong trng hp nn tn hao ph thuc tng i nhiu vo tnh cht ca hnh nh gc.
Sau y chng ta s cp ti mt s phng php nn nh tn hao tiu biu.
3.3.5.1 Phng php m d on c tn hao S khi ca b m ha d on c tn tht khc vi b m ha khng tn tht (hnh 3.3.5) do c thm b lng t ha . Qu trnh lng t ha s lm trn gi tr en ti mc lng t
n . Hiu qu nn ca h thng m ha v sai s gia nh nn v nh gc s ph thuc gn nht l e

vo s mc lng t c s dng trong coder.
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kt qu d on coder v decoder nh nhau, cc mu ti trc dng d on ti coder phi cha c thnh phn sai s do lng t ha to ra v sai s ny tn ti trong tn hiu a ti b d on trong decoder:
=e n + f f n n
(3.3.7)
cng c sp x theo cng thc (3.3.6). f n

Trong b gii m, gi tr cc im nh gii nn cng c xc nh bi (3.3.7).
en
n e
fn
f n
f n
a) m ha DPCM
n e
f n
f n
b) gii m DPCM Hnh 3.3.5 H thng m ha d on c tn tht 3.3.5.2 Cc phng php nn s dng php bin i khng gian tn hiu Trong phn ny chng ta s phn tch k thut nn nh s s dng cc php bin i khng gian tn hiu. Nguyn l chung ca cc phng php nn ny l s dng cc php bin i tuyn tnh (nh bin i Fourier, bin i Cosin, bin i DCT - Discrete Cosine Transform v.v.) nh x nh s sang khng gian khc. Tp h s kt qu ca cc bin i tuyn tnh sau c lng t ha v m ha. u im quan trng ca cc php bin i l cc h s khai trin thng c mc tng quan nh hn so vi mc tng quan gia cc im nh trong khng gian thc. Ngoi ra, phn ln nng lng ca tn hiu tp trung ti cc h s nm trong min tn s thp. Qu trnh nn d liu c th c thc hin trong giai on lng t ha: khi la chn mc lng t tng i ln, cc h s bin i c nng lng nh (thng nm min tn s cao) s b loi b bt. nh nn nhn chung s khng hon ton ging c nh gc, tuy nhin c th d on rng, nh hng ca cc thnh phn cao tn b loi b thng khng ln, do cht lng nh hu nh khng b thay i k c khi tn hiu b nn kh nhiu. Hnh 3.3.6 m t s khi tng qut h thng nn nh s dng php bin i khng gian. Coder thc hin bn bc c bn: 1Chia nh thnh cc block ( tin x l trong my tnh, cc block thng c kch thc 8x8 pixel); 2- Thc hin php bin i vi tng block; 3- Lng t ha cc h s bin i; 4- M ha. Decoder thc hin qu trnh bin i ngc li (ngoi vic lng t ha).
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Hnh 3.3.6 S khi h thng nn nh s dng php bin i khng gian a- B m ha (coder) b- B gii m (decoder)
3.3.5.3 Cc chun nn nh tnh v nh ng Cc chun nn nh tnh

Hin nay trong lnh vc nh s c kh nhiu chun nn ang c s dng. Mt s nh dng nn khng tn hao c hu ht cc phn mm x l nh s chuyn nghip nh Photoshop (hng Adobe Systems) hay Photo Paint (Corel Corp.) h tr l: BMP, PCX, GIF, TIFF. Tuy nhin nh phn tch trn, cc chun nn khng tn hao thng c h s nn rt thp, do chng ch c s dng nn nh c kch thng nh. Phng php nn nh c tn hao c s dng rng ri v c hiu qu nn cao hn nhiu so vi nn khng tn hao. Hai phng php nn ng ch nht hin nay u da trn cc php bin i khng gian, l phng php nn theo JPEG v nn nh s dng bin i Wavelet (Wavelet transform). C hai phng php nn ni trn c hiu qu nn rt cao, tuy nhin, chun nn JPEG c s dng rng ri hn. Tiu chun nn JPEG c h tr trong nhiu chng trnh x l nh, trn cc web browser; k thut nn JPEG cn c tch hp trong cc h thng nn nh ng MPEG, l chun nn thng dng cho tn hiu truyn hnh s hin nay. Phn sau ca ti liu ny chng ta s nghin cu k hn v tiu chun nn JPEG v MPEG. Cc chun nn nh ng 1- Chun H.261 ITU (CCITT) H.261 c pht trin nn tn hiu hnh nh cho dch v truyn hnh hi ngh v video phone qua ng truyn ISDN tc px64kbps (p=1..30). Trn ng truyn 64kbps, lung 48kbps dng truyn tn hiu video, 16kbps dnh cho audio. K thut nn nh c s dng trong chun H.261 s lm nn tng cho cc chun nn sau ny nh MPEG 1, 2. Trong chun nn H.261 c s dng cc k thut nn trong nh da trn bin i DCT, nn lin nh vi b b chuyn ng. H.261 h tr hai phn gii CIF (Common Intermediate Format) v QCIF (Quarter Common Intermediate Format) (hnh 3.3.7). Phng php ly mu tn hiu chi v mu: YCbCr 4:2:0. 2- Chun H.263 y l chun nn c ci tin t H.261 to ra lung video tc thp, c th truyn trn mng in thoi cng cng PSTN. Chun nn H.263 c cng nhn nm 1996. Ging nh H.261, H.263 s dng bin i DCT cho qu trnh nn trong nh v nh sai s (l hiu ca nh gc v nh nn). Chun H.263 h tr cc phn gii SQCIF, QCIF, CIF, 4 CIF v 16CIF.
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Hnh 3.3.7 phn gii chun ca video s 3- Chun nn MPEG Chun nn MPEG s c phn tch c th hn phn sau ca ti liu ny.
3.3.5.4 Phng php nn nh tnh theo chun JPEG JPEG (Joint Photographic Expert Group ) l tn ca mt t chc nghin cu v cc chun nn nh (trc y l ISO) c thnh lp vo nm 1982. Nm 1986, JPEG chnh thc c thit lp nh s kt hp gia nhm ISO/IEC v ITV. Chun JPEG c ng dng nn nh tnh n sc v nh mu.Tiu chun nn JPEG c th c ng dng trong nhiu lnh vc: lu tr nh, truyn nh qua mng, truyn nh bo ch, nh cho y hc, camera s v.v...
H s nn nh tnh theo phng php JPEG c th t t 10 50 (ln) m khng lm nh hng nhiu n cht lng hin th ca nh. Khai trin DCT c chn l k thut then cht trong JPEG v n cho php nn nh vi cht lng tt nht ti tc bit thp, gii thut chuyn i nhanh v d dng thc hin bng phn cng. Trn hnh 3.3.8 l s khi b m ha nh theo chun JPEG.
f ( i, j )
F ( u, v )
Fq ( u, v )
Hnh 3.3.8 S khi b m ha nh theo JPEG Trc khi a ti b chuyn i DCT, nh mu gc phi c phn tch thnh cc nh n sc v c s ha theo mt trong nhng tiu chun hin hnh. nh chi (Y) v hai nh mu n sc UV (chun PAL) hoc IQ (chun NTSC) c chia thnh cc block 8x8 v a ti b chuyn i DCT. Cc block c "c" ln lt t nh gc theo chiu t tri sang phi, t trn xung di. Kch thc block l 88 c chn bi hai l do sau: (1) nhiu cng trnh nghin cu cho thy hm tng quan gia cc im nh suy gim rt nhanh khi khong cch gia cc pixel vt qu 8; (2) kch thc 8x8 tin li cho vic tnh ton v thit k phn cng. B chuyn i DCT bin i ma trn nh f ( i , j ) 8x8 thnh ma trn h s F ( u, v ) cng kch thc. Ma trn F(u,v) c a ti b lng t. Cc h s DCT s c lng t ha da trn bng lng t. Tn hiu chi v tn hiu mu s c lng t theo cc bng lng t khc
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nhau. Ma trn cc h s DCT nhn c sau b lng t l Fq ( u , v ) . H s Fq ( 0,0 ) l thnh phn trung bnh (thnh phn DC) ca mi block c a ti b m ha vi sai (DPCM). Cc h s khc (thnh phn AC) trong tng block c c ra theo trnh t zigzag v a ti b m ha lot di (RLC). Cui cng chui d liu t hai b m ha DPCM v RLC c m ha mt ln na bng m entropy. D liu nn cng cc bng m v bng lng t c kt hp li thnh file nh nn theo chun JPEG. Sau y chng ta s phn tch tng khu x l trong qu trnh nn nh JPEG.
3.3.5.4.1 Bin i DCT

Cng on u tin ca qu trnh nn theo JPEG l bin i cosin ri rc DCT (Discrete Cosine Transform). DCT bin i d liu t min khng gian sang min tn s. DCT c s dng tng i rng ri v n c c tnh "gi" nng lng tt, bin i DCT cho kt qu l cc s thc, ngoi ra c cc thut ton nhanh thc hin bin i ny. Bin i DCT c thc hin trong phm vi cc khi 88 mu tn hiu chi Y v cc khi tng ng ca tn hiu hiu mu (UV hoc IQ). DCT hai chiu:
Bin i DCT hai chiu (2-D) c dng cho cc khi nh c kch thc 88. Qu trnh bin i thun DCT (Forward DCT) dng trong tiu chun JPEG c nh ngha nh sau: F(u,v)= trong : f(j,k)- cc mu ca nh gc trong block 88 pixel. F(u,v)-cc h s ca khi DCT 88.
C (u )C (v ) 4
f ( j, k ) cos
j =0 k =0
(2k + 1)v (2 j + 1)u cos 16 16
(3.3.8)
1 / 2 C (u ) , C (v ) = 1
u, v = 0 u, v 0
ngang v mt cho tn s dc. Trong ma trn h s DCT hai chiu, h s th nht F ( 0,0 ) bng gi tr trung bnh ca cc im nh trong block 8x8:
Phng trnh trn l kt qu lin kt ca hai phng trnh DCT mt chiu, mt cho tn s
F ( 0,0) =
1 7 8 j=0
f ( j, k)
k =0
(3.3.9)
Cc h s nm cc dng di thnh phn mt chiu, c trng cho cc tn s cao hn ca tn hiu theo chiu dc. Cc h s nm cc ct bn phi ca thnh phn mt chiu c trng cho cc tn s cao hn theo chiu ngang. H s F(0,7) l thnh phn c tn s cao nht theo chiu ngang ca block nh 88, v h s F(7,0) c trng cho thnh phn c tn s cao nht theo chiu dc. Cn cc h s khc ng vi nhng phi hp khc nhau ca cc tn s theo chiu dc v chiu ngang. Php bin i DCT hai chiu l bin i i xng v bin i nghch cho php ti to li cc gi tr mu f(j,k) trn c s cc h s F(u,v) theo cng thc sau:
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f ( j, k ) = C ( u) C ( v) (2 j + 1)u (2k + 1)v F (u, v)cos cos 4 16 16 u=0 v=0
7 7
(3.3.10)
Bn thn php bin i DCT khng nn c d liu, t 64 mu ta nhn c 64 h s. Trong cc h s DCT, thnh phn DC thng c gi tr ln nht, cc h s nm k n ng vi tn s thp c gi tr nh hn, cc h s cn li ng vi tn s cao thng c gi tr rt nh. Trn hnh v 3.3.9 l mt v d minh ha qu trnh bin i DCT hai chiu cho mt block 88 im nh (chi) c trch ra t mt nh thc. Thnh phn chi Y sau khi s ha s c bin cc mu nm trong khong 0-255, cc mu ca thnh phn mu CR,CB c bin cc i l 128. c th s dng mt b m ha DCT cho c tn hiu chi v mu, tn hiu Y c dch mc xung di bng cch tr 128 t mi gi tr pixel trong block 8x8. b gii m DCT, gi tr ny s c cng thm vo cc gi tr chi sau khi gii nn. Gi tr h s DC ca khi DCT dao ng trong khong t 2
10
n 2
10
1.
3.3.5.4.2 Lng t ha
Bc tip theo ca qu trnh nn nh l bc lng t ha cc h s DCT F(u,v) vi mc ch lm gim s lng bit cn thit dng m t nhng h s . Cc h s tng ng vi tn s thp thng c gi tr ln, nhng h s ny cha phn ln nng lng ca tn hiu, do chng phi c lng t ha vi chnh xc cao. Ring h s DC cn m ha vi chnh xc cao nht, bi l h s ny l gi tr chi trung bnh ca tng block nh. S thay i chi trung bnh ca cc block s nh hng rt nhiu ti cht lng ca nh nn. thc hin qu trnh nn d liu, ma trn cc h s khai trin sau DCT phi c chia cho bng trng s Q(u,v) loi b mt phn cc h s DCT c bin nh (thng l cc thnh phn cao tn).
Hnh 3.3.9 Kt qu cc bc nn nh theo JPEG v bng lng t Q(u,v).
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JPEG s dng phng php lng t khng ng u, cc h s c tn s thp c chia cho cc gi tr nh, cc h s ng vi tn s cao c chia cho cc gi tr ln hn, kt qu s c lm trn (b i cc phn thp phn): Fq(u,v)=round
F (u, v) Q(u, v)
(3.3.11)
Trn hnh 3.3.9 m t qu trnh bin i DCT: nh gc (a), ma trn h s DCT trc (b) v sau khi lng t ha (d) bng cch chia cho bng lng t Q(u,v) (c).
3.3.5.4.3 Qut zig-zag

m ha entropy cc h s Fq(u,v), trc ht, cn bin i ma trn h s Fq(u,v) thnh chui s mt chiu. Trong k thut JPEG s dng phng php c theo ng zig-zag (qut zigzag). Vic c 64 h s ca khi 8x8 pixel theo ng zig-zag (hnh 3.3.10) lm tng ti a di ca chui cc gi tr 0 lin tip. Nh vy hiu qu nn khi dng m RLC s tng.
Hnh 3.3.10 Qut zig-zag cc h s lng t ha DCT
3.3.5.4.4 M ha thnh phn DC

Cc h s DC l gi tr trung bnh ca cc khi nh 8x8. chi trung bnh ca cc block nh gn nhau thng t bin i, do trong chun nn JPEG, cc h s DC c m ha theo phng php DPCM. tng hiu sut nn, kt qu nhn c sau c m ha tip bng m Huffman. Trn l thuyt, di ng ca cc gi tr nhn c sau khi m ha DPCM ln gp i di ng ca cc h s DCT, c ngha l thnh phn ny s c gi tr nm trong khong 2
11
2 1 . S lng bits cn thit m ha thnh phn DC c th ln ti 11.

S khi b m ha thnh phn DC trnh by trn hnh 3.3.11.
11
Hnh 3.3.11 B m ha thnh phn DC H s DC ca cc block DCT c ln lt a ti b DPCM. Thnh phn sai s gia hai h s DC lin tip s c m ha trong b m ha Huffman. Qu trnh m ha Huffman c thc hin cho thnh phn DC nh sau: 1- D tm trong bng phn loi tm "loi" ca gi tr
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DC . ("loi" chnh l chiu di t m dng m ha thnh phn DC ); 2- Dng bng m Huffman cho thnh phn DC tm ra t m cho "loi" DC tm c bc 1; 3- M ha nh phn gi tr DC ; 4- Ghp t m Huffman v gi tr nh phn ca DC c c t m cho
thnh phn DC. Trn hnh 3.3.12 v 3.3.13 l cc bng tra cn thit thc hin m ha thnh phn DC. V d: Thnh phn DC trong block trn hnh 3.3.14 c gi tr DCn=15. Gi s thnh phn DC ca block trc l DCn-1=12. Nh vy kt qu m ha DPCM s l gi tr
DC = DCn DCn1 = 3 . Trn bng 3.3.12, ta c DC = 3 thuc "loi" 2.
Hnh 3.3.12 Bng phn loi cc h s AC v DC
Hnh 3.3.13 Bng m Huffman cho thnh phn DC
Hnh 3.3.14 Block h s DCT cn c m ha Da vo bng m huffman ta c t m ng vi "loi" 2 l (01) (nh vy 2 chnh di ca m). Gi tr DC = 3 c biu din bng chui nh phn "11". Nh vy t m DC s l 0111.
3.3.5.4.5 M ha thnh phn AC

S khi ca b m ha thnh phn AC c biu din trn hnh 3.3.15.
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Hnh 3.3.15 B m ha thnh phn AC Chui cc h s AC c ln lt a vo b m ha RLC. u ra ta nhn c cc t m bao gm hai thnh phn: 1) Gi tr chy l s lng bit "0" ng trc h s khc "0" ang c m ha; 2) bin ca h s khc "0" ni trn. T m Huffman ng vi cp gi tr trn c tm ra trong bng phn loi 3.3.12 v bng m Huffman cho thnh phn AC (hnh 3.3.16). T m AC s bao gm t m Huffman v gi tr bin (nh phn) ca h s AC. V d: Sau qu trnh qut zig-zag, t block h s DCT trn hnh 3.3.14 ta nhn c chui h s AC sau: 0, -2, -1, -1, -1, 0 , 0,-1, 0 , 0 Chui bt nhn c sau b m RLC l: (1,-2) (0, -1) (0, -1) (0, -1) (2,-1) (EOB) Sau h s khc "0" cui cng, chng ta t t m c bit bo hiu kt thc khi, t m ny c tn l EOB End Of Block. S dng bng phn loi (hnh 3.3.12) chng ta tm c loi ca bin cc h s. Tn hiu c a vo m ha Huffman c cu trc sau: (1,2)(-2), (0,1)(-1), (0,1)(-1), (0,1)(-1) (2,1)(-1), (0,0) ngha ca cc gi tr trong chui trn c gii thch trong hnh sau:
Hnh 3.3.16 Bng m Huffman cho thnh phn AC T m Hufman cho tng cp gi tr chy v loi c th c tm ra sau khi tra bng trn hnh 3.3.16. Kt qu m ha cc thnh phn AC v DC c tp hp li thnh chui bt c dng nh sau:
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0111 11100101 0000 0000 0000 1101100 1010

code Huffman
DC
AC
EOB
C th thy rng ch cn 35 bits truyn i block 64 im nh, nh vy hiu qu nn ca phng php JPEG trong trng hp ny l 0.5 bit/im nh.
3.3.5.4.6 Gii nn theo JPEG

S khi b gii nn nh JPEG biu din trn hnh 3.3.17. Qu trnh gii nn JPEG c thc hin vi trnh t ngc vi qu trnh m ha. u tin, b gii m tch cc thng tin ghi trong phn Header ca nh nn: l bng m v bng lng t.
YUV, YIQ
f ( i, j )
IDCT
F ( u, v )
Lng t ngc
Fq ( u, v )
8x8
Bng lng t ngc

Header Bng m
Bng m Gii m DPCM Gii m entropy Gii m RLC

DC
AC
Hnh 3.3.17 S khi b gii m tn hiu JPEG Cc bng ny c a ti khi gii m entropy v khi lng t ngc. D liu mang tin tc v nh c ln lt a qua b gii m entropy, gii m DPCM v RLC. Cc h s DC v AC sau khi gii m sau s c sp xp theo th t to ra block h s DCT ging nh pha coder. Qu trnh lng t ngc c thc hin theo cng thc:
F (u, v ) = Fq (u, v ) Q(u, v )
(3.3.12)
Q(u, v ) - l bng lng t ging nh bng lng t dng coder.

Tp h s DCT F (u, v ) c a vo khi bin i DCT nghch theo cng thc (3.3.12) to ra block nh gii nn.
3.3.5.5 Nn JPEG ly tin Phng php nn nh c phn tch phn trn c gi l phng php nn JPEG cn bn (Baseline Lossy JPEG) hay JPEG tun t. Gii php nn JPEG ly tin c ci tin t JPEG tun t nn nhn chung chng c nhiu im tng ng. Khi nh c nn theo chun JPEG tun t, b gii nn, cc block nh s c khi phc theo trnh t t tri sang phi t trn xung di. Nh vy, ton b nh ch c hin th ln trn mn hnh sau khi nhn c tt c cc gi tin t pha pht. Trong mt s trng hp, c bit khi truyn nh s cht lng cao qua mng bng thng hp, thi gian truyn nh c th tng i lu v ngi xem phi ch mt thi gian di.
Phng php nn JPEG ly tin thc hin ghi d liu theo cch c bit decoder c th gii m ton b nh "mc th" ngay m khng cn ch n khi qu trnh truyn nh kt thc.
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Cc h s DCT ng vi tn s thp ca cc block 8x8 c truyn i trc, v d, tt c cc h s F (0,0) ca cc block c truyn ln lt theo th t t tri sang phi, t trn xung di. K tip l chui cc h s F ( 0,1) , F (1,0 ) v.v. Pha thu sau khi nhn c cc h s F (0,0) , v cc im nh trong khi 8x8 im u c gi tr bng F ( 0,0 ) (tc gi tr trung bnh ca block). Vi cch khi phc nh nh vy, ngi quan st s khng thy kh chu khi phi ngi ch trc mn hnh trng trong mt thi gian di. Hn na khi quan st c ni dung chnh ca nh, ngi nhn c th nhanh chng a ra quyt nh ti tip hay ngng qu trnh ti nh. Vi c ch lm vic nh vy, b m ha v gii m JPEG ly tin phi c b nh m, kch thc b nh m phi ln cha tt c cc h s DCT ca nh. Trn hnh v 3.3.18 l cc nh cho thy s khc nhau trong qu trnh gii nn JPEG ly tin v JPEG tun t. decoder c th nhanh chng khi phc c nh th, vi phn gii thp hn 64 ln nh gc,
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Hnh 3.3.18 So snh qu trnh gii m JPEG ly tin v tun t a- nh gc. b- nh nn theo JPEG tun t ang c gii m. c, d, e- Cc pha gii m nh nn theo JPEG ly tin Nn JPEG ly tin c th thc hin theo 3 gii thut sau: 1) 2) 3) Gii thut la chn ph (progressive spectral selection algorithm). Gii thut xp x thnh cng (progressive successive approximation algorithm). Gii thut kt hp (combined progresssive algorithm).
Gii thut la chn ph va c m t trn. Trong gii thut xp x, tt c cc h s DCT c gi i trc c chnh xc thp hn, th d: bc 1 truyn 4 bits, bc hai truyn thm 4 bits, bc ba truyn nt 2 bits cn li ca s nh phn biu din bin h s AC. Gii thut kt hp da trn nguyn tc kt hp c hai gii thut chia ph v xp x. H thng JPEG ly tin hiu qu trong vic truyn cc nh c kch thc ln. H thng ny hng n nhng ng dng yu cu truyn nhanh cc nh c phn gii cao qua mng c bng thng gii hn: v d truyn nh y hc, nh chp t v tinh cng nh truyn hnh nh qua mng Internet.
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3.3.5.6 Cc tham s tiu chun ca phng php nn JPEG Tiu chun JPEG xc nh cc tham s trong bng sau:
Hnh 3.3.19 Cc tham s c bn ca chun JPEG 3.3.5.7 Phng php nn nh ng theo chun M-JPEG M JPEG l chun m rng ca JPEG. Theo chun ny, nh ng c to ra t chui cc nh tnh c th c nn trong nh bng phng php JPEG. MJPEG ch thc hin nn d liu trong mi nh nn hiu qu nn thp hn so vi cc phng php nn nh ng MPEG s c xt sau y. H s nn t c khi nn nh ng theo phng php M JPEG ph thuc vo cht lng nh nn: tn hiu video nn M-JPEG cht lng cao (dng trong studio) thng c tc dng bits trn 24 Mbit/s. Khi t s nn qu cao, trong nh nn s b "v" thnh cc vung c kch thc 8x8 pixel cn gi l artefact. V cc nh c m ha c lp vi nhau nn qu trnh ghp cnh khi dn dng trong studio s c chnh xc ti tng nh. y chnh l im mnh ca chun nn M JPEG. K thut nn nh M JPEG c s dng rng ri trong cng ngh sn xut chng trnh truyn hnh, to k xo, trong cc my quay video s, cc h thng dn dng video trong gia nh (video home studio). Cc thit b s dng nh dng nn M JPEG c nhc im sau: Cc thit b s dng phng php nn theo nh dng M JPEG khng th s dng cho truyn dn, pht sng v tc dng bit sau khi nn cn cao. K thut nn M-JPEG cha c chun ha nh cc nh dng nn khc (JPEG, MPEG-2 v.v.), nn thit b nn ca cc hng khc nhau thng khng c tnh tng thch cao, do kh c th trao i trc tip s liu cho nhau. Cc phn mm gii m video h tr nh dng M-JPEG cn cha ph bin.
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3.3.6 Chun nn nh ng MPEG Nn tn hiu video theo chun MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group) l phng php nn nh ng khng nhng lm gim d tha trong khng gian m cn lm gim d tha gia cc khung nh (frame), y cng l khc bit c bn so vi JPEG l chun nn nh tnh ch lm gim d tha khng gian trong mt khung nh. Nh gii thiu phn trc, cc k thut nn c chun ha bi MPEG bao gm MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4, MPEG-7. Song song vi cc nh dng nn cho tn hiu video, trong cc chun MPEG cn xc nh cc phng php nn cho tn hiu audio. V d, chun MPEG-1 nh ngha 3 lp nn audio nh sau:

MP1 or MPEG-1 Part 3 Layer 1 (MPEG-1 Audio Layer I) MP2 or MPEG-1 Part 3 Layer 2 (MPEG-1 Audio Layer II) MP3 or MPEG-1 Part 3 Layer 3 (MPEG-1 Audio Layer III) Audio Layer 3 l tiu chun nn audio s c s dng rng ri hin nay. Sau y chng ta s phn tch cc k thut nn nh tiu biu c s dng trong chun nn nh ng MPEG.
3.3.6.1 K thut x l tn hiu trong MPEG K thut b chuyn ng

nng cao hiu sut nn nh ng, trong chun MPEG s dng k thut b chuyn ng. Tn hiu video c to thnh t mt chui nh tnh (frame). V tn s nh trong tn hiu video tng i cao (25 hoc 30 nh/giy) nn trong cc frames nm gn nhau thng c nhiu vng nh tng i ging nhau. Nguyn l b chuyn ng l tm ra cc vng nh ging nhau hoc gn ging nhau gia hai nh k tip (gi l nh tham kho v nh d on). Thng tin v nh d on s c truyn i di dng vector chuyn ng tc vector xc nh v tr mi ca vng nh thuc nh tham kho c mt trong nh d on. Qu trnh tm ra vector chuyn ng gi l qu trnh xp x chuyn ng (motion estimation), qu trnh khi phc nh da trn vector ny gi l qu trnh b chuyn ng (motion compensation). Trong MPEG, ngi ta tm vector chuyn ng cho tng khi nh c kch thc 16x16. hn ch thi gian xp x chuyn ng, vector chuyn ng ca mt block nh c tm trong mt vng tm kim nht nh. K thut xp x v b chuyn ng c m t trn hnh 3.3.20.
Hnh 3.3.20 Minh ha qu trnh xp x chuyn ng Trong MPEG ngi ta thng chn block nh dng xp x c kch thc 16 16 im nh v c gi l macroblock (MB). Qu trnh xp x chuyn ng ch c thc hin trong nh chi, tuy nhin cc vector chuyn ng s c s dng m ha cho c cc nh mu thnh phn. Trn hnh 3.3.21 l mt nh trong chui nh MPEG sau khi c b chuyn ng da trn
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cc vector chuyn ng (cc ng thng mu xanh). Ch tit nh c tc dch chuyn nhanh (cnh tay vn ng vin) s to ra cc vector chuyn ng c di ln hn cc vector chuyn ng trong vng nh nn.
Hnh 3.3.21 Cc vector chuyn ng v nh b chuyn ng Cc loi nh nn trong MPEG Ty theo phng php m ha, MPEG nh ngha 4 loi nh sau: 1- nh loi I (Intra-picture) L nh c m ha trong nh bng k thut nn ging JPEG. nh I l nh tham kho d on cc nh B,P. Qu trnh truy cp ti mt v tr no trong on video c bt u t frame I. T l nn ca nh I thp hn so vi cc nh P v B. 2- nh loi P (Predicted-picture) L nh c m ha vi vector chuyn ng, c xp x t nh I hay P trc n. nh P cung cp h s nn cao hn nh I v c th s dng nh nh tham kho xp x chuyn ng trong cc nh P v B khc. 3- nh loi B ( Bi-directional predicted picture) L nh c m ha vi vector chuyn ng c xp x da trn cc nh I hoc P pha trc v pha sau n. nh B cho t l nn cao nht. Nguyn tc b chuyn ng trong nh B c m t trn hnh 3.3.22.
Cc chi tit c d on t nh trc
nh 1
nh 2
Chi tit c d on t nh sau
nh 3
Hnh 3.3.22 Qu trnh b chuyn ng trong nh B 4- nh loi D ( DC-coded picture)
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L nh c s dng trong MPEG-1 v MPEG-4 nhng khng c s dng trong MPEG2. nh D c m ha ging nh nh I, tuy nhin ch c thnh phn mt chiu (DC) c lu li. Cc nh D c s dng khi cn tua nhanh video v tc gii m nh D cao, tuy nhin, phn gii ca nh D rt thp. Nhm nh (GOP)
Nhm nh (GOP-Group of Picture) l n v mang thng tin c lp ca MPEG. nh P v B trong MPEG khng phi l mt nh hon chnh m ch cha s khc bit gia nh v nh tham kho xut hin trc n (i vi nh P) hay s khc bit gia n v cc nh tham kho xut hin trc v sau n (i vi nh B). khi phc c nh P v B cn c d liu t cc nh tham kho, nh vy khi u mt chui nh phi l nh I. GOP trong MPEG l chui nh lin tip bt u bng mt nh I v tip sau n l cc nh P v B. Nhm nh c th m (Open) hoc ng (Closed). Nhm nh m lun bt u t mt nh I v kt thc mt nh trc nh trc nh I tip theo, khi nh B cui cng ca GOP s dng nh u tin ca GOP tip theo lm nh tham kho (hnh 3.3.23).
Hnh 3.3.23 Cu trc GOP m Trong hnh 3.3.23, nh P (nh s 4) c d bo trc trn c s nh I. nh B (3 v 4) c d on t I (1) v P (4). nh B (5 v 6) c d on t nh P (4) v nh I ca GOP tip theo (nh 7). Mt iu cn ch l th t truyn cc nh trong GOP v th t hin th nh gii nn ln mn hnh khng ging nhau. V d: c th gii m c chui nh trn hnh 3.3.23, nh I(1) v P(4) phi c truyn trc, sau l hai nh B(3 v 4). Tip n l nh nh I(7) sau l hai nh B (6 v 7) cn li. i vi cu trc khp kn (ng), vic d on nh khng s dng thng tin ca GOP khc. Trong trng hp ny, theo quy nh, nh cui cng ca mt GOP bao gi cng l nh P (hnh 3.3.24).
Hnh 3.3.24 Cu trc GOP ng
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GOP c xc nh bi hai thng s M v N. Thng s M xc nh s nh c trong mt GOP. S N l khong cch gia hai nh P (hay gia hai nh I v P). GOP trong hnh 3.3.27, c M=4, N=3. T l nn video ca MPEG ph thuc rt nhiu vo di ca GOP. GOP cng di t l nn cng ln. Tuy nhin, GOP di s nh hng ti qu trnh tua video, dng nh (freeze-frame), sa li... Do ty thuc vo tng ng dng c th (sn xut video, dng hnh, truyn dn, pht sng v..v) cn la chn di GOP thch hp. V d, trong k thut dng hnh, nhu cu thit yu l truy cp ngu nhin ti bt c nh no trong on video, v vy trong GOP s ch c cc nh I, tt nhin khi t l nn s rt thp.
3.3.6.2 M ha tn hiu MPEG S khi ca b m ha MPEG c trnh by trn hnh 3.3.25. Tn hiu video trc khi a vo b nn c ly mu theo chun 4:2:2 hoc 4:2:0. Cc thnh phn chi v mu c m ha ring bit. nh chi v mu c chia thnh cc block 8x8. Ba khi DCT, Lng t ha v M ha entropy c s dng nn trong nh. Cc khi ny c chc nng ging cc khi tng t trong b m ha JPEG (hnh 3.3.8). Khc bit chnh gia JPEG v MPEG l giai on nn lin nh (nn trong min thi gian) v k thut b chuyn ng. Qu trnh nn trong min thi gian c thc hin nh sau: nh u tin trong chui nh ng k hiu l F1 (Frame 1) c m ha trong nh to ra nh I. Trong s khi, b Lng t ha ngc v IDCT c chc nng gii
1 . nh ny c lu vo b nh trong nn nh va c m ha ti coder. nh nhn c l F khi nh so snh. nh tip theo (F2) khng c nn trong hnh nh F1 m c chuyn ti b xc nh vector chuyn ng. Qu trnh xp x chuyn ng trong nh F2 c thc hin da trn
1 . Qu trnh b chuyn ng s to ra nh d on da trn cc vector chuyn nh tham kho F
1 , nh d on s c a ti b tr tn hiu tm nh sai s gia ng va tm c v nh F F2 v nh d on. nh sai s sau s c m ha trong nh v a ti b trn. D liu nhn c sau khi nn nh F2 bao gm cc vector chuyn ng v nh sai s s c tng hp ti b trn.
Hnh 3.3.25 B m ha MPEG tiu biu Tc bit ca tn hiu video nn khng c nh m ph thuc vo ni dung ca nh. Khi truyn tn hiu hnh nh qua knh truyn, tc lung bt phi c hn ch trong phm vi c
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nh. V th, u ra b m ha c b nh m. Lung d liu u ra b trn c ghi vo b nh m, khi b nh m gn y, tn hiu iu khin s c a ti khi Lng t ha iu chnh cc h s trong bng lng t theo chiu hng tng ln. Nh vy h s nn s tng, tc lung video nn s gim xung. Mt c ch iu khin tc lung video khc da trn nguyn tc thay i cu trc GOB cng c th c s dng. Trong trng hp ny, tn hiu iu khin t b nh m phi c a ti khi xc nh vector chuyn ng.
3.3.6.3 Gii m tn hiu MPEG
Hnh 3.3.26 B gii m MPEG Qu trnh gii nn c thc hin ti b gii m MPEG (hnh 3.3.26) theo quy trnh sau. nh nn trc ht c gii m entropy ti khi VLD (Variable-Length Decoder). Nu nh a ti b gii nn l nh I, tp h s DCT ca tng block nh s c a ti b Gii lng t sau bin i ngc IDCT khi phc li nh gc. nh kt qu c lu li trong b Ti lp trt t nh v b Lu tr nh tham kho. Khi nh a vo gii m l nh P hoc B, b gii m c on s tch ra t lung d liu cc h s DCT ca nh sai s v cc vector chuyn ng. Tp h s DCT s c a ti IDCT khi phc nh sai s. Cc vector chuyn ng c b b chuyn ng s dng khi phc nh d on t nh tham kho. nh d on v nh sai s s c tng hp li ti b cng cho ra nh gii nn. Sau cng, chui nh gii nn phi c o v tr cho ng vi trnh t nh trong video gc.
3.3.6.4 Cc thnh phn c bn trong nh nn MPEG Cu trc lung video nn theo chun MPEG gm 6 lp (hnh 3.3.27): lp chui nh (sequence), lp nhm nh (GOP), lp nh (picture), lp ct lt dng bit (slice), lp macroblock, lp khi (Block):
1. Khi: l block 8x8 im nh ca tn hiu chi hoc tn hiu mu . 2. Lp macroblock: nh s trong MPEG c chia ra thnh cc Macroblock kch thc 16x16. Trong mt macroblock c thng tin v 4 block Y, 1 block Cr v 1 block Cb (theo chun ly mu 4:2:0). 3. Mng (Slice): l mt chui macroblock k nhau. Kch thc ln nht ca mng c th bao gm ton b bc nh v kch thc nh nht ca mng l mt macroblock. Slice header cha ng v tr ca mng trong ton b nh, v h s lng t dng xc nh ma trn lng t trong qu trnh gii m slice. 4. nh (Picture): c 3 loi nh l nh P, I hay nh B. Picture header cha thng tin v: th t nh trong nhm nh (thng tin ny dng sp xp cc li th t nh decoder), loi nh, kch thc vng tm kim vector chuyn ng. 5. Nhm nh (GOP): nhm nh l t hp ca nhiu nh I, P v B. Nh cp phn trn, cu trc nhm nh c xc nh bng hai tham s M v N. Mi mt nhm nh bt u bng mt khung I. GOP header cha m xc nh thi gian ca nh u tin trong nhm.
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6. on nh (Sequence of pictures): on nh bt u bng sequence header, sau l mt hoc nhiu GOP, cui cng l t m "end-of-sequence". Sequence header cha ng cc thng s nh: kch thc ca nh, kh nh, tn s nh, tc bit ca dng video s, tn s nh v kch thc b nh m.
Hnh 3.3.27 Cu trc lung video nn theo chun MPEG-1 3.3.6.5 Tiu chun nn MPEG-2 MPEG-2 l d n giai on 2 ca y ban ISO/IEC MPEG. MPEG-2 l chun nn c pht trin t MPEG-1, cho php nn video vi tc bit cao hn 4 Mbps. MPEG-2 h tr m ha video s cht lng cao, dng trong cc ng dng nh lu tr video v audio s (trn a quang DVD), truyn hnh s mt t DTTB (digital terrestrial television broadcast), truyn hnh s v tinh, truyn hnh cp, HDTV (truyn hnh c phn gii cao) v.v MPEG-2 l gii php m ha tn hiu c tnh co dn (scalability) v tnh tng hp (compatibility). Phng php m ha c tnh "co dn" (Scalable Coding) trong MPEG-2 da trn nguyn tc nn tn hiu video mc c bn v mt s mc nng cao. Khi mc c bn c gii m, chng ta s nhn c hnh nh c cht lng trung bnh. Nu thc hin gii m thm cc mc nng cao, cht lng hnh nh s c ci thin. Vi k thut scalable coding, tn hiu MPEG-2 c th c gii m trn decoder MPEG-1, ngc li, tn hiu MPEG-1 cng c th c gii m trn decoder MPEG-2. Nh vy, MPEG-1 v MPEG-2 l hai chun nn c tnh tng hp. MPEG-2 h tr 3 dng scalable coding da trn nguyn tc phn cp cht lng theo t l SNR, theo phn gii trong khng gian (spartial scalability) v thi gian (temporal scalability). Trng hp phn cp theo SNR, ti mc c bn, cc h s DCT c m ha vi mc lng t th, do lng d liu nn s c tc thp. mc nng cao, tn hiu c truyn i l hiu gia cc h s DCT cha c lng t v cc h s DCT ti mc c bn. Nh vy, b gii m c th s dng mt hoc c hai lung d liu khi phc hnh nh c hai mc cht lng c bn hoc nng cao. Vi tn hiu c phn cp cht lng theo phn gii trong khng gian, decoder c th to ra hnh nh vi cc phn gii t thp n cao. Ti mc c bn, tn hiu c a vo m ha c ly mu vi tc thp. Ti mc nng cao, ngi ta m ha v truyn i
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nh sai s gia nh c phn gii thp v nh c phn gii cao (c ly mu vi tc cao hn). Nh vy, nu gii m c hai lung d liu chng ta s nhn c nh c phn gii cao. Nu ch s dng lung d liu c bn, c tc chm (ph hp vi cc ng truyn tc thp) nh khi phc s c phn gii thp hn. Cui cng, MPEG-2 cho php m ha phn cp theo thi gian: tn hiu gii nn c th c cc tn s nh khc nhau. Ti mc c bn, tn hiu video a vo m ha c tn s nh thp. Ti mc nng cao, thng tin v cc vector chuyn ng s c truyn sang pha thu, decoder (da trn cc nh c truyn trong mc c bn ) thc hin qu trnh ni suy nh, lm tng tn s nh ca tn hiu gii nn. Trn hnh 3.3.28 l hai bng d liu cho thy 6 profiles v 4 mc nn vi cc phn gii khc nhau trong chun nn MPEG-2.
Hnh 3.3.28 Cc profiles v levels trong chun nn MPEG-2 Nh vy MPEG-2 cho php m ha tn hiu vi 24 tiu chun cht lng khc nhau. Tc truyn ca dng d liu MPEG-2 thay i ty theo cc tiu chun cht lng c la chn.
3.3.7 Tiu chun nn MPEG-4 MPEG-4 bt u c nghin cu t nm 1993 v hnh thnh chun vo thng 7 nm 1995. MPEG-4 chnh thc tr thnh tiu chun quc t ISO/IEC vo nm 1999. Nm 2000 MPEG-4 c b xung v nng cp ln thnh cc version 3 v 4.
c im chnh ca MPEG-4 l m ha video v audio vi tc bit rt thp. Thc t tiu chun a ra vi 3 dy tc bit di 64 kbps 64 n 384 kbps 384 Kbps n 4 Mbps
c im quan trng ca chun MPEG-4 l cho php sa sai ti pha thu, v vy chun nn ny c bit thch hp i vi mi trng d xy ra li nh truyn d liu qua knh wireless n cc thit b cm tay. Mc d tp trung vo nhng ng dng tc bit thp nhng MPEG-4 cng cho php nn video cht lng cao v c th c s dng trong h thng HDTV. Nhng profile v level khc nhau trong MPEG-4 cho php s dng tc bit ln n 1.2Gbps. MPEG-4 l
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chun quc t u tin cho php m ho cc i tng (object) video. K thut m ho i tng lm tng hiu qu nn v tnh linh ng ca MPEG-4. Trong MPEG-4, cc i tng ca nh c tch ri v m ho ring r sau truyn ti b gii m. Vic tch ri cc i tng video nh vy lm tng tnh mm do khi thc hin m ho thch nghi v ng thi lm tng hiu qu nn tn hiu. Cc i tng khc nhau nh video object v audio object v c kt hp ti b gii m. Cc loi object khc nhau s c m ha vi nhng k thut khc nhau v vi cc cng c ph hp nht. Trong MPEG-4, mt s object c th c to ra mt cch c lp trn my tnh (v d cc nhn vt hot hnh hay dng ph ) v trong mt vi trng hp mt cnh c th phn tch ring thnh object nn (background) v object cn cnh. Hnh 3.3.29 cho thy qu trnh m ha v gii m cc i tng c lp trong chun nn MPEG-4.
Hnh 3.3.29 Nguyn l m ha tn hiu hnh nh trong MPEG-4 Nhn chung, khng c k thut nn nh no c th gi l ti u hon ton. DCT v php lng t dng trong MPEG-1 v 2 ch ti u i vi cc nh c bng thng gii hn v cc nh c mc chi thay i chm nhng s khng ti u vi nh c nhiu chi tit nh. V d, khi mt cnh quay c xen cc dng ph (subtitle) th mt h thng m ho thng thng s xem cc ch nh l cc chi tit nh ca nh. Khi m ha bng MPEG-1 hay MPEG2, cc chi tit nh sau bin i DCT s to ra cc h s cao tn vi bin ln. Nu nn nh trn vi h s nn cao, cc dng ch s b bin dng n mc khng th c c. Do vic thm ph hoc cc thnh phn ha (c nt cao) vo tn hiu video nh hng rt ln n hiu qu nn theo chun MPEG. Tuy nhin c th m ha dng ch mt cch hiu qu hn khi truyn cc k t bng m ASCII, v tr, font, kch thc, mu, thng tin v v tr dng ch trong nh c th c truyn i vi s bit tng i nh. Nhng lm c iu ny b gii m phi c kh nng to ra cc title t nhng thng tin c cung cp. Qu trnh gii m trong MPEG-4 tng i phc tp, b gii m phi c nhiu c ch gii m v kh nng thc hin cc hot ng a hp. Trong MPEG-4 c th truyn nhiu lung text hoc cc thng tin ph khc v vic la chn lung c th thc hin gii m c th do ngi xem quyt nh hoc da trn cc thng tin c truyn trong lung bit. Ba c tnh rt quan trng ca MPEG-4 l: 1- Nhiu object c th c m ha vi cc k thut khc nhau v kt hp li b gii m. 2- Cc object c th l cc cnh t nhin c c t camera hay cc cnh to ra trn my tnh nh text hay cnh hot hnh 2 hoc 3-D. 3- T lung bit MPEG-4, b gii m c th tch ra cc thng tin khc nhau ty theo la chn ngi xem chng hn nh ngn ng thuyt minh hay thnh phn video c lc bt cc thng tin khng cn thit (dnh ring cho tr em) v.v. Vic m ha c lp cc object trong MPEG-4 s cho hiu sut nn cao hn ng thi cho
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php tng tc cc object vi nhau c bit trong cc chng trnh gio dc v cc tr chi. Khi cc object c truyn ring r, chng ta c th thay i t l nn gia cc thnh phn nh: chng hn nh vn duy tr phn gii ca cc object cn cnh quan trng nhng gim phn gii nh nn trong trng hp bng thng knh truyn b hn ch hoc thiu ti nguyn b gii m (b nh, tc tnh). Tuy nhin MPEG-4 c mt nhc im ln l b gii m MPEG-4 phc tp hn nhiu so vi b gii m MPEG-2. Hin nay tn hiu nn MPEG-4 thng c x l (nn v gii nn) trn PC s dng cc phn mm chuyn dng, cc b gii m bng phn cng cn cha ph bin do gi thnh cn tng i cao v cha c chun ho trit .
3.3.7.1 Video trong MPEG-4 Trc khi tm hiu k thut nn video trong MPEG-4 chng ta lm quen vi cu trc ca mt cnh video theo nh ngha trong chun MPEG-4. Mt cnh tiu biu bao gm nh nn (background) v mt hoc nhiu i tng cn nh (foreground) chng hn nh vt, mt hoc nhiu ngi, mt vi phn t ha. Trong MPEG-1 v 2 mt cnh c ly mu theo thi gian to ra chui nh dng bitmap, sau tng nh s c m ho. MPEG-4 m ho ring tng i tng tch ra c t cc nh bitmap. Nu b qua cc chi tit khng quan trng trong nh, cnh video s bao gm background v mt s objects c xem l foreground. V d: trong studio, ngi d bo thi tit ng trc nn mu xanh nc bin hay xanh l cy, hnh nh thu t camera s c x l loi b nn mu to thnh key signal hay alpha channel din t hnh dng ca ngi cn cnh. Thng tin v hnh dng ngi ny s c kt hp vi background (v d bn b mt tri t). Ni c hnh ngi cn cnh th cnh nn c thay th bng nh ngi cn nhng ni khc nh nn khng thay i. Trong MPEG-4, i tng video (video object) c m t bi hai phn t l nh trong i tng gi l texture v key signal hay alpha channel c xem l hnh dng (shape) ca i tng. 3.3.7.2 Cp ca video MPEG-4 Cc object trong MPEG-4 c ly mu theo thi gian. Hu ht cc object c ly mu trong khong thi gian khng i v sau khi ly mu, nh nhn c gi l video object plane (VOP). Nh vy mi object trong mt cnh c m t bi mt chui cc VOP ngoi tr cc object tnh c th m t bng mt VOP.
D liu c truyn i bao gm thng tin v hnh dng v texture ca VOP. Shape c th n gin l hnh ch nht hoc c to t cc ng nt phc tp. VOP cng ging nh cc frame trong MPEG-2, chng c th c m ha trong nh hoc m ho lin nh s dng phng php b chuyn ng. Lp trn ca VOP l GOV (Group of video object planes). GOV tng t nh GOP (group of pictures) trong MPEG-2. Cc nhm GOV c m ho c lp, do n cung cp cc im truy xut ngu nhin trong lung bit MPEG-4. Trong lp VOL (Video object layer) chng ta c th thay i t l m ha chui cc VOP hoc GOV. Mc video object (VO) bao gm cc VOL dng dng m t i tng video. Cui cng l Video session (VS) l mc cao nht ca cnh MPEG-4 bao gm tt c i tng video c t nhin v t to trong mt cnh.
3.3.7.3 M ha ng nt (shape) C hai loi ng nt dng m t i tng video trong MPEG-4 l ch nht v ty . 201

Dng ch nht ch n thun l kch thc vng nh. Trong MPEG-2 kch thc vng nh khng thay i, thng tin ny c m ha trong phn header ca lung bit. Trong MPEG-4 c th c nhiu i tng video vi kch thc khc nhau. V d: truyn hnh nh trong nh (picture in picture -PIP) khi nh full frame v cc nh nh c truyn i cng lc. Trong mt phng nh, ng nt ca i tng video xc nh phm vi hin th ca i tng . ng nt dng ch nht c gi l mask, kch thc ca mask tng ng vi kch thc ngang v dc ln nht ca i tng. C hai kch thc ngang v dc ca mask thng c chn l bi s ca 16 pixel. ng nt ty c th c m ha nh d liu nh phn hoc d liu xm. ng nt nh phn l dng n gin nht, n ch ra vng hin th ca i tng video.
3.3.7.4 M ha texture Thnh phn texture ca cc i tng video c th c m ha trong MPEG-4 theo phng php ging nh b chuyn ng trong MPEG-2. C cc loi VOP nh sau: I-VOP, PVOP, B-VOP. Hu ht cc profile MPEG-4 u s dng tiu chun 4:2:0 v YUV m t texture ca i tng video. 3.3.7.5 Sprites MPEG-4 c mt loi i tng c bit c dng lm cnh nn gi l sprite. Sprite l i tng video c kch thc ln hn mn hnh hin th. Sprite l i tng c s dng lin tc trong mt cnh (tng t nh cnh trn sn khu din kch). Sprite thng dng m ho cc tr chi in t (video game). Thng thng mt cnh trong game bao gm nh nn v mt s i tng nhn to di chuyn theo kch bn ca game v hnh ng ca ngi chi. MPEG-4 cho php truyn ton b cnh nn nh sprite v nh nn tc thi c c ra t sprite da trn cc thng tin cropping v wraping c truyn ti decoder. Nh vy, nh nn tc thi hin th trn mn hnh ch l mt vng nh (bng kch thc ca s mn hnh) trong cnh nn (hnh 3.3.30). Trong video game, cc thnh phn ca mt sprite c th c s dng nhiu ln v th lng d liu cn truyn s gim ng k.
Hnh 3.3.30 Cnh nn (sprite) c truyn i c kch thc ln hn kh nng hin th ca mn hnh Vic truyn ton b sprite ngay khi bt u chng trnh c th rt hiu qu nhng s lm tng bng thng tc thi v qu trnh khi ng decoder s ko di. V vy, trong MPEG-4 ngi ta c th truyn sprite theo tng phn. Phn nh nn cn thit ti thi im tc thi s c truyn i, tt c cc nh thu c s ghi nh b gii m nh mt phn ca sprite. Theo phng php khc, sprite c th c m ha v truyn i ton b vi phn gii thp v thnh phn tn hiu dng khi phc nh c phn gii cao hn s c truyn sau. Sprite c m ha nh tn hiu chi vi hai thnh phn mu nh trong MPEG-2 v lun
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c m Intra bi v bn cht ca sprite l nh tnh.
3.3.7.6 Scalability MPEG-4 cung cp ch phn cp cht lng tc thi v c nh mc i tng. Trong c hai trng hp, k thut ny c s dng to ra lp c s (base layer), lpos ny cho cht lng nh thp nht c th ti to t lung bit v mt hoc nhiu lp tng cng (enhancement layer). Cht lng hnh nh c th c iu chnh bng hai cch khc nhau. Nu bng thng b gii hn th lung bit truyn i s ch bao gm lp c s hoc lp c s v mt vi lp tng cng bc thp. Mt cch khc tt c cc lp c th c truyn i n b gii m, ti y s quyt nh nhng lp no s c s dng gii m. Nu thit b hin th c phn gii thp hoc ti nguyn tnh ton khng th lp tng cng c th b qua.
Hnh 3.3.31 B m ha phn cp cht lng MPEG-4 Hnh 3.3.31 m t s khi ca b m ha thc hin qu trnh phn cp cht lng vi 2 mc c nh. Cc VOP ng vo c bin i xung (down-converted) ti phn gii thp v m ha to ra lp c s. Lp c s c a ti ng ra v ti b Multiplexer. Lp c s cn c gii m ti ch v a ti b up-converted c cng phn gii nh ng vo. Tn hiu c phn gii cao ny s c so snh vi tn hiu ng vo ti b tr (Subtract), nh sai bit u ra b tr c m ha ring b m ha lp tng cng. Ch rng mi lung VOP sau khi m ha to thnh lp i tng video. Lp c s s dng c m ha Intra v Inter trong khi lp tng cng ch s dng m ha d on. Vic phn cp cht lng tm thi th n gin hn. Lung bit n ca VOP c chia thnh cc lung nh. S VOP c yu cu s c gi n b m ha lp c s, phn cn li c gi n mt hoc nhiu b m ha tng cng. Qu trnh phn cp trong MPEG-4 c th c p dng ring r i vi mi i tng c s. iu ny lm cho qu trnh m ha v gii m tr nn linh ng hn nhng cng phc tp hn. Chng hn mt b gii m trong h thng chi game khng c kh nng gii m tt c cc i tng tc cao nht c th nn n chn phng php gii m cnh nn vi tc thp v chp nhn vic chuyn ng nn b git, ng thi gii m vi tc cao i vi cc i tng cn nh lm cho chuyn ng ca chng mn hn.
3.3.8 ng dng v nh gi kh nng kinh t ca cc tiu chun nn Trong bng di y tp hp cc ng dng ca mt s tiu chun nn.
ng dng ca cc tiu chun nn.
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ng dng ha Videophone Hi ngh truyn hnh Truyn hnh cp Truyn hnh Studio / sn xut H.261 H.261 MPEG-2 MPEG-2 MJPEG MPEG-2(@4:2:2) HDTV / sn xut HDTV / truyn dn MPEG-2 MPEG-2 1920x1280 1920x1280 100 Mbps 20 Mbps Tiu chun m gii cc i 176x144 352x288 720x576 720x576 720x576 phn i 64 128 Kbps 0.384 1.554 Mbps 49 Mbps < 50 Mbps < 50 Mbps Tc bit cc
Vic ra i chun MPEG-2 khng nh u th ca MPEG so vi MJPEG khi n p ng c t khu sn xut n truyn dn v pht sng. Vi tim nng kinh t mnh th vic u t thit b theo chun MPEG cho tt c cc khu trong lnh vc truyn hnh l iu tt yu. Nhng kh nng u t cho truyn hnh Vit Nam cn hn ch, chng ta li ang giai on nghin cu v th nghim, cho nn vic tm gii php thch hp m bo iu kin kinh t, cht lng hnh nh ph hp cho tng cng on l vn cn thit. Trong khu pht sng, chun MPEG-2 MP@ML (4:2:0) l s la chn ti u. MPEG-2 MP@ML s dng cc nh I, P, B v nn vi h s nn rt cao, do vi chun ny, ngi ta c th tit kim ti a di thng ca ng truyn, tng s lng chng trnh. Khi nn video trong my ghi hnh, vn cn u tin l gi cht lng tn hiu tt nht phc v cho qu trnh gia cng x l trong studio sau ny. Cc phng php nn trong my ghi hnh s c thc hin ti ch gim vn tc dng s ghi ln bng hoc a quang. V mt cht lng, nu s dng my ghi cng ngh nn MPEG dng mt loi nh I (tng ng M-JPEG) s to ra nhiu thun li cho qu trnh dn dng. Nh vy, ta c th thy rng chun M-JPEG kh tin dng cho vic x l, lm k xo trong studio vi gi thnh h thng ph hp. TM TT CHNG 3 Nhng vn chnh c cp ti trong chng 3 l: 1- Khi nim c bn v x l tn hiu hnh nh: lnh vc ng dng, cc giai on x l nh, gii thiu chung v cc thnh phn c bn ca h thng x l nh s. Cng trong phn ny, chng ta nhc li mt s vn v nh sng v mu sc, a ra cc thng s c th nh gi khch quan cht lng nh en trng v nh mu. Trn c s phn tch c im cm nhn nh sng v mu sc ca h thng th gic, chng ta xc nh c cc thng s chnh ca tn hiu hnh nh tnh v nh ng nh: phn gii, kh nh, s mc xm, tn s nh v.v. Tn hiu hnh nh nhn c sau khi bin i quang in thng c dng tng t, hoc ri rc do cn bin i nhng tn hiu ny thnh tn hiu s trc khi a vo cc h thng x l tn hiu s. Qu trnh bin i analog-digital cho tn hiu mt chiu v hai chiu c phn tch trong phn 3.1.5.6. Nhng vn lin quan c gii thiu trong phn ny l: tn s v cu trc ly mu tn hiu hnh nh; Cc tiu chun ly mu nh s theo thnh phn; Gii thiu phng
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php biu din tn hiu nh s v video s. Tn hiu video trong h thng truyn hnh qung b. 2- Phn tip ca chng 3 gii thiu mt s cng c ton hc dng phn tch qu trnh x l nh s v video s trong khng gian v trong min tn s: l cc php tnh thc hin vi tng im nh, php tnh vi ma trn cc im nh, php tnh tng chp dng m t quan h vo ra ca h thng x l nh s, cc php bin i khng gian 1 v 2 chiu thng dng trong lnh vc x l nh nh: bin i Fourier, bin i DCT. Bin i DCT ri rc c s dng rt rng ri trong cc phng php nn nh tnh v nh ng c tn tht nh JPEG, M-JPEG, MPEG1, 2, 4, 7 v.v. 3- Phn ln chng ba (3.2) c dnh phn tch mt s k thut x l nh t mc thp n mc cao: x l nng cao cht lng hnh nh (tng tng phn, mc chi, cn bng histogram v.v), khi phc nh b lm mo hoc b nh hng ca nhiu, cc k thut lc nhiu, cc phng php lm ni v d on ng bin, phn vng nh. Hu ht cc k thut x l nh s trong phn ny u c minh ha bng hnh nh, cho php ngi c quan st v nh gi qu trnh bin i nh t lc a vo h thng cho n khi c nh kt qu. Trong tng v d minh ha cn gii thiu cc hm Matlab dng tr gip qu trnh x l nh. Ngoi ra, cc hc vin c th thc hin lp trnh (trong Matlab hoc s dng cc ngn ng lp trnh khc nh C++, Pascall v.v) kim chng li nhng vn nu trong ti liu ny. Phn x l nh mu c trnh by sau khi phn tch cc k thut x l nh en-trng. Qu trnh m t nh mu c th c thc hin trong cc khng gian mu khc nhau ty theo mc ch s dng: nh trong cc h thng truyn hnh mu thng c biu din trong khng gian RGB, trong k thut in n - CMYK, trong lnh vc x l nh th khng gian mu HSI c s dng nhiu hn c. Qu trnh x l nh mu c th c thc hin vi tng im mu: khi mi im nh c biu din nh vector trong khng gian mu c chn, hoc c thc hin ln lt vi tng nh mu n sc. Cc phng php x l nh mu cng c phn loi thnh phng php bin i trong khng gian v trong min tn s. Trong phn ny chng ta ni n cc phng php x l c p dng cho nh en trng (lc khng gian, hiu chnh, x l histogram v.v) cng nh mt s k thut bin i ch p dng cho nh mu (k thut to mu gi, tch nh theo cc mc mu, php bin i mu v.v). 4- Phn cui cng ca chng ba (3.3) gii thiu v cc phng php nn nh tnh v nh ng. Trong phn ny ch cp ti cc phng php nn nh s tng i thng dng. l cc k thut nn khng tn tht nh k thut m ha Entropy, m LZW, m RLC, m DPCM khng tn tht v.v. v nn c tn tht nh DCPM, JPEG, MPEG v.v. c bit, qu trnh nn theo JPEG v MPEG c phn tch tng i k, v y l cc phng php nn c s dng rng ri trong cc h thng truyn thanh, truyn hnh cht lng cao. 5- Phn cui chng 3 tp hp mt s bi tp v cu hi. Vic thc hin cc bi tp ny gip cho ngi c nm vng hn nhng kin thc c trnh by trong ton b chng "K thut x l nh". CU HI V BI TP CHNG 3 Bi 1 Camera c trang b b cm bin CCD c kch thc 5,4x7,2mm, phn gii 2140x1560 im. ng knh camera c tiu c 35mm. nh c hi t ln CCD nm cch ng knh 0,5m. Tm mt im nh (s im/mm) trn nh nhn c.
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Bi 2 Tm s lng bits cn thit lng t ha tn hiu truyn hnh s khi mn hnh my thu trong h thng truyn hnh s ni trn c chi thay i trong khong t Lmin = 2 cd/m2 n Lmax =150 cd/m2, ngun sng bn ngoi chiu ln b mt mn hnh c chi 5 cd/m2. Gi tr ngng tng phn = 0.03 . Bi 3 B mt c h s phn chiu bng 1, c chiu sng bi ngun sng c mt phn b sng nh sau:
i ( x, y ) = Ke
vi K=255.
2 2 ( x x0 ) +( y y0 )
nh phn chiu t b mt ni trn c s ha. S bits dng lng t ha l k. Xc nh k nh nht sao cho nh s nhn c c chi bin i lin tc trong mt ngi quan st. c bit mt ngi ch phn bit c hai vng nh tch bit, khi chi gia hai vng chnh lch trn 10%. Biu din nh nhn c khi k=2. Bi 4 H thng truyn hnh cht lng cao vi s dng z=1080, kh nh 16:9, tn s qut l 60 mnh/giy (qut xen k). Tn hiu video c s ha vi phn gii ging nhau theo chiu ngang v chiu dc. nh c ly mu theo tiu chun 4:2:2. Mc lng t l 256 cho thnh phn chi v 128 cho hai thnh phn mu. Tm khi lng thng tin s nhn c sau khi s ha chng trnh truyn hnh c thi gian l 2 gi. Bi 5 Cho ma trn im nh sau:
2 8 I = 1 3 2 1 3 1 3 4 4 2 9 1 7 5
thc hin php nhn chp Y = I H , khi: H = 1 1 1 1 Bi 6 Xt hai vng nh S1 v S2 trn mn hnh:
Cho V {1} , xc nh xem S1 v S2 c phi l hai vng lin kt 4,8 hay m khng. Bi 7 Cho V {0,1} , tm khong cch D4, D8 nh nht gia 2 im nh (p) v (q):
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Tm cc khong cch trn cho trng hp V {1, 2} . Bi 8 Biu din tp hm bin i, cho php tch cc mt phng bit t nh en trng (vi 256 mc xm). Bi 9 Histogram ca nh s thay i th no khi bit nh nht (LSB) hoc ln nht (MSB) ca cc im nh c gn mc 0. Bi 10 nh gc c x l bng phng php tch mc chi c nn v khng nn. V c tuyn hm bin i. Histogram ca hai nh kt qu s thay i th no so vi nh gc? Bi 11 nh s c cn bng mc xm c c nh kt qu. Chng minh rng khi cn bng mc xm cho nh kt qu mt ln na, nh nhn c s khng thay i. Bi 12 Cho hnh nh c mt phn b xc sut mc xm c biu din bng hm:
1 pr = e 2
( r m )2
2 2
Tm hm bin i sk = T ( rk ) cho qu trnh cn bng mc xm nh ni trn. Bi 13 Cho nh f ( x, y ) , g ( x, y ) v histogram h f , hg ca chng. Tm historam ca nh c to ra sau cc bin i sau: a) f ( x, y ) + g ( x, y ) c) f ( x, y ) g ( x, y ) , , b) f ( x, y ) g ( x, y ) d) f ( x, y ) / g ( x, y )
Trong trng hp no cc bin i trn c th c thc hin? Bi 14 Trnh by nguyn l bin i nh s bng phng php tra bng, u im ca phng php ny. Bi 16 Chng minh ton t thc hin qu trnh lc trong khng gian theo (3.2.30) l ton t tuyn tnh. Bi 17 Chng minh ton t tm median l ton t phi tuyn Bi 18
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Trnh by gii thut tm gi tr trung v cho ma trn nxn im nh. Bi 19 Gii thch v sao qu trnh lm m nh c th m t bng tch chp nh gc v p ng xung ca h thng lm m, nh trong cng thc (3.2.36)? Bi 20 nh gc c lc nhiu bng k thut trung bnh ha trong khng gian, sau dng mt n Laplacian tng cng nt. Nu th t lc c i ngc, nh kt qu s thay i th no? Bi 21 Ti sao khng th khi phc chnh xc c nh gc trong cc h thng x l nh thc t? Bi 22 Trong trng hp no b lc ngc cho php khi phc tn hiu vi chnh xc cao? Bi 23 Ti sao b lc Wiener t nhy cm vi nhiu hn so vi b lc ngc? Bi 24 Chng minh bin i Fourier thun v nghch l bin i tuyn tnh. Bi 25 Cho hm p ng xung ca h thng l H ( x, y ) = A , A > 0 . nh f ( x, y ) s c bin i th no khi a qua h thng ni trn? Bi 26 B lc trong min khng gian c thc hin vi ma trn lc sau:
h= 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 4 0 1 0
Tm p ng tn s ca b lc v chng t rng y l b lc thng thp. Bi 27 o hm ca tn hiu ri rc thng c tnh theo cng thc gn ng sau:
f = f ( x + 1, y ) f ( x, y ) x
Tm p ng tn s H(u,v) ca h thng thc hin ton t trn. Chng minh y l b lc thng cao. Bi 28 Vit chng trnh thc hin ton t la bn cho mt nh bt k. Bi 29 Cho h thng x l tn hiu c trng bi hm bin i sau:
h ( x , y ) = e
2 2 ( x ) +( y )
Tn hiu a ti h thng c dng: f ( x, y ) = ( x a ) . Tm p ng ca h thng
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g ( x, y ) trong trng hp khng c tc ng ca nhiu..

Bi 30 nh s sau khi i qua h thng x l b bin i theo hm truyn t sau:
H ( u, v ) = 2 ( u 2 + v 2 ) e
2 2 2 u 2 + v 2
Tm hm bin i ca b lc Wiener trong trng hp t l nng lng nhiu chia cho tn hiu l hng s. Chng minh nu p ng xung ca h thng l h ( r ) = r 2 2 / 4 e r
/2 2
r 2 = x 2 + y 2 th hm truyn t ca n l H ( u, v ) .
Bi 31 Vit chng trnh thc hin bin i Hough cho nh nh phn (gm cc im trng trn nn en) Bi 32 Xc nh v tr ca mu xm trn tam gic mu n v XYZ (hnh 3.2.58). Bi 33 Tm cc bc sng tri v sch mu ca im mu "PINK" trn hnh 3.2.58, ly mu trng chun l mu "COOL WHITE" Bi 34 Cho ba mu c1 ( x1 , y1 ) , c2 ( x2 , y2 ) , c3 ( x3 , y3 ) nm trong tam gic mu XYZ (hnh 3.2.55). Ba mu trn to ra mt tam gic mu con. Tm cng thc trn mu biu din cc mu trong tam gic con thng qua ta ca ba mu c1 , c2 , c3 . Bi 35 Trong khng gian mu RBG, mi mu c bn c s ha vi 256 mc lng t (t 0 n 255). Cho bit c bao nhiu mc xm th hin c trong khng gian mu ny? Bi 36 Khng gian mu RGB c m t di dng khi lp phng (hnh 3.2.56b). 1- M t qu trnh thay i chi ca cc im mu nm dc theo cc cnh pha trc ca khi mu. 2- Chng ta i ba mu RGB thnh CMY. nh khi mu mi c hin th ln mn hnh RGB. Xc nh cc mu nm nh hnh khi trn mn hnh. Bi 37 Xc nh biu thc cho php tm mu b xung trong khng gian CMY Bi 38 M t hm bin i cho php lm gim tng phn trong khng gian mu RGB. Bi 39 nh mu c nhiu c biu din trong khng gian mu HSI. M t v gii thch hin tng bin i mu di tc ng ca nhiu trong cc thnh phn H v S. Bi 40
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Phn tch u v nhc im ca phng php nn nh tn hao v khng tn hao Bi 41 Vit chng trnh nn v gii nn theo phng php RLC Bi 42 Vit th tc thc hin bin i DCT thun. Bi 43 Vit th tc thc hin bin i DCT nghch. Bi 44 Chui im nh 8 bits c gi tr 10, 14, 25, 240, 195, 32 c a ti b m ha DPCM. Thnh phn sai s c lng t vi 32 mc. Tm tn hiu nhn c sau khi gii m DPCM. Khng thc hin m ha entropy. Gi tr ban u trong b d on bng 0. Tm sai s RMS gia chui kt qu v chui im nh gc. Bi 45 Thc hin qu trnh m ha h s DC theo phng php m t trong phn 3.3.5.4.4. gi tr DC block hin ti bng 32, gi tr DC ca block trc l 20. Bi 46 Chui cc h s AC ca khai trin DCT nhn c sau khi qut zig-zag bng: 3,1,1,0, 0,1,0,0,0,0,2. Thc hin qu trnh m ha chui h s AC theo phng php m t trong phn 3.3.5.4.5. S dng kt qu bi tp 51 to ra chui tn hiu nn JPEG. Tm h s nn trong trng hp ny. Bi 47 So snh s khc bit gia MPEG-2 v MPEG-1. Bi 48 So snh s khc bit gia MPEG-4 v MPEG-2.
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Chng 4 ng dng k thut x l m thanh v hnh nh trong vin thng

CHNG 4 NG DNG K THUT X L M THANH V HNH NH TRONG VIN THNG
4.1 CC NG DNG CA X L M THANH V HNH NH

4.1.1 Lu tr m thanh v hnh nh 4.1.1.1 Bng t Hin nay, trong lnh vc lu tr d liu, tng i nhiu phng tin lu tr trn cc vt liu c t tnh ang c s dng. V d: trong h thng my tnh, a mm (Floppy disk) c s dng tng i ph bin, v d: a mm 5 -inch ghi c 1.2 MB, a 3.5-inch HD (high density) c dung lng 1.44MB.
Trong cc h thng truyn audio v video thng c nhu cu lu tr d liu vi khi lng rt ln k c sau khi tn hiu c nn. Tht vy, lu tr 1 pht tn hiu truyn hnh s HDTV 1920x1080/P/50 cn b nh ~15.5GB. Lung m thanh s thng c tc nh hn rt nhiu so vi lung video s, do , sau y chng ta ch yu cp ti kh lu tr tn hiu video s (tch hp m thanh) ca cc thit b lu tr. Trc y, khi cha c cc thit b cho php ghi v lu tr hnh nh ng thi gian thc, h thng truyn hnh lun truyn trc tip tn hiu nhn c t camera. T nm 1956, sau khi hng Ampex a ra cc thit b ghi hnh trn bng t theo chun Quadruplex, cc chng trnh truyn hnh c th c thc hin t ngun video c lu trn bng. Bng t u tin ca Ampex c b rng 2 inch, lu tr trong cun m. Tn hiu video tng t c ghi trn cc ng t nm theo chiu ngang ca bng. Tc dch chuyn ca bng l 381 mm/s (NTSC). Cun bng di 1500m cho php lu tr gn 1 gi video chun NTSC. Loi bng t Quadruplex c nhiu nhc im nh kch thc ln ko theo kch thc ca cc thit b ghi v pht hnh cng ln, gi thnh cao v.v. V vy, nhiu hng nghin cu v a ra cc chun ghi hnh mi, cho php s dng nhiu loi bng t b rng hp (1, 3/4 v 1/2 inch), n gin ha h thng ko bng, gim tc dch chuyn ca bng v.v. Sau ny, bng t c bo qun trong cc hp kn (cassette). Nm 1976, hng JVC cng b chun ghi hnh VHS (Video Home System) cho php ghi hnh vi cht lng tng i cao trn bng t 1/2 inch. VHS cassette c kch thc nh gn (187mm x 103mm x 25mm), chiu di bng trong 1 cassette tiu chun ~430m. Tc di chuyn bng khi ghi hnh theo chun NTSC l 3,335cm/s. Thi gian ghi hnh ti a vi cht lng SP (Standard Play) trn mt bng hnh l 3,5 gi. Khc vi chun Quadruplex, trong VHS tn hiu video tng t c ghi trn cc ng cho so vi chiu chuyn ng ca bng t (hnh 4.1.3). VHS cho php lu tr video trn bng t vi b rng ph ~3Mhz, tng ng vi 250 dng trn nh (TVLines). Tn hiu video c iu ch FM trc khi ghi ln bng. JVC sn xut bng hnh VHS-C (Compact) c kch thc cassette nh (95x60x25mm) s dng trong cc my quay video cm tay. Thi gian ghi hnh ti a ca bng VHS-C l 2 ting. Nm 1985, xut hin chun HiFi VCR (Video Cassette Recoder) cho php ghi song song tn hiu hnh nh v tn hiu m thanh stereo cht lng cao (20-20000Hz, SNR>70dB). Tn hiu m thanh c iu ch FM, di tn s dng ghi m thanh ln bng t thp hn di tn dng cho tn hiu video, do khi ghi ln bng, tn hiu mang m thanh s tc ng vo lp t su hn so vi tn hiu video. Tn hiu video ghi sau s c ghi ln tn hiu m thanh trn b mt ca bng t, nhng n khng xa ht c thnh phn m thanh nm su trong bng. Khi pht, tn hiu m thanh FM c c ra v khi phc li vi cht lng cao.
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Nm 1987, JVC a ra chun Super VHS cho php ghi v pht tn hiu video c b rng ph ln ti 5MHz tng ng 420 TVL ( so snh video ghi trn a quang DVD c ~500 dng). Tn hiu video mu tng t trong SVHS c x l tng t nh tn hiu mu trong h NTSC: thnh phn mu c hn ch ph ti mc 0.4 MHz, v ghp vi tn hiu chi bng phng php iu ch QAM. Cnh tranh vi VHS ca JVC l chun Betamax (1984) ca Sony. Cng ghi trn bng t 1/2 inch, tn hiu Betamax c cc thng s gn ging VHS: tc bng 4cm/s, 250TVL. Kch thc bng Betamax nh hn VHS: 156x96x25mm. Thi gian ghi ti a 4 gi. V nhiu l do, chun Betamax khng cnh tranh c vi VHS. Ti nm 1986, Sony Betamax ch chim 7.5% th phn trn th trng VCR, do Sony ci tin Betamax s dng trong cc my ghi hnh gia nh (Camcoders), v i tn thnh Video-8. u im ca Video-8 l casette nh gn (93x60x14mm); trn bng t 8mm, theo chun Video-8 c th ghi c 4 ting video cht lng VHS. so snh, bng VHS-C (Compact) ca JVC dng cho camcoders ch cho php ghi 2 ting video. Tuy nhin, nhc im ca Video-8 l kch c bng khng tng thch vi cc u VCR thng dng (s dng bng t 1/2 inch). Trong lnh vc lu tr hnh nh chuyn nghip, chun Betacam ca Sony (ghi video tng t) c s dng rt ph bin. Theo chun Betacam, tn hiu video thnh phn c ghi bng t 1/2 inch. Thnh phn chi Y v hai thnh phn mu c ghi trn cc ng ghi khc nhau. Cht lng video v vy c ci thin rt nhiu, hin tng nhiu xuyn knh mu - chi c loi tr hon ton. Tn hiu Y cho php hin th ti a 500TVL. Chun Betacam SP (Superior Performance) c s dng rt rng ri trong studio. Bng Betacam cho php lu tr t 30-90 pht video cht lng cao (625/50). Cassette Betacam c hai loi l Small Size (156x96x25mm) hoc Large Size (254x145x25mm). Cc tiu chun ghi hnh ni trn cho php ghi trc tip ln bng tn hiu video tng t. Vic lu tr tn hiu di dng analog c nhiu nhc im: cht lng tn hiu s gim dn theo thi gian, t l SNR cng gim dn sau mi ln sao chp, khng th thc hin truy xut nhanh ti v tr bt k trn on video v.v. khc phc cc nhc im ni trn, d liu m thanh v hnh nh c chuyn sang lu tr di dng s. Tuy nhin, cn lu rng, sau khi s ha, cht lng tn hiu s s khng cn tt nh tn hiu gc (hiu qu ca qu trnh lng t ha), hn th na, dung lng tn hiu s thng ln hn nhiu ln so vi dung lng tn hiu analog. V vy, trong cc h thng truyn dn v lu tr m thanh, hnh nh, vai tr ca b nn tn hiu l rt ln. Nh chng ta bit, cc chun nn m thanh v video c s dng rng ri trong h thng truyn hnh qung b l MPEG1, 2, 4. Ty theo nhu cu s dng tn hiu ti tng cng on trong qu trnh sn xut v truyn hnh, ngi ta s la chn phng php nn ph hp. V d, trong studio, khi cn c tn hiu gc cht lng cao nht v kh nng truy cp ngu nhin thc hin dn dng chng trnh, video s c nn v lu tr theo chun MPEG-2 ch vi cc frame I; khi ghi video thnh phm ln a DVD, ngi ta chn phng php nn MPEG-2 vi cc nh IPB, chn chiu di GOP tng i ln nng cao hiu qu nn v.v. Giai on pht trin tip theo ca h thng lu tr d liu m thanh v hnh nh l lu tr d liu s trn bng t. Cc chun video s cho thit b dn dng xut hin t nhng nm 90. Chun video s DV c gii thiu nm 1996. Cassette dng lu tr DV c 2 loi L-size (120x90x12mm) v M-size (65x48x12) cn c gi l MiniDV. Bng t dng trong chun DV c b rng 1/4 inch (6,35mm). Vi tc ghi/c chun (SP) bng MiniDV cho php lu tr
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~13GB d liu s tng ng vi 60 pht video cht lng cao (720x480). Chun DV s dng phng php nn nh theo MPEG-2 vi cc nh I (tng ng vi chun MJPEG). Chun ly mu tn hiu hnh nh trong DV l 4:1:1 hoc 4:2:0. Tn hiu hnh nh c nn vi tc khng i l 25.146 Mbps, m thanh c m ha 2 knh, 16 bits, tn s ly mu 48 KHz hoc 4 knh, 12 bits, tn s ly mu 32KHz, to ra lung s 1.536 Mbps. Nm 1998, hng JVC gii thiu chun D-VHS (Digital VHS). Tiu chun nn video s dng trong D-VHS l MPEG-2. D-VHS cho php ghi video vi cht lng khc nhau (tng ng vi thi lng khc nhau): HS (Hi Speed), STD (Standard Speed) v LS (Low Speed). DVHS cho php ghi chm hn STD 3 v 5 ln, hai ch ghi ny k hiu l LS3 v LS5. phn gii ca tn hiu video ghi vi STD l 720x480, dng bits c tc 14.1 Mbps. My ghi hnh DVHS (v d JVC HM-DR 10000) cho php ghi v pht tn hiu D-VHS ln bng hnh tiu chun SVHS. Trong bng 4.1 l cc thng s ca bng ghi hnh theo chun D-VHS. Bng 4.1 Cc loi bng t ghi d liu s theo chun D-VHS
Chun Digital-8 c Sony s dng trong cc camcoder ca hng c cc thng s tng t nh DV v D-VHS. Bng t c s dng trong Digital-8 c b rng truyn thng l 8mm. Thi gian ghi hnh ti a trn 1 cassette ch standard l 130 pht. Bng cassette Digital-8 c kch thc (95x62x15 mm). Trong lnh vc ghi hnh chuyn nghip, chun DVCPRO25 v DVCPRO50 do hng Panasonic nghin cu v xng cho php ghi d liu video nn vi tc 25 hoc 50 Mbps. Tiu chun ly mu trong DVCPRO 25 l 4:1:1 v DVCPRO 50 l 4:2:2. Chun DVCPRO HD hay DVCPRO 100 c s dng ghi cc tn hiu truyn hnh cht lng cao HDTV: tn hiu hnh nh s ghi theo chun ny c phn gii ln ti 1440x1080 im nh, 50 mnh/giy, qut hnh theo phng php xen k. Video c ly mu vi tn s 74.25MHz cho tn hiu chi v nn theo tiu chun MPEG-2 vi cc nh I. Sau khi nn, tc dng bits s xp x 100 Mbps. Thnh phn m thanh c ghi vi 8 knh, 16 bits vi tn s ly mu 48KHz. Di tn tn hiu m thanh 20-20000Hz. Bng t dng ghi d liu theo chun DVCPRO c hai c: nh (65x48x12mm) v ln (120x90x12) vi chiu di bng khc nhau, cho php lu tr t 12 pht n 253 pht video s vi tc 25Mbps. Chun HDCAM ca Sony c a ra vo nm 1997, y l nh dng ghi tn hiu HDTV vi phn gii 1440x1080 im nh, 24 hnh/giy, tc lung bits ln ti 144 Mbps. Nm 2003 HDCAM c nng cp ln thnh chun HDCAM-SR. Tn hiu video c lng t ha vi 10 bits/ mu theo phng php 4:2:2 hoc 4:4:4. Tc dng video s HDCAM-SR c th ln ti 600 Mbps. Tn hiu HDCAM-SR s p ng y tiu chun High Definition Serial Digital Interface (HD-SDI) (1920x1080). Trong chun HDCAM-SR c th s
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dng phng php nn MPEG-2 hoc MPEG-4 (Studio profile). m thanh trong chun HDCAM-SR bao gm 12 knh m thanh c m ha vi 48KHz/24bits. Bng t HDCAM-SR cho php ghi t 6 pht (BCT-6SR) n 124 pht (BTC-124SRL) video 4:4:4. Nh vy, vi tc lung bits ca tn hiu HDCAM-SR l 600 Mbps, trn mt cun bng HDCAM-SR di 693m, rng 12.65 mm, c th lu tr c ~560GB d liu s. Kch thc cassette HDCAM-SR tng t nh Betacam. Hin nay, cc hng truyn hnh ln u s dng h thng lu tr d liu audio v video s c dung lng rt ln. V d, hng truyn hnh Anh Chanel 4 Television s hu h thng lu tr Isilion c dung lng 36TB, video c luu tr di dng MPEG-2 ( nn trong nh I vi tc 50Mbps). Chanel 4 c th thc hin tt c cc cng on truyn tin thng t th vin hnh nh s trong b lu tr theo thi gian thc. H thng Isilion cn c kt ni vi c s d liu Sony Petasite. H thng Sony Petasite ghi d liu ln bng t theo chun LTO-3 (Linear Tape-Open LTO) (400GB/ bng di 680m). Tng dung lng ca h thng Sony Petasite ln ti 1 PB (Peta Byte - 1015 Byte) - y l h thng lu tr trn bng t c dung lng ln nht chu u hin nay. Bng t chuyn dng trong cc h thng lu tr dung lng ln ra i t nm 1997. C hai loi bng c s dng: Accelis - 8mm v Ultrium- 1/2 inch. Bng Ultrium c cc thng s ging bng t theo chun Digital Linear Tape (DLT) ca hng Quantum c cng b t nm 1989. Kch thc hp bng Ultrium l 102x105x21,5 mm. Tc c d liu t bng Ultrium c th t 30-40 MBps, nhanh hn nhiu loi cng trn th trng hin nay. Tiu chun nn d liu c dng trong cc bng LTO l Streaming Lossless Data Compression (SLDC), y l chun nn da trn phng php m LZW ( phn tch trong phn 3.3.4.2 ca ti liu ny). H s nn d liu theo chun SLDC l ~2:1. Mt s thng s ca bng c lit k trong bng 4.2. Bng 4.2 Cc thng s c bn ca h bng t trong tiu chun LTO
Chun DTF (Digital Tape Format) vi bng t 1/2 inch ca hng Sony cng c s dng tng i rng ri trong cc h thng lu tr dung lng ln. Khc vi bng LTO, d liu s c ghi ln bng DTF trn cc ng cho so vi chiu chuyn ng ca bng t. Tc ghi/c d liu trn cc bng DTF-2 c th ln ti 24 MBps. Dung lng mt bng DTF c ln (Large Size) l 200GB.
4.1.1.2 a quang Lu tr d liu tng t cng nh s trn bng v a t c rt nhiu nhc im, c th lit k mt s vn chnh nh sau:
- Nhy cm vi tc ng c hc
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- c gi c cht lng tn hiu ghi trn bng t trong thi gian di, bng t phi c bo qun trong mi trng c nhit , m lun mc ti u. Ngay c trong trng hp ny, tui th ca bng t cng khng ln: khong 25-30 nm. Nh vy, theo chu k ~25 nm cn phi sao chp li ton b c s d liu hnh nh v m thanh, iu ny rt bt tin v tn km. - Thit b ghi v c bng t thng cng knh v t tin (ch yu do h thng ko bng tng i phc tp. - Tc di chuyn ca bng t tng i cao nn thi gian truy cp ti v tr cn thit trong on video ln. Nhng nm gn y, d liu mutimedia thng c lu tr trn a quang. Qu trnh ghi v c c thc hin bi tia laser c cc bc sng khc nhau. C kh nhiu loi a quang khc nhau, tuy nhin chng thng c ng knh 12cm, dy ~1mm. Loi a mini c dng trong camcoder c ng knh 8cm. H thng lu tr d liu trn a quang cho php khc phc cc nhc im ca bng t nu trn, do a quang ngy cng c s dng rng ri. Hin c kh nhiu tiu chun ghi d liu trn nhiu loi a c dung lng khc nhau. Sau y chng ta s cp ti mt s loi a thng dng nht.
4.1.1.2.1 Compact disk (CD)

a quang CD lm t nha tng hp, c dy ~1.2 mm nng ~16 grams. Trn b mt a CD ph mt lp nhm hoc vng mng lm lp phn chiu. Ph ln trn lp phn chiu l lp sn bo v. Mt trn lp bo v c th c dng in tn (Label) a. D liu s (nh phn) trn CD c lu di dng chui cc im "lm" pits trn b mt lp phn chiu. Khong cch gia cc pits c gi l "lands". Mi pits c kch thc ~500nm (rng), 850nm -3500nm (di), v ~100 nm (su). Chui pits phn b trn b mt a theo ng spiral. D liu trn CD c c bng tia laser 780nm, hi t ln trn b mt phn chiu ca a. nh sng phn chiu t b mt CD s thay i khi tia laser chy qua pits hay lands, nh vy s dng photodiode thu nhn chm nh sng phn chiu ni trn, ta s "c ra" li c chui bt nh phn ghi trn CD. Tc c/ghi d liu trn CD ln ti 52X (1X = 150KB/s). D liu c ghi trn CD t tm a ra ngoi. Hai loi CD chun c (1) - ng knh 120mm, ghi 74-80 pht nhc cht lng cao, hoc 650-700 MB d liu v (2) - ng knh 80mm Mini CD, ghi c 21 pht nhc hay 184 MB.
4.1.1.2.2 Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)

Trong thi gian gn y, a DVD c s dng rng ri trong lnh vc lu tr d liu s. a DVD c kch thc tng t a CD nhng c dung lng lu tr ln gp 6 ln. a DVD c hai kch c: DVD Standard size c ng knh 12cm, Mini DVD c ng knh 8cm. Mini DVD c s dng cho cc my quay video s ghi trc tip ln a. nh dng DVD cho php ghi d liu ln mt mt a (SS- Single Sided) hoc ln c hai mt (DS- Double Sided), ngoi ra trn mt mt a c th ghi c mt hoc hai lp d liu (SLSingle layer hoc DL- Dual/Double layer). K thut ghi hai lp d liu ln mt mt ca a c m t trong hnh 4.1.1. Gia hai lp ghi (Recording Layer 0 v Recording Layer 1) c ngn cch bi lp phn chiu "gn trong sut" (Semi-transparent REFLECTIVE Layer) v lp nha polycarbonate trong sut.
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Hnh 4.1.1 Cu to a quang ghi hai lp Semi-transparent REFLECTIVE Layer phn chiu ~18% nng lng tia laser. Khi c d liu t lp Recording Layer 1, mt phn nng lng tia laser b phn chiu li lp Semitransparent REFLECTIVE, mt phn nng lng b hp th bi lp nha ngn cch hai recording layers, do , lp REFLECTIVE Layer (hnh 4.1.1) c thit k c kh nng phn chiu 50% nng lng tia laser. Trong trng hp ny, cng sut tia phn chiu t c hai lp ghi s nh nhau. Nhiu cng trnh nghin cu ang c thc hin theo hng nng cao dung lng a quang bng cch tng s lp ghi trn mt mt a. Theo tnh ton, c th ch to ra a quang c ti 1000 lp. Kh khn cn khc phc l cng sut tia phn x t cc lp trong gim i rt nhanh, v d, ch c 5% nng lng ca tia laser tia phn x li t lp th 11, t lp 17 con s ny l 3%. V l do ni trn, hin nay, trong cc phng th nghim mi thc hin c a quang c 10 lp. Cc loi a c thng mi ha ch c t 1 n 3 lp ghi. Dung lng ca mt s loi a DVD thng dng c lit k trong bng 4.3 Bng 4.3 Dung lng cc loi a DVD
Lu rng n v GB v GiB c s khc bit: 1GB= 109 bytes, 1,073,741,824 bytes.
1GiB = 230 =
Trong DVD-DL thng tin c c v ghi t 2 lp bng laser c bc sng 450nm, nh hn bc sng dng trong CD v DVD SL. Qu trnh ghi/c d liu trn a DVD SL c thc hin bi tia laser 650nm, tit din tia laser trn b mt a DVD l 1,32 m (so vi CD l 2,11 m). Tc ghi/c d liu t a DVD c th ln ti 20X (vi chun DVD, 1X = 1350KB/s). DVD c th c phn loi theo c tnh khng ghi c - DVD-ROM (Read-Only Memory, ghi c mt ln (DVD Recordable) v ghi c nhiu ln (DVD Rewritable). Chun ghi DVD-R (ghi mt ln) ra i nm 1996, cho php ghi 4,7GB d liu trn DVD single side, single layer. Ti nm 2002, DVD-R c ci tin thnh chun DVD+R (Plus R). DVD+R s dng mt s bin php k thut mi, cho php tng tin cy ca a trong qu trnh
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ghi d liu. Chun a DVD-RW (ghi nhiu ln) c hng Pioneer pht trin v cng b nm 1999, c s dng trong 75% DVD Player. DVD-RW c th ghi c ti 1000 ln, dung lng a DVD-RW SL, SS l 4.7 GB. c im DVD-RW l trc khi ghi d liu mi, cn phi thc hin qu trnh xa ht d liu c. Chun ghi DVD+RW (ra i nm 1997) c ci tin khi ghi d liu khng cn phi format li a nh DVD-RW. Hin nay, hu ht cc u c a quang u nhn dng c c hai loi a trn. Hai chun a quang th h cui cng, c mt ghi d liu cao ang cnh tranh trn th trng l High-Definition DVD (HD DVD) v Blu-ray Disc. a HD DVD c xut bi hai hng sn xut thit b in t Toshiba and NEC nm 2003. HD DVD ROM c th c 1 n 3 lp ghi, d liu c th c ghi trn mt hoc c hai mt a. Dung lng ca cc loi a HD DVD c nu trn bng 4.4. Bng 4.4 Dung lng a HD DVD
c th ghi d liu vi mt cao hn a DVD, tia laser s dng trong HD DVD c bc sng nm trong vng "Blue violet" ~405nm. Tc c d liu c th t c l 36.55 Mbps. a HD DVD c th c s dng ghi cc chun video s khc nhau, t DVD-Video n HDTV 720p, 1080i v 1080p. HD-DVD h tr chun nn video thng dng l MPEG-2 v MPEG-4. Cng ngh lu tr cnh tranh vi HD DVD hin nay l Blue-Ray. a quang c tn BlueRay bi v tia laser "Blue violet" ~405nm c s dng ghi thng tin ln a. Chun ny do cc nh ch to thit b in t dn dng nh: Sony, Philips Electronics v Matsushita thng nht v cng b. Nhng cng ty cng tham gia pht trin chun DVD ny l Hitachi, Pioneer, Sharp, LG v hng Thomson Multimedia ca Php. a Blue-Ray Single Layer c dung lng 25GB, Dual Layer cha c 50GB d liu s. Nh vy, trn mt a Blue-Ray c th lu tr c trn 20 gi video cht lng DVD hay khong 4.5 gi video cht lng cao (HDTV). Tc c d liu t a Blue-Ray Dual Layer c th ln ti 72Mbps. Blue-Ray Disc h tr cc tiu chun nn hnh MPEG-2, MPEG-4 AVC (H.264), v VC-1 (Windows Media Video codec). Thng 8 nm 2006, hng TDK cng b ch to thnh cng Blu-Ray Disc Single Side c dung lng 200 GB vi su lp ghi, mi lp cha 33 GB. Hai nh dng HD DVD v Blue-Ray disc ang cnh tranh khc lit trn th trng a quang. Tuy nhin, vi s hu thun mnh m ca Sony v mt lot hng sn xut phim ln, nh dng Blue-Ray ang dn chim u th trc HD DVD. Hng Sony khng nh n cui thng
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8/2007, h dn u th trng vi 1 triu a Blu-ray c tiu th M v 250.000 chu u, chim th phn 69%. Trong nhng nm gn y, vi mc ch a a quang dung lng cao n ngi tiu dng, cc hng sn xut n lc khng ngng gim gi thnh cc thit b c/ghi a quang c dung lng cao cng nh gi thnh cc loi a HD-DVD hay Blue-Ray. u nm 2006, Toshiba tung ra th trng M u a HD DVD HD-A1 c chi ph sn xut ~700 USD ( pht trin nh dng HD DVD, Toshiba bn sn phm ny vi gi r hn chi ph gn 200USD). u a Blu-ray c Sony bn ra cng thi im ti M c gi 1.000 USD. n nm 2007, gi bn l u c a HD DVD m hiu HDA2-W ca Toshiba h xung cn 198 USD. So vi bng t, lu tr d liu trn a quang c nhiu u im vt tri: - bn c kh cao, d s dng - Bo qun d dng hn bng t - Tui th a quang theo d on ln ti 100 nm (cao hn nhiu so vi bng t) - Thit b ghi/c a quang n gin, gn nh v c gi thnh thp. - H thng lu tr d liu t ng ln a quang c cu to n gin hn v gi thnh r hn h thng bng t. - H thng lu tr trn a quang cho php truy cp d liu theo bt k th t no vi tc cao. - Gi thnh a quang ngy cng gim v lng a c sn xut v tiu th ngy cng tng.
4.1.1.3 Lu tr d liu trn h thng a t (hard disk) Hin nay, a s cc hng truyn hnh s dng h thng iu khin t ng qu trnh truyn pht chng trnh mutimedia da trn c s d liu c lu trong cc server a cng dung lng cao. Tt c cc khu x l tn hiu trong qu trnh thu pht, t lc dn dng, xem duyt chng trnh, lp trnh thi gian pht v lu tr d liu u c thc hin di s iu khin ca h thng qun l chung.
H thng lu tr trn cng hin nay c kch thc nh gn, tc ghi/c cao. Tuy nhin, do gi thnh (gi thnh lu tr 1 GB d liu) so vi bng t cn tng i cao, nn h thng lu tr trn cng thng c dung lng va phi v c s dng nh b nh m gia h thng lu tr di hn (bng t dung lng cao) v h thng x l video. Cc a cng (Hard Disk Drive- HDD) hin i cho php ghi lung d liu c tc ln ti 300MBps qua giao thc SATA-II, tc ghi ny cho php lu trc tip video s ln cng khng qua giai on nn d liu (lm mt cht lng video gc). c th thit lp c h thng lu tr vi cc thng s cn thit v dung lng, tin cy v tc truy cp d liu, ngi ta thng s dng cng ngh RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks). RAID l h thng bao gm 8, 16 hoc nhiu hn na cc cng. V d, hng Seagate sn xut cc cng SATA-2 c dung lng 750 GB vi gi bn l ~250$. Nh vy, h thng 16 a s c dung lng 12 TB, h thng ny cho php ghi ti ~2700 gi video cht lng DVD (9.8Mbps) hoc ~125 gi video s (PAL) khng nn (216Mbps). C th thy rng, gi thnh cng hin nay ch khong ~0.3$/GB. so snh, vo nm 2005, gi thnh cng khong 1.2$/GB, tc ghi ch t ~6Mbps. H thng RAID cho php tng tc qu trnh chuyn ti d liu ca a cng theo nguyn tc i dung lng ly tc : ngha l tc chuyn ti d liu s tng nu lung d liu c chia
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u cho cc a cng hot ng ng thi. Mt khc, nu cn nng cao tin cy ca h thng lu tr, d liu cng c th c ghi cng mt lc ln 2 hay nhiu cng. to ra cc h thng lu tr vi c tnh cn thit v an ton, tc truy cp v dung lng, RAID cho php cu hnh theo cc mc khc nhau. RAID-0 (hnh 4.1.8): Trong chun RAID-0, cc a cng c xp thnh cc dy (arrays). D liu c b iu khin (RAID controller) phn b u trn cc a trn dy theo hng ngang (data stripping). Dung lng ca mt h thng RAID s bng tng dung lng cc a cng. Nh vy RAID-0 khng c c ch bo v d liu. u im ca RAID-0 l d liu c chuyn ti rt nhanh nhng nhc im ca n l ch cn mt trong cc a ca h thng b trc trc th d liu s b mt. RAID-0 c s dng nhiu cc ng dng my tnh bn.
Hnh 4.1.2 Cu hnh b lu tr theo chun RAID-0 RAID-1: Trong RAID-1, d liu c ghi cng mt lc ln c hai dy a.Nh vy, nu mt a b hng th a dy a th hai vn c th tip tc hot ng, nn d liu s khng b mt mt. mc RAID-1, s lng a s dng gp i so vi RAID-0 nhng b li tin cy ca h thng cao hn. RAID-2, RAID-3: ti hai mc ny, d liu vo c phn b ghi u ln hai dy a nh trong mc RAID-0, trn dy a th ba s ghi li d liu dng pht hin li v sa li (Error Checking and Correction) khi phc li d liu nu cc a trong dy 1 v 2 b s c (RAID-2 s dng Hamming error correction codes). Nh vy tc ghi ca RAID-3 s tng ng vi RAID-0 nhng tin cy ca h thng s cao hn. RAID-4, RAID-5: Nhc im ca RAID 2, 3 l qu trnh khi phc thng tin c th b chm i khi ton b thng tin sa li c ghi trn 1 a. Trong mc RAID-4 v 5, thng tin v li c ghi trn cc a thnh vin ca cc dy nh m t trn hnh 4.1.3.
Hnh 4.1.3 Cu hnh b lu tr theo chun RAID-5 Cc b iu khin RAID mi nht hin nay c thc hin trn b vi x l Intel i80331 cho php cu hnh h thng cng mc 6 v 6 Plus. Hai mc ny thc hin m ha phc tp hn, cho php khi phc li d liu ngay c khi 2 hoc 3 a cng b s c cng mt lc. Tuy nhin, tc x l d liu ca RAID-6 thng khng cao, nn mc RAID-6 t khi c s dng trong cc h thng lu tr d liu i hi tc truy cp cao nh tn hiu video s.
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Trong phn ny, chng ta tm hiu s b v cc h thng lu tr d liu trn bng t, a t v a quang. Ti mi thi im lch s, mi loi vt liu dng ghi d liu c nhng u im ring. Xt trn kha cnh gi thnh (chi ph lu tr mt n v d liu), h thng lu tr d liu trn a quang ang c u th v gi a quang ngy cng h (do sc p cnh tranh v do s lng a c sn xut ngy cng ln), ng thi cc chun a mi ra i c dung lng ngy cng cao. Tuy nhin, to ra cc "kho" d liu c kch thc rt ln vi mc ch lu tr khi lng thng tin audio v video s khng l cho cc hng truyn thng, bng t vn c c s dng rng ri. Cc h thng lu tr trn bng t hin hu s dng bng ghi chuyn nghip theo tiu chun DFT v DLT c dung lng ln ti nhiu PB ((Peta Byte). Nhc im chnh ca h thng ghi d liu trn bng t, hn ch kh nng s dng trc tip chng trong cc h thng truyn thng, l thi gian tm d liu ln, bo qun kh v thi hn s dng ngn. H thng lu tr t ng trn a cng c thit lp theo cng ngh RAID thng c s dng lu cc thng tin cn truy cp nhanh khi dn dng chng trnh hoc cc chng trnh c chun b pht sng. u im quan trng ca h thng ny l tc truy cp nhanh, ngun d liu c th thay i linh hot vi tin cy cao (iu ny rt quan trng khi d liu c lu vi mc ch a vo knh truyn). Cc nh phn tch d on rng, trong tng lai khng xa, a ghi quang hc s c s dng ch yu trong cc h thng lu tr dung lng ln, v xt trn gc kinh t, h thng lu tr quang (bao gm cc thit b ghi/c t ng v a trng) c gi thnh lu tr trn mt GB d liu thp nht, hn th na, a quang l mt hng dn dng, c sn xut vi s lng nhiu nn gi thnh ca chng cng s h xung chng.
4.1.2 Phn phi ni dung qua mng vin thng

Trong mng vin thng hin nay, thng tin v m thanh v hnh nh c th c phn phi ti ngi s dng qua nhiu mi trng truyn dn khc nhau. Phn ny s gii thiu v cc knh phn phi tiu biu ang c s dng trn thc t.
4.1.2.1 Phn phi ni dung qua knh v tuyn
Hnh 4.1.4 Phn chia bng tn cho theo bc sng Di tn s c s dng truyn thng tin c b rng hu hn v c phn chia cho cc dch v truyn d liu khc nhau. Mi bng tn c t tn nh trn hnh.. Nhng di tn sau y c quy nh truyn tn hiu vin thng: Di sng trung tn MF (Medium Frequency) tn s t 300 - 3000 kHz. Ti y thc hin pht thanh v tuyn iu bin (AM) Di sng cao tn HF (High Frequency) c tn s t 3 n 30MHz. ng dng ca di tn ny l v tuyn truyn thanh nghip d, dn dng, cc loi thng tin v tuyn di ng. Di sng cc ngn VHF (Very High Frequency) c tn s t 30 n 300MHz. ng dng trong v tuyn nghip d, thng tin di ng, i pht FM thng mi (88MHz n 108MHz), v tuyn truyn hnh.
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Di sng siu ngn UHF (Ultra High Fequency) c tn s t 300 n 3GHz. Di tn ny s dng trong v tuyn truyn hnh (470-806 MHz), viba, mng khng dy WLAN v.v. Di sng SHF (Super high frequency) 3Ghz-30 Ghz c s dng truyn tn hiu truyn hnh qung b qua v tinh, vi ba..
4.1.2.2 Truyn thanh qung b Pht thanh l qu trnh t chc v chuyn ti khn gi cc chng trnh pht thanh thng qua cc phng tin vin thng. Ti cc trung tm pht thanh ngi ta thc hin vic dn dng chng trnh trong cc phng thu (studio) v chuyn chng vo mng truyn thanh. Mng truyn thanh bao gm cc thit b truyn v phn phi chng trnh pht thanh trong phm vi khu vc phc v.
Tn hiu m thanh trong h thng pht thanh qung b c th c truyn theo mng cp truyn thanh (hu tuyn) hoc qua sng v tuyn. Thi gian gn y, dch v ny c thc hin ch yu qua ng truyn v tuyn. S tng qut mt h thng phn phi m thanh c m t trn hnh
ng truyen Trung tam phat thanh Phong thu (Studio) M Khuech ai He thong vo tuyen truyen thanh May thu ng truyen He thong truyen thanh cap Thue bao
Hnh 4.1.5 H thng phn phi tn hiu m thanh
4.1.2.2.1 Cc di sng v tuyn dng pht thanh

Di y l cc di tn dng truyn pht m thanh c phn chia theo tiu chun CCIR. Di VLF (Very Low Frequency) c tn s t 3 kHz n 30 kHz. Di VLF c s dng trong thng tin ni b ti cc c quan nh nc, trong qun i, v d nh thng tin gia cc tu ngm, thng tin di ng hng hi. Di LF (Low Frequency) c tn s t 30 kHz n 300 kHz Di LF dng trong thng tin di ng hng hi, nh v v tuyn, n hiu hng khng, v tuyn hng hi. Di MF (Medium Frequency) tn s trung bnh. Di MF c tn s t 300 kHz n 3000 kHz. Cc i pht thanh v tuyn iu bin (AM) lm vic trong di tn ny. Di HF (High Frequency) tn s cao hay cn gi l sng ngn. Di HF c tn s t 3MHz n 30MHz. ng dng ca di tn ny l v tuyn truyn thanh nghip d, dn dng, cc loi thng tin v tuyn di ng. Ring trong thng tin cng cng di tn ny dng thng tin v tuyn thu knh, in bo v tuyn, thit b o mc thit hi thm ho thin tai v.v. Di VHF (Very High Frequency) gi l sng cc ngn c tn s t 30MHz n 300MHz. ng dng trong v tuyn nghip d, thng tin di ng, i pht FM thng mi (88MHz n 108MHz), v tuyn truyn hnh.
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Chng 4 ng dng k thut x l m thanh v hnh nh trong vin thng 4.1.2.2.2 H thng phn phi tn hiu m thanh stereo
Tn hiu m thanh stereo c truyn i trn di tn 66-74 MHz (ti cc nc ng u) v 88-108 (theo chun FCC) bng phng php iu ch FM. H thng pht thanh FM stereo phi mang tnh tng hp vi h thng pht thanh mono. Hin nay tn ti ba h thng m ha tn hiu FM stereo: h thng s dng phng php iu ch AM phn cc, h thng s dng tn hiu pilot v h thng s dng phng php iu tn hai ln. H thng pht thanh stereo vi tn hiu pilot ra i ti M p dng nguyn l ghp knh theo tn s, h thng ny hon ton tng thch vi h thng truyn thanh FM mono c s dng t nm 1940 ti y. S khi my pht v my thu c biu din trn hnh 4.1.6. tha mn yu cu tng hp, tn hiu c m ho v truyn i l tn hiu tng (L+R) v hiu (L-R). Tn hiu L+R nhn c sau b cng chnh l tn hiu dnh cho my thu thanh mono. Tn hiu L-R c iu ch bng phng php AM DSB SC (iu bin hai di bn trit sng mang). c th khi phc chnh xc tn hiu sng mang, trong thnh phn tn hiu FM stereo cn c tn hiu pilot dao ng tn s 19 kHz. Cu trc ph tn hiu FM stereo vi tn hiu pilot c v trn hnh 4.1.6b. Trong my thu, tn hiu m thanh stereo trung tn
ms ( t ) nhn
c sau b tch sng s c a qua cc mch lc thng thp v thng di phn tch thnh tn hiu mono R+L v tn hiu AM SC mang tin tc v knh R-L. Tn hiu R-L c khi phc ra bi mch tch sng ng b (TSB). Tn s sng mang ph 38 MHz c ti to v n nh nh mch kho pha vng bao gm mch to sng, mch chia tn, mch nhn v b lc thng thp (hnh 4.1.6c). Tn hiu m thanh c truyn i trong h thng FM stereo c b rng di tn t 50 dn 15000 Hz, ph tn hiu FM nm trong di 50-53000 Hz. Theo tiu chun ca FCC, Bng tn dng php tn hiu FM stereo 88-108 MHz, mt knh FM chim 200 kHz. lch tn s cc i l 75 kHz. H thng FM stereo s dng phng php iu tn hai ln khc vi h thng trn ch tn hiu R-L c iu ch bng phng php iu tn, tn s sng mang 33.5 MHz. Song song vi tn hiu m thanh FM stereo ngi ta cn c th truyn i d liu s trn sng mang ph 57 kHz (hoc 67 kHz). H thng thu pht tn hiu ph RDS (Radio Data System) thng c s dng truyn i cc thng tin ngn . Ngoi cc h thng truyn thanh stereo 2 knh cn tn ti h thng truyn thanh 4 knh. Microphone v loa trong h thng ny c phn b theo chu vi ca phng thu m. Tn hiu t 4 knh ring bit mang li cm gic m thanh vng (hiu ng hin din), tuy nhin h thng truyn thanh 4 knh c gi thnh tng i cao nn cha c ph bin.
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Kenh trai L Kenh phai R
L + R = mono audio
Tn hieu FM stereo mS ( t ) May phat FM
S FM ( t )
LR
Bo ieu che DSB-SC fsc= 38 kHz Pilot tone Chia tan 1:2
Bo tao song fsc= 38 kHz
a) May phat FM stereo
Pilot signal
Pho tn hieu audi mono 0 15 19 kHz kHz b) Pho tn hieu FM stereo
Pho tn hieu DSB-SC
38 kHz
f
Tn hieu mono Kenh trai (2L)
mS ( t )
S FM ( t ) May thu FM
LTT 0-15 kHz LTD 23-53 kHz
L+R
LR
LTT 0-15 kHz TSB
Kenh phai (2R)
LTT 19 MHz 1:2 MTS 38 MHz
c) May thu FM stereo
Hnh 4.1.6 S khi h thng truyn thanh FM stereo vi tn hiu pilot
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4.1.2.3 Truyn hnh qung b H thng truyn hnh qung b bao gm nhiu trung tm truyn hnh v mng li chuyn ti chng trnh gia cc trung tm (hnh 4.1.15). Trung tm truyn hnh c nhim v xy dng cc chng trnh truyn hnh v truyn ti ngi xem.
Truyn hnh qua knh v tuyn (mt t)
Hnh 4.1.7 M hnh trung tm truyn hnh v mng li phn phi tn hiu Cc trung tm truyn hnh ln c kh nng t sn xut chng trnh: - Ca nhc, kch ti phim trng dng cnh - Cc chng trnh tin tc ti phim trng o - Chng trnh c khn gi ti phim trng Cc trung tm truyn hnh nh ch c kh nng tip nhn v pht li tn hiu phc v cho mt vng nht nh. Vic thc hin chuyn tip cng nh phn phi cc chng trnh truyn hnh gia cc trung tm hay trc tip n khn gi c th s dng ng truyn radio, ng truyn v tinh, vi ba, hoc cp quang, h thng cp ng trc. Hin nay, nc ta cc chng trnh truyn hnh trong nc v quc t c th thu qua h thng truyn hnh mt t, truyn hnh s v tinh (DTH- Direct To Home), truyn hnh s mt t DVB-T (VTC), truyn hnh MMDS (Multimedia Microwave Distribution System), h thng truyn hnh cp thnh ph CATV (Community Access Television) v truyn hnh qua internet (IPTV). H truyn hnh dn dng s dng di tn t 47 MHz n khong 960 MHz. Trong cc tiu chun truyn hnh khc nhau, bng tn trn c phn chia cho cc knh truyn hnh mt cch khc nhau. Di tn trn c chia thnh bng tn VHF, v bng tn UHF (di tn VHF nm trong khong 30 300 MHz, di tn UHF 300 3000 MHz). Di tn quy nh dnh cho h thng truyn hnh i chng theo tiu chun FCC c phn chia nh sau: VHF -L: VHF -H: 54-88 MHz (5 knh) 174-216 MHz (6 knh)
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UHF: 470-806 MHz (56 knh)
Di tn quy nh dnh cho h thng truyn hnh i chng theo tiu chun OIRT c phn chia nh sau: 48-64 MHz (2 knh) (VHF) (VHF) (VHF) (UHF) (UHF) 76-100 MHz (3 knh) 174-230 MHz (7 knh) 470-606 MHz (56 knh) 606-958 MHz (44 knh)
4.1.2.3.1
c im knh truyn hnh tng t
Phn b knh truyn hnh trong cc bng tn nu trn ph thuc vo tiu chun ca cc h truyn hnh. Di thng ca mi knh theo tiu chun OIRT l 8 MHz, theo CCIR (y ban t vn quc t v thng tin v tuyn) l 7 MHz, cn theo FCC l 6 MHz. Trn hnh 4.1.8 trnh by phn b ph ca tn hiu truyn hnh mu y trong mt knh truyn hnh theo ba tiu chun FFC, CCIR, OIRT. Tn hiu m thanh c iu ch tn s v truyn i cng mt lc vi tn hiu hnh nh. Trong mt knh truyn (theo chun OIRT) c b rng bng thng 8 MHz, ph ca tn hiu m thanh FM nm pha trn ph ca tn hiu hnh v chim khong 0.25 MHz. Khong cch gia tn s sng mang hnh v sng mang m thanh l 6.5 MHz (
f0 S > f0V ), gi tr ny c duy tr rt
chnh xc t pha pht. Tn hiu m thanh c iu tn di rng, c kh nng chng nhiu cao, do gim nh hng ca tn hiu ny ti knh hnh, cng sut tn hiu m thanh pht i c gim nh hn cng sut tn hiu hnh 10 ln. Tn hiu video tn cao c to ra bng phng php iu ch bin sng mang bi tn hiu hnh mu. Tn hiu hnh nh v m thanh c iu ch theo cc phng php khc nhau n gin ho vic tch chng ti my thu.
Hnh 4.1.8 Cu trc mt knh truyn hnh mu (bao gm knh m thanh) theo ba tiu chun FFC, CCIR, OIRT Trong h thng truyn hnh, do b rng di ph tn hiu hnh rt ln v tit kim bng
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thng knh truyn ngi ta ch truyn i ton b di trn ca tn hiu hnh AM (ni cha ton b thng tin v tn hiu hnh nh) v mt phn nh (0.75 MHz) di bin di gim hin tng mo do thnh phn vung gc cho cc thnh phn ph thp ca tn hiu hnh nh. Cc thnh phn ph thp tng ng vi cc chi tit ln trong nh truyn hnh nn nh hng nhiu ti cht lng hnh nh.
4.1.2.3.2 Truyn hnh qua knh v tinh

H thng truyn tn hiu qua v tinh c cc u im sau: - ng truyn v tinh khng b nh hng bi iu kin a hnh, a vt. - Vic thit lp mt ng v tinh c th thc hin trong thi gian tng i ngn. V tinh c th s dng trong h thng im - a im, ph sng trn din rng, thun tin cho vic thit lp cc mng truyn hnh cp (CATV), cng nh cung cp dch v truyn hnh trc tip n tng nh (DTH - Direct To Home). Thnh phn h thng truyn tin v tinh bao gm: Trm pht sng mt t: truyn tn hiu v hng v tinh (uplink). Anten pht phi c tnh nh hng rt cao (bp chnh rt hp ~0.10- trnh nhiu lon gia cc v tinh) nn kch thc thng rt ln (hng chc mt). Cc bp ph ca anten phi cc tiu. Anten hng thng trc ti v tinh vi chnh xc n vi pht. Cn c h thng iu chnh gc anten. li anten khong 60 dB. Anten thng c dng l loi "Cassegrain", c b mt bc x chnh l parabol, ngun sng pht ra t mt phn x th cp dng hyperbol. Hng pht ca anten c th c thay i bng cch iu chnh mt phn x th cp. Cng sut my pht khong 50 watt (ti tn s 14 14.5GHz). V tinh: c nhim v nhn tn hiu, khuych i v dch chuyn tn s tn hiu xung di tn s pht xung qua b chuyn i (transponder) . Trn v tinh tn hiu khng c gii iu ch ti bng tn gc. V tinh c chc nng ging trm trung chuyn trong h thng viba. Trm thu mt t: tip nhn tn hiu theo ng truyn xung (downlink) H thng truyn hnh v tinh qung b s dng cc di tn sau truyn tn hiu: Bng tn C Ku K Pht ln (GHz) 5.925-6.425 14.0 14.5 17.3 17.8 Bng thng (MHz) 500 500 500 Pht xung (GHz) 3.7 4.2 11.7 12.2 12.2- 12.7
Tn s c dng pht tn hiu t trm mt t ln v tinh c tn s cao hn tn hiu pht ngc t v tinh. Bng tn C c tn s thp nn suy hao do ma v trong khng kh nh hn. rng bng tn 500 MHz. Nhc im ca di tn C l kch thc anten thu pht ln: 3 - 5m. Thit b trn v tinh cng knh, phc tp. Tuy nhin ch c bng C mi c th p ng yu cu ph sng trn din rng, trong cc h thng v tinh ton cu. c im ca knh truyn v tinh: - Khong cch gia v tinh v trm mt t rt xa (36000 - 41000km v vy tn hiu b suy hao nhiu, nh hng ca nhiu ti tn hiu ln. - Cng sut pht t v tinh b gii hn do ngun nui c cung cp t c quy v pin mt
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tri c cng sut hn ch. - Anten thu pht trn v tinh c kch thc v li gii hn - Mc tn hiu thu c ti cc trm mt t rt nh v tn hiu t v tinh c phn b trn din tch rt rng. - Tui th ca v tinh khng cao (5-7 nm) v cc l do sau: + V tinh lm vic trong iu kin khc nghit; nhit thay i t ngt, chu cc bc x khng gian, va chm ca cc thin thch. + Cc b phn h hng ca v tinh khng th sa cha c. + Tui th ca pin mt tri v h thng c quy ngn. Cc dch v c cung cp trong h thng thng tin v tinh l: Dch v truyn thng c nh (FSS- Fixed Satellite Service): truyn tn hiu thoi hay truyn hnh ti mng CATV Dch v truyn thng qung b (BSS- Broadcasting Satellite Service) (DTH) Dch v thng tin di ng (Mobile Satellite Service) Dch v nh v v tinh (Navigational Satellite Service) Dch v d bo thy vn (Meteorological Satellite Service)
4.1.2.3.3 Dch v truyn hnh DTH ti Vit Nam

DTH (Direct to home) l phng thc truyn dn Truyn hnh tr tin qua v tinh s dng bng tn Ku (di tn 12 GHz) trn v tinh Measat-2. So vi cc phng thc truyn dn tn hiu khc truyn hnh qua v tinh DTH l mt phng thc ph sng rt hiu qu, c bit vi a hnh c nhiu i ni nh VN. Hin nay, i truyn hnh Vit Nam thu v tinh a tnh Measat-2 truyn trc tip tn hiu 17 knh truyn hnh trong nc v quc t. Cng sut tn hiu thu c trong a phn Vit Nam l -50 -60 dBW. ng knh anten thu l 90 cm. V tinh lm vic trn di tn Ku. H thng DTH ca i THVN s dng h kha m CA ca hng Viaccess Php, y l h thng c nhiu nh cung cp s dng, c an ton cao v c kh nng tng thch vi nhiu dch v gia tng sau ny.
Hnh 4.1.9 V tinh Measat dng truyn tn hiu DTH cho lnh th VN Truyn hnh v tinh DTH c nhng u im sau: - Vng ph sng rng, khng ph thuc vo a hnh, cht lng cao - cng trng ti
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im thu n nh, ng u trn ton quc- v c kh nng thng tin bng rng. - S dng bng tn Ku, kch thc anten thu nh gn (khong 0.6m), ph hp vi iu kin thu ti cc h gia nh. - DTH s dng cng ngh truyn dn s (nn theo chun MPEG-2) nn m bo cht lng tn hiu hnh nh cng nh m thanh, c th truyn nhiu chng trnh truyn hnh c phn gii cao cng mt lc, h thng m thanh stereo hay m thanh lp th AC3. - H thng DTH tng thch vi nhiu loi hnh dch v khc nh truyn d liu, Internet, truyn hnh tng tc s c pht trin sau ny.
4.1.2.4 Phn phi ni dung qua knh hu tuyn 4.1.2.4.1 H thng truyn hnh cp
Phn ny s gii thiu h thng phn phi tn hiu truyn hnh qua mng cp.Truyn hnh cp hu tuyn CATV (Community Antenna Television) l phng thc truyn hnh thit lp trn c s h thng thit b truyn dn c nh bng ng dy cp. Nh cung cp CATV cng mt lc nhn tn hiu ca nhiu hng truyn hnh trn th gii qua v tinh, khuch i nhng tn hiu thu c v phn phi n khch hng qua mng cp quang hoc cp ng trc. H thng truyn hnh cp ang c pht trin rt mnh m trong cc khu th c mt dn cao. u im ca h thng CATV l: - Cht lng hnh nh cao trong mi trng th vi cc ta nh cao tng, gy nhiu fading. C th chuyn ti tn hiu ti nhng a im khng th thu c sng ca i truyn hnh c chng ngi vt - Cht lng tn hiu n nh, khng ph thuc vo nhiu bu kh quyn v nhiu cng nghip. - Kt hp k thut m ha tn hiu thc hin thu ph cc thu bao - Ti s dng di tn s, vn c s dng trit .
Hnh 4.1.10 S khi m t h thng truyn hnh cp tiu biu H thng truyn hnh cp tiu biu bao gm cc thnh phn chnh sau (hnh 4.1.10): - HeadEnd Station - Tng i trung tm
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- Cp ng trc (Trunk cable) - H thng cp nhnh, cp thu bao - Thit b khuych i ng trc (Trunk amplifier) - Mch khuych i thu bao (Distributor amplifier) - Cc thit b chia tn hiu (Splitter) HeadEnd Station c nhim v: - Thu cc knh TH t i pht mt t, trm v tinh hoc cc chng trnh c truyn t cc trung tm truyn hnh khc qua ng viba, cp quang v.v. - Bin i cc tn hiu cao tn thu c thnh tn hiu bng tn gc - Thc hin phn knh theo tn s (FDM) trn ton b bng thng cp ng trc. Mi knh trong headend c mch khuych i ring iu chnh mc cc knh ng u trn ton b di tn tn hiu CATV, trnh xy ra hin tng nhiu xuyn gia cc knh truyn hnh. Tn hiu truyn hnh phi c m ha trc khi a vo knh truyn c th xc nh quyn truy cp knh truyn hnh i vi tng thu bao (PayTV). C ch Pay TV c th c thc hin bng cch t cc mch lc chn di, ngn cc knh m thu bao khng c quyn truy cp, hoc cc phng thc m ha khc nhau (scrambling mechanisms) ng truyn cp ng trc cho php ti s dng di tn s v tn hiu c truyn i c lp pha bn trong si cp. Nhc im chnh ca cp ng trc l mc suy hao cao. Suy hao ca cp ph thuc vo ng knh cp, chiu di cp v tn s tn hiu. Ty theo s lng knh truyn hnh c truyn theo ng cp, c th phn bit 3 h thng truyn hnh cp (bng 4.5). Bng 4.5
H thng c nh s dng di tn 50-220 MHz c t 12-22 knh truyn hnh, ng cp trc di trn 30 Km, vi khong 50 b khuych i ng trc. S thu bao c th ln ti 10000 my. H thng c trung (v d: thnh ph San Antonio M) s dng di tn 50-330 MHz c 40 knh, tng chiu di ng cp ln ti 6000 Km, vi trn 2000 b khuych i ng trc, 11000 b khuych i thu bao. S thu bao c th ln ti 420000 my. H thng c ln c th truyn ti ti 150 knh truyn hnh trn ng trc c bng thng 950 MHz. Mng cp trong CATV thng c cu trc dng "cy" s dng cp ng trc hoc dng
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hn hp, s dng cp quang v cp ng trc (Hybrid Fiber Coaxial system). Trong mng HFC, cp quang c s dng thay cho cp ng trc trn ng trc. Vic s dng cp quang cho php nng cao dung lng ng truyn, nng cao cht lng tn hiu, gim chi ph lp t.
Hnh 4.1.11 S khi mng CATV tiu biu, s dng cp quang v cp ng trc (Hybrid Fiber Coaxial system). Hin nay, nc ta c 16 n v ng dng trin khai truyn hnh cp ti cc a phng nh: H Ni, Hi Phng,Thi Bnh, TPHCM, Nng, Cn Th... Theo s liu ca B VHTT, h thng truyn hnh cp phc v khong 350000 thu bao trn c nc. Cc nh cung cp dch v CATV Vit Nam ang dng cng ngh tng t (analog) cung cp cc chng trnh truyn hnh qua ng cp ng trc. Tn hiu trong cc h thng CATV hin nay thng khng b m ha, do cc thu bao c th chia s chng trnh cho nhiu my thu trong nh. Ti Tp HCM, SCTV l cng ty u tin pht trin h thng truyn hnh cp qua mng cp quang v cp ng trc hn hp CATV. Truyn hnh cp SCTV cho php tip nhn ~50 knh quc t v knh trong nc, pht sng lin tc 24/24 gi hng ngy. Ngoi cng ngh CATV, hin nay ti nc ta, cc chng trnh truyn hnh cn c chuyn ti bng nhiu cng ngh khc nh vi ba nhiu knh (MMDS), DTH, truyn hnh s mt t DVB-T v truyn hnh qua mng Internet. Truyn hnh cp MMDS (Multi-media Microwave Distribution System) l mt h thng dch v truyn hnh qua h thng viba nhiu knh, lm vic trn di tn 2.7 GHz. Nm 1995 dch v MMDS c i THVN a vo s dng. y l h thng dch v truyn hnh s dng cng ngh analog tng i lc hu. Mt knh truyn hnh MMDS chim di tn khong 8 Mhz. Hin nay h thng MMDS khng cn c pht trin, thay vo l cc h thng phn phi tin tin hn nh truyn hnh cp hay truyn hnh qua v tinh.
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Chng 4 ng dng k thut x l m thanh v hnh nh trong vin thng 4.1.2.4.2 Cng ngh IPTV
Ngy nay, cng ngh ng dy thu bao s (DSL Digital Subcriber Line) cho php cc nh cung cp dch v vin thng cung cp bng thng rng n khch hng: 20 Mbps (ADSL2+) v 50Mbps(VDSL). S pht trin ca cng ngh Video, cc chun nn mi ra i nh: H.264, MPEG-4 v Windows Media Video cho php nn video hiu qu hn chun MPEG-2; Cng vi s ra i ca b nh tuyn (Router), chuyn mch (Switch), nh hng dch v (Service Oreinted) c hiu sut hot ng cao, cng giao tip ln (10 Gbps) m bo cht lng dch v (QoS) lp 2, lp 3. Tt c cc yu t nu trn to iu kin cho cc nh cung cp dch v vin thng nhanh chng, d dng xy dng v trin khai cung cp a dch v (Triple Play: ThoiVideo-Data) c tnh cnh tranh cao trn mt c s h tng mng chung vi chi ph thp. ng dng truyn thng a phng tin qua mng Internet tr thnh mc tiu quan trng i vi cc nh nghin cu v thit k h thng. Thng tin lin lc gia con ngi c nng ln tm cao mi qua vic truyn hnh nh cht lng cao trong cc mng Internet th h mi. Mc tiu ra l h tr cc ng dng pht trin a dch v trn mng, ng thi phi ti u ho c nng lc mng li ca nh cung cp dch v v m bo ti a v cht lng cho khch hng. Nh vy vn t ra l gim tc truyn d liu, m bo cht lng dch v (QoS), nng cao kh nng bo mt, pht cng sut hiu qu v tng kh nng chng li trong mi trng c nhiu. Ti Vit Nam, dch v truyn tn hiu video IPTV c thc hin trn mng DSL (Digital Subscriber Line - ng dy thu bao s). DSL l cng ngh truyn dn d liu tc cao trn i dy cp ng truyn thng. DSL tn dng khong bng thng rng cha s dng n trn i dy cp ng (t 4Khz n 1Mhz) truyn d liu vi tc cao. Mt s u im ni bt ca mng DSL: C th kt ni Internet v s dng in thoi ng thi trn cng mt ng dy. Kh nng truyn ti d liu vi tc cao hn modem tng t rt nhiu: ADSL c tc ti d liu xung (download) t 1,5 -8 Mb/s nhanh hn modem 56K 140 ln v ISDN 128K 60 ln. Kt ni dnh ring cho mi thu bao DSL nn hn ch c tnh trng nghn mch. Vi cc u im trn, DSL c s dng rng ri cung cp cc dch v thoi, truyn d liu, hnh nh, m thanh, truy cp Internet, hi ngh truyn hnh, tr chi trc tuyn (Games on Line), xem phim theo yu cu(VoD), xem tivi trc tuyn (tng t nh truyn hnh cp) v cc loi dch v bng thng rng khc. Tc xDSL s ph thuc phn ln vo cng ngh s dng, v d cng ngh IDSL t tc ti a 144 Kb/s trong khi VDSL t tc ln hn 10 Mb/s (max 52Mb/s).
s dng cc dch v xDSL, thu bao cn lp t modem hoc router xDSL, thng c gi l ATU-R (ADSL Transceiver Unit - Remote terminal) c ngha chung l thit b u cui. Trong khi nh cung cp dch v (v d nh Ngnh Bu in) cn c DSLAM hoc n v ng dy bng rng (theo thit b tng i) hoc t tip cn thu bao bng rng (c lp vi thit b tng i), tt c gi chung l thit b trung tm kt ni xDSL (ATU - C hay ADSL Transceiver Unit Central). Thng thng, cc thit b u cui c th kt ni vi thit b khch hng qua cng USB, cng Ethernet 10 Base T hay qua giao tip PCI bn trong my tnh. i vi nh cung cp dch v DSL, h thng DSLAM thc hin tip nhn v tch hp cc kt ni DSL, a vo ng truyn chung dung lng cao n mng din rng (WAN) hay Internet. H thng ATU-C c th h tr
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Chng n 4 ng dng k thut x l m th hanh v hnh nh trong vi v n thng

nhiu loi cng ng gh, giao thc v phng php iu ch xDSL khc k nhau. Mng ngi dng o (Home gate eway c th l modem ADSL, A b nh tuyn), giao tip vi mng gm mt cng vo ca nh h cung cp c c nhim v nhn ngun hnh IPTV, VoD v ph n pht n cc c STB (Set t Top Box). Thi T t b u cui (End po oint) : STB, P Phone, Mobi ile.c th dng d cp ng n CAT5e UTPU 4 pair hoc ng g truyn v tu uyn (WiFi , Digital Enh hanced Cord dless Telecom mmunication ns) g kt ni vo Home gateway. Vi tc pht p trin ca mng Inter rnet bng th ng rng (AD DSL) hin na ay, th nhu cu s dng cc c dch v gia g tng trn mng l xu hng tt yu. IPTV v VoD l dch h v gia tng g mi xut hin Vit Nam. N Dch v ny khng nm ngoi xu x hng tch h hp cng ngh n (Triple Play: deo) ca ng nh cng ngh h truyn th ng trong t ng lai. Cc chuyn gia nhn Data - Voice - Vid ng n trong mt vi nm ti. nh dch v ny s tht s bn Ngoi cc tin ch v nhu N u cu gii tr trc tuyn th h trong tn ng lai cc tin ch p ng g cho nhu cu thit thc ca khch hng cng s c trin khai k nh : mu ua sm trc tuyn , d bo b t gi ngo oi t, d bo o thi tit, tra ao i thng tin gia khc ch hng vi n nhau thng qua q giao din TV.
Hn nh 4.1.12 Mt s dch v c trin kh hai trn mng ADSL Hin nay VN H V c hai nh h cung cp dch v IPTV V l: FPT v VNPT vi s thu bao l 300 (VNPT T ang th ng ghim) , 100 00 (FPT). P ng thc truyn: Bro Ph oadcast v un nicast qua mng IP s dn ng cp ng v v cp quang g trn nn bng rng. K thut: Vi ideo s nn theo t chun M MPEG-2, phn gii ca ao nht 720x5 576 pixels c kh nng pht p trin ln phn gii 1920x1280p pixels (chun HDTV) Thit b u cui: Khi xem T x truyn hnh trn PC th khng cn thit b u cui, Nu xem truyn hnh qua TV V th cn phi c STB. Cc dch v: IPTV, inter C rnet, VoD, MoD, M VPN, WAN W v cc dch v mua a, bn, thanh h ton qua mng. Dch v IPT TV c Bu in Th nh ph H Ch Minh th h nghim ti mt s khu u vc trong thnh t ph vi khong 300 0 im vi nh hiu c ly kh hc nhau (trong khong c ch cp t 0.5 km -> 5km m). Nhn xt chung v dch c v nh sau u: y l dch v mi gy ch vi khch hng, tuy nh hin cn thiu cc dch v a dng g nh: phim ch c t lng c cao, xem cc chng trn nh truyn hn nh, ca nhc theo
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yu cu chi game trn TV, chat trn TVv.v Cha xc nh c gi thnh lp t v thu bao hp l (khng qu cao so vi truyn hnh cp), nn c nhiu mc ph theo cc nhm chng trnh t chn. Nh cung cp nn h tr mt phn chi ph thit b STB cho khch hng do gi thit b STB hin nay cn kh cao. Cht lng hnh nh v m thanh tha mn nhu cu 90% mu th. Cht lng dch v ch n nh trong phm vi khong cch cp ng nh hn 3.5 km. i vi cc khu vc cha c ADSL2+ th cha th trin khai dch v c v bng thng ng truyn khng m bo. n nh : cao.
Kh nng p ng nhu cu dch v IPTVca mng vin thng Vit Nam Hin nay, vi mng ADSL c tc truyn tng i chm, nn ch trin khai c mt s dch v n gin tch hp trong IPTV. c th trin khai thnh cng dch v IPTV vi nhiu tin ch mi th mng bng rng ng vai tr tin quyt, bi v ch c mng bng rng mi c th bo m cung cp y bng thng theo yu cu cho cc dch v IPTV (nh truyn hnh, video, Games,v.v..). Th trng bng rng ti Vit Nam ang trong giai on pht trin bng n nhu cu v cn rt nhiu tim nng. S lng thu bao bng rng Vit nam t xp x 200.000 vi s tham gia ca cc nh cung cp dch v VNPT, FPT Telecom, Viettel, SPT,.. D kin n cui nm 2006, s lng thu bao bng rng ca Vit Nam s t khong 300.000 v n 2008 s lng ny s pht trin ln ti 800.000 1.000.000 thu bao. ng thi vi vic trin khai cc cng ngh hu tuyn xDSL/PON v cng ngh v tuyn bng rng (WiFi/WiMAX, CDMA,) ca cc nh cung cp dch v Vit Nam, th IPTV li cng c c hi pht trin mnh m v bo m cho s thnh cng ca loi hnh dch v mi ny.
4.2 CC TIU CHUN M HO M THANH V HNH NH TRONG

TRUYN THNG A PHNG TIN
4.2.1 Cc tiu chun ca ITU- T cho m thanh

Cc tiu chun ITU-T cho m thanh bao gm G.711 G.722 G.722.1 G.722.2 G.723 G.723.1 G.726 G.728 G.729 G.729.1 G.729a G.711 l chun ITU-T dng cho thoi ch yu trong cc h thng tng i, c pht hnh chnh thc vo nm 1972. G.711 trnh by cc mu iu ch xung m logarit cho tn hiu bng tn thoi, tn s ly mu l 8000 mu trong mt giy. C hai gii thut chnh c nh ngha trong chun ny, gii thut -law dng khu vc Bc M, Nht v gii thut A-law dng khu vc Chu u v nhng nc cn li. C hai gii thut u tnh ton trn hm m logarit, nhng gii thut A-law c thit k c bit vi mc ch n gin ha qu trnh tnh ton. Hai gii thut -law c m ha dng cc mu PCM tuyn tnh 14-bit v A-Law l 13-bit vi mu 8-bit. Nh vy, b m ha G.711 s to c lung d liu bit c tc 64kbit/giy vi tn s ly mu l 8kHz. G.722 l chun ITU-T dng cho m ha ting ni bng tn rng hot ng vi tc truyn 32-64 kbit/giy. Cng ngh m ha da trn vic phn chia bng tn ADPCM.
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G.722.1 cho php nn d liu vi tt bit thp. Mt bin th mi ca G722.1 l G.722.2, c bit di tn l AMR-WB (Adaptive Multirate Wideband), cho php nn vi tc thp hn na, c th p ng tt vi cc kiu nn khc nhau cng nh thch nghi vi tnh cht ca mng. Trong trng hp sau, khi mng b nghn, coder s tng h s nn to ra dng bits c tc thp, khi mng ht nghn s quay tr v trng thi bnh thng,khi ch tc bit cao v mc nn thp hn c phc hi. Chun G.722 x l d liu m thanh ti tc ly mu 16kHz, gp i tc x l ti cc giao tip thoi truyn thng, kt qu l cht lng thoi tt hn. Chun G.722.1, c bit qua tn khc l Siren, l mt chun quc t cho m ha m thanh bng rng tc 24 v 32 kbps (bng thng thoi 50Hz-7kHz, tn s ly mu l 16 kHz), s dng trong cc h thng hi ngh truyn hnh c ph chun vo 30 thng 09 nm 1999. Chun G.722.1 l b nn da trn s bin i ti u ha cho c m thoi ln nhc. phc tp tnh ton tng i thp i vi b nn cht lng cao, tr ca gii thut ti hai im u cui l 40ms. Phin bn G.722.1/Annex C, c ph chun bi ITU-T vo 14 thng 05 nm 2005, cn c bit thng qua tn Siren14, c pht trin bi Polycom cho php truyn khng cn bn quyn vi tn s ly mu 14kHz. Thc t, c ba loi m ha ITU u c chung mt tn l G.722. u tin, G.722 l m ha vi tn s 7kHz, s dng ADPCM hot ng vi tc truyn 48-64kbps. Mt phin bn khc G.722.1 hot ng vi tc d liu bng mt na nhng c cht lng tt nh G.722 vi phng php m ha da vo nn tng chuyn i. V chun G.722.2, hot ng vi m thoi bng tn rng vi tc bit truyn rt thp, s dng gii thut CELP-based. V vn bn quuyn, n thi im ny, giy ng k bn quyn cho G.722 ht hn, cho nn hin ti chun ny c xem nh l chun min ph. G.722.1 thuc bn quyn ca tp on Polycom v chun G.722.2 cn c tn l AMR-WB, thuc quyn s hu ca tp on VoiceAge. G.722.2 (GSM AMR WB) Adaptive Multi Rate - WideBand hay AMR-WB l mt chun m ha ting ni c pht trin sau khi AMR s dng cng cng ngh tng t nh ACELP. M cung cp cht lng m thoi tt v s dng bng tn thoi rng hn 50-7000 Hz khi so vi cc m m thoi bng hp hin ang dng rng ri trong cc POTS vi 300-3400Hz. AMR-WB c h thng ha thnh G.722.2, l mt chun m ha m thoi chun ITU-T. Cc trng thi hot ng ca M: AMR-WB hot ng tng t AMR vi nhiu tc bit khc nhau gm: 6.60; 8.85; 12.65; 14.25; 15.85; 18.25; 19.85; 23.05 v 23.85 kbps. Tn hiu truyn vi tc thp nht cho cht lng thoi tt nht ng vi mi trng khng nhiu l 12.65 kbps. Tc bit cao rt hu dng trong mi trng c nhiu v trong trng hp tn hiu truyn l m nhc. Tc bit 6.60 v 8.85 cung cp cht lng chp nhn c so vi m ha bng tn hp. AMR-WB c chun ha cho vic s dng trong tng lai trong cc h thng mng nh UMTS. Chun ny cung cp cht lng thoi tt hn rt nhiu v c chn dng cho nhiu mng c h tr cho bng rng. Thng 10 nm 2006, kim nghim AMR-WB ln u tin c thc hin trn h thng mng thc do T-Mobile v Ericssion phi hp ti c.
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G.723 l mt chun ITU-T m ha m thoi bng tn rng, l chun m rng ca G.721 iu ch xung sai phn tng thch vi tc truyn 24 v 40 kbps. Hin nay G.723 c thay th bi chun G.276, do hin ti chun ny l li thi. Chun G.723.1 l chun m ha m thanh cho thoi vi tnh nng nn thoi trong khung 30 ms hoc 7.5ms. Chun G.723.1 ch yu dng trong cc ng dng Voice over IP (VoIP) v yu cu bng thng thp. C hai tc bit m G.723.1 c th hot ng: 6.3 kbit/s (s dng khung 24 byte), dng gii thut MPC-MLQ (MOS 3.9) 5.3 kbit/s (s dng khung 20 byte) dng gii thut ACELP (MOS 3.62) G.726 l chun m ha ting ni ITU-T ADPCM truyn m thanh vi cc tc 16, 24, 32, v 40 kbps. L chun thay th cho c G.721 (ADPCM tc 32kbps) v chun G.723 (ADPCM vi tc 24 v 40 kbps). G.726 hot ng vi tn s l 16 kbps. Bn tc bit thng s dng cho chun G.726 tng ng vi kch thc ca mt mu theo th t l 2-bits, 3-bits, 4bits, v 5-bits. Tc thng dng l 32 kbps, bng mt na so vi chun G.711, nh vy,dung lng ca mng s tng ln 50%. Thng thng chun ny c dng trong cc mng in thoi quc t cng nh h thng in thoi khng dy DECT. G.721 c gii thiu ln u tin vo nm 1984, trong khi chun G.723 c gii thiu vo nm 1988. C hai c gp chung thnh chun G.726 vo nm 1990. G.727 c gii thiu cng thi im vi G.726, cng tc bt nhng ti u hn cho mi trng PCME Packet Circuit Multiplex Equipment. iu ny t c bng cch nhng b lng t ha 2 bit vo b lng t ha 3 bit, cho php hy b bit c trng s nh nht trong chui bit truyn m khng c nh hng xu n tn hiu m thoi. G.728 l chun ITU-T m ha m thoi vi tc 16kbps. Cng ngh s dng l LDCELP, Low Delay Code Excited Linear Prediction. tr ca m ch 5 mu ( 0.625 ms). D on tuyn tnh c thc hin tnh ton vi b lc LPC ngc bc 50. Ng vo kch thch c to ra m bo nhn c li VQ. Chun c a ra vo nm 1992 di dng gii thut m du chm ng. Nm 1994, bn dng cho du chm tnh c pht hnh. G.728 c tc ln n 2400 bps. G.729 l mt gii thut nn d liu m thanh dng cho tn hiu thoi, nn tn hiu m thanh vi khung 10 ms. G.729 a s dng trong cc ng dng Voice over IP (VoIP) vi yu cu bng tn thp. Chun G.729 hot ng tc 8 kbps, nhng cc phin bn m rng c th hot ng ti 6.4 kbps i vi mi trng truyn xu v 11.8 kbps vi yu cu cht lng thoi tt hn. Trong thc t, ngi ta thng dng chun G.729a, tng t nh G.729 nhng c tnh ton n gin hn, tuy nhin chun ny c cht lng thoi km hn. Phin bn G.729b l mt chun c bn quyn, s dng module VAD pht hin tn hiu thoi hay phi thoi. N cng bao gm mt module DTX dng quyt nh nng cp cc thng s nhiu nn cho tn hiu phi thoi (cc khung nhiu). Cc khung ny c truyn thc hin vic nng cp ny c gi l cc khung SID. Mt b to nhiu (CNG) cng c tch hp trong chun ny, bi v trong mt knh truyn, nu vic truyn b dng li v l do tn hiu l tn hiu phi thoi, th site cn li s xem nh ng kt ni ny b t. V th khi s dng chun ny cn phi thn trng. Nhng nm gn y, chun G.729 c nghin cu m rng h tr cho tn hiu m
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thoi bng tn rng v m ha m thanh thnh chun G.729.1. B m ha G.729.1 c thit k theo m hnh phn cp, tc bit v cht lng iu hiu chnh n gin bng cch thc ct gim chui bit truyn. G.729.1 thm chc nng bng tn rng so vi G.729 thng qua cc lp c nhng vo. Lp u tin trn cng G.729 (12kps) vn l dng bng tn hp. Lp k tip c tc 14 kbps (tc truyn tng ln 2kbps). Cc lp khc s c tc tng dn tng bc 2 kbps lm gia tng cht lng tn hiu. Cc m c pht trin bi s phi hp ca cc t chc: France Telecom, tp on Mitsubishi Electric, tp on Nippon Telegraph v Telephone (NTT), v Universit de Sherbrooke.
4.2.2 Cc tiu chun ca ITU- T cho nh tnh v video. 4.2.2.1 Chun H261 Chun H.261 l chun ITU m ha tn hiu video nm 1990 c a ra truyn trn h thng ng dy ISDN vi cc tc d liu l s nhn ca 64 kbps. Tc d liu ca gii thut m ha c a ra c th hot ng c gia 40 kbps v 2 Mbps. Chun h tr cc khung video CIF v QCIF vi phn gii 352x288 v 176x144 theo th t tng ng (v 4:2:0 mu vi phn gii mu l 176x144 v 88x72 theo th t tng ng). Chun ny c hiu chnh nm 1994, cho php nng cht lng tn hiu video nn ln ti phn gii 704x576.
Chun H.261 l chun m ha tn hiu video s u tin c p dng trong thc t. Vic thit k chun H.261 l mt n lc tin phong, cc chun m ha video ton cu sau ny (MPEG1, MPEG-2/H.262, H.263, v ngay c H.264) cng ch yu da trn chun ny. Ngoi ra, cac phng php c s dng bi hi ng pht trin H.261 (ng u l Sakae Okubo) cng tc pht trin chun vn c ng dng trong cc vic m ha theo cc chun sau ny: l gii thut m ha dng k thut b chuyn ng v m ha trong khng gian nh (c ng dng trong chun JPEG). Trong H261, d on hnh nh ni ti s c thc hin vi c ch loi b d tha trong thi gian da trn cc vector chuyn ng. Khi m ha trong nh, cc block 8x8 im nh s c chuyn i cosin ri rc 8x8 (DCT) dng loi b cc d tha khng gian, cc h s bin i lng t c c ra theo ng zig-zag v m ha entropy loi b cc d tha thng k. Chun H.261 khng ch nh r phng php m ha video (v d: phng php d tm vector chuyn ng). Cc nh thit k b m ha c t do trong vic a ra cc gii thut m ha ca ring h.
4.2.2.2 Chun H.262 Chun H.262 l mt chun m ha video s ITU-T. Chun ny lin quan n phn video ca chun ISO/IEC MPEG-2 (c bit di ci tn ISO/IEC 13818-2). Chun ny c pht trin do s hp tc ca ITU-T v cc t chc ISO/IEC JTC 1, v tr thnh chun chung cho c hai t chc ny. ITU-T Recommendation H.262 v ISO/IEC 13818-2 c pht trin v pht hnh di dng l chun quc t. Hai ti liu ny m t hu ht tt c cc kha cnh ca chun. 4.2.2.3 Chun H263 Chun H.263 l chun m ha ITU-T thit k vo nm 1995/1996 dng cho gii php m ha nn tc truyn thp cho cc dch v hi ngh truyn hnh.
M u tin c thit k trong cc h thng H.324 (PSTN hoc cc mch chuyn mch
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mch khc truyn dch v hi ngh truyn hnh v in thoi truyn hnh), cng nh trong cc h thgn dng m H.323 (hi ngh truyn hnh RTP/IP-based), H.320 (hi ngh truyn hnh ISDNbased), RTSP (phng tin truyn thng dng streaming) v SIP (hi ngh Internet). Hu ht ni dung Flash Video( dng trn cc site nh YouTube, Google Video, MySpace, v.v.) c m ha di dng nh dng ny, tuy vn c site s dng m ha VP6, h tr phin bn Flash 8. Tn hiu video H.263 c th c gii m bng th vin phi bn quyn LGPL-licensed dng trong cc chng trnh nh VLC media player v MPlayer. Chun H.263 c pht trin nh l mt phin bn nng cp da trn chun H.261, v chun MPEG-1, MPEG-2. Phin bn u tin c hon thnh vo nm 1995 v hon ton c th thay th cho H.261 vi tt c cc tc truyn. Hin ti c thm cc phin bn H.263v2 (cn gi l chun H.263+ 1998) v chun H.263v3 (H.263++ 2000).
4.2.2.4 Chun H264 Chun H.264, MPEG-4 Part 10, hay AVC (dng cho Advanced Video Coding), l mt chun m ha video s vi nn cc cao, l kt qu ca ITU-T Video Coding Experts Group (VCEG) kt hp vi ISO/IEC Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG), c xem l sn phm thng mi Joint Video Team (JVT). Chun ITU-T H.264 v ISO/IEC MPEG-4 Part 10(ISO/IEC 14496-10) ng dng cc cng ngh nn nh tin tin. Phin bn nhp u tin c hon thnh vo thng 05 nm 2003.
Chun H.264 c t tn theo cng dng ITU-T H.26x ca cc chun video, trong khi tn AVC c t tn da theo tn d n hp tc, vi tn ca d n l H.26L. Chun cn c gi bng cc tn khc H.264/AVC, AVC/H.264, H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, MPEG-4/H.264 AVC nhm nhn mnh tnh k tha. i khi, cn c gi l m ha JVT vi l do l t chc JVT pht trin. Mc ch ca d n H.264/AVC l to ra mt chun c kh nng cung cp tn hiu video cht lng cao vi cc tc bit truyn thp, nh hn hay bng mt na so vi tc ca cc chun trc ( nh MPEG-2, H.263, hay MPEG-4 Part 2) vi tnh ng dng cao trong thc t. Ngoi ra, chun phi p ng yu cu cung cp cch thc linh ng cho php chun c ng dng rng ri trong nhiu trnh ng dng ( v d cho c tc bit cao v thp hoc phn gii cao hoc thp, v chy n nh trong nhiu h thng cng nh mng (mc ch broadcast, lu tr DVD, truyn qua mng gi RTP/IP, v cc h thng tng i)
4.2.2.5 Chun JVT Chun JVT hon thnh vic nng cp, pht trin mt s tnh nng m rng so vi chun nguyn thu, c bit di tn l Fidelity Range Extensions (FRExt). Cc phin bn m rng h tr m ha video vi trung thc cao bng cch thc gia tng chnh xc ly mu (bao gm m ha 10-bit v 12-bit) vi thng tin mu phn gi cao (gm cc cu trc ly mu nh YUV 4:2:2 v YUV 4:4:4). Mt s tnh nng khc trong d n Fidelity Range Extensions ( nh php bin i s nguyn chuyn mch tng thch 44 v 88, cc ma trn trng s lng t ha da trn gic quan, m ha khng mt mt hnh ni ti hiu qu, h tr cc khng gian mu cng thm v php bin i mu s d). Cng vic thit k trong d n c hon thnh vo thng 7 nm 2004 v phin bn nhp c ra mt vo thng 09 nm 2004.
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TM TT CHNG 4 Trong chng bn chng ta cp ti mt vn quan trng trong h thng truyn dn tn hiu m thanh v hnh nh l lu tr d liu. Trong i truyn hnh lun tn ti cc h thng lu tr d liu khng l c s dng lu tr nhng thc phim t liu qu gi. S lng phim nh cn lu tr tng lin tc. Cc nh dng video s cht lng cao (HDTV) cng i hi khng gian lu tr tng ng k so vi tn hiu video analog trc y. Ti phn ny, chng ta ln lt nhc li cc cng ngh lu tr d liu tng t, ng dng trong k thut ghi hnh nghip d (VHS, SVHS, Video-8) cng nh chuyn nghip (Quadruplex Ampex) n cc cng ngh ghi tn hiu s hin i trn a quang (CD, DVD, HD-DVD, Blue-Ray). Trong phn ny, khng th khng nhc n cc h thng lu tr chuyn dng c dung lng ln v thi gian truy cp nhanh da trn h thng cng c cu hnh theo nguyn l RAID-0...6. Cui cng, ti liu ny cng gii thiu s b v cc h thng lu tr d liu lu di trn cc bng t chuyn dng LTO v DTF. H thng lu tr l mt h thng thit b phc tp, cho php tm d liu, ghi/c d liu t ng c th lp trnh trc, thit b lu tr d phng t ng, vt liu lu tr (bng t, CD, DVD v.v.) v cc thit b h tr nh h thng iu ha, h thng duy tr m, chng chy v.v. Cc h thng lu tr trn bng t, a quang v a cng c c tnh s dng khc nhau, bao gm c u im v nhc im. Ty theo ng dng c th, da trn cc kt qu phn tch trn, chng ta c th la chn cu hnh h thng lu tr ph hp, t hiu qu kinh t cao nht. Phn tip theo ca chng 4 gii thiu vi bn c mt s phng php phn phi tn hiu m thanh v hnh nh qua mng vin thng. Tn hiu m thanh cng nh hnh nh hin nay c a ti ngi dng thng qua cc knh truyn v tuyn cng nh hu tuyn. Trong phn ny c cp ti gii php truyn tn hiu m thanh qung b qua ng v tuyn, trong , ch yu dnh thi gian gii thiu v phng php hnh thnh v phn phi tn hiu m thanh lp th (stereo) FM. Cc h thng truyn hnh c nhc n trong phn ny bao gm: - H thng truyn hnh qung b (dng knh v tuyn trn mt t) - H thng truyn hnh s mt t - H thng truyn hnh v tinh DTH - H thng truyn hnh cp (CATV) - H thng truyn hnh qua mng (IPTV) Sau cng, trong chng 4 c gii thiu mt s tiu chun m ho m thanh v hnh nh ng dng trong truyn thng a phng tin. Ton b cc tiu chun ITU-T cho m thanh v hnh nh, nu cn, bn c c th tm c trong cc trang web c lit k trong cc ti liu tham kho. CU HI V BI TP CHNG 4 1. Tm dung lng b nh cn thit lu tr 10 pht d liu video s HDTV 1920x1080/P/50, ly mu theo tiu chun 4:2:2, lng t ha vi 10 bits/mu. 2. Phn tch u im v nhc im ca h thng lu tr d liu ln bng t. 3. Cho bit khc bit gia bng ghi hnh VHS v VHS-C 5. So snh hai tiu chun ghi hnh VHS v SVHS. Hai chun ny c tng thch vi nhau hay khng?
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6. Nu ra cc u im v cc nhc im ca chun ghi hnh Video-8 ca Sony. 7. Cho bit s khc bit gia cc chun ghi hnh DVCPRO-25, DVCPRO-50 v DVCPRO100. 8. Tn hiu video 1920x1080i/60 4:4:4, 10 bits/mu di 15 pht c ghi ln bng hnh HDCAM-SR. Tn hiu video ni trn c nn theo chun MPEG-4 vi t l nn 2:1. Thnh phn m thanh bao gm 12 knh c m ha vi 48kHz/24 bits. Tnh khi lng d liu c lu trn bng hnh trn. 9. Phn tch u im v nhc im ca h thng lu tr d liu ln a quang. 10. Trnh by nguyn l ghi a quang nhiu lp. Cho bit nguyn nhn chnh hn ch s lng lp ghi trn mt mt a quang? 11. So snh khc bit ca cc loi a quang CD, DVD, HD DVD, Blue-Ray. 12. Phn tch u im v nhc im ca h thng lu tr d liu trn h thng cng 13. Trnh by c ch lm vic ca h thng RAID-0 ...5. So snh u v nhc im ca tng cu hnh. Cu hnh RAID no thng c s dng trong h thng lu tr thng tin hnh nh? 15. Phn tch phng php m ha tn hiu FM stereo s dng tn hiu pilot. 16. Cho bit phng php iu ch tn hiu video trong h thng truyn hnh qung b (truyn hnh analog, pht sng trn mt t). 17. Phn tch u im v nhc im ca h thng phn phi chng trnh s dng knh truyn v tuyn. 18. Phn tch chc nng cc thnh phn trong h thng truyn thng tin qua v tinh. 19.Tng hp cc c im chnh ca h thng truyn tin qua v tinh. So snh vi h thng truyn tin viba. 20. Trnh by cu trc h thng truyn hnh cp CATV. Phn tch u im v nhc im ca h thng truyn hnh cp. 21. Trong trng hp no nn s dng cu trc mng cp quang v cp ng trc hn hp (Hybrid Fiber Coaxial system) cho h thng CATV? 22. Nhng dch v no c th tch hp trong mng xDSL. 23. Cho bit nhng phng php nn tn hiu c s dng trong h thng IPTV. Yu t no quyt nh cht lng dch v truyn hnh IPTV? TI LIU THAM KHO [1.] [2.] [3.] [4.] [5.] John Watkinson, An Introduction To Digital Audio, Focall Fress, 1994. Mark Kahrs, Applications of Digital Signal Processing to Audio and Acoustics, Kluwer Academic Publisher, 2002. L. R. Rabiner, R. W. Schafer, Digital Processing of Speech Signals, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1978. Yiteng (Arden) Huang Jacob Benesty, Audio Signal Processing for Next-Generation Multimedia Communication System, Kluwer Academic Publisher. Davide Rocchesso, Introduction to Sound Processing. http://www.sci.univr.it/~rocchess
239

[6.] [7.] [8.] [9.] [10.] [11.] [12.] [13.] [14.] [15.] [16.] [17.] [18.] [19.] Gio trnh x l tn hiu s - i Hc Bch Khoa TP. HCM. Wai C. Chu, Speech coding Algorithms, Wiley-Interscience, 2003 Website: http://www.dcs.shef.ac.uk/~stu/com326/index.html Website: http://www.generation5.org/content/2001/markov.asp Anil K. Jain, Fundamentals of Digital Image Processing, Prentice Hall, 1988. J. R. Parker, Algorithms for Image Processing and Computer Vision, Wiley, 1996. Alan C. Bovik , Handbook of Image and Video Processing, Academic Press, 2000. John R. Deller, John H. L. Hansen, John G. Proakis, Discrete-Time Processing of Speech Signals, Wiley-IEEE Press, 1999. R. C. Gonzalez, R. E. Woods, Steven L. Eddins, Digital Image Processing Using MATLAB, Prentice Hall, 2003. R. C. Gonzalez, R. E. Woods Digital Image Processing , Prentice Hall, 2002. William K. Pratt, Digital Image Processing: PIKS Inside, Third Edition 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Michael Robin & Michel Poulin, Digital Television Fundamental, McCraw-Hill Companies. Inc. Hong Tin, Dng Thanh Phng Truyn hnh k thut s. NXB Khoa hc v k thut, 2004. Lng Mnh B, Nguyn Thanh Thy, Nhp mn x l nh s, NXB Khoa hc v k thut, 1999.
MC LC CHNG 1 GII THIU CHUNG V X L TN HIU 1.1 CC KHI NIM V L THUYT C BN ......................................................... 3 1.1.1 Tn hiu v phn loi tn hiu ................................................................................... 4 1.1.2 Tn hiu ri rc ......................................................................................................... 4 1.1.2.1 Biu din tn hiu ri rc ....................................................................................... 5 1.1.2.2 Cc php bin i tn hiu ri rc .......................................................................... 5 1.1.3 Phn loi h thng .................................................................................................... 6 1.1.3.1 H thng tng t .................................................................................................. 6 1.1.3.2 H thng ri rc ..................................................................................................... 8 1.2 NG DNG K THUT X L M THANH V HNH NH VO MNG BNG THNG A DCH V ............................................................................................................... 11 1.2.1 c im ca multimedia ......................................................................................... 11 1.2.2 Nn tn hiu trong mng a dch v ......................................................................... 12 1.2.3 Lu tr ...................................................................................................................... 12
240

1.2.4 Bng thng................................................................................................................ 13 1.2.5 Cht lng dch v (Quality of Service) .................................................................. 13 1.2.6 Tng tc .................................................................................................................. 14 Tm tt chng 1. ...15 Cu hi v bi tp chng 1 .............................................................................................. 16 CHNG 2 K THUT X L M THANH 2.1 TNG QUAN V X L M THANH ................................................................... 16 2.1.1 Gii thiu s lc v m thanh v h thng x l m thanh .................................... 16 2.1.1.1 c tnh ca m thanh tng t............................................................................. 16 2.1.1.2 Khi nim tn hiu ................................................................................................. 17 2.1.1.3 Phn loi tn hiu ................................................................................................... 17 2.1.1.4 Phn loi h thng x l ........................................................................................ 19 2.1.1.5 H thng s x l m thanh ................................................................................... 20 2.1.1.6 M hnh ha tn hiu m thanh .............................................................................. 20 2.1.1.7 Kin trc h thng s x l m thanh .................................................................... 21 2.1.1.8 Tn s ly mu....................................................................................................... 23 2.1.2 Nhc li mt s khi nim ton hc trong x l m thanh ....................................... 23 2.1.2.1 Php bin i z ...................................................................................................... 23 2.1.2.2 Php bin i Fourier ............................................................................................ 24 2.1.2.3 Php bin i Fourier ri rc ................................................................................. 25 2.2 M HNH X L M THANH ................................................................................ 26 2.2.1 Cc m hnh ly mu v m ho thoi...................................................................... 26 2.2.1.1 Ly mu tn hiu min thi gian v ti to tn hiu lin tc ............................... 26 2.2.1.2 Ly mu tn hiu min tn s v ti to tn hiu lin tc .................................... 27 2.2.1.3 Ly mu tn hiu min tn s v ti to tn hiu ri rc ..................................... 27 2.2.1.4 Cc chun m ha m thoi trong cc h thng x l thoi .................................. 28 2.2.1.5 Kin trc ca h thng m ha m thoi ............................................................... 29 2.2.1.6 Kin trc tng qut ca b m ha gii m m thoi ......................................... 31 2.2.1.7 Cc yu cu cn c ca mt b m ha m thoi .................................................. 32 2.2.2 Cc m hnh dng trong x l m thanh .................................................................. 33 2.2.2.1 M hnh quang ph ................................................................................................ 33 2.2.2.2 M hnh min thi gian ......................................................................................... 36 2.2.2.3 Cc m hnh phi tuyn ........................................................................................... 39 2.2.2.4 M hnh thi gian ri rc ....................................................................................... 41 2.3 L THUYT V CC BI TON C BN ........................................................... 44 2.3.1 Phn tch d on tuyn tnh .................................................................................... 44 2.3.1.1 Bi ton d on tuyn tnh ................................................................................... 44
241

2.3.1.2 Phn tch d on tuyn tnh cho tn hiu ng .................................................... 46 2.3.1.3 Gii thut Levison-Durbin ..................................................................................... 48 2.3.1.4 Gii thut Leroux-Gueguen ................................................................................... 48 2.3.1.5 So snh gii thut Levison-Durbin v Leroux-Gueguen ....................................... 49 2.3.2 D on tuyn tnh trong x l thoi........................................................................ 50 2.3.2.1 M hnh x l tn hiu thoi .................................................................................. 50 2.3.2.2 Cu trc ca gii thut dng m hnh LPC ........................................................... 53 2.4 PHN TCH CHT LNG X L THOI .......................................................... 54 2.4.1 Cc phng php m ho ......................................................................................... 54 2.4.2 Cc tham s lin quan n cht lng thoi ............................................................. 55 2.4.3 Cc phng php nh gi cht lng thoi c bn................................................. 55 2.4.3.1 Phng php nh gi ch quan (MOS) ............................................................... 57 2.4.3.2 Cc phng php so snh da trn m hnh gic quan ......................................... 58 2.5 M HNH NG DNG X L THOI................................................................... 62 2.5.1 M hnh thi gian ng ............................................................................................ 62 2.5.1.1 Tng quan .............................................................................................................. 62 2.5.1.2 Gii thut DTW i xng ...................................................................................... 63 2.5.1.3 Gii thut DTW bt i xng ................................................................................ 65 2.5.2 M hnh chui markov n ......................................................................................... 67 2.5.2.1 Tng quan .............................................................................................................. 67 2.5.2.2 nh ngha m hnh Markov n ............................................................................. 67 2.5.2.3 ng dng HMM trong vic nhn dng m thoi lin tc ...................................... 68 2.5.3 Mng nron .............................................................................................................. 69 2.5.3.1 Tng quan .............................................................................................................. 69 2.5.3.2 Phng php hc ca no ngi ........................................................................... 69 2.5.3.3 T neuron ngi n neuron nhn to................................................................... 70 2.5.3.4 ng dng mng neuron trong nhn dng ting ni ............................................... 71 CHNG 3 K THUT X L HNH NH......................................................... 80 3.1 TNG QUAN V X L NH S .......................................................................... 80 3.1.1 Khi nim c bn v x l nh ................................................................................. 80 3.1.2 Lnh vc ng dng k thut x l nh...................................................................... 80 3.1.3 Cc giai on chnh trong x l nh ......................................................................... 82 3.1.4 Cc phn t ca h thng x l nh s ..................................................................... 83 3.1.5 Biu din nh s ....................................................................................................... 85 3.1.5.1 nh sng, mu sc v hnh nh ............................................................................. 85 3.1.5.2 Mu sc v cc thng s c trng ........................................................................ 88 3.1.5.3 Cc nh lut trn mu c bn ............................................................................... 89
242

3.1.5.4 Khng gian mu RGB ........................................................................................... 90 3.1.5.5 H thng th gic.................................................................................................... 93 3.1.5.6 Biu din tn hiu hnh nh trong khng gian v thi gian.................................... 96 3.1.5.7 Tn hiu video ........................................................................................................ 97 3.1.5.8 Biu din tn hiu nh s ....................................................................................... 101 3.1.6 L thuyt ton ng dng trong x l nh v video s .............................................. 102 3.1.6.1 Cc ton t khng gian .......................................................................................... 103 3.1.6.2 Cc php tnh vi vector v ma trn ...................................................................... 104 3.1.6.3 Biu din h thng tuyn tnh bng ma trn .......................................................... 108 3.1.6.4 Bin i khng gian tn hiu.................................................................................. 111 3.2 PHN TCH CC K THUT X L NH V VIDEO ...................................... 115 3.2.1 Khi nim v quan h gia cc im nh ................................................................. 115 3.2.1.1 Cc im nh ln cn ............................................................................................. 115 3.2.1.2 Mi lin kt (connectivity) .................................................................................... 115 3.2.1.3 Ton t x l im nh.......................................................................................... 116 3.2.2 Cc phng php nng cao cht lng nh .............................................................. 117 3.2.2.1 Nng cao cht lng nh bng ton t im ......................................................... 117 3.2.2.2 Nng cao cht lng nh bng ton t khng gian ............................................... 128 3.2.3 Khi phc nh........................................................................................................... 133 3.2.3.1 M hnh ha qu trnh gy mo v khi phc nh ................................................ 133 3.2.3.2 M hnh nhiu........................................................................................................ 134 3.2.3.3 Trit nhiu bng phng php lc khng gian ...................................................... 136 3.2.3.4 Trit nhiu trong min tn s ................................................................................. 137 3.2.3.5 K thut lc ngc (inverse filter) ....................................................................... 139 3.2.3.6 Lc Wiener ............................................................................................................ 140 3.2.4 Cc phng php xc nh v d on bin nh ...................................................... 142 3.2.4.1 C s pht hin ng bin nh ............................................................................ 142 3.2.4.2 Phng php Gradient ........................................................................................... 143 3.2.4.3 Lm ni bin bng ton t la bn .......................................................................... 147 3.2.4.4 K thut Laplace .................................................................................................... 148 3.2.5 Phn vng nh .......................................................................................................... 152 3.2.5.1 Tng quan v phn vng nh ................................................................................. 152 3.2.5.2 Phn vng nh da theo ng bin ..................................................................... 152 3.2.5.3 Phn vng da trn x l ngng (bin ) (Thresholding) ................................. 156 3.2.6 X l nh mu .......................................................................................................... 160 3.2.6.1 Cc h mu c bn................................................................................................. 160 3.2.6.2 Mt s k thut x l nh mu cn bn ................................................................. 164
243

3.2.6.3 Nhiu trong nh mu ............................................................................................. 175 3.3 CC K THUT NN NH ..................................................................................... 176 3.3.1 Gii thiu chung v k thut nn nh ....................................................................... 176 3.3.2 D tha trong tn hiu............................................................................................... 176 3.3.2.1 d tha s liu.................................................................................................. 176 3.3.2.2 Tiu ch nh gi cht lng hnh nh .................................................................. 177 3.3.3 M hnh h thng nn tn hiu .................................................................................. 178 3.3.4 Cc phng php nn khng tn hao (lossless data reduction) ................................ 179 3.3.4.1 Phng php m ha Huffman .............................................................................. 179 3.3.4.2 Phng php m LZW (Lempel-Ziv-Welch) ........................................................ 179 3.3.4.3 Phng php m ha lot di (RLC - Run Length Coding) .................................. 180 3.3.4.4 Phng php m ha theo vng ng tr ............................................................... 180 3.3.4.5 Phng php m d on khng tn tht .............................................................. 180 3.3.5 Cc phng php nn tn hao (loss data reduction) ................................................. 181 3.3.5.1 Phng php m d on c tn hao .................................................................... 181 3.3.5.2 Cc phng php nn s dng php bin i khng gian tn hiu ........................ 182 3.3.5.3 Cc chun nn nh tnh v nh ng ..................................................................... 183 3.3.5.4 Phng php nn nh tnh theo chun JPEG ......................................................... 184 3.3.5.5 Nn JPEG ly tin ................................................................................................. 190 3.3.5.6 Cc tham s tiu chun ca phng php nn JPEG ............................................ 192 3.3.5.7 Phng php nn nh ng theo chun M-JPEG .................................................. 192 3.3.6 Chun nn nh ng MPEG .................................................................................... 193 3.3.6.1 K thut x l tn hiu trong MPEG ..................................................................... 193 3.3.6.2 M ha tn hiu MPEG .......................................................................................... 196 3.3.6.3 Gii m tn hiu MPEG ......................................................................................... 197 3.3.6.4 Cc thnh phn c bn trong nh nn MPEG ........................................................ 197 3.3.6.5 Tiu chun nn MPEG-2 ....................................................................................... 198 3.3.7 Tiu chun nn MPEG-4 .......................................................................................... 199 3.3.7.1 Video trong MPEG-4............................................................................................. 201 3.3.7.2 Cp ca video MPEG-4 .................................................................................... 201 3.3.7.3 M ha ng nt (shape) ..................................................................................... 201 3.3.7.4 M ha texture ....................................................................................................... 202 3.3.7.5 Sprites .................................................................................................................... 202 3.3.7.6 Scalability .............................................................................................................. 203 3.3.8 ng dng v nh gi kh nng kinh t ca cc tiu chun nn .............................. 203
244

CHNG 4 NG DNG K THUT X L M THANH V HNH NH TRONG VIN THNG 4.1 CC NG DNG CA X L M THANH V HNH NH .............................. 211 4.1.1 Lu tr m thanh v hnh nh................................................................................... 211 4.1.1.1 Bng t .................................................................................................................. 211 4.1.1.2 a quang............................................................................................................... 214 4.1.1.3 Lu tr d liu trn h thng a t (hard disk) .................................................... 218 4.1.2 Phn phi ni dung qua mng vin thng ................................................................ 220 4.1.2.1 Phn phi ni dung qua knh v tuyn.................................................................. 220 4.1.2.2 Truyn thanh qung b .......................................................................................... 221 4.1.2.3 Truyn hnh qung b ............................................................................................ 224 4.1.2.4 Phn phi ni dung qua knh hu tuyn ............................................................... 228 4.2 CC TIU CHUN M HA M THANHV HNH NH TRONG TRUYN THNG A PHNG TIN..................................................... 233 4.2.1 Cc tiu chun ca ITU- T cho m thanh ................................................................. 233 4.2.2 Cc tiu chun ca ITU- T cho nh tnh v video. ................................................... 236 4.2.2.1 Chun H261 ........................................................................................................... 236 4.2.2.2 Chun H.262 .......................................................................................................... 236 4.2.2.3 Chun H263 ........................................................................................................... 236 4.2.2.4 Chun H264 ........................................................................................................... 237 4.2.2.5 Chun JVT ............................................................................................................. 237
245

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HC VIN CNG NGH BU CHNH VIN THNG

Bin son: TS Nguyn Thanh Bnh ThS V Nguyn Quc Bo

Tp. H Ch Minh 10/11/2007 Nhm bin son

Chng 1 Gii thiu chung v x l tn hiu

CHNG 1 GII THIU CHUNG V X L TN HIU

Chng 1 Gii thiu chung v x l tn hiu

1.1.1 Tn hiu v phn loi tn hiu

ca nhiu bin s: m(t ) = f (t , v, f , ) , f - tn s, t - thi gian, v - bin , - trng thi pha.

hiu ri rc l xs ( nTs ) , nTs l bin c lp, ri rc, n l s nguyn, Ts l chu k ly mu.

Chng 1 Gii thiu chung v x l tn hiu

1.1.2.1 Biu din tn hiu ri rc

-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Hnh 1.1.1 Tn hiu ri rc

x (n ) = {..., n (n 1), x (n ), x (n + 1),...}

1.1.2.2 Cc php bin i tn hiu ri rc

Dy x c dch sang tri n0 mu, thnh dy y :

Nh vy mt tn hiu x(n) bt k c th biu din :

Chng 1 Gii thiu chung v x l tn hiu

e- Tn hiu ri rc tun hon vi chu k l N nu tho mn :

* Cng sut trung bnh ca tn hiu ri rc c nh ngha nh sau:

Chng 1 Gii thiu chung v x l tn hiu

1.1.3.1.1 Cc tnh cht ca h thng tng t

b) Tnh bt bin theo thi gian: H thng c gi l bt bin nu

1.1.3.1.2 Cc h thng tuyn tnh bt bin (LTI)

Cc tnh cht ca h thng LTI Tnh nhn qu H thng LTI l nhn qu nu h ( t ) = 0 vi nu h ( t ) = 0 vi

t th h thng l nhn qu.

Chng 1 Gii thiu chung v x l tn hiu

Tnh n nh ca h thng LTI Cho tn hiu vo h thng c gii hn bin :

Trong trng hp ny, h thng s l n nh nu p ng xung ca n tha mn iu kin:

h ( t ) dt < . iu kin ny l cn v h thng LTI l n nh.

H thng LTI khng nh: h thng tuyn tnh bt bin l khng nh nu h ( t ) = 0 vi

Dy vo cn c gi l kch thch, cn dy ra l p ng ca h thng i vi kch thch ang kho st.

1.1.3.2.1 H thng ri rc tuyn tnh bt bin (LTI)

thng c gi l tuyn tnh khi: (1.1.20)

trong a1, a2 l cc hng s.

Chng 1 Gii thiu chung v x l tn hiu

y ( n k ) l p ng ca h thng i vi kch thch x ( n k ) . Nu bin s l thi gian th ta

h ( n ) l p ng xung ca h thng tuyn tnh bt bin, khng ph thuc vo bin k.

x(k )h(n k ) = x(n) h(n)

1.1.3.2.3 H thng tuyn tnh bt bin v n nh

Chng 1 Gii thiu chung v x l tn hiu

nh l: Mt h thng tuyn tnh bt bin c xem l n nh nu v ch nu p ng xung tho mn iu kin sau :

1.1.3.2.4 Phng trnh sai phn tuyn tnh h s hng

dy(t ) y(t ) y(t t ) dt t

1.1.3.2.5 Cc h thng quy v khng quy

Chng 1 Gii thiu chung v x l tn hiu

1.2 NG DNG K THUT X L M THANH V HNH NH

VO MNG BNG THNG A DCH V

Chng 1 Gii thiu chung v x l tn hiu

1.2.2 Nn tn hiu trong mng a dch v

Chng 1 Gii thiu chung v x l tn hiu

1.2.4 Bng thng

1.2.5 Cht lng dch v (Quality of Service)

Chng 1 Gii thiu chung v x l tn hiu

Chng 1 Gii thiu chung v x l tn hiu

ISO MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4

Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh

CHNG 2 K THUT X L M THANH

Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh

Hnh 2.1.5 Tn hiu analog Tn hiu s: l tn hiu ri rc v thi gian, ri rc v gi tr.

s[u ] = s[n i ]ai + e[n]

nT s[n] = ai [n]sin i (t )dt + i i =1 0

Chng 2 K thut x l m thanh

+1.0 Voltage +0.5 0 -0.5 -1.0 Time