EXPANSION OF FUNCTIONS OF ONE & SEVERAL VARIABLES

OBJECTIVES
At the end of this session, you will be able to understand:
Maclaurin’s Theorem
Some Important Expression
Taylor’s Theorems
Function of Two Variables
Total Differential Coefficients

MACLAURIN’S THEOREM: If f(x) can be expanded in ascending powers of x, then

x2 x3 xn n
f ( x) = f (0) + xf '(0) + f ''(0) + f '''(0) + ...... + f (0) + .......
2! 3! n!

Proof.
Suppose f ( x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + ........................an x n + ................ (1)

Where a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 ,........................an are constant to be evaluated.

By successive differentiation (1) w.r.t. x, we get

f '( x) = a1 + 2a2 x + 3a3 x 2 + 4a4 x 3 .......................nan x n −1 + ................(2)

f ''( x) = 2a2 + 3.2a3 x + 4.3a4 x 2 .......................n(n − 1)an x n − 2 + ...........(3)
f '''( x) = 3.2a3 + 4.3.2a4 x....................... + n(n − 1)(n − 2)an x n −3 + .......(4)

In general,

f ''( x) = n(n − 1)(n − 2)............3.2.1an + term containing x ...........(5)

Now putting x = 0 in (1) to (5), we get

f ''(0) f '''(0) f n (0)

a0 = f (0); a1 = f '(0); a2 = ; a3 = ;.........; an = ,.......
2! 3! n!

1
Putting these values of constants in (1), we get
x2 x3 xn n
f ( x) = f (0) + xf '(0) + f ''(0) + f '''(0) + ...... + f (0) + .......
2! 3! n!

If we take f(x) = y; f(0) = (y)0; f’(0) = (y1)0, f”(0) = (y2)0, f’’’(0) = (y3)0;……..f’’(0) = (yn)0, then the
above theorem takes the form as
x2 x3 xn
y = (y)0 + x (y1)0 + ( y 2 ) 0 + ( y 3 ) 0 + ......... + ( y n ) 0 + ......
2! 3! n!

x2 x3 xn
or y = (y)0 + xy1(0) + y 2 (0) + y 3 (0) + ......... + y n (0) + ......
2! 3! n!

SOME IMPORTANT EXPANSIONS:

1. Expansion of ex. (Exponential series):

Let f(x) = e x Then f(0) = e0 = 1;

f ( n ) ( x ) = e x so that f ( n ) ( 0 ) = e0 = 1, where n = 1, 2, 3, ............

Substituting these values in Maclaurin’s series

x2 x3
f ( x) = f (0) + xf '(0) + f ''(0) + f '''(0) + .......
2! 3!

x x2 x3 xn
We get e = 1 + x + + + ...... + + .....
2! 3! n!

2. Expansion of sin x. (Sine series):

Let f(x) = sinx. Then f(0) = 0,

f ’(x) = cosx so that f ’(0) = 1,

f ’’(x) = sinx so that f ’’(0) = 0,

f ’’’(x) = -cosx so that f ’’’(0) = -1, and so on.

 1  1 
In general, f n (x) = sin  x + nπ  so that f n (x) = sin  nπ 
 2  2 

When n = 2m, f n (0) = sin m π = 0 and when n = 2m + 1,

2
 1   1  1 
f n (0) = sin  (2m + 1)π  = sin  mπ + π  = (−1) m sin  π  = (−1) m
2   2  2 
Substituting these values in Maclaurin’s series, we get

x3 x 2 m +1
Sinx = 0 + x.1 + 0 + (−1) + 0 + ...... + 0 + (−1) m + ......
3 (2m + 1)!

x3 x5 x 2 m +1
or Sinx = x - + − ...... + (−1) m + ......
3! 5! (2m + 1)!

Similarly, we may obtain the Cosine series:

x2 x4 x5 x 2m
Cosx = 1 - + − + ....... + (−1) m + .....
2! 4! 6! (2m)!

3. Expansion of log (1+x):

Let f (x) = log (1+x). Then f (0) = log 1 = 0;

(−1) n −1 (n − 1)!
f n (x) =
( x + 1) n

So that f n (0) = (-1)n-1(n-1)!, where n = 1, 2, 3…..

∴ f ’(0) = (-1)1-1 (1-1)! = 1,

f ’’(0) = (-1)2-1(2-1)! = -1!,

f ’’’(0) = (-1)3-1(3-1)! = 3!,

f iv (0)= (-1)4-1(4-1)! = 3!, and so on.

Substituting the values of f (0), f ’(0),f ’’(0), etc. in Maclaurin’s series, we have

x2 xn n
f (x) = f(0) + x f ’(0) + f ' ' (0) + ..... + f (0) + ....,
2! n!

x2 x3 x4 xn
we get log (1 + x) = 0 + x.1 - .1!+ .2!− .3!+..... + (−1) n −1 (n − 1)!+.....
2! 3! 4! n!

x2 x3 x4 n −1 x
n
or log (1 + x) = x - + − + ...... + (−1) + .....
2 3 4 n

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4. Expansion of (1 + x)n. (Binomial series):

Let f(x) = (1 + x )n. Then f (0) = 1;

f m (x) = n(n – 1)(n – 2)….(n – m + 1) (1 + x) n - m

so that f m (0) = n(n - 1)….(n - m + 1), where m = 1, 2, 3, ……

∴ f’(0) = n, f ’’(0) = n(n – 1), f ’’’(0) = n (n-1) (n-2) and so on.

Substituting the values of f (0), f ’(0), f ’’’(0) etc. in Maclaurin’s series for (x), we get

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1).....(n − m + 1) x m +

(1+x) n =1 + nx + x + ..... + ……
2! m!

Example: Expand the following by Maclaurin’s theorem:

(i) tanx (ii) log secx

Solution:
(i) Let y = tanx. Then (y) 0 = tan0 = 0

y1 = sec2x = 1 + tan2x = 1 + y2 so that (y1)0 = 1 + (y)20 = 1 + 0 = 1,

y2 = 2yy1, so that (y2)0 = 2 (y)0 (y1)0 = 2 × 0 × 1 = 0,

y3 = 2y1y1 + 2yy2 = 2y12 + 2yy2 so that (y3)0 = 2 × 12 + 0 = 2 ,

y4 = 4y1y2 + 2y1y2 + 2yy3 = 6 y1y2 + 2yy3 so that (y4)0 = 6× 1 × 0 + 2 × 0 × 2 = 0,

y5 = 6y22 + 6y1y3 + 2y1y3 + 2yy4 = 6y22 + 8y1y3 + 2yy4 so that (y5)0 = 0+8 × 1 × 2 + 0 = 16

and so on.

Now by Maclaurin’s we get

x2 x3 x4 x5
y = ( y )0 + x( y1 )0 + ( y2 )0 + ( y3 )0 + ( y4 )0 + ( y5 ) 0 +................
2! 3! 4! 5!
2 3 4 5
x x x x
∴ tan x = 0 + x.1 + .0 + .2 + .0 + .16 + ...............
2! 3! 4! 5!
3
x 2
= x + + x5 + ........
3 15

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(ii) Let y = log sec x. then (y) 0 = log sec 0 = log 1 = 0,

1
y1 = .sec xtanx = tanx so that ( y1 )0 = 0.
sec x
y2 = sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x = x = 1 + y 21 so that ( y2 )0 = 1 + ( y1 )02 = 1
y3 = 2 y1 y2 so that ( y3 )0 = 2( y1 )0 ( y2 )0 = 0,
y4 = 2 y22 + 2 y1 y3 so that ( y4 )0 = 2 × 12 + 0 = 2
y5 = 4 y2 y3 + 2 y2 y3 + 2 y1 y4 = 6 y2 y3 + 2 y1 y4 so that ( y5 )0 = 6 × 1 × 0 + 2 × 0 × 2 = 0
y6 = 6 y32 + 6 y2 y4 + 2 y2 y4 + 2 y1 y5 = 6 y32 + 8 y2 y4 + 2 y1 y5
so that , ( y6 )0 = 0 + 8 × 1 × 2 + 0 = 16, and so on.

Now by Maclaurin’s theorem, we get

x2 x3 x4
y = ( y ) 0 + x( y1 ) 0 + ( y 2 ) 0 + ( y3 ) 0 + ( y 4 ) 0 + ...........
2! 3! 4!

x2 x3 x4 x5 x6
∴ log sec x = 0 + x.0 + .1 + .0 + .2 + .0 + .16............
2! 3! 4! 4! 4!
2 4 6
x x x
= + + + ........
2 12 45

Example 2: By Maclaurin’s theorems show that

2 x 3 2 2 x 4 2 2 x 5 23 x 7 n nπ x n
e x cos x = 1 + x − − − + + ......... + 2 2 cos . + ...........
3! 4! 5! 7! 4 n!

Solution.

Let y = e x cos x. then ( y )0 = e0 cos 0 = 1

y1 = e x cos x − e x sin x = e x (cos x − sin x), so that ( y1 )0 = 1,
y2 = e x (cos x − sin x) + e x (− sin x − cos x) = −2e x sin x, so that ( y2 )0 = 0,
y3 = −2e x sin x − 2e x cos x = −2e x (sin x + cos x), so that ( y3 )0 = −2,
y4 = −2e x (sin x + cos x) − 2e x (cos x − sin x) = −4e x cos x = −22 y so that ( y 4 )0 = −2,
y5 = −22 y1 , so that ( y5 )0 = −22 , y6 = −22 y2 so that ( y6 )0 = 0,
y7 = −22 y3 so that ( y7 )0 = 23 and so on.

In general,

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 n n
yn = (1 + 1) 2 cos( x + n tan −1 1) = (2) 2 cos( x + nπ / 4)
n 1
so that ( yn )0 = (2) 2 cos( nπ )
4
Now by Maclaurin’s theorem, we get

x2 xn
y = ( y )0 + x( y1 )0 + ( y2 )0 + ............. + ( yn )0 + ...................
2! n!
2 3 4
x x x x5 x6 x7
= 1 + x.1 + .0 + (−2) + (−22 ) + (−22 ) + .0 + 23 + ....
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
n
x 1 
+ 2n 2 cos  π n  + ......
n! 4 
2 x 3 2 2 x 4 2 2 x 5 23 x 7 n 1 x
n
= 1+ x − − − − + .......2 cos  nπ  + ...........
2
3! 4! 4! 7!  4  n!

TAYLOR’S THEOREM: If f ( x + h ) can be expanded in ascending powers of x, then.

h2 hn
f ( x + h) = f ( x) + hf '( x) + f "( x) + ..... + f "( x) + .......
2! n!
Proof.

Let f ( x + h) = A0 + A1 h + A2 h 2 + A3 h3 + A4 h 4 + .......... + An h n + .......... ......(1)

By successive differentiation of (1) w.r.t., h, we have
f '( x + h) = A1 + 2 A2 h + 3 A3 h 2 + 4 A4 h 4 + ................... ...........(2)
f "( x + h) = 2 A2 + 3.2 A3 h + 4.3 A4 h 2 + ................... ...........(3)
f "'( x + h) = 3.2.1. A3 + 4.3.2. A4 h + ........................ ............(4)
........................................
........................................

Putting h = 0 in (1), (2), (3) and (4), we get

f ( x) = A0 : f '( x) = A1 : f ''( x) = 2 A2 : f '"( x) = 3.2.1. A3

1 1
⇒ A0 = f ( x); A1 = f '( x); A2 = f "( x); A3 = f "'( x) and so on.
2! 3!

Substituting these values in (1) we get the Taylor’s theorem as

h2 hn
f ( x + h) = f ( x) + hf ' ( x) + f " ( x) + ........... + f " ( x) + ....... ...(5)
2! n!

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Cor.1. Putting a = 0 in (5) we get
h2 hn
f (a + h) = f (a) + hf ' (a ) + f " (a ) + ........ + f " (0) + .........................
2! n!

Corl.2 Putting a = 0and h = x in Cor.1we get the Maclaurin’s theorem

x2 hn
f ( x) = f (0) + xf '(0) + f "(0) + ........ + f "(0) + ..................
2! n!

Cor.3 Putting x = h and h = a in (5), we get

a2 xn n
f (a + h) = f (h) + af '( h) + f "(h) + ............ + f (h) + ......
2! n!

Cor.4 Putting h = x - a in Cor.1, we get

( x − a) 2 ( x − a)" n
f ( x) = f [a + ( x − a )] = f (a) + ( x − a) f ' (a ) + f " (a) + .......... + f (a) + .........
2! n!

Example: Expand log sin(x + h) in powers of h by Taylor’s Theorem

Solution:
f ( x + h) = log sin( x + h)
1
∴ f ( x) = log sin x. Futher f '( x) = cos x = cot x,
sin x
f " = − cos ec 2 x, f '"( x) = 2 cos ec 2 x cot x,
.............................
.........................

By Taylor’s Theorem, we get

h2 h3
f ( x + h) = f ( x) + hf '( x) + f "( x) + f "'( x) + .............
2! 3!
h2 2h 3
⇒ log sin( x + h) = log sin x + h cot x − cos ec x + 2
cos ec 2 x cot x + ..................
2! 3!

x x2 x3
Example: Show that log( x + h) = log h + − + − .......... .....
h 2h 2 3h 3

Solution: Since we are to expand log ( x + h ) in power of x, therefore we are to use the from given in
Cor3. putting x for a in Cor3, we get.

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 x2
f ( x + h) = f ( x) + xf '(h) + f "(h) + ................ (1)
2!
Now f ( x + h) = log( x + h)
1 1 2
∴ f (h) = log h; f '(h) = ; f "(h) = − 2 ; f ''(h) = 3 ,.............
h h h
Putting these value in (1) we get
x x2 x3
log( x + h) = log h + − 2 + 3 + ..............
h 2h 3h

FUNCTION OF TWO VARIABLES:

Taylor’s Theorem for function of two variables. “To expand f ( x + h , y+ k ) in powers of h and k,
in case f (x , y) and all its parietal derivatives are continuous in a certain domain of the point (x, y)”

Taking f (x+h ,y+k) as a function of one variable, say x i.e.x varies while y remains constant then
expanding by Taylor’s theorem we have

∂f ( x, y + k ) h 2 ∂f ( x, y + k
f ( x + h, y + k ) = f ( x , y + k ) + h + + ......(1)
∂v 2! ∂x 2

Further, expanding each term on the right hand side of (1) by Taylor’s theorem taking y as variable and
x as constant, we have
∂f ( x, y ) k 2 f ( x, y ) ∂  ∂f ( x, y ) 
f ( x + h, y + k ) = f ( x , y ) + k + + ...... + h  f ( x, y ) + k + .......
∂y 2! ∂y 2
∂x  ∂y 
h2 ∂ 2  ∂f ( x, y ) 
+ 2 
f ( x, y ) + k + .......  + ............
2! ∂y  ∂y 
 ∂f ∂f  1  ∂ 2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f 
⇒ f ( x + h, y + k ) = f ( x, y ) +  h + k  +  h 2 2 + 2hk + k 2 2  + ......
 ∂x ∂y  2!  ∂x ∂x∂y ∂y 
Or in symbolic from, we get
"
1 ∂ ∂ 
2
 ∂f ∂f  ∂  1 ∂
f ( x + h, y + k ) = f ( x, y ) +  h + k  f +  h + k  f + ..... +  h + k  f + ...... where
 ∂x ∂y  2!  ∂x ∂y  n !  ∂x ∂y 
f = f(x ,y)
n
 ∂ ∂  n ∂ f
n
n −1 ∂n f n(n − 1) n − 2 2 ∂ n f n ∂ f.
n
h + k  f = h + nh k n −1 + h k + ..... + k
 ∂x ∂y  ∂x n ∂x ∂y 2! ∂x n −1∂ 2 y ∂y n
[by Binomial Theorem]

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We now give an accurate statement of Taylor’s Theorem for function of two variables. If f (x, y)
th
possesses continuous partial derivates upto n order for all points (x,y) in the region
( a ≤ x ≤ a + h, b ≤ y ≤ b + k ) , then we have
2
 ∂ ∂  1 ∂ ∂ 
f (a + h, b + k ) = f (a, b) +  h + k  f (a, b) +  h + k  f (a, b) + ..........
 ∂x ∂y  2!  ∂x ∂y 
n −1 n
1  ∂ ∂  1 ∂ ∂ 
.... + h + k  f (a, b) +  h + k  f (a + θ h, b + θ k )
(n − 1)!  ∂x ∂y  n !  ∂x ∂y 
where 0 < θ < 1
∂u ∂u
If u = f( y ); then to show that du = dx + dy :
∂x ∂y

Give u = (y); then u + δ u = f ( x + δ x, y + δy ).

 ∂ f ∂f  
∴ δu = f ( x + δx, y + δy ) − f ( x, y ) =  f ( x, y ) +  δ x+ δ y  + ...... − f ( x, y )
  ∂x ∂y  
∂u ∂u
= δ x + δ y to first order of approximation (replacing f by u)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u
Thanking limits, we have du = dx + dy.
∂x ∂y

TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL COEFFICIENTS:

If u = f ( x, y ) where x = φ (t ) and y = φ (t ) , then we know that

∂u ∂u
du = dx + dy.
∂x ∂y
du dx dy
But du = .dt dx = .dt , dy = .dt
dt dt dt
du ∂u dx ∂u dy
∴ = . + .........(1)
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt

Again if u = f =(x, y) where x = φ (t1 ,t2)then

∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y 
= +
∂t1 ∂x ∂t1 ∂y ∂t1 

∂u ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y 
and = +
∂t2 ∂x ∂t2 ∂y ∂t2 

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Example: Expand f ( x, y ) = x y + 3 y − 2 in power of (x - 1) and ( y + 2 ) by Taylor’s theorem.
2

Solution: By Taylor’s theorem

1
f ( x, y ) = f (a, b) + {( x − a ) f x (a, b) + ( y − b) f y (a, b)} + {( x − a ) 2 f xx (a, b)
2!
1
+ 2( x − a )( y − b) f xy (a, b) + ( y − b) 2 f xy (a, b)} + ( x − a )3 f xxx (a, b)
3!
+ 3( x − a ) ( y − b) f xxy (a, b) + 3( x − a )( y − b) f xyz (a, b)
2 2

+ ( y − b)3 f yyy (a, b) } + ............... .......(1)

Given a = 1, b = -2

f ( x, y ) = x 2 y + 3 y − 2 ⇒ f (1, −2) = −10

f x ( x, y ) = 2 xy ⇒ f x (1, −2) = 2(−1)(−2) = −4
f y ( x, y ) = x 2 + 3 ⇒ f y (1, −2) = +4
f xx ( x, y ) = 2 y ⇒ f xx (1, −2) = −4
f xy ( x, y ) = 2 y ⇒ f xy (1, −2) = 2
f yy ( x, y ) = 0 ⇒ f yy (1, −2) = 0
f xxx ( x, y ) = 0 ⇒ f xxx (1, −2) = 0
f xxy ( x, y ) = 2 ⇒ f xxy (1, −2) = 2
f xyy ( x, y ) = 0 ⇒ f xyy (1, −2) = 0
f yyy ( x, y ) = 0 ⇒ f yyy ( x, y ) = 0

Putting a = 1, b = -2 and values in (1), we get

1
x 2 y + 3 y − 2 = 10[( x − 1)(−4) + ( y + 2)(4)] + [ x − 1) 2 (−4)
2!
1
+ 2( x − 1)( y + 2)(2) + ( y + 2) 2 (0)] + [( x − 1)3 (0)
3!
+ 3( x − 1) ( y + 2)(2) + 3( x − 1)( y + 2) 2 (0) + ( y + 2)3 (0)].
2

or x 2 y + 3 y − 2 = −10 − 4( x − 1) + 4( y + 2) − 2( x − 1) 2 + 2( x − 1)( y + 2) + ( x − 1) 2 ( y + 2).

Example: Expand eax by Maclaurin’s theorem.

Solution: y = e ax, them (y)0 = e0 = 1 (by putting x = 0),

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 y1 = ae ax , ⇒ ( y1 )0 = ae0 = a,
y 2 = a 2 e ax ⇒ ( y2 )0 = a 2 e0 = a 2
............... ....................
............... .....................
yn = a n e ax ⇒ ( yn ) 0 = a n e 0 = a n .

∴ By Maclaurin’s theorem, we get

x2 x3 xn
y = ( y )0 + x( y1 )0 + ( y2 )0 + ( y3 )0 + ....... + ( yn )0 + .............
2! 3! n!
2 3 n
x x x
⇒ e ax = 1 + xa + a 2 + a 3 + ....... + a n + ...........
2! 3! n!
Note: If a = 1, then
x 2 x3 xn
ex = 1 + x + + + ......... + ....
2! 3! n!

This is known as Exponential series.

Example: Expand ex sex x by Maclaurin’s theorem.

Solution : Let y = ex sec x then (y)0 = e0 sec (0) = 1

y1 = e x sec x + e x sec x tan x

= e x sec x(1 + tan x) = y (1 + tan x), ( y1 )0 = ( y )0 [1 + tan(0)] = 1
y2 = y sec 2 x + y1 (1 + tan x), ( y2 )0 = ( y )0 sec 2 (0) + ( y1 )0 (1 + tan 0) = 1 + 1 = 2,
y3 = y1 sex 2 x + 2 y sec 2 x tan x + y2 (1 + tan x) + y1 sec2 x
=2 y1 sec 2 x + 2 y sec 2 x tan x + y2 (1 + tan x)
( y3 )0 = 2( y1 )0 1 + 2( y )0 (0) + ( y2 )0 .1 = 4

∴By Maclaurin’s theorem, we get

x2 x2
e sec x = ( y )0 + x( y1 )0 + ( y2 )0 + ( y3 )0 + ............
x

2! 3!
3
x2 x
= 1 + x.1 + .2 + .4 + ........
2! 3!
2
⇒ e x sec x = 1 + x + x 2 + x3 + ..........
3

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Example: Use Maclaurin’s theorem to find the expansion of log(l + e ) in ascending powers of x to
x

the containing x 4 .

Solution: Let y = log(1 + e ). then ( y ) 0 = log(l + e ) = log 2

x 0

ex e0 1
y1 = , ( y1 ) 0 = =
1 + ex l + e0 2
(1 + e x )e x − e x .e x e x [1 + e x − e x ] ex 1
y2 = = = .
(l + e x ) 2 (1 + e x ) 2 (l + e x ) (1 + e x )
1  ex 
= y1 = y1 1 − x 
1 + ex  1+ e 
1  1 1
⇒ y 2 = y1 (1 − y1 ), ( y2 )0 = ( y1 )0 [1 − ( y1 )0 ] = 1− =
2  2  2
y3 = y2 (1 − y1 ) + y1 (− y2 ), ( y3 )0 = ( y2 )0 − 2( y1 )0 ( y2 )0
1 1 1
= y2 − 2 y1 y2 = − 2. . = 0
2 2 4
y4 = y3 − 2 y3 y1 − 2 y2 2 , ( y4 )0 = ( y3 )0 − 2( y3 ) 0 ( y1 ) 0 − 2( y2 2 ) 0
1 1
= 0 − 0 − 2. =−
16 8
∴By Maclaurin’s theorem, we get
x2 x2
log(1 + e x ) = ( y ) 0 + x ( y1 ) 0 + ( y2 ) 0 + ( y 3 ) 0 + ........
2! 3!
1 x2 1 x2 x4  1 
= log 2 + x. + . + .0 + . −  + ............
2 2! 4 3! 4!  8 
1 1 1 4
⇒ log(1 + e x ) = log 2 + x + x 2 − x + ..........
2 8 192

Example: Expand log(1 + sin x ) by Maclaurin’s theorem

Solution: Let y = log(1 + sin x), then ( y) 0 = log1 = 0. ….(1)

1 1
x − sin 2 x
cos 2
1 cos x 2 2
y1 = .cos x = =
1 + sin x 1 + sin x  1 1  1 1
 cos x + sin x  + 2sin x cos x
2 2

 2 2  2 2

12
 1 1 1 1 1
cos 2 x − sin 2 x cos x − sin x 1 − tan x
= 2 2 = 2 2 = 2
 1 1 
2
1 1 1
 cos x + sin x  cos x + sin x 1 + tan x
 2 2  2 2 2
1
(by dividing Num. and Den. By cos x )
2
1 1  1
⇒ y1 = tan  π − x  ∴ ( y1 ) 0 = tan π = 1 ……(2)
4 2  4
1 1  1 1 1
y 2 = sec 2  π − x . − , ∴( y 2 ) 0 = − sec 2 π = −1 ……(3)
4 4  2 2 4

1 1 1  1  1 1   1 
y3 = −  2sec 2  π − x   −  × tan  π − x   −  
2 4 2  2  4 2   2 
 1  1 1  1 1 
= −  −  sec 2  π − x  × tan  π − x  
 2  4 2  4 2 

= − y 2 , y1 , ∴ ( y3 )0 = −( y2 )0 ( y1 )0 = +1 …….(4)

2
y4 = −[ y4 y1 + y2 2 ], ∴ ( y 4 ) 0 = −( y 3 ) 0 ( y1 ) − ( y 2 ) 0 = −1 − 1 = −2 …..(5)
…. …. ….. …..
…. …. ….. …..

∴ By Maclaurin’s theorem, we get.

x2 x3 x4
log(1 + sin x ) = ( y ) 0 + x ( y1 ) 0 + ( y 2 ) 0 + ( y3 ) 0 + ( y 4 ) 0 + .......
2! 3! 4!
x2 x3 x4
= 0+ x− + − (−2) + ..........
2! 3! 4!
x2 x3 x4
= x− + − + .......
2 3 12
−1
Example: Expand sin x by Maclaurin’s theorem.

Solution: Let y = sin −1 x …..(1)

Differentiating it with respect to x, we get

13
 1 2
y1 = ⇒ y1 (1 − x 2 ) = 1 …..(2)
(1 − x )2

Differentiating it again, we have

2
y1 (−2 x) + 2 y1 y 2 (1 − x 2 ) = 0 ⇒ − xy1 + y 2 (1 − x 2 ) = 0
……(3)
⇒ y 2 (1 − x 2 ) − xy1 = 0
Differentiating (3) n times by Leibnitz’s theorem, we have

 yn + 2 (1 − x 2 ) + n c1 yn +1 (−2 x) + n c2 yn (−2)  −  yn +1 .x + n c1 yn .1 = 0

   

n(n − 1)
( )
⇒ y n + 2 1 − x 2 − ny n +1 (−2 x) +
2!
y n (−2) − y n +1 .x − ny n = 0

⇒ (1 − x 2 ) y n+2 − (2n + 1) xyn+1 − n 2 y n = 0 …..(4)

Putting x = 0 in (1), (2), (3), we get

( yn+2 ) 0 - n2 ( yn)0 = 0

Putting n = 1, 2, 3…… , we have

( y3 ) 0 − 1( y1 ) 0 = 0 ⇒ ( y3 ) 0 = ( y1 ) 0 ⇒ ( y3 ) 0 = 1

( y 4 ) 0 − 4( y 2 ) 0 = 0 ⇒ ( y 4 ) 0 = 4( y 2 ) 0 ⇒ ( y 4 ) 0 = 0.

( y 5 ) 0 − 9( y 3 ) 0 = 0 ⇒ ( y 5 ) 0 = 9( y 3 ) 0 ⇒ ( y 5 ) 0 = 9 = 3 2

( y6 ) 0 − 16( y 4 ) 0 = 0 ⇒ ( y6 ) 0 = 16( y 4 ) 0 ⇒ ( y 6 ) 0 = 0

( y 7 ) 0 − 25( y 5 ) 0 = 0 ⇒ ( y 7 ) 0 = 25( y 5 ) 0 ⇒ ( y 7 ) 0 = 25 × 9 = 3 2.5 2

Hence by Malaria’s theorem, we have

−1 x2 x3
sin x = ( y ) 0 + x( y1 ) 0 + ( y 2 ) 0 + ( y 3 ) 0 + .......
2! 3!
2 3 4
x x x x5 x6 x7 2 2
= 0 + x.1 + .0 + .1 + .0 + (3) + .0 + .(3 5 ) + .........2

2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
3 2 5 2 2 7
x 3 .x 3 .5 .x
= x− + + . + .............
3! 5! 7!

14
 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 5 1
⇒ sin −1 x = x + . x 3 + . . x 5 + . . . x 7 + .......
2 3 2 4 5 2 4 2 7
−1
Example: Expand (sin x)2 in ascending powers of x.

−1 2
Solution: Let y = (sin ) (y1) 0 = 0
1
y1 = 2 ( sin −1 x )
(1 − x ) 2

2
⇒ (1 − x 2 ) y1 = 4(sin −1 x) 2 = 4 y
( ) 2
⇒ 1 − x 2 y1 = 4 y ∴(y ) = 0 1 0

⇒ (1 − x )2 y y − 2 xy = 4 y
2 2
1 2 1 1

⇒ (1 − x )y − xy − 2 = 0
2
2 ∴(y ) = 2
1 2 0

Differentiating n times by Leibnitz’s theorem, we get

 n(n − 1) 
 y n + 2 (1 − x 2
) + ny n +1 ( −2 x ) + y n (2) − [ y n +1 x + ny n ] = 0
 2! 

⇒ (1 − x 2 ) y n + 2 − (2n + 1) xy n +1 − n 2 y n = 0

∴ ( y n + 2 ) = n2 ( y n ) 0 …(1)

Putting n = 1,2,3,….., in (1), we get

( y3 )0 = 1. ( y1 )0 = 0 ( y4 )0 = 22. ( y2 )0 = 22.2;
( y5 )0 = 32. ( y3 )0 = 0 ( y6 )0 = 42. ( y4 )0 = 22.24.2;
Hence
−1 x2 x3
(sin x) = ( y0 ) + x( y1 )0 + ( y2 )0 + ( y3 )0 + ......
2

2! 3!
2 2 4 2 2 6
2.x 2 .2.x 4 .2 .2.x
= + + + ................ ......(2)
2! 4! 6!

Deductions:

1. If we put x = sin θ in the above result, we get.

15
 2 sin 2 θ sin 4 θ 2 2.2 sin 6 θ
θ2 = + 2 2 .2 + 4 2. + .......
2! 4! 6!

2. If we differentiate both sides of (2) w.r.t x, we get

2 sin −1 x x3 x5
= 2 x + 2 .2 + 4 .2 .2 + .........
2 2 2

(1 − x )
2 3! 5!
sin −1 x 2 3 2.4.x 5
⇒ = x+ x + + .........
(1 − x )2 3 3.5

Example: Expand sin-1 (x + h) in power of x as far as the term in x3.

Solution: First we observe that we are to expand sin-1 (x + h) in ascending powers of x. so let

f(h) = sin -1h. Then

f(h + x) = sin-1 ( h + x)

Thus we are to expand f (h + x) in power of x. So by Taylor’s theorem, we have

x2 x3
f( h + x) = f (h) + xf’(h)+ f " ( h) + f " ' (h) + .... …….(1)
2! 3!

Now f(h) = sin –1h.. Therefore

1
f ’(h) = = (1 − h2 )−1/ 2
1− h 2

f ’’ (h) = h(1 − h2 )−3 / 2

f '''(h) = (1 − h2 )−3 / 2 + h(−3/ 2)(1 − h2 )−5 / 2 (−2h)

= (1 − h2 )−3 / 2 + 3h2 (1 − h2 )−5 / 2 = (1 − h2 )−5 / 2 [(1 − h2 ) + 3h2 )
=(1 − h2 )−5 / 2 (1 + 2h2 ), etc.

Substituting these values in (1), we have

Sin-1 (h + x ) = Sin-1 h + (1-h2)1/2 x + (x2/2!) h (1-h2)-3/2 + (x3/3!) (1-h2)-5/2 (1-2h2)+…

16
Example: Use Taylor’s theorem to prove that
sin θ sin 2θ sin 3θ
tan-1(x + h) = tan-1x +(hsin θ ) − (h sin θ ) 2 + (h sin θ )3 − .....
1 2 3
sin nθ
….+(-1)n-1(hsin θ )n + ....., where 0 = cot-1x
n

Solution: Let f(x) = tan-1x. then

f (x + h) = tan-1 (x + h ). Expanding f (x + h) in power of h by Taylor’s theorem we have

h h2 hn
f ( x + h) = f (x) + f '( x) + f ''( x) + ..... + f ''( x) + .... …….(1)
1! 2! n!

Now f ( x ) = tan-1x. Therefore f ’’(x) = Dn tan-1x

= (-1) n-1 (n-1)! sinn θ sin n θ . Where θ = cot-1x

Putting n= 1, 2, 3, ……..in it , we get

f ’(x)= sin θ sin θ , f ’’(x) = -1! sin2 θ sin2 θ f ’’’(x) = 2! Sin3 θ sin3 θ .etc.

Substituting these values in (1), we have

h2 h3
tan-1 (x + y) = tan-1 x +hsin θ sin θ - sin 2 θ sin 2θ + 2!sin 3 θ sin 3θ − .......
2! 3!
n
h
+ (−1) n −1 (n − 1)!sin n θ sin nθ + ....
n!
sin θ sin 2θ sin 3θ sin nθ
= tan-1 x + hsin θ − ( h sin θ ) 2 + ( h sin θ )3 ..... + ( −1) n −1 ( h sin θ ) n + .......
1 2 3 n

 π
Example: Expand ex cosy near the point 1,  by Taylor’s Theorem.
 4
Solution: By Taylor’s theorem

2 3
 ∂ ∂  1 ∂ ∂  1 ∂ ∂ 
F(x + h, y + k) = F (x, y) +  h + k  F +  h + k  F +  h + k  F + .....(1)
 ∂x ∂y  2!  ∂x ∂y  3!  ∂x ∂y 

Again ex cosy = F(x, y)

 π  π  π  π 
=F 1 + ( x − 1). +  y − , where h = x -1, k = y - = F 1 + h + k 
 4  4  4  4 

17
  π e
F(x, y) = ex cosy ⇒ F 1. =
 4 2
∂F ∂F  π  e
= e x cos y ⇒ 1.  =
∂y ∂y  4  2
∂F ∂ F π
2
e
= −e x sin y ⇒ 1.  =
∂x ∂x 2  4  2
∂2F ∂ F π
2
e
= e x cos y ⇒ 2 
1.  =
∂x 2
∂x  4  2
∂2F ∂ F  π  −e
2
= −e x cos y ⇒  1.  =
∂y 2
∂y 2  4  2
∂2F ∂2F  π  − e
= −e x cos y ⇒ 1.  =
∂x∂y ∂x∂y  4  2

Substituting these values in Taylor’s theorem, we get

e  e  π  − e
ex cosy = + ( x − 1) +y− 
2  2  4  2 
1 π   −e  
2
2 e  π   −e  
+ ( x − 1) + 2( x − 1)  y −   +y−    + ..........
2!  2  4   2   4   2  

18
ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS:

1. Show that by Maclaurin’s theorem,

x 2 x3 x 4 n −1 x
n
log(1 + x) = x − + − + ........... + (−1)
2 3 4 n!

2. By Maclaurin’s theorem, prove that

( a 2 + b2 )
n/2
3a 2 b − b3 3 b
e sin bx = bx + abx +
ax 2
x + .......... + x n sin(n tan −1 ) + ...
3! n! a
3. Apply Maclaurin’s theorem to obtain the term upto x 4 in the expansion of log(1 + sin 2 x)

, show that (1 − x 2 ) yn + 2 − (2n + 1) xyn +1 − ( n 2 + a 2 ) yn = 0

−1
4. If y = ea sin x

Hence by Maclaurin’s theorem show that

a sin −1 x a 2 x 2 a(12 + a 2 ) 3
e = 1 + ax + + x + ........
2! 3!
1 1
Also deduce that eθ = 1 + sin θ + sin 2 θ + sin 3 θ + .....
2! 3!
5. By Maclaurin’s theorem, show that
a cos −1 x  a 2 x 2 a(1 + a 2 ) 3 a(22 + a 2 ) 4  a2π
e = 1 − ax + − x + x ........  e
 2! 3! 4! 

19