Barry Field Nancy Olewiler PDF

CHNG 1
KINH T MI TRNG L G?
Kinh t mi trng nghin cu cc vn v mi trng vi cch nhn v phng php phn tch ca kinh t hc. Bn c th vn ngh rng kinh t hc hu nh ch ni v cc quyt nh trong kinh doanh v lm th no c c li nhun trong h thng T bn ch ngha. iu ny khng ng trong trng hp ny. Kinh t hc nghin cu ti sao v lm th no m con ngi c th l ngi tiu th, nh sn xut, cc t chc phi li nhun hay cc c quan nh nc a ra cc quyt nh s dng cc ngun ti nguyn c gi tr. Kinh t hc c chia thnh kinh t vi m nghin cu hnh vi ca cc c nhn hay cc nhm nh v kinh t v m nghin cu hot ng kinh t ca ton b nn kinh t. Kinh t mi trng c ngun gc t c hai chuyn ngnh ny, nhng ch yu vn l t kinh t vi m. Nghin cu kinh t mi trng, cng ging nh tt c cc mn kinh t hc khc, quan tm n vn c bn l phn phi cc ngun ti nguyn khan him cho cc mc ch s dng c tnh cnh tranh. Cc khi nim v s khan him, chi ph c hi, s nh i, li ch bin v chi ph bin l cha kha hiu cc vn mi trng v cch thc gii quyt cc vn . Kinh t mi trng s dng nhng khi nim quen thuc trong kinh t hc. S khc bit gia kinh t mi trng vi cc mn hc kinh t khc nm ch kinh t mi trng tp trung nghin cu xem cc hot ng kinh t nh hng nh th no n mi trng t nhin khng kh, nc, t v v s cc ging loi sinh vt. Cc quyt nh kinh t ca con ngi, cc nh sn xut v chnh ph c th gy ra nhng nh hng c hi n mi trng t nhin. Vic chn lp cht thi rn vo mi trng t nhin to ra nhim v suy thoi cc h sinh thi. iu dn n vic s dng cc ngun t i nguyn khng ti u. Ti sao iu ny li xy ra trong h thng kinh t? Ti sao con ngi khng tnh n cc nh hng t cc hot ng kinh t ln mi trng thin nhin? Kinh t mi trng s tr li cc cu hi ny. iu quan trng khng km l kinh t mi trng nghin cu v nh gi cc phng cch khc nhau t c mc ch s dng ti u x hi tt c cc ngun ti nguyn, trong c ti nguyn mi trng. t c nhng nhim v ny, chng ta xy dng mt m hnh phn tch tuy n gin nhng hiu qu. Ging nh tt c cc kha cnh ca kinh t hc, chng ta s tp trung vo cc phn tch bin lin quan n s nh i gia chi ph bin v li ch bin. Trong khi tiu ch hiu qu kinh t vn l tiu ch ch yu trong vic nh gi cc kt qu v cc chnh sch, cc nh kinh t mi trng cng xem xt cc tiu ch khc la chn gia nhiu chnh sch khc nhau nhm n lc ci thin mi trng v d nh tiu ch cng bng. Nu tiu ch hiu qu kinh t khng th t c, v cc mc tiu mi trng c thit lp da vo cc tiu chun khc, th phng php kinh t c th gip ch rt nhiu cho ngi a ra quyt nh trong vic t c nhng mc tiu mong mun. Mc tiu ca chng ny l lm cho cc bn quen vi cc khi nim v cng c phn tch c bn ca kinh t vi m c s dng trong kinh t mi trng. Chng ta s lm r bng cch no kinh t mi trng gip tr li nhng cu hi quan trng v nn kinh t v mi trng ca chng ta vi nhng v d rt thc t. u tin chng ta xem xt ngha chnh ca phng php kinh t hc sau l v d v nhim do xe my. Mc d bi vit ny khng s dng nhiu cc cng c kinh t v m, nhng chng ta gii thiu trong phn 1 ny mt v d v vn chnh m cc nh kinh t hc xt n tng trng kinh t c
Barry Field & Nancy Olewiler
nht thit dn n suy gim cht lng mi trng theo thi gian hay khng? Trong chng 2 chng ta s xem xt cc mi quan h rng ln gia nn kinh t vi mi trng v nh ngha mt s t ng quan trng v nhim. Sau chng ta s nghin cu nhng nguyn l kinh t cn thit.
PHNG PHP KINH T

Ti sao con ngi li hnh x theo cc cch thc gy hy hoi mi trng? C nhiu cch tr li cho cu hi ny. Mt cch tr li l suy thoi mi trng c ngun gc t cc hnh vi v o c ca con ngi. V th, v d, l do con ngi gy nn nhim l do h thiu sc mnh o c kim ch cc hnh vi gy suy thoi mi trng. Nu iu ny l ng th cch con ngi ngng gy nhim l phi gia tng mc nhn thc o c mi trng trong x hi. Tht ra, phong tro mi trng hng rt nhiu ngi tp trung vo cc vn o c mi trng, kho st v mt o c ca tc ng ln mi trng thin nhin ca con ngi. Nhng cu hi thuc v o c ny r rng l mi quan tm c bn i vi bt k mt x hi vn minh no. Chc chn mt trong nhng l do chnh m cc vn mi trng thp ln ngn la quan tm ca x hi l thc trch nhim o c to nn s ch ca nhiu ngi rn u trng chnh tr. Nhng phng php da vo s thc tnh o c ngn nga nhim to ra nhiu vn . Bi con ngi khng c mt ci nt o c m b m v cc vn mi trng nghim trng khng th ch c qu trnh lu di xy dng li thc o c. Bn thn thc o c cng khng gip uc chng ta trong cc quyt nh v nhng vn x hi khc mang tnh cht o c, v d nh: ngho i, nh , chm sc y t, gio dc, ti phm v.v. Trong mt th gii y nhng mc tiu cnh tranh nhau, chng ta p hi lo n rt nhiu vn rt thc t nh: liu chng ta c ang chn ng mc tiu mi trng khng; liu chng ta c cng ch thc hin c cc chnh sch khng; liu chng ta c t c tc ng ln nht vi s tin ta s dng khng v.v. Nhng vn ln nht trong phng php kim sot nhim da vo o c chnh l gi thit c bn ca n cho rng con ngi gy nhim l v h km o c. Khng phi s km thc o c s dn n ph hoi mi trng m chnh l cch thc chng ta to nn h thng kinh t trong mi ngi cn phi tm cng vic lm sinh sng. V vy cch th hai nghin cu vn ti sao con ngi gy nhim l quan st cch thc xy dng nn kinh t v th ch, v b ng cch no chng hng mi ngi a ra cc quyt nh gy hu qu ph hoi mi trng. Cc nh kinh t hc tin rng: Con ngi gy nhim bi v l phng cch r nht gii quyt mt vn rt thc t l lm th no thi b cc ph phm sinh ra sau khi sn xut v tieu dung hng ha. Con ngi ra nhng quyt nh nh th trong qu trnh sn xut, tiu dng v thi b ch trong mt tp hp cc th ch 1 kinh t v x hi nht nh. Nhng th ch ny to ra cc khuyn khch kinh t hng mi ngi a ra cc quyt nh ch theo cch ny m khng phi l cch khc. Khuyn khch l iu lm cho ngi ta b cun ht hay t chi iu chnh hnh vi ca mnh b ng cch no . Mt khuyn khch kinh t trong kinh t l iu g hng n lc ca con ngi trong sn xut v tiu dng theo mt hng nht nh. Chng ta thng ngh cc khuyn khch kinh t l bao gm nhng phn thng v mt ca ci vt cht; con ngi c ng lc hnh x theo cch gip h tng c ti sn vt cht. Nhng cng c nhng khuyn khch phi vt cht hng mi ngi iu chnh
hnh vi kinh t ca h, v d nh lng t trng; mong mun bo tn mt mi trng ti p hn hay mong c tr thnh hnh mu tt cho ngi khc noi theo. Nhng g m chng ta s nghin cu l: Cc qu trnh khuyn khch hot ng nh th no, v Lm th no cu trc li chng nhm hng mi ngi ra cc quyt nh v xy dng li sng ngy cng thn thin vi mi trng hn.
Mt pht biu n gin m chng ta vn thng nghe l nhim l hu qu ca ng c li nhun. Theo quan im ny th cc nn kinh t sn xut t nhn ca cc quc gia cng nghip ha, ngi ta c thng cho vic ti a ha li nhun, tc l chnh lch gia gi tr ca ci uc sn xut ra v gi tr ca nhng g c s dng trong qu trnh sn xut. Hn th, nu suy ngh theo cch ny, th li nhun m cc ch doanh nghip c gng ti a ha thun ty ch l li nhun bng tin. Khi theo ui mc tiu li nhun, cc ch doanh nghip khng ngh n nhng tc ng mi trng do cc hot ng ca h gy ra bi v iu ny khng c li g cho h c. V vy, vi cch tm kim li nhun khng b kim sot ny, cch duy nht gim nhim mi trng l lm suy yu ng c li nhun. Nhng gii php ny khng th p dng c. Khng ch cc tp on c ng c li nhun l gy nhim; nhng ngi tiu dng ring l cng gy ra thit hi khi h lm nhng vic nh sn xung cng rnh hay xe pht ci xe m . V cc c nhn ny khng c b ng hch ton li l, nn khng phi do ng c li nhun khin h gy nhim. Tng t nh th vi cc c quan nh nc, trong vi trng hp cng gy nhim nghim trng, ngay c khi h khng c ng c li nhun. Nhng l l thuyt phc nht chng li quan im cho rng vic chy theo li nhun gy nn nhim l t nhng s kin chnh tr nhng nc ng u v cc nc thuc Lin x c. Khi xy ra sp ch cng sn, chng ta mi bit c s ph hy mi trng to ln xy ra mt s ni nhim khng kh v ti nguyn nc nng n rt nhiu ni, vi nhng tc ng ch yu ti sc khe con ngi v h sinh thi. Nhiu trng hp nhim vt qu nhng trng hp nhim mi trng ti t nht cc nc theo c ch th trng. Chng xy ra trong mt h thng kinh t m ng c li nhun hon ton khng c. n gin iu ny c ngha l bn thn ng c li nhun khng phi l nguyn nhn chnh ph hy mi trng. Trong cc phn v cc chng tip theo chng ta s thy tm quan trng ca cc ng c khuyn khch khi phn tch xem cc h thng kinh t hot ng nh th no. Bt k h thng no cng sinh ra nhng tc ng ph hy mi trng nu nh nhng khuyn khch trong h thng khng c xy dng trnh vic ph hy . Chng ta phi nhn k vo bn trong h thng kinh t hiu c h thng cc khuyn khch hot ng nh th no v phi thay i chng ra sao c c nn kinh t pht trin hp l m khng c tc ng ph gy tn ph mi trng. Hai khi nim quan trng hiu cc khuyn khch lin quan n mi trng l ngoi tc v quyn s hu ti sn. Cc khi nim ny c gii thch chi tit trong cc chng sau, nhng ch yu chng bao hm vn thiu quyn s hu i vi cc ngun ti nguyn mi trng. im c bn l: Thiu quyn s hu i vi cc ngun ti nguyn mi trng c ngha l c rt t khuyn khch con ngi tnh n hu qu mi trng do hnh ng ca h gy ra.
im ny a n mt s cu hi cn suy ngh l: Nu khng ai ch s hu khng kh, th lm th no c th nh gi cc hot ng pht thi? C ai c th nh gi khng kh sch ngn chn s pht thi min ph?
MT MINH CHNG THC T: SNG M V XE MY

Mi nm Canada, cc phng tin giao thng pht thi khong 11% tng lng carbon dioxide, 17% lng nitogen oxide, 20% lng cc hp cht hu c d bay hi v 47% lng CO. Cc hp cht ny gp phn gy nn hin tng sng m trong thnh ph, ma acid v s m ln ton cu. Mi trng b nhim nh th ny nh hng ngc tr li sc khe con ngi v h sinh thi, s sinh tn ca ging lo i, chi ph sn xut hng ha v dch v v s hng th cnh vt xung quanh chng ta. Cc nh mi trng Canada d on rng khong 6.000 ngi Canada cht mi nm v nhim khng kh v lm tng thm hng chc ngn ngi nhim bnh h hp do b nhim. Tip xc vi sng m trong thnh ph lm tng cc bnh ung th tr em ln 25% v tng bnh hen suyn tr em ln 400%. Ma acid lm thay i cc h sinh thi, git cht c, cc loi lng c v cc chng loi sng di nc khc v nh hng n s pht trin ca r ng. Mt ch gy tranh ci l s m ln ton cu c th dn n gia tng s thay i h sinh thi vi nhng tc ng trn ton th gii. S dng xe t dn n hin tng kt xe, lm tng thi gian li xe, gy tai nn v ni chung l lm mi ngi cu gt, gp phn gy nn nhng cn thnh n trn ng ph. V vy li mt chic xe t nh hng n tt c ngi khc (d h c li xe hay khng) v mi trng ca chng ta. y l mt nh hng ngoi tc. Khi li xe i hc hay i lm hay i tm bin, bn hng li trc tip t cc dch v giao thng. Nhng ngi khc l ngi ngoi cu c li gnh chu nhng tc ng tiu cc t vic li xe ca bn nh: nhim khng kh, kt xe, v cc tc ng khc. Nhng ngi ngoi cuc khng kim sot vic li xe ca bn. V ci gi phi tr cho vic li xe l chi ph trc tip ca bn trong xng du, bo tr, v chi ph xe hi hng thng, khng phn nh nhng tc ng tiu cc m b n gy ra cho ngi khc V vy cc t ngoi tc v nh hng ngoi tc l nhm m t tnh hung ny. Chng ta s xem xt chi tit trong chng 4 cc loi khuyn khch no, c nhn hay c s tr gip ca chnh ph, gii thch cc ngoi tc. By gi chng ta hy suy ngh thm mt cht v cc ngoi tc ca xe my v xem ta c th lm g vi chng. lm c iu , chng ta xem xt khi nim v khuyn khch.
CC KHUYN KHCH: GIA NH V VIC S DNG XE T

Khi bn li xe, mt chic xe th thao hay xe ti, chi ph m bn phi tr cho mi km i trn ng phn nh chi ph c nhn ca bn xng, du, bo him, v.v. Chi ph ny khng bao gm s ph hoi do pht thi t xe ca bn gy ra cho ngi khc v mi trng; thm na, chng phn nh chi ph sn xut xng du, tin li cho ngi bn l v.v. Bn s phn ng li khi c nhng thay i trong chi ph c nhn ny, v d nh s li xe nhiu hn khi gi xng h thp v t hn khi gi xng ln cao. Nhng loi khuyn khch tch cc no m chng ta c th thc hin khin ngi li xe gim gim c lng pht thi? C mt cng thc n gin c th gip chng ta thy c cn s dng khuyn khch nh th no: Tng lng pht thi = S lng xe S km i trn ng trung bnh Lng pht thi ca mi km
Cc khuyn khch c th nhm vo mc tiu gim s lng ca xe trn ng, s km i trung bnh, v s pht thi mi km. Thm na, chng ta c th quan tm n ni m mi ngi li xe ca h. Mt xe hot ng thnh ph Toronto, Montreal hay Vancouver s tc ng mnh m ln sng m th nhiu hn cng loi xe hot ng vng ngoi Moose Jaw, Saskatchewwan. Tuy nhin pht thi carbon dioxide s gp phn lm m ln ton cu bt k xe c li u. Nhng khuyn khch tch cc no c th lm thay i hnh vi ca mi ngi? Vancourver, tt c xe hi, xe th thao v xe ti nh phi qua kim tra kh thi (Aircare test) 2 nm 1 ln. Vic kim tra ny nhm xem kh thi ca xe c cao hn tiu chun cho php ca chnh ph khng. Mc ch ca chnh sch ny l to mt khuyn khch cho cc ch xe thng xuyn bo tr xe ca h v v vy s gim s pht thi trn mi km. Lm th no chng ta nh hng ln s km xe chy? Cu tr li v mt kinh t l tng chi ph li xe trn mt km. iu ny khuyn khch mi ngi thng xuyn ti thiu ha s ln i bi v iu ny trc tip gim bt chi ph ca h. Mt v d trong khuyn khch trc tip nhm lm tng chi ph li xe l nh thu ln s km xe i. iu ny c th lm c bng cch nh thu hng nm khi mi ngi i bng li xe. Mt khuyn khch trc tip na l nh thu trn xng du, nh vy l tng chi ph li xe. Lm th no chng ta c th tc ng ln lng xe lu thng trn ng? iu ny c th c lm vi vic nh thu hng nm trn ch xe hay chng trnh mua li, ngha l tr tin cho nhng ngi vt b xe c ca h. Cc xe c s gy nhim trn mi km nhiu hn xe mi l lo i t hao nhin liu v t nhim. Chng ta c th ngh n nhng khuyn khch khc c th lm thay i hnh vi. Nhng khuyn khch ny c th bao gm c cc chng trnh qung co v gio dc thng tin khin cho mi ngi bit quyt nh li xe ca h s gy nh hng n cht lng khng kh v tnh trng sc khe ca h nh th no.
CC KHUYN KHCH CHO DOANH NGHIP

Khuyn khch cng c th p dng cho cc doanh nghip. Chng ta ly v d cc nh sn xu t xe v ph tng xe. Tt c c s cng nghip u hot ng trong h thng khuyn khch hin hnh nh: tng li nhun nu h hot ng trong nn kinh t th trng. Cc c s c ng c khuyn khch s dng bt k yu t sn c no nhm lm kt qu sn xu t ca h tt hn theo tiu ch ti a ha li nhun. Mt cch lm mang tnh truyn thng l s dng mi trng thi b rc. ng c ca vic lm ny l v cc d ch v mi trng l min ph, cho nn vic s dng u vo min ph cng nhiu cng tt l cch lm cho c s sn xut tng li nhun. Thch thc l ch ta tm ra nhng khuyn khch khc lm thay i hnh vi ca c s h s dng cc dch v mi trng nh l mt ho t ng c chi ph ch khng cn l mt hng ha min p h. Phng php s dng chnh sch l to ra lut hay qui nh v s lng pht thi ca c s v sau cng ch thc hin chng. Canada c bng hng dn tiu th nhin liu trung bnh cho cng ty (CAFC) cho tt c cc xe hi mi v xe ti nh c sn xut trong nc. Cc nh sn xut xe ng thit k xe hi v xe ti nh ca h t mc tiu th nhin liu trung bnh hng nm. Bng hng dn cho xe hi c gii thiu vo nm 1978 mc 13,1 lt /100km, sau c h xung 8,6 lt/100km vo nm 1986 v c gi n nay. Bng hng dn cho xe ti nh c a ra vo nm 1995 l 11,4 lt /100km. Hiu sut nhin liu ca tt c cc xe hi trn ng tng t 15 lt /100km vo nm 1965 ln 7,4 lt/100km vo nm 2003. Xe ti nh hin nay trung bnh di 11 lt/100km.
Bng hng dn CAFC l t nguyn ch khng bt buc. Cc nh sn xut xe t tiu chun bi v Hoa K c chnh sch tng t v v n l b t buc. Cng ngh xe hi Bc Hoa K hon ton thng nht xe hi v xe ti nh sn xut Canada c xut khu sang Hoa K v ngc li. Xe hi Canada m khng t tiu chun Hoa K th s khng c bn Hoa K. Nh vy c mt khuyn khch r rng cho cc nh sn xut Canada t nguyn tun theo tiu chu n. Ch rng cc tiu chu n CAFC i hi nh sn xut xe phi t mc tiu chu n tnh trung bnh theo tt c cc xe sn xut trong nm. Nu nh hng sn xu t tht nhiu xe hi t gy nhim h s d t tiu chun hn l sn xut nhiu xe gy nhim cao nh xe th thao. Qui nh ny r rng to cho nh sn xut s khuyn khch iu chnh sn xut cc loi xe gim pht thi cho ngi mua v s dng xe. Chnh ph Canada cng qui nh hm lng sulphur trong xng. Qui nh xc nh r nh my lc xng du phi to ra nhin liu c hm lng sulphur di 30ppm p dng t thng ging nm 2005. Sulphur trong nhin liu khi chy s sinh ra sulphur dioxide gp phn gy sng m v ma acid. nh hng ca khuyn khch ny l: phi tun theo php lut hay b chnh ph pht. Mt chnh sch hiu qu hn c l l thit k mt h thng khuyn khch bng tin i vi cc c s h gim nhim. V d, cc nh sn xut nhin liu c th b nh thu da trn hm lng sulphur. iu ny khuyn khch h sn xut nhin liu hm lng sulphur thp hn trnh thu. H c th s tng t l Methanol trch ra t ng cc trong nhiu liu h sn xut, Methanol khng cha sulphur. Gi xng du c th tng, do li to thm khuyn khch cho cc li xe gim lng tiu th xng ca h. C bn ca phng php s dng khuyn khch kinh t ny l cu trc li cc khuyn khch cho nh sn xut v ngi tiu dng ng vin h s dng nng lc v s linh ng ca chnh h trong vic tm ra cc phng cch gim tc ng ln mi trng.
CC KHUYN KHCH TRONG CNG NGH KIM SOT NHIM

Cng ngh kim sot nhim pht trin cc k thut ti ch cht thi, thit b kim sot nhim, v k thut kim sot nhim. i khi n cng x l cht thi, v tham gia vo vic qun l cc bi chn lp cht thi. Cng ngh ny cng bao gm c vic pht trin cc hng ha thn thin vi mi trng nh xng c hm lng sulphur thp, bt git cha t phostphate v giy ti sinh. Cng ngh kim sot nhim tin b v nng ng ang tht s rt cn thit nu nh chng ta mun tin ti kim sot hiu qu tt c cc vn mi trng hin ti v trong tng lai. V vy, mt trong nhng cng vic chnh yu ca cc nh kinh t mi trng l phi nghin cu cc khuyn khch hng v cng ngh ny iu g lm cho n pht trin v suy thoi, p ng nhanh hay chm i vi nhu cu mi pht sinh v.v. Trong v d ca chng ta v nhim khng kh do phng tin giao thng, cng ngh kim sot nhim c th bao hm c nhng nh sn xut xe khng gy nhim. Cc xe ny c th chy bng nng lng mt tri, in hay s dng cc k thut khc. Cc chnh sch c cn thit phi khuyn khch cc cng ngh ny khng? Mt lp lun khc l ch cn c chnh sch a ra cc khuyn khch gim pht thi l kch thch pht trin thay i nhin liu v ng c. Tuy nhin, nhiu chnh ph cng tr cp chi ph nghin cu v pht trin cho cc nh sn xut ny thng qua cc khuyn khch v thu hay cc qu rt ln. S hp l ch pht trin cc k thut mi s t c li ch x hi to ln. Trng hp sau s minh ha cho cch suy ngh kinh t m chng ta s ng dng trong vn mi trng. Khi tip tc qua cc chng khc, chng ta s hc c mt s phng
php gip hng ti mt mi trng tt p hn. Trc khi tip tc, chng ta cn xc nh mt s khi nim quan trng c th hiu ti sao cc vn mi trng lun tn ti.
CC NGOI TC V QUY N S HU TI SN
Trong phn 4, chng ta s xc nh vai tr ca cc quyn s hu trong vic t n mc nhim hiu qu x hi. Quyn s hu ng vai tr quyt nh hiu ti sao chng ta c nhng vn mi trng hin nay. im c bn l ti nguyn mi trng khng c xc nh quyn s hu r rng. Khng ai ch s hu kh quyn, i dng hay cc tng nc ngm rng ln. Hai v d sau minh ha cc ngoi tc lin quan n quyn s hu. S pht thi ca phng tin giao thng. Khi mt chic xe th thao x sulphur dioxide vo kh quyn, chng ta khng th nhy ln trc xe v la ln rng Dng li! bn ang lm nhim khng kh ca ti. Tt c chng ta cng th chung mt bu khng kh trong cng ng. Cc ngoi tc bao gm cc ngun gy nhim khc nhau, c th lan ra mt vng rng ln, khng c mt cch hiu qu no c c s ng ca cc c nhn nhm hn ch s pht thi. Vic thit k chnh sch mi trng cng tr nn thch thc khi ngoi tc cng lan ta n nhiu khu vc hay nhiu quc gia v do nhiu ngun khc nhau gy ra. S pht thi ca cc ch ch. Bn pht hin mt ch ch ca nh hng xm ang pht thi trn bi c xinh ti ca bn. y cng l mt ngoi tc. Ch ch v ch ca n khng h tnh n tc ng ca s pht thi ny ln bi c ca bn khi h s vic xy ra nh th. Nhng khc vi trng hp pht thi ca xe t, bn v ngi hng xm d dng m phn tm ra mt gii php thng nht gii quyt vn . Ngi hng xm c th ng gi ch ch bng dy xch hay dn dp v sinh sch s. Bn c th xy hng ro hay bt ngi hng xm tr tin xy hng ro. Ngoi tc ca ch ch c ni ha thng qua m phn v thng lng. Nh vy cch gii quyt c hai bn ng , ch c s phn bit l ai s tr khon chi ph . iu ny ty thu c vo nng lc mc c ca chng ta v nhiu yu t khc. Ti sao c s khc bit gia trng hp pht thi ca ch ch v trng hp p ht thi ca xe t? Bn lm ch chnh ti sn ca bn v ch ch nh hng xm ang xm phm. Lut ni rng bn c quyn khng cho ngi khc xm phm ti sn ca bn. Ch c mt ngi mc c l ch ca ch ch y. Trng hp ny s tng t nh sng m th nu nh bn khng bit ch ca ch ch lm u b i c ca bn l ai. Sau th b n phi gnh chu cc chi ph tm kim, theo di ch ch v.v. xc nh ch nhn ca th phm. Nhng vn mi trng nghim trng nht ca chng ta ging vi trng hp sng m khi xe hn l trng hp ch ch hoang. Chng bao gm rt nhiu ngi gy nhim m c l h t hiu bit v ngun gc pht thi hay mi lin h gia s pht thi vi tc ng mi trng. Cc thnh vin x hi c l khng nhn ra rng mt hnh ng h lm trong nhiu nm c tc ng nghim trng ln mi trng. V d, cc nh sn xut hng ha t da pha ng Canada tng s dng thy ngn trong qu trnh thu c da. H thi b mt cch n gin cc cht thi ny vo cc dng sng hay xu ng t. Qua nhiu nm, thy ngn tp trung vo nc ngm v lm nhim ngun nc ung ca dn chng. Nhng vo lc mi ngi khng bit thy ngn c nh th no. Chnh cc ngi th thuc da chu s ng c thy ngn. y l ni ngun gc xut hin thut ng pht in (mad as a hatter) cc nh hng u c ca thu ngn ln chc nng no. Cc nh sn xut da thuc by gi di i, nhng thy ngn vn ng li gy nhim nghim trng h sinh thi. By gi lm th no thng lng vi nhng nh thuc da cch y
hng trm nm tha thun v lng pht thi v i bi thng cho bnh tt, gim th v nhim bn nc v t? V d ny minh chng cho s kh khn vn c nu da vo cc c nhn hnh ng theo thch ca chnh h t c hiu qu x hi. Thng tin v nhng vn tim n c l l khng y hoc khng tn ti.
PHN TCH CHI PH - LI CH

Trong phn tch hiu qu chi ph, cc nh kinh t hc ch quan tm n cc chi ph t c mc ch mi trng xc nh. Trong phn tch chi ph - li ch, c li ch v chi ph ca mt chnh sch hay chng trnh c o lng v th hin trn c s c th so snh c. Cc nh kinh t hc s dng phn tch chi ph - li ch l cng c phn tch chnh nh gi cc quyt nh mi trng. u tin n c s dng Hoa K t u th k 20 nh gi cc d n pht trin ngun nc cho cc tp on k thut qun s Hoa K. Canada, n c s dng trong cc vn cng cng nhng ngy nay cn t hn so vi nhng nm 1970 khi k thut thng xuyn b lm dng bin minh cho cc d n khng l c s dng ngun ti nguyn thin nhin. C th s dng phn tch chi ph - li ch nh mt cng c tr gip trong chn la cc chnh sch hiu qu, nhng cc c quan mun bin h cho nhng g m h mun lm cng c th s dng n. Cng tng t, cc quan chc c th s dng n ngng cc quy nh mi hay lm mt hiu lc cc quy nh c. V tm quan trng v vic ng dng rng ri ny, phng php phn tch li ch-chi ph s c cp trong cc chng sau (xem chng 6, 7 v 8). Trong cch phn tch ny, nh tn ngm nh, li ch ca mt hot ng c c tnh v so snh vi tng chi ph m x hi s phi tr nu nh hot ng c tin hnh. V d : nu l mt d n xy d ng cng vin cng cng, li ch gii tr c c t d n c so snh vi cc chi ph d kin xy dng cng vin v chi ph s dng t bng cch ny thay v l cch khc. Hay l, mt d n xy dng l t cht thi rn s c so snh chi ph xy dng v vn hnh l t, bao gm c chi ph thi b tro v chi ph pht thi nhim khng kh c th c vi li ch t vic gim s dng t lm bi chn lp cht thi rn. Nghin cu chi ph - li ch bao gm vic chng ta cn xem xt c chi ph v li ch ca cc chng trnh v chnh sch mi trng. iu ny thng lm cho vn nghin cu chi ph - li ch nm trong cc cuc tranh lun mang tnh chnh tr v cc vn mi trng. Trong cc cuc u tranh chnh tr v cc vn mi trng, mt nhm gm nhng ngi quan tm n li ch, trong khi cc nhm i lp li quan tm ch yu n chi ph. Cui cng chp nhn cc chng trnh bo v mi trng ty thu c vo con ngi khi h nhn ra rng vic bo v mi trng l xng ng. Phng php bo v mi trng da vo phn tch chi ph - li ch, s nh i l cch tt nht t c iu ny.
S BN VNG CA MI TRNG V CA NN KINH T Cc vn c bn

Cc nh kinh t hc ngy cng nhn thc nhiu v nhu cu lin kt gia kinh t vi mi trng thin nhin. Trong khi mi trng t nhin lun l u vo cn thit cho sn xut, th ch c mt vi m hnh ch ra chnh xc s nh hng qua li gia cc h sinh thi v nn kinh t. Mt ngnh mi gi l kinh t sinh thi xc nh cc tng tc ny y hn. Mc tiu quan trng ca chuyn ngnh ny l nghin cu cc l trnh bn vng trong pht
trin kinh t - ngha l cc ho t ng khng ph hy cc h sinh thi, nhng cho php gia tng thu nhp thc. Chuyn ngnh ny ang pht trin v nhng hiu bit su sc mi m ang xut hin theo thi gian. tng c bn l nn kinh t bn vng phi l nn kinh t c kh nng cho php phc li ca con ngi tng ln hoc t nht l c gi nguyn (c ngha l khng gim st). t c iu ny, mt s nh kinh t hc l lu n rng cc th h hin ti khng c s dng ht cc ngun d tr ti nguyn thin nhin mi trng cho cc th h tng lai phi b bn cng ha hay khng th tn ti na. Chng ta phi nh gi cc hot ng kinh t ca chng ta v i s quan tm n kh nng ca h sinh thi. Tt c cc nn kinh t u s dng cc ngun ti nguyn t nhin v mi trng bo m cho cuc sng. Gia tng dn s trn th gii lun gy p lc ngy cng nhiu ln mi trng thin nhin theo thi gian. Nhiu ngi e rng l trnh m chng ta ang i trong sn xut v tng dn s s khng bn vng. Liu chng ta c th lm g? C mt phng php l mi th h trong mt nn kinh t bn vng c ngha v phi thay th nhng g n s dng bng s u t li vo vn x hi. y l mt nh ngha rt rng v vn. N bao gm tt c mi th m nn kinh t c th u t vo - vn vt cht sn xut hng ha v d ch v, gio dc, c s h tng, cc ngun ti nguyn ti to v khng ti to, v d nhin chnh bn thn mi trng cng l mt ngun d tr vn. Khi chng ta s dng ht mt s vn hin ti, ch cn cch nn kinh t c th bn vng theo thi gian l ti u t gi ngun vn x hi t ra l khng thay i. Kim sot v x l nhim l cc bin php gi cho ngun vn mi trng mc n nh. Ti ch cng c ngha tng t mt mc no . S bn vng liu c t c khng l ty thuc vo cc hot ng ca con ngi, cc ngnh cng nghip v chnh ph. C mt s cu hi: cc th trng t nhn c gi c ngun vn x hi mc khng i khng? S can thip ca chnh ph c cn thit khng? Nu c th d i hnh thc no? Bn vng cng ty thu c vo kh nng thay th gia vn t nhin (cc ngu n ti nguyn thin nhin v ti nguyn mi trng), vn sn xut v lao ng. Cng ngh v s thay i cng ngh l mt yu t sng cn khc trong nghin cu cc l trnh bn vng. Cng ngh s nh hng ln mc thay th gia cc yu t u vo v s lng u vo cn thit cho sn xut mt n v hng ha. Mt s cng ngh c th khuyn khch s bn vng mt s khc th khng. Cc nh kinh t hc gi vai tr quan trng trong vic gip tm ra cu tr li cho tt c cc cu hi ny, b ng cch xy dng cc m hnh c lin kt chc ch vai tr ca mi trng thin nhin v bng cch theo di cc vn ny mt cch thc t. Mt nn kinh t bn vng l nn kinh t trong u t vn x hi cho php nn kinh t tng trng th h tng lai t nht cng c c mc phc li nh th h hin ti, trong khi vn duy tr s lnh mnh ca h sinh thi.
nh i v s bn vng
Cc nh kinh t minh ha s nh i gia hng ha, dch v vi cht lng mi trng bng cch s dng ng gii hn kh nng sn xut (production possibility frontier PPF). PPF l th biu din nhng chn la gia hai kt qu mong mun hng ha, dch v v cht lng mi trng ca mt nhm ngi. Mi lin h c bn ny c trnh by trong hnh 1-1. Trc tung l ch s sn lng kinh t gp, ngha l tng gi tr th trng ca hng ha kinh t thng thng bn ra trong nn kinh t trong mt nm. Trc honh ch cht lng mi trng, c c t cc d liu khc nhau v mi trng xung quanh; v d nh nng cc cht nhim trong khng kh v cc d liu v cht lng nc. ng cong ny biu din cc mc kt hp khc nhau gia hai kt qu sn lng
th trng v cht lng mi trng m mt nhm ngi c th to ra c vi mt s vn nht nh. ng PPF c biu din bng ng t qu ng khi cht lng mi trng di mc . Di mc , nn kinh t khng th sn xut thm bt k mt hng ha v dch v no bi v c qu t ti nguyn mi trng duy tr sn xut. Emax cho thy cht lng mi trng ti a m khng c mt hng ha no c sn xut (c th cho l khng c con ngi). PPF c xc nh bi nng lc k thut trong nn kinh t v cc nhn t sinh thi kh tng hc, thy hc v.v. ca h thng t nhin ti quc gia ang nghin cu. V d, sn lng hin ti ca nn kinh t l c1, chng ta c th tng trng ln mc c2 ch vi mc chi ph m cht lng mi trng gim t e1 xung e2. Nhng trong khi bn thn PPF biu th nhng hn ch v mt k thut th im no trn ng PPF m x hi chn sn xut li l s la chn ca x hi. V s chn la ny ty vo cch m con ngi trong x hi y nh gi chn la gia kt qu kinh t v cht lng mi trng. Cc nh kinh t hc minh ha s chn la ca x hi bng mi lin h c gi l ng bng quan cng ng (Community indifference Curve CIC). CIC ca nc A c biu din trong hnh 1-1. Mi im trn CIC cho thy s kt hp gia mt mc cht lng mi trng vi mt s hng ha cho cng mt mc tha mn i vi x hi. Nhng ng CIC cng nm xa gc ta th cng cho mc tha mn nhiu hn so vi cc ng nm gn. X hi s tm kim mc tha mn cao nht m h c th t c. y s l im m ng CIC tip xc vi PPF. V d vi nc A, y chnh l im A, CIC c cht lng mi trng e2 v lng hng ha l c2. Mt nc khc c th s c nhng s thch x hi khc nhau a n s chn la cht lng mi trng v hng ha khc nhau, v d h s chn im B, vi to l e1 v c1. S chn la ca x hi s nh hng n s bn vng ca nn kinh t v mi trng.
San lng
C2
CIC2
A CIC 1
C1
B
B
CIC 0 e e1 Chat lng moi trng e2 E max
Hnh 1-1 ng bien cua Kha nang san xuat (PPF) gia san lng va chat lng moi trng
ng PPF minh ha vic nh i gia hng ha th trng vi cht lng mi trng. Khi tiu th nhiu hng ha, x h i phi chu gim cht lng mi trng. Di im , khng th sn xut c hng ha no c v ch t lng mi trng qu km khng th h tr sn xut. Cc ng bng quan (CICs) ch ra nhng la chn ca mt quc gia v cc mc kt hp hng ha vi cht lng mi trng. Nc A chn hng ha nhiu hn v mi trng c cht lng km hn l nc B.
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Mi trng v Tng Trng: S bn vng theo thi gian

S bn vng khng ch l s chn la trong mt nm m cn l c qu trnh theo thi gian. ng PPF s khng gi mi mt mc c nh khi m cc iu kin nh k thut sn xu t v suy thoi mi trng thay i theo thi gian. Chng ta minh ha hai kh nng nh sau. Hnh 1-2 th hin s nh i ca x hi trong thi gian 50 nm. Biu (a) th hin kch bn bi quan. Gi s chng ta khai thc lng ln tr lng ti nguyn thin nhin v khng th dng t bn vt cht v con ngi thay th cc ngun ti nguyn ny. S suy gim r rt ca vn mi trng gy nh hng tiu cc nghim trng ln kh nng bn vng ca nn kinh t. l v nhim nhiu n ni gy nn nhng thit hi khng th o ngc, hay v nhim ko di nh hng n cc th h tng lai. Cc kt qu ny c th l hu qu ca vic l chn im A trn ng PPF trong hnh 1-1 trong nhng nm trc. Hu qu l, ng PPF cho n nm 2050 s nm pha di ng PPF ngy nay. Cho d chn sn xut bt k im no trn ng PPF i na, x hi cng phi hoc tiu th t hn hoc chu cht lng mi trng thp hn so vi hin ti. Nu h c gi mc sn xut c2, cht lng mi trng s gim xung e3. Ngc li, nu gi cht lng mi trng mc e2 th ch c th sn xut v tiu th hng ha mc c3. Biu (b) th lc quan hn. Gi s chng ta pht trin k thut mi sn xut mt lng ln nng lng t s lm ngu i. Nhng ngoi tc mi trng lin quan n ngun nng lng mi ny l khng ng k. ng PPF ca chng ta hin ti dch chuyn ln, phn nh x hi c kh nng sn xut c nhiu hng ha hn vi mc cht lng mi trng cao hn. Ch rng nghing ca ng PPF cho thy c2 cng mt mc sn xut x hi la chn nm gc chng ta c cht lng mi trng e4 cao hn e2, bi v pht trin ngun nng lng khng gy nhim. Ngc li, cng vi mc cht lng mi trng e2 sn lng c th c4. Cc trng hp ny cho thy tng lai ph thuc vo s la chn ca chng ta ngy hm nay. Liu c cch no bit PPF ca mt quc gia s thay i nh th no theo thi gian khi quc gia pht trin v tng trng? u l mi quan h gia tng trng kinh t v cht lng mi trng? Tc tng trng cao tng hng ha quc ni GDP tng c hm suy thoi mi trng tng hay khng hay l kt qu s ngc li? Mt cch tr li cu hi ny l l xem cht lng mi trng thay i nh th no cc nc c mc thu nhp khc nhau. Hoc l, c th chn mt quc gia v xem cht lng mi trng thay i nh th no theo thi gian khi thu nhp tnh trn u ngi gia tng.
11
Sn lng
C2 C3
e3
e2 Cht lng mi trng
(a) Kch bn bi quan: PPF trong 50 nm ti Sn lng C4 C2
e2
e4 Cht lng mi trng
(b) Kch bn lc quan: PPF trong 50 nm ti
Hnh 1-2: Hai vin cnh ca PPF trong 50 nm ti

ng PPF trong biu (a) trnh by kch bn bi quan trong ng PPF dch chuyn xung pha di. iu ny c ngha l quc gia ny khng cn c th tiu dng va c2 va e2 c na, mt trong hai im ny phi gim i. Biu (b) lc quan hn. ng PPF dch chuyn ln do tin b k thut. Vic tiu th hng ha v cht lng mi trng gi y u c th tng theo thi gian.
Cc ng PPF ca nhng quc gia khc nhau s c dng nh th no? Cc nc khc nhau rt nhiu v thu nhp tnh theo u ngi, v mc pht trin, v v vy khc nhau trong s nh i gia cht lng mi trng v hng ha dch v. C nhiu l lun cho rng cc nc ang pht trin khng th theo ui c mc cht lng mi trng cao.
12
Theo quan im ny, PPF ca cc nc ang pht trin s nm bn di ng PPF ca cc nc pht trin nh hnh 1-3.
Sn lng
Cc nc pht trin
Cc nc ang pht trin
Cht lng mi trng
Hnh 1-3 ng gii hn kh nng sn xut ca cc nc pht trin v cc nc ang pht trin
Vi cng mc sn lng hng ha th trng, cc nc ang pht trin phi nh i bng cht lng mi trng nhiu hn so vi mt nc pht trin. C1 cht lng mi trng l e2 thay v l e1. Nu thu nhp ca nc ang pht trin tng theo thi gian, h c th ci thin cht lng mi trng nu nh ng PDF nng ln nh ca cc nc pht trin.
Trng hp ny c th l do s khai thc ti nguyn trong qu kh, hoc p lc dn s ho c k thut qu n gin. t c mc thu nhp v sn xut hng ha v d ch v cao, cc nc ang pht trin phi i mt vi mc cht lng mi trng thp hn nhiu so vi cc nc pht trin. V d, cc nc ang pht trin t c mc hng ha trn th trng l c1, h phi gim mc cht lng mi trng xung e2. Cn cc nc pht trin, v cc yu t c cp trc, c th c mc hng ha th trng l c1 vi mc cht lng mi trng cao l e1 thay v e2. Nhn t chnh trong lp lun ny l hng ha v cht lng mi trng c th thay th cho nhau i vi cc nc ang pht trin. iu ny c ng khng? Gi s rng khi cc nc pht trin v thu nhp gia tng th cht lng mi trng v hng ha s b sung cho nhau. S pht trin ca k thut v tng trng sn xut c th tch ring cc ngnh kinh t s dng ti nguyn ra khi phn cn li ca nn kinh t, chng ta cn t ngun lc s cp sn xut hng ha v dch v hn. X hi s sn lng v c kh nng chi tiu nhiu hn t thu nhp ca h bo v mi trng khi s suy thoi v gii quyt nhng thit hi gy ra. Thm na, khi thu nhp ca mi ngi tng ln, h c th thay i cch thc tiu th, hng th nhiu nhng hot ng hng ti bo tn ti nguyn thin nhin (v d nh gii tr, ngm chim cnh, i b v.v.) hn l cc hot ng s dng ti nguyn thin nhin. Mi trng c th c xem l hng ha co gin theo thu nhp (income elastic good). Mi ngi s dng nhng hng ha gn vi s ci thin cht lng mi trng nhiu hn khi thu nhp ca h tng ln. H c th sc lm iu bi v h m bo tha mn cc nhu cu c bn, nh thc phm, nc sch, phng tin v sinh v nh . H c th gy p lc chnh ph ban hnh nhng quy nh mi trng nhm bo v mi trng tt hn.
13
iu ny s dn n nhng la chn x hi em li mc cht lng mi trng cao hn. ng PPF lc s bt u dch chuyn ln trn nh nhng nc p ht trin. Khi thu nhp tng, cht lng mi trng cng s tng.
ng Kuznets mi trng
Cc nh kinh t nghin cu d liu cht lng mi trng ca cc nc c mc thu nhp khc nhau. Mc tiu l xem khi thu nhp thay i th cht lng mi trng c thay i mt cch h thng khng. Phng php thng k c s dng khm ph ra cc mi lin h. Cc nghin cu ny cho thy c cc mi lin h gia mc thu nhp v cc thc o cht lng mi trng khc nhau. Mi lin h ny c gi l ng Kuznets mi trng (EKC), c t theo tn ca mt nh kinh t tm thy mi quan h gia thu nhp v bnh ng x hi. Hnh 1-4 cho thy c ba loi lin h trong ng EKC: 1. EKC gim u khi thu nhp tng. p dng cho lnh vc nc sch, nh v sinh v mc sulphur dioxide trong nhng nm 1990. Cc kt qu v nc v nh v sinh cho thy y l nhng hng ha thng thng ngha l khi thu nhp tng mi ngi sn lng tr cao hn cho hng ha ny. Cn kt qu cho sulphur dioxide vo nhng nm 1990 c th l do tc ng ca cc quy nh v pht thi, c bit l ti cc nc pht trin. EKC lc u tng sau gim theo thu nhp. V d SO2 vo nhng nm 1980 v CO2 vo nhng nm 1990. ng SO2 cho thy qu trnh pht trin trong giai on u dn n gia tng nhim khng kh, nhng khi thu nhp tng theo thi gian th c s chuyn i sang cc loi hnh cng ngh sn xut sch hn, cng cc cng ng cc nc gia tng yu cu kim sot nhim. C s khc bit ln trong lng CO2 c tnh gia nhng nm 1980 v 1990 nn kh c th suy din l do trong trng hp ny. Cn b ng trong lm nghip khng phi l tin tt lnh cho mi trng. S cn bng cho thy din tch che ph rng tng th thu nhp tng ln ti mc khong 20.000 USD tnh trn u ngi, nhng sau bt u gim bt. y l b ng chng ca vic s dng khng bn vng cc ngun ti nguyn. EKC tng theo thu nhp. V d biu din pht thi CO2 tnh trn u ngi vo nhng nm 1980. Pht thi CO2 tng l kt qu t nhu cu nng lng ha thch tng i cng vi qu trnh pht trin Nhng ch rng EKC c l ang thay i theo thi gian, phn nh vic gim s dng nhin liu ha thch trn mi n v GDP.
2.
3.
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(a) S thiu v sinh (%), nm 1997 v nhng nm 1980 140

% dn s sng mt v sinh
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 - 20 -10.000 0 10.000 20.000 30.000 40.000 1997 1980s
iu kin v sinh c ci thin lin tc khi thu nhp trn u ngi tng trong c hai gia on, nhng theo % thiu v sinh gim mnh vo nm 1997.
50.000
GDP tnh trn u ngi
(b) Nc ung khng an ton (%), nm 1997 v nhng nm 1980
% dn s s dng nc khng sch
100 80 60 40 20 0 - 20 -10.000 1997 1980s
Cung cp nc sch c ci thin lin tc khi thu nhp tng. iu ny cng xy ra mc thu nhp theo u ngi thp vo nm 1997 hn l vo nhng nm 1980
10.000
20.000
30.000
40.000
50.000
GDP tnh trn u ngi
Hnh 1-4 ng Kuznets mi trng c c tnh vo nhng nm 1980 v 1990

Nhng ng EKC ch ra mi quan h gia thu nhp tnh theo u ngi vi mt ch s mi trng. Ngi ta tm thy mt lot cc mi quan h khc nhau, nh c m t trong nhng khung trn y.
15
(c) Thay i din tch che ph rng (%), 1990-1995

4
Thay i din tch ph rng 1990 1995 (%)
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -10.000 0 10.000 20.000 30.000 GDP tnh trn u ngi 40.000 50.000
Trong nhng nm 1990 ng EKC hnh vng cung cho thy din tch che ph rng gia tng khi thu nhp tnh trn u ngi t mc thp chuyn qua cao, sau th gim xung.
(d) Pht thi SO2 khu vc th, thp nin 1980 v 1990
140
Nng SO2 (g/m3)
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 -10.000 0
1980s
EKC ca SO2 c hnh ch U vo nhng nm 1980, nhng vo nhng nm 1990 th ng cong c dc i xung.
1990s
10.000 20.000 30.000 40.000 50.000
GDP tnh trn u ngi
Hnh 1-4 ng Kuznets mi trng c c tnh vo nhng nm 1980 v 1990 (tt) Nhng mi lin h trn ch l nhng hnh chp nn kinh t th gii ti mt thi im. Nh hnh 1-4 minh ha, cc mi lin h dng nh ang thay i theo thi gian, i lc cho thy mi quan h gia pht trin v cht lng mi trng tr nn lc quan hn. Nhng kt qu EKC, trong mt s trng hp, cnh bo rng nu cc quc gia vn tip tc tng trng thu nhp th c th s dn n vic lm ti t cht lng mi trng. Cn ch rng EKC ch cho thy mt ch s cht lng mi trng, khng phi l thc o cc nh hng kt hp ca nhiu cht nhim ln sc khe ca h sinh thi. iu ny l gii hn ch yu ca cc nghin cu thc tin c lin kt cht lng mi trng vi cc bin s kinh t.
16
(e) Pht thi CO2 tnh trn u ngi, nm 1996

30.000
Lng pht thi CO2 (kg/ngi)
20.000 10.000 0
1980
1996
EKC ca CO2 c dng tng theo hm s m vo nhng nm 1980, nhng d liu nm 1996 th c hnh ch U ngc vi nh cao ca pht thi tnh trn u ngi xy ra mc thu nhp di 20.000 USD/ngi.
-10.000 -10.000 50.000 0 10.000 20.000 30.000 40.000
GDP tnh trn u ngi
Ngun: c lng nhng nm 1990 do cc tc gi tnh ton. S liu nhng nm 1980 l ca Ngn Hng Th Gii (1992). Bo co Pht Trin Th gii 1992. Pht Trin v Mi Trng, trang 11.
Hnh 1-4 ng Kuznets mi trng c c tnh vo nhng nm 1980 v 1990 (tt)
Cc cha nhim v vng trnh nhim

Khi kho st cht lng mi trng nhiu quc gia, mt cu hi c t ra l cc ch s mi trng c phn nh tnh cht ch ca chnh sch mi trng cc nc hay khng v c cc chnh ph c cnh tranh trong vic li ko cc ngnh cng nghip bn hay sch khng. Mt quc gia hay mt vng trong mt quc gia c th mun tr thnh cha nhim (pollution haven) bng cch a ra nhng chnh sch mi trng rt lng lo. H khuyn khch cc cng ty xy dng nh my sn xut tht nhiu hng ha v to nhiu vic lm cho ngi dn. Cc nc ang pht trin thng c xem l cc cha nhim, v bt k quc gia hay khu vc no c cc mc tiu mi trng thp u l cc cha nhim tim nng. Cc nc khuyn khch cng ngh sn xut sch v mi gi nhng ngi nh gi cao cht lng mi trng th thng s dng cc chnh sch mi trng khc khe. Cc nc l cc vng trnh nhim (pollution halos). Tht kh c c kt lun v vn ny. Cc kt qu nghin cu thc t khng tch bit vn rch ri c. Nhiu nghin cu cho thy khng c bng chng v cc vng cha nhim. Nhng nghin cu chi tit tng ngnh cng nghip th li thy c nhng trng hp qui nh mi trng gp phn di di cc x nghip gy nhim nng sang cc vng c qui nh mi trng t cht ch hn. S phc tp ch l lm th no o c c tnh cht ch ca cc quy nh. Cc nc pht trin v ang pht trin c cc quy
17
nh pht thi cht ch, nhng trong thc t th vic cng ch thc hin li rt yu. Mt d liu l tng l phi o c mc pht thi ca cc ngun nhim, hay nhm ngun, trc v sau khi n di chuyn t vng ny sang vng khc. Rt kh c cc d liu ny. V vy, cch m cc nh kinh t phi tin hnh l xc nh nhng ngnh cng nghip bn, l nhng ngnh cng nghip pht thi lng ln cht nhim, v xem chng tng hay gim nh th no cc quc gia hay khu vc khc nhau trong cng mt quc gia. Vn kh khn trong cch nghin cu ny l c nhiu yu t khc ngoi cc quy nh mi trng cng c th khin cc ngnh cng nghip bn phi di chuyn v d nh chi ph lao ng, kh nng cung ng nguyn liu th, c s h tng v c bit l cc giai on ca chu k sn xut. iu cui cng chng ta mun ni n l trong qu trnh pht trin ca bt k mt nn kinh t no, cc ngnh cng nghip u c xu hng m rng ri suy thoi cc thi im khc nhau. Cc ngnh cng nghip ch to c bn, thng c xem l b n, s pht trin lc u v suy gim sau khi thu nhp ca quc gia tng. V vy cc cng ngnh cng nghip ny c th di chuyn t nc ny sang nc khc (di chuyn khng ch theo ngha en, m l m rng mt s nc v suy thoi mt s nc khc) ty vo iu kin cc nc ang giai on no trong chu k sn xut, ch khng ph thuc vo cc qui nh v mi trng. V d: iu g ang xy ra vi mc nhim cc nc ang pht trin ni m u t trc tip nc ngoi ang gia tng rt mnh theo thi gian? Mt nghin cu ca Wheeler (2000) v mi quan h gia u t nc ngo i cc nc ang pht trin v mc nhim ca cc nc theo thi gian. Ba nc ang pht trin c nghin cu l: Trung quc, Mexico v Brazil. D liu l cc cht nhim khng kh th quan trng - bi l lng (PM), c lin quan mt thit vi bnh v t vong c nguyn nhn tim phi. Ba nc ny c tnh chim khong 60% vn u t trc tip nc ngoi (FDI) cc nc ang pht trin, v vy nghin cu mi lin h gia FDI v PM l trc nghim c bit c ngha i vi gi thit v cha nhim. Nu nh u t nc ngoi to iu kin cho s di chuyn cc cng ngh cc k nhim n cc nc ang pht trin nhanh chng ny, th PM phi gia tng hay t nht l khng gim xung. D liu c trnh by hnh 1-5. Mi biu minh ha cho tng nc. Trong mi trng hp, trong khi lng u t trc tip ca nc ngoi tng (ng k nht giai on cui), PM li gim. Gi thit v nhim khng c cn c, t nht cho loi cht nhim trn v vi cc quc gia trn. Cc cu hi pht sinh trong v d ny (dnh cho tho lun) 1. Bn c cho rng cc cht nhim khc cng s trong tnh trng tng t nh vi bi l lng? (Lin h vi thng tin v EKC) 2. Trong khi b i l lng gim ti cc vng ny, mc ny so vi cc cc nuc khc th nh th no? v d nh Ho a K v Canada? (D liu v Canada v bi l lng c cho chng 2.)
18
(a) Trung Quc

600 500
B i (m icrogram /m3)
40
u t n c ngoi nm 1998
35 30
400 300 200 100 0 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Nm 1992 1993 1994 1995
25 20 15 10 5 0
(b) MEXICO CITY

60
Hm lng bi vt tiu
14 12 10 8
u t nc ngoi nm
12
u t nc ngoi nm 1988 (USD)
50
chun (%)
40 30
6 20 10 0 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Nm 4 2 0
(c) SAO PAULO, BRAZIL

160 140
Bi (microgtam/m3)
10 8 6 4 2 0 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Nm
120 100 80 60 40 20 0
Cho c ba quc gia, nhim di dng bi l lng gim t nhng nm 1980, trong khi u t trc tip nc ngoi li gia tng. D liu n y khng minh chng cho gi tht l cc qu c gia ang pht trin ny l nhng cha nhim.
1998 (USD)
(U SD )
19
KINH T HC V CHNH TR
Cc quyt nh chnh sch mi trng c a ra theo cc quy trnh chnh tr, ni m t nht l trong cc h thng dn ch, ngi dn v cc nhm ngi li vi nhau v u tranh ginh s nh hng v quyn kim sot. Khi nhng mi quan tm ny tri ngc nhau th cc hnh thc lin minh mi c thnh lp v to ra s thin lch. Cc chnh sch xut hin t qu trnh nh vy s t c can h g vi cc phng php hiu qu gii quyt cc vn mi trng m ta ni n. Nu nh vy th vai tr ca cc nh kinh t mi trng s c t u? Ti sao phi mt rt nhiu thi gian v cng sc cho cc vn hiu qu, hiu qu chi ph, cng bng khi m qu trnh chnh tr hu nh s b cc vn ny m ch i theo hng ring ca n? Cu tr li l cng vic ca cc chnh tr gia chnh l s i tm kim hay dn xp cho s ci tin. Cc nh khoa hc v kinh t hc c th gip cho qu trnh chnh tr bng cch nghin cu cng r rng v khch quan cng tt, d rng chng ta bit th gii thc t l y tha hip v quyn lc. Cc nh kinh t c th gip xc nh cc chin lc hiu qu x hi v nghin cu cc vn phn phi: cc vn mi trng v cc chnh sch mi trng nh hng nh th no ln cc nhm khc nhau trong x hi. Mt vai tr quan trng khc ca cc nh kinh t v khoa hc l cung cp thng tin cc phng n hnh ng khc nhau cho ngi lm chnh tr. V d, tc ng pht thi lin tc kh gy hiu ng nh knh ln s thay i kh hu l nh th no? Ngi tiu dng s phn ng nh th no vi thu carbon? Mc d chng ta s tp trung c cun sch vo vn cc chnh sch hiu qu nht hay cc hnh ng t chi ph nht, th chng ta vn cn nhn thy rng trong th gii nhn v cho ca chnh tr, ni hnh thnh chnh sch, vic chn la cc phng n thay th lun lun l vn trng tm. Nhng cc nh kinh t ang ngy cng tr nn quan trng trong qu trnh hnh thnh cc chnh sch mi trng. Khi x hi v cc chnh khch ca chng ta cn nm r s phc tp v p lc ca cc vn mi trng th h da vo cc nh kinh t c li khuyn v chnh sch. Cc chnh sch trong qu kh c l khng ci thin mi trng. Cc ngh kim sot mi trng mi kt hp cc nguyn tc khuyn khch kinh t ang ng vai tr ngy cng quan trng trong cc chnh sch mi trng cc cp a phng, tnh thnh v c quc gia. l tt c cc l do nghin cu v hiu bit kinh t hc phn tch mi trng v chnh sch.
TM TT
Mc ch ca chng ny l to cho bn s yu thch mn hc kinh t mi trng bng cch ch ra mt s ch chnh, nhng phng php quan trng nht m cc nh kinh t ang tin hnh nghin cu. Chng ta s tp trung vo kha cnh kinh t vi m ca kinh t mi trng thy c ti sao ngoi tc tn ti v cn mi, v lm th no thit lp v phn tch cc cng c chnh sch kinh t c th ci thin cht lng mi trng. Chng ta trnh by tm tt mt s vn kinh t v m chnh yu nht l s bn vng v tng trng. Cc cng c phn tch nhm nghin cu chuyn su nhng vn ny cn kin thc kinh t hc phc tp hn phn s c s dng trong cun sch. Chng ta hy vng rng bn s tip tc nghin cu kinh t hc v tr li cc vn kinh t v m ny trong mt kha hc khc. Khi chng ta i vo mt s vn v quan im v l thuyt trong kinh t mi trng th rt d lm mt i cc ni dung m chng ta mu n t c. Chng ta c pht trin nhng nguyn l c bn c th s dng chng ch ra nhng vn thc t nh nhim khng kh v nc. Mc d cc nguyn l ny c gii thiu mt cch ngn gn v c v n l nhng hy lun nh mc tiu l t cho c mt mi trng thin nhin p hn, sch hn v lnh mnh hn v bn vng theo thi gian.
20
CC THUT NG CHNH
ng bng quan cng ng Hiu qu chi ph Kinh t sinh thi ng Kuznets mi trng S cng bng Ngo i tc Khuyn khch Hng ha c cu co d n theo thu nhp Li ch bin Chi ph bin Hng ha thng thng Chi ph c hi cha nhim Vng trnh nhim Chi ph t nhn ng gii hn kh nng sn xut Quyn s hu ti sn S khan him Vn x hi Mc nhim hiu qu x hi S bn vng nh i
CU H I THO LUN
1. Kim tra hng nm tt c cc xe my trn ng khng phi l mt chnh sch hiu qu v chi ph. Bn c ng vi kin ny? Gii thch ti sao c v ti sao khng? 2. Ti sao thu xng du khuyn khch vic gim thi t xe my nhiu hn l thu hng nm nh trc tip trn xe? 3. Tiu chu n CAFC ca Canada p dng cho xe mi khi xut xng. Hy a ra 2 l do v sao iu ny c th c tc ng trn tng lng pht thi ca xe my? Hy gii thch? 4. Liu Canada c cn mt tiu chu n CAFC t nguyn trong khi Hoa K iu ny l b t buc khng? Bnh lu n? 5. Cc yu t no nh hng n s nh i c minh ha trong ng gii hn kh nng sn xut bin (PPF)? Bng cch no cc chnh sch mi trng nh hng ln s nh i ny? 6. Gi s c s thay i cng ngh cho php cc c s sn xut hng ha v d ch v t gy nhim. Hy trnh by b ng biu v gii thch cng ngh ny s thay i ng gii hn kh nng sn xut bin nh th no v ch ra im nm trn ng ny ni m x hi c kh nng la chn? 7. Nu vn nhn to khng th thay th cho vn mi trng (cc ngun ti nguyn thin nhin, cht lng khng kh v nc), iu ny s nh hng nh th no i vi s nh i gia pht trin kinh t v mi trng? 8. Trnh by cc ng Kuznets mi trng (EKC) thay i nh th no khi cc ng gii hn kh nng sn xut bin (PPF) ca cc quc gia thay i theo thi gian? 9. Ti sao cc quc gia mun tr thnh ni trnh nhim?
21
CHNG 2
LIN KT GIA KINH T V MI TRNG: S PHN LOI

Trong bt k nn kinh t no, nhng hot ng c bn l sn xut, phn phi v tiu dng u din ra trong mt th gii t nhin bao quanh. Mt trong nhng vai tr ca th gii t nhin l cung cp nguyn vt liu th v nng lng u vo; m nu khng c n th sn xu t, tiu dng v b n thn cuc sng cng khng th tn ti c. Cc hot ng sn xut v tiu dng to ra nhiu sn phm ph thi, gi l cht thi, v nhng cht ny cu i cng s quay v th gii t nhin di dng ny hay d ng khc. Cc cht thi ny c th gy nhim v suy thai mi trng t nhin. Chng ta c th minh ha mi lin h c bn ny bng mt gin nh sau:
Thin nhin
(a)
Kinh t
(b)
Mi lin kt (a): m t cc nguyn vt liu th chuyn vo qu trnh sn xut v tiu dng. Lnh vc nghin cu vai tr cung cp nguyn vt liu th ca thin nhin c gi l Kinh t ti nguyn thin nhin . Mi lin kt (b): th hin s tc ng ca hot ng kinh t n cht lng mi trng t nhin. L nh vc nghin cu v s vn chuyn ca cc cht thi t hot ng kinh t v cc tc ng tng hp ca n i vi th gii t nhin c tn gi l Kinh t mi trng . Mc d kim sot nhim l mt ch chnh yu trong kinh t mi trng nhng khng phi l ch duy nht. Con ngi tc ng n mi trng bng nhiu cch m khng c lin quan g n nhim nh ta vn ngh. Ph hy mi sinh do vic pht trin nh ca, ng x v thy li, do lm suy gim cnh quan, v vic tho kh t ngp nc sn xut nng nghip l nhng v d v tc ng mi trng khng lin quan n vic thi cht gy nhim c trng. Ch ca cun sch ny l Kinh t mi trng. Chng ta s nghin cu v s qun l dng cht thi v nhng tc ng ca hot ng ca con ngi n ti nguyn mi trng. Tuy vy, s tht l nhiu vn ny li ny sinh ngay t giai on nguyn liu th ban u trong qu trnh tc ng qua li gia kinh t v t nhin. V th, trc khi tip tc, chng ta s xem xt vn tt nhng nhn t chnh ca Kinh t ti nguyn thin nhin.
KINH T TI NGUYN THIN NHIN

Trong cc x hi hin i, i khi chng ta d dng b qua s kin rng hot ng kinh t s dng rt nhiu loi u vo ti nguyn thin nhin khc nhau. V d cc ngun nng lng t nhin liu ha thch nh than , du m v kh thin nhin, p thy in,
22
ethanol, nng lng mt tri v gi cung cp cc ngun u vo pht in, xe c di chuyn v nng lng cho cc quy trnh sn xut. Rt nhiu nguyn vt liu c dng trong x hi cng nghip, v ngay c trong lnh vc cng ngh thng tin, c ngun gc t cc lo i khong sn khc nhau v t cc ti nguyn rng. Khng kh v nc cn thit cho tt c cc sinh vt, cng nh cn thit cho u vo ca nhiu quy trnh sn xut. Sn xut thc phm ph thuc vo nn tng ti nguyn thin nhin, hoc thu hoch trc tip nh ngnh thy sn, hoc cung cp u vo cn thit cho s tng trng ca cy trng vt nui. phn loi cc ti nguyn thin nhin, cch ph bin nht l phn thnh cc ti nguyn c th ti to (renewable) v ti nguyn khng th ti to (non-renewable). Cc ti nguyn sng nh c v g l ti nguyn c th ti to; chng ln ln theo thi gian qua cc quy trnh sinh hc. Vic thu hoch cc ti nguyn ny c th bn vng theo thi gian. M t s ngun ti nguyn khng sng cng l ti nguyn c th ti to, mt th d in hnh l nng lng mt tri chiu xung tri t v vng tun hon nc. Ti nguyn khng th ti to l cc d ng ti nguyn khng c qu trnh b sung sau khi s dng, chng s bin mt vnh vin. S khai thc, v th l khng bn vng. Nhng v d in hnh l cc ti d u m t nhin v cc trm tch khong khng cha nng lng. Mt s ti nguyn, chng hn cc tng nc ngm, c mc b sung qu chm chp nn chng c xp vo dng ti nguyn khng th ti to. Cc ti nguyn sng cng c th tr thnh ti nguyn khng th ti to nu vic khai thc lin tc vt qu s tng trng ca ngun ti nguyn. Mt loi ti nguyn cc k quan trng cho s tn ti ca tt c cc lo i, khng hin din trong mt cht m ch hin din trong mt tp hp ca nhiu thnh phn: ti nguyn a dng sinh hc (biological diversity). Cc nh sinh vt hc c tnh trn tri t hin nay c kho ng 30 triu lo i sinh vt khc nhau ang sinh sng. S lng loi ny th hin mt ngun thng tin di truyn to ln v quan trng, rt hu ch cho s pht trin cc loi dc liu, thuc bo v thc vt c ngun gc t nhin v cc ging cy trng vt nui c tnh chng chu v.v. Cc hot ng ca con ngi lm gia tng ng k mc tuyt chng ca cc lo i. V vy, s bo tn ni c tr v bo v cc ging loi tr thnh nhng vn v ti nguyn quan trng hin nay. Mt trong nhng c im c trng ca hu ht nhng vn v ti nguyn thin nhin l tnh ph thuc vo thi gian. iu ny c ngha l vic s dng chng thng ko di theo thi gian, do mc s dng trong mt thi im s nh hng n s lng s dng trong tng lai. Trong trng hp cc ti nguyn khng th ti to th d nhn thy iu ny. Nn rt ln bao nhiu du m t mt ging du trong nm nay, bit rng nu chng ta rt nhiu hn trong hin ti th s cn li t hn cho cc nm tip theo? Vn nh i gia hin ti vi tng lai ny cng xy ra nhiu loi ti nguyn c th ti to. Nn khai thc bao nhiu c hi trong hin ti bit rng quy m ca n cn li s nh hng n kh nng cung cp c trong nhng nm tip theo? Chng ta nn khai thc cc cy g trong nm nay, hay l nn ch vi nm na v mc tng trng ca chng cn ang cao? Nhng vn ta ang ni n mang c th v mt lin th h, chng bao hm vic phi nh i gia hin ti vi tng lai. Mt s vn mi trng cng mang tnh cht ny, nht l cc cht nhim tch ly, ho c nhng cht nhim cn mt khong thi gian di tiu hy ht. Ci b suy gim y chnh l kh nng ng ha ca tri t - l kh nng ca h thng t nhin chp nhn mt s cht nhim no v chuyn chng sang dng trung tnh hoc v hi. Mt s l thuyt v cn kit ti nguyn thin nhin cng gip
23
ch cho s hiu bit v nhim mi trng. Theo , kh nng ng ha cng l mt dng ti nguyn thin nhin, tng t cc ti nguyn truyn thng nh du m v rng. Mt nt c trng ca th gii hin i l trong nhiu trng hp, s phn chia ranh gii gia ti nguyn thin nhin v ti nguyn mi trng khng r nt. Nhiu tin trnh khai thc ti nguyn, nh khai thc g, khai m l thin, c nh hng trc tip n cht lng mi trng. V trong nhiu trng hp, s nhim hoc suy thai mi trng tc ng n cc qu trnh khai thc ti nguyn. Mt v d c th l nhim nc khu vc ca sng nh hng n s sinh trng ca n c. Cng tng t nh th, nhim khng kh lm gim sn lng nng nghip. V nhiu i tng khc, nh ng vt hoang d, c th c xem va l ti nguyn thin nhin va l c tnh ca mi trng. D ranh gii khng r rng nh th, cc nh kinh t cng phn bit rch ri gia hai dng dch v ca th gii t nhin cung cp nguyn liu th v chc nng mi trng chng ta c th tp trung vo lo i ti nguyn th hai (chc nng mi trng) trong cun sch ny.
CN BNG C BN
Hnh 2-1 l mt s biu din phc tp hn ca nhng mi lin h c th hin u chng. Cc yu t trong vng trn l cc thnh phn ca h thng kinh t, ton b chng, v c bn, c bao bc trong mi trng t nhin. Nn kinh t c phn chia thnh hai b phn chnh: nh sn xut v ngi tiu th. Nh sn xut: bao gm tt c cc cng ty, t chc cng v cc t chc phi li nhun ly u vo v chuyn ha chng thnh hng ha v d ch v. Ngun u vo ch yu m mi trng t nhin cung cp cho lnh vc sn xut l cc nguyn vt liu dng nhin liu, khong, v g, cc cht lng nh nc v xng du, v cc dng kh khc nhau nh kh thin nhin v oxy. Tt c hng ha v dch v u c ngun gc t cc nguyn vt liu ny kt hp vi cc u vo l nng lng. Ngi tiu th: bao gm tt c cc h gia nh ring bit s dng cc sn phm v dch v cui cng phc v cho s tn ti v th hng ca h. Ngi tiu th cng c th s dng cc nguyn liu u vo ly trc tip t thin nhin m khng qua trung gian nh sn xut. Nc c bm t cc ging gia nh, hay l, nhiu quc gia, ci c cc h gia nh thu gom trc tip. Con ngi cng s dng mi trng t nhin mt cch trc tip cho cc hot ng th gin nh l i b trong rng hay quan st chim mung. Cc hot ng ny khng nht thit bao hm s tiu th mi trng t nhin. n gin cc chc nng ny khng c th hin trc tip trong hnh di y.
24
Hnh 2-1 : Vng tu n hon lin h gia Mi trng v Kinh t Mi trng t nhin
Ti ch (Rp ) Nguyn liu th (M) Cht thi (Rp) Ngi sn xut Hng Ha (G) Cht thi (Rc) Thi b (R pd) Thi b (R cd)
Ngi tiu th Ti ch (Rc)
Mi trng t nhin
Mi trng t nhin cung cp nguyn liu th cho h thng kinh t. Sn xut v tiu dng to ra cc cht thi, cc cht ny c th c ti ch, nhng cui cng vn quay li mi trng t nhin.
Trong bi cnh rng hn, nh sn xut v ngi tiu th thc t c th cng l mt ngi vi nhng vai tr khc nhau. Thi chng ta - chng n trong nhiu cuc tranh lun thuc lnh vc mi trng thc t l mt s bt ng ni b trong cng mt nhm. Tng th x hi xt v c bn ging nh mt h gia nh, h bm nc ln t chnh ming ging ca h v li thi cc cht thi vo h thng t hoi nm xung quanh ming ging ca h. Sn xut v tiu dng to ra tt c cc dng cht thi, c th c x vo khng kh, nc ho c vt b trn mt t. Danh sch cc cht thi ny di n kh tin: sulfur dioxide, cc hp cht hu c d bay hi, cc dung mi c, cht thi ng vt, thuc bo v thc vt, bi loi, x bn, kim loi nng v.v. Nng lng thi cng l nhng cht thi quan trng ca qu trnh sn xut; chng c thi ra dng nhit, dng m thanh, v nng lng phng x l lo i mang c tnh ca c vt cht v nng lng. Ngi tiu th cng c phn trch nhim i vi phn ln lng cht thi, trong ch yu l cht thi sinh hot v cc cht thi t phng tin giao thng. Tt c cc cht trong hng tiu dng cui cng u l nhng cht thi cho d chng c th c ti ch trc . y chnh l ngu n ca phn ln cht thi rn cng nh cc cht thi nguy hi nh cht c ha hc c trong thuc bo v thc vt, pin, sn v du cn. Trc ht chng ta hy xem xt vn cht thi sn xut v tiu dng t quan im thun vt l s dng mt m hnh n gin. Mt m hnh l mt cch th hin cu trc v nhng mi quan h ca cc s vt m khng i su vo tt c chi tit phc tp ca n. Hnh 2-1 th hin cc thnh phn ca m hnh vi cc k hiu c gn cho chng. Trong hnh 2-1, nguyn vt liu v nng lng (M) c ly ra t mi trng t nhin v cc cht thi t sn xut v tiu dng (Rpd v Rcd) c thi tr li vo mi trng. Theo quy lut nhit ng hc th nht (first law of thermodynamics), mt quy lut ni ting v s bo to n
25
vt cht, khng nh rng, trong d i hn, hai d ng vt cht ny phi bng nhau hiu ca hnh 2-1 th: M = Rpd + Rcd
(1)
. Theo k
S d phi pht biu trong di hn l v nhiu l do. Nu h thng ang pht trin, n c th lu gi li mt t l cc u vo ti nguyn s dng cho vic gia tng kch thc ca h thng thng qua s tng trng dn s, s tch ly cng c t bn v.v. Cc cht ny s b thi nu v khi h thng ngng tng trng v khi cng c t bn h hng. Ngoi ra, ti ch c th lm chm qu trnh thi cc cht thi. Nhng ti ch c th khng bao gi ho n ho. Mi mt chu trnh phi mt mt t l no vt cht c ti ch (2). Do , s cn bng vt cht c bn ch t c trong di hn. iu ny chng t mt iu rt c bn l: gim bt khi lng cc cht thi ra mi trng t nhin, cn gim bt lng nguyn vt liu th a vo h thng (3). Chng ta c th xem xt cn thn hn nhng phng n la chn trc khi mun thay th M. Theo biu dng vt cht, lng nguyn liu th (M) bng vi sn phm u ra (G) cng vi cc cht thi t sn xut (Rp), tr i lng c ti ch bi nh sn xut (Rp) v ngi tiu dng (Rc). Biu thc c trnh by: Rpd + Rcd = M = G + Rp - Rp - Rc C ba cch c bn gim M, v do , gim cc cht thi c thi vo mi trng t nhin. Gim G S lng hng ha v d ch v c sn xut. Nhiu ngi cho rng y l cu tr li tt nht trong di hn cho s suy thai mi trng: gim lng sn phm xut ra, hay t nht ngng tc tng trng ca n li, s cho php mt s thay i tng t trong s lng cht thi c thi ra. Mt s ngi tm kim gii php t c mc tiu ny bng cch ng h tc pht trin dn s bng khng (ZPG). Mt s tng trng chm hay gi nguyn dn s c th lm cho vic kim sot tc ng mi trng d dng hn, nhng cng khng m bo kim sot c, do 2 nguyn nhn: Th nht, mt dn s n nh vn c th tng trng v mt kinh t, do vn tng nhu cu s dng nguyn liu th. Th hai, tc ng mi trng c th ko di v tch ly, do thm ch dn s c n nh vn c th dn dn lm suy thoi mi trng. Nhng r rng rng tng trng dn s s lun lun lm trm trng thm cc tc ng mi trng trong mt nn kinh t. V d, trong nn kinh t Canada, s pht thi ca cht nhim trn mi xe hi gim ng k trong vi thp nin gn y thng qua cng ngh kim sot pht thi tt hn. Nhng s pht trin t s lng xe hi trn xa l dn n s gia tng tng s lng pht
(1)
cc i lng ny c th so snh trc tip c, tt c cc ngun phi c biu din di dng khi lng. (2) y l nh lut th 2 ca nhit ng hc, pht biu rng: khi s dng, vt cht s gim dn theo thi gian xung mt mc thp hn. iu n y cng c bit vi tn gi khi nim entropy. Giy ch c th c ti ch vi ln trc khi si ca n tr nn qu km c th ti s dng. S ti u dng cc nhin liu ha thch gii phng nng lng v cc ph phm (CO2 v cc kh khc), chng khng th s dng li nh l nhng ti nguyn nng lng c. (3) Lu rng G = Rc, ngha l mi th c a vo lnh vc tiu dng th rt cuc cng s kt thc di dng cht thi ra t lnh vc ny.
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thi xe hi trn nhiu vng, c bit hu ht nhng thnh ph ln nh Toronto, Montreal, v Vancouver. Gim RP Cht thi t sn xut. iu ny c ngha l gim cc cht thi trn mi n v sn phm lng c sn xut. Ch c hai cch c bn thc hin iu ny. Chng ta c th pht minh v s dng cc cng ngh sn xut mi v tin hnh sn xu t vi s lng cht thi nh hn trn mt n v sn phm. Chng ta c th gi s ct gim ny l gim cng cht thi trong sn xut. V d, khi chng ta b n chnh sch ca Canada hng ng vn to n cu v s pht thi CO2 v s m ln ca tng kh quyn, chng ta s thy rng c kh nhiu cch c th lm gim cng CO2 trong sn xut, c bit l b ng cch chuyn i sang cc nhin liu khc v cn b ng ct gim nng lng tiu th cn thit sn xut ra mt la gi tr sn phm cui cng. Phng php ny c gi l ngn nga nhim. Mt cch khc lm gim RP l thay i kt cu sn phm. Sn phm bao gm mt s lng ln cc hng ha v dch v khc nhau, sn sinh ra mt lng cc cht thi khc nhau. Do , mt cch khc gim tng lng cht thi l thay i thnh phn ca sn phm t nhng vt liu c t l cht thi cao xung loi c t l thp hn, trong khi khng lm thay i tng th. Chuyn bin t nn kinh t ch yu sn xu t sang nn kinh t dch v l mt bc trong hng ny. Hu ht cc nn kinh t c tc pht trin tng i nhanh v lnh vc dch v, c bit trong nhng nm gn y. S pht trin ca lnh vc cng ngh thng tin l mt v d khc. Khng phi l b phn mi ny khng sn sinh ra nhiu cht thi; tht ra, mt s trong s chng c th to ra nhng cht thi kh chu hn l chng ta bit trc . V d, ngnh cng nghip my tnh s dng nhiu ha cht ha tan cho mc ch lm sch. Nhng v tng th, nhng ngnh ny c th ch cho ra lng rc thi nh so vi nhng ngnh cng nghip truyn thng m n thay th. Khch hng c th tc ng n nhng quyt nh sn xut ny bng cch yu cu sn phm phi tr nn thn thin mi trng hn so vi cc sn phm khc. Mt sn phm thn thin mi trng thi ra cht thi t hn hoc t c hi cho mi trng hn l nhng loi hng ha tp trung nhim. V d dung dch x phng khng c khng sinh, nhit k khng cha thy ngn, bt git khng c photphat, thit b v xe c tit kim nng lng. Tng (Rpr + Rcr ) s ti ch. Thay v thi ra cht thi s n xut v tiu dng vo mi trng, chng ta c th ti ch chng cho sn xut. Vai tr chnh ca ti ch l thay th mt phn dng vt liu nguyn s (M). iu ny c th gim c s lng cht thi thi ra ngoi trong khi vn duy tr c u ra ca cc loi hng ha v dch v. S ti ch c th to c hi lm gim cc lung thi cho cc nn kinh t trn khp th gii. Nhng chng ta phi nh n quy lut nhit ng lc hc th hai rng ti ch khng bao gi l hon ho, thm ch ngay c khi chng ta tiu tn nhiu ngun lc cho vn kh khn ny. Tin trnh sn xut thng lm thay i cu trc vt l ca vt liu c a vo, lm cho chng tr nn kh s dng li mt ln na. S chuyn bin trong nng lng ca cc vt liu lm cho khng th phc hi vt liu, v qu trnh ti ch t n cng to ra cht thi. Nhng nghin cu trn vt liu vn tip tc c tin hnh v tm thy nhiu cch mi ti ch. Trong mt thi gian di, lp xe hi khng th ti ch v qu trnh sn xut thng thng lm thay i cu trc vt l ca cao su. V xe dng ri hin nay ang c s dng lm nguyn liu tri nn ng trong xy dng cu ng, sn xut gi ng rc mt
27
s ni ca Thi Lan, v thm ch sn xut giy dp. Chng ta c th bt u chng kin s gim bt quy m cc kho cha v xe dng ri m chng lm mt m quan v i khi l nguyn nhn chnh ca cc vn mi trng khi t chng, nh nhng v t v xe Ontario vo nhng nm cui thp nin 1990 thi ra nhiu c cht vo khng kh trong nhiu ngy. Mi quan h ch yu ny rt quan trng. Mc tiu cui cng ca chng ta l: Gim thit hi gy ra bi vic thi cc cht thi trong sn xut v tiu dng Gim tng lng cht thi ny l mt cch chnh gim thit hi, v nhng quan h c tho lun phn trn cho ta bit nhng cch c bn gim thi. Chng ta cng c th gim thit hi bng cch tc ng trc tip ln dng cht thi. Chng ta s nghin cu kha cnh ny sau phn tm dng ngn lm sng t cc thut ng sau y.
THUT NG
Sau y l mt s thut ng ph bin s c s dng trong sut quyn sch: Cht lng mi trng xung quanh (Ambient quality): Mi trng xung quanh ni n mi trng xung quanh chng ta, v d, cht lng mi trng xung quanh ni n s lng cht nhim trong mi trng, v d, nng SO2 trong khng kh ca thnh ph, hay nng ca mt cht ha hc no trong nc ca mt h. Cht lng mi trng (Environmental quality): Mt thut ng c dng ni mt cch rng ri n trng thi ca mi trng t nhin. Khi nim ny bao hm c khi nim v cht lng mi trng xung quanh, v cng bao hm cc khi nim nh cht lng cnh quan v cht lng thm m ca mi trng. Cht thi (Residuals): Vt cht cn li sau khi sn xut xong. Mt nh my thu vo nhiu dng nguyn liu th v chuyn chng sang cc sn phm, cc vt cht v nng lng cn li sau khi sn phm c sn xut gi l cht thi sn xut. Cht thi tiu dng l nhng th cn li sau khi ngi tiu dng hon tt vic s dng cc sn phm c cha chng ho c s dng chng. Pht thi (Emissions): phn ca cht thi sn xut hay tiu dng c a vo trong mi trng, i khi trc tip, i khi sau x l. Ti ch (Recycling): Quy trnh quay li ca mt vi ho c to n b cht thi sn xut hay tiu dng c dng li trong sn xut v tiu dng. Cht gy nhim (Pollutant): Mt cht, mt dng nng lng hay mt hnh ng m khi a vo mi trng t nhin, s lm gim mc cht lng mi trng xung quanh. Chng ta nn ngh rng cht gy nhim khng ch l cc cht truyn thng nh du trn trn bin, hoc cc ha cht c a vo khng kh, m cn l nhng hot ng nh s pht trin cng trnh xy dng gy ra nhim cnh quan X thi (Effluent): i khi thut ng x thi c dng m t nhng cht nhim nc, v pht thi ni n cc cht nhim khng kh. Nhng trong sch ny, hai t trn s c dng tng ng nhau.
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nhim (Pollution): nhim thc cht l mt t kh nh ngha. Mt vi ngi c th pht biu rng: nhim xy ra khi mt lng cht gy nhim, d nh nh th no, c a vo mi trng. Nhng ngi khc th cho rng nhim ch din ra khi cht lng mi trng xung quanh b suy gim ti mc no hoc kh nng hp th ca mi trng b vt qu, gy ra mt s thit hi. Thit hi (Damages): Nhng nh hng tiu cc to ra bi nhim mi trng tc ng ln con ngi di hnh thc nh hng ti sc khe, suy gim cnh quan, v.v., v nh hng n cc yu t ca h sinh thi thng qua nhng vic nh ph v cc mi lin h sinh thi ho c l s tuyt chng lo i. Thnh phn mi trng (Environmental medium): Cc b phn chnh ca th gii t nhin cu thnh mi trng, thng phn thnh t, nc v khng kh. Ngun pht thi (Source): a im hoc v tr m ti s pht thi din ra, nh l mt nh my, mt xe t.
S PHT THI, CHT LNG MI TRNG XUNG QUANH, V THIT HI

Hy xem li hnh 2-1. iu g s xy ra cho cc cht nhim Rdp v Rdc khi chng c thi vo mi trng t nhin? Rt n gin, s pht thi s to ra s thay i mc cht lng mi trng xung quanh, ln lt gy thit hi cho con ngi, cc lo i khc v ton b h sinh thi. Hnh 2-2 th hin mt cch phc tho cc mi quan h ny. Hnh ny th hin n ngun pht thi c to ra t cc cng ty, c quan chnh ph hoc t ngi tiu th. (4) Cc bc trong s dng thi hnh 2-2 l: 1. Cc ngu n s dng vt cht u vo v hng ha, v cc d ng cng ngh khc nhau c dng trong sn xut v tiu dng. 2. S sn xut v tiu dng to ra cc cht thi. 3. Cch x l cc cht thi ny c nhng tc ng quan trng n cc giai on sau. Mt vi cht c th c thu gom v ti ch trong sn xut v tiu dng. Nhiu cht khc c th c a vo cc quy trnh x l hoc gim thi (gi l x l cht thi), l cc cch lm tng tnh trung ha khi cc cht ny c thi ra. Mt s quy trnh l thu n vt l (cc b gim thanh trn xe hi v xe ti, cc b lng ti cc nh my x l nc thi, cc thit b trung ha kh thi); cc quy trnh khc bao gm cc dng bin i ha hc khc nhau (x l cp cao i vi nc thi sinh hot). 4. Nhng th khng thu gom v ti ch tr thnh nhng cht thi c phng thch vo mi trng t ai, khng kh v th nhng. C mt khuynh hng v chnh sch l tch ring vic qun l cc thnh phn mi trng cc b phn khc nhau, trong vic gii quyt nhim khng kh c tch bit hon ton vi vic x l nhim nc, v.v. Nhng tht s, gia chng r rng c mi quan h vi nhau, mt khi nhng
(4)
K hiu n c dng trong kinh t ch nh mt s lng khng r rng.
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cht thi c to ra, tt c nhng g khng ti ch c s b a vo nhng thnh phn khc nhau ca mi trng. V th, vi mt tng lng cht thi nht nh, nu ta hn ch lng thi vo thnh phn mi trng ny th s lm tng lng i vo cc thnh phn mi trng khc. V d: khi ta loi b SO2 khi hn hp kh t ng khi ca nh my in, ta vn cha tiu hy c hp cht sulfur. Sulfur l mt cht c th c bn cho cc nh sn xut khc; v d , sn xut acid sulphuric. Nhiu cht sulfur khng c ti s dng cui cng s to ra cht mn mang sulfur, phi loi b b ng cch chn hay t. Nu chng ta t cht mn ny i, tht s chng ta li thi vo khng kh, v cui cng vn cn mt lng cht thi rn phi c chn lp u . Dng pht thi n t nhiu ngun pht thi khc nhau, nhng khi c thi ra, chng c trn li thnh mt dng tng hp. Thc t, vic trn ln ny c th xy ra ho n ton, v d , cht thi t 2 nh my rt gn nhau trn cng mt con sng c th pha trn hon ton n ni ta khng th phn bit c cht thi no l ca nh my no ti mt a im cch vi cy s pha h lu. Khi c khong mt triu xe hi di chuyn trong ni thnh, cht thi t tt c cc xe c trn thnh mt khi. Trong nhng trng hp khc, s trn ln din ra t hon ton hn. Nu mt nh my in ch nm pha ra ngoi thnh ph trong khi mt nh my khc nm cch 30 km theo chiu gi th nh my nm gn hn thng th ng s gy tc ng c hi i vi cht lng khng kh trong thnh ph nhiu hn nh my kia. S trn ln ca cc cht thi l mt vn khng n gin nh ta tng. Ch vi mt ngu n thi th ranh gii trch nhim c phn nh r, v ci thin cht lng mi trng xung quanh, ta bit c c th ngun thi no cn kim sot. Nhng vi nhiu ngu n khc nhau, trch nhim ca cc ngun thi tr nn khng r rng. Chng ta c th bit c tng lng thi cn phi gim, nhng ta vn gp kh khn tro ng vic phn chia s lng thi phi ct gim cho nhng ngun thi khc nhau. Khi , mi ngu n thi s c xu hng buc cc ngun thi khc phi chu phn gim thi ln hn. Nu mi ngun thi u ngh theo cch nh th, cc chng trnh kim sot nhim tht s gp tr ngi trong qu trnh xy d ng v trin khai. Chng ta s b n tip vn ny nhiu ln trong cc chng tip theo.
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Hnh 2-2: S pht thi, Cht lng mi trng xung quanh, v thit hi
Ngun x 1 Sn xut Tiu dng Ngun x 2 .............................. Ngun x n Sn xut Tiu dng Sn xut Tiu dng
Cht thi
Cht thi
Cht thi
Qun l cht thi (x l, lu gi, ti ch...)
Pht thi (thi gian, dng, v tr)
Khng kh
Nc
Cc quy trnh l, ha, thy hc v kh tng hc
Cht lng mi trng xung quanh (t, nc, khng kh) S tip xc, chu tc ng ca con ngi v vt th v cc gi tr
Thit hi n con ngi v h sinh thi

Biu dng vt cht th hin cch m cc s pht thi t hot ng kinh t nh hng n cht lng mi trng xung quanh. Ngun: c xy dng bi John B. Braden v Kathleen Segerson, Nhng vn v thng tin trong thit k chnh sch kim sot cc ngun nhim phn tn. Bi bo co ca Hi Kinh t Ti nguyn v Mi Trng (AERE). Qun l ngun nhim phn tn, NXB Lexington, 6-7/6/1991.
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5. Mt lng cht thi khi i vo mi trng th cc tn trnh sinh, ha, vt l v kh tng ca t nhin s xc nh cch chuyn i cc cht thi ny thnh mt mc nht nh v cht lng mi trng xung quanh. V d, iu kin gi v nhit s tc ng n cch cc cht thi kh nh hng n cc vng ln cn v nhng ngi sng cui ngun gi. Nhng iu kin kh tng ny li thay i tng ngy, do , cng mt lng kh thi c th to ra nhng mc cht lng mi trng khc nhau cc thi im khc nhau. Ma acid c to ra thng qua qu trnh ha hc din ra c bn trn lng SO2 pht thi u ngun; sng m cng c to ra t kt qu ca nhng phn ng ha hc c s tham gia ca nng v mt s cc cht nhim. Cc qu trnh thy ng lc hc di mt t nh hng n s vn chuyn cc vn liu c chn trong cc b i chn lp cht thi. v.v. V vy hiu c nhng cht thi c th no s nh hng n mi trng xung quanh, ta phi c c mt ci nhn thu o v cc qu trnh l ha din ra trong chnh mi trng. y l lc m ta cn c khoa hc vt l v t nhin nghin cu y cc hin tng mi trng t m hnh nh mang tnh cht da phng v dng nc ngm cc tng ngm nc nht nh cho ti m hnh phc tp ca h, lu vc sng ln v cc nghin cu v m hnh gi lin khu vc v m hnh nng ln ton cu. Mc tiu cn bn l xc nh bng cch no mt mu cht thi c chuyn i thnh cc mc cht lng mi trng xung quanh. 6. Dng cui cng trong hnh l nhng thit hi n tt c cc sinh vt v cc thnh phn ca h sinh thi tri t. Mt tp hp cc iu kin mi trng xung quanh c chuyn thnh iu kin tip xc ca nhng h thng hu sinh v v sinh. S tip xc khng ch bao gm iu kin vt l m cn bao gm s la chn ca con ngui v ni no v bng cch no sng, v bao gm s nhy cm ca nhng h thng v sinh v hu sinh i vi nhng iu kin mi trng thay i. Cui cng thit hi c lin quan n gi tr do con ngi p t. Con ngi khng c nhng s a thch r rng i vi tt c nhng kt qu c th c ca s tng tc gia mi trng v kinh t. H ch thch mt s kt qu ny hn cc kt qu khc. Phn vic quan trng ca kinh t mi trng l c gng xc nh nhng gi tr tng i m con ngi t ra cho nhng kt qu v mi trng khc nhau ny, mt ch s c nghin cu trong chng phn tch li ch - chi ph sau.
CC DNG CHT NHIM

V mt vt l, nhng cht thi hnh 2-2 bao gm lng ln cc hn hp vt cht v nng lng i vo 3 thnh phn ca mi trng. Chng ta s phn bit nhng dng chnh ca cc cht pht thi theo nhng nhn t nh hng su sc n tnh trng kinh t.
nhim tch t v khng tch t

Mt khuynh hng quan trng v n gin ca cc cht nhim l hoc chng tch ly theo thi gian hoc c khuynh hng t phn hy ngay sau khi c pht tn. Mt trng hp c bn ca cht nhim khng tch t l ting n, min l c ngun pht, ting n s pht vo mi trng khng kh xung quanh, nhng ngay khi tt ngun pht th ting n s bit mt. Ngc li, chng ta c cht nhim tch t, chng li trong mi trng vi lng gn nh nguyn vn khi c thi ra. Tng lng ca chng do vy gia tng theo thi gian khi nhng cht nhim ny c a vo mi trng mi nm V d: cht thi phng x phn hy theo thi gian nhng vi tc rt chm so vi tui th ca con ngi th coi nh l n tn ti trong c th con ngi mi mi. Mt th d khc ca cht thi tch
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t l plastic. Nhng nghin cu tm ra lo i plastic c th t phn hy din ra trong sut mt thp k qua, v cho d plastic to ra nhiu li ch th hu ht cc sn phm ny c tc phn hy rt chm so vi con ngi, v th nu chng ta thi b, nhng sn phm ny s tn ti trong mi trng mi mi. Rt nhiu loi ha cht l cht nhim tch t: mt khi c pht thi, chng s tn ti mi. Trung gian ca hai loi cht trn l rt nhiu dng cht nhim tch t mt phn. C th k n l nhng cht thi hu c c pht tn vo mi trng nc, v d nh cht thi, qua hay cha qua x l, c thi ra t cc nh my x l cht thi thnh ph. Khi pht thi, cc cht nhim c cc qu trnh t nhin phn hy vt liu hu c thnh nhng thnh phn c bn, v th lm gim mc nguy hi ca chng. Nc, ni cch khc, c kh nng ng ha t nhin cho php nhn cc cht hu c v chuyn sang dng t gy hi hn. Nu vt qu kh nng ng ha, sinh vt s bt u cht, nhng mt khi dng thi ca ngun c gim n mc khng gy hi th cht lng nc s c ci thin li, bng cch tt ngun thi trong mt vi ngy hay vi tu n, cht lng nc s tr v tnh trng ban u. D nhin vic mi trng c kh nng t lm sch khng c ngha l chng ta c nhng cht thi khng tch t. Khi lng pht thi ca chng ta vt qu kh nng cho php, chng s ri vo qu trnh nhim tch t. V d, tng kh quyn ca tri t c kh nng hp th kh CO2 c thi t hot ng ca con ngi hay ca t nhin, min l kh nng ny khng b vt mc. CO2 l cht thi khng tch t. Nhng nu vt qu kh nng ng ha ca tri t, nh trong thi im hin nay, chng ta ang trong tnh trng tch t nhim theo thi gian. Cho d cht thi l tch ly hay khng tch ly, chng ta vn c nhng vn c bn ging nhau: c gng nh dng nhng thit hi v lin h n nhng chi ph gim thiu nhim. Nhng vic lm ny i vi cht nhim tch ly th kh hn nhng cht nhim khng tch ly. Xem xt cc th trn hnh 2-3. Hnh (a) i din cho cht nhim khng tch ly, trong khi hnh (b) th hin cho nhng cht nhim tch ly. Trong hnh (a), ng th bt u t gc ta , cho thy rng nng cht trong mi trng xung quanh tng ng vi lng pht thi cht nhim. Nng mi trng xung quanh thc cht l 1 hm ca cc s pht thi hin ti - vic gim cc cht nhim ny xu ng mc zero s dn ti vic lm bin mt nng ca chng trong mi trng xung quanh. Nhng i vi cc cht nhim tch t, mi quan h ny phc tp hn. Nhng cht thi ngy nay, bi v chng tch t v c thm vo nhng phn nhim c sn, s gy tc ng xu khng ch cho chng ta m cn cho th h sau, c th trong tng lai gn. iu cng c ngha rng nng cc cht nhim tch t trong mi trng xung quanh hin ti ch hi lin quan n lng pht thi hin nay. th trong hnh (b) b t u pha trn gc ta v c dc t hn trong hnh (a). V vy, vic gim thi ti thi im hin ti ch c ngha khim tn i vi nng mi trng xung quanh. Thm ch nu lng pht thi hin ti c ct gim ti zero, cht lng ca mi trng xung quanh vn b tc ng bi s tch ly ca s pht thi trong qu kh. Vic cht nhim tch t lin tc trong mi trng c mt nh hng n vic ph v mi quan h trc tip gia lng pht thi hin ti v s thit hi hin ti. iu ny c nhiu ngha. l, n lm cho khoa hc tr nn kh khn. Mi quan h nhn qu tr nn kh phn bit v cn nhiu thi gian tm hiu chng. N cng gy tr ngi cho con ngi trong vic tp trung vo nhng thit hi gy ra do nhng pht thi hin ti, mt ln na l do mi lin h khng r rng gia s pht thi hin ti v mc nhim hin nay. Hn na, nhng cht nhim tch t, theo nh ngha, dn n nhng nh hng trong tng lai, v con ngi c xu hng ct gim cc hot ng trong tng lai hn l gii quyt chng hin ti.
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Hnh 2-3: Nhng mi lin h gia pht thi hin ti v nng nhim trong mi trng xung quanh
(a) Cht nhim khng tch ly
Nng trong mt xung quanh hin ti Nng trong mt xung quanh hin ti
(b) Cht nhim tch ly
Mc pht thi hin ti
Mc pht thi hin ti
Hnh (a) th hin mt cht nhim khng tch ly m nhng thit hi l cn i vi mc pht thi hin ti. Hnh (b) minh ha mt cht nhim tch ly m nhng thit hi ph thuc vo tng lng ca cht c thi ra theo thi gian. V tr ca giao im (gia ng thng v trc tung) cho thy rng s vn lun c mt s thit hi ngay c khi mc pht thi c ct gim xung mc zero.
Cht nhim cc b, vng v ton cu

Mt vi cht nhim ch c nh hng n nhng khu vc nht nh, trong khi mt s khc th c tm nh hng rng ln, c th trn phm vi to n cu. nhim ting n v s suy gim ca mi trng cnh quan ch c tc ng cc b, s thit hi gy ra t bt c ngun no cng thng c gii hn ti cng ng ngi tng i nh nhng khu vc nht nh. Ch rng pht biu ny l v phm vi nh hng c a ngun nhim, khng phi v tm quan trng ca vn i vi mt quc gia hay th gii. Mt vi cht nhim, mt khc, c mt mc nh hng rng ri, trn m t khu vc ln hay to n cu. Ma acid l mt vn mang tnh a phng, s pht thi t mt khu vc ca M s nh hng n nhng ngi sng Canada v cc vng khc ca chnh nc M. nh hng ph hy tng zn do s pht thi chlo-fluor-carbon (CFC) t nhiu nc khc nhau gy ra l do s thay i ha hc trn tng bnh lu, iu ny c ngha l nh hng ny s mang tnh ton cu. Khi cc yu t khc nh nhau, th nhng vn mi trng a phng gii quyt d dng hn l nhng vn khu vc hay quc gia, m nhng vn ny li d gii quyt hn l nhng vn ton cu. Nu mt ngi x khi ra nhng nh xung quanh, chng ta c th a ra phng n gii quyt ni b, hay c th nh chnh quyn a phng can thip. Nhng nu hnh ng ca ngi gy ra nhng nhim cho vng xa hn, phng n gii quyt c th gp nhiu kh khn. Nu chng ta trong cng mt ch chnh tr, chng ta c th nh chnh quyn can thip. Tuy nhin, trong nhng nm gn y, chng ta ang phi i u vi mt lng ln cc vn mang tnh a quc gia v ton cu. Chng ta khng c nhng phng tin hiu qu , do rt kh m t chnh xc bn cht ca nhng tc ng vt l v bi v nhng th ch chnh tr quc t cn thit ch va mi xy dng v s lng cc thnh vin qu ln nn vic ra cc quyt nh l rt kh khn.
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Ngun nhim im v ngun nhim phn tn

Cc ngu n nhim c phn bit vi nhau bng tiu ch l s d dng nhn dng cc im x thi ngo i thc a. D d ng nhn bit nhng im m ngu n thi SO2 pht ra khi mt nh my nng lng ln, chng thot ra t cui u cc ng khi ca mi nh my. Cc nh my x l cht thi th thng thng u c mt ca x cho cc loi nc thi b i. Chng c gi l cc cht nhim ngun im. Ngc li, c rt nhiu cht nhim khng c xc nh r ngu n thi. V d nh ha cht dng trong nng nghip thng chy trn trn mt t theo kiu phn tn hoc khuch tn, v mc du chng c th lm nhim cc d ng nc hay cc tng cha nc ngm nht nh, chng ta khng th tm thy c ng dn thi ra cc loi ha cht ny. y l nhim d ng phn tn. Ngp lt th do ma cng l mt vn quan trng v ngun nhim phn tn. Nh mi ngi thng ngh, d dng tm hiu cc cht nhim ngun im hn so vi cc cht nhim phn tn. Chng c th d dng o c, quan trc v d d ng nghin cu hn v quan h gia s pht thi v cc tc ng. iu ny c ngha rng thng thng, vic pht trin v qu n l cc chnh sch kim sot nhim i vi ngun nhim im s d dng v thu n li hn. Sau ny chng ta s thy, khng phi tt cc cc cht nhim u c th xp c vo mt trong hai cch phn loi ny.
S pht thi gin on v lin tc

S pht thi t cc nh my pht in hay cc nh my x l cht thi th khng t th nhiu l lin tc. Cc nh my c thit k hot ng lin tc, mc d nng sut vn hnh c th thay i trong mt chng mc no theo ngy, tun hay theo ma. V th cht pht thi t cc c s ny t nhiu l lin tc, v vn v mt chnh sch l phi qun l mc thi ny. Chng ta c th so snh ngay c gia chng trnh kim sot v tc pht thi. Tuy thc t cc cht pht thi l lin tc nhng khng c ngha l thit hi cng lin tc. Cc hin tng kh tng v thy vn c th chuyn cc cht pht thi lin tc thnh cc thit hi khng chc chn. Nhng cc chng trnh kim sot thng d dng tin hnh khi s pht thi khng dao ng vi cng ln. Nhiu cht nhim li c thi ra mt cch gin on. V d in hnh nht l cc v tai nn trn d u hay ha cht. Kh khn v c hnh sch y l phi thit k v qu n l mt h thng xc sut cc v tai nn cht thi c th gim i. Nhng vi mt nh hng gin on th khng th o c c g c, t nht l trong thi gian ngn. V d nh, mc du khng c nhiu cc cht phng x c thi ra t cc nh my in nguyn t ca Canada, nhng chng ta vn gp vn nhim nu chng c qun l theo cch lm gia tng xc sut phng thch v cht phng x trong tng lai. o c xc sut ca cht pht thi gin on, chng ta cn phi c d liu ca cc s kin thc t trong mt thi gian d i, ho c l chng ta phi c tnh chng t d liu k thut v cc thng tin tng t nh vy. V chng ta cn phi quyt nh mc bo m mong mun trong vic chng li cc s kin gin on nh vy v lm th no thit lp cc chnh sch gim thiu nhng ri ro ca mt s c trn du.
Cc thit hi mi trng khng lin quan n cht pht thi

Cho n nay vic tho lun vn tp trung vo cc c tnh ca nhng loi cht nhim mi trng khc nhau v chng c lin quan n vic thi b cc vt liu hoc nng lng tn d. Nhng c rt nhiu trng hp c bit, khng pht hin c du vt ca cht thi tn
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d gy suy thoi cht lng mi trng. Vic chuyn t ai thnh nh v cc khu thng mi ph hy gi tr mi trng ca vng t , c th l gi tr sinh thi, nh l vng t ngp nc hay ni c tr, hoc l gi tr cnh quan. Vic s dng t vi cc mc ch khc, nh n g hay khai thc m cng c th gy cc tc ng nghim trng. Trong cc trng hp nh th, cng vic ca chng ta vn l phi tm hiu ng c ca nhng ngi dn m quyt nh ca h to ra nhng tc ng , v phi thay i ng c khi thch hp. Mc du khng c cht pht thi quan trc v kim sot, tuy nhin vn phi m t kt qu, v nh gi, qun l bng nhng chnh sch thch hp.
TM TT
Mc ch ca chng ny l tm hiu cc mi lin h c bn gia kinh t v mi trng. Chng ta phn bit gia vai tr ca h thng t nhin nh l ngun cung cp nguyn liu th u vo cho nn kinh t (kinh t ti nguyn thin nhin) v nh l ni tip nhn cht thi sn xut v tiu dng (kinh t mi trng). Sau khi nhc s li v kinh t ti nguyn thin nhin, chng ta gii thiu cc hin tng cn bng c bn, cho rng v lu di, tt c cc cht c loi ngi ly i khi h thng t nhin s c tr li cho h thng . iu ny c ngha rng gim d ng cht thi vo mi trng, chng ta phi gim dng vt cht ly ra t h sinh thi, v chng ta tho lun ba cch c bn c th thc hin c iu . Sau , chng ta tp trung hn vo dng cht thi b tr ngc vo mi trng, phn bit gia cc thut ng pht thi, cht lng mi trng xung quanh v thit hi. Nhng thit hi v mt mi trng do mt lng pht thi nht nh c th thay i mt cch ng k bng cch x l chng theo nhiu cch khc nhau. Bc tip theo ca chng ta l cung cp mt danh sch ngn cc loi pht thi v cht nhim khc nhau, cng nh cc lo i tc ng mi trng khng nhim nh cc tc ng m quan.
CC THUT NG CHNH
Gim nhim Kinh t mi trng Cht thi tch t Thnh phn mi trng Ma acid Cht lng mi trng Cht lng mi trng xung quanh Hng ha thn thin vi mi trng Kh nng ng ha nh lut nhit ng lc hc th nht a dng sinh hc Lin thi gian Kh nng m M hnh C cu sn phm Kinh t ti nguyn thin nhin Ngi tiu th Cht nhim khng tch ly Thit hi nhim ngun phn tn Cht thi Ti nguyn khng th ti to S pht thi Hng ha tp trung nhim Ngn nga nhim Nh sn xut Ti nguyn c th ti to Cng cht thi ca sn xut Ngu n gy nhim Cht nhim pha trn ng dng Cht nhim c phn bit theo khng gian
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CU H I THO LUN
1. S gia tng dn s tc ng nh th no n cn bng vt cht th hin trong hnh 21? 2. Nu tt c cc hng ha c th c thay i trong chc lt chng bn hn gp hai ln trc th s thay i ny s c th hin nh th no trong hnh 2-1 trong ngn hn v di hn? 3. Mt lng cht thi nht nh c thi ra ti mt thi gian v a im c th l mt cht nhim, nhng nu n c thi ra ti mt thi gian hoc a im khc th n c th khng cn l cht nhim. V sao li c iu ny? 4. Ti sao cc cht nhim tn ti lu v tch ly li kh qun l hn l cc cht nhim d phn hy v khng tch ly? 5. Gi nh chng ta nhn thy rng vic pht thi mt cht nhim suy gim, nhng cht lng mi trng li khng c ci thin. C th gii thch iu ny ra sao? 6. Xem xt tt c cc th m b n vt vo thng rc gia nh mi tun. Bao nhiu th nm i c th ti ch hay ti s dng? Bao nhiu th l c cht m c l nn c thay th bi cc cht thn thin hn i vi mi trng? iu g lm b n thay i thi quen tiu dng ca mnh gim thi nhng sn phm ny?
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CHNG 3
LI CH V CHI PH, CUNG V CU

Trong chng ny v chng k tip chng ta xem xt nhng cng c kinh t vi m c bn s dng phn tch cc chnh sch v cc tc ng mi trng. im chnh ca phng php kinh t i vi vic ra quyt nh l nh gi li ch v chi ph ca cc hot ng. Cc ho t ng kinh t, b ao gm hot ng mi trng, bao gi cng c hai mt hay c s nh i: mt mt chng to ra gi tr, cn mt khc l tn km chi ph. Chng ta phi o lng cc li ch v chi ph, sau nh gi s nh i ny cho mi hot ng. u tin chng ta xem xt vn gi tr, sau l cc kho n chi ph.
GI SN LNG TR (WTP)
Khi nim c bn trong kinh t hc l cc c nhn c s a thch v hng ha v dch v; khi phi la chn, h c th ni c l h thch hng ha ny hn hng ha khc, hoc thch mt nhm hng ha ny hn nhm hng ha khc. Trong nn kinh t hin i, c hng nghn d ch v v hng ha khc nhau, v vy trong cc v d chng ny, chng ta ch xem xt vo mt hng ha duy nht, l tri to. Gi tr ca hng ha ny i vi mt ngi l ci m h sn lng tr v c th t b c n. T b ci g? N c th l b t c ci g m h phi t b i ly hng ha, nhng chng ta s ni v sc mua l d phn tch. V vy, gi tr ca mt mn hng i vi mt ngi no chnh l gi h sn lng tr cho mn hng y. Ci g quyt nh cho gi sn lng tr ca mt ngi ginh ly c mt loi hng ha hay dch v, hoc mt ti sn mi trng? l mt phn cu hi v vn gi tr ca c nhn. C ngi sn sng t b nhiu th ving thm Canadian Rockies cn nhng ngi khc th khng. C ngi sn sng chi tr mt s tin ln c mi trng sng yn tnh, cn ngi khc th khng. C ngi nh gi cao vic c gng bo tn mi trng sng ca cc loi cy v ng vt him, cn ngi khc th khng. Cng r rng l ti sn c nh hng n gi sn lng tr; mt ngi cng giu th h cng c kh nng chi tr cho cc loi hng ha v dch v nhiu hn. Gi sn lng tr (WTP), ni cch khc, cng phn nh kh nng chi tr. V d: Gi sn lng tr cho to sch mt thc nghim Cc nh kinh t c th suy ra WTP t hnh ng ca con ngi khi h mua hng ha v dch v. Gi s bn ngi mt tim tp ha v phng vn ngi khu vc hng tri cy v rau qu. Bn chn mt khch hng m h s mua to sch v hi ngi nhng cu hi nh sau: 1. Nh b n c to sch khng? (gi s cu tr li l khng) 2. Bn sn lng tr bao nhiu cho mt kg to sch hn l khng c n? (gi s ngi khch hng tr li l 4,50 la5)
5
Mi mn h ng tt nhin c n nh gi trn mi n v. Ngi mua hng bit c gi ny. iu m ngi phng vn ang hi l s suy ngh ca ngi c hi v vic h chu tr nhng mc gi khc nhau trn mi n v c mua. Loi trao i ny thng din ra ch ni m ngi mua v ngi bn thng lng v s lng v gi.
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3. By gi bn mua kilogram to sch u tin ri; vy bn s sn lng tr cho tri to th hai l bao nhiu? 4. Bn s sn lng tr cho nhng kilogram to thm vo l bao nhiu? (Tip tc hi cho n khi cu tr li l 0) Hnh 3-1 trnh by d liu di dng th v bng Hnh 3-1: Bng d liu gi sn lng tr cho to sch
Gi sn lng tr ca ngi tiu dng i vi to $ S kg/tun 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
WTP
$5,00 4,50 4,00 3,50 3,00 2,50 2,00 1,50 1,00 0,50 0
5 4 3 2 1
10 S kg to
D liu WTP t 0 n 5 la c biu din bn tri c a hnh. D liu WTP c minh ha thnh cc hnh ch nht i din cho mi kg c mua thm vo. WTP gim khi s n v tiu th gia tng.
Nhng v d sau m t mi quan h c bn ca kinh t hc: Khi nim v gi sn lng tr gim dn. Khi s n v mua tng, gi sn lng tr cho tng n v hng ha t ng thm thng gim xung. S bt tin khi lm vic vi cc th c dng bc nh hnh 3-1. Nu chng ta gi nh rng con ngi c th tiu th tng phn nh ca hng ha v cc gi tr l s nguyn, th chng ta s c c ng gi sn lng tr l m t ng lin tc, ging nh hnh 3-2. Trong th ny chng ta c th chn ra tng im minh ha. N cho thy rng mc s lng l 4 n v, gi sn lng tr cho mt n v thm na (ci th t) l 3 la/kg. Gi sn lng tr ca mt ngi cho 8 n v l bao nhiu? Cu tr li l: 1 la/kg. C s khc bit rt quan trng gia tng gi sn lng tr (Total WTP) v gi sn lng tr bin (Marginal WTP), bi l vn m chng ta s tip tc cp n cc chng sau. Gi nh mt ngi mua 2 kg to; dc theo ng WTP, anh ta c th s sn lng tr 3,50 la cho kg th ba. l gi sn lng tr bin, trng hp ny l i vi kilogram th ba. Gi sn lng tr bin din t gi sn lng tr ca mt ngi cho mt n v dch v hay hng ha tng thm.
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Hnh 3-2: Gi sn lng tr trong trng hp hm s lin tc
5 4 3 2 1 a b
10
So kg tao D liu t hnh 3- 1 c bin i thnh ng thng do ngi tiu dng c php mua tng phn nh ca cc n v. Tng gi sn lng tr (WTP) cng c biu din cho 4 kg to. N l tng din tch a cng b
Tng gi sn lng tr c o l phn din tch nm di ng WTP t 0 n s lng c tiu dng. V d di y cho thy cch tnh tng WTP. V d: c tnh tng gi sn lng tr (WTP) cho to sch Gi s mt ngi tiu th 4 kg to/tun Tnh tng gi sn lng tr (WTP) t biu thanh hnh 3-1. Tng gi sn lng tr l tng chiu cao ca cc hnh ch nht nm gia trc gc v s lng 4 kg. Tng l 4,50 + 4,00 + 3,50 + 3,00 = 15,00 la Tnh tng gi sn lng tr trong phin b n ca ng sn lng chi tr hnh 3-2. Tng gi sn lng tr l ton b phn din tch nm di ng gi sn lng tr t im gc n im 4 kg. S dng phng php hnh hc n gin tnh. Tng gi sn lng tr cho 4 kg l din tch a cng din tch b. Din tch a l hnh ch nht c chiu cao l 3$ v rng l 4: ta c 3$ 4 = 12$ Din tch b l hnh tam gic c chiu cao l 2$ = (5$ - 3$) v cnh y bng 4 = (4 0). 1 Gi tr ca din tch b l [ (2$ 4$)] = 4$. 2 Din tch a + b = 16$ = tng gi sn lng tr. Vn : Ti sao din tch a c ng din tch b trong hnh 3-2 ln hn m t t so vi tng gi sn lng tr c tnh theo biu hnh thanh hnh 3-1? Cu tr li l biu hnh thanh l c lng xp x ca ng lin tc. S dng s nguyn v khng s dng ng lin
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tc s cho gi tr thp c a tng gi sn lng tr. V th chng ta s tip tc s dng ng lin tc.
Cu
C cch khc biu din m i quan h gi sn lng tr bin. y chnh l ng cu. ng cu c nhn cho th y s lng hng ha hay d ch v m c nhn ny c nhu cu (ngha l: mua v tiu th ) mt mc gi cho sn. Thng tin t hnh c th gip cung cp cho ta mi quan h i s ca ng cu. S lng cu gim xung khi gi to tng ln. Vi QD l lng cu, l h s ct v l d c ca phng trnh. Khi hm s ng cu c d ng chung l: QD = - P H s ct c th tm th y hnh 3-1 hoc hnh 3-2 ti mc gi m lng cu l 0. l ti mc gi bng 5$. d c ca phng trnh l s thay i lng cu chia cho s thay i mc gi . Nhn vo s liu trong hnh 3-1, chng ta th y rng c mi n v sn phm tng ln th gi gim i 50 cent. V vy dc ca chng l -2. Hm s cu ca to lc ny s l QD = 10 2P. Tuy nhin, ng cu ca to, theo qui nh trong kinh t hc (ng thng trong hnh 3-2) c gi nm trc tung v lng cu nm trc honh. iu ny c ngha l chng ta tm ra li gii cho phng trnh QD = - P di dng P hn l QD. N c gi l ng c u nghch o v mi quan h hm s ni chung l P = / - (1/) QD Thay th cc gi tr v vo phng trnh ta c P = 5 0,5QD. y l phng trnh c minh ha hnh 3-2. ng cu ca to l ng thng, nhng trong thc t c th l ng cong. Mi quan h tuyn tnh ca ng cu hm l s lng cu thay i ng nht vi gi hng ha. Tuy nhin i vi nhiu hng ha th iu ny c th khng ng. V d xem xt trng hp hng ha l nc. cc mc gi thp v t l tiu th cao, nghin cu cho th y rng vi vic tng gi mt lng tng i nh s d n n vic gim ng k lng cu. nhng mc gi cao v lng cu thp, vic tng gi s c nh hng nh hn nhiu; n s to ra lng cu gim mc t hn. y l ng cu n lm v pha gc; tng i phng mc gi thp v dc ln mc gi cao. Hnh 3-3 minh ha ng cu i vi nc.
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Hnh 3-3: ng cu i vi nc
$ Gi/ m 3)
30 20 10
100
200
300
400
500
Nc s dng (m )
ng cu phi tuyn cho thy mt mc tng nh trong gi c th dn n lng nc s 3 dng gim mnh khi gi mc thp. Vic tng gi t 10$ ln 20$/m s gim vic s dng 3 nc t 400 xung 200 m . Nhng vic tng thm 10$ n a, t 20$ n 30$, s lm gim 3 l ng tiu th ch 50 m , t 200 n 150.
Tng cu/Gi s n lng tr ng cu c nhn/ng gi sn lng tr bin i vi hng ha hay d ch v l mt cch khi qut ha kh nng v thi tiu dng c nhn ca mt ngi i vi hng ha . Nh ng mi quan h s khc nhau gia cc c nhn, bi v th hiu v s thch ca h khng ging nhau. Ngi vi thu nhp cao th tiu th hng ha v dch v nhiu hn. Khi nghin cu cc vn thc v chnh sch kim sot nhim v cht lng mi trng, cc nh kinh t hc thng tp trung m i quan tm ca h vo cch c x ca cc nhm ng i hn l cc c nhn n l. M i quan tm chnh l tng cu hay gi sn lng tr c a m t nhm ngi c xc nh r. ng t ng cu i vi mt hng ha th trng l tng theo trc honh cc ng cu c nhn thng c nhm theo khu vc a l (v d nh thnh ph, tnh hoc mt qu c gia). Hnh 3-4 minh ha cch xy dng ng tng cu ca to sch. Gi s ch c 2 khch hng l Alice v Bruce. Hai ngi ny i din cho nh ng loi ngi tiu dng khc nhau vng Vancouver. Alice tht s thch to sch, trong khi Bruce th chng quan tm lm n chng; anh ta ch thch n nh vi to thng khc. Alice c ng cu c biu th nh l Hnh 3-2. ng cu c a Bruce th dc ng hn so vi ng cu c a Alice, chng t anh ta c s thch khc.
42
Hnh 3-4: ng tng cu ca to sch

(a) $ (b) $ (c)
5 4 3 2 1 2 4 6 8 10 To
5 4 3 2 1 2 4 6 8 10 To
5 4 3 2 1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 15 To
ng cu ca Alice
ng cu ca Bruce
ng cu tng
Trn y l ng cu ca hai ngi khc nhau. ng cu ca Alice (a) chng t c thch to sch. Bruce (b) th t thch hn. V ng cu ca Bruce dc hn, chng t anh ta s mua t hn Alice vi cc mc gi di $5/kg. ng cu tng c to nn bng cch cng cc lng m Alice v Bruce mun mua ti mi mc gi cho sn. Ti mc gi $3/kg, Alice mua 4 cn Bruce mua 2, tng s l 6 kgs. Nu gi l $1/kg, tng cu s l 12 kgs.
Quy tc v ng t ng cu c a cc c nhn l ch n m t mc gi no , ri c ng cc mc cu mc gi y. Tin trnh ny c th hin r hnh 3-4. Khi gi to l 3$, nhu cu ca th trng l 6 kg to. Chng ta c th lm php tnh tng t i vi cc gi khc. Cho mc gi 1$. Alice s mua 8 kg v Bruce mua 4 kg, tng c ng c 12 kg. Lp li iu ny cho tt c cc gi s to ra ng tng cu biu din biu (c). Bng 3-1 biu din s liu cu c a Alice, Bruce v tng cu c a h. Trong th trng th c, chng ta tt nhin phi c ng nhiu ng cu c nhn hn na. Nhng quy tc t ng hp vn gi nguyn: m i mc gi, cng tt c cc s lng m mi khch hng mu n mua. Bng 3-1: Cch tnh ng t ng cu i vi to s ch
Gi ($/kg) 0 1 2 3 4 5 ng cu Lng cu ca Alice (kg/tun) 10 8 6 4 2 0 Lng cu ca Bruce (kg/tun) 5 4 3 2 1 0 Tng cu (kg/tun) 15 12 9 6 3 0
QD = 10 - 2P QD = 5 - P QD = 15 - 3P Tng cu l tng ca hai ng cu c nhn ca cc khch hng
T ng hp cc ng cu c nhn: Cch tnh theo i s Nh Bng 3-1 trnh by, ng tng cu c th tnh c b ng cch cng dn ng cu c nhn c a Alice v c a Bruce. ng cu i vi to sch c a Alice: QD = 10 - 2P ng cu i vi to sch c a Bruce: QD = 5 P ng tng cu: QD = 15 - 3P ng tng cu nghch o l P = 5 QD/ 3. Phng trnh ny c minh ha biu (c) ca Hnh 3-4.
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LI CH
T li ch c ng r rng l tnh trng tt hn; nu ngi no c li t mt vic g , ngha l tnh trng ca h c ci thin. Ngc li, nu h trng thi t hn, th c th h mt i mt phn li ch. Lm th no suy ra c li ch ca mt ngi l bao nhiu? Hy a cho h mt mn g h nh gi. Lm th no bit h nh gi mn hng ? Da vo vic h sn lng t b, hay sn lng tr tin cho mn y. Cng vi cch suy lun ny, th li ch m mt ngi c c t mt iu g s bng vi s tin m h sn lng tr. Tnh lgic ca nh ngha v li ch ny l rt cao. C ngha l ta c th s dng ng cu thng thng tm ra li ch. Ly v d, trong hnh 3-5 c hai ng cu, v c hai s lng c biu th trn trc ho nh. Gi s ta mun c lng tng li ch ca hai nhm ngi c ng cu nh trong hnh v, khi s lng ca mn hng tng ln t q1 n q2. Theo cch lp lun trc, li ch c o bng gi sn lng tr, v tng gi sn lng tr c o bng phn din tch nm di ng cu, tc l phn di ng cu, gii hn bi q1 v q2 trong hnh v. Do , i vi ng cu nm thp hn (D2) th li ch do gia tng lng tiu dng l din tch b, trong khi li ch ca ng cu (D1) l din tch a+b. Lgic ny xem ra hp l. Ngi c ng cu D1 nh gi gi tr vt ny cao hn; nn h sn lng tr nhiu tin hn l ngi c ng cu D2. y chnh l lgic c bn ca kinh t mi trng. N h tr cho cu hi lm th no ta c th nh gi cc tc ng ca nhng chng trnh mi trng v ca cc chnh sch do cc a phng, tnh thnh, v chnh ph thc hin. Sc mnh ca lgic ny l ch: n da vo mt khi nim r v gi tr m ngi ta gn cho s vt. Tuy nhin cch t duy ny cng c nhc im. Cu (ng thi cng l li ch) rt kh o lng khi gn vi vn mi trng, nh ta s thy chng 7. Cc ng cu cng b nh hng nhiu bi kh nng chi tr v s a thch. Ly v d, trong hnh 3-5, ng cu thp c th i din cho nhm ngi c thu nhp thp hn l nhm c ng cu nm cao. Lp lun ny c th a ta n kt lun rng vic gia tng s lng t q 1 n q2 to ra mt li ch m ngi thu nhp thp nh gi n thp hn ngi c thu nhp cao. iu ny khng hn nh vy. Ngi ngho hn c th cng c mc hu dng bin rt cao i vi mn hng ny, c th cn cao hn ca ngi giu, nhng h khng th th hin ht cc gi tr thnh gi sn lng tr bi v kh nng chi tr ca h thp hn. Nn nh rng thu nhp l yu t xc nh v tr ca mt ng cu. V vy d tnh lgic ca khi nim l khng bn ci, ta vn cn cn thn khi s dng, c bit khi lin h vi cc nhm ngi c cc mc thu nhp khc nhau.
44
Hnh 3-5: Tng li ch v tng gi sn lng tr

$
a D1 b D2
q1
q2
S lng
Tng li ch c o bng gi sn lng tr. Tng gi sn lng tr l phn din tch nm di ng cu. tnh tng li ch ca lng tng t q1 n q2, khu vc nm di ng D1 l ph n din tch a cng vi b; di ng D2 l din tch b. Nhng ngi t gi tr cho mn h ng cao hn th s sn lng tr nhiu hn v cng nhn c li ch ln hn t vic tng sn lng.
C mt vn tn ti khc i vi vic s dng ng cu thng thng o lng li ch. ng cu ca mt c nhn i vi mt hng ha r rng chu nh hng bi mc m anh ta bit v hng ha . Mt ngi s khng sn lng tr tin cho mt mn hng nu h khng bit l n c tn ti hay khng. Chng ta khng hiu ht nhng tc ng ca vic suy thoi mi trng; hn th, quan im ca con ngi v tm quan trng ca cc loi tc ng ny li thay i ty theo phng tin thng tin, cc ti liu khoa hc v.v. Trong mt s trng hp, chng ta nn cn thn khi ly cc ng cu ti mt thi im, m cc ng cu ny b nh hng bi cc yu t c thc v khng thc, lm thnh thc o li ch ca cc hot ng mi trng.
CHI PH
Mt kia ca vn l chi ph. Bt k qu trnh sn xut no cng cn nhiu loi nhp liu lao ng, my mc, nng lng, nguyn liu, thit b x l cht thi v.v. nh gi gi tr cc nhp liu ny l r rng i vi cc x nghip hot ng trong nn kinh t th trng: gi tr ca chng l gi mua trn th trng. Tuy nhin, cn hiu t chi ph theo mt ngha rng hn. Chi ph sn xut l chi ph l ra sn xut bng nhng nhp liu ny nu nh cc nhp liu khng c s dng sn xut ra sn phm m ta ang ni n. Chi ph ny gi l chi ph c hi.
Chi ph c hi
Chi ph c hi l khi nim c bn trong kinh t hc. Chi ph c hi sn xut mt sn phm no l gi tr ti a ca cc sn phm khc l ra c sn xut nu ta khng s dng ti nguyn lm ra sn phm hin hnh.
45
C l do dng t ti a y. Nhng nhp liu dng sn xut mt loi sn phm no c th c s dng sn xut cc sn phm v dch v khc. Chi ph c hi bao gm chi ph tin mt, nhng cn rng hn na. Mt s nhp liu thc t c s dng trong sn xut nhng li khng c xem l chi ph bng tin. V d, nhng ngi tnh nguyn ht rc trn ng hay trong cc cng vin c chi ph c hi: l h c th dng thi gian ny lm vic khc c tin. Song quan trng hn l nhiu qu trnh sn xut a cht thi vo mi trng v gy thit hi mi trng. y chnh l chi ph c hi ca vic sn xut mc d chng khng th hin bng tin trong bng bo co thu nhp ca cng ty. Chi ph c hi rt cn thit khi cn phi ra nhng quyt nh lin quan n vic chn la cch s dng mt ti nguyn cho mc ch ny hay mc ch khc. i vi mt t chc cng quyn vi mt ngn sch nht nh, th chi ph c hi ca mt chnh sch l gi tr ca nhng chnh sch khc m h c th thc hin. Cn i vi mt ngi tiu dng chi ph c hi ca thi gian i tm mt mn hng no chnh l gi tr cao nht ca mt vic lm khc m h c th c. Lm th no o lng chi ph c hi? Thng khng thit thc nu o lng theo s lng cc vt cht khc l ra c sn xut. Chng ta cng thng khng c thng tin o lng gi tr ca cc sn phm l ra c sn xut. Nn trong thc t, ta o lng chi ph c hi bng cc gi tr ca nhng nhp liu s dng trong sn xut. lm vic ny, ta phi m bo l cc gi tr ca nhp lng l chun xc. Nu th trng b bin dng ta c th dng gi m (shadow price) o lng chi ph c hi. Gi m o lng chi ph thc trong iu kin th trng hot ng ho n ho. V d, lao ng tnh nguyn phi c nh gi theo mc lng hin hnh mc d trong thc t khon ny khng phi chi tr. Nu khng c th trng, nh trng hp ca mi trng, th ta phi tnh ra mt gi tr no . Phn 2 s cp mt s k thut nh gi. Mt khi cc nhp lng c hch ton v nh gi chnh xc, th tng gi tr ny c th c xem l chi ph c hi ca sn xut. y l cng vic cc k quan trng i vi cc nh kinh t mi trng.
ng chi ph
Thng tin chi ph c th c tng kt thnh cc ng chi ph, l vic miu t cc chi ph sn xut bng th. V cng nh trng hp gi sn lng tr, chng ta s phn bit gia chi ph bin (MC) v tng chi ph (TC) ca qu trnh sn xut: Chi ph bin o lng lng chi ph gia tng khi tng thm mt n v sn phm. Tng chi ph l chi ph sn xut ra tng s lng sn phm. Xt ng chi ph trong hnh 3-6, l chi ph m mt vn to cung cp to sch cho th trng. Hnh v cng c dng tng t nh cc hnh trc, vi s lng sn phm trn trc honh v s tin trn trc tung. Biu trn cng biu din chi ph bin di dng bc thang. Biu ny cho thy phi tn 1,67$ sn xut ra n v sn phm u tin. Nu cng ty mun tng sn phm ln 2 n v th phi chi thm 2$ cho n v th hai. n v th ba thm vo s lm tng thm 2,33$ cho tng chi ph, v c tip tc nh th. o lng bng chi ph bin phn ph i chu n, n l cc khon chi ph thm vo, hay l khon tng thm ca tng chi ph, khi sn lng tng ln mt n v. Nh v y khi gim sn xu t t nm cn bn n v s lm gim tng chi ph 3$, y chnh l chi ph bin ca n v sn phm th nm.
46
ng dng b c thang khng tin cho phn tch nn ta gi nh l x nghip c th sn xut ra tng lng sn phm nh vi gi tr s nguyn. Gi nh ny s cho ta ng chi ph bin lin tc, nh trong biu (b) c a hnh 3-6. d tnh ton, ng chi ph bin s li l ng thng. Chng ta c th s dng ng chi ph bin xc nh tng chi ph sn xu t. T ng chi ph l din tch di ng chi ph bin. V d t hnh 3-6 minh h a cch tnh t ng chi ph. V d: Tnh tng chi ph t ng chi ph bin ca to Tng chi ph sn xut ra 5 n v sn lng l bao nhiu? 1. S dng ng chi ph bin bc thang, cng phn din tch ca cc thanh t 0 n 5 n v. n v u tin = 1,67 $, n v th hai bng 2,00$, n v th ba bng 2,33$, n v th t bng 2,67$, n v th nm bng 3,00$. Tng chi ph = 11,67$. 2. S dng ng MC tuyn tnh, tnh phn din tch bn di ng thng t 0 n 5 n v. l phn hnh ch nht (din tch a), cng vi hnh tam gic (din tch b ). Din tch a c ng cao = 1,67$ v di = 5, tng chi ph l 8,35$. Din tch b c y l 5 v ng cao l 1,33$ (3 1,67). Din tch c a b l (5 1,33$) = 3,32$. Tng chi ph l 11,67$.
47
Hnh 3-6: Tng chi ph v chi ph bin ca to

(a) (a) $
4 3
2 1,67
Sn lng to
$ (b) 4 3 MC
2 1,67
1 a
Sn lng to
ng chi ph bin ca vn to. Biu (a) m t chi ph bin bng chiu cao ca mi thanh, biu (b) l hm tuyn tnh ca cng s liu. Tng chi ph l phn din tch nm di ng chi ph bin. Nu sn xut 5 n v to, tng chi ph c tnh bng tng ca cc thanh t th nht n thanh th nm biu (a) hoc bng tng din tch a cng b biu (b). Tng chi ph ca 5 n v l 11,67$
CUNG V NG CHI PH BIN, TNG CUNG

Chi ph sn xut bin l yu t chnh trong vic xc nh hnh vi cung ca cc cng ty trong trng hp cnh tranh. ng chi ph bin ca mt cong ty l ng cung, ch ra s lng hng ha m x nghip mun cung cp cc mc gi khc nhau. Xt biu (a) trong hnh 3-7 cho trng hp vn to. Gi s vn ny c th bn sn phm gi 2$. Vn ny s ti a ha li nhun bng cch sn xut ra lng sn phm m chi ph bin ca sn phm cui l b ng 2$, ngha l vi lng sn phm l 2 kg. cc mc sn lng thp hn mc ny, th nh vn cn c th tng c li nhun bng cch tng sn lng. Cn cc mc sn lng cao hn mc ny, th chi ph bin sn xut mt n v sn phm cao hn gi, do vy ti a ha li nhun nh vn nn gim sn xut.
48
Hnh 3-7: Xy d ng ng tng cung t cc ng chi ph sn xut bin

$ (a) $ (b) $ (c)
5 4 3 2 1 2 2 4 6
5 4 3 2 1 8 Lng to 2 4 6 8 10 Lng to
5 4 3 2 1 2 4 6 8 10 Lng to
ng cung ca vn 1
ng cung ca vn 2
ng tng cung
ng chi ph bin l ng cung ca vn. Vn lun sn xut ti mc sn lng m gi bng chi ph bin nhm ti a ha li nhun. Biu (a) v (b) th hin ng cung ca hai vn to, Biu (c) th hin ng tng cung hnh thnh bng cch cng sn lng ca hai vn ti tng mc gi. Vi mc gi 4$/kg, vn 1 cung cp 8 kg, vn 2 cung cp 2 kg, to ra tng cung l 10 kg.
Cc nh kinh t nghin cu cc ng cung ca ngnh, cng nh ca cc x nghip. ng cung hay ng chi ph bin ca mt ngnh l ng cung ca cc x nghip sn xu t ra cng mt loi sn phm. Ta gi y l tng cung, cng tng t nh khi nim tng cu cp. ng tng cung ca cc x nghip sn xut ra cng mt loi sn phm l tng cc ng cung ca cc x nghip y theo trc honh. Gi s chng ta c hai vn to. Biu (b) trnh by ng chi ph bin ca vn th hai. Cung th trng l tng cc ng chi ph bin ca cc vn. Nguyn tc cng ging nh khi xy dng ng tng cu cho hng ha t nhn. Hy chn mt mc gi, ri cng cc s lng c cung cp mc gi y. y l tng theo trc ho nh. Biu (c) trong hnh 3-7 i din cho ng tng cung. Ly v d, mc gi 2$, vu n th nht cung cp 2 n v, vn hai khng cung cp (bi v gi thp hn chi ph sn xut ti thiu ca h) v th ng tng cung gi ny l hai n v. hon tt ng tng cung ta ly nhiu mc gi khc nhau, ri cng dn cc s lng cung cp ca mi vn. V d, mc gi 4$, vn 1 cung cp 8 n v v vn 2 cung cp 2 n v, tng mc cung cp nh th l 10 n v. Cc ng chi ph bin c th din t theo phng php i s. Bng 3 -2 cho s liu ca tng vn v tng cung. Bng 3-1: Cch tnh ng tng cung to sch Gi ($/kg) 1 2 3 4 5 ng cung Lng cung ca vn 1 (kg/tun) 0 2 5 8 11 S Q = 3P - 4 Lng cung ca vn 2 (kg/tun) 0 0 1 2 3 S Q =P-2 Tng cung (kg/tun) 0 2 6 10 14 S Q = 4P 6
ng chi ph bin ca 2 vn to c cng li to ng tng cung. Ngi sn xut ti a ha li nhun s t gi th trng bng vi chi ph bin ca n. Ti mi mc gi, cc ct k tip cho thy s lng cung ca mi nh cung cp v tng cung.
49
Xy dng ng chi ph bin bng i s T d liu ca bng 3-2 v cc biu miu t hnh 3-7, chng ta c th minh ha ng chi ph bin ca mi cng ty. ng chi ph bin (MC) c biu din bi cc cc ng cung theo gi v cho rng mi nh sn sn xut ti a ha li nhun bng cch t gi b ng vi chi ph bin (nh l ghi ch trong bng). ng MC ca vun th nht MC: = 4/3 + 1/3 QS ng MC ca vn th hai MC: = 2 + QS ng MC tng: MC: = 3/2 + QS Tng cung c k hiu l QS nh trong bng trn: QS = 4P 6. Cc phng trnh ny t nn tng cho vic xc nh cn bng th trng trong chng tip theo.
CNG NGH
Yu t quan trng nht nh hng n hnh d ng ca ng chi ph bin l cng ngh sn xu t. Cng ngh ngha l nng lc sn xut vn c vi phng php v my mc s dng. Bt k qu trnh sn xut hin i no cng s dng nhiu loi hng ha t bn (my mc v thit b) c cng sut, lao ng, qui trnh, nguyn liu khc nhau. S lng sn phm m mt x nghip sn xut t mt nhm nhp liu ty thu c vo nng lc my mc v nhn lc. Ngay trong cng mt ngnh, cc ng chi ph bin c th khc nhau. Mt s x nghip c th c hn, ngha l h lm vic vi cc thit b c hn v c c im chi ph khc. Cc x nghip c cng thi gian hot ng cng c th c cng ngh sn xut khc; nhng quyt nh qun l trong qu kh c th khin cc x nghip ny c cc mc chi ph bin khc nhau hm nay. Khi nim cng ngh l rt quan trng trong kinh t mi trng v chng ta da vo nhng thay i cng ngh tm cch to ra sn phm dch v v hng ha vi t tc ng c hi ti mi trng hn v cng x l cht thi tt hn. Trong mt m hnh n gin, tin b k thut cho php ung chi ph dch chuyn xung thp. Tin b k thut cho php to thm sn phm vi chi ph bin thp hn. N cng lm gim tng chi ph sn xut. Xem hnh 3-8, ng chi ph bin 1 (hay MC1) l chi ph bin ca x nghip trc khi c ci tin k thut; MC2 l chi ph bin sau khi c mt s ci tin k thut. Ni cch khc thay i cng ngh dch chuyn ng chi ph bin xung. Chng ta c th xc nh tng chi ph sn xut s gim bao nhiu khi c s thay i cng ngh. Xem xt s lng u ra q*, vi MC1 th tng chi ph sn xut s lng q* c th hin bng din tch a +b, khi chi ph bin gim xung ng MC2 th tng s chi ph sn xut ch cn l b . Thay i cng ngh s gim tng chi ph mt lng tng ng vi din tch a . Thay i cng ngh thng khng xy ra khi khng c n lc; thng n cn qu trnh nghin cu v php trin (Rearch and Development R&D). R&D trong cng ngh mi trng r rng l hot ng cn c khuyn khch. R&D l mt trong cc tiu chu n chng ta cn s d ng trong vic nh gi cc chnh sch mi trng xem chng c to nn khuyn khch cho cc c nhn, cc cng ty v cc ngnh tham gia vo cc chng trnh R&D y trin vng hay khng. Ni mt cch n gin, khuyn khch thc hin R&D ng ngha vi tit kim chi ph nh p dng cc cng ngh, nguyn liu v cc quy trnh sn xut mi. Tit kim chi ph c biu din trong hnh 3-8 (din tch a) th hin ch mt phn ca s khuyn khch. y l nhng tit kim chi ph s xy ra hng nm. Tuy nhin, tng cc khon tit kim chi ph hng nm mi chnh l nhng khuyn khch do vic p dng R&D.
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Hnh 3-8: Tc ng ca tin b k thut i vi ng chi ph bin
MC 1
MC 2
a b q
*
S lng u ra
Tin b cng ngh c biu din bng ng chi ph bin dch xung. Lng q* c sn xut vi cng ngh mi lm gim tng chi ph mt din tch l a
NGUYN TC CN BNG BIN

By gi chng ta s b n lu n v mt nguyn tc kinh t hc n gin nhng rt quan trng, c s dng nhiu trong cc chng tip theo. Nguyn t c ny c gi l Nguyn tc cn bng bin. hiu c nguyn tc ny, hy tng tng chng ta c mt cng ty sn xut mt sn phm nht nh, v ho t ng ca cng ty c chia ra ti hai nh my. Mi nh my sn xut ra cng mt sn phm v vy tng lng sn phm ca cng ty s l tng sn phm c sn xut ra c 2 nh my. Nhng chng ta hy gi s rng hai nh my ny c xy dng nhng thi im khc nhau v s dng cc cng ngh khc nhau. Nh my c l nh my A nh trong hnh 3-9 vi cng ngh c hn s c ng chi ph bin bt u gn im gc v tng nhanh khi sn xut gia tng. Nh my mi B trong hnh 3-9 s dng cng ngh mi s c chi ph bin cao hn mc sn lng thp nhng chi ph s khng tng nhanh khi gia tng sn xut. By gi xem xt mt tnh hung m hai nh my ny mun sn xut lng tng sn phm l 100 n v. Bao nhiu sn phm s c sn xut mi nh my c c 100 n v tng sn phm vi tng mc chi ph thp nht? C phi tt nht l mi nh my s sn xut 50 sn phm? iu ny c miu t trong hnh 3-9 mc sn lng 50 chi ph bin ca nh my A l 12$ trong khi nh my B l 8$. Tng chi ph sn xut bao gm tng chi ph mi nh my hay (a + b + c) + (d). Nhng im quan trng y l: Chng ta c th h thp chi ph sn xut 100 sn phm bng cch phn phi li sn xut. Gim sn xut nh my A mt sn phm th chi ph s gim 12$. Tng sn xut nh my B ln mt sn phm th chi ph s tng 8$. Cng ty vn sn xut 100 sn phm nhng tit kim c 12 8 = 4$. Nh vy tng chi ph ca hai nh my gp chung s gim.
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Hnh 3-8: Nguyn tc cn bng bin

Nh my A Nh my B
MCA
12 c b a 38 50 d 50 e 62
MCB
S lng sn xut Nh my A
S lng sn xut Nh my B
Khi c 2 nh my khc nhau sn xut cng mt sn phm, cng ty s gim thiu tng chi ph sn xut bng cch cn bng chi ph sn xut bin ca 2 nh my. V d, sn xut 100 sn phm vi tng chi ph thp nht khi chi ph bin bng nhau th nh my c chi ph thp s sn xut nhiu hn (62 sn phm) trong khi nh my c chi ph cao s sn xut t hn (38 sn phm). Kt qu thu c l tng chi ph s thp hn so vi khi c hai nh my cng sn xut 50 sn phm.
Khi chi ph bin ca hai nh my l khc nhau, sn xut nn c phn b li theo cch gim sn lng nh my c chi ph cao chuyn dn v nh my c chi ph thp hn nhm gim tng chi ph. Thc t, chi ph tng cng sn xut 100 sn phm 2 nh my s mc ti thiu ch khi chi ph bin ca 2 nh my bng nhau chnh l nguyn tc cn bng bin. Trong hnh, iu ny xy ra khi s lng sn phm ca nh my A l 38 sn phm v ca nh my B l 62 sn phm. Tng chi ph by gi s l a + (d + e). Mc ch ca nguyn tc cn bng bin l gim thiu chi ph tng cng cho sn xut mt lng sn phm nht nh. Mc tiu ny tr thnh hin thc khi sn xut c phn phi theo cch cn bng chi ph bin gia cc ngun sn xut. Hay n n gin hn: Nguyn tc cn bng bin i hi l tng sn lng c phn phi gia cc ngun sn xut sao cho chi ph sn xut bin ca cc ngun l bng nhau. Nguyn t c ny s rt c gi tr khi m chng ta gii quyt vn gim thiu pht thi t nhng ngun pht thi nht nh, s c gii thiu chng 5 v s dng trong phn 4.
TM TT
Chng ny gii thiu s lc mt s cng c kinh t vi m c bn. Cc chng sau s da vo cc tng ny, c bit l nguyn tc cn bng bin v trn cc th khi chng ta nhc i nhc li cc s o tng v s o bin. Khi b t u xem xt cc vn thc t v phn tch mi trng v thit lp chnh sch, chng ta s d dng chuyn sang v s cc chi tit m b qu n cc khi nim kinh t hc c bn. Nhng khi nim kinh t c bn, nh trnh by trong chng ny, gip chng ta nhn nh cc c im kinh t hc c bn ca cc vn v gip trin khai gii php cho cc vn y.
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CC THUT NG CHNH
Kh nng chi tr Tng cu Li ch ng cu Nguyn tc cn bng bin ng cu nghch o Chi ph bin Gi sn lng tr bin Kinh t vi m Chi ph c hi Gi m Tng chi ph Tng gi sn lng tr Gi sn lng tr
BI TP
1. ng cu nc ng chai ca Alvin l Qd A=8 5P. ng cu ca Betty l QdB= 6 P. Hy tnh gi sn lng tr tng cng v gi sn lng tr bin ca Alvin v Betty cho 4 chai nc ng chai v hy minh ha bng th. 2. Vi cng cc biu thc nh cu 1, tnh ng tng cu cho nc ng chai, gi s ch c Alvin v Betty l ngi tiu th. Xy dng ng tng cu nu nh c 5 ngi nh Alvin v 10 ngi nh Betty. 3. Tnh ton v v biu ng cung cho bng tennis ca 3 nh sn xut vi cc ng MC nh sau: A: MC = 3 + 3QS vi Q cho mi nh sn xut l 1.000 n v sn phm B: MC = 4 + 6QS C: MC = 1 + 1QS 4. Nu gi bng tennis l 4$ cho mi container, th cc nh sn xut ny c cn sn xut khng? Gii thch ti sao c th hay ti sao khng. Mi nh sn xut mun sn xut th phi mc gi l bao nhiu? 5. ng chi ph bin thng phi tuyn nh chng ta gi s n gin trong chng ny. Ti sao li nh vy? V ng chi ph bin ca mt cng ty m cng ty ny khng th gia tng s lng sn phm vt qu 500 sn phm mi thng. 6. Quay li cu 3. Nu thay i cng ngh lm dch chuyn ng chi ph bin ca nh sn xut B n gn ng chi ph bin ca nh sn xut C, hy tnh chi ph tit kim c ca nh sn xut B mc sn lng l 2 sn phm (trong 1.000 sn phm). 7. Gi s 3 nh sn xut bng tennis nh cu 4 thuc cng mt cng ty v mi nh sn xut l mt nh my ca cng ty ny. Hy dng Nguyn tc cn bng bin gii thch lm th no cng ty xc nh c sn lng cho mi nh my.
CU H I THO LUN
1. iu g s xy ra vi ng tng cu khi ngi tiu dng mong ch gi sn phm tng (hay gim) trong tng lai? Tnh hu ng ny c lm suy yu l thuyt c trnh by trong chng ny? 2. Lgic ca vic cho li ch bng vi gi sn lng tr c th cho chng ta kt lun rng lm sch khng kh m ngi thu nhp thp ang th c th to ra li ch t hn so vi lm sch khng kh th ca ngi thu nhp cao. Liu diu ny c lm xi mn tng cho rng li ch l b ng vi gi sn lng tr? Cc nh kinh t s gii quyt vn kh x ny nh th no? 3. Cc loi yu t no nh hng n hnh d ng ca ng chi ph bin? Cc ng chi p h bin trong cng ngnh c khc nhau ng k khng? 4. Hy gii thch cho mt ngi khng hc kinh t ti sao cc gi tr bin l rt quan trng trong phn tch kinh t hc. Bn s i u nh th no vi lp lun ca ngi ny rng h khng bao gi quyt nh da vo s nh gi bin?
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CHNG 4
HIU QU KINH T V TH TRNG

Chng ny bao gm cc mc tiu sau: a ra khi nim hiu qu kinh t nh l mt ch s kho st xem nn kinh t hot ng nh th no v nh l mt tiu chu n cho vic thm nh xem nn kinh t c hot ng ng vi kh nng ca n hay khng. Hiu qu kinh t l mt khi nim n gin nhng l mt khi nim nhn c nhiu ngh xem nh l mt tiu chu n nh gi s hot ng ca mt h thng kinh t hoc mt phn ca h thng kinh t . Nhng khi nim ny cn c dng vi s cn trng. C phi mt h thng th trng, t bn thn n, s cho ra cc kt qu t hiu qu kinh t? Mt x nghip ring l hay mt nhm cc x nghip c th c nh gi hiu qu khi kho st cc chi ph v nhng li ch t nhn t hot ng kinh doanh. Song, nh gi kt qu v mt x hi ca cc x nghip ny, chng ta phi s dng khi nim hiu qu kinh t vi ngha rng hn. Hiu qu kinh t phi bao gm ton b cc gi tr v mt x hi v c cc kt qu ca nhng quyt nh kinh t, c bit l nhng kt qu v mi trng. Tho lun v mi lin h gia hiu qu kinh t v tnh cng bng cng rt quan trng. Mc tiu th hai ca chng ny l nhm gii p cu hi liu rng mt h thng th trng, t bn thn n, c th to c kt qu mang tnh hiu qu x hi hay khng. Hiu qu x hi ngha l tt c th trng hot ng m khng c bt k s bin dng no, k c bin dng gy nn nhim. Chng ta kho st cc ngun gc ca nhng tht bi th trng v mi trng, chng c th ngn cn th trng t c hiu qu x hi. T iu ny s dn n chng tip theo, chng m chng ta s kho st vn v chnh sch; l, nu mt nn kinh t khng t hiu qu x hi, v cc vn mi trng ny sinh th cc lo i chnh sch no chng ta c th s dng hiu chnh tnh trng ny? Hiu qu kinh t l mt tiu ch c th p dng nhiu mc : s dng nguyn liu u vo v xc nh cc mc sn lng u ra. Chng ta tp tru ng vo mc th hai v cu i cng chng ta mong mun p dng tng cho u ra l cht lng mi trng. C hai vn cn c quan tm l: Sn lng cn phi sn xut l bao nhiu? Sn lng thc t c sn xut l bao nhiu? Vn u xoay quanh khi nim v hiu qu, vn th hai lin quan n cch thc th trng hot ng b nh thng.
HIU QU KINH T
Trong chng trc, chng ta xem xt n 2 mi quan h: quan h gia sn lng vi gi sn lng tr, v quan h gia sn lng vi chi ph sn xut bin. Ch xt ring mt trong hai mi quan h ny th khng th cho chng ta bit c mc sn lng mong mun tt nht theo quan im x hi. xc nh mc sn lng ny, chng ta phi kt hp chng vi nhau. Quan im chnh yu ca hiu qu kinh t l nn c s cn bng gia li ch bin v chi ph bin ca qu trnh sn xut.
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Hiu qu cng phi c mt im tham chiu. iu c hiu qu i vi mt ngi, trong quan im cn bng gia chi ph v li ch ca chnh ngi , c th li khng hiu qu cho ngi khc. Chng ta mun c mt khi nim ca hiu qu m c th p dng cho tng th nn kinh t. iu ny c ngha l khi ta xem xt n chi ph bin, ta phi xem xt ton b nhng khon chi ph ca vic sn xut ra i tng c th ang c ni n, khng quan tm n ai l ngi to ra v nhng chi ph ny c c nh gi trn th trng hay khng. Khi ta b n v gi sn lng tr bin, ta phi khng nh rng n i din chnh xc cho tt c cc gi tr m con ngi trong x hi t ra cho i tng, bao gm c cc gi tr phi th trng. iu ny khng nht thit c ngha rng tt c mi ngi s a ra gi tr cho tt c hng ha, n ch c ngha l khng c gi tr no b b qun. Hiu qu x hi i hi tt c gi tr th trng v phi th trng hp nht trong li ch bin v chi ph bin ca sn xut. Nu iu ny c tha mn, hiu qu x hi t c khi li ch bin bng vi chi ph bin ca qu trnh sn xut. Lm th no chng ta c th xc nh c mc sn lng t hiu qu x hi? Chng ta c th dng phn tch th v i s bng cch kt hp hai mi quan h tho lun chng trc li vi nhau. Trong hnh 4-1, chng ta v ng tng gi sn lng tr bin (MWTP) v ng tng chi ph bin (MC) cho lo i sn phm ang ni n. Chng 3 din gii v ngun gc ca cc ng ny. Cn bng hiu qu x hi xy ra ti mc sn lng m MWTP = MC. Hnh 4.1 th hin sn lng cn bng l 40 n v v MWTP tng ng l 20$. Cng c th tm ra im cn bng hiu qu sn xut x hi bng cch phn tch i s. V d ti trang sau minh ha cho cch ny. Hnh 4-1: Xc nh mc sn lng t hiu qu x hi
Gi
100 80 60 40 20 b 20 c 40 QE 60 80 100 Xut lng a MC (Chi ph bin) MWTP (Gi sn lng tr bin)
MWTP bng MC xc nh im cn bng t hiu qu x hi. Sn lng cn bng (QE) l 40 n v vi MWTP tng ng l 20$. Ti im cn bng hiu qu x h i, thng d x h i t cc i. Thng d x hi, phn din tch (a+b) nhn c t s chnh lch gia tng gi sn lng tr v tng chi ph.
V d: Cch gii bng phn tch i s mc sn lng hiu qu x hi 1. xc nh v tr cn bng hiu qu x hi, xc nh phng trnh ca MWTP v MC. K hiu QD l lng cu hng ha v QS l lng cung hng ha. Phng trnh c xy dng vi dng tuyn tnh d d ng cho s tnh ton.
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MWTP = 100 2QD MC = 5 QS 2. Gi tr cn bng c xc nh theo cch i s bng cch cho MWTP bng vi MC v trc tin xc nh sn lng cn bng m ti QD = QS = QE, vi QE l sn lng cn bng. 100 2QE = 0.5QE QE = 40 3. MWTP ti v tr cn bng c th c xc nh bng cch thay QE vo ho c phng trnh MWTP ho c phng trnh MC: MWTP = 100 - 2(40) = 20$. S bng nhau ca gi sn lng tr bin v chi ph sn xut bin dng xc nh xem sn lng c t hiu qu x hi hay khng. C mt cch khc xem xt khi nim v hiu qu ny. Khi mc sn lng t hiu qu x hi, tc l gi tr x hi rng c xc nh l tng gi sn lng tr tr tng chi ph, lc hiu qu x hi l ln nht. Thc t, chng ta c th o gi tr rng ny trn hnh 4-1. Ti im QE bng 40, tng gi sn lng tr bng khon tng ng vi vng bn di ng gi sn lng tr bin, t gc ta n QE. Din tch ny bao gm tng ca 3 phn din tch nh: a+b+c. Mt khc, tng chi ph bao gm phn din tch bn di ng chi ph bin, tc l phn c. Gi tr x hi rng l (a+b+c) tr i c, bng phn din tch (a+b). C nhiu tn gi cho din tch (a+b). Vng ny c gi l gi tr x hi rng hoc li ch rng ho c thng d x hi (6). cc mc sn lng khc, gi tr tng ng ca tng gi sn lng tr tr tng chi ph sn xut s nh hn din tch (a+b) ny. (Cc vn c phn tch cui chng s yu cu bn chng minh pht biu ny). Tnh ton nh lng gi tr x hi rng 1. Tnh din tch a: Phn din tch a l mt tam gic vi y bng 40 v ng cao l 80. Din tch a bng (40 nhn 80) = 1.600$.(7). 2. Tnh din tch b: Phn din tch b l mt tam gic khc c y bng 40 v ng cao 20, tnh c gi tr din tch l 400$. 3. Tng din tch (a+b) = 1.600$ + 400$ = 2.000$ = gi tr x hi rng. 4. y khng cn tnh din tch phn c bi v n nm ngoi phng trnh: Gi tr x hi rng = (a+b+c) - (c) = (a+b). Cc vn suy ngh (v gii quyt) cho v d ny 1. iu g s xy ra cho s cn bng hiu qu x hi v gi tr x hi rng nu nh MWTP = 200 - 2QD? Nu nh MC tng gp i thnh MC = QS? 2. Ai l ngi nhn phn thng d x hi ny v ti sao n c gi l thng d?
(6)
Trong chng 6, thng d x hi rng s c lin h vi nhng khi nim v thng d ngi sn xut v thng d ngi tiu dng. (7) Nh li, trong chng 3, chng ta xc nh giao im vi trc tung ca ng MWTP bng cch cho Qd = 0 trong phng trnh MWTP.
56
Cc m hnh m chng ta nghin cu trong sch ny gn vi cc nn kinh t ti mt th i im. Khi chng ta tho lun v kha cnh thi gian ca cc vn mi trng, th vic pht trin cc m hnh xc nh r cc tc ng ny khng thu c phm vi ca sch ny. Hiu qu trong cc m hnh ca chng ta l hiu qu tnh. Ngha l, n gn vi cc th trng v cc hot ng ti mt thi im. Hiu qu ng xem xt n s phn phi cc ti nguyn theo thi gian. Trong khi hai khi nim u bao gm s cn bng gia li ch bin vi chi ph bin th hiu qu ng s phc tp hn, bi v s nh i gia cc im thi gian bao hm cc vn v s suy kit v cc ngun vn mi trng, s khng th o ngc, cho d c chit khu cc gi tr tng lai hay khng v.v.(8)
HIU QU V CNG BNG

Trn phng din to n x hi, sn xut t mc hiu qu khi li ch bin bng vi chi ph sn xut bin, l khi li ch rng t cc i, khng lin quan n ai l ngi hng cc li ch rng . Hiu qu khng phn bit cc c nhn vi nhau. Mt la trong li ch rng ca mt c nhn cng c xem bng vi gi ca mt la i vi cc c nhn khc. Khi nim ti u Pareto ni n mt trng thi cn bng c pht biu r rng hn v trng thi phc li m cc c nhn c th c. Cn bng ti u Pareto l tnh trng cn bng khng th lm cho bt k mt ngi no tt hn ln m khng lm cho ngi khc thit thi. Ti u Pareto l mt trng thi cn bng hiu qu. Nhng mt trng thi cn bng hiu qu c th l ti u Pareto hay khng cn ph thuc vo im xut pht ca nn kinh t. Hin trng, hoc ti thi im phn tch, s c lin quan n vic mt trng thi cn bng hiu qu c tha mn tiu chu n ti u Pareto hay khng. Chng ta s gii quyt vn ny trong chng 10. Trong thc t, trng thi cn bng c th t hiu qu nhng khng c c ch th trng m nhng ngi thng c th bi thng cho nhng ngi thua. y l l do v sao s phn phi thu nhp v ca ci l s quan tm ca cc nh kinh t hc. Khi mt kt qu mang li li ch cho ngi giu vi thit hi thuc v ngi ngho th n thng b xem l bt b nh ng. Ni theo cch khc, mt kt qu c hiu qu theo quan im phn trn th khng cn phi b nh ng trn thc t. S b nh ng c quan h cht ch vi vic phn phi ca ci trong x hi. Nu s phn phi ny c ch trng nh l s cng bng cn thit, th cc quyt nh v cc mc sn lng thay th c th c to ra ch da vo tiu chun v hiu qu. Nhng nu s phn phi ca ci khng cng bng, th bn thn tiu chun v hiu qu c th b nhiu hn ch. S phn phi thu nhp v ca ci c th c tc ng n cch phn b cc ti nguyn. Tuy nhin, khi ni nh vy, chng ta phi tha nhn l trong nh gi cc kt qu kinh t, s nhn mnh tng i v hiu qu v s cng bng l mt vn gy ra rt nhiu tranh ci. l cc tranh c i trong cc u trng chnh tr, v l cc cu c tranh ci c trong chnh cc nh kinh t hc. Vn phn phi v cng b ng c tho lun xuyn su t trong sch ny. Chng 6 s thuyt minh v cc thut ng m t cc tc ng phn phi ca cc chnh sch mi trng. Trong chng 9, s cng bng v kinh t l mt trong nhng tiu ch nh gi cc chnh sch mi trng.
Khi nim v cch tnh chit khu c tho lun trong chng 6
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TH TRNG
Vn ct li ca phn ny l: liu rng mt h thng th trng c cho ta kt qu t hiu qu x hi? H thng th trng ny l mt h thng m cc quyt nh kinh t ch yu v sn xut bao nhiu c a ra bi s tng tc hu nh t do gia ngi mua v ngi bn. Hiu qu x hi i hi sn xut mc QE n v sn lng. Chng ta c th da hon ton vo th trng xc nh mc sn lng ny hay khng? Cc nh kinh t lo lng v vn ny b i v Canada, nhn chung, l mt nn kinh t th trng. V mi mt, mt h thng th trng bnh thng s cho nhng kt qu kinh t tt hn nhiu h thng khc. Mt h thng th trng cng cha ng cc c ch khuyn khch m, trong nhiu trng hp, c th c khai thc nhm mc tiu ci thin cht lng mi trng. Mt trong nhng c ch ny l s khuyn khch ti thiu ha chi ph c ngun gc t qu trnh cnh tranh. Mt c ch khc l ng lc tm kim cc cch thc sn xut ra hng ha v dch v r hn bng cc cng ngh khc nhau, nhp liu r hn, ho c thay i c cu t chc tt hn. Nu chng ta c th khai thc c cc c ch ny gip t c cc mc ch mi trng th c hai nhim v ca chng ta s d dng hn v chi ph c hi cho x hi s thp hn l nu chng ta c vt b ton b h thng c v chp nhn mt b nh ch khc. Th trng l mt nh ch ni ngi mua v ngi bn cc hng ha, dch v hoc cc yu t sn xut tin hnh trao i, tha thun vi nhau. Mi ngi tm kim kt qu tt nht cho h. Ngi mua mun tr mt mc gi thp, trong khi ngi bn mun nhn c mt mc gi cao. Tt c cc mc tiu mu thu n ny s c cn bng thng qua s iu chnh gi ca th trng. Trng thi cn bng c thit lp ti im m cung b ng vi cu. Ti v tr giao nhau, mc gi cn bng v s lng cn bng c xc nh. iu ny c minh ha trn hnh 4-2, vi QM l s lng cn bng c mua v bn trn th trng, v PM l mc gi cn bng. mt th trng lm vic hiu qu, phi c s cnh tranh gia cc ngi bn v gia cc ngi mua. Khng mt ai trong ln hot ng ca h c th lm nh hng n gi th trng, hoc l c quyn lc c th iu khin cch m th trng hot ng. Gi c phi c t do iu chnh.
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Hnh 4-2: Xc nh im cn bng trong th trng cnh tranh

Gi
100 D 80 60 40 PM 20 b 20 c 40 QM 60 80 100 Xut lng a
im cn bng th trng c xc nh khi ng cu (D) bng ng cung (S). Theo trng hp trn, mc gi cn bng PM l 20$ v sn lng cn bng QM l 40. QM s l mc sn lng cn bng t hiu qu x hi (QE) nu nh (D) ging vi ng MWTP v (S) th hin cho ng chi ph x hi bin. iu ny khng chc ng trong trng hp c cc vn mi trng ny sinh do tht bi th trng.
TH TRNG V HIU QU X HI
C phi mt th trng khng c kim sot ging trong h nh 4-2 s dn n mt mc cn bng hiu qu x hi? y l mt vn c bn trong kinh t. So snh hnh 4-1 v hnh 4-2. Chng trng c v ging nhau, nhng thc s c mt im khc nhau ln. Hnh 4-1 th hin mt mc sn lng t hiu qu x hi cho mt loi sn phm ring bit. Hnh 4-2 th hin mc sn lng v mc gi c xc lp trn th trng cnh tranh cho loi sn phm . Nh vy, c phi hai mc sn lng ny (QM v QE l 40 n v) trn thc t l ging nhau? Cu tr li l ng nu nh ng cung v ng cu th trng, nh c v trn hnh 4-2, cng l ng chi ph bin v ng gi sn lng tr, nh th hin hnh 4-1. y mi l b n cht ca vn : Khi cc gi tr mi trng c quan tm n, s c rt nhiu khc nhau gia gi tr th trng v gi tr x hi. Nhng tht bi th trng l nguyn nhn gy ra s khc nhau . Tht bi th trng c th nh hng n c bn cung cng nh bn cu ca th trng. V pha cung, tht bi th trng c th to ra s khc bit gia ng cung th trng chun v ng chi ph x hi bin (hay chi ph bin thc t). V pha cu, tht bi th trng c th to ra s khc bit gia cu th trng v gi sn lng tr bin ca x hi. V pha cung, s chnh lch ny gi l chi ph ngoi tc, trong khi v pha cu, khon ny gi l li ch ngoi tc. Tm li, Tht bi th trng gy ra s khc bit gia gi tr th trng v gi tr x hi, v c th ngn cn th trng cnh tranh t im cn bng hiu qu x hi.
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CHI PH NGOI TC
Khi cc nh kinh doanh trong mt nn kinh t th trng ra mt quyt nh v sn xut ci g v sn xut bao nhiu, h u tnh n gi ca sn phm m h sn xut cng nh chi ph cho nhng th m h s phi tr: lao ng, nguyn vt liu th, my mc, nng lng, v.v. Chng ta gi cc chi ph ny l chi ph t nhn ca cng ty; chng l cc khon chi ph xut hin trong cc bo co li l ca cng ty. i vi mt s cng ty sn xut t mc tiu l ti a ha li nhun th s c gng gi cho chi ph sn xut ca h mc thp nht. y l kt qu quan trng cho c cng ty v x hi, bi v cc nhp lng lun c mt khon chi ph c hi: chng c th c s dng sn xut nhng th khc. Hn na, cc cng ty s c tm cch gim cc khon chi ph khi mc gi tng i ca cc nhp lng thay i. Tuy nhin, trong nhiu hot ng sn xut, c mt dng chi ph th hin chi ph thc t ca x hi nhng khng c mt trong cc bo co li l ca cng ty. Chng c gi l chi ph ngoi tc hay chi ph x hi. Chng c gi l ngoi tc bi v chng l cc chi ph thc t i vi mt s thnh vin trong x hi nhng thng thng chng s khng c a vo cc khon chi ph ca cng ty khi h bt u a ra quyt nh v cc nguyn liu s dng ho c mc sn lng. Mt cch khc ni v iu ny l: c nhng kho n chi ph l ngoi tc i vi cng ty nhng li l ni ti i vi to n x hi. Mt trong nhng kiu chnh ca chi ph ngoi tc l kho n chi ph tn thng cho con ngi do suy gim mi trng. Cch n gin nht hiu iu ny l cho mt v d. V d: Nh my giy thi cht thi vo dng sng Gi nh mt nh my giy c v tr u trn thng ngun ca mt con sng, v nh th, trong qu trnh hot ng, nh my thi mt lng ln nc thi vo dng sng. Nc thi cha y vt liu hu c c sinh ra t quy trnh bin g thnh giy. Cc vt liu thi ny d n dn c chuyn ha sang cc dng n ha hn bi kh nng ng ha t nhin ca nc sng. Tuy nhin, trc khi iu din ra th mt s ngi h lu b nh hng bi cht lng nc sng km i. Cc cht thi ly lan qua ngu n nc c th lm suy gim lng c trong dng sng, nh hng n nhng ng dn h lu. Dng sng cng c th b suy gim v m quan, nh hng n nhng ngi thch bi li hoc du thuyn trn sng. Nghim trng hn, nc sng c th c dng h lu nh l mt ngun nc cung cp cho a phng, v s suy gim cht lng nc ngha l a phng phi tiu tn nhiu hn cho cc qu trnh x l trc khi nc c th c phn phi tiu th. Tt c cc chi ph sinh ra h lu ny l cc chi ph thc t c quan h n qu trnh sn xut giy, v cc chi ph ny nhiu khng km cc chi ph cho nguyn liu th, lao ng, nhin liu... c s dng bn trong nh my . Trn quan im ca nh my giy, cc chi ph h lu ny l cc chi ph ngoi tc. Chng l nhng chi ph do nhng ngi khc gnh chu ch khng phi l nhng ngi ra quyt nh cho hot ng ca nh my giy. Bo co li l ca nh my giy s khng cha ng hay nhc n bt k cc chi ph ngo i tc thc t h lu ny. Th trng tht b i bi v khng to c cc khuyn khch cho ngi sn xut tnh n cc khon chi ph ngoi tc trong vic ra quyt nh ca h; khng c cch no gi c th trng ca hng ha phn nh c cc ngoi tc ny trong qu trnh sn xut. Nu chng ta c mc sn lng ti im hiu qu x hi, nhng quyt nh v s dng ti nguyn phi tnh n c hai loi chi ph chi ph t nhn ca qu trnh sn xut giy cng
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vi mi chi ph ngoi tc sinh ra t cc tc ng mi trng bt li. Mt cch to n din th phi tnh ton chi ph x hi: Chi ph x hi = chi ph t nhn + chi ph ngoi tc (mi trng) Phng trnh ny c th ha trong hnh 4-3. th pha trn th hin mi lin h gia mc sn lng giy vi mc pht sinh ca cc chi ph ngoi tc h lu. th ny th hin rng chi ph ngoi tc bin s gia tng khi sn lng giy gia tng. th bn di biu din ng cu v giy v chi ph bin t nhn ca qu trnh sn xut giy. im giao nhau gia hai ng ny hnh thnh mc gi PM v sn lng QM. y l mc gi v sn lng hnh thnh trong th trng cnh tranh, ni m nhng ngi sn xut chi tr m khng quan tm n cc chi ph ngoi tc. Nhng chi ph x hi bin, nh th hin, trn thc t s cao hn bi v n bao gm c chi ph bin t nhn v chi ph ngoi tc bin. Nh vy, mc sn lng hiu qu x hi l Q* vi mt mc gi tng ng l P*. So snh gia hai mc sn lng v hai mc gi. Mc sn lng ca th trng s cao hn nhiu so vi mc sn lng hiu qu x hi. V gi th trng th thp hn nhiu so vi mc gi hiu qu x hi. Khng kh hiu c l do ca iu ny. Ch xem xt cc chi ph t nhn th cng ty ang s dng nhiu ngun u vo cn thit sn xut m khng phi tr tin. Cc khon khng phi tr tin ny l cc d ch v t con sng cung cp vi gi rt r cho cng ty vt b cc sn phm ph thi. Th nhng, cc dch v ny c th l r so vi cng ty nhng li khng r cht no i vi ton x hi; thc t, trong trng hp ny chng ta c cc chi ph do tn hi i vi cc ngi s dng h lu ang khng c nh my giy quan tm n.V vy, h thng th trng c nhn trong trng hp ny sn xu t ra qu nhiu giy mc gi rt thp nu so vi mc sn lng v gi hiu qu x hi. Hu ht cc trng hp hy hoi mi trng bao gm mt hay nhiu loi chi ph ngoi tc. Nh my sn xut in thi cc cht nhim khng kh gy nh hng n sc khe ca nhng ngi sng di hng gi. Nhng ngi s dng ha cht thi ra cc hi c gy nh hng n nhng ngi sng trong vng ph cn. Cc nh thit k xy dng cc cng trnh trn t khng tnh n cc khon chi ph do s suy gim mi trng cnh quan ca c dn a phng v.v. Khng ch c nhng hot ng thng mi l gy ra cc chi ph mi trng ngoi tc. Khi cc c nhn li xe, kh thi t ng khi xe gp phn lm nhim khng kh, v khi h vt b cc vt liu thi rn (nh cc lon sn c v cc dung mi), h c th tc ng n cht lng ca mi trng a phng.
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Hnh 4-3: Chi ph ngo i tc v kt qu th trng
Gi
MEC (Chi ph ngoi tc bin)
S lng
MPC + MEC (Chi ph x hi bin)

Gi
MPC (Chi ph t nhn bin) P* PM D (ng cu) Q* QM S lng
th pha trn minh ha hm chi ph ngoi tc bin ca mt nh my giy thi nc thi cha c x l vo mt con sng. Chi ph ngoi tc l cc khon chi ph m ngi dn v cc cng ty pha h lu phi gnh chu lm sch nc trc khi dng. th bn di th hin ng chi ph x hi bin, l tng ca chi ph bin t nhn v cc chi ph ngoi tc cho mi n v sn phm giy c sn xut. S cn bng hiu qu x hi xy ra ti im ng cu (D) bng vi chi ph x hi bin. im cn bng ny c mc sn lng (Q*) thp hn, v gi (P*) cao hn so vi im cn bng th trng (im m ng cu bng vi chi ph bin t nhn, to ra im QM v PM).
C nhiu dng chi ph ngoi tc mi trng khc nhau. Hu ht chng, nhng khng phi tt c, c th hin thng qua cc mi lin kt vt l gia cc bn, bao gm ngi gy nhim v ngi b thit hi. Tnh hung n gin nht l khi ch c hai ngi tham gia, mt ngi gy nhim v mt ngi chu tn hi (gi l pollutee). Mt nh my bt giy thng ngun v mt x nghip h ngun s dng nc sng trong cc hot ng sn xu t l mt v d. C nhiu trng hp mt ngi gy nhim v nhiu ngi chu tn hi, nh l mt nh my in thi kh SO2 gy nh hng n ni c tr ca cng ng dn c di hng gi. Mt s trng hp khc gm nhiu ngi gy nhim nhng ch c mt ngi b tn hi. V d nh cc cht thi ra t nhiu nng tri gy nh hng n ging nc ca mt gia nh ring l. V cui cng l, c nhiu trng hp m c b n gy nhim v bn b tn hi u gm nhiu ngi, ly v d, nhim khng kh th xut pht t cc ngun thi xe t: mi ngi li xe ng thi va l ngi gy nhim v l
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ngi gnh chu ngoi tc. Tng t nh vy l hin tng to n cu, nh l hiu ng nh knh. C mt s ngoi tc khng bao gm cc lin kt vt l. S suy thoi mi trng cnh quan do s pht trin t ai khng cn trng l mt v d. V cng c mt s ngoi tc khng bao gm cc lin kt vt l m cng khng thuc mt khng gian khp kn no. V d nh ngi dn ti mt khu vc ca mt quc gia c th c cm gic b mt mt khi nhng ngi trong khu vc khc gy ra tn hi cho mt ngun ti nguyn mi trng quan trng nh l mt loi ng vt hay thc vt no .
Ti nguyn T do Tip cn
Mt nguyn nhn chnh ca tht bi th trng l s hin hu ca cc ti nguyn t do tip cn. Mt ti nguyn t do tip cn l mt ti nguyn ho c mt tin ch c m, quyn s dng khng c kim sot bi cc c nhn thy c li ch trong vic s dng ngun ti nguyn . Mt v d kinh in t lnh vc kinh t ti nguyn l ngun c bin, ni m b t k ai cng c th mua thuyn v thc hin nh bt mt cch t do. Mt v d khc l ng c t nhin c ng cho bt k ai th gia sc ca h, hoc l mt cnh rng m bt k ai cng c th n v n g. Trong mi trng t nhin, kh quyn l ti nguyn t do tip cn ho n ton nht. Bt c ai cng c th s dng kh quyn min ph nh l ni cha cht thi. Cc i dng, nc ngm v nhiu ngun nc mt khc cng l cc ti nguyn t do tip cn. Thc t, trong ho n cnh ny, chng ta khng c quyn s hu ti sn(9). Khng mt ai s hu ti nguyn t do tip cn. Khng ai c th buc ngi khc phi ngng s dng ti nguyn ny. V mt kt qu tt yu l cc ti nguyn d ng ny s b s dng mt cch khng hiu qu. minh ha cho khi nim t do tip cn dn n s dng km hiu qu, chng ta xem xt v d sau. V d: nhim nc v chi ph x l Gi thit rng c 4 cng ty tng t nhau nm cnh mt ci h. Cc cng ty ny dng nc t h sn xut cc sn phm ca h, v thi cc cht thi tr li vo h. Cc ngu n thi gy ra nhim cho nc h, iu ny i hi mi cng ty phi x l nc trc khi s dng trong sn xut. Chi ph x l cho mi cng ty ph thuc vo cht lng mi trng xung quanh ca h, v iu ny d nhin li ph thuc vo tng pht thi ca 4 cng ty trn. Gi s rng chi ph cho x l nc cp hin ti l 40.000$ mi nm cho mi cng ty. Mt cng ty mi ang d nh bt u hot ng trn b h ny. Nu nh cng thm vo mt lng thi khng x l ca n vi bn cng ty kia th s lm cho cht lng mi trng nc xung quanh b suy gim v lm tng chi ph x l nc cho mi cng ty ln mc 60.000$ mi nm. Khi cng ty th 5 ra quyt nh v v tr v s sn xut ca n, n s phi tnh thm vo mt khon cc chi ph ho t ng khc bao gm 60.000$ mi nm do chi ph x l nc. Tuy nhin, tng cc chi ph x hi lin quan n nc do cc quyt nh ca cng ty th cao hn. Tng chi ph ny bao gm c cc chi ph ngoi tc gy nh hng cho 4 cng ty kia, mt khon l 20.000$ thm vo chi ph x l nc nu cng ty th 5 t cnh h. Chi ph x hi bin ca vic cp nc khi mt cng ty mi t cnh h l 140.000$, bao gm 60.000$ chi ph ni hm ca cng ty mi, cng vi 80.000$ (20.000$ nhn 4) ca chi p h ngoi tc i vi cc cng ty sn c bn h. Khon ny thng c gi l ngoi tc do t do tip cn, bi v chng b t ngun t s kin l cc cng ty c s tip cn h nc khng c kim sot.
(9)
Quyn s hu ti sn c tho lun chi tit ti chng 10
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Tiu im ca v d ny l cc ngo i tc do quyt nh ca cng ty th nm, nhng mi th u ging nhau theo ngha chng ta c th kt lun ging nhau cho mi x nghip. H s ra cc quyt nh m khng quan tm n chi ph ngoi tc gy ra cho cc cng ty khc. y l bn cht ca cc ngoi tc dng ny, dng m chng ta s phn bit vi dng ngoi tc bn trc y (trong v d v nh my bt giy thng ngun gy ra chi ph ngoi tc cho cc ngi chu tc hi h ngun). Nhng cc nh hng ca 2 dng ny l nh nhau: ng cung th trng s thp hn ng chi ph sn xut bin x hi khi c cc ngoi tc trong qu trnh sn xut. Nu mt ai s hu mt ng c t nhin, ho c mt khu rng, ngi c kh nng s khng cho nhng ngi khc xm ln vo, ho c c th buc h phi tr tin cho vic s dng ti nguyn ny, hoc cch khc l kim sot mc tip cn chng. Nhng mt khi mt ti nguyn hay tin ch c ng tip cn t do th s khng c cch no m bo rng mc s dng ti nguyn lm ti a ha gi tr. V d: S tt nghn ng x S tt nghn ng x minh ha vic khng gii hn tip cn a n s khng hiu qu. Con ng th khng phi l mt ti nguyn thin nhin, nhng l mt tin ch do con ngi to ra. Nhng bn cht ca vn khng kim sot tip cn l nh nhau, v c l s d hiu hn khi dng v d c th ny. V d dng cc gi nh c n gin ha chng ta c th nu bt c bn cht ca vn . C mt con ng ni gia 2 im, gi l im A v im B. Cc con s trong bng 4 -1 th hin thi gian di chuyn tiu tn trung bnh i t im A n im B theo con ng ny, nh l mt hm ph thuc vo s ngi li xe ang s dng con ng. Ly v d, nu ch c 1 ngi di chuyn trn ng, s phi tn 10 pht i t A n B (ta gi s l tc gii hn c tn trng). Tng t, c 2 hoc 3 ngi li xe trn ng, thi gian di chuyn trung b nh vn l 10 pht. Nhng khi s phng tin giao thng tng ln l 4, thi gian di chuyn trung bnh tng ln l 11 pht. iu ny l b i v s tt nghn: cc xe c s bt u d nh phn ng ca cc xe khc, v tc trung bnh b gim xung. Khi s lng cc xe c tip tc gia tng, s tt nghn cng gia tng, v th thi gian di chuyn s di hn. By gi, gi nh bn ang xem xt s dng con ng ny i t A n B, v c sn 5 xe ang s dng n. Xa hn, gi nh rng bn c mt tuyn ng khc m s mt 18 pht i n B. Chng ta gi s l bn bit tnh trng giao thng v kt qu v thi gian di chuyn. Khi chn con ng ny bn s tit kim c 4 pht so vi ng kia. Quyt nh ca c nhn bn l s s dng con ng ny. Nhng, ng trn phng din x hi, trong trng hp ny, c vic bn cng vi tt c cc xe khc trn ng, th khng t hiu qu. Bng 4-1: Quan h gia thi gian di chuyn v s lng xe trn ng S lng xe (chic) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Thi gian trung bnh di chuyn t A n B (pht) 10 10 10 11 12 14 18 24
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Khi b n i vo con ng c sn 5 xe ang lu thng, s tt nghn tng thm gy ra s gia tng thi gian di chuyn trung bnh thm 2 pht i vi nhng ngi ang s dng con ng . Bn pht c nhn bn c c c nh i bng mt chi ph di chuyn l 10 pht (5 xe nhn vi thi gian 2 pht mi xe) ca cc xe khc. iu ny c ngha l nu chng ta cho tt c cc pht cng mt gi tr - th phn thit hi rng ca x hi l 6 pht khi b n quyt nh s dng con ng . Vn pht sinh bi v con ng khng c s gii hn tip cn, v trong vic s dng n, mi ngi c th gy ra cc chi ph ngoi tc cho cc ngi khc thng qua hnh thc gia tng s ch tc v ko di hn thi gian di chuyn. Cc tc ng cng tng t khi mt ngi nh c tham gia vo mt ng trng; khi nh bt mt phn trong ngun c cung cp, ngi lm gim i phn nh bt c ca cc ngi khc. Khi mt ngi nng dn a gia sc vo mt ng c chung, v khng c cc iu lut i vi vic s dng ng c , ngi lm gim phn thc n c th c s dng cho cc n khc trn ng c . Chng ta c th thy rng iu ny c lin h vi khi nim v chi ph ngoi tc. Khon chi ph gia tng khi mt ngi s dng mt ti nguyn t do tip cn gy ra cho nhng ngi khc s dng ti nguyn thc cht l cc chi ph ngo i tc i vi cc ngi s dng ny nhng li l chi ph ni hm i vi to n b nhm cc ngi s dng. Khi mt c nhn c mt quyt nh s dng hay khng v s dng bao nhiu i vi mt ti nguyn t do tip cn, h tnh n khon chi ph v li ch m s tc ng trc tip n chnh h. Mt s ngi c th tnh n cc ngoi tc h gy ra cho ngi khc, nhng a s ngi s khng nh vy. V kt qu s l, nh v d v con ng trn, mc s dng ti nguyn cao hn mc c gi l hiu qu x hi. Mt cch tng qut, Khi chi ph ngoi tc hin hu, th trng t nhn thng thng s khng to ra mc sn lng hiu qu x hi. Tht bi th trng c th v th phi cn n chnh sch cng gip a nn kinh t hng v pha hiu qu x hi. iu ny i khi c th c tin hnh bng cch iu chnh lut l, nh l cc iu lut v quyn s hu, cho th trng s hot ng t hiu qu . i vi cc trng hp khc, c l cn n s can thip trc tip hn ca chnh quyn. Chng 10 n chng 14 tho lun v cc vn ny chi tit hn. Cn by gi, chng ta xem xt n pha cu ca th trng v mt ngun gc tht bi th trng quan trng khc, l li ch ngoi tc.
LI CHNGOI TC
Mt li ch ngoi tc l mt khon li ch m mt ai bn ngoi c c t quyt nh v tiu dng ho c s dng hng ha hay ti nguyn to ra ngoi tc. Khi m vic s dng mt i tng no dn n mt li ch ngoi tc th gi sn lng tr ca th trng cho i tng s thp hn gi sn lng tr ca x hi. Xem xt cc v d sau y. V d: My ct c khng gy ting n Gi nh mt my ct c khng gy ting n s mang li khon li ch tng thm l 50$ mi nm cho ngi mua n. Nh vy, y chnh l kho n tng thm ti a m ngi s sn lng tr cho ci my ny so vi mt my ct gy ting n. Nhng gi nh rng
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vic s dng my ct mi ny ca ngi s to ra 20$ li ch tng thm cho hng xm trong mi nm, do gim bt ting n. S 20$ li ch ny ca ngi hng xm chnh l li ch ngoi tc cho ngi s hu my xn c . Ngi s hu ny ra quyt nh mua ch d a trn cc li ch sinh ra cho chnh h m thi. Theo , gi sn lng tr bin cho my ct c khng gy ting n l hn 50$, trong khi li ch x hi bin (x hi trong trng hp ny ch bao gm ngi s hu my v ngi lng ging) l 70$ (ca ngi s hu my l 50$ v ngi lng ging 20$). V d: Cc li ch sinh thi t t nng nghip Mt nng dn c t ngoi ca mt th. Ngi nng dn canh tc trn t v bn cc sn phm cho ngi trong thnh ph. D nhin, mi quan tm chnh ca ngi nng dn l thu nhp anh ta thu c t cng vic kinh doanh , v anh ta ra cc quyt nh v mc nhp liu cng nh sn lng, da vo tc ng ca chng ln thu nhp. Nhng mnh t sn xut nng nghip cn sn sinh ra nhiu li ch khc na, bao gm lm ni tr ng cho chim v cc ng vt nh, v cc gi tr cnh quan cho nhng ngi qua ng. Nhng li ch ny, v phng din x hi th l li ch ni ti, nhng trn phng din ca ngi nng dn th li l li ch ngoi tc. Chng khng hin hu trong bt k s tnh ton li l no ca anh ta; chng l cc li ch b n ngoi ca cc quyt nh nng nghip ca anh ta. Trong trng hp ny, gi tr nng nghip ca ming t i vi ngi nng dn thp hn gi sn lng tr ca x hi c mt ming t nng nghip nh th. Khi tho lun cc kin thc c bn ca cung v cu, cc nh kinh t thng s dng cc v d v cc loi hng ha tht n gin, khng c cc li ch ngoi tc. Nng dn sn xut v cung cp rt nhiu triu tri to mi nm. ng cu c nhn v th trng ca to l d dng xc nh. Nu chng ta mun bit tng s to c mua, mt cch n gin l chng ta cng cc lng to c mua bi tng ngi trong th trng. S tiu dng ca mi ngi khng tc ng n ngi khc. Trong trng hp ny, ng cu th trng s th hin chnh xc tng gi sn lng tr bin ca ngi tiu th to. Nhng trong trng hp gm c cc li ch ngoi tc, iu ny khng ng nh th na. Chng ta c th nhn thc iu ny b ng cch xem xt mt dng hng ha vn mang cc li ch ngoi tc trn qui m ln lo i hng ha m theo cc nh kinh t l hng ha cng cng .
Hng ha cng cng

Hy xem xt s cung cp cc dch v quc phng. Mt khi h thng phng th hin din, vi tt c cc loi v kh v con ngi, th mi ngi trong quc gia u nhn c dch v ny. Mt khi dch v ny c to sn cho mt ngi, nhng ngi khc khng b loi tr khi vic c s dng cng d ch v y. iu ny c gi l tnh khng c chim (non-exclusion), v y l mt trong nhng tnh cht c trng ca mt hng ha cng cng. l mt loi hng ha m, nu c sn xut ra cho mt ngi no c th s dng th t ng nhng ngi khc cng c th s dng. Mt v d khc v hng ha cng cng l khng kh sch. Nu khng kh bao xung quanh thnh ph khng b nhim nghim trng, bt k ai trong thnh ph cng c th th khng kh m khng lm gim kh nng s dng n i vi cc ngi khc trong thnh ph. y l tnh cht th hai ca hng ha cng cng tnh khng cnh tranh (non-rivalness). S tiu th khng kh sch ca ti khng lm gim s tiu th ca bn. iu ny rt khc so vi cc hng ha c nhn. Nu ti mua v n m t tri to th bn s khng th dng tri
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to c na. Lu cn thn rng quyn s hu ca nh cung cp khng phi l c tnh cho mt hng ha cng cng. Mc d trong 2 v d trn u cn n s tham gia ca chnh ph, nhng mt hng ha cng cng c c trng bi cc c tnh t nhin ca n khng c chim v khng cnh tranh ch khng c trng bng hnh thc t chc cung cp n. Ly v d, cc tn hiu radio l min ph i vi mi ngi s dng my thu, nhng hu ht cc trm thu pht c s hu bi cc c nhn. Cht lng mi trng l mt hng ha cng cng cn thit. Nu nh s lng ca tng ozon c gia tng th mi ngi trn th gii s c hng li. Cc th trng t nhn c kh nng s khng cung cp hng ha cng cng so vi mc hiu qu. Tm li, Hng ha cng cng mang cc c tnh khng cnh tranh v khng c chim c s tiu th chung i vi hng ha v mt khi n c cung cp, mi ngi u c th th hng hng ha cho d h c tr tin cho vic tiu th n hay khng. Cht lng mi trng l mt hng ha cng cng.
Tng cu i vi hng ha cng cng

Nhu cu ca con ngi i vi mt hng ha cng cng th hin bng gi sn lng tr bin ca h, ging nh nhu cu i vi mt hng ha c nhn. S khc nhau l cch thc gp li cc ng cu c nhn t nhiu ngi tiu dng.V d chi tit minh ha cho s phc tp m hng ha cng cng mang n cho nn kinh t th trng. V d: Kim sot phn bn chy trn vo h Xem xt mt h nc ngt nh, ti b h c hai gia nh c ng. Nhng ngi sng trong hai gia nh dng h nc ny cho cc mc ch gii tr; nhng tht khng may, cht lng nc h li b nhim bn bi phn bn ra t cc nng tri xung quanh. Phn bn l nguyn nhn lm to pht trin t trong h. iu ny lm h thp hm lng oxy ha tan (DO) ca h v nhiu loi c khng th sng ni. Thm vo , h tr nn khng thch hp bi li do s bng pht ca to. Oxy ha tan l mt ch th cho cht lng mi trng v c o bng n v phn triu (ppm). C th lm sch nc b ng cch mi gia nh mua mt hp cht trung ha phn bn v ci thin nng oxy ha tan. Tuy nhin, chi ph bin ca vic x l l mt hm pht sinh, c cho bi phng trnh MCx l = 5 + 2Q, vi Q l nng DO cn t. Mi h sn lng tr cho cc qu trnh x l cn thit theo hng thng. Hm MWTP(10) ca cc gia nh ny c cho bi: MWTPA = 14 - 2QA. MWTPB = 6 - QB. Bng 4 -2 th hin gi sn lng tr bin ca mi h cho vic lm gia tng cht lng nc v chi ph bin gp. N cng th hin gi sn lng tr, l tng ca cc gi tr c nhn. Chng ta c th tng hp MWTP ca hai h bng cch cng cc hm MWTP cho ra MWTPtng = 20 3Q. Bng 4-2: Cu c nhn v cu tng cho s gia tng DO trong h Gi sn lng tr bin ($/thng) DO (ppm) H A H B Tng Chi ph kim sot bin 0 14 6 20 5
(10)
H m MWTP ca mi h l ng cu nghch bin vi cht lng nc.
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12 10 8 6 4 2 0
5 4 3 2 1 0 0
17 14 11 8 5 2 0
7 9 11 13 15 17 19
Lu rng chi ph bin l mt hm tng: khi h nc tr nn sch hn th chi ph bin ca vic tip tc ci thin cng s gia tng. y cng l mt c tnh ca hng ha cng cng. Nu ch mt h gia nh mua cht x l, cht lng nc vn s c ci thin cho c hai gia nh. Mc cn bng t c l bao nhiu? p n c th hin bng phng php i s, phng php th v b ng s kho st bng s liu. T bng 4 -2, lu rng chi ph bin v gi sn lng tr bin tng bng nhau ti im m DO b ng 3ppm. Ti cc mc thp hn mc ny, tng gi sn lng tr cho mt h sch hn vt qu chi ph bin c c iu ; do vy, trn quan im ca 2 h gia nh vi nhau, vic chi tr nhiu hn cho s ci thin cht lng nc l c mong mun. Nhng cc mc cao hn 3ppm, tng gi sn lng tr li ri xung thp hn chi ph bin. Do , 3ppm l mc cht lng nc h hiu qu x hi. iu ny cng c xc nh bng phng php i s. tnh c mc cht lng nc t hiu qu x hi, cho hm MWTP tng bng vi hm MC, tnh ra: 20 - 3Q = 5 + 2Q Q=3 iu ny cng c th c m t bng th nh hnh 4-4. Hai th pha trn th hin gi sn lng tr bin ca tng h gia nh, c v t phng trnh bn trn hoc t bng 4.2. Vi cc hng ha c nhn, khi cng cc ng cu c nhn li, th lng cu c nhn ti mi mc gi c cng li vi nhau tr thnh lng cu tng. Nhng i vi hng ha cng cng, trn thc t th mi ngi u tiu th mt lng nh nhau. Cc ng cu c nhn phi c tng hp theo mt cch khc hn so vi hng ha c nhn. Nguyn tc nh sau: c c ng tng cu c nhn cho mt hng ha cng cng, tin hnh cng MWTP ca mi ngi ti mi lng hng ha nht nh.(11) Trong hnh 4-4, ly v d ti mc cht lng nc l 2ppm, gi sn lng tr bin ln lt l 10$ v 4$ mi thng cho cc h A v B. Tng gi sn lng tr ti mc cht lng nc ny l 14$. th di cng th hin hm tng gi sn lng tr bin (hay l hm cu), hm chi ph bin (MC) v mc cht lng nc t hiu qu (Q*). Chng ta xc nh c mc cht lng nc t hiu qu, vn tip theo l liu c hay khng mt h thng th trng cnh tranh - ni m cc doanh nghip tm kim cc c hi kim li mi - c th lm gim cht gy nhim trong h ti mc hiu qu x hi. Gi s mt cng ty t nhn c gng bn cc thit b cho 2 h gia nh. Cng ty i n gia nh A v c thu c mt khon bng vi gi sn lng tr thc t ca gia nh
(11)
T ng ca cc ng cu c nhn cho mt hng ha c nhn c th c ngh nh l mt php tng ngang cng cc lng cu ti mt mc gi nht nh. Cn tng ca ng cu c nhn i vi mt hng ha cng cng th tin hnh theo chiu ng ti mt mc sn lng hng ha nht nh, gi sn lng tr ca mi ngi khi xc nh trn ng cu ca h chnh l gi tr cng. iu ny l bi v s phn chia trong tiu th hng ha, so vi hng ha c nhn l loi hng ha m s tiu dng l c chim i vi tng c nhn.
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. Nhng gia nh A c th bit rng mt khi h c lm sch, th vic lm sch l cho mi ngi, khng lin quan n vic h phi ng gp bao nhiu. V v th, h A s c ng c tr thp hn so vi gi sn lng tr thc t ca h vi hy vng rng gia nh kia s ng gp trang tri cho chi ph lm sch h. Nhng d nhin, gia nh kia c l cng phn ng theo cch ging nh th. Khi lin quan n mt hng ha cng cng, mi ngi c l u c mt ng c n theo ngi khc. Ngi n theo (free rider) l ngi tr tin cho mt hng ha thp hn gi sn lng tr thc t ca mnh; l ngi tr qu thp so vi nhng li ch m mnh nhn c. Cng nn lu rng chng ta khng tm mt mc gi cn bng cho hng ha cng cng, bi v khng c mt mc gi cn bng theo nhn thc thng thng. Sn lng cn b ng c th c thay tr li vo hm MWTP tng xc nh gi tr l 11$, nhng th trng s khng bn ht hng mc gi . Mc gi 11$ l vt qu gi sn lng tr bin cho kho n lm sch nc ca gia nh B. V gia nh A s mun 1,5 n v nc sch ti mc gi 11$ cho mi n v ch khng phi l 3 n v. Th trng t nhn khng th hot ng cung cp hng ha cng cng dng ny. Khng c cch xc lp mt mc gi ng nht cho tt c ngi tiu dng va bao hm c chi ph bin ca ngi cung cp va bng vi gi sn lng tr bin ca mi ngi tiu dng. V b i v vn n theo, cc cng ty t nhn s rt kh khn xc nh gi sn lng tr thc t ca mt ngi i vi mt hng ha cng cng. Tng kt li: S ci thin cht lng mi trng v c bn l hng ha cng cng. Mt ngi sn xut t nhn loi hng ha cng cng khng th s dng ng tng cu xc nh mt mc gi ng nht cho tt c ngi tiu dng. Mi mt ngi tiu dng phi c tnh tin theo gi sn lng tr bin i vi hng ha t c mt trng thi cn b ng m ti cu bng cung. Nhng, mt ngi sn xut t nhn khng th rt ra gi sn lng tr bin ca mi c nhn cho hng ha do c vn ngi n theo. Cho nn, cc s ci thin cht lng mi trng (hng ha cng cng) ni chung s khng c th trng t nhn cung cp mc hiu qu v mt x hi.
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Hnh 4-4: Xy d ng ng cu hng ha cng cng v sn lng hiu qu x hi

Gi
20 16 12
H A
MWTPA
8 4 0 3 2 3 4 5 6 7
MWTPB
Gi
Mc oxy ha tan (DO)
20 16 12 8 4 0 3 2 3 4 5 6 7
H B
Mc oxy ha tan (DO)
Gi
20
MWTP
A+B
16 12 8 4 0 3 2 3
Chi ph bin MC Tng cc h Tng gi sn lng tr

4 5 6 7
Q*
Mc oxy ha tan (DO)
Hm s gi sn lng tr bin cho 2 h c biu din bng th. Tng gi sn lng tr l s tng ca gi sn lng tr bin ca tng h cho mt lng DO nht nh trong nc ca h. Ti mc DO l 2ppm, h A sn lng tr 10$ v h B sn lng tr 4$, tng gi sn lng tr l 14$. im cn bng t hiu qu x hi c xc nh ti ni tng gi sn lng tr bin bng vi chi ph bin ci thin cht lng nc, Q* = 3ppm.
Khi khng th da vo h thng th trng a ra sn lng hng ha cng cng hiu qu , th chng ta phi cn n dng th ch phi th trng, bao gm mt hay nhiu dng ho t ng tp th. Trong v d v h nc, cc gia nh c th hnh ng chung, c th thng qua hi cc ch nh, phn chia cng vic lm sch h nc. D nhin, vn n theo s vn tn ti ngay trong hi ny; nhng, nu vn khng qu nghim trng, cc mi quen bit c nhn v p lc o c c th mnh vt qua vn . Tuy nhin, khi c hng ngn, thm ch hng triu ngi tham gia, nh thng thy trong hu ht cc vn mi trng, vn n theo ch c th c kim sot mt cch hiu qu vi cc ho t ng tp th trc tip hn, thng qua c quan chnh ph c quyn t thu hay ra qui nh. Trong cc trng hp ny, mc ch khng phi l nhm thay th ho n ton cc qu trnh ca th trng. iu chng ta mun lm l thm vo s gim st cng cng y
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i vi h thng th trng chng ta cui cng t c mc cht lng mi trng hiu qu v c phn phi u. Chng 5 s a ra mt ci nhn cht ch hn i vi cc vn ny.
TM TT
Mc ch chnh ca chng ny l p dng mt m hnh th trng vo cc vn cht lng mi trng. Th trng l th ch m ngi mua v ngi bn tng tc ln nhau thng qua s lng v gi c ca cc loi hng ha hay dch v nht nh. im giao nhau gia ng cung v ng cu th hin sn lng v mc gi duy nht c th tha mn ng thi c ngi mua ln ngi bn. Sn lng ny c gi l sn lng hiu qu, bi v n l mc sn lng duy nht m ti gi sn lng tr bin bng vi chi ph sn xut bin. Hai l do chnh c a ra gii thch ti sao v khi no cc vn v cht lng mi trng ny sinh, mc gi v sn lng ca th trng s khng t c hiu qu y trn phng din x hi. Ni chung, l do chnh cho iu ny l c s tn ti ca chi ph ngoi tc v li ch ngoi tc.Trong cc vn v mi trng, chi ph ngoi tc l cc thit hi m con ngi gnh chu t cc tc ng mi trng nhng khng c a vo tnh ton bi cc cng ty, cc c quan cng cng hoc ngi tiu th m cc quyt nh ca h gy ra vn . Mt trng hp kinh in l nhim nc t mt nh my giy thng ngun gy thit hi cho nhng ngi s dng nc h ngun. Mt trng hp quan trng khc l chi ph ngo i tc m ngi s dng ti nguyn t do tip cn tc ng ln nhau thng qua vic khng kim sot s dng ngun ti nguyn . Li ch ngoi tc l khon li ch sinh ra cho ngi khc hn l cho trc tip ngi mua hay ngi nhn hng ha . Mt v d c in ca li ch ngoi tc l hng ha cng cng, l cc hng ha hay dch v m khi chng c cung cp cho mt ngi, s t ng cung cp cho ngi khc. i vi chi ph ngoi tc, li ch ngoi tc, hng ha cng cng, v ngun ti nguyn t do tip cn, khng th da vo th trng c c mc cht lng mi trng t hiu qu. Cn c cc chnh sch mi trng iu chnh cc tht bi th trng ny.
CC THUT NG CHNH
Hiu qu ng Hiu qu kinh t Cng bng Chi ph ngo i tc hay chi ph x hi S n theo Tht bi th trng Gi tr x hi rng Tnh khng c chim Gi tr phi th trng Tnh khng cnh tranh Ngu n ti nguyn t do tip cn Ti u Pareto Ngi chu nhim Chi ph t nhn Hng ha cng cng Hch ton chi ph x hi Hiu qu x hi Hiu qu tnh
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BI TP
1. Bn di l cc thnh phn ng cu cht lng khng kh xung quanh ca 3 ngi. Cht lng khng kh (ch gm cc gi tr nguyn) c o bng n v g/m3 (microgram SO2 trn mi mt khi th tch khng kh). Nu chi ph bin ca vic lm gim nng SO2 xung quanh l 40$ cho mi g/m3, th mc cht lng khng kh hiu qu x hi l g, gi nh rng x hi trong trng hp ny ch gm 3 ngi thi? Chi ph lo i b Sulphur (USD/g/m3) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Lng cu A 1.400 1.300 1.200 1.100 1.000 900 800 B 1.200 1.100 1.000 900 800 700 600 C 1.500 1.400 1.300 1.200 1.100 1.000 9000 Gi ca nc cam (cent/lit) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
2. Theo v d trn, chng minh rng mc cht lng khng kh hiu qu x hi ti a ha gi tr x hi rng. 3. Gi nh rng cu hi 1 khng lin quan n cht lng khng kh m lin quan n nhu cu s dng nc cam mi nm ca 3 ngi . Trong trng hp ny gi tnh l cent cho mi lt. Gi s chi ph bin ca qu trnh sn xut nc cam l 40cent. Tng lng nc cam hiu qu cho 3 ngi l bao nhiu? 4. S dng bng 4-2 v cc phng trnh c bn, chng minh rng mt cng ty t nhn s khng th cung cp mt hng ha cng cng ti mt mc gi m th trng tiu th ht. 5. Xem xt v d v 2 gia nh trn h. Gi nh h c lm sch ti mc hiu qu v tng chi ph ca vic lm sch ny c chia bng nhau i vi cc gia nh (cc gi tr y c tnh trn). Trong trng hp , c phi c hai gia nh u tt hn? Chng minh cu tr li bng s hc. Nhng vn g s pht sinh trong s phn chia cc kho n chi ph ca hng ha cng cng?
CU H I THO LUN
1. Mi lin h gia hng ha cng cng v ti nguyn t do tip cn l g? 2. Mt s hng ha c v l hng ha cng cng nh sng radio, cc d ch v hi ng, v thm ch l cnh st v cc d ch v v sinh c th c cung cp bi cc cng ty t nhn. Ti sao li c iu ny? C phi l c s khc nhau gia cc hng ha cng cng ny vi cc dch v mi trng? Nu phi, th s khc nhau l g? 3. Ti sao chng ta li quan tm n vic t c hiu qu x hi? C phi sn lng mc hiu qu x hi nht thit l phi cng bng? chng c nn cng bng khng?
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CHNG 5
KINH T HC V CHT LNG MI TRNG

Chng 4 ch ra rng khi c ngoi tc, ti nguyn t do tip cn, hoc hng ha cng, h thng th trng s khng t c trng thi cn bng hiu qu x hi. Hiu qu x hi l mt khi nim chun tc trong kinh t hc. l d ng tuyn b iu s l g. Nghin cu yu t tc ng n chnh sch cng gii quyt cc vn mi trng l mt dng kinh t hc chun tc. Cc mc tiu chnh sch cn bao nhiu SO2 trong khng kh, bao nhiu pht pht trong h nc, hoc bao nhiu lng cht c hi trong t v lm th no thc hin c cc mc tiu ny? Kinh t hc thc chng nghin cu cc s kin thc t xy ra nh th no, kh khn no cn vt qua. Sn lng th trng thc t v gi tng ng ca n l cc vn nghin cu ca kinh t hc thc chng. Cc cu hi i loi nh mt nhm nh my nhit in no pht thi ra bao nhiu sulphur ioxt (SO2) v yu t no quyt nh lng nhin liu s dng l cc cu hi ca kinh t hc thc chng. Mt s bc tng qut trong phn tch chnh sch chun tc: 1. Nhn dng mc mc tiu cht lng mi trng. Mc mc tiu c th da vo mc pht thi hoc mc tch t cht thi trong mi trng. 2. Quyt nh phn chia cc mc mc tiu cht lng mi trng ny cho cc nh sn xu t nh th no. 3. Quyt nh cc cng c chnh sch t c mc mc tiu. Phn 4 s kho st k cc cng c chnh sch ny. 4. t cu hi nn phn phi li ch v chi ph ca chng trnh mi trng nh th no v s phn phi ny c hp l hay khng. Phn 3 s cp n cc phng php tnh li ch v chi ph. Chng ny tp trung vo bc u tin: xc nh mc mc tiu cht lng mi trng. Xy dng chnh sch mi trng c hiu qu hay khng ph thuc vo vic c c d liu cc bin s kinh t v k thut ng n hay khng. Cht gy nhim nh hng n cht lng mi trng nh th no? Nh sn xut v ngi tiu dng phn ng nh th no vi cc chnh sch? Trong nhiu trng hp, chng ta bit nhiu v phn ng ca nh sn xu t v ngi tiu dng hn l mi lin kt gia cht gy nhim v cht lng mi trng. Mc d khoa hc mi trng ngy cng khm ph ra nhiu iu v mi lin kt ny nhng vn cn rt nhiu d kin khng chc chn. Cc nh khoa hc cha hiu ht cc tc ng khc nhau ca cht gy nhim ln mi trng. C th k mt s v d v s khng chc chn khoa hc ny chng hn nh cc tranh lun v nguyn nhn gy hin tng thay i kh hu, hp cht no trong nc thi ca nh my giy gy bnh cho cc bi nui s.
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MC NHIM MC TIU M HNH TNG QUT

Chng c mt chnh sch cng ring l no c th gii quyt c tt c cc vn mi trng khc nhau. Nhng chng ta c th dng mt m hnh n gin xy dng nn tng cho bt k tnh hung chnh sch no. M hnh ny th hin mt s nh i n gin thng p dng cho tt c cc hot ng kim sot nhim. Mt mt vic gim cht thi gp phn lm gim thit hi m con ngi phi gnh chu do nhim mi trng; mt khc, vic gim cht thi li s dng nhng ngun lc l ra c th c dng vo vic khc. V d, gim pht thi sulphur ixt ca mt nh my nhit in s lm gim nhim khng kh v lng t axt. Cht lng mi trng s tng v lm li cho con ngi v h sinh thi. Nhng gim pht thi, nh my phi lp t thit b gim nhim hoc chuyn qua dng nhin liu cha t sulphur hn (chng hn kh thin nhin). iu ny lm tng chi ph sn xut. Nu nh my c th chuyn chi ph ny cho khch hng gnh chu, gi in s tng. Ngi tiu dng s tiu dng t hng ha hn. M hnh n gin trong chng ny s trnh by d ng nh i nh th ny.
Thit hi do nhim
Ni thit hi do nhim l ni n tt c nhng tc ng bt li m ngi s dng mi trng phi gnh chu do suy thoi mi trng. V d mt nh my a cht thi vo dng sng lm ng c cc loi thy sn, lm con ngi khng th s dng c bt c t dng sng ny na. Cht c nhim vo c bt u tham gia vo chui thc n, lm ng c cc loi khc n nhng con c b nhim c ban u chng hn nh chim i bng hoc chim ng. Cc thnh ph lu vc sng phi b thm chi ph x l c t ra khi ngun nc sinh hot v.v. nhim khng kh gy thit hi n sc khe con ngi. Cc ca t vong tng ln t bnh ung th phi, vim phi kinh nin u lin quan n mc cc cht nhim khng kh tng cao, nh sunphua ixt, si aming, phng x radon. nhim khng kh cn gy thit hi vt cht lm xung cp vt liu (v d, cc cng trnh iu khc ngoi tri thnh ph Florence c t thi Phc Hng nay phi em vo b o qu n trong nh do nhim khng kh) hoc lm hn ch tm nhn. Ngoi nhng thit hi gy ra cho con ngi, s hy hoi mi trng c th gy ra nh hng quan trng i vi nhiu yu t khc ca h sinh thi. Cc nh hng , nh s hy hoi thng tin di truyn nhng loi ng thc vt sp b tuyt chng, rt cuc s c ngha quan trng i vi nhn lo i. nh gi gi tr thit hi mi trng l mt trong nhng cng vic hng u ca cc nh khoa hc mi trng v cc nh kinh t hc mi trng, v chng ta s b n vn ny trong chng 7. Ni chung, nhim cng nhiu th thit hi gy ra cng ln. m t mi quan h gia nhim v thit hi, chng ta s dng khi nim hm thit hi. Mt hm thit hi th hin mi quan h gia s lng cht thi v gi tr thit hi ca cht thi . C cc dng hm s thit hi khc nhau: Hm thit hi theo lng pht thi (Emission damage functions) th hin mi quan h gia lng pht thi t mt hoc nhiu ngun no v thit hi mi trng gy ra t lng pht thi .
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Hm thit hi theo mc tch t (Ambient damage functions) th hin mi quan h gia mc tch t ca cht thi trong mi trng xung quanh v thit hi gy ra. Hm thit hi bin (Marginal damage functions) th hin mc thay i thit hi t s thay i mt n v pht thi hay mt n v mc tch t. Tng thit hi (Total damages) l tng thit hi ti mi mc pht thi.
Trong chng ny chng ta s tp trung pht trin m hnh tng qut bng hm thit hi bin.
Cc hnh dng hm thit hi bin

Hnh 5-1 minh ha nhiu dng hm thit hi bin khc nhau. Hai hm trn cng l cc hm thit hi bin theo lng pht thi; trc honh th hin lng pht thi vo mi trng trong mt khong thi gian no . S dng cc n v chnh xc (pound, tn v.v.) trong bt c trng hp c th no ph thuc vo tng cht nhim lin quan. Trc tung th hin thit hi mi trng di dng tin t. Xt theo nhng con s thc t, thit hi mi trng c th bao gm nhiu loi tc ng khc nhau: s km b bin b nhim, s ngi nhim bnh phi, s lng ng vt b tiu dit, lng nc b nhim bn v.v. Tt c mi trng hp nhim mi trng thng bao gm nhiu hnh thc tc ng khc nhau, bn cht ca nhng tc ng ny ph thuc vo cht gy nhim c lin quan cng nh thi gian v a im pht thi. xem xt nhng tc ng ny mt cc to n din, ta cn phi gp chng thnh mt i lng n nht. Ta s dng n v tin t cho mc ch ny. i khi ta c th d d ng biu din thit hi bng n v tin t; chng hn d d ng bit ngi ta chi bao nhiu tin cho chi ph phng nga trnh b tc hi ca nhim (v d lp lp cch m dy hn trnh ting n; mua knh eo mt, qun o bo v ngn nga tc hi tia cc tm; mua nc ung ng chai khi h thng nc my b nhim bn). Tuy nhin trong nhiu trng hp, thng rt kh nh gi gi tr thit hi bin (chng ta s kho st k trong chng 7). Hm thit hi bin theo lng pht thi biu (a) hnh 5-1 cho thy nhng thit hi bin ban u ch tng va phi nhng sau li tng nhanh hn khi lng cht thi ngy cng nhiu. Cc cng trnh nghin cu ca cc nh khoa hc mi trng v kinh t hc cho thy dng nh y l dng ng biu din tiu biu ca nhiu loi cht gy nhim. Khi lng cht thi t, thit hi bin c th tng i nh; mc tch t cht gy nhim mi trng xung quanh thp n ni ch c nhng ngi nhy cm nht trong cng ng dn c mi b nh hng. Nhng kh lng pht thi tng ln, cc mc thit hi cng tng vt, v khi lng pht thi tng cao hn na, mc thit hi bin tr nn rt cao bi v cc tc ng mi trng ngy cng pht tn v trm trng. Biu (b) th hin mt hm thit hi bin theo lng pht thi c hnh dng gn ging nh trong biu (a) (tc l cho thy thit hi bin tng dn), nhng bt u mc cao hn trn trc tung v tng nhanh hn. Biu ny c th biu din mt cht c c nh hng cht ngi ngay c khi lng pht thi rt thp. Hai biu di cng trong hnh 5-1 l cc hm thit hi bin theo mc tch t. Trc tung th hin gi tr tin t ca cc mc thit hi, v trc honh ch mc tch t cht nhim trong mi trng xung quanh, chng hn n v l phn triu (ppm). Biu (c) th hin mt hm phc tp, tng nhng mc tch t thp, sau c xu hng bin thin
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u cho n khi t n nhng mc tch t cao hn nhiu th cc mc thit hi tng nhanh hn. Hm s ny c th ng vi nhng cht chng hn nh mt cht nhim khng kh mc tch t tng i thp gy ra thit hi r rt i vi mt s ngi nhy cm v mc tch t tng i cao th gy ra thit hi cho tt c mi ngi, trong khi chng gia thit hi bin khng tng nhanh. Biu (d) th hin mt hm thit hi bin theo mc tch t bt u t bn phi ca gc ta ri sau tng tuyn tnh theo mc tch t trong mi trng xung quanh. Hnh 5-1: Cc hm thit hi bin tiu biu
(a) Thit hi $ Thit hi $ (b)
Lng cht thi (tn/nm) (c) Thit hi $ Thit hi $
Lng cht thi (kg/nm) (d)
Mc tch t (ppm)
Mc tch t (ppm)
Cc hnh trn biu din hm thit hi bin theo lng pht thi v theo mc tch t. Biu (a) v (b) th hin hm pht thi, biu (c) v (d) l hm mc tch t. Hm thit hi bin minh ha cc dc ng thit hi bin khc nhau, ph thuc vo loi pht thi v a im pht thi.
Cc biu (a) v (d) minh ha mt c tnh trn thc t cn nhiu tranh ci. Chng c cc mc ngng: l nhng tr s ca lng pht thi v mc tch t trong mi trng xung quanh m di nhng tr s th thit hi bin bng khng. Nh vy, cht gy nhim c th tng n nhng mc ngng ny m khng lm cho cc mc thit hi tng ln cht no. Nh ta s thy trong cc chng k tip, vic gi nh c hay khng mt mc ngng trong hm thit hi ca mt s cht nhim no c nh hng quan trng i vi chnh sch kim sot mi trng trong thc t. c rt nhiu l l hng hn bo v vic hm thit hi cho mt loi cht nhim no c hay khng c cc mc ngng.
Hm thit hi bin: Cc c tnh

Hm thit hi bin l yu t ch yu trong cc phn tch chnh sch chun tc. Phn ny s kho st cc c tnh ca hm thit hi bin. Mc d c th phn tch hm thit hi theo lng pht thi hoc theo mc tch t, chng ta s s dng hm theo lng pht thi v s d thit lp cc chnh sch kim sot nhim hn khi nhn dng c ngun pht thi. Trong khi hnh 5-1 th hin cc hm thit hi bin phi tuyn, trong phn cn li ca chng ny v cc chng tip theo, chng ta s s dng hm thit hi tuyn tnh d
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dng tnh ton minh ha. Hnh 5-2 th hin hai hm thit hi bin c lng pht thi trc honh theo n v pht thi trn mi n v thi gian. n gin vic phn tch chng ta c 2 gi thit: Cht nhim l n cht, khng tch t v c phn b u. Khng c mc ngng, ngha l mi hm thit hi bin u xut pht t gc ta .
Chng ta s thay i cc gi thit ny trong mc 4 v 5. Trong khi c phn ny, hy ngh kt qu ca chng ta s thay i nh th no nu cht thi l khng tch ly hoc khng c ngng. Hm thit hi bin c k hiu l MD v mc pht thi l E, c m t bng cc hm s sau: MD1 = 0.4E MD2 = 0.6E u tin xem xt hm MD1. Mt c tnh ch yu ca hm ny l mi quan h gia thit hi bin v tng thit hi. Chiu cao ca ng thit hi bin th hin tng thit hi bin i bao nhiu nu lng pht thi thay i mt mc nh. Khi mc pht thi l E1 = 30, thit hi bin l $12. Nu mc pht thi tng 1 tn, t 30 ln 31 tn, thit hi cho ngi tip xc vi lng pht thi ny tng $12; tng t, nu lng cht thi gim mt lng nh, tng thit hi s gim $12. Bi v chiu cao ca ng MD, o trn trc tung y, o lng mc thit hi bin, din tch di ng ny gii hn bi tung gc v mc pht thi th hin tng thit hi ca mc cht thi ny. Trong trng hp ng thit hi bin MD1 v mc pht thi 30 tn, tng thit hi l din tch b, l mt tam gic c din tch $180 (30$12). Ti mc pht thi 30 tn, thit hi bin ca MD2 l $18 v tng thit hi l din tch (a+b) = $270. Do : Tng thit hi ca mt mc pht thi cho trc l din tch di ng MD gii hn t gc 0 n mc pht thi .
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Hnh 5-2: Hm thit hi bin cho cht nhim khng tch ly v khng c mc ngng
20 16 12 a 8 4
b
MD2
MD1
10
15
20
25
30
35
Cht thi (tn/nm) th trn th hin hai hm thit hi bin. Trc tung biu din gi tr thit hi bin ca mi loi cht thi. Nu lng cht thi l 30 tn, thit hi bin cho MD1 l $12, vi MD2 l $18. Tng gi tr thit hi c tnh bng din tch di ng MD, t gc n mc pht thi ang xem xt. Ti mc pht thi 30 tn, tng thit hi l din tch b=$180 i vi MD1 v din tch (a+b) = $270 i vi MD2.
Nhng yu t no gii thch cho s khc bit gia MD1 v MD2 trong hnh 5-2? MD2 c th l tnh hu ng c rt nhiu ngi b mt cht nhim nh hng, chng hn nh khu vc th, trong khi MD1 c th p dng cho khu vc nng thn t ngi; ngha l t ngi th t thit hi. Mt kh nng khc l, cc hm s ny c th p dng chung cho mt nhm ngi, nhng vo nhng thi im khc nhau. Hm thit hi bin MD2 c th l tnh hu ng khi c s nghch chuyn nhit lm cht thi b gi li trong thnh ph v to ra mc tch t cht thi tng i cao. MD1 c th l hm thit hi trong iu kin gi b nh thng do hu ht cht thi b thi ra ngo i thnh ph. Nh vy, cng lng cht thi hai thi im khc nhau c th to ra nhng mc thit hi rt khc bit do nhng c ch vn hnh ca mi trng thin nhin. By gi chng ta s xem xt kha cnh cn li ca mi quan h nh i chi ph kim sot cht thi. C hai cu hi: Ti sao mc pht thi mc tiu khng bng khng? C cn phi lun lun xem xt chi ph?
Chi ph gim nhim

Chi ph gim nhim l nhng chi ph gim lng cht thi vo mi trng, hoc chi ph lm gim bt mt tch t trong mi trng xung quanh. Xt trng hp nh my bt giy nm thng ngun dng sng. Nh my ny to ra mt lng ln cht thi hu c. Cch r nht gii quyt lng cht thi ny l chng xung sng. Nhng nh my cng c th gim lng pht thi ny bng nhng cng ngh kim sot nhim hoc thay i qu trnh sn xut (v d dng cng ngh ty khng c clo). Chi ph thc hin cc hot ng ny c gi l chi ph gim nhim, bi v l chi ph gin tip lm gim hay gim trc tip lng cht thi xung sng. C nhiu cch gim lng pht thi nh
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thay i cng ngh sn xut, chuyn i ngun nhp lng, ti ch cht thi, x l cht thi, loi b mt a im v.v. Chi ph gim nhim thng mi ngun mi khc, ty thu c vo nhiu yu t khc nhau. Chi ph gim lng thi SO2 t mt nh my in hn nhin s khc vi chi ph gim khi c hi t cc nh my ho cht. Ngay c i vi nhng ngun to ra cng loi cht thi, chi ph gim nhim cng c th khc nhau do c nhng khc bit v c im cng ngh ca qu trnh vn hnh. C ngun tng i mi, s dng cng ngh sn xut hin i, trong khi c ngun li s dng cng ngh c gy nhim nhiu hn. C th biu din hm chi ph gim nhim bng i s v bng th. Ta th hin tng ny bng cch s dng khi nim chi ph gim nhim bin.12 n v trn cc trc vn nh c: lng cht gy nhim trn trc ho nh, v gi tr tin t trn trc tung. Chi ph gim cht thi bin th hin chi ph tng thm gim c mt n v cht thi, hay ni cch khc l chi ph tit kim nu lng cht thi tng ln mt n v. Trn trc ho nh, cc ng chi ph gim nhim bin xu t pht t lng cht thi khng c kim sot, tc l lng cht thi trc khi thc hin bt c hnh ng kim sot no. Ni chung, chng hng ln pha trn v b n tri, cho thy chi ph gim nhim bin tng dn. Trong chng 3, chng ta thy ng chi ph bin hng ln trn v bn phi. ng chi ph gim nhim bin i theo chiu ngc li bi v sn phm chng ta sn xut y li l lng cht thi gim. im mu cht cn ghi nh khi xem xt cc hnh v trong m hnh tng qut l Chng ta c lng cht thi t bn tri sang phi dc theo trc honh, v o lng lng nhim gim t phi qua tri. Hnh 5-3 minh ha ba hm chi ph gim nhim bin phi tuyn khc nhau m chng ta c th thy trong thc t. Gi MAC l ch vit tt i din cho chi ph gim nhim bin. Biu (a): ng MAC tng ln rt t khi gim nhng lng cht thi u tin, nhng sau tng ln rt nhanh khi lng cht thi tr nn tng i t. Biu (b): ng MAC tng lin tc. Biu (c): ng MAC c chiu hng gim trong giai on ban u, sau li tng d n. Hm ny c th i din cho mt tnh hu ng trong ch c th ct gim nhng lng nh ban u bng cc phng tin k thut i hi phi u t ban u rt ln. i vi nhng mc ct gim cao hn, chi ph gim nhim bin thc t c th gim xung khi ngi ta s dng nhng k thut ny trit hn. Tuy nhin cui cng chi ph gim nhim s tng.
12
Hm chi ph gi
m nhi
m bin l
o hm b
cm
tc
a hm t
ng chi ph gi
m nhi
m.
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Hnh 5-3: Cc hm chi ph gim nhim bin tiu tiu

(a) $ $ (b) $ (c)
Cht thi
Cht thi
Cht thi
Cc biu trn minh ha ng chi ph gim nhim bi n. Trong biu (a), khi mi gim cht thi, chi ph tng rt chm, sau khi gim nhiu hn th chi ph tng nhanh. Biu (b) cho thy chi ph tng tng i u khi lng cht thi gim. Biu (c) cho thy khi mi gim lng cht thi, chi ph bin gim do tnh quy m kinh t ca cng ngh gim nhim. Cui cng chi ph bin s tng khi lng cht thi gim dn v 0.
Cc c tnh ca hm chi ph gim nhim bin

kho st cc c tnh ca chi ph gim nhim bin, ta hy xem xt Hnh 5-4; hnh ny th hin hai ng MAC co hm s tuyn tnh nh sau: MAC1 = 60 4E MAC2 = 75 5E T hnh v (hay cho MAC = 0 trong mi phng trnh v gii ra E), ta c th thy mc pht thi khi cha c kim sot l 15 tn mi thng cho c hai ngun. T mc 15 tn ny, cc ng MAC hng ln trn v bn tri. iu ny c ngha chi ph gim nhim bin tng khi lng pht thi gim. Ti mc pht thi 10 tn mt thng, MAC1 =$20 v MAC2 =$25. Khi gim lng pht thi n 0, chi ph gim nhim cho n v cui cng ny l $60 i vi nh my 1 v $75 i vi nh my 2. Do , cng gim lng pht thi nhiu, chi ph gim thi bin cng ln. Ch rng khi v hm s tuyn tnh ct trc tung, chng ta gi s rng tn ti cng ngh gim nhim n mc bng 0 vi mt chi ph nht nh. Nu ng MAC trng ging biu (a) trong hnh 5-3, khng c cng ngh no c th gim mc nhim bng 0. D nhin cng cn mt cch m ngi gy nhim c th gim lng pht thi xung bng 0, l ngng hot ng gy ra nhim, ngha l ng ca nh my ho c thay i sn phm sn xut, v cui cng gy ra nh hng kinh t rt ln. Nu ngun gy nhim ch l mt nh my nh trong mt ngnh cng nghip ln c nhiu nh my tng t, chi ph thc t vic ng ca nh my l khng ln. Thc s, iu ny nh hng rt t n gi c hng ha, mc d cng c mt s tc ng ng k ln vic lm v phc li ca cng ng a phng. Nhng nu chng ta cp n chi ph gim nhim bin cho c ngnh cng nghip chng hn ngnh cng nghip ha du Ontario hay Alberta th gii php ng ca gim nhim xung bng khng l mt gii php rt t gi. Nh bt k th bin no, chng ta c th c lng c gi tr bin t v tng gi tr. Nu lng pht thi hin ti l 10 tn/thng, gi tr trn trc tung cho bit chi ph bin c
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thm mt n v cht thi gim c. Khu vc di ng MAC, gii hn bi im pht thi ban u l 15 tn/thng v b t c mc pht thi no chnh l tng chi ph gim thi n mc pht thi . i vi MAC1, tng chi ph gim nhim c c mc pht thi 10 tn/thng bng din tch b = $50 (din tch tam gic = 1/25$20). Tng chi ph gim nhim ca nh my 2 l din tch a+b = $62,5 (din tch tam gic = 1/25$25). im mu cht cn nh khi tnh tng chi ph gim nhim (TAC) l phi c th t phi qua tri. Hnh 5-4: Chi ph gim nhim bin cho mt loi cht thi
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Ch t th i (t n/thng)
$
MAC2
MAC1
a b
MAC1 v MAC2 i din cho 2 ngun pht thi (hoc 1 ngun pht thi ti hai thi im khc nhau) c mc pht thi ban u l 15 tn/thng khi khng c bin php kim sot nhim. mc 10 tn pht thi (ngha l gim c 5 tn) MAC1 = $20 v MAC2=$25. Tng chi ph gim t 15 tn xung 10 tn l din tch b i vi ngun pht thi 1 ($50/thng) v din tch a+b i vi ngun 2 ($62,5/thng). Chi ph tit kim c khi p dng cng ngh ca ngun 1 l a ($12,5/thng).
iu g lm dc hai ng MAC khc nhau khi chng u i din cho cng mt cht thi? L do thng thng thng l s khc nhau trong cng ngh kim sot nhim. MAC1 s dng cng ngh kim sot nhim r hn so vi MAC2, c th l do hai nh my khc nhau v nh my MAC2 c xy t lu cn nh my MAC1 th mi hn.13 Thay i cng ngh do c th h thp ng MAC cho mt loi cht thi xc nh. Chng ta c th d dng o lng chi ph nh my tit kim hng nm khi p dng cng ngh mi. Gi s rng lng cht thi ca nh my l 10 tn/thng. C th tit kim c din tch a nu nh my p dng cng ngh mi. Chng ta bit rng, din tch a+b=$62.5 v b=$50, do chi ph tit kim c l $12.5/thng. Kiu phn tch ny rt quan trng khi ta cc dng chnh sch kim sot nhim khc nhau, bi v mt trong nhng tiu ch nh gi chnh sch l chnh sch to ng lc tit kim c bao nhiu chi ph khi nh my u t vo lnh vc nghin cu v pht trin to ra cng ngh kim sot nhim mi.
13
ng MAC c
a cng m
t nh my c
ng c th
khc nhau n
u xt t
i hai th
i i
m khc nhau.
115
116
Tng hp chi ph gim nhim bin

Hu ht cc chnh sch mi trng, c bit cp tiu bang v lin bang, u nhm vo vic kim sot lng cht thi t mt s ngun gy nhim ch khng phi t mt ngun gy nhim n l. Lm th no tng hp chi ph gim nhim bin ca mt nhm cc cng ty (trong cng mt ngnh cng nghip hoc cng a phng) khi chi ph nhim bin ca tng cng ty khc nhau? Qu trnh tng hp ny s cho thy mt khi nim quan trng trong vic thit k chnh sch mi trng hiu qu. Hm chi ph gim nhim bin ca mt cng ty cho thy cch thc gim nhim tn t chi ph nht; cn i vi nhm cc cng ty, l hm chi ph gim nhim bin gp. Biu (a) v (b) trong hnh 5-5 v li MAC1 v MAC2 t hnh 5-4. Biu (c) l ng chi ph gim nhim bin gp. Khi chng ta c 2 ngun (hay bt k con s no nhiu hn 1) vi chi ph gim nhim khc nhau, chi ph gim nhim gp s ph thuc vo cch chng ta tnh tng lng pht thi ca cc ngun nh th no. Nguyn tc chung l tng hp chi ph gim nhim bin, phi cng theo chiu ngang cc hm s ca c nhn to ra mc chi ph gim nhim bin gp thp nht c th. Hnh 5-5 minh ha mt v d lm th no tng hp cc chi ph gim nhim bin khc nhau. Cc bc thc hin nh sau: V d: Tng hp cc ng MAC nh th no 1. Chn mt mc chi ph gim nhim bin nht nh, chng hn $40/thng. 2. Tm xem mi nh my gim bao nhiu vi chi ph ny. Vi chi ph $40, nh my 1 s mun gim 5 tn mt thng trong khi nh my 2 s gim 7 tn mt thng. 3. Cng cc mc pht thi li vi nhau: 5 tn + 7 tn = 12 tn. 4. Lp li qu trnh vi cc mc chi ph gim nhim bin khc. 5. V ng chi ph bin gp nh trong biu (c) ca hnh 5-5.
117
Hnh 5-5: Tng hp cc ng chi ph gim nhim bin

80 60 40 MAC1 20 0 5 10 20 15 0 5 10 15 80 60 40 MAC2 20 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 80 60 40 MACT
ng MAC c gp theo chiu ngang bng cch ly bt k gi tr chi ph gim nhim bin no v cng mc pht thi ca tng ngun ti gi tr MAC . Vi MAC = $40, biu (a) cho thy nh my 1 thi 5 tn/thng (gim t 15 5 = 10 tn), biu (b) cho thy nh my 2 gim 7 tn (gim t 15 7 = 8 tn). Biu (c) biu din ng MAC gp, vi MAC = $40 tng lng pht thi l 12 tn/thng. Xy dng ng MAC gp bng cch cng theo chiu ngang cc h m chi ph gim nhim bin ca tng nh my vi cc mc MAC khc nhau.
Tng hp cc ng MAC cn n nguyn tc cn bng bin l tng c gii thiu trong chng 4. c c ng chi ph gim nhim bin gp ti thiu, cc mc pht thi gp phi c phn b gia cc ngun pht thi sao cho chng u c cng chi ph gim nhim bin. Bt u xem xt ti mc 12 tn/thng trn ng MAC gp. R rng 12 tn ny c th c phn b cho cc ngun theo nhiu cch khc nhau: 6 tn cho mi ngun, 10 tn cho mt ngun v 2 tn cho ngun cn li v.v. Nhng ch c mt cch phn b to ra chi ph gim nhim bin gp thp nht; l cch phn b sao cho cc ngun pht thi u c chi ph gim nhim bin bng nhau. ng MAC c xy d ng sao cho tha mn nguyn tc cn bng bin.
MC PHT THI HIU QU X H I

i vi mt cht thi nht nh c thi ra t mt a im nht nh trong khong thi gian nht nh, mc pht thi hiu qu x hi l mc tng ng vi im ti hm thit hi bin bng hm chi ph gim nhim bin. Chng ta s biu din khi nim cn bng ny bng c th v ton hc. Bng th: hnh 5-6 cho thy MAC giao nhau ti mc pht thi 10 tn/thng. Chi ph gim nhim bin bng chi ph thit hi bin ti mc pht thi ny (u bng $20). Bng ton hc: Gi E l mc pht thi. E* l m c pht thi ti u x hi. Gi s c hai ng MAC v MD u tuyn tnh. 14 Gi s: MAC = 60 4E MD = 2E Hiu qu x hi cn MAC = MD. Cho 2 phng trnh b ng nhau ta c: 60 4E = 2E
14
MAC t
ng t
nh
trong ph
n tr
c (MAC1)
118
Gii ra ta c: E* = 10 tn/thng Th E* vo MAC ho c MD ta c mc gi (chi ph gim nhim bin, thit hi bin) lm cn bng 2 phng trnh: 60 4(10) = $20. Hnh 5-6: Xc nh mc pht thi
60
MAC
50 40
d
30 20 10 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
$
MD c a b
14 16
Ch t th i (t n/thng)
Cn bng hiu qu x hi t c ti im ng MAC ct ng MD. Lc ny E*=10 tn pht thi mt thng. Din tch (a+b+c) = tng thit hi ti mc pht thi ban u 15 tn/thng. Ti E*, tng thit hi bng din tch a v li ch rng l din tch (b+c). Ti E*, tng chi ph gim nhim bin bng din tch b. Do , li ch x hi rng l din tch (b+c) tr b = din tch c.
Ti sao E* li l mc pht thi hiu qu x hi? Hiu qu x hi ngha l c s nh i gia thit hi bin tng ln vi chi ph gim nhim bin tng ln. Lng cht thi nhiu hn lm cho x hi chu nhiu chi ph thit hi mi trng hn. Lng cht thi gim ngha l x hi phi b ra nhiu chi ph gim nhim hn. Do mc pht thi hiu qu x hi l mc ti hai loi chi ph ny n b c cho nhau; ngha l chi ph gim thiu bin b ng chi ph thit hi bin. C phi mc pht thi hiu qu x hi lun dng? Khng. Nu ng MD v MAC khng ct nhau ti mc pht thi dng, mc pht thi hiu qu x hi s bng 0. dc v hnh dng cc ng MAC v MD quyt nh mc cn bng. Da trn quan im hiu qu ny, E* l im tt nht m nn kinh t c th t c; xem chng minh di y. Tnh ton gi tr x hi rng: cch chng minh E* ti a ha gi tr x hi rng E* l im ti li ch x hi rng t vic gim nhim c ti a ha (chi ph x hi t vic kim sot nhim c ti thiu ha). C th dng hnh 5-6 hoc tnh ton tng li ch v chi ph chng minh iu ny. Cc bc thc hin nh sau: 1. Gi s ban u khng c bin php kim sot nhim. Nh vy c 15 tn cht thi mi thng. 2. Tnh tng thit hi ti mc 15 tn/thng. Bng th: tng thit hi l din tch di ng MD gii hn t 0 n 15 tn. Trong hnh 5-6 l din tch (a+b+c).
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Bng s hc: TD = $225 (1/2 [15$30])15 3. Tnh tng chi ph gim nhim bin (TAC) ti mc 15 n v pht thi. TAC s bng 0 v khng c vic gim nhim. 4. Tnh chi ph x hi rng. Chi ph x hi rng l s chnh lch gia tng thit hi v tng chi ph gim nhim (ti mc 15 tn l bng $225). Lp li t u cc bc ny vi mc pht thi hiu qu x hi mi gi s l E*=10 tn. 5. Tng thit hi ti mc E* mi l din tch a v b ng $100.16 6. Tng chi ph gim nhim bin l din tch b v bng $50. 7. Tng chi ph x hi do bng $100 + $50 = $150. 8. Tnh s chnh lch tng chi ph x hi gia hai mc pht thi. $150 r rng thp hn $225. Phn tit kim rng l din tch c = $75 so vi trng hp khng kim sot nhim. X hi tit kim $75 bng cch gim nhim t 15 tn xung 10 tn. y l li ch x hi rng do pht thi ti mc ti u x hi so vi trng hp khng kim sot nhim. Nhng lm th no chng ta bit E* l im tt nht x hi c th t ti? Gi s lng pht thi c th gim xung bng 0. Do tng thit hi bng 0. Tng chi ph gim nhim l din tch (a+b+d ) = (1/2$6015) = $450, ln hn $150. Chn bt c mc pht thi no v tnh chi ph x hi rng ta u c kt qu cao hn kt qu ti E*. M hnh MAC-MD l m hnh l thuyt cho php chng ta kho st nhiu trng hp. Trong thc t, mi vn nhim u khc nhau. Phn tch kiu ny cung cp phng php tng qut gii quyt bt c vn nhim mi trng c th no. Thc t mang tnh ng v iu ny rt ng trong vic kim sot nhim mi trng. Mc pht thi ti u nm ngoi hay thp nin trc khng nht thit l mc ti u nm nay hay trong tng lai. C rt nhiu yu t tc ng n hm thit hi bin v chi ph gim nhim bin v khi bt k yu t no thay i hm s s dch chuyn v E* s thay i. Hiu qu x hi l mt khi nim chun tc. E*, mc pht thi cn bng chi ph gim nhim v chi ph thit hi, chnh l mc tiu ca cc chnh sch cng. Nn kinh t thc s ti mc E*? iu ny c th khng xy ra nu khng c can thip ca chnh ph. Tr khi chp nhn chi ph thit hi gy ra cho x hi, ngi gy nhim khng c ng lc chi tiu lm gim nhim. H n gin l sn xut n mc nhim ti a. Phn 4 s kho st cc chnh sch v hnh ng lm ngi gy nhim bng bt c cng c g gim lng cht thi ti mc cn bng hiu qu x hi.
15
Tm ra chi u cao c a tam gic b ng cch th n l $30. 16 Di n tch a = 1/2(10$20) = $100. t
15
nv
vo hm MD, MD=2E, MD t
im
c 15
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PH LC: LIN KT GIA MAC VI TI A HA LI NHUN

M hnh n gin trong chng ny tp trung vo tnh hu ng thc t trong ngi gy nhim c th u t vo cc cng ngh x l cht thi gim thi t chnh hot ng ca h. Chng ta gi s ng MAC tn ti i vi ngi gy nhim. Chng ta hy nhn mt cch tng qut hn vn nh i ca ngi gy nhim thy ng MAC lin kt th no vi hnh vi ti a ha li nhun ca cng ty. Cng ty hot ng trong ngnh cng nghip cnh tranh hon ho s ti a ha li nhu n khi gi th trng, P, bng vi chi ph sn xut bin, MC. Cho P = MC ta c sn lng l Q, c th hin trong phn trn ca hnh 5-7. Nhng cng ty cng to ra cht thi. Phn di hnh 5-7 kt ni sn lng vi pht thi cht nhim (E). Khi khng c bin php kim sot mi trng, ngi gy nhim c th t do pht thi bao nhiu ty thch. Vy mc pht thi ti a l bao nhiu? Trong hnh 5-7 cng ty ti a ha sn lng s sn xut mc Q0 n v sn lng, ngha l cng thi ra EMAX n v cht thi. Vi ng MC dc ln, cng ty c th c li nhun vi tt c cc n v sn xut cho n Q0, l n v sn lng khi gi bng MC. Li nhun bin ca cng ty bng (P MC), v li nhun bin ny ln nht khi sn xut n v u tin vi mc gi c nh P, sau gim cho n khi P = MC ti im cn bng cnh tranh. Cng ty c th b mt phn li nhun bin ny nu b bt buc phi gim sn lng xung di mc Q0 do phi gim pht thi. C th hiu ng MAC i din cho li nhun b mt ca cng ty do phi gim pht thi. Phn di hnh 5-7 v (P MC) cho tt c cc mc sn lng t 0 n Q0. Khong cch a0 trong biu trn bng b0 trong biu di. ng MAC do c hnh dng tng t nh ng MC ca cng ty, nhng ngc li.
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Hnh 5-7: Lin kt ng MAC vi hot ng ti a ha li nhun

MC + MD P c a d MC
Q*
Q0
Sn lng
MD
MAC
f E* EMAX Lng pht thi
Cc cng ty cnh tranh thng b qua chi ph thit hi t cht thi h sn xut ra v ti a ha li nhun kh gi hng ha bng chi ph sn xut bin. Vi tt c n v sn lng t 0 n Q0, cng ty nhn c li nhun bin l hm s dc xung nh trong biu di. gi s mt v sn lng to ra mt n v cht thi, li nhun bin th hin ng MAC ca cng ty. Nu phi gim nhim, chi ph gim nhim chnh l li nhun b mt. Nu yu cu cng ty tnh thit hi do nhim thnh mt yu t ca chi ph sn xut, ng MD s c cng vi MC v cng ty s pht thi ti mc E*
Gi s by gi chnh ph ban hnh chnh sch mi trng yu cu cng ty a chi ph thit hi bin vo trong chi ph sn xut. ng thit hi bin (MD) trong biu di i din cho chi ph ny. Do ta cng ng MD vo ng chi ph ca cng ty MC. Chi ph x hi ca cng ty by gi bng MC + MD. 17 Vi chi ph mi ny, cng ty ti a ha li nhun ti im P = MC + MD. Sn lng Q* to ra lng pht thi E*. 18 Cn bng hiu qu x hi trong th trng l im gi th trng ca hng ha cn bng vi chi ph x hi bin ca sn xut, vi chi ph x hi bao gm chi ph sn xut bin v chi ph thit hi bin.
TM TT
Chng ny pht trin mt m hnh kim sot nhim n gin. M hnh ny d a trn khi nim nh i gia thit hi mi trng v chi ph kim sot nhim. Chng ta xem xt hm thit hi bin. Hm s ny th hin thit hi x hi bin t cc mc pht thi khc nhau hoc cc mc tch t nhim khc nhau trong mi trng. Chng ta cng xem xt chi ph gim nhim bin cho tnng ngun pht thi v cho mt nhm ngun.
17
Ch ng 4, hnh 4-3 c ng nh c n nh ngh a chi ph x h i ny. Ph n ph l c ny nh m t n i chi ph x h i bin vo hnh MAC-MD. 18 C ng ch r ng kho ng cch cd trong bi u trn b ng kho ng cch cd trong bi u d i, u l chnh l ch gi a chi ph bin v thi t h i bin t i m c pht th i hi u qu x h i E* v s n l ng Q*. k
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Bng cch kt hp hai hm s ny, chng ta xc nh c mc pht thi ti u x hi. Mc pht thi ti u x hi l mc m thit hi bin v chi ph nhim bin b ng nhau. Ti mc pht thi ny, chi ph x hi rng tng chi ph gim nhim v chi ph thit hi l thp nht. Tuy nhin cng cn ch rng m hnh pht trin trong chng ny rt n gin v cha ng ri ro v n gin ha cc vn nhim trong thc t. Tht s c rt t v d kim sot nhim mi trng cho thy chng ta chc chn bit cc hm thit hi bin v chi ph gim nhim bin. Th gii t nhin qu phc tp, chng ta gp rt nhiu kh khn nhn dng chnh xc mi quan h gia con ngi v t nhin. Thm vo , ngun gy nhim c rt nhiu dng, quy m khc nhau, trong nhng ho n cnh kinh t khc nhau v do chng ta s tn rt nhiu cng sc ch hiu bit v nhng vn n gin v chi ph gim nhim bin. Cng ngh kim sot nhim thay i rt nhanh, do c th cng ngh hiu qu hm nay li li thi ngy mai. Tuy nhin, m hnh n gin rt hu hiu suy ngh v cc vn cn bn trong kim sot nhim. Trc khi tho lun cc vn chnh sch phc tp, chng ta nn hc cch cc nh kinh t c gng o lng v kho st chi ph gim nhim bin v thit hi bin trong nhng trng hp thay i cht lng mi trng c th.
CC THUT NG CHNH
Chi ph gim nhim Hm thit hi theo mc tch t Hm thit hi Chi tiu b o v Hm gim nhim bin Hm thit hi bin Khi nim chun tc Cng ngh kim sot nhim Kinh t hc thc chng Ngng Tng chi ph gim nhim Tng thit hi
BI TP
1. Cho MAC1 = 100 10E v MAC2 = 50 10E. V tng hm s v ng MAC gp. Cho MD = 30E, xc nh im cn bng hiu qu x hi. Vi cc phng trnh trn, gi s chnh ph quy nh mc pht thi l 4 n v. Chi ph x hi rng ca chnh sch ny l bao nhiu? 2. Gi s c s thay i cng ngh lm gim chi ph gim nhim bin ca nh my 1 trn bng chi ph bin ca nh my 2. S thay i ny lm nh hng n mc pht thi hiu qu x hi nh th no? Gii bng th v s hc. 3. Khi c quy nh kim sot nhim, chnh ph phi chu chi ph thc thi nh l mt phn chi ph x hi. Gi s chi ph thc thi l kho n c nh, c lp vi lng nhim gim c. iu ny lm im cn bng hiu qu thay i nh th no? Gii thch b ng th.
CU H I THO LUN
1. Cc nh khoa hc khm ph ra rng thit hi bin tng theo hm m vi mc pht thi. iu ny lm thay i cch tnh ton tng thit hi nh th no khi khng p dng cng ngh gim nhim.
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2. Nguyn tc cn bng bin lin h nh th no vi mc sn lng hiu qu x hi? 3. Gii thch ti sao x hi mun ti thiu ha chi ph x hi rng (ti a ha gi tr x hi rng) khi chn mc pht thi.
CHNG 6
KHUNG PHN TCH

Cc quyt nh chnh sch i hi thng tin, v m c d thng tin tt sn c khng c ngha l s c quyt nh tt, vic khng c thng tin lun lun dn n quyt nh sai lm. C nhiu cch thu thp v trnh by thng tin c ch cho ngi lm chnh sch vi nhng quy trnh phn tch v nghin cu khc nhau. Chng ta tp trung vo phn tch li ch chi ph nh mt khung lin kit nhng m hnh l thuyt c trnh by trong nhng chng trc vi cc phng php o lng thc t. Chng ny s kt thc bng phn tho lun vn tt v cc khung phn tch thay th.
PHN TCH LI CH CHI PH

Phn tch li ch - chi ph dnh cho khu vc cng v vic nh gi gi tr x hi, trong khi phn tch li l d nh cho doanh nghip thuc khu vc t nhn. Nu mt doanh nghip sn xut t mun a ra mt mu xe mi, n s cn n nhng thng tin lin quan li nhun s thay i nh th no. Mc chi ph c th bao gm tt c cc khon chi ph sn xu t v phn phi: lao ng, nguyn liu th, nhin liu, thit b kim sot cht thi, vn chuyn, v.v. Cc khon thu bao gm tt c nhng li ch c tnh ton theo gi th trng nhn vi lng sn phm bn ra. Doanh nghip khi s so snh doanh thu k vng vi chi ph d on xem xt c nn a ra mu xe mi hay khng. Phn tch li ch - chi ph l cng vic t ng t dnh cho cc chng trnh ca khu vc cng. C hai s khc bit quan trng gia phn tch li ch - chi ph v cc quyt nh u t t nhn: 1. Phn tch li ch - chi ph l cng c gip a ra cc quyt nh chnh sch cng tc l nn thc hin chnh sch hay chng trnh no ng trn quan im ca x hi ni chung ch khng phi ng trn quan im ca mt doanh nghip no . 2. Phn tch li ch chi ph nh gi di gc x hi tt c nhp lng v xut lng lin quan n d n bt k cc gi tr ny c c trao i trn th trng t nhn hay khng. Mt thch thc quan trng i vi phn tch li ch - chi ph l lm th no nh gi cc chi ph v li ch khng c gi c th trng. Thng tin v gi c th trng, chi ph v li nhun l rt quan trng i vi qui trnh ny; n cung cp nhng thng tin hu ch v gi tr i vi cc c nhn. Nhng k thut pht trin cho phn tch li ch - chi ph b t u vi nhng gi tr c nhn v tnh ton cc gi tr x hi khi c s chnh lch gia hai gi tr ny, nh thng thy trong cc vn mi trng. Chng 7 v 8 s xem xt cc k thut nh gi gi tr x hi. Ch ng ny s trnh by phng php tin hnh phn tch li ch chi ph, gi s rng tt c cc li ch v chi ph c o lng.
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Phn tch li ch - chi ph c hai loi ng dng c quan h mt thit vi nhau. u tin l gia nhng nh thc hnh, nhng nh kinh t hc trong v ngoi khu vc cng, nhng ngi pht trin cc k thut, c gng thu thp nhng thng tin tt hn v m rng phm vi phn tch. Th hai l gia nhng nh chnh tr v nhng nh qu n l, nhng ngi lp nn cc quy tc v quy trnh s dng phn tch li ch - chi ph cho vic ra cc chnh sch cng. Canada, phn tch li ch - chi ph cha c tha nhn v mt php l c th s dng cho cc c quan nh nc cp lin bang v tnh. N c dng mt cch ngu nhin, cho nhng quan tm ring c tnh chnh tr ch khng phi l mt k thut dng cho vic ra chnh sch mt cch khch quan. Ngc li, Hoa K phn tch li ch chi ph c mt lch s php l mnh hn nhiu. N c bt buc dng cng vi o lut kim sot l nm 1936. o lut ny quy nh rng nhng d n cp lin bang ch ng thc hin nu nhng li ch to ra cho bt k ai ln hn chi ph c tnh. Ngi ta thit lp c quy trnh nhm o lng li ch v chi ph xc nh liu cc d n p kim sot l v xy dng iu c tho mn tiu chun trn. Quy trnh ny c thc hin trong nhiu nm, v mc d vy, hin nay nhng k thut o lng chi ph v li ch khng c gi vn ang c pht trin. Vn cn c nhiu tranh ci v v tr v vai tr ca phn tch li ch - chi ph trong vic ra cc quyt nh v mi trng v ti nguyn thin nhin. C mt s kin ph phn phng php ny, l: Cc c quan cng cng ch d ng phn tch li ch - chi ph theo cch gip cho h nhn c kinh ph nhiu hn. Phn tch li ch - chi ph tht s l s c gng b qua quy trnh tho lun v cc quyt nh chnh sch m cc d n v chng trnh cng cng nn tun theo. Phn tch li ch - chi ph l mt cch loi bt cc chng trnh cng cng do nhng kh khn trong o lng li ch so vi chi ph
C th tm thy nhiu v d ng h nhng lun im trn. C l do nhng vn ny m chnh ph Canada khng s d ng rng ri phn tch li ch - chi ph. C mt s chng trnh c nh gi theo quan im phn tch li ch - chi ph; v d nh vic xem xt d n ng ng dn gas Mackenzie Valley vo gia thp nin 1970 ( khng c thc hin), v nhng d n pht trin ngun lc Brishtish Columbia (nh Northeast Coal, c thc hin). Nhng trong nhng nm gn y, cc c quan chnh ph t thc hin phn tch phn tch li ch - chi ph. Mc d vy, phn tch li ch - chi ph vn l mt cng c phn tch quan trng c s dng rng ri trn th gii. V trong khi cc nghin cu phn tch phn tch li ch - chi ph y c th khng do chnh ph thc hin, vic o lng cc li ch v chi ph x hi tr thnh mt b phn quan trng trong vic quyt nh cc chnh sch cng.
KHUNG PHN TCH C BN

Phn tch li ch - chi ph lin quan n vic o lng, tng hp v so snh tt c cc li ch v chi ph ca mt d n hay chng trnh cng cng c th. C 4 bc quan trng trong phn tch li ch - chi ph: 1. Nhn dng d n hay chng trnh, bao gm phm vi v bi cnh ca nghin cu. 2. M t theo hng nh lng cc nhn t nhp lng v xu t lng ca chng trnh.
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3. c lng cc chi ph v li ch x hi ca cc nhn t ny. 4. So snh li ch v chi ph. Mi bc s c trnh by khi qut cng vi v d trong phn sau.
Quy m v quan im ca mt d n hay mt chng trnh phn tch li ch - chi ph

Phn tch li ch - chi ph l mt cng c phn tch chnh sch cng, nh ng t cng c th mang nhiu cp . Nu bn thc hin nghin cu phn tch li ch - chi ph cho mt c quan cp quc gia, t cng c ngha l ton b ngi dn sng trong mt nc. Nh ng nu bn c mt c quan ho ch nh chnh sch ca mt thnh ph hay mt vng thu thc hin phn tch phn tch li ch - chi ph cho mt chng trnh mi trng a phng, chc chn bn s phi tp trung vo nhng li ch v chi ph pht sinh cho ngi dn trong vng. mt thi cc khc, nhng vn mi trng ton cu ny sinh i hi phi t phn tch trong bi cnh ton cu. Mt khi phm vi nghin cu c xc nh, cn phi c mt bng m t chi tit cc yu t chnh ca chng trnh hay d n: a im, thi gian, cc nhm lin quan, mi lin kt vi cc chng trnh khc, v.v. C hai lo i ch ng trnh mi trng chnh cn thc hin phn tch li ch - chi ph: 1. Cc d n sn xut: lin quan n vic sn xut trc tip cc dch v cng, v d nh nh my x l rc, d n phc hi b i bin, l thiu rc thi c hi, d n ci thin mi trng sng, mua t cho cng tc bo tn. 2. Cc ch ng trnh qun l: nhm mc ch thi hnh quy nh php lut v mi trng, nh cc tiu chun x thi, la chn cng ngh, cc cch thc x thi, v cc quy nh v s dng t. Lm th no xc nh phm vi ca d n? C nhiu cch tip cn khc nhau gii quyt vn ny. Cch tip cn chnh l lin kt phn tch li ch - chi ph vi m hnh l thuyt, l quy m hiu qu v mt x hi. Quy m hiu qu v mt x hi ti a ha li ch x hi rng ca d n. Li ch x hi rng c ti a ha khi MAC = MD. Hy xem Hnh 6-1 (l Hnh 5-6 chng trc). Hnh ny biu din m hnh kim sot lng cht thi in hnh, vi ng thit hi bin (MD) v ng chi ph gim nhim bin. th ny c th c dng chng minh rng quy m hiu qu v mt x hi s ti a ha li ch x hi rng ti im MAC = MD.
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Hnh 6-1: Quy m hiu qu x hi ca mt d n cng $

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2 4 6 8 c d
b
MAC
MD
10 12 16 Tn pht thi 14 E* Quy m hiu qu v mt x h i ca d n gim lng cht thi c xc nh ti ni ng MAC ct ng MD. Tc l E *=10 tn cht thi mi thng. Quy m hiu qu v mt x h i ti a ha li ch x hi rng ca d n din tch a + d. Nu mc tiu ca d n l gim xung cn 12 tn, li ch x hi rng ch l din tch a. y khng phi l quy m hiu qu v mt x hi.
Chng minh Trc tin gi s khng c bin php kim sot cht thi: E = 15. Mt chng trnh c xut gim lng x thi xung cn 12 tn. Ti lng x thi 12 tn, tng li ch ca ch ng trnh chnh l lng thit hi c gim xung. l din tch a + b = $8119. Tng chi ph x l l din tch b = $1820. Do vy, li ch rng ca ch ng trnh l din tch a = $63. Tuy nhin, c mt chng trnh gim thi t mc li ch rng ti a, mc thi phi gim xung cn E = 10 tn, ti mc m MD = MAC. Li ch x hi rng ti mc thi 10 tn l din tch (d+a) = $7521. Li ch rng khi t quy m hiu qu v mt x hi 10 tn thay v 12 tn l din tch d, bng $12. Con s c th khng ln, nhng th tng tng l 12 triu la hnh dung r hn con s trn thc t. Vn ca vic phn tch li ch - chi ph mt d n c th l lm th no ngi ra quyt nh bit rng mc pht thi 10 tn l mc hiu qu v mt x hi? Nu h c th v ho c vit phng trnh MAC v MD, vic tnh E * s d dng nh Hnh 6-1 minh ha. Khi khng xc nh c MAC v MD, c th thc hin mt quy trnh gi l phn tch nhy. C ngha l tnh ton li li ch v chi ph ti mc cao hn v thp hn mc mc tiu
19
Cch n gi n tnh di n tch a + b l tnh kho n chnh l ch gi a t ng thi t h i t i m c th i ban u 15 t n v t ng thi t h i t i m c th i 12 t n. y l ph n chnh l ch gi a hai tam gic. T i m c 15 t n, MD = $30/ n v . C th tnh b ng cch dng hm s c a hm thi t h i bin MD = 2E. t ng thi t h i m c 15 t n l $225. T i m c 12 t n, MD = $24/ n v . T ng thi t h i l $144. Kho n chnh l ch l $81. 20 T i m c th i 12 t n, MAC trn n v l $12. C th tnh c con s ny b ng cch thay 12 vo hm MAC = 60 4E. Di n t1ch b khi l ph n chnh l ch gi a m c th i 12 v 15 t n. 21 Cch n gi n nh t tnh lixar l tnh ph n thay i trong t ng thi t h i (TD) do ch ng trnh, tr i ph n thay i trong t ng chi ph x l (TAC). T i E * = 10, thay i trong TD l di n tch (a+b+c+d), b ng $125 (TD t i E = 15 l $225, TD t i E = 10 l $100). Thay i trong TAC l di n tch (c+b), b ng $50. l i ch x h i rng l (a+d). b n c th ch ng minh l i ch x h i rng l t i a t i MD = MAC.
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la chn; iu ny c ngha l phi tnh li ch x hi rng ca nhng chng trnh vi mc pht thi khc nhau xc nh xem mc no ti a li ch x hi rng.
M t nhp lng v xut lng ca chng trnh

Bc tip theo l xc nh cc d ng nhp lng chi ph ca ch ng trnh hay d n v xu t lng li ch. i vi mt s d n th iu ny kh d dng. Nu lp k hoch xy dng mt nh my x l nc thi, chng ta s phi cung cp y cc c tnh k thut ca nh my, cng vi cc nhp lng cn thit xy dng v vn hnh n. Xut lng cng phi c xc nh r tc l lng nc s c x l hng ngy hay hng nm. i vi nhng d n khc, vic ny s kh hn nhiu, bi v c nhp lng v xut lng u kh lng ha, v d nh mt chng trnh thng tin thng bo cho cng chng v cng s dng nng lng ca cc thit b gia dng hoc lm vic vi ngnh cng nghip v nhng chng trnh phng chng nhim. Mt yu t quan trng trong vic o lng nhp lng v xu t lng l vn thi gian. Hu ht cc d n lin quan n mi trng thng khng ch din ra trong 1 nm m thng ko di rt lu. Nh phn tch phi d on cc gi tr trong tng nm trong sut vng i ca d n.
o lng li ch v chi ph ca chng trnh

Bc tip theo l tnh gi tr dng nhp lng v xu t lng, tc l o lng li ch v chi ph. Cc nh kinh t hc o lng li ch v chi ph b ng tin. Nh trnh by trn, iu ny khng c ngha l phi da vo gi tr th trng, bi v trong nhiu trng hp cc li ch v chi ph khng c trao i trn th trng. iu ny cng khng hm rng cc gi tr bng tin c s dng theo mt cch thc c bn no . n v tin t cung cp mt thc o duy nht m theo chng ta c th chuyn i tt c cc tc ng ca d n t cc li ch v chi ph c th so snh vi nhau v so vi cc d n khc. n v o lng bng tin rt hu ch trong vic ra quyt nh v chnh sch: chng hn khi quyt nh c nn thc thi mt khon thu mi trng trong nm ti chnh tip theo ca lin bang hay khng, B Ti chnh cn bit gi tr bng tin ca tt c cc khon li ch v chi ph so vi nhng la chn khc. Nh Chng 7 v 8 s trnh by, thng thng rt kh o lng gi tr bng tin cc tc ng mi trng ca mt d n. i khi nhng nh phn tch gii nht cng ch c th a ra mt c lng tng i (on?) ca nhng tc ng.
So snh li ch v chi ph
Lm th no so snh cc li ch v chi ph? Cc nguyn tc kh n gin: Tnh li ch rng (NB) ca d n hay chng trnh Li ch rng l phn chnh lch gia tng li ch v tng chi ph. Tng li ch l tng thit hi c gim i (phn nm di ng MD), v tng chi ph l tng chi ph x l phi gnh chu thm (phn din tch nm di ng MAC).22
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Xin nh r ng chi ph x l bao g m ton b chi ph m ng i gy nhi m ph i ch u nh m gi m l ng pht th i. Bao g m chi ph thi t b x l, l i nhu n gi m xu ng do gi m s n l ng (n u c), chuy n cng nhn t s n xu t sang qu n l ch t th i... T ng thi t h i o l ng ton b tc ng c a ch t th i i v i con ng i v mi tr ng. khi o l ng gi tr thi t h i i v i con ng i, th c o th ng c dng l gi s n lng tr gi m l ng ch t th i.
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Nu d n ko d i hn mt nm, chng ta phi chit khu cc chi ph v li ch tng lai trc khi tnh li ch rng. Phn tip theo s trnh by phng php chit khu. Nu c nhiu hn mt d n c th gip t c cng mt mc tiu, chng ta phi chn chng trnh /d n em li li ch ln nht, trong iu kin rng buc v ngn sch ca chnh ph.
Chng ta s minh ha nhng nguyn tc ny bng nhng v d phc tp dn. Trc tin, chng ta s xem cch tnh li ch rng khi ch xem xt mt d n v khng cn chit khu, sau chng ta s xem xt mt trng hp c nhiu phng n gii quyt cng mt vn , v phi la chn mt phng n. Cui cng, chng ta s xem xt iu g xy ra khi chnh ph chu rng buc v ngn sch.
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Cch tnh li ch rng

V d: Chng trnh kim sot cht thi t nh my giy Chnh ph ang cn nhc vic thng qua mt quy nh m theo i hi tt c cc nh my giy gim lng cht thi ra khng kh v nc. Nhng cht thi ny lm gim cht lng nc khu vc h lu v gp phn lm nhim nghim trng bu khng kh xung quanh nh my. Tng chi ph v li ch c tnh sau y l tng gi tr trong sut vng i ch ng trnh. Chi ph ca ch ng trnh bao gm cc chi ph ca khu vc t nhn kim sot lng cht thi p ng yu cu ca quy nh mi: 580 triu la mua my mc thit b v 560 triu la chi ph vn hnh. Cc hot ng quan trc v cng ch thi hnh t pha khu vc cng cng cn thit m bo cc doanh nghip tun th quy nh ny. Tng chi ph ny l 96 triu la. Tng chi ph ca chng trnh s l (580 + 560 +96) = $1.236 triu. C ba khon li ch chnh. Nhng ngi khu vc h lu s c hng li t vic cht lng nc c ci thin: gi sn lng tr ca h cho li ch ny l 1.892 triu la. Nhng ch nng tri xung quanh nh my gim c 382 triu la thit hi v ma mng v vt nui do nhim khng kh gy ra. Do , li ch ca h l phn thit hi c gim i. Cui cng, c nhng li ch khng nhn thy c nh ci thin mi trng sng ca nhiu sinh vt. Gi s khng c cch no o lng gi tr bng tin ca li ch ny, do vy ch biu din n bng mt gi tr A no . Tng li ch ca chng trnh l (1892 + 382 + A) = 2.278 + A (triu la). Tng li ch v chi ph c th c so snh theo nhiu cch. Mt cch n gin l ly tng li ch tr tng chi ph. y l phn biu din bng s m Hnh 6-1 trnh by: chng ta tm ra li ch rng ti a ca chng trnh t c im cn bng hiu qu v mt x hi. Li ch rng l (2278 + A 1236) = 1.042 + A (triu la). y l cch c bn so snh li ch v chi ph, v l phng php m chng ta s d ng trong tt c cc trng hp khc. Mt tiu ch khc l t s li ch chi ph, c tnh bng cch ly li ch chia cho chi ph. T s ny cho bit d n s em li bao nhiu ng li ch t mi la chi ph. Trong v d ny, t s li ch chi ph l (2278/1236) = 1,8, cng vi A. C mt vn quan trng trong t s li ch chi ph. Quy m hiu qu v mt x hi ca d n m chng ta cho l quy m thch hp nht khng phi l quy m c t s li ch chi ph cao nht. Hy xem li Hnh 6-1. Ti mc E * = 10, t s li ch chi ph l (a+b+c+d)/(b+c) = (125/44) = 2, 84. Ti mc 12 tn cht thi, t s li ch chi ph l (a+b)/b=4, 5. T s li ch chi ph cao hn mc E = 12 v n ph thuc vo t l tng i gia tng li ch v chi ph ca d n, ch khng ph thuc vo li ch rng. Nh ng, nh chng ta lp lun, li ch rng ch khng phi l tng li ch mi l quan trng i vi x hi. T s li ch chi ph t nht c th c dng m bo rng li ch ln h n chi ph. Tuy nhin n c th l mt ch s dn n sai lm trong vic xc nh quy m ca cc chng trnh cng.
Chit khu v la chn gia cc d n c cng mc tiu chnh sch

iu g s xy ra nu c nhiu phng n gip t cng mt mc tiu? Chng ta s s dng nhng quy tc no la chn mt phng n? iu g xy ra nu mi phng n c nhng li ch v chi ph din ra trong nhiu nm? V khi , lm th no tnh li ch rng? Chng ta s tr li nhng cu hi ny thng qua v d sau.
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V d: u t nng cp h thng x l nc thi th23 Gi s mc ch ca chng ta l ci thin cht lng nc bng cch u t nng cp h thng x l nc thi ca cng ng. y l mt d n cng vi 3 phng n x l khc nhau, mi mc c dng li ch v chi ph khc nhau. l: 1. X l bc cao: nc sau x l s khng cn cht thi sinh hot, vi trng hay vi khu n. 2. X l thng thng: nc sau x l s khng cn cht thi sinh hot, nh ng c th cha mt s vi trng hay vi khu n. 3. X l s cp: x l hu ht cht thi sinh hot, nh ng c th cn vi trng hay vi khun. Phn ng thng thng i vi 3 phng n trn l Hy thc hin cch x l tt nht c th c. Nhng c phi l phng n hiu qu nht v mt x hi? Bng 6 -1 trnh by li ch v chi ph ca mi phng n. Cc li ch v chi ph l khc nhau c v thi gian v ln. Gi s d n ko di 6 nm. Trn thc t nhng d n loi ny c th di hn, nh ng chng ta dng mc 6 nm n gin ha cc php tnh. Nm 0 l thi im t khi bt u d n n ht nm u tin. Mi phng n s c chi ph xy dng do phi u t thit b my mc mi. i vi hai phng n u, s khng c li ch cho n khi kt thc giai on xy dng (nm 1) bi v nh my s khng hot ng trc khi xy dng xong. Phng n x l s cp c th hon thnh giai on xy dng nhanh hn v do em li li ch sm hn (nm 0). Nm 1 cn pht sinh mt s chi ph khi ng ca cc phng n, v trong nhng nm tip theo, cc chi ph u l chi ph vn hnh. Cng xin lu rng li ch ca mi phng n x l l khc nhau. Li ch ca phng n 1 tng theo thi gian, trong khi cc phng n khc l c nh sau khi nh my ho t ng y . Bng 6-1: Li ch v chi ph ca 3 phng n nng cp h thng x l nc thi Chi ph (triu la /nm) D n 0 1 2 3 4 5 X l bc cao 100 50 20 20 20 20 X l thng thng 50 25 15 15 15 15 X l s cp 25 15 10 10 10 10 Li ch (triu la/nm) 0 1 2 3 4 5 X l bc cao 0 50 50 70 80 80 X l thng thng 0 50 50 50 50 50 X l s cp 10 20 20 20 20 20 Nhim v ca chng ta trc tin l tnh li ch rng. Khi chi ph v li ch khc nhau theo thi gian, chng ta phi chit khu trc khi tnh tng v so snh. Chit khu c hai kha cnh: mt l phng thc tin hnh, v sau na l nhng l l ng sau vic la chn sut chit khu s dng cho mt trng hp c th.
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Chng ti ch n m t physical project minh h a cc nguyn t c phn tch l i ch - chi ph. Nh ng nguyn l ny c ng p d ng i v i cc d n ki m sot. C th thay th v d ny b ng v d khc, ch ng h n nh 3 chnh sch gi m kh th i nh knh. M i chnh sch c dng l i ch v chi ph khc nhau v i dng i khc nhau v c tc ng n cc nhm ng i khc nhau.
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Mt khon chi ph pht sinh trong nm 10 khng c cng ngha vi khon chi ph xy ra ngy hm nay. V d, gi s mt ngi phi tr $1.000 ngay hm nay. tr tin, ngi phi c $1.000 trong ngn hng, ho c trong ti. Mt khc, gi s ngi phi tr $1.000 khng phi ngay hm nay m l sau 10 nm. Nu li sut ngn hng l 5%/nm v li sut ny khng thay i, ngi ny c th gi $613, 91 vo ngn hng ngy hm nay v s tin ny s tr thnh $1.000 sau 10 nm, cng l lc m ngi ny cn n n. Cng thc tnh gi tr tng lai ca s tin ny l: $613,91(1+0,05)10 = $1.000 Chng ta c th lt li vn v hi rng: Gi tr hin ti ca $1.000 xy ra vo nm th 10 l bao nhiu? Gi tr hin ti ca n l s tin m chng ta phi gi vo ngn hng ngy hm nay c c $1000 sau 10 nm, c th tnh bng cch sp xp li ph ng trnh trn: Gi tr hin ti = $1.000/(1+0,05)10 = $613,91 Gi tr hin ti c tnh bng cch chit khu chi ph tng lai sau 10 nm theo li su t, cn gi l su t chit khu, 5%. Nu sut chit khu cao hn, v d 8%, gi tr hin ti s thp hn v bng $463, 2. Sut chit khu cng cao, gi tr hin ti ca mt khon chi ph trong tng lai cng thp. Li ch cng tng t. Gi s bn mong i mt ngi s cho bn mt khon tin $100 sau 6 nm. Khon tin ny s khng c gi tr tng ng vi khon $100 cho bn ngay ngy hm nay. Nu sut chit khu l 4%, gi tr hin ti ca khon tin m ngi cho bn l: $100(1+0,04)6 = $79,03. Cng thc chit khu tng qut l: Gi tr hin ti = m/(1+r)t Vi m l gi tr mt thi im trong tng lai, r l li sut hay sut chit khu, v t l thi im pht sinh gi tr trong tng lai. Gi tr hin ti ca mt gi tr nm 0 trong v d ca chng ta l m /(1+r)0 = m; nm 1 l m /(1+r), nm 2 l m /(1+r)2 v.v. Nu chng ta xem xt mt d n ko d i mi mi, cng thc tnh gi tr hin ti PV24 n gin l PV = m/r. V d: p dng chit khu cho cc phng n x l nc thi Nhim v ca chng ta l tnh li ch rng cho mi giai on, sau chit khu v nm 0 t tnh dng li ch rng ca d n. Cc bc ny c tin hnh d i y v kt qu c trnh by trong Bng 6 -2. 1. Tnh li ch rng. Li ch rng n gin l tng li ch trong tng nm tr i tng chi ph ca nm . Kt qu tnh ton c trnh by phn trn ca Bng 6-2. V d, nm 0, phng n 1 c tng chi ph = $50, tng li ch = 0, li ch rng = -$50.
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Cng th c tnh gi tr hi n t i v i t l n v cng s s nhn v i gi tr c a m u s gi m d n.
it
m /r b
i v [m/(1+r)t] l m
t dy
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2. Tnh PV ca li ch rng ca tng nm. Ly gi tr hin hnh chia cho tha s chit khu: 1/(1+r)t vi r = 5% v t = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Kt qu c trnh by phn bn di Bng 6 -2. V d, nm 3, gi tr hin ti ca li ch rng ca phng n 3 l $10/(1.05)3 = $8.64. 3. Tnh tng cc gi tr hin ti ca li ch rng trong tng nm c tng li ch rng ca mi phng n trong sut vng i. Tnh tng hin gi ca dng li ch rng t nm 0 n nm 5. V d, phng n 1 c tng hin gi PV = (100+0+27.21+43.19+49.36+47.01) = 66.7 triu la.25 Phng n x l thng thng r rng l phng n c li ch rng ti a v l ph ng n s c la chn theo cc quy tc phn tch li ch - chi ph. Lu ti sao phng n ny c la chn v phng n x l bc cao c hin gi rng thp hn. Cc chi ph khng c chit khu v chng xy ra nm u tin. Li ch tng theo thi gian, nhng b i v cc khon li ch ln hn xy ra nhng nm cui (nm 4 v 5) nn hin gi ca chng thp h n so vi d n to ra cc li ch nh hn nhng nhng nm u. Phng n x l thng thng ri vo trng hp ny. Cc gi tr ca li ch u nh hn so vi li ch ca phng n x l bc cao (50 triu la), nhng chng pht sinh sm hn (b t u t nm 1), do xt theo gi tr hin ti th chng ng gp nhiu hn vo tng hin gi rng so vi nhng khon li ch ln hn, nhng pht sinh mun hn ca phng n x l bc cao. Nh my x l thng thng cng i hi t vn u t v chi ph khi ng hn so vi phng n x l bc cao v do vycng gp phn vo gi tr hin gi rng nhiu hn. Phng n x l s cp r rng l khng ng mong mun so vi 2 phng n cn li. Trong khi chi ph u t ban u l thp, dng li ch cng qu nh v khng vt qua 2 phng n kia. Bng 6 -2: Li ch rng ca 3 phng n nng cp h thng x l nc thi sinh hot: gi tr hin hnh v gi tr hin ti Gi tr hin hnh ca li ch rng (triu la /nm) D n 0 1 2 3 4 5 X l bc cao -100 0 30 50 60 60 X l thng thng -50 25 35 35 35 35 X l s cp -25 5 10 10 10 10 Gi tr hin ti ca li ch rng (triu la /nm) r=5% 0 1 2 3 4 5 Tng PV X l bc cao -100 0 27.21 43.19 49.36 47.01 66.77 X l thng thng -50 23.81 31.75 30.23 28.79 27.42 92.00 X l s cp -15 4.76 9.07 8.64 8.23 7.84 23.54
Phn tch nhy

Mt vn quan trng trong phn tch li ch - chi ph l xem cc kt qu ny thay i nh th no khi thay i nhng gi nh. Cc gi nh l cn thit cho bt k d n no. Hy xem xt 2 gi nh c bn trong v d ca chng ta: 1. Su t chit khu l 5%. 2. D n kt thc vo thi im 5 nm sau khi hon tt vic xy dng.
25
Nh
ng php tnh ny c th
dng ti
n hnh trn m
tb
ng tnh.
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Nh trnh by trn, phn tch nhy nhn chung c tin hnh trong mt nghin cu phn tch li ch - chi ph thy c liu s thay i trong cc gi nh c lm thay i th hng ca cc phng n hay khng. minh ha tm quan trng ca phn tch nhy, gi s rng d n ko di 7 nm v li ch v chi ph trong nhng nm sau bng vi nm 5. Ch xem xt ph ng n x l bc cao v x l thng thng. Hin gi ca li ch rng ca 2 nm thm vo cho phng n 1 l $44.78 triu trong nm 6 v $42.64 triu trong nm 7. Thm hai gi tr ny v hin gi rng tnh, ta c tng hin gi rng l $154.19 triu. p dng cch tnh tng t cho phng n x l thng thng, hin gi ca li ch rng trong nm 6 l $26.12 triu, v trong nm 7 l $24.88 triu. Tng hin gi rng ca phng n khi s l $143 triu. Th hng ca hai phng n thay i. i vi d n ko di 7 nm v vi d ng li ch v chi ph nh trnh by th ph ng n x l bc cao em li li ch rng ti a. C kt qu ny l do hin gi li ch rng ca hai nm cui cao hn nhiu so vi li ch rng ca phng n x l thng thng. Vy liu vic thay i sut chit khu c lm thay i th hng ca cc phng n khng? Chng ta vn ny li vo cu i chng. Chng ta cng s xem xt tm quan trng ca vic la chn sut chit khu nhng chng sau.
Vai tr ca ngn sch chnh ph v la chn nhiu phng n

Trong mt s tnh hu ng, c nhiu nguyn nhn la chn quy m nh h n quy m ti a ha li ch rng. Xem xt c quan qun l mt vng ang c nhim v cng ch thi hnh lu t nhim khng kh hai th c quy m trung bnh. C quan ny c ngn sch c nh l 1 triu la. Hai phng n c th tin hnh l (1) chi ton b s tin vo ch ng trnh 1 thnh ph hoc (2) chia ngn sch cho 2 chng trnh 2 thnh ph. Gi s c cc thng tin sau: Chi ph ($) 1.000.000 500.000 500.000 Li ch ($) 2.000.000 1.200.000 1.200.000 Li ch rng ($) 1.000.000 700.000 700.000
Ch ng trnh 1 thnh ph Ch ng trnh 2 thnh ph Thnh ph A Thnh ph B
Trong trng hp ny, li ch rng t chng trnh hai thnh ph ln hn chng trnh 1 thnh ph. Nguyn tc l: Phn b ngun lc theo cch li ch rng l ti a vi mt ngun ngn sch c nh. Trong v d trn, li ch rng t vic thc hin chng trnh hai thnh ph l 1, 4 triu la, r rng l ln hn li ch rng t chng trnh mt thnh ph trong khi tng chi ph ca hai chng trnh l nh nhau.
La chn sut chit khu

Chit khu l cch tnh tng ca mt dng li ch rng trong tng lai thnh gi tr tng ng hin ti. Trong nhiu d n, gi tr ny ph thuc rt ln vo sut chit khu m chng ta la chn s dng. S dng sut chit khu qu thp cng c ngha l coi 1 la hin ti gn nh bng vi 1 la nhng thi im khc. S dng sut chit khu qu cao hm rng mt la hin ti c gi tr hn nhiu so vi 1 la trong tng lai. Do vy, s dng sut chit khu cng cao th chng ta cng khuyn khch phn b ngun lc vo cc
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ch ng trnh c li tc cao (tc l li ch cao v /hoc chi ph thp) trong ngn hn. Ngc li, sut chit khu cng thp th chng ta cng c xu hng chn nhng chng trnh c li ch rng cao trong di hn. iu quan trng trc tin l phi phn bit li sut danh ngha v li sut thc: Li su t danh ngha l li sut quan st c trn th trng. Li su t thc l li sut danh ngha c iu chnh theo lm pht.
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V d: Li sut danh ngha v li sut thc Gi s bn gi 100 la v ngn hng vi li sut 8%. Sau 10 nm s tin gi ca bn s l 216 la. Nhng y ch l gi tr tin t. Gi s trong thi gian 10 nm gi c tng trung bnh 3%/nm. Khi gi tr thc ca khon tin bn nhn c s thp hn; trn thc t, li su t thc m s tin gi tch ly ch l 5% (8% - 3%), do nu tnh theo gi tr thc th s tin gi ca bn ch l 161 la sau 10 nm. 26 Nguyn tc x l gi tr danh ngha v thc l: 1. Nu chi ph hoc li ch c tnh theo gi tr thc tc l iu chnh theo lm pht th dng li su t thc. 2. Nu cc gi tr c tnh theo gi danh ngha th dng li sut danh ngha. 3. Nu chi ph v li ch c c tnh cho nhiu nm v gi nh c lm pht th nhng gi tr ny nn c iu chnh theo lm pht. Cn d ng mt ch s chun chuyn i cc gi tr danh ngha thnh gi tr thc. V d : ch s gim pht chi tiu quc gia (gross national expenditure index) ho c ch s gi thnh trung gian. Chi ph v li ch sau khi iu chnh theo lm pht s c chit khu bng sut chit khu thc.27 La chn sut chit khu l mt ti cn nhiu tranh ci trong nhng nm qua. Sau y l mt s lp lun chnh. Su t chit khu phn nh quan im ca th h hin ti v trng s tng i ca cc li ch v chi ph xy ra trong nhng nm khc nhau. Tuy nhin d nhn thy rng c hng lot mc li sut khc nhau c s dng cng mt thi im nh li su t tit kim, chng t u t c b o m, n vay ngn hng, tri phiu chnh ph v.v. Vy chng ta nn dng li sut no? C hai trng phi v vn ny. Mt l su t chit khu nn phn nh cch m con ngi ngh v thi gian. Mt ngi thng thng s thch 1 la hin ti hn l 1 la sau 10 nm; theo ngn ng kinh t hc, h c mt sut u tin theo thi gian dng. Ngi ta quyt nh tit kim bng cch gi tin v ngn hng vi mc li sut nht nh. Li sut tit kim ny cho thy mc li sut m ngn hng phi a ra thuyt phc mi ngi hy sinh cc khon tiu dng hin ti. Do , chng ta c th dng li sut tin gi tit kim trung b nh ca ngn hng phn nh sut u tin theo thi gian trung bnh ca cc c nhn. Vn i vi lp lun ny l c nhiu cch khc xc nh sut u tin theo thi gian ca cc c nhn, v cc cch ny khng nht thit cho cng mt kt qu. Nhiu nghin cu cho thy rng cc c nhn rt khng nht qun trong vic xc nh sut u tin theo thi gian. H c th c sut u tin theo thi gian ch quan cao hn nhiu so vi li su t tin gi tit kim ca cc nh ch ti chnh.
26 27
th l ch tr gi
y l con s g n ng. Gi tr th c chnh xc l 160, 64 la v li su t th c l 4,89%. u h t cc sch gio khoa kinh t h c u gi i thch cch i u ch nh theo l m pht. Gi tr c c tnh b ng cch l y gi tr danh ngh a chia cho m t c ng t l l m pht. T l m pht, v d nh trong giai o n 1999-2000 c th tnh c b ng cch l y ch s gi (nh s gi hng tiu dng) c a n m 2000 chia cho ch s gi n m 1999. Cng th c ny cho bi t gi th c vo th i i m t = (gi tr doanh ngh a vo th i i m t +1)/(1+p), v i p l t l l m pht a t v t + 1.
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Trng phi th hai xc nh sut chit khu ng da trn khi nim kh nng sinh li ca u t. Khi quyt nh u t, ngi ta d tnh rng doanh thu em li s b p c cc khon chi ph u t, nu khng ngi ta s khng u t. tng y l khi cc ngun lc c s dng cho cc chng trnh mi trng v ti nguyn thin nhin, cc ch ng trnh ny nn c mt sut sinh li trung bnh tng ng vi sut sinh li m h c th c c khu vc t nhn. Sut sinh li ca khu vc t nhn c phn nh thng qua li su t cho vay ca ngn hng i vi cc doanh nghip. V l do ny, chng ta nn dng sut chit khu phn nh mc li sut m cc doanh nghip t nhn phi tr khi h vay tin u t. Mc li sut ny thng thng cao hn li su t tin gi tit kim. Vi rt nhiu mc li sut trn thc t, v vi nhng lp lun chn sut chit khu khc nhau nh trn, cc c quan khu vc cng cng la chn sut chit khu theo cch khc nhau. gim thiu s khc nhau v sut chit khu c la chn, chnh ph thng ch nh mt sut chit khu chnh thc c p dng tt c cc c quan v cc b. Tuy nhin, c mt kh khn khi s dng mt sut chit khu c nh, l khi iu kin kinh t thay i th li su t cng dao ng theo. Chng ta ch c th kt lun rng mc d vic chit khu c chp nhn rng ri, nhng tranh ci v la chn sut chit khu cn lu mi c gii quyt.
Chit khu v cc th h tng lai

Vic p dng sut chit khu l khng thay i c, ngay c vi cc sut chit khu d rt nh. Mt t la, chit khu qua mt th k vi sut chit khu 5%, c gi tr hin ti ch hn 7, 6 triu la mt cht. Th h hin ti, vi thi gian sng ca mnh, c th khng quan tm n nhng chng trnh c li ch rt cao trong d i hn. V d sau y minh ha tc ng ca chit khu trong thi gian d i. V d: Tc ng ca chit khu Hnh 6-2: Tc ng ca chit khu trong 100 nm
Hnh (a)
Gi tr hin ti ca $100 nhn c trong tng lai
$120 $100.00 $100 $80 $60 $40 $20 $0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Nm nhn c l i ch $55.37 $30.66 $16.97 $9.40 $5.20
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Hnh (b)
Gi tr hin ti ca $100 nhn c sau 100 nm
$120 $100.00 $100 $80 $60 $40 $20 $0 0% 1% 2% 3% Su t chi t kh u 4% 5% 6% $36.97 $13.80 $5.20 $1.98 $0.76 $0.29
Chit khu l mt qu trnh gi tr ca cc li ch v chi ph din ra trong tng lai thnh gi tr tng ng trong hin ti. Thi im xy ra li ch v chi ph cng xa hin ti th gi tr hin ti ca chng cng nh. Hnh 6-2a cho thy gi tr hin ti ca khon li ch rng 100 la, vi sut chit khu 3%, gim nh th no sau 100 nm. Vi thi gian 40 nm, 100 la ch bng 30 la theo gi tr hin ti; v vi 100 nm, gi tr hin ti ch l hn 5 la. Tc ng ca sut chit khu c biu din trn Hnh 6-2b. Mt khon li ch rng 100 la nhn c sau 100 nm vi cc sut chit khu t 0 n 6%. Trong khi 6% c v nh khng phi l cao, n lm cho 100 la gn nh khng cn g sau 100 nm. Vn tr nn th v hn khi chng ta chia li ch rng thnh dng li ch v chi ph theo thi gian. Mt nguyn nhn m cc nh mi trng nhn chit khu mt cch ng vc l n lm gim i nhng thit hi xy ra trong tng lai do nhng hot ng kinh t hin nay gy ra. Gi s th h hin ti xem xt mt chng trnh hnh ng em li li ch l 10.000 la mi nm, trong 50 nm, nh ng t nm th 50 tr i s c chi ph l 1 triu la ko di vnh vin. iu ny cng ging nh vic th h hin ti phi la chn khi i mt v cc cht thi c hi, hay hin tng tri t nng dn. i vi nhng ngi ang sng hm nay, hin gi ca dng chi ph ko di vnh vin , vi sut chit khu 10%, l khong 85.000 la28. Chi ph ny khng c coi l ng k trong quyt nh ca th h hin ti. Hin gi ca li ch (10.000 la mi nm trong 50 nm, hay 99.148 la) l ln hn hin gi ca chi ph. Theo quan im hin ti, y c th l mt la chn tt, bt chp gnh nng v chi ph cho cc th h tng lai. Rt kh gii quyt vn p ht sinh do s dng sut chit khu dng cho cc chng trnh mi trng c tc ng d i hn. Mt s ngi cho rng sut chit khu thch hp cho cc d n mi trng di hn l 0%. Nhng chng ta phi cn thn. Nhiu loi ti nguyn mi trung chu nhiu thit hi do cc d n pht trin d ng su t chit khu thp nh gi. Vi sut chit khu thp, thng l rt d d ng bin h cho nhng d n xy dng c s h tng nhiu ri ro, nh d n thy in, bi v nhng li ch rt xa trong tng lai v khng chc chn c th s ln hn nhng chi ph trong ngn hn.
28
Hi n gi 85.000 la c tnh nh sau. Gi tr hi n t i c a dng chi ph 1 tri u la ko di v nh vi n l 1 tri u la chia cho li su t (1 tri u /0,1 = 10 tri u). Nh ng chng ta khng ch u chi ph ny ngay by gi . Hi n gi c a 10 tri u la x y ra vo n m 50 l 10 tri u /(1+r)50 = 85.196 la.
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Trong iu kin chit khu cha ng s khng chc chn khi nh gi nhng tc ng mi trng d i hn, chng ta c th da vo nhng tiu ch khc quyt nh. Mt trong nhng tiu ch ny l khi nim bn vng trnh by Chng 1. Tnh bn vng hm cha tng rng chng ta nn trnh nhng hnh ng lm gim st kh nng sinh li di hn ca mi trng v ti nguyn thin nhin. X hi cng c th mun trnh nhng quyt nh dn ti hu qu khng th o ngc, hay lm gim kh nng la chn ca th h tng lai. Gii quyt cc tc ng mi trng d i hn cn l mt vn rt hc ba, m phn tch li ch - chi ph c th khng thch hp.
Vn phn phi
Mi quan h gia tng li ch v tng chi ph l vn hiu qu kinh t. Vn phn phi quan tm n vic ai nhn c li ch v ai phi gnh chu chi ph. Trong nhng d n cng, vn phn phi phi c xem xt cng vi vn hiu qu, c ngha l phn tch li ch - chi ph phi cp n vn li ch rng c phn phi nh th no gia cc nhm ngi khc nhau trong x hi. Trong phn ny chng ta s gii thiu mt s khi nim c b n trong phn tch phn phi. Phn phi li ch v chi ph ch yu b n v vn cng bng. C hai lo i cng bng: cng bng theo chiu ngang v cng bng theo chiu dc. Cng bng ngang i x nh nhau i vi cc c nhn trong cng mt hon cnh. V d, mt chng trnh mi trng c tc ng nh nhau i vi c dn th vi thu nhp 20.000 la cng nh c dn nng thn vi mc thu nhp tng t l cng b ng theo chiu ngang. Hy xem xt nhng con s sau v mt chng trnh lin quan n ba c nhn m chng ta gi nh l c cng mc thu nhp. Chi ph gim nhim ca chng trnh i vi 3 c nhn; c th l d i hnh thc gi c mt s mt hng cao hn, thi gian b ra cho vic x l, thu cao hn hay cc yu t khc. Thit hi gim i l thc o ca gi tr ci thin cht lng mi trng cho mi c nhn. C nhn A 60 40 20 C nhn B 80 60 20 C nhn C 120 80 40
Thit hi mi trng gim ($/nm) Chi ph gim nhim ($/nm) Chnh lch
Chi ph v thit hi gim cho c nhn A v B khc nhau, nh ng chnh lch li ch chi ph l nh nhau (20$/nm), do t l ca phn chnh lch ny vi thu nhp l bng nhau. Do i vi hai c nhn ny, chng trnh l cn bng theo chiu ngang. iu ny li khng ng i vi c nhn C v c nhn ny nhn c li ch rng 40$/nm. Do c nhn C c gi nh l c cng mc thu nhp vi A v B, anh ta r rng l hng li nhiu hn t chng trnh ny; v cng bng ngang khng t c trong trng hp ny.
Cng bng dc cp n vic mt chnh sch tc ng nh th no i vi cc c nhn trong nhng ho n cnh khc nhau, c th l i vi cc c nhn c mc thu nhp khc nhau. Hy xem xt nhng con s trong Bng 6 -3. Nhng con s ny phn nh tc ng bng tin ca 3 chng trnh ci thin cht lng mi trng khc nhau i vi 3 c nhn c thu nhp thp, trung bnh v cao. Mi c nhn hng li t chng trnh do thit hi gim i v gnh chu cc chi ph di dng phn chi ph x l m mi c nhn phi chu. Phn
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chnh lch phn nh li ch rng ca mi c nhn: thit hi gim i tr chi ph x l. Nhng con s trong ngoc l t l phn trm theo thu nhp ca cc gi tr chi ph v li ch tng ng. Nhng gi tr phn trm ny minh ha ba loi tc ng phn phi ca chng trnh. l: tc ng theo t l, tc ng nghch v v ly tin. 1. Tc ng theo t l. Chng trnh ly i thu nhp theo mt t l nh nhau i vi cc c nhn. Trong Bng 6-3, chng trnh 1 c tc ng theo t l v li ch rng i vi mi c nhn l 1% thu nhp c nhn. 2. Tc ng nghch. Chng trnh cung cp li ch rng nhiu hn cho cc c nhn c thu nhp cao hn so vi cc c nhn c thu nhp thp, tnh theo t l theo thu nhp. Chng trnh 2 c tc ng nghch v c nhn c thu nhp cao nhn li ch rng 5% thu nhp trong khi t l ny gim khi thu nhp gim. 3. Tc ng ly tin. Chng trnh cung cp cho cc c nhn c thu nhp thp li ch rng theo t l cao hn so vi cc c nhn c thu nhp cao. Chng trnh 3 c tc ng ly tin v c nhn c thu nhp thp nht nhn c t l li ch rng theo thu nhp cao nht. T l li ch rng trn thu nhp gim khi thu nhp tng. Do mt chng trnh mi trng (hay bt k chng trnh no khc) c tc ng t l, nghch hay ly tin hay khng cn ty thu c vo t l ca li ch rng so vi thu nhp l nh c, cao hn hay thp hn i vi ngi c thu nhp thp so vi ngi c thu nhp cao. Bng 6 -3 cng minh ha mt vn cng bng khc cc chi ph v li ch c phn phi nh th no cho cc nhm c nhn. V d, mc d tc ng tng qut ca chng trnh 2 l nghch, chi ph x l ca chng trnh ny c phn phi mt cch ly tin (tc l chi ph cao h n cho ngi c thu nhp cao). Nhng trong trng hp ny thit hi gim i c phn phi nghch n mc tc ng chung l nghch. Tng t, trong chng trnh 3, mc d tc ng chung l ly tin, chi ph x l c phn phi nghch. Bng 6-3: Cng bng dc (*) C nhn A C nhn B C nhn C 5.000 20.000 50.000 Thu nhp Chng trnh 1 Thit hi gim 150 (3.0) 300 (1.5) 600 (1.2) Chi ph x l 100 (2.0) 100 (0.5) 100 (0.2) Chnh lch 50 (1.0) 200 (1.0) 500 (1.0) Chng trnh 2 Thit hi gim 150 (3.0) 1.400 (7.0) 5.500 (11.0) Chi ph x l 100 (2.0) 800 (4.0) 3.000 (6.0) Chnh lch 50 (1.0) 600 (3.0) 2.500 (5.0) Chng trnh 3 Thit hi gim 700 (14.0) 2.200 (11.0) 3.000 (6.0) Chi ph x l 300 (0.6) 1.000 (5.0) 1.500 (3.0) Chnh lch 400 (0.8) 1.200 (6.0) 1.500 (3.0) * Cc con s trong bng biu din gi tr bng tin. Cc con s trong ngoc cho bit t l phn trm trn thu
nhp.
Nhng nh ngha trn v tc ng phn phi c th dn n quyt nh sai lch. Mt ch ng trnh tc ng nghch c th thc s phn phi phn ln li ch rng cho ngi ngho. Gi s mt chnh sch tng thu nhp rng ca mt ngi giu ln 10%, nhng tng
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thu nhp ca 1.000 ngi ngho ln 5% mi ngi. Chnh sch ny v mt k thut l tc ng nghch, mc d phn ln tng li ch rng li d nh cho ngi ngho. Thng thng rt kh c lng tc ng phn phi ca cc chng trnh mi trng. lm iu , cn phi c rt nhiu thng tin v tc ng theo cc nhm thu nhp, chng tc, v cc yu t khc. Ni chung, thng tin v mi trng v sc khe khng c thu thp theo thu nhp v chng tc. Do vy, thng tin v cc cn bnh lin quan n mi trng thng thng khng cho php so snh gia cc nhm kinh t, x hi v chng tc khc nhau. Cng khng d c tnh cc chi ph c phn phi nh th no cho cc nhm ny, b i v iu ny ph thuc vo cc nhn t phc tp lin quan n h thng thu thu, c cu tiu dng, s sn c ca cc phng n thay th v.v. Bt chp nhng kh khn ny, phn tch li ch - chi ph cng nn cp vic tng li ch rng c phn phi nh th no trong dn c cng su cng tt. Cc vn phn phi s c cp trong sut nhng chng sau ca quyn sch ny.
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S khng chc chn

Khi p dng phn tch li ch - chi ph cho ti nguyn thin nhin v mi trng, chng ta d bo cc s kin xy ra rt xa trong tng lai, v khi lm iu ny chng ta phi chp nhn rng chng ta khng c cch no bit c tng lai mt cch chc chn. S khng chc chn n t nhiu ngun. C th chng ta khng c kh nng d bo s thch ca ngi tiu dng tng lai, nhng ngi c th c cch ngh rt khc vi chng ta v cht lng mi trng. i vi nhng nghin cu v tc ng di hn ca hin tng tri t nng dn, t l tng dn s trong t ng lai l rt quan trng, v khng th bit t l ny mt cch chc chn. S khng chc chn cng c th bt ngun t thay i cng ngh. Tin b cng ngh trong cc thit b kim sot nhim hoc ti ch vt liu c th thay i mt cch ng k chi ph tng lai t c cc mc tiu mi trng. Mi trng t nhin cng l mt ngun khng chc chn. Cc hin tng kh tng c th tc ng n kt qu ca cc chng trnh mi trng; v d, trong mt s trng hp chng ta c th khng bit mt cch chc chn v chnh xc v tc ng ca cc hot ng ca con ngi i vi cc hin tng t nhin. Chng ta nn cp nh th no n vic cc li ch v chi ph l khng chc chn; hay cc kt qu tng lai l c tnh xc su t? Nu chng ta bit xc sut ny, chng ta c th tnh cc li ch v chi ph gn ng nht. Hy xem xt vn d bo tc ng ca vic thay i chnh sch n hin tng trn du. Trong mt nm no , c th khng c v tai nn trn d u no, ho c c 1 v, hoc nhiu v; con s chnh xc l khng chc chn. Mc tiu l tnh ton s v trn du mi nm di nhng chnh sch kim sot trn du khc nhau. Mt cch lm iu ny l c lng gi tr k vng ca s v trn d u mi nm. Chng ta c th thu thp thng tin nay u? Thng tin c th c thu thp trong nhiu nm v c th c s dng tnh s trung bnh di hn. Nu thng tin ny khng sn c, cc k s, cc nh khoa hc hay nhng ngi c kinh nghim c th a ra con s c tnh. Cc c tnh ny c th c dng xy dng hm phn b xc sut ca s v trn d u nh trnh by trong Bng 6 -4. Bng 6-4: Tnh ton gi tr k vng ca s v trn du S v trn d u 0 1 2 3 4 Nhiu hn 4 Xc su t 0,77 0,12 0,07 0,03 0,01 Gi tr k vng ca s v trn d u 0 0,77 = 0 1 0,12 = 0,12 2 0,07 = 0,14 3 0,03 = 0,09 4 0,01 = 0,04 Gi tr k vng: 0,39
Bng 6-4 trnh by xc sut ca s v trn du trong mt nm. Cc con s ny u l gi nh. V d, xc sut khng c v tai nn no l 0,77, c 1 v l 0,12, c 2 v l 0, 07 v.v. Gi tr k vng c tnh bng cch ly s v tai nn nhn vi xc sut tng ng, v tnh tng cho tt c cc s c th xy ra. Cch tnh ny cho bit con s trung bnh c trng s ca mt hin tng, nh trnh by trong Bng 6-4. Trong Bng 6 -4, gi tr k vng ca s v tai nn trn du l 0, 39 mi nm. T ta c th tnh lng du b trn mi nm v c th c gi tr thit hi. Do trong trng hp ny chng ta c th tnh gi tr k vng cho mt hin tng mang tnh xc sut, c th l gi tr k vng ca li ch v chi ph.
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Tm li Gi tr k vng l gi tr trung bnh c trng s, l s ln mt hin tng xy ra nhn vi xc sut xy ra tng ng, v tnh tng cho tt c s ln c th xy ra. Cch tip cn ny l ph hp nu chng ta c c nhng c lng xc sut ca cc s kin ng tin cy. Nh ng trong nhiu trng hp, nhng gi tr ny c th khng sn c, bi v chng ta c th khng c kinh nghim v nhng hin tng t ng t c th bit xc sut xy ra vi mt tin cy nht nh. Mt cch tip cn khc c s tr gip ca my tnh, l phn tch kch bn. Gi s chng ta th d bo chi ph gim lng pht thi CO2 trong di hn nh l mt bc lm gim hiu ng nh knh. Nhng chi ph ny ph thuc rt nhiu vo s pht trin cng ngh trong tng lai lin quan n hiu qu s dng nng lng trong sn xut. Chng ta t c kinh nghim d bo s thay i cng ngh trong di hn, do s khng thc t khi c lng xc sut thay i cng ngh. Thay vo , chng ta tin hnh phn tch nhiu ln, trong mi ln chng ta gi nh mt xc sut thay i cng ngh khc nhau. Do , chng ta c th c 3 kch bn, vi nhng kt qu khc nhau d a vo s thay i cng ngh trong tng lai l chm, va phi hay nhanh. Tuy nhin, c mt kh khn trong s dng gi tr k vng ra cc quyt nh. Gi tr k vng l ph hp khi phn tch s lng ln cc tnh hu ng c th xy ra; s quan st lp i lp li nhiu ln s gip gim bt tc ng ca nhng hin tng qu sai lch. Trong trng hp trn d u, s tai nn mi nm c cho l s tin n gi tr k vng. Nhng i vi nhng hin tng ch xy ra mt ln, chng ta c th xem xt k hn nhng quyt nh da vo gi tr k vng. Hy xem xt nhng con s sau: Chng trnh A Li ch rng Xc sut 500.000 0,475 300.000 0,525 Gi tr k vng 395.000 Chng trnh B Li ch rng Xc sut 500.000 0,99 -10.000.000 0,01 Gi tr k vng 395.000
Hai chng trnh ny c cng gi tr k vng. Nhng gi s chng ta ch c th la chn mt ln gia hai chng trnh. C th tnh hu ng ny ging mt s la chn gia nh my in ht nhn v nh my in truyn thng. chng trnh A, li ch rng l khng chc chn, nhng cc kt qu khng qu chnh lch v xc sut xy ra l gn bng nhau gn nh l 50-50. Chng trnh B li hon ton khc. Xc sut c li ch rng 500.000 l rt cao, nhng li c mt kh nng xy ra thm ha d l rt nh (nh n nh my, lm thit mng hng trm ngi v gy ra nhng thit hi khng th cu vn). Nu chng ta ra quyt nh m ch n thu n da vo gi tr k vng, chng ta s coi hai ch ng trnh ny l nh nhau; v c th tung mt ng xu quyt nh la chn. Khi lm nh th, chng ta l nhng ngi trung ha vi ri ro, ch ra quyt nh da vo gi tr k vng. Mt khc, nu y l quyt nh ch thc hin mt ln, chng ta c th cho rng xc sut xy ra thm ha d n B, d l rt nh, s l mt mi nguy him m chng ta khng mun gp phi. Trong trng hp ny, chng ta l ngi khng thch ri ro. Trong kim sot nhim, khng thch ri ro c th l chnh sch ti u trong mt s trng hp. Hin tng thay i kh hu ton cu m ra kh nng mt mi trng sng ca con ngi trong tng lai. Quy m tim tng ca nhng tc ng ny gii thch cch tip cn ra quyt nh mt cch bo th v khng thch ri ro hin nay. Nhng quyt nh khng thch ri ro cng cn thit cho vn lin quan n s tuyt chng ca mt ging lo i; mt lot nhng quyt nh tng chng l nh ngy hm nay c th dn ti s suy gim nghim trng ngun gen trong tng lai, v iu ny c kh nng lm gim phc
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li ca con ngi. Nhng vn ton cu cng khng phi l vn duy nht cn thn trng trnh nhng ri ro ln vi xc sut nh. S nhim cc tng nc ngm quan trng l nguy c i vi rt nhiu cng ng. V trong bt k trng hp no lin quan n tnh mng con ngi, mt ngi bnh thng s phi ght ri ro.
PHN TCH HIU QU CHI PH

Gi s mt cng ng nhn ra rng ngun nc hin ti ca h b nhim do mt s ha cht, v h phi chuyn sang d ng mt ngun nc thay th. Gi s c nhiu kh nng: c th khoan mt ging khc vo tng nc khng b nhim, xy dng mt h thng ng dn t mt th trn gn , hoc xy dng mt h cha nc. Mt phn tch hiu qu chi ph s c lng chi ph ca cc ph ng n khc nhau, mc ch l so snh chi ph cp nc cho cng ng. Phn tch hiu qu chi ph, ni cch khc, s so snh chi ph ca cc phng n khc nhau gip t c cng mt mc tiu cho trc. Ngi ta c th cho rng y ch l mt na ca phn tch li ch - chi ph, b i v ch c chi ph l c c lng di dng tin. Mt d n hay chnh sch hiu qu v mt chi ph l mt d n hay chnh sch gip t c mt mc li ch nht nh vi chi ph thp nht so vi cc chnh sch/d n khc. Bng 6-5 trnh by kt qu ca mt nghin cu v mt chng trnh gim nng phtpho (P) ti vnh Quinte h Ontario. Nghin cu ny c International Joint Commission, mt t chc song phng c mc ch nghin cu v a ra cc kin ngh v chnh sch cho cc chnh ph v nhng vn lin quan n ti nguyn nc dc bin gii Canada-Hoa K , thc hin. Pht-pho bt ngun t phn bn tri theo cc d ng chy, h thng x l nc sinh hot cc th v cc ho t ng cng nghip. Lng pht -pho d tha s dn n s bng n to cc h cha nc, dn n tiu hy oxy trong nc, lm cht c v cc loi thy sinh khc. H thng x l th cp hin nay khng kh nng kh ht pht -pho ngn nga hin tng tha dinh dng. Kt qu trnh by chi ph gim nng pht -pho trong vng vnh trn 1 microgram /lt (g/L). X l nc thi t cc nh my x l nc t ra l phng n hiu qu nht v mt chi ph. Vic gim 1 g/L s tn 98.000 la, so vi phng n c chi ph cao h n k tip l thp hn 10 ln (dn nc t H Ontario sang pha bc vnh). Phn tch hiu qu chi ph l m t cng c mnh khi li ch ca d n hay chnh sch l nh nhau. N nhn mnh tm quan trng ca vic xem xt cc phng n v tm ra phng n c chi ph x hi thp nht t c mt mc tiu cho trc. Bng 6-5 : Hiu qu chi ph ca cc phng n gim thiu nng pht -pho ti Vnh Quinte, H Ontario Phng n Chi ph (ngn la) trn mt g/L pht -pho c x l X l bc cao ti cc nh my x l nc thi 1.078 X l nc thi t cc nh my x l nc 98 Gim lng pht -pho trong u vo nng nghip 2.033 X l phn i vi bn trong h 2.000 Dn 20 km2 nc h Ontario v pha bc vnh 1.104 2 Dn 35 km nc h Ontario v pha bc vnh 978
Ngun: Ly t y ban k hoch hnh ng Vnh Quinte, Discussion Paper, September, 1989.
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Bng 6-5 cng cho thy cn gii thch cn thn cc chi ph. Mc d x l nc thi c chi ph thp nht tnh theo lng pht-pho c x l, n c th khng phi l cch tt nht gim nng pht -pho trong vng vnh. C th kt hp nhiu chnh sch s tt hn. C nhiu vn cn quan tm y. Mi cng ngh u c nhng hn ch v kh nng x l ti a lng pht -pho; do , tu thuc vo lng pht -pho cn x l m chng ta cn s dng kt hp cc cng ngh khc nhau. C th c nhng k thut khc hiu qu hn v mt chi ph nhng li kh o lng chi ph. Mt v d l gim lng pht -pho t hot ng cng nghip. Cc chi ph ny lin quan n hng lot cc chi ph thit b v vn hnh. Nh my x l l thm d ng vn; trong khi vic dn nc v x l bng phn c chi ph vn hnh cao. y c th l mt vn ln v ngn sch m chnh ph s quan tm. Cc vn nhim li c nhiu kha cnh. Mt k thut (v d nh nh my x l bc cao) c th c nhng li ch ngo i li ch t vic gim hm lng pht -pho, trong khi nhng k thut khc (v d cho phn vo h) c th c nhng tc dng ph i vi mi trng. Hiu qu chi ph do vy ch l mt bc trong vic ra quyt nh v chnh sch mi trng. Phn tch li ch - chi ph r rng l y hn. Tuy nhin, do nhng hn ch v thng tin, c bit l nhng kh khn trong o lng li ch, phn tch hiu qu v mt chi ph c th l cch tip cn kh thi duy nht. Phn tch hiu qu chi ph cng s c ngha trc khi a ra cam kt mnh m v mt mc tiu c th. Mt khi thc hin phn tch hiu qu chi ph, ngi ta c th ni, t nht l mt cch tng i, liu c mt phng n no khc l ng mong mun hn hay khng. H c th ni: Chng ti khng bit chnh xc li ch bng tin l bao nhiu, nh ng chng ti cm thy rng nhng li ch l cao h n chi ph ca cc phng n m chng ti tnh ton, do chng ti s tin hnh mt hoc nhiu phng n .
PHN TCH TC NG MI TRNG

Mt phn tch tc ng mi trng (EIA) l nhn dng v nghin cu tt c nhng tc ng i vi mi trng m mt chng trnh hnh ng gy ra. Phn ln ni dung ca EIA s tp trung vo nhng tc ng c cho l s xy ra t mt quyt nh, mc d EIA khng c gi tr qu ln, c bit l khi thc hin xem xt nhng d bo trc c chnh xc hay khng. EIA c th c thc hin cho bt k mt hot ng x hi no cng cng hay t nhn, cng nghip hay dn dng, a phng hay quc gia. Nhiu nc c nhng quy nh php l yu cu phi tin hnh nghin cu tc ng mi trng khi mt chng trnh/d n cng quan trng c a ra xem xt, i khi c nhng d n t nhn. i khi y l cng vic ca nhng nh khoa hc t nhin, nhng ngi tp trung tm ra v m t nhng tc ng v vt l ca cc chng trnh hay d n, c bit l nhng mi lin kt phc tp m nhng tc ng ny c th gy ra i vi h sinh thi. Nhng EIA lo i ny khng trc tip a ra cc gi tr x hi ca nhng tc ng mi trng. Cc nh kinh t hc cng c mt vai tr ring trong quy trnh EIA. Trong khi cc nh khoa hc t nhin c vai tr quan trng trong vic nh gi tc ng mi trng, nhng tc ng dy chuyn v mt sinh thi cha phi l y . V d, gi s c mt d n xy dng p nc, p nc ny lm ngp mt phn lu vc ca con sng, ng thi em li kh nng cung cp dch v gii tr. Mt phn quan trng trong tc ng mi trng l chnh s ngp nc, dn ti vic mt i mt s ng thc vt, gii tr trn sng v t canh tc v.v. Nhng hnh vi ca nhng ngi b tc ng bi d n cng c nh hng ln. Nhng ngi n y vi mc ch gii tr c th lm tc nghn giao thng v gy ra nhim khng kh. Nhng ngi nh mi, hay s pht trin thng mi do dch v gii tr em li cng c th gy ra nhng tc ng tiu cc cho mi trng. Do vy, nghin cu
145
y tc ng mi trng ca p nc, ngi ta khng ch phi tnh n nhng tc ng v vt l ca p nc v s tr nc ca n m cn phi tnh n phn ng ca con ngi i vi s thay i ny.
TM TT
Trong nhng chng trc chng ta cp n vn ci thin mi trng di dng s nh i, mt bn l gi sn lng tr (li ch) v bn kia l chi ph x l. Trong chng ny chng ta b t u tp trung vo vn o lng nhng li ch v chi ph ny. lm iu , cc nh nghin cu dng mt khung phn tch so snh li ch v chi ph. Chng ta tp trung vo cch tip cn c b n c dng trong kinh t ti nguyn thin nhin v mi trng: phn tch li ch - chi ph. Phn sau chng ny tho lun v nhng khi nim c b n lin quan n phn tch li ch - chi ph. l: Cc bc phn tch c b n Xc nh quy m thch hp cho d n/chng trnh Tnh hin gi ca li ch rng Vn chit khu gi tr tng lai Cc vn phn phi, v S khng chc chn
Chng ta tho lun v phn tch hiu qu v mt chi ph tm ra phng n c chi ph thp nht t c mt li ch nht nh v phn tch tc ng mi trng. Vi cu trc c b n ca phn tch li ch - chi ph, by gi chng ta s chuyn sang nhng vn thc t trong o lng li ch v chi ph ca cc chng trnh mi trng.
CC THUT NG CHNH
T s li ch -chi ph Gp Phn tch hiu qu v chi ph Su t chit khu Chit khu Gi tr k vng Cng bng theo chiu ngang Li sut danh ngha Hin gi Phn phi xc sut T l Nghch Ly tin Li sut thc Khng thch ri ro Trung ha i vi ri ro Phnt ch kch bn Phn tch nhy Quy m hiu qu v mt x hi Cng bng theo chiu dc
BI TP
1. Gi s chnh quyn ti mt a phng ang c gng gii quyt vn nhim thuc dit cn trng trong ngu n nc. H mun thc hin phn tch li ch - chi ph i vi hai phng n kim sot thuc dit cn trng: Nng cp nh my x l nc kh thuc dit cn trng; hay Cm dng thuc dit cn trng trong khu vc th
146
Gi s c hai u gip gim hm lng thuc dit cn trng xung mc khng cn nguy him n sc khe con ngi. Chi ph ca chng trnh l nh sau: Nng cp nh my x l nc: chi ph thit b = 20 triu la. Nh my mi s c xy dng trong nm u tin v b t u hot ng vo cui nm. Sau khi bt u hot ng, chi ph vn hnh ca nh my l 1 triu la mi nm. Sau khi xy dng, nh my c tui th 5 nm, sau phi c thay th bng mt nh my mi. Cm s dng thuc dit cn trng: chi ph vn hnh hng nm chuyn sang s dng nhng ha cht khng c hi kim sot cn trng l 3, 5 triu la mi nm.
Gi s sut chit khu l 5%. Vng i d n l 10 nm. Gi s hin gi ca li ch l 40 triu la. Chnh quyn a phng nn chn phng n no? By gi gi s li ch ca mi phng n l khc nhau. C th l, li ch vn l 40 triu la i vi phng n cm s dng thuc, nhng s c mt khon li ch tng thm di dng gim thit hi i vi h sinh thi do nh my x l nc. Khon li ch tng thm ny phi l bao nhiu chnh quyn coi hai phng n l nh nhau? 2. S dng s liu trong Bng 6-1 v 3 phng n x l nc thi sinh hot minh ha tc ng ca vic chn li sut khc nhau chit khu li ch, tnh hin gi ca mi d n nu li su t l 2,5%, 10% v 20%. iu g s xy ra i vi hin gi nu li ch t mi d n s pht sinh t nm 2 thay v nm 1? (Tc l d i dng li ch sang phi mt ct)
CU H I THO LUN
1. Su t chit khu thp l tt hay xu cho mi trng? Gii thch. 2. Phn bit cng bng theo chiu ngang v cng bng theo chiu dc. Loi cng bng no ph hp hn cho phn tch li ch - chi ph? Gii thch. 3. Ti sao chnh ph c th thch nhng d n c li ch thp vi ri ro thp?
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CHNG 7
PHN TCH LI CH CHI PH: LI CH

Li ch ca mt vt no bng ng vi nhng g m ngi ta sn lng tr c n, vi nhng gi nh cho trc v p hn phi thu nhp v thng tin sn c. ng thit hi bin (MD) trong m hnh MAC-MD th hin gi sn lng tr ca x hi gim lng pht thi t mt cht nhim v do ci thin cht lng mi trng29. ng MD lc ny tng t nh ng cu cho hng ha thng thng, nhng d nhin s dc ng bi v hng ha c o lng l hng ha khng mong mun v phc li ca chng ta tng khi s dng t hng ha ny. Tng li ch c o lng bng din tch nm di ng MD, gii hn bi im thit hi bin bng 0 v mc nhim mc tiu nh trnh by chng 5. y l phn thit hi gim c do gim nhim/ci thin cht lng mi trng (EQ). Chng ny kho st cc k thut nhm nh gi gi sn lng tr (WTP) gim nhim. Mt thch thc m chng ta phi i u l khng c th trng cho ngi mua v bn cht lng mi trng, do chng ta khng th s dng nhng k thut trc tip dng th trng nh gi li ch. Chng ta phi s dng nhng k thut gin tip. Mt nh kinh t hc mi trng tng ni: Cng vic c lng li ch thng gm vic thm d nhm lp rp cc gi tr m c nhn gn cho d ch v mi trng khi h phn ng vi cc tn hiu kinh t khc30. C nhiu mc trong vic nh gi gi tr li ch. i vi mt nh phn tch lm vic cho mt vn phng mi trng th nh gi gi tr li ch l cng vic th s vo cc cng thc. Din tch t ngp mn nui nghu b gim (do cc nh sinh hc cung cp) nhn vi gi nghu hin hnh trn th trng (ly c t mt cuc kho st nhanh ti ch) s bng vi gi tr thit hi ca nhim nc Howe Sound hay vnh Fundy. Trong trng hp ny, gi th trng ca mt hng ha r rng phn nh gi sn lng tr ca ngi tiu dng cho hng ha nh tho lun chng 3. C th d ng ng cu th trng xc nh tng li ch (din tch di ng cu) ca vic gim nhim. Li ch ny bng vi vic gim tng thit hi (din tch di ng MD). C th dng gi th trng nh gi gi tr thit hi ca mt hng ha th trng bi v gi th trng i din gi sn lng tr bin cho hng ha . Nhn kha cnh khc, cc nh kinh t hc mi trng ang tm cch gii quyt vi tt c cc lo i hng ha mi trng khng c gi trn th trng bng cch o WTP cho nhim gim/cht lng mi trng tng. H pht trin cc phng php o lng WTP v xy dng ng MD (hoc khi nim tng ng l ng cu cho ci thin cht lng mi trng).
29
Nh r ng chng ta ang bn v pht th i nhi m; m i lin h gi a l ng pht th i gi m c v ch t l ng mi tr ng t ng kh ph c t p b i v chng ta ph i bi t nh h ng c al ng pht th i ln ch t l ng mi tr ng xung quanh, c bi t i v i nh ng ch t th i tch t . cho n gi n, ta ti p t c gi nh m i quan h tr c ti p gi a l ng pht th i gi m v ch t l ng mi tr ng t ng. 30 Myrick Freeman III, Benefits of Pollution Control in U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Critical Review of Estimating Benefits of Air and Water Pollution Control, Washington, D.C., EPA 600/5-78-014, 1978, pp. II-16
107
nh gi thit hi ca mt loi hng ha phi th trng do nhim cn phi c phng php tnh ton gi sn lng tr bin cho vic gim nhim/ci thin cht lng mi trng bi v gi th trng ca hng ha ny khng hin hu. Chng ny cung cp danh sch cc k thut khc nhau nh gi WTP cho vic gim nhim/ci thin cht lng mi trng. Khng c phng php no p dng c cho mi trng hp. C th phn cc k thut ny thnh 2 cch tip cn: Cch tip cn d ng gi th trng phn nh WTP. Cch ny o lng thit hi di dng mt mt thu nhp hoc sn lng, nng sut b gim, v chi tiu cn thit b p thit hi mi trng. Thut ng thng c dng l phng php o lng WTP trc tip . Cch tip cn tnh WTP ca c nhn thng qua hnh vi tiu dng ca h hoc hi trc tip. Cch ny c s dng khi khng c th trng thc hoc gi th trng phn no phn nh c gi tr mi trng. Thut ng thng c dng l phng php o lng WTP gin tip.
Bng 7.1 lit k danh sch cc k thut nh gi cho cc vn mi trng tng ng. Chng ta bt u bng vic trnh by cc phng php thit hi kinh t (economic damage approaches), tp trung vo lnh vc gi tr sc khe.
C LNG THIT HI KINH T

Suy thoi mi trng gy ra thit hi; m hnh kim sot pht thi trong chng 5 da mt phn trn mi quan h gia pht thi v thit hi bin hm s MD. Do ta c th thy mt cch trc tip l li ch ca vic ci thin cht lng mi trng n t vic gim thit hi. o lng mt hm s thit hi do pht thi, chng ta phi thc hin cc bc sau : 1. o lng pht thi, 2. Xc nh cht lng mi trng xung quanh lng pht thi , 3. c lng lng nh hng n con ngi, 4. o lng nh hng (sc khe, m quan, gii tr, h sinh thi v.v.), 5. c lng gi tr ca cc nh hng ny. Bng 7.1 : Cc phng php nh gi gi tr li ch Phng php Phng php trc tip (s dng gi th trng) 1. Thay i nng sut ng dng mi trng
2. Chi ph chm sc sc khe

nh hng nhim n sc khe nh hng nhim ln n nng nghip, ti nguyn thin nhin nh hng nhim n sc khe
108
3. Thit hi vn nhn lc nh hng nhim n sc khe 4. Chi ph thay th/phc hi thit hi ti Thit hi nhim gy ra cho c s vt cht sn, kinh doanh Thit hi h sinh thi (v d trn d u) Phng ph p gin tip (s dng gi sn lng tr) 1. Chi tiu b o v/gim thit hi nh hng ca nhim khng kh, nc, ting n, tm nhn n ngi tiu dng, cc ngnh cng nghip, h sinh thi nhim khng kh, nhim ting n, b i cha cht thi c hi nh hng nhim n sc khe Li ch gii tr t vic nng cao cht lng mi trng Hng ha thn thin mi trng thay th cho hng ha c hm lng nhim cao (chng hn giy c th ti ch) Cht lng mi trng hin ti v tng lai Tt c cc loi nhim
2. nh gi hng th Gi tr ti sn S chnh lch lng 3. Th trng i din Chi ph du hnh Hng ha xanh
4. nh gi ngu nhin
Ba bc u tin ca quy trnh l phn cng vic ca cc nh k thut. M hnh trnh by mi quan h gia mc pht thi v cht lng mi trng xung quanh thng c gi l m hnh khuch tn (diffusion models). Nh kinh t hc c th tham gia v bc th t, nhng vn cn phi hp vi cc nh sinh vt hc v cc nh d ch t hc. Lin kt gia bc 3 v 4 thng c gi l hm s liu lng - p ng (dose response function) Ngha l hm ny c lng phn ng di dng t vong hoc bnh tt ca con ngi vi cc mc phi nhim khc nhau ca cht gy nhim mi trng. Bc 5 l ni nh kinh t hc th hin mnh m vai tr ca mnh b ng vic nh gi gi tr ca cc mc nh hng khc nhau c xc nh t cc bc trc. Ni chung y l bc c nhiu thch thc nh chng ta s thy cc phn tip theo.
c lng trc tip thit hi kinh t Thit hi sc khe

Tt c cc dng nhim u c nh hng bt li ti sc khe. V d ngi ta cho rng nhim khng kh lm tng t l t vong v b nh tt cho ngi tip xc, do c vic tip xc cht c hi v tip xc lu d i vi nhng lo i nhim nh SO2 hay bi. Cc loi bnh nh vim cung phi, kh thng, ung th phi cng c cho rng mt phn l do nhim khng kh. Ngi ta tnh c gi tr thit hi sc khe do nhim khng kh ln n hng t la mi nm. nhim nc cng gy ra thit hi cho sc khe, ch yu thng qua cc ngun cung cp nc sinh hot b nhim bn. Do o lng thit hi sc khe t nhim mi trng l cng vic quan trng ca cc nh kinh t mi trng. Nn tng ca cng vic nh gi ny l hm s liu lng - p ng din t mi quan h gia sc khe con ngi v qu trnh tip xc vi cht nhim mi trng. C rt nhiu yu t tc ng n sc khe con ngi bn cnh mc nhim mi trng xung quanh nh cch sng, n ung, di truyn, tui tc. tch bit tc ng ca nhim, hoc ngi ta phi a vo tt c cc bin s khc hoc phi chu ri ro tnh ton tc ng ca nhim
109
trong khi thc s thit hi sc khe li b cc bin s khc tc ng. iu ny yu cu mt s lng ln d liu chnh xc lin quan n cc tc ng sc khe cng nh cc d liu cho cc yu t tc ng khc. Mt s s liu nh cht lng nc hay khng kh, thng k v t vong v.v. c th tm thy trong cc ti liu thng k nhng thng rt tng qut, kh em li kt qu chnh xc. Tng t, mc d s liu thng k c th cung cp thng tin i loi nh mc nhim khng kh trung bnh trong mt khu vc ca thnh ph, n cng khng th cho bit d liu chnh xc v lng nhim mt c nhn tip xc v cn ph thuc vo c nhn sng bao nhiu lu trong mi trng . Trong x hi hin i ngy nay cng kh c s liu chnh xc v lng tip xc nhim ca con ngi, bi v h c th sng nhiu ni trong sut cuc i. Cc nh dch t hc c rt nhiu kinh nghim vi cc loi d liu cho, thng tin t cc cuc phng vn k lng v cch sng, thi quen tiu dng, cc ni sng v.v. Mt s nghin cu c thc hin nhm c lng tnh trng t vong hoc bnh tt gim bao nhiu khi gim nhim. o lng bnh tt thng quan st cc ch s nh s ngy ngh lm vic hoc s ngy nh hng bi sc khe km. Khng c kt qu chung v c lng nh hng ca nhim khng kh hay nhim nc. Mt kt lun chung c th thy l kt qu thng ph thuc nhiu vo d liu s dng trong m hnh v cch thc x l s liu ny, ngha l chng ta vn thc s khng chc chn v mi lin kt chnh xc gia nhim khng kh v t l t vong v bnh tt. Sau khi nghin cu m hnh liu lng - p ng, cng vic chnh ca nh kinh t hc l tnh ton gi tr ca cc nh hng sc khe. Chng ta lm th no tnh gi tr cho mt cuc sng b rt ngn hay tnh trng suy nhc sc khe do phi nhim cc cht nhim mi trng? Phn ng u tin thng l phng php ny khng chp nhn uc v mt o c khi c gng go gi tr tin t cho sinh mng con ngi. Cuc sng con ngi c gi khng? mt kha cnh no , cu tr li l c. Nu bn hi mt ngi i ng cuc sng ca anh ta ng gi bao nhiu, bn c th s khng c cu tr li bi v cu hi dng nh vi phm nhng tiu chu n o c thng thng. Tuy nhin, x hi nh l mt tng th, ngha l chng ta hnh ng tp th, khng ng x nh vy. Tht s thng qua cch chng ta ra quyt nh v hnh x tp th, chng ta ngm gn gi tr cho cuc sng con ngi. R rng nht l xem cch kim sot giao thng. Mi nm, hng ngn ngi b cht trn ng quc l. Nhng chng ta u thy mt lng tin ln ra thit k li quc l, lm chm giao thng li hoc sn xut xe c an ton hn. l v chng ta ngm nh i gia s ngi cht do tai nn giao thng v cc tc ng giao thng khc, c bit l li ch i li nhanh chng thun tin. Tng t chng ta c th k n nhng cng ngh hoc hot ng ri ro khc m chng ta thng thy. Do , c l khi chng ta nghin cu gi tr m x hi thc s gn cho cuc sng v sc khe con ngi trong hot ng hng ngy. Trong nhiu nm, th tc chun nh gi thit hi sc khe nh sau: Xem xt nng sut lao ng ca cng nhn gim cng vi sc khe gim v cuc sng b rt ngn lm gim vn nhn lc; Chi tiu chm sc sc khe tng.
Chng hn chng ta c th c nh gi gi tr cuc sng bng cch xem xt nhng ng gp kinh t b mt i do khng cn sng na. Trong sut cuc i lm vic, mt ngi c th ng gp vo qu trnh sn xut hng ha v dch v m x hi tiu dng. Khi ngi cht, qu trnh sn xut dng li; do chng ta c th tnh c gi tr sn xut ngi c th to ra nu ngi cn sng. Gi tr sn xut b mt c th thay i theo hm s
110
ca tui tc, k nng v qu trnh lm vic, do chng ta c th tnh gi tr trung b nh cho nhng nhm ngi khc nhau. Bnh tt hay mt kh nng lm vic do nhim cng lm gim vn nhn lc ca mt ngi v do l kh nng kim thu nhp ca ngi . V d tr em b tn thng thn kinh do ch (t xng pha ch, mu v) hoc thy ngn (c b nhim thy ngn, thy ngn trong nc) trong mi trng s khng c kh nng tr tu m chng c c nu sng trong mi trng sch hn. Mt phng php khc c dng o thit hi sc khe l tnh chi ph y t. V nhim tng gy thit hi sc khe, chng ta c th c lng chi ph y t tng cho bnh vin, bc s, v qu trnh phc hi. Gim nhim do lm gim chi ph y t, ngha l li ch ca thay i cht lng mi trng.
Mt mt sn lng v thit hi thit b

nhim khng kh c th lm gim sn lng nng sn thu hoch nhng ni b tc ng; n cng c th lm gim tc c tng trng ca rng trng ly g. nhim nc c th nh hng n vic s dng nc trong sn xut cng nh sinh hot ca cng ty ho c ngi dn. Cht lng nc gim cng nh hng xu n ngnh cng nghip nh bt thy sn. nhim t gy nh hng nghim trng n sn xut nng nghip. nhim ni lm vic c th lm gim hiu sut lm vic ca cng nhn v lm my mc nh xng xu ng cp nhanh hn. Trong nhng trng hp ny ta c th nhn bit nh hng ca nhim ln sn xut hng ha v dch v. S d c thit hi l v nhim bng nhiu cch can thip vo qu trnh sn xut, lm cho sn phm lm ra tn nhiu chi ph hn. Cch chng ta c lng li ch sn xut lin quan n vic gim nhim ph thuc vo tng hon cnh khc nhau. V d: Tng sn lng nng nghip do gim nhim Mt nhm nh nh sn xut nng nghip thung lng B.C.s Fraser b nh hng bi khi thi t mt nh my trong khu vc. Cht nhim ca nh my lm gim sn lng thu ho ch, do gim pht thi s lm tng sn lng. Sn phm thu hoch c bn th trng trong nc, v gi s khng b nh hng bi sn lng thay i trong vng. Hnh 7.1 minh ha tnh hung ny. Trong th, S1 (= MC1) l ng cung (chi ph bin) ca cc nh sn xut nng nghip ny trc khi ci thin cht lng khng kh. S2 (= MC2) l ng cung (chi ph bin) sau khi ci thin. Gi sn phm l p 1. Trc khi thay i, mc sn lng l q 1, sau thay i sn lng tng ln q 2. Mt cch c lng li ch ci thin mi trng l o lng gi tr sn lng tng thm cho cc nh sn xut ny. Sn lng tng thm n gin nhn vi gi nng sn cho c lng tng ng vi din tch (d+e) trong hnh 7.1. Nhng gi tr sn lng tng ln khng tng ng vi khi nim cn bn ca m hnh, l WTP cho ci thin cht lng mi trng. Gi tr sn lng tng thm c vn l n khng phi l li ch rng cho nng dn v do khng o lng c WTP. Li ch rng l thu nhp rng31. Chi ph sn xut c th thay i nn phi c loi tr ra khi tnh ton. Khi nhim khng kh gim, c th nng dn tng s dng nhp lng no v canh tc thm canh hn. Lm th no chng ta kim sot c nhng vn ny?
31
Trong v d ny, thu nh p rng b ng v i l i nhu ho t ng) v khng c chi ph s n xu t c nh.
n ho
ng (t
ng doanh thu tr
chi ph
111
$ S1 =MC1
S2 =MC2 P1
a c
d e q1 q2 Sn lng
ng cung dch chuyn t S1 ti S2 din t li ch t gim chi ph sn xut do cht lng mi trng tt hn. Gi tr sn lng tng thm t q1 ti q2 l din tch d cng e. Nu nng dn cng tng nhp lng, tng li ch s l s gia tng thu nhp rng do ci thin cht lng mi trng. l din tch (a+b+d) tr din tch a, cn li (b+d), gi l thay i thng d sn xut.
Hnh 7.1 : Li ch gim chi ph sn xut S dng thu nhp rng ca nng dn (tng gi tr sn lng tr tng chi ph sn xut), thay i tng th ny c tnh nh sau. Tnh thu nhp rng: Trc khi thay i: Tng gi tr sn lng: a + b + c Tng chi ph: b + c Thu nhp rng: a Sau khi thay i: Tng gi tr sn lng: a + b + c + d + e Tng chi ph: c + e Thu nhp rng: a + b + d Do thu nhp rng tng (a + b + d) a, bng din tch (b + d) trong hnh 7.1. Din tch trn ung cung v di ng gi, gii hn bi sn lng (ngha l t 0 n q1 hoc q 2) c gi l thng d sn xut. Thng d sn xut c hiu l thu nhp rng (li ch rng) ca nh sn xut. Vi gi th trng c nh v chi ph bin tng (ng cung dc ln), nh sn xut c thu nhp rng ln hn 0 i vi tt c cc n v sn lng cho n n v sn lng cui cng (q 1 ho c q2) ni gi bng vi chi ph bin trong th trng cnh tranh. Phn thu nhp rng tng ln do gim chi ph sn xut l thay i thng d sn xut rng: t q1 n q2 l din tch b + d. y l gi ti a n ng dn sn lng tr gim nhim v do c th hiu l li ch ca h c c t gim thit hi do nhim (din tch di ng MD). Thng th kh c th c c s liu cn thit c lng ng cung, nhng c th thy d c c thng tin v li nhun hot ng hn. Tuy nhin, nhiu nghin cu o
112
lng thay i sn lng ch t khi l thay i thng d sn xut (thu nhp rng ca nh sn xut). C mt s nghin cu lm theo cch ny. 32 Moskowitz v cng s33 nghin cu nh hng ca n nhim khng kh ln c linh lng Hoa K. H o lng sn lng gim v nhim khng kh v nh gi gi tr phn sn lng gim ny d a trn gi th trng hin hnh ca c linh lng. H kt lun rng trong nm 1974 nhim khng kh gy ra thit hi c tnh t 24 triu n 210 triu la Canada. S d c chnh lch trong kt qu l v cc nh nghin cu khng chc chn liu lng nhim m c linh lng phi chu trong nm . Mt nghin cu khc do Page v cng s 34 thc hin o lng thit hi sn lng do nhim khng kh ti 6 bang. H c tnh thit hi hng nm trong sn xu t u nnh, la m, b p v sau tng hp li tnh gi tr hin ti rng ca tng thit hi cho giai on 1976-2000. Kt qu c lng cui cng l kho ng 7 t la Canada. C mt s nghin cu thc hin Canada v nh hng ca tng ozon thp ln sn lng nng nghip 35. Kh ozon c xem l tc nhn nhim khng kh gy thit hi nhiu nht cho nng nghip Canada. Gi tr sn lng nng nghip gim hng nm Ontario khong t 17 triu n 70 triu la Canada, ty thuc vo nm nghin cu. Nguyn nhn ca khong c lng qu ln l do s ngy c kh ozon o c thay i theo nm. c lng thit hi sn lng trong thung lng Fraser vo khong 8.8 triu la Canada hng nm. nhim khng kh gy thit hi ln cc b mt tip xc, b mt kim loi ca my mc, b mt ca cc ta nh v tng i v b mt sn ca tt c cc loi vt dng. Cht gy nhim nng n nht l hp cht Sulphur, bi, cht gy xi ha v xt nit. Trong hu ht trng hp, thit hi do vt dng xung cp phi c b p bng tng bo dng v thay th. i vi trng hp nhng cng trnh iu khc ngo i tri, thit hi l cht lng m quan ca vt th b gim. Trong trng hp ny mi quan h liu lng - p ng cho thy s xung cp lin quan n vic phi nhim thay i theo lng cht nhim khng kh. C th nghin cu mi quan h vt l cn bn trong phng th nghim, nhng khi p dng cho mt khu vc c th cn phi c d liu s lng vt liu phi nhim trong khu vc thay i nh th no. T c th c lng tng lng vt liu b xung cp trung bnh trong mt nm phi nhim khng kh trong khu vc, vi lng tip xc bnh thng cc loi cht gy nhim khc nhau. Sau ta c th gn gi tr cho s xung cp. S dng cht ch phng php hm thit hi, chng ta c th c th c lng chi ph bo dng tng (lao ng, sn) cn thit ngn chn s xung cp36.
32
Cc nghin c u ny c tm l c trong cu n Gardner M. Brown Jr. v Mark L. Plummer, Market Measures of User Benefits, trong Acid Deposition: State of Science and Technology, Report 27, Methods for Valuing Acidic Deposition and Air Pollution Effects (Washington, D.C., U.S. Superintendent of Document: National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program, 1990) 27-35 to 27-73. 33 Paul D. Moskowitz et al., Oxidant Air Pollution: A Model for Estimating Effects on U.S. Vegetation, Journal of Air Pollution Control Association 32(2)(February 1982): 155-160. 34 Walter P. Page et al., Estimation fo Economic Losses to the Agricultural Sector from Airbone Residuals in the Ohio River Basin, Journal of Air Pollution Control Association, 32(2) (February 1982): 151-154. 35 Nh ng nghin c u ny c trch trong cu n Environment Canada, Ground-Level Ozone in Canada, A State of Environment Fact Sheet, No. 92-1, Catalogue No. EN1-12/92-1E (Ottawa: Ministry of Supply and Services, 1992), 4. 36 Ph ng php ny c trch t R. L. Horst et al., A Damage Function Assessment of Bilding Materials: The Impact of Acid Deposition (Whashington, D.C. Environmental Protection Agency, 1986)
113
Cc vn i vi phng php o lng thit hi trc tip

Li ch ca vic s dng phng php c lng thit hi trc tip l cc phng php ny dng gi th trng nh gi. Vn cn bn l kt qu lun lun khng ho n ton v lun di gi tr thit hi thc. Xem xt trng hp o lng thit hi sc khe thng qua sn lng gim v chi ph y t. Phng php ny o lng gi tr th trng ca hng ha v dch v m mt ngi c th lm ra. Do c rt nhiu ng gp phi th trng m ngi to ra, c trong v ngoi nh anh ta, th khng c tnh. Phng php ny cho rng bt c ai khng th lm vic hoc ngh hu th c gi tr bng khng. Cng c cu hi l vy c nn tr tiu dng ca mt ngi ra khi phn sn phm anh ta lm ra o lng ng gp rng thc. iu ny c v hp l, nhng s dn n mt kt lun nguy himchng hn mt ngi hng phc li x hi cht sm s em li li ch cho x hi. C rt nhiu li ch vt cht v tinh thn m nhng ngi khc nh bn b h hng nhn c th phng php ny li khng tnh n. N cng khng tnh n nhng au kh v chu ng do bnh tt em n. Do mc d phng php nghin cu sn lng (productivity study appoach) ny c th dng c trong mt s tnh hu ng, n c th em li kt qu sai lc trong nhiu tnh hu ng khc bi v n khng hon ton phn nh gi sn lng tr. Chng hn trng hp s dng chi ph y t c lng thit hi do cht lng mi trng gim. Bnh hen suyn do khi bi th c th lm mt ngi ph n tn 300 la Canada mt ngy vo tin thuc v chi ph cha tr bnh vin nu b bnh nng. Trong khi chng ta tnh 300 la Canada mt ngi mt ngy c nhiu khi bi nhn vi tt c s ngi b nh hng c th to ra gi tr thit hi ln, chng ta khng nghi ng g rng y l con s di mc gi tr thc ca n. Nu chng ta hi ngi b hen suyn rng ngi sn lng tr bao nhiu khng b bnh hoc mun bi trng bao nhiu nu b bnh, cu tr li s em li gi tr cao hn chi ph y t. Tng t, c lng thit hi vt cht khng tnh n mt mt v p m quan; gim sn lng nng nghip khng o lng thit hi cho a dng sinh hc hoc cho c h sinh thi. im chnh yu l o lng trc tip khng hon ton phn nh gi sn lng tr ca con ngi WTP cho vic ci thin cht lng mi trng.
GI SN LNG TR
Nh cp trn, hm thit hi bin ch ra thit hi cho con ngi hoc cc yu t khc ca h sinh thi thay i nh th no khi tip xc vi nhim hoc thay i mi trng. Thit hi c th xy ra di nhiu hnh thc, t thit hi vt cht trc tip, chng hn thit hi sc khe, n nh hng m quan mi trng (v d cn tr tm nhn, thit hi tinh thn). Ni cch khc, thut ng thit hi bao gm tt c cc tc ng bt li ca cht thi. T mt quan im khc, hm thit hi bin cho cht nhim tng thm tng tc vi hm cu/gi sn lng tr cho vic gim pht thi. Nu cht thi tng ln mt lng nh to ra thit hi c gi $10 cho mt ngi, gi sng lng tr ca anh ta gim lng pht thi s khong $10. Do chng ta s tp trung tho lun gi sn lng tr cho ci thin cht lng mi trng37.
37
C hai cch o l ng gi tr thi t h i c a mi tr ng i v i con ng i: gi s n lng tr c a h trnh thi t h i ho c gi s n lng ch p nh n (WTA) b thi t h i. Trn l thuy t, c 2 cch ny u cho k t qu g n nhau, nh ng khc nhau b i tc ng c a thu nh p. Tuy nhin, cc nghin c u th c t cho th y k t qu WTP v WTA r t khc nhau, trong WTA lung l n h n
114
o lng WTP bng thay i thng d tiu dng

Trong phn tch li ch chi ph, phn chng ta qun tm ch yu l li ch. Mt khi nim cc nh kinh t hc thng s dng l thng d tiu dng. Thng d tiu dng o lng li ch rng ca mt ngi c c t tiu dng mt lng hng ha. u tin thng d sn xut thng c minh ha cho hng ha t nhn, hng ha m gi th trng phn nh gi sn lng tr, ri sau mi dng cho hnh ha cng, chng hn cht lng mi trng, l hng ha m chng ta phi suy ra gi t WTP.
Xc nh thng d tiu dng cho hng ha t nhn

Trong trng hp hng ha t nhn, thng d tiu dng l s khc nhau gia gi sn lng tr cho mt lng hng ha v gi m ngi thc tr38. Hnh 7-2 minh ha cu v to ca mt ngi (v nh vy ging vi ng cu trong hnh 7-1). Gi s gi th trng ca to l $3/kg. T ng cu c th thy ngi tiu dng s mua 4kg to vi gi ny. By gi ta s xem li ch rng ca ngi ny khi mua 4kg to. Anh ta sn lng tr $4.5 cho kilogram to u tin. Chng ta c th thy iu ny trn ng cu hoc suy ra t ng cu o chng 3 (P = 5 0.5QD). iu c ngha li ch rng ca ngi ny l $1.5, bng gi sn lng tr $4.5 tr gi mua $3.0. Kilogram to th 2 s c li ch rng l $1 v th 3 l $0.5 v th 4 bng 0 do li ch rng lc ny bng vi gi. Do thng d tiu dng c tnh l tng cng tt c li ch rng t 0 cho ti lng to tiu th. chnh l din tch nm di ng cu, trn ng gi, gii hn bi lng to tiu th t 0 n 4kg (din tch a). Chng ta c th d d ng tnh din tch ny, l tam gic c y bng 4 v ng cao bng $2, kt qu l $4. Kt qu ny l li ch rng ca ngi tiu dng khi mua 4kg to vi gi l $3/kg. Nguyn tc ny lung ng khi chng ta s dng c cu c nhn hay ng cu th trng. Tm li, Thng d tiu dng t tiu th mt hng ha t nhn c o bng din tch nm di ng cu, trn ng gi, gii hn bi lng hng ha t 0 n v n n v c tiu th. V d sau y s minh ha thng d tiu dng c s dng nh th no o lng WTP. V d: S dng thng d tiu dng trong phn tch li ch chi ph Phn tch li ch chi ph mt chnh sch hay d n cng s nh gi s thay i. Ngi tiu dng c th trng thi cn bng ban u, sau di chuyn n trng thi cn bng mi l kt qu ca chnh sch hay d n. Li ch rng ca h do c tnh bng thay i thng
WTP. Xem Knetsch (1994) v v n ny. Chng ta s tr l ch ng ny. 38 Th ng d tiu dng do t ng ng v i th ng d s ho c s n xu t do t i a ha WTP cho gi m nhi m ho tr ng. iv n ny ph n cu i
n xu t, l l i ch rng c a tiu th c c i thi n ch t l ng mi
115
d tiu dng ca c v khng c d n. Chng hn c mt chnh sch tr gi cho ngi trng to, l mt phn trong chng trnh nng nghip bn vng. Tr gi s lm gi to gim t $3 xung $2/kg. Hy nhn li hnh 7-2. Ti mc gi $2/kg, ngi tiu dng s mua 6kg. H cng c li ch rng cao hn t mi kilogram to mua c, bi v gi to r hn $1. Tng thng d tiu dng khi c chnh sch l 0.5x3x6 = $9. Thay i trong thng d tiu dng do l s chnh lch thng d tiu dng gia c v khng c chnh sch ($9 - $4) = $5. Din tch ny l phn t m trong hnh 7-2. Thay i trong thng d tiu dng l li ch rng ngi tiu dng c c t chnh sch ca chnh ph, do s l WTP cho chnh sch. Hnh 7-2: Xc nh thng d tiu dng cho hng ha t nhn
Gi $
5 4 3 Cu 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 Kilogram to a
Th ng d tiu dng l s ch nh lch gia WTP ca ngi tiu dng cho mt hng ha, i din bi ng cu, vi gi th trng ca lng hng ha c tiu th. Nu gi th trng ca to l $3/kg, ngi tu dng mua 4kg v thng d tiu dng l din tch a, bng $4. Nu gi th trng gim xung $2/kg, din tch c t m l thay i trong thng d tiu dng, bng vi chnh lch thng d tiu dng ca im cn bng ban u gi $3/kg v lng tiu th 4kg vi im cn bng sau c gi $2/kg v 6kg. Thng d tiu dng thay i $5.
Xc nh thng d tiu dng cho hng ha cng

Trong trng hp hng ha cng, tuy khng c gi th trng nhng nguyn tc thng d tiu dng vn thch hp. S khc bit l nh nghin cu phi tm ra WTP ca con ngi thay v dng gi th trng. Vi hng ha cng, chng hn cht lng mi trng, chng ta c sn thng tin v lng hng ha. Ngi s dng s c hi WTP ca anh ta cho lng hng ha . Hnh 7-3 minh ha iu ny: chng ta s dng ng phng trnh ng cu nh trong hnh 7-2 d so snh, nhng biu din trc s lng (trc honh) bng cht lng mi trng. Gi s mc cht lng mi trng ban u l 4 n v. Ngi tiu dng s c hi anh ta sn lng tr bao nhiu cho 4 n v . Anh ta tr li (ly t ng cu): $3. Xem xt mt d n cng nng cao cht lng mi trng ln 6 n v. Hi li: anh sn lng tr bao nhiu cho 6 n v ny? Tr li: $2. iu ny gip ta o lng c tng li ch ca hng ha cng nh tho lun trong chng 3 (xem hnh 3-2), l din tch di ng cu gii hn bi hai lng tiu dng, khng gii hn bi gi v anh ta khng phi tr tin tiu dng hng ha. Din tch di ng cu gii hn bi lng tiu dng trc v sau i din cho WTP ca ngi tiu dng cho cht lng mi trng tng. Thng d tiu dng thay i c th tnh c t hnh 7-3, l din tch hnh ch nht a cng vi din tch tam gic b (a + b) = $5. Con s ny chc hn quen thuc vi chng ta. N chnh xc bng thay
116
i thng d tiu dng o lng cho th trng t nhn (s dng cng ng cu v l din tch t m trong hnh 7-2).
$
Hnh 7-3 : Xc nh thng d tiu dng cho hng ha cng

5 4 3 a 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 Ch s cht lng mi trng b
Thay i thng d tiu dng do ci thin cht lng mi trng t 4 n 6 n v l din tch di ng cu, gii hn bi hai mc cht lng mi trng, l (a + b) bng $5. Thay i thng d tiu dng do thay i cht lng mi trng, mt hng ha cng, c th c o lng ging nh cch o lng thay i thng d tiu dng cho hng ha t nhn.
CC PHNG PHP SUY RA GI SN LNG TR CHO NHNG CI THIN CHT LNG MI TRNG
Cn bn chng ta c 4 cch tm ra gi sn lng tr cho vic ci thin cht lng mi trng. Tt c u o lng thay i thng d tiu dng khi cht lng mi trng thay i. Bn cch ny (c trnh by trong b ng 7 -1) l: Chi ph ngn nga c lng hng th Th trng i din nh gi ngu nhin
Chng ta s s dng v d minh ha l nhim ting n. V d: Lm th no nh gi gi tr gim ting n giao thng Mt c im ca x hi hin i l cc lo i ng cao tc, v cc lo i ng ny c c im chnh l ting n giao thng. Do dn c sng gn s chu thit hi t ting n giao thng ny. Gi s chng ta mun nh gi gi sn lng tr ca c dn y cho vic gim ting n giao thng. Chng ta lm iu th no? Chng ta c th s dng 3 trong 4 cch trn39. Cch 1: Chi ph ngn nga
39
S ch
kh trnh by lm cch no s d ng ph ng php th ng s c ph n minh h a ph ng php ny.
tr
ng
i di
n trong v d
ny. Cu
117
Ch nh c th s chi tiu gim ting n vo nh h. V d, hc c th lp thm thit b cch ly vo tng, lp gng ca s dy gp i, trng cy quanh vn hoc lp thit b thm thu ting n bn ngoi. Khi ngi ta chi tiu nh vy, mt cch no y h cho thy gi sn lng tr cho mi trng yn tnh. Ni chung, nu chng ta c th tm ra nhng trng hp ngi tiu dng mua hng ha th trng thay i mc tip xc vi mi trng xung quanh, chng ta c th phn tch vic mua hng ha ny bit c gi tr m h gn cho nhng thay i mi trng. Cch 2: c lng hng th Ting n ca con ng c th nh hng n gi nh trong khu vc xung quanh. Nu hai nh c cc c tnh u ging nhau, ch khc nhau ting n ca mi trng xung quanh, chng ta c th d on l nh c ting n nhiu hn s km gi tr hn nh c ting n t. Nu th trng nh cnh tranh, gi nh n hn s thp hn gi nh kia. Do , bng cch nghin cu s khc bit gi nh, chng ta c th c lng c gi tr mi ngi gn cho ting n. Bt c trng hp no gi hng ha ho c dch v thay i theo c tnh mi trng chng ta u c th phn tch s thay i gi ny bit gi sn lng tr cho cc c tnh . Cch 3: nh gi ngu nhin C hai cch trn u tm gi tr i din cho WTP bng cch phn tch d liu th trng suy ra gi sn lng tr cho nhng c tnh mi trng c lin h vi gi th trng . Cch th 3 kh trc tip. Chng ta thc hin mt cuc kho st v hi c dn sn lng tr bao nhiu gim ting n tc ng n nh h. Trong nhng nm gn y, cc nh kinh t hc rt quan tm phng php kho st trc tip ny, ch yu bi v n kh linh ng. Phng php ny c th nh gi gi tr bt c ti nguyn mi trng no nu ti nguyn mi trng c th m t c chnh xc. Trong phn cn li ca chng ny, chng ta vi v d c th hn s minh ha lm th no s dng cc phng php ny c lng li ch ci thin cht lng mi trng, cng nh nu ra cc vn , kh khn m phn tch li ch chi ph gp phi.
Chi tiu ngn nga

nhim nc v khng kh c th tc ng nhiu n sc khe, t tc ngc nh, au u n nhng bnh cp tnh cn chm sc ti bn vin. Con ngi thng chi tiu trnh, ngn nga cc tc ng ny. Chi tiu loi ny l mt cch th hin gi sn lng tr ca h trnh cc tc ng. Xem xt v d sau y. V d: Mua my lc khng kh gim tc ng ca sng m gy bn hen suyn Sng m th hnh thnh t cc cht nhim khng kh (sulphur ioxyt, bi, oxit nit) vo ban ngy khi nhit cao v b gi phn tn hoc khi khng kh lnh b dn nn trong mt vng c khng kh nng trn. Mt s thnh ph Canada (chng hn Toronto, Vancouver, Montreal) b nhim loi sng m ny v y c lng khi thi cao v iu kin thun li to sng m. Cc cht to nn sng (cng vi kh ozon tng thp to ra bi tng tc gia cc cht nhim v nh sng) gy ra bnh suyn v cc vn h hp khc. Gi s bn b bnh suyn v mun gim tip xc vi sng m. Khon chi tiu ngn nga ca bn s l tin mua thit b lc khng kh. Chi ph ny bao gm tin mua lc nc ban u (chi ph u t) v chi ph vn hnh my lc vo nhng ngy c nhiu sng (in, b lc khng kh). Chng ta gi s bn s khng mua thit b lc khng kh nu sng m
118
khng phi l vn ln trong thnh ph. Tuy nhin, cng c mt s ngi (v d ngi ht thuc) mua my lc khng kh khng phi lc sng m. Phn tch kinh t c th tnh chi ph ngn nga da trn d liu th trng my lc khng kh. Cc bc phn tch c th nh sau: 1. Thu thp d liu th trng my lc khng kh 2 thnh ph - mt c rt nhiu sng m v thnh ph kia khng c. 2. c lng ng cu th trng my lc khng kh 2 thnh ph 3. S dng ng cu tnh li ch gim sng m bng cch o lng chnh lch gia gi sn lng tr cho my lc khng kh trong trng hp c v khng c sng m. Chng ta gi s nh nghin cu hon thnh bc 1 v 2. Hnh 7-4 trnh by 2 ng cu c lng t bc 240. Hai thnh ph Hamilton, Ontario nm trong vng ai sng m ng Canada c mt s ngy trong nm b sng m nh hng. Cc thnh ph Winnipeg, Manitoba c rt t ngy b sng m nh hng do v tr nm xa ngun to sng, c a hnh v thi tit thun li (khng c ni, gi nhiu v rt lnh nn khng to ra sng m trong hu ht nm). ng cu cho my lc khng kh Winnipeg nm trong hn ng cu ca Hamilton. Bc 3 yu cu tnh li ch do gim sng m. Nu thnh ph Hamilton c th gim sng m xung ngang bng mc ca thnh ph Winnipeg, c th gi nh rng dn c s gim chi tiu mua my lc khng kh xung ngang mc chi tiu ca dn Winnipeg (mi yu t khc khng i). C th c lng WTP gim lng sng m xung ngang mc ca Winnipeg bng chnh lch gia hai ng cu trong hnh 7-4. y l chnh lch tng WTP cho my lc khng kh. Chng ta n gin o lng din tch di ng cu ca mi thnh ph v ly Himilton tr Winnipeg. Tng gi sn lng tr ca c dn Hamilton loi b sng m l $150.000, ca c dn Winnioeg l $50.000. S chnh lch l $100.000. S chnh lch ny l WTP ca c dn Hamilton ci thin cht lng khng kh ln mc ca Winnipeg. By gi gi s gi trung bnh ca my lc khng kh c hai thnh ph l $75. WTP phi c o bng s thay i thng d tiu dng t cc mc cht lng khng kh khc nhau. chnh l s chnh lch gia din tch trn mc gi th trng gia 2 ng cu, l din tch phn t m trong hnh 7-4, bng $55,468.75.41 Nh rng chng ta s dng thay i thng d tiu dng v chng ta mun loi b chi tiu. Nu mi ngi khng chi tiu cho hng ha chng ta ang xt, h s chi tiu cho hng ha kh, do chng ta ch o lng WTP l nhng khon thng d. Hnh 7-4: S dng Chi tiu ngn nga tnh WTP cho gim sng m
40
Cu n sch ny khng trnh by cch xy d ng ng c u ny. Mu n xy d ng ng c u, c n cc thu t kinh t l ng h i quy. 41 Cch n gi n nh t tnh thay i th ng d tiu dng l tnh th ng d tiu dng trn ng gi $75 cho m i thnh ph . i v i thnh ph Hamilton, th ng d tiu dng l fi($125 x 937.5) = $58.593,75. i v i Winnipeg, th ng d tiu dng l ($25 x 250) = $3.125. Chnh l ch $55.468,75. k
119
$ Gi 200 Cu Hamilton
100 75 Cu Winnipeg
250
1,000
1,500
Lng my lc khng kh
Hnh trn biu din 2 ng cu my lc nc c c lng sn. Hamilton l thnh ph c nhiu ngy c sng m; Winnipeg l thnh ph t ngy c sng. ng cu ca Hamilton nm trn ng cu ca Winnipeg v c dn y phi chi tiu ngn nga gim thit hi t sng m. S chnh lch gia 2 ng cu cho thy gi sn lng tr ca c dn Hamilton ngn chn sng m. Gi sn lng tr ngn chn sng m l din tch c t m. Nu sng m Hamilton gim ti mc ca Winnipeg, din tch t m s l li ch gim thit hi do sng m.
Trong phn tch li ch chi ph, s dng thay i thng d tiu dng tnh WTP cho vic ci thin cht lng khng kh, cn phi chuyn thnh gi tr tng nm. l v my lc khng kh l ti sn vn c dng trong thi gian d i c khu hao. Gi s my c s dng trong 10 nm v khu hao u hng nm. Do gi tr/khu hao ca my l 1/10 gi tr ban u, bng $5.547.42 Gi tr ny l li ch hng nm do gim sng m ca c dn Hamilton n mc ca c dn Winnipeg v gi tr ny c chit khu theo cch thng thng thng thy trong phn tch li ch chi ph. V d ny cho thy cch thc s dng chi tiu ngn nga o lng gi sn lng tr cho ci thin cht lng mi trng hoc thit hi xy ra do nhim. y l mt phng php i din: chng ta c lng ngi ta nh gi cht lng mi trng bao nhiu bng cch suy t hnh vi tiu dng ca h. Trong thc t c rt nhiu thch thc. Khng th s dng phng php ny cho tt c cc vn mi trng v chng ta c th khng o lng c chi ph ngn nga trong mi lin h vi mt vn mi trng c th no , hoc cng c th khng dng c v khng c hnh vi ngn nga. Nh v d cp, s rt kh phn bit mt khon chi tiu c lin h vi vn mi trng no hay khng. C phi chnh lch ng cu gia cc thnh ph phn nh cht lng khng kh hay l cc c im khc? Cui cng, chi ph ngn nga khng th tnh c ht cc tc hi do nhim mi trng con ngi phi chu, n ch tnh c mt phn tn tht thng qua cc hot ng ngn nga.
Phng php c lng Hng th

Phng php c lng hng th c th c dng trong nhng trng hp gi hng ha th trng c lin h n c tnh ca n. Chng ta c th nghin cu cu trc chnh lch gi suy ra gi tr m con ngi gn cho nhng c tnh no . Nhng c tnh m cc nh kinh t hc mi trng quan tm tt nhin l cc c tnh v mi trng nh cht lng khng kh, ting n, hoc cht thi c hi. Nh phn tch s tch phn ng gp ca c tnh mi trng trong gi hng ha. Gi bin ny sau c s dng o lng gi sn lng tr cho vic ci thin cht lng mi trng. Phng php c lng hng th
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c th p dng c bit cho th trng nh t v cng c o dng cho chnh lch lng gia cc ngnh cng nghip c v khng c tc hi mi trng. Cc bc thc hin phng php c lng hng th bao gm: 1. Xc nh v o lng cc c tnh mi trng 2. Xy d ng hm gi hng th 3. Thu thp s liu chui thi gian hoc s liu dng bng 4. S dng phn tch hi quy bi nh gi gi tr bin s mi trng 5. Xy d ng ng cu cho cht lng mi trng 6. Tnh thay i thng d tiu dng t thay i cc mc cht lng mi trng
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Xem xt v d v th trng nh sau y. V d: S dng phng php c lng hng th cho th trng nh suy ra WTP cho ci thin cht lng mi trng43 Gi s bn c hai ngi nh ging nhau ho n ton t cc c im vt l (s phng, din tch, nm xu dng) n c im khu vc xung quanh (khong cch n trung tm, n ch). Nhng gi s mt nh nm trong khu vc b nhim khng kh nng, cn nh kia nm trong khu vc khng kh kh trong lnh. Chng ta c th d on gi th trng ca 2 nh ny khc nhau do khc nhau v nhim khng kh. Cng c th tng qut ha kt lun ny cho th trng bt ng sn vn c rt nhiu c tnh khc nhau. Cht lng khng kh xung quanh l mt c tnh rt quan trng ca ngi nh, do v nh c mua v bn trn th trng, cht lng khng kh khc nhau s c tin t ha vo trong gi nh.44 D nhin nh khc nhau rt nhiu ch khng ring g c tnh cht lng khng kh. Do chng ta phi thu thp rt nhiu d liu v th trng nh dng cho phng php c lng hng th. Cc nh nghin cu dng phng php thng k xy dng cc hm s gi hng th. Cn bn, cc nh nghin cu s thu thp s liu mu ca cc cn nh c bn ra trn th trng trong mt kho ng thi gian nht nh. Mi quan h gia gi nh v cc c tnh c th nh hng n gi sn lng tr ca ngi mua nh c c lng dng cc k thut kinh t lng. Cc c tnh ny c th bao gm din tch nh, s phng ng, s phng v sinh, nm xy d ng, v tr, c im khu vc xung quanh nh c gn trng hc, cng vin, v mt bin s mi trng o c, chng hn cht lng khng kh. Nh nghin cu s v th hm s gi hng th theo bin s cht lng mi trng (o bi ch s cht lng khng kh AQI), gi cc bin s khc khng i. Hnh (a) trong hnh 7-5 minh ha mi quan h ny. Hm gi hng th l P(AQI;z), vi z l cc c tnh khc c gi c nh. Hm s khng phi tuyn tnh ny cho thy i vi hu ht mi ngi, gi sn lng tr ca h cho mt c tnh s thay i khi s lng c tnh tng ln. Ti mc cht lng khng h thp, gi sn lng tr cho mt lng tng nh cht lng khng kh s cao. Nhng ti mc cht lng khng kh cao, gi sn lng tr cho vic tng thm mt n v cht lng khng kh s khng cn cao. Nu mt ngi tnh c dc ca hm gi hng th ny vi cc mc cht lng khng kh khc nhau, anh ta s c c hm cu hng th cho cht lng khng kh. Hm cu ny c th dng c lng gi sn lng tr cho mi mc cht lng khng kh tng trong iu kin cc yu t khc khng i. Hnh (b) ca hnh 7-5 minh ha hm cu hng th D(AQI;z). AQI vn trc honh, nhng trc tung by gi o lng gi sn lng tr cho cht lng khng kh (AQ). Hm cu hng th l hm dc ca hm gi hng th v cho bit WTP bin cho mi n v
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C th dng ph ng php cl ng h ng th cho cc nghin c u v l ng trong cc ngnh cng nghi p. Cng nhn c th ti p xc v i l ng nhi m tch t cao. R i ro r t cao nh ng ngnh cng nghi p m cng nhn ph i lm vi c ho c ti p xc v i cc ch t c nguy c gy h i cao, c th qua cng vi c hng ngy ho c tai n n. V d c th k ra bao g m b nh ph i do lm vi c trong cc h m m v cc nh my gi y, b nh trong nng nghi p do ti p xc v i thu c tr su v thu c di t c . Trong th tru ng hon h o, l ng s ph n nh m c ti p xc c a cng nhn v i ch t nhi m. L ng s cao h n nh ng ngnh cng nghi p c r i ro b nh t t ho c t vong t nhi m cao h n. 44 Ti n t ha ngh a l gi nh i u ch nh ph n nh gi tr hi n t i rng c a thi t h i c a ch nh do ti p xc v i khng kh nhi m n u anh ta mua nh .
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cht lng khng kh.45 Bi v WTP gim, hm cu l hm dc xung. Khi chng ta c hm cu, chng ta c th tnh c li ch ca ci thin cht lng khng kh. Vi cht lng khng kh thay i t AQ0 n AQ1, din tch nm di ng cu hng th, gii hn bi hai mc cht lng khng kh (din tch t m trong Hnh 7-5) l tng li ch ca vic ci thin cht lng khng kh, tnh c t k thut nh gi thay i thng d tiu dng cho hnh ha cng trn. S thay i trong thng d tiu dng c din t trong gi nh. Ngi mua nh mua mt ti sn to ra li ch trong mt khong thi gian no , nh trng hp my lc khng kh. Nh nghin cu phi chuyn i gi nh thnh gi tr hng nm c th tnh li ch hng nm do tng cht lng mi trng. Mt cch tnh n gin l gi s ngi nh s c dng mi mi (ngha l khng tnh n khu hao v chi ph b o dng). V d, ngi nh bn gi $200.000. Nghin cu hng th tm ra rng c 1 phn trm nhim khng kh gim th c 2.5 phn trm gi nh tng. Do mt cn nh trong khu vc gim c 1 phn trm nhim so vi khu vc khc s bn c cao gi hn $5.000. y l cch tnh WTP. Gi tr $5.000 c chuyn thnh gi tr hng nm bng cch s dng chit khu. Gi s nh c s dng mi mi, nh nghin cu c th s dng cng thc tnh nin kim PV cho dng li ch ko d i mi mi PV=m/r. $5.00 l gi tr hin ti PV, v nu ta bit r, c th tnh ra li ch hng nm m vi m=$5.000 r. Nu r=5%, th m=$250. Do 1% gim nhim khng kh s em li li ch hng nm l $250. Hnh 7-5: Xy d ng ng cu hng th cho cht lng khng kh
$ Gi nh (a) P(AQI;z)
$ WTP cho cht lng khng kh
AQI (b)
D(AQI;z)
AQ0
AQ1
AQI
Hnh (a) biu din hm gi hng th, l hm s cho bit mi quan h gia gi nh v mt trong cc c tnh; y l ch s cht lng khng kh (AQI), cc c tnh khc khng i (z). Dng hm s ca hm gi hng th cho thy gi sn l ng tr bin cho cht lng khng kh gim khi AQI tng. Hnh (b) minh ho hm cu hng th, D(AQI;z) c thit lp t hm gi hng th. T dc ca hm gi hng th ta to ra ng cu dc xung. Din tch nm di ng cu gia AQ0 v AQ1 l WTP cho lng cht lng khng kh tng ln .
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Hm c u h ch t l
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Phng php nh gi hng th ch p dng c v c ngha khi c th trng bt ng sn tht s, ngha l c nhiu ngi mua v bn to nn th trng cnh tranh. Phng php cng yu cu ngi mua nh phi hiu r cht lng mi trng (hoc bng cch nhn, ngi hoc cc cch khc) trong khu vc m h d nh sinh sng. Nh mi phng php khc, p dng phng php ny cng c mt s phc tp v thch thc. Th trng nh, v gi, b bp mo bi mt s ngi (hoc hin tng th trng bong bng c qu nhiu u c). Phng php nh gi hng th cn lng ln s liu cng nh cc k thut kinh t lng cao cp gii quyt cc vn v thng k. Vn chung thng thy l khng d dng o lng cc bin s mi trng. Cui cng, nhn thc ca cc c nhn v cht lng mi trng l ch quan v cha chc c phn nh trong gi tr ti sn. Mc d gp phi nhng thch thc nh vy, c nhiu nghin cu c hon thnh, c bit ti Hoa K. Cc nghin cu ny tnh WTP di dng h s co gin: phn trm thay i gi nh khi c 1 phn trm thay i mc nhim mi trng xunh quanh. H nghin cu nhiu loi nhim khng kh v tm ra cc kt qu tng ng. V d, vi nhim sulphur ioxyt, 1 phn trm gim tch t trong mi trng xunh quanh em li thay i trong gi nh t 0,06 n 0,12 phn trm. i vi bi nhim, h s co gin c gi tr t 0,05 n 0,22 phn trm.
Th trng i din Phng php Chi ph Du hnh46

Mt trong nhng phng php u tin cc nh kinh t hc mi trng dng nh gi nhu cu hng th cnh quan mi trng l phng php th trng i din, l phng php s dng chi ph du hnh lm i din cho gi. Mc d chng ta khng quan st c con ngi mua cc n v hng ha cht lng mi trng, chng ta li quan st c cch h i du lch hng th ti nguyn mi trng, v d i ngh ngi gii tr cc cng vin quc gia, bi v cu c cc h, sng, sui, xem thin nhin hoang d v.v. i du lch l tn tin, v cng tn thi gian. Cc chi ph du hnh ny c th lm i din cho ci gi m con ngi phi tr hng th c cnh quan mi trng. C th s dng phng php chi ph du hnh xy dng ng cu cho cc cnh quan mi trng ny. Bng cch thu thp mt s lng ln s liu chi ph du hnh, chng ta c th c lng gi sn lng tr tng cng cho nhng cnh quan mi trng c th. D nhin ngoi s liu v chi ph du hnh, chng ta phi thu thp thm cc s liu khc. Cc gia nh c th c rt nhiu yu t khc nhau ch khng ch chi ph du hnh n mt cng vin. H c th c thu nhp khc nhau, s ln n thm cng vin khc nhau, v cc kinh nghim gii tr khc nhau. Do cc cuc kho st phi thu thp lng ln s liu cho nhiu khch du lch c th nghin cu nh hng ca cc yu t ny ln t l n thm cng vin mt cch c ngha thng k. Chng ta c th s dng phng php ny c lng li ch ci thin cht lng mi trng nhng im c khch du lch n thm; v d, c lng li ch ci thin cht lng nc ti mt h nc dng cho vui chi gii tr s lm cu c d dng hn hoc c nhiu ng vt hoang d n hn. lm vic chng ta khng ch thu thp s liu chi ph du hnh ca du khch n mt a im m cn chi ph du hnh n cc a im khc c cc c im t nhin khc nhau. T chng ta c th xy dng ng cu v s dng
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Chng ta ch xem xt chi ph du hnh l m t v d c a th chng ta s th o lu n ph ng php hng ha xanh.
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n tnh WTP cho ci thin cht lng mi trng bng cch o s thay i trong thng d tiu dng. Cc bc thc hin phng php Chi ph Du hnh nh sau. 1. Ly mu khch du lch n cc im khc nhau (cng vin, khu vc vui chi gii tr, hoc khu vc hoang d ). Cc a im c cc bin s cht lng mi trng c th o c khc nhau. Chng ta hi khch du lch v: H ti t u (thnh ph no, nc no) S khch trn mt phng tin chuyn ch ti Phng tin chuyn ch ( t, my bay, xe ) Tng thi gian i n v ti a im Tn sut du lch, thi gian ca chuyn i Cc c im kinh t x hi Chi ph du hnh trc tip (Chi ph di chuyn, thc n, ch ) Mc ch i du lch, s thch du lch.
2. S dng k thut hi quy c lng ng cu gii tr cho tng a im. ng cu c bin s lng l tng s khch ving thm v bin gi l chi ph du hnh. 3. So snh cc ng cu thy c tc ng ca cht lng mi trng cao hn. Tnh thay i thng d tiu dng gia cc im. V d: Tch t to bin cc h tnh Ontario Xem xt mt ng dng gi nh sau y. Gi s c mt nghin cu chi ph du hnh thc hin cho 2 h Ontario: h Ahmic v h Eagle. H Ahmic b xm thc bi lng ln mt s lo i thc vt khng phi bn a tng trng nhanh do nhng ngi li tu v tnh to bin ngoi lai bm trn tu ca h trn ng v t Hoa K.47 To bin to nn lp thm dy trn mt h Ahmic, git cht thc vt bn a v cc loi c. Bi thuyn, cu c, ho c bi li tr nn km hp dn do lp to bin ny. H Eagle rt gn h Ahmic nhng khng c to bin ngoi lai do chnh sch hn ch tu b. Tnh Ontario mun nh gi gi WTP cho ci thin cht lng nc h Ahmic. H thc hin nghin cu chi ph du hnh cho c 2 h; ng cu c trnh by trong Hnh 7-6. Hnh 7-6: c lng chi ph du hnh cho li ch gim mt to bin
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y l v n th c c r t nhi u cc con sng Hoa K v nh ng ng i li tu qun lau chi tu b so pht tn n Canada. H Ahmic v h Eagle l nh ng h c th c b c Toronto, nh ng h Ahmic khng c v n v t o bi n. M t trong nh ng loi t o bi n c h i, loi hydrilla, c xu t x t n v Hn Qu c c nh p vo Hoa K lm th c v t nui cc c nh. T i Florida, h n 70% h th ng m ng d n n c c a bang b t o hydrilla t n cng, lm chnh quy n bang t n $14,5 tri u la hng n m mua thu c tr su v ha ch t di t tr (theo Environment, Vol. 42, No.4, May 2000, p.4).
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$ Chi ph du hnh bin
H Ahmic
H Eagle
S lng khch ti h Ahmic v Eagle hng nm ng cu c xy dng t cc cuc kho st ti h Eagle and Ahmic. H Eagle c cht lng nc cao hn h Ahmic v khng b to bin gy hi. Gi tr con ngi tr cho cht lng nc cao hn chnh l s chnh lch thng d tiu dng gia hai h, trong hnh l phn t m. Khng c ph vo cng cho c hai h.
ng cu cho h Eagle nm trn ng cu h Ahmic. Nu cc h ny tng t nhau, ch khc nhau cht lng nc, nh nghin cu c th suy ra s chnh lch thng d tiu dng (din tch t m) gia 2 h l WTP ca khch du lch cho cht lng nc tt hn. Khng c ph vo cng cc h ny, do khng cn tnh thay i thng d tiu dng trn b t c gi no. (Cu hi: Tnh ton thay i th no nu c ph vo ca?) Thay i thng d tiu dng l gi tr hng nm bi v ta thc hin c lng chi ph du hnh cho s lng khch du lch trong mt nm. C th s dng c lng gi tr thng d tiu dng ny cho cc nghin cu li ch-chi ph (chit khu cho cc nm) ca bt c chng trnh no ca chnh ph thit k loi tr tc hi ca to bin.
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Ph bnh phng php Chi ph Du hnh

Phng php Chi ph Du hnh c s dng tt nht trong trng hp cc a im cc c tnh tng t nhau (tr ch s cht lng mi trng) v c tn sut cc chuyn du lch cao trong mt nm. C mt s kh khn khi thc hin phng php Chi ph Du hnh ny. Chuyn i a mc tiu: a im ang nghin cu c th khng phi l im cui cng trong hnh trnh; c th mc ch ca chuyn i l thm bn b hoc c lin quan n cng vic v tranh th ngh ngi gii tr. Nh nghin cu s phi tch chi ph cho a im gii tr trong tng chi ph ca chuyn i. y l mt cng vic kh khn. Hu dng/phi hu dng t vic di chuyn: Qu trnh di chuyn n a im c th rt th v hoc rt kh chu. u ny c ngha c lng chi ph du hnh c th khng phn nh y gi sn lng tr. C mt cch gii quyt l hi khch du lch nh gi ch quan ca h v vic di chuyn. Thin lch ly mu trong kho st: Vn ln nht ca phng php ny l n ch ly mu ngi s dng a im . iu ny lm thin lch c lng gi sn lng tr bi v ngi khng s dng c th khng sn lng gnh chu chi ph du hnh. Li ch ca ngi khng s dng : Khng c cch no tnh c li ch mi trng ca a im m ngi s dng khng hng th c. Ngi ta c th thy vui khi bit to bin h Ahmic c loi b ngay c khi h khng c nh s dng n. tng loi b to bin ngoi lai ny s ci thin a dng sinh hc v bo v lu vc sng, do em li gi tr cho con ngi. Ti cc nc ang pht trin, cc a im mi trng thin nhin c th cung cp nhiu loi hng ha v d ch v cho c dn (ci, thc phm, ch vui chi, thuc cha bnh). Cc c dn y s khng c tnh l khch du lch, do ta khng tnh c li ch ca h.
o lng s thay i cht lng mi trng l cng vic kh khn. Ci m ngi ta mun o lng l gi tr thay i cht lng mi trng ti a im. Phng php chi ph du hnh ch i din cho gi sn lng tr cho mt mc cht lng mi trng. Vi nhng kh khn ny, phng php chi ph du hnh c s dng hn ch trong phn tch li ch chi ph.
Phng php nh gi Ngu nhin

Phng php trc tip c lng gi sn lng tr gi l Phng php nh gi Ngu nhin (CVM). CVM da trn tng n gin l nu bn mun bit gi sn lng tr ca mt ngi cho tnh cht no ca mi trng, bn hy n gin hi h. T n gin y hi cc oan bi v cui cng bn s thy n tr thnh chng n gin cht no mc d tng ban u dng nh rt r rng. Phng php gi l nh gi ngu nhin bi v n c lm ngi c hi ni h hnh ng th no nu h c t trong mt tnh hu ng gi nh. Nu hng ha chng ta ang xem xt l hng ha th trng, chng ta ch cn quan st hnh vi ca con ngi trn th trng. Nhng khi hng ha khng c th trng, chng hn c tnh cht lng mi trng, chng ta ch c cch hi xem h chn nh th no nu c t vo mt tnh hu ng nht nh, ngha l nu h c gi nh phi quyt nh trong th trng cc c tnh cht lng mi trng .
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Ngy nay nghin cu nh gi ngu nhin c thc hin cho rt nhiu yu t mi trng: cht lng khng kh, gi tr cnh quan, gi tr gii tr ca bi bin, bo tn cc loi ng vt hoang d , ho t ng cu c v sn bn, pht thi cht c hi, bo tn cc con sng, sn lng trnh b nh tt do nhim v nhiu loi khc.48 CVM cng c s dng trong cc nghin cu phi-mi trng nh nh gi cc chng trnh gim ri ro vi bnh tim, gi tr thng tin gi siu th. Qua qu trnh pht trin v ci tin, ngy nay chng ta c mt phng php c th tin tng c dng o lng li ch ca nhiu loi hng ha cng, c bit l cht lng mi trng. Cc bc thc hin phn tch CVM nh sau: 1. Nhn dng v m t cc c tnh cht lng mi trng cn nh gi. 2. Nhn dng i tng cn hi, bao gm c qu trnh ly mu chn ngi tr li. 3. Thit k bng phng vn v tin hnh kho st thng qua phng vn trc tip, bng in thoi hoc gi th (trong nhng nm gn y, tho lun nhm cng thng c s dng). 4. Phn tch kt qu v tng hp cc kt qu c nhn gi tr cho nhm b nh hng do thay i cht lng mi trng. Bc ny c th gm trnh by cc bng tnh n gin hoc phn tch kinh t lng. 5. S dng c lng WTP trong phn tch li ch chi ph. Bi v gi tr WTP o c s c s dng c lng thay i thng d tiu dng, nn c th coi nh l li ch rng v a trc tip vo trong phn tch li ch chi ph. Cch tt nht chng ta hiu bn cht ca CVM l xem xt cc bc thit k bng phng vn.
Bng cu hi phng vn nh gi Ngu nhin

Bng cu hi phng vn nh gi ngu nhin c thit k lm ngi c phng vn ngh v cc c im mi trng v pht biu gi sn lng tr ti a cho cc c im mi trng . Bng phng vn c 3 thnh phn quan trng: Mt m t chnh xc c im mi trng l g t c th hi ngi c phng vn. Cc cu hi v ngi c phng vn c a ra mt cch ngn gn v thch thch hp, v d thu nhp, ni sinh sng, tui tc, vic s dng cc hng ha lin quan. Mt cu hi, hay mt b cu hi, c thit k rt ra phn hi v gi sn lng tr ca ngi c phng vn.
Mc tiu trung tm ca bng phng vn l bit ngi c phng vn nh gi c im mi trng c gi tr nh th no i vi h. Thu t ng kinh t gi l lm cho ngi c phng vn bc l gi sn lng tr ti a so vi trng hp khng c s dng hng
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C r t nhi u v d v kh o c a ch ng ny
nh gi ng u nhin trong l thuy t kinh t h c. Xem ph cu i cu n sch bi t nhi u cch th c hi n CVM.
n ti li
u tham
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ha mi trng. Nu h tr li trung thc, con s h bc l chnh l gi tr li ch rng ca hng ha mi trng m h nh gi. Ngi ta pht trin mt s k thut thu thp c nhng phn hi ny. R rng nht l hi ngi c phng vn cung cp con s ny m phng vn vin khng c gi hoc thm d. C th dng k thut khc nh s dng tr chi u gi: phng vn vin s bt u hi bng cch nu ra mt mc gi thp v sau tng dn ln cho n khi ngi c phng vn ch ra gii hn sn lng tr ca h. Mt cch khc l phng vn vin bt u hi mc gi cao v sau h xung tm ra mc ngng gi tr ca ngi c hi. Mt k thut na l a cho ngi c phng vn mt th in sn cc mc gi tr v ngh h nh du vo con s tng ng vi gi sn lng tr cao nht ca h. Chng ta s minh ha bng phng vn CVM bng mt v d gi nh v xem kt qu ca n c s dng nh th no. V d: Gi sn lng tr gim nhim khng kh thnh ph Khu vc tiu vng Vancouver ang c gng gim nhim khng kh.49C th s dng mt s chnh sch hon thnh mc tiu ny, chng hn nh khuyn khch ngi dn s dng phng tin giao thng cng cng thay v phng tin c nhn, nh thu ln vic s dng xe c gn ng c theo loi phng tin hay theo trng lng, tng thu xng, thu l ph cu ng, nh thu ln ch u xe khu vc trung tm thnh ph v.v. Nh nghin cu mun kho st gi sn lng tr ca ngi dn cho hai phng n: nh thu ln phng tin giao thng da vp trng lng, v thu ph trn mi cy cu Vancouver. Nh nghin cu thit k bng phng vn nh trnh by trang b n. C 2.000 ngi c phng vn v kt qu nh sau. i vi nh thu, WTP trung b nh l $5 trn 100kg phng tin chuyn ch. Phong tin chuyn ch (xe khch v xe ti nh) c trng lng t 1.500kg n 2.500kg. Nh nghin cu kho st loi xe British Columbia v thu thp trng lng tng loi t nh sn xut v sau tnh tng WTP mi nm cho thu phng tin giao thng l $15 triu. i vi l ph cu, WTP trung bnh l $1. Nh nghin cu thu thp s liu giao thng t phng cng trnh TransLink v tnh ton c trung bnh 100,000 lt quan cu tiu vng Vancouver mi ngy (ngy trong tun c nhiu lt qua li hn ngy cui tun). Doanh thu do s l $100,000 ngy hoc $36.5 triu nm. Nh nghin cu kt lun rng dn c trong cuc kho st sn lng tr ph qua cu cao hn nh thu phng tin giao thng. Cc con s tnh ton c ny sau c dng thit k cc chnh sch hiu qu cho vng.
Bng cu hi phng vn CVM

Thit lp tnh hung Khu vc tiu vng Vancouver chu vn nhim khng kh nghim trng. Hng nm, c t nht 15 ngy cht lng khng kh xung thp hn mc tiu chun quc gia t ra cho sng m. It nht 50 ngy trong nm c sng m, mc d vn nm trong mc tiu chu n cho php. Sng m gy kh th cho mt s ngi, c bit c hi vi tr em v ngi gi. Sng m c lm gim nng sut cy trng trong thung lng Fraser, lm h hng thit b, c bit l cc thit b bng nha v cao su. Cc nh khoa hc khng bit lng sng
49
hi
y l v n th c c m t s nghin c u s d ng ph ng php nh gi ng n. V d l gi nh nh ng c trnh by m t s s li u th c.
u nhin th
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m ti thiu an ton cho con ngi. Translink (c quan giao thng khu vc tiu vng Vancouver) ang xem xt mt s chnh sch gip gim s ngy c sng m. Chng ti nh gi cao s gip ca ng b qua vic tr li mt s cu hi cho hai chnh sch sau y.
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Chnh sch 1: nh thu phng tin giao thng da trn trong lng phng tin S nh mc thu hng nm da trn trng lng ca phng tin giao thng. Trng lng ca phong tin c th i din cho s tn khi thi vo bu kh quyn. Trung bnh th phong tin vn ti nng s gy nhim nhiu hn phng tin vn ti nh. Thu s tnh trn 100kg trng lng phng tin. Mc tiu ca chnh sch ny l thc y mi ngi mua xe nh hn v tit kim nhin liu hn v lm nhng ngi gy nhim nhiu phi tr cho phn ca h. Chnh sch 2: Thu ph trn mi cy cu trong khu vc tiu vng Vancouver S thu ph t ng trn mi cy cu trong khu vc. Ph s c thu ch cho nhng chuyn xe vo Vancouver. Hu nh tt c phng tin giao thng vo thnh ph u qua mt cy cu. Mc ph ny thc y mi ngi s dng phng tin giao cng cng hoc thay i ch gn ch lm vic hn. Cu hi 1. Thu phng tin ng/b sn lng tr bao nhiu mi nm cho 100kg trng lng phng tin (nh du X bn cnh con s m ng/b cho rng ph hp vi mnh nht $ 0 ____________ $ 5 ____________ $ 10 ____________ $ 20 ____________ $ 30 ____________ $ 50 ____________ Trn $ 50 ____________ 2. Ph cu ng ng/b c sn lng tr $_________* cho ph cu ng mi ln qua mt cy cu tiu vng Vancouver? Yes No (khoanh trn)
* Nh nghin cu s t vo khong trng ny mt con s no . Ngi c phng vn khc nhau s c cc con s khc nhau. Nhng gi tr ny s nm trong phm vi nh nghin cu cho rng thch hp.
Ph bnh phng php nh gi Ngu nhin

im mnh chnh ca phng php CVM l linh ng. C th thit k CVM cho bt c tnh hung no v do c th p dng cho rt nhiu hng ha mi trng, khng ch p dng cho nhng hng ha o c ch khi c lin h vi hng ha th trng. Hu nh tt c nhng th g m con ngi c th hiu c u c th dng phng php CVM ny nghin cu. Phng php ny c dng rng ri nh gi gi tr li ch mi trng. Phng php c mt s nhc im chnh: c tnh gi nh. Khi mt ngi mua hng ha th trng, mun c mn hng, anh ta phi tht s a tin cho ngi bn hng. l tnh hu ng tht, nu la chn sai l, ngi s phi chu hu qu tht. Nhng i vi mt bng phng vn CVM tnh hung thc nh trn khng hin hu. Ngi tr li i mt vi mt tnh hung gi nh 131
v h s a ra cu tr li gi nh m khng b chi phi bi quy lut ca th trng thc. C hai cu hi v vn ny. Th nht, liu ngi tr li c bit hon ton v s a thch thc ca mnh a ra cu tr li ng n? Th hai, Ngay c khi h bit s a thch ca h, c ng lc no lm h khng ni thc s a thch ca h vi phng vn vin? Trn th trng, hu ht mi ngi u c kinh nghim mua sm, tuy kh ng phi mi ngi. Vo th k 17 New England, ngi ta tng mua bn ch ngi trong nh th. mt s nc, xin c giy php xy dng to nh hay ch u xe phi c hi l. X hi chng ta ngy nay th c gi cho mi th mua bn trn th trng. Khi mt ngi ng trc gi th trng ca mt hng ha hoc dch v, anh ta c thi gian nhn bit gi tr ca n, iu chnh mua sm ca mnh v quyt nh gi sn lng tr cho hng ha v dch v gi sn lng tr ny phn nh chnh xc s a thch ca anh ta. Nhng khi ngh anh ta ni ln mt s tin cho mt th khng c gi th trng, s rt kh anh ta ni ng gi sn lng tr ca mnh. Bn sn lng tr bao nhiu tin c thm 10 bui chiu hong hn tuyt p mi nm? Nu bn cha tng tr cho hng ha mi trng, tt c chng ta cng vy, bn s khng c tng g v gi m bn s tr cho mn hng. ng lc ni khng ng gi sn lng tr. Cc c tnh cht lng mi trng l hng ha cng, nh chng ta thy trong chng 4. Mt ngi s ni thp s a thch i khi on rng cu tr li ca anh ta s c dng lp nn mc gi cho cc hng ha cng cng ny. Nhng trong nghin cu CVM, cng khng c p lc no cho rng s dng cc cu tr li , chng hn nh thu mn hng ang x xem xt. Do loi thin lch ny khng ng k lm. Loi thin lch ngc li c th ln hn: mt ngi c th a ra mc gi sn lng tr cao hn mc thc v ngh rng mi ngi s lm tng t, do cho rng lm cho mn hng hin hu, phn chia chi ph ca mi ngi s rt nh. Cc vn thc tin. Bao gm nhng thin lch do ngi nghin cu gy ra (v d, chn phng php tr tin, phm vi chn la WTP, thit k tnh hung trong bng phng vn v.v.), kch thc mu nh, cc vn xy ra trong cu c phng vn (chng hn ch hi c nhng ngi quan tm thc s n mi trng), v nhiu vn khc na. Cc nh kinh t hc ang pht trin mt s k thut gip nghin cu CVM tt hn. V d, h kho st nhng tnh hung ngi tr li bc l s a thch ca hc thng qua bc l hnh vi (vi d mua giy php cu c). Phng php ny gi l phng php pht biu s a thch.
Trong khi c nhiu ph bnh, phng php CVM vn c s dng rng ri v l cng c c th p dng c nh gi li ch.
NH N XT CC PHNG PHP NH GI GI TR LI CH MI TRNG Gi sn lng tr v Gi sn lng chp nhn

Trong sch ny chng ta s dng khi nim gi sn lng tr o lng li ch ci thin cht lng mi trng v do o lng thay i tro ng tng thit hi (din tch di ng MD). Gi sn lng tr, b n cnh vic phn nh s thch cn phn nh thu nhp. Mt cch khc gii quyt cc vn nh gi gi tr ci thin cht lng mi trng l hi
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ngi dn gi sn lng chp nhn t b s dng hng ha mi trng. nh gi ci thin cht lng khng kh, chng ta c th hoc hi h sn lng tr bao nhin cho mt n v ci thin hoc h sn lng chp nhn n b bao nhiu gim mt n v cht lng khng kh. Gi s c quan qun l ang d tnh xy dng nh my l t rc thi c hi mt khu vc c th. o thit hi cho cng ng, chng ta c th tnh s tin n b cn thit cng ng sn lng chp nhn nh my (ni cc khc, l s tin h sn lng tr khng c nh my ). R rng gi sn lng chp nhn (WTA) khng b gii hn bi thu nhp nh gi sn lng tr. Do s khng ngc nhin khi c hi cu hi gi sn lng chp nhn, cu tr li thng cao hn cu hi gi sn lng tr cho cng mt loi hng ha. mc no , gi tr tnh c ph thuc vo cu hi hi ci g. Hai loi cu hi ny s cho kt qu tng ng nhau nu hi v mt thay i nh. Xem xt v d v tri da gang. Nu mt ngi sn lng tr $1.49 mua thm mt tri da, gi tr ny rt gn vi khon tin cn n b nu ly tri da gang ca anh ta. Ngay c trong nhng trng hp thay i nh, gi sn lng chp nhn vn ln hn g sn lng tr. Trong nhng cuc kho st v thc nghim, ngi dn c xu hng so snh c v mt t mt im tham chiu. H nh gi mt t im tham chiu nhiu hn l c. Mt khon n b ti thiu thng thng cao hn vi ln khon sn lng tr.50 Sinh vin Canada tham gia vo mt s th nghim o lng gi sn lng tr so vi gi sn lng chp nhn. Hng ha l s c la v c ph. y l nhng hng ha m chng ta d on sinh vin s khng phn bit g nhiu gia gi sn lng tr v gi sn lng chp nhn. Nhng thc s l h phn bit. i vi nhng thay i ln (gi l nhng thay i khng bin t), s phn bit ny cng ln. V d nu chng ta ni v thay i nhim khng kh nhiu trong khu vc n ni lm thay i phc li ca c dn sng , hai cch o ny c th em li kt qu khc nhau nhiu. Cc nh kinh t hc thng c mt s phng php phn tch vn ny. M t trong nhng cch l xem xt k lng bng phng vn v cch thc t cu hi trong bng phng vn. Kinh nghim ch ra rng cc cu tr li s khc nhau ty thu c vo cch t cu hi, cho nn c kh nng l gi sn lng tr v gi sn lng chp nhn khc nhau do cch t cu hi. Cch khc l thay th nhng nguyn l kinh t kinh in cho rng khng c s khc bit gia hai cch o, bng nhng khi nim mi c th gii thch s khc nhau. y l vn ang c nhiu tranh c i v rt quan trng cho chnh sch mi trng. Nu trong thc t hai cch o khc nhau nhiu, cc quy nh chnh sch phi cp n c gi sn lng tr v gi sn lng chp nhn.
Gi tr khng s dng
Khi mt ngi mua go, chng ta gi s anh ta lm vy v mun n cm; gi tr ca go nm trong chnh gi tr s dng ca n. Logic ny c th c m rng ra cho cch hng ha mi trng, nhng trong trng hp ny chng ta s b sung thm. Khi mt ngi t nguyn ng gp tin bo tn loi mt ti sn mi trng qu him m anh ta c th cha bao gi thy tr khi thy trong nh, chng ta phi xem xt thm ngoi gi tr s dng. Gi sn lng tr cho nhng c tnh mi trng loi ny phi bao gm nhng gi tr khng
50
Xem cng trnh c a Jack Knetsch v c ng s , v d Environmental Policy Implications of Disparities between Willingness to Pay and Compensation Demanded Measures of Values, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management 18 (1990): 227-237, v ti li u tham kh o trong bi ny.
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s dng nht nh. Mt kh nng l mc d c l anh ta khng s dng trc tip ti sn mi trng ny, anh ta li mun gi n s dng trong tng lai. Gi tr nhim (option value) l gi tr m mt ngi sn lng tr gi li nh l mt la chn c th s dng ti sn mi trng trong tng lai. Ngi ta c th sn lng tr bo tn mt loi ho c h sinh thi ngay c khi h khng thy hoc khng s dng trc tip, chng hn ng vt hoang d chu Phi. Trong trng hp ny, chng ta o lng gi tr hin hu (existence value), gi sn lng tr n gin bo tn s hin hu ca mt s ti sn mi trng. Nhng gi tr mang tnh v v li nh vy nu c s dng cho th h tng lai th chng ta c gi tr lu truyn (bequest values). Cui cng, chng ta c th thm gi tr h tr (stewardship value), l gi tr khng nht thit lin h vi vic con ngi s dng mi trng ra sao, m tp trung duy tr sc khe mi trng cho qu trnh s dng lin tc ca mi sinh vt sng. Mt trong nhng l do phng php nh gi ngu nhin ngy cng ph bin l n c th nh gi c gi tr khng s dng.
TM TT
o lng li ch l mt trong nhng trng tm nghin cu ca kinh t hc mi trng. Nhng k thut mi c khm ph nh gi nhng gi tr m trc y khng th thc hin c. Nhng gi tr ny khng nhng hu ch cho phn tch li ch chi ph m cn gp phn gii quyt nhng tranh chp php l lin quan n gi tr bi thng thit hi. Cc c quan mi trng u t rt nhiu thi gian v cng sc c lng cc gi tr li ch lm nn tng cho cc quyt nh chnh sch. Chng ta lit k v m t chi tit nhng phng php chnh m c nh kinh t hc mi trng dng o lng li ch ci thin cht lng mi trng/gim thit hi nhim. Chng ta trnh by nhng k thut nh gi thit hi trc tip nh gi nh hng sc khe, mt mt sn lng, thit hi thit b, v cui cng nhn thy rng nhng phng php ny khng i din y cho gi sn lng tr. Nhng phng php gin tip da trn gi sn lng tr cho cht lng mi trng bao gm phng php chi tiu ngn nga, nh gi hng th, phng php th trng i din nh chi ph du hnh v cui cng l phng php nh gi ngu nhin. C nhiu kh khn khi p dng cc phng php ny, bi v phn ln cc phng php ny ch i din cho WTP, hoc l phi thit lp th trng gi nh suy ra WTP. Chng ta cng trnh by v d cho tng phng php xem cc phng php ny c p dng trong phn tch li ch chi phi nh th no. Cc bi ph bnh cc phng php ny cho thy khng mt phng php no l hon ho, nhng nhiu nh kinh t mi trng thng nht rng cc n lc nh gi li ch l rt c ngha. Nu khng thc hin vic nh gi ny, phn tch li ch chi ph ch cn kha cnh chi ph.
CC THUT NG CHNH
Gi tr lu truyn Tin t ha Thng d tiu dng Phng php nh gi ngu nhin Hm liu lng p ng Gi tr hin hu c lng hng th Bnh tt S t vong Gi tr nhim Chi tiu ngn nga Thng d sn xut Phng php nghin cu sn lng Th trng i din Phng php chi ph du hnh Gi sn lng chp nhn
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BI TP
1. Tnh thay i thng d tiu dng s dng Hnh 7-2 nu ng cu dch chuyn n P = 10 Q 2. Chnh ph p dng quy nh mi v nhim lm gim nh hng nhim ln tr lng tm hm East Coast. ng MC = 5Q l chi ph khai thc tm trc khi c chnh sch. Quy nh mi lm gim chi ph khai thc tm 50%. Li ch rng do quy nh mi mang li cho ngi khai thc tm l bao nhiu? Hy trnh by bng ng MD. 3. Gi s dn c Winnipeg khng mua my lc khng kh. Nh vy chi tiu ngn nga ca c dn Hamilton c th cung cp thng tin v WTP ca h cho khng kh sch c khng? Gii thch v minh ha bng th. 4. Gi s nh nghin cu c lng c ng cu t bng phng vn CVM minh ha trong chng ny. Hy minh ha th v gii thch ng cu o lng WTP cho ci thin cht lng khng kh trong mi kch bn nh th no.
CU H I THO LUN
1. Ti sao tng chi tiu cho mt hng ha li khng i din cho li ch rng t vic mua hng ha ? Ti sao sn lng gia tng do gim mc nhim li o lng qu mc li ch? 2. Lit k v cho v d ba vn phi s dng chi ph ngn nga o lng gi sn lng tr. Gii quyt cc vn ny trong phn tch li ch chi ph nh th no? 3. Lm th no s dng s chnh lch lng gia cc thnh ph o lng gi tr gim ri ro sc khe do nhim? 4. Phng php chi ph du hnh c phi l phng php thch hp nh gi chnh sch gia tng hnh lang b o v ng vt hoang d cc cng vin quc gia ni Rocky Canada? Nu l l ca bn. Hy nhn xt v d v nh gi ngu nhin trong chng ny. Loi thin lch no c th c? C phi tnh hu ng c nu qu gi nh? Ngi c phng vn c ng lc tr li khng ng s a thch ca h khng?
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CHNG 9
TIU CH NH GI CHNH SCH MI TRNG

C nhiu loi chnh sch mi trng khc nhau. Khng th c mt chnh sch duy nht ph hp vi tt c cc vn mi trng khc nhau m th gii ang i mt. Mi chnh sch u tin liu cch phn ng ca cc nh qun l v ch th gy nhim. Mi loi chnh sch c nhng c im ring lm n thnh cng trong b i cnh ny nhng tht bi trong nhng bi cnh khc. nh gi tnh hiu qu v thch hp ca mt chnh sch nhm gii quyt mt vn nhim mi trng nht nh, iu quan trng l phi hiu r tp hp cc ch tiu nh gi chnh sch. Nhng ch tiu s dng trong nhng chng sau nh gi chnh sch mi trng c th bao gm: Kh nng t c hiu qu v hiu qu chi ph trong gim thiu nhim mi trng Tnh cng b ng Khuyn khch tm kim gii php tt hn Tnh hiu lc Mc ph hp ca chnh sch vi nhng quan im o c.
HIU QU V HIU QU CHI PH

Hiu qu c ngha l s cn bng gia ch ph x l nhim v thit hi do nhim gy nn. Mt chnh sch mi trng hiu qu l chnh sch lm cho chng ta t c, hoc gn t c im (mc thi hoc cht lng mi trng) m chi ph gim nhim bin bng mc thit hi bin. xc nh c im ny u chng ta cn bit c chi ph v thit hi. Mt cch suy ngh v chnh sch mi trng l cch tip cn chuyn t tp trung ha n phi tp trung ha. Mt chnh sch tp trung ha i hi c quan qun l chu trch nhim quyt nh iu g cn phi lm. t c hiu qu vi chnh sch tp trung ha, c quan qun l m trch cn phi bit hm chi ph gim nhim bin thch hp, hm thit hi bin v thc hin cc bc cn thit lm cho tnh hnh tin ti im hai hm s ny b ng nhau. Mt chnh sch phi tp trung ha mang em li kt qu t s tc ng qua li gia nhiu ngi ra quyt nh, v mi c nhn nht thit thc hin nhng nh gi ring ca mnh v thc trng tnh hnh. Trong phng php phi tp trung ha, s tc ng qua li gia cc c nhn nhm th hin thng tin v chi ph gim nhim bin v thit hi bin iu chnh tnh hnh n im chi ph gim nhim bin bng thit hi bin. Thng thng chng ta khng th o lng mt cch chnh xc thit hi do suy thoi mi trng gy nn. Chnh v vy khi hiu qu chi ph tr thnh tiu ch nh gi chnh sch ch yu. Mt chnh sch l hiu qu chi ph nu n to nn s ci thin mi trng ti a vi ngun lc b ra, ni cch khc, n cho php t c mt mc ci thin mi trng no vi mc chi ph ti thiu. mt chnh sch l hiu qu n cn thit phi t hiu qu chi ph, nhng iu ngc li cha hn l ng. Mt chnh sch c th l hiu qu chi ph ngay c khi mc tiu ca n l khng ng. Gi s chng ta quyt nh lm sch sng Lawrence, bt k li ch t c l g. Chng ta vn quan tm tm kim chnh
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sch thc hin c vic vi chi ph nh nht. Nhng cho mt chnh sch t hiu qu x hi, n khng ch phi t hiu qu chi ph m cn phi m bo cn bng gia chi ph v li ch. t hiu qu, d n lm sch d ng sng phi m bo cn bng gia li ch bin v chi ph bin. Bn cnh vic to nn s ci thin mi trng ti a vi ngun lc tiu hao, kh nng ca mt chnh sch t c hiu qu chi ph cng quan trng v mt l do khc na. Nu chng trnh l khng hiu qu chi ph, ngi lp chnh sch v nh qun l s ra quyt nh s dng hm tng chi ph gim nhim cao hn mc cn thit, dn n vic t mc tiu v khi lng gim thi t kht khe hn. iu ny c th hin Hnh 9-1 v trng hp thi kh SO2. Vi mt chnh sch khng t hiu qu chi ph th chi ph gim nhim bin l ng pha trn, k hiu l MAC1, trong khi vi phng php ti thiu ha chi ph th ng chi ph gim nhim bin c th l ng MAC2 51. Gi s ngi qun l chn mc thi SO2 mc tiu l 100.000 tn. H cho rng tng chi ph gim thi l 4,5 triu la v nhn thy ch ph gim thi bin l MAC1.52 Nu thc hin chng trnh t hiu qu chi ph v chi ph gim nhim l MAC2, tng chi ph gim thi mc 100,000 tn s l 2,5 triu la. Ni cch khc, ngi qun l c th la chn mc gim thi cao hn vi cng mt tng chi ph gim thi di ng MAC1. Trong mi trng hp, chnh sch t hiu qu chi ph s lm x hi tt hn. Hnh 9-1: Mt chnh sch t hiu qu chi ph ti thiu ha tng chi ph gim nhim t c mt mc nhim nht nh
MAC1
Mc thi mc tiu 100

MAC2
50
100 Tm li, hiu qu chi ph
200
l tiu ch ch yu khi cc nh qun l khng xc nh c ng thit hi bin; cho php ti thiu chi ph t c mt mc tiu nht nh v cht lng mi trng;
51
MAC1 c th cao hn MAC2 v mt s l do khc nhau, nh s c tho lun chi tit trong cc chng tip theo ca phn ny. im chnh y l khi chnh sch l khng hi u qu chi ph, chi ph kim sot nhim s cao hn mc c th khi chnh sch l hiu qu chi ph. 52 Tng chi p h gim nhim l din tch pha di ng MAC t mc thi ban u (trong trng hp ny l 200.000 tn) n mc thi mc tiu (100.000 tn).
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cho php x hi t c mc mc tiu cht lng mi trng cao hn chnh sch khng hiu qu v n tit kim chi ph.
Du vic bo tn ti nguyn mi trng l cc k quan trng, tiu ch hiu qu v hiu qu chi ph vn l h trng bi v n l mt trong nhng iu m con ngi mong mun t c. Nhng ngi tn thnh thng b thuyt phc rng mc tiu ca h mc nhin ng gi, nhng thnh cng ph thc vo vic thuyt phc nhiu ngi rng chnh sch mi trng c thit k mt cch hiu qu. Nh vy, ngun lc cho ci thin cht lng mi trng phi c s dng theo cch thc cho php to ra nh hng ln nht. iu ny c bit quan trong i vi cc nc km pht trin c t ngun lc d nh cho cc chng trnh bo v mi trng v khng th trang tri cho cc chnh sch khng hiu qu v khng hiu qu chi ph. Hiu qu lc chi ph cng tr thnh vn quan trng cho cc nc pht trin trong thi k khng hong hoc suy thoi.
CNG BNG
Cng bng, hoc b nh ng, l mt tiu ch quan trng khc nh gi chnh sch mi trng. Cng bng l vn o c v l s quan tm ca ngi kh gi i vi nhng ngi km may mn. N cng l mi quan tm chnh sch t hiu lc bi v chnh sch s khng c ng h nu c coi l khng bnh ng. Tuy nhin chng ta phi tha nhn rng khng c s thng nht v trng s m chng ta gn cho hai mc tiu: hiu qu v phn phi. Hy xem xt nhng s liu gi thuyt sau y, cc s liu ny th hin chi ph v li ch ca mt s phng php kim sot nhim khng kh ca mt vng no . Phn phi li ch rng Chng Tng chi ph trnh A 50 B 50 C 50 D 50
Tng li ch 100 100 140 140
Li ch rng 50 50 90 90
Thu nhp thp 25 30 20 40
Thu nhp cao 25 20 70 50
Ba ct u cho bit tng chi ph, tng li ch, v li ch rng tng ng. Chng trnh A v B c cng li ch rng, nhng chng trnh B li ch ny c phn phi mt cch tin b hn so vi chng trnh A. Chng ta c th cho rng mi ngi thch chng trnh B hn chng trnh A v n c cng li ch rng v c nh hng phn phi tt hn. Nhng nu so snh chng trnh B vi C, li ch rng ca C cao hn B rt nhiu. Tht ng tic li ch li khng c phn phi tin b nh B; thc ra li ch c phn phi nhiu hn cho ngi c thu nhp cao. Nu chng ta phi la chn gia B v C, chng ta nn chn chng trnh no? Mt s ngi c th lp lun rng chng ta nn chn B v l do phn phi, nhng ngi khc s tranh lun nn chn C v c tng li ch rng ln hn. Hoc, so snh B v D. Trong trng hp ny D c u th hn v hiu qu, mc du tng t nh C li ch c phn phi nhiu hn cho ngi c thu nhp cao. Nhng y chng ta cng thy rng ngi c thu nhp thp c th tng thu nhp xt trn phng din tuyt i, mc d khng tng trn phng din tng i. Mt cu hi cn c tho lun thm l cn phi nhn mnh nh th no tc ng phn phi ca chnh sch mi trng so vi cc kha cnh khc. C tranh lun cho rng v suy thoi mi trng trn lan, x hi cn ch trng ch yu vo nhng chnh sch hiu qu
146
nht mang li nh h ng ln nht t ngun lc s dng. Tranh lun khc cho rng x hi cn trnh s dng nhng chnh sch d hiu qu nhng c nhng tc ng mnh m. D cm nhn nh th no v tc ng phn phi v iu ph thuc rt nhiu vo nh gi c nhn chng ta cn phi ghi nh rng cn t mt trng s nht nh cho kha cnh phn phi khi chn la chnh sch mi trng. Tiu ch bnh ng cng hin din trong quyt nh cc chnh sch mi trng quc t. Nhng quc gia cc giai on pht trin khc nhau c nhng quan im khc nhau v cch thc phn b ph tn ca cc chng trnh kim sot nhim quc t. Vi s khc bit to ln v kinh t trn phm vi tan cu, nhng quan im xut pht t nhng ccg nhn nhn khc nhau v bnh ng. C th rt kh khn khi xc nh tc ng phn phi cui cng ca bt c chnh sch mi trng no. Xem xt v d cc quy nh v thi kh t cc nh my in. Nhng quy nh ny s lm tng chi ph in nng, v vic nh gi nh hng n cc i tng khc nhau khng phi l qu kh bi v chng ta c c thng tin kh y v tiu dng in ca cc nhm i tng khc nhau. Tt nhin, y chng ta cng c th gp mt s kh khn, bi v khch hng s thc hin mt s bin php tit kim in thot khi nh hng tng gi. V phng din li ch, chng ta cn phi bit cc quy nh lm thay i cht lng mi trng cho nhng i tng c thu nhp khc nhau nh th no, nhng thng tin loi ny rt kh thu thp. Hoc gi nh ha cht c hi, v d thuc tr su. Dng nh chng ta khng bit g v hnh vi tiu dng hng ha ny theo nhm thu nhp.
KHUY N KHCH I MI
Trong nghin cu chnh sch mi trng, cch thc lm vic v kt qu cng vic ca cc cng chc thng c ch trng nhiu, bi v h c xem nh l khi ngun ca chnh sch. Nhng chnh cc ch th t nhn l cc hng sn xut v ngi tiu dng, nhng ngi quyt nh phm vi v cp ca cc tc ng mi trng v nhng khuyn khch i vi cc ch th ny l yu t quyt nh cc tc ng c gim thiu nh th no v u. V vy, mt tiu ch quan trng phi c s dng nh gi chnh sch mi trng l liu chnh sch c khuyn khch mnh m cc c nhn tm kim gii php mi gim thiu nh hng mi trng; iu c ngha liu chnh sch c khuyn khch tin b cng ngh khng? C phi chnh sch buc cc c quan cng m trch mi sng kin v ph tn, hay n khuyn khch cc c nhn n lc v sng to tm kim phng php gim thiu nhim mi trng khng? Thnh thong trong phn tch chng ta d dng b qun iu quan trng ny khi tp trung vo hm chi ph gim nhim v thit hi. Nhng hm s ny th hin mc pht thi ti u hin thi, nhng qua thi gian iu quan trng l phi lm dch chuyn cc hm s ny v pha di. Gim thp chi ph gim nhim bin s m bo gim thi t tn km hn bi v n th hin mc cht lng mi trng cao hn, nh c minh ha trong cc phn trc ca chng. i mi cng ngh lm dch chuyn hm chi ph bin xu ng di. Cng nh vy, gio dc v o to cho php con ngi lm vic v gii quyt vn hiu qu hn. Cui cng, iu chng ta mun bit l liu mt chnh sch mi trng c khuyn khch hay khng v khuyn khch bao nhiu cc ch th gy nhim tm kim phng php gim nhim. Theo tiu ch ny, khuyn khch cng nhiu th chnh sch cng tt.
HIU LC
147
Vic ban hnh cc quy nh v m bo cc quy nh c thc hin i hi phi c ngu n lc con ngi, thi gian, v th ch. C khuynh hng cho rng ban hnh lu t t ng lm cho cc vn c gii quyt. Dng nh khng phi cc ch th gy nhim s t ng tun theo bt c iu g lu t ban hnh, thm ch ngay c nhng quc gia c h thng lut v th ch mnh. Chnh sch cn c thi hnh bng cch gim st s pht thi hoc cng ngh c s dng, v s dng h thng php l gii quyt cc trng hp vi phm lut. Tht khng may, thng c nhng ngi khng mong mun cc chnh sch mi trng c thi hnh. Tt c nhng iu i hi nht thit phi c chi ph qun l cho bt k chnh sch no. L do theo ui iu ny l s kh d khc nhau ca vic thi hnh cc chnh sch. Mt s chnh sch i hi khi thc hin phi c bin php k thut phc tp; cc chnh sch khc c th c thc hin vi chi ph thp hn. Hon tan v ngha khi c gng th nghim mt gii php chnh sch mi, qu d thc thi m khng thc t, hoc mt chnh sch khi thc thi th qu tn km. C th tt khi chng ta p dng mt chnh sch khng hon ho nhng c hiu lc. C hai bc chnh trong qu trnh thc thi chnh sch: gim st v trng pht. Gim st l nh gi kt qu ca cc ch th gy nhim theo cc yu cu c quy nh trong lut. Trng pht l vic a ra ta nhng trng hp vi phm php lut. V vy, gim st thng thng l cn thit; iu ny khng ng vi mt chnh sch duy nht, l thuyt phc o c. Gim st hnh vi nhim l phc tp hn nhiu so vi vic theo di nhit . T nhin chng quan tm g, v vy n khng c nh la, gy kh d cho qu trnh gim st. Nhng ch th gy nhim, nhng ngi thng minh v ch chu mt tin khi lut mi trng c thc hin mt cch nghim khc, thng tm kim nhng cch khc nhau lm tht bi vic gim st. Nu qu trnh gim st cng kh khn phc tp th cng to iu kin cho ngi gy nhim tm cch ln trnh. Mt phn chnh yu khc ca tnh hiu lc l trng pht nhng ngi gy nhim vi phm lut. Nghe ra c v l mt bc n gin: pht thin c ngi vi phm, a h ra ta v x pht theo quy nh ca lut php. Cc phin ta thng tn thi gian, cng sc, v tin ca. Vi nhiu lut v nhiu ngi vi phm, c gng a ra ta tt c cc trng hp vi phm tr thnh gnh nng qu mc cho h thng php lut. Nhng ngi vi phm cng ngi hu ta, h dnh nhiu cng sc, tin ca chng li s trng pht, lm cho tin tnh tr thnh phin ta dai dng v tn km. Trong nhiu trng hp d liu lm c s cho vic trng pht l khng y , dn n nhng thch thc v xung t tn km. cnh co, c quan chc nng ch nn trng pht mt s t vi phm qu mc, nhng iu ny lm ny sinh vn quyt nh ngi vi phm no phi hu ta. Khng ngc nhin g trong thc t nhiu ngi vi phm, c bit nhng ngi vi phm ln u, khng b trng pht theo nhng quy nh cho php ca lut. Thng thng c quan chc nng thng c gng c c s tun th t nguyn v khuyn khch ngi vi phm khc phc tnh hnh m khng trng pht. Qu trnh trng pht cha ng mt nghch l. C th cho rng, trng pht c ng nng tin pht cao, pht t lu i vi ngi vi phm, v.v. th tc d ng ngn chn vi phm ca lut tt hn. Mt khc, nu hnh pht cng nng ta n cng min cng p dng. e da nh ch kinh doanh, ngay c x pht ti chnh nng c th e da k sinh nhai ca nhiu ngi. Ta n thng ngi lm cho nhiu ngi b mt vic lm hoc b t gim c doanh nghip, v v vy chn la hnh pht nh hn so vi quy nh ca lut. C s nh i gia mc trng pht v xc sut n c p dng. V vy tin trnh trng pht c th phc tp hn nhiu so vi nhng g m m hnh n gin ng . Chi ph tun th l mt phn quan trng ca cc chng trnh cht lng mi trng. Cc c quan cng dng nh mi ni gp phi rng buc ngn sch nhng trch nhim th to
148
ln v ngy cng nng n. V vy, chi ph tun th mc du khng ln bng tng chi ph thc thi trong phn ln cc trng hp nhng quan trng i vi cc chng trnh cht lng mi trng v cn c xem xt r rng trong vic nh gi tng chi ph x hi ca cc chng trnh ny.
CC XEM XT V MT O C
Xem xt kha cnh o c vt qu vn bnh ng v phn phi tho lun trn. Khng nghi ng g, cm ngh ca con ngi v ci g l ng hay sai nh hng cch thc m h xem xt cc chng trnh mi trng khc nhau. Nhng vn ny cn c cn nhc mt cch ngang bng vi nhng tiu ch k thut m chng ta tho lun trn. Chng hn vn chn la gia thu pht thi v tr cp pht thi. C hai u l chnh sch khuyn khch kinh t, v c hai u c th gim mc nhim theo ngun vi cng mt lng nh nhau. T gic hiu qu, c th tranh lun rng tr cp l tt hn. Ngi gy nhim c phn ng tt v nhanh v sn lng n nhn chng trnh tr cp hn nhng chng trnh buc h chu nhiu chi ph. n thun t quan im lm sch mi trng cng sm cng tt, tr cp c th l hiu qu nht. Nhng iu c th tri ngc vi quan im o c cho rng ngi gy nhim mi trng nht thit khng c n p thi khng gy nhim mi trng na, iu m i khi tr cp c xem nh vy. Quan im cho rng ngi gy nhim phi tr tin thng c ng h hn v mt o c. Mt s ngi nhn nhn quan im ny su hn v tranh lun rng hnh vi gy nhim l tri o c. V vy, chng ta cn p dng chnh sch lm cc hnh vi gy nhim l bt hp php. Mt tng khc bt ngun t quan im o c cho rng ai gy nhim th phi chu mi ph tn lm gim nhim. Quan im ny c bc l trong nhng tranh lu n v vn mi trng to n cu. Nhng nc cng nghip, c bit l nhng nc c kinh t pht trin, chu trch nhim chnh v s tch t kh CO2 v s suy gim tng zn. Nhiu ngi cho rng nhng quc gia ny phi chu phn ln ph tn khc phc tnh trng .
TM TT
Mc tiu ca chng ny l h thng ha mt s tiu ch c th c ch trong nh gi chnh sch mi trng. Nhng ch tiu ny l hiu qu v hiu qu chi ph cng bng khuyn khch i mi tnh hiu lc o l
Vi nhng tiu ch ny, by gi ta c th xem xt nhng loi chnh sch mi trng khc nhau.
149
CU H I THO LUN
1. Hiu qu hm hiu qu chi ph, nhng hiu qu chi ph khng hm hiu qu. Gii thch iu . 2. C nn nh i hiu qu vi cng bng hay khng? Hy bo v kin ca bn? 3. Bn cnh nhng nh hng khc n nhng ngi c thu nhp khc nhau, chnh sch mi trng c th c tc ng khc nhau n cc vng trong mt quc gia. Chnh sch mi trng quc gia nh hng khc nhau nh th no khi c thc hin ng b cc vng khc nhau? Nu mt tnh phn i, chnh sch mi trng quc gia c nn cho php tnh khng tham gia thc hin khng? 4. Hy chng minh bng biu rng thay i cng ngh (lm gim chi ph gim nhim bin) c th lm cho cht lng mi trng tt hn. C chnh sch hnh chnh no c th lm gim thit hi bin khng?
150
CHNG 10
LUT NGHA V PHP L, QUYN S HU, THUYT PHC O C, HNG HA XANH

Lut ngha v php l, phn nh quyn s hu, thuyt phc o c, v hng ha xanh l nhng v d v phng php phi tp trung ni ha ngoi tc. Phng php phi tp trung/phn quyn cho php cc c nhn lin quan n nhim mi trng t gii quyt vn mi khi c cc nguyn tc r rng v th tc v quyn c thit lp thng qua h thng php lut. Cc chnh sch qun l mi trng nh thu, tr cp, giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng l t phn quyn hn bi v chng i hi s can thip ca chnh ph nhiu hn di hnh thc t ra quy nh cc mc thu, mc tr cp, hoc s giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng. Tuy nhin, chng vn cho php cc c nhn quyt nh nn i ph nh th no vi chnh sch v d, cn phi gim thi bao nhiu. Tiu chu n m i trng l mt chnh sch rt tp trung: chnh ph quy nh tiu chun v cc ch th gy nhim khng c la chn no khc m phi p ng cc tiu chu n hoc phi chu pht nu vi phm. Chng ta s bt u vi phng php phi tp trung nht trong min chnh sch t phi tp trung n tp trung, v sau xem xt cc cng c i hi s can thip nhiu hn ca chnh ph trong cc chng tip theo. Hy xem xt mt v d n gin. Gi s c nhiu nh my cng nghip quanh h nc. C mt nh my ch bin thc phm, v nc h l m t u vo quan trng cho hat ng ca nh my. Mt nh my cng nghip khc x cht thi vo h. Thit hi nhim m nh my th nht phi chu c th cn bng nh th no vi chi ph x l ca nh my th hai? Phng php phi tp trung xc nh mc nhim hiu qu ca nc h l c hai nh my t gii quyt vi nhau. Hai nh my c th thc hin vic bng cch m php khng chnh thc hoc thng qua ta n. Phng php tp trung hn i hi s can thip ca chnh ph - t vic nh thu cht thi n vic quy nh tiu chun cht lng nc. Cch tip cn phi tp trung c mt s u im so vi cc cch tip cn chnh sch khc: Cc bn lin quan l nhng ngi to ra v chu ngoi tc mi trng. V vy h c ng c tm kim gii php i vi vn mi trng. Nhng ngi lin quan c th l nhng ngi c hiu bit tt nht v thit hi v chi ph x l v v vy c kh nng tt nht xc nh mc nhim hiu qu.
phng php phi tp trung c th xy ra, qu yn s hu phi c nh r v phn b trc . Trong trng hp mi trng, x hi thng qua chnh ph v h thng php l cn quyt nh ai l ngi c quyn i vi cht lng mi trng. Nh bit, vic xc nh quyn s hu l rt kh khn. Mt vn cn b n l c phi ngi dn c quyn i vi mt mc cht lng mi trng no hay nhng ngi gy nhim c t do x cht thi. Chng ta s tho lun v quyn mi trng nh l quyn s hu ca ngi gy nhim hay ca ngi b nh hng nhim. Mt khi xc nh c iu ny, quyt nh tip theo l nhng quyn s c bo v nh th no, thng qua lut ngha v php l hay quyn s hu. Chng ta s bt u vi lut ngha v php l v n quen thuc vi hu ht mi ngi.
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LUT NGHA V PHP L

Phn ln mi ngi c nim trc gic v ngha v php l/trch nhim v bi thng. C trch nhim v hnh vi l phi chu trch nhim v bt k hu qu khng hay no do hnh vi gy nn. Bi thng i hi ngi gy thit hi phi n b cho ngi b thit hi mt lng tng ng vi tn tht. Nhng vn v ngha v php l v bi thng thng c ta n gii quyt. Bn b thit hi khi t bn b coi l phi chu trch nhim, v thm phn, ban hi thm quyt nh theo nhng iu khon do lu t php quy nh. Ta n s quyt nh gi tr thit hi. Nh chng ta s thy di y, iu ny hon ton tri ngc vi phng php quyn s hu, gi tr thit hi do cc bn lin quan xc nh. V vy mt gii php cho vn mi trng l d a vo lu t ngha v php l. N n gin buc ngi gy nhim chu trch nhim v thit hi m h gy nn. Mc ch ca lut khng ch n thun m bo bi thng cho nhng ngi b thit hi, mc d iu ny l rt quan trng. Mc tiu ch thc l lm cho cho nhng ngi c th gy nhim c quyt nh cn thn hn. Bit rng h phi chu trch nhim v thit hi mi trng thc cht l ni ha nhng g c th l tc ng ngoi tc b b qua. V d di y minh ha nhng nguyn l lin quan. V d: Cht thi ha hc gy thit hi cho ngnh thy sn Mt nh my ha cht thi cht thi vo mt dng sng. Cht thi git cht nhiu c hi, l loi c c th bi ngi d ng sng sinh sn. Khng nghi ng g nhng ha cht cn gy nn nhng thit hi mi trng khc, nhng chng ta ch tp trung vo thit hi cho ngnh thy sn. Hnh 101 th hin m hnh MACMD c pht trin Chng 5. K hiu E l s tn cht thi ha hc thi vo sng hng thng. Thit hi bin ca ngnh thy sn (o b ng tr lng c hi b mt) c biu din bng hm MD. Phng trnh thit hi bin MD = 6E. Nh my ha cht c th gim lng cht thi bng cch x l cht thi. Hm chi ph x l cht thi bin (MAC) ca nh my l MAC = 800 10E. Nu gim ht lng cht thi, chi ph x l bin l 800$. Nu ho n ton khng kim sot cht thi th MAC = 0 v lng thi l 80 tn mi thng. Lut ngha v php l s nh hng nh th no n mc nhim? Trc ht gi s khng c lu t ngha v php l buc ngi gy nhim p hi chu trch nhim v thit hi m h gy nn. Trong trng hp ny nh my ha cht s khng x l cht thi, nn lng nhim l im MAC = 0. Nh my ha cht thi 80 tn mi thng. Gi lng nhim l E0. Ti E0 ngnh nh bt c hi phi chu tng thit hi (TD) bng to n b din tch pha di ng MAC t 0 n 80 tn. Tng thit hi l TD = 19.200$ mi thng. Chnh ph yu cu ban hnh lu t ngha v php l buc ngi gy nhim phi bi thng cho ngi b thit hi mt lng bng thit hi m h gy nn. Mc ch ca lut l ni ha thit hi mi trng, l ngoi vi trc khi ban hnh lut. Nhng thit hi by gi tr thnh chi ph m ngi gy nhim phi tr, v v vy h phi cn nhc khi quyt nh mc thi. Nu khng gim thi, nh my ha cht phi bi thng cho ngnh thy sn to n b thit hi 19.200$ mi thng. S 101 minh ha th ng MD v MAC.
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S 10 -1: Trch nhim v thit hi mi trng c th dn n hiu qu x hi nh th no

$ 800
MAC MD
480 420 300
100 0 50 70 80 Cht thi (tn mi thng) Khi khng c lut ngha v php l nh my ho cht s khng x l cht thi v s thi 80 tn ho cht mi thng. Vi mc thi , thit hi ca ngnh thy sn l 19.200$ mi thng. Ban hnh lut ngha v php l s khuyn khch nh my ho cht gim thi. H s ti thiu ha tin bi thng phi tr cng tng chi phi ph x l nu h thi vi mc thi hiu qu x hi 50 tn mi thng.
Liu nh my ho cht c thay i lng thi i ph li lut ngha v php l khng? Ngi gy nhim c th gim lng tin bi thng bng cch gim thi. Khi nh my phi chu chi ph x l cht thi c th hin bng ng MAC. Chng no MAC cn nh hn MD, nh my ho cht vn cn khuyn khch dch chuyn sang tri, c ngha, gim mc thi ca nh my. Trn l thuyt, h thng lut ngha v php l s t ng hng ngi gy nhim n mc thi hiu qu x hi, E* = 50 tn mi thng. Chng ta ni t ng bi v khng cn c c quan kim sot nhim yu cu gim mc thi. Ci cn thit c l h thng to n phn quyn v lut ngha v php l cho php ngi b thit hi nhim i bi thng cho thit hi. Chng ta c th chng minh rng gim thi n E* l chin lc tt hn cho nh my ho cht hn l khng gim thi v duy tr mc thi E0. Chng minh ngi gy nhim s chuyn t E0 n E* khi h phi chu trch nhim v thit hi do nhim. Cc bc:
1. Tnh t ng chi ph gim thi ca nh my ha cht (TAC) ti E* = 50 tn mi thng. TAC bng din tch pha di ng MAC t E0 n E*, v bng [ (80 50) 300] = 4.500 $. 2. Tnh tng thit hi ca ngnh thy sn ti E* (bi v lng thi ln hn khng). Tng thit hi ti E* bng din tch pha di ng MD t 0 n 50 tn, v bng [ (50 300) ] = 7.500 $. 3. Tnh tng s tin phi chi ca nh my ha cht. Tng s tin phi chi = TAC + tin bi thng cho ngnh thy sn = 4.500$ + 7.500$ = 12.000 $ mi thng. 4. So snh tng s tin phi chi ti E0 v E*. T i E0 nh my s phi tr tin bi thng 19.200$ mi thng cho ngnh thy sn. iu ny chng t ti E* nh my s tt hn ti E0.
Cu hi tho lun: Chng ta chng minh l E* th tt hn E0, liu cn c mc thi no khc tt hn cho nh my so vi E* khng? y l vn c cp cui chng. Trn l thuyt, lut ngha v php l tn ti l gii quyt vn khuyn khch lm cho ngi ta quan tm n thit hi mi trng m h c th gy nn cng nh vn bi
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thng nhng ai b thit hi. N cng gii quyt vn xc nh im E* u trn trc lng pht thi. Kt qu ca s tc ng qua li gia ngi gy nhim v ngi b thit hi ti ta n s ch ra im E* ny. Gi nh ta n cng b ng, c hai pha s a ra nhng chng c v yu sch c th tin n mc thi hiu qu. Tm li lut ngha v php l c th dn ti mc nhim hiu qu x hi bi v chng khuyn khch ngi gy nhim gim thi ti thiu ha tng chi ph ca h gm tng chi ph x l v tin bi thng cho ngi b thit hi.
Lut ngha v php l trong thc t

Yu cu ngi gy nhim phi chu trch nhim v thit hi l mt phn ca b lut c bn ca mi quc gia, hoc c th c nu trong sc lnh ca lut. Vic da vo trch nhim gii quyt tt c cc vn nhim mi trng c mt s tr ngi. Yu t kh khn trong h thng trch nhim l xc nh trch nhim minh chng thuc v ai v nhng tiu chun no cn phi p ng thit lp chng c. Canada, nhng ngi cho rng h b thit hi do nhim phi trnh ta trong mt khong thi gian xc nh, v trc ta n phi thit lp quan h nhn qu gia nhim v thit hi. Vic ny gm hai bc chnh: Trch nhim minh chng yu cu bn b hi phi trnh by r: 1. rng cht gy nhim l nguyn nhn trc tip gy thit hi cho h 2. rng cht gy nhim l do pha b co c mt ti ta gy ra C hai bc u kh khn bi v cc tiu chun minh chng theo yu cu ca ta n l nhiu hn so vi nhng g khoa hc hin i c th cung cp. Xem xt bc th nht. V d, phn ln ha cht lin quan n bnh tt tng ln ch da trn c s xc sut, ngha l tip xc vi cht lm tng xc sut b bnh, nhng khng chc chn. Chng hn mc du chng ta bit ht thuc gy ung th phi, quan h nhn qu ny vn l quan h xc sut: s ngi b ung th phi s tng ln do ht thuc, nhng chng ta khng th ni chnh xc ngi no. Bc th hai nhm chng minh cht m ngi b nh hng tip xc xut pht t mt ngun c th. Trong mt s trng hp iu ny khng kh. Nhng trong nhiu trng hp ta khng th bit c mi lin h trc tip. iu ny lm ny sinh thm mt vn trong vic s dng h thng php lut gii quyt nhim mi trng. Nu ngi ta cm thy b thit hi, liu ta n c tha nhn s thnh cu ca h khng? iu ny c gi l hc thuyt quyn c kin. Xem xt mt s v d sau. Ngi dn bang Victoria lm nhim nc cng nhng liu ngi dn Edmonton c quyn tuyn b h b thit hi? Nu ng dn Newfoundland va Labrador khai thc ht c tuyt nui sng gia nh h, liu c dn sng Winnipeg c quyn tuyn b h b thit hi? Trong nhng trng hp ny, kh c th ni ta n s tha nhn quyn c kin bi v rt kh kt lun nhng ngi sng xa b thit hi. Tuy nhin r rng c dn bang Victoria, nhng ngi ang iu hnh hot ng du lch b nh hng bi nc thi cng Victoria s c ta n trao cho quyn c kin. Cc v d ny cho thy mt im rt quan trng. Mt c nhn c th thy phc li b gim nu tr lng c b cn kit hay bin b nhim. Anh ta c th sn lng tr mt s tin no gim nhim. Nhng anh ta vn khng c quyn c kin ti ta.
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Hc thuyt quyn c kin khng tng thch vi vic cc nh kinh t s dng gi sn lng tr o lng gi tr. Gi tr c xc nh thng qua cc phin ta c th khng phn nh y gi tr m ngi ta sn lng tr v cht lng mi trng.
Chi ph giao dch

Tt c cc phng php phn quyn trong kim sot nhim u gp phi mt tr ngi khc c th lm vic t c cn bng hiu qu x hi kh khn, l chi ph giao dch. Theo ngha rng, chi ph giao dch l chi ph t n v thi hnh cc tha thun. Khi nim ny c gii thiu ln u trong kinh t hc, p dng vi chi ph m ngi mua v ngi bn phi chu thc hin thnh cng mt giao d ch bao gm chi ph tm kim thng tin, chi ph mc c v cc iu khon, v chi ph m bo chc chn rng tha thun s c thc hin. Ch ph giao dch c th p dng i vi h thng lut ngha v php l, khi nguyn n v b co i cht trc ta lm r trch nhim v lng tin cn phi bi thng. Trong trng hp ny chi ph giao d ch l tt c chi ph gn lin vi vic thu thp chng c, khi t, thch thc i phng, trng pht, v.v. Nu chng ta gii quyt mt s v n gin, mi bn chi c mt ng s v trng hp thit hi l kh r rng, h thng lut ngha v php l c th thc hin chc nng vi chi ph giao dch ti thiu v a ra kt qu cho php tip cn c mc thi hiu qu. V trng hp hai nh my nh bn mt h nc nh, hai nh my c th hu ta v tranh lun v gi tr ca h nc i vi mi b n. V nhng gi tr ny l c th so snh c vi nhau, s khng kh khn g cho thm phn xc nh mc thit hi m nh my ny gy nn cho nh my kia. Nhng vn tr nn hon ton khc khi c nhiu ngi lin quan n mt hoc c hai bn. V d s c trn du Exxon Valdez, hng chc ngn ngi cho rng h b thit hi trc tip, hng trm lu t s i din cho nhiu pha khc nhau, v s cc nhm mi trng, cc t chc chnh ph, cc nhm kinh doanh cng tham gia. Cui cng sau mt lot cc cuc i cht dai dng, mt s tin bi thng c tr. Nhng chi ph giao d ch th rt ln, v cui cng bi thng c l khng phn nh ng thit hi thc t. Khng nghi ng g mt s ng s ch yu c gng gii quyt vn vi mt tha thun bi thng c gi trc , mc du vn cn cc v kin tip tc. Tm li, lut ngha v php l v ng c m chng to nn c th gip t c mc nhim hiu qu khi c t ngi can d quan h nhn qu r rng, v d o lng thit hi
Nhng iu kin c th m bo mt s trng hp nhim a phng, khng m bo vi phn ln cc trng hp ngoi tc mi trng. V vy lut ngha v php l hn ch khi c nhiu kh khn trong chng minh vn kh t c tha nhn quyn c kin gi tr theo lut khng phn nh gi sn lng chi tr, v chi ph giao d ch ngn cn m phn v t tng.
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QUYN S HU
V d v dng sng m nh my ha cht s dng x cht thi cn ngnh nh bt c hi th s dng cho c sinh sn dn n mt vn c bn hn: Ai trong hai ngi thc s gy thit hi, v ai l ngi b thit hi? iu ny dng nh tri ngc nhau, bi v c th cho rng nh my ha cht gy thit hi. Nhng liu s hin din ca ngnh thy sn c gy nn thit hi cho nh my ha cht hay khng bi v s hin din ca ngnh thy sn i hi nh my ha cht phi n lc kim sot cht thi?53 Vn ny sinh n gin ch v khng r ai c quyn s dng dch v ca h nc lc u, c ngha ai thc s c quyn s hu h nc - quyn s hn ti sn cha ng quyn lc. Quyn lc ny c th bao gm quyn loi tr s dng, quyn chuyn nhng, hoc phn chia thnh cc phn nh hn. Quyn s hu mnh m nht l quyn s hu t nhn, n cho php ngi s hu ti sn c c quyn lm nhng g m ngi mun i vi ti sn (vi iu kin tun theo php lut, nh khng gy phin toi cng cng). Ti sn c th l mt mnh t, mt phn ca khc sng, mt vt no , sng ch v.v. Khi mt ngi no s hu ti sn th ngi mun ti sn c qun l theo cch mang li gi tr ln nht. V vy gii quyt vn nhim h nc cn phi xc nh r ai c quyn s hu h nc. Liu vic phn nh quyn s hu c gii quyt vn v t c cn bng hiu qu x hi l ch tho lun ca phn ny. Tt nhin, quyn s hu c nhn l s sp xp th ch ch yu phn a cc nn kinh t pht trin chu u. V vy chng ta quen thuc vi hot ng ca h thng th ch . Cc nc ang pht trin ang vn ng theo xu hng , ngay cc nc x hi ch ngha trc y cng vy. Quyn s hu c nhn v t cng l quen thuc. Nu ai c mt tha t, ngi c ng c lm cho tha t c s dng theo cch c ho php t gi tr ti a. Nu mt ngi no e da rc vo tha t, ch t c th yu cu lut php ngn chn, nu h mun nh vy. Theo cch phn on ny th vn s dng ti sn mi trng khng ng l do quyn s hu cc ti sn ny khng c phn nh khng hon ho. Hy xem xt mt ln na v trng hp nh my ha cht v ngnh thy sn, c hai cng s dng mt dng sng. Quyn s hu dng sng c th thuc v nh my ha cht hoc ngnh thy sn. iu ny nh hng nh th no n mc nhim h nc? Liu khng th c trng hp khng nhim khi nh my s hu h nc hoc nhim khng c kim sot nu h nc thuc s hu ca nh my kia? S khng din ra nhng tnh hung nh vy nu ngi c quyn s hu v ngi khng c quyn s hu m phn. Tt nhin y l iu ct yu ca h thng quyn s hu. Ch ti sn quyt nh ti sn nn s dng nh th no v chm dt vic s dng khng c cho php, nhng cng c th m phn vi nhng ngi khc mun tip cn ti sn. By gi chng ta tho lun lm th no vic phn quyn s hu c th d n n cn bng hiu qu x hi.
Phn nh quyn s hu v hiu qu x hi

Cu hi suy ngm: Vic ai c quyn s hu mi trng, min l c ngi c quyn s hu, c quan trng g khng? Vic phn quyn s hu cho mt b n b t k s dn n cn b ng ti u x hi hay khng? C th gii p nhng cu hi ny bng cch s dng biu vi ng MAC v MD t phn tho lun v lut ngha v php l. Hnh 10-2 v li nhng ng ny.
53
d dng tranh lun, chng ta gi nh khng c nhng ch th khc s dng h nc, nh h gia nh, ng i du lch gii tr, v cc nh my khc.
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Trng hp 1: Nh my ha cht (ch th gy nhim) c quyn s dng dng sng C quyn s hu c ngha nh my c quyn s dng dng sng nu mun. Nh my khng phi bi thng cho ngnh thy sn v thit hi nhim. T v d trc chng ta bit rng nh my ha cht s trnh chi ph x l v v vy s thi 80 tn cht thi ha hc mi thng. Hy nh li rng vi mc thi ny, ngnh thy sn s b tng thit hi l 19.200 $ mi thng. C phi y l im m vn cha c gii quyt khng?
Hnh 102: Phn nh quyn s hu dn n hiu qu x hi bt k ai c quyn s hu.
$
800
MAC MD
480 420 300
100 0 50 70 80 Cht thi (tn mi thng)
Nu nh my ho cht c quyn s dng dng sng, th nh my s khng x l bt k mt lng cht thi no. Tm mi tn mi thng l im bt u. Ngnh thu sn s mc c vi nh my ho ch t v tr tin cho nh my nu nh my gim cht thi. Hai mc hi l l 100$ v 300$ cho mi tn cht thi c gim. C hai bn u c li nu cht thi c x l.Cn bng hiu qu x h i mc 50 tn mi thng c th t c sau khi tho thun. Nu ngnh thu sn c quyn ti sn, im bt u l cht thi bng khng v cn bng ti u x hi cng c th t c t cch thc phn ng quyn ti sn ny.
Ngnh thy sn c th tr tin nh my ha cht gim thi. Ti sao li lm nh vy? Gi s ngnh thy sn ni rng: Chng ti s tr anh 100$ cho mi tn cht thi c x l c ngha khng thi vo h. iu g s xy ra? Nh my ha cht s cn bng tin tr 100$ mi tn vi ng MAC xem liu u l im ha v n khi x l nhim v do phi chu chi ph x l nhim v nhn tin n b t ngnh thy sn. T hnh 10-2, t phi sang tri, chng ta thy rng nh my ha cht c th gim mc thi xung 70 tn mi thng. Chng ta tm c im ny bng th, im ct nhau gia ng 100$ v ng MAC, hoc bng i s bng cch t MAC =100$ v gii phng trnh tm E: MAC = 800 10E. Nh my ha cht c li hn ti im cn bng. Ti 70 tn mi thng, nh my tr 500$ mi thng cho chi ph x l, nhng li nhn c tin do ngnh thy sn tr l 1.000$ mi thng (mc tr 100$ mi tn nhn vi 10 tn cht thi c x l mi thng). Li ch rng ca nh my l 500$ mi thng. Ngnh thy sn cng c li hn mc 70 tn so vi mc 80 tn mi thng. Ngnh thy sn tr 14.700$ mi thng (ti 70 tn). Tng thit hi gim i 4.500$. Tr i 1.000$ tr cho nh my ha cht, li ch rng m ngnh thy sn c c l 3.500$. V vy c hai bn u c li. Tng li ch l 4.000$ (bng 3.500$ cng 500$). Qu trnh mc c c dng li y khng? C hai c th tip tc mc c cho mi n v bin chng no thit hi bin cn vt qu chi ph x l bin. Bt u im 80 tn mi
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thng, MD cao hn MAC cho ti khi t c mc nhim 50 tn mi thng. l im hiu qu x hi. Ti mc 50 tn mi thng, nh my ha cht nhn c 9.000$ mi thng t ngnh thy sn v phi chu chi ph x l 4.500$, v vy li ch rng ca nh my l 4.500$ so vi mc thi 80 tn mi thng. Tng thit hi ca ngnh thy sn gim t 19.200$ xu ng cn 7.500$, nh vy li ch rng l 2.700$. Tng li ch tng thm l 7.200$ (bng 4.500$ cng 2.700$). Tng li ch rng mc thi mi ln hn nhiu so vi mc thi 70 hoc 80 tn mi thng. Khi t c mc cn bng ti u x hi c hai bn u c li hn so vi im bt u vi mc thi 80 tn mi thng. Nhng ch rng, li ch rng ca ngnh thy sn l ln hn mc 70 tn so vi mc 50 tn, mc d u tng thit hi mc 70 tn l cao hn nhiu. S d nh vy l v thit hi bin tng dn. Gim mt t nhim (10 tn) to nn mt lng gim ln trong thit hi trong khi ngnh thy sn phi tr khng nhiu cho nh my ho cht. Dch chuyn n 50 tn lm gim tng thit hi nhng cng lm tng tin phi tr cho nh my ho cht. Tt nhin ngnh thy sn s c li hn mc 50 tn nu c th gim bt tin phi tr cho nh my ho cht. Nu nh my ho cht hon tr t nht 800$ (phn chnh lch ca li ch rng ca ngnh thy sn 70 tn v 50 tn), ngnh thy sn s sn lng dch chuyn n cn bng ti u x hi. Trng hp 2: Ngnh thy sn (ch th b nh hng) c quyn s dng dng sng Vi cch lp lun v l gii tng t nh trng hp 1, qu trnh mc c gia nh my ho cht v ngnh thy sn s dn n cn bng ti u x hi mc thi 50 tn mi thng. im khc y l qu trnh tho thun s bt u t mc thi bng khng. V d trn y cho thy rng cn bng hiu qu x hi c th t c khng ph thuc vo vic phn nh quyn s hu. iu ct yu l quyn s hu phi c xc nh r rng v c php lut bo v v mc c c th xy ra. Thc cht, y l nh l ni ting gi l nh l Coase, t theo tn ca nh kinh t hc pht minh ra n. nh l Coase cho thy ti u x hi c th t c, nhng n khng hm rng li ch cho mi bn l nh nhau khi phn nh quyn s hu khc nhau. iu ny c th d dng nhn thy Hnh 103, tng t nh Hnh 102, ngoi tr cc phn din tch c xc nh li vi cc k hiu bng ch. Mc nhim hiu qu x hi l 50 tn cht thi bt chp chng ta bt u mc 0 tn hay 80 tn, nhng li ch rng cho mi bn lin quan l khc nhau. Bng 10-1 tm tt li ch c c v tin phi tr ca mi bn theo nhng cch phn nh quyn s hu khc nhau.
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Hnh 10-3: Li ch x hi rng t c l kt qu ca quyn s hu

$ 800 MAC MD
a 300 b c d e
50 80 (t n mi thng) E* E0 Tng li ch rng t c ca nh my ha cht v ngnh thy sn c xc nh theo tng cch thc phn nh ti sn. Nu ngnh thy sn c quyn s hu ti sn, tng li ch rng l (a+b), trong ca ngnh thy sn l b v ca nh my ha cht l a. Nu nh my ha cht c quyn s hu ti sn, tng li ch rng tng thm l (e+f), trong ca nh my ha cht l e v ca ngnh thy sn l f. Din tch (a+b) ln hn din tch (e+f). iu chng t tng li ch rng t c khng cn thit phi ging nhau bt chp ai c quyn s hu ti sn.
Cht thi ha hc
Khi c quyn s hu i vi dng sng, ngnh thy sn nhn c tin do nh my tr bng din tch (b+ c). Tng thit hi ca ngnh l c, nh vy li ch rng l din tch b. Nh my ha cht tr tin cho ngnh thy sn (b+ c), v phi chu chi ph x l l d. Tng li ch rng ca c hai b n l (a+b ). Khi nh my ha cht c quyn s hu i vi d ng sng, tng li ch rng l (e+f). Biu v cc con s trn cho ta thy (a +b) ln hn (e+f). C phi iu lun lun ng hay khng? iu ph thuc vo ci g? Cu tr li l khng, n ph thuc vo dng ca hm MAC v MD. X hi c th c li hn vi mt cch phn nh ti nguyn no so vi cch phn nh ti nguyn khc, mc d phn nh ti nguyn no cng t hiu qu x hi. Tm li Li ch x hi rng t c ph thuc vo ai c quyn s hu mi trng. Bng 101: Mc c trong nhng bi cnh phn nh quyn s hu khc nhau
Quyn s hu thuc v ngnh thy sn: So snh cn bng ti E* vi ti 0 Tng thit hi ti 0 Tng thit hi ti E* TAC ti 0 TAC ti E* Tng tin tr cho ngnh thy sn Li ch rng Thy sn 0 c +(b+c) [(b+c) c] = b Nh my ha cht a+b+c+d d (b+c) (a+b+c) (b+c) = a
Quyn s hu thuc v nh my ha cht: So snh cn bng ti E* vi 0 Tng thit hi ti 0 Tng thit hi ti E* TAC ti 0 TAC ti E* Tng tin tr cho nh my ha cht Li ch rng Thy sn c+d+e+f c (d+e) [(e+d+f) (d+f) ]=f Nh my ha cht 0 d +(d+e) [(d+e) d] = e
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ng dng quyn s hu i vi vn mi trng

Hm rng hn ca v d nu trn l bng cch nh r quyn s hu t nhn (khng nht thit l quyn s hu c nhn, bi v cc nhm ngi t nhn c th c nhng quyn s hu ny), chng ta c th thit lp iu kin m vic mc c s to ra mc cht lng mi trng hiu qu. iu ny kh hp dn. Mt mnh ca n l nhng ngi tham gia mc c c th bit nhiu hn v gi tr tng i lin quan nh chi ph x l v thit hi hn nhng ngi khc, v vy hy vng im hiu qu thc t c th t c. V, v n l mt h thng phn quyn, chnh quyn trung ng s khng ra cc quyt nh m nhiu khi cc quyt nh ny ch da vo cc mi quan tm chnh tr thay v cc gi tr kinh t thc t lin quan. tng nh vy khin mt s ngi xut tp trung ti nguyn mi trng vo s hu t nhn nh l mt phng tin t c vic s dng c hiu qu ti nguyn. Trong thc t phng php quyn s hu ny ho t ng nh th no? Nh chng ta thy vi lut ngha v php l, nhiu khi trn l thuyt th rt tt nhng li khng pht huy tc dng torng thc t phc tp. phng php quyn s hu pht huy tc dng c ngha l gip chng ta tip cn mc nhim mi trng hiu qu x hi nht thit cn tha mb ba iu kin. Nhng iu kin ny c m t chi tit di y: Quyn s hu iu kin cho hiu qu x hi: (1) Quyn s hu phi c nh r, c hiu lc, v c th chuyn nhng. (2) C h thng cnh tranh tng i hiu qu cc bn lin quan gp g v m phn v quyn s hu mi trng nn c s dng nh th no. (3) Phi c tp hp th trng hon chnh ch s hu t nhn nm bt c ton b gi tr x hi gn lin vi vic s dng gi tr ti sn mi trng. Quyn s hu phi xc nh c mt cch r rng, c b n lin quan hiu r, v c hiu lc. Nu nh my A khng th ngn chn nh my B lm bt c nhng g B mun, phng php quyn s hu s khng pht huy hiu lc. Ni cch khc, ch s hu phi c kh nng php l v vt cht ngn cc ch th khc xm phm ti sn ca h. Ch s hu phi c kh nng bn ti sn cho bt c ai mun mua. iu ny l thc s quan trng i vi ti sn mi trng. Nu ch s hu khng th bn ti sn, iu ny s lm suy gim ng c bo tn sc sn xut ca ti sn trong d i hn. Nu khng th chuyn nhng, ch ti sn lm suy gim sc sn xut lu di ca ti nguyn khng th b x pht mc d gi tr th trng ca ti sn b gim. Nhiu nh kinh t tranh lun rng l vn trm trng cc nc ang pht trin; bi v quyn s hu thng b suy yu (c ngha, chng khng c tt c cc c im cn thit nh nu trn), ngi ta khng c ng c duy tr sc sn xut lu di ca ti sn.
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Nhng vn vi vic s dng quyn s hu nh l mt phng php ni ha ngoi tc

1. Chi ph giao dch. Vic s dng dng sng hiu qu v d trn y ph thuc vo vic m phn v tha thun gia cc ch th lin quan. Chi ph giao dch di hnh thc chi ph m phn v chi ph thc hin cng vi chi ph kim sot tha thun c th l va phi trong trng hp ny. Nhng gi s c hng chc ngnh sn xut s dng dng sng lm ni cha cht thi v, thay v ch c mt ngnh thy sn, nhiu h gia nh v ngnh sn xut khc s dng dng sng cho mc ch sinh ho t v gii tr. By gi m phn phi din ra gia mt b n vi l hng chc nh my gy nhim vi b n kia l hng ngn ngi. Tht kh tng tng mc c c th xy ra nh th no. Chi ph giao dch s rt cao. 2. T do tip cn v n theo. Cht lng nc sng l hng ha cng i vi tt c nhng ngi lin quan. Ti sao ti li phi tr tin ci thin cht lng nc trong khi hng xm li hng li m khng phi tr g c? Vn n theo thc s lm mt c hi t c cn bng hiu qu x hi, im m chng ta c th t c thng qua phn nh quyn s hu v thng lng. Nu hng ha mi trng cng mang tnh cht cng cng nhiu th phng php phn quyn cng c t c may pht huy hiu lc. Trng hp c bit nht l khi chng ta thng ngon ti nguyn mi trng t do tip cn. Khng th xc nh quyn s hu t nhn cho ti nguyn t do tip cn bi v chng khng c tnh lo i tr. Bt c ai cng c th tip cn. 3. Ch s hu ti sn khng c kh nng nm bt c gi tr x hi. Ngay c trong nhng trng hp xc nh c quyn s hu t nhn, tin trnh phi din ra nh th no ch s hu c th nm bt c gi tr x hi y ca ti nguyn theo cch s dng tt nht. Gi s mt ngi s hu mt hn o trong Ba ngn hn o H Huron. C hai cch s dng: xy dng khch sn hoc hn o hoang vu. Nu ngi xy dng khch sn, anh ta s c d ng tin trc tip bi v th trng du lch pht trin mnh khu vc ny ca th gii v anh ta c th hy vng khch tham quan tm thy khch sn ca mnh v tr tin cho dch v. Nhng khng c th trng tng ng cho dch v thin nhin hoang d. Gi tr ca hn o nh l mt khu hoang d c th ln hn nhiu so vi gi tr ca n nh l mt ni tham quan, o lng bng tng gi sn lng tr ca tt c mi ngi trn th gii. Nhng khng c cch no h c th th hin gi tr ; khng c th trng i vi thin nhin hoang d nh th trng du lch m h c th t gi cho khch du lch n tham quan. Anh ta c th cho rng mt t chc bo tn thin nhin c th mua ton b hn o nu gi tr ca n nh l khu b o tn ln hn gi tr ca n nh l mt ni tham quan. Nhng t chc bo tn thin nhin ho t ng da vo s ng gp t nguyn, v thc cht nhng hn o v nhng vng t khc l hng ha cng cng. Nh chng ta tho lun trc y, khi c lin quan n hng ha cng cng, ng gp t nguyn duy tr hng ha thng t hn nhiu so vi gi tr thc ca n, v vn n theo. Kt qu cui cng l khi anh ta, ngi ch ti sn hy vng thu c ton b gi tr tin t ca o nh l mt ni tham quan, khng th thu c ton b gi tr x hi ca n nu anh gi n nh l khu b o tn. V d ny l d ng a phng ca mt vn ln hn c ngha ton cu. Trong nhng nm gn y ngi ta ch nhiu n a d ng sinh hc v qu gen qu him ca hng triu loi ng thc vt trn th gii. Mt phn ln nhng lo i ny sng cc nc ang pht trin. Nhng nhng quc gia ny, p lc pht trin dn n vic khai
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thc t v ph hy mi trng sng din ra tc cao. Khi ch t cc quc gia ny xem xt cc chn la, h nh gi gi tr ca t theo cc cch s dng khc nhau. Khng may, hin ti khng c cch no nm bt c gi tr ca t nh l mi trng sng cho cc loi. Khng tn ti th trng kinh t bn cc dch v ny; nu chng thc s tn ti, ch t c th thu c li ch c nhn t vic khng pht trin t hoc s dng t theo cch bo tn ging loi. Trong hon cnh ny c quan qun l cng c th to ra cu cho th trng. C th thc hin bng cch tr tin cho ch t mt khon bng gi tr sinh thi ca t, nu nh nhng gi tr sinh thi ny khng b cc ch t lm suy gim. Tt nhin, s gp mun vn kh khn trong vic o lng gi tr sinh thi ny vi mt mc chnh xc no , cng nh trong vic tm ngu n ti tr tr cho nhng dch v ny. Nhng nu khng c th trng nh vy hoc cc th ch tng t th trng, th ch quyn s hu t nhn khng th cho php x hi t c lng bo tn v cht lng mi trng hiu qu.
THUYT PHC O C
Thuyt phc o c cp nhng chng trnh thuyt phc khuyn khch thc ca con ngi v gi tr tinh thn hoc bn phn cng dn ngi t gic khng lm nhng vic gy suy thoi mi trng. Trng hp kinh in l s thnh cng ca p lc cng cng i vi vic thi rc. Bn cnh nhng hnh ph, cc chng trnh chng thi rc khng da vo e d a hnh pht m d a phn ln vo vic ku gi thc ca mi ngi v o c cng dn. Trong nhng ngy u thc hin phng php ti ch cht thi, cng ng thng da vo cc n lc t nguyn nhm ku gi thi quen tt ca cng dn. Trong mt s trng hp, nhng n lc thnh cng, trong nhiu trng hp b tht bi thm hi. Ngy nay chng ta chuyn theo hng cc chng trnh ti ch bt buc, tuy nhin chng cng ph thuc nhiu vo vic thuyt phc o c c c t l tun th cao. Ku gi hnh vi tt ca cng dn c th l chnh sch cng c hiu qu trong nhiu trng hp. iu ny c bit ng trong trng hp thi rc m nhng ngi vi phm thng phn tn trong dn c lm cho vic gim st v pht hin vi phm l khng thc t. u im ca thuyt phc o c l n c th c nh hng lan ta. Trong khi thu pht thi i vi mt cht thi no khng c nh hng n vic pht thi cc cht khc, ku gi thi quen tt cng dn c th c nh hng ph n cc tnh hu ng khc. Thi quen tt ca cng dn t cm nhn tt v vic khng thi rc (khi m vic khng thi rc rt d nh la ngi khc) c th nhn rng cho cc trng hp khc khi m cng dn c th trn chy sau khi gy ra nhng hnh vi xm hi mi trng. Nhng ngi c thc cng ng v mi trng t khi b du nhn t s dng hoc cc hp sn cn d vo rc thi gia nh, hoc tt thit b hn ch nhim khng kh ca xe hi tit kim nhin liu. Tuy nhin vic s dng thuyt phc o c nh l phng php chnh sch ch yu li c vn . T gic o c, khng phi tt c mi ngi u c trch nhim nh nhau. Mt s ngi s c phn ng vi nhng tranh lun v o c, mt s ngi khc li khng phn ng g. V vy, gnh nng chnh sch s ln nhng ngi nhy cm v o c hn, nhng ngi t nhy cm v o c s n theo nhng ngi khc, hng li t s cn thn v o c ca ngi khc v chi b s chia s trch nhim cng bng. iu
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ny t hi ch n c tc ng lu d i. Nu nhng ngi nhy cm o c phi ng u vi nhng cnh tng n theo trn lan v o c, iu ny c th lm xi mn mc chung v trch nhim v o c cng dn trong lu di. V vy mc d c hiu lc trong ngn hn, ku gi s p ng nhit tnh v o c ca con ngi c th c nh hng ngc li trong di hn. iu ny tng t nh vic ngi dn s khng cn tin tng khi khi lut mi trng mi tip tc c ghi vo sch nhng khng c thc thi. Thi quen o c tt chnh bn thn n l mt phn thng, nu nhng ngi khc bit c iu th tt hn. Khuyn khch tinh thn s hiu qu hn trong vic gim nhim khi sn c thng tin v mc nhim v s thay i ca n. V vy, nh l phn b sung cho cc chng trnh vn ng v mi trng, nhng n lc o lng v cng b mc thi cng nh nhng n lc gim thi l mt phn b tr quan trng. Nhng yu t ny l l do ca nhng n lc gn y ca cc nhm mi trng Canada v Hoa k pht trin b lut o c chng nhim m cc cng ty c th ng k t nguyn. Canada cng c kim k quc gia hng nm v cht thi nhim (NPRI) cung cp nhng thng tin chung v x thi v s pht tn cht thi ca khong 240 hp cht c hi t cc ngun thi c nhn v cng cng. Vic s dng thuyt phc o c nh l mt cng c trong qun l mi trng cng d b ch trch. Trong thi i m cc on th x hi cng nhiu v mc ph hoi mi trng cao, nhng nh hoch nh chnh sch cng rn b li ko bi cc chnh sch mi trng mnh m. c th l mt sai lm. R rng l chng ta khng th ph thuc nng n vo cng c thuyt phc o c t c mc gim c ngha v nhim khng kh khu vc hnh lang Windsor-Montreal, ho c gim mc s dng ha cht nng nghip gy nhim ngun nc ngm. Nhng trong vic tm kim nhng chnh sch cng mi c hiu lc gii quyt nhng vn nhim mi trng c th, c l chng ta nh gi thp s vai tr ca o c x hi v thc cng dn. Nn tng o c x hi thun li cho php ban hnh nhng chnh sch mi v vic qun l v thc thi cc chnh sch tr nn d dng hn. T chng ta cng c th thy c tm quan trng ca cc chnh tr gia v nhng ngi hoch nh chnh sch cho vic thc hin nhng chng trnh lm lnh mnh mi trng o c thay v lm xi mn n.
PHN NG CA TH TRNG I VI NHIM MI TRNG: HNG HA XANH

Mi khi quyn s hu c thit lp r rng, ngha l chng hn ch lng nhim hoc nh r c mc cht lng mi trng, th trng mi s xut hin cung cp hng ha cht lng mi trng. Ngi tiu dng c th sn lng tr cho hng ha em li cho h cng mt mc hi lng nh nhau nhng t gy thit hi mi trng trong qu trnh sn xut hoc s dng. Nu nh my c th sn xut c nhng hng ha nh vy th th trng hng ha xanh c th xut hin. Canada hin nay mt s hng ha xanh ang c bn. V d, chng bao gm hng gia d ng nh bt git khng c photphat, c quy khng c thy ngn, giy c sn xut t nguyn liu ti ch, v cc thit b nh t lnh v l si tit kim nng lng. Cng c th c u vo xanh cho qu trnh sn xut. Hng ha xanh gim nhim nh th no?
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Hnh 10-4: Chi ph x hi bin ca hng ha xanh so vi hng ha nhim

$ $ SS SP SS
SP
P0 P1 D1
D0
0 0 Q1 Q2 (a) Khi lng giy c sn xut s dng nguyn liu nguyn sinh (b) Khi lng giy c sn xut s dng nguyn liu ti ch
Xem xt Hnh 10-4. Biu (a) th hin th trng sn phm giy c sn xut bng nguyn liu nguyn sinh v Biu (b) minh ha th trng sn phm giy sn xut t nguyn liu ti ch. Chng ta gi nh rng nguyn liu ti ch lm cho qu trnh sn xut t gy nhim hn so vi nguyn liu nguyn sinh. Mi biu minh ha hai ng cung: SP th hin chi ph sn xut t nhn bin; SS chi ph x hi bin (l tng chi ph t nhn bin v chi ph ngo i tc bin, nh chng ta thy Chng 4). Mc nhim ca hai loi sn phm c th hin bi chi ph x hi bin cao hn i vi giy c sn xut bng nguyn liu nguyn sinh. By gi chng ta s b sung thm cc ng cu. Gi s, lc u th trng ch cung cp giy c sn xu t bi quy trnh gy nhim cao. Nh th hin Biu (a) vi ng cu D0, gi c cn bng th trng l P0 v khi lng sn phm l Q0. By gi ngi sn xut giy t gy nhim hn tham gia th trng. Nu ngi tiu dng cm thy rng giy ti c h l hng thay th tt cho giy thng thng, s c cu cho giy ti ch. Nu hai hng ha l hng ha thay th, cu v giy gy nhim nhiu hn s dch chuyn sang tri khi giy ti ch c gii thiu ra th trng. Cn bng th trng mi c thit lp vi mc sn xut giy thng thng thp hn (Q1) v c bn vi mc gi thp hn (P1). S c cu v giy ti ch. Nu ngi tiu dng cng mun thay th giy ti ch cho giy thng thng, ng cu Biu (a) cng dch chuyn sang tri. Mc dch chuyn ph thuc vo th hiu ca ngi tiu dng, chi ph sn xut t nhn bin v.v. Nu giy ti ch chim lnh mt phn th trng th nhim s gim xung. iu ny xy ra v ng chi ph gim nhim bin dch chuyn xung pha di. Ti sao? Xem l i cch thc xc nh chi ph gim nhim bin gp (MAC) trong Chng 5. Thay v ch c mt phng php sn xut vi lng nhim nhiu cho mi n v sn phm, by gi chng ta c sn phm giy c sn xut bi hai loi nh my: mt loi vi mc thi thp hn nhiu trn mi n v sn phm. Nu khi lng sn phm giy khng thay i, tng nhim chc chn phi gim. Biu 10-5 th hin iu ny, vi MAC1 l chi ph gim nhim bin gp ca ch gm nhng nh cung cp gy nhim cao v MAC2 l ng chi ph bin mi khi c nhng nh cung cp c cng nhim bnh qun cho mi n v sn phm thp hn. Chng ta thy rng mc nhim gim t E1 xung E2. iu ny c ngha bt k ng thit hi bin nm v tr no, nhim l thp hn thm ch ngay khi
164
khng c chnh sch ca nh nc thit k t mc pht thi hiu qu. Ch rng ng thit hi bin khng dch chuyn, bi v mi quan h gia mi n v pht thi v thit hi mi trng khng thay i. Hnh 10-5: Hng ha xanh nh hng chi ph x l bin nh th no
$ MAC1 MD
MAC2
E2 E1 Lng pht thi (tn mi nm)
Hng ha xanh gy nhim t hn trn mi n v sn phm so vi hng ha c cng nhim cao. S dng hng ha xanh s lm cho ng MAC dch chuyn t MAC1 sang MAC2. Thm ch khi khng c chnh sch mi trng, s thay th ny s lm gim pht thi t E1 xung E2.
Mt nn kinh t c t l sn xut v tiu dng sn phm xanh cao hn s c t nhim hn nn kinh t s dng hng ha c cng nhim cao. Tt nhin chnh ph c th khuyn khch sn xut sn phm xanh. Chng ta s tho lun vn ny nhiu hn Chng 12. im chnh y l thm ch ngay khi khng c can thip ca chnh ph, nu tn ti cu cho sn phm xanh v c cng ngh cn thit, cht lng mi trng s cao hn nu nhng hng ha ny c sn xut v tiu dng. Tm li: sn xut v tiu dng sn phm xanh gim cng nhim trong hng ha ca nn kinh t (lm ng MAC dch chuyn xung di), v dn n mc cht lng mi trng cao hn.
165
TM TT
Trong chng ny, chng ta kho st nhng v d v cch tip cn phi tp trung ci thin cht lng mi trng. Cch tip cn u tin da vo quy nh v ngha v php l, yu cu ch th gy nhim bi thng cho ngi b thit hi. Trn l thuyt, nhng p lc ca ngha v php l c th lm cho ngi gy nhim tim nng ni ha chi ph ngoi tc. Bng cch cn nhc khon bi thng v chi ph x l, ch th gy nhim c th t ti mc pht thi hiu qu. Trong khi hc thuyt v ngha v php l c th hot ng tt trong nhng trng hp nhim n gin c t ngi lin quan v c quan h nhn qu r rng, chng d ng nh khng hot ng vi nhng vn mi trng ln hn, phc tp v mt k thut ca x hi hin i. Cch tip cn th hai ph thuc vo th ch quyn s hu t nhn. Nhn t gic ny, ngoi tc mi trng l vn ch v quyn s hu mi trng thng khng c quy nh r rng. Bng cch thit lp quyn s hu r rng, ch s hu v nhng ngi khc mun s dng ti sn mi trng cho cc mc ch khc nhau c th m phn tha thun cn bng chi ph ca cc phng n khc nhau. Chnh v vy tha thun gia cc bn c th trn l thuyt em li mc pht thi hiu qu. Nhng vn chi ph giao dch, c bit l cc vn lin quan n hng ha cng ho c kha cnh tip cn t do ca cht lng mi trng, v s thiu vng th trng dch v mi trng cn tr cch thc da vo th ch quyn s hu truyn thng gii quyt cc vn cht lng mi trng. Chng 13, chng ta s thy rng mt s bin th mi ca phng php da vo quyn s hu c th c trin vng p dng rt to ln. Cch tip cn th ba l thuyt phc o c, c th hu ch khi khng th o lng c lng pht thi t cc ngun c th. Chng ta cng tho lun vn n theo, cng nh tho lun vn cng khai nh l mt phng tin khuyn khch hnh vi o c trong nhng vn mi trng. Cui cng, chng ta kho st vic khu vc kinh t t nhn tham gia sn xut hng ha xanh p ng nhu cu ca ngi tiu dng i vi nhng sn phm c cng nhim t. T l hng ha xanh cng ln trong tng sn lng ca nn kinh t, th mc thi cng thp v cht lng mi trng cng cao.
BI TP
1. Vi v d minh ha Hnh 10-1, hy chng minh rng cn bng hiu qu x hi ti thiu ha tng s tin chi tr ca nh my ha cht (tin bi thng cho ngnh nh bt c hi cng chi ph gim nhim) so vi bt c mc thi no khc. 2. Gi s hm MD trong v d v nh my ha cht v ngnh thy sn l MD = 8E. Tnh mc cn bng hiu qu x hi v xc nh liu vic phn nh quyn s hu dng sng cho nh my hay ngnh thy sn c ti a ha tng li ch rng sau khi cc bn mc c t c gii php hiu qu x hi. Hy gii thch theo trc gic ti sao iu ny li khc vi v d trong chng. 3. Gii thch v minh ha bng th mc thay th gia hng ha xanh v hng c cng nhim cao nh hng mc cht lng mi trng.
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4. Phn nh trch nhim thit hi mi trng v phn nh quyn s hu i vi ti nguyn mi trng c hai u dn n mt cn bng hiu qu x hi (gi nh khng c chi ph giao dch). Li ch rng tng ln cho mi bn c ging nhau khng? Hy chng minh bng th hoc phng php i s.
CU H I THO LUN
1. Trong trng hp cht gy nhim c nh hng khng r rng i vi con ngi, ta n c th buc b n b thit hi chu trch nhim dn chng l h b tn hi hoc buc bn gy nhim chu trch nhim dn chng ch r rng cht gy nhim l v hi. iu ny s lm cho h thng lut ngha v p hp l ho t ng khc nhau nh th no? 2. Tai nn do xe ti ch cht thi c hi gy nn tr nn kh ph bin. Gi s th phm b quy trch nhim bi thng mt khon bng thit hi b nh qun ca tt c cc tai nn nh vy. iu ny c lm cho cc cng ty xe ti phng nga hiu qu nhng tai nn nh vy khng? Ti sao tin bi thng sau tha thun (side payments) gia cc bn trong tin trnh tha thun c th t hiu qu x hi? (Side payment l khon chuyn nhng t mt bn cho bn kia sau khi cn b ng t c thng qua thng lng).
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CHNG 11
TIU CHUN
Tiu chun54 l mt dng ca phng php mnh lnh v kim sot (command and control - CAC). Phng php CAC i vi chnh sch cng l phng php m theo c c nhng hnh vi mong mu n t gic x hi, cc nh chnh tr ch cn quy nh cc hnh vi trong lu t v s dng b my thc thi cn thit to n, cng an, hnh pht buc mi ngi tun theo lut. i vi chnh sch mi trng, phng php CAC da vo nhiu loi tiu chu n khc nhau nhm ci thin cht lng mi trng. Nhn chung, tiu chun n gin ch l mt mc kt qu quy nh trong lut. Gii hn tc l mt hnh thc c in ca tiu chu n, n quy nh tc ti a m li xe c th chy. Tiu chu n pht thi l mc thi ti a c php lut cho php. Tinh thn ca tiu chun l: nu nh khng mu n ngi ta lm iu g , cch n gin l thng qua o lut lm cho iu tr thnh b t hp php, v yu cu c quan chc nng thi hnh lut. Hnh 111 th hin chi ph gim nhim bin v thit hi bin cho trng hp pht thi kh ccbon mnxit t nh my ti ch nha ng s dng trong ngnh xy dng ng x55. n v o lng pht thi l kg mi thng. Cho bit ng MAC v MD nh sau MD = 10E MAC = 600 5E Nh qu n l tm cn bng ti u x hi ti im MD = MAC v xc nh c mc pht thi hiu qu x hi l E*. y l mc pht thi ti thiu ha tng chi ph gim thi v chi ph thit hi ng thi ti a ha li ch x hi rng. Vi nhng phng trnh trn, E* = 40 kg mi thng. Trc khi tiu chun c p dng, nh my thi mc MAC = 0. Gii phng trnh MAC = 0 cho kt qu E0 = 40 kg mi thng. t c E* c quan chc nng phi t tiu chun 40 kg mi thng. Mc tiu chu n ny l gii hn trn quy nh i vi nh my. Nu nh my vt qu mc thi ny v b pht hin th b pht tin hoc chu cc hnh pht khc. Gi s nh my gim thi theo tiu chun quy nh, th tng chi ph gim nhim (TAC) bng din tch pha di ng MAC gii hn bi E0 v E*. Mt tn gi khc cho tng chi ph x l ny l chi ph thc thi (compliance cost) p ng tiu chun. V d, chi ph thc thi bng 16.000$ khi nh my p ng tiu chun. Ch rng tng thit hi ti mc hiu qu x hi l 8.000$ mi thng, so vi 72.000$ khi khng kim sot nhim. Li ch ca tiu chu n l chnh lch gia tng thit hi khi khng c tiu chu n (72.000$) v tng thit hi khi c tiu chu n (8.000$) tr tng chi ph x l (16.000$). Li ch rng l 48.000$ mi thng. Tiu chun mi trng c nhiu u im trong vic gii quyt vn mi trng. Tiu chun phi
54
Theo lut BVMT Vit nam Tiu chun l nhng tiu chun, gii hn cho php, c quy nh dng lm cn c qun l mi trng (Gii thch thm ca ngi dich) 55 Nhng nh my ny g i l nh my ti ch nha ng di ng. Chng di chuyn dc ng, sn xut nha ng ti ch ti ch. Nhng cht gy nhim khc m chng thi ra bao gm cht hu c v bi.
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n gin v trc tip. t mc tiu c th r rng. lm cho ngi ta cm nhn nhim mi trng c gim ngay tc th. nht qun vi nhn thc o c cho rng nhim mi trng l nguy him v b t hp php. ph hp vi hot ng ca h thng lut php, ngha l xc nh v ngn chn hnh ng bt hp php.
Tuy nhin, cng c tiu chun c th phc tp hn nhiu so vi n tng ban u ca n. Thc ra, mt l do thc t gii thch s ph bin ca tiu chun l n linh hot hn nhiu khi thc hin. n tng v tnh cht trc tip v tnh r rng ca tiu chun tr nn phc tp hn nhiu khi chng ta xem xt su hn. Hnh 11-1: Tiu chu n hiu qu x hi
$
MD
600
MAC
400
40 E*
120 E0
Lng thi ccbon mnxit (kg mi thng)
Mt tiu chun c xc nh ti im MAC = MD nhm xc nh tiu chun hiu qu x hi 40 kg ccbon mnxit mi thng. Tiu chun t ra gii hn trn ca pht thi. Khi tiu chun c p ng, li ch x hi rng l chnh l ch gia tng thit hi ti 120 kg mi thng v 40 kg mi thng tr tng chi ph x l. Li ch rng bng 48.000$ mi thng.
CC LOI TIU CHUN

C th p dng tiu chun cho bt c hot ng no, nhng vi vn mi trng c ba loi tiu chun chnh: tiu chun mi trng xung quanh (ambient); tiu chun pht thi, v tiu chu n cng ngh. Trong chng 2, ni cht lng mi trng xung quanh l ni v kha cnh cht lng ca mi trng xung quanh cuc sng con ngi; n c th l cht lng ca mi trng khng kh quanh mt thnh ph, hoc cht lng nc mt dng sng. Mt tiu chu n mi trng xung quanh l mc cht nhim ca mi trng xung quanh khng c php vt qu.
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V d , c th t mc tiu chun mi trng xung quanh cho xy ha tan mt dng sng l 3 phn triu (ppm), c ngha y l mc xy h a tan thp nht cho php dng sng. Tt nhin, khng th cng ch thi hnh mt cch trc tip tiu chu n mi trng xung quanh. Ch c th kim sot c nhng mc pht thi khc nhau cho php t cht lng mi trng xung quanh. m bo mc xy ha tan d ng sng khng thp hn 3 ppm, chng ta phi bit c lng pht thi t cc ngun khc nhau vo dng sng gp phn lm thay i hm lng xy ha tan nh th no v a ra nhng bin php qun l nhng ngun ny. Cht lng mi trng xung quanh c th hin bng hm lng/nng b nh qun trong mt khong thi gian. V d, cht lng mi trng khng kh xung quanh cho SO2 c hai tiu ch: bnh qun hng nm ti a l 23 phn t (ppb) v bnh qun 24 gi ti a l 115 ppb. Tiu chu n mi trng xung quanh cho ccbon mnxit t nh my ti ch nha ng Bristish Columbia l 500 mg/m3 bnh qun mt gi. L do ly gi tr trung b nh l phn nh s thay i theo ma v v theo ngy v iu kin kh tng, v cht thi lm thay i cht lng mi trng xung quanh. Bnh qun c ngha rng cht lng mi trng xung quanh trong thi hn ngn c th thp hn tiu chun, min l n khng tn ti qu lu v min l n m bo cn bng vi thi k cht lng mi trng xung quanh l tt hn tiu chun.
Tiu chun pht thi

Tiu chun pht thi l mc pht thi t ngun gy nhim khng c php vt qu. Tiu chun pht thi c th xc nh da trn nhiu c s khc nhau. V d tc thi (v d, kg mi gi) hm lng thi (phn triu nhu cu xy sinh hc hoc BOD trong nc) tng khi lng cht thi (tc pht thi nhn vi hm lng thi nhn vi thi gian) lng cht thi cho mi n v u ra (v d kh CO2 thi ra cho mi kwh c sn xu t, s gam ccbon mnxit t mi tn nha ng) 5. lng cht thi cho mi n v u vo (v d lng sulphur ca than s dng sn xu t in) 6. t l phn trm cht gy nhim c loi b (v d 60% cht thi c loi b trc khi thi). 1. 2. 3. 4. Dng pht thi lin tc c th phi chu tiu chun tc dng pht thi tc thi; v d tiu chun gii hn trn v lng cht thi mi pht hoc dng cht thi b nh qun trong mt khong thi gian nht nh. Theo ngn ng qun l, tiu chun pht thi l m t dng ca tiu chun hot ng, bi v n cn c vo kt qu m ch th gy nhim b kim sot cn phi t c. Cn c nhiu loi tiu chu n hot ng khc, v d, tiu chu n ni lm vic c xc nh theo s tai nn ti a hoc mc ri ro m nhn cng tip xc. Yu cu nng dn gim s dng mt loi thuc tr su no xung di mc nht nh cng l mt tiu chun hot ng, cng nh vy l trng hp gii hn tc trn ng cao tc.
Tiu chun mi trng xung quanh so vi tiu chun pht thi
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C s khc bit quan trng gia tiu chun mi trng xu ng quanh v tiu chun pht thi. Quy nh tiu chun pht thi mt mc no khng nht thit p ng mt tp hp cc tiu chun cht lng mi trng xung quanh. Thin nhin ng gia pht thi v cht lng mi trng xung quanh, c bit hin tng kh tng thy vn gn kt chng li vi nhau. Mi trng vn chuyn cht thi t ni pht thi n cc ni khc thng lm long v pht tn cht thi dc ng vn chuyn. Cc tin trnh ha hc lm thay i c tnh vt cht ca cht gy nhim thng xut hin cc trung gian mi trng. Trong mt s trng hp tin trnh ny lm gim cht thi tt hn. Cht thi hu c vo sng su i thng chu tc ng ca qu trnh suy thoi t nhin lm phn hy thnh cc yu t hp thnh. V vy, cht lng mi trng xung quanh ca nc dc theo dng sng ph thuc vo lng pht thi cng nh iu kin thy hc ca dng sng nh tc dng chy, nhit , v.v. i khi mi trng bin i cht thi thnh mt cht g gy thit hi mnh hn. Nghin cu gn mc pht thi vi cht lng mi trng xung quanh l mt phn quan trng ca khoa hc mi trng. Mt xch gia pht thi v cht lng mi trng xung quanh c th b nh hng mnh m bi quyt nh ca con ngi. Mt trng hp c in l xe t. Trong chng trnh nhim khng kh bi ngun di ng, Canada lp tiu chun pht thi mi cho xe t theo lng thi cho mi kilmt hot ng. Nhng v khng c cch kim sot s lng xe t trn ng hoc s gi mi xe chy, ngi ta khng kim sot c trc tip tng lng cht gy nhim khng kh v cht lng mi trng khng kh xung quanh.
Tiu chun cng ngh

C rt nhiu tiu chu n khng ch r kt qu cui cng, nhng quy dnh r cng ngh, k thut, hoc hot ng m ch th gy nhim phi p dng. Chng ta gp chng li vi nhau di mc tiu chun cng ngh (technology-based standards) TBS. Yu cu xe t phi c trang b dy an to n l mt tiu chun cng ngh. Nu tt c cc in gia dng b bt buc phi lp t my lc kh gim kh SO2 thi ra, y thc ra cng l tiu chu n cng ngh, v lo i cng ngh ny c c quan chc nng trung ng quy nh. Lo i tiu chu n ny cng bao gm tiu chu n thit k hoc tiu chun k thut. Cng c hng lot tiu chun sn phm ch r nhng c im m sn phm phi c, v tiu chu n u vo th yu cu ch th gy nhim s dng u vo p ng nhng iu kin c th. Tiu chun cng ngh thng quy nh ch th gy nhim s dng cng ngh tt nht hin c (BAT), cng ngh tt nht c th p dng (BPT), hoc cng ngh tt nht sn c kh thi v kinh t (BATEA). Cng c th s dng cc thut ng khc. BATs l cng ngh tt nht c th, d c hay khng s dng thc t ti thi im . BPTs thng ng nhng cng ngh bit c v c th p dng ngay tc th. BATEAs cho php nhn nhn chi ph x l v nh hng ca tiu chun cng ngh n li nhun ca doanh nghip. C th khng c ranh gii gia tiu chu n hot ng v tiu chu n cng ngh. im khc bit c bn l: Mt tiu chun hot ng, nh tiu chun pht thi, quy nh mt s rng buc v tiu ch ho t ng v cho php ngi ta chn la cch thc tt nht t c n. Tiu chun cng ngh p t nhng k thut c s dng, nh thit b hoc quy trnh hot ng m ch th gy nhim s dng.
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Kinh t hc v tiu chun

Hiu c cch thc hot ng ca tiu chun cho php chng ta xc nh c chi ph t c cn bng hiu qu x hi khi s dng cng c chnh sch ny. Chng ta c th so snh tiu chu n vi cc cng c chnh sch khc s dng cc tiu ch c pht trin Chng 9. t c cht lng mi trng tt hn bng cch p dng nhng tiu chu n khc nhau dng nh l n gin v r rng. Nhng tiu chun l phc tp hn nhiu so vi so vi nhng g m chng th hin. Phn cn li ca chng ny chng ta s tho lun nhng phc tp . Thit lp mc tiu chun trong thc t Vn u tin l t tiu chu n u. Trong trng hp gii quyt vn nhim theo phng php phn quyn lut ngha v php l v ch quyn ti sn t ra cng tn ti kh nng theo gi thuyt l s tc ng qua li gia nhng ngi lin quan s dn n kt qu hiu qu. Trn l thuyt, quy nh cc mc tiu chu n cn r rng hn. Nh chng ta nhc li nhiu ln, tiu chun hiu qu x hi s lm cn bng chi ph gim nhim bin v thit hi bin. Trong thc t, tiu chun thng c quy nh da trn mt tp hp cc tiu ch hp hn. Tiu chun mi trng bt ngun t tin trnh chnh tr/qun l m tin trnh ny c th b nh hng bi bt c cc loi quan tm khc nhau. V d: Hm thit hi phi tuyn tnh Nhng phng php no c s dng trong thc t v chng quan h nh th no vi hiu qu x hi? Mt phng php trong quy nh tiu chun l c gng t cc mc tiu chun mi trng xung quanh hoc tiu chun pht thi ch cn c vo hm thit hi. L do c th l v ngi qun l khng c thng tin v hm chi ph gim nhim bin. Ngi ta s xem xt hm thit hi xem c im no m thit hi bin thay i ln. Hnh 11-2 cho thy mt dng hm thit hi bin khc vi hm tuyn tnh m chng ta s dng trong phn tch. Mt cch tip cn khc l quy nh tiu chu n ti im khng c ri ro, c ngha l ti mc c th bo v tt c mi ngi khi thit hi d nhy cm n u i na. iu hm t tiu chu n mc ngng, k hiu ET nh trong hnh 11-2. Nu ng MAC nh trong hnh, tiu chu n ny khng t hiu qu x hi. Mt kh khn khc l xc nh xem liu c tn ti mt mc ngng khng. Nghin cu gn y ca cc nh khoa hc v cht c v cc nh khoa hc khc cho thy c th khng c mc ngng cho nhiu cht gy nhim mi trng, rng hm thit hi bin d c ln ngay t gc to . Nu khng tn ti mc ngng, mt chnh sch khng ri ro s i hi tt c cc tiu chun quy nh bng khng. iu ny c th ph hp vi mt s cht mt s hp cht c hi cao nh ixin chng hn, thit hi bin lun lun ln hn chi ph gim nhim bin. Nhng i vi nhiu cht gy nhim khc, mc pht thi bng khng l khng hiu qu x hi v rt kh v khng th t c. V vy, c th quyt nh rng chng ta c th chp nhn mt mc thit hi nh hp l, trong trng hp ny chng ta c th t tiu chun ti im EL, im m bt u t thit hi bin tng ln rt nhanh. Hoc nu hm thit hi ging nh hnh 11-2, vt qu EMAX ng MD dc thng ng, mt chin lc ti thiu ha ri ro c th quy nh EMAX l mc thi khng bao gi c vt qu. y mt ln na chng ta quy nh tiu chu n m khng cn quan tm chi ph x l. hnh 112, E* gn EL, v EMAX, nhng khng nht thit l nh vy trong thc t.
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Hnh 11-2: Tiu chu n pht thi cho hm thit hi bin phi tuyn tnh
$ MD
MAC
ET
EL E*
EMAX
E0
Pht thi
Hm thit hi bin phi tuyn tnh minh ha cc mc c th t tiu chun pht thi khi ngi qun l khng bit v tr chnh xc ca ng MAC. ET t tiu chun mc ngng ti thiu khng c thit hi. EL t tiu chun ti im m MD bt u tng nhanh. EMAX l gii hn trn ca pht thi; im ti ng MD tr thnh thng ng. Khng c tiu chun no l hiu qu x hi nh E*.
Cn ch rng khi quy nh cc mc tiu chun trn c s ly gi tr trung b nh qua thi gian, tht s c nhiu cch tip cn trung dung. Trong trng hp ny, gi tr trung b nh ca nhng giai on ngn khi cht lng mi trng xung quanh l tng i thp, c xem nh l c th chp nhn c min l n din ra khng qu lu. Thc cht khng nht thit phi lp t cng ngh gim thi duy tr cht lng mi trng xung quanh t tiu chun di tt c cc iu kin t nhin. Ni cch khc, c s nh i gia thit hi do cht lng mi trng suy thoi hin ti vi cht lng mi trng xung quanh thp hn tiu chu n nhng vi chi ph duy tr cao trong mi iu kin t nhin. V d ny minh ha mt s im chnh v tiu chun. 1. c tnh cht lng tt c hoc l khng: tiu chu n c th c p ng hoc khng c p ng. 2. Nu tiu chun khng c p ng, hm y l n cn c p ng bt chp chi ph thc hin. 3. Nu tiu chun c p ng, hm l khng cn thit phi lm tt hn mc d u chi ph lm iu c th kh thp.
Tiu chun ng b
Mt vn thc t trong quy nh tiu chun l liu tiu chu n c nn p dng ng b cho tt c mi trng hp hoc thay i ty theo hon cnh. Chng ta c th minh ha iu ny s dng trng hp tiu chun khng ng b theo khng gian. Tiu chun cht lng mi trng khng kh Hoa K nht thit l tiu chun quc gia. Vn vi tiu chu n
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quc gia l cc yu t tc ng n thit hi v chi ph x l khc bit gia cc vng, cho nn p dng tiu chun ng b gia cc vng khc nhau cn c ngha l phi hiu qu nghim trng.
V d : Thit hi bin khc nhau gia cc vng

Nghin cu hnh 11-3. Hnh th hin hm thit hi bin ca nhim ccbon mnxt. Hm th nht l hm MD t hnh 11-1, k hi u MDU ca khu vc thnh th. Hm th hai k hiu MDR ca khu vc nng thn. ng MDU nm pha trn v c nhiu ngi sng thnh th nn cng mt lng pht thi, s ngi b nh hng v sc khe s nhiu hn so vi vng nng thn. Chng ta gi dnh MAC l nh nhau cho c hai vng v c th hin bng ng MAC hnh 11-3. V thit hi bin thnh th l cao hn nhiu so vi nng thn nn mc thi ccbon mnxit hiu qu cho mi trng xung quanh l thp hn thnh th so vi nng thn; mc hiu qu nng thn l ER v thnh th l EU.
$ 600
MDU MAC
MDR
400
200
40 EU
60 ER
120
Mc thi ccbon mnxit (kg mi thng)
Khi thit hi bin khc nhau gia cc vng, vic quy nh cc mc tiu chun s kh khn. Nu thit hi bin khu vc thnh th khc thit h bin khu vc nng thn, tiu chun ng b s khng hiu qu x hi. Nu tiu chun t ti EU th kim sot nhim nng thn l qu mc; nu t ti ER th nhim khu vc thnh ph kim sot khng cht so vi mc ti u x hi khi MD = MAC. Quy nh tiu chun cho mi vng s trnh c vn ny.
Mt tiu chun ng b khng th ng thi t hiu qu c hai vng. Cch duy nht trnh vn ny l quy nh tiu chun khc nhau cho mi vng. Ta c th gi l tiu chun c nhn. Tiu chun c nhn to nn s nh i v mt chnh sch. Thit lp chnh sch cho nhng vng khc nhau c th to ra hiu qu hn v mt nh hng. Tuy nhin vic ny i hi nhiu thng tin phc v vic quy nh v thc hin tiu chun. Khi thit hi bin ca mt cht gy nhim t nhng ngun khc nhau l khc nhau, chng ta s thy nhim c phn tn khc nhau gia cc ngun hoc vng khc nhau v nhim khng c trn ln ng b. iu c ngha nh qu n l phi phi gim st cht lng mi trng xung quanh ti nhng im tip nhn khc nhau hoc trm quan trc trong phm vi ca h. Cn bng hiu qu x hi i hi MAC = MD cho cc im tip nhn. nhim t mi ngun s c chuyn thnh mc tch t nhim mi trng xung quanh ti cc im bng h s chuyn ti. H s chuyn ti chuyn cht thi t ngun i thnh nh hng cht lng mi trng im j, v c quyt nh bi quan h kh
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tng v c tnh l ha ca cht nhim. Ngi ta pht trin m hnh pht tn nhim khng kh cho mt s vng thnh th quan trng. Trong thc t, nh cp trn, cht gy nhim khng trn ln ng b lm vic qun l tr nn kh khn v t n km. Tm li: Khi thit hi bin ca cht gy nhim thay i theo vng, theo ngy, hoc theo ma, mt tiu chun ng b s khng hiu qu x hi. Tiu chun c nhn lm cho MAC = MD l hiu qu x hi.
Tiu chun v nguyn tc cn bng bin

tho lun cc vn v quy nh tiu chu n pht thi hiu qu, chng ta phi nh rng mc pht thi hiu qu chnh n c quyt nh bi hm chi ph gim nhim bin ti thiu. Gi s chng ta c cht nhim c trn ln ng b thi ra t nhng ngun khc nhau. Nguyn tc cn bng bin i hi kim sot nhng ngun pht thi khc nhau theo sao cho chng c cng chi ph gim nhim bin. iu ny c ngha nhng ngun pht thi khc nhau c kim sot nhng mc khc nhau, ph thuc vo dng hm chi ph gim nhim bin ti mi ngun pht thi. y l cn b ng hiu qu chi ph - tng chi ph thc thi t c mc tiu pht thi c ti thiu ha. Vi tiu chu n, vn ch yu l dng nh lun c xu hng p dng tiu chun pht thi ng b cho nhng ngun khc nhau. iu ny lm cho vic qun l tr nn n gin hn v gy n tng v b nh ng vi mi ngi, v tt c u c i x nh nhau. im chnh l Tiu chun ng b ch hiu qu-chi ph trong trng hp him thy khi tt c cc ch th gy nhim c ng MAC nh nhau. Nu ng MAC cho mt cht gy nhim khc nhau, tiu chun c nhn s t c hiu qu-chi ph.
V d: Cc hm chi ph gim nhim bin khc nhau gia cc ch th gy nhim

Hnh 11-4 th hin mi quan h chi ph gim nhim bin ca hai ngun pht thi khc nhau, mi ngun u thi ccbon mnxit (v d t phn trc). Ch th gy nhim ny l H v L. Lng thi l s kg ccbon mnxit mi thng. Phng trnh ca hm MAC l: MACH = 600 5EH MACL = 240 2EL Khi gim lng pht thi, chi ph x l ca L tng chm hn so vi H. Ti sao li khc nhau? H c th sn xut sn phm khc nhau s dng cng ngh khc nhau. Cng ngh ca nh my ny c th c hn ca nh my kia v cng ngh c c th km linh hot hn, lm cho vic gim thi tn nhiu chi ph hn so vi nh my c cng ngh mi hn. Mt nh my c th c thit k s dng ngun nguyn vt liu u vo khc vi nh my kia. Thc cht, iu ny phn nh thc t. Chng ta c th d on chi p ha gim thi gia cc nhm nh my s khc bit ng k mc d chng cng thi ra mt loi cht thi. Gi s hin ti khng c bin php kim sot nhim. Mi nh my thi 120 kg mi thng, nh vy tng cng lng pht thi l 240 kg mi thng. Gi s c quan qun l mun gim tng lng thi xung cn 120 kg mi thng (gim 50%) bng cch quy nh tiu chu n. Tiu chun nn c quy nh nh th no? Phng php dng nh hin nhin m phn a cc nh qu n l chn la l p dng tiu chun nh nhau cho mi ngun,
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trong trng hp ny 60 kg mi thng. Tiu chun ny c v bnh ng, v i x cc ngun nh nhau, tt c u gim mt t l tng ng vi mc thi hin ti. Tt nhin vn l cc ngun pht thi li khng ging nhau v mt kinh t, chng c nhng hm chi ph gim thi bin khc nhau. Bng cch p dng tiu chu n pht thi ng b cho nhng ngun khc nhau chng ta vi phm nguyn tc cn bng bin, vi mt tng lng pht thi gim c ta phi tr nhiu hn c so vi s cn tr. Tiu chu n c nhn, l tiu chun lm cho MAC ca mi ch th gy nhim cn bng vi MD, l hiu qu chi ph bi v chng tha mn nguyn tc cn bng bin. Chng minh iu nh sau: Chng minh chnh sch hiu qu chi ph ti thiu ha tng chi ph gim nhim Trnh t cc bc: 1. Tnh tng chi ph gim nhim (TAC) cho mi ch th gy nhim khi p dng tiu chun ng b 60 kg mi thng Ti tiu chun ny MAC ca L l 120$/kg v ca H l 300$/kg TAC l din tch pha di ng MAC ca mi ch th gy nhim t 120 n 60 kg. TACL = (60 x 12$) = 3600$. TACH = (60 x 300$) = 9000$. Tng chi ph x l ca c hai nh my l TACL + TACH = 12600$. Hnh 11-4: Hiu qu chi ph khi ng chi ph gim nhim bin khc nhau
Tiu chun ng b MACH
$ 600 500 400 300 200

171.5
120
MACL a
100
20
34.3 40
60
EL
80 85.7 100 EH
120 Lng thi cacbon mnxit (kg mi thng) E0
Tiu chun ng b i lp vi tiu chun c nhn cho hai ch th gy nhim c ng MAC khc nhau. Tiu chun ng b 60 kg mi thng cho mi ch th gy nhim vi phm nguyn tc cn bng bin v vy l khng hiu qu chi ph. Ti mc 60 kg, MACH ln hn MACL . Chnh sch m bo hiu qu chi ph quy nh tiu chun c nhn vi mc tiu thi l 120 kg v MAC ca hai ch th gy nhim bng nhau. Tiu chun pht thi c nhn l 40.3 kg mi thng cho L v 85.7 kg mi thng cho H. Chnh sch hiu qu chi ph cho php t cng mt mc thi mc tiu vi chi ph thp hn.
2. Tnh tng chi ph x l cho mi ch th gy nhim nu tiu chun c nhn c quy nh tha mn nguyn tc cn bng bin. Chng l nhng tiu chun c nhn t hiu qu chi ph.
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Chng ta cn lm thm mt s tnh ton: Tm mc thi cho mi ch th gy nhim tha mn nguyn tc cn bng bin. Cch d nht l s dng i s: Nguyn tc bin i hi MACs ca c hai ch th gy nhim phi bng nhau MACH = MACL Thay vo ta c: (1) 600 5 EH = 240 2EL Tng lng thi ca c hai nh my phi bng mc thi mc tiu (2) EL + EH = 120 kg mi thng Gii h phng trnh gm (1) v (2) ta c: EH = 85,7 EL = 34,3 chnh l tiu chun c nhn cho mi ch th gy nhim Thay EH v EL vo hm chi ph gim nhim bin ca mi ch th gy nhim ta c MACH =MACL = 171,5$ By gi ta tnh TAC cho mi ch th gy nhim TACL = [(120 34.3) x 171.5] = 7.348,78$ TACH = [(120 85.7) x 171.5] = 2.941,22 Tng chi ph x l ca c hai nh my l: 10.290 $ 3. So snh TAC ca trng hp tiu chu n ng b vi tiu chu n c nhn hiu qu chi ph: Tiu chun ng b TAC = 12.600$ Tiu chun c nhn hiu qu chi ph TAC = 10.290$ Nh vy tiu chu n c nhn hiu qu chi ph cho php t cng mt mc gim thi vi chi ph thp hn. Bi tp: Hy chng minh rng khon tit kim chi ph trn chnh b ng din tch a+b trong hnh v. Tm li, phn ln tiu chu n l ng b i vi cc ngun thi khc nhau. iu ny c sn trong trit l c bn ca phng php tiu chun, v n lm cho nhiu ngi cho rng l cch thc tin hnh bnh ng. Phn ny minh ha mt im rt quan trng: Khi chi ph gim nhim bin khc nhau gia cc ngun, cng c tiu chun ng b s dn n gim thi t hn vi tng chi ph thc thi ca chng trnh
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c nh trc, hoc tn nhiu chi ph hn t c mc tiu nht nh so vi cng c t hiu qu chi ph tha mn nguyn tc cn bng bin. S khc bit v chi ph gim nhim bin gia cc ngun cng ln th kt qu ca phng php tiu chun ng b cng t hn. Chng ta s thy cc chng sau rng s khc bit c th rt ln. C th quy nh tiu chun theo nguyn tc cn bng bin c khng? Tr khi lut yu cu gim thi phi t t l bng nhau, c quan chc nng c th t tiu chun khc nhau cho nhng ngun khc nhau. gim v t mc thi l 120 kg mi thng, c th quy nh tiu chun gim thi cho L l 34,3 kg v cho H l 85.7 kg. Tuy nhin kh khn ch thc hin c iu c quan chc nng cn phi bit hm gim nhim bin ca nhiu ngun khc nhau. Chng ta cn phi nhn mnh im ny. Hu ht cc vn nhim trong thc t l do nhiu ngun gy nn. Nh vy, quy nh tiu chun pht thi c nhn theo nguyn tc cn bng bin, nh qun l phi bit hm gim nhim bin cho mi ngun nhim. Cc c quan chc nng phi tn rt nhiu cng sc d c c thng tin cht lng cao v chi ph gim nhim bin ca nhng ngun gy nhim khc nhau, m mi ngun li sn xu t nhng sn phm khc nhau s dng nhng cng ngh v phng php khc nhau. Ngu n cung cp thng tin khng ai khc chnh l cc ch th gy nhim, nhng khng c l do g tin rng h s sn lng chia s nhng thng tin ny. Nu nh h bit, v chc l h bit, thng tin c s dng quy nh tiu chun c nhn h s c ng c cho cc c quan qun l bit l MAC ca h tng ln rt nhanh khi gim pht thi. V vy, cc c quan chc nng gp kh khn thc s khi mun quy nh tiu chu n c nhn theo ngun nhim.
TC NG KHUYN KHCH CA TIU CHUN

Nh tho lun Chng 9, mt kha cnh quan trng ca nh gi chnh sch mi trng l xem xt chnh sch c tc ng khuyn khch g i vi ch th gy nhim. C c tc ng ngn hn v di hn. Trong ngn hn, cu hi l chnh sch c khuyn khch cc ch th gy nhim gim thi n mc hiu qu theo cch thc hiu qu chi ph khng. Phng php mnh lnh v kim sot d a vo tiu chu n l yu km trn phng din ny. Vn c bn ch tiu chu n c ngha l tt c hoc khng c g; chng hoc c p ng hoc khng. Nu chng c p ng th khng c ng c ngi gy nhim lm tt hn tiu chun, mc d chi ph gim nhng n v nhim tip theo vn cn thp. Cng vy, ch th gy nhim phi p ng tiu chu n (hoc b pht) ngay c khi chi ph thc thi c th cao hn nhiu so vi thit hi gim bt. Tiu chun cng khng cho php ch th gy nhim linh hot trong quyt nh. iu ny c bit ng i vi tiu chun cng ngh, quy nh quy trnh m ch th gy nhim phi tun theo, ngay c khi cc quy trnh khc c th c t c mc tiu nhim vi chi ph thp hn. Nu c quan qun l quy nh chi tit v cng ngh v cc bc thc hnh m ch th gy nhim s dng gim thi, ch th gy nhim c th khng c ng c s dng cc cng ngh khc t bo v bn thn khi b buc ti khng tun th, thm ch nhng phng php ny c th t tn km hn. Thay v nh my t sng
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to ra cc phng tin cng ngh t c mc tiu, tiu chu n cng ngh buc c quan chc nng cng phi quyt nh ng n v cng ngh. Trong di hn, mt mc tiu ca chnh sch kim sot nhim l khuyn khch mnh m vic tm kim nhng thay i v k thut v qun l t c mc tiu pht thi vi chi ph thp hn (hoc t mc thi thp hn). Theo tiu ch ny, tiu chun nh th no? Rt d tr li vi tiu chun cng ngh. Trong trng hp ny s khng c khuyn khch tm kim cch thc r hn (xem xt tt c cc loi ch ph) gim thi. Nu c quan chc nng quy nh cng ngh v cc bc thc hnh c th m ch th gy nhim hp php s dng gim thi, khng c khuyn khch tm kim phng php tt hn. Nhng tiu chun pht thi c nhng khuyn khch g? V d di y cho thy c th tr li cu hi ny b ng cch s dng th. V d: Khuyn khch u t cng ngh mi ca tiu chun pht thi Hnh 11-5 cho thy chi ph gim nhim bin ca mt nh my trong hai trng hp. MAC1 l chi ph gim nhim bin trc khi c ci tin cng ngh. MAC2 l chi ph gim nhim bin m nh my k vng sau khi u t nghin cu v pht trin cng ngh ti ch hoc x l cht thi tt hn. C th, cho bit MAC1 = 200 5E MAC2 = 160 4E MD = 5E Nu khng c nhng quy nh v nhim th tuyt i khng c ng c chi tiu cho hot ng nghin cu v pht trin. Gi s by gi nh my phi p ng tiu chun pht thi E1 = 20 tn mi nm (cn bng hiu qu x hi). Vi MAC1 th tng chi ph thc thi hng nm ca nh my l din tch (a+b ) = 1 triu $ mi nm (n v o lng hnh 11-5 l 1.000$). Nu chng trnh nghin cu v pht trin thnh cng, MAC1 d ch xung ng MAC1 v chi ph thc thi l din tch b = 800.000$ mi nm. Chnh lch 200.000$ mi nm l phn chi ph thc thi gim c v n cho thy chc nng khuyn khch thc hin nghin cu v pht trin. Chng ta s thy trong chng tip theo rng khuyn khch ny l khng mnh m bng bng cc chng trnh khuyn khch kinh t. Tuy vy, chng ta c th ni khuyn khch ca tiu chun pht thi nhiu hn so vi tiu chun cng ngh.
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Hnh 11-5: Khuyn khch u t cng ngh kim sot nhim mi ca tiu chun
$ (ngn)
200 MAC1
160
MD
MAC2
100
d a b
17.78 20
E2
E1
40 Lng thi (tn mi nm)
Tc ng khuyn khch ca vic p dng cng ngh tit kim chi ph l din tch a nu nh qun l duy tr tiu chun pht thi ti E1 sau khi p dng cng ngh mi gim MAC1 xung MAC2. Nu nh qun l tht cht tiu chun ti E2, khuyn khch p dng cng ngh mi s nh hn v bng din tch (a-c). Mt tiu chun p buc p dng cng ngh c th c t ngay t u ti E2. iu ny c th cho php ch th gy nhim tit kim chi ph mt lng bng din tch (a+d+e) nu p dng cng ngh mi.
Lgc v vic quy nh cc mc tiu chu n c th lm trit tiu d n tc ng khuyn khch trong v d nu trn. Gi s c quan chc nng c gng quy nh tiu chun gn st vi mc pht thi hiu qu. Trong hnh 11-5, cc nh qun l d on E1 l hiu qu trc i mi cng ngh. Nhng cng ngh mi lm gim chi ph gim nhim bin, v chng ta bit t Chng 5 rng iu ny s lm gim mc pht thi hiu qu. Gi s nh qun l c tnh vi cch nhn ca h, cng ngh mi l d ch chuyn mc thi hiu qu n E2 = 17,78 tn mi nm trong hnh 11-5 v by gi nh qun l thay i tiu chun phn nh iu . By gi chi ph thc thi ca nh my l (b+c) = 987.457 $ mi nm. Chi ph m ch th gy nhim tit kim c l (a c) = 200.000$ - 187.457$ = 12.534$. Chi ph tit kim c l thp hn nhiu so vi trng hp tiu chun mc 20 tn mi nm v c th l khng b p chi ph nghin cu v pht trin ca ch th gy nhim. Ch th gy nhim c th ngh rng v nh qu n l tht cht tiu chun nn vi cng ngh mi h c th b thit hn so vi cng ngh c. Phng php quy nh tiu chun trong trng hp ny lm suy yu khuyn khch vic thay i cng ngh kim sot nhim. Nu tiu chun pht thi khuyn khch vic i mi cng ngh, c phi l khng nn p t tiu chun cht ch c th khuyn khch i mi hn na? hnh 11-5 nu tiu chu n c quy nh ti E2 =17,78 tn mi nm ngay t u, iu ny c ngha chi ph tit kin c s l (a+d+e) vi cng ngh mi ch khng phi ch l a nh trng hp tiu chu n quy nh ti E1. Phng php ny c tiu l tiu chun p buc p dng cng ngh . Nguyn tc ca p buc p dng cng ngh l quy nh tiu chu n khng thc t vi cng ngh hm nay vi hy vng l ngnh cng nghip kim sot nhim s pht minh ra phng php mi p ng tiu chun vi mt chi ph hp l. Khng thc t vi cng ngh hm nay c ngha l chi ph qu cao dn ti kh khn v kinh t. Tiu chu n p buc p dng cng ngh c ci thin khuyn khch khng? Hy coi y nh l mt bi tp.
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Nhng tiu chun kht khe hn cng to nn khuyn khch khc: khuyn khch ch th gy nhim tm kim s h tr t c quan chc nng lm chm tr ngy m tiu chun c th p dng. Ch th gy nhim c th s dng mt phn ngun lc cho nghin cu v pht trin tc ng ti quyn lc chnh tr lm chm tr vic ban hnh tiu chu n kht khe. Tiu chun cng kht khe v ngn hn, th hnh ng cng c kh nng xy ra hn. V vy, p buc p dng cng ngh l mt trong nhng chin lc khng ng rng cng cht ch th cng hiu lc hn. mc khng nh, ngnh cng nghip kim sot nhim li thc hin cc nghin cu v pht trin mi v cng ngh kim sot nhim nhiu hn chnh bn thn cng nghip gy nhim. V vy kt lun v tc ng khuyn khch ca chnh sch kim sot nhim i vi i mi cng ngh c ngha l d bo nhng chnh sch ny s ng gp nh th no cho nng sut v s tng trng ca cng nghip kim sot nhim. Tiu chun cng ngh lm mt tc dng theo cch lp lun ny, bi v n lm mt i tc ng khuyn khch cc nh qun l trong ngnh cng nghip kim sot nhim pht trin tng mi. Nh chng ta thy v phng din ny tiu chun pht thi l tt hn. Minh chng cho iu ny l i din ca ngnh cng nghip kim sot nhim thng chp nhn v mt chnh tr tiu chun mi trng cht ch hn; thc ra h thy c vn may ca ngnh cng nghip ca h gn cht trc tip vi mc kht khe ca tiu chu n pht thi do cc c quan chc nng quy nh.
KINH T HC V CNG CH
Lut kim sot nhim tiu biu kt hp tiu chu n thng yu cu gim pht thi t mc hin hnh, hoc p dng nhng cng ngh kim sot nhim c quy nh. Khi chng ta nh gi cc chnh sch ny da trn kt qu mong i, chng ta thng ngm gi nh rng cc hnh pht nu trong lut l c c s tun th hon ton. Nhng iu khng bao gi ng. Lu t kim sot nhim cng nh cc lut khc cn c cng ch, v vic ny cn n ngun lc. V cc c quan cng ch/thi hnh thng lm vic trong iu kin ngn sch hn ch, cn nh rng cng lun c ngun lc d nh cho vic cng ch t c mt mc tun th chp nhn c. Thc ra, nim chp nhn c l ch cn tranh lu n. V d: nh hng ca chi ph cng ch/thc thi n tiu chun Ging nh nhiu vn kinh t v phn b ti nguyn khc, cng ch bao hm mt s nh i gia ngun lc dnh cho ho t ng ny, l hot ng c chi ph c hi, v li ch di hnh thc mc tun th cao hn. S nh i ny c th hin Hnh 11-6. MAC v MD l khng tuyn tnh. Hai ng C1 v C2 l ng gp c chi ph gim nhim bin v chi ph cng ch bin. Ch rng cc ng ny b t u ti E1, nm pha tri ca mc thi khi khng c kim sot nhim, E0. Khi t tiu chun pht thi ti E*, c th c mt s mc tun th t nguyn trong trng hp ny t E0 n E1. Nhng t gim thi vt qu E1 cn c cng ch dt khot. Chng ta thng ngh E* l mc pht thi hiu qu, nhng khi c chi ph cng ch iu khng cn ng na. Vi chi ph cng ch cao (ng C1) mc pht thi hiu qu x hi l E2. Ti im ny tng chi ph gim thi bng chi ph cng ch (a+b) v chi ph gim thi (c+d ).
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Hnh 11-6: Kinh t hc v cng ch thc thi chnh sch

$
MAC
C1
C2
MD
a b f c e 0 E* E3 E2
d E1
E0 Cht thi
Chi ph thc thi, c th hin bng ng C1 v C2, l tng chi ph gim nhim bin cng vi chi ph gim st v cng ch. Chi ph thc thi cng cao th tiu chun cng t kht khe. Vi chi ph thc thi cao (C1), tiu chun pht thi l E2. Tng chi ph gim nhim bao gm chi ph cng ch (a+b) v chi ph x l l (c+d). Vi chi ph thc thi thp hn (C2), tiu chun l kht khe hn ti E3.
Cng tc cng ch bao gm nhiu vn : gim st thit b, chuyn mn ca nhn vin, ho t ng ca h thng ta n v.v. Mt trong nhng yu t ny thay i s lm d ch chuyn ng tng chi ph; trong hnh 11-6 lm d ch chuyn n ng C2. iu ny lm thay i mc thi hiu qu n E3, ti im ny tng chi ph gim nhim s bao gm chi ph cng ch (e+b ) v chi ph x l (f+c+d). Khi xem xt chi ph cng ch, vn c t ra l nn quy nh tiu chu n nh th no. Tiu chu n cng cht ch th chi ph cng ch cng cao v n i hi cc ngun gy nhim thay i nhiu hn. C th t c tiu chun t kht khe vi ch ph cng ch thp hn, v l do ngc li. C quan mi trng thng lm vic vi ngn sch hn ch. Trong mt s trng hp c th t c tng mc gim thi ln hn s dng tiu chun t kht khe v d thc thi hn l s dng tiu chu n kht khe i hi nhiu chi ph gim st v cng ch. Tuy nhin cn phi nhn mnh rng tnh cht kht khe ca tiu chun khng phi l yu t duy nht nh hng n chi ph gim st v cng ch. Mt yu t quan trng trong cng ch l quy m ca cc hnh pht trong lut. Phn ln o lut v kim sot nhim mi trng c nu iu khon v quy m hnh pht (hoc thi hn t) c th p dng cho cc i tng vi phm nu h b bt v pht hin phm ti. Trong nhiu trng hp c bit khi lu t php mi c ban hnh, mc pht thng c quy nh qu thp, thp hn c chi ph x l cn thit p ng tiu chu n. Trong trng hp ny nh my c th tit kim tin bng cch vi phm. Vi hnh pht nh, vic cng ch l rt kh khn v vi hnh pht nng, vic cng ch s tn nhiu chi ph hn. Nu ngun gy nhim i mt vi kh nng phi tr tin pht cao, h s c ng c tun th mnh m hn. Trong nhng nm gn y, hnh pht v khng tun th vi quy nh mi trng ca Canada tng ln t ngt, v c bng chng cho thy trng pht l khuyn khch tun th theo lut php.
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Tuy nhin cn phi ghi nh cc nh hng nghch tho lun trc y: lu t php t mc pht qu cao s ngn cn nh qu n l v ta n theo ui cc i tng vi phm mt cch mnh m, bi v iu ny c th dn n cc trc trc v kinh t. Vi ngn sch gim st cng ch hn ch, nh chc trch thng phi ph thuc vo vic t gim st, ngha l t cc ngun gy nhim lu gi s sch v d ng pht thi qua thi gian. iu ny cho php nh chc trch nh k thm v kim ton h s nghi chp ti mi ngun hoc thc hin kim tra ngu nhin o pht thi. Tn sut kim ton v kim tra t xut thay i ty thu c vo ngn sch. T l tun th chc chn s ph thuc vo ngun lc dnh cho gim st, nhng vn c th t c mc tun th no vi vic t gim st v kim tra ngu nhin. Nhng ngi c c thc t v chnh tr c th kt lun rng phng php tiu chu n c a chung bi v trong thc t vi ngn sch hn ch phng php ny cho php tun th mt phn. Mt nt chung ca tiu chu n mi trng l chng c quy nh v thc thi bi nhiu nhm ngi khc nhau. Tiu chun thng c quy nh bi quyn lc trung ng, thc thi thng c tin hnh bi c quan quyn lc a phng. V d, tiu chun cht lng khng kh trong o lut Bo v Mi trng Canada c quy nh cp lin bang, nhng phn ln thc thi c tin hnh bi cc c quan cp tnh. iu ny c mt s hm quan trng. Th nht, tiu chu n c quy nh trong iu kin khng xem xt nhiu chi ph thc thi; c t nhiu gi nh rng chnh quyn a phng s tm c ngun lc thc thi. Tt nhin, iu ny thng khng ng trong thc t. Mt hm khc l tiu chun c th linh hot hn nhiu so vi n tng ban u. Lut c son tho cp quc gia l r rng v c th c p dng mi ni. Nhng cp a phng, c quan kim sot nhim a phng c th linh hot hn khi thc thi tiu chu n do ngn sch hn ch v p lc t nhng nhm c li ch lin quan a phng (ch th gy nhim). Tiu chun cng ngh cng cho php linh hot nh vy trong vic cng ch thc thi. y chng ta cn phn bit tun th ban u v tun th tip theo. Tun th ban u l trng hp ch th gy nhim lp t thit b thch hp p ng tiu chu n cng ngh. gim st tun th ban u cn c thanh tra n hin trng, kim tra xem thit b c lp t cha, v m bo chc chn rng n s hot ng theo ng iu kin ca tiu chun. Sau khi khng nh iu , c quan qun l cp giy php hot ng cho nh my. Nhng iu khng m bo chc chn rng thit b s c tip tc vn hnh trong tng lai theo cc iu khon trong giy php. N c th b hng khi s dng, c th khng c bo dng tt, nhn vin vn hnh trong tng lai c th khng c o to tt v.v. V vy, nu khng c gim st th khng c g m bo rng ngun nhim s tip tc tun th. iu quan trng cn ch khi tho lun v cng ch l mi chnh sch cn s gim st m bo tun th. Nh chng ta s thy, cc chnh sch khc nhau mc v b n cht ca qu trnh gim st. iu ny li tc ng n chi ph thc thi.
183
TM TT
Phng php qun l nhim mi trng ph bin nht trong lch s l quy nh tiu chun. c gi l phng php mnh lnh v kim sot bi v nh chc trch s cng b gii hn nht nh cho ch th gy nhim, v thc thi cc gii hn s dng cc th ch cng ch thch hp. C ba loi tiu chun ch yu: tiu chu n cht lng mi trng xung quanh, tiu chun pht thi v tiu chun cng ngh. u tin chng ta tp trung tho lun v vic t ra cc mc tiu chu n v tiu chun ng b theo vng. Mt vn hng u khi t ra tiu chu n l vn hiu qu chi ph v nguyn tc cn bng bin. Nhiu quy nh t tiu chu n ng b cho tt c cc ngun pht thi thi ra cng mt loi cht thi. Nhng kim sot nhim ch t hiu qu chi ph khi chi ph gim nhim bin ca cc ngun khc nhau l b ng nhau. Khi chi ph gim nhim bin khc nhau gia cc ngun, tiu chun ng b l khng hiu qu chi ph; tiu chun c nhn l cn thit. Chng ta cng kho st liu tiu chun c to ra ng c tm kim cch thc gim thi tt hn khng. Tiu chun pht thi to ra ng lc tch cc cho chng trnh nghin cu v pht trin cng ngh kim sot nhim, tuy nhin chng ta s thy rng nhng khuyn khch l t hn so vi chnh sch khuyn khch kinh t kim sot nhim, i tng ca hai chng tip theo. Cui cng chng ta tho lun ni dung rt quan trng l vn cng ch v nhng phc tp m n t ra cho vic kim sot nhim.
BI TP
1. Tm hai cn bng hiu qu x hi cho hai hm MD Hnh 11-3. Gi s c quan kim sot mi trng p dng mt tiu chun ng b ti mc pht thi gia hai mc thi hiu qu x hi. Thit hi do kim sot qu t vng thnh th v kim sot qu mc thit hi vng nng thn l g? 2. Hy xem xt v d hnh 11-4. Gi s chng ta quy nh mt mc gim thi cng b ng m hai nh my u phi tn tng chi ph nh nhau. Gim thi cn bng theo t l l bnh ng hay khng theo ngha ny? Gim thi c tha mn iu kin cn bng bin? y c phi l nh ngha hp l v cng bng? 3. Xem Hnh 11-5, c bao gi din tch c c th ln hn din tch a khng? Ni cch khc, anh/ch hy chng minh rng vic thay i cng ngh, m vic thay i ny lm gim chi ph thc thi (lm gim MAC ca ch th gy nhim), cui cng c th lm cho ngi gy nhim b thit hi hn so vi khng c thay i cng ngh c khng. Gii thch kt qu. 4. S dng Hnh 11-5 v nhng phng trnh ca cc ng trong hnh, hy ch ra tc ng ca loi tiu chu n p buc p dng cng ngh n ng c u t vo cc chng trnh nghin cu v pht trin gim chi ph thc thi.
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CU H I THO LUN
1. Lit k v gii thch ba vn i vi tiu chu n cng ngh, s dng th h tr tr li ca bn. 2. Bn c th xut loi tiu chu n no cho ngun nhim phn tn nonpoint pollution sources (v d thuc tr su trong sn xut nng nghip), l nhng ngun m cht thi t mi ngi gy nhim khng th o lng c? Gii thch ti sao. 3. Gi s mt c quan qun l mi trng c ngn sch cng ch hn ch. T quan im x hi, c phi l tt hn nu s dng ngn sch hn ch gim st nhng ngun thi ln v khi t h quyt lit nu vi phm tiu chun thay v gim st tt c cc ch th gy nhim? Hy b o v quan im ca bn. Ngi ta xut rng c th c cng bng nu tt c cc quc gia p dng tiu chun mi trng nh nhau. V d, nu Hoa K c tiu chun cao hn Canada, Canada c th sn xu t hng ha nhim cao r hn, c c li th trn th trng th gii, v c th tr thnh ni tp trung nhim. T nhng g cp trong chng ny, anh/ch c ng vi xut ny khng? T quan im kinh t, c nhng thun li v tr ngi g?
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CHNG 12
THU V TR CP PHT THI

Nu chng ta mun xy nh, chng ta phi mua vt liu xy dng; khng ngi no c th cho chng ta min ph. Nu mun c kin trc s, th mc lm nh chng ta phi thu h, h s khng lm vic nu khng c g c. Ni cch khc s dng dch v ca nhng ngi ny chng ta phi tr tin cho h. Chng ta thng lm nh vy bi v nhng dch v v hng ho ny c mua v bn th trng. Vic tr tin cho h khuyn khch chng ta s dng nhng u vo ny mt cch tit kim v hiu qu ti a c th c. Cch tip cn khuyn khch kinh t khi lp chnh sch mi trng cng hot ng theo cch nh vy. Cho ti thi gian gn y ngi ta c th s dng dch v tip nhn cht thi ca mi trng m khng phi tr tin, iu ny khng khuyn khch h ngh v hu qu mi trng cng nh khng tit kim trong vic s dng nhng ti nguyn mi trng ny. Phng php khuyn khch kinh t nhm thay i tnh hnh ny. C hai loi chnh sch khuyn khch da vo th trng: (1) thu v tr cp v (2) giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng. C hai u i hi ngi qun l trin khai v gim st kt qu, v vy chng t phn quyn hn so vi lut ngha v php l hoc cho cc bn tha thun v mc nhim. Ngi qun l quy nh mc gi cho nhim qua thu ho c tr cp v quy nh khi lng pht thi cho php vi giy php thi c th chuyn nhng. Vi cng c giy php, th trng s quyt nh gi nhim. Vi mi chnh sch, ch th gy nhim t quyt nh lng nhim s thi da trn gi nhim m h phi tr. Hin nay Canada vic s dng cng c khuyn khch kinh t cn hn ch, chnh ph ang d nh s dng chng rng ri hn. Hoa k, lut mi trng b t u a vo nhiu loi h thng giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng. Cc quc gia khc, c bit l chu u, l thuc nhiu vo cc chng trnh thu pht thi. Chng ny s kho st yu t kinh t ca thu v tr cp pht thi; Chng 13 s cp phng php s dng giy php pht thi c chuyn nhng. Cc nh kinh t hc t lu ng h tng a cc chnh sch khuyn khch kinh t nhiu hn vo cc chnh sch v mi trng. 56 Nhng chnh sch ny c th ng vai tr gip cho cc chnh sch v mi trng tr nn sc so hn trong nhiu trng hp, cng nh gip lm tng ng k tnh hiu qu v chi ph ca cc chnh sch ny. Nhng chng ta cng cn phi nh mt iu c cp n trc y: Kh c mt chnh sch ring l no c th c coi l chnh sch t t nht trong mi trng hp. Cc chnh sch da trn ng c khuyn khch kinh t cng khng nm ngoi quy lut . Chng c nh ng mt mnh v cng c nh ng mt yu. Nhng m t mnh th mnh khuyn khch ngi ta trng c y vo chng trong nhiu trng hp. Nhng cng c nhiu vn v mi trng m chng t ra khng hu ch b ng cc phng php gii quyt khc.
56
Vo nhng nm 1930 mt nh kinh t hc nhn mnh vai tr ca thu nh l mt phng php ni ha ngoi tc l A.C. Pigou. T thu mi trng thng c gi l thu Pigou.
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THU PHT THI

Phng php n gin nht da trn ng c khuyn khch kinh t kim sot vic x m t loi cht thi no l cho php mt c quan qun l cng cng a ra nh ng khuyn khch v mt ti chnh thay i vic x cht thi . C th lm c iu ny b ng hai cch: bng cch nh thu mi n v pht thi ho c tr cp cho mi n v cht thi c ct gim. Trc ht chng ta hy xem xt n thu pht thi, i khi cn c gi l ph pht thi. Thu pht thi ng rng ch th gy nhim c th thi bt k khi lng cht thi b nh thu no h mun, nhng h phi tr thu cho mi n v pht thi (v d, tn). V d, mt s chnh ph chu u nh thu hm lng ccbon ca nhin liu gim thi kh CO2 v ci thin vn nng ln ton cu. Khi thc thi thu pht thi tc nhn x thi phi tr tin cho dch v mi trng vn chuyn, pha lo ng, v phn hu ging nh h phi tr tin cho cc u vo khc ho c hng ho h s dng. Mi khi nhim c nh gi bi thu, nhng ai pht thi s c ng c thi t hn; c ngha l bo tn vic s dng dch v mi trng ca h. H lm iu ny b ng cch no? Bng bt c cch no m h mun (trong khun kh hp l). iu ny nghe c v nh a bn nhng thc t chnh n li l u im ca k thut ny. Bng cch cho cc i tng gy nhim c t do quyt nh cch no tt nht lm gim vic x cht thi, loi hnh chnh sch ny nhm s dng ngay chnh nng lc v c sng to cng nh lng mong mun ti thiu ha chi ph ca cc cng ty tm ra cch t tn km nht ct gim cht thi. C th p dng kt hp nhiu phng n nh x l, thay i quy trnh sn xut ni b, thay i cc nhp lng, ti ch, chuyn qua hng to ra nhng sn phm bt gy nhim hn C t li ca phng php thu l to ra ng c khuyn khch kinh t chnh cc i tng gy nhim t tm phng cch tt nht nh m ct gim mc pht thi, thay v cc gii chc cp trung ng quyt nh vic ny c n phi c thc hin nh th no.
Kinh t hc c bn v thu pht thi

Hot ng chnh ca thu pht thi c m t Hnh 12-1. Nhng con s cp mt ngun thi mt cht gy nhim c ng chi ph gim nhim bin MAC = 200 4E. Gi s ngi qun l quy nh mc thu 100$/tn/thng. Bng pha trn trnh by phn tch bng s, trong khi pha di th hin thng tin ny bng th. Ct th hai th hin chi ph gim nhim bin (MAC) v ct th 3 th hin tng chi ph gim nhim (TAC) mi mc pht thi. Hai ct cui th hin tng tin thu hng thng m nh my phi tr nhng mc nhim khc nhau v tng chi ph thc thi t nhn. Tng chi ph t nhn ca vic thc thi thu pht thi l tng ca chi ph gim nhim v tin thu ca ch th gy nhim. Nh chng ta s thy, nhng chi ph ny khng ging nh chi ph x hi. Tng chi ph ti thiu 3.750$ t c ti mc pht thi 25 tn mi thng. C th thy lgc ng sau vn ny bng cch xem xt chi ph gim nhim bin. Nu khng c quy nh, ch th gy nhim thi E0=50 tn mi thng v tr tin thu 5.000$ (50 tn nhn 100$); nu ch th gy nhim gim thi ti mc 45 tn, chi ph gim nhim tng 50$, nhng tin thu tit kim c l 500$. Theo lgic ny, c th ci thin kt qu bng cch tip tc gim thi chng no thu sut cn ln hn chi ph gim nhim bin. Nguyn tc nh my tun theo
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l: gim thi n khi chi ph gim nhim bin bng thu sut. iu ny c th hin bng th phn di hnh 12-1. Nhc li Ch th gy nhim ti thiu ho tng chi ph t nhn ca h bng cch gim thi ti khi thu sut bng chi ph gim nhim bin. Hnh 12-1: Khi nim kinh t hc c bn ca thu pht thi Pht thi Chi ph gim Tng chi ph Tng tin thu (tn/thng) nhim bin ($) gim nhim hng thng 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
$ 200
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0 50 200 450 800 1250 1800 2450 3200 4050 5000
5000 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0
Tng chi ph ca ch th gy nhim ($) 5000 4550 4200 3950 3800 3750 3800 3950 4200 4550 5000
MAC
Thu /tn =100
25
50 Pht thi E0 (tn/thng)
nh thu pht thi 100$ mi tn cht thi mi thng. Bng trn cho thy chi ph gim nhim bin v tng chi ph gim nhim, tin thu, v tng chi ph. Tng chi ph gim nhim l nh nht mc thi l 25 tn mi thng. iu c th hin bng th ti im ng thu ct ng MAC. Din tch a l tin thu; din tch b l tng chi ph gim nhim.
Sau khi ch th gy nhim gim mc pht thi n 25 tn mi thng, tng tin thu (hng thng) l 2.500$. Chi ph gim nhim hng thng l 1.250$. Trn th, tng chi ph gim nhim tng ng din tch pha di hm MAC, k hiu l b trn s . Tng tin thu bng lng pht thi nhn vi thu sut, hoc din tch hnh tam gic k hiu l a. Nh vy tng chi ph t nhn l din tch (a+b). Gi s ch th gy nhim l mt nh my. Ti sao nh my khng th khng quan tm n thu, tip tc gy nhim nh tng lm, v chuyn thu cho ngi tiu dng di hnh thc gi cao hn? Nu nh my pht thi 50 tn, tng chi ph ca nh my l 5.000$ mi thng, bao gm to n b tin thu. Nh vy l cao hn nhiu so vi 3.750$ m nh my c th t c bng cch gim thi ti mc 25 tn mi thng. Nu hot ng trong mi trng cnh tranh hon ho, nh my tn ti bng cch ti a ha li nhun. Do ti
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a ha li nhun, nh my phi lm mi cch ti thiu ha tng chi ph, bao gm c thu pht thi. Phn ng ca nh my ph thuc vo nhiu yu t. Thu cng cao gim pht thi cng nhiu v ngc li. Trong v d ca hnh 12-1, mc thu 50$ lm nh my gim n mc 37,5 tn/thng, trong khi mc thu 180$ lm gim pht thi ti 5 tn/thng. Cng vy, hm s chi ph gim nhim bin cng dc, pht thi gim cng t khi c thu. Chng ta s quay li vn ny phn di y. Tuy nhin cng phi thy rng nu nh my khng hot ng trong th trng cnh tranh ho n ho, thu s khng hot ng theo cch chng ta phn tch. Cng vy, nhng nh my bn sn phm ca mnh trn th trng quc t v cnh tranh vi nhng i th khng phi tr thu mi trng khng th no chuyn mt phn thu sang ngi tiu th.
Thu v tiu chun pht thi

So snh cng c thu v cng c tiu chu n pht thi. Vi thu, tng chi ph ca cng ty l 3.750$. Gi s thay vo , nh chc trch ban hnh mt tiu chu n pht thi quy nh cng ty phi gim pht thi xung ti mc 25 tn/thng. Trong trng hp ny, tng chi ph ca cng ty ch l 1,250$ cho phn gim nhim. Do , h thng thu cui cng li gy ra nhiu chi ph cho cng ty hn cng c tiu chu n. Vi cng c tiu chu n, cng ty c cng mc chi ph gim nhim nh vi cng c thu nhng vn s dng min ph dch v mi trng, trong khi vi h thng thu, cng ty phi tr tin cho dch v mi trng ny. Trong khi cc cng ty gy nhim thch cng c tiu chun hn thu pht thi, c l do ta thy rng ti sao x hi li thch cng c thu hn cng c tiu chun.
Mc thu hiu qu x h i
Trong tnh trng c cnh tranh, mc thu nh cng cao th pht thi gim cng nhiu, nhng c th l cn phi nh ra m t mc thu cao n bao nhiu? Nu chng ta bit hm thit hi bin v hm gim nhim bin, cu tr li s l nh mc thu sao cho c c mc pht thi hiu qu, nh c th thy Hnh 12-2. Chng ta thm hm thit hi bin MD = 4E vo cng vi ng MAC trong hnh 12-1. Cho MD b ng MAC ta c thu sut hiu qu x hi l 100$/tn. Nu nh chc trch bit thng tin ca c hai hm s ny th c th tnh c mc thu trn mi n v pht thi. Chi ph thc thi ca chnh sch thu l bao nhiu? Chng ta phi phn bit chi ph t nhn v chi ph x hi. Chng ta nh ngha chi ph thc thi t nhn, bng t ng chi ph gim nhim cng tin thu. Trong hnh 12-2, chi ph t nhn l din tch e cng din tch (a+b+c+d). Nhng chi ph thc thi t nhn khng i din cho chi ph ngu n lc x h i phi gnh chu khi p dng chnh sch thu. Chng ta quan tm n chi ph x hi Chi ph thc thi x h i ch bao gm nhng ngun lc cn thit t mc tiu mi trng; ngha l khng bao g m tin thu. Thu thc s l khon thanh ton chuyn giao, l kho n thanh ton cc tc nhn gy nhim tr cho khu vc cng v cu i cng l cho x hi, nhng ngi th hng l i ch t chi tiu cng. Ngi gy nhim cng c th l ngi th hng nhng li ch ny. Do khon thanh ton chuyn giao khng phi l chi ph x hi ca chnh sch. Nh vy chi ph thc thi x hi l din tch e, l tng chi ph gim nhim ca ngi gy nhim. X h i cng quan tm n li ch x hi rng c a chnh sch thu.
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Li ch x hi rng ca mt chnh sch c nh ngha l tng thit hi gi m c tr chi ph thc thi x h i Hnh 12-2: Thu pht thi hiu qu x h i
$ 200 MAC MD
100 a c e b 0 10 E1 d 25 E*
50 E0
Pht thi (tn/thng)
Cn bng hiu qu x hi t c vi mc thu bng 100$/tn. y l mc gi m MD = MAC. Chi ph thc thi t nhn l tng tin thu phi tr, din tch (a+b+c+d), cng vi tng chi ph gim nhim, l din tch e. Tng chi ph thc thi x h i l TAC. Li ch rng ca cng c thu l tng thit hi mt i, din tch (e+f) tr TAC, l din tch f.
V d: Tnh ton li ch x hi rng trong hnh 12-2 Cc bc thc hin nh sau: 1. Tnh tng thit hi gim c. Tng thit hi gim c chnh l din tch di ng MD gii hn b i mc pht thi ban u v mc pht thi hiu qu x hi, E*. y l din tch (e + f) = 3.750$. 2. Tnh tng chi ph gim nhim. TAC = din tch e = 1.250$. 3. Tnh li ch x hi rng. Li ch x h i rng = Tng thit hi gim c tr t ng chi ph gim nhim. Li ch x h i rng = din tch (e + f) tr din tch e = 2.500$. Chng ta c th so snh li ch x hi rng ca thu pht thi vi tiu chun pht thi ti mc pht thi hiu qu x hi, 25 tn/thng. Li ch x hi rng ca cng c tiu chu n bng vi li ch x hi rng ca cng c thu ti cng mt mc pht thi. S khc bit nm tc ng ln ngi gy nhim. Gim pht thi t E0 = 50 n E* = 25 tn mi thng lm gim thit hi xung cn (e + f). Thit hi cn li l (b + d), l khon chi ph t hn khon tin cng ty tr thu. iu ny khng nh tng thu pht thi da trn quyn s dng ti nguyn mi trng, ch khng phi da trn khi nim n b. Nhng cng c nhiu ngi ph phn loi thu
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ng nht nh th ny (mt thu sut cho tt c cc mc pht thi) bi v lo i thu ny thng dn n tng tin thu ca cng ty ln hn thit hi h gy ra. Cch gii quyt thng l xy dng chnh sch thu pht thi hai phn. Mt s mc pht thi ban u s khng chu thu v chng ta ch nh thu i vi nhng mc pht thi vt ngng. V d trong hnh 12-2, chng ta c th cho php mc pht thi ca cng ty E1=10 tn khng phi chu thu, v p dng mc thu sut 100$/tn i vi bt k tn pht thi no trn mc 10 tn. Cch ny cng lm cng ty c ng lc gim thi xung mc E*, nhng tng s tin tr thu ch l (c+d). Tng chi ph gim nhim bin, v tng thit hi ti mc E* n v pht thi vn nh c. Lm th no nh c mc thu cn phi thu nu cc nh qu n l kim sot khng bit c hm thit hi bin? Chng ta bit rng vic x thi c lin quan n cht lng mi trng xung quanh. Ni chung, mc cht thi x ra cng t th tch t cht gy nhim trong mi trng xung quanh cng thp. V th mt chin lc kh d l nh ra mt mc thu v ri theo di cht ch xem n c nh hng g i vi vic ci thin mc cht lng mi trng xung quanh. Chng ta s phi ch i lu cho cc c s c thi gian phn ng li vi khon thu . Nu cht lng mi trng xung quanh khng c ci thin nhiu nh mong mun th c tng mc thu ln; cn nu cht lng mi trng xung quanh c ci thin nhiu hn mc c cho l thch hp th gim mc thu xu ng. l mt qua trnh thc hin nhng phng nh lin tip nhau tm ra mt mc thu cht thi ng n v lu v d i. Tuy nhin cc nh lm chnh sch cn phi khuyn co ngi gy nhim rng thuu sut c th thay i. phn ng li mt khon thu, cc i tng gy nhim thng u t vo mt lot nhng thit b kim sot nhim khc nhau, nhiu khi cn n nhng khon chi ph ban u kh ln. Qu trnh u t ny s b xo ng ng k nu, chng bao lu sau, gii chc hu trch li xoay qua mt mc thu mi. Xc nh thu sut c th bin thnh chuyn chnh tr. Thay v t k hoch thc hin nhng iu chnh k tip nhau, cc nh hoch nh chnh sch c l do cm thy cn phi quyt nh mt mc thu ng n ngay t u. Chng ta khng th p dng cch ny vi cng c tiu chun. Chng 14 s kho st k vn ny.
Thu pht thi v hiu qu chi ph

C l lun im mnh m nht ng h cho mt chnh sch thu pht thi l lun im da trn nhng tc ng ca n n tnh hiu qu, c bit trong vic kim sot mt lc nhiu ngun x thi theo hng tha mn c nguyn tc cn bng bin. Nu p dng cng mt mc thu cho cc ngun gy nhim khc nhau vi nhng hm chi ph gim nhim bin khc nhau, v mi ngun ny ct gim mc cht thi ca mnh cho n khi chi ph gim nhim bin b ng vi mc thu phi ng, th khi chi ph gim nhim bin ca cc ngun s t ng i n ch cn bng nhau. n nh mt mc thu pht thi s t ng tha mn nguyn tc cn bng bin bi v tt c ngun x thi s t mc thu bng vi ng MAC ca h. Cc ng MAC ca cc ngun s cn bng. iu ny c trnh by Hnh 12-3. y chng ta gi nh rng c hai ngun x mt loi cht thi c th no , tm gi l nh my H v nh my L. Cng gi nh rng lng cht thi sau khi c x ra t hai ngun ny ha ln ng nht vo nhau, v th cht thi ca hai ngun u gy thit hi nh nhau i vi vng chu tc ng cui ngun gi hay ngun nc. Chi ph gim nhim bin ca hai ngun cng ging nh mc chng ta s dng hnh 11-4 trong chng 11. n nh mt mc thu l 200$/kg cht thi cho mi
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ngun vi gi s cc nh lp chnh sch tnh c ng MD v t mc thu tng ng. Nh my H s gim lng pht thi xung cn 80kg/thng, cn nh my L s gim xung cn 20kg/thng. Chi ph gim nhim bin ca hai nh my s bng nhau v thu tr thnh gi n ca nhim v gi ny th bng nhau i vi c hai ngun. Lng cht thi gim tng cng l 100kg/thng, v l mc c t ng phn b gia hai nh my di tc ng ca thu pht thi theo nguyn tc cn bng bin. k rng thu pht thi d n n vic nh my H ct gim mc pht thi hn 83% trong khi nh my L ch gim c 33% m thi. Thu pht thi dn n vic ct gim theo mt t l cao hn nhng nh my c chi ph gim nhim bin thp hn. Ngc li, nhng nh my c ng chi ph gim nhim bin dc hn s ct gim theo t l t hn. Mc thu cng cao th mc cht thi c ct gim cng nhiu. Thc ra, nu mc thu c tng ln n khong trn 250$/kg, nh my L s hon ton dng x loi cht thi ny. Vi mc thu cao hn, khong 600$/kg, nh my H s gim pht thi xung bng 0. Mt mc thu duy nht, nu p dng cho cc nh my khc nhau, s lm nhng nh my c chi ph gim nhim bin tng chm hn gim pht thi nhiu hn nhng nh my c cho ph gim nhim bin tng nhanh. V cc nh my phi tr cng mt mc thu, h s c tng chi ph gim nhim v s tin thu phi ng khc nhau. hnh 12-3 tin thu ca nh my H (16.000$) ln hn rt nhiu tin thu ca nh my L (4.000$).
Thu pht thi v tiu chun

Lm th no so snh thu vi cng c tiu chun cng c cng mc tiu gim lng pht thi xung cn 100kg/thng? Cc nh lp chnh sch thit lp cc khon ct gim pht thi t l cho tng ngun; mi ngun ch c php pht thi khng qu 50kg/thng. Ti mc tiu chun ny, chi ph gim nhim bin ca mi nh my khc nhau. Bng di y so snh chi ph thc thi x hi (tng chi ph gim nhim) ca cng c thu v cng c tiu chu n ng nht. Chi ph thc thi x hi ($/thng) Tiu chun ng nht (50kg/thng cho mi ngun) 4.900 12.250 17.150$
Ngun L Ngun H Tng chi ph
Thu pht thi (200$/kg) 10.000 4.000 14.000$
Chng ta hy xem cc con s tng cng khc nhau ra sao. Tng chi ph gim nhim bin ca cng c tiu chun ng nht cao hn tng chi ph gim nhim ca cng c thu pht thi l 22,5%. n gin l do cng c tiu chun ng nht vi phm nguyn tc cn bng bin ; cng c ny i hi vic ct gim theo t l ng u nh nhau bt chp cao v hnh dng ca ng biu din hm chi ph gim nhim bin c a mi nh my. (Cu hi: Chi ph thc thi x hi ca cng c thu v tiu chun cho tng ngun trong trng hp ny l g ?) y ch l nhng con s minh ha. Trong nhng chng sau chng ta s thy rng trong thc t kim sot nhim, s khc bit ny thng cn ln hn nhiu.
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Hnh 12-3: Thu pht thi l hiu qu chi ph

$ 600 500 400 300 200 100 MACL Thu trn mi kg MACH
20
40
60
80
100
120
Kh cacbon mnxit (kg mi thng)
Mc thu ng nht 200$/kg cacbon mnxt l hiu qu chi ph. C 2 nh my u t mc thu bng vi ng MAC ca h. Nh my H gim pht thi xung cn 80kg; nh my L gim cn 20kg/thng.
Tm li khi MAC ca cc ngun pht thi khc nhau, vi cng mt mc mc tiu pht thi, chi ph thc thi x hi ca thu lun thp hn chi ph ca cng c tiu chun ng nht bi v cng c thu l hiu qu chi ph cn tiu chun ng nht th khng. Thu v tiu chu n cn khc nhau im Thu pht thi l hiu qu chi ph ngay c khi c quan qun l khng nm c g v chi ph gim nhim bin ca bt k ngun pht thi no. iu ny tng phn r rt vi cng c tiu chu n pht thi, l phng php gii quyt i hi c quan hu trch phi bit ch xc chi ph gim nhim bin ca mi nh my mi c th c c mt chng trnh hiu qu chi ph hon ton. Theo phng php nh thu pht thi th yu cu duy nht l cc c s phi tr cng mt khon thu v phi ti thiu ha chi ph cho vic ny. Sau khi mi c s iu chnh mc cht thi ca mnh cho ph hp vi chi ph gim nhim bin (chng ta c th k vng l cc c s bit r chi ph ca mnh), h s u x thi cc mc thch hp tha mn c nguyn tc cn bng bin.
Thu pht thi v cht thi hn hp khng ng nht

Cho n nay chng ta phn tch da trn gi nh rng cht thi x ra t tt c cc ngun u ha ln ng nht vi nhau, ngha l, cht thi x ra t mt ngun no th c cng mt tc ng bin n cht lng mi trng xung quanh nh cht thi x ra t tt c cc ngun khc. Trn thc t iu ny khng phi lc no cng xy ra. Thng th tnh trng s ging nh nhng g c miu t biu 12-4, mc d d nhin phc tp hn. y chng ta c hai ngun gy nhim, c hai u c cng MAC. Ngu n A th xa trung tm dn c gp i ngun B. iu ny c ngha l cht thi t ngun A x ra khng gy nn nhiu tc hi n khu vc th nh ngun B. Nu hai ngun ny thi cht thi xung mt con sng chy v mt thnh ph, cht thi t ngun A c nhiu thi gian phn hy v
193
a n t tc hi v mi trng hn cht thi t ngun B. Hay nu y l chuyn nhim khng kh, ngun A ngc xa v hng u ngun gi hn ngun B, v v th c nhiu thi gian cho kh thi t ngun ny pht tn i v tan lo ng ra hn l kh thi t ngun B. Ngoi l do khc bit v v tr ca ngun pht thi, c th c nhng l do khc dn n vic c nhng tc ng mi trng khc nhau. Chng hn cc c s c th x cht thi vo nhng lc khc nhau trong nm khi gi thi khng ging nhau. Vic nghin cu vn a im cho php chng ta kho st c vn chung v vic x cht thi khng ng nht. Trong trng hp ny, mt khon thu pht thi duy nht p dng cho c hai ngu n s khng th hon ton hiu qu c. Mt kho n thu duy nht ch c th gii quyt vn khc bit v chi ph gim nhim bin, ch khng th gii quyt vn khc bit v mc thit hi t cc ngun pht thi khc nhau. hnh 12-4, ct gim mt n v cht thi t nh my B s ci thin c cht lng mi trng (gim c cc thit hi mi trng) vng th ln cn nhiu hn l vic ct gim cng mt n v cht thi nh my A, v thc t ny cn phi c tnh n khi n nh cc mc thu pht thi. Gi s vic ct gim cht thi ngu n B c hiu qu gp i v gim thit hi so vi vic ct gim ngun A. iu ny trn thc t c ngha l mc thu pht thi m ngu n B tr phi cao gp i mc thu m ngu n A tr.57 Nh th, sau khi iu chnh cc mc thu , chi ph gim nhim bin ca ngu n B s gp i chi ph tng ng c a ngu n A. Tuy nhin, mc gim thit hi tnh trn mi ng la b ra ct gi m cht th i s bng nhau gia hai ngu n. Hnh 12-4: Pht thi khng ng nht
Hng gi/nc Khong cch (A) = 2 khong cch (B) Khong cch (B)
Ngu n A
Ngun B
Trung tm dn c (thit hi)
Pht thi t ngun A c t tc ng n cht lng mi trng xung quanh ca trung tm dn c hn pht thi t ngun B.
Lgc ca phn bn lun trn c v nh cho ta mt kt lu n rng trong nhng trng hp nh vy chng ta phi nh thu pht thi m i ngu n mi khc. lm c iu ny chng ta phi bit tm mc quan trng tng i ca cht thi t m i ngun tc ng n cht lng mi trng xung quanh. iu ny cng tng t nh vn ca chng 11, ngha l mi tiu chu n phi da trn h s truyn ca ngu n pht thi. Th nhng tm ra c ch xc nh ng khc bit tng i s l mt cng vic kh khn, v cng tc
57
Khi nim chuyn mn cp y c gi l h s truyn. H s truyn l mt con s cho bit cht thi x ra t mt ngun no c nh hng nh th no n cht lng mi trng xung quanh mt a im c th no khc. Trong v d n gin hnh 12-4, gi s mt tn kh SO2 t ngun B x ra lm tng nng kh SO2 vng dn c ln cn ln thm 0.1 ppm. Nh th mt tn kh thi t ngun A s lm tng nng kh thi ny ln thm 0.05 ppm trong mi trng xung quanh (gi s rng tc ng ca vic x cht thi hon ton t l vi khong cch). Nu h s truyn ca ngun B l 1, v ca ngun A l 0.5, th mc thu dnh cho A ch phi bng mt na mc thu dnh cho B.
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qu n l thu pht thi ring cho tng i tng cng kh khn khng km. C l cu tr li tt nht cho vn ny l thit lp chng trnh c gi l nh thu pht thi theo vng. Vi cch ny cc c quan qun l s phn chia mt a bn ra thnh nhng vng ring r, v con s cc vng trn thc t s ty thuc vo hon cnh ring c a mi trng hp. Trong mi vng c quan hu trch s nh cng mt mc thu cho tt c cc ngu n gy nhim , trong khi cc vng khc nhau s phi chu nhng mc thu khc nhau. Cc ngu n pht thi c nhm vo chung mt vng d a trn tc ng ca cht thi n cht lng mi trng xung quanh. Chng hn hnh 12-5 cho thy lc mt con sng vi hng chc ngun x cht thi khc nhau v mt khu vc th ngi ta t ra cc nh mc cht lng nc v tin hnh o lng cht lng nc. C mi ngun x thi pha u ngun nm tri dc con sng cch khu vc th t gn ti xa v hai ngun nm di h lu. Mi ngun c tc ng khc nhau n cht lng nc o c ti trm quan trc, v chng trnh gim thi t hiu qu chi ph hon ton phi tnh n yu t ny bn cnh yu t chi ph gim nhim bin khc nhau. Nhng chi ph qun l s rt cao nu chng ta p dng cc mc thu khc nhau cho cc ngun khc nhau. Trong trng hp ny chng ta quay tr li vi thu pht thi theo vng. u tin chng ta xc nh cc vng khc nhau dc theo sng sau p dng cng mt mc thu cho tt c cc ngun trong cng mt vng nhng mc thu khc nhau cho cc ngun khc vng. Nh vy mi vng s gm nhng ngun pht thi c tc ng n cht lng nc o c ti trm quan trc tng ng nhau. V d bn vng thng ngun c v phc ha nh trong hnh 12-5. Ba ngun nhim trong vng 1 s phi ng cng m t mc thu, v b n ngun trong vng 2 cng vy v.v. Cc ngun 11 v 12 nm h lu so vi v tr ca khu vc th do c th s khng b nh thu. D nhin, y ch l m t s n gin ha minh ha cho tng c bn; trong thc t, rt c th cc ngun h lu cng gy ra thit hi. Bng cch p dng h thng phn vng chng ta phn no c th gim nh gnh nng hnh chnh trong khi vn xem xt n nhng khc bit v v tr ca nhng nhm ngun nhim khc nhau. Hnh 12-5: Thu pht thi theo vng
Vng 1 Vng 2 Vng 3 Vng 4 Khu vc th
1 0
1 1
2 4 6 9 1 2
Ngun pht thi
Tr m quan trc cht lng nc

Cc ngu n pht thi c nhm vo chung mt vng da trn tc ng ca cht thi n cht lng mi trng xung quanh.
Thu pht thi v ng c khuyn khch i mi cng ngh
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Mt trong nhng u im chnh ca thu pht thi l n to ra ng lc mnh m cho vic u t cng ngh mi nhm gim chi ph gim nhim bin. Chng ta s thy iu ny qua hnh 12-6, l hnh th hin 2 ng chi ph gim nhim bin ca mt cng ty c trnh by trong hnh 11-5. MAC1 i din cho tnh hnh hin ti, cho bit chi ph cng ty phi chu khi gim thi vi cng ngh hin c. MAC2 th hin chi ph gim nhim ca cng ty sau khi s dng chng trnh nghin cu v pht trin (R&D) ng dng cng ngh gim nhim mi. Cng ty c ng lc no u t tin vo chng trnh R&D khi vic pht thi b nh thu? Hnh 12-6: ng c khuyn khch u t cng ngh kim sot nhim mi di tc ng ca thu pht thi
$ 200 MAC1 160 MAC2
100 c e d a b
10
15
20
30
40 Cht thi (tn/nm)
Thu pht thi to ng lc mnh m cho u t vo R&D gim chi ph gim nhim. Cng ngh mi (MAC2) lm tit kim chi ph (a+c) vi mc thu sut 100$/tn cht thi. Tiu chun quy nh mc 20 tn cht thi ch tit kim c khon chi ph a.
Gi s cng ty phi chu mt mc thu pht thi l 100$/tn. Ban u cng ty s thu sut bng vi MAC1 v gim pht thi xung cn 20 tn, ti y tng chi ph lin quan n pht thi ca cng ty s bao gm (a + b) l chi ph gim nhim v tin thu (c + d + e). Nu cng ty c th h ng chi ph gim nhim bin xung MAC2 thng qua nhng ho t ng R&D, khi cng ty s gim lng pht thi xung cn 15 tn. Ti im ny cng ty s phi tr (b + d) l chi ph gim nhim v e tin thu. Tng chi ph tit kim c l (a + c). Nu thay vo cng ty phi tun theo mc tiu chu n pht thi l 20 tn, th khon tit kim chi ph ca cng ty vi cng ngh mi ny ch bng a nh chng ta thy trong chng 11. ng thi, nh trong chng trc, nu nh chc trch tht cht hn mc tiu chun khi cng ty c cng ngh mi, chi ph tit kim c ca cng ty c khi nh hn chi ph tit kim c khi cha thay i tiu chu n.58 C hai khc bit gia ng c thay i cng ngh ca thu v tiu chun. 1. Vi chnh sch thu pht thi n lc R&D ca cng ty s gim c nhiu chi ph lin quan n kim sot nhim (cho ph gim nhim v tin thu) hn khi p dng cng c tiu chun.
58
Xem li phn tc ng khuyn khch trong chng 11.
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2. Vi h thng thu, cng ty s t ng gim pht thi bi v cng ty s tm cch d ch chuyn hm s chi ph gim nhim bin xu ng di, trong khi cng c tiu chu n khng cho php thc hin c ch ny. S khc bit l ch vi cng c thu, i tng gy nhim phi tr tin cho vic pht thi cng nh cho chi ph gim nhim trong khi vi cng c tiu chu n h ch phi tr chi ph gim nhim. V vy khi p dng chnh sch thu, kh nng tit kim c chi ph nh vo nhng k thut kim sot nhim mi s ln hn nhiu.
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Thu pht thi v Chi ph cng ch thc thi

Thu pht thi t ra nhiu vn v vic cng ch thc thi hn l tiu chun pht thi. Bt c mt h thng thu no cng i hi phi c thng tin chnh xc v mt hng s b nh thu. Nu chng ta mun nh thu ln cht thi th chi ph o lng cht thi phi hp l. iu ny c ngha l cht thi x ra t mt ngun cn phi c tp trung thnh mt s dng xc nh c c th quan trc. iu ny loi tr hu ht nhng cht thi t cc ngun pht thi phn tn (khng phi l ngun c nh), bi v chng tri mng ra khp mt vng rng ln khin khng th o lng c. Thng thng ta khng th nh thu nhng cht nhim tm thy trong nc thi nng nghip bi v bn cht lan truyn ca cht thi ny khin khng th thc hin c vic o lng. Tuy nhin nu xc nh c mi quan h gia nhp lng ca sn xut nng nghip v lng cht thi, chng ta c th nh thu ln nhp lng v kim tra chng. Cng kh nh thu mt s cht thi ha cht c hi nht nh, bi v ngoi vic chng l ngun phn tn, chng c s lng qu nh do rt kh o c tc dng chy. Vi thu pht thi, c quan thm quyn v thu s gi mt ha n tin thu ti nhng cng ty gy nhim vo cui mi thng hay cui nm, cn c trn tng lng pht thi ca cc cng ty trong thi gian . Nh vy c quan ny s cn n nhng thng tin v lng cht thi tch ly ca mi ngun. Cng vic ny phc tp hn so vi vic thu thp thng tin v tc thi bi v cht thi tch ly l bng tc thi nhn vi thi gian. C nhiu cch ta thu thp thng tin ny. C l cch l tng nht l s dng nhng thit b quan trc thng trc o lng cht thi mt cch lin tc trong thi gian cn thit. Nu khng c cng ngh nh th, ta c th quay li s dng phng php kim tra tc pht thi nh k, vi khong thi gian gia hai ln kim tra cn c trn thi gian kinh doanh bnh thng hay cho cc cng ty t bo co. Hoc mt cch khc l thc hin nhng nghin cu k thut quyt nh s lng cht thi s c x trong tng lai l bao nhiu trong nhng iu kin hot ng c th, vi nhp lng c s dng c th v.v. Yu cu quan trc ca chnh sch thu pht thi c nghim ngt hn so vi mt cng c tiu chun tiu biu? Nu thu nh trn lng pht thi hng ngy trong khi tiu chu n li da vo lng pht thi hng nm, chnh sch thu s c chi ph gim st cao hn. Nhng chng ta c th thng nht cch quan trc bo m vic thc thi thu hay tiu chu n. Tn sut quan trc trong thc t li b gii hn bi ngn sch ca chnh ph. Cu hi cha c tr li l liu tn sut quan trc c tc ng lm i tng gy nhim tun th hn khi b nh thu hoc p dng tiu chu n. D nhin, i tng g y nhim c ng c tm nhng cch thc, c th hp php hay bng nhng cch no khc, ct gim ha n tin thu ca h. Mt trong nhiu cch l gy nh hng n qu trnh quan trc sao cho lng cht thi bo co c gim xung. Mt khi nhn ha n thu, h c th tranh ci nu nh cc ha n thu c v nh da trn d liu khng chc chn hoc c nhng yu im k thut khc. Khi b pht do khng t tiu chu n, cc cng ty cng c th c hnh ng tng t.
Cc loi thu khc

Cho ti gi chng ta ch tho lun xung quanh mt loi thu: thu pht thi. Bi v vic x cht thi trc tip gy nhim mi trng, thu nh trn cht thi c l l n b y ln nht c th lm thay i ng c ca i tng gy nhim. Nhng thng thng vic nh thu trc tip ln cht thi l khng th thc hin c hoc khng ph hp vi thc tin. Trong trng hp chng ta khng th o lng c hoc gim st cc cht thi vi
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mt chi ph va phi, nu ta p dng nh thu th thu ny r rng l phi c tnh theo mt ci g khc. Mt trng hp minh ha d thy l vn nhim nc do nc thi cha phn ha hc dng trong nng nghip. Ta khng th nh thu i vi s kilogram nit trong nc thi bi v l loi cht nhim t ngun pht tn v nh vy ta khng th o lng mt cch trc tip c. Chng ta vp phi cng vn ny i vi thuc tr su trong nng nghip. Thay vo c mt kh nng kh dng hn l chng ta nh thu ln s lng phn bn ngi nng dn mua; c ngha l, thu c nh trn mt tn phn ha hc hay trn 100 kg thuc tr su c mua. Lc ny thu phn nh s tht l mt phn nht nh nhng vt liu ny s c thi ra h thng sng ngi gn . Bi v phi tr gi cao hn, nng dn s c ng c s dng phn bn ho c thuc tr su t hn. Gi cao hn ng thi cng to ra ng c s dng thuc tr su theo nhng cch sao cho t to ra cht thi hn; v d nh bng cch gim lng nc thi. V d: nh thu rc thi nh thu ln mt th g ch khng phi trc tip ln cht thi thng l mt phng n tt nht th hai m chng ta cn p dng bi v khng th quan trc cht thi mt cch trc tip chnh xc c. Trong nhng trng hp nh vy, chng ta cn thn trng phng nhng trng hp hiu lm khi ngi dn phn ng li thu ny, c nhng hiu lm c th thc s lm gim nh hng ca thu hoc i khi lm cho vn lin quan cng ti t hn. V d nhiu cng ng M p dng bin php thu thu rc thi t h gia nh. Mt phng php l bn nhn dn cho c dn v yu cu mi ti rc phi c mt nhn dn ngoi. Gi ca cc nhn s quyt nh mc thu, v ta thy s tng i d dng gim st v cng ch thi hnh thng qua vic thu gom cc ti rc v ng. Nhng thu nh trn mi ti rc li to ra ng c khin ngi dn nht nhiu rc hn vo mi ti, v vy mc ct gim tng s lng rc c th nh hn so vi s lng ti rc c ct gim. V d: nh thu kh thi xe t Gi s chng ta nh thu pht thi xt nit v Hir ccbon t xe t. Thu trn mi xe c quyt nh bi lng kh thi trn mi kilmt, thng c quyt nh thng qua kim nh (do c quan mi trng Canada hoc cc nh sn xut t thc hin). Mc tiu l tng chi ph ca nhng xe thi nhiu so vi nhng xe thi t, do to ra ng lc cho ngi tiu dng chuyn qua mua xe pht thi t. Thu lin quan n lng pht thi trn mi kilmt tiu chun. Nhng yu t chng ta mun kim sot l tng lng pht thi. Nh li ni dung chng 1: Tng lng pht thi = S lng phng tin s km di chuyn trung bnh lng pht thi trn mi km S kilmt di chuyn cng l yu t quan trng quyt nh mc pht thi hng nm nh t l pht thi ca mi xe. Mc d ngi tiu dng c th chuyn qua xe pht thi t hn nhng r rng h khng c ng lc li xe t i mi nm (c th l i t hn, chuyn ch gn ni lm vic hn v.v.). Do tng lng pht thi c th gim rt t mc d nh thu pht thi t xe t. im mu cht y l thu c nh gin tip trn mt th g
199
ch khng phi trc tip nh mong mun, do to ra t ng lc v to ra kt qu t hn so vi khi nh thu trc tip ln tng lng pht thi.59
59
Xem thm phn tho lun rt th v v vn tng t khi p dng cc quy nh cng ngh trong Robert Crandall, Policy Watch: Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standard, Journal of Economics Perspective 6 (Spring 1992): 171 180
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Tc ng phn phi ca thu pht thi

Thu thu pht thi c hai tc ng chnh n phn phi thu nhp v ca ci: Tc ng ln gi v sn lng hng ha v dch v b nh hng bi thu nh hng t chi tiu ly t ngn qu thu.
Chi ph ca nhng c s kinh doanh chu thu s gia tng do c thm chi ph gim nhim v chi ph tr tin thu. ng trn quan im ca nhng c s ny, nhng chi ph ny khin chi ph sn xut gia tng, m rt c th h s chuyn sang cho ngi tiu th gnh chu nh bt k mt chi ph sn xut no. Liu h c lm nh vy khng v lm mc no cn ph thuc vo nhng iu kin cnh tranh v iu kin nhu cu. Nu p dng thu i vi mt cng ty hay mt nhm cc cng ty trong mt ngnh cng nghip cnh tranh, th cng ty khng th y gi ca mnh vt qu mc gi chung ca ngnh cng nghip ny, v v vy s phi chu chi ph gia tng. Trong trng hp ny, ngi ch cng ty v ngi lm cng l nhng ngi chu hon ton tc ng ca thu. Nhiu cng ty lo s hay gi v lo s b trong tnh trng ny v v vy ln ting cng khai phn i phng php nh thu. Nu nh p dng thu i vi ton b ngnh cng nghip, gi s tng v ngi tiu dng s gnh chu mt phn gnh nng chi ph. Gi s tng ln bao nhiu ph thuc vo cc iu kin ca ng cu. S tng gi thng c xem l s tht li bi v, vi bt k mt mt hng no, gi tng s nh hng ti ngi ngho nhiu hn so vi nhng ngi c thu nhp cao. i vi hng ha m c ngi ngho v ngi giu u tiu th, v d nh in, th kt lun trn l r rng khng cn phi b n. Tuy nhin khi gi tng i vi nhng hng ha ch yu do ngi giu tiu th (v d i li bng hng khng) th gnh nng ch yu ln vai h. Gnh nng i vi ngi lao ng c lin quan cht ch n mc sn lng ca cng ty b nh thu. y ta li thy mc nh hng i vi sn phm ph thuc vo cc iu kin cnh tranh v c im ca nhu cu hng ha. Nu p dng chng trnh thu pht thi cho duy nht mt hng trong mt ngnh cng nghip cnh tranh hoc nu nhu cu sn lng sn phm ca ngnh cng nghip l tng i nhy cm i vi gi, iu chnh v sn lng s l tng i ln v nhiu cng nhn c th s b sa thi. Khi gnh nng trong di hn s ty thuc vo vic liu c th tm c nhng ngun cng vic tt khc hay khng. Mc d gnh nng do thay i gi v sn lng l thc t, chng ta cn nh rng chng trnh thu to ra nhng li ch ng k di dng gim thit hi mi trng. bit mt chng trnh c nh hng nh th no i vi mt nhm i tng c th chng ta cng cn phi lu n xem nhng li ch ny c phn b nh th no. Thu pht thi cn bao gm c vic c nhng khon tin ng k chuyn t ngi tiu th hng ha do ngnh cng nghip b nh thu sn xut sang nhng ngi c hng li t nhng ngun qu thu c t thu, cho d h l ai. Nhng ngun qu ny c th c s dng vo rt nhiu mc ch; s dng nh th no s quyt nh tc ng ca chng. V d nh chng c th c phn phi cho nhng ngi c thu nhp thp b p cho nhng nh hng do gi gia tng. Thm ch c th tr li mt phn thu cho nhng cng ty tr tin thu pht thi. iu ny c thc hin ti mt s quc gia Chu u gip ti tr mua cng ngh kim sot nhim. Min l chng no tin tr li khng thc s lm gim thp mc thu pht thi bin, tc ng khuyn khch ca thu pht thi s khng b nh
201
hng. Hoc mt cch khc, c th dng thu trang tri cho nhng sng kin mi trng trong nhng hot ng chung. Thm ch c th dng thu ny gim thm ht ngn sch, lc ny nhng ngi c hng li chnh l nhng ngi dn ng thu ni chung. La chn a doanh thu thu quay tr li vo nn kinh t to ra mt vn chnh sch rt quan trng. Thu pht thi chng ta tho lun trong phn ny c thit k nhm khuyn khch nhng ngun gy nhim s dng cc ngun lc mi trng mt cch tit kim hn. Bn cht ca thu l nhm sa cha cc cch thc s dng ngun lc sai lm nh khi ti nguyn mi trng thng c s dng nh nhng nhp lng min ph. Mt c im khc ca thu pht thi cng cn c nhn mnh l n cn l ngun thu ca chnh ph, qua ta thy chnh ph cn mt kh nng l thay th mt s loi thu nht nh vn c nh hng bp mo i vi nn kinh t bng thu pht thi, c thit k nhm gim vic s dng ngun lc sai lch. V d nh, nhiu quc gia c thu thu nhp, nh ln cc cng ty v ngi lao ng nhm cung cp ngn qu dng cho nhiu mc ch a dng khc nhau, v d nh bo him x hi. Nhng thu ny khin gi nhn cng t hn, v v vy khin s nhn cng c thu mn gim ngha l cng n vic lm b ct gim. Nu chng ta thay th thu ny hon ton hay mt phn bng thu pht thi, s c nhng nh hng mong mun ln c th trng lao ng v trong vic gim ngoi tc mi trng. Khi nim s dng doanh thu thu mi trng lm gim tc ng bp mo ca cc loi thu khc c gi l chuyn thu mi trng. Chng ta s tho lun khi nim ny k hn trong phn 5.
TR CP GIM NHIM
Phng thc vn hnh ca thu pht thi l t mt mc gi cho ti sn mi trng m cht thi ang c x vo. Thc cht l chng ta cng thu c nhng tc ng khuyn khch tng t nu thay v l thu , chng ta tr cp cho pht thi. Theo phng php ny, nh chc trch s tr cho i tng gy nhim mt khon tin nht nh cho mi tn cht thi gim c, bt u t mt mc pht thi chun nht nh. Tin tr cp c vai tr lm phn thng cho vic ct gim cht thi. Ni theo thut ng chuyn mn, n ng vai tr l chi ph c hi: khi i tng gy nhim quyt nh x ra mt n v cht thi, th tht s l cng ty ny ang t b mt khon tin tr cp c th nhn c nu nh chn gi li n v cht thi . Dng nhng s liu trong hnh 12-1, b ng 12-1 cho thy nguyn tc ho t ng ca phng php ny. Nh chc trch tr mt khon tr cp cho mi n v cht thi gim c, bt u t mt mc pht thi gc. Chng ta gi s mc pht thi gc ca cng ty l mc pht thi trc khi c bt c chnh sch can thip no: 50 tn/thng. Vi mi tn cht thi gim c so vi mc pht thi gc ca mnh, cng ty s nhn c 100$. Ct th t cho thy tng doanh thu tin tr cp v ct cui cng th hin tng tr cp tr cho tng chi ph gim nhim. Doanh thu rng t mc cao nht ti mc 25 tn/thng, cng mt mc ct gim cng ty la chn khi thu sut l 100$. Ni mt cch khc, ng c khuyn khch cho i tng pht thi cng tng t nh trng hp thu.
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Bng 12-1: Tr cp gim nhim Cht thi (tn/thng) 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Chi ph gim nhim bin 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 Tng chi ph gim nhim 0 50 200 450 800 1.250 1.800 2.450 3.200 4.050 5.000 Tng tr cp ti mc 120$/tn 0 500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000 3.500 4.000 4.500 5.000 Tng tr cp tr tng chi ph gim nhim 0 450 800 1.050 1.200 1.250 1.200 1.050 800 450 0
Nhiu im m chng ta nu trc v thu pht thi cng p dng cho tr cp gim nhim. Cng vic quan trc cht thi c bn cng nh nhau. Khng nghi ng g chng ta cng s gp nhiu kh khn trong vic thit lp mc pht thi gc o c lng cht thi c ct gim. Mi ngun nhim u mong mun mc pht thi gc ca h c t cng cao cng tt. ng c sai lm c th xut hin trong giai on lp k hoch bi v cc i tng gy nhim c th s c nng cao lng pht thi ca mnh vi hy vng nng cao mc pht thi gc ca h. Tuy nhin, cn mt vn na vi tr cp m khng thy xy ra vi thu. c th tr tr cp cho ngi gy nhim, chnh ph bng mt cch no phi to ngun thu. Ngun thu cho tr cp ny c th lm thm ht ngn sch, ho c thng qua thu thu nhp cao hn v.v. Nu khng th to ngun thu, chnh ph cn c hai la chn na. H c th ct gim chi tiu nhng chng trnh khc hoc b ngun thu nu tr cp c thc hin di dng khu tr thu (chng hn u t vo cng ngh gim nhim). Trong cc tnh hung ny, dng nh s c nhng tc ng khng mong mun n nn kinh t. Vi tnh hnh ti chnh kh khn hu ht cc nn kinh t, tr cp ni chng khng phi l chnh sch mi trng c th thc hin c, tr mt s trng hp c bit. Mt kh khn na khi p dng chnh sch tr cp l tc ng ca n ln tng mc pht thi ca mt ngnh cng nghip. Mc d tr cp gim nhim ny to ra cng mt ng c khuyn khch cho mi ngun gy nhim, nhng tng lng pht thi c th s gia tng. hiu ti sao, n s khc bit gia tnh hnh ti chnh ca cng ty khi pht thi 25 tn trong hai chng trnh khc nhau: vi chng trnh thu, tng chi ph l 3.750$ trong khi vi chng trnh tr cp cng ty ny c tng doanh thu l 1.250$. Nh vy tnh hnh ti chnh ca cng ty trong hai trng hp hon ton khc nhau. Thc s, cng ty s thu c li nhun cao hn sau khi p dng chng trnh tr cp, v iu ny c th tc ng thu ht thm cc cng ty mi tim nng tham gia vo ngnh cng nghip ny. Ni cch khc, c kh nng s lng cht thi ca tng cng ty gim nhng s lng cc cng ty trong ngnh cng nghip s gia tng, do tng lng cht thi gia tng. c tnh ny l mt hn ch ca nhng chng trnh tr cp n gin nh vy.
203
H thng k qu - hon tr
Chng trnh tr cp c l thc t hn khi c vn dng vo trong h thng k qu hon tr. Mt h thng k qu - hon tr thc cht l s kt hp gia thu v tr cp. Thu l k qu v tr cp l hon tr - mt kiu chng trnh pht v n b. Mc ch ca tr cp l to ra ng c cho ngi dn t gic khng vt b vt theo nhng cch gy thit hi n mi trng. l n b. Qu dng chi tr cho tr cp c lp ra bng cch nh thu ln nhng vt ny khi ngi tiu dng mua chng. Trong trng hp ny, mc ch ca thu khng nht thit l khuyn khch ngi dn ct gim mc tiu th mn hng , m thu tin cho chng trnh tr cp. Nu ngi dn khng tr li vt v ly li tin k qu, lc ny c th xem thu nh l ph rc thi. H thng k qu - hon tr c bit ph hp trong nhng tnh hung khi sn p hm c c tnh phn tn khp mi ni khi mua v s dng, v trong tnh hung khi nh chc trch kh hoc khng th gim st c vic vt b cht thi. Ti Canada, mt s tiu bang bao gm British Columbia, Alberta v Saskatchewan, thng qua cc h th ng k qu - hon tr i vi cc loi lon nc gii kht, va ct gim vic x rc v va khuyn khch ti ch. Phng php ny cng c s dng rng ri Chu u. C th dng phng php ny x l rt hiu qu i vi nhiu sn phm khc. Trong nhng nm cui thp nin 1960, nc c thit lp mt h thng k qu - hon tr i vi du nht thi. Mi nm s lng du thi ra khng ng quy cch l rt ln, gy nguy him cho ngun ti nguyn t ai, khng kh v nc. Theo h thng k qu - hon tr ca c, du nht mi s phi chu mt khon thu, tin thu c s a vo mt qu t bit (k qu). Qu ny sau s c s dng nhm tr cp cho h thng thu hi v ti ch du thi (hon tr). Cc quy nh ca chng trnh tr cp c thit lp nhm khuyn khch cnh tranh trong vic thu hi/ti ch du nht thi v to ra ng c khuyn khch ngi s dng gim bt mc nhim du nht trong khi s dng. Ti Thy in v Na Uy, h thng k qu - hon tr c thit lp v p dng cho t. Nhng ngi mua t phi tr mt khon tin k gi ti thi im mua xe, khon tin ny s c ho n tr khi v nu chic xe c giao li cho mt c s bun bn ng nt c giy php. Kinh nghim vi h thng ny cho thy thnh cng khng ch ph thuc vo mn tin k qu ln hay nh. V d, iu thit yu l h thng thu gom phi c thit k sao cho tng i tin li cho ngi tiu dng. H thng k qu - hon tr cn thch hp i vi nhng mn hng khc nh nhng sn phm c cha cc cht c hi, v d nh pin c cht cadmium (Cd) v bnh c quy ca xe t. V bnh xe t cng c th c x l bng cch ny. C th iu chnh h thng k qu - hon tr cho ph hp vi nhng cht nhim cng nghip truyn thng. V d nh ngi s dng dng nhin liu ha thch c th ng tin k qu cho hm lng lu hunh cha trong nhin liu h mua; sau h s c ho n tr li tin khi cht lu hunh ny c thu hi li t khi x. Nh vy c ngha l h s mt khon tin k qu ch khi no h cho kh lu hunh ny thot ra khi ng khi ca mnh. Chng ta s thy thm nhiu v d trong phn 5.
204
TM TT
Thu pht thi gii quyt vn nhim ngay ti ngun, bng cch bt u tnh tin i vi nhng th m trc nay l min ph v v vy b lm dng. u im chnh ca thu pht thi l kha cnh hiu qu ca n: Nu tt c cc ngun nhim u phi chu cng mt mc thu, h s iu chnh mc pht thi ca mnh sao cho tha mn nguyn tc cn bng bin. c th lm c iu ny cc nh qu n l hnh chnh khng cn phi bit hm chi ph gim nhim bin ca tng ngun; ch cn yu cu cc cng ty phi ng thu v ri h t do thc hin cc iu chnh ca ring mnh. Mt u im chnh th hai ca thu pht thi l chng to ra ng c khuyn khch mnh m i mi, pht minh ra nhng cch thc t tn km hn ct gim cht thi. Nhng c im gin tip d nhn thy ca thu pht thi c th c tc dng khin cc nh ho ch nh chnh sch khng chp nhn chng. Bi v cc tiu chun c v nh t ra mc kim sot trc tip i vi cht thi trong khi thu pht thi khng t ra mc gii hn trc tip no i vi cht thi m li t tin tng vo hnh vi t li ca cc cng ty khi h iu chnh mc pht thi ca mnh p ng vi mc thu. iu ny c th khin cho mt s nh ho ch nh chnh sch khng an tm bi v r rng l cc cng ty vn cn c php t kim sot mc pht thi ca mnh. Nghe c v nghch l nhng c im gin tip ny ca thu pht thi i khi li c th to ra ng c khuyn khch ct gim cht thi thuyt phc hn so vi nhng phng php c v nh l trc tip. Nhng thu pht thi i hi phi c s gim st hu hiu. Khng th m bo tnh hiu lc ca chng n gin bng cch kim tra xem cc i tng c lp t nhng loi thit b kim sot nhim nht nh hay khng. Nu mun thu pht thi c c nhng tc ng khuyn khch ph hp, chng phi c t trn c s cht thi tch ly. Nh vy, i vi cc ngun im, mc pht thi c th c o lng mt cch hiu qu, do l i tng rt tt p dng chnh sch kim sot nhim thng qua thu pht thi. Mt u im khc ca thu pht thi l chng l ngun doanh thu cho ngn sch nh nc. C nhiu kin ngh nn thay i h thng thu sao cho t ph thuc hn vo cc loi thu c tc ng kinh t sai lch v trng cy nhiu hn vo cc loi thu pht thi. iu ny i hi nh chc trch phi c kh nng tin on chnh xc nh hng ca thu pht thi i vi lng pht thi. Tr cp gim nhim cng c cng tc ng khuyn khch i vi nhng i tng gy nhim ring l, nhng n c th lm gia tng tng lng pht thi. Phng php tr cp c p dng mt cch c hiu qu trong h thng tin k qu - hon tr, thc cht n l s kt hp gia thu v tr cp.
CC THUT NG CHNH
Chuyn thu mi trng Chnh sch khuyn khch da vo th trng Tng chi ph thc thi t nhn Thanh ton chuyn giao Thu pht thi hai phn Thu pht thi theo vng
205
BI TP
1. S dng hnh 12-6 v phng trnh MAC1 = 200 5E v MAC2 = 160 4E, tnh chi ph tit kim c nu cng ty p dng cng ngh mi (MAC2) sau khi mc thu pht thi 100$/tn c ban hnh. Tnh chi ph tit kim c khi c cng c tiu chu n c p dng mc 20 tn. Gii thch ti sao thu to ra khuyn khch ci tin cng ngh nhiu hn tiu chun. 2. Gi s nh chc trch mun s dng mt loi thu pht thi nh ln thy ngn thi vo sng. Hy minh ha tc ng ca thu ln hai ngnh cng nghip thi ra thy ngn: khai thc vng v ngh cha rng. Tho lun cc cu hi sau: (a) Lm th no nh chc trch o lng c lng thy ngn thi ra t 2 ngun ny? (b) C nn nh thu ng nht? (c) Tc ng c th c ca thu ln gi vng v gi dch v cha rng? (Nn t ra mt s gi nh v ng cu cc hng ha ny) (d) K ra mt s ng c thay i cng ngh sn xut. (e) Tc ng phn phi ca thu trong trng hp ny l g? Nn s dng th khi phn tch. 3. S dng s liu trong bng 12-1, ho c bit rng MAC = 200 4E, minh ha bng th tc ng ca khon tr cp pht thi 100$/tn. Phn bit tr cp v thu pht thi theo cc tiu ch sau (a) to ra ng c khuyn khch, (b) tnh d thc hin, (c) tc ng phn phi, v (d) tc ng ln ngnh cng nghip gy nhim.
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CHNG 13
GIY PHP PHT THI C TH CHUYN NHNG

Thu pht thi i hi cc nh chc trch phi nh ra mt mc thu, theo di hot ng ca tng i tng x thi, v ri thu thu. Ch yu l mi quan h tng tc gia i tng x thi v nh chc trch, v ta c th d kin c mi quan h ny cng mang tnh cht i nghch nh trong bt c mt h thng thu kha no khc. Trong chng ny chng ta s xt mt cch tip cn chnh sch mang yu t khuyn khch kinh t c thit k ra hot ng theo kiu phi tp trung ha. Thay v trao tt c mi vic cho mt c quan qu n l cng cng hot ng theo hng tp trung, cng c ny ho t ng theo hng phn quyn cho cc c s thng qua tc ng th trng qua li ca chnh nhng i tng x thi . Cng c ny c gi l h thng giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng (TDP).
NGUYN TC CHUNG
Mt giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng to ra quyn pht thi lng cht thi nht nh m quyn ny c th chuyn nhng c. Trong mt h thng giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng (TDP), mt kiu quyn s hu mi c pht sinh. Kiu quyn s hu ny gm c mt giy php c x thi. Mi giy php cho php ngi nm gi c quyn thi mt n v cht thi (tnh bng kilgram, tn, hay bt c mt n v o lng no ghi trong t giy php). Nh vy ai nm gi quyn ny thng thng s c trong tay mt s nhng giy php nh vy ti mi thi im. Nu mt i tng x thi c 100 giy php chng hn, th i tng ny s c quyn c thi, trong mt khong thi gian xc nh, mt lng ti a l 100 n v loi cht thi c ch nh. Nh th, tng s giy php trong tay ca tt c cc i tng quyt nh hn mc ti a tng lng cht thi c php x ra. Nhng giy php pht thi ny c th chuyn nhng c; b t c ai c php tham gia vo th trng giy php ny u c th mua v bn giy php vi bt c gi no do chnh cc bn tham gia tha thun. Mt chng trnh TDP thng bt u bng mt quyt nh mang tnh tp trung v tng s giy php pht thi c lu hnh. Sau nhng giy php ny c phn phi cho cc i tng x thi. Cn phi dng mt cng thc no nh xem mi i tng x thi s nhn c bao nhiu giy php (chng ta s quay tr li vn ny sau). Cc nh kinh t hc tn thnh phng n s dng hiu qu x hi (l im thit hi bin b ng chi ph gim nhim bin) lm tiu ch quyt nh s lng giy php pht thi. Do giy php pht thi hiu qu x hi phi th hin c tng lng pht thi ny. Gi s tng s giy php nh hn tng lng cht thi hin hnh, mt s hoc tt c i tng x thi s nhn c t giy php hn lng pht thi hin ti ca h.
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V d: Chng trnh TDP gim kh lu hunh t nh my nhit in Gi s c mt chng trnh TDP quc gia c thit lp gim lng kh lu hunh do mt nhm nh my nhit in thi ra. Tng s lng cht thi hin hnh l 120.000 tn lu hu nh mt nm, v nhng nh ho ch nh chnh sch quyt nh rng con s ny cn phi c gim xung cn 80.000 tn/nm. Chng ta hy xt tnh hung ca mt trong nhng nh my in ny, v gi s nh my hin ang thi ra 40.000 tn lu hunh. Gi s mi giy php cho php ngi nm gi pht thi ti a 1.000 tn lu hunh mt nm. Khi bt u chng trnh nh my c c giao 30 giy php pht thi. Ngi qun l nh my c ba kh nng chn: 1. Gim lng cht thi xung ti mc s lng giy php pht thi cho php ban u, l 30.000 tn/nm. 2. Mua thm giy php v x thi mc cao hn mc c cp ban u; v d mua thm 10 giy php, nh th lng cht thi ca nh my by gi s l 40.000 tn. Trong trng hp ny nh my s khng gim thi t mc ban u. 3. Gim lng cht thi xung thp hn mc 30.000 tn c cho ban u, v em bn s giy php m nh my khng cn n. V d nu gim lng pht thi xu ng cn 20.000 tn, v bn i 10 giy php khng cn n. C l kh c th thy ngay c rng vic mua v bn giy php gia nhng i tng gy nhim (v c l c nhng ngi khc na) s dn n vic phn phi tng lng pht thi theo nguyn tc cn bng bin. Hnh 13-1 s gip chng ta thy c im ny. Gi s c hai i tng cng thi ra cht thi c ha ln ng nht vi nhau (chng ta s xt n trng hp x cht thi khng ng nht sau). Biu (a) th hin hm MAC cho nh my A; biu (b) l hm MAC ca nh my B. n v o lng pht thi E l ngn tn. Cc hm s MAC nh sau: MACA = 120 3EA MACB = 400 5EB Cho MAC = 0 ta tm c lng pht thi ban u ca mi nh my khi cha c kim sot nhim, E 0, ta c: E0A = 40.000 tn E0B = 80.000 tn Tng pht thi sulphur hng nm E = 120.000 tn By gi cc nh chc trch quyt nh mc pht thi mc tiu l 80.000 tn/nm. H ban hnh 80 gi y php pht thi c th chuyn nhng, mi giy php cho php pht thi 1.000 tn/nm. y l h thng TDP-pht thi. Cc giy php sau c phn b cho 2 nh my theo nhng tiu ch phn b c tha thun trc. Chng hn cch phn b y l phn b theo t l pht thi hin hnh.60 Nh vy ban u nh my A nhn 30 giy php v B nhn 50 giy php. Cc nh my ny s khng th pht thi vt qu cc mc 30.000 tn v 50.000 tn tr phi h mua bn giy php. S c th trng mua bn giy php?
60
Chng ta ph
i lm trn s
trnh s
gi
y php l
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Nguyn tc mua bn c bn nh sau: Nh my s gim pht thi n mt mc no v bn lng giy php tha khi gi giy php trn th trng ln hn hoc bng MAC ti mc pht thi ny. Nh my s mua giy php nu gi giy php nh hn hoc bng MAC. Nh v y c th xem ng MAC l ng cu ca nh my i vi giy php (nu mua) v l ng cung (nu bn).61 Nu cnh tranh, th trng giy php s hot ng nh bt k th trng no khc. Gi v lng giao dch cn bng c xc nh bi cung v cu. Hnh 13-1: Giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng hot ng nh th no
400 (a) 400 (b)
200 150 120

a b c
75
d e
15
30
40 EA
25
50
65
80 EB
Pht thi ca nh my A (ngn tn SO2)
Pht thi ca nh my B (ngn tn SO2)
Nh my no s mua v nh my no s bn? Vi MAC khc nhau, s c mua bn v nh my c MAC thp hn s bn giy php cn nh my c MAC cao s mua. Trong hnh 131, vi mc phn b giy php ban u, nh my A c MAC thp hn MAC ca nh my B (30$ so vi 50$). Ngha l c kh nng nh my A s tng cng kim sot nhim, d ra mt s giy php v bn cho nh my B nu tin thu c t bn giy php c th b p chi ph gim nhim tng thm. Nh my B mu n mua s giy php ny nu tng s tin b ra nh hn chi ph kim sot lng nhim ny. Chng ta s thy iu ny qua s liu minh ha di y. V d s liu minh ha th trng giy php hot ng nh th no: Tnh ton li ch t mua bn giy php 1. Tnh li ch rng ca A (chi ph tit kim c) nu gim lng pht thi t 30.000 tn xung 15.000 tn mi nm v bn lng giy php tha. Nh my A c gi l nh cung cp giy php tim nng. Chi ph gim nhim bin ca A ti mc pht thi 15.000 tn/nm nh sau: MACA = 120 3 (15) = 75$ Din tch (a+b) trong hnh 13-1 th hin thay i tng chi ph gim nhim bin nu gim pht thi t 30.000 tn xung cn 15.000 tn. Din tch a = [(30 15)(75$ 30)] = 337,5$. Din tch b = [(30 15) 30$] = 450$. Din tch (a + b) = 787,5$.
61
ng cung bn gi
y php c
a nh my s
ng MAC ngh
ch
o.
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Nu nh my A bn 15 giy php d cho nh my B vi gi 75$/giy php, s tin nhn c s l din tch (a + b + c) = 1.125$ di dng doanh thu bn giy php. Do chi ph tit kim c ca nh my A l [(a + b + c) (a + b)] = c = 337,5$. 2. Tnh li ch rng ca B (chi ph tit kim c) nu mua 15 giy php ca A v tng lng pht thi t 50.000 tn ln 60.000 tn. Nh my B c gi l ngi mua giy php tim nng. Nh my B tr cho A 75$/giy php, nh vy tng s tin l 1.125$ (din tch e trong hnh 13-1). TAC ca B s gim v B tng pht thi. Lng TAC gim bng din tch (d + e) = 1.687,5$. Do chi ph tit kim c ca nh my B l [(d + e) e] = d = 562,5$. Trn y chng ta chng minh c hai cng ty u c li khi tham gia mua bn li ch h c c t mua v bn 15 giy php chnh l chi ph tit kim c so vi mc phn b giy php ban u. Tng chi ph tit kim c l (c + d) = 900$.62 Li ch t mua bn giy php s tip tc ti khi cc chi ph gim nhim bin ca cc nh my cn b ng nhau. Lu rng trong v d trn c 2 nh my u c MAC bng nhau (75$) ti n v pht thi cui cng ca 15 giy php c giao dch. Tng lng pht thi vn p ng c tiu chu n 80.000 tn mt nm. Chng ta c th tm ra c mc ny s dng cc nguyn tc gii b i ton tiu chun c nhn hiu qu x hi nh trong chng 11. Nh li rng cn bng hiu qu-chi ph (tha mn nguyn tc cn bng bin) l khi MACA = MACB v EA + EB = mc pht thi mc tiu S dng phng trnh trn v mc pht thi mc tiu 80.000 tn/nm, chng ta c EA = 15 v EB = 65 vi MACA = MACB = 75$/ngn tn. Ch rng h thng TDP hot ng ging nh h thng kt hp gia tiu chu n v thu t c mc tiu. Bi v tng s giy php l c nh, ta thy c mt tiu chun nhim khng th vt qu. Nhng bi v c th mua bn c giy php, th trng s t c mc gi ng nht khi chi ph gim nhim bin ca cc nh my b ng nhau. iu ny ging thu, ngoi tr vic nh chc trch khng phi tm hiu ng MAC ca cc nh my l nh th no cn bng chng nhm tm ra mc thu hu hiu. Mt im quan trng na l nh chc trch khng cn phi bit thng tin v ng MAC ca tng ngun pht thi th trng s lm tt c cng vic ny. Giao dch gi giy php nhn vi s giy php giao dch trn th trng s cho thy MAC ca tng ngun. Cng c TDP t yu cu thng tin hn cc cng c chnh sch khc. D nhin, xc nh c mc pht
62
Trong giao d ch th c, gi s n m gi a gi t i thi u c a ng i bn v gi t i a c a ng i mua, v i cc m c gi t i thi u v t i a ny c xc nh b i cc ng MAC. Ch ng h n n u cc nh my giao d ch 2 gi y php, MAC c a nh my A t i m c 28 t n pht th i l 36$, c a nh my B t i m c 52 t n l 140$. Gi gi y php s n m gi a 2 gi i h n MAC ny.
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thi hiu qu x hi mc tiu, h thng TDP cng cn phi bit thng tin v MAC gp v MD nh cc h thng chnh sch khc m chng ta nghin cu. Qu trnh thng lng thc s din ra nh th no ph thuc vo s lng ngi mua bn, MAC ca h v.v. Nhng im thit yu y l chng no chi ph gim nhim bin cn khc bit nhau gia cc i tng th chng h vn c li khi mua bn giy php vi nhau vi mt gi no khong gia nhng mc chi ph gim nhim bin ny. Nh vy, trong vic mua bn giy php v iu chnh lng cht thi cho ph hp vi s giy php c trong tay, cc i tng ny s i ti mt kt qu ph hp vi nguyn tc cn bng bin. Khi c nhiu cng ty tham gia, h thng TDP vn hot ng tng t nh trn nhng cc giao dch tr nn phc tp hn. S phi phn phi giy php ban u cho rt nhiu cng ty, nhiu ngi mua v ngi bn tim nng. nguyn tc cn bng bin vn tha mn trong trng hp ny, r rng tt c cc giy php c mua v bn phi c chung mt mc gi. iu ny yu cu mt th trng to n th cho giy php, ni m ngi mua v bn c th giao dch mt cch ci m v thng tin v gi giao dch lun lun c sn cho bt c i tng tham gia no. Chng ta c th thy rng, nhng tc ng cnh tranh thng thng cng s em li mt mc gi giy php duy nht. Ni chung giy php s di chuyn t nhng ngun c chi ph gim nhim bin thp sang nhng ngun c chi ph gim nhim bin cao. Th ch th trng phi pht trin v thc s pht trin nh chng ta s thy trong chng 17. th trng sulphur ixt Hoa K, thc s c cc nh mi gii giy php, cc ngn hng v giao dch giy php trn th trng ti Chicago. Th trng giy php, nu cnh tranh, s ging nh mi th trng khc, ni m gi giy php c quyt nh bi cung giy php v cu giy php. Nhu cu thng n t cc cng ty mi, cc cng ty c nhng mun m rng hot ng nn cn giy php cho lng pht thi gia tng. Nh cung cp giy php thng l cc cng ty ri b ngnh, ph sn v c bit l nhng cng ty u t vo cng ngh gim nhim tt hn nn c giy php tha bn. Trong nhng nm gn y, tng v h thng giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng tr nn rt c a chung Khng ging nh phng php thu pht thi, l cch gii quyt buc ngi ta phi tr tin cho nhng g trc y c hng khng, cc chng trnh TDP bt u bng vic lp ra v phn phi mt loi quyn s hu mi. Cc quyn s hu ny c gi tr th trng min l tng s giy php c lp ra c hn ch. Theo quan im chnh tr, c l d thuyt phc ngi ta ng mt chnh sch kim sot nhim c khi u bng cch phn phi quyn s hu mi c gi tr hn l thng bo cho h bit h s phi chu mt loi thu mi. D nhin, ging bt c mt chnh sch kim sot nhim no, cc chng trnh TDP cng c nhng vn ring cn phi c gii quyt nu mun t c kt qu hu hiu. Nhng l thuyt s dng p lc th trng t c mc gim nhim hiu qu phi c iu chnh ph hp vi thc t phc tp. Cc im chnh ca chnh sch TDP: Ging tiu chun, giy php m bo t c mc nhim mc tiu. Ging thu, giy php c th chuyn nhng khi c giao dch trn th trng cnh tranh l chnh sch hiu qu-chi ph.
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Nh chc trch khng cn bit MAC ca tng ngun gy nhim tm ra gi hp l nhm t hiu qu-chi ph. Th trng s lm iu ny mt cch t ng, bi v ngu n gy nhim s cn bng gi giy php vi MAC ca h. Nu th trng ho n ho, gi giy php s bng MAC ca tng ngun. Khi t ra mc nhim mc tiu, th trng s cho bit ng MAC ca ngun gy nhim. Giao dch xy ra nu MAC ca cc ngun gy nhim l khc nhau mt s ngun tr thnh ngi mua, mt s thnh ngi bn. Giao dch giy php cho php mi ngi tham gia tit kim c chi ph so vi mc phn b giy php ban u.
Cc vn v thit lp th trng TDP

Vic Phn B Quyn Ban u Thnh cng ca phng php TDP trong vic kim sot nhim ty thu c ch yu vo vic hn ch s lng quyn pht thi c php lu hnh. Bi v cc i tng gy nhim chc chn s mun c c cng nhiu quyn cng tt trong ln pht hnh u tin, bc u tin nht ca chng trnh l b c c kh nng gy nhiu tranh ci nht: phi p dng cng thc no y phn b quyn c x thi. Hu nh bt c quy nh no cng s cha ng s bt bnh ng. V d c th phn chia quyn ng u cho tt c nh my x thi mt loi cht thi no . Nhng iu ny li gp phi mt vn l cc nh my li c quy m rt khc nhau. Mt s nh my b t giy ln hn nhng c s khc cng loi chng hn, v quy m trung bnh ca nhng nh my b t giy, xt v mt sn lng, c th khc vi quy m trung bnh ca nhng nh my ng chai nc gii kht sa. V th c l khng cng bng khi cp cho mi i tng gy nhim cng mt s giy php nh nhau. Giy php c th c phn b ty theo mc x thi hin ti ca cc i tng. Chng hn c th cp cho mi i tng mt s giy php tng ng vi 50% mc x thi hin ti. iu ny nghe c v cng bng, nhng trn thc t, n li c nhng tr ngi v mt khuyn khch kinh t tim n bn trong. Quy nh nh th khng cng nhn mt thc t l c mt s nh my tn cng sc lm gim lng cht thi ca h. C th d d ng lp lun rng cc nh my , nhng nh my m v lng tm hay v mt l do no khc u t vo vic gim thi, khng nn phi chu thit khi nhn s giy php t i tng ng vi mc pht thi thp ca mnh. Hng phn b ny thnh ra c khuynh hng ch ban thng cho nhng nh my l m gim chn ti ch trong qua kh m thi. C th cn t hn nh vy na. Nu cc i tng gy nhim tin rng giy php s c phn b theo cch ny, h c th s tng mc pht cht thi hin ti, bi nh vy h c nhiu giy php hn trong t phn b ban u. Mi mt cng thc phn b u c nhng vn ca n, v nhng nh hoch nh chnh sch cn phi tha hip nu mun phng php ny c chp nhn rng ri. Cng lin quan cht ch n vn ny l c nn cp cho khng cc quyn x thi hay khng, hay l nn bn thng hoc u gi. V nguyn tc, iu ny khng l vn min l cc giy php c phn phi rng ri. Nhng giao dch bun bn trn th trng tip theo sau s ti phn phi li chng ty theo chi ph gim nhim bin tng i ca cc i tng gy nhim, bt k vic phn phi ban u nh th no. Tuy nhin, vic bn thng hoc
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u gi th li chuyn mt s gi tr ca cc quyn ban u vo tay c quan u gi. iu ny rt tt cc c quan qun l cng gy qu v dng nhng qu ny gim cc loi ph hay thu, nhng cng phi nhn thy rng s c phn i chnh tr i vi mt k ho ch nh vy. C th p dng mt h thng hn hp bng cch cp pht min ph mt s lng giy php nht nh v cho u gi thm mt s giy php na. Hoc c th tnh mt khon ph nh trn nhng giy php c phn b ban u. Thit Lp Cc Quy nh Mua Bn Bt c mt th trng no mun hot ng hiu qu cng cn c quy nh r rng quy nh ai c th mua bn v nhng th tc mua bn cn c tun theo. Hn na, cc quy nh khng nn qu cng knh nng n n mc i tng tham gia th trng khng th phn on chnh xc tc ng ca quy nh ln vic mua bn ca h mt mc gi c th no . iu ny cng hm l cc c quan qun l cng cng cn phi yn khng nhng tay vo sau khi phn phi quyn pht thi ban u. Cc c quan mi trng thng c khuynh hng t nhin i ngc li iu ny, mun theo di th trng st sao v c l cn mun nh hng n kt qu hot ng ca n na. Chng hn c quan gim st c th mun c quyn quyt nh sau cng i vi mi vic mua bn nhm ngn chn bt c v mua bn no m c quan ny cho l khng tt kha cnh no . iu ny s dn n vn kh khn l s khng chc chn ca ngi mua v ngi bn tng ln, lm tng mc chi ph giao dch chung trn th trng, v cn tr s lu thng hu hiu ca cc giy php. Mt nguyn tc chung m cc c quan qun l cng cng phi theo l nn t ra nhng quy nh n gin v r rng ri cho vic mua bn t din tin. Mt quy nh cn bn cn phi c l nn ai c tham gia vo th trng. Th trng ny c nn ch gii hn cho nhng i tng gy nhim hay khng, hay l ai cng c th mua bn c? Chng hn nhng nhm c v vic bo v mi trng c c php mua giy php ri khng cho lu hnh gim tng s lng pht thi khng? Phn ng u tin c th c l cho rng nhng nhm nh vy cn phi c quyn mua giy php, bi v l bng chng cho thy gi sn lng tr ca x hi c tng mc pht thi thp hn l ln hn gi ca giy php, l gi c xc nh bng cch cn bng cc chi ph gim nhim bin. Kt lun ny c l ng nu chng ta ang cp n mt nhm bo v mi trng mt a phng hay mt vng m cc thnh vin ca nhm hu nh u nm trong khu vc mua bn giy php pht thi ang b n, v h gy qu ch ch l mua cc giy php pht thi trong vng . Kt lun ny c l khng cn ng na nu nhng nhm vn ng ln c tm c quc gia li mua giy php trn th trng ch ca mt vng no phc v mc ch chin lc hay chnh tr, m iu ny khng phn nh gi sn lng tr ca ngi dn sng trong vng. Tuy nhin bng chng cho thy iu ny cha xy ra vi bt c th trng TDP ang hot ng no. Cht Thi Khng ng Nht Gi s chng ta ang c gng thit k mt chng trnh TDP kim sot tng lng kh SO2 thi ra trong mt vng c rt nhiu ngun gy nhim khc nhau nh cc nh my nhit in, cc nh my cng nghip v.v. nm ri rc kh rng khp vng. Hnh 13-3 th hin mt lc m t tnh hnh ny. Tt c cc im x thi khng cng nm mt v tr xt v v tr tng i ca chng i vi hng gi chnh trong vng hay xt v khong cch ca chng ti vng ng dn c nht. Mt s im u gi, mt s khc li cui ngun ca khu vc ng dn c. Chng ta gi s rng chi ph gim nhim bin ca cc im x thi ny khng ging nhau, v chng cng khng ging nhau xt v mt tc ng
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ca cc cht thi ra n mc SO2 trong mi trng xung quanh trong khu vc c c dn. Theo ngn t k thut, chng c cc h s chuyn ti khc nhau, tc mi lin quan gia vic x thi vi nhng thit hi gy ra cho vng th ln cn. Sau khi phn phi cc giy php pht thi, by gi chng ta hy th trng mua bn giy php hot ng. Chng no m s lng giy php lu hnh vn c gi khng i th chng y chng ta cn kim sot c tng lng pht thi SO2 mt cch c hiu qu. Nhng nu chng ta cho php mua bn giy php thng, ngha l mt i mt, gia tt c cc ngun khng km theo mt iu kin g, thit hi v mi trng t tng s cht thi c th thay i. V d, nu mt nh my cui ngun gi bn mt s giy php cho mt hng u ngun gi th tng s giy php vn nh trc nhng by gi s cht thi u ngun gi so vi khu dn c s nhiu hn v do , thit hi s nhiu hn. iu ny thng c gi l vn im nng nhim. Vn ny cng ging nh vn m ngi ta gp phi khi p dng tiu chun hoc thu ng nht i vi cht nhim khng ng nht. Nu chng trnh ch n gin cho php tt c cc i tng mua bn trn c s mt i mt nh nhau, rt d xy ra tnh trng l mt nh my hoc mt nhm cc nh my no c h s chuyn ti cao ngha l lng cht thi do h x ra c tc ng nng n hn n cht lng mi trng xung quanh li thu gom c nhiu giy php hn. Mt cch trnh tnh trng ny c l l iu chnh vic mua bn trn c s tnh n c cc tc ng ca cc ngun gy nhim ring r. Gi s s cht thi do ngun B x ra c tc hi gp i s cht thi do ngun A thi ra n gin bi v v tr ca hai ngun. Khi nhng ngi iu phi chng trnh c th t ra mt quy nh l nu B mua giy php ca A, B phi mua hai giy php ch s dng mt m thi. y gi l h thng TDP-da vo cht lng mi trng xung quanh. Khi ngun pht thi l khng ng nht, h thng da vo cht lng mi trng xung quanh l cn thit t c cn bng hiu qu-chi ph. Tuy nhin kiu th trng ny hot ng rt phc tp. Vi nhiu ngun vi nhiu h s chuyn ti khc nhau, nh chc trch phi quyt nh cho tng ngun: bao nhiu giy php mua t ngun khc th c tnh l mt giy php mi. Nu c 5 ngun, nh chc trch ch cn a ra 10 h s giao dch; nu c 20 ngun khc nhau, phi c 190 h s.63 Mt cch khc trnh phi gii quyt vn ny c th l s dng mt h thng khoanh vng tng t nh vic tnh thu cht thi theo vng m chng ta cp trc y. Nh chc trch s ch nh ra mt lot cc vng nh vy, mi vng bao gm nhng ngun gy nhim tng i ging nhau v v tr v tc ng ca cht thi i vi cht lng mi trng xung quanh. Hnh 13-3 cho chng ta thy 4 vng nh vy. Nh chc trch khi c th lm mt trong nhng vic sau: cho php mua bn giy php gia cc cng ty trong cng mt vng, hoc iu chnh tt c giao dch gia cc vng theo h thng da vo cht lng mi trng xung quanh. Chng hn, nu cc ngun vng B c h s chuyn ti gp i cc ngun trong vng C, th bt c ngun no ca vng B mua giy php t bt c hng no vng C cng s phi mua hai giy php c quyn s dng mt, v b t c ngun no vng C cng s ch phi mua na giy php t mt ngun vng B l c c quyn ca c mt giy php.
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Ni chung, n u c n ngu n, ph i c [n(n 1)]/2 h s giao d ch. R rng l c c k kh thi t l p h th ng d a vo ch t l ng mi tr ng xung quanh. Nh ch c trch do c n xem xt chnh sch t t th nh, ch ng h n nh h th ng chia vng (ho c cc lo i chnh sch khc).
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Hnh 13-2: Pht thi khng ng nht v chng trnh TDP C A B D
Hng gi thng thi
V tr ca mi ngun pht thi Mt dn s cao nht Vng giao dch giy php
Cht thi hn hp khng ng nht gy ra tnh hung phc tp cho chng trnh TDP. Nu c th giao dch giy php bt c ni no trong khu vc, s xut hin im nng nhim nu ngi nm gi giy php tp trung vng B, gn v cng hng gi n khu dn c ng c. H thng mua bn giy php theo vng s nhm cc ngun theo h s chuyn ti. Cho php giao dch 1 i 1 trong tng vng. iu ny trit tiu im nng nhng lm h thng tr nn phc tp.
TDP v vn cnh tranh

Vic cho php mua bn giy php gia cc vng khc nhau hoc ngc li, vic hn ch mua bn gia cc vng c tm quan trng ln hn l khi mi thot trng ban u. Cc chng trnh giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng hot ng thng qua mt qu trnh mua bn trong ngi bn v ngi mua quan h qua li vi nhau chuyn quyn s hu c gi tr. Th trng hot ng tt nht khi c s cnh tranh ng k gia nhng ngi bn vi nhau cng nh gia nhng ngi mua vi nhau; th trng hot ng km i rt nhiu nu c qu t ngi mua hay ngi bn n mc cc p lc ca cnh tranh qu yu hoc hon ton khng c. Trong trng hp c t k mua ngi bn, th mt trong s ny, ho c c th l mt nhm nh trong s ny, c th chi phi th trng, thng ng vi nhau v gi c, t cc mc gi khc nhau cho nhng i tng khc nhau, hay dng quyn kim sot cc giy php ca mnh ginh quyn kim sot kinh t trong ngnh cng nghip ca mnh v.v. V th t quan im cn phi khuyn khch nui dng cnh tranh, chng ta cn m rng vng mua bn giy php ra cng rng cng tt, c c nhiu i tng mun mua bn giy php vi nhau. Nhng iu ny c th i ngc li vi thc t sinh thi. Trong thc t c th c nhng l do v kh tng hay thy vn i hi phi hn ch vng mua bn trong mt vng a l tng i hp. Nu mc tiu l kim sot lng kh thi ang nh hng n mt thnh ph no chng hn, chng ta c th khng mun cc cng ty mua bn giy php vi cc cng ty thnh ph khc. Hoc nu mi quan tm ca chng ta l lm sao kim sot c lng cht thi ang vo mt con sng hay h no , chng ta khng th cho php cc ngu n gy nhim gn mua bn giy php vi cc ngun khc nm b n mt ngun nc hon ton khc. Nh th, v nhng l do v mi trng c l nn hn ch vng mua bn giy php, trong khi v nhng l do kinh t chng ta li mun vng mua bn c quy nh tht rng. Khng c mt quy tc vng no ch ra c chc chn cn phi cn i hai yu t ny ra sao trong mi trng hp. Nh chc trch ch c th xem xt cc trng hp c th mi khi chng ny sinh v cn nhc nhng kha cnh ring bit ca cc yu t mi trng cng nh nhng im t nh v iu kin cnh tranh trong cc ngnh cng nghip m thi.
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Cc chng trnh TDP v vic cng ch thc thi

Nh cp trn, chng trnh TDP buc cc ngun gy nhim phi gi mc pht thi khng c vt qua nh mc tng s giy php pht thi h c. Nh vy, c quan ch qun chng trnh ch yu s phi theo di hai mt sau: s giy php mi ngun gy nhim ang c, v lng cht thi t mi ngun ny x ra. V bit vic phn b giy php ban u, c quan ny phi c cch no theo di qu trnh mua bn giy php gia cc thnh vin trn th trng. Thc t, vic mua bn c th tr nn rt phc tp khi c nhiu ngi mua k bn v nhiu kiu giao dch mua bn khc nhau, chng hn nh kiu cho thu tm thi hoc cho thu theo hp ng di hn ngoi kiu chuyn nhng vnh vin. Bi v ngi mua (hay thu ) giy php ng nhin cm thy cn phi cho c quan chc nng bit mnh mua giy php v bi v mi v mua bn bao hm c ngi bn ri, nn mt h thng t bo co, cng vi nhng phng tin chuyn giao thng tin hin i, c l cung cp nhng thng tin ng tin cy v vic i tng no ang gi bao nhiu giy php. C quan qun l chng trnh phi c kh nng theo di gim st xem lng cht thi t mi ngun gy nhim c vt qu s giy php ang c hay khng. Nu cc giy php th hin tng s lng cht thi x ra trong mt khong thi gian no , phi c bin php o lng c lng cht thi tch ly t mi ngun. Yu cu ny cng ging nh i vi cc chnh sch khc. Nu c c s chc chn rng lng pht thi l kh ng u trong sut nm, nh chc trch c th kim nh lng cht thi tch ly bng cch kim tra t xu t mc pht thi. Tuy nhin, i vi hu ht cc ngun gy nhim cng nghip , lng cht thi x ra hng ngy, hng tun, hay theo tng ma u c s khc bit ng k. V th, cn phi c nhng bin php theo di gim st phc tp hn. Mt kha cnh tt ca cc chng trnh TDP l ch chng c th s to c ng c khuyn khch cc i tng theo d i gim st ln nhau, t nht l mt cch khng chnh thc. Khi mt s ngun x ra nhiu cht thi hn mc giy php cho php, th nhng ngun pht thi ny thc t l ang la o v khng mua s giy php cho mc pht thi ca h. iu ny nh th s lm mc cu giy php xung thp hn mc l ra phi c. V iu c tc ng lm gim gi th trng ca cc giy php pht thi. Vic ny r rng i ngc li li ch ca bt c cng ty no ang nm gi nhiu giy php, v nhng cng ty nh vy s c ng c gim st cc cng ty khc khng pht thi gian di.
TDP v khuyn khch Nghin cu & Pht trin

Trong cc chng trc chng ta thy tiu chu n pht thi khng to ra ng lc khuyn khch ci tin v tm ra cng ngh gim nhim gi r, trong khi thu pht thi li lm c iu ny. V phng din ny, cc chng trnh TDP cng tng t nh thu pht thi, t ra l trn l thuyt. Hy xt mt cong ty hnh 13-3. Gi s hin ti ng biu din hm chi ph gim nhim bin ca cng ty l MAC1. Mi t giy php pht thi c bn vi gi l p , v chng ta gi s rng d kin gi ny s khng thay i. Cng ty iu chnh s giy php sao cho hin gi ang c E1 giy php trong tay. Lng pht thi do cng l E1 v tng chi ph gim nhim l (a + b). ng c khuyn khch thc hin nghin cu v pht trin l tm ra cch kim sot pht thi t tn km hn, cng ty c th gim lng pht thi v bn i nhng giy php d khng dng n. S c bao nhiu nu chuyn ng chi ph gim nhim bin thnh MAC2? Vi ng MAC2, cng ty s pht thi mc E2. Tng chi ph gim nhim s l (b + d), nhng cng ty s c th bn c (E1 E2) giy php vi mc doanh thu p(E1 E2) = (c +d).
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Li ch rng ca R&D l: (Tng chi ph gim nhim vi MAC1) (Tng chi ph gim nhim vi MAC2) + (Doanh thu t vic bn TDP) = (a + b) (d + b) + (c + d) = (a + c). Li ch rng ny hon ton b ng vi tit kim c c ca thu pht thi (xem chng 12). Gi th trng ca giy php cng c vai tr khuyn khch kinh t ging nh mt mc thu pht thi. Nu khng gim lng pht thi, cc cng ty coi nh ang b qua mt mc thu nhp tng thm l ra c th c c khi bn s giy php khng dng n. Hnh 13-3: TDP v thay i cng ngh
MAC1
MAC2 p e d E2 E1 Gi giy php a b
TDP to ra ng c khuyn khch u t vo cng ngh gim nhim tit kim chi ph. Ngi gy nhim ban u c E1 giy php s thc hin R&D gim MAC1 xu ng MAC2. Vi MAC2, ngi gy nhim s gim pht thi xung E2. Do h s bn s giy php tha vi gi p v c c doanh thu l din tch (c + d), nh vy thu nhp rng l din tch (a + c).
TM TT
Giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng c s dng rng ri Bc M. C nhiu chng trnh c thc hin Hoa K, chng hn nh chng trnh TDP gim SO2 trong ngnh sn xut in. Mt s nc ang kho st thnh lp h thng mua bn carbon trn ton th gii trong khi cc cng ty thc s mua bn carbon n u th trng ny. Canada cng ang xem xt p dng TDP cho carbon, nitrogen oxide, hp cht hu c d bay hi. Ngi ta k vng phng php kim sot nhim ny c chi ph thp hn so vi h thng tiu chu n pht thi da vo cng ngh hin hnh, v t kha cnh chnh tr, TDP cng d p dng hn thu pht thi. Nhng cc chng trnh TDP cng c nhng vn ring. Vic th trng TDP ho t ng nh th no r rng c ngha quyt nh n vic chnh sch ny c pht huy tc dng c hay khng. C c mt lot nhng yu t quan trng chi phi: ai s c cp pht giy php lc ban u, mc mong mun gim thiu chi ph ca h, mc cnh tranh trn th trng, cc quy nh giao dch mua bn giy php do c quan qun l t ra, kh nng theo di gim st v cng ch thi hnh v.v. Tuy nhin h thng giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng c l l mt tng n thi im chn mui.
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C hai h thng giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng v thu pht thi u nhm chuyn gnh nng trch nhim v vic a ra cc quyt nh k thut kim sot nhim t cc nh qu n l tp trung sang chnh cc i tng gy nhim. Chng ta cn nhn mnh rng: Cc chnh sch khuyn khch kinh t nh TDP v thu khng nhm giao cc mc tiu kim sot nhim cho cc i tng gy nhim. Khng phi th trng l nhn t quyt nh mc kim sot nhim hiu qu nht cho x hi. ng hn l, chng l cc phng cch khuyn khch c gng ca chnh cc i tng gy nhim nhm tm ra nhng cch hiu qu hn p ng mc tiu gim thi chung.
CC THUT NG CHNH
H thng TDP da trn cht lng mi trng xung quanh Vn im nng nhim H thng TDP da trn pht thi Giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng Li ch t mua bn giy php
BI TP
1. S dng ng MAC trong v d giy php pht thi sulphur trong chng ny, tnh tng chi ph ca cc cng ty trc khi c giao dch, sau khi giao d ch 15 giy php. Ai c li nhiu nht? Ti sao? 2. S dng ng MAC trn, tnh chi ph t nhn v chi ph x hi ca h thng TDP trong trng hp u gi giy php lc ban u. So snh kt qu ny vi kt qu trong cu 1 v gii thch ti sao nu c s khc bit. 3. Hai ngun gy nhim c th kim sot vic pht thi thng qua hai hm gim nhim bin nh sau: MAC1 = 300 10E1 v MAC2 = 90 5E2. Gi s mc nhim mc tiu l 30 n v. Chng ta khng bit mc ny l hiu qu x hi hay khng. (a) Tnh mc pht thi ca mi ngun t hiu qu-chi ph x hi. (b) Gii thch p dng h thng giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng nh th no t c mc pht thi mc tiu. Gi s ban u cp cho mi ngun 15 giy php. Chnh ph cp giy php ny min ph. Tnh xem mi ngun gi bao nhiu giy php, gi giy php, tng chi ph t nhn ca h thng giy php sau khi th trng hot ng. Chi ph t nhn ca mi ngun thay i nh th no nu chnh ph bn u gi giy php lc ban u? 4. Cng c chnh sch no sau y to ra ng c khuyn khch u t R&D nhiu nht gim MAC: tiu chun c nhn, thu pht thi, TDP? Chng minh bng th.
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CU H I THO LUN
1. Chnh ph thit lp h thng TDP trao giy php cho cc ngun gy nhim v to ra th trng mua bn giy php. H thng ny phn ng vi cc cng ty mi pht thi nh th no? Cc vn g c th ny sinh? Gii thch. 2. C s no tn thnh v phn i vic cho bt c ai (ngn hng, c nhn, nhm mi trng, c quan nh nc v.v.) mua v bn giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng? 3. C mt s khuyn ngh thnh lp h thng giy php chuyn nhng c cho vic b o tn ng vt hoang d v bo v mi trng sng. H thng ny s hot ng nh th no?
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CHNG 14
TRIN VNG CHNH SCH MI TRNG

Ba chng va qua gii thiu cc cng c mnh lnh v kim sot, nhng chnh sch khuyn khch kinh t nh thu, tr cp, v giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng. Chng ny tin hnh phn tch lm ni bt nhng im khc nhau gia cc chnh sch. Trc tin, dng v d s hc v phng php i s n gin tng t nh cch s dng trong ba chng trc, chng ta so snh cc gii php hiu qu - chi ph i vi tt c cc chnh sch theo cc tiu ch sau: chi ph thc thi c nhn v x hi, cc ng c khuyn khch u t vo cng ngh mi gim nhim v cc yu cu thng tin thc thi chnh sch. Phn tch ny s c trnh by r trong phn 5, n gip cho bn nhn ra chnh sch no s hot ng tt nht cho tng vn mi trng c th. Phn th hai s gii thiu tnh khng chc chn ca dng hm chi ph gim nhim bin v hm thit hi bin trong m hnh. Tnh khng chc chn c th cn tr vic t ti trng thi cn bng hiu qu x hi. Mt tiu ch khc cho vic chn la gia cc chnh sch cng s c trnh by trong ch ng ny l ti thiu ha chi ph x hi ti mt mc pht thi khng hiu qu. Cui cng, chng ta kt thc bng mt tho lun v cc tc ng khuyn khch ca tng chnh sch lm r d ng hm ca ng MAC.
SO SNH CC CNG C CHNH SCH Nhc li m hnh c bn: Chi ph thc thi
Gi s c hai cng ty, L v H, c chi ph gim nhim bin khc nhau. Thng thng, cht thi c k hiu l Ei, vi i = L v H. Gi s cng ty L c chi ph gim nhim bin thp chi ph ca hn cng ty H. C hai cng ty u hot ng trong th trng cnh tranh hon ho. Khng c s bp mo no trong nn kinh t ngoi tr nhim t cc cng ty. Chng ta cng gi thit cht thi nhim ang xt l hn hp ng nht. MACL = 900 15EL MACH = 2000 25EH Nu khng c qui nh no i vi vic gy nhim th mi cng ty s c chi ph x l nhim bng 0. Mc pht thi i vi cng ty c mc chi ph gim nhim thp l 60 tn, cn cng ty c chi ph gim nhim cao l 80 tn. Lng pht thi ny c tnh bng cch ln lt cho tng ph ng trnh trn bng 0 v gii ra gi tr E. Do vy, tng lng pht thi khi khng c qui nh l 140 tn. Hnh 14.1 minh ha chi ph gim nhim bin ca tng ngun gy nhim. Gi s nh chc trch mun gim bt 40% lng pht thi. Nh vy lng pht thi mc tiu l 84 tn. Mc pht thi mc tiu ny th hin s cn bng hiu qu x hi, hay l d on tt nht ca cc nh chc trch. Trong phn tho lun sau, hiu qu x hi khng quan trng trong bt k s tha thun no. Mi chnh sch u c th t c mc pht thi l 84 tn. Nu mc tiu trn l hiu qu x hi th mi chnh sch cng c th lm c nh th. Vy im khc bit gia cc chnh sch l liu cc chnh sch ny c mang li hiu qu chi ph hay khng; ngha l cc chnh sch c ti thiu ha chi ph x hi hay khng khi t mc nhim mc tiu. Chng ta s tp trung vo vn hiu qu - chi ph trong chng ny.
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Hnh 14.1: Pht thi hiu qu chi ph
525 la l thu tr n mt n v v l gi cn bng ca mi giy php 25 tn l tiu chun c nhn ca cng ty L v l mc pht thi sau khi mua bn giy php. 59 tn l tiu chn c nhn ca cng ty H v l mc pht thi sau khi mua bn giy php.
im cn bng hiu qu -chi ph cho hai ngun gy nhim vi cc ng MAC khc nhau t c khi cc ng MAC bng nhau. Ngun gy nhim c chi ph cao gim lng pht thi t 80 xung 59 tn, trong khi lng pht thi ca cng ty c chi ph thp s gim t 60 xung 25 tn. C hai ng MAC u bng 525 la. Chnh sch thu, TDP, v tiu chu n c nhn u l hi u qu - chi ph. Mt tiu chun ng nht c thit lp mc 42 tn th khng ph i l hiu qu - chi ph bi v cc ng MAC khng bng nhau ti mc pht thi.
Chng ta hy xem xt li hai cch o lng chi ph thc thi ca mt chnh sch. Chi ph thc thi c nhn o lng tng chi ph x l cht thi ca ngun gy nhim. l tng chi ph gim nhim (TAC) ca ngun gy nhim cng vi bt k khon thu phi tr ho c chi ph mua giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng c (TDP) hay doanh thu t vic bn giy php . Chi ph thc thi x hi c xc nh bng chi ph thc thi c nhn tr i khon thu hay doanh thu giy php c phn phi li cho ngun gy nhim. Nhng khon thu ny s khng nh hng ti quyt nh sn xut ca cc cng ty nu tt c doanh thu c ho n tr li to n b (ngha l khng ph thuc vo lng pht thi). T quan im x hi, chi ph thc thi x hi thc s c ngha. Chng ta tnh ton chi ph thc thi c nhn v nhng chi ph ny minh ha kh r cc c im kinh t chnh tr ca chnh sch. Khi chi ph t nhn ca mt chnh sch l cao th chng ta c th thy ngun gy nhim phn i vic thc thi chnh sch . Vic xc nh hai ngun gy nhim c chi ph gim nhim bin khc nhau cho php chng ta thy cc chnh sch c th c tc ng khc nhau ln cc cng ty ang hot ng trong cng mt ngnh cng nghip. im cn bng hiu -qu chi ph c xc nh khi hai iu kin sau c tha mn: EL + EH = 84 MACL = MACH iu ny m bo tng lng cht thi bng vi lng nhim mc tiu v chi ph gim nhim ca nhng ngun gy nhim l bng nhau ti mc pht thi cn bng, c ngha l
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nguyn tc cn bng bin c tha mn. Gii phng trnh MAC trn chng ta s tm ra gi tr EL = 25, EH =59, v MACL = MACH = $525 ti mc pht thi mang li hiu qu-chi ph cho mi cng ty. Do mc pht thi ban u ca cng ty L l 60 v ca cng ty H l 80, ngha l tng lng cht thi gim i l 35 ca cng ty L v 21 n v ca cng ty H. Mc thu s c qui nh l $525 trn mt n v cht thi. Tiu chun c nhn s c qui nh ti mc pht thi mang li hiu qu-chi ph l 25 v 59. Chng ta gi s tiu chu n ng nht mc 42 n v pht thi cho mi cng ty; ngha l yu cu mi ngun pht thi cng mt lng nh nhau bt k chi ph gim nhim ca hai ngun nh th no. Chng ta xem xt hai chnh sch giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng c (TDP. Trc tin, chng ta gi s nhng ngun gy nhim c cp TDP m khng chu bt k l ph no. Gi s nh chc trch khng bit g v lng cht thi ban u ca cc ngun gy nhim. n gin l chng ta ly tng lng cht thi chia cho s ngun gy nhim, v cp giy php cho mi cng ty c pht thi ra bn ngoi l 42 n v. Sau ln phn phi u tin, cc cng ty c th mua bn giy php. TDP cn c th c u gi. Vi chnh sch ny, nh chc trch n gin ngh bn 84 giy php v t cc cng ty u gi vi nhau. Gi s thi gian l mi chnh sch t ti trng thi cn bng. Vy th chnh sch no trong nhng chnh sch trn c th t ti trng thi cn bng hiu qu -chi ph? Ch chnh sch tiu chun ng nht l tht bi v mt hiu qu - chi ph nh c ghi nhn chng 11. Ti mc pht thi l 42 n v, MACL = $270 v MACH = $950. Con s ny c th khng t tnh hiu qu - chi ph v chi ph gim nhim bin ca hai cng ty khng bng nhau ti im cn bng. Mt tiu chun c nhn thit lp ti mc pht thi hiu qu, mt mc thu c nh ra ti mc gi hiu qu, v c hai h thng TDP u t hiu qu - chi ph. Bng 14.1 trnh by chi ph thc thi c nhn v chi ph thc thi x hi ca mi chnh sch. Nh minh ha, chi ph thc thi x hi l ging nhau i vi tt c cc chnh sch ngoi tr tiu chu n ng nht. Tng chi ph x hi v mt hiu qu - chi ph l $14.700. Bng s liu trnh by r tiu chun ng nht t c mc pht thi mc tiu vi tng chi ph vt qu tng chi ph ca cc chnh sch khc. Tip theo, ghi nhn s khc bit trong chi ph kim sot c nhn gia cc chnh sch v gia hai loi cng ty. Cc chnh sch c th c xp hng theo chi ph t nhn t thp nht n cao nht cho tng loi ngun gy nhim. i vi ngun gy nhim c chi ph thp, chnh sch c a thch sp xp theo chi ph thp nht n chi ph t thp nht n cao nht l (a) TDP c phn b ban u khng chu ph tn, (b) tiu chu n ng nht, (c) tiu chu n c nhn, v (d) s rng buc thu ng nht v chnh ph bn u gi TDP. i vi ngun gy nhim c chi ph cao, trt t xp hng l tiu chun c nhn, ri n TDP khng u gi, tip theo l tiu chun ng nht v cu i cng l thu v TDP c bn u gi. Cho nn, chnh sch tiu chu n c tc ng khc nhau ph thuc vo ngu n gy nhim c chi ph cao hay thp nhng c iu thy r l cc tiu chun ny lun c chi ph thp hn thu hay h thng TDP bn u gi. TDP c p hn b ban u khng tnh ph lun l chnh sch c a thch nht hay nh trong bng danh sch64. u ny gip gii thch ti sao cc ngun gy
64
Bng xp hng ca TDP min ph c phn b ban u s l mt hm ca s phn b cc giy php ban u. V d, nu ngun gy nhim nhn giy php pht thi theo t l pht thi ban u, cng ty L s ly 36 giy php cn cng ty H ly 48. iu ny c th thay i chi ph kim sot t nhn i vi cng ty L l 3.412,50 la v cng ty H l 11.287,50 la. Vic phn b ny lm cho chnh sch ng th hai theo tiu ch chi ph thp nht i vi cng ty L. Do vy, giy php c a thch hn thu v thu th c a thch
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nhim ngy cng ng h vic thc hin chnh sch TDP. R rng cc ngu n gy nhim thch TDP hn thu v t ra chim u th hn cc dng tiu chun. Cc tc ng ca tiu chun cng khc nhau l iu th v v c th gip gii thch s ng h cho cc chnh sch khc nhau. Ngun gy nhim c chi ph cao s a thch tiu chun c nhn hn. Nu ngun gy nhim c chi ph cao cng l i din cho nhng cng ty ang tn ti trong mt ngnh cng nghip th iu hin nhin l h s phn i cc tiu chun ng nht. Nu cc cng ty mi tham gia vo ngnh c MAC thp, mt tiu chu n ng u r rng s l iu bt li i vi cng ty c. Do vy, thc t khi p dng cc tiu chu n, chng ta s thy c mt tiu chu n thng xuyn p dng cho cc cng ty ang hot ng trong ngnh v mt tiu chu n kht khe hn dnh cho cng ty mi tham gia vo ngnh. Bng s liu cng ch r nhng ngun gy nhim s phn khng vic thc thi chnh sch thu v TDP bn u gi bi chi ph t nhn ca cc cng ty cao tng i so vi cc chnh sch cn li. Ct khuyn khch cng ngh tm lc thng tin trnh by chng 11 n chng 13 v vic khuyn khch u t vo lnh vc nghin cu v pht trin (R&D) nhm t c chi ph gim nhim bin MAC thp hn. Chng ta thy tt c cc tiu chu n u to ra t ng lc u t vo R&D hn so vi cc chnh sch cn li. Trong tiu chu n c nhn khi cc yu t khc khng i, cng ty cng c chi ph x l cht thi thp hn th c th phi chia s tng lng cht thi phi gim nhiu h n. Thm ch mi ngun gy nhim c ng c bo co sai chi ph x l cht thi ca h, vi hi vng thuyt phc cc nh chc trch rng thc t h phi chu chi ph cao hn. Cho nn nh chc trch vn quan tm n hiu qu - chi ph s n nh cho cng ty mt tiu chun khoan dung hn. Trong phn tip theo ca chng ny, chng ta s minh ha bng th v ng c bo co sai thng tin trong trng hp chnh sch tiu chu n so vi chnh sch thu i vi tt c cc chnh sch khc, c nhng ng c mnh m u t vo cc thit b x l cht thi, bi v mi n v nhim gim i s lm gim tng chi ph c nhn ca chnh sch . TDP u gi v thu c khuynh hng to ra khuyn khch mnh m nht tm ra ng MAC thp hn, v tit kim chi ph t vic gim ha n tin thu hoc khon thanh ton cho TDP c kh nng rt ln. Ct thng tin c yu cu ch ra r lng thng tin m nh chc trch cn c xc nh mc pht thi mc tiu. Chng ra khng cn quan tm n cc thng tin yu cu cho vic thc thi tng chnh sch. Hai chnh sch c xp hng thp: tiu chu n ng nht v TDP u gi yu cu lng thng tin l t nht. Trong trng hp tiu chu n ng nht c nh ngha nh trn (cc cng ty c php pht thi mt lng bng nhau)65, nh chc trch khng cn bit thm b t k thng tin no t cng ty. Trng hp TDP u gi cng tng t nh vy. Nh chc trch ch cn thng bo mt cuc bn u gi v chnh th trng s gii quyt nhng vic cn li. Giao dch ti th trng giy php s cho bit ng MAC ca tng cng ty (nh ng cu v ng cung giy php). Phn b TDP c xp t thp n trung bnh. l bi v cn thit lp mt s phng tin phn phi giy php ban u. V d, nh chc trch c th d ng t l cht thi ca cng ty trong tng lng cht thi lm nguyn tc phn phi (n gin l ly tng lng cht thi chia cho tng s ngun gy nhim). Chng ta xp hng thu ng nht t mc trung b nh n cao. tnh ton mc thu hiu qu chi ph, nh chc trch phi gii bi ton hiu qu chi ph. iu ny c ngha h phi bit MAC ca tt c nhng ngun gy nhim. Nu c nhiu cng ty th chi ph yu cu thng tin s l rt ln. L do thu ng nht mc trung b nh l nh chc trch c th lm i lm li cho n khi thit lp mt thu sut hiu qu bng cch
hn bt k tiu chun no. S c nhng ng c mnh cc ngun gy nhim vn ng hnh lang c c s phn b giy php ban u c li cho ho. 65 Nguyn tc tng t c p dng nu chnh sch ti u chun ng nht yu cu mi ngu n gy nhim phi ct gim lng pht thi theo t l %.
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quan st tng lng cht thi, ri tng hay gim thu sut cho n khi t ti mc cht thi mc tiu. iu ny c trnh by bng th trong phn tip theo ca chng (vn khng chc chn v thng tin). Tiu chun c nhn yu cu mt lng thng tin ln. Ging nh thu hiu qu chi ph (nhng khng cn thao tc lp i lp li), Nh chc trch cn phi bit MAC ca tt c cc cng ty c th xc nh tiu chun c nhn cho mi cng ty. Khng ging nh thu, khng c cch no lp i lp li cho n khi c gii php mang hiu qu chi ph. Mt khi ngun gy nhim tun theo mt tiu chun nh trc, nh chc trch s khng nhn c thng tin g v ng MAC ca h.
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Bng 14.1 : Chi ph kim sot, khuyn khch, v nhng yu cu thng tin ca cc chnh sch kim sot nhim. Chi ph Chi ph Khuyn Thng tin Chnh sch kim sot kim sot khch c yu t nhn x hi cng ngh cu Tiu chun ng nht Ngun gy nhim c chi ph thp 2.430,00 2.430,00 Yu Thp Ngun gy nhim c chi ph cao 18.050,00 18.050,00 Yu Thp 20.480,00 20.480,00 Tng chi ph Tiu chun c nhn Ngun gy nhim c chi ph thp Ngun gy nhim c chi ph cao Tng chi ph Thu ng nht Ngun gy nhim c chi ph thp Ngun gy nhim c chi ph cao Tng chi ph TDP (min ph) Ngun gy nhim c chi ph thp Ngun gy nhim c chi ph cao Tng chi ph TDP (u gi) Ngun gy nhim c chi ph thp Ngun gy nhim c chi ph cao Tng chi ph
9.187,00 5.512,50 14.700,00
9.187,00 5.512,50 14.700,00
Yu Yu
Cao Cao
22.312,50 36.487,50 58.800,00
9.187,50 5.512,50 14.700,00
Mnh Mnh
Cao/T.Bnh Cao/T.Bnh
262,50 14.437,50 14.700,00
262,50 14.437,50 14.700,00
Yu Mnh
Thp/T.Bnh Thp/T.Bnh
22.312,50 36.487,50 58.800,00
9.187,50 5.512,50 14.700,00
Mnh Mnh
Thp Thp
VN KHNG CHC CHN V THNG TIN Khng chc chn v ng thit hi bin (MD) v ng chi ph gim nhim bin (MAC)
Chng ta gi thit l nh chc trch bit chnh xc cc phng trnh MAC v MD. Thng tin ny gip cho h c kh nng xc nh chnh sch mang li hiu qu x hi. Tuy nhin, trong thc t, hu nh khng th bit chc chn thng tin v ng MAC v MD. Nh chc trch phi la chn cc chnh sch khi tn ti vn khng chc chn v ng MD v MAC. Cc chnh sch c quan tm l thu ng nht, tiu chun ng nht, v giy php pht thi c th chuyn nhng (TDP)66. Khi gp vn khng chc chn v ng MAC v MD, nhn chung khng th t ti mc cn bng hiu qu x hi. iu ny c gi l tnh hung tt nht th hai (second-best situation). Thit hi x hi s xy ra khi s dng bt k chnh sch no. Chng ta gi s mc tiu ca nh chc trch l chn la mt chnh sch c th ti thiu ha thit hi x hi vn l kt qu ca vn khng chc chn. Thit hi x hi c nh ngha l thit hi ngun lc thc cng hin qu t hoc qu nhiu cho vic kim sot nhim so vi mc hiu qu x hi t c. N c o
66
Xem Martin Weitzman, Prices versus Quantities, Review of Economics Suties 41 (1974): 477-491
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lng bng din tch nm gia ng MD v MAC k t mc cht thi thc t n mc cht thi hiu qu x hi. Tt nhin, nh chc trch khng bit g v mc cht thi hiu qu x hi. M hnh l thuyt trin khai di y s cho php nh chc trch d on ln tng i thit hi x hi trong tnh trng khng chc chn v khng c thng tin. Ni dung tng kt nh sau: Qui tc quyt nh tt nht th hai dnh cho nh chc trch khi gp vn khng chc chn v ng MAC v MD l phi ti thiu ha thit hi x hi trong lc la chn cc chnh sch. Thit hi x hi th hin bng phn din tch gia ng MD v MAC gii hn bi lng cht thi thc t v mc t hiu qu x hi. Chng ta kho st mt s trng hp khc nhau: Trng hp 1: Nh chc trch khng bit chc chn v tr ca ng MD, nhng bit v tr ca MAC Gi s cht thi l hn hp ng dng v tt c ngun gy nhim u c MAC ging nhau. Hnh 14.2 minh ha hai ng MD: MDE l ng do nh chc trch d tnh; MDT l ng thc t khng c quan st thy. im cn bng hiu qu x hi nm ti im E * ; E l lng cht thi m nh chc trch d tnh bng cch ly giao im ca MD v MAC ri chiu xung trc honh. Sau nh chc trch lp ra tiu chun hay nh lng cht thi cho php ti im E. Mc thu ng nht c nh ra ti t. S la chn cng c chnh sch s khng nh hng ti ln thit hi x hi trong trng hp 1 ny. Di s iu tit ca tiu chun hay TDP, tng lng cht thi s l E. p dng thu ti t, tng lng cht thi s vn l E, bi v cc ngun gy nhim t t ng bng MAC. Thit hi x hi l b ng nhau trong tt c cc chnh sch v bng vi phn din tch mu xm abc. Mc cht thi l qu thp so vi im cn bng hiu qu x hi. Do vy, nu khng chc chn v ng MD, khng c chnh sch no l ni bt hn c trong vic ti thiu ha thit hi x hi. V cc nh kinh t khng th no gip nh chc trch la chn mt chnh sch thch hp. Hnh 14.2: Tnh khng chc chn ca ng MD
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Nu nh chc trch khng bit chc v ng MD th c tiu chun v thu c thit lp ti giao im ca ng MDE v ng MAC to ra mt thit hi x hi ging nhau (phn din tch t m)
Trng hp 2: Nh chc trch khng bit chc chn v tr ca ng MAC nhng bit chc hnh dng v v tr ng MD Hnh 14.3 minh ha trng hp ny. Gi thit rng nh chc trch bit r lng nhim thc t khi cha thc hin chnh sch no. Mc cht thi ban u l E0. Do vy, nh chc trch khng bit chc chn dc ca ng MAC. ng MACT l ng thc t trong khi MACE l ng d on. E * l im cn bng hiu qu x hi v E l im cn bng d tnh. Tiu chu n hay s TDP c tit lp ti im E * v mc thu l ti t. im cn bng di tc ng ca chnh sch tiu chu n hay TDP l im E, vi thit hi x hi pht sinh th hin bng din tch abc. Nhng by gi s dng thu pht thi vi thu sut t s dn n mt im cn bng khc so vi cn bng ca tiu chun hay TDP. Ngun gy nhim s t t bng vi MAC. Lng cht thi khi c thu l E. Thit hi x hi khi c thu l phn din tch adf. Hnh 14.3: Tnh khng chc chn ca ng MAC: ng MD dc
Khi nh chc trch khng bit chc v dc ca ng MAC th chnh sch thu c th dn n thit hi x hi khc nhau hn chnh sch tiu chun khi c hai chnh sch ny c thit lp ti giao im ca MACE v MD. Trong trng hp c minh ha, thit hi x hi trong trong trng hp p dng thu (din tch adf) ln hn thit hi x hi trong trng hp tiu chun (din tch abc) bi v ng MD tng i dc hn ng MAC. Mt tiu chun tt nht th hai c thit lp ti E s a nn kinh t n gn mc pht thi hiu qu x hi, E*.
By gi, nh chc trch c phng tin thc hin vic so snh gia cc chnh sch theo hng a thch chnh sch no em li thit hi x hi thp nht, bng cch kim chng ln tng i ca din tch abc so vi din tch adf. Tuy nhin, cn nh rng nh chc trch khng bit im E * nm u hay MACT thc nm u. Vy th b ng cch no o c din tch abc v adf? Nh chc trch khng th o lng chnh xc cc din tch ny nh ng c th xc nh ln tng i ca chng nu c mt s thng tin v dc ca ng MD v MAC. Trong hnh 14.3, ng MD tng i dc ng. Thm ch nh chc trch khng bit chnh xc dc ca ng MAC, v gi s rng h bit c MD dc ng hn ng MAC. Trong trng hp ny, din tch abc nh hn din tch
227
adf. Mt tiu chun ng nht hay chnh sch TDP u s ti thiu ha thit hi x hi. Nhn thc trc gic ng sau kt qu ny l bt c khi no ng MD tng ln ng k th lng cht thi cng tng theo, thit hi x hi s ln hn, cch xa lng cht thi thc t k t im E *. im cn bng khi c thu kh c th d bo hn so vi qui nh tiu chun hay TDP. Nu ng MACE nm di ng MACT, n nh thu s dn ti mc cht thi cao hn nhiu v v th thit hi x hi l rt ln. Nu ng MACE nm trn ng MACT, thu kim sot cht thi qu cht v gy ra thit hi x hi nhiu hn do sn xu t hng ha qu t. Trong trng hp cc oan, khi ng MD thng ng, hin nhin chnh sch mang li hiu qu chi ph chnh l tiu chun hay TDP ngay ti im E *. Hnh 14.4 minh ha trng hp ng MD tng i phng hn so vi ng MAC. Trong tnh hung ny, thu chnh l chnh sch ti thiu ha thit hi x hi. Din tch adf by gi s nh hn din tch abc. C th nhn thy iu ny bng trc quan. Nu ng MD song song vi trc ho nh, chnh sch mang li hiu qu x hi l thu . S khng chc chn v ng MAC s khng cn l vn , bi v thu sut qui nh ti mt mc trn ng MD. V vy, ng MD cng thoi, thu cng tin gn ti im cn bng hiu qu x hi hn l tiu chu n hay chng trnh TDP. Hnh 14.4: Tnh khng chc chn ca ng MAC: ng MD thoi
Thit hi x h i trong trng hp tiu chun c thit lp ti mc MACE = MD (din tch abc) ln hn thit hi x hi trong trng hp thu (din tch adf) bi v ng MAC tng i dc hn ng MD. Chnh sch thu tt nht th hai s a nn kinh t n gn mc pht thi hiu qu x hi, E*.
TIT L THNG TIN VI THU, TIU CHUN, V TDP

Nhng chng trc cho rng cc cng c chnh sch khc nhau c th l thng tin cho nh chc trch v dc ca ng MAC. Tng t, chnh sch c chn s nh hng ti ng c l thng tin ca ngun gy nhim. Phn tch hnh hc c dng minh ha hai dng tit l thng tin. Gi thit trong tt c cc trng hp, nh chc trch v tt c ngun gy nhim u bit r chc chn ng MD. Mt ln na, chng ta kho st mt s trng hp khc nhau.
228
Trng hp 1: ng c tit l thng tin khi c tiu chun Trong hnh 14.5, nh chc trch n nh lng cht thi tiu chu n ti im E. iu ghi nhn u tin l tiu chun khng cung cp thng tin no v MAC thc s ca ngun gy nhim. Nu ngun gy nhim tun th theo tiu chu n, lng cht thi thc t l nhng g m nh chc trch mong i. Tuy nhin, cc tiu chun s to ra ng c cho ngu n gy nhim cung cp nhng thng tin sai lch cho nh chc trch. Ngun gy nhim bit r lng cht thi hiu qu x hi l ti im E *. Do khi thit lp tiu chu n ti im E s sn sinh chi ph gim nhim bin rt cao (minh chng bng ng MAC trong hnh 14.5) nu ngun gy nhim tun th theo tiu chu n. Ngun gy nhim mun ti thiu ha chi ph x l cht thi ca h nn s c ng c ni vi chnh ph l h c MAC cao hn so vi MAC m nh chc trch d tnh. Tuy nhin, iu g ngn cn nhng cng ty ny ni vi nh chc trch ngay c khi MAC ca h cao hn MACT? Gi s ngun gy nhim c gng thuyt phc nh chc trch rng chi ph x l cht thi thc s l MACR. Nu tiu chun c p dng, ngun gy nhim s phi kim sot cng t lng cht thi h n so vi mc d tnh ban u v MACE ca nh chc trch. Khi c tiu chun, ngun gy nhim c ng c tit l MAC cao hn MAC thc s ca h. Hnh 14.5: ng c tit l MAC qu mc di cng c tiu chun
i vi tiu chun nh ch c trch khng c mt thng tin no v ng MAC. Cc ngun gy nhim s c ng c c gng thuyt phc nh ch c trch rng ng MAC ca h l ng MACE. iu ny dn n s c mt tiu chun t nghim ngt hn mc hiu qu x hi.
Trng hp 2: ng c tit l thng tin khi c thu Hnh 14.6 mt ln na trnh by MAC d on nm di ng MAC thc. Nh chc trch n nh thu bng mc thu t. Ngun gy nhim s t thu t ng bng MAC thc v pht thi bng lng E, ti E vt qu c lng cht thi hiu qu x hi (E*) ln mc cht thi d tnh ca nh chc trch (E) (c xc nh da trn MACE). iu ghi nhn trc tin l mc pht thi cung cp thng tin cho nh chc trch. Gi s nh chc trch c th gim st lng cht thi, nu E vt qu E th nh chc trch bit r l
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thu c t qu thp. By gi, nh chc trch tm ra hai im nm trn ng MAC thc s ca ngun gy nhim, l E0 v E (MAC bng 0 v bng t). Nu MAC l ng tuyn tnh, th tt c nhng thng tin ny rt cn nh ra mc thu hiu qu x hi t *. Nu MAC l phi tuyn v nh chc trch c th iu chnh c thu sut, h s phi tin hnh qu trnh lp t c mc t*. Nh chc trch iu chnh thu sut, o lng lng cht thi, sau vch ra thm ng MAC. Hnh 14.6: Qu trnh lp t ti mc thu sut hiu qu x hi
Nh ch c trch thu nhn thng tin t phn ng ca cc ngun gy nhim i vi trng hp thu ngay c khi mc thu c thit lp khng ng. Cc ngun gy nhim thit lp mc thu khng chnh xc l t bng vi MAC ca h v pht thi mt lng E. Nhng nh chc trch mong mun pht thi mc E. Nu ta bit c E0 th nh chc trch by gi c hai im trn ng MAC thc ca cc ngun gy nhim, E0 v E, v c nh vy nh chc trch c th lp i lp li t mc thu ti u x hi.
Cu hi t ra l liu thu to ra ng c cho ngun gy nhim tit l thng tin tht hay sai lch cho nh chc trch? Trng hp ny phc tp hn so vi trng hp tiu chun. tnh ng c ca ngun gy nhim th cn tnh ton tng chi ph gim nhim cng vi thu phi tr cc mc thu sut khc nhau. Ngun gy nhim s khng c ng c tit l MAC cao qu ng nh trng hp MACR khi c tiu chun. Kt qu l thu sut rt cao v do tin tr thu rt nhiu (t lng cht thi) v lng cht thi cng c kim sot nhiu hn so vi khi tit l MAC thc. Liu ngun gy nhim c ng c c gng thuyt phc chnh ph rng MAC ca h cng chnh l MACE m nh chc trch d tnh khng? Cu tr li c th l ng vy. Gi s ngun gy nhim khng xem mc thu d tnh t bng vi MAC thc, m l bng vi MACE. iu ny th hin qua hnh 14.7. Cu hi t ra l ngu n gy nhim c thy tt hn khng nu theo chin thut ny hn l theo cch t bng vi MACT. Ti t v E, ngun gy nhim ch tr tin thu bng vi din tch 0tbE. Nu ngun gy nhim t b ng vi MACT, th thu phi tr l nhiu hn v b ng vi din tch 0tbE. Chnh lch
230
gia hai khon thu phi tr l din tch abEE, l phn li ch nhn c t vic gi v nh MACE chnh l MAC thc s. Tuy nhin, ti mc cht thi E, ngun gy nhim s chu tng chi ph x l cht thi bng vi phn din tch EE0b. Nu n nh t bng MAC thc, tng chi ph x l cht thi s bng din tch EE0b. Chnh lch gia hai tng chi ph x l cht thi ny l din tch EEbc, l phn tit kim c trong tng chi ph x l cht thi nu ngun gy nhim chp nhn t bng vi MACT. Gi y, chng ra c th so snh chi ph thc m ngu n gy nhim phi chu trong 2 la chn c trnh by trn. Nu thu d tnh bng MAC thc, chi ph x l cht thi tit kim c ln hn lng tit kim t ha n tnh thu nu t bng MACE. Din tch abc l phn li ch thc nhn c t vic t bng MACT. Hnh 14.7: Khuyn khch tit l MAC thc khi c thu
Nn nh l cu i cng th nh chc trch cng s lp i lp li vic nh mc thu sut cho ti khi c c mc thu sut mang li hiu qu x hi l t *. Vy ngun gy nhim c phi tr gi cho vic tit l MAC thc ca h hay khng nu bit thu sut s khng mc t? Dng li cch phn tch trn, chng ta so snh tng chi ph gim nhim v tin tr thu trong trng hp t vi trng hp t *, mc thu sut hiu qu x hi. Chng ta c th khng cn d tnh khi khng bit chnh xc cc dc ca cc ng MAC cho d ngun gy nhim c tit l MAC thc hay khng. Nhn li hnh 14.7, li ch thc cho ngun gy nhim t mc thu khng hiu qu t n mc thu hiu qu t * s c phn tch r sau y. Ngun gy nhim s tnh ton khon chnh lch gia lng tit kim t ha n tnh thu (din tch 0t*fE* tr din tch 0taE) v khon chnh lch trong tng chi ph gim nhim (din tch EE0c tr i din tch E *E0f). Ngun gy nhim c tit l MAC thc hay khng s ph thuc vo ln ca din tch cdf so vi din tch tt *da, v n lt cc din tch ny li ph thuc thu sut n nh bi nh chc trch v MAC thc. Trong trng hp minh ha trn, ngu n gy nhim s t c li ch bng cch gi v nh MAC l MACE,
231
Trng hp 3: ng c tit l thng tin khi c TDP vic phn tch c n gin, gi thit rng ch c duy nht 1 ng MAC i din cho ton b ngnh cng nghip. Hnh 14.8 s minh ha trng hp ny. Gi s nh chc trch quyt nh lng giy php ti im E, n qu thp so vi lng giy php hiu qu x hi. iu ny cng ging nh trng hp kim chng trn. Gi thit nh chc trch cho bn u gi giy php. iu mong i chnh l th trng giy php s hot ng vi nh gi b ng vi mc gi P khi lng giy php hiu qu c phn phi. Nu c qu t giy php, gi cn bng s l P, cao hn mc gi P. Tng t nh thu, gi giy php cung cp thng tin v MAC thc. Sau , nh chc trch c th iu chnh s lng giy php bng cch lp i lp li nhiu ln cho ti khi t cn bng hiu qu x hi. Vy c nhn ngun gy nhim c ng c tit l thng tin sai lch v MAC ca h cho nh chc trch trong cc giao d ch ban u hay cho nhng ngun gy nhim khc trong cc giao dch khc hay khng? Ging nh thu , khng c ng c no tit l MAC cao hn MAC thc, v vic lm ny s lm tng gi giy php m ngu n gy nhim phi tr. Nu mt ngun gy nhim gi v cho rng MAC ca h thp hn MAC thc v nhng ngun gy nhim khc khng lm iu , th h s khng th no mua giy php trong th trng cho lng cht thi ca mnh. Vi cch phn tch n gin ny, chng ta thy rng TDP, nu c s dng trong iu kin th trng cnh tranh hon ho, th hu nh tit l thng tin cho ti khi t ti im cn bng hiu qu x hi. Tuy nhin, chng ta cn ch rng nhng g cn c trong phn tch y chnh sch TDP l khung phn tch l thuyt tr chi. Chng ta s hc iu ny trong nhng kha hc nng cao. Hnh 14.8: Thng tin c tit l v MAC trong trng hp TDP
232
TM TT
Chng ta so snh cc chnh sch vi nhau s dng m hnh s hc gm hai ngun gy nhim vi MAC khc nhau. Tt c cc chnh sch u c tim nng t ti s cn bng hiu qu x hi, v tt c u mang li hiu qu chi ph tr tiu chun ng nht. Cc chnh sch khc nhau v chi ph thc thi c nhn. S khc bit ny gip gii thch s ng h hay phn i ca ngun gy nhim i vi vic thc thi chnh sch. Chng ta cng kho st ng lc ca mi chnh sch dnh cho vic u t cng ngh x l cht thi, v thng tin m nh chc trch yu cu thc hin chnh sch. Tiu ch ny c th gip nh chc trch chn la mt chnh sch cho mi vn nhim mi trng c th. Khng c mt chnh sch n l no ph hp cho tt c cc dng nhim. Khi vn khng chc chn tn ti lin quan n ng MAC v MD, nh chc trch c th khng cn kh nng t ti mc cht thi hiu qu x hi, nhng c th ban hnh chnh sch nhm ti thiu ha thit hi x hi khi mc cht thi qu cao hay qu thp. Nu c s khng chc chn v ng MD, tt c cc chnh sch u dn n thit hi x hi bng nhau v mt vi tiu chu n khc cn c p dng chn la trong s cc chnh sch. Nu khng chc chn v ng MAC, thu s ti thiu ha c thit hi x hi khi ng MD tng i bng phng hn so vi ng MAC v tiu chun hay TDP s ti thiu thit hi x hi khi ng MD tng i dc. Cc chnh sch da trn khuyn khch kinh t s tit l thng tin v ng MAC ca ngun gy nhim, trong khi tiu chu n th khng. Khi c thu , c th t c chnh sch hiu qu x hi bng vic lp li nhiu ln mc thu sut khc nhau. Di s iu tit ca TDP, hiu qu x hi c th c bng cch iu chnh s lng giy php. Tiu chun to ra ng c cho ngun gy nhim tit l ng MAC c dng dc hn MAC thc. Thu v TDP khng to ra c ng c ny. Tuy nhin thu c th thc gic ngun gy nhim tit l cho nh chc trch ng MAC thp hn ng MAC thc. iu ny th khng xy ra khi cng TDP.
BI TP
1. Gi s bn l nh chc trch ang c gng thit k mt chnh sch kim sot nhim dnh cho i tng gy nhim nc nh cht dioxin. Mc tiu ca bn l gim lp tc lung cht thi v to ng c cho cc cng ty chuyn sang s dng cng ngh sn xut gim thiu cht nhim ny. Chnh sch no trong ba chnh sch sau y bn s kin ngh? V ti sao? Cc chnh sch l: tiu chun ng nht, thu ng nht, tiu chun c nhn. Dng th hay s hc hoc c hai h tr cu tr li ca bn. 2. Gi s c hai ngun gy nhim vi hai ng MAC khc nhau. Hy chng minh b ng cch no nh chc trch ly tng hai ng MAC ny v dng chng xc nh mc cht thi cn bng mang tnh hiu qu x hi, E*. Mt khi E * c xc nh, lm sao nh chc trch c th m bo tng lng cht thi ca mi ngun gy nhim l E *? 3. Bn l ngu n gy nhim c ng MAC dc ng vi dc dng v tuyn tnh. Bn thch c php t do thi rc vo ngun nc ca bn, nh ng nhn thc rng chnh ph s p t lut bo v mi trng cho mt vi dng cht thi. Hy xp loi, t
233
tt nht n xu nht nhng chnh sch m b n thch khi chng c thc thi, hy gii thch l do m b n xp loi nh vy. 4. Gi s chnh ph khng th o lng chnh xc v gim st lng cht thi ca tng ngu n gy nhim, nhng chnh ph bit thit hi bin MD ca mi n v cht thi v chng tng i c nh. Chnh sch no hay cc chnh sch no m b n s kin ngh chnh ph ban hnh? Gii thch ti sao? 5. Gi thit chnh ph khng bit v tr ng MAC ca ngun gy nhim. Chnh ph lp k hoch ban hnh thu pht thi. Liu ngun gy nhim c ng c tit l ng chi ph gim nhim bin MAC cho chnh ph hay khng? im cn bng hiu qu c th t c khng? Gii thch ti sao c v ti sao khng?
CU HI THO LUN
1. Lm sao phn bit cc chnh sch da vo th trng khc vi cc chnh sch mnh lnh v kim sot lin quan n ng c do cc chnh sch to ra nhm tit l thng tin v ng MAC ca ngun gy nhim cho nh chc trch bit? 2. Ti sao mc tiu chnh ca chnh sch mi trng l mang li hiu qu chi ph? Bng cch no t c? 3. Ti sao thu nhim c tc ng khng chc chn ln pht thi hn l tiu chu n?
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CHNG 1

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PHNG PHP KINH T

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MT MINH CHNG THC T: SNG M V XE MY

CC KHUYN KHCH: GIA NH V VIC S DNG XE T

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CC KHUYN KHCH CHO DOANH NGHIP

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CC KHUYN KHCH TRONG CNG NGH KIM SOT NHIM

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Barry Field & Nancy Olewiler

PHN TCH CHI PH - LI CH

S BN VNG CA MI TRNG V CA NN KINH T Cc vn c bn

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CIC 0 e e1 Chat lng moi trng e2 E max

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Mi trng v Tng Trng: S bn vng theo thi gian

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e2 Cht lng mi trng

(a) Kch bn bi quan: PPF trong 50 nm ti Sn lng C4 C2

e4 Cht lng mi trng

(b) Kch bn lc quan: PPF trong 50 nm ti

Hnh 1-2: Hai vin cnh ca PPF trong 50 nm ti

Barry Field & Nancy Olewiler

Cc nc ang pht trin

Cht lng mi trng

Barry Field & Nancy Olewiler

Barry Field & Nancy Olewiler

(a) S thiu v sinh (%), nm 1997 v nhng nm 1980 140

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 - 20 -10.000 0 10.000 20.000 30.000 40.000 1997 1980s

GDP tnh trn u ngi

(b) Nc ung khng an ton (%), nm 1997 v nhng nm 1980

% dn s s dng nc khng sch

100 80 60 40 20 0 - 20 -10.000 1997 1980s

GDP tnh trn u ngi

Hnh 1-4 ng Kuznets mi trng c c tnh vo nhng nm 1980 v 1990

Barry Field & Nancy Olewiler

(c) Thay i din tch che ph rng (%), 1990-1995

120 100 80 60 40 20 0 -10.000 0

GDP tnh trn u ngi

Barry Field & Nancy Olewiler

(e) Pht thi CO2 tnh trn u ngi, nm 1996

-10.000 -10.000 50.000 0 10.000 20.000 30.000 40.000

GDP tnh trn u ngi

Hnh 1-4 ng Kuznets mi trng c c tnh vo nhng nm 1980 v 1990 (tt)

Cc cha nhim v vng trnh nhim

Barry Field & Nancy Olewiler

Barry Field & Nancy Olewiler

(a) Trung Quc

(b) MEXICO CITY

6 20 10 0 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 Nm 4 2 0

(c) SAO PAULO, BRAZIL

Barry Field & Nancy Olewiler

Barry Field & Nancy Olewiler

LIN KT GIA KINH T V MI TRNG: S PHN LOI

KINH T TI NGUYN THIN NHIN

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Barry Field & Nancy Olewiler

Ngi tiu th Ti ch (Rc)

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