This document discusses liquid natural gas (LNG) storage and the safety concern of density stratification and rollover. It provides background on LNG production and the three main types of storage facilities. Density stratification occurs when LNG forms layers of different densities and temperatures, and can lead to a hazardous condition called rollover if the layers mix too rapidly. The document describes methods for detecting stratification using temperature and density sensors to monitor the entire storage tank, in order to safely mix layers before rollover occurs.
This document discusses liquid natural gas (LNG) storage and the safety concern of density stratification and rollover. It provides background on LNG production and the three main types of storage facilities. Density stratification occurs when LNG forms layers of different densities and temperatures, and can lead to a hazardous condition called rollover if the layers mix too rapidly. The document describes methods for detecting stratification using temperature and density sensors to monitor the entire storage tank, in order to safely mix layers before rollover occurs.
This document discusses liquid natural gas (LNG) storage and the safety concern of density stratification and rollover. It provides background on LNG production and the three main types of storage facilities. Density stratification occurs when LNG forms layers of different densities and temperatures, and can lead to a hazardous condition called rollover if the layers mix too rapidly. The document describes methods for detecting stratification using temperature and density sensors to monitor the entire storage tank, in order to safely mix layers before rollover occurs.
by David Sheats and Michael Capers, Scientific Instruments, Inc. The use of LNG (Liquid Natural Gas) as an important energy source around the world is increasing steadily. It currently represents about 6% of the worlds natural gas and is readily available at numerous sites worldwide. Factors contributing to this increased usage include the discovery of large resources, development of cost- effective methods of production, transportation and storage and the fact that LNG is a very clean-burning fuel, making it an attractive option where environmental concerns are high. LNG is stored at cryogenic temperatures, which present some unique safety concerns and require specialized instrumentation to be able to detect potentially unsafe conditions. In the following discussion, these concerns are identified and the instrumentation techniques for addressing them are explained. The end result is a solution that gives confidence to the storage facility personnel that any potentially hazardous condition will be detected in a timely manner so that the proper corrective action may be taken. Production of LNG LNG is produced through a liquefaction process that lowers the temperature of the multi-component mixture of hydrocarbons (mainly methane with lower concentrations of higher hydrocarbons) to 160C, a 600 to 1 reduction of volume from gas to liquid. In this state, the product is economically transported via specialized tanker ships from the production site typically quite remote) to the customer. There are three primary types of sites where LNG is stored, namely liquefaction/ export facilities, import / distribution facilities and peak shaving facilities. Liquefaction/Export The liquefaction/export facility is located at the gas source and performs the cleaning, liquefaction and initial storage of the finished product. Such long-term supply countries as Indonesia, Algeria, Australia, Malaysia, Brunei and the United Arab Emirates represent this part of the LNG production train. New liquefaction facilities are or soon will be online in Nigeria, Trinidad, Oman and Qatar. New fields have been discovered and remain to be developed in Indonesia, Russia and off the coast of South America. A typical LNG exporting facility will operate up to 2-10 production trains and may have up to 10 LNG storage tanks. These tanks are located at a deep-water port and are used to load the tankers for the oceanic transportation of the product to customers.
Typical LNG storage tank
Import/Distribution An import/distribution facility capable of accommodating these LNG tankers is located at a deep- water port in countries that are using the LNG as an energy source. From these storage facilities, typically 3-10 storage tanks, natural gas is re-gasified and fed into a national pipeline system or trucked to remote storage locations. Such facilities are located in Spain, Japan, Taiwan, Korea and the United States. Peak Shaving Facilities A peak shaving facility is actually a production/ distribution plant combined into one. The purpose is to produce LNG during low usage periods, and store that gas for use during peak demands. The end result is the ability to shave the peak demand requirement off the gas supply lines, since that demand is normally only for a short period, such as a very cold day. It is typically owned and operated by a local gas company or pipeline distributor. While the process is very similar to the larger facilities, the production/ gasification rate is much lower. The very nature of this type of facility dictates that the gas will likely be stored for a much longer period, which has significant implications pertaining to possible density stratification as discussed below. The storage tanks used at all three of the above types of facilities may be above or below ground, but they are fundamentally the same. They have an inner tank, an insulation space and a concrete or high carbon steel outer tank. They are typically 150 in diameter, 160 in height, and have a storage volume of 15-18 million gallons of product. There are presently plans in development for tanks with significantly greater capacity than those previously built and in service.
SPRING 1999 VOLUME 15 NUMBER 2
Density Stratification in LNG Storage
Rollover A significant safety concern in the storage of LNG is a phenomenon known as rollover. If this occurs, pressures inside the storage tank may rise to excessive levels. The tanks are equipped with safety vent valves that are designed to keep the pressures from rising to levels that could cause structural damage. However, when these valves operate, LNG is vented to the atmosphere at an uncontrolled rate, which is an additional safety concern. LNG is heavier than air and could settle in pockets of explosive mixtures. Perhaps the most well known case of rollover is that which occurred in La Spezia, Italy, in 1971. The actual pressures realized are unknown since they exceeded available instrumentation and gas vented uncontrolled in a highly populated area for several hours. Fortunately, there was no explosion and no major damage was done to the tanks. The possibility of both potential problems was very evident, and much attention to detecting and preventing a similar occurrence has taken place since that time. Rollover occurs under certain conditions as stratified LNG comes to equilibrium. Stratification occurs when the product in the tank forms in layers with different densities and different temperatures. Sudden mixing of LNG in any storage tank occurs as two or more layer densities approach equality. Any heat trapped in the system is released rapidly during mixing, generating a vapor which may exceed the venting capability of the tank. The exact conditions that lead to rollover are somewhat complex. If layering occurs (discussed below), each layer is initially uniform, with the upper layer lighter than the lower. Heat entering the top layer comes through the walls of the tank. The liquid next to the tank walls warms slightly, becomes less dense and rises to the top, where it evaporates. Since light gases evaporate first, the liquid in the top layer tends to become denser.
Fluid circulation in a stratified LNG storage tank At the same time, the liquid in the lower layer gains heat through the floor and walls of the tank with a convection flow similar to the top layer. But because of the hydrostatic pressure of the upper layer, the rising liquid does not evaporate but superheats. Thus the lower layer becomes warmer and less dense. When the two layers approach the same density, the interface between the two becomes unstable and mixes rapidly. When this occurs, the liquid from the lower layer that is superheated gives off a large amount of vapor that rises to the surface. It is this phenomenon that is known as rollover. Causes of Layering What are the causes of layering? There are basically two ways that layering is produced. The first, and most obvious, occurs when liquid of a different composition than that which is already in the tank is introduced into the tank. This could be from a different gas field, or an altered process that results in a different composition. This is most likely to occur at a receiving terminal. The second cause of layering comes from a process referred to as autostratification. In this mechanism, unstratified liquid gains heat at the walls of the tank and rises by convection. It flashes upon reaching the surface. If sufficient nitrogen is present, the remaining liquid will be less dense, creating a layer at the top. As this layer increases, it seals in the lower layer and can cause it to superheat, creating conditions leading to rollover. Layer Detection The most effective method of preventing rollover is to detect layering by means of instrumentation, and if layering is present, take action to mix the layers under controlled conditions before the final conditions leading to rollover develop. If the size and composition of the layers can be detected, the potential danger can be accurately determined and the most cost-effective approach can be chosen. This action may be the operation of recirculation pumps (if available), or by mixing with liquid in other tanks. Some installations that have the capability of recirculation within a tank choose to operate these pumps on a regular basis as a preventive measure. Operation of these pumps is expensive, however, and some facilities do not have a simple method of recirculation. Layer detection is best accomplished by means of a temperature sensor and density sensor that are run through the entire depth of the liquid.
SPRING 1999 VOLUME 15 NUMBER 2
Density Stratification in LNG Storage
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FlowQuip Group Overseas Offices : In the absence of this, multiple temperature sensors located at fixed intervals will also give an indication of layering. The disadvantage to multiple sensors is the difficulty of accurate calibration. The cost of multiple density sensors is prohibitive. Instrumentation One instrument currently available for layer detection and installed at a number of facilities around the world is the M6280 LTD series from Scientific Instruments, Inc. It is specifically designed to detect temperature and density layering in LNG tanks. To accomplish this, a single probe with installed temperature, density and liquid level sensors is driven over the entire depth of the liquid in the tank. The data is collected at fixed intervals as specified by the customer. Simple data analysis is performed to alert the operator of apparent temperature or density layering. If certain areas of the tank are suspect, a feature known as Top Scan is available to examine a potential layer in more detail, providing an accurate picture of the suspected layer. As mentioned previously, because a single sensor is used for data collection, calibration errors are eliminated and an accurate relative profile is obtained. With an accurate temperature and density profile, detailed calculations can be performed
Typical display from M6280LTD System showing stratification
to properly determine the extent of the danger, and to enable cost-effective action in a timely manner to prevent rollover. Summary Although we are not aware of any rollover incidents that have resulted in fires, explosions or major structural tank damage, there have been many rollover incidents throughout the LNG industry. An increasing awareness of the potential problem has resulted in a greater emphasis on installing instrumentation. Proper instrumentation, such as Scientific Instruments, Inc. M6280 LTD, is the most secure way to obtain information so that preventive action can be quickly implemented to avert a potential problem. FLOWQUIP PTE LTD ( )
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