NASA Astronautic Structural Manual Volume 1

S
NASA TECHNICAL
MEMORANDUM
NASA TM X- 73305
ASTRONAUTIC STRUCTURESMANUAL
VOLUME I
(NASA-T_-X-733C5) AS_EONAUTIC STRUCTURES N76-76166
MANUAL, VOLUME I (NASA) 8_6 p
Unclas
_/98 _a_05
Structures and Propulsion Laboratory
August 197 5
NASA
George C. Marshall 5pace Flight Center

Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama
MSFC - For_" JlgO (l_ev June 1971)

APPROVAL
ASTRONAUTIC STRUCTURES MANUAL

VOLUME I
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"_ " LI.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1976-641-255/446 REGION NO.4

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ASTRONAUTIC STRUCTURES MANUAL 6 ,_ERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
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Prepared by Structures and Propulsion Laboratory, Science and Engineering
_ IG, ABSTRACT
This document (Volumes I, II, and III) presents a compilation of industry-wide methods in
aerospace strength analysis that can be carried out by hand, that are general enough in scope to
cover most structures encountered, and that are sophisticated enough to give accurate estimates
of the actual strength expected. It provides analysis techniques for the elastic and inelastic stres_
ranges. It serves not only as a catalog of methods not usually available, but also as a reference
source for the background of the methods themselves.
An overview of the manual is as follows: Section A is a general introduction of methods

used and includes sections on loads, combined stresses, and interaction curves; Section B is
devoted to methods of strength analysis; Section C is devoted to the topic of structural stability;
Section D is on thermal stresses; Section E is on fatigue and fracture mechanics; Section F is
on composites; Section G is on rotating machinery; and Section H is on statistics.
These three volumes supersede NASA TM X-60041 and NASA TM X-60042o
17. KE_' WORDS 18, DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Unclassified -- Unlimited
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MSFC- Form 3292 (Rev December 1972) For sale by National Technical Informatlnn _ervice,_pringfleld, Virginia 221_1
STRUCTURES MANUAL
FOREWORD
f-
This manual is issued to the personnel of the Strength Analysis
Branch to provide uniform methods of structural analysis and to pro-
vide a ready reference for data. Generally, the information contained
in this manual is a condensation of material published by universities,
scientific journals, missile and aircraft industries, text book pub-
lishers, and government agencies.
Illustrative problems to clarify either the method of analysis or

the use of the curves and tables are included wherever they are con-
sidered necessary. Limitations of the procedures and the range of
applicability of the data are indicated wherever possible.
It is recognized that all subjects in the Table of Contents are not

present in the body of the manual; some sections remain to be devel-
oped in the future. However, an alphabetical index of content material
is provided and is updated as new material is added. New topics not
listed in the Table of Contents will be treated as the demand arises.
This arrangement has been utilized to make a completed section avail-
able as soon as possible. In addition, revisions and supplements are
to be incorporated as they become necessary.
Many of the methods included have been adapted for computerized

utilization. These programs are written in Fortran Language for utili-
zation on the MSFC Executive VIII, Univac 1108, or IBM 7094 and are
cataloged with example problems in the Structural Analysis Computer
Utilization Manual.
It is requested that any comments concerning this manual be

directed to:
Chief, Structural Requirements Section

Strength Analysis Branch
Analytical Mechanics Division
Astronautics Laboratory
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Marshall Space Flight Center, Alabama 35812
ii
August 15, 1970

SECTIONAI
STRESSAND STRAIN
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
At.0.0 Stress and Strain ................................. 1
f i.I.0 Mechanical Properties of Materials ................... 1

I.I. 1 Stress-Strain Diagram ......................... i
1.1. 2 Other Material Properties ....................... 3
I.I. 3 Strain-Time Diagram .......................... 5
1.1. 4 Temperature Effects ........................... 7
i.i. 5 Hardness Conversion Tables ..................... 12
1.2.0 Elementary Theory of the Mechanics of Materials ......... 17
1.3.0 Elementary Applications of the Theory of Elasticity ........ 18
1.3. 1 Notations for Forces and Stresses .................. i8
1.3. 2 Specification of Stress at a Point ................... 19
1.3. 3 Equations of Equilibrium ........................ 21
1.3. 4 Distribution of Strains in a Body ................... 23
1.3. 5 Conditions of Compatibility ...................... 25
1.3. 6 Stress Functions ............................. 27
1.3. 7 Use of Equations from the Theory of Elasticity ......... 28
1.4.0 Theories o¢ Failure ............................. 34
1.4. i Elastic Failure .............................. 35
1.4. 2 Interaction Curves ............................ 36
A1 iii
Section A I
March i, 1965
Page I
AI. 0.0 Stress and Strain
The relationship between stress and strain and other material properties,
which are used throughout this manual, are presented in this section. A brief
introduction to the theory of elasticity for elementary applications is also pre-
sented in this section.
AI. I. 0 Mechanical Properties of Materials
A brief account of the important mechanical properties of materials is given

in this subsection; a more detailed discussion may be found in any one of a num-
ber of well known texts on the subject. The numerical values of the various
mechanical properties of most aerospace materials are given in MIL-HDBK-5
(reference 1). Many of these values are obtained from a plotted set of test re-
sults of one type or another. One of the most common sets of these plotted sets
is the stress-strain diagram. A typical stress-strain diagram is discussed in
the next subsection.
AI. I. i Stress-Strain Diagram
Some of the more useful properties of materials are obtained from a stress-
strain diagram. A typical stress-strain curve for aerospace metals is shown in
Figure AI. I. i-I.
The curve in Figure A1.1.1-1 is composed of two regions; the straight line
portion up to the proportional limit where the stress varies linearly with strain,
and the remaining part where the stress is not proportional to strain. In this
manual, stresses below the ultimate tensile stress (Ftu) are considered to be
elastic. However, a correction (or plasticity reduction) factor is sometimes
employed in certain types of analysis for stresses above the proportional limit
stress.
Commonly used properties shown on a stress-strain curve are described

briefly in the following paragraphs:
E Modulus of elasticity; average .ratio of stress to strain for

stresses below the proportional limit. In Figure A1.1.1-1
E = tan 0
Section A1
March 1, i965
Page 2
A1. I. 1 Stress-Strain Diagram (Cont'd)
_--Elastic, _ Plastic, ep
ee
| Ftu
(pfsi) _'_ _/ _eld Point I I
eu e Fracture
-4
e (inches/inch)
Figure AI. 1.1-1 A Typical Stress-Strain Diagram
E Secant modulus; ratio of stress to strain above

S
the proportional limit; reduces to E in the pro-
portional range. In Figure AI. t. 1-1 Es =
tan 01
Et Tangent modulus; slope of the stress-strain curve

at any point; reduces to E in the proportional
df
range. In FigureAl. l.i-i E t - de - tan 02
Section A1
-f.. March 1, 1965
Page 3
AI. i. I Stress-Strain Diagram (Cont'd)
Tensile or compressive yield stress; since many

Fry or Fcy
materials do not exhibit a definite yield point,
the yield stress is determined by the . 2% offset
method. This entails the construction of a
straight line with a slope E passing through a
point of zero stress and a strain of. 002 in./in.
The intersection of the stress-strain curve and
the constructed straight line defines the magni-
tude of the yield stress.
Ftp or Fcp Proportional limit stress in tension or compres-

sion; the stress at which the stress ceases to
vary linearly with strain.
Ftu Ultimate tensile stress; the maximum stress

reached in tensile tests of standard specimens.
F
CU Ultimate compressive stress; taken as Ftu un-
less governed by instability.
E
U The strain corresponding to Ftu.
E Elastic strain; see Figure AI. I. I-i.

e
E plastic strain; see Figure Ai. I. i-i.

P
efracture (% elongation) Fracture strain; percent elongation in a pre-

determined gage length associated with tensile
failures, and is a relative indication of ductility
of the material.
Ai. i.2 Other Material Properties
The definition of various other material properties and terminology used

in stress analysis work is given in this subsection.
SectionAi
March i, 1965
Page 4
A1.1.2 Other Material Properties (Cont'd)
Yield and ultimate bearing stress; determined

Fbry' Fbru
in a manner similar to those for tension and
compression. A load-deformation curve is
plotted where the deformation is the change in
the hole diameter. Bearing yield (Fbry) is de-
fined by an offset of 2% of the hole diameter;
bearing ultimate (Fbru} is the actual failing
stress divided by 1. t5.
F Ultimate shear stress.

SU
F Proportional limit in shear; usually taken equal

sp
to 0. 577 times the proportional limit in tension
for ductile materials.
Poisson's ratio; the ratio of transverse strain

to axial strain in a tension or compression test.
For materials stressed in the elastic range, v
may be taken as a constant but for inelastic
strains v becomes a function of axial strain.
V Plastic Poisson's ratio; unless otherwise stated,

P
Vp may be taken as 0.5.
E
G- Modulus of rigidity or shearing modulus of
2(I + v)
elasticity for pure shear in isotropic materials.
Isotropic Elastic properties are the same in all directions.
Anisotropic Elastic properties differ in different directions.
Orthotropic Distinct material properties in mutually per-

pendicular planes.
Section Ai
March I, 1965
Page5
A1.1.3 Strain-Time Diagram
The behavior of a structural material is dependent on the duration of loading.

This behavior is exhibited with the aid of a strain-time diagram such as that
shown in Figure A1. i. 3-1. This diagram consists of regions that are dependent
Strain
/,/Fracture///_J_ Creep Limit (no fracture) Curve
I I Elastic Recovery = Elastic Strain
Strain
Elastic f
Constant
v _ Strain Recovery P_rmanent
_ Time Set
Loading
Loading Unloading
Figure A1.1.3-t Strain-Time Diagram
upon the four loading conditions as indicated on the time coordinate. These
loading conditions are as follows:
1. Loading
2. Constant loading
SectionA 1
March 1, 1965
Page 6
AI. 1.3 Strain-Time Diagram (Cont'd)
3. Unloading
4. Recovery (no load)
The interval of time when the load is held constant is usually measured in
weeks or months. Whereas the time involved in loading and unloading is rela-
tively short (usually seconds or minutes) such that the corresponding strain-
time curve can be represented by a straight vertical line.
The following discussion of the diagram will be confined to generalities due

to the complexity of the phenomena of creep and fracture. A more detailed dis-
cussion on this subject is presented in reference 5.
The condition referred to as "loading" represents the strain due to a load

which is applied over a short interval of time. This strain may vary from zero
to the strain at fracture (_fracture - See Figure AI. I.l-l) depending upon the
material and loading.
During the second loading condition, where the load is held constant, the
strain-time curve depends on the initial strain for a particular material. The
possible strain-time curves (Figure A1.1.3-1) that could result are discussed
below.
a. In curve t, the initial strain is elastic and no additional strain is

experienced for the entire time interval. This curve typifies elastic action.
b. In curve 2, the initial strain increases for a short period after the
load becomes constant and then remains constant for the remainder of the period.
This action is indicative of slip which is characterized by a permanent set re-
sulting from the shifting (slip) of adjacent crystalline structures along planes
most favorably oriented with respect to the direction of the principal shearing
stress.
c. In curve 3, there is a continuous increase in strain after the initial

slip until a steady state condition is attained. This curve is indicative of creep
which is generally the result of a combined effect of the predominantly viscous
inelastic deformation within the unordered intercrystalline boundaries and the
complex deformations by slip and fragmentation of the ordered crystalline domains.
Section A 1
March I, 1965
Page 7
Ai. i.3 Strain-Time Diagram (Cont'd)
d. Curve 4 is also a combination of slip and creep. The only dif-

ference from curve 3 is that the creep action continues until the material fails
in fracture. This fracture may take place at any time during the constant load
period and is indicated by the upper shaded area in Figure A 1.1.3-1.
During unloading, the reduction in strain of curves l, 2 and 3 is equal to

the elastic strain incurred during loading. This reduction is referred to as the
"elastic recovery. " It can be seen in Figure Ai. I. 3-I that in the case of curve
I the structural member will return to its initial configuration immediately after
unloading. This is not the case for curves 2 and 3 as there will be some residual
strain.
The last condition to be discussed on the strain-time diagram concerns the

recovery period. In this period, some of the strain indicated as inelastic strain
is recoverable. ThisI is true particularly for many viscoelastic materials (such
as flexible plastics) that do not show real creep, only delayed recoverable strains.
_f The height of the lower shaded area in Figure A 1.1.3-1 is called the elastic
after effect. The upper bound is the maximum possible permanent set and is in-
dicated by the solid horizontal line. The lower bound could be any one of the
family of possible strain-time curves confined within the lower shaded area.
The limiting curve of the lower bound would approach the permanent set curve
due to slip as indicated by the horizontal dashed line. If slip action is negligible,
this limiting curve would be represented by a line that approaches zero asymp-
totically with increasing time.
A1.1.4 Temperature Effects
The mechanical properties of a material are usually affected by its tem-

perature. This effect will be discussed in general terms in this section. For
specific information, see the applicable chapter in reference 1.
In general, temperatures below room temperature increase the strength

properties of metals. Ductility is usually decreased and the notch sensitivity
of the metal may become of primary importance. The opposite is generally
true for temperatures above room temperature.
A representative example for the effect of temperature on the mechanical

properties of aluminum alloys is given in Figures A1.1.4-1 through 4. Most
steels behave in a similar manner but generally are less sensitive to tempera-
ture magnitudes.
Section A I
March i, 1965
Page 8
A1.1.4 Temperature Effects (Cont'd)
120
\
\\\\
100
Q)
\',,
2
cD
QJ 8O
/_ hr
O
O
/100 hr
60. _10,000 hr
¢J
;h
40 _
2O
0
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800
Temperature, °F
Figure AI. I.4-I Effects of Temperature on the Ultimate Tensile

Strength (Ftu) of 7079 Aluminum Alloy (from
Ref. I)
Section AI
March i, 1965
Page 9
AI. 1.4 Temperature Effects (Cont'd)
140
120
\
\
100
f_
-_ hr
8O
I 100 hr
8
_.10,000 hr
>_ 60
,t0
20
0
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800
Temperature, °F
Figure A1.1.4-2 Effects of Temperature on the Tensile Yield

Strength (Fty) of 7079 Aluminum Alloy (from
Ref. 1)
Section A1
March 1, 1965
Page t0
At.i.4 Temperature Effects (Cont'd)
140
120
100 I
O
O
a_
80
\
60
2O
0
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800
Temperature, °F
Figure AI. I. 4-3 Effect of Temperature on the Tensile and Compressive

Modulus (E and Ec} of 7079 Aluminum Alloy (from
Ref. i}
Section A 1
March 1, 1965
Page 11
AI. 1.4 Temperature Effects (Cont'd)
100
8O
6O
/
O
40
2O
0 I00 200 300 400 5C 600
Temperature, °F
Figure AI. i. 4-4 Effect of Temperature on the Elongation of

7079-T6 Aluminum Alloy (from Ref. 1)
Section AI
March 1, 1965
Page 12
Al. I. 5 Hardness Conversion Table
A table for converting hardness numbers to ultimate tensile strength values

is presented in this section. In this table, the ultimate strength values are in
the range, 50 to 304 ksi. The corresponding hardness number is given for each
of three hardness machines; namely, the Vtckers, Brinell and the applicable
scale(s) of the Rockwell machine.
This table is given In the remainder of this section. The appropriate

materials-property haaktbook should be consulted for additional information
whenever necessary.
Tensile Vickers- Brinell Rockwell

Strength Firth 3000 kg
Diamond 10ram Stl A Scale B Scale C Scale
Ball
6O kg 100 kg 150 kg
Hardness Hardness 120 deg 1/16 in. 120 deg
ksi
Number Number Diamond Dia Stl Diamond
Cone Ball Cone
50 104 92 58 mm
52 108 96 61 1B
54 112 I00 ,&l

64 _W
56 116 104 66 _m
58 120 108 68
60 125 I13 70
62 129 ii7 72
64 135 122 74
Table AI_'I.5-1 Hardness Conversion Table

Section A I
March i, 1965
Page 13
AI. I. 5 Hardness Conversion Table (Cont'd)

D Jam ond I0m m Stl A Scale B Scale C Scale
Ball
60 kg I00 kg i50 kg
ksi
Num be r Number D Jam ond Dia Stl Dmmond
Cone Ball Cone
66 139 127 76
68 143 i31 77.5
70 i49 136 79
72 153 140 80.5
74 157 145 82
76 162 150 83
78 167 154 51 84.5
8O 171 158 52 85.5
82 177 162 53 87
83 179 165 53.5 87.5
85 186 171 54 89
87 189 174 55 90
89 196 180 56 91
Table AI. I. 5-i Hardness Conversion Table (Cont'd)

Section At
March 1, 1965
Page 14
AI. 1.5 Hardness Conversion Table (Cont'd)

Strength Firth 3000 kg [
D Jam ond 10m m Stl A Scale B Scale C Scale
Ball
60 kg 100 kg 150 kg
ksi
Number Number Diamond Dia Stl D iam ond
Cone Ball Cone
9t 203 186 56.5 92. 5
93 207 190 57 93.5 w--
95 211 193 57 94 --m
97 215 t97 57. 5 95
99 219 201 57.5 95.5
102 227 210 59 97
104 235 220 60 98 19
107 240 225 60.5 99 2O
110 245 230 61 99, 5 21
t12 250 235 61.5 100 22
i15 255 241 62 101 23
118 261 247 62.5 i01.5 24
120 267 253 63 102 25
Table A 1.1.5-1 Hardness Conversion Table (Cont'd)

Section A1
March 1, 1965
Page 15

Strength F irth 3000 kg
D iam ond 10ram Stl A Scale B Scale C Scale
Ball
60 kg 100 kg 150 kg
Hardness Hardness 120 deg" 1/16 in. 120 deg
ksi
Num be r Number Diamond Dia Stl Diamond
C one Ball Cone
123 274 259 63.5 103 26
126 281 265 64 27
129 288 272 64.5 28
132 296 279 65 29
136 304 286 65.5 30
139 312 294 66 31
142 321 301 66.5 32
147 330 309 67 33
150 339 318 67.5 34
155 348 327 68 35
160 357 337 68.5 36
165 367 347 69 37
170 376 357 69.5 38
176 386 367 7O 39
Table A I. i. 5-i Hardness Conversion Table (Cont'd)

Section Ai
March l, i965
Page 16
Ai. i.5 Hardness Conversion Table (Cont'd)

Diamond 10ram Stl A Scale B Scale C Scale
Ball
60 kg i00 kg 150 kg
Hardness Hardness i20 deg I/t6 in, 120 deg
ksi
Number Number Diamond Dia Stl Diamond
Cone Ball Cone
181 396 377 70.5 40
188 406 387 71 41
194 417 398 71.5 42
201 428 408 72 43
208 440 419 72.5 44
215 452 430 73 ,45
221 465 442 73.5 46
231 479 453 74 47
237 493 464 75 48
246 508 476 75.5 49
256 523 488 76 5O
264 539 5OO 76.5 51
273 556 512 77 52
283 573 524 77.5 53
Table Ai. i.5-i Hardness Conversion Table (Cont'd)

Section A1
March 1, 1965
Page 17

Strength Firth 3OOO kg .m
D ia m ond 10mm Stl A Scale B Scale C Scale

Ball
6O kg 100 kg 150 kg
ksi
Num be r Num be r Diamond Dia Stl Diamond
Cone Ball Cone
294 592 536 78 54
304 611 548 78.5 55
Table A1.1.5-1 Hardness Conversion Table {Concluded)
A1.2.0 Elementary Theory of the Mechanics of Materials
In the elementary theory of mechanics of materials, a uni-axial state of

strain is generally assumed. This state of strain is characterized by the simpli-
fied form of Hooke's law; namely f = E _, where • is the unit strain in the direc-
tion of the unit stress f, and E is the Modulus of Elasticity. The strains in the
perpendicular directions { Poisson's ratio effect) are neglected. This is generally
justified in most elementary and practical applications considered in the theory
of mechanics of materials. In these applications, the structural members are
generally subjected to a uni-axial state of stress and/or the strains and dis-
placements are of secondary importance. Also, in these applications, the
magnitude of each of a set of bi-axial stresses (when this occurs) is generally
independent of the Poisson's ratio effect.
Frequently in design, there are applications in which the magnitude of each

of a set of bi-axial (or tri-axial) stresses are dependent upon the Poisson's
ratio effect; and/or the magnitude of the strains and displacements are of pri-
mary importance. This type of application must be generally analyzed by the
theory of elasticity. A brief account on the use of the theory of elasticity for
elementary applications is given in the next subsection.
Section A 1
March 1, 1965
Page 18
AI. 3.0 Elementary Applications of the Theory of Elasticity
The difference between the method of ordinary mechanics and the theory of
elasticity is that rio simplifying assumption is made concerning the strains in the
latter. Because of this, it becomes necessary to take into account the complete
distribution of the strains in the body and to assume a more general statement
of Hooke's law in expressing the relation between stresses and strains. It is
noted that the stresses calculated by both methods are only approximate since
the material in the physical body deviates from the ideal material assumed by
both methods.
Some of the following subsections are written for a three dimensional stress
field but are applicable to problems in two dimension simply by neglecting all
terms containing the third dimension.
A1.3. l Notation for Forces and Stresses
The stresses acting on the side of a cubic element can be described by six
components of stress, namely the three normal stresses fll, f22, f33, and the
three shearing stresses fl2 = f21, f13,= f3t, f23 = f32.
In Figure AI. 3. l-i shearing stresses are resolved into two components
parallel to the coordinate axis. Two subscript numbers are used, the first
indicating the direction normal to the plane under consideration and the second
indicating the direction of the component of the stress. Normal stresses have
like subscripts and positive directions are as shown in the figure. An analogous
notation for the x-y coordinate system is:
xa
fll =f
X
f22
f22 = fy
!
f12 = f
S
fs3f"'- xj
I"
Figure AL. 3. 1-1 Representation of Stresses on

an Element of a Body J
Section A1
F_
March 1, 1965
Page 19
A1.3. 1 Notation for Forces and Stresses (Cont'd)
f Surface forces
Forces distributed over the surface of the body, such as pressure of one
body on another, or hydrostatic pressure, are called surface forces.
Body forces
Body forces are forces that are distributed over the volume of a body, such
as gravitational forces, magnetic forces, or inertia forces in the case of a body
in motion.
A1.3.2 Specification of Stress at a Point
If the components of stress in Figure A1.3. 1-2 are known for any given
point, the stress acting on any inclined plane through this point can be calculated
from the equations of statics. Body forces, such as weight of the element, can
generally be neglected since they are of higher order than surface forces.
X2
C
N
x_
x_
Figure AI. 3. I-2 An Element Used in Specifying Stress at a Point

SectionA I
March I, 1965
Page 20
Ai. 3.2 Specification of Stress at a Point (Cont'd)
If A denotes the area of the inclined face BCD of the tetrahedron in Figure
AI, 3. t-2, then the areas of the three faces are obtained by projectin_A on the
three coordinate planes. Letting N be the stress normal to the plane BCD, the
three components of stress acting parallel to the coordinate axes, are denoted
by NI, N 2, and N 3. The components of force acting in the direction of the co-
ordinates X|, Xz, X 3 are AN_, AN2, and AN 3 respectively. Another useful
relationship can be written as:
cos (NI) = k, cos (N2) = m, cos (N3) = n (1)
and the areas of the other faces are Ak, Am, An.
The equations of equilibrium of the tetrahedron can then be written as:
NI = fil k + f12 m + f13 n
N2 = fi2 k + f22 m + f32 n (2)
Na -_ fl3 k + f23 m + f33 n
The principal stresses for a given set of stress components can be deter-
mined by the solution of the following cubic equation:
fp3 _ (fli+ f22+ f33)fp2 + (fllf22÷ f22f33+ fllf33- f232
(3)
- f132 - f122) fp - (fli f22 f33 + 2f23 f13 f12 - fll f232 - f22 f132 - f33 f122) = 0
The three roots of this equation give the values of the three principal stresses.
The three corresponding sets of direction cosines for the three principal plan_s
can be obtained by substituting each of these stresses (one set for each principal
stress) into Equations 3 and using the relation k 2 + m 2 + n 2 = i.
Section A1
March 1, 1965
Page 21
A1.3.2 Specification of Stress at a Point (Cont'd)
(fp - fit) k - fl2 m - ft3 n = 0
f12 k + (f - f22) m - f23 n = 0 (4)
f13k- f23m + (fp- f33) n= 0
The shearing stresses associated with the three principal stresses can be
obtained by:
t
fl2 = + _-(fp! _ fp2) , fl3 = + 2-(fpl
! - fp3),
(5)
!
f23 = + _- (fp2 - fp3)
where the superscript notation is used to distinguish between the applied shearing
stresses and the stresses associated with the principal normal stresses fpl,
fp2' and fP3"
The maximum shearing stress acts on the plane bisecting the angle between
the largest and the smallest principal stresses and is equal to half the difference
between these two principal stresses.
AI. 3.3 Equations of Equilibrium
Since no simplifying assumption is permitted as to the distribution of strain

in the theory of elasticity, the equilibrium and the continuity of each element
within the body must be considered. These considerations are discussed in this
and the subsequent subsections.
Let the components of the specific body force be denoted by X1, X2, X3,
then the equation of equilibrium in a given direction is obtained by summing all
the forces in that direction and proceeding to the limit. The resulting differen-
tial equations of equilibrium for three dimensions are:
Section A1
March i, 1965
Page 22
AI. 3.3 Equations of Equilibrium (Cont'd)
afl2 8f13
afli +_ + +Xi = 0
8x i 8x2
_+ + +X2= 0 (6)
8x 2 axl 8x 3
8f33 afi3 8f23

--+ +--+X3= 0
8x3 _ _)x2
These equations must be satisfied at all points throughout the body. The
internal stresses must be in equilibrium with the external forces on the surface
of the body. These conditions of equilibrium at the boundary are obtained by
considering the stresses acting on Figure AI. 3.3-1.
----_ _x1
Figure Ai. 3.3-1 An Element Used in Deriving the Equations of Equilibrium

Section A i
March I, 1965
Page 23
AI. 3. 3 Equations of Equilibrium (Cont'd)
By use of Equations 1 and summing forces the boundary equations are:
Xl = fll k + f12 m +f13 n
X2 = f22 m + f23 n + fl2 k (7)
X3 = f33 n+ft3k+f23 m
in which k, m, n are the direction cosines of the external normal to the surface
of the body at the point under consideration and X1, X2, X 3 are the components
of the surface forces per unit area.
The Equations 6 and 7 in terms of the six components of stress, fll, f22,
f33, f12, f13, f23 are statically indeterminate. Consideration of the elastic deforma-
tions is necessary to complete the description of the stressed body. This is
done by considering the elastic deformations of the body.
A1.3.4 Distribution of Strains in a Body
The relations between the components of stress and the components of strain
have been established experimentally and are known as Hooke's law. For small
deformations where superposition applies, Hooke's law in three dimensions for
normal strain is written as:
1
el = _ [fll - v (f22 ÷ f33) ]
1
£2 = E- [f22 - v (fll + f33) ] (8)
1
e3 = E- [f33 - v (fil + f22) ]
Section A1
March 1, i965
Page 24
A1, 3.4 Distribution of Strains in a Body (Cont'd)
and for shearing strain
2(I+ v) +_.,v,
• l_ = E fi2 = G
2(t E + v) (9)
Tts = ft3 = G
T_-a = 2(i + v) f23

E f23 - G
These six components of strains can be expressed in terms of the three

components of displacements. By considering the deformation of a small ele-
ment dxl, dx2, dx 3 of an elastic body with u, v, w as the components of the dis-
placement of the point 0. The displacement in the x 1 - direction of an adjacent
point A on the x 1 axis is
au
u + _xl dxl
due to the increase (au/axl)dx 1 of the function u with increase of the coordinate
x l, It follows that the unit elongation at poiqt 0 in the x 1 direction is au/ax 1.
In the same manner it can be shown that the unit elongations in the x 2 - and x 3 -
directions are given by av/ax2 and aw/ax 3 respectively.
The distortion of the angle from AOB to A'O' B' can be seen from Figure
AI. 3.4-i to be av/ax 1 + au/ax 2. This is the shearing strain between the planes
x I x 3 and x 2 x 3. The shearing strains between the other two planes are obtained
similarly.
The six components of strains in terms of the three displacements are:
au av aw
el - ax 1 , _2 - ax2 ' _s =_..
(10)
au av au Dw av aw
Ylg- = 2ax-- + ax t "/i3 ax 3 + ax I _23 ax 3 + ax 2
Section Al
March I, 1965
Page 25
At. 3.4 Distribution of Strains in a Body (Cont'd)
X_ _ u +iL_. dx 2
8x2
i I
T- At
1 0
dx 2
+ a_v dxt
v Ox!
0 _ . _ Xl
4- J
_x 1 dxt
Figure A1.3.4-1 Distortions Due to Normal and Shearing Stresses Used

to Define Strains in Terms of Displacements
A1.3.5 Conditions of Compatibility
The conditions of compatibility, that assure continuity of the structure,

can be satisfied by obtaining the relationship between the strains in Equations 10.
The relationship can be obtained by purely mathematical manipulation as follows:
Differentiating Q twice with respect to. x2; e2 twice with respect to xt; and
Ti2 once with respect to x t and once with respect x 2. The sum of the derivatives
of (1 and e2 is found to be identical to the derivative of Tt2. Therefore,
ax] + ax_ = axtax2

Section A1
March 1, i965
Page 26
AI. 3.5 Conditions of .Compatibility (Cont'd)
Two more relationships of the same kind can be obtained by cyclic interchange
of the subscripts 1, 2, 3.
Another set of equations can be found by further mathematical manipulation

as follows:
Differentiate e 1 once with respect to x I and once with respect to xs; _/12
once with respect to x t and once with respect to x3; _/13 once with respect to x l
and once with respect to x2; and _'23 twice with respect to x I. It then follows that
8x_0x 3 axl0x3 Oxiax2 0x l"
Two additional relationships can be found by the cyclic interchange of sub-

scripts as before.
The six differential relations between the components of strain are called
the equations of compatibility and are given below.
8x_ = axlax 2 ' 8x28x 3 8x i\ ax 3 ax2 8x i j'
(II)
8x{ ax{ ox2ax3 ' axlax 3
These equations of compatibility may be stated in terms of the stresses if

the strains in Equations 11 are expressed in terms of the stresses by Hooke's
law (Equations 8 and 9). Differentiating each of Equations 8 and 9 as required
for substitution, we have
Section A 1
March i, 1965
Page 27
A1.3.5 Conditions of Compatibility (Cont'd)
a20 a20
( I + p) V 2 f23 + - 0
(i +,) _72fil + _x I = 0 Dx20x 3
_20 020
(1 + v) V 2 f22 + 0x--_ = 0 , (1 + v) V 2 fl3 + 0xlDx3 - 0 (t2)
020 020
(1 + v) V 2 fl2 + -- - 0
(1 + v) V 2 f33 + --Ox2 -- 0 OxlOx 2
where:
V2 _)2 D2 _2
and
0 = fll + f22 + f33
For most cases where strains are linear and superposition applies, the
system of Equations 6, 7, and 11 or 12 are sufficient to determine the stress
components without ambiguity. The use of stress functions to aid in the solution
of these equations are discussed below.
A1.3.6 Stress Functions
It has been shown in the previous sections that the differential equations
of equilibrium (Equations 6) ensure a distribution of stress in a body that pre-
serves the equilibrium of every element in the body. The fact that these are
satisfied does not necessarily mean that the distribution of stresses are correct
since the boundary stresses must also be satisfied. The compatibility equations
(Equations 1t) must also be satisfied to ensure the proper strain distribution
throughout the body. The problem is then to find an expression that satisfies all
Section A1,
March 1, 1965
Page 28
A1.3.6 Stress Functions (Conttdl
these conditions. The usual procedure is to introduce a function called a stress

function that meets this requirement. For the sake of simplicity, tliis section
will deal only with problems in two dimensions. The stresses due to the weight
of the body will also be neglected.
In 1862,G. B. Airy introduced a stress function (_b (xl, x2) ) which is an ex-
pression that satisfies both Equations 6 and II (in two dimension) when the
stresses are described by:
fll - , f22 = ax I , f12 = - _xl_x2
By operating on Equations 13 and substitutinginto Equations il, we find that the

stress function _b must satisfy the equation
+ 2 + = V4qb = 0 (I4)
Thus the solution of a two-dimensional problem reduces to finding a solution

Of the biharmonic equation (Equation t4) which satisfies the boundary conditions
(7) of the problem.
At. 3.7 Use of Eqtmtions from the Theory of Elasticity
Proficiency in the use of stress functions is gained mainly by experience.

It is not unusual to find an expression that satisfies Equation i4 first and then try
to determine what problem it solves.
The following problem is presented to illustrate the basic procedure in the

use of stress functions.
Section Ai
March 1, 1965
Page 29
At. 3.7 Use of Equations from the Theory of Elasticity (Cont'd)
Statement of the problem:
Determine the stress function that corresponds to the boundary conditions

for a cantilever beam of rectangular cross section of unit width and loaded as
shown in Figure A1, 3.7-1. From this stress function determine the stresses
and compare with the maximum flexure stresses as obtained by the method of
mechanics.
p/unit length
V ° = -p L
_ _ ii _ _ _ _
.__._._.p, Xl
V-
Mo=- 2
L-
X2
Figure At. 3, 7-i Sample Problem
Solution:
Assume that the stress function is
_b = ax2 s + bx23xt 2 + cx23 + dx2x 2 + ex 2
Operate on _ to satisfy Equation 14
V4_b = (5-4"3.2) ax 2 + 2( 3.2.2 bx2) = 0
24x 2 (5a+b) = 0
from which a = - b/5 (a)

Section A1
March i, 1965
Page 30
A1.3.7 Use of Equations from the Theory of Elasticity (Cont'd)
Since Equation 14 can now be satisfied by letting a = - b/5, the only other
condition to satisfy is the boundary conditions.
From Figure Ai. 3.7-1 the boundary conditions are as follows:
i. f22 = -P at x 2 = - h/2
2. f22 = 0 at x 2 = h/2
h/2
3. f fl2dx2 = -pL at x1 = L from ZF=0
-h/2
h/2
4. f fltx2dx2 = -pL2/2 at x1 = L from ZM = 0
-h/2
5. fl2 = 0 at x 2 = h/2
From Equation i3
fli = = 20ax3 + 6bxl2x2 + 6cx2
f22 - = 2bx_ + 2hx 2 + 2e (b)
f12 = - OxiOx2
6bx, , 2hx,
Using boundary condition I
2bh 3 2dh
f22 = -P = - 8 2 + 2e (c)
Section A1
-f- March 1, 1965
Page 31
AI. 3.7 _Use of Equations fro m the Theory of Elasticity (Cont'd)
from boundary condition 2
2bh 3 2dh
+ 2e (d)
f22 = 0 - 8 + 2
adding (c) and (d)
4e = -p or e = -p/4 (e)
h/2 h/2
-h/2 f12 dx2 = _hf/2 [- 6bx22xl - 2hxl} dx2
= -pL (f)
=2 [ -_ 6 bLx23-2hLx2]_/2
bh 3
or + 2dh -_p
2
h/2
- hf/ 2 [20ax24 + 6bx}x22 + 6cx22] dx 2
=2 2___a
x_ + _- xl2x3+ 56 cx 31
[ _ 6b h/2
0
ah 5
bL2h 3 ch 3 _ _ pL2/2
4 +_+ 2
Section A 1
March f, 1965
Page 32
Al. 3.7 Use of Ec_uations from the Theory of Elasticity (Cont'd)
substituting Equation a and solving for c
c = -pL2 - b ( L2h a - hs/iO)

ha (g)
fi2 = _ bh_xi - 2dxi = 0
3
=-x i ( _ bh 2 # 2d )
or
(h)
Solving Equations f and h simultaneously we get
d = 3p and b = -p/h 3 (i)
Substituting b = - p/h 3 into Equation g
(J)
Section A1
March 1, 1965
Page 33
Ai. 3.7 Use of Equations from the Theory of Elasticity (Cont'd)
The stress function can now be written as
¢) = -px 2 (x_/h 3- 3x2/4h + 1/4)
(k)
+(ph2/5) (x25/h 5 - x23/2h 3)
and the stresses as (see Equations b)
fll P
= - 2I (X2 X 2 + h2 xz/10 - 2x_/3) (i)
f22 = - -P---(x23/3
2I - h2xy/4 + h3/12) (m)
fi2 = -P--
21 (x22x! - h2xl/4) (n)
where I = h3/12
Comparison of maximum flexure stresses from Equation 1 with x 1 = L,

x 2 = - h/2
11
felasticity = ph
4I /L 2 - h_l (o)
from elementary mechanics
fmiechanics Me _ pL 2 h (P)
I 4I
The difference is then
felasticity p
11 - f_i echanics = - ph
60I3 5 (q)
Section A 1
March 1, 1965
Page 34
A1.4.0 Theories of Failure
Several theories have been advanced to aid in the prediction of the critical
load combination on a structural member. Each theory is based on the assump-
tion that a specific combination of stresses or strains constitutes the limiting
condition. The margin of safety of a member is then predicted by comparing
the stress, the strain, or combination of stress and strain with the correspond-
ing factors as determined from tests on the material.
Three of the more useful theories are stated in this subsection. A more
detailed discussion on these and other theories of failure can be found in most
elementary strength analysis text books such as references 2 and 3.
The Maximum Normal Stress Theory
The maximum normal stress theory of failure states that inelastic action at
any point in a material begins only when the maximum principal stress at the
point reaches a value equal to the tensile (or compressive) yield strength of the
material as found in a simple tension (or compression) test. The normal or
shearing stresses that occur on other planes through the point are neglected.
The Maximum Shearing Stress Theory
The maximum shearing stress theory is based on the assumption that yield-
ing begins when the maximum shear stress in the material becomes equal to the
maximum shear stress at the yield point in a simple tension specimen. To apply
it, the principal stresses are first determined, then, according to Equation 5,
fimJax = I2( fpi _ fpj)
where i and j are associated with the maximum and minimum principal stresses
respectively.
The Maximum Energy of Distortion Theory
The maximum energy of distortion theory states that inelastic action at any
point in a body under any combination of stresses begins only when the strain
energy of distortion per unit volume absorbed at the point is equal to the strain
Section A1
March 1, i965
Page 35
A1.4. 0 Theories of Failure (Cont'd)
/ energy of distortion absorbed per unit volume at any point in a bar stressed to
the elastic limit under a state of uniaxial stress as occurs in a simple tension
(or compression) test. The value of this maximum strain energy of distortion
as determined from the uniaxial test is
l+v F 2
wl - 3E YP
and the strain energy of distortion in the general case is
- fp2 )2 + (fp2 - fP3)2 + (fpl - fp3)2]

W --
.6E [(fpl
where fpl, fP2' fp3 are the principal stresses and Fyp is the yield point stress.
(For th_ case of a biaxial state of stress, fP3 = 0.)
The condition for yielding is then, w = w 1 or
(fPl - fp2)2+ (fp2 - fp3)2 + (fpi - fp3)2 = 2 Fy/
AI. 4. I Elastic Failure
The choice of the proper theory of failure is dependent on the behavior of

the material. It is suggested that the maximum principal stress theory be used
for brittle materials and either the maximum energy of distortion theory or the
maximum-shearing-stress theory for ductile materials.
The choice between the two methods for ductile materials may be made by
considering the particular application. When failure of the component leads to
catastrophic results, the maximum-shearing-stress theory should be used
since the resuits are on the safe side.
Section A J.
March 1, 1965
Page 36
Ai. 4° 2 Interaction Curves
No general theory exists whichapplies in all cases for combined loading

conditions in which failure is caused by instability. Interaction curyes for the
instability case or other critical load conditions are usually determined from
or substantiated by structural tests. The analysis of various loading combina-
tions are discussed in Section A3.
Section A1
March 1, 1965
Page 37
AI. 0.0 Stress and Strain
REFERENCES
1. MIL-HDBK-5, "Metallic Materials and Elements for Flight Vehicle

Structures," Department of Defense, Washington, D. C., August, 1962.
2. Murphy, Glenn, Advanced Mechanics of Materials, McGraw-Hill Book

Company, Inc., New York, 1946.
3. Seely, Fred B. and James O. Smith, Advanced Mechanics of Materials,

Second Edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1957.
4. Timoshenko, S. and J. N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, Second Edition,

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951.
5. Freudenthal, Alfred M., The Inelastic Behavior of Engineering Materials

and Structures, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1950.
SECTIONA2
LOADS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
A2.0.0 Space Vehicle Loads .............................. 1
2.1.0 General ................................... 1

2.2.0 Loading Curves ............................. 3
2.3.0 Flight Loads ............................... 4
2.3.1 General ................................ 4
2.3.2 Dynamic and Acoustic Loads .................. 5
2.3.3 Other Flight Loads ........................ 5
2.4.0 Launch Pad Loads ............................ 6
2.5.0 Static Test Loads .................... ........ 7
2.6.0 Transportation and Handling Loads ................ 7
2.7.0 Recovery Loads ............................. 7
A2-iii
v
Section A2
April 15, 1973
Page
A2 SPACE VEHICLE LOADS.
A.2.1 COORDINATE SYSTEMS.
The standard coordinate axes which have been used for rockets, missiles,
and launch vehicles are shown in Figure A2.1-1. The longitudinal X axis is
taken as positive in the flight direction. The Y and Z axes are taken in
appropriate directions to form a right-handed system. Moments are positive
as determined by the right-hand rule.
For aircraft analysis the sign conventions used are shown in
Figure A2.1-2. In this figure externally applied loads acting at the airplane
center of gravity are defined as positive when directed aft in the X direction,
outboard to the left in the Y direction, and upward in the Z direction.
Externally applied moments about the airplane center of gravity are defined as
positive when acting as shown in Figure A2.1-2 (left-hand rule). At ,any section
under positive shear the rear, left outboard, or upper part tends to move aft,
left, or up; the right outboard, or upper part, tends to move aft, right, or up.
Any section under positive torsion tends to rotate clockwise when viewed from
the rear, left, or above. Positive bending moments produce compression in
the rear, left, and upper fibers. Positive axial load produces tension across
any section.
The external loads which may act on a space vehicle are categorized
as follows.
1. Flight Loads
2. Launch Pad Loads

Section A2
April 15, 1973
Page Z. 0
+X (L, d>, p, u)
IN. _, r, w)
+Z
+Y
(M, (_, q. v)
-Z
i ii i,
FORCE MOMENT LINEAR

SYMBOL SYMBOL VELOCITY
LONGITUDINAL X L u
LATERAL Y M v
YAW Z W
ANGLE SYMBOL POSITIVE ANGULAR

DIRECTION VELOCITY
ROLL ¢ Y to Z
PITCH e ZtoX q
YAW Xto Y r 4
i i !
NOTE: Sign convention follows right-hand rule.
Figure A2.1-1. Coordinate axes and symbols for a space vehicle. --:
Section A2
April 15, 1973
Page 2. 1
f-
0
_:::u ,-.4
_'_
f I-d
\
bD _I
"_ o
._ _._
o
°_
,,k
NASA--MSFC
Section A2
April 15, 1973
Page 2. 2
3. Transportation and Handling Loads
4. Static Test Loads
5. Recovery Loads.
Since it is universal practice in the airframe industry for the stress
analyst to obtain the magnitudes of external loads for the space vehicle from
the cognizant "Loads Group" in his organization, the methods of calculating
these quantities will not be presented in this manual. Rather, it will be
assumed that these loads are furnished to the stress analyst so that only their
qualitative description is required. These loads are generally resolved along
the coordinate axes for stress and aerodynamic analysis.
w/
MS FC_I_A, A_
Section A2
March 1, 1965
Page 2._ 3
A2.2.0 Loading Curves
The loads are usually presented in the form of load versus vehicle
station curves, where locations along the longitudinal coordinate are referred
to as vehicle stations. These curves are plotted for various times during the
flight of the vehicle. At each of these times, the longitudinal force, the shear
and the bending moment are plotted as a function of the vehicle station. Typical
curves showing the bending moment and longitudinal force distribution along
a vehicle can be seen in Figure A2.2.0-I.
.2
I
.2 Bending Moment
l
Longitudinal Force(
i L - S -_ __ ! I I
2800 2400 2000 1200 1600 800 400
Vehicle Station ~ Inches
Fig. A2.2.0-1 Typical Bending Moment and Longitudinal Force

Distribution Curves.
Section A2
March 1, 1965
Page 2._
A2.2.0 Loading Curves (Cont'd)
It is necessary to know the circumferential pressure distribution

along the vehicle at times of critical loading. This circumferential pressure
is applied to the structure along with the critical loads during strength analysis
of the vehicle. Typical distribution of this circumferential pressure at a partic-
ular vehicle station may appear as in Figure A2.2.0-2.
ax P
Figure A2.2.0-2 Typical Circumferential Pressure Distribution

Curves at a Vehicle Station
A2.3.0 Flight Loads
A2.3. I General
A space vehicle is subjected to flight loads of varying magnitudes during

its flight. These flight loads must be investigated to determine the critical
loads on the vehicle. Although it is not possible to know when these critical
loads will occur without considering the entire flight history, there are certain
times during the flight where conditions exist which are favorable for the build-
up of critical loads. These times and the loads which occur may be summarized r
as follows:
Section A2
March 1, 1965
Page 5
1. Liftoff - As the vehicle lifts off the launch pad there is a sudden
application and redistribution of loads on the vehicle. This causes dynamic loads
which may be critical.
2. Maximum Dynamic Pressure (Maximum q) - At this time the combi-

nation of vehicle velocity and air density is such that the maximum airloads
result.
3. Maximum qo_ - At this time the combination of vehicle velocity, air

density and vehicle angle of attack is such that high bending moments due to air-
loads and vehicle acceleration result.
4. Engine Cutoff - Engine thrust and longitudinal inertia loads are maxi-
mum just before cutoff. During cutoff, high dynamic loads may result because
of the redistribution of these loads.
A2.3.2 Dynamic and Acoustic Loads
Dynamic loads are loads which are characterized by an intensity that

varies with time. These loads may be analyzed by one of two methods. One
method is to replace the dynamic load by an equivalent static load, and it is the
preferred method for most cases. The other method is a fatigue ,analysis and it
is justified only in those cases where the confidence in the load time-history is
good and the design is felt to be marginal.
Acoustic loads are loads induced by pressure fluctuations resulting

from extraneous disturbances such as engine noise. The effects of these loads
are determined by using an equivalent static pressure load. This equivalent
static pressure acts in both the positive and negative directions, since the pres-
sure fluctuates about a zero mean value. This pressure should be combined with
the design inflight pressure to obtain the total pressure, and should be considered
only in shell or panel stress analysis, not in the analysis of primary or supporting
structure.
A2.3.3 Other Flight Loads
Other flight loads, which are caused by pressure and temperature dif-
ferentials, must be considered in the stress analysis. In addition to the
Section A2
March 1, 1965
Page6
A2. 3. 3 Other Flight Loads (Cont'd)
longitudinal loads presented in the loading diagrams in Section A2.1.1, there is

a longitudinal load resulting from the difference between the ambient external
pressure and the vehicle internal pressure at any time during flight. The ambient
external pressure is a function of the vehicle's altitude only, while the vehicle
internal pressure depends on vehicle trajectory and venting effects. These pres-
sures in combination usually produce positive net internal pressures which either
increases the tensile or decreases the compressive longitudinal load in the
vehicle.
In order to determine the hoop loads at a particular vehicle station, the

difference between the local external pressure and the vehicle internal pressure
must be known at the desired time. The local external pressure is a function of
the angle of attack, dynamic pressure and ambient pressure. The pressure
difference may be positive or negative depending on the circumferential and longi-
tudinal location of the point in question and on the range of values used in the
aerodynamic analysis. This range of values results in a maximum and a mini-
mum design curve.
Temperature magnitudes and temperature differentials caused by aero-

dynamic heating, retro or ullage rocket heating and cryogenic propellants result
in additional vehicle loads which must be considered. The effects of these
temperatures on material properties must also be investigated.
A2.4.0 Launch Pad Loads
The vehicle may be subjected to various loads while it is on the launch

pad. These loads are referred to as launch pad loads and are generally
categorized as follows:
1. Holddown Loads - The vehicle is usually held onto the launch pad by
a holddown mechanism during engine ignition. The loads on the vehicle during
this time are referred to as the holddown loads.
2. Rebound Loads - During engine ignition it may be necessary to shut

down the engines due to some malfunction. The loads on the vehicle as it
settles back onto the launch pad are referred to as rebound loads.
/
Section A2
March l, 1965
Page 7
A2.4.0 Launch Pad Loads (Cont'd)
3. Surface Wind Loads - While the vehicle is freestanding on the launch

pad, i.c. , unsupported except for the holddown mechanism, it is exposed to
surface wind loads. The magnitude of these loads will depend oil the geograph-
ical location and should be specified in the design specifications.
4. Air-blast Loads - The vehicle may be subjected to an air-blast loa, i

from an accidental explosion at an adjacent vehicle launch site. The potential
effect of this air-blast on the vehicle must be determined.
A2.5.0 Static Test Loads
The statictest loads are the loads on the vehicle during static testing
of the vehicle. These loads are summarized as follows:
1. Engine gimbaling loads
2. Longitudinal loads due to various propellant loadings during the

holddown and rebound conditions
3. Wind loads
The dynamic and acoustic loads for static firing tests should also be
investigated since they are higher during static test than in flight, in many cases.
A2.6.0 Transportation and Handling Loads
The transportation ,and handling loads arc the loads which occur during
transportation and handling of the space vehicle. In the dcsigm of the vehicle,
these loads are required primarily for the design of ticdown and handling attach-
ments.
A2.7.0 Recovery Loads
The recovery loads are the loads which occur during the recovery of a
particular structural component or stage of the vehicle. These recovery loads
also include the loads which may occur during descent and impact.
SECTIONA
GENERAL
._J
ASTRONAUTICS STRUCTURES MANUAL
SECTION SUBJECT INDEX
GENERAL
SECTION Ai STRESS AND STRAIN
SECT I ON A2 L(_DS
SECTION A3 COMBINED STRESSES
SECTION A4 METRIC SYSTEM
STRENGTH
SECTION BI JOINTS AND FASTENERS
SECTION B2 LUGS AND SHEAR PINS
SECTION B3 SPRINGS
SECTION B4 BEAMS
SECTION B4.5 PLASTIC BENDING
SECTION B4.6 BEAMS UNDER AXIAL LOADS
SECTION B4.7 LATERAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS
SECTION B4.8 SHEAR BEAMS
SECT ION B5 FRAMES
SECT ION B6 RINGS
SECTION B7 THIN SHELLS
SECT ION B8 TORS ION
SECTI ON B9 PLATES
SECTION BlO HOLES AND CUTOUTS
STAB IL ITY
SECTION Cl COLUMNS
SECT ION C2 PLATES
SECT ION C3 SHELLS
SECTION C4 LOCAL INSTABILITY
A-tlJ.
SECTIONSUBJECTINDEX i
(CONTINUED)
SECTION D THERMAL STRESSES
SECTION E1 FATIGUE
SECTION E2 FRACTURE MECHANICS
SECTION FI COMPOSITES CONCEPTS
SECTION F2 LAMINATED COMPOSITES
SECTION G ROTATING MACHINERY
SECTION H STAT I ST I CAL METHODS
A -iv
SECTION A3
COMBINED STRESSES
-._J
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
A3.0.0 Combined Stress and Stress Ratio .................... i
P
3.1.0 Combined Stresses ............................... 1
3.2.0 Stress Ratios, Interaction Curves, and Factor
of
Safety ..................................... 8
3.2.1 A Theoretical Approach to Interaction ....... I0
3.3.0 Interaction for Beam-Columns .................... 12
3.3.1 Interaction for Eccentrically Loaded and
Crooked Columns ........................... 14
3.4.0 General Interaction Relationships ............... 18
3.5.0 Buckling of Rectangular Flat Plates Under Combined
Loading ....................................... 22
3.6.0 Buckling of Circular Cylinders, Elliptical
Cylinders, and Curved Plates Under Combined
Loading ............................ _ .......... 27
3.7.0 Modified Stress-Strain Curves Due to Combined
Loading Effects ................................ 31
A3-iii
Section A 3
---F
i0 July 1961
Page 1
A 3.0.0 Combined Stresses and Stress Ratio
A 3.1.0 Combined Stresses
When an element of structure is subjected to combined stresses

such as tension, compression and shear, it is oftentimes necessary to
determine resultant maximum stress values and their respective princi-
pal axes.
The solution may be attained through the use of equations or the

graphical construction of Mohr's circle.
Relative Orientation and Equations of Combined Stresses
fx and fy are applied

normal stresses.
fs is applied shear
stress, fy
fmax and fmin are the

resulting principal
normal stresses.
fSmax is the resulting f8

principal shear
stress.
0 is the angle of
L
principal axes.
e
Sign Convention:
_ fs
Tensile stress is
positive.
fy 45 °
Compressive stress is
negative.
Shear stress is positive Fig. A 3. I. 0-I
as shown.
Positive e is counter-
clockwise as shown.
Note:
This convention of signs for shearing stress is adopted for

this work only.
Section A 3
I0 July 1961
Page 2
A 3.1.0 Combined Stresses (Cont'd)
Distributed Stresses on a 45 ° Element
t t'yt
f-"_2 Y
fx
fx
-III-------
fs =._ j- _ " / % fs I
Fig. A 3.1.0-2 Fig. A 3.1.0-3

Pure Tension Equal Biaxlal Tensi_',
L
v
fs
fx
_em,,.
Ffg. A 3.1.0-4
Fig. A 3.1.0-5
Equal Tension & Pure Shear
Compression
Section A3
July 9, 1964
Page 3

/ 2
fx + fy ,_ fx
fy _ + f2s ............ (1)
fmax - 2 + VI 2
/ 2
fx + fy \// fx
............
fmin - 2 - V\ Y _s (2)
2f s
TAN 28 two angles representing
fx - fy the principal
The solution axes of inl
results ....... (3)
fmax and fmin:
f = fx fy + f2 (Disregard Sign) ........... (4)

Sma x 2 s
Constructing Mohr's Circle (for the stress condition shown in

Fig. A 3.1.0-6a)
Stress fs
___ + Shear
f
fx
ht fmin
A
(a) T hand
face
---fn
0
+ Normal
Stress
fx + fy
fmin (c)
(b) fmax
Fig. A 3.1.0-6
Section A 3
I0 July 1961
Page 4
I. Make a sketch of an element for which the normal and shearing

stresses are known and indicate on it the proper sense of these stresses.
2. Set up a rectangular co-ordinate sy_em of axes where the horizontal

axis is the normal stress axis, and the vertical axis is the shearing
stress axis. Directions of positive axes are taken as usual, upward
and to the right.
3. Locate the center of the circle, which is on the horizontal axis at

a distance of (fx + fy)/2 from the origin. Tensile stresses are posi-
tive, compressive stresses are negative.
4. From the right-hand face of the element prepared in step (I), read
off the values for fx and fs and plot the controlling point "A". The
co-ordlnate distances to this point are measured from the origin. The
sign of fx is positive if tensile, negative if compressive; that of fs
is positive if upward, negative if downward.
5. Draw the circle with center found in step (3) through controlling
point "A" found in step (4). The two points of intersection of the
circle with the normal-stress axis give the magnitudes and sign of the
two principal stresses. If an intercept is found to be positive, the
principal stress is tensile, and conversely.
6. To find the direction of the principal stresses, connect point "A"

located in step (4) with the intercepts found in step (5). The princi-
pal stress given by the particular intercept found in step (5) acts
normal to the line connecting this intercept point with the point "A"
found in step (4).
7. The solution of the problem may then be reached by orienting an

element with the sides parallel to the lines found in step (6) and by
indicating the principal stresses on this element.
To determine the maximum or the principal shearing stress and the

associated normal stress:
I. Determine the principal stresses and the planes on which they act
per previous procedure.
2. Prepare a sketch of an element with its corners located on the

principal axes. The diagonals of this element will thus coincide with
the directions of the principal stresses. (See Fig. A 3.1.0-7).
3. The magnitude of the maximum (principal) shearing stresses acting

on mutually perpendicular planes is equal to the radius of the circle.
These shearing stresses act along the faces of the element prepared in
step (2) toward the diagonal, which coincides with the direction of the
algebraically greater normal stress.
Section A 3
i0 July 1961
"7 Page 5
4. The normal stresses acting on all faces of the element are equal to
the average of the principal stresses, considered algebraically. The
F
magnitude and sign of these stresses are also given by the distance from
the origin of the co-ordinate system to the center of Mohr's circle.
fmax + fmin = fx + fy
\ f' =
\ 2 2
fmax " fmin
\
\ fmin
Fig. A 3.1.0-7
Section A 3
I0 July 1961
Page 6
A 3.1.0 Combined Stresses (Cont'd_
Mohr's Circle for Various Loadin$ Conditions
+ fs fx
fx_ _ fs_ g _-
O_fx_ + fn
Fig. A 3.1.0-8 Simple Tension
f._x + fs
_-- fx -_
Fig. A 3.1.0-9 Simple Compression
+ fs
_ fSmax "
" fn 0
+ fn
_y
Fig. A 3.1.0-I0 Biaxlal Tension

Section A 3
I0 July 1961
Page 7
Mohr's Circle for Various Loadin$ Conditions

+ fs
Point
0 + fn
fx_fS = 0
fy
Fig. A 3.1.0-II Equal Blaxlal Tension
" fn
+ fs
fSma x " fs
Fig. A 3.1.0-12
Equal Tension and Compression
" fn 0 + f
n
fnmin_ x =
fs
Fig. A 3.1.0-13
Pure Shear
Section A3
July 9, 1964
Page 8
A 3.2.0 Stress Ratios, Interaction Curves, and Factor of Safety
A means of predicting structural failure under combined loading

without determining principal stresses is known as the interaction
method.
The basis for this method is as follows:
I° The strength under each simple loading condition (tension,

shear, bending, buckling, etc.) is determined by test or theory.
. The combined loading condition is represented by either load or

stress ratios, "R" where
APPLIED LOAD OR STRESS

e __
FAILING LOAD OR STRESS
Failing can mean yield, rupture, buckling, etc.
The effect of one loading R1 on another simultaneous loading Ra is

represented by an equation or interaction
curve involving R1 and R2. The equation
or curve may have been determined by
theory, by test, or by a combination
of both. 1.0
A schematic interaction curve is

shown in Fig. A 3. Z.0-1. Type of
material or size effects will not
influence it. This curve represents
all the possible combinations of Rl R1
and Rz thatwill cause failure. /11 \
Using the curve:
1. Let
locate
the value
point a.
of R1 and R2
0 / 1o1 \
R2 1.0
2. Rx and Rz can increase Fig, A 3.2.0-1
proportionately until failure
occurs at point b.
3. If R1 remains constant, Ra can increase until failure occurs at

point c.
4. If Rz remains constant, R 1 can increase until failure occurs

at point d.
0 The factor of safety for (2) is F. S. = (ob+oa)_or(oh+oe),(or og-of)

and the factor of safety for (3) is F.S. = (fc+ fa).
Section A 3
i0 July 1961
Page 9
A 3.2.0 Stress Ratiosj Interaction Curves_ and Factor of Safety (Cont'd)
In general, the formula for the factor of safety stated analyti-

cally for interaction equations where the exponents are only i or 2
(one term may be missing) is as follows:
FoS,
................... (1)
IR+J_2+_21
where
R' designates the sum of all first-power ratios.
R'' designates the sum of all second-power ratios.

Section A 3
i0 July 1961
Page I0
A 3.2.1 A Theoretical Approach to Interaction
For combining normal and shear stresses, the principal stress

equations are convenient to use.
Let F and F s be defined as the failing stress, such as yielding

or rupture.
Let k=Fs/F; tests of most materials will show this ratio to vary
from 0.50 to 0.75.
Rf = f/F; R s = fs/Fs
Maximum Normal Stress Theory
+ f2
fmax -- 7 + Ref Eq. (I) Sec. A 3. I. 0
s
Divide by F; replace fs by RsFs, f/F by Rf and Fs/F by k.
The resulting equation when fmax = F is
Rf _Rf_ 2 2
(kR s ) ................... (I)
I:T-+ +
A plot of this equation for k = 0.50 and k = 0.70 is shown in

Fig. A 3.2.1-i.
Maximum Shear Stress Theory
fSmax = _(2) 2 + f2 Ref Eq. (4) Sec. A 3.1.0

s
Divide by Fs; replace f by RfF,fs/F s by R s and F/F s by I/k.
The resulting equation when fSmax = Fs is
Rf R2
1 i-f + s .................................
(2)
A plot of this equation for k = 0.50 and k = 0.70 is shown in

Fig. A 3.2.1-1.
Section A 3
i0 July 1961
f--
Page I 1
A 3.2.1 A Theoretical Approach to Interaction (Cont'd)
Conclusion
From the foregoing analysis, only Equation (2) with k = 0.5 is

valid for all values of Rf and Rs. It is conservatively safe to use
the resulting Equation (3) for values of k ranging from 0.5 to 0.7,
since all values within curve (_ must also be within the other curves.
The use of other curves of Fig. A 3.2.1-1 may lead to unconservative
results.
2 2
Rf + Rs = 1 ....................................... (3)
and the Factor of Safety
1
F.S. = ............................. (4)
VR2f +R2s
2 2
For the graphical solution for Factor of Safety, the curve R1 + R2 = 1
of Fig. A 3.4.0-1 may be used.
Max. Shear Stress Theory
k -- .5; Rf 2 + Rs 2 = 1
k = .7; .5Rf 2 + Rs 2 = 1
1.6 O
Max. Normal Stress Theory
k = .5; Rf +_f2 + Rs 2 = 2
Rs 1.=1- \ 4@k = .7; Rf +_/Rf2 + (1.4 Rs )2 : 2

1.
@ Valid
@ Partly Valid
@ Invalid
@ Partly Valid
0
-,,,,1
.2
I
.4 r.O
I
1.2
L
Fig. A 3.2.1-I
Section A 3
I0 July 1961
Page 12
A 3.3.0 Interaction for Beam-Columns
Fig. A 3.3.O-1 Fig. A 3.3.0-2

Sinusoidal Moment Curve Constant Moment Curve
P = applied load.
2 E1
Pe = L2 (Euler load). (Reference Section C 1.0.0).. (I)
_2E I
Po = buckling load = t ......................... (2)
L2
or applicable short column formula. (Reference Section C 1.0.0)
M = maximum applied bending moment as a beam only.
Mo = ultimate bending moment as a beam only. (Reference

Section B 4.0.0)
P
Ra = p-_ (column stress ratio) ......................... (3)
M
u
(beam stress ratio) .......................... (4)
Rb M
o
f =P+k M-c
A I
from which the interaction equation is:
R a + kR b = i ............................................ (5)
Po Et
Let _ = Pe E (plasticity coefficient) ............... (6)
For sinusoidal bending moment curves
i
k=
I - P/Pe
Rb = (i - Ra) (I - _ Ra) ................................ (7)

Section A 3
i0 July 1961
Page 13
A 3.3.0 Interaction for Beam-Columns (cont'd)
Interaction curves for various va]ues of _ are shown in

Fig. A 3.3.1-5.
For constant bending moment curves
1
k=
Interaction curves for various values of _ are shown in Fig.

A 3.3. I-6.
Conclusion
Comparison of Figs. A 3.3.1-5 and A 3.3.1-6 show that significant

changes in shape of the primary bending moment diagram do not greatly
influence the interaction curves. Therefore, Figs. A 3.3.1-5 and
A 3.3.1-6 should be adequate for many types of simple beam columns.
Section A 3
I0 July 1961
Page 14
A3.3.1 Interaction for Eccentrically Loaded and Crooked Columns
M=Pe
LIIIIIIII
i_
e I P
P e
Eccentric Column Crooked Column
Fig. A 3,3.1-1 Fig. A 3.3.1-2
Reference Section A 3.3.0 for beam-column terms
Re = e__ (eccentricity ratio) ........................ (I)

eo
M o
=-- (base eccentricity, which is that required r
e° Po for Po to induce a moment Mo) ... (2)
For a particular e, M would be a linear function of P as shown in

Fig. A 3.3.1-3. A family of such lines could be drawn which would
represent all eccentric columns.
To obtain Fig. A 3.3.1-4 (a nondimensional one-one diagram of the

same form as the interaction curves of Figs. A 3.3.1-5 and A 3.3.1-6),
P, M, and e of Fig. A 3.3.1-3 may be divided by Po, Mo and e o respectively.
e o
P
Ra =_o
M M
Rb = M-_
Fig. A 3.3.1-3 Fig. A 3.3.1-4

Section A 3
i0 July 1961
Page 15
A 3.3.1 Interaction for Eccentrically Loaded and Crooked Columns (Cont'd_
In using Fig. A 3.3.1-6 for eccentric columns and Fig. A 3.3.1-5

for crooked columns the following steps are taken:
I. Determine Po, the buckling load by _ 2Etl/L2 or applicable

short column formula.
2. Calculate Pe = _2EI/L2, the Euler load.
3. Determine Mo, the ultimate bending moment as a beam only

using Section B 4.0.0.
4. Calculate e o = Mo/Po, the base eccentricity.
5. Calculate R e = e/eo.
6. Calculate _ = Po/Pe, the plasticity coefficient.
7. Knowing R e and _ ' Ra = P/Po may be determined from the

appropriate curve. This value of R a corresponds to a Factor
of Safety of 1.0.
8. The ultimate load is Pu = Pox R a.
9. The Factor of Safety for an applied load P is
Pu
F.S.=--
P
Section A 3
i0 July 1961
Page 16
A 3.3.1 Interaction for Eccentrically Loaded and Crooked Columns (Cont'd_
0 0.2
1.0
/
! /
/
I
0.8
=0.0 =Y
Po
0.6 _ = 0.2
o =0.4
Ow
_=0.6
mw
II "q = 0.8
_3 = 1
o_
0.4
0.2
i0.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
R b = M/M °
Interaction Curves for Straight or Crooked Columns

with Sinusoidal Primary Bending Moment and Compression
Fig. A 3.3.1-5
Section A 3
I0 July 1961
Page 17
A3.3.1 Interaction for Eccentrically Loaded and Crooked Columns (Cont'd)
R = e/e
e o
1.0
2
0.8
0.6
O 0
1 8
II
2.0 ,
0.4
0.2
i0.0
'i|l*|lll_
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
R b = M/M °
Interaction Curves for Columns with Constant Primary

Bending Moment and Axial or Eccentric Compression
Fig. A 3.3. i-6

Section A 3
I0 July 1961
Page 18
A3.4.0 General Interaction Relationships
._ co o
V 0 _ o_
0
ml ,_ 0
0 _ _ ,-_ _ 00
o co
_._
o _ = _
[z_oo o_
_J
eq
0
[--i
+
_J
Om +
oq_ ! + i+
.0 !
co o ,._
cN
o
!
o
I
,.-4
II
II II II
II II Jr
o_ 4J .I..I
r-_ c,q _ co
co +
II + Jr II + +
c_ _J
,--4
I I I I !
o o o oo
..4
.<
o
! !
o o "_ "o
"o
"o co co
co _0
o =
co co r_ I= m'_ G 0 o
co "o 0.1 I_ m • m
.,-i I=
._ _ o o ,.c_ _J cJ -,_ ;_ _ o _J.J=
i_1 o r.j _o0oo
.IJ !
I o (2
co co .1_ co c3 _ CO cO
r_ I_ • 4-J
_ =_ ,-_
o 0 _-,_ _ 0
Section A 3
I0 July 1961
_pf
Page 19
A 3.4.0 General Interaction Relationships (Cont'd)
Table A 3.4.0-1 (Cont'd)
NOTE: Care must be exercised in determining whether to check Factor of

Safety for limit or ultimate loads.
(a) For round tubes in compression see Section C.3.0.0.
(b) See Section A 3.2.1 for discussion of range.

Section A 3
i0 July 1961
Page 20 V
1.0
0.9
3+ =I /
0.6 ; :
\\
0_ , - / _
1 5 2
R 1" + R2 = 1 /
0.3 RI + I R2 = I! /_/ _
0.2 I I _//
R1 + R2 = i
0.i
0 "1 I I I
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
R1
Interaction Curves
Fig. A 3.4.0-1
Section A 3
I0 July 1961
Page 21
I I
AN-IO NOTE: Curves not
30 applicable where -
shear nuts are
used. Curves are
Interaction Formula
based on the
R _ 2 \
+R t = 1 results of com-
S \
bined load tests
\ of bolts with
25
\ nuts finger-
tight.
\
\ i
20 \
AN-8
\
O, \
\
, 15
\ \
m
o \ \
\
\ \
• ,AN-6 \
I0 ---_ _
\ \
AN-5 \ \
\ \
5 \ \
_-4 t
\
I
5 I0 15 20 25
Shear Load -Klps
Flg. A 3.4.0-2
AN Steel Bolts (125,000 H.T.) Interaction Curves*

Section A 3
19 July 1961
Page 22
A 3.5.0 Buckling of Rectangular Flat Plates Under Combined Loading
NOTE: See discus=ton in Sec. C 2.1.4
iIIEIH
tttttttttt
Combined Loading
Fig. A 3.5.0-1
Table A 3.5.0-I
THEORY LOADING INTERACTION EQ FOR FACTOR

COMBINATION FIGURE EQUAT ION OF SAFETY
Biaxial Com- For plates that

pression A 3.5.0-2 buckle in sq. Rx+Ry
waves,
R x + Ry = I
Longitudinal For Long
Compression and Plates.
Shear Rc + R 2 = I R c +¢R 2 + 4R 2
s s
Elastic Longitudinal
Compression A 3.5.0-2
and Bending
Bending and
Shear A 3.4.0-I R2 + R2 = I
b s _/R 2 + R 2
s
Bending, Shear, &

Transverse A 3.5.0-3
Compress ion
Longitudinal Com-
pression, Bending A 3.5.0-2
and Transverse
Compression
Inelastic Longitudinal i
2
Compression A 3.4.0-1 R2 +R = I i
v
c s
and Shear _/ 2 R2
Rc + s
Section A 3
19 July 1961
/+--_
Page 23
A 3.5.0 Bucklin_ of Rectangular Flat Plates Under Combined Loadin$

(Cont 'd)
(a) (b)
1 (
l.O_ a/b = O. 8 _--,>,. ,a/b - l. o
0 _
o.__ \
Rx= 0
06
_o_ \ R
¢\ 04
\\\\,,\,\i _.o._
\"\\\\
o_ \ ,\,\ \ o_\\ \\\\,
\\\ 0 2
0.2 \ , 0._
o.9\ \ \
\ \ • _ \ \ \\\\
\ \ o ....
1 _ _\\ \
0.2 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(c)
1.0
alb -- 1.20
0.8 f
Y
0.6
__\_\ \_-o
Rb
0.4 \\ \\\o_ \_,\ : a
\,\\_\
\\ \ _o._, _IIIIIIIIIIIII'
\ \ o..,\
\ \ \\\
\ \\ \\\\
0.2
o::\
0
....
I I
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Ry
Interaction Curves for Simply Supported Flat Rectangular
Plates Under Combined Biaxial-Compression and Longitudinal Bending Loadings
Fig. A 3.5.0-2
Section A 3
i0 July 1961
Page 24
A 3.5.0 Buckling of Rectangular Flat Plates under Combined Loading

(Cont'd)
(d) a/b = 1.60 (e) a/b = 2.0

1.0 l,
_ --- L.... _
O.
o.8"-""'m!..
:°
0.6 -_ r",_z).
2o O.
Rb --_
_- _
. _o ,',' RI
0.4 "-- 0.ii0 _ _ 3.
0.80 \ .-; \\
0.2
0
_
_,,I\
"-0.90_ \\:I
i ' : "
L
'I 3.
(f) a/b = 3.0 (g) a/b = oo

1.0 _._ r I
0 -- I_ _ R__._..L=C
0.8 _
__- "illl
o
8 _ -....,_
_
o
0.6 _'-_
_ : -'_ O'_n<_'_
I_ I --
Rb _ __
-_!_ \ _1 I!1
o.4 _
\o_o\ ' I I!1°
0.2 • II!o Z %.0.90i \ \
\
\
|lit
oo_ -I
1 \ \
) alll
0 "0.2 0.4 0.6 0._ 1.0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0
R R
Y Y
Fig. A 3.5.0-2 (Cont'd)

Section A 3
I0 July 1961
Page 25
Buckling of Rectangular Flat Plates under Combined Loading
I
1.0
0.8
0.6
R
b
0.4
1.0 1
0.2
0 _nallllln
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Rs
Interaction Curves for Simply Supported Long Flat Plates

Under Various Combinations of Shear, Bending, and Transverse Compression
Fig. A 3.5.0-3
Section A 3
I0 July 1961
Page 26
A 3.5.0 Bucklin$ of Rectansular Flat Plates under Combined Loadin$

(Cont'd_
0.5 __
___ 10.8
f
f 0._f 0.6
/ Rs
Rb
0.4
0.2
l"
0
1.0 0.8 0.6 Rc 0.4 0.2 0 _J
o o.''"1" o,.2 0.4 Rs 0.6
0.2
//
0.4
R
c
//
0.6
Rb
0.8
1.0
Interaction Curves (Cont'd)
Fig. A 3.5.0-3
Sect ion A3
February 15, 1976
Page 27
A3.6.0 Buckling of Circular Cylindersj Elliptical Cylindersj and

Curved Plates Under Combined Loadin$
kl
E_
0
2_
I
kl + I +
O
¢x.1
,.-( +
_>
+ cy
+
C_O O
.SZ
_z r-4
_ II
•,_ II
-4© II II II II _ c_
LJ o ,.Q
_ _ +
u_
,x:l + +
I
_J II
T T T . T T
O O 0 o o oi o
c_ 4 4 4 $ 41 4
0
< < <
Z
_ ._ _ ,.,
g_ _o °0'1
_o_ _ _
z
C m
H g_
(1) _)
o o _ o o o o _ _ c _
o_
OLj
Section A 3
i0 July 1961
Page 28
A 3.6.0 Bucklin$ of Circular Cylinders t Elliptical Cylinders t and
Curved Plates under Combined Loadin$ (Cont'd)
[I3
4-I
eq 03
+
¢q
oq 03
o
o
+
+
r/3
,m
.o
o' o
,-4
,-4 II
= II
0 II ¢o#m ,--4
O
%.s II
¢_ 03
,-4 03
! + e4 03
O
+ II II
ZO z +
_0 03 + .U
M .m ¢_1 03 ¢_1 03
v O_ O_
¢q 03
+ + + + +
_CY +
0 o o
,m
I I
.4 ..4
< <
Z
0
m c _ • = = _ C C C
= 0.,4 > •,4 _1 ¢1 C o-,_ o C i1/ C
i0 •,4
_
:3
.,4 _
.,4 _
03 =
03 0
03
=
_l
[-_
'13
•
03
O >
•,4 03
m C m
= 03 _
•,4 _
•
03 _
C
.,4
"o
D
•,4 _
_0
03 C
03 •
03
_
[-_
C >
•,4 m
-o C
_
_
C O
.,4 .,4
-O m
CD
_ o _,_ o o D _.c o o o _ C o _ _ O
=eft1,
"o
I I I - I I
0
•,4 m-,4 m
.,4 _ >_
_rD-O
Section A 3
I0 July 1961
f Page 29
A 3.6.0 Bucklin_ of Circular Cylinders_ Elliptical Cylinders_ and

Curved Plates under Combined Loading (Cont'd)
4-1
=° _
• _ Vl
I_ _1--_
d
4-J o _ _: Ii _ + _ln
V
o
o
°_
I
o
,g
,-.-4 121t_
.,-4
0 _ 4-J
,x:l
N ,._
_ o n_ _
flJ t.J .0_ 0
.,-I
¢.1 .,II ,-4 01
oo
u_l_ _ Vl
o
o _J g II II
e,
O_
Section A 3
I0 July 1961
Page 30
A 3.6.0 Buckling of Circular Cylinders_ Elliptical Cylinders a and

Curved Plates under Combined Loading (Cont'd)
1.0
0.8
RI3 - R 2 = 1
//
0.6
/j/
2
RI• - R 2 = 1
R2
0.4
o2 ....
"|
0
I 11
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

j'
1.0 1.2 1.4
RI
Interaction Curves
Fig. A 3.6.0-1
Section A3
July 9, 1964
Page 31
A3.7.0 Modified Stress-Strain Curves Due to Combined Loading

Effects
An analysis that uses a uniaxial stress-strain curve or material

properties derived from such a curve (analysis of beams, columns,
thermal effects, plastic bending, elastic and piastic buckling, Elastic-
Plastic Energy Theory of Section B4. 5.7, etc) may require a modified
stress-strain curve or properties derived from a modified curve when
combined loading is involved. Loads or stresses in one plane affect
the loads and stresses in other planes due to the Poisson effect. For
example, a tension member fails when the average stress, (P/A),
reaches the ultimate tensile stress Ftu of the material, but a member
resisting combined loading may fail before the maximum principal
stress reaches Ftu (Reference Section A1). When buckling or other
empirical parameters include combined loading effects, modified
stress-strain curves are not required.
Several methods of modifying uniaxial stress-strain curves have

been developed; the method presented here is derived from the Octa-
hedral Shear Stress Theory.
Assumptions & Conditions:
,
fl, f2 and f3, the three principal stresses, are in proportion;
i.e.,
fz = El fl (_)
f3 = K2 fl (2)
K 1 _ K 2
See Fig. A3.7.0-I for direction of principal stresses.

Section A3
July 9, 1964
Page 32
A3.7.0 Modified Stress-Strain Curves Due to Combined
Loadin$ Effect _Cont'd)
3 3
foct
f2- .._
---'-2
Figure A3.7.0-I
Directions of Principal Stresses
2. Prime (') denotes a modified value:
c' = modified strain
V,' = modified modulus of elasticity.
3. In this method, for any principal stress fi' the total strains
and modulus of elasticity are modified to include the effects
of the other principal stresses.
Procedure:
I. Calculate the principal stresses for a given load condition

(Reference Section A3.1.0).
2. Determine the effective uniaxial stress:
= - - (f2 - f3 + (f3 - fl (3)

Section A3
July 9, 1964
Page 33
A3.7.0 Modified Stress-Strain Curves Due to Combined Loading
Effect (Cont'd)
I
and calculate an effective modulus of elasticity, E l, by:
EI =
' (f_ll) El (4)
o Enter the plastic stress-strain diagram for simple tension of

-- f
the material, if available, at the value of fl and determine Esp.

(See Figure (A3.7.0_2b) Otherwise, enter the simple tension
stress-strain curve at fl and determine E' (see Figure

A3.7.0-2a ) by: sp
f
i
E' - (5)
sp _i - _I
O
°
Use this value of E'sp and a value of gp = 0. 5, if not accurately
1
known, find e I from
P
1
(6)
[p - E,sp (fl - gp f2 - _p f3 )
E Esi
__ _- EsPi --
pt. i
I _-- Plastic Secant
I modulus
'¢ip
: _ le ¢I P -
F
(a) Engineering stress-strain curve (b) Plastic stress-strain curve
Figure A3.7.0-2
Section A3
July _, 1,564
Page 34
A3 °7.0 Modified Stress-Strain Curves Due to Combined Loadin 8
Effect (Cont'd_
5. Once E' has been found, c' can be determined for any value
of fl by! le
fl (7)
Ie N_
6. Determine the total effect strain, el, for each value of fl by:
e p (g)
° Repeat all steps until sufficient points are obtained to construct
a plot of fl vs cl (see Figure A3.7.0-3 ) which is the modified

stress-strain curve.
t t t
E
E 1 / El s it
/
/
f
l
Any Point I
e l Ip
t O
¢'1
Figure A3.7.0-3 Modified Stress Strain Diagram Due to Combined

Loading
Section A 3
July 9, 1964
Page 35
Re ferences :
Popov, E. P., Mechanics of Materials, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York,

1954.
Structures Manual, Convair Division of General Dynamics Corporation,

Fort Worth.
SECTIONA4
METRIC SYSTEM
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
A4.0.0 METRIC SYSTEM ..................... 1
P A4. 1.0 Introduction ...................... 1

/
A4.2.0 The International System of Units (SI) ........ 1
A4.2. 1 Advantages of SI ............... 1
A4.3.0 Basic SI Units ..................... 2
A4.4.0 International Symbols for Units, SI ......... 2
A4.4. 1 CGS System ................... 3
A4.4.2 Giorgi System .................. 3
A4.4. 3 Incoherent Units ................. 4
A4. 5.0 Physical Quantities .................. 4
_F 4
A4. 5. 1 Dimensionless Physical Quantities .......
A4.6.0 Other SI Symbols ................... 5
A4.6. 1 Photometric Units ................ 5
5
A4.6.2 Rules for Notation ................
A4.7.0 SI Units on Drawings and in Analyses ........ 7
A4.7. 1 Dual Units .................... 7
/
A4.7.2 Identification of Units .............. 8
A4.7. 3 Tabular Data ................... 8
A4. 7.4 Collateral Use, SI and Non-SI Units ....... 8

f
A4.7. 5 Temperature Scales .............. 9
A4-iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
A4.8.0 Transitional Indices ................. 9
A4.8. 1 Mass vs Force ................. 9
A4.8.2 Examples of Nomenclature ........... 10
A4.9.0 Measurement of Angles ............... 11
A4. 10.0 Preferred Style ................... 11
A4. 10. 1 Volume ..................... 12
A4. 10.2 Time ...................... 12
A4. 10.3 Energy ..................... 12
A4. 10.4 Tempe rature ................. 12
A4. 10.5 Prefixes .................... 14
A4. 11.0 Conversion Factors ................ 14
A4. 11. 1 Basic Linear Unit ............... 15
A4. 11.2 Noncritical Conversion ............ 15
A4. 11.3 Conversion to Other SI Units ......... 15
A4. 12.0 Conversion Tables ................. 15
A4-iv
Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 1
METRIC SYSTEM
Introduction
The purpose of this section is to acquaint the reader with the
metric system and its advantages over the English system. This section
also presents definitions, symbols, and conversion tables.
Units of length, mass, and time are basic to both the English
System and to the Metric System. In the English System these are:
length, the foot; mass, the pound; and time, the second. Note that the
second, based on the sexagesimal system, is common to both the English
System and the Metric System.
A4.2.0 The International System of Units (SI)
The International System of Units, or Syst_me Internationale
(SI), is sometimes referred to, in less precise terms, as the Meter-
Kilogram-Second-Ampere (MKSA) system. The SI, therefore, should be
considered as the definitive metric system, although it is much broader
in scope and purpose than any previous system.
A4.2. 1 Advantages of SI
The use of SI has significant advantages in all phases of research
and development work relating to space technology. For instance, the use
of SI will tend to eliminate wasted time and costly errors in computations
now involving varied terms derived from a multiplicity of sources. The
"-- f
Section A4
1 February 1970
v _
Page 2
utilization of a uniform system of measurement such as the SI thus simpli-
fies the exchange of in-house data among NASA centers and installations
and will do so, eventually, among associated contractors and space-ori-
ented organizations throughout the world.
A4.3.0 Basic SI Units
The name, International System of Units, has been recommended
by the ConfErence G_n_rale des Poids et Mesures in 1960 for the following
basic units :
meter m ampere A
kilogram kg degree Kelvin OK
second s candela cd
In addition, it was also determined that the amount of substance
would be treated as a basic quantity. The recommended basic unit is the
mole, symbol: tool. The mole (tool), a unit of quantity in chemistry, is
defined as the amount of a substance in grams {gram mole; gram molec-
ular weight; or pound mole, or pound molecular weight) which corresponds
to the sum of the atomic weights of all the atoms constituting the molecule.
These atomic weights are based upon Carbon 1Z.
A4.4.0 International Symbols for Units, SI
In order that SI may be in fact an international system, it was
necessary to reach agreement on the symbols, names, and abbreviations.

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 3
_F
A4.4. 1 CGS System
In the field of mechanics, the following units of this system
have special names and symbols which have been approved by the General
Conference on Weights and Measures:
1, b, h centimeter cm
t second s
m gram g
f, v hertz ( = s- 1) Hz
F dyne ( = g. cm/s 2) dyn
E,U,W,A erg (= g. cm2/s 2) erg
p microbar ( = dyn/cm2) _t bar
poise (= dyn. s/cm 2) p
A4.4.2 Giorgi System
The MKSA system or m-kg-s-A system is a coherent system
of units for mechanics, electricity, and magnetism, based on four basic
quantities : length, mass, time, and electric current intensity.
meter m
kilogram kg
second S
ampere A
The system based on these four units was given the name
"Giorgi system" by the International Electrotechnical Committee in 1958.
The mechanical system, which is based on the first three units only, has
the name MKS system.
The MKSA system of units forms a coherent system of units in
the four-dimensional system of equations previously mentioned, and is
most commonly used together with these equations.

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 4
A4.4.3 Incoherent Units
1 _ngstr_m A
barn ( = 10-Z4 cruZ) b
V liter (= 1 dm 3) 1
t, T minute min
t, T hour h
t, T day d
t, T year a
p atmos pher e atm
p kilowatt- hour kWh
Q . calorie cal
Q kilocalorie kcal
E, Q electronvolt eV
m ton ( = 1000kg) t
Ma, m (unified) atomic mass unit u
p bar (= 10 6 dyn/cm Z)
(= 10 5 N/m z) bar
A4.5.0 Physical Quantities
The symbol for a physical quantity (French: 'grandeur physique';
German: 'physikalische Grosse'; English, sometimes: 'phys ical magnitude ')
is equivalent to the product of the numerical value (or the measure, a pure
number) and a unit, i.e., physical quantity = numerical value x unit.
A4.5. 1 Dimensionless Physical Quantities
For dimensionless physical quantities the unit often has no name
or symbol and is not explicitly indicated.
Examples: E = 200 erg nqu = 1.55
F = 27 N v = 3 x 108 s-1
Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 5
r"
A4.6.0 Other SI Symbols
The following units of the MKSA system have special names
and symbols which have been approved by the General Conference on
Weights and Measures:
I ampere A
Q coulomb ( = A. s) C
C farad ( = C/V) F
L henry (= Vs/A) H
E joule ( =kg. mZ/s2) J
m kilogram kg
1, b, h meter m
F newton ( =kg. m/s2) N
R ohm (= V/A)
B tesla (= Wb/m2) T
V volt (= W/A) V
P watt (= J/s) W
$ weber (= V. s) Wb
A4.6. 1 Photometric Units
In the field of photometry an additional basic unit is introduced
corresponding to the basic quantity, luminous intensity. This unit is the
candela, symbol: cd. Special names for units in this field are:
I candela (candle) cd
lumen lm
E lux ( = lm / m2) lx
A4.6.2 Rules for Notation
a. Symbols for units of physical quantities 8hall be printed in
Roman upright type.
b. Symbols for units shall not contain a final full stop (a
period), and shall remain unaltered in the plural, e.g.: 7cm, not 7 cms.
Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 6
Co Symbols for units shall be printed in lower case Roman
upright type. However, the symbol for a unit derived from a proper name
shall start with a capital Roman letter, e.g.: m (meter); A (ampere); Wb
(weber); Hz (hertz).
d. The following prefixes shall be used to indicate decimal
fractions or multiples of a unit.
Prefix Equiv S)rmbol
deci (10 -1) d
centi (10 -2 ) c
milli (10- 3) m
micro (i0-6) v
nano (10- 9) n
pico (i0 -IZ) p
feint. (10 -15 ) f
atto (10"18) a
deka (I01) da
hecto (10 z) h
kilo (10 3 ) k
mega (106 ) M
giga (109 ) G
tera (1012) T
e. The use of double prefixes shall be avoided when single
prefixes are available.

Section A4
I February 1970
Page 7
Not: m_ts, but: ns (nanosecond)
Not: kMW, but: GW (gigawatt)
Not: _ F, but: pF (picofarad)
f.
When a prefix symbol is placed before a unit symbol, the
combination shall be considered as a new symbol, which can be squared
or cubed without using brackets.
Examples: cm 2, mA 2, _s 2
A numerical prefix shall never be used before a unit symbol which is
squared, thus, crn2 is never written, and never means, 0.01 (m 2) but
always means (0.01m) 2
go No periods or hyphens shall be used with SI abbreviations,
symbols, or prefixes. Prefixes are joined directly to units, as in the
following example s :
MN mN
kV kHz
MV mA
GHz cm
A4.7.0 SI Units on DrawinGs and in Analyses
The following paragraphs describe general techniques for using
SI units on drawings and in analyses.
A4.7. 1 Dual Units
When SI units are specified for use on a drawing or in an analysis,
the non-SI units of measure shall be used parenthetically to facilitate

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 8
comprehension .of the drawing or analysis. Non-SI units shall never be
omitted on the assumption that users are familiar with the SI units.
A4.7. Z Identification of Units
Basic units of measure used frequently on a drawing shall be
identified by a note on the drawing to avoid repetition of unit names through-
out the drawing. For example,
NOTE: ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN mm (in.).
A4.7. 3 Tabular Data
To provide maximum clarity of presentation, SI and non-SI units
shall be placed in separate columns or in separate tables if the need is
indicated.
A4.7.4 Collateral Use, SI and Non-SI Units
Place the metric units first, followed immediately by the equiv-
alents in parentheses. Intables, other formats may be desirable, such
as one unit in a row or column, followed by the other unit in another row
or column. In some complex tables and drawings it may be desirable to
present the equivalent units in separate tables and drawings. Figure A4-1
shows a drawing with both units given.

Section A4
1 February 1970
"--r_ Page 9
6 MM 4.236 IN)
/ -
M' $ 300 MM( ,,.8
IN)
FRAME. UPRIGHT (BRASS) 2 REQD
MM 4.236 IN.)DRILL-(2)
OMM C394 IN) SO ROD
FRAME BASE iBRA_,S)- ---I

_
t'-'- 5- 0.51 MF (2)
,_.-6.35MM(.251N) DIA ROD
--.. ,SMMC.S
,N..)--,.i
, ..j.--
300 MMC 11.8 IN,) -,
ROD (ALUMINUM') I REQD
Figure A4-1. Collateral Us_ of Units
A4. 7. 5 Temperature Scales
Either the Kelvin or the Celsius temperature scale may be used
as the SI unit, with the Fahrenheit scale being optional as a parenthetical
non- SI unit.
A4.8.0 Transitional Indices
The following explanations indicate nomenclatures, methods,
and preferred styles which are to be used during the transition from non-
SI systems to SI.
A4.8. 1 Mass vs Force
The term "mass" (and not weight) shall be used to specify the
Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 10
quantity of matter contained in material objects.
The term "weight" shall be defined as the gravitational force
acting on a material object at a specified location. Accordingly, the
statement of the weight of an object should be accompanied by a statement
of the corresponding location of the object or by a statement of the grav-
itational acceleration in m/s2 at the location where the object was weighed
or is assumed to be located.
The pound mass (Ibm), defined as being exactly 0. 453 592 37
kilogram by the U. S. National Bureau of Standards; the pound force (lbf),
defined as being exactly 4.448 221 615 260 5 newtons by the NBS; and the
pound thrust, defined as being exactly 4.448 221 615 260 5 newtons, shall
be abandoned at the earliest practicable date.
During the transition period to SI units, the pound mass shall be
abbreviated Ibm, the pound force shall be abbreviated lbf, and the pound
thrust shall be abbreviated to lbf.
The kilogram (kg), the SI unit of mass, shall not be used as a
unit of force, weight, or thrust.
A4.8.2 Examples of Nomenclature
The dry mass of the S-I (first) stage of the Saturn I launch
vehicle is 48 600 kg (107 139 lbm).
The weight of a man of 70.0 kg (154 Ibm) mass, standing on the

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page il
surface of the moon where the gravitational acceleration is 1.62 m/s 2, is
I13 newtons (25.4 Ibf).
The thrust of the S-I (first) stage of the Saturn I launch vehicle
is 6. 689 MN (i 504 000 Ibf).
The preferred unit of force, weight, and thrust is the newton.
A4.9.0 Measurement of Angles
A circle cannot be divided into a rational number of radians
(tad), there being 2_ radians (approximately 6. 283 tad) in a circle. How-
ever, the radian, arc degree, arc minute, and arc second may all be used
for the measurement of plane angles. Decimal multiples of the degree or
radian are preferred.
The "grad" is a unit of angular measure wherein 100 grads con-
stitute a right angle. This is not an SI unit, but, since it is based on dec-
ades it will be found useful for many purposes.
A4. 10.0 Preferred Style
In order to ensure maximum accuracy, the following style shall
be adhered to wherever practicable in engineering analysis documentation.
a. Spell out a term in full when first used, followed by the
related symbol in parentheses. Thereafter, use the related symbol for
measurement applications.
b. In general, state the measurement in terms of the system

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 12
of units used, followed by the applicable translated value in parentheses:
for example, 48 000 kg (107 000 lbm), and 25.4 lbf (113 newtons).
c. In using numerical values involving more than three digits,
place a space between each group of three digits. Such spaces shall be
used to the right and left of decimal points. Commas are not used:
126 306. 204 359 60.
A4. 10.1 Volume
The cubic meter (m3) should be used in preference to the liter.
The liter is now defined as exactly 1 dm 3.
A4. 10.2 Time
The preferred unit of time associated with time rates is the v"
second.
A4.10.3 Energy
The preferred unit of energy (mechanical, electrical, thermal,
and all other forms) is the joule (J). The Btu, calorie, and kilocalorie,
although listed in this document for information, are poorly defined and
should be avoided.
A4. 10.4 Temperature
Either the Thermodynamic Kelvin Temperature Scale, the
International Practical Kelvin Temperature Scale, or the International
Practical Celsius Temperature Scale may be used. Equivalent temper-
atures in degrees Rankine, Fahrenheit, etc. , may be included in

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 13
-W"
parentheses. Note that temperature differences expressed in Kelvin
degrees (OK) and in Celsius degrees (°Cels) are numerically equal and
that degrees Celsius and degrees Centigrade are identical. See Temper-
ature Nomograph, Figure A4-2, and Table A4-15.
The International Practical Kelvin Temperature Scale of 1960,
and the International Practical Celsius Temperature Scale of 1960 are
defined by a set of interpolation equations based on the reference temper-
atures in Table A4-1.
Table A4-1. Reference Temperatures,

International Practical Temperature Scale
oK oC
Temperature of
Oxygen: liquid-gas equilibrium 90. 18 -182.97
Water: solid-liquid equilibrium 273. 15 0.00
Water: solid-liquid-gas equilibrium 273. 16 0.01
Water: liquid-gas equilibrium 373. 15 100.00
Zinc: solid-liquid equilibrium 692. 655 419. 505
Sulphur: liquid-gas equilibrium 717. 75 444.6
Silver: solid-liquid equilibrium 1233.95 960.8
Gold: solid-liquid equilibrium 1336. 15 1063.0

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 14
A4. 10.5 Prefixes
"Coherent units '_ are units that can be used directly in equations
without the application of numerical coefficients. The exclusive use of
coherent units over the entire range of numerical values of physical quan-
tities is highly desirable. As previously stated, the SI is the only complete
system of coherent units available to meet the needs of all branches of
science and technology. The full range of numerical values of physical
quantities can be represented rationally and conveniently by utilizing SI
units.
To facilitate this, either a power of ten is employed, or an
approved prefix representing a power of ten is placed before an SI unit
(or before any combination of SI units).
Only previously listed prefixes shall be used to indicate decimal
fractions or multiples of an SI unit.
A4. 11.0 Conversion Factors
Measurements in units other than those of the SI are preferably
converted by the application of approved numerical conversion factors.
The number of decimal places should be governed by the purpose
to which the information is to be put and by the degree of accuracy attain-
able with applicable measuring instruments and methods. These conver-
sion factors have been tabulated according to physical quantity.

Section A4
l February 1970
Page 15
A4. II. I Basic Linear Unit
The basic unit of measurement is the meter. Prefixes shall be
used in accordance with A4.6.2(d). Once a prefix is chosen, no other
prefix shall be used on a drawing or in an analysis. The inch (in.) is
defined as exactly 2.54 cm.
A4. 11.2 Noncritical Conversion
If dimensions are not critical, non-SI data converted to mm
shall be rounded to convenient numbers and the word "nominal" appended
in parentheses.
A4. 11. 3 Conversion to Other SI Units
Conversion to SI units other than mm shall follow the rules as
herein set forth.
A4. 12.0 Conversion Tables
The conversion factors given in the following tables will facil-
itate the conversion of most commonly used units of the English system
to units of the Metric System (or conversion of non-SI units to SI units).

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 16
Table A4-2. Acceleration
To Convert To Symbol Multiply by
foot/second squared meter/second squared m/s z *3.048 x I0 "l
galileo (gal) meter/second squared m/s$ *I. 000 x I0 "z
inch/second squared meter/second squared m/s z *2.54 x I0 -z
Table A4-3. Area
sq foot sq meter m z *9. 290 304 x 10 "z
sq inch sq meter mZ *6. 451 6 x 10 .4
circular rail sq meter m z 5. 067 074 8 x 10 "1_
Table A4-4. Density
gram/cu centimeter kilogram/cu meter kg/m 3 *1.00 x I_
pound mass/cu inch kiiogram/cu meter kg/m 3 2.767 990 5 x I¢
pound mass/cu foot kilogram/cu meter kg/m 3 1.601 846 3 x I0 l
slug/cu foot kilogram/cu meter kg/m 3 5.153 79 x I0 z
Table A4-5. Electrical
ampere (Int of 1948) ampere A 9. 998 35 x I0 "I
ampere hour coulomb C = A" s ,'3.60 x I03
coulomb (Int of 1948) coulomb C = A" s 9. 998 35 x i0 "l
faraday (physical) coulomb C = A.s 9. 652 19 x 104
farad (Int of 1948) farad F = A" s/V 9. 995 05 x 10 "l
henry (Int of 1948) henry H = V-s/A 1.000 495
ohm (Int of 1948) ohm _= V/A 1.000 495
gamma tesla T = Wb/m l * 1.00 x 10-9
*Exact, as defined by the National Bureau of Standards.

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 17
Table A4-5. Electrical (Cont'd)
gauss tesla T = Wb/m z _'1.00 x 10 .4
volt (Int of 1948) volt V = W/A 1.000 330
maxwell weber Wb = V" 8 *1.00 x 10 "a

[
Table A4-6. Energy
Btu (mean) joule J=N. m i. 055 87 x I0 _
calorie {mean) joule J=N. m 4. 190 02
calorie (thermochemical) joule J=N. m *4. 184
electron volt joule J=N.m 1,602 10 x 10 "19
erg joule J=N.m *1.00 x 10 "?
foot pound force joule J=N. m 1. 355 817 9
foot poundal joule J=N.m 4.214 011 0 x l0 "z
joule {Int of 1948) joule 5=N. m I. 000 165
kilowatt hour (Int of 1948) joule J=N.m 3. 600 59 x l06
ton {nuclear equiv of TNT) joule J=N. m 4.20 x 109
watt hour joule J=N. m "3, 60 x l0:
Table A4-7. Energy/Area: Time
*$Btu/sq foot.sec watt/sq meter W/m 2 I. 134 893 1 x 104
$*Btu/sq foot.rain watt/aq meter W/m z 1.891 488 5 x I0 z
*$Btu/sq inch.sec watt/sq meter W/m 2 1.634 246 2 x 106
erg/sq centimeter.sec watt/sq meter W/m 2 *i.00 x 10 .3
watt/sq centimeter watt/sq meter W/mZ "I. 00 x 10 4
**{the rm ochemical )
Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 18
Table A4-8. Force
dyne newton N=kg. m/sZ *1.00 x 10 -5
kilogram force (kgf} newton N=kg. m/p z *9. 806 65
pound force (avoirdupois) newton N=kg. m/s z *4. 448 221 615 260 5
ounce force (avoirdupois) newton N=kg.m/s z 2.780 138 5 x 10 "l
Table A4-9. Length
angstrom meter m *1.00 x 10 "1°
astronomical unit meter m 1. 495 x 10 Ix
foot meter m *3. 048 x 10 "i
foot (U. S. survey) meter m '1200/3937
foot (U. S. survey) meter m 3. 048 006 096 x I0 "|
inch meter m "2. 54 x 10 -z
light year meter m 9. 460 55 x 10 ,s
meter wavelengths Kr 86 m *1. 650 763 73x 106
micron meter m *1.00 x 10 -6
rail meter m *2. 54 x 10 -5
mile (U. S. statute) meter m *1.609 344 x 10 3
yard meter m *9. 144 x 10 "l
Table A4-10. Mass
gram kilogram kg *I. O0 x I0 "3
kilogram force, secZ/meter (mass) kilogram kg *9. 806 65
kilogram mass kilogram kg *I. O0
pound mass (avoirdupois) kilogram kg *4. 535 923 7 x 10 "l

Section _\4
1 February 1970
Page 19
Table A4-10. Mass (Cont'd)
To Convert To Symbol Multiply b/
ounce mass {avoirdupois) kilogram kg _;°2.

834 952 3i2 5 x lO -z
ounce mass {troy or apothecary) kilogram kg *3. II0 347 68 x I0 -z
pound mass {troy or apothecary) kilogram kg *3.732 417 216 x I0 "j
slug kilogram kg 1.459 390 29 x 10 l
ton {short, 2000 pound) kilogram kg ::'9. 071 847 4 x 10 z
Table A4-11. Miscellaneous
degree {angle) radian rad 1. 745 329 251 994 3 x [0-
minute {angle) radian rad 2. 908 882 086 66 x 10 -4
second {angle) radian rad 4. 848 136 811 x 10 -6
cu foot/second cu meter/second m 3 /s :'.:2.831 684 659 2 x 10 -z
cu foot/minute cu meter/second m3/s 4. 719 474 4 x 10 -4
_:"Btu/pound mass °F joule/kilogram°C J/kg°C *4. 184 x 103
l:_::Kilocalorie/kg °C joule/kilogram°C ff/kg°C *4. 184 x 10 3
3
,_*Btu/pound mass joule/kilogram J/kg 2. 324 444 4 x 10
Rad (radiation dose absorbed) joule/kilogram J/kg ::,1. O0 x 10 -z
roentgen coulomb/kilogram A. s/kg *2. 579 76 x 10-4
curie disintegration/second l/s *3. 70 x 10 l°
Table A4-1Z. Power
**Btu/second watt W= J/s 1. 054 350 264 488 888 x 10 t
**Btu/minute watt W= J/s 1.757 250 4 x 10t
**calorie/second watt W= J/s *4. 184
':*calorie/minute watt W= J/s 6.973 333 3 x 10 -z
foot pound force/second watt W= J/s 1.355 817 9
:_'Exact, as defined by the National Bureau of Standards

::_':: (thernlochemical)
Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 20
Table A4-12. Power (Cont'd)
foot pound force/minute watt _'= 5/s 2. 259 696 6 x 10 "z
foot pound force/hour watt W= J/s 3. 766 161 0 x 10 -4
horsepower (550 ft Ib force/sec) watt W= 5/s 7.456 998 7 x l0 z
horsepower (electric) watt W= J/s *7.46 x 10 z
_;_kilocalorie/sec watt W= 5/s *4. 184 x 103
_kilocalorie/min watt W = 3/s 6. 973 333 3 x 101
watt (Int of 1948) watt W= J/s 1. 000 165
Table A4-13. Pressure
atmosphere newton/sqmeter N/m z *1.013 25 x 105
centimeter of mercury (0*C) newton/sq meter N/m z I. 333 22 x 103
centimeter of water (4°C) newton/sq meter N/m z 9. 806 38 x I01
dyne / sq centimeter newton/sq meter N/m z :',,I.00x I0 =|
foot of water (39.2°F) newton/sq meter N/m z 2. 988 98 x 103
inch of mercury (60°F) newton/sq meter N/m z 3. 376 85 x 103
inch of water (600F) newton/sq meter N/m z 2. 488 4 x I0 z
kilogram force/eq centimeter newton/sq meter, N/m| *9. 806 65 x 104
kilogram force/sq meter nev, ton/sq meter N/m z *9. 806 65
pound force/sq inch (psi) newton/sq meter N/mZ 6. 894 757 2 x 103
pound force/sq foot newton/sq meter N/m z 4. 788 025 8 x 101
millimeter of mercury (0°c) newton/sq meter N/m z 1.333 224 x 10 z
torr (O'C) newton/sq meter N/m 2 1.333 22 x 10 z
*Exact, as defined by the National Bureau of Standards
**( the rmochemical)

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 21
Table A4- 14. Speed
foot/second meter/second m/s '::3. 048 x 10"i
foot/minute meter/second m/s :_5. 08 x 10 -3
foot/hour meter/second m/s 8.466 666 6 x 10 "s
inch/second meter/second m/s :,_2. 54 x 10 -z
kilometer /hour meter/second m/s 2.777 777 8 x 10 -l
mile/second (U.S. statute) meter/second m/s ;:'1.609 344 x 103
mile/minute (U.S. statute) meter/second m/s '_2.682 24 x 101
mile/hour (U. S. statute) meter/second m/s :,_4. 470 4 x 10 "t
Table A4-15. Temperature
To Convert Symbol To Symbol Computation
*Celsius *Cels. *Centigrade °C *Cels. = *C
*Fahrenheit *F *Centigrade °C *C = 5/9 (*F-32)
°Rankine °R *Centigrade °C °C = 5/9 (*R-491. 69)
*Reaumur *Re °Centigrade *C °C = 5/4 *Re
*Fahrenheit *F *Celsius *Cels. *Cels. = 5/9 (0F-32)
*Fahrenheit °F *Reaumur *Re *Re = 4/9 (*F-32)
*Fahrenheit *F *Rankine °R *R = *F + 459. 69
*Rankine °R *Celsius °Cels. *Cels.= 5/9 (0R-491. 69)
*Rankine *R *Reaumur *Re *Re = 4/9 (*R-491, 69)
*Reaumur *Re *Celsius *Cels. *Cels. = 5/4 *Re
*Centigrade *C *Kelvin *K *K = *C + 273. 16
Table A4-16. Thermal Conductivity
Btu. inch/sq foot. second. *F joule/meter, second-*Kelvin J/m- s. °K 5. 188 731 5 x 10 z

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 22
m g_ "
N
N g
N "_.... °
In "
N g I1
I'- S In
N
,s:l
,i,l,l,l,i,l,l,l,i, :ii'li'lililiili'lilllllllllllllilllll,liiillilillllll
bg
0
0
w_
_o
,,,,I,,,,I,,,,I,,, X,,,,I,,,,J,,,,I,,,,
0 I
,,,, ,,li Ji,J ,,,ll,,,,I,,,,I,,,
ii)
0
I l)
, T T T _ ? !
,,,,I,,,,1,,,,1,,,, lillllililililliliiliilililliliiiililiililliliililili
C I
0 il
o o o o o g o g
,i,l,i,l,,l,I
N
, I, Ill iiii
Ill ill ill ill iT7iii '
Ill Ill Ill ill ill ill
0
0 0 _ _
s _1'
!! s
N
s
--
,i,l,i,l,i,l,i,l,i ! ,l,l,l,l,l,l,l,l,i,
ill W
li: i.
h 0
Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 23
Table A4- 17. Time
To Convert To Multiply by
day (mean solar) second (mean solar) *8.64 x 104
day {sidereal) second (mean solar) 8. 616 409 0 x 104
hour (mean solar) second (mean solar) *3. 60 x 103
hour {sidereal) second (mean solar) 3. 590 170 4 x 103
minute (mean solar) second {mean solar) *6. 00 x 10'
minute (sidereal) second {mean solar) 5.983 617 4x 10
month {mean calendar) second {mean solar) "2. 628 x 106
second (mean solar) second {ephemeris) Use equation of time
second (sidereal) second (mean solar) 9. 972 695 7 x 10 -I
tropical year 1900,
Jan, day 0, hour 12 second (ephemeris) *3. 155 692 597 47 x IO T
year {calendar) second (mean solar) *3. 153 6 x IO T
year {sidereal) second (mean solar) 3. 155 815 0 x IO T
?
year (tropical) second (mean solar) 3. 155 692 6 x iO
Table A4-18. Viscosity
-2
8q foot/second sq meter/second m'/s *9. 290 304 x 10
centipoise newton, second/sq meter N's/m z ':'1. 00 x 10 "J
pound mass/foot, second newton, second/sq meter N. s/m z 1. 488 163 9
pound force' second/sq foot newton, second/sq meter N. s/mZ 4. 788 025 8 x 10*
poise newton, second/sq meter N. s/m z ':'1. 00 x 10"*
pounds1, second/sq foot newton, second/sq meter N. s/mZ 1. 488 163 9
slug/foot, second newton, second/sq meter N. s/mZ 4, 788 025 8 x I0 i
:_ Exact, as defined by the National Bureau of Standards.

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 24
TableA4-19.Volume
fluid ounce (U.S,) cu meter m 3 *2. 957 352 956 25 x 10 -s
cu foot cu meter m 3 "2.831 684 659 2 x 10 -z
*3. 785 411 784 x 10 "3

gallon (U. S. liquid) cu meter m 3
cu inch cu meter m 3 *1.638 706 4 x 10 "s
liter cu meter m 3 1,000 000 x 10 -3
pint (U, S. liquid) cu meter m 3 .4,731 764 73 x I0 -4
quart (U.S. liquid) cu meter m 3 9. 463 529 5 x 10 -4
ton (register) cu meter m3 *2.831 684 659 2
Table A4-20. Alphabetical Listing of Conversion Factors
abampere ampere A *1.00 x 10 l
abcoulomb coulomb C= A- s * 1. 00 x 10 l
abfarad farad F= A. s/V *l. 00 x 10 #
abhenry henry H= V. s/A *1,00 x 10 -9
abmho mho * I. 00 x 109
abohm ohm f_ = V/A *I.00 x I0 -_
abvolt volt V= W/A *I.00 x I0 -s
acre sq meter m z *4. 046 856 422 4 x 10 s
ampere {Int of 1948) ampere A 9. 998 35 x 10 "i
angstrom meter m *1. 00 x 10 -l°
are sq meter m z *1.00 x 10 z
astronomical unit meter m 1.495 98 x 10 It
atmosphere newton/sq meter N/mZ *1.013 25 x 105
bar newton/sq meter N/m z *1.00 x l0 s
barn sq meter m z *I.00 x I0 "z8
* Exact, as defined by the National Bureau of Standards.

Section A4
i February 1970
Page 25
f_
Table A4-Z0. Alphabetical Listing of Conversion Factors (Cont'd)
barye newton/sq meter N/m z ::.'I.00 x I0- L
Btu (Int Steam Table) joule 3= N. m I. 055 04 x 103
3
Btu (mean) joule J= N. m 1. 055 87 x I0
Btu (thermochemical) joule J= N. m I. 054 350 264 488 888 x I03
Btu (39°F) joule J= N. m I. 059 67 x 103
3
Btu (60°F) joule J= N. m I. 054 68 x 10
bushel (U.S.) cu meter m 3 ,x3.523 907 016 688 x I0 "z
cable meter m "2. 194 56 x I0 z
caliber meter m ,._2. 54 x 10 -4
calorie (Int Steam Table) joule J= N. m 4. 186 8
calorie (mean) joule 3= N. m 4. 190 02
calorie (thermochemical) joule J= N, m _4. 184
calorie (15°C) joule J= N.m 4. 185 80
calorie (20°C) joule J= N. m 4. 181 90
calorie (kilogram, Int Steam Table) joule I= N.m 4. 186 8 x I03
calorie (kilogram, mean) joule J= N.m 4. 190 02 x 103
calorie (kilogram, thermochemical) joule I= N.m _._4. 184 x 103
carat (metric) kilogram kg _2. 00 x 10 -4
*Celsius (temperature) *Kelvin *K *K= °C + 273. 16
centimeter of mercury (0*C) newton/sq meter N/m z 1. 333 22 x 103
centimeter of water (4°C) newton/sq meter N/mZ 9. 806 38 x 101
1
chain (surveyor or gunter) meter m _:,2.011 68 x I0
chain (engineer or ramden) meter m _:¢3.

048 x i0 l
circular mil sq meter mZ 5. 067 074 8 x I0 -l°
cord cu meter m 3 3.624 556 3
-- *Exact, as defined by the National Bureau of Standards.

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 26
Table A4-20. Alphabetical Listing of Conversion Factors (Cont'd)
-!
coulomb (Int of 1948) coulomb C= A" s 9- 998 35 x I0
cubit meter m _4.57Z x I0 "l
cup cu meter m _ _2. 365 882 365 x 10 -4
curie disintegration/second I/s *3.70 x 1010
day (mean solar) second (mean solar) *8.64 x 104
day (sidereal) second (mean solar) 8. 616 409 0 x 104
degree (angle) radian rad 1. 745 329 251 994 3 x I0 _z
denier (International) kilogram/meter kg/m *I.00 x I0 "7
dram (avoirdupois) kilogram kg :sl.771 845 195 312 5 x I0 "3
dram (troy or apothecary) kilogram kg _3. 887 934 6 x 10 -3
dram (U.S. fluid) cumeter m3 *3. 696 691 195 312 5 x l0 "_
dyne newton N-- kg.m/s z _I.00 x I0 "5
electron volt joule J= N.m 1.602 I0 x I0 "19
erg joule J= N. m ,',_

I. 00 x l0 -7
"Fahrenheit (temperature) "Celsius °C °C = 5/9 (°F - 32)
°Fahrenheit (temperature) °Kelvin °K °K = 5/9 (°F + 459, 69)
farad (Int of 1948) farad F= A.s/V 9. 995 05 x I0 "I
faraday (based on carbon 12) coulomb C= A, s 9. 648 70 x 104
faraday (chemical) coulomb C= A. s 9. 649 57 x 104
faraday (physical) coulomb C-- A.s 9. 652 19 x 104
fathom meter m _ I. 828 8
-15
0 ¢" rmi meter m _I. 00 x I0
j fluid ounce (U. S. ) cu meter m 3 *2. 957 352 956 25 x I0 -5
I foot meter m '_3.048 x I0 "i
foot (U. S. survey) meter m _ 1200/3937

Section A4
l February 1970
Page 27
v
-!
foot (U.S. survey) meter m 3. 048 006 096 x 10
foot of water (39. Z°F) newton/sq meter N/mZ 2. 988 98 x 10 3
foot-candle lumen/sq meter lm/m z I. 076 391 0 x l0 |
furlong meter m _:_2.

011 68 x I0 z
gal meter/second squared m/sZ *I. 00 x I0 -z
gallon (British) cu meter m3 4. 546 087 x 10 -s
gallon (U.S. dry) cu meter mS _4. 404 883 770 86 x 10 -s
gallon (U.S. liquid) cu meter m s _3. 785 411 784 x 10 -s
gamma tesla T= Wb/m z ::_i.

00 x i0 "9
gauss tesla T= Wb/rn z *i. 00 x I0 "4
gilbert ampere turn 7. 957 747 2 x i0 -|
gill (British) cu meter m s I. 420 652 x 10 -4
gill (U.S.) cu meter m s I. 182 941 2 x 10 -4
grad degree (angular) 1° ::_9.00 x 10 "!
grad radian rad I. 570 796 3 x i0 "z
grain kilogram kg :,_6. 479 891 x 10 -5
-s
gram kilogram kg * 1. 00 x 10
hand meter m '_1. 016 x 10 "!
hectare sq meter mZ ',_ 1.00 x 104
henry (Int of 1948) henry H= V. s/A 1. 000 495
hogshead (U.S.) eu meter mS *2. 384 809 423 92 x 10 1
horsepo_ver (550 foot Ibf/second) watt W = J/s 7. 456 998 7 x 10'
horsepower (boiler) watt W= J/s 9. 809 50 x 10 s
horsepower (electric) watt W = J/s *7. 46 x I0 z
horsepower (metric) watt W = .I/s 7. 354 99 x 102
_Exact, as defined by the National Bureau of Standards.

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 28
Table ,6,4-20. Alphabetical Listing of Conversion Factors (Cont'd)
horsepower (water) watt W= J/s 7. 460 43 x I0 z
hour (mean solar) second (mean solar) *3.60 x I0 z
hour (sidereal) second (mean solar) 3. 590 170 4 x 103
hundredweight (long) kilogram kg *5,080 234 544 x I0 |
hundredweight {short) kilogram kg _4. 535 923 7 x 101
inch meter m *2.54 x I0 "b
inch of mercury (32°F) newton/sq meter N/m 2 3. 386 389 x 10 3
inch of mercury (60°F) newton/sq meter N/m2 3. 376 85 x 10 a
inch of water (39.2°F) newton/sq meter N/m z 2. 490 82 x l0 z
inch of water {60°F) newton/sq meter N/m z 2. 488 4 x 10 b
joule (Int of 1948) joule J= N- m I. 000 165
kayser I/meter I/m *I. 00 x 10 b
°Kelvin (temperature) °Celsius °C °C= °K - 273. 16
kilocalorie (Int Steam Table) joule 3= N. m 4. 186 74 x 103
kilocalorie (mean) joule J= N. rn 4. 190 02 x I03
kilocalorie (thermochemical) joule J= N. m :_4. 184 x 103
kilogram mass kilogram kg * I. 00
kilogram force newton N-- kg.m/s b *9. 806 65
kilopond force newton N= kg.m/s z *9. 806 65
kip newton N= kg. m/sb *4. 448 221 615 260 5 x 103
knot (lnternational) meter/second m/s 5. 144 444 444 x I0 "i
lambert candela/sq meter cd/mZ * I/pi x 10 4
lambert candela/sq meter cd/m z 3. 183 098 8 x 103
langley joule/sq meter J/m2 *4. 184 x 104
Ibf(pound force, avoirdupois) newton N= kg.m/sZ _4.448 221 615 260 5
* Exact, as defined by the National Bureau of Standards.

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 29
_f.-
Ibm (pound mass, avoirdupois) kilogram kg _4. 535 923 7 x I0 -L
league (British nautical) meter m '_5. 559 552 x 103
meter m "5. 556 x 103

league (Int nautical)
league (statute) meter m :._4. 828 032 x 103
meter m 9. 460 55 x 10Is

light-year
link (surveyor or gunter) meter m :',_2.011 68 x I0 "i
link (engineer or ramden) meter m #3. 048 x I0 °i
liter cu meter m 3 1. 000 000 x 10 -_
lux lumen/sq meter lm/m 2 1. 00
maxwell weber Wb= V. s *1.00 x 10 "a
mete r wavelengths Kr 86 ::,1. 650 763 73 x l06
micron meter m _ 1.00 x l0 -6
rail meter m ;"2. 54 x l0 °5
mile (U.S. statute) meter m :_ 1. 609 344 x 10 _
meter m ,*1.853 184 x l03

mile (British nautical)
mile (Int nautical) meter m *1.852 x 10
mile (U. S. nautical) meter m * 1. 852 x 10 _
millimeter of mercury (O°C) newton/sq meter N/mZ 1. 333 224 x 10 z
millibar newton/aq meter N/mZ -'*1.00 x l0 z
radian rad Z. 908 882 086 66 x 10 .4

minute (angle)
minute (mean solar) second (mean solar) '_6.00 x i0 1
minute (sidereal) second (mean solar) 5. 983 617 4 x I01
month (mean calendar) second (mean solar) ,,_2. 628 x 106
oersted ampere/meter A/m 7. 957 747 2 x 10 i
ohm (Int of 1948) ohm i'l = V/A I. 000 495
SExact, as defined by the National Bureau of Standards.

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 30
ounce mass (avoirdupois) kilogram kg *2. 834 952 312 5 x 10 -z
ounce force (avoirdupois) newton N= kg. mls z 2. 780 138 5 x I0 -i
ounce mass (troy or apothecary) kilogram kg *3. 110 347 68 x 10 "z
ounce (U. S. fluid) cu mete r m3 *2. 957 352 956 25 x 10 "5
pace mete r m "7.62 x 10 -t
parsec meter m 3. 083 74 x 1016
pascal newton/sq meter N/m z *I. O0
peck (U. S. ) cu meter m3 *8. 809 767 541 72 x I0-'L
pennyweight kilogram kg *1.555 173 84 x 10 -3
perch meter m *5. 029 2
phot lumen/sq meter Im/m z 1. O0 x 104
pica (printers') meter m '_4. 217 517 6 x lO "3
pint (U. S. dry) cu meter m_ *5. 505 104 713 575 x lO "4
pint (U. S. liquid) cu meter m3 .4.731 754 73 x lO "4
point (printers') meter m *3. 514 598 x lO -4
poise newton.second/sqmeter N. slm z *1.00 x 10 -l
pole meter m *5. 029 Z
pound mass (1bin0 avoirdupois) kilogram kg *4. 535 923 7 x 10 "t
pound force (lbf, avoirdupois) newton N = kg.m/s z *4. 448 221 615 260 5
pound mass (troy or apothecary) kilogram kg *3.732 417 216 x 10 "1
poundal newton N = kg.m/sZ .1.382 549 543 76x 10 "t
quart (U.S. dry) cu meter m3 *1. 101 220 942 715x 10 "a
quart (U. S. liquid) cu meter m 5 9. 463 529 5 x 10 .4
Rad (radiation dose absorbed) joule/kilogram J/kg * I.00 x I0-z
° Reaumur (temperature) *Centigrade *C "C = 5/4 "Re
*Exact, as defined by the National Bureau of Standards. _"

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 31
]
rhe sq meter/newton, second m z /N. s '_1. 00 x 10 l
rod meter m 'x5. 029 2
roentgen coulomb/kilogram C/kg _2.579 76 x 10 -4
second (angle) radian rad 4. 848 136 811 x I0 "6
second (mean solar) second (ephemeris) Use equation of time.
second (sidereal) second (mean solar) 9. 972 695 7 x I0"*
section sq meter mZ ,2. 589 988 II0 336 x 106
scruple (apothecary) kilogram kg ,_I.Z95 978 2 x 10-3
shake second s I. 00 x 10 "8
skein meter m ,xl. 097 Z8 x l0 z
slug kilogram kg 1.459 390 Z9 x l0 t
span meter m ,wZ. 286 x 10 "l
statampere ampere A 3. 335 640 x I0 "_
statcoulomb coulomb C = A" s 3. 335 640 x 10 "l°
statfarad farad F= A. s/V I. llZ 650 x I0 "*z
stathenry henry H= V.s/A 8. 987 554 x I0 Li
statmho mho I. 112 650 x i0 "tz
statohm ohm f/ = V/A 8._)87 554 x I011
statvolt volt V = W/A Z. 997 925 x I0 z
stere cu meter m3 *I. 00
stilb candela/sq meter cd/mZ I. 00 x l04
stoke sqmeter/second m z /s '>1.00 x 10 -4
tablespoon cu meter m 3 *I. 478 676 478 125 x l0 "s
teaspoon cu meter m 3 *4. 9Z8 921 593 75 x 10 -6

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 32
-2
ton (assay) kilogram kg 2. 916 666 6 x I0
ton (short, 2000 pound) kilogram kg *9. 071 847 4x I0 z
ton (long) kilogram kg $1. 016 046 908 8 x 103
ton (metric) kilogram kg ,_I. 00 x 103
ton (nuclear equiv, of TNT) joule J= N.m 4. 20 x 109
ton (register) cu meter m3 -*2.831 684 659 2
tort (0°C) newton/sq meter N/m z I. 333 22 x I0 z
township sq meter m z 9. 323 957 2 x I0 v
unit pole weber Wb= V.s 1.256 637 x 10 -7
volt (Int of 1948) volt V= W/A I. 000 330
watt (Int of 1948) watt W= J/s 1.000 165
yard meter m *9. 144 x 10 -l
year (calendar) second (mean solar) *3. 153 6 x l0 T
year {sidereal) second (mean solar) 3. 155 815 0 x 107
year (tropical) second (mean solar) 3. 155 692 6 x 107
year 1900, tropical, Jan, second (ephemeris) s _3. 155 592 597 47 x 107
day 0, hour 12
_Exact, as defined by the National Bureau of Standards. _:

Section A4
1 February 1970
Page 33
Table A4-Zl. Decimal and Metric Equivalents of Fractions of an Inch
Inch Inch Millimeter Centimeter Meter

Decimal Fraction (mm) (cm) (m)
0.015 625 1/64 0.396 87 0. 039 687 0. 000 396 87
0.031 25 1/32 0.793 74 0.079 374 0. 000 793 74
0.046 875 3/64 1. 190 61 O. 119 061 0.001 190 61
O. 062 5 1/16 1. 587 48 O. 158 748 O. 001 587 48
0.078 125 5/64 1.984 35 O. 198 435 0.001 984 35
0.093 75 3/32 2. 381 23 0.238 123 O. 002 381 2-3
O. 109 375 7/64 2-. 778 09 0.277 809 O. 002- 778 09
O. 125 1/8 3. 174 97 O. 317 497 O. 003 174 97
O. 140 625 9/64 3.571 83 O. 357 183 0.003 571 83
O. 156 25 5/32 3.968 71 0.396 871 0.003 968 71
O. 171 875 11/64 4. 365 57 0.436 557 0.004 365 57
O. 187 5 3/16 4.762 45 0.476 245 0.004 762- 45
0.2-03 125 13/64 5. 159 31 O. 515 931 0.005 159 31
0.2-18 75 7/3Z 5. 556 2-0 0. 555 620 0.005 556 20
0.2-34 375 15/64 5. 953 05 0. 595 305 0.005 953 05
0. 25 I/4 6. 349 94 0. 634 994 0. 006 349 94
0. 265 625 17/64 6. 746 79 0. 674 679 0. 006 746 79
0.2-81 2-5 9/32 7. 143 68 0. 714 368 0. 007 143 68
0. 296 875 19/64 7. 540 53 0.754 053 0.007 540 53
0.312 5 5/16 7.937 43 0.793 743 0.007 937 43
0.328 125 21/64 8. 334 27 0.833 42-7 0. 008 334 Z7
0.343 75 11/32- 8.731 17 0.873 117 0.008 731 17
0. 359 375 23/64 9. 128 01 0.912 801 0.009 12-8 01
0.375 3/8 9. 5Z4 91 0.952- 491 0.009 524 91
0.390 625 25/64 9.921 75 0.992 175 0.009 921 75

Section A4
1 F-ebruary 1970
Page 34 v
Table A4-21. Decimal and Metric Equivalents of Fractions of an Inch (Cont'd)

Decimal Fraction (ram) (cm) (m)
0.406 25 13/32 10.318 65 1.031 865 0.010 318 65
0.421 875 27/64 10.715 49 1.071 549 0.010 715 49
0.437 5 7/16 11. 112 40 1. 111 240 0.011 112 40
0.453 125 29/64 II.509 23 I. 150 923 0.011 509 23
0.468 75 15/32 11.906 14 1. 190 614 0.011 906 14
0.484 375 31/64 12.302 97 1.230 297 0.012 302 97
0.5 1/2 12. 699 88 1. 269 988 0. 012 699 88
0. 515 625 33/64 13. 096 71 1. 309 671 0. 013 096 71
0. 531 25 17/32 13.493 62 1. 349 362 0. 013 493 62
0. 546 875 35/64 13. 890 45 1. 389 045 0. 013 890 45
0.562 5 9/16 14.287 37 1.428 737 0.014 287 37
0.578 125 37/64 14. 684 19 1.468 419 0.014 684 19
0.593 75 19/32 15.081 11 1.508 111 0.015 081 11
0.609 375 39/64 15.477 93 1.547 793 0.015 477 93
0. 625 5/8 15. 874 85 1. 587 485 0. 015 874 85
0.640 625 41/64 16. 271 67 1.627 167 0.016 271 67
O. 656 25 21/32 16. 668 59 1. 666 859 O. 016 668 59
O. 671 875 43/64 17. 065 41 1. 706 541 O. 017 065 41
0.687 5 I1/16 17.462 34 1.746 234 0.017 462 34
0.703 125 45/64 17. 859 15 1.785 915 0.017 859 15
0.718 75 23/32 18.256 08 1.825 608 0.018 256 08
O. 734 375 47/64 18. 652 89 1.865 289 O. 018 652 89
O. 75 3/4 19. 049 82 I. 904 982 O. 019 049 82
O. 765 625 49/64 19.446 63 1.944 663 O. 019 446 63
0.781 25 25/32 19.843 56 1.984 356 0.019 843 56

SECTION B
STRENGTHANALYS I S
SECTION B l
JOINTS AND FASTENERS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
BI.0.O Joints and Fasteners
1.1.0 Mechanical Joints and Fasteners ................. I

i.i.i Riveted Joints .............................. i
1.1.2 Bolted Joints ............................... 2
1.1.3 Protruding-Head Rivets and Bolts ............ 2
1.1.4 Flush Rivets ................................ 19
1.1.5 Flush Screws ................................ 24
1.1.6 Blind Rivets ................................ 27
1.1.7 Hollow-End Rivets ........................... 39
1.1.8 Hi-Shear Rivets ............................. 39
1.1.9 Lockbolts ................................... 39
i.i.i0 Jo-Bolts ................................... 41
1.2.0 Welded Joints ................................... 46
1.2.1 Fusion Welding .............................. 46
1.2.2 Effect on Adjacent Parent Metal Due to
Fusion Welding ............................ 46
1.2.3 Weld-Metal Allowable Strength ............... 47

1.2.4 Welded Cluster .............................. 49
1.2.5 Flash Welding ............................... 49
1.2.6 Spot Welding ................................ 5O
1.2.7 Reduction in Tensile Strength of Parent Metal

Due to Spot Welding ....................... 56
1.3.0 Brazing ......................................... 59
1.3.1 Copper Brazing .............................. 59
1.3.2 Silver Brazing .............................. 59
Bl-iii
Section B i
25 September 1961
Page i
B 1.0.0 Joints and Fasteners
B I.i.0 Mechanical Joints and Fasteners
B i.i.i Riveted Joints
Although the actual state of stress in a riveted joint is complex,

it is customary to ignore such considerations as stress concentration
at the edge of rivet holes, unequal division o£ load among fasteners,
and nonuniform distribution of shear stress across the section of the
rivet and of the bearing stress between rivet and plate. Simplifying
assumptions are made, which are summarized as follows:
(l) The applied load is assumed to be transmitted entirely by

the rivets, friction between the connected plates being
ignored.
(2) When the center of cross-sectional area of each of the rivets

is on the line of action of the load, or when the centroid of
the total rivet area is on this line, the rivets of the joint
are assumed to carry equal parts of the load if of the same size;
and to be loaded proportionally to their section areas otherwise.
(3) The shear stress is assumed to be uniformly distributed across

the rivet section.
(4) The bearing stress between plate and rivet is assumed to be

uniformly distributed over an area equal to the rivet diameter
times the plate thickness.
(5) The stress in a tension member is assumed to be uniformly

distributed over the net area.
(6) The stress in a compression member is assumed to be uniformly

distributed over the gross area.
The design of riveted joints on the basis of these assumptions is

the accepted practice, although none of them is strictly correct.
The possibility of secondary failure due to secondary causes, such

as the shearing or tearing out of a plate between rivet and edge of
plate or between adjacent rivets, the bending or insufficient upsetting
of long rivets, or tensile failure along a zigzag line when rivets are
staggered, are guarded against in standard specifications by provisions
iA
summarized as follows:
(1) The distance from a rivet to a sheared edge shall not be less
than 1 3/4 diameters, or to a planed or rolled edge, I 1/2
diameters.
r-
- (2) The minimum rivet spacing shall be 3 diameters.

Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 2
BI.I.I Riveted Joints (Cont'd_
(3) The maximum rivet pitch in the direction of stress shall be

7 diameters, and at the ends of a compression member it shall
be 4 diameters for a distance equal to 1 1/2 times the width
of the member.
(4) In the case of a diagonal or zigzag chain of holes extending

across a part, the net width of the part shall be obtained
by deducting from the gross width the sum of the diameters of
all the holes in the chain, and adding, for each gauge space
in the chain, the quantity $2/4g, where S = longitudinal
spacing of any two successive holes in the chain and g _ the
spacing transverse to the direction of stress of the same
two holes. The critical net section of the part is obtained
from that chain which gives the least net width.
(5) The shear and bearing stresses shall be calculated on the

basis of the nominal rivet diameter, the tensile stresses on
the hole diameter.
If the rivets of a joint are so arranged that the line of action

of the load does not pass through the centroid of the rivet areas then
the effect of eccentricity must be taken into account.
B 1.1.2 Bolted Joints
Bolted joints that are designed on the basis of shear and bearing
are analyzed in the same way as riveted joints. The simplifying assump-
tions listed in Section B i.i.i are valid for short bolts where bending
of the shank is negligible.
In general when bolts are designed by tension, the Factor of

Safety should be at least 1.5 based on design load to take care of
eccentricities which are impossible to eliminate in practicaldesign.
Avoid the use of aluminum bolts in tension.
Hole-filling fasteners (such as conventional solid rivets) should

not be combined with non-hole-filling fasteners (such as conventional
bolt or screw installation).
0
B 1.1.3 Protruding-Head Rivets and Bolts
The load per rivet or bolt, at which the shear or bearing type of
failure occurs, is separately calculated and the lower of the two
governs the design. The ultimate shear and tension stress, and the
ultimate loads for steel AN bolts and pins are given in Table B 1.1.3.1
and B 1.1.3.2. Interaction curves for combined shear and tension load-
ing on AN bolts are given in Fig. B 1.1.3-1. Shear and tension ultimate
loads for MS internal wrenching bolts are specified in Table B 1.1.3.3.
Section B I
25 September 1961
Page 3
B 1.1.3 Protruding-Head Rivets and Bolts (Cont'd)
In computing aluminum rivet shear strength, the correction factors

given in Table B 1.1.3.5 should be used to compensate for the reductions
in rivet shear strength resulting from high bearing stresses on the
rivet at D/t ratios in excess of 3.0 for single-shear joints, and 1.5
for double-shear joints. The basic shear strength for protruding-head
aluminum-alloy rivets is given in Table B 1.1.3.6.
The yield and ultimate bearing stresses for various materials at

room and elevated temperatures are given in the strength properties
stated for each alloy or group of alloys, and are applicable to riveted
or bolted joints where cylindrical holes are used and where D/t < 5.5.
Where D/t _ 5.5, tests to substantiate yield and ultimate bearing
strengths must be performed. These bearing stresses are applicable only
for the design of rigid joints where there is no possibility of relative
motion of the parts joined without deformation of the parts. Yield and
ultimate stresses at low temperatures will be higher than those specified
for room temperature; however, no quantitative data are available.
For convenience, "unit" sheet bearing strength for rivets, based

on a stress of I00 ksi and nominal hole diameters, is given in Table
B 1.1.3.7. Factors representing the ratio of actual sheet bearing
strength to i00 ksi are given in Table B 1.1.3.8. Table B 1.1.3.9
contains unit bearing strength of sheets on bolts. For magnesium-alloy
riveting, it is unnecessary to use the correction factors of Table
B 1.1.3.5, which account for high bearing stresses on the rivet.
Section B i
25 September 1961
Page 4
B 1.1.3 Protrudlng-Head Rivets and Bolts _Cont'd)
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Section B i
25 September 1961
Page 5
BI.I.3 Protruding-Head Rivets and Bolts (Cont'd)
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Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 6
BI.I.3
Protruding-Head Rivets and Bolts (Cont'd)
!AN-10
Interaction Formula
3O r--_._.
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25
Where :
= 20 x = shear load
\ y =
a =
tens ion load
shear allowable
b = tension allowable
,
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Shear Load, Kips
Note: Curves not applicable where shear

nuts are used. Curves are based on the
results of combined load tests of bolts
with nuts fingertight.
Fig. B i.I.3-I Combined Shear and Tension on AN Steel Bolts.

Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 7
B i. 1 3 Protruding-Head Rivets and Bolts (Cont'd
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25 September 1961
Page 8
1.1.3 Protruding-Head Rivets and Bolts (Cont' d)
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25 September 1961
Page 9
B 1.1.3 Protruding- Head Rivets and Bolts (Cont' d)
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Section B i
25 September 1961
Page I0
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Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page i i
BI.I.3 Protrudin$-Head Rivets and Bolts (Cont'd)
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25 September 1961
Page 12
1.0
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Fig. B 1 1.3-2 Reduction Factor for Allowables of Protruding

Head, AN470-AD (2117-T3), Rivets at Elevated
Temperature for Five Minutes
Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 13
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Fig. B I.i.3-3 Unit Bc,aring Strengths of Sheets on Rivets
Fbr = i00 ksi

Section B i
25 September 1961
Page 14
B 1.1.3 Protruding-Head Rivets and Bolts (Cont'd)
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25 September 1961
Page 15
BI.I.3 P_otruding-Head Rivets and Bolts (Cont'd)
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Section B i
25 September 1961
Page 16
BI.I.3 Protruding-Head Rivets and Bolts (Cont 'd)
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Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 17
BIol.3 Protruding-Head Rivets and Bolts (Cont'd)
28 I I '
Bolt or Pin Dia
i I
i
24
/
/
20
/ /3/_
. /
16
/51_--
/ /
.i.I
12 f
,,,4
/ _31s
"_ 8
.-/// //_5/16'
/,/" / / I
4 /,-_ / _ .--5/32
.....3/16
_ --3132
--1/16
0 .04 .08 .12 .16 .20 .24 .28
Sheet Thk, in
Fig. B 1.1.3-4 Unit: Bearing Strengths of Sheets on Bolts and Pins

Fbr = 100 ksi
Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 18
BI.I.3 Protruding-Head Rivets and Bolts (cont'd)
"_ 0 0
O u_
O0 O I_.
0
0
000
OO_
II O0_
.Q
00 -- ,-._ O O eq
=
=
"_ _ OOOOOO
co 0 Om O0 O
_J _'_ _O_OO_
=
0 __ _O_O_OO_
_O_OO_
> _ "_ _ O _ _ _ O _
O _O_OO_
_O_OO_
__O_
u_ _ °,.-I
0 u_
,--I
.= O _ _OO O _ OOO I
_ _O _O _ OO _
_O_OO_
= O ,--4 .,-.I
_J
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_Z _D _ __O_O_
____O_
=
°4
OD O__ _OO_O_
O_ O_O__O_O_
.,-I
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=
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Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 19
B 1.1.4 Flush Rivets
Table B 1.1.4.1 through B 1.1.4.3 contain ultimate and yield

allowable single-shear strength values for both machine-countersunk
and dimpled flush riveted joints employing solid rivets with a head
angle of i00 °. These strength values are applicable when the edge
distance is equal to or greater than two times the nominal rivet dia-
meter. Other strength values and edge distances may be used if sub-
stantiated by tests.
The allowable ultimate loads were established from test data using
the average failing load divided by a factor of 1.15. The yield loads
were established from test data wherein the yield load was defined as
the average test load at which the following permanent set across the
joint is developed:
(i) 0.005 inch, up to and including 3/16 inch diameter rivets.
(2) 2.5 percent of the rivet diameter for rivet sizes larger
than 3/16 inch diameter.
Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 20
1.1.4 Flush Rivets (Cont 'd )
_0 _ _ _0 _ 0
_ _ _ _0 _ _
_o [,_ ___00_
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,--i e.I o4 e") ¢_eO¢_ . • • • e
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eq
eq
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i::: i:::::::
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4J •,-I C'q C',I C_ ..J" LP, '4D r-- 00 0", 0 04 <0 0'_ _1
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° . o . • • ° . . , ° • • ._
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Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 21
B 1.1.4 Flush Rivets (Cont'd)
_0__
C I
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CD 0
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.
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> • :
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-- o_ --
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: •. ,--I 0 oo ,.0 ,-I ,-I r_ Lm

cq ,--4
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.u _J
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>
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Section B i
25 September 1961
Page 22
B 1.1.4 Flush Rivets (Cont 'd_
0_ooo_
.4" oo__
_0__
t i I "_ t
.,_r .,,? -._- _u'r_
000 0
,-4 eq eq eq f-_
¢O
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eq
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eq _eq ___.
0 0
eq ¢q
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• 0ooo _ O..T u% eq
¢q _D eq oo eq oo _ m- _D °__0_
0 [-_ 0 [-_ 0 [-_ _ 0 [-_
_4 ¢q ¢.4 P- : __g_
_4 I I °__0
-4" "_-._
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('4 eq
o7
%0
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! 'T_ I
4J
0 0
" " i ._
¢'4 r.-
t_
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eq
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C',l C4 _1 I:: C'4

000 _ 0 m
¢q C_l _'%1 C',l _o_o_ ::
• __oo_ •
m
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eq _eq
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r-4 0 O0 o o_
eq eq 0
_o_:
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Section B 1
25 September 1961
f k
Page 23
B 1.1.4 Flush Rivets (Cont'd)
.q-
00 ".D
I _ i
eq _1 i_
a _ i
•.d- cxl _o,i _D

o_ 0 0 ,-_
co
_J
q_ cO -..1"
>
c'q _ eq
0 0
q_ o-1 c'.l
r-q e_
.r4
_D
O CO
O
O
0 0
t'M
O
t_
1' 0 i
O
cq _
0 ,.D O0
_J
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_q t-¢3
a i I I _ i
t'M
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I I
_ --d" oO
..j-oq <0 eq oo _ ¢-_ co
0 b'lO _0 _0_ _0 [_
¢q ¢q 04
I I I !
<I" --_
¢q ¢_ ¢q .._ eq <0 _ ¢q O0 c_
0 _,_0 E.-_ 0 _-_ _ 0 _-_
¢q 04 cq oJ
.,-I 1-1
•_1 -,-I ._1

Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 24
B i.i.5 Flush Screws
Table B 1.1.5.1 contains ultimate and yield allowable strength

values for i00 ° flush-head screws with recessed heads installed in
machlne-countersunk clad 2024 and 7075 sheet. These strength values
are applicable when the edge distance is equal to or greater than two
times the nominal screw diameter. Other strength values and edge
distances may be used if substantiated by tests.
These strength values may be used for the design of dimpled joints.
Higher values may be used for dimpled joints if based on test results.
The allowable ultimate loads were established from test data using
the average failing load divided by a factor of 1.15. The yield loads
were established from test data, wherein the yield load was defined as
the average test load at which the following permanent set across the
joint is developed:
(i) 0.012 inch, up to and including 1/4 inch diameter screws.
(2) 4.0 percent of the screw diameter for screw sizes larger than
1/4 inch diameter.
The test specimens used were made up of two equal-gage sheets lap
jointed and machine countersunk with washers to build up thickness to
minimum grip. All joints had 2D nominal edge distance in the direction
of the load and were either of the three-screws-across or the two-
screws-ln-tandem type. For the latter type, the flush heads were placed
on opposite sides of the joint to assure 2D edge distances.
Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 25
B 1.1.5
Flush Screws (Cont'd}
cq
00 _OO___ :
°r4
O CO
ii
0,--_
0'_ r'_
• :
: I
: :
O_O_O_
_o__% : :
_ m _ _ _ _ _ _ co co CO
0 _ : •
! : •
o-, ,--_ O Lr_ ,_ c'q cq c'q ,,.C: _D • :
'..D O'_ 00 ,,.00 c_ ,..0 Ch c'q _'q •
Lrh r"-- O c',_ u-'_ ,.D r--- 00 ,--_ ;._ °
,._ CO
L)
_ o,._
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: _ og_o
o _ _
: : : : : : %___
0 co | ._ "';L:: _
_ u_ m
: : _ _ co co _ _ _ _ _ :
|
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.r-I ¢'4 tc'_
:::
• ,-_-._ o_ _ _ _ _o.._ _ c) , : :
:_°_°__i..1-,o_,_o " •
• ,-4 .-4 ,-q ,-4 ('q ¢q CO CO CO : . •
E -- ,. • . ,
_m_o_o : :
o_ _ o _ o_ _o c_ _- c_ c_ • : :
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._o o_ e_ _ _ _- oo _ _-_ • • : :
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_D _O _ . :
_4 u : : ..... " : "
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i . •
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:
: • • : : : : : • :
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• • : : : .' . :
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• O O oh
,__ eq ,-_ O O 6 u_ O O• _ eq m
_ co -.1- u'_ ',O r-- 0o 0", O c-,I ,..o o'_ u'_ ,-_ r--
[--t _ .I--) _ • ,-I O O O O O O O ,-_ ,--_ ,-_ ,-_ ¢q co co
i--! . ° . ° ..........
4J O O O O O O O C) O O O O O O
q--I
J.J
QJ _ _
[-.-t Crl _0 o_
Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 26
BI.I.5 Fldsh Screws (Cont' d)
tN
=o
eqQO 0_o00_
0
r_o _0 ,._ u'_ 0 _-_ r_ QO _-_ O0 eq
:i
• •
Q;
u : : •
o__ _% .
m
_J _o
o _,__,_-,_ :. !
I
= ) • • :
• : : : :
C; " : . • .
,= : : : ,-_o0,_o o_
4-1
o
o = • . : : coco._m_r_o0o_
0
ii" :"
q_ : : : ,_r_,_O..q-o_o_,-_r--e_ •
0
4J C_
0 cO J--
: :_o___" •
_J
Ore
: : __=__" :
e • • •
:; :'
t_ • e'
• __0_ : : :
>4
= • :
• ee
G; • :!!_
_J _D
____:i ":
_J
T-4 ee l
• e l
°
: : : : : : : : ; ! : .
P-4 •• . : !i .... : • : ' . :
d
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.H
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_
0000000
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000000000000 O0
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Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 27
B 1.1.6 Blind Rivets
Tables B 1.1.6.1 through B 1.1.6.6 contain ultimate and yield

allowable single-shear strengths for protruding and flush-head blind
rivets. These strengths are applicable only when the grip lengths and
rivet-hole tolerances are as recommended by the respective manufacturers,
and may be substantially reduced if oversize holes or improper grip
lengths are used.
The strength values were established from test data obtained from
tests of specimens having values of e/D equal to or greater than 2.0.
Where e/D values less than 2.0 are used, tests to substantiate yield
and ultimate strengths must be made. Ultimate strength values of pro-
truding and flush blind rivets were obtained from the average failing
load of test specimens divided by 1.15. Yield strength values were
obtained from average yield load test data wherein the yield load is
defined as the load at which the following permanent set across the
joint is developed:
(i) 0.005 inch, up to and including 3/16 inch diameter rivets.
(2) 2.5 percent of the rivet diameter for rivet sizes larger than
3/16 inch diameter.
For tables B 1.1.6.2 and B 1.1.6.3 the ultimate rivet shear strength
was based on the comparable rivet shear strength of 2117 solid rivets,
as noted in table B 1.1.6.3. Test data on which the strength values of
these tables were based were obtained using standard degreased clad
2024-T4 specimens.
In view of the wide variance in dimpling methods and tolerances

for aluminum and magnesium alloys, no standard or uniform load allow-
ables are recommended. Allowables for ultimate and shear strengths of
blind rivets in double-dimpled or dimpled, machine-countersunk applica-
tion should be established on the basis of specific tests. In the
absence of such data, allowables for blind rivets in machine-countersunk
sheet may be used.
Since blind rivets are primarily shear-type fasteners, they should

not be used in applications where appreciable tensile loads on the
rivets will exist. Reference should be made to the requirements of the
applicable use of blind rivets, such as the limitations of usage on
Drawing MS33522.
Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 28
B'I,I.6 Blind Rivets, (Cont'd_
0_00
> O eq
eO
D O
_0___
0
0_0
0 ,-4 u_
=
0
0_
_.j ,,,I"
OO i!:
:: i
eq N
: . :
_0 _J om_mooom o ." : : :
oJ W _00__ eq •
4_ : : :
, t .....
! 11 :
_J o_ r.. _o e,I o4 0 o-_ 0.._ e,_ : :: :

oO_ ,,M c.4 e,I .4..._ u_ oq ,_ _Do._
C _n 1.I _-,-_._. u,% %o r-. oo o_ oxch
: :: :
_o o; O '_-t : :: :
eq ¢,4 u'-, ,t.i _ u-_ _0 • •
J u-_ 0 ,-I 0o ..J- oo o,,i • °
i!!i
::::
Be • ,• _oo_oooo
_ o
W • : : • __ __ _
= 0 : : : :_o__
IJ
1.1 ,,M
,r.l
ld
u'3
0 ¢Xl ¢_I _0 ¢xl 0 u'_ O0 ,--I
"_'i : : _.•
":
•_= : : : • .'ii
0 A'
•,_ _ _ 0 _
_J _ _J .,_ ._ 000 O0 O00000_ _ _
_0000000000000 _
Section B i
25 September 1961
Page 29
B 1.1.6 Blind Rivets (Cont 'd)
.,4
4J O
0
O
O
> "0
=
.,4
_J
U
I.
0
u_
m
0
.,4
,4.1
•,4 _J ,--4
>, 0
I_ 0
o
_v IJ
O
q4 4...I
0
,..c; ,.=
,,_ r..,t3
0_3
o 0
4J 4,,.I ffl .,-I

o'3 o0 4..i
.;-I
oO
0
0
_ -,4
_ m 4_1 0 0
nJ o
4.1
o
_ o
_ rj ,'l:J
•,-i _ _ m
_ ._ 4..1
.,.4 _
"tJ ,-'4
ill
4_ 0 m
,.--4 .,4 0
_-I 4-1
ffl
o 0 ,"4
m _
r_
b-t >
0 ,-4,.=:
= O
,.c:
Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 30
B 1.1.6 Blind Rivets (Cont'd)
_0_00_0
0_00_
_ _ _ oooo oo • •
• •
_O_,
• ! o _J
• •
: : :
: : : : : :
• . : : : :
u • . : : . :
,_ ,-. _!:::: :
_ : : • : : : :. i" : : :
_-_ _ >_ _ ._ _00000 O000 _ _

_,°,....°,°.
0000 O00 O000
co > _ >i
•_ _ •
H od co =_I co
Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 31
O4 m _ _0_0000
O
_O
O .,-I
Oq
I
O •_I ¢q _' j_
O
_D
O
_0__
I _ ,-4 _0_
_ m
v
r---t
"o
! .
"_ 0
U
D_.J
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m _
1_o c,l ..c: __0_
•_ _ _0_
bO
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m "_
{¢)
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m 0 r-- _ __
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:> ocq o
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r_
• ,.-I _
0__
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-,-4
: : : : : .
_J
CO
,-.-4 •
!!ii
: : : !
v i : : : " .=
,--4 _ ii! u_
,-_ _
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0_00_000_
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, I-_ ,-,K _ U
Section B i
25 September 1961
Page 32
O
%0
O
eq
I
.=
•-4 %0
%O 14 4J
eq
, o_ =
,=
o 4_
_J
: :
W O ,--I u : :
O Neq
4-1 I _.._ I,.4 4J
m O
m _ _ m
..4 u'% o_ ¢q %0 00 O0 • •
4J _o_o : :
_=_
• :
: :
• : : • . . : :
" "
: : "
: i : :
: : :
: :
:
.-4 • : : : : : • :
• • . . . : :
.4
• i iil
• •
• : • i "
: : : • : . : :
• : : : . •
: : : . : : : :
: : • : : : : :
ii::
• : : : : :
-H
.61 o iii.:::_
_
c_ .M
° : :
•
: i
i
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: : .
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:
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,-_ 0 ;_
._000000_
_00000000
m _
Section B I
25 September 196.1
Page 33
B 1.1.6 Blind Rivets (Cont'dl
o
Section B I
25 September 1961
Page 34
L
4J _O
en c_
CO O
_ o m
o,o : :
O_oh • •
_ : :
_ _- - !
_ .4"
_ 0 _
o _
g _ 4J
-_ _-_-
4=1
o _
CO _
"_ _, ,
_ u3
_J
IJ
_D
Section B i
25 September 1961
Page 35
BI.I.6 Blind Rivets (Cont 'd)
_J
03
03
CO _D eq
0 c_
o_
03 U3 "_-
c
OO 03
c 0 _
0
_J
03 N
03
> ,._ 0 ¢'_,
c
_ 03
=-
_J
<
C _-4 ',0
_D o'3 _ "_
u_
O _J
u_ O'3 ' •_,4
0
C
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c
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t_ L)
v
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_J
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03
D_
"O
03 Lr_
OO
03
_J
E
4J
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d
v
03
,-4 0 _ (D
u)
03
03
>
m > 03 >
Section B i
25 September 1961
Page 36
_o
,-4
oo "o
> z= (-4
o_
Ou"_ ,--t
u_
_o
oo ,-4 |
oo
I
o"_ p._ c.q o_ i " :
<
,m •
"o o2
,-4 u3 0 ¢'_ u% " : : : . :
• • •
O_ 0"_ -,T 0 ',.0*
r-. oo 0 ¢q C.4 •
oO _= ,'--_,--_ ,,-_ ,
• i
"O oO
eq
r'...
C'q O_ 0 ,,
,,c,r-ooo_ " :
oo
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¢q
o
.!! •
,-4 : : : : :
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: : : : :.
ooo oo0
• : : • •
o2 ,.-4 u% eq o_,
: : • : : • _ ,-4 ¢q c'q ¢0 c,'_
.= • . : : : oo :
ooo
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bo O,-'4
0 : : • : 1_
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W O0 •
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Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 37
O Ce_
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Section B i
25 September 1961
Page 38
Table B 1.1.6.6 Explosive Rivets, DuPont Extended Cavity
Ultimate Rivet Load, Lb/Rivet
Rivet Sheet Gauge

Size .025 .032 .'o4o .o51 .064 .072 .081
5/32 320 410 513 610 610 610
3/16 -- 495 620 796 880 880 880

Section B i
25 September 1961
Page 39
B 1.1.7 Hollow-End Rivets
If hollow-end rivets with solid cross sections for a portion of

the length (AN 450) are used, the strength of these rivets may be taken
equal to the strength of solid rivets of the same material, provided
that the bottom of the cavity is at least 25 percent of the rivet dia-
meter from the plane of shear, as measured toward the hollow end, and
further provided that they are used in locations where they will not
be subjected to appreciable tensile stresses.
B 1.1.8 Hi-Shear Rivets
The allowable shear load for "Hi-Shear" rivets is the same as

that specified for the standard aircraft bolts heat treated to 125 ksi
and given in table B 1.1.3.2.
B 1.1.9 Lockbolts
Lockbolts and lockbolt stumps shall be installed in conformance

with the lockbolt manufacturer's recommended practices, and shall be
inspected in accordance with procedures recommended by the manufacturer
or by an equivalent method. The ultimate allowable shear and tensile
strengths for protruding and flush-head Huck lockbolts and lockbolt
stumps are contained in table B 1.1.9,1. These strength values were
established from test data and are minimum values guaranteed by the
manufacturer. Shear and tensile yield strengths and ultimate and
yield bearing strengths will be added when available.
For all lockbolts but the BL type (blind) under combined loading
of shear and tension installed in material having a thickness large
enough to make the shear cutoff strength critical for the shear load-
ing, the following interaction equations are applicable:
Steel lockbolts - Rt + Rs I0 = 1.0, 7075-T6 lockbolts - Rt + Rs 5 = 1.0,

where R t and Rs, are the ratios of applied load to allowable load in
tension and shear, respectively.
Section B i
25 September 1961
B 1.1.9 Lockbolts (Cont' d) Page 40
.0 _O
W C
0__
•,4 _ O_
C _o c
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C _0000
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Section B I
25 September 1961
Page 41
B I.I.i0 Jo-Bolts
The ultimate and yield allowable shear strengths for flush-head

steel and aluminum Jo-Bolts in clad aluminum-alloy sheet are given in
Tables B i.I.i0.i and B 1.1.10.2.
Section B i
25 September 1961
B I.i.i0 Jo-Bolts (Cont'd)
Page 42 _J
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Section B i
25 September 1961
F Page 43
B i.i.i0 Jo-Bolts
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Section B 1
25 September 1961
BI.I.IO Jo Bolts (Cont'd) Page 44
E.-,
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Section B 1
25 September 1961
B i.I.i0 Jo-Bolts (Cont' d) Page 45
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Section B i
25 September 1961
Page 46
B 1.2.0 Welded Joints
Whenever possible, joints to be welded should be so designed that

the welds will be loaded in shear.
B 1.2.1 Fusion Weldin_ - Arc and Gas
In the design of welded joints, the strength of both the weld

metal and the adjacent parent metal must be considered. The allowable
strength for the adjacent parent metal is given in section B 1.2.2 and
the allowable strength for the weld metal is given in section B 1.2.3.
The weld-metal section will be analyzed on the basis of its loading,
allowables, dimensions, and geometry.
B 1.2.2 Effect on Adjacent Parent Metal Due to Fusion Weldin_
For joints welded after heat treatment, the allowable stresses

near the weld are given in Tables B 1.2.2.1 and B 1.2.2.2.
For materials heat treated after welding, the allowable stresses

in the parent metal near a welded joint may equal the allowable stress
for the material in the heat-treated condition as given in tables of
design mechanical properties of the specific alloys.
Table B 1.2.2.1 Allowable Ultimate Tensile Stresses

Near Fusion Welds in 4130, 4140, 4340, or 8630 Steels a
(Section thickness 1/4 inch or less)
Type of joint Ultimate tensile

stress, ksi
b
Tapered joints of 30 ° or less 90
All others 8O
a Welded after heat treatment or normalized after weld.

b Gussets or plate inserts considered 0° taper with center line.
Table B 1.2.2.2 Allowable Bending Modulus of Rupture Near

Fusion Welds in 4130, 4140, 4340, or 8630 Steels a
Type of joint Bending modulus

of rupture, ksi
Tapered joints of 30 ° or less b Fb, figure B 1.2.2-1 for

Ftu = 90 ksi
All others 0.9 of the values of F b
from figure B 1.2.2-1
for Ftu - 90 ksi
a Welded after heat treatment or normalized after weld.

b Gussets or plate inserts considered 0 ° taper with center line.
Section B i
25 September 1961
Page 47
B 1.2.2 Effect on Adiacent Parent Metal Due to Fusion Welding (Cont'd)
450
400
350
o_
300 _"
Ftu , 260 kgl
250 ,,ok.,
150 _ _ _'_ Flw , IN kjl
100
Ptu' 90 ksl
50 ......... J
0 I0 20 30 40 50 60
D/t
Fig. B 1.2.2-1 Bending Modulus of

Rupture for Round
Alloy-Steel Tubing.
B 1.2.3 Weld-Metal Allowable Strength
Allowable weld-metal strengths are shown in Table B 1.2.3.1.

Design allowable stresses for the weld metal are based on 85 percent
of the respective minimum tensile ultimate test values.
Section B I
25 September 1961
Page 48
B 1.2.3 Weld-Metal Allowable Strength (Cont'd)
•I._ _ u'_ u'_ _ oO 0
o'1 u_ 0
oh
0
_D
I
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U 0 0 ¢_1 !
,.--4 I _ I I
0 '_ _ _ _ _ _
_'_ 0 _o _ co _ _
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I
,---4 ",_ _ O_ _ _OO OO
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=
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=
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0 0 0
,.-i ,--I ,-.I
,..-I ,.-.I ,-.I
O ,< < ,< O_
Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 49
B 1.2.4 Welded Cluster
In a welded structure where seven or more members converge, the

allowable stress shall be determined by dividing the normal allowable
stress by a material factor of 1.5, unless the joint is reinforced. A
tube that is continuous through a joint should be assumed as two members.
B 1.2.5 Flash Weldin_
The tensile ultimate allowable stresses and bending allowable

modulus of rupture for flash welds are given in Tables B 1.2.5.1 and
B 1.2.5.2.
Table B 1.2.5.1 Allowable Ultimate Tensile

Stress for Flash Welds in Steel Tubing
Tubing Allowable ultimate tensile

stress of welds
Normalized tubing - not heat treated 1.0 Ftu (based on Ftu of

(including normalizing) after normalized tubing)
welding.
Heat-treated tubing welded after heat 1.0 Ftu (based on Ftu of
treatment.
normalized tubing)
Tubing heat treated (including normal-
izing) after welding. Ftu of
unwelded material in heat-treated
condition:
< i00 ksi 0.9 Ftu
I00 to 150 ksi 0.6 Ftu + 30
>150 ksi 0.8 Ftu
Section B i
25 September 1961
Page 50
B 1.2.5 Flash Welding (Cont'd)
Table B 1.2.5.2 Allowable Bending Modulus of

Rupture for Flash Welds in Steel Tubing
Tubing Allowable bending modulus

of rupture of welds (Fb
from Fig. B 1.2.2-1
using values of Ftu listed)
Normalized tubing-not heat treated 1.0 Ftu for normalized
(including normalizing) after tubing
welding.
Heat-treated tubing welded after heat 1.0 Ftu for normalized
treatment. tubing
Tubing heat treated (including normal-
izing) after welding. Ftu of
unwelded material in heat-treated
condition:
< i00 ksi 0.9 Ftu
I00 to 150 ksi 0.6 Ftu + 30
> 150 ksi 0.8 Ftu
B 1.2.6 Spot Weldin_
Design shear strength allowables for spot welds in various alloys

are given in Tables B 1.2.6.1, B 1.2.6.2, and B 1.2.6.3; the thickness
ratio of the thickest sheet to the thinnest outer sheet in the combina-
tion should not exceed 4:1. Table B 1.2.6.4 gives the minimum allow-
able edge distance for spot welds, these values may be reduced for non-
structural applications, or for applications not depended upon to
develop full tabulated weld strength. Combinations of aluminum alloys
suitable for spot welding are given in Table B 1.2.6.5.
Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 51
B 1.2.6 Spot Weldin_ (Cont'd_
Table B 1.2.6.1 Spot-Weld Maximum Design Shear Strengths for

Uncoated Steels a and Nickel Alloys
f
Nominal thickness of Material ultimate tensile

thinner sheet, in. strength, ib
150 ksi and 70 ksi to Below 70 ksi

above 150 ksi
0.006 ................. 70 57 °...........
0.008 ................. 120 85 70

0.010 ................. 165 127 92
0.012 ................. 220 155 120
0.014 ................. 270 198 142
0.016 ................. 320 235 170
0.018 ................. 390 270 198
0.020 ................. 425 310 225
0.025 ................. 58O 425 320
0.030 ................. 750 565 403
0.032 ................. 835 623 453
0.040 ................. 1,168 85O 650
0.042 ................. 1,275 920 712
0.050 ................. 1,700 1,205 955
0.056 ................. 2,039 1,358 1,166
0.060 ................. 2,265 1,558 1,310
0.063 ................. 2,479 1,685 1,405
0.071 ................. 3,012 2,024 1,656
O. 080 ................. 3,540 2,405 1,960
O. 090 ................. 4,100 2,810 2,290
0.095 ................. 4,336 3,012 2,476
0.i00 ................. 4,575 3,200 2,645
0.112 ................. 5,088 3,633 3,026
0.125 ................. 5,665 4,052 3,440
aRefers to plain carbon steels containing not more than 0.20 percent
carbon and to austenitic steels. The reduction in strength of spot-
welds due to the cumulative effects of time-temperature-stress factors
is not greater than the reduction in strength of the parent metal.
Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 52 v
B 1.2.6 Spot Welding (Cont'd)
Table B 1.2.6.2 Spot-Weld Maximum Design Shear Strength

Standards for Bare and Clad Aluminum Alloys a
Nominal thickness Material ultimate tensile strength, ib

of thinner sheet, in.
Above 56 28 ksi 20 ksi to 19.5 ksJ
ksi to 56 ksi 27.5 ksi and belo_
0.012 ................... 60 52 24 16
0.016 ................... 86 78 56 40
0.020 .................... 112 106 80 62
0.025 ................... 148 140 116 88
0.032 ................... 208 188 168 132
0.040 ................... 276 248 240 180
0.050 ................... 374 344 321 234
0.063 .......... , ........ 539 489 442 314
0.071 ................... 662 578 515 358
0.080 ................... 824 680 609 417
0.090 ................... 1,002 798 695 478
0.i00 ................... 1,192 933 750 536
0.112 ................... 1,426 1,064 796 584
0.125 ................... 1,698 1,300 840 629
0.160 ................... 2,490
aspot welding of aluminum-alloy combinations conforming to QQ-A-277,

QQ-A-355, and QQ-A-255 may be accomplished. The reduction in strength
of spotwelds due to cumulative effects of tlme-temperature-stress
factors is not greater than the reduction in strength of the parent
metal.
Section B I
25 September 1961
Page 53
BI.2.6 Spot Welding (Cont'd)
Table B 1.2.6.3 Spot-Weld Maximum Design Shear Strength

Standards for Magnesium Alloys a
Welding Specification MIL-W-6858
Nominal thickness of
thinner sheet_ in. Design shear strength i Ib
0.020 ................... 72
.022 ................... 84
.025 ................... i00
.028 ................... 120
.032 ................... 140
.036 ................... 164
.040 ................... 188
•045 ................... 220
.050 ................... 248
.056 ................... 284
.063 ................... 324
.071 ................... 376
.080 ................... 428
.090 ................... 496
.i00 ................... 572
.112 ................... 648
.125 ................... 720
aMagnesium alloys AZ31B and HK31A may be spot welded in any

combination.
Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 54
BI.2.6 Spot Weldin_ (Cont'd)
Table B 1.2.6.4 Minimum Edge Distances for Spot-Welded

Joints ab
Nominal thickness of
thinner sheet_ in. Edge distance_ E_ in.
0.016 ................... 3/16
0.020 .................... 3/16
0.025 ................... 7/32
0.032 ................... 1/4
0.036 ................... 1/4
0.040 ................... 9/32
0.045 ................... 5/16
0.050 ................... 5/16
0.063 ................... 3/8
0.071 ................... 3/8
0.080 ................... 13/32
0.090 ................... 7/16
0.i00 ................... 7/16
0.125 ................... 9/16
0.160 ................... 5/S
alntermediate gages will conform to the requirement for the
next thinner gage shown.
bFor edge distances less than those specified above, appropriate
reductions in the spot-weld allowable loads shall be made.
Fig. B 1.2.6-1 Edge Distances for Spot-Welded Joints.

Section B 1
25 September 1961
BI.2.6 Spot Welding (Cont'd) Page 55
(_IO_ o=_)
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Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 56
B 1.2.7 Reduction in Tensile Strength of Parent Metal Due to Spot

Weldin_
In applications of spot welding where ribs, intercostals, or

doublers are attached to sheet, either at splices or at other points
on the sheet panels, the allowable ultimate strength of the spot-welded
sheet shall be determined by multiplying the ultimate tensile sheet
strength ("_' values where available) by the appropriate efficiency
factor shown on Figures B 1.2.7-1 through B 1.2.7-4. The minimum values
of the basic sheet efficiency in tension should not be considered
applicable to cases of seam welds. Allowable ultimate tensile strengths
for spot-welded sheet gages of less than 0.012 inch for steel and
0.020 inch for aluminum shall be established on the basis of tests.
Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 57
BI.2.7 Reduction in Tensile Strength of Parent Metal Due to Spot
Weldin_ (Cont'd)
020 in.
= 032 in.
U
= • 90 __ '0.040 in.
u _ '0.050 in.
ww _
_ _._ _ 063 in.
80 080 in.
O9O in.
"_ 125 in.
_= = 70 sheet
u gage
6o
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Spot Spacing (Center to Center), Inches
Fig. B 1.2.7-1 Efficiency of the Parent Metal

in Tension for Spot-Welded 301-1/2 H
Corrosion-Reslstant Steel
I00
/ - 032 in.
'°I///,
,o o,o,.
_4a
u
c 050 in.
O
063 in.
!1171 o,o
,,.
U
-/ 1090 in.
,kl .125 in.

II1 .r,I
gage
m _
[.-(
U 70_/ sheet
60
50
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Spot Spacing (Center to Center), inches
Fig. B 1.2.7-2 Efficiency of the Parent Metal

in Tension for Spot-Welded 301-H
Corrosion-Resistant Steel
Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 58
B 1.2.7 Reduction in Tensile Strength of Parent Metal Due to Spot

Weldin_ (Cont' d)
I00
0. 012 in.
.4
0. 020 in.
O. 032
9O ___ in.
0. 050 in.
.4
0.
O. 040 in.
063 in.
t&4
80 ___
&J O. 080
0. 090 in.
in.
J
_0. 125 in.
J= = 7O sheet
U
.4
gage
_O
6O
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Fig. B 1.2.7-3 Efficiency of the Parent

Metal in Tension for Spot-Welded
301-A, 347-A, and 301-1/4 H
Corrosion-Resistant Steel
I00
[O.02O in.
_4J 90 _ID.040 in.
fILL --
O ;:
I_0.032 in.
.4
80 O. i00 in: ,
--0.090 in.
O. 080 in.
•J O
?0 0.071 in;'
O. 063 in.
\ O. 050 in.
O
6O
_4 Sheet gage
m
l l
5O
0 0.5 I 1.5 2 2.5 3
Fig. B 1.2.7-4 Efficiency of the Parent

Metal in Tension for Spot-Welded
Aluminum Alloys
Section B I
25 September 1961
f_
Page 59
B 1.3.0 Brazing
Insofar as discussed herein, brazing is applicable only to steel.

Brazing is defined as a weld wherein coalescence is produced by heating
to suitable temperatures above 800 ° F and by using a nonferrous filler
metal having a melting point below that of the base metal. The filler
metal is distributed through the joint by capillarity.
The effect of the brazing process upon the strength of the parent
or base metal shall be considered in the structural design. Where
copper furnace brazing or silver brazing is employed the calculated
allowable strength of the base metal which is subjected to the tempera-
tures of the brazing process shall be in accordance with the following:
Material Allowable Strength
Heat-treated material Mechanical properties of

(including normalized) normalized material
used in "as-brazed"
condition
Heat-treated material Mechanical properties
(including normalized) corresponding to heat
reheat-treated during treatment performed
or after brazing
B 1.3.1 Copper Brazing
The allowable shear stress for design shall be 15 ksi, for all
conditions of heat treatment.
B 1.3.2 Silver Brazin$
The allowable shear stress for design shall be 15 ksi, provided

that clearances or gaps between parts to be brazed do not exceed 0.010
inch. Silver-brazed areas should not be subjected to temperatures
exceeding 900 ° F. Acceptable brazing alloys, with the exception of
Class 3, are listed in Federal Specification QQ-S-561d.
Section B 1
25 September 1961
Page 60
Reference:
(I) MIL-HDBK-5, Strength of Metal Aircraft Elements, Armed Forces

Supply Support Center, Washington 25, D.C., March 1959.
SECTION B2
LUGS AND SHEAR PINS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
B2.0.O Analysis of Lugs and Shear Pins ..................... 1
2.1.0 Analysis of Lugs with Axial Loading ............ 2

2.2.0 Analysis of Lugs with Transverse Loading ....... 17
2.3.0 Analysis of Lugs with Oblique Loading .......... 23
B2-iii
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page i
B 2.0.0 Analysis of Lugs and Shear Pins
The method described in this section is semi-empirical and is

applicable to aluminum or steel alloy lugs. The analysis considers
loads in the axial, transverse and oblique directions. Each of these
loads are treated in Sections B 2.1.0, B 2.2.0, and B 2.3.0 respectively.
See Fig. B 2.0.0-1 for description of directions.
Axial load
Oblique load
Transverse load
Fig. B 2.0.0-1
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 2
B 2.1.0 Analysis of Lugs with Axial Loadin_
A lug-pin combination under tension load can fail in any of the

following ways, each of which must be investigated by the methods
presented in this section:
i. Tension across the net section. Stress concentration must

be considered.
. Shear tear-out or bearing. These two are closely related

and are covered by a single calculation based on empirical
curves.
3. Shear of the pin. This is analyzed in the usual manner.
4. Bending of the pin. The ultimate strength of the pin is

based on the modulus of rupture.
5. Excessive yielding of bushing (if used).
. Yielding of the lug is considered to be excessive at a

permanent set equal to .02 times pin diameter. This
condition must always be checked as it is frequently
reached at a lower load than would be anticipated from
the ratio of the yield stress, Fty to the ultimate stress,
Ftu for the material.
Notes:
a. Hoop tension at tip of lug is not a critical condition,
as the shear-bearing condition precludes a hoop tension
failure.
Do
The lug should be checked for side loads (due to mis-
alignment, etc.) by conventional beam formulas (Fig.
B 2.1.0-1).
Analysis procedure to obtain ultimate axial load.
i. Compute (See Fig. B 2.1.0-1 for nomenclature)
e/D, W/D, D/t; Abr = Dt, At = (W-D)t
. Ultimate load for shear-bearing failure:

Note: In addition to the limitations provided by curves "A"
and "B" of Fig. B 2.1.0-3, Kbr greater than 2.00 shall not
be used for lugs made from .5 inch thick or thicker aluminum
alloy plate, bar or hand forged billet.
Section B 2
27 July 1961
F
Page 3
B2.1.0 Analysis of Lugs with Axial Loading (Cont'd)
Bushing
W
2
.10P (Minimum side load assumed

to account for misalignment)
Fig. B 2.1.0-I
(a) Enter Fig. B 2.1.0-3 with e/D and D/t to obtain Kbr
(b) The ultimate load for shear bearing failure, P'bru is
P'bru = Kbr Ftux Abr ........................ (I)
where
Ftu x = Ultimate tensile strength of lug material

in transverse direction.
, Ultimate load for tension failure:
(a) Enter Fig. B 2.1.0-4 with W/D to obtain K t for proper

material
(b) The ultimate load for tension failure P'tu is
P'tu = Kt Ftu At ........................... (2)

Section B2
July 9, 1964
Page 4
B2.1.O Analysis of Lugs with Axial Loading (Cont'd)
where
Ftu= ultimate tensile strength of lug material
4. Load for yielding of the lug
(a) Enter Fig. B 2.1.0-5 with e/D to obtain Kbry.
(b) The yield load, e_ is
P'y = Kbry Abr Fly .......................... (3)
where
Fty= Tensile yield stress of the lug material.
5. Load for yielding of the bushing in bearing (if used):
P_ry = 1.85 Fty Abrb ....................... (4)
where
Fty= Compressive yield stress of bushing material
Abrb = Dpt (Fig. B 2.1.0-1)
6. Pin bending stress.
P/2 l'-ITtt
p/2
I t2 +(_
P/2
t 3
(a) P/2-_--
J P/2
I P/2
p/2 -_--1
7 (t4/2)
(b)
Fig. B 2.1.0-2
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 5
B 2.1.0 Analysis of Lugs with Axial Loading (Cont'd)
(a) Obtain moment arm "b" as follows:
(See Fig. B 2.1.0-2a) compute for the inner lug
r = _- - -7 t2 ..................... (5)
Take the smaller of P'bru and P'tu for the inner lug as
(P'u)min and compute (P'u)min/AbrFtux .
t ,,
Enter Fig. B 2.1.0-6 with (Pu)min/AbrFtu x and r" to

obtain the reduction factor, "7" which compensates
for the "peaking" of the distributed pin bearing load
near the shear plane. Calculate the moment arm "b"
from
b = +g+7 4 ...................... (6)
Where "g" is the gap between lugs as in Fig. B 2.1.0-2a

and may be zero. Note that the peaking reduction factor
applies only to the inner lugs.
(b) Calculate maximum pin bending moment M, from the

equation
(c) Calculate bending stress resulting from "M", assuming

an My/l distribution.
(d) Obtain ultimate strength of the pin in bending by use

of Section B 4.5.2. If the analysis should show
inadequate pin bending strength, it may be possible to
take advantage of any excess lug strength to show
adequate strength for the pin by continuing the
analysis as follows:
(e) Consider a portion of the lugs to be inactive as

indicated by the _=haded area of Fig. B 2.1.0-2b. The
portion of the thickness to be considered active may
have any desired value sufficient to carry the load
and should be chosen by trial and error to give
approximately equal Factors of Safety for the lugs
and pin.
(f) Recalculate all lug Factors of Safety, with ultimate

loads reduced in the ratio of active thickness to
actual thickness.
(g) Recalculate pin bending moment, M = P (b/2), and Factor

of Safety using _l reduced value of "b" which is obtained
as follows:
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 6
v
Compute for the inner lug, Fig. B 2.1.0-2b
r = 2 2t 4
Take the smaller of P'bru and P'tu for the inner lug,
based upon the active thickness, as (Pu)min and compute
(P_)min/Abr Ftux, where Abr = 2t4 D. Enter Fig. B 2.1.0-
6 with (P_)min/Abr Ftux and "r " to obtain the reduc-
tion factor "7 " for peaking. Then the moment arm is
b t3
= -_-- + g +7 _ ___4 _ ..................... (9)
This reduced value of "b" should not be used if the

resulting eccentricity of load on the outer lugs
introduce excessive bending stresses in the adjacent
structure. In such cases the pin must be strong enough
to distribute the load uniformly across the entire lug.
7. Factor of Safety, F.S.

Compute the following Factors of Safety:
(a) Lug
p'
bru
Ultimate F.S. in shear-bearing ...... (lO)
P
p!
tu
Ultimate F.S. in tension - p ............. (ii)
p,
Yield F.S. = --Y--

P ......................... (12)
(b) Pin
F
Ultimate F.S. in shear =
_U ............... (13)
fs
F b ............... (14)
Ultimate F.S. in bending = --
_b
(c) Bushing (if used)

p,
i)rx (15)
Yield F.S. in bearing p
An analysis for yielding of the pin and ultimate bearing

failure of the bushing is not required.
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 7
B2.1.O Analysis of Luzs with AxiJl Loading (Cont'd)
4-J
cq
O oO
See notc,_; on I_)1 ]ow[,_;, i_ :,,c,.

Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 8
B 2.1.0 Analysis of Lugs with Axial Loading (Cont'd_
Curve A is a cutoff to be used for all aluminum alloy hand forged

billet when the long transverse grain direction has the general
direction C in the sketch.
Curve B is a cutoff to be used for all aluminum alloy plate, bar and
hand forged billet when the short transverse grain direction has the
general direction C in the sketch, and for die forging when the lug
contains the parting plane in a direction approximately normal to the
direction C.
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 9
o9
0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
w/D
Fig. B 2.1.0-4
Legend on following pages.

Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page i0
Legend - Figure B 2.1.0-4- L, T, N, indicate grain in direction

F in sketch
L = longitudinal
T = long transverse
N = short transverse (normal)
Curve 1
4130, 4140, 4340 and 8630 steel

2014-T6 and 7075-T6 plate _ 0.5 in (L,T)
7075-T6 bar and extrusion (L)

2014-T6 hand forged billet _ 144 sq. in. (L)
2014-T6 and 7075-T6 die forgings (L)
Curve 2
2014-T6 and 7075-T6 plate > 0.5 in., _ 1 in.

7075-T6 extrusion (T,N)
7075-T6 hand forged billet _ 36 sq.in. (L)
2014-T6 hand forged billet > 144 sq.in. (L)
2014-T6 hand forged billet _ 36 sq.in. (T)
2014-T6 and 7075-T6 die forgings (T)
17-4 PH
17-7 PH-THD
Curve 3
2024-T6 plate (L,T)

2024-T4 and 2024-T42 extrusion (L,T,N)
Curve 4
2024-T4 plate (L,T)

2024-T3 plate (L,T)
2014-T6 and 7075-T6 plate > I in.(L,T)
2024-T4 bar (L,T)
7075-T6 hand forged billet > 36 sq.in. (L)
7075-T6 hand forged billet _ 16 sq.in. (T)
Curve 5
195T6, 220T4, and 356T6 aluminum alloy casting

7075-T6 hand forged billet > 16 sq.in. (T)
2014-T6 hand forged billet > 36 sq.in. (T)
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page ii
Curve 6
Aluminum alloy plate, bar, hand forged billet, and die forging
(N). Note: for die forgings, N direction exists only at the
parting plane. 7075-T6 bar (T)
Curve 7
18-8 stainless steel, annealed
Curve 8
18-8 stainless steel, full hard, Note: for 1/4, 1/2 and 3/4
hard, interpolate between Curves 7 and 8.
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 12
2.0
1.5
1.0
Kbry
.5
0 11 I!
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
e/D
FiB. B 2.1.0-5
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 13

0
I _4
i
0
IIIN , °
0
p_
i I
(n
IIIIIIl_
::
I I --
if3
0
IllI1 -o- <t
IIlll
,--_I c,4
0 I
0
OOo_ iiiii\i\oi\
°'-° Ill/IX\t S
.4
.,-I
v
oo iii_o,\
\
-4
oo /_x\
U
' _ _
---Lfj_-c_-_
-=\
0
,-.4 0 C_ cO _-- ,_9 u'_ _ o'_ c_I ,-4 0
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 14
Special Applications
I. Irregular lug section - bearing load distributed over

entire thickness.
For lugs of irregular section having bearing stress distributed

over the entire thickness, an analysis is made based on an
equivalent lug with rectangular sections having an area equal
to the original section.
1 T
12sec
(Sec. B)
(a) (b)
Fig. B 2.1.0-7
Dashed lines show equivalent lug
2. Critical bearing stress
NASA Design Manual Section 3.0.0 lists the values of the

ultimate and yield bearing stress of materials for e/D values
of 2.0 and 1.5, these are valid for values of D/t to 5.5.
The ultimate and yield bearing stress for geometrical
conditions outside of the above range may be determined in
the following manner:
(a) Ultimate bearing stress: For the particular D/t and e/D,
obtain Kbr from Fig. B 2.1.0-3 then
Fbr u = Kbr Ftux
where
Ftu x = Ultimate strength of lug material in transverse

direction.
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 15
(b) Yield bearing stress: With the particular e/D obtain
Kbry from Fig. B 2.1.0-5. Then
Fbry = Kbry Ftyx
where
Fty x = Tensile yield stress of lug material in transverse

direction.
3. Eccentrically located hole
If the hole is located as in Fig. B 2.1.0-8 (e% less than e2) ,

the ultimate and yield lug loads are determined by obtaining
P'bru, P'tu and P'y for the equivalent lug shown and multiply-
ing by the factor
el + e2 + 2D
factor =
2e 2 + 2D
Actual lug Equivalent lug
Fig. B 2.1.0-8
4. Multiple shear connections
Lug-pin combinations having the geometry shown in Fig.

B 2.1.0-9 are analyzed according to the following criteria:
(a) The load carried by each lug is determined by distributing

the total applied load "P" among the lugs as shown on
Fig. B 2.1.0-9 and the value of "C" is obtained from
Table B 2.1.0.1.
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 16 v
B 2.1.0 Analysis of Lugs with Axial Loadin_ (Cont'd)
-Two outer lugs of equal thickness

These lugs of
not less than C t' (See Table
equal thickness
B 2.1.0.1)
_---mm_ P2 P
P
_ P2
CPI..9,.---V/I/I/I/
These lugs of equal

thickness t"
Fig. B 2.1.0-9
(b) The maximum shear load on the pin is given in Table

B 2.1.0.1.
(c) The maximum bending moment in the pin is given by the

PI b
formula, M = -=7 where "b" is given in Table B 2.1.0.1.
Table B 2..I.0.1
Total number of
lugs including Pin Shear
both sides
t' + t"
.35 .50 P1 .28
2
t' + t"
.40 .53 P1 .33
2
.43 t' + t"

.37
.54 P1 2
ii .44 t' + t"

.54 P1 .39
2
t' + t"
OO .50 .50 P1 .50
2
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 17
B 2.2.0 Analysis of Lugs with Transverse Loading
Shape Parameter
In order to determine the ultimate and yield loads for lugs with
transverse loading, the shape of the lug must be taken into account.
This is accomplished by use of a shape parameter given by
A
Shape parameter =av
Abr
where
Abr is the bearing area = Dt
Aav is the weighted average area given by
Aav = _+_--_2_ + _--_3_ + _--A4)'--I
AI, A2, A 3 and A4 are areas of the lug sections indicated in

Fig. B 2.2.0-1.
A 3 least of any
radial section
_w _ radius
all
(a) (b)
Fig. B 2.2.0-1
(i) Obtain the areas AI, A2, A3, and A4 as follows:
(la) AI, A2, and A4 are measured on the planes indicated in

Fig. B 2.2.0-ia (perpendicular to the axial center line),
except that in a necked lug, as shown in Fig. B 2.2.0-Ib,
A I and A4 should be measured perpendicular to the local
line.
Section B2
July 9, 1964
Page 18
B 2.2.0 Analysis of Lugs with Transverse Loading (Cont'd)
(Ib) A 3 is the least area on any radial section around the

hole.
(ic) Thought should always be given to assure that the areas

AI, A2, A3, and A 4 adequately reflect the strength of
the lug. For lugs of unusual shape (e.g. with sudden
changes of cross section), an equivalent lug should be
sketched as shown in Fig. B 2.2.0-2 and used in the
analysis.
Equivalent lug Equivalent

lug
'] 450
50
Fig. B 2.2.0-2
(2) Obtain the weighted average
6
Aav = (3/AI) + (I/A2) + (I/A 3) + (I/A4)
(3) Compute Abr = Dt and Aav/ Abr
(4) Ultimate load P'tru for lug failure:
(a) Obtain Ktr u from Fig. B 2.2.0-4
(b) P'tru = Ktru Abr Ftux
(5) Yield load P'y of the lug:
(a) Obtain Ktry from Fig. B 2.2.0-4
(b) P'y = Ktry Abr Fty x
(6) Check bushing yield and pin shear as outlined previously.

Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 19
(7) Investigate pin bending as for axial load with following

modifications: Take (P'u)min = P' tru" In the equation r =
[e - (D/2)] /t use for the [e - _/2)] term the edge

distance at _ = 90 ° .
Fig. B 2.2.0-3
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 20
B2.2.0 Analysis of Lugs with Transverse Loadin_ (Cont'd)
125,000 HT
1.6 I J
[_50,000 HT
Ktry-All alum.
1.4
& steel
alloys_
1.2 • _'_- _ 8o, O00h_
1.0
Ktr u &
Ktry
0.8
x
0.6
0.4
0.2 I ! _,_I" I I I I
i i i !
, I I A-Approxlmate cantilever
strength. If Ktr u is below this curve
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Aav/Abr
Fig. B 2.2.0-4
Legend on following pages

Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 21
Legend - Fig. B 2.2.0-4
Curve i:
4130, 4140, 4340, and 8630 steels, heat treatment as noted.
Curve 2:
2024-T4 and 2024-T3 plate _0.5 in.
Curve 3:
220-T4 aluminum alloy casting
Curve 4 :
17-7 PH (THD)
Curve 5 :
2014-T6 and 7075-T6 plate_0.5 in.
Curve 6:
2024-T3 and 2024-T4 plate >0.5 in., 2024-T4 bar
Curve 7:
195-T6 and 356-T6 aluminum alloy casting
Curve 8:
2014-T6 and 7075-T6 plate>0.5 in.,_ i in.

7075-T6 extrusion
2014-T6 hand forged billets 36 sq. in.
2014-T6 and 7075-T6 die forgings
Curve 9:
2024-T6 plate
2024-T4 and 2024-T42 extrusion
Curve i0:
2014-T6 and 7075-T6 plate_ 1 in.

7075-T6 hand forged billet _16 sq. in.
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 22
Legend Fig. B 2.2.0-4 Cont'd
Curve ii:
7075-T6 hand forged billet >16 sq. in.

2014-T6 hand forged billet>36 sq. in.
All curves are for Ktr u except the one noted as Ktry
Note: The curve for 125,000 HT steel in Fig. B 2.2.0-4 agrees
closely with test data. Curves for all other materials have been
obtained by the best available means of correcting for material
properties and may possibly be very conservative to some places.
In no case should the ultimate transverse load be taken as less

than that which could be carried by cantilever beam action of
the portion of the lug under the load (Fig. B 2.2.0-3). The
load that can be carried by cantilever beam action is indicated
very approximately by curve (A) in Fig. B 2.2.0-4, should Ktr u

be below curve (A), separate calculation as a cantilever beam
is warranted.
\
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 23
B 2.3.0 Analysis of Lugs with Oblique Loadin$
Interaction Relation
In analyzing lugs subject to oblique loading it is convenient

to resolve the loading into axial and transverse components (denoted
by subscripts "a" and "tr" respectively), analyze the two cases
separately and utilize the results by means of an interaction equation.
The interaction equation Ra 1'6 + Rtr Io6 = i, where Ra and Rtr are
ratios of applied to critical loads in the indicated directions, is to

be used for both ultimate and yield loads for both aluminum and steel
alloys.
where, for ultimate loads
Ra = (Axial component of applied load) divided by (smaller of

P'bru and P'tu from Eq. I and Eq. 2.)
Rtr = (Transverse component of applied load) divided by
(P'tru from analysis procedure for _ = 90 deg.)
and for yield load:
Ra = (Axial component of applied load) divided by (P'y from

eq. 3.)
Rtr = (Transverse component of applied load) divided by

(P'try from Analysis Procedure for _ = 90 deg.)
Analysis Procedure
(i) Resolve the applied load into axial and transverse components
and obtain the lug ultimate and yield Factor of Safety from
the interaction equation:
F.So
I Ra 1"6 + Rtr 1.6 j0.625

(2) Check pin shear and bushing yield as in Section B 2.1.0.
(3) Investigate pin bending using the procedure for axial load
modified as follows:
P
Take (P'u)mi n =
_Ral'6 + Rtrl.6_ 0"625

'x /
In the equation r = [e - (D/2)] /t use for the [e-(D/2)]

term the edge distance at the value of "_ " corresponding to
the direction of load on the lug.
Section B 2
27 July 1961
Page 24
B 2.3.0 Analysis of Lugs with Oblique Loading (Cont'd)
Reference
Melcone, M. A. and F. M. Hoblit, Developments in the Analysis of

Method for Determining the Strength of Lugs Loaded Obliquely or
Transversely, Product Engineering, June, 1953.
SECTION B3
SPRINGS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
B3.0.O Springs ............................................. i
i f
3.1.O Helical Springs ................................. i

3.1.1 Helical Compression Springs ................. i
3.1.2 Helical Extension Springs ................... 7
3.1.3 Helical Springs with Torsional Loading ...... i0
3.1.4 Analysis of Helical Springs by Use of
12
Nomograph .................................
3.1.5 Maximum Design Stress for Various Spring
Materials ................................. 15
3.1.6 Dynamic or Suddenly Applied Spring Loading... 19
3.1.7 Working Stress for Springs .................. 24
3.2.0 Curved Springs .................................. 25
3.3.0 Belleville Springs or Washers ................... 29
B3-iii
_f
Section B 3
f
19 May 1961
Page 1
B 3.0.0 SPRINGS
B 3.1.0 Helical Springs
B 3.1.1 Helical Compression Springs
Most compression springs are open-coil, helical springs which

offer resistance to loads acting to reduce the length of the spring.
The longitudinal deflection of springs produces shearing stresses in
the spring wire. Where particular load-deflection characteristics
are desired, springs with varying pitch diameters may be used. These
springs may have any number of configurations, including cone, barrel,
and hourglass.
Round-Wire Springs
The relation between the applied load and the shearing stress for
helical springs formed from round wire is
8PD
f = __ ....................................... (1)
s _d 3
where
fs = shearing stress in pounds per sq. inch.

(not corrected for curvature)
P = axial load in pounds
D = mean diameter of the spring coil (Outside diameter
minus wire diameter or inside diameter plus wire
diameter)
d = diameter of the wire in inches.
Equation (i) is based on the assumption that the magnitude of thc_

stress varies directly with the distance from the center of the wire;
but, actually, the stress is greater on the inside of the cross section
due to the curvature. The stress correction factor (k) used to deter-
mine the maximum shearing stress for static loads is found in
Fig. B 3.1.1-i. This correction factor gives the effect of both
torsion and direct shear. The equation for the maximum stress is
f : k f : k 8PD .,..°................,--.,." (2)

max s _d 3
Section B 3
December 3, 1969
Page 2
B 3.1.1 Helical Compression Springs (Cont'd)
where
k = kc + 0.615 Stress concentration factor plus the effect

Cl of direct shear
kc = 4C 1 - i Stress concentration factor due to curvature
Cl= Ratio of mean diameter of helix to the

,:I diameter of the bar or wire
2.1
!
.1.9
o
AJ
U
I 1.
X
0 1
0
\
0
= 1.5
\
0
\
°_
_ 1.
1.1
U _ r ,
= 1.3
0
I
o'1 •
r_ lo
0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 i0 Ii 12
D
SprJ:n_ index, C l = _[
Fig. B 3.1.l--!
Section B 3
4 19 May 1961
Page 3
B 3.1.1
Helical Compression Springs (Cont'd)
Stress correction for temperature.
Corrections must be made to account for changes in strength and

in elastic properties of spring materials at elevated temperatures.
This correction is made to the allowable stress of the spring material.
Values for various materials at various temperatures may be obtained
from Section 3.0.0 of the Design Manual.
Deflection
The formula for the relation between deflection and load

when using round wire in helical springs is
8NPD 3
_)- . ........................................ (3)
Gd 4
whe r e
= total deflection
N = number of coils
G = modulus of rigidity
The deflection may also be given in terms of the shearing stress

by combining Eqs. (I) and (3). Stress concentration usually does not
affect deflection to an appreciable degree, and no adjustment is needed
in Eq. (I). The expression for the deflection is
Nf _D 2
_ s ......................................... (4)
Gd
Sprin$ rate
The spring rate (K) is defined as the amount of force required

to deflect the spring a unit length. By proper substitution of the
previous equations, the spring rate may be shown to be
d4G
K =- .......................................... (5)
8ND 3
Bucklin$ of Compression Springs
A compression spring which is long compared to its diameter will

buckle under relatively low loads in the same manner as a column. How-
ever, the problem of buckling is of little consequence if the compres-
sion spring operates inside a cylinder or over a rod.
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 4
As the critical buckling load of a colum is dependent upon the

end fixity at the supports, so is the critical buckling load of a
spring dependent upon the fixity of the ends. In general, a compres-
sion spring with ends squared, ground, and compressed between two
parallel surfaces can be considered a fixed-end spring. The following
formula gives the critical buckling load.
Pc = JKL ............................................ (6)
where
Deflection
J = factor from Fig. B 3.1.1-2 =
Free Length
L = free length of spring
K = spring rate (See Eq. 5)
Fig. B 3.1.1-2 (curve i) is for squared and ground springs with

one end on a flat surface and the other on a ball. Curve 2 indicates
buckling for a squared and ground spring both ends of which are com-
pressed against parallel plates. This is the most common condition
with which the user must contend.
Helical Sprinss of Rectangular Wire.
When rectangular wire is used for helical springs, the value of

the shearing stress can be found by use of the equations for rectangu-
lar shafts. A stress concentration factor is applied in the usual way
to compensate for the effect of curvature and direct shear. For the
springs in Fig. B 3.1.1-3 (a) and (b) the stresses at points A 1 and A 2
are as follows:
kPR
........................ (7)
f = -- for point A1
s 51bc2
kPR
f = -- for point A2 ........................ <,8)
s 5 bc 2
2
values for51 and52 for various b/c ratios are found in Table B 3.1.1-1.
The stress concentration factor should be applied for point A 1 in

Fig. B 3.1.1-3(a) and to point A 2 in Fig. B 3.1.1-3 (b). The stress
concentration factors of Fig. B 3.1.1-1 may be used as an approximate
value for rectangular wire.
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 5
1 2
.7
Springs above and to the
right of the curves will
buckle.
.6
.5
_I_
II
\\
.2 \ \
.1
0 ,1,
0 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 II 12
Free Length _ L
Mean Diameter D
Fig. B 3.1.1-2
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 6
AI
P
(a) (b)
2R 2R
Sprin 8 index, C 1 =- C Spring index, C I =-_-
Fig. B 3.1.I-3
b/c 1.00 1.20 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 8.00 I0.00 oo
.208 .219 .231 .239 .246 .258 .267 .282 .291 .299 .307 .312 .333
.208 .235 .269 .291 .309 .336 .355 .378 .392 .402 .414i.421
_2
.1406 .166 .196 .214 .229 .249 .263 .281 .291 .299 .307 .312 .333
Table B 3.1.I-i
The equation for the relation between the load (P) and the
deflection (5) is
2_pR3N
..........................................
(9)
_Gbc 3
where:
is obtained from Table B 3.1.1-1

b and c are as shown in Fig. B 3.1.1-3
R is the mean radius of the spring
N is the number of coils
G is the modulus of rigidity
P is the axial load
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 7
B 3.1.2 Helical Extension Springs
Helical extension springs differ from helical compression springs

only in that they are usually closely coiled helices with ends formed
to permit their use in applications requiring resistance to tensile
forces. It is also possible for the spring to be wound so that it is
preloaded, that is, the spring is capable of resisting an initial
tensile load before the coils separate. This initial tensile load
does not affect the spring rate. See Figure B 3.1.2-1 for the load-
deflection relationship of a preloaded helical extension spring.
Spring with
initial
Load
jfJ
/ i_____Spring without
Initial
/ initial tension
tension
J .
Deflection
Fig. B 3.1.2-1
Stresses and Deflection
In helical extension springs, the shape of the hook or end turns

for applying the load must be designed so that the stress concentra-
tion effects caused by the presence of sharp bends are decreased as
much as possible. This problem is covered in the next article.
If the extension spring is designed with initial tension, formulas

(I) through (9) from Section B 3.1.1 are valid, but must be applied
with some understanding of the nature of the forces involved.
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 8
B 3.1.2 Helical Extension Springs (toni'd)
Stress concentration in hooks on extension springs.
p P
t
d
A
r3 r4
r2
(a) (b)
Fig. B 3.1.2-2
a. Bending Stress
Fig. B 3.1.2-2(a) illustrates the bending moment (PR) due to the

load (P). The bending stress at point A is:
32PR 4P
fb =--k +-- ................................ (zo)
_d 3 _d 2
where k is the correction factor obtained from Fig. B 3.1.2-3, using

the ratio 2rl/d.
rI = radius of center line of maximum curvature.
A simplified equation is:
fb = _d
32P___RR
. /rl
3 L_ 3 ) ................................. (ii)
r 3 = inside radius of bend.
The maximum bending stress obtained by this simplified form will

always be on the safe side and, under normal conditions, only slightly
higher than the true stress.
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 9
B 3.1.2 Helical Extension Springs (Cont'd)
b. Torsional Stress
At point A', Fig. B 3.1.2-2(b), where the bend joins the helical
portion of the spring, the stress condition is primarily torsion. The
maximum torsional shear stress due to the moment (PR) is
16PR / 4CI - I
f ........................... (12)
s = _d 3 _ 4C I 4
2r 2
C1 = d
A simplified form similar to the one for bending is
f = ................................ (13)
s _d 3 _4
This will also give safe results.
IIIIII
IIIIII
k \\
k_k i_-
2
0
0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
R_=D _D
c d h
"- Fig. B 3.1.2-3

Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page I0
B 3.1.3 Helical Springs with Torsional Loading
A helical spring can be loaded by a torque about the axis of the

helix. Such loading, as shown in Fig. B 3.1.3-I(a), is similar to the
torsional loading of a shaft. The torque about the axis of the helix
acts as a bending moment on each section of the wire as shown in
Fig. B 3.1.3-I(b). The stress is then
Mc
fb = kn T- .............................. ' ......... (14)
where the stress concentration factor, Kn, is given as
3CI 2 - CI - 0.8 inner

kl = 3CI(C I - i) edge Rectangular
cross section
wire
3CI 2 + C I - 0.8 outer
k2 = 3CI(C I -I) edge
2R
=--h ; "h" is the depth of section perpendicular
C1
to the axis.
2
4C 1 - CI -i inner "
k3 = 4CI(C I - I) edge Round
cross section
2
4C 1 + C1 - 1 outer wire
k4 = 4CI(C I + i) edge
2R
Cl = T
Angular deformation
The deformation of the wire in the spring is the same as for a

straight bar of the same length "S'_ The total angular deformation 8
between tangents drawn at the ends of the bar is:
MS
........................................ (15)
E1
Angle 8 in some cases may amount to a number of revolutions.

Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page i I
B3.1.3 Helical Springs with Torsional Loadin$ (Cont'd)
h or d
\ x / /
k \ f
4-- J
Fig. B 3.1.3-1
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 12
B 3.1.4 Analysis of l_elic_Jl S[_rings by Use of Nomograph
The procedure for using the nomographs (Fig. B 3.1.4-1 and

Fig. B 3.1.4-2) for helical springs are as follows:
I. Set the appropriate wire diam. on the "d" scale.
2. Set the appropriate mean diam. on the "D" scale.
3. Connectthe two points and read the curvature correction

factor:
a. For tension and compression springs read the "y" scale

on Fig. B 3.1.4-1.
b. For torsion springs read the "k" scale on Fig. 3.1.4-2.
.
Set the correction factor, obtained in step 3, on the
appropriate "y" or "k" scale to the right of Fig. B 3.1.4-1
and Fig. B 3.1.4-2.
5. Set the "calculated" (Eq. I or Eq. 14 with kn = I) stress

on the "f" scale.
6. Connect the two point_, from steps 4 and 5, and read the
corrected stress on t le (f') scale.
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 13
B 3.1.4 Analysis of Helical Springs by Use of Nomograph (Cont'd)
FIBER STRESS CORRECTION FOR CURVATURE

Helical Extension and Compression Springs
Find Correction Factor Using Correction Factor Found on
From Spring Index Left Half of Chart--Determine
True Fiber Stress
f'
300,000 -I
0 OZ-
157' -3
d
0.031 O_ 0 2OODOO]
4.1
U
i ,ZO
. OO_ ,19 "_
I_I00..4
02
0
. "17 04) ]
00! ._e c |
",', 031
007 -_5 _ |
r
009 -13 _ 05_
O. "t2 0 064
4
_-L, _ °_".I
:_ 123
I::
> 121,,
I-.,
6 .,-1 :3 L.]9
r.D r._
1.18 0 01)
_D 6O/)O 1,,.=
116-,I _U
J- 13 °r,4
(3.,
t i55" '9
6
1145-. 4_000
_J ,_ 5o_oo r._
L125. ,I0 7
12,
°'[ ] I.II-, II
CO
8
'9
.10
a 4 0,000.
!
O C
II0. ,12 -,,-I 0
0.. 7
r/) -=,-I
109- _13 3opoo r.o

0
0
1085._.14
E'_
1.084 15 I::
-.4 C
108' 16 ,,-.4
u)
m 2_000
O_ (,_
(t,,t
20po0
4,.I
rJ3
l-
o,.)
.,-4
_000
"_ Fig. B 3.1.4-1

Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 14
B 3.1.4 Analysis of Helical Springs by Use of Nomograph (Cont'd)
FIBER STRESS CORRECTION FOR CURVATURE

Torsion Springs
Find Correction Factor Using Correction Factor Found on
Left Half of Chart--Determlne
True Fiber Stress
d
zoo_ooo.
0021 '_-_
D 16£0'
0.0 0
g
"l OO3 t 0000_00_ _U 1.4ei/
• _ 1.410,
0,I =
o L367,
k
_-J 1332,
2OOpOO-
r._
Of" t61_
c,..)
¢J
7_oo-
o,
0
¢..) 00_OO-
_4Z. S
tiN" _1 120- 6opoo.
IJ3@ 701)00-
. ° t25,
I I1_1, # 4.-)
i 115 t_ _ooo-
04- 3": iiio- :;> IK)- _J _000 -
i lOT. I.
05" , 8 rj
I
5QOoo.-
06- S-.
IN: I0_" o
0.7£ s- in 4o/:X_- 4O0OO--

7- =
liosO-ll 0
09-:. m-
1077- II =
30_O00-
L072. 12
m 3oooo
I.O?o. i3 (I)
20-
1066. 14
2- 1064' i5 zo.ooo-
I,_7, I#
3- I055" Ill
_9 zopoo-
d
Fig. B 3.1.4-2 .__

Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 15
B3.1.5 Maximum Design Stress for Various Sprin_ Materials
Phosphor Bronze Spring Wire

Maximum Design Stresses
120
I00
P-4
m
m
U 80
&J
-,-4
60
4O
2O
0
• Ol .02 •04 .I0 .20 •40
Wire Diameter - Inches
_ Fig. B 3.1.5-i
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 16
B3.1.5 Maximum Design Stresses for Various Spring Materials (Cont'd)
/
/
/
!
/
IS'_ - sse=]S u_3saG mnm3x_]
Fig. B 3.1.5-2
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 17
B 3.1.5 Maximum Design Stresses for Various S Materials (Co_
I II I I I I1"
0
IS)i - sso=3S u_ls_ mnmlx_i
- Fig. B 3.1.5-3
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 18 v
B 3.1.5 Maximum Design Stresses for Various Spring Materials (Cont'd)
15DI - ss_z_S uSTeo(] mnmTxe14
Fig. B 3.1.5-4 _-
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 19
B 3.1.6 Dynamic or Suddenly Applied Spring Loading
A freely falling weight, or moving body, that strikes a structure

delivers a dynamic or impact load, or force. Problems involving such
forces may be analyzed on the basis of the following idealizing
assumptions:
1. Materials behave elastically, and no dissipation of energy

takes place at the point of impact or at the supports owing to local
inelastic deformation of materials.
2. The deflection of a system is directly proportional to the

magnitude of the dynamically or statically applied force.
Then, on the basis of the principle of conservation of energy,if

it may be further assumed that at the instant a moving body is stopped,
its kinetic energy is completely transformed into the internal strain
energy of the resisting system, the following formulas will apply:
(a) For very slowly applied loads
b P
-- o ..... ° ...... ° ........ ° ° ° ° ........... ° ° ° (16)
K
(b) For loads suddenly applied
2P (17)
K
(c) For loads dropped from a given height
_2 2P(S + _) ................................. (18)

G =
K
where:
= Total deflection
K = Spring rate
P = Load on spring
S = Height load is dropped.
The following problems will illustrate such conditions and their

solutions:
Problem I.
Given a spring which compresses one inch for each pound of load,
determine the maximum load and deflection resulting from a 4 lb.
weight.
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 20
B 3.1.6 Dynamic or Suddenly Applied Spring Loading (Cont'd)
(a) Case i:
The weight is laid gently on the spring.

P 4
5 = K i = 4 in. from Eq. 16
since K _ i maximum load = 4 lb.
(b) Case 2:
The weight is suddenly dropped on the spring from zero height.
5 = K2__[P
ffi2(4)i = 8 in. from Eq. 17
maximum load = 8 lb.
(c) Case 3:
The weight is dropped on the spring from a height of 12

inches.
52 = 2P(S + 5) = 2(4) (12 + 5) from Eq. 18

K 1
or
2
5 - 85 - 96 = 0
8 + _82 + 4(96)
= = 14.6 in.
2
maximum load 14.6 lb.
From the maximum load produced, Eq. 2 section B 3.1.1 may be

used to calculate the stress produced. This should be within the
limits indicated on Fig. B 3.1.5-1, B 3.1.5-2, B 3.1.5-3 and B 3.1.5-4.
Problem 2.
For many uses it is necessary to know the return speed of a

spring or the speed with which it will return a given weight. A
typical example of this problem could be stated as follows: a spring
made of 5/16 in. by 3/16 in. rectangular steel contains 4 3/8 total
coils, 2 3/8 active coils, on a mean diameter of 1 5/16 in. The
spring compresses 5/32 in. for 200 lb. load. If the spring is com-
pressed and then instantaneously released, how fast will it be moving
at its original free length position of 1 21/32 in.? The solution is
as follows:
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 21
Weight per turn = _(i 5/16)(3/16)(5/16)(.283) lb. per cu. in.

= .0685 lb. of steel in each coil
.0685 (2 3/8) active coils (1/3) = .0542 Ib (one-third of the

weight of active spring material involved.)
To this .0542 lb. we add the dead coil at the end plus the moving
weight, if any.
The equivalent total weight (.0542 + .0685) is 0.1227 lb.
The potential energy of a spring is equal to 1/2 the total load

times the distance moved, or 1/2(200)(5/32) = 15.6 in. lb. The
kinetic energy equals 1/2 Mv 2 wherein (M) is the mass and (v) is the
velocity.
Mass = Weight where g is the gravitational acceleration,

g
or 32.16 ft/sec./sec.
.1227v 2
Therefore 15.6 = or v = 314 in/sec
2(32.16)(12)
Often springs are used to absorb energy of impact. In most

such instances springs must be designed so that they will absorb the
entire energy. In a few cases partial absorption is tolerated. A
typical problem of this type follows.
Problem 3.
A 30 lb. weight has a velocity of 4 ft. per second. How far will
a spring that has a spring rate of i0 ib/in, be compressed?
KINETIC ENERGY
I 30(4)(4) = 7.46 ft lb.

K.E. = _ Mv 2 = 2(32.16)
or
7.46(12) = 89.52 in.lb.
i load times deflection

Spring energy =
Load = rate per inch times deflection
Spring energy = _ Kb 2 = 89.52 in. lb.

2
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 22
! I08 2 = 89.52
2
62 = 17.90
deflection, 6 = 4.23 in.
If springs are used to propel a mass, a parallel attack using

velocity and acceleration applies.
Problem 4.
Let it be required to find the spring load that will propel a

l-lb. ball 15 ft. vertically upward in 1/2 second. It is assumed
that the spring can be compressed a distance of i ft.
In order to travel 15 ft. in 1/2 second the l-lb. load must have
a certain initial velocity. This can be found as follows:
V h
=--q- gt
t 2
wherein: h = height
g = 32.16 ft. per sec 2
t = time
v = ]--+ 2 = 38.04 ft. per sec. Spring velocity at

2 free height.
= v2 _.(__._..
04) 2
Spring acceleration 2-_ = 2 "T_l) = 723 ft/sec/sec
Force equals mass times acceleration so
723(1)
F = 32.16 = 22.5 Ib. avg.
The average spring pressure is 1/2 the total load. Hence the
spring will compress i ft. with 2(22.5) or 45-Ib. of load. Often, it
is desired to know how high the weight would be propelled. This can
be determined by equating the work performed by the spring to the work
of the falling weight; thus work equals force times distance.
In the spring we have 45 (i) ft.

2
In the weight we have l-lb.(h)
Hence l(h) = 45 (I) = 22.5 ft., the height to which the weight
would be thrown. 2
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 23
If we were to apply the previous formula

_2 = 2P_S + 8)
K to the springs,
we must remember (S) is the height the load is dropped. The total
distance traveled by the weight is (S + _).
Therefore, h = S + g in this case
Substituting i = 2(1)h
45
h = 22.5 ft.
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 24
B 3.1.7 Working Stress for Springs
If the loading on the spring is continuously fluctuating, due

allowance must be made in the design for fatigue and stress concentra-
tion. A method of determining the allowable or working stress for a
particular spring is dependent on the application as well as the
physical properties of the material.
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 25
B 3.2.0 Curved Springs
The analytical expression for determining stresses for curved

springs is
f = +P+-
A - +AR
M----(I l__y__Z
R+y .......................... (19)
in which the quantities have the same meaning defined in section

B 4.3.1.
Displacement of curved springs is determined hy use of

Castigliano's theorem.
p -_--
_vTN _- _d_+
_N /V GA _V
_P ds +
M
EAYoR
_M
_p ds
+ _M _N
_P ds +/ k_
N _M
_ ds .............. (20)
P
in which
N = normal force
E = Modulus of Elasticity
G = Modulus of Rigidity
A = Cross-sectional area
R = Radius to centroid
ds = Incremental length
Yo = ZR
Z+I
= - AI _ "--Y--dA
R+y
y = is measured from the centroid
These expressions for stresses and displacements are quite

cumbersome; therefore, correction factors are used to simplify the
analysis. The correction factors (K) used to determine the stresses
are given in section B 4.3.1. The expression for the stress is
f = K Mc
T ............................................ (21)
See Table B 4.3.1-1 for values of correction factor K.
Deflection formulas for some basic types of curved springs are

given in Table B 3.2.0-1. Complex spring shapes may be analyzed hy
combination of two or more basic types.
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 26
B3.2.0 Curved Sprln_s {Cont'd)
Table B 3.2.0-I
Spring types Deflection
B = I_R_3 (m + _)3
3EI
where (x = _ for finding K
8 - 3El +
where _ = _2 for finding K
C p 8
- 3El +

P
P
D
* ttl = u
R
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 27
B 3.2.0 Curved Springs (Cont'd)
0°
i i
0.2
r,,-
i,--
0.1
0 _1 i I I I!li ]ililllllllJllllllllnllHl[ fill llllllil III:IIIH
0. i 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 .9 1.5 2.0 3 4 5 6 8 I0

0.15 0,4 0.6 .8 1.0 7 9
IJ
Ratio R
Fi_. B 3.2.0-2
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 28
B 3.2.0 Curved Springs (Cont'd)
For close approximations, the following conditions should be met:
flat springs
spring thickness _ h <0.6

radius of curvature R
round wire
wire diameter d <0.6

radius of curvature R
Figure B 3.2.0-3 is a typical curved spring. The deflection of

the spring at point A is calculated as follows:
Spring Characteristics _ U1 "_ u2 _B
h
4 z
_< 0.6 u2 = 2.5" _i i'_i/_i
h R 2 _//_/
_I = _ RI = R2 = i"
_2 = 2 A
uI = i" UI P
Fig. B 3.2.0-3
Solution -
The solution involves two basic types (type B and A of Table B 3.2.0-1).
Type A solution is used for that portion of the spring denoted by sub-
script (2), and type B solution is used for that portion of the spring
denoted by subscript (I).
Correction factor, K (from Fig. B 3.2.0-2)
u2 2.5
__Ul= _i = I _ = 180 ° KI = .80 .... 2.5
rI I ' i ' r2 i
_i = 90o
_2 = 90o, K2 = .86
Deflection at point A
_A = 2KIPRI3<
3El m + _i
_- 3 + K2PR23
3E_ < m + _2 3
3F.I i + _ 3El 2.5 +
28.4P
E1
Sc:c-t.o.-_ _ 3
15 x,-- ' "q7_
Pas_ 29
B 3.3.0 3e!leville Sprln_s or Washers
Belleville type springs are used where space requirements

necessitate high stresses and short range of motion. A c_pleuc
derivation of data that is presented in this section will be found in
"Transactions of Amer. Soc. of M_ch. Engineers", May 1936, Volum_ 58,
No. 4, by Almen and Laszlo.
2a =O.D. !_'
2b
i i'D'=
I
Fig. B 3.3.0-I
Symbols
f
P = Load in pounds
5 = Deflection in inches
t = Thickness of material in inches
h = Free height minus thickness in inches
a = One-half outside diameter in inches
E = Young's modulus
f -- Stress at inside circumference
k = ratio of O.D. _ a
I.D. b
v = Poisson's ratio
M, C I and C 2 are constants which can be taken from the chart,

Fig. B 3.3.0-4, or calculated from the formulas given.
The formulas are:
6 (k-l) 2
M= (22)
logek k2
6 ] o , o e o, o o, • i o • oe Io • • I * • e, (23)
CI " _ logek logek - 1 j
i
3
po,o,eoooo,eo Jot,,,, _" _"
(24)
C2 - _ logek
/
Section B .3
15 March, I973
Page 30
B 3.3.0 Belleville Sprin_s orWashers (Cont'd)
The deflection-load formula..usin_._._he_.e constants is
P • (l "- ',Z )M_ZbZ h --_ h - 6 t + t
The stress formula is as follows:
(,. ] ...............
: Before using these formulas to calculate a sample problem, there
are some facts which should be considered. In the stress formula it
is possible for the term (h - 5/2) to become negative if (5) is
large. When this occurs, the term inside the brackets should be
changed to read Cl(h - 5/2) - C2t. Such an occurrence means that the
maximum stress is tensile.
For a spring life of less than one-half million stress cycles, a

fiber stress of 200,000 p.s.i, can be substituted for f, even though
this might be slightly beyond the elastic limit of the steel. This is
because the stress is calculated at the point of greatest intensity,
which is on an extremely small part of the disc. Iu_edlately surround-
ing this area is a much lo_er-stressed portion which so supports the
hlgher-loaded corner that very little setting results at atmospheric
temperatures. For higher operating temperatures and longer spring
llfe lower stresses must be employed.
Fig B 3.3.0-2 displays the load-deflection characteristics of a

.040 in. thick washer for various h/t ratios.
It is noted (from Fig. B 3.3.0-2) that for ratios of (h/t) under

1.41 the load-deflectlon _urve is somewhat similar to that of other
conventional springs. As this ratio approaches the value of 1.41, the
spring rate approaches zero (practically horizontal load-deflectlon
curve) at the flat position. When the (h/t) ratio is 2.83 or over
there I$ a portion of the curve where further deflection produces a
lower load. This is illustrated in the curves for the washers having
(h/t) ratios of 2.83 and 3.50. Such a spring, when deflected to a
certain point, will snap through center and require a negative loadlny
to return it to its original position.
The washers may sometimes be stacked so as to obtain the load-

deflectlon characteristics desired. The accepted methods are
illustrated in Fig. B 3.3.0-3.
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 31
B 3.3.0 Belleville Sprin_s or Washers (Cont'd)
O
O
_O
Fig. B 3.3.0-2
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 32
B 3.3.0 Belleville Springs or Washers (Cont'd)
Series Parallel Parallel - Series
Fig. B 3.3.0-3
As the number of washers used increases, so does the friction in

the stacks. This is not uniform and could result in spring units
which are very erratic in their load-carrying capacities. Belleville
springs, as a class, are one of the most difficult to hold to small
load-llmlt tolerances.
v
Section B 3
15 April 1970
Page 33
B3.3.0 Belleville Springs or Washer (Cont'd)
2.3 /
/
2.2
2.1 C2/"
f
/
2.0 1.0
/
1.9 / 0.9
#'
/
C1 /
1.8 0.8
and v
1.7 M j i / /
0.7
#. f /
C2 / /
1.6 /
/ /
/"
0.6
M
/
/
1.5 /
! I cl
/
i
14 ! / /
/ i /
1._ / / /
F /
1.2 l ' /
I.I
/ ///
/ / 1.0
/I l
lO ]// [ 0
1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.83.2 3.6 4.04.4 4.8
O.D.
Ratio of , k
I.D.
Fi_.B 3,3.0-4 Belleville Spring Constants: M, C Iaud C2

Section B 3
15 April 1970
Page 34
B 3.3.0 Belleville Sprlnss or Washers (Cont'd)
Example Problem
Given:
O.D. = 2"
I.D. = 1.25"
Load to deflect .02" = 675 lb.
Required: Fig. B 3.3.0-5
Determine required thickness, t and dimension h.
Solution:
k = O.D. 2.00 = 1.6

I.D. - 1.25
The constants M, C 1 and C 2 may be taken from the curves in

Fig. B 3.3.0-4 or may be calculated as follows:
M = 6 (k-l) 2 = 6 (1.6 - 1.0) 2 = 0.57

logek k2 3.14(0.47) (1.6)2
CI " _ 0
logek [l--_gek - i I = 0 El01.0
3.14(0.47) ii 1123 0.47
C2 _ logek -- = 3.14(0.47) 2
The Deflection-Stress Formula
(1-v2)M,2
may be written in the form
h fM'2(i"v2) + _ C2 r_
" t
CIE_ 2 CI
Section B 3
15 April 1970
Page 35
B 3.3.0 Belleville Sprinss or Washers (Cont'd)
Assume that the washer shown in Fig. B 3.3.0-5 is steel
f = 200,000 psi
max
E = 30,000,000 psi
v = .3
= 0.02 in.
M = 0.57
C = 1.123
i
C 2 = I. 220
a = 1.00 (half outside dia., inches)
try t = .04 and solve for dimension h
200,000 t h 2 t .57jkl_.32j
_i _t x + .02 1.220 (04)
h __ ° _-
.120 in.
(1.123)(.02)(30)106 2 1.123
This value for (h) is then substituted in the deflection-load

formula to obtain the load.
(I_E2)Ma21 _h - _>_h - _ _ t + t3 ]
30(106 ) (. 02)
2 [('121-'01)('121-'02)('04)+('04)3] = 600 lb.
(I-.32 )(.57) (i)
Since this load is too low, the calculation is repeated using a

stock thickness (t) of .05 in.
Then, solving again for h, the result is
h = .ii0 in.
Therefore, substituting this value of h into the formula used to

calculate the previous value of load (P), the new value of (P) is
P = 665 lb.
This is as close as calculation need be carried. It is not

expected that this or a similarly calculated spring will be deflected
beyond the amount used in the calculation.
Section B 3
19 May 1961
Page 36
REFERENCES
Manuals
I. Chrysler Missile Operation, Design Practices, Sec. 108,

Dtd. I November 1957.
, Convair (Fort Worth), Structures Manual, Sec. 10.4.0,

Vol. I.
Handbook
I. Associated Spring Corporation, Mechanical Spring Design,

Bristol, Conn.
Periodicals
I. Klaus, Thomas and Joachim Palm, Product En_ineerlng, Design

Di_est Issue, Mid-September 1960.
Text Books
, Seely, Fred, B. and Smith, J. 0., Advanced Mechanics of

Materials, Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1957.
. Spotts, M. F., Design of Machine Elements, Second Edition,

Prentlce-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1955.
-h
-4
-L
SECTION BZl.
BEAMS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
B4.0.0 Beams ..... . ......... ......0... ......... 1

4.1.0 Simple Beams ............................. 1
4.1.1 Shear, Moment and Deflection .................. 1
4.1.2 Stress Analysis ............................ 24
4.1.3 Variable C ross-Section ....................... 25
4.1.4 Symmetrical Beams of Two Different Materials ....... 26
4.2.0 Continuous Beams .......................... 29
4.2.1 Castigliano' s Theorem ....................... 29
4.2.2 Unit Load or Dummy Load Method ................ 30
4.2.3 The Two-Moment Equation ..................... 32
4.2.4 The Three-Moment Equation ................... 34
4.2.5 Moment Distribution Method .................... 37
4.3.0 Curved Beams ............................. 38
4.3.1 Correction Factors for Use with the Straight Beam
Formula ................................. 38
4.4.0 Bending-Crippling Failure of Formed Beams ........ 43
4.4.1 Bending Moment Only ........................ 43
4.4.2 Combined Bending Moment and Axial Load .......... 46
B4-iii
Section B 4
21 April 196]
Page 1
B 4.0.0 BEAMS
B 4.1.0 Simple Beams
B 4.1.1 Shear_ Moment_ and Deflection
The general equations relating load, shear, bending moment, and

deflection are given in Table B 4.1.1.1. These equations are given in
terms of deflection and bending moments.
Title Y M
dx
Deflection A = y A = 7f_-dxEI
Slope @ = dy/dx 0 = F _-dx

J EI
Bending Moment M = EI d2y/dx 2 M
Shear V = EI d3y/dx 3 V = dM/dx
Load W = EI d4y/dx 4 W = dv/dx = d2M/dx 2
Table B 4.1.1.1
Sign Convention
Y
a) x is positive to the right, lw

b) y is positive upward • -X ÷x __ X
c) M is positive when the compressed i I

fibers are at the top.
d) W is positive in the direction of
negative y.
e) V is positive when the part of the beam to the left of the section
tends to move upward under the action of the resultant of the
vertical forces•
The limiting assumptions are:
a) The material follows Hooke's Law.

b) Plane cross sections remain plane.
c) Shear deflections are negligible.
d) The deflections are small.
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 2
B4.1.1 S hear_ Moment and Deflection (Cont'd)
The deflection of short, deep beams due to vertical shear may

need to be considered. The differential equation of the deflection
curve including the effects of shearing deformation is:
Y = /M El
dxdx +fKV_ dx
(K) is the ratio of the maximum shearing stress on the cross section
to the average shearing stress. The value of (K) is given by the
equation:
K IAb J b'ydy
0
(I) is the moment of inertia of the

cross-section with respect to the
centrodial axis and (a), (b), (b'), and
(y) are the dimensions shown in Fig. B 4.1.1-1.
(A) is the area of the cross-section
I
Fig. B 4.1.1-1
Section B4
July 9, 1964
Page 3
B4.1.1 Shear_ Moment and Deflection (Cont'd)
r_
O 4-1
•_ F)
5"
t_
II
l----b 0
_ F-.4 _q _J
V_
! ol
O II 4-
N '
>
C _ © C',l II
I
m _ cq ' _
eq I
N cq
© c"3
>
+ II 0 I
Z
od
-;-I O II cq oq
"_ cch I
o (2)
4-1 I I
II
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_
I _-4 '_ II II
I
o_
II
•_ i I |
O O O
II II II
;4
o < _, m t_
cn_ tl?
xi\\o _ \'3_' 7
0 _ >_ I
__ i ...... L
t
t
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 4
B 4.1.1 Shear_ Moment and Deflection (Cont'd)
,_ >
,--,
0
_J
r_7
o co
o _._
°,.-4
•l=J *_
0
"= '_ ,_i' c_
r--1
_ +
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=
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Ii + X
I
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to o ...1- cq ,_
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t'M
*
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c,_ 0
= ! !
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v _ _,
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a cO
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.= , +_ S
co c_ P_ _.... J t__ + /;
,--1 II o eq
, _
,,-,4 -,_ :_I,-_ :_ _ _
fu
t_
°" '< ._1 oo
m _ >_ >_ >_ , +
[.-i
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4.J o o o o o :>_ c_
Ii il II li II
m _ c_ c_
t_
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Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 5
r----i
Le_
o r --] _._ ,,,.]

I
II I I
> cxj
co t_ <
O +J
.I-J _ c_ Xl _ t_
°_ r_
o < .... i
I co
m
o t_ m +
+ r_ co
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+ ,'-- M I
m co ,-+ I co N _
E i o
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u o ! I
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o v _
o"J :>_
,
II _ _._ N
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I o
N c_ _ M
•4-+ ttl > ::E:
m ,-_1 co N 1'-.-. N <_
r.D
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o _ ,.-4 r---i v t_
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.-+1 co _1 + _ N _, +
> ::m: +
(lJ v + L,"5 _ + _
_ V
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4-1 ,.c: E +
cN ¢ Oq u_ o t j ¢N
I I II .1..1
N X L_ co
°
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I_ cc_ +_co _I ° +I ° _+ __J
111 ++ CO I I I +1_ +1_

:> II X N b--t _-t
,.Q
o :>
II II II II II
+1°++1+"
, +
o U II
.;.-4 + E)
0 0 0 0 0
u II II II II II IJ _+J
N
::m:
,-r,i
.... _.+t..,+l.._ +_ 41
o,0
"E3
o
i_ "_
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_ m
+
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Section B4
July 9, 1964
Page 6
B4.1.1 Shear, Moment and Deflection <Cont'd)
_3
-_
o
_°
,--'4I'x:_
_'_1 fl
4J
o
_2
,.-4 _0
o _
_i m m
+
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N _
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e _ -I_/-.. 'I '
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Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 7
,<
0
I
% ¢I -%.
.1_1 +
O
CO
v
0 +
¢o
,-q o_
.,-4 0
'0 .-, ¢_1
0 II
r_
,2 0
r_
°r4 0A _" _1_ ,
4-1 × _
C'4 _
0 ×
r_ + _ _O _
r.4
.r4
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0
II II II
,.O
O H
"
o 0
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4..1 0 0 0
II II
rn
t_
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0
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l
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d
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 8
u
o °_
,,iJ
I
+ i
/g II
_ , >
II
.,-4 ::E: ¢q
II +
+
o
N .iJ v cq
=
o It 4a v
u I II
× +
v +
_ r._ II + ,_" o
> II (D
II ¢q
o
g > N
t o_
o v
i .I.J
u 0 o
2 o <
o
r¢3
e,J >
_i_ _ ,_, _ e ='_
_'] ..1 _ +
,t,J +
v
u + I I
II II II II II
[--i m I I
o II II
fl +
o o o 0 0
._ 4.1
x x
Io _
_0
I o1+_-
I+
o
_Ira _
O
---_[ t-- [
>.
+ . .i_
_4
Section B4
July 9, 1964
Page 9
O
_l _ "_,
× o
_ c- + ,--
I
_ c,4
v
:xI × c,_ II __'_ u
[--I
' :x N c_ F---I
+ ¢'J O
0 cq
II + +
o cD II
II + + + +
'4.4 + ._
0
_ N
c,4 _
O o i i
_ .o,31
u_
o
c.)
II
E
II
O
O II _ N
O
v _ _i_ I i i
_ ° v v _ !
,._ _l_ ul c._
_ _ _1_
@,,1 _ II + v
'_l II .t_ k- --_v-'--_.__ C _ I
I
• .el U ;>
,-.-I u3
4
(D
r--4
_° II _1oo m
II
II I1 II II II I
m _
II II
o:
•,_, _l_ _
o 0 0 0 0
II 4_1
X
X
¢B
o
oO
--Ic_
i
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O _ >-
Section 4 B
21 April 1961
Page i0
B4.1.1 Shear a Moment and Deflection (Cont'd)
O.
0
O0
"0
.@
O
•rt I_ +
¢q
U 4.4
=
0
_J 4_
!
I_Im M
II
m m + + II m
,-4
O
1.1 II
W
0 _ N
£%1. _ M
_ X m I ._
_4
!
r-I
+ * , . Ni
°r.l
°M • _ o"1 [._.1
>
m
_°
r_ _-i
II II I
O o_
II
•_ II II
"0
m 'O
I -"
0 _J
i,
=
0
o = O
,-4
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page II
B 4.1.1 Shear a Moment and Deflection (Cont'd)
oO
f_
I--I
.IJ
e_
!
O
.M
.d-i r,-_
_l,-e
_ 1<o
Q) ii II
II
I f--I _
0 e_
O
_1_ ! .'4
M M rO
_ , I
.-.-4 O r I _ _D
°_ +
E .,-4 cg
I----I I
O •
O 0
_:1 II %1 + ,_ M + _"
_
E
- > I> .<
¢la
u? y.' °_ | i
_, c'j c-,l t'-xl
f-4 _q r._ o !
11 4J / i,-,] I _ "_
,.-1 , '_._.__// <
_ J cl
oh _-I
.i _, v-_
.Lt °_
I
¢',1 II--t
II I II II
,.o _:,.o
>
o (.3
•,_ :_'1_ II ,.__._j
_ 0 r_ _ II
(I)
4-1 0 o o 0 0 0
u II .I-I .i.I _ o II .I..,I .i.i ,,l,.I
v v v _ v
0 L
0 _J
n-
t_
,-4
Section B4
July 9, 1964
Page 12
0
,-4
C13
•_ 0
0
_1_
+ _ I
I
r-I II
4-I
m 0
IJ
° _I II
O
v v
I {'q
m
I <
,-4 _ + _-_ I ._
,-, 0
._ _ " + -\
0
'_ U _ II
r_
>
0
4_
U
m
II 0 •_ _ _ +
0 ,.al_
>
I < I
%J + 0 "-_--"
_ + ___, _ , %1_
.4
o_
1.1
o_
II
+ _
<
_I__I_ _ '
U _ II II
,1o _ N +
[--i
I II
•_ 0 _
II 0 0 0 CO cb
I
•_ .IJ
t_ II II II
'
.J
Section B4
July 9, 1964
Page 13
'_0
<
4J
-rJ
C'-I II
_J
E
G} 0 _ + I
E
o_ c._ _
_ 4-1
E
I
0 &l
v t_
_-_ _I_I_-I
1_ o
r...) •- i II
_ m
m o Q?
i N 4J
• _2
+
¢1 <
1-4 -_ v
(1_ II
_III II _ I--4
[--i I
_ ,,.-x II I
o II
0 0 0
_ Ill .i..1
c_
.r-I
Q_
[--4 0 e'_
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 14
B4.1.1 Shear a Moment and Deflection (Cont'd)
_z
0
• .,4
_l,_ __
_1_ °
o
_ %, II _1 II
_ aJ
m
[ I
0 ,_ 4.1 _
iJ V
O
,,_ II ,._ I
e4e4 _
i--_
_ o
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I
• _
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_ + +
II
°_ e,i N N
v-
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o 14 N N
I ,_ c_
i_ _ I_ _,
I _,l 0,1 _" _" _" _1_
II II ,-i ..1- II II
II
_ _ u"_ .,..i 11-4
_ U 0 rO (O
O O /_ II ,l_ II
0 0
u II
Ill _II H
l.l
.=
=
=
.,4
'°t
i
I
O _ L
_u m '_ I%:
Section B4
July 9, 1964
Page 15
B4.1.1 Shear, Moment and Deflection (Cont'd)
O3 '-0
I ¢,.)
'i o
c_ [--I
!
,
N I
II X -_
0 Y.l¢_ II _ C'4
-:_ _ ,,
c_
I
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° " "_
II _
r...)
O N +
.IJ t_
o
u °_ _
r.,.O
N
0£ _.m I o0., _ II
,._ II
•_ _ >_ C-,I II
o × _ +
_) "o I
O0
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,._ II II c,'-)
j _ •- _ <
-_ °_
I
' [ II_
._ + +
_ v c_
_ 4J v
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II
I _ + >
,,-'-, _ I
_o _1
•_ O0 _._
_"_ O0 CD
" v
; o o o o
u II II II ,L)
_d I_ II
C_
m
c_
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o
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Section B 4
2] April 1961
Page 16
¢q
%
o ,_1_ !
ot,,l
4.-I I
U
4-1
II
s-% r_
P v
o_
0 o_
_ o
I
4-) I
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>,
0 II ,,.1-
> _ ._
_ +
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I ,-.4
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i IJ
t_
o_.,_ _1 °_ ,o
o
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o
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o II
II
<
v o_
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80
4..I
0
r_
v
Section B4
July 9, 1964
Page 17
B4.1.1 Shear, Moment and Deflection (Cont'd)
xI
O0 0
q-_
I'
o
(1,1 C}:
Section B4
July 9, 1964
Page 18
B4.1.1 Shear_ Moment and Deflection (Cont'd#
o
r-d I
O0
_Io , _I _
o3 II
X
4.1
=o ._
.rd
II
oJ II t',,I _
_I_
II
0J
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°_
¢"N
+ °
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o o II
¢,J
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I
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od
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o
I
II o
I
II
NJ_ "
_0
¢'4 I v
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xl
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 19
II II
_J
_ r6
0
P-_ I
It 4.J <
+
_-, oo N _Ic4
cq
II I ._ cq II
O _
cq _
O cq
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c; E
UI fl ,._ I I
U II
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g °_
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U°
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r_ ,-4
v
L) O _ l::cl •r4 ._
o3 o3 o3
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o E + v
t_ _3
U
E _J _J 0
V A
O
cq DO II ._J +
II _J _J +
,._cN
4J _J "_ _-_ :_1oo _ L_

_J + ! !
,-_ oo ::> II II ,--_ _d II II
II ¢o II II II
E_
0 -- P_ , I I
_I 4 v
_J O 0 0
II 4J
II _J 4J _
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0
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o_
¢q
Section B4
July 9, 1964
Page 20
P-
0
o']
"0
>-,
0
-e4
_a
¢J
OJ _1_ ×,
I
4-J
_a A m
0 _.I
_I_
rJ I
_ I .,-4
°_
_ .5! • _°_ _m ×
,-1 m _ _1_ _I_ _I_ II II
O _
II _
,._ ,-_ _ II
_4
.c:
_¢
c'j Cxl
._
__.i
_ _ -_ I1
II ×
o I_-_
.._ .,4
l-J
_i_ I--I
c.m
,.-4 r_ _ II II o'_ C-,I _,1
oO
m I_I I II
b_ i
Ii
0 r:_ r...) II
_i;_ _x, _,
4-_ 0 0
O 4J II
rd
-\
cJ < _Cl n_ N
"-" >: Z
i_ m
_C
_ -
_ m
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 21
B4.1.1 Shear t Moment and Deflection (Cont'd)
< 4-
o
rj_
II ",--"
"0 f _
>
JI i
I
v
O _ _
A
o_ + r6
< o
_)
,.c:
@
II I
o o4 _
' O
II
u
v oO II I
o c'N i v
o_ > -J N-d N
I II _._ I
_ t o
cq _
.;-4 ;_ %1. + _1 0 _
O
_ t N
+ u .,_Y_I_ U
?1
I
+
m I _ N
I-4 V I
eq >_
,c + + ,_I_ _< N
_ M
I ,-q
_ M
I _ + _ v
,-4 O o I _.
I < ._
4J 4_
I
4-I
r-4 ,.-1 II II m II II II
.-4 II
-,-41 I
o o o 0 0
_-)I II II 4J ,_I
II ._ 4..i ,_
_ rF
r_
-el
o _
m
'/ o
' [..-4 _ c'e3

Section B4
July 9, 1964
Page 22
B 4.1.1 Shear_ Moment and Deflection (Cont'd_
¢q
u_
II g-
I
¢N
° _I_ O
I O
4J
,-_ II .4"
u_ v
I _ r_
:_ I ,-_ +
! I _= o
_-J 4-;
II II
O _J
4J m
m .. II 4J .P1
°
I
o _1_
+
+
II II
I" ,,--4 ¢q
X m
• _ _ 0"_ _ _-_ °_
_J I _ I
_ o _,
I I
M _ II ' II
,_ I_1 II _ M II II
:= >,
o o
I II
II
v _ _ v
o= i}!
e_ m
Section B4
July 9, 1964
Page 23
_D eq
co
X
i
_q
+
- _ _-_ cq
o _ _: _ V I
•_ .,-_ A
i 01 U .,_
2 o
i.--4 _
c,,I _ _ II II
I_ II
o . +
_ ×
oO
0 _J
O. m
c_
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 24
B4.1.2 Stress Analysis
The maximum bending stress is:
(1)
The limitations are:
a) The loads on the beam must be static loads.

b) The value of f is the result of external forces only.
c) The beam acts as a unit with bending as the dominant action.
d) The initial curvature of the member must be relatively small.
(Radius of curvature at least ten times the dept_)
e) Plane cross sections remain plane.
f) The material follows Hooke's law.
If the calculated stress does exceed the proportional limit, a suitable

reduced modulus must be used.
The maximum shearing stress in a beam in combined bending and

shear is:
v
V • • • ,, • • • .. • • ° • .. • • ..... ...... o o ° ° ° ° o o. o ° o . . , o o ° o o o ° (2)
fs=K -_
where (K) is the ratio of the maximum shearing stress on the cross
section to the average shearing stress. The maximum shearing stress is
often expressed as:
fs = VO .............................................. (3)
It
Where Q = JydA (First moment about the neutral axis of the area
Area between the neutral axis and the extreme outer
fiber.)
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 25
B 4.1.3 Variable Cross Section
The following formulas and figures present a method of analyzing

beams with uniformly tapering cross sections. Figure B 4.1.3-1 shows
a tapered cantilever beam consisting of two concentrated flange areas
joined by a vertical web which resists no bending. The vertical com-
ponents of the loads in the flanges, P tan 5 I, and P tan _ 2, resist
some of the external force V. Letting Vf equal the force resisted by
the flanges and Vw the force resisted by the webs, then:
V = Vf + Vw .................................................. (i)
Vf = P (tan 51, + tan 5 2) ................................... (2)
hi h2
From Fig. B 4.1.3-1, tan 51 =--,
c tan 52 c , and tan 51
hi + h2 h h b
+ tan 52 = c = --.
c From this Vf = P --
c' and since P = V _,
then
b (3)
Vf = V _ .....................................................
a
The load in the web is V E, so by writing a, b, and c, in terms of
h o and h, we have
ho
Vw = V E- .................................................... (4)
(h - ho)
vf = v ---f--- ..............................................
(5)
P TANcK I
P TAN _2
Fig. B 4.1.3-I
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 26
B 4.1.4 Symmetrical Beams of Two Different Materials
The analysis of symmetrical beams of two or more materials within

the elastic range may be analyzed by transforming the section into
an equivalent beam of one material. The usual elastic flexure formula
then applies.
The transformation is accomplished by changing the dimension

perpendicular to the axis of symmetry of the various materials in the
ratio of their elastic moduli. Examples to illustrate the method for
various conditions follows.
Example i. Consider a beam made of two materials whose cross section

is shown in Fig. B 4.1.4-Ia. Assuming n = Ea/Es, the transformation
in terms of material (S) (Fig. B 4.1.4-ib) is then b I = nb. The maxi-
Mh I
mum stress in member (S) is then f(s) max = -_- and the maximum stress
-Mh 2
in member (A) is f(a) max = n---_ It is noted that the section could
have been transformed in terms of member (A) (Fig. B 4.1.4-ic) giving

the same results for the maximum fiber stresses.
(o) (b) (c)
Fig. B 4.1.4-i
Example 2. Reinforced-Concrete Beams. It is the established practice

in calculating bending stresses in reinforced-concrete beams to assume
that concrete can withstand only compressive stress. The steel or
other reinforcing member then is transformed into an equivalent area
as shown in Fig. B 4.1.4-2b. The distribution of internal forces for
a beam (Fig. B 4.1.4-2a) over any cross section ab is shown in Fig.
B 4.1.4-2c.
v
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 27
B 4.1.4 Symmetrical Beams of Two Different Materials (Cont'd)
-,-- b -_
d d i N.A, -
J . Rt
(o) (b) (c)
Fig. B 4.1.4-2
To satisfy the equation of equilibrium, the internal moment must equal

the external moment. The mathematical statement is:
kd (i)
b (kd) (-_) = nAs (d-kd) ..............
Concrete Transformed
area arm steel area arm
From which
kd = nA--'-_Sb
_i + nAs2bd ' i_ ................................ (2)
E steel
where n =
E concrete
The stress in the concrete fc and the stress in the steel fst is
M (kd) ............................................... (3)

fc
I
.......................................... (4)
fst = nM(d-kd)
I
where
I = Moment of inertia of the transformed section.

Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 28
B 4.1.4 Symmetrical Beams of Two Different Materials (Cont'd)
Alternate solution: After kd is determined, instead of computing

I, a procedure evident from Fig. B 4.1.4-2c may be used. The resultant
force developed by the stresses acting in a "hydrostatic" manner on
kd
the compression side of the beam must be located _- below the top of
the beam. Moveover, if b is the width of the beam, this resultant
force R c = _(kd_ fc max, (average stress times area). The resultant

tensile force R t acts at the center of the steel and is equal to Asfst,
where A s is the cross-sectlonal area of the steel. Then if jd is the
distance between R c and R_, and since R c = Rt, the applied moment M is
resisted by a couple equa_ to Rcjd or RtJd.
i
jd = d - _ kd ................................................ (5)
The stress in the steel and concrete is
M
fs = As jd ................................................... (6)
2M
f ,= . ........................................... (7)
c b(kd) (jd)
N
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 29
i
B 4.2.0 Continuous Beams
B 4.2.1 Casti_liano's Theorem
Castigliano's Theorem is useful in the solution of problems

involving continuous beams with only one or two redundant supports.
The theorem can be written as
................................ (i)
8Q - _U
_Q - Eli / M_ _M ds
O
L
BUs I /_ _V
................................ (2)
_Q = _-_- = GA JV _ ds
o
L
_U
0a =_ - E1 M _ ds ................................ (3)
a o a
where
8Q is the deflection at the load Q in the direction of Q.

Q may be a real or fictitious load.
Qa is the slope at the moment Ma in the direction of Ma.

M may be a real or fictitious moment.
a
U is the strain energy of the beam.
M is the bending moment due to all loads.
V is the vertical shearing forces due to all loads.
A is the cross-sectional area of the beam.
E is the modulus of elasticity.
I is the moment of inertia.

Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 30
B 4.2.2 Unit Load or Dummy Load Method
The unit load or dummy load method may be used to determine

deflection at elastic or inelastic members. Deflection of inelastic
members by this method is given in section B 4.5.0. The theorem as

applied to elastic beams is written in integral form as
(i)
O
(2)
e = E-i--
dx ..........................................
O
Where (8) is the deflection at the unit load and (8) is the rotation
at the unit moment. The Moment (M) is the bending moment at any
section caused by the actual loads. (m) is the bending moment at any
section of the beam caused by a dummy load of unity acting at the point
whose deflection is to be found and in the direction of the desired
deflection. The bending moment (m') is the bending moment at any
section of the beam caused by a dummy couple of unity applied at the
section where the change in slope is desired. It is noted that although
(m') may be thought of as a bending moment, it is evident from the
expression m' - _M that it is actually dimensionless.

a
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 31
B 4.2.2 Unit Load or Dummy Load Method (Cont'd)
lllustrative Problem: Find the elastic vertical deflection of the

point A (Fig. B 4.2.2-ia) of the simply supported beam subjected to
two concentrated loads.
R=P R=P
(o) (b)
I---M : P L/4 m
/_ M=PXI m= X2
-_M=PX2 / .-4-
--,--X I X2-. _ I-.--x, x2--
(el (d)
Fig. B 4.2.2-1
Solution: The actual loading is shown in Fig. B 4.2.2-Ia and the

dummy loading is shown on Fig. B 4.2.2-Ib. The moment for the actual
loading is shown on Fig. B 4.2.2-Ic and the corresponding moment dia-
gram for the dummy loading is shown on Fig. B 4.2.2-Id.
The deflection by use of equation (i) noting that Xl starts at

the left and x 2 starts at the right is
L
L
L 4 4
= ,, E1 dx = , El \ _ > dxl +J E_
O O O
3L
4
+ j 4-_ dx2 = 48E----I

L
4
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 32
B 4.2.3 The Two-Moment Equation
The two-moment equation may be used to determine the bending

moment at one section of the beam when the shear and bending moment at
another section and the loads applied to the beam between the two
sections are known. The expressions for the moment and shear corre-
sponding to Fig. B 4.2.3-1 is
M 2 = M I + Vld + Fx ...................................... (i)
V 2 = VI + F ............................................. (2)
LOADS
Fig. B 4.2.3-1
The two-moment equation is particularly useful in determining the

curve of bending moments and shears in the case of a cantilever beam
subjected to distributed loads, such as shown in Fig. B 4.2.3-2. The
calculations may be done in tabular form as in Table B 4.2.3-i.
,@
'' "I
Fig. B 4.2.3-2
\
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 33
B 4.2.3 The Two-Moment Equation (Cont'd)
Station W _-
* Bending Momen_ 2h
(inches Load Shear
V= (WI+W 2 ) _f_x)
-_-- M=(2WI+W2) _6_VI(Ax)
from end) ib/in
i0 0 0
(10+14)10/2 = 120 567

(2.10+14)102/6 =
i0 14 120 567
(2.14+18)102/6 =
(14+18)10/2= 160 120"]0 = 767
1200
20 18 280 2534
(2.18+22)I0Z/6 = 976
(18+22)10/2= 200 280.10 = 2800
30 22 48O 6301
(2.22+26)102/6 = 1167
(22+26)i0/2= 240 480.10 = 4800
40 26 720 12_268
(2.26+30)102/6 1367
(26+30)10/2= 280 720.10 = 7200
50 30 i000 20_835
Table B 4.2.3-1
*The increment of bending moment between stations may be calculated

from the relation:
M = (_V) (Dist. from centroid of trapezoid to inboard station)
+ Vl (_×)
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 34
B 4.2.4 The Three-Moment Equation
The three-moment equation is useful in the solution of problems

involving continuous beams with relatively few redundant supports. The
equation is:
MaLl 2MbLI 2MbL2 McL2

+ + +
II II 12 12
6E (Ya " Yb) + 6E (Yc - Yb) ...................... (i)

KI + K2 + L_ L-_
Where (KI) and (K2) are functions of loading on span (LI) and span
(L2), respectively.
t__
Lir L21
T
is .......
Fig. B 4.2.4-1
One equation must be written for each intermediate support. The

system of simultaneous equations is then solved for the moments at
the intermediate supports.
Values at (K I) and (K2) for various types of loading are tabulated

in Table B 4.2.4-1.
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Pa_e 35
B 4.2.4 The Three-Moment Equation (Cont'd)
Table B 4.2.4-1 K 1 and K 2 Values for Various Load Conditions
Type of Loading Left Bay -K 1 Right Bay - K2

i.
+WiLl 3 +_2L3
411 412
r_ L ID-
+WlC I (3L_-CI 2) +w2c 2 (3L22- c22)
8I 1 8I 2
r '-T
wlEbl2(2Ll2-bl2)-al2(2Ll 2 - a12)]
KI =+
411L 1
--a--4 b i
2 (2L 2 2 - a 2 2) ]
w2 [b22 (2L22-b22)-a2
I iT K2 = +
412L 2
+2WiLl 3 +7w2L23
1511 60 12
-'---------- |
I
+7wiLl3 +2w2L23
60I 1 1512
I __
+3L_w I +3L22w 2
i |
I__ _r 811 8I 2
L -I
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 36
v-
B 4.2.4 The Three-Moment Equation (Cont'd)
Table 4.2.4-1 K I and K 2 Values for Various Load Conditions
Type of Loading Left Bay - K1 Right Bay - K2

o
+5WiLl3 +5w2L22
3211 3212
-FL _1
_- t -t
.
+wla I _L12_a12 ) +w2b2 _L22_b22_
IILI 12L 2
I_ L -_
/
M I
, 3al 2
+ M2
12
(3b22
\L_2 L2)
10.
E 1 = M x I dx 1
12L2
O
jw
L
6 P
K2 = 12L2 _o M2 x2 dx2
qr Ir
Where M is the banding moment.
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 37
B 4.2.5 Moment Distribution Method
The moment distribution method is suggested for the solution of

problems involving continuous beams with many redundant supports. The
discussion and application of the method is given in section B 5.0.0
(Frames).
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 38
B 4.3.0 Curved Beams
B 4.3.1 Correction Factors for Use in Straight-Beam Formula
When a curved beam is bent in the plane of initial curvature,

plane sections remain plane, but the strains of the fibers are not
proportional to the distance from the neutral axis because the fibers
are not at equal length. If_denotes a correction factor, the stress
at the extreme fiber of a curved beam is given by
Mc
f =K--
I
in which M__M_ [i + c ]
K = AR Z(R + c)
Mc
I
where
M is the bending moment

A is the cross sectional area
R is the radius of curvature to the centroidal axis
c is the distance from the centroidal axis to the extreme
outer fiber
I is the moment of inertia
I /_.Z_
Z = - -_- R+y dA
Values of K for different sections are given in Table B 4.3.1.1.

Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 39
Table B 4.3.1-1
Values of K for Different Sections and Different Radii of Curvature.
R Factor K
Section C Inside Fiber Outside Fiber
.
1.2 3.41 O. 54
1.4 2.40 0.60
1.6 1.96 0.65
1.8 1.75 0.68
R 2.0 1.62 0.71
3.0 1.33 0.79
4.0 1.23 0.84
6.0 I. 14 0.89
8.0 1.10 0.91
i0.0 I. 08 0.93
K the same for circle
and ellipse and inde-
pendent of dimensions.
0 1.2 2.89 0.57

1.4 2.13 0.63
1.6 1.79 0.67
1.8 i .63 0.70
2.0 1.52 0.73
e i 3.0 1.30 0.81
4.0 1.20 0.85
6.0 1.12 0.90
8.0 1.09 0.92
i0.0 1.07 0.94
K independent of
section dimensions
. 1.2 3.01 0.54
1.4 2.18 0.60
1.6 i .87 0.65
1.8 1.69 0.68
2.0 1.58 0.71
7- I 2b ]
3.0 1.33 0.80
b 4.0 1.23 O.84
6.0 1.13 O.88
8.0 I.i0 0.91
I0.0 I. 08 0.93
Section B 4
21 April 1961
Page 40
Table B 4.3.1-1 (Cont'd)
Values of K for Different Sections and Different Radii of Curvature

R Factor K
Section C Inside Fiber Outside Fiber
o 1.2 3.09 0.56
1.4 2.25 0.62
3b-----_ 1.6 1.91 0.66
-m- C -_ 1.8 1.73 0.70
2.0 1.61 0.73
T 3.0 1.37 0.81
b I 2b I 4.0 1.26 0.86
± 6.0 1.17 0.91
8.0 1.13 0.94
i0.0 i.ii 0.95
-o------- R _
Do 1.2 3.14 0.52

1.4 2.29 0.54
1.6 1.93 0.62
1.8 I. 74 O. 65
2.0 i .61 0.68
3.0 i. 34 0.76
4.0 i. 24 0.82
6.0 1.15 0.87
8.0 1.12 0.91
i0.0 i.i0 0.93
o 1.2 3.26 O. 44
1.4 2.39 0.50
1.6 1.99 0.54
i
1.8 1.78 0.57
/-r 2.0
3.0
1.66
1.37
0.60
0.70
4.0 1.27 0.75
I b I 6.0 1.16 0.82
8.0 1.12 0.86
i0.0 1.09 0.88
Section B4
July 9, 1964
Page 41
Values of K _or Different Sections and Different Radii of Curvature

R Factor K
Section c Inside Fiber Outside Fiber
o 1.2 3.65 0.53
1.4 2.50 0.59
"- 1.625b "--q"i 1.6 2.08 0.63
1.8 1.85 0.66
2.0 1.69 0.69
2.5 1.49 O. 74
3.0 1.38 0 .78
4.0 1.27 0 .83
6.0 i. 19 0 .90
8.0 I. 14 0 .93
I0.0 1.12 0 .96
A = 1.05b 2
I = O.18b 4
C = 0.70b
o 1.2 3.63 0.58

1.4 2.54 0.63
3 1.6 2.14 0.67
1.8 1.89 0.70
2.0 1.73 0.72
3.0 i .41 0.79
I I 4t 4.0 1.29 0.83
6.0 I. 18 0.88
t ;LJ 8.0
I0.0
1.13
i. I0
0.91
0.92
"------ R _
1.2 3.55 0.67

1.4 2.48 0.72
1.6 2.07 0.76
1.8 1.83 0.78
2.0 1.69 0.80
3.0 1.38 0.86
4.0 1.26 0.89
6.0 1.15 0.92
8.0 i. I0 0.94
I0.0 1.08 0.95
Section B4
July 9, 1964
Page 42

Values of K for Different Sections and Different Radii of Curvature
R Factor K
q
Section c Inside Fiber Outside Fiber
i0. 1.2 2.52 0.67

1.4 1.90 0.71
1.6 1.63 0.75
_t_- 4t --1_ p- 1.8 1.50 0.77
2 .0 i .41 0.79
T-] , F-qr 3 .0 1.23 0.86
3t 3t 4 .0 I. 16 0.89
± _] L_I I
6 .0 i.i0 0.92
8 .0 1.07 0.94
I0 .0 i .05 0.95
Ii. i .2 3.28 0.58

i .4 2.31 0.64
1 .6 1.89 0.68
_ 2d ----_
i .8 1.70 0.71
2 .0 1.57 0.73
3 .0 1.31 0.81
i 4 .0 1.21 0.85
6 .0 I. 13 0.90
I 8 .0 i. I0 0.92
i0 .0 1.07 0.93
I
m.
12. 1 .2 2.63 0.68

i .4 1.97 0.73
p'-_t
4taJ 1 .6 1.66 0.76
i .8 1.51 0.78
F !
2 .0 1.43 0.80
4t 3 .0 1.23 0.86
4 .0 1.15 0.89
6 .0 1.09 0.92
8 .0 1.07 0.94
_C _-
i0 .0 1.06 0.95
±
Section B 4
February 15, 1976
Page43
B 4.4.0 Bending-Crippling Failure of Formed Beams
This section contains methods of analysis applicable to formed

or built-up sections which are critical in the bending-crippling mode of
failure. This method is to be used when plastic bending curves are not
available, otherwise use Section B4.5.
It is noted that a positive margin of safety derived from this

analysis does not preclude failure in another mode.
The analysis procedure is divided into two sections according to

the type of applied loading as follows:
Bending moment only.

B 4.4.2 Combined bending moment and axial load.
Examples are given to illustrate the procedure for each type of

loading.
B 4.4. I Analysis Procedure for Bending Moment Only
/Compression Area
b
"-<D
0
'J Neutral Axis (n.a.)
Figure I. Bending-Crippling of Formed Shapes

Section B 4
February 15, 1976
Page 44
B4.4,1 Analysis Procedure for Bending Moment Only (Cont sd)
(a) Locate the neutral axis (line of zero fiber stress) of the cross-
section assuming a linear stress distribution.
(b) Divide the compression area into elements according to Section C 1,
pages 1 1-16.
(c) Calculate FCCn, m according to Figure C 1.3.1-13 for each element.
(d) Calculate the allowable bending-crippling moment by summing
moments about the neutral axis for the compression area and
doubling the result.
= 2 [ Z Fcc n b n t n _n + X FCCm bm tm _'m/2] ........... (1)

k __j k .... J
Y
For flange For web
members members
where:
distance from neutral axis to the resultant force of each

element.
This equation is applicable for all shapes although only a formed

channel is shown in Figure 1.
(e) The margin of safety is given by:
M
(ult) M.S. ............................. (z)
(FS)ult M
where:
M = applied bending moment at the cross-section in question.
= allowable bending-crippling moment from Eq. (1).
(FS)ult = ultimate factor of safety.
Note: if the section is unsymmetrical, the tension flange should be

analyzed in the conventional manner.
Section B 4
February 15, 1976

Page 45
B4.4. l
Analysis Procedure for Bending Moment Only (Cont'd)
Example 1
Determine the margin of safety in bending-crippling for the cross-

section shown below if the bending moment is 4000 in. -ib and a factor of
safety of I. 4 is desired.
t = .04
Given:
Mat'l = 6061-T6 Bare Sht.
Mech. Prop.
3.00 ' no a.
Ftu = 42 ksi
F = 35 ksi
_', _
cy
E = 9.9 x 103 ksi

_ 1.75--b
Channels are intermittently riveted
Typ together.
F{gure 2. Back-to-Back Formed Channels
Analysis
(a) The neutral (centroidal) axis for this case is determined by inspec-
tion.
r = . 12 + .02 = . 14 in.
m
-1.59_
bI = 1.59 + . 535(. 14) = 1.665 in.
1.48
1 4C_ 1. 34 b2 = 1.34 +.535(.14) = 1.415in.
In, a.
Section B 4
February 15, 1976
Page 46
84.4.1 Analysis Procedure for Bending Moment Only (Cont' d)
Example 1 (Cont' d)
bl / 35 1.665
(c) J Fcy
E _ = ff 9.9 x 103 .040 - 2...475, Fcc 1 = 275(35)
¥
= 9.6Z ksi
35 1.415
9.9 x 103 .040 - Z.103, Fcc z = .76 (35)
= Z6.6 ksi
(d) M" = Z[ Mflang e + Mweb] Ref. Eq. (1)
= 2 [(9.62)(1.665)(.04)(1.48) + (26.6)(1.415)(.04)(1.46)/3]
= 3. 36 in-kips (for each channel) See page 278for FCCn, bn, in,
and Yn
(e) Margin o£ safety
M 3360
(ult) M.S. = (FS)ul t M/2 - 1 = 1.4(2000) I = +0. Z0
where:
M/Z = 2000 in-lb (per channel)

Ref. page 278
(FS)ul t =1.4
F
B4.4.2 Analysim Procedure for Combined Bendin_ Moment and Axial
Load
lo
Calculate steps (a) through (d) according to the procedure of Section
B 4.6.1. If the neutral axis falls outside the cross-section, con-
sider the section to be stressed as a column and compare with the
maximum applied fiber stress.
Section B4
February 15, 1976

Page 4 7
B4.4.2 Analysis Procedure for Combined Bending Moment and Axial

Load (Cont' d)
Calculate the section modulus of the compression area about the

neutral axis assuming a mirror image.
In. a.
Zcn. a. - Cc (see Example Z) ......................... (3)
3. Compute the equivalent allowable stress
M
F- ........................................... (4)
Zc n .
a.
4. The margin of safety is given by
F
(ult) MS - 1 .............................. (5)
(FS)ul t fc
where:
p Mc
f =-- ± (maximum applied compressive stress)
c A Ic. g.
Note: If the normal load (P) is tensile, the tension flange should be
analyzed in the conventional manner.
Example 2
Determine the margin of safety for bending-crippling failure for

the beam column shown in Figure 3.
Section B4
February 15, 1976
Page 48

Load (Cont i d)
Example Z (Cont' d)
Given:
Mat'l = 6061-T6 Bare Sht P = 5000 Ib
Mech. Prop. M = 6400 in-lb
Ftu = 4Z ksi ..(FSJul t = 1.4
F = 35 ksi
cy
E = 9.9 x 10 3 ksi
Angles are intermittently riveted together.
_._oo-.
Typ/ I I"1 ._6Ol-
I _[Typ
.o_o
• 16o'.'_ - r '-_-
c.f[. axis Typ-III- _L

T n. a.
.7 7c. g.
1
Z. 760
3. 000
_ ___ a
Figure 3. Back-to-Back Formed Angle

Section B4
February 15, 1976

Page 49

Load (Cont' d)
Example 2 (Cont' d)
I °
ELE A y Ay Ay 2 I
i_ 1.26 -_
Z
_ o
Q .i008 2.96 .298 .883
.08 _
® .0250 2.89 .072 .209
a,
® .2208 1.38 .305 .420 • 140
2.7h .675 1.512 • 140

TOT. .3466
Yc. g.
, ]
_A__y .675 - I. 947 in.
Yc.g. - EA - . 3466
: LAy Z + EI o - y2 2] A = 1.512 +. 140 - (1.947) 2 (.3466)

c.g.
: .338 (for each angle)
P MYn. a.
0 =_-+ Ic.g -
(a)
P Ic.g. 5000 (2)(.338)
Yn.a. - A M =-2(.3466) 6400 : "'762 in.
Section B4
f-
February I5, 1976
Page 50
84.4.2 Analysis Procedure for Combined Bendin_ Moment and Axial

Load (Cont' d)
Example 2 (Cont' d)
(b)
_---I. Z6 _ rm = .16 + .04 = .20 in.
= 1. Z6 +. 535(. ZO) = 1. 367. in.
= 1.575 +.535(.20) = 1.682 in.
_ _5 b2
(c)
bl 35 I. 367
t = 9.9 x 103 --=
.08 1.016, Fcc I = .56(35)=19.60 ksi
E _'- = I9.9x 103 .08

- I. 250, Fcc z = 1.1 (35) = 38.5 ksi
(d)
= 2[ Mflang e + Mweb] Ref. Eq. (l)
= 2[ 19.60(I. 367)(. 08)(1.775) + 38.5(1. 682)(. 08)(I. 735)/3]
= 13.60 in-kip (each angle)

Section B4
February 15, 1976

Page 51

-Load (Cont' d)
Example 2 (Cont'd)
2. Section modulus about n. a.
Compression
/Area
ELE A y Ay Ay 2 Io
G •1008 1.775 • 179 .318 -
1•775 _'
® •0250 1.702 • 042 • 072 - 1. 702
• 788 _ 1.815
__.__[_
® .1260 .788 • O99 • 078 . 0Z6 II
,,
II
il
TOT. .468 . 026 II
ii
i
' _--'- Mirror
t._o ______2,'
Image
In.a. = 2[ _Ay 2 + _Io]
= Z[.468 + .026] = .988 in 4 (for each angle)
Zc _ 2(.988) = 1 089 in 3
n.a. 1.815 "
3. Equivalent allowable stress
_ 2 (M) _ 2{13. 60) - 25.0 ksi

Zc i. 089
n,a•
Section B4
February 15, 1976
Page 52
84.4.2 Analysis Procedure for Combined Bending Moment and Axial

Load (Cont _ d)
Example Z (Cont' d)
Applied compressive stress
P Mc
fc=A+i
c.g.
5 6.4(1.053)
= 17.2 ksi
Z(. 3466) + Z(. 338)
4. The margin of safety is
F 25.0
(ult) MS = -1= -1= +0.04
(FS)ult fc 1.4(17.2.)
where :
(FS)ult = 1.4 Ref. page 281

Section B4
February 15, 1976

Page 53
REFERENCE
B4. 0.0 Beams
4. I. 0 Perry, D. J., PhD. Aircraft Structures, McGraw-Hill Book

Co., 1950.
Popov, E. P., Mechanics of Materials,Prentice-Hall Inc.,

New York, 1954.
Roark, Raymond J., Formulas for Stress and Strain, Third

Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1954.
Seely, Fred B. and Smith, J.O., Advanced Mechanics of

New York, 1957.
Timoshenko, S., Strength of Materials, Part I, Third

Edition, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1955.
4. Z. 0 Deyarmond, Albert and Arslan, A., Fundamentals of Stress

Analyses, Aero Publishers, Los Angeles, 1960.
Seely, Fred B. and Smith, J. O., Advanced Mechanics of

New York, 1957.
Wilber, John B. and Norris, C. H. , Elementary Structural

Analyses, First Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
4.3.0 Roark, Raymond J., Formulas for Stress and Strain, Third
Seely, Fred B. and Smith, J. O., Advanced Mechanics of

New York, 1957.
4.4.0 Roark, 'Raymond J., Formulas for Stress and Strain, Third
SECTION B4.5
PLASTIC BENDING
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Page
4.5.0 Plastic Bending .......................... 1

4.5.1 Analysis Procedure When Tension and Compression
Stress-Strain Curves Coincide ................ 5
4.5.1.1 Simple Bending about a Principal Axis---
Symmetrical Sections ...................... 5
4.5.1.2 Simple Bending about a Principal Axis---
Unsymmetrical Sections with an Axis of
Symmetry Perpendicular to the Axis of
Bending ............................... 5
4.5.1.3 Complex Bending---Symmetrical Sections; also
Unsymmetrical Sections with One Axis of
Symmetry .............................. 8
4.5.1.4 Complex Bending---Unsymmetrical Sections with
No Axis of Symmetry ...................... 8
4.5.1.5 Shear Flow for Simple Bending about a Principle
Axis---Symmetrical Sections ................. 10
4.5.1.6 Shear Flow for Simple Bending about a Principle
Axis---Unsymmetrical Section with an Axis of
Symmetry Perpendicular to the Axis of Bending ..... 13
4.5.1.7 Shear Flow for Complex Bending--Any
Cross Section ........................... 17
4.5.2 Analysis Procedure When Tension and Compression
Stress-Strain Curves Differ Significantly ......... 18
4.5.2.1 Simple Bending about a Principle Axis---
4.5.2.2 Simple Bending about a Principle Axis---
Unsymmetrical Sections with an Axis of
Symmetry Perpendicular to the Axis of
Bending ............................... 22
4.5.2.3 Complex Bending---Symmetrical Sections; also
Unsymmetrical Sections with One Axis of
Symmetry .................... 22
Complex Bending---Unsymmetrical "S;ctions w'i;h"
No Axis of Symmetry ...................... 22
Shear Flow for Simple Bending about a Principal
Axis---Symmetrical Sections ................. 23
B4 5-iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Concluded)
Page
4.5.2.6 Shear Flow for Simple Bending about a Principal

Axis---Unsymmetrical Sections with an Axis of
Symmetry Perpendicular to the Axis of Bending ..... 23
4.5.2.7 Shear Flow for Complex Bending--Any
C ross Section ........................... 23
4.5.3 The Effect of Transverse Stresses on Plastic
Bending ............................... 23
4.5.4 Example Problems ........................ 24
4.5.4.1 Illustrationof Section B4.5.2.1 ............... 24
4.5.5 Index for Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for
4.5.5.1 Stainless Steel-Minimum Properties ............ 32
4.5.5.2 Low Carbon and Alloy Steels-Minimum Properties... 33
4.5.5.3 H eat Resistant Alloys-Minimum Properties ....... 33
4.5.5.4 Titanium-Minimum Properties ................ 33
4.5.5.5 Aluminum-Minimum Properties ............... 34
4.5.5.6 Magnesium-Minimum Properties .............. 34
4.5.6 Index for Plastic Bending Curves .............. 35
4.5.6.1 Stainless Steel-Minimum Properties ............ 36
4.5.6.2 Low Carbon and Alloy Steels-Minimum Properties... 36
4.5.6.3 Corrosion Resistant Metals-Minimum Properties . . . 37
4.5.6.4 Titanium-Minimum Properties ................ 37
4.5.6.5 Aluminum-Minimum Properties ............... 37
4.5.6.6 Magnesium-Minimum Properties .............. 38
4.5.7 Elastic-Plastic Energy Theory for Bending ........ 214
4.5.7.1 General ............................... 214
4.5.7.2 Discussion of Margin of Safety ................ 214
4.5.7.3 Assumptions and Conditions ..., .............. 215
4.5.7.4 D eflnitions ............................. 215
4.5.7.5 Deflection of StaticallyDeterminate Beams ........ 217
4.5.7.6 Example Problem ......................... 219
B4 5-iv
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 201
B4.5.5.6 .Magnesium-Minimum Properties
4O
Fb
(ks{)
1.0 .5 2.0
Zqc
k_
Fig. B4.5.5.6-5 Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture for

Symmetrical Sections ZK60A Magnesium Alloy .
Forgings (Longitudinal}
Section B4,5
February 15, 1976
Page 202
B4.5.6.6 Magnesium-Minimum Properties
_.o
°a
%.
,6
.4
#
°_,_
Section A4
1 February 1970
r Page 35
Table A4-21. Decimal and Metric Equivalents of Fractions of an Inch (Cont'd)

Decimal Fraction (mm) (cm) (m)
r
0.796 875 51/64 20. 240 37 2. 024 037 0.020 240 37
0.812 5 13/16 20.637 31 2.063 731 0.020 637 31
0.828 125 53/64 21.034 Ii 2. ]03 411 0.021 034 i]
0.843 75 27/32 21.431 05 2. 143 105 0.021 431 05
0.859 375 55/64 21.827 85 2. 182 785 0.021 827 85
0.875 7/8 22. 224 79 2.222 479 0.022 224 79
0.890 625 57/64 22.621 59 2.262 159 0.022 621 59
0.906 25 29/32 23.018 53 2.301 853 0.023 018 53
0.921 875 59/64 23.415 33 2.341 533 0.023 415 33
0.937 5 15/16 23.812 28 2.381 228 0.023 812 28
0.953 125 61/64 24. 209 07 2. 420 907 0. 024 209 07
0.968 75 31/32 24. 606 02 2.460 602 0.024 606 02
0.984 375 63/64 25.002 81 2.500 281 0.025 002 81
1.0 I 25.4 2.54 0.025 4

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page l
B4.5.0 Plastic Analysis of Beams
Introduction
The conventional flexure formula f=Mc/I is correct only if the

maximum fiber stress is within the proportional limit. In the plastic
range, the assumption that plane sections remain plane is valid while
the stress corresponds with the stress-strain relationship of the
mater ia I.
This section provides a method of approximating the true stress

which depends upon the shape and the material properties. It is noted
that deflection requirements are investigated when using this method
since large deflections are possible while showing adequate structural
strength.
The method outlined in this section is not applicable if the member

is subjected to high fluctuating loads.
The following glossary is given for convenience:
Simple bending: This condition occurs when the resultant applied

moment vector is parallel to a principal axis.
Complex bending: This condition occurs when the resultant applied

moment vector is not parallel to a principal axis.
Development of the Theory
A rectangular cross section will be used in this development; any

other symmetrical cross section would yield the same results.
Section B4.5
February 15, i 976
Page 2
B 4.5.0 Plastic Analysis of Beams (Cont, d)
dA f
max
/-
¢2 , fl
--[ ' " -7 f true Stres'
e max max
(a) Section (b) Strain (c) Stress

0 el Strain eZ £max
(d) Stress-Strain Curve
(Tension and Compression)
Figure B4. 5. 0-I
Since the bending moment of the true stress distribution about

the neutral axis is greater than that of a linear Mc/I distribution as
used in the elastic range, a trapezoidal stress distribution is used to
approximate the true stress distribution, fmax may be defined as a
yield stress, a buckling stress, an ultimate stress or any other
stress level above the proportional limit.
Letfo be a fictitious stress at zero strain in the trapezoidal

stress distribution as shown in Figure B4.5.0-Z. The value of fo
may be determined by integrating graphically the moment of (not the
area of) the true stress distribution and equating this to the bending
moment of the trapezoidal stress distribution.
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 3
B 4.5.0 Plastic Analysis of Beams (Cont'd)
f
max
f f
max max
f
o
Stress
f
f max
max 6
Strain max
(a) True Stress (b) Trapezoidal Stress (c) Stress Strain Curve
Figure B4. 5. 0-Z
Mba = Allowable bending moment of the true stress distribution for a

particular cross-section at a prescribed maximum stress level.
Mb c
a Mc
Fb I = Fictitious allowable I stress or the bending modulus
of rupture for a particular cross-section at a prescribed
maximum stress level.
I
Mb t = "_-fmax + (ZQ- I_)c fo = The bending moment of a trapezoidal
stress distribution that is equivalent to
Mb a
Where for symmetrical sections,

c
I = ( y2 dA (moment of inertia)
Q ._
0 y dA (static moment of cross-section)
C " Distance from eentroidal axis to the extreme fiber

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 4
B 4.5.0 Plastic Analysis of Beams (Cont,d}
Mb c
t
Therefore, from Fb = we obtain:
I
Fb = fmax + (k-1)fo (4.5.0-I)
Where,
2Qc
k --
i (4.5.0-2)
Two types of figures are presented for plastic bending analysis.

One type presents Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for Symmetri-
cal Sections at yield and ultimate (Reference Section B4.5.4). The
other type presents Plastic Bending Curves {Reference Section B4.5.5)
which are necessary for the following:
1) Limiting stress other than yield or ultimate.
z) Tension and compression stress strain curves which are

significantly different.
3) Unsymmetrical cross-section.
Figure B4.5.0-3 shows values of k for various symmetrical cross-

sections. Generally, validity of the approach has been shown only
for typical aircraft sections which are geometric thin sections.
I Flanges ] Thin Tube Hourglass Rectangle Hexagon ]Solid Roun_ Diamond
k = 1.0 k'= 1.27 , I

SHAPE FACTOR
Figure B4.5.0-3
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 5
B4. 5. I Analysis Procedure When Tension and Compression Stress-

Strain Curves Coincide.
B4. 5. i. 1 Simple Bending about a Principal Axis---Symmetrical

Sections.
The procedure is as follows:
io Determine k by Equation (4. 5. 0-2) or by the use of Figure B4. 5. 0

-3.
2, For yield or ultimate limiting stress, use the Bending Modulus of

Rupture Curves (F b vs. k - see section B4. 5. 5 for index) to
determine F b.
. For a limiting stress other than yield or ultimate, use the Plastic
Bending Curves (See section B4. 5. 6 for index). Locate the limiting
stress on the stress-strain (or k=l) curve and move directly up to
the appropriate k curve to read F b for the same strain.
, F b from Step 3 and fb, the calculated Mc/l stress, may be used
in determining the bending stress ratio for combined stresses
and the margin of safety for pure bending as follows:
fb
Rb- (4.5.1.1-I)
Fb
1
M.S. - 1 (4. 5. i. I-2)
Rb(S.F. )
Where: S.F. is the appropriate (yield or ult) safety factor
B4.5. 1.2 Simple Bending about a Principal Axis---Unsymmetrical

Sections with an Axis of Symmetry Perpendicular to the
Axis of Bending
This procedure also applies to any section with bending about one
of its principal axes.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page6
B4.5.1.2 Simple Bendin G about a Principal Axis---Unsymmetrical

Axis of Bending. (Con t'd)
. Divide the section into two parts, (1) and (Z), on either side of the
principal axis (not the axis of symmetry) similar to that shown in
Figure B4.5. I. Z-l.
, Calculate:
QlCl
k1 - ii (4.5. I. Z-I)
where I1 is the moment of inertia of part (I) only about the principal
axis of the entire cross-section. This would be identical to k of a
section made up of part (I) and its mirror image. Figure B4.5.0-3
may be used where part (i) and its mirror image form one of the
sections shown.
3. Calculate similarly:
Qzcz
k2 = iZ (4.5. I, Z-Z)
1
Assuming part (I) is critical in yield (or crippling, ultimate, etc. )
use the P_astic Bending Curves and locate this stress on the stress-
strain ( or k=l) curve. Move directly up to the appropriate k curve
and read for the same strain.
Fb 1
5. Read the strain el.
6. Calculate:
ElcZ (4.5.1.2-3)
E2- c1
7. Locate E Z on the strain scale and move directly up to the appro-
priate k curve to read Fb2
8. Calculate Mba by
Fblll Fb212
Mb a = 5_ + E_ (4.5 .l. 2-4)
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Pa 9e 7
B 4.5.1.2 Simple bending about a principal axis--

u_n_s_ym_letrical sections with an axis of
symmetry perpendicular to the axis of
bending. (Cont,d)
1 M_ mustbe used in determining the moment ratio for bending and

an_dath--emargin of safety for pure bending as follows:
M
Rb _ (4. 5. 1.2-5)
Mb a
1
M.S. = - 1 (4.5.1.Z-6)
ab (s. F. )
Where: S.F. is the appropriate (yield or ult) safety factor
I
!
(i)
rincipal Axis
(z)
Figure B4. 5. i. 2-i

B4.5.1.3 Complex Bending--Symmetrical Sections; Also Unsymmetri-
cal Sections with One Axis of Symmetry.
This condition occurs when the resuItant applied moment vector

is not parallei to a principal axis as shown in Figures B4. 5. 1. 3-1 or
B4. 5. i. 3-2. ,y
M I M
Y/ I/
;/ __ x
i X X -
X
"C.G.
Y Y
Symmetrical Section Unsymmetrical Section

with one axis of symmetry
Figure B4. 5. i. 3-I Figure B4. 5.1. 3-2
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 8
B 4.5. 1.3 Complex Bending-- Symmetrical Sections; also

Unsymmetrical Sections with One Axis of Symmetry.
The procedure is as follows (this procedure is always conservative and

may be very conservative for some cross-sectional shapes):
1.. Obtain M x and My, the components of M with respect to the

principal axes.
2. Follow the procedure outlined in Section B4.5.1.1 or B4.5.1.2
to determine Rbx and Rby
(4.5.1.3-1)
3. Rb= Rbx + Rby
4. For pure bending,
M. S. l 1 (4.5.1.3-z)
Rb (S.F. )
Where:
S.F. is the appropriate (yield or ult) safety factor.
B4.5.1.4 Complex Bending--Unsymmetrical Sections with No Axis

of Symmetry
This condition occurs when the resultant applied moment vector is

not parallel to a principal axis as shown in Figure B4.5.1.4-1.
y, y M
\ I
x' (Principal axis)
x - - x(Ref. axis)
y' (Principal axis)

!
y (Ref. axis)
Figure B4.5.1.4-1
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Pa ge 9
B 4.5.1.4 Complex Bending-- Unsymmetrical Sections with no

Axis of Symmetry.
i. Determine the principal axes by the equation
2I
tan 2 0 - xy (4.5. I.4-i)
Iy - Ix
where x and y are centroidal axes and
Ix = y dA (Moment of inertia)
Iy = dA (Moment of inertia)
x
(Product of inertia)
Ixy=/Xy dA
o
Obtain M x, and My,, the components of M with respect to the
principal axes.
,
Follow the procedure outlined in Section B4. 5. 1. 2 to determine
Rbx , and Rby ,
4. The stress ratio for complex bending is
Rb = Rbx , + Rby , (4. 5. 1.4-2)
So
For pure complex bending, the margin of safety is
I
M. S. (4. 5. 1.4-3)
ab(S. F. )
where:
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page I0
B4.5. I. 5 Shear Flow for Simple Bending About a Principal Axis--

Symmetrical Sections
When plastic bending occurs, the classical formula SQ/I is correct

only for cross-sections withk=l.O. For k greater than 1.0, SQ/Iis
unconservative. The derivation of a correction factor ;3 SQ/I is as
follows for an ultimate strength assessment:
__ f __l
ma-_l •
/ ///J Jr J/i
P.A.
-t ,%q °"
Cross -Section Stress Distribution
Figure B4. 5.1.5-1
Let P = load on cross-section between y and c
P= jy tfdy
From the geometry of Figure B4.5. i. 5-1
f = fo + (fmax " fo) y--

c
•".P= " fot

c dy + ff (fmax " fo) tcy dy
-,y
Let A= area of cross-section between y and c

_c
A= / t dy then,
Jy
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 1 1
B 4.5.1.5 Shear Flow for Simple Bendin_ about a Principal

Axis-- Symmetrical Section. (Cont'd)
P= fo A + (fmax - fo) A__ and since Q=Ay,

c
P= fmax I--_)4 fo (A Q)c (a)
From Equation (4. 5. 0-i)
Mc
then,
Fb = fmax + fo (k - I) _ I
df df
c dM max 0
I dx dx dx (k - 1 )
Since, by definition, S = dM/dx and q = dP/dx,
c max o (k - 1 (b)
-_--(S)- df dx [ 1 + df ] and from (a),
max
df df df
in ax Q o m ax
q = +
dx c df dx
max
1 +x (c/F- l)
Let X = df /dfmax and _ = then,
0 l+x (k-l)
q = df max
dx
(c)
But since from (b): df max /dx- ScI [ 1 +k (k - 1)] (d)

/
and substituting (d) into (c) we have
(Ac/Q - 1)]
q = [1 +k (k - 1)]
Since Q = A-y-',
SQ
q- _-y-
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 12
B 4.5. I. 5 Shear Flow for Simple Bendin_ about a Principal

Axis-- Symmetrical Section. (Cont wd)
The method outlined below shows how to correct SQ/I and calculate
the margin of safety for simple plastic bending about a principal axis
of a symmetrical section.
1. Determine Mc/I
o Determine k by Equation (4.5.0-2) or by the use of Figure

B4.5.0-3.
1 Refer to the applicable Plastic Bending Curves and locate

Mc/I on the F b scale. Move across to the appropriate k curve
to read the true strain, c.
o
By use of the stress.-strain (or k = 1) curve and the fo curve,
determine the rate of change of fo _vith respect to f at the true
strain E, which would be expressed as
d'f df /d_
O O
)t = df - dr/d, (4.5.1.5-1)
o To determine the shear flow at any point on a cross-section,

determine the distance from the principal axis to the centroid
of the area outside of the point in question as Shown in Figure
B4. 5.1. 5-1. This is defined as _.
1 Determine the shear flow at distance "a" from the principal

axis by
SQ
a
qa = _ I (4.5.1.5-2)
where,
= l+X (c/7- l) (4.5.1. 5-3)
l+X (k-l)
Qa = £ y dA 14.5.1. 5-4)
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 13
B 4.5.1.5. Shear Flow for Simple Bending about a

Principal Axis-- Symmetrical Section. (Cont'd)
. Calculate f = (r s) = (q/t) and the stress ratio is

Sm&x a= 0 a= 0
f
S l_fl aN
R - (4.5.1.5-5)
s F s
, For the margin of safety with pure bending and shear use
1
M.S. = 2- -1 (4. 5. 1. 5-6)
+ Rs
, For the margin of safety with axial load, bending and shear
use
1
M.S. = 1 (4. 5.1. 5-7)
(S. F. )v_R b + Ra )2 + R2s
where,
fa
Ra- Fa
S.F. is the appropriate (yield or ult) safety factor,
B4. 5. 1.6 Shear Flow for Simple Bending About a Principal Axis--
Unsymmetrical Section with an Axis of Symmetry Perpen-
dicular to the Axis of Bending
A procedure similar to that shown in Section B4. 5. 1. 5 for Figure

B4. 5.1. 6-1 is as follows:
• Divide the section into two parts, (1) and (2), on either side of
the principal axis (not the axis of symmetry) similar to that
shown in Figure B4. 5. 1. 2-1.
Calculate:
QlCl (4.5. 1.2-1)

k1 - I1
where I 1 is the moment of inertia of part (1) only about the

principal axis of the entire cross-section. This would be
identical to k of a section made up of part (1) and its mirror
image. Figure B4. 5. 0-3 may be used where part (1) and its
mirror image form, one of the sections shown.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 14

Axis-- tl_syrnmetrical Section with an Axis of
Symrnetry Perpendicular to the Axis of Bending.
B Calculate similarly:
Q2c2
(4.5.1.2-2)
k2 - i2
Mc 1 Mc 2
. Calculate -- and
I I
5. Refer to the applicable Plastic Bending Curves and locate
MCl on the F b scale. Move across to the appropriate k

I (use k 1) curve to read the true strain _ 1'
• _1c2
6. Find E 2, similarly, or by _ 2- (4.5. i. 2-3)
cI
.
By use of the stress-strain (or k = 1) curve a,_d the fo curve,
determine the rate of change of fo with respect to f for the
true strainq which would be expressed as
xl = = 7l (4.5.1.6-i)
e
Calculate similarly:
(4.5.1.6-2)
. To determine the shear flow at any point on a cross-section,

determine the distance from the principal axis to the centroid
of the area above or below the point in question as shown in
Figure B4. 5.1. 6-1. This is defined as _a or _b"
1 0. Determine the shear flow in part (1) at distance "a" from the
neutral axis by
qa = _a t -T--
SQa) (4.5.1.6-3)
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 15
B 4.5.1.6 Shear Flow for Simple Bending about a Principal

Axis-- Unsymmetrical Section with an Axis of
Symmetry Perpendicular to the Axis of Bending.
where,
i +k I c(_ a i )
/3a = 1 +X1 (kl - 1) (4.5.1.6-4)
c 1
(4. 5.1. 6-5)
Qa = _a ydA
11. Determine the shear flow in part (2) at distance "b" from the
neutral axis by
qb = _3b I (4. 5.1. 6-6)
where,
1 +_Z - 1) (4. 5.1. 6-7)

i3b = l +%2 (k2 - I)
Qb = _b 2 ydA (4. 5.1. 6-8)
12. For the shear flow at the principal axis, calculate q using both
parts of the cross-section and use the larger. A rigorous
analysis could be made so that shear flow calculations at the
neutral axis would result in the same value regardless of
which side was used in the calculations. This would involve
determining the amount of transverse shear distributed to

each side of the neutral axis. If the bending moment is
developed entirely from external shear, then the shear distri-
buted on each side is proportional to the corresponding mo-
ments and Equations (4. 5.1. 6-3) and (4. 5.1. 6-6) become as
follows:
S1Q a M 1 Fb 1 11
qa = /3a I1 where S 1 = M1 + M2 S, M 1 = C--

1
(See B4. 5. i. 2)
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 16

S]rmmetry Per_.endicular to the Axis of Bending.
SZQ b M Z Iz
qb = _b IZ where S Z= M1 + MZ S, M2= Fb 2 C2
(See B4.5.1.2)
c1 t
i
f
m
_i _ Principal axis
f b
I
Yb
cz
-i
tz
Figure B4.5.1.6-I
qa qb
13. Calculate f = -- and f = -- to obtain the shear
S
a ,t1 sb t2
ratio s:
f
S
a
1% .=. (4.5.1.6-9)
S a F s
fs b
(4.5.1.6-10:)
Rs b - F
S
14. For the margin of safety with pure bending and shear use
1
M.S. = - 1 (4.5. i. 6-II)
(s.F. )_+ RZs

where:
S.F. is the appropriate (yield or ult) safety factor,

Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 17
B 4.5.1.6
Shear Flow for Simple Bendin G about a Principal
Symmetry Perpendicular to the Axis of Bending.
(Cont ' d)
15. For the margin of safety with axial load, bending and shear use
I
M.S. = -1 (4. 5.1. 6-12)
Ra )2 R 2
(S. F. )_(R b
where:
f
a
R a - Fa
B4. 5. 1. 7 Shear Flow for Complex Bending--Any Cross-Section
l •
Determine the principal axes by inspection or, if necessary,
by Equation (4.5.1.4-I),
,
Obtain S x, and Sy,, the components of S with respect to the
principal axes. The principal axes are denoted by x' and y'
as indicated in Figure B4.5.1.4-1o
. Follow the same procedure of Section B4.5.1.6 about both
principal axes to obtain the shear stresses fsx , and fSy,

at a prescribed point.
4. The shear stress ratios at this point are
f
S
X w
_ (4.5. :.7-l)
Rsx' F s
fs ,
Rsy ' _ F sY (4. 5.1.7-2)
So
For the margin of safety with complex bending and shear use
1
M.S. = -1 (4.1. 5.7-3)
S.F b + Rs
Sect ion B4,5
February 15_ 1976
Page 18
B 4.5.1.7. Shear Flow for Complex Bending-- Any Cross-

Section. {Cont'd)
where,
Rs =_R Sx' 2 + Rsy,2 (4.1, 5.7-4)

S, F. is the appropriate (yield or ult. ) safety factor.
o
For the margin of safety with axial load, complex bending and
shear use
l
M.S. = -1 (4.1. 5.7-5)
S.F. R b 4- Ra )2 4- R s
B4.5.2 Analysis Procedure When Tension and Compression Stress-

Strain Curves Differ Significantly
This may occur in materials such as the AISI 301 strainless steels
in the longitudinal grain direction where the tensidn stress-strain curve
is higher than the compression curve•
B4.5.2. 1 Simple Bending about a Principal Axis--Symmetrical

Sections
f f
t
t-
C
N.A. _] N.A. A. oC
•
P. A.
A
C
f
C
f
C
o
(a) Section (b) Strain (c) True Stress (d)Trapezoi-
dal Stress
Figure B4.5.2. I-I

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 19
B 4.5.2.1 Simple Bending about a Principal Axis-- Symmetrical

Sections. (Cont'd)
F
Tension tu
6U
(e) Stress-Strain Curves
Figure B4. 5. 2. I-i (cont.)
The procedure for a symmetrical section such as that in Figure

B4. 5. 2. i-I is as follows:
I , Determine k by Equation (4. 5. 0-2) or by the use of Figure

B4. 5. 0-3.
,
For yield or ultimate limiting stress, use the Bending Modulus
of Rupture Curves to determine F b. The correction for shift-
ing the neutral axis away from the principal axis by A has
been taken into account in the development of the curves.
Note Step 8.
.
For a limiting stress (or strain) other than yield or ultimate,
use the Plastic Bending Curves. Locate the limiting stress
on the appropriate (tension or compression) stress-strain
(or k=l) curve and call this fl at _ 1 with its trapezoidal inter-
cept fol. Note Step 9.

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 20
B 4.5. Z. I Simple Bendin_ about a Principal Axis-- Symmetrical

Sections. (Cont'd)
, Locate the neutral axis which would be some distance A from

the principal axis toward the tension side. This may be
difficult to determine, but trial and error type formulae are
provided in Figure B4.5. Z. 1-2 for several symmetrical cross-
sections. See Example B4.5.4. I for typical procedure in
determining A, e Z' fz' fo2' kl' and k 2. Note that k I and k2

are with respect to the neutral axis.
,
Find Fbl and Fbz for E I and _ Z' using the correct values of
k I and k z which may or may not be equal.
.
Calculate I 1 and I Z, the moments of inertia of the elements
with respect to the neutral axis of the entire cross-section.
7. Calculate by
Mb a
11 Fb Iz
Fbl Z
Mba _ Cl + c2 (4.5.2. I-I)
8. For cases as in Step 2, F b may be used with fb' the calculated

Mc/I stress, in determining the stress ratio for bending and
the margin of safety for pure bending as follows:
I
M.S. = -I (4.5.2. I-3)
(S.F.) Rb
where:
e
For cases as in Step 3, M_. mustbe used in determining the
gJa - _
moment ratio for bending and the margin of safety for pure
bending as follows:
M
(4.5. Z. 1-4)
Rb = Mba
I
M.S. = -1 (4.5.2. I-5)
(S.F.)Rb
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 21
B 4. 5.2. ] Simple Bending about a Principal Axis-- Symmetrical

Sections• (Cont,d)
o ¢,a
0 _ _ _1
n
u
II
0 _1
r..)
<_I"_ ;_ I , Z
r_
o o ' £
cO _
_ _ ._ + -.D o0 ÷
D.- (3". <I + u
..D
, u _i _
v
+ _m
_ +
ed _
E _
u _
t_
÷
..D
_ _1_ _ +
_ cq + C_
"_ _ [..-i _2:d) ?1 -..D _ll

<ii_ c;
u_4
, _
.r-i
m ;>
o.1
! -..D I
0 rd _ _ 0
I_'; _ ::::;
• (y. E , ._ =--. i I
°_ ¢_ ,-4 0
,, _ _i
_o _<I + _ _ _
, _ <I
+ _
i _) o _I_ ÷
O m M
v ,._t
mM N
4,_
X O
_ o_ I Z
_ 0 _ 0
O3
I,L oI ,
O _ 0
No
A
<_
r_
..D t'- O
o rq
i • •
_d
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 22
B4.5.2.2 Simple Bending about a Principal Axis--Unsymmetrical

Axis of Bending
. Locate the neutral axis which would be some distanceA from the
principal axis toward the tension side by a method similar to that
outlined in Example B4.5.4.1 for symmetrical sections. This will
require the derivation of an expression relating A, fmaxt, lot,
fmaxc, and f_vc by. use. of. the equilibrium of axial loads due to the
bending stress dlstrlbut_on. This expression is likely to contain
higher powers of Aand the solution for _ can best be obtained by
trial and error using the stress-strain (or k = 1) and fo curves.
Refer to Example B4. 5.4.2 for typical procedure.
Z. Now, follow the identical procedure to that of Section B4.5.1.2

with the exception of using the neutral axis instead of the principal
axis. Remember that F b on the compression side is obtained
from the compression Plastic Bending Curves.
B4.S.Z.S Complex Bending--Symmetrical Sections; also Unsymmetri-

cal Sections with One Axis of Symmetry
Refer to Section B4.5.1.3 and follow the identical procedure except

for Step 2 which is expressed as follows:
Z.
Follow the applicable procedure outlined in Section B4.5.2.1
and/or B4.5.2.2 to determine Rbx and Rby.
B4.5. Z. 4 Complex Bending--Unsymmetrical Sections with No Axis of

Symmetry
Refer to Section B4.5.1.4 an(t follow the identical, procedure except

for Step 3 which is expressed as follows:
3. Follow the procedure outlined in Section B4.5. Z. 2 to deter-
mine Rbx and Rby
i
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 23
B4. 5. 2. 5 Shear Flow for Simple Bending about a Principal Axis--

Symmetrical Sections
Refer to Section B4. 5. I. 5 and follow the identical procedure with

the following exception:
If shear flow is being determined on the tension side, use the

tension Plastic Bending Curves in the evaluation of 71 for Equation
(4. 5.1. 5-3). The compression side is considered similarly using
the compression Plastic Bending Curves.
B4. 5. Z. 6 Shear Flow for Simple Bending about a Principal Axis--

Unsymmetrical Sections with an Axis of Symmetry Per-
pendicular to the Axis of Bending
Refer to Section If4. 5.1. 6 and follow the identical procedure with
the following exceptions:
If shear flow is being determined on the tension side, use the

tension Plastic Bending Curves in the evaluation of X for Equations
(4. 5.1. 6-i) or (4. 5.1. 6-2). The compression side is considered
similarly using the compression Plastic Bending Curves.
B4. 5.2. 7 Shear Flow for Complex Bending--Any Cross-Section
Refer to Section B4. 5. I. 7 and follow the identical procedure except

for Step 3 which is expressed as follows"
. Follow the same procedure of Section B4. 5. 2. 6 about both
principala
prescribedaxes point,
and obtain the shear stresses fsx, and fSy,__at
B4. 5. 3 The Effects of Transverse Stresses on Plastic Bending
The elastic and plastic portions of stress-strain curves for com-

bined loading do not correspond to those of the uniaxial curves due to
the effects of Poisson's ratio. The plastic bending curves depend on
the magnitude and shape of the stesss-strain curve of a given material.
Therefore, under combined loading the plastic bending curves may
have to be modified if the uniaxial stress-strain curve is significantly
affected.
Section B4.5
February 15, ! 976
Page 24
B 4.5.3 The Effects of Transverse Stresses on Plastic Bending.
When modification of the plastic bending curves is necessary, the

procedure is as follows:
, Modify the uniaxial stress-strain curve by Section A3.7.0.
.
Determine and construct the modified plastic bending curves,
F b vs E. Refer to Section B4.5.0 for the theoretical back-
ground; the fo curve must first be plotted and then k curves
constructed by the use of Equation (4.5.0-1).
Example Problems
A Diamond Cross-Section of AISI 301 Extra Hard (2%

Elongation) Stainless Steel Sheet Is Subjected to Pure
Bending in the Longitudinal Direction at Room Temperature.
Find the Shift in Neutral Axis (A) from the Principa ! Axis
When the Limiting Stress Is (a) Ftu and (b) Fcy. (Fty is
Is Not Used Since Fty > Fqy. )
Reference the Minimum Plastic Bending Curves on page 133 and

134.
_ide
/_tenslon
(a) Ftu = ZOO ksi
PlA,
ct -= . 020 in. /in.
lot = 146 ksi
From Figure B4.5. Z. 1-2 use the equation for determining

Awhen k = 2 (for a diamond).
ft + Zfot- 1 [fc +fo (Z + 6A- 3AZ)]

(I - A 2) c
By trial and error, equality is reached within 0.8% when
is assumed equal to 0.187c as shown below:
From Equation (4.5. i.2-3)
E ic2 Et cc
c2 - c1 or _c - ct
0. 020 x I.187c
c = .813c = 0. 0292 in. /in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 25
B 4.5.4.1 l_.xample Problem B 4. 5.4. 1 (Cont 'd)
From the stress-strain (k=l) curve page 135 at c c
f = 149 ksi
C
f = 107 ksi
O C
Therefore,
[ 149 + 107(2 + 6 x 0.187

1 - 0. 1872
492-_,488
(b) f = 97 ksi
cy
c = 0.00575 in./in.
c
fOc = 27 ksi
From Figure B4. 5.2.1-2, use the equation for determining

A when k = 2 (for a diamond).
1
(2 + 6A - 3A 2) ]
- [fc + f°c
ft + 2fo t (I -A 2)
By trial and error, equality is reached within 0. 60% when

A is assumed equal to 0. 024c as shown below:
From Equation (4. 5. I. 2-3)
c I c2 _ c ct
c 2 - Cl or = c t = Cc
0. 00575 x 0.976c
ct = i. 024c = 0. 00548 in. /in.
From the stress-strain (k=l) curve page 132 at ct
ft = iZl ksi
for= 16.5 ksi

Sect ion B4.,5
February 15, 1976
Page 26
B 4.5.4.1 Example Problem B 4.5.4.1. (Cont' d)
Therefore,
121 + 2 x 16.5_ 1 I97 + 27 (2 + 6xO. 024

1.0.-0242
154_154.93
B4.5.4.2 Calculate the Ultimate Allowable Bendin_ Moment About

the Principal Axis for the Built-Up Tee Section Shown.
The Flan@e Is in Compression and the Crippling Stress
Is 60 ksi. The Material Is AISI 301 1 Hard Stainless
Steel Sheet at Room Temperature with Bending in the
Longitudinal Grain Direction.
Since the longitudinal tension and compression stress-

strain curves are significantly different, the procedure of
Section B_. 5.2.2 will be followed.
For ultimate design, crippling is the limiting stress

rather than Ftu.
Fcc = 60 ksi /----tension
o.o_ -_ ;
_._.L 1_
.c=O. 1
fOc ----- T
A trial and error equation for shifting the neutral axis from
the principal axis toward the tension side is determined by equat-
ing the load on the tension side to the load on the compression
wide. (See Section B4.5.2.2):
c "2 = Cc 'Fcc + cc
Section 84.5
February 15, 1976
Page 27
B 4.5.4.2 Example Problem B 4. 5.4. 2 (Cont' d)
Equality is reached within 0.70% whenAis assumed equal to

0. 065:
c = 0.345 + A = 0.410 in.

c
c = 1 - c = 0. 590 in.
t c
Using Equation (4. 5.1. 2-3)
E C
c t 0. 0046 x 0. 590
0. 00662 in. /in.
ct - c - 0.410 =
c
From page 112 at e t
ft = I13 ksi
fot 38 ksi
Substitution of these values into the above trial and error

equation results in equality within 0. 70%.
Section properties about the neutral axis:

3
2 tc t 2 x 0.05 x 0_ 3 4
= 0. 006845 in.
It- 3 - 3
Z _Z
Qt = t c t = 0.05 x 0. 590 = 0. 01740 in.
Qt ct 0. 01740 x 0. 590
kt - It 0. 006845 = 1 5
(which checks with Figure B4. 5. 0-3 for a rectangle)

Ztc3 2
c t, 2x0. 05x0. 4103
Ic - 3 + 2 x 0.450t (c c - -_-) = 3
\
+ 2x0. 450x0. 05x0. _-_2 = 0. 008967 in. 4

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 28
B 4.5.4.2 Example Problem B 4.5.4.2 (Cont'd)
Z
Qc = tc c +2 x 0.450t (Cc _ -_-)
t, = 0.05 x--0.4102+ 2x0.450
%
3
x 0.05 x 0. 385 = 0. 02572 in.
Qc
c c 0. 02572 x 0. 410
k =1.17
C I 0. 008967
C
From page li2 using _t and k t
fb = 132 ksi
t
Let's check this value by numerically evaluating Equation

(4.5.0-I).
Fb t = ft + (k - I) fOr = 113 + (i.5-I)38 = 132 ksi (check)
From page 114 using _ and k

C c
Fbc = 64.5 ksi
Calculate the ultimate allowable moment by Equation (4.5.1.2-4)
It Fb Ic
t c 13Zx0. 006845
Mbult - ct + cc 0. 590
64.5 x 0.008967 2.94 in. - kips (answer)

+ =
0. 410
B4.5.4.3 Find the Shear Flow at the Neutral Axis of the Example
Problem B4.5.4.2 If the Transverse Shear, (s), Is
Equal to 5 kips. and the Bending Moment Is Equal to the
Ultimate (2.94 in-kips. )
Shear flow at the neutral axis should be determined by using

the section properties from each side of the neutral axis. The
larger of the two shear flows should be (conservatively) used.
The procedure of Section B4.5.2.6 and consequently Section

B4.5. I. 6 will be used.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 29
B4.5.4.3 Example Problem B4.5.4.3 (Cont 'd_
Shear Flow From Tension Properties
The required section properties already known from example

B4. 5.4. 2 are:
4
= 0. 006845 in. (tension side only)
It
4
Ic = 0. 008967 in. (compression side only)
4
I = I t + I c = O. 015812 in.
c t= 0.590 in.
Qt= 0. 01740 in.
kt= i. 5 (rectangle)
t = 0. 00662 in. /in.
From the stress-strain (k= i} curve on page 112 at _t
/_\[d-v:-]
=7 ksi/. 001
\co/ 1
(df
I = 8 ksi/. 001
d-_-_
1
Using Equation (4. 5. I. 6-i)
x i =_d-Y-71
= _Ta_ Jl
8
XI- 7 -1.14
Using Equation (4.5.1.6-4)
l+X 1 -
_a = i+_
1 (kl - i)
_ ct
Ya- 2 - 0.295 in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 30
-._J
B 4.5.4.3 Example Problem B 4.5.4.3 (Cont' d)
1 + 1.14 (_ 295
590 1)
_a = I + 1.14 (1.5 - I) = 1.36
Shear flow at the NA from Equation (4.5.1. 5-2)
/3 SQ
a a
qa- I
5 x O. 01740
qa = I. 36 O. 015812 = 7.48 kips/in.
[Note that the conventional SQ

-- l
]formula is 36% unconserva_ve]

L he re. J
Shear Flow From Compression Properties
The required section properties already known from example

B4.5.4.2 are:
4
I = O. 015812 in. (Reference Page 82 )
c = 0.410 in.
C
Q = O. 02572 in.
C
k =1.17
C
E = 0. 0046 in. /in.

C
From the stress-strain (k = 1) curve on page 114 at E

C
6
dr) = 4. ksi/. 001
(df
==/I= 5.o ksi/0oi
2
Sect/on B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 3 1
B4.5.4.3 Example Problem B 4. 5.4. 3 (Cont'dl
Using Equation (4. 5.1. 6-2)
X2 =\dr /2 dr/de z
5.0
)t2- 4.6 - 1.09
Using Equation (4.5.1. 6-7)
/Jb
1 +x z (k z - t)
Q Q
b c
Yb = A - 7
b c
Ac = 2 [0.05 (0.410 + 0.450)I = 0. 086 in.
-- O. 0Z572
Yb - O. 086 _ O. 299 in.
t + t. 09 @410299 t)
• = 1.18
/gb = 1 + 1. 09(1. 17 - 1)
Shear flow at the NA from i'2quat*on (4. 5.1. 6-6).

SQ
b
qb = /d b I
5 x O. 02572
qb = i.18 O. 015812 = 9. 6 kips/in.
Note that the conventional --]SQ
Iformula is 18% unconservative

here.
The larger shear flow should be used which is
._ q = 9. 6 kips/in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 32
B4. 5.5 Index for Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for Symmetrical
Sections
These curves provide yield and ultimate modulus of rupture values

for symmetrical sections only. For materials with significantly dif-
ferent tension and compression stress-strain curves, the necessary
corrections for shifting of the neutral axis are already included. In
the case of work hardened stainless steels in longitudinal bending with
all fibers in tension (as in pressurized cylinders), the transverse
Modulus of Rupture Curves are applicable.
It is recommended that MIL-HDBK-5 or other official sources be

used for allowable material properties. Where these values correspond
directly to the values called out on the graphs of this section, the modu-
lus of rupture values are applicable as shown.
Where material allowables vary with thickness, cross-sectional

area, etc., only one or two Modulus of Rupture Curves are presented.
Therefore, for materialproperties slightly higher or lower than those
used in the given curve, the modulus values may be rafioed up or down
(provided the % elongations are practically the same).
B4. 5.5.1 Stainless Steels - Minimum Properties

Page
AISI 301 1/4 Hard Sheet *(RT) ........... 39
AISI 301 ltZ Hard Sheet (RT) ........... 40
AISI 301 3/4 Hard Sheet (RT) ........... 41
AISI 301 3/4 Hard Special Sheet (RT) ........... 42
AISI 301 Full Hard Sheet (RT) ........... 43
AISI 301 Extra Hard Sheet (RT) .......... /#4
AISI 321 Annealed Sheet (RT) ........... 45
AM_ 355 Sheet, Forging, Bar and Tubing (RT) ...... 46
_ "_ AM 355 Special Sheet, Forging, Bar and Tubing

(RT) ............................ 47
*(RT) - Room Temperature.

Section B4.5
February 15, 1 976
Page 33
B4.5.5.1 Stainless Steels - Minimum Properties
Page
17-4 PH Bar and Forging (P.T) .............. 48
17-7 PH Ftu = 180 ksi (P.T) ............... 49
17-7 PH Ftu = 210 ksi (RT) ............... 50
PH 15-7 Mo (THI050) Sheet ............... 51

PH 15-7 Mo (P.H 950) Sheet ............... 52
19-9 DL (AMS 5526) & 19-9 DX (AMS 5538) ..... 53
19-9 DL (AMS 5527) & 19-9 DX (AMS 5539) ..... 54

B4. 5. 5.2 Low Carbon and Alloy Steels ::-"
- Minimum Properties
AISI 1023-1025 (RT) ....................... 98
AISI Alloy Steel, Normalized, Ftu = 90 ksi (P.T) .... 99
AISI Alloy Steel, Normalized, Ftu = 95 ksi (P.T) .... 100
AISI Alloy Steel, Heat Treated, Ftu = 125 ksi (P.T)... lO]
AISI Alloy Steel, Heat Treated, Ftu = 150 ksi(RT)... I02
AISI Alloy Steel, Heat Treated, Ftu = 180 ksi(RT)... I03
AISI Alloy Steel, Heat Treated, Ftu = 200 ksi(P.T)... I04
B4.5.5. 3 Heat Resistant Alloys - Minimum Properties
Stainless Steels ....................... S.e¢ _Page 32
A-286 Alloy-Heat Treated (RT) ............... I19
K-Monel Sheet--Age Hardened (RT) ............ 120
Monel Sheet - Cold Rolled and Annealed (P.T) ...... 121
Inconel-X (P.T) ..........................
B4. 5. 5.4 Titanium - Minimum Properties
Pure Annealed (P.T) ....................... 129
Ti-8 Mn (P.T) ........................... 130
Ti-6 A1 - 4V (RT) ........................ 131
Ti-4 Mn - 4 A1 (P.T) ....................... 132
*Alloy Steels include AISI 4130, 4140, 4340, 8630, 8735,8740, and 9840.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 34
Page
B4. 5.5.5 Aluminum - Minimum Properties
2014-T6 Extrusions (RT) ....................
2014-T6 Forgings (RT) ...................... 140
2014-T3 Sheet and Plate, Heat Treated

Thickness < .250 in. (RT) ............. 14l
2024-T3 & T4 Sheet and Plate, Heat Treated,

Thickness .250_< . 50 in. (RT) ........... 142
2024-T3 Clad Sheet and Plate (RT) ............. ]43
2024-T4 Clad Sheet and Plate (RT) ............. ]h4
2024-T6 Clad Sheet - Heat Treated and Aged (RT) .... 145
2024-T81 Clad Sheet - Heat Treated, Cold

Worked and Aged (RT) ................ 146
6061 - T6 Sheet - Heat Treated and Aged (RT) ....... 147
7075- T6 Bare Sheet and Plate (RT) .............. 148
7075- T6 Clad Sheet and Plate (RT) .............. 149
7075- T6 Extrusions (RT) ..................... 150
7075- T6 Die Forgings (RT) ................... 151
7075- T6 Hand Forgings (RT) .................. 152
7079- T6 Die Forgings - Transverse (RT) ......... 153
7079- T6 Die Forgings - Longitudinal (RT) ......... 154
7079- T6 Hand Forgings - Short Transverse (RT) ..... 155
7079- T6 Hand Forgings - Long Trans'_erse (RT) ..... 156
7079 - T6 Hand Forgings - Longitudinal (RT) ....... 157
B4. 5. 5. 6 Magnesium-Minimum Properties
AZ 61A Extrusions (RT) ....................
AZ 61A Forgings (RT) ...................... 197
HK 31A-0 Sheet (RT) ........................ 198
HK 31A-H24 Sheet (RT) .......................
ZK 60A Extrusions (RT): ....................
ZK 60A Forgings (RT) ...................... 201

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 35
B4. 5. 6 Index for Plastic Bending Curves
These curves represer_t modulus of rupture values relative to

the stress-strain curve for a section on either side of the neutral
axis. These curves are particularly useful for unsymmetrical
sections and when the allowable stress is other than yield or ulti-
mate for symmetrical or unsymmetrical sections.
For materials with significantly different tension and compres-

sion stress-strain curves, Plastic Bending Curves for both are
presented. When the difference is slight, the Plastic Bending
Curves for the lower stress-strain curve only are presented.
It is recommended that MIL-HDBK-5 or other official sources

be used for allowable material properties. Where these values
correspond directly to the wdues called out on the graphs of this
section, the modulus of rupture values are applicable as shown.
Where material allowables vary with thickness, cross-sectional

area, etc., only one or two Plastic Bending Curves are presented.
Therefore, for material properties slightly higher or lower than
those used in the given curve, the modulus values may be ratioed
up or down (provided the % elongations are practically the same).
Stress directions called out in the headings of the Plastic

Bending Curves apply only to stress caused by pure bending. The
bending modulus for compression is higher in the transverse grain
direction (in fact, slightly higher than the tension modulus) than in
the longitudinal grain direction, for the AISI 301 stainless steels.
Separate curves are therefore presented for AISI stainless steels
in the longitudinal compression.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 36
B4.5.6. 1 Stainless Steels-Minimum Properties

Page
AISI 301 1/4 Hard Sheet ':-'(RT) .......... 55-5A_

AISI 301 1/2 Hard Sheet (RT) .......... 59 -64
AISI 301 3/4 Hard Sheet (RT) .......... 65-70
AISI 301 3/4 Hard Special Sheet (RT) ..... 71-74
AISI 301 Full Hard Sheet (RT) ............ 75-78
AISI 301 Extra Hard Sheet (RT) ........... 79-82
AISI 321 Annealed Sheet (RT) ............. 83 -84
AM 355 Sheet, Forging, Bar and Tubing

(RT) .......................
AM 355 Special Heat Treated Sheet

t
Forging, Bar and Tubing {RT) ......
17-4 PH Heat Treated Bar and Forging

(RT) ....................... 87
17-7 PH Ftu = 180 ksi (RT) .............. 88-89
17-7 PH Ftu = 210 ksi (RT) .............. 90
PH 15-7 Mo , . . . . , . , . . ° . , . . . , • . . . . . , 91-93
19-9 DX 19-9DL ...................

94-97
B4.5.6.2 Low Carbon and Alloy Steels*-':=-Minimum Properties
AISI 1023-1025 (RT) ...................... I05-I06
AISI Alloy Steel, Normalized, Ftu = 90 ksi

(RT) ....................... I07-108
AISI Alloy Steel, Normalized, Ftu = 95 ksi

(RT) ....................... 109-110
AISI Alloy Steel, Heat Treated, Ftu = 125 ksi

(RT) ....................... 111-I13

(RT) ...... : ................ 114
':" (RT) - Room Temperature.

** Alloy Steels include AISI 4130, 4140, 4340, 8630, 8735, 8740 and 9840.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 37
B4.5.6.2 Low Carbon and Alloy Steels - Minimum Properties (Cont' d)
Page
(RT) ......................... 115-116

I17-I18
(RT) .........................
B4. 5.6. 3 Corrosion Resistant Metals=Minimum Properties
Stainless Steels ...................... S.e.e.P.age __ 36
A-286 Alloy - Heat Treated (RT) ............... 123
126
K-Monel Sheet - Age Hardened (RT) .............
Monel Sheet - Cold Roiled and Annealed (RT) ....... 127-128
Inconel-X (RT) ...........................
B4. 5. 6.4 Titanium-Minimum Properties
Pure Annealed (RT) ........................
Ti-8 Mn (RT) ............................ 133-134
Ti-6 AI-4V (RT) .......................... 135-136
Ti-4 Mn-4 AI (RT) ........................ 138
B4. 5. 6. 5 Aluminum-Minimum Properties
2014-T6 Extrusions (RT) ................. 158
2014-T6 Forgings (RT) ................... 160-161
2024-T3 Sheet and Plate, Heat Treated,

Thickness < . 250 in. (RT) ........... 162-163
2024-T3 & T4 Sheet and Plate, Heat Treated,

Thickness .250 to . 50 in. (RT) ........ 165
2024-T3 Clad Sheet and Plate (RT) ........... 166-167
2024- T4 Clad Sheet and Plate (RT) ........... 168-169
2024-T6 Clad Sheet - Heat Treated and

Aged (RT) ..................... 170-171
2024-T81 Clad Sheet, Heat Treated, Cold

Worked and Aged (RT) ............. 173
6061 -T6 Sheet - Heat Treated and Aged (RT) .... 174-175
7075-T6 Bare Sheet and Plate (RT) ........... 176-177

Section B4.5
February ]5, 1976
Page 38
B4.5.6.5 Aluminum - Minimum Properties (Cont' d)
Page
7075- T6 Clad Sheet and Plate (RT) ............. 178-I 79
7075- T6 Extrusions (RT) ................... 180-181
7075- T6 Die Forgings (RT) . . . .............. 183__
7075- T6 Hand Forgings (RT) ................ ]85
7079- T6 Die Forgings (Transverse) (RT) ........ ]86
7079- T6 Die Forgings (Longitudinal) (RT) ....... 188-]89
7079- T6 Hand Forgings (Short Transverse) (RT)... 19l
7079- T6 Hand Forgings (long Transverse)(RT) .... 192-193
7079 - T6 Hand Forgings (Longitudinal) (RT) ....... ]95
B4. 5. 6. 6 , Magnesium-Minimum Properties
AZ 61A Extrusions (RT) ........ •.......... 202
AZ 61A Fo rgings (RT) .................... 204-205
HK 31A-0 Sheet (RT) ...................... 206-207
HK 31A-HZ4 Sheet (RT) . . . ...................
ZK 60A Extrusions (RT) ...................
ZK 60A Forgings (RT) .................... 2]2-2]3

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 39
B4.5.5.1 Stainless Steels-Minimum Properties
300
; 75,000_p_;i
27 x 10 _ p 3i
Elongation = 25%
-!
_+
200 U ltimate
(Transversc)i
100
1.0 1.5 2.0
k= 2Qc
I
Fig. B4.5.5.1-1 Minimum Benmng Modulus of Rupture Curves for

Symmetrical Sections 1/4 Hard AISI 301 Stainless
Steel Sheet
Sect|on B4,5
February 15, 1976
Page 40
B4.5.5. I Stainless Steels-Minimum Properties
soo_....
200_
Fb
(ksi]
lO0
5O
1.0
1.5 Z.O
Fig. B4.5.5.1-2
Minimum Bending Modulus o£ Rupture Curves for
Symmetrical Sections l/Z Hard AI$1 301 Stainless
Steel Sheet
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 41
B4.5.5.1 Stainle s s Steels- Minimum Properties
Ftu = 175, 000 psi

Fty = 135,000 psi
E = 26x 106 psi
300 Elongation = 12%
Fb
. (ksi)
,2OO
I00
1.0 1.5 _.0

2Qc
k =
I
Fig. B4.5.5.1-3 Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for

Symmetrical Sections 3/4 Hard AISI 301 Stainless
Steel Sheet
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page /42
300
Fb
(ksl)
ZOO
I00
I.O 1.5 z.o
ZQc
k=--
I

Symmetrical Sections Special
3/4 Hard AISI 301 Stainless Steel Sheet
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Pa ge 43
B4.5.5.1 Stainle s s St e els-Minimum Pr.ope rtie s
Ftu = 185,000 psii

Fty = 140, 000 psil
E = 26 x 106 psi
Elongation = 9_o
_44
3OO
"ltimate Transverse).
;ii
Fb :ii
(ksl)
Z00 i " "
!ft
ttt
LH
I00
1.0 1.5 Z.O
k ZQc
Fig. B4.5.5.1-5 Minimum Bending Modulus of "Rupture Curves for

Symmetrical Sections Full Hard AISI 301 Stainless
Steel Sheet \
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 44
B4.5.5.1 Stainles s Ste els-Minimum Properties
F
E
300
Fb
(ksl)
200
100
1.0 1.5 2.0

Symmetrical Sections Extra Hard AISI 301 Stainless
Steel Sheet
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Pa ge 45
t
_B4.5.5.1 Stainle s s Ste els- Minimum Prope rtie s
t_
_t
120
_r
*;lh';l'ii_
i ....... _
11 ;IIHT_IIII
'" H_!
• 100 ftI:_ttI_If
I_1;,;11i_1
tlt::!II_!:
_!tf_tt|:tt
tl
!!I12:"--
8O ':If:::I!"
iit i!II_ilIii_
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Fb
(kai) ,If, I
60 iitt_!t!i!!
_!;¢!;tt_:
J_
4O it:,t ftl_:
ii:;ii_i:_i
_t:!!:! t_:
.'tt_
ZO _!!!!i!!!il
:'/!_!i!!:i!J
!:: i
:!!tl;li_Id -A
ittpllrl+_4
l,tf,t,_,J
2"t,
0 t_tHISH;1
1.0 1.5 2;.0
ZQc
T

Symmetrical Sections Annealed AISI 321 Stainless
Steel Sheet
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 46
Graph to be furnished when available

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 47

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 48
B4.5.5. l Stainless Steels-Minimum Properties
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B4. 5. 5.1-10 Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for

Symmetrical Sections ]7-4 PH Stainless Steel -
Heat Treated - Bars and Forgings
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 49
B4.5.5.1 Stainle s s Steels-Minimum Prope rtie s
300
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:i_._: ii ' _!_;,._i:i:,iii! :1
1.0 l.Z 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

2Qc
k--'_
Ir
Fig. B4.5.5. I-II Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for

Symmetrical Sections 17-7 PH Stainless Steel
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 50
!iilt!_i!i
;:'!i !i: ::': :':',

360 - ";:'"-!:': :.l:_:!: '.:h,:':::i:. ': :;_! ::"!::! .';:, "!:.. :!;;!_!i ..!: :_:,! .7,.
_!'==H':_ =,_-_...._..:-
_._il:i:.}.,...i._==-iiiH,l:: "r:itiii! ii:i
:!.H:]IiL:i:_::=_ ':_:i_ti:ti!'._ '._ _:_:_.........
:::•::_' _"i1:F'_iEH_'_i
iiTii_i!i i_i!!i!i!;..,._.
"'": _i)_ ii!]t!i!i!'-__ "!ii:!ii
• El!E'il!':Eiil!:!i::!::i!':':;:iiii:i,:;!:!;i.:i ::::'::":::':;:"
:" 1;_ . [..; i,.. I'":'.._"T,..'_',.... ;. , ."1"*,"?"[-., ..'"_1"". .. , .-'_-r*-..,':Tl:... .'-','*"_._
:: r",|." |. _ :::: ::.[: ,', ; 1:'; !: , J;;: I:': ":', I";1', . ]:'," I;'" I ..... i'"|i .........
.[.. -!..
._...,,':';_;:_!1_:' ":i i:i.;ii:lii:!:i:_iiH_
it_.q!i!;iiiilttti _fit!li; _ii;1;_.
I.,..;1_,:,
;i_!l;i.:i:: [_i_
ii:!li::[ _. i:;]}Ultimate :_::t. :ii!::i :.::i]i!!i
ii!:'ilii-" ":;;[:'.", :;1:_:: : :11:1% : ::./l" .11: ; ::;: ' i.t::." :.:.h: : :."Ji4f., :: :.:..
_!iiiiiii!!ii!i,!!ilti_ii!i!i:
i_!i,ilil.,iH..:_.r_:_l_!: •.: "::':.'.:',::l}.::[
•:""l'- :" :'Y."Ei:J""k:.:E_.
.........
I;-;; -. |.;l
;:,; ;;I; ." ;;.,
.-'1.-': .:,...li" ,_'_:_-'_-
I';; i": ..... I:: I',
_.i:.Li:_:i;iL_!: :.::iiU::!
280 ...... i: ....... '" ....... _: i: : _':;':,i !?:::i::._!:ii:ii::.:i
,'.'.!FHli:.It:,.':t:I,: :t:: ;_:: "l.: iii!t!::! '_'" :' -_!:j. "" :_:r, z: _'"t_! :: ";_-' .'i"
•":|':!:1::1;1!'1'11"' i';'l "' :;I
•L".: :_ F:_ i:.:f':!i
.I--,..;. :• ;.11;.:.i.i' i:.,-,..:'; .:1
,.ll
-.,iiili:;i : ," _'.:
,
!
:' • ,.
• l" " '.: "' .
,-; , ';
_-:4_" -";_.,:::!]: ..... . ':' . !. .., . ...!... L.:J.;._'
'. :,':"
::;r !!l,: "

._i:i!ii!i • "'1""
:_.,.:.._ " " "'!'' "" ' :::';::_|:':"
.::_].;.: .-.['_.. _._ :.,..
i_ield :!_...i_.J_:.:i:ii::;i
_11,/ •"l::l i: ! !::]:'!i.:::
": l': ' "l.: ":_": ""i'::
!]ii .... '::i_ -% .. :,ii:ii!i'
_oo ii]iii!i_,;iii'.ll__. :.._, .,; :,.,..,,:H_ii !:7_i:i.
i i.l:,.ii
::.;!I:.-!]:i:'*F.-:i: :'._i'!'. i I '::
,
i:'_'
' _:._.:F!l:/a
, .. "i:; :ii;
l ;; - ;; ;;..;I : : • ;
.... J.I • .[ ............. I ;: I I ; . : I
,':: ;;-.
".':|*.": "'"I" r'-; ':_!_""_'1'.-'-:,':': '_.'.! "_:'

_ '_ :, !:.i'_ii_li:,:_',:;:l,.,
i ;i |-.
_..q_:'::_,::_.I:_:
i ,
-:.:':':i i . ; ; . ; J , - . .::!.! .
"L:I!i:" ii.; d]!|':ll'l_l."i !!: • ' ' : .... ":
.,"_t."TT':,i;,;'
.......
:;i .;i- . ....
i .... i. h .....
:::::::::::::H:H::::::|::::|::::::::, J .,I ....
","r
i
"
iJ_i:.. i:" ;" ';" ::'; -,:.:l_,:
, _ __l,_:;,!_.r
,_1:./:I,,
:: ': I : I:::_.;!
r- .,_.-..-._,:":',:'-'.,'-"r'-:r'",
_-:._i..... :"_:', :::i :!;_._
, ,:,: .., ....
i::!i.!:i,i!:i!_i::l, i:l:i ! i.}i;lii!: ...... :H:t! ::
":':: .l::::l;|.:.;:i :.'.l;':'....'.1;:'1 .... ,..:

r i:i::-i
,.1'!.!
:.::...::i::
d- i: i.'/.i:
_.,.._-..:.,
i:':., I i._'il
............
- :i, ., .::. .:',
t ....
;];:i ':;!"i
... _:...,,,,
";i;.:
i_.:4!i:.. !ii__
:.
'1::i
t. I; .t .... ._. :-'T':.
, ,.':{: ':; 1. ' :. '.| .', ..".1, . .I .,/ ":iJ ":: °t':: ,'_."
........ ,............ "!t:.ii": [i !::.l; ':: !::_i:i:.::i';!{!!Ftu,.. = ZlO, O00 psi I'! ''::H:i
•,-.I-.i- :_F.,.. = 190, 0OO psi • I......
,., . _:r,-;S = Z9 x ,.o ps_ -1- ....... -.':--
; i I;I;. • ;;I ;. .;'.1 ; I ;;;- I; -; • ;I.
80 :.
::.:r.,-,.-:
i_ _H':i:_:;i_
:_!i::_i;!H ..... .._i._÷i]- ::_ ::i:.
,.,_ 4:,i_H-_ :.,. :.i_l.[V._o,,gatio_, = 6% . ..
:_:;::,::.:i:r.;:_,.i!-_
!:l:.i!:i:_ii.-,.:, :il!! ............... ,.,,. , .... ;::.:,..
k.:-'tT:'"':"" i:'" :t?:":1,"
i'::' :_!i:'-_
7F."_:i':i_il!!i!
: ":1,::',,_ .!, ,: tii!li!:.
..,:.., ,.:.h .. ;.:,,
.-a,_:.._l?i i _" i:,"r[:'_]
:] ;l ;'-:, :.:r:_., .,:J.:l: • !;_"; ::1.i : ':l:l::i
4,0
':' ':' • "!':"!

_!i It!.
":"":
ii. L ["ilL!
:'"; "! ';'" : .....
!! !_ i: !'i'l
;! : .... :'l::';
.!:Iri !
:'?T|':F. :L,.L"...!L:."...:;.:. ;t...:;,:.[ .:.h.:.;

i!.,.,ii:,.,. =: I_. ;. , . ; .,. ......
o i:i:l_iii i ::i_:
,,. _-
::'['i::':'"i]q:
I '_7"IL': ....."":"
:.,':;
1.0 l.Z 1,4 1.6 1.8 2.0
_c
_ -= -'r
Fig. B4, 5.5. l-IZ Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for
Symmetrical Sections 17-7 PH Stainless Steel
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 51
B4.5.5.1 Stainle s s Steels -Minimum Properties
350
300
F b
(ksl)
250
2OO
150
1.0 1.5 2.0
k = ZOc
I

Symmetrical Sections PH 15-7 Mo (TH 1050).
Stainless Steel Sheet & Strip Thickness 0.0Z0 to
0. 185 Inches.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 52
400
300
Vb
(ksl)
200
I00
1.0 1.5 2.0

Symmetrical Sections I=H _15-7 Mo (RH 950) Stainless
Steel Sheet & Strip Thickness 0. 020 to 0. 187 Inches
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 53
++,
tlt
160 !!i :_
rtHtVt
h'1111 It
140
÷#* tt
ttt _t H_tVf
H_HH:
}ii : HIHIU
Jill?!
it:
lZ0 !t: _t [T_![![[
!iT _:
[71T:![T
!iti!tf_
i!i ;_
_tl t-I "f!ttltr
I00
F b _!!!!!i!
(ksi)
"!+*t*t
80
:!Fi_!i
t:! !t
!ii_Fi
_*-+-,-+-e.,_
:!!!i!!!.
!;ri!TY
60
'+lt!lN
:i!!!,h_
tlt _t**.
-_IUttt:
4O
t :_ t;:',1+,:
I i" tl i-tl_t-
J_t ,
!i1t',t
HIH;.t
Z0 ttttti_
1.0 1.5 2.0
ZQc
k=--
I

Symmetrical Sections 19-9 DL (AMS 5526) & 19-9
DX (AMS 5538) Stainless Steel
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 54
B4.5.5.1 Stainle s s Ste els- Minimum Prope rtie s
240
200
160
120
rb
(k,i)
8O
4O
0
1.0

Symmetrical Sections 19-9DL (AMS 5527) & 19-9
DX (AMS 5539) Stainless Steel
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Pa ge 55
k=2.0
140
k = 1..7
k=l.5
k= 1.25
lod
k=l.O
8O
Fb
(k.i)
6O
40
20 t
0
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
(inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.1-1 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 1/4 Hard AISI 301
Stainless Steel Sheet-for Tension or Transverse
Compression and Stress Relieved Material-for
Tension or Compression
Sect ion B4,5
February 15, 1976
Page 56
u_
O f,- _ N O
II II II II II
Q o
N
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 57
B4.5.6.1 Stainless Steels-Minir_am Properties
120
100
8O
F b
(ksl)
6O
4O
2O
(inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.1-3 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 1/4 Hard AISI 301
Stainless Steel Sheet - for Longitudinal Compression
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 58
0 _, u_ N O
II II II II II
O .r_
N 0
_ 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
_D _ N 0
Section 84.5
February 15, 1976
Pa 9e 59
B4.5.6. I Stainless Steels-Mini].num P±'o_erties
240
ZOO
k=2.0
k=l.7
160 k=l.5
F b k= 1.25
(kst)
k=l.0
120
8O
4O
O. 002 O. 004 O, 006 O. 008 O. 010
(inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.1-5 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 1/2 HardAISI 301

Stainiess Steel Sheet-for Tension or Transverse
Compression and Stress Relieve_Material-for
Tension or Transverse Compression
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 60
O r-- u'_ N O
II II II II II
a_
'.O
"_o
N
g-4
c;
_ U
O
p=4 A _ w
0,=1
._
¢II _
O
._ ,_
! .0 _ 0
0 0 0
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 61
B4.5.6.1 Stainle s s _St:f: ,i.:_i? _ i:,,! -_'2)_! [ [.t"_._[c_:i_F_!:_____!_2..
120 k=2.0
k=l.7
100
k=1.5
k=1.25
8O
(kF_) k=l.0
6O
4O
2O
O. 002 0. 004 0. 006 0. 008 0.010
(inches/inch) I
Fig. B4.5.6.1-7 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves I/2 Hard AISI 301
Stainless Steel Sheet-for Longitudinal Compression
\
Section B4.5
February | 5, ] 976
Page 62
II II II II II
00
N
"_ 0
O
r_
o4
0
O _U
r_ .,_
O
N
d 0
_ 0
,,D
d <
,.¢
!
00
O
4
m
&
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
N N
v
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 63
240
T:!
EH
Room Temperature iii
+÷+
200 ttt
= 2.'0
=1.7
:t:
160 Ftu = 150, 000 psi =1.5
Fb _cy = Z7.0
105,000 x106psi psi
= :fl = 1.25
(kst)
Elongation = 18%
1i
=1.0
120
rt
80
4O
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
(inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.1-9 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves Stress Relieved

1/2 Hard AISI 301 Stainless Steel Sheet - for
Longitudinal Compression
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 64
B4.5.6. l Stainle s s Steels -Minimum Prope rtie s
II II II II II
!
.I.a
0
u_
@
0
er_
0
U
A 0
U e.i
14
_o
¢)
i-q
!
ow.i
o 0 0 0 0 0 Q 0
ao _p o _D m
N N N ,-_
_'_
,11
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 65
240
k=Z.O
2oo
k=l.7
k=l.5
k= 1.25
16o k=l.O
12o
:T
Stress-Strain Curve
80
40 fo
H-IHH-t-H_t_:
0.002 0.004 0. 006 0. 008 0.010
(inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.1-11 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 3/4 Hard AI_I

301 Stainless Steel Sheet - for Tension or Trans-
verse Compression and Stress Relieved Material -
for Tension or Transverse Compression
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 66
B4.5. 6.1 Stainless Steels-Minimum Properties
360
k=2.0
320
k=l.7
280
k=l.5
Z40
F b
(ksi) k= 1,25
200
160
120
8O
4O
(inches/inch) 'u
Fig. B4.5.6.1-12 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 314 Hard AISI

for Tension or Transverse Compression
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page67
k=2.0
140
k=l.7
k=l.5
120
k= l. Z5
100
k=l.O
8O
F b
(ksi)
6O
4O
2O
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
c (inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.1-13 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 3/4 Hard AISI

301 Stainless Steel Sheet for Longitudinal Com-
pression
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 68
_0
!
'I ..... "1 r'_.......
r .......
, ".....
.......
. -• s
• ' ! , • I , -; : • l, , t ......
I I
.... ;-.+ ..... _...L...I ........ i ..... ._
• i : I .
I.._r. '" ..t'':"';i .......
" :1 , Ii ......
. i
- "'r ...... _ ....... _ ....... t ":-'-_.'---:---!. •
j I I I 0
u, ii _ _ I.......
- _: -' .... _ -'-"F-- ...... _--_.---I- .......
• • I I • I
"_ i . , : .... , .... _......
........... _ "-'-"i ..... ]
' " ! C:_
[ • "" "i." ....
• I
4........ _ ........ ..I-..........
" • : """r......
, i
i , I • I ' •
.i ..... i ..... I..... l.............. !

"_l , ' i _
!'-':"i'-! .......... 1...... "
I ' . • c_
." ....... i .... ,...... i"! "
......_.........1....... "'"'-"i'"':-'i
!i!*
.... : ........... ........... _4.---
'" :"'_
1
:. t ..... i'":. : ...... _0
• ...................
-i-.- _
I
i.!.I
'oc_ _ I
"'_
" _ of" ' " I.......
I
.......
i-,.__--i---;--:
.......
, • "l ......... I, ..:..,.: ......... I
t:_!
'
..... • I
....-1.. 7
I " ' i
!..... _'---t--'--r--.----.
I I
: .... :..: ..... :..I..._ _4
I: !i 4
[.! . : i _ •
' i _! " ;"1 " i _
- _[_. .-_. I....,4....1_,_ I,
, i s
..,..
:' i _ " _
Section B_°5
February 15, 1976
Page 69
240
200 k=2.0
= L7
=1.5
160 = 1.25
=1.0
Fb 1Z0
(ksi)
8O
40
0. 002 0. 004 0:.006 0. 008 0.010
(inche's/inch)

3/4 Hard AISI 301 Stainless Steel Sheet for Longi-
tudinal Compre s sion
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 70
k=2.0
k=l.?
k=l.5
i
k= 1.25
k=l.O
O. 02 O. 04 O. 06 O. 08 O. 10 &. 1Z O. 15
e (inches/inch)

3/4"Hard AISI 301 Stainless Steel Sheet for Longi-
tudinal Compression
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 71
240
200 k:2. O
k=l.7
k:l.5
160 k: 1.25
Fb I_: 1.0
(kst)
120
8O
40
0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
(inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.1-17 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves

Special 3/4 Hard AISI 301 Stainless
Steel Sheet for Tension or Transverse Com-
pression
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 72
I " : " ' " : ' " "I " '" : I ...... ' ....
_+-_-.!-:_- :_ .........!........".......i"_. + k=2.0
320
•.....
!...I..,.l...i..i
•...........t...: i _ .i ..-. _.... ,..-..L...-;.._.LY...:..
.'. +' :'.-. :
_ :.+; , ' : _:+ , ._7-_
-" "-i"" I ....... t"- .... "" "
280 ...,_., .....
i
k=1.7
• ]r[ , ......, i i-::.1171171.

_, ........
.
--+;..+i-,.+--i k=l.5
Z40
!-- -:...!.::i -. I. ! !-i; i-i.i ......ii-i

iT-- : i;i ....---.I-:-I.-i .........
_.......
I--:-.-,---4k= 1.Z5
I. • : I ;
ZOO •---- t............... !........i....... I.-..-.,L ---I
' ;. • ._ ,..i. • i. :.l : i.. I..-.,.-.t...i.--i
,_
! _ _....i........ ::._t_:.s_-st
,._ _
_i_ :,.-v_,:_ +.:.
l._..__.t_.__.
k=l.O
I 1 .
160
i.
:" :
; !
..i.
• .., +......
...,. i,;';
i
; i
i "" "i
J..... i....... "..'. ...............
| • •
i.......
! i.......
i | " I i • •
120 •.-I........ ;..... 1...... ,........ 1........ ]....... •........ / ..... .....1.--.-..]
I • : _t, - _ l _<_
.... ,; _ )_:
))(, • 'i • i i: ".--I
•
•. .: .,. l ..... l" "'" "', ....... '"' :'"'1
I ] I;" -J2o, ooo L,.+i i : ! :._.J : L-_L_i
.... ix" i.>" --,i.....i'":'---'"----' '
' "':"' "" " " I" l'" : " J ..... I ........ ! ........ ::|
_
8O i :"'
:. .: ::" " _,= 2¢"
4-" ,.,
P.lohga+,.,n ()x-- LO' _1,+
IZ..o I'
:>si I[-L ....
! , '/ "" " /;"/: : '!
I
!" ÷ -" --"--' ..... "" "--'--T .... --'r--._
..L.J ....:...... -..-.......... :........
• : • I I ," ' ;
I.- .... •...L.._...J
.....
--:...--4--...+ ............
: I Roonq "['ernl_eratt,
!::.....
I.....; '
le....... _,-, ;.., | ........
re I •
-"
_•
":........
-..
; i _
l"""l':!"l'"; "''J
' '"
-" ...u.__..,.. -" _+
4O • I • " " I ' ' : ' " " " "

.... ;........i..................... - ....... ,........i.-..-.l---.'.-l.-.... .-I--..+-.
-
i-!..L :. i,.._..i ....... !. :. I ,....i .......i........t....:.t....-.:.i
-_-+.-I-.-+..:_.-.:.--I---:--+.--....!
• '' '
........
"
l-.-l---+-.-,-..:._
" " + _ : " ! i. :."
::;: i i: i i
0.02 O. 04 O. 06 O. 08 O. I0 O. IZ
ILl
((Inches/Inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.1-18 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves.

Steel Sheet for Tension or Transverse Com-
pression
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 73
150 k=2. O
"'E .... "-- i" "" "R._.'_m i

140
I--- k=l.7
:....
__.:LL_.
....
i I ....
:"
............
Y" "!....
........
k=l.5
t
I )
IZO
: f
k= I.Z5
.I
I :..... _ ,._o :
: I !
•" " " i' " "
k=l.O
i
I00
...)......
I
:PP" i
Fb I.........
I.........
i..........
(kst) ' { '" St:.q:._s-Strair C,,r'.'e : •
8O ....,....i:....'i.......t....
I
i....-i .......!....:.....
.......i i.]-i!i ..............

•,_ : ! i-- i: i
6O : : _ ..... i......
4O
zO
{ (inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6, 1-19 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves

Steel Sheet for Longitudinal Compression
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page74
u_
I"4 _ ,-=I ,..=l
II II II II
• : ' i il :ii:l:i_l ,....:.. , .. !i _

:--::t.:--! . !."'F,:" "_,':::_.
IF • , ...... ...,, i'-]i_]_
........
IF! LJ._i. [:::: :
: ;:"::::!i" li_ ,,_ m
::: ;'. :!
ii!!! Iiill L:.i i: q:ii

:_: .!i
......... _::::--i_f:::i
h"1:Fl
fin i!!":! _i.z.2 _ -i
fir-4."
......... ,_ ...... _ 1:
" ":::;::
:::".'_T:"
'-!17]
i:l :i _i:i!
:_:!
: ;::::
E'_.... :..,:,;.. ..I. : : .... _ : ,..2. :.] !.:_..::[::].......... 0

' -.": :'" .': :T:-i': ".--1.
_H
i-..": .....i-i[ ....!ff:ri]
i_:_.-:-'_i: .... i
£'"
-,..
::L.
":- ',', ." :I;.'..
.:;;.:. ,_ :_
.r,_
....
I
i:i:_Z_i:i_i_::4
i!
,___.
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..... :'T_°'''_
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...... 111
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. ..: : . .::..
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,.it. !:1
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L! : ..,_ .. ; ..; :._._ ;.. :_:, ....
;:i.. _!i_l:!: 4
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• ,i _T_l:i_:: :1 7i !
:!1.:.: ; i
!!h .iz-.:;L:_
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: !ifi:ii:
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--'_- ";: ! .P'E_ ;" ;,;,I
,..;. : I
;T
O O
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 75
Z40 HIH 7_f

!_!ii
tilii EH_
_!!!t T! '! H.,+!
k=Z. 0
200
Nil! 7i! !ii{
_]tti :}i k=l.7
I k=l.5
k= I.Z5
160 k=l.0
i
ili
++*
iii
HI
, :!1 1 i_
tts
,+
IZ0 :tl it '

f: ,,!iI
Fb , !t II:
tt W!
(ksi) !i
Stress Stra1! Curve
80
t,,
Li
!y ,_ t
4O 21!
0.00Z 0.004 0.006 0.008 O. 010
(inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.1-Zl Minimum Plastic Bending Curves Full Hard AISI

for Tension or Compression
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 76
B4.5.6.1 Stainless Steel-Minimum Properties
3O0
20O
(ksi)
lOO
O. O1 O. 02
O. 05 O. 06 O. 07 O. 08 O. 09
: (inches/inch) u
Fig. B4.5.6.1-ZZ Minimum Plastic Bending Curves Full Hard AISI 301
Stainless Steel Sheet-for Tension or Transverse
Compression and Stress Relieved Material - for
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 77
B4.5.6.1 Stainles s Steels-Minimum Properties
200
160 k=2.0
k=l.7
k= 1.5
120
k= 1.25
Fb k=l.0
(ksl)
80
40
0
O. OOZ 0.004 0.006 0.008
(inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6. I-Z3 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves Full Hard AISI
301 Stainless Steel Sheet for Longitudinal Com-
pression
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
B4.5.6. ! Stainless SteeJs-Minimum Propertiee Page 78
,/3
O_ " • ,
tl II II {I II
uo_
i :" ;:',
_4
4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
00 _"
N ,"q .-_ ,--4
v
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 79
320
!ii_:_iii!_i!ii!i.ii!!l:;d:::'i:il#_.t: ;.i_i._: ::i:. i _ :I::_1._l_::i._: _ i_:i i.liiFTi_i_Tl::_
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::' ::.:_ll .:::: 1 :'): . .............
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ii:i:.!.....
I:.....:::.
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!i- :'li!: i'i'_." _: "
280
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:.......
_'tu :zoo,ooopsi
ii::_ !;TI_: _T!:_i-Ii_IT
.:-:_i. ......
7:T!T..-II_
240 Ft.
i::)" = 160,000 psi 'i)lllTI!!ml
:TI:
_)i":i
:]itl)l!)]'::'_):iIT::]:
)FT)I;)I:_i!:ZTT:I.-I:F:I_
-'i::. Elon,atxon . = Z% .r. ......

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"ii} ......._-;':i:"
h,. _F ....... a@.m
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m
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g
m
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:
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,
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5
a" ' ' ' ' n "'7I.......................
, . . _!.11 .... __
200
:::::::::::::::::::::
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'1
I
1
:
:
,
m
m
In
m
:
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:
:
'
m
m
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:
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;
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m
I
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i-L-'! _.:'-_-_I;;:: ::: t" "" 7":I:_" 1": l" "! ..... ; ........... _ ......... II" " I)" "I ....
(ksx)
!_ti!!i!:i;)l_!! _::,_!i !!l!:;:l; :!. :!i ":_:F_::'!_.,_Z.:_ _'!!i t -_ _tress-_tra_ _u
160 Wi!];ii:.:::;::,.!F!:::: i' '
......... ::I.!!': i_b;-- "_:' ;.-" .... .ii:1-22 .... ' ...... I ,-_: - : .
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'
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:
'
:
:
m
m
mmmll'
m
:
120 _ "T':%_.'_ ....... '---It.l"
• "_ ..... ,7"!!_-...... _'"" "--_'"':'"" _';-_
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iiiihi!_;_!::-i::_i.:......
., . . ...... : : ; •
..... , . . . . ....
T';i._ i i _i :"_t-:' i_'- ! : : ;,: .........

8O ii:U:!!
i!iiii!:
.................""i', ......-,-
4O
"'!??I"_
:Fii::_
_)ir. ::_. ,:. ili: .i F ii/TT ! _":_
0.00_ 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.014
(inches/inch) tu
Fig. B4.5.6.1-25 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves Extra Hard AISI 301
Stainless Steel Sheet -for Tension or Transverse
Compression and Stress Relieved Material - for
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 80
B4.5.6.1 Stainless Steels-Minimurn Properties
_ _._
_ o
0 4
Sect ion B4,5
February 15, 1976
Page 8 1
160
Fb
(ksi)
IZO
O. OOZ 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
' {Inches/inch)
Fig. B_. 5.6. 1-27 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves Extra Hard AISI 301
Stainless Steel Sheet for Longitudinal Compression
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 82
B4.5.6.1 Stainle s s Steel s - Minimum Prope rtles
0 uq
0 _-- u_ e,] CD
II II II II II
o
0
0
.'_
U_
0
m
0
_'_
A
I2
. _
N
!
i ,6
0 0
_q
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 83
B4.5.6.1 StMnless Steels-Minimum Properties
60
5O
4O
k= 1.Z5i
F' b .
(ksi)
3O
2O
10
0
O. 001 0. 002 0. 003 0.004 0.005
(inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.1-30 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves Annealed AISI 3£1

Stainless Steel Sheet
Section B4.5
February 15) 1976
Page 84
140
120
•--i ...................
:.-. L..--.._
I
t : i' I
v i ; k=l.7
• -.
i "'':
i ............
'
'|.
n i i . .
100 k=l.5
......
_........
i !
i ' • - .. i i...... i :
i.....i- .....)--:-.-! k= 1.25
..: .; ' i .
%, • _ ;
8O
--..i--.'.-.i-:-_
.......
4---'--i I
Fb k=l.O
.... ! i
(ksi) i I " • • o
"'" i - S-r(:_ -Strain Curve I
60 :, -i'
, j. 'i " "i:":
i ..... .......ii ......._............
L " ' "
4......._---." -1
I
I ....... ..-' ......
I " : •
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I •
i. ! : i_..#_
" "" ; .... I .... I ""'-.%.1_1 _" ."
4O
I
....
• +,:k.....
: "_- ,....
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-±-: .... : i......i..........
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-.................
;-,
" ..... LL.........
_
-L ! "
-._1I
'
, • .. _"q.--I T : , : ....... , .......r-.-l-;.--_
! 2 : i -I_ t i : ) ! ........
! _:_ _,: i:,_
. i i : :,. :7"_; " I . "....... ;'"'_......... !......... t-"'.'--'t"-""-['-:"'-1
20
r. "i "TT!"!" I: .....I '_'--: "1 ": i-: .... f " .! _. !..... l...... i ..-...:.......1
......I---I-_...1........
f+--I-!--F.....j.----4.......
-......t.........
!--L4--:...4....-4--.-i_.i..1
'il_-i:--I"-÷-!-.:.-._.--t ..... :i.--:..-'-. i i.. i. i . : ...I ! i. _t" i :
..._.'_.:")." . ! . I • ; I , ' • : !_T" ...........
' :, _ _ : )-"-----T-""._.'""" ....... r ...... i........ i...... _'-_"! ..... _-"t-+_ ....
.......... •"i " j: .... ]: i: i . _ i • i i.._..... I :.L..l..:.'..i.......l
-, ...... ---.-: ...... -.
...... ..'..... :....... :...... i ! • !. !_ i ... J
O. 10 O. 20 O. 30 0.40
t (inches/inch) Eu
Fig. B4.5.6. 1-31 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves Annealed AISI 321
Stainless Steel Sheet
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 85

Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 86

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 87
B4.5.6. I Stainle s s Steel s-Minimum Prope rife s
!, --! '! ..... ! ' : : I • i
Lr! ......r i: .... i.... ,_

Z[ffiTii3 77_[ili ii 77i
_ ........t........
+ ......i ,_
.... _ ....... i ...!-._. "_ "';" i'" ' i "" •
_°__,,:.! ......
.....
l..::.lii.;.I Z..:: gN I
-4-- .....
!...... i o
--! .,.<
_i. :_--!.---_--.;
:-- t[_. ...... ' ............
e'| _ ..:.- |.-.., .... •,Ii _ _ _ ....... :" "; ....... 0
.°_ • " " " _, ...... :_fi'"'i ....... i
_7 ._ :,_ _ ...... i...... i .... I
0 ff
.el
N
0
.,D
J
_a
_a
_i..._....,.:...,_il
....i;-. !:T .......!T !........ g
-_:--i ,_-_- .......i-i......
d--!!.......
;- ._i.... :: :":" i".'%:"'! ..... r- :" .... h ..... !
i'
l, :' :[ _ ';_i. :i
:1 • ' ""
' i
_:!_:;;Tr 7,T:II _i ;ill: !7,71; 00

0
0
t_
!
0
• ;
-_"'"'"r ' ": : " ,,,.,._L_I ::;i|_:,! _ 0
; ::. ;. • ,i i: .: ! 7' :: i -:?
M
4
-T77T_':-_'..-T . 1-1 _::i
d_
.,-.I
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
eq N N N _ "4
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
B4.5.6. 1 Stainless Steels-Minlmam Propreties Page 88
_i .J ,-: .J
If II II If I!
c_
m
m
e_
I....
0
A l_O
o u
o.._ o
°
_= oo
N
0
4
-F,I
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
,_ 0 _ N
"f'_l ¢",1
Sect ion B4.5
February ]5, 1976
Page 89
B4.5. 6. l Stainless Steels-Minimum Properties
k=Z.O
320
k=l.7
280
240
k=l. Z5
ZOO
Fb k:l.O
(ksi)
160
120
8O
4O
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 90
B4.5.6. 1 Stalnle s s Steel s- Minimum Propertle s
k=2.0
360
k=l.7
320
k=l.5
280
k= 1.25
240
k=l.O
200
Fb
(k.t)
160
120
80
: I • I
4O
Fig. B4.5.6.1-40 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 17-7 PH Stainless

Stdel
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 91
k=2.0
350
k=l.7
k=l.5
300 "I
k = 1.25
250
Fb k=l.O
(ksi)
2OO
150
100
5O
O. 004 O. 008 O.012 O. 016 O.02
' (inches/inch) u
Fig. B4.5.6.1-43 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves for PH 15-7 Mo

(RI-I 950) Stainless Steel Sheet & Strip Thickness
0. 020 to 0. 187 Inches
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 92

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page93
Graph to be. furnished when available

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 94
100
k=2.0
k=l.7
8O
k=l.5
k= 1.25
60 k=l.0
F b
(ksl)
4O
2O
O. OOZ 0. 004 0.006 0.008 0.010
, (inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.1-46 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves for 19-gDL (AMS

5526) & 19-9DX (AMS 5538) Stainless Steel
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 95
B4.5.6. I Stainless $teels-Minimam Properties
L_
0
C" Lr_ _ 0
• • • •
II II II II II
il!!!!]i
o
"
......
F_
<
•:_ I ' <y,_O
,i .t • - I
, - : :
Ifi ..
A _ m
: ": • "" i_ . c_
: ............ .o.. ..... o--
: I ' '_
...... • .... ! ....... _ ......... • 0
t'..-
iii..i,i.... -....... i
.A
_4
4
i
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 -_D _,_
A
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 96
B4.5.6. I Stainless Steels-Minirnurn Properties
ZOO
k=2. O
160
k=l.7
k=l.5
k= 1.25
k=l.O
4O
0.004 0.006 0.008
(inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6. I =48 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 19-9DL (AMS

55Z7) & 19-9DX (AMS 5539} Stainless Steel
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Pa 9e 97
_4.5.6.1 Stainless Steels-Minimum Properties
'
i.. i .... I:i-I : :........
I. r---........
I.:..:.. : I ] I :
I,b._c,rn l'e:X:l)e :.,.tu :.e ' i. I ..... i' : k=2.0
i
t
200
I- ;
'i ..... ....!i • ........ k=l
•
7
"! ....
i
I.
I , •.....-.'...........Ii....i.-
""
k:_ 1.5
.... o,
160
k= 1.25
Fb
(ksi)
!
120
I
i...... t.........I- k=l.O
i...
W....
I
i
I
1 I
I I
8O
O. 01 O. 02 O. 03 O. 04 O. 054
(inches/inch) Cu
Fig. B4.5,6. 1-49 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 19 9DL (AMS

5527) & 19-9DX (AMS 5539) Stainless Steel
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 98
B4.5. 5.2 Low Carbon and Alloy Steels-Minimum Properties
IZO
Room Temu_
100
Ultimate
8O
Fb
(ksl}
60
40
ZO
1.0 Z.O
Z_c
I
v"
Symmetrical Sections_Carbon Steel AISI 1023-1025
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 99
B4.5.5.2 Low Carbon and Alloy Steels-Minimum Properties
[._i.
:i_i
i[ I_i:-;Tti!:ITt:T
ih_ :_7.:]i
.-i_:_-iT:i:iliii_:i:
i_ii:iii
i"--f-.:.-_:t;::!....;...._o_i_m
':,,_,_.r_,_
__,-H-t_-i ....."i!-.:'"_ ......
:-t
16oI_:[i_ ifi:ll:....!/"l::l!:,:!-i--:r--_!-mi:-:.t---I-:--,--::_
.....:-_- +d: ....I
,_.:_-_:i:-F
::t:"d:i_--i-_..i.-i.l::.-l.._.l_i.:d:.
_:..,?._,.:,51_
_'d: 'i
• : !. : • '
..,
................
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! ...... i .............. [''I ................. :""I"": ....... I ......... t....
. i
...... ,,
4 f .... -_ • L" .... "... : : " " L I ._' " :" "
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....
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'....
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' :
.......
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.........._t._.,- __i.._._t ....:!"_ :i ....i
.... ' ii : : "-"":" !....... _'- _ "':i_7- _:--: --_--
`_....:._.__..:_::.:_:._:_:_:._.._:_._*_._
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: _it -.:t: t :.1..
.!-1:.._-.,__!..-i
.........
........
i...._.' ..,...t.-..:
,
...........
/:
_h
(ksi) :: ....!-" _.-_-i. _-....i".-':..!
F .......
|-!-,......."-
i .:'-:.
::::_ _--_-h_: ............

60 : _
[!}!iiiii!] . . , , "']""t"
_ .. :: ;'":':';,
"_" "'i':.!'_- ......
.... ""'i. '. :-..... _-'.
i,_"":: I......
:........ J _-- .......
! ,.--4
i..;'"'i........... .
_----_-_-_-.:1_..!..-1-_.-i
__-.i]:...i-_-.I....:.:./..::.:,:...i....:.: .!
o "Z.J."2.Z:jI]_il......
d-_i.....
i:"12]',::
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"17:_k::-I! '_jt:.!Z
:'j:] d
, i 11 ... i I ' ::! i _-_: ......_. ::.::: " : _ -'--t.. -']_ .
o,,:: :IZI,
: ....... . . :... I__:,.........
t ......_.-_-:_-::
......:_:_:-, -.'.
_,_lr
.......
i "'..'I:"
Td
[I I.........
-................. ...:-....
.;:::.1. 1"_';':1 "1:: : : .: • : • : '. ' ' . .':. "
1.0 l.Z 1.4 1.6 1.8 g.O,
k = _ZQc
I
Fig. B4:5.5. Z-Z Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for

Symmetrical Sections AISI Alloy Steel, Normalized,
> 0. 188 Thick
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page lO0
B4.5. 5.2 Low Carbon and Alloy Steels-Minimum Properties
180 ...... "r- .... _ "'"" ";....... : '"[ " i ' i ......... _ ..... '
: : i " i . _ I .. L ..... : .. : ...! ..._,.r.._.
, : ........ I "" i "''; • "'" ! • I ' l' •
• : : " ' ' • • • ' _ • • . --.._....; .... --4
_-..... --............ _ , • • ' , ,_ .... i..... i
..... _ ....... ! i : ' • i • I _ " Uitimatc_;.-_+----..J
160 _.. '
, ..... .---..---_" " .4-":" ......
-I- ..... _ • ...... "1. ............
; T ; _. '! "! i
! ;
,._ i.: '
J'"':"'IRoom
_ '
'rempera(ure
_ ..._.:...'....
t..._,
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i....
. . _
L,
jq__;...!.:._!-
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I
..
....÷-----t-:'-r-_"-.
'.1. • _ _ I
..... .......
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r.....
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F-_.-i-"----;-9
,.._'-._P-:i
140 I"i'i":._':.']"'
I.....
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........
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..................
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1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Zac
k= _
I
Fig. B4.5.5. Z-3 Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for

Symmetrical Sections AISI Alloy Steel, Normalized,
< 0. 188 Thick
Section 84.5
February 15, 1976
Page 101
B4.5.5. Z Low Carbon and Alloy Steels-Minimum Properties
Fb
(kii)
4O

Symmetrical Sections AISI Alloy Steel, Heat
Treated
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 102
B4.5.5. 2 Low Carbon and Alloy Steels-Minimum properties
i .: i i : I , [ ...... ": ........ _........T........... 7-[ .......

• _; !
I . ...... •
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.
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280 F:--4...........
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: _-:!Room Temperature : .._ ,..i. ; .I. ._ I .... I-':.--.I ...... I - .: ..... i
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" 7_
:;. I.
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240
i.........
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200 I..........
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•" -; ........
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..................
i :
_ ........ : ...........
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.-g ....
i
-4--- ............
i / "I " " "0_' -' '
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t....... I-----.i--..,.;+
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.....
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! ...... + .... I " i ........
........ ,...... J. __.: ........ ! ............
•.:
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 z.i0
k = __2qc
l
Fig. B4.5.5. Z-5 I%4inimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for
Treated
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 103
B4. 5.5.2 Low Carbon and Alloy Steels-Minimum Properties
360
320
280
240
F b
(ksi)
200
160
120
80
40

Treated
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 104
B4.5.5. Z Low Carbon and Alloy steels-Minimum PropertieB
4OO
i ' Room Temperature ' _' i
tttttttttltIt
ft14,ttlllllltlItlttt
t111tllt
IIIitf!ttttt_ Iit_!!
32O
ttiftt_ttltl
t[t tlttttlltllttttttltltttlt!_tf ill!i]
_i t_t_ttttttt
ftttl[tlttflttltttl_ttltfI_iliJllftillt _t!tiii
_i ittttfttttttl
[tt_i
Ittttttltttt_tttttltltt!IiI1_it!1 iltli!
#i_i_t_ ti11t_tt!)iltiitltt111Itt l_ti!lttt_t fltt_
24O !._It_)t_ttfltttt_,....l'[t!ttttlllllltttl!tltI!t!iii!!l!ttl!t!f!_llf
_ !;,!II!!
" :-i_:"-:
......... :...........;..... _.......__:;
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--." ' , •......
_--_" i":....
h: _
160
.r :-i ....:....I....7......
l ....... i....... 1.........i .........i .........I....... u.....: ..
I--...i--..i ........ " .............. ; .... t' .....

_h_ttltllltlittlllttlilk_.t_ ' '_ F. - zoo, ooo psi ' -_
8O _tttt lttttlltltlilliIl_li!llfll
t_, _**:,,6,ooo
_, _,,,_
It_tt!tt)ttttt]ttt!tlftt!ll1II!t!
/il!lllttlt!_. =_.o_1o6 psi
0
1.0 1.5 2.0
Fig, B4.5.5.2-7 Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for

Treated
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, i 976
Page 105
B4. S.6. Z Low Carbon and Alloy _te_ls-Mtnii-durti i3ro_erttl_i
k=Z.O
70
k=l.70
6O
k=1.5
5O k= 1.25
k=l.O
4O
Fb
(ksi)
3O
20
I0
0
0. 002 0. 004 0. 006 0. 008 0. 010
c (inches/inch)
Fig. B4. 5.6.2-1 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves Carbon Steel

AISI 1023-1025
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page I06
B4.5.6. Z Low Carbon and Allo 7 Steels-Minimum Properties
44+PP k=2. O
_Room Temperature _ it _,
lO0.
H I IHIII IIIII!iN
il!HI!III!I!!III
I !!!!!
k=l.7
k 1.5
f_ t_M_.,TitlIIIP_;_',..'_ iLtjlLt-ttttl
,, iiiiiiiiiiJi _u!!_
l_ ]_;;,tlllll!W_';;iftttlltttti
ttlltft_Jt
Ii !];:ttJlftftt
tittttt !!!! k=I.25
60 II__t-_flt!!!It_iii_itIltt!I!Jl
_!Iiil_l_IIIi!!!li
IIIiill
_'..m,_,,
k=l.0
II
_ .-._"'_"'"_'"""'i'"".
. •....
i.
.......
: , i__-'
.....
!l'..;,Iillli,'.'.:i_.nn.nIli,.ll,-Iiqllll..,,_""t'_
.........
I , _.",,".
......
I, -'IUl.._lllllUllllllllllllll,lllll t " I I I "
: ;dl'IjliilliilliililJllllW"" I I "
40. :,,-.:...pp,,!,,,, : _ I I
,I'AII lit !1;_ "' --'" .........
F •
i =. i
....
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...............
t
.......
I
..........
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't : I II " :
_ tI !_ _tfiltitltm
_-tttJ_'
_ttttJitH
I--
i_II =_,ooo_=_tt_lftftt- : IiilIiIJiJlJlilIiI

:::::::
_,.
";;";: Ili,Ilt _tv = ao, vuu.psz '_ittlill :r llTltlltltttll?!lttl
ZO
71-ii
_iiiiii =-= _-<_ x_o.,>._i__tii '_lfltttl!liltlttltf iiiiiit I!I:
II t.i,itil_tlhtitJ '_ tttiJI
!iiii'_+_!"!!!!' El°ntati°n
_-+r'..
+ .......
= _Z_/o
,Hii.i4litlt,tlitHilltiiilfllttHlltltll]i ::
.+._:+_
iiiiJiii
I
_
_
I
t
'
}
'
1
....liiihi l,Itfttli
tl,,,it-ht,t.'ul
_i 11t,it tJ
+_ti ttt 'ilI _ tit,I!IIt_tttttfllt-tI1tt!ttt
;;;;-
:::: •lttff tt,l,ld,_ddII,,t,,t,t_,_d_fittt
i I i tfi tHt 'li tflitltl _ ,, '_ tttilllltlifttfttttf.
,,tili_,tlnltmtui,_iltlJ, tItH7
O. 04 O. 08 O. 12 O. 16 O. ZO
(inches/inch) eu
Fig. B4.5.6.2-2 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves Carbon Steel AISI

1023-1025
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page I07
B4.5.6.2 Low Carbon and Alloy Steels-Minlmum Properties
140 k_2.0
!iiilililhiill
120 k=l.7
k=l.5
!
100
k= 1.25
8O
k=l.0
Fb
(ksl)
60
4O
_0
..... !1 .......
O. 002 O. 004 O. 006 O. 008
¢ (inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.2-3 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves AISI Alloy Steel,

Normalized, > 0. 188 In. Thick
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 108
B4.5.6.2 Low Carbon and Alloy Steels-Minlmum Properties
,- .... "......................................... I.............. i',".... "_--,',"

• ; . , . I¢,. --.- _,,_;
• , • [ . ' . . : I • ." " ....... I
i...... i"'_ Ro:_m 're:rperaturei . : i ' • i [ i i :"

r.....
-i-_ .....;............. _ .....I.....
. ......I.:.--i .... :-_...............
.......
_......
7........
_ " ,"_!
t-_ - 'i
r_-i.........
" ! " !
:'
p....-.i..-.----...--....i.-:..-.,-...-.-..
......._.._---! ........
i......i.........
150
.......
:.i_.,_
I _:_:,_J
......._1 • ' ! ! • • • • I
" .......
_ !i...........
: lk=,.,
, ,- i .. ! .....
.
i--r" ,-r-:' _-_.-
; :. :.....:._ .,,__ ,.; . ,, .. _
_-T, ! •
/. ,......i-,-
• " : " ! • I i I : • i " i i •
- i_'r-. ! " ! ! _ i ! ........

I /_ .: !.. !. .i.. k-,.zs
"" ' " • J I [ I I i :
l" " " '. " I
100 'i ;_,iilIIMIUlIIIIe"_

n'. , .................
-.......
i.......
............
- .....'......
-t.......
;........ :'_
!..............
;........
; i , I I : , i I " I : • • i. - I t, ,
i ............. . ........ • , • " ..b p, - i . ,l.r ,
l I :. i ! I : . S.r.;..,._.Str,"liil Cur-L: -_
'.: I:!
".'"'" ' ; .........
! i
: :"l "
'ii,,,!,,,,,;-""i""7i
i _
.... • : .
;
'.
i.---_.
Fb
(ksl)
........
I_7: :: i,_::.;
:;-_i....::: ........, i.,:_
........... !'!---......
:-i:-!...........
ir_, .,, _-!
it__
t__
• , I " : : : ; ' • '
- . ....
,
i......
'
I •
' i
: ....... : ................ : ' "" I " ' " .... I
_ol_I-i-_ ! ....... :----t........ .--._-t---" ..................................... •...... : ...........

......... •
.[__-:: ...... i .- , .-- .: -' .... • i ! '...... i;...... ":"

i...... i...."
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._....; .i,. !.. , '" >' i I........
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I ....
"'i ........ i
I
.......... "-..... :,...... .4--;...:,- ............

I.-
it ; . i : . i : . • i i : . i • J
it:,,
..,,.
:, ...,,
!i ' I,,. ,,
.....
:.,, !, : I-' .........
....,........
_..... I
!..............
,...............
n-"--I , ' i; .:._J
....,
.........
:._,
.......
:.,
'..............
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:: :.
i !!
i I,..........
,.....................
'!
i I _.. i -
!.........
: ,...-....l...
! :..-.........1.--...-I-
.......-i........t........................
', • .I..... i-'t- .....!
II--.i.- ! ........ !...... ! ..... I. t i... i ..: ..I ......." "_;
0 li...-... ." •
, .... .......
'
: ... ............
: . : .'
,.......
I
,..................
I
i........
i ,
,
O. OZ O. 04 O. 06 O. 08 O. i0 O. IZ O. 14 O. 16
E (inches/inch) 'u

Normalized, Thickness > 0. 188 In.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 109
B4.5.6. _ Low Carbon and Alloy Steels-Minimum Properties
k=2. O
Room Temperature
140
k=1.7
IZO
k= 1.5
I00
k= l. Z5
F b
(ksl)
80 k=l.O
60
40
20
O. 002 0.004
(inches/inch)

Normalized, Thickness_< 0. 188 In.
Sect ion B4.5
February ]5, 1976
Page ] I 0
<
u_
_Vl
e_
_z
I
0 0 0
_0 ,_
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page Ill
24O
k=2.0
200
k= 1.70
16o
k=l.5
k=1.25
120
Fb k= 1.0.
(ksl)
8O
4O
O. OOZ O. 004 O. 006
I (Inches/inch)
Fig. B4, 5.6.2-7 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves AISI Alloy Steel,
' Heat Treated
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 112
• °
II II
;,:1
"i_
!!i!
I
IM
}iii ,d
iIi: _4
;!I! 4
m
!!!!
0 0 ,0 0 0 0 0
0 ,,.0 ¢,,.I (13 ',_
r,,l
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page I 13

Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page ll4
B4.5.6.2 Low Carbon and,, Alloy Steels-Minlmum Properties

, J
320
ill•i'_;
RooJ_T_
_p_r<,,r
_ ; :....
i "-I_
d_ .... " , d_i :_ i _:_
:' :::'_:.::
_ --_--'_.0
_:_'...._'
_ :I._i T_:T: .....
-ff:-I-:¢ _ '1 I" I _:
"i_.i:_!
-.:I.:
....
i.r__
280 I
::-!-i:!:':'!!'"/'e_"'l .......... !",', -] _ t ?.... " ........ :!lit!it i]i!::ji i _
240
200
Fb
(ksi)
; il I !i i!!i
_.._ k 1 25
i
_' S "c_ain Curve l_--4
160
b
IZO
8O It_ I_
t '.... . : ,..I.:'_ ! ! ! i ....
___Fty
1:! :iii;: ! !_: !:l:: ::, ; :! ;: : 1: IF t = lJ2,
O00psiBZ,
000psi
:i.!_ "I]::: IE = 2-9 x 10 6 psi
7;iir]i!iT_!--_<., ,'ii iiiT--::i:i,,:

7![ i:] ...... .........
_:::v:: ;Elongation := 18. 5%, ::t-i-: ::
4O :i7! I::l:::i! :':;!::' :iiii::
ITT1777T
;:: i:T;II71)"
O. 02 O. 04 O. 06 O. 08 O. 10 O. 12 O. 14
E
U
(inches/inch)

Heat Treated
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page I I5
B4.5.6.2. Low Carbon and Alloy Steels-Minlmum Properties
k_Z.
...-:_..:-: , ......... i .................. ! .... _ .... ....... • : . •
280
k= 1.70
240 i:":" 5-:_--- _'_-- .... _ ........ JF" k= 1.50

i_i: :_ :i:i
"'::-:':
:i-÷!!i
::._.::.
:i
.....
:i_i:iT:.
: "i ':':["
-":....
" ::-"
t. ! :
:"'!:"':
:
.......
:
. :,. ::: ,_::1_....
! zy
......
":
:":............
',
i
z_x _
'_
i_--_
i"
i
.:: i
. •
::.:.:
•
I:
'"
...........
".. " • ". • • ' ; '
: _ D
IP ::.
'
: . --.......
:_.. ,;
• :
ZOO k= 1.25
:::i::.:,l -F- T_-.:-lT.r:q-': '! l:! :., l l:- •

k=l.O
160
:_:_!:i:::[ l::! • ! -i_.:[ -_-'_ ,--'_,J _-I t, ! J Stress-Strain Curve :
Fb
(kst)
120
_i'i [::::iif!i
[ !!:I-÷:
....
!" ........ _!i_ii:! .:_:_ !::1: . ./_
.......... :
l!i!!ii!tli!_.ii_.:_":'_?'""_':_'":-...,
:__:,.
_i_if_!;ii.:_!!
_':::
....:..,._
.....
,:,.........
_......
8O
l:i::::...i!::.:-_/.++_--"--t-. _........ , ......
40
F'_!':_t! _:-H----t-/,
.......... _ _
i .iiFtu
JFtv:
: 180,000
163,000 psiPSiI'"':-i:,
''F" i
I:,_:,_A..._pl-r-
......... :" +_-"'= 7" I'----T-"
. :-'"-.7...___.
--T" .. :. "
=,__,o6 ,,._,i .....
_:. :i.i:_-,..-:-:[_.-..._,-,
_..H-..t---t-_.,oo,_,,o_
=,_o,o_.-._--i
i • i': :i: _
..-::K_:::_:t:: .........
:...._[_ : z ......
.......__....":: : "::' ...."......:"/ _..:.J :::: ,, " ""L_ "......
.............
l"i_J
0. 00Z 0. 004 0. 006 0. 008 0. 010 0. 012 0. 014
(inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.2-II Minimum Plastic Bending Curves AISI Alloy Steel,

Heat Treated
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 116
B4. 5.6. Z Low Carbon and Alloy Steels-Minimum Properties
k=Z.O
360
_0 tIII
k=l.7
280 i:=
k=l.5
Z40
k= 1.25
200
_b
k=l,0
(k.{)
160
120
8O
4O
O. 08 O. I0
(Inches/tnch)
Fig. B4.5.6. Z-1Z Minimum Plastic Bending Curves AISI Alloy Steel,
Heat Treated
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page l 17
B4.5.6. 2 Low Carbon and Alloy Steels-Minimum Propertie_
3ZO i.i!"....'.:'::;:.. I I.T7_-:]--F-7-FI "'''I

Room Temperature
.........
280
Ftu = ZOO, 000 psi _'-
-'""...,.,
....
.... Fty = 176, 000 psi .=
240
7_- _ _-,_9.0
x 10Gpsi"
:i .... Elongation = 13. 5% _
200 ".i;....
(kF_)
:
:
1
1
}
I
1
1
l
160
:.!....i_::..:...i._
.....
• i_
_
l?F!l_
...............
]
....
120 :: i i':i.i'! "! !"
•,..
.... ..... i:i:i--:'-1 " !" F .......
80
:i:i!:_iI :....i- i i::r

..... : [ -
i/'li! .:sl .L _..:_:._

40
7:17i:-
_ ....-__'- -i-:--
;!-?ii_
_ii.,
:i!i.... :;_ TIT T'!"i :i:11 .... ._r.-
0
0. 002 0. 004 0. O. 008 O. 0l{) O. 013
((inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6. Z-13 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves AISI Alloy Steel,
Heat Treated
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976 _-"
Page 118
B4.5.6.2 Low CRrhon and Alloy Steels-Minlmum Propertlen
2_
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 119
B4.5.5. 3 Heat Resistant Alloys-Minimum Properties
_00
160
IZO
Fb
(ksi)
8O
4O
0
1.0 1.5 2.0
ZQc
k =
I
Fig. B4.5.5.3-I Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for

Symmetrical Sections A-286 Alloy, Heat Treated
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 120
B4.5.5.3 Heat Resistant Alloys-M[nlmum Properties
Z40 :ttit_.._ :_[_: ,_[_::;i_R°°r

nl;::-i ...... , i.iii,_:i_i_i_=_iii._Temperature_. .... ; _-_ i "
_;-- " '! .......... i " ! ...... _",'-- ....f-/_

_-_'- _ I i i . ! ! .':,_,_'I?L!
zoo _*+_
L_{_i It
_ ........ •" , : •, •....
-AIJ-14_
-trTT_ _$_ ttii i
'160
Fb
"_'_ II ....._:i!l_ ll!I
'_ " r_l_llil' l!li l
(ksi) .....
liLI2_ll, i
li i Hliiili!iilIillliIIillllll IllllfIIll ....
, " " '. ; I : ' :
i "., • , • • • I :..: ..
lZO .......... :.... : ................. i " " : __.'- -.I........... !
• " " '. _ I _ .. I
! ................ _..... _....... _................;.........i .......

' i .... i , • I. • .I - •
', . . ; • i I • !
8o_-_ ' _ '_ .... : ::; '., : ' '_
_: i i:!: !! i_i! 6
1.0 1.5 Z. 0
ZQc
k=_
I

Symmetrical Sections Age Hardened, K-Monel
Alloy Sheet
Section B4.5
February 15, ! 976
Page 121
B4.5.5.3 Heat Re ststant Alloys -Minimum Prope rtie s
1ZO
100
Ultimate:
8O
6O
4O
ZO
1.5 2.0
1.0
2Qc
I

Symmetrical Sections Monel Alloy-Cold Rolled,
Annealed Sheet
Sect ion B4.5
February 15p 1976
Page 122

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 123
B4, 5.6.3 Corrosion Resistant Metals-Minlmum Properties
200
160
F b
(ksl)
120
(inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.3-1 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves A-Z86 Alloy,

Heat Treated
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 124

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 125
Graph to be furnished _en available

Section B4.5
February 15, 197
Page 126
_4.5.6. 3 Corrosion Resistant Metals-Minimum Properties
240
k=2.0
200
k:l.7
I ..:: .... i ...... '
k:l,5
I ..... I....:.--
160
k: l. Z5
k=l.O
IZO
8O
4O
O. 01 o. 02 0. 03 0. 04 0. 05 0. 06 0. 07
Eu
c (inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.3-4 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves for Age Hardened

K-Monel Alloy Sheet
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 127
B4. 5.6. 3 Corrosion Resistant Metals-Minimua'n Properties
60
k=Z.O
Room Tempe rature
k=l.7
50
k=l.5
..... , ....... j .. _".........
k= 1.25
(kFs_)
k=l.O
30
20 ._......
|
I
!
Ftu = 70, 000 psi
Fty = 28, 000 psi

E = 26 x 106 psi
Elongation = 35%
I0 i i!iiiii_ii
0
0. 002 0. 004 0. 006 0. 008
E (inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.3-5 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves Monel Alloy

Cold Rolled, Annealed Sheet
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 128
_4.5.6.3
Corrosion Resistant Metals-Minimum Properties
Q 0 0
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 129
B4.5.5.4 Titanium-Minimum Propertle s
130
t't_
tt_
_4
+H
ttt _tt
120 _4 H
t_
trt Itt
H_
H,
tt-!
LH
iL
110
ii
F b
(k,i) H
.H
.+.
Ji
.o
./i
100
.ii
U
II
..+
1 1 1
I : i l " •i |l I
90 ¸ ........i.... .! .......
_......I.........
_........
! ,..;. _.. i
!il]t!t_ _! !,ii!ttfl_[!!!]_], . ]J,tt!j, _ii_tt_h_!Ii!_Jlt
| , , ,
8O
_ th,_¸ ,,_,,_IlJi_ _-,_ii̧
l;tliiti t t_ i!!!_,Ii!
, iiittIll IIitittI!r.itt!
i!! tli _t f .., . i_; _
!_!ii!t
;;' i_l'!i
li II I tt!i!i!!
fiJ
7O
1.0 1.5 2.0
ZQc
k-
I

Symmetrical Sections Commercially Pure Annealed
Titanium
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 130
B4.5.5.4 Tita_[um-Minimum Prope rties
Z30
ZlO
190
170
150
130
II0
1.5 2.0
1.0
2Qc
k-
Fig. B4.5.5.4-Z Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for

Symmetrical Sections Ti-8Mn Titanium Alloy
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 131
B4.5.5.4 Titanium-Minimum Propertie s
240
220
200
Fb
(ksl)
180
160
140
fli!llttlttftttllli_lltli!f!tttt 'il
120
1.0 1.5 Z°O
2Qc
k =
I

Symmetrical Sections Ti-6A1-4V Titanium Alloy
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 132
B4° 5.5.4 Titanium-Minimum Properties
Room Temperature
Z50
Ftu = 140,001
Fty = 130,000 psi

E = 15.5X I06.psi
Elongation = I 2a/o
220
Ultimate
Fb
(ksi)
t,--. | I
' • i . "': ...... [........ I'-'" ....I..........!...........
I " I : , ' ' : , • I ; "
: '' ",' , : I" l "" I : I • "' , •
t_._..... I. ; . ..;......... L...... I ! ":, : ! '
L..... --....................... •........ ,.. :...'.2 ............. • ........
.... _.........
_, ..... _......
__..
_oi/ _1_=_...._" ...................
i! "_
- .........
i
i .....
i ! ,_ •
, .. _J .............
1.0 1.5 2.0
20c
k=_
I

Symmetrical Sections Ti-4Mn-4A1 Titanium Alloy
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 133
B4.5.6.4 TitanlumoMinim_/m Properties
160 k=2.0
Fty • •
"1
! ,i!' i _k=l.7
! ":',. i
140
: : ]
..... !. 2...i k = 1.5
.... !: ...... _ ....... i
_...__.i
; : :k = 1.25
lZO
i.---i
! } :
• : '" ": ' "ik = 1.0
100 "'--T"--
,!
Fb I-i-. .,: ,. ..F..i.
.d ..... , . ,.,
(ksi) • Stress Strain Curve ......

...... i ...i i.
8O
60
4O
ZO
( (inches/'inch)
• Fig, B4.5.6,4-I Minimum Plastic Bending Curves for Ti-8Mn

Titanium Alloy
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 136,
B4.5.6. 4 Titanium-Minimum Properties
i i
=I.7 'I
, i I
I " " I k- 1.5 I
- --. --F---i ..... I---
....: i ! .... iI • :"
" l _' l "[
: I
160
[. :..j, ..1
....... k : i. 7-5 I
• i I ........ . .................. I !|
Fb Ila I.m,."--""l ' "1' • ' I [ " I-- ,
(k.i) i- I I.
II
....
l
'
"
"
.l
"
II
.
_!
k
:
1
O'
"
"
:
1Z0 ..... -_-- S_ress-Strain Curve ....
[ I FI"-T "'-'''''_ fo Curve
8O
"i " i } .I ......... , • •
I f I :,. i
'
_
i
....
b
......
_
2
....
J
.....
4O ...........
• 4 .....................
t _ r........
i b...........
i " "'_ "--I-'"'"
,.....
ll .........
i!: " ; ' : } I:} ,
i I , ' I I 1 _ ..
.....
I
..........
_
....
li
1
1
1
1
1
I1
1
_
.........
_
....
0.005 O. 01 0. 015 O. 02 O. 025 O. 030 O. 035 O. 04
¢ (inches/inch) 'u
Fig. B4.5.6.4-Z Minimum Plastic Bending Curves Ti-8Mn Titanium

Alloy
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 135
B4.5.6.4 T_tardurn-Mtnirnum Propertiee
b.'_._l'
_ [H:[ F I,_L_L_.L_ ,_ i: :_ []_ :; :_ ,:_:
I:::: :_i:_
' • II [ II _ * i ** *[" 'I" [ *_ I: ,.
___
....
_. _..............
.............
:.
........
i.......
........
i.......
:.
........
i..... >
l
i [: ::._f. _._-_, 1 llti _i ii l !ll. I _ " " ll "
>
L)
1
'
"--41_
_4--_
_
....
"
"V--;
......
_
.......
_
_
.....
:
l
"ll'_--!"
"1_
_
l
l_
....
_
....
........
i
! _, i . _, : _, !_, / I i_ i • ! I
m
"'! ,,---,_
il
I--_l
_.
.
.
_
'
_
....
........
_-._--..i...
%.
•
--
.......
7
l
-
r
•
.....
:---i
_----_---
_
....
_
.
•
--t
'.
'l : :. " .: .
: • :
I ; -- •
. ,._
"
, : ;. • l • l :,'-,. "_, _i_ . _ • • _ • I
' ' ,_. " I . l I • : : " : • I • I
i" :"" !l/ .... "_ ! _i :: : _ \ I _ _: : _ : I

. I_=_ _ •
. :
_--'_
..
F
"
--"
:
l
"
"
"
"
....
_
_
e_P
........
I
....
;
.
"...............
.....
•
,
:
"I
i
_
•
....
_
•
.....
i_'_
•
l
I
.
i
....... I -- _ _ _ ;" • i : " . • : _, _ _" _ "'_ " "l : I :_'':
_+,_1, ° _ _ ,, Lh_,_, i_,,_,_,_i_,_,_, _, _1 _i_l,_,_l

.... tel C_ I_ :_ _ _
J ,
: "
l : , • " ,i
:: i ......
_':_ ._.l."= l I
0
_Q
&
'".
.....
::I:
....t.... r ............... "...................
i !_71.....-ii I L.........: ....i I"
:,.......
_; _ ........
i
!.....
!....ill .... I ......
.......
I
I
I
I
o
d
0 0 0 o
o
oO N O
N --_ _ _ _-_
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 136
B4. 5.6.4 Titanium-Minlmum Properties
.240
200
160
Fb
(kei)
J
120
8O
4O
O. Ol O. 02 O. 03 O. 04 O. 05 O. 06
t (inches/inch) _u
Fig. B4.5.6.4-4 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves Ti-6A1-4V

Titanium Alloy
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 137
Graph to be furnished when avialable

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 138
B4.5.6.4 Titanlum-Minimum Proportioo
280
_=2.0
Z40
k=l.7
k=l.5
200
k= 1.25
160
k=l.0
120
8O
4O
Fty = 130,
15.5 000
x106psipsi
0
O. Ol O. 02 O. 03 O. 04
I (inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.4-6 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves for Ti-4MnI_4AI

Titanium Alloy
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 139

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 140
_4.5.5.5 Alumlnum-Minlmum Propertle •
120
II0
150
90.
(kst)
80
70
60
50.
1.0 1.5 2.0
k = __2Qc
I

Symmetrical Sections 2014-T6 Aluminum Alloy
Forgings, (Transverse) Thickness <4 In.
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 141
B4.5, 5.5 Ahlmintlm-Minimum Propertiill
I .....
tID_ttNttt!tttt Elongation : Iggo _ _1{
• : i ,
Fb
(kst) ,........
:.........
......,..._....,,,_...,.,....:,..
.... .
i
i I
80 ......... I ..... l i ............
_.'"'IT._
/, ........,.,.;. •,,,..i ...... . i
ffflTfttttltfftlttt,t,l,_ ttttt+t h lf-llfhlTitpltttittfliTi_IflIti!+71ti_ ir rt +t_ _tt
ftIHHIitt_t titlt:1i tltItlittll!iltltltttltt!llf_411}i
I i!" +
i_tttlT: Ii-"i'i'_:"i_'+'+'"tt+ti'_i_t+_iiti<, !i 7t i_tltii!
6ol+i+l!lll,,+ll+ll,ll ++_l+,,Isl. +,. :,ii+
tlilttllt+t_ll+ttti+t+
lftlll:++tll+!li_tll:rlill
tll+tllt+_+++tll
+_
I+I+H++I+II++ll,++II+
+ .l- ' I+I +iI_.¥._,
llil_+: <,
_!l_iil.i
+l++i_+_
+ ! I+' :' _
i , +I-i++
_ +++++_+++
_++i,-+
40
_+i I:
+ ++_++iH+++
++,++++i++++l++++i+
ittlE_i
+!i
+!+
+!++i+
H t[t'HriltlltH_+l
t! t+i ttl+l+tif_f+tf _llli_llt+!tl-+ittI_
!t/ftltt..fii-I +Hl+f I+ it ++f-i+Til[f:
Htlt-ir
1.0 1.5 2.0
ZQc
I
Fig. B4.5.5.5-3 Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves'for

Symmetrical Sections Z0Z4-T3 Alloy Sheet & Plate-
Heat Treated. Thickness _ 0.250 In.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 142
B4.5.5.5 Aluminum-lvtlnimu_n Properties
140
IZ0
100
Fb
(ksi)
8O
6O
40,
1.0 1.5 2.0
2Go
km'-'-
I
Fig. B4.5.5.5-4 Minimum Bending Modulus 0f Rupture Curves for

Symmetrical Sections 2024-T3 _ T4 Aluminum
Alloy Sheet & Plate - Heat Treated. Thickness
0.50 In.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 143
B4.5.5.5 Aluminum-Minimum Properttes
110
I00
9O
Fb
(kit)
8O
70
6O
5O
40
1.0 1.5 2.0

2Qc
k=_
I

• Symmetrical Sections ZOZ4-T3 Aluminum Alloy
Clad Sheet & Plate - 1teat Treated. Thickness
0. 010 to 0.06Z In.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 144
t
B4.5.5.5 Aluminum-Minimum Properties
120
1o0
8O [ "! . i : :
| . . .
[ : : • . .
• i : :
.... |..-
60"
, . . [
•..1... :...1..
:1
4_
i; :.: _.:
............i : I:_:
; :__:___
: Ii......
i::::i !
1.,.5
k = ZQ....._c
I
Fig. B4.5.5, 5-6 Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for

Symmetrical Sections Z0E4-T4 Aluminum Alloy
C_ad Sheet & Plate - Heat Treated. Thickness
0.25 to 0.50 In.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 145
B4.5.5.5 Aluminum-Minlmum Prope rtle s
II0
I00
9O
Fb
(ksl)
8O
70
6O
5O
1.0 1.5 2.0
k ZQc
=T

Symmetrical Sections ZOZ4-T6 Aluminum Alloy
Clad Sheet - Heat Treated & Aged. Thickness
< 0. 064 In.
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page ]46
Alumlnum-Minlmum Prol_rtle m
IZO
110
100
9O
80.
7O
80
50
1.0 1.5 2.0
ZOc
k=-- l-
Fig. B4.5, 5, 5-8 Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for

Symmetrical Sections 2DZ4-T81 A1uminim Alloy
Clad Sheet - Heat Treated, Cold Worked & Aged
Thickness < 0. 064 In.
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 147
B4.5.5.5 Aluminum- Minimum Prope rtie s
90
80
70
60
Fb
(ksi)
5O
4O
30
1.0 1.5 2.0
2Qc
k =
I
Fig. B4. 5.5.5-9 Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for

Sheet - Heat Treated & Aged. Thickness >_0.020 In.
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 148
B4. 5.5.5 Aluminum-Minimum Properties
150
140
130
IZO
110
i!-_ ............ ..... °
Room Tem, perature-4 ....... 4

' : i I: l i °.....t
9O
•!........ :"" :'"]
8O,
..... i
7o
Fig. B4. 5. 5. 5-10 Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for

Bare Sheet 8_ Plate. Thickness <. 039 In.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 149
B4.5.5. S Aluminum-Mtnimu_n Propertie=
130
illIl!!II
!!!!!!i!!
t,ttff,tt
,°,_,*°,
ttlttttlt
t_IHHII
t"t_it'
!IN!
N!I}II
!!!!!!!!_
!!!!!!t!_
!!!!!!!!!
!!!!!!!!i
Fb tttlrHlt
(kat)
Room
:]iiii_ii
_!!!!!!!!
Ill!!!!!
;ii_iiiii
:_!!!!!!!
[![!![!!
1,0 1,.5
Z.O
k = 2Qc
1"
Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for

Fig. B4.5.5.5-t1
Clad Sheet & Plate. Thickness _< .039 In.

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 150
B4.5. 5.5 Aluminum-Minimum Properties
140
120
I00
Fb
(ksi)
80
6O
1.0 1.5 2.0
2Qc
k=--
!
Fig. B4.5.5.5-12 Minimnrn Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for

Symmetrical Sections 7{)75-T6 Aluminum Alloy
Extrusions. Thickness < 0.25 in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 151
B4.5.5.5 Aluminum-Minilnum Properties
;Y
t_
140
i::: i_ll _:It i; , ii I ':j,,_r'':

_F, ',,_._ Ultimate _ _'., if::
120
.... _:'tit'. t::t
Fb ._ t_t; I::I
(ksi)
', :,, ,It, _ _;t:I:_iI_

i00
i i! :,i ii }iil: l :i!
::: _ :;HII: lll_
80
!: J_tl'.!fli_t'_ It:{
:i;! t1:itt_r;'ltt_'ltt f!ilt]/i!ti_Jt ltt_

I I i; ......
i]i: i!t{I',It Room Temperature
6O ;r_ " ; ii _ ;!i
:i][ : :!1 _ ':1, t : I '{ ttlt :_ t:l
1.0 1.5 2.0

ZQc
k =--
I
Fig. B4.5.5.5-13 Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves

for Symmetrical Sections 7075-T6 Aluminum
Alloy Die Forgings. Thickness < 3 in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 152
]_4. 5.5.5 Aluminum-Minimum Properties

I i i
Fb
(ksi)
100
8O
6O
'1° 0 1.5 2.0

Hand Forgings Area _ |6 In.
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 153
B4.5.5.5 Aluminum-Minimum Prope rtie s
140
120
I00
8O
Fb
(ksi)
6O
4O
2O
0
1.0 1.5 2.0
2Oc
k =--
I

Die Forgings (Transverse). Thickness <6.0 In.
Section B4°5
February 15, 1976
Page 154
B4.5.5.5 Aluminum-Minimum PrOperties
160
140
120
(ksi)
I00
8O
60
1.0 1.5 Z. 0
ZQc
k---
I
Fig. B4.5.5.5=16 Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture Curves for

Die Forgings (Longitudinal) Thickness < 6.0 in.
Section B4.5
February 15, i 976
Page ] 55
B4.5.5. 5 Aluminum-Minimum Properties
1.20
110
100
F b
(ksl)
90
8O
7O
6O
Z_c
I
Fig. B4.5.5.5-17 Minimum Bending Modulus bf Rupture Curves for

Hand Forgings (Short Transverse) Thickness
<6.0 In.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 1 56
tu
130 ty = 58,
10.3000 psi psi
x106
II0
(ks_)
9O
7O
)erature!
5O
1.0 1.5 Z. 0
ZQc
k=--
I
Fig. B4.5.5.5-18 Minimum Bending Modulus o£ Rupture Curves for

Hand Forgings-(Long Transverse) Thickness <_ 6 in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 157
B4.5.5.5 Aluminum - Minimum Properties
140
120
100
8O
F b
(ksi)
6O
4O
2O
0
1.0 1.5 2.0
2Oc
k--_
I

Hand Forgings - (Longitudinal}. Thickness < 6 In.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 158
100
k=2.0
8O k=l.7
k=l.5
k= 1.25
60
k=l.0
4O
2O
fi , ifllHi
0
IilU WIHHHII
_ | _" I I
O. OO_ O. 004 O. 006 O. 008 Oo 010
(inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.5-I Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 2014-T6

Aluminum Alloy Extrusions. Thickness _< . 499 in.
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 159
Graph te be furni,'_hed _11_en

available
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 160
100
8O
6O ty = 52, 000 psi

c 10.5 x 106 psi
4O
2O ;!.hhi,WIHl
n n nlq"
_
lltlgmlglll
Fig. B4.5.6.5-3 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 2014-T6

Aluminum Alloy Die Forgings. Thickness < 4 in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 161
• : ...:l:i.:J::::::'.i:::ii.i:: .::I.: .:
. .: : : . " I .!!:.I :!.., " ., : ..T.: :. :: • r-_-_Tr-[--..--
....... :
120 i!i_], Room

,..::.:...... ]:::,.::.:
Temperature, -, ...::':i":l::!:i:i_l::::;i_il:::i!i_:_l:::.:
.,: .... ::.. ..... ... : -.: :.....
....... .,..... :.i.i ::::!:i::ii_!
.....: :::::. 1,......
:;i!li:ii• '_ k= Z.O
-.-__i-:_,:___:
..:,...::,.. ._
:._i.!_ :_-:::.:I:::_':
.,::., ....
.-, ..,_::.:_,_,-_,_:-_,_'_:._
_............. .i_.: ...._.:
:: ::_
ii_:-i ii _-
100 .i.I :_:,:_.l:ii;i::
.::_:ii_:::iiii!i:::_-::_i:.i_i ii!i!!_!li::::!ili_.i
_ l i:i:::_r:ii:! : i • :-_ k _.
:_::
_ ]-:iil:.!!.,,'lllfllllllilfllllflllllllllilliimw',',,.".',"--"-t_!:_:l_i_:_i:: __!::_:'_]
k=l.5
8O
-/_,: ::, :::::t:i:: i:_-_l:_
.. ".;
::___--- e -- ] : :'_ _ _ '_ '" !"l]: "" " --'.I ..... _.... ' .'. . - '. ' .'. . . k= I.Z5
Fb
(ksl) tt:-__iiii! i!..i_7:i_:$;:_!_;ii:_i!St_e_s-_':ra_n
Cu_i _: k=l.0
• . [: :..; .... I ..... _,__.i.___ ....
6O
4O
ZO :I ::!:: _ _:! Ec -=10.5X 106 P si ;;i!_

!ii. i!:,i:
::!!i:::ill ::::::1::::!::
i!': i: ;;:
o!i --_
j]'..i !i :_i [ong&t[on = 10% _i-i-!i-ii:r-.li.:,:::i:_ !li--::_i: ilii: :-I:-ii-I :i_!-: :'t
_:_:_: __.. :_:.t":: ' I, .it.i: Ii::.:: I : _:1.: , _:1
r!!_::i i:!:[: '::i:i":lill ::1 !. • :i I.:[.! : ".."Ti': ;: _':: ;i;: i: I [ .i t 'i! !:
0. 01 0.02 0. 03 0. 04 0. 05 0. 06 0. 07
(tnche s linch) e
Fig. B4.5.6. 5-4 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 2014-T6

Aluminum Alloy Die Forgings. Thickness _< 4 in.
Sect ion B14.5
February 15, 1976
Page 162
B4.5.6.5 Alumirlum- Minimum Properties
8O k=2. O
k=l.7
7O
k=l.5
6O
k=1.25
5O
k=l.O
4O
3O
2O
10
0. 002 0, 004 O. 006 O. 008 O. 010
(inchesinch)

Aluminum Alloy Sheet & Plate - Heat Treated.
Thickness /_ 0. 250 Inches
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 163
un
o t,- u'_ N O
II II II II II
¢,4 4)
o_
¢fl I
N
o uu_m _
.! _
M
4
v
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 164

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 165
120 : : I : i
I ; k=2.0
I
I .... i
-:.: -i...:...:
......
.....
' •.....
..... i .... i f!: 'i'" i "1 "'"" ,,:!:i,-.....i........!
: [ •
,]
]
: i : : I k=l.7
io0
. , : :
: : .]
....._i,,;Ifilllilll!l!llllllniUn"_"':I "_ ',' • --
'
e ........ J
k=l.5
I • ,,:
t ' n
,m
I! i
]
8O : I i
, ........
I....
i.....
_...... k= 1.Z5
Fb ": I "
i. i
• ,.......I.....
ii
• , m ,
I 1 :
(ksl) .... • .... "............... I
i • : ...... -" i : : I
; : :. k=l.0
60 : i : : I
"lllll_--" ,, I
• :
: : .... i..... t"

: > (',, :I'',:' '':
: : I I
I . . .;
• :, : _ , , ,- ; ..... l
: : :
4O
f ....
....
''
L..........
i
i .............
"'i" ' "
:
i .......
I
i : i : J ]'t', _"','"'"; !:"_: :

• [ ....... i " " ' l.'t.. ;'_. C(;': :,',_ :
Z0
................. ,f ." in ." ,[ . ]" " :" I] : :: ill" ."..... .||
. .4.. ....... t .................. : ....... i ....... .. ...... t ...... t ........ } ...................

: I • • n • I : : I ! i . I '
i.... • ,.......
I.....i........
:.... I ....l......i........
:.........
0. 02 0. 04 0. 06 0. 08 0. i0 0. 12
E (inches/inch) Eu
Fig. B4.5.6.5-8 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves for 2024-T3 & T4
Aluminum Alloy-Heat Treated-Sheet _ Plate.

Thickness < 0.50 Inches
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 166
]B4. 5.6. 5 Aluminum-Minimum Properties
7O
k=Z.O
d_h
=1.7
6o {ii_i_H
_
H_ IHil _:':
k=l.5
_0 _ k=1.25
k=l.O
40 !iI_
!Hi
ii!i
_o i!ii
_!ii"_i_!_'_ '_'_ 4 Ir
!i!
_ ir_i: _ !
zo if!!: ,,!!ii : [! !t:
_4_;',
ii{!i
I,_.i!
o :_i!ii_
__!i_
O. 002 0.004 O. 006 0.008 0.010
{inches/inch)

Aluminum Alloy Clad Sheet g_ Plate - Heat Treated.
Thickness 0. 010 to 0.06Z in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 167
B4. 5.6. 5 Aluminum-Minimum Properties
0 0
I| II
o,1 I_
0 _
,..-t
L_ *._ .
•_ .
• _ _
d
4
.Q.,_
Section B4.5
__=
February 15, 1976
Page 168
B4. 5. 6. 5 Ahminum-Minirnurn Properties
k=2.0
7O
k=l.7
60
k=l.5
5O k= 1.25
Fb
(ksi)
k=l.O
4O
30
2O
10
O. 010
Fig.
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 169
B4.5.6. 5 Aluminum-Minimum Pr6perties
120
k=2.0
100
k=l.7
k=l.5
8O
k= 1.25
6O =i.0
4O
2O
: • . ," :..
O. OZ O. 04 O. 06 O. 08 O. I0
E (Inches/inch)
Fig. B4. 5.6. 5-1Z Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 2024-T4

Aluminum Alloy Clad Sheet and Plate - Heat
Treated Thickness 0.25 to 0. 50 in.
Section B4,5
February 15, 1976
Page 170
80 k-2.0
I
• "i :::'": "-!:'"
! : : _ ..... |
• " ; " " .,l'tY. =I.7

70
I':::i "
k=l.5
60
50 k=l.O
4O
!._::]:._::i: ..... ii;/; ._ .... , ........: ........

"" " ; • " J ' '. , : ::" .i • •
i'i.
''': ......
i I ...... ' i"" ..... i/I ::......."" ! / ; ..... '
_: i
:...:.:.. " i :" "|!'"!.i.":':':'_
30 , .:.. " ". ...... • ...... • "_ "' . • • ..i
:.":i: _,, i [/[[i ,/' / :,, i,-_._', i,-:-_,_

. : ...i/...
_-0 !:................. /p..........
• ':' i ' • /___--
;, -....... , ...........
'/i::!_::!::2]]
.----.----;
/ r / ,' /",7,::.'.,'.-- L- :....L
: : i _ I_' :_"-T!
i:: :/_ ,: ,:/ '!.....
i'-i...........
r:-_l
,of.....
.....,/i:
....,,: i" =,_;
': ........ : l ........ : ....... ?.......
:i:::_:i_i_::i_i_'
!'
....
........
':_
......
'" : ..... I':'".. "'_': ..... ."
]!/"
:i/-_ i I::,l
:'! •• ". , . / * ;I .
i
:: .
_i--__ ' . '
..........
_ .: : :" ; ' ":: I.: .:.: :
0 ___ !: ; " . :; l/... ........ /__]' "":" ; "'. .... I':':'"",':-:::.-:-:
O. 002 O. 004 O. 006 O. 008 O. 010
• (inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.5-13 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 2024-T6 Aluminum

Alloy Clad Sheet - Heat Treated & Aged. Thickness
< 0. 054 Inches
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 171
B4. 5.6. 5 Aluminum-Minimum Properties
120
V*+++4+
iRoom Temperature k=Z.O

ii0
i00 "U!!_
k=l.7
_titt
9O
k=l.5
8O
k= 1.25
7O
F b
k=l.0
(ksi) 6O
50
40
30
20
I0
(tnches/_nch) 'U
Fig. B4. 5.6.5-14 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves Z024-T6

Aluminum Alloy Clad Sheet-Heat Treated and
Aged Thickness < 0. 064 in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 172

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 173
120
k=2.0
k=l.7
I00
k=l.5
80
k= 1.28
Fb
(kst)
k=l.0
60
40
Ftu = 62, 000 psi

= 54, 000 psi
_ty 9. 5 x 106 psi
Elongation = 5%
ZO
e (inches/inch) eu
Fig. B4. 5.6.5-16 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 2024-T81

Aluminum Alloy Clad Sheet-Heat Treat, Cold
Worked and Aged Thickness < 0. 064 in.
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 17.4
B4.5.6.5 Alurninum-Minimum Properties
k=2.0
60
k=l. 7
k= 1.5
50
k= 1.25
40
N k=l.O
Stress-Strain Curve
30
fo Curve
10 Room Temperature
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
a (inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.5-17 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 6061-T6 Aluminum

Alloy Sheet Heat Treated & Aged. Thickness >_ 0.0Z0 in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 175
B4.5.6. 5 Aluminum-Minimum Properties
/'.,' i ; i • • .; I ' I
..... "......... [ .............. i
i:.':, i....L.i..:...i,
: , . •
i...! .......i... .
'... i .J.... : ....... i.. :...I ....
i.........
,.:..L._
.......i.......
-_i--i--.-l:
......... .... i ........ !....... i ;''"
!
.... t' I......; k=2.0
8o ......
[.-.-...i...::
..........
:...', T " | .... : i......
., .... i
L-If ::!;:: :k2. i I : I I
I
I
i
I . . : i .
• ..;... l... ].
.! ! -.
: i k= 1.7
! i : : I
, :;, ! ..... {
• '| ............. "--I- .... .........

.i
.......
!.......
.... r ...... r" • ! I
I k= 1.5
60
•.! ...... I......... l
i
t
i ....
5O
.....ii_ i : i il i
k= 1.25
' 1....... -_!-_"! ......... t
. !.i ....
Fb ../i'i_,
i: ,
(ksi) St res s-Strain Cu¥_'_----_*......'
! ""i" k= 1.0
I i
40 ..... ..........! ......
i lfo Curve : : :
"-- i _!i_; . : " t-_.............
i......i-..-i..._
30] .... : " -' ';............. : ............ i.-.q .... :.......... l ..............
• I ! : ! ! , I ' I ; , I
,
i.
i.i ''' _'
..........
_, ........
.'•
......
, .......
.................
., ' J
"I , ...L ' ....
..........
• .......
t,.......
I
1...i.........
1 i
;' ..... :. ": .............
t . " ........ ' • I ,t , ; ,,
....
l i',..1..,,,
/i .! .i.........1..'
: t......... • IIt_ .... /., :] .. I : .i. :i:l
: . .'
: :, : : ! i!!'_l.!i i!!i '! i! !I ;:iii' i _:_ :ii :i !: _i! i!i !, ;ii : ii! i::
•i :: L_ E 9 9 xl0 6 si l'::;;:i _! ::!i!::i::,:il :!::ii :i i:i!i:!

|. |: :. , I_-F- = • P ! i:ilii ]!'. I [!i 177|ii i!ii _: !I i i ]
' f "!1...... i'" ":" _:: E:],on.gation = [40/0 "'t' • "i ...... I ' 't ......1'"I J... I i ..I....... !
lo I..-.t!--:---t.-_-!...!..+u-_--.:-..-+....l...+
.........
+-,-.!-:-!....,:
.....:.1-:......
!----:-.-.1--.-I.-!-+
........
l.--._-i........
1
.tl.-.i .. _.._..,....
_............
I.. .... , ....,..., ....' _.i...'._.'
0. 01 0. 0Z 0.03 0. 04 0. 05 0. 06 0. 07 0. 08
. (Inches/Inch) ' u
Fig. B4. 5.6. 5-18 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 6061-T6

Aluminum Alloy Sheet - Heat Treated _ Aged
Thickness > 0. 020 in.
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page ! 76
100 k=2.0
k=l.7
k=l.5
8O
k= l. Z5
k=l.0
6O
Fb.
(kst)
4O
2O
0
0 0.002 0. 004 0.006 O. 008 O. 010
(inches/inch)

Aluminum Alloy Bare Sheet and Plate. Thickness
<_. 039 in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 177
B4. 5. 6. 5 Aluminum-Minimum Properties
!i,t;
F-UT-7
k=2.0
.... _,.
140
i ' i; k=l.7
........... 71
, i'ii'i; ?i ,I
120 ±_. -i.....
, .,..,
....... I111 Ii,;; k=l,5
100
7 •
• _:. ii_ii ri.t " '.i!.!2 k= 1.25
Fb :t! ..... Ii:
(ksi)
8O till!!il_i_i!
'stress-Strain _ii_Curve
_iil_ii_
k= 1.0
lil I ii ii!ii ! ;i:illlI
I [.2-
_ _-:' .2. i ........... ! i!:i

.l,,,t
._t_ "'71:7::1:::rf o Curve
'11
6O !:?:!
4F+
' !i1 I till :..ill
t
Tr"
pr.
...... ::2' 2,ii! ::: ..... ;i
4O ii__i_ :ill ii! iii':iiili::

_tu = 7_, 000 psi +i_iiii2i..i!2i
_tr = 65,000 psi siii!iiiiiiitii_L.
Elongation = 7% li!ii/! *:!li]i
/ ;;,
2O
_r
I i i!,ii!1,
,t,,ti!,,
i1!I1!
Itt_lil,i _ l!f Ill ill i!lttil_i llt,ll=lt
'i_:!llll
0. 03 0. 04 0. 05
(inche s/inch) If
U
Fig. B4. 5.6.5-20 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 7075-T6

Aluminum Alloy Bare Sheet & Plate Thickness
< . 039 in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 178
I00
k=2.0
k=l.7
8O
k=l.5
k=I.25
k--l.0
6O
Fb
(kst)
4O
2O
0 0.002 0. 004 0. 006 Oo 008 O. 010
, (inches/inch)
Fig. B4. 5. 6. 5-21 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 7075-T6

Aluminum Alloy Clad Sheet & Plate. Thickness
0. 039 in.
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 179
140
k=2.0
120 ....
l! i ::1!
÷t+÷
L2:i L_ .H k=l. 7
!TF ,,;
iti:
:2"' 1
!U, ,_ :1[?
k=l. 5
i00 :t" i [:
7i_i k.J
k= 1.25
TY/:,
f¢ .... L_
_ttt t_
80 _L_
Fb ::; :I[2:t
H÷t
(ksi) !_
!rT!! t_ L H
k=l. 0
tt*f I 1LLL L;
HH
E;Xl
'r
_f
:i
.... r2
?tltl
:fi:!l_:LLiL
20: _}I
+4 _4
;rn _
_+_
1!!!
44_-
"tt'}-
0 _?t
0.01
E_
(inches/inch)
Fig. B4.5.6.5-ZZ Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 7075-T6 Aluminum

Ailoy Clad Sheet & Plate Thickness < 0.39 in.
Sect ion B4,5
February 15, 1976
Page 180
k=2.0
I00
k=l. 7
k-l. 5
8O
k-l. 25
k=l. 0
60
Fb
(kst)
4O
2O
fo Curve
.illlllllll
O. 002 0. 004 0.006 O. 008 0.010
, (inches/inch)

Aluminum Alloy Extrusions. Thickness
<0.25 in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 181
Fb
(ksi)
0.05
(
(inches/inch) U
Fig. B4.5.6.5-Z4 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 7075-T6

Aluminum Alloy Extrusions. Thickness
< 0. Z5 in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
_J
Page 182

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 183
k=2.0
k:l.7
k=1.5
I00
k= I.Z5
k=l.O
Fb
(ksi)
! (inches/inch) eu

Aluminum Alloy Die Forgings. Thickness
<gin.
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 184
Graph to be furnished T_hen available

Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 185
O I_" _ N O
II II II II II
I o,-i
i _
I
vI
m 0
(M
I
,d
,4
4
O 0 0 0 0 0 0
Section B4.5
Februrary |5, 1976
Page 186
tO0
k=2.0
k=l.7
80 k=l.5
k= 1.25
k=l.O
6O
Fb ;tre
(ksl)
40
2o ti
J,.t IIII
.. ,,.I !!
I.I
....I..R..,lll..dl
"II II" 'I
....
.M il!
.I
-" I |III
I,
m,,
"'" ;
|l"il'"
.... ,....m, NUlil
O. 002 O. 004 O. 006 O. 008 O. 010
. {inchos/inch}
Fig. B4. 5. 6. 5-29 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 7079=T6

Aluminum Alloy Die Forgings. {Transverse)
Thickness <__6.0 in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 187
Graph to be furnished _en available

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 188
W
Room Temperature
100 k= 2.0
k= 1.7
k= 1.5
8O
k= I. 25
k= 1.0
6O
Stre s s- Strain
4O
!if!f!
2O
iiuqi.
.,||I,,IIU,I.I.
!!qqqlJ,::i. :i immnlUU,Hmnul
,lU .11.|11111 |111.11111 |11111111111111
O. 002 O. 004 O. 006

, (inches/inch)

Aluminum Alloy Die Forgings (Longitudinal)
Thickness _< 6.0 in.
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 189
;,- 4 '_. li]" :i

if , .it _...... t ' ....ttt. :ii
,1.... _ ,._. i
.... i
tJ
;z}; ;: tii;t ;;::tltl;|::/l Ill: ::;it:ill ;_i ]ii i ;. ; :_.I
_w_.k = 2. 0
140 t:l;
• -_..... ,1I, .:
_.t I,; t i.,.'
i ,!+ _'t ,+.,*e', I : ,! 1
t,t,
*,¢t'
t ,1 _ ............ I ......
!ill ;:i!
.......
;2 ; _ ;i;
t .....
.; [i; ]
t.............
: ;1' _i_ 4 I '11 ;J ;
ii: :!i:
-! _ ." 'J _r_r ,. +_. , .: i ...... iii.
.i? k = I. 7
120
, i_ J ......... t .... i .....
lti:
Itt; ':It
t_.,t]ii_f i!tlt,t'.)._fl i!tii! ! _ $t !

t_!t_i_?tl;;llll;; 'Ll,_ff'_.
_._l_il ':i!1t},._]1,;!; ,t_t1;_i I,:, _,!i :?i; ii;: k = 1. 5
:':i .!: .... :.... i:.lii...:..i.:,,,_-,.. '_" , ::

.... ![ .i"_'" ,_" i .......I!jiL _1 ........
. _ .... '. ._1,_
..... _ i
I00 !'1[
2z_ Lal
;i; ;1 :.<:.,
I'_ !,,,::.; ,._....
,:_11! _.
,: i, _: .:!_![
, _ . _
! y',:!il. _ ,,l_j
,:i!l,,.,., t ,,
i:11
iiil '_i k =I. 25
'''II I .... _ .......... ',;It
i_i I i, +_ _
1t; :[i;;
8O l;'_- ii_;_[ i ]l ; ,i _ i _ _ [;lIl/_llllill_[il[;: _$;: li;]
_j_ l}Jl;;!ili![:t I_Stress-strain Curve :t I;i:

!lli ,4,,
:i i _, _l'i " [ ....... I_ tF,: +_k= 1.0

i , t t
Fb
:;' ,l_i !_; [I; i ; [ i [
(ksi) r.............. _,/, :, : [ i J
t ....;_[ J] _ ;;I[
f..... ' I;
1,,
fJ:'lt!_:lt!ti/t1!!/ :flt,!_!l 'ill #'1 ':'1'_ ,l

60 i1;, , I[ ii ; I : ;;j I: ,_i; ;;]| ; ]ii O
_urve
- ,,1+
! 'l ;:].._,_,._-:d___:_:.,!_!!!l_lt;t It!i]44'l_'_l il_: !:::t
: ': ;::II:"
J ;; t ,. !i, i
:I
;i:
];: : T
:t
: [ ] ! i
I
] _ 't
r: _N
::1 l [ _ S
::: rr :
::i : ;
:Ii!
i,
4O ':! t':
; J ..... ] ..... J]
;:::iil£4tu =
::!I!
74,000 psi
,
Ill !t
!|!1!_1
i]!l,_iil:::T_._i
iil_
t!ttt!:_l_!!t'!r!! :l!tl
,,t
ii:
,, _ , t ,tl _ , !,d,, Itr i Ii,
2O .... _ "too
Elongat,on ,,,, f .... :1,,I,_,,,_1,I
.112i::i I
!t .... t......... I.... t I _ I .......

;_1!!
0 _[l: ;],]]I,H':[],I ],', Ill! lli',l !l:ff!t!t]i! lJJJll]f':Ifi:i ,]_,t [ii! ll!;1
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0. 05
(inches/inch) (
U
Fig. B4.5.6.5-3Z Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 7079-T6

Aluminum Alloy Die Forgings (Longitudinal)
Thickness < 6.0 in.
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 190

Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 191
: ...... i
; I
i ,. )
I
" I .... i
n 0 0
_0 rJ)
v
_I_ "_
•_ o
ovm
!
..... ! "" II
I • I
l :
,. • : :
i -,- : :
|
: I :
: :. 1...:.- I :
1 i , • • :
• • I •
!
U_
.........
___.
I
_!....
_ ..... I :
i:....... _.-" _- ...... 4

i
..... :.... i,.- -_ .... -....
'. _. i
n
__.._........
........
i.......L !......L........
i ......
_ : L ......
,_'g
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 192
100
kin2.0
k=l.7
8O
k=l.5
k= 1.25
k=l.O
F b
(kei)
40
20
fo Curve
0
0. 002 0. 004 0. 006 0. 008 0. 010
(inches/inch)
Fi s. B4. 5. 6. 5-35 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves 7079-T6

Aluminum Alloy Hand Forgings (Long Transverse)
Thickness < 6 in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 193
k-2.0
k=l.7
• k= 1.5
k= I. Z5
8O
Fb
(ksi)
k- 1.0
6O .._..;.._.L.....
:
4O
2O
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
(incLes/inch)
_U ¸

Aluminum Alloy Hand Forgings (Long Transverse)
Thickness < 6 in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 194

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 195
k=2.0
40
O. Ol 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0. 07
(inches/inch) {u

Aluminum Alloy Hand Forgings (Longitudinal)
Thickness < 6.0 in.
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 196

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 197
B4.5.5.6 Magnesium-Minin_urn Properties
$;;tl
iiil !!iii::i:i:!iti_: _!! !t!:::I!;!ili_:_i ;_
:_!i
ii
:IF i!ij ii_!|ti!!!![:li[ii|iiii"_i_-iJl_oom Temperature .,._:it i]]

60 i! f!_
i ......
*;4
[t t:
!i _; iii
iiii
t_. *t " ._ ........... t,, ._1, !, t_f 4 , t
r!_t ! :
;: i! i!i
50
ilt: Ult_mate _ ....
_I;_._,_ ,,r
....
,:i:
:i! ! i! I
[!i,'t!il; }iii _ i 'Wl:',ii :: _i!i i.ll ! ;i !_
_I_'I '_',_I:'_' ; i':'l"i _ r' "lI ;"_ I _t !t
_[l:!
_._;
40
..... I...... _ ......... _[,I,.! .... h.,
:!ii
;:St_ :::! .................... 1 t ', il
Fb
t!22!'i;t,,t l iiii
(kst) ;:7,
_! ![ il
:IL:
iI 11!{
'i, _1
30 !
....... . :!i!i
i[::i !! :t} it
..,.. ,,-,-d i: : t_ ;i I t
,t.,
k., l,
--_TT *_'YtM,.
',t!: ;i:: .......
20 itli: iI:_ !t}!liill :: t :::: .::: it::iili* ::tl t:!l
!i,, i!i!tiiil :_ :i
t:;:
.... it,
[i :ii ii
.t,r
Itl: ii?itliii.............
.... ; ......
:ii! .:. tl;l ii:_ ii, fill !.i!i::_ Fry : 22, 000 psi
::: E = 6. 3 x 106 psi
!::T
, ,t ii!:;][!i Elongation = 6_o
10
!iil
, _,q+Si-_!!!:!:
!iil ;ill i, ::! [._ :: i i i
_1Tr 1.=l- _4=_!

..... !:[_,][',J_];II;:.:T :',ii:I
11_i ''' I] , "ill[ I_I I_.H .ii..,
'::' [[" !iri[:jl!l'l'llliit [:llil
;!i: :;'l!:Ir !ii" ii[iil:
1.0 1.5 2.0
ZQc
k =
I

Symmetrical Sections AZ61A Magnesium Alloy
Forgings (Longitudinal)
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 198
;: $77i
!!!!i!_
!If iii:
if:
_i; !11
;;!t ,..
!r lii
1i
i_=,; ....
Itli:tt
i!:i! I !1ti
t_t!
H!t
]!I_
:,ill
;_ Iiii
!!H
*l+ ,++,
!!1 ![!':
',hl ;:;i
',i! ttfi if
;ii Iic]
tit Ill',
t_: Itll i[t
Z.O
Fi x . B4.5.5.6-Z Minimum Bending Modulus of Rupture for

Symmetrical Sections HK31A-O Magnesium
Alloy Sheet. 0.016 a Thickness <- 0.250 in.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 199

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page200
Graph to,be furnished when available

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page203

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 204
5O
4O
k=l.7
k=l.5
30
k= 1.25
k=l.O
2O
10
Fig. B4.5.6.6-3 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves AZ61A

Magnesium Alloy Forgings (Longitudinal)
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 205
:1. • : : ,. : . : ! ,
..... .::
".:'"'t'-'r-.
......
, :!....J .rI..............
'.'"_ ...................
. :_'.........
:---" ............. [ ...............
:::i
÷.....
:, :[...... , ::I
1 ......... _........ ' ......... _....... _i
:" ] . . .I ] Room 'Fe:inperature I , I . • ".I
6O !: _ ,:1 1: ! , / : !: : _ I _ ..... l : ; : F_.;_l =2. oo
[::_
' '::iFtu = '8' ()001'si
" "I ....r!--! .........i-t;
...... i: ::!
....
i ' 'i: ......
.---,,_......-
1i .... I
t...'
_:-I
-T-I
!....iLrtv ---zz, 000 psi 1 L i I J J L..4 _ • :, .:,

: : 6 "/'-_-7 .................. ' i -r--. " '.l"j£,
i:..,,.:E. =_>.3xtO i>__. i...... ] ' ' .!..l. " _.::.ik= 1.7
5o
7!!7- :
40
-, k=l.O
Fb
(ksi)
3O
2o
10
Fig. B4.5.6.6-4 Minimum Plastic Bending Curves AZ61A

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 206
B4.5.6.6 Masnesium-Minimurn Properties
0 o
v,
A U
!
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 207
i
.... /...
t_
_o
AI
h U
t.J
_J
• "4 0
_o
,4D
I
_4
0 0 0 0
0 0 0
°1-1
v
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 208
_J

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page209

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 210

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page211

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page212
._---pI
4.1
0pI
:..-.2!-.:._i- -I-::-i--- " '_:i----".........i.. :...: ..L_i..__.:.i
I_.'.
_-.----T.
--_...._
; !. :....
••22
_ _
°
_"
.......
•
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i
:
......•......;.....
:'_
i:i: i
:'.
.............
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: '.'i
;
•
;
. • ..
,. i....:.:._ .L.._..:.. : .. '.._-."
.'%.
, - :
: . • " !
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.....
'.
i
'
.. i
:
.... -.'..
._'
i I
4
._::. _:, ........

. .._o _
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: _L.: ; ....-:-.. "....:..
! .......
i..............
-:
............... "..-.:
..............
:
• '" :' " :''_ • . .... ; .... ; .......... I • . ...... , •

.' "_' _ lid _ ..: " I • " : • : " : " ' : ; " ' " • : : :
f "':_.:
....
i : ......
-_'_ : i 1," 1,"'_ u -c' " ' ' " .... " " : [. _ " ' "
: ::: ....." ....:.: ..;.L.L.'..: .." ..... :: . I ...................: ,. ,_..." ,
:_." '-" _ _ .......
_,_ ...i .......... : ....... ..... ....... _..... :.:
" ............................. :" ................ ...... • _4
::_:F . .:"- _'- _--' _ ". : _ :.": !- : : [ " :" I; : : i • ' : • .'
'= .... ""--" _ .................. t"- :'_-r ..... . .: ,.'..._...._.....'..,." ........ 1... : .................... "1
...........
li:
• :! ":
i
[
"
. . ,'
: '
.,. ,_ .........
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.....
: _'': i .. • :
• : 1 •
I .....
:
: "
t ................
:
, '
...: : "
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•
:1
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:"1" "'" : ............
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...... :...... I.. .. '..-. ., .b.. :- "":. ..... :1..... .-...... :............. !:'--:.!.........
! .].:.... • "'_.'_'..-'_E_""
l- .! -- .:'---: ..l " . .:. ..... :.- : ...F.:.. ":!:..H....:.. i !':. !...'.! .... :... : ".:....'.. :...;... :.-_i.:. : ..!-.:-- }._l_ .-,-I
I. i ........... ' ":, : • • '.... • : • ' : ";'." -' ""_-'1
1 .-'. I : , ! ] r ' ! ;' I • : " "" , ", • " • r . i . ": , .: ,'" "1 :_ : : , I :: , : - 1 •
_1_- q_ e4 ,--I
o o _ _ ° o o
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 213
Fb
(kai)
4O
2O
Fig. B4.5.6.6-1Z Minimum Plastic Bending Curves ZK60A

Sect ion B4.5
February ]5, 1976
Page 214
B4.5.7 Elastic-Plastic Energy Theory for Bending
B4. 5.7. I General
The Elastic-Plastic Energy Theory is defined as an extension

of the Elastic Energy Theory into the plastic range of a material.
This section will consider only energy due to bending stresses
which may be in the elastic or plastic range, or both. Plastic
bending curves found in Section B4. 5. 6 will be required. Deflections
of statically determinate structures due to bending with any or all
fiber stresses in the plastic range can be readily determined.
Partially or completely plastic statically indeterminate structures
can also be solved by procedures similar to those used in the
Elastic Energy Theory. Other elastic theories could have been
extended as well to include plastic bending effects but the Elastic
Energy Theory was chosen due to its simplicity and common usage.
Elastic theories are accurate only if no part of a structure is

stressed beyond the proportional limit of a material (no plastic
strain). In structures designed to stress levels beyond the propor-
tional limit, the error of an elastic deflection analysis is depen-
dent on the amount of plastic strain involved. In some cases this
error may be as much as 100% or more. Therefore when deflec-
tion is a limiting factor and plastic strains are involved, an
analysis such as the Elastic-Plastic Energy Theory should be used.
B4. 5.7. Z Discussion of Margin of Safety
In calculating the margin of safety at yield or ultimate, deflec-

tions must be considered as well as loads and/or stress levels, etc.;
e.g., although a positive margin of safety for a structural element
may be shown on the basis of loads, excessive deflections may occur.
If the deflections are then the most critical design condition, the
margin of safety becomes
Permissible Load
M.S. = -1 (4. 5.7.Z-I)
(Safety Factor) (Applied Load)
where the Permissible Load is the calculated load corresponding

to the maximum permissible deflection. Equation (4. 5.7. 5-11)
may be used in obtaining a permissible load level for a maximum
permissible deflection by a trial and error process.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 215
Assumptions and Conditions
Energy is conserved; i.e., the external work due to a virtual

load moving through a real deflection is equal to the internal
strain energy developed during that deflection.
Plane sections remain plane; i.e., the strain is linearly dis-

tributed across any cross-section.
. Poisson's ratio effects are negligible.
4. The deformations are of a magnitude so small as to not

materially affect the geometric relations of various parts of a
structure to one another.
B4. 5. 7.4 Definitions
dA cross-sectional area of an infinitesimal volume, dV.
c distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fibers of a

cross-section.
real deformation of an infinitesimal volume, dV, in the

x-direction.
A real vertical deflection of a beam at the point of application

of a virtual load.
total (elastic plus plastic) strain of an infinitesimal volume,

Cb
dV, in the x-direction.
c - extreme fiber strain of a cross-section.

bmax
F virtual normal force acting on dA.

v
m virtual bending moment in a beam due to the application of a

virtual load.
W external work equal to a virtual load moving through a real

e
deflection.
W. internal strain energy equal to a summation of internal

1
virtual forces times their real deflections.
Q virtual unit load.
fb virtual bending stress on dA due to m.

v
Sect ion B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page2_6
B4.5.?. 5 Deflection of Statically Determinate Beams
Consider the infinitesimal volume dV of Figure B4. 5.7. 5-1(a) and

(b)
fb myI (4.5_v 7_5-I)

-
V
Fv = stress >< area = fb dA

v
= -- dA i4. 5.7. 5-2)

I
6 = c b dx (4. 5.7. 5-3)
Since plane sections remain plane,
Cb = Cbma x c (4. 5.7.5-4)
and
5 = c Y----
dx (4. 5.7.5-5)
bma x c
By definition,
W = Q A (4.5. 7.5-6)
e
Wi =Y F v 6 (4.5.7.5-7)
Since energy is conserved,
W e = Wi , (4.5. 7. 5-8)
or
QA = Z Fv 6 (4.5. 7.5-9)
Substituting Equations (4.5.7.5-2) and (4.5.7.5-5) into Equation

(4.5.7.5-9) since Q is equal to unity,
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 217
B4. 5.7.5 Deflection of Statically Determinate Beams (Gont' d)
fAiL (mY_.T._ dA)(( maxb Yc dx)
2 mob
-/ So y
I
dA
C
max
dx, (4. 5.1. 5-10)
But, by definition, I =
y2 dA,
/e. L mob
,',A :_ # max dx (4.5.7.5-Ii)
.So c
Equation (4. 5. 8. 5-ii) can now be solved graphically to findA.

cb can be determined from a plastic bending curve for the applicable
max
material as shown in Figure B4.5._.5-i(c). Enter the F b (modulus of

rupture) scale with Mc/I and move horizontally across to the plastic
I
bending curve for the specific cross-section; this intersection locates
the corresponding ¢b on the c (strain) scale. For beams with
• . max
varylng cross-sectlon, c may be a variable.
_, L "-
_X
(d) Real Load Diagram
(a) Beam Cross-Section
.I:/ dz Fv
I
I
I
(b) DifferentiaI Volume, dV (e) Real Moment Diagram
Figure B4.5.7.5-I
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 218
B4.5.7.5 Deflection of Statically Determinate Beams (Cont' d)
q I lb.
!
(f) Virtual Load Diagram

(Real Deflection Shown)
M_.X
I
l,
• (in./in. ) Cb
(c) Plastic Bending Diagram for (g) Virtual Moment Diagram

Beam Cross-Section
Figure B4.5. _. 5-1 (,Cont ' d)

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 219
B4.5.-';7.6 Example problem
A rectangular beam, simply supported at the ends, is subjected

to a concentrated vertical load at its center. Find the vertical
deflection of the beam at its center.
Material: 2024-T3 Aluminum Alloy Plate

Beam dimensions: 1/Z in. x 1 in. x 20 in.
Load: P= 400 lb
P
A I
Procedure:
i 2o -
,
Apply a virtual unit load, Q, at the beam center and construct
the virtua! moment diagram, m.
2. Construct the real moment diagram, M.
3. Calculate the real bending stress., F b, for each value of x by:
Mc
Fb = T
4. Enter the plastic bending curves on page Z18 (at k=l. 5 for a
rectangular cross-section) with each value of F b from Step 3
and determine c b for each value of x.
max
5. Multiply the value of m by the corresponding value of Ebmax
to obtain'a value of m Cbmax for each vaiue of x.

Section B4.5
February 15, ! 976
Page 220
Example problem (Gont' d)
Tabulate the results of the previous steps (see Table B4. 5.8.6-i).
,
Construct a plot of m _ bmax vs. x and determine the area
under the curve. This area represents _'g
dx.
(See Figure B4. 5.8. 6-I) J0 m Cbmax
8. Calculate A.
f_ L mob
max
A = J dx
J Ref eq (4.5.7.5-11)
C
0
c = 0. 250 in.
L
by graphical
integration )
dx = 0.165
f m c bmax
0
• 0. 165 0. 661 in.

• • /% _
0. 250
By an elastic analysis, was found to be 0.6104 in.

which is 7.7% in error. Partially plastic fiber
stresses existed only over the middle 8 inches in
this example. The elastic analysis would be
considerable more in error for higher loadings and
/or beams in which the plastic stresses exist over
greater lengths; e.g., beams of constant moment,
etc.
Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page221
B4. 5.7.6 Example problem (Cont' d)
P = 400 lb.
x, m M Mc/I, c bmax , m e bmax ,

3 -3
in. in. -lb. in. -lb. ksi in. /in. x 10- in. -lb. x lO
0 0 0 0 0 0
I .5 200 4.8 .4570 .2285
2 1.0 400 9.6 .9140 .9140
3 1.5 600 14.4 1.3710 2.0565
4 2.0 800 19.2 1.8280 3.6560
5 2.5 i000 24.0 2. Z850 5.7125
6 3.0 1200 28.8 2.7420 8.2260
7 3.5 1400 33.6 3.14 I0.9900
8 4.0 1600 38.4 3.80 15.2000
9 4.5 1800 43.2 4.64 20.8800
i0 5.0 2000 48.0 5.83 29.1500
iI 4. 5 1800 43.2 4 .64 20.8800
12 4.0 1600 38.4 3 .80 15.2000
13 3.5 1400 33.6 3 .14 I0.9900
14 3.0 1200 28.8 2 .7420 8.2260
15 2.5 i000 24.0 2 .2850 5.7125
16 2.0 8OO 19.2 1 .8280 3.656
17 1.5 6OO 14.4 1 .3710 2.0565
18 1.0 400 9.6 .9140 .9140
19 .5 2OO 4.8 .4570 .2285
2O 0 0 0 0 0
Table B4. 5. 7. 6-i

Section B4.5
February 15, 1976
Page 222
B4.5.7.6 Example problem (Cont'd)
28
k
_AREA UNDER CURVE EQUALS _
L
24
"--"
m.
J" me b
0 max
dx
I _i
I
2O
I
I
E
v I
O
i
x
X
m 16
/
/ \
I \
12
A
/ \
I \
/
/
J
/
¢
\
/ \
/ \
f
10 16
I
x (inches)
Figure B4.5.7.6-1
SECTION B4. 6
BEAMS UNDERAXIAL LOAD

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pa ge
B4.6.0 Beams Under Axial Load ................. l
4.6. l Introduction ..................... l
4.6.2 Notation ........................ 3
4.6.3 In-Plane Response ................... 5
4,6,3.1 Elastic Analysis .................. 5
4,6.3,2 Inelastic Analysis ................. 5
4,6.4 Biaxial In-Plane Response ............... 9
4.6.4,1 Elastic Analysis .................. 9
4.6.4.2 Inelastic Analysis ................. 10
4.6.5 Combined Bending and Twisting Response ......... 10
4.6.5.1 Elastic Analysis .................. 12
4.6.5.2 Inelastic Analysis ................. 13
4.6.6 Recommended Practices .................. 14
4.6.6.1 In-Plane Response ................. 16
4.6.6.1,I Elastic Analysis ................ 16
4.6.6.1.2 Inelastic Analysis ............... 21
4.6.6.2 Biaxial In-Plane Response ............. 22
4.6.6.2.1 Elastic Analysis ................ 23
4.6.6.3 Combined Bending and Twisting Response ....... 24
4.6.6.3.1 Elastic Analysis ................ 25
References ........................... 42
B4.6-iii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Pa ge
Tables B4.6,1 Beam Column Formulas -

Elastic Analysis Tensile Axial Loads ....... 29
Tables B4.6.2 Beam Column Formulas -

Elastic Analysis - Compressive Axial Loads .... 32
Tables B4.6.3 Reference Listing for Other Beam Column

Loading Conditions ................ 40
B4.6-iv
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page l
B4.6.0 BEAM-COLUMNS
L B4_.6. I Introduction
Beam-columns are structural members which are subjected simultan-
eously to axial and bending loads. The bending may arise from transverse
loads, couples applied at any point on the beam, surface shear loads, or
from end moments resulting from eccentricity of the axial load at one end
(or at both ends) of the member.
There are many problems associated with the analysis of beam-
columns. For example, individual beam and column effects cannot be
superimposed since they are interdependent. Initial curvature, distor-
tion, inelastic effects, and restraint conditions all affect the deform-
ational characteristics and are important factors. Both strength and
overall instability need to be considered. In cases where lateral support
is lacking, lateral instability (torsional instability) must be considered.
If the elements of the section are relatively thin, and the beam-column
is relatively short, local buckling or crippling may occur.
The analyals of shear-web beams is distinctly different from the
analysis of simple beams. As a consequence, the effects of axial loads
on shear-web beams are beyond the scope of this section; they are, how-
ever, considered in the section on shear beams.
It has been shown that beam-columns can have one of three types of
overall response (References I and 2). These are shown in Figure i as

f
indicated below:
(a) In-Plane Response

Section B4.6
February 15, i 976 v
Page 2
Z
I
(a) IN-PLANE RESPONSE
(b) BIAXIAL IN-PLANE RESPONSE
i \ 1
(¢) COMBINED BENDING AND TWISTING RESPONSE
FIGURE I BEAM-COLUMN RESPONSES

Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Pa ge 3
(b) Biaxial In-Plane Response
!
f-.
(c) Combined Bending and Twisting Response
The particular response for a given member is dependent mainly
upon five conditions. These are:
/f- (a) Cross Section Shape
(b) Span Length
(c) Amount of Intermediate Lateral (Torsional) Support
(d) Restraint Conditions at Boundaries
(e) Loading
The analysis procedures employed for these responses will be discussed
in the following paragraphs.
In general, the analysis and design procedures for beam-columns
with in-plane response are well developed for both the elastic and in-
elastic stress ranges. However, procedures for blaxial In-plane response
and combined bending and twisting response are limited, especially in the
inelastic stress range.
One of the more powerful techniques employed in the analysis of
beam-columns is referred to as "interaction equations;" these equations
are based on experimental data, and they require that the strength of
the member as a column and the strength as a beam be determined separately.
These strengths are then expressed in terms of stress ratios (applied
F
load/strength) and incorporated in the interaction equation which ex-
presses the effects of the combined loading. Interaction equations will
be used in the following discussion.

Sect ion B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 4
B4.6.2 Notation
A Area of Cross Section (in. 2)
r Torsion Warping Constant (in. 6)
d Eccentricity (in.)
E Modulus of Elasticity (Ibs/in. 2)
Tangent Modulus of Elasticity (Ibs/in. 2)

Et
f Stress (ibs/in. 2)
Nominal Extreme Fiber Stress at Lateral

fcb
Buckling (Ibs/in. 2)
G Elastic Shear Modulus (Ibs/in. 2)
h Distance between Centers of Flanges (in.)
I Moment of Inertia (in. 4)
I Moment of Inertia about Minor Axis (in. 4)

Y
K UnlformTorsion Constant (In. 4)
J El (see Tables I 2, and 3)

p
L Length of Member (in.)
L' Effective Length (in.)
M Bending Moment (in.-Ib)
Principal Axes Bending Moments (in.-ib)

x,M Y
Bending Moment due to Both Bending and Axial

Mac tual
Loads (in.-Ib)
Me, Bending Moment at the Elastic Stress Limit or

Yield Point (in.-Ib)
(Ky)e
Bending Moment at the Inelastic Stress Limit

(Mx)u,(Sylu
(in.-Ib)
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 5
MI_ M2 Applied Moments at Each End of Beam-Column

Loaded with Unequal End Moments (in.-Ib)
Meq Equivalent Moment for Beam-Column Loaded

with Unequal End Moments (in.-Ib)
MoS, Margin of Safety
P Applied Axial Load (Ibs)
P Critical Column Buckling Load in the Elastic

e
Stress Range (Euler Load);
Pe = (_2Elmin)/(L')2
(Px)e ' (Py)e Critical Column Buckling Loads in the

Elastic Stress Range for Each Principal
Axis (ibs)
P Critical Column Buckling Load in the Inelastic

u
Stress Range (Ibs)
U L/j (see Tables i, 2, and 3)
W Transverse Load (Ib)
w Transverse Unit Load (Ib per linear in.)
Y Deflection (in.)
Section Moduli about Principal Axes (in. 3)

Z x, Zy
8 Slope of Beam (radians) to Horizontal, Positive

when Upward to the Right
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Pa ge 6
B4.6.3 In-Plane Response
In-plane response, as mentioned herein, refers to beam-columns
which, when subjected to combined axial and bending loads acting in one
plane, respond substantially without twisting in the same plane, as shown
in Figure la. This response usually occurs when adequate lateral (tor-
sional) support is provided, or when torsionally stiff sections are used.
Beam-columns which respond in this manner have been investigated exten-
sively for both the elastic stress range and the inelastic stress range;
these are discussed separately below.
B4.6.3.1 Elastic Analysis
The elastic analysis for the strength of beam-columns is based on
the assumption that failure occurs when the computed value of the com-
bined axial and bending stress in the most highly stressed fiber reaches
the yield point or yield strength of the material. This definition, in
a sense, does not consider the danger of buckling; as such, it is not
correct in the limiting case of a pure column. Initial imperfections are
always present, and contribute to the response. Thus, if these imper-
fections are considered, the definition above remains valid. Further
discussion of this concept is given by Massonnet (Ref. 2).
84.6.3.2 Inelastic Analysis
The maximum bending strength of a beam actually is higher than the
hypothetical elastic limit strength. As the applied bending moment in-
creases above the yield moment, yielding penetrates into the cross section
as shown in Figure 2. By comparison of Figures 2b and 2d, it can be seen

Section B4.6
Z February 15, 1976
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Sect ion B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 8
that a greater strength i_ obtained by considering the inelastic stress -
distribution. Analysis procedures which utilize this extra, or reserve,
strength are known as inelastic analyses; this extra strength has been
shown to vary, and to depend on three factors (Ref. 2).
(a) The Mmax/P Ratio - The reserve strength is almost zero for
the case of pure buckling (M = 0) and tends, as Mmax/P
increases, toward the value that is associated with pure
bending.
(b) The Shape of the Cross Section - For example, the reserve
strength is smaller for an I-section than it is for a
rectangular section.
(c) The Nature of the Metal - For example, the reserve strength
is much higher for material A than it is for material B in
Figure 3. (The stress-strain diagram for material A does not
have a flat portion, as does the diagram for material B).
Several failure criteria have been used in the inelastic analysis
for the strength of beam-colunms (Refs. 3, 4, 5, and 6). Basically, the
criterion used has been one of the following:
(a) Maximum Stress Criterion - Failure occurs at some prescribed
maximum stress level in the inelastic range.
(b) Maximum Strain Criterion - Failure occurs at some prescribed
maximum strain level in the inelastic range.
(c) Ultimate Load Criterion - Failure occurs at some ultimate, or
collapse, load which utilizes the inelastic behavior of the
material.
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Pa ge 9
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Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page I0
B4.6.4 Biaxial In-Plane Response
This section considers the strength analysis methods of torsionally
stiff beam-columns which are subjected to applied bending forces that
cause either bending about the major principal axis only or bending
about both principal axes (Fig. ib). The beam-columns are free to deflect
in all directions, without twisting. This type of response can occur as
a result of one of the following two conditions:
(a) Primary Biaxial Bending
(b) Primary Bending in the Strong Direction
Case I is discussed in the following paragraphs.
Little information is available for Case 2. However, it has been
predicted that short members with large bending forces will respond
essentially in the plane of the applied forces and develop as much
strength as if they were restrained from deflecting in the weak direction.
On the other hand, long slender members with small bending forces buckle
in a direction normal to the plane of the bending forces and develop
essentially the strength of the member loaded concentrically, that is,
the bending forces cause no loss of strength. Intermediate length mem-
bers may respond about both principal axes simultaneously, and the
strength will then be less than the strength for responding exclusively
in one direction or the other.
In the elastic range, when the limiting stress failure criterion is

Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
r Page l l
used, the determination of the stresses due to bending about the two
principal axes can be made independently, as there is no coupling of the
flexural actions. Thus, although few test data are available, practical
procedures for the prediction of strength for such cases are based on a
f knowledge of in-plane response. Hence, elastic solutions for the case
of In-plane response can be extended to include biaxial in-plane response;
but it has been found (Ref. i) that the limiting stress criterion is even
more conservative for cases of response about both axes than it is for
cases of response about one axis. Austin (Ref. i) extended one form of the
interaction equation for in-plane response to include biaxlal in-plane
response.
B4.6.4.2 Inelastic Analysis
Austin (I) states that there have been no precise theoretical studies
based on the von K_rman theory of the strength of beam-columns which fail
by bending about both principal axes without twisting. From a practical
viewpoint, Austin has extended one form of the interaction equation for
in-plane response to biaxial in-plane response for the inelastic range.
Little test information is available for this phenomenon. In general,
it appears that methods used to predict the inelastic in-plane response,
can be extended to predict the inelastic biaxial in-plane response.
B4.6.5 Combined Bendin_ and Twistln_ Respons _
Structural members of thin-walled open cross section, when subjected
to combined axial and bending forces, may respond by combined bending and
twisting (Figure Ic). This phenomenon is commonly called torsional-

Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 12
flexural buckling or buckling by torsion-bending. The twisting action is
a result of the low torslonal stiffness of members with open cross section
such as I, channel or angle. It should be noted that in the discussion
which follows it Is assumed that the open section members are not subjected
to dlrectly applled torslonal couples, such as arise when the llne of ac-
tion of transverse loading does not pass through the shear center (Figure
4). The shear center Is defined as the point through which the shear
force must pass if the member is to bend without twisting.
CENTROIO SHEAR CENTER
FIGURE 4. SHEAR CENTER
Columns of open cross section wlll respond by combined bending and
twisting under any of the following three conditions:
(a) Axial compression and moments acting to cause bending about
both pTincipal axes;
(b) Axial compression and moments acting to cause bending only

Sect ion B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 13
about the major principal axis when the momentof inertia
about the major axis is muchgreater than about the minor

axis; for example, an l-section memberwith axial compression
and end momentsacting to cause bending in the plane of the

web; and
(c) Axial compression and momentsacting to cause bending in a

plane parallel to the plane of either principal axis, when the
principal axis does not contain the shear center as well as the
centroid, as may occur for a channel, tee, or an angle section.
Little information is availn_le on the strength and behavior of mem-

bers subjected to the first and third conditions (Ref. i). The greatest amount
of study has been devoted to the second case, primarily for 1-section members
(Refs. 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,and ii). The second case is discussed in the follow-
ing paragraphs.

As mentioned above, most of the elastic analyses for beam-columns
subjected to combinedbending and twisting have been limited to uniform
I-section members. It has been found that the behavior is similar to
the lateral buckling action of an 1-beam subjected to transverse forces
only. However, exact formulas for critical loads for torsional-flexural
buckling are complex (Refs. 4, 6, and Ii), therefore, interaction equations
have been used. These interaction equations have been shown to agree
closely with available data. An interaction equation has been proposed
by Hill, Hartman, and Clark (Ref. i0) for aluminumbeam-columns; this equation
has been verified by Massonnet (Ref. 2) for steel beamcolumns.
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 14
In a theoretical study, Salvadorl (Ref. 12) found that the interaction
equation used by Hill, Hartman, and Clark gave safe predictions for the
combinations of axial compression and bending which produce elastic
buckling by torsion-bending. Salvadori considered members whose ends
were free to rotate in the plane of the web, but were elastically restrain-
ed with respect to rotation in the planes of the flanges.
Little analytical work has been done on the elastic response of
tapered members under combined bending and axial load. However, Butler
and Anderson (Ref. 13) have performed tests on tapered steel beam-columns,
and compared the test results to Salvadori's interaction curves.
The outcome of the comparison suggests that Salvadori's curves can be
applied to tapered as well as uniform beam-columns. Also, analytical
studies of "solid" tapered members have been made by Gatewood _Ref. 14),
and the interaction curves obtained are essentially independent of the
degree of taper and are closely approximated by the results of Salvadorl.
B4.6.5.2 Inelastic Analysis
Again, the majority of studies in the inelastic range have been
devoted to 1-sectlon members. Hill and Clark (Ref. 9) have shown that the
interaction equation used in elastic analysis can also be extended for
use in the inelastic range by using the tangent modulus concept.
Massonet has also extended the elastic interaction equation for steel
into the plastic domain. The results of this extension were compared
with results of their tests of steel 1-section columns and found to be

Section B4.6
f February 15, 1976
Page 15
in excellent agreement for oblique eccentric loading, momentat one end
only, and equal and opposite end moments(Ref. I). Galambos(Ref. 15) presents
a thorough study of the inelastic lateral buckling of beamswhich may be
applied in the interaction equation.
B4.6.6 Recommended Practices
Detailed and comprehensive stress analysis shall be performed to
ensure efficiency and integrity of the member or structure; and the design
shall comply with the particular structure or vehicle requirements, e.g.,
reliability. In general, the methods of analysis shall follow those
given herein. In utilizing these methods, minimum weight designs shall
be given prime consideration and the member shall be so designed that
(a) There shall occur no instabilities resulting in collapse of
the member from the application of the design loads; and
(b) Deformations resulting from limit loads shall not be so
large as to impair the function of the member or nearby
components, or so large as to produce undesirable changes in
the loading distribution.
The immediate problem in the design of a beam-column is the choice
of a suitable cross section to withstand the combined axial and bending
loads. Because of the number of variables, direct choice of section is
not usually feasible, except for the selection of a shape, such as round,
rectangular, I-section, etc. Thus, in general, successive trials must
be made to determine the safest and most economical section. The pre-
liminary selection of the cross section at any station along the member
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 16
may, in many cases, be based on the elementary formula for Stress
Zx _y '
where the interaction of the transverse and axial loads is neglected.
Naturally, this selection must be improved by a refined analysis.
In choosing an optimum shape, particular attention should be given
to the degree of lateral restraint or end restraint which will or can
be provided. For example, if little or no lateral restraint is provided,
then a torsionally stiff section such as a box or tubular section should
be used. Also, when the type of response is not known, all three con-
ditions
(a) In-plane response
(b) Biaxlal In-plane response
(c) Combined bending and twisting response
should be analyzed to determine the critical response.
If the analyst or designer has the choice of elastic or inelastic
analysis procedures, the following factors should be considered in making
the choice.
(a) Member function
(b) Material
(c) Deflection limitations - Deflections may be excessive in the
inelastic range
(d) Thermal conditions - Little information is available on
thermal effects in the inelastic range

Sect ion B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 17
(e) Dynamic conditions - Little information is available for in-
elastic effects due to dynamic loadings
(f) Reliability
(g) Analysis procedures available for the method of analysis and
types of loadings considered.
The recommendedpractices and procedures for the analysis of beam-

columns are discussed in the paragraphs which follow. The analysis and
design for local buckling and crippling should be in accordance with the
methods presented in Section CI. In complying with the references and
recommendationscited above, the designer should keep abreast of current
structural research and development. With this approach, optimummethods
and designs should be achieved.
B4.6.6.1 In-Plane Response

B4.6.6.1.I Elastic Analysis
Tensile Axial Loads - The strength of beam-columns subjected to
combined flexure and tensile axial loads has been investigated for many
commonly encountered cases. In Tables B4.6.1 and B4.6.3 results are
tabulated for some of these cases. In general, adequate solutions and
methods of analysis for other beam-column loading conditions are avail-
able in several references (16, 17, 18, 19 and 20).
Compressive Axial Loads - Many exact solutions have been ob-
tained for the case of beam-columns subjected to combined flexure and
compressive axial loads. Results are given in Tables 2 and 3 for some
of the more commonly encountered conditions. A number of these and other
conditions are discussed below.

Sect ion B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 18
Beamcolumns with intermediate supports have been investigated.

Probably the three momentequations (Refs. II, 18, 20,and 21) are the most
powerful method of analysis for this case. A variety of conditions is
covered in this technique; for example:
(a) Any type of transverse loads can be included

(b) Span lengths may vary
(c) The moment of inertia may vary from span to span
(d) The effects of rigid supports not in a straight llne
(e) The effects of intermediate spring supports (Ref. II p. 23)
(f) The effects of uniformly distributed axial loads (Ref. 21).
Niles and Newell (Ref. 18) present tabulated results for many of the cases
listed above. Another analytical method which can be used for this
problem consists of a solution adapted to matrix form. Saunders (Refs. 22,
23) demonstrates the application of the "transfer matrix" technique to
the analysis of nonuniform beam-columns on multl-supports.
Methods and solutions for beam-columns on an elastic foundation can
be found in several references (6, 17, 24,end 25). Het_nyi (Ref. 17) is a
particularly good source for formulation and solution of the differential
equations for this problem. He considers both axial tensile and axial
compressive loads. See Table B.4.6.3 for illustrations of some of these cases.
For the cases of tapered and stepped members, numerical methods have
been shown to give good results with a savings in time and labor. Newmark's
method (Ref. 26) is particularly applicable to beam-columns of variable
cross section and can be extended to include many commonly encountered

Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 19
loading conditions. Basically, the method is a numerical integration by
a sequence of successive approximations. Salvadori, Baron (Ref. 27) define
finite difference numerical methods which can be used for the analysis
of beam-columns with many loading conditions.
Other conditions not covered in Tables B.4.6.2 and B.4.6.3 can be
found in references (4, Ii, 16, 18_ 19, 26, 28, 29, and 30). The ana-
lytical methods which can be adapted to the solution of problems which
have not been investigated are available in several references (4, ii,
16, 18, 19, 20, 26, and 29).
The abundance of exact solutions and methods of solution for the
elastic analysis of beam-columns which respond in-plane reduces the need
for using interaction equations. However, the interaction equation
can be, and is_used in many instances. The following simple straight
line equation is the basis for several interaction equations,
M
P actual
-- + = I. (2)
Pe Me
Since Mactual is the moment resulting from both the axial and trans-
verse loads, it can be difficult to obtain for complicated conditions.
However, for members which satisfy all of the following requirements:
(a) Must be simply supported
(b) Must have uniform cross section
(c) May be subjected to any combination of bending forces producing
maximum moment at or near the center of the span
it has been shown (Refs. I, 2, I0, and 31) that a good approximation of the
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 20
actual bending moment is given by
M
x
MactuaI - 1 - P/(Px)e (3)
Here (Px)e is the Euler elastic critical load in the plane of the
applied moment and M x is the maximum moment, not considering the moment
due to the axial load interacting with the deflections. For the con-
dition of moment due to interaction of the axial load with deflection,
Eq. (2) becomes
p Mx
-- + = 1 (4)
Pe (Mx) e { 1 - P/(Px) e
and the corresponding margin of safety is given by
M.S. = M "
P
1 - P/(Px) e }
] - 1 (5)
For eccentrically loaded members, where d is the eccentricity, equal
at both ends, Eq. (2) takes the following form
__P + Pd = 1. (6)
Pe (Mx) e {1 - P/(Px)e[
The margin of safety for this case can be determined analogously to
Eq. (5).
The interaction equation may be written in terms of an equivalent
moment, Meq, for a beam-column subjected to unequal end moments as shown
in Figure 5.
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 21
F
M I M 2
FIGURE 5. UNEQUAL END MOMENTS
Equation (2) becomes
M
__P + eq = 1 (7)
P
e (Mx) e { I - P/(Px)e }
where a good approximation for Meq as given by Austin (I) is
Me q M2
= 0.6 + 0.4 -- for 1.0 > M2 > - 0.5 (8)
MI M1 MI
and
M M2
eq = 0.4 for -0.5 > -- _ -i.0. (9)
MI - MI
Accurate interaction formulas which are simple and general have not
been developed for beam-columns with other than simple supports; for
example, cases where each end can be free, hinged, fixed,or elastically
restrained both with respect to rotation and translation. However, it
is conservative to use Eq. (4) with Mx = (Mx)max, where (Mx)ma x is the
maximum moment in the member and is determined by an ordinary structural
analysis without regard to the effects of axial load. In utilizing this

Sect ion B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 22
method, the effective length concept should be employed in determining the
Euler load.
B4.6.6.1.2 Inelastic Analysis
A practical interaction formula for predicting the strength of
metal beam-columns under combined compressive axial loads and bending,
which respond in-plane and in the inelastic region, has been shown (Refs.
i, 2, 7, 10,and 31) to be
p
P--_ + (Mx) u { 1 - PICPx) e } = i. Cl0)
where Pu is the strength of the member as a column in the inelastic
range. The value of Pu can he found by the tangent modulus method (Refs. 4
ii), Johnson's modified parabolas (Refs. 29, 31), or by methods presented in
the section on columns. As before, M x _s the moment due to transverse
bending without the axial load, and (Mx) u is the ultimate moment which
the section can inelastically withstand. In determining the ultimate
moment, (Mx)u, for the interaction equation above, one of the three
methods presented in paragraph 4.4.3.2,
(a) Trapezoidal Stress Distribution
(b) Plastic Design
(c) Double Elastic Modull
can be used. The trapezoidal stress distribution method developed by Coz-
zone (Refs. 5, 29) is widely used in the aerospace industry in structural
design. It is especially adaptable to metals which behave like aluminum
alloys. In general, the trapezoidal stress distribution method will be

Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 23
preferable; however, there are certain cases where one of the other meth-
ods may prove superior. For example, the plastic design method (Refs. 3,
16 and 32) has been primarily developed for steels.
Obviously, interaction equation 10 is an extension of the one
presented in the previous section (Eq. 4). As a consequence, it is sub-
ject to t_le same limitations, i.e., simple supports, uniform sections, and
equal end-moments. However, for beam-columns with unequal end-moments
(Fig. I0), the equivalent moment (Meq) as defined by equations 8 and 9
may be substituted for M x in equation i0. Additional investigation is
required to dttermine the limits of applicability of this interaction
equ_tJon for other boundary and loading conditions.
In _mploying the inelastic method, excessive deflections may occur.
In general, except for the e_se of plnstic design, there are few or
no methods for calculating the resulting deflections. Thus, if there is
a prespecified deflection limitation the inelastic method may not be
adequate.
Inelastic analysis procedures for combined tensile axial loads and
bending have not been developed. However, previous elastic analytical
methods can probably be extended to cover inelastic behavior.
B4.6.6.2 Biaxial In-Plane Response
Beam-columns which are torsionally stiff and free to deflect in
all directions may have a biaxial in-plane response condition (Fig. i)
res_.Iting from either of two loading conditions. These two conditions
c_nsist of compressive axial load and

Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 24
(a) Primary Bending in the Strong Direction; or
(b) Biaxial Bending.
For case i, primary bendlng In the strong direction, the member is
always designed so thal it will have only in-plane response in the strong
direction. This is accomplished by checking the buckling value for the
weak direction, and, if necessary providing adequate intermediate supports
or stiffness for that direction. For the condition where a biaxial inplane
response does occur, Austin (Ref. I) and Massonnet (Ref. 2) both provide an
excellent discussion.
It can be seen that only blaxlal in-plane response for case 2 is
of primary practical interest. Therefore, it is discussed in the follow-
ing paragraphs.
B4.6.6.2.1 Elastic Analysis
"The determination of the stresses due to bending about the two
principal axes can be made independently as there is no coupling of the
flexural actions in the elastic range" (Ref. I). Thus, solutions for elastic
In-plane response problems (Paragraph 4.4.6.1.1) can be extended to in-
clude bending about both principal axes by simple superposltlon of results.
For beam-columns which are subjected to axial compression and bend-
Ing moments about both principal axes, Austin has also stated that the
interaction equation for in-plane response, Equation 4, can be modified to
take into account the blaxlal loading. Thus Equation 4 becomes
-- + =
Pe (Mx) e { I - P/(Px) e } + (My) e { I - P/(Py)e } I. (II)

Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page25
Equation II is subject to the samerestrictions as Equation 4. Also,
the _uivalent momentconcept as discussed in Paragraph 4.4.6.1.1 can be

utilized for unequal end moments.
B4.6.6.2.2 Inelastic Analysis

The recommendedprocedure for inelastic analysis is an extension
of the interaction equation from in-plane response to include blaxial in-

plane response. Equation I0 then is
-- + + =i. (12)
Pu (Mx) u { I - P/(Px) e } (M_)u{l - P/(Py_ }
Using this interaction equation, the same restrictions discussed
in Paragraph 4.4.6.1.2 will also apply here.
4.4.6.3 Combined Bending and Twisting Response
The methods summarized in the preceding sections are applicable to
problems of in-plane response, and should be applied only to beam-columns
which are restrained against twisting by adequate bracing or to beam-
columns which possess a high torsional rigidity.
A torsionally weak beam-column of open section such as the wide-
flange, tee, or angle is apt to twist as well as bend during the response.
The various possibilities wherein twist may be involved are summarized as
follows:
(a) If the shear center axis and centroidal axis are not co-
incident, the member may respond by a combination of
twisting and bending, with the tendency toward twist
failure increa_in_ for very thin-walled, torsionally

Sect ion B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page26
weak, short column sections.

(b) If the shear center axis and the centroldal axis are co-
incident, as in the case of the I- or Z- shapes, buckling
by pure twist may occur without bending.

The recommendedformulae given herein for both elastic and inelas-
tic analysis are in the form of interaction equations and are applicable
only to cases with bending in the strong direction. These equations have
a simple form, are convenient to use, are accurate, and have a wide scope
of application. If a theoretical solution is ueslred, References 4, 6,
and llcontaln analytical investigations of torsional-flexural response for
manycommonsections and loadings. However, most of the work has been
done for axial compression and momentsacting to cause only bending about
the major principal axis when the momentof inertia about the major axis
is muchgreater than about the minor axis (e.g., l-sectlon). It has been
proposed by Austin that the interaction equations can be extended to
include primary bending about both axes. However, there are few data,
experimental or analytical, available to verify this.
B4.6.6.3.1 Elastic Analysis
For the elastic analysis of doubly symmetric 1-section members
subjected to primary bending in the plane of the web the following inter-
action equation is recommended:
p M
__ + x . ' = 1. (13)
Pe fcb Zx {I - P/(Px) e}
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 27
The value of fcb is the nominal extreme fiber stress at lateral buckling
for a membersubjected to a uniform momentcausing bending in the plane
of the web. The value of fcb is given by
fcb =
2El yh
2ZxL2
J I+--
KGL
_ 2E r (14)
A complete study of this lateral buckling is given by Clark and Hill in
Reference 8.
When the maximum moment is not at or near the center of the span,
the interaction equation may be excessively conservative. This is par-
ticularly true when end moments are of opposite sign and the maximum end
moment is used for M x. However, the interaction equation cited above can
be used if an equivalent uniform moment is calculated and substituted for
M x. The recommended expression for the determination of the equivalent
uniform moment as given by Massonnet (Ref. 2) is
Meq = _013 (Ml)2 + (M2)2 + 0.4 MIM 2 . (15)
Massonnet also states that the interaction equation is not necess-
arily limited to doubly symmetric 1-shaped sections, but can be used for
all shapes provided that the proper effective lengths, equivalent moments,
and appropriate expressions for fcb are adopted. However, these exten-
sions should be applied with discretion, as little work has been done to
support this.
Relatively few studies have been conducted on the elastic stability
of nonuniform or tapered beam columns which fail by combined bending and
twisting. Butler, Anderson (Ref. 13), and Gatewood (Ref. 14) have investigated
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 28
tapered members, and their results indicate that the previous interaction
equatlon=my be used. However, additional tests under a variety of load-
ing conditions will be necessary to establish this possibility conclusive-
ly.
84.6.6.3.2 inelastic Analysis
It has been predicted by various sources (Refs. I, 2, I0 and 31) that
the Interaction equation recommended for elastic analysis will also be
adequate for inelastic analysis provided that the tangent modulus is
used. For this case, Equation 14 becomes
KSL
_2Etlyh _' 2 • (16)
fcb: 2Z_L2 1+ _2E r
and the associated interaction equation Is
+ =I.
Pu fcb Zx {I - P/(Px)e} (17)
Galambos (Ref. 15) should be consulted for further study of the in-
elastic lateral buckling value to be used In the interaction equation.

Sect ion B4.6
February 15, 1976

Page 29
C_
,!
;I
I
X
_C
C
X &J
t_
.3
_C
0 U i
C
II
0 X I
I
I
&J
.C
N O0 C 0
m C M _
&J I ! I I
C II II tl II
_-_ 0
U
X X X
0 I::
0
0
O4
C_
I I
D
Ul
C ! _ ]
i..._
[
"0
C
11o
I
ii i I
---'1r
0
14
._.
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 30
_vj'
uJ
z
Qo
o
<.,) N
u
o
cL
el-
1
I i__ _
o
P-O
0
-i
--_ _L
,J
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 3 1
I¢ r----i
cll
Izl
II
._ cn x +
,,i
oQ
o _1_
U
i,i
_I _
_l r_ _.._-
_leq I
0
I
_ e
.,,,.4
I@I
(N
II 41 I II
U
+ + _
II II
X x _ X
x J Ig
_ c'M
__ _\L.
,,-3
j _2
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 32
II
1.1
I--I
t_
II
x
+
0
tO II
u j.-_,,'
_J 0
c_ l-J I
0 II
,...1
+
I _"'I I _"_ ! oM
,-I
0
+ _
(11
_ ""_
_J I I
_0 0
O u_
0
I I O
o_
,-4:
I I 0 L___I
Q II II
o_
1:
II
II N N
"7
rQ
I-'
\\ \\\%\\\\
/
I
L
&
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 33
o_
0
.,.4
4-)
U
0
q-I
"0 II
N
,i
N
m
O
II
II
o II
J
4-1
4_
O
N II !
o_
I O
0
I "N
_I _ _--\ !
_ m I
_ =1_ +
0
0 O
U
O
N _
_I _ 0
U
I
,--I c'_l
oq v
!
c_
_ "_ _1_ , :_1_ !
if)
I1 II I!
Q I I
II I|
N
r_
rO
F- X X
m
o
0
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 34
_J
C_
0
I
o
°M _0
I
,M
_l._-
.r,i
V
°_ ffl i II II
°_,,_
•", J
II u o
II
II II
4..i
II II o 0
.u
t_
I 0 II
0 _ 0 A
4J 4.1 II II
V o
o _1 _4
o _ II .t--_ (N u
_ o .,ii o o
._I
I _J
II _ m
0 o
•_4 °r,l IT'
II _J
4_
ul
0
4_ m
_J .lii
_J u i
c _ c
,-4 ii II
kl4
r_ _J CD C_
,.Q
¢t
-,-4
I
0
4.J
°'l
0
Sect ion B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 35
I II
O
.1..I
_1 "'- ,-_lm
×I_ • _-I I
O
m
,A +
,--i ._ °_
o + .,-
"O
E
I
.r-I
x
I
E II II
II
(1)
°_ O
II
O II N II
E II N
4-1
0
4-1 0
O •,4 O .,--I
_ 4..1 0
_ m
I II
0
o _1_ m
O ¢'+' _ I
CD _ O
°H % .,-I , 0 _I_N
N _ O
r_ •r- _
m
_ .,.4 _3 .I-I
% °,4 IJ
I
4-1 _
4-1
o
-_
_lm , Ela"
.1_1 I II II I
0
N
_j CD
-r.t
>-
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 36
I
NI_
O m
_4 O
co U
II
+
N
4J
U co
I
'_m II "J- I
_1_ r----m _1_ _'_
_i m o _le, I 0
q o I u
CO
.. I _ ,
o ' l_lt_l ,
o
L) N o 0 CO
I 4.,I
L____I
II
iJ II _l ,-I
o m m ,a "i ,a
La_
I o I I
C_ co io II .IJ ,_1 ,_le_

ill ¢:I _ il II
II
II II H N
4J
p.- i
.o
x
•-,il(li _
I/
0 >- H ,,
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 37
.0
!i b
q
I
o3
l
i _l_ I
I_I_
_I_
,-q
-i o i I
II
0 _I_] L_l°_ 0
L_ bZ . _J
_I-'_I _: _ i_l_ I
°_._
' I'_ H
0 -r 1 N
12
i
.,e 1
°r'-_
l
_l _ 0
II II 4-1
_0
I
¢q "c
('1 H U !
.IJ
II X
II
c_ O
;2
F--
i
i,
: I
_1
i,r:
t:.J ._
>- _1 __
!'.
_ _ °
i
,--4
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 38
0
0
0 !
II
t-I
+ 4J
4-I
_0 0 I
0 0 0
0 _N
+
! I "PI II I
_I_ V
_1"_
4J
+
4J
v
g O 0
@ 0 m
I_1_ II tJ
m , o _
I
v-4
_1" ,._
_) I= II
0 II _:_ -r-1
I
I= _ I:1 N _ !
I .=
0 oI II
._-I
!° M
_
L)
I I
-,.4 _
o xl'_-_
I_ -_1 II ._I @
° _ _1 (d -PI -_I
,_.-)
:_ :_I_
I I ! !
_I I_ II Q) L__._.J _-I
,d
4
° ._"1 II II II II
..Q
(II
f--
) I °- (1_
0,--_
_-i -el 0
i!/'
-_I
m.= (_
._ ._I
0 rj -_I rj -_I .u
u_
0
_ r
¢) 0
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 39
J
0
_J
=-
0
4-J
0
_J
F--1 ,._ o
0
0
O
ed 0
m +
I
_I_
0
P_
I0
_ .r-_
' _I_ o
0
a_ _'_ I I
_ _ ,
•r-4 _I_ I
aJ L__ O t__l
o _ :3: _Im
_I_ I II !
c_J
_ II II II II fl
Q
_0 0
_ +
o N N " M N
0 _ c_ cd
.Q
_D _-_
0 ._
o _
0 (_
c_ _ _-_
4_
u_"m
0 _J 4.1
m _ 1.-1
m O _
r._ 12u
N •
• .,.-I O
,,D _ N r_ t_-4 N
Sect ion B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 40
,-i
o"_
O0
&J
o
O
","4 o
..4
I--
--.._
'1
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 41
g
i-4
o
w-f O_
0
0
0 _ 0
U _
Z
o
t_ m
IJ 0
U _
X
$
L ,.-_eO
-I
_L
C'I" _
c! ('-_
- I
%
%
-i i
<
0
E .t
(_
I -]
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 42
• =
0 _J 0
o 0
•,.4 N
- L
- I
m !
z g.\
o
,-1
eL. ,
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 43
_FE_N_S:
I. Austin, W. J.: Strength and Design of Metal Beam-Columns, Proceedings,

ASCE, April 1961, page 1802.
2. Massonnet, C.: Stability Considerations in the Design of Steel

Columns, Proceedings, ASCE, ST7, September 1959.
3. Beedle, L. S.: Plastic Design of Steel Frame_, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc., New York, 1958.
4. Blelch, F.: Bucklin_ Strength of Metal Structures, McGraw-Hill Book _

Co., Inc., New York, 1952.
5. Cozzone, J.: Bending in the Plastic Range, Journal Aeronautical

Sciences, May 1943.
6. Seeley, F. and Smith, J.: Advanced Mechanics of Materials, John

Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1957.
7. Clark, J. W.: Eccentrically Loaded Aluminum Columns, Transactions,

ASCE, Vol. 120, 1955, page 1116.
8. Clark, J. W., and Hill, A. N.,: Lateral Buckling of Beams, Proceed-

in___, ASCE, Vol. 86, No. ST7, July, 1960.
9. Hill, H. N. and Clark, J. W.: Lateral Buckling of Eccentrically

Loaded I- and H-Section Columns, Proceedings, First National Congress
of Applied Mechanics, ASME, 1952.
I0. Hill, H. N., Hartmann, E. C., and Clark, J. W.: Design of Aluminum
Alloy Beam-Columns, Transactions, ASCE, Vol. 121, 1956.
Ii. Timoshenko, S. and Gere, J.M.: Theory of Elastic Stability, Second

edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1961.
12. Salvadori, M. G.: Lateral Buckling of Eccentrically Loaded 1-Columns,

Transactions, ASCE Vol. 121, 1956.
13. Butler, D. J. and Anderson, G. B.: The Elastic Buckling of Tapered

Beam-Columns, Welding Research Journal Supplement, January 1963.
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page44
14. Gatewood, B. E.: Buckling Loads for Beamsof Variable Cross Section
Under CombinedLoads, Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 22,
1955.
15. Ga]_.mbos,T. V.: Ine]_etlc L_.ter_1 _ckling_ of Be_.m_: Proceedings,
16. Bresler, Boris and Lin, T. Y.: Design of Steel Structures, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1960.
17. Hetenyi, M.: Beams on Elastic Foundation, the University of Michigan

Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1955.
18. Niles, A. S. and Newell, J. S.: Airplane Structures, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., Volume II, third edition, New York, 1949.
19. Roark, R. J.: Formulas for Stress and Strain, Third Edition, McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1954.
20. Timoshenko, S.: Strength of Materials Part II, Advanced Theory and
Problems, 3rd ed., D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., Princeton, New Jersey,
1956.
21. Laird, W. and Bryson, A.: An Analysis of Continuous Beam-Columns

with Uniformly Distributed Axial Load, Proc. of 3rd U. S. National
Congress of Applied Mechanics, ASME, N.Y., 1958.
22. Saunders, H.: Beam-Column of Nonuniform Sections by MatrlxMethods,

Journal of the Aerospace Sciences, September 1961.
23. Saunders, H: Matrix Analysis of a Nonuniform Beam-Column on Multi-

Supports, AIAA Journal, April 1963.
24. Lee, S., Wang, T. and Kao, J.: Continuous Beam-Columns on Elastic
Foundation, ProceedinKs , ASCE EM2, April 1961.
25. Sundara, K. and Anantharamu, S.: Finite Beam-Columns on Elastic

Foundation, ProceedlnFLs , ASCE, EM6, December 1963.
26. Ne_mrk, N. M.: Numerical Procedure for Computing Deflections,

Moments, and Buckling Loads, Transactions, ASCE, Vol. 108, 1943.
97. Salvadorl, M. G. and Baron, M. L.: Numerical Methods in EnHineering,

Prentlce-Hall, Inc., New Jersey, 1962.
28. Woodberry, R. F. H.: Analysis of Beam-Columns, Design News, April

1959.
Section B4.6
February 15, 1976
Page 45
29. Bruhn, E. F.: Analysls and Desig n of Flight Veh_le Structures,

Tri-State Offset Co., Cincinnati, Ohio, 1965.
30. Griffel, W.: Method for Solving Beam-Column Problems, Product

Engineering, September 14, 1964.
31. Guide to Desisn Criteria for Metal Compression Members, Column

Research Council, Engrg, Foundation, 1960.
32. Plastic Design in Steel, American Institute of Steel Construction,

Inc., New York, 1959.
v
SECTION B4.7
LATERAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS

--.._j
Section B4.7
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
B4.7 Lateral Buckling of Beams ...................... 1
4.7.1 Introduction ................................ 1
4.7.1.1 General Cross Section ......................... 1
4.7.2 Symmetrical Sections ......................... 5
4.7.2.1 I-Beams .................................. 5
Ie Iklre Bending .......................... 5
II. Cantilever Be,am, Load at End ............... 6
III. Simply Supported Beam, Load at Middle ........ 7
IV. Simply Supported Beam, Uniform Load ......... 8
4.7.2.2 Rectm_mlar Beams ........................... 10
4.7.3 Unsymmetrical I - Sections ..................... 13
4.7.4 Special Conditions ............................ 14
4'.7.4.1 Oblique Loads .............................. 14
4.7.4.2 Nonuniform Cross Section ...................... 14
4.7.4.3 Special End Conditions ........................ 14
4.7.4.4 Inelastic Buckling ............................ 15
4.7.5 RE FERENCES .............................. 16
...._ B4.7-iii
Section B4.7
15 April, 1971
Page 1
B4.7 LATERAL BUCKLING OF BEAMS
4.7. i INTRODUCTION
A beam of general cross section which is bent in the plane of greatest

flexural rigidity may buckle in the plane perpendicular to the plane of greatest
flexural rigidity at a certain critical value of the load. Concern for lateral
buckling is more significant in the design of beams without lateral support when
the flexural rigidity of the beam in the plane of bending is large in comparison
with the lateral bending rigidity.
Consider the beamwith two planes of symmetry shownin Figure 4.7- i.

This beam is assumedto be subjected to arbitrary loads acting perpendicular
to the xz plane. By assuming that a small lateral deflection occurs under the
action of these loads, the critical value of load can be obtained from the
differential equationsof equilibrium for the deflected beam (Ref. l).
Beams with various cross sections andparticular cases of loading and

boundary conditions will be considered in this section.
4.7.1. i General Cross Section
The general expression for the elastic buckling strength of beams can be
expressed by the following equation (Ref. 3).
f .y __ w 1 + GJ(KL 2
cr S (KL) 2 2g + C3k+ (C2g+ C3k) 2+ I
c y
(1)
where:
f = critical stress for lateral buckling

or
E = modulus of elasticity, lb/in. 2
I = modulus of inertia of beam cross section about the y axis, in.

Y
L = distance between Doints of support against lateral bending and

twisting, in.
Section B4.7
15 April, 1971
Page 2
P
p 2
m !
0 Z
Y
-U
| !
FIGURE 4.7-i LATERAL BUCKLING -

Section B4.7
15 April, 1971
P,_e 3
C torsion warping constant, in. 6

W
/
g ___ distance from shear center to point of application of transverse

load (positive when load is below shear center and negative
other%vise), in.
G shear modulus of elasticity, Ib/in.2
J __ torsion constant, in.4
S = section modulus for stress in compression flange, in. 3

C
i
k = c + m rj (x 2 _ y2) dA, in.
21
x A
e = distance from shear center to centroid, _)sitivc if bct_vcen

centroid and compressi(m flange, in.
CI, C2, C3, K= constants which depend mainly on conditions of loading and support
for the beam (Tsl)Ie 4.7- I).
In the equation above, it is assumed that the lines of action of the loads
pass through the shear center and the ccntroid, and that the loads attach to the
beam in such a mmmcr that their lines of action remain parallel to their initial
directions as the beam deflects. It is also assumed that the shear center lies
on a principal axis through the centroid.
The coefficients Ci, C2, C3, and K are derived in Reference 3. They
depend mainly on the conditions of loading and support for the beam. The values
of Ci, C2, C3, and K given in Table 4.7-I have been obtained from Reference 3.
Section B4.7
15 April, 1971
Page 4
Table 4.7- I. Values of Coefficients in Formula for Elastic Buckling

Strength of Beams
VALUE OF COEFFICIENTS
CASE NO. LOADING RESTRAINT

C
K C1 C2 I 3
1.0 1.O 1.0

M M SIMPLE SUPPORT
05 1.0 1.0
1_--4 FIXED
1.0 1.31
SIMPLE SUPPORT
l FIXED
0.5 1.30
M I0 1.77 6.S
SIMPLE SUPPORT
+ t 0. S 1.78
FIXED
1.0 2.33
SIMPLE SUPPORT
0.5 229
FIXED
1.0 2.56
SIMPLE SUPPORT
0.S 2.23
FIXED
w 1.13 0.45
1.0
SIMP.LE SUP PO.R.T
t + 0.5 0.97 0.29

FIXED
w 1.0 1.30 1.SS

SIMPLE SUPPORT
0.5 0.86 0.82

FIXED
P
1.0 1,35 0.55 2.5
SIMPLE SUPPORT
+ + O.S 1.07 0.42

FIXED
P
1.0 1.70 1.42
SIMPLE SUPPORT
t---+:--!
=4
0.5 1.04 0,84
FIXED
1.0 1.04 0.42

SIMPLE SUPPORT
+ I
FIXE D
CANTILEVER BEAMS
WARPING RESTRAINED
!1 1.0 1.28 0 64
AT _,UPPORTED END
WARPING RESTRAINED
12 10 2.05
AT SUPPORTED END
Section B4.7
15 April, 1971
Page 5
4.7.2 SYM ME TRIC AL SE CTIONS
For sections that are symmetrical about the horizontal axis or about
a point (channels, zee sections, etc.), the quantity k in equation (1) is equal
to zero. The expression for elastic bucMing strength can then be written
f _ y z w GJ (KL) 2 (2)
or _KL_ 2 2g+ (C2g) + _I 1 + ; EC
a y w
Values of C t, C 2, and K can be obtained from Table 4.7-1.
4.7.2. i I-Beams
Given below are solutions for particular cases of load and boundary
conditions for I-beams. For cases not considered below, equation (2) should
be used.
I. Pure Bending
If an I-beam is subjected to couples M at the ends, the critical

value of the moment M is o
o
(M)o -_ Lrr EIy GJ 1 q _--_L---_/ (3)

cr
This expression can be represented in the form
EI GJ
y
(M) = K 1 (4)
o L
cr
where
w
K1 = _ J I + Ec
GJLT_2
Values of K 1 are given in "Fable 4.7-2.

Section B4.7
v"
15 April, 1971
Page 6
Table 4.7-2. Values of the Factor K 1 for I-Beams in Pure Bending
L2GJ
-- 0 0. t i 2 4 6 8 10 12
EC
W
K1 oo 31.4 10.36 7.66 5.85 5.11 4.70 4.43 4.24
L2Gj
16 20 24 28 32 36 40 100 oo
EC
W
Kl 4.00 3.83 3.73 3.66 3.59 3.55 3.51 3.29
II. Cantilever Beam, Load at End
If a cantilever beam is subjected to a force applied at the centroid

of the end cross section, the critical value of the load P is
P = K 2 L2 (5)
cr
where
4.0t3
K 2 =
L2GJ
For values of greater than 0.1, values of K2 are given in Table
EC
W
L2Gj
4.7-3. For values of less than 0.1, see Reference 1, page 258,
EC
W
for values of K 2.
Section B4.7
15 April, 1971
Page 7
Table 4.7-3. Values of the Factor K 2 for Cantilever Beams <)[ I-Section
L2Gj
0.1
EC
W
K2 44.3 15.7 12.2 10.7 9.76 S 69 8.03
L2GJ
10 12 14 16 24 ,)r) 4O
EC
W
K2 7.5_ 7.20 6.96 6.73 6. 19 5.£7 5.64
III. Simply Supported Be.am, L()ad at Middle
If a simply supported I-beam is subjected to a l,m(I P applied at

the eentroid of the middle (.'ross secth)n, the critical value ,ff the load Pis
,/EIyGJ
P er = K3 L2 (6)
Values of K 3 obtained from Reference I, page 264, are given in Table 4.7-4(a)
Table 4.7-4(a) . Values of K 3 for Simply Supported I-Beams With

Concentrated Load at Middle
L,,md L l (;J I-2("

AptAt_,d w
At (t 4 4 _ 11; 21 2t2 4_
Iplmr
_lallgt. _il 5 2il 1 lti 9 15 4 15 II 14 !1 [4
('{'ntl'OllJ W_; | 31 !) 27, _, 21 h 211 { 1!1 _, I_
I. langr 117 -tq_ o :1_ 2 FILl 3 27 1 25 1 _'_
L,_ad I, 2 (1.1 I-;("

Apph¢_l w
!'q f;4 _11 !l(i ]fi(t 2.1'_ 121_ 41)0
|'lql.r
Fi:m_u' 13 ql 15 It 15 I 15 3 t5 l 15 ti 15._
('lqll[rl,ld 1_4 3 1_. I 17 9 17 5 17 I t7 2 17 2
l'langc 22 I 21 7 21 I Lql u 193 19 i1 I_ 7

Section B4.7
15 April, 1971
Page 8
If lateral support is provided at the middle of the beam, values of K 3 are given
in Table 4.7-4(b).
Table 4.7-4(b). Values of the Factor K3 for Lateral Support at Middle
L2Gj
0.4 4 8 16 32 96 128 2OO 4OO
EC
w
K3 466 154 114 86.4 69.2 54.5 52.4 49.8 47.4
If lateral support is provided at both ends of the beam, values of K 3 are given
in Table 4.7-4(c).
Table 4.7-4(c). Values of the Factor K 3 for Lateral Support at Ends
L2Gj
0.4 4 8 16 24 32 64 128 200 320
EC
w
K2 268 88.8 65.5 50.2 43.6 40.2 34. i 30.7 29.4 28.4
IV. Simply Supported Beam, Uniform Load
If a simply supported I-beam is subjected to a uniform load q, the

critical value of this load can be expressed in the form
EIyGJ
(ql)cr = K4 L2 (7)
Values of IQ obtained from Reference l, page 267, are given in Table 4.7-5(a).
Section B4.7
15 April, 1971
Page 9
Table 4.7-5(a). Values of K 4 for Simply Supported I-Beams with Uniform Load
F"
Load L 2 GJ/EC
Applied w
At 0.4 4 8 16 24 32 48
Upper
Flange 92.9 36.3 30.4 27.5 26.6 26. 1 25.9
Centroid 143.0 53.0 42.6 36.3 33.8 32.6 31.5
Lowe r
Flange 223. 77.4 59.6 48.0 43.6 40.5 37.8
Load
L 2 GJ/EC
Applied w
At 64 80 128 200 280 3(;0 400
Upper
Flange 25.9 25.8 26.0 26.4 26.5 26.6 26.7
Centroid 30.5 30.1 29.4 29.0 28.8 28.6 28.6
Lower
Flange 36.4 35. 1 33.3 32. 1 31.3 3 1.0 30.7
If the beam has lateral support at the middle, K 4 is given by Table 4.7-5(b).
Table 4.7-5(b) . Values of K 4 with Lateral Support at Middle
Load
L 2 GJ/EC
Applied W
At 0.4 4 8 16 64 96 128 200
Upper
Flange 587 194 145 112 91.5 73.9 71.6 69.0
Centroid 673 221 164 126 101. 79.5 76.4 72.8
Lower
Flange 774 251 185 142 112 85.7 81.7 76.9
Section B4.7
15 April, 1971
Page i0
If the beam has lateral support at both ends of the beam, K 4 is given by
Table 4.7-5(c).
Table 4.7-5(c). Values of K4 with Lateral Support at Ends
L2Gj
0.4 4 8 i6 32 96 128 200 400
EC
w
K4 488 16i i19 91.3 73.0 58.0 55.8 53.5 5i.2
4.7.2.2 Rectan_lar Beams
For a beam of rectangular section of width b and height h, the warping

rigidity C can be taken as zero; therefore, equation (2) becomes
w
f = y GJ(KL) 2
cr S (KL) 2 2g + (C2g) 2 + _ EI (8)
e y
If the load is applied at the centroid, g = 0; therefore,
C 1 _2_"_yGJ
f = (9)
cr S KL
c
By taking G=--_-3 E, J=0.31hb 3, I=

hb 3, and S = bh-_2
c 6
Eb 2
f = 1.86 C1 (iO)
cr K Lh
or
Eb 2
f cr = Kf Lh (ii)
where
i. 86 C 1
Kf = K
Section B4.7
15 April, 1971
Page 11
Values of Kf are given in Figure 4.7-2 and Table 4.7-6 for several load
cases. For cases not available in "[',able 4.7-6 and Figure 4.7-2, refer to
Table 4.7-1 for values of C 1 and K for use in equation 10.
Equation 8 must be used for loads not applied at the eentroid for any
of the given cases.
3.0 _'--
1
Kf 2.0
t" L _ m
1.0 ill 111111 1 I 11 11

0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
c/L
FIGURE 4.7-2 CONSTANTS FO[_ DETERMINING 'FILE LATERAL STABILITY

OF DEEP RECTANGULAR BEAMS
Section B4.7
15 April, 1971
Pa_e 12
Table 4.7-6. Constants for Determining the Lateral Stability of

Rectangular Beams
Side View Top View
L/2
L/2
I0
11
12
17
Section B4.7
_v 15 April, 1971
page 13
4.7.3 UNSYMMETRICAL I-SECTIONS
f_
For I-beams symmetrical about the vertical axis, but unsymmetrical

about the horizontal axis and subjected to uniform bending moment, the following
approximate equation for the elastic buckling stress should be used (Ref. 3).
f cr = _S_ EI
(KL) 2 I e + J e2 + C
Iw ( 1+ GJ(KL)2_
,r2ECw j1/ (8)
c y
Section B4.7
15 April, 1971
Page 14
4.7.4 SPECIAL CONDITIONS
4.7.4. i Obliclue Loads
The case of a beam subjected to a uniform bending moment that does

not lie in one of the principal planes of the cross section is discussed in
References 4 and 5. Reference 5 shows that the equation for the critical moment
takes the form of equation lwith C 1= C 3= 1.0, C 2= 0. The quantityI is
Y
replaced by the expressicn I:Ix/Ix,y in which y- and x- denote principal axes and
the x axis is the axis normal to the plane of bending.
4.7.4.2 Nonuniform Cross Section
A concise solution for the lateral buckling strength of a tapered

rectangular beam, subjected to constant bending moment and simply supported
at the ends, is presented in Reference 6. Tapered cantilever I-beams have
been investigated experimentally in Reference 7.
4.7.4.3 Special End Conditions
Solutions have been obtained (Ref. 8) for the buckling strength of

I-beams under a load (either uniform or a concentrated load at the center)
acting perpendicular to the principal plane having maximum bending rigidity and
with various degrees of restraint against rotation of the beam about either
plane. Each type of restraint was considered to vary between zero and complete
fixity. In all cases, the beams were considered to be fixed at the ends against
rotation about a longitudinal axis perpendicular to the plane of the cross section.
Frequently, a cantilever beam is simply the overhanging end of a beam

that extends over two or more supports. In this case, the supported end of the
cantilever beam may not be fixed against lateral bending of the beam flanges
but some restraint is supplied by continuity at the support. In such cases, a
conservative estimate of the buckling strength can be made by considering the
warping constant, Cw, to be zero in the buckling formula.
Section B4.7
15 April, 1971
Page 15
If a beam is continuous beyond one or both supports, the end conditions

for any one span are generally between the cases of complete fixity and simple
F
support covered in Table I. The effect of continuity has been discussed in
References 9 and 10.
4.7.4.4 Inelastic Buckling
It is explained in Reference II that it is possible to obtain a lower limit

to the theoretical buckling stress in the inelastic range by substituting the
tangent modulus, E t, corresponding to the maximum stress in the beam for the
elastic modulus, E, in the elastic buckling formula. Tests on aluminum alloy

beams show that this method gives a close approximation to the experimental
buckling stress when the bending moment is constant along the length (Ref.
i2 and 13). Tests of aluminum alloy beams subjected to unequal end moments,
with the ratio of the moment at one end to the moment at the other end varying
from i. 0 to -i. 0, resulted in experimcnt.al critical stresses varying from 8
percent below to 39 percent above the values computed by the tangent moduhls
method.
Section B4.7
15 April, 1971
Page 16
REFERENCES
Timoshenko, S. P., and Gere, J. M: Theory of Elastic Stability.

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1961.
D Structural Design Manual, Northrop Aircraft, Inc.
3. Clark, J. W., and Hill, H. N: Lateral Buckling of Beams. Proceedings

of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of the Structural
Division, July, 1960.
. Go.diet, J. N: Flexural-Torsional Buckling of Bars of Open Section.

Bulletin No. 28, Cornell University Engineering Experiment Station,
1942.
. McCalley, R. C., Jr: Discussion of Paper by H. N. Hill, E. C.

Hartmann, and J. W. Clark. Transactions of the ASCE, Vol. 121,
1956, p. i5.
. Lee, L. H. N: On the Lateral Buckling of a Tapered Narrow Rectangular

Beam. ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics, September, 1959, p. 457.
. Krefeld, W. J., Butler, D. J., and Anderson, G. B: Welding Cantilever

Wedge Beams. The Welding Journal Research Supplement, March, 1959.
e Austin, W. J., Yegian, S., and Tung, T. P: Lateral Buckling of

Elastically End-Restrained I-Beams. Separate No. 673, Proceedings
of the ASCE, Vol. 81, 1955.
. Salvadori, M. G: Lateral Buckling of I-Beams. Transactions of the

ASCE, Vol. t20, i955, p. 1165.
I0. Nylander, H: Torsion, Bending and Lateral Buckling of I-Beams.

Bulletin No. 22, Division of Building Statics and Structural Engineering,
Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, 1956.
II. Bleich, F: Buckling Strength of Metal Structures. McGraw-Hill Book

Company, Inc., 1952, pp. 55 and 165.
Section B4.7
15 April, 1971
Page 17
RE FERENCES (Concluded) :
f
i2. Dumont, C., and Hill, H. N: Lateral Stability of Equal-Flanged

Aluminum Alloy I-Beams Subjected to Pure Bending. T. N. 770, NACA,
t940.
13. Clark, J. W., and Jombock, J. R: Lateral Buckling of I-Beams

Subjected to Unequal End Moments. Paper No. 1291, Journal of the
Engineering Mechanics Division, Proceedings of the ASCE, Vol. 83,
July, 1957.
SECTION B4. 8
SHEAR BEAMS
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Shear Beams .................................... 1
Plane-Stiffened Shear-Resistant Beams .................. 3
4.8.1.1 Stability of Web Panel ......................... 4
I. Transverse Stiffeners-Flexural Rigidity Only ......... 5
II. Transverse Stiffeners-Effect of Stiffener Thickness and

RIg('! L,,cation .............................. 7
Ill. Transverse Stiffeners-Flexural and Torsional Rigidity . . . 8
IV. Transverse and Central Longitudinal Stiffeners ........ t0
V. Longitudinally Stiffened Web Plates in Longitudinal

Compression ............................... 16
VI. Combined Stresses ........................... 20
4.8.1.2 Flange Design .............................. 20
4.8.1.3 Rivet Design ............................... 21
I. W eb-to-Stiffener ............................. 21
II. Stiffeners-to-Flange .......................... 22
III. Web-to-Flange .............................. 22
4.8.1.4 Design Approach ............................. 22
4.8.1.5 Stress Analysis Procedure ...................... 23
4.8.1.6 Other Types of Web Design ...................... 23
4.8.2 Plane Tension Field Beams .......................... 25
4.8.2.1 General Limitations and Symbols .................. 26
4.8.2.2 Analysis of Web ............................. 28
4.8,2.3 Analysis of Stiffeners ......................... 38
B4.8-iii
SectionB4.8
i5 October 1969
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Concluded)
Page
4.8.2.4 Analysis of Flange ........................... 46
4.8.2.5 Analysis of Rivets ............................ 47
4.8.2.6 Analysis of End of Beam ....................... 48
4.8.2.7 Beam Design ............................... 50
B4,:8-iv
t
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
f-- DEFINITIONS OF SYMBOLS
t thickness of web plate
t thickness of attached stiffener I(:g

U
b spacing of intermediate stiffeners, or width of unstiffcned web plate
b clear web plate distance between stiffeners

C
d clear depth of web plate

C
o_ effective ; :_,:t ratio;

e
= b/d for unstiffened w.eb plates, or web plates reinforced by single-sided

c
stiffeners;
= bc/d c for web plates reinforced by double-sided stiffeners
D flexural rigidity of unit width of plate = Et3/12( 1-u 2)
E Youngts modulus
# Poisson's ratio
I moment of inertia of stiffener about base of stiffener (next to web)
yL limiting value of T
K critical shear-stress coefficient

S
KL limiting value of K
S
plasticity coefficients which account for the reduction of modulus of

T}S'_B
elasticity for stress above the elastic limit; within the elastic range,
_=1
area of tension or compression flange

Af
B4.8-v
Section B4.8
15 October i969
DEFINITIONS OF SYMBOLS (Continued)
p-D
r
C rivet factor
r P
D rivet diameter
r
fb applied bending stress
f applied web shear stress

S
F critical (or initial) buckling stress in shear

S
cr
M applied bending moment
P rivet spacing
q applied web shear flow
S,V applied transverse shear on beam
A parameter used for type of shear beam selection
h height of beam between centroids of flanges
BT = EIT, flexural rigidity of transverse stiffeners
"/T = BT/Db, nondimensional flexural rigidity parameter for transverse

stiffeners
CT torsional rigidity of transverse stifleners
BL = EIL, flexural rigidity of longitudinal stiffeners
BL
TL - Dd ' nondimensional stiffeners ,_arameter for longitudinal stiifeners
c
torsional rigidity of longitudinal stiffeners

CL
FL = C L/Ddc
B4.8-vi
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
DEFINITIONS OF SYMBOLS (Concluded)
FT C T/D de
G modulus of rigidity
limiting value of K for web reinforced by vertical stiffeners and a

KL H S
central horizontal stiffener
nl distance from edge of plate to longitudinal stiffener
critical (or initial) buckling stress in bending

F B
eY
I stiffener moment of inertia for longitudinal stiffener

O
B4.8-vii
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 1
4.8.0 SttEAR BEAMS
The analysis and design of a metal beam composed of flange members
riveted or welded to web members are eommon problems in aerospace struetural
design.
Shear be_'uns denote a particularly effieient type of beam. In shear beams
the moment resistanee is provided by the flanges, which are eoneentrated near
the extreme fibers, and the shear resistance is provided by the thin web
connecting the tension and compression caps.
The analysis and desit,m of shear beams as structural components are
generally based upon the web response to the applied shear loads. If bueMing
of the web is inhibited within the design ultimate load, the beam is known as a
shear-resistant beam1. If, however, the web is allowed to buckle :ffter some
application of load causing shear to be resisted in part by tension-field action,
the beam is known as a tension-fiehl beam.
The type o1" shear bc'anl most suitabl_' for a particul:_r" dcsiRn apl_lication
may depend on many factors. One of the most common factors is based on
economy of weight, tt. Wagner [ 1 ] offers the following criterion, based upon
the economy of weight:
4V
h
wh ere
V = shear load, lb
and
h = depth of web, in.,

SectionB4.8
15 October 1969
Page 2
with the recommendation that when A < 7 the tension-field web is best, and
when A > 11 the shear-resistant web is best. When 7 < A < 11, there is little
choice between the two; factors other than weight will then determine the type
of web to be used.
The criterion above should not be adhered to rigidly, however, because new
data and design techniques have become available that have resulted in reduced
weight designs for shear-resistant beams.
Shear-resistant beams and tension-field beams will be discussed in
Paragraphs 4.8.1 and 4.8.2 respectively.

Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 3
/f-'_.
4.8.1 PLANE-STIFFENED SHEAR RESISTANT BEAMS
As previously stated, a shear beam whose web is so designed that it does
not buckle under the applied loads is referred to as a shear-resistant beam.
The analysis of this beam is primarily one of stability. That is, with the
exception of the tension flanges, the web, the compression [lange, and the
stiffeners are all designed from a stability standpoint rather than from a
material allowable stress standpoint.
The stability of the shear web can always be increased by increasing its
thickness, but such a desigm will not always be economical with respect to the
weight of the material used. A more economical solution is obtained by keeping
the thickness of the plate as small as possible (just thick enough to fulfill
strength requirements) "rod increasing the stability by introducing stiffeners.
The weight of such stiffeners will usually be less than the additional weight
introduced by an adequate increase in the thickness of the plate.
The design criteria of shear-resistant beams may be stated as follows:
1. Local buckling of the web between the stiffeners under combined
shear, bending, axial, and transverse stresses must not occur.
2. Elements of the tr:,nsverse stiffeners must not buckle locally
under the transverse stresses.
3. Elements of the flange must not buckle locally under the longitudinal
stresses.
If the criteria above are not met, the procedures of analysis that follow are not
applicable.
Design analysis techniques for shear resistant beams are given in the
following paragraphs.
SectionB4.8
t5 October i969
Page4
4.8.1.1 Stability of Web Panel
The critical buckling stress, F of a web panel of height d width b,

S ' C'
cr
and thickness t, is given by
F
s K 7r2E
_b (1. a)
12 ( l-p2 ) for dc
S
or
F
s K 7r2E 2
, (1. b)
Us 12 (l-pz) c
where K is a function of the aspect ratio, d /b, and the edge restraint offered
S e
by the stilfencrs and flanges.
Fil4urc 1 shows how the value of the critical shear stress cocl ficient, Ks,
increases with decreasing values of the aspect ratio, b/d (d _b), for a number
C C
of different edge conditions. This figure indicates quite clearly why vertical
stiffeners are so effective in increasing the buckling stress of rectangular webs.
In vicw of the importance of obtaining the correct desi6m of intermediate
stiffeners, a number of theoretical and experimental investigations have been
made to determine the relationship between the size and spacing of intermediate
stiffeners, and the buckling stress of the stiffened web plate. These investigations
have also included the effects of stiffener torsional rigidity, stiffener thickness
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 5
and rivet location, central longitudinal stiffness, and single-sided or double-sided
stiffness. The procedure for the desi_ma and analysis of these effects will be
given below.
16
14
12
CRITICAL
\
SHEAR STRESS
COEFFICIENT
K 10
$
PLATE CLAMPED
\ ON ALL FOUR EDGES
\
-"v----
PLATE SIMPLY ''f
SUPPORTED ON
ALL FOUR EDGES
4 I I #%
i.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.O 3.5 Go
ASPECT RATIO 10/d c
FIGURE 1. K VERSUS ASPECT RATIO FOIl DIFFERENT EDGE RESTRAINTS

S
I. Transverse Stiffeners -- Flcxural Rigidity Only
Thboretieal work has been performed [ 2-4 ] to ascertain the relationship
EI
between Ks and the nondimensional parameter 3_ (=D--b) for various aspect ratios
and boundary conditions. Figxwe 2 is a typical plot showing the relationship of
these parameters. It will be noted that points of discontinuity occur on the
K /3/ curves. These points of discontinuity denote where changes in the buckle
S
Sectioa B4.8
i5 October 1969
Page 6
pattern occur. It can also be seen that when a certain value of _, is reached,
there is no appreciable increase in Ks. This value of _ is called _'L or limiting
value of _, since higher values would result in an inefficient design.
30I 7
I
25
.... ......
ORTHOTROF VALUE
OF.
PANEL SIMPLY
SUPPORTED ON
2O ALL FOUR EDGES-
I/
15
CRITICAL
SHEAR STRESS
COEFFICIENT
Ks 10
V
25 50 75 100 125 175
¥ = EI/(Db)
FIGURE 2. THE THEORETICAL K/_ RELATIONSHIPS DERIVED BY STEIN

AND FRALICH FOR INFINITELY LONG PLATES SIMPLY SUPPORTED
AT THE EDGES AND REINFORCED BY STIFFENERS 0.5d APART.
C
For design purposes, the following relationships should be used. However,
it should be noted that these relationships are valid only for stiffeners whose
thickness is equal to or greater than the thickness of the web plate.
7L = 27.75 (d e)-2 _ 7.5 for double-sided stiffeners, (2. a)
5, L = 21.5 ((_e) -2 _ 7.5 for single-sided stiffeners, (2. b)

Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 7
K L = 7.0 + 5.6 (OZe)-2 for both single- and double-sided stiffeners, (3)
where
a = b /d for double-sided stiffeners (b _-d ) and

e c c c c
a = b/d for single-sided stiffeners (b->d)

e c c
II. Tr:msverse Stiffeners -- Effect of Stiffener Thiclmess and Rivet Location
Investigations have been carried out to investigate fully the various
parameters that affect the behavior of single-sided stiffeners having attached
legs thinner than the web-plate [ 5]. The parameters tu/t and c/t were studied
in these investigations to evaluate their effect on Ks, where t, t u, and c are as
shown in Figure 3. It was shown that the primary influence on K was the value
s
c and that the tu/t variation had little effect on
K . Figure 4 shows the variation of K with the

S S
parameter (t /t) (t/c) 1/2. From the figure it

U'
ttj
can be seen that for the stiffener to provide a

'" I l-[
't wdue of K S equal to KL, it is necessary that
(t /t) (t/c) '/2 -> 0.27 . (4)

U
FIGUR E 3. VALUES OF t, This equation can be used to determine the

AND e
tu , position of the rivet for fully effective stiffeners
Section B4.8
15 October i969
Page 8
for various values of tu/t. For values of (tu/t) (t/c) 1/2 less than 0.27 the
value of K should be reduced as shown in Figure 4.

S
25
. ..I I
// / KLEC UAT,O.
(3>
2O
LINEAR GROWTH
K
-VALUE MARKED A
/T
15
I
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.g
Y 0 (tu/t)(t/c)
FIGURE 4. VARIATION OF K WITH THE STIFFENER THICKNESS

S
AND RIVET LOCATION PARAMETER
III. Transverse Stiffeners -- Flexural and Torsional Rigidity
Theoretical results have been obtained [4, 6-8 ] that provide relationships
between K and the flexural rigidity of the stiffeners for various values of the
s
ratio of torsional rigidity to flexural rigidity for simply supported or clamped
longitudinal edges. It was assumed that the stiffeners were symmetrically
disposed about the midplane of the web plate as shown in Figure 5.
FIGURE 5. VARIOUS SHAPES OF STIFFENERS

r
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 9
Figures 6 and 7 give K /31 relationships for b = d and b - d/2 with the
S
longitudinal edges simply supported. Figures 8 and 9 give K /3/ relationships

s
for b = d ,and b = d/2 with the longitudinal edges clamped. The maximum value
of CT/B T plotted is for a closed circular tube. This value is 0.769.
u cT/B = t
0.6 AND 0.769 __
lo .r/.. _-I_ _
LONGITUDINAL EDGES
Ks 9 SIMPLY SUPPORTED
8 -_ _ c dc
# THEORETICAL
BUCKLING MODES
P/M
1/0
7 / 3/1
2/I
6 / 4/I
24
FIGURE 6. K S VERSUS YT IIELATIONStIIPS FOR b :-d C
From these figures it is shown that very significant increases in the
buckling resistance, Ks, are obtainable by using closed-section stiffeners in
place of the open-section stiffeners so frequently used. For ex,'unple, by using
a thin-walled circular tube for the stiffeners (CT/B T = 0. 769) the gain in K L
Section B4. S
15 October 1969
Page i0
35-- o._ _-_

0.2--
0.4 -._
30 O.OS-
° 0.6
0.1--_
' 0,769
_ LONGITUDINAL EDGES
KI 20 SIMPLY SUPPORTED
,.Eo,,
,o UC L.O MO0,/0
S
2/I
S ........... 3/i
4/1
24O
FIGURE 7. Ks VERSUS 5,T RELATIONSHIPS FOR b = dc/2
is 25 percent and 60 percent for a = 1 and c_ = 2, respectively, when the
longitudinal edges are simply supported. For the case of clamped edges, the
gains are 13 percent and 43 percent for a = 1 and a = 2, respectively. Thus,
if a minimum weight design is desired, consideration should be given to
closed-section stiffeners.
IV. Transverse and Central Longitudinal Stiffeners
The use of deep beams with webs having a high depth-to-thickness ratio,
may make it desirable to employ both vertical and horizontal stiffening. When
St, ction B4.8
15 October 19(;9
Page 11
yi Do, K L = 14JJ2
14 A,'f' "_ .... --.,,.-'r- ..... _ .....
] / = . LONGITUDINAL. EDGES CLAMPEO
12 #r _ _ t ' t_
10 _ TH:O:,TIC,L ,UCIk_I/:GMO)E$
2 I 5/'1 ....
3 I .... 1/0 ......
41 --.--
9
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Y=
1 !
"T BT = 0.769.
0.40._ ),r = c_, KL= 41,55
0.20_ \
l
.or--?0_\" _\ T.... r _--f_-------- -
/ /o'os.\' \ x ,_+.+_-.7:'lX--_--7
I iN" I y.r = m, KL. = 29.17
Ks
LI i,
LONG_TUDtNkL EDGESCLkMPEO
20
i ,
THEORETICAL BUCK k ING MOOE|
P 'M P/M
2 t 4'1 -----
3 ! .... $ I ....
10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 I_ 2@0 2_ 2_ 2JO
¥'r
FIGUIIE 9. K, "/T RELA'I?IONSIIIPS; ASPECT I{ATIO o_ 2.0

Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 12
a web is subjected to shear, the most effective position for a single horizontal
stiffener is at middepth. This combination of vertical and horizontal stiffening
can result in more economical designs than are possible when only vertical
stiffeners are employed. For example, the weight of stiffening required to
achieve a given buckling stress with horizontal and vertical stiffening can be
as little as 50 percent of the weight required when only vertical stiffeners are
used.
If neither of the transverse or central longitudinal stiffeners has torsional
rigidity and the vertical stiffeners have a rigidity equal to or greater than EILv ,
then the value of 7LH necessary to produce the limiting value of KLH is given by
_LH = 11.25 (b/de)2 (5)
and
KLH = 29 +4.5(b/d e )-2 . (6)
Additional weight savings can bc achieved if torsionally strong stif[cners are
used in either the transverse or longitudinal direction. For example, studies
in Reference 6 have shown gains in the value of K L (which is proportional to the
weight of the web) of up to 25 and 60 percent for _ equal to one and two,
respectively, by using closed-section stiffeners in the transverse direction
only. Investigators have given parameter studies on the following in References
4 and 9:
1. Transverse and longitudinal stiffeners of closed tubular cross section.
2. Transverse stiffeners of closed tubular cross section; longitudinal
stiffener possessing only flexural rigidity.

Section I34.8
15 October 1969
Page 13
3. Transverse stiffeners possessing only flexural rigidity, the longitudinal
stiffeners being of closed tubular cross section.
Figure 10 enables one to make an assessment of the benefits that result
from using torsionally strong stiffeners when a central longitudinal stiffener is
used in conjunction with a system of equally spaced transverse stiffeners. When
c_ _ 1, it is evident that little increase is obtained in the buckling resistance by
using torsionally strong transverse stiffeners, but that a considerable increase
in buckling resistance will be obtained by using a torsionally strong longitudinal
stiffener. However, as c_ increases (that is, as the transverse stiffeners are
6O
55
FLANGES ANO LONGITUDINAL ALL EDGES
STIPFEIqER PROVIDE CLAkIPEO_IaC_'/CLAMPE O
SUPPORT. TRANSVERSE _
STIFFENERS SIMPLE SUPPORT •
5O
45
Ks 40
' _ Y'. I ,CA.CEoR"'o,._ _

\ \ "-. I L °"or Tu °l"* "__ __.___2:':"0.
35
STIPFENER PROVIDES I
3O
, ALL I!/OGE$ _ P :uOp/DER TCLFA::: GE

D S AN "_
25
5;.; _ iUPPORTED
I51MPLY SUPPORTED LO_IGITUDINAL STIPFENER
20
2 1 0
CX: dc/b
FIGURE 10. K VERSUS ASPECT RATIO FO[_ VAIIIOUS EDGE RESTRAINTS

S
Section B4.8
15 Oct()ber 1969
Page i4
more closely spaced), the increase in K resulting from the use of torsionally
strong stiffeners becomes more significant; until, when (_ = 1.7, the buckling
resistance obtained with torsionally strong transverse stiffeners and a
longitudinal stiffener without torsional rigidity is equal to that obtained with a
torsionally strong longitudinal stiffener and transverse stiffeners possessing
only flexural rigidity. Thus, it will be readily seen that is is necessary to know
the relationships between K and the stilfener propertics for the cases enumerated
s
above. Figures 11, 12, and 13 give typi(':_[ relationships between K_ and YT for
b = d and different positions of the torsionally strong _tiifener. Culves for
other values of the aspect ratio can be obtained from Reference 4. The points
= soo ] °
lOO._.-----_
30 ,,-v i
3o
20
10
2C
K
I b--d
10
f_ 3I;c"
/
/
2/I P/M
........ 3,"2 THEORETICAL
5/I
4/il BUCKLING
MODES
20 40 80 100 120 140
y.r = EID b
FIGURE 11. Ks' YT RELATIONSHIPS; LONGITUDINAL STIFFENER WITH
TORSION (C L :_ 0.769 BL); TRANS\rERSE STIFFENERS WITH ONLY
FLEXURAL RIGIDITY (C T -: 0) ; ASPECT RATIO a _ l. 0

Section B4.8
15October 1969
[>age 15
= 500
30 °U
100
2o
-'--d
c
I-------,H
fi I/ -E
rdc
c,f2
¸¸2
3/1 THEORETICAL
4:1
2/'1 } BUCKL_NC
P,'M
0 1 iS/'1 i MODES
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 1,10
'y.r= EI'Db
FIGURE 12. Ks' %1" I1ELATIONSIIIPS; LONGITUI)INAI_ EDGES SIMI'LY
SUPPORTED: TIIANSVEI1SI'2 STII"FENERS WITII TOIISIONAL RIGIDITY
(C T _ 0.7(19 BT): IAI)NGI'FUI)tNAL STIFFENERS WIT II ()NLY FLEXURAL
RIGIDITY (C _-tl); ASPECT RATI() _' 1.It

L
/'7..---1
ff
3O :if'////
20_/// YL-5
K 1/ o
1 : b=d
/ dc/2
ilt dc/2
4/I /
5/1 /
m_:.km_
i_li
o
2o 40 60 80 100 120 I
140
Y.r = El 'Db
FIGURE 13.
K S ' YT RELATIONSHIPS; SIMPLY SUPPOI_TED I,ONGITUDINAL
EDGES; ALL STIFFENERS WITI! TORSIONAL RIGIDITY (C 0. 769 B

T T'
C L= 0.769 BL);_ ASPECT RATIO ff 1.0

Section B4.8
i5 October 1969
Page 16
marked A on the curves of Figures 11, 12, and 13 are values of TT which would
give 95 percent of the limiting value of K . This is suggested as a good cutoff

s
point for an efficient design. If greater values of _/T are chosen, only a small
increase in the value of Ks would occur. Thus, the extra increase in TT would
not be very beneficial from a weight standpoint.
V. Longitudinally Stiffened Web Plates in Longitudinal Compression
In deep beams, it is often economical to stiffen the web plate by longitudinal
stiffeners in locations where the longitudinal compressive stresses resulting
from bending are high. Two positions of the stiffener will be considered here:
(1) The stiffener located at the longitudinal center line of the web, that is, at
the neutral axis (Fig. 14a) and (2) the stiffener located in the compressive
region at a distance from the edge of the plate (Fig. 14b). In case 1, the
stiffener itself does not carry compressive stresses.
fb STIFFENER fb fb STIFFENER fb
_ _: \ % . \ t_,
dcl 2 dc
(o) (b)
FIGURE 14. POSITIONS OF LONGITUDINAL STIFFENERS

Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 17
Adding this longitudinal stiffener results in another structural part and more
assembly cost; therefore, such construction is not widely used although it is a
structural arrangement that will save structural weight under certain conditions
of beam depth, span, and external loading.
A. Stiffener at the Centerline
For a stiffener at the eenterline, the largest practical value of the
stiffener moment of inertia is
I
= O. 92t3d (7)
_'B c
is
With this value of I O , the critical bending stress FB
cr
rib 12(1_g2) <)2 for c_ >- 2/3

(_)
For values of F B for stiffener moment of inertia less than Io, see
er
Reference 10.
B. Stiffeners Located Between Compression Edge and Neutral Axis
The increase in buckling strength that can be obtained by a stiffener at
the eenterline of the web amounts to only 50 percent of the unstfffened plate in
the inelastic range. Stiffeners at the centerline are therefore not very effective
in improving the stability of web plates in ease of pure bending stresses.

v
SectionB4.8
15()ctobcr 1969
Pagei8
For a stiffener spaced at a distance m -- d /4, the critical buckling stress

e'
is given by
FB
(_ -> 0.4), (9)
cr-
_?B 1017r2E
12(1-hz) (_c) 2
if 3: -> Yo
EI
Where y =
T/BDd c
EI
= O
To Dd = (12.6 +506) ot2 - 3.4 c_3 (o_ 1.6) and
C
A
6 = , a = b/d
rldct c
Comparison of the results obtained above for a stiffener at the centerline
of the plate with the results obtained for a plate stiffened in the compression
region shows that the reinforcement in the latter case is much more effective.
Limited numerical results have been obtained for plates reinforced by a
longitudinal stiffener located at a distance m = dc/5 from the compression edge
of the plate. This information is plotted in Figures 15 and 16. The largest
value of the buckling strength of the plate stiffener system corresponds to
K = 129 and is larger than in the case of a stiffener located at the distance dc/4
from the compression edge.

Section B4.8
15October i969
Page i9
129 m _m=
120
_TJ
°/..7
8O
ii//y tb
' _,,_
--_---- m
r _',l t
4ole dc
!
El
10
I
20 30 4O
Dd
C
FIGURE 15. K VERSUS y FOIl VARIOUS VALUES OF c_, 5 = 0
120
12_ _---;I_
.....
AT/
=5
4011- "-i ]
0
gj i
I
10 20 30
dc
40 5O
El
Dcl c
FIGURE 16. K VERSUS y FOIl VAIIIOUS VALUES OF c_, 6 = 0.10

SectionB4.8
15 October i969
Page20
VI. Combined Stresses

The above mentionedbending, shear, and possibly axial andtransverse
stresses that act upon the web shouldbe interacted by the following equations.
R2+R _1 (10)
s cL
R 2+R <1 (11)
s cT
R S 2 +RB2 _-<1 (12)
RB1.75 +Rc < 1 (13)

L
where
fS fe
R = RB = R -
s Fs ' FB ' c FC
cr cr er
and the subscript, L, indicates longitudinal and the subscript, T, indicates
transverse. The critical values of F C should be obtained from Section C2.1.1.

cr
If the interaction equations above are not satisfied, an iteration of the design
must be performed.
4.8.1.2 Flange Design
The beam flanges are designed for tensile and compressive norma[ forces.
The ultimate allowable stress for the tension flange is equal to Ftu of the
material, reduced by the attachment efficiency factor. For riveted or bolted
connections, the efficiency factor is the ratio of the net area to the gross area
of the cap.
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 2 1
Compression flanges should be designed for column stability. The loads
on the compression flange can be a combination of normal force, longitudinal
shear at the web-flange connection, and transverse forces. Specific analysis
techniques are available in Section B4.4.0.
4.8.1.3 Rivet Design
I. Web-to-Stiffener
Although no exact information is available on the strength required of the
attachment of the stiffeners to the web, the data in Table B4.8-I are recommended.
Table B4.8-I. Rivets: Web-to-Stiffener
Web Rivet Rivet
Thickness (in.) Size Spacing (in.)
0. 025 AD 3 1.00
0. 032 AD 4 1.25
0. 040 AD 4 1.10
0. 051 AD4 1. O0
0. O64 AD4 0.90
0. 072 AD 5 1.10
0. 081 AD 5 1.00
0. 091 AD 5 0.90
0. 102 DD 6 1.10
0. 125 DD 6 1. 00
0. 156 DD 6 0.90
0. 188 DD 8 1.00
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 22
II. Stiffeners-to-Flange
No information is available on the strength required of the attachment of the
stiffeners to the flange. It is recommended that one rivet the next size larger
than that used in the attachment of the stiffeners to the web or two rivets the
same size be used whenever possible.
III. Web-to-Flange
The rivet size and spacing should lie designed so that the rivet allowable
(bearing or shear) divided by q x p, the applied web shear flow times the rivet
spacing, gives the proper margin of safety. For a good design and to avoid
undue stress concentration, the rivet factor, Cr, should not be less than 0.6.
4.8.1.4 Design Approach
The design of stiffened shear-resistant beams is a trial-and-error method.
Assuming q, b, h, and E are known, the first step is to assume a reasonable
value of t and compute f = q/t. The problem is to find the moment of inertia
s
of a stiffener required to develop an initial buckling stress, F , in the web

s
cr
greater than 1 by the desired margin of safety. The procedure is to choose

8
the desired Fs ' and Fs /_s if required. Ks is then found from equation (1)
cr cr
as a function of F /7 and d/t or h/t. Then, depending on the type of stiffening

S
cr
arrangement used, the required I of the stiffener is obtained from Paragraph
4.8.1.1. Particular attention should be given to stiffener properties that provide
an efficient design. For a minimum-weight design, consideration should be
given to longitudinal stiffeners and/or torsionally strong stiffeners as discussed

Section B4.8
15 ()ctober 1969
Page 23
in Paragraph 4.8. I.I. Attention should also be given to stiffener thickness
and rivet location as discussed in Paragraph 4.8.1.1-II.
4.8. I.5 Stress Analysis Procedure
The stress analysis procedure for the web of a stiffenedshear resistant
beam is straightforward and easy to apply. Since q, b, h, E, t, fs' and I are

all tmown, the first step is to obtain K from the appropriate curve in Paragraph
s
4.8.1.1, depending upon the aspect ratio, torsional rigidity, stiffener thickness,
etc. Then F can be obtained from equation (1). If necessary, values of

S
cr
77 c,'m be obtained from Section C2.0. Then the margin of safety for the web is
S
F
S
er
M.S. - -1. (14)
f
S
4.8.1.6 Other Types of Web Design
The web designs discussed previously require a large number of parts
(stiffeners) to achieve lightness. To keep manufacturing costs low, the
number of parts must be kept to a minimum. The problem is one of weight
trade-off versus manufacturing expense.
Three types of shear-resistant, nonbuckling webs are frequently used in
design to save the expense of stiffeners. Actually, the web in most cases is as
light as, or lighter than, a web with separate stiffeners. There is a general
limitation, however, in that a stiffener must be provided wherever a significant
load is introduced into the beam. The web types are:
I. Web with formed vertical beads at a minimum spacing
II. Web with round lightening holes having 45 degree formed flanges at
various spacing
SectionB4.8
15October i969
Page24
III. Web with round lightening holes having formed beaded flanges and
vertical formed beads between holes.
The webs with holes, II and III, also provide built-in access space for the many
hydraulic and electrical lines that are sometimes required.
Procedures for the design of these beams should be obtained from
Reference 11.
Section B4. S
15 (_tober 1969
Page 25
4.8.2 PLANE TENSION-FIELD BEAMS
If web buckling occurs :ffter some application ¢ff load, tile shear load beyond
buckling is resisted in part by pure tension-field action of the web, and in part
by shear-resistant action of the web (Fig. 17). This action of the web is
defined as an incomplete tension field, or partial tension field.
T h tl-]l
L (a) NONBUCKLED ("SHEAR-RESISTANT") WEB
(b) PURE DIAGONAL-TENSION WEB
FIGURE 17. STATE OF STRESS IN A BEAM WEB

Section B4.8
i5 October 1969
Page 26
The theory of pure tension-field beams was published by Wagner [ 1] .
In this theory, after initial web buckling, the total shear load is resisted by
pure tension-field action of the web. Such behavior is essentially nonexistent
in practice, and will not be discussed here.
Kuhn, Peterson, and Levin [ 12 ], developed a semiempirical analysis for
partial tension-field beams. Correlation with experimental results indicates
that the analysis is conservative for the beams within the range of beams
tested. The experimental verification for the analysis was restricted to 2024S-T
and 7075S-T aluminum alloy beams. As a consequence, the Kuhn analysis is
limited to beams of these alloys. Extension of the analysis to include other
alloys is not documented, and the designer must exercise considerable caution
in attempting an extension of Kuhn's work in the analysis of beams fabricated
from other alloys.
4.8.2.1 General Limitations and Symbols
The methods of analysis and design given herein are believed to furnish
reasonable assurance of conservative strength predictions, provided that
normal design practices and proportions are used. The most important points
are:
I. The uprights should not be "too thin"; keep
tu/t> 0.6.
II. The upright spacing should be in the range
0.2 < b/h < 1.0.
III. The method of analysis presented here is applicable only to beams
with webs in the range 60 < h/t < 1500.
When h/t < 115, the portal frames effect and the effect of unsymmetrical
flanges must be taken into account by using Reference 13.

Section 134.8
15October 1969
Page27
SYMBOLS (in addition to those given in the front matter)
area of tension or compression flange

Af
A actual area of upright (stiffener)

U
A effective area of upright

ue
C1,C2,C3 stress concentration factors

L_
F column yield stress (the column stress at m -_ O)
co P
F allowable column stress

C
F ultimate allowable compressive stress for natural crippling

max
F ultimate allowable compressive stress for forced crippling

0
F ultimate allowable web shear stress

S
average moment of inertia of beam flanges

If
I required moment of inertia of upright about its base

S
I moment of inertia of upright about its base

u
Msb secondary bending moment in the flange
P applied shear load
P upright end load

U
distance of upright centroid to web
fcent compressive stress at centroidal axis of upright
compressive stress in flange because of the distributed vertical

ff
component of the diagonal tension
f average lengthwise compressive stress in upright

U
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 28
secondary bending stress in flange because of the distributed vertical

fsb
component of the diagonal tension
f maximum compressive stress in upright

U
max
k diagonal tension factor
b spacing of uprights
h effective depth of beam centroid of compression flange to centroid

of tension flange
qr
rivet shear load, web-to-flange and web splices
angle of diagonal tension
P radius of gyration of upright with respect to its centroidal axis

parallel to web (no portion of web to be included)
k critical shear stress coefficient

SS
restraint coefficients
R d, R h
angle of diagonal tension for pure tension field beam

apD T
N applied transverse load
Q. static moment of cross section
h height of stiffener
U
L effective stiffener length

e
o) load-per-inch acting normal to end bay stiffener
4.8.2.2 Analysis of Web
The web shear flow can be closely approximated by
V
q: T (Is)
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 29
From this, it follows that the web shear stress is
f = q/t (16)
S
The critical buckling stress of the web is given by
c =k ss 12(1-p z) b Hh + 1/2(Rd
(17. a)
and
scr k ss 12(1-p z) d + 1/2(Rh - Rd) b > d c.
(17. b)
The value of kss is obtained from Figure 18. The values R h and Rd, the
restraint coefficients, are given in Figure 19. Figure 20 provides F for the
S
er
case _7 ¢ 1. When R h is very small, the value of the critical shear stress
calculated from the equation above may be less than the value computed
disregarding the presence of stiffeners. In this case, the stiffeners are
disregarded and the latter value is used.

SectionB4.8
15October 1969
Page30
10
/
/
/
/
i f
J r-
!
k$$
i
d
f$] ¢
r±
m._r------_ _mm._-------- qlr-----_ I
r b vI
b, dc: CLEAR PANEL DIMENSIONS
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
dc 'b
FIGURE 18. k VERSUS d /b

SS e
The loading ratio, fs/Fs , is used to determine the tension field factor, k.
cr
It may be calculated by
f > F , (18)
k-: tanh(0.5 logl0 fs/Fscr) S S
cr
Secti_,n B4.8
15 ()ctol)er 1!)6_)
l)age 31
Rk, R d 0.8
/
°, // t -
t! -
WEB
FLANGE
THICKNESS
THICKNESS
/i / t
Rh -
- STIFFENER
RESTRAINT
THICKNESS
COEFF. ALONG STIFFENER
Rd - RESTRAINT COEFF. ALONG FLANGE
0 0.5 1.0 1.S 2.0 3.5 3.0
tu
T ' t
FIGURE 19. EDGE RESTRAINT COEFFICIENTS FOR \VEB BUCKLING STRESS

SectionB4.8
15 October t969
Page 32
4O
3O
2024-T3
F$cf
20
lO
l
lO 20 30 40 GO 60
F scr" q
FIGURE 20. VALUES OF F WHEN 77 ¢ 1

S
cr
or it may read from Figure 21. For values of f - F , the web is in the
S
er
unbuckled state.
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 33
1 N
;I <
.I
<
©
R
m
2
u M
9 bl
2 N
41 ©
r..)
<
qr_
2:
r_
i Z
f-
r_
o
o
• -. ¢D 0 0 0
q' _iO.L_)¥:l NOISNIJ. "IVNOOVI(]

Section B4.8
i5 October i969
Page 34
The angle of the diagonal tension is then obtained from Figure 22, which
shows the variation of tan o_ as a function of k and tb/A . For double stiffeners,
ue
A is equal to the cross-sectional area of the stiffeners. For single stiffeners,

ue
A
U
A = ,,. (19)
ue 1 + _e/p) 2
It is recommended that the diagonal tension factor at ultimate load be limited
to a maximum value,
/
k = O. 78 - (t - O. 012) 1/2 , (20)
max
to avoid excessive wrinkling and permanent set at limit load, thereby inviting
fatigue failure.
The average web shearing stress, fs' may be appreciably smaller than
the maximum web stress. The maximum web stress is given by
f = f (1 +k2C1)(1 +kC2) , (21)

S S
max
where C 1 ,-rod C 2 are empirical coefficients obtained from Figure 23. C 1 is a
correction factor accounting for c_ differing from 45 degrees. C 2 is the
stress-concentration factor arising from the flange flexibility.
The web allowable stress, F , is given in Figure 24 as a function of k

Sail
and cePDT, the angle that the buckles would assume if the web could reach the
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 35
-- z
0
Z
c) ill
•-'-" i.-
..I
.< Z
Z
o
es_
<_ _
O-
<
Z
0
q_
<
Z
<
=7J
, jj,i
C'I-
;.q
iI 7,/j / r_
i I/1/,ss /
J,.
.<
/
/
o_. 0 • • 0
O
II uol
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 36
0.12
a- ANGLE OF DIAGONAL TENSION
0.08
cl
0.04
0
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
tan O[
1.2
c3
0.8
"_ 1/4
cob = 0.7 b t
c 2, c3 .(I c + It) h e .
Ic = MOMENT OF INERTIA OF
COMPRESSION FLANGE
0.d
It = MOMENT OF INERTIA OF
TENSION FLANGE
J
0 1 2 3 4
cob
FIGURE 23. EMPIRICAL COEFFICIENTS FOI_ MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS

IN WEB AND FOR SECONDARY BENDING MOMENT IN FLANGES
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 37
S
]0
25
*p,W
45 48
35
30
25
20
I0
O.2 O.4 0.6 0J 1.8
k
(e) _)24-T3 ALUMINUM ALLOY. • 62 ksi

|tv| t
DASHED LINE IS ALLOWABLE YIELD STREW
)5
I
I
r
3O
- I e_h. DEG
J 4$
48
35
30
2S
2O
2O
150 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.i 1.0
(b) ALCLADT075-T6 ALUMINUM ALLOY. ttult 72ksi
FIGURE 24. BASIC ALLOWABLE VALUES OF f

s
max
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 38
state of pure diagonal tension without rupturing. The values of F have been
Sall
established by tests and may be called "basic allowable. " For different
connections, they are applied as follows:
I. Bolts, just snug, heavy washers under bolt heads, or web plates
sandwiched between flange angles; use basic allowables.
II. Bolts, just snug, bolt heads bearing directly on sheet; reduce basic
allowables 10 percent.
III. Rivets, assumed to be tight; increase basic allowables 10 percent.
IV. Rivets, assumed to be loosened in service; use basic allowables.
The allowable stresses given are valid if the allowable bearing stresses on the
sheet or rivets are not exceeded. They are not valid for countersunk rivets.
For webs of unusual dimensions arranged unsymmetrically with respect to the
flange, use Figure 25 to obtain F

Sal I
4.8.2.3 Analysis of Stiffeners
Stiffener loads result from the web diagonal tension and the transverse load
not carried by the web. The stiffener load is given by
S
CI"
P = ktbf tanoL + Nb 1- (22)
u s I fsF (td tb+ Au) 1 '
where N is positive for a transverse compressive load. This load is resisted
by the stiffener and the effective web. The effective width of the web working
with the stiffener ma_ be assumed to be given by
b
e
- 0.5(l-k) . (23)
b
f
Sectiol_ B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 39
....... j
20 _
,!
I0
2024 BASED ON F_ : 62ksi
[ ] T
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
4O
3O
F'eli, kli 20
I0
7075 6ASEDON Ftu
0
0 0.2 0.4
FIGURE 25. ALLOWABLE WED STRESSES FOR 2024 AND
7075 AT HOOM TEMPERATURE

Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 40
The average stiffener stress is then
P
tl
f = (24)
u A + 0.5(l-k) tb
ue
The maximum compressive stress in the stiffener occurs near the neutral axis
of the beam. The ratio of the maximum stiffener stress to the average stiffener
stress, fu /fu' is obtained from Figure 26.

max
Stiffeners may fail by column action or by local crippling. Column failure
by true elastic instability is possible only in (symmetrical) double stiffeners.
A single stiffener is an eccentrically loaded compression member whose
failing stress is a function of the web and stiffener properties. To guard against
excessive bowing and column stress, the following must be adhered to:
I. The stress f must not exceed the column yield stress.

U
II. The average stress over the column cross section, feent = fu Aue/Au'
must not exceed the allowable stress for a column with the slenderness
ratio hu/2O.
The effective column length for double stiffeners is
h
U
L = b < 1.5h (25)
e '41 + ka(3-2 b/hu)
L = h b-> 1.5h (26)

O U
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 41
//j p/r -
Lq
//I, f Z
_q
GO
'1I
Z
_q
E_
O _q
L_
,<
_q
>
<
/ 0
E_
;.q
E_
D_
V i ©
/ ©
/ W
£Xl
M
/ A , II I I" o
9
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 42
To avoid column failure of double stiffeners, the average stress, f, should be
less than the allowable stress taken from the column curve for solid sections
of the stiffener material, with the slenderness ratio Le/p.
Forced crippling of stiffeners must be considered. In this mode of failure,
the attached leg of the stiffener is deformed by being forced to adapt itself to the
web shear wrinkles.
The allowable forced crippling stress is given by the empirical equation
/__\t 1/s
O \ L/
where C is a constant as follows:
Single Stiffener_ Double Stiffener
2024-T (Bare) C =26.0 21.0
7075-T (Bare) C =32.5 26.0
Nomographs for F are given in Figure 27. If F exceeds the material

o O
proportional limit, a plasticity factor, 77, equal to Esec/Ec is used in the
equation above.
Torsional stability of single stiffeners is provided by meeting the following
criteria:
(fs- Fs )hI/3e
t = 0"23E (J-_bh2) , (28)
cr
Secth_n B4. S
15 ()ctob(,r 19(;!)
Page 43
it'--"
Y)
6O
1.0 10
9
0.9 .tO
8
0.8
S 7
4O
0.7
6
0.6 -- $
30
0.5 -_: 4
- 3
0.4 - 20
t u
k F o. ks,
.- 1.5 Fo, kS, -- 2 t
0.3
DOUBLE SINGLE
UPRIGHTS U PRIGH TS
10 -_
-- 1.5
8 - l0
0.2 9
7
-:: I.o
--- 8 0.9
6
--. 0.8
- 7
0.7
-- - 6
- 0.6
5 - 0.5
0.1 - 0.4
3 ---
Iol 2024 T3 ALUMINUM ALLOY
FIGURE 27. NOMOGRAM FOR ALLOWABLE UPRIGHT

STRESS (FORCED CRIPPLING)
SectionB4.8
15October 1969
Page44
10 7r
0,9 9
6fJ
08
07
If
0.6
0.5
_0
04
f: k*.l
O' o I'
w
.
20 t
DOUBLE SINGLE 2
0.3 UPRIGHTS UPRIGHTS
O2
1.0
10 0.9
9 0.11
0.7
8
0.6
7
6 0.5
0 1
0.4
qb_ 7075-T6 ALUMINUM ALLOY
FIGURE 27. (Concluded)

Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 45
where
(f S -F )het = total web shear load above buckling which can be carried
S
cr
before the stiffener cripples
J1 = the effective polar moment of inertia of the stiffener
1/3 (developed width} t 3. This applies for formed sheet stiffeners.

U
To prevent :_ forced crippling type of failure when the upright resists an
extern_ compressive load in addition to the compressive load resulting from
diagonal tension, an interaction equation such as the following must be used to
evaluate this effect:
m_______,_ + __2 = 1 , (29)

Fo ce/
where f and F are the maximum upright compressive stress and the
U O
In ax
allowable forced crippling stress, respectively, for diagonal tension acting
alone, and f and F are the actual and allowable compressive stress,
co ce
respectively, resulting from external compressive stress acting alone.
An effective area of web plus upright may be used in computing f ee" The
allowable crippling stress, Fmax, may be used for Fee.
The effect of the external load should also be investigated with respect to
column failure of the upright. To prevent cohmm failure under combined

SectionB4.8
i5 October 1969
Page 46
loading the following criteria should be fulfilled:
f +f <F (30)
u ce co
and
f +f <-F (31)
cent ce c
4.8.2.4 Analysis of Flange
The flange stress is the result of the superposition of three individual
stresses: (1) primary bending stresses, (2) axial compression because of
the flange-parallel component of the web diagonal tension, and (3) secondary
bending stresses because of the stiffener-parallel component of the web
diagonal tension.
The primary bending stresses are given by
s If
_ c 1- cr (32)
fprim If --_s ( 1- _- )
where
I = moment of inertia of section
and
If = moment of inertia of section (web neglected).
The total axial load because of the flange-parallel component of the web
diagonal tension and applied axial load is
Paxial = khtf s cotc_ + Pa 1- (33)

I cr
S
Section B4.8
15October 1969
Page47
P is positive for compressive axial load. The axial flange stress is then
a
Paxial
(34)
faxial = A +A +0.5(l-k)th
c t
where A _md A are the area of the compression and tension flange.
c t
The secondary bending stress is given by
(35)
sec see
f
where
Pb
u
M = C3 (over s tiffene r }
sec 12
and
Pb
U
M = C3 (midway between stiffeners)
sec 24
C 3 is an empirical stress concentration factor, given in Figure 23.
The allowable stress for the compression flange can be found by the methods
of Section C 1.0. The allowable tension stress for a tension flange is given by
F of the material, modified by the attachment efficiency factor.

tu
4.8.2.5 Analysis of Rivets
Web-to-Flange: The flange-web shear flow at the line of attachment is
V
q = h--
V (I +0.414k) , (36)
where h' = beam depth between attachment line of flange web.

SectionB4.8
15 October 1969
Page48
Web-to-Stiffener: The stiffener-web rivets, for double stiffeners, must
develop sufficient longitudinal shear strength to make the two stiffeners act as
a unit until column failure occurs. The shear strength should be
2F Q
q = cy (37)
b L
S e
where b = outstanding stiffener flange width.

S
The stiffener-web connectors must carry a tension component as follows:
i t --- 0.15t F (double stiffener) (38)

tu
and
N'
= 0.22t Ftu (single stiffener) (39)
The interaction of shear and tension in the connectors is given in Reference 11.
Stiffener-to-Flange: The stiffener-to-flange connectors are designed with
the empirical relationship
P =f A (.i0)
U U tie
which gives the load in the stiffener. The connection must transfer this load
into the cap.
4.8.2.6 Analysis of End of Beam
The previous discussion has been concerned with the "interior" Oays of a
beam. The vertical stiffeners in these areas are subject, primarily, only to
axial compression loads, as presented. The outer, or "end bay, " is a special
case. Since the diagonal tension effect results in an inward pull on the end
SectionB4.8
15 October 1969
Page49
stiffener, it produces bending in it, as well as the usual compressive axial

load. Obviously, the end stiffener must be considerably heavier than the others,
or at least supported by additional members to reduce the stresses resulting
from bending.
The component of the running-load-per-inch that produces bending in such
edge members is given by the formulas
w -- kq tml o' (41)
for edge members parallel to the neutral axis (stringers) and
_) = kq cot _ (42)
for members normal to the neutral axis (stiffeners). The longer the unsupported
length of the edge member subjected to w, the greater will be the bending
moment it must carry.
There are, in general, three ways of dealing with the edge member subjected
to bending, the object being to keep the weight down.
I. Simply "beef-up" or strengthen the edge member so it can carry all of
its loads. (This is inefficient for long unsupported lengths. )
II. Increase the thickness of the end bay panel either to make it nonbuckling
or to reduce k, and thereby reduce the running load producing bending
in the edge member. (This is usually inefficient for large panels. )
III. Provide additional members (stiffeners) to support the edge member
and thereby reduce its bending moment because of w. (This requires
additional parts. )
Actually, a combination of these methods might be best.

SectionB4.8
15October 1969
Page50
4.8.2.7 Beam Design

This paragraph presents methods to facilitate efficient preliminary design
of tension field beams.
Allowable Shear Flow: Figure 28 gives the ultimate allowable shear flow,
q, for 7075S-T6 Alclad sheet as a function of the sheet thickness, t, and the
stiffener spacing, b. The dashed line on the left is the approximate boundary
between shear-resistant and tension-field beams when the sheet is loaded to
full strength. The central dashed line is a limitation on b , the m:uximum

max
stiffener spacing, in order to minimize the possibility of excessive wrinkling
and permanent set when the web works at full strength. Stiffener spacings
greater than b can be used, if necessary, by using shear flow availables

max
which conform to the limitation on the value of k given in Paragraph 4.8.2.2.

max
The dashed line at the right establishes b' the absolute maximum stiffener
m_iX'
spacing in order to prevent "oil canning. "
One of the assumptions made in the construction of Fig_ure 28 is that the
aspect ratio b/h = 0.5. Varying b/h has only a small effect on the curves, :is
can be seen from the curve for 0. 050 she(-t, where additional curves for
b/h = 0.2 and b/h = 1.0 are plotted. The relationship for other sheet gages is
approximately the same.
Stiffener Area Estimation: Figure 29 presents the stiffener are:_ to web
area ratio plotted as a function of b/h and x/q/h, the square root ,)f ttm
structural index. This index is a measure of the loading intensity on the beam.
These curves are to be used only as a me:ins of roughly approximating the
required area of stiffener for preliminary desig_ and preliminary weight

Section B4.8
15 October i969
Page 5i
Ioooo aMAX TO PREVENT EXCESSIVE I

9000
1 WRINKLING AND PERMANENT SET|
WHEN WEB WORKS AT FULL I
',TR ENGTH J
7000 t
6OO0
._00
4OOO
3OO0
'I f
2,$00
20GO
I,$00
quit
lb.
tn.
I000
BOO
70_
6OO
I 2. WEB SI/_PLY SUPPORTED

--m
3. THE STRESS CONCENTRATION
FACTOR DUE TO FLANGE
30O , Q
FLEXIBILITY. (2 = 0.2
I
i
f
_0
. 1 i
Io 12 h 16 la 20 22 24 26 28
b. ,_.
NOTE: FOR BARE 7075S-T6, MULTIPLY BY 1.07
FIGURE 28. ULTIMATE ALLOWABLE SHEAR FLOW ALCLAD 7075S-T6 SHEET

Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 52
Q
i
i I C/3
LC_
L'--
N
c_c_
_Z
Z_
!
_- !
zr_
r_m
Z_
M b-
C)
o
°1-
v-
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 53
estimation. If the stiffener design is limited to standard sections, the required
area might be larger than that given in Figure 29 since a zero margin of safety
cannot always be obtained. The curves are for 7075S-T single-angle stiffeners.
f
Curves for double stiffeners or 2024S-T material, similar to Figure 29, can be
found in Reference 12.
Design Method: The preliminary design of 7075S-T web-stiffener can be
arrived at in the following manner:
1. The desi_m shear flow, q, and the depth of beam, h, are usually known.
This fixes q_-_, the square root of the structural index.
2. The stiffener spacing, b, is often determined by considerations not
under the control of the designer. If such is the case, inspection of
Figure 29 shows that a stiffener spacing, b, equal to the beam depth,
h, is desirable for minimum weight design of the web-stiffener system.
However, it is possible that wide stiffener spacing might induce
excessive secondary bending in the flange. In general, b/h ratios from
0.5 to around 0.8 are commonly used for tension-field beams.
3. The required web thickness, t, can be obtained from Figure 28 since
q and b are known. This figure can also be used to check the stiffener
against the maximum allowable spacing, b

max"
4. Estimate the required value Au/bt with the aid of Figure 29.
5. Compute the approximate cross-sectional area of stiffener as follows:

Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 54
e Choose a stiffener with the proper area. Unless the beam is very deep,
or unless there are other design considerations, a single-angle stiffener
is an efficient design. Also, a stocky, equal-legged angle gives greater
resistance against forced crippling, which is usually the dominant mode
of failure.
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 55
REFERENCES
1. Wagner, H., "Flat Sheet Metal Girders with Very Thin Metal Web, "
Parts I-III, NACA TMS 604-606, 1931.

f
2. Cook, I. T. , and Rockey, K. C. , "Shear Buckling of Clamped and Simply
Supported Infinitely Long Plates Reinforced by Transverse Stiffeners,"
Aeronautical Quarterly, Vol. XIII, February 1962, p. 41.
3. Cook, I. T., and Rockey, K. C., "Shear Buckling of Rectangular Plates
with Mixed Boundary Conditions," Aeronautical Quarterly, Vol. XIV,
November 1963, pp. 349-356.
4. Rockey, K. C., and Cook, I. T., "Shear Buckling of Orthogonally Stiffened

/-
Infinitely Long Simply Supported Plates -- Stiffeners Having Torsional and
Flexural Rigidities," Aeronautical Quarterly, February 1969, p. 75.
5. Rockey, K. C., "Influence of Stiffener Thickness and Rivet Postition upon
the Effectiveness of Single-Sided Stiffeners on Shear Webs," Aeronautical
Quarterly, February 1964, p. 97.
6. Rockey, K. C. , and Cook, I. T., "Shear Buckling of Clamped and Simply
Supported Infinitely Long Plates Reinforced by Closed-Section Transverse
Stiffeners," Aeronautical Quarterly, Vol. XIII, August 1962, p. 212.
7. Rockey, K. C., and Cook, I. T., "Influence of the Torsional Rigidity of
Transverse Stiffeners upon the Shear Buckling of Stiffened Plates,"
Aeronautical Quarterly, Vol. XV, May 1964, p. 198.
8. Rockey, K. C., and Cook, I. T., "Shear Buckling of Clamped Infinitely
Long Plates -- Influence of Torsional Rigidity of Transverse Stiffeners,"
f
Aeronautical Quarterly, February 1965, p. 92.
Section B4.8
15 October 1969
Page 56
o
Rockey, K. C., and Cook, I. T., "Shear Buckling of Clamped and Simply
Supported Infinitely Long Plates by Transverse Stiffeners and a Central
Longitudinal Stiffener," Aeronautical Quarterly, Vol. XIII, May, 1962,
pp. 95-114.
10. Bleich, F., Buckling Strength of Metal Structures, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, Inc., New York, 1952.
11. Bruhn, E. F., Analysis and Design of Flight Vehicle Structures, Tri-state
Offset Company, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1965.
12. Kuhn, P., Peterson, J. P., and Levin, L. R., "A Summary of Diagonal
Tension, " Parts I and II, NACA TN266 1 and TN2662, 1952.
13. Levin, L. R., "Strength Analysis of Stiffened Thick Beam Webs with
Ratios of Web Depth to Web Thickness of Approximately 60," NACA TN2930,
May 1953.
BIBLIOGRA PHY
:
Rockey, K. C., "The Design of Intermediate Vertical Stiffeners on Web Plates
Subjected to Shear," Aeronautical Quarterly, Vol. VII, November, 1956.
Stein, M., and Fralich, R. W., "Critical Shear Stress of Infinitely Long,
Simply Supported Plate with Transverse Stiffeners," NACA TNi_51,
April 1949.
Structural Design Manual, Northrop Aircraft, Inc.

SECTION B5
FRAMES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
B5.0.0 Frames ................................................ I
5.1.0 Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Frames By

The Method of Moment-Distribution ............... i
5.1.1 Discussion of the Method of Moment-Distribution 2
5.1.2 Sample Problem ................................ 9
5.1.3 Application of Moment-Distribution to Advanced
Problems .................................... ii
5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular
Arches ...................................... II
5.2.0 Analysis of Arbitrary Ring by Tabular Method ...... 27

5.2.1 Sample Problem ................................ 39
B5-iii
v
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page 1
B 5.0.0 FRAMES
This section deals with specialized methods of analyzing statically

indeterminate structures. The procedures of analyzing rigid bents and
circular rings are given in detail in Section B 5,1.0 and B 5.2.0
respectively.
A sample problem to illustrate the methods and procedures is

given in each section,
B 5.1.0 Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Frames by the Method of

Moment -d is tr ibut ion,
Moment-distribution is a convenient method of reducing statically

indeterminate structures to a problem in statics. Moment-distribution
does not involve the solution of simultaneous equations, but consists
of a series of converging cycles that may be terminated at the degree
of precision required by the problem.
\,
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page 2
B 5.1.1 Discussion of the Method of Moment-distribution.
The method of moment-distribution requires a knowledge of moment-

area theorems and slope-deflection equations. The five basic factors
involved in the method of moment-distribution are: fixed-end moments,
stiffness factors, distribution factors, distributed moments, and
carry-over moments.
Only structures comprised of prismatic members with no joint

translation are considered in this article. All members are assumed
to be elastic.
The fixed-end moments are obtained through the use of a general

"end-moment" equation derived in the development of the slope-deflection
method. (See Fig. B 5.1.1-1)
MBA: --f--
where
MAB is the moment acting on the "A" end of member AB.

MBA is the moment acting on the "B" end of member AB.
E is the modulus of elasticity.
I is the moment of inertia.
L is the length of member AB.
0 is the rotation of the tangent to the elastic curve at the
end of a member and is positive for clockwise rotation.
is the rotation of the chord joining the ends of the elastic
curve referred to the original direction of the member and
is positive for clockwise rotation.
(_o) A is the static moment about a vertical axis through "A" of the
area under the M o portion of the bending-moment diagram shown
on Fig. B 5.1.1-1.
(_O)B is the static moment about an axis through "B",
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page3
BS.I.I Discussion of the Method of Moment-distribution ,(Cont'd_
Any Loading
MBA
_A El B [
MAB
AA
Fig. B 5.1. I-I

Section B5
12 September 1961
Page 4
B 5.1.1 Discussion of the Method of Moment-distribution (C0nt'd)
If 9A, eB and _AB are all equal to zero, then both ends of the
member are completely fixed against rotation or translation and the
member is called a fixed-end beam. The last terms of Eqs. (I) and (2)
are therefore equal to the so-called "fixed end moments". Denoting
fixed end moments as FEM and setting CA, _B and _AB equal to zero.
FEMAB = _2 I (_°) A 2 (_°)B 1 ................... (3)
FEMBA _
2[
L
2(_°) A (_o) B 1 °°" .... ,°°°,°° .........
Fixed end moments for various type of loading are given in Table B 5.1.1-1
Equations (3) and (4) are summarized by one general equation by

calling the near end of a member "N" and the far end "F". Also let
INF
KNF = stiffness factor for member NF = -- . ............. (5)
LNF
then the fundamental slope deflection equation is
MNF = 2EKNF (20 N + 9 F - 3_r NF) + FEMNF ............... (6)
The conditions to be met at a joint are: (i) that the angle of

rotation be the same for the ends of all members that are rigidly
connected at that joint and (2) that the algebraic sum of all moments
is zero. The method of moment-distribution renders to zero by iteration
any unbalance in moment at a joint to satisfy the latter condition.
To distribute the unbalanced moment mentioned above, a distribution

factor DF is required. This factor represents the relative portion of
the unbalanced moment which is reacted by a member and for any bar bm,
DFbm is given by
%m
DFbm- . .......................................... (7)
E K
b
where the summation is meant to include all members meeting at joint b.
The distributed moment in any bar bm is then
Mbm = -DFbmM ....................................... (8)
Equation (8) may be interpreted as follows:
"The distributed moment developed at the 'b' end of member 'bm'

as joint 'b' is unlocked and allowed to rotate under an unbalanced
moment 'M' is equal to the distribution factor DFbm times the unbalan,
moment 'M' with the sign reversed."
Section B5
July 9, 1964
Page 5
-r
B 5.1.1 Discussion of the Method of Moment-dlstribution (Cont'd)
Table B 5.1.1-1 Fixed-end Moments for Beams
Notation: P - load (ib); w = unit load (Ib per linear in.).

M - bending moment (in.-Ib) positive when clockwise.
I. P 2. P
M^ - -F..
_
PL
L
t
i
l_
2
PL
L a
Pab 2
3_
I L
b
pa2b
.I
aB = _ F" MA "7 MB - e2
o o
w Ib/In. w lb/in.
ltf_! ttttttltttt It flll_,
a ,m|
L I_ L
"V L •
2
wL 2 wL 2 11wL 2 = _ 5wL 2
MA " I-_-- MB = " i-_-- MA" 192 MB _
6. __ w Ib/In.
A+_..,'mmilt, iiiih,.. B
A _ B-
2
MB . . wa_._._ (4aL.3a2)
12L 2
_B
a
! |
2
wL 2 wL 2
MA . wa (10L2_10aL+3a 2)
MA " T MB " " 3-"0- 60--U
wa 3
MB - - -- (5L-3a)
60L 2
B 10.
a -i- b __
r L -
wL 2 wL 2
MA "-_- ( - I), M B- - -_- (3 -I', MA " 3"-_ MB " " 3"-_
Section B5
July 9, 1964
Page6
B 5.1.1 Discussion of the Method of Moment-distribution (Cont'd)
Table B 5.1.1-1 Fixed-end Moments for Beams (Cont'd)
12.
L L L ,
Ii.A _.-- a _P a
P A_ ,_B
B
/-- e - /
t- L -,
15PL
MA = Pa(1 - _) MB = - MA MA = 48 MB = - MA
L
13. 14. !._-_ ___ w Iblin __ a _.
IllIIII" llt11111:
B ....
flIItifIIIl i_
A_'.._
,,__..
I I.__.
_ __._ A_ L _'
e
MA w (L3_a2L+4a3)
= wa6---L
2 (3L-2a) MB = - MA MA = 12--"L MB =-M A
i5. _ _ " - __..t_ 16. ------ L

J
A B A;, ,,
,_-- L ;= L¸ v _
i
I
wL 2 3wL 2
MA 30 MA = 3T MB " 160
3
_v_
MB- ZOLZ (5L-4a)
17. ..w elliptic load 18.
A_ :IItIItItttitt7ttl_'_,,
L. L
wL 2 wL 2
MA = 13.52 MB = - 15.8"----_
MA = l___ x(L_x)2f(x)d x
L2 o
L
MB _ -i [ x2(L_x)f (x)dx
L 2 ,)
O
_J
Sect ion B5
12 September 1961
Page 7
B5.1.1 Discussion of the Method of Moment-distribution (Cont'd)
_,j--'- r_b _ b Mbm
Fig. B 5.1.i-2
The "carry-over" moment is obtained by applying Eq. (6) considering

@m = _bm = o (see Fig. B 5.1.1-2). The carry-over moment is equal to
one-half of its corresponding distributed moment and has the same sign.
Mbm = 4EKbm@ b and Mmb = 2EKbm0 b
Henc e,
I
.......................................... (9)
Mmb = _Mbm
The sign convention adopted for this work deviates from the usual
convention used in elemen_ beam analysis as found in Sec. B 4.1.1 of
this manual. The positive sense for moments has been adopted from the
convention used in slope-deflection equations; namely, moments acting
clockwise on the ends of a member are positive. (See Fig. B 5.1.1-3)
Fig. B 5.1.1-3 Positive sense for bending moments
The following procedure is established for the process of moment-

distribution analysis:
i. Compute the stiffness factor for each member and record

as shown in example problem one.
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page 8
Discussion of the Method of Moment-distribution (Cont'd)
Compute the distribution factor for each member at each joint

and record as shown in example problem one.
o Compute the fixed-end moments for each loaded span and record
with proper signs as shown in example problem one.
o Balance the moments at a Joint by multiplying the unbalanced

moment by the distributor factor, changing sign, and recording
the balancing moment below the fixed-end moment. The unbalanced
moment is the algebraic sum of the fixed-end moments of a joint.
o Draw a horizontal line below the balancing moment. The algebraic

sum of all moments at any joint above the horizontal line must
be zero.
. Record the carry-over moment at the opposite ends of the member.

Carry-over moments have the same sign as the corresponding
balancing moments and are one-half their magnitude.
.
Move to a new joint and repeat the process for the balance and
carry-over of moments for as many cycles as desired to meet the
accuracy required by the problem. The unbalanced moment for
each cycle will be the algebraic sum of the moments at the
joint recorded below the last horizontal line.
J Obtain the final moment at the end of each member as the

algebraic sum of all moments tabulated at this point. The
total of the final moments for all members at any joint must
be zero.
g Reactions, vertical shear, and bending moments of the member

may be found through statics by utilizing the above mentioned
final moments (step 8).
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page9
B 5.1.2 Sample Problem.
PROBLEM #I. Compute the end moments and draw the shear and bending-
moment diagrams for this frame.
'D_Z-T
-
1=2 I
P1 = 5 kip 25' P2 = i0 kip
w = 2 klp/ft
i_ 15-,-
_A 1=2 _ B 1=3.5 C I=5 _
40' _!
_ 25'-_- 35
I I
AB BA BC DC CB CE CD EC
DF
× .08
.44
.I
.56 × .i
.33
.129
.41
.08
26
I04 -104 +18 0 -25 +50 0 -5O
+38 +48 -8 -i0 -7
+19 -4 +24 -5
+2 +2 -8 -I0 -6
+I -4 -3 -5
+2 +2
-62 +62 -6 -17 +30 -13 -60

--- +124 _
Fig. B 5.1.2-1
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page i0
B 5.1.2 Sample Problem (Cont'd)
5 kip i0 kip
2 kip/ft
I i II
----20'---_
--'--25'----"- 35 I,,, 40'
+27.48 kip
+3.42 kip +4.25 kip
-1.58 '-5.75 kip

kip
-22.52 kip
- SHEAR DIAGRAM -
-6 klp-ft
[+189 kip-ft
+13
kip-ft
i
|
+7 kip-ft \ +55 kip-ft
-60 kip-ft
-62 kip-ft
-124 kip-ft
- FINAL MDMERT DIAGRAM -
Fig. B 5.1.2-2
Section B5
15 February 1970
Page II
B 5.1.3 Application of Moment-dlstribution to Advanced Problems.

f
In article B 5.1.1, "Discussion of moment-distribution", the basic

principles of moment-distribution were founded. Moment-distribution may
be applied to complex structures involving joint translation, settlement
of supports, non-prismatic members, symmetrical and unsymmetrical bents
and other involved structures. For information on the technique of
solving such structures see the references listed in Section B 5.0.0.
Methods for accelerating the convergence and other short-cuts may also
be obtained in these references.
B 5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches
In the tables that follow, formulas for computing reactions are

given for several load cases. In all cases constraining moments,
reaction, and applied loads are positive when acting as shown and
I2h
K _
for cases i through 18
IL
1
IIS 2
K _ m
for cases 19 through 28
12S 1
Section B5
,,12 September 1961
Page 12
B 5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches (Cont'd_
Table B 5.1.4.1 Reactions and Constraining Moments in

Two Legged Rectangular Bents
i • VERT. CONCENTRATED VA = Qb VE = Q - VA
L
LOAD
30ab
H =
2Lh(2K + 3)
,1 !g c ! D
F FOR SPECIAL CASE: a =b=
L
2
h '9_-"-- L "-"_
i
I V A = V E =Q 2 l
! _-I I Ii-_
!
H = 3QL I
8h(2K + 3)
4 H
L =" '
VA VE
2. VERT. CONCENTRATED VA =QbL I I + @(b - a) VE = Q _ VA
LOAD L2(6K + i) -I
Q H = 3qab
2Lh(K ! 2)
V
I '_--'- L _
__Qab | l (b,- a)
I MA L [ 2(K + 2) 2L(6K + I)
i
h
i qab 1 + (b -
ME = L 2(K + 2) 2L(6K + 1)_ l
A
E FOR SPECIAL CASE:
L
a = b = -
VA = V E =R
2 .L,
VA VE
2 = qL
MA = ME 8(K + 2)
3. HORIZ. CONCE_RATED v=q _

L HA = Q " HE
HE QaibK(a + h) ]
C' I/ D = 2h h2(2K + 3) + I
Q B j
' I a =h
FOR SPECIAL CASE: b = O,
hI 13_
a_ J -i
V . 9-b-
L
L E .__
HE HE = HA = Q
2
V V
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page 13
/-- B 5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches (Cont'd)
Table B 5.1.4-1 Reactions and Constraining Moments in

Two Leg Ied Rectangular Bents (Cont'd)
_ 3(_a2K
4. HORIZ. CONCENTRATED
V = Lh(6K + i) HA = Q HE
LOAD
HE = Qab h h + b + K (b a) I
2h 2 L b h(K + 2)
+ h
= Qa
2h L b(hh(K+ +b +2) bE)
MA
f
/
Qa [ -b(h + b + bE)
ME 2h [ h(K + 2)
+ h
(6K + i)
]
FOR SPECIAL CASE: b = O. a = h
E;
3qhK
V = e(6K + i)
HA = HE = 2_ _-I "I
MA = ME : Qh(3K
2(6K +
+ I)
I) _ _
5. VERT. UNIFORM wcd

RUNNING LOAD VA :
= wc
w r d4"
12dL-12d2-c 2
H = ]Xl
_ + x2
+ _\ 3wc
= 24Lh(2K + 3)
BC_'_'_1 )
ii
where:
I-,---L : wc 24-- + 3 + 4c - 2_d 2

X1 24L L L
h I1 I_
F =__[ d 3 " bT
X2 wc
24L 24_-- "bc2 + 3_+ 2c2 - 48d2 + 24di
L
FOR SPECIAL CASE: a = O, c = b = L, d =-
2
VA VF wL
VA VF :T
a b
d=L
2 2 wL 2
H=
4h(2K + 3)
Ip u
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page 14
B 5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches _Cont'd)

Two Legged Rectangular Bents (Cont'd)
6. VERT. UNIFORM VA wcd + XI " X2

= _ L(6K + I)
RUNNING LOAD
w _ d_-r X 1 and X 2 are given in case 5
V F = wc - VA
3(X 1 + X 2) X1 + X2 X1 X2
_--- b ----_I
H = 2h(K + 2) MA = 2(K + 2) 2(6K + i)
h _------L -.-_
X1 + X2 XI - X2
MF = 2(K + 2) + 2(6K + I)
L
FOR SPECIAL CASE:
a = O, c = b = L, d = 2
wL
VA ffiV F = _-
2
wL wL 2
H = 4h(K + 2) MA = MF = 12(K + 2) n_ ,r
7. VERT. TRIANGULAR wcd

RUNNING LOAD VA= 2-i-
wc we + 2c
VF= _--VA'2-_ _-
3 [x3+x4
H ffi
_ 3wc+ 3) [ de -
2K + _'_= 4LN(2K c182 d2 ]
i WHERE:
we c 51c 3 c2b . d2
h X3 = " _ + _- + _ + 6L
.,- I1
I X4 wc d3 c2 51c 3 c2b 2d 2 + dL
ffi 2L L + _ + 810L 6L
L
FOR SPECIAL CASE:
t wL
a=o, c=b=L, d =_
V s --
a 2b 6
d _L .==c_
3 3 wL 2
H =
8h(2K + 3)
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page 15
B 5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches (Cont'd)

8. VERT. TRIANGULAR
X3 - X4
RUNNING LOAD VA =wcd + X 3 and X 4 are
2L L(6K + i) given in case 7
wc 3(X3 + X4)
V F = _- - VA H = 2h(K + 2)
X 3 + X4 X3 - X4
MA = 2(K + 2) 2(6K + I)
X3 + X4 X3 - X4
MF = 2(K + 2) 4 2(6K + I)
L
FOR SPECIAL CASE: I
a=o, c=b=L, d = 3
VA = 6--
wL
I ] IO(6K
i 1 + i)
MA_ _ MF
VA VF V F = _-- I + 20(6K + I)
a 2b wL 2
d =L H =
3 3 8h(K + 2)
MA--Z-=12v K+ 5 2
wL 2 [ --+6K+ iI i
MF=_ wL2 I K+ 5 2 6K+ 1
9. HORIZ. UNIFORM
RUNNING LOAD v =w%_" c27
2L H4 = w(a - c) - HF
KIw_a2-c2)(2h2-a2.c2) I
w<a 2 - c 2) +
D _---iL ---- HF = 4h
8hB(2K + 3)
FOR SPECIAL CASE: c=o, b=o, a=d=h
wh 2
__[ Ii j h V = --
2L
HA = wh - HF
V V
HF = 4E I + 2(2K K 1
+ 3)
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page 16
B5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches (Cont'd)

i0. HORIZ. UNIFORM

w(a 2 - c2> MA MF
RUNNING LOAD V= 2L "_- -L'-
HA = w(a - c) - HF
_---L -----
D E
• 2 2, X= X_(K - I)
%-12
nF - 4h - 2-h _ _ _
WHERE:
X5 = l_h2 [d3(4h - 3d) - b3(4h -3b) 1
HA JM A _ -_MFHF X6 = w--w--- [a3(4h - 3a) - c3(4h -3 c)l

12h 2
V V
(3K + I)[ w_a2 -2 c2) - X5 J

MA = 2(6K + i)
2 K +------26K + i + X5
(3K + l)[w(a2 2" c2) - X51

MF = 2_6K + I)
6K + f
FOR _PECIAL CASE: c=o, b=o, a=d=h:

wh2K
V =
L(6K + i) HA = wh - HF
wh 2 F 18K + 5
wh(2K + 37
HF = 8(K + 2) MF - 24 | 6K + i K+2
MA = 2-4-- 6K + 1 + +------2
K
w 213°K+7
ii H
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page 17

II. HORIZ. TRIANGULAR

RUNNING LOAD V = _w (a 2 + ac - 2c 2) HA = w(a2- c) _ HF
VL KX7
--I HF = _ + (2K +3)h WHERE:
X7 = w 13(4d5+b5) _ 15h(3d4+b 4) +
120h2(d-b)
a h 20h2(2d3+b 3) _ 15bd2(2h_d)2
FOR SPECIAL CASE: b=c=o, a=d=h:

wh
V = 6--L-- 2
HA _ _ HF wh2 HA =-- _ HF _
V V )
wh 7K
= 1 + 10(mE + 3)
12. HORIZ. TRIANGULAR

RUNNING LOAD V " _
w (2a + c)(a - c)
KX
HA = w(a 2 c) _ HF HF _ 2-_
- VL + h(2K I0
+ 3)
D --L I
WHERE:
I I
b
f=- i W
-30h2c (a2-c 2) + 20h2(a3-c 3)
Xlo = 120h2(a.c)
+ 15c(a4-c 4) - 12(a5-c 5)
h
FOR SPECIAL CASE: b=c=o, a=d=h:
wh 2
V = --
3L
_ HF
wh
V 1 ' HA =,_- - HF
HF=_ whI4K 2K+3+ 5 ]

Section B5
12 September 1961
Page 18

13. HORIZ. TRIANG_

RUbbING LOAD V " wl_a2 _ ac - 2c 2) MA MF
6L L L
w(a - c)
HA = 2 " HF
--- L
°I,II u
"F =
w( a2 +
"
ac - 2c 2)
i mh'
X8
" _
. x9(K-l)
_
WHERE:
X_ = ._.._w _ [15(h+b)(d4.b4 ) _ 12(d5_b 5)

60h2(d-b) | 3
i.Jc/
-20bh(d3-b3)I
HA ,../MA _._M F F Xo = ----_m [lOd2h2(2d.3b) + lObh(4d3+

60hZ(d-b) L
V V
b2h_b 3) _ d4(30h+15b) + 12d 5 + 3b 5 ]
J
MA "_"
Ew ac
0a2+
2c2x8
1
2(6K + I)
+ x9
_- [K +I 2 + 6K 3K
+ i]+X s
(3K + i)[ w(a2 + ac- 2c2)]. X8

6
MF 2(6K + I)
xsl
_'- K+ 1 2 6K+3K i 1
ii=....i.
FOR SPECIAL CASE: blclo , a=d=h

wh2K wh
V = 4L(6K + I) HA =-_ - HF
wh(3K + 4)
HF = 40(K + 2) HF wh 2 [ '2(6K+I)
=6-'_ 27K+7 K+2
MA wh2
" _O- I 27K
2(6K +
+ 7
I) + 3K +
K + 7 1
2
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page 19

14. HORIZ. TRIANGULAR

RUNNING LOAD V =w(2a + c)(a - c_ MA MF
6L L L
w(a c)
HA = 2 . HF
E
/ H w(2a2_ac.c 2) _ XII + XI2(K I)

F = 12h 2h 2h(K + 2)
where:
4 ]
r
5hd4-3d 5 -20hdb3-12b (d+h)

x = ----w--w I
II 60h2(d_b)
H "_-'-'_}B "_---_ I
F
X = w-----E-- 15 (h+c) (a4-c 4 ) 12(a5-c 5)
b.a_MF
A _A "_ 12 60h2(a_c) L
V V - 20ch(a3-c3)]
x,:l
MA = 2(6K + I)
x:2
+--2-- I K +1 2 + 6K 3K
+ I ]+X:I
I 3K+I](w(2a2-'ac-c2)
6 - XII ] _ X22
MF = 2(6K + i) 2
K+2 6K+l
FOR SPECIAL CASE:
P
3Kwh 2
HA " w__h_h
.
V = 4L(6K + I) 2
!HF wh(7K + II} wh 2 V97K+22 3 "

= 40(K + 2) MA = _-_ L 6K+I + K-_
f-
MF wh2
" _- I 21K
6K ++ 6i K +1 2'] Jl
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page 20

15. MOMENT ON HORIZ.

M
SPAN V _. w
L
H = 3(b - L/2)M
nh(2K + 3)
FOR SPECIAL CASE: a=o, b=L

M
I
V=-L _-_M
h I1
I i
3M i
H = 2h(2K + 3)'
l t
V V
16. MOMENT ON HORIZ.

SPAN V = 6(ab + L2K)M
L3(6K + i)
H = 3(b - a)M
2Lh(K + 2)
MA = M -6ab(K+2) - L [a(7K+3) - b(5K-l)l

J
b 2L 2 (K+2) (6K+I)
ME = VL - M - MA
FOR SPECIAL CASE: a=o, b=L
V V
V _._
L<I+ 6_) CM I
{
3M i
H -
2h(K + 2)
(sK- I)M
IdA " 2(K + 2)(6K + I)
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page 21

17. MOMENT ON SIDE SPAN

M 3 [K(2ab+a 2) + h_M
V=-- H =
C D L
2h3(2K + 3)
'6 " I' _b
FOR SPECIAL CASE: a-o, b--h
M
, h Ii_ V = --
L f-_M
b _----- L -P
f k
3M
H____ A _L E H =
2h(2K + 3)
lv q) q)
1'8. MOMENT ON SIDE SPAN

6bKM 3bM [2a(K+l) + b ]
V= H
hL(6K + I) 2h 3 (K + 2)
y--L -M
[ 4a 2+2ab+b2+K (26a2-5b2)
MA = 2h2(K+2)(6K+I)
b + 6aK2(2a-b)]
_ ! 12
BM:
ME =VL-M-M A
b
r I FOR SPECIAL CASE: a=o ; b=h
!A _
__._,- E
_,_
H 6KM I
V =
MA_-J L(6K + i)
V
3M
H=
2h(K + 2)
= M(5K- i)
MA 2(K + 2)(6K + I)
Section B5
15 February 1970
Page 22
B 5.1.4 Particular Solution of Bents and Semicircular Arches _Cont'd)

Triangular Bents (C,:'_'d)
19. VERT. CONCENTRATED

LOAD VA = Q - VD
Re
VD =L
_ Re rb d _a+c) ]
= h Li + 2a2(K + i) J
20. VERT. CONCENTRATED

LOAD VA =Q - VD
]
D L L - 2a 2 J
, 4, 6La_h(K+l) [L + 2(2L+b)(a+c) + 3ac
M = ^qcd r(a+d)(BK+4) - 2(a+c)]

A 6a_(K+l) L J
qc2d
MD 2a2(K + I)
21. HORIZ. CONCENTRATED

LOAD
C
!H
,A=Q -H D
d _h+c) ]
2h2(K + i)
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page 23

Triangular Bents (Cont'd)
22. HORIZ. CONCENTRATED r- ]
LOAD v 11- 1 = L 2h 2 J; HAQ Ho= -

C
HD = Qc b + d (h+d)(-b[3K+4] - 2L)
4 va_ q_- b --_r Lh' 6h2(K+I) [ I]
+ 2(2L+b)(h+e) + 3acl
1
e _MD
HA _ I_ HD
MA qcd + , I) [ (h+d)(3K+4)
= 6h2(K - 2(h+c) I
V V
MD = _cd . (h + 2c + d)
6h2(K + i)
23. VERTICAL UNIFORM

RUNNING LOAD VA = wa I - a_2L]
' B wa 2
Vc = 2-i-
1_ ii_j _S 2 I2
H = wa2
8-_- 14b
l- + 1 +-----f
i ]
24. VERTICAL uNIFORM

RUNNING LOAD V A = wa ! I 3a 3wa 2
I - 8-_ : VC -- 8L
LB 12 wa
H __
24Lh(K + i) b(10 + 9K) + 2L + a ]
S2
wa2{3K + 2)
MA = 24(K + I)
2
VA VC._ H wa
M =
___ "dMc c 24(K + i)
L_D-
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page24

Triangular Bents (Cont'd)
25. HORIZ. UNIFORM

wh 2
RUNNING LOAD V :
2L
W
I1 12
_A = wh
wh 4b
i Hc
_c "_- _-+_ K+I
HA _I_ . _
vf L----_v
26. HORIZ. UNIFORM 3wh 2
RUNNING LOAD
8L
_A " wh -M C
k_
wh
[ b(3K + 4) + a]
_ 8L(K + I)
wh2(SK+ 2) wh 2
_A " 24(K + I) MC = 24(K + I)
V V
27. APPLIED MOMENT M

AT APEX
L
!s,iJ _'_h'L .I.b1 K+I
L L!
vr
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page 25

Triangular Bents and Semicircular Frames
or Arches (Cont'd)
28. APPLIED MOMENT

AT APEX 3M
V =
2L
H = 3M(a - bK)
2he(K + I)
/
KM
MA = 2(K + I)
_- b M
MC = 2(K + I)
b_ S.
c
jMc
L -T
V V
29. S INUSOIDAL
_k C_R
NORMAL PRESSURE V -
4
CR
I 4
b(Ib/in.)
M0 - CR24 [(n-28)cos 8 - _ + 3 sin Q]
(Positive moment acts clockwise on

f *V b=c sin@ Vt section ahead.)
Section B5
12 September 1961
Page26
Table B 5.1.4 Reactions and Constraining Moments in

Semicircular Frames or Arches (Cont'd)
30. S INUSOIDAL
NORMAL PRESSURE
C_R
V -
4
b(Zb/in.)
13_8 2 _2- 32 ] = 31974CR
H=_L
M_ CR2 [_3i0_.]_
- = .05478CR 2
4 8 2
F
/
M 0 = CR 2 |.81974 sin 0
b=C sin0 rv
cosO
- .s4018 + -7-- _ - o) }
(7
(Positive moment acts clockwise on

section ahead.)
31 • UN IFORM NORMAL
PRESSURE
I
M m 0 at all points since pin points
permit a uniform hoop tension.
T, where :
T m V = bR
in. )
H_O
It
Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 27
B5.2.0 Analysis of Arbitrary Ring by Tabular Method
The following analysis is a corrected version of work taken

originally from Reference 6.
Rings or frames with ends built in, elastically restrained, or

pinned may be analyzed by the procedure outlined in this section. The
procedure is given in tabular form (Table B5.2.0-1) with added notes to
f-
define the sequence to be followed.
A sample problem is given in See. B5.2.1 to illustrate the pro-

cedure. This sample problem considers the energy due to direct and shear
loads. The effects of shear flow are presented as a supplement to the
sample problem.
Procedure
Procedure to Obtain Initial Geometric and Elastic Data
(i) Set out the neutral axis of the ring between the end points T
and O. (In a complete ring T and O coincide.)
(2) Divide the neutral axis into a _umber of segments which are
conveniently but not necessarily of equal length As. Ten to
twenty segments will usually give sufficient accuracy. Mark
the Joints and central points of the segments. In symmetrical
rings a complete segment should lie each side of the axis of
symmetry.
(3) Calculate the values As/E1, As/EA, As/GA' at the segment

centers.
(4) For a built-in ring, calculate a and b from equation (I) below
which defines the elastic center C and the axes X' and Y' (See
Figures B5.2.0-I and -2.)
For a pinned-end ring, no translation of axes from 0 is necessary.

Use the X and Y axes as they are defined in Figures B5.2.0-3
and -4,
(5) For a built-in ring obtain the co-ordinates x', y', and the angles
_' at the segment centers. For a pinned ring obtaiL_ x, y, and
directly. In syLi_etrica] rings only half the ring need be con-
sidered.
Section B5
July 9,1968
Page 28
B 5.2.0 Analysis of Arbitrary Ring by Tabular Method (Cont!d)
Angles Measured Positive

in Direction of
Arrow 5 4
fo -- 3
9 / '
Neutral_
Fig. B5.2.0-I General Ring with Built-ln Ends
y Note : e=O
i
Neutral 7 6
9 ' 4 X
2 j
0 T
Fig. B5.2.0-2 Symmetrical Built-ln Ring

Section B5
July 9,1968
Page 29
B 5.2.0 Analysis of Arbitrary Ring by Tabular Method (Cont'd)
6 5 4
Fig. B 5.2.0-3 General Ring with Pinned End
7 6
Neutral Axis
9 4
_S 3
"%\1 71/'
O T
Fig. B 5.2.0-4 Symmetrical Pinned-End Ring

Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 30
(6) Note that _, 8, and _' are measured as shown in Figure B5.2.0-I.
The angle must originate at the end coming from O, and be measured
counterclockwise to the end going to T.
For the slope of the tangent to the neutral axis of the element,
use the slope at the midspan of the element.
NOTE : As/EA and As/GA' are not usually required, since in

most cases the thrust and shear energies are negligible
compared with the bending energy.
General Notes
I. Limits of Application
The method may be applied to any ring or curved beam in which the
deflections are linear functions of the loads and in which the
elementary formula connecting curvature and bending moment holds.
II. Calculations
(1) The advantage of choosing X, Y, and Mc as redundant reactions is

due to their orthogonality. Thus, one can calculate them directly
without having to solve simultaneous equations.
(2) The calculations are shown in tabular form using finite segments.
Graphical integration may also be used and in exceptional cases an
analytical method may be applied.
(3) The referenced table is set out for an arbitrary built-in ring, but
is also applicable when the supports T and 0 "give" elastically
(See General Note III, 6.) In all other cases the size of the table
is reduced but the form is essentially the same. A considerable
reduction in the numerical work is possible when the ring is
symmetrical (See notes IV and VI.)
(4) In practice certain steps of the calculation may be conveniently

done with additional columns, e.g., for x and y one requires x'
cos @, etc.
(5) Numerical Accuracy. Although the data in columns 1-6 and 24-26
will not exceed three-figure accuracy it is necessary to retain
four or five figures in the remaining columns in order that the
final results shall be correct to three figures.
Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 31
III. Arbitrary Built-In Ring (Fig. B 5.2.0-i)
#- Equations required and the stage at which they are used are as
follows:
Z x o As
E1
(i) a .
F
YO &s
b=
E1
(2) After column 12,
A_Ks _ As
2Ex'y' E1 >; sin 2_h' _,(
tan 20 =
.,) As 2, r_, As As
y,(x 'rz - y' _-- >; cos GA'
x = x' cos 0 + y' sin 0; y = y' cos 0 - x' sin 0.
(3) M , N , and S are calculated for tile ring built in at T and

.0 0 0
tree at O.
(4) After colunu_ 33,

,f-
As
-EMoY _ + _3N o cos _' _
As _ LSo sin _" As
_,
X = -
Z'Y_ As .-, _, As As
Section B5
July 9,1968
Page 32
B 5.2.0 Analysis of Arbitrary Ring by Tabular Method (Cont'd)
As As As
EM ox _-__
_I + ZN o sin _- es o cos _--
GA'
y
As As As
Zx2 _ + _ sin2 _ E-A + _ c°se _ G--A'
As
ZM --
o E1
M = -
c As
It. E-"_
(5) After column 39,
M : M c- Xy + Yx + M °
N = N + Xcos _ + Y sin
0
S " S + X sin _ - Ycos

o
(6) Effect of Elastic Supports. The elastic characteristics at

the supports T and O are represented by the two sets of three
coefficients, kTm , kTn, krs; kom, kon, koS. Thus kTm is the
moment required to rotate T through one radian, k la is the
force required to move T in a direction defined by $_ through
unit distance, and kTS is the force required to move T in a
direction normal to _ through unit distance. At each
support the rotation and the two displacements are assumed

elastically orthogonal, i.e., when a force is applied to the
support T in the direction @_ , there is no rotation and no
movement normal to _$
For the purposes of the calculations the support flexibilities

may be represented by two additional segments considered con-
centrated at T and O, of which the "elastic weights" are
respectively:
As i As 1 As 1
E1 _m' EA kTn' GA' kTS '
As I As 1 As I
Section B5
July 9,1968
"r Page33
B 5.2.0 Analysis of Arbitrary Rin_ by Tabular Method _Cont'd>
! !
r-- Note that _T and _0 need not necessarily be the values of

_' at T and O. The values above and coordinates are entered
in rows T and 0 of the table.
IV. Symmetrical Built-ln Ring (Fig. B 5.2.0-2)
(I) CY is the line of symmetry and columns 4-12 are not required
as X, Y1and _ are calculated directly.
(2) Any loading may be analyzed as a symmetrical and an anti-

symmetrical loading.
(3) For Iymmetrical loading Y is statically determinate, being

half the total load in the direction YC and should hence be
included in the external loading. Thus in the table, columns

18, 20, 23, 28, 30, 33, 35, 38, and 39 are not required, and
in the expressions for M, N, S terms involving Y are omitted.
X and Mc are determined from the formulas in III (4).
(4) For antisymmetrical loading X and M c are statically determinate

being half the total load in the direction XC and equal and
opposite to half the moment of the external load about C
respectively; they should hence be included in the external
loading. Thus, in the table, columns 19, 21, 22, 27, 29, 31,
32, 34, 36, and 37 are not required, and in the expressions
for M, N, S the terms involving M c and X are omitted. Y is
determined from the formula in III (4).
(5) Note that only half the ring need be considered in the table,
i.e., elements 7-12 and support 0 . For symmetrical loading
M and N are symmetrical and S antisymmetrical. For anti-
symmetrical loading M and N are antisymmetrical and S symmet-
rical. The summations are, of course, only to be taken over
half the ring.
(6) When the supports have symmetrical elastic characteristics the

method of this section still applies by introducing an addi-
tional segment at O, as described in III (6).
V. Arbitrary Pinned Ring (Fig. B 5.2.0-3)
(I) Columns 4, 12, 18, 20, 23, 27, 28, 30, 33, 35, 38, and 39 are
not required.
(2) Y is statically determinate and should hence be included in

the external loadillg.
(3) X is determined from the formula in Ill (4).

Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 34
B5.2.0 Analysis of Arbitrary Ring by Tabular _Method (Cont'd)
(4) The formulas for M, N, and S are:
M • Mo - Xy; N - No + X cos _ ; S = So * X sin _.
(5) Effect of Elastic Supports. In this case the procedure of

III (6) should be applied, noting that the terms kTm , kom
do not exist.
Vl. Symmetrical Pinned Ring (Fig. B5.2.0-4)
(i) Any loading may be analyzed as a symmetrical and an anti-

symmetrical loading.
(2) For symmetrical loading, the load Y at O is obviously half

the total load in the direction Y, and only half the ring need
be considered in the table, i.e., elements 7-12 and support O.
Otherwise, the procedure is the same as in the general case.
(3) For antisymmetrical loading X is statically determinate, being

half the total load in the direction X. Thus, in this case the
problem is solved purely by statics.
(4) When the supports have symmetrical elastic characteristics the

method of this section still applies. For the symmetrical loading
an additional segment should bu introduced at O, as described in
IV (6) and V (5).
Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 35
Notation
A : cross-sectional area
A' = effective area of cross section for shear stiffness
C : elastic center : centroid of elastic weights As/E1
E = Young's modulus
G = shear modulus
I = moment of inertia of cross section
k : elastic constants of supports T and O (see note 111,6)
Mc - moment at elastic center in fixed ring

Mo, No, SO - bending moment, direct load, and shear load in ring
supported at T, due to external loading and any of
the reactions X, Y, and Mc, which may be statically
determined (e.g., in a pinned ring Y is always
statically determined). M o is positive for com-
pression in outer fibers. N o is positive for com-
pression and So is positive when acting outwards on
the right-hand side of a section (Subscripts do not
refer to point "O")
M, N, S • total bending moment, direct load, and shear load at

any section. Sign convention as for Mo, No, SO
O = origin, or left-hand e,d point of ring
T s terminus, or right-hand end point of ring or cross-sectional
area of ring
s - length of segment
xo, Yo" co-ordinates referred to arbitrary orthogonal axes
OX', OY' of built-in ring
_' - angle def_nlng slope of neutral axis of built-in ring,
with respect to CX'

xp y = co-ordinates referred to geometric and elastic
orthogonal axes CX, CY of built-ln ring; or, co-
ordinates referred to orthogonal axes OX, OY of
pinned ring, where OX passes through T
8 - angle between CX' and CX
- angle defining slope of neutral axis for built-ln
ring, with respect to CX(_ = _' -
X, Y = reactions in directions CX, CY at elastic center for
built-in ring, or in directions OX, OY for pinned
ring
x',y' , coordinates referred to geometric and elastic orthogonal
axes CX' and CY' of built-in ring
Section B5
July 9,1968
Page 36
[e__]
gV sVJ ' _Z uT
!
o
L_
Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 37
/f
"0
X
v
!
0
i
Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 38
o=
v
I
0
Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 39
,aO
÷ cO
¢q '.0 I
p_
on
4- oO
t_ ¢,3
Z ¢,q ._.
tr3
-a-on
¢.4 "4-
4,, --..1"
o
p_
,.-.4
O_
on
o
oO
on
!
o ,--4
p-.
o4 on soo X H_
_u._s X 0 X
¢0 Z_
<
E-4 co
u_ X X
oO >*
>4
on
bO -,-4
0
I
Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 40
B5.2.1 Sample Problem
The frame to be analyzed in this sample problem is the symmetrical

built-ln ring illustrated in Figure 5.2.1-1. The ring is divided into 24
segments for this problem. The section properties at the center of each
segment are used as average values for the entire segment. A typical cross
section of the ring is shown in Figure 5.2.1-2.
The necessary calculations to determine the magnitudes of M, N_and

S at each segment are shown in tabular form on pages 42 through 46. The
results have been plotted on graphs, which are shown on pages 47 through 49.
The problem data, statement, and conditions follow.
Given :
P = I00 Ib Ra = 47 in. 6
Q : I00 Ib E I0 x I0 psi
M = I000 in.-Ib C = 3.85 x 106 psi
R = 50 in. A = 11 x l
o
A' = 5/6 A (See Ref. 7)
Problem:
Determine the bending moment M, direct load N, and shear

load S for the given conditions by use of Sec. B5.2.0.
Section B5
July 9,1968
B5.2. i Page 41
Sample Problem (Cont'd)
>
>
/
0
o |
O_
Imaginary Rigid
Bracket
Figure B5.2.1-1 Frame for Sample Problem
_-" 1.0 in.
Section A-A
Figure B5.2. 1-2 Typical Frame Cross Section
Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 42
B5.2. i Sample Problem (Cont'd)
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
.=
AS AS AS r_
Segment X i _q ¢q
!
or EI EA GA'
0
o
Points
Operations m this row described in terms of column numbers
T 10-6 10_-6 10-e

1 .11608 .24631 .76774
2 .05156 .18591 .57946
3 •11608 .24631 .76774
4 .11608 .24631 .76774
5 .05156 .18591 .57946
6 .I1608 .24631 .76774
7 .11608 .24631 .76774
8 .05156 .18591 .57946

9 .11608 24631 .76774
p"
10 •11608 [.24631 .76774
II .05156 .18591 .57946
i
12 .11608 .24631 .76774 Columns 4 through 12 not required
13 .11608 .76774 for a symmetrical built-in ring;
.24631
14 .05156 18591 .57946
15 .11608 _24631 .76774
16 .I1608 .76774
1.24631
17 .05156 i.18591 .57946
18 .11608 .24631 .76774
19 .11608 .24631 .76774
20 .05156 .18591 .57946
21 .11608 • 24631 .76774
22 .11608 .24631 .76774
23 .05156 .18591 .57946
24 .11608 •24631 .76774
0
E 2.26979 Sum of Columns
Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 43
B5.2.1 Sample Problem (Cont'd)
9 i0 iI 12 13 14 15 16 17
W ! !
Y
_9
! 0
g_ _9 0
O
o
4x 5x I (42 _5 z ) (2-3) (2-3)

×i x7 ×8
See Note IV(i)

47. 070 6. 197 277.5 .99144 .i3051
43. 15_5 17. 875 292.5 .92387 .38267
37. 666 28. 902 307.5 .79334 .60875
28. 902 37. 666 322.5 - 60875 .79334
17. 875 43. 155 337.5 -. 38268 .92387
6. 197 47. O7O 352.5 • 13051 •99144
- 6. 197 47. O7(} 7.5 • 13051 .99144
_J
-17. 875 4:]. 155 22.5 .38267 .92387
-28. 9(12 37.(;(i(i 37.5 .60875 .79334
CD
-37. G(i(; 28. D02 52.5 .79334 .60875
.,-4
0 i -43. 155 17. 875 67.5 .92387 .38267
07O 6. 197 82.5 .99[44 .13051
070 -6. 197 97.5 .99144 -•13051
-43. 155 -17. 875 I12.5 .92387 -.38267
-37. (;66 -28.902 127.5 • 79334 -.60875
-28. 902 -37. 666 142.5 .60875 -.79334
-17. 875 -43. 155 157.5 •38267 -.92387
m - 6. 197 -47. 070 172.5 .13051 -.99144
G. 197 -17. 070 187.5 .13051 -.99144
o %
17. 875 --13.155 202.5 •38268 -•92387
o2
2_. 902 -37. (;6(; 2[7.5 •60875 -.79334
37. (;(it; -2_. 902 232.5 .79334 -.60875
43. 155 -17.875 247 5 •92387 -.38267
47. 070 I_ 6.1!)7 262.5 •991.44 .13051
J
Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 44
B5. 2. I Sample Problem (Cont'd)
18 19 2O 21 22 23 24 25 26
M o No So
% 0 % o
u) o o
t3Zxl 14 I 16zx2 172x2 162×3 172×3 See Note II1(3)
10-6 10-_ 10 -6 10 -6 10 ±_ 10 -6
257.19 4.46 .24212 .00420 .75466 .01308 11. 7 .246 • 320

96.02 16.47 .15868 .02722 .49459 .08485 • 9 2.356 .962
164.69 96.96 .15503 .09128 •48322 .28451 16. 2 1.661 1.441
96,96 164.69 •09128 .15503 .28451 .48322 22. 7 -1.996 • 957
16.47 96.02 .02722 .15868 _,08485 .49459 -1. 7 -8.366 -1,251
4.46 257.19 •00420 .24212 •01308 .75466 -63.0 -16.810 -5.799
4.46 257.19 •00420 ,24212 013o8 .75466 -211.2 -26•356 -13.065
16.47 96.02 .08485 .49459 -500.6 -35.790 -23.116
.02722 .15868
96.96 164.69 .09128 .15503 .28451 .48322 -880.3 -43.784 -35,664
164.69 96.96 .15503 •09128 .48322 .28451 -1457.8 -49.024 -50.058
96,02 t6.47 .15868 .02722 .49459 .08485 -2259.2 -50.361 -65,318
257.19 4.46 .24212 .00420 .75466 -3169.8 -46.935 -80,198
257,19 4.46 .24212 .00420 .75466 -2527.4 47.798 18.909
96.02 16.47 .15868 _02722 .49459 708485 -2244_8 29.656 27,523
164.69 96.96 .15503 .09128 .48322 .28451 -1920.2 12.470 31.835
•28451 .48322 -2.385
96.96 164.69 .09128 •15503 -1535.4 32,319
16.47 96.02 .02722 .15868 .08485 1.49459 -1166.6 -13.896 29.736
4.46 257.19 .00420 ,24212 .01308 .75466 -814.6 -21.484 25,028
4.46 257.19 •00420 • 24212 .01308 .75466 -532•4 -25. 028 19.205
16.47 96.02 •02722 .15868 .08485 .49459 -337.5 -24.849 13.224
96.96 164.69 • 09128 .15503 .28451 .48322 -171. 4 -21,647 7.890
164.69 96.96 .15503 .09128 .48322 .28451 -81. 4 -16.406 3,772
96.02 16.47 •15868 .02722 .49459 .08485 -41.4 -10,278 1. i5t
257.19 4.46 .24212 .00420 .75466 .01308 -11.2 -4.448 0.000
2543. 16 2543.16 2.7141 2.7141 8.45964 8.45964_'.__
*Calculations on pages 50 through 53

Section B5
July 9,1968
Page 45
27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
U3 < U3 <
U_ L0
,3
Lt_ t-4 03 03
_.1 -,q O -r4 0 x >*
09 O 03 U
O O O O O O 0
z Z O3
See Note 111(5)
24x I 24×13×i 24x 14xl 25x 16x2 125xt7x2 26x16x3: 26x17x3 Xxt4 Yxt3
10-6 10-6 10-6 10 -6 i0-6 10-6 10-6
-1.35 -63.7 -8.4 -.06000 .00791 -.24357 .03206 32.403 -1193.318

.2O 8.7 3.6 -.40466 .16761 -.51500; .2[332 93.465 _-i094.065
i .88 70.7 54.2 '''t- . 32457 .24905 -.87768 .67347 151.123 -954.908
2.64 76.2 99.4 .29928 -.39003 -.44727 .58289 196.948 -732.723
-.09 -I .6 -3.7 .59519 -1.4369 .27741 -.66972 225.649 -4,53. [ 67
-7.31 -45.3 -344. t .54037 -4.1050 .58105 -4.4140 246.120 -157.106
-24.52 152.0
)
-li54.2 F-.84724 -6.4362 -1. 3091 -9.9447 246.120 157 .106
-25.81 461.4 -1113.9 -2.5462 -6.1472 -5.1259 -12.375 225.649 453 .167
-102.19 2953.4 -3849.0-6.5650-8.5568 -16.668 -21.722 196.948 732.723
_169.22 6374.0 -4890.0 -9.5797 -7.3507 -30.489 -23.395 151.123 954.908
-116.48 5026.7 -2082.1-8. 6498 -3.5828 -34.968 -14.484 93.465 1094.065
-367.97 17320.4 -2280.2 -11.462 -1.5088 -61.044 -8.036 32.403 1193.318
-293.39 13810.1 1818.2 11.672 -1.5365 14.393 -1.895 -32.403 1193.318
-115.74 4994.7 2068.9 5.094 -2.1098 14.734 -6.103 -93.465 1094.065
-222.90 8395.8 6442.3 2. 437 1.8698 19.390 -14.878 -151.123 954.908

6713.2 !- .3576
-178.23 5151.2 .46605 15.10.5 -[9.685 -196.948 732.72
-60.14 1075.1 2595.6 -.9886 2.3867 6.594 -15.919 -255.649 453.1 67
-94.56 586.0 4450.9 -.6906 5.2464 2.508 -19.051 -246.120 157.1 06
-61.80 -382.9 2908.8 .8046 6.1119 -1.924 -14.618 -246.120 -157.1 06
f -17.40 750.9 !1.7679 4.2679 -2.932 -'7.079 -225.649 -453. l 67

-19.89 749.3 3. 2458 4.2300 -3.688 -4.806 -196.948 -732.723
-9.45 -355.8 273.0 13.2059 2.4599 -2.267 -] .763 -151.123 -954.9 08
-2.13 -92.1 38.1 1.7654 .7312 -.6162 -.25523 -93.465 -1094.0 7
-1.30 -61.3 8. I i. 0862 .143 0.0000 0.00000 -32.403 -1193.32
-18.563 -89.533 -199.59

-1887.15 64567.7 13248.01 -9.9626
Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 46
36 37 38 39 40 41 42
O .= O M N
o o
X >.
See Note HI (5) M c + '24 25+ 37 26 + 36
X× 16 Xx 17 Y× 16 Yx17 -34 +35 + 38 - 39
-5.184 .682 25.135 -3. 309 -406.0 26.063 -1.555

-4.831 2.001 23.422 -9.702 -352.3 27.779 5.83_
-4.148 3.183 20.113 -15.433 -258.4 24.957 12.726
4. 148 15.433 -20.113 17.585 17.887
4.831 9.702 -23.422 6.167 20.170
-.682 5.184 3.309 -25.135 365.2 -8.317 18.654
.682 5.184 -3.309 -25.135 531.2 -24.481 12.752
2.001 4.831 -9.702 -23.422 558.4 -40.661 2.307
3.183 4.148 -15.433 -20.113 486.9 -55.069 -12.368
4.148 3. !83 -20.113 -15.433 177.4 -65.954 -30.477
4. 831 2.001 -23.422 -9.702 -427.2 -71.782 -5O.785
5.184 .682 -25.135 -3.309 -1177.5 -71.388 -71.705
_.184 -.682 -25.135 3.309 -470.3 2'i.981 20.784
4.831 -2.001 -23.422 9.702 -225.8 4.233 22.652
4.148 -3.183 -20.i13 15.433 17.2 -10.826 20.550
-15.433 20.113 225.6 -21.966 15.389
-9.702 23.422 343.6 -28.429 8.315
-3. 309 25.135 420.0 -29.997 .575
3. 309 25.135 388.0 -26.903 -6.612
9.702 23.422 266.3 -19.978 -12.199
15.433 20.113 124.2 -10.362 -15.406
20.113 15.433 -53.8 .524 -15.809
23.422 9.702 -210.6 11. 143 -13. 382
25.!35 3. 309 -34o.? 26.005
July 9, 1908
Page 47
: : i
• " i : .....
• | '''
:i ...... i........ i........
...'. . •
i": ':
.... | ....... , .....
•,i....i ........
.._..! ;_-;i[ .....
• .' : ".. 1 ...

, l
; : :
S I i
"1 "" i r l
[
:.:fill ' :.'>.iii .'I i.,,:-,;-:i,; :t ,, ,:'. :,"
: , • , ", ':'.. I ]
: i
!..,:1. .... : i ...._
:!'" _:"_ .... i .................
,1.. i .... i • ;
!
,i..... ; i" ':: ..] ..,.....,.........:::::::::::::::::::
"', .'I: " "• ' :""
I "." .:..'::" :'.':: ....
.... ":'l "". .... :': ":;: ::1.::::
• , , : : ,,. ,
l , : ": ;',,::':::I
'. ". I ! , ......

:: I
Segment (See Fig. B5.2.1-1)!
Figure B5.2. I-3 Bending Moment Diagram of Sample Problem

Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 48
Figure B5.2. t-4 Shear Diagram of Sample Problem v

I;'L 'l: :: ;
.:::".'.:'::". V.':'::':I ::"::':
: ". l':..::.'"! " ::'::
" ":1:':"• '"'
." ' ":':
"s'.::--": _:'"
• " !:
: ' I . :" . : L ":
" I:"::':" • .: "' : ":i
:L• - ....
i'i'i]lt5 2• I S;irnldC i)roi,l('rn ICont'd) .:: :::.::i..iLF:r :.....:1', .... ::i: "} :l . } • }:... . • : . .. 'i
. " .. ....... . .... : .-_-.*'"
."%'.'"---.*:-.'-."'--.: . ............. ............... . : . .
_/...:hl..'i-_7-:..-.,T-.-::.!7.:i_;!:.:iiT_!:.i:.:.L:: l::i:::i i::. : .!. !.. .I:_ !: i :.

_i: :.:.I ..:': :! :!:.. i i ::_:.i _ i..;;. .F.:: i... i.: .. i : .. :;.... _l:_.i.4 i
I'--o-: o-'_. ....... "-'I'--":--.:','-'T"T"" : .... '.':'"I: ......... _,.--:::--"I'." ........ ! ..... :'d': ...... ::,_": ..... : ...... .q........ |_.:::::'":" "': : ....... : ..... :" "':
:.." ! " ." "i.':'i '" ' : "i'" i. ": :'.J. .:'.L ' ..' ': " : " i" . ""._1 : "':" • " ! '" '
I-IL...L-;:.I i :_::i:...:I_.:.
!...L:.L.::!....:.:.;
....:::::::::::::::::::::::::-:.:;..]..
i:.:.::....i:.-l:i..i:::.ii.-!:.:.;l:i:.:.:..!
....:...:.. i:.. i .....
l:i :...;!i i.:ii_l:::;...!...:..;..: : .. ! ....._.::.;..,:....._..:.. .:::..,::.;.:.. ....!..;.:..!::..;.:, .: ....... ....
.... • |.'" : . •• • .'.l• Jt • " : ": • " .... , |' " ; ; : • : • • : : • :•
i ........... .... •
I:::• ..:..I.... .: .....

.... '
: ".:'.I" ". • I ::.:" "
'. "
..' " ! "".J
: " '
: '; " : ", ......
"i
• "I";'. : .... I .... I
:':.: ...... I :"
"'" J_ ;""' •: ; "
i'"
:!'_'..:: .... !--I;I,'i • i ---: ::;-- i :::. _ i:: ;:::i:-, -.i._ i.-. : • ;!.!i _- '- ; "-_.i .! .- "" .... i......... ":' ""
li::.:::...;-... I. ....__. : : _::.i: :_. ! :: i_:::.i.I... ::.i:: .: :.i .:_:_i;...r ..li:._. _ .:.: . i ' i .:ii.
lli:Ti :1 ii :i i i:i__ i:: i i, i,::l ::: i:!_::l i :+:;: ; ;:1 : i
..... I...... I' : "l' :" • "1" : :' ":.. ":" " ': ;'.: 1 • ..... :..l .....
"" : .... ," ",". •
...; • :: • ,.
i ....... ... .... I ....: . . . : .. . '""'"
.,...1;;..{ ..... . ' -:.
............ "'. ..... : : .... "" [ : ,. :..: • I .'.
...... : I .......
:::i..'...: ....... I : . .
: " : I I ......... i ....... I ....... :l l , '':" t ": "" .: " .' ........ : • ,':. : "" ..
• " . ._ ..i... i...:..:;_
::.;'" , . , . . ,. , . ." , . . , . _ ":.. . I_ | . _ " | ' " _ .I.
'_! I_ ,_i;'' • i:.. i:! ' :_i:"':i.:. I.., .i .... : :I...

!:,,::; •l Y :i; I:i ,i ",; : :., : I, ;'...:
..... -- ....................................... ' ................ _ "".,l' ....... I ....... | ................ : .... : "" ": : ....... : .... : .....
:. -I " " " :" ..":: . :' : " : • ;
I::..,_1...L
• ''. ' • • ":
,.. " I_1
.._ :
I_: _, _-,,I._ ."ri.;.;.......I I ; ": ::
, ._ :__ .......... '
:....
:""
l_.l--"'! i. .-".:: , " • '-'!" ,', '" . -' T -"; . . ' ;

!_".-_-! " I " : ::.... : :_ _! ' I I : % i • i I': .'i''_"'i" '': " "
_:: :.,I...; !:............

":;"
:.........
.-_"
,_.
.......
!.:.'..:: -=....,-t.....
I:..,-',..:,
.........
_...-:
......_ i_..::i..._
: "
..... "," i :" I]; " ' " I ." , " " " • ' " : "
:" ...... •: •
'::: Pi" I • ' ;" ; ": I_L : t" • "1 ' ! " I ; "t :'" " F ": 'i
::.... I.::i" :1" :!" 'i::':i" _ " !k: '; :."l: ..... !' I :'1 .... , "" ':'1 ...... _' "" r :" 'T" ' ! "" ';' :
_i!i_.] ;; ! .... i.-._:.: ....... !\ ....I......::1::......:II...:! ;:;i .... ! ..... _£.:....i:_;....._......... i. ;
'.-,,':T, ..... " "' "! " • l ' _ "' I I ' _' ";:
..... • ,: ...... ! . : . ;
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",
......:..... :, " : I I
• ........... : _ : • • ,
....... .... • , ! i , : r__
................
,:....... . ...... _ I
ITS::-
:i: Ii:: i ::\ i: ii: ', i : i::: i
,':_;i: i : : :_'. ';" :_ "" ' i:.:' r • I ; : • .I .':'" I .:: : i " ] I
........
.."--:...!
.................|,,..I...:--::
; • .....
..:.:...,
''
......... 1I........
...... i'-::' ......
:l "........
"1__
'' :%'::':"
. " _ ..
I ........ "I
..
.......
• ! :
:
,,1
....
!
.:
.:.I
•'"":r .... I .....
.'::
• i .........
' _ •l_ _1'" ......
'' • I
....,ll....,., t..l.. 1,.,.....i,.,....
...... ,_,;...._, .,L._
• _ :':":"
........ "::
.., '!1"1,
...,,. " ,.r.' ' 1" " • : III
'" I,d .......
'
' ;:
"t.,,, " "
'
'.
'
'.
iL'._2:.I-..:... I ...... ;..... :'-": ....... ..I.......... ;. .-:1 ...... :;.: ..."1 -..---..- -.;.';: ..........
::::::; " i '. i. i ! ; :';i: _'- -'_ :i:Y :
i{:::!._;i .. : .:! " i: !: ::! : • ., _i:!il ' " i .:;[;:-
•":-E::._-ta": ........ :;.... :.-.: .:--:-'.-:-.: ....... k-i ---! .... ;'t--.=1.,-;; i'i;:: ...... !........ :!'-;H'i'i,"
........ _ ............. ,...: ..:.;
:::;':: ..... • • : '::: : '. : i ..1',] ; I!! :.1_;: +_ _ii,!__ . • ..:_::::'.::;;:;;
_i_ii_!:::l
i: :: " :.:j !:: " :::.i.... I: :ItL I!i : "!!i_i;:. :l: !;-:;1::. :-.!....:..,!...."-'l_;:;!;-i.::!.. • :;::_i:_i_!i
•,":---_;=._.- .... -=...;:..- ............ L .......... ".... _..',_=-...=_ ...... ,....... :,....... I ..... "'", .... ",............ •...... I :";":'I'.-.':'::';':";"E;
::. ':: :: . ' • I ' ! " " " ;- " I _ I " "|: ": "| " " ' ' : '1 " , I, : i "| : ; " _ _ :'" i :i I : I
::" :" 1"" ....

:::":::'::: i • : ..::1 .. .,:
! ..... . ::.,..:
.;:.: ::-......
::: ", ,";....""1........ ,.......
: :;.:':'.,,i
: • ':.... "'"":"':I
.'".." '":' ;................
:.::'::::':" I .........
:::::':::" " _....
'::':'::"
::'-'-_:T-_:'..:
....
:_,,|,,,.. ..... ,
• .......
-'" i" ,
... , _ ,...:L.,::
_ .....
_..,.:::L.;;;_...;_I: .: .l::".:J'W::::
,, ,,,;., ; '-":,-"
I, :""'1
• - _
'1""".""
.. ........
:1
':: ::;:,! " • ,I-- : ,,i " .... I : ..'. :.._( gll t'rh (S(_(' |' Ig I},) 2 1- ! _' I..... I:'" :': • ": "'!" :'; ..... :" :'.:::::::1
:;::'"::r .i 'I : i "":.,-.':""; ' • • : h .,,,,_t_'..;.. I .... I:.'.; .... I:":":: "'" :1 '" '::!! !
__.-,.l:;'''-::"' " " • ; • • • I " " ",.4._." I . : " ." "" I ..... ' ..... I !-'_'- _ ,-_" -_"''-": -!'! ..... "''_ ....... "
Fig_ure B5.2. I-5 Direct Load Diagram of Sample Problem

Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 50
The values for Mo, No, and S o are calculated and shown in the tables
on pages 52 and 53. The necessary formulas for computing the shear flows
are shown below. In these equations, counterclockwise shear flow is con-
sidered positive.
Figure B5.2. t-6 Symbols and Sign Conventions for Computation of

Mo, N o and So
P -M
qPot = lrR---o sin _ qM_ - 2_R:
= ---Q'-sin (c_ + 90 ° ) - 21rR _ qa = qPoL + qQo_ + qMc_

qQc_ 7rR ° o
In order to perform the calculations for Mo, No, and So, the shear
force acting on each segment must be known. This shear force is obtained
by multiplying the average shear flow acting on the segment by the length
over which it acts.
Section B5
July 9, 1968
Pa_e 51
B5.2.1 Sample Problem (Concluded)
This average shear flow is determined by using Simpson's Rule. F_ r
the typical segment in Figure B5.2.1-7, this average shear flow is:
l ÷ tt tit)
qavg. = _ {qa 4qa + q_
where:
cl_ = Shear flow at left end of the segment.
tt
qc_ = Shear flow at center of the segment.
q_!
= Shear flow at right end of the segment.
f!
q_
Figure B5. 2. I-7 Shear Flow Acting on a Typical Segment
The formulas used for computing the values in the tables on pages 52
and 53 are listed under the cables. The index (n) refers to the column
number and its range is indicated where necessary. The formulas for So,
No, and M o are applicable for all values of n, therefore, the index was
omitted.
Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 52
B6.2. i Sample Problem (_Cont'dJ_
e_
t!
+ +
h
fl H I$
e_ el e_ II
>
II
e_
II
II II fl II
Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 53
B5.2. I Sample Problem (Cont'd)
0
i@4 _ _ _ u_ _ _D _D _ ¢q Q0 x-_ OO Cq OO _ c_D ¢q'O r _- P- ¢q_ _--
o I
r"
O I
Z _ ......................................... t._
Ill I[I lllliJi d
I
IIIIII
I II
............. ............ %,_°_=_

II il e-,
.=
iilllll
II
4_'_'_'_'4'_'_'d'_'C'_'_'_'d'_4
i'_ _ _ _ ,I _, _ _ _ _ , "'_'_' z
II
c_
°, ., °. °, °. °, °. 0. .. ° .I °1 °i .i .i .i °1 01 °1 ol °1 .i °
" _ " ®" '<>-=_ _,i_ '° " _ " '7 +
I I I I I I
O
c_
> !
O
q
_
Vl I II II II
--;I
Section B5
July 9, 1968
Page 54
B5.0.O - FRAMES
References
1 Timoshenko, S., Theory of Structures, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,

New York, 1945.
, Sutherland, H. and Bowman, H. L., Structural Theory, Fourth Edition,

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1954.
, Wilbur, J. B. and Norris, C. H., Elementary Structural Analysis, First

Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1948.
. Grinter, L. E., Theory of Modern Steel Structures, Vol. II, The

Macmillan Co., New York, 1949.
o Perry, D. J., Aircraft Structures, McGraw-HiLl Book Co., Inc.,

New York, 1950.
. Argyris, J. H., Dunne, P. C., Tye, W., et al., Structural Principles

and Data, Fourth Edition, The New Era Publishing Co., Ltd., London,
No date.
• Roarke, R. J., Formulas for Stress and Strain, p 1120, Third Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1954.
r
SECTION B6
RINGS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
B6.0.O Rings ............................................... I
6.1.0 Rigid Rings ..................................... 2

6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases ......................... 7
(Index to In-Plane Cases) ................... 8
6.1.2 Out of Plane Load Cases ..................... 57
(Index to Out of Plane Load Cases) ........... 58
6.2.0 Analysis of Frame-Reinforced Cylindrical Shells.. 59
6.2.1 Calculations by Use of Tables ............... 70
..._. B6-iii
.,.r..z
Section B 6
July 9, 1964
Page l
B 6.0.0 Rin_s
Charts and tables are presented to facilitate the analysis of rings

and ring-supported shells. Section B 6.1.0 deals with rings that are
rigid with respect to the resisting medium, i.e., for an out-of-plane
loading, the free body of a ring supported by a thin shell is as follows:
p ".
Only bending is considered in the deflection curves for the in-plane

load cases given on pages 9 through 54. Refer to page 56.1 to include
the effects of shear and normal forces.
Section B 6.2.0 deals with circular cylindrical shells supported

by "flexible" rings. The choice between the use of this section over
section B 6.1.0 for any given problem is left to the analyst. Experience
should be gained on both methods.
--._..
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 2
B 6.1.0 Rigid Rings
In general, four basic loadings are required to define all loads

on a ring loaded in the plane of the ring. They are:
I. Loading by a single radial force

2. Loading by a single tangential force
3. Loading by a single moment
4. Loading by a distributed load.
Special cases for out-of-plane loadlngs are considered in Section

B 6.1.2.
The procedure for calculating the Bending Moments of the basic

in-plane loading is briefly reviewed in the following discussion.
Many other loading conditions may be analyzed by using these basic
cases by applying the principal of superposition.
The general equation for the transverse force (shearing force on

a cross-section) is
dm dm
S = ds rd_ ................................ (i)
The general equation for the axial force is derived as follows:
N+dN S+dS I X
(N+dN)
7-
P_Rd_ N_-
N
de
(a)
(b) 2
Fig. B 6.1.0-1
Section B 6 .
July 9, 1964
Page 3
B6.1.0 Rigi d Rings (Cont'd)
7_Fx = 0 = -S + (S + dS) + (N + dN) d_ + P_ Rd_

+ N -_--
= dS + Nd_ + dN d___+ P.Rd_

2
Neglecting the second order term, QdN _ _
dS
N = - d-_ - P_R .......................................... (2)
The second term (P_R) occurs in the case of a distributed load.
The procedure to obtain an expression for the bending moment is

i11ustrated by the following specific case:
Load
q q
P 2 2
(a) (h)
Fig. B 6.1.0-2
Because of symmetry Y = 0
The shear flow distribution is obtained from q = SQ/I, where Q

is the static moment of half the ring, S is the shearing force, and I
is the moment of inertia of the section.
¢
S f S sin _5 P sin
= _R 3 _ Rd95 R cos _ = _R = _R
O
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 4
B 6.1.0 Rigid Rin_s (Cont'd)
dMq = q_ Rde R [1-cos (C-e)]
R [1 - cos ( _-e)] = P-- sine R2de [1-cos (¢-9)]

_R
Mqfl = TPR sin0 [1-cos (¢-0)]d@
_ PR
¢_ (I _ cos ¢ sin
¢)2
o P
P
T Mp¢ = -_ R sin ¢
Fig. B 6.1.0-3
Z =+i
R_Y - +I
R sln¢
0
Mx - -R cos_ My =-R sin_ M z = +I
Fig. B 6.1.0-4
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 5
B 6.1.0 Rigid Rings (Cont'd)
The displacement "i" due to load system "k" = 5ik = f MiMkd

E1 s
_R 3
E1 5xx = / (-R cos _ )2 Rd_ 2
o
Deflections due
R3 to unit loads
E1 5yy = / (-R sin ¢)2 Rd¢ 2 shown in
o
Fig. B 6.1.0-4
E1 5zz -- f (+1) 2 Rd_ = _R

o
Displacements due to applied forces and reactions
E1 5xo = (Mp + Mq) Mxds Because of symmetry MpMx = 0
3PR 3
/ < I _
cos__ _ _ -2sin P _ PR (-R c°s_ ) Rd_
o
E1 5zo = /_ (Mp + Mq) Mzd
o/ o
PR_ _2
sin_ + i
_ cos_
._ psinp_
(+I)2
_ Rd_ - 3P"2
_ xo 3P
X;
4_
xx
Redundant obtained by equating
5 deflections.
zo 3PR
Z - =
2_
gz
By superposition
M = Mp + Mq + XM x + ZM z
_ PR 2 sin_ + < _I - cos_ _ _ _sin_

2 n _ PR +< - _3P_ R cos
+ 3PR (+i) = ( _-¢ ) sin ¢ - i

2 _ 2 2_
S" dM
R_ = [ - sin_
2 + (_-_) cos _ ] P
2--_-
N = - dS
d-_ = [ (_" _) sin_ + 3 cos
2 ] 2nP
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 6
B 6.1.0 Rigid Rings (Cont'd)
Sign Convention
Moments which produce tension on the inner fibers are positive.
Transverse forces which act upward to the left of the cut are
positive.
Axial forces which produce tension in the frame are positive.
+S
+M
Fig. B 6.1.0-5 Positive Sign Convention

Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 7
B6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases
Coefficients to obtain slope, deflection, bending moment, shear,

and axial force along with equations for these values are given for
some of the frequently occuring load cases.
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 8
B 6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases (Cont'd)
Index
.
o I0.
p IP
13.
_.d M'
18. 20.
P_ =Pmax c o s P_ =Pmax cos (2_
ax
21. P_=PmaxC os 23. 25. P_= Pmax (a

+b cos_
+c cos2_)
p
_a x
P_ =Pmax c o s P_ =Pmax co_

Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 9
B6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases (Cont'd_
k r _f '-
f
il . I
N
f
/
/
/
\ ./
I "o
\ i
cu
\ 'b
o
\
>-... }
/
C
jf
J
/r
i,
r
I
jl f "o
/
/
/,
0
9
I_ _- Lf'__
q o o• o. 9 9 ?. o,.
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page i0
/
/ J
/
/ ...... ! g¢_
/
j/ J • rr 5
r
I / .o
/ _,. ----+p-- 0
/ /
/
8
J O
0
\ /
\\ _b e4
/ Q
• F + 8
N
\
i
IN
".\ b
\
\
% 0
\
Q
0
\
\ . J
" ,/ /j/I
%% ....
+
/X " ! o
°
"/ _ -
0
0
__ __ _,]
S
//
/ / / / .... _-- ............. i __
d / ..... _ - ..........
/
/
/ \ / 0
t 0
/ \kk//
i /-
t ...... O
0
\ f
o/ t ,t
!< "_ _'_ I ___ °0
v
Z
E
O
io
/
/
/
eo
I
O4 o.
I f I' I' I"
v O (D O4 (D C_
N. o. o. O o q - - i_
I I I I I
Section B 6
February 15, 1976

Page l l
B 6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases (Cont 'd )
,f
n
4\
yl
J
J
f I,
b_ _ / LI f
J
P
I f r Z
f J
f f -i
( f
Xx ..
_<
f
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 12
B6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases (Cont 'd
f i /
J j o
f j 0
J I
I'
f 0
\ f
J o
\ / i
I
fl 0
t i o
i"
0
o
J _;oz ¢q
_ oz 0
o
_0
oJ
\
L %
o- J
Y-.
-.
\.o
)o
i j °
11
\ -
\
\
-...
7
J
k i
) J
J
A j-
_J
z _J
-j cO
1 /
O/t
f/
J ( /
\
i • I
/r
i i
t f
,i
f
v _ _ N - o I"
_" o oJ _' o _ co o.I (0 o

o o o q - -
I I I I I
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 13
J
i'
,/
b
/
I_..
h
/
I
a.
k b
f
J \
i r \
i
i
/
f
f J
i i
J
s v
i f
i
\ i 4
Fs w
\
\
\
\
k
) _>
l
J
jf \
J
J
J
/
f i
J
J
f
_J
/
f
-_. q O.
o
o. O. q Q 0 0 0 0
I" I' I" I
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 14
B6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases (Cont'd)
Q. f jr !--
/ o
--_ o .,_" / 7-.... ,o
/ // ,I
/, ON
i / ,/ o
n ii Ii • _
5:oz i b
i 0
'N,_" \ b
• ",_,,, _ k'M
/ j,- i __
/ / z o
,i /" ," b
----7- ....
I i" / / / -
,- / ._ o
i , /
t / j'/ --
t 0
I// / ..,, "
" <'
0
( / i
f
\_ i -_ o
°
\ o
0
i; "\ \
' "\ _ b
, .,_ _
/_ , _.
_oz_ _. _ _ -. o 7 e_ _ _. to.
v vv • I' I" I i
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 15
i
I
I
\ f
.... O
\ J
J O
f
,F
oJ
O
O
O
\ ro
O
a.
o
O
O
oJ
J
@
J
O
a. jf
J \ oJ
ro
J
J ) 0J
J
f /
f
/ O
I! J ¢q
J
O
f J O
J GO
J
\ J o
O
/ O
x
( O
\ O
oJ
\
O
"\\ 8
O
S
o
r
jJ \
_f
J
7
J
f _/ o
O
f /
--%. 0 --. 04 rO
I I' l"
<)=
0 CO Od
o. O o. o -
I I I
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 16
_J
f 0
J 0
J
od
I¢)
_J
J
f
J
/ l¢)
I
/ --. _o ,
o,I
/ E,
oJ
o. o-
0 Z t L
v X oJ
II iJ ||
=E 0 Z
L
\ od
\ 0
0
\ j
oO
O.
_p
i\
0
0
J
J
_f
I. I
f
S
i r
/
f / 0
J / 0
J
f
/ 0
/
f oD
@
0
f _P
_Z _r
0
0
I " o,I
0 c_ to
I I ! I I
0
V. N 0
I" I I" I" T
v
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 17
_-'- -_._ , to O
L
f-
O
O
J
) o
I J O
a,. _'_1_. I
f
I j J _
f
,f
f
0
O
0
O
0
O
N
) o
L.._.._ _
_....-
O
n
0
f _ O
o
O
J
f
J
lJ
) o
f J 8
f- _ _ s _
Q
O
(10
t _
i
)
f
I
J
i r 0J
I
f
ff l_
N -- O
Q Q ?.
O _ O O
m
-- O O
Q o 9. 9.
Section B 6
July 9, 1964
Page 18
/ J
W / i
i f
/
/ i
f
/
f
(.I
v
_;v
o
v
z
2" ,I
(! ,
i| I| II fA
0.
\
I'\,"" _p.-,
O4
- _ / l ..2 t
f /
/ /
J
f
]
1/
,i
/ /
t I
/
\ %
/"
,/
ir i i /
I i
f
f
/
/
J
I
I ( I
• i/,, _
>'..._
\
/
\ /"
/
/ i /
i
I /
f /
/ i
i
/
( /
t
f
\ ix __ t
• A
\ /
¢t, ,¢ I" I I
¢0 0 -vf
- - o. O. o o -. I
I I I I I
Section B 6
July 9, 1964
Page 19
I
]
I I.--
b,
--- - +---- _ _....,. I
i
I - ---
I ro
I
i [ b
[- , I
-1- -K ?:>
b
'- .,,, i --4 --
I
_ . ÷___
_I _ _
oJ
1
.... -_!__
-1 '
.... +
i --*-
, \
I
t-- --I _ , /
1
I
\,
_'[_.
/
, _ i /
.... __ ____,
.... 1 ____+ ....
- 44 I
l
I
1 r
I \
I Q C
I I
0 0
0 0 0 0 --
o. o. o. _. o. o.
I I i I !
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 20
\. i f" O
_L O
o
i'M
rO
0 Z _-- ........ "7
O
Ivv \ I" t li
I II II %.
iOZ - I i
GO
'\/I ¢J
I "_ %
/i \\ k, N
o
_= ................ _ \ o
(Xl
i'M
\ I
_-.. /
p _
,,s
J o
.,._ _ _ _t.., 7 o
_ ............. 7
/ 0
0
/
_o
1\/"
I/'_, 0
o
X" \
/ t _
F L ........ _-"
/ ....... 7-"
/ / 0
o
/ -
_/ / /
o. _. _ _. N. o N. _,- _. q
I" I' ' T
_ 0
Oa --. -- 0 _ 0 0 --..
• I" I" I I" I"
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 21
k_ i
I r O
0
-\
/ 0
0
0
0
O
11 "+"
/
/ 11/ /
_N
fl /
(
\
_'o LO N cO _1" 0 _ _ oa _ 0
O4
q o o o o o o -- --
• o• o• 9° ot' oI" 9" q=
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 22
./ I
t I
J
/
,,j /
/
/
\
\
\
\
\
\ N
\ / Q
\ e" /
/ / ,
\/
/
t
I
fl"
/ / /
o. / /
z
II /
/ / !
f !
Z
!
% \ I
v
II / %
(3 o
\
IE \
n
v
II
=E
"o
(M
0 Z--
Section B 6
]5 September 1961
Page 23
B 6.1.1
In-Plane Load C,'_ses ____
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 24
B 6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases (Cont'd) _J
,, ,, , \, • /
" /°o
IF. o;z
\ /" //
\ /" _- oo
"_ . _ pJ / I
f
/
a
\ / . 1
J
N
>-
,- J
%
- )oo
%
\ .i / _ o_
\
Z
i •
I'
v_9 _. o"
Q o o
i
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 25
°J,I I
jr
J
)
a. 11 J
m-
f
I
'°
_I _
f_
J
i
a.
)
J
f
f
f
_I J
f
I
fJ
/ I
J "o
f
J
I"--
I
J
I
f
_v
11
_. , _ ' .
I I" I'
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 26
B 6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases (Cont 'd ) _j_
ro oJ I _ ¢_ r0
• q o 0 0 q q q
\ /
/
\ 0
O_ X 0 Z 0
__
II II II
_'_OZ \ 0
0
"-L / 0
//
0
_I 0
I
I
vP
D
0
0
0
l 0
o. 0
\ 0
\
\ \
I°
0
0
/
"\ I
_D
0
f 0
J
/ 0
/J J/ ./ 0
J
0
I 0
/ T 9
J
¢.f I f _
/- /
/ °0
/ J ,./ N
v
_zj /'o " I I l
o N. --.
I" I" I I'
0 0 _ oo _ _D 0
_ 0 0 0 0 -- --
l" I" I I /
SecEkun ]_ D
15 Suptembec ]-_JU I
Page 27
B 6.1.I In-Plane Load Cases (Cont'd)
o
0
(.D
\_ k If _- to)
0
0
0
0
to n !_ -"
<1 _ _ "_ ..... 0
0
0
3. "_A/"J ......... : 0
00
_'--r',_ \\ _ -- 0
0
cxl
I1. ._t ----- 0
/ Y 0
t 0
cJ
0
0
0
0
_'_ , ......... _
0
_1 _ 0
_ _--''" __. ......... kO_

....... 0
jf
f I / 0
J
f
/-
,I 0
0
/
X
$
J
jl
<l/f
"4
0
(0
o. _ o 9 _.
V 0 0
o Q 8 o0
•
8 o
0
I" I I
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 28
B 6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases _Cont'd)
o
0
0
0
0
CO
oJ
0
0
OJ
0
0
0
0
oJ
OJ
0
0
0
0
0
co
0
0
0
0
0
0
oJ
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2_
o _ _ _ o _
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 29
11
J
Itl
J Q
0
F O,J
I r'O
/i"
0
f
- /I
0,,]
I 0
\
0
OJ
1.1(_ J
N
O,J
I /
0
f
I. r N
I J
L r J
\. J
I
,q"
)
J 0,,]
\ jJ
j ' 0
J I
J
f
_J I
f I
f /
J /
( J
\ ..p-- _ -''
%
N
"\
= _ _
o. Q
¢D _. ¢M O
0 O O 0 0 0 0
o. q o I" o I ?.
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 30
B 6.1.1 In-Plane Load C@ses (Cont'd)
• - O o O O 0
v
0
0
0
0
0
(1)
0
0
cO
0
0
0
0
oJ
Z
" q
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 31
1 1
_o
J
ft_
!
f
I
f
J
f
I'--
J
°o
I jo
I
r_
I
...i o
0,I
J
_k _ J .......
J
a.r. ,Y I
I "8
jJ
_f .s
f
0o
jl
II II
J W
J
_p
\ .ff
.#
h
f
oo
,-...,..
I r
I
f
I
I
J
i 'r J
I
I
J
J J
f
,i Q_ J
I J
0
° I
0 N
,o 9 o
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 32
ro
QZ
j _..- m m-
\ _I f _'-"
\
mr
I! N N
OZ
_Z
r _L
/ ...-- 11 I
/ /
/ 11 J
I
J
/ /
f-
- f
J
Y J
J
\ I
J
O,4
o_:1 i
v N _1" _ _. 0
I _ l" I" ' ,-r_ uu
0
I" ! ! I"
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 33
B 6.1.1
_r In-Plane Load Cases (Cont'd)
on U
<i _ °c>
0
o•
o"
o o "
o
I"
o
I"
o
I"
o
r
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 34
B 6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases _Cont'd)
I,
\
\
\ \
l
\ \
\ \ j
\ \ \
\
l \ , \
\
I
\
r'
\
x
i
/
Z2_
I! Ig I!
•
_ V _ L
/ 24
//
J !
/,vJ
J 1
!
/ /
, :/ /
/
-i
/
l
( /
Ii ,"\
i /
J "4
\
/ \ \ N.
/
\ 1 \\
[o/
/
l" \ i
0 "7
I" I" I I'
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 35
B 6.1.1
_n-Plane Load Cases (Cont'd_
f
I
f
;I f
f
f
f
t_
ff
/
/
/
O
\ ,,i
b
GO
,OJ
O0 ||
\
\
%
J
\ J
L I
f
J
f Jl :b
GO
/
J
I
I
14
I
f
J
f /
f /
f /
\ f
J
.J
_o
¢q
<
\
\ J
J
\ j-
I _,-_i_11 1 PO _
-%. 0 "_. OJ _. u'_
I l" I" i I"
0 q q o o _ _. _ I"
_ I"
o-
!
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 36
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\ 0
"_ IQ=
• o \
_ _ 0 \
II II II \
\
\
\
\ 0
\
\, 0
\
\ 0
\
I \
\
\
\ ]
Q
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
N 0
I |" I" $ I'
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 37
I \ i
ro
,_;I_ _;lW
!
0J
k rO
@
b_ o
f
f
I
I
jl
I
I
j
f
..ow
f
\ f"
@
O
I
0J
@
\ 8
\
L
b
Q
O
t
f
!
/
f_ @
O
@
O
o
i
&
-- \
@
O
f Lo
\ j
@
O
f
[ .-_ °
J / @
f O
L J
i N
I f"
!
, ? N
-- {q
Q o. q 5 O
o o o o
I
I I !
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 38
B 6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases (Cont 'd )
\
\
) I
9 -%
/
=
J
J \ /
II n II /
J ,x, 0
J
/ \
0
0
J
J
/ 0
J
J
/
j- # N
J
/ i f
I j __D
/ CM
J
/ jl/
/ J
fd
/
J
/ f / 0
0
b.i-- -e.
/; J
_0
! / 0
/ /
( / _b
/
\,, /
0
0
\ ,\ f
\ /
f
\ 0
0
X
i
/ \
/
\
! \
I \
0
0
\
\ 0
0
\ z
\ 0
0
\
\ 0
0
\
%
\
0 N
/,
I I I I I
0 Z .. IL
N 0 N
r i r
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 39
\
\\ J
Od
rO
J
f
N I o
_y
O0
OJ
>
l'=Z ,<j
J ____
o
-----_7 OJ
jl J
F
f
f
o
D
i f_
< \ J
/
CO
J
I
J
> Od
11FJ_ o
I
\
_F
--I
I /
J
f
I"-- f
j_
<- ...I--
fl
,4-
_L
o
o
¢x;
v o o N o
oi' ,o. ¥ i"
P
,q- f,O ¢_ -- 0
0 0
.
0
.
0
.
0 r.j
|.
o
0' 9 0
I"
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 40
B 6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases (Cont'd_
/
/
_ z .
\ .i/ °_
II II II
I
/
/
/
f
f \ o_
N
/
/
/
f
J
J
/ /
"_ _1N /
/ /
/ /
/
/ / /
/ N
/ /
/
!
/
/ %
v"
\
/
f
I \
J
\
\
\ \
/ \
o_
\
\ \ \
\
\
Z
_. N. o O_
I' O I" m
!
I
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 41
B 6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases (Cont 'd
I
\ [
i o
0
ro
\
) 0
0
oJ
ro
0
0
0
J
J
h rid
0
f
f
f
/ 0
co
\ J J cxl
J
F 7
( J
J
LO
oJ
0
w
eJ
f
0
0
oJ
oJ
h, 0
0
0
/
II II
<_
..i r--
f
f
f
J
i r f 0
f-
J
J 8
J
J
( s
0
\ J
0
0
/
\
\, 0
\ 0
0
00
0
0
f 10
_J
J
0
I j ) 0
f f'<l J
f
0
0
oJ
ro oJ
5.. o o
q q ,- 9 9
¢J GO
_ oo 0
0
0
0
0
0
O.
• I" I" I
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 42
v"
In-Plane Load Cases (Cont'dJ
0
0
0
0
0
o
1,0
G
o
oJ
0
o
o,I
0
o
@
o
0,I
Q
o
o
II,
o
CO
0
o
¢I)
i
,0
o
0
o
oJ
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o
o
0
o
0
o
0
o
,,¢
0
o
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 43

Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 44
0
0
I¢)
0
N
(.)I
_b
8
N
0
0
_b
_b
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
_b
cJ
Z
N. 0
I I I
0 tD
0 0 o. 0 ! I
I I
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 45

_r
X X X 0 o
0
-I _ × rO
0
c_
UI . n . . _:
0
i 0
0
rO
GO
.... _.- ._ c_
_._; ... o
0
j
_leJ
J
J
/ oJ
i 0
0
I ed
f c_
/ 0
/
8
/ C_l
0
0
GO
CO
X 0
0
\
c_
_, o
0
IZ)
°
0
o
0
OJ
Q N 0 eu _ _. m o
I" I I" .-F
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 46
B6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases (Cont 'd)
f
I
f
J
_k.,,
J_
H x
,.,<_ \
0
\
II II 0
\
) N
/
J
f
J
J
o. J
f /
J t
r
/ / 0
0
(n L/ ./ o
0 f
X
J
f
dl
\ /
- 0
0
X
/ \\
v
,% \
0
0
\ e
0
) °
I
J
jjF
j_ 0
_J _ o
f
J
f 0
J
J
ql) J
/
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O e4 _ _O
v (4)
O _ OJ
o 9. o
I' 9
o q q o _ I
_
I"
_
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 47
aD
0
I"
I' I" ! I"

Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 48
v
II II
I) /i ,,,
/ -
o
I_I_ _.._ _
I
/ "'-
I"
- o .... o o o o, oI" o
l' o 7
Section B
15 September 1901
Page 49
k _/j
0
,\ f./ 0
<, ro
0
0
- ( ro
(._1
°X
I_.
0
ro
0
0
&
J1____
j-
J
/
N J
/" o
J 0
_<< / o
/ s
J N
/
--- -- 0
:EO Z .J 0
,_, E v f _0
k J -- 0
•_ * I _-' 0
_s _0
0
0
(/
0
\
0
oJ
\ °
0
(2I _ .
0
/I _o
J
Z j-
)
j
f
J
J
/ J
J
o- / J
f
' r I I"
XZ.,
o4 -- O
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 50
f
I
J
0
\ I
s _
0
J
0
F" 0
¢ oJ
iv')
0
0
0
Iv)
oJ
0
0
rq
0
0
o
0
0
¢J
0
0
co
0
0
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0
co
/
0
0
tO
J
0
I
0
@
0
LO
_0
o _• to
o o.
,N
_. O
o--,. N
o.
Iv)
9 _;
,. 0
I"
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 51
o. 13. 13. / \ ro
:E (_ Z o
"4 _ "I 0
" I' " / '\ "9" OJ
/I t I L/ _°x o"
0
J
. 13.. (_
" ¢d_
_ N
/ \
!
f
/
f_ /
/
/
/ /
/ / f m
/ /
/
/
f b
/
/ ! /
/
I
I -
I
j"
\
\ t
/ \
i ®
\ I \
\ I \
\
\
\ \ 0
0
\
\ \
\ 0
_?. F) N 0 I' (_1

I" i_i" ,_.
I _'_
i'
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 52
f
\ f
/
i /
o-I_
N
n (\ 0
0
0
II II ro
\
cO
04
a.
/ _0
04
0 J
U
x /"
J
f
D- o4
l! / 04
o. / /
/ /
0
0
0
/ 04
0
J
0
\ f 0
0
/
0
B-- / 0
/ 0
0
04
\
'N
\
\ 0
0
0
/
"X 0
0
f
J
fJ
J 0
lJ 0
f /
/
I 04
J
/
_D 0 04 (.0 _0
Q • . {_.
? o 0 0
I" I'
&
I¢) 04 0 oJ
0 0 Q 0 o 0 Q
I i I" I
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 53
• o _. _ • _ o o I' o I" o I" o I" o I"
\ /
. I_ N
o,I
II II II
_EOz | \ B
I \ 0
\ I
I
I
C_l
I
I _I gl X
_c \, I
x •
.... ! j--I ...... __ /
/
n-
/
j-
j/
,q
f,,¢
__ m_ f" ____ __ 8
\
\ 8
\
I ,..,,
0 ,,i
(_.
I' I I" 9 o!
_' _ I I"
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 54
I
J
ro
0
0
N
rO
0
0
\
0
O
N
J
/ N
J
O-Wa"
J
J
j"
-)
I
/ _ - ,r_
D.
II
<::1
II
(_
U
n.
/ f
f
_v
/ 0
0
N
%
\
\,
0
0
/ 0
0
\
0
f
0
\ 0
0
\ 0
0
/ 0
/
J
f
"_ 0
J
0
<lJ I ¢,,
/
/ j o
._ i 0
v
/
! J
LO oa
o Q o o,I
0
re)
0
_I"
0
lo
0
I I" I' a' I'
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 55
_r- B 6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases (Cont'd)
0
0
o
0
It')
Q
0
Q
0
N
o
0
0
0
0
0
N
0
0
0
o
0
o
0
o
0
o
0
0
0
0 0
I I -p
It
0 0
0
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 56
B6.1.1 In-Plane Load Cases (Cont 'd)
Orn
I" I" I" I' I" I" I" I' r "r
ZZ,,--
\ ¢
] \
\1
mo
-e. \ \
Nffl \ I ° _'_
0 % f
0 _o
\
_L :J,
/
7,,
mo
#
0 / J
I
oJ
O0 m
÷ " !/'
0
"" Inn m
X Ii I \ /
! 0
0
,, :; Z
/ ' _ _
O
(M j r'x _o
OJ
X
j/
\ 0
0
n O. _; / .. 'v 0
_ Z / O
I 0
_
II II
Z
II
j
X
/ 0
8
/
/ 0
/ i/
/
o
0
!
.) _x21- I
:t J/ t •
I ._- _ N
0
0
!
I 0
i! 0
0
_0
[ ,
.... j
/ !
\/
/
J
, ! / f
.J
I i
I ?-, !
[
i.- !
Or II
o -. _. ,0. '_. _o
I t I I r
0 tO 0 I_ 0 0 Lo 0
_'M "-r _ 0 0 _ _ oa
t" _ I r
Section B 6
July 9, 1964
Page 56. 1
f
B 6.1. I In-plane Load Cases (Cont'd)
Deflection curves for the three basic load cases due to shear and
normal forces are displayed on the foI!owing pages. A shape factor
F
(/_) that is to be used with the curves for shear deflection of vario,_s
cross-sections is tabulated below.
Cross-Section Shear Area Shape Factor,
Area of Web
AQ= th i_= 1.00
Entire Area _ = 1.20 for b > 0.50h

--f-
h l_ = 1.00 for b < 0 50 h
A Q -- b h
_i_
Entire Area
=2.00
AQ= 27rr t
13q
Entire Area
=[1+ 3-(bZ-- aZ) a t__ll ]

AQ = (w) z -
[ "1ab3
( 2a)(w-2t) t t-O--tip
2 .I
N.A. ,---:--e,
If the flanges are of
p = radius of gyration nonunifo r m thickne s s,
with respect to the they may be replaced
neutral axis by an "equivalent"
section whose flanges
have the same width
and area as '.hos_ of
the actual section.
Fig. B6.1.1-1
Section B6
August 15, 1972
B 6. 1. I In-Plane Load Cases {Co,[',l) Page 56.2
\
N\
\
\
\
\ _ i "/
_m
(_
m< I
-!
__/ \
/ , \
,z
/
/
/ /
/ /
J
f
/ I
f
I °
J
! _.J
• 0
_ J t i h
r
o _ o o o o
i I i i
Section B 6
B 6.1, ! In-Plane Load Cases (Contld) July 9, 1964
Page 56. 3
i J oo
r
I
J
f
f
/
/-
r_
\
\
<
0 ,,1
-%
\
,?.
J
) o"
/
/
J oo
J
z f
J
f
J J
f o
I
fi
I
i" i" / i_ i'
_oction B 6
B 6. I. I In-Plane Lt,ad Cases (Cont'd] July 9, 1064
Pa_e 56. 4
o o o o _ o o o o
Section B 6
March I, 1965
Page 57
B 6.1.2 Out-of-plane Load Cases
Sign Convention
The following sign convention is given to define the positive

directions for out-of-plane loads.
Moments which produce tension on the inner fibers are positive.

Torque "I"' and lateral shear "V" are positive as shown in Fig.
B 6.1.2-1.
+T +V
Fig. B 6.1.2-1
Section B6
March 1, 1965
Page 58
B6.1.Z Out-of-PlaneLoad Cases (Cont'd)
Index
PA
0
For all cross sections
0
For all cro_s sections
3" r MA V ..
Fo
.cross sections
Fig. B 6. 1.Z-g
v _
Section B6
March 1, 1965
Page 58.1
B 6. 1.2 Out-of-Plane Load Cases (Conttd)
"
B 6. I.Z Out-of-Plane I_,_,iidCas,.s (Contld)
l'uK{_ 5x. 2
B6.l.g Out-of-Plane
Load Cases (Cont'd)
Section
March i,
B6
i965
Page 58.3
o
B 6. 1.2 Out-of-Plane Load Cases (Contld) M r_'h 1, _t+';5
, m
o i -
---- Z- -7. / .................... -_
\
\,
H
B 6.1.2 Out-oi-Plane Load Case8 (Cont°d) Secclon B6
March I+ 1965
Page 58.5
. ° ° .
_v
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 59
P
B 6.2.0 Analysis of Frame-Reinforced Cylindrical Shells
Tables are presented giving the loads and displacements in a

flexible frame supported by a circular cylindrical shell and subjected
to concentrated radial tangential, and moment loads. Additional
tables give the loads in the shell. The solutions are presented in
terms of two basic parameters, one of which is of second-order
importance. Procedure for modifying the important parameter to
account for certain non-uniform properties of the structureare
presented.
Notation
2.25
A
Lr 2
E Young's modulus - ib /in 2
Ef Young's modulus of unloaded frames - ib/in 2
Eo Young's modulus of loaded frame ~ ib/in 2
Esk Young's modulus of skin ~ Ib/in 2
base of natural logarithms
axial force in loaded frame - ib
G shear modulus - ib/in 2
moment of inertia of a typical unloaded frame - in 4
moment of inertia of an unloaded frame, distance "_" from

the loaded frame ~ in 4
Io moment of inertia of the loaded frame ~ in4
i I/_o - in 3
n2 l_Lr_ 2
Kn
3 Lc
distance from loaded frame to undistorted shell section - in

Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 60
B 6.2.0 Analysis of Frame-Reinforced Cylindrical Shells (Cont'd)
Notation (Cont'd)
Lc characteristic length (see Glossary) = --[--r [ t'r2 I i/4

A/_ T ~ in
r %E/_-_-- in
Lr characteristic length (see Glossary) = -_- V G--I-- ~
J_o frame spacing ~ in
M bending moment in loaded frame ~ in-lb
Mo externally applied concentrated moment ~ in.lb
Po externally applied radial load - Ib
P axial load per inch in the shell ~ ib/in
q shear flow in shell ~ ib/in
r radius of skin line ~ in
S transverse shear force in loaded frame ~ ib
s transverse shear per inch in shell ~ Ib/in
To externally applied tangential load ~ Ib
t skin panel thickness N in
t' effective skin panel thickness for axial loads - in
t e weighted average of all the bending material (skin and

stiffeners) adjacent to the loaded frame, assumed uniformly
distributed around the perimeter ~ in.
u axial displacement of shell ~ in.
v tangential displacement of shell - in.
w radial displacement of shell - in.
x axial co-ordinate of shell - in.
7 "beef up" parameter Io/2i Lc
y for nearby heavy frame

7_
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 61
/I
Notations (Cont'd)
rotational displacement ~ radians
polar co-ordinate of frame and shell
Basic Assumptions
In the method of attack with which this section is mainly concerned,

a simplified structural model (Fig. B 6.2.0-1) is used to obtain a
solution for a uniform shell stretching to infinity on both sides of
the loaded frame. Clearly the effects of any frame can be propagated
only a finite distance along the shell. In practice, the perturbations
from the "elementary beam theory" are, at worst, negligible at some
characteristic length "Lc" inches away from the loaded frame. Procedures
for modifying the solution to account for discontinuities and non-
uniform properties are discussed in the following sections. For the
model used, the following assumptions are made:
(i) Concentrated loads are applied to the loaded frame and

are reacted an infinite distance away on either one or
both sides. The shell extends to infinity on both sides.
(2) The loaded frame has in-plane bending flexibility. It

is free to warp out of its plane and to twist. It has
no axial or shearing flexibilities. Its moment of
inertia for circumferential bending is constant.
(3) The effects of the eccentricity of the skin attachment

with respect to the frame neutral axis is ignored for
both the loaded and unloaded frames.
(4) The shell consists of skin, longerons, and frames

similar to the loaded frame, but possibly with different
moments of inertia. The skin and longerons have no
bending stiffness. All properties of the shell are
uniform.
(5) The longerons are "smeared out" over the circumference

giving an equivalent constant thickness, t', (including
effective skin), for axial loads.
(6) The shell frames, but not the loaded frame, are "smeared
out" in the direction of the shell axis, giving an
equivalent moment of inertia per inch, "i", for
circumferential bending loads.
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 62
B6.2.0 Analysis of Frame-Reinforced Cylindrical Shells Cont'd_
Basic Assumptions (Cont'd)
The simplified structural model described by the basic assumptions

bear only slight resemblance to practical space vehicleshells, however
the difference is compensated by, modification of certain parameters as
discussed in the following pages.
Glossary of Terminology
Characteristic length - In this section there are two characteristic

lengths, defined as follows: Lc is the distance required for the
exponential envelope of the lowest order self-equilibrating stress
system to decay to I/e (e ~ base of natural logarithms) of its value
at x = o, provided that the skin panels are rigid in shear. Lr is the
distance required for the envelope of the lowest order self-equili-
brating stress system to decay to I/e of its value at x = o, provided
that the frames are rigid in bending.
Shell with Flexible Frames
H to_
v
_-.Externally Loaded Frame
Fig. B 6.2.0-1
/
u /
f q
W
Fig. B 6.2.0-2 Load per inch and dis-

placements in the shell (Loaded frame
at x=o)
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 63
Evaluation of Parameters Lr, Lo, and 7
Case of uniform shell
In cases where the shell happens to satisfy all the assumptions

listed in the previous pages, and in particular, if the skin thickness,
stringer area, and shell-frame moment of inertia are uniform in both
the axial and circumferential directions, the following formulas may
be used:
1/4
....................... (1)
Lc=
__E__r V E t' ....................... (2)

Lr = 2 Gt
I o
7 .................................. (3)
2 iL c
Young's modulus for skin, stiffeners and all frames is assumed

equal. Coefficients are obtained by use of these parameters (Lc, Lr, 7)
in the tables. These coefficients yield the required loads and defor-
mations when substituted into Eqs. 14 thru 21. In non-uniform shells,
use the modified parameters indicated in the following equations:
Case of non-uniform shell
(a) In the case that the shell properties, i, t, and t', vary
over the surface of the shell to a moderate degree, the
following formulas and definitions are appropriate:
Lc - r I Esk te r2 ] I/4 . ..................... (4)

_- Ef i
V Esk t' ......................... (5)

Lr = 2 G t
Eo Io
= ................................ (6)
2Ef i Lc
The stiffness factors, Gt, Esk, te, and Efi, must be averaged in
the neighborhood of the loaded frame. The factors Gt and Eski shall
be averaged over a length of shell extending approximately one-half of
a characteristic length from the loaded frame in both directions.
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 64
B 6.2.0 Analysis of Frame,Reinforced Cylindrical Shells (Cont'd)
Case of non-uniform shell (Cont'd)
(b) When unloaded frames _ave unequal moment of inertia or are

unequally spaced, the following weighting factor is used for
computing Efi:
Efi = (Efi)fw d + (Efi)af t ......................... (7)
i E (WEflf) ................... (8)

(Efi)fwd - Lc fwd
I Z (WEflf) ................... (9)

(Efi)aft = Lc----aft
Where
W = 1 - Lc for x < Lc
= o for x > Lc
(x is measured forward and aft of loaded frame)
The summations in Eqs. (8) and (9) are to be extended over all
frames except the loaded frame. The method of calculation gives
greater importance to frames closest to the loaded frame and less
importance to those farther away. For the case of a single, particular
heavy, neighboring frame, or for other neighboring discontinuities such
as rigid bulkheads, a free end, or a plane of symmetry, the correction
factors to be discussed is applicable. If those corrections are
applied, the heavy frame or other discontinuity must be ignored in
applying Eqs. (7), (8) and (9). In particular, if the loaded frame
is near the end of the shell, the shell must be continued beyond the
end, fictitiously, in the summations of Eqs. (7), (8), and (9), as
though the shell were symmetric about the loaded frame and extended
for a length greater than Lc on both sides of the loaded frame.
The method of calculation indicated in this sub-section exaggerates

the effect of frames which are heavier than average when compared with
the more accurate method of correction given in the next section.
Since L c depends on (Efi) I/4, an initial estimate of Efi is required
in order to calculate the Lc used in Eqs. (7), (8), and (9).
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 65
B6.2.0 Analysis of Frame-Reinforced Cylindrical Shells (Cont'd)
Corrections to 7 , the "Beef-Up" parameter
The general form of the modified "beef-up" parameter, 7 *, is:
7" = 7 .fa.fb.fc. , etc., ........................ (i0)
where 7 is computed by the methods of the preceding section, and fa,

fb, and fc are factors accounting for effects of nearby heavy frames
etc.
Modification for different value of Lr/Lc
The value of Lr/L c used in the graphs are 0.2, 0.4, and 1.0.
To account for values of this parameter between 0.2 and 1.0, graphical
interpolation should be used. Otherwise, the following formula may be
Lr h* 2 Lr 2
7 * = 7 + Lc / i + 2 (ii)
• 2 / ,, 2
where (Lr/Lc)" is the value of the parameter for the shell, and
(Lr/Lc)* is the value of the parameter closest to (Lr/Lc)", for which
graphs are available.
Modification for finite frame spacing
The modification for finite frame spacing is as follows:
7 * = 7 1 + 2LcK 2 1 + 2 7 K2/
where
z distance from loaded frame to adjacent frames

2
K2 -
Lc
/
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 66
B 6.2.0 Analysis of Frame-Reinforced Cylindrical Shells (Cont'd_
Modification for nearby heavy frames and for other similar nearby
discontinuities.
The corrections to "7 " in a previous section are not intended to

account for discontinuities in circumferential bending stiffness. The
form of the correction for these effects is:
7 * : 7 -f(2) ...................................... (13)
Fig. B 6.2.0-3 shows f(2) plotted for nearby heavy frames and for
nearby rigid bulkheads. Fig. B 6.2.0-4 shows f(2) plotted for a
finite length of shell terminated in various ways on one side of the
loaded frame. The validity of the correction is considered doubtful
for f(2) < 0.25, due to the importance of higher order stress systems.
Figures B 6.2.0-3 and B 6.2.0-4 are for Lr/L c = 0.4, but their varia-
tion with Lr/L c is negligible for conventional shell-frame structures
and adequate in other applications for Lr/L c < 0.75. The corrections
for nearby planes of symmetry and antisymmetry can be used to solve
problems where two similar frames are simultaneously loaded. To
illustrate the method the two following examples are given:
Example 1
A frame of moment of inertia 4.0 in 4 that is subjected to

concentrated loads is supported in a uniform shell whose characteristic
length, Lc, is 200 inches and moment of inertia per unit length, i,
is 0.i0 in. 3 A heavy frame having a moment of inertia 16.0 in 4 is 50
inches to one side of this frame. The loaded frame and shell loads
are required.
The parameters needed are:
7 = 4.0 = 0.i0 by Eq. (3)

2(.1)(200)
16
7_ = = 0.40
2(.1) 200
_ 50 = 0.25
Lc 200
Using 7_ and _/L c in Fig. B 6.2.0-3 yields f(2) = 0 75
-'- 7" = 0.75 (0.i0) = 0.075 by Eq. (13)

Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 67
F¸ B 6.2.0 Analysis of Frame-Reinforced Cylindrical Shells (Cont'd)
Example i (Cont'd)
Use 7 = 0.075 instead of 0.i0 in the curves to account for the

presence of the heavy frame on the stresses in and near the loaded
frame.
Example 2
A shell whose characteristic length, Lc, is 250 inches is supported

by a large number of identical frames whose moments of inertia are 2.0
f_ in4, spaced 24 inches apart. A pair of frames 96 inches apart are
subjected to concentrated loads at the same polar angle, _ . The two
radial loads are of equal magnitude but opposite sign, while the
tangential loads are of the same magnitude and sign. The loads in
the loaded frames and shell are to be found.
I 2
i = - - .0833
Io 24
Io 2
7 = 2iLc = 2(.0833)(250) = 0.048 by Eq. (3)
f
- 48 - 0. 192
Lc 250
For the tangential loads there is a plane of syn_netry midway

between the loaded frames, while for the radial loads a plane of anti-
sy_netry exists at the same place. From Fig. B 6.2.0-4 it is seen
that for the radial load stress system, f(2) = 0.32, while for the
tangential loading f(2) = 1.75. Hence, the values of 7 * to be used
in the graphs are 0.015 and 0.084, respectively.
Eccentricity between skin line and neutral axis of the loaded frame.
In the three types of perturbation just discussed, it is possible

to account for the effects by modifying 7 only, since the "elementary -
beam-theory" part of the solution is always valid. In the case when
the eccentricity between skin line and neutral axis of the loaded
frame exists, the "elementary-beam-theory" solution is also affected.
This particular aspect is discussed in Appendix E of reference i.
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 68
B6.2.0 Analysis of Frame-Reinforced Cylindrical Shells (Cont'd_
I I
7£=0.1
7s= o.5
7_= 1.o
7_ = 2.0
Two Rigid BuIkheads Sy_'_etrically I

Placed about the Loaded Frame --
0
0 0.2
Lc
Fig. B 6.2.0-3 A single frame on one side of loaded frame or two

rigid bulkheads symmetrically placed about the loaded
frame curves of f(2) and f(3). Lr/L c = 0.4.
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 69
B6.2.0 Analysis of Frame-Reinforced Cylindrical Shells (Cont'd)
4.0
I I I i I I 1 I I I I I
,,..---- _ ---__
x Loaded Frame
Free End at x =
Plane of
Symmetry At
Plane of Anti-Symmetry at
x =
Built-ln At x =
_/L c
Fig. B 6.2.0-4 Finite length of shell on one side of loaded frame f(2)
vs _/L c for various boundary conditions at x =£ , Lr/L c - 0.4.
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 70
B6.2.1 Calculations by Use of Tables
Eqs. (14) thru (21) are given in this section, by which the effects
of a concentrated load or moment on a shell-supported frame may be
computed by using the tabulatedcoefficients. The method of computing
is indicated in a previous section. These enable the shear flow
and axial load at all points in the shell and the internal loads and
displacements of the loaded frame to be computed.
The following parts of the overall solution are omitted in the

tabulated coefficients:
(i) The "elementary-beam-theory" part of skin shear flow

which is calculated from beam theory.
(2) The "elementary-beam-theory" part of the axial load

intensity in longerons which should be calculated
from beam theory.
(3) The rigid translations and rotation of the loaded

frame.
As a consequence of items (i) and (2), shear flow and axial load
intensity in the shell, as calculated from the tables, can be added
directly to the results of an "engineers bending theory" calculation.
The shear flow and axial load distributions given in the tables are
assumed to be symmetrical with respect to the loaded frame. In a
shell that is unsymmetric about the loaded frame, the shear flows and
axial loads are not symmetric ahout the loaded frame. It is not
possible to derive a simple correction for this effect, but the exact
solutions indicated in reference 2 are applicable.
Distributed load on a frame
The effect of a distributed load on one frame may be obtained by

superimposing the effects of the concentrated loads into which the
distributed load can be resolved. The axial load and shear flow in
the shell can be obtained for loads on several frames by a similar

superposition, since "p" and "q" are tabulated in Ref. 3 NASA TN D402
as a function of x/L c.
Frames adjacent to the loaded frame
At the present time it is not possible by use of tables to compute

the internal forces in frames adjacent to the loaded frame. It is,
however, a simple matter to tabulate the frame-bending moment per
inch, "m", and the other internal forces as a function of x/Lc. The
bending moment in an adjacent frame, due to a force applied at the
loaded frame, is then obtained by multiplying "m" at the frame station
by l_/i (see Appendix D of reference I).
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 71
B 6.2.1 Calculations by Use of Tables (Cont'd)
Effect of local reinforcement of the loaded frame
It is not practical to attempt to cover, by a set of tables or

charts, the many possible reinforcing patterns that can be used to
locally strengthen frames in the region of applied concentrated loads.
A solution is presented in Appendix A of reference 3, together with a
simple example, to illustrate the numerical procedure. A loaded frame,
whose moment of inertia varies around the circumference in any manner
can be treated as a frame of constant moment of inertia that is rein-
forced to produce the actual inertia variation.
Tables
F
The loads and displacements of the loaded frame and loads in the
shell are given in terms of the non-dimensional coefficients of the
tables by the formulas below. The tables contained in this section
are for M, S, F, p, and q at x = o.
Coefficients for displacements v, w, and 7 are tabulated in Ref. 3

along with coefficients for "q" and "p" as a function of x/Lc.
Po To Mo
..................... (14)
q = Cqp _+r Cqt r + Cqm r--_--
+ __2__o o (15)
p m Cpp r CP t r Cpm 7 r
M = Cmp Por + Cmt Tor + Cmm Mo ........................ (16)
M
___2_o ........................ (17)
S = Csp Po + Cst To + Csm r
M
F -- Cfp Po + Ctt To + Cfm _._.9__ ........................ (18)
r
2
V = Cvp Po -_ + Cvt To _r3 + Cvm Mo 7 r (19)
El o El o El o
W : Cw p po _r3 + To _r3 + Cwm Mo 7 r2 (20)

El o Cwt El o El o
8 =, C e p Po _ + C8 To _r2 + Ce Mo ___ .. ..... (21)

El ° t El ° m El °
i •
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 72
B 6.2.1 Calculations by use of Tables (Cont'd_
Sign Convention
Loads, moments, and displacements are positive in the loaded

frame as shown in Fig. B 6.2.1-1.
M
o
To
eo Neutral axis
M
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 73
f- B 6.2.1 Calculations by Use of Tables (Cont'd_
Frame Loads Index of Tables

Coefficient Lr/Lc=.200 Lr/Lc=.400 Lr/Lc=l. O00
Cmp B 6.2.1-1 B 6.2.1-5 B 6.2.1-9

Bending
Moment,
M Cmt B 6.2.1-13 B 6.2.1-17 B 6.2.1-21
Cram B 6.2.1-25 B 6.2.1-29 B 6.2.1-33

Csp B 6.2.1-2 B 6.2.1-6 B 6.2.1-10
Shear, Cst B 6.2.1-14 B 6.2.1-18 B 6.2.1-22
S
Csm B 6.2.1-26 B 6.2.1-30 B 6.2.1-34
Cfp B 6.2.1-3 B 6.2.1-7 B 6.2.1-11

Axial
Load, Cft B 6.2.1-15 B 6.2.1-19 B 6.2.1-23
F
Cfm B 6.2.1-27 B 6_2.1-31 B 6.2.1-35
B 6.2.1-4 B 6.2.1-8 B 6.2.1-12

Shear Cqp
Flow, q
Cqt B 6.2.1-16 B 6.2.1-20 B 6.2.1-24
At Ring
C B 6.2.1-28 B 6.2.1-32 B 6.2.1-36

qm
• i r-¸
Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 74
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Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 75
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Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 76
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Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 77
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Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 78
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15 September 1961
Page 79
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Section B 6
15 September 1961
Page 80
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Page ii0
References
, MacNeal, Richard H., and John A. Bailie, Analysis of Frame-

Reinforced Cylindrical Shells, Part I - Basic Theory. NASA
TN D-400, 1960.
1 MacNeal, Richard H., and John A. Bailie, Analysis of Frame-

Reinforced Cylindrical Shells, Part II - Discontinuities o_
Circumferential-Bending Stiffness in the Axial Directions.
NASA TN D-401, 1960.
,
MacNeal, Richard H., and John A. Bailie, Analysis of Frame-
Reinforced Cylindrical Shells, Part III - Applications.
NASA TN D-402, 1960.
I
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S

(NASA-T_-X-733C5) AS_EONAUTIC STRUCTURES N76-76166

MANUAL, VOLUME I (NASA) 8_6 p

Structures and Propulsion Laboratory

George C. Marshall 5pace Flight Center

MSFC - For_" JlgO (l_ev June 1971)

ASTRONAUTIC STRUCTURES MANUAL

"_ " LI.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1976-641-255/446 REGION NO.4

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS 10. WORK UNIT NO.

George C. Marshall Space Flight Center I. CONTRACTOR GRANT NO.

Prepared by Structures and Propulsion Laboratory, Science and Engineering

An overview of the manual is as follows: Section A is a general introduction of methods

These three volumes supersede NASA TM X-60041 and NASA TM X-60042o

17. KE_' WORDS 18, DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT

Unclassified Unclassified 839 NTIS

Illustrative problems to clarify either the method of analysis or

It is recognized that all subjects in the Table of Contents are not

Many of the methods included have been adapted for computerized

It is requested that any comments concerning this manual be

Chief, Structural Requirements Section

August 15, 1970

At.0.0 Stress and Strain ................................. 1

f i.I.0 Mechanical Properties of Materials ................... 1

AI. 0.0 Stress and Strain

AI. I. 0 Mechanical Properties of Materials

A brief account of the important mechanical properties of materials is given

AI. I. i Stress-Strain Diagram

Commonly used properties shown on a stress-strain curve are described

E Modulus of elasticity; average .ratio of stress to strain for

A1. I. 1 Stress-Strain Diagram (Cont'd)

(pfsi) _'_ _/ _eld Point I I

Figure AI. 1.1-1 A Typical Stress-Strain Diagram

E Secant modulus; ratio of stress to strain above

Et Tangent modulus; slope of the stress-strain curve

AI. i. I Stress-Strain Diagram (Cont'd)

Tensile or compressive yield stress; since many

Ftp or Fcp Proportional limit stress in tension or compres-

Ftu Ultimate tensile stress; the maximum stress

E Elastic strain; see Figure AI. I. I-i.

E plastic strain; see Figure Ai. I. i-i.

efracture (% elongation) Fracture strain; percent elongation in a pre-

Ai. i.2 Other Material Properties

The definition of various other material properties and terminology used

A1.1.2 Other Material Properties (Cont'd)

Yield and ultimate bearing stress; determined

F Ultimate shear stress.

F Proportional limit in shear; usually taken equal

Poisson's ratio; the ratio of transverse strain

V Plastic Poisson's ratio; unless otherwise stated,

Isotropic Elastic properties are the same in all directions.

Anisotropic Elastic properties differ in different directions.

Orthotropic Distinct material properties in mutually per-

A1.1.3 Strain-Time Diagram

The behavior of a structural material is dependent on the duration of loading.

/,/Fracture///_J_ Creep Limit (no fracture) Curve

I I Elastic Recovery = Elastic Strain

Figure A1.1.3-t Strain-Time Diagram

AI. 1.3 Strain-Time Diagram (Cont'd)

4. Recovery (no load)

The following discussion of the diagram will be confined to generalities due

The condition referred to as "loading" represents the strain due to a load

a. In curve t, the initial strain is elastic and no additional strain is

c. In curve 3, there is a continuous increase in strain after the initial

Ai. i.3 Strain-Time Diagram (Cont'd)