Module-I of Manufacturing Science-I

1.7 MELTING PRACTICE

After moulding, melting is the major factor which controls the quality of the casting. There are a
number of methods available for melting foundry alloys such as pit furnace, open hearth furnace, electric
furnace, rotary furnace, cupola furnace, etc. The choice of furnace type is based on these four factors.
• Alloy Type
• Metal Quality
• Production Demands
• Economics
Alloys have a wide spectrum of temperatures that they melt at; the list below should illustrate this point.

Metal Alloy Type Temp Range (Celsius)

Zinc 345-455
Aluminum 620-735
Magnesium 620-735
Copper 908-1180
Cast Irons 1340-1480
High Manganese Steel 1400-1455
Monel (70N, 30Cu) 1370-1540
Nickel Based Super Alloys 1430-1540
High Alloy Steels 1480-1600
High Alloy Irons 1540-1650
Carbon & Low Alloy Steel 1565-1700
Titanium 1700-1820
Zirconium 1845-1900
Table I: Melting point of common materials

Metal Quality is affected by oxidization and losses due to vaporization, which can adversely affect
the chemical properties of the alloy being melted. Similarly the types of refractory used are matched to the
basicity or acidity of the metal and/or its resultant (Dross or slag).
Production demand can range from small batches under 30 Kg through to 100 tonne/hr continuous
pour furnaces that run for days and weeks at a time uninterrupted.
The economics of furnace selection relate to factors of capital depreciation, maintenance and
operating labour, as well as the fuel and power consumption.

Types of Furnace

Cupola
It consists of a cylindrical steel shell with its interior lined with heat resisting fire bricks. It has drop doors
at the bottom. After closing the door a proper sand bed is prepared. This sand bed provides necessary
refractory bottom for the molten metal and the coke. Immediately above the sand bed is the metal tapping
hole which is initially closed with clay till the molten metal is ready for tapping. Above the metal tapping
hole normally in a position opposite to is the slag hole through which the slag generated during the melting
process is tapped.

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Figure 1.7.1: Cupola

• Above the slag hole is the wind box which is connected to the air blowers supplying the requisite
air at a given pressure and quantity.
• The lining is generally thicker in the lower portion of the cupola as the temperatures are higher
compared to those in upper portion.
• There is a charging door through which coke, pig iron, steel scrap and flux is charged.
• The blast is blown through the tuyeres.
• These tuyeres are arranged in one or more row around the periphery of cupola.
• Hot gases which ascend from the bottom (combustion zone) preheat the iron in the preheating
zone.
• Cupolas are provided with a drop bottom door through which debris, consisting of coke, slag etc.
can be discharged at the end of the melt.
• At the top conical cap called the spark arrest is provided to prevent the spark emerging to outside.
Operation of Cupola
To operate the cupola, first, the drop doors at the bottom are closed and a sand bed with a gentle
slope towards the tap hole is rammed. Then a coke bed of suitable height is prepared above the sand bottom
and ignited through the tap hole or any other hole. When the coke bed is properly ignited, alternate layers
of charge, flux and coke are alternatively fed into the cupola through the charging door maintaining
necessary proportions and rate of charging. The charge is allowed to soak in the heat for a while, and then
the air blast is turned on. Within about 5 to 10 minutes, the molten metal is collected near the tap hole.
When enough molten metal is collected in the well of the cupola, the slag is drained off through the slag

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hole before opening the tap hole. The molten metal is collected in the ladles and then transported to the
moulds into which it is poured with a minimum time loss.
The fluxes are added in the charge to remove the oxides and other impurities present in the metal.
The flux most commonly used is limestone (CaCO3) in a proportion of about 2 to 4 % of the metal charge.
Some of the other fluxes that may also be used are dolomite, sodium carbonate and calcium carbide. The
flux is expected to react with the oxides and form compounds which have low melting point and also
lighter. As a result, the molten slag tends to float on the metal pool and thus, can very easily be separated.

Melting rate Shaft

tonne/hour Typical charge, Kg height
Bed
Diameter Metal : Coke from
Blast Blast height
of tuyeres
rate Pressure above
melting to
m3/hour KPa tuyeres,
zone, m 10:01 08:01 Coke Iron Limestone charge
m
door
still, m
0.5 1.97 1.57 1340 10.20 20 200 7 1.00 2.50
0.6 2.84 2.46 1940 10.50 28 284 9 1.00 3.00
0.8 5.11 4.36 3450 11.20 51 510 17 1.05 3.00
1.0 7.99 6.83 5380 11.70 80 800 26 1.05 3.50
1.2 11.50 9.79 7750 12.70 115 1150 38 1.10 4.00
1.4 15.60 13.33 10600 13.40 157 1570 52 1.10 4.00
1.6 20.44 17.41 13800 14.40 200 2040 67 1.10 4.50
1.8 25.88 22.05 17450 15.40 260 2590 85 1.15 5.00
2.00 31.95 27.22 21550 17.20 320 3200 106 1.15 5.00
Table II: Cupola operation data

A variant of cupola is called hot blast cupola. In this, air supply is preheated to a temperature of
200 to 4000 C with help of the hot gases coming out of the stack or by a separate heat input. In either case
the equipment gets complicated by the addition of the extra pre-heater and the circulation equipment. The
main advantage gained is that the amount of heat required by the cupola gets reduced. This in turn reduces
the contact of the metal with the coke and air thus reducing the carbon and sulphur pickups as well as the
oxidation losses. Because of the additional equipment and extra care needed for operation, the hot blast
cupolas are used only in shops that require large amounts of metal to be melt on a continuous basis.
Most of the foundries operate on a batch basis. A number of sand moulds are prepared and kept
ready for pouring before the molten metal is prepared. This process may take a few days to weeks
depending upon the size and nature of the foundry plant. Thus it becomes necessary only to start melting
may be once a week or so.
Cupola has been the most widely used furnace for melting cast iron. This is because of the low
cost of melting. However, less control of the final quality, and the losses involved would call for some
change in the choice. Therefore liquid or gas fired furnaces and electric furnaces are becoming popular
because of their better control of melting process and low melting losses. But these are more expensive
compared to the solid fuel fired furnaces and therefore the higher cost is to be justified based on the better
control of quality achieved in terms of the composition and temperature.

Electric Furnace
For heavy steel castings, the open hearth type of furnaces with electric arc would be suitable in
view of the large heat required for melting. Due to good temperature control and flexibility of operation,
this furnace is widely used for melting for small to medium sized castings in ferrous as well as non-ferrous
alloys. There are three types of electric furnaces on the basis of source of heating (Arc, Resistance, and
Induction).

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Figure 1.7.2: Schematic representation of Arc furnace

In above figure three electrodes are used that are tied to a 3 phase electrical source. The electrodes strike an
arc with the metal charge. The heat of the sustained arc can be in excess of 40000 C. With such extreme
heat comes the requirement of cooling with water jackets, heat exchangers and recirculation systems. Arc
furnaces are of two types; Direct and In-direct types.
Arc Furnaces can be configured with "Ultra-High-Powered" (UHP) transformers that can supply
600-900KVA/tonne. The furnace can have a pivoting point with a hydraulic actuator to tilt the furnace
backward to skim of the dross/slag or forward to pour off the metal. The high temp capacity of this furnace
lends itself better toward ferrous casting than non ferrous. The electrodes can be either graphite or carbon,
and are selected to match the type of metal being melted. The In-Direct Arc furnace is similar in principle,
but the arc is struck above the metal charge and is typically just one electrode. The In-Direct furnace also
can be a sealed unit that operates under a reduced atmosphere for specialty metals that are sensitive to
oxidization or atmospheric contamination.

Induction Furnace
Induction heating is a heating method. The heating by the induction method occurs when an electrically
conductive material is placed in a varying magnetic field. Induction heating is a rapid form of heating in
which a current is induced directly into the part being heated. Induction heating is a non -contact form of
heating.
The heating system in an induction furnace includes:
1. Induction heating power supply,
2. Induction heating coil,
3. Water-cooling source, which cools the coil and several internal components inside the power supply.

The induction heating power supply sends alternating current through the induction coil, which
generates a magnetic field. Induction furnaces work on the principle of a transformer. An alternative
electromagnetic field induces eddy currents in the metal which converts the electric energy to heat without
any physical contact between the induction coil and the work piece.

The furnace contains a crucible surrounded by a water cooled copper coil. The coil is called
primary coil to which a high frequency current is supplied. By induction secondary currents, called eddy

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currents are produced in the crucible. High temperature can be obtained by this method. Induction furnaces
are of two types: cored furnace and coreless furnace. Cored furnaces are used almost exclusively as holding
furnaces. In cored furnace the electromagnetic field heats the metal between two coils. Coreless furnaces
heat the metal via an external primary coil.

Figure 1.7.3: Schematic representation of Induction furnace

Advantages
• Induction heating is a clean form of heating
• High rate of melting or high melting efficiency
• Alloyed steels can be melted without any loss of alloying elements
• Controllable and localized heating
Disadvantages
• High capital cost of the equipment
• High operating cost

Electric Resistance Furnace

A series of Ni-Chrome elements are energized around the crucible and the radiant energy is absorbed by the
Crucible and the metal. Unlike the Core/Channel Induction furnace ER type systems can take solid charge
material. The resistance type heating is generally used for holding furnaces to maintain the liquid metal at a
certain temperature for non-ferrous alloys such as for die casting. This has no noise, fumes, flames or
potential for disaster.

Figure 1.7.4: Schematic representation of Electric Resistance furnace

Reference
1. Manufacturing Technology by P.N.Rao , TMH page 182 to 190
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